Contenu de la documentation Python

Nouveautés de Python

What's new in Python 3.14

Résumé – Points marquants de cette version

New features

PEP 649 & PEP 749: Deferred evaluation of annotations

PEP 734: Multiple interpreters in the standard library

PEP 750: Template string literals

PEP 768: Safe external debugger interface

A new type of interpreter

Free-threaded mode improvements

Improved error messages

PEP 784: Zstandard support in the standard library

Asyncio introspection capabilities

Concurrent safe warnings control

Other language changes

Built-ins

Ligne de commande et environnement

PEP 758: Allow except and except* expressions without brackets

PEP 765: Control flow in finally blocks

Incremental garbage collection

Default interactive shell

Nouveaux modules

Improved modules

argparse

ast

asyncio

calendar

concurrent.futures

configparser

contextvars

ctypes

curses

datetime

decimal

difflib

dis

errno

faulthandler

fnmatch

fractions

functools

getopt

getpass

graphlib

heapq

hmac

http

imaplib

inspect

io

json

linecache

logging.handlers

math

mimetypes

multiprocessing

operator

os

os.path

pathlib

pdb

pickle

platform

pydoc

re

socket

ssl

struct

symtable

sys

sys.monitoring

sysconfig

tarfile

threading

tkinter

turtle

types

typing

unicodedata

unittest

urllib

uuid

webbrowser

zipfile

Optimisations

asyncio

base64

bdb

difflib

gc

io

pathlib

pdb

textwrap

uuid

zlib

Retraits

argparse

ast

asyncio

email

importlib.abc

itertools

pathlib

pkgutil

pty

sqlite3

urllib

Obsolescence

New deprecations

Pending removal in Python 3.15

Pending removal in Python 3.16

Pending removal in Python 3.17

Pending removal in Python 3.18

Pending removal in Python 3.19

Pending removal in future versions

Changements au code intermédiaire CPython

Pseudo-instructions

C API changes

Python configuration C API

New features in the C API

Limited C API changes

Removed C APIs

Deprecated C APIs

Pending removal in Python 3.15

Pending removal in Python 3.16

Pending removal in Python 3.18

Pending removal in future versions

Build changes

build-details.json

Discontinuation of PGP signatures

Free-threaded Python is officially supported

Binary releases for the experimental just-in-time compiler

Porting to Python 3.14

Changements dans l'API Python

Changes in annotations (PEP 649 and PEP 749)

Implications for annotated code

Implications for readers of __annotations__

Related changes

from __future__ import annotations

Changements dans l'API C

Notable changes in 3.14.1

What's New In Python 3.13

Summary -- Release Highlights

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

A better interactive interpreter

Improved error messages

Free-threaded CPython

An experimental just-in-time (JIT) compiler

Defined mutation semantics for locals()

Support for mobile platforms

Autres changements au langage

Nouveaux modules

Modules améliorés

argparse

array

ast

asyncio

base64

compileall

concurrent.futures

configparser

copy

ctypes

dbm

dis

doctest

email

enum

fractions

glob

importlib

io

ipaddress

itertools

marshal

math

mimetypes

mmap

multiprocessing

os

os.path

pathlib

pdb

queue

random

re

shutils

site

sqlite3

ssl

statistics

subprocess

sys

tempfile

time

tkinter

traceback

types

typing

unicodedata

venv

warnings

xml

zipimport

Optimisations

Removed Modules And APIs

PEP 594: Remove "dead batteries" from the standard library

2to3

builtins

configparser

importlib.metadata

locale

opcode

optparse

pathlib

re

tkinter.tix

turtle

typing

unittest

urllib

webbrowser

New Deprecations

Pending removal in Python 3.14

Pending removal in Python 3.15

Pending removal in Python 3.16

Pending removal in Python 3.17

Pending removal in Python 3.18

Pending removal in Python 3.19

Pending removal in future versions

CPython Bytecode Changes

Changements à l'API C

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

Changed C APIs

Limited C API Changes

Removed C APIs

Deprecated C APIs

Pending removal in Python 3.14

Pending removal in Python 3.15

Pending removal in Python 3.16

Pending removal in Python 3.18

Pending removal in future versions

Changements à la compilation

Porting to Python 3.13

Changements dans l'API Python

Changements dans l'API C

Regression Test Changes

What's New In Python 3.12

Résumé – Points marquants de cette version

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

PEP 695: Type Parameter Syntax

PEP 701: Syntactic formalization of f-strings

PEP 684: A Per-Interpreter GIL

PEP 669: Low impact monitoring for CPython

PEP 688: Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python

PEP 709: Comprehension inlining

Improved Error Messages

Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types

PEP 692: Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing

PEP 698: Override Decorator for Static Typing

Autres changements au langage

Nouveaux modules

Modules améliorés

array

asyncio

calendar

csv

dis

fractions

importlib.resources

inspect

itertools

math

os

os.path

pathlib

platform

pdb

random

shutils

sqlite3

statistics

sys

tempfile

threading

tkinter

tokenize

types

typing

unicodedata

unittest

uuid

Optimisations

Changements au code intermédiaire CPython

Demos and Tools

Obsolescence

Pending removal in Python 3.13

Pending removal in Python 3.14

Pending removal in Python 3.15

Pending removal in Python 3.16

Pending removal in Python 3.17

Pending removal in future versions

Retraits

asynchat and asyncore

configparser

distutils

ensurepip

enum

ftplib

gzip

hashlib

importlib

imp

io

locale

smtpd

sqlite3

ssl

unittest

webbrowser

xml.etree.ElementTree

zipimport

Autres

Porting to Python 3.12

Changements dans l'API Python

Changements à la compilation

Changements à l'API C

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

Porting to Python 3.12

Obsolescence

Pending removal in Python 3.14

Pending removal in Python 3.15

Pending removal in Python 3.16

Pending removal in future versions

Retraits

Les nouveautés de Python 3.11

Résumé – Points forts de la publication

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

PEP 657 : amélioration de l'emplacement des erreurs dans les traces d'appels

PEP 654 : Groupes d'exception et except*

PEP 678: Exceptions can be enriched with notes

Améliorations du lanceur Windows py.exe

Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types

PEP 646: Variadic generics

PEP 655: Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required

PEP 673: Self type

PEP 675: Arbitrary literal string type

PEP 681: Data class transforms

PEP 563 may not be the future

Autres changements au langage

Autres changements à l'implémentation de CPython

Nouveaux modules

Modules améliorés

asyncio

contextlib

dataclasses

datetime

enum

fcntl

fractions

functools

gzip

hashlib

IDLE et idlelib

inspect

locale

logging

math

operator

os

pathlib

re

shutils

socket

sqlite3

string

sys

sysconfig

tempfile

threading

time

tkinter

traceback

typing

unicodedata

unittest

venv

warnings

zipfile

Optimisations

Faster CPython

Faster Startup

Frozen imports / Static code objects

Faster Runtime

Cheaper, lazy Python frames

Inlined Python function calls

PEP 659: Specializing Adaptive Interpreter

Misc

FAQ

How should I write my code to utilize these speedups?

Will CPython 3.11 use more memory?

I don't see any speedups in my workload. Why?

Is there a JIT compiler?

À propos

Changements au code intermédiaire CPython

New opcodes

Replaced opcodes

Changed/removed opcodes

Obsolescence

Language/Builtins

Modules

Bibliothèque Standard

Pending Removal in Python 3.12

Retraits

Portage vers Python 3.11

Changements à la compilation

Changements à l'API C

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

Portage vers Python 3.11

Obsolescence

Pending Removal in Python 3.12

Retraits

Notable changes in 3.11.4

tarfile

Notable changes in 3.11.5

OpenSSL

Les nouveautés de Python 3.10

Résumé – Points forts de la publication

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

Gestionnaires de contextes entre parenthèses

Meilleurs messages d'erreurs

SyntaxError

IndentationError

AttributeError

NameError

PEP 626 : numéros de lignes précis pour le débogage et les autres outils

PEP 634 : filtrage par motifs structurels

Syntaxe et opérations

Approche déclarative

Filtre simple : apparier à un littéral

Comportement sans l'attrape-tout

Filtres avec un littéral et une variable

Filtres et classes

Filtres avec arguments positionnels

Filtres imbriqués

Filtres complexes et attrape-tout

Garde

Autres fonctionnalités importantes

EncodingWarning et option encoding="locale" optionnels

Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types

PEP 604 : nouvel opérateur d'union de types

PEP 612 : variables de spécification de paramètres

PEP 613 : TypeAlias

PEP 647 : gardes de type définies par l'utilisateur

Autres changements au langage

Nouveaux modules

Modules améliorés

asyncio

argparse

array

asynchat, asyncore, smtpd

base64

bdb

bisect

codecs

collections.abc

contextlib

curses

dataclasses

__slots__

Champs obligatoirement nommés

distutils

doctest

encodings

enum

fileinput

faulthandler

gc

glob

hashlib

hmac

IDLE et idlelib

importlib.metadata

inspect

itertools

linecache

os

os.path

pathlib

platform

pprint

py_compile

pyclbr

shelve

statistics

site

socket

ssl

sqlite3

sys

_thread

threading

traceback

types

typing

unittest

urllib.parse

xml

zipimport

Optimisations

Obsolescence

Retrait

Portage vers Python 3.10

Changements à la syntaxe de Python

Changements dans l'API Python

Changements dans l'API C

Changements au code intermédiaire CPython

Changements à la compilation

Changements à l'API C

PEP 652 : maintenance d'une ABI stable

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

Portage vers Python 3.10

Obsolescence

Retrait

Notable security feature in 3.10.7

Notable security feature in 3.10.8

Notable changes in 3.10.12

tarfile

Les nouveautés de Python 3.9

Résumé – Points marquants de cette version

Vous devez vérifier la présence de DeprecationWarning dans votre code

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

Opérateurs de fusion et de mise à jour de dictionnaires

Nouvelles méthodes sur les chaînes pour retirer des préfixes et des suffixes

Indication des types paramétrables dans les collections natives

Nouvel analyseur syntaxique

Autres changements au langage

Nouveaux modules

zoneinfo

graphlib

Modules améliorés

ast

asyncio

compileall

concurrent.futures

curses

datetime

distutils

fcntl

ftplib

gc

hashlib

http

IDLE et idlelib

imaplib

importlib

inspect

ipaddress

math

multiprocessing

nntplib

os

pathlib

pdb

poplib

pprint

pydoc

random

signal

smtplib

socket

time

sys

tracemalloc

typing

unicodedata

venv

xml

Optimisations

Obsolescence

Retraits

Portage vers Python 3.9

Changements dans l'API Python

Changements dans l'API C

Changements au code intermédiaire CPython

Changements à la compilation

Changements à l'API C

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

Portage vers Python 3.9

Retraits

Changements importants dans Python 3.9.1

typing

Prise en charge de macOS 11.0 (Big Sur) et de Mac sur processeur Apple

Changements importants dans Python 3.9.2

collections.abc

urllib.parse

Notable changes in Python 3.9.3

Notable changes in Python 3.9.5

urllib.parse

Notable security feature in 3.9.14

Notable changes in 3.9.17

tarfile

Nouveautés de Python 3.8

Summary -- Release highlights

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

Expression d'affectation

Positional-only parameters

Parallel filesystem cache for compiled bytecode files

Debug build uses the same ABI as release build

f-strings support = for self-documenting expressions and debugging

PEP 578: Python Runtime Audit Hooks

PEP 587: Python Initialization Configuration

PEP 590: Vectorcall: a fast calling protocol for CPython

Pickle protocol 5 with out-of-band data buffers

Autres changements au langage

Nouveaux modules

Modules améliorés

ast

asyncio

builtins

collections

cProfile

csv

curses

ctypes

datetime

functools

gc

gettext

gzip

IDLE et idlelib

inspect

io

itertools

json.tool

logging

math

mmap

multiprocessing

os

os.path

pathlib

pickle

plistlib

pprint

py_compile

shlex

shutils

socket

ssl

statistics

sys

tarfile

threading

tokenize

tkinter

time

typing

unicodedata

unittest

venv

weakref

xml

xmlrpc

Optimizations

Build and C API Changes

Obsolescence

API and Feature Removals

Porting to Python 3.8

Changes in Python behavior

Changements dans l'API Python

Changements dans l'API C

Changements au code intermédiaire CPython

Demos and Tools

Notable changes in Python 3.8.1

Notable changes in Python 3.8.2

Notable changes in Python 3.8.3

Notable changes in Python 3.8.8

Notable changes in Python 3.8.9

Notable changes in Python 3.8.10

Prise en charge de macOS 11.0 (Big Sur) et de Mac sur processeur Apple

Notable changes in Python 3.8.10

urllib.parse

Notable changes in Python 3.8.12

Changements dans l'API Python

Notable security feature in 3.8.14

Notable changes in 3.8.17

tarfile

What's New In Python 3.7

Summary -- Release Highlights

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

PEP 563: Postponed Evaluation of Annotations

PEP 538: Legacy C Locale Coercion

PEP 540: Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode

PEP 553: Built-in breakpoint()

PEP 539: New C API for Thread-Local Storage

PEP 562: Customization of Access to Module Attributes

PEP 564: New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution

PEP 565: Show DeprecationWarning in __main__

PEP 560: Core Support for typing module and Generic Types

PEP 552: Hash-based .pyc Files

PEP 545: Python Documentation Translations

Python Development Mode (-X dev)

Autres changements au langage

Nouveaux modules

contextvars

dataclasses

importlib.resources

Modules améliorés

argparse

asyncio

binascii

calendar

collections

compileall

concurrent.futures

contextlib

cProfile

crypt

datetime

dbm

decimal

dis

distutils

enum

functools

gc

hmac

http.client

http.server

idlelib and IDLE

importlib

io

ipaddress

itertools

locale

logging

math

mimetypes

msilib

multiprocessing

os

pathlib

pdb

py_compile

pydoc

queue

re

signal

socket

socketserver

sqlite3

ssl

string

subprocess

sys

time

tkinter

tracemalloc

types

unicodedata

unittest

unittest.mock

urllib.parse

uu

uuid

warnings

xml

xml.etree

xmlrpc.server

zipapp

zipfile

Changements à l'API C

Changements à la compilation

Optimizations

Autres changements à l'implémentation de CPython

Deprecated Python Behavior

Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods

aifc

asyncio

collections

dbm

enum

gettext

importlib

locale

macpath

threading

socket

ssl

sunau

sys

wave

Deprecated functions and types of the C API

Platform Support Removals

API and Feature Removals

Module Removals

Windows-only Changes

Porting to Python 3.7

Changes in Python Behavior

Changements dans l'API Python

Changements dans l'API C

Changements au code intermédiaire CPython

Windows-only Changes

Other CPython implementation changes

Notable changes in Python 3.7.1

Notable changes in Python 3.7.2

Notable changes in Python 3.7.6

Notable changes in Python 3.7.10

Notable changes in Python 3.7.11

Notable security feature in 3.7.14

What's New In Python 3.6

Résumé – Points forts de la publication

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

PEP 498: Formatted string literals

PEP 526: Syntax for variable annotations

PEP 515: Underscores in Numeric Literals

PEP 525: Asynchronous Generators

PEP 530: Asynchronous Comprehensions

PEP 487: Simpler customization of class creation

PEP 487: Descriptor Protocol Enhancements

PEP 519: Adding a file system path protocol

PEP 495: Local Time Disambiguation

PEP 529: Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8

PEP 528: Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8

PEP 520: Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order

PEP 468: Preserving Keyword Argument Order

New dict implementation

PEP 523: Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython

PYTHONMALLOC environment variable

DTrace and SystemTap probing support

Autres changements au langage

Nouveaux modules

secrets

Modules améliorés

array

ast

asyncio

binascii

cmath

collections

concurrent.futures

contextlib

datetime

decimal

distutils

email

encodings

enum

faulthandler

fileinput

hashlib

http.client

idlelib and IDLE

importlib

inspect

json

logging

math

multiprocessing

os

pathlib

pdb

pickle

pickletools

pydoc

random

re

readline

rlcompleter

shlex

site

sqlite3

socket

socketserver

ssl

statistics

struct

subprocess

sys

telnetlib

time

timeit

tkinter

traceback

tracemalloc

typing

unicodedata

unittest.mock

urllib.request

urllib.robotparser

venv

warnings

winreg

winsound

xmlrpc.client

zipfile

zlib

Optimizations

Build and C API Changes

Autres Améliorations

Obsolescence

Nouveaux mot-clefs

Deprecated Python behavior

Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods

asynchat

asyncore

dbm

distutils

grp

importlib

os

re

ssl

tkinter

venv

xml

Deprecated functions and types of the C API

Deprecated Build Options

Retraits

API and Feature Removals

Porting to Python 3.6

Changes in 'python' Command Behavior

Changements dans l'API Python

Changements dans l'API C

Changements au code intermédiaire CPython

Notable changes in Python 3.6.2

New make regen-all build target

Removal of make touch build target

Notable changes in Python 3.6.4

Notable changes in Python 3.6.5

Notable changes in Python 3.6.7

Notable changes in Python 3.6.10

Notable changes in Python 3.6.13

Notable changes in Python 3.6.14

Nouveautés de Python 3.5

Résumé – Points forts de la publication

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax

PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication

PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations

PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray

PEP 484 - Type Hints

PEP 471 - os.scandir() function -- a better and faster directory iterator

PEP 475: Retry system calls failing with EINTR

PEP 479: Change StopIteration handling inside generators

PEP 485: A function for testing approximate equality

PEP 486: Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments

PEP 488 : Élimination des fichiers PYO

PEP 489: Multi-phase extension module initialization

Autres changements au langage

Nouveaux modules

typing

zipapp

Modules améliorés

argparse

asyncio

bz2

cgi

cmath

code

collections

collections.abc

compileall

concurrent.futures

configparser

contextlib

csv

curses

dbm

difflib

distutils

doctest

email

enum

faulthandler

functools

glob

gzip

heapq

http

http.client

idlelib and IDLE

imaplib

imghdr

importlib

inspect

io

ipaddress

json

linecache

locale

logging

lzma

math

multiprocessing

operator

os

pathlib

pickle

poplib

re

readline

selectors

shutils

signal

smtpd

smtplib

sndhdr

socket

ssl

Memory BIO Support

Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support

Other Changes

sqlite3

subprocess

sys

sysconfig

tarfile

threading

time

timeit

tkinter

traceback

types

unicodedata

unittest

unittest.mock

urllib

wsgiref

xmlrpc

xml.sax

zipfile

Other module-level changes

Optimizations

Build and C API Changes

Obsolescence

Nouveaux mot-clefs

Deprecated Python Behavior

Unsupported Operating Systems

Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods

Retraits

API and Feature Removals

Portage vers Python 3.5

Changes in Python behavior

Changements dans l'API Python

Changements dans l'API C

Notable changes in Python 3.5.4

New make regen-all build target

Removal of make touch build target

Nouveautés de Python 3.4

Summary -- Release Highlights

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

PEP 453: Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations

Bootstrapping pip By Default

Documentation Changes

PEP 446: Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable

Improvements to Codec Handling

PEP 451: A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System

Autres changements au langage

Nouveaux modules

asyncio

ensurepip

enum

pathlib

selectors

statistics

tracemalloc

Modules améliorés

abc

aifc

argparse

audioop

base64

collections

colorsys

contextlib

dbm

dis

doctest

email

filecmp

functools

gc

glob

hashlib

hmac

html

http

idlelib and IDLE

importlib

inspect

ipaddress

logging

marshal

mmap

multiprocessing

operator

os

pdb

pickle

plistlib

poplib

pprint

pty

pydoc

re

resource

select

shelve

shutils

smtpd

smtplib

socket

sqlite3

ssl

stat

struct

subprocess

sunau

sys

tarfile

textwrap

threading

traceback

types

urllib

unittest

venv

wave

weakref

xml.etree

zipfile

CPython Implementation Changes

PEP 445: Customization of CPython Memory Allocators

PEP 442: Safe Object Finalization

PEP 456: Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm

PEP 436: Argument Clinic

Other Build and C API Changes

Autres Améliorations

Significant Optimizations

Obsolescence

Deprecations in the Python API

Fonctionnalités obsolètes

Retraits

Operating Systems No Longer Supported

API and Feature Removals

Code Cleanups

Portage vers Python 3.4

Changes in 'python' Command Behavior

Changements dans l'API Python

Changements dans l'API C

Changed in 3.4.3

PEP 476: Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients

Nouveautés de Python 3.3

Résumé – Points forts de la publication

PEP 405: Virtual Environments

PEP 420: Implicit Namespace Packages

PEP 3118: New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation

Caractéristiques

API changes

PEP 393: Flexible String Representation

Functionality

Performance and resource usage

PEP 397: Python Launcher for Windows

PEP 3151: Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy

PEP 380: Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator

PEP 409: Suppressing exception context

PEP 414: Explicit Unicode literals

PEP 3155: Qualified name for classes and functions

PEP 412: Key-Sharing Dictionary

PEP 362: Function Signature Object

PEP 421: Adding sys.implementation

SimpleNamespace

Using importlib as the Implementation of Import

New APIs

Visible Changes

Autres changements au langage

A Finer-Grained Import Lock

Builtin functions and types

Nouveaux modules

faulthandler

ipaddress

lzma

Modules améliorés

abc

array

base64

binascii

bz2

codecs

collections

contextlib

crypt

curses

datetime

decimal

Caractéristiques

API changes

email

Policy Framework

Provisional Policy with New Header API

Other API Changes

ftplib

functools

gc

hmac

http

html

imaplib

inspect

io

itertools

logging

math

mmap

multiprocessing

nntplib

os

pdb

pickle

pydoc

re

sched

select

shlex

shutils

signal

smtpd

smtplib

socket

socketserver

sqlite3

ssl

stat

struct

subprocess

sys

tarfile

tempfile

textwrap

threading

time

types

unittest

urllib

webbrowser

xml.etree.ElementTree

zlib

Optimizations

Build and C API Changes

Obsolescence

Unsupported Operating Systems

Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods

Deprecated functions and types of the C API

Fonctionnalités obsolètes

Portage vers Python 3.3

Portage de code Python

Porting C code

Building C extensions

Command Line Switch Changes

Nouveautés de Python 3.2

PEP 384: Defining a Stable ABI

PEP 389: Argparse Command Line Parsing Module

PEP 391: Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging

PEP 3148: The concurrent.futures module

PEP 3147: PYC Repository Directories

PEP 3149: ABI Version Tagged .so Files

PEP 3333: Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1

Autres changements au langage

New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules

email

elementtree

functools

itertools

collections

threading

datetime and time

math

abc

io

reprlib

logging

csv

contextlib

decimal and fractions

ftp

popen

select

gzip and zipfile

tarfile

hashlib

ast

os

shutils

sqlite3

html

socket

ssl

nntp

certificates

imaplib

http.client

unittest

random

poplib

asyncore

tempfile

inspect

pydoc

dis

dbm

ctypes

site

sysconfig

pdb

configparser

urllib.parse

mailbox

turtledemo

Fils d'exécution

Optimizations

Unicode

Codecs

Documentation

IDLE

Code Repository

Build and C API Changes

Portage vers Python 3.2

Nouveautés de Python 3.1

PEP 372: Ordered Dictionaries

PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator

Autres changements au langage

New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules

Optimizations

IDLE

Build and C API Changes

Portage vers Python 3.1

Nouveautés de Python 3.0

Common Stumbling Blocks

Print Is A Function

Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists

Ordering Comparisons

Integers

Text Vs. Data Instead Of Unicode Vs. 8-bit

Overview Of Syntax Changes

New Syntax

Changed Syntax

Removed Syntax

Changes Already Present In Python 2.6

Library Changes

PEP 3101: A New Approach To String Formatting

Changes To Exceptions

Miscellaneous Other Changes

Operators And Special Methods

Builtins

Build and C API Changes

Performances

Portage vers Python 3.0

Nouveautés de Python 2.7

The Future for Python 2.x

Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings

Python 3.1 Features

PEP 372: Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections

PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator

PEP 389: The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines

PEP 391: Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging

PEP 3106: Dictionary Views

PEP 3137: The memoryview Object

Autres changements au langage

Interpreter Changes

Optimizations

New and Improved Modules

New module: importlib

New module: sysconfig

ttk: Themed Widgets for Tk

Updated module: unittest

Module mis-à-jour : ElementTree 1.3

Build and C API Changes

Capsules

Port-Specific Changes: Windows

Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X

Port-Specific Changes: FreeBSD

Autres changements et corrections

Portage vers Python 2.7

New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases

Two new environment variables for debug mode

PEP 434: IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches

PEP 466: Network Security Enhancements for Python 2.7

PEP 477: Backport ensurepip (PEP 453) to Python 2.7

Bootstrapping pip By Default

Documentation Changes

PEP 476: Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients

PEP 493: HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2.7

New make regen-all build target

Removal of make touch build target

Remerciements

Nouveautés de Python 2.6

Python 3.0

Changes to the Development Process

New Issue Tracker: Roundup

New Documentation Format: reStructuredText Using Sphinx

PEP 343: The 'with' statement

Écrire des gestionnaires de contexte

Le module contextlib

PEP 366: Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module

PEP 370: Per-user site-packages Directory

PEP 371: The multiprocessing Package

PEP 3101: Advanced String Formatting

PEP 3105: print As a Function

PEP 3110: Exception-Handling Changes

PEP 3112: Byte Literals

PEP 3116: New I/O Library

PEP 3118: Revised Buffer Protocol

PEP 3119: Abstract Base Classes

PEP 3127: Integer Literal Support and Syntax

PEP 3129: Class Decorators

PEP 3141: A Type Hierarchy for Numbers

The fractions Module

Autres changements au langage

Optimizations

Interpreter Changes

New and Improved Modules

The ast module

The future_builtins module

The json module: JavaScript Object Notation

The plistlib module: A Property-List Parser

ctypes Enhancements

Improved SSL Support

Deprecations and Removals

Build and C API Changes

Port-Specific Changes: Windows

Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X

Port-Specific Changes: IRIX

Portage vers Python 2.6

Remerciements

Nouveautés de Python 2.5

PEP 308 : Expressions conditionnelles

PEP 309 : Application partielle de fonction

PEP 314: Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1

PEP 328: Absolute and Relative Imports

PEP 338: Executing Modules as Scripts

PEP 341: Unified try/except/finally

PEP 342: New Generator Features

PEP 343: The 'with' statement

Écrire des gestionnaires de contexte

Le module contextlib

PEP 352: Exceptions as New-Style Classes

PEP 353: Using ssize_t as the index type

PEP 357: The '__index__' method

Autres changements au langage

Changements de l’interpréteur interactif

Optimizations

Modules ajoutés, modifiés, et supprimés

The ctypes package

The ElementTree package

The hashlib package

The sqlite3 package

The wsgiref package

Build and C API Changes

Port-Specific Changes

Portage vers Python 2.5

Remerciements

Nouveautés de Python 2.4

PEP 218: Built-In Set Objects

PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers

PEP 289: Generator Expressions

PEP 292: Simpler String Substitutions

PEP 318: Decorators for Functions and Methods

PEP 322: Reverse Iteration

PEP 324: New subprocess Module

PEP 327: Decimal Data Type

Why is Decimal needed?

The Decimal type

The Context type

PEP 328: Multi-line Imports

PEP 331: Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions

Autres changements au langage

Optimizations

New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules

cookielib

doctest

Build and C API Changes

Port-Specific Changes

Portage vers Python 2.4

Remerciements

Nouveautés de Python 2.3

PEP 218: A Standard Set Datatype

PEP 255 : Générateurs simples

PEP 263: Source Code Encodings

PEP 273: Importing Modules from ZIP Archives

PEP 277: Unicode file name support for Windows NT

PEP 278: Universal Newline Support

PEP 279: enumerate()

PEP 282: The logging Package

PEP 285 : Un type booléen

PEP 293: Codec Error Handling Callbacks

PEP 301: Package Index and Metadata for Distutils

PEP 302: New Import Hooks

PEP 305: Comma-separated Files

PEP 307: Pickle Enhancements

Extended Slices

Autres changements au langage

String Changes

Optimizations

New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules

Date/Time Type

The optparse Module

Pymalloc: A Specialized Object Allocator

Build and C API Changes

Port-Specific Changes

Autres changements et corrections

Portage vers Python 2.3

Remerciements

Nouveautés de Python 2.2

Introduction

PEP 252 et 253 : Changements concernant les types et classes

Anciennes et nouvelles classes

Descripteurs

Héritage multiple : la règle du diamant

Attribute Access

Related Links

PEP 234 : Itérateurs

PEP 255 : Générateurs simples

PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers

PEP 238: Changing the Division Operator

Unicode Changes

PEP 227: Nested Scopes

New and Improved Modules

Interpreter Changes and Fixes

Autres changements et corrections

Remerciements

Nouveautés de Python 2.1

Introduction

PEP 227: Nested Scopes

PEP 236 : Directives __future__

PEP 207: Rich Comparisons

PEP 230: Warning Framework

PEP 229: New Build System

PEP 205: Weak References

PEP 232 : Attributs de fonctions

PEP 235: Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms

PEP 217: Interactive Display Hook

PEP 208: New Coercion Model

PEP 241: Metadata in Python Packages

New and Improved Modules

Autres changements et corrections

Remerciements

Nouveautés de Python 2.0

Introduction

À propos de Python 1.6.

Nouveau processus de développement

Unicode

Compréhensions de listes

Opérateurs d’affectation augmentées

Méthodes de chaînes de caractères

Garbage Collection of Cycles

Other Core Changes

Changements mineurs du langage

Changements concernant les fonctions primitives

Porting to 2.0

Extending/Embedding Changes

Distutils: Making Modules Easy to Install

Modules XML

Support de SAX2

Support du DOM

Relationship to PyXML

Module changes

Nouveaux modules

IDLE Improvements

Deleted and Deprecated Modules

Remerciements

Changelog

Python next

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Le tutoriel Python

1. Mise en bouche

2. Mode d'emploi de l'interpréteur Python

2.1. Lancement de l'interpréteur

2.1.1. Passage d'arguments

2.1.2. Mode interactif

2.2. L'interpréteur et son environnement

2.2.1. Encodage du code source

3. Introduction informelle à Python

3.1. Utilisation de Python comme une calculatrice

3.1.1. Les nombres

3.1.2. Text

3.1.3. Listes

3.2. Premiers pas vers la programmation

4. D'autres outils de contrôle de flux

4.1. L'instruction if

4.2. L'instruction for

4.3. La fonction range()

4.4. Les instructions break et continue

4.5. La clause else au sein des boucles

4.6. L'instruction pass

4.7. L'instruction match

4.8. Définir des fonctions

4.9. Davantage sur la définition des fonctions

4.9.1. Valeur par défaut des arguments

4.9.2. Les arguments nommés

4.9.3. Paramètres spéciaux

4.9.3.1. Les arguments positionnels-ou-nommés

4.9.3.2. Paramètres positionnels uniquement

4.9.3.3. Arguments nommés uniquement

4.9.3.4. Exemples de fonctions

4.9.3.5. Récapitulatif

4.9.4. Listes d'arguments arbitraires

4.9.5. Séparation des listes d'arguments

4.9.6. Fonctions anonymes

4.9.7. Chaînes de documentation

4.9.8. Annotations de fonctions

4.10. Aparté : le style de codage

5. Structures de données

5.1. Compléments sur les listes

5.1.1. Utilisation des listes comme des piles

5.1.2. Utilisation des listes comme des files

5.1.3. Listes en compréhension

5.1.4. Listes en compréhensions imbriquées

5.2. L'instruction del

5.3. n-uplets et séquences

5.4. Ensembles

5.5. Dictionnaires

5.6. Techniques de boucles

5.7. Plus d'informations sur les conditions

5.8. Comparer des séquences avec d'autres types

6. Modules

6.1. Les modules en détail

6.1.1. Exécuter des modules comme des scripts

6.1.2. Les dossiers de recherche de modules

6.1.3. Fichiers Python « compilés »

6.2. Modules standards

6.3. La fonction dir()

6.4. Les paquets

6.4.1. Importer * depuis un paquet

6.4.2. Références internes dans un paquet

6.4.3. Paquets dans plusieurs dossiers

7. Les entrées/sorties

7.1. Formatage de données

7.1.1. Les chaines de caractères formatées (f-strings)

7.1.2. La méthode de chaine de caractères format()

7.1.3. Formatage de chaînes à la main

7.1.4. Anciennes méthodes de formatage de chaînes

7.2. Lecture et écriture de fichiers

7.2.1. Méthodes des objets fichiers

7.2.2. Sauvegarde de données structurées avec le module json

8. Erreurs et exceptions

8.1. Les erreurs de syntaxe

8.2. Exceptions

8.3. Gestion des exceptions

8.4. Déclencher des exceptions

8.5. Chaînage d'exceptions

8.6. Exceptions définies par l'utilisateur

8.7. Définition d'actions de nettoyage

8.8. Actions de nettoyage prédéfinies

8.9. Levée et gestion de multiples exceptions non corrélées

8.10. Enrichissement des exceptions avec des notes

9. Classes

9.1. Objets et noms : préambule

9.2. Portées et espaces de nommage en Python

9.2.1. Exemple de portées et d'espaces de nommage

9.3. Une première approche des classes

9.3.1. Syntaxe de définition des classes

9.3.2. Objets classes

9.3.3. Objets instances

9.3.4. Objets méthode

9.3.5. Variables de classe et d’instance

9.4. Remarques diverses

9.5. Héritage

9.5.1. Héritage multiple

9.6. Variables privées

9.7. Trucs et astuces

9.8. Itérateurs

9.9. Générateurs

9.10. Expressions et générateurs

10. Brief tour of the standard library

10.1. Operating system interface

10.2. File wildcards

10.3. Command-line arguments

10.4. Error output redirection and program termination

10.5. String pattern matching

10.6. Mathématiques

10.7. Internet access

10.8. Dates and times

10.9. Data compression

10.10. Performance measurement

10.11. Quality control

10.12. Batteries included

11. Survol de la bibliothèque standard -- Deuxième partie

11.1. Formatage de l'affichage

11.2. Gabarits (templates en anglais)

11.3. Traitement des données binaires

11.4. Fils d'exécution

11.5. Journalisation

11.6. Références faibles

11.7. Outils pour les listes

11.8. Decimal Floating-Point Arithmetic

12. Environnements virtuels et paquets

12.1. Introduction

12.2. Création d'environnements virtuels

12.3. Gestion des paquets avec pip

13. Pour aller plus loin

14. Édition interactive des entrées et substitution d'historique

14.1. Complétion automatique et édition de l'historique

14.2. Alternatives à l'interpréteur interactif

15. Floating-Point Arithmetic: Issues and Limitations

15.1. Erreurs de représentation

16. Annexe

16.1. Mode interactif

16.1.1. Gestion des erreurs

16.1.2. Scripts Python exécutables

16.1.3. Configuration du mode interactif

16.1.4. Modules de personnalisation

Installation et utilisation de Python

1. Ligne de commande et environnement

1.1. Ligne de commande

1.1.1. Options de l'interface

1.1.2. Options génériques

1.1.3. Options diverses

1.1.4. Controlling color

1.2. Variables d'environnement

1.2.1. Variables en mode débogage

2. Utilisation de Python sur les plateformes Unix

2.1. Récupérer et installer la dernière version de Python

2.1.1. Sur Linux

2.1.1.1. Installing IDLE

2.1.2. Sur FreeBSD et OpenBSD

2.2. Compiler Python

2.3. Fichiers et chemins liés à Python

2.4. Divers

2.5. Version personnalisée d'OpenSSL

3. Configurer Python

3.1. Build Requirements

3.1.1. Requirements for optional modules

3.2. Generated files

3.2.1. configure script

3.3. Options de configuration

3.3.1. Options générales

3.3.2. C compiler options

3.3.3. Linker options

3.3.4. Options for third-party dependencies

3.3.5. Options de WebAssembly

3.3.6. Options d'installation

3.3.7. Options de performance

3.3.8. Compilation de Python en mode débogage

3.3.9. Debug options

3.3.10. Linker options

3.3.11. Libraries options

3.3.12. Security Options

3.3.13. macOS Options

3.3.14. iOS Options

3.3.15. Cross Compiling Options

3.4. Python Build System

3.4.1. Main files of the build system

3.4.2. Main build steps

3.4.3. Main Makefile targets

3.4.3.1. make

3.4.3.2. make platform

3.4.3.3. make profile-opt

3.4.3.4. make clean

3.4.3.5. make distclean

3.4.3.6. make install

3.4.3.7. make test

3.4.3.8. make ci

3.4.3.9. make buildbottest

3.4.3.10. make regen-all

3.4.4. C extensions

3.5. Compiler and linker flags

3.5.1. Preprocessor flags

3.5.2. Compiler flags

3.5.3. Linker flags

4. Utilisation de Python sur Windows

4.1. Python install manager

4.1.1. Installation

4.1.2. Utilisation basique

4.1.3. Command help

4.1.4. Listing runtimes

4.1.5. Installing runtimes

4.1.6. Offline installs

4.1.7. Uninstalling runtimes

4.1.8. Configuration

4.1.9. Shebang lines

4.1.10. Advanced installation

4.1.11. Administrative configuration

4.1.12. Installing free-threaded binaries

4.1.13. Troubleshooting

4.2. Le paquet intégrable

4.2.1. Python application

4.2.2. Embarquer Python

4.3. Les paquets nuget.org

4.3.1. Free-threaded packages

4.4. Paquets alternatifs

4.5. Supported Windows versions

4.6. Removing the MAX_PATH limitation

4.7. Mode UTF-8

4.8. Recherche de modules

4.9. Modules supplémentaires

4.9.1. PyWin32

4.9.2. cx_Freeze

4.10. Compiler Python sous Windows

4.11. The full installer (deprecated)

4.11.1. Étapes d'installation

4.11.2. Removing the MAX_PATH limitation

4.11.3. Installing without UI

4.11.4. Installing without downloading

4.11.5. Modification d'une installation

4.11.6. Installing free-threaded binaries

4.12. Python launcher for Windows (deprecated)

4.12.1. Pour commencer

4.12.1.1. Depuis la ligne de commande

4.12.1.2. Environnements virtuels

4.12.1.3. À partir d'un script

4.12.1.4. À partir d'associations de fichiers

4.12.2. Shebang lines

4.12.3. Arguments dans les lignes shebang

4.12.4. Personnalisation

4.12.4.1. Personnalisation via des fichiers INI

4.12.4.2. Personnalisation des versions Python par défaut

4.12.5. Diagnostics

4.12.6. Dry run

4.12.7. Installation à la demande

4.12.8. Codes de retour

5. Using Python on macOS

5.1. Using Python for macOS from python.org

5.1.1. Étapes d'installation

5.1.2. Comment exécuter un script Python

5.2. Alternative Distributions

5.3. Installation de paquets Python additionnels

5.4. GUI Programming

5.5. Sujets avancés

5.5.1. Installing Free-threaded Binaries

5.5.2. Installing using the command line

5.5.3. Distributing Python Applications

5.5.4. App Store Compliance

5.6. Autres ressources

6. Using Python on Android

6.1. Adding Python to an Android app

6.2. Building a Python package for Android

7. Using Python on iOS

7.1. Python at runtime on iOS

7.1.1. iOS version compatibility

7.1.2. Platform identification

7.1.3. Standard library availability

7.1.4. Binary extension modules

7.1.5. Compiler stub binaries

7.2. Installing Python on iOS

7.2.1. Tools for building iOS apps

7.2.2. Adding Python to an iOS project

7.2.3. Testing a Python package

7.3. App Store Compliance

7.3.1. Incompatible code in the standard library

7.3.2. Privacy manifests

8. Éditeurs et IDEs

8.1. IDLE --- Python editor and shell

8.2. Autres éditeurs et IDEs

La référence du langage Python

1. Introduction

1.1. Autres implémentations

1.2. Notations

1.2.1. Lexical and Syntactic definitions

2. Analyse lexicale

2.1. Structure des lignes

2.1.1. Lignes logiques

2.1.2. Lignes physiques

2.1.3. Commentaires

2.1.4. Déclaration d'encodage

2.1.5. Continuation de ligne explicite

2.1.6. Continuation de ligne implicite

2.1.7. Lignes vierges

2.1.8. Indentation

2.1.9. Espaces entre lexèmes

2.1.10. End marker

2.2. Autres lexèmes

2.3. Names (identifiers and keywords)

2.3.1. Mots-clés

2.3.2. Mots-clés ad hoc

2.3.3. Classes réservées pour les identifiants

2.3.4. Non-ASCII characters in names

2.4. Littéraux

2.5. Littéraux de chaînes de caractères et de suites d'octets

2.5.1. Triple-quoted strings

2.5.2. String prefixes

2.5.3. Formal grammar

2.5.4. Escape sequences

2.5.4.1. Ignored end of line

2.5.4.2. Escaped characters

2.5.4.3. Octal character

2.5.4.4. Hexadecimal character

2.5.4.5. Named Unicode character

2.5.4.6. Hexadecimal Unicode characters

2.5.4.7. Unrecognized escape sequences

2.5.5. Bytes literals

2.5.6. Raw string literals

2.5.7. f-strings

2.5.8. t-strings

2.5.9. Formal grammar for f-strings

2.6. Littéraux numériques

2.6.1. Entiers littéraux

2.6.2. Floating-point literals

2.6.3. Imaginaires littéraux

2.7. Operators and delimiters

3. Modèle de données

3.1. Objets, valeurs et types

3.2. Hiérarchie des types standards

3.2.1. None

3.2.2. NotImplemented

3.2.3. Ellipse

3.2.4. numbers.Number

3.2.4.1. numbers.Integral

3.2.4.2. numbers.Real (float)

3.2.4.3. numbers.Complex (complex)

3.2.5. Séquences

3.2.5.1. Séquences immuables

3.2.5.2. Séquences mutables

3.2.6. Ensembles

3.2.7. Tableaux de correspondances

3.2.7.1. Dictionnaires

3.2.8. Types appelables

3.2.8.1. Fonctions définies par l'utilisateur

3.2.8.1.1. Special read-only attributes

3.2.8.1.2. Special writable attributes

3.2.8.2. Méthodes d'instances

3.2.8.3. Fonctions génératrices (ou générateurs)

3.2.8.4. Fonctions coroutines

3.2.8.5. Fonctions génératrices asynchrones

3.2.8.6. Fonctions natives

3.2.8.7. Méthodes natives

3.2.8.8. Classes

3.2.8.9. Instances de classe

3.2.9. Modules

3.2.9.1. Import-related attributes on module objects

3.2.9.2. Other writable attributes on module objects

3.2.9.3. Module dictionaries

3.2.10. Classes déclarées par le développeur

3.2.10.1. Special attributes

3.2.10.2. Special methods

3.2.11. Instances de classe

3.2.11.1. Special attributes

3.2.12. Objets entrées-sorties (ou objets fichiers)

3.2.13. Types internes

3.2.13.1. Objets Code

3.2.13.1.1. Special read-only attributes

3.2.13.1.2. Methods on code objects

3.2.13.2. Objets cadres

3.2.13.2.1. Special read-only attributes

3.2.13.2.2. Special writable attributes

3.2.13.2.3. Frame object methods

3.2.13.3. Objets traces d'appels

3.2.13.4. Objets tranches

3.2.13.5. Objets méthodes statiques

3.2.13.6. Objets méthodes de classes

3.3. Méthodes spéciales

3.3.1. Personnalisation de base

3.3.2. Personnalisation de l'accès aux attributs

3.3.2.1. Personnalisation de l'accès aux attributs d'un module

3.3.2.2. Implémentation de descripteurs

3.3.2.3. Invocation des descripteurs

3.3.2.4. créneaux prédéfinis (__slots__)

3.3.3. Personnalisation de la création de classes

3.3.3.1. Métaclasses

3.3.3.2. Résolution des entrées MRO

3.3.3.3. Détermination de la métaclasse appropriée

3.3.3.4. Préparation de l'espace de nommage de la classe

3.3.3.5. Exécution du corps de la classe

3.3.3.6. Création de l'objet classe

3.3.3.7. Cas d'utilisations des métaclasses

3.3.4. Personnalisation des instances et vérification des sous-classes

3.3.5. Émulation de types génériques

3.3.5.1. Intention de __class_getitem__

3.3.5.2. __class_getitem__ contre __getitem__

3.3.6. Émulation d'objets appelables

3.3.7. Émulation de types conteneurs

3.3.8. Émulation de types numériques

3.3.9. Gestionnaire de contexte With

3.3.10. Arguments positionnels dans le filtrage par motif sur les classes

3.3.11. Emulating buffer types

3.3.12. Annotations

3.3.13. Recherche des méthodes spéciales

3.4. Coroutines

3.4.1. Objets attendables (awaitable)

3.4.2. Objets coroutines

3.4.3. Itérateurs asynchrones

3.4.4. Gestionnaires de contexte asynchrones

4. Modèle d'exécution

4.1. Structure d'un programme

4.2. Noms et liaisons

4.2.1. Liaisons des noms

4.2.2. Résolution des noms

4.2.3. Annotation scopes

4.2.4. Lazy evaluation

4.2.5. Noms natifs et restrictions d'exécution

4.2.6. Interaction avec les fonctionnalités dynamiques

4.3. Exceptions

4.4. Runtime Components

4.4.1. General Computing Model

4.4.2. Python Runtime Model

5. Le système d'importation

5.1. importlib

5.2. Les paquets

5.2.1. Paquets classiques

5.2.2. Paquets espaces de nommage

5.3. Recherche

5.3.1. Cache des modules

5.3.2. Chercheurs et chargeurs

5.3.3. Points d'entrées automatiques pour l'importation

5.3.4. Méta-chemins

5.4. Chargement

5.4.1. Chargeurs

5.4.2. Sous-modules

5.4.3. Spécificateurs de modules

5.4.4. l'attribut __path__ des modules

5.4.5. Représentation textuelle d'un module

5.4.6. Invalidation de bytecode mis en cache

5.5. Le chercheur dans path

5.5.1. Chercheurs d'entrée dans path

5.5.2. Protocole des chercheurs d'entrée dans path

5.6. Remplacement du système d'importation standard

5.7. Importations relatives au paquet

5.8. Cas particulier de __main__

5.8.1. __main__.__spec__

5.9. Références

6. Expressions

6.1. Conversions arithmétiques

6.2. Atomes

6.2.1. Built-in constants

6.2.2. Identifiants (noms)

6.2.2.1. Private name mangling

6.2.3. Littéraux

6.2.3.1. Literals and object identity

6.2.3.2. Concaténation de chaînes de caractères

6.2.4. Formes parenthésées

6.2.5. Agencements des listes, ensembles et dictionnaires

6.2.6. Agencements de listes

6.2.7. Agencements d'ensembles

6.2.8. Agencements de dictionnaires

6.2.9. Expressions génératrices

6.2.10. Expressions yield

6.2.10.1. Méthodes des générateurs-itérateurs

6.2.10.2. Exemples

6.2.10.3. Fonctions génératrices asynchrones

6.2.10.4. Méthodes des générateurs-itérateurs asynchrones

6.3. Primaires

6.3.1. Références à des attributs

6.3.2. Subscriptions and slicings

6.3.2.1. Tranches

6.3.2.2. Comma-separated subscripts

6.3.2.3. "Starred" subscriptions

6.3.2.4. Formal subscription grammar

6.3.3. Appels

6.4. Expression await

6.5. L'opérateur puissance

6.6. Arithmétique unaire et opérations sur les bits

6.7. Opérations arithmétiques binaires

6.8. Opérations de décalage

6.9. Opérations binaires bit à bit

6.10. Comparaisons

6.10.1. Comparaisons de valeurs

6.10.2. Opérations de tests d’appartenance à un ensemble

6.10.3. Comparaisons d'identifiants

6.11. Opérations booléennes

6.12. Expressions d'affectation

6.13. Expressions conditionnelles

6.14. Expressions lambda

6.15. Listes d'expressions

6.16. Ordre d'évaluation

6.17. Priorités des opérateurs

7. Les instructions simples

7.1. Les expressions

7.2. Les assignations

7.2.1. Les assignations augmentées

7.2.2. Les assignations annotées

7.3. L'instruction assert

7.4. L'instruction pass

7.5. L'instruction del

7.6. L'instruction return

7.7. L'instruction yield

7.8. L'instruction raise

7.9. L'instruction break

7.10. L'instruction continue

7.11. L'instruction import

7.11.1. L'instruction future

7.12. L'instruction global

7.13. L'instruction nonlocal

7.14. The type statement

8. Instructions composées

8.1. L'instruction if

8.2. L'instruction while

8.3. L'instruction for

8.4. L'instruction try

8.4.1. clause except

8.4.2. clause except*

8.4.3. clause else

8.4.4. clause finally

8.5. L'instruction with

8.6. L'instruction match

8.6.1. Aperçu

8.6.2. Gardes

8.6.3. Bloc case attrape-tout

8.6.4. Filtres

8.6.4.1. Filtres OU

8.6.4.2. Filtres AS

8.6.4.3. Filtres littéraux

8.6.4.4. Filtres de capture

8.6.4.5. Filtres attrape-tout

8.6.4.6. Filtres par valeurs

8.6.4.7. Filtres de groupes

8.6.4.8. Filtres de séquences

8.6.4.9. Filtres associatifs

8.6.4.10. Filtres de classes

8.7. Définition de fonctions

8.8. Définition de classes

8.9. Coroutines

8.9.1. Définition de fonctions coroutines

8.9.2. L'instruction async for

8.9.3. L'instruction async with

8.10. Type parameter lists

8.10.1. Generic functions

8.10.2. Generic classes

8.10.3. Generic type aliases

8.11. Annotations

9. Composants de plus haut niveau

9.1. Programmes Python complets

9.2. Fichier d'entrée

9.3. Entrée interactive

9.4. Entrée d'expression

10. Spécification complète de la grammaire

La bibliothèque standard

Introduction

Notes sur la disponibilité

Plateformes WebAssembly

Mobile platforms

Fonctions natives

Constantes natives

Constantes ajoutées par le module site

Types natifs

Valeurs booléennes

Opérations booléennes — and, or, not

Comparaisons

Types numériques — int, float, complex

Opérations sur les bits des nombres entiers

Méthodes supplémentaires sur les entiers

Méthodes supplémentaires sur les nombres à virgule flottante

Additional Methods on Complex

Hachage des types numériques

Boolean Type - bool

Les types itérateurs

Types générateurs

Types séquentiels — list, tuple, range

Opérations communes sur les séquences

Types de séquences immuables

Types de séquences mutables

Listes

N-uplets

Ranges

Text and Binary Sequence Type Methods Summary

Type Séquence de Texte — str

Méthodes de chaînes de caractères

Formatted String Literals (f-strings)

Debug specifier

Conversion specifier

Format specifier

Template String Literals (t-strings)

Formatage de chaines à la printf

Séquences Binaires — bytes, bytearray, vue mémoire

Objets bytes

Objets bytearray

Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray

Formatage de bytes a la printf

Vues mémoire

Types d'ensembles — set, frozenset

Les types de correspondances — dict

Les vues de dictionnaires

Le type gestionnaire de contexte

Types d'annotation de type — Alias générique, Union

Type Alias générique

Classes génériques standards

Attributs spéciaux des alias génériques

Type Union

Autres types natifs

Modules

Les classes et instances de classes

Fonctions

Méthodes

Objets code

Objets type

L'objet Null

L'objet points de suspension (ou ellipse)

L'objet NotImplemented

Objets internes

Attributs spéciaux

Limitation de longueur de conversion de chaîne vers un entier

API concernées

Configuration de la limite

Configuration recommandée

Exceptions natives

Contexte des exceptions

Hériter des exceptions natives

Classes mères

Exceptions concrètes

Exceptions système

Avertissements

Exception groups

Hiérarchie des exceptions

Thread Safety Guarantees

Thread safety levels

Incompatible

Compatible

Safe on distinct objects

Safe on shared objects

Atomic

Thread safety for list objects

Thread safety for dict objects

Thread safety for set objects

Thread safety for bytearray objects

Thread safety for memoryview objects

Services de Manipulation de Texte

string --- Common string operations

Chaînes constantes

Custom string formatting

Format string syntax

Format specification mini-language

Exemples de formats

Template strings ($-strings)

Fonctions d'assistance

string.templatelib --- Support for template string literals

Template strings

Types

Fonctions d'assistance

re --- Regular expression operations

Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles

Contenu du module

Flags

Fonctions

Exceptions

Objets d'expressions rationnelles

Objets de correspondance

Exemples d'expressions rationnelles

Rechercher une paire

Simuler scanf()

Comparaison de search() et match()

Construire un répertoire téléphonique

Mélanger les lettres des mots

Trouver tous les adverbes

Trouver tous les adverbes et leurs positions

Notation brute de chaînes

Écrire un analyseur lexical

difflib --- Helpers for computing deltas

SequenceMatcher objects

SequenceMatcher examples

Differ objects

Differ example

A command-line interface to difflib

ndiff example

textwrap --- Text wrapping and filling

unicodedata --- Unicode Database

stringprep --- Internet String Preparation

readline --- GNU readline interface

Fichier d'initialisation

Tampon de ligne

Fichier d'historique

Liste d'historique

Fonctions de rappel au démarrage

Complétion

Exemple

rlcompleter --- Completion function for GNU readline

Services autour des Données Binaires

struct --- Interpret bytes as packed binary data

Fonctions et exceptions

Chaînes de spécification du format

Boutisme, taille et alignement

Caractères de format

Exemples

Applications

Native Formats

Standard Formats

Classes

codecs --- Codec registry and base classes

Classes de base de codecs

Gestionnaires d'erreurs

Stateless Encoding and Decoding

Incremental Encoding and Decoding

IncrementalEncoder Objects

IncrementalDecoder Objects

Stream Encoding and Decoding

StreamWriter Objects

StreamReader Objects

StreamReaderWriter Objects

StreamRecoder Objects

Encodings and Unicode

Standard Encodings

Python Specific Encodings

Text Encodings

Binary Transforms

Standalone Codec Functions

Text Transforms

encodings --- Encodings package

encodings.idna --- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications

encodings.mbcs --- Windows ANSI codepage

encodings.utf_8_sig --- UTF-8 codec with BOM signature

Types de données

datetime — Types de base pour la date et l'heure

Aware and naive objects

Constantes

Available types

Common properties

Determining if an object is aware or naive

timedelta objects

Examples of usage: timedelta

date objects

Examples of usage: date

datetime objects

Examples of usage: datetime

time objects

Examples of usage: time

tzinfo objects

timezone objects

strftime() and strptime() behavior

strftime() and strptime() format codes

Technical detail

zoneinfo --- IANA time zone support

Utilisation de ZoneInfo

Sources de données

Configurer les sources de données

Configuration à la compilation

Configuration par l'environnement

Configuration à l'exécution

La classe ZoneInfo

Représentation sous forme de chaîne de caractères

Sérialisation Pickle

Fonctions

Variables globales

Exceptions et avertissements

calendar --- General calendar-related functions

Command-line usage

collections --- Container datatypes

Objets ChainMap

Exemples et cas pratiques utilisant ChainMap

Objets Counter

Objets deque

Cas pratiques utilisant deque

Objets defaultdict

Exemples utilisant defaultdict

namedtuple() : fonction de construction pour n-uplets avec des champs nommés

Objets OrderedDict

Exemples et cas pratiques utilisant OrderDict

Objets UserDict

Objets UserList

Objets UserString

collections.abc --- Abstract Base Classes for Containers

Classes de base abstraites de collections

Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions

Exemples et recettes

heapq --- Heap queue algorithm

Exemples simples

Other Applications

Notes d'implémentation de la file de priorité

Théorie

bisect --- Array bisection algorithm

Notes sur la performance

Chercher dans des listes triées

Exemples

array --- Efficient arrays of numeric values

weakref --- Weak references

Objets à références faibles

Exemple

Finalizer Objects

Comparing finalizers with __del__() methods

types --- Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types

Dynamic Type Creation

Standard Interpreter Types

Additional Utility Classes and Functions

Coroutine Utility Functions

copy --- Shallow and deep copy operations

pprint — L’affichage élégant de données

Fonctions

Les Objets PrettyPrinter

Exemple

reprlib --- Alternate repr() implementation

Repr Objects

Subclassing Repr Objects

enum --- Support for enumerations

Module contents

Data types

Noms de la forme __dunder__ disponibles

Noms de la forme _sunder_ disponibles

Utilities and decorators

Notes

graphlib --- Functionality to operate with graph-like structures

Exceptions

Modules numériques et mathématiques

numbers --- Numeric abstract base classes

La tour numérique

Notes for type implementers

Ajouter plus d'ABC numériques

Implémentation des opérations arithmétiques

math --- Mathematical functions

Number-theoretic functions

Floating point arithmetic

Floating point manipulation functions

Power, exponential and logarithmic functions

Summation and product functions

Conversion angulaire

Fonctions trigonométriques

Fonctions hyperboliques

Fonctions spéciales

Constantes

cmath --- Mathematical functions for complex numbers

Conversion vers et à partir de coordonnées polaires

Fonctions logarithme et exponentielle

Fonctions trigonométriques

Fonctions hyperboliques

Fonctions de classifications

Constantes

decimal --- Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

Quick-start tutorial

Les objets Decimal

Opérandes logiques

Objets de contexte

Constantes

Modes d'arrondi

Signaux

Floating-point notes

Mitigating round-off error with increased precision

Special values

Working with threads

Cas pratiques

FAQ decimal

fractions --- Rational numbers

random — Génère des nombres pseudo-aléatoires

Fonctions de gestion d'état

Fonctions pour les octets

Fonctions pour les entiers

Fonctions pour les séquences

Discrete distributions

Distributions pour les nombres réels

Générateur alternatif

Remarques sur la reproductibilité

Exemples

Cas pratiques

Command-line usage

Command-line example

statistics --- Mathematical statistics functions

Moyennes et mesures de la tendance centrale

Mesures de la dispersion

Statistics for relations between two inputs

Détails des fonctions

Exceptions

Objets NormalDist

Examples and Recipes

Classic probability problems

Monte Carlo inputs for simulations

Approximating binomial distributions

Naive bayesian classifier

Modules de programmation fonctionnelle

itertools --- Functions creating iterators for efficient looping

Itertool Functions

Recettes itertools

functools --- Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects

Objets partial

operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions

Correspondances entre opérateurs et fonctions

Opérateurs en-place

Accès aux Fichiers et aux Dossiers

pathlib — Chemins de système de fichiers orientés objet

Utilisation basique

Exceptions

Chemins purs

Propriétés générales

Opérateurs

Accéder aux parties individuelles

Méthodes et propriétés

Chemins concrets

Analyse et génération des URI

Expansion et résolution de chemins

Requête sur type et statut du fichier

Lecture et écriture de fichiers

Lecture des dossiers

Création de fichiers et de dossiers

Copying, moving and deleting

Permissions et propriété

Pattern language

Comparaison avec les outils du module glob

Comparaison aux modules os et os.path

Outils correspondants

Protocoles

os.path --- Common pathname manipulations

stat --- Interpreting stat() results

filecmp --- File and Directory Comparisons

La classe dircmp

tempfile --- Generate temporary files and directories

Exemples

Fonctions et variables obsolètes

glob --- Unix style pathname pattern expansion

Exemples

fnmatch --- Unix filename pattern matching

linecache --- Random access to text lines

shutil --- High-level file operations

Opérations sur les répertoires et les fichiers

Platform-dependent efficient copy operations

copytree example

rmtree example

Archiving operations

Archiving example

Archiving example with base_dir

Querying the size of the output terminal

Persistance des données

pickle --- Python object serialization

Relations aux autres modules Python

Comparaison avec marshal

Comparaison avec json

Format du flux de données

Interface du module

Quels objets sont sérialisables ?

Sérialisation des instances d'une classe

Persistance d'objets externes

Tables de distribution

Traitement des objets à état

Réduction personnalisée pour les types, fonctions et autres objets

Tampons hors-bande

API des producteurs

API des consommateurs

Exemple

Restriction des noms dans l'espace de nommage global

Performances

Exemples

Command-line interface

copyreg --- Register pickle support functions

Exemple

shelve --- Python object persistence

Limites

Exemple

marshal --- Internal Python object serialization

dbm --- Interfaces to Unix "databases"

dbm.sqlite3 --- SQLite backend for dbm

dbm.gnu --- GNU database manager

dbm.ndbm --- New Database Manager

dbm.dumb --- Portable DBM implementation

sqlite3 — Interface DB-API 2.0 pour bases de données SQLite

Tutoriel

Références

Fonctions du module

Fonctions et constantes du module

Connection objects

Cursor objects

Row objects

Blob objects

PrepareProtocol objects

Exceptions

SQLite and Python types

Default adapters and converters (deprecated)

Command-line interface

How-to guides

How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries

How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values

How to write adaptable objects

How to register adapter callables

How to convert SQLite values to custom Python types

Adapter and converter recipes

How to use connection shortcut methods

How to use the connection context manager

How to work with SQLite URIs

How to create and use row factories

How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings

Explanation

Transaction control

Transaction control via the autocommit attribute

Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute

Compression de donnée et archivage

The compression package

compression.zstd --- Compression compatible with the Zstandard format

Exceptions

Lire et écrire des fichiers compressés

Compresser et décompresser une donnée en mémoire

Zstandard dictionaries

Advanced parameter control

Divers

Exemples

zlib --- Compression compatible with gzip

gzip --- Support for gzip files

Exemples d'utilisation

Command-line interface

Command-line options

bz2 --- Support for bzip2 compression

(Dé)compression de fichiers

(Dé)compression incrémentielle

(Dé)compression en une fois

Exemples d'utilisation

lzma --- Compression using the LZMA algorithm

Lire et écrire des fichiers compressés

Compresser et décompresser une donnée en mémoire

Divers

Préciser des chaînes de filtre personnalisées

Exemples

zipfile --- Work with ZIP archives

ZipFile objects

Path objects

PyZipFile objects

ZipInfo objects

Command-line interface

Options de la ligne de commande

Problèmes de décompression

À cause du fichier lui-même

File system limitations

Ressources limitées

Interruption

Comportements par défaut de l'extraction

tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files

Les objets TarFile

Les objets TarInfo

Extraction filters

Default named filters

Filter errors

Hints for further verification

Supporting older Python versions

Stateful extraction filter example

Interface en ligne de commande

Options de la ligne de commande

Exemples

Reading examples

Writing examples

Formats tar pris en charge

Problèmes unicode

Formats de fichiers

csv --- CSV File Reading and Writing

Contenu du module

Dialectes et paramètres de formatage

Objets lecteurs

Objets transcripteurs

Exemples

configparser --- Configuration file parser

Premiers pas

Types de données prises en charge

Valeurs de substitution

Structure des fichiers INI prise en change

Unnamed Sections

Interpolation des valeurs

Protocole d'accès associatif

Personnalisation du comportement de l'analyseur

Legacy API Examples

ConfigParser Objects

RawConfigParser Objects

Exceptions

tomllib --- Parse TOML files

Exemples

Conversion Table

netrc --- netrc file processing

Objets netrc

plistlib --- Generate and parse Apple .plist files

Exemples

Service de cryptographie

hashlib — Algorithmes de hachage sécurisés et synthèse de messages

Algorithmes de hachage

Utilisation

Constructeurs

Attributes

Objets de calcul d'empreinte

Empreintes de messages de taille variable SHAKE

Calcul d'empreinte (ou hachage) de fichiers

Dérivation de clé

BLAKE2

Création d'objets de calcul d'empreinte

Constantes

Exemples

Hachage simple

Production de tailles d'empreintes différentes

Hachage avec clé – Code d'authentification de message

Hachage randomisé

Personnalisation

Mode Arbre

Crédits

hmac --- Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication

secrets --- Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets

Nombres aléatoires

Génération de jetons

Combien d'octets mon jeton doit-il comporter ?

Autres fonctions

Recettes et bonnes pratiques

Services génériques du système d'exploitation

os --- Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

Noms de fichiers, arguments en ligne de commande, et variables d'environnement

Le mode UTF-8 de Python

Paramètres de processus

Création de fichiers objets

Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers

Demander la taille d'un terminal

Héritage de descripteurs de fichiers

Fichiers et répertoires

Timer File Descriptors

Attributs étendus pour Linux

Gestion des processus

Interface pour l'ordonnanceur

Diverses informations sur le système

Nombres aléatoires

io --- Core tools for working with streams

Aperçu

Entrée/sortie de texte

Binary I/O

Raw I/O

Encodage de texte

Opt-in EncodingWarning

Interface de haut niveau du module

Class hierarchy

I/O Base Classes

Raw File I/O

Buffered Streams

Entrée/sortie de texte

Static Typing

Performances

Binary I/O

Entrée/sortie de texte

Fils d'exécution

Réentrance

time --- Time access and conversions

Fonctions

Constantes d’identification d’horloge

Constantes de fuseau horaire

logging --- Logging facility for Python

Enregistreurs

Niveaux de journalisation

Gestionnaires

Formateurs

Filtres

Objets LogRecord

LogRecord attributes

LoggerAdapter Objects

Thread Safety

Fonctions de niveau module

Module-Level Attributes

Integration with the warnings module

logging.config --- Logging configuration

Configuration functions

Security considerations

Configuration dictionary schema

Dictionary Schema Details

Incremental Configuration

Object connections

User-defined objects

Handler configuration order

Access to external objects

Access to internal objects

Import resolution and custom importers

Configuring QueueHandler and QueueListener

Configuration file format

logging.handlers --- Logging handlers

Gestionnaire à flux — StreamHandler

Gestionnaire à fichier — FileHandler

Gestionnaire à puits sans fond — NullHandler

Gestionnaire à fichier avec surveillance — WatchedFileHandler

Base des gestionnaires à roulement — BaseRotatingHandler

Gestionnaire à roulement de fichiers — RotatingFileHandler

Gestionnaire à roulement de fichiers périodique — TimedRotatingFileHandler

Gestionnaire à connecteur — SocketHandler

DatagramHandler

SysLogHandler

NTEventLogHandler

SMTPHandler

MemoryHandler

HTTPHandler

QueueHandler

QueueListener

platform --- Access to underlying platform's identifying data

Cross platform

Java platform

Windows platform

macOS platform

iOS platform

Unix platforms

Linux platforms

Android platform

Command-line usage

errno --- Standard errno system symbols

ctypes --- A foreign function library for Python

Didacticiel de ctypes

Chargement des DLL

Accès aux fonctions des DLL chargées

Appel de fonctions

Types de données de base

Appel de fonctions, suite

Calling variadic functions

Appel de fonctions avec des types de données personnalisés

Définition du type des arguments nécessaires (prototypes de fonction)

Types de sortie

Passage de pointeurs (passage de paramètres par référence)

Structures et unions

Structure/union layout, alignment and byte order

Champs de bits dans les structures et les unions

Tableaux

Pointeurs

Thread safety without the GIL

Conversions de type

Types incomplets

Fonctions de rappel

Accès aux variables exportées depuis une DLL

Pièges

Types de données à taille flottante

Référence du module

Recherche de bibliothèques partagées

Listing loaded shared libraries

Chargement des bibliothèques partagées

Fonctions externes

Prototypes de fonction

Fonctions utilitaires

Types de données

Types de données de base

Types de données dérivés de Structure

Tableaux et pointeurs

Exceptions

Command-line interface libraries

argparse --- Parser for command-line options, arguments and subcommands

Objets ArgumentParser

Le paramètre prog

Le paramètre usage

Le paramètre description

Le paramètre epilog

Le paramètre parents

Le paramètre formatter_class

Le paramètre prefix_chars

Le paramètre fromfile_prefix_chars

Le paramètre argument_default

Le paramètre allow_abbrev

Le paramètre conflict_handler

Le paramètre add_help

Le paramètre exit_on_error

suggest_on_error

color

La méthode add_argument()

Le paramètre name_or_flags

Le paramètre action

Le paramètre nargs

Le paramètre const

Le paramètre default

Le paramètre type

Le paramètre choices

Le paramètre required

Le paramètre help

Le paramètre metavar

Le paramètre dest

deprecated

Classes Action

La méthode parse_args()

Syntaxe de la valeur des options

Arguments invalides

Arguments contenant -

Arguments abrégés (par comparaison de leurs préfixes)

Au-delà de sys.argv

L'objet Namespace

Autres outils

Subcommands

Objets FileType

Groupes d'arguments

Exclusion mutuelle

Valeurs par défaut de l'analyseur

Afficher l'aide

Analyse partielle

Personnaliser le parsing de fichiers

Méthodes d'interruptions

Analyse entremêlée

Registering custom types or actions

Exceptions

Tutoriel argparse

Concepts

Les bases

Introduction aux arguments positionnels

Introduction aux arguments optionnels

Les paramètres raccourcis

Combinaison d'arguments positionnels et optionnels

Aller un peu plus loin

Specifying ambiguous arguments

Paramètres en conflit

How to translate the argparse output

Custom type converters

Conclusion

Migrating optparse code to argparse

optparse --- Parser for command line options

Choosing an argument parsing library

Introduction

Background

Terminology

What are options for?

What are positional arguments for?

Tutoriel

Understanding option actions

The store action

Handling boolean (flag) options

Other actions

Valeurs par défaut

Generating help

Grouping Options

Printing a version string

How optparse handles errors

Putting it all together

Reference Guide

Creating the parser

Populating the parser

Defining options

Option attributes

Standard option actions

Standard option types

Analyse des arguments

Querying and manipulating your option parser

Conflicts between options

Nettoyage

Other methods

Option Callbacks

Defining a callback option

How callbacks are called

Raising errors in a callback

Callback example 1: trivial callback

Callback example 2: check option order

Callback example 3: check option order (generalized)

Callback example 4: check arbitrary condition

Callback example 5: fixed arguments

Callback example 6: variable arguments

Extending optparse

Adding new types

Adding new actions

Exceptions

getpass --- Portable password input

fileinput --- Iterate over lines from multiple input streams

curses --- Terminal handling for character-cell displays

Fonctions

Window Objects

Constantes

curses.textpad --- Text input widget for curses programs

Textbox objects

curses.ascii — Utilitaires pour les caractères ASCII

curses.panel --- A panel stack extension for curses

Fonctions

Panel Objects

cmd --- Support for line-oriented command interpreters

Objets Cmd

Exemple

Exécution concourante

threading --- Thread-based parallelism

Introduction

GIL and performance considerations

Référence

Thread-local data

Thread objects

Lock objects

RLock objects

Condition objects

Semaphore objects

Semaphore example

Event objects

Timer objects

Barrier objects

Using locks, conditions, and semaphores in the with statement

multiprocessing --- Process-based parallelism

Introduction

La classe Process

Contextes et méthodes de démarrage

Échange d'objets entre les processus

Synchronisation entre processus

Partager un état entre les processus

Utiliser un pool de workers

Référence

Global start method

Process et exceptions

Tubes (pipes) et files (queues)

Divers

Objets de connexions

Primitives de synchronisation

Objets ctypes partagés

The multiprocessing.sharedctypes module

Gestionnaires

Gestionnaires personnalisés

Utiliser un gestionnaire distant

Objets mandataires

Nettoyage

Pools de processus

Auditeurs et Clients

Formats d'adresses

Clés d'authentification

Journalisation

The multiprocessing.dummy module

Lignes directrices de programmation

Toutes les méthodes de démarrage

Les méthodes de démarrage spawn et forkserver

Exemples

multiprocessing.shared_memory --- Shared memory for direct access across processes

The concurrent package

concurrent.futures --- Launching parallel tasks

Executor Objects

ThreadPoolExecutor

ThreadPoolExecutor Example

InterpreterPoolExecutor

ProcessPoolExecutor

ProcessPoolExecutor Example

Future Objects

Module Functions

Exception classes

concurrent.interpreters --- Multiple interpreters in the same process

Key details

Introduction

Multiple Interpreters and Isolation

Running in an Interpreter

Concurrency and Parallelism

Communication Between Interpreters

"Sharing" Objects

Référence

Interpreter objects

Exceptions

Communicating Between Interpreters

Utilisation de base

subprocess --- Subprocess management

Using the subprocess Module

Arguments fréquemment utilisés

Constructeur de Popen

Exceptions

Considérations de sécurité

Objets Popen

Utilitaires Popen pour Windows

Constantes Windows

Ancienne interface (API) haut-niveau

Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module

Remplacement de la substitution de commandes de terminal /bin/sh

Remplacer les pipes du shell

Remplacer os.system()

Remplacer les fonctions de la famille os.spawn

Replacing os.popen()

Remplacement des fonctions originales d'invocation du shell

Notes

Timeout Behavior

Convertir une séquence d'arguments vers une chaîne de caractères sous Windows

Disable use of posix_spawn()

sched --- Event scheduler

Scheduler Objects

queue --- A synchronized queue class

Objets Queue

Waiting for task completion

Terminating queues

Objets SimpleQueue

contextvars --- Context Variables

Variables de contexte

Gestion de contexte manuelle

Gestion avec asyncio

_thread --- Low-level threading API

Réseau et communication entre processus

asyncio --- Asynchronous I/O

Exécuteurs (runners)

Exécution d'un programme asynchrone

Gestionnaire de contexte de l'exécuteur

Gestion de l'interruption par le clavier

Coroutines and tasks

Coroutines

Attendables

Creating tasks

Task cancellation

Task groups

Terminating a task group

Attente

Running tasks concurrently

Eager task factory

Shielding from cancellation

Délais d'attente

Waiting primitives

Running in threads

Scheduling from other threads

Introspection

Task object

Flux (streams)

Flux lecteurs (StreamReader)

Flux écrivains (StreamWriter)

Exemples

Client d'écho TCP utilisant des flux

Serveur d'écho TCP utilisant des flux

Récupération des en-têtes HTTP

Ouverture d'un connecteur pour attendre les données à l'aide de flux

Primitives de synchronisation

Verrou (lock)

Événement (Event)

Condition

Sémaphore

Sémaphore capé (BoundedSemaphore)

Barrière (Barrier)

Sous-processus

Créer des sous-processus

Constantes

Interagir avec les sous-processus

Sous-processus et fils d'exécution

Exemples

Files d'attente (queues)

File d'attente (queue)

File avec priorité

Pile (LIFO)

Exceptions

Exemples

Exceptions

Call Graph Introspection

Low level utility functions

Event loop

Event loop methods

Démarrer et arrêter une boucle d'évènements

Planification des fonctions de rappel

Planification des rappels différés

Creating futures and tasks

Création de connexions

Création de serveurs

Transfert de fichiers

TLS upgrade

Surveillance de descripteur de fichier

Travail direct avec des objets socket

DNS

Travail avec des tubes (pipes)

Signaux Unix

Exécution de code dans des pools de threads ou de processus

Error handling API

Activation du mode débogage

Running subprocesses

Callback handles

Server objects

Event loop implementations

Exemples

"Hello World" avec call_soon()

Affichage de la date actuelle avec call_later()

Surveillance des événements de lecture pour un descripteur de fichier

Gestion des signaux SIGINT et SIGTERM

Futures

Fonctions pour Future

Objet Future

Transports et Protocoles

Transports

Hiérarchie des transports

Classe de base des Transports

Transports en lecture seule

Transports en lecture-écriture

Transports par datagrammes

Transports entre sous-processus

Protocoles

Protocoles de base

Protocoles de base

Protocoles connectés

Protocoles connectés avec tampon

Protocoles par datagrammes (non connectés)

Protocoles liés aux sous-processus

Exemples

Serveur écho en TCP

Client écho en TCP

Serveur écho en UDP

Client écho en UDP

Connexion de connecteurs existants

loop.subprocess_exec() et SubprocessProtocol

Politiques

Obtenir et définir la politique

Objets politiques

Politiques personnalisées

Prise en charge de la plate-forme

Toutes plateformes

Windows

Prise en charge des sous-processus sous Windows

macOS

Extension

Écriture d'une boucle d'événements personnalisée

Constructeurs privés Future et Task

Prise en charge de la durée de vie des tâches

Index de l'API de haut niveau

Tâches

Files d'attente

Sous-processus

Flux (streams)

Synchronisation

Exceptions

Index de l'API de bas niveau

Obtenir une boucle d'évènements

Méthodes de la boucle d'évènements

Transports

Protocoles

Politiques de boucle d'événements

Programmer avec asyncio

Mode débogage

Programmation concurrente et multi-fils

Exécution de code bloquant

Journalisation

Détection des coroutines jamais attendues

Détection des exceptions jamais récupérées

Asynchronous generators best practices

Close asynchronous generators explicitly

Create asynchronous generators only when the event loop is running

Avoid concurrent iteration and closure of the same generator

socket --- Low-level networking interface

Socket families

Module contents

Exceptions

Constantes

Fonctions

Creating sockets

Autres fonctions

Socket Objects

Notes on socket timeouts

Timeouts and the connect method

Timeouts and the accept method

Exemple

ssl --- TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

Functions, constants, and exceptions

Création de connecteurs

Création de contexte

Exceptions

Random generation

Certificate handling

Constantes

SSL sockets

SSL contexts

Certificates

Certificate chains

CA certificates

Combined key and certificate

Self-signed certificates

Exemples

Testing for SSL support

Client-side operation

Server-side operation

Notes on non-blocking sockets

Memory BIO support

SSL session

Security considerations

Best defaults

Manual settings

Verifying certificates

Protocol versions

Cipher selection

Multi-processing

TLS 1.3

select --- Waiting for I/O completion

/dev/poll Polling Objects

Edge and Level Trigger Polling (epoll) Objects

Polling Objects

Kqueue Objects

Kevent Objects

selectors --- High-level I/O multiplexing

Introduction

Classes

Exemples

signal --- Set handlers for asynchronous events

General rules

Execution of Python signal handlers

Signals and threads

Module contents

Examples

Note on SIGPIPE

Note on Signal Handlers and Exceptions

mmap --- Memory-mapped file support

MADV_* Constants

MAP_* Constants

Traitement des données provenant d'Internet

email --- An email and MIME handling package

email.message: Representing an email message

email.parser: Parsing email messages

API FeedParser

API de Parser

Notes complémentaires

email.generator: Generating MIME documents

email.policy: Policy Objects

email.errors: Exception and Defect classes

email.headerregistry: Custom Header Objects

email.contentmanager: Managing MIME Content

Instances de gestionnaires de contenus

email: Exemples

email.message.Message : représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32

email.mime: Creating email and MIME objects from scratch

email.header: Internationalized headers

email.charset: Representing character sets

email.encoders: Encoders

email.utils: Miscellaneous utilities

email.iterators: Iterators

json --- JSON encoder and decoder

Utilisation de base

Encodeurs et décodeurs

Exceptions

Conformité au standard et Interopérabilité

Encodage des caractères

Valeurs numériques infinies et NaN

Noms répétés au sein d'un objet

Valeurs de plus haut niveau (hors objets ou tableaux)

Limitations de l'implémentation

Command-line interface

Command-line options

mailbox --- Manipulate mailboxes in various formats

Objets Mailbox

Objets Maildir

Objets mbox

Objets MH

Objets Babyl

Objets MMDF

Objets Message

MaildirMessage objects

mboxMessage objects

MHMessage objects

BabylMessage objects

MMDFMessage objects

Exceptions

Exemples

mimetypes --- Map filenames to MIME types

MimeTypes objects

Command-line usage

Command-line example

base64 --- Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 Data Encodings

RFC 4648 Encodings

Base85 Encodings

Legacy Interface

Considérations de sécurité

binascii --- Convert between binary and ASCII

quopri --- Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data

Outils de traitement de balises structurées

html --- HyperText Markup Language support

html.parser --- Simple HTML and XHTML parser

Exemple d'application de l'analyseur HTML

Méthodes de la classe HTMLParser

Exemples

html.entities --- Definitions of HTML general entities

Modules de traitement XML

XML security

xml.etree.ElementTree --- The ElementTree XML API

Tutoriel

Arborescence et éléments XML

Analyse XML

API à flux tiré

Atteinte d'éléments d'intérêt

Modification d'un fichier XML

Création de documents XML

Analyse d'un XML avec des espaces de noms

Prise en charge de XPath

Exemple

Prise en charge de la syntaxe XPath

Référence

Fonctions

Prise en charge de XInclude

Exemple

Référence

Fonctions

Objets Element

Objets ElementTree

Objets QName

Objets TreeBuilder

Objets XMLParser

Objets XMLPullParser

Exceptions

xml.dom --- The Document Object Model API

Contenu du module

Objets dans le DOM

Objets DOMImplementation

Objets nœuds

Objet NodeList

Objets DocumnentType

Objets Document

Objets Elements

Objets Attr

Objets NameNodeMap

Objets Comment

Objets Text et CDATASection

Objets ProcessingInstruction

Exceptions

Conformité

Correspondance des types

Méthodes d'accès

xml.dom.minidom --- Minimal DOM implementation

Objets DOM

Exemple DOM

minidom et le standard DOM

xml.dom.pulldom --- Support for building partial DOM trees

Objets DOMEventStream

xml.sax --- Support for SAX2 parsers

Les objets SAXException

xml.sax.handler --- Base classes for SAX handlers

Objets ContentHandler

Objets DTDHandler

Objets EntityResolver

Objets ErrorHandler

Objets LexicalHandler

xml.sax.saxutils --- SAX Utilities

xml.sax.xmlreader — Interface pour les parseurs XML

Objets XMLReader

Objets IncrementalParser

Objets de localisation

Objets InputSource

L'interface Attributes

L'interface AttributesNS

xml.parsers.expat — Analyse XML rapide utilisant Expat

Objets XMLParser

Exceptions ExpatError

Exemple

Descriptions des modèles de contenu

Constantes d’erreur Expat

Gestion des protocoles internet

webbrowser --- Convenient web-browser controller

Command-line interface

Browser controller objects

wsgiref --- WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation

wsgiref.util -- WSGI environment utilities

wsgiref.headers -- WSGI response header tools

wsgiref.simple_server -- a simple WSGI HTTP server

wsgiref.validate --- WSGI conformance checker

wsgiref.handlers -- server/gateway base classes

wsgiref.types -- WSGI types for static type checking

Exemples

urllib --- URL handling modules

urllib.request --- Extensible library for opening URLs

Request Objects

OpenerDirector Objects

BaseHandler Objects

HTTPRedirectHandler Objects

HTTPCookieProcessor Objects

ProxyHandler Objects

HTTPPasswordMgr Objects

HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects

AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects

HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects

ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects

AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects

HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects

ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects

HTTPHandler Objects

HTTPSHandler Objects

FileHandler Objects

DataHandler Objects

FTPHandler Objects

CacheFTPHandler Objects

UnknownHandler Objects

HTTPErrorProcessor Objects

Exemples

Legacy interface

urllib.request Restrictions

urllib.response --- Response classes used by urllib

urllib.parse --- Parse URLs into components

URL Parsing

URL parsing security

Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes

Structured Parse Results

URL Quoting

urllib.error --- Exception classes raised by urllib.request

urllib.robotparser --- Parser for robots.txt

http --- HTTP modules

Codes d'état HTTP

HTTP status category

HTTP methods

http.client --- HTTP protocol client

Les objets HTTPConnection

Les objets HTTPResponse

Exemples

Les objets HTTPMessage

ftplib --- FTP protocol client

Référence

FTP objects

FTP_TLS objects

Module variables

poplib --- POP3 protocol client

POP3 Objects

POP3 Example

imaplib --- IMAP4 protocol client

IMAP4 Objects

IMAP4 Example

smtplib --- SMTP protocol client

SMTP Objects

SMTP Example

uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 9562

Utilisation en ligne de commande.

Exemple

Command-Line Example

socketserver --- A framework for network servers

Notes sur la création de serveurs

Objets serveur

Objets gestionnaire de requêtes

Exemples

Exemple pour socketserver.TCPServer

Exemple pour socketserver.UDPServer

Classes de mélange asynchrone

http.server --- HTTP servers

Command-line interface

Security considerations

http.cookies --- HTTP state management

Objets Cookie

Objets Morsel

Exemple

http.cookiejar --- Cookie handling for HTTP clients

CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects

FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers

CookiePolicy Objects

DefaultCookiePolicy Objects

Objets Cookie

Exemples

xmlrpc --- XMLRPC server and client modules

xmlrpc.client — Client XML-RPC

Objets ServerProxy

Objets DateTime

Objets binaires

Objets Fault

Objets ProtocolError

Objets MultiCall

Fonctions utilitaires

Exemple d'utilisation du client

Exemple d'utilisation du client et du serveur

xmlrpc.server — Serveurs XML-RPC de base

SimpleXMLRPCServer objects

SimpleXMLRPCServer example

CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler

Documentation du serveur XMLRPC

DocXMLRPCServer objects

DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler

ipaddress --- IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library

Fonctions fabriques pratiques

Adresses IP

Objets adresse

Conversion vers les chaînes et les entiers

Opérateurs

Opérateurs de comparaison

Opérateurs arithmétiques

Définitions de réseaux IP

Préfixe, masque réseau et masque de l'hôte

Objets réseau

Opérateurs

Opérateurs logiques

Itération

Réseaux en tant que conteneurs d'adresses

Objets interface

Opérateurs

Opérateurs logiques

Autres fonctions au niveau de module

Exceptions personnalisées

Services multimédia

wave --- Read and write WAV files

Objets Wave_read

Objets Wave_write

colorsys --- Conversions between color systems

Internationalisation

gettext --- Multilingual internationalization services

API GNU gettext

API basée sur les classes

La classe NullTranslations

La classe GNUTranslations

Support du catalogue de message de Solaris

Le constructeur Catalog

Internationaliser vos programmes et modules

Localiser votre module

Localiser votre application

Changer de langue à la volée

Traductions différées

Remerciements

locale --- Internationalization services

Contexte, détails, conseils, astuces et mises en garde

Locale names

Pour les auteurs d'extensions et les programmes qui intègrent Python

Accéder aux catalogues de messages

Graphical user interfaces with Tk

tkinter --- Python interface to Tcl/Tk

Architecture

Modules Tkinter

Guide de survie Tkinter

Un simple programme Hello World

Concepts importants de Tk

Comprendre comment Tkinter enveloppe Tcl/Tk

Comment puis-je… ? Quelle option… ?

Navigation dans le manuel de référence Tcl/Tk

Fils d'exécution multiples

Guide pratique

Définition des options

L'empaqueteur

Options de l'empaqueteur

Association des variables de l'objet graphique

Le gestionnaire de fenêtres

Types de données des options Tk

Liaisons et événements

Le paramètre index

Images

Gestionnaires de fichiers

tkinter.colorchooser --- Color choosing dialog

tkinter.font --- Tkinter font wrapper

Boîtes de dialogue Tkinter

tkinter.simpledialog --- Standard Tkinter input dialogs

tkinter.filedialog --- File selection dialogs

Boîtes de dialogue de chargement et sauvegarde natives

tkinter.commondialog --- Dialog window templates

tkinter.messagebox --- Tkinter message prompts

tkinter.scrolledtext --- Scrolled Text Widget

tkinter.dnd --- Drag and drop support

tkinter.ttk --- Tk themed widgets

Utilisation de Ttk

Widgets Ttk

Widget

Options standards

Options de widget avec barre de défilement

Options d'étiquette (label)

Options de compatibilité

États des widgets

ttk.Widget

Combobox

Options

Événements virtuels

ttk.Combobox

Spinbox

Options

Événements virtuels

ttk.Spinbox

Carnet de notes (notebook)

Options

Options d'onglet

Identifiants d'onglet

Événements virtuels

ttk.Notebook

Barre de progression

Options

ttk.Progressbar

Séparateur

Options

Poignée de redimensionnement

Notes spécifiques à une plateforme

Bogues

Arborescence

Options

Options d'éléments

Options de balise

Identifiants de colonnes

Événements virtuels

ttk.Treeview

Style Ttk

Dispositions de mise en page

IDLE --- Python editor and shell

Menus

Menu File (Console et Éditeur)

Menu Edit (console et éditeur)

Menu Format (fenêtre d'édition uniquement)

Menu Run (fenêtre d'édition uniquement)

Menu Shell (fenêtre de console uniquement)

Menu Debug (fenêtre de console uniquement)

Menu Options (console et éditeur)

Menu Windows (console et éditeur)

Menu Help (console et éditeur)

Context menus

Editing and Navigation

Fenêtre d'édition

Raccourcis clavier

Indentation automatique

Recherche et substitution

Complétions

Info-bulles

Format block

Contexte du code

Shell window

Coloration du texte

Startup and Code Execution

Command-line usage

Échec au démarrage

Exécuter le code de l'utilisateur

Sortie de l'utilisateur sur la console

Développer des applications tkinter

Exécution sans sous-processus

Help and Preferences

Sources d'aide

Modifier les préférences

IDLE sous macOS

Extensions

idlelib --- implementation of IDLE application

turtle --- Turtle graphics

Introduction

Get started

Tutoriel

Starting a turtle environment

Basic drawing

Réglage des stylos

The turtle's position

Making algorithmic patterns

How to...

Get started as quickly as possible

Automatically begin and end filling

Use the turtle module namespace

Use turtle graphics in a script

Use object-oriented turtle graphics

Turtle graphics reference

Les méthodes du module Turtle

Méthodes de TurtleScreen/Screen

Méthodes de RawTurtle/Turtle et leurs fonctions correspondantes

Les mouvements dans le module Turtle

Connaître l'état de la tortue

Paramètres de mesure

Réglage des stylos

État des stylos

Réglage des couleurs

Remplissage

Plus des réglages pour le dessin

État de la tortue

Visibilité

Apparence

Utilisation des événements

Méthodes spéciales de la tortue

Formes composées

Méthodes de TurtleScreen/Screen et leurs fonctions correspondantes

Réglage de la fenêtre

Réglage de l'animation

Utilisation des événements concernant l'écran

Méthodes de saisie

Paramétrages et méthodes spéciales

Méthodes spécifiques à Screen, non héritées de TurtleScreen

Classes publiques

Explication

Aide et configuration

Utilisation de l'aide

Traduction de chaînes de documents en différentes langues

Comment configurer Screen et Turtle

turtledemo --- Demo scripts

Modifications depuis Python 2.6

Modifications depuis Python 3.0

Outils de développement

typing --- Support for type hints

Specification for the Python Type System

Alias de type

NewType

Annotating callable objects

Génériques

Annotating tuples

The type of class objects

Annotating generators and coroutines

Types génériques définis par l'utilisateur

Le type Any

Sous-typage nominal et sous-typage structurel

Classe de données

Special typing primitives

Special types

Special forms

Building generic types and type aliases

Other special directives

Protocoles

ABCs and Protocols for working with I/O

Functions and decorators

Utilitaires d'introspection

Constante

Deprecated aliases

Aliases to built-in types

Aliases to types in collections

Aliases to other concrete types

Aliases to container ABCs in collections.abc

Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections.abc

Aliases to other ABCs in collections.abc

Aliases to contextlib ABCs

Étapes d'Obsolescence des Fonctionnalités Majeures

pydoc --- Documentation generator and online help system

Python Development Mode

Effects of the Python Development Mode

ResourceWarning Example

Bad file descriptor error example

doctest — Exemples de tests interactifs en Python

Utilisation simple : vérifier des exemples dans des docstrings

Utilisation simple : vérifier des exemples dans un fichier texte

Command-line Usage

Comment ça marche

Quelles docstrings sont considérées ?

Comment les exemples docstring sont-ils identifiés ?

Quel est le contexte d'exécution ?

Qu'en est-il des exceptions ?

Options de ligne de commande

Instructions

Avertissements

API de base

API de tests unitaires

API avancé

Objets doctest

Exemples d'objets

Objets DocTestFinder

Objets DocTestParser

Objets TestResults

Objets DocTestRunner

Objets OutputChecker

Débogage

Éditorial

unittest --- Unit testing framework

Exemple basique

Interface en ligne de commande

Options de la ligne de commande

Découverte des tests

Organiser le code de test

Réutilisation d'ancien code de test

Ignorer des tests et des erreurs prévisibles

Distinguer les itérations de test à l'aide de sous-tests

Classes et fonctions

Scénarios de tests

Regroupement des tests

Chargement et exécution des tests

Protocole de chargement des tests (load_tests Protocol)

Classes et modules d'aménagements des tests

Classes de mise en place (setUpClass) et de démantèlement des tests (tearDownClass)

Module de mise en place (setUpModule) et de démantèlement des tests (tearDownModule)

Traitement des signaux

unittest.mock --- mock object library

Guide rapide

La classe Mock

Calling

Deleting Attributes

Mock names and the name attribute

Attaching Mocks as Attributes

The patchers

patch

patch.object

patch.dict

patch.multiple

patch methods: start and stop

patch builtins

TEST_PREFIX

Nesting Patch Decorators

Where to patch

Patching Descriptors and Proxy Objects

MagicMock and magic method support

Mocking Magic Methods

Magic Mock

Helpers

sentinel

DEFAULT

appel

create_autospec

ANY

FILTER_DIR

mock_open

Autospeccing

Sealing mocks

Order of precedence of side_effect, return_value and wraps

unittest.mock --- getting started

Utilisation de Mock ou l'art de singer

Mock patching methods

Mock for method calls on an object

Mocking classes

Naming your mocks

Tracking all calls

Setting return values and attributes

Raising exceptions with mocks

Side effect functions and iterables

Mocking asynchronous iterators

Mocking asynchronous context manager

Creating a mock from an existing object

Using side_effect to return per file content

Patch decorators

Further examples

Mocking chained calls

Partial mocking

Mocking a generator method

Applying the same patch to every test method

Mocking unbound methods

Checking multiple calls with mock

Coping with mutable arguments

Nesting patches

Mocking a dictionary with MagicMock

Mock subclasses and their attributes

Mocking imports with patch.dict

Tracking order of calls and less verbose call assertions

More complex argument matching

test --- Regression tests package for Python

Writing Unit Tests for the test package

Running tests using the command-line interface

test.support --- Utilities for the Python test suite

test.support.socket_helper --- Utilities for socket tests

test.support.script_helper --- Utilities for the Python execution tests

test.support.bytecode_helper --- Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation

test.support.threading_helper --- Utilities for threading tests

test.support.os_helper --- Utilities for os tests

test.support.import_helper --- Utilities for import tests

test.support.warnings_helper --- Utilities for warnings tests

Débogueur et instrumentation

Table des évènements d'audit

bdb --- Debugger framework

faulthandler --- Dump the Python traceback

Dumping the traceback

Dumping the C stack

C Stack Compatibility

Fault handler state

Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout

Dumping the traceback on a user signal

Issue with file descriptors

Exemple

pdb --- The Python Debugger

Command-line interface

Debugger commands

The Python Profilers

Introduction to the profilers

Instant User's Manual

profile and cProfile Module Reference

The Stats Class

What Is Deterministic Profiling?

Limitations

Calibration

Using a custom timer

timeit --- Measure execution time of small code snippets

Exemples simples

Interface Python

Interface en ligne de commande

Exemples

trace --- Trace or track Python statement execution

Utilisation en ligne de commande.

Main options

Modifiers

Filters

Programmatic Interface

tracemalloc --- Trace memory allocations

Exemples

Display the top 10

Compute differences

Get the traceback of a memory block

Pretty top

Record the current and peak size of all traced memory blocks

API

Fonctions

DomainFilter

Filter

Frame

Snapshot

Statistic

StatisticDiff

Trace

Traceback

Paquets et distribution de paquets logiciels

ensurepip --- Bootstrapping the pip installer

Command-line interface

API du module

venv --- Creation of virtual environments

Création d'environnements virtuels

How venvs work

API

Un exemple d'extension de EnvBuilder

zipapp --- Manage executable Python zip archives

Exemple de base

Interface en ligne de commande

API Python

Exemples

Spécification de l'interprète

Création d'applications autonomes avec zipapp

Mises en garde

Le format d'archive d'application Zip Python

Environnement d'exécution Python

sys --- System-specific parameters and functions

sys.monitoring --- Execution event monitoring

Tool identifiers

Registering and using tools

Events

Local events

Deprecated event

Ancillary events

Other events

The STOP_ITERATION event

Turning events on and off

Setting events globally

Per code object events

Disabling events

Registering callback functions

Callback function arguments

sysconfig --- Provide access to Python's configuration information

Configuration variables

Installation paths

User scheme

posix_user

nt_user

osx_framework_user

Home scheme

posix_home

Prefix scheme

posix_prefix

nt

Installation path functions

Autres fonctions

Command-line usage

builtins --- Built-in objects

__main__ --- Top-level code environment

__name__ == '__main__'

Qu'est-ce que l'« environnement d'exécution principal » ?

Utilisation idiomatique

Considérations liées à l'empaquetage

Le fichier __main__.py dans les paquets Python

Utilisation idiomatique

import __main__

warnings --- Warning control

Catégories d'avertissement

Le filtre des avertissements

Repeated Warning Suppression Criteria

Rédaction de filtres d'avertissement

Filtre d'avertissement par défaut

Outrepasser le filtre par défaut

Suppression temporaire des avertissements

Tester les avertissements

Mise à jour du code pour les nouvelles versions des dépendances

Fonctions disponibles

Gestionnaires de contexte disponibles

Concurrent safety of Context Managers

dataclasses — Classes de données

Classe de données

Post-initialisation

Variables de classe

Variables d'initialisation

Instances figées

Héritage

Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__()

Fabriques de valeurs par défaut

Valeurs par défaut mutables

Descriptor-typed fields

contextlib — Utilitaires pour les contextes s'appuyant sur l'instruction with

Utilitaires

Exemples et Recettes

Gérer un nombre variable de gestionnaires de contexte

Attraper des exceptions depuis les méthodes __enter__

Nettoyer dans une méthode __enter__

Remplacer un try-finally avec une option variable

Utiliser un gestionnaire de contexte en tant que décorateur de fonction

Gestionnaires de contexte à usage unique, réutilisables et réentrants

Gestionnaires de contexte réentrants

Gestionnaires de contexte réutilisables

abc --- Abstract Base Classes

atexit --- Exit handlers

atexit Example

traceback --- Print or retrieve a stack traceback

Fonctions de niveau module

TracebackException Objects

StackSummary Objects

FrameSummary Objects

Examples of Using the Module-Level Functions

Examples of Using TracebackException

__future__ --- Future statement definitions

Contenu du module

gc --- Garbage Collector interface

inspect --- Inspect live objects

Types et membres

Récupération du code source

Introspection des appelables avec l'objet Signature

Classes et fonctions

La pile d'interpréteur

Recherche dynamique d'attributs

Current State of Generators, Coroutines, and Asynchronous Generators

Bit d'option des objets code

Buffer flags

Command-line interface

annotationlib --- Functionality for introspecting annotations

Annotation semantics

Classes

Fonctions

Cas pratiques

Using annotations in a metaclass

Limitations of the STRING format

Limitations of the FORWARDREF format

Security implications of introspecting annotations

site --- Site-specific configuration hook

sitecustomize

usercustomize

Readline configuration

Module contents

Command-line interface

Interpréteurs Python personnalisés

code --- Interpreter base classes

Interactive Interpreter Objects

Interactive Console Objects

codeop --- Compile Python code

Importer des modules

zipimport --- Import modules from Zip archives

Objets zimporter

Exemples

pkgutil --- Package extension utility

modulefinder --- Find modules used by a script

Exemples d'utilisation de la classe ModuleFinder

runpy --- Locating and executing Python modules

importlib --- The implementation of import

Introduction

Fonctions

importlib.abc -- Abstract base classes related to import

importlib.machinery -- Importers and path hooks

importlib.util -- Utility code for importers

Exemples

Importing programmatically

Checking if a module can be imported

Importing a source file directly

Implementing lazy imports

Setting up an importer

Approximating importlib.import_module()

importlib.resources -- Package resource reading, opening and access

API par fonction

importlib.resources.abc -- Abstract base classes for resources

importlib.metadata -- Accessing package metadata

Aperçu

API par fonction

Entry points

Distribution metadata

Distribution versions

Distribution files

Distribution requirements

Mapping import to distribution packages

Distributions

Distribution Discovery

Implementing Custom Providers

Exemple

The initialization of the sys.path module search path

Virtual Environments

_pth files

Embedded Python

Services du Langage Python

ast --- Abstract syntax trees

Abstract grammar

Classes de nœuds

Root nodes

Littéraux

Variables

Expressions

Indiçage

Compréhensions

Instructions

Importations

Contrôle de l'exécution

Pattern matching

Type annotations

Type parameters

Définition de fonctions et de classes

async et await

ast helpers

Compiler flags

Command-line usage

symtable --- Access to the compiler's symbol tables

Generating Symbol Tables

Examining Symbol Tables

Utilisation en ligne de commande.

token --- Constants used with Python parse trees

keyword --- Testing for Python keywords

tokenize --- Tokenizer for Python source

Analyse Lexicale

Utilisation en ligne de commande.

Exemples

tabnanny --- Detection of ambiguous indentation

pyclbr --- Python module browser support

Objets fonctions

Objets classes

py_compile --- Compile Python source files

Interface en ligne de commande

compileall --- Byte-compile Python libraries

Utilisation en ligne de commande

Fonctions publiques

dis --- Disassembler for Python bytecode

Command-line interface

Analyse du code intermédiaire

Analyse de fonctions

Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python

Opcode collections

pickletools --- Tools for pickle developers

Command-line usage

Command-line options

Programmatic interface

Services spécifiques à MS Windows

msvcrt --- Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime

Opérations sur les fichiers

Entrées-sorties sur un terminal

Autres fonctions

winreg --- Windows registry access

Fonctions

Constantes

HKEY_* Constants

Access Rights

64-bit Specific

Value Types

Registry Handle Objects

winsound --- Sound-playing interface for Windows

Unix-specific services

shlex --- Simple lexical analysis

shlex Objects

Parsing Rules

Improved Compatibility with Shells

posix --- The most common POSIX system calls

Prise en charge de gros fichiers

Contenu du Module

pwd --- The password database

grp --- The group database

termios --- POSIX style tty control

Exemple

tty --- Terminal control functions

pty --- Pseudo-terminal utilities

Exemple

fcntl --- The fcntl and ioctl system calls

resource --- Resource usage information

Resource Limits

Resource Usage

syslog --- Unix syslog library routines

Exemples

Exemple simple

Modules command-line interface (CLI)

Modules remplacés

getopt --- C-style parser for command line options

Removed Modules

Considérations de sécurité

Extension et intégration de l'interpréteur Python

Les outils tiers recommandés

Création d'extensions sans outils tiers

1. Étendre Python en C ou C++

1.1. Un exemple simple

1.2. Intermezzo : les erreurs et les exceptions

1.3. Retour vers l'exemple

1.4. La fonction d'initialisation et le tableau des méthodes du module

1.5. Compilation et liaison

1.6. Appeler des fonctions Python en C

1.7. Extraire des paramètres dans des fonctions d'extension

1.8. Paramètres nommés pour des fonctions d'extension

1.9. Créer des valeurs arbitraires

1.10. Compteurs de références

1.10.1. Comptage de références en Python

1.10.2. Règles concernant la possession de références

1.10.3. Terrain dangereux

1.10.4. Pointeurs NULL

1.11. Écrire des extensions en C++

1.12. Fournir une API en langage C pour un module d'extension

2. Tutoriel : définir des types dans des extensions

2.1. Les bases

2.2. ajout de données et de méthodes à l'exemple basique

2.3. Contrôle précis sur les attributs de données

2.4. Prise en charge du ramasse-miettes cyclique

2.5. Sous-classement d'autres types

3. Définir les types d'extension : divers sujets

3.1. Finalisation et libération de mémoire

3.2. Présentation de l'objet

3.3. Gestion des attributs

3.3.1. Gestion des attributs génériques

3.3.2. Gestion des attributs de type spécifiques

3.4. Comparaison des objets

3.5. Gestion de protocoles abstraits

3.6. Prise en charge de la référence faible

3.7. Plus de suggestions

4. Construire des extensions C et C++

4.1. Building C and C++ Extensions with setuptools

5. Construire des extensions C et C++ sur Windows

5.1. Une approche "recette de cuisine"

5.2. Différences entre Unix et Windows

5.3. Utiliser les DLL en pratique

Intégrer l'interpréteur CPython dans une plus grande application

1. Intégrer Python dans une autre application

1.1. Intégration de très haut niveau

1.2. Au-delà de l'intégration de haut niveau : survol

1.3. Intégration pure

1.4. Étendre un Python intégré

1.5. Intégrer Python dans du C++

1.6. Compiler et Lier en environnement Unix ou similaire

Python/C API reference manual

Introduction

Language version compatibility

Coding standards

Include Files

Useful macros

Docstring macros

General utility macros

Numeric utilities

Assertion utilities

Type size utilities

Macro definition utilities

Declaration utilities

Outdated macros

Objects, Types and Reference Counts

Compteurs de références

Reference Count Details

Types

Exceptions

Embarquer Python

Debugging Builds

Les outils tiers recommandés

Stabilité de l’API C

Unstable C API

ABI stable

Limited C API

ABI stable

Porté de l’API restreinte et performance

Inconvénients de l’API restreinte

Considérations relatives aux plateformes

Contenu de l’API restreinte

The Very High Level Layer

Available start symbols

Stack Effects

Reference Counting

Gestion des exceptions

Printing and clearing

Lever des exceptions

Issuing warnings

Querying the error indicator

Traitement des signaux

Exception Classes

Objets exception

Objets exception Unicode

Contrôle de la récursion

Exception and warning types

Exception types

OSError aliases

Warning types

Tracebacks

Defining extension modules

Multiple module instances

Initialization function

Multi-phase initialization

Legacy single-phase initialization

Utilitaires

Operating System Utilities

System Functions

Process Control

Importer des modules

Data marshalling support

Analyse des arguments et construction des valeurs

Analyse des arguments

Chaînes et tampons

Les nombres

Autres objets

Fonction de l'API

Construction des valeurs

Conversion et formatage de chaînes

Character classification and conversion

PyHash API

Réflexion

Codec registry and support functions

Codec lookup API

Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers

Codec utility variables

PyTime C API

Types

Clock Functions

Raw Clock Functions

Conversion functions

Support for Perf Maps

Couche d'abstraction des objets

Protocole Objet

Call Protocol

The tp_call Protocol

The Vectorcall Protocol

Contrôle de la récursion

Vectorcall Support API

Object Calling API

Call Support API

Number Protocol

Sequence Protocol

Protocole de correspondance

Protocole d'itération

Protocole tampon

La structure buffer

Buffer request types

request-independent fields

readonly, format

shape, strides, suboffsets

contiguity requests

compound requests

Complex arrays

NumPy-style: shape and strides

PIL-style: shape, strides and suboffsets

Fonctions relatives aux tampons

Couche des objets concrets

Objets fondamentaux

Objets type

Creating Heap-Allocated Types

L'objet None

Objets numériques

Objets Integer

Export API

PyLongWriter API

Deprecated API

Les objets booléens

Floating-Point Objects

Pack and Unpack functions

Pack functions

Unpack functions

Objets représentant des nombres complexes

Nombres complexes en tant que structures C

Nombres complexes en tant qu'objets Python

Objets séquences

Objets bytes

Objets tableau d'octets

Macros de vérification de type

Fonctions directes sur l'API

Macros

Objets Unicode et Codecs

Objets Unicode

Type Unicode

Unicode Character Properties

Creating and accessing Unicode strings

Locale Encoding

File System Encoding

wchar_t Support

Built-in Codecs

Generic Codecs

UTF-8 Codecs

UTF-32 Codecs

UTF-16 Codecs

UTF-7 Codecs

Unicode-Escape Codecs

Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs

Latin-1 Codecs

ASCII Codecs

Character Map Codecs

MBCS codecs for Windows

Methods and Slot Functions

PyUnicodeWriter

Deprecated API

n-uplets

Objets structure-séquence

List Objects

Objets conteneurs

Objets dictionnaires

Dictionary View Objects

Ordered Dictionaries

Set Objects

Deprecated API

Objets fonctions

Objets fonction

Instance Method Objects

Objets méthode

Objets Cellules

Objets code

Code Object Flags

Extra information

Autres objets

Objets fichiers

Deprecated API

Module Objects

Module definitions

Module slots

Creating extension modules dynamically

Support functions

Module lookup (single-phase initialization)

Itérateurs

Range Objects

Builtin Iterator Types

Other Iterator Objects

Les descripteurs

Built-in descriptors

Slice Objects

Ellipsis Object

Objets de type MemoryView

Pickle buffer objects

Objets à références faibles

Capsules

Objets décrivant les frames

Frame Locals Proxies

Legacy Local Variable APIs

Internal Frames

Objets générateur

Asynchronous Generator Objects

Deprecated API

Objets coroutines

Context Variables Objects

Objects for Type Hinting

C API for extension modules

Curses C API

Internal data

Objets DateTime

Internal data

Interpreter initialization and finalization

Before Python initialization

Global configuration variables

Initializing and finalizing the interpreter

Cautions regarding runtime finalization

Process-wide parameters

Thread states and the global interpreter lock

Detaching the thread state from extension code

APIs

Non-Python created threads

Legacy API

Cautions about fork()

High-level APIs

GIL-state APIs

Low-level APIs

Asynchronous notifications

Operating system thread APIs

Synchronization primitives

Python critical section API

Legacy locking APIs

Thread-local storage support

Thread-specific storage API

Dynamic allocation

Methods

Legacy APIs

Multiple interpreters in a Python process

A per-interpreter GIL

Bugs and caveats

High-level APIs

Low-level APIs

Advanced debugger support

Profiling and tracing

Reference tracing

Python Initialization Configuration

PyInitConfig C API

Example

Create Config

Gestion des erreurs

Get Options

Set Options

Module

Initialize Python

Configuration Options

Runtime Python configuration API

PyConfig C API

Example

PyWideStringList

PyStatus

PyPreConfig

Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig

PyConfig

Initialization with PyConfig

Isolated Configuration

Python Configuration

Python Path Configuration

Py_GetArgcArgv()

Delaying main module execution

Memory Management

Aperçu

Allocator Domains

Raw Memory Interface

Memory Interface

Deprecated aliases

Object allocators

Default Memory Allocators

Customize Memory Allocators

Debug hooks on the Python memory allocators

The pymalloc allocator

Customize pymalloc Arena Allocator

The mimalloc allocator

tracemalloc C API

Exemples

Implémentation d'objets

Allouer des objets dans le tas

Deprecated aliases

Object Life Cycle

Life Events

Cyclic Isolate Destruction

Fonctions

Common Object Structures

Base object types and macros

Implementing functions and methods

Accessing attributes of extension types

Member flags

Member types

Defining Getters and Setters

Type Object Structures

Quick Reference

"tp slots"

sub-slots

slot typedefs

PyTypeObject Definition

PyObject Slots

PyVarObject Slots

PyTypeObject Slots

Static Types

Heap Types

Number Object Structures

Mapping Object Structures

Sequence Object Structures

Buffer Object Structures

Async Object Structures

Slot Type typedefs

Exemples

Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection

Controlling the Garbage Collector State

Querying Garbage Collector State

Version des API et ABI

Build-time version constants

Run-time version

Bit-packing macros

Monitoring C API

Generating Execution Events

Managing the Monitoring State

Installation de modules Python

Vocabulaire

Utilisation de base

Comment puis-je … ?

... Installer pip avec une version de Python antérieures à la 3.4 ?

... Installer des paquets juste pour l'utilisateur actuel ?

... Installer des paquets Python scientifiques ?

... Travailler avec plusieurs versions de Python installés en parallèle ?

Les problèmes d'installation typiques

Installer dans le Python du système sur Linux

Pip n'est pas installé

Installation d'extensions binaires

Les guides pratiques (Howto) de Python

Questions fréquemment posées sur Python

FAQ générale sur Python

Informations générales

Python c'est le monde réel

FAQ de programmation

General questions

Core language

Nombres et chaînes de caractères

Performances

Sequences (tuples/lists)

Objets

Modules

FAQ sur l'histoire et la conception

Pourquoi Python utilise-t-il l'indentation pour grouper les instructions ?

Pourquoi ai-je d'étranges résultats suite à de simples opérations arithmétiques ?

Pourquoi les calculs à virgules flottantes sont si imprécis ?

Pourquoi les chaînes de caractères Python sont-elles immuables ?

Pourquoi self doit-il être explicitement utilisé dans les définitions et les appels de méthodes ?

Pourquoi ne puis-je pas utiliser d'assignation dans une expression ?

Pourquoi Python utilise des méthodes pour certaines fonctionnalités (ex : list.index()) mais des fonctions pour d'autres (ex : len(list)) ?

Pourquoi join() est une méthode de chaîne plutôt qu'une méthode de liste ou de n-uplet ?

À quel point les exceptions sont-elles rapides ?

Pourquoi n'y a-t-il pas une instruction switch ou une structure similaire à switch / case en Python ?

Est-il possible d'émuler des fils d'exécution dans l'interpréteur plutôt que se baser sur les implémentations spécifiques aux systèmes d'exploitation ?

Pourquoi les expressions lambda ne peuvent pas contenir d'instructions ?

Python peut-il être compilé en code machine, en C ou dans un autre langage ?

Comment Python gère la mémoire ?

Pourquoi CPython n'utilise-t-il pas un modèle de ramasse-miettes plus traditionnel ?

Pourquoi toute la mémoire n'est pas libérée lorsque CPython s'arrête ?

Pourquoi les n-uplets et les list sont deux types de données séparés ?

Comment les listes sont-elles implémentées dans CPython ?

Comment les dictionnaires sont-ils implémentés dans CPython ?

Pourquoi les clés du dictionnaire sont immuables ?

Pourquoi list.sort() ne renvoie pas la liste triée ?

Comment spécifier une interface et appliquer une spécification d’interface en Python ?

Pourquoi n'y a-t-il pas de goto en Python ?

Pourquoi les chaînes de caractères brutes (r-strings) ne peuvent-elles pas se terminer par un backslash ?

Pourquoi la déclaration with pour les assignations d'attributs n'existe pas en Python ?

Pourquoi l'instruction with ne prend-elle pas en charge les générateurs ?

Pourquoi les deux-points sont-ils nécessaires pour les déclarations if/while/def/class ?

Pourquoi Python permet-il les virgules à la fin des listes et des n-uplets ?

FAQ sur la bibliothèque et les extensions

Questions générales sur la bibliothèque

Tâches fréquentes

Fils d'exécution

Les entrées/sorties

Programmation réseau et Internet

Bases de données

Mathématiques et calcul numérique

FAQ extension/intégration

Puis-je créer mes propres fonctions en C ?

Puis-je créer mes propres fonctions en C++ ?

Écrire directement en C est difficile ; existe-t-il des alternatives ?

Comment puis-je exécuter des instructions quelconques Python à partir de C ?

Comment puis-je évaluer une expression quelconque de Python à partir de C ?

Comment puis-je extraire des donnés en C d'un objet Python ?

Comment utiliser Py_BuildValue() pour créer un n-uplet de longueur définie ?

Comment puis-je appeler la méthode d'un objet à partir de C ?

Comment puis-je récupérer la sortie de PyErr_Print() (ou tout ce qui s'affiche sur stdout/stderr) ?

Comment accéder à un module écrit en Python à partir de C ?

Comment s'interfacer avec les objets C++ depuis Python ?

J'ai ajouté un module en utilisant le fichier Setup et la compilation échoue ; pourquoi ?

Comment déboguer une extension ?

Je veux compiler un module Python sur mon système Linux, mais il manque certains fichiers. Pourquoi ?

Comment distinguer une « entrée incomplète » (incomplete input) d'une « entrée invalide » (invalid input) ?

Comment puis-je trouver les symboles g++ indéfinis __builtin_new ou __pure_virtual ?

Puis-je créer une classe d'objets avec certaines méthodes implémentées en C et d'autres en Python (p. ex. en utilisant l'héritage) ?

FAQ : Python et Windows

Comment exécuter un programme Python sous Windows ?

Comment rendre des scripts Python exécutables ?

Pourquoi Python met-il du temps à démarrer ?

Comment construire un exécutable depuis un script Python ?

Est-ce qu'un fichier *.pyd est la même chose qu'une DLL ?

Comment puis-je intégrer Python dans une application Windows ?

Comment empêcher mon éditeur d'utiliser des tabulations dans mes fichiers Python ?

Comment puis-je vérifier de manière non bloquante qu'une touche a été pressée ?

Comment résoudre l'erreur « api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0.dll manquante » ?

FAQ interface graphique

Questions générales sur l'interface graphique

Quelles boîtes à outils IUG existent pour Python ?

Questions à propos de Tkinter

FAQ "Pourquoi Python est installé sur mon ordinateur ?"

Qu'est-ce que Python ?

Pourquoi Python est installé sur ma machine ?

Puis-je supprimer Python ?

Obsolescence

Pending removal in Python 3.15

Pending removal in Python 3.16

Pending removal in Python 3.17

Pending removal in Python 3.18

Pending removal in Python 3.19

Pending removal in future versions

C API deprecations

Pending removal in Python 3.15

Pending removal in Python 3.18

Pending removal in future versions

Glossaire

À propos de ces documents

Contributrices et contributeurs de la documentation Python

S'attaquer aux bogues

Bogues de documentation

Utilisation du gestionnaire de tickets Python

Commencer à contribuer à Python vous-même

Copyright

Histoire et licence

Histoire du logiciel

Conditions générales pour accéder à, ou utiliser, Python

LICENCE DE LA PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION VERSION 2

LICENCE D'UTILISATION BEOPEN.COM POUR PYTHON 2.0

LICENCE D'UTILISATION CNRI POUR PYTHON 1.6.1

LICENCE D'UTILISATION CWI POUR PYTHON 0.9.0 à 1.2

LICENCE BSD ZERO-CLAUSE POUR LE CODE DANS LA DOCUMENTATION DE PYTHON

Licences et remerciements pour les logiciels tiers

Mersenne twister

Interfaces de connexion (sockets)

Interfaces de connexion asynchrones

Gestion de témoin (cookie)

Traçage d'exécution

Les fonctions UUencode et UUdecode

Appel de procédures distantes en XML (RPC, pour Remote Procedure Call)

test_epoll

Select kqueue

SipHash24

strtod et dtoa

OpenSSL

expat

libffi

zlib

cfuhash

libmpdec

Ensemble de tests C14N du W3C

mimalloc

asyncio

Séquences globales non bornées (GUS)

Liens avec Zstandard

Nouveautés de Python

La série d'essais "Quoi de neuf dans Python" reprend les plus importants changements entres les versions majeures de Python. Elles sont à lire pour quiconque souhaitant être à jour suite à une nouvelle sortie.

What's new in Python 3.14

Résumé – Points marquants de cette version

New features

Other language changes

Nouveaux modules

Improved modules

Optimisations

Retraits

Obsolescence

Changements au code intermédiaire CPython

C API changes

Build changes

Porting to Python 3.14

Notable changes in 3.14.1

What's New In Python 3.13

Summary -- Release Highlights

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

Autres changements au langage

Nouveaux modules

Modules améliorés

Optimisations

Removed Modules And APIs

New Deprecations

CPython Bytecode Changes

Changements à l'API C

Changements à la compilation

Porting to Python 3.13

Regression Test Changes

What's New In Python 3.12

Résumé – Points marquants de cette version

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types

Autres changements au langage

Nouveaux modules

Modules améliorés

Optimisations

Changements au code intermédiaire CPython

Demos and Tools

Obsolescence

Retraits

Porting to Python 3.12

Changements à la compilation

Changements à l'API C

Les nouveautés de Python 3.11

Résumé – Points forts de la publication

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types

Autres changements au langage

Autres changements à l'implémentation de CPython

Nouveaux modules

Modules améliorés

Optimisations

Faster CPython

Changements au code intermédiaire CPython

Obsolescence

Pending Removal in Python 3.12

Retraits

Portage vers Python 3.11

Changements à la compilation

Changements à l'API C

Notable changes in 3.11.4

Notable changes in 3.11.5

Les nouveautés de Python 3.10

Résumé – Points forts de la publication

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types

Autres changements au langage

Nouveaux modules

Modules améliorés

Optimisations

Obsolescence

Retrait

Portage vers Python 3.10

Changements au code intermédiaire CPython

Changements à la compilation

Changements à l'API C

Notable security feature in 3.10.7

Notable security feature in 3.10.8

Notable changes in 3.10.12

Les nouveautés de Python 3.9

Résumé – Points marquants de cette version

Vous devez vérifier la présence de DeprecationWarning dans votre code

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

Autres changements au langage

Nouveaux modules

Modules améliorés

Optimisations

Obsolescence

Retraits

Portage vers Python 3.9

Changements à la compilation

Changements à l'API C

Changements importants dans Python 3.9.1

Changements importants dans Python 3.9.2

Notable changes in Python 3.9.3

Notable changes in Python 3.9.5

Notable security feature in 3.9.14

Notable changes in 3.9.17

Nouveautés de Python 3.8

Summary -- Release highlights

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

Autres changements au langage

Nouveaux modules

Modules améliorés

Optimizations

Build and C API Changes

Obsolescence

API and Feature Removals

Porting to Python 3.8

Notable changes in Python 3.8.1

Notable changes in Python 3.8.2

Notable changes in Python 3.8.3

Notable changes in Python 3.8.8

Notable changes in Python 3.8.9

Notable changes in Python 3.8.10

Notable changes in Python 3.8.10

Notable changes in Python 3.8.12

Notable security feature in 3.8.14

Notable changes in 3.8.17

What's New In Python 3.7

Summary -- Release Highlights

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

Autres changements au langage

Nouveaux modules

Modules améliorés

Changements à l'API C

Changements à la compilation

Optimizations

Autres changements à l'implémentation de CPython

Deprecated Python Behavior

Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods

Deprecated functions and types of the C API

Platform Support Removals

API and Feature Removals

Module Removals

Windows-only Changes

Porting to Python 3.7

Notable changes in Python 3.7.1

Notable changes in Python 3.7.2

Notable changes in Python 3.7.6

Notable changes in Python 3.7.10

Notable changes in Python 3.7.11

Notable security feature in 3.7.14

What's New In Python 3.6

Résumé – Points forts de la publication

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

Autres changements au langage

Nouveaux modules

Modules améliorés

Optimizations

Build and C API Changes

Autres Améliorations

Obsolescence

Retraits

Porting to Python 3.6

Notable changes in Python 3.6.2

Notable changes in Python 3.6.4

Notable changes in Python 3.6.5

Notable changes in Python 3.6.7

Notable changes in Python 3.6.10

Notable changes in Python 3.6.13

Notable changes in Python 3.6.14

Nouveautés de Python 3.5

Résumé – Points forts de la publication

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

Autres changements au langage

Nouveaux modules

Modules améliorés

Other module-level changes

Optimizations

Build and C API Changes

Obsolescence

Retraits

Portage vers Python 3.5

Notable changes in Python 3.5.4

Nouveautés de Python 3.4

Summary -- Release Highlights

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

Nouveaux modules

Modules améliorés

CPython Implementation Changes

Obsolescence

Retraits

Portage vers Python 3.4

Changed in 3.4.3

Nouveautés de Python 3.3

Résumé – Points forts de la publication

PEP 405: Virtual Environments

PEP 420: Implicit Namespace Packages

PEP 3118: New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation

PEP 393: Flexible String Representation

PEP 397: Python Launcher for Windows

PEP 3151: Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy

PEP 380: Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator

PEP 409: Suppressing exception context

PEP 414: Explicit Unicode literals

PEP 3155: Qualified name for classes and functions

PEP 412: Key-Sharing Dictionary

PEP 362: Function Signature Object

PEP 421: Adding sys.implementation

Using importlib as the Implementation of Import

Autres changements au langage

A Finer-Grained Import Lock

Builtin functions and types

Nouveaux modules

Modules améliorés

Optimizations

Build and C API Changes

Obsolescence

Portage vers Python 3.3

Nouveautés de Python 3.2

PEP 384: Defining a Stable ABI

PEP 389: Argparse Command Line Parsing Module

PEP 391: Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging

PEP 3148: The concurrent.futures module

PEP 3147: PYC Repository Directories

PEP 3149: ABI Version Tagged .so Files

PEP 3333: Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1

Autres changements au langage

New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules

Fils d'exécution

Optimizations

Unicode

Codecs

Documentation

IDLE

Code Repository

Build and C API Changes

Portage vers Python 3.2

Nouveautés de Python 3.1

PEP 372: Ordered Dictionaries

PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator

Autres changements au langage

New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules

Optimizations

IDLE

Build and C API Changes

Portage vers Python 3.1

Nouveautés de Python 3.0

Common Stumbling Blocks

Overview Of Syntax Changes

Changes Already Present In Python 2.6

Library Changes

PEP 3101: A New Approach To String Formatting

Changes To Exceptions

Miscellaneous Other Changes

Build and C API Changes

Performances

Portage vers Python 3.0

Nouveautés de Python 2.7

The Future for Python 2.x

Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings

Python 3.1 Features

PEP 372: Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections

PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator

PEP 389: The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines

PEP 391: Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging

PEP 3106: Dictionary Views

PEP 3137: The memoryview Object

Autres changements au langage

New and Improved Modules

Build and C API Changes

Autres changements et corrections

Portage vers Python 2.7

New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases

Remerciements

Nouveautés de Python 2.6

Python 3.0

Changes to the Development Process

PEP 343: The 'with' statement

PEP 366: Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module

PEP 370: Per-user site-packages Directory

PEP 371: The multiprocessing Package

PEP 3101: Advanced String Formatting

PEP 3105: print As a Function

PEP 3110: Exception-Handling Changes

PEP 3112: Byte Literals

PEP 3116: New I/O Library

PEP 3118: Revised Buffer Protocol

PEP 3119: Abstract Base Classes

PEP 3127: Integer Literal Support and Syntax

PEP 3129: Class Decorators

PEP 3141: A Type Hierarchy for Numbers

Autres changements au langage

New and Improved Modules

Deprecations and Removals

Build and C API Changes

Portage vers Python 2.6

Remerciements

Nouveautés de Python 2.5

PEP 308 : Expressions conditionnelles

PEP 309 : Application partielle de fonction

PEP 314: Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1

PEP 328: Absolute and Relative Imports

PEP 338: Executing Modules as Scripts

PEP 341: Unified try/except/finally

PEP 342: New Generator Features

PEP 343: The 'with' statement

PEP 352: Exceptions as New-Style Classes

PEP 353: Using ssize_t as the index type

PEP 357: The '__index__' method

Autres changements au langage

Modules ajoutés, modifiés, et supprimés

Build and C API Changes

Portage vers Python 2.5

Remerciements

Nouveautés de Python 2.4

PEP 218: Built-In Set Objects

PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers

PEP 289: Generator Expressions

PEP 292: Simpler String Substitutions

PEP 318: Decorators for Functions and Methods

PEP 322: Reverse Iteration

PEP 324: New subprocess Module

PEP 327: Decimal Data Type

PEP 328: Multi-line Imports

PEP 331: Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions

Autres changements au langage

New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules

Build and C API Changes

Portage vers Python 2.4

Remerciements

Nouveautés de Python 2.3

PEP 218: A Standard Set Datatype

PEP 255 : Générateurs simples

PEP 263: Source Code Encodings

PEP 273: Importing Modules from ZIP Archives

PEP 277: Unicode file name support for Windows NT

PEP 278: Universal Newline Support

PEP 279: enumerate()

PEP 282: The logging Package

PEP 285 : Un type booléen

PEP 293: Codec Error Handling Callbacks

PEP 301: Package Index and Metadata for Distutils

PEP 302: New Import Hooks

PEP 305: Comma-separated Files

PEP 307: Pickle Enhancements

Extended Slices

Autres changements au langage

New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules

Pymalloc: A Specialized Object Allocator

Build and C API Changes

Autres changements et corrections

Portage vers Python 2.3

Remerciements

Nouveautés de Python 2.2

Introduction

PEP 252 et 253 : Changements concernant les types et classes

PEP 234 : Itérateurs

PEP 255 : Générateurs simples

PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers

PEP 238: Changing the Division Operator

Unicode Changes

PEP 227: Nested Scopes

New and Improved Modules

Interpreter Changes and Fixes

Autres changements et corrections

Remerciements

Nouveautés de Python 2.1

Introduction

PEP 227: Nested Scopes

PEP 236 : Directives __future__

PEP 207: Rich Comparisons

PEP 230: Warning Framework

PEP 229: New Build System

PEP 205: Weak References

PEP 232 : Attributs de fonctions

PEP 235: Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms

PEP 217: Interactive Display Hook

PEP 208: New Coercion Model

PEP 241: Metadata in Python Packages

New and Improved Modules

Autres changements et corrections

Remerciements

Nouveautés de Python 2.0

Introduction

À propos de Python 1.6.

Nouveau processus de développement

Unicode

Compréhensions de listes

Opérateurs d’affectation augmentées

Méthodes de chaînes de caractères

Garbage Collection of Cycles

Other Core Changes

Porting to 2.0

Extending/Embedding Changes

Distutils: Making Modules Easy to Install

Modules XML

Module changes

Nouveaux modules

IDLE Improvements

Deleted and Deprecated Modules

Remerciements

Le « Changelog » est une version HTML d’un fichier généré [https://pypi.org/project/blurb/] à partir du dossier Misc/NEWS.d [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Misc/NEWS.d], qui contient toutes les modifications conséquentes de la version actuelle de Python.

Changelog

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What's new in Python 3.14

Editors:

Adam Turner and Hugo van Kemenade

This article explains the new features in Python 3.14, compared to 3.13. Python 3.14 was released on 7 October 2025. For full details, see the changelog.

Voir aussi

PEP 745 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0745/] -- Python 3.14 release schedule

Résumé – Points marquants de cette version

Python 3.14 is the latest stable release of the Python programming language, with a mix of changes to the language, the implementation, and the standard library. The biggest changes include template string literals, deferred evaluation of annotations, and support for subinterpreters in the standard library.

The library changes include significantly improved capabilities for introspection in asyncio, support for Zstandard via a new compression.zstd module, syntax highlighting in the REPL, as well as the usual deprecations and removals, and improvements in user-friendliness and correctness.

This article doesn't attempt to provide a complete specification of all new features, but instead gives a convenient overview. For full details refer to the documentation, such as the Library Reference and Language Reference. To understand the complete implementation and design rationale for a change, refer to the PEP for a particular new feature; but note that PEPs usually are not kept up-to-date once a feature has been fully implemented. See Porting to Python 3.14 for guidance on upgrading from earlier versions of Python.

Améliorations de l'interpréteur :

PEP 649 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/] and PEP 749 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0749/]: Deferred evaluation of annotations

PEP 734 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0734/]: Multiple interpreters in the standard library

PEP 750 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0750/]: Template strings

PEP 758 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0758/]: Allow except and except* expressions without brackets

PEP 765 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0765/]: Control flow in finally blocks

PEP 768 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0768/]: Safe external debugger interface for CPython

A new type of interpreter

Free-threaded mode improvements

Improved error messages

Incremental garbage collection

Significant improvements in the standard library:

PEP 784 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0784/]: Zstandard support in the standard library

Asyncio introspection capabilities

Concurrent safe warnings control

Syntax highlighting in the default interactive shell, and color output in several standard library CLIs

C API improvements:

PEP 741 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0741/]: Python configuration C API

Platform support:

PEP 776 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0776/]: Emscripten is now an officially supported platform, at tier 3 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/#tier-3].

Release changes:

PEP 779 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0779/]: Free-threaded Python is officially supported

PEP 761 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0761/]: PGP signatures have been discontinued for official releases

Windows and macOS binary releases now support the experimental just-in-time compiler

Binary releases for Android are now provided

New features

PEP 649 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/] & PEP 749 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0749/]: Deferred evaluation of annotations

The annotations on functions, classes, and modules are no longer evaluated eagerly. Instead, annotations are stored in special-purpose annotate functions and evaluated only when necessary (except if from __future__ import annotations is used).

This change is designed to improve performance and usability of annotations in Python in most circumstances. The runtime cost for defining annotations is minimized, but it remains possible to introspect annotations at runtime. It is no longer necessary to enclose annotations in strings if they contain forward references.

The new annotationlib module provides tools for inspecting deferred annotations. Annotations may be evaluated in the VALUE format (which evaluates annotations to runtime values, similar to the behavior in earlier Python versions), the FORWARDREF format (which replaces undefined names with special markers), and the STRING format (which returns annotations as strings).

This example shows how these formats behave:

>>> from annotationlib import get_annotations, Format
>>> def func(arg: Undefined):
...     pass
>>> get_annotations(func, format=Format.VALUE)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
NameError: name 'Undefined' is not defined
>>> get_annotations(func, format=Format.FORWARDREF)
{'arg': ForwardRef('Undefined', owner=<function func at 0x...>)}
>>> get_annotations(func, format=Format.STRING)
{'arg': 'Undefined'}

The porting section contains guidance on changes that may be needed due to these changes, though in the majority of cases, code will continue working as-is.

(Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in PEP 749 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0749/] and gh-119180 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119180]; PEP 649 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/] was written by Larry Hastings.)

Voir aussi

PEP 649 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/]

Deferred Evaluation Of Annotations Using Descriptors

PEP 749 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0749/]

Implementing PEP 649

PEP 734 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0734/]: Multiple interpreters in the standard library

The CPython runtime supports running multiple copies of Python in the same process simultaneously and has done so for over 20 years. Each of these separate copies is called an 'interpreter'. However, the feature had been available only through the C-API.

That limitation is removed in Python 3.14, with the new concurrent.interpreters module.

There are at least two notable reasons why using multiple interpreters has significant benefits:

they support a new (to Python), human-friendly concurrency model

true multi-core parallelism

For some use cases, concurrency in software improves efficiency and can simplify design, at a high level. At the same time, implementing and maintaining all but the simplest concurrency is often a struggle for the human brain. That especially applies to plain threads (for example, threading), where all memory is shared between all threads.

With multiple isolated interpreters, you can take advantage of a class of concurrency models, like Communicating Sequential Processes (CSP) or the actor model, that have found success in other programming languages, like Smalltalk, Erlang, Haskell, and Go. Think of multiple interpreters as threads but with opt-in sharing.

Regarding multi-core parallelism: as of Python 3.12, interpreters are now sufficiently isolated from one another to be used in parallel (see PEP 684 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0684/]). This unlocks a variety of CPU-intensive use cases for Python that were limited by the GIL.

Using multiple interpreters is similar in many ways to multiprocessing, in that they both provide isolated logical "processes" that can run in parallel, with no sharing by default. However, when using multiple interpreters, an application will use fewer system resources and will operate more efficiently (since it stays within the same process). Think of multiple interpreters as having the isolation of processes with the efficiency of threads.

While the feature has been around for decades, multiple interpreters have not been used widely, due to low awareness and the lack of a standard library module. Consequently, they currently have several notable limitations, which are expected to improve significantly now that the feature is going mainstream.

Current limitations:

starting each interpreter has not been optimized yet

each interpreter uses more memory than necessary (work continues on extensive internal sharing between interpreters)

there aren't many options yet for truly sharing objects or other data between interpreters (other than memoryview)

many third-party extension modules on PyPI are not yet compatible with multiple interpreters (all standard library extension modules are compatible)

the approach to writing applications that use multiple isolated interpreters is mostly unfamiliar to Python users, for now

The impact of these limitations will depend on future CPython improvements, how interpreters are used, and what the community solves through PyPI packages. Depending on the use case, the limitations may not have much impact, so try it out!

Furthermore, future CPython releases will reduce or eliminate overhead and provide utilities that are less appropriate on PyPI. In the meantime, most of the limitations can also be addressed through extension modules, meaning PyPI packages can fill any gap for 3.14, and even back to 3.12 where interpreters were finally properly isolated and stopped sharing the GIL. Likewise, libraries on PyPI are expected to emerge for high-level abstractions on top of interpreters.

Regarding extension modules, work is in progress to update some PyPI projects, as well as tools like Cython, pybind11, nanobind, and PyO3. The steps for isolating an extension module are found at Isolating Extension Modules. Isolating a module has a lot of overlap with what is required to support free-threading, so the ongoing work in the community in that area will help accelerate support for multiple interpreters.

Also added in 3.14: concurrent.futures.InterpreterPoolExecutor.

(Contributed by Eric Snow in gh-134939 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134939].)

Voir aussi

PEP 734 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0734/]

PEP 750 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0750/]: Template string literals

Template strings are a new mechanism for custom string processing. They share the familiar syntax of f-strings but, unlike f-strings, return an object representing the static and interpolated parts of the string, instead of a simple str.

To write a t-string, use a 't' prefix instead of an 'f':

>>> variety = 'Stilton'
>>> template = t'Try some {variety} cheese!'
>>> type(template)
<class 'string.templatelib.Template'>

Template objects provide access to the static and interpolated (in curly braces) parts of a string before they are combined. Iterate over Template instances to access their parts in order:

>>> list(template)
['Try some ', Interpolation('Stilton', 'variety', None, ''), ' cheese!']

It's easy to write (or call) code to process Template instances. For example, here's a function that renders static parts lowercase and Interpolation instances uppercase:

from string.templatelib import Interpolation

def lower_upper(template):
    """Render static parts lowercase and interpolations uppercase."""
    parts = []
    for part in template:
        if isinstance(part, Interpolation):
            parts.append(str(part.value).upper())
        else:
            parts.append(part.lower())
    return ''.join(parts)

name = 'Wenslydale'
template = t'Mister {name}'
assert lower_upper(template) == 'mister WENSLYDALE'

Because Template instances distinguish between static strings and interpolations at runtime, they can be useful for sanitising user input. Writing a html() function that escapes user input in HTML is an exercise left to the reader! Template processing code can provide improved flexibility. For instance, a more advanced html() function could accept a dict of HTML attributes directly in the template:

attributes = {'src': 'limburger.jpg', 'alt': 'lovely cheese'}
template = t'<img {attributes}>'
assert html(template) == '<img src="limburger.jpg" alt="lovely cheese" />'

Of course, template processing code does not need to return a string-like result. An even more advanced html() could return a custom type representing a DOM-like structure.

With t-strings in place, developers can write systems that sanitise SQL, make safe shell operations, improve logging, tackle modern ideas in web development (HTML, CSS, and so on), and implement lightweight custom business DSLs.

(Contributed by Jim Baker, Guido van Rossum, Paul Everitt, Koudai Aono, Lysandros Nikolaou, Dave Peck, Adam Turner, Jelle Zijlstra, Bénédikt Tran, and Pablo Galindo Salgado in gh-132661 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132661].)

Voir aussi

PEP 750 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0750/].

PEP 768 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0768/]: Safe external debugger interface

Python 3.14 introduces a zero-overhead debugging interface that allows debuggers and profilers to safely attach to running Python processes without stopping or restarting them. This is a significant enhancement to Python's debugging capabilities, meaning that unsafe alternatives are no longer required.

The new interface provides safe execution points for attaching debugger code without modifying the interpreter's normal execution path or adding any overhead at runtime. Due to this, tools can now inspect and interact with Python applications in real-time, which is a crucial capability for high-availability systems and production environments.

For convenience, this interface is implemented in the sys.remote_exec() function. For example:

import sys
from tempfile import NamedTemporaryFile

with NamedTemporaryFile(mode='w', suffix='.py', delete=False) as f:
    script_path = f.name
    f.write(f'import my_debugger; my_debugger.connect({os.getpid()})')

# Execute in process with PID 1234
print('Behold! An offering:')
sys.remote_exec(1234, script_path)

This function allows sending Python code to be executed in a target process at the next safe execution point. However, tool authors can also implement the protocol directly as described in the PEP, which details the underlying mechanisms used to safely attach to running processes.

The debugging interface has been carefully designed with security in mind and includes several mechanisms to control access:

A PYTHON_DISABLE_REMOTE_DEBUG environment variable.

A -X disable-remote-debug command-line option.

A --without-remote-debug configure flag to completely disable the feature at build time.

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo Salgado, Matt Wozniski, and Ivona Stojanovic in gh-131591 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131591].)

Voir aussi

PEP 768 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0768/].

A new type of interpreter

A new type of interpreter has been added to CPython. It uses tail calls between small C functions that implement individual Python opcodes, rather than one large C case statement. For certain newer compilers, this interpreter provides significantly better performance. Preliminary benchmarks suggest a geometric mean of 3-5% faster on the standard pyperformance benchmark suite, depending on platform and architecture. The baseline is Python 3.14 built with Clang 19, without this new interpreter.

This interpreter currently only works with Clang 19 and newer on x86-64 and AArch64 architectures. However, a future release of GCC is expected to support this as well.

This feature is opt-in for now. Enabling profile-guided optimization is highly recommended when using the new interpreter as it is the only configuration that has been tested and validated for improved performance. For further information, see --with-tail-call-interp.

Note

This is not to be confused with tail call optimization [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tail_call] of Python functions, which is currently not implemented in CPython.

This new interpreter type is an internal implementation detail of the CPython interpreter. It doesn't change the visible behavior of Python programs at all. It can improve their performance, but doesn't change anything else.

(Contributed by Ken Jin in gh-128563 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128563], with ideas on how to implement this in CPython by Mark Shannon, Garrett Gu, Haoran Xu, and Josh Haberman.)

Free-threaded mode improvements

CPython's free-threaded mode (PEP 703 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/]), initially added in 3.13, has been significantly improved in Python 3.14. The implementation described in PEP 703 has been finished, including C API changes, and temporary workarounds in the interpreter were replaced with more permanent solutions. The specializing adaptive interpreter (PEP 659 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0659/]) is now enabled in free-threaded mode, which along with many other optimizations greatly improves its performance. The performance penalty on single-threaded code in free-threaded mode is now roughly 5-10%, depending on the platform and C compiler used.

From Python 3.14, when compiling extension modules for the free-threaded build of CPython on Windows, the preprocessor variable Py_GIL_DISABLED now needs to be specified by the build backend, as it will no longer be determined automatically by the C compiler. For a running interpreter, the setting that was used at compile time can be found using sysconfig.get_config_var().

The new -X context_aware_warnings flag controls if concurrent safe warnings control is enabled. The flag defaults to true for the free-threaded build and false for the GIL-enabled build.

A new thread_inherit_context flag has been added, which if enabled means that threads created with threading.Thread start with a copy of the Context() of the caller of start(). Most significantly, this makes the warning filtering context established by catch_warnings be "inherited" by threads (or asyncio tasks) started within that context. It also affects other modules that use context variables, such as the decimal context manager. This flag defaults to true for the free-threaded build and false for the GIL-enabled build.

(Contributed by Sam Gross, Matt Page, Neil Schemenauer, Thomas Wouters, Donghee Na, Kirill Podoprigora, Ken Jin, Itamar Oren, Brett Simmers, Dino Viehland, Nathan Goldbaum, Ralf Gommers, Lysandros Nikolaou, Kumar Aditya, Edgar Margffoy, and many others. Some of these contributors are employed by Meta, which has continued to provide significant engineering resources to support this project.)

Improved error messages

The interpreter now provides helpful suggestions when it detects typos in Python keywords. When a word that closely resembles a Python keyword is encountered, the interpreter will suggest the correct keyword in the error message. This feature helps programmers quickly identify and fix common typing mistakes. For example:

>>> whille True:
...     pass
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1
    whille True:
    ^^^^^^
SyntaxError: invalid syntax. Did you mean 'while'?

While the feature focuses on the most common cases, some variations of misspellings may still result in regular syntax errors. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-132449 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132449].)

elif statements that follow an else block now have a specific error message. (Contributed by Steele Farnsworth in gh-129902 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129902].)

>>> if who == "me":
...     print("It's me!")
... else:
...     print("It's not me!")
... elif who is None:
...     print("Who is it?")
File "<stdin>", line 5
  elif who is None:
  ^^^^
SyntaxError: 'elif' block follows an 'else' block

If a statement is passed to the Expressions conditionnelles after else, or one of pass, break, or continue is passed before if, then the error message highlights where the expression is required. (Contributed by Sergey Miryanov in gh-129515 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129515].)

>>> x = 1 if True else pass
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<string>", line 1
    x = 1 if True else pass
                       ^^^^
SyntaxError: expected expression after 'else', but statement is given

>>> x = continue if True else break
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<string>", line 1
    x = continue if True else break
        ^^^^^^^^
SyntaxError: expected expression before 'if', but statement is given

When incorrectly closed strings are detected, the error message suggests that the string may be intended to be part of the string. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-88535 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88535].)

>>> "The interesting object "The important object" is very important"
Traceback (most recent call last):
SyntaxError: invalid syntax. Is this intended to be part of the string?

When strings have incompatible prefixes, the error now shows which prefixes are incompatible. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-133197 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133197].)

>>> ub'abc'
  File "<python-input-0>", line 1
    ub'abc'
    ^^
SyntaxError: 'u' and 'b' prefixes are incompatible

Improved error messages when using as with incompatible targets in:

Imports: import ... as ...

From imports: from ... import ... as ...

Except handlers: except ... as ...

Pattern-match cases: case ... as ...

(Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-123539 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123539], gh-123562 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123562], and gh-123440 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123440].)

Improved error message when trying to add an instance of an unhashable type to a dict or set. (Contributed by CF Bolz-Tereick and Victor Stinner in gh-132828 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132828].)

>>> s = set()
>>> s.add({'pages': 12, 'grade': 'A'})
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<python-input-1>", line 1, in <module>
    s.add({'pages': 12, 'grade': 'A'})
    ~~~~~^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
TypeError: cannot use 'dict' as a set element (unhashable type: 'dict')
>>> d = {}
>>> l = [1, 2, 3]
>>> d[l] = 12
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<python-input-4>", line 1, in <module>
    d[l] = 12
    ~^^^
TypeError: cannot use 'list' as a dict key (unhashable type: 'list')

Improved error message when an object supporting the synchronous context manager protocol is entered using async with instead of with, and vice versa for the asynchronous context manager protocol. (Contributed by Bénédikt Tran in gh-128398 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128398].)

PEP 784 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0784/]: Zstandard support in the standard library

The new compression package contains modules compression.lzma, compression.bz2, compression.gzip and compression.zlib which re-export the lzma, bz2, gzip and zlib modules respectively. The new import names under compression are the preferred names for importing these compression modules from Python 3.14. However, the existing modules names have not been deprecated. Any deprecation or removal of the existing compression modules will occur no sooner than five years after the release of 3.14.

The new compression.zstd module provides compression and decompression APIs for the Zstandard format via bindings to Meta's zstd library [https://facebook.github.io/zstd/]. Zstandard is a widely adopted, highly efficient, and fast compression format. In addition to the APIs introduced in compression.zstd, support for reading and writing Zstandard compressed archives has been added to the tarfile, zipfile, and shutil modules.

Here's an example of using the new module to compress some data:

from compression import zstd
import math

data = str(math.pi).encode() * 20
compressed = zstd.compress(data)
ratio = len(compressed) / len(data)
print(f"Achieved compression ratio of {ratio}")

As can be seen, the API is similar to the APIs of the lzma and bz2 modules.

(Contributed by Emma Harper Smith, Adam Turner, Gregory P. Smith, Tomas Roun, Victor Stinner, and Rogdham in gh-132983 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132983].)

Voir aussi

PEP 784 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0784/].

Asyncio introspection capabilities

Added a new command-line interface to inspect running Python processes using asynchronous tasks, available via python -m asyncio ps PID or python -m asyncio pstree PID.

The ps subcommand inspects the given process ID (PID) and displays information about currently running asyncio tasks. It outputs a task table: a flat listing of all tasks, their names, their coroutine stacks, and which tasks are awaiting them.

The pstree subcommand fetches the same information, but instead renders a visual async call tree, showing coroutine relationships in a hierarchical format. This command is particularly useful for debugging long-running or stuck asynchronous programs. It can help developers quickly identify where a program is blocked, what tasks are pending, and how coroutines are chained together.

For example given this code:

import asyncio

async def play_track(track):
    await asyncio.sleep(5)
    print(f'🎵 Finished: {track}')

async def play_album(name, tracks):
    async with asyncio.TaskGroup() as tg:
        for track in tracks:
            tg.create_task(play_track(track), name=track)

async def main():
    async with asyncio.TaskGroup() as tg:
        tg.create_task(
          play_album('Sundowning', ['TNDNBTG', 'Levitate']),
          name='Sundowning')
        tg.create_task(
          play_album('TMBTE', ['DYWTYLM', 'Aqua Regia']),
          name='TMBTE')

if __name__ == '__main__':
    asyncio.run(main())

Executing the new tool on the running process will yield a table like this:

python -m asyncio ps 12345

tid        task id              task name            coroutine stack                                    awaiter chain                                      awaiter name    awaiter id
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1935500    0x7fc930c18050       Task-1               TaskGroup._aexit -> TaskGroup.__aexit__ -> main                                                                       0x0
1935500    0x7fc930c18230       Sundowning           TaskGroup._aexit -> TaskGroup.__aexit__ -> album   TaskGroup._aexit -> TaskGroup.__aexit__ -> main    Task-1          0x7fc930c18050
1935500    0x7fc93173fa50       TMBTE                TaskGroup._aexit -> TaskGroup.__aexit__ -> album   TaskGroup._aexit -> TaskGroup.__aexit__ -> main    Task-1          0x7fc930c18050
1935500    0x7fc93173fdf0       TNDNBTG              sleep -> play                                      TaskGroup._aexit -> TaskGroup.__aexit__ -> album   Sundowning      0x7fc930c18230
1935500    0x7fc930d32510       Levitate             sleep -> play                                      TaskGroup._aexit -> TaskGroup.__aexit__ -> album   Sundowning      0x7fc930c18230
1935500    0x7fc930d32890       DYWTYLM              sleep -> play                                      TaskGroup._aexit -> TaskGroup.__aexit__ -> album   TMBTE           0x7fc93173fa50
1935500    0x7fc93161ec30       Aqua Regia           sleep -> play                                      TaskGroup._aexit -> TaskGroup.__aexit__ -> album   TMBTE           0x7fc93173fa50

or a tree like this:

python -m asyncio pstree 12345

└── (T) Task-1
    └──  main example.py:13
        └──  TaskGroup.__aexit__ Lib/asyncio/taskgroups.py:72
            └──  TaskGroup._aexit Lib/asyncio/taskgroups.py:121
                ├── (T) Sundowning
                │   └──  album example.py:8
                │       └──  TaskGroup.__aexit__ Lib/asyncio/taskgroups.py:72
                │           └──  TaskGroup._aexit Lib/asyncio/taskgroups.py:121
                │               ├── (T) TNDNBTG
                │               │   └──  play example.py:4
                │               │       └──  sleep Lib/asyncio/tasks.py:702
                │               └── (T) Levitate
                │                   └──  play example.py:4
                │                       └──  sleep Lib/asyncio/tasks.py:702
                └── (T) TMBTE
                    └──  album example.py:8
                        └──  TaskGroup.__aexit__ Lib/asyncio/taskgroups.py:72
                            └──  TaskGroup._aexit Lib/asyncio/taskgroups.py:121
                                ├── (T) DYWTYLM
                                │   └──  play example.py:4
                                │       └──  sleep Lib/asyncio/tasks.py:702
                                └── (T) Aqua Regia
                                    └──  play example.py:4
                                        └──  sleep Lib/asyncio/tasks.py:702

If a cycle is detected in the async await graph (which could indicate a programming issue), the tool raises an error and lists the cycle paths that prevent tree construction:

python -m asyncio pstree 12345

ERROR: await-graph contains cycles - cannot print a tree!

cycle: Task-2 → Task-3 → Task-2

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo, Łukasz Langa, Yury Selivanov, and Marta Gomez Macias in gh-91048 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91048].)

Concurrent safe warnings control

The warnings.catch_warnings context manager will now optionally use a context variable for warning filters. This is enabled by setting the context_aware_warnings flag, either with the -X command-line option or an environment variable. This gives predictable warnings control when using catch_warnings combined with multiple threads or asynchronous tasks. The flag defaults to true for the free-threaded build and false for the GIL-enabled build.

(Contributed by Neil Schemenauer and Kumar Aditya in gh-130010 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130010].)

Other language changes

All Windows code pages are now supported as 'cpXXX' codecs on Windows. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-123803 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123803].)

Implement mixed-mode arithmetic rules combining real and complex numbers as specified by the C standard since C99. (Contributed by Sergey B Kirpichev in gh-69639 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69639].)

More syntax errors are now detected regardless of optimisation and the -O command-line option. This includes writes to __debug__, incorrect use of await, and asynchronous comprehensions outside asynchronous functions. For example, python -O -c 'assert (__debug__ := 1)' or python -O -c 'assert await 1' now produce SyntaxErrors. (Contributed by Irit Katriel and Jelle Zijlstra in gh-122245 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122245] & gh-121637 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121637].)

When subclassing a pure C type, the C slots for the new type are no longer replaced with a wrapped version on class creation if they are not explicitly overridden in the subclass. (Contributed by Tomasz Pytel in gh-132284 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132284].)

Built-ins

The bytes.fromhex() and bytearray.fromhex() methods now accept ASCII bytes and bytes-like objects. (Contributed by Daniel Pope in gh-129349 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129349].)

Add class methods float.from_number() and complex.from_number() to convert a number to float or complex type correspondingly. They raise a TypeError if the argument is not a real number. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-84978 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84978].)

Support underscore and comma as thousands separators in the fractional part for floating-point presentation types of the new-style string formatting (with format() or f-strings). (Contributed by Sergey B Kirpichev in gh-87790 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87790].)

The int() function no longer delegates to __trunc__(). Classes that want to support conversion to int() must implement either __int__() or __index__(). (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in gh-119743 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119743].)

The map() function now has an optional keyword-only strict flag like zip() to check that all the iterables are of equal length. (Contributed by Wannes Boeykens in gh-119793 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119793].)

The memoryview type now supports subscription, making it a generic type. (Contributed by Brian Schubert in gh-126012 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126012].)

Using NotImplemented in a boolean context will now raise a TypeError. This has raised a DeprecationWarning since Python 3.9. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-118767 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118767].)

Three-argument pow() now tries calling __rpow__() if necessary. Previously it was only called in two-argument pow() and the binary power operator. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-130104 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130104].)

super objects are now copyable and pickleable. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-125767 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125767].)

Ligne de commande et environnement

The import time flag can now track modules that are already loaded ('cached'), via the new -X importtime=2. When such a module is imported, the self and cumulative times are replaced by the string cached.

Values above 2 for -X importtime are now reserved for future use.

(Contributed by Noah Kim and Adam Turner in gh-118655 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118655].)

The command-line option -c now automatically dedents its code argument before execution. The auto-dedentation behavior mirrors textwrap.dedent(). (Contributed by Jon Crall and Steven Sun in gh-103998 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103998].)

-J is no longer a reserved flag for Jython [https://www.jython.org/], and now has no special meaning. (Contributed by Adam Turner in gh-133336 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133336].)

PEP 758: Allow except and except* expressions without brackets

The except and except* expressions now allow brackets to be omitted when there are multiple exception types and the as clause is not used. For example:

try:
    connect_to_server()
except TimeoutError, ConnectionRefusedError:
    print('The network has ceased to be!')

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo and Brett Cannon in PEP 758 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0758/] and gh-131831 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131831].)

PEP 765: Control flow in finally blocks

The compiler now emits a SyntaxWarning when a return, break, or continue statement have the effect of leaving a finally block. This change is specified in PEP 765 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0765/].

In situations where this change is inconvenient (such as those where the warnings are redundant due to code linting), the warning filter can be used to turn off all syntax warnings by adding ignore::SyntaxWarning as a filter. This can be specified in combination with a filter that converts other warnings to errors (for example, passing -Werror -Wignore::SyntaxWarning as CLI options, or setting PYTHONWARNINGS=error,ignore::SyntaxWarning).

Note that applying such a filter at runtime using the warnings module will only suppress the warning in code that is compiled after the filter is adjusted. Code that is compiled prior to the filter adjustment (for example, when a module is imported) will still emit the syntax warning.

(Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-130080 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130080].)

Incremental garbage collection

The cycle garbage collector is now incremental. This means that maximum pause times are reduced by an order of magnitude or more for larger heaps.

There are now only two generations: young and old. When gc.collect() is not called directly, the GC is invoked a little less frequently. When invoked, it collects the young generation and an increment of the old generation, instead of collecting one or more generations.

The behavior of gc.collect() changes slightly:

gc.collect(1): Performs an increment of garbage collection, rather than collecting generation 1.

Other calls to gc.collect() are unchanged.

(Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-108362 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108362].)

Default interactive shell

The default interactive shell now highlights Python syntax. The feature is enabled by default, save if PYTHON_BASIC_REPL or any other environment variable that disables colour is set. See Controlling color for details.

The default color theme for syntax highlighting strives for good contrast and exclusively uses the 4-bit VGA standard ANSI color codes for maximum compatibility. The theme can be customized using an experimental API _colorize.set_theme(). This can be called interactively or in the PYTHONSTARTUP script. Note that this function has no stability guarantees, and may change or be removed.

(Contributed by Łukasz Langa in gh-131507 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131507].)

The default interactive shell now supports import auto-completion. This means that typing import co and pressing <Tab> will suggest modules starting with co. Similarly, typing from concurrent import i will suggest submodules of concurrent starting with i. Note that autocompletion of module attributes is not currently supported. (Contributed by Tomas Roun in gh-69605 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69605].)

Nouveaux modules

annotationlib: For introspecting annotations. See PEP 749 for more details. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-119180 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119180].)

compression (including compression.zstd): A package for compression-related modules, including a new module to support the Zstandard compression format. See PEP 784 for more details. (Contributed by Emma Harper Smith, Adam Turner, Gregory P. Smith, Tomas Roun, Victor Stinner, and Rogdham in gh-132983 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132983].)

concurrent.interpreters: Support for multiple interpreters in the standard library. See PEP 734 for more details. (Contributed by Eric Snow in gh-134939 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134939].)

string.templatelib: Support for template string literals (t-strings). See PEP 750 for more details. (Contributed by Jim Baker, Guido van Rossum, Paul Everitt, Koudai Aono, Lysandros Nikolaou, Dave Peck, Adam Turner, Jelle Zijlstra, Bénédikt Tran, and Pablo Galindo Salgado in gh-132661 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132661].)

Improved modules

argparse

The default value of the program name for argparse.ArgumentParser now reflects the way the Python interpreter was instructed to find the __main__ module code. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Alyssa Coghlan in gh-66436 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66436].)

Introduced the optional suggest_on_error parameter to argparse.ArgumentParser, enabling suggestions for argument choices and subparser names if mistyped by the user. (Contributed by Savannah Ostrowski in gh-124456 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124456].)

Enable color for help text, which can be disabled with the optional color parameter to argparse.ArgumentParser. This can also be controlled by environment variables. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-130645 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130645].)

ast

Add compare(), a function for comparing two ASTs. (Contributed by Batuhan Taskaya and Jeremy Hylton in gh-60191 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/60191].)

Add support for copy.replace() for AST nodes. (Contributed by Bénédikt Tran in gh-121141 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121141].)

Docstrings are now removed from an optimized AST in optimization level 2. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-123958 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123958].)

The repr() output for AST nodes now includes more information. (Contributed by Tomas Roun in gh-116022 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116022].)

When called with an AST as input, the parse() function now always verifies that the root node type is appropriate. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-130139 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130139].)

Add new options to the command-line interface: --feature-version, --optimize, and --show-empty. (Contributed by Semyon Moroz in gh-133367 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133367].)

asyncio

The function and methods named create_task() now take an arbitrary list of keyword arguments. All keyword arguments are passed to the Task constructor or the custom task factory. (See set_task_factory() for details.) The name and context keyword arguments are no longer special; the name should now be set using the name keyword argument of the factory, and context may be None.

This affects the following function and methods: asyncio.create_task(), asyncio.loop.create_task(), asyncio.TaskGroup.create_task().

(Contributed by Thomas Grainger in gh-128307 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128307].)

There are two new utility functions for introspecting and printing a program's call graph: capture_call_graph() and print_call_graph(). See Asyncio introspection capabilities for more details. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov, Pablo Galindo Salgado, and Łukasz Langa in gh-91048 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91048].)

calendar

By default, today's date is highlighted in color in calendar's command-line text output. This can be controlled by environment variables. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-128317 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128317].)

concurrent.futures

Add a new executor class, InterpreterPoolExecutor, which exposes multiple Python interpreters in the same process ('subinterpreters') to Python code. This uses a pool of independent Python interpreters to execute calls asynchronously.

This is separate from the new interpreters module introduced by PEP 734. (Contributed by Eric Snow in gh-124548 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124548].)

On Unix platforms other than macOS, 'forkserver' is now the default start method for ProcessPoolExecutor (replacing 'fork'). This change does not affect Windows or macOS, where 'spawn' remains the default start method.

If the threading incompatible fork method is required, you must explicitly request it by supplying a multiprocessing context mp_context to ProcessPoolExecutor.

See forkserver restrictions for information and differences with the fork method and how this change may affect existing code with mutable global shared variables and/or shared objects that can not be automatically pickled.

(Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in gh-84559 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84559].)

Add two new methods to ProcessPoolExecutor, terminate_workers() and kill_workers(), as ways to terminate or kill all living worker processes in the given pool. (Contributed by Charles Machalow in gh-130849 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130849].)

Add the optional buffersize parameter to Executor.map to limit the number of submitted tasks whose results have not yet been yielded. If the buffer is full, iteration over the iterables pauses until a result is yielded from the buffer. (Contributed by Enzo Bonnal and Josh Rosenberg in gh-74028 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74028].)

configparser

configparser will no longer write config files it cannot read, to improve security. Attempting to write() keys containing delimiters or beginning with the section header pattern will raise an InvalidWriteError. (Contributed by Jacob Lincoln in gh-129270 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129270].)

contextvars

Support the context manager protocol for Token objects. (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in gh-129889 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129889].)

ctypes

The layout of bit fields in Structure and Union objects is now a closer match to platform defaults (GCC/Clang or MSVC). In particular, fields no longer overlap. (Contributed by Matthias Görgens in gh-97702 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97702].)

The Structure._layout_ class attribute can now be set to help match a non-default ABI. (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in gh-97702 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97702].)

The class of Structure/Union field descriptors is now available as CField, and has new attributes to aid debugging and introspection. (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in gh-128715 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128715].)

On Windows, the COMError exception is now public. (Contributed by Jun Komoda in gh-126686 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126686].)

On Windows, the CopyComPointer() function is now public. (Contributed by Jun Komoda in gh-127275 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127275].)

Add memoryview_at(), a function to create a memoryview object that refers to the supplied pointer and length. This works like ctypes.string_at() except it avoids a buffer copy, and is typically useful when implementing pure Python callback functions that are passed dynamically-sized buffers. (Contributed by Rian Hunter in gh-112018 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112018].)

Complex types, c_float_complex, c_double_complex, and c_longdouble_complex, are now available if both the compiler and the libffi library support complex C types. (Contributed by Sergey B Kirpichev in gh-61103 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61103].)

Add ctypes.util.dllist() for listing the shared libraries loaded by the current process. (Contributed by Brian Ward in gh-119349 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119349].)

Move ctypes.POINTER() types cache from a global internal cache (_pointer_type_cache) to the _CData.__pointer_type__ attribute of the corresponding ctypes types. This will stop the cache from growing without limits in some situations. (Contributed by Sergey Miryanov in gh-100926 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100926].)

The py_object type now supports subscription, making it a generic type. (Contributed by Brian Schubert in gh-132168 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132168].)

ctypes now supports free-threading builds. (Contributed by Kumar Aditya and Peter Bierma in gh-127945 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127945].)

curses

Add the assume_default_colors() function, a refinement of the use_default_colors() function which allows changing the color pair 0. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-133139 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133139].)

datetime

Add the strptime() method to the datetime.date and datetime.time classes. (Contributed by Wannes Boeykens in gh-41431 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/41431].)

decimal

Add Decimal.from_number() as an alternative constructor for Decimal. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-121798 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121798].)

Expose IEEEContext() to support creation of contexts corresponding to the IEEE 754 (2008) decimal interchange formats. (Contributed by Sergey B Kirpichev in gh-53032 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/53032].)

difflib

Comparison pages with highlighted changes generated by the HtmlDiff class now support 'dark mode'. (Contributed by Jiahao Li in gh-129939 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129939].)

dis

Add support for rendering full source location information of instructions, rather than only the line number. This feature is added to the following interfaces via the show_positions keyword argument:

dis.Bytecode

dis.dis()

dis.distb()

dis.disassemble()

This feature is also exposed via dis --show-positions. (Contributed by Bénédikt Tran in gh-123165 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123165].)

Add the dis --specialized command-line option to show specialized bytecode. (Contributed by Bénédikt Tran in gh-127413 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127413].)

errno

Add the EHWPOISON error code constant. (Contributed by James Roy in gh-126585 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126585].)

faulthandler

Add support for printing the C stack trace on systems that support it via the new dump_c_stack() function or via the c_stack argument in faulthandler.enable(). (Contributed by Peter Bierma in gh-127604 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127604].)

fnmatch

Add filterfalse(), a function to reject names matching a given pattern. (Contributed by Bénédikt Tran in gh-74598 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74598].)

fractions

A Fraction object may now be constructed from any object with the as_integer_ratio() method. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-82017 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82017].)

Add Fraction.from_number() as an alternative constructor for Fraction. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-121797 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121797].)

functools

Add the Placeholder sentinel. This may be used with the partial() or partialmethod() functions to reserve a place for positional arguments in the returned partial object. (Contributed by Dominykas Grigonis in gh-119127 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119127].)

Allow the initial parameter of reduce() to be passed as a keyword argument. (Contributed by Sayandip Dutta in gh-125916 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125916].)

getopt

Add support for options with optional arguments. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-126374 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126374].)

Add support for returning intermixed options and non-option arguments in order. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-126390 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126390].)

getpass

Support keyboard feedback in the getpass() function via the keyword-only optional argument echo_char. Placeholder characters are rendered whenever a character is entered, and removed when a character is deleted. (Contributed by Semyon Moroz in gh-77065 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77065].)

graphlib

Allow TopologicalSorter.prepare() to be called more than once as long as sorting has not started. (Contributed by Daniel Pope in gh-130914 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130914].)

heapq

The heapq module has improved support for working with max-heaps, via the following new functions:

heapify_max()

heappush_max()

heappop_max()

heapreplace_max()

heappushpop_max()

hmac

Add a built-in implementation for HMAC (RFC 2104 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2104.html]) using formally verified code from the HACL* [https://github.com/hacl-star/hacl-star/] project. This implementation is used as a fallback when the OpenSSL implementation of HMAC is not available. (Contributed by Bénédikt Tran in gh-99108 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108].)

http

Directory lists and error pages generated by the http.server module allow the browser to apply its default dark mode. (Contributed by Yorik Hansen in gh-123430 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123430].)

The http.server module now supports serving over HTTPS using the http.server.HTTPSServer class. This functionality is exposed by the command-line interface (python -m http.server) through the following options:

--tls-cert <path>: Path to the TLS certificate file.

--tls-key <path>: Optional path to the private key file.

--tls-password-file <path>: Optional path to the password file for the private key.

(Contributed by Semyon Moroz in gh-85162 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85162].)

imaplib

Add IMAP4.idle(), implementing the IMAP4 IDLE command as defined in RFC 2177 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2177.html]. (Contributed by Forest in gh-55454 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/55454].)

inspect

signature() takes a new argument annotation_format to control the annotationlib.Format used for representing annotations. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-101552 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101552].)

Signature.format() takes a new argument unquote_annotations. If true, string annotations are displayed without surrounding quotes. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-101552 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101552].)

Add function ispackage() to determine whether an object is a package or not. (Contributed by Zhikang Yan in gh-125634 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125634].)

io

Reading text from a non-blocking stream with read may now raise a BlockingIOError if the operation cannot immediately return bytes. (Contributed by Giovanni Siragusa in gh-109523 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109523].)

Add the Reader and Writer protocols as simpler alternatives to the pseudo-protocols typing.IO, typing.TextIO, and typing.BinaryIO. (Contributed by Sebastian Rittau in gh-127648 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127648].)

json

Add exception notes for JSON serialization errors that allow identifying the source of the error. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-122163 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122163].)

Allow using the json module as a script using the -m switch: python -m json. This is now preferred to python -m json.tool, which is soft deprecated. See the JSON command-line interface documentation. (Contributed by Trey Hunner in gh-122873 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122873].)

By default, the output of the JSON command-line interface is highlighted in color. This can be controlled by environment variables. (Contributed by Tomas Roun in gh-131952 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131952].)

linecache

getline() can now retrieve source code for frozen modules. (Contributed by Tian Gao in gh-131638 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131638].)

logging.handlers

QueueListener objects now support the context manager protocol. (Contributed by Charles Machalow in gh-132106 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132106].)

QueueListener.start now raises a RuntimeError if the listener is already started. (Contributed by Charles Machalow in gh-132106 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132106].)

math

Added more detailed error messages for domain errors in the module. (Contributed by Charlie Zhao and Sergey B Kirpichev in gh-101410 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101410].)

mimetypes

Add a public command-line for the module, invoked via python -m mimetypes. (Contributed by Oleg Iarygin and Hugo van Kemenade in gh-93096 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93096].)

Add several new MIME types based on RFCs and common usage:

Microsoft and RFC 8081 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc8081.html] MIME types for fonts

Embedded OpenType: application/vnd.ms-fontobject

OpenType Layout (OTF) font/otf

TrueType: font/ttf

WOFF 1.0 font/woff

WOFF 2.0 font/woff2

RFC 9559 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9559.html] MIME types for Matroska audiovisual data container structures

audio with no video: audio/matroska (.mka)

video: video/matroska (.mkv)

stereoscopic video: video/matroska-3d (.mk3d)

Images with RFCs

RFC 1494 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1494.html]: CCITT Group 3 (.g3)

RFC 3362 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3362.html]: Real-time Facsimile, T.38 (.t38)

RFC 3745 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3745.html]: JPEG 2000 (.jp2), extension (.jpx) and compound (.jpm)

RFC 3950 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3950.html]: Tag Image File Format Fax eXtended, TIFF-FX (.tfx)

RFC 4047 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4047.html]: Flexible Image Transport System (.fits)

RFC 7903 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7903.html]: Enhanced Metafile (.emf) and Windows Metafile (.wmf)

Other MIME type additions and changes

RFC 2361 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2361.html]: Change type for .avi to video/vnd.avi and for .wav to audio/vnd.wave

RFC 4337 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4337.html]: Add MPEG-4 audio/mp4 (.m4a)

RFC 5334 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5334.html]: Add Ogg media (.oga, .ogg and .ogx)

RFC 6713 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6713.html]: Add gzip application/gzip (.gz)

RFC 9639 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9639.html]: Add FLAC audio/flac (.flac)

RFC 9512 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9512.html] application/yaml MIME type for YAML files (.yaml and .yml)

Add 7z application/x-7z-compressed (.7z)

Add Android Package application/vnd.android.package-archive (.apk) when not strict

Add deb application/x-debian-package (.deb)

Add glTF binary model/gltf-binary (.glb)

Add glTF JSON/ASCII model/gltf+json (.gltf)

Add M4V video/x-m4v (.m4v)

Add PHP application/x-httpd-php (.php)

Add RAR application/vnd.rar (.rar)

Add RPM application/x-rpm (.rpm)

Add STL model/stl (.stl)

Add Windows Media Video video/x-ms-wmv (.wmv)

De facto: Add WebM audio/webm (.weba)

ECMA-376 [https://ecma-international.org/publications-and-standards/standards/ecma-376/]: Add .docx, .pptx and .xlsx types

OASIS [https://docs.oasis-open.org/office/v1.2/cs01/OpenDocument-v1.2-cs01-part1.html#Appendix_C]: Add OpenDocument .odg, .odp, .ods and .odt types

W3C [https://www.w3.org/TR/epub-33/#app-media-type]: Add EPUB application/epub+zip (.epub)

(Contributed by Sahil Prajapati and Hugo van Kemenade in gh-84852 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84852], by Sasha "Nelie" Chernykh and Hugo van Kemenade in gh-132056 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132056], and by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-89416 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89416], gh-85957 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85957], and gh-129965 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129965].)

multiprocessing

On Unix platforms other than macOS, 'forkserver' is now the default start method (replacing 'fork'). This change does not affect Windows or macOS, where 'spawn' remains the default start method.

If the threading incompatible fork method is required, you must explicitly request it via a context from get_context() (preferred) or change the default via set_start_method().

See forkserver restrictions for information and differences with the fork method and how this change may affect existing code with mutable global shared variables and/or shared objects that can not be automatically pickled.

(Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in gh-84559 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84559].)

multiprocessing's 'forkserver' start method now authenticates its control socket to avoid solely relying on filesystem permissions to restrict what other processes could cause the forkserver to spawn workers and run code. (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith for gh-97514 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97514].)

The multiprocessing proxy objects for list and dict types gain previously overlooked missing methods:

clear() and copy() for proxies of list

fromkeys(), reversed(d), d | {}, {} | d, d |= {'b': 2} for proxies of dict

(Contributed by Roy Hyunjin Han for gh-103134 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103134].)

Add support for shared set objects via SyncManager.set(). The set() in Manager() method is now available. (Contributed by Mingyu Park in gh-129949 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129949].)

Add the interrupt() to multiprocessing.Process objects, which terminates the child process by sending SIGINT. This enables finally clauses to print a stack trace for the terminated process. (Contributed by Artem Pulkin in gh-131913 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131913].)

operator

Add is_none() and is_not_none() as a pair of functions, such that operator.is_none(obj) is equivalent to obj is None and operator.is_not_none(obj) is equivalent to obj is not None. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and Nico Mexis in gh-115808 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115808].)

os

Add the reload_environ() function to update os.environ and os.environb with changes to the environment made by os.putenv(), by os.unsetenv(), or made outside Python in the same process. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-120057 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120057].)

Add the SCHED_DEADLINE and SCHED_NORMAL constants to the os module. (Contributed by James Roy in gh-127688 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127688].)

Add the readinto() function to read into a buffer object from a file descriptor. (Contributed by Cody Maloney in gh-129205 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129205].)

os.path

The strict parameter to realpath() accepts a new value, ALLOW_MISSING. If used, errors other than FileNotFoundError will be re-raised; the resulting path can be missing but it will be free of symlinks. (Contributed by Petr Viktorin for CVE 2025-4517 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2025-4517].)

pathlib

Add methods to pathlib.Path to recursively copy or move files and directories:

copy() copies a file or directory tree to a destination.

copy_into() copies into a destination directory.

move() moves a file or directory tree to a destination.

move_into() moves into a destination directory.

(Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-73991 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73991].)

Add the info attribute, which stores an object implementing the new pathlib.types.PathInfo protocol. The object supports querying the file type and internally caching stat() results. Path objects generated by iterdir() are initialized with file type information gleaned from scanning the parent directory. (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-125413 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125413].)

pdb

The pdb module now supports remote attaching to a running Python process using a new -p PID command-line option:

python -m pdb -p 1234

This will connect to the Python process with the given PID and allow you to debug it interactively. Notice that due to how the Python interpreter works attaching to a remote process that is blocked in a system call or waiting for I/O will only work once the next bytecode instruction is executed or when the process receives a signal.

This feature uses PEP 768 and the new sys.remote_exec() function to attach to the remote process and send the PDB commands to it.

(Contributed by Matt Wozniski and Pablo Galindo in gh-131591 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131591].)

Hardcoded breakpoints (breakpoint() and set_trace()) now reuse the most recent Pdb instance that calls set_trace(), instead of creating a new one each time. As a result, all the instance specific data like display and commands are preserved across hardcoded breakpoints. (Contributed by Tian Gao in gh-121450 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121450].)

Add a new argument mode to pdb.Pdb. Disable the restart command when pdb is in inline mode. (Contributed by Tian Gao in gh-123757 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123757].)

A confirmation prompt will be shown when the user tries to quit pdb in inline mode. y, Y, <Enter> or EOF will confirm the quit and call sys.exit(), instead of raising bdb.BdbQuit. (Contributed by Tian Gao in gh-124704 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124704].)

Inline breakpoints like breakpoint() or pdb.set_trace() will always stop the program at calling frame, ignoring the skip pattern (if any). (Contributed by Tian Gao in gh-130493 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130493].)

<tab> at the beginning of the line in pdb multi-line input will fill in a 4-space indentation now, instead of inserting a \t character. (Contributed by Tian Gao in gh-130471 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130471].)

Auto-indent is introduced in pdb multi-line input. It will either keep the indentation of the last line or insert a 4-space indentation when it detects a new code block. (Contributed by Tian Gao in gh-133350 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133350].)

$_asynctask is added to access the current asyncio task if applicable. (Contributed by Tian Gao in gh-124367 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124367].)

pdb.set_trace_async() is added to support debugging asyncio coroutines. await statements are supported with this function. (Contributed by Tian Gao in gh-132576 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132576].)

Source code displayed in pdb will be syntax-highlighted. This feature can be controlled using the same methods as the default interactive shell, in addition to the newly added colorize argument of pdb.Pdb. (Contributed by Tian Gao and Łukasz Langa in gh-133355 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133355].)

pickle

Set the default protocol version on the pickle module to 5. For more details, see pickle protocols.

Add exception notes for pickle serialization errors that allow identifying the source of the error. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-122213 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122213].)

platform

Add invalidate_caches(), a function to invalidate cached results in the platform module. (Contributed by Bénédikt Tran in gh-122549 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122549].)

pydoc

Annotations in help output are now usually displayed in a format closer to that in the original source. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-101552 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101552].)

re

Support \z as a synonym for \Z in regular expressions. It is interpreted unambiguously in many other regular expression engines, unlike \Z, which has subtly different behavior. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-133306 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133306].)

\B in regular expression now matches the empty input string, meaning that it is now always the opposite of \b. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-124130 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124130].)

socket

Improve and fix support for Bluetooth sockets.

Fix support of Bluetooth sockets on NetBSD and DragonFly BSD. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-132429 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132429].)

Fix support for BTPROTO_HCI on FreeBSD. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-111178 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111178].)

Add support for BTPROTO_SCO on FreeBSD. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-85302 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85302].)

Add support for cid and bdaddr_type in the address for BTPROTO_L2CAP on FreeBSD. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-132429 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132429].)

Add support for channel in the address for BTPROTO_HCI on Linux. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-70145 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70145].)

Accept an integer as the address for BTPROTO_HCI on Linux. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-132099 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132099].)

Return cid in getsockname() for BTPROTO_L2CAP. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-132429 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132429].)

Add many new constants. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-132734 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132734].)

ssl

Indicate through the HAS_PHA Boolean whether the ssl module supports TLSv1.3 post-handshake client authentication (PHA). (Contributed by Will Childs-Klein in gh-128036 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128036].)

struct

Support the float complex and double complex C types in the struct module (formatting characters 'F' and 'D' respectively). (Contributed by Sergey B Kirpichev in gh-121249 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121249].)

symtable

Expose the following Symbol methods:

is_comp_cell()

is_comp_iter()

is_free_class()

(Contributed by Bénédikt Tran in gh-120029 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120029].)

sys

The previously undocumented special function sys.getobjects(), which only exists in specialized builds of Python, may now return objects from other interpreters than the one it's called in. (Contributed by Eric Snow in gh-125286 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125286].)

Add sys._is_immortal() for determining if an object is immortal. (Contributed by Peter Bierma in gh-128509 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128509].)

On FreeBSD, sys.platform no longer contains the major version number. It is always 'freebsd', instead of 'freebsd13' or 'freebsd14'. (Contributed by Michael Osipov in gh-129393 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129393].)

Raise DeprecationWarning for sys._clear_type_cache(). This function was deprecated in Python 3.13 but it didn't raise a runtime warning.

Add sys.remote_exec() to implement the new external debugger interface. See PEP 768 for details. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo Salgado, Matt Wozniski, and Ivona Stojanovic in gh-131591 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131591].)

Add the sys._jit namespace, containing utilities for introspecting just-in-time compilation. (Contributed by Brandt Bucher in gh-133231 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133231].)

sys.monitoring

Add two new monitoring events, BRANCH_LEFT and BRANCH_RIGHT. These replace and deprecate the BRANCH event. (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-122548 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122548].)

sysconfig

Add ABIFLAGS key to get_config_vars() on Windows. (Contributed by Xuehai Pan in gh-131799 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131799].)

tarfile

data_filter() now normalizes symbolic link targets in order to avoid path traversal attacks. (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in gh-127987 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127987] and CVE 2025-4138 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2025-4138].)

extractall() now skips fixing up directory attributes when a directory was removed or replaced by another kind of file. (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in gh-127987 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127987] and CVE 2024-12718 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2024-12718].)

extract() and extractall() now (re-)apply the extraction filter when substituting a link (hard or symbolic) with a copy of another archive member, and when fixing up directory attributes. The former raises a new exception, LinkFallbackError. (Contributed by Petr Viktorin for CVE 2025-4330 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2025-4330] and CVE 2024-12718 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2024-12718].)

extract() and extractall() no longer extract rejected members when errorlevel() is zero. (Contributed by Matt Prodani and Petr Viktorin in gh-112887 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112887] and CVE 2025-4435 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2025-4435].)

threading

threading.Thread.start() now sets the operating system thread name to threading.Thread.name. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-59705 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59705].)

tkinter

Make tkinter widget methods after() and after_idle() accept keyword arguments. (Contributed by Zhikang Yan in gh-126899 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126899].)

Add ability to specify a name for tkinter.OptionMenu and tkinter.ttk.OptionMenu. (Contributed by Zhikang Yan in gh-130482 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130482].)

turtle

Add context managers for turtle.fill(), turtle.poly(), and turtle.no_animation(). (Contributed by Marie Roald and Yngve Mardal Moe in gh-126350 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126350].)

types

types.UnionType is now an alias for typing.Union. See below for more details. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-105499 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105499].)

typing

The types.UnionType and typing.Union types are now aliases for each other, meaning that both old-style unions (created with Union[int, str]) and new-style unions (int | str) now create instances of the same runtime type. This unifies the behavior between the two syntaxes, but leads to some differences in behavior that may affect users who introspect types at runtime:

Both syntaxes for creating a union now produce the same string representation in repr(). For example, repr(Union[int, str]) is now "int | str" instead of "typing.Union[int, str]".

Unions created using the old syntax are no longer cached. Previously, running Union[int, str] multiple times would return the same object (Union[int, str] is Union[int, str] would be True), but now it will return two different objects. Use == to compare unions for equality, not is. New-style unions have never been cached this way. This change could increase memory usage for some programs that use a large number of unions created by subscripting typing.Union. However, several factors offset this cost: unions used in annotations are no longer evaluated by default in Python 3.14 because of PEP 649 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/]; an instance of types.UnionType is itself much smaller than the object returned by Union[] was on prior Python versions; and removing the cache also saves some space. It is therefore unlikely that this change will cause a significant increase in memory usage for most users.

Previously, old-style unions were implemented using the private class typing._UnionGenericAlias. This class is no longer needed for the implementation, but it has been retained for backward compatibility, with removal scheduled for Python 3.17. Users should use documented introspection helpers like get_origin() and typing.get_args() instead of relying on private implementation details.

It is now possible to use typing.Union itself in isinstance() checks. For example, isinstance(int | str, typing.Union) will return True; previously this raised TypeError.

The __args__ attribute of typing.Union objects is no longer writable.

It is no longer possible to set any attributes on Union objects. This only ever worked for dunder attributes on previous versions, was never documented to work, and was subtly broken in many cases.

(Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-105499 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105499].)

TypeAliasType now supports star unpacking.

unicodedata

The Unicode database has been updated to Unicode 16.0.0.

unittest

unittest output is now colored by default. This can be controlled by environment variables. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-127221 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127221].)

unittest discovery supports namespace package as start directory again. It was removed in Python 3.11. (Contributed by Jacob Walls in gh-80958 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80958].)

A number of new methods were added in the TestCase class that provide more specialized tests.

assertHasAttr() and assertNotHasAttr() check whether the object has a particular attribute.

assertIsSubclass() and assertNotIsSubclass() check whether the object is a subclass of a particular class, or of one of a tuple of classes.

assertStartsWith(), assertNotStartsWith(), assertEndsWith() and assertNotEndsWith() check whether the Unicode or byte string starts or ends with particular strings.

(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-71339 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71339].)

urllib

Upgrade HTTP digest authentication algorithm for urllib.request by supporting SHA-256 digest authentication as specified in RFC 7616 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7616.html]. (Contributed by Calvin Bui in gh-128193 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128193].)

Improve ergonomics and standards compliance when parsing and emitting file: URLs.

In url2pathname():

Accept a complete URL when the new require_scheme argument is set to true.

Discard URL authority if it matches the local hostname.

Discard URL authority if it resolves to a local IP address when the new resolve_host argument is set to true.

Discard URL query and fragment components.

Raise URLError if a URL authority isn't local, except on Windows where we return a UNC path as before.

In pathname2url():

Return a complete URL when the new add_scheme argument is set to true.

Include an empty URL authority when a path begins with a slash. For example, the path /etc/hosts is converted to the URL ///etc/hosts.

On Windows, drive letters are no longer converted to uppercase, and : characters not following a drive letter no longer cause an OSError exception to be raised.

(Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-125866 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125866].)

uuid

Add support for UUID versions 6, 7, and 8 via uuid6(), uuid7(), and uuid8() respectively, as specified in RFC 9562 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9562.html]. (Contributed by Bénédikt Tran in gh-89083 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89083].)

NIL and MAX are now available to represent the Nil and Max UUID formats as defined by RFC 9562 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9562.html]. (Contributed by Nick Pope in gh-128427 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128427].)

Allow generating multiple UUIDs simultaneously on the command-line via python -m uuid --count. (Contributed by Simon Legner in gh-131236 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131236].)

webbrowser

Names in the BROWSER environment variable can now refer to already registered browsers for the webbrowser module, instead of always generating a new browser command.

This makes it possible to set BROWSER to the value of one of the supported browsers on macOS.

zipfile

Added ZipInfo._for_archive, a method to resolve suitable defaults for a ZipInfo object as used by ZipFile.writestr. (Contributed by Bénédikt Tran in gh-123424 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123424].)

ZipFile.writestr() now respects the SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH environment variable in order to better support reproducible builds. (Contributed by Jiahao Li in gh-91279 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91279].)

Optimisations

The import time for several standard library modules has been improved, including annotationlib, ast, asyncio, base64, cmd, csv, gettext, importlib.util, locale, mimetypes, optparse, pickle, pprint, pstats, shlex, socket, string, subprocess, threading, tomllib, types, and zipfile.

(Contributed by Adam Turner, Bénédikt Tran, Chris Markiewicz, Eli Schwartz, Hugo van Kemenade, Jelle Zijlstra, and others in gh-118761 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118761].)

The interpreter now avoids some reference count modifications internally when it's safe to do so. This can lead to different values being returned from sys.getrefcount() and Py_REFCNT() compared to previous versions of Python. See below for details.

asyncio

Standard benchmark results have improved by 10-20% following the implementation of a new per-thread doubly linked list for native tasks, also reducing memory usage. This enables external introspection tools such as python -m asyncio pstree to introspect the call graph of asyncio tasks running in all threads. (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-107803 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107803].)

The module now has first class support for free-threading builds. This enables parallel execution of multiple event loops across different threads, scaling linearly with the number of threads. (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-128002 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128002].)

base64

b16decode() is now up to six times faster. (Contributed by Bénédikt Tran, Chris Markiewicz, and Adam Turner in gh-118761 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118761].)

bdb

The basic debugger now has a sys.monitoring-based backend, which can be selected via the passing 'monitoring' to the Bdb class's new backend parameter. (Contributed by Tian Gao in gh-124533 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124533].)

difflib

The IS_LINE_JUNK() function is now up to twice as fast. (Contributed by Adam Turner and Semyon Moroz in gh-130167 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130167].)

gc

The new incremental garbage collector means that maximum pause times are reduced by an order of magnitude or more for larger heaps.

Because of this optimization, the meaning of the results of get_threshold() and set_threshold() have changed, along with get_count() and get_stats().

For backwards compatibility, get_threshold() continues to return a three-item tuple. The first value is the threshold for young collections, as before; the second value determines the rate at which the old collection is scanned (the default is 10, and higher values mean that the old collection is scanned more slowly). The third value is now meaningless and is always zero.

set_threshold() now ignores any items after the second.

get_count() and get_stats() continue to return the same format of results. The only difference is that instead of the results referring to the young, aging and old generations, the results refer to the young generation and the aging and collecting spaces of the old generation.

In summary, code that attempted to manipulate the behavior of the cycle GC may not work exactly as intended, but it is very unlikely to be harmful. All other code will work just fine.

(Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-108362 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108362].)

io

Opening and reading files now executes fewer system calls. Reading a small operating system cached file in full is up to 15% faster. (Contributed by Cody Maloney and Victor Stinner in gh-120754 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120754] and gh-90102 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90102].)

pathlib

Path.read_bytes now uses unbuffered mode to open files, which is between 9% and 17% faster to read in full. (Contributed by Cody Maloney in gh-120754 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120754].)

pdb

pdb now supports two backends, based on either sys.settrace() or sys.monitoring. Using the pdb CLI or breakpoint() will always use the sys.monitoring backend. Explicitly instantiating pdb.Pdb and its derived classes will use the sys.settrace() backend by default, which is configurable. (Contributed by Tian Gao in gh-124533 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124533].)

textwrap

Optimize the dedent() function, improving performance by an average of 2.4x, with larger improvements for bigger inputs, and fix a bug with incomplete normalization of blank lines with whitespace characters other than space and tab.

uuid

uuid3() and uuid5() are now both roughly 40% faster for 16-byte names and 20% faster for 1024-byte names. Performance for longer names remains unchanged. (Contributed by Bénédikt Tran in gh-128150 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128150].)

uuid4() is now c. 30% faster. (Contributed by Bénédikt Tran in gh-128150 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128150].)

zlib

On Windows, zlib-ng [https://github.com/zlib-ng/zlib-ng] is now used as the implementation of the zlib module in the default binaries. There are no known incompatibilities between zlib-ng and the previously-used zlib implementation. This should result in better performance at all compression levels.

It is worth noting that zlib.Z_BEST_SPEED (1) may result in significantly less compression than the previous implementation, whilst also significantly reducing the time taken to compress.

(Contributed by Steve Dower in gh-91349 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91349].)

Retraits

argparse

Remove the type, choices, and metavar parameters of BooleanOptionalAction. These have been deprecated since Python 3.12. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-118805 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118805].)

Calling add_argument_group() on an argument group now raises a ValueError. Similarly, add_argument_group() or add_mutually_exclusive_group() on a mutually exclusive group now both raise ValueErrors. This 'nesting' was never supported, often failed to work correctly, and was unintentionally exposed through inheritance. This functionality has been deprecated since Python 3.11. (Contributed by Savannah Ostrowski in gh-127186 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127186].)

ast

Remove the following classes, which have been deprecated aliases of Constant since Python 3.8 and have emitted deprecation warnings since Python 3.12:

Bytes

Ellipsis

NameConstant

Num

Str

As a consequence of these removals, user-defined visit_Num, visit_Str, visit_Bytes, visit_NameConstant and visit_Ellipsis methods on custom NodeVisitor subclasses will no longer be called when the NodeVisitor subclass is visiting an AST. Define a visit_Constant method instead.

(Contributed by Alex Waygood in gh-119562 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119562].)

Remove the following deprecated properties on ast.Constant, which were present for compatibility with the now-removed AST classes:

Constant.n

Constant.s

Use Constant.value instead. (Contributed by Alex Waygood in gh-119562 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119562].)

asyncio

Remove the following classes, methods, and functions, which have been deprecated since Python 3.12:

AbstractChildWatcher

FastChildWatcher

MultiLoopChildWatcher

PidfdChildWatcher

SafeChildWatcher

ThreadedChildWatcher

AbstractEventLoopPolicy.get_child_watcher()

AbstractEventLoopPolicy.set_child_watcher()

get_child_watcher()

set_child_watcher()

(Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-120804 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120804].)

asyncio.get_event_loop() now raises a RuntimeError if there is no current event loop, and no longer implicitly creates an event loop.

(Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-126353 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126353].)

There's a few patterns that use asyncio.get_event_loop(), most of them can be replaced with asyncio.run().

If you're running an async function, simply use asyncio.run().

Before:

async def main():
    ...

loop = asyncio.get_event_loop()
try:
    loop.run_until_complete(main())
finally:
    loop.close()

After:

async def main():
    ...

asyncio.run(main())

If you need to start something, for example, a server listening on a socket and then run forever, use asyncio.run() and an asyncio.Event.

Before:

def start_server(loop): ...

loop = asyncio.get_event_loop()
try:
    start_server(loop)
    loop.run_forever()
finally:
    loop.close()

After:

def start_server(loop): ...

async def main():
    start_server(asyncio.get_running_loop())
    await asyncio.Event().wait()

asyncio.run(main())

If you need to run something in an event loop, then run some blocking code around it, use asyncio.Runner.

Before:

async def operation_one(): ...
def blocking_code(): ...
async def operation_two(): ...

loop = asyncio.get_event_loop()
try:
    loop.run_until_complete(operation_one())
    blocking_code()
    loop.run_until_complete(operation_two())
finally:
    loop.close()

After:

async def operation_one(): ...
def blocking_code(): ...
async def operation_two(): ...

with asyncio.Runner() as runner:
    runner.run(operation_one())
    blocking_code()
    runner.run(operation_two())

email

Remove email.utils.localtime()'s isdst parameter, which was deprecated in and has been ignored since Python 3.12. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-118798 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118798].)

importlib.abc

Remove deprecated importlib.abc classes:

ResourceReader (use TraversableResources)

Traversable (use Traversable)

TraversableResources (use TraversableResources)

(Contributed by Jason R. Coombs and Hugo van Kemenade in gh-93963 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93963].)

itertools

Remove support for copy, deepcopy, and pickle operations from itertools iterators. These have emitted a DeprecationWarning since Python 3.12. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-101588 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101588].)

pathlib

Remove support for passing additional keyword arguments to Path. In previous versions, any such arguments are ignored. (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-74033 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74033].)

Remove support for passing additional positional arguments to PurePath.relative_to() and is_relative_to(). In previous versions, any such arguments are joined onto other. (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-78707 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78707].)

pkgutil

Remove the get_loader() and find_loader() functions, which have been deprecated since Python 3.12. (Contributed by Bénédikt Tran in gh-97850 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850].)

pty

Remove the master_open() and slave_open() functions, which have been deprecated since Python 3.12. Use pty.openpty() instead. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-118824 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118824].)

sqlite3

Remove version and version_info from the sqlite3 module; use sqlite_version and sqlite_version_info for the actual version number of the runtime SQLite library. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-118924 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118924].)

Using a sequence of parameters with named placeholders now raises a ProgrammingError, having been deprecated since Python 3.12. (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in gh-118928 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118928] and gh-101693 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101693].)

urllib

Remove the Quoter class from urllib.parse, which has been deprecated since Python 3.11. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-118827 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118827].)

Remove the URLopener and FancyURLopener classes from urllib.request, which have been deprecated since Python 3.3.

myopener.open() can be replaced with urlopen(). myopener.retrieve() can be replaced with urlretrieve(). Customisations to the opener classes can be replaced by passing customized handlers to build_opener(). (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-84850 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84850].)

Obsolescence

New deprecations

Passing a complex number as the real or imag argument in the complex() constructor is now deprecated; complex numbers should only be passed as a single positional argument. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-109218 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109218].)

argparse:

Passing the undocumented keyword argument prefix_chars to the add_argument_group() method is now deprecated. (Contributed by Savannah Ostrowski in gh-125563 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125563].)

Deprecated the argparse.FileType type converter. Anything relating to resource management should be handled downstream, after the arguments have been parsed. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-58032 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/58032].)

asyncio:

The asyncio.iscoroutinefunction() is now deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.16; use inspect.iscoroutinefunction() instead. (Contributed by Jiahao Li and Kumar Aditya in gh-122875 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122875].)

The asyncio policy system is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.16. In particular, the following classes and functions are deprecated:

asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy

asyncio.DefaultEventLoopPolicy

asyncio.WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy

asyncio.WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy

asyncio.get_event_loop_policy()

asyncio.set_event_loop_policy()

Users should use asyncio.run() or asyncio.Runner with the loop_factory argument to use the desired event loop implementation.

For example, to use asyncio.SelectorEventLoop on Windows:

import asyncio

async def main():
    ...

asyncio.run(main(), loop_factory=asyncio.SelectorEventLoop)

(Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-127949 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127949].)

codecs: The codecs.open() function is now deprecated, and will be removed in a future version of Python. Use open() instead. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in gh-133036 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133036].)

ctypes:

On non-Windows platforms, setting Structure._pack_ to use a MSVC-compatible default memory layout is now deprecated in favor of setting Structure._layout_ to 'ms', and will be removed in Python 3.19. (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in gh-131747 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131747].)

Calling ctypes.POINTER() on a string is now deprecated. Use incomplete types for self-referential structures. Also, the internal ctypes._pointer_type_cache is deprecated. See ctypes.POINTER() for updated implementation details. (Contributed by Sergey Myrianov in gh-100926 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100926].)

functools: Calling the Python implementation of functools.reduce() with function or sequence as keyword arguments is now deprecated; the parameters will be made positional-only in Python 3.16. (Contributed by Kirill Podoprigora in gh-121676 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121676].)

logging: Support for custom logging handlers with the strm argument is now deprecated and scheduled for removal in Python 3.16. Define handlers with the stream argument instead. (Contributed by Mariusz Felisiak in gh-115032 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115032].)

mimetypes: Valid extensions are either empty or must start with '.' for mimetypes.MimeTypes.add_type(). Undotted extensions are deprecated and will raise a ValueError in Python 3.16. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-75223 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75223].)

nturl2path: This module is now deprecated. Call urllib.request.url2pathname() and pathname2url() instead. (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-125866 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125866].)

os: The os.popen() and os.spawn* functions are now soft deprecated. They should no longer be used to write new code. The subprocess module is recommended instead. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-120743 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120743].)

pathlib: pathlib.PurePath.as_uri() is now deprecated and scheduled for removal in Python 3.19. Use pathlib.Path.as_uri() instead. (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-123599 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123599].)

pdb: The undocumented pdb.Pdb.curframe_locals attribute is now a deprecated read-only property, which will be removed in a future version of Python. The low overhead dynamic frame locals access added in Python 3.13 by PEP 667 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/] means the frame locals cache reference previously stored in this attribute is no longer needed. Derived debuggers should access pdb.Pdb.curframe.f_locals directly in Python 3.13 and later versions. (Contributed by Tian Gao in gh-124369 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124369] and gh-125951 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125951].)

symtable: Deprecate symtable.Class.get_methods() due to the lack of interest, scheduled for removal in Python 3.16. (Contributed by Bénédikt Tran in gh-119698 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119698].)

tkinter: The tkinter.Variable methods trace_variable(), trace_vdelete() and trace_vinfo() are now deprecated. Use trace_add(), trace_remove() and trace_info() instead. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-120220 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120220].)

urllib.parse: Accepting objects with false values (like 0 and []) except empty strings, bytes-like objects and None in parse_qsl() and parse_qs() is now deprecated. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-116897 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116897].)

Pending removal in Python 3.15

The import system:

Setting __cached__ on a module while failing to set __spec__.cached is deprecated. In Python 3.15, __cached__ will cease to be set or take into consideration by the import system or standard library. (gh-97879 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97879])

Setting __package__ on a module while failing to set __spec__.parent is deprecated. In Python 3.15, __package__ will cease to be set or take into consideration by the import system or standard library. (gh-97879 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97879])

ctypes:

The undocumented ctypes.SetPointerType() function has been deprecated since Python 3.13.

http.server:

The obsolete and rarely used CGIHTTPRequestHandler has been deprecated since Python 3.13. No direct replacement exists. Anything is better than CGI to interface a web server with a request handler.

The --cgi flag to the python -m http.server command-line interface has been deprecated since Python 3.13.

importlib:

load_module() method: use exec_module() instead.

locale:

The getdefaultlocale() function has been deprecated since Python 3.11. Its removal was originally planned for Python 3.13 (gh-90817 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90817]), but has been postponed to Python 3.15. Use getlocale(), setlocale(), and getencoding() instead. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-111187 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111187].)

pathlib:

PurePath.is_reserved() has been deprecated since Python 3.13. Use os.path.isreserved() to detect reserved paths on Windows.

platform:

java_ver() has been deprecated since Python 3.13. This function is only useful for Jython support, has a confusing API, and is largely untested.

sysconfig:

The check_home argument of sysconfig.is_python_build() has been deprecated since Python 3.12.

threading:

RLock() will take no arguments in Python 3.15. Passing any arguments has been deprecated since Python 3.14, as the Python version does not permit any arguments, but the C version allows any number of positional or keyword arguments, ignoring every argument.

types:

types.CodeType: Accessing co_lnotab was deprecated in PEP 626 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/] since 3.10 and was planned to be removed in 3.12, but it only got a proper DeprecationWarning in 3.12. May be removed in 3.15. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-101866 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101866].)

typing:

The undocumented keyword argument syntax for creating NamedTuple classes (for example, Point = NamedTuple("Point", x=int, y=int)) has been deprecated since Python 3.13. Use the class-based syntax or the functional syntax instead.

When using the functional syntax of TypedDicts, failing to pass a value to the fields parameter (TD = TypedDict("TD")) or passing None (TD = TypedDict("TD", None)) has been deprecated since Python 3.13. Use class TD(TypedDict): pass or TD = TypedDict("TD", {}) to create a TypedDict with zero field.

The typing.no_type_check_decorator() decorator function has been deprecated since Python 3.13. After eight years in the typing module, it has yet to be supported by any major type checker.

wave:

The getmark(), setmark(), and getmarkers() methods of the Wave_read and Wave_write classes have been deprecated since Python 3.13.

zipimport:

load_module() has been deprecated since Python 3.10. Use exec_module() instead. (Contributed by Jiahao Li in gh-125746 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125746].)

Pending removal in Python 3.16

The import system:

Setting __loader__ on a module while failing to set __spec__.loader is deprecated. In Python 3.16, __loader__ will cease to be set or taken into consideration by the import system or the standard library.

array:

The 'u' format code (wchar_t) has been deprecated in documentation since Python 3.3 and at runtime since Python 3.13. Use the 'w' format code (Py_UCS4) for Unicode characters instead.

asyncio:

asyncio.iscoroutinefunction() is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.16; use inspect.iscoroutinefunction() instead. (Contributed by Jiahao Li and Kumar Aditya in gh-122875 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122875].)

asyncio policy system is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.16. In particular, the following classes and functions are deprecated:

asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy

asyncio.DefaultEventLoopPolicy

asyncio.WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy

asyncio.WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy

asyncio.get_event_loop_policy()

asyncio.set_event_loop_policy()

Users should use asyncio.run() or asyncio.Runner with loop_factory to use the desired event loop implementation.

For example, to use asyncio.SelectorEventLoop on Windows:

import asyncio

async def main():
    ...

asyncio.run(main(), loop_factory=asyncio.SelectorEventLoop)

(Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-127949 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127949].)

builtins:

Bitwise inversion on boolean types, ~True or ~False has been deprecated since Python 3.12, as it produces surprising and unintuitive results (-2 and -1). Use not x instead for the logical negation of a Boolean. In the rare case that you need the bitwise inversion of the underlying integer, convert to int explicitly (~int(x)).

functools:

Calling the Python implementation of functools.reduce() with function or sequence as keyword arguments has been deprecated since Python 3.14.

logging:

Support for custom logging handlers with the strm argument is deprecated and scheduled for removal in Python 3.16. Define handlers with the stream argument instead. (Contributed by Mariusz Felisiak in gh-115032 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115032].)

mimetypes:

Valid extensions start with a '.' or are empty for mimetypes.MimeTypes.add_type(). Undotted extensions are deprecated and will raise a ValueError in Python 3.16. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-75223 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75223].)

shutil:

The ExecError exception has been deprecated since Python 3.14. It has not been used by any function in shutil since Python 3.4, and is now an alias of RuntimeError.

symtable:

The Class.get_methods method has been deprecated since Python 3.14.

sys:

The _enablelegacywindowsfsencoding() function has been deprecated since Python 3.13. Use the PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING environment variable instead.

sysconfig:

The sysconfig.expand_makefile_vars() function has been deprecated since Python 3.14. Use the vars argument of sysconfig.get_paths() instead.

tarfile:

The undocumented and unused TarFile.tarfile attribute has been deprecated since Python 3.13.

Pending removal in Python 3.17

collections.abc:

collections.abc.ByteString is scheduled for removal in Python 3.17.

Use isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Buffer) to test if obj implements the buffer protocol at runtime. For use in type annotations, either use Buffer or a union that explicitly specifies the types your code supports (e.g., bytes | bytearray | memoryview).

ByteString was originally intended to be an abstract class that would serve as a supertype of both bytes and bytearray. However, since the ABC never had any methods, knowing that an object was an instance of ByteString never actually told you anything useful about the object. Other common buffer types such as memoryview were also never understood as subtypes of ByteString (either at runtime or by static type checkers).

See PEP 688 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/#current-options] for more details. (Contributed by Shantanu Jain in gh-91896 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896].)

typing:

Before Python 3.14, old-style unions were implemented using the private class typing._UnionGenericAlias. This class is no longer needed for the implementation, but it has been retained for backward compatibility, with removal scheduled for Python 3.17. Users should use documented introspection helpers like typing.get_origin() and typing.get_args() instead of relying on private implementation details.

typing.ByteString, deprecated since Python 3.9, is scheduled for removal in Python 3.17.

Use isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Buffer) to test if obj implements the buffer protocol at runtime. For use in type annotations, either use Buffer or a union that explicitly specifies the types your code supports (e.g., bytes | bytearray | memoryview).

ByteString was originally intended to be an abstract class that would serve as a supertype of both bytes and bytearray. However, since the ABC never had any methods, knowing that an object was an instance of ByteString never actually told you anything useful about the object. Other common buffer types such as memoryview were also never understood as subtypes of ByteString (either at runtime or by static type checkers).

See PEP 688 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/#current-options] for more details. (Contributed by Shantanu Jain in gh-91896 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896].)

Pending removal in Python 3.18

decimal:

The non-standard and undocumented Decimal format specifier 'N', which is only supported in the decimal module's C implementation, has been deprecated since Python 3.13. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-89902 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89902].)

Pending removal in Python 3.19

ctypes:

Implicitly switching to the MSVC-compatible struct layout by setting _pack_ but not _layout_ on non-Windows platforms.

Pending removal in future versions

The following APIs will be removed in the future, although there is currently no date scheduled for their removal.

argparse:

Nesting argument groups and nesting mutually exclusive groups are deprecated.

Passing the undocumented keyword argument prefix_chars to add_argument_group() is now deprecated.

The argparse.FileType type converter is deprecated.

builtins:

Generators: throw(type, exc, tb) and athrow(type, exc, tb) signature is deprecated: use throw(exc) and athrow(exc) instead, the single argument signature.

Currently Python accepts numeric literals immediately followed by keywords, for example 0in x, 1or x, 0if 1else 2. It allows confusing and ambiguous expressions like [0x1for x in y] (which can be interpreted as [0x1 for x in y] or [0x1f or x in y]). A syntax warning is raised if the numeric literal is immediately followed by one of keywords and, else, for, if, in, is and or. In a future release it will be changed to a syntax error. (gh-87999 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87999])

Support for __index__() and __int__() method returning non-int type: these methods will be required to return an instance of a strict subclass of int.

Support for __float__() method returning a strict subclass of float: these methods will be required to return an instance of float.

Support for __complex__() method returning a strict subclass of complex: these methods will be required to return an instance of complex.

Passing a complex number as the real or imag argument in the complex() constructor is now deprecated; it should only be passed as a single positional argument. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-109218 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109218].)

calendar: calendar.January and calendar.February constants are deprecated and replaced by calendar.JANUARY and calendar.FEBRUARY. (Contributed by Prince Roshan in gh-103636 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636].)

codecs: use open() instead of codecs.open(). (gh-133038 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133038])

codeobject.co_lnotab: use the codeobject.co_lines() method instead.

datetime:

utcnow(): use datetime.datetime.now(tz=datetime.UTC).

utcfromtimestamp(): use datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(timestamp, tz=datetime.UTC).

gettext: Plural value must be an integer.

importlib:

cache_from_source() debug_override parameter is deprecated: use the optimization parameter instead.

importlib.metadata:

EntryPoints tuple interface.

Implicit None on return values.

logging: the warn() method has been deprecated since Python 3.3, use warning() instead.

mailbox: Use of StringIO input and text mode is deprecated, use BytesIO and binary mode instead.

os: Calling os.register_at_fork() in multi-threaded process.

pydoc.ErrorDuringImport: A tuple value for exc_info parameter is deprecated, use an exception instance.

re: More strict rules are now applied for numerical group references and group names in regular expressions. Only sequence of ASCII digits is now accepted as a numerical reference. The group name in bytes patterns and replacement strings can now only contain ASCII letters and digits and underscore. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-91760 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91760].)

sre_compile, sre_constants and sre_parse modules.

shutil: rmtree()'s onerror parameter is deprecated in Python 3.12; use the onexc parameter instead.

ssl options and protocols:

ssl.SSLContext without protocol argument is deprecated.

ssl.SSLContext: set_npn_protocols() and selected_npn_protocol() are deprecated: use ALPN instead.

ssl.OP_NO_SSL* options

ssl.OP_NO_TLS* options

ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv3

ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS

ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1

ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1

ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2

ssl.TLSVersion.SSLv3

ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1

ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_1

threading methods:

threading.Condition.notifyAll(): use notify_all().

threading.Event.isSet(): use is_set().

threading.Thread.isDaemon(), threading.Thread.setDaemon(): use threading.Thread.daemon attribute.

threading.Thread.getName(), threading.Thread.setName(): use threading.Thread.name attribute.

threading.currentThread(): use threading.current_thread().

threading.activeCount(): use threading.active_count().

typing.Text (gh-92332 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92332]).

The internal class typing._UnionGenericAlias is no longer used to implement typing.Union. To preserve compatibility with users using this private class, a compatibility shim will be provided until at least Python 3.17. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-105499 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105499].)

unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: it is deprecated to return a value that is not None from a test case.

urllib.parse deprecated functions: urlparse() instead

splitattr()

splithost()

splitnport()

splitpasswd()

splitport()

splitquery()

splittag()

splittype()

splituser()

splitvalue()

to_bytes()

wsgiref: SimpleHandler.stdout.write() should not do partial writes.

xml.etree.ElementTree: Testing the truth value of an Element is deprecated. In a future release it will always return True. Prefer explicit len(elem) or elem is not None tests instead.

sys._clear_type_cache() is deprecated: use sys._clear_internal_caches() instead.

Changements au code intermédiaire CPython

Replaced the opcode BINARY_SUBSCR by the BINARY_OP opcode with the NB_SUBSCR oparg. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-100239 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100239].)

Add the BUILD_INTERPOLATION and BUILD_TEMPLATE opcodes to construct new Interpolation and Template instances, respectively. (Contributed by Lysandros Nikolaou and others in gh-132661 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132661]; see also PEP 750: Template strings).

Remove the BUILD_CONST_KEY_MAP opcode. Use BUILD_MAP instead. (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-122160 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122160].)

Replace the LOAD_ASSERTION_ERROR opcode with LOAD_COMMON_CONSTANT and add support for loading NotImplementedError.

Add the LOAD_FAST_BORROW and LOAD_FAST_BORROW_LOAD_FAST_BORROW opcodes to reduce reference counting overhead when the interpreter can prove that the reference in the frame outlives the reference loaded onto the stack. (Contributed by Matt Page in gh-130704 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130704].)

Add the LOAD_SMALL_INT opcode, which pushes a small integer equal to the oparg to the stack. The RETURN_CONST opcode is removed as it is no longer used. (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-125837 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125837].)

Add the new LOAD_SPECIAL instruction. Generate code for with and async with statements using the new instruction. Removed the BEFORE_WITH and BEFORE_ASYNC_WITH instructions. (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-120507 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120507].)

Add the POP_ITER opcode to support 'virtual' iterators. (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-132554 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132554].)

Pseudo-instructions

Add the ANNOTATIONS_PLACEHOLDER pseudo instruction to support partially executed module-level annotations with deferred evaluation of annotations. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-130907 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130907].)

Add the BINARY_OP_EXTEND pseudo instruction, which executes a pair of functions (guard and specialization functions) accessed from the inline cache. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-100239 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100239].)

Add three specializations for CALL_KW; CALL_KW_PY for calls to Python functions, CALL_KW_BOUND_METHOD for calls to bound methods, and CALL_KW_NON_PY for all other calls. (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-118093 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118093].)

Add the JUMP_IF_TRUE and JUMP_IF_FALSE pseudo instructions, conditional jumps which do not impact the stack. Replaced by the sequence COPY 1, TO_BOOL, POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE/FALSE. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-124285 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124285].)

Add the LOAD_CONST_MORTAL pseudo instruction. (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-128685 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128685].)

Add the LOAD_CONST_IMMORTAL pseudo instruction, which does the same as LOAD_CONST, but is more efficient for immortal objects. (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-125837 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125837].)

Add the NOT_TAKEN pseudo instruction, used by sys.monitoring to record branch events (such as BRANCH_LEFT). (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-122548 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122548].)

C API changes

Python configuration C API

Add a PyInitConfig C API to configure the Python initialization without relying on C structures and the ability to make ABI-compatible changes in the future.

Complete the PEP 587 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/] PyConfig C API by adding PyInitConfig_AddModule() which can be used to add a built-in extension module; a feature previously referred to as the "inittab".

Add PyConfig_Get() and PyConfig_Set() functions to get and set the current runtime configuration.

PEP 587 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/] 'Python Initialization Configuration' unified all the ways to configure Python's initialization. This PEP also unifies the configuration of Python's preinitialization and initialization in a single API. Moreover, this PEP only provides a single choice to embed Python, instead of having two 'Python' and 'Isolated' choices (PEP 587), to further simplify the API.

The lower level PEP 587 PyConfig API remains available for use cases with an intentionally higher level of coupling to CPython implementation details (such as emulating the full functionality of CPython's CLI, including its configuration mechanisms).

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-107954 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107954].)

Voir aussi

PEP 741 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0741/] and PEP 587 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/]

New features in the C API

Add Py_PACK_VERSION() and Py_PACK_FULL_VERSION(), two new macros for bit-packing Python version numbers. This is useful for comparisons with Py_Version or PY_VERSION_HEX. (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in gh-128629 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128629].)

Add PyBytes_Join(sep, iterable) function, similar to sep.join(iterable) in Python. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-121645 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121645].)

Add functions to manipulate the configuration of the current runtime Python interpreter (PEP 741: Python configuration C API):

PyConfig_Get()

PyConfig_GetInt()

PyConfig_Set()

PyConfig_Names()

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-107954 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107954].)

Add functions to configure Python initialization (PEP 741: Python configuration C API):

Py_InitializeFromInitConfig()

PyInitConfig_AddModule()

PyInitConfig_Create()

PyInitConfig_Free()

PyInitConfig_FreeStrList()

PyInitConfig_GetError()

PyInitConfig_GetExitCode()

PyInitConfig_GetInt()

PyInitConfig_GetStr()

PyInitConfig_GetStrList()

PyInitConfig_HasOption()

PyInitConfig_SetInt()

PyInitConfig_SetStr()

PyInitConfig_SetStrList()

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-107954 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107954].)

Add Py_fopen() function to open a file. This works similarly to the standard C fopen() function, instead accepting a Python object for the path parameter and setting an exception on error. The corresponding new Py_fclose() function should be used to close a file. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-127350 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127350].)

Add Py_HashBuffer() to compute and return the hash value of a buffer. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou and Victor Stinner in gh-122854 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122854].)

Add PyImport_ImportModuleAttr() and PyImport_ImportModuleAttrString() helper functions to import a module and get an attribute of the module. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-128911 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128911].)

Add PyIter_NextItem() to replace PyIter_Next(), which has an ambiguous return value. (Contributed by Irit Katriel and Erlend Aasland in gh-105201 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105201].)

Add PyLong_GetSign() function to get the sign of int objects. (Contributed by Sergey B Kirpichev in gh-116560 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116560].)

Add PyLong_IsPositive(), PyLong_IsNegative() and PyLong_IsZero() for checking if PyLongObject is positive, negative, or zero, respectively. (Contributed by James Roy and Sergey B Kirpichev in gh-126061 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126061].)

Add new functions to convert C <stdint.h> numbers to/from Python int objects:

PyLong_AsInt32()

PyLong_AsInt64()

PyLong_AsUInt32()

PyLong_AsUInt64()

PyLong_FromInt32()

PyLong_FromInt64()

PyLong_FromUInt32()

PyLong_FromUInt64()

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-120389 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120389].)

Add a new import and export API for Python int objects (PEP 757 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0757/]):

PyLong_GetNativeLayout()

PyLong_Export()

PyLong_FreeExport()

PyLongWriter_Create()

PyLongWriter_Finish()

PyLongWriter_Discard()

(Contributed by Sergey B Kirpichev and Victor Stinner in gh-102471 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102471].)

Add PyMonitoring_FireBranchLeftEvent() and PyMonitoring_FireBranchRightEvent() for generating BRANCH_LEFT and BRANCH_RIGHT events, respectively. (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-122548 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122548].)

Add PyType_Freeze() function to make a type immutable. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-121654 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121654].)

Add PyType_GetBaseByToken() and Py_tp_token slot for easier superclass identification, which attempts to resolve the type checking issue mentioned in PEP 630 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0630/#type-checking]. (Contributed in gh-124153 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124153].)

Add a new PyUnicode_Equal() function to test if two strings are equal. The function is also added to the Limited C API. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-124502 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124502].)

Add a new PyUnicodeWriter API to create a Python str object, with the following functions:

PyUnicodeWriter_Create()

PyUnicodeWriter_DecodeUTF8Stateful()

PyUnicodeWriter_Discard()

PyUnicodeWriter_Finish()

PyUnicodeWriter_Format()

PyUnicodeWriter_WriteASCII()

PyUnicodeWriter_WriteChar()

PyUnicodeWriter_WriteRepr()

PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr()

PyUnicodeWriter_WriteSubstring()

PyUnicodeWriter_WriteUCS4()

PyUnicodeWriter_WriteUTF8()

PyUnicodeWriter_WriteWideChar()

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-119182 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119182].)

The k and K formats in PyArg_ParseTuple() and similar functions now use __index__() if available, like all other integer formats. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-112068 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112068].)

Add support for a new p format unit in Py_BuildValue() that produces a Python bool object from a C integer. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-45325 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45325].)

Add PyUnstable_IsImmortal() for determining if an object is immortal, for debugging purposes. (Contributed by Peter Bierma in gh-128509 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128509].)

Add PyUnstable_Object_EnableDeferredRefcount() for enabling deferred reference counting, as outlined in PEP 703 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/].

Add PyUnstable_Object_IsUniquelyReferenced() as a replacement for Py_REFCNT(op) == 1 on free threaded builds. (Contributed by Peter Bierma in gh-133140 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133140].)

Add PyUnstable_Object_IsUniqueReferencedTemporary() to determine if an object is a unique temporary object on the interpreter's operand stack. This can be used in some cases as a replacement for checking if Py_REFCNT() is 1 for Python objects passed as arguments to C API functions. (Contributed by Sam Gross in gh-133164 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133164].)

Limited C API changes

In the limited C API version 3.14 and newer, Py_TYPE() and Py_REFCNT() are now implemented as an opaque function call to hide implementation details. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-120600 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120600] and gh-124127 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124127].)

Remove the PySequence_Fast_GET_SIZE, PySequence_Fast_GET_ITEM, and PySequence_Fast_ITEMS macros from the limited C API, since they have always been broken in the limited C API. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-91417 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91417].)

Removed C APIs

Creating immutable types with mutable bases was deprecated in Python 3.12, and now raises a TypeError. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-119775 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119775].)

Remove PyDictObject.ma_version_tag member, which was deprecated in Python 3.12. Use the PyDict_AddWatcher() API instead. (Contributed by Sam Gross in gh-124296 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124296].)

Remove the private _Py_InitializeMain() function. It was a provisional API added to Python 3.8 by PEP 587 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/]. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-129033 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129033].)

Remove the undocumented APIs Py_C_RECURSION_LIMIT and PyThreadState.c_recursion_remaining. These were added in 3.13 and have been removed without deprecation. Use Py_EnterRecursiveCall() to guard against runaway recursion in C code. (Removed by Petr Viktorin in gh-133079 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133079], see also gh-130396 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130396].)

Deprecated C APIs

The Py_HUGE_VAL macro is now soft deprecated. Use Py_INFINITY instead. (Contributed by Sergey B Kirpichev in gh-120026 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120026].)

The Py_IS_NAN, Py_IS_INFINITY, and Py_IS_FINITE macros are now soft deprecated. Use isnan, isinf and isfinite instead, available from math.h since C99. (Contributed by Sergey B Kirpichev in gh-119613 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119613].)

Non-tuple sequences are now deprecated as argument for the (items) format unit in PyArg_ParseTuple() and other argument parsing functions if items contains format units which store a borrowed buffer or a borrowed reference. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-50333 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50333].)

The _PyMonitoring_FireBranchEvent function is now deprecated and should be replaced with calls to PyMonitoring_FireBranchLeftEvent() and PyMonitoring_FireBranchRightEvent().

The previously undocumented function PySequence_In() is now soft deprecated. Use PySequence_Contains() instead. (Contributed by Yuki Kobayashi in gh-127896 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127896].)

Pending removal in Python 3.15

The PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(): Use PyImport_ImportModule() instead.

PyWeakref_GetObject() and PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT(): Use PyWeakref_GetRef() instead. The pythoncapi-compat project [https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/] can be used to get PyWeakref_GetRef() on Python 3.12 and older.

Py_UNICODE type and the Py_UNICODE_WIDE macro: Use wchar_t instead.

PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject(): Use PyCodec_Decode() instead.

PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode(): Use PyCodec_Decode() instead; Note that some codecs (for example, "base64") may return a type other than str, such as bytes.

PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject(): Use PyCodec_Encode() instead.

PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode(): Use PyCodec_Encode() instead; Note that some codecs (for example, "base64") may return a type other than bytes, such as str.

Python initialization functions, deprecated in Python 3.13:

Py_GetPath(): Use PyConfig_Get("module_search_paths") (sys.path) instead.

Py_GetPrefix(): Use PyConfig_Get("base_prefix") (sys.base_prefix) instead. Use PyConfig_Get("prefix") (sys.prefix) if virtual environments need to be handled.

Py_GetExecPrefix(): Use PyConfig_Get("base_exec_prefix") (sys.base_exec_prefix) instead. Use PyConfig_Get("exec_prefix") (sys.exec_prefix) if virtual environments need to be handled.

Py_GetProgramFullPath(): Use PyConfig_Get("executable") (sys.executable) instead.

Py_GetProgramName(): Use PyConfig_Get("executable") (sys.executable) instead.

Py_GetPythonHome(): Use PyConfig_Get("home") or the PYTHONHOME environment variable instead.

The pythoncapi-compat project [https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/] can be used to get PyConfig_Get() on Python 3.13 and older.

Functions to configure Python's initialization, deprecated in Python 3.11:

PySys_SetArgvEx(): Set PyConfig.argv instead.

PySys_SetArgv(): Set PyConfig.argv instead.

Py_SetProgramName(): Set PyConfig.program_name instead.

Py_SetPythonHome(): Set PyConfig.home instead.

PySys_ResetWarnOptions(): Clear sys.warnoptions and warnings.filters instead.

The Py_InitializeFromConfig() API should be used with PyConfig instead.

Global configuration variables:

Py_DebugFlag: Use PyConfig.parser_debug or PyConfig_Get("parser_debug") instead.

Py_VerboseFlag: Use PyConfig.verbose or PyConfig_Get("verbose") instead.

Py_QuietFlag: Use PyConfig.quiet or PyConfig_Get("quiet") instead.

Py_InteractiveFlag: Use PyConfig.interactive or PyConfig_Get("interactive") instead.

Py_InspectFlag: Use PyConfig.inspect or PyConfig_Get("inspect") instead.

Py_OptimizeFlag: Use PyConfig.optimization_level or PyConfig_Get("optimization_level") instead.

Py_NoSiteFlag: Use PyConfig.site_import or PyConfig_Get("site_import") instead.

Py_BytesWarningFlag: Use PyConfig.bytes_warning or PyConfig_Get("bytes_warning") instead.

Py_FrozenFlag: Use PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings or PyConfig_Get("pathconfig_warnings") instead.

Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag: Use PyConfig.use_environment or PyConfig_Get("use_environment") instead.

Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag: Use PyConfig.write_bytecode or PyConfig_Get("write_bytecode") instead.

Py_NoUserSiteDirectory: Use PyConfig.user_site_directory or PyConfig_Get("user_site_directory") instead.

Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag: Use PyConfig.buffered_stdio or PyConfig_Get("buffered_stdio") instead.

Py_HashRandomizationFlag: Use PyConfig.use_hash_seed and PyConfig.hash_seed or PyConfig_Get("hash_seed") instead.

Py_IsolatedFlag: Use PyConfig.isolated or PyConfig_Get("isolated") instead.

Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag: Use PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding or PyConfig_Get("legacy_windows_fs_encoding") instead.

Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag: Use PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio or PyConfig_Get("legacy_windows_stdio") instead.

Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding, Py_HasFileSystemDefaultEncoding: Use PyConfig.filesystem_encoding or PyConfig_Get("filesystem_encoding") instead.

Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors: Use PyConfig.filesystem_errors or PyConfig_Get("filesystem_errors") instead.

Py_UTF8Mode: Use PyPreConfig.utf8_mode or PyConfig_Get("utf8_mode") instead. (see Py_PreInitialize())

The Py_InitializeFromConfig() API should be used with PyConfig to set these options. Or PyConfig_Get() can be used to get these options at runtime.

Pending removal in Python 3.16

The bundled copy of libmpdec.

Pending removal in Python 3.18

The following private functions are deprecated and planned for removal in Python 3.18:

_PyBytes_Join(): use PyBytes_Join().

_PyDict_GetItemStringWithError(): use PyDict_GetItemStringRef().

_PyDict_Pop(): use PyDict_Pop().

_PyLong_Sign(): use PyLong_GetSign().

_PyLong_FromDigits() and _PyLong_New(): use PyLongWriter_Create().

_PyThreadState_UncheckedGet(): use PyThreadState_GetUnchecked().

_PyUnicode_AsString(): use PyUnicode_AsUTF8().

_PyUnicodeWriter_Init(): replace _PyUnicodeWriter_Init(&writer) with writer = PyUnicodeWriter_Create(0).

_PyUnicodeWriter_Finish(): replace _PyUnicodeWriter_Finish(&writer) with PyUnicodeWriter_Finish(writer).

_PyUnicodeWriter_Dealloc(): replace _PyUnicodeWriter_Dealloc(&writer) with PyUnicodeWriter_Discard(writer).

_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteChar(): replace _PyUnicodeWriter_WriteChar(&writer, ch) with PyUnicodeWriter_WriteChar(writer, ch).

_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr(): replace _PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr(&writer, str) with PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr(writer, str).

_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteSubstring(): replace _PyUnicodeWriter_WriteSubstring(&writer, str, start, end) with PyUnicodeWriter_WriteSubstring(writer, str, start, end).

_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteASCIIString(): replace _PyUnicodeWriter_WriteASCIIString(&writer, str) with PyUnicodeWriter_WriteASCII(writer, str).

_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteLatin1String(): replace _PyUnicodeWriter_WriteLatin1String(&writer, str) with PyUnicodeWriter_WriteUTF8(writer, str).

_PyUnicodeWriter_Prepare(): (no replacement).

_PyUnicodeWriter_PrepareKind(): (no replacement).

_Py_HashPointer(): use Py_HashPointer().

_Py_fopen_obj(): use Py_fopen().

The pythoncapi-compat project [https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/] can be used to get these new public functions on Python 3.13 and older. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-128863 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128863].)

Pending removal in future versions

The following APIs are deprecated and will be removed, although there is currently no date scheduled for their removal.

Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE: Unneeded since Python 3.8.

PyErr_Fetch(): Use PyErr_GetRaisedException() instead.

PyErr_NormalizeException(): Use PyErr_GetRaisedException() instead.

PyErr_Restore(): Use PyErr_SetRaisedException() instead.

PyModule_GetFilename(): Use PyModule_GetFilenameObject() instead.

PyOS_AfterFork(): Use PyOS_AfterFork_Child() instead.

PySlice_GetIndicesEx(): Use PySlice_Unpack() and PySlice_AdjustIndices() instead.

PyUnicode_READY(): Unneeded since Python 3.12

PyErr_Display(): Use PyErr_DisplayException() instead.

_PyErr_ChainExceptions(): Use _PyErr_ChainExceptions1() instead.

PyBytesObject.ob_shash member: call PyObject_Hash() instead.

Thread Local Storage (TLS) API:

PyThread_create_key(): Use PyThread_tss_alloc() instead.

PyThread_delete_key(): Use PyThread_tss_free() instead.

PyThread_set_key_value(): Use PyThread_tss_set() instead.

PyThread_get_key_value(): Use PyThread_tss_get() instead.

PyThread_delete_key_value(): Use PyThread_tss_delete() instead.

PyThread_ReInitTLS(): Unneeded since Python 3.7.

Build changes

PEP 776 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0776/]: Emscripten is now an officially supported platform at tier 3 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/#tier-3]. As a part of this effort, more than 25 bugs in Emscripten libc [https://emscripten.org/docs/porting/emscripten-runtime-environment.html] were fixed. Emscripten now includes support for ctypes, termios, and fcntl, as well as experimental support for the new default interactive shell. (Contributed by R. Hood Chatham in gh-127146 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127146], gh-127683 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127683], and gh-136931 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136931].)

Official Android binary releases are now provided on python.org [https://www.python.org/downloads/android/].

GNU Autoconf 2.72 is now required to generate configure. (Contributed by Erlend Aasland in gh-115765 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115765].)

wasm32-unknown-emscripten is now a PEP 11 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/] tier 3 platform. (Contributed by R. Hood Chatham in gh-127146 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127146], gh-127683 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127683], and gh-136931 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136931].)

#pragma-based linking with python3*.lib can now be switched off with Py_NO_LINK_LIB. (Contributed by Jean-Christophe Fillion-Robin in gh-82909 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82909].)

CPython now enables a set of recommended compiler options by default for improved security. Use the --disable-safety configure option to disable them, or the --enable-slower-safety option for a larger set of compiler options, albeit with a performance cost.

The WITH_FREELISTS macro and --without-freelists configure option have been removed.

The new configure option --with-tail-call-interp may be used to enable the experimental tail call interpreter. See A new type of interpreter for further details.

To disable the new remote debugging support, use the --without-remote-debug configure option. This may be useful for security reasons.

iOS and macOS apps can now be configured to redirect stdout and stderr content to the system log. (Contributed by Russell Keith-Magee in gh-127592 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127592].)

The iOS testbed is now able to stream test output while the test is running. The testbed can also be used to run the test suite of projects other than CPython itself. (Contributed by Russell Keith-Magee in gh-127592 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127592].)

build-details.json

Installations of Python now contain a new file, build-details.json. This is a static JSON document containing build details for CPython, to allow for introspection without needing to run code. This is helpful for use-cases such as Python launchers, cross-compilation, and so on.

build-details.json must be installed in the platform-independent standard library directory. This corresponds to the 'stdlib' sysconfig installation path, which can be found by running sysconfig.get_path('stdlib').

Voir aussi

PEP 739 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0739/] -- build-details.json 1.0 -- a static description file for Python build details

Discontinuation of PGP signatures

PGP (Pretty Good Privacy) signatures will not be provided for releases of Python 3.14 or future versions. To verify CPython artifacts, users must use Sigstore verification materials [https://www.python.org/downloads/metadata/sigstore/]. Releases have been signed using Sigstore [https://www.sigstore.dev/] since Python 3.11.

This change in release process was specified in PEP 761 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0761/].

Free-threaded Python is officially supported

The free-threaded build of Python is now supported and no longer experimental. This is the start of phase II [https://discuss.python.org/t/37075] where free-threaded Python is officially supported but still optional.

The free-threading team are confident that the project is on the right path, and appreciate the continued dedication from everyone working to make free-threading ready for broader adoption across the Python community.

With these recommendations and the acceptance of this PEP, the Python developer community should broadly advertise that free-threading is a supported Python build option now and into the future, and that it will not be removed without a proper deprecation schedule.

Any decision to transition to phase III [https://discuss.python.org/t/37075], with free-threading as the default or sole build of Python is still undecided, and dependent on many factors both within CPython itself and the community. This decision is for the future.

Voir aussi

PEP 779 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0779/]

PEP 779's acceptance [https://discuss.python.org/t/84319/123]

Binary releases for the experimental just-in-time compiler

The official macOS and Windows release binaries now include an experimental just-in-time (JIT) compiler. Although it is not recommended for production use, it can be tested by setting PYTHON_JIT=1 as an environment variable. Downstream source builds and redistributors can use the --enable-experimental-jit=yes-off configuration option for similar behavior.

The JIT is at an early stage and still in active development. As such, the typical performance impact of enabling it can range from 10% slower to 20% faster, depending on workload. To aid in testing and evaluation, a set of introspection functions has been provided in the sys._jit namespace. sys._jit.is_available() can be used to determine if the current executable supports JIT compilation, while sys._jit.is_enabled() can be used to tell if JIT compilation has been enabled for the current process.

Currently, the most significant missing functionality is that native debuggers and profilers like gdb and perf are unable to unwind through JIT frames (Python debuggers and profilers, like pdb or profile, continue to work without modification). Free-threaded builds do not support JIT compilation.

Please report any bugs or major performance regressions that you encounter!

Voir aussi

PEP 744 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0744/]

Porting to Python 3.14

Cette section liste les changements mentionnés préalablement et d'autres améliorations qui peuvent demander des changements à votre code.

Changements dans l'API Python

On Unix platforms other than macOS, forkserver is now the default start method for multiprocessing and ProcessPoolExecutor, instead of fork.

See (1) and (2) for details.

If you encounter NameErrors or pickling errors coming out of multiprocessing or concurrent.futures, see the forkserver restrictions.

This change does not affect Windows or macOS, where 'spawn' remains the default start method.

functools.partial is now a method descriptor. Wrap it in staticmethod() if you want to preserve the old behavior. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Dominykas Grigonis in gh-121027 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121027].)

The garbage collector is now incremental, which means that the behavior of gc.collect() changes slightly:

gc.collect(1): Performs an increment of garbage collection, rather than collecting generation 1.

Other calls to gc.collect() are unchanged.

The locale.nl_langinfo() function now temporarily sets the LC_CTYPE locale in some cases. This temporary change affects other threads. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-69998 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69998].)

types.UnionType is now an alias for typing.Union, causing changes in some behaviors. See above for more details. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-105499 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105499].)

The runtime behavior of annotations has changed in various ways; see above for details. While most code that interacts with annotations should continue to work, some undocumented details may behave differently.

As part of making the mimetypes CLI public, it now exits with 1 on failure instead of 0 and 2 on incorrect command-line parameters instead of 1. Error messages are now printed to stderr.

The \B pattern in regular expression now matches the empty string when given as the entire pattern, which may cause behavioural changes.

On FreeBSD, sys.platform no longer contains the major version number.

Changes in annotations (PEP 649 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/] and PEP 749 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0749/])

This section contains guidance on changes that may be needed to annotations or Python code that interacts with or introspects annotations, due to the changes related to deferred evaluation of annotations.

In the majority of cases, working code from older versions of Python will not require any changes.

Implications for annotated code

If you define annotations in your code (for example, for use with a static type checker), then this change probably does not affect you: you can keep writing annotations the same way you did with previous versions of Python.

You will likely be able to remove quoted strings in annotations, which are frequently used for forward references. Similarly, if you use from __future__ import annotations to avoid having to write strings in annotations, you may well be able to remove that import once you support only Python 3.14 and newer. However, if you rely on third-party libraries that read annotations, those libraries may need changes to support unquoted annotations before they work as expected.

Implications for readers of __annotations__

If your code reads the __annotations__ attribute on objects, you may want to make changes in order to support code that relies on deferred evaluation of annotations. For example, you may want to use annotationlib.get_annotations() with the FORWARDREF format, as the dataclasses module now does.

The external typing_extensions [https://pypi.org/project/typing_extensions/] package provides partial backports of some of the functionality of the annotationlib module, such as the Format enum and the get_annotations() function. These can be used to write cross-version code that takes advantage of the new behavior in Python 3.14.

Related changes

The changes in Python 3.14 are designed to rework how __annotations__ works at runtime while minimizing breakage to code that contains annotations in source code and to code that reads __annotations__. However, if you rely on undocumented details of the annotation behavior or on private functions in the standard library, there are many ways in which your code may not work in Python 3.14. To safeguard your code against future changes, only use the documented functionality of the annotationlib module.

In particular, do not read annotations directly from the namespace dictionary attribute of type objects. Use annotationlib.get_annotate_from_class_namespace() during class construction and annotationlib.get_annotations() afterwards.

In previous releases, it was sometimes possible to access class annotations from an instance of an annotated class. This behavior was undocumented and accidental, and will no longer work in Python 3.14.

from __future__ import annotations

In Python 3.7, PEP 563 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/] introduced the from __future__ import annotations future statement, which turns all annotations into strings.

However, this statement is now deprecated and it is expected to be removed in a future version of Python. This removal will not happen until after Python 3.13 reaches its end of life in 2029, being the last version of Python without support for deferred evaluation of annotations.

In Python 3.14, the behavior of code using from __future__ import annotations is unchanged.

Changements dans l'API C

Py_Finalize() now deletes all interned strings. This is backwards incompatible to any C extension that holds onto an interned string after a call to Py_Finalize() and is then reused after a call to Py_Initialize(). Any issues arising from this behavior will normally result in crashes during the execution of the subsequent call to Py_Initialize() from accessing uninitialized memory. To fix, use an address sanitizer to identify any use-after-free coming from an interned string and deallocate it during module shutdown. (Contributed by Eddie Elizondo in gh-113601 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113601].)

The Unicode Exception Objects C API now raises a TypeError if its exception argument is not a UnicodeError object. (Contributed by Bénédikt Tran in gh-127691 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127691].)

The interpreter internally avoids some reference count modifications when loading objects onto the operands stack by borrowing references when possible. This can lead to smaller reference count values compared to previous Python versions. C API extensions that checked Py_REFCNT() of 1 to determine if an function argument is not referenced by any other code should instead use PyUnstable_Object_IsUniqueReferencedTemporary() as a safer replacement.

Private functions promoted to public C APIs:

_PyBytes_Join(): PyBytes_Join()

_PyLong_IsNegative(): PyLong_IsNegative()

_PyLong_IsPositive(): PyLong_IsPositive()

_PyLong_IsZero(): PyLong_IsZero()

_PyLong_Sign(): PyLong_GetSign()

_PyUnicodeWriter_Dealloc(): PyUnicodeWriter_Discard()

_PyUnicodeWriter_Finish(): PyUnicodeWriter_Finish()

_PyUnicodeWriter_Init(): use PyUnicodeWriter_Create()

_PyUnicodeWriter_Prepare(): (no replacement)

_PyUnicodeWriter_PrepareKind(): (no replacement)

_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteChar(): PyUnicodeWriter_WriteChar()

_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr(): PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr()

_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteSubstring(): PyUnicodeWriter_WriteSubstring()

_PyUnicode_EQ(): PyUnicode_Equal()

_PyUnicode_Equal(): PyUnicode_Equal()

_Py_GetConfig(): PyConfig_Get() and PyConfig_GetInt()

_Py_HashBytes(): Py_HashBuffer()

_Py_fopen_obj(): Py_fopen()

PyMutex_IsLocked() : PyMutex_IsLocked()

The pythoncapi-compat project [https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/] can be used to get most of these new functions on Python 3.13 and older.

Notable changes in 3.14.1

Add PyUnstable_ThreadState_SetStackProtection() and PyUnstable_ThreadState_ResetStackProtection() functions to set the stack protection base address and stack protection size of a Python thread state. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-139653 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139653].)

What's New In Python 3.13

Editors:

Adam Turner and Thomas Wouters

This article explains the new features in Python 3.13, compared to 3.12. Python 3.13 was released on October 7, 2024. For full details, see the changelog.

Voir aussi

PEP 719 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0719/] -- Python 3.13 Release Schedule

Summary -- Release Highlights

Python 3.13 is a stable release of the Python programming language, with a mix of changes to the language, the implementation and the standard library. The biggest changes include a new interactive interpreter, experimental support for running in a free-threaded mode (PEP 703 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/]), and a Just-In-Time compiler (PEP 744 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0744/]).

Error messages continue to improve, with tracebacks now highlighted in color by default. The locals() builtin now has defined semantics for changing the returned mapping, and type parameters now support default values.

The library changes contain removal of deprecated APIs and modules, as well as the usual improvements in user-friendliness and correctness. Several legacy standard library modules have now been removed following their deprecation in Python 3.11 (PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/]).

This article doesn't attempt to provide a complete specification of all new features, but instead gives a convenient overview. For full details refer to the documentation, such as the Library Reference and Language Reference. To understand the complete implementation and design rationale for a change, refer to the PEP for a particular new feature; but note that PEPs usually are not kept up-to-date once a feature has been fully implemented. See Porting to Python 3.13 for guidance on upgrading from earlier versions of Python.

Améliorations de l'interpréteur :

A greatly improved interactive interpreter and improved error messages.

PEP 667 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/]: The locals() builtin now has defined semantics when mutating the returned mapping. Python debuggers and similar tools may now more reliably update local variables in optimized scopes even during concurrent code execution.

PEP 703 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/]: CPython 3.13 has experimental support for running with the global interpreter lock disabled. See Free-threaded CPython for more details.

PEP 744 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0744/]: A basic JIT compiler was added. It is currently disabled by default (though we may turn it on later). Performance improvements are modest -- we expect to improve this over the next few releases.

Color support in the new interactive interpreter, as well as in tracebacks and doctest output. This can be disabled through the PYTHON_COLORS and NO_COLOR [https://no-color.org/] environment variables.

Python data model improvements:

__static_attributes__ stores the names of attributes accessed through self.X in any function in a class body.

__firstlineno__ records the first line number of a class definition.

Significant improvements in the standard library:

Add a new PythonFinalizationError exception, raised when an operation is blocked during finalization.

The argparse module now supports deprecating command-line options, positional arguments, and subcommands.

The new functions base64.z85encode() and base64.z85decode() support encoding and decoding Z85 data [https://rfc.zeromq.org/spec/32/].

The copy module now has a copy.replace() function, with support for many builtin types and any class defining the __replace__() method.

The new dbm.sqlite3 module is now the default dbm backend.

The os module has a suite of new functions for working with Linux's timer notification file descriptors.

The random module now has a command-line interface.

Security improvements:

ssl.create_default_context() sets ssl.VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN and ssl.VERIFY_X509_STRICT as default flags.

C API improvements:

The Py_mod_gil slot is now used to indicate that an extension module supports running with the GIL disabled.

The PyTime C API has been added, providing access to system clocks.

PyMutex is a new lightweight mutex that occupies a single byte.

There is a new suite of functions for generating PEP 669 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0669/] monitoring events in the C API.

Nouvelles fonctionnalités de typage :

PEP 696 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0696/]: Type parameters (typing.TypeVar, typing.ParamSpec, and typing.TypeVarTuple) now support defaults.

PEP 702 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0702/]: The new warnings.deprecated() decorator adds support for marking deprecations in the type system and at runtime.

PEP 705 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0705/]: typing.ReadOnly can be used to mark an item of a typing.TypedDict as read-only for type checkers.

PEP 742 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0742/]: typing.TypeIs provides more intuitive type narrowing behavior, as an alternative to typing.TypeGuard.

Platform support:

PEP 730 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0730/]: Apple's iOS is now an officially supported platform, at tier 3 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/#tier-3].

PEP 738 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0738/]: Android is now an officially supported platform, at tier 3 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/#tier-3].

wasm32-wasi is now supported as a tier 2 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/#tier-2] platform.

wasm32-emscripten is no longer an officially supported platform.

Important removals:

PEP 594: The remaining 19 "dead batteries" (legacy stdlib modules) have been removed from the standard library: aifc, audioop, cgi, cgitb, chunk, crypt, imghdr, mailcap, msilib, nis, nntplib, ossaudiodev, pipes, sndhdr, spwd, sunau, telnetlib, uu and xdrlib.

Remove the 2to3 tool and lib2to3 module (deprecated in Python 3.11).

Remove the tkinter.tix module (deprecated in Python 3.6).

Remove the locale.resetlocale() function.

Remove the typing.io and typing.re namespaces.

Remove chained classmethod descriptors.

Release schedule changes:

PEP 602 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0602/] ("Annual Release Cycle for Python") has been updated to extend the full support ('bugfix') period for new releases to two years. This updated policy means that:

Python 3.9--3.12 have one and a half years of full support, followed by three and a half years of security fixes.

Python 3.13 and later have two years of full support, followed by three years of security fixes.

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

A better interactive interpreter

Python now uses a new interactive shell by default, based on code from the PyPy project [https://pypy.org/]. When the user starts the REPL from an interactive terminal, the following new features are now supported:

Multiline editing with history preservation.

Direct support for REPL-specific commands like help, exit, and quit, without the need to call them as functions.

Prompts and tracebacks with color enabled by default.

Interactive help browsing using F1 with a separate command history.

History browsing using F2 that skips output as well as the >>> and ... prompts.

"Paste mode" with F3 that makes pasting larger blocks of code easier (press F3 again to return to the regular prompt).

To disable the new interactive shell, set the PYTHON_BASIC_REPL environment variable. For more on interactive mode, see Mode interactif.

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo Salgado, Łukasz Langa, and Lysandros Nikolaou in gh-111201 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111201] based on code from the PyPy project. Windows support contributed by Dino Viehland and Anthony Shaw.)

Improved error messages

The interpreter now uses color by default when displaying tracebacks in the terminal. This feature can be controlled via the new PYTHON_COLORS environment variable as well as the canonical NO_COLOR [https://no-color.org/] and FORCE_COLOR [https://force-color.org/] environment variables. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo Salgado in gh-112730 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112730].)

A common mistake is to write a script with the same name as a standard library module. When this results in errors, we now display a more helpful error message:

$ python random.py
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "/home/me/random.py", line 1, in <module>
    import random
  File "/home/me/random.py", line 3, in <module>
    print(random.randint(5))
          ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
AttributeError: module 'random' has no attribute 'randint' (consider renaming '/home/me/random.py' since it has the same name as the standard library module named 'random' and prevents importing that standard library module)

Similarly, if a script has the same name as a third-party module that it attempts to import and this results in errors, we also display a more helpful error message:

$ python numpy.py
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "/home/me/numpy.py", line 1, in <module>
    import numpy as np
  File "/home/me/numpy.py", line 3, in <module>
    np.array([1, 2, 3])
    ^^^^^^^^
AttributeError: module 'numpy' has no attribute 'array' (consider renaming '/home/me/numpy.py' if it has the same name as a library you intended to import)

(Contributed by Shantanu Jain in gh-95754 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95754].)

The error message now tries to suggest the correct keyword argument when an incorrect keyword argument is passed to a function.

>>> "Better error messages!".split(max_split=1)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<python-input-0>", line 1, in <module>
    "Better error messages!".split(max_split=1)
    ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^^^^^^^^^^^^
TypeError: split() got an unexpected keyword argument 'max_split'. Did you mean 'maxsplit'?

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo Salgado and Shantanu Jain in gh-107944 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107944].)

Free-threaded CPython

CPython now has experimental support for running in a free-threaded mode, with the global interpreter lock (GIL) disabled. This is an experimental feature and therefore is not enabled by default. The free-threaded mode requires a different executable, usually called python3.13t or python3.13t.exe. Pre-built binaries marked as free-threaded can be installed as part of the official Windows and macOS installers, or CPython can be built from source with the --disable-gil option.

Free-threaded execution allows for full utilization of the available processing power by running threads in parallel on available CPU cores. While not all software will benefit from this automatically, programs designed with threading in mind will run faster on multi-core hardware. The free-threaded mode is experimental and work is ongoing to improve it: expect some bugs and a substantial single-threaded performance hit. Free-threaded builds of CPython support optionally running with the GIL enabled at runtime using the environment variable PYTHON_GIL or the command-line option -X gil=1.

To check if the current interpreter supports free-threading, python -VV and sys.version contain "experimental free-threading build". The new sys._is_gil_enabled() function can be used to check whether the GIL is actually disabled in the running process.

C-API extension modules need to be built specifically for the free-threaded build. Extensions that support running with the GIL disabled should use the Py_mod_gil slot. Extensions using single-phase init should use PyUnstable_Module_SetGIL() to indicate whether they support running with the GIL disabled. Importing C extensions that don't use these mechanisms will cause the GIL to be enabled, unless the GIL was explicitly disabled with the PYTHON_GIL environment variable or the -X gil=0 option. pip 24.1 or newer is required to install packages with C extensions in the free-threaded build.

This work was made possible thanks to many individuals and organizations, including the large community of contributors to Python and third-party projects to test and enable free-threading support. Notable contributors include: Sam Gross, Ken Jin, Donghee Na, Itamar Oren, Matt Page, Brett Simmers, Dino Viehland, Carl Meyer, Nathan Goldbaum, Ralf Gommers, Lysandros Nikolaou, and many others. Many of these contributors are employed by Meta, which has provided significant engineering resources to support this project.

Voir aussi

PEP 703 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/] "Making the Global Interpreter Lock Optional in CPython" contains rationale and information surrounding this work.

Porting Extension Modules to Support Free-Threading [https://py-free-threading.github.io/porting/]: A community-maintained porting guide for extension authors.

An experimental just-in-time (JIT) compiler

When CPython is configured and built using the --enable-experimental-jit option, a just-in-time (JIT) compiler is added which may speed up some Python programs. On Windows, use PCbuild/build.bat --experimental-jit to enable the JIT or --experimental-jit-interpreter to enable the Tier 2 interpreter. Build requirements and further supporting information are contained at [https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/main/Tools/jit/README.md] Tools/jit/README.md.

The --enable-experimental-jit option takes these (optional) values, defaulting to yes if --enable-experimental-jit is present without the optional value.

no: Disable the entire Tier 2 and JIT pipeline.

yes: Enable the JIT. To disable the JIT at runtime, pass the environment variable PYTHON_JIT=0.

yes-off: Build the JIT but disable it by default. To enable the JIT at runtime, pass the environment variable PYTHON_JIT=1.

interpreter: Enable the Tier 2 interpreter but disable the JIT. The interpreter can be disabled by running with PYTHON_JIT=0.

The internal architecture is roughly as follows:

We start with specialized Tier 1 bytecode. See What's new in 3.11 for details.

When the Tier 1 bytecode gets hot enough, it gets translated to a new purely internal intermediate representation (IR), called the Tier 2 IR, and sometimes referred to as micro-ops ("uops").

The Tier 2 IR uses the same stack-based virtual machine as Tier 1, but the instruction format is better suited to translation to machine code.

We have several optimization passes for Tier 2 IR, which are applied before it is interpreted or translated to machine code.

There is a Tier 2 interpreter, but it is mostly intended for debugging the earlier stages of the optimization pipeline. The Tier 2 interpreter can be enabled by configuring Python with --enable-experimental-jit=interpreter.

When the JIT is enabled, the optimized Tier 2 IR is translated to machine code, which is then executed.

The machine code translation process uses a technique called copy-and-patch. It has no runtime dependencies, but there is a new build-time dependency on LLVM.

Voir aussi

PEP 744 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0744/]

(JIT by Brandt Bucher, inspired by a paper by Haoran Xu and Fredrik Kjolstad. Tier 2 IR by Mark Shannon and Guido van Rossum. Tier 2 optimizer by Ken Jin.)

Defined mutation semantics for locals()

Historically, the expected result of mutating the return value of locals() has been left to individual Python implementations to define. Starting from Python 3.13, PEP 667 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/] standardises the historical behavior of CPython for most code execution scopes, but changes optimized scopes (functions, generators, coroutines, comprehensions, and generator expressions) to explicitly return independent snapshots of the currently assigned local variables, including locally referenced nonlocal variables captured in closures.

This change to the semantics of locals() in optimized scopes also affects the default behavior of code execution functions that implicitly target locals() if no explicit namespace is provided (such as exec() and eval()). In previous versions, whether or not changes could be accessed by calling locals() after calling the code execution function was implementation-dependent. In CPython specifically, such code would typically appear to work as desired, but could sometimes fail in optimized scopes based on other code (including debuggers and code execution tracing tools) potentially resetting the shared snapshot in that scope. Now, the code will always run against an independent snapshot of the local variables in optimized scopes, and hence the changes will never be visible in subsequent calls to locals(). To access the changes made in these cases, an explicit namespace reference must now be passed to the relevant function. Alternatively, it may make sense to update affected code to use a higher level code execution API that returns the resulting code execution namespace (e.g. runpy.run_path() when executing Python files from disk).

To ensure debuggers and similar tools can reliably update local variables in scopes affected by this change, FrameType.f_locals now returns a write-through proxy to the frame's local and locally referenced nonlocal variables in these scopes, rather than returning an inconsistently updated shared dict instance with undefined runtime semantics.

See PEP 667 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/] for more details, including related C API changes and deprecations. Porting notes are also provided below for the affected Python APIs and C APIs.

(PEP and implementation contributed by Mark Shannon and Tian Gao in gh-74929 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74929]. Documentation updates provided by Guido van Rossum and Alyssa Coghlan.)

Support for mobile platforms

PEP 730 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0730/]: iOS is now a PEP 11 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/] supported platform, with the arm64-apple-ios and arm64-apple-ios-simulator targets at tier 3 (iPhone and iPad devices released after 2013 and the Xcode iOS simulator running on Apple silicon hardware, respectively). x86_64-apple-ios-simulator (the Xcode iOS simulator running on older x86_64 hardware) is not a tier 3 supported platform, but will have best-effort support. (PEP written and implementation contributed by Russell Keith-Magee in gh-114099 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114099].)

PEP 738 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0738/]: Android is now a PEP 11 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/] supported platform, with the aarch64-linux-android and x86_64-linux-android targets at tier 3. The 32-bit targets arm-linux-androideabi and i686-linux-android are not tier 3 supported platforms, but will have best-effort support. (PEP written and implementation contributed by Malcolm Smith in gh-116622 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116622].)

Voir aussi

PEP 730 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0730/], PEP 738 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0738/]

Autres changements au langage

The compiler now strips common leading whitespace from every line in a docstring. This reduces the size of the bytecode cache (such as .pyc files), with reductions in file size of around 5%, for example in sqlalchemy.orm.session from SQLAlchemy 2.0. This change affects tools that use docstrings, such as doctest.

>>> def spam():
...     """
...         This is a docstring with
...           leading whitespace.
...
...         It even has multiple paragraphs!
...     """
...
>>> spam.__doc__
'\nThis is a docstring with\n  leading whitespace.\n\nIt even has multiple paragraphs!\n'

(Contributed by Inada Naoki in gh-81283 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81283].)

Annotation scopes within class scopes can now contain lambdas and comprehensions. Comprehensions that are located within class scopes are not inlined into their parent scope.

class C[T]:
    type Alias = lambda: T

(Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-109118 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109118] and gh-118160 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118160].)

Future statements are no longer triggered by relative imports of the __future__ module, meaning that statements of the form from .__future__ import ... are now simply standard relative imports, with no special features activated. (Contributed by Jeremiah Gabriel Pascual in gh-118216 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118216].)

global declarations are now permitted in except blocks when that global is used in the else block. Previously this raised an erroneous SyntaxError. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-111123 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111123].)

Add PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES, a new environment variable that determines whether frozen modules are ignored by the import machinery, equivalent to the -X frozen_modules command-line option. (Contributed by Yilei Yang in gh-111374 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111374].)

Add support for the perf profiler working without frame pointers [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Call_stack] through the new environment variable PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT and command-line option -X perf_jit. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-118518 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118518].)

The location of a .python_history file can be changed via the new PYTHON_HISTORY environment variable. (Contributed by Levi Sabah, Zackery Spytz and Hugo van Kemenade in gh-73965 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73965].)

Classes have a new __static_attributes__ attribute. This is populated by the compiler with a tuple of the class's attribute names which are assigned through self.<name> from any function in its body. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-115775 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115775].)

The compiler now creates a __firstlineno__ attribute on classes with the line number of the first line of the class definition. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-118465 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118465].)

The exec() and eval() builtins now accept the globals and locals arguments as keywords. (Contributed by Raphael Gaschignard in gh-105879 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105879])

The compile() builtin now accepts a new flag, ast.PyCF_OPTIMIZED_AST, which is similar to ast.PyCF_ONLY_AST except that the returned AST is optimized according to the value of the optimize argument. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-108113 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108113]).

Add a __name__ attribute on property objects. (Contributed by Eugene Toder in gh-101860 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101860].)

Add PythonFinalizationError, a new exception derived from RuntimeError and used to signal when operations are blocked during finalization. The following callables now raise PythonFinalizationError, instead of RuntimeError:

_thread.start_new_thread()

os.fork()

os.forkpty()

subprocess.Popen

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-114570 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114570].)

Allow the count argument of str.replace() to be a keyword. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-106487 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106487].)

Many functions now emit a warning if a boolean value is passed as a file descriptor argument. This can help catch some errors earlier. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-82626 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82626].)

Added name and mode attributes for compressed and archived file-like objects in the bz2, lzma, tarfile, and zipfile modules. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-115961 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115961].)

Nouveaux modules

dbm.sqlite3: An SQLite backend for dbm. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and Erlend E. Aasland in gh-100414 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100414].)

Modules améliorés

argparse

Add the deprecated parameter to the add_argument() and add_parser() methods, to enable deprecating command-line options, positional arguments, and subcommands. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-83648 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83648].)

array

Add the 'w' type code (Py_UCS4) for Unicode characters. It should be used instead of the deprecated 'u' type code. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in gh-80480 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80480].)

Register array.array as a MutableSequence by implementing the clear() method. (Contributed by Mike Zimin in gh-114894 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114894].)

ast

The constructors of node types in the ast module are now stricter in the arguments they accept, with more intuitive behavior when arguments are omitted.

If an optional field on an AST node is not included as an argument when constructing an instance, the field will now be set to None. Similarly, if a list field is omitted, that field will now be set to an empty list, and if an expr_context field is omitted, it defaults to Load(). (Previously, in all cases, the attribute would be missing on the newly constructed AST node instance.)

In all other cases, where a required argument is omitted, the node constructor will emit a DeprecationWarning. This will raise an exception in Python 3.15. Similarly, passing a keyword argument to the constructor that does not map to a field on the AST node is now deprecated, and will raise an exception in Python 3.15.

These changes do not apply to user-defined subclasses of ast.AST unless the class opts in to the new behavior by defining the AST._field_types mapping.

(Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-105858 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105858], gh-117486 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117486], and gh-118851 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118851].)

ast.parse() now accepts an optional argument optimize which is passed on to compile(). This makes it possible to obtain an optimized AST. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-108113 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108113].)

asyncio

asyncio.as_completed() now returns an object that is both an asynchronous iterator and a plain iterator of awaitables. The awaitables yielded by asynchronous iteration include original task or future objects that were passed in, making it easier to associate results with the tasks being completed. (Contributed by Justin Arthur in gh-77714 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77714].)

asyncio.loop.create_unix_server() will now automatically remove the Unix socket when the server is closed. (Contributed by Pierre Ossman in gh-111246 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111246].)

DatagramTransport.sendto() will now send zero-length datagrams if called with an empty bytes object. The transport flow control also now accounts for the datagram header when calculating the buffer size. (Contributed by Jamie Phan in gh-115199 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115199].)

Add Queue.shutdown and QueueShutDown to manage queue termination. (Contributed by Laurie Opperman and Yves Duprat in gh-104228 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104228].)

Add the Server.close_clients() and Server.abort_clients() methods, which more forcefully close an asyncio server. (Contributed by Pierre Ossman in gh-113538 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113538].)

Accept a tuple of separators in StreamReader.readuntil(), stopping when any one of them is encountered. (Contributed by Bruce Merry in gh-81322 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81322].)

Improve the behavior of TaskGroup when an external cancellation collides with an internal cancellation. For example, when two task groups are nested and both experience an exception in a child task simultaneously, it was possible that the outer task group would hang, because its internal cancellation was swallowed by the inner task group.

In the case where a task group is cancelled externally and also must raise an ExceptionGroup, it will now call the parent task's cancel() method. This ensures that a CancelledError will be raised at the next await, so the cancellation is not lost.

An added benefit of these changes is that task groups now preserve the cancellation count (cancelling()).

In order to handle some corner cases, uncancel() may now reset the undocumented _must_cancel flag when the cancellation count reaches zero.

(Inspired by an issue reported by Arthur Tacca in gh-116720 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116720].)

When TaskGroup.create_task() is called on an inactive TaskGroup, the given coroutine will be closed (which prevents a RuntimeWarning about the given coroutine being never awaited). (Contributed by Arthur Tacca and Jason Zhang in gh-115957 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115957].)

The function and methods named create_task have received a new **kwargs argument that is passed through to the task constructor. This change was accidentally added in 3.13.3, and broke the API contract for custom task factories. Several third-party task factories implemented workarounds for this. In 3.13.4 and later releases the old factory contract is honored once again (until 3.14). To keep the workarounds working, the extra **kwargs argument still allows passing additional keyword arguments to Task and to custom task factories.

This affects the following function and methods: asyncio.create_task(), asyncio.loop.create_task(), asyncio.TaskGroup.create_task(). (Contributed by Thomas Grainger in gh-128307 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128307].)

base64

Add z85encode() and z85decode() functions for encoding bytes as Z85 data [https://rfc.zeromq.org/spec/32/] and decoding Z85-encoded data to bytes. (Contributed by Matan Perelman in gh-75299 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75299].)

compileall

The default number of worker threads and processes is now selected using os.process_cpu_count() instead of os.cpu_count(). (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-109649 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109649].)

concurrent.futures

The default number of worker threads and processes is now selected using os.process_cpu_count() instead of os.cpu_count(). (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-109649 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109649].)

configparser

ConfigParser now has support for unnamed sections, which allows for top-level key-value pairs. This can be enabled with the new allow_unnamed_section parameter. (Contributed by Pedro Sousa Lacerda in gh-66449 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66449].)

copy

The new replace() function and the replace protocol make creating modified copies of objects much simpler. This is especially useful when working with immutable objects. The following types support the replace() function and implement the replace protocol:

collections.namedtuple()

dataclasses.dataclass

datetime.datetime, datetime.date, datetime.time

inspect.Signature, inspect.Parameter

types.SimpleNamespace

code objects

Any user-defined class can also support copy.replace() by defining the __replace__() method. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-108751 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108751].)

ctypes

As a consequence of necessary internal refactoring, initialization of internal metaclasses now happens in __init__ rather than in __new__. This affects projects that subclass these internal metaclasses to provide custom initialization. Generally:

Custom logic that was done in __new__ after calling super().__new__ should be moved to __init__.

To create a class, call the metaclass, not only the metaclass's __new__ method.

See gh-124520 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124520] for discussion and links to changes in some affected projects.

ctypes.Structure objects have a new _align_ attribute which allows the alignment of the structure being packed to/from memory to be specified explicitly. (Contributed by Matt Sanderson in gh-112433 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112433])

dbm

Add dbm.sqlite3, a new module which implements an SQLite backend, and make it the default dbm backend. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and Erlend E. Aasland in gh-100414 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100414].)

Allow removing all items from the database through the new clear() methods of the GDBM and NDBM database objects. (Contributed by Donghee Na in gh-107122 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107122].)

dis

Change the output of dis module functions to show logical labels for jump targets and exception handlers, rather than offsets. The offsets can be added with the new -O command-line option or the show_offsets argument. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-112137 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112137].)

get_instructions() no longer represents cache entries as separate instructions. Instead, it returns them as part of the Instruction, in the new cache_info field. The show_caches argument to get_instructions() is deprecated and no longer has any effect. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-112962 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112962].)

doctest

doctest output is now colored by default. This can be controlled via the new PYTHON_COLORS environment variable as well as the canonical NO_COLOR [https://no-color.org/] and FORCE_COLOR [https://force-color.org/] environment variables. See also Controlling color. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-117225 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117225].)

The DocTestRunner.run() method now counts the number of skipped tests. Add the DocTestRunner.skips and TestResults.skipped attributes. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-108794 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108794].)

email

Headers with embedded newlines are now quoted on output. The generator will now refuse to serialize (write) headers that are improperly folded or delimited, such that they would be parsed as multiple headers or joined with adjacent data. If you need to turn this safety feature off, set verify_generated_headers. (Contributed by Bas Bloemsaat and Petr Viktorin in gh-121650 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121650].)

getaddresses() and parseaddr() now return ('', '') pairs in more situations where invalid email addresses are encountered instead of potentially inaccurate values. The two functions have a new optional strict parameter (default True). To get the old behavior (accepting malformed input), use strict=False. getattr(email.utils, 'supports_strict_parsing', False) can be used to check if the strict parameter is available. (Contributed by Thomas Dwyer and Victor Stinner for gh-102988 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102988] to improve the CVE 2023-27043 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-27043] fix.)

enum

EnumDict has been made public to better support subclassing EnumType.

fractions

Fraction objects now support the standard format specification mini-language rules for fill, alignment, sign handling, minimum width, and grouping. (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in gh-111320 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111320].)

glob

Add translate(), a function to convert a path specification with shell-style wildcards to a regular expression. (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-72904 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72904].)

importlib

The following functions in importlib.resources now allow accessing a directory (or tree) of resources, using multiple positional arguments (the encoding and errors arguments in the text-reading functions are now keyword-only):

is_resource()

open_binary()

open_text()

path()

read_binary()

read_text()

These functions are no longer deprecated and are not scheduled for removal. (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in gh-116608 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116608].)

contents() remains deprecated in favor of the fully-featured Traversable API. However, there is now no plan to remove it. (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in gh-116608 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116608].)

io

The IOBase finalizer now logs any errors raised by the close() method with sys.unraisablehook. Previously, errors were ignored silently by default, and only logged in Python Development Mode or when using a Python debug build. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-62948 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/62948].)

ipaddress

Add the IPv4Address.ipv6_mapped property, which returns the IPv4-mapped IPv6 address. (Contributed by Charles Machalow in gh-109466 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109466].)

Fix is_global and is_private behavior in IPv4Address, IPv6Address, IPv4Network, and IPv6Network. (Contributed by Jakub Stasiak in gh-113171 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113171].)

itertools

batched() has a new strict parameter, which raises a ValueError if the final batch is shorter than the specified batch size. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-113202 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113202].)

marshal

Add the allow_code parameter in module functions. Passing allow_code=False prevents serialization and de-serialization of code objects which are incompatible between Python versions. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-113626 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113626].)

math

The new function fma() performs fused multiply-add operations. This computes x * y + z with only a single round, and so avoids any intermediate loss of precision. It wraps the fma() function provided by C99, and follows the specification of the IEEE 754 "fusedMultiplyAdd" operation for special cases. (Contributed by Mark Dickinson and Victor Stinner in gh-73468 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73468].)

mimetypes

Add the guess_file_type() function to guess a MIME type from a filesystem path. Using paths with guess_type() is now soft deprecated. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-66543 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66543].)

mmap

mmap is now protected from crashing on Windows when the mapped memory is inaccessible due to file system errors or access violations. (Contributed by Jannis Weigend in gh-118209 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118209].)

mmap has a new seekable() method that can be used when a seekable file-like object is required. The seek() method now returns the new absolute position. (Contributed by Donghee Na and Sylvie Liberman in gh-111835 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111835].)

The new UNIX-only trackfd parameter for mmap controls file descriptor duplication; if false, the file descriptor specified by fileno will not be duplicated. (Contributed by Zackery Spytz and Petr Viktorin in gh-78502 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78502].)

multiprocessing

The default number of worker threads and processes is now selected using os.process_cpu_count() instead of os.cpu_count(). (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-109649 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109649].)

os

Add process_cpu_count() function to get the number of logical CPU cores usable by the calling thread of the current process. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-109649 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109649].)

cpu_count() and process_cpu_count() can be overridden through the new environment variable PYTHON_CPU_COUNT or the new command-line option -X cpu_count. This option is useful for users who need to limit CPU resources of a container system without having to modify application code or the container itself. (Contributed by Donghee Na in gh-109595 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109595].)

Add a low level interface to Linux's timer file descriptors [https://manpages.debian.org/timerfd_create(2)] via timerfd_create(), timerfd_settime(), timerfd_settime_ns(), timerfd_gettime(), timerfd_gettime_ns(), TFD_NONBLOCK, TFD_CLOEXEC, TFD_TIMER_ABSTIME, and TFD_TIMER_CANCEL_ON_SET (Contributed by Masaru Tsuchiyama in gh-108277 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108277].)

lchmod() and the follow_symlinks argument of chmod() are both now available on Windows. Note that the default value of follow_symlinks in lchmod() is False on Windows. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-59616 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59616].)

fchmod() and support for file descriptors in chmod() are both now available on Windows. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-113191 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113191].)

On Windows, mkdir() and makedirs() now support passing a mode value of 0o700 to apply access control to the new directory. This implicitly affects tempfile.mkdtemp() and is a mitigation for CVE 2024-4030 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2024-4030]. Other values for mode continue to be ignored. (Contributed by Steve Dower in gh-118486 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118486].)

posix_spawn() now accepts None for the env argument, which makes the newly spawned process use the current process environment. (Contributed by Jakub Kulik in gh-113119 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113119].)

posix_spawn() can now use the POSIX_SPAWN_CLOSEFROM attribute in the file_actions parameter on platforms that support posix_spawn_file_actions_addclosefrom_np(). (Contributed by Jakub Kulik in gh-113117 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113117].)

os.path

Add isreserved() to check if a path is reserved on the current system. This function is only available on Windows. (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-88569 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88569].)

On Windows, isabs() no longer considers paths starting with exactly one slash (\ or /) to be absolute. (Contributed by Barney Gale and Jon Foster in gh-44626 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/44626].)

realpath() now resolves MS-DOS style file names even if the file is not accessible. (Contributed by Moonsik Park in gh-82367 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82367].)

pathlib

Add UnsupportedOperation, which is raised instead of NotImplementedError when a path operation isn't supported. (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-89812 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89812].)

Add a new constructor for creating Path objects from 'file' URIs (file:///), Path.from_uri(). (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-107465 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107465].)

Add PurePath.full_match() for matching paths with shell-style wildcards, including the recursive wildcard "**". (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-73435 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73435].)

Add the PurePath.parser class attribute to store the implementation of os.path used for low-level path parsing and joining. This will be either posixpath or ntpath.

Add recurse_symlinks keyword-only argument to Path.glob() and rglob(). (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-77609 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77609].)

Path.glob() and rglob() now return files and directories when given a pattern that ends with "**". Previously, only directories were returned. (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-70303 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70303].)

Add the follow_symlinks keyword-only argument to Path.is_file, Path.is_dir, Path.owner(), and Path.group(). (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-105793 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105793] and Kamil Turek in gh-107962 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107962].)

pdb

breakpoint() and set_trace() now enter the debugger immediately rather than on the next line of code to be executed. This change prevents the debugger from breaking outside of the context when breakpoint() is positioned at the end of the context. (Contributed by Tian Gao in gh-118579 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118579].)

sys.path[0] is no longer replaced by the directory of the script being debugged when sys.flags.safe_path is set. (Contributed by Tian Gao and Christian Walther in gh-111762 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111762].)

zipapp is now supported as a debugging target. (Contributed by Tian Gao in gh-118501 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118501].)

Add ability to move between chained exceptions during post-mortem debugging in pm() using the new exceptions [exc_number] command for Pdb. (Contributed by Matthias Bussonnier in gh-106676 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106676].)

Expressions and statements whose prefix is a pdb command are now correctly identified and executed. (Contributed by Tian Gao in gh-108464 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108464].)

queue

Add Queue.shutdown and ShutDown to manage queue termination. (Contributed by Laurie Opperman and Yves Duprat in gh-104750 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104750].)

random

Add a command-line interface. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-118131 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118131].)

re

Rename re.error to PatternError for improved clarity. re.error is kept for backward compatibility.

shutils

Support the dir_fd and follow_symlinks keyword arguments in chown(). (Contributed by Berker Peksag and Tahia K in gh-62308 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/62308])

site

.pth files are now decoded using UTF-8 first, and then with the locale encoding if UTF-8 decoding fails. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in gh-117802 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117802].)

sqlite3

A ResourceWarning is now emitted if a Connection object is not closed explicitly. (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in gh-105539 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105539].)

Add the filter keyword-only parameter to Connection.iterdump() for filtering database objects to dump. (Contributed by Mariusz Felisiak in gh-91602 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91602].)

ssl

The create_default_context() API now includes VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN and VERIFY_X509_STRICT in its default flags.

Note

VERIFY_X509_STRICT may reject pre-RFC 5280 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5280.html] or malformed certificates that the underlying OpenSSL implementation might otherwise accept. Whilst disabling this is not recommended, you can do so using:

import ssl

ctx = ssl.create_default_context()
ctx.verify_flags &= ~ssl.VERIFY_X509_STRICT

(Contributed by William Woodruff in gh-112389 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112389].)

statistics

Add kde() for kernel density estimation. This makes it possible to estimate a continuous probability density function from a fixed number of discrete samples. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-115863 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115863].)

Add kde_random() for sampling from an estimated probability density function created by kde(). (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-115863 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115863].)

subprocess

The subprocess module now uses the posix_spawn() function in more situations.

Notably, when close_fds is True (the default), posix_spawn() will be used when the C library provides posix_spawn_file_actions_addclosefrom_np(), which includes recent versions of Linux, FreeBSD, and Solaris. On Linux, this should perform similarly to the existing Linux vfork() based code.

A private control knob subprocess._USE_POSIX_SPAWN can be set to False if you need to force subprocess to never use posix_spawn(). Please report your reason and platform details in the issue tracker if you set this so that we can improve our API selection logic for everyone. (Contributed by Jakub Kulik in gh-113117 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113117].)

sys

Add the _is_interned() function to test if a string was interned. This function is not guaranteed to exist in all implementations of Python. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-78573 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78573].)

tempfile

On Windows, the default mode 0o700 used by tempfile.mkdtemp() now limits access to the new directory due to changes to os.mkdir(). This is a mitigation for CVE 2024-4030 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2024-4030]. (Contributed by Steve Dower in gh-118486 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118486].)

time

On Windows, monotonic() now uses the QueryPerformanceCounter() clock for a resolution of 1 microsecond, instead of the GetTickCount64() clock which has a resolution of 15.6 milliseconds. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-88494 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88494].)

On Windows, time() now uses the GetSystemTimePreciseAsFileTime() clock for a resolution of 1 microsecond, instead of the GetSystemTimeAsFileTime() clock which has a resolution of 15.6 milliseconds. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-63207 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/63207].)

tkinter

Add tkinter widget methods: tk_busy_hold(), tk_busy_configure(), tk_busy_cget(), tk_busy_forget(), tk_busy_current(), and tk_busy_status(). (Contributed by Miguel, klappnase and Serhiy Storchaka in gh-72684 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72684].)

The tkinter widget method wm_attributes() now accepts the attribute name without the minus prefix to get window attributes, for example w.wm_attributes('alpha') and allows specifying attributes and values to set as keyword arguments, for example w.wm_attributes(alpha=0.5). (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-43457 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/43457].)

wm_attributes() can now return attributes as a dict, by using the new optional keyword-only parameter return_python_dict. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-43457 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/43457].)

Text.count() can now return a simple int when the new optional keyword-only parameter return_ints is used. Otherwise, the single count is returned as a 1-tuple or None. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-97928 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97928].)

Support the "vsapi" element type in the element_create() method of tkinter.ttk.Style. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-68166 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68166].)

Add the after_info() method for Tkinter widgets. (Contributed by Cheryl Sabella in gh-77020 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77020].)

Add a new copy_replace() method to PhotoImage to copy a region from one image to another, possibly with pixel zooming, subsampling, or both. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-118225 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118225].)

Add from_coords parameter to the PhotoImage methods copy(), zoom() and subsample(). Add zoom and subsample parameters to the PhotoImage method copy(). (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-118225 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118225].)

Add the PhotoImage methods read() to read an image from a file and data() to get the image data. Add background and grayscale parameters to the write() method. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-118271 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118271].)

traceback

Add the exc_type_str attribute to TracebackException, which holds a string display of the exc_type. Deprecate the exc_type attribute, which holds the type object itself. Add parameter save_exc_type (default True) to indicate whether exc_type should be saved. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-112332 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112332].)

Add a new show_group keyword-only parameter to TracebackException.format_exception_only() to (recursively) format the nested exceptions of a BaseExceptionGroup instance. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-105292 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105292].)

types

SimpleNamespace can now take a single positional argument to initialise the namespace's arguments. This argument must either be a mapping or an iterable of key-value pairs. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-108191 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108191].)

typing

PEP 705 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0705/]: Add ReadOnly, a special typing construct to mark a TypedDict item as read-only for type checkers.

PEP 742 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0742/]: Add TypeIs, a typing construct that can be used to instruct a type checker how to narrow a type.

Add NoDefault, a sentinel object used to represent the defaults of some parameters in the typing module. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-116126 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116126].)

Add get_protocol_members() to return the set of members defining a typing.Protocol. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-104873 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104873].)

Add is_protocol() to check whether a class is a Protocol. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-104873 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104873].)

ClassVar can now be nested in Final, and vice versa. (Contributed by Mehdi Drissi in gh-89547 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89547].)

unicodedata

Update the Unicode database to version 15.1.0 [https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode15.1.0/]. (Contributed by James Gerity in gh-109559 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109559].)

venv

Add support for creating source control management (SCM) ignore files in a virtual environment's directory. By default, Git is supported. This is implemented as opt-in via the API, which can be extended to support other SCMs (EnvBuilder and create()), and opt-out via the CLI, using --without-scm-ignore-files. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in gh-108125 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108125].)

warnings

PEP 702 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0702/]: The new warnings.deprecated() decorator provides a way to communicate deprecations to a static type checker and to warn on usage of deprecated classes and functions. A DeprecationWarning may also be emitted when a decorated function or class is used at runtime. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-104003 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104003].)

xml

Allow controlling Expat >=2.6.0 reparse deferral (CVE 2023-52425 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-52425]) by adding five new methods:

xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser.flush()

xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser.flush()

xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.GetReparseDeferralEnabled()

xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.SetReparseDeferralEnabled()

xml.sax.expatreader.ExpatParser.flush()

(Contributed by Sebastian Pipping in gh-115623 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115623].)

Add the close() method for the iterator returned by iterparse() for explicit cleanup. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-69893 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69893].)

zipimport

Add support for ZIP64 [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zip_(file_format)#ZIP64] format files. Everybody loves huge data, right? (Contributed by Tim Hatch in gh-94146 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94146].)

Optimisations

Several standard library modules have had their import times significantly improved. For example, the import time of the typing module has been reduced by around a third by removing dependencies on re and contextlib. Other modules to enjoy import-time speedups include email.utils, enum, functools, importlib.metadata, and threading. (Contributed by Alex Waygood, Shantanu Jain, Adam Turner, Daniel Hollas, and others in gh-109653 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109653].)

textwrap.indent() is now around 30% faster than before for large input. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in gh-107369 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107369].)

The subprocess module now uses the posix_spawn() function in more situations, including when close_fds is True (the default) on many modern platforms. This should provide a notable performance increase when launching processes on FreeBSD and Solaris. See the subprocess section above for details. (Contributed by Jakub Kulik in gh-113117 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113117].)

Removed Modules And APIs

PEP 594: Remove "dead batteries" from the standard library

PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/] proposed removing 19 modules from the standard library, colloquially referred to as 'dead batteries' due to their historic, obsolete, or insecure status. All of the following modules were deprecated in Python 3.11, and are now removed:

aifc

standard-aifc [https://pypi.org/project/standard-aifc/]: Use the redistribution of aifc library from PyPI.

audioop

audioop-lts [https://pypi.org/project/audioop-lts/]: Use audioop-lts library from PyPI.

chunk

standard-chunk [https://pypi.org/project/standard-chunk/]: Use the redistribution of chunk library from PyPI.

cgi and cgitb

cgi.FieldStorage can typically be replaced with urllib.parse.parse_qsl() for GET and HEAD requests, and the email.message module or the multipart [https://pypi.org/project/multipart/] library for POST and PUT requests.

cgi.parse() can be replaced by calling urllib.parse.parse_qs() directly on the desired query string, unless the input is multipart/form-data, which should be replaced as described below for cgi.parse_multipart().

cgi.parse_header() can be replaced with the functionality in the email package, which implements the same MIME RFCs. For example, with email.message.EmailMessage:

from email.message import EmailMessage

msg = EmailMessage()
msg['content-type'] = 'application/json; charset="utf8"'
main, params = msg.get_content_type(), msg['content-type'].params

cgi.parse_multipart() can be replaced with the functionality in the email package, which implements the same MIME RFCs, or with the multipart [https://pypi.org/project/multipart/] library. For example, the email.message.EmailMessage and email.message.Message classes.

standard-cgi [https://pypi.org/project/standard-cgi/]: and standard-cgitb [https://pypi.org/project/standard-cgitb/]: Use the redistribution of cgi and cgitb library from PyPI.

crypt and the private _crypt extension. The hashlib module may be an appropriate replacement when simply hashing a value is required. Otherwise, various third-party libraries on PyPI are available:

bcrypt [https://pypi.org/project/bcrypt/]: Modern password hashing for your software and your servers.

argon2-cffi [https://pypi.org/project/argon2-cffi/]: The secure Argon2 password hashing algorithm.

legacycrypt [https://pypi.org/project/legacycrypt/]: ctypes wrapper to the POSIX crypt library call and associated functionality.

crypt_r [https://pypi.org/project/crypt_r/]: Fork of the crypt module, wrapper to the crypt_r(3) [https://manpages.debian.org/crypt_r(3)] library call and associated functionality.

standard-crypt [https://pypi.org/project/standard-crypt/] and deprecated-crypt-alternative [https://pypi.org/project/deprecated-crypt-alternative/]: Use the redistribution of crypt and reimplementation of _crypt libraries from PyPI.

imghdr: The filetype [https://pypi.org/project/filetype/], puremagic [https://pypi.org/project/puremagic/], or python-magic [https://pypi.org/project/python-magic/] libraries should be used as replacements. For example, the puremagic.what() function can be used to replace the imghdr.what() function for all file formats that were supported by imghdr.

standard-imghdr [https://pypi.org/project/standard-imghdr/]: Use the redistribution of imghdr library from PyPI.

mailcap: Use the mimetypes module instead.

standard-mailcap [https://pypi.org/project/standard-mailcap/]: Use the redistribution of mailcap library from PyPI.

msilib

nis

nntplib: Use the pynntp [https://pypi.org/project/pynntp/] library from PyPI instead.

standard-nntplib [https://pypi.org/project/standard-nntplib/]: Use the redistribution of nntplib library from PyPI.

ossaudiodev: For audio playback, use the pygame [https://pypi.org/project/pygame/] library from PyPI instead.

pipes: Use the subprocess module instead. Use shlex.quote() to replace the undocumented pipes.quote function.

standard-pipes [https://pypi.org/project/standard-pipes/]: Use the redistribution of pipes library from PyPI.

sndhdr: The filetype [https://pypi.org/project/filetype/], puremagic [https://pypi.org/project/puremagic/], or python-magic [https://pypi.org/project/python-magic/] libraries should be used as replacements.

standard-sndhdr [https://pypi.org/project/standard-sndhdr/]: Use the redistribution of sndhdr library from PyPI.

spwd: Use the python-pam [https://pypi.org/project/python-pam/] library from PyPI instead.

sunau

standard-sunau [https://pypi.org/project/standard-sunau/]: Use the redistribution of sunau library from PyPI.

telnetlib, Use the telnetlib3 [https://pypi.org/project/telnetlib3/] or Exscript [https://pypi.org/project/Exscript/] libraries from PyPI instead.

standard-telnetlib [https://pypi.org/project/standard-telnetlib/]: Use the redistribution of telnetlib library from PyPI.

uu: Use the base64 module instead, as a modern alternative.

standard-uu [https://pypi.org/project/standard-uu/]: Use the redistribution of uu library from PyPI.

xdrlib

standard-xdrlib [https://pypi.org/project/standard-xdrlib/]: Use the redistribution of xdrlib library from PyPI.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner and Zachary Ware in gh-104773 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773] and gh-104780 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104780].)

2to3

Remove the 2to3 program and the lib2to3 module, previously deprecated in Python 3.11. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-104780 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104780].)

builtins

Remove support for chained classmethod descriptors (introduced in gh-63272 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/63272]). These can no longer be used to wrap other descriptors, such as property. The core design of this feature was flawed and led to several problems. To "pass-through" a classmethod, consider using the __wrapped__ attribute that was added in Python 3.10. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-89519 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89519].)

Raise a RuntimeError when calling frame.clear() on a suspended frame (as has always been the case for an executing frame). (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-79932 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79932].)

configparser

Remove the undocumented LegacyInterpolation class, deprecated in the docstring since Python 3.2, and at runtime since Python 3.11. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-104886 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104886].)

importlib.metadata

Remove deprecated subscript (__getitem__()) access for EntryPoint objects. (Contributed by Jason R. Coombs in gh-113175 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113175].)

locale

Remove the locale.resetlocale() function, deprecated in Python 3.11. Use locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, "") instead. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-104783 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104783].)

opcode

Move opcode.ENABLE_SPECIALIZATION to _opcode.ENABLE_SPECIALIZATION. This field was added in 3.12, it was never documented, and is not intended for external use. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-105481 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105481].)

Remove opcode.is_pseudo(), opcode.MIN_PSEUDO_OPCODE, and opcode.MAX_PSEUDO_OPCODE, which were added in Python 3.12, but were neither documented nor exposed through dis, and were not intended to be used externally. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-105481 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105481].)

optparse

This module is no longer considered soft deprecated. While argparse remains preferred for new projects that aren't using a third party command line argument processing library, there are aspects of the way argparse works that mean the lower level optparse module may provide a better foundation for writing argument processing libraries, and for implementing command line applications which adhere more strictly than argparse does to various Unix command line processing conventions that originate in the behaviour of the C getopt() function . (Contributed by Alyssa Coghlan and Serhiy Storchaka in gh-126180 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126180].)

pathlib

Remove the ability to use Path objects as context managers. This functionality was deprecated and has had no effect since Python 3.9. (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-83863 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83863].)

re

Remove the undocumented, deprecated, and broken re.template() function and re.TEMPLATE / re.T flag. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Nikita Sobolev in gh-105687 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105687].)

tkinter.tix

Remove the tkinter.tix module, deprecated in Python 3.6. The third-party Tix library which the module wrapped is unmaintained. (Contributed by Zachary Ware in gh-75552 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75552].)

turtle

Remove the RawTurtle.settiltangle() method, deprecated in the documentation since Python 3.1 and at runtime since Python 3.11. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-104876 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104876].)

typing

Remove the typing.io and typing.re namespaces, deprecated since Python 3.8. The items in those namespaces can be imported directly from the typing module. (Contributed by Sebastian Rittau in gh-92871 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92871].)

Remove the keyword-argument method of creating TypedDict types, deprecated in Python 3.11. (Contributed by Tomas Roun in gh-104786 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104786].)

unittest

Remove the following unittest functions, deprecated in Python 3.11:

unittest.findTestCases()

unittest.makeSuite()

unittest.getTestCaseNames()

Use TestLoader methods instead:

loadTestsFromModule()

loadTestsFromTestCase()

getTestCaseNames()

(Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-104835 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104835].)

Remove the untested and undocumented TestProgram.usageExit() method, deprecated in Python 3.11. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-104992 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104992].)

urllib

Remove the cafile, capath, and cadefault parameters of the urllib.request.urlopen() function, deprecated in Python 3.6. Use the context parameter instead with an SSLContext instance. The ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain() function can be used to load specific certificates, or let ssl.create_default_context() select the operating system's trusted certificate authority (CA) certificates. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105382 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105382].)

webbrowser

Remove the untested and undocumented MacOSX class, deprecated in Python 3.11. Use the MacOSXOSAScript class (introduced in Python 3.2) instead. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-104804 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104804].)

Remove the deprecated MacOSXOSAScript._name attribute. Use the MacOSXOSAScript.name attribute instead. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-105546 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105546].)

New Deprecations

User-defined functions:

Deprecate assignment to a function's __code__ attribute, where the new code object's type does not match the function's type. The different types are: plain function, generator, async generator, and coroutine. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-81137 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81137].)

array:

Deprecate the 'u' format code (wchar_t) at runtime. This format code has been deprecated in documentation since Python 3.3, and will be removed in Python 3.16. Use the 'w' format code (Py_UCS4) for Unicode characters instead. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-80480 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80480].)

ctypes:

Deprecate the undocumented SetPointerType() function, to be removed in Python 3.15. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105733 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105733].)

Soft-deprecate the ARRAY() function in favour of type * length multiplication. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105733 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105733].)

decimal:

Deprecate the non-standard and undocumented Decimal format specifier 'N', which is only supported in the decimal module's C implementation. Scheduled to be removed in Python 3.18. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-89902 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89902].)

dis:

Deprecate the HAVE_ARGUMENT separator. Check membership in hasarg instead. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-109319 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109319].)

gettext:

Deprecate non-integer numbers as arguments to functions and methods that consider plural forms in the gettext module, even if no translation was found. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-88434 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88434].)

glob:

Deprecate the undocumented glob0() and glob1() functions. Use glob() and pass a path-like object specifying the root directory to the root_dir parameter instead. (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-117337 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117337].)

http.server:

Deprecate CGIHTTPRequestHandler, to be removed in Python 3.15. Process-based CGI HTTP servers have been out of favor for a very long time. This code was outdated, unmaintained, and rarely used. It has a high potential for both security and functionality bugs. (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in gh-109096 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109096].)

Deprecate the --cgi flag to the python -m http.server command-line interface, to be removed in Python 3.15. (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in gh-109096 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109096].)

mimetypes:

Soft-deprecate file path arguments to guess_type(), use guess_file_type() instead. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-66543 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66543].)

re:

Deprecate passing the optional maxsplit, count, or flags arguments as positional arguments to the module-level split(), sub(), and subn() functions. These parameters will become keyword-only in a future version of Python. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-56166 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/56166].)

pathlib:

Deprecate PurePath.is_reserved(), to be removed in Python 3.15. Use os.path.isreserved() to detect reserved paths on Windows. (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-88569 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88569].)

platform:

Deprecate java_ver(), to be removed in Python 3.15. This function is only useful for Jython support, has a confusing API, and is largely untested. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-116349 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116349].)

pydoc:

Deprecate the undocumented ispackage() function. (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in gh-64020 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/64020].)

sqlite3:

Deprecate passing more than one positional argument to the connect() function and the Connection constructor. The remaining parameters will become keyword-only in Python 3.15. (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in gh-107948 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107948].)

Deprecate passing name, number of arguments, and the callable as keyword arguments for Connection.create_function() and Connection.create_aggregate() These parameters will become positional-only in Python 3.15. (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in gh-108278 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108278].)

Deprecate passing the callback callable by keyword for the set_authorizer(), set_progress_handler(), and set_trace_callback() Connection methods. The callback callables will become positional-only in Python 3.15. (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in gh-108278 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108278].)

sys:

Deprecate the _enablelegacywindowsfsencoding() function, to be removed in Python 3.16. Use the PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING environment variable instead. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in gh-73427 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73427].)

tarfile:

Deprecate the undocumented and unused TarFile.tarfile attribute, to be removed in Python 3.16. (Contributed in gh-115256 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115256].)

traceback:

Deprecate the TracebackException.exc_type attribute. Use TracebackException.exc_type_str instead. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-112332 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112332].)

typing:

Deprecate the undocumented keyword argument syntax for creating NamedTuple classes (e.g. Point = NamedTuple("Point", x=int, y=int)), to be removed in Python 3.15. Use the class-based syntax or the functional syntax instead. (Contributed by Alex Waygood in gh-105566 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105566].)

Deprecate omitting the fields parameter when creating a NamedTuple or typing.TypedDict class, and deprecate passing None to the fields parameter of both types. Python 3.15 will require a valid sequence for the fields parameter. To create a NamedTuple class with zero fields, use class NT(NamedTuple): pass or NT = NamedTuple("NT", ()). To create a TypedDict class with zero fields, use class TD(TypedDict): pass or TD = TypedDict("TD", {}). (Contributed by Alex Waygood in gh-105566 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105566] and gh-105570 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105570].)

Deprecate the typing.no_type_check_decorator() decorator function, to be removed in Python 3.15. After eight years in the typing module, it has yet to be supported by any major type checker. (Contributed by Alex Waygood in gh-106309 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106309].)

Deprecate typing.AnyStr. In Python 3.16, it will be removed from typing.__all__, and a DeprecationWarning will be emitted at runtime when it is imported or accessed. It will be removed entirely in Python 3.18. Use the new type parameter syntax instead. (Contributed by Michael The in gh-107116 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107116].)

wave:

Deprecate the getmark(), setmark(), and getmarkers() methods of the Wave_read and Wave_write classes, to be removed in Python 3.15. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105096 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105096].)

Pending removal in Python 3.14

argparse: The type, choices, and metavar parameters of argparse.BooleanOptionalAction are deprecated and will be removed in 3.14. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-92248 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92248].)

ast: The following features have been deprecated in documentation since Python 3.8, now cause a DeprecationWarning to be emitted at runtime when they are accessed or used, and will be removed in Python 3.14:

ast.Num

ast.Str

ast.Bytes

ast.NameConstant

ast.Ellipsis

Use ast.Constant instead. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-90953 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90953].)

asyncio:

The child watcher classes asyncio.MultiLoopChildWatcher, asyncio.FastChildWatcher, asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher and asyncio.SafeChildWatcher are deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.14. (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-94597 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597].)

asyncio.set_child_watcher(), asyncio.get_child_watcher(), asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.set_child_watcher() and asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.get_child_watcher() are deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.14. (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-94597 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597].)

The get_event_loop() method of the default event loop policy now emits a DeprecationWarning if there is no current event loop set and it decides to create one. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Guido van Rossum in gh-100160 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100160].)

email: Deprecated the isdst parameter in email.utils.localtime(). (Contributed by Alan Williams in gh-72346 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72346].)

importlib.abc deprecated classes:

importlib.abc.ResourceReader

importlib.abc.Traversable

importlib.abc.TraversableResources

Use importlib.resources.abc classes instead:

importlib.resources.abc.Traversable

importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources

(Contributed by Jason R. Coombs and Hugo van Kemenade in gh-93963 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93963].)

itertools had undocumented, inefficient, historically buggy, and inconsistent support for copy, deepcopy, and pickle operations. This will be removed in 3.14 for a significant reduction in code volume and maintenance burden. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-101588 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101588].)

multiprocessing: The default start method will change to a safer one on Linux, BSDs, and other non-macOS POSIX platforms where 'fork' is currently the default (gh-84559 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84559]). Adding a runtime warning about this was deemed too disruptive as the majority of code is not expected to care. Use the get_context() or set_start_method() APIs to explicitly specify when your code requires 'fork'. See Contextes et méthodes de démarrage.

pathlib: is_relative_to() and relative_to(): passing additional arguments is deprecated.

pkgutil: pkgutil.find_loader() and pkgutil.get_loader() now raise DeprecationWarning; use importlib.util.find_spec() instead. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-97850 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850].)

pty:

master_open(): use pty.openpty().

slave_open(): use pty.openpty().

sqlite3:

version and version_info.

execute() and executemany() if named placeholders are used and parameters is a sequence instead of a dict.

urllib: urllib.parse.Quoter is deprecated: it was not intended to be a public API. (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in gh-88168 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88168].)

Pending removal in Python 3.15

The import system:

Setting __cached__ on a module while failing to set __spec__.cached is deprecated. In Python 3.15, __cached__ will cease to be set or take into consideration by the import system or standard library. (gh-97879 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97879])

Setting __package__ on a module while failing to set __spec__.parent is deprecated. In Python 3.15, __package__ will cease to be set or take into consideration by the import system or standard library. (gh-97879 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97879])

ctypes:

The undocumented ctypes.SetPointerType() function has been deprecated since Python 3.13.

http.server:

The obsolete and rarely used CGIHTTPRequestHandler has been deprecated since Python 3.13. No direct replacement exists. Anything is better than CGI to interface a web server with a request handler.

The --cgi flag to the python -m http.server command-line interface has been deprecated since Python 3.13.

importlib:

load_module() method: use exec_module() instead.

locale:

The getdefaultlocale() function has been deprecated since Python 3.11. Its removal was originally planned for Python 3.13 (gh-90817 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90817]), but has been postponed to Python 3.15. Use getlocale(), setlocale(), and getencoding() instead. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-111187 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111187].)

pathlib:

PurePath.is_reserved() has been deprecated since Python 3.13. Use os.path.isreserved() to detect reserved paths on Windows.

platform:

java_ver() has been deprecated since Python 3.13. This function is only useful for Jython support, has a confusing API, and is largely untested.

sysconfig:

The check_home argument of sysconfig.is_python_build() has been deprecated since Python 3.12.

threading:

RLock() will take no arguments in Python 3.15. Passing any arguments has been deprecated since Python 3.14, as the Python version does not permit any arguments, but the C version allows any number of positional or keyword arguments, ignoring every argument.

types:

types.CodeType: Accessing co_lnotab was deprecated in PEP 626 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/] since 3.10 and was planned to be removed in 3.12, but it only got a proper DeprecationWarning in 3.12. May be removed in 3.15. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-101866 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101866].)

typing:

The undocumented keyword argument syntax for creating NamedTuple classes (for example, Point = NamedTuple("Point", x=int, y=int)) has been deprecated since Python 3.13. Use the class-based syntax or the functional syntax instead.

When using the functional syntax of TypedDicts, failing to pass a value to the fields parameter (TD = TypedDict("TD")) or passing None (TD = TypedDict("TD", None)) has been deprecated since Python 3.13. Use class TD(TypedDict): pass or TD = TypedDict("TD", {}) to create a TypedDict with zero field.

The typing.no_type_check_decorator() decorator function has been deprecated since Python 3.13. After eight years in the typing module, it has yet to be supported by any major type checker.

wave:

The getmark(), setmark(), and getmarkers() methods of the Wave_read and Wave_write classes have been deprecated since Python 3.13.

zipimport :

load_module() has been deprecated since Python 3.10. Use exec_module() instead. (Contributed by Jiahao Li in gh-125746 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125746].)

Pending removal in Python 3.16

The import system:

Setting __loader__ on a module while failing to set __spec__.loader is deprecated. In Python 3.16, __loader__ will cease to be set or taken into consideration by the import system or the standard library.

array:

The 'u' format code (wchar_t) has been deprecated in documentation since Python 3.3 and at runtime since Python 3.13. Use the 'w' format code (Py_UCS4) for Unicode characters instead.

asyncio:

asyncio.iscoroutinefunction() is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.16; use inspect.iscoroutinefunction() instead. (Contributed by Jiahao Li and Kumar Aditya in gh-122875 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122875].)

asyncio policy system is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.16. In particular, the following classes and functions are deprecated:

asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy

asyncio.DefaultEventLoopPolicy

asyncio.WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy

asyncio.WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy

asyncio.get_event_loop_policy()

asyncio.set_event_loop_policy()

Users should use asyncio.run() or asyncio.Runner with loop_factory to use the desired event loop implementation.

For example, to use asyncio.SelectorEventLoop on Windows:

import asyncio

async def main():
    ...

asyncio.run(main(), loop_factory=asyncio.SelectorEventLoop)

(Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-127949 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127949].)

builtins:

Bitwise inversion on boolean types, ~True or ~False has been deprecated since Python 3.12, as it produces surprising and unintuitive results (-2 and -1). Use not x instead for the logical negation of a Boolean. In the rare case that you need the bitwise inversion of the underlying integer, convert to int explicitly (~int(x)).

functools:

Calling the Python implementation of functools.reduce() with function or sequence as keyword arguments has been deprecated since Python 3.14.

logging:

Support for custom logging handlers with the strm argument is deprecated and scheduled for removal in Python 3.16. Define handlers with the stream argument instead. (Contributed by Mariusz Felisiak in gh-115032 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115032].)

mimetypes:

Valid extensions start with a '.' or are empty for mimetypes.MimeTypes.add_type(). Undotted extensions are deprecated and will raise a ValueError in Python 3.16. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-75223 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75223].)

shutil:

The ExecError exception has been deprecated since Python 3.14. It has not been used by any function in shutil since Python 3.4, and is now an alias of RuntimeError.

symtable:

The Class.get_methods method has been deprecated since Python 3.14.

sys:

The _enablelegacywindowsfsencoding() function has been deprecated since Python 3.13. Use the PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING environment variable instead.

sysconfig:

The sysconfig.expand_makefile_vars() function has been deprecated since Python 3.14. Use the vars argument of sysconfig.get_paths() instead.

tarfile:

The undocumented and unused TarFile.tarfile attribute has been deprecated since Python 3.13.

Pending removal in Python 3.17

collections.abc:

collections.abc.ByteString is scheduled for removal in Python 3.17.

Use isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Buffer) to test if obj implements the buffer protocol at runtime. For use in type annotations, either use Buffer or a union that explicitly specifies the types your code supports (e.g., bytes | bytearray | memoryview).

ByteString was originally intended to be an abstract class that would serve as a supertype of both bytes and bytearray. However, since the ABC never had any methods, knowing that an object was an instance of ByteString never actually told you anything useful about the object. Other common buffer types such as memoryview were also never understood as subtypes of ByteString (either at runtime or by static type checkers).

See PEP 688 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/#current-options] for more details. (Contributed by Shantanu Jain in gh-91896 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896].)

typing:

Before Python 3.14, old-style unions were implemented using the private class typing._UnionGenericAlias. This class is no longer needed for the implementation, but it has been retained for backward compatibility, with removal scheduled for Python 3.17. Users should use documented introspection helpers like typing.get_origin() and typing.get_args() instead of relying on private implementation details.

typing.ByteString, deprecated since Python 3.9, is scheduled for removal in Python 3.17.

Use isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Buffer) to test if obj implements the buffer protocol at runtime. For use in type annotations, either use Buffer or a union that explicitly specifies the types your code supports (e.g., bytes | bytearray | memoryview).

ByteString was originally intended to be an abstract class that would serve as a supertype of both bytes and bytearray. However, since the ABC never had any methods, knowing that an object was an instance of ByteString never actually told you anything useful about the object. Other common buffer types such as memoryview were also never understood as subtypes of ByteString (either at runtime or by static type checkers).

See PEP 688 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/#current-options] for more details. (Contributed by Shantanu Jain in gh-91896 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896].)

Pending removal in Python 3.18

decimal:

The non-standard and undocumented Decimal format specifier 'N', which is only supported in the decimal module's C implementation, has been deprecated since Python 3.13. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-89902 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89902].)

Pending removal in Python 3.19

ctypes:

Implicitly switching to the MSVC-compatible struct layout by setting _pack_ but not _layout_ on non-Windows platforms.

Pending removal in future versions

The following APIs will be removed in the future, although there is currently no date scheduled for their removal.

argparse :

Nesting argument groups and nesting mutually exclusive groups are deprecated.

Passing the undocumented keyword argument prefix_chars to add_argument_group() is now deprecated.

The argparse.FileType type converter is deprecated.

builtins:

Generators: throw(type, exc, tb) and athrow(type, exc, tb) signature is deprecated: use throw(exc) and athrow(exc) instead, the single argument signature.

Currently Python accepts numeric literals immediately followed by keywords, for example 0in x, 1or x, 0if 1else 2. It allows confusing and ambiguous expressions like [0x1for x in y] (which can be interpreted as [0x1 for x in y] or [0x1f or x in y]). A syntax warning is raised if the numeric literal is immediately followed by one of keywords and, else, for, if, in, is and or. In a future release it will be changed to a syntax error. (gh-87999 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87999])

Support for __index__() and __int__() method returning non-int type: these methods will be required to return an instance of a strict subclass of int.

Support for __float__() method returning a strict subclass of float: these methods will be required to return an instance of float.

Support for __complex__() method returning a strict subclass of complex: these methods will be required to return an instance of complex.

Passing a complex number as the real or imag argument in the complex() constructor is now deprecated; it should only be passed as a single positional argument. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-109218 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109218].)

calendar: calendar.January and calendar.February constants are deprecated and replaced by calendar.JANUARY and calendar.FEBRUARY. (Contributed by Prince Roshan in gh-103636 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636].)

codecs: use open() instead of codecs.open(). (gh-133038 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133038])

codeobject.co_lnotab: use the codeobject.co_lines() method instead.

datetime:

utcnow(): use datetime.datetime.now(tz=datetime.UTC).

utcfromtimestamp(): use datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(timestamp, tz=datetime.UTC).

gettext: Plural value must be an integer.

importlib:

cache_from_source() debug_override parameter is deprecated: use the optimization parameter instead.

importlib.metadata:

EntryPoints tuple interface.

Implicit None on return values.

logging: the warn() method has been deprecated since Python 3.3, use warning() instead.

mailbox: Use of StringIO input and text mode is deprecated, use BytesIO and binary mode instead.

os: Calling os.register_at_fork() in multi-threaded process.

pydoc.ErrorDuringImport: A tuple value for exc_info parameter is deprecated, use an exception instance.

re: More strict rules are now applied for numerical group references and group names in regular expressions. Only sequence of ASCII digits is now accepted as a numerical reference. The group name in bytes patterns and replacement strings can now only contain ASCII letters and digits and underscore. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-91760 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91760].)

sre_compile, sre_constants and sre_parse modules.

shutil: rmtree()'s onerror parameter is deprecated in Python 3.12; use the onexc parameter instead.

ssl options and protocols:

ssl.SSLContext without protocol argument is deprecated.

ssl.SSLContext: set_npn_protocols() and selected_npn_protocol() are deprecated: use ALPN instead.

ssl.OP_NO_SSL* options

ssl.OP_NO_TLS* options

ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv3

ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS

ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1

ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1

ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2

ssl.TLSVersion.SSLv3

ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1

ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_1

threading methods:

threading.Condition.notifyAll(): use notify_all().

threading.Event.isSet(): use is_set().

threading.Thread.isDaemon(), threading.Thread.setDaemon(): use threading.Thread.daemon attribute.

threading.Thread.getName(), threading.Thread.setName(): use threading.Thread.name attribute.

threading.currentThread(): use threading.current_thread().

threading.activeCount(): use threading.active_count().

typing.Text (gh-92332 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92332]).

The internal class typing._UnionGenericAlias is no longer used to implement typing.Union. To preserve compatibility with users using this private class, a compatibility shim will be provided until at least Python 3.17. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-105499 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105499].)

unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: it is deprecated to return a value that is not None from a test case.

urllib.parse deprecated functions: urlparse() instead

splitattr()

splithost()

splitnport()

splitpasswd()

splitport()

splitquery()

splittag()

splittype()

splituser()

splitvalue()

to_bytes()

wsgiref: SimpleHandler.stdout.write() should not do partial writes.

xml.etree.ElementTree: Testing the truth value of an Element is deprecated. In a future release it will always return True. Prefer explicit len(elem) or elem is not None tests instead.

sys._clear_type_cache() is deprecated: use sys._clear_internal_caches() instead.

CPython Bytecode Changes

The oparg of YIELD_VALUE is now 1 if the yield is part of a yield-from or await, and 0 otherwise. The oparg of RESUME was changed to add a bit indicating if the except-depth is 1, which is needed to optimize closing of generators. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-111354 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111354].)

Changements à l'API C

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

Add the PyMonitoring C API for generating PEP 669 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0669/] monitoring events:

PyMonitoringState

PyMonitoring_FirePyStartEvent()

PyMonitoring_FirePyResumeEvent()

PyMonitoring_FirePyReturnEvent()

PyMonitoring_FirePyYieldEvent()

PyMonitoring_FireCallEvent()

PyMonitoring_FireLineEvent()

PyMonitoring_FireJumpEvent()

PyMonitoring_FireBranchEvent

PyMonitoring_FireCReturnEvent()

PyMonitoring_FirePyThrowEvent()

PyMonitoring_FireRaiseEvent()

PyMonitoring_FireCRaiseEvent()

PyMonitoring_FireReraiseEvent()

PyMonitoring_FireExceptionHandledEvent()

PyMonitoring_FirePyUnwindEvent()

PyMonitoring_FireStopIterationEvent()

PyMonitoring_EnterScope()

PyMonitoring_ExitScope()

(Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-111997 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111997]).

Add PyMutex, a lightweight mutex that occupies a single byte, and the new PyMutex_Lock() and PyMutex_Unlock() functions. PyMutex_Lock() will release the GIL (if currently held) if the operation needs to block. (Contributed by Sam Gross in gh-108724 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108724].)

Add the PyTime C API to provide access to system clocks:

PyTime_t.

PyTime_MIN and PyTime_MAX.

PyTime_AsSecondsDouble().

PyTime_Monotonic().

PyTime_MonotonicRaw().

PyTime_PerfCounter().

PyTime_PerfCounterRaw().

PyTime_Time().

PyTime_TimeRaw().

(Contributed by Victor Stinner and Petr Viktorin in gh-110850 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110850].)

Add the PyDict_ContainsString() function with the same behavior as PyDict_Contains(), but key is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a PyObject*. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-108314 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108314].)

Add the PyDict_GetItemRef() and PyDict_GetItemStringRef() functions, which behave similarly to PyDict_GetItemWithError(), but return a strong reference instead of a borrowed reference. Moreover, these functions return -1 on error, removing the need to check PyErr_Occurred(). (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-106004 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106004].)

Add the PyDict_SetDefaultRef() function, which behaves similarly to PyDict_SetDefault(), but returns a strong reference instead of a borrowed reference. This function returns -1 on error, 0 on insertion, and 1 if the key was already present in the dictionary. (Contributed by Sam Gross in gh-112066 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112066].)

Add the PyDict_Pop() and PyDict_PopString() functions to remove a key from a dictionary and optionally return the removed value. This is similar to dict.pop(), though there is no default value, and KeyError is not raised for missing keys. (Contributed by Stefan Behnel and Victor Stinner in gh-111262 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111262].)

Add the PyMapping_GetOptionalItem() and PyMapping_GetOptionalItemString() functions as alternatives to PyObject_GetItem() and PyMapping_GetItemString() respectively. The new functions do not raise KeyError if the requested key is missing from the mapping. These variants are more convenient and faster if a missing key should not be treated as a failure. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-106307 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106307].)

Add the PyObject_GetOptionalAttr() and PyObject_GetOptionalAttrString() functions as alternatives to PyObject_GetAttr() and PyObject_GetAttrString() respectively. The new functions do not raise AttributeError if the requested attribute is not found on the object. These variants are more convenient and faster if the missing attribute should not be treated as a failure. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-106521 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106521].)

Add the PyErr_FormatUnraisable() function as an extension to PyErr_WriteUnraisable() that allows customizing the warning message. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-108082 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108082].)

Add new functions that return a strong reference instead of a borrowed reference for frame locals, globals, and builtins, as part of PEP 667:

PyEval_GetFrameBuiltins() replaces PyEval_GetBuiltins()

PyEval_GetFrameGlobals() replaces PyEval_GetGlobals()

PyEval_GetFrameLocals() replaces PyEval_GetLocals()

(Contributed by Mark Shannon and Tian Gao in gh-74929 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74929].)

Add the Py_GetConstant() and Py_GetConstantBorrowed() functions to get strong or borrowed references to constants. For example, Py_GetConstant(Py_CONSTANT_ZERO) returns a strong reference to the constant zero. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-115754 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115754].)

Add the PyImport_AddModuleRef() function as a replacement for PyImport_AddModule() that returns a strong reference instead of a borrowed reference. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105922 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105922].)

Add the Py_IsFinalizing() function to check whether the main Python interpreter is shutting down. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-108014 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108014].)

Add the PyList_GetItemRef() function as a replacement for PyList_GetItem() that returns a strong reference instead of a borrowed reference. (Contributed by Sam Gross in gh-114329 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114329].)

Add the PyList_Extend() and PyList_Clear() functions, mirroring the Python list.extend() and list.clear() methods. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-111138 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111138].)

Add the PyLong_AsInt() function. It behaves similarly to PyLong_AsLong(), but stores the result in a C int instead of a C long. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-108014 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108014].)

Add the PyLong_AsNativeBytes(), PyLong_FromNativeBytes(), and PyLong_FromUnsignedNativeBytes() functions to simplify converting between native integer types and Python int objects. (Contributed by Steve Dower in gh-111140 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111140].)

Add PyModule_Add() function, which is similar to PyModule_AddObjectRef() and PyModule_AddObject(), but always steals a reference to the value. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-86493 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86493].)

Add the PyObject_GenericHash() function that implements the default hashing function of a Python object. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-113024 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113024].)

Add the Py_HashPointer() function to hash a raw pointer. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-111545 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111545].)

Add the PyObject_VisitManagedDict() and PyObject_ClearManagedDict() functions. which must be called by the traverse and clear functions of a type using the Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT flag. The pythoncapi-compat project [https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/] can be used to use these functions with Python 3.11 and 3.12. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-107073 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107073].)

Add the PyRefTracer_SetTracer() and PyRefTracer_GetTracer() functions, which enable tracking object creation and destruction in the same way that the tracemalloc module does. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-93502 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93502].)

Add the PySys_AuditTuple() function as an alternative to PySys_Audit() that takes event arguments as a Python tuple object. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-85283 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283].)

Add the PyThreadState_GetUnchecked() function as an alternative to PyThreadState_Get() that doesn't kill the process with a fatal error if it is NULL. The caller is responsible for checking if the result is NULL. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-108867 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108867].)

Add the PyType_GetFullyQualifiedName() function to get the type's fully qualified name. The module name is prepended if type.__module__ is a string and is not equal to either 'builtins' or '__main__'. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-111696 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111696].)

Add the PyType_GetModuleName() function to get the type's module name. This is equivalent to getting the type.__module__ attribute. (Contributed by Eric Snow and Victor Stinner in gh-111696 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111696].)

Add the PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8AndSize() and PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8() functions to compare a Unicode object with a const char* UTF-8 encoded string and 1 if they are equal or 0 otherwise. These functions do not raise exceptions. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-110289 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110289].)

Add the PyWeakref_GetRef() function as an alternative to PyWeakref_GetObject() that returns a strong reference or NULL if the referent is no longer live. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105927 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105927].)

Add fixed variants of functions which silently ignore errors:

PyObject_HasAttrWithError() replaces PyObject_HasAttr().

PyObject_HasAttrStringWithError() replaces PyObject_HasAttrString().

PyMapping_HasKeyWithError() replaces PyMapping_HasKey().

PyMapping_HasKeyStringWithError() replaces PyMapping_HasKeyString().

The new functions return -1 for errors and the standard 1 for true and 0 for false.

(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-108511 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108511].)

Changed C APIs

The keywords parameter of PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords() and PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords() now has type char *const* in C and const char *const* in C++, instead of char**. In C++, this makes these functions compatible with arguments of type const char *const*, const char**, or char *const* without an explicit type cast. In C, the functions only support arguments of type char *const*. This can be overridden with the PY_CXX_CONST macro. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-65210 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65210].)

PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords() now supports non-ASCII keyword parameter names. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-110815 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110815].)

The PyCode_GetFirstFree() function is now unstable API and is now named PyUnstable_Code_GetFirstFree(). (Contributed by Bogdan Romanyuk in gh-115781 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115781].)

The PyDict_GetItem(), PyDict_GetItemString(), PyMapping_HasKey(), PyMapping_HasKeyString(), PyObject_HasAttr(), PyObject_HasAttrString(), and PySys_GetObject() functions, each of which clears all errors which occurred when calling them now reports these errors using sys.unraisablehook(). You may replace them with other functions as recommended in the documentation. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-106672 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106672].)

Add support for the %T, %#T, %N and %#N formats to PyUnicode_FromFormat():

%T: Get the fully qualified name of an object type

%#T: As above, but use a colon as the separator

%N: Get the fully qualified name of a type

%#N: As above, but use a colon as the separator

See PEP 737 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0737/] for more information. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-111696 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111696].)

You no longer have to define the PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN macro before including Python.h when using # formats in format codes. APIs accepting the format codes always use Py_ssize_t for # formats. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in gh-104922 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104922].)

If Python is built in debug mode or with assertions, PyTuple_SET_ITEM() and PyList_SET_ITEM() now check the index argument with an assertion. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-106168 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106168].)

Limited C API Changes

The following functions are now included in the Limited C API:

PyMem_RawMalloc()

PyMem_RawCalloc()

PyMem_RawRealloc()

PyMem_RawFree()

PySys_Audit()

PySys_AuditTuple()

PyType_GetModuleByDef()

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-85283 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283] and gh-116936 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116936].)

Python built with --with-trace-refs (tracing references) now supports the Limited API. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-108634 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108634].)

Removed C APIs

Remove several functions, macros, variables, etc with names prefixed by _Py or _PY (which are considered private). If your project is affected by one of these removals and you believe that the removed API should remain available, please open a new issue to request a public C API and add cc: @vstinner to the issue to notify Victor Stinner. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-106320 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106320].)

Remove old buffer protocols deprecated in Python 3.0. Use Protocole tampon instead.

PyObject_CheckReadBuffer(): Use PyObject_CheckBuffer() to test whether the object supports the buffer protocol. Note that PyObject_CheckBuffer() doesn't guarantee that PyObject_GetBuffer() will succeed. To test if the object is actually readable, see the next example of PyObject_GetBuffer().

PyObject_AsCharBuffer(), PyObject_AsReadBuffer(): Use PyObject_GetBuffer() and PyBuffer_Release() instead:

Py_buffer view;
if (PyObject_GetBuffer(obj, &view, PyBUF_SIMPLE) < 0) {
    return NULL;
}
// Use `view.buf` and `view.len` to read from the buffer.
// You may need to cast buf as `(const char*)view.buf`.
PyBuffer_Release(&view);

PyObject_AsWriteBuffer(): Use PyObject_GetBuffer() and PyBuffer_Release() instead:

Py_buffer view;
if (PyObject_GetBuffer(obj, &view, PyBUF_WRITABLE) < 0) {
    return NULL;
}
// Use `view.buf` and `view.len` to write to the buffer.
PyBuffer_Release(&view);

(Contributed by Inada Naoki in gh-85275 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85275].)

Remove various functions deprecated in Python 3.9:

PyEval_CallObject(), PyEval_CallObjectWithKeywords(): Use PyObject_CallNoArgs() or PyObject_Call() instead.

Avertissement

In PyObject_Call(), positional arguments must be a tuple and must not be NULL, and keyword arguments must be a dict or NULL, whereas the removed functions checked argument types and accepted NULL positional and keyword arguments. To replace PyEval_CallObjectWithKeywords(func, NULL, kwargs) with PyObject_Call(), pass an empty tuple as positional arguments using PyTuple_New(0).

PyEval_CallFunction(): Use PyObject_CallFunction() instead.

PyEval_CallMethod(): Use PyObject_CallMethod() instead.

PyCFunction_Call(): Use PyObject_Call() instead.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105107 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105107].)

Remove the following old functions to configure the Python initialization, deprecated in Python 3.11:

PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode(): Use PyConfig.warnoptions instead.

PySys_AddWarnOption(): Use PyConfig.warnoptions instead.

PySys_AddXOption(): Use PyConfig.xoptions instead.

PySys_HasWarnOptions(): Use PyConfig.xoptions instead.

PySys_SetPath(): Set PyConfig.module_search_paths instead.

Py_SetPath(): Set PyConfig.module_search_paths instead.

Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding(): Set PyConfig.stdio_encoding instead, and set also maybe PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio (on Windows).

_Py_SetProgramFullPath(): Set PyConfig.executable instead.

Use the new PyConfig API of the Python Initialization Configuration instead (PEP 587 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/]), added to Python 3.8. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105145 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105145].)

Remove PyEval_AcquireLock() and PyEval_ReleaseLock() functions, deprecated in Python 3.2. They didn't update the current thread state. They can be replaced with:

PyEval_SaveThread() and PyEval_RestoreThread();

low-level PyEval_AcquireThread() and PyEval_RestoreThread();

or PyGILState_Ensure() and PyGILState_Release().

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105182 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105182].)

Remove the PyEval_ThreadsInitialized() function, deprecated in Python 3.9. Since Python 3.7, Py_Initialize() always creates the GIL: calling PyEval_InitThreads() does nothing and PyEval_ThreadsInitialized() always returns non-zero. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105182 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105182].)

Remove the _PyInterpreterState_Get() alias to PyInterpreterState_Get() which was kept for backward compatibility with Python 3.8. The pythoncapi-compat project [https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/] can be used to get PyInterpreterState_Get() on Python 3.8 and older. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-106320 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106320].)

Remove the private _PyObject_FastCall() function: use PyObject_Vectorcall() which is available since Python 3.8 (PEP 590 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/]). (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-106023 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106023].)

Remove the cpython/pytime.h header file, which only contained private functions. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-106316 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106316].)

Remove the undocumented PY_TIMEOUT_MAX constant from the limited C API. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-110014 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110014].)

Remove the old trashcan macros Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN and Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END. Replace both with the new macros Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN and Py_TRASHCAN_END. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-105111 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105111].)

Deprecated C APIs

Deprecate old Python initialization functions:

PySys_ResetWarnOptions(): Clear sys.warnoptions and warnings.filters instead.

Py_GetExecPrefix(): Get sys.exec_prefix instead.

Py_GetPath(): Get sys.path instead.

Py_GetPrefix(): Get sys.prefix instead.

Py_GetProgramFullPath(): Get sys.executable instead.

Py_GetProgramName(): Get sys.executable instead.

Py_GetPythonHome(): Get PyConfig.home or the PYTHONHOME environment variable instead.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105145 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105145].)

Soft deprecate the PyEval_GetBuiltins(), PyEval_GetGlobals(), and PyEval_GetLocals() functions, which return a borrowed reference. (Soft deprecated as part of PEP 667 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/].)

Deprecate the PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock() function, which is just an alias to PyImport_ImportModule() since Python 3.3. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105396 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105396].)

Soft deprecate the PyModule_AddObject() function. It should be replaced with PyModule_Add() or PyModule_AddObjectRef(). (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-86493 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86493].)

Deprecate the old Py_UNICODE and PY_UNICODE_TYPE types and the Py_UNICODE_WIDE define. Use the wchar_t type directly instead. Since Python 3.3, Py_UNICODE and PY_UNICODE_TYPE are just aliases to wchar_t. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105156 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105156].)

Deprecate the PyWeakref_GetObject() and PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT() functions, which return a borrowed reference. Replace them with the new PyWeakref_GetRef() function, which returns a strong reference. The pythoncapi-compat project [https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/] can be used to get PyWeakref_GetRef() on Python 3.12 and older. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105927 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105927].)

Pending removal in Python 3.14

The ma_version_tag field in PyDictObject for extension modules (PEP 699 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0699/]; gh-101193 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101193]).

Creating immutable types with mutable bases (gh-95388 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95388]).

Pending removal in Python 3.15

The PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(): Use PyImport_ImportModule() instead.

PyWeakref_GetObject() and PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT(): Use PyWeakref_GetRef() instead. The pythoncapi-compat project [https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/] can be used to get PyWeakref_GetRef() on Python 3.12 and older.

Py_UNICODE type and the Py_UNICODE_WIDE macro: Use wchar_t instead.

PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject(): Use PyCodec_Decode() instead.

PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode(): Use PyCodec_Decode() instead; Note that some codecs (for example, "base64") may return a type other than str, such as bytes.

PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject(): Use PyCodec_Encode() instead.

PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode(): Use PyCodec_Encode() instead; Note that some codecs (for example, "base64") may return a type other than bytes, such as str.

Python initialization functions, deprecated in Python 3.13:

Py_GetPath(): Use PyConfig_Get("module_search_paths") (sys.path) instead.

Py_GetPrefix(): Use PyConfig_Get("base_prefix") (sys.base_prefix) instead. Use PyConfig_Get("prefix") (sys.prefix) if virtual environments need to be handled.

Py_GetExecPrefix(): Use PyConfig_Get("base_exec_prefix") (sys.base_exec_prefix) instead. Use PyConfig_Get("exec_prefix") (sys.exec_prefix) if virtual environments need to be handled.

Py_GetProgramFullPath(): Use PyConfig_Get("executable") (sys.executable) instead.

Py_GetProgramName(): Use PyConfig_Get("executable") (sys.executable) instead.

Py_GetPythonHome(): Use PyConfig_Get("home") or the PYTHONHOME environment variable instead.

The pythoncapi-compat project [https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/] can be used to get PyConfig_Get() on Python 3.13 and older.

Functions to configure Python's initialization, deprecated in Python 3.11:

PySys_SetArgvEx(): Set PyConfig.argv instead.

PySys_SetArgv(): Set PyConfig.argv instead.

Py_SetProgramName(): Set PyConfig.program_name instead.

Py_SetPythonHome(): Set PyConfig.home instead.

PySys_ResetWarnOptions(): Clear sys.warnoptions and warnings.filters instead.

The Py_InitializeFromConfig() API should be used with PyConfig instead.

Global configuration variables:

Py_DebugFlag: Use PyConfig.parser_debug or PyConfig_Get("parser_debug") instead.

Py_VerboseFlag: Use PyConfig.verbose or PyConfig_Get("verbose") instead.

Py_QuietFlag: Use PyConfig.quiet or PyConfig_Get("quiet") instead.

Py_InteractiveFlag: Use PyConfig.interactive or PyConfig_Get("interactive") instead.

Py_InspectFlag: Use PyConfig.inspect or PyConfig_Get("inspect") instead.

Py_OptimizeFlag: Use PyConfig.optimization_level or PyConfig_Get("optimization_level") instead.

Py_NoSiteFlag: Use PyConfig.site_import or PyConfig_Get("site_import") instead.

Py_BytesWarningFlag: Use PyConfig.bytes_warning or PyConfig_Get("bytes_warning") instead.

Py_FrozenFlag: Use PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings or PyConfig_Get("pathconfig_warnings") instead.

Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag: Use PyConfig.use_environment or PyConfig_Get("use_environment") instead.

Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag: Use PyConfig.write_bytecode or PyConfig_Get("write_bytecode") instead.

Py_NoUserSiteDirectory: Use PyConfig.user_site_directory or PyConfig_Get("user_site_directory") instead.

Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag: Use PyConfig.buffered_stdio or PyConfig_Get("buffered_stdio") instead.

Py_HashRandomizationFlag: Use PyConfig.use_hash_seed and PyConfig.hash_seed or PyConfig_Get("hash_seed") instead.

Py_IsolatedFlag: Use PyConfig.isolated or PyConfig_Get("isolated") instead.

Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag: Use PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding or PyConfig_Get("legacy_windows_fs_encoding") instead.

Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag: Use PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio or PyConfig_Get("legacy_windows_stdio") instead.

Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding, Py_HasFileSystemDefaultEncoding: Use PyConfig.filesystem_encoding or PyConfig_Get("filesystem_encoding") instead.

Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors: Use PyConfig.filesystem_errors or PyConfig_Get("filesystem_errors") instead.

Py_UTF8Mode: Use PyPreConfig.utf8_mode or PyConfig_Get("utf8_mode") instead. (see Py_PreInitialize())

The Py_InitializeFromConfig() API should be used with PyConfig to set these options. Or PyConfig_Get() can be used to get these options at runtime.

Pending removal in Python 3.16

The bundled copy of libmpdec.

Pending removal in Python 3.18

The following private functions are deprecated and planned for removal in Python 3.18:

_PyBytes_Join(): use PyBytes_Join().

_PyDict_GetItemStringWithError(): use PyDict_GetItemStringRef().

_PyDict_Pop(): use PyDict_Pop().

_PyLong_Sign(): use PyLong_GetSign().

_PyLong_FromDigits() and _PyLong_New(): use PyLongWriter_Create().

_PyThreadState_UncheckedGet(): use PyThreadState_GetUnchecked().

_PyUnicode_AsString(): use PyUnicode_AsUTF8().

_PyUnicodeWriter_Init(): replace _PyUnicodeWriter_Init(&writer) with writer = PyUnicodeWriter_Create(0).

_PyUnicodeWriter_Finish(): replace _PyUnicodeWriter_Finish(&writer) with PyUnicodeWriter_Finish(writer).

_PyUnicodeWriter_Dealloc(): replace _PyUnicodeWriter_Dealloc(&writer) with PyUnicodeWriter_Discard(writer).

_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteChar(): replace _PyUnicodeWriter_WriteChar(&writer, ch) with PyUnicodeWriter_WriteChar(writer, ch).

_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr(): replace _PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr(&writer, str) with PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr(writer, str).

_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteSubstring(): replace _PyUnicodeWriter_WriteSubstring(&writer, str, start, end) with PyUnicodeWriter_WriteSubstring(writer, str, start, end).

_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteASCIIString(): replace _PyUnicodeWriter_WriteASCIIString(&writer, str) with PyUnicodeWriter_WriteASCII(writer, str).

_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteLatin1String(): replace _PyUnicodeWriter_WriteLatin1String(&writer, str) with PyUnicodeWriter_WriteUTF8(writer, str).

_PyUnicodeWriter_Prepare(): (no replacement).

_PyUnicodeWriter_PrepareKind(): (no replacement).

_Py_HashPointer(): use Py_HashPointer().

_Py_fopen_obj(): use Py_fopen().

The pythoncapi-compat project [https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/] can be used to get these new public functions on Python 3.13 and older. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-128863 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128863].)

Pending removal in future versions

The following APIs are deprecated and will be removed, although there is currently no date scheduled for their removal.

Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE: Unneeded since Python 3.8.

PyErr_Fetch(): Use PyErr_GetRaisedException() instead.

PyErr_NormalizeException(): Use PyErr_GetRaisedException() instead.

PyErr_Restore(): Use PyErr_SetRaisedException() instead.

PyModule_GetFilename(): Use PyModule_GetFilenameObject() instead.

PyOS_AfterFork(): Use PyOS_AfterFork_Child() instead.

PySlice_GetIndicesEx(): Use PySlice_Unpack() and PySlice_AdjustIndices() instead.

PyUnicode_READY(): Unneeded since Python 3.12

PyErr_Display(): Use PyErr_DisplayException() instead.

_PyErr_ChainExceptions(): Use _PyErr_ChainExceptions1() instead.

PyBytesObject.ob_shash member: call PyObject_Hash() instead.

Thread Local Storage (TLS) API:

PyThread_create_key(): Use PyThread_tss_alloc() instead.

PyThread_delete_key(): Use PyThread_tss_free() instead.

PyThread_set_key_value(): Use PyThread_tss_set() instead.

PyThread_get_key_value(): Use PyThread_tss_get() instead.

PyThread_delete_key_value(): Use PyThread_tss_delete() instead.

PyThread_ReInitTLS(): Unneeded since Python 3.7.

Changements à la compilation

arm64-apple-ios and arm64-apple-ios-simulator are both now PEP 11 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/] tier 3 platforms. (PEP 730 written and implementation contributed by Russell Keith-Magee in gh-114099 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114099].)

aarch64-linux-android and x86_64-linux-android are both now PEP 11 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/] tier 3 platforms. (PEP 738 written and implementation contributed by Malcolm Smith in gh-116622 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116622].)

wasm32-wasi is now a PEP 11 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/] tier 2 platform. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in gh-115192 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115192].)

wasm32-emscripten is no longer a PEP 11 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/] supported platform. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in gh-115192 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115192].)

Building CPython now requires a compiler with support for the C11 atomic library, GCC built-in atomic functions, or MSVC interlocked intrinsics.

Autoconf 2.71 and aclocal 1.16.5 are now required to regenerate the configure script. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in gh-89886 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89886] and by Victor Stinner in gh-112090 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112090].)

SQLite 3.15.2 or newer is required to build the sqlite3 extension module. (Contributed by Erlend Aasland in gh-105875 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105875].)

CPython now bundles the mimalloc library [https://github.com/microsoft/mimalloc/] by default. It is licensed under the MIT license; see mimalloc license. The bundled mimalloc has custom changes, see gh-113141 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113141] for details. (Contributed by Dino Viehland in gh-109914 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109914].)

The configure option --with-system-libmpdec now defaults to yes. The bundled copy of libmpdec will be removed in Python 3.16.

Python built with configure --with-trace-refs (tracing references) is now ABI compatible with the Python release build and debug build. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-108634 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108634].)

On POSIX systems, the pkg-config (.pc) filenames now include the ABI flags. For example, the free-threaded build generates python-3.13t.pc and the debug build generates python-3.13d.pc.

The errno, fcntl, grp, md5, pwd, resource, termios, winsound, _ctypes_test, _multiprocessing.posixshmem, _scproxy, _stat, _statistics, _testconsole, _testimportmultiple and _uuid C extensions are now built with the limited C API. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-85283 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283].)

Porting to Python 3.13

Cette section liste les changements mentionnés préalablement et d'autres améliorations qui peuvent demander des changements à votre code.

Changements dans l'API Python

PEP 667 introduces several changes to the semantics of locals() and f_locals:

Calling locals() in an optimized scope now produces an independent snapshot on each call, and hence no longer implicitly updates previously returned references. Obtaining the legacy CPython behavior now requires explicit calls to update the initially returned dictionary with the results of subsequent calls to locals(). Code execution functions that implicitly target locals() (such as exec and eval) must be passed an explicit namespace to access their results in an optimized scope. (Changed as part of PEP 667 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/].)

Calling locals() from a comprehension at module or class scope (including via exec or eval) once more behaves as if the comprehension were running as an independent nested function (i.e. the local variables from the containing scope are not included). In Python 3.12, this had changed to include the local variables from the containing scope when implementing PEP 709 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0709/]. (Changed as part of PEP 667 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/].)

Accessing FrameType.f_locals in an optimized scope now returns a write-through proxy rather than a snapshot that gets updated at ill-specified times. If a snapshot is desired, it must be created explicitly with dict or the proxy's .copy() method. (Changed as part of PEP 667 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/].)

functools.partial now emits a FutureWarning when used as a method. The behavior will change in future Python versions. Wrap it in staticmethod() if you want to preserve the old behavior. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-121027 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121027].)

An OSError is now raised by getpass.getuser() for any failure to retrieve a username, instead of ImportError on non-Unix platforms or KeyError on Unix platforms where the password database is empty.

The value of the mode attribute of gzip.GzipFile is now a string ('rb' or 'wb') instead of an integer (1 or 2). The value of the mode attribute of the readable file-like object returned by zipfile.ZipFile.open() is now 'rb' instead of 'r'. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-115961 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115961].)

mailbox.Maildir now ignores files with a leading dot (.). (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in gh-65559 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65559].)

pathlib.Path.glob() and rglob() now return both files and directories if a pattern that ends with "**" is given, rather than directories only. Add a trailing slash to keep the previous behavior and only match directories.

The threading module now expects the _thread module to have an _is_main_interpreter() function. This function takes no arguments and returns True if the current interpreter is the main interpreter.

Any library or application that provides a custom _thread module must provide _is_main_interpreter(), just like the module's other "private" attributes. (gh-112826 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112826].)

Changements dans l'API C

Python.h no longer includes the <ieeefp.h> standard header. It was included for the finite() function which is now provided by the <math.h> header. It should now be included explicitly if needed. Remove also the HAVE_IEEEFP_H macro. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-108765 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108765].)

Python.h no longer includes these standard header files: <time.h>, <sys/select.h> and <sys/time.h>. If needed, they should now be included explicitly. For example, <time.h> provides the clock() and gmtime() functions, <sys/select.h> provides the select() function, and <sys/time.h> provides the futimes(), gettimeofday() and setitimer() functions. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-108765 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108765].)

On Windows, Python.h no longer includes the <stddef.h> standard header file. If needed, it should now be included explicitly. For example, it provides offsetof() function, and size_t and ptrdiff_t types. Including <stddef.h> explicitly was already needed by all other platforms, the HAVE_STDDEF_H macro is only defined on Windows. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-108765 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108765].)

If the Py_LIMITED_API macro is defined, Py_BUILD_CORE, Py_BUILD_CORE_BUILTIN and Py_BUILD_CORE_MODULE macros are now undefined by <Python.h>. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-85283 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283].)

The old trashcan macros Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN and Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END were removed. They should be replaced by the new macros Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN and Py_TRASHCAN_END.

A tp_dealloc function that has the old macros, such as:

static void
mytype_dealloc(mytype *p)
{
    PyObject_GC_UnTrack(p);
    Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN(p);
    ...
    Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END
}

should migrate to the new macros as follows:

static void
mytype_dealloc(mytype *p)
{
    PyObject_GC_UnTrack(p);
    Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN(p, mytype_dealloc)
    ...
    Py_TRASHCAN_END
}

Note that Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN has a second argument which should be the deallocation function it is in. The new macros were added in Python 3.8 and the old macros were deprecated in Python 3.11. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-105111 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105111].)

PEP 667 introduces several changes to frame-related functions:

The effects of mutating the dictionary returned from PyEval_GetLocals() in an optimized scope have changed. New dict entries added this way will now only be visible to subsequent PyEval_GetLocals() calls in that frame, as PyFrame_GetLocals(), locals(), and FrameType.f_locals no longer access the same underlying cached dictionary. Changes made to entries for actual variable names and names added via the write-through proxy interfaces will be overwritten on subsequent calls to PyEval_GetLocals() in that frame. The recommended code update depends on how the function was being used, so refer to the deprecation notice on the function for details.

Calling PyFrame_GetLocals() in an optimized scope now returns a write-through proxy rather than a snapshot that gets updated at ill-specified times. If a snapshot is desired, it must be created explicitly (e.g. with PyDict_Copy()), or by calling the new PyEval_GetFrameLocals() API.

PyFrame_FastToLocals() and PyFrame_FastToLocalsWithError() no longer have any effect. Calling these functions has been redundant since Python 3.11, when PyFrame_GetLocals() was first introduced.

PyFrame_LocalsToFast() no longer has any effect. Calling this function is redundant now that PyFrame_GetLocals() returns a write-through proxy for optimized scopes.

Python 3.13 removed many private functions. Some of them can be replaced using these alternatives:

_PyDict_Pop(): PyDict_Pop() or PyDict_PopString();

_PyDict_GetItemWithError(): PyDict_GetItemRef();

_PyErr_WriteUnraisableMsg(): PyErr_FormatUnraisable();

_PyEval_SetTrace(): PyEval_SetTrace() or PyEval_SetTraceAllThreads();

_PyList_Extend(): PyList_Extend();

_PyLong_AsInt(): PyLong_AsInt();

_PyMem_RawStrdup(): strdup();

_PyMem_Strdup(): strdup();

_PyObject_ClearManagedDict(): PyObject_ClearManagedDict();

_PyObject_VisitManagedDict(): PyObject_VisitManagedDict();

_PyThreadState_UncheckedGet(): PyThreadState_GetUnchecked();

_PyTime_AsSecondsDouble(): PyTime_AsSecondsDouble();

_PyTime_GetMonotonicClock(): PyTime_Monotonic() or PyTime_MonotonicRaw();

_PyTime_GetPerfCounter(): PyTime_PerfCounter() or PyTime_PerfCounterRaw();

_PyTime_GetSystemClock(): PyTime_Time() or PyTime_TimeRaw();

_PyTime_MAX: PyTime_MAX;

_PyTime_MIN: PyTime_MIN;

_PyTime_t: PyTime_t;

_Py_HashPointer(): Py_HashPointer();

_Py_IsFinalizing(): Py_IsFinalizing().

The pythoncapi-compat project [https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/] can be used to get most of these new functions on Python 3.12 and older.

Regression Test Changes

Python built with configure --with-pydebug now supports a -X presite=package.module command-line option. If used, it specifies a module that should be imported early in the lifecycle of the interpreter, before site.py is executed. (Contributed by Łukasz Langa in gh-110769 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110769].)

What's New In Python 3.12

Éditeur:

Adam Turner

This article explains the new features in Python 3.12, compared to 3.11. Python 3.12 was released on October 2, 2023. For full details, see the changelog.

Voir aussi

PEP 693 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0693/] -- Python 3.12 Release Schedule

Résumé – Points marquants de cette version

Python 3.12 is a stable release of the Python programming language, with a mix of changes to the language and the standard library. The library changes focus on cleaning up deprecated APIs, usability, and correctness. Of note, the distutils package has been removed from the standard library. Filesystem support in os and pathlib has seen a number of improvements, and several modules have better performance.

The language changes focus on usability, as f-strings have had many limitations removed and 'Did you mean ...' suggestions continue to improve. The new type parameter syntax and type statement improve ergonomics for using generic types and type aliases with static type checkers.

This article doesn't attempt to provide a complete specification of all new features, but instead gives a convenient overview. For full details, you should refer to the documentation, such as the Library Reference and Language Reference. If you want to understand the complete implementation and design rationale for a change, refer to the PEP for a particular new feature; but note that PEPs usually are not kept up-to-date once a feature has been fully implemented.

Nouvelles fonctionnalités de syntaxe :

PEP 695, type parameter syntax and the type statement

New grammar features:

PEP 701, f-strings in the grammar

Améliorations de l'interpréteur :

PEP 684, a unique per-interpreter GIL

PEP 669, low impact monitoring

Improved 'Did you mean ...' suggestions for NameError, ImportError, and SyntaxError exceptions

Python data model improvements:

PEP 688, using the buffer protocol from Python

Significant improvements in the standard library:

The pathlib.Path class now supports subclassing

The os module received several improvements for Windows support

A command-line interface has been added to the sqlite3 module

isinstance() checks against runtime-checkable protocols enjoy a speed up of between two and 20 times

The asyncio package has had a number of performance improvements, with some benchmarks showing a 75% speed up.

A command-line interface has been added to the uuid module

Due to the changes in PEP 701, producing tokens via the tokenize module is up to 64% faster.

Security improvements:

Replace the builtin hashlib implementations of SHA1, SHA3, SHA2-384, SHA2-512, and MD5 with formally verified code from the HACL* [https://github.com/hacl-star/hacl-star/] project. These builtin implementations remain as fallbacks that are only used when OpenSSL does not provide them.

C API improvements:

PEP 697, unstable C API tier

PEP 683, immortal objects

CPython implementation improvements:

PEP 709, comprehension inlining

CPython support for the Linux perf profiler

Implement stack overflow protection on supported platforms

Nouvelles fonctionnalités de typage :

PEP 692, using TypedDict to annotate **kwargs

PEP 698, typing.override() decorator

Obsolescences, retraits ou restrictions :

PEP 623 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/]: Remove wstr from Unicode objects in Python's C API, reducing the size of every str object by at least 8 bytes.

PEP 632 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/]: Remove the distutils package. See the migration guide [https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/#migration-advice] for advice replacing the APIs it provided. The third-party Setuptools [https://setuptools.pypa.io/en/latest/deprecated/distutils-legacy.html] package continues to provide distutils, if you still require it in Python 3.12 and beyond.

gh-95299 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95299]: Do not pre-install setuptools in virtual environments created with venv. This means that distutils, setuptools, pkg_resources, and easy_install will no longer available by default; to access these run pip install setuptools in the activated virtual environment.

The asynchat, asyncore, and imp modules have been removed, along with several unittest.TestCase method aliases.

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

PEP 695: Type Parameter Syntax

Generic classes and functions under PEP 484 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/] were declared using a verbose syntax that left the scope of type parameters unclear and required explicit declarations of variance.

PEP 695 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/] introduces a new, more compact and explicit way to create generic classes and functions:

def max[T](args: Iterable[T]) -> T:
    ...

class list[T]:
    def __getitem__(self, index: int, /) -> T:
        ...

    def append(self, element: T) -> None:
        ...

In addition, the PEP introduces a new way to declare type aliases using the type statement, which creates an instance of TypeAliasType:

type Point = tuple[float, float]

Type aliases can also be generic:

type Point[T] = tuple[T, T]

The new syntax allows declaring TypeVarTuple and ParamSpec parameters, as well as TypeVar parameters with bounds or constraints:

type IntFunc[**P] = Callable[P, int]  # ParamSpec
type LabeledTuple[*Ts] = tuple[str, *Ts]  # TypeVarTuple
type HashableSequence[T: Hashable] = Sequence[T]  # TypeVar with bound
type IntOrStrSequence[T: (int, str)] = Sequence[T]  # TypeVar with constraints

The value of type aliases and the bound and constraints of type variables created through this syntax are evaluated only on demand (see lazy evaluation). This means type aliases are able to refer to other types defined later in the file.

Type parameters declared through a type parameter list are visible within the scope of the declaration and any nested scopes, but not in the outer scope. For example, they can be used in the type annotations for the methods of a generic class or in the class body. However, they cannot be used in the module scope after the class is defined. See Type parameter lists for a detailed description of the runtime semantics of type parameters.

In order to support these scoping semantics, a new kind of scope is introduced, the annotation scope. Annotation scopes behave for the most part like function scopes, but interact differently with enclosing class scopes. In Python 3.13, annotations will also be evaluated in annotation scopes.

See PEP 695 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/] for more details.

(PEP written by Eric Traut. Implementation by Jelle Zijlstra, Eric Traut, and others in gh-103764 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103764].)

PEP 701: Syntactic formalization of f-strings

PEP 701 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/] lifts some restrictions on the usage of f-strings. Expression components inside f-strings can now be any valid Python expression, including strings reusing the same quote as the containing f-string, multi-line expressions, comments, backslashes, and unicode escape sequences. Let's cover these in detail:

Quote reuse: in Python 3.11, reusing the same quotes as the enclosing f-string raises a SyntaxError, forcing the user to either use other available quotes (like using double quotes or triple quotes if the f-string uses single quotes). In Python 3.12, you can now do things like this:

>>> songs = ['Take me back to Eden', 'Alkaline', 'Ascensionism']
>>> f"This is the playlist: {", ".join(songs)}"
'This is the playlist: Take me back to Eden, Alkaline, Ascensionism'

Note that before this change there was no explicit limit in how f-strings can be nested, but the fact that string quotes cannot be reused inside the expression component of f-strings made it impossible to nest f-strings arbitrarily. In fact, this is the most nested f-string that could be written:

>>> f"""{f'''{f'{f"{1+1}"}'}'''}"""
'2'

As now f-strings can contain any valid Python expression inside expression components, it is now possible to nest f-strings arbitrarily:

>>> f"{f"{f"{f"{f"{f"{1+1}"}"}"}"}"}"
'2'

Multi-line expressions and comments: In Python 3.11, f-string expressions must be defined in a single line, even if the expression within the f-string could normally span multiple lines (like literal lists being defined over multiple lines), making them harder to read. In Python 3.12 you can now define f-strings spanning multiple lines, and add inline comments:

>>> f"This is the playlist: {", ".join([
...     'Take me back to Eden',  # My, my, those eyes like fire
...     'Alkaline',              # Not acid nor alkaline
...     'Ascensionism'           # Take to the broken skies at last
... ])}"
'This is the playlist: Take me back to Eden, Alkaline, Ascensionism'

Backslashes and unicode characters: before Python 3.12 f-string expressions couldn't contain any \ character. This also affected unicode escape sequences (such as \N{snowman}) as these contain the \N part that previously could not be part of expression components of f-strings. Now, you can define expressions like this:

>>> print(f"This is the playlist: {"\n".join(songs)}")
This is the playlist: Take me back to Eden
Alkaline
Ascensionism
>>> print(f"This is the playlist: {"\N{BLACK HEART SUIT}".join(songs)}")
This is the playlist: Take me back to Eden♥Alkaline♥Ascensionism

See PEP 701 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/] for more details.

As a positive side-effect of how this feature has been implemented (by parsing f-strings with the PEG parser [https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/]), now error messages for f-strings are more precise and include the exact location of the error. For example, in Python 3.11, the following f-string raises a SyntaxError:

>>> my_string = f"{x z y}" + f"{1 + 1}"
  File "<stdin>", line 1
    (x z y)
     ^^^
SyntaxError: f-string: invalid syntax. Perhaps you forgot a comma?

but the error message doesn't include the exact location of the error within the line and also has the expression artificially surrounded by parentheses. In Python 3.12, as f-strings are parsed with the PEG parser, error messages can be more precise and show the entire line:

>>> my_string = f"{x z y}" + f"{1 + 1}"
  File "<stdin>", line 1
    my_string = f"{x z y}" + f"{1 + 1}"
                   ^^^
SyntaxError: invalid syntax. Perhaps you forgot a comma?

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo, Batuhan Taskaya, Lysandros Nikolaou, Cristián Maureira-Fredes and Marta Gómez in gh-102856 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102856]. PEP written by Pablo Galindo, Batuhan Taskaya, Lysandros Nikolaou and Marta Gómez).

PEP 684: A Per-Interpreter GIL

PEP 684 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0684/] introduces a per-interpreter GIL, so that sub-interpreters may now be created with a unique GIL per interpreter. This allows Python programs to take full advantage of multiple CPU cores. This is currently only available through the C-API, though a Python API is anticipated for 3.13 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0554/].

Use the new Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig() function to create an interpreter with its own GIL:

PyInterpreterConfig config = {
    .check_multi_interp_extensions = 1,
    .gil = PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL,
};
PyThreadState *tstate = NULL;
PyStatus status = Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(&tstate, &config);
if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
    return -1;
}
/* The new interpreter is now active in the current thread. */

For further examples how to use the C-API for sub-interpreters with a per-interpreter GIL, see Modules/_xxsubinterpretersmodule.c.

(Contributed by Eric Snow in gh-104210 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104210], etc.)

PEP 669: Low impact monitoring for CPython

PEP 669 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0669/] defines a new API for profilers, debuggers, and other tools to monitor events in CPython. It covers a wide range of events, including calls, returns, lines, exceptions, jumps, and more. This means that you only pay for what you use, providing support for near-zero overhead debuggers and coverage tools. See sys.monitoring for details.

(Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-103082 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103082].)

PEP 688: Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python

PEP 688 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/] introduces a way to use the buffer protocol from Python code. Classes that implement the __buffer__() method are now usable as buffer types.

The new collections.abc.Buffer ABC provides a standard way to represent buffer objects, for example in type annotations. The new inspect.BufferFlags enum represents the flags that can be used to customize buffer creation. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-102500 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102500].)

PEP 709: Comprehension inlining

Dictionary, list, and set comprehensions are now inlined, rather than creating a new single-use function object for each execution of the comprehension. This speeds up execution of a comprehension by up to two times. See PEP 709 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0709/] for further details.

Comprehension iteration variables remain isolated and don't overwrite a variable of the same name in the outer scope, nor are they visible after the comprehension. Inlining does result in a few visible behavior changes:

There is no longer a separate frame for the comprehension in tracebacks, and tracing/profiling no longer shows the comprehension as a function call.

The symtable module will no longer produce child symbol tables for each comprehension; instead, the comprehension's locals will be included in the parent function's symbol table.

Calling locals() inside a comprehension now includes variables from outside the comprehension, and no longer includes the synthetic .0 variable for the comprehension "argument".

A comprehension iterating directly over locals() (e.g. [k for k in locals()]) may see "RuntimeError: dictionary changed size during iteration" when run under tracing (e.g. code coverage measurement). This is the same behavior already seen in e.g. for k in locals():. To avoid the error, first create a list of keys to iterate over: keys = list(locals()); [k for k in keys].

(Contributed by Carl Meyer and Vladimir Matveev in PEP 709 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0709/].)

Improved Error Messages

Modules from the standard library are now potentially suggested as part of the error messages displayed by the interpreter when a NameError is raised to the top level. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-98254 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98254].)

>>> sys.version_info
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
NameError: name 'sys' is not defined. Did you forget to import 'sys'?

Improve the error suggestion for NameError exceptions for instances. Now if a NameError is raised in a method and the instance has an attribute that's exactly equal to the name in the exception, the suggestion will include self.<NAME> instead of the closest match in the method scope. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-99139 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99139].)

>>> class A:
...    def __init__(self):
...        self.blech = 1
...
...    def foo(self):
...        somethin = blech
...
>>> A().foo()
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1
    somethin = blech
               ^^^^^
NameError: name 'blech' is not defined. Did you mean: 'self.blech'?

Improve the SyntaxError error message when the user types import x from y instead of from y import x. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-98931 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98931].)

>>> import a.y.z from b.y.z
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1
    import a.y.z from b.y.z
    ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
SyntaxError: Did you mean to use 'from ... import ...' instead?

ImportError exceptions raised from failed from <module> import <name> statements now include suggestions for the value of <name> based on the available names in <module>. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-91058 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91058].)

>>> from collections import chainmap
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
ImportError: cannot import name 'chainmap' from 'collections'. Did you mean: 'ChainMap'?

Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types

This section covers major changes affecting type hints [https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/] and the typing module.

PEP 692: Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing

Typing **kwargs in a function signature as introduced by PEP 484 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/] allowed for valid annotations only in cases where all of the **kwargs were of the same type.

PEP 692 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0692/] specifies a more precise way of typing **kwargs by relying on typed dictionaries:

from typing import TypedDict, Unpack

class Movie(TypedDict):
  name: str
  year: int

def foo(**kwargs: Unpack[Movie]): ...

See PEP 692 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0692/] for more details.

(Contributed by Franek Magiera in gh-103629 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103629].)

PEP 698: Override Decorator for Static Typing

A new decorator typing.override() has been added to the typing module. It indicates to type checkers that the method is intended to override a method in a superclass. This allows type checkers to catch mistakes where a method that is intended to override something in a base class does not in fact do so.

Exemple :

from typing import override

class Base:
  def get_color(self) -> str:
    return "blue"

class GoodChild(Base):
  @override  # ok: overrides Base.get_color
  def get_color(self) -> str:
    return "yellow"

class BadChild(Base):
  @override  # type checker error: does not override Base.get_color
  def get_colour(self) -> str:
    return "red"

See PEP 698 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0698/] for more details.

(Contributed by Steven Troxler in gh-101561 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101561].)

Autres changements au langage

The parser now raises SyntaxError when parsing source code containing null bytes. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-96670 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96670].)

A backslash-character pair that is not a valid escape sequence now generates a SyntaxWarning, instead of DeprecationWarning. For example, re.compile("\d+\.\d+") now emits a SyntaxWarning ("\d" is an invalid escape sequence, use raw strings for regular expression: re.compile(r"\d+\.\d+")). In a future Python version, SyntaxError will eventually be raised, instead of SyntaxWarning. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-98401 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98401].)

Octal escapes with value larger than 0o377 (ex: "\477"), deprecated in Python 3.11, now produce a SyntaxWarning, instead of DeprecationWarning. In a future Python version they will be eventually a SyntaxError. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-98401 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98401].)

Variables used in the target part of comprehensions that are not stored to can now be used in assignment expressions (:=). For example, in [(b := 1) for a, b.prop in some_iter], the assignment to b is now allowed. Note that assigning to variables stored to in the target part of comprehensions (like a) is still disallowed, as per PEP 572 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/]. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-100581 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100581].)

Exceptions raised in a class or type's __set_name__ method are no longer wrapped by a RuntimeError. Context information is added to the exception as a PEP 678 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0678/] note. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-77757 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77757].)

When a try-except* construct handles the entire ExceptionGroup and raises one other exception, that exception is no longer wrapped in an ExceptionGroup. Also changed in version 3.11.4. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-103590 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103590].)

The Garbage Collector now runs only on the eval breaker mechanism of the Python bytecode evaluation loop instead of object allocations. The GC can also run when PyErr_CheckSignals() is called so C extensions that need to run for a long time without executing any Python code also have a chance to execute the GC periodically. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-97922 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97922].)

All builtin and extension callables expecting boolean parameters now accept arguments of any type instead of just bool and int. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-60203 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/60203].)

memoryview now supports the half-float type (the "e" format code). (Contributed by Donghee Na and Antoine Pitrou in gh-90751 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90751].)

slice objects are now hashable, allowing them to be used as dict keys and set items. (Contributed by Will Bradshaw, Furkan Onder, and Raymond Hettinger in gh-101264 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101264].)

sum() now uses Neumaier summation to improve accuracy and commutativity when summing floats or mixed ints and floats. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-100425 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100425].)

ast.parse() now raises SyntaxError instead of ValueError when parsing source code containing null bytes. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-96670 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96670].)

The extraction methods in tarfile, and shutil.unpack_archive(), have a new a filter argument that allows limiting tar features than may be surprising or dangerous, such as creating files outside the destination directory. See tarfile extraction filters for details. In Python 3.14, the default will switch to 'data'. (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in PEP 706 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0706/].)

types.MappingProxyType instances are now hashable if the underlying mapping is hashable. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-87995 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87995].)

Add support for the perf profiler through the new environment variable PYTHONPERFSUPPORT and command-line option -X perf, as well as the new sys.activate_stack_trampoline(), sys.deactivate_stack_trampoline(), and sys.is_stack_trampoline_active() functions. (Design by Pablo Galindo. Contributed by Pablo Galindo and Christian Heimes with contributions from Gregory P. Smith [Google] and Mark Shannon in gh-96123 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96123].)

Nouveaux modules

None.

Modules améliorés

array

The array.array class now supports subscripting, making it a generic type. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-98658 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98658].)

asyncio

The performance of writing to sockets in asyncio has been significantly improved. asyncio now avoids unnecessary copying when writing to sockets and uses sendmsg() if the platform supports it. (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-91166 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91166].)

Add asyncio.eager_task_factory() and asyncio.create_eager_task_factory() functions to allow opting an event loop in to eager task execution, making some use-cases 2x to 5x faster. (Contributed by Jacob Bower & Itamar Oren in gh-102853 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102853], gh-104140 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104140], and gh-104138 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104138])

On Linux, asyncio uses asyncio.PidfdChildWatcher by default if os.pidfd_open() is available and functional instead of asyncio.ThreadedChildWatcher. (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-98024 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98024].)

The event loop now uses the best available child watcher for each platform (asyncio.PidfdChildWatcher if supported and asyncio.ThreadedChildWatcher otherwise), so manually configuring a child watcher is not recommended. (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-94597 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597].)

Add loop_factory parameter to asyncio.run() to allow specifying a custom event loop factory. (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-99388 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99388].)

Add C implementation of asyncio.current_task() for 4x-6x speedup. (Contributed by Itamar Oren and Pranav Thulasiram Bhat in gh-100344 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100344].)

asyncio.iscoroutine() now returns False for generators as asyncio does not support legacy generator-based coroutines. (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-102748 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102748].)

asyncio.wait() and asyncio.as_completed() now accepts generators yielding tasks. (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-78530 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78530].)

calendar

Add enums calendar.Month and calendar.Day defining months of the year and days of the week. (Contributed by Prince Roshan in gh-103636 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636].)

csv

Add csv.QUOTE_NOTNULL and csv.QUOTE_STRINGS flags to provide finer grained control of None and empty strings by reader and writer objects.

dis

Pseudo instruction opcodes (which are used by the compiler but do not appear in executable bytecode) are now exposed in the dis module. HAVE_ARGUMENT is still relevant to real opcodes, but it is not useful for pseudo instructions. Use the new dis.hasarg collection instead. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-94216 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94216].)

Add the dis.hasexc collection to signify instructions that set an exception handler. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-94216 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94216].)

fractions

Objects of type fractions.Fraction now support float-style formatting. (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in gh-100161 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100161].)

importlib.resources

importlib.resources.as_file() now supports resource directories. (Contributed by Jason R. Coombs in gh-97930 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97930].)

Rename first parameter of importlib.resources.files() to anchor. (Contributed by Jason R. Coombs in gh-100598 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100598].)

inspect

Add inspect.markcoroutinefunction() to mark sync functions that return a coroutine for use with inspect.iscoroutinefunction(). (Contributed by Carlton Gibson in gh-99247 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99247].)

Add inspect.getasyncgenstate() and inspect.getasyncgenlocals() for determining the current state of asynchronous generators. (Contributed by Thomas Krennwallner in gh-79940 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79940].)

The performance of inspect.getattr_static() has been considerably improved. Most calls to the function should be at least 2x faster than they were in Python 3.11. (Contributed by Alex Waygood in gh-103193 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103193].)

itertools

Add itertools.batched() for collecting into even-sized tuples where the last batch may be shorter than the rest. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-98363 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98363].)

math

Add math.sumprod() for computing a sum of products. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-100485 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100485].)

Extend math.nextafter() to include a steps argument for moving up or down multiple steps at a time. (Contributed by Matthias Goergens, Mark Dickinson, and Raymond Hettinger in gh-94906 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94906].)

os

Add os.PIDFD_NONBLOCK to open a file descriptor for a process with os.pidfd_open() in non-blocking mode. (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-93312 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93312].)

os.DirEntry now includes an os.DirEntry.is_junction() method to check if the entry is a junction. (Contributed by Charles Machalow in gh-99547 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99547].)

Add os.listdrives(), os.listvolumes() and os.listmounts() functions on Windows for enumerating drives, volumes and mount points. (Contributed by Steve Dower in gh-102519 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102519].)

os.stat() and os.lstat() are now more accurate on Windows. The st_birthtime field will now be filled with the creation time of the file, and st_ctime is deprecated but still contains the creation time (but in the future will return the last metadata change, for consistency with other platforms). st_dev may be up to 64 bits and st_ino up to 128 bits depending on your file system, and st_rdev is always set to zero rather than incorrect values. Both functions may be significantly faster on newer releases of Windows. (Contributed by Steve Dower in gh-99726 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99726].)

os.path

Add os.path.isjunction() to check if a given path is a junction. (Contributed by Charles Machalow in gh-99547 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99547].)

Add os.path.splitroot() to split a path into a triad (drive, root, tail). (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-101000 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101000].)

pathlib

Add support for subclassing pathlib.PurePath and pathlib.Path, plus their Posix- and Windows-specific variants. Subclasses may override the pathlib.PurePath.with_segments() method to pass information between path instances.

Add pathlib.Path.walk() for walking the directory trees and generating all file or directory names within them, similar to os.walk(). (Contributed by Stanislav Zmiev in gh-90385 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90385].)

Add walk_up optional parameter to pathlib.PurePath.relative_to() to allow the insertion of .. entries in the result; this behavior is more consistent with os.path.relpath(). (Contributed by Domenico Ragusa in gh-84538 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84538].)

Add pathlib.Path.is_junction() as a proxy to os.path.isjunction(). (Contributed by Charles Machalow in gh-99547 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99547].)

Add case_sensitive optional parameter to pathlib.Path.glob(), pathlib.Path.rglob() and pathlib.PurePath.match() for matching the path's case sensitivity, allowing for more precise control over the matching process.

platform

Add support for detecting Windows 11 and Windows Server releases past 2012. Previously, lookups on Windows Server platforms newer than Windows Server 2012 and on Windows 11 would return Windows-10. (Contributed by Steve Dower in gh-89545 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89545].)

pdb

Add convenience variables to hold values temporarily for debug session and provide quick access to values like the current frame or the return value. (Contributed by Tian Gao in gh-103693 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103693].)

random

Add random.binomialvariate(). (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-81620 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81620].)

Add a default of lambd=1.0 to random.expovariate(). (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-100234 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100234].)

shutils

shutil.make_archive() now passes the root_dir argument to custom archivers which support it. In this case it no longer temporarily changes the current working directory of the process to root_dir to perform archiving. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-74696 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74696].)

shutil.rmtree() now accepts a new argument onexc which is an error handler like onerror but which expects an exception instance rather than a (typ, val, tb) triplet. onerror is deprecated. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-102828 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102828].)

shutil.which() now consults the PATHEXT environment variable to find matches within PATH on Windows even when the given cmd includes a directory component. (Contributed by Charles Machalow in gh-103179 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103179].)

shutil.which() will call NeedCurrentDirectoryForExePathW when querying for executables on Windows to determine if the current working directory should be prepended to the search path. (Contributed by Charles Machalow in gh-103179 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103179].)

shutil.which() will return a path matching the cmd with a component from PATHEXT prior to a direct match elsewhere in the search path on Windows. (Contributed by Charles Machalow in gh-103179 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103179].)

sqlite3

Add a command-line interface. (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in gh-77617 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77617].)

Add the sqlite3.Connection.autocommit attribute to sqlite3.Connection and the autocommit parameter to sqlite3.connect() to control PEP 249 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/]-compliant transaction handling. (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in gh-83638 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83638].)

Add entrypoint keyword-only parameter to sqlite3.Connection.load_extension(), for overriding the SQLite extension entry point. (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in gh-103015 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103015].)

Add sqlite3.Connection.getconfig() and sqlite3.Connection.setconfig() to sqlite3.Connection to make configuration changes to a database connection. (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in gh-103489 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103489].)

statistics

Extend statistics.correlation() to include as a ranked method for computing the Spearman correlation of ranked data. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-95861 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95861].)

sys

Add the sys.monitoring namespace to expose the new PEP 669 monitoring API. (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-103082 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103082].)

Add sys.activate_stack_trampoline() and sys.deactivate_stack_trampoline() for activating and deactivating stack profiler trampolines, and sys.is_stack_trampoline_active() for querying if stack profiler trampolines are active. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo and Christian Heimes with contributions from Gregory P. Smith [Google] and Mark Shannon in gh-96123 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96123].)

Add sys.last_exc which holds the last unhandled exception that was raised (for post-mortem debugging use cases). Deprecate the three fields that have the same information in its legacy form: sys.last_type, sys.last_value and sys.last_traceback. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-102778 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102778].)

sys._current_exceptions() now returns a mapping from thread-id to an exception instance, rather than to a (typ, exc, tb) tuple. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-103176 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103176].)

sys.setrecursionlimit() and sys.getrecursionlimit(). The recursion limit now applies only to Python code. Builtin functions do not use the recursion limit, but are protected by a different mechanism that prevents recursion from causing a virtual machine crash.

tempfile

The tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile function has a new optional parameter delete_on_close (Contributed by Evgeny Zorin in gh-58451 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/58451].)

tempfile.mkdtemp() now always returns an absolute path, even if the argument provided to the dir parameter is a relative path.

threading

Add threading.settrace_all_threads() and threading.setprofile_all_threads() that allow to set tracing and profiling functions in all running threads in addition to the calling one. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-93503 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93503].)

tkinter

tkinter.Canvas.coords() now flattens its arguments. It now accepts not only coordinates as separate arguments (x1, y1, x2, y2, ...) and a sequence of coordinates ([x1, y1, x2, y2, ...]), but also coordinates grouped in pairs ((x1, y1), (x2, y2), ... and [(x1, y1), (x2, y2), ...]), like create_*() methods. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-94473 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94473].)

tokenize

The tokenize module includes the changes introduced in PEP 701 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/]. (Contributed by Marta Gómez Macías and Pablo Galindo in gh-102856 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102856].) See Porting to Python 3.12 for more information on the changes to the tokenize module.

types

Add types.get_original_bases() to allow for further introspection of Types génériques définis par l'utilisateur when subclassed. (Contributed by James Hilton-Balfe and Alex Waygood in gh-101827 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101827].)

typing

isinstance() checks against runtime-checkable protocols now use inspect.getattr_static() rather than hasattr() to lookup whether attributes exist. This means that descriptors and __getattr__() methods are no longer unexpectedly evaluated during isinstance() checks against runtime-checkable protocols. However, it may also mean that some objects which used to be considered instances of a runtime-checkable protocol may no longer be considered instances of that protocol on Python 3.12+, and vice versa. Most users are unlikely to be affected by this change. (Contributed by Alex Waygood in gh-102433 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102433].)

The members of a runtime-checkable protocol are now considered "frozen" at runtime as soon as the class has been created. Monkey-patching attributes onto a runtime-checkable protocol will still work, but will have no impact on isinstance() checks comparing objects to the protocol. For example:

>>> from typing import Protocol, runtime_checkable
>>> @runtime_checkable
... class HasX(Protocol):
...     x = 1
...
>>> class Foo: ...
...
>>> f = Foo()
>>> isinstance(f, HasX)
False
>>> f.x = 1
>>> isinstance(f, HasX)
True
>>> HasX.y = 2
>>> isinstance(f, HasX)  # unchanged, even though HasX now also has a "y" attribute
True

This change was made in order to speed up isinstance() checks against runtime-checkable protocols.

The performance profile of isinstance() checks against runtime-checkable protocols has changed significantly. Most isinstance() checks against protocols with only a few members should be at least 2x faster than in 3.11, and some may be 20x faster or more. However, isinstance() checks against protocols with many members may be slower than in Python 3.11. (Contributed by Alex Waygood in gh-74690 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74690] and gh-103193 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103193].)

All typing.TypedDict and typing.NamedTuple classes now have the __orig_bases__ attribute. (Contributed by Adrian Garcia Badaracco in gh-103699 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103699].)

Add frozen_default parameter to typing.dataclass_transform(). (Contributed by Erik De Bonte in gh-99957 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99957].)

unicodedata

The Unicode database has been updated to version 15.0.0. (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in gh-96734 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96734]).

unittest

Add a --durations command line option, showing the N slowest test cases:

python3 -m unittest --durations=3 lib.tests.test_threading
.....
Slowest test durations
----------------------------------------------------------------------
1.210s     test_timeout (Lib.test.test_threading.BarrierTests)
1.003s     test_default_timeout (Lib.test.test_threading.BarrierTests)
0.518s     test_timeout (Lib.test.test_threading.EventTests)

(0.000 durations hidden.  Use -v to show these durations.)
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Ran 158 tests in 9.869s

OK (skipped=3)

(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola in gh-48330 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/48330])

uuid

Add a command-line interface. (Contributed by Adam Chhina in gh-88597 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88597].)

Optimisations

Remove wstr and wstr_length members from Unicode objects. It reduces object size by 8 or 16 bytes on 64bit platform. (PEP 623 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/]) (Contributed by Inada Naoki in gh-92536 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92536].)

Add experimental support for using the BOLT binary optimizer in the build process, which improves performance by 1-5%. (Contributed by Kevin Modzelewski in gh-90536 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90536] and tuned by Donghee Na in gh-101525 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101525])

Speed up the regular expression substitution (functions re.sub() and re.subn() and corresponding re.Pattern methods) for replacement strings containing group references by 2--3 times. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-91524 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91524].)

Speed up asyncio.Task creation by deferring expensive string formatting. (Contributed by Itamar Oren in gh-103793 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103793].)

The tokenize.tokenize() and tokenize.generate_tokens() functions are up to 64% faster as a side effect of the changes required to cover PEP 701 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/] in the tokenize module. (Contributed by Marta Gómez Macías and Pablo Galindo in gh-102856 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102856].)

Speed up super() method calls and attribute loads via the new LOAD_SUPER_ATTR instruction. (Contributed by Carl Meyer and Vladimir Matveev in gh-103497 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103497].)

Changements au code intermédiaire CPython

Remove the LOAD_METHOD instruction. It has been merged into LOAD_ATTR. LOAD_ATTR will now behave like the old LOAD_METHOD instruction if the low bit of its oparg is set. (Contributed by Ken Jin in gh-93429 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93429].)

Remove the JUMP_IF_FALSE_OR_POP and JUMP_IF_TRUE_OR_POP instructions. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-102859 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102859].)

Remove the PRECALL instruction. (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-92925 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92925].)

Add the BINARY_SLICE and STORE_SLICE instructions. (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-94163 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94163].)

Add the CALL_INTRINSIC_1 instructions. (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-99005 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99005].)

Add the CALL_INTRINSIC_2 instruction. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-101799 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101799].)

Add the CLEANUP_THROW instruction. (Contributed by Brandt Bucher in gh-90997 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90997].)

Add the END_SEND instruction. (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-103082 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103082].)

Add the LOAD_FAST_AND_CLEAR instruction as part of the implementation of PEP 709 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0709/]. (Contributed by Carl Meyer in gh-101441 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101441].)

Add the LOAD_FAST_CHECK instruction. (Contributed by Dennis Sweeney in gh-93143 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93143].)

Add the LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_DEREF, LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_GLOBALS, and LOAD_LOCALS opcodes as part of the implementation of PEP 695 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/]. Remove the LOAD_CLASSDEREF opcode, which can be replaced with LOAD_LOCALS plus LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_DEREF. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-103764 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103764].)

Add the LOAD_SUPER_ATTR instruction. (Contributed by Carl Meyer and Vladimir Matveev in gh-103497 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103497].)

Add the RETURN_CONST instruction. (Contributed by Wenyang Wang in gh-101632 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101632].)

Demos and Tools

Remove the Tools/demo/ directory which contained old demo scripts. A copy can be found in the old-demos project [https://github.com/gvanrossum/old-demos]. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-97681 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97681].)

Remove outdated example scripts of the Tools/scripts/ directory. A copy can be found in the old-demos project [https://github.com/gvanrossum/old-demos]. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-97669 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97669].)

Obsolescence

argparse: The type, choices, and metavar parameters of argparse.BooleanOptionalAction are deprecated and will be removed in 3.14. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-92248 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92248].)

ast: The following ast features have been deprecated in documentation since Python 3.8, now cause a DeprecationWarning to be emitted at runtime when they are accessed or used, and will be removed in Python 3.14:

ast.Num

ast.Str

ast.Bytes

ast.NameConstant

ast.Ellipsis

Use ast.Constant instead. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-90953 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90953].)

asyncio:

The child watcher classes asyncio.MultiLoopChildWatcher, asyncio.FastChildWatcher, asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher and asyncio.SafeChildWatcher are deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.14. (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-94597 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597].)

asyncio.set_child_watcher(), asyncio.get_child_watcher(), asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.set_child_watcher() and asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.get_child_watcher() are deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.14. (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-94597 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597].)

The get_event_loop() method of the default event loop policy now emits a DeprecationWarning if there is no current event loop set and it decides to create one. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Guido van Rossum in gh-100160 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100160].)

calendar: calendar.January and calendar.February constants are deprecated and replaced by calendar.JANUARY and calendar.FEBRUARY. (Contributed by Prince Roshan in gh-103636 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636].)

collections.abc: Deprecated collections.abc.ByteString.

Use isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Buffer) to test if obj implements the buffer protocol at runtime. For use in type annotations, either use Buffer or a union that explicitly specifies the types your code supports (e.g., bytes | bytearray | memoryview).

ByteString was originally intended to be an abstract class that would serve as a supertype of both bytes and bytearray. However, since the ABC never had any methods, knowing that an object was an instance of ByteString never actually told you anything useful about the object. Other common buffer types such as memoryview were also never understood as subtypes of ByteString (either at runtime or by static type checkers).

See PEP 688 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/#current-options] for more details. (Contributed by Shantanu Jain in gh-91896 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896].)

datetime: datetime.datetime's utcnow() and utcfromtimestamp() are deprecated and will be removed in a future version. Instead, use timezone-aware objects to represent datetimes in UTC: respectively, call now() and fromtimestamp() with the tz parameter set to datetime.UTC. (Contributed by Paul Ganssle in gh-103857 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103857].)

email: Deprecate the isdst parameter in email.utils.localtime(). (Contributed by Alan Williams in gh-72346 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72346].)

importlib.abc: Deprecated the following classes, scheduled for removal in Python 3.14:

importlib.abc.ResourceReader

importlib.abc.Traversable

importlib.abc.TraversableResources

Use importlib.resources.abc classes instead:

importlib.resources.abc.Traversable

importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources

(Contributed by Jason R. Coombs and Hugo van Kemenade in gh-93963 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93963].)

itertools: Deprecate the support for copy, deepcopy, and pickle operations, which is undocumented, inefficient, historically buggy, and inconsistent. This will be removed in 3.14 for a significant reduction in code volume and maintenance burden. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-101588 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101588].)

multiprocessing: In Python 3.14, the default multiprocessing start method will change to a safer one on Linux, BSDs, and other non-macOS POSIX platforms where 'fork' is currently the default (gh-84559 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84559]). Adding a runtime warning about this was deemed too disruptive as the majority of code is not expected to care. Use the get_context() or set_start_method() APIs to explicitly specify when your code requires 'fork'. See contexts and start methods.

pkgutil: pkgutil.find_loader() and pkgutil.get_loader() are deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.14; use importlib.util.find_spec() instead. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-97850 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850].)

pty: The module has two undocumented master_open() and slave_open() functions that have been deprecated since Python 2 but only gained a proper DeprecationWarning in 3.12. Remove them in 3.14. (Contributed by Soumendra Ganguly and Gregory P. Smith in gh-85984 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85984].)

os:

The st_ctime fields return by os.stat() and os.lstat() on Windows are deprecated. In a future release, they will contain the last metadata change time, consistent with other platforms. For now, they still contain the creation time, which is also available in the new st_birthtime field. (Contributed by Steve Dower in gh-99726 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99726].)

On POSIX platforms, os.fork() can now raise a DeprecationWarning when it can detect being called from a multithreaded process. There has always been a fundamental incompatibility with the POSIX platform when doing so. Even if such code appeared to work. We added the warning to raise awareness as issues encountered by code doing this are becoming more frequent. See the os.fork() documentation for more details along with this discussion on fork being incompatible with threads [https://discuss.python.org/t/concerns-regarding-deprecation-of-fork-with-alive-threads/33555] for why we're now surfacing this longstanding platform compatibility problem to developers.

When this warning appears due to usage of multiprocessing or concurrent.futures the fix is to use a different multiprocessing start method such as "spawn" or "forkserver".

shutil: The onerror argument of shutil.rmtree() is deprecated; use onexc instead. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-102828 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102828].)

sqlite3:

default adapters and converters are now deprecated. Instead, use the Adapter and converter recipes and tailor them to your needs. (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in gh-90016 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90016].)

In execute(), DeprecationWarning is now emitted when named placeholders are used together with parameters supplied as a sequence instead of as a dict. Starting from Python 3.14, using named placeholders with parameters supplied as a sequence will raise a ProgrammingError. (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in gh-101698 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101698].)

sys: The sys.last_type, sys.last_value and sys.last_traceback fields are deprecated. Use sys.last_exc instead. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-102778 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102778].)

tarfile: Extracting tar archives without specifying filter is deprecated until Python 3.14, when 'data' filter will become the default. See Extraction filters for details.

typing:

typing.Hashable and typing.Sized, aliases for collections.abc.Hashable and collections.abc.Sized respectively, are deprecated. (gh-94309 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94309].)

typing.ByteString, deprecated since Python 3.9, now causes a DeprecationWarning to be emitted when it is used. (Contributed by Alex Waygood in gh-91896 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896].)

xml.etree.ElementTree: The module now emits DeprecationWarning when testing the truth value of an xml.etree.ElementTree.Element. Before, the Python implementation emitted FutureWarning, and the C implementation emitted nothing. (Contributed by Jacob Walls in gh-83122 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83122].)

The 3-arg signatures (type, value, traceback) of coroutine throw(), generator throw() and async generator throw() are deprecated and may be removed in a future version of Python. Use the single-arg versions of these functions instead. (Contributed by Ofey Chan in gh-89874 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89874].)

DeprecationWarning is now raised when __package__ on a module differs from __spec__.parent (previously it was ImportWarning). (Contributed by Brett Cannon in gh-65961 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65961].)

Setting __package__ or __cached__ on a module is deprecated, and will cease to be set or taken into consideration by the import system in Python 3.14. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in gh-65961 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65961].)

The bitwise inversion operator (~) on bool is deprecated. It will throw an error in Python 3.16. Use not for logical negation of bools instead. In the rare case that you really need the bitwise inversion of the underlying int, convert to int explicitly: ~int(x). (Contributed by Tim Hoffmann in gh-103487 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103487].)

Accessing co_lnotab on code objects was deprecated in Python 3.10 via PEP 626 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/], but it only got a proper DeprecationWarning in 3.12. May be removed in 3.15. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-101866 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101866].)

Pending removal in Python 3.13

Modules (see PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/]):

aifc

audioop

cgi

cgitb

chunk

crypt

imghdr

mailcap

msilib

nis

nntplib

ossaudiodev

pipes

sndhdr

spwd

sunau

telnetlib

uu

xdrlib

Other modules:

lib2to3, and the 2to3 program (gh-84540 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84540])

APIs:

configparser.LegacyInterpolation (gh-90765 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90765])

locale.resetlocale() (gh-90817 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90817])

turtle.RawTurtle.settiltangle() (gh-50096 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50096])

unittest.findTestCases() (gh-50096 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50096])

unittest.getTestCaseNames() (gh-50096 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50096])

unittest.makeSuite() (gh-50096 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50096])

unittest.TestProgram.usageExit() (gh-67048 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67048])

webbrowser.MacOSX (gh-86421 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86421])

classmethod descriptor chaining (gh-89519 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89519])

Pending removal in Python 3.14

argparse: The type, choices, and metavar parameters of argparse.BooleanOptionalAction are deprecated and will be removed in 3.14. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-92248 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92248].)

ast: The following features have been deprecated in documentation since Python 3.8, now cause a DeprecationWarning to be emitted at runtime when they are accessed or used, and will be removed in Python 3.14:

ast.Num

ast.Str

ast.Bytes

ast.NameConstant

ast.Ellipsis

Use ast.Constant instead. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-90953 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90953].)

asyncio:

The child watcher classes asyncio.MultiLoopChildWatcher, asyncio.FastChildWatcher, asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher and asyncio.SafeChildWatcher are deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.14. (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-94597 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597].)

asyncio.set_child_watcher(), asyncio.get_child_watcher(), asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.set_child_watcher() and asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.get_child_watcher() are deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.14. (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-94597 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597].)

The get_event_loop() method of the default event loop policy now emits a DeprecationWarning if there is no current event loop set and it decides to create one. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Guido van Rossum in gh-100160 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100160].)

email: Deprecated the isdst parameter in email.utils.localtime(). (Contributed by Alan Williams in gh-72346 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72346].)

importlib.abc deprecated classes:

importlib.abc.ResourceReader

importlib.abc.Traversable

importlib.abc.TraversableResources

Use importlib.resources.abc classes instead:

importlib.resources.abc.Traversable

importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources

(Contributed by Jason R. Coombs and Hugo van Kemenade in gh-93963 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93963].)

itertools had undocumented, inefficient, historically buggy, and inconsistent support for copy, deepcopy, and pickle operations. This will be removed in 3.14 for a significant reduction in code volume and maintenance burden. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-101588 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101588].)

multiprocessing: The default start method will change to a safer one on Linux, BSDs, and other non-macOS POSIX platforms where 'fork' is currently the default (gh-84559 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84559]). Adding a runtime warning about this was deemed too disruptive as the majority of code is not expected to care. Use the get_context() or set_start_method() APIs to explicitly specify when your code requires 'fork'. See Contextes et méthodes de démarrage.

pathlib: is_relative_to() and relative_to(): passing additional arguments is deprecated.

pkgutil: pkgutil.find_loader() and pkgutil.get_loader() now raise DeprecationWarning; use importlib.util.find_spec() instead. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-97850 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850].)

pty:

master_open(): use pty.openpty().

slave_open(): use pty.openpty().

sqlite3:

version and version_info.

execute() and executemany() if named placeholders are used and parameters is a sequence instead of a dict.

urllib: urllib.parse.Quoter is deprecated: it was not intended to be a public API. (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in gh-88168 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88168].)

Pending removal in Python 3.15

The import system:

Setting __cached__ on a module while failing to set __spec__.cached is deprecated. In Python 3.15, __cached__ will cease to be set or take into consideration by the import system or standard library. (gh-97879 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97879])

Setting __package__ on a module while failing to set __spec__.parent is deprecated. In Python 3.15, __package__ will cease to be set or take into consideration by the import system or standard library. (gh-97879 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97879])

ctypes:

The undocumented ctypes.SetPointerType() function has been deprecated since Python 3.13.

http.server:

The obsolete and rarely used CGIHTTPRequestHandler has been deprecated since Python 3.13. No direct replacement exists. Anything is better than CGI to interface a web server with a request handler.

The --cgi flag to the python -m http.server command-line interface has been deprecated since Python 3.13.

importlib:

load_module() method: use exec_module() instead.

locale:

The getdefaultlocale() function has been deprecated since Python 3.11. Its removal was originally planned for Python 3.13 (gh-90817 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90817]), but has been postponed to Python 3.15. Use getlocale(), setlocale(), and getencoding() instead. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-111187 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111187].)

pathlib:

PurePath.is_reserved() has been deprecated since Python 3.13. Use os.path.isreserved() to detect reserved paths on Windows.

platform:

java_ver() has been deprecated since Python 3.13. This function is only useful for Jython support, has a confusing API, and is largely untested.

sysconfig:

The check_home argument of sysconfig.is_python_build() has been deprecated since Python 3.12.

threading:

RLock() will take no arguments in Python 3.15. Passing any arguments has been deprecated since Python 3.14, as the Python version does not permit any arguments, but the C version allows any number of positional or keyword arguments, ignoring every argument.

types:

types.CodeType: Accessing co_lnotab was deprecated in PEP 626 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/] since 3.10 and was planned to be removed in 3.12, but it only got a proper DeprecationWarning in 3.12. May be removed in 3.15. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-101866 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101866].)

typing:

The undocumented keyword argument syntax for creating NamedTuple classes (for example, Point = NamedTuple("Point", x=int, y=int)) has been deprecated since Python 3.13. Use the class-based syntax or the functional syntax instead.

When using the functional syntax of TypedDicts, failing to pass a value to the fields parameter (TD = TypedDict("TD")) or passing None (TD = TypedDict("TD", None)) has been deprecated since Python 3.13. Use class TD(TypedDict): pass or TD = TypedDict("TD", {}) to create a TypedDict with zero field.

The typing.no_type_check_decorator() decorator function has been deprecated since Python 3.13. After eight years in the typing module, it has yet to be supported by any major type checker.

wave:

The getmark(), setmark(), and getmarkers() methods of the Wave_read and Wave_write classes have been deprecated since Python 3.13.

zipimport :

load_module() has been deprecated since Python 3.10. Use exec_module() instead. (Contributed by Jiahao Li in gh-125746 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125746].)

Pending removal in Python 3.16

The import system:

Setting __loader__ on a module while failing to set __spec__.loader is deprecated. In Python 3.16, __loader__ will cease to be set or taken into consideration by the import system or the standard library.

array:

The 'u' format code (wchar_t) has been deprecated in documentation since Python 3.3 and at runtime since Python 3.13. Use the 'w' format code (Py_UCS4) for Unicode characters instead.

asyncio:

asyncio.iscoroutinefunction() is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.16; use inspect.iscoroutinefunction() instead. (Contributed by Jiahao Li and Kumar Aditya in gh-122875 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122875].)

asyncio policy system is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.16. In particular, the following classes and functions are deprecated:

asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy

asyncio.DefaultEventLoopPolicy

asyncio.WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy

asyncio.WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy

asyncio.get_event_loop_policy()

asyncio.set_event_loop_policy()

Users should use asyncio.run() or asyncio.Runner with loop_factory to use the desired event loop implementation.

For example, to use asyncio.SelectorEventLoop on Windows:

import asyncio

async def main():
    ...

asyncio.run(main(), loop_factory=asyncio.SelectorEventLoop)

(Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-127949 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127949].)

builtins:

Bitwise inversion on boolean types, ~True or ~False has been deprecated since Python 3.12, as it produces surprising and unintuitive results (-2 and -1). Use not x instead for the logical negation of a Boolean. In the rare case that you need the bitwise inversion of the underlying integer, convert to int explicitly (~int(x)).

functools:

Calling the Python implementation of functools.reduce() with function or sequence as keyword arguments has been deprecated since Python 3.14.

logging:

Support for custom logging handlers with the strm argument is deprecated and scheduled for removal in Python 3.16. Define handlers with the stream argument instead. (Contributed by Mariusz Felisiak in gh-115032 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115032].)

mimetypes:

Valid extensions start with a '.' or are empty for mimetypes.MimeTypes.add_type(). Undotted extensions are deprecated and will raise a ValueError in Python 3.16. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-75223 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75223].)

shutil:

The ExecError exception has been deprecated since Python 3.14. It has not been used by any function in shutil since Python 3.4, and is now an alias of RuntimeError.

symtable:

The Class.get_methods method has been deprecated since Python 3.14.

sys:

The _enablelegacywindowsfsencoding() function has been deprecated since Python 3.13. Use the PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING environment variable instead.

sysconfig:

The sysconfig.expand_makefile_vars() function has been deprecated since Python 3.14. Use the vars argument of sysconfig.get_paths() instead.

tarfile:

The undocumented and unused TarFile.tarfile attribute has been deprecated since Python 3.13.

Pending removal in Python 3.17

collections.abc:

collections.abc.ByteString is scheduled for removal in Python 3.17.

Use isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Buffer) to test if obj implements the buffer protocol at runtime. For use in type annotations, either use Buffer or a union that explicitly specifies the types your code supports (e.g., bytes | bytearray | memoryview).

ByteString was originally intended to be an abstract class that would serve as a supertype of both bytes and bytearray. However, since the ABC never had any methods, knowing that an object was an instance of ByteString never actually told you anything useful about the object. Other common buffer types such as memoryview were also never understood as subtypes of ByteString (either at runtime or by static type checkers).

See PEP 688 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/#current-options] for more details. (Contributed by Shantanu Jain in gh-91896 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896].)

typing:

Before Python 3.14, old-style unions were implemented using the private class typing._UnionGenericAlias. This class is no longer needed for the implementation, but it has been retained for backward compatibility, with removal scheduled for Python 3.17. Users should use documented introspection helpers like typing.get_origin() and typing.get_args() instead of relying on private implementation details.

typing.ByteString, deprecated since Python 3.9, is scheduled for removal in Python 3.17.

Use isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Buffer) to test if obj implements the buffer protocol at runtime. For use in type annotations, either use Buffer or a union that explicitly specifies the types your code supports (e.g., bytes | bytearray | memoryview).

ByteString was originally intended to be an abstract class that would serve as a supertype of both bytes and bytearray. However, since the ABC never had any methods, knowing that an object was an instance of ByteString never actually told you anything useful about the object. Other common buffer types such as memoryview were also never understood as subtypes of ByteString (either at runtime or by static type checkers).

See PEP 688 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/#current-options] for more details. (Contributed by Shantanu Jain in gh-91896 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896].)

Pending removal in future versions

The following APIs will be removed in the future, although there is currently no date scheduled for their removal.

argparse:

Nesting argument groups and nesting mutually exclusive groups are deprecated.

Passing the undocumented keyword argument prefix_chars to add_argument_group() is now deprecated.

The argparse.FileType type converter is deprecated.

builtins:

Generators: throw(type, exc, tb) and athrow(type, exc, tb) signature is deprecated: use throw(exc) and athrow(exc) instead, the single argument signature.

Currently Python accepts numeric literals immediately followed by keywords, for example 0in x, 1or x, 0if 1else 2. It allows confusing and ambiguous expressions like [0x1for x in y] (which can be interpreted as [0x1 for x in y] or [0x1f or x in y]). A syntax warning is raised if the numeric literal is immediately followed by one of keywords and, else, for, if, in, is and or. In a future release it will be changed to a syntax error. (gh-87999 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87999])

Support for __index__() and __int__() method returning non-int type: these methods will be required to return an instance of a strict subclass of int.

Support for __float__() method returning a strict subclass of float: these methods will be required to return an instance of float.

Support for __complex__() method returning a strict subclass of complex: these methods will be required to return an instance of complex.

Passing a complex number as the real or imag argument in the complex() constructor is now deprecated; it should only be passed as a single positional argument. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-109218 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109218].)

calendar: calendar.January and calendar.February constants are deprecated and replaced by calendar.JANUARY and calendar.FEBRUARY. (Contributed by Prince Roshan in gh-103636 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636].)

codecs: use open() instead of codecs.open(). (gh-133038 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133038])

codeobject.co_lnotab: use the codeobject.co_lines() method instead.

datetime:

utcnow(): use datetime.datetime.now(tz=datetime.UTC).

utcfromtimestamp(): use datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(timestamp, tz=datetime.UTC).

gettext: Plural value must be an integer.

importlib:

cache_from_source() debug_override parameter is deprecated: use the optimization parameter instead.

importlib.metadata:

EntryPoints tuple interface.

Implicit None on return values.

logging: the warn() method has been deprecated since Python 3.3, use warning() instead.

mailbox: Use of StringIO input and text mode is deprecated, use BytesIO and binary mode instead.

os: Calling os.register_at_fork() in multi-threaded process.

pydoc.ErrorDuringImport: A tuple value for exc_info parameter is deprecated, use an exception instance.

re: More strict rules are now applied for numerical group references and group names in regular expressions. Only sequence of ASCII digits is now accepted as a numerical reference. The group name in bytes patterns and replacement strings can now only contain ASCII letters and digits and underscore. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-91760 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91760].)

sre_compile, sre_constants and sre_parse modules.

shutil: rmtree()'s onerror parameter is deprecated in Python 3.12; use the onexc parameter instead.

ssl options and protocols:

ssl.SSLContext without protocol argument is deprecated.

ssl.SSLContext: set_npn_protocols() and selected_npn_protocol() are deprecated: use ALPN instead.

ssl.OP_NO_SSL* options

ssl.OP_NO_TLS* options

ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv3

ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS

ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1

ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1

ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2

ssl.TLSVersion.SSLv3

ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1

ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_1

threading methods:

threading.Condition.notifyAll(): use notify_all().

threading.Event.isSet(): use is_set().

threading.Thread.isDaemon(), threading.Thread.setDaemon(): use threading.Thread.daemon attribute.

threading.Thread.getName(), threading.Thread.setName(): use threading.Thread.name attribute.

threading.currentThread(): use threading.current_thread().

threading.activeCount(): use threading.active_count().

typing.Text (gh-92332 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92332]).

The internal class typing._UnionGenericAlias is no longer used to implement typing.Union. To preserve compatibility with users using this private class, a compatibility shim will be provided until at least Python 3.17. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-105499 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105499].)

unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: it is deprecated to return a value that is not None from a test case.

urllib.parse deprecated functions: urlparse() instead

splitattr()

splithost()

splitnport()

splitpasswd()

splitport()

splitquery()

splittag()

splittype()

splituser()

splitvalue()

to_bytes()

wsgiref: SimpleHandler.stdout.write() should not do partial writes.

xml.etree.ElementTree: Testing the truth value of an Element is deprecated. In a future release it will always return True. Prefer explicit len(elem) or elem is not None tests instead.

sys._clear_type_cache() is deprecated: use sys._clear_internal_caches() instead.

Retraits

asynchat and asyncore

These two modules have been removed according to the schedule in PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/], having been deprecated in Python 3.6. Use asyncio instead. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-96580 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96580].)

configparser

Several names deprecated in the configparser way back in 3.2 have been removed per gh-89336 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89336]:

configparser.ParsingError no longer has a filename attribute or argument. Use the source attribute and argument instead.

configparser no longer has a SafeConfigParser class. Use the shorter ConfigParser name instead.

configparser.ConfigParser no longer has a readfp method. Use read_file() instead.

distutils

Remove the distutils package. It was deprecated in Python 3.10 by PEP 632 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/] "Deprecate distutils module". For projects still using distutils and cannot be updated to something else, the setuptools project can be installed: it still provides distutils. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-92584 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92584].)

ensurepip

Remove the bundled setuptools wheel from ensurepip, and stop installing setuptools in environments created by venv.

pip (>= 22.1) does not require setuptools to be installed in the environment. setuptools-based (and distutils-based) packages can still be used with pip install, since pip will provide setuptools in the build environment it uses for building a package.

easy_install, pkg_resources, setuptools and distutils are no longer provided by default in environments created with venv or bootstrapped with ensurepip, since they are part of the setuptools package. For projects relying on these at runtime, the setuptools project should be declared as a dependency and installed separately (typically, using pip).

(Contributed by Pradyun Gedam in gh-95299 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95299].)

enum

Remove enum's EnumMeta.__getattr__, which is no longer needed for enum attribute access. (Contributed by Ethan Furman in gh-95083 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95083].)

ftplib

Remove ftplib's FTP_TLS.ssl_version class attribute: use the context parameter instead. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94172 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94172].)

gzip

Remove the filename attribute of gzip's gzip.GzipFile, deprecated since Python 2.6, use the name attribute instead. In write mode, the filename attribute added '.gz' file extension if it was not present. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94196 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94196].)

hashlib

Remove the pure Python implementation of hashlib's hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac(), deprecated in Python 3.10. Python 3.10 and newer requires OpenSSL 1.1.1 (PEP 644 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/]): this OpenSSL version provides a C implementation of pbkdf2_hmac() which is faster. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94199 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94199].)

importlib

Many previously deprecated cleanups in importlib have now been completed:

References to, and support for module_repr() has been removed. (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in gh-97850 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850].)

importlib.util.set_package, importlib.util.set_loader and importlib.util.module_for_loader have all been removed. (Contributed by Brett Cannon and Nikita Sobolev in gh-65961 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65961] and gh-97850 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850].)

Support for find_loader() and find_module() APIs have been removed. (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in gh-98040 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98040].)

importlib.abc.Finder, pkgutil.ImpImporter, and pkgutil.ImpLoader have been removed. (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in gh-98040 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98040].)

imp

The imp module has been removed. (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in gh-98040 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98040].)

To migrate, consult the following correspondence table:

imp

importlib

imp.NullImporter

Insert None into sys.path_importer_cache

imp.cache_from_source()

importlib.util.cache_from_source()

imp.find_module()

importlib.util.find_spec()

imp.get_magic()

importlib.util.MAGIC_NUMBER

imp.get_suffixes()

importlib.machinery.SOURCE_SUFFIXES, importlib.machinery.EXTENSION_SUFFIXES, and importlib.machinery.BYTECODE_SUFFIXES

imp.get_tag()

sys.implementation.cache_tag

imp.load_module()

importlib.import_module()

imp.new_module(name)

types.ModuleType(name)

imp.reload()

importlib.reload()

imp.source_from_cache()

importlib.util.source_from_cache()

imp.load_source()

See below

Replace imp.load_source() with:

import importlib.util
import importlib.machinery

def load_source(modname, filename):
    loader = importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader(modname, filename)
    spec = importlib.util.spec_from_file_location(modname, filename, loader=loader)
    module = importlib.util.module_from_spec(spec)
    # The module is always executed and not cached in sys.modules.
    # Uncomment the following line to cache the module.
    # sys.modules[module.__name__] = module
    loader.exec_module(module)
    return module

Remove imp functions and attributes with no replacements:

Undocumented functions:

imp.init_builtin()

imp.load_compiled()

imp.load_dynamic()

imp.load_package()

imp.lock_held(), imp.acquire_lock(), imp.release_lock(): the locking scheme has changed in Python 3.3 to per-module locks.

imp.find_module() constants: SEARCH_ERROR, PY_SOURCE, PY_COMPILED, C_EXTENSION, PY_RESOURCE, PKG_DIRECTORY, C_BUILTIN, PY_FROZEN, PY_CODERESOURCE, IMP_HOOK.

io

Remove io's io.OpenWrapper and _pyio.OpenWrapper, deprecated in Python 3.10: just use open() instead. The open() (io.open()) function is a built-in function. Since Python 3.10, _pyio.open() is also a static method. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94169 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94169].)

locale

Remove locale's locale.format() function, deprecated in Python 3.7: use locale.format_string() instead. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94226 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94226].)

smtpd

The smtpd module has been removed according to the schedule in PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/], having been deprecated in Python 3.4.7 and 3.5.4. Use the aiosmtpd [https://pypi.org/project/aiosmtpd/] PyPI module or any other asyncio-based server instead. (Contributed by Oleg Iarygin in gh-93243 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93243].)

sqlite3

The following undocumented sqlite3 features, deprecated in Python 3.10, are now removed:

sqlite3.enable_shared_cache()

sqlite3.OptimizedUnicode

If a shared cache must be used, open the database in URI mode using the cache=shared query parameter.

The sqlite3.OptimizedUnicode text factory has been an alias for str since Python 3.3. Code that previously set the text factory to OptimizedUnicode can either use str explicitly, or rely on the default value which is also str.

(Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in gh-92548 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92548].)

ssl

Remove ssl's ssl.RAND_pseudo_bytes() function, deprecated in Python 3.6: use os.urandom() or ssl.RAND_bytes() instead. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94199 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94199].)

Remove the ssl.match_hostname() function. It was deprecated in Python 3.7. OpenSSL performs hostname matching since Python 3.7, Python no longer uses the ssl.match_hostname() function. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94199 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94199].)

Remove the ssl.wrap_socket() function, deprecated in Python 3.7: instead, create a ssl.SSLContext object and call its ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket method. Any package that still uses ssl.wrap_socket() is broken and insecure. The function neither sends a SNI TLS extension nor validates the server hostname. Code is subject to CWE 295 [https://cwe.mitre.org/data/definitions/295.html] (Improper Certificate Validation). (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94199 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94199].)

unittest

Remove many long-deprecated unittest features:

A number of TestCase method aliases:

Alias obsolètes

Nom de méthode

Obsolète en

failUnless

assertTrue()

3.1

failIf

assertFalse()

3.1

failUnlessEqual

assertEqual()

3.1

failIfEqual

assertNotEqual()

3.1

failUnlessAlmostEqual

assertAlmostEqual()

3.1

failIfAlmostEqual

assertNotAlmostEqual()

3.1

failUnlessRaises

assertRaises()

3.1

assert_

assertTrue()

3.2

assertEquals

assertEqual()

3.2

assertNotEquals

assertNotEqual()

3.2

assertAlmostEquals

assertAlmostEqual()

3.2

assertNotAlmostEquals

assertNotAlmostEqual()

3.2

assertRegexpMatches

assertRegex()

3.2

assertRaisesRegexp

assertRaisesRegex()

3.2

assertNotRegexpMatches

assertNotRegex()

3.5

You can use https://github.com/isidentical/teyit to automatically modernise your unit tests.

Undocumented and broken TestCase method assertDictContainsSubset (deprecated in Python 3.2).

Undocumented TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule parameter use_load_tests (deprecated and ignored since Python 3.5).

An alias of the TextTestResult class: _TextTestResult (deprecated in Python 3.2).

(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-89325 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89325].)

webbrowser

Remove support for obsolete browsers from webbrowser. The removed browsers include: Grail, Mosaic, Netscape, Galeon, Skipstone, Iceape, Firebird, and Firefox versions 35 and below (gh-102871 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102871]).

xml.etree.ElementTree

Remove the ElementTree.Element.copy() method of the pure Python implementation, deprecated in Python 3.10, use the copy.copy() function instead. The C implementation of xml.etree.ElementTree has no copy() method, only a __copy__() method. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94383 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94383].)

zipimport

Remove zipimport's find_loader() and find_module() methods, deprecated in Python 3.10: use the find_spec() method instead. See PEP 451 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/] for the rationale. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94379 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94379].)

Autres

Remove the suspicious rule from the documentation Makefile and Doc/tools/rstlint.py, both in favor of sphinx-lint [https://github.com/sphinx-contrib/sphinx-lint]. (Contributed by Julien Palard in gh-98179 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98179].)

Remove the keyfile and certfile parameters from the ftplib, imaplib, poplib and smtplib modules, and the key_file, cert_file and check_hostname parameters from the http.client module, all deprecated since Python 3.6. Use the context parameter (ssl_context in imaplib) instead. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94172 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94172].)

Remove Jython compatibility hacks from several stdlib modules and tests. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-99482 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99482].)

Remove _use_broken_old_ctypes_structure_semantics_ flag from ctypes module. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-99285 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99285].)

Porting to Python 3.12

Cette section liste les changements mentionnés préalablement et d'autres améliorations qui peuvent demander des changements à votre code.

Changements dans l'API Python

More strict rules are now applied for numerical group references and group names in regular expressions. Only sequence of ASCII digits is now accepted as a numerical reference. The group name in bytes patterns and replacement strings can now only contain ASCII letters and digits and underscore. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-91760 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91760].)

Remove randrange() functionality deprecated since Python 3.10. Formerly, randrange(10.0) losslessly converted to randrange(10). Now, it raises a TypeError. Also, the exception raised for non-integer values such as randrange(10.5) or randrange('10') has been changed from ValueError to TypeError. This also prevents bugs where randrange(1e25) would silently select from a larger range than randrange(10**25). (Originally suggested by Serhiy Storchaka gh-86388 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86388].)

argparse.ArgumentParser changed encoding and error handler for reading arguments from file (e.g. fromfile_prefix_chars option) from default text encoding (e.g. locale.getpreferredencoding(False)) to filesystem encoding and error handler. Argument files should be encoded in UTF-8 instead of ANSI Codepage on Windows.

Remove the asyncore-based smtpd module deprecated in Python 3.4.7 and 3.5.4. A recommended replacement is the asyncio-based aiosmtpd [https://pypi.org/project/aiosmtpd/] PyPI module.

shlex.split(): Passing None for s argument now raises an exception, rather than reading sys.stdin. The feature was deprecated in Python 3.9. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94352 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94352].)

The os module no longer accepts bytes-like paths, like bytearray and memoryview types: only the exact bytes type is accepted for bytes strings. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-98393 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98393].)

syslog.openlog() and syslog.closelog() now fail if used in subinterpreters. syslog.syslog() may still be used in subinterpreters, but now only if syslog.openlog() has already been called in the main interpreter. These new restrictions do not apply to the main interpreter, so only a very small set of users might be affected. This change helps with interpreter isolation. Furthermore, syslog is a wrapper around process-global resources, which are best managed from the main interpreter. (Contributed by Donghee Na in gh-99127 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99127].)

The undocumented locking behavior of cached_property() is removed, because it locked across all instances of the class, leading to high lock contention. This means that a cached property getter function could now run more than once for a single instance, if two threads race. For most simple cached properties (e.g. those that are idempotent and simply calculate a value based on other attributes of the instance) this will be fine. If synchronization is needed, implement locking within the cached property getter function or around multi-threaded access points.

sys._current_exceptions() now returns a mapping from thread-id to an exception instance, rather than to a (typ, exc, tb) tuple. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-103176 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103176].)

When extracting tar files using tarfile or shutil.unpack_archive(), pass the filter argument to limit features that may be surprising or dangerous. See Extraction filters for details.

The output of the tokenize.tokenize() and tokenize.generate_tokens() functions is now changed due to the changes introduced in PEP 701 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/]. This means that STRING tokens are not emitted any more for f-strings and the tokens described in PEP 701 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/] are now produced instead: FSTRING_START, FSTRING_MIDDLE and FSTRING_END are now emitted for f-string "string" parts in addition to the appropriate tokens for the tokenization in the expression components. For example for the f-string f"start {1+1} end" the old version of the tokenizer emitted:

1,0-1,18:           STRING         'f"start {1+1} end"'

while the new version emits:

1,0-1,2:            FSTRING_START  'f"'
1,2-1,8:            FSTRING_MIDDLE 'start '
1,8-1,9:            OP             '{'
1,9-1,10:           NUMBER         '1'
1,10-1,11:          OP             '+'
1,11-1,12:          NUMBER         '1'
1,12-1,13:          OP             '}'
1,13-1,17:          FSTRING_MIDDLE ' end'
1,17-1,18:          FSTRING_END    '"'

Additionally, there may be some minor behavioral changes as a consequence of the changes required to support PEP 701 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/]. Some of these changes include:

The type attribute of the tokens emitted when tokenizing some invalid Python characters such as ! has changed from ERRORTOKEN to OP.

Incomplete single-line strings now also raise tokenize.TokenError as incomplete multiline strings do.

Some incomplete or invalid Python code now raises tokenize.TokenError instead of returning arbitrary ERRORTOKEN tokens when tokenizing it.

Mixing tabs and spaces as indentation in the same file is not supported anymore and will raise a TabError.

The threading module now expects the _thread module to have an _is_main_interpreter attribute. It is a function with no arguments that returns True if the current interpreter is the main interpreter.

Any library or application that provides a custom _thread module should provide _is_main_interpreter(). (See gh-112826 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112826].)

Changements à la compilation

Python no longer uses setup.py to build shared C extension modules. Build parameters like headers and libraries are detected in configure script. Extensions are built by Makefile. Most extensions use pkg-config and fall back to manual detection. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in gh-93939 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93939].)

va_start() with two parameters, like va_start(args, format), is now required to build Python. va_start() is no longer called with a single parameter. (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-93207 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93207].)

CPython now uses the ThinLTO option as the default link time optimization policy if the Clang compiler accepts the flag. (Contributed by Donghee Na in gh-89536 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89536].)

Add COMPILEALL_OPTS variable in Makefile to override compileall options (default: -j0) in make install. Also merged the 3 compileall commands into a single command to build .pyc files for all optimization levels (0, 1, 2) at once. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-99289 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99289].)

Add platform triplets for 64-bit LoongArch:

loongarch64-linux-gnusf

loongarch64-linux-gnuf32

loongarch64-linux-gnu

(Contributed by Zhang Na in gh-90656 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90656].)

PYTHON_FOR_REGEN now require Python 3.10 or newer.

Autoconf 2.71 and aclocal 1.16.4 is now required to regenerate configure. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in gh-89886 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89886].)

Windows builds and macOS installers from python.org now use OpenSSL 3.0.

Changements à l'API C

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

PEP 697 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0697/]: Introduce the Unstable C API tier, intended for low-level tools like debuggers and JIT compilers. This API may change in each minor release of CPython without deprecation warnings. Its contents are marked by the PyUnstable_ prefix in names.

Code object constructors:

PyUnstable_Code_New() (renamed from PyCode_New)

PyUnstable_Code_NewWithPosOnlyArgs() (renamed from PyCode_NewWithPosOnlyArgs)

Extra storage for code objects (PEP 523 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/]):

PyUnstable_Eval_RequestCodeExtraIndex() (renamed from _PyEval_RequestCodeExtraIndex)

PyUnstable_Code_GetExtra() (renamed from _PyCode_GetExtra)

PyUnstable_Code_SetExtra() (renamed from _PyCode_SetExtra)

The original names will continue to be available until the respective API changes.

(Contributed by Petr Viktorin in gh-101101 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101101].)

PEP 697 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0697/]: Add an API for extending types whose instance memory layout is opaque:

PyType_Spec.basicsize can be zero or negative to specify inheriting or extending the base class size.

PyObject_GetTypeData() and PyType_GetTypeDataSize() added to allow access to subclass-specific instance data.

Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END and PyObject_GetItemData() added to allow safely extending certain variable-sized types, including PyType_Type.

Py_RELATIVE_OFFSET added to allow defining members in terms of a subclass-specific struct.

(Contributed by Petr Viktorin in gh-103509 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103509].)

Add the new limited C API function PyType_FromMetaclass(), which generalizes the existing PyType_FromModuleAndSpec() using an additional metaclass argument. (Contributed by Wenzel Jakob in gh-93012 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93012].)

API for creating objects that can be called using the vectorcall protocol was added to the Limited API:

Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL

PyVectorcall_NARGS()

PyVectorcall_Call()

vectorcallfunc

The Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL flag is now removed from a class when the class's __call__() method is reassigned. This makes vectorcall safe to use with mutable types (i.e. heap types without the immutable flag, Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE). Mutable types that do not override tp_call now inherit the Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL flag. (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in gh-93274 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93274].)

The Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT and Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF flags have been added. This allows extensions classes to support object __dict__ and weakrefs with less bookkeeping, using less memory and with faster access.

API for performing calls using the vectorcall protocol was added to the Limited API:

PyObject_Vectorcall()

PyObject_VectorcallMethod()

PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET

This means that both the incoming and outgoing ends of the vector call protocol are now available in the Limited API. (Contributed by Wenzel Jakob in gh-98586 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98586].)

Add two new public functions, PyEval_SetProfileAllThreads() and PyEval_SetTraceAllThreads(), that allow to set tracing and profiling functions in all running threads in addition to the calling one. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-93503 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93503].)

Add new function PyFunction_SetVectorcall() to the C API which sets the vectorcall field of a given PyFunctionObject. (Contributed by Andrew Frost in gh-92257 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92257].)

The C API now permits registering callbacks via PyDict_AddWatcher(), PyDict_Watch() and related APIs to be called whenever a dictionary is modified. This is intended for use by optimizing interpreters, JIT compilers, or debuggers. (Contributed by Carl Meyer in gh-91052 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91052].)

Add PyType_AddWatcher() and PyType_Watch() API to register callbacks to receive notification on changes to a type. (Contributed by Carl Meyer in gh-91051 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91051].)

Add PyCode_AddWatcher() and PyCode_ClearWatcher() APIs to register callbacks to receive notification on creation and destruction of code objects. (Contributed by Itamar Oren in gh-91054 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91054].)

Add PyFrame_GetVar() and PyFrame_GetVarString() functions to get a frame variable by its name. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-91248 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91248].)

Add PyErr_GetRaisedException() and PyErr_SetRaisedException() for saving and restoring the current exception. These functions return and accept a single exception object, rather than the triple arguments of the now-deprecated PyErr_Fetch() and PyErr_Restore(). This is less error prone and a bit more efficient. (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-101578 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101578].)

Add _PyErr_ChainExceptions1, which takes an exception instance, to replace the legacy-API _PyErr_ChainExceptions, which is now deprecated. (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-101578 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101578].)

Add PyException_GetArgs() and PyException_SetArgs() as convenience functions for retrieving and modifying the args passed to the exception's constructor. (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-101578 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101578].)

Add PyErr_DisplayException(), which takes an exception instance, to replace the legacy-api PyErr_Display(). (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-102755 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102755]).

PEP 683 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0683/]: Introduce Immortal Objects, which allows objects to bypass reference counts, and related changes to the C-API:

_Py_IMMORTAL_REFCNT: The reference count that defines an object

as immortal.

_Py_IsImmortal Checks if an object has the immortal reference count.

PyObject_HEAD_INIT This will now initialize reference count to

_Py_IMMORTAL_REFCNT when used with Py_BUILD_CORE.

SSTATE_INTERNED_IMMORTAL An identifier for interned unicode objects

that are immortal.

SSTATE_INTERNED_IMMORTAL_STATIC An identifier for interned unicode

objects that are immortal and static

sys.getunicodeinternedsize This returns the total number of unicode

objects that have been interned. This is now needed for refleak.py to correctly track reference counts and allocated blocks

(Contributed by Eddie Elizondo in gh-84436 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84436].)

PEP 684 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0684/]: Add the new Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig() function and PyInterpreterConfig, which may be used to create sub-interpreters with their own GILs. (See PEP 684: A Per-Interpreter GIL for more info.) (Contributed by Eric Snow in gh-104110 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104110].)

In the limited C API version 3.12, Py_INCREF() and Py_DECREF() functions are now implemented as opaque function calls to hide implementation details. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105387 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105387].)

Porting to Python 3.12

Legacy Unicode APIs based on Py_UNICODE* representation has been removed. Please migrate to APIs based on UTF-8 or wchar_t*.

Argument parsing functions like PyArg_ParseTuple() doesn't support Py_UNICODE* based format (e.g. u, Z) anymore. Please migrate to other formats for Unicode like s, z, es, and U.

tp_weaklist for all static builtin types is always NULL. This is an internal-only field on PyTypeObject but we're pointing out the change in case someone happens to be accessing the field directly anyway. To avoid breakage, consider using the existing public C-API instead, or, if necessary, the (internal-only) _PyObject_GET_WEAKREFS_LISTPTR() macro.

This internal-only PyTypeObject.tp_subclasses may now not be a valid object pointer. Its type was changed to void* to reflect this. We mention this in case someone happens to be accessing the internal-only field directly.

To get a list of subclasses, call the Python method __subclasses__() (using PyObject_CallMethod(), for example).

Add support of more formatting options (left aligning, octals, uppercase hexadecimals, intmax_t, ptrdiff_t, wchar_t C strings, variable width and precision) in PyUnicode_FromFormat() and PyUnicode_FromFormatV(). (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-98836 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98836].)

An unrecognized format character in PyUnicode_FromFormat() and PyUnicode_FromFormatV() now sets a SystemError. In previous versions it caused all the rest of the format string to be copied as-is to the result string, and any extra arguments discarded. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-95781 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95781].)

Fix wrong sign placement in PyUnicode_FromFormat() and PyUnicode_FromFormatV(). (Contributed by Philip Georgi in gh-95504 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95504].)

Extension classes wanting to add a __dict__ or weak reference slot should use Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT and Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF instead of tp_dictoffset and tp_weaklistoffset, respectively. The use of tp_dictoffset and tp_weaklistoffset is still supported, but does not fully support multiple inheritance (gh-95589 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95589]), and performance may be worse. Classes declaring Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT must call _PyObject_VisitManagedDict() and _PyObject_ClearManagedDict() to traverse and clear their instance's dictionaries. To clear weakrefs, call PyObject_ClearWeakRefs(), as before.

The PyUnicode_FSDecoder() function no longer accepts bytes-like paths, like bytearray and memoryview types: only the exact bytes type is accepted for bytes strings. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-98393 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98393].)

The Py_CLEAR, Py_SETREF and Py_XSETREF macros now only evaluate their arguments once. If an argument has side effects, these side effects are no longer duplicated. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-98724 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98724].)

The interpreter's error indicator is now always normalized. This means that PyErr_SetObject(), PyErr_SetString() and the other functions that set the error indicator now normalize the exception before storing it. (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-101578 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101578].)

_Py_RefTotal is no longer authoritative and only kept around for ABI compatibility. Note that it is an internal global and only available on debug builds. If you happen to be using it then you'll need to start using _Py_GetGlobalRefTotal().

The following functions now select an appropriate metaclass for the newly created type:

PyType_FromSpec()

PyType_FromSpecWithBases()

PyType_FromModuleAndSpec()

Creating classes whose metaclass overrides tp_new is deprecated, and in Python 3.14+ it will be disallowed. Note that these functions ignore tp_new of the metaclass, possibly allowing incomplete initialization.

Note that PyType_FromMetaclass() (added in Python 3.12) already disallows creating classes whose metaclass overrides tp_new (__new__() in Python).

Since tp_new overrides almost everything PyType_From* functions do, the two are incompatible with each other. The existing behavior -- ignoring the metaclass for several steps of type creation -- is unsafe in general, since (meta)classes assume that tp_new was called. There is no simple general workaround. One of the following may work for you:

If you control the metaclass, avoid using tp_new in it:

If initialization can be skipped, it can be done in tp_init instead.

If the metaclass doesn't need to be instantiated from Python, set its tp_new to NULL using the Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION flag. This makes it acceptable for PyType_From* functions.

Avoid PyType_From* functions: if you don't need C-specific features (slots or setting the instance size), create types by calling the metaclass.

If you know the tp_new can be skipped safely, filter the deprecation warning out using warnings.catch_warnings() from Python.

PyOS_InputHook and PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer are no longer called in subinterpreters. This is because clients generally rely on process-wide global state (since these callbacks have no way of recovering extension module state).

This also avoids situations where extensions may find themselves running in a subinterpreter that they don't support (or haven't yet been loaded in). See gh-104668 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104668] for more info.

PyLongObject has had its internals changed for better performance. Although the internals of PyLongObject are private, they are used by some extension modules. The internal fields should no longer be accessed directly, instead the API functions beginning PyLong_... should be used instead. Two new unstable API functions are provided for efficient access to the value of PyLongObjects which fit into a single machine word:

PyUnstable_Long_IsCompact()

PyUnstable_Long_CompactValue()

Custom allocators, set via PyMem_SetAllocator(), are now required to be thread-safe, regardless of memory domain. Allocators that don't have their own state, including "hooks", are not affected. If your custom allocator is not already thread-safe and you need guidance then please create a new GitHub issue and CC @ericsnowcurrently.

Obsolescence

In accordance with PEP 699 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0699/], the ma_version_tag field in PyDictObject is deprecated for extension modules. Accessing this field will generate a compiler warning at compile time. This field will be removed in Python 3.14. (Contributed by Ramvikrams and Kumar Aditya in gh-101193 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101193]. PEP by Ken Jin.)

Deprecate global configuration variable:

Py_DebugFlag: use PyConfig.parser_debug

Py_VerboseFlag: use PyConfig.verbose

Py_QuietFlag: use PyConfig.quiet

Py_InteractiveFlag: use PyConfig.interactive

Py_InspectFlag: use PyConfig.inspect

Py_OptimizeFlag: use PyConfig.optimization_level

Py_NoSiteFlag: use PyConfig.site_import

Py_BytesWarningFlag: use PyConfig.bytes_warning

Py_FrozenFlag: use PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings

Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag: use PyConfig.use_environment

Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag: use PyConfig.write_bytecode

Py_NoUserSiteDirectory: use PyConfig.user_site_directory

Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag: use PyConfig.buffered_stdio

Py_HashRandomizationFlag: use PyConfig.use_hash_seed and PyConfig.hash_seed

Py_IsolatedFlag: use PyConfig.isolated

Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag: use PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding

Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag: use PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio

Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding: use PyConfig.filesystem_encoding

Py_HasFileSystemDefaultEncoding: use PyConfig.filesystem_encoding

Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors: use PyConfig.filesystem_errors

Py_UTF8Mode: use PyPreConfig.utf8_mode (see Py_PreInitialize())

The Py_InitializeFromConfig() API should be used with PyConfig instead. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-77782 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77782].)

Creating immutable types with mutable bases is deprecated and will be disabled in Python 3.14. (gh-95388 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95388])

The structmember.h header is deprecated, though it continues to be available and there are no plans to remove it.

Its contents are now available just by including Python.h, with a Py prefix added if it was missing:

PyMemberDef, PyMember_GetOne() and PyMember_SetOne()

Type macros like Py_T_INT, Py_T_DOUBLE, etc. (previously T_INT, T_DOUBLE, etc.)

The flags Py_READONLY (previously READONLY) and Py_AUDIT_READ (previously all uppercase)

Several items are not exposed from Python.h:

T_OBJECT (use Py_T_OBJECT_EX)

T_NONE (previously undocumented, and pretty quirky)

The macro WRITE_RESTRICTED which does nothing.

The macros RESTRICTED and READ_RESTRICTED, equivalents of Py_AUDIT_READ.

In some configurations, <stddef.h> is not included from Python.h. It should be included manually when using offsetof().

The deprecated header continues to provide its original contents under the original names. Your old code can stay unchanged, unless the extra include and non-namespaced macros bother you greatly.

(Contributed in gh-47146 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/47146] by Petr Viktorin, based on earlier work by Alexander Belopolsky and Matthias Braun.)

PyErr_Fetch() and PyErr_Restore() are deprecated. Use PyErr_GetRaisedException() and PyErr_SetRaisedException() instead. (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-101578 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101578].)

PyErr_Display() is deprecated. Use PyErr_DisplayException() instead. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-102755 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102755]).

_PyErr_ChainExceptions is deprecated. Use _PyErr_ChainExceptions1 instead. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-102192 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102192].)

Using PyType_FromSpec(), PyType_FromSpecWithBases() or PyType_FromModuleAndSpec() to create a class whose metaclass overrides tp_new is deprecated. Call the metaclass instead.

Pending removal in Python 3.14

The ma_version_tag field in PyDictObject for extension modules (PEP 699 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0699/]; gh-101193 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101193]).

Creating immutable types with mutable bases (gh-95388 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95388]).

Pending removal in Python 3.15

The PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(): Use PyImport_ImportModule() instead.

PyWeakref_GetObject() and PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT(): Use PyWeakref_GetRef() instead. The pythoncapi-compat project [https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/] can be used to get PyWeakref_GetRef() on Python 3.12 and older.

Py_UNICODE type and the Py_UNICODE_WIDE macro: Use wchar_t instead.

PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject(): Use PyCodec_Decode() instead.

PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode(): Use PyCodec_Decode() instead; Note that some codecs (for example, "base64") may return a type other than str, such as bytes.

PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject(): Use PyCodec_Encode() instead.

PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode(): Use PyCodec_Encode() instead; Note that some codecs (for example, "base64") may return a type other than bytes, such as str.

Python initialization functions, deprecated in Python 3.13:

Py_GetPath(): Use PyConfig_Get("module_search_paths") (sys.path) instead.

Py_GetPrefix(): Use PyConfig_Get("base_prefix") (sys.base_prefix) instead. Use PyConfig_Get("prefix") (sys.prefix) if virtual environments need to be handled.

Py_GetExecPrefix(): Use PyConfig_Get("base_exec_prefix") (sys.base_exec_prefix) instead. Use PyConfig_Get("exec_prefix") (sys.exec_prefix) if virtual environments need to be handled.

Py_GetProgramFullPath(): Use PyConfig_Get("executable") (sys.executable) instead.

Py_GetProgramName(): Use PyConfig_Get("executable") (sys.executable) instead.

Py_GetPythonHome(): Use PyConfig_Get("home") or the PYTHONHOME environment variable instead.

The pythoncapi-compat project [https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/] can be used to get PyConfig_Get() on Python 3.13 and older.

Functions to configure Python's initialization, deprecated in Python 3.11:

PySys_SetArgvEx(): Set PyConfig.argv instead.

PySys_SetArgv(): Set PyConfig.argv instead.

Py_SetProgramName(): Set PyConfig.program_name instead.

Py_SetPythonHome(): Set PyConfig.home instead.

PySys_ResetWarnOptions(): Clear sys.warnoptions and warnings.filters instead.

The Py_InitializeFromConfig() API should be used with PyConfig instead.

Global configuration variables:

Py_DebugFlag: Use PyConfig.parser_debug or PyConfig_Get("parser_debug") instead.

Py_VerboseFlag: Use PyConfig.verbose or PyConfig_Get("verbose") instead.

Py_QuietFlag: Use PyConfig.quiet or PyConfig_Get("quiet") instead.

Py_InteractiveFlag: Use PyConfig.interactive or PyConfig_Get("interactive") instead.

Py_InspectFlag: Use PyConfig.inspect or PyConfig_Get("inspect") instead.

Py_OptimizeFlag: Use PyConfig.optimization_level or PyConfig_Get("optimization_level") instead.

Py_NoSiteFlag: Use PyConfig.site_import or PyConfig_Get("site_import") instead.

Py_BytesWarningFlag: Use PyConfig.bytes_warning or PyConfig_Get("bytes_warning") instead.

Py_FrozenFlag: Use PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings or PyConfig_Get("pathconfig_warnings") instead.

Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag: Use PyConfig.use_environment or PyConfig_Get("use_environment") instead.

Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag: Use PyConfig.write_bytecode or PyConfig_Get("write_bytecode") instead.

Py_NoUserSiteDirectory: Use PyConfig.user_site_directory or PyConfig_Get("user_site_directory") instead.

Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag: Use PyConfig.buffered_stdio or PyConfig_Get("buffered_stdio") instead.

Py_HashRandomizationFlag: Use PyConfig.use_hash_seed and PyConfig.hash_seed or PyConfig_Get("hash_seed") instead.

Py_IsolatedFlag: Use PyConfig.isolated or PyConfig_Get("isolated") instead.

Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag: Use PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding or PyConfig_Get("legacy_windows_fs_encoding") instead.

Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag: Use PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio or PyConfig_Get("legacy_windows_stdio") instead.

Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding, Py_HasFileSystemDefaultEncoding: Use PyConfig.filesystem_encoding or PyConfig_Get("filesystem_encoding") instead.

Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors: Use PyConfig.filesystem_errors or PyConfig_Get("filesystem_errors") instead.

Py_UTF8Mode: Use PyPreConfig.utf8_mode or PyConfig_Get("utf8_mode") instead. (see Py_PreInitialize())

The Py_InitializeFromConfig() API should be used with PyConfig to set these options. Or PyConfig_Get() can be used to get these options at runtime.

Pending removal in Python 3.16

The bundled copy of libmpdec.

Pending removal in future versions

The following APIs are deprecated and will be removed, although there is currently no date scheduled for their removal.

Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE: Unneeded since Python 3.8.

PyErr_Fetch(): Use PyErr_GetRaisedException() instead.

PyErr_NormalizeException(): Use PyErr_GetRaisedException() instead.

PyErr_Restore(): Use PyErr_SetRaisedException() instead.

PyModule_GetFilename(): Use PyModule_GetFilenameObject() instead.

PyOS_AfterFork(): Use PyOS_AfterFork_Child() instead.

PySlice_GetIndicesEx(): Use PySlice_Unpack() and PySlice_AdjustIndices() instead.

PyUnicode_READY(): Unneeded since Python 3.12

PyErr_Display(): Use PyErr_DisplayException() instead.

_PyErr_ChainExceptions(): Use _PyErr_ChainExceptions1() instead.

PyBytesObject.ob_shash member: call PyObject_Hash() instead.

Thread Local Storage (TLS) API:

PyThread_create_key(): Use PyThread_tss_alloc() instead.

PyThread_delete_key(): Use PyThread_tss_free() instead.

PyThread_set_key_value(): Use PyThread_tss_set() instead.

PyThread_get_key_value(): Use PyThread_tss_get() instead.

PyThread_delete_key_value(): Use PyThread_tss_delete() instead.

PyThread_ReInitTLS(): Unneeded since Python 3.7.

Retraits

Remove the token.h header file. There was never any public tokenizer C API. The token.h header file was only designed to be used by Python internals. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-92651 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92651].)

Legacy Unicode APIs have been removed. See PEP 623 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/] for detail.

PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND

PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE()

PyUnicode_AsUnicode()

PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize()

PyUnicode_AS_DATA()

PyUnicode_FromUnicode()

PyUnicode_GET_SIZE()

PyUnicode_GetSize()

PyUnicode_GET_DATA_SIZE()

Remove the PyUnicode_InternImmortal() function macro. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-85858 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85858].)

Les nouveautés de Python 3.11

Éditeur:

Pablo Galindo Salgado

This article explains the new features in Python 3.11, compared to 3.10. Python 3.11 was released on October 24, 2022. For full details, see the changelog.

Résumé – Points forts de la publication

Python 3.11 est entre 10 et 60 % plus rapide que Python 3.10. En moyenne, nous avons mesuré une multiplication de la vitesse par 1,25 sur la suite de benchmarks standards. Voir les détails sur Faster CPython.

Nouvelles fonctionnalités de syntaxe :

PEP 654 : Groupes d'exception et except*

Nouvelles fonctionnalités natives :

PEP 678: Exceptions can be enriched with notes

Nouveaux modules de bibliothèque standard :

PEP 680 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0680/]: tomllib — Support for parsing TOML [https://toml.io/] in the Standard Library

Améliorations de l'interpréteur :

PEP 657 : amélioration de l'emplacement des erreurs dans les traces d'appels

New -P command line option and PYTHONSAFEPATH environment variable to disable automatically prepending potentially unsafe paths to sys.path

Nouvelles fonctionnalités de typage :

PEP 646: Variadic generics

PEP 655: Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required

PEP 673: Self type

PEP 675: Arbitrary literal string type

PEP 681: Data class transforms

Important deprecations, removals and restrictions:

PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/] : De nombreux anciens modules de la bibliothèque standard sontdevenus obsolètes et seront supprimés dans la version 3.13

PEP 624 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0624/] : les API d'encodage Py_UNICODE ont été supprimées

PEP 670 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0670/]: Macros converted to static inline functions

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

PEP 657 : amélioration de l'emplacement des erreurs dans les traces d'appels

When printing tracebacks, the interpreter will now point to the exact expression that caused the error, instead of just the line. For example:

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "distance.py", line 11, in <module>
    print(manhattan_distance(p1, p2))
          ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
  File "distance.py", line 6, in manhattan_distance
    return abs(point_1.x - point_2.x) + abs(point_1.y - point_2.y)
                           ^^^^^^^^^
AttributeError: 'NoneType' object has no attribute 'x'

Previous versions of the interpreter would point to just the line, making it ambiguous which object was None. These enhanced errors can also be helpful when dealing with deeply nested dict objects and multiple function calls:

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "query.py", line 37, in <module>
    magic_arithmetic('foo')
  File "query.py", line 18, in magic_arithmetic
    return add_counts(x) / 25
           ^^^^^^^^^^^^^
  File "query.py", line 24, in add_counts
    return 25 + query_user(user1) + query_user(user2)
                ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
  File "query.py", line 32, in query_user
    return 1 + query_count(db, response['a']['b']['c']['user'], retry=True)
                               ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^^^^
TypeError: 'NoneType' object is not subscriptable

As well as complex arithmetic expressions:

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "calculation.py", line 54, in <module>
    result = (x / y / z) * (a / b / c)
              ~~~~~~^~~
ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

Additionally, the information used by the enhanced traceback feature is made available via a general API, that can be used to correlate bytecode instructions with source code location. This information can be retrieved using:

la méthode codeobject.co_positions() en Python ;

The PyCode_Addr2Location() function in the C API.

Voir la PEP 657 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0657/] pour plus de détails (contribution de Pablo Galindo, Batuhan Taskaya et Ammar Askar dans bpo-43950 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43950]).

Note

This feature requires storing column positions in Objets code, which may result in a small increase in interpreter memory usage and disk usage for compiled Python files. To avoid storing the extra information and deactivate printing the extra traceback information, use the -X no_debug_ranges command line option or the PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES environment variable.

PEP 654 : Groupes d'exception et except*

PEP 654 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0654/] introduces language features that enable a program to raise and handle multiple unrelated exceptions simultaneously. The builtin types ExceptionGroup and BaseExceptionGroup make it possible to group exceptions and raise them together, and the new except* syntax generalizes except to match subgroups of exception groups.

Voir PEP 654 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0654/] pour plus de détails.

(Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-45292 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45292]. PEP written by Irit Katriel, Yury Selivanov and Guido van Rossum.)

PEP 678: Exceptions can be enriched with notes

The add_note() method is added to BaseException. It can be used to enrich exceptions with context information that is not available at the time when the exception is raised. The added notes appear in the default traceback.

Voir PEP 678 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0678/] pour plus de détails.

(Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-45607 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45607]. PEP written by Zac Hatfield-Dodds.)

Améliorations du lanceur Windows py.exe

The copy of the Python install manager included with Python 3.11 has been significantly updated. It now supports company/tag syntax as defined in PEP 514 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0514/] using the -V:<company>/<tag> argument instead of the limited -<major>.<minor>. This allows launching distributions other than PythonCore, the one hosted on python.org [https://www.python.org].

When using -V: selectors, either company or tag can be omitted, but all installs will be searched. For example, -V:OtherPython/ will select the "best" tag registered for OtherPython, while -V:3.11 or -V:/3.11 will select the "best" distribution with tag 3.11.

When using the legacy -<major>, -<major>.<minor>, -<major>-<bitness> or -<major>.<minor>-<bitness> arguments, all existing behaviour should be preserved from past versions, and only releases from PythonCore will be selected. However, the -64 suffix now implies "not 32-bit" (not necessarily x86-64), as there are multiple supported 64-bit platforms. 32-bit runtimes are detected by checking the runtime's tag for a -32 suffix. All releases of Python since 3.5 have included this in their 32-bit builds.

Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types

Cette section couvre les changements majeurs touchant le module typing et les indications de types de style PEP 484 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/].

PEP 646: Variadic generics

PEP 484 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/] previously introduced TypeVar, enabling creation of generics parameterised with a single type. PEP 646 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0646/] adds TypeVarTuple, enabling parameterisation with an arbitrary number of types. In other words, a TypeVarTuple is a variadic type variable, enabling variadic generics.

This enables a wide variety of use cases. In particular, it allows the type of array-like structures in numerical computing libraries such as NumPy and TensorFlow to be parameterised with the array shape. Static type checkers will now be able to catch shape-related bugs in code that uses these libraries.

Voir PEP 646 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0646/] pour plus de détails.

(Contributed by Matthew Rahtz in bpo-43224 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43224], with contributions by Serhiy Storchaka and Jelle Zijlstra. PEP written by Mark Mendoza, Matthew Rahtz, Pradeep Kumar Srinivasan, and Vincent Siles.)

PEP 655: Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required

Required and NotRequired provide a straightforward way to mark whether individual items in a TypedDict must be present. Previously, this was only possible using inheritance.

All fields are still required by default, unless the total parameter is set to False, in which case all fields are still not-required by default. For example, the following specifies a TypedDict with one required and one not-required key:

class Movie(TypedDict):
   title: str
   year: NotRequired[int]

m1: Movie = {"title": "Black Panther", "year": 2018}  # OK
m2: Movie = {"title": "Star Wars"}  # OK (year is not required)
m3: Movie = {"year": 2022}  # ERROR (missing required field title)

La définition suivante est équivalente :

class Movie(TypedDict, total=False):
   title: Required[str]
   year: int

Voir PEP 655 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0655/] pour plus de détails.

(Contributed by David Foster and Jelle Zijlstra in bpo-47087 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47087]. PEP written by David Foster.)

PEP 673: Self type

The new Self annotation provides a simple and intuitive way to annotate methods that return an instance of their class. This behaves the same as the TypeVar-based approach specified in PEP 484 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/#annotating-instance-and-class-methods], but is more concise and easier to follow.

Common use cases include alternative constructors provided as classmethods, and __enter__() methods that return self:

class MyLock:
    def __enter__(self) -> Self:
        self.lock()
        return self

    ...

class MyInt:
    @classmethod
    def fromhex(cls, s: str) -> Self:
        return cls(int(s, 16))

    ...

Self can also be used to annotate method parameters or attributes of the same type as their enclosing class.

Voir PEP 673 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0673/] pour plus de détails.

(Contributed by James Hilton-Balfe in bpo-46534 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46534]. PEP written by Pradeep Kumar Srinivasan and James Hilton-Balfe.)

PEP 675: Arbitrary literal string type

The new LiteralString annotation may be used to indicate that a function parameter can be of any literal string type. This allows a function to accept arbitrary literal string types, as well as strings created from other literal strings. Type checkers can then enforce that sensitive functions, such as those that execute SQL statements or shell commands, are called only with static arguments, providing protection against injection attacks.

Par exemple, une fonction de requête SQL pourrait être annotée de cette façon :

def run_query(sql: LiteralString) -> ...
    ...

def caller(
    arbitrary_string: str,
    query_string: LiteralString,
    table_name: LiteralString,
) -> None:
    run_query("SELECT * FROM students")       # ok
    run_query(query_string)                   # ok
    run_query("SELECT * FROM " + table_name)  # ok
    run_query(arbitrary_string)               # type checker error
    run_query(                                # type checker error
        f"SELECT * FROM students WHERE name = {arbitrary_string}"
    )

Voir PEP 675 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0675/] pour plus de détails.

(Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in bpo-47088 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47088]. PEP written by Pradeep Kumar Srinivasan and Graham Bleaney.)

PEP 681: Data class transforms

dataclass_transform may be used to decorate a class, metaclass, or a function that is itself a decorator. The presence of @dataclass_transform() tells a static type checker that the decorated object performs runtime "magic" that transforms a class, giving it dataclass-like behaviors.

Par exemple :

# The create_model decorator is defined by a library.
@typing.dataclass_transform()
def create_model(cls: Type[T]) -> Type[T]:
    cls.__init__ = ...
    cls.__eq__ = ...
    cls.__ne__ = ...
    return cls

# The create_model decorator can now be used to create new model classes:
@create_model
class CustomerModel:
    id: int
    name: str

c = CustomerModel(id=327, name="Eric Idle")

Voir PEP 681 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0681/] pour plus de détails.

(Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-91860 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91860]. PEP written by Erik De Bonte and Eric Traut.)

PEP 563 may not be the future

PEP 563 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/] Postponed Evaluation of Annotations (the from __future__ import annotations future statement) that was originally planned for release in Python 3.10 has been put on hold indefinitely. See this message from the Steering Council [https://mail.python.org/archives/list/python-dev@python.org/message/VIZEBX5EYMSYIJNDBF6DMUMZOCWHARSO/] for more information.

Autres changements au langage

Starred unpacking expressions can now be used in for statements. (See bpo-46725 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46725] for more details.)

Asynchronous comprehensions are now allowed inside comprehensions in asynchronous functions. Outer comprehensions implicitly become asynchronous in this case. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-33346 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33346].)

A TypeError is now raised instead of an AttributeError in with statements and contextlib.ExitStack.enter_context() for objects that do not support the context manager protocol, and in async with statements and contextlib.AsyncExitStack.enter_async_context() for objects not supporting the asynchronous context manager protocol. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-12022 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12022] and bpo-44471 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44471].)

Added object.__getstate__(), which provides the default implementation of the __getstate__() method. copying and pickleing instances of subclasses of builtin types bytearray, set, frozenset, collections.OrderedDict, collections.deque, weakref.WeakSet, and datetime.tzinfo now copies and pickles instance attributes implemented as slots. This change has an unintended side effect: It trips up a small minority of existing Python projects not expecting object.__getstate__() to exist. See the later comments on gh-70766 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70766] for discussions of what workarounds such code may need. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26579 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26579].)

Added a -P command line option and a PYTHONSAFEPATH environment variable, which disable the automatic prepending to sys.path of the script's directory when running a script, or the current directory when using -c and -m. This ensures only stdlib and installed modules are picked up by import, and avoids unintentionally or maliciously shadowing modules with those in a local (and typically user-writable) directory. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-57684 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57684].)

A "z" option was added to the Format specification mini-language that coerces negative to positive zero after rounding to the format precision. See PEP 682 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0682/] for more details. (Contributed by John Belmonte in gh-90153 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90153].)

Bytes are no longer accepted on sys.path. Support broke sometime between Python 3.2 and 3.6, with no one noticing until after Python 3.10.0 was released. In addition, bringing back support would be problematic due to interactions between -b and sys.path_importer_cache when there is a mixture of str and bytes keys. (Contributed by Thomas Grainger in gh-91181 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91181].)

Autres changements à l'implémentation de CPython

The special methods __complex__() for complex and __bytes__() for bytes are implemented to support the typing.SupportsComplex and typing.SupportsBytes protocols. (Contributed by Mark Dickinson and Donghee Na in bpo-24234 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24234].)

siphash13 is added as a new internal hashing algorithm. It has similar security properties as siphash24, but it is slightly faster for long inputs. str, bytes, and some other types now use it as the default algorithm for hash(). PEP 552 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/] hash-based .pyc files now use siphash13 too. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-29410 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29410].)

When an active exception is re-raised by a raise statement with no parameters, the traceback attached to this exception is now always sys.exc_info()[1].__traceback__. This means that changes made to the traceback in the current except clause are reflected in the re-raised exception. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-45711 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711].)

The interpreter state's representation of handled exceptions (aka exc_info or _PyErr_StackItem) now only has the exc_value field; exc_type and exc_traceback have been removed, as they can be derived from exc_value. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-45711 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711].)

A new command line option, AppendPath, has been added for the Windows installer. It behaves similarly to PrependPath, but appends the install and scripts directories instead of prepending them. (Contributed by Bastian Neuburger in bpo-44934 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44934].)

The PyConfig.module_search_paths_set field must now be set to 1 for initialization to use PyConfig.module_search_paths to initialize sys.path. Otherwise, initialization will recalculate the path and replace any values added to module_search_paths.

The output of the --help option now fits in 50 lines/80 columns. Information about Python environment variables and -X options is now available using the respective --help-env and --help-xoptions flags, and with the new --help-all. (Contributed by Éric Araujo in bpo-46142 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46142].)

Converting between int and str in bases other than 2 (binary), 4, 8 (octal), 16 (hexadecimal), or 32 such as base 10 (decimal) now raises a ValueError if the number of digits in string form is above a limit to avoid potential denial of service attacks due to the algorithmic complexity. This is a mitigation for CVE 2020-10735 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-10735]. This limit can be configured or disabled by environment variable, command line flag, or sys APIs. See the integer string conversion length limitation documentation. The default limit is 4300 digits in string form.

Nouveaux modules

tomllib: For parsing TOML [https://toml.io/]. See PEP 680 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0680/] for more details. (Contributed by Taneli Hukkinen in bpo-40059 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40059].)

wsgiref.types: WSGI [https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/]-specific types for static type checking. (Contributed by Sebastian Rittau in bpo-42012 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42012].)

Modules améliorés

asyncio

Added the TaskGroup class, an asynchronous context manager holding a group of tasks that will wait for all of them upon exit. For new code this is recommended over using create_task() and gather() directly. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov and others in gh-90908 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90908].)

Added timeout(), an asynchronous context manager for setting a timeout on asynchronous operations. For new code this is recommended over using wait_for() directly. (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in gh-90927 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90927].)

Added the Runner class, which exposes the machinery used by run(). (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in gh-91218 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91218].)

Added the Barrier class to the synchronization primitives in the asyncio library, and the related BrokenBarrierError exception. (Contributed by Yves Duprat and Andrew Svetlov in gh-87518 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87518].)

Added keyword argument all_errors to asyncio.loop.create_connection() so that multiple connection errors can be raised as an ExceptionGroup.

Added the asyncio.StreamWriter.start_tls() method for upgrading existing stream-based connections to TLS. (Contributed by Ian Good in bpo-34975 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34975].)

Added raw datagram socket functions to the event loop: sock_sendto(), sock_recvfrom() and sock_recvfrom_into(). These have implementations in SelectorEventLoop and ProactorEventLoop. (Contributed by Alex Grönholm in bpo-46805 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46805].)

Added cancelling() and uncancel() methods to Task. These are primarily intended for internal use, notably by TaskGroup.

contextlib

Added non parallel-safe chdir() context manager to change the current working directory and then restore it on exit. Simple wrapper around chdir(). (Contributed by Filipe Laíns in bpo-25625 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25625])

dataclasses

Change field default mutability check, allowing only defaults which are hashable instead of any object which is not an instance of dict, list or set. (Contributed by Eric V. Smith in bpo-44674 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44674].)

datetime

Add datetime.UTC, a convenience alias for datetime.timezone.utc. (Contributed by Kabir Kwatra in gh-91973 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91973].)

datetime.date.fromisoformat(), datetime.time.fromisoformat() and datetime.datetime.fromisoformat() can now be used to parse most ISO 8601 formats (barring only those that support fractional hours and minutes). (Contributed by Paul Ganssle in gh-80010 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80010].)

enum

Renamed EnumMeta to EnumType (EnumMeta kept as an alias).

Added StrEnum, with members that can be used as (and must be) strings.

Added ReprEnum, which only modifies the __repr__() of members while returning their literal values (rather than names) for __str__() and __format__() (used by str(), format() and f-strings).

Changed Enum.__format__() (the default for format(), str.format() and f-strings) to always produce the same result as Enum.__str__(): for enums inheriting from ReprEnum it will be the member's value; for all other enums it will be the enum and member name (e.g. Color.RED).

Added a new boundary class parameter to Flag enums and the FlagBoundary enum with its options, to control how to handle out-of-range flag values.

Added the verify() enum decorator and the EnumCheck enum with its options, to check enum classes against several specific constraints.

Added the member() and nonmember() decorators, to ensure the decorated object is/is not converted to an enum member.

Added the property() decorator, which works like property() except for enums. Use this instead of types.DynamicClassAttribute().

Added the global_enum() enum decorator, which adjusts __repr__() and __str__() to show values as members of their module rather than the enum class. For example, 're.ASCII' for the ASCII member of re.RegexFlag rather than 'RegexFlag.ASCII'.

Enhanced Flag to support len(), iteration and in/not in on its members. For example, the following now works: len(AFlag(3)) == 2 and list(AFlag(3)) == (AFlag.ONE, AFlag.TWO)

Changed Enum and Flag so that members are now defined before __init_subclass__() is called; dir() now includes methods, etc., from mixed-in data types.

Changed Flag to only consider primary values (power of two) canonical while composite values (3, 6, 10, etc.) are considered aliases; inverted flags are coerced to their positive equivalent.

fcntl

On FreeBSD, the F_DUP2FD and F_DUP2FD_CLOEXEC flags respectively are supported, the former equals to dup2 usage while the latter set the FD_CLOEXEC flag in addition.

fractions

Prise en charge de l'initialisation de Fraction à partir d'une chaîne suivant le style de la PEP 515 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0515/] (contribution de Sergey B Kirpichev dans bpo-44258 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44258]).

Fraction implémente maintenant la méthode __int__, ce qui permet au test isinstance(ma_fraction, typing.SupportsInt) de passer avec succès (contribution de Mark Dickinson dans bpo-44547 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44547]).

functools

functools.singledispatch() now supports types.UnionType and typing.Union as annotations to the dispatch argument.:

>>> from functools import singledispatch
>>> @singledispatch
... def fun(arg, verbose=False):
...     if verbose:
...         print("Let me just say,", end=" ")
...     print(arg)
...
>>> @fun.register
... def _(arg: int | float, verbose=False):
...     if verbose:
...         print("Strength in numbers, eh?", end=" ")
...     print(arg)
...
>>> from typing import Union
>>> @fun.register
... def _(arg: Union[list, set], verbose=False):
...     if verbose:
...         print("Enumerate this:")
...     for i, elem in enumerate(arg):
...         print(i, elem)
...

(Contributed by Yurii Karabas in bpo-46014 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46014].)

gzip

The gzip.compress() function is now faster when used with the mtime=0 argument as it delegates the compression entirely to a single zlib.compress() operation. There is one side effect of this change: The gzip file header contains an "OS" byte in its header. That was traditionally always set to a value of 255 representing "unknown" by the gzip module. Now, when using compress() with mtime=0, it may be set to a different value by the underlying zlib C library Python was linked against. (See gh-112346 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112346] for details on the side effect.)

hashlib

hashlib.blake2b() and hashlib.blake2s() now prefer libb2 [https://www.blake2.net/] over Python's vendored copy. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-47095 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47095].)

The internal _sha3 module with SHA3 and SHAKE algorithms now uses tiny_sha3 instead of the Keccak Code Package to reduce code and binary size. The hashlib module prefers optimized SHA3 and SHAKE implementations from OpenSSL. The change affects only installations without OpenSSL support. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-47098 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47098].)

Add hashlib.file_digest(), a helper function for efficient hashing of files or file-like objects. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in gh-89313 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89313].)

IDLE et idlelib

Applique la coloration syntaxique aux fichiers .pyi (contribution d'Alex Waygood et de Terry Jan Reedy dans bpo-45447 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45447]).

Include prompts when saving Shell with inputs and outputs. (Contributed by Terry Jan Reedy in gh-95191 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95191].)

inspect

Add getmembers_static() to return all members without triggering dynamic lookup via the descriptor protocol. (Contributed by Weipeng Hong in bpo-30533 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30533].)

Add ismethodwrapper() for checking if the type of an object is a MethodWrapperType. (Contributed by Hakan Çelik in bpo-29418 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29418].)

Change the frame-related functions in the inspect module to return new FrameInfo and Traceback class instances (backwards compatible with the previous named tuple-like interfaces) that includes the extended PEP 657 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0657/] position information (end line number, column and end column). The affected functions are:

inspect.getframeinfo()

inspect.getouterframes()

inspect.getinnerframes(),

inspect.stack()

inspect.trace()

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-88116 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88116].)

locale

Add locale.getencoding() to get the current locale encoding. It is similar to locale.getpreferredencoding(False) but ignores the Python UTF-8 Mode.

logging

Added getLevelNamesMapping() to return a mapping from logging level names (e.g. 'CRITICAL') to the values of their corresponding Niveaux de journalisation (e.g. 50, by default). (Contributed by Andrei Kulakovin in gh-88024 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88024].)

Added a createSocket() method to SysLogHandler, to match SocketHandler.createSocket(). It is called automatically during handler initialization and when emitting an event, if there is no active socket. (Contributed by Kirill Pinchuk in gh-88457 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88457].)

math

Ajout de math.exp2() : renvoie 2 élevé à la puissance x (contribution de Gideon Mitchell dans bpo-45917 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45917]).

Ajout de math.cbrt() : renvoie la racine cubique de x (contribution d'Ajith Ramachandran dans bpo-44357 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44357]).

Le comportement de math.pow() dans deux cas particuliers a été changé pour être cohérent avec la spécification IEEE 754. Les opérations math.pow(0.0, -math.inf) et math.pow(-0.0, -math.inf) renvoient maintenant inf. Elles levaient précédemment ValueError (contribution de Mark Dickinson dans bpo-44339 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44339]).

La valeur math.nan est maintenant toujours disponible (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-46917 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46917]).

operator

A new function operator.call has been added, such that operator.call(obj, *args, **kwargs) == obj(*args, **kwargs). (Contributed by Antony Lee in bpo-44019 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44019].)

os

On Windows, os.urandom() now uses BCryptGenRandom(), instead of CryptGenRandom() which is deprecated. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-44611 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44611].)

pathlib

glob() and rglob() return only directories if pattern ends with a pathname components separator: sep or altsep. (Contributed by Eisuke Kawasima in bpo-22276 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22276] and bpo-33392 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33392].)

re

Le groupement atomique ((?>...)) et les quantificateurs possessifs (*+, ++, ?+, {m,n}+) sont maintenant pris en charge dans les expressions régulières (contribution de Jeffrey C. Jacobs et de Serhiy Storchaka dans bpo-433030 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=433030]).

shutils

Ajout du paramètre optionnel dir_fd dans shutil.rmtree() (contribution de Serhiy Storchaka dans bpo-46245 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46245]).

socket

Add CAN Socket support for NetBSD. (Contributed by Thomas Klausner in bpo-30512 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30512].)

create_connection() has an option to raise, in case of failure to connect, an ExceptionGroup containing all errors instead of only raising the last error. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-29980 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29980].)

sqlite3

You can now disable the authorizer by passing None to set_authorizer(). (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-44491 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44491].)

Collation name create_collation() can now contain any Unicode character. Collation names with invalid characters now raise UnicodeEncodeError instead of sqlite3.ProgrammingError. (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-44688 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44688].)

sqlite3 exceptions now include the SQLite extended error code as sqlite_errorcode and the SQLite error name as sqlite_errorname. (Contributed by Aviv Palivoda, Daniel Shahaf, and Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-16379 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16379] and bpo-24139 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24139].)

Ajout des méthodes setlimit() et getlimit() à la classe sqlite3.Connection pour affecter et demander les limites de SQLite pour une connexion (contribution d'Erlend E. Aasland dans bpo-45243 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45243]).

sqlite3 affecte maintenant sqlite3.threadsafety selon le mode d'exécution à fils multiples (threading en anglais) par défaut qui a été compilé dans la bibliothèque SQLite sous-jacente (contribution d'Erlend E. Aasland dans bpo-45613 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45613]).

sqlite3 C callbacks now use unraisable exceptions if callback tracebacks are enabled. Users can now register an unraisable hook handler to improve their debug experience. (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-45828 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45828].)

Fetch across rollback no longer raises InterfaceError. Instead we leave it to the SQLite library to handle these cases. (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-44092 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44092].)

Add serialize() and deserialize() to sqlite3.Connection for serializing and deserializing databases. (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-41930 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41930].)

Add create_window_function() to sqlite3.Connection for creating aggregate window functions. (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-34916 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34916].)

Add blobopen() to sqlite3.Connection. sqlite3.Blob allows incremental I/O operations on blobs. (Contributed by Aviv Palivoda and Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-24905 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24905].)

string

Add get_identifiers() and is_valid() to string.Template, which respectively return all valid placeholders, and whether any invalid placeholders are present. (Contributed by Ben Kehoe in gh-90465 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90465].)

sys

sys.exc_info() now derives the type and traceback fields from the value (the exception instance), so when an exception is modified while it is being handled, the changes are reflected in the results of subsequent calls to exc_info(). (Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-45711 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711].)

Ajout de sys.exception() qui renvoie l'instance de l'exception active (équivalent à sys.exc_info()[1]) (contribution d'Irit Katriel dans bpo-46328 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46328]).

Add the sys.flags.safe_path flag. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-57684 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57684].)

sysconfig

Three new installation schemes (posix_venv, nt_venv and venv) were added and are used when Python creates new virtual environments or when it is running from a virtual environment. The first two schemes (posix_venv and nt_venv) are OS-specific for non-Windows and Windows, the venv is essentially an alias to one of them according to the OS Python runs on. This is useful for downstream distributors who modify sysconfig.get_preferred_scheme(). Third party code that creates new virtual environments should use the new venv installation scheme to determine the paths, as does venv. (Contributed by Miro Hrončok in bpo-45413 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45413].)

tempfile

SpooledTemporaryFile objects now fully implement the methods of io.BufferedIOBase or io.TextIOBase (depending on file mode). This lets them work correctly with APIs that expect file-like objects, such as compression modules. (Contributed by Carey Metcalfe in gh-70363 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70363].)

threading

On Unix, if the sem_clockwait() function is available in the C library (glibc 2.30 and newer), the threading.Lock.acquire() method now uses the monotonic clock (time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC) for the timeout, rather than using the system clock (time.CLOCK_REALTIME), to not be affected by system clock changes. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-41710 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41710].)

time

Sur Unix, time.sleep() utilise maintenant une des fonctions clock_nanosleep() ou nanosleep(), quand elles sont disponibles, qui ont une résolution de 1 nanoseconde (10⁻⁹ secondes), plutôt que d'utiliser select() qui a une résolution de 1 microseconde (10⁻⁶ secondes) (contribution de Benjamin Szőke et de Victor Stinner dans bpo-21302 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21302]).

On Windows 8.1 and newer, time.sleep() now uses a waitable timer based on high-resolution timers [https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/windows-hardware/drivers/kernel/high-resolution-timers] which has a resolution of 100 nanoseconds (10⁻⁷ seconds). Previously, it had a resolution of 1 millisecond (10⁻³ seconds). (Contributed by Benjamin Szőke, Donghee Na, Eryk Sun and Victor Stinner in bpo-21302 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21302] and bpo-45429 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45429].)

tkinter

Added method info_patchlevel() which returns the exact version of the Tcl library as a named tuple similar to sys.version_info. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-91827 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91827].)

traceback

Add traceback.StackSummary.format_frame_summary() to allow users to override which frames appear in the traceback, and how they are formatted. (Contributed by Ammar Askar in bpo-44569 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44569].)

Add traceback.TracebackException.print(), which prints the formatted TracebackException instance to a file. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-33809 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33809].)

typing

Pour les modifications majeures, voir Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types.

Add typing.assert_never() and typing.Never. typing.assert_never() is useful for asking a type checker to confirm that a line of code is not reachable. At runtime, it raises an AssertionError. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-90633 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90633].)

Add typing.reveal_type(). This is useful for asking a type checker what type it has inferred for a given expression. At runtime it prints the type of the received value. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-90572 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90572].)

Add typing.assert_type(). This is useful for asking a type checker to confirm that the type it has inferred for a given expression matches the given type. At runtime it simply returns the received value. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-90638 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90638].)

typing.TypedDict types can now be generic. (Contributed by Samodya Abeysiriwardane in gh-89026 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89026].)

NamedTuple types can now be generic. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-43923 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43923].)

Allow subclassing of typing.Any. This is useful for avoiding type checker errors related to highly dynamic class, such as mocks. (Contributed by Shantanu Jain in gh-91154 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91154].)

The typing.final() decorator now sets the __final__ attributed on the decorated object. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-90500 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90500].)

The typing.get_overloads() function can be used for introspecting the overloads of a function. typing.clear_overloads() can be used to clear all registered overloads of a function. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-89263 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89263].)

The __init__() method of Protocol subclasses is now preserved. (Contributed by Adrian Garcia Badarasco in gh-88970 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88970].)

The representation of empty tuple types (Tuple[()]) is simplified. This affects introspection, e.g. get_args(Tuple[()]) now evaluates to () instead of ((),). (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-91137 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91137].)

Loosen runtime requirements for type annotations by removing the callable check in the private typing._type_check function. (Contributed by Gregory Beauregard in gh-90802 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90802].)

typing.get_type_hints() now supports evaluating strings as forward references in PEP 585 generic aliases. (Contributed by Niklas Rosenstein in gh-85542 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85542].)

typing.get_type_hints() no longer adds Optional to parameters with None as a default. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-90353 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90353].)

typing.get_type_hints() now supports evaluating bare stringified ClassVar annotations. (Contributed by Gregory Beauregard in gh-90711 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90711].)

typing.no_type_check() no longer modifies external classes and functions. It also now correctly marks classmethods as not to be type checked. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-90729 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90729].)

unicodedata

The Unicode database has been updated to version 14.0.0. (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-45190 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45190]).

unittest

Added methods enterContext() and enterClassContext() of class TestCase, method enterAsyncContext() of class IsolatedAsyncioTestCase and function unittest.enterModuleContext(). (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-45046 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45046].)

venv

When new Python virtual environments are created, the venv sysconfig installation scheme is used to determine the paths inside the environment. When Python runs in a virtual environment, the same installation scheme is the default. That means that downstream distributors can change the default sysconfig install scheme without changing behavior of virtual environments. Third party code that also creates new virtual environments should do the same. (Contributed by Miro Hrončok in bpo-45413 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45413].)

warnings

warnings.catch_warnings() now accepts arguments for warnings.simplefilter(), providing a more concise way to locally ignore warnings or convert them to errors. (Contributed by Zac Hatfield-Dodds in bpo-47074 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47074].)

zipfile

Added support for specifying member name encoding for reading metadata in a ZipFile's directory and file headers. (Contributed by Stephen J. Turnbull and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28080 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28080].)

Added ZipFile.mkdir() for creating new directories inside ZIP archives. (Contributed by Sam Ezeh in gh-49083 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/49083].)

Added stem, suffix and suffixes to zipfile.Path. (Contributed by Miguel Brito in gh-88261 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88261].)

Optimisations

This section covers specific optimizations independent of the Faster CPython project, which is covered in its own section.

The compiler now optimizes simple printf-style % formatting on string literals containing only the format codes %s, %r and %a and makes it as fast as a corresponding f-string expression. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28307 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28307].)

Integer division (//) is better tuned for optimization by compilers. It is now around 20% faster on x86-64 when dividing an int by a value smaller than 2**30. (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith and Tim Peters in gh-90564 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90564].)

sum() is now nearly 30% faster for integers smaller than 2**30. (Contributed by Stefan Behnel in gh-68264 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68264].)

Resizing lists is streamlined for the common case, speeding up list.append() by ≈15% and simple list comprehensions by up to 20-30% (Contributed by Dennis Sweeney in gh-91165 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91165].)

Dictionaries don't store hash values when all keys are Unicode objects, decreasing dict size. For example, sys.getsizeof(dict.fromkeys("abcdefg")) is reduced from 352 bytes to 272 bytes (23% smaller) on 64-bit platforms. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-46845 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46845].)

Using asyncio.DatagramProtocol is now orders of magnitude faster when transferring large files over UDP, with speeds over 100 times higher for a ≈60 MiB file. (Contributed by msoxzw in gh-91487 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91487].)

math functions comb() and perm() are now ≈10 times faster for large arguments (with a larger speedup for larger k). (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-37295 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37295].)

The statistics functions mean(), variance() and stdev() now consume iterators in one pass rather than converting them to a list first. This is twice as fast and can save substantial memory. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-90415 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90415].)

unicodedata.normalize() now normalizes pure-ASCII strings in constant time. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-44987 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44987].)

Faster CPython

CPython 3.11 is an average of 25% faster [https://github.com/faster-cpython/ideas#published-results] than CPython 3.10 as measured with the pyperformance [https://github.com/python/pyperformance] benchmark suite, when compiled with GCC on Ubuntu Linux. Depending on your workload, the overall speedup could be 10-60%.

This project focuses on two major areas in Python: Faster Startup and Faster Runtime. Optimizations not covered by this project are listed separately under Optimisations.

Faster Startup

Frozen imports / Static code objects

Python caches bytecode in the __pycache__ directory to speed up module loading.

Previously in 3.10, Python module execution looked like this:

Read __pycache__ -> Unmarshal -> Heap allocated code object -> Evaluate

In Python 3.11, the core modules essential for Python startup are "frozen". This means that their Objets code (and bytecode) are statically allocated by the interpreter. This reduces the steps in module execution process to:

Statically allocated code object -> Evaluate

Le lancement de l'interpréteur est 10 à 15 % plus rapide dans la version 3.11. Cela a un grand impact pour les programmes courts utilisant Python.

(Contributed by Eric Snow, Guido van Rossum and Kumar Aditya in many issues.)

Faster Runtime

Cheaper, lazy Python frames

Python frames, holding execution information, are created whenever Python calls a Python function. The following are new frame optimizations:

Streamlined the frame creation process.

Avoided memory allocation by generously re-using frame space on the C stack.

Streamlined the internal frame struct to contain only essential information. Frames previously held extra debugging and memory management information.

Old-style frame objects are now created only when requested by debuggers or by Python introspection functions such as sys._getframe() and inspect.currentframe(). For most user code, no frame objects are created at all. As a result, nearly all Python functions calls have sped up significantly. We measured a 3-7% speedup in pyperformance.

(Contributed by Mark Shannon in bpo-44590 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44590].)

Inlined Python function calls

During a Python function call, Python will call an evaluating C function to interpret that function's code. This effectively limits pure Python recursion to what's safe for the C stack.

In 3.11, when CPython detects Python code calling another Python function, it sets up a new frame, and "jumps" to the new code inside the new frame. This avoids calling the C interpreting function altogether.

Most Python function calls now consume no C stack space, speeding them up. In simple recursive functions like fibonacci or factorial, we observed a 1.7x speedup. This also means recursive functions can recurse significantly deeper (if the user increases the recursion limit with sys.setrecursionlimit()). We measured a 1-3% improvement in pyperformance.

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo and Mark Shannon in bpo-45256 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45256].)

PEP 659: Specializing Adaptive Interpreter

PEP 659 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0659/] is one of the key parts of the Faster CPython project. The general idea is that while Python is a dynamic language, most code has regions where objects and types rarely change. This concept is known as type stability.

At runtime, Python will try to look for common patterns and type stability in the executing code. Python will then replace the current operation with a more specialized one. This specialized operation uses fast paths available only to those use cases/types, which generally outperform their generic counterparts. This also brings in another concept called inline caching, where Python caches the results of expensive operations directly in the bytecode.

The specializer will also combine certain common instruction pairs into one superinstruction, reducing the overhead during execution.

Python will only specialize when it sees code that is "hot" (executed multiple times). This prevents Python from wasting time on run-once code. Python can also de-specialize when code is too dynamic or when the use changes. Specialization is attempted periodically, and specialization attempts are not too expensive, allowing specialization to adapt to new circumstances.

(PEP written by Mark Shannon, with ideas inspired by Stefan Brunthaler. See PEP 659 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0659/] for more information. Implementation by Mark Shannon and Brandt Bucher, with additional help from Irit Katriel and Dennis Sweeney.)

Opération

Forme

Specialization

Operation speedup (up to)

Contributor(s)

Binary operations

x + x

x - x

x * x

Binary add, multiply and subtract for common types such as int, float and str take custom fast paths for their underlying types.

10%

Mark Shannon, Donghee Na, Brandt Bucher, Dennis Sweeney

Subscript

a[i]

Subscripting container types such as list, tuple and dict directly index the underlying data structures.

Subscripting custom __getitem__() is also inlined similar to Inlined Python function calls.

10-25%

Irit Katriel, Mark Shannon

Store subscript

a[i] = z

Similar to subscripting specialization above.

10-25%

Dennis Sweeney

Appels

f(arg)

C(arg)

Calls to common builtin (C) functions and types such as len() and str directly call their underlying C version. This avoids going through the internal calling convention.

20%

Mark Shannon, Ken Jin

Load global variable

print

len

The object's index in the globals/builtins namespace is cached. Loading globals and builtins require zero namespace lookups.

[1]

Mark Shannon

Load attribute

o.attr

Similar to loading global variables. The attribute's index inside the class/object's namespace is cached. In most cases, attribute loading will require zero namespace lookups.

[2]

Mark Shannon

Load methods for call

o.meth()

The actual address of the method is cached. Method loading now has no namespace lookups -- even for classes with long inheritance chains.

10-20%

Ken Jin, Mark Shannon

Store attribute

o.attr = z

Similar to load attribute optimization.

2% in pyperformance

Mark Shannon

Unpack Sequence

*seq

Specialized for common containers such as list and tuple. Avoids internal calling convention.

8%

Brandt Bucher

[1]

A similar optimization already existed since Python 3.8. 3.11 specializes for more forms and reduces some overhead.

[2]

A similar optimization already existed since Python 3.10. 3.11 specializes for more forms. Furthermore, all attribute loads should be sped up by bpo-45947 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45947].

Misc

Objects now require less memory due to lazily created object namespaces. Their namespace dictionaries now also share keys more freely. (Contributed Mark Shannon in bpo-45340 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45340] and bpo-40116 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40116].)

"Zero-cost" exceptions are implemented, eliminating the cost of try statements when no exception is raised. (Contributed by Mark Shannon in bpo-40222 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40222].)

A more concise representation of exceptions in the interpreter reduced the time required for catching an exception by about 10%. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-45711 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711].)

re's regular expression matching engine has been partially refactored, and now uses computed gotos (or "threaded code") on supported platforms. As a result, Python 3.11 executes the pyperformance regular expression benchmarks [https://pyperformance.readthedocs.io/benchmarks.html#regex-dna] up to 10% faster than Python 3.10. (Contributed by Brandt Bucher in gh-91404 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91404].)

FAQ

How should I write my code to utilize these speedups?

Write Pythonic code that follows common best practices; you don't have to change your code. The Faster CPython project optimizes for common code patterns we observe.

Will CPython 3.11 use more memory?

Maybe not; we don't expect memory use to exceed 20% higher than 3.10. This is offset by memory optimizations for frame objects and object dictionaries as mentioned above.

I don't see any speedups in my workload. Why?

Certain code won't have noticeable benefits. If your code spends most of its time on I/O operations, or already does most of its computation in a C extension library like NumPy, there won't be significant speedups. This project currently benefits pure-Python workloads the most.

Furthermore, the pyperformance figures are a geometric mean. Even within the pyperformance benchmarks, certain benchmarks have slowed down slightly, while others have sped up by nearly 2x!

Is there a JIT compiler?

No. We're still exploring other optimizations.

À propos

Faster CPython explores optimizations for CPython. The main team is funded by Microsoft to work on this full-time. Pablo Galindo Salgado is also funded by Bloomberg LP to work on the project part-time. Finally, many contributors are volunteers from the community.

Changements au code intermédiaire CPython

The bytecode now contains inline cache entries, which take the form of the newly-added CACHE instructions. Many opcodes expect to be followed by an exact number of caches, and instruct the interpreter to skip over them at runtime. Populated caches can look like arbitrary instructions, so great care should be taken when reading or modifying raw, adaptive bytecode containing quickened data.

New opcodes

ASYNC_GEN_WRAP, RETURN_GENERATOR and SEND, used in generators and co-routines.

COPY_FREE_VARS, which avoids needing special caller-side code for closures.

JUMP_BACKWARD_NO_INTERRUPT, for use in certain loops where handling interrupts is undesirable.

MAKE_CELL, to create Objets Cellules.

CHECK_EG_MATCH and PREP_RERAISE_STAR, to handle the new exception groups and except* added in PEP 654 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0654/].

PUSH_EXC_INFO, for use in exception handlers.

RESUME, a no-op, for internal tracing, debugging and optimization checks.

Replaced opcodes

Replaced Opcode(s)

New Opcode(s)

Notes

BINARY_*

INPLACE_*

BINARY_OP

Replaced all numeric binary/in-place opcodes with a single opcode

CALL_FUNCTION

CALL_FUNCTION_KW

CALL_METHOD

CALL

KW_NAMES

PRECALL

PUSH_NULL

Decouples argument shifting for methods from handling of keyword arguments; allows better specialization of calls

DUP_TOP

DUP_TOP_TWO

ROT_TWO

ROT_THREE

ROT_FOUR

ROT_N

COPY

SWAP

Stack manipulation instructions

JUMP_IF_NOT_EXC_MATCH

CHECK_EXC_MATCH

Now performs check but doesn't jump

JUMP_ABSOLUTE

POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE

POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE

JUMP_BACKWARD

POP_JUMP_BACKWARD_IF_*

POP_JUMP_FORWARD_IF_*

See [3]; TRUE, FALSE, NONE and NOT_NONE variants for each direction

SETUP_WITH

SETUP_ASYNC_WITH

BEFORE_WITH

with block setup

[3]

All jump opcodes are now relative, including the existing JUMP_IF_TRUE_OR_POP and JUMP_IF_FALSE_OR_POP. The argument is now an offset from the current instruction rather than an absolute location.

Changed/removed opcodes

Changed MATCH_CLASS and MATCH_KEYS to no longer push an additional boolean value to indicate success/failure. Instead, None is pushed on failure in place of the tuple of extracted values.

Changed opcodes that work with exceptions to reflect them now being represented as one item on the stack instead of three (see gh-89874 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89874]).

Removed COPY_DICT_WITHOUT_KEYS, GEN_START, POP_BLOCK, SETUP_FINALLY and YIELD_FROM.

Obsolescence

Cette section liste les API Python qui sont devenues obsolètes dans la version 3.11.

Deprecated C APIs are listed separately.

Language/Builtins

Chaining classmethod descriptors (introduced in bpo-19072 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19072]) is now deprecated. It can no longer be used to wrap other descriptors such as property. The core design of this feature was flawed and caused a number of downstream problems. To "pass-through" a classmethod, consider using the __wrapped__ attribute that was added in Python 3.10. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-89519 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89519].)

Octal escapes in string and bytes literals with values larger than 0o377 (255 in decimal) now produce a DeprecationWarning. In a future Python version, they will raise a SyntaxWarning and eventually a SyntaxError. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-81548 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81548].)

The delegation of int() to __trunc__() is now deprecated. Calling int(a) when type(a) implements __trunc__() but not __int__() or __index__() now raises a DeprecationWarning. (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in bpo-44977 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44977].)

Modules

PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/] led to the deprecations of the following modules slated for removal in Python 3.13:

aifc

chunk

msilib

pipes

telnetlib

audioop

crypt

nis

sndhdr

uu

cgi

imghdr

nntplib

spwd

xdrlib

cgitb

mailcap

ossaudiodev

sunau

(Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-47061 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47061] and Victor Stinner in gh-68966 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68966].)

The asynchat, asyncore and smtpd modules have been deprecated since at least Python 3.6. Their documentation and deprecation warnings have now been updated to note they will be removed in Python 3.12. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in bpo-47022 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47022].)

The lib2to3 package and 2to3 tool are now deprecated and may not be able to parse Python 3.10 or newer. See PEP 617 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/], introducing the new PEG parser, for details. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-40360 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40360].)

Undocumented modules sre_compile, sre_constants and sre_parse are now deprecated. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-47152 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47152].)

Bibliothèque Standard

The following have been deprecated in configparser since Python 3.2. Their deprecation warnings have now been updated to note they will be removed in Python 3.12:

the configparser.SafeConfigParser class

the configparser.ParsingError.filename property

the configparser.RawConfigParser.readfp() method

(Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in bpo-45173 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45173].)

configparser.LegacyInterpolation has been deprecated in the docstring since Python 3.2, and is not listed in the configparser documentation. It now emits a DeprecationWarning and will be removed in Python 3.13. Use configparser.BasicInterpolation or configparser.ExtendedInterpolation instead. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in bpo-46607 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46607].)

The older set of importlib.resources functions were deprecated in favor of the replacements added in Python 3.9 and will be removed in a future Python version, due to not supporting resources located within package subdirectories:

importlib.resources.contents()

importlib.resources.is_resource()

importlib.resources.open_binary()

importlib.resources.open_text()

importlib.resources.read_binary()

importlib.resources.read_text()

importlib.resources.path()

The locale.getdefaultlocale() function is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.15. Use locale.setlocale(), locale.getpreferredencoding(False) and locale.getlocale() functions instead. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-90817 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90817].)

The locale.resetlocale() function is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.13. Use locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, "") instead. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-90817 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90817].)

Stricter rules will now be applied for numerical group references and group names in regular expressions. Only sequences of ASCII digits will now be accepted as a numerical reference, and the group name in bytes patterns and replacement strings can only contain ASCII letters, digits and underscores. For now, a deprecation warning is raised for syntax violating these rules. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-91760 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91760].)

In the re module, the re.template() function and the corresponding re.TEMPLATE and re.T flags are deprecated, as they were undocumented and lacked an obvious purpose. They will be removed in Python 3.13. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Miro Hrončok in gh-92728 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92728].)

turtle.settiltangle() has been deprecated since Python 3.1; it now emits a deprecation warning and will be removed in Python 3.13. Use turtle.tiltangle() instead (it was earlier incorrectly marked as deprecated, and its docstring is now corrected). (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in bpo-45837 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45837].)

typing.Text, which exists solely to provide compatibility support between Python 2 and Python 3 code, is now deprecated. Its removal is currently unplanned, but users are encouraged to use str instead wherever possible. (Contributed by Alex Waygood in gh-92332 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92332].)

The keyword argument syntax for constructing typing.TypedDict types is now deprecated. Support will be removed in Python 3.13. (Contributed by Jingchen Ye in gh-90224 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90224].)

webbrowser.MacOSX is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.13. It is untested, undocumented, and not used by webbrowser itself. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-42255 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42255].)

The behavior of returning a value from a TestCase and IsolatedAsyncioTestCase test methods (other than the default None value) is now deprecated.

Deprecated the following not-formally-documented unittest functions, scheduled for removal in Python 3.13:

unittest.findTestCases()

unittest.makeSuite()

unittest.getTestCaseNames()

Use TestLoader methods instead:

unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule()

unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromTestCase()

unittest.TestLoader.getTestCaseNames()

(Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-5846 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5846].)

unittest.TestProgram.usageExit() is marked deprecated, to be removed in 3.13. (Contributed by Carlos Damázio in gh-67048 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67048].)

Pending Removal in Python 3.12

Les API Python suivantes sont devenues obsolètes dans des versions précédentes, et seront supprimées dans la version 3.12.

C APIs pending removal are listed separately.

The asynchat module

The asyncore module

The entire distutils package

The imp module

The typing.io namespace

The typing.re namespace

cgi.log()

importlib.find_loader()

importlib.abc.Loader.module_repr()

importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module()

importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_loader()

importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_module()

importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter.find_module()

importlib.machinery.BuiltinLoader.module_repr()

importlib.machinery.FileFinder.find_loader()

importlib.machinery.FileFinder.find_module()

importlib.machinery.FrozenImporter.find_module()

importlib.machinery.FrozenLoader.module_repr()

importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_module()

importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder.find_module()

importlib.util.module_for_loader()

importlib.util.set_loader_wrapper()

importlib.util.set_package_wrapper()

pkgutil.ImpImporter

pkgutil.ImpLoader

pathlib.Path.link_to()

sqlite3.enable_shared_cache()

sqlite3.OptimizedUnicode()

PYTHONTHREADDEBUG environment variable

The following deprecated aliases in unittest:

Deprecated alias

Nom de méthode

Deprecated in

failUnless

assertTrue()

3.1

failIf

assertFalse()

3.1

failUnlessEqual

assertEqual()

3.1

failIfEqual

assertNotEqual()

3.1

failUnlessAlmostEqual

assertAlmostEqual()

3.1

failIfAlmostEqual

assertNotAlmostEqual()

3.1

failUnlessRaises

assertRaises()

3.1

assert_

assertTrue()

3.2

assertEquals

assertEqual()

3.2

assertNotEquals

assertNotEqual()

3.2

assertAlmostEquals

assertAlmostEqual()

3.2

assertNotAlmostEquals

assertNotAlmostEqual()

3.2

assertRegexpMatches

assertRegex()

3.2

assertRaisesRegexp

assertRaisesRegex()

3.2

assertNotRegexpMatches

assertNotRegex()

3.5

Retraits

Cette section liste les API Python qui ont été supprimées dans la version 3.11.

Removed C APIs are listed separately.

Removed the @asyncio.coroutine() decorator enabling legacy generator-based coroutines to be compatible with async / await code. The function has been deprecated since Python 3.8 and the removal was initially scheduled for Python 3.10. Use async def instead. (Contributed by Illia Volochii in bpo-43216 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43216].)

Removed asyncio.coroutines.CoroWrapper used for wrapping legacy generator-based coroutine objects in the debug mode. (Contributed by Illia Volochii in bpo-43216 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43216].)

Due to significant security concerns, the reuse_address parameter of asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint(), disabled in Python 3.9, is now entirely removed. This is because of the behavior of the socket option SO_REUSEADDR in UDP. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in bpo-45129 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45129].)

Removed the binhex module, deprecated in Python 3.9. Also removed the related, similarly-deprecated binascii functions:

binascii.a2b_hqx()

binascii.b2a_hqx()

binascii.rlecode_hqx()

binascii.rldecode_hqx()

The binascii.crc_hqx() function remains available.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-45085 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45085].)

Removed the distutils bdist_msi command deprecated in Python 3.9. Use bdist_wheel (wheel packages) instead. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in bpo-45124 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45124].)

Removed the __getitem__() methods of xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream, wsgiref.util.FileWrapper and fileinput.FileInput, deprecated since Python 3.9. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in bpo-45132 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45132].)

Removed the deprecated gettext functions lgettext(), ldgettext(), lngettext() and ldngettext(). Also removed the bind_textdomain_codeset() function, the NullTranslations.output_charset() and NullTranslations.set_output_charset() methods, and the codeset parameter of translation() and install(), since they are only used for the l*gettext() functions. (Contributed by Donghee Na and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-44235 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44235].)

Removed from the inspect module:

The getargspec() function, deprecated since Python 3.0; use inspect.signature() or inspect.getfullargspec() instead.

The formatargspec() function, deprecated since Python 3.5; use the inspect.signature() function or the inspect.Signature object directly.

The undocumented Signature.from_builtin() and Signature.from_function() methods, deprecated since Python 3.5; use the Signature.from_callable() method instead.

(Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in bpo-45320 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45320].)

Removed the __class_getitem__() method from pathlib.PurePath, because it was not used and added by mistake in previous versions. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in bpo-46483 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46483].)

Removed the MailmanProxy class in the smtpd module, as it is unusable without the external mailman package. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-35800 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35800].)

Removed the deprecated split() method of _tkinter.TkappType. (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-38371 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38371].)

Removed namespace package support from unittest discovery. It was introduced in Python 3.4 but has been broken since Python 3.7. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-23882 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23882].)

Removed the undocumented private float.__set_format__() method, previously known as float.__setformat__() in Python 3.7. Its docstring said: "You probably don't want to use this function. It exists mainly to be used in Python's test suite." (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-46852 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46852].)

The --experimental-isolated-subinterpreters configure flag (and corresponding EXPERIMENTAL_ISOLATED_SUBINTERPRETERS macro) have been removed.

Pynche [https://pypi.org/project/Pynche/] --- The Pythonically Natural Color and Hue Editor --- has been moved out of Tools/scripts and is being developed independently [https://gitlab.com/warsaw/pynche/-/tree/main] from the Python source tree.

Portage vers Python 3.11

Cette section liste les modifications précédemment décrites et d'autres corrections de bogues dans l'API Python qui pourraient nécessiter des modifications dans votre code.

Porting notes for the C API are listed separately.

open(), io.open(), codecs.open() and fileinput.FileInput no longer accept 'U' ("universal newline") in the file mode. In Python 3, "universal newline" mode is used by default whenever a file is opened in text mode, and the 'U' flag has been deprecated since Python 3.3. The newline parameter to these functions controls how universal newlines work. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-37330 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37330].)

ast.AST node positions are now validated when provided to compile() and other related functions. If invalid positions are detected, a ValueError will be raised. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-93351 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93351])

Prohibited passing non-concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor executors to asyncio.loop.set_default_executor() following a deprecation in Python 3.8. (Contributed by Illia Volochii in bpo-43234 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43234].)

calendar: The calendar.LocaleTextCalendar and calendar.LocaleHTMLCalendar classes now use locale.getlocale(), instead of using locale.getdefaultlocale(), if no locale is specified. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-46659 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46659].)

The pdb module now reads the .pdbrc configuration file with the 'UTF-8' encoding. (Contributed by Srinivas Reddy Thatiparthy (శ్రీనివాస్ రెడ్డి తాటిపర్తి) in bpo-41137 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41137].)

The population parameter of random.sample() must be a sequence, and automatic conversion of sets to lists is no longer supported. Also, if the sample size is larger than the population size, a ValueError is raised. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-40465 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40465].)

The random optional parameter of random.shuffle() was removed. It was previously an arbitrary random function to use for the shuffle; now, random.random() (its previous default) will always be used.

In re Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles, global inline flags (e.g. (?i)) can now only be used at the start of regular expressions. Using them elsewhere has been deprecated since Python 3.6. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-47066 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47066].)

In the re module, several long-standing bugs where fixed that, in rare cases, could cause capture groups to get the wrong result. Therefore, this could change the captured output in these cases. (Contributed by Ma Lin in bpo-35859 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35859].)

Changements à la compilation

CPython now has PEP 11 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/] Tier 3 support [https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/#tier-3] for cross compiling to the WebAssembly [https://webassembly.org/] platforms Emscripten [https://emscripten.org/] (wasm32-unknown-emscripten, i.e. Python in the browser) and WebAssembly System Interface (WASI) [https://wasi.dev/] (wasm32-unknown-wasi). The effort is inspired by previous work like Pyodide [https://pyodide.org/]. These platforms provide a limited subset of POSIX APIs; Python standard libraries features and modules related to networking, processes, threading, signals, mmap, and users/groups are not available or don't work. (Emscripten contributed by Christian Heimes and Ethan Smith in gh-84461 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84461] and WASI contributed by Christian Heimes in gh-90473 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90473]; platforms promoted in gh-95085 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95085])

Building CPython now requires:

A C11 [https://en.cppreference.com/w/c/11] compiler and standard library. Optional C11 features [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C11_(C_standard_revision)#Optional_features] are not required. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-46656 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46656], bpo-45440 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45440] and bpo-46640 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46640].)

Support for IEEE 754 [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754] floating-point numbers. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-46917 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46917].)

The Py_NO_NAN macro has been removed. Since CPython now requires IEEE 754 floats, NaN values are always available. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-46656 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46656].)

The tkinter package now requires Tcl/Tk [https://www.tcl.tk] version 8.5.12 or newer. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-46996 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46996].)

Build dependencies, compiler flags, and linker flags for most stdlib extension modules are now detected by configure. libffi, libnsl, libsqlite3, zlib, bzip2, liblzma, libcrypt, Tcl/Tk, and uuid flags are detected by pkg-config [https://www.freedesktop.org/wiki/Software/pkg-config/] (when available). tkinter now requires a pkg-config command to detect development settings for Tcl/Tk [https://www.tcl.tk] headers and libraries. (Contributed by Christian Heimes and Erlend Egeberg Aasland in bpo-45847 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45847], bpo-45747 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45747], and bpo-45763 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45763].)

libpython is no longer linked against libcrypt. (Contributed by Mike Gilbert in bpo-45433 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45433].)

CPython can now be built with the ThinLTO [https://clang.llvm.org/docs/ThinLTO.html] option via passing thin to --with-lto, i.e. --with-lto=thin. (Contributed by Donghee Na and Brett Holman in bpo-44340 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44340].)

Freelists for object structs can now be disabled. A new configure option --without-freelists can be used to disable all freelists except empty tuple singleton. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-45522 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45522].)

Modules/Setup and Modules/makesetup have been improved and tied up. Extension modules can now be built through makesetup. All except some test modules can be linked statically into a main binary or library. (Contributed by Brett Cannon and Christian Heimes in bpo-45548 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45548], bpo-45570 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45570], bpo-45571 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45571], and bpo-43974 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43974].)

Note

Use the environment variables TCLTK_CFLAGS and TCLTK_LIBS to manually specify the location of Tcl/Tk headers and libraries. The configure options --with-tcltk-includes and --with-tcltk-libs have been removed.

On RHEL 7 and CentOS 7 the development packages do not provide tcl.pc and tk.pc; use TCLTK_LIBS="-ltk8.5 -ltkstub8.5 -ltcl8.5". The directory Misc/rhel7 contains .pc files and instructions on how to build Python with RHEL 7's and CentOS 7's Tcl/Tk and OpenSSL.

CPython will now use 30-bit digits by default for the Python int implementation. Previously, the default was to use 30-bit digits on platforms with SIZEOF_VOID_P >= 8, and 15-bit digits otherwise. It's still possible to explicitly request use of 15-bit digits via either the --enable-big-digits option to the configure script or (for Windows) the PYLONG_BITS_IN_DIGIT variable in PC/pyconfig.h, but this option may be removed at some point in the future. (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in bpo-45569 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45569].)

Changements à l'API C

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

Add a new PyType_GetName() function to get type's short name. (Contributed by Hai Shi in bpo-42035 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42035].)

Add a new PyType_GetQualName() function to get type's qualified name. (Contributed by Hai Shi in bpo-42035 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42035].)

Add new PyThreadState_EnterTracing() and PyThreadState_LeaveTracing() functions to the limited C API to suspend and resume tracing and profiling. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-43760 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43760].)

Added the Py_Version constant which bears the same value as PY_VERSION_HEX. (Contributed by Gabriele N. Tornetta in bpo-43931 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43931].)

Py_buffer and APIs are now part of the limited API and the stable ABI:

PyObject_CheckBuffer()

PyObject_GetBuffer()

PyBuffer_GetPointer()

PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat()

PyBuffer_ToContiguous()

PyBuffer_FromContiguous()

PyObject_CopyData()

PyBuffer_IsContiguous()

PyBuffer_FillContiguousStrides()

PyBuffer_FillInfo()

PyBuffer_Release()

PyMemoryView_FromBuffer()

bf_getbuffer and bf_releasebuffer type slots

(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-45459 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45459].)

Added the PyType_GetModuleByDef() function, used to get the module in which a method was defined, in cases where this information is not available directly (via PyCMethod). (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in bpo-46613 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46613].)

Add new functions to pack and unpack C double (serialize and deserialize): PyFloat_Pack2(), PyFloat_Pack4(), PyFloat_Pack8(), PyFloat_Unpack2(), PyFloat_Unpack4() and PyFloat_Unpack8(). (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-46906 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46906].)

Add new functions to get frame object attributes: PyFrame_GetBuiltins(), PyFrame_GetGenerator(), PyFrame_GetGlobals(), PyFrame_GetLasti().

Added two new functions to get and set the active exception instance: PyErr_GetHandledException() and PyErr_SetHandledException(). These are alternatives to PyErr_SetExcInfo() and PyErr_GetExcInfo() which work with the legacy 3-tuple representation of exceptions. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-46343 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46343].)

Added the PyConfig.safe_path member. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-57684 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57684].)

Portage vers Python 3.11

Some macros have been converted to static inline functions to avoid macro pitfalls [https://gcc.gnu.org/onlinedocs/cpp/Macro-Pitfalls.html]. The change should be mostly transparent to users, as the replacement functions will cast their arguments to the expected types to avoid compiler warnings due to static type checks. However, when the limited C API is set to >=3.11, these casts are not done, and callers will need to cast arguments to their expected types. See PEP 670 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0670/] for more details. (Contributed by Victor Stinner and Erlend E. Aasland in gh-89653 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89653].)

PyErr_SetExcInfo() no longer uses the type and traceback arguments, the interpreter now derives those values from the exception instance (the value argument). The function still steals references of all three arguments. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-45711 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711].)

PyErr_GetExcInfo() now derives the type and traceback fields of the result from the exception instance (the value field). (Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-45711 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711].)

_frozen has a new is_package field to indicate whether or not the frozen module is a package. Previously, a negative value in the size field was the indicator. Now only non-negative values be used for size. (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in bpo-46608 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46608].)

_PyFrameEvalFunction() now takes _PyInterpreterFrame* as its second parameter, instead of PyFrameObject*. See PEP 523 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/] for more details of how to use this function pointer type.

PyCode_New() and PyCode_NewWithPosOnlyArgs() now take an additional exception_table argument. Using these functions should be avoided, if at all possible. To get a custom code object: create a code object using the compiler, then get a modified version with the replace method.

PyCodeObject no longer has the co_code, co_varnames, co_cellvars and co_freevars fields. Instead, use PyCode_GetCode(), PyCode_GetVarnames(), PyCode_GetCellvars() and PyCode_GetFreevars() respectively to access them via the C API. (Contributed by Brandt Bucher in bpo-46841 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841] and Ken Jin in gh-92154 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92154] and gh-94936 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94936].)

The old trashcan macros (Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN/Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END) are now deprecated. They should be replaced by the new macros Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN and Py_TRASHCAN_END.

A tp_dealloc function that has the old macros, such as:

static void
mytype_dealloc(mytype *p)
{
    PyObject_GC_UnTrack(p);
    Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN(p);
    ...
    Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END
}

should migrate to the new macros as follows:

static void
mytype_dealloc(mytype *p)
{
    PyObject_GC_UnTrack(p);
    Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN(p, mytype_dealloc)
    ...
    Py_TRASHCAN_END
}

Note that Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN has a second argument which should be the deallocation function it is in.

To support older Python versions in the same codebase, you can define the following macros and use them throughout the code (credit: these were copied from the mypy codebase):

#if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x03080000
#  define CPy_TRASHCAN_BEGIN(op, dealloc) Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN(op, dealloc)
#  define CPy_TRASHCAN_END(op) Py_TRASHCAN_END
#else
#  define CPy_TRASHCAN_BEGIN(op, dealloc) Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN(op)
#  define CPy_TRASHCAN_END(op) Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END(op)
#endif

The PyType_Ready() function now raises an error if a type is defined with the Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC flag set but has no traverse function (PyTypeObject.tp_traverse). (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-44263 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44263].)

Heap types with the Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE flag can now inherit the PEP 590 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/] vectorcall protocol. Previously, this was only possible for static types. (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-43908 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43908])

Since Py_TYPE() is changed to a inline static function, Py_TYPE(obj) = new_type must be replaced with Py_SET_TYPE(obj, new_type): see the Py_SET_TYPE() function (available since Python 3.9). For backward compatibility, this macro can be used:

#if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030900A4 && !defined(Py_SET_TYPE)
static inline void _Py_SET_TYPE(PyObject *ob, PyTypeObject *type)
{ ob->ob_type = type; }
#define Py_SET_TYPE(ob, type) _Py_SET_TYPE((PyObject*)(ob), type)
#endif

(contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-39573 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573]).

Since Py_SIZE() is changed to a inline static function, Py_SIZE(obj) = new_size must be replaced with Py_SET_SIZE(obj, new_size): see the Py_SET_SIZE() function (available since Python 3.9). For backward compatibility, this macro can be used:

#if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030900A4 && !defined(Py_SET_SIZE)
static inline void _Py_SET_SIZE(PyVarObject *ob, Py_ssize_t size)
{ ob->ob_size = size; }
#define Py_SET_SIZE(ob, size) _Py_SET_SIZE((PyVarObject*)(ob), size)
#endif

(contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-39573 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573]).

<Python.h> no longer includes the header files <stdlib.h>, <stdio.h>, <errno.h> and <string.h> when the Py_LIMITED_API macro is set to 0x030b0000 (Python 3.11) or higher. C extensions should explicitly include the header files after #include <Python.h>. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-45434 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45434].)

The non-limited API files cellobject.h, classobject.h, code.h, context.h, funcobject.h, genobject.h and longintrepr.h have been moved to the Include/cpython directory. Moreover, the eval.h header file was removed. These files must not be included directly, as they are already included in Python.h: Include Files. If they have been included directly, consider including Python.h instead. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-35134 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134].)

The PyUnicode_CHECK_INTERNED() macro has been excluded from the limited C API. It was never usable there, because it used internal structures which are not available in the limited C API. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-46007 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46007].)

The following frame functions and type are now directly available with #include <Python.h>, it's no longer needed to add #include <frameobject.h>:

PyFrame_Check()

PyFrame_GetBack()

PyFrame_GetBuiltins()

PyFrame_GetGenerator()

PyFrame_GetGlobals()

PyFrame_GetLasti()

PyFrame_GetLocals()

PyFrame_Type

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-93937 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93937].)

The PyFrameObject structure members have been removed from the public C API.

While the documentation notes that the PyFrameObject fields are subject to change at any time, they have been stable for a long time and were used in several popular extensions.

In Python 3.11, the frame struct was reorganized to allow performance optimizations. Some fields were removed entirely, as they were details of the old implementation.

PyFrameObject fields:

f_back: use PyFrame_GetBack().

f_blockstack: removed.

f_builtins: use PyFrame_GetBuiltins().

f_code: use PyFrame_GetCode().

f_gen: use PyFrame_GetGenerator().

f_globals: use PyFrame_GetGlobals().

f_iblock: removed.

f_lasti: use PyFrame_GetLasti(). Code using f_lasti with PyCode_Addr2Line() should use PyFrame_GetLineNumber() instead; it may be faster.

f_lineno: use PyFrame_GetLineNumber()

f_locals: use PyFrame_GetLocals().

f_stackdepth: removed.

f_state: no public API (renamed to f_frame.f_state).

f_trace: no public API.

f_trace_lines: use PyObject_GetAttrString((PyObject*)frame, "f_trace_lines").

f_trace_opcodes: use PyObject_GetAttrString((PyObject*)frame, "f_trace_opcodes").

f_localsplus: no public API (renamed to f_frame.localsplus).

f_valuestack: removed.

The Python frame object is now created lazily. A side effect is that the f_back member must not be accessed directly, since its value is now also computed lazily. The PyFrame_GetBack() function must be called instead.

Debuggers that accessed the f_locals directly must call PyFrame_GetLocals() instead. They no longer need to call PyFrame_FastToLocalsWithError() or PyFrame_LocalsToFast(), in fact they should not call those functions. The necessary updating of the frame is now managed by the virtual machine.

Code defining PyFrame_GetCode() on Python 3.8 and older:

#if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030900B1
static inline PyCodeObject* PyFrame_GetCode(PyFrameObject *frame)
{
    Py_INCREF(frame->f_code);
    return frame->f_code;
}
#endif

Code defining PyFrame_GetBack() on Python 3.8 and older:

#if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030900B1
static inline PyFrameObject* PyFrame_GetBack(PyFrameObject *frame)
{
    Py_XINCREF(frame->f_back);
    return frame->f_back;
}
#endif

Or use the pythoncapi_compat project [https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat] to get these two functions on older Python versions.

Changes of the PyThreadState structure members:

frame: removed, use PyThreadState_GetFrame() (function added to Python 3.9 by bpo-40429 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40429]). Warning: the function returns a strong reference, need to call Py_XDECREF().

tracing: changed, use PyThreadState_EnterTracing() and PyThreadState_LeaveTracing() (functions added to Python 3.11 by bpo-43760 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43760]).

recursion_depth: removed, use (tstate->recursion_limit - tstate->recursion_remaining) instead.

stackcheck_counter: removed.

Code defining PyThreadState_GetFrame() on Python 3.8 and older:

#if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030900B1
static inline PyFrameObject* PyThreadState_GetFrame(PyThreadState *tstate)
{
    Py_XINCREF(tstate->frame);
    return tstate->frame;
}
#endif

Code defining PyThreadState_EnterTracing() and PyThreadState_LeaveTracing() on Python 3.10 and older:

#if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030B00A2
static inline void PyThreadState_EnterTracing(PyThreadState *tstate)
{
    tstate->tracing++;
#if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x030A00A1
    tstate->cframe->use_tracing = 0;
#else
    tstate->use_tracing = 0;
#endif
}

static inline void PyThreadState_LeaveTracing(PyThreadState *tstate)
{
    int use_tracing = (tstate->c_tracefunc != NULL || tstate->c_profilefunc != NULL);
    tstate->tracing--;
#if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x030A00A1
    tstate->cframe->use_tracing = use_tracing;
#else
    tstate->use_tracing = use_tracing;
#endif
}
#endif

Or use the pythoncapi-compat project [https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat] to get these functions on old Python functions.

Distributors are encouraged to build Python with the optimized Blake2 library libb2 [https://www.blake2.net/].

The PyConfig.module_search_paths_set field must now be set to 1 for initialization to use PyConfig.module_search_paths to initialize sys.path. Otherwise, initialization will recalculate the path and replace any values added to module_search_paths.

PyConfig_Read() no longer calculates the initial search path, and will not fill any values into PyConfig.module_search_paths. To calculate default paths and then modify them, finish initialization and use PySys_GetObject() to retrieve sys.path as a Python list object and modify it directly.

Obsolescence

Deprecate the following functions to configure the Python initialization:

PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode()

PySys_AddWarnOption()

PySys_AddXOption()

PySys_HasWarnOptions()

PySys_SetArgvEx()

PySys_SetArgv()

PySys_SetPath()

Py_SetPath()

Py_SetProgramName()

Py_SetPythonHome()

Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding()

_Py_SetProgramFullPath()

Use the new PyConfig API of the Python Initialization Configuration instead (PEP 587 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/]). (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-88279 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88279].)

Deprecate the ob_shash member of the PyBytesObject. Use PyObject_Hash() instead. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-46864 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46864].)

Pending Removal in Python 3.12

The following C APIs have been deprecated in earlier Python releases, and will be removed in Python 3.12.

PyUnicode_AS_DATA()

PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE()

PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize()

PyUnicode_AsUnicode()

PyUnicode_FromUnicode()

PyUnicode_GET_DATA_SIZE()

PyUnicode_GET_SIZE()

PyUnicode_GetSize()

PyUnicode_IS_COMPACT()

PyUnicode_IS_READY()

PyUnicode_READY()

PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH()

_PyUnicode_AsUnicode()

PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND

PyUnicodeObject

PyUnicode_InternImmortal()

Retraits

PyFrame_BlockSetup() and PyFrame_BlockPop() have been removed. (Contributed by Mark Shannon in bpo-40222 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40222].)

Remove the following math macros using the errno variable:

Py_ADJUST_ERANGE1()

Py_ADJUST_ERANGE2()

Py_OVERFLOWED()

Py_SET_ERANGE_IF_OVERFLOW()

Py_SET_ERRNO_ON_MATH_ERROR()

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-45412 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45412].)

Remove Py_UNICODE_COPY() and Py_UNICODE_FILL() macros, deprecated since Python 3.3. Use PyUnicode_CopyCharacters() or memcpy() (wchar_t* string), and PyUnicode_Fill() functions instead. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-41123 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41123].)

Remove the pystrhex.h header file. It only contains private functions. C extensions should only include the main <Python.h> header file. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-45434 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45434].)

Remove the Py_FORCE_DOUBLE() macro. It was used by the Py_IS_INFINITY() macro. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-45440 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45440].)

The following items are no longer available when Py_LIMITED_API is defined:

PyMarshal_WriteLongToFile()

PyMarshal_WriteObjectToFile()

PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromString()

PyMarshal_WriteObjectToString()

the Py_MARSHAL_VERSION macro

These are not part of the limited API.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-45474 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45474].)

Exclude PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT() from the limited C API. It never worked since the PyWeakReference structure is opaque in the limited C API. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-35134 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134].)

Remove the PyHeapType_GET_MEMBERS() macro. It was exposed in the public C API by mistake, it must only be used by Python internally. Use the PyTypeObject.tp_members member instead. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-40170 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170].)

Remove the HAVE_PY_SET_53BIT_PRECISION macro (moved to the internal C API). (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-45412 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45412].)

Remove the Py_UNICODE encoder APIs, as they have been deprecated since Python 3.3, are little used and are inefficient relative to the recommended alternatives.

The removed functions are:

PyUnicode_Encode()

PyUnicode_EncodeASCII()

PyUnicode_EncodeLatin1()

PyUnicode_EncodeUTF7()

PyUnicode_EncodeUTF8()

PyUnicode_EncodeUTF16()

PyUnicode_EncodeUTF32()

PyUnicode_EncodeUnicodeEscape()

PyUnicode_EncodeRawUnicodeEscape()

PyUnicode_EncodeCharmap()

PyUnicode_TranslateCharmap()

PyUnicode_EncodeDecimal()

PyUnicode_TransformDecimalToASCII()

See PEP 624 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0624/] for details and migration guidance [https://peps.python.org/pep-0624/#alternative-apis]. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-44029 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44029].)

Notable changes in 3.11.4

tarfile

The extraction methods in tarfile, and shutil.unpack_archive(), have a new a filter argument that allows limiting tar features than may be surprising or dangerous, such as creating files outside the destination directory. See Extraction filters for details. In Python 3.12, use without the filter argument will show a DeprecationWarning. In Python 3.14, the default will switch to 'data'. (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in PEP 706 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0706/].)

Notable changes in 3.11.5

OpenSSL

Windows builds and macOS installers from python.org now use OpenSSL 3.0.

Les nouveautés de Python 3.10

Rédacteur:

Pablo Galindo Salgado

This article explains the new features in Python 3.10, compared to 3.9. Python 3.10 was released on October 4, 2021. For full details, see the changelog.

Résumé – Points forts de la publication

Nouvelles fonctionnalités de syntaxe :

PEP 634 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/], Filtrage par motifs structurels : spécification ;

PEP 635 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0635/], Filtrage par motifs structurels : motivation et justification ;

PEP 636 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0636/], Filtrage par motifs structurels : tutoriel ;

bpo-12782 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12782], Les gestionnaires de contextes entre parenthèses sont maintenant autorisés.

Nouvelles fonctionnalités dans la bibliothèque standard :

PEP 618 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0618/], ajout de la vérification optionnelle de taille dans zip.

Améliorations de l'interpréteur :

PEP 626 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/], numéros de lignes précis pour le débogage et les autres outils.

Nouvelles fonctionnalités de typage :

PEP 604 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0604/], autorise l'écriture d'union de types sous la forme X | Y ;

PEP 612 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/], variables de spécification de paramètres.

PEP 613 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0613/], alias de types explicites ;

PEP 647 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0647/], User-Defined Type Guards

Obsolescences, retraits ou restrictions :

PEP 644 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/], mise à jour de la version minimale d'OpenSSL à 1.1.1 ;

PEP 632 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/], obsolescence du module distutils ;

PEP 623 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/], obsolescence et préparation du retrait du membre wstr de PyUnicodeObject ;

PEP 624 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0624/], retrait des API d'encodage Py_UNICODE ;

PEP 597 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0597/], ajout de l'EncodingWarning optionnel

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

Gestionnaires de contextes entre parenthèses

Il est maintenant possible de mettre les gestionnaires de contexte entre parenthèses pour les répartir sur plusieurs lignes. Ceci permet le formatage d'une longue série de gestionnaires de contexte sur plusieurs lignes comme ce qui était préalablement possible avec les instructions d'importation. Par exemple, tous ces blocs sont maintenant valides :

with (CtxManager() as example):
    ...

with (
    CtxManager1(),
    CtxManager2()
):
    ...

with (CtxManager1() as example,
      CtxManager2()):
    ...

with (CtxManager1(),
      CtxManager2() as example):
    ...

with (
    CtxManager1() as example1,
    CtxManager2() as example2
):
    ...

il est aussi possible d'utiliser une virgule en fin de ligne à la fin du groupe entre parenthèses :

with (
    CtxManager1() as example1,
    CtxManager2() as example2,
    CtxManager3() as example3,
):
    ...

Cette nouvelle syntaxe utilise la capacité non-LL(1) du nouvel analyseur syntaxique. Voir PEP 617 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/] pour plus de détails.

(contribution de Guido van Rossum, Pablo Galindo et Lysandros Nikolaou dans bpo-12782 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12782] et bpo-40334 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40334]).

Meilleurs messages d'erreurs

SyntaxError

Pendant l'analyse syntaxique de code qui contient des parenthèses ou autres balises ouvrantes et fermantes, l'interpréteur inclut maintenant l'emplacement de la balise ou parenthèse non fermée plutôt que d'afficher SyntaxError: unexpected EOF while parsing ou d'indiquer un emplacement incorrect. Par exemple, considérez le code suivant (remarquez l'accolade '{' non-fermée) :

expected = {9: 1, 18: 2, 19: 2, 27: 3, 28: 3, 29: 3, 36: 4, 37: 4,
            38: 4, 39: 4, 45: 5, 46: 5, 47: 5, 48: 5, 49: 5, 54: 6,
some_other_code = foo()

Les versions précédentes de l’interpréteur indiquaient des emplacements qui portaient à confusion pour l'erreur de syntaxe :

File "example.py", line 3
    some_other_code = foo()
                    ^
SyntaxError: invalid syntax

mais dans Python 3.10, une erreur plus informative est levée :

File "example.py", line 1
    expected = {9: 1, 18: 2, 19: 2, 27: 3, 28: 3, 29: 3, 36: 4, 37: 4,
               ^
SyntaxError: '{' was never closed

De façon similaire, les erreurs impliquant des chaînes littérales non-fermées (avec simples ou triples apostrophes) pointent maintenant vers le début de la chaîne plutôt de mentionner la fin de ligne ou la fin du fichier.

Ces améliorations sont inspirées par un travail préalable sur l'interpréteur PyPy

(contribution de Pablo Galindo dans bpo-42864 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42864] et Batuhan Taskaya dans bpo-40176 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40176]).

Les exceptions SyntaxError levées par l'interpréteur soulignent maintenant toute la portée de l'expression qui constitue l'erreur de syntaxe plutôt que seulement la position où le problème a été détecté. De cette façon, plutôt que d'afficher (avant Python 3.10) :

>>> foo(x, z for z in range(10), t, w)
  File "<stdin>", line 1
    foo(x, z for z in range(10), t, w)
           ^
SyntaxError: Generator expression must be parenthesized

Python 3.10 affiche maintenant l'exception comme ceci :

>>> foo(x, z for z in range(10), t, w)
  File "<stdin>", line 1
    foo(x, z for z in range(10), t, w)
           ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
SyntaxError: Generator expression must be parenthesized

Cette amélioration est une contribution de Pablo Galindo dans bpo-43914 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43914].

Un nombre considérable de nouveaux messages spécialisés pour les exceptions SyntaxError a été incorporé. Certains des plus notables sont :

: manquant avant les blocs :

>>> if rocket.position > event_horizon
  File "<stdin>", line 1
    if rocket.position > event_horizon
                                      ^
SyntaxError: expected ':'

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-42997 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42997].)

Les n-uplets sans parenthèses dans les cibles de compréhensions :

>>> {x,y for x,y in zip('abcd', '1234')}
  File "<stdin>", line 1
    {x,y for x,y in zip('abcd', '1234')}
     ^
SyntaxError: did you forget parentheses around the comprehension target?

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-43017 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43017].)

virgules manquantes dans les littéraux de collections et entre les expressions ; :

>>> items = {
... x: 1,
... y: 2
... z: 3,
  File "<stdin>", line 3
    y: 2
       ^
SyntaxError: invalid syntax. Perhaps you forgot a comma?

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-43822 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43822].)

types multiples d'Exception sans parenthèses :

>>> try:
...     build_dyson_sphere()
... except NotEnoughScienceError, NotEnoughResourcesError:
  File "<stdin>", line 3
    except NotEnoughScienceError, NotEnoughResourcesError:
           ^
SyntaxError: multiple exception types must be parenthesized

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-43149 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43149].)

: et valeurs manquantes dans les littéraux de dictionnaires :

>>> values = {
... x: 1,
... y: 2,
... z:
... }
  File "<stdin>", line 4
    z:
     ^
SyntaxError: expression expected after dictionary key and ':'

>>> values = {x:1, y:2, z w:3}
  File "<stdin>", line 1
    values = {x:1, y:2, z w:3}
                        ^
SyntaxError: ':' expected after dictionary key

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-43823 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43823].)

blocs try sans blocs except ou finally :

>>> try:
...     x = 2
... something = 3
  File "<stdin>", line 3
    something  = 3
    ^^^^^^^^^
SyntaxError: expected 'except' or 'finally' block

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-44305 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44305].)

utilisation de = au lieu de == dans les comparaisons :

>>> if rocket.position = event_horizon:
  File "<stdin>", line 1
    if rocket.position = event_horizon:
                       ^
SyntaxError: cannot assign to attribute here. Maybe you meant '==' instead of '='?

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-43797 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43797].)

utilisation de * dans les chaînes formatées (f-strings) :

>>> f"Black holes {*all_black_holes} and revelations"
  File "<stdin>", line 1
    (*all_black_holes)
     ^
SyntaxError: f-string: cannot use starred expression here

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-41064 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41064].)

IndentationError

Plusieurs exceptions IndentationError ont maintenant plus de contexte concernant le genre de bloc qui attendait une indentation. Ceci inclut l'emplacement de l'instruction :

>>> def foo():
...    if lel:
...    x = 2
  File "<stdin>", line 3
    x = 2
    ^
IndentationError: expected an indented block after 'if' statement in line 2

AttributeError

When printing AttributeError, PyErr_Display() will offer suggestions of similar attribute names in the object that the exception was raised from:

>>> collections.namedtoplo
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
AttributeError: module 'collections' has no attribute 'namedtoplo'. Did you mean: namedtuple?

(contribution de Pablo Galindo dans bpo-38530 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38530]).

Avertissement

Notice this won't work if PyErr_Display() is not called to display the error which can happen if some other custom error display function is used. This is a common scenario in some REPLs like IPython.

NameError

When printing NameError raised by the interpreter, PyErr_Display() will offer suggestions of similar variable names in the function that the exception was raised from:

>>> schwarzschild_black_hole = None
>>> schwarschild_black_hole
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
NameError: name 'schwarschild_black_hole' is not defined. Did you mean: schwarzschild_black_hole?

(contribution de Pablo Galindo dans bpo-38530 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38530]).

Avertissement

Notice this won't work if PyErr_Display() is not called to display the error, which can happen if some other custom error display function is used. This is a common scenario in some REPLs like IPython.

PEP 626 : numéros de lignes précis pour le débogage et les autres outils

La PEP 626 apporte des numéros de lignes plus précis pour le débogage, le profilage et les outils de mesure de couverture. Les événements de traçage, avec les numéros de ligne corrects, sont générés pour toutes les lignes de code exécutées et seulement pour celles-ci.

The f_lineno attribute of frame objects will always contain the expected line number.

The co_lnotab attribute of code objects is deprecated and will be removed in 3.12. Code that needs to convert from offset to line number should use the new co_lines() method instead.

PEP 634 : filtrage par motifs structurels

Le filtrage par motifs a été ajouté sous la forme d'une instruction match et d'instructions case pour les motifs avec des actions associées. Les motifs filtrent des séquences, des dictionnaires, des types de données et des instances de classes. Le filtrage par motifs permet aux programmes d'extraire de l'information de types de données complexes, faire du branchement selon la structure des données et réaliser des actions spécifiques en fonction des différentes formes des données.

Syntaxe et opérations

La syntaxe générique du filtrage par motifs est :

match subject:
    case <pattern_1>:
        <action_1>
    case <pattern_2>:
        <action_2>
    case <pattern_3>:
        <action_3>
    case _:
        <action_wildcard>

Une instruction match prend une expression et compare successivement sa valeur à différents filtres qui sont donnés comme un ou plusieurs blocs case. Plus précisément, le filtrage par motifs s'effectue par :

l'utilisation de données qui ont un type et une forme (ici subject) ;

l'évaluation de subject dans une instruction match ;

l'application de chaque filtre sur subject dans des instructions case de haut en bas jusqu'à ce qu'un appariement soit confirmé ;

l’exécution de l'action associée au filtre s'il y a appariement ;

s'il n'y a aucun appariement et que le dernier case est un filtre attrape-tout _, l'action correspondante est exécutée. S'il n'y a aucun appariement ni filtre attrape-tout, le bloc match n'effectue aucune opération.

Approche déclarative

Le filtrage par motifs est peut-être connu des lecteurs par l'intermédiaire des langages C, Java ou JavaScript (et plusieurs autres langages), avec l'appariement simple d'un sujet (objet de données) à un littéral (filtre) avec l'instruction switch. Souvent, l'instruction switch est utilisée pour comparer des objets ou expressions à des instructions case qui contiennent des littéraux.

Des exemples plus puissants de filtrage par motifs sont présents dans des langages tels que Scala et Elixir. Avec le filtrage par motifs structurels, l'approche est « déclarative » et énonce les conditions (les motifs) pour apparier les données.

Bien qu'une série d'instructions « impératives » utilisant des instructions « if » imbriquées puisse être utilisée pour accomplir quelque chose de similaire au filtrage par motifs structurels, ceci est moins clair que l'approche « déclarative ». Cette dernière énonce les conditions à remplir pour réaliser un appariement grâce à ses filtres sur des motifs explicites. Bien que le filtrage par motifs structurels puisse être utilisé dans sa forme la plus simple pour comparer une variable à un littéral dans une instruction case, son intérêt réel en Python réside dans son traitement du sujet selon son type et sa forme.

Filtre simple : apparier à un littéral

Regardons cet exemple en tant que filtrage par motif dans sa forme la plus simple : une valeur, le sujet, est comparée à (ou « filtrée par ») plusieurs littéraux, les motifs. Dans l'exemple ci-dessous, status est le sujet de l'instruction match. Les filtres sont chacune des instructions case, où les littéraux représentent les codes de status des requêtes. Les actions associées au case sont exécutés suite à un appariement :

def http_error(status):
    match status:
        case 400:
            return "Bad request"
        case 404:
            return "Not found"
        case 418:
            return "I'm a teapot"
        case _:
            return "Something's wrong with the internet"

Si on passe 418 à status dans la fonction ci-haut, elle renvoie "I'm a teapot". Avec 500, l'instruction case qui contient _ apparie comme attrape-tout et la fonction renvoie "Something's wrong with the internet". Prenez note que dans le dernier bloc, le nom de variable, _ agit comme un attrape-tout et garantit que le sujet sera toujours apparié. L'utilisation de _ est optionnelle.

Vous pouvez combiner plusieurs littéraux dans un seul filtre en utilisant | (qui se lit « ou ») :

case 401 | 403 | 404:
    return "Not allowed"

Comportement sans l'attrape-tout

Modifions l'exemple ci-haut en enlevant le dernier bloc case. Il devient :

def http_error(status):
    match status:
        case 400:
            return "Bad request"
        case 404:
            return "Not found"
        case 418:
            return "I'm a teapot"

Sans l'utilisation de _ dans une instruction case, il est possible de ne pas avoir d'appariement. Dans ce cas, il ne se passe rien. Par exemple, si 500 est passé à status, aucune opération n'est effectuée.

Filtres avec un littéral et une variable

Les motifs des filtres peuvent prendre une forme similaire aux affectations multiples et un filtre peut être utilisé pour lier plus d'une variable. Dans cet exemple, un point peut être dissocié entre son abscisse et son ordonnée :

# point is an (x, y) tuple
match point:
    case (0, 0):
        print("Origin")
    case (0, y):
        print(f"Y={y}")
    case (x, 0):
        print(f"X={x}")
    case (x, y):
        print(f"X={x}, Y={y}")
    case _:
        raise ValueError("Not a point")

Le motif du premier filtre comporte deux littéraux, (0, 0), et peut être vu comme une extension du filtre sur un littéral montré plus haut. Les motifs des deux filtres suivants regroupent un littéral et une variable. De plus, la variable est liée à la valeur provenant du sujet (point). Le motif du quatrième filtre capture deux valeurs, ce qui le rend conceptuellement similaire à l'affectation multiple : (x, y) = point.

Filtres et classes

If you are using classes to structure your data, you can use as a pattern the class name followed by an argument list resembling a constructor. This pattern has the ability to capture instance attributes into variables:

class Point:
    def __init__(self, x, y):
        self.x = x
        self.y = y

def location(point):
    match point:
        case Point(x=0, y=0):
            print("Origin is the point's location.")
        case Point(x=0, y=y):
            print(f"Y={y} and the point is on the y-axis.")
        case Point(x=x, y=0):
            print(f"X={x} and the point is on the x-axis.")
        case Point():
            print("The point is located somewhere else on the plane.")
        case _:
            print("Not a point")

Filtres avec arguments positionnels

Vous pouvez utiliser les arguments positionnels avec un certain nombre de classes natives qui définissent l'ordre de leurs attributs, notamment les classes de données (dataclasses). Vous pouvez aussi spécifier la position des attributs quand ils sont utilisés dans les filtres en définissant l'attribut spécial __match_args__ dans vos classes. Par exemple, le mettre à ("x", "y") rend tous les filtres ci-dessous équivalents (en particulier, tous provoquent la liaison de l'attribut y à la variable var) :

Point(1, var)
Point(1, y=var)
Point(x=1, y=var)
Point(y=var, x=1)

Filtres imbriqués

Les filtres peuvent être imbriqués de façon arbitraire. Par exemple, si nous avons une courte liste de points, elle peut être appariée comme ceci :

match points:
    case []:
        print("No points in the list.")
    case [Point(0, 0)]:
        print("The origin is the only point in the list.")
    case [Point(x, y)]:
        print(f"A single point {x}, {y} is in the list.")
    case [Point(0, y1), Point(0, y2)]:
        print(f"Two points on the Y axis at {y1}, {y2} are in the list.")
    case _:
        print("Something else is found in the list.")

Filtres complexes et attrape-tout

Jusqu'à maintenant, les exemples ont utilisé _ seul dans la dernière instruction case. Un attrape-tout peut être utilisé dans un filtre plus complexe tel que ('error', code, _). Par exemple :

match test_variable:
    case ('warning', code, 40):
        print("A warning has been received.")
    case ('error', code, _):
        print(f"An error {code} occurred.")

Dans l'exemple précédent, test_variable s'apparie à ('error', code, 100) et à ('error', code, 800).

Garde

On peut ajouter une clause if à un filtre, ce qu'on appelle une « garde ». Si la garde s'évalue à faux, match poursuit avec la tentative d'appariement du prochain bloc case. Notez que la capture de valeur se produit avant l'évaluation de la garde :

match point:
    case Point(x, y) if x == y:
        print(f"The point is located on the diagonal Y=X at {x}.")
    case Point(x, y):
        print(f"Point is not on the diagonal.")

Autres fonctionnalités importantes

Plusieurs autres fonctionnalités importantes :

Comme dans les affectations multiples, les motifs de filtres qui sont des n-uplets ou des listes sont totalement équivalents et autorisent tous les types de séquences. Techniquement, le sujet doit être une séquence. Ainsi, exception importante, les filtres n'autorisent pas les itérateurs. Aussi, pour prémunir d'une erreur commune, les filtres de séquences n'autorisent pas les chaînes ;

les filtres de séquence peuvent faire intervenir l'affectation étoilée : [x, y, *reste] ou (x, y, *reste) ont le même sens que dans une affectation avec =. Le nom de variable après l'étoile peut aussi être l'attrape-tout _. Ainsi, (x, y, *_) est un motif de filtre qui reconnaît les séquences à deux éléments ou plus, en capturant les deux premiers et en ignorant le reste ;

il existe les filtres d'association, qui ressemblent syntaxiquement aux dictionnaires. Par exemple, le filtre {"bande_passante": b, "latence": l} extrait les valeurs des clés "bande_passante" et "latence" dans un dictionnaire. Contrairement aux filtres de séquence, les clés absentes du filtre sont ignorées et le filtre réussit tout de même. L'affectation double-étoilée (**reste) fonctionne aussi (cependant, **_ serait redondant et n'est donc pas permis) ;

on peut capturer la valeur d'une partie du motif d'un filtre avec le mot-clé as, par exemple :

case (Point(x1, y1), Point(x2, y2) as p2): ...

Ceci lie x1, y1, x2, y2 comme attendu sans la clause as, et lie p2 à l’entièreté du second élément du sujet ;

la plupart des littéraux sont comparés par égalité. Néanmoins, les singletons True, False et None sont comparés par identité ;

les filtres peuvent contenir des noms qui se réfèrent à des constantes. Ces noms doivent impérativement être qualifiés (contenir au moins un point) pour ne pas être interprétés comme des variables de capture :

from enum import Enum
class Color(Enum):
    RED = 0
    GREEN = 1
    BLUE = 2

color = Color.GREEN
match color:
    case Color.RED:
        print("I see red!")
    case Color.GREEN:
        print("Grass is green")
    case Color.BLUE:
        print("I'm feeling the blues :(")

Pour la spécification complète, voir la PEP 634 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/]. La motivation et la justification des choix sont dans la PEP 635 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0635/], et un tutoriel plus élaboré se trouve dans la PEP 636 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0636/].

EncodingWarning et option encoding="locale" optionnels

The default encoding of TextIOWrapper and open() is platform and locale dependent. Since UTF-8 is used on most Unix platforms, omitting encoding option when opening UTF-8 files (e.g. JSON, YAML, TOML, Markdown) is a very common bug. For example:

# BUG: "rb" mode or encoding="utf-8" should be used.
with open("data.json") as f:
    data = json.load(f)

Pour trouver ce type de bogue, un EncodingWarning optionnel a été ajouté. Il est levé quand sys.flags.warn_default_encoding est True et quand l'encodage utilisé est celui défini par les paramètres régionaux.

L'option -X warn_default_encoding et la variable d’environnement PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING ont été ajoutées pour activer cet avertissement.

Voir Encodage de texte pour plus d'informations.

Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types

Cette section couvre les changements majeurs touchant le module typing et les indications de types de style PEP 484 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/].

PEP 604 : nouvel opérateur d'union de types

A new type union operator was introduced which enables the syntax X | Y. This provides a cleaner way of expressing 'either type X or type Y' instead of using typing.Union, especially in type hints.

In previous versions of Python, to apply a type hint for functions accepting arguments of multiple types, typing.Union was used:

def square(number: Union[int, float]) -> Union[int, float]:
    return number ** 2

Les indications de type peuvent maintenant être écrites de façon plus courte :

def square(number: int | float) -> int | float:
    return number ** 2

Cette nouvelle syntaxe est aussi acceptée comme le second argument de isinstance() et de issubclass() :

>>> isinstance(1, int | str)
True

Voir Type Union et la PEP 604 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0604/] pour plus de détails

(contribution de Maggie Moss et Philippe Prados dans bpo-41428 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41428], avec ajouts par Yurii Karabas et Serhiy Storchaka dans bpo-44490 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44490]).

PEP 612 : variables de spécification de paramètres

Deux nouvelles options ont été ajoutées au module typing pour améliorer l'information donnée aux vérificateurs de types statiques pour les Callable définis dans la PEP 484 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/].

La première est la variable de spécification de paramètre. Elles sont utilisées pour transférer le type d'un appelable à un autre – un patron de conception souvent utilisé dans les fonctions d'ordre supérieur et dans les décorateurs. Des exemples d'utilisation se trouvent dans typing.ParamSpec. Préalablement, il n'y avait pas de façon facile pour annoter les dépendances de types des paramètres de manière aussi précise.

La seconde option est le nouvel opérateur Concatenate. Il est utilisé en conjonction avec les variables de spécification de paramètres pour annoter les types d'un appelable d'ordre supérieur qui ajoute ou retire des paramètres à un autre appelable. Des exemples d'utilisation se trouvent dans typing.Concatenate.

Voir typing.Callable, typing.ParamSpec, typing.Concatenate, typing.ParamSpecArgs, typing.ParamSpecKwargs et la PEP 612 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/] pour plus de détails

(contribution de Ken Jin dans bpo-41559 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41559], avec améliorations mineures par Jelle Zijlstra dans bpo-43783 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43783] ; PEP écrite par Mark Mendoza).

PEP 613 : TypeAlias

La PEP 484 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/] a ajouté le concept d'alias de types, en exigeant seulement qu'ils soient des assignations non-annotées au niveau du module. Cette simplicité rendait parfois difficile pour les vérificateurs de types de distinguer entre un alias de type et une affectation ordinaire, en particulier quand des références postérieures ou des types invalides étaient impliqués. Comparez :

StrCache = 'Cache[str]'  # a type alias
LOG_PREFIX = 'LOG[DEBUG]'  # a module constant

Now the typing module has a special value TypeAlias which lets you declare type aliases more explicitly:

StrCache: TypeAlias = 'Cache[str]'  # a type alias
LOG_PREFIX = 'LOG[DEBUG]'  # a module constant

Voir la PEP 613 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0613/] pour plus de détails.

(contribution de Mikhail Golubev dans bpo-41923 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41923]).

PEP 647 : gardes de type définies par l'utilisateur

TypeGuard has been added to the typing module to annotate type guard functions and improve information provided to static type checkers during type narrowing. For more information, please see TypeGuard's documentation, and PEP 647 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0647/].

(contribution de Ken Jin et Guido van Rossum dans bpo-43766 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43766]. PEP écrit par Eric Traut).

Autres changements au langage

Le type int a une nouvelle méthode int.bit_count(), qui renvoie le nombre de chiffres uns dans l’expansion binaire d'un entier donné, aussi connue sous le nom de chiffre de population (population count) (contribution de Niklas Fiekas dans bpo-29882 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29882]).

Les vues renvoyées par dict.keys(), dict.values() et dict.items() ont maintenant toutes un attribut mapping qui donne un objet types.MappingProxyType encapsulant le dictionnaire original (contribution de Dennis Sweeney dans bpo-40890 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40890]).

PEP 618 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0618/] : la fonction zip() a maintenant un argument optionnel strict, utilisé pour demander que tous les itérables soient de même longueur.

Les fonctions d'extensions et les fonctions natives qui prennent des arguments entiers n'acceptent plus les Decimal, Fraction et autres objets qui ne peuvent pas être convertis en entiers sans perte de précision (par exemple ceux qui ont une méthode __int__() mais pas une méthode __index__()) (contribution de Serhiy Storchaka dans bpo-37999 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37999]).

If object.__ipow__() returns NotImplemented, the operator will correctly fall back to object.__pow__() and object.__rpow__() as expected. (Contributed by Alex Shkop in bpo-38302 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38302].)

Les expressions d'affectations peuvent maintenant être utilisées dans les littéraux d'ensembles, dans les compréhensions d'ensembles et dans les indices de séquences (mais pas dans les tranches).

Les fonctions ont un nouvel attribut __builtins__ qui est utilisé pour repérer les symboles natifs quand la fonction est exécutée, plutôt que de regarder dans __globals__['__builtins__']. L'attribut est initialisé à partir de __globals__["__builtins__"] s'il existe, ou des symboles natifs en cours autrement (contribution de Mark Shannon dans bpo-42990 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42990]).

Deux nouvelles fonctions natives – aiter() et anext() – ont été ajoutées pour fournir les équivalents asynchrones de iter() et de next(), respectivement (contribution de Joshua Bronson, Daniel Pope et Justin Wang dans bpo-31861 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31861]).

Static methods (@staticmethod) and class methods (@classmethod) now inherit the method attributes (__module__, __name__, __qualname__, __doc__, __annotations__) and have a new __wrapped__ attribute. Moreover, static methods are now callable as regular functions. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-43682 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43682].)

Les annotations des cibles complexes (toutes cibles autre que simple name telles que définies dans la PEP 526 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/]) n'ont plus d'effet à l'exécution avec from __future__ import annotations (contribution de Batuhan Taskaya dans bpo-42737 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42737]).

Les objets class et module créent maintenant paresseusement un dictionnaire d'annotations vide sur demande. Les dictionnaires d'annotations sont stockés dans le __dict__ de l'objet pour garder la retro-compatibilité. Cela renforce les bonnes pratiques relatives à __annotations__ ; pour plus d'information, voir Bonnes pratiques concernant les annotations (contribution de Larry Hastings dans bpo-43901 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43901]).

Les annotations qui contiennent yield, yield from, await ou une expression nommée ne sont plus permises sous from __future__ import annotations à cause de leurs effets secondaires (contribution de Batuhan Taskaya dans bpo-42725 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42725]).

L'utilisation de variables non liées, de super() et d'autres expressions qui peuvent changer le traitement de la table des symboles en tant qu'annotation n'ont plus d'effet sous from __future__ import annotations (contribution de Batuhan Taskaya dans bpo-42725 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42725]).

Le hachage des valeurs NaN des types float et decimal.Decimal dépend maintenant de l'identité de l'objet. Préalablement, cette valeur de hachage était toujours 0 alors que les valeurs NaN ne sont pas égales entre elles. Cela pouvait potentiellement entrainer un temps d'exécution quadratique en raison des collisions excessives des valeurs de hachage lors de la création de dictionnaires et d'ensembles qui contiennent plusieurs NaN (contribution de Raymond Hettinger dans bpo-43475 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43475]).

A SyntaxError (instead of a NameError) will be raised when deleting the __debug__ constant. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-45000 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45000].)

Les exceptions SyntaxError ont maintenant des attributs end_lineno et end_offset. La valeur est None quand ils ne peuvent pas être déterminés (contribution de Pablo Galindo dans bpo-43914 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43914]).

Nouveaux modules

None.

Modules améliorés

asyncio

Add missing connect_accepted_socket() method. (Contributed by Alex Grönholm in bpo-41332 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41332].)

argparse

L'expression "optional arguments" qui portait à confusion a été remplacée par "options" dans le message d'aide d'argparse. Certains tests devront être adaptés s'ils dépendent d'une comparaison exacte dans la sortie d'aide (contribution de Raymond Hettinger dans bpo-9694 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9694]).

array

La méthode index() de la classe array.array a maintenant les paramètres optionnels start et stop (contribution d'Anders Lorentsen et de Zackery Spytz dans bpo-31956 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31956]).

asynchat, asyncore, smtpd

Ces modules ont étés déclarés obsolètes dans leur documentation de modules depuis Python 3.6. Un DeprecationWarning au moment de l'importation est maintenant ajouté pour ces trois modules.

base64

Ajout de base64.b32hexencode() et de base64.b32hexdecode() pour prendre en charge l'encodage Base32 avec l'alphabet hexadécimal étendu.

bdb

Add clearBreakpoints() to reset all set breakpoints. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-24160 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24160].)

bisect

Ajout de la possibilité de fournir une fonction key aux API dans le module bisect (contribution de Raymond Hettinger dans bpo-4356 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4356]).

codecs

Ajout d'une fonction codecs.unregister() pour désinscrire une fonction de recherche de codecs (contribution de Hai Shi dans bpo-41842 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41842]).

collections.abc

L'attribut __args__ des génériques paramétrables de collections.abc.Callable est maintenant cohérent avec typing.Callable. Les génériques de collections.abc.Callable aplatissent maintenant les types des paramètres à l'instar de typing.Callable. Ceci veut dire que collections.abc.Callable[[int, str], str] aura un attribut __args__ de valeur (int, str, str) ; auparavant, il aurait été ([int, str], str). Pour permettre ce changement, types.GenericAlias peut être dérivée, et une sous-classe sera renvoyée lors de la surcharge du type collections.abc.Callable. Prenez note que TypeError sera levée pour des formes invalides de paramétrisation de collections.abc.Callable, ce qui aurait pu passer silencieusement dans Python 3.9 (contribution de Ken Jin dans bpo-42195 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42195]).

contextlib

Ajout d'un gestionnaire de contexte contextlib.aclosing() pour fermer de façon sécurisée les générateurs asynchrones et les objets représentants des ressources libérées de façon asynchrone (contribution de Joongi Kim et John Belmonte dans bpo-41229 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41229]).

Ajout d'un gestionnaire de contexte pour prendre en charge contextlib.nullcontext() (contribution de Tom Gringauz dans bpo-41543 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41543]).

Add AsyncContextDecorator, for supporting usage of async context managers as decorators.

curses

Les fonctions de couleurs étendues ajoutées dans ncurses 6.1 sont utilisées de façon transparente par curses.color_content(), curses.init_color(), curses.init_pair() et curses.pair_content(). Une nouvelle fonction, curses.has_extended_color_support(), indique si la prise en charge des couleurs étendues est fournie par la bibliothèque ncurses sous-jacente (contribution de Jeffrey Kintscher et de Hans Petter Jansson dans bpo-36982 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36982]).

Les constantes BUTTON5_* sont maintenant exposées dans le module curses si elles sont fournies par la bibliothèque curses sous-jacente (contribution de Zackery Spytz dans bpo-39273 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39273]).

dataclasses

__slots__

Ajout du paramètre slots dans le décorateur dataclasses.dataclass() (contribution de Yurii Karabas dans bpo-42269 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42269]).

Champs obligatoirement nommés

Les classes de données (dataclass) prennent maintenant en charge les champs obligatoirement nommés dans la méthode __init__ générée. Il y a plusieurs façons de spécifier les champs obligatoirement nommés.

Vous pouvez indiquer que tous les champs sont obligatoirement nommés :

from dataclasses import dataclass

@dataclass(kw_only=True)
class Birthday:
    name: str
    birthday: datetime.date

Les paramètres name et birthday sont tous deux obligatoirement nommés dans la méthode __init__ générée.

Pour chaque champ, vous pouvez indiquer s'il est obligatoirement nommé :

from dataclasses import dataclass, field

@dataclass
class Birthday:
    name: str
    birthday: datetime.date = field(kw_only=True)

Ici, seulement birthday est obligatoirement nommé. Si vous assignez kw_only sur un champ particulier, notez qu'il y a des règles concernant l'ordre des champs puisque les champs obligatoirement nommés doivent suivre les champs optionnellement nommés. Voir la documentation de dataclass pour plus de détails.

Vous pouvez aussi indiquer que tous les champs qui suivent un marqueur KW_ONLY sont obligatoirement nommés. Ceci sera probablement l'utilisation la plus commune :

from dataclasses import dataclass, KW_ONLY

@dataclass
class Point:
    x: float
    y: float
    _: KW_ONLY
    z: float = 0.0
    t: float = 0.0

Here, z and t are keyword-only parameters, while x and y are not. (Contributed by Eric V. Smith in bpo-43532 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43532].)

distutils

Le paquet distutil est entièrement obsolète et sera retiré dans Python 3.12. Ses fonctionnalités pour spécifier la construction de paquets sont déjà complètement remplacées par les paquets tierce-parties setuptools et packaging. Les autres API régulièrement utilisées sont disponibles ailleurs dans la bibliothèque standard (tel que dans platform, shutil, subprocess ou sysconfig). Il n'est pas prévu de migrer d'autres fonctionnalités de distutils, aussi les applications qui utilisent d'autres fonctions du module doivent faire des copies privées du code. Voir la discussion dans la PEP 632 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/].

La commande bdist_wininst qui est obsolète depuis Python 3.8 a été retirée. La commande bdist_wheel est maintenant recommandée pour distribuer des paquets binaires sous Windows (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-42802 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42802]).

doctest

Quand un module ne définit pas __loader__, __spec__.loader est utilisé (contribution de Brett Cannon dans bpo-42133 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42133]).

encodings

La fonction encodings.normalize_encoding() ignore maintenant les caractères non ASCII (contribution de Hai Shi dans bpo-39337 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39337]).

enum

Enum __repr__() now returns enum_name.member_name and __str__() now returns member_name. Stdlib enums available as module constants have a repr() of module_name.member_name. (Contributed by Ethan Furman in bpo-40066 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40066].)

Add enum.StrEnum for enums where all members are strings. (Contributed by Ethan Furman in bpo-41816 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41816].)

fileinput

Ajout des paramètres encoding et errors dans fileinput.input() et dans fileinput.FileInput (contribution d'Inada Naoki dans bpo-43712 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43712]).

fileinput.hook_compressed() now returns TextIOWrapper object when mode is "r" and file is compressed, like uncompressed files. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-5758 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5758].)

faulthandler

Le module faulthandler détecte maintenant si une erreur fatale s'est produite pendant un passage du ramasse-miettes (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-44466 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44466]).

gc

Ajout de fonctions de rappels d'audit pour gc.get_objects(), gc.get_referrers() et gc.get_referents() (contribution de Pablo Galindo dans bpo-43439 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43439]).

glob

Ajout des paramètres root_dir et dir_fd dans glob() et dans iglob() pour permettre la spécification du répertoire racine utilisé pour la recherche (contribution de Serhiy Storchaka dans bpo-38144 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38144]).

hashlib

La version minimale d'OpenSSL pour le module hashlib est maintenant 1.1.1 (contribution de Christian Heimes dans PEP 644 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/] et dans bpo-43669 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43669]).

Le module hashlib offre une prise en charge préliminaire pour OpenSSL 3.0.0 (contribution de Christian Heimes dans bpo-38820 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38820] et autres tickets).

Le repli vers la version en pur Python de pbkdf2_hmac() est obsolète. Dorénavant, PBKDF2-HMAC n'est disponible que si Python a été compilé avec la prise en charge d'OpenSSL (contribution de Christian Heimes dans bpo-43880 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43880]).

hmac

L'implémentation interne du module hmac utilise maintenant HMAC d'OpenSSL (contribution de Christian Heimes dans bpo-40645 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40645]).

IDLE et idlelib

IDLE invoque maintenant sys.excepthook() (lorsque lancé sans '-n'). Auparavant, les fonctions de rappel définies par l'utilisateur étaient ignorées (contribution par Ken Hilton dans bpo-43008 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43008]).

Rearrange the settings dialog. Split the General tab into Windows and Shell/Ed tabs. Move help sources, which extend the Help menu, to the Extensions tab. Make space for new options and shorten the dialog. The latter makes the dialog better fit small screens. (Contributed by Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-40468 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40468].) Move the indent space setting from the Font tab to the new Windows tab. (Contributed by Mark Roseman and Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-33962 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33962].)

Les changements ci-dessus ont été rétro-portés dans le cadre de la maintenance de 3.9.

Ajout d'une barre de côté à la console. Déplacement de l'invite de commande principale (>>>) vers cette barre. Ajout des invites secondaires (...) à la barre de côté. Le clic de gauche et le glisser optionnel sélectionnent une ou plusieurs lignes de texte, tout comme dans la barre de numéros de ligne de la fenêtre d'édition. Le clic droit après la sélection de lignes de texte affiche un menu contextuel pour copier avec invites ('copy with prompts'). Ceci combine les invites de la barre de côté avec le texte sélectionné. Cette option apparait aussi dans le menu contextuel pour le texte (contribution de Tal Einat dans bpo-37903 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37903]).

Utilisation d'espaces plutôt que des tabulations pour indenter le code interactif. Ceci donne au code interactif la « bonne apparence ». Cette fonctionnalité est fortement corrélée à l'ajout de la barre de côté de la console (contribution de Terry Jan Reedy dans bpo-37892 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37892]).

Coloration des nouveaux mots clés ad-hoc match, case et _ dans les instructions de filtrage par motifs (pattern matching). Par contre, cette coloration n'est pas parfaite et elle sera incorrecte dans quelques rares cas, y-compris certains _ dans des instructions case (contribution de Tal Einat dans bpo-44010 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44010]).

Nouveau dans les versions de maintenance 3.10.

Applique la coloration syntaxique aux fichiers .pyi (contribution d'Alex Waygood et de Terry Jan Reedy dans bpo-45447 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45447]).

Include prompts when saving Shell with inputs and outputs. (Contributed by Terry Jan Reedy in gh-95191 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95191].)

importlib.metadata

Équivalence de fonctionnalités avec importlib_metadata 4.6 (historique [https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/en/latest/history.html]).

importlib.metadata entry points now provide a nicer experience for selecting entry points by group and name through a new importlib.metadata.EntryPoints class. See the Compatibility Note in the docs for more info on the deprecation and usage.

Added importlib.metadata.packages_distributions() for resolving top-level Python modules and packages to their importlib.metadata.Distribution.

inspect

Quand un module ne définit pas __loader__, __spec__.loader est utilisé (contribution de Brett Cannon dans bpo-42133 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42133]).

Add inspect.get_annotations(), which safely computes the annotations defined on an object. It works around the quirks of accessing the annotations on various types of objects, and makes very few assumptions about the object it examines. inspect.get_annotations() can also correctly un-stringize stringized annotations. inspect.get_annotations() is now considered best practice for accessing the annotations dict defined on any Python object; for more information on best practices for working with annotations, please see Bonnes pratiques concernant les annotations. Relatedly, inspect.signature(), inspect.Signature.from_callable(), and inspect.Signature.from_function() now call inspect.get_annotations() to retrieve annotations. This means inspect.signature() and inspect.Signature.from_callable() can also now un-stringize stringized annotations. (Contributed by Larry Hastings in bpo-43817 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43817].)

itertools

Add itertools.pairwise(). (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-38200 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38200].)

linecache

Quand un module ne définit pas __loader__, __spec__.loader est utilisé (contribution de Brett Cannon dans bpo-42133 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42133]).

os

Add os.cpu_count() support for VxWorks RTOS. (Contributed by Peixing Xin in bpo-41440 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41440].)

Ajout d'une nouvelle fonction os.eventfd() et des fonctions utilitaires associées pour encapsuler l'appel système eventfd2 sur Linux (contribution de Christian Heimes dans bpo-41001 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41001]).

Add os.splice() that allows to move data between two file descriptors without copying between kernel address space and user address space, where one of the file descriptors must refer to a pipe. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-41625 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41625].)

Add O_EVTONLY, O_FSYNC, O_SYMLINK and O_NOFOLLOW_ANY for macOS. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-43106 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43106].)

os.path

os.path.realpath() accepte maintenant l'argument nommé strict. Lorsqu'il est True, une OSError est levée si le chemin n'existe pas ou si une boucle de liens symboliques est rencontrée (contribution de Barney Gale dans bpo-43757 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43757]).

pathlib

Add slice support to PurePath.parents. (Contributed by Joshua Cannon in bpo-35498 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35498].)

Add negative indexing support to PurePath.parents. (Contributed by Yaroslav Pankovych in bpo-21041 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21041].)

Add Path.hardlink_to method that supersedes link_to(). The new method has the same argument order as symlink_to(). (Contributed by Barney Gale in bpo-39950 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39950].)

pathlib.Path.stat() et chmod() acceptent maintenant l'argument nommé follow_symlinks pour rester cohérent avec les fonctions correspondantes dans le module os (contribution de Barney Gale dans bpo-39906 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39906]).

platform

Add platform.freedesktop_os_release() to retrieve operation system identification from freedesktop.org os-release [https://www.freedesktop.org/software/systemd/man/os-release.html] standard file. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28468 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28468].)

pprint

pprint.pprint() accepte maintenant le nouvel argument nommé underscore_numbers (contribution de sblondon dans bpo-42914 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42914]).

pprint peut maintenant afficher élégamment les instances de dataclasses.dataclass (contribution de Lewis Gaul dans bpo-43080 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43080]).

py_compile

Ajout de l'option de ligne de commande --quiet à l'interface de py_compile (contribution de Gregory Schevchenko dans bpo-38731 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38731]).

pyclbr

Add an end_lineno attribute to the Function and Class objects in the tree returned by pyclbr.readmodule() and pyclbr.readmodule_ex(). It matches the existing (start) lineno. (Contributed by Aviral Srivastava in bpo-38307 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38307].)

shelve

The shelve module now uses pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL by default instead of pickle protocol 3 when creating shelves. (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in bpo-34204 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34204].)

statistics

Ajout des fonctions covariance(), correlation() (corrélation de Pearson) et linear_regression() (régression linéaire simple) (contribution de Tymoteusz Wołodźko dans bpo-38490 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38490]).

site

Quand un module ne définit pas __loader__, __spec__.loader est utilisé (contribution de Brett Cannon dans bpo-42133 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42133]).

socket

L'exception socket.timeout est maintenant un alias de TimeoutError (contribution de Christian Heimes dans bpo-42413 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42413]).

Ajout d'une option pour créer des connecteurs (socket) MPTCP avec IPPROTO_MPTCP (contribution de Rui Cunha dans bpo-43571 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43571]).

Ajout de l'option IP_RECVTOS pour récupérer la valeur des champs type of service (ToS) ou differentiated services code point (DSCP/ECN) (contribution de Georg Sauthoff dans bpo-44077 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44077]).

ssl

La version minimale d'OpenSSL pour le module ssl est maintenant 1.1.1 (contribution de Christian Heimes dans PEP 644 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/] et dans bpo-43669 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43669]).

The ssl module has preliminary support for OpenSSL 3.0.0 and new option OP_IGNORE_UNEXPECTED_EOF. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-38820 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38820], bpo-43794 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43794], bpo-43788 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43788], bpo-43791 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43791], bpo-43799 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43799], bpo-43920 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43920], bpo-43789 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43789], and bpo-43811 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43811].)

Les fonctions obsolètes et l'accès aux constantes obsolètes lèvent maintenant un DeprecationWarning. ssl.SSLContext.options a options OP_NO_SSLv2 et OP_NO_SSLv3 définies par défaut ; par conséquent, il ne peut pas avertir si l'option est définie de nouveau. La section obsolescence contient la liste des fonctionnalités obsolètes (contribution de Christian Heimes dans bpo-43880 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43880]).

La configuration du module ssl est plus sécuritaire par défaut. Les algorithmes de chiffrement sans confidentialité persistante (forward secrecy) et le code d'authentification de message (MAC) SHA-1 sont désactivés par défaut. Le niveau 2 de sécurité ne permet pas les clés faibles de moins de 112 bits pour RSA, DH et ECC. La version minimale du protocole TLS pour SSLContext est 1.2. La configuration est basée sur la recherche de Hynek Schlawack (contribution de Christian Heimes dans bpo-43998 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43998]).

Les protocoles obsolètes SSL 3.0, TLS 1.0 et TLS 1.1 ne sont plus officiellement pris en charge. Python ne les bloque pas activement, mais les options de compilation d'OpenSSL, les configurations du système d'exploitation, les rustines des fabricants et les suites d'algorithmes de chiffrement peuvent empêcher l’établissement d'une connexion.

Ajout d'un paramètre timeout à la fonction ssl.get_server_certificate() (contribution de Zackery Spytz dans bpo-31870 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31870]).

Le module ssl utilise les types du tas et l'initialisation multi-phase (contribution de Christian Heimes dans bpo-42333 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42333]).

A new verify flag VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN has been added. (Contributed by l0x in bpo-40849 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40849].)

sqlite3

Add audit events for connect(), enable_load_extension(), and load_extension(). (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-43762 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43762].)

sys

Ajout de l'attribut sys.orig_argv : la liste des arguments de ligne de commande originalement passée à l'exécutable Python (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-23427 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23427]).

Ajout de sys.stdlib_module_names qui contient la liste des noms des modules de la bibliothèque standard (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-42955 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42955]).

_thread

_thread.interrupt_main() now takes an optional signal number to simulate (the default is still signal.SIGINT). (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-43356 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43356].)

threading

Ajout des fonctions threading.gettrace() et threading.getprofile() pour récupérer les fonctions assignées par threading.settrace() et threading.setprofile() respectivement (contribution de Mario Corchero dans bpo-42251 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42251]).

Ajout de threading.__excepthook__ pour permettre la récupération de threading.excepthook() au cas où elle serait affectée à une valeur incorrecte ou différente (contribution de Mario Corchero dans bpo-42308 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42308]).

traceback

Les fonctions format_exception(), format_exception_only() et print_exception() peuvent maintenant prendre un objet exception en argument positionnel (contribution de Zackery Spytz et Matthias Bussonnier dans bpo-26389 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26389]).

types

Les classes types.EllipsisType, types.NoneType et types.NotImplementedType sont ajoutées de nouveau. Elles fournissent un nouvel ensemble de types facilement interprétable par les vérificateurs de types (contribution de Bas van Beek dans bpo-41810 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41810]).

typing

Pour les changements majeurs, voir Nouvelles fonctionnalités reliées aux indications de types.

Le comportement de typing.Literal a été changé pour être conforme avec la PEP 586 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0586/] et pour correspondre au comportement des vérificateurs de types statiques défini dans la PEP.

Literal dé-duplique maintenant les paramètres.

La comparaison d'égalité entre objets Literal ne tient plus compte de l'ordre.

Les comparaisons de Literal respectent maintenant les types. Par exemple, Literal[0] == Literal[False] était préalablement évaluée à True. Elle est maintenant False. Pour prendre en charge ce changement, le cache des types de l'implémentation interne peut maintenant différencier entre les types.

Les objets Literal lèvent maintenant une exception TypeError pendant la comparaison d'égalité si au moins un de leurs paramètres n'est pas hachable. Notez que déclarer un Literal avec des paramètres non hachables ne lève pas d'erreur :

>>> from typing import Literal
>>> Literal[{0}]
>>> Literal[{0}] == Literal[{False}]
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: unhashable type: 'set'

(contribution de Yurii Karabas dans bpo-42345 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42345]).

Add new function typing.is_typeddict() to introspect if an annotation is a typing.TypedDict. (Contributed by Patrick Reader in bpo-41792 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41792].)

Subclasses of typing.Protocol which only have data variables declared will now raise a TypeError when checked with isinstance unless they are decorated with runtime_checkable(). Previously, these checks passed silently. Users should decorate their subclasses with the runtime_checkable() decorator if they want runtime protocols. (Contributed by Yurii Karabas in bpo-38908 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38908].)

Importing from the typing.io and typing.re submodules will now emit DeprecationWarning. These submodules have been deprecated since Python 3.8 and will be removed in a future version of Python. Anything belonging to those submodules should be imported directly from typing instead. (Contributed by Sebastian Rittau in bpo-38291 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38291].)

unittest

Ajout d'une nouvelle méthode assertNoLogs() pour complémenter la méthode existante assertLogs() (contribution de Kit Yan Choi dans bpo-39385 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39385]).

urllib.parse

Python versions earlier than Python 3.10 allowed using both ; and & as query parameter separators in urllib.parse.parse_qs() and urllib.parse.parse_qsl(). Due to security concerns, and to conform with newer W3C recommendations, this has been changed to allow only a single separator key, with & as the default. This change also affects cgi.parse() and cgi.parse_multipart() as they use the affected functions internally. For more details, please see their respective documentation. (Contributed by Adam Goldschmidt, Senthil Kumaran and Ken Jin in bpo-42967 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42967].)

The presence of newline or tab characters in parts of a URL allows for some forms of attacks. Following the WHATWG specification that updates RFC 3986 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html], ASCII newline \n, \r and tab \t characters are stripped from the URL by the parser in urllib.parse preventing such attacks. The removal characters are controlled by a new module level variable urllib.parse._UNSAFE_URL_BYTES_TO_REMOVE. (See gh-88048 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88048])

xml

Ajout d'une classe LexicalHandler au module xml.sax.handler (contribution de Jonathan Gossage de Zackery Spytz dans bpo-35018 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35018]).

zipimport

Ajout des méthodes relatives à la PEP 451 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/] : find_spec(), zipimport.zipimporter.create_module() et zipimport.zipimporter.exec_module() (contribution de Brett Cannon dans bpo-42131 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42131]).

Ajout de la méthode invalidate_caches() (contribution de Desmond Cheong dans bpo-14678 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14678]).

Optimisations

Les constructeurs de str(), bytes() et bytearray() sont maintenant plus rapides (environ 30—40 % pour les petits objets) (contribution de Serhiy Storchaka dans bpo-41334 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41334]).

Le module runpy importe maintenant moins de modules. Le temps de démarrage de la commande python3 -m module-name est en moyenne 1,4 fois plus rapide. Sur Linux python3 -I -m module-name importe 69 modules dans Python 3.9, alors qu'elle n'en importe que 51 (18 de moins) dans Python 3.10 (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-41006 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41006] et dans bpo-41718 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41718]).

L'instruction LOAD_ATTR utilise maintenant le mécanisme de cache par code d'opération. Elle est environ 36 % plus rapide pour les attributs ordinaires et 44 % plus rapide pour les slots (contribution de Pablo Galindo et de Yury Selivanov dans bpo-42093 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42093] et Guido van Rossum dans bpo-42927 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42927], basée sur des idées originalement mises en œuvre dans PyPy et dans MicroPython).

Lors de la construction de Python avec --enable-optimizations, -fno-semantic-interposition est maintenant ajouté aux lignes de commande de compilation et d'édition des liens. Ceci accélère les binaires de l'interpréteur Python créés avec --enable-shared et gcc jusqu'à 30 %. Voir cet article [https://developers.redhat.com/blog/2020/06/25/red-hat-enterprise-linux-8-2-brings-faster-python-3-8-run-speeds/] (en anglais) pour plus de détails (contribution de Victor Stinner et Pablo Galindo dans bpo-38980 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38980]).

Ré-usinage du code assurant la gestion du tampon de sortie pour les modules bz2, lzma et zlib. Ajout de la fonction .readall() à la classe _compression.DecompressReader. La décompression bz2 est 1,09 à 1,17 fois plus rapide, la décompression lzma est 1,20 à 1,32 fois plus rapide, GzipFile.read(-1) est 1,11 à 1,18 fois plus rapide (contribution de Ma Lin, révision par Gregory P. Smith dans bpo-41486 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41486]).

When using stringized annotations, annotations dicts for functions are no longer created when the function is created. Instead, they are stored as a tuple of strings, and the function object lazily converts this into the annotations dict on demand. This optimization cuts the CPU time needed to define an annotated function by half. (Contributed by Yurii Karabas and Inada Naoki in bpo-42202 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42202].)

Les fonctions de recherche de sous-chaînes telles que str1 in str2 et str2.find(str1) peuvent utiliser maintenant l'algorithme « bidirectionnel » de recherche de chaînes Crochemore et Perrin pour éviter le comportement quadratique sur les longues chaînes (contribution de Dennis Sweeney dans bpo-41972 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41972]).

Add micro-optimizations to _PyType_Lookup() to improve type attribute cache lookup performance in the common case of cache hits. This makes the interpreter 1.04 times faster on average. (Contributed by Dino Viehland in bpo-43452 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43452].)

The following built-in functions now support the faster PEP 590 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/] vectorcall calling convention: map(), filter(), reversed(), bool() and float(). (Contributed by Donghee Na and Jeroen Demeyer in bpo-43575 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43575], bpo-43287 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43287], bpo-41922 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41922], bpo-41873 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41873] and bpo-41870 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41870].)

BZ2File performance is improved by removing internal RLock. This makes BZ2File thread unsafe in the face of multiple simultaneous readers or writers, just like its equivalent classes in gzip and lzma have always been. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-43785 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43785].)

Obsolescence

Currently Python accepts numeric literals immediately followed by keywords, for example 0in x, 1or x, 0if 1else 2. It allows confusing and ambiguous expressions like [0x1for x in y] (which can be interpreted as [0x1 for x in y] or [0x1f or x in y]). Starting in this release, a deprecation warning is raised if the numeric literal is immediately followed by one of keywords and, else, for, if, in, is and or. In future releases it will be changed to syntax warning, and finally to syntax error. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-43833 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43833].)

Starting in this release, there will be a concerted effort to begin cleaning up old import semantics that were kept for Python 2.7 compatibility. Specifically, find_loader()/find_module() (superseded by find_spec()), load_module() (superseded by exec_module()), module_repr() (which the import system takes care of for you), the __package__ attribute (superseded by __spec__.parent), the __loader__ attribute (superseded by __spec__.loader), and the __cached__ attribute (superseded by __spec__.cached) will slowly be removed (as well as other classes and methods in importlib). ImportWarning and/or DeprecationWarning will be raised as appropriate to help identify code which needs updating during this transition.

L'espace de noms distutils est complètement obsolète et sera retiré dans Python 3.12. Voir la section sur les changements aux modules pour plus d'information.

Les arguments non entiers de random.randrange() sont obsolètes. La levée de ValueError dans ce cas est obsolète et est remplacée par TypeError (contribution de Serhiy Storchaka et Raymond Hettinger dans bpo-37319 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37319]).

Les multiples méthodes load_module() de importlib étaient documentées comme obsolètes depuis Python 3.6, mais elles vont maintenant aussi lever un DeprecationWarning. Utilisez plutôt exec_module() (contribution de Brett Cannon dans bpo-26131 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26131]).

zimport.zipimporter.load_module() has been deprecated in preference for exec_module(). (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-26131 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26131].)

L'utilisation de load_module() par le système d'importation lève maintenant un ImportWarning car exec_module() est recommandée (contribution de (Brett Cannon dans bpo-26131 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26131]).

The use of importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module() and importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_module() by the import system now trigger an ImportWarning as importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec() and importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec() are preferred, respectively. You can use importlib.util.spec_from_loader() to help in porting. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-42134 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42134].)

The use of importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_loader() by the import system now triggers an ImportWarning as importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec() is preferred. You can use importlib.util.spec_from_loader() to help in porting. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-43672 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43672].)

The various implementations of importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module() ( importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter.find_module(), importlib.machinery.FrozenImporter.find_module(), importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder.find_module(), importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_module(), importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module() ), importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_module() ( importlib.machinery.FileFinder.find_module() ), and importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_loader() ( importlib.machinery.FileFinder.find_loader() ) now raise DeprecationWarning and are slated for removal in Python 3.12 (previously they were documented as deprecated in Python 3.4). (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-42135 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42135].)

importlib.abc.Finder is deprecated (including its sole method, find_module()). Both importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder and importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder no longer inherit from the class. Users should inherit from one of these two classes as appropriate instead. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-42135 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42135].)

The deprecations of imp, importlib.find_loader(), importlib.util.set_package_wrapper(), importlib.util.set_loader_wrapper(), importlib.util.module_for_loader(), pkgutil.ImpImporter, and pkgutil.ImpLoader have all been updated to list Python 3.12 as the slated version of removal (they began raising DeprecationWarning in previous versions of Python). (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-43720 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43720].)

The import system now uses the __spec__ attribute on modules before falling back on module_repr() for a module's __repr__() method. Removal of the use of module_repr() is scheduled for Python 3.12. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-42137 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42137].)

importlib.abc.Loader.module_repr(), importlib.machinery.FrozenLoader.module_repr(), and importlib.machinery.BuiltinLoader.module_repr() are deprecated and slated for removal in Python 3.12. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-42136 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42136].)

sqlite3.OptimizedUnicode est non-documenté et désuète depuis Python 3.3, quand elle devenue un alias de str. Elle est maintenant déclarée obsolète et sera retiré dans Python 3.12 (contribution de Erlend E. Aasland dans bpo-42264 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42264]).

La fonction native non-documentée sqlite3.enable_shared_cache est maintenant obsolète et sera retirée dans Python 3.12. Son utilisation est fortement déconseillée dans la documentation de SQLite3. Voir la documentation de SQLite3 [https://sqlite.org/c3ref/enable_shared_cache.html] (en anglais) pour plus de détails. Si un cache partagé est nécessaire, ouvrez la base de données en mode URI en utilisant le paramètre de requête cache=shared (contribution de Erlend E. Aasland dans bpo-24464 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24464]).

Les méthodes suivantes du module threading sont maintenant obsolètes :

threading.currentThread => threading.current_thread() ;

threading.activeCount => threading.active_count() ;

threading.Condition.notifyAll => threading.Condition.notify_all() ;

threading.Event.isSet => threading.Event.is_set() ;

threading.Thread.setName => threading.Thread.name ;

threading.thread.getName => threading.Thread.name ;

threading.Thread.isDaemon => threading.Thread.daemon ;

threading.Thread.setDaemon => threading.Thread.daemon.

(Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-87889 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87889].)

pathlib.Path.link_to() is deprecated and slated for removal in Python 3.12. Use pathlib.Path.hardlink_to() instead. (Contributed by Barney Gale in bpo-39950 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39950].)

cgi.log() est obsolète et sera retirée dans Python 3.12 (contribution de Inada Naoki dans bpo-41139 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41139]).

Les fonctionnalités suivantes de ssl sont obsolètes depuis Python 3.6, Python 3.7 ou OpenSSL 1.1.0 et seront retirées dans 3.11 :

OP_NO_SSLv2, OP_NO_SSLv3, OP_NO_TLSv1, OP_NO_TLSv1_1, OP_NO_TLSv1_2, and OP_NO_TLSv1_3 are replaced by minimum_version and maximum_version.

PROTOCOL_SSLv2, PROTOCOL_SSLv3, PROTOCOL_SSLv23, PROTOCOL_TLSv1, PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1, PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2, and PROTOCOL_TLS are deprecated in favor of PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT and PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER

wrap_socket() is replaced by ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket()

match_hostname()

RAND_pseudo_bytes(), RAND_egd()

Les fonctionnalités NPN (Next Protocol Negotiation) telles que ssl.SSLSocket.selected_npn_protocol() et ssl.SSLContext.set_npn_protocols() sont remplacées par ALPN (Application Layer Protocol Negotiation).

The threading debug (PYTHONTHREADDEBUG environment variable) is deprecated in Python 3.10 and will be removed in Python 3.12. This feature requires a debug build of Python. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-44584 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44584].)

Importing from the typing.io and typing.re submodules will now emit DeprecationWarning. These submodules will be removed in a future version of Python. Anything belonging to these submodules should be imported directly from typing instead. (Contributed by Sebastian Rittau in bpo-38291 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38291].)

Retrait

Les méthodes spéciales __int__, __float__, __floordiv__, __mod__, __divmod__, __rfloordiv__, __rmod__ et __rdivmod__ sont retirées de la classe complex. Elles levaient toujours une TypeError (contribution de Serhiy Storchaka dans bpo-41974 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41974]).

La méthode ParserBase.error() du module privé et non-documenté _markupbase a été retirée. html.parser.HTMLParser est la seule sous-classe de ParserBase et son implémentation de la méthode error() a été retirée dans Python 3.5 (contribution de Berker Peksag dans bpo-31844 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31844]).

Retrait de l'attribut unicodedata.ucnhash_CAPI qui était un objet PyCapsule interne. La structure privée associée _PyUnicode_Name_CAPI a été déplacée vers l'API C interne (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-42157 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42157]).

Retrait du module parser qui était obsolète depuis 3.9 étant donné la transition vers le nouvel analyseur syntaxique PEG. Retrait aussi des fichiers source et en-tête C qui n'étaient utilisés que par l'ancien analyseur, ceci comprend node.h, parser.h, graminit.h et grammar.h.

Retrait des fonctions PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlags, PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlagsFilename, PyParser_SimpleParseFileFlags et PyNode_Compile de l'API C publique. Elles étaient obsolètes depuis 3.9 étant donné la transition vers l'analyseur syntaxique PEG.

Removed the formatter module, which was deprecated in Python 3.4. It is somewhat obsolete, little used, and not tested. It was originally scheduled to be removed in Python 3.6, but such removals were delayed until after Python 2.7 EOL. Existing users should copy whatever classes they use into their code. (Contributed by Donghee Na and Terry J. Reedy in bpo-42299 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42299].)

Removed the PyModule_GetWarningsModule() function that was useless now due to the _warnings module was converted to a builtin module in 2.6. (Contributed by Hai Shi in bpo-42599 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42599].)

Retrait des alias obsolètes Classes de base abstraites de collections du module collections (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-37324 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37324]).

Le paramètre loop a été retiré de la majorité de l'API haut-niveau d'asyncio. Il était obsolète depuis Python 3.8. La motivation pour ce changement avait plusieurs facettes :

ceci simplifie l'API haut-niveau ;

les fonctions dans l'API haut niveau reçoivent implicitement la boucle d'évènements qui tourne dans le présent fil d'exécution depuis Python 3.7. Il n'y a aucun besoin de passer la boucle d'évènements à l'API dans la majorité de son utilisation normale ;

le passage de la boucle d'évènements cause facilement des erreurs quand plusieurs boucles qui tournent dans plusieurs fils d'exécution sont impliquées.

Prenez note que l'API bas-niveau accepte toujours le paramètre loop. Voir Changements dans l'API Python pour plus d'exemples sur comment remplacer le code existant

(contribution de Yurii Karabas, Andrew Svetlov, Yury Selivanov et Kyle Stanley dans bpo-42392 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42392]).

Portage vers Python 3.10

Cette section liste les changements mentionnés préalablement et autres améliorations qui peuvent demander des changements à votre code.

Changements à la syntaxe de Python

Deprecation warning is now emitted when compiling previously valid syntax if the numeric literal is immediately followed by a keyword (like in 0in x). In future releases it will be changed to syntax warning, and finally to a syntax error. To get rid of the warning and make the code compatible with future releases just add a space between the numeric literal and the following keyword. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-43833 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43833].)

Changements dans l'API Python

Les paramètres etype des fonctions format_exception(), format_exception_only() et print_exception() du module traceback ont étés renommés exc (contribution de Zackery Spytz et Matthias Bussonnier dans bpo-26389 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26389]).

atexit : à la fin de l'exécution de Python, si une fonction de rappel qui a été enregistrée avec atexit.register() échoue, son exception est maintenant journalisée. Préalablement, seulement certaines exceptions étaient journalisées et la dernière exception était toujours ignorée de façon silencieuse (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-42639 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42639]).

Les génériques de collections.abc.Callable aplatissent maintenant les paramètres de types tel qu'il est fait par typing.Callable. Ceci veut dire que collections.abc.Callable[[int, str], str] aura un attribut __args__ de valeur (int, str, str) ; préalablement, il aurait été ([int, str], str). Les codes qui accèdent aux arguments par typing.get_args() ou __args__ doivent tenir compte de ce changement. De plus, TypeError sera levée pour des formes invalides de paramétrisation de collections.abc.Callable, ce qui aurait pu passer silencieusement dans Python 3.9 (contribution de Ken Jin dans bpo-42195 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42195]).

socket.htons() et socket.ntohs() lèvent maintenant OverflowError plutôt que DeprecationWarning si le paramètre passé est trop grand pour être stocké dans un entier 16-bit non-signé (contribution de Erlend E. Aasland dans bpo-42393 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42393]).

Le paramètre loop a été retiré de la majorité de l'API haut-niveau d'asyncio suite à la déclaration de son obsolescence dans Python 3.8.

Une coroutine qui ressemble actuellement à ceci :

async def foo(loop):
    await asyncio.sleep(1, loop=loop)

Doit être remplacée par ceci :

async def foo():
    await asyncio.sleep(1)

Si foo() a été spécifiquement conçue pour ne pas s'exécuter dans le fil d'exécution courant, (par exemple pour tourner dans la boucle d'exécution d'un autre fil), l'utilisation de asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe() est probablement plus appropriée.

(contribution de Yurii Karabas, Andrew Svetlov, Yury Selivanov et Kyle Stanley dans bpo-42392 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42392]).

Le constructeur de types.FunctionType hérite maintenant des définitions natives si le dictionnaire globals n'a pas de clé "__builtins__", plutôt que d'utiliser {"None": None} pour les définitions natives : même comportement que celui des fonctions eval() et exec(). Définir une fonction avec def function(...): ... en Python n'est pas affecté, les globales ne peuvent pas être changées avec cette syntaxe : elles héritent aussi des définitions natives courantes (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-42990 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42990]).

Changements dans l'API C

Les fonctions de l'API C PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlags, PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlagsFilename, PyParser_SimpleParseFileFlags et PyNode_Compile ainsi que struct _node, le type utilisé par ces fonctions, ont été retirés suite à la transition vers le nouvel analyseur syntaxique PEG.

Le code source doit maintenant être compilé directement en un objet code, en utilisant par exemple Py_CompileString(). L'objet code ainsi produit peut ensuite être évalué, en utilisant par exemple PyEval_EvalCode().

Spécifiquement :

Un appel à PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlags suivi de PyNode_Compile peut être remplacé par Py_CompileString() ;

Il n'y a pas de remplacement immédiat pour PyParser_SimpleParseFileFlags. Pour compiler du code à partir d'un argument FILE *, vous devez lire le fichier en C et passer le tampon résultant à Py_CompileString().

Pour compiler un fichier à partir du char * de son nom, ouvrez le fichier de façon explicite, lisez son contenu et compilez le résultat. Une façon de faire est d'utiliser le module io en conjonction avec PyImport_ImportModule(), PyObject_CallMethod(), PyBytes_AsString() et Py_CompileString(), comme dans l'esquisse qui suit (les déclarations et la gestion d'erreurs ne sont pas incluses)

io_module = Import_ImportModule("io");
fileobject = PyObject_CallMethod(io_module, "open", "ss", filename, "rb");
source_bytes_object = PyObject_CallMethod(fileobject, "read", "");
result = PyObject_CallMethod(fileobject, "close", "");
source_buf = PyBytes_AsString(source_bytes_object);
code = Py_CompileString(source_buf, filename, Py_file_input);

For FrameObject objects, the f_lasti member now represents a wordcode offset instead of a simple offset into the bytecode string. This means that this number needs to be multiplied by 2 to be used with APIs that expect a byte offset instead (like PyCode_Addr2Line() for example). Notice as well that the f_lasti member of FrameObject objects is not considered stable: please use PyFrame_GetLineNumber() instead.

Changements au code intermédiaire CPython

The MAKE_FUNCTION instruction now accepts either a dict or a tuple of strings as the function's annotations. (Contributed by Yurii Karabas and Inada Naoki in bpo-42202 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42202].)

Changements à la compilation

PEP 644 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/] : la version minimale d'OpenSSL pour Python est maintenant 1.1.1. OpenSSL 1.0.2 n'est plus prise en charge (contribution de Christian Heimes dans bpo-43669 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43669]).

Les fonctions de C99 snprintf() et vsnprintf() sont maintenant nécessaires à la compilation de Python (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-36020 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36020]).

La version minimale de SQLite pour le module sqlite3 est maintenant 3.7.15 (contribution de Sergey Fedoseev et Erlend E. Aasland dans bpo-40744 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40744] et bpo-40810 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40810]).

Le module atexit doit maintenant toujours être compilé en tant que module natif (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-42639 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42639]).

Ajout de l'option --disable-test-modules au script configure : ne pas compiler ni installer les modules de tests (contribution de Xavier de Gaye, Thomas Petazzoni et Peixing Xin dans bpo-27640 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27640]).

Ajout de l'option --with-wheel-pkg-dir=PATH au script ./configure. Si elle est passée, le module ensurepip recherche les paquets wheel de setuptools et de pip dans ce répertoire : si les deux sont présents, ces paquets wheel sont utilisés plutôt que ceux inclus avec ensurepip.

La politique de paquets de certaines distributions Linux déconseille l'inclusion des dépendances. Par exemple, Fedora installe les paquets wheel dans le répertoire /usr/share/python-wheels/ et n'installe pas le paquet ensurepip._bundled

(contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-42856 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42856]).

Ajout d'une nouvelle option --without-static-libpython au script configure pour ne pas compiler la bibliothèque statique libpythonMAJOR.MINOR.a et ne pas installer le fichier objet python.o

(contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-43103 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43103]).

The configure script now uses the pkg-config utility, if available, to detect the location of Tcl/Tk headers and libraries. As before, those locations can be explicitly specified with the --with-tcltk-includes and --with-tcltk-libs configuration options. (Contributed by Manolis Stamatogiannakis in bpo-42603 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42603].)

Ajout de l'option --with-openssl-rpath au script configure. Cette option simplifie la compilation de Python avec une installation personnalisée d'OpenSSL, par exemple : ./configure --with-openssl=/path/to/openssl --with-openssl-rpath=auto (contribution de Christian Heimes dans bpo-43466 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43466]).

Changements à l'API C

PEP 652 : maintenance d'une ABI stable

L'interface binaire-programme (Application Binary Interface, ABI en anglais) stable pour les modules d'extension ou pour l'intégration de Python est maintenant définie de façon explicite. Le document Stabilité de l’API C décrit les garanties de stabilité pour l'API C et pour l'interface binaire-programme ainsi que les bonnes pratiques pour travailler avec l'interface binaire-programme stable

(contribution de Petr Viktorin dans PEP 652 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0652/] et dans bpo-43795 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43795]).

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

Le résultat de PyNumber_Index() est maintenant exactement de type int. Auparavant, le résultat pouvait être une instance d'une classe dérivée de int (contribution de Serhiy Storchaka dans bpo-40792 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40792]).

Ajout d'un nouveau champ orig_argv à la structure PyConfig : la liste des arguments de ligne de commande originalement passée à l'exécutable Python (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-23427 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23427]).

Les macros PyDateTime_DATE_GET_TZINFO() et PyDateTime_TIME_GET_TZINFO() ont été ajoutées pour récupérer l'attribut tzinfo des objets datetime.datetime et datetime.time (contribution de Zackery Spytz dans bpo-30155 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30155]).

Ajout d'une fonction PyCodec_Unregister() pour désinscrire une fonction de recherche de codecs (contribution de Hai Shi dans bpo-41842 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41842]).

Ajout de la fonction PyIter_Send() pour acheminer une valeur dans un itérateur sans lever une exception StopIteration (contribution de Vladimir Matveev dans bpo-41756 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41756]).

Ajout de PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize() à l'API C limitée (contribution d'Alex Gaynor dans bpo-41784 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41784]).

Ajout de la fonction PyModule_AddObjectRef() : comparable à PyModule_AddObject() mais ne s’accapare pas une référence à la valeur s'il y a réussite (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]).

Ajout des fonctions Py_NewRef() et Py_XNewRef() pour incrémenter le compteur des références d'un objet et renvoyer l'objet (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-42262 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42262]).

Les fonctions PyType_FromSpecWithBases() et PyType_FromModuleAndSpec() n'acceptent maintenant qu'une seule classe pour l'argument bases (contribution Serhiy Storchaka dans bpo-42423 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42423]).

La fonction PyType_FromModuleAndSpec() accepte maintenant NULL dans l'emplacement tp_doc (contribution de Hai Shi dans bpo-41832 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41832]).

La fonction PyType_GetSlot() peut maintenant accepter des types statiques (contribution de Hai Shi et Petr Viktorin dans bpo-41073 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41073]).

Ajout d'une nouvelle fonction PySet_CheckExact() à l'API C pour vérifier si un objet est une instance de set mais pas une instance d'un sous-type (contribution de Pablo Galindo dans bpo-43277 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43277]).

Ajout de PyErr_SetInterruptEx() qui accepte le numéro d'un signal à simuler (contribution d'Antoine Pitrou dans bpo-43356 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43356]).

L'API C limitée est maintenant prise en charge si Python est compilé en mode débogage (si la macro Py_DEBUG est définie). Dans l'API C limitée, les fonctions Py_INCREF() et Py_DECREF() sont maintenant implémentées en appel de fonctions opaques, plutôt que d'accéder directement au champ PyObject.ob_refcnt. C'est le cas si Python est compilé en mode débogage et que la macro Py_LIMITED_API vise Python 3.10 ou plus récent. Il est possible de prendre en charge l'API C limitée en mode débogage, car la structure PyObject est la même dans les versions standard et dans les versions débogage depuis Python 3.8 (voir bpo-36465 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36465]).

L'API C limitée n'est toujours pas prise en charge dans les compilations spéciales avec l'option --with-trace-refs (macro Py_TRACE_REFS) (Contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-43688 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43688]).

Ajout de la fonction Py_Is(x, y) pour vérifier si l'objet x est l'objet y, tout comme x is y en Python. Ajout aussi des fonctions Py_IsNone(), Py_IsTrue() et Py_IsFalse() pour vérifier si l'objet est le singleton None, le singleton True ou le singleton False, respectivement (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-43753 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43753]).

Ajout de fonctions pour contrôler le ramasse-miettes en C : PyGC_Enable(), PyGC_Disable() et PyGC_IsEnabled(). Ces fonctions permettent d'activer, de désactiver et d'interroger l'état du ramasse-miettes dans du code C sans avoir à importer le module gc.

Add a new Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION type flag to disallow creating type instances. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-43916 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43916].)

Add a new Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE type flag for creating immutable type objects: type attributes cannot be set nor deleted. (Contributed by Victor Stinner and Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-43908 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43908].)

Portage vers Python 3.10

The PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN macro must now be defined to use PyArg_ParseTuple() and Py_BuildValue() formats which use #: es#, et#, s#, u#, y#, z#, U# and Z#. See Analyse des arguments et construction des valeurs and PEP 353 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0353/]. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-40943 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40943].)

Étant donné la conversion de Py_REFCNT() en fonction statique en-ligne, Py_REFCNT(obj) = new_refcnt doit être remplacé par Py_SET_REFCNT(obj, new_refcnt) : voir Py_SET_REFCNT() (disponible depuis Python 3.9). Pour la rétro-compatibilité, cette macro peut être utilisée :

#if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030900A4
#  define Py_SET_REFCNT(obj, refcnt) ((Py_REFCNT(obj) = (refcnt)), (void)0)
#endif

(contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-39573 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573]).

Appeler PyDict_GetItem() sans avoir obtenu le GIL était autorisé pour des raisons historiques. Ceci n'est plus permis (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-40839 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40839]).

PyUnicode_FromUnicode(NULL, size) et PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize(NULL, size) lèvent maintenant un DeprecationWarning. Vous devez utiliser PyUnicode_New() pour allouer un objet Unicode sans donnée initiale (contribution de Inada Naoki dans bpo-36346 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36346]).

La structure privée _PyUnicode_Name_CAPI de l'API PyCapsule unicodedata.ucnhash_CAPI a été déplacée dans l'API C interne. (Contribution par Victor Stinner dans bpo-42157 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42157].)

Py_GetPath(), Py_GetPrefix(), Py_GetExecPrefix(), Py_GetProgramFullPath(), Py_GetPythonHome() and Py_GetProgramName() functions now return NULL if called before Py_Initialize() (before Python is initialized). Use the new Python Initialization Configuration API to get the Python Path Configuration. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-42260 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42260].)

PyList_SET_ITEM(), PyTuple_SET_ITEM() and PyCell_SET() macros can no longer be used as l-value or r-value. For example, x = PyList_SET_ITEM(a, b, c) and PyList_SET_ITEM(a, b, c) = x now fail with a compiler error. It prevents bugs like if (PyList_SET_ITEM (a, b, c) < 0) ... test. (Contributed by Zackery Spytz and Victor Stinner in bpo-30459 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30459].)

The non-limited API files odictobject.h, parser_interface.h, picklebufobject.h, pyarena.h, pyctype.h, pydebug.h, pyfpe.h, and pytime.h have been moved to the Include/cpython directory. These files must not be included directly, as they are already included in Python.h; see Include Files. If they have been included directly, consider including Python.h instead. (Contributed by Nicholas Sim in bpo-35134 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134].)

Use the Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE type flag to create immutable type objects. Do not rely on Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE to decide if a type object is mutable or not; check if Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE is set instead. (Contributed by Victor Stinner and Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-43908 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43908].)

The undocumented function Py_FrozenMain has been removed from the limited API. The function is mainly useful for custom builds of Python. (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in bpo-26241 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26241].)

Obsolescence

La fonction PyUnicode_InternImmortal() est maintenant obsolète et sera retirée dans Python 3.12 : utilisez plutôt PyUnicode_InternInPlace() (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-41692 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41692]).

Retrait

Retrait des fonctions Py_UNICODE_str* manipulant des chaînes Py_UNICODE* (contribution de Inada Naoki dans bpo-41123 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41123]) :

Py_UNICODE_strlen : utilisez PyUnicode_GetLength() ou PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH ;

Py_UNICODE_strcat : utilisez PyUnicode_CopyCharacters() ou PyUnicode_FromFormat() ;

Py_UNICODE_strcpy, Py_UNICODE_strncpy : utilisez PyUnicode_CopyCharacters() ou PyUnicode_Substring() ;

Py_UNICODE_strcmp : utilisez PyUnicode_Compare() ;

Py_UNICODE_strncmp : utilisez PyUnicode_Tailmatch() ;

Py_UNICODE_strchr, Py_UNICODE_strrchr : utilisez PyUnicode_FindChar().

Retrait de PyUnicode_GetMax(). Vous devez migrer vers les nouvelles API de la PEP 393 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/] (contribution de Inada Naoki dans bpo-41103 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41103]).

Retrait de PyLong_FromUnicode(). Vous devez migrer vers PyLong_FromUnicodeObject() (contribution de Inada Naoki dans bpo-41103 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41103]).

Retrait de PyUnicode_AsUnicodeCopy(). Vous devez utiliser PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy() ou PyUnicode_AsWideCharString() (contribution de Inada Naoki dans bpo-41103 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41103]).

Retrait de la variable _Py_CheckRecursionLimit : elle a été remplacée par le champ ceval.recursion_limit de la structure PyInterpreterState (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-41834 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41834]).

Retrait des macros non-documentées Py_ALLOW_RECURSION et Py_END_ALLOW_RECURSION et du champ recursion_critical de la structure PyInterpreterState (contribution de Serhiy Storchaka dans bpo-41936 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41936]).

Retrait de la fonction non-documentée PyOS_InitInterrupts(). L'initialisation de Python installe déjà les gestionnaires de signaux de façon implicite : voir PyConfig.install_signal_handlers (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-41713 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41713]).

Retrait de la fonction PyAST_Validate(). Il n'est plus possible de construire un objet AST (type mod_ty) avec l'API C publique. La fonction était déjà retirée de l'API C limitée (PEP 384 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0384/]) (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-43244 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244]).

Retrait du fichier d'en-tête symtable.h et des fonctions non-documentées :

PyST_GetScope() ;

PySymtable_Build() ;

PySymtable_BuildObject() ;

PySymtable_Free() ;

Py_SymtableString() ;

Py_SymtableStringObject().

Par erreur, la fonction Py_SymtableString() faisait partie de l'ABI stable, mais elle ne pouvait pas être utilisée, car le fichier d'en-tête symtable.h était exclu de l'API C limitée.

Utilisez plutôt le module Python symtable (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-43244 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244]).

Retrait de PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer() des fichiers d'en-tête de l'API C limitée et de python3.dll, la bibliothèque qui fournit l'ABI stable sur Windows. Étant donné que la fonction prend un FILE* en argument, la stabilité de son interface binaire-programme ne peut pas être garantie (contribution de Petr Viktorin dans bpo-43868 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43868]).

Retrait des fichiers d'en-tête ast.h, asdl.h et Python-ast.h. Ces fonctions étaient non-documentées et exclues de l'API C limitée. La majorité des noms définis dans ces fichiers d'en-tête n'avaient pas le préfixe Py et pouvaient ainsi causer des conflits de noms. Par exemple, Python-ast.h définit une macro Yield qui était en conflit avec le nom Yield utilisé dans le fichier d'en-tête <winbase.h> de Windows. Utilisez plutôt le module Python ast (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-43244 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244]).

Retrait des fonctions d'analyse syntaxique et de compilation qui utilisent le type struct _mod car l'API C publique pour manipuler les AST a été retirée :

PyAST_Compile() ;

PyAST_CompileEx() ;

PyAST_CompileObject() ;

PyFuture_FromAST() ;

PyFuture_FromASTObject() ;

PyParser_ASTFromFile() ;

PyParser_ASTFromFileObject() ;

PyParser_ASTFromFilename() ;

PyParser_ASTFromString() ;

PyParser_ASTFromStringObject().

Ces fonctions étaient non-documentées et exclues de l'API C limitée (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-43244 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244]).

Retrait du fichier d'en-tête pyarena.h et des fonctions :

PyArena_New() ;

PyArena_Free() ;

PyArena_Malloc() ;

PyArena_AddPyObject().

Ces fonctions étaient non-documentées et exclues de l'API C limitée ; elles n'étaient utilisées que par le compilateur dans l'implémentation interne (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-43244 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244]).

Retrait du champ PyThreadState.use_tracing pour optimiser Python (contribution de Mark Shannon dans bpo-43760 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43760]).

Notable security feature in 3.10.7

Converting between int and str in bases other than 2 (binary), 4, 8 (octal), 16 (hexadecimal), or 32 such as base 10 (decimal) now raises a ValueError if the number of digits in string form is above a limit to avoid potential denial of service attacks due to the algorithmic complexity. This is a mitigation for CVE 2020-10735 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-10735]. This limit can be configured or disabled by environment variable, command line flag, or sys APIs. See the integer string conversion length limitation documentation. The default limit is 4300 digits in string form.

Notable security feature in 3.10.8

The deprecated mailcap module now refuses to inject unsafe text (filenames, MIME types, parameters) into shell commands. Instead of using such text, it will warn and act as if a match was not found (or for test commands, as if the test failed). (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in gh-98966 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98966].)

Notable changes in 3.10.12

tarfile

The extraction methods in tarfile, and shutil.unpack_archive(), have a new a filter argument that allows limiting tar features than may be surprising or dangerous, such as creating files outside the destination directory. See Extraction filters for details. In Python 3.12, use without the filter argument will show a DeprecationWarning. In Python 3.14, the default will switch to 'data'. (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in PEP 706 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0706/].)

Les nouveautés de Python 3.9

Éditeur:

Łukasz Langa

This article explains the new features in Python 3.9, compared to 3.8. Python 3.9 was released on October 5, 2020. For full details, see the changelog.

Voir aussi

PEP 596 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0596/] – Calendrier de sortie de Python 3.9

Résumé – Points marquants de cette version

Nouvelles fonctionnalités de syntaxe :

PEP 584 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/], ajout de l'opérateur d'union à dict ;

PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/], indications des types paramétrables dans les collections natives ;

PEP 614 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0614/], restrictions grammaticales assouplies pour les décorateurs.

Nouvelles fonctionnalités natives :

PEP 616 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0616/], méthodes sur les chaînes pour enlever des préfixes et des suffixes.

Nouvelles fonctionnalités dans la bibliothèque standard :

PEP 593 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0593/], annotations flexibles pour les fonctions et les variables ;

ajout de os.pidfd_open() qui permet la gestion de processus sans concurrence critique et sans signaux.

Améliorations de l'interpréteur :

PEP 573 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0573/], accès rapide à l'état des modules à partir des méthodes des types dans les extensions C ;

PEP 617 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/], CPython utilise maintenant un analyseur lexical PEG (Parsing Expression Grammar) ;

certains types Python natifs (range, tuple, set, frozenset, list, dict) sont maintenant plus rapides grâce aux appels vectorcall (PEP 590 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/]) ;

le ramasse-miettes ne bloque pas sur les objets ressuscités ;

a number of Python modules (_abc, audioop, _bz2, _codecs, _contextvars, _crypt, _functools, _json, _locale, math, operator, resource, time, _weakref) now use multiphase initialization as defined by PEP 489;

a number of standard library modules (audioop, ast, grp, _hashlib, pwd, _posixsubprocess, random, select, struct, termios, zlib) are now using the stable ABI defined by PEP 384.

Nouveaux modules de la bibliothèque :

PEP 615 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0615/], la base de données des fuseaux horaires de l'IANA est maintenant incluse dans le module zoneinfo de la bibliothèque standard ;

une implémentation du tri topologique d'un graphe est maintenant disponible dans le nouveau module graphlib.

Changements aux procédures de publication :

PEP 602 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0602/], CPython adopte un cycle annuel de publications.

Vous devez vérifier la présence de DeprecationWarning dans votre code

Quand Python 2.7 était encore pris en charge, plusieurs fonctionnalités dans Python 3 étaient gardées pour la rétro-compatibilité avec Python 2.7. Avec la fin de la prise en charge de Python 2, ces couches de rétro-compatibilité ont été retirées ou le seront bientôt. La plupart d'entre elles émettaient un avertissement DeprecationWarning depuis plusieurs années. Par exemple, utiliser collections.Mapping plutôt que collections.abc.Mapping émettait un DeprecationWarning depuis Python 3.3, publié en 2012.

Testez votre application avec l'option de ligne de commande -W default pour voir les DeprecationWarning et les PendingDeprecationWarning, ou même avec -W error pour les traiter comme des erreurs. Le filtre des avertissements peut être utilisé pour ignorer les avertissements provenant de code de tierces parties.

Python 3.9 est la dernière version qui fournit ces couches de rétro compatibilité avec Python 2, afin de donner plus de temps aux mainteneurs de projets Python pour organiser l'arrêt de la prise en charge de Python 2 et pour assurer celle de Python 3.9.

Les alias vers Abstract Base Classes dans le module collections, comme l'alias collections.Mapping vers collections.abc.Mapping, sont conservés pour une dernière version au titre de la rétrocompatibilité. Ils seront supprimés de Python 3.10.

Plus généralement, essayez d'exécuter vos tests dans le Python Development Mode qui aide à préparer votre code pour le rendre compatible avec la prochaine version de Python.

Note : certaines déclarations d’obsolescence pré-existantes ont été retirées de cette version de Python. Voir la section Retraits.

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

Opérateurs de fusion et de mise à jour de dictionnaires

Ajout des opérateurs de fusion (|) et de mise-à-jour (|=) à la classe native dict. Ils viennent compléter les méthodes existantes dict.update et {**d1, **d2} pour fusionner des dictionnaires.

Exemple :

>>> x = {"key1": "value1 from x", "key2": "value2 from x"}
>>> y = {"key2": "value2 from y", "key3": "value3 from y"}
>>> x | y
{'key1': 'value1 from x', 'key2': 'value2 from y', 'key3': 'value3 from y'}
>>> y | x
{'key2': 'value2 from x', 'key3': 'value3 from y', 'key1': 'value1 from x'}

Voir PEP 584 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/] pour une description complète (contribution de Brandt Bucher dans bpo-36144 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144]).

Nouvelles méthodes sur les chaînes pour retirer des préfixes et des suffixes

str.removeprefix(préfixe) et str.removesuffix(suffixe) ont été ajoutées pour supprimer facilement un préfixe ou un suffixe inutile d'une chaîne. Les méthodes correspondantes de bytes, bytearray et collections.UserString ont également été ajoutées. Voir PEP 616 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0616/] pour une description complète (contribution de Dennis Sweeney dans bpo-39939 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39939]).

Indication des types paramétrables dans les collections natives

Dans les annotations de type, vous pouvez maintenant utiliser les types de collection natifs tels que list et dict comme types génériques au lieu d'importer les types en majuscules correspondants (par exemple List ou Dict) à partir de typing. D'autres types de la bibliothèque standard sont maintenant génériques, par exemple queue.Queue.

Exemple :

def greet_all(names: list[str]) -> None:
    for name in names:
        print("Hello", name)

Voir PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/] pour plus de détails (contribution de Guido van Rossum, Ethan Smith et Batuhan Taşkaya dans bpo-39481 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39481]).

Nouvel analyseur syntaxique

Python 3.9 utilise un nouvel analyseur syntaxique, basé sur PEG [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parsing_expression_grammar] au lieu de LL(1) [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analyse_LL]. Les performances du nouvel analyseur sont à peu près comparables à celles de l'ancien, mais le formalisme PEG est plus souple que LL(1) lorsqu'il s'agit de concevoir des nouvelles fonctionnalités du langage. Nous commencerons à utiliser cette flexibilité dans Python 3.10 et les versions suivantes.

Le module ast utilise le nouvel analyseur syntaxique et produit le même AST que l'ancien analyseur.

In Python 3.10, the old parser will be deleted and so will all functionality that depends on it (primarily the parser module, which has long been deprecated). In Python 3.9 only, you can switch back to the LL(1) parser using a command line switch (-X oldparser) or an environment variable (PYTHONOLDPARSER=1).

Voir PEP 617 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/] pour plus de détails (contribution de Guido van Rossum, Pablo Galindo et Lysandros Nikolaou dans bpo-40334 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40334]).

Autres changements au langage

__import__() lève maintenant ImportError plutôt que ValueError, ce qui se produisait lorsqu’un import relatif remontait plus loin que le répertoire racine du paquet (contribution de Ngalim Siregar dans bpo-37444 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37444]).

Python récupère maintenant le chemin absolu du nom de fichier du script spécifié sur la ligne de commande (ex. : python3 script.py) : l'attribut __file__ du module __main__ est devenu un chemin absolu, plutôt qu'un chemin relatif. Ces nouveaux chemins restent valides même après que le répertoire courant est changé par os.chdir(). En conséquence, les traces d'appels affichent le chemin absolu pour les cadres du module __main__ dans ce cas (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-20443 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20443]).

Dans le mode de développement de Python et dans les compilations en mode débogage, les arguments encoding et errors sont maintenant vérifiés pour les opérations d'encodage et de décodage de chaînes. Exemples : open(), str.encode() et bytes.decode().

Par défaut, afin d'améliorer les performances, l'argument errors n'est consulté qu'au moment de la première erreur d'encodage-décodage et l'argument encoding est parfois ignoré pour les chaînes vides (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-37388 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37388]).

"".replace("", s, n) renvoie maintenant s plutôt qu'une chaîne vide pour toute valeur non-nulles de n. Ce comportement est maintenant cohérent avec "".replace("", s). Les instances de bytes et bytearray ont le même comportement (contribution de Serhiy Storchaka dans bpo-28029 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28029]).

Toute expression valide peut maintenant être utilisée comme décorateur (voir decorator). Préalablement, la grammaire était beaucoup plus contraignante. Voir PEP 614 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0614/] pour les détails (contributions de Brandt Bucher dans bpo-39702 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39702]).

Aide améliorée pour le module typing. La documentation est maintenant visible pour toutes les formes spéciales et les alias générique spéciaux (comme Union et List). Utiliser help() sur un alias générique comme List[int] montre l'aide correspondant au type réel (list dans ce cas). (Contribution de Serhiy Storchaka dans bpo-40257 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40257]).

L'exécution parallèle de aclose() / asend() / athrow() est maintenant interdite, et ag_running reflète maintenant le statut réel du générateur asynchrone. (Contribué par Yury Selivanov dans bpo-30773 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30773].)

Les erreurs inattendues lors d'un appel de la méthode __iter__ ne sont plus masquées par TypeError dans l'opérateur in et les fonctions contains(), indexOf() et countOf() du module operator. (Contribué par Serhiy Storchaka dans bpo-40824 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40824].)

Les expressions lambda sans parenthèses ne peuvent plus être la partie expression dans une clause if dans les compréhensions de liste et les expressions de générateur. Voir bpo-41848 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41848] et bpo-43755 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43755] pour plus de détails.

Nouveaux modules

zoneinfo

Le module zoneinfo ajoute la prise en charge de la base de donnée des fuseaux horaires de l'IANA dans la bibliothèque standard. Il ajoute zoneinfo.ZoneInfo, une implémentation concrète de datetime.tzinfo à partir des données de fuseaux horaires du système.

Exemple :

>>> from zoneinfo import ZoneInfo
>>> import datetime as dt

>>> # Daylight saving time
>>> when = dt.datetime(2020, 10, 31, 12, tzinfo=ZoneInfo("America/Los_Angeles"))
>>> print(when)
2020-10-31 12:00:00-07:00
>>> when.tzname()
'PDT'

>>> # Standard time
>>> when += dt.timedelta(days=7)
>>> print(when)
2020-11-07 12:00:00-08:00
>>> print(when.tzname())
PST

As a fall-back source of data for platforms that don't ship the IANA database, the tzdata [https://pypi.org/project/tzdata/] module was released as a first-party package -- distributed via PyPI and maintained by the CPython core team.

Voir aussi

PEP 615 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0615/] — Prise en charge de la base de donnée des fuseaux horaires de l'IANA dans la bibliothèque standard

PEP écrit et implémenté par Paul Ganssle

graphlib

Un nouveau module, graphlib, a été ajouté. Il contient la classe graphlib.TopologicalSorter qui offre des fonctionnalités pour faire le tri topologique de graphes (contribution de Pablo Galindo, Tim Peters et Larry Hastings dans bpo-17005 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17005]).

Modules améliorés

ast

Ajout de l'option indent à dump() qui permet de produire une sortie multi-ligne indentée (contribution de Serhiy Storchaka dans bpo-37995 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37995]).

Ajout de la fonction ast.unparse() au module ast pour renverser l'analyse syntaxique d'un objet ast.AST et produire une chaîne de code qui produirait un ast.AST équivalent lorsqu'il est analysé (contribution de Pablo Galindo et Batuhan Taskaya dans bpo-38870 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38870]).

Ajout de chaînes de documentation aux nœuds AST qui contiennent les signatures ASDL utilisées pour construire ce nœud (contribution de Batuhan Taskaya dans bpo-39638 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39638]).

asyncio

En raison de problèmes de sécurité importants, le paramètre reuse_address de asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint() n'est plus supporté. C'est à cause du comportement de l'option socket SO_REUSEADDR en UDP. Pour plus de détails, voir la documentation de loop.create_datagram_endpoint(). (Contribué par Kyle Stanley, Antoine Pitrou, et Yury Selivanov dans bpo-37228 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37228].)

Ajout d'une nouvelle coroutine shutdown_default_executor() qui programme une extinction de l'exécuteur par défaut qui attend que ThreadPoolExecutor se termine. Aussi, asyncio.run() à été mis à jour pour utiliser la nouvelle coroutine. (Contribué par Kyle Stanley dans bpo-34037 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34037].)

Added asyncio.PidfdChildWatcher, a Linux-specific child watcher implementation that polls process file descriptors. (bpo-38692 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38692])

Added a new coroutine asyncio.to_thread(). It is mainly used for running IO-bound functions in a separate thread to avoid blocking the event loop, and essentially works as a high-level version of run_in_executor() that can directly take keyword arguments. (Contributed by Kyle Stanley and Yury Selivanov in bpo-32309 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32309].)

When cancelling the task due to a timeout, asyncio.wait_for() will now wait until the cancellation is complete also in the case when timeout is <= 0, like it does with positive timeouts. (Contributed by Elvis Pranskevichus in bpo-32751 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32751].)

asyncio now raises TypeError when calling incompatible methods with an ssl.SSLSocket socket. (Contributed by Ido Michael in bpo-37404 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37404].)

compileall

Ajout de la possibilité d'utiliser des liens physiques pour les fichiers .pyc dupliqués : paramètre hardlink_dupes et option de ligne de commande --hardlink-dupes (contribution de Lumír 'Frenzy' Balhar dans bpo-40495 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40495]).

Ajout d'options pour manipuler les chemins des fichiers .pyc résultants : paramètres stripdir, prependdir, limit_sl_dest et options de la ligne de commande -s, -p, -e. Ajout de la possibilité de spécifier l'option pour un niveau d'optimisation plus d'une fois (contribution de Lumír 'Frenzy' Balhar dans bpo-38112 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38112]).

concurrent.futures

Ajout du nouveau paramètre cancel_futures à concurrent.futures.Executor.shutdown() qui annule tous les futurs en attente qui n'ont pas commencé leur exécution, plutôt que d'attendre qu'ils aient complété avant d'arrêter l'exécuteur (contribution Kyle Stanley dans bpo-39349 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39349]).

Removed daemon threads from ThreadPoolExecutor and ProcessPoolExecutor. This improves compatibility with subinterpreters and predictability in their shutdown processes. (Contributed by Kyle Stanley in bpo-39812 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39812].)

Workers in ProcessPoolExecutor are now spawned on demand, only when there are no available idle workers to reuse. This optimizes startup overhead and reduces the amount of lost CPU time to idle workers. (Contributed by Kyle Stanley in bpo-39207 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39207].)

curses

Ajout des fonctions curses.get_escdelay(), curses.set_escdelay(), curses.get_tabsize(), et curses.set_tabsize() (contribution d'Anthony Sottile dans bpo-38312 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38312]).

datetime

The isocalendar() of datetime.date and isocalendar() of datetime.datetime methods now returns a namedtuple() instead of a tuple. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-24416 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24416].)

distutils

La commande upload crée maintenant des condensats SHA2-256 et Blake2b-256. Elle ne produit pas MD5 sur les plateformes qui bloquent les condensats MD5 (contribution de Christian Heimes dans bpo-40698 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40698]).

fcntl

Added constants fcntl.F_OFD_GETLK, fcntl.F_OFD_SETLK and fcntl.F_OFD_SETLKW. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-38602 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38602].)

ftplib

FTP and FTP_TLS now raise a ValueError if the given timeout for their constructor is zero to prevent the creation of a non-blocking socket. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-39259 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259].)

gc

Quand le ramasse-miettes fait un ramassage pour lequel certains objets sont ressuscités (ils sont atteignables à partir de l'extérieur des cycles isolés après que les finaliseurs soient exécutés), le ramassage des objets qui sont toujours inatteignables n'est pas suspendu (contribution de Pablo Galindo et Tim Peters dans bpo-38379 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38379]).

Ajout de la fonction gc.is_finalized() pour vérifier si un objet a été finalisé par le ramasse-miettes (contribution de Pablo Galindo dans bpo-39322 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39322]).

hashlib

Le module hashlib peut maintenant utiliser les algorithmes de hachage SHA3 et SHAKE XOF de OpenSSL quand ils sont disponibles (contribution de Christian Heimes dans bpo-37630 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37630]).

Les modules de hachage natifs peuvent être désactivés avec ./configure --without-builtin-hashlib-hashes ou activés sélectivement avec par exemple ./configure --with-builtin-hashlib-hashes=sha3,blake2 pour forcer l'utilisation de l’implémentation OpenSSL (contribution de Christian Heimes dans bpo-40479 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40479]).

http

HTTP status codes 103 EARLY_HINTS, 418 IM_A_TEAPOT and 425 TOO_EARLY are added to http.HTTPStatus. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-39509 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39509] and Ross Rhodes in bpo-39507 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39507].)

IDLE et idlelib

Ajout d'une option pour désactiver le clignotement du curseur (contribution de Zackery Spytz dans bpo-4603 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4603]).

La fenêtre de complétion de IDLE est maintenant fermée par la touche d'échappement (contribution de Johnny Najera dans bpo-38944 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38944]).

Ajout de mots clés à la liste de complétion de noms de modules (contribution de Terry J. Reedy dans bpo-37765 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37765]).

New in 3.9 maintenance releases

IDLE invoque maintenant sys.excepthook() (lorsque lancé sans '-n'). Auparavant, les fonctions de rappel définies par l'utilisateur étaient ignorées (contribution par Ken Hilton dans bpo-43008 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43008]).

Les changements ci-haut ont été rétro-portés dans la version de maintenance de 3.8.

Rearrange the settings dialog. Split the General tab into Windows and Shell/Ed tabs. Move help sources, which extend the Help menu, to the Extensions tab. Make space for new options and shorten the dialog. The latter makes the dialog better fit small screens. (Contributed by Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-40468 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40468].) Move the indent space setting from the Font tab to the new Windows tab. (Contributed by Mark Roseman and Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-33962 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33962].)

Applique la coloration syntaxique aux fichiers .pyi (contribution d'Alex Waygood et de Terry Jan Reedy dans bpo-45447 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45447]).

imaplib

IMAP4 and IMAP4_SSL now have an optional timeout parameter for their constructors. Also, the open() method now has an optional timeout parameter with this change. The overridden methods of IMAP4_SSL and IMAP4_stream were applied to this change. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-38615 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38615].)

imaplib.IMAP4.unselect() is added. imaplib.IMAP4.unselect() frees server's resources associated with the selected mailbox and returns the server to the authenticated state. This command performs the same actions as imaplib.IMAP4.close(), except that no messages are permanently removed from the currently selected mailbox. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-40375 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40375].)

importlib

Pour plus de cohérence avec les instructions d'import, importlib.util.resolve_name() lève maintenant ImportError plutôt que ValueError pour les tentatives d'import relatifs invalides (contribution de Ngalim Siregar dans bpo-37444 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37444]).

Les chargeurs d'importation qui publient des objets modules immuables peuvent maintenant aussi publier des paquets immuables en plus des modules individuels (contribution de Dino Viehland dans bpo-39336 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39336]).

Ajout de la fonction importlib.resources.files() qui prend en charge les sous-répertoires dans les données du paquet. Aussi rétro-porté pour les version précédentes de Python dans importlib_resources version 1.5 (contribution de Jason R. Coombs dans bpo-39791 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39791]).

Mise à jour de importlib.metadata à partir de importlib_metadata version 1.6.1.

inspect

inspect.BoundArguments.arguments, qui était un OrderedDict, devient un dict natif régulier (contribution de Inada Naoki dans bpo-36350 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36350] et bpo-39775 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39775]).

ipaddress

ipaddress prend désormais en charge les IPv6 avec une portée spécifiée (adresses IPv6 avec un suffixe %<scope_id>).

Les adresses IPv6 avec une portée spécifiée peuvent être analysées avec ipaddress.IPv6Address. S'il est présent, l'indice de la zone de la portée est disponible dans l'attribut scope_id (contribution de Oleksandr Pavliuk dans bpo-34788 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34788]).

À partir de Python 3.9.5, le module ipaddress n'accepte plus aucun zéro en tête des chaînes de caractères IPv4. (Contribué par Christian Heimes dans bpo-36384 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36384]).

math

Extension de la fonction math.gcd() pour gérer les arguments multiples. Préalablement, elle ne gérait que deux arguments (contribution de Serhiy Storchaka dans bpo-39648 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39648]).

Ajout de math.lcm() : renvoie le plus petit commun multiple des arguments spécifiés (contribution de Mark Dickinson, Ananthakrishnan et Serhiy Storchaka dans bpo-39479 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39479] et bpo-39648 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39648]).

Ajout de math.nextafter() : renvoie la prochaine valeur à point flottant après x en direction de y (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-39288 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39288]).

Ajout de math.ulp() : renvoie la valeur du bit le moins significatif d'un float (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-39310 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39310]).

multiprocessing

La classe multiprocessing.SimpleQueue a une nouvelle méthode close() pour fermer la queue de façon explicite (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-30966 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30966]).

nntplib

NNTP and NNTP_SSL now raise a ValueError if the given timeout for their constructor is zero to prevent the creation of a non-blocking socket. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-39259 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259].)

os

Added CLD_KILLED and CLD_STOPPED for si_code. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-38493 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38493].)

Exposed the Linux-specific os.pidfd_open() (bpo-38692 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38692]) and os.P_PIDFD (bpo-38713 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38713]) for process management with file descriptors.

La fonction os.unsetenv() est maintenant aussi disponible sur Windows (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-39413 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39413]).

Les fonctions os.putenv() et os.unsetenv() sont maintenant toujours disponibles (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-39395 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39395]).

Ajout de la fonction os.waitstatus_to_exitcode() : convertit la valeur de retour de wait() en code de sortie (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-40094 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40094]).

pathlib

Added pathlib.Path.readlink() which acts similarly to os.readlink(). (Contributed by Girts Folkmanis in bpo-30618 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30618])

pdb

Sur Windows, Pdb gère maintenant ~/.pdbrc (contribution de Tim Hopper et Dan Lidral-Porter dans bpo-20523 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20523]).

poplib

POP3 and POP3_SSL now raise a ValueError if the given timeout for their constructor is zero to prevent the creation of a non-blocking socket. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-39259 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259].)

pprint

pprint peut maintenant faire l'affichage formaté de types.SimpleNamespace (contribution de Carl Bordum Hansen dans bpo-37376 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37376]).

pydoc

The documentation string is now shown not only for class, function, method etc, but for any object that has its own __doc__ attribute. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-40257 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40257].)

random

Added a new random.Random.randbytes() method: generate random bytes. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-40286 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40286].)

signal

Sur Linux, exposition de signal.pidfd_send_signal() pour envoyer des signaux à un processus en utilisant un descripteur de fichier plutôt qu'un identifiant de processus (pid). (bpo-38712 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38712])

smtplib

SMTP and SMTP_SSL now raise a ValueError if the given timeout for their constructor is zero to prevent the creation of a non-blocking socket. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-39259 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259].)

LMTP constructor now has an optional timeout parameter. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-39329 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39329].)

socket

The socket module now exports the CAN_RAW_JOIN_FILTERS constant on Linux 4.1 and greater. (Contributed by Stefan Tatschner and Zackery Spytz in bpo-25780 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25780].)

The socket module now supports the CAN_J1939 protocol on platforms that support it. (Contributed by Karl Ding in bpo-40291 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40291].)

Le module socket possède maintenant les fonctions socket.send_fds() et socket.recv_fds() (contribution de Joannah Nanjekye, Shinya Okano et Victor Stinner dans bpo-28724 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28724]).

time

On AIX, thread_time() is now implemented with thread_cputime() which has nanosecond resolution, rather than clock_gettime(CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID) which has a resolution of 10 milliseconds. (Contributed by Batuhan Taskaya in bpo-40192 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40192])

sys

Added a new sys.platlibdir attribute: name of the platform-specific library directory. It is used to build the path of standard library and the paths of installed extension modules. It is equal to "lib" on most platforms. On Fedora and SuSE, it is equal to "lib64" on 64-bit platforms. (Contributed by Jan Matějek, Matěj Cepl, Charalampos Stratakis and Victor Stinner in bpo-1294959 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1294959].)

Previously, sys.stderr was block-buffered when non-interactive. Now stderr defaults to always being line-buffered. (Contributed by Jendrik Seipp in bpo-13601 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13601].)

tracemalloc

Ajout de tracemalloc.reset_peak() qui affecte la taille d'apogée (la plus grande taille atteinte) du bloc mémoire tracé à la taille courante, pour mesurer la taille d'apogée de parties de code spécifiques (contribution de Huon Wilson dans bpo-40630 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40630]).

typing

PEP 593 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0593/] ajoute le type typing.Annotated pour décorer les types existants avec des métadonnées spécifiques au contexte et le nouveau paramètre include_extras à typing.get_type_hints() pour récupérer les métadonnées à l'exécution (contribution de Till Varoquaux et Konstantin Kashin).

unicodedata

La base de donnée Unicode a été mise à jour à la version 13.0.0. (bpo-39926 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39926]).

venv

Tous les scripts d'activations fournis par venv spécifient maintenant la personnalisation de l'invite de façon cohérente en utilisant toujours la valeur spécifiée dans __VENV_PROMPT__. Précédemment certains scripts utilisaient toujours __VENV_PROMPT__, d'autres seulement quand la variable était affectée, et un utilisait plutôt __VENV_NAME__ (contribution de Brett Cannon dans bpo-37663 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37663]).

xml

Les caractères d'espacement à l'intérieur des attributs sont maintenant préservés lors de la sérialisation d'xml.etree.ElementTree en fichier XML. Les fin de lignes ne sont plus normalisées par "n". Ceci est le résultat d'une discussion sur comment interpréter la section 2.11 de la spécification XML (contribution de Mefistotelis dans bpo-39011 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39011]).

Optimisations

L'affectation d'une variable temporaire dans les compréhensions est optimisée. Maintenant for y in [expr] dans les compréhensions est aussi rapide qu'une affectation simple y = expr. Par exemple :

sums = [s for s in [0] for x in data for s in [s + x]]

Contrairement à l'opérateur :=, cet idiome ne laisse pas déborder une variable dans la portée externe.

(contribution de Serhiy Storchaka dans bpo-32856 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32856]).

Optimisation de la gestion des signaux dans les applications avec plus d'un fil d'exécution (multithreaded applications). Si un fil d'exécution autre que le fil principal reçoit un signal, la boucle d'évaluation du code intermédiaire (bytecode) n'est plus interrompue à chaque instruction intermédiaire pour vérifier s'il y a des signaux en attente qui ne peuvent être gérés. Seul le fil principal de l'interpréteur principal peut gérer les signaux.

Précédemment, la boucle d'évaluation du code intermédiaire était interrompue à chaque instruction jusqu'à ce que le fil principal gère les signaux (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-40010 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40010]).

Optimisation du module subprocess sur FreeBSD en utilisant closefrom() (contribution de Ed Maste, Conrad Meyer, Kyle Evans, Kubilay Kocak et Victor Stinner dans bpo-38061 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38061]).

PyLong_FromDouble() is now up to 1.87x faster for values that fit into long. (Contributed by Sergey Fedoseev in bpo-37986 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37986].)

A number of Python builtins (range, tuple, set, frozenset, list, dict) are now sped up by using PEP 590 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/] vectorcall protocol. (Contributed by Donghee Na, Mark Shannon, Jeroen Demeyer and Petr Viktorin in bpo-37207 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207].)

Optimized set.difference_update() for the case when the other set is much larger than the base set. (Suggested by Evgeny Kapun with code contributed by Michele Orrù in bpo-8425 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8425].)

L'allocateur de petits objets de Python (obmalloc.c) alloue maintenant (au plus) un aréna vide qui reste disponible pour réutilisation immédiate, sans le renvoyer au système d'exploitation. Ceci prévient l'emballement (thrashing) dans les boucles simples où un aréna pourrait être créé puis détruit à nouveau à chaque itération (contribution de Tim Peters dans bpo-37257 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37257]).

floor division of float operation now has a better performance. Also the message of ZeroDivisionError for this operation is updated. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-39434 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39434].)

Le décodage de courtes chaînes ASCII avec les codecs UTF-8 et ascii est maintenant 15 % plus rapide (contribution de Inada Naoki dans bpo-37348 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37348]).

Voici un résumé des améliorations de performance de Python 3.4 à Python 3.9 :

Python version                       3.4     3.5     3.6     3.7     3.8    3.9
--------------                       ---     ---     ---     ---     ---    ---

Variable and attribute read access:
    read_local                       7.1     7.1     5.4     5.1     3.9    3.9
    read_nonlocal                    7.1     8.1     5.8     5.4     4.4    4.5
    read_global                     15.5    19.0    14.3    13.6     7.6    7.8
    read_builtin                    21.1    21.6    18.5    19.0     7.5    7.8
    read_classvar_from_class        25.6    26.5    20.7    19.5    18.4   17.9
    read_classvar_from_instance     22.8    23.5    18.8    17.1    16.4   16.9
    read_instancevar                32.4    33.1    28.0    26.3    25.4   25.3
    read_instancevar_slots          27.8    31.3    20.8    20.8    20.2   20.5
    read_namedtuple                 73.8    57.5    45.0    46.8    18.4   18.7
    read_boundmethod                37.6    37.9    29.6    26.9    27.7   41.1

Variable and attribute write access:
    write_local                      8.7     9.3     5.5     5.3     4.3    4.3
    write_nonlocal                  10.5    11.1     5.6     5.5     4.7    4.8
    write_global                    19.7    21.2    18.0    18.0    15.8   16.7
    write_classvar                  92.9    96.0   104.6   102.1    39.2   39.8
    write_instancevar               44.6    45.8    40.0    38.9    35.5   37.4
    write_instancevar_slots         35.6    36.1    27.3    26.6    25.7   25.8

Data structure read access:
    read_list                       24.2    24.5    20.8    20.8    19.0   19.5
    read_deque                      24.7    25.5    20.2    20.6    19.8   20.2
    read_dict                       24.3    25.7    22.3    23.0    21.0   22.4
    read_strdict                    22.6    24.3    19.5    21.2    18.9   21.5

Data structure write access:
    write_list                      27.1    28.5    22.5    21.6    20.0   20.0
    write_deque                     28.7    30.1    22.7    21.8    23.5   21.7
    write_dict                      31.4    33.3    29.3    29.2    24.7   25.4
    write_strdict                   28.4    29.9    27.5    25.2    23.1   24.5

Stack (or queue) operations:
    list_append_pop                 93.4   112.7    75.4    74.2    50.8   50.6
    deque_append_pop                43.5    57.0    49.4    49.2    42.5   44.2
    deque_append_popleft            43.7    57.3    49.7    49.7    42.8   46.4

Timing loop:
    loop_overhead                    0.5     0.6     0.4     0.3     0.3    0.3

These results were generated from the variable access benchmark script at: Tools/scripts/var_access_benchmark.py. The benchmark script displays timings in nanoseconds. The benchmarks were measured on an Intel® Core™ i7-4960HQ processor [https://ark.intel.com/content/www/us/en/ark/products/76088/intel-core-i7-4960hq-processor-6m-cache-up-to-3-80-ghz.html] running the macOS 64-bit builds found at python.org [https://www.python.org/downloads/macos/].

Obsolescence

La commande de distutils bdist_msi est maintenant obsolète, utilisez plutôt bdist_wheel (paquet wheel) (contribution de Hugo van Kemenade dans bpo-39586 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39586]).

Présentement, math.factorial() accepte des instances de float qui sont des entiers non-négatifs (comme 5.0). Elle lève une ValueError pour les floats non-entiers et négatifs. Ceci est maintenant obsolète. Les versions futures de Python vont lever une TypeError pour tous les floats (contribution de Serhiy Storchaka dans bpo-37315 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37315]).

The parser and symbol modules are deprecated and will be removed in future versions of Python. For the majority of use cases, users can leverage the Abstract Syntax Tree (AST) generation and compilation stage, using the ast module.

The Public C API functions PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlags(), PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlagsFilename(), PyParser_SimpleParseFileFlags() and PyNode_Compile() are deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.10 together with the old parser.

L'utilisation de NotImplemented dans un contexte booléen est devenu obsolète, puisque c'est presque toujours le résultat d'une implémentation incorrecte des opérateurs de comparaison avancés. Ceci va devenir une TypeError dans les versions futures de Python (contribution de Josh Rosenberg dans bpo-35712 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35712]).

Le module random accepte présentement n'importe quel hachable comme valeur d'ensemencement. Malheureusement, certains de ces types ne garantissent pas une valeur de hachage déterministe. Après Python 3.9, le module va restreindre l'ensemencement à None, int, float, str, bytes et bytearray.

Ouvrir un fichier GzipFile en écriture sans spécifier l'argument mode est obsolète. Dans les futures versions de Python, il sera toujours ouvert en lecture par défaut. Spécifiez l'argument mode pour l'ouvrir en écriture et supprimer l'avertissement (contribution de Serhiy Storchaka dans bpo-28286 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28286]).

Deprecated the split() method of _tkinter.TkappType in favour of the splitlist() method which has more consistent and predictable behavior. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-38371 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38371].)

Le passage explicite d'objets coroutine à asyncio.wait() est devenu obsolète et sera retiré dans la version 3.11. (Contribution de Yury Selivanov et Kyle Stanley dans bpo-34790 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34790].)

binhex4 and hexbin4 standards are now deprecated. The binhex module and the following binascii functions are now deprecated:

b2a_hqx(), a2b_hqx()

rlecode_hqx(), rledecode_hqx()

(contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-39353 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39353]).

Les classes slice, Index et ExtSlice du module ast sont considérées obsolètes et seront retirées des versions futures de Python. value doit être utilisé à la place de Index(value). Tuple(slices, Load()) doit être utilisé plutôt que ExtSlice(slices) (contribution de Serhiy Storchaka dans bpo-34822 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34822]).

Les classes Suite, Param, AugLoad et AugStore du module ast sont considérées obsolètes et seront retirées des versions futures de Python. Elles n'étaient pas produites par l'analyseur et n'étaient pas acceptées par le générateur de code dans Python 3 (contribution de Batuhan Taskaya dans bpo-39639 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39639] et bpo-39969 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39969] et Serhiy Storchaka dans bpo-39988 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39988]).

The PyEval_InitThreads() and PyEval_ThreadsInitialized() functions are now deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.11. Calling PyEval_InitThreads() now does nothing. The GIL is initialized by Py_Initialize() since Python 3.7. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39877 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39877].)

Passer None comme premier argument à la fonction shlex.split() a été rendu obsolète (contribution de Zackery Spytz dans bpo-33262 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33262]).

smtpd.MailmanProxy() is now deprecated as it is unusable without an external module, mailman. (Contributed by Samuel Colvin in bpo-35800 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35800].)

The lib2to3 module now emits a PendingDeprecationWarning. Python 3.9 switched to a PEG parser (see PEP 617 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/]), and Python 3.10 may include new language syntax that is not parsable by lib2to3's LL(1) parser. The lib2to3 module may be removed from the standard library in a future Python version. Consider third-party alternatives such as LibCST [https://libcst.readthedocs.io/] or parso [https://parso.readthedocs.io/]. (Contributed by Carl Meyer in bpo-40360 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40360].)

Le paramètre random de random.shuffle() est maintenant obsolète (contribution de Raymond Hettinger dans bpo-40465 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40465]).

Retraits

The erroneous version at unittest.mock.__version__ has been removed.

nntplib.NNTP: xpath() and xgtitle() methods have been removed. These methods are deprecated since Python 3.3. Generally, these extensions are not supported or not enabled by NNTP server administrators. For xgtitle(), please use nntplib.NNTP.descriptions() or nntplib.NNTP.description() instead. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-39366 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39366].)

Les méthodes de array.array : tostring() et fromstring() ont été retirées. Elles étaient des alias de tobytes() et frombytes(), obsolètes depuis Python 3.2 (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-38916 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38916]).

La fonction non-documentée sys.callstats() a été retirée. Depuis Python 3.7, elle était obsolète et retournait toujours None. Elle dépendait de l'option de construction CALL_PROFILE qui avait déjà été retirée dans Python 3.7 (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-37414 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37414]).

Les fonctions sys.getcheckinterval() et sys.setcheckinterval() ont été retirées. Elle étaient obsolètes depuis Python 3.2. Utilisez plutôt sys.getswitchinterval() et sys.setswitchinterval() (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-37392 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37392]).

La fonction C PyImport_Cleanup() a été retirée. Elle était documentée comme "Vide la table des modules. Pour usage interne seulement." (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-36710 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36710]).

Les modules _dummy_thread et dummy_threading ont été retirés. Ces modules étaient obsolètes depuis Python 3.7 qui a besoin de la gestion de fils d'exécution multiples (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-37312 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37312]).

aifc.openfp() alias to aifc.open(), sunau.openfp() alias to sunau.open(), and wave.openfp() alias to wave.open() have been removed. They were deprecated since Python 3.7. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-37320 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37320].)

The isAlive() method of threading.Thread has been removed. It was deprecated since Python 3.8. Use is_alive() instead. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-37804 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37804].)

Les méthodes getchildren() et getiterator() des classes ElementTree et Element dans le module ElementTree ont été retirées. Elle avaient été déclarées obsolètes dans Python 3.2. Utilisez iter(x) ou list(x) plutôt que x.getchildren() et x.iter() ou list(x.iter()) plutôt que x.getiterator() (contribution de Serhiy Storchaka dans bpo-36543 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36543]).

L'ancienne API plistlib a été retirée, elle était obsolète depuis Python 3.4. Utilisez les fonctions load(), loads(), dump() et dumps(). De plus, le paramètre use_builtin_types a été retiré, les objets bytes natifs sont toujours utilisés.

La fonction C PyGen_NeedsFinalizing a été retirée. Elle n'était pas documentée, testée ou utilisée où que ce soit dans CPython après l'implémentation de PEP 442 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/] (contribution de Joannah Nanjekye dans bpo-15088 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15088]).

base64.encodestring() et base64.decodestring(), des alias obsolètes depuis Python 3.1, ont été retirées : utilisez plutôt base64.encodebytes() et base64.decodebytes() (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-39351 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39351]).

La fonction fractions.gcd() a été retirée, elle était obsolète depuis Python 3.5 (bpo-22486 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22486]) : utilisez plutôt math.gcd() (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-39350 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39350]).

Le paramètre buffering de la classe bz2.BZ2File a été retiré. Depuis Python 3.0, il était ignoré et son utilisation levait un DeprecationWarning. Passez un objet fichier déjà ouvert pour déterminer comment le fichier sera ouvert (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-39357 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39357]).

Le paramètre encoding de json.loads() a été retiré. À partir de Python 3.1, il était obsolète et ignoré ; son utilisation levait un DeprecationWarning depuis Python 3.8 (contribution de Inada Naoki dans bpo-39377 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39377]).

Les instructions with (await asyncio.lock): et with (yield from asyncio.lock): ne sont plus prises en charge, utilisez plutôt async with lock. De même pour asyncio.Condition et asyncio.Semaphore (contribution de Andrew Svetlov dans bpo-34793 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34793]).

The sys.getcounts() function, the -X showalloccount command line option and the show_alloc_count field of the C structure PyConfig have been removed. They required a special Python build by defining COUNT_ALLOCS macro. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39489 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39489].)

L'attribut _field_types de la classe typing.NamedTuple a été retiré. Il était obsolète depuis Python 3.8. Utilisez plutôt l'attribut __annotations__ (contribution de Serhiy Storchaka dans bpo-40182 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40182]).

The symtable.SymbolTable.has_exec() method has been removed. It was deprecated since 2006, and only returning False when it's called. (Contributed by Batuhan Taskaya in bpo-40208 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40208])

The asyncio.Task.current_task() and asyncio.Task.all_tasks() have been removed. They were deprecated since Python 3.7 and you can use asyncio.current_task() and asyncio.all_tasks() instead. (Contributed by Rémi Lapeyre in bpo-40967 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40967])

La méthode unescape() de la classe html.parser.HTMLParser a été retirée (elle était obsolète depuis Python 3.4). html.unescape() doit être utilisée pour convertir les références de caractère en leurs caractères Unicode correspondants.

Portage vers Python 3.9

Cette section liste les changements mentionnés préalablement et d'autres améliorations qui peuvent demander des changements à votre code.

Changements dans l'API Python

__import__() et importlib.util.resolve_name() lèvent maintenant ImportError où elles levaient précédemment ValueError. Les appelants qui attrapent les types spécifiques d'exceptions et qui prennent à la fois en charge Python 3.9 et des versions précédentes doivent attraper les deux types avec except (ImportError, ValueError):.

Il n'y a plus de traitement spécial dans les scriptes d'activation de venv quand __VENV_PROMPT__ est mis à "".

The select.epoll.unregister() method no longer ignores the EBADF error. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39239 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39239].)

Le paramètre compresslevel de bz2.BZ2File est devenu exclusivement nommé (keyword-only) puisque le paramètre buffering a été retiré (contribution de Victor Stinner in bpo-39357 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39357]).

Simplification de l'AST pour l'indiçage. Les indices simples sont représentés par leur valeur, les tranches étendues sont représentées par des n-uplets. Index(value) va renvoyer value elle-même, ExtSlice(slices) va renvoyer Tuple(slices, Load()) (contribution de Serhiy Storchaka dans bpo-34822 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34822]).

Le module importlib ignore maintenant la variable d’environnement PYTHONCASEOK quand les options de ligne de commande -E ou -I sont utilisées.

Le paramètre encoding a été ajouté aux classes ftplib.FTP et ftplib.FTP_TLS en paramètre exclusivement nommé et l'encodage par défaut est passé de Latin-1 à UTF-8 en conformité à RFC 2640 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2640.html].

asyncio.loop.shutdown_default_executor() a été ajouté à AbstractEventLoop, donc les boucles d'événements alternatives qui héritent de celle-ci devraient définir cette méthode (contribution de Kyle Stanley dans bpo-34037 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34037]).

Les valeurs constantes des drapeaux futurs du module __future__ sont mises à jour pour éviter les collisions avec les drapeaux du compilateur. Précédemment, PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT était en collision avec CO_FUTURE_DIVISION (contribution de Batuhan Taskaya dans bpo-39562 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39562]).

array('u') now uses wchar_t as C type instead of Py_UNICODE. This change doesn't affect to its behavior because Py_UNICODE is alias of wchar_t since Python 3.3. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-34538 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34538].)

L'API logging.getLogger() renvoie maintenant le journaliseur racine quand on lui passe le nom 'root', alors que préalablement il renvoyait un journaliseur non-racine appelé 'root'. Ceci peut affecter les cas où le code de l'utilisateur veut explicitement un journaliseur non-racine appelé 'root', ou instancie un journaliseur avec logging.getLogger(__name__) dans un module de niveau principal appelé 'root.py' (contribution de Vinay Sajip dans bpo-37742 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37742]).

Division handling of PurePath now returns NotImplemented instead of raising a TypeError when passed something other than an instance of str or PurePath. This allows creating compatible classes that don't inherit from those mentioned types. (Contributed by Roger Aiudi in bpo-34775 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34775]).

Starting with Python 3.9.5 the ipaddress module no longer accepts any leading zeros in IPv4 address strings. Leading zeros are ambiguous and interpreted as octal notation by some libraries. For example the legacy function socket.inet_aton() treats leading zeros as octal notatation. glibc implementation of modern inet_pton() does not accept any leading zeros. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-36384 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36384]).

codecs.lookup() now normalizes the encoding name the same way as encodings.normalize_encoding(), except that codecs.lookup() also converts the name to lower case. For example, "latex+latin1" encoding name is now normalized to "latex_latin1". (Contributed by Jordon Xu in bpo-37751 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37751].)

Changements dans l'API C

Les instances de types alloués sur le tas (tels que ceux créés avec PyType_FromSpec() et les APIs similaires) gardent une référence à leur objet type depuis Python 3.8. Tel qu'indiqué dans "Changements à l'API C" de Python 3.8, pour la grande majorité des cas, il ne devrait pas y avoir d'effets secondaires sauf pour les types qui ont une fonction tp_traverse personnalisée. Assurez-vous que toutes les fonctions tp_traverse personnalisées des types alloués sur le tas visitent le type de l'objet.

Exemple :

int
foo_traverse(PyObject *self, visitproc visit, void *arg)
{
// Rest of the traverse function
#if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x03090000
    // This was not needed before Python 3.9 (Python issue 35810 and 40217)
    Py_VISIT(Py_TYPE(self));
#endif
}

Si votre fonction de traversée délègue à la tp_traverse de sa classe mère (ou d'un autre type), assurez-vous que Py_TYPE(self) ne soit visité qu'une seule fois. Prenez note que seuls les types du tas doivent visiter leur type dans tp_traverse.

Par exemple, si votre fonction tp_traverse inclut :

base->tp_traverse(self, visit, arg)

alors ajoutez :

#if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x03090000
    // This was not needed before Python 3.9 (bpo-35810 and bpo-40217)
    if (base->tp_flags & Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE) {
        // a heap type's tp_traverse already visited Py_TYPE(self)
    } else {
        Py_VISIT(Py_TYPE(self));
    }
#else

(Voir bpo-35810 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35810] et bpo-40217 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40217] pour plus d'information.)

Les fonctions PyEval_CallObject, PyEval_CallFunction, PyEval_CallMethod et PyEval_CallObjectWithKeywords sont obsolètes. Utilisez plutôt PyObject_Call() et ses variantes. (Pour plus de détails, voir bpo-29548 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29548].)

Changements au code intermédiaire CPython

The LOAD_ASSERTION_ERROR opcode was added for handling the assert statement. Previously, the assert statement would not work correctly if the AssertionError exception was being shadowed. (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in bpo-34880 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34880].)

Le code d'opération COMPARE_OP a été séparé en quatre instructions distinctes :

COMPARE_OP pour les comparaisons avancées ;

IS_OP pour les tests is et is not ;

CONTAINS_OP pour les tests in et not in ;

JUMP_IF_NOT_EXC_MATCH pour vérifier les exceptions dans les instructions try-except.

(contribution de Mark Shannon dans bpo-39156 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39156]).

Changements à la compilation

Added --with-platlibdir option to the configure script: name of the platform-specific library directory, stored in the new sys.platlibdir attribute. See sys.platlibdir attribute for more information. (Contributed by Jan Matějek, Matěj Cepl, Charalampos Stratakis and Victor Stinner in bpo-1294959 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1294959].)

La macro spéciale de compilation COUNT_ALLOCS a été retirée (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-39489 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39489]).

On non-Windows platforms, the setenv() and unsetenv() functions are now required to build Python. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39395 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39395].)

Sur les plateformes non-Windows, la création d'installateurs bdist_wininst n'est maintenant officiellement plus pris en charge. (Voir bpo-10945 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10945] pour plus de détails.)

When building Python on macOS from source, _tkinter now links with non-system Tcl and Tk frameworks if they are installed in /Library/Frameworks, as had been the case on older releases of macOS. If a macOS SDK is explicitly configured, by using --enable-universalsdk or -isysroot, only the SDK itself is searched. The default behavior can still be overridden with --with-tcltk-includes and --with-tcltk-libs. (Contributed by Ned Deily in bpo-34956 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34956].)

Python peut maintenant être compilé pour Windows 10 ARM64 (contribution de Steve Dower dans bpo-33125 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33125]).

Certains tests individuels sont maintenant ignorés lorsque --pgo est utilisé. Les tests en question augmentaient la durée de la tâche PGO de manière significative et n'optimisaient probablement pas l'exécutable final. Cela accélère la tâche par un facteur d'environ 15 fois. Le fait de lancer la suite de tests est lent. Ce changement va peut être avoir pour conséquence des exécutables compilés un peu moins optimisés car moins de branches de code seront exécutées. Si vous souhaitez attendre avec une compilation plus lente, l'ancienne manière de fonctionner peut être obtenue avec ./configure [..] PROFILE_TASK="-m test --pgo-extended". Nous ne garantissons pas quel set de tâches PGO produira une compilation plus rapide. Les utilisateurs qui s'y intéressent devraient exécuter leurs propres benchmarks, car les résultats peuvent dépendre de l'environnement, de la charge de travail et de la chaîne d'outils du compilateur. (Voir bpo-36044 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36044] et bpo-37707 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37707] pour plus de détails.)

Changements à l'API C

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

PEP 573 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0573/]: Added PyType_FromModuleAndSpec() to associate a module with a class; PyType_GetModule() and PyType_GetModuleState() to retrieve the module and its state; and PyCMethod and METH_METHOD to allow a method to access the class it was defined in. (Contributed by Marcel Plch and Petr Viktorin in bpo-38787 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38787].)

Ajout de la fonction PyFrame_GetCode() : récupérer le code d'un cadre. Ajout de la fonction PyFrame_GetBack() : récupérer le prochain cadre englobant (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-40421 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40421]).

Ajout de PyFrame_GetLineNumber() à l'API C limité (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-40421 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40421]).

Ajout des fonctions PyThreadState_GetInterpreter() et PyInterpreterState_Get() pour récupérer l'interpréteur. Ajout de la fonction PyThreadState_GetFrame() pour récupérer le cadre de l'état d'un fil d'exécution Python. Ajout de la fonction PyThreadState_GetID() : récupérer l'identifiant unique de l'état d'un fil d'exécution Python (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-39947 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947]).

Ajout de la nouvelle fonction publique PyObject_CallNoArgs() à l'API C, qui appelle un objet Python appelable sans aucun argument. C'est la façon la plus efficace d'appeler un objet Python appelable sans aucun argument (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-37194 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37194]).

Changements dans l'API C limité (si la macro Py_LIMITED_API est définie) :

Fournit Py_EnterRecursiveCall() et Py_LeaveRecursiveCall() comme fonctions régulières pour l'API limité. Précédemment, elles étaient définies en tant que macros, mais ces macros n'étaient pas compilées avec l'API C limité qui ne peut pas accéder au champ PyThreadState.recursion_depth (la structure est opaque à l'API C limité) ;

PyObject_INIT() et PyObject_INIT_VAR() deviennent des fonctions "opaques" régulières pour cacher les détails d'implémentation

(contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-38644 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38644] et bpo-39542 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39542]).

The PyModule_AddType() function is added to help adding a type to a module. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-40024 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40024].)

Ajout des fonctions PyObject_GC_IsTracked() et PyObject_GC_IsFinalized() à l'API publique qui déterminent respectivement si les objets Python sont présentement suivis ou ont été finalisés par le ramasse-miettes (contribution de Pablo Galindo Salgado dans bpo-40241 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40241]).

Added _PyObject_FunctionStr() to get a user-friendly string representation of a function-like object. (Patch by Jeroen Demeyer in bpo-37645 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37645].)

Ajout de PyObject_CallOneArg() pour appeler un objet avec un argument positionnel. (Rustine par Jeroen Demeyer dans bpo-37483 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37483].)

Portage vers Python 3.9

PyInterpreterState.eval_frame (PEP 523 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/]) nécessite maintenant un nouveau paramètre obligatoire tstate (PyThreadState*) (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-38500 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38500]).

Modules d'extension : les fonctions m_traverse, m_clear et m_free de PyModuleDef ne sont plus appelées si l'état du module est demandé mais qu'il n'a pas encore été alloué. C'est le cas immédiatement après que le module a été créé et avant que le module soit exécuté (fonction Py_mod_exec). Plus précisément, ces fonctions ne sont pas appelées si m_size est plus grand que 0 et que l'état du module (tel que renvoyé par PyModule_GetState()) est NULL.

Les modules d'extensions sans état de module (m_size <= 0) ne sont pas affectés.

Si Py_AddPendingCall() est appelée dans un sous-interpréteur, la fonction est planifiée pour appel dans le sous-interpréteur, plutôt que dans l'interpréteur principal. Chaque sous interpréteur a maintenant sa propre liste d'appels planifiés (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-39984 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39984]).

Le registre de Windows n'est plus utilisé pour initialiser sys.path quand l'option -E est utilisée (si PyConfig.use_environment est affecté à 0). Ceci est pertinent quand Python est embarqué sur Windows (contribution de Zackery Spytz dans bpo-8901 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8901]).

La variable globale PyStructSequence_UnnamedField est maintenant une constante et fait référence à une chaîne constante (contribution de Serhiy Storchaka dans bpo-38650 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38650]).

The PyGC_Head structure is now opaque. It is only defined in the internal C API (pycore_gc.h). (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-40241 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40241].)

The Py_UNICODE_COPY, Py_UNICODE_FILL, PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH, PyUnicode_FromUnicode(), PyUnicode_AsUnicode(), _PyUnicode_AsUnicode, and PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize() are marked as deprecated in C. They have been deprecated by PEP 393 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/] since Python 3.3. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-36346 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36346].)

La fonction Py_FatalError() est remplacée par une macro qui ajoute automatiquement une entrée au journal avec le nom de la fonction courante, sauf si la macro Py_LIMITED_API est définie (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-39882 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39882]).

Le protocole vectorcall requiert maintenant que l'appelant ne passe que des chaînes pour les noms des arguments nommés. (Voir bpo-37540 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37540] pour plus d'informations.)

Les détails d'implémentation de certaines macros et fonctions sont maintenant cachés :

la macro PyObject_IS_GC() a été convertie en fonction ;

The PyObject_NEW() macro becomes an alias to the PyObject_New macro, and the PyObject_NEW_VAR() macro becomes an alias to the PyObject_NewVar macro. They no longer access directly the PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize member.

PyObject_GET_WEAKREFS_LISTPTR() macro was converted to a function: the macro accessed directly the PyTypeObject.tp_weaklistoffset member.

La macro PyObject_CheckBuffer() a été convertie en fonction : la macro accédait directement au membre PyTypeObject.tp_as_buffer ;

PyIndex_Check() est maintenant toujours déclarée comme une fonction opaque pour cacher ses détails d'implémentation : retrait de la macro PyIndex_Check(). La macro accédait directement au membre PyTypeObject.tp_as_number.

(Voir bpo-40170 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170] pour plus de détails.)

Retraits

Exclusion des macros PyFPE_START_PROTECT() et PyFPE_END_PROTECT() de l'API C limité (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-38835 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38835]).

Le champ tp_print de PyTypeObject a été retiré. Il était utilisé pour écrire des objets dans des fichiers dans Python 2.7 et dans les versions précédentes. Depuis Python 3.0, il était ignoré et inutilisé (contribution de Jeroen Demeyer dans bpo-36974 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36974]).

Changements dans l'API C limité (si la macro Py_LIMITED_API est définie) :

Exclusion des fonctions suivantes de l'API C limité :

PyThreadState_DeleteCurrent() (contribution de Joannah Nanjekye dans bpo-37878 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37878]) ;

_Py_CheckRecursionLimit ;

_Py_NewReference() ;

_Py_ForgetReference() ;

_PyTraceMalloc_NewReference() ;

_Py_GetRefTotal() ;

Le mécanisme trashcan qui n'a jamais fonctionné dans l'API C limité ;

PyTrash_UNWIND_LEVEL ;

Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN_CONDITION ;

Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN ;

Py_TRASHCAN_END ;

Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN ;

Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END.

Migration des fonctions et définitions suivantes vers l'API C interne :

_PyDebug_PrintTotalRefs() ;

_Py_PrintReferences() ;

_Py_PrintReferenceAddresses() ;

_Py_tracemalloc_config ;

_Py_AddToAllObjects() (spécifique aux compilations Py_TRACE_REFS).

(contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-38644 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38644] et bpo-39542 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39542]).

Retrait de la fonction de rappel _PyRuntime.getframe et de la macro _PyThreadState_GetFrame qui était un alias pour _PyRuntime.getframe. Elles étaient exposées uniquement dans l'API C interne. Retrait aussi du type PyThreadFrameGetter (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-39946 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39946]).

Retrait des fonctions suivantes de l'API C. Appelez PyGC_Collect() explicitement pour vider toutes les free lists (contribution de Inada Naoki et Victor Stinner dans bpo-37340 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37340], bpo-38896 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38896] et bpo-40428 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40428]) :

PyAsyncGen_ClearFreeLists() ;

PyContext_ClearFreeList() ;

PyDict_ClearFreeList() ;

PyFloat_ClearFreeList() ;

PyFrame_ClearFreeList() ;

PyList_ClearFreeList() ;

PyMethod_ClearFreeList() et PyCFunction_ClearFreeList() : les free lists des objets méthode liées ont été retirées ;

PySet_ClearFreeList() : la free list des objets sets a été retirée dans Python 3.4 ;

PyTuple_ClearFreeList() ;

PyUnicode_ClearFreeList() : la free list des objets Unicode a été retirée dans Python 3.3.

Retrait de la fonction _PyUnicode_ClearStaticStrings() (contribution de Victor Stinner dans bpo-39465 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39465]).

Retrait de Py_UNICODE_MATCH. Elle était devenue obsolète par PEP 393 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/], non-fonctionnelle depuis Python 3.3. La fonction PyUnicode_Tailmatch() peut être utilisée à sa place (contribution de Inada Naoki dans bpo-36346 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36346]).

Nettoyage dans les fichiers d'en-têtes d'interfaces déclarées pour lesquelles il n'y avait pas d'implémentation. Les symboles retirés de l'API publique sont : _PyBytes_InsertThousandsGroupingLocale, _PyBytes_InsertThousandsGrouping, _Py_InitializeFromArgs, _Py_InitializeFromWideArgs, _PyFloat_Repr, _PyFloat_Digits, _PyFloat_DigitsInit, PyFrame_ExtendStack, _PyAIterWrapper_Type, PyNullImporter_Type, PyCmpWrapper_Type, PySortWrapper_Type, PyNoArgsFunction (contribution de Pablo Galindo Salgado dans bpo-39372 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39372]).

Changements importants dans Python 3.9.1

typing

Le comportement de typing.Literal a été changé pour être conforme avec PEP 586 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0586/] et pour avoir le comportement des vérificateurs de types statique spécifiés dans le PEP :

Literal de-duplique maintenant les paramètres ;

Les comparaisons d'égalité entre les objets Literal sont maintenant indépendantes de l'ordre ;

Les comparaisons des Literal respectent maintenant les types. Par exemple, Literal[0] == Literal[False] évaluait précédemment à True. C'est maintenant False. Pour gérer ce changement, le cache interne des types utilisés peut maintenant différentier les types ;

Les objets Literal lèvent maintenant une exception TypeError lors des comparaisons d'égalités si n'importe quel de leurs paramètres n'est pas immuable. Prenez-note que déclarer un Literal avec un paramètre mutable ne lève pas une erreur :

>>> from typing import Literal
>>> Literal[{0}]
>>> Literal[{0}] == Literal[{False}]
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: unhashable type: 'set'

(Contribution de Yurii Karabas dans bpo-42345 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42345].)

Prise en charge de macOS 11.0 (Big Sur) et de Mac sur processeur Apple

Depuis la version 3.9.1, Python est maintenant totalement compatible (compilation et lancement) sur macOS 11.0 (Big Sur) et sur les Macs Apple Silicon (basés sur l'architecture ARM64). Un nouveau variant de build, universal2, est maintenant disponible et supporte nativement les plateformes ARM64 et Intel 64 en un seul jeu d'exécutables. Les binaires peuvent aussi être compilés sur les versions actuelles de macOS pour ensuite être déployés sur des versions antérieures (testé jusqu'à 10.9), tout en rendant de nouvelles fonctionnalités du système d'exploitation disponibles en fonction de la version du système utilisée à l'exécution ("weaklinking").

(contribution de Ronald Oussoren et Lawrence D'Anna dans bpo-41100 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41100]).

Changements importants dans Python 3.9.2

collections.abc

collections.abc.Callable generic now flattens type parameters, similar to what typing.Callable currently does. This means that collections.abc.Callable[[int, str], str] will have __args__ of (int, str, str); previously this was ([int, str], str). To allow this change, types.GenericAlias can now be subclassed, and a subclass will be returned when subscripting the collections.abc.Callable type. Code which accesses the arguments via typing.get_args() or __args__ need to account for this change. A DeprecationWarning may be emitted for invalid forms of parameterizing collections.abc.Callable which may have passed silently in Python 3.9.1. This DeprecationWarning will become a TypeError in Python 3.10. (Contributed by Ken Jin in bpo-42195 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42195].)

urllib.parse

Earlier Python versions allowed using both ; and & as query parameter separators in urllib.parse.parse_qs() and urllib.parse.parse_qsl(). Due to security concerns, and to conform with newer W3C recommendations, this has been changed to allow only a single separator key, with & as the default. This change also affects cgi.parse() and cgi.parse_multipart() as they use the affected functions internally. For more details, please see their respective documentation. (Contributed by Adam Goldschmidt, Senthil Kumaran and Ken Jin in bpo-42967 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42967].)

Notable changes in Python 3.9.3

A security fix alters the ftplib.FTP behavior to not trust the IPv4 address sent from the remote server when setting up a passive data channel. We reuse the ftp server IP address instead. For unusual code requiring the old behavior, set a trust_server_pasv_ipv4_address attribute on your FTP instance to True. (See gh-87451 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87451])

Notable changes in Python 3.9.5

urllib.parse

The presence of newline or tab characters in parts of a URL allows for some forms of attacks. Following the WHATWG specification that updates RFC 3986 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html], ASCII newline \n, \r and tab \t characters are stripped from the URL by the parser in urllib.parse preventing such attacks. The removal characters are controlled by a new module level variable urllib.parse._UNSAFE_URL_BYTES_TO_REMOVE. (See gh-88048 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88048])

Notable security feature in 3.9.14

Converting between int and str in bases other than 2 (binary), 4, 8 (octal), 16 (hexadecimal), or 32 such as base 10 (decimal) now raises a ValueError if the number of digits in string form is above a limit to avoid potential denial of service attacks due to the algorithmic complexity. This is a mitigation for CVE 2020-10735 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-10735]. This limit can be configured or disabled by environment variable, command line flag, or sys APIs. See the integer string conversion length limitation documentation. The default limit is 4300 digits in string form.

Notable changes in 3.9.17

tarfile

The extraction methods in tarfile, and shutil.unpack_archive(), have a new a filter argument that allows limiting tar features than may be surprising or dangerous, such as creating files outside the destination directory. See Extraction filters for details. In Python 3.12, use without the filter argument will show a DeprecationWarning. In Python 3.14, the default will switch to 'data'. (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in PEP 706 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0706/].)

Nouveautés de Python 3.8

Rédacteur:

Raymond Hettinger

This article explains the new features in Python 3.8, compared to 3.7. Python 3.8 was released on October 14, 2019. For full details, see the changelog.

Summary -- Release highlights

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

Expression d'affectation

La nouvelle syntaxe := affecte une valeur à une variable au sein d’une expression plus large. Cette syntaxe est surnommée affectueusement « opérateur morse » (walrus operator en anglais) en raison de sa ressemblance avec les yeux et les défenses d’un morse [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walrus#/media/File:Pacific_Walrus_-_Bull_(8247646168).jpg].

Dans cet exemple, l’opérateur d’affectation permet de ne pas appeler len() deux fois :

if (n := len(a)) > 10:
    print(f"List is too long ({n} elements, expected <= 10)")

A similar benefit arises during regular expression matching where match objects are needed twice, once to test whether a match occurred and another to extract a subgroup:

discount = 0.0
if (mo := re.search(r'(\d+)% discount', advertisement)):
    discount = float(mo.group(1)) / 100.0

L’opérateur est également utile avec une boucle while qui calcule une valeur pour tester la condition de fin et que cette valeur est également nécessaire dans le corps de la boucle :

# Loop over fixed length blocks
while (block := f.read(256)) != '':
    process(block)

Un autre usage intéressant est l’utilisation dans les compréhensions de listes lorsqu’une valeur calculée dans une condition de filtrage est aussi utilisée dans le corps de l’expression :

[clean_name.title() for name in names
 if (clean_name := normalize('NFC', name)) in allowed_names]

Essayer de limiter l’usage de l’opérateur morse aux cas clairs permet de réduire la complexité et augmente la lisibilité.

Voir PEP 572 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/] pour une description complète.

(Contributed by Emily Morehouse in bpo-35224 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35224].)

Positional-only parameters

There is a new function parameter syntax / to indicate that some function parameters must be specified positionally and cannot be used as keyword arguments. This is the same notation shown by help() for C functions annotated with Larry Hastings' Argument Clinic [https://devguide.python.org/development-tools/clinic/] tool.

Dans l’exemple suivant, les paramètres a et b sont uniquement positionnels alors que c et d peuvent être positionnels ou nommés tandis que e et f doivent être obligatoirement nommés :

def f(a, b, /, c, d, *, e, f):
    print(a, b, c, d, e, f)

L’appel suivant est valide :

f(10, 20, 30, d=40, e=50, f=60)

En revanche, celui-ci ne l’est pas :

f(10, b=20, c=30, d=40, e=50, f=60)   # b cannot be a keyword argument
f(10, 20, 30, 40, 50, f=60)           # e must be a keyword argument

One use case for this notation is that it allows pure Python functions to fully emulate behaviors of existing C coded functions. For example, the built-in divmod() function does not accept keyword arguments:

def divmod(a, b, /):
    "Emulate the built in divmod() function"
    return (a // b, a % b)

Another use case is to preclude keyword arguments when the parameter name is not helpful. For example, the builtin len() function has the signature len(obj, /). This precludes awkward calls such as:

len(obj='hello')  # The "obj" keyword argument impairs readability

A further benefit of marking a parameter as positional-only is that it allows the parameter name to be changed in the future without risk of breaking client code. For example, in the statistics module, the parameter name dist may be changed in the future. This was made possible with the following function specification:

def quantiles(dist, /, *, n=4, method='exclusive')
    ...

Since the parameters to the left of / are not exposed as possible keywords, the parameters names remain available for use in **kwargs:

>>> def f(a, b, /, **kwargs):
...     print(a, b, kwargs)
...
>>> f(10, 20, a=1, b=2, c=3)         # a and b are used in two ways
10 20 {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3}

This greatly simplifies the implementation of functions and methods that need to accept arbitrary keyword arguments. For example, here is an excerpt from code in the collections module:

class Counter(dict):

    def __init__(self, iterable=None, /, **kwds):
        # Note "iterable" is a possible keyword argument

Voir PEP 570 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0570/] pour une description complète.

(Contribution de Pablo Galindo dans bpo-36540 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36540].)

Parallel filesystem cache for compiled bytecode files

The new PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX setting (also available as -X pycache_prefix) configures the implicit bytecode cache to use a separate parallel filesystem tree, rather than the default __pycache__ subdirectories within each source directory.

The location of the cache is reported in sys.pycache_prefix (None indicates the default location in __pycache__ subdirectories).

(Contributed by Carl Meyer in bpo-33499 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33499].)

Debug build uses the same ABI as release build

Python now uses the same ABI whether it's built in release or debug mode. On Unix, when Python is built in debug mode, it is now possible to load C extensions built in release mode and C extensions built using the stable ABI.

Release builds and debug builds are now ABI compatible: defining the Py_DEBUG macro no longer implies the Py_TRACE_REFS macro, which introduces the only ABI incompatibility. The Py_TRACE_REFS macro, which adds the sys.getobjects() function and the PYTHONDUMPREFS environment variable, can be set using the new ./configure --with-trace-refs build option. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-36465 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36465].)

On Unix, C extensions are no longer linked to libpython except on Android and Cygwin. It is now possible for a statically linked Python to load a C extension built using a shared library Python. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-21536 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21536].)

On Unix, when Python is built in debug mode, import now also looks for C extensions compiled in release mode and for C extensions compiled with the stable ABI. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-36722 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36722].)

To embed Python into an application, a new --embed option must be passed to python3-config --libs --embed to get -lpython3.8 (link the application to libpython). To support both 3.8 and older, try python3-config --libs --embed first and fallback to python3-config --libs (without --embed) if the previous command fails.

Add a pkg-config python-3.8-embed module to embed Python into an application: pkg-config python-3.8-embed --libs includes -lpython3.8. To support both 3.8 and older, try pkg-config python-X.Y-embed --libs first and fallback to pkg-config python-X.Y --libs (without --embed) if the previous command fails (replace X.Y with the Python version).

On the other hand, pkg-config python3.8 --libs no longer contains -lpython3.8. C extensions must not be linked to libpython (except on Android and Cygwin, whose cases are handled by the script); this change is backward incompatible on purpose. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-36721 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36721].)

f-strings support = for self-documenting expressions and debugging

Le spécificateur = a été ajouté aux f-strings. Une f-string telle que f'{expr=}' est transformée en : le texte de l’expression, le signe égal et le résultat de l’évaluation de l’expression. Par exemple :

>>> import datetime as dt
>>> user = 'eric_idle'
>>> member_since = dt.date(1975, 7, 31)
>>> f'{user=} {member_since=}'
"user='eric_idle' member_since=datetime.date(1975, 7, 31)"

The usual f-string format specifiers allow more control over how the result of the expression is displayed:

>>> delta = dt.date.today() - member_since
>>> f'{user=!s}  {delta.days=:,d}'
'user=eric_idle  delta.days=16,075'

The = specifier will display the whole expression so that calculations can be shown:

>>> print(f'{theta=}  {cos(radians(theta))=:.3f}')
theta=30  cos(radians(theta))=0.866

(Contributed by Eric V. Smith and Larry Hastings in bpo-36817 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36817].)

PEP 578: Python Runtime Audit Hooks

The PEP adds an Audit Hook and Verified Open Hook. Both are available from Python and native code, allowing applications and frameworks written in pure Python code to take advantage of extra notifications, while also allowing embedders or system administrators to deploy builds of Python where auditing is always enabled.

See PEP 578 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0578/] for full details.

PEP 587: Python Initialization Configuration

The PEP 587 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/] adds a new C API to configure the Python Initialization providing finer control on the whole configuration and better error reporting.

New structures:

PyConfig

PyPreConfig

PyStatus

PyWideStringList

Nouvelles fonctions :

PyConfig_Clear()

PyConfig_InitIsolatedConfig()

PyConfig_InitPythonConfig()

PyConfig_Read()

PyConfig_SetArgv()

PyConfig_SetBytesArgv()

PyConfig_SetBytesString()

PyConfig_SetString()

PyPreConfig_InitIsolatedConfig()

PyPreConfig_InitPythonConfig()

PyStatus_Error()

PyStatus_Exception()

PyStatus_Exit()

PyStatus_IsError()

PyStatus_IsExit()

PyStatus_NoMemory()

PyStatus_Ok()

PyWideStringList_Append()

PyWideStringList_Insert()

Py_BytesMain()

Py_ExitStatusException()

Py_InitializeFromConfig()

Py_PreInitialize()

Py_PreInitializeFromArgs()

Py_PreInitializeFromBytesArgs()

Py_RunMain()

This PEP also adds _PyRuntimeState.preconfig (PyPreConfig type) and PyInterpreterState.config (PyConfig type) fields to these internal structures. PyInterpreterState.config becomes the new reference configuration, replacing global configuration variables and other private variables.

See Python Initialization Configuration for the documentation.

See PEP 587 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/] for a full description.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-36763 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36763].)

PEP 590: Vectorcall: a fast calling protocol for CPython

The Vectorcall Protocol is added to the Python/C API. It is meant to formalize existing optimizations which were already done for various classes. Any static type implementing a callable can use this protocol.

This is currently provisional. The aim is to make it fully public in Python 3.9.

See PEP 590 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/] for a full description.

(Contributed by Jeroen Demeyer, Mark Shannon and Petr Viktorin in bpo-36974 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36974].)

Pickle protocol 5 with out-of-band data buffers

When pickle is used to transfer large data between Python processes in order to take advantage of multi-core or multi-machine processing, it is important to optimize the transfer by reducing memory copies, and possibly by applying custom techniques such as data-dependent compression.

The pickle protocol 5 introduces support for out-of-band buffers where PEP 3118 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/]-compatible data can be transmitted separately from the main pickle stream, at the discretion of the communication layer.

See PEP 574 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0574/] for a full description.

(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-36785 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36785].)

Autres changements au langage

A continue statement was illegal in the finally clause due to a problem with the implementation. In Python 3.8 this restriction was lifted. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-32489 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32489].)

The bool, int, and fractions.Fraction types now have an as_integer_ratio() method like that found in float and decimal.Decimal. This minor API extension makes it possible to write numerator, denominator = x.as_integer_ratio() and have it work across multiple numeric types. (Contributed by Lisa Roach in bpo-33073 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33073] and Raymond Hettinger in bpo-37819 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37819].)

Constructors of int, float and complex will now use the __index__() special method, if available and the corresponding method __int__(), __float__() or __complex__() is not available. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-20092 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20092].)

Added support of \N{name} escapes in regular expressions:

>>> notice = 'Copyright © 2019'
>>> copyright_year_pattern = re.compile(r'\N{copyright sign}\s*(\d{4})')
>>> int(copyright_year_pattern.search(notice).group(1))
2019

(Contributed by Jonathan Eunice and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-30688 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30688].)

Dict and dictviews are now iterable in reversed insertion order using reversed(). (Contributed by Rémi Lapeyre in bpo-33462 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33462].)

The syntax allowed for keyword names in function calls was further restricted. In particular, f((keyword)=arg) is no longer allowed. It was never intended to permit more than a bare name on the left-hand side of a keyword argument assignment term. (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-34641 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34641].)

Generalized iterable unpacking in yield and return statements no longer requires enclosing parentheses. This brings the yield and return syntax into better agreement with normal assignment syntax:

>>> def parse(family):
...     lastname, *members = family.split()
...     return lastname.upper(), *members
...
>>> parse('simpsons homer marge bart lisa maggie')
('SIMPSONS', 'homer', 'marge', 'bart', 'lisa', 'maggie')

(Contributed by David Cuthbert and Jordan Chapman in bpo-32117 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32117].)

When a comma is missed in code such as [(10, 20) (30, 40)], the compiler displays a SyntaxWarning with a helpful suggestion. This improves on just having a TypeError indicating that the first tuple was not callable. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-15248 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15248].)

Arithmetic operations between subclasses of datetime.date or datetime.datetime and datetime.timedelta objects now return an instance of the subclass, rather than the base class. This also affects the return type of operations whose implementation (directly or indirectly) uses datetime.timedelta arithmetic, such as astimezone(). (Contributed by Paul Ganssle in bpo-32417 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32417].)

When the Python interpreter is interrupted by Ctrl-C (SIGINT) and the resulting KeyboardInterrupt exception is not caught, the Python process now exits via a SIGINT signal or with the correct exit code such that the calling process can detect that it died due to a Ctrl-C. Shells on POSIX and Windows use this to properly terminate scripts in interactive sessions. (Contributed by Google via Gregory P. Smith in bpo-1054041 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1054041].)

Some advanced styles of programming require updating the types.CodeType object for an existing function. Since code objects are immutable, a new code object needs to be created, one that is modeled on the existing code object. With 19 parameters, this was somewhat tedious. Now, the new replace() method makes it possible to create a clone with a few altered parameters.

Here's an example that alters the statistics.mean() function to prevent the data parameter from being used as a keyword argument:

>>> from statistics import mean
>>> mean(data=[10, 20, 90])
40
>>> mean.__code__ = mean.__code__.replace(co_posonlyargcount=1)
>>> mean(data=[10, 20, 90])
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
TypeError: mean() got some positional-only arguments passed as keyword arguments: 'data'

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-37032 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37032].)

For integers, the three-argument form of the pow() function now permits the exponent to be negative in the case where the base is relatively prime to the modulus. It then computes a modular inverse to the base when the exponent is -1, and a suitable power of that inverse for other negative exponents. For example, to compute the modular multiplicative inverse [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modular_multiplicative_inverse] of 38 modulo 137, write:

>>> pow(38, -1, 137)
119
>>> 119 * 38 % 137
1

Modular inverses arise in the solution of linear Diophantine equations [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diophantine_equation]. For example, to find integer solutions for 4258𝑥 + 147𝑦 = 369, first rewrite as 4258𝑥 ≡ 369 (mod 147) then solve:

>>> x = 369 * pow(4258, -1, 147) % 147
>>> y = (4258 * x - 369) // -147
>>> 4258 * x + 147 * y
369

(Contributed by Mark Dickinson in bpo-36027 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36027].)

Dict comprehensions have been synced-up with dict literals so that the key is computed first and the value second:

>>> # Dict comprehension
>>> cast = {input('role? '): input('actor? ') for i in range(2)}
role? King Arthur
actor? Chapman
role? Black Knight
actor? Cleese

>>> # Dict literal
>>> cast = {input('role? '): input('actor? ')}
role? Sir Robin
actor? Eric Idle

The guaranteed execution order is helpful with assignment expressions because variables assigned in the key expression will be available in the value expression:

>>> names = ['Martin von Löwis', 'Łukasz Langa', 'Walter Dörwald']
>>> {(n := normalize('NFC', name)).casefold() : n for name in names}
{'martin von löwis': 'Martin von Löwis',
 'łukasz langa': 'Łukasz Langa',
 'walter dörwald': 'Walter Dörwald'}

(Contributed by Jörn Heissler in bpo-35224 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35224].)

The object.__reduce__() method can now return a tuple from two to six elements long. Formerly, five was the limit. The new, optional sixth element is a callable with a (obj, state) signature. This allows the direct control over the state-updating behavior of a specific object. If not None, this callable will have priority over the object's __setstate__() method. (Contributed by Pierre Glaser and Olivier Grisel in bpo-35900 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35900].)

Nouveaux modules

The new importlib.metadata module provides (provisional) support for reading metadata from third-party packages. For example, it can extract an installed package's version number, list of entry points, and more:

>>> # Note following example requires that the popular "requests"
>>> # package has been installed.
>>>
>>> from importlib.metadata import version, requires, files
>>> version('requests')
'2.22.0'
>>> list(requires('requests'))
['chardet (<3.1.0,>=3.0.2)']
>>> list(files('requests'))[:5]
[PackagePath('requests-2.22.0.dist-info/INSTALLER'),
 PackagePath('requests-2.22.0.dist-info/LICENSE'),
 PackagePath('requests-2.22.0.dist-info/METADATA'),
 PackagePath('requests-2.22.0.dist-info/RECORD'),
 PackagePath('requests-2.22.0.dist-info/WHEEL')]

(Contributed by Barry Warsaw and Jason R. Coombs in bpo-34632 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34632].)

Modules améliorés

ast

AST nodes now have end_lineno and end_col_offset attributes, which give the precise location of the end of the node. (This only applies to nodes that have lineno and col_offset attributes.)

New function ast.get_source_segment() returns the source code for a specific AST node.

(Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in bpo-33416 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33416].)

The ast.parse() function has some new flags:

type_comments=True causes it to return the text of PEP 484 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/] and PEP 526 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/] type comments associated with certain AST nodes;

mode='func_type' can be used to parse PEP 484 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/] "signature type comments" (returned for function definition AST nodes);

feature_version=(3, N) allows specifying an earlier Python 3 version. For example, feature_version=(3, 4) will treat async and await as non-reserved words.

(Contributed by Guido van Rossum in bpo-35766 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35766].)

asyncio

asyncio.run() has graduated from the provisional to stable API. This function can be used to execute a coroutine and return the result while automatically managing the event loop. For example:

import asyncio

async def main():
    await asyncio.sleep(0)
    return 42

asyncio.run(main())

This is roughly equivalent to:

import asyncio

async def main():
    await asyncio.sleep(0)
    return 42

loop = asyncio.new_event_loop()
asyncio.set_event_loop(loop)
try:
    loop.run_until_complete(main())
finally:
    asyncio.set_event_loop(None)
    loop.close()

The actual implementation is significantly more complex. Thus, asyncio.run() should be the preferred way of running asyncio programs.

(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32314 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32314].)

Running python -m asyncio launches a natively async REPL. This allows rapid experimentation with code that has a top-level await. There is no longer a need to directly call asyncio.run() which would spawn a new event loop on every invocation:

$ python -m asyncio
asyncio REPL 3.8.0
Use "await" directly instead of "asyncio.run()".
Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
>>> import asyncio
>>> await asyncio.sleep(10, result='hello')
hello

(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-37028 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37028].)

The exception asyncio.CancelledError now inherits from BaseException rather than Exception and no longer inherits from concurrent.futures.CancelledError. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32528 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32528].)

On Windows, the default event loop is now ProactorEventLoop. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-34687 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34687].)

ProactorEventLoop now also supports UDP. (Contributed by Adam Meily and Andrew Svetlov in bpo-29883 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29883].)

ProactorEventLoop can now be interrupted by KeyboardInterrupt ("CTRL+C"). (Contributed by Vladimir Matveev in bpo-23057 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23057].)

Added asyncio.Task.get_coro() for getting the wrapped coroutine within an asyncio.Task. (Contributed by Alex Grönholm in bpo-36999 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36999].)

Asyncio tasks can now be named, either by passing the name keyword argument to asyncio.create_task() or the create_task() event loop method, or by calling the set_name() method on the task object. The task name is visible in the repr() output of asyncio.Task and can also be retrieved using the get_name() method. (Contributed by Alex Grönholm in bpo-34270 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34270].)

Added support for Happy Eyeballs [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Happy_Eyeballs] to asyncio.loop.create_connection(). To specify the behavior, two new parameters have been added: happy_eyeballs_delay and interleave. The Happy Eyeballs algorithm improves responsiveness in applications that support IPv4 and IPv6 by attempting to simultaneously connect using both. (Contributed by twisteroid ambassador in bpo-33530 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33530].)

builtins

The compile() built-in has been improved to accept the ast.PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT flag. With this new flag passed, compile() will allow top-level await, async for and async with constructs that are usually considered invalid syntax. Asynchronous code object marked with the CO_COROUTINE flag may then be returned. (Contributed by Matthias Bussonnier in bpo-34616 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34616])

collections

The _asdict() method for collections.namedtuple() now returns a dict instead of a collections.OrderedDict. This works because regular dicts have guaranteed ordering since Python 3.7. If the extra features of OrderedDict are required, the suggested remediation is to cast the result to the desired type: OrderedDict(nt._asdict()). (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-35864 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35864].)

cProfile

The cProfile.Profile class can now be used as a context manager. Profile a block of code by running:

import cProfile

with cProfile.Profile() as profiler:
      # code to be profiled
      ...

(Contributed by Scott Sanderson in bpo-29235 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29235].)

csv

The csv.DictReader now returns instances of dict instead of a collections.OrderedDict. The tool is now faster and uses less memory while still preserving the field order. (Contributed by Michael Selik in bpo-34003 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34003].)

curses

Added a new variable holding structured version information for the underlying ncurses library: ncurses_version. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-31680 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31680].)

ctypes

On Windows, CDLL and subclasses now accept a winmode parameter to specify flags for the underlying LoadLibraryEx call. The default flags are set to only load DLL dependencies from trusted locations, including the path where the DLL is stored (if a full or partial path is used to load the initial DLL) and paths added by add_dll_directory(). (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-36085 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36085].)

datetime

Added new alternate constructors datetime.date.fromisocalendar() and datetime.datetime.fromisocalendar(), which construct date and datetime objects respectively from ISO year, week number, and weekday; these are the inverse of each class's isocalendar method. (Contributed by Paul Ganssle in bpo-36004 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36004].)

functools

functools.lru_cache() can now be used as a straight decorator rather than as a function returning a decorator. So both of these are now supported:

@lru_cache
def f(x):
    ...

@lru_cache(maxsize=256)
def f(x):
    ...

(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-36772 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36772].)

Added a new functools.cached_property() decorator, for computed properties cached for the life of the instance.

import functools
import statistics

class Dataset:
   def __init__(self, sequence_of_numbers):
      self.data = sequence_of_numbers

   @functools.cached_property
   def variance(self):
      return statistics.variance(self.data)

(Contributed by Carl Meyer in bpo-21145 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21145])

Added a new functools.singledispatchmethod() decorator that converts methods into generic functions using single dispatch:

from functools import singledispatchmethod
from contextlib import suppress

class TaskManager:

    def __init__(self, tasks):
        self.tasks = list(tasks)

    @singledispatchmethod
    def discard(self, value):
        with suppress(ValueError):
            self.tasks.remove(value)

    @discard.register(list)
    def _(self, tasks):
        targets = set(tasks)
        self.tasks = [x for x in self.tasks if x not in targets]

(Contributed by Ethan Smith in bpo-32380 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32380])

gc

get_objects() can now receive an optional generation parameter indicating a generation to get objects from. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-36016 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36016].)

gettext

Added pgettext() and its variants. (Contributed by Franz Glasner, Éric Araujo, and Cheryl Sabella in bpo-2504 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2504].)

gzip

Added the mtime parameter to gzip.compress() for reproducible output. (Contributed by Guo Ci Teo in bpo-34898 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34898].)

A BadGzipFile exception is now raised instead of OSError for certain types of invalid or corrupt gzip files. (Contributed by Filip Gruszczyński, Michele Orrù, and Zackery Spytz in bpo-6584 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6584].)

IDLE et idlelib

Output over N lines (50 by default) is squeezed down to a button. N can be changed in the PyShell section of the General page of the Settings dialog. Fewer, but possibly extra long, lines can be squeezed by right clicking on the output. Squeezed output can be expanded in place by double-clicking the button or into the clipboard or a separate window by right-clicking the button. (Contributed by Tal Einat in bpo-1529353 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1529353].)

Add "Run Customized" to the Run menu to run a module with customized settings. Any command line arguments entered are added to sys.argv. They also re-appear in the box for the next customized run. One can also suppress the normal Shell main module restart. (Contributed by Cheryl Sabella, Terry Jan Reedy, and others in bpo-5680 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5680] and bpo-37627 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37627].)

Added optional line numbers for IDLE editor windows. Windows open without line numbers unless set otherwise in the General tab of the configuration dialog. Line numbers for an existing window are shown and hidden in the Options menu. (Contributed by Tal Einat and Saimadhav Heblikar in bpo-17535 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17535].)

OS native encoding is now used for converting between Python strings and Tcl objects. This allows IDLE to work with emoji and other non-BMP characters. These characters can be displayed or copied and pasted to or from the clipboard. Converting strings from Tcl to Python and back now never fails. (Many people worked on this for eight years but the problem was finally solved by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-13153 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13153].)

New in 3.8.1:

Add option to toggle cursor blink off. (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in bpo-4603 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4603].)

La fenêtre de complétion de IDLE est maintenant fermée par la touche d'échappement (contribution de Johnny Najera dans bpo-38944 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38944]).

The changes above have been backported to 3.7 maintenance releases.

Add keywords to module name completion list. (Contributed by Terry J. Reedy in bpo-37765 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37765].)

inspect

The inspect.getdoc() function can now find docstrings for __slots__ if that attribute is a dict where the values are docstrings. This provides documentation options similar to what we already have for property(), classmethod(), and staticmethod():

class AudioClip:
    __slots__ = {'bit_rate': 'expressed in kilohertz to one decimal place',
                 'duration': 'in seconds, rounded up to an integer'}
    def __init__(self, bit_rate, duration):
        self.bit_rate = round(bit_rate / 1000.0, 1)
        self.duration = ceil(duration)

(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-36326 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36326].)

io

In development mode (-X env) and in debug build, the io.IOBase finalizer now logs the exception if the close() method fails. The exception is ignored silently by default in release build. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-18748 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18748].)

itertools

The itertools.accumulate() function added an option initial keyword argument to specify an initial value:

>>> from itertools import accumulate
>>> list(accumulate([10, 5, 30, 15], initial=1000))
[1000, 1010, 1015, 1045, 1060]

(Contributed by Lisa Roach in bpo-34659 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34659].)

json.tool

Add option --json-lines to parse every input line as a separate JSON object. (Contributed by Weipeng Hong in bpo-31553 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31553].)

logging

Added a force keyword argument to logging.basicConfig(). When set to true, any existing handlers attached to the root logger are removed and closed before carrying out the configuration specified by the other arguments.

This solves a long-standing problem. Once a logger or basicConfig() had been called, subsequent calls to basicConfig() were silently ignored. This made it difficult to update, experiment with, or teach the various logging configuration options using the interactive prompt or a Jupyter notebook.

(Suggested by Raymond Hettinger, implemented by Donghee Na, and reviewed by Vinay Sajip in bpo-33897 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33897].)

math

Added new function math.dist() for computing Euclidean distance between two points. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-33089 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33089].)

Expanded the math.hypot() function to handle multiple dimensions. Formerly, it only supported the 2-D case. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-33089 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33089].)

Added new function, math.prod(), as analogous function to sum() that returns the product of a 'start' value (default: 1) times an iterable of numbers:

>>> prior = 0.8
>>> likelihoods = [0.625, 0.84, 0.30]
>>> math.prod(likelihoods, start=prior)
0.126

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-35606 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35606].)

Added two new combinatoric functions math.perm() and math.comb():

>>> math.perm(10, 3)    # Permutations of 10 things taken 3 at a time
720
>>> math.comb(10, 3)    # Combinations of 10 things taken 3 at a time
120

(Contributed by Yash Aggarwal, Keller Fuchs, Serhiy Storchaka, and Raymond Hettinger in bpo-37128 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37128], bpo-37178 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37178], and bpo-35431 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35431].)

Added a new function math.isqrt() for computing accurate integer square roots without conversion to floating point. The new function supports arbitrarily large integers. It is faster than floor(sqrt(n)) but slower than math.sqrt():

>>> r = 650320427
>>> s = r ** 2
>>> isqrt(s - 1)         # correct
650320426
>>> floor(sqrt(s - 1))   # incorrect
650320427

(Contributed by Mark Dickinson in bpo-36887 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36887].)

The function math.factorial() no longer accepts arguments that are not int-like. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-33083 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33083].)

mmap

The mmap.mmap class now has an madvise() method to access the madvise() system call. (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in bpo-32941 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32941].)

multiprocessing

Added new multiprocessing.shared_memory module. (Contributed by Davin Potts in bpo-35813 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35813].)

On macOS, the spawn start method is now used by default. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-33725 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33725].)

os

Added new function add_dll_directory() on Windows for providing additional search paths for native dependencies when importing extension modules or loading DLLs using ctypes. (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-36085 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36085].)

A new os.memfd_create() function was added to wrap the memfd_create() syscall. (Contributed by Zackery Spytz and Christian Heimes in bpo-26836 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26836].)

On Windows, much of the manual logic for handling reparse points (including symlinks and directory junctions) has been delegated to the operating system. Specifically, os.stat() will now traverse anything supported by the operating system, while os.lstat() will only open reparse points that identify as "name surrogates" while others are opened as for os.stat(). In all cases, os.stat_result.st_mode will only have S_IFLNK set for symbolic links and not other kinds of reparse points. To identify other kinds of reparse point, check the new os.stat_result.st_reparse_tag attribute.

On Windows, os.readlink() is now able to read directory junctions. Note that islink() will return False for directory junctions, and so code that checks islink first will continue to treat junctions as directories, while code that handles errors from os.readlink() may now treat junctions as links.

(Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-37834 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37834].)

os.path

os.path functions that return a boolean result like exists(), lexists(), isdir(), isfile(), islink(), and ismount() now return False instead of raising ValueError or its subclasses UnicodeEncodeError and UnicodeDecodeError for paths that contain characters or bytes unrepresentable at the OS level. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-33721 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33721].)

expanduser() on Windows now prefers the USERPROFILE environment variable and does not use HOME, which is not normally set for regular user accounts. (Contributed by Anthony Sottile in bpo-36264 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36264].)

isdir() on Windows no longer returns True for a link to a non-existent directory.

realpath() on Windows now resolves reparse points, including symlinks and directory junctions.

(Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-37834 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37834].)

pathlib

pathlib.Path methods that return a boolean result like exists(), is_dir(), is_file(), is_mount(), is_symlink(), is_block_device(), is_char_device(), is_fifo(), is_socket() now return False instead of raising ValueError or its subclass UnicodeEncodeError for paths that contain characters unrepresentable at the OS level. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-33721 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33721].)

Added pathlib.Path.link_to() which creates a hard link pointing to a path. (Contributed by Joannah Nanjekye in bpo-26978 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26978]) Note that link_to was deprecated in 3.10 and removed in 3.12 in favor of a hardlink_to method added in 3.10 which matches the semantics of the existing symlink_to method.

pickle

pickle extensions subclassing the C-optimized Pickler can now override the pickling logic of functions and classes by defining the special reducer_override() method. (Contributed by Pierre Glaser and Olivier Grisel in bpo-35900 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35900].)

plistlib

Added new plistlib.UID and enabled support for reading and writing NSKeyedArchiver-encoded binary plists. (Contributed by Jon Janzen in bpo-26707 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26707].)

pprint

The pprint module added a sort_dicts parameter to several functions. By default, those functions continue to sort dictionaries before rendering or printing. However, if sort_dicts is set to false, the dictionaries retain the order that keys were inserted. This can be useful for comparison to JSON inputs during debugging.

In addition, there is a convenience new function, pprint.pp() that is like pprint.pprint() but with sort_dicts defaulting to False:

>>> from pprint import pprint, pp
>>> d = dict(source='input.txt', operation='filter', destination='output.txt')
>>> pp(d, width=40)                  # Original order
{'source': 'input.txt',
 'operation': 'filter',
 'destination': 'output.txt'}
>>> pprint(d, width=40)              # Keys sorted alphabetically
{'destination': 'output.txt',
 'operation': 'filter',
 'source': 'input.txt'}

(Contributed by Rémi Lapeyre in bpo-30670 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30670].)

py_compile

py_compile.compile() now supports silent mode. (Contributed by Joannah Nanjekye in bpo-22640 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22640].)

shlex

The new shlex.join() function acts as the inverse of shlex.split(). (Contributed by Bo Bayles in bpo-32102 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32102].)

shutils

shutil.copytree() now accepts a new dirs_exist_ok keyword argument. (Contributed by Josh Bronson in bpo-20849 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20849].)

shutil.make_archive() now defaults to the modern pax (POSIX.1-2001) format for new archives to improve portability and standards conformance, inherited from the corresponding change to the tarfile module. (Contributed by C.A.M. Gerlach in bpo-30661 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30661].)

shutil.rmtree() on Windows now removes directory junctions without recursively removing their contents first. (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-37834 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37834].)

socket

Added create_server() and has_dualstack_ipv6() convenience functions to automate the necessary tasks usually involved when creating a server socket, including accepting both IPv4 and IPv6 connections on the same socket. (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-17561 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17561].)

The socket.if_nameindex(), socket.if_nametoindex(), and socket.if_indextoname() functions have been implemented on Windows. (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in bpo-37007 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37007].)

ssl

Added post_handshake_auth to enable and verify_client_post_handshake() to initiate TLS 1.3 post-handshake authentication. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-34670 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34670].)

statistics

Added statistics.fmean() as a faster, floating-point variant of statistics.mean(). (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and Steven D'Aprano in bpo-35904 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35904].)

Added statistics.geometric_mean() (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-27181 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27181].)

Added statistics.multimode() that returns a list of the most common values. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-35892 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35892].)

Added statistics.quantiles() that divides data or a distribution in to equiprobable intervals (e.g. quartiles, deciles, or percentiles). (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-36546 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36546].)

Added statistics.NormalDist, a tool for creating and manipulating normal distributions of a random variable. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-36018 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36018].)

>>> temperature_feb = NormalDist.from_samples([4, 12, -3, 2, 7, 14])
>>> temperature_feb.mean
6.0
>>> temperature_feb.stdev
6.356099432828281

>>> temperature_feb.cdf(3)            # Chance of being under 3 degrees
0.3184678262814532
>>> # Relative chance of being 7 degrees versus 10 degrees
>>> temperature_feb.pdf(7) / temperature_feb.pdf(10)
1.2039930378537762

>>> el_niño = NormalDist(4, 2.5)
>>> temperature_feb += el_niño        # Add in a climate effect
>>> temperature_feb
NormalDist(mu=10.0, sigma=6.830080526611674)

>>> temperature_feb * (9/5) + 32      # Convert to Fahrenheit
NormalDist(mu=50.0, sigma=12.294144947901014)
>>> temperature_feb.samples(3)        # Generate random samples
[7.672102882379219, 12.000027119750287, 4.647488369766392]

sys

Add new sys.unraisablehook() function which can be overridden to control how "unraisable exceptions" are handled. It is called when an exception has occurred but there is no way for Python to handle it. For example, when a destructor raises an exception or during garbage collection (gc.collect()). (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-36829 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36829].)

tarfile

The tarfile module now defaults to the modern pax (POSIX.1-2001) format for new archives, instead of the previous GNU-specific one. This improves cross-platform portability with a consistent encoding (UTF-8) in a standardized and extensible format, and offers several other benefits. (Contributed by C.A.M. Gerlach in bpo-36268 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36268].)

threading

Add a new threading.excepthook() function which handles uncaught threading.Thread.run() exception. It can be overridden to control how uncaught threading.Thread.run() exceptions are handled. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-1230540 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1230540].)

Add a new threading.get_native_id() function and a native_id attribute to the threading.Thread class. These return the native integral Thread ID of the current thread assigned by the kernel. This feature is only available on certain platforms, see get_native_id for more information. (Contributed by Jake Tesler in bpo-36084 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36084].)

tokenize

The tokenize module now implicitly emits a NEWLINE token when provided with input that does not have a trailing new line. This behavior now matches what the C tokenizer does internally. (Contributed by Ammar Askar in bpo-33899 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33899].)

tkinter

Added methods selection_from(), selection_present(), selection_range() and selection_to() in the tkinter.Spinbox class. (Contributed by Juliette Monsel in bpo-34829 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34829].)

Added method moveto() in the tkinter.Canvas class. (Contributed by Juliette Monsel in bpo-23831 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23831].)

The tkinter.PhotoImage class now has transparency_get() and transparency_set() methods. (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in bpo-25451 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25451].)

time

Added new clock CLOCK_UPTIME_RAW for macOS 10.12. (Contributed by Joannah Nanjekye in bpo-35702 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35702].)

typing

The typing module incorporates several new features:

A dictionary type with per-key types. See PEP 589 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0589/] and typing.TypedDict. TypedDict uses only string keys. By default, every key is required to be present. Specify "total=False" to allow keys to be optional:

class Location(TypedDict, total=False):
    lat_long: tuple
    grid_square: str
    xy_coordinate: tuple

Literal types. See PEP 586 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0586/] and typing.Literal. Literal types indicate that a parameter or return value is constrained to one or more specific literal values:

def get_status(port: int) -> Literal['connected', 'disconnected']:
    ...

"Final" variables, functions, methods and classes. See PEP 591 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0591/], typing.Final and typing.final(). The final qualifier instructs a static type checker to restrict subclassing, overriding, or reassignment:

pi: Final[float] = 3.1415926536

Protocol definitions. See PEP 544 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0544/], typing.Protocol and typing.runtime_checkable(). Simple ABCs like typing.SupportsInt are now Protocol subclasses.

New protocol class typing.SupportsIndex.

New functions typing.get_origin() and typing.get_args().

unicodedata

The unicodedata module has been upgraded to use the Unicode 12.1.0 [https://blog.unicode.org/2019/05/unicode-12-1-en.html] release.

New function is_normalized() can be used to verify a string is in a specific normal form, often much faster than by actually normalizing the string. (Contributed by Max Belanger, David Euresti, and Greg Price in bpo-32285 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32285] and bpo-37966 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37966]).

unittest

Added AsyncMock to support an asynchronous version of Mock. Appropriate new assert functions for testing have been added as well. (Contributed by Lisa Roach in bpo-26467 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26467]).

Added addModuleCleanup() and addClassCleanup() to unittest to support cleanups for setUpModule() and setUpClass(). (Contributed by Lisa Roach in bpo-24412 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24412].)

Several mock assert functions now also print a list of actual calls upon failure. (Contributed by Petter Strandmark in bpo-35047 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35047].)

unittest module gained support for coroutines to be used as test cases with unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase. (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-32972 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32972].)

Exemple :

import unittest

class TestRequest(unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase):

    async def asyncSetUp(self):
        self.connection = await AsyncConnection()

    async def test_get(self):
        response = await self.connection.get("https://example.com")
        self.assertEqual(response.status_code, 200)

    async def asyncTearDown(self):
        await self.connection.close()

if __name__ == "__main__":
    unittest.main()

venv

venv now includes an Activate.ps1 script on all platforms for activating virtual environments under PowerShell Core 6.1. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-32718 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32718].)

weakref

The proxy objects returned by weakref.proxy() now support the matrix multiplication operators @ and @= in addition to the other numeric operators. (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in bpo-36669 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36669].)

xml

As mitigation against DTD and external entity retrieval, the xml.dom.minidom and xml.sax modules no longer process external entities by default. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-17239 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17239].)

The .find*() methods in the xml.etree.ElementTree module support wildcard searches like {*}tag which ignores the namespace and {namespace}* which returns all tags in the given namespace. (Contributed by Stefan Behnel in bpo-28238 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28238].)

The xml.etree.ElementTree module provides a new function canonicalize() that implements C14N 2.0. (Contributed by Stefan Behnel in bpo-13611 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13611].)

The target object of xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser can receive namespace declaration events through the new callback methods start_ns() and end_ns(). Additionally, the xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder target can be configured to process events about comments and processing instructions to include them in the generated tree. (Contributed by Stefan Behnel in bpo-36676 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36676] and bpo-36673 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36673].)

xmlrpc

xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy now supports an optional headers keyword argument for a sequence of HTTP headers to be sent with each request. Among other things, this makes it possible to upgrade from default basic authentication to faster session authentication. (Contributed by Cédric Krier in bpo-35153 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35153].)

Optimizations

The subprocess module can now use the os.posix_spawn() function in some cases for better performance. Currently, it is only used on macOS and Linux (using glibc 2.24 or newer) if all these conditions are met:

close_fds is false;

preexec_fn, pass_fds, cwd and start_new_session parameters are not set;

the executable path contains a directory.

(Contributed by Joannah Nanjekye and Victor Stinner in bpo-35537 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35537].)

shutil.copyfile(), shutil.copy(), shutil.copy2(), shutil.copytree() and shutil.move() use platform-specific "fast-copy" syscalls on Linux and macOS in order to copy the file more efficiently. "fast-copy" means that the copying operation occurs within the kernel, avoiding the use of userspace buffers in Python as in "outfd.write(infd.read())". On Windows shutil.copyfile() uses a bigger default buffer size (1 MiB instead of 16 KiB) and a memoryview()-based variant of shutil.copyfileobj() is used. The speedup for copying a 512 MiB file within the same partition is about +26% on Linux, +50% on macOS and +40% on Windows. Also, much less CPU cycles are consumed. See Platform-dependent efficient copy operations section. (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-33671 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33671].)

shutil.copytree() uses os.scandir() function and all copy functions depending from it use cached os.stat() values. The speedup for copying a directory with 8000 files is around +9% on Linux, +20% on Windows and +30% on a Windows SMB share. Also the number of os.stat() syscalls is reduced by 38% making shutil.copytree() especially faster on network filesystems. (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-33695 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33695].)

The default protocol in the pickle module is now Protocol 4, first introduced in Python 3.4. It offers better performance and smaller size compared to Protocol 3 available since Python 3.0.

Removed one Py_ssize_t member from PyGC_Head. All GC tracked objects (e.g. tuple, list, dict) size is reduced 4 or 8 bytes. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-33597 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33597].)

uuid.UUID now uses __slots__ to reduce its memory footprint. (Contributed by Wouter Bolsterlee and Tal Einat in bpo-30977 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30977])

Improved performance of operator.itemgetter() by 33%. Optimized argument handling and added a fast path for the common case of a single non-negative integer index into a tuple (which is the typical use case in the standard library). (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-35664 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35664].)

Sped-up field lookups in collections.namedtuple(). They are now more than two times faster, making them the fastest form of instance variable lookup in Python. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger, Pablo Galindo, and Joe Jevnik, Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-32492 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32492].)

The list constructor does not overallocate the internal item buffer if the input iterable has a known length (the input implements __len__). This makes the created list 12% smaller on average. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and Pablo Galindo in bpo-33234 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33234].)

Doubled the speed of class variable writes. When a non-dunder attribute was updated, there was an unnecessary call to update slots. (Contributed by Stefan Behnel, Pablo Galindo Salgado, Raymond Hettinger, Neil Schemenauer, and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-36012 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36012].)

Reduced an overhead of converting arguments passed to many builtin functions and methods. This sped up calling some simple builtin functions and methods up to 20--50%. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23867 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23867], bpo-35582 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35582] and bpo-36127 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36127].)

LOAD_GLOBAL instruction now uses new "per opcode cache" mechanism. It is about 40% faster now. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov and Inada Naoki in bpo-26219 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26219].)

Build and C API Changes

Default sys.abiflags became an empty string: the m flag for pymalloc became useless (builds with and without pymalloc are ABI compatible) and so has been removed. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-36707 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36707].)

Example of changes:

Only python3.8 program is installed, python3.8m program is gone.

Only python3.8-config script is installed, python3.8m-config script is gone.

The m flag has been removed from the suffix of dynamic library filenames: extension modules in the standard library as well as those produced and installed by third-party packages, like those downloaded from PyPI. On Linux, for example, the Python 3.7 suffix .cpython-37m-x86_64-linux-gnu.so became .cpython-38-x86_64-linux-gnu.so in Python 3.8.

The header files have been reorganized to better separate the different kinds of APIs:

Include/*.h should be the portable public stable C API.

Include/cpython/*.h should be the unstable C API specific to CPython; public API, with some private API prefixed by _Py or _PY.

Include/internal/*.h is the private internal C API very specific to CPython. This API comes with no backward compatibility warranty and should not be used outside CPython. It is only exposed for very specific needs like debuggers and profiles which has to access to CPython internals without calling functions. This API is now installed by make install.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-35134 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134] and bpo-35081 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35081], work initiated by Eric Snow in Python 3.7.)

Some macros have been converted to static inline functions: parameter types and return type are well defined, they don't have issues specific to macros, variables have a local scopes. Examples:

Py_INCREF(), Py_DECREF()

Py_XINCREF(), Py_XDECREF()

PyObject_INIT, PyObject_INIT_VAR

Private functions: _PyObject_GC_TRACK(), _PyObject_GC_UNTRACK(), _Py_Dealloc()

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-35059 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35059].)

The PyByteArray_Init() and PyByteArray_Fini() functions have been removed. They did nothing since Python 2.7.4 and Python 3.2.0, were excluded from the limited API (stable ABI), and were not documented. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-35713 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35713].)

The result of PyExceptionClass_Name() is now of type const char * rather of char *. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-33818 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33818].)

The duality of Modules/Setup.dist and Modules/Setup has been removed. Previously, when updating the CPython source tree, one had to manually copy Modules/Setup.dist (inside the source tree) to Modules/Setup (inside the build tree) in order to reflect any changes upstream. This was of a small benefit to packagers at the expense of a frequent annoyance to developers following CPython development, as forgetting to copy the file could produce build failures.

Now the build system always reads from Modules/Setup inside the source tree. People who want to customize that file are encouraged to maintain their changes in a git fork of CPython or as patch files, as they would do for any other change to the source tree.

(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-32430 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32430].)

Functions that convert Python number to C integer like PyLong_AsLong() and argument parsing functions like PyArg_ParseTuple() with integer converting format units like 'i' will now use the __index__() special method instead of __int__(), if available. The deprecation warning will be emitted for objects with the __int__() method but without the __index__() method (like Decimal and Fraction). PyNumber_Check() will now return 1 for objects implementing __index__(). PyNumber_Long(), PyNumber_Float() and PyFloat_AsDouble() also now use the __index__() method if available. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-36048 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36048] and bpo-20092 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20092].)

Heap-allocated type objects will now increase their reference count in PyObject_Init() (and its parallel macro PyObject_INIT) instead of in PyType_GenericAlloc(). Types that modify instance allocation or deallocation may need to be adjusted. (Contributed by Eddie Elizondo in bpo-35810 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35810].)

The new function PyCode_NewWithPosOnlyArgs() allows to create code objects like PyCode_New(), but with an extra posonlyargcount parameter for indicating the number of positional-only arguments. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-37221 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37221].)

Py_SetPath() now sets sys.executable to the program full path (Py_GetProgramFullPath()) rather than to the program name (Py_GetProgramName()). (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-38234 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38234].)

Obsolescence

The distutils bdist_wininst command is now deprecated, use bdist_wheel (wheel packages) instead. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-37481 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37481].)

Deprecated methods getchildren() and getiterator() in the ElementTree module now emit a DeprecationWarning instead of PendingDeprecationWarning. They will be removed in Python 3.9. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-29209 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29209].)

Passing an object that is not an instance of concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor to loop.set_default_executor() is deprecated and will be prohibited in Python 3.9. (Contributed by Elvis Pranskevichus in bpo-34075 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34075].)

The __getitem__() methods of xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream, wsgiref.util.FileWrapper and fileinput.FileInput have been deprecated.

Implementations of these methods have been ignoring their index parameter, and returning the next item instead. (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-9372 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9372].)

The typing.NamedTuple class has deprecated the _field_types attribute in favor of the __annotations__ attribute which has the same information. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-36320 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36320].)

ast classes Num, Str, Bytes, NameConstant and Ellipsis are considered deprecated and will be removed in future Python versions. Constant should be used instead. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-32892 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32892].)

ast.NodeVisitor methods visit_Num(), visit_Str(), visit_Bytes(), visit_NameConstant() and visit_Ellipsis() are deprecated now and will not be called in future Python versions. Add the visit_Constant() method to handle all constant nodes. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-36917 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36917].)

The @asyncio.coroutine decorator is deprecated and will be removed in version 3.10. Instead of @asyncio.coroutine, use async def instead. (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-36921 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36921].)

In asyncio, the explicit passing of a loop argument has been deprecated and will be removed in version 3.10 for the following: asyncio.sleep(), asyncio.gather(), asyncio.shield(), asyncio.wait_for(), asyncio.wait(), asyncio.as_completed(), asyncio.Task, asyncio.Lock, asyncio.Event, asyncio.Condition, asyncio.Semaphore, asyncio.BoundedSemaphore, asyncio.Queue, asyncio.create_subprocess_exec(), and asyncio.create_subprocess_shell().

The explicit passing of coroutine objects to asyncio.wait() has been deprecated and will be removed in version 3.11. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-34790 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34790].)

The following functions and methods are deprecated in the gettext module: lgettext(), ldgettext(), lngettext() and ldngettext(). They return encoded bytes, and it's possible that you will get unexpected Unicode-related exceptions if there are encoding problems with the translated strings. It's much better to use alternatives which return Unicode strings in Python 3. These functions have been broken for a long time.

Function bind_textdomain_codeset(), methods NullTranslations.output_charset() and NullTranslations.set_output_charset(), and the codeset parameter of functions translation() and install() are also deprecated, since they are only used for the l*gettext() functions. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-33710 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33710].)

The isAlive() method of threading.Thread has been deprecated. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-35283 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35283].)

Many builtin and extension functions that take integer arguments will now emit a deprecation warning for Decimals, Fractions and any other objects that can be converted to integers only with a loss (e.g. that have the __int__() method but do not have the __index__() method). In future version they will be errors. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-36048 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36048].)

Deprecated passing the following arguments as keyword arguments:

func in functools.partialmethod(), weakref.finalize(), profile.Profile.runcall(), cProfile.Profile.runcall(), bdb.Bdb.runcall(), trace.Trace.runfunc() and curses.wrapper().

function in unittest.TestCase.addCleanup().

fn in the submit() method of concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor and concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor.

callback in contextlib.ExitStack.callback(), contextlib.AsyncExitStack.callback() and contextlib.AsyncExitStack.push_async_callback().

c and typeid in the create() method of multiprocessing.managers.Server and multiprocessing.managers.SharedMemoryServer.

obj in weakref.finalize().

In future releases of Python, they will be positional-only. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-36492 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36492].)

API and Feature Removals

The following features and APIs have been removed from Python 3.8:

Starting with Python 3.3, importing ABCs from collections was deprecated, and importing should be done from collections.abc. Being able to import from collections was marked for removal in 3.8, but has been delayed to 3.9. (See gh-81134 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81134].)

The macpath module, deprecated in Python 3.7, has been removed. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-35471 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35471].)

The function platform.popen() has been removed, after having been deprecated since Python 3.3: use os.popen() instead. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-35345 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35345].)

The function time.clock() has been removed, after having been deprecated since Python 3.3: use time.perf_counter() or time.process_time() instead, depending on your requirements, to have well-defined behavior. (Contributed by Matthias Bussonnier in bpo-36895 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36895].)

The pyvenv script has been removed in favor of python3.8 -m venv to help eliminate confusion as to what Python interpreter the pyvenv script is tied to. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-25427 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25427].)

parse_qs, parse_qsl, and escape are removed from the cgi module. They are deprecated in Python 3.2 or older. They should be imported from the urllib.parse and html modules instead.

filemode function is removed from the tarfile module. It is not documented and deprecated since Python 3.3.

The XMLParser constructor no longer accepts the html argument. It never had an effect and was deprecated in Python 3.4. All other parameters are now keyword-only. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-29209 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29209].)

Removed the doctype() method of XMLParser. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-29209 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29209].)

"unicode_internal" codec is removed. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-36297 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36297].)

The Cache and Statement objects of the sqlite3 module are not exposed to the user. (Contributed by Aviv Palivoda in bpo-30262 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30262].)

The bufsize keyword argument of fileinput.input() and fileinput.FileInput() which was ignored and deprecated since Python 3.6 has been removed. bpo-36952 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36952] (Contributed by Matthias Bussonnier.)

The functions sys.set_coroutine_wrapper() and sys.get_coroutine_wrapper() deprecated in Python 3.7 have been removed; bpo-36933 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36933] (Contributed by Matthias Bussonnier.)

Porting to Python 3.8

Cette section liste les changements mentionnés préalablement et d'autres améliorations qui peuvent demander des changements à votre code.

Changes in Python behavior

Yield expressions (both yield and yield from clauses) are now disallowed in comprehensions and generator expressions (aside from the iterable expression in the leftmost for clause). (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-10544 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10544].)

The compiler now produces a SyntaxWarning when identity checks (is and is not) are used with certain types of literals (e.g. strings, numbers). These can often work by accident in CPython, but are not guaranteed by the language spec. The warning advises users to use equality tests (== and !=) instead. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-34850 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34850].)

The CPython interpreter can swallow exceptions in some circumstances. In Python 3.8 this happens in fewer cases. In particular, exceptions raised when getting the attribute from the type dictionary are no longer ignored. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-35459 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35459].)

Removed __str__ implementations from builtin types bool, int, float, complex and few classes from the standard library. They now inherit __str__() from object. As result, defining the __repr__() method in the subclass of these classes will affect their string representation. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-36793 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36793].)

On AIX, sys.platform doesn't contain the major version anymore. It is always 'aix', instead of 'aix3' .. 'aix7'. Since older Python versions include the version number, so it is recommended to always use sys.platform.startswith('aix'). (Contributed by M. Felt in bpo-36588 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36588].)

PyEval_AcquireLock() and PyEval_AcquireThread() now terminate the current thread if called while the interpreter is finalizing, making them consistent with PyEval_RestoreThread(), Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS(), and PyGILState_Ensure(). If this behavior is not desired, guard the call by checking _Py_IsFinalizing() or sys.is_finalizing(). (Contributed by Joannah Nanjekye in bpo-36475 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36475].)

Changements dans l'API Python

The os.getcwdb() function now uses the UTF-8 encoding on Windows, rather than the ANSI code page: see PEP 529 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/] for the rationale. The function is no longer deprecated on Windows. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-37412 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37412].)

subprocess.Popen can now use os.posix_spawn() in some cases for better performance. On Windows Subsystem for Linux and QEMU User Emulation, the Popen constructor using os.posix_spawn() no longer raises an exception on errors like "missing program". Instead the child process fails with a non-zero returncode. (Contributed by Joannah Nanjekye and Victor Stinner in bpo-35537 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35537].)

The preexec_fn argument of * subprocess.Popen is no longer compatible with subinterpreters. The use of the parameter in a subinterpreter now raises RuntimeError. (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-34651 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34651], modified by Christian Heimes in bpo-37951 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37951].)

The imaplib.IMAP4.logout() method no longer silently ignores arbitrary exceptions. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-36348 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36348].)

The function platform.popen() has been removed, after having been deprecated since Python 3.3: use os.popen() instead. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-35345 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35345].)

The statistics.mode() function no longer raises an exception when given multimodal data. Instead, it returns the first mode encountered in the input data. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-35892 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35892].)

The selection() method of the tkinter.ttk.Treeview class no longer takes arguments. Using it with arguments for changing the selection was deprecated in Python 3.6. Use specialized methods like selection_set() for changing the selection. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-31508 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31508].)

The writexml(), toxml() and toprettyxml() methods of xml.dom.minidom and the write() method of xml.etree.ElementTree now preserve the attribute order specified by the user. (Contributed by Diego Rojas and Raymond Hettinger in bpo-34160 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34160].)

A dbm.dumb database opened with flags 'r' is now read-only. dbm.dumb.open() with flags 'r' and 'w' no longer creates a database if it does not exist. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-32749 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32749].)

The doctype() method defined in a subclass of XMLParser will no longer be called and will emit a RuntimeWarning instead of a DeprecationWarning. Define the doctype() method on a target for handling an XML doctype declaration. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-29209 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29209].)

A RuntimeError is now raised when the custom metaclass doesn't provide the __classcell__ entry in the namespace passed to type.__new__. A DeprecationWarning was emitted in Python 3.6--3.7. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23722 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23722].)

The cProfile.Profile class can now be used as a context manager. (Contributed by Scott Sanderson in bpo-29235 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29235].)

shutil.copyfile(), shutil.copy(), shutil.copy2(), shutil.copytree() and shutil.move() use platform-specific "fast-copy" syscalls (see Platform-dependent efficient copy operations section).

shutil.copyfile() default buffer size on Windows was changed from 16 KiB to 1 MiB.

The PyGC_Head struct has changed completely. All code that touched the struct member should be rewritten. (See bpo-33597 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33597].)

The PyInterpreterState struct has been moved into the "internal" header files (specifically Include/internal/pycore_pystate.h). An opaque PyInterpreterState is still available as part of the public API (and stable ABI). The docs indicate that none of the struct's fields are public, so we hope no one has been using them. However, if you do rely on one or more of those private fields and have no alternative then please open a BPO issue. We'll work on helping you adjust (possibly including adding accessor functions to the public API). (See bpo-35886 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35886].)

The mmap.flush() method now returns None on success and raises an exception on error under all platforms. Previously, its behavior was platform-dependent: a nonzero value was returned on success; zero was returned on error under Windows. A zero value was returned on success; an exception was raised on error under Unix. (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-2122 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2122].)

xml.dom.minidom and xml.sax modules no longer process external entities by default. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-17239 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17239].)

Deleting a key from a read-only dbm database (dbm.dumb, dbm.gnu or dbm.ndbm) raises error (dbm.dumb.error, dbm.gnu.error or dbm.ndbm.error) instead of KeyError. (Contributed by Xiang Zhang in bpo-33106 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33106].)

Simplified AST for literals. All constants will be represented as ast.Constant instances. Instantiating old classes Num, Str, Bytes, NameConstant and Ellipsis will return an instance of Constant. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-32892 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32892].)

expanduser() on Windows now prefers the USERPROFILE environment variable and does not use HOME, which is not normally set for regular user accounts. (Contributed by Anthony Sottile in bpo-36264 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36264].)

The exception asyncio.CancelledError now inherits from BaseException rather than Exception and no longer inherits from concurrent.futures.CancelledError. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32528 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32528].)

The function asyncio.wait_for() now correctly waits for cancellation when using an instance of asyncio.Task. Previously, upon reaching timeout, it was cancelled and immediately returned. (Contributed by Elvis Pranskevichus in bpo-32751 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32751].)

The function asyncio.BaseTransport.get_extra_info() now returns a safe to use socket object when 'socket' is passed to the name parameter. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-37027 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37027].)

asyncio.BufferedProtocol has graduated to the stable API.

DLL dependencies for extension modules and DLLs loaded with ctypes on Windows are now resolved more securely. Only the system paths, the directory containing the DLL or PYD file, and directories added with add_dll_directory() are searched for load-time dependencies. Specifically, PATH and the current working directory are no longer used, and modifications to these will no longer have any effect on normal DLL resolution. If your application relies on these mechanisms, you should check for add_dll_directory() and if it exists, use it to add your DLLs directory while loading your library. Note that Windows 7 users will need to ensure that Windows Update KB2533623 has been installed (this is also verified by the installer). (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-36085 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36085].)

The header files and functions related to pgen have been removed after its replacement by a pure Python implementation. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-36623 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36623].)

types.CodeType has a new parameter in the second position of the constructor (posonlyargcount) to support positional-only arguments defined in PEP 570 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0570/]. The first argument (argcount) now represents the total number of positional arguments (including positional-only arguments). The new replace() method of types.CodeType can be used to make the code future-proof.

The parameter digestmod for hmac.new() no longer uses the MD5 digest by default.

Changements dans l'API C

The PyCompilerFlags structure got a new cf_feature_version field. It should be initialized to PY_MINOR_VERSION. The field is ignored by default, and is used if and only if PyCF_ONLY_AST flag is set in cf_flags. (Contributed by Guido van Rossum in bpo-35766 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35766].)

The PyEval_ReInitThreads() function has been removed from the C API. It should not be called explicitly: use PyOS_AfterFork_Child() instead. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-36728 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36728].)

On Unix, C extensions are no longer linked to libpython except on Android and Cygwin. When Python is embedded, libpython must not be loaded with RTLD_LOCAL, but RTLD_GLOBAL instead. Previously, using RTLD_LOCAL, it was already not possible to load C extensions which were not linked to libpython, like C extensions of the standard library built by the *shared* section of Modules/Setup. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-21536 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21536].)

Use of # variants of formats in parsing or building value (e.g. PyArg_ParseTuple(), Py_BuildValue(), PyObject_CallFunction(), etc.) without PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN defined raises DeprecationWarning now. It will be removed in 3.10 or 4.0. Read Analyse des arguments et construction des valeurs for detail. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-36381 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36381].)

Instances of heap-allocated types (such as those created with PyType_FromSpec()) hold a reference to their type object. Increasing the reference count of these type objects has been moved from PyType_GenericAlloc() to the more low-level functions, PyObject_Init() and PyObject_INIT. This makes types created through PyType_FromSpec() behave like other classes in managed code.

Statically allocated types are not affected.

For the vast majority of cases, there should be no side effect. However, types that manually increase the reference count after allocating an instance (perhaps to work around the bug) may now become immortal. To avoid this, these classes need to call Py_DECREF on the type object during instance deallocation.

To correctly port these types into 3.8, please apply the following changes:

Remove Py_INCREF on the type object after allocating an instance - if any. This may happen after calling PyObject_New, PyObject_NewVar, PyObject_GC_New(), PyObject_GC_NewVar(), or any other custom allocator that uses PyObject_Init() or PyObject_INIT.

Exemple :

static foo_struct *
foo_new(PyObject *type) {
    foo_struct *foo = PyObject_GC_New(foo_struct, (PyTypeObject *) type);
    if (foo == NULL)
        return NULL;
#if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x03080000
    // Workaround for Python issue 35810; no longer necessary in Python 3.8
    PY_INCREF(type)
#endif
    return foo;
}

Ensure that all custom tp_dealloc functions of heap-allocated types decrease the type's reference count.

Exemple :

static void
foo_dealloc(foo_struct *instance) {
    PyObject *type = Py_TYPE(instance);
    PyObject_GC_Del(instance);
#if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x03080000
    // This was not needed before Python 3.8 (Python issue 35810)
    Py_DECREF(type);
#endif
}

(Contributed by Eddie Elizondo in bpo-35810 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35810].)

The Py_DEPRECATED() macro has been implemented for MSVC. The macro now must be placed before the symbol name.

Exemple :

Py_DEPRECATED(3.8) PyAPI_FUNC(int) Py_OldFunction(void);

(Contributed by Zackery Spytz in bpo-33407 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33407].)

The interpreter does not pretend to support binary compatibility of extension types across feature releases, anymore. A PyTypeObject exported by a third-party extension module is supposed to have all the slots expected in the current Python version, including tp_finalize (Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE is not checked anymore before reading tp_finalize).

(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-32388 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32388].)

The functions PyNode_AddChild() and PyParser_AddToken() now accept two additional int arguments end_lineno and end_col_offset.

The libpython38.a file to allow MinGW tools to link directly against python38.dll is no longer included in the regular Windows distribution. If you require this file, it may be generated with the gendef and dlltool tools, which are part of the MinGW binutils package:

gendef - python38.dll > tmp.def
dlltool --dllname python38.dll --def tmp.def --output-lib libpython38.a

The location of an installed pythonXY.dll will depend on the installation options and the version and language of Windows. See Utilisation de Python sur Windows for more information. The resulting library should be placed in the same directory as pythonXY.lib, which is generally the libs directory under your Python installation.

(Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-37351 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37351].)

Changements au code intermédiaire CPython

The interpreter loop has been simplified by moving the logic of unrolling the stack of blocks into the compiler. The compiler emits now explicit instructions for adjusting the stack of values and calling the cleaning-up code for break, continue and return.

Removed opcodes BREAK_LOOP, CONTINUE_LOOP, SETUP_LOOP and SETUP_EXCEPT. Added new opcodes ROT_FOUR, BEGIN_FINALLY, CALL_FINALLY and POP_FINALLY. Changed the behavior of END_FINALLY and WITH_CLEANUP_START.

(Contributed by Mark Shannon, Antoine Pitrou and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-17611 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17611].)

Added new opcode END_ASYNC_FOR for handling exceptions raised when awaiting a next item in an async for loop. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-33041 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33041].)

The MAP_ADD now expects the value as the first element in the stack and the key as the second element. This change was made so the key is always evaluated before the value in dictionary comprehensions, as proposed by PEP 572 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/]. (Contributed by Jörn Heissler in bpo-35224 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35224].)

Demos and Tools

Added a benchmark script for timing various ways to access variables: Tools/scripts/var_access_benchmark.py. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-35884 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35884].)

Here's a summary of performance improvements since Python 3.3:

Python version                       3.3     3.4     3.5     3.6     3.7     3.8
--------------                       ---     ---     ---     ---     ---     ---

Variable and attribute read access:
    read_local                       4.0     7.1     7.1     5.4     5.1     3.9
    read_nonlocal                    5.3     7.1     8.1     5.8     5.4     4.4
    read_global                     13.3    15.5    19.0    14.3    13.6     7.6
    read_builtin                    20.0    21.1    21.6    18.5    19.0     7.5
    read_classvar_from_class        20.5    25.6    26.5    20.7    19.5    18.4
    read_classvar_from_instance     18.5    22.8    23.5    18.8    17.1    16.4
    read_instancevar                26.8    32.4    33.1    28.0    26.3    25.4
    read_instancevar_slots          23.7    27.8    31.3    20.8    20.8    20.2
    read_namedtuple                 68.5    73.8    57.5    45.0    46.8    18.4
    read_boundmethod                29.8    37.6    37.9    29.6    26.9    27.7

Variable and attribute write access:
    write_local                      4.6     8.7     9.3     5.5     5.3     4.3
    write_nonlocal                   7.3    10.5    11.1     5.6     5.5     4.7
    write_global                    15.9    19.7    21.2    18.0    18.0    15.8
    write_classvar                  81.9    92.9    96.0   104.6   102.1    39.2
    write_instancevar               36.4    44.6    45.8    40.0    38.9    35.5
    write_instancevar_slots         28.7    35.6    36.1    27.3    26.6    25.7

Data structure read access:
    read_list                       19.2    24.2    24.5    20.8    20.8    19.0
    read_deque                      19.9    24.7    25.5    20.2    20.6    19.8
    read_dict                       19.7    24.3    25.7    22.3    23.0    21.0
    read_strdict                    17.9    22.6    24.3    19.5    21.2    18.9

Data structure write access:
    write_list                      21.2    27.1    28.5    22.5    21.6    20.0
    write_deque                     23.8    28.7    30.1    22.7    21.8    23.5
    write_dict                      25.9    31.4    33.3    29.3    29.2    24.7
    write_strdict                   22.9    28.4    29.9    27.5    25.2    23.1

Stack (or queue) operations:
    list_append_pop                144.2    93.4   112.7    75.4    74.2    50.8
    deque_append_pop                30.4    43.5    57.0    49.4    49.2    42.5
    deque_append_popleft            30.8    43.7    57.3    49.7    49.7    42.8

Timing loop:
    loop_overhead                    0.3     0.5     0.6     0.4     0.3     0.3

The benchmarks were measured on an Intel® Core™ i7-4960HQ processor [https://ark.intel.com/content/www/us/en/ark/products/76088/intel-core-i7-4960hq-processor-6m-cache-up-to-3-80-ghz.html] running the macOS 64-bit builds found at python.org [https://www.python.org/downloads/macos/]. The benchmark script displays timings in nanoseconds.

Notable changes in Python 3.8.1

En raison de problèmes de sécurité importants, le paramètre reuse_address de asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint() n'est plus supporté. C'est à cause du comportement de l'option socket SO_REUSEADDR en UDP. Pour plus de détails, voir la documentation de loop.create_datagram_endpoint(). (Contribué par Kyle Stanley, Antoine Pitrou, et Yury Selivanov dans bpo-37228 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37228].)

Notable changes in Python 3.8.2

Fixed a regression with the ignore callback of shutil.copytree(). The argument types are now str and List[str] again. (Contributed by Manuel Barkhau and Giampaolo Rodola in gh-83571 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83571].)

Notable changes in Python 3.8.3

The constant values of future flags in the __future__ module are updated in order to prevent collision with compiler flags. Previously PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT was clashing with CO_FUTURE_DIVISION. (Contributed by Batuhan Taskaya in gh-83743 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83743])

Notable changes in Python 3.8.8

Earlier Python versions allowed using both ; and & as query parameter separators in urllib.parse.parse_qs() and urllib.parse.parse_qsl(). Due to security concerns, and to conform with newer W3C recommendations, this has been changed to allow only a single separator key, with & as the default. This change also affects cgi.parse() and cgi.parse_multipart() as they use the affected functions internally. For more details, please see their respective documentation. (Contributed by Adam Goldschmidt, Senthil Kumaran and Ken Jin in bpo-42967 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42967].)

Notable changes in Python 3.8.9

A security fix alters the ftplib.FTP behavior to not trust the IPv4 address sent from the remote server when setting up a passive data channel. We reuse the ftp server IP address instead. For unusual code requiring the old behavior, set a trust_server_pasv_ipv4_address attribute on your FTP instance to True. (See gh-87451 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87451])

Notable changes in Python 3.8.10

Prise en charge de macOS 11.0 (Big Sur) et de Mac sur processeur Apple

As of 3.8.10, Python now supports building and running on macOS 11 (Big Sur) and on Apple Silicon Macs (based on the ARM64 architecture). A new universal build variant, universal2, is now available to natively support both ARM64 and Intel 64 in one set of executables. Note that support for "weaklinking", building binaries targeted for newer versions of macOS that will also run correctly on older versions by testing at runtime for missing features, is not included in this backport from Python 3.9; to support a range of macOS versions, continue to target for and build on the oldest version in the range.

(Originally contributed by Ronald Oussoren and Lawrence D'Anna in gh-85272 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85272], with fixes by FX Coudert and Eli Rykoff, and backported to 3.8 by Maxime Bélanger and Ned Deily)

Notable changes in Python 3.8.10

urllib.parse

La présence de caractères de saut de ligne ou de tabulation dans une URL permet certaines formes d'attaques. En conformité avec la spécification du WHATWG qui met à jour la RFC 3986 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html], les caractères ASCII de saut de ligne \n, \r et de tabulation \t sont retirés des URL par l'analyseur dans urllib.parse pour contrer ces attaques. Le jeu de caractères à retirer est contrôlé par une nouvelle variable de module urllib.parse._UNSAFE_URL_BYTES_TO_REMOVE (voir bpo-43882 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43882]).

Notable changes in Python 3.8.12

Changements dans l'API Python

Starting with Python 3.8.12 the ipaddress module no longer accepts any leading zeros in IPv4 address strings. Leading zeros are ambiguous and interpreted as octal notation by some libraries. For example the legacy function socket.inet_aton() treats leading zeros as octal notation. glibc implementation of modern inet_pton() does not accept any leading zeros.

(Originally contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-36384 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36384], and backported to 3.8 by Achraf Merzouki.)

Notable security feature in 3.8.14

Converting between int and str in bases other than 2 (binary), 4, 8 (octal), 16 (hexadecimal), or 32 such as base 10 (decimal) now raises a ValueError if the number of digits in string form is above a limit to avoid potential denial of service attacks due to the algorithmic complexity. This is a mitigation for CVE 2020-10735 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-10735]. This limit can be configured or disabled by environment variable, command line flag, or sys APIs. See the integer string conversion length limitation documentation. The default limit is 4300 digits in string form.

Notable changes in 3.8.17

tarfile

The extraction methods in tarfile, and shutil.unpack_archive(), have a new a filter argument that allows limiting tar features than may be surprising or dangerous, such as creating files outside the destination directory. See Extraction filters for details. In Python 3.12, use without the filter argument will show a DeprecationWarning. In Python 3.14, the default will switch to 'data'. (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in PEP 706 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0706/].)

What's New In Python 3.7

Rédacteur:

Elvis Pranskevichus <elvis@magic.io>

This article explains the new features in Python 3.7, compared to 3.6. Python 3.7 was released on June 27, 2018. For full details, see the changelog.

Summary -- Release Highlights

Nouvelles fonctionnalités de syntaxe :

PEP 563, postponed evaluation of type annotations.

Backwards incompatible syntax changes:

async and await are now reserved keywords.

Nouveaux modules de la bibliothèque :

contextvars: PEP 567 -- Context Variables

dataclasses: PEP 557 -- Data Classes

importlib.resources

Nouvelles fonctionnalités natives :

PEP 553, the new breakpoint() function.

Python data model improvements:

PEP 562, customization of access to module attributes.

PEP 560, core support for typing module and generic types.

the insertion-order preservation nature of dict objects has been declared [https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2017-December/151283.html] to be an official part of the Python language spec.

Significant improvements in the standard library:

The asyncio module has received new features, significant usability and performance improvements.

The time module gained support for functions with nanosecond resolution.

CPython implementation improvements:

Avoiding the use of ASCII as a default text encoding:

PEP 538, legacy C locale coercion

PEP 540, forced UTF-8 runtime mode

PEP 552, deterministic .pycs

New Python Development Mode

PEP 565, improved DeprecationWarning handling

C API improvements:

PEP 539, new C API for thread-local storage

Documentation improvements:

PEP 545, Python documentation translations

New documentation translations: Japanese [https://docs.python.org/ja/], French [https://docs.python.org/fr/], and Korean [https://docs.python.org/ko/].

This release features notable performance improvements in many areas. The Optimizations section lists them in detail.

For a list of changes that may affect compatibility with previous Python releases please refer to the Porting to Python 3.7 section.

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

PEP 563: Postponed Evaluation of Annotations

The advent of type hints in Python uncovered two glaring usability issues with the functionality of annotations added in PEP 3107 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3107/] and refined further in PEP 526 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/]:

annotations could only use names which were already available in the current scope, in other words they didn't support forward references of any kind; and

annotating source code had adverse effects on startup time of Python programs.

Both of these issues are fixed by postponing the evaluation of annotations. Instead of compiling code which executes expressions in annotations at their definition time, the compiler stores the annotation in a string form equivalent to the AST of the expression in question. If needed, annotations can be resolved at runtime using typing.get_type_hints(). In the common case where this is not required, the annotations are cheaper to store (since short strings are interned by the interpreter) and make startup time faster.

Usability-wise, annotations now support forward references, making the following syntax valid:

class C:
    @classmethod
    def from_string(cls, source: str) -> C:
        ...

    def validate_b(self, obj: B) -> bool:
        ...

class B:
    ...

Since this change breaks compatibility, the new behavior needs to be enabled on a per-module basis in Python 3.7 using a __future__ import:

from __future__ import annotations

It will become the default in Python 3.10.

Voir aussi

PEP 563 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/] -- Postponed evaluation of annotations

PEP written and implemented by Łukasz Langa.

PEP 538: Legacy C Locale Coercion

An ongoing challenge within the Python 3 series has been determining a sensible default strategy for handling the "7-bit ASCII" text encoding assumption currently implied by the use of the default C or POSIX locale on non-Windows platforms.

PEP 538 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/] updates the default interpreter command line interface to automatically coerce that locale to an available UTF-8 based locale as described in the documentation of the new PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE environment variable. Automatically setting LC_CTYPE this way means that both the core interpreter and locale-aware C extensions (such as readline) will assume the use of UTF-8 as the default text encoding, rather than ASCII.

The platform support definition in PEP 11 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/] has also been updated to limit full text handling support to suitably configured non-ASCII based locales.

As part of this change, the default error handler for stdin and stdout is now surrogateescape (rather than strict) when using any of the defined coercion target locales (currently C.UTF-8, C.utf8, and UTF-8). The default error handler for stderr continues to be backslashreplace, regardless of locale.

Locale coercion is silent by default, but to assist in debugging potentially locale related integration problems, explicit warnings (emitted directly on stderr) can be requested by setting PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE=warn. This setting will also cause the Python runtime to emit a warning if the legacy C locale remains active when the core interpreter is initialized.

While PEP 538 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/]'s locale coercion has the benefit of also affecting extension modules (such as GNU readline), as well as child processes (including those running non-Python applications and older versions of Python), it has the downside of requiring that a suitable target locale be present on the running system. To better handle the case where no suitable target locale is available (as occurs on RHEL/CentOS 7, for example), Python 3.7 also implements PEP 540: Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode.

Voir aussi

PEP 538 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/] -- Coercing the legacy C locale to a UTF-8 based locale

PEP written and implemented by Nick Coghlan.

PEP 540: Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode

The new -X utf8 command line option and PYTHONUTF8 environment variable can be used to enable the Python UTF-8 Mode.

When in UTF-8 mode, CPython ignores the locale settings, and uses the UTF-8 encoding by default. The error handlers for sys.stdin and sys.stdout streams are set to surrogateescape.

The forced UTF-8 mode can be used to change the text handling behavior in an embedded Python interpreter without changing the locale settings of an embedding application.

While PEP 540 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0540/]'s UTF-8 mode has the benefit of working regardless of which locales are available on the running system, it has the downside of having no effect on extension modules (such as GNU readline), child processes running non-Python applications, and child processes running older versions of Python. To reduce the risk of corrupting text data when communicating with such components, Python 3.7 also implements PEP 540: Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode).

The UTF-8 mode is enabled by default when the locale is C or POSIX, and the PEP 538 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/] locale coercion feature fails to change it to a UTF-8 based alternative (whether that failure is due to PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE=0 being set, LC_ALL being set, or the lack of a suitable target locale).

Voir aussi

PEP 540 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0540/] -- Add a new UTF-8 mode

PEP written and implemented by Victor Stinner

PEP 553: Built-in breakpoint()

Python 3.7 includes the new built-in breakpoint() function as an easy and consistent way to enter the Python debugger.

Built-in breakpoint() calls sys.breakpointhook(). By default, the latter imports pdb and then calls pdb.set_trace(), but by binding sys.breakpointhook() to the function of your choosing, breakpoint() can enter any debugger. Additionally, the environment variable PYTHONBREAKPOINT can be set to the callable of your debugger of choice. Set PYTHONBREAKPOINT=0 to completely disable built-in breakpoint().

Voir aussi

PEP 553 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0553/] -- Built-in breakpoint()

PEP written and implemented by Barry Warsaw

PEP 539: New C API for Thread-Local Storage

While Python provides a C API for thread-local storage support; the existing Thread Local Storage (TLS) API has used int to represent TLS keys across all platforms. This has not generally been a problem for officially support platforms, but that is neither POSIX-compliant, nor portable in any practical sense.

PEP 539 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0539/] changes this by providing a new Thread Specific Storage (TSS) API to CPython which supersedes use of the existing TLS API within the CPython interpreter, while deprecating the existing API. The TSS API uses a new type Py_tss_t instead of int to represent TSS keys--an opaque type the definition of which may depend on the underlying TLS implementation. Therefore, this will allow to build CPython on platforms where the native TLS key is defined in a way that cannot be safely cast to int.

Note that on platforms where the native TLS key is defined in a way that cannot be safely cast to int, all functions of the existing TLS API will be no-op and immediately return failure. This indicates clearly that the old API is not supported on platforms where it cannot be used reliably, and that no effort will be made to add such support.

Voir aussi

PEP 539 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0539/] -- A New C-API for Thread-Local Storage in CPython

PEP written by Erik M. Bray; implementation by Masayuki Yamamoto.

PEP 562: Customization of Access to Module Attributes

Python 3.7 allows defining __getattr__() on modules and will call it whenever a module attribute is otherwise not found. Defining __dir__() on modules is now also allowed.

A typical example of where this may be useful is module attribute deprecation and lazy loading.

Voir aussi

PEP 562 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0562/] -- Module __getattr__ and __dir__

PEP written and implemented by Ivan Levkivskyi

PEP 564: New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution

The resolution of clocks in modern systems can exceed the limited precision of a floating-point number returned by the time.time() function and its variants. To avoid loss of precision, PEP 564 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0564/] adds six new "nanosecond" variants of the existing timer functions to the time module:

time.clock_gettime_ns()

time.clock_settime_ns()

time.monotonic_ns()

time.perf_counter_ns()

time.process_time_ns()

time.time_ns()

The new functions return the number of nanoseconds as an integer value.

Measurements [https://peps.python.org/pep-0564/#annex-clocks-resolution-in-python] show that on Linux and Windows the resolution of time.time_ns() is approximately 3 times better than that of time.time().

Voir aussi

PEP 564 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0564/] -- Add new time functions with nanosecond resolution

PEP written and implemented by Victor Stinner

PEP 565: Show DeprecationWarning in __main__

The default handling of DeprecationWarning has been changed such that these warnings are once more shown by default, but only when the code triggering them is running directly in the __main__ module. As a result, developers of single file scripts and those using Python interactively should once again start seeing deprecation warnings for the APIs they use, but deprecation warnings triggered by imported application, library and framework modules will continue to be hidden by default.

As a result of this change, the standard library now allows developers to choose between three different deprecation warning behaviours:

FutureWarning: always displayed by default, recommended for warnings intended to be seen by application end users (e.g. for deprecated application configuration settings).

DeprecationWarning: displayed by default only in __main__ and when running tests, recommended for warnings intended to be seen by other Python developers where a version upgrade may result in changed behaviour or an error.

PendingDeprecationWarning: displayed by default only when running tests, intended for cases where a future version upgrade will change the warning category to DeprecationWarning or FutureWarning.

Previously both DeprecationWarning and PendingDeprecationWarning were only visible when running tests, which meant that developers primarily writing single file scripts or using Python interactively could be surprised by breaking changes in the APIs they used.

Voir aussi

PEP 565 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0565/] -- Show DeprecationWarning in __main__

PEP written and implemented by Nick Coghlan

PEP 560: Core Support for typing module and Generic Types

Initially PEP 484 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/] was designed in such way that it would not introduce any changes to the core CPython interpreter. Now type hints and the typing module are extensively used by the community, so this restriction is removed. The PEP introduces two special methods __class_getitem__() and __mro_entries__(), these methods are now used by most classes and special constructs in typing. As a result, the speed of various operations with types increased up to 7 times, the generic types can be used without metaclass conflicts, and several long standing bugs in typing module are fixed.

Voir aussi

PEP 560 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/] -- Core support for typing module and generic types

PEP written and implemented by Ivan Levkivskyi

PEP 552: Hash-based .pyc Files

Python has traditionally checked the up-to-dateness of bytecode cache files (i.e., .pyc files) by comparing the source metadata (last-modified timestamp and size) with source metadata saved in the cache file header when it was generated. While effective, this invalidation method has its drawbacks. When filesystem timestamps are too coarse, Python can miss source updates, leading to user confusion. Additionally, having a timestamp in the cache file is problematic for build reproducibility [https://reproducible-builds.org/] and content-based build systems.

PEP 552 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/] extends the pyc format to allow the hash of the source file to be used for invalidation instead of the source timestamp. Such .pyc files are called "hash-based". By default, Python still uses timestamp-based invalidation and does not generate hash-based .pyc files at runtime. Hash-based .pyc files may be generated with py_compile or compileall.

Hash-based .pyc files come in two variants: checked and unchecked. Python validates checked hash-based .pyc files against the corresponding source files at runtime but doesn't do so for unchecked hash-based pycs. Unchecked hash-based .pyc files are a useful performance optimization for environments where a system external to Python (e.g., the build system) is responsible for keeping .pyc files up-to-date.

See Invalidation de bytecode mis en cache for more information.

Voir aussi

PEP 552 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/] -- Deterministic pycs

PEP written and implemented by Benjamin Peterson

PEP 545: Python Documentation Translations

PEP 545 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0545/] describes the process of creating and maintaining Python documentation translations.

Three new translations have been added:

Japanese: https://docs.python.org/ja/

French: https://docs.python.org/fr/

Korean: https://docs.python.org/ko/

Voir aussi

PEP 545 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0545/] -- Python Documentation Translations

PEP written and implemented by Julien Palard, Inada Naoki, and Victor Stinner.

Python Development Mode (-X dev)

The new -X dev command line option or the new PYTHONDEVMODE environment variable can be used to enable Python Development Mode. When in development mode, Python performs additional runtime checks that are too expensive to be enabled by default. See Python Development Mode documentation for the full description.

Autres changements au langage

An await expression and comprehensions containing an async for clause were illegal in the expressions in formatted string literals due to a problem with the implementation. In Python 3.7 this restriction was lifted.

More than 255 arguments can now be passed to a function, and a function can now have more than 255 parameters. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-12844 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12844] and bpo-18896 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18896].)

bytes.fromhex() and bytearray.fromhex() now ignore all ASCII whitespace, not only spaces. (Contributed by Robert Xiao in bpo-28927 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28927].)

str, bytes, and bytearray gained support for the new isascii() method, which can be used to test if a string or bytes contain only the ASCII characters. (Contributed by INADA Naoki in bpo-32677 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32677].)

ImportError now displays module name and module __file__ path when from ... import ... fails. (Contributed by Matthias Bussonnier in bpo-29546 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29546].)

Circular imports involving absolute imports with binding a submodule to a name are now supported. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-30024 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30024].)

object.__format__(x, '') is now equivalent to str(x) rather than format(str(self), ''). (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28974 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28974].)

In order to better support dynamic creation of stack traces, types.TracebackType can now be instantiated from Python code, and the tb_next attribute on tracebacks is now writable. (Contributed by Nathaniel J. Smith in bpo-30579 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30579].)

When using the -m switch, sys.path[0] is now eagerly expanded to the full starting directory path, rather than being left as the empty directory (which allows imports from the current working directory at the time when an import occurs) (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in bpo-33053 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33053].)

The new -X importtime option or the PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME environment variable can be used to show the timing of each module import. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-31415 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31415].)

Nouveaux modules

contextvars

The new contextvars module and a set of new C APIs introduce support for context variables. Context variables are conceptually similar to thread-local variables. Unlike TLS, context variables support asynchronous code correctly.

The asyncio and decimal modules have been updated to use and support context variables out of the box. Particularly the active decimal context is now stored in a context variable, which allows decimal operations to work with the correct context in asynchronous code.

Voir aussi

PEP 567 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/] -- Context Variables

PEP written and implemented by Yury Selivanov

dataclasses

The new dataclass() decorator provides a way to declare data classes. A data class describes its attributes using class variable annotations. Its constructor and other magic methods, such as __repr__(), __eq__(), and __hash__() are generated automatically.

Exemple :

@dataclass
class Point:
    x: float
    y: float
    z: float = 0.0

p = Point(1.5, 2.5)
print(p)   # produces "Point(x=1.5, y=2.5, z=0.0)"

Voir aussi

PEP 557 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0557/] -- Data Classes

PEP written and implemented by Eric V. Smith

importlib.resources

The new importlib.resources module provides several new APIs and one new ABC for access to, opening, and reading resources inside packages. Resources are roughly similar to files inside packages, but they needn't be actual files on the physical file system. Module loaders can provide a get_resource_reader() function which returns a importlib.abc.ResourceReader instance to support this new API. Built-in file path loaders and zip file loaders both support this.

Contributed by Barry Warsaw and Brett Cannon in bpo-32248 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32248].

Voir aussi

importlib_resources [https://importlib-resources.readthedocs.io/en/latest/] -- a PyPI backport for earlier Python versions.

Modules améliorés

argparse

The new ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args() method allows intermixing options and positional arguments. (Contributed by paul.j3 in bpo-14191 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14191].)

asyncio

The asyncio module has received many new features, usability and performance improvements. Notable changes include:

The new provisional asyncio.run() function can be used to run a coroutine from synchronous code by automatically creating and destroying the event loop. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32314 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32314].)

asyncio gained support for contextvars. loop.call_soon(), loop.call_soon_threadsafe(), loop.call_later(), loop.call_at(), and Future.add_done_callback() have a new optional keyword-only context parameter. Tasks now track their context automatically. See PEP 567 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/] for more details. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32436 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32436].)

The new asyncio.create_task() function has been added as a shortcut to asyncio.get_event_loop().create_task(). (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-32311 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32311].)

The new loop.start_tls() method can be used to upgrade an existing connection to TLS. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-23749 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23749].)

The new loop.sock_recv_into() method allows reading data from a socket directly into a provided buffer making it possible to reduce data copies. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-31819 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31819].)

The new asyncio.current_task() function returns the currently running Task instance, and the new asyncio.all_tasks() function returns a set of all existing Task instances in a given loop. The Task.current_task() and Task.all_tasks() methods have been deprecated. (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-32250 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32250].)

The new provisional BufferedProtocol class allows implementing streaming protocols with manual control over the receive buffer. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32251 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32251].)

The new asyncio.get_running_loop() function returns the currently running loop, and raises a RuntimeError if no loop is running. This is in contrast with asyncio.get_event_loop(), which will create a new event loop if none is running. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32269 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32269].)

The new StreamWriter.wait_closed() coroutine method allows waiting until the stream writer is closed. The new StreamWriter.is_closing() method can be used to determine if the writer is closing. (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-32391 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32391].)

The new loop.sock_sendfile() coroutine method allows sending files using os.sendfile when possible. (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-32410 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32410].)

The new Future.get_loop() and Task.get_loop() methods return the instance of the loop on which a task or a future were created. Server.get_loop() allows doing the same for asyncio.Server objects. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32415 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32415] and Srinivas Reddy Thatiparthy in bpo-32418 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32418].)

It is now possible to control how instances of asyncio.Server begin serving. Previously, the server would start serving immediately when created. The new start_serving keyword argument to loop.create_server() and loop.create_unix_server(), as well as Server.start_serving(), and Server.serve_forever() can be used to decouple server instantiation and serving. The new Server.is_serving() method returns True if the server is serving. Server objects are now asynchronous context managers:

srv = await loop.create_server(...)

async with srv:
    # some code

# At this point, srv is closed and no longer accepts new connections.

(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32662 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32662].)

Callback objects returned by loop.call_later() gained the new when() method which returns an absolute scheduled callback timestamp. (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-32741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32741].)

The loop.create_datagram_endpoint() method gained support for Unix sockets. (Contributed by Quentin Dawans in bpo-31245 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31245].)

The asyncio.open_connection(), asyncio.start_server() functions, loop.create_connection(), loop.create_server(), loop.create_accepted_socket() methods and their corresponding UNIX socket variants now accept the ssl_handshake_timeout keyword argument. (Contributed by Neil Aspinall in bpo-29970 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29970].)

The new Handle.cancelled() method returns True if the callback was cancelled. (Contributed by Marat Sharafutdinov in bpo-31943 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31943].)

The asyncio source has been converted to use the async/await syntax. (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-32193 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32193].)

The new ReadTransport.is_reading() method can be used to determine the reading state of the transport. Additionally, calls to ReadTransport.resume_reading() and ReadTransport.pause_reading() are now idempotent. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32356 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32356].)

Loop methods which accept socket paths now support passing path-like objects. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32066 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32066].)

In asyncio TCP sockets on Linux are now created with TCP_NODELAY flag set by default. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov and Victor Stinner in bpo-27456 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27456].)

Exceptions occurring in cancelled tasks are no longer logged. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-30508 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30508].)

New WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy and WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy classes. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-33792 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33792].)

Several asyncio APIs have been deprecated.

binascii

The b2a_uu() function now accepts an optional backtick keyword argument. When it's true, zeros are represented by '`' instead of spaces. (Contributed by Xiang Zhang in bpo-30103 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30103].)

calendar

The HTMLCalendar class has new class attributes which ease the customization of CSS classes in the produced HTML calendar. (Contributed by Oz Tiram in bpo-30095 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30095].)

collections

collections.namedtuple() now supports default values. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-32320 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32320].)

compileall

compileall.compile_dir() learned the new invalidation_mode parameter, which can be used to enable hash-based .pyc invalidation. The invalidation mode can also be specified on the command line using the new --invalidation-mode argument. (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-31650 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31650].)

concurrent.futures

ProcessPoolExecutor and ThreadPoolExecutor now support the new initializer and initargs constructor arguments. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-21423 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21423].)

The ProcessPoolExecutor can now take the multiprocessing context via the new mp_context argument. (Contributed by Thomas Moreau in bpo-31540 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31540].)

contextlib

The new nullcontext() is a simpler and faster no-op context manager than ExitStack. (Contributed by Jesse-Bakker in bpo-10049 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10049].)

The new asynccontextmanager(), AbstractAsyncContextManager, and AsyncExitStack have been added to complement their synchronous counterparts. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in bpo-29679 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29679] and bpo-30241 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30241], and by Alexander Mohr and Ilya Kulakov in bpo-29302 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29302].)

cProfile

The cProfile command line now accepts -m module_name as an alternative to script path. (Contributed by Sanyam Khurana in bpo-21862 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21862].)

crypt

The crypt module now supports the Blowfish hashing method. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-31664 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31664].)

The mksalt() function now allows specifying the number of rounds for hashing. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-31702 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31702].)

datetime

The new datetime.fromisoformat() method constructs a datetime object from a string in one of the formats output by datetime.isoformat(). (Contributed by Paul Ganssle in bpo-15873 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15873].)

The tzinfo class now supports sub-minute offsets. (Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in bpo-5288 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5288].)

dbm

dbm.dumb now supports reading read-only files and no longer writes the index file when it is not changed.

decimal

The decimal module now uses context variables to store the decimal context. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32630 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32630].)

dis

The dis() function is now able to disassemble nested code objects (the code of comprehensions, generator expressions and nested functions, and the code used for building nested classes). The maximum depth of disassembly recursion is controlled by the new depth parameter. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-11822 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11822].)

distutils

README.rst is now included in the list of distutils standard READMEs and therefore included in source distributions. (Contributed by Ryan Gonzalez in bpo-11913 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11913].)

enum

The Enum learned the new _ignore_ class property, which allows listing the names of properties which should not become enum members. (Contributed by Ethan Furman in bpo-31801 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31801].)

In Python 3.8, attempting to check for non-Enum objects in Enum classes will raise a TypeError (e.g. 1 in Color); similarly, attempting to check for non-Flag objects in a Flag member will raise TypeError (e.g. 1 in Perm.RW); currently, both operations return False instead and are deprecated. (Contributed by Ethan Furman in bpo-33217 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33217].)

functools

functools.singledispatch() now supports registering implementations using type annotations. (Contributed by Łukasz Langa in bpo-32227 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32227].)

gc

The new gc.freeze() function allows freezing all objects tracked by the garbage collector and excluding them from future collections. This can be used before a POSIX fork() call to make the GC copy-on-write friendly or to speed up collection. The new gc.unfreeze() functions reverses this operation. Additionally, gc.get_freeze_count() can be used to obtain the number of frozen objects. (Contributed by Li Zekun in bpo-31558 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31558].)

hmac

The hmac module now has an optimized one-shot digest() function, which is up to three times faster than HMAC(). (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-32433 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32433].)

http.client

HTTPConnection and HTTPSConnection now support the new blocksize argument for improved upload throughput. (Contributed by Nir Soffer in bpo-31945 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31945].)

http.server

SimpleHTTPRequestHandler now supports the HTTP If-Modified-Since header. The server returns the 304 response status if the target file was not modified after the time specified in the header. (Contributed by Pierre Quentel in bpo-29654 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29654].)

SimpleHTTPRequestHandler accepts the new directory argument, in addition to the new --directory command line argument. With this parameter, the server serves the specified directory, by default it uses the current working directory. (Contributed by Stéphane Wirtel and Julien Palard in bpo-28707 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28707].)

The new ThreadingHTTPServer class uses threads to handle requests using ThreadingMixIn. It is used when http.server is run with -m. (Contributed by Julien Palard in bpo-31639 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31639].)

idlelib and IDLE

Multiple fixes for autocompletion. (Contributed by Louie Lu in bpo-15786 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15786].)

Module Browser (on the File menu, formerly called Class Browser), now displays nested functions and classes in addition to top-level functions and classes. (Contributed by Guilherme Polo, Cheryl Sabella, and Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-1612262 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1612262].)

The Settings dialog (Options, Configure IDLE) has been partly rewritten to improve both appearance and function. (Contributed by Cheryl Sabella and Terry Jan Reedy in multiple issues.)

The font sample now includes a selection of non-Latin characters so that users can better see the effect of selecting a particular font. (Contributed by Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-13802 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13802].) The sample can be edited to include other characters. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-31860 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31860].)

The IDLE features formerly implemented as extensions have been reimplemented as normal features. Their settings have been moved from the Extensions tab to other dialog tabs. (Contributed by Charles Wohlganger and Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-27099 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27099].)

Editor code context option revised. Box displays all context lines up to maxlines. Clicking on a context line jumps the editor to that line. Context colors for custom themes is added to Highlights tab of Settings dialog. (Contributed by Cheryl Sabella and Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-33642 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33642], bpo-33768 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33768], and bpo-33679 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33679].)

On Windows, a new API call tells Windows that tk scales for DPI. On Windows 8.1+ or 10, with DPI compatibility properties of the Python binary unchanged, and a monitor resolution greater than 96 DPI, this should make text and lines sharper. It should otherwise have no effect. (Contributed by Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-33656 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33656].)

New in 3.7.1:

Output over N lines (50 by default) is squeezed down to a button. N can be changed in the PyShell section of the General page of the Settings dialog. Fewer, but possibly extra long, lines can be squeezed by right clicking on the output. Squeezed output can be expanded in place by double-clicking the button or into the clipboard or a separate window by right-clicking the button. (Contributed by Tal Einat in bpo-1529353 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1529353].)

The changes above have been backported to 3.6 maintenance releases.

NEW in 3.7.4:

Add "Run Customized" to the Run menu to run a module with customized settings. Any command line arguments entered are added to sys.argv. They re-appear in the box for the next customized run. One can also suppress the normal Shell main module restart. (Contributed by Cheryl Sabella, Terry Jan Reedy, and others in bpo-5680 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5680] and bpo-37627 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37627].)

New in 3.7.5:

Add optional line numbers for IDLE editor windows. Windows open without line numbers unless set otherwise in the General tab of the configuration dialog. Line numbers for an existing window are shown and hidden in the Options menu. (Contributed by Tal Einat and Saimadhav Heblikar in bpo-17535 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17535].)

importlib

The importlib.abc.ResourceReader ABC was introduced to support the loading of resources from packages. See also importlib.resources. (Contributed by Barry Warsaw, Brett Cannon in bpo-32248 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32248].)

importlib.reload() now raises ModuleNotFoundError if the module lacks a spec. (Contributed by Garvit Khatri in bpo-29851 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29851].)

importlib.util.find_spec() now raises ModuleNotFoundError instead of AttributeError if the specified parent module is not a package (i.e. lacks a __path__ attribute). (Contributed by Milan Oberkirch in bpo-30436 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30436].)

The new importlib.util.source_hash() can be used to compute the hash of the passed source. A hash-based .pyc file embeds the value returned by this function.

io

The new TextIOWrapper.reconfigure() method can be used to reconfigure the text stream with the new settings. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-30526 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30526] and INADA Naoki in bpo-15216 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15216].)

ipaddress

The new subnet_of() and supernet_of() methods of ipaddress.IPv6Network and ipaddress.IPv4Network can be used for network containment tests. (Contributed by Michel Albert and Cheryl Sabella in bpo-20825 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20825].)

itertools

itertools.islice() now accepts integer-like objects as start, stop, and slice arguments. (Contributed by Will Roberts in bpo-30537 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30537].)

locale

The new monetary argument to locale.format_string() can be used to make the conversion use monetary thousands separators and grouping strings. (Contributed by Garvit in bpo-10379 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10379].)

The locale.getpreferredencoding() function now always returns 'UTF-8' on Android or when in the forced UTF-8 mode.

logging

Logger instances can now be pickled. (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in bpo-30520 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30520].)

The new StreamHandler.setStream() method can be used to replace the logger stream after handler creation. (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in bpo-30522 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30522].)

It is now possible to specify keyword arguments to handler constructors in configuration passed to logging.config.fileConfig(). (Contributed by Preston Landers in bpo-31080 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31080].)

math

The new math.remainder() function implements the IEEE 754-style remainder operation. (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in bpo-29962 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29962].)

mimetypes

The MIME type of .bmp has been changed from 'image/x-ms-bmp' to 'image/bmp'. (Contributed by Nitish Chandra in bpo-22589 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22589].)

msilib

The new Database.Close() method can be used to close the MSI database. (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-20486 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20486].)

multiprocessing

The new Process.close() method explicitly closes the process object and releases all resources associated with it. ValueError is raised if the underlying process is still running. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-30596 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30596].)

The new Process.kill() method can be used to terminate the process using the SIGKILL signal on Unix. (Contributed by Vitor Pereira in bpo-30794 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30794].)

Non-daemonic threads created by Process are now joined on process exit. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-18966 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18966].)

os

os.fwalk() now accepts the path argument as bytes. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28682 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28682].)

os.scandir() gained support for file descriptors. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25996 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25996].)

The new register_at_fork() function allows registering Python callbacks to be executed at process fork. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-16500 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16500].)

Added os.preadv() (combine the functionality of os.readv() and os.pread()) and os.pwritev() functions (combine the functionality of os.writev() and os.pwrite()). (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-31368 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31368].)

The mode argument of os.makedirs() no longer affects the file permission bits of newly created intermediate-level directories. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19930 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19930].)

os.dup2() now returns the new file descriptor. Previously, None was always returned. (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-32441 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32441].)

The structure returned by os.stat() now contains the st_fstype attribute on Solaris and its derivatives. (Contributed by Jesús Cea Avión in bpo-32659 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32659].)

pathlib

The new Path.is_mount() method is now available on POSIX systems and can be used to determine whether a path is a mount point. (Contributed by Cooper Ry Lees in bpo-30897 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30897].)

pdb

pdb.set_trace() now takes an optional header keyword-only argument. If given, it is printed to the console just before debugging begins. (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in bpo-31389 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31389].)

pdb command line now accepts -m module_name as an alternative to script file. (Contributed by Mario Corchero in bpo-32206 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32206].)

py_compile

py_compile.compile() -- and by extension, compileall -- now respects the SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH environment variable by unconditionally creating .pyc files for hash-based validation. This allows for guaranteeing reproducible builds [https://reproducible-builds.org/] of .pyc files when they are created eagerly. (Contributed by Bernhard M. Wiedemann in bpo-29708 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29708].)

pydoc

The pydoc server can now bind to an arbitrary hostname specified by the new -n command-line argument. (Contributed by Feanil Patel in bpo-31128 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31128].)

queue

The new SimpleQueue class is an unbounded FIFO queue. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-14976 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14976].)

re

The flags re.ASCII, re.LOCALE and re.UNICODE can be set within the scope of a group. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-31690 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31690].)

re.split() now supports splitting on a pattern like r'\b', '^$' or (?=-) that matches an empty string. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25054 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25054].)

Regular expressions compiled with the re.LOCALE flag no longer depend on the locale at compile time. Locale settings are applied only when the compiled regular expression is used. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-30215 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30215].)

FutureWarning is now emitted if a regular expression contains character set constructs that will change semantically in the future, such as nested sets and set operations. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-30349 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30349].)

Compiled regular expression and match objects can now be copied using copy.copy() and copy.deepcopy(). (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-10076 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10076].)

signal

The new warn_on_full_buffer argument to the signal.set_wakeup_fd() function makes it possible to specify whether Python prints a warning on stderr when the wakeup buffer overflows. (Contributed by Nathaniel J. Smith in bpo-30050 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30050].)

socket

The new socket.getblocking() method returns True if the socket is in blocking mode and False otherwise. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32373 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32373].)

The new socket.close() function closes the passed socket file descriptor. This function should be used instead of os.close() for better compatibility across platforms. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-32454 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32454].)

The socket module now exposes the socket.TCP_CONGESTION (Linux 2.6.13), socket.TCP_USER_TIMEOUT (Linux 2.6.37), and socket.TCP_NOTSENT_LOWAT (Linux 3.12) constants. (Contributed by Omar Sandoval in bpo-26273 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26273] and Nathaniel J. Smith in bpo-29728 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29728].)

Support for socket.AF_VSOCK sockets has been added to allow communication between virtual machines and their hosts. (Contributed by Cathy Avery in bpo-27584 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27584].)

Sockets now auto-detect family, type and protocol from file descriptor by default. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28134 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28134].)

socketserver

socketserver.ThreadingMixIn.server_close now waits until all non-daemon threads complete. socketserver.ForkingMixIn.server_close now waits until all child processes complete.

Add a new socketserver.ForkingMixIn.block_on_close class attribute to socketserver.ForkingMixIn and socketserver.ThreadingMixIn classes. Set the class attribute to False to get the pre-3.7 behaviour.

sqlite3

sqlite3.Connection now exposes the backup() method when the underlying SQLite library is at version 3.6.11 or higher. (Contributed by Lele Gaifax in bpo-27645 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27645].)

The database argument of sqlite3.connect() now accepts any path-like object, instead of just a string. (Contributed by Anders Lorentsen in bpo-31843 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31843].)

ssl

The ssl module now uses OpenSSL's builtin API instead of match_hostname() to check a host name or an IP address. Values are validated during TLS handshake. Any certificate validation error including failing the host name check now raises SSLCertVerificationError and aborts the handshake with a proper TLS Alert message. The new exception contains additional information. Host name validation can be customized with SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-31399 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31399].)

Note

The improved host name check requires a libssl implementation compatible with OpenSSL 1.0.2 or 1.1. Consequently, OpenSSL 0.9.8 and 1.0.1 are no longer supported (see Platform Support Removals for more details). The ssl module is mostly compatible with LibreSSL 2.7.2 and newer.

The ssl module no longer sends IP addresses in SNI TLS extension. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-32185 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32185].)

match_hostname() no longer supports partial wildcards like www*.example.org. (Contributed by Mandeep Singh in bpo-23033 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23033] and Christian Heimes in bpo-31399 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31399].)

The default cipher suite selection of the ssl module now uses a blacklist approach rather than a hard-coded whitelist. Python no longer re-enables ciphers that have been blocked by OpenSSL security updates. Default cipher suite selection can be configured at compile time. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-31429 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31429].)

Validation of server certificates containing internationalized domain names (IDNs) is now supported. As part of this change, the SSLSocket.server_hostname attribute now stores the expected hostname in A-label form ("xn--pythn-mua.org"), rather than the U-label form ("pythön.org"). (Contributed by Nathaniel J. Smith and Christian Heimes in bpo-28414 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28414].)

The ssl module has preliminary and experimental support for TLS 1.3 and OpenSSL 1.1.1. At the time of Python 3.7.0 release, OpenSSL 1.1.1 is still under development and TLS 1.3 hasn't been finalized yet. The TLS 1.3 handshake and protocol behaves slightly differently than TLS 1.2 and earlier, see TLS 1.3. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-32947 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32947], bpo-20995 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20995], bpo-29136 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29136], bpo-30622 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30622] and bpo-33618 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33618])

SSLSocket and SSLObject no longer have a public constructor. Direct instantiation was never a documented and supported feature. Instances must be created with SSLContext methods wrap_socket() and wrap_bio(). (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-32951 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32951])

OpenSSL 1.1 APIs for setting the minimum and maximum TLS protocol version are available as SSLContext.minimum_version and SSLContext.maximum_version. Supported protocols are indicated by several new flags, such as HAS_TLSv1_1. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-32609 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32609].)

Added ssl.SSLContext.post_handshake_auth to enable and ssl.SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake() to initiate TLS 1.3 post-handshake authentication. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in gh-78851 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78851].)

string

string.Template now lets you to optionally modify the regular expression pattern for braced placeholders and non-braced placeholders separately. (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in bpo-1198569 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1198569].)

subprocess

The subprocess.run() function accepts the new capture_output keyword argument. When true, stdout and stderr will be captured. This is equivalent to passing subprocess.PIPE as stdout and stderr arguments. (Contributed by Bo Bayles in bpo-32102 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32102].)

The subprocess.run function and the subprocess.Popen constructor now accept the text keyword argument as an alias to universal_newlines. (Contributed by Andrew Clegg in bpo-31756 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31756].)

On Windows the default for close_fds was changed from False to True when redirecting the standard handles. It's now possible to set close_fds to true when redirecting the standard handles. See subprocess.Popen. This means that close_fds now defaults to True on all supported platforms. (Contributed by Segev Finer in bpo-19764 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19764].)

The subprocess module is now more graceful when handling KeyboardInterrupt during subprocess.call(), subprocess.run(), or in a Popen context manager. It now waits a short amount of time for the child to exit, before continuing the handling of the KeyboardInterrupt exception. (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in bpo-25942 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25942].)

sys

The new sys.breakpointhook() hook function is called by the built-in breakpoint(). (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in bpo-31353 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31353].)

On Android, the new sys.getandroidapilevel() returns the build-time Android API version. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-28740 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28740].)

The new sys.get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth() function returns the current coroutine origin tracking depth, as set by the new sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth(). asyncio has been converted to use this new API instead of the deprecated sys.set_coroutine_wrapper(). (Contributed by Nathaniel J. Smith in bpo-32591 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32591].)

time

PEP 564 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0564/] adds six new functions with nanosecond resolution to the time module:

time.clock_gettime_ns()

time.clock_settime_ns()

time.monotonic_ns()

time.perf_counter_ns()

time.process_time_ns()

time.time_ns()

New clock identifiers have been added:

time.CLOCK_BOOTTIME (Linux): Identical to time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC, except it also includes any time that the system is suspended.

time.CLOCK_PROF (FreeBSD, NetBSD and OpenBSD): High-resolution per-process CPU timer.

time.CLOCK_UPTIME (FreeBSD, OpenBSD): Time whose absolute value is the time the system has been running and not suspended, providing accurate uptime measurement.

The new time.thread_time() and time.thread_time_ns() functions can be used to get per-thread CPU time measurements. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-32025 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32025].)

The new time.pthread_getcpuclockid() function returns the clock ID of the thread-specific CPU-time clock.

tkinter

The new tkinter.ttk.Spinbox class is now available. (Contributed by Alan Moore in bpo-32585 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32585].)

tracemalloc

tracemalloc.Traceback behaves more like regular tracebacks, sorting the frames from oldest to most recent. Traceback.format() now accepts negative limit, truncating the result to the abs(limit) oldest frames. To get the old behaviour, use the new most_recent_first argument to Traceback.format(). (Contributed by Jesse Bakker in bpo-32121 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32121].)

types

The new WrapperDescriptorType, MethodWrapperType, MethodDescriptorType, and ClassMethodDescriptorType classes are now available. (Contributed by Manuel Krebber and Guido van Rossum in bpo-29377 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29377], and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-32265 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32265].)

The new types.resolve_bases() function resolves MRO entries dynamically as specified by PEP 560 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/]. (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in bpo-32717 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32717].)

unicodedata

The internal unicodedata database has been upgraded to use Unicode 11 [https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode11.0.0/]. (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson.)

unittest

The new -k command-line option allows filtering tests by a name substring or a Unix shell-like pattern. For example, python -m unittest -k foo runs foo_tests.SomeTest.test_something, bar_tests.SomeTest.test_foo, but not bar_tests.FooTest.test_something. (Contributed by Jonas Haag in bpo-32071 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32071].)

unittest.mock

The sentinel attributes now preserve their identity when they are copied or pickled. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-20804 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20804].)

The new seal() function allows sealing Mock instances, which will disallow further creation of attribute mocks. The seal is applied recursively to all attributes that are themselves mocks. (Contributed by Mario Corchero in bpo-30541 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30541].)

urllib.parse

urllib.parse.quote() has been updated from RFC 2396 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2396.html] to RFC 3986 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html], adding ~ to the set of characters that are never quoted by default. (Contributed by Christian Theune and Ratnadeep Debnath in bpo-16285 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16285].)

uu

The uu.encode() function now accepts an optional backtick keyword argument. When it's true, zeros are represented by '`' instead of spaces. (Contributed by Xiang Zhang in bpo-30103 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30103].)

uuid

The new UUID.is_safe attribute relays information from the platform about whether generated UUIDs are generated with a multiprocessing-safe method. (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in bpo-22807 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22807].)

uuid.getnode() now prefers universally administered MAC addresses over locally administered MAC addresses. This makes a better guarantee for global uniqueness of UUIDs returned from uuid.uuid1(). If only locally administered MAC addresses are available, the first such one found is returned. (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in bpo-32107 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32107].)

warnings

The initialization of the default warnings filters has changed as follows:

warnings enabled via command line options (including those for -b and the new CPython-specific -X dev option) are always passed to the warnings machinery via the sys.warnoptions attribute.

warnings filters enabled via the command line or the environment now have the following order of precedence:

the BytesWarning filter for -b (or -bb)

any filters specified with the -W option

any filters specified with the PYTHONWARNINGS environment variable

any other CPython specific filters (e.g. the default filter added for the new -X dev mode)

any implicit filters defined directly by the warnings machinery

in CPython debug builds, all warnings are now displayed by default (the implicit filter list is empty)

(Contributed by Nick Coghlan and Victor Stinner in bpo-20361 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20361], bpo-32043 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32043], and bpo-32230 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32230].)

Deprecation warnings are once again shown by default in single-file scripts and at the interactive prompt. See PEP 565: Show DeprecationWarning in __main__ for details. (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in bpo-31975 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31975].)

xml

As mitigation against DTD and external entity retrieval, the xml.dom.minidom and xml.sax modules no longer process external entities by default. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in gh-61441 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61441].)

xml.etree

ElementPath predicates in the find() methods can now compare text of the current node with [. = "text"], not only text in children. Predicates also allow adding spaces for better readability. (Contributed by Stefan Behnel in bpo-31648 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31648].)

xmlrpc.server

SimpleXMLRPCDispatcher.register_function() can now be used as a decorator. (Contributed by Xiang Zhang in bpo-7769 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7769].)

zipapp

Function create_archive() now accepts an optional filter argument to allow the user to select which files should be included in the archive. (Contributed by Irmen de Jong in bpo-31072 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31072].)

Function create_archive() now accepts an optional compressed argument to generate a compressed archive. A command line option --compress has also been added to support compression. (Contributed by Zhiming Wang in bpo-31638 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31638].)

zipfile

ZipFile now accepts the new compresslevel parameter to control the compression level. (Contributed by Bo Bayles in bpo-21417 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21417].)

Subdirectories in archives created by ZipFile are now stored in alphabetical order. (Contributed by Bernhard M. Wiedemann in bpo-30693 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30693].)

Changements à l'API C

A new API for thread-local storage has been implemented. See PEP 539: New C API for Thread-Local Storage for an overview and Thread-specific storage API for a complete reference. (Contributed by Masayuki Yamamoto in bpo-25658 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25658].)

The new context variables functionality exposes a number of new C APIs.

The new PyImport_GetModule() function returns the previously imported module with the given name. (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-28411 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28411].)

The new Py_RETURN_RICHCOMPARE macro eases writing rich comparison functions. (Contributed by Petr Victorin in bpo-23699 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23699].)

The new Py_UNREACHABLE macro can be used to mark unreachable code paths. (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in bpo-31338 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31338].)

The tracemalloc now exposes a C API through the new PyTraceMalloc_Track() and PyTraceMalloc_Untrack() functions. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-30054 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30054].)

The new import__find__load__start and import__find__load__done static markers can be used to trace module imports. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-31574 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31574].)

The fields name and doc of structures PyMemberDef, PyGetSetDef, PyStructSequence_Field, PyStructSequence_Desc, and wrapperbase are now of type const char * rather of char *. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28761 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28761].)

The result of PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize() and PyUnicode_AsUTF8() is now of type const char * rather of char *. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28769 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28769].)

The result of PyMapping_Keys(), PyMapping_Values() and PyMapping_Items() is now always a list, rather than a list or a tuple. (Contributed by Oren Milman in bpo-28280 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28280].)

Added functions PySlice_Unpack() and PySlice_AdjustIndices(). (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-27867 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27867].)

PyOS_AfterFork() is deprecated in favour of the new functions PyOS_BeforeFork(), PyOS_AfterFork_Parent() and PyOS_AfterFork_Child(). (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-16500 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16500].)

The PyExc_RecursionErrorInst singleton that was part of the public API has been removed as its members being never cleared may cause a segfault during finalization of the interpreter. Contributed by Xavier de Gaye in bpo-22898 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22898] and bpo-30697 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30697].

Added C API support for timezones with timezone constructors PyTimeZone_FromOffset() and PyTimeZone_FromOffsetAndName(), and access to the UTC singleton with PyDateTime_TimeZone_UTC. Contributed by Paul Ganssle in bpo-10381 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10381].

The type of results of PyThread_start_new_thread() and PyThread_get_thread_ident(), and the id parameter of PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc() changed from long to unsigned long. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-6532 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6532].)

PyUnicode_AsWideCharString() now raises a ValueError if the second argument is NULL and the wchar_t* string contains null characters. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-30708 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30708].)

Changes to the startup sequence and the management of dynamic memory allocators mean that the long documented requirement to call Py_Initialize() before calling most C API functions is now relied on more heavily, and failing to abide by it may lead to segfaults in embedding applications. See the Porting to Python 3.7 section in this document and the Before Python initialization section in the C API documentation for more details.

The new PyInterpreterState_GetID() returns the unique ID for a given interpreter. (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-29102 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29102].)

Py_DecodeLocale(), Py_EncodeLocale() now use the UTF-8 encoding when the UTF-8 mode is enabled. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-29240 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29240].)

PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize() and PyUnicode_EncodeLocale() now use the current locale encoding for surrogateescape error handler. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-29240 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29240].)

The start and end parameters of PyUnicode_FindChar() are now adjusted to behave like string slices. (Contributed by Xiang Zhang in bpo-28822 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28822].)

Changements à la compilation

Support for building --without-threads has been removed. The threading module is now always available. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-31370 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31370].).

A full copy of libffi is no longer bundled for use when building the _ctypes module on non-OSX UNIX platforms. An installed copy of libffi is now required when building _ctypes on such platforms. (Contributed by Zachary Ware in bpo-27979 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27979].)

The Windows build process no longer depends on Subversion to pull in external sources, a Python script is used to download zipfiles from GitHub instead. If Python 3.6 is not found on the system (via py -3.6), NuGet is used to download a copy of 32-bit Python for this purpose. (Contributed by Zachary Ware in bpo-30450 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30450].)

The ssl module requires OpenSSL 1.0.2 or 1.1 compatible libssl. OpenSSL 1.0.1 has reached end of lifetime on 2016-12-31 and is no longer supported. LibreSSL is temporarily not supported as well. LibreSSL releases up to version 2.6.4 are missing required OpenSSL 1.0.2 APIs.

Optimizations

The overhead of calling many methods of various standard library classes implemented in C has been significantly reduced by porting more code to use the METH_FASTCALL convention. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-29300 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29300], bpo-29507 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29507], bpo-29452 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29452], and bpo-29286 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29286].)

Various optimizations have reduced Python startup time by 10% on Linux and up to 30% on macOS. (Contributed by Victor Stinner, INADA Naoki in bpo-29585 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29585], and Ivan Levkivskyi in bpo-31333 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31333].)

Method calls are now up to 20% faster due to the bytecode changes which avoid creating bound method instances. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov and INADA Naoki in bpo-26110 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26110].)

The asyncio module received a number of notable optimizations for commonly used functions:

The asyncio.get_event_loop() function has been reimplemented in C to make it up to 15 times faster. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32296 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32296].)

asyncio.Future callback management has been optimized. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32348 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32348].)

asyncio.gather() is now up to 15% faster. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32355 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32355].)

asyncio.sleep() is now up to 2 times faster when the delay argument is zero or negative. (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-32351 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32351].)

The performance overhead of asyncio debug mode has been reduced. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-31970 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31970].)

As a result of PEP 560 work, the import time of typing has been reduced by a factor of 7, and many typing operations are now faster. (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in bpo-32226 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32226].)

sorted() and list.sort() have been optimized for common cases to be up to 40-75% faster. (Contributed by Elliot Gorokhovsky in bpo-28685 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28685].)

dict.copy() is now up to 5.5 times faster. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-31179 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31179].)

hasattr() and getattr() are now about 4 times faster when name is not found and obj does not override object.__getattr__() or object.__getattribute__(). (Contributed by INADA Naoki in bpo-32544 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32544].)

Searching for certain Unicode characters (like Ukrainian capital "Є") in a string was up to 25 times slower than searching for other characters. It is now only 3 times slower in the worst case. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-24821 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24821].)

The collections.namedtuple() factory has been reimplemented to make the creation of named tuples 4 to 6 times faster. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra with further improvements by INADA Naoki, Serhiy Storchaka, and Raymond Hettinger in bpo-28638 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28638].)

datetime.date.fromordinal() and datetime.date.fromtimestamp() are now up to 30% faster in the common case. (Contributed by Paul Ganssle in bpo-32403 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32403].)

The os.fwalk() function is now up to 2 times faster thanks to the use of os.scandir(). (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25996 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25996].)

The speed of the shutil.rmtree() function has been improved by 20--40% thanks to the use of the os.scandir() function. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28564 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28564].)

Optimized case-insensitive matching and searching of regular expressions. Searching some patterns can now be up to 20 times faster. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-30285 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30285].)

re.compile() now converts flags parameter to int object if it is RegexFlag. It is now as fast as Python 3.5, and faster than Python 3.6 by about 10% depending on the pattern. (Contributed by INADA Naoki in bpo-31671 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31671].)

The modify() methods of classes selectors.EpollSelector, selectors.PollSelector and selectors.DevpollSelector may be around 10% faster under heavy loads. (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola' in bpo-30014 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30014])

Constant folding has been moved from the peephole optimizer to the new AST optimizer, which is able perform optimizations more consistently. (Contributed by Eugene Toder and INADA Naoki in bpo-29469 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29469] and bpo-11549 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11549].)

Most functions and methods in abc have been rewritten in C. This makes creation of abstract base classes, and calling isinstance() and issubclass() on them 1.5x faster. This also reduces Python start-up time by up to 10%. (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi and INADA Naoki in bpo-31333 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31333])

Significant speed improvements to alternate constructors for datetime.date and datetime.datetime by using fast-path constructors when not constructing subclasses. (Contributed by Paul Ganssle in bpo-32403 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32403])

The speed of comparison of array.array instances has been improved considerably in certain cases. It is now from 10x to 70x faster when comparing arrays holding values of the same integer type. (Contributed by Adrian Wielgosik in bpo-24700 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24700].)

The math.erf() and math.erfc() functions now use the (faster) C library implementation on most platforms. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26121 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26121].)

Autres changements à l'implémentation de CPython

Trace hooks may now opt out of receiving the line and opt into receiving the opcode events from the interpreter by setting the corresponding new f_trace_lines and f_trace_opcodes attributes on the frame being traced. (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in bpo-31344 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31344].)

Fixed some consistency problems with namespace package module attributes. Namespace module objects now have an __file__ that is set to None (previously unset), and their __spec__.origin is also set to None (previously the string "namespace"). See bpo-32305 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32305]. Also, the namespace module object's __spec__.loader is set to the same value as __loader__ (previously, the former was set to None). See bpo-32303 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32303].

The locals() dictionary now displays in the lexical order that variables were defined. Previously, the order was undefined. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-32690 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32690].)

The distutils upload command no longer tries to change CR end-of-line characters to CRLF. This fixes a corruption issue with sdists that ended with a byte equivalent to CR. (Contributed by Bo Bayles in bpo-32304 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32304].)

Deprecated Python Behavior

Yield expressions (both yield and yield from clauses) are now deprecated in comprehensions and generator expressions (aside from the iterable expression in the leftmost for clause). This ensures that comprehensions always immediately return a container of the appropriate type (rather than potentially returning a generator iterator object), while generator expressions won't attempt to interleave their implicit output with the output from any explicit yield expressions. In Python 3.7, such expressions emit DeprecationWarning when compiled, in Python 3.8 this will be a SyntaxError. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-10544 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10544].)

Returning a subclass of complex from object.__complex__() is deprecated and will be an error in future Python versions. This makes __complex__() consistent with object.__int__() and object.__float__(). (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28894 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28894].)

Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods

aifc

aifc.openfp() has been deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.9. Use aifc.open() instead. (Contributed by Brian Curtin in bpo-31985 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31985].)

asyncio

Support for directly await-ing instances of asyncio.Lock and other asyncio synchronization primitives has been deprecated. An asynchronous context manager must be used in order to acquire and release the synchronization resource. (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-32253 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32253].)

The asyncio.Task.current_task() and asyncio.Task.all_tasks() methods have been deprecated. (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-32250 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32250].)

collections

In Python 3.8, the abstract base classes in collections.abc will no longer be exposed in the regular collections module. This will help create a clearer distinction between the concrete classes and the abstract base classes. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25988 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25988].)

dbm

dbm.dumb now supports reading read-only files and no longer writes the index file when it is not changed. A deprecation warning is now emitted if the index file is missing and recreated in the 'r' and 'w' modes (this will be an error in future Python releases). (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28847 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28847].)

enum

In Python 3.8, attempting to check for non-Enum objects in Enum classes will raise a TypeError (e.g. 1 in Color); similarly, attempting to check for non-Flag objects in a Flag member will raise TypeError (e.g. 1 in Perm.RW); currently, both operations return False instead. (Contributed by Ethan Furman in bpo-33217 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33217].)

gettext

Using non-integer value for selecting a plural form in gettext is now deprecated. It never correctly worked. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28692 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28692].)

importlib

Methods MetaPathFinder.find_module() (replaced by MetaPathFinder.find_spec()) and PathEntryFinder.find_loader() (replaced by PathEntryFinder.find_spec()) both deprecated in Python 3.4 now emit DeprecationWarning. (Contributed by Matthias Bussonnier in bpo-29576 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29576].)

The importlib.abc.ResourceLoader ABC has been deprecated in favour of importlib.abc.ResourceReader.

locale

locale.format() has been deprecated, use locale.format_string() instead. (Contributed by Garvit in bpo-10379 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10379].)

macpath

The macpath is now deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.8. (Contributed by Chi Hsuan Yen in bpo-9850 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9850].)

threading

dummy_threading and _dummy_thread have been deprecated. It is no longer possible to build Python with threading disabled. Use threading instead. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-31370 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31370].)

socket

The silent argument value truncation in socket.htons() and socket.ntohs() has been deprecated. In future versions of Python, if the passed argument is larger than 16 bits, an exception will be raised. (Contributed by Oren Milman in bpo-28332 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28332].)

ssl

ssl.wrap_socket() is deprecated. Use ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket() instead. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28124 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28124].)

sunau

sunau.openfp() has been deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.9. Use sunau.open() instead. (Contributed by Brian Curtin in bpo-31985 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31985].)

sys

Deprecated sys.set_coroutine_wrapper() and sys.get_coroutine_wrapper().

The undocumented sys.callstats() function has been deprecated and will be removed in a future Python version. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-28799 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28799].)

wave

wave.openfp() has been deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.9. Use wave.open() instead. (Contributed by Brian Curtin in bpo-31985 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31985].)

Deprecated functions and types of the C API

Function PySlice_GetIndicesEx() is deprecated and replaced with a macro if Py_LIMITED_API is not set or set to a value in the range between 0x03050400 and 0x03060000 (not inclusive), or is 0x03060100 or higher. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-27867 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27867].)

PyOS_AfterFork() has been deprecated. Use PyOS_BeforeFork(), PyOS_AfterFork_Parent() or PyOS_AfterFork_Child() instead. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-16500 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16500].)

Platform Support Removals

FreeBSD 9 and older are no longer officially supported.

For full Unicode support, including within extension modules, *nix platforms are now expected to provide at least one of C.UTF-8 (full locale), C.utf8 (full locale) or UTF-8 (LC_CTYPE-only locale) as an alternative to the legacy ASCII-based C locale.

OpenSSL 0.9.8 and 1.0.1 are no longer supported, which means building CPython 3.7 with SSL/TLS support on older platforms still using these versions requires custom build options that link to a more recent version of OpenSSL.

Notably, this issue affects the Debian 8 (aka "jessie") and Ubuntu 14.04 (aka "Trusty") LTS Linux distributions, as they still use OpenSSL 1.0.1 by default.

Debian 9 ("stretch") and Ubuntu 16.04 ("xenial"), as well as recent releases of other LTS Linux releases (e.g. RHEL/CentOS 7.5, SLES 12-SP3), use OpenSSL 1.0.2 or later, and remain supported in the default build configuration.

CPython's own CI configuration file [https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/v3.7.13/.travis.yml] provides an example of using the SSL compatibility testing infrastructure [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Tools/ssl/multissltests.py] in CPython's test suite to build and link against OpenSSL 1.1.0 rather than an outdated system provided OpenSSL.

API and Feature Removals

The following features and APIs have been removed from Python 3.7:

The os.stat_float_times() function has been removed. It was introduced in Python 2.3 for backward compatibility with Python 2.2, and was deprecated since Python 3.1.

Unknown escapes consisting of '\' and an ASCII letter in replacement templates for re.sub() were deprecated in Python 3.5, and will now cause an error.

Removed support of the exclude argument in tarfile.TarFile.add(). It was deprecated in Python 2.7 and 3.2. Use the filter argument instead.

The ntpath.splitunc() function was deprecated in Python 3.1, and has now been removed. Use splitdrive() instead.

collections.namedtuple() no longer supports the verbose parameter or _source attribute which showed the generated source code for the named tuple class. This was part of an optimization designed to speed-up class creation. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra with further improvements by INADA Naoki, Serhiy Storchaka, and Raymond Hettinger in bpo-28638 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28638].)

Functions bool(), float(), list() and tuple() no longer take keyword arguments. The first argument of int() can now be passed only as positional argument.

Removed previously deprecated in Python 2.4 classes Plist, Dict and _InternalDict in the plistlib module. Dict values in the result of functions readPlist() and readPlistFromBytes() are now normal dicts. You no longer can use attribute access to access items of these dictionaries.

The asyncio.windows_utils.socketpair() function has been removed. Use the socket.socketpair() function instead, it is available on all platforms since Python 3.5. asyncio.windows_utils.socketpair was just an alias to socket.socketpair on Python 3.5 and newer.

asyncio no longer exports the selectors and _overlapped modules as asyncio.selectors and asyncio._overlapped. Replace from asyncio import selectors with import selectors.

Direct instantiation of ssl.SSLSocket and ssl.SSLObject objects is now prohibited. The constructors were never documented, tested, or designed as public constructors. Users were supposed to use ssl.wrap_socket() or ssl.SSLContext. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-32951 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32951].)

The unused distutils install_misc command has been removed. (Contributed by Eric N. Vander Weele in bpo-29218 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29218].)

Module Removals

The fpectl module has been removed. It was never enabled by default, never worked correctly on x86-64, and it changed the Python ABI in ways that caused unexpected breakage of C extensions. (Contributed by Nathaniel J. Smith in bpo-29137 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29137].)

Windows-only Changes

The python launcher, (py.exe), can accept 32 & 64 bit specifiers without having to specify a minor version as well. So py -3-32 and py -3-64 become valid as well as py -3.7-32, also the -m-64 and -m.n-64 forms are now accepted to force 64 bit python even if 32 bit would have otherwise been used. If the specified version is not available py.exe will error exit. (Contributed by Steve Barnes in bpo-30291 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30291].)

The launcher can be run as py -0 to produce a list of the installed pythons, with default marked with an asterisk. Running py -0p will include the paths. If py is run with a version specifier that cannot be matched it will also print the short form list of available specifiers. (Contributed by Steve Barnes in bpo-30362 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30362].)

Porting to Python 3.7

Cette section liste les changements mentionnés préalablement et d'autres améliorations qui peuvent demander des changements à votre code.

Changes in Python Behavior

async and await names are now reserved keywords. Code using these names as identifiers will now raise a SyntaxError. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in bpo-30406 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30406].)

PEP 479 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/] is enabled for all code in Python 3.7, meaning that StopIteration exceptions raised directly or indirectly in coroutines and generators are transformed into RuntimeError exceptions. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32670 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32670].)

object.__aiter__() methods can no longer be declared as asynchronous. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-31709 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31709].)

Due to an oversight, earlier Python versions erroneously accepted the following syntax:

f(1 for x in [1],)

class C(1 for x in [1]):
    pass

Python 3.7 now correctly raises a SyntaxError, as a generator expression always needs to be directly inside a set of parentheses and cannot have a comma on either side, and the duplication of the parentheses can be omitted only on calls. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-32012 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32012] and bpo-32023 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32023].)

When using the -m switch, the initial working directory is now added to sys.path, rather than an empty string (which dynamically denoted the current working directory at the time of each import). Any programs that are checking for the empty string, or otherwise relying on the previous behaviour, will need to be updated accordingly (e.g. by also checking for os.getcwd() or os.path.dirname(__main__.__file__), depending on why the code was checking for the empty string in the first place).

Changements dans l'API Python

socketserver.ThreadingMixIn.server_close now waits until all non-daemon threads complete. Set the new socketserver.ThreadingMixIn.block_on_close class attribute to False to get the pre-3.7 behaviour. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-31233 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31233] and bpo-33540 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33540].)

socketserver.ForkingMixIn.server_close now waits until all child processes complete. Set the new socketserver.ForkingMixIn.block_on_close class attribute to False to get the pre-3.7 behaviour. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-31151 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31151] and bpo-33540 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33540].)

The locale.localeconv() function now temporarily sets the LC_CTYPE locale to the value of LC_NUMERIC in some cases. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-31900 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31900].)

pkgutil.walk_packages() now raises a ValueError if path is a string. Previously an empty list was returned. (Contributed by Sanyam Khurana in bpo-24744 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24744].)

A format string argument for string.Formatter.format() is now positional-only. Passing it as a keyword argument was deprecated in Python 3.5. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-29193 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29193].)

Attributes key, value and coded_value of class http.cookies.Morsel are now read-only. Assigning to them was deprecated in Python 3.5. Use the set() method for setting them. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-29192 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29192].)

The mode argument of os.makedirs() no longer affects the file permission bits of newly created intermediate-level directories. To set their file permission bits you can set the umask before invoking makedirs(). (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19930 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19930].)

The struct.Struct.format type is now str instead of bytes. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-21071 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21071].)

cgi.parse_multipart() now accepts the encoding and errors arguments and returns the same results as FieldStorage: for non-file fields, the value associated to a key is a list of strings, not bytes. (Contributed by Pierre Quentel in bpo-29979 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29979].)

Due to internal changes in socket, calling socket.fromshare() on a socket created by socket.share in older Python versions is not supported.

repr for BaseException has changed to not include the trailing comma. Most exceptions are affected by this change. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-30399 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30399].)

repr for datetime.timedelta has changed to include the keyword arguments in the output. (Contributed by Utkarsh Upadhyay in bpo-30302 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30302].)

Because shutil.rmtree() is now implemented using the os.scandir() function, the user specified handler onerror is now called with the first argument os.scandir instead of os.listdir when listing the directory is failed.

Support for nested sets and set operations in regular expressions as in Unicode Technical Standard #18 [https://unicode.org/reports/tr18/] might be added in the future. This would change the syntax. To facilitate this future change a FutureWarning will be raised in ambiguous cases for the time being. That include sets starting with a literal '[' or containing literal character sequences '--', '&&', '~~', and '||'. To avoid a warning, escape them with a backslash. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-30349 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30349].)

The result of splitting a string on a regular expression that could match an empty string has been changed. For example splitting on r'\s*' will now split not only on whitespaces as it did previously, but also on empty strings before all non-whitespace characters and just before the end of the string. The previous behavior can be restored by changing the pattern to r'\s+'. A FutureWarning was emitted for such patterns since Python 3.5.

For patterns that match both empty and non-empty strings, the result of searching for all matches may also be changed in other cases. For example in the string 'a\n\n', the pattern r'(?m)^\s*?$' will not only match empty strings at positions 2 and 3, but also the string '\n' at positions 2--3. To match only blank lines, the pattern should be rewritten as r'(?m)^[^\S\n]*$'.

re.sub() now replaces empty matches adjacent to a previous non-empty match. For example re.sub('x*', '-', 'abxd') returns now '-a-b--d-' instead of '-a-b-d-' (the first minus between 'b' and 'd' replaces 'x', and the second minus replaces an empty string between 'x' and 'd').

(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25054 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25054] and bpo-32308 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32308].)

Change re.escape() to only escape regex special characters instead of escaping all characters other than ASCII letters, numbers, and '_'. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-29995 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29995].)

tracemalloc.Traceback frames are now sorted from oldest to most recent to be more consistent with traceback. (Contributed by Jesse Bakker in bpo-32121 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32121].)

On OSes that support socket.SOCK_NONBLOCK or socket.SOCK_CLOEXEC bit flags, the socket.type no longer has them applied. Therefore, checks like if sock.type == socket.SOCK_STREAM work as expected on all platforms. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32331 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32331].)

On Windows the default for the close_fds argument of subprocess.Popen was changed from False to True when redirecting the standard handles. If you previously depended on handles being inherited when using subprocess.Popen with standard io redirection, you will have to pass close_fds=False to preserve the previous behaviour, or use STARTUPINFO.lpAttributeList.

importlib.machinery.PathFinder.invalidate_caches() -- which implicitly affects importlib.invalidate_caches() -- now deletes entries in sys.path_importer_cache which are set to None. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-33169 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33169].)

In asyncio, loop.sock_recv(), loop.sock_sendall(), loop.sock_accept(), loop.getaddrinfo(), loop.getnameinfo() have been changed to be proper coroutine methods to match their documentation. Previously, these methods returned asyncio.Future instances. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32327 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32327].)

asyncio.Server.sockets now returns a copy of the internal list of server sockets, instead of returning it directly. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32662 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32662].)

Struct.format is now a str instance instead of a bytes instance. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-21071 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21071].)

argparse subparsers can now be made mandatory by passing required=True to ArgumentParser.add_subparsers(). (Contributed by Anthony Sottile in bpo-26510 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26510].)

ast.literal_eval() is now stricter. Addition and subtraction of arbitrary numbers are no longer allowed. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-31778 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31778].)

Calendar.itermonthdates will now consistently raise an exception when a date falls outside of the 0001-01-01 through 9999-12-31 range. To support applications that cannot tolerate such exceptions, the new Calendar.itermonthdays3 and Calendar.itermonthdays4 can be used. The new methods return tuples and are not restricted by the range supported by datetime.date. (Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in bpo-28292 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28292].)

collections.ChainMap now preserves the order of the underlying mappings. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-32792 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32792].)

The submit() method of concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor and concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor now raises a RuntimeError if called during interpreter shutdown. (Contributed by Mark Nemec in bpo-33097 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33097].)

The configparser.ConfigParser constructor now uses read_dict() to process the default values, making its behavior consistent with the rest of the parser. Non-string keys and values in the defaults dictionary are now being implicitly converted to strings. (Contributed by James Tocknell in bpo-23835 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23835].)

Several undocumented internal imports were removed. One example is that os.errno is no longer available; use import errno directly instead. Note that such undocumented internal imports may be removed any time without notice, even in micro version releases.

Changements dans l'API C

The function PySlice_GetIndicesEx() is considered unsafe for resizable sequences. If the slice indices are not instances of int, but objects that implement the __index__() method, the sequence can be resized after passing its length to PySlice_GetIndicesEx(). This can lead to returning indices out of the length of the sequence. For avoiding possible problems use new functions PySlice_Unpack() and PySlice_AdjustIndices(). (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-27867 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27867].)

Changements au code intermédiaire CPython

There are two new opcodes: LOAD_METHOD and CALL_METHOD. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov and INADA Naoki in bpo-26110 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26110].)

The STORE_ANNOTATION opcode has been removed. (Contributed by Mark Shannon in bpo-32550 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32550].)

Windows-only Changes

The file used to override sys.path is now called <python-executable>._pth instead of 'sys.path'. See Recherche de modules for more information. (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-28137 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28137].)

Other CPython implementation changes

In preparation for potential future changes to the public CPython runtime initialization API (see PEP 432 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0432/] for an initial, but somewhat outdated, draft), CPython's internal startup and configuration management logic has been significantly refactored. While these updates are intended to be entirely transparent to both embedding applications and users of the regular CPython CLI, they're being mentioned here as the refactoring changes the internal order of various operations during interpreter startup, and hence may uncover previously latent defects, either in embedding applications, or in CPython itself. (Initially contributed by Nick Coghlan and Eric Snow as part of bpo-22257 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22257], and further updated by Nick, Eric, and Victor Stinner in a number of other issues). Some known details affected:

PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode() is not currently usable by embedding applications due to the requirement to create a Unicode object prior to calling Py_Initialize. Use PySys_AddWarnOption() instead.

warnings filters added by an embedding application with PySys_AddWarnOption() should now more consistently take precedence over the default filters set by the interpreter

Due to changes in the way the default warnings filters are configured, setting Py_BytesWarningFlag to a value greater than one is no longer sufficient to both emit BytesWarning messages and have them converted to exceptions. Instead, the flag must be set (to cause the warnings to be emitted in the first place), and an explicit error::BytesWarning warnings filter added to convert them to exceptions.

Due to a change in the way docstrings are handled by the compiler, the implicit return None in a function body consisting solely of a docstring is now marked as occurring on the same line as the docstring, not on the function's header line.

The current exception state has been moved from the frame object to the co-routine. This simplified the interpreter and fixed a couple of obscure bugs caused by having swap exception state when entering or exiting a generator. (Contributed by Mark Shannon in bpo-25612 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25612].)

Notable changes in Python 3.7.1

Starting in 3.7.1, Py_Initialize() now consistently reads and respects all of the same environment settings as Py_Main() (in earlier Python versions, it respected an ill-defined subset of those environment variables, while in Python 3.7.0 it didn't read any of them due to bpo-34247 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34247]). If this behavior is unwanted, set Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag to 1 before calling Py_Initialize().

In 3.7.1 the C API for Context Variables was updated to use PyObject pointers. See also bpo-34762 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34762].

In 3.7.1 the tokenize module now implicitly emits a NEWLINE token when provided with input that does not have a trailing new line. This behavior now matches what the C tokenizer does internally. (Contributed by Ammar Askar in bpo-33899 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33899].)

Notable changes in Python 3.7.2

In 3.7.2, venv on Windows no longer copies the original binaries, but creates redirector scripts named python.exe and pythonw.exe instead. This resolves a long standing issue where all virtual environments would have to be upgraded or recreated with each Python update. However, note that this release will still require recreation of virtual environments in order to get the new scripts.

Notable changes in Python 3.7.6

En raison de problèmes de sécurité importants, le paramètre reuse_address de asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint() n'est plus supporté. C'est à cause du comportement de l'option socket SO_REUSEADDR en UDP. Pour plus de détails, voir la documentation de loop.create_datagram_endpoint(). (Contribué par Kyle Stanley, Antoine Pitrou, et Yury Selivanov dans bpo-37228 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37228].)

Notable changes in Python 3.7.10

Earlier Python versions allowed using both ; and & as query parameter separators in urllib.parse.parse_qs() and urllib.parse.parse_qsl(). Due to security concerns, and to conform with newer W3C recommendations, this has been changed to allow only a single separator key, with & as the default. This change also affects cgi.parse() and cgi.parse_multipart() as they use the affected functions internally. For more details, please see their respective documentation. (Contributed by Adam Goldschmidt, Senthil Kumaran and Ken Jin in bpo-42967 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42967].)

Notable changes in Python 3.7.11

A security fix alters the ftplib.FTP behavior to not trust the IPv4 address sent from the remote server when setting up a passive data channel. We reuse the ftp server IP address instead. For unusual code requiring the old behavior, set a trust_server_pasv_ipv4_address attribute on your FTP instance to True. (See gh-87451 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87451])

The presence of newline or tab characters in parts of a URL allows for some forms of attacks. Following the WHATWG specification that updates RFC 3986, ASCII newline \n, \r and tab \t characters are stripped from the URL by the parser urllib.parse() preventing such attacks. The removal characters are controlled by a new module level variable urllib.parse._UNSAFE_URL_BYTES_TO_REMOVE. (See gh-88048 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88048])

Notable security feature in 3.7.14

Converting between int and str in bases other than 2 (binary), 4, 8 (octal), 16 (hexadecimal), or 32 such as base 10 (decimal) now raises a ValueError if the number of digits in string form is above a limit to avoid potential denial of service attacks due to the algorithmic complexity. This is a mitigation for CVE 2020-10735 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-10735]. This limit can be configured or disabled by environment variable, command line flag, or sys APIs. See the integer string conversion length limitation documentation. The default limit is 4300 digits in string form.

What's New In Python 3.6

Editors:

Elvis Pranskevichus <elvis@magic.io>, Yury Selivanov <yury@magic.io>

This article explains the new features in Python 3.6, compared to 3.5. Python 3.6 was released on December 23, 2016. See the changelog [https://docs.python.org/3.6/whatsnew/changelog.html] for a full list of changes.

Voir aussi

PEP 494 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0494/] - Python 3.6 Release Schedule

Résumé – Points forts de la publication

Nouvelles fonctionnalités de syntaxe :

PEP 498, formatted string literals.

PEP 515, underscores in numeric literals.

PEP 526, syntax for variable annotations.

PEP 525, asynchronous generators.

PEP 530: asynchronous comprehensions.

Nouveaux modules de la bibliothèque :

secrets: PEP 506 -- Adding A Secrets Module To The Standard Library.

CPython implementation improvements:

The dict type has been reimplemented to use a more compact representation based on a proposal by Raymond Hettinger [https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2012-December/123028.html] and similar to the PyPy dict implementation [https://morepypy.blogspot.com/2015/01/faster-more-memory-efficient-and-more.html]. This resulted in dictionaries using 20% to 25% less memory when compared to Python 3.5.

Customization of class creation has been simplified with the new protocol.

The class attribute definition order is now preserved.

The order of elements in **kwargs now corresponds to the order in which keyword arguments were passed to the function.

DTrace and SystemTap probing support has been added.

The new PYTHONMALLOC environment variable can now be used to debug the interpreter memory allocation and access errors.

Significant improvements in the standard library:

The asyncio module has received new features, significant usability and performance improvements, and a fair amount of bug fixes. Starting with Python 3.6 the asyncio module is no longer provisional and its API is considered stable.

A new file system path protocol has been implemented to support path-like objects. All standard library functions operating on paths have been updated to work with the new protocol.

The datetime module has gained support for Local Time Disambiguation.

The typing module received a number of improvements.

The tracemalloc module has been significantly reworked and is now used to provide better output for ResourceWarning as well as provide better diagnostics for memory allocation errors. See the PYTHONMALLOC section for more information.

Security improvements:

The new secrets module has been added to simplify the generation of cryptographically strong pseudo-random numbers suitable for managing secrets such as account authentication, tokens, and similar.

On Linux, os.urandom() now blocks until the system urandom entropy pool is initialized to increase the security. See the PEP 524 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0524/] for the rationale.

The hashlib and ssl modules now support OpenSSL 1.1.0.

The default settings and feature set of the ssl module have been improved.

The hashlib module received support for the BLAKE2, SHA-3 and SHAKE hash algorithms and the scrypt() key derivation function.

Windows improvements:

PEP 528 and PEP 529, Windows filesystem and console encoding changed to UTF-8.

The py.exe launcher, when used interactively, no longer prefers Python 2 over Python 3 when the user doesn't specify a version (via command line arguments or a config file). Handling of shebang lines remains unchanged - "python" refers to Python 2 in that case.

python.exe and pythonw.exe have been marked as long-path aware, which means that the 260 character path limit may no longer apply. See removing the MAX_PATH limitation for details.

A ._pth file can be added to force isolated mode and fully specify all search paths to avoid registry and environment lookup. See the documentation for more information.

A python36.zip file now works as a landmark to infer PYTHONHOME. See the documentation for more information.

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

PEP 498: Formatted string literals

PEP 498 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0498/] introduces a new kind of string literals: f-strings, or formatted string literals.

Formatted string literals are prefixed with 'f' and are similar to the format strings accepted by str.format(). They contain replacement fields surrounded by curly braces. The replacement fields are expressions, which are evaluated at run time, and then formatted using the format() protocol:

>>> name = "Fred"
>>> f"He said his name is {name}."
'He said his name is Fred.'
>>> width = 10
>>> precision = 4
>>> value = decimal.Decimal("12.34567")
>>> f"result: {value:{width}.{precision}}"  # nested fields
'result:      12.35'

Voir aussi

PEP 498 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0498/] -- Literal String Interpolation.

PEP written and implemented by Eric V. Smith.

Feature documentation.

PEP 526: Syntax for variable annotations

PEP 484 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/] introduced the standard for type annotations of function parameters, a.k.a. type hints. This PEP adds syntax to Python for annotating the types of variables including class variables and instance variables:

primes: List[int] = []

captain: str  # Note: no initial value!

class Starship:
    stats: Dict[str, int] = {}

Just as for function annotations, the Python interpreter does not attach any particular meaning to variable annotations and only stores them in the __annotations__ attribute of a class or module.

In contrast to variable declarations in statically typed languages, the goal of annotation syntax is to provide an easy way to specify structured type metadata for third party tools and libraries via the abstract syntax tree and the __annotations__ attribute.

Voir aussi

PEP 526 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/] -- Syntax for variable annotations.

PEP written by Ryan Gonzalez, Philip House, Ivan Levkivskyi, Lisa Roach, and Guido van Rossum. Implemented by Ivan Levkivskyi.

Tools that use or will use the new syntax: mypy [https://www.mypy-lang.org/], pytype [https://github.com/google/pytype], PyCharm, etc.

PEP 515: Underscores in Numeric Literals

PEP 515 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0515/] adds the ability to use underscores in numeric literals for improved readability. For example:

>>> 1_000_000_000_000_000
1000000000000000
>>> 0x_FF_FF_FF_FF
4294967295

Single underscores are allowed between digits and after any base specifier. Leading, trailing, or multiple underscores in a row are not allowed.

The string formatting language also now has support for the '_' option to signal the use of an underscore for a thousands separator for floating-point presentation types and for integer presentation type 'd'. For integer presentation types 'b', 'o', 'x', and 'X', underscores will be inserted every 4 digits:

>>> '{:_}'.format(1000000)
'1_000_000'
>>> '{:_x}'.format(0xFFFFFFFF)
'ffff_ffff'

Voir aussi

PEP 515 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0515/] -- Underscores in Numeric Literals

PEP written by Georg Brandl and Serhiy Storchaka.

PEP 525: Asynchronous Generators

PEP 492 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/] introduced support for native coroutines and async / await syntax to Python 3.5. A notable limitation of the Python 3.5 implementation is that it was not possible to use await and yield in the same function body. In Python 3.6 this restriction has been lifted, making it possible to define asynchronous generators:

async def ticker(delay, to):
    """Yield numbers from 0 to *to* every *delay* seconds."""
    for i in range(to):
        yield i
        await asyncio.sleep(delay)

The new syntax allows for faster and more concise code.

Voir aussi

PEP 525 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/] -- Asynchronous Generators

PEP written and implemented by Yury Selivanov.

PEP 530: Asynchronous Comprehensions

PEP 530 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0530/] adds support for using async for in list, set, dict comprehensions and generator expressions:

result = [i async for i in aiter() if i % 2]

Additionally, await expressions are supported in all kinds of comprehensions:

result = [await fun() for fun in funcs if await condition()]

Voir aussi

PEP 530 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0530/] -- Asynchronous Comprehensions

PEP written and implemented by Yury Selivanov.

PEP 487: Simpler customization of class creation

It is now possible to customize subclass creation without using a metaclass. The new __init_subclass__ classmethod will be called on the base class whenever a new subclass is created:

class PluginBase:
    subclasses = []

    def __init_subclass__(cls, **kwargs):
        super().__init_subclass__(**kwargs)
        cls.subclasses.append(cls)

class Plugin1(PluginBase):
    pass

class Plugin2(PluginBase):
    pass

In order to allow zero-argument super() calls to work correctly from __init_subclass__() implementations, custom metaclasses must ensure that the new __classcell__ namespace entry is propagated to type.__new__ (as described in Création de l'objet classe).

Voir aussi

PEP 487 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0487/] -- Simpler customization of class creation

PEP written and implemented by Martin Teichmann.

Feature documentation

PEP 487: Descriptor Protocol Enhancements

PEP 487 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0487/] extends the descriptor protocol to include the new optional __set_name__() method. Whenever a new class is defined, the new method will be called on all descriptors included in the definition, providing them with a reference to the class being defined and the name given to the descriptor within the class namespace. In other words, instances of descriptors can now know the attribute name of the descriptor in the owner class:

class IntField:
    def __get__(self, instance, owner):
        return instance.__dict__[self.name]

    def __set__(self, instance, value):
        if not isinstance(value, int):
            raise ValueError(f'expecting integer in {self.name}')
        instance.__dict__[self.name] = value

    # this is the new initializer:
    def __set_name__(self, owner, name):
        self.name = name

class Model:
    int_field = IntField()

Voir aussi

PEP 487 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0487/] -- Simpler customization of class creation

PEP written and implemented by Martin Teichmann.

Feature documentation

PEP 519: Adding a file system path protocol

File system paths have historically been represented as str or bytes objects. This has led to people who write code which operate on file system paths to assume that such objects are only one of those two types (an int representing a file descriptor does not count as that is not a file path). Unfortunately that assumption prevents alternative object representations of file system paths like pathlib from working with pre-existing code, including Python's standard library.

To fix this situation, a new interface represented by os.PathLike has been defined. By implementing the __fspath__() method, an object signals that it represents a path. An object can then provide a low-level representation of a file system path as a str or bytes object. This means an object is considered path-like if it implements os.PathLike or is a str or bytes object which represents a file system path. Code can use os.fspath(), os.fsdecode(), or os.fsencode() to explicitly get a str and/or bytes representation of a path-like object.

The built-in open() function has been updated to accept os.PathLike objects, as have all relevant functions in the os and os.path modules, and most other functions and classes in the standard library. The os.DirEntry class and relevant classes in pathlib have also been updated to implement os.PathLike.

The hope is that updating the fundamental functions for operating on file system paths will lead to third-party code to implicitly support all path-like objects without any code changes, or at least very minimal ones (e.g. calling os.fspath() at the beginning of code before operating on a path-like object).

Here are some examples of how the new interface allows for pathlib.Path to be used more easily and transparently with pre-existing code:

>>> import pathlib
>>> with open(pathlib.Path("README")) as f:
...     contents = f.read()
...
>>> import os.path
>>> os.path.splitext(pathlib.Path("some_file.txt"))
('some_file', '.txt')
>>> os.path.join("/a/b", pathlib.Path("c"))
'/a/b/c'
>>> import os
>>> os.fspath(pathlib.Path("some_file.txt"))
'some_file.txt'

(Implemented by Brett Cannon, Ethan Furman, Dusty Phillips, and Jelle Zijlstra.)

Voir aussi

PEP 519 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/] -- Adding a file system path protocol

PEP written by Brett Cannon and Koos Zevenhoven.

PEP 495: Local Time Disambiguation

In most world locations, there have been and will be times when local clocks are moved back. In those times, intervals are introduced in which local clocks show the same time twice in the same day. In these situations, the information displayed on a local clock (or stored in a Python datetime instance) is insufficient to identify a particular moment in time.

PEP 495 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0495/] adds the new fold attribute to instances of datetime.datetime and datetime.time classes to differentiate between two moments in time for which local times are the same:

>>> u0 = datetime(2016, 11, 6, 4, tzinfo=timezone.utc)
>>> for i in range(4):
...     u = u0 + i*HOUR
...     t = u.astimezone(Eastern)
...     print(u.time(), 'UTC =', t.time(), t.tzname(), t.fold)
...
04:00:00 UTC = 00:00:00 EDT 0
05:00:00 UTC = 01:00:00 EDT 0
06:00:00 UTC = 01:00:00 EST 1
07:00:00 UTC = 02:00:00 EST 0

The values of the fold attribute have the value 0 for all instances except those that represent the second (chronologically) moment in time in an ambiguous case.

Voir aussi

PEP 495 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0495/] -- Local Time Disambiguation

PEP written by Alexander Belopolsky and Tim Peters, implementation by Alexander Belopolsky.

PEP 529: Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8

Representing filesystem paths is best performed with str (Unicode) rather than bytes. However, there are some situations where using bytes is sufficient and correct.

Prior to Python 3.6, data loss could result when using bytes paths on Windows. With this change, using bytes to represent paths is now supported on Windows, provided those bytes are encoded with the encoding returned by sys.getfilesystemencoding(), which now defaults to 'utf-8'.

Applications that do not use str to represent paths should use os.fsencode() and os.fsdecode() to ensure their bytes are correctly encoded. To revert to the previous behaviour, set PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING or call sys._enablelegacywindowsfsencoding().

See PEP 529 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/] for more information and discussion of code modifications that may be required.

PEP 528: Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8

The default console on Windows will now accept all Unicode characters and provide correctly read str objects to Python code. sys.stdin, sys.stdout and sys.stderr now default to utf-8 encoding.

This change only applies when using an interactive console, and not when redirecting files or pipes. To revert to the previous behaviour for interactive console use, set PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO.

Voir aussi

PEP 528 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0528/] -- Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8

PEP written and implemented by Steve Dower.

PEP 520: Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order

Attributes in a class definition body have a natural ordering: the same order in which the names appear in the source. This order is now preserved in the new class's __dict__ attribute.

Also, the effective default class execution namespace (returned from type.__prepare__()) is now an insertion-order-preserving mapping.

Voir aussi

PEP 520 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0520/] -- Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order

PEP written and implemented by Eric Snow.

PEP 468: Preserving Keyword Argument Order

**kwargs in a function signature is now guaranteed to be an insertion-order-preserving mapping.

Voir aussi

PEP 468 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0468/] -- Preserving Keyword Argument Order

PEP written and implemented by Eric Snow.

New dict implementation

The dict type now uses a "compact" representation based on a proposal by Raymond Hettinger [https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2012-December/123028.html] which was first implemented by PyPy [https://morepypy.blogspot.com/2015/01/faster-more-memory-efficient-and-more.html]. The memory usage of the new dict() is between 20% and 25% smaller compared to Python 3.5.

The order-preserving aspect of this new implementation is considered an implementation detail and should not be relied upon (this may change in the future, but it is desired to have this new dict implementation in the language for a few releases before changing the language spec to mandate order-preserving semantics for all current and future Python implementations; this also helps preserve backwards-compatibility with older versions of the language where random iteration order is still in effect, e.g. Python 3.5).

(Contributed by INADA Naoki in bpo-27350 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27350]. Idea originally suggested by Raymond Hettinger [https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2012-December/123028.html].)

PEP 523: Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython

While Python provides extensive support to customize how code executes, one place it has not done so is in the evaluation of frame objects. If you wanted some way to intercept frame evaluation in Python there really wasn't any way without directly manipulating function pointers for defined functions.

PEP 523 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/] changes this by providing an API to make frame evaluation pluggable at the C level. This will allow for tools such as debuggers and JITs to intercept frame evaluation before the execution of Python code begins. This enables the use of alternative evaluation implementations for Python code, tracking frame evaluation, etc.

This API is not part of the limited C API and is marked as private to signal that usage of this API is expected to be limited and only applicable to very select, low-level use-cases. Semantics of the API will change with Python as necessary.

Voir aussi

PEP 523 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/] -- Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython

PEP written by Brett Cannon and Dino Viehland.

PYTHONMALLOC environment variable

The new PYTHONMALLOC environment variable allows setting the Python memory allocators and installing debug hooks.

It is now possible to install debug hooks on Python memory allocators on Python compiled in release mode using PYTHONMALLOC=debug. Effects of debug hooks:

Newly allocated memory is filled with the byte 0xCB

Freed memory is filled with the byte 0xDB

Detect violations of the Python memory allocator API. For example, PyObject_Free() called on a memory block allocated by PyMem_Malloc().

Detect writes before the start of a buffer (buffer underflows)

Detect writes after the end of a buffer (buffer overflows)

Check that the GIL is held when allocator functions of PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ (ex: PyObject_Malloc()) and PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM (ex: PyMem_Malloc()) domains are called.

Checking if the GIL is held is also a new feature of Python 3.6.

Reportez-vous à la fonction PyMem_SetupDebugHooks() pour ce qui concerne les fonctions de débogage de l'allocateur mémoire de Python.

It is now also possible to force the usage of the malloc() allocator of the C library for all Python memory allocations using PYTHONMALLOC=malloc. This is helpful when using external memory debuggers like Valgrind on a Python compiled in release mode.

On error, the debug hooks on Python memory allocators now use the tracemalloc module to get the traceback where a memory block was allocated.

Example of fatal error on buffer overflow using python3.6 -X tracemalloc=5 (store 5 frames in traces):

Debug memory block at address p=0x7fbcd41666f8: API 'o'
    4 bytes originally requested
    The 7 pad bytes at p-7 are FORBIDDENBYTE, as expected.
    The 8 pad bytes at tail=0x7fbcd41666fc are not all FORBIDDENBYTE (0xfb):
        at tail+0: 0x02 *** OUCH
        at tail+1: 0xfb
        at tail+2: 0xfb
        at tail+3: 0xfb
        at tail+4: 0xfb
        at tail+5: 0xfb
        at tail+6: 0xfb
        at tail+7: 0xfb
    The block was made by call #1233329 to debug malloc/realloc.
    Data at p: 1a 2b 30 00

Memory block allocated at (most recent call first):
  File "test/test_bytes.py", line 323
  File "unittest/case.py", line 600
  File "unittest/case.py", line 648
  File "unittest/suite.py", line 122
  File "unittest/suite.py", line 84

Fatal Python error: bad trailing pad byte

Current thread 0x00007fbcdbd32700 (most recent call first):
  File "test/test_bytes.py", line 323 in test_hex
  File "unittest/case.py", line 600 in run
  File "unittest/case.py", line 648 in __call__
  File "unittest/suite.py", line 122 in run
  File "unittest/suite.py", line 84 in __call__
  File "unittest/suite.py", line 122 in run
  File "unittest/suite.py", line 84 in __call__
  ...

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-26516 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26516] and bpo-26564 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26564].)

DTrace and SystemTap probing support

Python can now be built --with-dtrace which enables static markers for the following events in the interpreter:

function call/return

garbage collection started/finished

line of code executed.

This can be used to instrument running interpreters in production, without the need to recompile specific debug builds or providing application-specific profiling/debugging code.

More details in Instrumenter CPython avec DTrace et SystemTap.

The current implementation is tested on Linux and macOS. Additional markers may be added in the future.

(Contributed by Łukasz Langa in bpo-21590 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21590], based on patches by Jesús Cea Avión, David Malcolm, and Nikhil Benesch.)

Autres changements au langage

Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:

A global or nonlocal statement must now textually appear before the first use of the affected name in the same scope. Previously this was a SyntaxWarning.

It is now possible to set a special method to None to indicate that the corresponding operation is not available. For example, if a class sets __iter__() to None, the class is not iterable. (Contributed by Andrew Barnert and Ivan Levkivskyi in bpo-25958 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25958].)

Long sequences of repeated traceback lines are now abbreviated as "[Previous line repeated {count} more times]" (see traceback for an example). (Contributed by Emanuel Barry in bpo-26823 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26823].)

Import now raises the new exception ModuleNotFoundError (subclass of ImportError) when it cannot find a module. Code that currently checks for ImportError (in try-except) will still work. (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-15767 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15767].)

Class methods relying on zero-argument super() will now work correctly when called from metaclass methods during class creation. (Contributed by Martin Teichmann in bpo-23722 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23722].)

Nouveaux modules

secrets

The main purpose of the new secrets module is to provide an obvious way to reliably generate cryptographically strong pseudo-random values suitable for managing secrets, such as account authentication, tokens, and similar.

Avertissement

Note that the pseudo-random generators in the random module should NOT be used for security purposes. Use secrets on Python 3.6+ and os.urandom() on Python 3.5 and earlier.

Voir aussi

PEP 506 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0506/] -- Adding A Secrets Module To The Standard Library

PEP written and implemented by Steven D'Aprano.

Modules améliorés

array

Exhausted iterators of array.array will now stay exhausted even if the iterated array is extended. This is consistent with the behavior of other mutable sequences.

Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26492 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26492].

ast

The new ast.Constant AST node has been added. It can be used by external AST optimizers for the purposes of constant folding.

Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-26146 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26146].

asyncio

Starting with Python 3.6 the asyncio module is no longer provisional and its API is considered stable.

Notable changes in the asyncio module since Python 3.5.0 (all backported to 3.5.x due to the provisional status):

The get_event_loop() function has been changed to always return the currently running loop when called from coroutines and callbacks. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-28613 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28613].)

The ensure_future() function and all functions that use it, such as loop.run_until_complete(), now accept all kinds of awaitable objects. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov.)

New run_coroutine_threadsafe() function to submit coroutines to event loops from other threads. (Contributed by Vincent Michel.)

New Transport.is_closing() method to check if the transport is closing or closed. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov.)

The loop.create_server() method can now accept a list of hosts. (Contributed by Yann Sionneau.)

New loop.create_future() method to create Future objects. This allows alternative event loop implementations, such as uvloop [https://github.com/MagicStack/uvloop], to provide a faster asyncio.Future implementation. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-27041 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27041].)

New loop.get_exception_handler() method to get the current exception handler. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-27040 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27040].)

New StreamReader.readuntil() method to read data from the stream until a separator bytes sequence appears. (Contributed by Mark Korenberg.)

The performance of StreamReader.readexactly() has been improved. (Contributed by Mark Korenberg in bpo-28370 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28370].)

The loop.getaddrinfo() method is optimized to avoid calling the system getaddrinfo function if the address is already resolved. (Contributed by A. Jesse Jiryu Davis.)

The loop.stop() method has been changed to stop the loop immediately after the current iteration. Any new callbacks scheduled as a result of the last iteration will be discarded. (Contributed by Guido van Rossum in bpo-25593 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25593].)

Future.set_exception will now raise TypeError when passed an instance of the StopIteration exception. (Contributed by Chris Angelico in bpo-26221 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26221].)

New loop.connect_accepted_socket() method to be used by servers that accept connections outside of asyncio, but that use asyncio to handle them. (Contributed by Jim Fulton in bpo-27392 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27392].)

TCP_NODELAY flag is now set for all TCP transports by default. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-27456 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27456].)

New loop.shutdown_asyncgens() to properly close pending asynchronous generators before closing the loop. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-28003 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28003].)

Future and Task classes now have an optimized C implementation which makes asyncio code up to 30% faster. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov and INADA Naoki in bpo-26081 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26081] and bpo-28544 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28544].)

binascii

The b2a_base64() function now accepts an optional newline keyword argument to control whether the newline character is appended to the return value. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-25357 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25357].)

cmath

The new cmath.tau (τ) constant has been added. (Contributed by Lisa Roach in bpo-12345 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12345], see PEP 628 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0628/] for details.)

New constants: cmath.inf and cmath.nan to match math.inf and math.nan, and also cmath.infj and cmath.nanj to match the format used by complex repr. (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in bpo-23229 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23229].)

collections

The new Collection abstract base class has been added to represent sized iterable container classes. (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi, docs by Neil Girdhar in bpo-27598 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27598].)

The new Reversible abstract base class represents iterable classes that also provide the __reversed__() method. (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in bpo-25987 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25987].)

The new AsyncGenerator abstract base class represents asynchronous generators. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-28720 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28720].)

The namedtuple() function now accepts an optional keyword argument module, which, when specified, is used for the __module__ attribute of the returned named tuple class. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-17941 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17941].)

The verbose and rename arguments for namedtuple() are now keyword-only. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-25628 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25628].)

Recursive collections.deque instances can now be pickled. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26482 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26482].)

concurrent.futures

The ThreadPoolExecutor class constructor now accepts an optional thread_name_prefix argument to make it possible to customize the names of the threads created by the pool. (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in bpo-27664 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27664].)

contextlib

The contextlib.AbstractContextManager class has been added to provide an abstract base class for context managers. It provides a sensible default implementation for __enter__() which returns self and leaves __exit__() an abstract method. A matching class has been added to the typing module as typing.ContextManager. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-25609 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25609].)

datetime

The datetime and time classes have the new fold attribute used to disambiguate local time when necessary. Many functions in the datetime have been updated to support local time disambiguation. See Local Time Disambiguation section for more information. (Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in bpo-24773 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24773].)

The datetime.strftime() and date.strftime() methods now support ISO 8601 date directives %G, %u and %V. (Contributed by Ashley Anderson in bpo-12006 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12006].)

The datetime.isoformat() function now accepts an optional timespec argument that specifies the number of additional components of the time value to include. (Contributed by Alessandro Cucci and Alexander Belopolsky in bpo-19475 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19475].)

The datetime.combine() now accepts an optional tzinfo argument. (Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in bpo-27661 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27661].)

decimal

New Decimal.as_integer_ratio() method that returns a pair (n, d) of integers that represent the given Decimal instance as a fraction, in lowest terms and with a positive denominator:

>>> Decimal('-3.14').as_integer_ratio()
(-157, 50)

(Contributed by Stefan Krah amd Mark Dickinson in bpo-25928 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25928].)

distutils

The default_format attribute has been removed from distutils.command.sdist.sdist and the formats attribute defaults to ['gztar']. Although not anticipated, any code relying on the presence of default_format may need to be adapted. See bpo-27819 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27819] for more details.

email

The new email API, enabled via the policy keyword to various constructors, is no longer provisional. The email documentation has been reorganized and rewritten to focus on the new API, while retaining the old documentation for the legacy API. (Contributed by R. David Murray in bpo-24277 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24277].)

The email.mime classes now all accept an optional policy keyword. (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-27331 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27331].)

The DecodedGenerator now supports the policy keyword.

There is a new policy attribute, message_factory, that controls what class is used by default when the parser creates new message objects. For the email.policy.compat32 policy this is Message, for the new policies it is EmailMessage. (Contributed by R. David Murray in bpo-20476 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20476].)

encodings

On Windows, added the 'oem' encoding to use CP_OEMCP, and the 'ansi' alias for the existing 'mbcs' encoding, which uses the CP_ACP code page. (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-27959 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27959].)

enum

Two new enumeration base classes have been added to the enum module: Flag and IntFlag. Both are used to define constants that can be combined using the bitwise operators. (Contributed by Ethan Furman in bpo-23591 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23591].)

Many standard library modules have been updated to use the IntFlag class for their constants.

The new enum.auto value can be used to assign values to enum members automatically:

>>> from enum import Enum, auto
>>> class Color(Enum):
...     red = auto()
...     blue = auto()
...     green = auto()
...
>>> list(Color)
[<Color.red: 1>, <Color.blue: 2>, <Color.green: 3>]

faulthandler

On Windows, the faulthandler module now installs a handler for Windows exceptions: see faulthandler.enable(). (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23848 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23848].)

fileinput

hook_encoded() now supports the errors argument. (Contributed by Joseph Hackman in bpo-25788 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25788].)

hashlib

hashlib supports OpenSSL 1.1.0. The minimum recommend version is 1.0.2. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-26470 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26470].)

BLAKE2 hash functions were added to the module. blake2b() and blake2s() are always available and support the full feature set of BLAKE2. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-26798 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26798] based on code by Dmitry Chestnykh and Samuel Neves. Documentation written by Dmitry Chestnykh.)

The SHA-3 hash functions sha3_224(), sha3_256(), sha3_384(), sha3_512(), and SHAKE hash functions shake_128() and shake_256() were added. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-16113 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16113]. Keccak Code Package by Guido Bertoni, Joan Daemen, Michaël Peeters, Gilles Van Assche, and Ronny Van Keer.)

The password-based key derivation function scrypt() is now available with OpenSSL 1.1.0 and newer. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-27928 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27928].)

http.client

HTTPConnection.request() and endheaders() both now support chunked encoding request bodies. (Contributed by Demian Brecht and Rolf Krahl in bpo-12319 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12319].)

idlelib and IDLE

The idlelib package is being modernized and refactored to make IDLE look and work better and to make the code easier to understand, test, and improve. Part of making IDLE look better, especially on Linux and Mac, is using ttk widgets, mostly in the dialogs. As a result, IDLE no longer runs with tcl/tk 8.4. It now requires tcl/tk 8.5 or 8.6. We recommend running the latest release of either.

'Modernizing' includes renaming and consolidation of idlelib modules. The renaming of files with partial uppercase names is similar to the renaming of, for instance, Tkinter and TkFont to tkinter and tkinter.font in 3.0. As a result, imports of idlelib files that worked in 3.5 will usually not work in 3.6. At least a module name change will be needed (see idlelib/README.txt), sometimes more. (Name changes contributed by Al Swiegart and Terry Reedy in bpo-24225 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24225]. Most idlelib patches since have been and will be part of the process.)

In compensation, the eventual result with be that some idlelib classes will be easier to use, with better APIs and docstrings explaining them. Additional useful information will be added to idlelib when available.

New in 3.6.2:

Multiple fixes for autocompletion. (Contributed by Louie Lu in bpo-15786 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15786].)

New in 3.6.3:

Module Browser (on the File menu, formerly called Class Browser), now displays nested functions and classes in addition to top-level functions and classes. (Contributed by Guilherme Polo, Cheryl Sabella, and Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-1612262 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1612262].)

The IDLE features formerly implemented as extensions have been reimplemented as normal features. Their settings have been moved from the Extensions tab to other dialog tabs. (Contributed by Charles Wohlganger and Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-27099 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27099].)

The Settings dialog (Options, Configure IDLE) has been partly rewritten to improve both appearance and function. (Contributed by Cheryl Sabella and Terry Jan Reedy in multiple issues.)

New in 3.6.4:

The font sample now includes a selection of non-Latin characters so that users can better see the effect of selecting a particular font. (Contributed by Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-13802 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13802].) The sample can be edited to include other characters. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-31860 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31860].)

New in 3.6.6:

Editor code context option revised. Box displays all context lines up to maxlines. Clicking on a context line jumps the editor to that line. Context colors for custom themes is added to Highlights tab of Settings dialog. (Contributed by Cheryl Sabella and Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-33642 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33642], bpo-33768 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33768], and bpo-33679 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33679].)

On Windows, a new API call tells Windows that tk scales for DPI. On Windows 8.1+ or 10, with DPI compatibility properties of the Python binary unchanged, and a monitor resolution greater than 96 DPI, this should make text and lines sharper. It should otherwise have no effect. (Contributed by Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-33656 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33656].)

New in 3.6.7:

Output over N lines (50 by default) is squeezed down to a button. N can be changed in the PyShell section of the General page of the Settings dialog. Fewer, but possibly extra long, lines can be squeezed by right clicking on the output. Squeezed output can be expanded in place by double-clicking the button or into the clipboard or a separate window by right-clicking the button. (Contributed by Tal Einat in bpo-1529353 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1529353].)

importlib

Import now raises the new exception ModuleNotFoundError (subclass of ImportError) when it cannot find a module. Code that current checks for ImportError (in try-except) will still work. (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-15767 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15767].)

importlib.util.LazyLoader now calls create_module() on the wrapped loader, removing the restriction that importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter and importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader couldn't be used with importlib.util.LazyLoader.

importlib.util.cache_from_source(), importlib.util.source_from_cache(), and importlib.util.spec_from_file_location() now accept a path-like object.

inspect

The inspect.signature() function now reports the implicit .0 parameters generated by the compiler for comprehension and generator expression scopes as if they were positional-only parameters called implicit0. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in bpo-19611 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19611].)

To reduce code churn when upgrading from Python 2.7 and the legacy inspect.getargspec() API, the previously documented deprecation of inspect.getfullargspec() has been reversed. While this function is convenient for single/source Python 2/3 code bases, the richer inspect.signature() interface remains the recommended approach for new code. (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in bpo-27172 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27172])

json

json.load() and json.loads() now support binary input. Encoded JSON should be represented using either UTF-8, UTF-16, or UTF-32. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-17909 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17909].)

logging

The new WatchedFileHandler.reopenIfNeeded() method has been added to add the ability to check if the log file needs to be reopened. (Contributed by Marian Horban in bpo-24884 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24884].)

math

The tau (τ) constant has been added to the math and cmath modules. (Contributed by Lisa Roach in bpo-12345 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12345], see PEP 628 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0628/] for details.)

multiprocessing

Proxy Objects returned by multiprocessing.Manager() can now be nested. (Contributed by Davin Potts in bpo-6766 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6766].)

os

See the summary of PEP 519 for details on how the os and os.path modules now support path-like objects.

scandir() now supports bytes paths on Windows.

A new close() method allows explicitly closing a scandir() iterator. The scandir() iterator now supports the context manager protocol. If a scandir() iterator is neither exhausted nor explicitly closed a ResourceWarning will be emitted in its destructor. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25994 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25994].)

On Linux, os.urandom() now blocks until the system urandom entropy pool is initialized to increase the security. See the PEP 524 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0524/] for the rationale.

The Linux getrandom() syscall (get random bytes) is now exposed as the new os.getrandom() function. (Contributed by Victor Stinner, part of the PEP 524 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0524/])

pathlib

pathlib now supports path-like objects. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-27186 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186].)

See the summary of PEP 519 for details.

pdb

The Pdb class constructor has a new optional readrc argument to control whether .pdbrc files should be read.

pickle

Objects that need __new__ called with keyword arguments can now be pickled using pickle protocols older than protocol version 4. Protocol version 4 already supports this case. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-24164 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24164].)

pickletools

pickletools.dis() now outputs the implicit memo index for the MEMOIZE opcode. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25382 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25382].)

pydoc

The pydoc module has learned to respect the MANPAGER environment variable. (Contributed by Matthias Klose in bpo-8637 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8637].)

help() and pydoc can now list named tuple fields in the order they were defined rather than alphabetically. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-24879 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24879].)

random

The new choices() function returns a list of elements of specified size from the given population with optional weights. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-18844 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18844].)

re

Added support of modifier spans in regular expressions. Examples: '(?i:p)ython' matches 'python' and 'Python', but not 'PYTHON'; '(?i)g(?-i:v)r' matches 'GvR' and 'gvr', but not 'GVR'. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-433028 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=433028].)

Match object groups can be accessed by __getitem__, which is equivalent to group(). So mo['name'] is now equivalent to mo.group('name'). (Contributed by Eric Smith in bpo-24454 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24454].)

Match objects now support index-like objects as group indices. (Contributed by Jeroen Demeyer and Xiang Zhang in bpo-27177 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27177].)

readline

Added set_auto_history() to enable or disable automatic addition of input to the history list. (Contributed by Tyler Crompton in bpo-26870 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26870].)

rlcompleter

Private and special attribute names now are omitted unless the prefix starts with underscores. A space or a colon is added after some completed keywords. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25011 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25011] and bpo-25209 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25209].)

shlex

The shlex has much improved shell compatibility through the new punctuation_chars argument to control which characters are treated as punctuation. (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in bpo-1521950 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1521950].)

site

When specifying paths to add to sys.path in a .pth file, you may now specify file paths on top of directories (e.g. zip files). (Contributed by Wolfgang Langner in bpo-26587 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26587]).

sqlite3

sqlite3.Cursor.lastrowid now supports the REPLACE statement. (Contributed by Alex LordThorsen in bpo-16864 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16864].)

socket

The ioctl() function now supports the SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH control code. (Contributed by Daniel Stokes in bpo-26536 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26536].)

The getsockopt() constants SO_DOMAIN, SO_PROTOCOL, SO_PEERSEC, and SO_PASSSEC are now supported. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-26907 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26907].)

The setsockopt() now supports the setsockopt(level, optname, None, optlen: int) form. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-27744 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27744].)

The socket module now supports the address family AF_ALG to interface with Linux Kernel crypto API. ALG_*, SOL_ALG and sendmsg_afalg() were added. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-27744 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27744] with support from Victor Stinner.)

New Linux constants TCP_USER_TIMEOUT and TCP_CONGESTION were added. (Contributed by Omar Sandoval, bpo-26273 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26273]).

socketserver

Servers based on the socketserver module, including those defined in http.server, xmlrpc.server and wsgiref.simple_server, now support the context manager protocol. (Contributed by Aviv Palivoda in bpo-26404 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26404].)

The wfile attribute of StreamRequestHandler classes now implements the io.BufferedIOBase writable interface. In particular, calling write() is now guaranteed to send the data in full. (Contributed by Martin Panter in bpo-26721 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26721].)

ssl

ssl supports OpenSSL 1.1.0. The minimum recommend version is 1.0.2. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-26470 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26470].)

3DES has been removed from the default cipher suites and ChaCha20 Poly1305 cipher suites have been added. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-27850 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27850] and bpo-27766 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27766].)

SSLContext has better default configuration for options and ciphers. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28043 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28043].)

SSL session can be copied from one client-side connection to another with the new SSLSession class. TLS session resumption can speed up the initial handshake, reduce latency and improve performance (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-19500 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19500] based on a draft by Alex Warhawk.)

The new get_ciphers() method can be used to get a list of enabled ciphers in order of cipher priority.

All constants and flags have been converted to IntEnum and IntFlag. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28025 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28025].)

Server and client-side specific TLS protocols for SSLContext were added. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28085 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28085].)

Added ssl.SSLContext.post_handshake_auth to enable and ssl.SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake() to initiate TLS 1.3 post-handshake authentication. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in gh-78851 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78851].)

statistics

A new harmonic_mean() function has been added. (Contributed by Steven D'Aprano in bpo-27181 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27181].)

struct

struct now supports IEEE 754 half-precision floats via the 'e' format specifier. (Contributed by Eli Stevens, Mark Dickinson in bpo-11734 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11734].)

subprocess

subprocess.Popen destructor now emits a ResourceWarning warning if the child process is still running. Use the context manager protocol (with proc: ...) or explicitly call the wait() method to read the exit status of the child process. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-26741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26741].)

The subprocess.Popen constructor and all functions that pass arguments through to it now accept encoding and errors arguments. Specifying either of these will enable text mode for the stdin, stdout and stderr streams. (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-6135 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6135].)

sys

The new getfilesystemencodeerrors() function returns the name of the error mode used to convert between Unicode filenames and bytes filenames. (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-27781 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27781].)

On Windows the return value of the getwindowsversion() function now includes the platform_version field which contains the accurate major version, minor version and build number of the current operating system, rather than the version that is being emulated for the process (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-27932 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27932].)

telnetlib

telnetlib.Telnet is now a context manager (contributed by Stéphane Wirtel in bpo-25485 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25485]).

time

The struct_time attributes tm_gmtoff and tm_zone are now available on all platforms.

timeit

The new Timer.autorange() convenience method has been added to call Timer.timeit() repeatedly so that the total run time is greater or equal to 200 milliseconds. (Contributed by Steven D'Aprano in bpo-6422 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6422].)

timeit now warns when there is substantial (4x) variance between best and worst times. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23552 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23552].)

tkinter

Added methods Variable.trace_add(), Variable.trace_remove() and trace_info() in the tkinter.Variable class. They replace old methods trace_variable(), trace(), trace_vdelete() and trace_vinfo() that use obsolete Tcl commands and might not work in future versions of Tcl. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22115 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22115]).

traceback

Both the traceback module and the interpreter's builtin exception display now abbreviate long sequences of repeated lines in tracebacks as shown in the following example:

>>> def f(): f()
...
>>> f()
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in f
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in f
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in f
  [Previous line repeated 995 more times]
RecursionError: maximum recursion depth exceeded

(Contributed by Emanuel Barry in bpo-26823 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26823].)

tracemalloc

The tracemalloc module now supports tracing memory allocations in multiple different address spaces.

The new DomainFilter filter class has been added to filter block traces by their address space (domain).

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-26588 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26588].)

typing

Since the typing module is provisional, all changes introduced in Python 3.6 have also been backported to Python 3.5.x.

The typing module has a much improved support for generic type aliases. For example Dict[str, Tuple[S, T]] is now a valid type annotation. (Contributed by Guido van Rossum in Github #195 [https://github.com/python/typing/pull/195].)

The typing.ContextManager class has been added for representing contextlib.AbstractContextManager. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-25609 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25609].)

The typing.Collection class has been added for representing collections.abc.Collection. (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in bpo-27598 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27598].)

The typing.ClassVar type construct has been added to mark class variables. As introduced in PEP 526 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/], a variable annotation wrapped in ClassVar indicates that a given attribute is intended to be used as a class variable and should not be set on instances of that class. (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in Github #280 [https://github.com/python/typing/pull/280].)

A new TYPE_CHECKING constant that is assumed to be True by the static type checkers, but is False at runtime. (Contributed by Guido van Rossum in Github #230 [https://github.com/python/typing/issues/230].)

A new NewType() helper function has been added to create lightweight distinct types for annotations:

from typing import NewType

UserId = NewType('UserId', int)
some_id = UserId(524313)

The static type checker will treat the new type as if it were a subclass of the original type. (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in Github #189 [https://github.com/python/typing/issues/189].)

unicodedata

The unicodedata module now uses data from Unicode 9.0.0 [https://unicode.org/versions/Unicode9.0.0/]. (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson.)

unittest.mock

The Mock class has the following improvements:

Two new methods, Mock.assert_called() and Mock.assert_called_once() to check if the mock object was called. (Contributed by Amit Saha in bpo-26323 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26323].)

The Mock.reset_mock() method now has two optional keyword only arguments: return_value and side_effect. (Contributed by Kushal Das in bpo-21271 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21271].)

urllib.request

If a HTTP request has a file or iterable body (other than a bytes object) but no Content-Length header, rather than throwing an error, AbstractHTTPHandler now falls back to use chunked transfer encoding. (Contributed by Demian Brecht and Rolf Krahl in bpo-12319 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12319].)

urllib.robotparser

RobotFileParser now supports the Crawl-delay and Request-rate extensions. (Contributed by Nikolay Bogoychev in bpo-16099 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16099].)

venv

venv accepts a new parameter --prompt. This parameter provides an alternative prefix for the virtual environment. (Proposed by Łukasz Balcerzak and ported to 3.6 by Stéphane Wirtel in bpo-22829 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22829].)

warnings

A new optional source parameter has been added to the warnings.warn_explicit() function: the destroyed object which emitted a ResourceWarning. A source attribute has also been added to warnings.WarningMessage (contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-26568 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26568] and bpo-26567 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26567]).

When a ResourceWarning warning is logged, the tracemalloc module is now used to try to retrieve the traceback where the destroyed object was allocated.

Example with the script example.py:

import warnings

def func():
    return open(__file__)

f = func()
f = None

Output of the command python3.6 -Wd -X tracemalloc=5 example.py:

example.py:7: ResourceWarning: unclosed file <_io.TextIOWrapper name='example.py' mode='r' encoding='UTF-8'>
  f = None
Object allocated at (most recent call first):
  File "example.py", lineno 4
    return open(__file__)
  File "example.py", lineno 6
    f = func()

The "Object allocated at" traceback is new and is only displayed if tracemalloc is tracing Python memory allocations and if the warnings module was already imported.

winreg

Added the 64-bit integer type REG_QWORD. (Contributed by Clement Rouault in bpo-23026 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23026].)

winsound

Allowed keyword arguments to be passed to Beep, MessageBeep, and PlaySound (bpo-27982 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27982]).

xmlrpc.client

The xmlrpc.client module now supports unmarshalling additional data types used by the Apache XML-RPC implementation for numerics and None. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26885 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26885].)

zipfile

A new ZipInfo.from_file() class method allows making a ZipInfo instance from a filesystem file. A new ZipInfo.is_dir() method can be used to check if the ZipInfo instance represents a directory. (Contributed by Thomas Kluyver in bpo-26039 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26039].)

The ZipFile.open() method can now be used to write data into a ZIP file, as well as for extracting data. (Contributed by Thomas Kluyver in bpo-26039 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26039].)

zlib

The compress() and decompress() functions now accept keyword arguments. (Contributed by Aviv Palivoda in bpo-26243 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26243] and Xiang Zhang in bpo-16764 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16764] respectively.)

Optimizations

The Python interpreter now uses a 16-bit wordcode instead of bytecode which made a number of opcode optimizations possible. (Contributed by Demur Rumed with input and reviews from Serhiy Storchaka and Victor Stinner in bpo-26647 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26647] and bpo-28050 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28050].)

The asyncio.Future class now has an optimized C implementation. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov and INADA Naoki in bpo-26081 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26081].)

The asyncio.Task class now has an optimized C implementation. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-28544 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28544].)

Various implementation improvements in the typing module (such as caching of generic types) allow up to 30 times performance improvements and reduced memory footprint.

The ASCII decoder is now up to 60 times as fast for error handlers surrogateescape, ignore and replace (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-24870 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24870]).

The ASCII and the Latin1 encoders are now up to 3 times as fast for the error handler surrogateescape (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-25227 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25227]).

The UTF-8 encoder is now up to 75 times as fast for error handlers ignore, replace, surrogateescape, surrogatepass (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-25267 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25267]).

The UTF-8 decoder is now up to 15 times as fast for error handlers ignore, replace and surrogateescape (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-25301 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25301]).

bytes % args is now up to 2 times faster. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-25349 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25349]).

bytearray % args is now between 2.5 and 5 times faster. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-25399 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25399]).

Optimize bytes.fromhex() and bytearray.fromhex(): they are now between 2x and 3.5x faster. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-25401 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25401]).

Optimize bytes.replace(b'', b'.') and bytearray.replace(b'', b'.'): up to 80% faster. (Contributed by Josh Snider in bpo-26574 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26574]).

Allocator functions of the PyMem_Malloc() domain (PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM) now use the pymalloc memory allocator instead of malloc() function of the C library. The pymalloc allocator is optimized for objects smaller or equal to 512 bytes with a short lifetime, and use malloc() for larger memory blocks. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-26249 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26249]).

pickle.load() and pickle.loads() are now up to 10% faster when deserializing many small objects (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-27056 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27056]).

Passing keyword arguments to a function has an overhead in comparison with passing positional arguments. Now in extension functions implemented with using Argument Clinic this overhead is significantly decreased. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-27574 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27574]).

Optimized glob() and iglob() functions in the glob module; they are now about 3--6 times faster. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25596 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25596]).

Optimized globbing in pathlib by using os.scandir(); it is now about 1.5--4 times faster. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26032 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26032]).

xml.etree.ElementTree parsing, iteration and deepcopy performance has been significantly improved. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25638 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25638], bpo-25873 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25873], and bpo-25869 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25869].)

Creation of fractions.Fraction instances from floats and decimals is now 2 to 3 times faster. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25971 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25971].)

Build and C API Changes

Python now requires some C99 support in the toolchain to build. Most notably, Python now uses standard integer types and macros in place of custom macros like PY_LONG_LONG. For more information, see PEP 7 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0007/] and bpo-17884 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17884].

Cross-compiling CPython with the Android NDK and the Android API level set to 21 (Android 5.0 Lollipop) or greater runs successfully. While Android is not yet a supported platform, the Python test suite runs on the Android emulator with only about 16 tests failures. See the Android meta-issue bpo-26865 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26865].

The --enable-optimizations configure flag has been added. Turning it on will activate expensive optimizations like PGO. (Original patch by Alecsandru Patrascu of Intel in bpo-26359 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26359].)

The GIL must now be held when allocator functions of PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ (ex: PyObject_Malloc()) and PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM (ex: PyMem_Malloc()) domains are called.

New Py_FinalizeEx() API which indicates if flushing buffered data failed. (Contributed by Martin Panter in bpo-5319 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5319].)

PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords() now supports positional-only parameters. Positional-only parameters are defined by empty names. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26282 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26282]).

PyTraceback_Print method now abbreviates long sequences of repeated lines as "[Previous line repeated {count} more times]". (Contributed by Emanuel Barry in bpo-26823 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26823].)

The new PyErr_SetImportErrorSubclass() function allows for specifying a subclass of ImportError to raise. (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-15767 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15767].)

The new PyErr_ResourceWarning() function can be used to generate a ResourceWarning providing the source of the resource allocation. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-26567 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26567].)

The new PyOS_FSPath() function returns the file system representation of a path-like object. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-27186 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186].)

The PyUnicode_FSConverter() and PyUnicode_FSDecoder() functions will now accept path-like objects.

Autres Améliorations

When --version (short form: -V) is supplied twice, Python prints sys.version for detailed information.

$ ./python -VV
Python 3.6.0b4+ (3.6:223967b49e49+, Nov 21 2016, 20:55:04)
[GCC 4.2.1 Compatible Apple LLVM 8.0.0 (clang-800.0.42.1)]

Obsolescence

Nouveaux mot-clefs

async and await are not recommended to be used as variable, class, function or module names. Introduced by PEP 492 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/] in Python 3.5, they will become proper keywords in Python 3.7. Starting in Python 3.6, the use of async or await as names will generate a DeprecationWarning.

Deprecated Python behavior

Raising the StopIteration exception inside a generator will now generate a DeprecationWarning, and will trigger a RuntimeError in Python 3.7. See PEP 479: Change StopIteration handling inside generators for details.

The __aiter__() method is now expected to return an asynchronous iterator directly instead of returning an awaitable as previously. Doing the former will trigger a DeprecationWarning. Backward compatibility will be removed in Python 3.7. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-27243 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27243].)

A backslash-character pair that is not a valid escape sequence now generates a DeprecationWarning. Although this will eventually become a SyntaxError, that will not be for several Python releases. (Contributed by Emanuel Barry in bpo-27364 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27364].)

When performing a relative import, falling back on __name__ and __path__ from the calling module when __spec__ or __package__ are not defined now raises an ImportWarning. (Contributed by Rose Ames in bpo-25791 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25791].)

Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods

asynchat

The asynchat has been deprecated in favor of asyncio. (Contributed by Mariatta in bpo-25002 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25002].)

asyncore

The asyncore has been deprecated in favor of asyncio. (Contributed by Mariatta in bpo-25002 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25002].)

dbm

Unlike other dbm implementations, the dbm.dumb module creates databases with the 'rw' mode and allows modifying the database opened with the 'r' mode. This behavior is now deprecated and will be removed in 3.8. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-21708 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21708].)

distutils

The undocumented extra_path argument to the distutils.Distribution constructor is now considered deprecated and will raise a warning if set. Support for this parameter will be removed in a future Python release. See bpo-27919 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27919] for details.

grp

The support of non-integer arguments in getgrgid() has been deprecated. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26129 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26129].)

importlib

The importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader.load_module() and importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader.load_module() methods are now deprecated. They were the only remaining implementations of importlib.abc.Loader.load_module() in importlib that had not been deprecated in previous versions of Python in favour of importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module().

The importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder class is now deprecated. As of 3.6.0, it is still added to sys.meta_path by default (on Windows), but this may change in future releases.

os

Undocumented support of general bytes-like objects as paths in os functions, compile() and similar functions is now deprecated. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25791 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25791] and bpo-26754 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26754].)

re

Support for inline flags (?letters) in the middle of the regular expression has been deprecated and will be removed in a future Python version. Flags at the start of a regular expression are still allowed. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22493 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22493].)

ssl

OpenSSL 0.9.8, 1.0.0 and 1.0.1 are deprecated and no longer supported. In the future the ssl module will require at least OpenSSL 1.0.2 or 1.1.0.

SSL-related arguments like certfile, keyfile and check_hostname in ftplib, http.client, imaplib, poplib, and smtplib have been deprecated in favor of context. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28022 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28022].)

A couple of protocols and functions of the ssl module are now deprecated. Some features will no longer be available in future versions of OpenSSL. Other features are deprecated in favor of a different API. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28022 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28022] and bpo-26470 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26470].)

tkinter

The tkinter.tix module is now deprecated. tkinter users should use tkinter.ttk instead.

venv

The pyvenv script has been deprecated in favour of python3 -m venv. This prevents confusion as to what Python interpreter pyvenv is connected to and thus what Python interpreter will be used by the virtual environment. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-25154 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25154].)

xml

As mitigation against DTD and external entity retrieval, the xml.dom.minidom and xml.sax modules no longer process external entities by default. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in gh-61441 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61441].)

Deprecated functions and types of the C API

Undocumented functions PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject(), PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject(), PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode() and PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode() are deprecated now. Use the generic codec based API instead.

Deprecated Build Options

The --with-system-ffi configure flag is now on by default on non-macOS UNIX platforms. It may be disabled by using --without-system-ffi, but using the flag is deprecated and will not be accepted in Python 3.7. macOS is unaffected by this change. Note that many OS distributors already use the --with-system-ffi flag when building their system Python.

Retraits

API and Feature Removals

Unknown escapes consisting of '\' and an ASCII letter in regular expressions will now cause an error. In replacement templates for re.sub() they are still allowed, but deprecated. The re.LOCALE flag can now only be used with binary patterns.

inspect.getmoduleinfo() was removed (was deprecated since CPython 3.3). inspect.getmodulename() should be used for obtaining the module name for a given path. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-13248 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13248].)

traceback.Ignore class and traceback.usage, traceback.modname, traceback.fullmodname, traceback.find_lines_from_code, traceback.find_lines, traceback.find_strings, traceback.find_executable_lines methods were removed from the traceback module. They were undocumented methods deprecated since Python 3.2 and equivalent functionality is available from private methods.

The tk_menuBar() and tk_bindForTraversal() dummy methods in tkinter widget classes were removed (corresponding Tk commands were obsolete since Tk 4.0).

The open() method of the zipfile.ZipFile class no longer supports the 'U' mode (was deprecated since Python 3.4). Use io.TextIOWrapper for reading compressed text files in universal newlines mode.

The undocumented IN, CDROM, DLFCN, TYPES, CDIO, and STROPTS modules have been removed. They had been available in the platform specific Lib/plat-*/ directories, but were chronically out of date, inconsistently available across platforms, and unmaintained. The script that created these modules is still available in the source distribution at Tools/scripts/h2py.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/v3.6.15/Tools/scripts/h2py.py].

The deprecated asynchat.fifo class has been removed.

Porting to Python 3.6

Cette section liste les changements mentionnés préalablement et d'autres améliorations qui peuvent demander des changements à votre code.

Changes in 'python' Command Behavior

The output of a special Python build with defined COUNT_ALLOCS, SHOW_ALLOC_COUNT or SHOW_TRACK_COUNT macros is now off by default. It can be re-enabled using the -X showalloccount option. It now outputs to stderr instead of stdout. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23034 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23034].)

Changements dans l'API Python

open() will no longer allow combining the 'U' mode flag with '+'. (Contributed by Jeff Balogh and John O'Connor in bpo-2091 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2091].)

sqlite3 no longer implicitly commits an open transaction before DDL statements.

On Linux, os.urandom() now blocks until the system urandom entropy pool is initialized to increase the security.

When importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module() is defined, importlib.abc.Loader.create_module() must also be defined.

PyErr_SetImportError() now sets TypeError when its msg argument is not set. Previously only NULL was returned.

The format of the co_lnotab attribute of code objects changed to support a negative line number delta. By default, Python does not emit bytecode with a negative line number delta. Functions using frame.f_lineno, PyFrame_GetLineNumber() or PyCode_Addr2Line() are not affected. Functions directly decoding co_lnotab should be updated to use a signed 8-bit integer type for the line number delta, but this is only required to support applications using a negative line number delta. See Objects/lnotab_notes.txt for the co_lnotab format and how to decode it, and see the PEP 511 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0511/] for the rationale.

The functions in the compileall module now return booleans instead of 1 or 0 to represent success or failure, respectively. Thanks to booleans being a subclass of integers, this should only be an issue if you were doing identity checks for 1 or 0. See bpo-25768 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25768].

Reading the port attribute of urllib.parse.urlsplit() and urlparse() results now raises ValueError for out-of-range values, rather than returning None. See bpo-20059 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20059].

The imp module now raises a DeprecationWarning instead of PendingDeprecationWarning.

The following modules have had missing APIs added to their __all__ attributes to match the documented APIs: calendar, cgi, csv, ElementTree, enum, fileinput, ftplib, logging, mailbox, mimetypes, optparse, plistlib, smtpd, subprocess, tarfile, threading and wave. This means they will export new symbols when import * is used. (Contributed by Joel Taddei and Jacek Kołodziej in bpo-23883 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23883].)

When performing a relative import, if __package__ does not compare equal to __spec__.parent then ImportWarning is raised. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-25791 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25791].)

When a relative import is performed and no parent package is known, then ImportError will be raised. Previously, SystemError could be raised. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-18018 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18018].)

Servers based on the socketserver module, including those defined in http.server, xmlrpc.server and wsgiref.simple_server, now only catch exceptions derived from Exception. Therefore if a request handler raises an exception like SystemExit or KeyboardInterrupt, handle_error() is no longer called, and the exception will stop a single-threaded server. (Contributed by Martin Panter in bpo-23430 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23430].)

spwd.getspnam() now raises a PermissionError instead of KeyError if the user doesn't have privileges.

The socket.socket.close() method now raises an exception if an error (e.g. EBADF) was reported by the underlying system call. (Contributed by Martin Panter in bpo-26685 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26685].)

The decode_data argument for the smtpd.SMTPChannel and smtpd.SMTPServer constructors is now False by default. This means that the argument passed to process_message() is now a bytes object by default, and process_message() will be passed keyword arguments. Code that has already been updated in accordance with the deprecation warning generated by 3.5 will not be affected.

All optional arguments of the dump(), dumps(), load() and loads() functions and JSONEncoder and JSONDecoder class constructors in the json module are now keyword-only. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-18726 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18726].)

Les sous-classes de type qui ne redéfinissent pas type.__new__ ne devraient plus utiliser la forme à un argument pour récupérer le type d'un objet.

As part of PEP 487 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0487/], the handling of keyword arguments passed to type (other than the metaclass hint, metaclass) is now consistently delegated to object.__init_subclass__(). This means that type.__new__ and type.__init__ both now accept arbitrary keyword arguments, but object.__init_subclass__() (which is called from type.__new__) will reject them by default. Custom metaclasses accepting additional keyword arguments will need to adjust their calls to type.__new__ (whether direct or via super) accordingly.

In distutils.command.sdist.sdist, the default_format attribute has been removed and is no longer honored. Instead, the gzipped tarfile format is the default on all platforms and no platform-specific selection is made. In environments where distributions are built on Windows and zip distributions are required, configure the project with a setup.cfg file containing the following:

[sdist]
formats=zip

This behavior has also been backported to earlier Python versions by Setuptools 26.0.0.

In the urllib.request module and the http.client.HTTPConnection.request() method, if no Content-Length header field has been specified and the request body is a file object, it is now sent with HTTP 1.1 chunked encoding. If a file object has to be sent to a HTTP 1.0 server, the Content-Length value now has to be specified by the caller. (Contributed by Demian Brecht and Rolf Krahl with tweaks from Martin Panter in bpo-12319 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12319].)

The DictReader now returns rows of type OrderedDict. (Contributed by Steve Holden in bpo-27842 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27842].)

The crypt.METHOD_CRYPT will no longer be added to crypt.methods if unsupported by the platform. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-25287 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25287].)

The verbose and rename arguments for namedtuple() are now keyword-only. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-25628 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25628].)

On Linux, ctypes.util.find_library() now looks in LD_LIBRARY_PATH for shared libraries. (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in bpo-9998 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9998].)

The imaplib.IMAP4 class now handles flags containing the ']' character in messages sent from the server to improve real-world compatibility. (Contributed by Lita Cho in bpo-21815 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21815].)

The mmap.mmap.write() function now returns the number of bytes written like other write methods. (Contributed by Jakub Stasiak in bpo-26335 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26335].)

The pkgutil.iter_modules() and pkgutil.walk_packages() functions now return ModuleInfo named tuples. (Contributed by Ramchandra Apte in bpo-17211 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17211].)

re.sub() now raises an error for invalid numerical group references in replacement templates even if the pattern is not found in the string. The error message for invalid group references now includes the group index and the position of the reference. (Contributed by SilentGhost, Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25953 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25953].)

zipfile.ZipFile will now raise NotImplementedError for unrecognized compression values. Previously a plain RuntimeError was raised. Additionally, calling ZipFile methods on a closed ZipFile or calling the write() method on a ZipFile created with mode 'r' will raise a ValueError. Previously, a RuntimeError was raised in those scenarios.

when custom metaclasses are combined with zero-argument super() or direct references from methods to the implicit __class__ closure variable, the implicit __classcell__ namespace entry must now be passed up to type.__new__ for initialisation. Failing to do so will result in a DeprecationWarning in Python 3.6 and a RuntimeError in Python 3.8.

With the introduction of ModuleNotFoundError, import system consumers may start expecting import system replacements to raise that more specific exception when appropriate, rather than the less-specific ImportError. To provide future compatibility with such consumers, implementers of alternative import systems that completely replace __import__() will need to update their implementations to raise the new subclass when a module can't be found at all. Implementers of compliant plugins to the default import system shouldn't need to make any changes, as the default import system will raise the new subclass when appropriate.

Changements dans l'API C

The PyMem_Malloc() allocator family now uses the pymalloc allocator rather than the system malloc(). Applications calling PyMem_Malloc() without holding the GIL can now crash. Set the PYTHONMALLOC environment variable to debug to validate the usage of memory allocators in your application. See bpo-26249 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26249].

Py_Exit() (and the main interpreter) now override the exit status with 120 if flushing buffered data failed. See bpo-5319 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5319].

Changements au code intermédiaire CPython

There have been several major changes to the bytecode in Python 3.6.

The Python interpreter now uses a 16-bit wordcode instead of bytecode. (Contributed by Demur Rumed with input and reviews from Serhiy Storchaka and Victor Stinner in bpo-26647 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26647] and bpo-28050 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28050].)

The new FORMAT_VALUE and BUILD_STRING opcodes as part of the formatted string literal implementation. (Contributed by Eric Smith in bpo-25483 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25483] and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-27078 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27078].)

The new BUILD_CONST_KEY_MAP opcode to optimize the creation of dictionaries with constant keys. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-27140 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27140].)

The function call opcodes have been heavily reworked for better performance and simpler implementation. The MAKE_FUNCTION, CALL_FUNCTION, CALL_FUNCTION_KW and BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL opcodes have been modified, the new CALL_FUNCTION_EX and BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL have been added, and CALL_FUNCTION_VAR, CALL_FUNCTION_VAR_KW and MAKE_CLOSURE opcodes have been removed. (Contributed by Demur Rumed in bpo-27095 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27095], and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-27213 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27213], bpo-28257 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28257].)

The new SETUP_ANNOTATIONS and STORE_ANNOTATION opcodes have been added to support the new variable annotation syntax. (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in bpo-27985 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27985].)

Notable changes in Python 3.6.2

New make regen-all build target

To simplify cross-compilation, and to ensure that CPython can reliably be compiled without requiring an existing version of Python to already be available, the autotools-based build system no longer attempts to implicitly recompile generated files based on file modification times.

Instead, a new make regen-all command has been added to force regeneration of these files when desired (e.g. after an initial version of Python has already been built based on the pregenerated versions).

More selective regeneration targets are also defined - see Makefile.pre.in [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Makefile.pre.in] for details.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23404 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404].)

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.2.

Removal of make touch build target

The make touch build target previously used to request implicit regeneration of generated files by updating their modification times has been removed.

It has been replaced by the new make regen-all target.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23404 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404].)

Modifié dans la version 3.6.2.

Notable changes in Python 3.6.4

The PyExc_RecursionErrorInst singleton that was part of the public API has been removed as its members being never cleared may cause a segfault during finalization of the interpreter. (Contributed by Xavier de Gaye in bpo-22898 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22898] and bpo-30697 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30697].)

Notable changes in Python 3.6.5

The locale.localeconv() function now sets temporarily the LC_CTYPE locale to the LC_NUMERIC locale in some cases. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-31900 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31900].)

Notable changes in Python 3.6.7

xml.dom.minidom and xml.sax modules no longer process external entities by default. See also gh-61441 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61441].

In 3.6.7 the tokenize module now implicitly emits a NEWLINE token when provided with input that does not have a trailing new line. This behavior now matches what the C tokenizer does internally. (Contributed by Ammar Askar in bpo-33899 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33899].)

Notable changes in Python 3.6.10

En raison de problèmes de sécurité importants, le paramètre reuse_address de asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint() n'est plus supporté. C'est à cause du comportement de l'option socket SO_REUSEADDR en UDP. Pour plus de détails, voir la documentation de loop.create_datagram_endpoint(). (Contribué par Kyle Stanley, Antoine Pitrou, et Yury Selivanov dans bpo-37228 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37228].)

Notable changes in Python 3.6.13

Earlier Python versions allowed using both ; and & as query parameter separators in urllib.parse.parse_qs() and urllib.parse.parse_qsl(). Due to security concerns, and to conform with newer W3C recommendations, this has been changed to allow only a single separator key, with & as the default. This change also affects cgi.parse() and cgi.parse_multipart() as they use the affected functions internally. For more details, please see their respective documentation. (Contributed by Adam Goldschmidt, Senthil Kumaran and Ken Jin in bpo-42967 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42967].)

Notable changes in Python 3.6.14

A security fix alters the ftplib.FTP behavior to not trust the IPv4 address sent from the remote server when setting up a passive data channel. We reuse the ftp server IP address instead. For unusual code requiring the old behavior, set a trust_server_pasv_ipv4_address attribute on your FTP instance to True. (See gh-87451 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87451])

The presence of newline or tab characters in parts of a URL allows for some forms of attacks. Following the WHATWG specification that updates RFC 3986, ASCII newline \n, \r and tab \t characters are stripped from the URL by the parser urllib.parse() preventing such attacks. The removal characters are controlled by a new module level variable urllib.parse._UNSAFE_URL_BYTES_TO_REMOVE. (See gh-88048 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88048])

Nouveautés de Python 3.5

Editors:

Elvis Pranskevichus <elvis@magic.io>, Yury Selivanov <yury@magic.io>

This article explains the new features in Python 3.5, compared to 3.4. Python 3.5 was released on September 13, 2015. See the changelog [https://docs.python.org/3.5/whatsnew/changelog.html] for a full list of changes.

Voir aussi

PEP 478 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0478/] - Python 3.5 Release Schedule

Résumé – Points forts de la publication

Nouvelles fonctionnalités de syntaxe :

PEP 492, coroutines with async and await syntax.

PEP 465, a new matrix multiplication operator: a @ b.

PEP 448, additional unpacking generalizations.

Nouveaux modules de la bibliothèque :

typing: PEP 484 -- Type Hints.

zipapp: PEP 441 Improving Python ZIP Application Support.

Nouvelles fonctionnalités natives :

bytes % args, bytearray % args: PEP 461 -- Adding % formatting to bytes and bytearray.

New bytes.hex(), bytearray.hex() and memoryview.hex() methods. (Contributed by Arnon Yaari in bpo-9951 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9951].)

memoryview now supports tuple indexing (including multi-dimensional). (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-23632 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23632].)

Generators have a new gi_yieldfrom attribute, which returns the object being iterated by yield from expressions. (Contributed by Benno Leslie and Yury Selivanov in bpo-24450 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24450].)

A new RecursionError exception is now raised when maximum recursion depth is reached. (Contributed by Georg Brandl in bpo-19235 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19235].)

CPython implementation improvements:

When the LC_TYPE locale is the POSIX locale (C locale), sys.stdin and sys.stdout now use the surrogateescape error handler, instead of the strict error handler. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-19977 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19977].)

.pyo files are no longer used and have been replaced by a more flexible scheme that includes the optimization level explicitly in .pyc name. (See PEP 488 overview.)

Builtin and extension modules are now initialized in a multi-phase process, which is similar to how Python modules are loaded. (See PEP 489 overview.)

Significant improvements in the standard library:

collections.OrderedDict is now implemented in C, which makes it 4 to 100 times faster.

The ssl module gained support for Memory BIO, which decouples SSL protocol handling from network IO.

The new os.scandir() function provides a better and significantly faster way of directory traversal.

functools.lru_cache() has been mostly reimplemented in C, yielding much better performance.

The new subprocess.run() function provides a streamlined way to run subprocesses.

The traceback module has been significantly enhanced for improved performance and developer convenience.

Security improvements:

SSLv3 is now disabled throughout the standard library. It can still be enabled by instantiating a ssl.SSLContext manually. (See bpo-22638 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22638] for more details; this change was backported to CPython 3.4 and 2.7.)

HTTP cookie parsing is now stricter, in order to protect against potential injection attacks. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-22796 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22796].)

Windows improvements:

A new installer for Windows has replaced the old MSI. See Utilisation de Python sur Windows for more information.

Windows builds now use Microsoft Visual C++ 14.0, and extension modules should use the same.

Please read on for a comprehensive list of user-facing changes, including many other smaller improvements, CPython optimizations, deprecations, and potential porting issues.

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax

PEP 492 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/] greatly improves support for asynchronous programming in Python by adding awaitable objects, coroutine functions, asynchronous iteration, and asynchronous context managers.

Coroutine functions are declared using the new async def syntax:

>>> async def coro():
...     return 'spam'

Inside a coroutine function, the new await expression can be used to suspend coroutine execution until the result is available. Any object can be awaited, as long as it implements the awaitable protocol by defining the __await__() method.

PEP 492 also adds async for statement for convenient iteration over asynchronous iterables.

An example of a rudimentary HTTP client written using the new syntax:

import asyncio

async def http_get(domain):
    reader, writer = await asyncio.open_connection(domain, 80)

    writer.write(b'\r\n'.join([
        b'GET / HTTP/1.1',
        b'Host: %b' % domain.encode('latin-1'),
        b'Connection: close',
        b'', b''
    ]))

    async for line in reader:
        print('>>>', line)

    writer.close()

loop = asyncio.get_event_loop()
try:
    loop.run_until_complete(http_get('example.com'))
finally:
    loop.close()

Similarly to asynchronous iteration, there is a new syntax for asynchronous context managers. The following script:

import asyncio

async def coro(name, lock):
    print('coro {}: waiting for lock'.format(name))
    async with lock:
        print('coro {}: holding the lock'.format(name))
        await asyncio.sleep(1)
        print('coro {}: releasing the lock'.format(name))

loop = asyncio.get_event_loop()
lock = asyncio.Lock()
coros = asyncio.gather(coro(1, lock), coro(2, lock))
try:
    loop.run_until_complete(coros)
finally:
    loop.close()

affichera :

coro 2: waiting for lock
coro 2: holding the lock
coro 1: waiting for lock
coro 2: releasing the lock
coro 1: holding the lock
coro 1: releasing the lock

Note that both async for and async with can only be used inside a coroutine function declared with async def.

Coroutine functions are intended to be run inside a compatible event loop, such as the asyncio loop.

Note

Modifié dans la version 3.5.2: À partir de CPython 3.5.2, __aiter__ peut directement renvoyer des itérateurs asynchrones. Renvoyer un objet awaitable entraine un avertissement PendingDeprecationWarning.

See more details in the Itérateurs asynchrones documentation section.

Voir aussi

PEP 492 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/] -- Coroutines with async and await syntax

PEP written and implemented by Yury Selivanov.

PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication

PEP 465 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0465/] adds the @ infix operator for matrix multiplication. Currently, no builtin Python types implement the new operator, however, it can be implemented by defining __matmul__(), __rmatmul__(), and __imatmul__() for regular, reflected, and in-place matrix multiplication. The semantics of these methods is similar to that of methods defining other infix arithmetic operators.

Matrix multiplication is a notably common operation in many fields of mathematics, science, engineering, and the addition of @ allows writing cleaner code:

S = (H @ beta - r).T @ inv(H @ V @ H.T) @ (H @ beta - r)

instead of:

S = dot((dot(H, beta) - r).T,
        dot(inv(dot(dot(H, V), H.T)), dot(H, beta) - r))

NumPy 1.10 has support for the new operator:

>>> import numpy

>>> x = numpy.ones(3)
>>> x
array([ 1., 1., 1.])

>>> m = numpy.eye(3)
>>> m
array([[ 1., 0., 0.],
       [ 0., 1., 0.],
       [ 0., 0., 1.]])

>>> x @ m
array([ 1., 1., 1.])

Voir aussi

PEP 465 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0465/] -- A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication

PEP written by Nathaniel J. Smith; implemented by Benjamin Peterson.

PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations

PEP 448 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/] extends the allowed uses of the * iterable unpacking operator and ** dictionary unpacking operator. It is now possible to use an arbitrary number of unpackings in function calls:

>>> print(*[1], *[2], 3, *[4, 5])
1 2 3 4 5

>>> def fn(a, b, c, d):
...     print(a, b, c, d)
...

>>> fn(**{'a': 1, 'c': 3}, **{'b': 2, 'd': 4})
1 2 3 4

Similarly, tuple, list, set, and dictionary displays allow multiple unpackings (see Listes d'expressions and Agencements de dictionnaires):

>>> *range(4), 4
(0, 1, 2, 3, 4)

>>> [*range(4), 4]
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4]

>>> {*range(4), 4, *(5, 6, 7)}
{0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}

>>> {'x': 1, **{'y': 2}}
{'x': 1, 'y': 2}

Voir aussi

PEP 448 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/] -- Additional Unpacking Generalizations

PEP written by Joshua Landau; implemented by Neil Girdhar, Thomas Wouters, and Joshua Landau.

PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray

PEP 461 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0461/] adds support for the % interpolation operator to bytes and bytearray.

While interpolation is usually thought of as a string operation, there are cases where interpolation on bytes or bytearrays makes sense, and the work needed to make up for this missing functionality detracts from the overall readability of the code. This issue is particularly important when dealing with wire format protocols, which are often a mixture of binary and ASCII compatible text.

Exemples :

>>> b'Hello %b!' % b'World'
b'Hello World!'

>>> b'x=%i y=%f' % (1, 2.5)
b'x=1 y=2.500000'

Unicode is not allowed for %b, but it is accepted by %a (equivalent of repr(obj).encode('ascii', 'backslashreplace')):

>>> b'Hello %b!' % 'World'
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: %b requires bytes, or an object that implements __bytes__, not 'str'

>>> b'price: %a' % '10€'
b"price: '10\\u20ac'"

Note that %s and %r conversion types, although supported, should only be used in codebases that need compatibility with Python 2.

Voir aussi

PEP 461 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0461/] -- Adding % formatting to bytes and bytearray

PEP written by Ethan Furman; implemented by Neil Schemenauer and Ethan Furman.

PEP 484 - Type Hints

Function annotation syntax has been a Python feature since version 3.0 (PEP 3107 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3107/]), however the semantics of annotations has been left undefined.

Experience has shown that the majority of function annotation uses were to provide type hints to function parameters and return values. It became evident that it would be beneficial for Python users, if the standard library included the base definitions and tools for type annotations.

PEP 484 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/] introduces a provisional module to provide these standard definitions and tools, along with some conventions for situations where annotations are not available.

For example, here is a simple function whose argument and return type are declared in the annotations:

def greeting(name: str) -> str:
    return 'Hello ' + name

While these annotations are available at runtime through the usual __annotations__ attribute, no automatic type checking happens at runtime. Instead, it is assumed that a separate off-line type checker (e.g. mypy [https://mypy-lang.org]) will be used for on-demand source code analysis.

The type system supports unions, generic types, and a special type named Any which is consistent with (i.e. assignable to and from) all types.

Voir aussi

Documentation du module typing

PEP 484 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/] -- Type Hints

PEP written by Guido van Rossum, Jukka Lehtosalo, and Łukasz Langa; implemented by Guido van Rossum.

PEP 483 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0483/] -- The Theory of Type Hints

PEP écrite par Guido van Rossum

PEP 471 - os.scandir() function -- a better and faster directory iterator

PEP 471 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0471/] adds a new directory iteration function, os.scandir(), to the standard library. Additionally, os.walk() is now implemented using scandir, which makes it 3 to 5 times faster on POSIX systems and 7 to 20 times faster on Windows systems. This is largely achieved by greatly reducing the number of calls to os.stat() required to walk a directory tree.

Additionally, scandir returns an iterator, as opposed to returning a list of file names, which improves memory efficiency when iterating over very large directories.

The following example shows a simple use of os.scandir() to display all the files (excluding directories) in the given path that don't start with '.'. The entry.is_file() call will generally not make an additional system call:

for entry in os.scandir(path):
    if not entry.name.startswith('.') and entry.is_file():
        print(entry.name)

Voir aussi

PEP 471 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0471/] -- os.scandir() function -- a better and faster directory iterator

PEP written and implemented by Ben Hoyt with the help of Victor Stinner.

PEP 475: Retry system calls failing with EINTR

An errno.EINTR error code is returned whenever a system call, that is waiting for I/O, is interrupted by a signal. Previously, Python would raise InterruptedError in such cases. This meant that, when writing a Python application, the developer had two choices:

Ignore the InterruptedError.

Handle the InterruptedError and attempt to restart the interrupted system call at every call site.

The first option makes an application fail intermittently. The second option adds a large amount of boilerplate that makes the code nearly unreadable. Compare:

print("Hello World")

et :

while True:
    try:
        print("Hello World")
        break
    except InterruptedError:
        continue

PEP 475 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/] implements automatic retry of system calls on EINTR. This removes the burden of dealing with EINTR or InterruptedError in user code in most situations and makes Python programs, including the standard library, more robust. Note that the system call is only retried if the signal handler does not raise an exception.

Below is a list of functions which are now retried when interrupted by a signal:

open() et io.open();

functions of the faulthandler module;

os functions: fchdir(), fchmod(), fchown(), fdatasync(), fstat(), fstatvfs(), fsync(), ftruncate(), mkfifo(), mknod(), open(), posix_fadvise(), posix_fallocate(), pread(), pwrite(), read(), readv(), sendfile(), wait3(), wait4(), wait(), waitid(), waitpid(), write(), writev();

special cases: os.close() and os.dup2() now ignore EINTR errors; the syscall is not retried (see the PEP for the rationale);

select functions: devpoll.poll(), epoll.poll(), kqueue.control(), poll.poll(), select();

methods of the socket class: accept(), connect() (except for non-blocking sockets), recv(), recvfrom(), recvmsg(), send(), sendall(), sendmsg(), sendto();

signal.sigtimedwait() and signal.sigwaitinfo();

time.sleep().

Voir aussi

PEP 475 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/] -- Retry system calls failing with EINTR

PEP and implementation written by Charles-François Natali and Victor Stinner, with the help of Antoine Pitrou (the French connection).

PEP 479: Change StopIteration handling inside generators

The interaction of generators and StopIteration in Python 3.4 and earlier was sometimes surprising, and could conceal obscure bugs. Previously, StopIteration raised accidentally inside a generator function was interpreted as the end of the iteration by the loop construct driving the generator.

PEP 479 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/] changes the behavior of generators: when a StopIteration exception is raised inside a generator, it is replaced with a RuntimeError before it exits the generator frame. The main goal of this change is to ease debugging in the situation where an unguarded next() call raises StopIteration and causes the iteration controlled by the generator to terminate silently. This is particularly pernicious in combination with the yield from construct.

This is a backwards incompatible change, so to enable the new behavior, a __future__ import is necessary:

>>> from __future__ import generator_stop

>>> def gen():
...     next(iter([]))
...     yield
...
>>> next(gen())
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 2, in gen
StopIteration

The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
RuntimeError: generator raised StopIteration

Without a __future__ import, a PendingDeprecationWarning will be raised whenever a StopIteration exception is raised inside a generator.

Voir aussi

PEP 479 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/] -- Change StopIteration handling inside generators

PEP written by Chris Angelico and Guido van Rossum. Implemented by Chris Angelico, Yury Selivanov and Nick Coghlan.

PEP 485: A function for testing approximate equality

PEP 485 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0485/] adds the math.isclose() and cmath.isclose() functions which tell whether two values are approximately equal or "close" to each other. Whether or not two values are considered close is determined according to given absolute and relative tolerances. Relative tolerance is the maximum allowed difference between isclose arguments, relative to the larger absolute value:

>>> import math
>>> a = 5.0
>>> b = 4.99998
>>> math.isclose(a, b, rel_tol=1e-5)
True
>>> math.isclose(a, b, rel_tol=1e-6)
False

It is also possible to compare two values using absolute tolerance, which must be a non-negative value:

>>> import math
>>> a = 5.0
>>> b = 4.99998
>>> math.isclose(a, b, abs_tol=0.00003)
True
>>> math.isclose(a, b, abs_tol=0.00001)
False

Voir aussi

PEP 485 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0485/] -- Une fonction pour tester des égalités approximées

PEP written by Christopher Barker; implemented by Chris Barker and Tal Einat.

PEP 486: Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments

PEP 486 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0486/] makes the Windows launcher (see PEP 397 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0397/]) aware of an active virtual environment. When the default interpreter would be used and the VIRTUAL_ENV environment variable is set, the interpreter in the virtual environment will be used.

Voir aussi

PEP 486 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0486/] -- Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments

PEP written and implemented by Paul Moore.

PEP 488 : Élimination des fichiers PYO

PEP 488 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/] does away with the concept of .pyo files. This means that .pyc files represent both unoptimized and optimized bytecode. To prevent the need to constantly regenerate bytecode files, .pyc files now have an optional opt- tag in their name when the bytecode is optimized. This has the side-effect of no more bytecode file name clashes when running under either -O or -OO. Consequently, bytecode files generated from -O, and -OO may now exist simultaneously. importlib.util.cache_from_source() has an updated API to help with this change.

Voir aussi

PEP 488 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/] : Élimination des fichiers PYO

PEP written and implemented by Brett Cannon.

PEP 489: Multi-phase extension module initialization

PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/] updates extension module initialization to take advantage of the two step module loading mechanism introduced by PEP 451 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/] in Python 3.4.

This change brings the import semantics of extension modules that opt-in to using the new mechanism much closer to those of Python source and bytecode modules, including the ability to use any valid identifier as a module name, rather than being restricted to ASCII.

Voir aussi

PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/] -- Multi-phase extension module initialization

PEP written by Petr Viktorin, Stefan Behnel, and Nick Coghlan; implemented by Petr Viktorin.

Autres changements au langage

Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:

Added the "namereplace" error handlers. The "backslashreplace" error handlers now work with decoding and translating. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19676 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19676] and bpo-22286 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22286].)

The -b option now affects comparisons of bytes with int. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23681 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23681].)

New Kazakh kz1048 and Tajik koi8_t codecs. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22682 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22682] and bpo-22681 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22681].)

Property docstrings are now writable. This is especially useful for collections.namedtuple() docstrings. (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-24064 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24064].)

Circular imports involving relative imports are now supported. (Contributed by Brett Cannon and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-17636 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17636].)

Nouveaux modules

typing

The new typing provisional module provides standard definitions and tools for function type annotations. See Type Hints for more information.

zipapp

The new zipapp module (specified in PEP 441 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0441/]) provides an API and command line tool for creating executable Python Zip Applications, which were introduced in Python 2.6 in bpo-1739468 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1739468], but which were not well publicized, either at the time or since.

With the new module, bundling your application is as simple as putting all the files, including a __main__.py file, into a directory myapp and running:

$ python -m zipapp myapp
$ python myapp.pyz

The module implementation has been contributed by Paul Moore in bpo-23491 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23491].

Voir aussi

PEP 441 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0441/] -- Improving Python ZIP Application Support

Modules améliorés

argparse

The ArgumentParser class now allows disabling abbreviated usage of long options by setting Le paramètre allow_abbrev to False. (Contributed by Jonathan Paugh, Steven Bethard, paul j3 and Daniel Eriksson in bpo-14910 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14910].)

asyncio

Since the asyncio module is provisional, all changes introduced in Python 3.5 have also been backported to Python 3.4.x.

Notable changes in the asyncio module since Python 3.4.0:

New debugging APIs: loop.set_debug() and loop.get_debug() methods. (Contributed by Victor Stinner.)

The proactor event loop now supports SSL. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou and Victor Stinner in bpo-22560 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22560].)

A new loop.is_closed() method to check if the event loop is closed. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-21326 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21326].)

A new loop.create_task() to conveniently create and schedule a new Task for a coroutine. The create_task method is also used by all asyncio functions that wrap coroutines into tasks, such as asyncio.wait(), asyncio.gather(), etc. (Contributed by Victor Stinner.)

A new transport.get_write_buffer_limits() method to inquire for high- and low- water limits of the flow control. (Contributed by Victor Stinner.)

The async() function is deprecated in favor of ensure_future(). (Contributed by Yury Selivanov.)

New loop.set_task_factory() and loop.get_task_factory() methods to customize the task factory that loop.create_task() method uses. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov.)

New Queue.join() and Queue.task_done() queue methods. (Contributed by Victor Stinner.)

The JoinableQueue class was removed, in favor of the asyncio.Queue class. (Contributed by Victor Stinner.)

Nouveautés dans la 3.5.1 :

The ensure_future() function and all functions that use it, such as loop.run_until_complete(), now accept all kinds of awaitable objects. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov.)

New run_coroutine_threadsafe() function to submit coroutines to event loops from other threads. (Contributed by Vincent Michel.)

New Transport.is_closing() method to check if the transport is closing or closed. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov.)

The loop.create_server() method can now accept a list of hosts. (Contributed by Yann Sionneau.)

Updates in 3.5.2:

New loop.create_future() method to create Future objects. This allows alternative event loop implementations, such as uvloop [https://github.com/MagicStack/uvloop], to provide a faster asyncio.Future implementation. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov.)

New loop.get_exception_handler() method to get the current exception handler. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov.)

New StreamReader.readuntil() method to read data from the stream until a separator bytes sequence appears. (Contributed by Mark Korenberg.)

The loop.create_connection() and loop.create_server() methods are optimized to avoid calling the system getaddrinfo function if the address is already resolved. (Contributed by A. Jesse Jiryu Davis.)

The loop.sock_connect(sock, address) no longer requires the address to be resolved prior to the call. (Contributed by A. Jesse Jiryu Davis.)

bz2

The BZ2Decompressor.decompress method now accepts an optional max_length argument to limit the maximum size of decompressed data. (Contributed by Nikolaus Rath in bpo-15955 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15955].)

cgi

The FieldStorage class now supports the context manager protocol. (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-20289 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20289].)

cmath

A new function isclose() provides a way to test for approximate equality. (Contributed by Chris Barker and Tal Einat in bpo-24270 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24270].)

code

The InteractiveInterpreter.showtraceback() method now prints the full chained traceback, just like the interactive interpreter. (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-17442 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17442].)

collections

The OrderedDict class is now implemented in C, which makes it 4 to 100 times faster. (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-16991 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16991].)

OrderedDict.items(), OrderedDict.keys(), and OrderedDict.values() views now support reversed() iteration. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19505 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19505].)

The deque class now defines index(), insert(), and copy(), and supports the + and * operators. This allows deques to be recognized as a MutableSequence and improves their substitutability for lists. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-23704 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23704].)

Docstrings produced by namedtuple() can now be updated:

Point = namedtuple('Point', ['x', 'y'])
Point.__doc__ += ': Cartesian coordinate'
Point.x.__doc__ = 'abscissa'
Point.y.__doc__ = 'ordinate'

(Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-24064 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24064].)

The UserString class now implements the __getnewargs__(), __rmod__(), casefold(), format_map(), isprintable(), and maketrans() methods to match the corresponding methods of str. (Contributed by Joe Jevnik in bpo-22189 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22189].)

collections.abc

The Sequence.index() method now accepts start and stop arguments to match the corresponding methods of tuple, list, etc. (Contributed by Devin Jeanpierre in bpo-23086 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23086].)

A new Generator abstract base class. (Contributed by Stefan Behnel in bpo-24018 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24018].)

New Awaitable, Coroutine, AsyncIterator, and AsyncIterable abstract base classes. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-24184 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24184].)

For earlier Python versions, a backport of the new ABCs is available in an external PyPI package [https://pypi.org/project/backports_abc/].

compileall

A new compileall option, -j N, allows running N workers simultaneously to perform parallel bytecode compilation. The compile_dir() function has a corresponding workers parameter. (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-16104 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16104].)

Another new option, -r, allows controlling the maximum recursion level for subdirectories. (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-19628 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19628].)

The -q command line option can now be specified more than once, in which case all output, including errors, will be suppressed. The corresponding quiet parameter in compile_dir(), compile_file(), and compile_path() can now accept an integer value indicating the level of output suppression. (Contributed by Thomas Kluyver in bpo-21338 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21338].)

concurrent.futures

The Executor.map() method now accepts a chunksize argument to allow batching of tasks to improve performance when ProcessPoolExecutor() is used. (Contributed by Dan O'Reilly in bpo-11271 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11271].)

The number of workers in the ThreadPoolExecutor constructor is optional now. The default value is 5 times the number of CPUs. (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-21527 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21527].)

configparser

configparser now provides a way to customize the conversion of values by specifying a dictionary of converters in the ConfigParser constructor, or by defining them as methods in ConfigParser subclasses. Converters defined in a parser instance are inherited by its section proxies.

Exemple :

>>> import configparser
>>> conv = {}
>>> conv['list'] = lambda v: [e.strip() for e in v.split() if e.strip()]
>>> cfg = configparser.ConfigParser(converters=conv)
>>> cfg.read_string("""
... [s]
... list = a b c d e f g
... """)
>>> cfg.get('s', 'list')
'a b c d e f g'
>>> cfg.getlist('s', 'list')
['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g']
>>> section = cfg['s']
>>> section.getlist('list')
['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g']

(Contributed by Łukasz Langa in bpo-18159 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18159].)

contextlib

The new redirect_stderr() context manager (similar to redirect_stdout()) makes it easier for utility scripts to handle inflexible APIs that write their output to sys.stderr and don't provide any options to redirect it:

>>> import contextlib, io, logging
>>> f = io.StringIO()
>>> with contextlib.redirect_stderr(f):
...     logging.warning('warning')
...
>>> f.getvalue()
'WARNING:root:warning\n'

(Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-22389 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22389].)

csv

The writerow() method now supports arbitrary iterables, not just sequences. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23171 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23171].)

curses

The new update_lines_cols() function updates the LINES and COLS module variables. This is useful for detecting manual screen resizing. (Contributed by Arnon Yaari in bpo-4254 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4254].)

dbm

dumb.open always creates a new database when the flag has the value "n". (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-18039 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18039].)

difflib

The charset of HTML documents generated by HtmlDiff.make_file() can now be customized by using a new charset keyword-only argument. The default charset of HTML document changed from "ISO-8859-1" to "utf-8". (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-2052 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2052].)

The diff_bytes() function can now compare lists of byte strings. This fixes a regression from Python 2. (Contributed by Terry J. Reedy and Greg Ward in bpo-17445 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17445].)

distutils

Both the build and build_ext commands now accept a -j option to enable parallel building of extension modules. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-5309 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5309].)

The distutils module now supports xz compression, and can be enabled by passing xztar as an argument to bdist --format. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-16314 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16314].)

doctest

The DocTestSuite() function returns an empty unittest.TestSuite if module contains no docstrings, instead of raising ValueError. (Contributed by Glenn Jones in bpo-15916 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15916].)

email

A new policy option Policy.mangle_from_ controls whether or not lines that start with "From " in email bodies are prefixed with a ">" character by generators. The default is True for compat32 and False for all other policies. (Contributed by Milan Oberkirch in bpo-20098 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20098].)

A new Message.get_content_disposition() method provides easy access to a canonical value for the Content-Disposition header. (Contributed by Abhilash Raj in bpo-21083 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21083].)

A new policy option EmailPolicy.utf8 can be set to True to encode email headers using the UTF-8 charset instead of using encoded words. This allows Messages to be formatted according to RFC 6532 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6532.html] and used with an SMTP server that supports the RFC 6531 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6531.html] SMTPUTF8 extension. (Contributed by R. David Murray in bpo-24211 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24211].)

The mime.text.MIMEText constructor now accepts a charset.Charset instance. (Contributed by Claude Paroz and Berker Peksag in bpo-16324 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16324].)

enum

The Enum callable has a new parameter start to specify the initial number of enum values if only names are provided:

>>> Animal = enum.Enum('Animal', 'cat dog', start=10)
>>> Animal.cat
<Animal.cat: 10>
>>> Animal.dog
<Animal.dog: 11>

(Contributed by Ethan Furman in bpo-21706 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21706].)

faulthandler

The enable(), register(), dump_traceback() and dump_traceback_later() functions now accept file descriptors in addition to file-like objects. (Contributed by Wei Wu in bpo-23566 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23566].)

functools

Most of the lru_cache() machinery is now implemented in C, making it significantly faster. (Contributed by Matt Joiner, Alexey Kachayev, and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-14373 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14373].)

glob

The iglob() and glob() functions now support recursive search in subdirectories, using the "**" pattern. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-13968 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13968].)

gzip

The mode argument of the GzipFile constructor now accepts "x" to request exclusive creation. (Contributed by Tim Heaney in bpo-19222 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19222].)

heapq

Element comparison in merge() can now be customized by passing a key function in a new optional key keyword argument, and a new optional reverse keyword argument can be used to reverse element comparison:

>>> import heapq
>>> a = ['9', '777', '55555']
>>> b = ['88', '6666']
>>> list(heapq.merge(a, b, key=len))
['9', '88', '777', '6666', '55555']
>>> list(heapq.merge(reversed(a), reversed(b), key=len, reverse=True))
['55555', '6666', '777', '88', '9']

(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-13742 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13742].)

http

A new HTTPStatus enum that defines a set of HTTP status codes, reason phrases and long descriptions written in English. (Contributed by Demian Brecht in bpo-21793 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21793].)

http.client

HTTPConnection.getresponse() now raises a RemoteDisconnected exception when a remote server connection is closed unexpectedly. Additionally, if a ConnectionError (of which RemoteDisconnected is a subclass) is raised, the client socket is now closed automatically, and will reconnect on the next request:

import http.client
conn = http.client.HTTPConnection('www.python.org')
for retries in range(3):
    try:
        conn.request('GET', '/')
        resp = conn.getresponse()
    except http.client.RemoteDisconnected:
        pass

(Contributed by Martin Panter in bpo-3566 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3566].)

idlelib and IDLE

Since idlelib implements the IDLE shell and editor and is not intended for import by other programs, it gets improvements with every release. See Lib/idlelib/NEWS.txt for a cumulative list of changes since 3.4.0, as well as changes made in future 3.5.x releases. This file is also available from the IDLE Help ‣ About IDLE dialog.

imaplib

The IMAP4 class now supports the context manager protocol. When used in a with statement, the IMAP4 LOGOUT command will be called automatically at the end of the block. (Contributed by Tarek Ziadé and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-4972 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4972].)

The imaplib module now supports RFC 5161 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5161.html] (ENABLE Extension) and RFC 6855 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6855.html] (UTF-8 Support) via the IMAP4.enable() method. A new IMAP4.utf8_enabled attribute tracks whether or not RFC 6855 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6855.html] support is enabled. (Contributed by Milan Oberkirch, R. David Murray, and Maciej Szulik in bpo-21800 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21800].)

The imaplib module now automatically encodes non-ASCII string usernames and passwords using UTF-8, as recommended by the RFCs. (Contributed by Milan Oberkirch in bpo-21800 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21800].)

imghdr

The what() function now recognizes the OpenEXR [https://www.openexr.com] format (contributed by Martin Vignali and Claudiu Popa in bpo-20295 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20295]), and the WebP [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WebP] format (contributed by Fabrice Aneche and Claudiu Popa in bpo-20197 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20197].)

importlib

The util.LazyLoader class allows for lazy loading of modules in applications where startup time is important. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-17621 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17621].)

The abc.InspectLoader.source_to_code() method is now a static method. This makes it easier to initialize a module object with code compiled from a string by running exec(code, module.__dict__). (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-21156 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21156].)

The new util.module_from_spec() function is now the preferred way to create a new module. As opposed to creating a types.ModuleType instance directly, this new function will set the various import-controlled attributes based on the passed-in spec object. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-20383 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20383].)

inspect

Both the Signature and Parameter classes are now picklable and hashable. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-20726 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20726] and bpo-20334 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20334].)

A new BoundArguments.apply_defaults() method provides a way to set default values for missing arguments:

>>> def foo(a, b='ham', *args): pass
>>> ba = inspect.signature(foo).bind('spam')
>>> ba.apply_defaults()
>>> ba.arguments
OrderedDict([('a', 'spam'), ('b', 'ham'), ('args', ())])

(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-24190 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24190].)

A new class method Signature.from_callable() makes subclassing of Signature easier. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov and Eric Snow in bpo-17373 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17373].)

The signature() function now accepts a follow_wrapped optional keyword argument, which, when set to False, disables automatic following of __wrapped__ links. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-20691 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20691].)

A set of new functions to inspect coroutine functions and coroutine objects has been added: iscoroutine(), iscoroutinefunction(), isawaitable(), getcoroutinelocals(), and getcoroutinestate(). (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-24017 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24017] and bpo-24400 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24400].)

The stack(), trace(), getouterframes(), and getinnerframes() functions now return a list of named tuples. (Contributed by Daniel Shahaf in bpo-16808 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16808].)

io

A new BufferedIOBase.readinto1() method, that uses at most one call to the underlying raw stream's RawIOBase.read() or RawIOBase.readinto() methods. (Contributed by Nikolaus Rath in bpo-20578 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20578].)

ipaddress

Both the IPv4Network and IPv6Network classes now accept an (address, netmask) tuple argument, so as to easily construct network objects from existing addresses:

>>> import ipaddress
>>> ipaddress.IPv4Network(('127.0.0.0', 8))
IPv4Network('127.0.0.0/8')
>>> ipaddress.IPv4Network(('127.0.0.0', '255.0.0.0'))
IPv4Network('127.0.0.0/8')

(Contributed by Peter Moody and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-16531 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16531].)

A new reverse_pointer attribute for the IPv4Address and IPv6Address classes returns the name of the reverse DNS PTR record:

>>> import ipaddress
>>> addr = ipaddress.IPv4Address('127.0.0.1')
>>> addr.reverse_pointer
'1.0.0.127.in-addr.arpa'
>>> addr6 = ipaddress.IPv6Address('::1')
>>> addr6.reverse_pointer
'1.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.ip6.arpa'

(Contributed by Leon Weber in bpo-20480 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20480].)

json

The json.tool command line interface now preserves the order of keys in JSON objects passed in input. The new --sort-keys option can be used to sort the keys alphabetically. (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-21650 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21650].)

JSON decoder now raises JSONDecodeError instead of ValueError to provide better context information about the error. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19361 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19361].)

linecache

A new lazycache() function can be used to capture information about a non-file-based module to permit getting its lines later via getline(). This avoids doing I/O until a line is actually needed, without having to carry the module globals around indefinitely. (Contributed by Robert Collins in bpo-17911 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17911].)

locale

A new delocalize() function can be used to convert a string into a normalized number string, taking the LC_NUMERIC settings into account:

>>> import locale
>>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_NUMERIC, 'de_DE.UTF-8')
'de_DE.UTF-8'
>>> locale.delocalize('1.234,56')
'1234.56'
>>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_NUMERIC, 'en_US.UTF-8')
'en_US.UTF-8'
>>> locale.delocalize('1,234.56')
'1234.56'

(Contributed by Cédric Krier in bpo-13918 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13918].)

logging

All logging methods (Logger log(), exception(), critical(), debug(), etc.), now accept exception instances as an exc_info argument, in addition to boolean values and exception tuples:

>>> import logging
>>> try:
...     1/0
... except ZeroDivisionError as ex:
...     logging.error('exception', exc_info=ex)
ERROR:root:exception

(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-20537 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20537].)

The handlers.HTTPHandler class now accepts an optional ssl.SSLContext instance to configure SSL settings used in an HTTP connection. (Contributed by Alex Gaynor in bpo-22788 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22788].)

The handlers.QueueListener class now takes a respect_handler_level keyword argument which, if set to True, will pass messages to handlers taking handler levels into account. (Contributed by Vinay Sajip.)

lzma

The LZMADecompressor.decompress() method now accepts an optional max_length argument to limit the maximum size of decompressed data. (Contributed by Martin Panter in bpo-15955 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15955].)

math

Two new constants have been added to the math module: inf and nan. (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in bpo-23185 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23185].)

A new function isclose() provides a way to test for approximate equality. (Contributed by Chris Barker and Tal Einat in bpo-24270 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24270].)

A new gcd() function has been added. The fractions.gcd() function is now deprecated. (Contributed by Mark Dickinson and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22486 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22486].)

multiprocessing

sharedctypes.synchronized() objects now support the context manager protocol. (Contributed by Charles-François Natali in bpo-21565 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21565].)

operator

attrgetter(), itemgetter(), and methodcaller() objects now support pickling. (Contributed by Josh Rosenberg and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22955 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22955].)

New matmul() and imatmul() functions to perform matrix multiplication. (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-21176 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21176].)

os

The new scandir() function returning an iterator of DirEntry objects has been added. If possible, scandir() extracts file attributes while scanning a directory, removing the need to perform subsequent system calls to determine file type or attributes, which may significantly improve performance. (Contributed by Ben Hoyt with the help of Victor Stinner in bpo-22524 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22524].)

On Windows, a new stat_result.st_file_attributes attribute is now available. It corresponds to the dwFileAttributes member of the BY_HANDLE_FILE_INFORMATION structure returned by GetFileInformationByHandle(). (Contributed by Ben Hoyt in bpo-21719 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21719].)

The urandom() function now uses the getrandom() syscall on Linux 3.17 or newer, and getentropy() on OpenBSD 5.6 and newer, removing the need to use /dev/urandom and avoiding failures due to potential file descriptor exhaustion. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-22181 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22181].)

New get_blocking() and set_blocking() functions allow getting and setting a file descriptor's blocking mode (O_NONBLOCK.) (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-22054 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22054].)

The truncate() and ftruncate() functions are now supported on Windows. (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-23668 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23668].)

There is a new os.path.commonpath() function returning the longest common sub-path of each passed pathname. Unlike the os.path.commonprefix() function, it always returns a valid path:

>>> os.path.commonprefix(['/usr/lib', '/usr/local/lib'])
'/usr/l'

>>> os.path.commonpath(['/usr/lib', '/usr/local/lib'])
'/usr'

(Contributed by Rafik Draoui and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-10395 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10395].)

pathlib

The new Path.samefile() method can be used to check whether the path points to the same file as another path, which can be either another Path object, or a string:

>>> import pathlib
>>> p1 = pathlib.Path('/etc/hosts')
>>> p2 = pathlib.Path('/etc/../etc/hosts')
>>> p1.samefile(p2)
True

(Contributed by Vajrasky Kok and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-19775 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19775].)

The Path.mkdir() method now accepts a new optional exist_ok argument to match mkdir -p and os.makedirs() functionality. (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-21539 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21539].)

There is a new Path.expanduser() method to expand ~ and ~user prefixes. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Claudiu Popa in bpo-19776 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19776].)

A new Path.home() class method can be used to get a Path instance representing the user’s home directory. (Contributed by Victor Salgado and Mayank Tripathi in bpo-19777 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19777].)

New Path.write_text(), Path.read_text(), Path.write_bytes(), Path.read_bytes() methods to simplify read/write operations on files.

The following code snippet will create or rewrite existing file ~/spam42:

>>> import pathlib
>>> p = pathlib.Path('~/spam42')
>>> p.expanduser().write_text('ham')
3

(Contributed by Christopher Welborn in bpo-20218 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20218].)

pickle

Nested objects, such as unbound methods or nested classes, can now be pickled using pickle protocols older than protocol version 4. Protocol version 4 already supports these cases. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23611 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23611].)

poplib

A new POP3.utf8() command enables RFC 6856 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6856.html] (Internationalized Email) support, if a POP server supports it. (Contributed by Milan OberKirch in bpo-21804 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21804].)

re

References and conditional references to groups with fixed length are now allowed in lookbehind assertions:

>>> import re
>>> pat = re.compile(r'(a|b).(?<=\1)c')
>>> pat.match('aac')
<_sre.SRE_Match object; span=(0, 3), match='aac'>
>>> pat.match('bbc')
<_sre.SRE_Match object; span=(0, 3), match='bbc'>

(Contribution par Serhiy Storchaka; bpo-9179 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9179].)

The number of capturing groups in regular expressions is no longer limited to 100. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22437 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22437].)

The sub() and subn() functions now replace unmatched groups with empty strings instead of raising an exception. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-1519638 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1519638].)

The re.error exceptions have new attributes, msg, pattern, pos, lineno, and colno, that provide better context information about the error:

>>> re.compile("""
...     (?x)
...     .++
... """)
Traceback (most recent call last):
   ...
sre_constants.error: multiple repeat at position 16 (line 3, column 7)

(Contribution par Serhiy Storchaka; bpo-22578 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22578].)

readline

A new append_history_file() function can be used to append the specified number of trailing elements in history to the given file. (Contributed by Bruno Cauet in bpo-22940 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22940].)

selectors

The new DevpollSelector supports efficient /dev/poll polling on Solaris. (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola' in bpo-18931 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18931].)

shutils

The move() function now accepts a copy_function argument, allowing, for example, the copy() function to be used instead of the default copy2() if there is a need to ignore file metadata when moving. (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-19840 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19840].)

The make_archive() function now supports the xztar format. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-5411 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5411].)

signal

On Windows, the set_wakeup_fd() function now also supports socket handles. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-22018 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22018].)

Various SIG* constants in the signal module have been converted into Enums. This allows meaningful names to be printed during debugging, instead of integer "magic numbers". (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola' in bpo-21076 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21076].)

smtpd

Both the SMTPServer and SMTPChannel classes now accept a decode_data keyword argument to determine if the DATA portion of the SMTP transaction is decoded using the "utf-8" codec or is instead provided to the SMTPServer.process_message() method as a byte string. The default is True for backward compatibility reasons, but will change to False in Python 3.6. If decode_data is set to False, the process_message method must be prepared to accept keyword arguments. (Contributed by Maciej Szulik in bpo-19662 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19662].)

The SMTPServer class now advertises the 8BITMIME extension (RFC 6152 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6152.html]) if decode_data has been set True. If the client specifies BODY=8BITMIME on the MAIL command, it is passed to SMTPServer.process_message() via the mail_options keyword. (Contributed by Milan Oberkirch and R. David Murray in bpo-21795 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21795].)

The SMTPServer class now also supports the SMTPUTF8 extension (RFC 6531 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6531.html]: Internationalized Email). If the client specified SMTPUTF8 BODY=8BITMIME on the MAIL command, they are passed to SMTPServer.process_message() via the mail_options keyword. It is the responsibility of the process_message method to correctly handle the SMTPUTF8 data. (Contributed by Milan Oberkirch in bpo-21725 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21725].)

It is now possible to provide, directly or via name resolution, IPv6 addresses in the SMTPServer constructor, and have it successfully connect. (Contributed by Milan Oberkirch in bpo-14758 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14758].)

smtplib

A new SMTP.auth() method provides a convenient way to implement custom authentication mechanisms. (Contributed by Milan Oberkirch in bpo-15014 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15014].)

The SMTP.set_debuglevel() method now accepts an additional debuglevel (2), which enables timestamps in debug messages. (Contributed by Gavin Chappell and Maciej Szulik in bpo-16914 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16914].)

Both the SMTP.sendmail() and SMTP.send_message() methods now support RFC 6531 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6531.html] (SMTPUTF8). (Contributed by Milan Oberkirch and R. David Murray in bpo-22027 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22027].)

sndhdr

The what() and whathdr() functions now return a namedtuple(). (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-18615 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18615].)

socket

Functions with timeouts now use a monotonic clock, instead of a system clock. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-22043 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22043].)

A new socket.sendfile() method allows sending a file over a socket by using the high-performance os.sendfile() function on UNIX, resulting in uploads being from 2 to 3 times faster than when using plain socket.send(). (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola' in bpo-17552 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17552].)

The socket.sendall() method no longer resets the socket timeout every time bytes are received or sent. The socket timeout is now the maximum total duration to send all data. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23853 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23853].)

The backlog argument of the socket.listen() method is now optional. By default it is set to SOMAXCONN or to 128, whichever is less. (Contributed by Charles-François Natali in bpo-21455 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21455].)

ssl

Memory BIO Support

(Contributed by Geert Jansen in bpo-21965 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21965].)

The new SSLObject class has been added to provide SSL protocol support for cases when the network I/O capabilities of SSLSocket are not necessary or are suboptimal. SSLObject represents an SSL protocol instance, but does not implement any network I/O methods, and instead provides a memory buffer interface. The new MemoryBIO class can be used to pass data between Python and an SSL protocol instance.

The memory BIO SSL support is primarily intended to be used in frameworks implementing asynchronous I/O for which SSLSocket's readiness model ("select/poll") is inefficient.

A new SSLContext.wrap_bio() method can be used to create a new SSLObject instance.

Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support

(Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-20188 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20188].)

Where OpenSSL support is present, the ssl module now implements the Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation TLS extension as described in RFC 7301 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7301.html].

The new SSLContext.set_alpn_protocols() can be used to specify which protocols a socket should advertise during the TLS handshake.

The new SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol() returns the protocol that was selected during the TLS handshake. The HAS_ALPN flag indicates whether ALPN support is present.

Other Changes

There is a new SSLSocket.version() method to query the actual protocol version in use. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-20421 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20421].)

The SSLSocket class now implements a SSLSocket.sendfile() method. (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola' in bpo-17552 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17552].)

The SSLSocket.send() method now raises either the ssl.SSLWantReadError or ssl.SSLWantWriteError exception on a non-blocking socket if the operation would block. Previously, it would return 0. (Contributed by Nikolaus Rath in bpo-20951 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20951].)

The cert_time_to_seconds() function now interprets the input time as UTC and not as local time, per RFC 5280 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5280.html]. Additionally, the return value is always an int. (Contributed by Akira Li in bpo-19940 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19940].)

New SSLObject.shared_ciphers() and SSLSocket.shared_ciphers() methods return the list of ciphers sent by the client during the handshake. (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-23186 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23186].)

The SSLSocket.do_handshake(), SSLSocket.read(), SSLSocket.shutdown(), and SSLSocket.write() methods of the SSLSocket class no longer reset the socket timeout every time bytes are received or sent. The socket timeout is now the maximum total duration of the method. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23853 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23853].)

The match_hostname() function now supports matching of IP addresses. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-23239 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23239].)

sqlite3

The Row class now fully supports the sequence protocol, in particular reversed() iteration and slice indexing. (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-10203 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10203]; by Lucas Sinclair, Jessica McKellar, and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-13583 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13583].)

subprocess

The new run() function has been added. It runs the specified command and returns a CompletedProcess object, which describes a finished process. The new API is more consistent and is the recommended approach to invoking subprocesses in Python code that does not need to maintain compatibility with earlier Python versions. (Contributed by Thomas Kluyver in bpo-23342 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23342].)

Exemples :

>>> subprocess.run(["ls", "-l"])  # doesn't capture output
CompletedProcess(args=['ls', '-l'], returncode=0)

>>> subprocess.run("exit 1", shell=True, check=True)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
subprocess.CalledProcessError: Command 'exit 1' returned non-zero exit status 1

>>> subprocess.run(["ls", "-l", "/dev/null"], stdout=subprocess.PIPE)
CompletedProcess(args=['ls', '-l', '/dev/null'], returncode=0,
stdout=b'crw-rw-rw- 1 root root 1, 3 Jan 23 16:23 /dev/null\n')

sys

A new set_coroutine_wrapper() function allows setting a global hook that will be called whenever a coroutine object is created by an async def function. A corresponding get_coroutine_wrapper() can be used to obtain a currently set wrapper. Both functions are provisional, and are intended for debugging purposes only. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-24017 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24017].)

A new is_finalizing() function can be used to check if the Python interpreter is shutting down. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-22696 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22696].)

sysconfig

The name of the user scripts directory on Windows now includes the first two components of the Python version. (Contributed by Paul Moore in bpo-23437 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23437].)

tarfile

The mode argument of the open() function now accepts "x" to request exclusive creation. (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-21717 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21717].)

The TarFile.extractall() and TarFile.extract() methods now take a keyword argument numeric_owner. If set to True, the extracted files and directories will be owned by the numeric uid and gid from the tarfile. If set to False (the default, and the behavior in versions prior to 3.5), they will be owned by the named user and group in the tarfile. (Contributed by Michael Vogt and Eric Smith in bpo-23193 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23193].)

The TarFile.list() now accepts an optional members keyword argument that can be set to a subset of the list returned by TarFile.getmembers(). (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-21549 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21549].)

threading

Both the Lock.acquire() and RLock.acquire() methods now use a monotonic clock for timeout management. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-22043 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22043].)

time

The monotonic() function is now always available. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-22043 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22043].)

timeit

A new command line option -u or --unit=U can be used to specify the time unit for the timer output. Supported options are usec, msec, or sec. (Contributed by Julian Gindi in bpo-18983 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18983].)

The timeit() function has a new globals parameter for specifying the namespace in which the code will be running. (Contributed by Ben Roberts in bpo-2527 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2527].)

tkinter

The tkinter._fix module used for setting up the Tcl/Tk environment on Windows has been replaced by a private function in the _tkinter module which makes no permanent changes to environment variables. (Contributed by Zachary Ware in bpo-20035 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20035].)

traceback

New walk_stack() and walk_tb() functions to conveniently traverse frame and traceback objects. (Contributed by Robert Collins in bpo-17911 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17911].)

New lightweight classes: TracebackException, StackSummary, and FrameSummary. (Contributed by Robert Collins in bpo-17911 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17911].)

Both the print_tb() and print_stack() functions now support negative values for the limit argument. (Contributed by Dmitry Kazakov in bpo-22619 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22619].)

types

A new coroutine() function to transform generator and generator-like objects into awaitables. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-24017 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24017].)

A new type called CoroutineType, which is used for coroutine objects created by async def functions. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-24400 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24400].)

unicodedata

The unicodedata module now uses data from Unicode 8.0.0 [https://unicode.org/versions/Unicode8.0.0/].

unittest

The TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule() method now accepts a keyword-only argument pattern which is passed to load_tests as the third argument. Found packages are now checked for load_tests regardless of whether their path matches pattern, because it is impossible for a package name to match the default pattern. (Contributed by Robert Collins and Barry A. Warsaw in bpo-16662 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16662].)

Unittest discovery errors now are exposed in the TestLoader.errors attribute of the TestLoader instance. (Contributed by Robert Collins in bpo-19746 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19746].)

A new command line option --locals to show local variables in tracebacks. (Contributed by Robert Collins in bpo-22936 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22936].)

unittest.mock

The Mock class has the following improvements:

The class constructor has a new unsafe parameter, which causes mock objects to raise AttributeError on attribute names starting with "assert". (Contributed by Kushal Das in bpo-21238 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21238].)

A new Mock.assert_not_called() method to check if the mock object was called. (Contributed by Kushal Das in bpo-21262 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21262].)

The MagicMock class now supports __truediv__(), __divmod__() and __matmul__() operators. (Contributed by Johannes Baiter in bpo-20968 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20968], and Håkan Lövdahl in bpo-23581 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23581] and bpo-23568 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23568].)

It is no longer necessary to explicitly pass create=True to the patch() function when patching builtin names. (Contributed by Kushal Das in bpo-17660 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17660].)

urllib

A new request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth class allows HTTP Basic Authentication credentials to be managed so as to eliminate unnecessary 401 response handling, or to unconditionally send credentials on the first request in order to communicate with servers that return a 404 response instead of a 401 if the Authorization header is not sent. (Contributed by Matej Cepl in bpo-19494 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19494] and Akshit Khurana in bpo-7159 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7159].)

A new quote_via argument for the parse.urlencode() function provides a way to control the encoding of query parts if needed. (Contributed by Samwyse and Arnon Yaari in bpo-13866 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13866].)

The request.urlopen() function accepts an ssl.SSLContext object as a context argument, which will be used for the HTTPS connection. (Contributed by Alex Gaynor in bpo-22366 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22366].)

The parse.urljoin() was updated to use the RFC 3986 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html] semantics for the resolution of relative URLs, rather than RFC 1808 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1808.html] and RFC 2396 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2396.html]. (Contributed by Demian Brecht and Senthil Kumaran in bpo-22118 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22118].)

wsgiref

The headers argument of the headers.Headers class constructor is now optional. (Contributed by Pablo Torres Navarrete and SilentGhost in bpo-5800 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5800].)

xmlrpc

The client.ServerProxy class now supports the context manager protocol. (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-20627 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20627].)

The client.ServerProxy constructor now accepts an optional ssl.SSLContext instance. (Contributed by Alex Gaynor in bpo-22960 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22960].)

xml.sax

SAX parsers now support a character stream of the xmlreader.InputSource object. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-2175 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2175].)

parseString() now accepts a str instance. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-10590 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10590].)

zipfile

ZIP output can now be written to unseekable streams. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23252 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23252].)

The mode argument of ZipFile.open() method now accepts "x" to request exclusive creation. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-21717 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21717].)

Other module-level changes

Many functions in the mmap, ossaudiodev, socket, ssl, and codecs modules now accept writable bytes-like objects. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23001 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23001].)

Optimizations

The os.walk() function has been sped up by 3 to 5 times on POSIX systems, and by 7 to 20 times on Windows. This was done using the new os.scandir() function, which exposes file information from the underlying readdir or FindFirstFile/FindNextFile system calls. (Contributed by Ben Hoyt with help from Victor Stinner in bpo-23605 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23605].)

Construction of bytes(int) (filled by zero bytes) is faster and uses less memory for large objects. calloc() is used instead of malloc() to allocate memory for these objects. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-21233 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21233].)

Some operations on ipaddress IPv4Network and IPv6Network have been massively sped up, such as subnets(), supernet(), summarize_address_range(), collapse_addresses(). The speed up can range from 3 to 15 times. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou, Michel Albert, and Markus in bpo-21486 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21486], bpo-21487 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21487], bpo-20826 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20826], bpo-23266 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23266].)

Pickling of ipaddress objects was optimized to produce significantly smaller output. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23133 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23133].)

Many operations on io.BytesIO are now 50% to 100% faster. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-15381 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15381] and David Wilson in bpo-22003 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22003].)

The marshal.dumps() function is now faster: 65--85% with versions 3 and 4, 20--25% with versions 0 to 2 on typical data, and up to 5 times in best cases. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-20416 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20416] and bpo-23344 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23344].)

The UTF-32 encoder is now 3 to 7 times faster. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-15027 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15027].)

Regular expressions are now parsed up to 10% faster. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19380 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19380].)

The json.dumps() function was optimized to run with ensure_ascii=False as fast as with ensure_ascii=True. (Contributed by Naoki Inada in bpo-23206 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23206].)

The PyObject_IsInstance() and PyObject_IsSubclass() functions have been sped up in the common case that the second argument has type as its metaclass. (Contributed Georg Brandl by in bpo-22540 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22540].)

Method caching was slightly improved, yielding up to 5% performance improvement in some benchmarks. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-22847 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22847].)

Objects from the random module now use 50% less memory on 64-bit builds. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23488 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23488].)

The property() getter calls are up to 25% faster. (Contributed by Joe Jevnik in bpo-23910 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23910].)

Instantiation of fractions.Fraction is now up to 30% faster. (Contributed by Stefan Behnel in bpo-22464 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22464].)

String methods find(), rfind(), split(), partition() and the in string operator are now significantly faster for searching 1-character substrings. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23573 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23573].)

Build and C API Changes

New calloc functions were added:

PyMem_RawCalloc(),

PyMem_Calloc(),

PyObject_Calloc().

(Contribution par Victor Stinner; bpo-21233 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21233].)

New encoding/decoding helper functions:

Py_DecodeLocale() (replaced _Py_char2wchar()),

Py_EncodeLocale() (replaced _Py_wchar2char()).

(Contribution par Victor Stinner; bpo-18395 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18395].)

A new PyCodec_NameReplaceErrors() function to replace the unicode encode error with \N{...} escapes. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19676 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19676].)

A new PyErr_FormatV() function similar to PyErr_Format(), but accepts a va_list argument. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-18711 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18711].)

A new PyExc_RecursionError exception. (Contributed by Georg Brandl in bpo-19235 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19235].)

New PyModule_FromDefAndSpec(), PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2(), and PyModule_ExecDef() functions introduced by PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/] -- multi-phase extension module initialization. (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in bpo-24268 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24268].)

New PyNumber_MatrixMultiply() and PyNumber_InPlaceMatrixMultiply() functions to perform matrix multiplication. (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-21176 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21176]. See also PEP 465 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0465/] for details.)

The PyTypeObject.tp_finalize slot is now part of the stable ABI.

Windows builds now require Microsoft Visual C++ 14.0, which is available as part of Visual Studio 2015 [https://visualstudio.microsoft.com/en/vs/older-downloads/#visual-studio-2015-and-other-products].

Extension modules now include a platform information tag in their filename on some platforms (the tag is optional, and CPython will import extensions without it, although if the tag is present and mismatched, the extension won't be loaded):

On Linux, extension module filenames end with .cpython-<major><minor>m-<architecture>-<os>.pyd:

<major> is the major number of the Python version; for Python 3.5 this is 3.

<minor> is the minor number of the Python version; for Python 3.5 this is 5.

<architecture> is the hardware architecture the extension module was built to run on. It's most commonly either i386 for 32-bit Intel platforms or x86_64 for 64-bit Intel (and AMD) platforms.

<os> is always linux-gnu, except for extensions built to talk to the 32-bit ABI on 64-bit platforms, in which case it is linux-gnu32 (and <architecture> will be x86_64).

On Windows, extension module filenames end with <debug>.cp<major><minor>-<platform>.pyd:

<major> is the major number of the Python version; for Python 3.5 this is 3.

<minor> is the minor number of the Python version; for Python 3.5 this is 5.

<platform> is the platform the extension module was built for, either win32 for Win32, win_amd64 for Win64, win_ia64 for Windows Itanium 64, and win_arm for Windows on ARM.

If built in debug mode, <debug> will be _d, otherwise it will be blank.

On OS X platforms, extension module filenames now end with -darwin.so.

On all other platforms, extension module filenames are the same as they were with Python 3.4.

Obsolescence

Nouveaux mot-clefs

async and await are not recommended to be used as variable, class, function or module names. Introduced by PEP 492 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/] in Python 3.5, they will become proper keywords in Python 3.7.

Deprecated Python Behavior

Raising the StopIteration exception inside a generator will now generate a silent PendingDeprecationWarning, which will become a non-silent deprecation warning in Python 3.6 and will trigger a RuntimeError in Python 3.7. See PEP 479: Change StopIteration handling inside generators for details.

Unsupported Operating Systems

Windows XP is no longer supported by Microsoft, thus, per PEP 11 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/], CPython 3.5 is no longer officially supported on this OS.

Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods

The formatter module has now graduated to full deprecation and is still slated for removal in Python 3.6.

The asyncio.async() function is deprecated in favor of ensure_future().

The smtpd module has in the past always decoded the DATA portion of email messages using the utf-8 codec. This can now be controlled by the new decode_data keyword to SMTPServer. The default value is True, but this default is deprecated. Specify the decode_data keyword with an appropriate value to avoid the deprecation warning.

Directly assigning values to the key, value and coded_value of http.cookies.Morsel objects is deprecated. Use the set() method instead. In addition, the undocumented LegalChars parameter of set() is deprecated, and is now ignored.

Passing a format string as keyword argument format_string to the format() method of the string.Formatter class has been deprecated. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23671 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23671].)

The platform.dist() and platform.linux_distribution() functions are now deprecated. Linux distributions use too many different ways of describing themselves, so the functionality is left to a package. (Contributed by Vajrasky Kok and Berker Peksag in bpo-1322 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1322].)

The previously undocumented from_function and from_builtin methods of inspect.Signature are deprecated. Use the new Signature.from_callable() method instead. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-24248 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24248].)

The inspect.getargspec() function is deprecated and scheduled to be removed in Python 3.6. (See bpo-20438 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20438] for details.)

The inspect getfullargspec(), getcallargs(), and formatargspec() functions are deprecated in favor of the inspect.signature() API. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-20438 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20438].)

getargvalues() and formatargvalues() functions were inadvertently marked as deprecated with the release of Python 3.5.0.

Use of re.LOCALE flag with str patterns or re.ASCII is now deprecated. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22407 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22407].)

Use of unrecognized special sequences consisting of '\' and an ASCII letter in regular expression patterns and replacement patterns now raises a deprecation warning and will be forbidden in Python 3.6. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23622 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23622].)

The undocumented and unofficial use_load_tests default argument of the unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule() method now is deprecated and ignored. (Contributed by Robert Collins and Barry A. Warsaw in bpo-16662 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16662].)

Retraits

API and Feature Removals

The following obsolete and previously deprecated APIs and features have been removed:

The __version__ attribute has been dropped from the email package. The email code hasn't been shipped separately from the stdlib for a long time, and the __version__ string was not updated in the last few releases.

The internal Netrc class in the ftplib module was deprecated in 3.4, and has now been removed. (Contributed by Matt Chaput in bpo-6623 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6623].)

The concept of .pyo files has been removed.

The JoinableQueue class in the provisional asyncio module was deprecated in 3.4.4 and is now removed. (Contributed by A. Jesse Jiryu Davis in bpo-23464 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23464].)

Portage vers Python 3.5

Cette section liste les changements mentionnés préalablement et d'autres améliorations qui peuvent demander des changements à votre code.

Changes in Python behavior

Due to an oversight, earlier Python versions erroneously accepted the following syntax:

f(1 for x in [1], *args)
f(1 for x in [1], **kwargs)

Python 3.5 now correctly raises a SyntaxError, as generator expressions must be put in parentheses if not a sole argument to a function.

Changements dans l'API Python

PEP 475 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/]: System calls are now retried when interrupted by a signal instead of raising InterruptedError if the Python signal handler does not raise an exception.

Before Python 3.5, a datetime.time object was considered to be false if it represented midnight in UTC. This behavior was considered obscure and error-prone and has been removed in Python 3.5. See bpo-13936 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13936] for full details.

The ssl.SSLSocket.send() method now raises either ssl.SSLWantReadError or ssl.SSLWantWriteError on a non-blocking socket if the operation would block. Previously, it would return 0. (Contributed by Nikolaus Rath in bpo-20951 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20951].)

The __name__ attribute of generators is now set from the function name, instead of being set from the code name. Use gen.gi_code.co_name to retrieve the code name. Generators also have a new __qualname__ attribute, the qualified name, which is now used for the representation of a generator (repr(gen)). (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-21205 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21205].)

The deprecated "strict" mode and argument of HTMLParser, HTMLParser.error(), and the HTMLParserError exception have been removed. (Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-15114 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15114].) The convert_charrefs argument of HTMLParser is now True by default. (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-21047 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21047].)

Although it is not formally part of the API, it is worth noting for porting purposes (ie: fixing tests) that error messages that were previously of the form "'sometype' does not support the buffer protocol" are now of the form "a bytes-like object is required, not 'sometype'". (Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-16518 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16518].)

If the current directory is set to a directory that no longer exists then FileNotFoundError will no longer be raised and instead find_spec() will return None without caching None in sys.path_importer_cache, which is different than the typical case (bpo-22834 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22834]).

HTTP status code and messages from http.client and http.server were refactored into a common HTTPStatus enum. The values in http.client and http.server remain available for backwards compatibility. (Contributed by Demian Brecht in bpo-21793 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21793].)

When an import loader defines exec_module() it is now expected to also define create_module() (raises a DeprecationWarning now, will be an error in Python 3.6). If the loader inherits from importlib.abc.Loader then there is nothing to do, else simply define create_module() to return None. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-23014 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23014].)

The re.split() function always ignored empty pattern matches, so the "x*" pattern worked the same as "x+", and the "\b" pattern never worked. Now re.split() raises a warning if the pattern could match an empty string. For compatibility, use patterns that never match an empty string (e.g. "x+" instead of "x*"). Patterns that could only match an empty string (such as "\b") now raise an error. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22818 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22818].)

The http.cookies.Morsel dict-like interface has been made self consistent: morsel comparison now takes the key and value into account, copy() now results in a Morsel instance rather than a dict, and update() will now raise an exception if any of the keys in the update dictionary are invalid. In addition, the undocumented LegalChars parameter of set() is deprecated and is now ignored. (Contributed by Demian Brecht in bpo-2211 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2211].)

PEP 488 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/] has removed .pyo files from Python and introduced the optional opt- tag in .pyc file names. The importlib.util.cache_from_source() has gained an optimization parameter to help control the opt- tag. Because of this, the debug_override parameter of the function is now deprecated. .pyo files are also no longer supported as a file argument to the Python interpreter and thus serve no purpose when distributed on their own (i.e. sourceless code distribution). Due to the fact that the magic number for bytecode has changed in Python 3.5, all old .pyo files from previous versions of Python are invalid regardless of this PEP.

The socket module now exports the CAN_RAW_FD_FRAMES constant on linux 3.6 and greater.

The ssl.cert_time_to_seconds() function now interprets the input time as UTC and not as local time, per RFC 5280 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5280.html]. Additionally, the return value is always an int. (Contributed by Akira Li in bpo-19940 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19940].)

The pygettext.py Tool now uses the standard +NNNN format for timezones in the POT-Creation-Date header.

The smtplib module now uses sys.stderr instead of the previous module-level stderr variable for debug output. If your (test) program depends on patching the module-level variable to capture the debug output, you will need to update it to capture sys.stderr instead.

The str.startswith() and str.endswith() methods no longer return True when finding the empty string and the indexes are completely out of range. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-24284 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24284].)

The inspect.getdoc() function now returns documentation strings inherited from base classes. Documentation strings no longer need to be duplicated if the inherited documentation is appropriate. To suppress an inherited string, an empty string must be specified (or the documentation may be filled in). This change affects the output of the pydoc module and the help() function. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-15582 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15582].)

Nested functools.partial() calls are now flattened. If you were relying on the previous behavior, you can now either add an attribute to a functools.partial() object or you can create a subclass of functools.partial(). (Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in bpo-7830 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7830].)

Changements dans l'API C

The undocumented format member of the (non-public) PyMemoryViewObject structure has been removed. All extensions relying on the relevant parts in memoryobject.h must be rebuilt.

The PyMemAllocator structure was renamed to PyMemAllocatorEx and a new calloc field was added.

Removed non-documented macro PyObject_REPR() which leaked references. Use format character %R in PyUnicode_FromFormat()-like functions to format the repr() of the object. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22453 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22453].)

Because the lack of the __module__ attribute breaks pickling and introspection, a deprecation warning is now raised for builtin types without the __module__ attribute. This will be an AttributeError in the future. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-20204 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20204].)

As part of the PEP 492 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/] implementation, the tp_reserved slot of PyTypeObject was replaced with a tp_as_async slot. Refer to Objets coroutines for new types, structures and functions.

Notable changes in Python 3.5.4

New make regen-all build target

To simplify cross-compilation, and to ensure that CPython can reliably be compiled without requiring an existing version of Python to already be available, the autotools-based build system no longer attempts to implicitly recompile generated files based on file modification times.

Instead, a new make regen-all command has been added to force regeneration of these files when desired (e.g. after an initial version of Python has already been built based on the pregenerated versions).

More selective regeneration targets are also defined - see Makefile.pre.in [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Makefile.pre.in] for details.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23404 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404].)

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.4.

Removal of make touch build target

The make touch build target previously used to request implicit regeneration of generated files by updating their modification times has been removed.

It has been replaced by the new make regen-all target.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23404 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404].)

Modifié dans la version 3.5.4.

Nouveautés de Python 3.4

Auteur:

R. David Murray <rdmurray@bitdance.com> (Editor)

This article explains the new features in Python 3.4, compared to 3.3. Python 3.4 was released on March 16, 2014. For full details, see the changelog [https://docs.python.org/3.4/whatsnew/changelog.html].

Voir aussi

PEP 429 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0429/] -- Python 3.4 Release Schedule

Summary -- Release Highlights

Nouvelles fonctionnalités de syntaxe :

No new syntax features were added in Python 3.4.

Other new features:

pip should always be available (PEP 453 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/]).

Newly created file descriptors are non-inheritable (PEP 446 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0446/]).

command line option for isolated mode (bpo-16499 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16499]).

improvements in the handling of codecs that are not text encodings (multiple issues).

A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System (PEP 451 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/]). (Affects importer authors.)

The marshal format has been made more compact and efficient (bpo-16475 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16475]).

Nouveaux modules de la bibliothèque :

asyncio: New provisional API for asynchronous IO (PEP 3156 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3156/]).

ensurepip: Bootstrapping the pip installer (PEP 453 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/]).

enum: Support for enumeration types (PEP 435 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0435/]).

pathlib: Object-oriented filesystem paths (PEP 428 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0428/]).

selectors: High-level and efficient I/O multiplexing, built upon the select module primitives (part of PEP 3156 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3156/]).

statistics: A basic numerically stable statistics library (PEP 450 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0450/]).

tracemalloc: Trace Python memory allocations (PEP 454 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0454/]).

Significantly improved library modules:

Single-dispatch generic functions in functools (PEP 443 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0443/]).

New pickle protocol 4 (PEP 3154 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3154/]).

multiprocessing now has an option to avoid using os.fork on Unix (bpo-8713 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8713]).

email has a new submodule, contentmanager, and a new Message subclass (EmailMessage) that simplify MIME handling (bpo-18891 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18891]).

The inspect and pydoc modules are now capable of correct introspection of a much wider variety of callable objects, which improves the output of the Python help() system.

The ipaddress module API has been declared stable

Security improvements:

Secure and interchangeable hash algorithm (PEP 456 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0456/]).

Make newly created file descriptors non-inheritable (PEP 446 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0446/]) to avoid leaking file descriptors to child processes.

New command line option for isolated mode, (bpo-16499 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16499]).

multiprocessing now has an option to avoid using os.fork on Unix. spawn and forkserver are more secure because they avoid sharing data with child processes.

multiprocessing child processes on Windows no longer inherit all of the parent's inheritable handles, only the necessary ones.

A new hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac() function provides the PKCS#5 password-based key derivation function 2 [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PBKDF2].

TLSv1.1 and TLSv1.2 support for ssl.

Retrieving certificates from the Windows system cert store support for ssl.

Server-side SNI (Server Name Indication) support for ssl.

The ssl.SSLContext class has a lot of improvements.

All modules in the standard library that support SSL now support server certificate verification, including hostname matching (ssl.match_hostname()) and CRLs (Certificate Revocation lists, see ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations()).

CPython implementation improvements:

Safe object finalization (PEP 442 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/]).

Leveraging PEP 442 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/], in most cases module globals are no longer set to None during finalization (bpo-18214 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18214]).

Configurable memory allocators (PEP 445 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0445/]).

Argument Clinic (PEP 436 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0436/]).

Please read on for a comprehensive list of user-facing changes, including many other smaller improvements, CPython optimizations, deprecations, and potential porting issues.

Nouvelles fonctionnalités

PEP 453: Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations

Bootstrapping pip By Default

The new ensurepip module (defined in PEP 453 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/]) provides a standard cross-platform mechanism to bootstrap the pip installer into Python installations and virtual environments. The version of pip included with Python 3.4.0 is pip 1.5.4, and future 3.4.x maintenance releases will update the bundled version to the latest version of pip that is available at the time of creating the release candidate.

By default, the commands pipX and pipX.Y will be installed on all platforms (where X.Y stands for the version of the Python installation), along with the pip Python package and its dependencies. On Windows and in virtual environments on all platforms, the unversioned pip command will also be installed. On other platforms, the system wide unversioned pip command typically refers to the separately installed Python 2 version.

The pyvenv command line utility and the venv module make use of the ensurepip module to make pip readily available in virtual environments. When using the command line utility, pip is installed by default, while when using the venv module API installation of pip must be requested explicitly.

For CPython source builds on POSIX systems, the make install and make altinstall commands bootstrap pip by default. This behaviour can be controlled through configure options, and overridden through Makefile options.

On Windows and Mac OS X, the CPython installers now default to installing pip along with CPython itself (users may opt out of installing it during the installation process). Window users will need to opt in to the automatic PATH modifications to have pip available from the command line by default, otherwise it can still be accessed through the Python launcher for Windows as py -m pip.

As discussed in the PEP [https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/#recommendations-for-downstream-distributors] platform packagers may choose not to install these commands by default, as long as, when invoked, they provide clear and simple directions on how to install them on that platform (usually using the system package manager).

Note

To avoid conflicts between parallel Python 2 and Python 3 installations, only the versioned pip3 and pip3.4 commands are bootstrapped by default when ensurepip is invoked directly - the --default-pip option is needed to also request the unversioned pip command. pyvenv and the Windows installer ensure that the unqualified pip command is made available in those environments, and pip can always be invoked via the -m switch rather than directly to avoid ambiguity on systems with multiple Python installations.

Documentation Changes

As part of this change, the Installation de modules Python and Distribuer des modules Python sections of the documentation have been completely redesigned as short getting started and FAQ documents. Most packaging documentation has now been moved out to the Python Packaging Authority maintained Python Packaging User Guide [https://packaging.python.org] and the documentation of the individual projects.

However, as this migration is currently still incomplete, the legacy versions of those guides remaining available as Building C and C++ Extensions with setuptools and Building C and C++ Extensions with setuptools.

Voir aussi

PEP 453 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/] -- Explicit bootstrapping of pip in Python installations

PEP written by Donald Stufft and Nick Coghlan, implemented by Donald Stufft, Nick Coghlan, Martin von Löwis and Ned Deily.

PEP 446: Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable

PEP 446 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0446/] makes newly created file descriptors non-inheritable. In general, this is the behavior an application will want: when launching a new process, having currently open files also open in the new process can lead to all sorts of hard to find bugs, and potentially to security issues.

However, there are occasions when inheritance is desired. To support these cases, the following new functions and methods are available:

os.get_inheritable(), os.set_inheritable()

os.get_handle_inheritable(), os.set_handle_inheritable()

socket.socket.get_inheritable(), socket.socket.set_inheritable()

Voir aussi

PEP 446 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0446/] -- Make newly created file descriptors non-inheritable

PEP written and implemented by Victor Stinner.

Improvements to Codec Handling

Since it was first introduced, the codecs module has always been intended to operate as a type-neutral dynamic encoding and decoding system. However, its close coupling with the Python text model, especially the type restricted convenience methods on the builtin str, bytes and bytearray types, has historically obscured that fact.

As a key step in clarifying the situation, the codecs.encode() and codecs.decode() convenience functions are now properly documented in Python 2.7, 3.3 and 3.4. These functions have existed in the codecs module (and have been covered by the regression test suite) since Python 2.4, but were previously only discoverable through runtime introspection.

Unlike the convenience methods on str, bytes and bytearray, the codecs convenience functions support arbitrary codecs in both Python 2 and Python 3, rather than being limited to Unicode text encodings (in Python 3) or basestring <-> basestring conversions (in Python 2).

In Python 3.4, the interpreter is able to identify the known non-text encodings provided in the standard library and direct users towards these general purpose convenience functions when appropriate:

>>> b"abcdef".decode("hex")
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
LookupError: 'hex' is not a text encoding; use codecs.decode() to handle arbitrary codecs

>>> "hello".encode("rot13")
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
LookupError: 'rot13' is not a text encoding; use codecs.encode() to handle arbitrary codecs

>>> open("foo.txt", encoding="hex")
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
LookupError: 'hex' is not a text encoding; use codecs.open() to handle arbitrary codecs

In a related change, whenever it is feasible without breaking backwards compatibility, exceptions raised during encoding and decoding operations are wrapped in a chained exception of the same type that mentions the name of the codec responsible for producing the error:

>>> import codecs

>>> codecs.decode(b"abcdefgh", "hex")
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "/usr/lib/python3.4/encodings/hex_codec.py", line 20, in hex_decode
    return (binascii.a2b_hex(input), len(input))
binascii.Error: Non-hexadecimal digit found

The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
binascii.Error: decoding with 'hex' codec failed (Error: Non-hexadecimal digit found)

>>> codecs.encode("hello", "bz2")
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "/usr/lib/python3.4/encodings/bz2_codec.py", line 17, in bz2_encode
    return (bz2.compress(input), len(input))
  File "/usr/lib/python3.4/bz2.py", line 498, in compress
    return comp.compress(data) + comp.flush()
TypeError: 'str' does not support the buffer interface

The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: encoding with 'bz2' codec failed (TypeError: 'str' does not support the buffer interface)

Finally, as the examples above show, these improvements have permitted the restoration of the convenience aliases for the non-Unicode codecs that were themselves restored in Python 3.2. This means that encoding binary data to and from its hexadecimal representation (for example) can now be written as:

>>> from codecs import encode, decode
>>> encode(b"hello", "hex")
b'68656c6c6f'
>>> decode(b"68656c6c6f", "hex")
b'hello'

The binary and text transforms provided in the standard library are detailed in Binary Transforms and Text Transforms.

(Contributed by Nick Coghlan in bpo-7475 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7475], bpo-17827 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17827], bpo-17828 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17828] and bpo-19619 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19619].)

PEP 451: A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System

PEP 451 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/] provides an encapsulation of the information about a module that the import machinery will use to load it (that is, a module specification). This helps simplify both the import implementation and several import-related APIs. The change is also a stepping stone for several future import-related improvements [https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2013-November/130111.html].

The public-facing changes from the PEP are entirely backward-compatible. Furthermore, they should be transparent to everyone but importer authors. Key finder and loader methods have been deprecated, but they will continue working. New importers should use the new methods described in the PEP. Existing importers should be updated to implement the new methods. See the Obsolescence section for a list of methods that should be replaced and their replacements.

Autres changements au langage

Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:

Unicode database updated to UCD version 6.3.

min() and max() now accept a default keyword-only argument that can be used to specify the value they return if the iterable they are evaluating has no elements. (Contributed by Julian Berman in bpo-18111 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18111].)

Module objects are now weakly referenceable.

Module __file__ attributes (and related values) should now always contain absolute paths by default, with the sole exception of __main__.__file__ when a script has been executed directly using a relative path. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-18416 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18416].)

All the UTF-* codecs (except UTF-7) now reject surrogates during both encoding and decoding unless the surrogatepass error handler is used, with the exception of the UTF-16 decoder (which accepts valid surrogate pairs) and the UTF-16 encoder (which produces them while encoding non-BMP characters). (Contributed by Victor Stinner, Kang-Hao (Kenny) Lu and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-12892 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12892].)

New German EBCDIC codec cp273. (Contributed by Michael Bierenfeld and Andrew Kuchling in bpo-1097797 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1097797].)

New Ukrainian codec cp1125. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19668 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19668].)

bytes.join() and bytearray.join() now accept arbitrary buffer objects as arguments. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-15958 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15958].)

The int constructor now accepts any object that has an __index__ method for its base argument. (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in bpo-16772 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16772].)

Frame objects now have a clear() method that clears all references to local variables from the frame. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-17934 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17934].)

memoryview is now registered as a Sequence, and supports the reversed() builtin. (Contributed by Nick Coghlan and Claudiu Popa in bpo-18690 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18690] and bpo-19078 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19078].)

Signatures reported by help() have been modified and improved in several cases as a result of the introduction of Argument Clinic and other changes to the inspect and pydoc modules.

__length_hint__() is now part of the formal language specification (see PEP 424 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0424/]). (Contributed by Armin Ronacher in bpo-16148 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16148].)

Nouveaux modules

asyncio

The new asyncio module (defined in PEP 3156 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3156/]) provides a standard pluggable event loop model for Python, providing solid asynchronous IO support in the standard library, and making it easier for other event loop implementations to interoperate with the standard library and each other.

For Python 3.4, this module is considered a provisional API.

Voir aussi

PEP 3156 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3156/] -- Asynchronous IO Support Rebooted: the "asyncio" Module

PEP written and implementation led by Guido van Rossum.

ensurepip

The new ensurepip module is the primary infrastructure for the PEP 453 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/] implementation. In the normal course of events end users will not need to interact with this module, but it can be used to manually bootstrap pip if the automated bootstrapping into an installation or virtual environment was declined.

ensurepip includes a bundled copy of pip, up-to-date as of the first release candidate of the release of CPython with which it ships (this applies to both maintenance releases and feature releases). ensurepip does not access the internet. If the installation has internet access, after ensurepip is run the bundled pip can be used to upgrade pip to a more recent release than the bundled one. (Note that such an upgraded version of pip is considered to be a separately installed package and will not be removed if Python is uninstalled.)

The module is named ensurepip because if called when pip is already installed, it does nothing. It also has an --upgrade option that will cause it to install the bundled copy of pip if the existing installed version of pip is older than the bundled copy.

enum

The new enum module (defined in PEP 435 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0435/]) provides a standard implementation of enumeration types, allowing other modules (such as socket) to provide more informative error messages and better debugging support by replacing opaque integer constants with backwards compatible enumeration values.

Voir aussi

PEP 435 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0435/] -- Adding an Enum type to the Python standard library

PEP written by Barry Warsaw, Eli Bendersky and Ethan Furman, implemented by Ethan Furman.

pathlib

The new pathlib module offers classes representing filesystem paths with semantics appropriate for different operating systems. Path classes are divided between pure paths, which provide purely computational operations without I/O, and concrete paths, which inherit from pure paths but also provide I/O operations.

For Python 3.4, this module is considered a provisional API.

Voir aussi

PEP 428 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0428/] -- The pathlib module -- object-oriented filesystem paths

PEP written and implemented by Antoine Pitrou.

selectors

The new selectors module (created as part of implementing PEP 3156 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3156/]) allows high-level and efficient I/O multiplexing, built upon the select module primitives.

statistics

The new statistics module (defined in PEP 450 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0450/]) offers some core statistics functionality directly in the standard library. This module supports calculation of the mean, median, mode, variance and standard deviation of a data series.

Voir aussi

PEP 450 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0450/] -- Adding A Statistics Module To The Standard Library

PEP written and implemented by Steven D'Aprano

tracemalloc

The new tracemalloc module (defined in PEP 454 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0454/]) is a debug tool to trace memory blocks allocated by Python. It provides the following information:

Trace where an object was allocated

Statistics on allocated memory blocks per filename and per line number: total size, number and average size of allocated memory blocks

Compute the differences between two snapshots to detect memory leaks

Voir aussi

PEP 454 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0454/] -- Add a new tracemalloc module to trace Python memory allocations

PEP written and implemented by Victor Stinner

Modules améliorés

abc

New function abc.get_cache_token() can be used to know when to invalidate caches that are affected by changes in the object graph. (Contributed by Łukasz Langa in bpo-16832 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16832].)

New class ABC has ABCMeta as its meta class. Using ABC as a base class has essentially the same effect as specifying metaclass=abc.ABCMeta, but is simpler to type and easier to read. (Contributed by Bruno Dupuis in bpo-16049 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16049].)

aifc

The getparams() method now returns a namedtuple rather than a plain tuple. (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-17818 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17818].)

aifc.open() now supports the context management protocol: when used in a with block, the close() method of the returned object will be called automatically at the end of the block. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchacha in bpo-16486 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16486].)

The writeframesraw() and writeframes() methods now accept any bytes-like object. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-8311 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8311].)

argparse

The FileType class now accepts encoding and errors arguments, which are passed through to open(). (Contributed by Lucas Maystre in bpo-11175 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11175].)

audioop

audioop now supports 24-bit samples. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-12866 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12866].)

New byteswap() function converts big-endian samples to little-endian and vice versa. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19641 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19641].)

All audioop functions now accept any bytes-like object. Strings are not accepted: they didn't work before, now they raise an error right away. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-16685 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16685].)

base64

The encoding and decoding functions in base64 now accept any bytes-like object in cases where it previously required a bytes or bytearray instance. (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in bpo-17839 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17839].)

New functions a85encode(), a85decode(), b85encode(), and b85decode() provide the ability to encode and decode binary data from and to Ascii85 and the git/mercurial Base85 formats, respectively. The a85 functions have options that can be used to make them compatible with the variants of the Ascii85 encoding, including the Adobe variant. (Contributed by Martin Morrison, the Mercurial project, Serhiy Storchaka, and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-17618 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17618].)

collections

The ChainMap.new_child() method now accepts an m argument specifying the child map to add to the chain. This allows an existing mapping and/or a custom mapping type to be used for the child. (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in bpo-16613 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16613].)

colorsys

The number of digits in the coefficients for the RGB --- YIQ conversions have been expanded so that they match the FCC NTSC versions. The change in results should be less than 1% and may better match results found elsewhere. (Contributed by Brian Landers and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-14323 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14323].)

contextlib

The new contextlib.suppress context manager helps to clarify the intent of code that deliberately suppresses exceptions from a single statement. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-15806 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15806] and Zero Piraeus in bpo-19266 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19266].)

The new contextlib.redirect_stdout() context manager makes it easier for utility scripts to handle inflexible APIs that write their output to sys.stdout and don't provide any options to redirect it. Using the context manager, the sys.stdout output can be redirected to any other stream or, in conjunction with io.StringIO, to a string. The latter can be especially useful, for example, to capture output from a function that was written to implement a command line interface. It is recommended only for utility scripts because it affects the global state of sys.stdout. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-15805 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15805].)

The contextlib documentation has also been updated to include a discussion of the differences between single use, reusable and reentrant context managers.

dbm

dbm.open() objects now support the context management protocol. When used in a with statement, the close method of the database object will be called automatically at the end of the block. (Contributed by Claudiu Popa and Nick Coghlan in bpo-19282 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19282].)

dis

Functions show_code(), dis(), distb(), and disassemble() now accept a keyword-only file argument that controls where they write their output.

The dis module is now built around an Instruction class that provides object oriented access to the details of each individual bytecode operation.

A new method, get_instructions(), provides an iterator that emits the Instruction stream for a given piece of Python code. Thus it is now possible to write a program that inspects and manipulates a bytecode object in ways different from those provided by the dis module itself. For example:

>>> import dis
>>> for instr in dis.get_instructions(lambda x: x + 1):
...     print(instr.opname)
LOAD_FAST
LOAD_CONST
BINARY_ADD
RETURN_VALUE

The various display tools in the dis module have been rewritten to use these new components.

In addition, a new application-friendly class Bytecode provides an object-oriented API for inspecting bytecode in both in human-readable form and for iterating over instructions. The Bytecode constructor takes the same arguments that get_instructions() does (plus an optional current_offset), and the resulting object can be iterated to produce Instruction objects. But it also has a dis method, equivalent to calling dis on the constructor argument, but returned as a multi-line string:

>>> bytecode = dis.Bytecode(lambda x: x + 1, current_offset=3)
>>> for instr in bytecode:
...     print('{} ({})'.format(instr.opname, instr.opcode))
LOAD_FAST (124)
LOAD_CONST (100)
BINARY_ADD (23)
RETURN_VALUE (83)
>>> bytecode.dis().splitlines()
['  1           0 LOAD_FAST                0 (x)',
 '      -->     3 LOAD_CONST               1 (1)',
 '              6 BINARY_ADD',
 '              7 RETURN_VALUE']

Bytecode also has a class method, from_traceback(), that provides the ability to manipulate a traceback (that is, print(Bytecode.from_traceback(tb).dis()) is equivalent to distb(tb)).

(Contributed by Nick Coghlan, Ryan Kelly and Thomas Kluyver in bpo-11816 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11816] and Claudiu Popa in bpo-17916 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17916].)

New function stack_effect() computes the effect on the Python stack of a given opcode and argument, information that is not otherwise available. (Contributed by Larry Hastings in bpo-19722 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19722].)

doctest

A new option flag, FAIL_FAST, halts test running as soon as the first failure is detected. (Contributed by R. David Murray and Daniel Urban in bpo-16522 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16522].)

The doctest command line interface now uses argparse, and has two new options, -o and -f. -o allows doctest options to be specified on the command line, and -f is a shorthand for -o FAIL_FAST (to parallel the similar option supported by the unittest CLI). (Contributed by R. David Murray in bpo-11390 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11390].)

doctest will now find doctests in extension module __doc__ strings. (Contributed by Zachary Ware in bpo-3158 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3158].)

email

as_string() now accepts a policy argument to override the default policy of the message when generating a string representation of it. This means that as_string can now be used in more circumstances, instead of having to create and use a generator in order to pass formatting parameters to its flatten method. (Contributed by R. David Murray in bpo-18600 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18600].)

New method as_bytes() added to produce a bytes representation of the message in a fashion similar to how as_string produces a string representation. It does not accept the maxheaderlen argument, but does accept the unixfrom and policy arguments. The Message __bytes__() method calls it, meaning that bytes(mymsg) will now produce the intuitive result: a bytes object containing the fully formatted message. (Contributed by R. David Murray in bpo-18600 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18600].)

The Message.set_param() message now accepts a replace keyword argument. When specified, the associated header will be updated without changing its location in the list of headers. For backward compatibility, the default is False. (Contributed by R. David Murray in bpo-18891 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18891].)

A pair of new subclasses of Message have been added (EmailMessage and MIMEPart), along with a new sub-module, contentmanager and a new policy attribute content_manager. All documentation is currently in the new module, which is being added as part of email's new provisional API. These classes provide a number of new methods that make extracting content from and inserting content into email messages much easier. For details, see the contentmanager documentation and the email: Exemples. These API additions complete the bulk of the work that was planned as part of the email6 project. The currently provisional API is scheduled to become final in Python 3.5 (possibly with a few minor additions in the area of error handling). (Contributed by R. David Murray in bpo-18891 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18891].)

filecmp

A new clear_cache() function provides the ability to clear the filecmp comparison cache, which uses os.stat() information to determine if the file has changed since the last compare. This can be used, for example, if the file might have been changed and re-checked in less time than the resolution of a particular filesystem's file modification time field. (Contributed by Mark Levitt in bpo-18149 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18149].)

New module attribute DEFAULT_IGNORES provides the list of directories that are used as the default value for the ignore parameter of the dircmp() function. (Contributed by Eli Bendersky in bpo-15442 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15442].)

functools

The new partialmethod() descriptor brings partial argument application to descriptors, just as partial() provides for normal callables. The new descriptor also makes it easier to get arbitrary callables (including partial() instances) to behave like normal instance methods when included in a class definition. (Contributed by Alon Horev and Nick Coghlan in bpo-4331 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4331].)

The new singledispatch() decorator brings support for single-dispatch generic functions to the Python standard library. Where object oriented programming focuses on grouping multiple operations on a common set of data into a class, a generic function focuses on grouping multiple implementations of an operation that allows it to work with different kinds of data.

Voir aussi

PEP 443 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0443/] -- Single-dispatch generic functions

PEP written and implemented by Łukasz Langa.

total_ordering() now supports a return value of NotImplemented from the underlying comparison function. (Contributed by Katie Miller in bpo-10042 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10042].)

A pure-python version of the partial() function is now in the stdlib; in CPython it is overridden by the C accelerated version, but it is available for other implementations to use. (Contributed by Brian Thorne in bpo-12428 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12428].)

gc

New function get_stats() returns a list of three per-generation dictionaries containing the collections statistics since interpreter startup. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-16351 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16351].)

glob

A new function escape() provides a way to escape special characters in a filename so that they do not become part of the globbing expansion but are instead matched literally. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-8402 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8402].)

hashlib

A new hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac() function provides the PKCS#5 password-based key derivation function 2 [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PBKDF2]. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-18582 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18582].)

The name attribute of hashlib hash objects is now a formally supported interface. It has always existed in CPython's hashlib (although it did not return lower case names for all supported hashes), but it was not a public interface and so some other Python implementations have not previously supported it. (Contributed by Jason R. Coombs in bpo-18532 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18532].)

hmac

hmac now accepts bytearray as well as bytes for the key argument to the new() function, and the msg parameter to both the new() function and the update() method now accepts any type supported by the hashlib module. (Contributed by Jonas Borgström in bpo-18240 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18240].)

The digestmod argument to the hmac.new() function may now be any hash digest name recognized by hashlib. In addition, the current behavior in which the value of digestmod defaults to MD5 is deprecated: in a future version of Python there will be no default value. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-17276 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17276].)

With the addition of block_size and name attributes (and the formal documentation of the digest_size attribute), the hmac module now conforms fully to the PEP 247 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0247/] API. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-18775 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18775].)

html

New function unescape() function converts HTML5 character references to the corresponding Unicode characters. (Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-2927 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2927].)

HTMLParser accepts a new keyword argument convert_charrefs that, when True, automatically converts all character references. For backward-compatibility, its value defaults to False, but it will change to True in a future version of Python, so you are invited to set it explicitly and update your code to use this new feature. (Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-13633 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13633].)

The strict argument of HTMLParser is now deprecated. (Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-15114 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15114].)

http

send_error() now accepts an optional additional explain parameter which can be used to provide an extended error description, overriding the hardcoded default if there is one. This extended error description will be formatted using the error_message_format attribute and sent as the body of the error response. (Contributed by Karl Cow in bpo-12921 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12921].)

The http.server command line interface now has a -b/--bind option that causes the server to listen on a specific address. (Contributed by Malte Swart in bpo-17764 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17764].)

idlelib and IDLE

Since idlelib implements the IDLE shell and editor and is not intended for import by other programs, it gets improvements with every release. See Lib/idlelib/NEWS.txt for a cumulative list of changes since 3.3.0, as well as changes made in future 3.4.x releases. This file is also available from the IDLE Help ‣ About IDLE dialog.

importlib

The InspectLoader ABC defines a new method, source_to_code() that accepts source data and a path and returns a code object. The default implementation is equivalent to compile(data, path, 'exec', dont_inherit=True). (Contributed by Eric Snow and Brett Cannon in bpo-15627 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15627].)

InspectLoader also now has a default implementation for the get_code() method. However, it will normally be desirable to override the default implementation for performance reasons. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-18072 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18072].)

The reload() function has been moved from imp to importlib as part of the imp module deprecation. (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-18193 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18193].)

importlib.util now has a MAGIC_NUMBER attribute providing access to the bytecode version number. This replaces the get_magic() function in the deprecated imp module. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-18192 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18192].)

New importlib.util functions cache_from_source() and source_from_cache() replace the same-named functions in the deprecated imp module. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-18194 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18194].)

The importlib bootstrap NamespaceLoader now conforms to the InspectLoader ABC, which means that runpy and python -m can now be used with namespace packages. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-18058 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18058].)

importlib.util has a new function decode_source() that decodes source from bytes using universal newline processing. This is useful for implementing InspectLoader.get_source() methods.

importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader now has a get_filename() method. This was inadvertently omitted in the original implementation. (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-19152 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19152].)

inspect

The inspect module now offers a basic command line interface to quickly display source code and other information for modules, classes and functions. (Contributed by Claudiu Popa and Nick Coghlan in bpo-18626 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18626].)

unwrap() makes it easy to unravel wrapper function chains created by functools.wraps() (and any other API that sets the __wrapped__ attribute on a wrapper function). (Contributed by Daniel Urban, Aaron Iles and Nick Coghlan in bpo-13266 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13266].)

As part of the implementation of the new enum module, the inspect module now has substantially better support for custom __dir__ methods and dynamic class attributes provided through metaclasses. (Contributed by Ethan Furman in bpo-18929 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18929] and bpo-19030 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19030].)

getfullargspec() and getargspec() now use the signature() API. This allows them to support a much broader range of callables, including those with __signature__ attributes, those with metadata provided by argument clinic, functools.partial() objects and more. Note that, unlike signature(), these functions still ignore __wrapped__ attributes, and report the already bound first argument for bound methods, so it is still necessary to update your code to use signature() directly if those features are desired. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-17481 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17481].)

signature() now supports duck types of CPython functions, which adds support for functions compiled with Cython. (Contributed by Stefan Behnel and Yury Selivanov in bpo-17159 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17159].)

ipaddress

ipaddress was added to the standard library in Python 3.3 as a provisional API. With the release of Python 3.4, this qualification has been removed: ipaddress is now considered a stable API, covered by the normal standard library requirements to maintain backwards compatibility.

A new is_global property is True if an address is globally routeable. (Contributed by Peter Moody in bpo-17400 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17400].)

logging

The TimedRotatingFileHandler has a new atTime parameter that can be used to specify the time of day when rollover should happen. (Contributed by Ronald Oussoren in bpo-9556 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9556].)

SocketHandler and DatagramHandler now support Unix domain sockets (by setting port to None). (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in commit ce46195b56a9.)

fileConfig() now accepts a configparser.RawConfigParser subclass instance for the fname parameter. This facilitates using a configuration file when logging configuration is just a part of the overall application configuration, or where the application modifies the configuration before passing it to fileConfig(). (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in bpo-16110 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16110].)

Logging configuration data received from a socket via the logging.config.listen() function can now be validated before being processed by supplying a verification function as the argument to the new verify keyword argument. (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in bpo-15452 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15452].)

marshal

The default marshal version has been bumped to 3. The code implementing the new version restores the Python2 behavior of recording only one copy of interned strings and preserving the interning on deserialization, and extends this "one copy" ability to any object type (including handling recursive references). This reduces both the size of .pyc files and the amount of memory a module occupies in memory when it is loaded from a .pyc (or .pyo) file. (Contributed by Kristján Valur Jónsson in bpo-16475 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16475], with additional speedups by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-19219 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19219].)

mmap

mmap objects are now weakly referenceable. (Contributed by Valerie Lambert in bpo-4885 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4885].)

multiprocessing

On Unix two new start methods, spawn and forkserver, have been added for starting processes using multiprocessing. These make the mixing of processes with threads more robust, and the spawn method matches the semantics that multiprocessing has always used on Windows. New function get_all_start_methods() reports all start methods available on the platform, get_start_method() reports the current start method, and set_start_method() sets the start method. (Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in bpo-8713 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8713].)

multiprocessing also now has the concept of a context, which determines how child processes are created. New function get_context() returns a context that uses a specified start method. It has the same API as the multiprocessing module itself, so you can use it to create Pools and other objects that will operate within that context. This allows a framework and an application or different parts of the same application to use multiprocessing without interfering with each other. (Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in bpo-18999 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18999].)

Except when using the old fork start method, child processes no longer inherit unneeded handles/file descriptors from their parents (part of bpo-8713 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8713]).

multiprocessing now relies on runpy (which implements the -m switch) to initialise __main__ appropriately in child processes when using the spawn or forkserver start methods. This resolves some edge cases where combining multiprocessing, the -m command line switch, and explicit relative imports could cause obscure failures in child processes. (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in bpo-19946 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19946].)

operator

New function length_hint() provides an implementation of the specification for how the __length_hint__() special method should be used, as part of the PEP 424 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0424/] formal specification of this language feature. (Contributed by Armin Ronacher in bpo-16148 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16148].)

There is now a pure-python version of the operator module available for reference and for use by alternate implementations of Python. (Contributed by Zachary Ware in bpo-16694 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16694].)

os

There are new functions to get and set the inheritable flag of a file descriptor (os.get_inheritable(), os.set_inheritable()) or a Windows handle (os.get_handle_inheritable(), os.set_handle_inheritable()).

New function cpu_count() reports the number of CPUs available on the platform on which Python is running (or None if the count can't be determined). The multiprocessing.cpu_count() function is now implemented in terms of this function). (Contributed by Trent Nelson, Yogesh Chaudhari, Victor Stinner, and Charles-François Natali in bpo-17914 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17914].)

os.path.samestat() is now available on the Windows platform (and the os.path.samefile() implementation is now shared between Unix and Windows). (Contributed by Brian Curtin in bpo-11939 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11939].)

os.path.ismount() now recognizes volumes mounted below a drive root on Windows. (Contributed by Tim Golden in bpo-9035 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9035].)

os.open() supports two new flags on platforms that provide them, O_PATH (un-opened file descriptor), and O_TMPFILE (unnamed temporary file; as of 3.4.0 release available only on Linux systems with a kernel version of 3.11 or newer that have uapi headers). (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-18673 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18673] and Benjamin Peterson, respectively.)

pdb

pdb has been enhanced to handle generators, yield, and yield from in a more useful fashion. This is especially helpful when debugging asyncio based programs. (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov and Xavier de Gaye in bpo-16596 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16596].)

The print command has been removed from pdb, restoring access to the Python print() function from the pdb command line. Python2's pdb did not have a print command; instead, entering print executed the print statement. In Python3 print was mistakenly made an alias for the pdb p command. p, however, prints the repr of its argument, not the str like the Python2 print command did. Worse, the Python3 pdb print command shadowed the Python3 print function, making it inaccessible at the pdb prompt. (Contributed by Connor Osborn in bpo-18764 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18764].)

pickle

pickle now supports (but does not use by default) a new pickle protocol, protocol 4. This new protocol addresses a number of issues that were present in previous protocols, such as the serialization of nested classes, very large strings and containers, and classes whose __new__() method takes keyword-only arguments. It also provides some efficiency improvements.

Voir aussi

PEP 3154 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3154/] -- Pickle protocol 4

PEP written by Antoine Pitrou and implemented by Alexandre Vassalotti.

plistlib

plistlib now has an API that is similar to the standard pattern for stdlib serialization protocols, with new load(), dump(), loads(), and dumps() functions. (The older API is now deprecated.) In addition to the already supported XML plist format (FMT_XML), it also now supports the binary plist format (FMT_BINARY). (Contributed by Ronald Oussoren and others in bpo-14455 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14455].)

poplib

Two new methods have been added to poplib: capa(), which returns the list of capabilities advertised by the POP server, and stls(), which switches a clear-text POP3 session into an encrypted POP3 session if the POP server supports it. (Contributed by Lorenzo Catucci in bpo-4473 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4473].)

pprint

The pprint module's PrettyPrinter class and its pformat(), and pprint() functions have a new option, compact, that controls how the output is formatted. Currently setting compact to True means that sequences will be printed with as many sequence elements as will fit within width on each (indented) line. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19132 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19132].)

Long strings are now wrapped using Python's normal line continuation syntax. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-17150 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17150].)

pty

pty.spawn() now returns the status value from os.waitpid() on the child process, instead of None. (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith.)

pydoc

The pydoc module is now based directly on the inspect.signature() introspection API, allowing it to provide signature information for a wider variety of callable objects. This change also means that __wrapped__ attributes are now taken into account when displaying help information. (Contributed by Larry Hastings in bpo-19674 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19674].)

The pydoc module no longer displays the self parameter for already bound methods. Instead, it aims to always display the exact current signature of the supplied callable. (Contributed by Larry Hastings in bpo-20710 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20710].)

In addition to the changes that have been made to pydoc directly, its handling of custom __dir__ methods and various descriptor behaviours has also been improved substantially by the underlying changes in the inspect module.

As the help() builtin is based on pydoc, the above changes also affect the behaviour of help().

re

New fullmatch() function and Pattern.fullmatch() method anchor the pattern at both ends of the string to match. This provides a way to be explicit about the goal of the match, which avoids a class of subtle bugs where $ characters get lost during code changes or the addition of alternatives to an existing regular expression. (Contributed by Matthew Barnett in bpo-16203 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16203].)

The repr of regex objects now includes the pattern and the flags; the repr of match objects now includes the start, end, and the part of the string that matched. (Contributed by Hugo Lopes Tavares and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-13592 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13592] and bpo-17087 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17087].)

resource

New prlimit() function, available on Linux platforms with a kernel version of 2.6.36 or later and glibc of 2.13 or later, provides the ability to query or set the resource limits for processes other than the one making the call. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-16595 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16595].)

On Linux kernel version 2.6.36 or later, there are also some new Linux specific constants: RLIMIT_MSGQUEUE, RLIMIT_NICE, RLIMIT_RTPRIO, RLIMIT_RTTIME, and RLIMIT_SIGPENDING. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-19324 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19324].)

On FreeBSD version 9 and later, there some new FreeBSD specific constants: RLIMIT_SBSIZE, RLIMIT_SWAP, and RLIMIT_NPTS. (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-19343 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19343].)

select

epoll objects now support the context management protocol. When used in a with statement, the close() method will be called automatically at the end of the block. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-16488 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16488].)

devpoll objects now have fileno() and close() methods, as well as a new attribute closed. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-18794 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18794].)

shelve

Shelf instances may now be used in with statements, and will be automatically closed at the end of the with block. (Contributed by Filip Gruszczyński in bpo-13896 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13896].)

shutils

copyfile() now raises a specific Error subclass, SameFileError, when the source and destination are the same file, which allows an application to take appropriate action on this specific error. (Contributed by Atsuo Ishimoto and Hynek Schlawack in bpo-1492704 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1492704].)

smtpd

The SMTPServer and SMTPChannel classes now accept a map keyword argument which, if specified, is passed in to asynchat.async_chat as its map argument. This allows an application to avoid affecting the global socket map. (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in bpo-11959 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11959].)

smtplib

SMTPException is now a subclass of OSError, which allows both socket level errors and SMTP protocol level errors to be caught in one try/except statement by code that only cares whether or not an error occurred. (Contributed by Ned Jackson Lovely in bpo-2118 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2118].)

socket

The socket module now supports the CAN_BCM protocol on platforms that support it. (Contributed by Brian Thorne in bpo-15359 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15359].)

Socket objects have new methods to get or set their inheritable flag, get_inheritable() and set_inheritable().

The socket.AF_* and socket.SOCK_* constants are now enumeration values using the new enum module. This allows meaningful names to be printed during debugging, instead of integer "magic numbers".

The AF_LINK constant is now available on BSD and OSX.

inet_pton() and inet_ntop() are now supported on Windows. (Contributed by Atsuo Ishimoto in bpo-7171 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7171].)

sqlite3

A new boolean parameter to the connect() function, uri, can be used to indicate that the database parameter is a uri (see the SQLite URI documentation [https://www.sqlite.org/uri.html]). (Contributed by poq in bpo-13773 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13773].)

ssl

PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1 and PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2 (TLSv1.1 and TLSv1.2 support) have been added; support for these protocols is only available if Python is linked with OpenSSL 1.0.1 or later. (Contributed by Michele Orrù and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-16692 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16692].)

New function create_default_context() provides a standard way to obtain an SSLContext whose settings are intended to be a reasonable balance between compatibility and security. These settings are more stringent than the defaults provided by the SSLContext constructor, and may be adjusted in the future, without prior deprecation, if best-practice security requirements change. The new recommended best practice for using stdlib libraries that support SSL is to use create_default_context() to obtain an SSLContext object, modify it if needed, and then pass it as the context argument of the appropriate stdlib API. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-19689 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19689].)

SSLContext method load_verify_locations() accepts a new optional argument cadata, which can be used to provide PEM or DER encoded certificates directly via strings or bytes, respectively. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-18138 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18138].)

New function get_default_verify_paths() returns a named tuple of the paths and environment variables that the set_default_verify_paths() method uses to set OpenSSL's default cafile and capath. This can be an aid in debugging default verification issues. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-18143 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18143].)

SSLContext has a new method, cert_store_stats(), that reports the number of loaded X.509 certs, X.509 CA certs, and certificate revocation lists (crls), as well as a get_ca_certs() method that returns a list of the loaded CA certificates. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-18147 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18147].)

If OpenSSL 0.9.8 or later is available, SSLContext has a new attribute verify_flags that can be used to control the certificate verification process by setting it to some combination of the new constants VERIFY_DEFAULT, VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_LEAF, VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_CHAIN, or VERIFY_X509_STRICT. OpenSSL does not do any CRL verification by default. (Contributed by Christien Heimes in bpo-8813 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8813].)

New SSLContext method load_default_certs() loads a set of default "certificate authority" (CA) certificates from default locations, which vary according to the platform. It can be used to load both TLS web server authentication certificates (purpose=SERVER_AUTH) for a client to use to verify a server, and certificates for a server to use in verifying client certificates (purpose=CLIENT_AUTH). (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-19292 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19292].)

Two new windows-only functions, enum_certificates() and enum_crls() provide the ability to retrieve certificates, certificate information, and CRLs from the Windows cert store. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-17134 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17134].)

Support for server-side SNI (Server Name Indication) using the new ssl.SSLContext.set_servername_callback() method. (Contributed by Daniel Black in bpo-8109 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8109].)

The dictionary returned by SSLSocket.getpeercert() contains additional X509v3 extension items: crlDistributionPoints, calIssuers, and OCSP URIs. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-18379 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18379].)

stat

The stat module is now backed by a C implementation in _stat. A C implementation is required as most of the values aren't standardized and are platform-dependent. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-11016 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11016].)

The module supports new ST_MODE flags, S_IFDOOR, S_IFPORT, and S_IFWHT. (Contributed by Christian Hiemes in bpo-11016 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11016].)

struct

New function iter_unpack and a new struct.Struct.iter_unpack() method on compiled formats provide streamed unpacking of a buffer containing repeated instances of a given format of data. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-17804 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17804].)

subprocess

check_output() now accepts an input argument that can be used to provide the contents of stdin for the command that is run. (Contributed by Zack Weinberg in bpo-16624 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16624].)

getoutput() and getstatusoutput() now work on Windows. This change was actually inadvertently made in 3.3.4. (Contributed by Tim Golden in bpo-10197 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10197].)

sunau

The getparams() method now returns a namedtuple rather than a plain tuple. (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-18901 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18901].)

sunau.open() now supports the context management protocol: when used in a with block, the close method of the returned object will be called automatically at the end of the block. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-18878 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18878].)

AU_write.setsampwidth() now supports 24 bit samples, thus adding support for writing 24 sample using the module. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19261 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19261].)

The writeframesraw() and writeframes() methods now accept any bytes-like object. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-8311 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8311].)

sys

New function sys.getallocatedblocks() returns the current number of blocks allocated by the interpreter. (In CPython with the default --with-pymalloc setting, this is allocations made through the PyObject_Malloc() API.) This can be useful for tracking memory leaks, especially if automated via a test suite. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-13390 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13390].)

When the Python interpreter starts in interactive mode, it checks for an __interactivehook__ attribute on the sys module. If the attribute exists, its value is called with no arguments just before interactive mode is started. The check is made after the PYTHONSTARTUP file is read, so it can be set there. The site module sets it to a function that enables tab completion and history saving (in ~/.python-history) if the platform supports readline. If you do not want this (new) behavior, you can override it in PYTHONSTARTUP, sitecustomize, or usercustomize by deleting this attribute from sys (or setting it to some other callable). (Contributed by Éric Araujo and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-5845 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5845].)

tarfile

The tarfile module now supports a simple Interface en ligne de commande when called as a script directly or via -m. This can be used to create and extract tarfile archives. (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-13477 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13477].)

textwrap

The TextWrapper class has two new attributes/constructor arguments: max_lines, which limits the number of lines in the output, and placeholder, which is a string that will appear at the end of the output if it has been truncated because of max_lines. Building on these capabilities, a new convenience function shorten() collapses all of the whitespace in the input to single spaces and produces a single line of a given width that ends with the placeholder (by default, [...]). (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-18585 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18585] and bpo-18725 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18725].)

threading

The Thread object representing the main thread can be obtained from the new main_thread() function. In normal conditions this will be the thread from which the Python interpreter was started. (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-18882 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18882].)

traceback

A new traceback.clear_frames() function takes a traceback object and clears the local variables in all of the frames it references, reducing the amount of memory consumed. (Contributed by Andrew Kuchling in bpo-1565525 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1565525].)

types

A new DynamicClassAttribute() descriptor provides a way to define an attribute that acts normally when looked up through an instance object, but which is routed to the class __getattr__ when looked up through the class. This allows one to have properties active on a class, and have virtual attributes on the class with the same name (see enum for an example). (Contributed by Ethan Furman in bpo-19030 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19030].)

urllib

urllib.request now supports data: URLs via the DataHandler class. (Contributed by Mathias Panzenböck in bpo-16423 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16423].)

The http method that will be used by a Request class can now be specified by setting a method class attribute on the subclass. (Contributed by Jason R Coombs in bpo-18978 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18978].)

Request objects are now reusable: if the full_url or data attributes are modified, all relevant internal properties are updated. This means, for example, that it is now possible to use the same Request object in more than one OpenerDirector.open() call with different data arguments, or to modify a Request's url rather than recomputing it from scratch. There is also a new remove_header() method that can be used to remove headers from a Request. (Contributed by Alexey Kachayev in bpo-16464 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16464], Daniel Wozniak in bpo-17485 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17485], and Damien Brecht and Senthil Kumaran in bpo-17272 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17272].)

HTTPError objects now have a headers attribute that provides access to the HTTP response headers associated with the error. (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-15701 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15701].)

unittest

The TestCase class has a new method, subTest(), that produces a context manager whose with block becomes a "sub-test". This context manager allows a test method to dynamically generate subtests by, say, calling the subTest context manager inside a loop. A single test method can thereby produce an indefinite number of separately identified and separately counted tests, all of which will run even if one or more of them fail. For example:

class NumbersTest(unittest.TestCase):
    def test_even(self):
        for i in range(6):
            with self.subTest(i=i):
                self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0)

will result in six subtests, each identified in the unittest verbose output with a label consisting of the variable name i and a particular value for that variable (i=0, i=1, etc). See Distinguer les itérations de test à l'aide de sous-tests for the full version of this example. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-16997 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16997].)

unittest.main() now accepts an iterable of test names for defaultTest, where previously it only accepted a single test name as a string. (Contributed by Jyrki Pulliainen in bpo-15132 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15132].)

If SkipTest is raised during test discovery (that is, at the module level in the test file), it is now reported as a skip instead of an error. (Contributed by Zach Ware in bpo-16935 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16935].)

discover() now sorts the discovered files to provide consistent test ordering. (Contributed by Martin Melin and Jeff Ramnani in bpo-16709 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16709].)

TestSuite now drops references to tests as soon as the test has been run, if the test is successful. On Python interpreters that do garbage collection, this allows the tests to be garbage collected if nothing else is holding a reference to the test. It is possible to override this behavior by creating a TestSuite subclass that defines a custom _removeTestAtIndex method. (Contributed by Tom Wardill, Matt McClure, and Andrew Svetlov in bpo-11798 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11798].)

A new test assertion context-manager, assertLogs(), will ensure that a given block of code emits a log message using the logging module. By default the message can come from any logger and have a priority of INFO or higher, but both the logger name and an alternative minimum logging level may be specified. The object returned by the context manager can be queried for the LogRecords and/or formatted messages that were logged. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-18937 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18937].)

Test discovery now works with namespace packages (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-17457 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17457].)

unittest.mock objects now inspect their specification signatures when matching calls, which means an argument can now be matched by either position or name, instead of only by position. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-17015 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17015].)

mock_open() objects now have readline and readlines methods. (Contributed by Toshio Kuratomi in bpo-17467 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17467].)

venv

venv now includes activation scripts for the csh and fish shells. (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-15417 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15417].)

EnvBuilder and the create() convenience function take a new keyword argument with_pip, which defaults to False, that controls whether or not EnvBuilder ensures that pip is installed in the virtual environment. (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in bpo-19552 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19552] as part of the PEP 453 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/] implementation.)

wave

The getparams() method now returns a namedtuple rather than a plain tuple. (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-17487 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17487].)

wave.open() now supports the context management protocol. (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-17616 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17616].)

wave can now write output to unseekable files. (Contributed by David Jones, Guilherme Polo, and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-5202 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5202].)

The writeframesraw() and writeframes() methods now accept any bytes-like object. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-8311 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8311].)

weakref

New WeakMethod class simulates weak references to bound methods. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-14631 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14631].)

New finalize class makes it possible to register a callback to be invoked when an object is garbage collected, without needing to carefully manage the lifecycle of the weak reference itself. (Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in bpo-15528 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15528].)

The callback, if any, associated with a ref is now exposed via the __callback__ attribute. (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in bpo-17643 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17643].)

xml.etree

A new parser, XMLPullParser, allows a non-blocking applications to parse XML documents. An example can be seen at API à flux tiré. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-17741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17741].)

The xml.etree.ElementTree tostring() and tostringlist() functions, and the ElementTree write() method, now have a short_empty_elements keyword-only parameter providing control over whether elements with no content are written in abbreviated (<tag />) or expanded (<tag></tag>) form. (Contributed by Ariel Poliak and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-14377 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14377].)

zipfile

The writepy() method of the PyZipFile class has a new filterfunc option that can be used to control which directories and files are added to the archive. For example, this could be used to exclude test files from the archive. (Contributed by Christian Tismer in bpo-19274 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19274].)

The allowZip64 parameter to ZipFile and PyZipFile is now True by default. (Contributed by William Mallard in bpo-17201 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17201].)

CPython Implementation Changes

PEP 445: Customization of CPython Memory Allocators

PEP 445 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0445/] adds new C level interfaces to customize memory allocation in the CPython interpreter.

Voir aussi

PEP 445 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0445/] -- Add new APIs to customize Python memory allocators

PEP written and implemented by Victor Stinner.

PEP 442: Safe Object Finalization

PEP 442 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/] removes the current limitations and quirks of object finalization in CPython. With it, objects with __del__() methods, as well as generators with finally clauses, can be finalized when they are part of a reference cycle.

As part of this change, module globals are no longer forcibly set to None during interpreter shutdown in most cases, instead relying on the normal operation of the cyclic garbage collector. This avoids a whole class of interpreter-shutdown-time errors, usually involving __del__ methods, that have plagued Python since the cyclic GC was first introduced.

Voir aussi

PEP 442 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/] -- Safe object finalization

PEP written and implemented by Antoine Pitrou.

PEP 456: Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm

PEP 456 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0456/] follows up on earlier security fix work done on Python's hash algorithm to address certain DOS attacks to which public facing APIs backed by dictionary lookups may be subject. (See bpo-14621 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14621] for the start of the current round of improvements.) The PEP unifies CPython's hash code to make it easier for a packager to substitute a different hash algorithm, and switches Python's default implementation to a SipHash implementation on platforms that have a 64 bit data type. Any performance differences in comparison with the older FNV algorithm are trivial.

The PEP adds additional fields to the sys.hash_info named tuple to describe the hash algorithm in use by the currently executing binary. Otherwise, the PEP does not alter any existing CPython APIs.

PEP 436: Argument Clinic

"Argument Clinic" (PEP 436 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0436/]) is now part of the CPython build process and can be used to simplify the process of defining and maintaining accurate signatures for builtins and standard library extension modules implemented in C.

Some standard library extension modules have been converted to use Argument Clinic in Python 3.4, and pydoc and inspect have been updated accordingly.

It is expected that signature metadata for programmatic introspection will be added to additional callables implemented in C as part of Python 3.4 maintenance releases.

Note

The Argument Clinic PEP is not fully up to date with the state of the implementation. This has been deemed acceptable by the release manager and core development team in this case, as Argument Clinic will not be made available as a public API for third party use in Python 3.4.

Voir aussi

PEP 436 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0436/] -- The Argument Clinic DSL

PEP written and implemented by Larry Hastings.

Other Build and C API Changes

The new PyType_GetSlot() function has been added to the stable ABI, allowing retrieval of function pointers from named type slots when using the limited API. (Contributed by Martin von Löwis in bpo-17162 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17162].)

The new Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding() pre-initialization API allows applications embedding the CPython interpreter to reliably force a particular encoding and error handler for the standard streams. (Contributed by Bastien Montagne and Nick Coghlan in bpo-16129 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16129].)

Most Python C APIs that don't mutate string arguments are now correctly marked as accepting const char * rather than char *. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-1772673 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1772673].)

A new shell version of python-config can be used even when a python interpreter is not available (for example, in cross compilation scenarios).

PyUnicode_FromFormat() now supports width and precision specifications for %s, %A, %U, %V, %S, and %R. (Contributed by Ysj Ray and Victor Stinner in bpo-7330 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7330].)

New function PyStructSequence_InitType2() supplements the existing PyStructSequence_InitType() function. The difference is that it returns 0 on success and -1 on failure.

The CPython source can now be compiled using the address sanity checking features of recent versions of GCC and clang: the false alarms in the small object allocator have been silenced. (Contributed by Dhiru Kholia in bpo-18596 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18596].)

The Windows build now uses Address Space Layout Randomization [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Address_space_layout_randomization] and Data Execution Prevention [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Execution_Prevention]. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-16632 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16632].)

New function PyObject_LengthHint() is the C API equivalent of operator.length_hint(). (Contributed by Armin Ronacher in bpo-16148 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16148].)

Autres Améliorations

The python command has a new option, -I, which causes it to run in "isolated mode", which means that sys.path contains neither the script's directory nor the user's site-packages directory, and all PYTHON* environment variables are ignored (it implies both -s and -E). Other restrictions may also be applied in the future, with the goal being to isolate the execution of a script from the user's environment. This is appropriate, for example, when Python is used to run a system script. On most POSIX systems it can and should be used in the #! line of system scripts. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-16499 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16499].)

Tab-completion is now enabled by default in the interactive interpreter on systems that support readline. History is also enabled by default, and is written to (and read from) the file ~/.python-history. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou and Éric Araujo in bpo-5845 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5845].)

Invoking the Python interpreter with --version now outputs the version to standard output instead of standard error (bpo-18338 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18338]). Similar changes were made to argparse (bpo-18920 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18920]) and other modules that have script-like invocation capabilities (bpo-18922 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18922]).

The CPython Windows installer now adds .py to the PATHEXT variable when extensions are registered, allowing users to run a python script at the windows command prompt by just typing its name without the .py extension. (Contributed by Paul Moore in bpo-18569 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18569].)

A new make target coverage-report [https://devguide.python.org/coverage/#measuring-coverage-of-c-code-with-gcov-and-lcov] will build python, run the test suite, and generate an HTML coverage report for the C codebase using gcov and lcov [https://github.com/linux-test-project/lcov].

The -R option to the python regression test suite now also checks for memory allocation leaks, using sys.getallocatedblocks(). (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-13390 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13390].)

python -m now works with namespace packages.

The stat module is now implemented in C, which means it gets the values for its constants from the C header files, instead of having the values hard-coded in the python module as was previously the case.

Loading multiple python modules from a single OS module (.so, .dll) now works correctly (previously it silently returned the first python module in the file). (Contributed by Václav Šmilauer in bpo-16421 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16421].)

A new opcode, LOAD_CLASSDEREF, has been added to fix a bug in the loading of free variables in class bodies that could be triggered by certain uses of __prepare__. (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-17853 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17853].)

A number of MemoryError-related crashes were identified and fixed by Victor Stinner using his PEP 445 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0445/]-based pyfailmalloc tool (bpo-18408 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18408], bpo-18520 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18520]).

The pyvenv command now accepts a --copies option to use copies rather than symlinks even on systems where symlinks are the default. (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in bpo-18807 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18807].)

The pyvenv command also accepts a --without-pip option to suppress the otherwise-automatic bootstrapping of pip into the virtual environment. (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in bpo-19552 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19552] as part of the PEP 453 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/] implementation.)

The encoding name is now optional in the value set for the PYTHONIOENCODING environment variable. This makes it possible to set just the error handler, without changing the default encoding. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-18818 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18818].)

The bz2, lzma, and gzip module open functions now support x (exclusive creation) mode. (Contributed by Tim Heaney and Vajrasky Kok in bpo-19201 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19201], bpo-19222 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19222], and bpo-19223 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19223].)

Significant Optimizations

The UTF-32 decoder is now 3x to 4x faster. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-14625 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14625].)

The cost of hash collisions for sets is now reduced. Each hash table probe now checks a series of consecutive, adjacent key/hash pairs before continuing to make random probes through the hash table. This exploits cache locality to make collision resolution less expensive. The collision resolution scheme can be described as a hybrid of linear probing and open addressing. The number of additional linear probes defaults to nine. This can be changed at compile-time by defining LINEAR_PROBES to be any value. Set LINEAR_PROBES=0 to turn-off linear probing entirely. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-18771 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18771].)

The interpreter starts about 30% faster. A couple of measures lead to the speedup. The interpreter loads fewer modules on startup, e.g. the re, collections and locale modules and their dependencies are no longer imported by default. The marshal module has been improved to load compiled Python code faster. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou, Christian Heimes and Victor Stinner in bpo-19219 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19219], bpo-19218 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19218], bpo-19209 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19209], bpo-19205 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19205] and bpo-9548 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9548].)

bz2.BZ2File is now as fast or faster than the Python2 version for most cases. lzma.LZMAFile has also been optimized. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Nadeem Vawda in bpo-16034 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16034].)

random.getrandbits() is 20%-40% faster for small integers (the most common use case). (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-16674 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16674].)

By taking advantage of the new storage format for strings, pickling of strings is now significantly faster. (Contributed by Victor Stinner and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-15596 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15596].)

A performance issue in io.FileIO.readall() has been solved. This particularly affects Windows, and significantly speeds up the case of piping significant amounts of data through subprocess. (Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in bpo-15758 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15758].)

html.escape() is now 10x faster. (Contributed by Matt Bryant in bpo-18020 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18020].)

On Windows, the native VirtualAlloc is now used instead of the CRT malloc in obmalloc. Artificial benchmarks show about a 3% memory savings.

os.urandom() now uses a lazily opened persistent file descriptor so as to avoid using many file descriptors when run in parallel from multiple threads. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-18756 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18756].)

Obsolescence

This section covers various APIs and other features that have been deprecated in Python 3.4, and will be removed in Python 3.5 or later. In most (but not all) cases, using the deprecated APIs will produce a DeprecationWarning when the interpreter is run with deprecation warnings enabled (for example, by using -Wd).

Deprecations in the Python API

As mentioned in PEP 451: A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System, a number of importlib methods and functions are deprecated: importlib.find_loader() is replaced by importlib.util.find_spec(); importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_module() is replaced by importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_spec(); importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module() is replaced by importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec(); importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_loader() and find_module() are replaced by importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec(); all of the xxxLoader ABC load_module methods (importlib.abc.Loader.load_module(), importlib.abc.InspectLoader.load_module(), importlib.abc.FileLoader.load_module(), importlib.abc.SourceLoader.load_module()) should no longer be implemented, instead loaders should implement an exec_module method (importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module(), importlib.abc.InspectLoader.exec_module() importlib.abc.SourceLoader.exec_module()) and let the import system take care of the rest; and importlib.abc.Loader.module_repr(), importlib.util.module_for_loader(), importlib.util.set_loader(), and importlib.util.set_package() are no longer needed because their functions are now handled automatically by the import system.

The imp module is pending deprecation. To keep compatibility with Python 2/3 code bases, the module's removal is currently not scheduled.

The formatter module is pending deprecation and is slated for removal in Python 3.6.

MD5 as the default digestmod for the hmac.new() function is deprecated. Python 3.6 will require an explicit digest name or constructor as digestmod argument.

The internal Netrc class in the ftplib module has been documented as deprecated in its docstring for quite some time. It now emits a DeprecationWarning and will be removed completely in Python 3.5.

The undocumented endtime argument to subprocess.Popen.wait() should not have been exposed and is hopefully not in use; it is deprecated and will mostly likely be removed in Python 3.5.

The strict argument of HTMLParser is deprecated.

The plistlib readPlist(), writePlist(), readPlistFromBytes(), and writePlistToBytes() functions are deprecated in favor of the corresponding new functions load(), dump(), loads(), and dumps(). Data() is deprecated in favor of just using the bytes constructor.

The sysconfig key SO is deprecated, it has been replaced by EXT_SUFFIX.

The U mode accepted by various open functions is deprecated. In Python3 it does not do anything useful, and should be replaced by appropriate uses of io.TextIOWrapper (if needed) and its newline argument.

The parser argument of xml.etree.ElementTree.iterparse() has been deprecated, as has the html argument of XMLParser(). To prepare for the removal of the latter, all arguments to XMLParser should be passed by keyword.

Fonctionnalités obsolètes

Running IDLE --- Python editor and shell with the -n flag (no subprocess) is deprecated. However, the feature will not be removed until bpo-18823 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18823] is resolved.

The site module adding a "site-python" directory to sys.path, if it exists, is deprecated (bpo-19375 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19375]).

Retraits

Operating Systems No Longer Supported

Support for the following operating systems has been removed from the source and build tools:

OS/2 (bpo-16135 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16135]).

Windows 2000 (changeset e52df05b496a).

Windows systems where COMSPEC points to command.com (bpo-14470 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14470]).

VMS (bpo-16136 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16136]).

API and Feature Removals

The following obsolete and previously deprecated APIs and features have been removed:

The unmaintained Misc/TextMate and Misc/vim directories have been removed (see the devguide [https://devguide.python.org] for suggestions on what to use instead).

The SO makefile macro is removed (it was replaced by the SHLIB_SUFFIX and EXT_SUFFIX macros) (bpo-16754 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16754]).

The PyThreadState.tick_counter field has been removed; its value has been meaningless since Python 3.2, when the "new GIL" was introduced (bpo-19199 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19199]).

PyLoader and PyPycLoader have been removed from importlib. (Contributed by Taras Lyapun in bpo-15641 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15641].)

The strict argument to HTTPConnection and HTTPSConnection has been removed. HTTP 0.9-style "Simple Responses" are no longer supported.

The deprecated urllib.request.Request getter and setter methods add_data, has_data, get_data, get_type, get_host, get_selector, set_proxy, get_origin_req_host, and is_unverifiable have been removed (use direct attribute access instead).

Support for loading the deprecated TYPE_INT64 has been removed from marshal. (Contributed by Dan Riti in bpo-15480 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15480].)

inspect.Signature: positional-only parameters are now required to have a valid name.

object.__format__() no longer accepts non-empty format strings, it now raises a TypeError instead. Using a non-empty string has been deprecated since Python 3.2. This change has been made to prevent a situation where previously working (but incorrect) code would start failing if an object gained a __format__ method, which means that your code may now raise a TypeError if you are using an 's' format code with objects that do not have a __format__ method that handles it. See bpo-7994 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7994] for background.

difflib.SequenceMatcher.isbjunk() and difflib.SequenceMatcher.isbpopular() were deprecated in 3.2, and have now been removed: use x in sm.bjunk and x in sm.bpopular, where sm is a SequenceMatcher object (bpo-13248 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13248]).

Code Cleanups

The unused and undocumented internal Scanner class has been removed from the pydoc module.

The private and effectively unused _gestalt module has been removed, along with the private platform functions _mac_ver_lookup, _mac_ver_gstalt, and _bcd2str, which would only have ever been called on badly broken OSX systems (see bpo-18393 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18393]).

The hardcoded copies of certain stat constants that were included in the tarfile module namespace have been removed.

Portage vers Python 3.4

Cette section liste les changements mentionnés préalablement et d'autres améliorations qui peuvent demander des changements à votre code.

Changes in 'python' Command Behavior

In a posix shell, setting the PATH environment variable to an empty value is equivalent to not setting it at all. However, setting PYTHONPATH to an empty value was not equivalent to not setting it at all: setting PYTHONPATH to an empty value was equivalent to setting it to ., which leads to confusion when reasoning by analogy to how PATH works. The behavior now conforms to the posix convention for PATH.

The [X refs, Y blocks] output of a debug (--with-pydebug) build of the CPython interpreter is now off by default. It can be re-enabled using the -X showrefcount option. (Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-17323 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17323].)

The python command and most stdlib scripts (as well as argparse) now output --version information to stdout instead of stderr (for issue list see Autres Améliorations above).

Changements dans l'API Python

The ABCs defined in importlib.abc now either raise the appropriate exception or return a default value instead of raising NotImplementedError blindly. This will only affect code calling super() and falling through all the way to the ABCs. For compatibility, catch both NotImplementedError or the appropriate exception as needed.

The module type now initializes the __package__ and __loader__ attributes to None by default. To determine if these attributes were set in a backwards-compatible fashion, use e.g. getattr(module, '__loader__', None) is not None. (bpo-17115 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17115].)

importlib.util.module_for_loader() now sets __loader__ and __package__ unconditionally to properly support reloading. If this is not desired then you will need to set these attributes manually. You can use importlib.util.module_to_load() for module management.

Import now resets relevant attributes (e.g. __name__, __loader__, __package__, __file__, __cached__) unconditionally when reloading. Note that this restores a pre-3.3 behavior in that it means a module is re-found when re-loaded (bpo-19413 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19413]).

Frozen packages no longer set __path__ to a list containing the package name, they now set it to an empty list. The previous behavior could cause the import system to do the wrong thing on submodule imports if there was also a directory with the same name as the frozen package. The correct way to determine if a module is a package or not is to use hasattr(module, '__path__') (bpo-18065 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18065]).

Frozen modules no longer define a __file__ attribute. It's semantically incorrect for frozen modules to set the attribute as they are not loaded from any explicit location. If you must know that a module comes from frozen code then you can see if the module's __spec__.location is set to 'frozen', check if the loader is a subclass of importlib.machinery.FrozenImporter, or if Python 2 compatibility is necessary you can use imp.is_frozen().

py_compile.compile() now raises FileExistsError if the file path it would write to is a symlink or a non-regular file. This is to act as a warning that import will overwrite those files with a regular file regardless of what type of file path they were originally.

importlib.abc.SourceLoader.get_source() no longer raises ImportError when the source code being loaded triggers a SyntaxError or UnicodeDecodeError. As ImportError is meant to be raised only when source code cannot be found but it should, it was felt to be over-reaching/overloading of that meaning when the source code is found but improperly structured. If you were catching ImportError before and wish to continue to ignore syntax or decoding issues, catch all three exceptions now.

functools.update_wrapper() and functools.wraps() now correctly set the __wrapped__ attribute to the function being wrapped, even if that function also had its __wrapped__ attribute set. This means __wrapped__ attributes now correctly link a stack of decorated functions rather than every __wrapped__ attribute in the chain referring to the innermost function. Introspection libraries that assumed the previous behaviour was intentional can use inspect.unwrap() to access the first function in the chain that has no __wrapped__ attribute.

inspect.getfullargspec() has been reimplemented on top of inspect.signature() and hence handles a much wider variety of callable objects than it did in the past. It is expected that additional builtin and extension module callables will gain signature metadata over the course of the Python 3.4 series. Code that assumes that inspect.getfullargspec() will fail on non-Python callables may need to be adjusted accordingly.

importlib.machinery.PathFinder now passes on the current working directory to objects in sys.path_hooks for the empty string. This results in sys.path_importer_cache never containing '', thus iterating through sys.path_importer_cache based on sys.path will not find all keys. A module's __file__ when imported in the current working directory will also now have an absolute path, including when using -m with the interpreter (except for __main__.__file__ when a script has been executed directly using a relative path) (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-18416 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18416]). is specified on the command-line) (bpo-18416 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18416]).

The removal of the strict argument to HTTPConnection and HTTPSConnection changes the meaning of the remaining arguments if you are specifying them positionally rather than by keyword. If you've been paying attention to deprecation warnings your code should already be specifying any additional arguments via keywords.

Strings between from __future__ import ... statements now always raise a SyntaxError. Previously if there was no leading docstring, an interstitial string would sometimes be ignored. This brings CPython into compliance with the language spec; Jython and PyPy already were. (bpo-17434 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17434]).

ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert() and ssl.SSLSocket.do_handshake() now raise an OSError with ENOTCONN when the SSLSocket is not connected, instead of the previous behavior of raising an AttributeError. In addition, getpeercert() will raise a ValueError if the handshake has not yet been done.

base64.b32decode() now raises a binascii.Error when the input string contains non-b32-alphabet characters, instead of a TypeError. This particular TypeError was missed when the other TypeErrors were converted. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-18011 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18011].) Note: this change was also inadvertently applied in Python 3.3.3.

The file attribute is now automatically closed when the creating cgi.FieldStorage instance is garbage collected. If you were pulling the file object out separately from the cgi.FieldStorage instance and not keeping the instance alive, then you should either store the entire cgi.FieldStorage instance or read the contents of the file before the cgi.FieldStorage instance is garbage collected.

Calling read or write on a closed SSL socket now raises an informative ValueError rather than the previous more mysterious AttributeError (bpo-9177 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9177]).

slice.indices() no longer produces an OverflowError for huge values. As a consequence of this fix, slice.indices() now raises a ValueError if given a negative length; previously it returned nonsense values (bpo-14794 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14794]).

The complex constructor, unlike the cmath functions, was incorrectly accepting float values if an object's __complex__ special method returned one. This now raises a TypeError. (bpo-16290 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16290].)

The int constructor in 3.2 and 3.3 erroneously accepts float values for the base parameter. It is unlikely anyone was doing this, but if so, it will now raise a TypeError (bpo-16772 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16772]).

Defaults for keyword-only arguments are now evaluated after defaults for regular keyword arguments, instead of before. Hopefully no one wrote any code that depends on the previous buggy behavior (bpo-16967 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16967]).

Stale thread states are now cleared after fork(). This may cause some system resources to be released that previously were incorrectly kept perpetually alive (for example, database connections kept in thread-local storage). (bpo-17094 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17094].)

Parameter names in __annotations__ dicts are now mangled properly, similarly to __kwdefaults__. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-20625 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20625].)

hashlib.hash.name now always returns the identifier in lower case. Previously some builtin hashes had uppercase names, but now that it is a formal public interface the naming has been made consistent (bpo-18532 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18532]).

Because unittest.TestSuite now drops references to tests after they are run, test harnesses that reuse a TestSuite to re-run a set of tests may fail. Test suites should not be re-used in this fashion since it means state is retained between test runs, breaking the test isolation that unittest is designed to provide. However, if the lack of isolation is considered acceptable, the old behavior can be restored by creating a TestSuite subclass that defines a _removeTestAtIndex method that does nothing (see TestSuite.__iter__()) (bpo-11798 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11798]).

unittest now uses argparse for command line parsing. There are certain invalid command forms that used to work that are no longer allowed; in theory this should not cause backward compatibility issues since the disallowed command forms didn't make any sense and are unlikely to be in use.

The re.split(), re.findall(), and re.sub() functions, and the group() and groups() methods of match objects now always return a bytes object when the string to be matched is a bytes-like object. Previously the return type matched the input type, so if your code was depending on the return value being, say, a bytearray, you will need to change your code.

audioop functions now raise an error immediately if passed string input, instead of failing randomly later on (bpo-16685 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16685]).

The new convert_charrefs argument to HTMLParser currently defaults to False for backward compatibility, but will eventually be changed to default to True. It is recommended that you add this keyword, with the appropriate value, to any HTMLParser calls in your code (bpo-13633 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13633]).

Since the digestmod argument to the hmac.new() function will in the future have no default, all calls to hmac.new() should be changed to explicitly specify a digestmod (bpo-17276 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17276]).

Calling sysconfig.get_config_var() with the SO key, or looking SO up in the results of a call to sysconfig.get_config_vars() is deprecated. This key should be replaced by EXT_SUFFIX or SHLIB_SUFFIX, depending on the context (bpo-19555 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19555]).

Any calls to open functions that specify U should be modified. U is ineffective in Python3 and will eventually raise an error if used. Depending on the function, the equivalent of its old Python2 behavior can be achieved using either a newline argument, or if necessary by wrapping the stream in TextIOWrapper to use its newline argument (bpo-15204 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15204]).

If you use pyvenv in a script and desire that pip not be installed, you must add --without-pip to your command invocation.

The default behavior of json.dump() and json.dumps() when an indent is specified has changed: it no longer produces trailing spaces after the item separating commas at the ends of lines. This will matter only if you have tests that are doing white-space-sensitive comparisons of such output (bpo-16333 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16333]).

doctest now looks for doctests in extension module __doc__ strings, so if your doctest test discovery includes extension modules that have things that look like doctests in them you may see test failures you've never seen before when running your tests (bpo-3158 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3158]).

The collections.abc module has been slightly refactored as part of the Python startup improvements. As a consequence of this, it is no longer the case that importing collections automatically imports collections.abc. If your program depended on the (undocumented) implicit import, you will need to add an explicit import collections.abc (bpo-20784 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20784]).

Changements dans l'API C

PyEval_EvalFrameEx(), PyObject_Repr(), and PyObject_Str(), along with some other internal C APIs, now include a debugging assertion that ensures they are not used in situations where they may silently discard a currently active exception. In cases where discarding the active exception is expected and desired (for example, because it has already been saved locally with PyErr_Fetch() or is being deliberately replaced with a different exception), an explicit PyErr_Clear() call will be needed to avoid triggering the assertion when invoking these operations (directly or indirectly) and running against a version of Python that is compiled with assertions enabled.

PyErr_SetImportError() now sets TypeError when its msg argument is not set. Previously only NULL was returned with no exception set.

The result of the PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer callback must now be a string allocated by PyMem_RawMalloc() or PyMem_RawRealloc(), or NULL if an error occurred, instead of a string allocated by PyMem_Malloc() or PyMem_Realloc() (bpo-16742 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16742])

PyThread_set_key_value() now always set the value. In Python 3.3, the function did nothing if the key already exists (if the current value is a non-NULL pointer).

The f_tstate (thread state) field of the PyFrameObject structure has been removed to fix a bug: see bpo-14432 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14432] for the rationale.

Changed in 3.4.3

PEP 476: Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients

http.client and modules which use it, such as urllib.request and xmlrpc.client, will now verify that the server presents a certificate which is signed by a CA in the platform trust store and whose hostname matches the hostname being requested by default, significantly improving security for many applications.

For applications which require the old previous behavior, they can pass an alternate context:

import urllib.request
import ssl

# This disables all verification
context = ssl._create_unverified_context()

# This allows using a specific certificate for the host, which doesn't need
# to be in the trust store
context = ssl.create_default_context(cafile="/path/to/file.crt")

urllib.request.urlopen("https://invalid-cert", context=context)

Nouveautés de Python 3.3

This article explains the new features in Python 3.3, compared to 3.2. Python 3.3 was released on September 29, 2012. For full details, see the changelog [https://docs.python.org/3.3/whatsnew/changelog.html].

Voir aussi

PEP 398 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0398/] - Python 3.3 Release Schedule

Résumé – Points forts de la publication

Nouvelles fonctionnalités de syntaxe :

New yield from expression for generator delegation.

The u'unicode' syntax is accepted again for str objects.

Nouveaux modules de la bibliothèque :

faulthandler (helps debugging low-level crashes)

ipaddress (high-level objects representing IP addresses and masks)

lzma (compress data using the XZ / LZMA algorithm)

unittest.mock (replace parts of your system under test with mock objects)

venv (Python virtual environments, as in the popular virtualenv package)

Nouvelles fonctionnalités natives :

Reworked I/O exception hierarchy.

Implementation improvements:

Rewritten import machinery based on importlib.

More compact unicode strings.

More compact attribute dictionaries.

Significantly Improved Library Modules:

C Accelerator for the decimal module.

Better unicode handling in the email module (provisional).

Security improvements:

Hash randomization is switched on by default.

Please read on for a comprehensive list of user-facing changes.

PEP 405: Virtual Environments

Virtual environments help create separate Python setups while sharing a system-wide base install, for ease of maintenance. Virtual environments have their own set of private site packages (i.e. locally installed libraries), and are optionally segregated from the system-wide site packages. Their concept and implementation are inspired by the popular virtualenv third-party package, but benefit from tighter integration with the interpreter core.

This PEP adds the venv module for programmatic access, and the pyvenv script for command-line access and administration. The Python interpreter checks for a pyvenv.cfg, file whose existence signals the base of a virtual environment's directory tree.

Voir aussi

PEP 405 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0405/] - Python Virtual Environments

PEP written by Carl Meyer; implementation by Carl Meyer and Vinay Sajip

PEP 420: Implicit Namespace Packages

Native support for package directories that don't require __init__.py marker files and can automatically span multiple path segments (inspired by various third party approaches to namespace packages, as described in PEP 420 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/])

Voir aussi

PEP 420 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/] - Implicit Namespace Packages

PEP written by Eric V. Smith; implementation by Eric V. Smith and Barry Warsaw

PEP 3118: New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation

The implementation of PEP 3118 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/] has been significantly improved.

The new memoryview implementation comprehensively fixes all ownership and lifetime issues of dynamically allocated fields in the Py_buffer struct that led to multiple crash reports. Additionally, several functions that crashed or returned incorrect results for non-contiguous or multi-dimensional input have been fixed.

The memoryview object now has a PEP-3118 compliant getbufferproc() that checks the consumer's request type. Many new features have been added, most of them work in full generality for non-contiguous arrays and arrays with suboffsets.

The documentation has been updated, clearly spelling out responsibilities for both exporters and consumers. Buffer request flags are grouped into basic and compound flags. The memory layout of non-contiguous and multi-dimensional NumPy-style arrays is explained.

Caractéristiques

All native single character format specifiers in struct module syntax (optionally prefixed with '@') are now supported.

With some restrictions, the cast() method allows changing of format and shape of C-contiguous arrays.

Multi-dimensional list representations are supported for any array type.

Multi-dimensional comparisons are supported for any array type.

One-dimensional memoryviews of hashable (read-only) types with formats B, b or c are now hashable. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-13411 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13411].)

Arbitrary slicing of any 1-D arrays type is supported. For example, it is now possible to reverse a memoryview in O(1) by using a negative step.

API changes

The maximum number of dimensions is officially limited to 64.

The representation of empty shape, strides and suboffsets is now an empty tuple instead of None.

Accessing a memoryview element with format 'B' (unsigned bytes) now returns an integer (in accordance with the struct module syntax). For returning a bytes object the view must be cast to 'c' first.

memoryview comparisons now use the logical structure of the operands and compare all array elements by value. All format strings in struct module syntax are supported. Views with unrecognised format strings are still permitted, but will always compare as unequal, regardless of view contents.

For further changes see Build and C API Changes and Porting C code.

(Contribution par Stefan Krah; bpo-10181 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10181].)

Voir aussi

PEP 3118 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/] - Revising the Buffer Protocol

PEP 393: Flexible String Representation

The Unicode string type is changed to support multiple internal representations, depending on the character with the largest Unicode ordinal (1, 2, or 4 bytes) in the represented string. This allows a space-efficient representation in common cases, but gives access to full UCS-4 on all systems. For compatibility with existing APIs, several representations may exist in parallel; over time, this compatibility should be phased out.

On the Python side, there should be no downside to this change.

On the C API side, PEP 393 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/] is fully backward compatible. The legacy API should remain available at least five years. Applications using the legacy API will not fully benefit of the memory reduction, or - worse - may use a bit more memory, because Python may have to maintain two versions of each string (in the legacy format and in the new efficient storage).

Functionality

Changes introduced by PEP 393 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/] are the following:

Python now always supports the full range of Unicode code points, including non-BMP ones (i.e. from U+0000 to U+10FFFF). The distinction between narrow and wide builds no longer exists and Python now behaves like a wide build, even under Windows.

With the death of narrow builds, the problems specific to narrow builds have also been fixed, for example:

len() now always returns 1 for non-BMP characters, so len('\U0010FFFF') == 1;

surrogate pairs are not recombined in string literals, so '\uDBFF\uDFFF' != '\U0010FFFF';

indexing or slicing non-BMP characters returns the expected value, so '\U0010FFFF'[0] now returns '\U0010FFFF' and not '\uDBFF';

all other functions in the standard library now correctly handle non-BMP code points.

The value of sys.maxunicode is now always 1114111 (0x10FFFF in hexadecimal). The PyUnicode_GetMax() function still returns either 0xFFFF or 0x10FFFF for backward compatibility, and it should not be used with the new Unicode API (see bpo-13054 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13054]).

The ./configure flag --with-wide-unicode has been removed.

Performance and resource usage

The storage of Unicode strings now depends on the highest code point in the string:

pure ASCII and Latin1 strings (U+0000-U+00FF) use 1 byte per code point;

BMP strings (U+0000-U+FFFF) use 2 bytes per code point;

non-BMP strings (U+10000-U+10FFFF) use 4 bytes per code point.

The net effect is that for most applications, memory usage of string storage should decrease significantly - especially compared to former wide unicode builds - as, in many cases, strings will be pure ASCII even in international contexts (because many strings store non-human language data, such as XML fragments, HTTP headers, JSON-encoded data, etc.). We also hope that it will, for the same reasons, increase CPU cache efficiency on non-trivial applications. The memory usage of Python 3.3 is two to three times smaller than Python 3.2, and a little bit better than Python 2.7, on a Django benchmark (see the PEP for details).

Voir aussi

PEP 393 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/] - Flexible String Representation

PEP written by Martin von Löwis; implementation by Torsten Becker and Martin von Löwis.

PEP 397: Python Launcher for Windows

The Python 3.3 Windows installer now includes a py launcher application that can be used to launch Python applications in a version independent fashion.

This launcher is invoked implicitly when double-clicking *.py files. If only a single Python version is installed on the system, that version will be used to run the file. If multiple versions are installed, the most recent version is used by default, but this can be overridden by including a Unix-style "shebang line" in the Python script.

The launcher can also be used explicitly from the command line as the py application. Running py follows the same version selection rules as implicitly launching scripts, but a more specific version can be selected by passing appropriate arguments (such as -3 to request Python 3 when Python 2 is also installed, or -2.6 to specifically request an earlier Python version when a more recent version is installed).

In addition to the launcher, the Windows installer now includes an option to add the newly installed Python to the system PATH. (Contributed by Brian Curtin in bpo-3561 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3561].)

Voir aussi

PEP 397 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0397/] - Python Launcher for Windows

PEP written by Mark Hammond and Martin v. Löwis; implementation by Vinay Sajip.

Launcher documentation: Python install manager

Installer PATH modification: Python install manager

PEP 3151: Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy

The hierarchy of exceptions raised by operating system errors is now both simplified and finer-grained.

You don't have to worry anymore about choosing the appropriate exception type between OSError, IOError, EnvironmentError, WindowsError, mmap.error, socket.error or select.error. All these exception types are now only one: OSError. The other names are kept as aliases for compatibility reasons.

Also, it is now easier to catch a specific error condition. Instead of inspecting the errno attribute (or args[0]) for a particular constant from the errno module, you can catch the adequate OSError subclass. The available subclasses are the following:

BlockingIOError

ChildProcessError

ConnectionError

FileExistsError

FileNotFoundError

InterruptedError

IsADirectoryError

NotADirectoryError

PermissionError

ProcessLookupError

TimeoutError

And the ConnectionError itself has finer-grained subclasses:

BrokenPipeError

ConnectionAbortedError

ConnectionRefusedError

ConnectionResetError

Thanks to the new exceptions, common usages of the errno can now be avoided. For example, the following code written for Python 3.2:

from errno import ENOENT, EACCES, EPERM

try:
    with open("document.txt") as f:
        content = f.read()
except IOError as err:
    if err.errno == ENOENT:
        print("document.txt file is missing")
    elif err.errno in (EACCES, EPERM):
        print("You are not allowed to read document.txt")
    else:
        raise

can now be written without the errno import and without manual inspection of exception attributes:

try:
    with open("document.txt") as f:
        content = f.read()
except FileNotFoundError:
    print("document.txt file is missing")
except PermissionError:
    print("You are not allowed to read document.txt")

Voir aussi

PEP 3151 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3151/] - Reworking the OS and IO Exception Hierarchy

PEP written and implemented by Antoine Pitrou

PEP 380: Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator

PEP 380 adds the yield from expression, allowing a generator to delegate part of its operations to another generator. This allows a section of code containing yield to be factored out and placed in another generator. Additionally, the subgenerator is allowed to return with a value, and the value is made available to the delegating generator.

While designed primarily for use in delegating to a subgenerator, the yield from expression actually allows delegation to arbitrary subiterators.

For simple iterators, yield from iterable is essentially just a shortened form of for item in iterable: yield item:

>>> def g(x):
...     yield from range(x, 0, -1)
...     yield from range(x)
...
>>> list(g(5))
[5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4]

However, unlike an ordinary loop, yield from allows subgenerators to receive sent and thrown values directly from the calling scope, and return a final value to the outer generator:

>>> def accumulate():
...     tally = 0
...     while 1:
...         next = yield
...         if next is None:
...             return tally
...         tally += next
...
>>> def gather_tallies(tallies):
...     while 1:
...         tally = yield from accumulate()
...         tallies.append(tally)
...
>>> tallies = []
>>> acc = gather_tallies(tallies)
>>> next(acc)  # Ensure the accumulator is ready to accept values
>>> for i in range(4):
...     acc.send(i)
...
>>> acc.send(None)  # Finish the first tally
>>> for i in range(5):
...     acc.send(i)
...
>>> acc.send(None)  # Finish the second tally
>>> tallies
[6, 10]

The main principle driving this change is to allow even generators that are designed to be used with the send and throw methods to be split into multiple subgenerators as easily as a single large function can be split into multiple subfunctions.

Voir aussi

PEP 380 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0380/] -- Syntaxe pour déléguer à un sous-générateur

PEP written by Greg Ewing; implementation by Greg Ewing, integrated into 3.3 by Renaud Blanch, Ryan Kelly and Nick Coghlan; documentation by Zbigniew Jędrzejewski-Szmek and Nick Coghlan

PEP 409: Suppressing exception context

PEP 409 introduces new syntax that allows the display of the chained exception context to be disabled. This allows cleaner error messages in applications that convert between exception types:

>>> class D:
...     def __init__(self, extra):
...         self._extra_attributes = extra
...     def __getattr__(self, attr):
...         try:
...             return self._extra_attributes[attr]
...         except KeyError:
...             raise AttributeError(attr) from None
...
>>> D({}).x
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
  File "<stdin>", line 8, in __getattr__
AttributeError: x

Without the from None suffix to suppress the cause, the original exception would be displayed by default:

>>> class C:
...     def __init__(self, extra):
...         self._extra_attributes = extra
...     def __getattr__(self, attr):
...         try:
...             return self._extra_attributes[attr]
...         except KeyError:
...             raise AttributeError(attr)
...
>>> C({}).x
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 6, in __getattr__
KeyError: 'x'

During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred:

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
  File "<stdin>", line 8, in __getattr__
AttributeError: x

No debugging capability is lost, as the original exception context remains available if needed (for example, if an intervening library has incorrectly suppressed valuable underlying details):

>>> try:
...     D({}).x
... except AttributeError as exc:
...     print(repr(exc.__context__))
...
KeyError('x',)

Voir aussi

PEP 409 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0409/] - Suppressing exception context

PEP written by Ethan Furman; implemented by Ethan Furman and Nick Coghlan.

PEP 414: Explicit Unicode literals

To ease the transition from Python 2 for Unicode aware Python applications that make heavy use of Unicode literals, Python 3.3 once again supports the "u" prefix for string literals. This prefix has no semantic significance in Python 3, it is provided solely to reduce the number of purely mechanical changes in migrating to Python 3, making it easier for developers to focus on the more significant semantic changes (such as the stricter default separation of binary and text data).

Voir aussi

PEP 414 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0414/] - Explicit Unicode literals

PEP written by Armin Ronacher.

PEP 3155: Qualified name for classes and functions

Functions and class objects have a new __qualname__ attribute representing the "path" from the module top-level to their definition. For global functions and classes, this is the same as __name__. For other functions and classes, it provides better information about where they were actually defined, and how they might be accessible from the global scope.

Example with (non-bound) methods:

>>> class C:
...     def meth(self):
...         pass
...
>>> C.meth.__name__
'meth'
>>> C.meth.__qualname__
'C.meth'

Example with nested classes:

>>> class C:
...     class D:
...         def meth(self):
...             pass
...
>>> C.D.__name__
'D'
>>> C.D.__qualname__
'C.D'
>>> C.D.meth.__name__
'meth'
>>> C.D.meth.__qualname__
'C.D.meth'

Example with nested functions:

>>> def outer():
...     def inner():
...         pass
...     return inner
...
>>> outer().__name__
'inner'
>>> outer().__qualname__
'outer.<locals>.inner'

The string representation of those objects is also changed to include the new, more precise information:

>>> str(C.D)
"<class '__main__.C.D'>"
>>> str(C.D.meth)
'<function C.D.meth at 0x7f46b9fe31e0>'

Voir aussi

PEP 3155 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3155/] - Qualified name for classes and functions

PEP written and implemented by Antoine Pitrou.

PEP 412: Key-Sharing Dictionary

Dictionaries used for the storage of objects' attributes are now able to share part of their internal storage between each other (namely, the part which stores the keys and their respective hashes). This reduces the memory consumption of programs creating many instances of non-builtin types.

Voir aussi

PEP 412 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0412/] - Key-Sharing Dictionary

PEP written and implemented by Mark Shannon.

PEP 362: Function Signature Object

A new function inspect.signature() makes introspection of python callables easy and straightforward. A broad range of callables is supported: python functions, decorated or not, classes, and functools.partial() objects. New classes inspect.Signature, inspect.Parameter and inspect.BoundArguments hold information about the call signatures, such as, annotations, default values, parameters kinds, and bound arguments, which considerably simplifies writing decorators and any code that validates or amends calling signatures or arguments.

Voir aussi

PEP 362 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0362/]: - Function Signature Object

PEP written by Brett Cannon, Yury Selivanov, Larry Hastings, Jiwon Seo; implemented by Yury Selivanov.

PEP 421: Adding sys.implementation

A new attribute on the sys module exposes details specific to the implementation of the currently running interpreter. The initial set of attributes on sys.implementation are name, version, hexversion, and cache_tag.

The intention of sys.implementation is to consolidate into one namespace the implementation-specific data used by the standard library. This allows different Python implementations to share a single standard library code base much more easily. In its initial state, sys.implementation holds only a small portion of the implementation-specific data. Over time that ratio will shift in order to make the standard library more portable.

One example of improved standard library portability is cache_tag. As of Python 3.3, sys.implementation.cache_tag is used by importlib to support PEP 3147 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/] compliance. Any Python implementation that uses importlib for its built-in import system may use cache_tag to control the caching behavior for modules.

SimpleNamespace

The implementation of sys.implementation also introduces a new type to Python: types.SimpleNamespace. In contrast to a mapping-based namespace, like dict, SimpleNamespace is attribute-based, like object. However, unlike object, SimpleNamespace instances are writable. This means that you can add, remove, and modify the namespace through normal attribute access.

Voir aussi

PEP 421 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0421/] - Adding sys.implementation

PEP written and implemented by Eric Snow.

Using importlib as the Implementation of Import

bpo-2377 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2377] - Replace __import__ w/ importlib.__import__ bpo-13959 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13959] - Re-implement parts of imp in pure Python bpo-14605 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14605] - Make import machinery explicit bpo-14646 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14646] - Require loaders set __loader__ and __package__

The __import__() function is now powered by importlib.__import__(). This work leads to the completion of "phase 2" of PEP 302 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/]. There are multiple benefits to this change. First, it has allowed for more of the machinery powering import to be exposed instead of being implicit and hidden within the C code. It also provides a single implementation for all Python VMs supporting Python 3.3 to use, helping to end any VM-specific deviations in import semantics. And finally it eases the maintenance of import, allowing for future growth to occur.

For the common user, there should be no visible change in semantics. For those whose code currently manipulates import or calls import programmatically, the code changes that might possibly be required are covered in the Porting Python code section of this document.

New APIs

One of the large benefits of this work is the exposure of what goes into making the import statement work. That means the various importers that were once implicit are now fully exposed as part of the importlib package.

The abstract base classes defined in importlib.abc have been expanded to properly delineate between meta path finders and path entry finders by introducing importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder and importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder, respectively. The old ABC of importlib.abc.Finder is now only provided for backwards-compatibility and does not enforce any method requirements.

In terms of finders, importlib.machinery.FileFinder exposes the mechanism used to search for source and bytecode files of a module. Previously this class was an implicit member of sys.path_hooks.

For loaders, the new abstract base class importlib.abc.FileLoader helps write a loader that uses the file system as the storage mechanism for a module's code. The loader for source files (importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader), sourceless bytecode files (importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader), and extension modules (importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader) are now available for direct use.

ImportError now has name and path attributes which are set when there is relevant data to provide. The message for failed imports will also provide the full name of the module now instead of just the tail end of the module's name.

The importlib.invalidate_caches() function will now call the method with the same name on all finders cached in sys.path_importer_cache to help clean up any stored state as necessary.

Visible Changes

For potential required changes to code, see the Porting Python code section.

Beyond the expanse of what importlib now exposes, there are other visible changes to import. The biggest is that sys.meta_path and sys.path_hooks now store all of the meta path finders and path entry hooks used by import. Previously the finders were implicit and hidden within the C code of import instead of being directly exposed. This means that one can now easily remove or change the order of the various finders to fit one's needs.

Another change is that all modules have a __loader__ attribute, storing the loader used to create the module. PEP 302 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/] has been updated to make this attribute mandatory for loaders to implement, so in the future once 3rd-party loaders have been updated people will be able to rely on the existence of the attribute. Until such time, though, import is setting the module post-load.

Loaders are also now expected to set the __package__ attribute from PEP 366 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0366/]. Once again, import itself is already setting this on all loaders from importlib and import itself is setting the attribute post-load.

None is now inserted into sys.path_importer_cache when no finder can be found on sys.path_hooks. Since imp.NullImporter is not directly exposed on sys.path_hooks it could no longer be relied upon to always be available to use as a value representing no finder found.

All other changes relate to semantic changes which should be taken into consideration when updating code for Python 3.3, and thus should be read about in the Porting Python code section of this document.

(Implementation by Brett Cannon)

Autres changements au langage

Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:

Added support for Unicode name aliases and named sequences. Both unicodedata.lookup() and '\N{...}' now resolve name aliases, and unicodedata.lookup() resolves named sequences too.

(Contribution par Ezio Melotti; bpo-12753 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12753].)

Unicode database updated to UCD version 6.1.0

Equality comparisons on range() objects now return a result reflecting the equality of the underlying sequences generated by those range objects. (bpo-13201 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13201])

The count(), find(), rfind(), index() and rindex() methods of bytes and bytearray objects now accept an integer between 0 and 255 as their first argument.

(Contribution par Petri Lehtinen; bpo-12170 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12170].)

The rjust(), ljust(), and center() methods of bytes and bytearray now accept a bytearray for the fill argument. (Contributed by Petri Lehtinen in bpo-12380 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12380].)

New methods have been added to list and bytearray: copy() and clear() (bpo-10516 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10516]). Consequently, MutableSequence now also defines a clear() method (bpo-11388 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11388]).

Raw bytes literals can now be written rb"..." as well as br"...".

(Contribution par Antoine Pitrou; bpo-13748 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13748].)

dict.setdefault() now does only one lookup for the given key, making it atomic when used with built-in types.

(Contribution par Filip Gruszczyński; bpo-13521 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13521].)

The error messages produced when a function call does not match the function signature have been significantly improved.

(Contribution par Benjamin Peterson)

A Finer-Grained Import Lock

Previous versions of CPython have always relied on a global import lock. This led to unexpected annoyances, such as deadlocks when importing a module would trigger code execution in a different thread as a side-effect. Clumsy workarounds were sometimes employed, such as the PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock() C API function.

In Python 3.3, importing a module takes a per-module lock. This correctly serializes importation of a given module from multiple threads (preventing the exposure of incompletely initialized modules), while eliminating the aforementioned annoyances.

(Contribution par Antoine Pitrou; bpo-9260 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9260].)

Builtin functions and types

open() gets a new opener parameter: the underlying file descriptor for the file object is then obtained by calling opener with (file, flags). It can be used to use custom flags like os.O_CLOEXEC for example. The 'x' mode was added: open for exclusive creation, failing if the file already exists.

print(): added the flush keyword argument. If the flush keyword argument is true, the stream is forcibly flushed.

hash(): hash randomization is enabled by default, see object.__hash__() and PYTHONHASHSEED.

The str type gets a new casefold() method: return a casefolded copy of the string, casefolded strings may be used for caseless matching. For example, 'ß'.casefold() returns 'ss'.

The sequence documentation has been substantially rewritten to better explain the binary/text sequence distinction and to provide specific documentation sections for the individual builtin sequence types (bpo-4966 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4966]).

Nouveaux modules

faulthandler

This new debug module faulthandler contains functions to dump Python tracebacks explicitly, on a fault (a crash like a segmentation fault), after a timeout, or on a user signal. Call faulthandler.enable() to install fault handlers for the SIGSEGV, SIGFPE, SIGABRT, SIGBUS, and SIGILL signals. You can also enable them at startup by setting the PYTHONFAULTHANDLER environment variable or by using -X faulthandler command line option.

Example of a segmentation fault on Linux:

$ python -q -X faulthandler
>>> import ctypes
>>> ctypes.string_at(0)
Fatal Python error: Segmentation fault

Current thread 0x00007fb899f39700:
  File "/home/python/cpython/Lib/ctypes/__init__.py", line 486 in string_at
  File "<stdin>", line 1 in <module>
Segmentation fault

ipaddress

The new ipaddress module provides tools for creating and manipulating objects representing IPv4 and IPv6 addresses, networks and interfaces (i.e. an IP address associated with a specific IP subnet).

(Contribution par Google et Peter Moody; PEP 3144 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3144/])

lzma

The newly added lzma module provides data compression and decompression using the LZMA algorithm, including support for the .xz and .lzma file formats.

(Contributed by Nadeem Vawda and Per Øyvind Karlsen in bpo-6715 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6715].)

Modules améliorés

abc

Improved support for abstract base classes containing descriptors composed with abstract methods. The recommended approach to declaring abstract descriptors is now to provide __isabstractmethod__ as a dynamically updated property. The built-in descriptors have been updated accordingly.

abc.abstractproperty has been deprecated, use property with abc.abstractmethod() instead.

abc.abstractclassmethod has been deprecated, use classmethod with abc.abstractmethod() instead.

abc.abstractstaticmethod has been deprecated, use staticmethod with abc.abstractmethod() instead.

(Contribution par Darren Dale; bpo-11610 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11610].)

abc.ABCMeta.register() now returns the registered subclass, which means it can now be used as a class decorator (bpo-10868 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10868]).

array

The array module supports the long long type using q and Q type codes.

(Contribution par Oren Tirosh et Hirokazu Yamamoto; bpo-1172711 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1172711].)

base64

ASCII-only Unicode strings are now accepted by the decoding functions of the base64 modern interface. For example, base64.b64decode('YWJj') returns b'abc'. (Contributed by Catalin Iacob in bpo-13641 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13641].)

binascii

In addition to the binary objects they normally accept, the a2b_ functions now all also accept ASCII-only strings as input. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-13637 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13637].)

bz2

The bz2 module has been rewritten from scratch. In the process, several new features have been added:

New bz2.open() function: open a bzip2-compressed file in binary or text mode.

bz2.BZ2File can now read from and write to arbitrary file-like objects, by means of its constructor's fileobj argument.

(Contribution par Nadeem Vawda; bpo-5863 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5863].)

bz2.BZ2File and bz2.decompress() can now decompress multi-stream inputs (such as those produced by the pbzip2 tool). bz2.BZ2File can now also be used to create this type of file, using the 'a' (append) mode.

(Contribution par Nir Aides; bpo-1625 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1625].)

bz2.BZ2File now implements all of the io.BufferedIOBase API, except for the detach() and truncate() methods.

codecs

The mbcs codec has been rewritten to handle correctly replace and ignore error handlers on all Windows versions. The mbcs codec now supports all error handlers, instead of only replace to encode and ignore to decode.

A new Windows-only codec has been added: cp65001 (bpo-13216 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13216]). It is the Windows code page 65001 (Windows UTF-8, CP_UTF8). For example, it is used by sys.stdout if the console output code page is set to cp65001 (e.g., using chcp 65001 command).

Multibyte CJK decoders now resynchronize faster. They only ignore the first byte of an invalid byte sequence. For example, b'\xff\n'.decode('gb2312', 'replace') now returns a \n after the replacement character.

(bpo-12016 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12016])

Incremental CJK codec encoders are no longer reset at each call to their encode() methods. For example:

>>> import codecs
>>> encoder = codecs.getincrementalencoder('hz')('strict')
>>> b''.join(encoder.encode(x) for x in '\u52ff\u65bd\u65bc\u4eba\u3002 Bye.')
b'~{NpJ)l6HK!#~} Bye.'

This example gives b'~{Np~}~{J)~}~{l6~}~{HK~}~{!#~} Bye.' with older Python versions.

(bpo-12100 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12100])

The unicode_internal codec has been deprecated.

collections

Addition of a new ChainMap class to allow treating a number of mappings as a single unit. (Written by Raymond Hettinger for bpo-11089 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11089], made public in bpo-11297 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11297].)

The abstract base classes have been moved in a new collections.abc module, to better differentiate between the abstract and the concrete collections classes. Aliases for ABCs are still present in the collections module to preserve existing imports. (bpo-11085 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11085])

The Counter class now supports the unary + and - operators, as well as the in-place operators +=, -=, |=, and &=. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-13121 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13121].)

contextlib

ExitStack now provides a solid foundation for programmatic manipulation of context managers and similar cleanup functionality. Unlike the previous contextlib.nested API (which was deprecated and removed), the new API is designed to work correctly regardless of whether context managers acquire their resources in their __init__ method (for example, file objects) or in their __enter__ method (for example, synchronisation objects from the threading module).

(bpo-13585 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13585])

crypt

Addition of salt and modular crypt format (hashing method) and the mksalt() function to the crypt module.

(bpo-10924 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10924])

curses

If the curses module is linked to the ncursesw library, use Unicode functions when Unicode strings or characters are passed (e.g. waddwstr()), and bytes functions otherwise (e.g. waddstr()).

Use the locale encoding instead of utf-8 to encode Unicode strings.

curses.window has a new curses.window.encoding attribute.

The curses.window class has a new get_wch() method to get a wide character

The curses module has a new unget_wch() function to push a wide character so the next get_wch() will return it

(Contribution par Iñigo Serna; bpo-6755 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6755].)

datetime

Equality comparisons between naive and aware datetime instances now return False instead of raising TypeError (bpo-15006 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15006]).

New datetime.datetime.timestamp() method: Return POSIX timestamp corresponding to the datetime instance.

The datetime.datetime.strftime() method supports formatting years older than 1000.

The datetime.datetime.astimezone() method can now be called without arguments to convert datetime instance to the system timezone.

decimal

bpo-7652 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7652] - integrate fast native decimal arithmetic.

C-module and libmpdec written by Stefan Krah.

The new C version of the decimal module integrates the high speed libmpdec library for arbitrary precision correctly rounded decimal floating-point arithmetic. libmpdec conforms to IBM's General Decimal Arithmetic Specification.

Performance gains range from 10x for database applications to 100x for numerically intensive applications. These numbers are expected gains for standard precisions used in decimal floating-point arithmetic. Since the precision is user configurable, the exact figures may vary. For example, in integer bignum arithmetic the differences can be significantly higher.

The following table is meant as an illustration. Benchmarks are available at https://www.bytereef.org/mpdecimal/quickstart.html.

decimal.py

_decimal

speedup

pi

42.02s

0.345s

120x

telco

172.19s

5.68s

30x

psycopg

3.57s

0.29s

12x

Caractéristiques

The FloatOperation signal optionally enables stricter semantics for mixing floats and Decimals.

If Python is compiled without threads, the C version automatically disables the expensive thread local context machinery. In this case, the variable HAVE_THREADS is set to False.

API changes

The C module has the following context limits, depending on the machine architecture:

32-bit

64-bit

MAX_PREC

425000000

999999999999999999

MAX_EMAX

425000000

999999999999999999

MIN_EMIN

-425000000

-999999999999999999

In the context templates (DefaultContext, BasicContext and ExtendedContext) the magnitude of Emax and Emin has changed to 999999.

The Decimal constructor in decimal.py does not observe the context limits and converts values with arbitrary exponents or precision exactly. Since the C version has internal limits, the following scheme is used: If possible, values are converted exactly, otherwise InvalidOperation is raised and the result is NaN. In the latter case it is always possible to use create_decimal() in order to obtain a rounded or inexact value.

The power function in decimal.py is always correctly rounded. In the C version, it is defined in terms of the correctly rounded exp() and ln() functions, but the final result is only "almost always correctly rounded".

In the C version, the context dictionary containing the signals is a MutableMapping. For speed reasons, flags and traps always refer to the same MutableMapping that the context was initialized with. If a new signal dictionary is assigned, flags and traps are updated with the new values, but they do not reference the RHS dictionary.

Pickling a Context produces a different output in order to have a common interchange format for the Python and C versions.

The order of arguments in the Context constructor has been changed to match the order displayed by repr().

The watchexp parameter in the quantize() method is deprecated.

email

Policy Framework

The email package now has a policy framework. A Policy is an object with several methods and properties that control how the email package behaves. The primary policy for Python 3.3 is the Compat32 policy, which provides backward compatibility with the email package in Python 3.2. A policy can be specified when an email message is parsed by a parser, or when a Message object is created, or when an email is serialized using a generator. Unless overridden, a policy passed to a parser is inherited by all the Message object and sub-objects created by the parser. By default a generator will use the policy of the Message object it is serializing. The default policy is compat32.

The minimum set of controls implemented by all policy objects are:

max_line_length

The maximum length, excluding the linesep character(s), individual lines may have when a Message is serialized. Defaults to 78.

linesep

The character used to separate individual lines when a Message is serialized. Defaults to \n.

cte_type

7bit or 8bit. 8bit applies only to a Bytes generator, and means that non-ASCII may be used where allowed by the protocol (or where it exists in the original input).

raise_on_defect

Causes a parser to raise error when defects are encountered instead of adding them to the Message object's defects list.

A new policy instance, with new settings, is created using the clone() method of policy objects. clone takes any of the above controls as keyword arguments. Any control not specified in the call retains its default value. Thus you can create a policy that uses \r\n linesep characters like this:

mypolicy = compat32.clone(linesep='\r\n')

Policies can be used to make the generation of messages in the format needed by your application simpler. Instead of having to remember to specify linesep='\r\n' in all the places you call a generator, you can specify it once, when you set the policy used by the parser or the Message, whichever your program uses to create Message objects. On the other hand, if you need to generate messages in multiple forms, you can still specify the parameters in the appropriate generator call. Or you can have custom policy instances for your different cases, and pass those in when you create the generator.

Provisional Policy with New Header API

While the policy framework is worthwhile all by itself, the main motivation for introducing it is to allow the creation of new policies that implement new features for the email package in a way that maintains backward compatibility for those who do not use the new policies. Because the new policies introduce a new API, we are releasing them in Python 3.3 as a provisional policy. Backwards incompatible changes (up to and including removal of the code) may occur if deemed necessary by the core developers.

The new policies are instances of EmailPolicy, and add the following additional controls:

refold_source

Controls whether or not headers parsed by a parser are refolded by the generator. It can be none, long, or all. The default is long, which means that source headers with a line longer than max_line_length get refolded. none means no line get refolded, and all means that all lines get refolded.

header_factory

A callable that take a name and value and produces a custom header object.

The header_factory is the key to the new features provided by the new policies. When one of the new policies is used, any header retrieved from a Message object is an object produced by the header_factory, and any time you set a header on a Message it becomes an object produced by header_factory. All such header objects have a name attribute equal to the header name. Address and Date headers have additional attributes that give you access to the parsed data of the header. This means you can now do things like this:

>>> m = Message(policy=SMTP)
>>> m['To'] = 'Éric <foo@example.com>'
>>> m['to']
'Éric <foo@example.com>'
>>> m['to'].addresses
(Address(display_name='Éric', username='foo', domain='example.com'),)
>>> m['to'].addresses[0].username
'foo'
>>> m['to'].addresses[0].display_name
'Éric'
>>> m['Date'] = email.utils.localtime()
>>> m['Date'].datetime
datetime.datetime(2012, 5, 25, 21, 39, 24, 465484, tzinfo=datetime.timezone(datetime.timedelta(-1, 72000), 'EDT'))
>>> m['Date']
'Fri, 25 May 2012 21:44:27 -0400'
>>> print(m)
To: =?utf-8?q?=C3=89ric?= <foo@example.com>
Date: Fri, 25 May 2012 21:44:27 -0400

You will note that the unicode display name is automatically encoded as utf-8 when the message is serialized, but that when the header is accessed directly, you get the unicode version. This eliminates any need to deal with the email.header decode_header() or make_header() functions.

You can also create addresses from parts:

>>> m['cc'] = [Group('pals', [Address('Bob', 'bob', 'example.com'),
...                           Address('Sally', 'sally', 'example.com')]),
...            Address('Bonzo', addr_spec='bonz@laugh.com')]
>>> print(m)
To: =?utf-8?q?=C3=89ric?= <foo@example.com>
Date: Fri, 25 May 2012 21:44:27 -0400
cc: pals: Bob <bob@example.com>, Sally <sally@example.com>;, Bonzo <bonz@laugh.com>

Decoding to unicode is done automatically:

>>> m2 = message_from_string(str(m))
>>> m2['to']
'Éric <foo@example.com>'

When you parse a message, you can use the addresses and groups attributes of the header objects to access the groups and individual addresses:

>>> m2['cc'].addresses
(Address(display_name='Bob', username='bob', domain='example.com'), Address(display_name='Sally', username='sally', domain='example.com'), Address(display_name='Bonzo', username='bonz', domain='laugh.com'))
>>> m2['cc'].groups
(Group(display_name='pals', addresses=(Address(display_name='Bob', username='bob', domain='example.com'), Address(display_name='Sally', username='sally', domain='example.com')), Group(display_name=None, addresses=(Address(display_name='Bonzo', username='bonz', domain='laugh.com'),))

In summary, if you use one of the new policies, header manipulation works the way it ought to: your application works with unicode strings, and the email package transparently encodes and decodes the unicode to and from the RFC standard Content Transfer Encodings.

Other API Changes

New BytesHeaderParser, added to the parser module to complement HeaderParser and complete the Bytes API.

New utility functions:

format_datetime(): given a datetime, produce a string formatted for use in an email header.

parsedate_to_datetime(): given a date string from an email header, convert it into an aware datetime, or a naive datetime if the offset is -0000.

localtime(): With no argument, returns the current local time as an aware datetime using the local timezone. Given an aware datetime, converts it into an aware datetime using the local timezone.

ftplib

ftplib.FTP now accepts a source_address keyword argument to specify the (host, port) to use as the source address in the bind call when creating the outgoing socket. (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-8594 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8594].)

The FTP_TLS class now provides a new ccc() function to revert control channel back to plaintext. This can be useful to take advantage of firewalls that know how to handle NAT with non-secure FTP without opening fixed ports. (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-12139 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12139].)

Added ftplib.FTP.mlsd() method which provides a parsable directory listing format and deprecates ftplib.FTP.nlst() and ftplib.FTP.dir(). (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-11072 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11072].)

functools

The functools.lru_cache() decorator now accepts a typed keyword argument (that defaults to False to ensure that it caches values of different types that compare equal in separate cache slots. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-13227 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13227].)

gc

It is now possible to register callbacks invoked by the garbage collector before and after collection using the new callbacks list.

hmac

A new compare_digest() function has been added to prevent side channel attacks on digests through timing analysis. (Contributed by Nick Coghlan and Christian Heimes in bpo-15061 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15061].)

http

http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler now buffers the headers and writes them all at once when end_headers() is called. A new method flush_headers() can be used to directly manage when the accumulated headers are sent. (Contributed by Andrew Schaaf in bpo-3709 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3709].)

http.server now produces valid HTML 4.01 strict output. (Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-13295 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13295].)

http.client.HTTPResponse now has a readinto() method, which means it can be used as an io.RawIOBase class. (Contributed by John Kuhn in bpo-13464 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13464].)

html

html.parser.HTMLParser is now able to parse broken markup without raising errors, therefore the strict argument of the constructor and the HTMLParseError exception are now deprecated. The ability to parse broken markup is the result of a number of bug fixes that are also available on the latest bug fix releases of Python 2.7/3.2. (Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-15114 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15114], and bpo-14538 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14538], bpo-13993 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13993], bpo-13960 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13960], bpo-13358 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13358], bpo-1745761 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1745761], bpo-755670 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=755670], bpo-13357 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13357], bpo-12629 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12629], bpo-1200313 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1200313], bpo-670664 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=670664], bpo-13273 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13273], bpo-12888 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12888], bpo-7311 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7311].)

A new html5 dictionary that maps HTML5 named character references to the equivalent Unicode character(s) (e.g. html5['gt;'] == '>') has been added to the html.entities module. The dictionary is now also used by HTMLParser. (Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-11113 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11113] and bpo-15156 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15156].)

imaplib

The IMAP4_SSL constructor now accepts an SSLContext parameter to control parameters of the secure channel.

(Contribution par Sijin Joseph; bpo-8808 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8808].)

inspect

A new getclosurevars() function has been added. This function reports the current binding of all names referenced from the function body and where those names were resolved, making it easier to verify correct internal state when testing code that relies on stateful closures.

(Contribution par Meador Inge et Nick Coghlan; bpo-13062 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13062].)

A new getgeneratorlocals() function has been added. This function reports the current binding of local variables in the generator's stack frame, making it easier to verify correct internal state when testing generators.

(Contribution par Meador Inge; bpo-15153 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15153].)

io

The open() function has a new 'x' mode that can be used to exclusively create a new file, and raise a FileExistsError if the file already exists. It is based on the C11 'x' mode to fopen().

(Contribution par David Townshend; bpo-12760 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12760].)

The constructor of the TextIOWrapper class has a new write_through optional argument. If write_through is True, calls to write() are guaranteed not to be buffered: any data written on the TextIOWrapper object is immediately handled to its underlying binary buffer.

itertools

accumulate() now takes an optional func argument for providing a user-supplied binary function.

logging

The basicConfig() function now supports an optional handlers argument taking an iterable of handlers to be added to the root logger.

A class level attribute append_nul has been added to SysLogHandler to allow control of the appending of the NUL (\000) byte to syslog records, since for some daemons it is required while for others it is passed through to the log.

math

The math module has a new function, log2(), which returns the base-2 logarithm of x.

(Written by Mark Dickinson in bpo-11888 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11888].)

mmap

The read() method is now more compatible with other file-like objects: if the argument is omitted or specified as None, it returns the bytes from the current file position to the end of the mapping. (Contributed by Petri Lehtinen in bpo-12021 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12021].)

multiprocessing

The new multiprocessing.connection.wait() function allows polling multiple objects (such as connections, sockets and pipes) with a timeout. (Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in bpo-12328 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12328].)

multiprocessing.connection.Connection objects can now be transferred over multiprocessing connections. (Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in bpo-4892 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4892].)

multiprocessing.Process now accepts a daemon keyword argument to override the default behavior of inheriting the daemon flag from the parent process (bpo-6064 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6064]).

New attribute multiprocessing.Process.sentinel allows a program to wait on multiple Process objects at one time using the appropriate OS primitives (for example, select on posix systems).

New methods multiprocessing.pool.Pool.starmap() and starmap_async() provide itertools.starmap() equivalents to the existing multiprocessing.pool.Pool.map() and map_async() functions. (Contributed by Hynek Schlawack in bpo-12708 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12708].)

nntplib

The nntplib.NNTP class now supports the context management protocol to unconditionally consume socket.error exceptions and to close the NNTP connection when done:

>>> from nntplib import NNTP
>>> with NNTP('news.gmane.org') as n:
...     n.group('gmane.comp.python.committers')
...
('211 1755 1 1755 gmane.comp.python.committers', 1755, 1, 1755, 'gmane.comp.python.committers')
>>>

(Contribution par Giampaolo Rodolà; bpo-9795 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9795].)

os

The os module has a new pipe2() function that makes it possible to create a pipe with O_CLOEXEC or O_NONBLOCK flags set atomically. This is especially useful to avoid race conditions in multi-threaded programs.

The os module has a new sendfile() function which provides an efficient "zero-copy" way for copying data from one file (or socket) descriptor to another. The phrase "zero-copy" refers to the fact that all of the copying of data between the two descriptors is done entirely by the kernel, with no copying of data into userspace buffers. sendfile() can be used to efficiently copy data from a file on disk to a network socket, e.g. for downloading a file.

(Patch submitted by Ross Lagerwall and Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-10882 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10882].)

To avoid race conditions like symlink attacks and issues with temporary files and directories, it is more reliable (and also faster) to manipulate file descriptors instead of file names. Python 3.3 enhances existing functions and introduces new functions to work on file descriptors (bpo-4761 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4761], bpo-10755 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10755] and bpo-14626 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14626]).

The os module has a new fwalk() function similar to walk() except that it also yields file descriptors referring to the directories visited. This is especially useful to avoid symlink races.

The following functions get new optional dir_fd (paths relative to directory descriptors) and/or follow_symlinks (not following symlinks): access(), chflags(), chmod(), chown(), link(), lstat(), mkdir(), mkfifo(), mknod(), open(), readlink(), remove(), rename(), replace(), rmdir(), stat(), symlink(), unlink(), utime(). Platform support for using these parameters can be checked via the sets os.supports_dir_fd and os.supports_follow_symlinks.

The following functions now support a file descriptor for their path argument: chdir(), chmod(), chown(), execve(), listdir(), pathconf(), exists(), stat(), statvfs(), utime(). Platform support for this can be checked via the os.supports_fd set.

access() accepts an effective_ids keyword argument to turn on using the effective uid/gid rather than the real uid/gid in the access check. Platform support for this can be checked via the supports_effective_ids set.

The os module has two new functions: getpriority() and setpriority(). They can be used to get or set process niceness/priority in a fashion similar to os.nice() but extended to all processes instead of just the current one.

(Patch submitted by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-10784 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10784].)

The new os.replace() function allows cross-platform renaming of a file with overwriting the destination. With os.rename(), an existing destination file is overwritten under POSIX, but raises an error under Windows. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-8828 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8828].)

The stat family of functions (stat(), fstat(), and lstat()) now support reading a file's timestamps with nanosecond precision. Symmetrically, utime() can now write file timestamps with nanosecond precision. (Contributed by Larry Hastings in bpo-14127 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14127].)

The new os.get_terminal_size() function queries the size of the terminal attached to a file descriptor. See also shutil.get_terminal_size(). (Contributed by Zbigniew Jędrzejewski-Szmek in bpo-13609 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13609].)

New functions to support Linux extended attributes (bpo-12720 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12720]): getxattr(), listxattr(), removexattr(), setxattr().

New interface to the scheduler. These functions control how a process is allocated CPU time by the operating system. New functions: sched_get_priority_max(), sched_get_priority_min(), sched_getaffinity(), sched_getparam(), sched_getscheduler(), sched_rr_get_interval(), sched_setaffinity(), sched_setparam(), sched_setscheduler(), sched_yield(),

New functions to control the file system:

posix_fadvise(): Announces an intention to access data in a specific pattern thus allowing the kernel to make optimizations.

posix_fallocate(): Ensures that enough disk space is allocated for a file.

sync(): Force write of everything to disk.

Additional new posix functions:

lockf(): Apply, test or remove a POSIX lock on an open file descriptor.

pread(): Read from a file descriptor at an offset, the file offset remains unchanged.

pwrite(): Write to a file descriptor from an offset, leaving the file offset unchanged.

readv(): Read from a file descriptor into a number of writable buffers.

truncate(): Truncate the file corresponding to path, so that it is at most length bytes in size.

waitid(): Wait for the completion of one or more child processes.

writev(): Write the contents of buffers to a file descriptor, where buffers is an arbitrary sequence of buffers.

getgrouplist() (bpo-9344 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9344]): Return list of group ids that specified user belongs to.

times() and uname(): Return type changed from a tuple to a tuple-like object with named attributes.

Some platforms now support additional constants for the lseek() function, such as os.SEEK_HOLE and os.SEEK_DATA.

New constants RTLD_LAZY, RTLD_NOW, RTLD_GLOBAL, RTLD_LOCAL, RTLD_NODELETE, RTLD_NOLOAD, and RTLD_DEEPBIND are available on platforms that support them. These are for use with the sys.setdlopenflags() function, and supersede the similar constants defined in ctypes and DLFCN. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-13226 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13226].)

os.symlink() now accepts (and ignores) the target_is_directory keyword argument on non-Windows platforms, to ease cross-platform support.

pdb

Tab-completion is now available not only for command names, but also their arguments. For example, for the break command, function and file names are completed.

(Contribution par Georg Brandl; bpo-14210 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14210].)

pickle

pickle.Pickler objects now have an optional dispatch_table attribute allowing per-pickler reduction functions to be set.

(Contribution par Richard Oudkerk; bpo-14166 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14166].)

pydoc

The Tk GUI and the serve() function have been removed from the pydoc module: pydoc -g and serve() have been deprecated in Python 3.2.

re

str regular expressions now support \u and \U escapes.

(Contribution par Serhiy Storchaka; bpo-3665 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3665].)

sched

run() now accepts a blocking parameter which when set to false makes the method execute the scheduled events due to expire soonest (if any) and then return immediately. This is useful in case you want to use the scheduler in non-blocking applications. (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-13449 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13449].)

scheduler class can now be safely used in multi-threaded environments. (Contributed by Josiah Carlson and Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-8684 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8684].)

timefunc and delayfunct parameters of scheduler class constructor are now optional and defaults to time.time() and time.sleep() respectively. (Contributed by Chris Clark in bpo-13245 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13245].)

enter() and enterabs() argument parameter is now optional. (Contributed by Chris Clark in bpo-13245 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13245].)

enter() and enterabs() now accept a kwargs parameter. (Contributed by Chris Clark in bpo-13245 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13245].)

select

Solaris and derivative platforms have a new class select.devpoll for high performance asynchronous sockets via /dev/poll. (Contributed by Jesús Cea Avión in bpo-6397 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6397].)

shlex

The previously undocumented helper function quote from the pipes modules has been moved to the shlex module and documented. quote() properly escapes all characters in a string that might be otherwise given special meaning by the shell.

shutils

Nouvelles fonctions :

disk_usage(): provides total, used and free disk space statistics. (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-12442 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12442].)

chown(): allows one to change user and/or group of the given path also specifying the user/group names and not only their numeric ids. (Contributed by Sandro Tosi in bpo-12191 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12191].)

shutil.get_terminal_size(): returns the size of the terminal window to which the interpreter is attached. (Contributed by Zbigniew Jędrzejewski-Szmek in bpo-13609 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13609].)

copy2() and copystat() now preserve file timestamps with nanosecond precision on platforms that support it. They also preserve file "extended attributes" on Linux. (Contributed by Larry Hastings in bpo-14127 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14127] and bpo-15238 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15238].)

Several functions now take an optional symlinks argument: when that parameter is true, symlinks aren't dereferenced and the operation instead acts on the symlink itself (or creates one, if relevant). (Contributed by Hynek Schlawack in bpo-12715 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12715].)

When copying files to a different file system, move() now handles symlinks the way the posix mv command does, recreating the symlink rather than copying the target file contents. (Contributed by Jonathan Niehof in bpo-9993 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9993].) move() now also returns the dst argument as its result.

rmtree() is now resistant to symlink attacks on platforms which support the new dir_fd parameter in os.open() and os.unlink(). (Contributed by Martin von Löwis and Hynek Schlawack in bpo-4489 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4489].)

signal

Le module signal a de nouvelles fonctions :

pthread_sigmask(): fetch and/or change the signal mask of the calling thread (Contributed by Jean-Paul Calderone in bpo-8407 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8407]);

pthread_kill(): send a signal to a thread;

sigpending(): examine pending functions;

sigwait(): wait a signal;

sigwaitinfo(): wait for a signal, returning detailed information about it;

sigtimedwait(): like sigwaitinfo() but with a timeout.

The signal handler writes the signal number as a single byte instead of a nul byte into the wakeup file descriptor. So it is possible to wait more than one signal and know which signals were raised.

signal.signal() and signal.siginterrupt() raise an OSError, instead of a RuntimeError: OSError has an errno attribute.

smtpd

The smtpd module now supports RFC 5321 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5321.html] (extended SMTP) and RFC 1870 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1870.html] (size extension). Per the standard, these extensions are enabled if and only if the client initiates the session with an EHLO command.

(Initial ELHO support by Alberto Trevino. Size extension by Juhana Jauhiainen. Substantial additional work on the patch contributed by Michele Orrù and Dan Boswell. bpo-8739 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8739])

smtplib

The SMTP, SMTP_SSL, and LMTP classes now accept a source_address keyword argument to specify the (host, port) to use as the source address in the bind call when creating the outgoing socket. (Contributed by Paulo Scardine in bpo-11281 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11281].)

SMTP now supports the context management protocol, allowing an SMTP instance to be used in a with statement. (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-11289 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11289].)

The SMTP_SSL constructor and the starttls() method now accept an SSLContext parameter to control parameters of the secure channel. (Contributed by Kasun Herath in bpo-8809 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8809].)

socket

The socket class now exposes additional methods to process ancillary data when supported by the underlying platform:

sendmsg()

recvmsg()

recvmsg_into()

(Contributed by David Watson in bpo-6560 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6560], based on an earlier patch by Heiko Wundram)

The socket class now supports the PF_CAN protocol family (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socketcan), on Linux (https://lwn.net/Articles/253425).

(Contributed by Matthias Fuchs, updated by Tiago Gonçalves in bpo-10141 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10141].)

The socket class now supports the PF_RDS protocol family (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliable_Datagram_Sockets and https://oss.oracle.com/projects/rds [https://web.archive.org/web/20130115155505/https://oss.oracle.com/projects/rds/]).

The socket class now supports the PF_SYSTEM protocol family on OS X. (Contributed by Michael Goderbauer in bpo-13777 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13777].)

New function sethostname() allows the hostname to be set on Unix systems if the calling process has sufficient privileges. (Contributed by Ross Lagerwall in bpo-10866 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10866].)

socketserver

BaseServer now has an overridable method service_actions() that is called by the serve_forever() method in the service loop. ForkingMixIn now uses this to clean up zombie child processes. (Contributed by Justin Warkentin in bpo-11109 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11109].)

sqlite3

New sqlite3.Connection method set_trace_callback() can be used to capture a trace of all sql commands processed by sqlite. (Contributed by Torsten Landschoff in bpo-11688 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11688].)

ssl

The ssl module has two new random generation functions:

RAND_bytes(): generate cryptographically strong pseudo-random bytes.

RAND_pseudo_bytes(): generate pseudo-random bytes.

(Contribution par Victor Stinner; bpo-12049 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12049].)

The ssl module now exposes a finer-grained exception hierarchy in order to make it easier to inspect the various kinds of errors. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-11183 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11183].)

load_cert_chain() now accepts a password argument to be used if the private key is encrypted. (Contributed by Adam Simpkins in bpo-12803 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12803].)

Diffie-Hellman key exchange, both regular and Elliptic Curve-based, is now supported through the load_dh_params() and set_ecdh_curve() methods. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-13626 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13626] and bpo-13627 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13627].)

SSL sockets have a new get_channel_binding() method allowing the implementation of certain authentication mechanisms such as SCRAM-SHA-1-PLUS. (Contributed by Jacek Konieczny in bpo-12551 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12551].)

You can query the SSL compression algorithm used by an SSL socket, thanks to its new compression() method. The new attribute OP_NO_COMPRESSION can be used to disable compression. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-13634 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13634].)

Support has been added for the Next Protocol Negotiation extension using the ssl.SSLContext.set_npn_protocols() method. (Contributed by Colin Marc in bpo-14204 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14204].)

SSL errors can now be introspected more easily thanks to library and reason attributes. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-14837 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14837].)

The get_server_certificate() function now supports IPv6. (Contributed by Charles-François Natali in bpo-11811 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11811].)

New attribute OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE allows setting SSLv3 server sockets to use the server's cipher ordering preference rather than the client's (bpo-13635 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13635]).

stat

The undocumented tarfile.filemode function has been moved to stat.filemode(). It can be used to convert a file's mode to a string of the form '-rwxrwxrwx'.

(Contribution par Giampaolo Rodolà; bpo-14807 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14807].)

struct

The struct module now supports ssize_t and size_t via the new codes n and N, respectively. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-3163 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3163].)

subprocess

Command strings can now be bytes objects on posix platforms. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-8513 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8513].)

A new constant DEVNULL allows suppressing output in a platform-independent fashion. (Contributed by Ross Lagerwall in bpo-5870 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5870].)

sys

The sys module has a new thread_info named tuple holding information about the thread implementation (bpo-11223 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11223]).

tarfile

tarfile now supports lzma encoding via the lzma module. (Contributed by Lars Gustäbel in bpo-5689 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5689].)

tempfile

tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile's truncate() method now accepts a size parameter. (Contributed by Ryan Kelly in bpo-9957 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9957].)

textwrap

The textwrap module has a new indent() that makes it straightforward to add a common prefix to selected lines in a block of text (bpo-13857 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13857]).

threading

threading.Condition, threading.Semaphore, threading.BoundedSemaphore, threading.Event, and threading.Timer, all of which used to be factory functions returning a class instance, are now classes and may be subclassed. (Contributed by Éric Araujo in bpo-10968 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10968].)

The threading.Thread constructor now accepts a daemon keyword argument to override the default behavior of inheriting the daemon flag value from the parent thread (bpo-6064 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6064]).

The formerly private function _thread.get_ident is now available as the public function threading.get_ident(). This eliminates several cases of direct access to the _thread module in the stdlib. Third party code that used _thread.get_ident should likewise be changed to use the new public interface.

time

The PEP 418 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0418/] added new functions to the time module:

get_clock_info(): Get information on a clock.

monotonic(): Monotonic clock (cannot go backward), not affected by system clock updates.

perf_counter(): Performance counter with the highest available resolution to measure a short duration.

process_time(): Sum of the system and user CPU time of the current process.

Other new functions:

clock_getres(), clock_gettime() and clock_settime() functions with CLOCK_xxx constants. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-10278 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10278].)

To improve cross platform consistency, sleep() now raises a ValueError when passed a negative sleep value. Previously this was an error on posix, but produced an infinite sleep on Windows.

types

Add a new types.MappingProxyType class: Read-only proxy of a mapping. (bpo-14386 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14386])

The new functions types.new_class() and types.prepare_class() provide support for PEP 3115 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3115/] compliant dynamic type creation. (bpo-14588 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14588])

unittest

assertRaises(), assertRaisesRegex(), assertWarns(), and assertWarnsRegex() now accept a keyword argument msg when used as context managers. (Contributed by Ezio Melotti and Winston Ewert in bpo-10775 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10775].)

unittest.TestCase.run() now returns the TestResult object.

urllib

The Request class, now accepts a method argument used by get_method() to determine what HTTP method should be used. For example, this will send a 'HEAD' request:

>>> urlopen(Request('https://www.python.org', method='HEAD'))

(bpo-1673007 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1673007])

webbrowser

The webbrowser module supports more "browsers": Google Chrome (named chrome, chromium, chrome-browser or chromium-browser depending on the version and operating system), and the generic launchers xdg-open, from the FreeDesktop.org project, and gvfs-open, which is the default URI handler for GNOME 3. (The former contributed by Arnaud Calmettes in bpo-13620 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13620], the latter by Matthias Klose in bpo-14493 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14493].)

xml.etree.ElementTree

The xml.etree.ElementTree module now imports its C accelerator by default; there is no longer a need to explicitly import xml.etree.cElementTree (this module stays for backwards compatibility, but is now deprecated). In addition, the iter family of methods of Element has been optimized (rewritten in C). The module's documentation has also been greatly improved with added examples and a more detailed reference.

zlib

New attribute zlib.Decompress.eof makes it possible to distinguish between a properly formed compressed stream and an incomplete or truncated one. (Contributed by Nadeem Vawda in bpo-12646 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12646].)

New attribute zlib.ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION reports the version string of the underlying zlib library that is loaded at runtime. (Contributed by Torsten Landschoff in bpo-12306 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12306].)

Optimizations

Major performance enhancements have been added:

Thanks to PEP 393 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/], some operations on Unicode strings have been optimized:

the memory footprint is divided by 2 to 4 depending on the text

encode an ASCII string to UTF-8 doesn't need to encode characters anymore, the UTF-8 representation is shared with the ASCII representation

l’encodeur UTF-8 a été optimisé

repeating a single ASCII letter and getting a substring of an ASCII string is 4 times faster

UTF-8 is now 2x to 4x faster. UTF-16 encoding is now up to 10x faster.

(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka, bpo-14624 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14624], bpo-14738 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14738] and bpo-15026 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15026].)

Build and C API Changes

Changes to Python's build process and to the C API include:

New PEP 3118 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/] related function:

PyMemoryView_FromMemory()

PEP 393 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/] added new Unicode types, macros and functions:

High-level API:

PyUnicode_CopyCharacters()

PyUnicode_FindChar()

PyUnicode_GetLength(), PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH

PyUnicode_New()

PyUnicode_Substring()

PyUnicode_ReadChar(), PyUnicode_WriteChar()

Low-level API:

Py_UCS1, Py_UCS2, Py_UCS4 types

PyASCIIObject and PyCompactUnicodeObject structures

PyUnicode_READY

PyUnicode_FromKindAndData()

PyUnicode_AsUCS4(), PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy()

PyUnicode_DATA, PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA, PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA, PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA

PyUnicode_KIND with PyUnicode_Kind enum: PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND, PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND, PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND, PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND

PyUnicode_READ, PyUnicode_READ_CHAR, PyUnicode_WRITE

PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE

PyArg_ParseTuple now accepts a bytearray for the c format (bpo-12380 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12380]).

Obsolescence

Unsupported Operating Systems

OS/2 and VMS are no longer supported due to the lack of a maintainer.

Windows 2000 and Windows platforms which set COMSPEC to command.com are no longer supported due to maintenance burden.

OSF support, which was deprecated in 3.2, has been completely removed.

Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods

Passing a non-empty string to object.__format__() is deprecated, and will produce a TypeError in Python 3.4 (bpo-9856 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9856]).

The unicode_internal codec has been deprecated because of the PEP 393 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/], use UTF-8, UTF-16 (utf-16-le or utf-16-be), or UTF-32 (utf-32-le or utf-32-be)

ftplib.FTP.nlst() and ftplib.FTP.dir(): use ftplib.FTP.mlsd()

platform.popen(): use the subprocess module. Check especially the Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module section (bpo-11377 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11377]).

bpo-13374 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13374]: The Windows bytes API has been deprecated in the os module. Use Unicode filenames, instead of bytes filenames, to not depend on the ANSI code page anymore and to support any filename.

bpo-13988 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13988]: The xml.etree.cElementTree module is deprecated. The accelerator is used automatically whenever available.

The behaviour of time.clock() depends on the platform: use the new time.perf_counter() or time.process_time() function instead, depending on your requirements, to have a well defined behaviour.

The os.stat_float_times() function is deprecated.

abc module:

abc.abstractproperty has been deprecated, use property with abc.abstractmethod() instead.

abc.abstractclassmethod has been deprecated, use classmethod with abc.abstractmethod() instead.

abc.abstractstaticmethod has been deprecated, use staticmethod with abc.abstractmethod() instead.

importlib package:

importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_mtime() is now deprecated in favour of importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_stats() as bytecode files now store both the modification time and size of the source file the bytecode file was compiled from.

Deprecated functions and types of the C API

The Py_UNICODE has been deprecated by PEP 393 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/] and will be removed in Python 4. All functions using this type are deprecated:

Unicode functions and methods using Py_UNICODE and Py_UNICODE* types:

PyUnicode_FromUnicode: use PyUnicode_FromWideChar() or PyUnicode_FromKindAndData()

PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE, PyUnicode_AsUnicode(), PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize(): use PyUnicode_AsWideCharString()

PyUnicode_AS_DATA: use PyUnicode_DATA with PyUnicode_READ and PyUnicode_WRITE

PyUnicode_GET_SIZE, PyUnicode_GetSize(): use PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH or PyUnicode_GetLength()

PyUnicode_GET_DATA_SIZE: use PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(str) * PyUnicode_KIND(str) (only work on ready strings)

PyUnicode_AsUnicodeCopy(): use PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy() or PyUnicode_AsWideCharString()

PyUnicode_GetMax()

Functions and macros manipulating Py_UNICODE* strings:

Py_UNICODE_strlen(): use PyUnicode_GetLength() or PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH

Py_UNICODE_strcat(): use PyUnicode_CopyCharacters() or PyUnicode_FromFormat()

Py_UNICODE_strcpy(), Py_UNICODE_strncpy(), Py_UNICODE_COPY(): use PyUnicode_CopyCharacters() or PyUnicode_Substring()

Py_UNICODE_strcmp(): use PyUnicode_Compare()

Py_UNICODE_strncmp(): use PyUnicode_Tailmatch()

Py_UNICODE_strchr(), Py_UNICODE_strrchr(): use PyUnicode_FindChar()

Py_UNICODE_FILL(): use PyUnicode_Fill()

Py_UNICODE_MATCH

Encodeurs :

PyUnicode_Encode(): use PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject()

PyUnicode_EncodeUTF7()

PyUnicode_EncodeUTF8(): use PyUnicode_AsUTF8() or PyUnicode_AsUTF8String()

PyUnicode_EncodeUTF32()

PyUnicode_EncodeUTF16()

PyUnicode_EncodeUnicodeEscape() use PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString()

PyUnicode_EncodeRawUnicodeEscape() use PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString()

PyUnicode_EncodeLatin1(): use PyUnicode_AsLatin1String()

PyUnicode_EncodeASCII(): use PyUnicode_AsASCIIString()

PyUnicode_EncodeCharmap()

PyUnicode_TranslateCharmap()

PyUnicode_EncodeMBCS(): use PyUnicode_AsMBCSString() or PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage() (with CP_ACP code_page)

PyUnicode_EncodeDecimal(), PyUnicode_TransformDecimalToASCII()

Fonctionnalités obsolètes

The array module's 'u' format code is now deprecated and will be removed in Python 4 together with the rest of the (Py_UNICODE) API.

Portage vers Python 3.3

Cette section liste les changements mentionnés préalablement et d'autres améliorations qui peuvent demander des changements à votre code.

Portage de code Python

Hash randomization is enabled by default. Set the PYTHONHASHSEED environment variable to 0 to disable hash randomization. See also the object.__hash__() method.

bpo-12326 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12326]: On Linux, sys.platform doesn't contain the major version anymore. It is now always 'linux', instead of 'linux2' or 'linux3' depending on the Linux version used to build Python. Replace sys.platform == 'linux2' with sys.platform.startswith('linux'), or directly sys.platform == 'linux' if you don't need to support older Python versions.

bpo-13847 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13847], bpo-14180 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14180]: time and datetime: OverflowError is now raised instead of ValueError if a timestamp is out of range. OSError is now raised if C functions gmtime() or localtime() failed.

The default finders used by import now utilize a cache of what is contained within a specific directory. If you create a Python source file or sourceless bytecode file, make sure to call importlib.invalidate_caches() to clear out the cache for the finders to notice the new file.

ImportError now uses the full name of the module that was attempted to be imported. Doctests that check ImportErrors' message will need to be updated to use the full name of the module instead of just the tail of the name.

The index argument to __import__() now defaults to 0 instead of -1 and no longer support negative values. It was an oversight when PEP 328 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/] was implemented that the default value remained -1. If you need to continue to perform a relative import followed by an absolute import, then perform the relative import using an index of 1, followed by another import using an index of 0. It is preferred, though, that you use importlib.import_module() rather than call __import__() directly.

__import__() no longer allows one to use an index value other than 0 for top-level modules. E.g. __import__('sys', level=1) is now an error.

Because sys.meta_path and sys.path_hooks now have finders on them by default, you will most likely want to use list.insert() instead of list.append() to add to those lists.

Because None is now inserted into sys.path_importer_cache, if you are clearing out entries in the dictionary of paths that do not have a finder, you will need to remove keys paired with values of None and imp.NullImporter to be backwards-compatible. This will lead to extra overhead on older versions of Python that re-insert None into sys.path_importer_cache where it represents the use of implicit finders, but semantically it should not change anything.

importlib.abc.Finder no longer specifies a find_module() abstract method that must be implemented. If you were relying on subclasses to implement that method, make sure to check for the method's existence first. You will probably want to check for find_loader() first, though, in the case of working with path entry finders.

pkgutil has been converted to use importlib internally. This eliminates many edge cases where the old behaviour of the PEP 302 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/] import emulation failed to match the behaviour of the real import system. The import emulation itself is still present, but is now deprecated. The pkgutil.iter_importers() and pkgutil.walk_packages() functions special case the standard import hooks so they are still supported even though they do not provide the non-standard iter_modules() method.

A longstanding RFC-compliance bug (bpo-1079 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1079]) in the parsing done by email.header.decode_header() has been fixed. Code that uses the standard idiom to convert encoded headers into unicode (str(make_header(decode_header(h))) will see no change, but code that looks at the individual tuples returned by decode_header will see that whitespace that precedes or follows ASCII sections is now included in the ASCII section. Code that builds headers using make_header should also continue to work without change, since make_header continues to add whitespace between ASCII and non-ASCII sections if it is not already present in the input strings.

email.utils.formataddr() now does the correct content transfer encoding when passed non-ASCII display names. Any code that depended on the previous buggy behavior that preserved the non-ASCII unicode in the formatted output string will need to be changed (bpo-1690608 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1690608]).

poplib.POP3.quit() may now raise protocol errors like all other poplib methods. Code that assumes quit does not raise poplib.error_proto errors may need to be changed if errors on quit are encountered by a particular application (bpo-11291 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11291]).

The strict argument to email.parser.Parser, deprecated since Python 2.4, has finally been removed.

The deprecated method unittest.TestCase.assertSameElements has been removed.

The deprecated variable time.accept2dyear has been removed.

The deprecated Context._clamp attribute has been removed from the decimal module. It was previously replaced by the public attribute clamp. (See bpo-8540 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8540].)

The undocumented internal helper class SSLFakeFile has been removed from smtplib, since its functionality has long been provided directly by socket.socket.makefile().

Passing a negative value to time.sleep() on Windows now raises an error instead of sleeping forever. It has always raised an error on posix.

The ast.__version__ constant has been removed. If you need to make decisions affected by the AST version, use sys.version_info to make the decision.

Code that used to work around the fact that the threading module used factory functions by subclassing the private classes will need to change to subclass the now-public classes.

The undocumented debugging machinery in the threading module has been removed, simplifying the code. This should have no effect on production code, but is mentioned here in case any application debug frameworks were interacting with it (bpo-13550 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13550]).

Porting C code

In the course of changes to the buffer API the undocumented smalltable member of the Py_buffer structure has been removed and the layout of the PyMemoryViewObject has changed.

All extensions relying on the relevant parts in memoryobject.h or object.h must be rebuilt.

Due to PEP 393, the Py_UNICODE type and all functions using this type are deprecated (but will stay available for at least five years). If you were using low-level Unicode APIs to construct and access unicode objects and you want to benefit of the memory footprint reduction provided by PEP 393 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/], you have to convert your code to the new Unicode API.

However, if you only have been using high-level functions such as PyUnicode_Concat(), PyUnicode_Join() or PyUnicode_FromFormat(), your code will automatically take advantage of the new unicode representations.

PyImport_GetMagicNumber() now returns -1 upon failure.

As a negative value for the level argument to __import__() is no longer valid, the same now holds for PyImport_ImportModuleLevel(). This also means that the value of level used by PyImport_ImportModuleEx() is now 0 instead of -1.

Building C extensions

The range of possible file names for C extensions has been narrowed. Very rarely used spellings have been suppressed: under POSIX, files named xxxmodule.so, xxxmodule.abi3.so and xxxmodule.cpython-*.so are no longer recognized as implementing the xxx module. If you had been generating such files, you have to switch to the other spellings (i.e., remove the module string from the file names).

(implemented in bpo-14040 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14040].)

Command Line Switch Changes

The -Q command-line flag and related artifacts have been removed. Code checking sys.flags.division_warning will need updating.

(bpo-10998 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10998], contributed by Éric Araujo.)

When python is started with -S, import site will no longer add site-specific paths to the module search paths. In previous versions, it did.

(bpo-11591 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11591], contributed by Carl Meyer with editions by Éric Araujo.)

Nouveautés de Python 3.2

Auteur:

Raymond Hettinger

This article explains the new features in Python 3.2 as compared to 3.1. Python 3.2 was released on February 20, 2011. It focuses on a few highlights and gives a few examples. For full details, see the Misc/NEWS [https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/076ca6c3c8df3030307e548d9be792ce3c1c6eea/Misc/NEWS] file.

Voir aussi

PEP 392 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0392/] - Python 3.2 Release Schedule

PEP 384: Defining a Stable ABI

In the past, extension modules built for one Python version were often not usable with other Python versions. Particularly on Windows, every feature release of Python required rebuilding all extension modules that one wanted to use. This requirement was the result of the free access to Python interpreter internals that extension modules could use.

With Python 3.2, an alternative approach becomes available: extension modules which restrict themselves to a limited API (by defining Py_LIMITED_API) cannot use many of the internals, but are constrained to a set of API functions that are promised to be stable for several releases. As a consequence, extension modules built for 3.2 in that mode will also work with 3.3, 3.4, and so on. Extension modules that make use of details of memory structures can still be built, but will need to be recompiled for every feature release.

Voir aussi

PEP 384 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0384/] - Defining a Stable ABI

PEP written by Martin von Löwis.

PEP 389: Argparse Command Line Parsing Module

A new module for command line parsing, argparse, was introduced to overcome the limitations of optparse which did not provide support for positional arguments (not just options), subcommands, required options and other common patterns of specifying and validating options.

This module has already had widespread success in the community as a third-party module. Being more fully featured than its predecessor, the argparse module is now the preferred module for command-line processing. The older module is still being kept available because of the substantial amount of legacy code that depends on it.

Here's an annotated example parser showing features like limiting results to a set of choices, specifying a metavar in the help screen, validating that one or more positional arguments is present, and making a required option:

import argparse
parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
            description = 'Manage servers',         # main description for help
            epilog = 'Tested on Solaris and Linux') # displayed after help
parser.add_argument('action',                       # argument name
            choices = ['deploy', 'start', 'stop'],  # three allowed values
            help = 'action on each target')         # help msg
parser.add_argument('targets',
            metavar = 'HOSTNAME',                   # var name used in help msg
            nargs = '+',                            # require one or more targets
            help = 'url for target machines')       # help msg explanation
parser.add_argument('-u', '--user',                 # -u or --user option
            required = True,                        # make it a required argument
            help = 'login as user')

Example of calling the parser on a command string:

>>> cmd = 'deploy sneezy.example.com sleepy.example.com -u skycaptain'
>>> result = parser.parse_args(cmd.split())
>>> result.action
'deploy'
>>> result.targets
['sneezy.example.com', 'sleepy.example.com']
>>> result.user
'skycaptain'

Example of the parser's automatically generated help:

>>> parser.parse_args('-h'.split())

usage: manage_cloud.py [-h] -u USER
                       {deploy,start,stop} HOSTNAME [HOSTNAME ...]

Manage servers

positional arguments:
  {deploy,start,stop}   action on each target
  HOSTNAME              url for target machines

optional arguments:
  -h, --help            show this help message and exit
  -u USER, --user USER  login as user

Tested on Solaris and Linux

An especially nice argparse feature is the ability to define subparsers, each with their own argument patterns and help displays:

import argparse
parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='HELM')
subparsers = parser.add_subparsers()

parser_l = subparsers.add_parser('launch', help='Launch Control')   # first subgroup
parser_l.add_argument('-m', '--missiles', action='store_true')
parser_l.add_argument('-t', '--torpedos', action='store_true')

parser_m = subparsers.add_parser('move', help='Move Vessel',        # second subgroup
                                 aliases=('steer', 'turn'))         # equivalent names
parser_m.add_argument('-c', '--course', type=int, required=True)
parser_m.add_argument('-s', '--speed', type=int, default=0)

$ ./helm.py --help                         # top level help (launch and move)
$ ./helm.py launch --help                  # help for launch options
$ ./helm.py launch --missiles              # set missiles=True and torpedos=False
$ ./helm.py steer --course 180 --speed 5   # set movement parameters

Voir aussi

PEP 389 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0389/] - New Command Line Parsing Module

PEP written by Steven Bethard.

Migrating optparse code to argparse for details on the differences from optparse.

PEP 391: Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging

The logging module provided two kinds of configuration, one style with function calls for each option or another style driven by an external file saved in a configparser format. Those options did not provide the flexibility to create configurations from JSON or YAML files, nor did they support incremental configuration, which is needed for specifying logger options from a command line.

To support a more flexible style, the module now offers logging.config.dictConfig() for specifying logging configuration with plain Python dictionaries. The configuration options include formatters, handlers, filters, and loggers. Here's a working example of a configuration dictionary:

{"version": 1,
 "formatters": {"brief": {"format": "%(levelname)-8s: %(name)-15s: %(message)s"},
                "full": {"format": "%(asctime)s %(name)-15s %(levelname)-8s %(message)s"}
                },
 "handlers": {"console": {
                   "class": "logging.StreamHandler",
                   "formatter": "brief",
                   "level": "INFO",
                   "stream": "ext://sys.stdout"},
              "console_priority": {
                   "class": "logging.StreamHandler",
                   "formatter": "full",
                   "level": "ERROR",
                   "stream": "ext://sys.stderr"}
              },
 "root": {"level": "DEBUG", "handlers": ["console", "console_priority"]}}

If that dictionary is stored in a file called conf.json, it can be loaded and called with code like this:

>>> import json, logging.config
>>> with open('conf.json') as f:
...     conf = json.load(f)
...
>>> logging.config.dictConfig(conf)
>>> logging.info("Transaction completed normally")
INFO    : root           : Transaction completed normally
>>> logging.critical("Abnormal termination")
2011-02-17 11:14:36,694 root            CRITICAL Abnormal termination

Voir aussi

PEP 391 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0391/] - Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging

PEP written by Vinay Sajip.

PEP 3148: The concurrent.futures module

Code for creating and managing concurrency is being collected in a new top-level namespace, concurrent. Its first member is a futures package which provides a uniform high-level interface for managing threads and processes.

The design for concurrent.futures was inspired by the java.util.concurrent package. In that model, a running call and its result are represented by a Future object that abstracts features common to threads, processes, and remote procedure calls. That object supports status checks (running or done), timeouts, cancellations, adding callbacks, and access to results or exceptions.

The primary offering of the new module is a pair of executor classes for launching and managing calls. The goal of the executors is to make it easier to use existing tools for making parallel calls. They save the effort needed to setup a pool of resources, launch the calls, create a results queue, add time-out handling, and limit the total number of threads, processes, or remote procedure calls.

Ideally, each application should share a single executor across multiple components so that process and thread limits can be centrally managed. This solves the design challenge that arises when each component has its own competing strategy for resource management.

Both classes share a common interface with three methods: submit() for scheduling a callable and returning a Future object; map() for scheduling many asynchronous calls at a time, and shutdown() for freeing resources. The class is a context manager and can be used in a with statement to assure that resources are automatically released when currently pending futures are done executing.

A simple of example of ThreadPoolExecutor is a launch of four parallel threads for copying files:

import concurrent.futures, shutil
with concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=4) as e:
    e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src1.txt', 'dest1.txt')
    e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src2.txt', 'dest2.txt')
    e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src3.txt', 'dest3.txt')
    e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src3.txt', 'dest4.txt')

Voir aussi

PEP 3148 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3148/] - Futures -- Execute Computations Asynchronously

PEP written by Brian Quinlan.

Code for Threaded Parallel URL reads, an example using threads to fetch multiple web pages in parallel.

Code for computing prime numbers in parallel, an example demonstrating ProcessPoolExecutor.

PEP 3147: PYC Repository Directories

Python's scheme for caching bytecode in .pyc files did not work well in environments with multiple Python interpreters. If one interpreter encountered a cached file created by another interpreter, it would recompile the source and overwrite the cached file, thus losing the benefits of caching.

The issue of "pyc fights" has become more pronounced as it has become commonplace for Linux distributions to ship with multiple versions of Python. These conflicts also arise with CPython alternatives such as Unladen Swallow.

To solve this problem, Python's import machinery has been extended to use distinct filenames for each interpreter. Instead of Python 3.2 and Python 3.3 and Unladen Swallow each competing for a file called "mymodule.pyc", they will now look for "mymodule.cpython-32.pyc", "mymodule.cpython-33.pyc", and "mymodule.unladen10.pyc". And to prevent all of these new files from cluttering source directories, the pyc files are now collected in a "__pycache__" directory stored under the package directory.

Aside from the filenames and target directories, the new scheme has a few aspects that are visible to the programmer:

Imported modules now have a __cached__ attribute which stores the name of the actual file that was imported:

>>> import collections
>>> collections.__cached__
'c:/py32/lib/__pycache__/collections.cpython-32.pyc'

The tag that is unique to each interpreter is accessible from the imp module:

>>> import imp
>>> imp.get_tag()
'cpython-32'

Scripts that try to deduce source filename from the imported file now need to be smarter. It is no longer sufficient to simply strip the "c" from a ".pyc" filename. Instead, use the new functions in the imp module:

>>> imp.source_from_cache('c:/py32/lib/__pycache__/collections.cpython-32.pyc')
'c:/py32/lib/collections.py'
>>> imp.cache_from_source('c:/py32/lib/collections.py')
'c:/py32/lib/__pycache__/collections.cpython-32.pyc'

The py_compile and compileall modules have been updated to reflect the new naming convention and target directory. The command-line invocation of compileall has new options: -i for specifying a list of files and directories to compile and -b which causes bytecode files to be written to their legacy location rather than __pycache__.

The importlib.abc module has been updated with new abstract base classes for loading bytecode files. The obsolete ABCs, PyLoader and PyPycLoader, have been deprecated (instructions on how to stay Python 3.1 compatible are included with the documentation).

Voir aussi

PEP 3147 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/] - PYC Repository Directories

PEP written by Barry Warsaw.

PEP 3149: ABI Version Tagged .so Files

The PYC repository directory allows multiple bytecode cache files to be co-located. This PEP implements a similar mechanism for shared object files by giving them a common directory and distinct names for each version.

The common directory is "pyshared" and the file names are made distinct by identifying the Python implementation (such as CPython, PyPy, Jython, etc.), the major and minor version numbers, and optional build flags (such as "d" for debug, "m" for pymalloc, "u" for wide-unicode). For an arbitrary package "foo", you may see these files when the distribution package is installed:

/usr/share/pyshared/foo.cpython-32m.so
/usr/share/pyshared/foo.cpython-33md.so

In Python itself, the tags are accessible from functions in the sysconfig module:

>>> import sysconfig
>>> sysconfig.get_config_var('SOABI')       # find the version tag
'cpython-32mu'
>>> sysconfig.get_config_var('EXT_SUFFIX')  # find the full filename extension
'.cpython-32mu.so'

Voir aussi

PEP 3149 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3149/] - ABI Version Tagged .so Files

PEP written by Barry Warsaw.

PEP 3333: Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1

This informational PEP clarifies how bytes/text issues are to be handled by the WSGI protocol. The challenge is that string handling in Python 3 is most conveniently handled with the str type even though the HTTP protocol is itself bytes oriented.

The PEP differentiates so-called native strings that are used for request/response headers and metadata versus byte strings which are used for the bodies of requests and responses.

The native strings are always of type str but are restricted to code points between U+0000 through U+00FF which are translatable to bytes using Latin-1 encoding. These strings are used for the keys and values in the environment dictionary and for response headers and statuses in the start_response() function. They must follow RFC 2616 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html] with respect to encoding. That is, they must either be ISO-8859-1 characters or use RFC 2047 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html] MIME encoding.

For developers porting WSGI applications from Python 2, here are the salient points:

If the app already used strings for headers in Python 2, no change is needed.

If instead, the app encoded output headers or decoded input headers, then the headers will need to be re-encoded to Latin-1. For example, an output header encoded in utf-8 was using h.encode('utf-8') now needs to convert from bytes to native strings using h.encode('utf-8').decode('latin-1').

Values yielded by an application or sent using the write() method must be byte strings. The start_response() function and environ must use native strings. The two cannot be mixed.

For server implementers writing CGI-to-WSGI pathways or other CGI-style protocols, the users must to be able access the environment using native strings even though the underlying platform may have a different convention. To bridge this gap, the wsgiref module has a new function, wsgiref.handlers.read_environ() for transcoding CGI variables from os.environ into native strings and returning a new dictionary.

Voir aussi

PEP 3333 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/] - Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1

PEP written by Phillip Eby.

Autres changements au langage

Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:

String formatting for format() and str.format() gained new capabilities for the format character #. Previously, for integers in binary, octal, or hexadecimal, it caused the output to be prefixed with '0b', '0o', or '0x' respectively. Now it can also handle floats, complex, and Decimal, causing the output to always have a decimal point even when no digits follow it.

>>> format(20, '#o')
'0o24'
>>> format(12.34, '#5.0f')
'  12.'

(Suggested by Mark Dickinson and implemented by Eric Smith in bpo-7094 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7094].)

There is also a new str.format_map() method that extends the capabilities of the existing str.format() method by accepting arbitrary mapping objects. This new method makes it possible to use string formatting with any of Python's many dictionary-like objects such as defaultdict, Shelf, ConfigParser, or dbm. It is also useful with custom dict subclasses that normalize keys before look-up or that supply a __missing__() method for unknown keys:

>>> import shelve
>>> d = shelve.open('tmp.shl')
>>> 'The {project_name} status is {status} as of {date}'.format_map(d)
'The testing project status is green as of February 15, 2011'

>>> class LowerCasedDict(dict):
...     def __getitem__(self, key):
...         return dict.__getitem__(self, key.lower())
...
>>> lcd = LowerCasedDict(part='widgets', quantity=10)
>>> 'There are {QUANTITY} {Part} in stock'.format_map(lcd)
'There are 10 widgets in stock'

>>> class PlaceholderDict(dict):
...     def __missing__(self, key):
...         return '<{}>'.format(key)
...
>>> 'Hello {name}, welcome to {location}'.format_map(PlaceholderDict())
'Hello <name>, welcome to <location>'

(Suggested by Raymond Hettinger and implemented by Eric Smith in bpo-6081 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6081].)

The interpreter can now be started with a quiet option, -q, to prevent the copyright and version information from being displayed in the interactive mode. The option can be introspected using the sys.flags attribute:

$ python -q
>>> sys.flags
sys.flags(debug=0, division_warning=0, inspect=0, interactive=0,
optimize=0, dont_write_bytecode=0, no_user_site=0, no_site=0,
ignore_environment=0, verbose=0, bytes_warning=0, quiet=1)

(Contribution par Marcin Wojdyr; bpo-1772833 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1772833]).

The hasattr() function works by calling getattr() and detecting whether an exception is raised. This technique allows it to detect methods created dynamically by __getattr__() or __getattribute__() which would otherwise be absent from the class dictionary. Formerly, hasattr would catch any exception, possibly masking genuine errors. Now, hasattr has been tightened to only catch AttributeError and let other exceptions pass through:

>>> class A:
...     @property
...     def f(self):
...         return 1 // 0
...
>>> a = A()
>>> hasattr(a, 'f')
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
ZeroDivisionError: integer division or modulo by zero

(Discovered by Yury Selivanov and fixed by Benjamin Peterson; bpo-9666 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9666].)

The str() of a float or complex number is now the same as its repr(). Previously, the str() form was shorter but that just caused confusion and is no longer needed now that the shortest possible repr() is displayed by default:

>>> import math
>>> repr(math.pi)
'3.141592653589793'
>>> str(math.pi)
'3.141592653589793'

(Proposed and implemented by Mark Dickinson; bpo-9337 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9337].)

memoryview objects now have a release() method and they also now support the context management protocol. This allows timely release of any resources that were acquired when requesting a buffer from the original object.

>>> with memoryview(b'abcdefgh') as v:
...     print(v.tolist())
[97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104]

(Contribution par Antoine Pitrou; bpo-9757 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9757].)

Previously it was illegal to delete a name from the local namespace if it occurs as a free variable in a nested block:

def outer(x):
    def inner():
        return x
    inner()
    del x

This is now allowed. Remember that the target of an except clause is cleared, so this code which used to work with Python 2.6, raised a SyntaxError with Python 3.1 and now works again:

def f():
    def print_error():
        print(e)
    try:
        something
    except Exception as e:
        print_error()
        # implicit "del e" here

(See bpo-4617 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4617].)

Struct sequence types are now subclasses of tuple. This means that C structures like those returned by os.stat(), time.gmtime(), and sys.version_info now work like a named tuple and now work with functions and methods that expect a tuple as an argument. This is a big step forward in making the C structures as flexible as their pure Python counterparts:

>>> import sys
>>> isinstance(sys.version_info, tuple)
True
>>> 'Version %d.%d.%d %s(%d)' % sys.version_info
'Version 3.2.0 final(0)'

(Suggested by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis and implemented by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-8413 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8413].)

Warnings are now easier to control using the PYTHONWARNINGS environment variable as an alternative to using -W at the command line:

$ export PYTHONWARNINGS='ignore::RuntimeWarning::,once::UnicodeWarning::'

(Suggested by Barry Warsaw and implemented by Philip Jenvey in bpo-7301 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7301].)

A new warning category, ResourceWarning, has been added. It is emitted when potential issues with resource consumption or cleanup are detected. It is silenced by default in normal release builds but can be enabled through the means provided by the warnings module, or on the command line.

A ResourceWarning is issued at interpreter shutdown if the gc.garbage list isn't empty, and if gc.DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE is set, all uncollectable objects are printed. This is meant to make the programmer aware that their code contains object finalization issues.

A ResourceWarning is also issued when a file object is destroyed without having been explicitly closed. While the deallocator for such object ensures it closes the underlying operating system resource (usually, a file descriptor), the delay in deallocating the object could produce various issues, especially under Windows. Here is an example of enabling the warning from the command line:

$ python -q -Wdefault
>>> f = open("foo", "wb")
>>> del f
__main__:1: ResourceWarning: unclosed file <_io.BufferedWriter name='foo'>

(Added by Antoine Pitrou and Georg Brandl in bpo-10093 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10093] and bpo-477863 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=477863].)

range objects now support index and count methods. This is part of an effort to make more objects fully implement the collections.Sequence abstract base class. As a result, the language will have a more uniform API. In addition, range objects now support slicing and negative indices, even with values larger than sys.maxsize. This makes range more interoperable with lists:

>>> range(0, 100, 2).count(10)
1
>>> range(0, 100, 2).index(10)
5
>>> range(0, 100, 2)[5]
10
>>> range(0, 100, 2)[0:5]
range(0, 10, 2)

(Contributed by Daniel Stutzbach in bpo-9213 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9213], by Alexander Belopolsky in bpo-2690 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2690], and by Nick Coghlan in bpo-10889 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10889].)

The callable() builtin function from Py2.x was resurrected. It provides a concise, readable alternative to using an abstract base class in an expression like isinstance(x, collections.Callable):

>>> callable(max)
True
>>> callable(20)
False

(See bpo-10518 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10518].)

Python's import mechanism can now load modules installed in directories with non-ASCII characters in the path name. This solved an aggravating problem with home directories for users with non-ASCII characters in their usernames.

(Required extensive work by Victor Stinner in bpo-9425 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9425].)

New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules

Python's standard library has undergone significant maintenance efforts and quality improvements.

The biggest news for Python 3.2 is that the email package, mailbox module, and nntplib modules now work correctly with the bytes/text model in Python 3. For the first time, there is correct handling of messages with mixed encodings.

Throughout the standard library, there has been more careful attention to encodings and text versus bytes issues. In particular, interactions with the operating system are now better able to exchange non-ASCII data using the Windows MBCS encoding, locale-aware encodings, or UTF-8.

Another significant win is the addition of substantially better support for SSL connections and security certificates.

In addition, more classes now implement a context manager to support convenient and reliable resource clean-up using a with statement.

email

The usability of the email package in Python 3 has been mostly fixed by the extensive efforts of R. David Murray. The problem was that emails are typically read and stored in the form of bytes rather than str text, and they may contain multiple encodings within a single email. So, the email package had to be extended to parse and generate email messages in bytes format.

New functions message_from_bytes() and message_from_binary_file(), and new classes BytesFeedParser and BytesParser allow binary message data to be parsed into model objects.

Given bytes input to the model, get_payload() will by default decode a message body that has a Content-Transfer-Encoding of 8bit using the charset specified in the MIME headers and return the resulting string.

Given bytes input to the model, Generator will convert message bodies that have a Content-Transfer-Encoding of 8bit to instead have a 7bit Content-Transfer-Encoding.

Headers with unencoded non-ASCII bytes are deemed to be RFC 2047 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html]-encoded using the unknown-8bit character set.

A new class BytesGenerator produces bytes as output, preserving any unchanged non-ASCII data that was present in the input used to build the model, including message bodies with a Content-Transfer-Encoding of 8bit.

The smtplib SMTP class now accepts a byte string for the msg argument to the sendmail() method, and a new method, send_message() accepts a Message object and can optionally obtain the from_addr and to_addrs addresses directly from the object.

(Proposed and implemented by R. David Murray, bpo-4661 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4661] and bpo-10321 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10321].)

elementtree

The xml.etree.ElementTree package and its xml.etree.cElementTree counterpart have been updated to version 1.3.

Several new and useful functions and methods have been added:

xml.etree.ElementTree.fromstringlist() which builds an XML document from a sequence of fragments

xml.etree.ElementTree.register_namespace() for registering a global namespace prefix

xml.etree.ElementTree.tostringlist() for string representation including all sublists

xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.extend() for appending a sequence of zero or more elements

xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.iterfind() searches an element and subelements

xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.itertext() creates a text iterator over an element and its subelements

xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.end() closes the current element

xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.doctype() handles a doctype declaration

Deux méthodes ont été dépréciées :

xml.etree.ElementTree.getchildren() use list(elem) instead.

xml.etree.ElementTree.getiterator() use Element.iter instead.

For details of the update, see Introducing ElementTree [https://web.archive.org/web/20200703234532/http://effbot.org/zone/elementtree-13-intro.htm] on Fredrik Lundh's website.

(Contribution par Florent Xicluna et Fredrik Lundh; bpo-6472 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6472])

functools

The functools module includes a new decorator for caching function calls. functools.lru_cache() can save repeated queries to an external resource whenever the results are expected to be the same.

For example, adding a caching decorator to a database query function can save database accesses for popular searches:

>>> import functools
>>> @functools.lru_cache(maxsize=300)
... def get_phone_number(name):
...     c = conn.cursor()
...     c.execute('SELECT phonenumber FROM phonelist WHERE name=?', (name,))
...     return c.fetchone()[0]

>>> for name in user_requests:
...     get_phone_number(name)        # cached lookup

To help with choosing an effective cache size, the wrapped function is instrumented for tracking cache statistics:

>>> get_phone_number.cache_info()
CacheInfo(hits=4805, misses=980, maxsize=300, currsize=300)

If the phonelist table gets updated, the outdated contents of the cache can be cleared with:

>>> get_phone_number.cache_clear()

(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and incorporating design ideas from Jim Baker, Miki Tebeka, and Nick Coghlan; see recipe 498245 [https://code.activestate.com/recipes/498245-lru-and-lfu-cache-decorators/], recipe 577479 [https://code.activestate.com/recipes/577479-simple-caching-decorator/], bpo-10586 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10586], and bpo-10593 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10593].)

The functools.wraps() decorator now adds a __wrapped__ attribute pointing to the original callable function. This allows wrapped functions to be introspected. It also copies __annotations__ if defined. And now it also gracefully skips over missing attributes such as __doc__ which might not be defined for the wrapped callable.

In the above example, the cache can be removed by recovering the original function:

>>> get_phone_number = get_phone_number.__wrapped__    # uncached function

(By Nick Coghlan and Terrence Cole; bpo-9567 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9567], bpo-3445 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3445], and bpo-8814 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8814].)

To help write classes with rich comparison methods, a new decorator functools.total_ordering() will use existing equality and inequality methods to fill in the remaining methods.

For example, supplying __eq__ and __lt__ will enable total_ordering() to fill-in __le__, __gt__ and __ge__:

@total_ordering
class Student:
    def __eq__(self, other):
        return ((self.lastname.lower(), self.firstname.lower()) ==
                (other.lastname.lower(), other.firstname.lower()))

    def __lt__(self, other):
        return ((self.lastname.lower(), self.firstname.lower()) <
                (other.lastname.lower(), other.firstname.lower()))

With the total_ordering decorator, the remaining comparison methods are filled in automatically.

(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

To aid in porting programs from Python 2, the functools.cmp_to_key() function converts an old-style comparison function to modern key function:

>>> # locale-aware sort order
>>> sorted(iterable, key=cmp_to_key(locale.strcoll))

For sorting examples and a brief sorting tutorial, see the Sorting HowTo [https://wiki.python.org/moin/HowTo/Sorting/] tutorial.

(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

itertools

The itertools module has a new accumulate() function modeled on APL's scan operator and Numpy's accumulate function:

>>> from itertools import accumulate
>>> list(accumulate([8, 2, 50]))
[8, 10, 60]

>>> prob_dist = [0.1, 0.4, 0.2, 0.3]
>>> list(accumulate(prob_dist))      # cumulative probability distribution
[0.1, 0.5, 0.7, 1.0]

For an example using accumulate(), see the examples for the random module.

(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and incorporating design suggestions from Mark Dickinson.)

collections

The collections.Counter class now has two forms of in-place subtraction, the existing -= operator for saturating subtraction [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturation_arithmetic] and the new subtract() method for regular subtraction. The former is suitable for multisets [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiset] which only have positive counts, and the latter is more suitable for use cases that allow negative counts:

>>> from collections import Counter
>>> tally = Counter(dogs=5, cats=3)
>>> tally -= Counter(dogs=2, cats=8)    # saturating subtraction
>>> tally
Counter({'dogs': 3})

>>> tally = Counter(dogs=5, cats=3)
>>> tally.subtract(dogs=2, cats=8)      # regular subtraction
>>> tally
Counter({'dogs': 3, 'cats': -5})

(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

The collections.OrderedDict class has a new method move_to_end() which takes an existing key and moves it to either the first or last position in the ordered sequence.

The default is to move an item to the last position. This is equivalent of renewing an entry with od[k] = od.pop(k).

A fast move-to-end operation is useful for resequencing entries. For example, an ordered dictionary can be used to track order of access by aging entries from the oldest to the most recently accessed.

>>> from collections import OrderedDict
>>> d = OrderedDict.fromkeys(['a', 'b', 'X', 'd', 'e'])
>>> list(d)
['a', 'b', 'X', 'd', 'e']
>>> d.move_to_end('X')
>>> list(d)
['a', 'b', 'd', 'e', 'X']

(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

The collections.deque class grew two new methods count() and reverse() that make them more substitutable for list objects:

>>> from collections import deque
>>> d = deque('simsalabim')
>>> d.count('s')
2
>>> d.reverse()
>>> d
deque(['m', 'i', 'b', 'a', 'l', 'a', 's', 'm', 'i', 's'])

(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

threading

The threading module has a new Barrier synchronization class for making multiple threads wait until all of them have reached a common barrier point. Barriers are useful for making sure that a task with multiple preconditions does not run until all of the predecessor tasks are complete.

Barriers can work with an arbitrary number of threads. This is a generalization of a Rendezvous [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronous_rendezvous] which is defined for only two threads.

Implemented as a two-phase cyclic barrier, Barrier objects are suitable for use in loops. The separate filling and draining phases assure that all threads get released (drained) before any one of them can loop back and re-enter the barrier. The barrier fully resets after each cycle.

Example of using barriers:

from threading import Barrier, Thread

def get_votes(site):
    ballots = conduct_election(site)
    all_polls_closed.wait()        # do not count until all polls are closed
    totals = summarize(ballots)
    publish(site, totals)

all_polls_closed = Barrier(len(sites))
for site in sites:
    Thread(target=get_votes, args=(site,)).start()

In this example, the barrier enforces a rule that votes cannot be counted at any polling site until all polls are closed. Notice how a solution with a barrier is similar to one with threading.Thread.join(), but the threads stay alive and continue to do work (summarizing ballots) after the barrier point is crossed.

If any of the predecessor tasks can hang or be delayed, a barrier can be created with an optional timeout parameter. Then if the timeout period elapses before all the predecessor tasks reach the barrier point, all waiting threads are released and a BrokenBarrierError exception is raised:

def get_votes(site):
    ballots = conduct_election(site)
    try:
        all_polls_closed.wait(timeout=midnight - time.now())
    except BrokenBarrierError:
        lockbox = seal_ballots(ballots)
        queue.put(lockbox)
    else:
        totals = summarize(ballots)
        publish(site, totals)

In this example, the barrier enforces a more robust rule. If some election sites do not finish before midnight, the barrier times-out and the ballots are sealed and deposited in a queue for later handling.

See Barrier Synchronization Patterns [https://osl.cs.illinois.edu/media/papers/karmani-2009-barrier_synchronization_pattern.pdf] for more examples of how barriers can be used in parallel computing. Also, there is a simple but thorough explanation of barriers in The Little Book of Semaphores [https://greenteapress.com/semaphores/LittleBookOfSemaphores.pdf], section 3.6.

(Contributed by Kristján Valur Jónsson with an API review by Jeffrey Yasskin in bpo-8777 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8777].)

datetime and time

The datetime module has a new type timezone that implements the tzinfo interface by returning a fixed UTC offset and timezone name. This makes it easier to create timezone-aware datetime objects:

>>> import datetime as dt

>>> dt.datetime.now(dt.timezone.utc)
datetime.datetime(2010, 12, 8, 21, 4, 2, 923754, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)

>>> dt.datetime.strptime("01/01/2000 12:00 +0000", "%m/%d/%Y %H:%M %z")
datetime.datetime(2000, 1, 1, 12, 0, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)

Also, timedelta objects can now be multiplied by float and divided by float and int objects. And timedelta objects can now divide one another.

The datetime.date.strftime() method is no longer restricted to years after 1900. The new supported year range is from 1000 to 9999 inclusive.

Whenever a two-digit year is used in a time tuple, the interpretation has been governed by time.accept2dyear. The default is True which means that for a two-digit year, the century is guessed according to the POSIX rules governing the %y strptime format.

Starting with Py3.2, use of the century guessing heuristic will emit a DeprecationWarning. Instead, it is recommended that time.accept2dyear be set to False so that large date ranges can be used without guesswork:

>>> import time, warnings
>>> warnings.resetwarnings()      # remove the default warning filters

>>> time.accept2dyear = True      # guess whether 11 means 11 or 2011
>>> time.asctime((11, 1, 1, 12, 34, 56, 4, 1, 0))
Warning (from warnings module):
  ...
DeprecationWarning: Century info guessed for a 2-digit year.
'Fri Jan  1 12:34:56 2011'

>>> time.accept2dyear = False     # use the full range of allowable dates
>>> time.asctime((11, 1, 1, 12, 34, 56, 4, 1, 0))
'Fri Jan  1 12:34:56 11'

Several functions now have significantly expanded date ranges. When time.accept2dyear is false, the time.asctime() function will accept any year that fits in a C int, while the time.mktime() and time.strftime() functions will accept the full range supported by the corresponding operating system functions.

(Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky and Victor Stinner in bpo-1289118 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1289118], bpo-5094 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5094], bpo-6641 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6641], bpo-2706 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2706], bpo-1777412 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1777412], bpo-8013 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8013], and bpo-10827 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10827].)

math

The math module has been updated with six new functions inspired by the C99 standard.

The isfinite() function provides a reliable and fast way to detect special values. It returns True for regular numbers and False for Nan or Infinity:

>>> from math import isfinite
>>> [isfinite(x) for x in (123, 4.56, float('Nan'), float('Inf'))]
[True, True, False, False]

The expm1() function computes e**x-1 for small values of x without incurring the loss of precision that usually accompanies the subtraction of nearly equal quantities:

>>> from math import expm1
>>> expm1(0.013671875)   # more accurate way to compute e**x-1 for a small x
0.013765762467652909

The erf() function computes a probability integral or Gaussian error function [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_function]. The complementary error function, erfc(), is 1 - erf(x):

>>> from math import erf, erfc, sqrt
>>> erf(1.0/sqrt(2.0))   # portion of normal distribution within 1 standard deviation
0.682689492137086
>>> erfc(1.0/sqrt(2.0))  # portion of normal distribution outside 1 standard deviation
0.31731050786291404
>>> erf(1.0/sqrt(2.0)) + erfc(1.0/sqrt(2.0))
1.0

The gamma() function is a continuous extension of the factorial function. See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_function for details. Because the function is related to factorials, it grows large even for small values of x, so there is also a lgamma() function for computing the natural logarithm of the gamma function:

>>> from math import gamma, lgamma
>>> gamma(7.0)           # six factorial
720.0
>>> lgamma(801.0)        # log(800 factorial)
4551.950730698041

(Contributed by Mark Dickinson.)

abc

The abc module now supports abstractclassmethod() and abstractstaticmethod().

These tools make it possible to define an abstract base class that requires a particular classmethod() or staticmethod() to be implemented:

class Temperature(metaclass=abc.ABCMeta):
    @abc.abstractclassmethod
    def from_fahrenheit(cls, t):
        ...
    @abc.abstractclassmethod
    def from_celsius(cls, t):
        ...

(Patch submitted by Daniel Urban; bpo-5867 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5867].)

io

The io.BytesIO has a new method, getbuffer(), which provides functionality similar to memoryview(). It creates an editable view of the data without making a copy. The buffer's random access and support for slice notation are well-suited to in-place editing:

>>> REC_LEN, LOC_START, LOC_LEN = 34, 7, 11

>>> def change_location(buffer, record_number, location):
...     start = record_number * REC_LEN + LOC_START
...     buffer[start: start+LOC_LEN] = location

>>> import io

>>> byte_stream = io.BytesIO(
...     b'G3805  storeroom  Main chassis    '
...     b'X7899  shipping   Reserve cog     '
...     b'L6988  receiving  Primary sprocket'
... )
>>> buffer = byte_stream.getbuffer()
>>> change_location(buffer, 1, b'warehouse  ')
>>> change_location(buffer, 0, b'showroom   ')
>>> print(byte_stream.getvalue())
b'G3805  showroom   Main chassis    '
b'X7899  warehouse  Reserve cog     '
b'L6988  receiving  Primary sprocket'

(Contribution par Antoine Pitrou; bpo-5506 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5506].)

reprlib

When writing a __repr__() method for a custom container, it is easy to forget to handle the case where a member refers back to the container itself. Python's builtin objects such as list and set handle self-reference by displaying "..." in the recursive part of the representation string.

To help write such __repr__() methods, the reprlib module has a new decorator, recursive_repr(), for detecting recursive calls to __repr__() and substituting a placeholder string instead:

>>> class MyList(list):
...     @recursive_repr()
...     def __repr__(self):
...         return '<' + '|'.join(map(repr, self)) + '>'
...
>>> m = MyList('abc')
>>> m.append(m)
>>> m.append('x')
>>> print(m)
<'a'|'b'|'c'|...|'x'>

(Contribution par Raymond Hettinger; bpo-9826 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9826] et bpo-9840 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9840])

logging

In addition to dictionary-based configuration described above, the logging package has many other improvements.

The logging documentation has been augmented by a basic tutorial, an advanced tutorial, and a cookbook of logging recipes. These documents are the fastest way to learn about logging.

The logging.basicConfig() set-up function gained a style argument to support three different types of string formatting. It defaults to "%" for traditional %-formatting, can be set to "{" for the new str.format() style, or can be set to "$" for the shell-style formatting provided by string.Template. The following three configurations are equivalent:

>>> from logging import basicConfig
>>> basicConfig(style='%', format="%(name)s -> %(levelname)s: %(message)s")
>>> basicConfig(style='{', format="{name} -> {levelname} {message}")
>>> basicConfig(style='$', format="$name -> $levelname: $message")

If no configuration is set-up before a logging event occurs, there is now a default configuration using a StreamHandler directed to sys.stderr for events of WARNING level or higher. Formerly, an event occurring before a configuration was set-up would either raise an exception or silently drop the event depending on the value of logging.raiseExceptions. The new default handler is stored in logging.lastResort.

The use of filters has been simplified. Instead of creating a Filter object, the predicate can be any Python callable that returns True or False.

There were a number of other improvements that add flexibility and simplify configuration. See the module documentation for a full listing of changes in Python 3.2.

csv

The csv module now supports a new dialect, unix_dialect, which applies quoting for all fields and a traditional Unix style with '\n' as the line terminator. The registered dialect name is unix.

The csv.DictWriter has a new method, writeheader() for writing-out an initial row to document the field names:

>>> import csv, sys
>>> w = csv.DictWriter(sys.stdout, ['name', 'dept'], dialect='unix')
>>> w.writeheader()
"name","dept"
>>> w.writerows([
...     {'name': 'tom', 'dept': 'accounting'},
...     {'name': 'susan', 'dept': 'Salesl'}])
"tom","accounting"
"susan","sales"

(New dialect suggested by Jay Talbot in bpo-5975 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5975], and the new method suggested by Ed Abraham in bpo-1537721 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1537721].)

contextlib

There is a new and slightly mind-blowing tool ContextDecorator that is helpful for creating a context manager that does double duty as a function decorator.

As a convenience, this new functionality is used by contextmanager() so that no extra effort is needed to support both roles.

The basic idea is that both context managers and function decorators can be used for pre-action and post-action wrappers. Context managers wrap a group of statements using a with statement, and function decorators wrap a group of statements enclosed in a function. So, occasionally there is a need to write a pre-action or post-action wrapper that can be used in either role.

For example, it is sometimes useful to wrap functions or groups of statements with a logger that can track the time of entry and time of exit. Rather than writing both a function decorator and a context manager for the task, the contextmanager() provides both capabilities in a single definition:

from contextlib import contextmanager
import logging

logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO)

@contextmanager
def track_entry_and_exit(name):
    logging.info('Entering: %s', name)
    yield
    logging.info('Exiting: %s', name)

Formerly, this would have only been usable as a context manager:

with track_entry_and_exit('widget loader'):
    print('Some time consuming activity goes here')
    load_widget()

Now, it can be used as a decorator as well:

@track_entry_and_exit('widget loader')
def activity():
    print('Some time consuming activity goes here')
    load_widget()

Trying to fulfill two roles at once places some limitations on the technique. Context managers normally have the flexibility to return an argument usable by a with statement, but there is no parallel for function decorators.

In the above example, there is not a clean way for the track_entry_and_exit context manager to return a logging instance for use in the body of enclosed statements.

(Contribution par Michael Foord; bpo-9110 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9110])

decimal and fractions

Mark Dickinson crafted an elegant and efficient scheme for assuring that different numeric datatypes will have the same hash value whenever their actual values are equal (bpo-8188 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8188]):

assert hash(Fraction(3, 2)) == hash(1.5) == \
       hash(Decimal("1.5")) == hash(complex(1.5, 0))

Some of the hashing details are exposed through a new attribute, sys.hash_info, which describes the bit width of the hash value, the prime modulus, the hash values for infinity and nan, and the multiplier used for the imaginary part of a number:

>>> sys.hash_info
sys.hash_info(width=64, modulus=2305843009213693951, inf=314159, nan=0, imag=1000003)

An early decision to limit the interoperability of various numeric types has been relaxed. It is still unsupported (and ill-advised) to have implicit mixing in arithmetic expressions such as Decimal('1.1') + float('1.1') because the latter loses information in the process of constructing the binary float. However, since existing floating-point value can be converted losslessly to either a decimal or rational representation, it makes sense to add them to the constructor and to support mixed-type comparisons.

The decimal.Decimal constructor now accepts float objects directly so there in no longer a need to use the from_float() method (bpo-8257 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8257]).

Mixed type comparisons are now fully supported so that Decimal objects can be directly compared with float and fractions.Fraction (bpo-2531 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2531] and bpo-8188 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8188]).

Similar changes were made to fractions.Fraction so that the from_float() and from_decimal() methods are no longer needed (bpo-8294 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8294]):

>>> from decimal import Decimal
>>> from fractions import Fraction
>>> Decimal(1.1)
Decimal('1.100000000000000088817841970012523233890533447265625')
>>> Fraction(1.1)
Fraction(2476979795053773, 2251799813685248)

Another useful change for the decimal module is that the Context.clamp attribute is now public. This is useful in creating contexts that correspond to the decimal interchange formats specified in IEEE 754 (see bpo-8540 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8540]).

(Contributed by Mark Dickinson and Raymond Hettinger.)

ftp

The ftplib.FTP class now supports the context management protocol to unconditionally consume socket.error exceptions and to close the FTP connection when done:

>>> from ftplib import FTP
>>> with FTP("ftp1.at.proftpd.org") as ftp:
        ftp.login()
        ftp.dir()

'230 Anonymous login ok, restrictions apply.'
dr-xr-xr-x   9 ftp      ftp           154 May  6 10:43 .
dr-xr-xr-x   9 ftp      ftp           154 May  6 10:43 ..
dr-xr-xr-x   5 ftp      ftp          4096 May  6 10:43 CentOS
dr-xr-xr-x   3 ftp      ftp            18 Jul 10  2008 Fedora

Other file-like objects such as mmap.mmap and fileinput.input() also grew auto-closing context managers:

with fileinput.input(files=('log1.txt', 'log2.txt')) as f:
    for line in f:
        process(line)

(Contributed by Tarek Ziadé and Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-4972 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4972], and by Georg Brandl in bpo-8046 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8046] and bpo-1286 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1286].)

The FTP_TLS class now accepts a context parameter, which is a ssl.SSLContext object allowing bundling SSL configuration options, certificates and private keys into a single (potentially long-lived) structure.

(Contribution par Giampaolo Rodolà; bpo-8806 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8806])

popen

The os.popen() and subprocess.Popen() functions now support with statements for auto-closing of the file descriptors.

(Contribution par Antoine Pitrou et Brian Curtin; bpo-7461 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7461] et bpo-10554 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10554])

select

The select module now exposes a new, constant attribute, PIPE_BUF, which gives the minimum number of bytes which are guaranteed not to block when select.select() says a pipe is ready for writing.

>>> import select
>>> select.PIPE_BUF
512

(Available on Unix systems. Patch by Sébastien Sablé in bpo-9862 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9862])

gzip and zipfile

gzip.GzipFile now implements the io.BufferedIOBase abstract base class (except for truncate()). It also has a peek() method and supports unseekable as well as zero-padded file objects.

The gzip module also gains the compress() and decompress() functions for easier in-memory compression and decompression. Keep in mind that text needs to be encoded as bytes before compressing and decompressing:

>>> import gzip
>>> s = 'Three shall be the number thou shalt count, '
>>> s += 'and the number of the counting shall be three'
>>> b = s.encode()                        # convert to utf-8
>>> len(b)
89
>>> c = gzip.compress(b)
>>> len(c)
77
>>> gzip.decompress(c).decode()[:42]      # decompress and convert to text
'Three shall be the number thou shalt count'

(Contributed by Anand B. Pillai in bpo-3488 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3488]; and by Antoine Pitrou, Nir Aides and Brian Curtin in bpo-9962 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9962], bpo-1675951 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1675951], bpo-7471 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7471] and bpo-2846 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2846].)

Also, the zipfile.ZipExtFile class was reworked internally to represent files stored inside an archive. The new implementation is significantly faster and can be wrapped in an io.BufferedReader object for more speedups. It also solves an issue where interleaved calls to read and readline gave the wrong results.

(Patch submitted by Nir Aides in bpo-7610 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7610].)

tarfile

The TarFile class can now be used as a context manager. In addition, its add() method has a new option, filter, that controls which files are added to the archive and allows the file metadata to be edited.

The new filter option replaces the older, less flexible exclude parameter which is now deprecated. If specified, the optional filter parameter needs to be a keyword argument. The user-supplied filter function accepts a TarInfo object and returns an updated TarInfo object, or if it wants the file to be excluded, the function can return None:

>>> import tarfile, glob

>>> def myfilter(tarinfo):
...     if tarinfo.isfile():             # only save real files
...         tarinfo.uname = 'monty'      # redact the user name
...         return tarinfo

>>> with tarfile.open(name='myarchive.tar.gz', mode='w:gz') as tf:
...     for filename in glob.glob('*.txt'):
...         tf.add(filename, filter=myfilter)
...     tf.list()
-rw-r--r-- monty/501        902 2011-01-26 17:59:11 annotations.txt
-rw-r--r-- monty/501        123 2011-01-26 17:59:11 general_questions.txt
-rw-r--r-- monty/501       3514 2011-01-26 17:59:11 prion.txt
-rw-r--r-- monty/501        124 2011-01-26 17:59:11 py_todo.txt
-rw-r--r-- monty/501       1399 2011-01-26 17:59:11 semaphore_notes.txt

(Proposed by Tarek Ziadé and implemented by Lars Gustäbel in bpo-6856 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6856].)

hashlib

The hashlib module has two new constant attributes listing the hashing algorithms guaranteed to be present in all implementations and those available on the current implementation:

>>> import hashlib

>>> hashlib.algorithms_guaranteed
{'sha1', 'sha224', 'sha384', 'sha256', 'sha512', 'md5'}

>>> hashlib.algorithms_available
{'md2', 'SHA256', 'SHA512', 'dsaWithSHA', 'mdc2', 'SHA224', 'MD4', 'sha256',
'sha512', 'ripemd160', 'SHA1', 'MDC2', 'SHA', 'SHA384', 'MD2',
'ecdsa-with-SHA1','md4', 'md5', 'sha1', 'DSA-SHA', 'sha224',
'dsaEncryption', 'DSA', 'RIPEMD160', 'sha', 'MD5', 'sha384'}

(Suggested by Carl Chenet in bpo-7418 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7418].)

ast

The ast module has a wonderful a general-purpose tool for safely evaluating expression strings using the Python literal syntax. The ast.literal_eval() function serves as a secure alternative to the builtin eval() function which is easily abused. Python 3.2 adds bytes and set literals to the list of supported types: strings, bytes, numbers, tuples, lists, dicts, sets, booleans, and None.

>>> from ast import literal_eval

>>> request = "{'req': 3, 'func': 'pow', 'args': (2, 0.5)}"
>>> literal_eval(request)
{'args': (2, 0.5), 'req': 3, 'func': 'pow'}

>>> request = "os.system('do something harmful')"
>>> literal_eval(request)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
ValueError: malformed node or string: <_ast.Call object at 0x101739a10>

(Implemented by Benjamin Peterson and Georg Brandl.)

os

Different operating systems use various encodings for filenames and environment variables. The os module provides two new functions, fsencode() and fsdecode(), for encoding and decoding filenames:

>>> import os
>>> filename = 'Sehenswürdigkeiten'
>>> os.fsencode(filename)
b'Sehensw\xc3\xbcrdigkeiten'

Some operating systems allow direct access to encoded bytes in the environment. If so, the os.supports_bytes_environ constant will be true.

For direct access to encoded environment variables (if available), use the new os.getenvb() function or use os.environb which is a bytes version of os.environ.

(Contribution par Victor Stinner)

shutils

The shutil.copytree() function has two new options:

ignore_dangling_symlinks: when symlinks=False so that the function copies a file pointed to by a symlink, not the symlink itself. This option will silence the error raised if the file doesn't exist.

copy_function: is a callable that will be used to copy files. shutil.copy2() is used by default.

(Contributed by Tarek Ziadé.)

In addition, the shutil module now supports archiving operations for zipfiles, uncompressed tarfiles, gzipped tarfiles, and bzipped tarfiles. And there are functions for registering additional archiving file formats (such as xz compressed tarfiles or custom formats).

The principal functions are make_archive() and unpack_archive(). By default, both operate on the current directory (which can be set by os.chdir()) and on any sub-directories. The archive filename needs to be specified with a full pathname. The archiving step is non-destructive (the original files are left unchanged).

>>> import shutil, pprint

>>> os.chdir('mydata')  # change to the source directory
>>> f = shutil.make_archive('/var/backup/mydata',
...                         'zip')      # archive the current directory
>>> f                                   # show the name of archive
'/var/backup/mydata.zip'
>>> os.chdir('tmp')                     # change to an unpacking
>>> shutil.unpack_archive('/var/backup/mydata.zip')  # recover the data

>>> pprint.pprint(shutil.get_archive_formats())  # display known formats
[('bztar', "bzip2'ed tar-file"),
 ('gztar', "gzip'ed tar-file"),
 ('tar', 'uncompressed tar file'),
 ('zip', 'ZIP file')]

>>> shutil.register_archive_format(     # register a new archive format
...     name='xz',
...     function=xz.compress,           # callable archiving function
...     extra_args=[('level', 8)],      # arguments to the function
...     description='xz compression'
... )

(Contributed by Tarek Ziadé.)

sqlite3

The sqlite3 module was updated to pysqlite version 2.6.0. It has two new capabilities.

The sqlite3.Connection.in_transit attribute is true if there is an active transaction for uncommitted changes.

The sqlite3.Connection.enable_load_extension() and sqlite3.Connection.load_extension() methods allows you to load SQLite extensions from ".so" files. One well-known extension is the fulltext-search extension distributed with SQLite.

(Contributed by R. David Murray and Shashwat Anand; bpo-8845 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8845].)

html

A new html module was introduced with only a single function, escape(), which is used for escaping reserved characters from HTML markup:

>>> import html
>>> html.escape('x > 2 && x < 7')
'x &gt; 2 &amp;&amp; x &lt; 7'

socket

The socket module has two new improvements.

Socket objects now have a detach() method which puts the socket into closed state without actually closing the underlying file descriptor. The latter can then be reused for other purposes. (Added by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-8524 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8524].)

socket.create_connection() now supports the context management protocol to unconditionally consume socket.error exceptions and to close the socket when done. (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà; bpo-9794 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9794].)

ssl

The ssl module added a number of features to satisfy common requirements for secure (encrypted, authenticated) internet connections:

A new class, SSLContext, serves as a container for persistent SSL data, such as protocol settings, certificates, private keys, and various other options. It includes a wrap_socket() for creating an SSL socket from an SSL context.

A new function, ssl.match_hostname(), supports server identity verification for higher-level protocols by implementing the rules of HTTPS (from RFC 2818 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2818.html]) which are also suitable for other protocols.

The ssl.wrap_socket() constructor function now takes a ciphers argument. The ciphers string lists the allowed encryption algorithms using the format described in the OpenSSL documentation [https://docs.openssl.org/1.0.2/man1/ciphers/#cipher-list-format].

When linked against recent versions of OpenSSL, the ssl module now supports the Server Name Indication extension to the TLS protocol, allowing multiple "virtual hosts" using different certificates on a single IP port. This extension is only supported in client mode, and is activated by passing the server_hostname argument to ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket().

Various options have been added to the ssl module, such as OP_NO_SSLv2 which disables the insecure and obsolete SSLv2 protocol.

The extension now loads all the OpenSSL ciphers and digest algorithms. If some SSL certificates cannot be verified, they are reported as an "unknown algorithm" error.

The version of OpenSSL being used is now accessible using the module attributes ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION (a string), ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO (a 5-tuple), and ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER (an integer).

(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-8850 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8850], bpo-1589 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1589], bpo-8322 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8322], bpo-5639 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5639], bpo-4870 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4870], bpo-8484 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8484], and bpo-8321 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8321].)

nntp

The nntplib module has a revamped implementation with better bytes and text semantics as well as more practical APIs. These improvements break compatibility with the nntplib version in Python 3.1, which was partly dysfunctional in itself.

Support for secure connections through both implicit (using nntplib.NNTP_SSL) and explicit (using nntplib.NNTP.starttls()) TLS has also been added.

(Contribution par Antoine Pitrou, bpo-9360 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9360], et Andrew Vant, bpo-1926 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1926])

certificates

http.client.HTTPSConnection, urllib.request.HTTPSHandler and urllib.request.urlopen() now take optional arguments to allow for server certificate checking against a set of Certificate Authorities, as recommended in public uses of HTTPS.

(Ajouté par Antoine Pitrou; bpo-9003 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9003].)

imaplib

Support for explicit TLS on standard IMAP4 connections has been added through the new imaplib.IMAP4.starttls method.

(Contribution par Lorenzo M. Catucci et Antoine Pitrou; bpo-4471 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4471].)

http.client

There were a number of small API improvements in the http.client module. The old-style HTTP 0.9 simple responses are no longer supported and the strict parameter is deprecated in all classes.

The HTTPConnection and HTTPSConnection classes now have a source_address parameter for a (host, port) tuple indicating where the HTTP connection is made from.

Support for certificate checking and HTTPS virtual hosts were added to HTTPSConnection.

The request() method on connection objects allowed an optional body argument so that a file object could be used to supply the content of the request. Conveniently, the body argument now also accepts an iterable object so long as it includes an explicit Content-Length header. This extended interface is much more flexible than before.

To establish an HTTPS connection through a proxy server, there is a new set_tunnel() method that sets the host and port for HTTP Connect tunneling.

To match the behavior of http.server, the HTTP client library now also encodes headers with ISO-8859-1 (Latin-1) encoding. It was already doing that for incoming headers, so now the behavior is consistent for both incoming and outgoing traffic. (See work by Armin Ronacher in bpo-10980 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10980].)

unittest

The unittest module has a number of improvements supporting test discovery for packages, easier experimentation at the interactive prompt, new testcase methods, improved diagnostic messages for test failures, and better method names.

The command-line call python -m unittest can now accept file paths instead of module names for running specific tests (bpo-10620 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10620]). The new test discovery can find tests within packages, locating any test importable from the top-level directory. The top-level directory can be specified with the -t option, a pattern for matching files with -p, and a directory to start discovery with -s:

$ python -m unittest discover -s my_proj_dir -p _test.py

(Contributed by Michael Foord.)

Experimentation at the interactive prompt is now easier because the unittest.TestCase class can now be instantiated without arguments:

>>> from unittest import TestCase
>>> TestCase().assertEqual(pow(2, 3), 8)

(Contributed by Michael Foord.)

The unittest module has two new methods, assertWarns() and assertWarnsRegex() to verify that a given warning type is triggered by the code under test:

with self.assertWarns(DeprecationWarning):
    legacy_function('XYZ')

(Contribution par Antoine Pitrou; bpo-9754 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9754].)

Another new method, assertCountEqual() is used to compare two iterables to determine if their element counts are equal (whether the same elements are present with the same number of occurrences regardless of order):

def test_anagram(self):
    self.assertCountEqual('algorithm', 'logarithm')

(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

A principal feature of the unittest module is an effort to produce meaningful diagnostics when a test fails. When possible, the failure is recorded along with a diff of the output. This is especially helpful for analyzing log files of failed test runs. However, since diffs can sometime be voluminous, there is a new maxDiff attribute that sets maximum length of diffs displayed.

In addition, the method names in the module have undergone a number of clean-ups.

For example, assertRegex() is the new name for assertRegexpMatches() which was misnamed because the test uses re.search(), not re.match(). Other methods using regular expressions are now named using short form "Regex" in preference to "Regexp" -- this matches the names used in other unittest implementations, matches Python's old name for the re module, and it has unambiguous camel-casing.

(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and implemented by Ezio Melotti.)

To improve consistency, some long-standing method aliases are being deprecated in favor of the preferred names:

Old Name

Preferred Name

assert_()

assertTrue()

assertEquals()

assertEqual()

assertNotEquals()

assertNotEqual()

assertAlmostEquals()

assertAlmostEqual()

assertNotAlmostEquals()

assertNotAlmostEqual()

Likewise, the TestCase.fail* methods deprecated in Python 3.1 are expected to be removed in Python 3.3.

(Contribution par Ezio Melotti; bpo-9424 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9424])

The assertDictContainsSubset() method was deprecated because it was misimplemented with the arguments in the wrong order. This created hard-to-debug optical illusions where tests like TestCase().assertDictContainsSubset({'a':1, 'b':2}, {'a':1}) would fail.

(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

random

The integer methods in the random module now do a better job of producing uniform distributions. Previously, they computed selections with int(n*random()) which had a slight bias whenever n was not a power of two. Now, multiple selections are made from a range up to the next power of two and a selection is kept only when it falls within the range 0 <= x < n. The functions and methods affected are randrange(), randint(), choice(), shuffle() and sample().

(Contribution par Raymond Hettinger; bpo-9025 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9025])

poplib

POP3_SSL class now accepts a context parameter, which is a ssl.SSLContext object allowing bundling SSL configuration options, certificates and private keys into a single (potentially long-lived) structure.

(Contribution par Giampaolo Rodolà; bpo-8807 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8807])

asyncore

asyncore.dispatcher now provides a handle_accepted() method returning a (sock, addr) pair which is called when a connection has actually been established with a new remote endpoint. This is supposed to be used as a replacement for old handle_accept() and avoids the user to call accept() directly.

(Contribution par Giampaolo Rodolà; bpo-6706 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6706])

tempfile

The tempfile module has a new context manager, TemporaryDirectory which provides easy deterministic cleanup of temporary directories:

with tempfile.TemporaryDirectory() as tmpdirname:
    print('created temporary dir:', tmpdirname)

(Contribution par Neil Schemenauer et Nick Coghlan; bpo-5178 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5178].)

inspect

The inspect module has a new function getgeneratorstate() to easily identify the current state of a generator-iterator:

>>> from inspect import getgeneratorstate
>>> def gen():
...     yield 'demo'
...
>>> g = gen()
>>> getgeneratorstate(g)
'GEN_CREATED'
>>> next(g)
'demo'
>>> getgeneratorstate(g)
'GEN_SUSPENDED'
>>> next(g, None)
>>> getgeneratorstate(g)
'GEN_CLOSED'

(Contribution par Rodolpho Eckhardt et Nick Coghlan; bpo-10220 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10220].)

To support lookups without the possibility of activating a dynamic attribute, the inspect module has a new function, getattr_static(). Unlike hasattr(), this is a true read-only search, guaranteed not to change state while it is searching:

>>> class A:
...     @property
...     def f(self):
...         print('Running')
...         return 10
...
>>> a = A()
>>> getattr(a, 'f')
Running
10
>>> inspect.getattr_static(a, 'f')
<property object at 0x1022bd788>

(Contributed by Michael Foord.)

pydoc

The pydoc module now provides a much-improved web server interface, as well as a new command-line option -b to automatically open a browser window to display that server:

$ pydoc3.2 -b

(Contribution par Ron Adam; bpo-2001 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2001].)

dis

The dis module gained two new functions for inspecting code, code_info() and show_code(). Both provide detailed code object information for the supplied function, method, source code string or code object. The former returns a string and the latter prints it:

>>> import dis, random
>>> dis.show_code(random.choice)
Name:              choice
Filename:          /Library/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/3.2/lib/python3.2/random.py
Argument count:    2
Kw-only arguments: 0
Number of locals:  3
Stack size:        11
Flags:             OPTIMIZED, NEWLOCALS, NOFREE
Constants:
   0: 'Choose a random element from a non-empty sequence.'
   1: 'Cannot choose from an empty sequence'
Names:
   0: _randbelow
   1: len
   2: ValueError
   3: IndexError
Variable names:
   0: self
   1: seq
   2: i

In addition, the dis() function now accepts string arguments so that the common idiom dis(compile(s, '', 'eval')) can be shortened to dis(s):

>>> dis('3*x+1 if x%2==1 else x//2')
  1           0 LOAD_NAME                0 (x)
              3 LOAD_CONST               0 (2)
              6 BINARY_MODULO
              7 LOAD_CONST               1 (1)
             10 COMPARE_OP               2 (==)
             13 POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE       28
             16 LOAD_CONST               2 (3)
             19 LOAD_NAME                0 (x)
             22 BINARY_MULTIPLY
             23 LOAD_CONST               1 (1)
             26 BINARY_ADD
             27 RETURN_VALUE
        >>   28 LOAD_NAME                0 (x)
             31 LOAD_CONST               0 (2)
             34 BINARY_FLOOR_DIVIDE
             35 RETURN_VALUE

Taken together, these improvements make it easier to explore how CPython is implemented and to see for yourself what the language syntax does under-the-hood.

(Contribution par Nick Coghlan; bpo-9147 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9147].)

dbm

All database modules now support the get() and setdefault() methods.

(Suggested by Ray Allen in bpo-9523 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9523].)

ctypes

A new type, ctypes.c_ssize_t represents the C ssize_t datatype.

site

The site module has three new functions useful for reporting on the details of a given Python installation.

getsitepackages() lists all global site-packages directories.

getuserbase() reports on the user's base directory where data can be stored.

getusersitepackages() reveals the user-specific site-packages directory path.

>>> import site
>>> site.getsitepackages()
['/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/3.2/lib/python3.2/site-packages',
 '/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/3.2/lib/site-python',
 '/Library/Python/3.2/site-packages']
>>> site.getuserbase()
'/Users/raymondhettinger/Library/Python/3.2'
>>> site.getusersitepackages()
'/Users/raymondhettinger/Library/Python/3.2/lib/python/site-packages'

Conveniently, some of site's functionality is accessible directly from the command-line:

$ python -m site --user-base
/Users/raymondhettinger/.local
$ python -m site --user-site
/Users/raymondhettinger/.local/lib/python3.2/site-packages

(Contribution par Tarek Ziadé; bpo-6693 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6693].)

sysconfig

The new sysconfig module makes it straightforward to discover installation paths and configuration variables that vary across platforms and installations.

The module offers access simple access functions for platform and version information:

get_platform() returning values like linux-i586 or macosx-10.6-ppc.

get_python_version() returns a Python version string such as "3.2".

It also provides access to the paths and variables corresponding to one of seven named schemes used by distutils. Those include posix_prefix, posix_home, posix_user, nt, nt_user, os2, os2_home:

get_paths() makes a dictionary containing installation paths for the current installation scheme.

get_config_vars() returns a dictionary of platform specific variables.

There is also a convenient command-line interface:

C:\Python32>python -m sysconfig
Platform: "win32"
Python version: "3.2"
Current installation scheme: "nt"

Paths:
        data = "C:\Python32"
        include = "C:\Python32\Include"
        platinclude = "C:\Python32\Include"
        platlib = "C:\Python32\Lib\site-packages"
        platstdlib = "C:\Python32\Lib"
        purelib = "C:\Python32\Lib\site-packages"
        scripts = "C:\Python32\Scripts"
        stdlib = "C:\Python32\Lib"

Variables:
        BINDIR = "C:\Python32"
        BINLIBDEST = "C:\Python32\Lib"
        EXE = ".exe"
        INCLUDEPY = "C:\Python32\Include"
        LIBDEST = "C:\Python32\Lib"
        SO = ".pyd"
        VERSION = "32"
        abiflags = ""
        base = "C:\Python32"
        exec_prefix = "C:\Python32"
        platbase = "C:\Python32"
        prefix = "C:\Python32"
        projectbase = "C:\Python32"
        py_version = "3.2"
        py_version_nodot = "32"
        py_version_short = "3.2"
        srcdir = "C:\Python32"
        userbase = "C:\Documents and Settings\Raymond\Application Data\Python"

(Moved out of Distutils by Tarek Ziadé.)

pdb

The pdb debugger module gained a number of usability improvements:

pdb.py now has a -c option that executes commands as given in a .pdbrc script file.

A .pdbrc script file can contain continue and next commands that continue debugging.

The Pdb class constructor now accepts a nosigint argument.

New commands: l(list), ll(long list) and source for listing source code.

New commands: display and undisplay for showing or hiding the value of an expression if it has changed.

New command: interact for starting an interactive interpreter containing the global and local names found in the current scope.

Breakpoints can be cleared by breakpoint number.

(Contributed by Georg Brandl, Antonio Cuni and Ilya Sandler.)

configparser

The configparser module was modified to improve usability and predictability of the default parser and its supported INI syntax. The old ConfigParser class was removed in favor of SafeConfigParser which has in turn been renamed to ConfigParser. Support for inline comments is now turned off by default and section or option duplicates are not allowed in a single configuration source.

Config parsers gained a new API based on the mapping protocol:

>>> parser = ConfigParser()
>>> parser.read_string("""
... [DEFAULT]
... location = upper left
... visible = yes
... editable = no
... color = blue
...
... [main]
... title = Main Menu
... color = green
...
... [options]
... title = Options
... """)
>>> parser['main']['color']
'green'
>>> parser['main']['editable']
'no'
>>> section = parser['options']
>>> section['title']
'Options'
>>> section['title'] = 'Options (editable: %(editable)s)'
>>> section['title']
'Options (editable: no)'

The new API is implemented on top of the classical API, so custom parser subclasses should be able to use it without modifications.

The INI file structure accepted by config parsers can now be customized. Users can specify alternative option/value delimiters and comment prefixes, change the name of the DEFAULT section or switch the interpolation syntax.

There is support for pluggable interpolation including an additional interpolation handler ExtendedInterpolation:

>>> parser = ConfigParser(interpolation=ExtendedInterpolation())
>>> parser.read_dict({'buildout': {'directory': '/home/ambv/zope9'},
...                   'custom': {'prefix': '/usr/local'}})
>>> parser.read_string("""
... [buildout]
... parts =
...   zope9
...   instance
... find-links =
...   ${buildout:directory}/downloads/dist
...
... [zope9]
... recipe = plone.recipe.zope9install
... location = /opt/zope
...
... [instance]
... recipe = plone.recipe.zope9instance
... zope9-location = ${zope9:location}
... zope-conf = ${custom:prefix}/etc/zope.conf
... """)
>>> parser['buildout']['find-links']
'\n/home/ambv/zope9/downloads/dist'
>>> parser['instance']['zope-conf']
'/usr/local/etc/zope.conf'
>>> instance = parser['instance']
>>> instance['zope-conf']
'/usr/local/etc/zope.conf'
>>> instance['zope9-location']
'/opt/zope'

A number of smaller features were also introduced, like support for specifying encoding in read operations, specifying fallback values for get-functions, or reading directly from dictionaries and strings.

(All changes contributed by Łukasz Langa.)

urllib.parse

A number of usability improvements were made for the urllib.parse module.

The urlparse() function now supports IPv6 [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPv6] addresses as described in RFC 2732 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2732.html]:

>>> import urllib.parse
>>> urllib.parse.urlparse('http://[dead:beef:cafe:5417:affe:8FA3:deaf:feed]/foo/')
ParseResult(scheme='http',
            netloc='[dead:beef:cafe:5417:affe:8FA3:deaf:feed]',
            path='/foo/',
            params='',
            query='',
            fragment='')

The urldefrag() function now returns a named tuple:

>>> r = urllib.parse.urldefrag('http://python.org/about/#target')
>>> r
DefragResult(url='http://python.org/about/', fragment='target')
>>> r[0]
'http://python.org/about/'
>>> r.fragment
'target'

And, the urlencode() function is now much more flexible, accepting either a string or bytes type for the query argument. If it is a string, then the safe, encoding, and error parameters are sent to quote_plus() for encoding:

>>> urllib.parse.urlencode([
...      ('type', 'telenovela'),
...      ('name', '¿Dónde Está Elisa?')],
...      encoding='latin-1')
'type=telenovela&name=%BFD%F3nde+Est%E1+Elisa%3F'

As detailed in Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes, all the urllib.parse functions now accept ASCII-encoded byte strings as input, so long as they are not mixed with regular strings. If ASCII-encoded byte strings are given as parameters, the return types will also be an ASCII-encoded byte strings:

>>> urllib.parse.urlparse(b'http://www.python.org:80/about/')
ParseResultBytes(scheme=b'http', netloc=b'www.python.org:80',
                 path=b'/about/', params=b'', query=b'', fragment=b'')

(Work by Nick Coghlan, Dan Mahn, and Senthil Kumaran in bpo-2987 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2987], bpo-5468 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5468], and bpo-9873 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9873].)

mailbox

Thanks to a concerted effort by R. David Murray, the mailbox module has been fixed for Python 3.2. The challenge was that mailbox had been originally designed with a text interface, but email messages are best represented with bytes because various parts of a message may have different encodings.

The solution harnessed the email package's binary support for parsing arbitrary email messages. In addition, the solution required a number of API changes.

As expected, the add() method for mailbox.Mailbox objects now accepts binary input.

StringIO and text file input are deprecated. Also, string input will fail early if non-ASCII characters are used. Previously it would fail when the email was processed in a later step.

There is also support for binary output. The get_file() method now returns a file in the binary mode (where it used to incorrectly set the file to text-mode). There is also a new get_bytes() method that returns a bytes representation of a message corresponding to a given key.

It is still possible to get non-binary output using the old API's get_string() method, but that approach is not very useful. Instead, it is best to extract messages from a Message object or to load them from binary input.

(Contributed by R. David Murray, with efforts from Steffen Daode Nurpmeso and an initial patch by Victor Stinner in bpo-9124 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9124].)

turtledemo

The demonstration code for the turtle module was moved from the Demo directory to main library. It includes over a dozen sample scripts with lively displays. Being on sys.path, it can now be run directly from the command-line:

$ python -m turtledemo

(Moved from the Demo directory by Alexander Belopolsky in bpo-10199 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10199].)

Fils d'exécution

The mechanism for serializing execution of concurrently running Python threads (generally known as the GIL or Global Interpreter Lock) has been rewritten. Among the objectives were more predictable switching intervals and reduced overhead due to lock contention and the number of ensuing system calls. The notion of a "check interval" to allow thread switches has been abandoned and replaced by an absolute duration expressed in seconds. This parameter is tunable through sys.setswitchinterval(). It currently defaults to 5 milliseconds.

Additional details about the implementation can be read from a python-dev mailing-list message [https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2009-October/093321.html] (however, "priority requests" as exposed in this message have not been kept for inclusion).

(Contribution par Antoine Pitrou)

Les verrous standards et récursifs acceptent désormais un argument optionnel timeout à leur méthode acquire(). (Contribution par Antoine Pitrou; bpo-7316 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7316]).

Pareillement, threading.Semaphore.acquire() acquière un argument timeout (Contribution par Torsten Landschoff; bpo-850728 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=850728]).

Regular and recursive lock acquisitions can now be interrupted by signals on platforms using Pthreads. This means that Python programs that deadlock while acquiring locks can be successfully killed by repeatedly sending SIGINT to the process (by pressing Ctrl+C in most shells). (Contributed by Reid Kleckner; bpo-8844 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8844].)

Optimizations

A number of small performance enhancements have been added:

Python's peephole optimizer now recognizes patterns such x in {1, 2, 3} as being a test for membership in a set of constants. The optimizer recasts the set as a frozenset and stores the pre-built constant.

Now that the speed penalty is gone, it is practical to start writing membership tests using set-notation. This style is both semantically clear and operationally fast:

extension = name.rpartition('.')[2]
if extension in {'xml', 'html', 'xhtml', 'css'}:
    handle(name)

(Patch and additional tests contributed by Dave Malcolm; bpo-6690 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6690]).

Serializing and unserializing data using the pickle module is now several times faster.

(Contributed by Alexandre Vassalotti, Antoine Pitrou and the Unladen Swallow team in bpo-9410 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9410] and bpo-3873 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3873].)

The Timsort algorithm [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timsort] used in list.sort() and sorted() now runs faster and uses less memory when called with a key function. Previously, every element of a list was wrapped with a temporary object that remembered the key value associated with each element. Now, two arrays of keys and values are sorted in parallel. This saves the memory consumed by the sort wrappers, and it saves time lost to delegating comparisons.

(Patch by Daniel Stutzbach in bpo-9915 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9915].)

JSON decoding performance is improved and memory consumption is reduced whenever the same string is repeated for multiple keys. Also, JSON encoding now uses the C speedups when the sort_keys argument is true.

(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-7451 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7451] and by Raymond Hettinger and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-10314 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10314].)

Recursive locks (created with the threading.RLock() API) now benefit from a C implementation which makes them as fast as regular locks, and between 10x and 15x faster than their previous pure Python implementation.

(Contribution par Antoine Pitrou; bpo-3001 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3001].)

The fast-search algorithm in stringlib is now used by the split(), rsplit(), splitlines() and replace() methods on bytes, bytearray and str objects. Likewise, the algorithm is also used by rfind(), rindex(), rsplit() and rpartition().

(Patch by Florent Xicluna in bpo-7622 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7622] and bpo-7462 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7462].)

Integer to string conversions now work two "digits" at a time, reducing the number of division and modulo operations.

(bpo-6713 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6713] by Gawain Bolton, Mark Dickinson, and Victor Stinner.)

There were several other minor optimizations. Set differencing now runs faster when one operand is much larger than the other (patch by Andress Bennetts in bpo-8685 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8685]). The array.repeat() method has a faster implementation (bpo-1569291 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1569291] by Alexander Belopolsky). The BaseHTTPRequestHandler has more efficient buffering (bpo-3709 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3709] by Andrew Schaaf). The operator.attrgetter() function has been sped-up (bpo-10160 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10160] by Christos Georgiou). And ConfigParser loads multi-line arguments a bit faster (bpo-7113 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7113] by Łukasz Langa).

Unicode

Python has been updated to Unicode 6.0.0 [https://unicode.org/versions/Unicode6.0.0/]. The update to the standard adds over 2,000 new characters including emoji [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emoji] symbols which are important for mobile phones.

In addition, the updated standard has altered the character properties for two Kannada characters (U+0CF1, U+0CF2) and one New Tai Lue numeric character (U+19DA), making the former eligible for use in identifiers while disqualifying the latter. For more information, see Unicode Character Database Changes [https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode6.0.0/#Database_Changes].

Codecs

Support was added for cp720 Arabic DOS encoding (bpo-1616979 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1616979]).

MBCS encoding no longer ignores the error handler argument. In the default strict mode, it raises an UnicodeDecodeError when it encounters an undecodable byte sequence and an UnicodeEncodeError for an unencodable character.

The MBCS codec supports 'strict' and 'ignore' error handlers for decoding, and 'strict' and 'replace' for encoding.

To emulate Python3.1 MBCS encoding, select the 'ignore' handler for decoding and the 'replace' handler for encoding.

On Mac OS X, Python decodes command line arguments with 'utf-8' rather than the locale encoding.

By default, tarfile uses 'utf-8' encoding on Windows (instead of 'mbcs') and the 'surrogateescape' error handler on all operating systems.

Documentation

The documentation continues to be improved.

A table of quick links has been added to the top of lengthy sections such as Fonctions natives. In the case of itertools, the links are accompanied by tables of cheatsheet-style summaries to provide an overview and memory jog without having to read all of the docs.

In some cases, the pure Python source code can be a helpful adjunct to the documentation, so now many modules now feature quick links to the latest version of the source code. For example, the functools module documentation has a quick link at the top labeled:

Source code Lib/functools.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/functools.py].

(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; see rationale [https://rhettinger.wordpress.com/2011/01/28/open-your-source-more/].)

The docs now contain more examples and recipes. In particular, re module has an extensive section, Exemples d'expressions rationnelles. Likewise, the itertools module continues to be updated with new Recettes itertools.

The datetime module now has an auxiliary implementation in pure Python. No functionality was changed. This just provides an easier-to-read alternate implementation.

(Contribution par Alexander Belopolsky; bpo-9528 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9528].)

The unmaintained Demo directory has been removed. Some demos were integrated into the documentation, some were moved to the Tools/demo directory, and others were removed altogether.

(Contribution par Georg Brandl; bpo-7962 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7962].)

IDLE

The format menu now has an option to clean source files by stripping trailing whitespace.

(Contribution par Raymond Hettinger; bpo-5150 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5150].)

IDLE on Mac OS X now works with both Carbon AquaTk and Cocoa AquaTk.

(Contributed by Kevin Walzer, Ned Deily, and Ronald Oussoren; bpo-6075 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6075].)

Code Repository

In addition to the existing Subversion code repository at https://svn.python.org there is now a Mercurial [https://www.mercurial-scm.org/] repository at https://hg.python.org/.

After the 3.2 release, there are plans to switch to Mercurial as the primary repository. This distributed version control system should make it easier for members of the community to create and share external changesets. See PEP 385 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0385/] for details.

To learn to use the new version control system, see the Quick Start [https://www.mercurial-scm.org/wiki/QuickStart] or the Guide to Mercurial Workflows [https://www.mercurial-scm.org/guide].

Build and C API Changes

Changes to Python's build process and to the C API include:

The idle, pydoc and 2to3 scripts are now installed with a version-specific suffix on make altinstall (bpo-10679 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10679]).

The C functions that access the Unicode Database now accept and return characters from the full Unicode range, even on narrow unicode builds (Py_UNICODE_TOLOWER, Py_UNICODE_ISDECIMAL, and others). A visible difference in Python is that unicodedata.numeric() now returns the correct value for large code points, and repr() may consider more characters as printable.

(Reported by Bupjoe Lee and fixed by Amaury Forgeot D'Arc; bpo-5127 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5127].)

Computed gotos are now enabled by default on supported compilers (which are detected by the configure script). They can still be disabled selectively by specifying --without-computed-gotos.

(Contribution par Antoine Pitrou; bpo-9203 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9203].)

The option --with-wctype-functions was removed. The built-in unicode database is now used for all functions.

(Contribution par Amaury Forgeot D'Arc; bpo-9210 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9210].)

Hash values are now values of a new type, Py_hash_t, which is defined to be the same size as a pointer. Previously they were of type long, which on some 64-bit operating systems is still only 32 bits long. As a result of this fix, set and dict can now hold more than 2**32 entries on builds with 64-bit pointers (previously, they could grow to that size but their performance degraded catastrophically).

(Suggested by Raymond Hettinger and implemented by Benjamin Peterson; bpo-9778 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9778].)

A new macro Py_VA_COPY copies the state of the variable argument list. It is equivalent to C99 va_copy but available on all Python platforms (bpo-2443 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2443]).

A new C API function PySys_SetArgvEx() allows an embedded interpreter to set sys.argv without also modifying sys.path (bpo-5753 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5753]).

PyEval_CallObject() is now only available in macro form. The function declaration, which was kept for backwards compatibility reasons, is now removed -- the macro was introduced in 1997 (bpo-8276 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8276]).

There is a new function PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow() which is analogous to PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow(). They both serve to convert Python int into a native fixed-width type while providing detection of cases where the conversion won't fit (bpo-7767 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7767]).

The PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString() function now returns not equal if the Python string is NUL terminated.

There is a new function PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc() that is like PyErr_NewException() but allows a docstring to be specified. This lets C exceptions have the same self-documenting capabilities as their pure Python counterparts (bpo-7033 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7033]).

When compiled with the --with-valgrind option, the pymalloc allocator will be automatically disabled when running under Valgrind. This gives improved memory leak detection when running under Valgrind, while taking advantage of pymalloc at other times (bpo-2422 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2422]).

Removed the O? format from the PyArg_Parse functions. The format is no longer used and it had never been documented (bpo-8837 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8837]).

There were a number of other small changes to the C-API. See the Misc/NEWS [https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/v3.2.6/Misc/NEWS] file for a complete list.

Also, there were a number of updates to the Mac OS X build, see Mac/BuildScript/README.txt [https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/v3.2.6/Mac/BuildScript/README.txt] for details. For users running a 32/64-bit build, there is a known problem with the default Tcl/Tk on Mac OS X 10.6. Accordingly, we recommend installing an updated alternative such as ActiveState Tcl/Tk 8.5.9 [https://web.archive.org/web/20101208191259/https://www.activestate.com/activetcl/downloads]. See https://www.python.org/download/mac/tcltk/ for additional details.

Portage vers Python 3.2

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that may require changes to your code:

The configparser module has a number of clean-ups. The major change is to replace the old ConfigParser class with long-standing preferred alternative SafeConfigParser. In addition there are a number of smaller incompatibilities:

The interpolation syntax is now validated on get() and set() operations. In the default interpolation scheme, only two tokens with percent signs are valid: %(name)s and %%, the latter being an escaped percent sign.

The set() and add_section() methods now verify that values are actual strings. Formerly, unsupported types could be introduced unintentionally.

Duplicate sections or options from a single source now raise either DuplicateSectionError or DuplicateOptionError. Formerly, duplicates would silently overwrite a previous entry.

Inline comments are now disabled by default so now the ; character can be safely used in values.

Comments now can be indented. Consequently, for ; or # to appear at the start of a line in multiline values, it has to be interpolated. This keeps comment prefix characters in values from being mistaken as comments.

"" is now a valid value and is no longer automatically converted to an empty string. For empty strings, use "option =" in a line.

The nntplib module was reworked extensively, meaning that its APIs are often incompatible with the 3.1 APIs.

Les objets bytearray ne peuvent plus être utilisés en tant que nom de fichiers : ils doivent être convertis en bytes à la place.

The array.tostring() and array.fromstring() have been renamed to array.tobytes() and array.frombytes() for clarity. The old names have been deprecated. (See bpo-8990 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8990].)

Les fonctions PyArg_Parse*() :

Le format "t#" a été supprimé : utiliser "s#" ou "s*" à la place

Les formats "w" et "w#" ont été supprimés : utiliser "w*" à la place

The PyCObject type, deprecated in 3.1, has been removed. To wrap opaque C pointers in Python objects, the PyCapsule API should be used instead; the new type has a well-defined interface for passing typing safety information and a less complicated signature for calling a destructor.

The sys.setfilesystemencoding() function was removed because it had a flawed design.

The random.seed() function and method now salt string seeds with an sha512 hash function. To access the previous version of seed in order to reproduce Python 3.1 sequences, set the version argument to 1, random.seed(s, version=1).

The previously deprecated string.maketrans() function has been removed in favor of the static methods bytes.maketrans() and bytearray.maketrans(). This change solves the confusion around which types were supported by the string module. Now, str, bytes, and bytearray each have their own maketrans and translate methods with intermediate translation tables of the appropriate type.

(Contribution par Georg Brandl; bpo-5675 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5675].)

The previously deprecated contextlib.nested() function has been removed in favor of a plain with statement which can accept multiple context managers. The latter technique is faster (because it is built-in), and it does a better job finalizing multiple context managers when one of them raises an exception:

with open('mylog.txt') as infile, open('a.out', 'w') as outfile:
    for line in infile:
        if '<critical>' in line:
            outfile.write(line)

(Contributed by Georg Brandl and Mattias Brändström; appspot issue 53094 [https://codereview.appspot.com/53094].)

struct.pack() now only allows bytes for the s string pack code. Formerly, it would accept text arguments and implicitly encode them to bytes using UTF-8. This was problematic because it made assumptions about the correct encoding and because a variable-length encoding can fail when writing to fixed length segment of a structure.

Code such as struct.pack('<6sHHBBB', 'GIF87a', x, y) should be rewritten with to use bytes instead of text, struct.pack('<6sHHBBB', b'GIF87a', x, y).

(Discovered by David Beazley and fixed by Victor Stinner; bpo-10783 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10783].)

The xml.etree.ElementTree class now raises an xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError when a parse fails. Previously it raised an xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError.

The new, longer str() value on floats may break doctests which rely on the old output format.

In subprocess.Popen, the default value for close_fds is now True under Unix; under Windows, it is True if the three standard streams are set to None, False otherwise. Previously, close_fds was always False by default, which produced difficult to solve bugs or race conditions when open file descriptors would leak into the child process.

Support for legacy HTTP 0.9 has been removed from urllib.request and http.client. Such support is still present on the server side (in http.server).

(Contribution par Antoine Pitrou; bpo-10711 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10711].)

SSL sockets in timeout mode now raise socket.timeout when a timeout occurs, rather than a generic SSLError.

(Contribution par Antoine Pitrou; bpo-10272 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10272].)

The misleading functions PyEval_AcquireLock() and PyEval_ReleaseLock() have been officially deprecated. The thread-state aware APIs (such as PyEval_SaveThread() and PyEval_RestoreThread()) should be used instead.

Due to security risks, asyncore.handle_accept() has been deprecated, and a new function, asyncore.handle_accepted(), was added to replace it.

(Contribution par Giampaolo Rodola; bpo-6706 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6706].)

Due to the new GIL implementation, PyEval_InitThreads() cannot be called before Py_Initialize() anymore.

Nouveautés de Python 3.1

Auteur:

Raymond Hettinger

This article explains the new features in Python 3.1, compared to 3.0. Python 3.1 was released on June 27, 2009.

PEP 372: Ordered Dictionaries

Regular Python dictionaries iterate over key/value pairs in arbitrary order. Over the years, a number of authors have written alternative implementations that remember the order that the keys were originally inserted. Based on the experiences from those implementations, a new collections.OrderedDict class has been introduced.

The OrderedDict API is substantially the same as regular dictionaries but will iterate over keys and values in a guaranteed order depending on when a key was first inserted. If a new entry overwrites an existing entry, the original insertion position is left unchanged. Deleting an entry and reinserting it will move it to the end.

The standard library now supports use of ordered dictionaries in several modules. The configparser module uses them by default. This lets configuration files be read, modified, and then written back in their original order. The _asdict() method for collections.namedtuple() now returns an ordered dictionary with the values appearing in the same order as the underlying tuple indices. The json module is being built-out with an object_pairs_hook to allow OrderedDicts to be built by the decoder. Support was also added for third-party tools like PyYAML [https://pyyaml.org/].

Voir aussi

PEP 372 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0372/] - Ordered Dictionaries

PEP written by Armin Ronacher and Raymond Hettinger. Implementation written by Raymond Hettinger.

Since an ordered dictionary remembers its insertion order, it can be used in conjunction with sorting to make a sorted dictionary:

>>> # regular unsorted dictionary
>>> d = {'banana': 3, 'apple':4, 'pear': 1, 'orange': 2}

>>> # dictionary sorted by key
>>> OrderedDict(sorted(d.items(), key=lambda t: t[0]))
OrderedDict([('apple', 4), ('banana', 3), ('orange', 2), ('pear', 1)])

>>> # dictionary sorted by value
>>> OrderedDict(sorted(d.items(), key=lambda t: t[1]))
OrderedDict([('pear', 1), ('orange', 2), ('banana', 3), ('apple', 4)])

>>> # dictionary sorted by length of the key string
>>> OrderedDict(sorted(d.items(), key=lambda t: len(t[0])))
OrderedDict([('pear', 1), ('apple', 4), ('orange', 2), ('banana', 3)])

The new sorted dictionaries maintain their sort order when entries are deleted. But when new keys are added, the keys are appended to the end and the sort is not maintained.

PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator

The built-in format() function and the str.format() method use a mini-language that now includes a simple, non-locale aware way to format a number with a thousands separator. That provides a way to humanize a program's output, improving its professional appearance and readability:

>>> format(1234567, ',d')
'1,234,567'
>>> format(1234567.89, ',.2f')
'1,234,567.89'
>>> format(12345.6 + 8901234.12j, ',f')
'12,345.600000+8,901,234.120000j'
>>> format(Decimal('1234567.89'), ',f')
'1,234,567.89'

The supported types are int, float, complex and decimal.Decimal.

Discussions are underway about how to specify alternative separators like dots, spaces, apostrophes, or underscores. Locale-aware applications should use the existing n format specifier which already has some support for thousands separators.

Voir aussi

PEP 378 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0378/] - Format Specifier for Thousands Separator

PEP written by Raymond Hettinger and implemented by Eric Smith and Mark Dickinson.

Autres changements au langage

Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:

Directories and zip archives containing a __main__.py file can now be executed directly by passing their name to the interpreter. The directory/zipfile is automatically inserted as the first entry in sys.path. (Suggestion and initial patch by Andy Chu; revised patch by Phillip J. Eby and Nick Coghlan; bpo-1739468 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1739468].)

The int() type gained a bit_length method that returns the number of bits necessary to represent its argument in binary:

>>> n = 37
>>> bin(37)
'0b100101'
>>> n.bit_length()
6
>>> n = 2**123-1
>>> n.bit_length()
123
>>> (n+1).bit_length()
124

(Contributed by Fredrik Johansson, Victor Stinner, Raymond Hettinger, and Mark Dickinson; bpo-3439 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3439].)

The fields in format() strings can now be automatically numbered:

>>> 'Sir {} of {}'.format('Gallahad', 'Camelot')
'Sir Gallahad of Camelot'

Formerly, the string would have required numbered fields such as: 'Sir {0} of {1}'.

(Contribution par Eric Smith; bpo-5237 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5237].)

The string.maketrans() function is deprecated and is replaced by new static methods, bytes.maketrans() and bytearray.maketrans(). This change solves the confusion around which types were supported by the string module. Now, str, bytes, and bytearray each have their own maketrans and translate methods with intermediate translation tables of the appropriate type.

(Contribution par Georg Brandl; bpo-5675 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5675].)

The syntax of the with statement now allows multiple context managers in a single statement:

>>> with open('mylog.txt') as infile, open('a.out', 'w') as outfile:
...     for line in infile:
...         if '<critical>' in line:
...             outfile.write(line)

With the new syntax, the contextlib.nested() function is no longer needed and is now deprecated.

(Contributed by Georg Brandl and Mattias Brändström; appspot issue 53094 [https://codereview.appspot.com/53094].)

round(x, n) now returns an integer if x is an integer. Previously it returned a float:

>>> round(1123, -2)
1100

(Contribution par Mark Dickinson; bpo-4707 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4707].)

Python now uses David Gay's algorithm for finding the shortest floating-point representation that doesn't change its value. This should help mitigate some of the confusion surrounding binary floating-point numbers.

The significance is easily seen with a number like 1.1 which does not have an exact equivalent in binary floating point. Since there is no exact equivalent, an expression like float('1.1') evaluates to the nearest representable value which is 0x1.199999999999ap+0 in hex or 1.100000000000000088817841970012523233890533447265625 in decimal. That nearest value was and still is used in subsequent floating-point calculations.

What is new is how the number gets displayed. Formerly, Python used a simple approach. The value of repr(1.1) was computed as format(1.1, '.17g') which evaluated to '1.1000000000000001'. The advantage of using 17 digits was that it relied on IEEE-754 guarantees to assure that eval(repr(1.1)) would round-trip exactly to its original value. The disadvantage is that many people found the output to be confusing (mistaking intrinsic limitations of binary floating-point representation as being a problem with Python itself).

The new algorithm for repr(1.1) is smarter and returns '1.1'. Effectively, it searches all equivalent string representations (ones that get stored with the same underlying float value) and returns the shortest representation.

The new algorithm tends to emit cleaner representations when possible, but it does not change the underlying values. So, it is still the case that 1.1 + 2.2 != 3.3 even though the representations may suggest otherwise.

The new algorithm depends on certain features in the underlying floating-point implementation. If the required features are not found, the old algorithm will continue to be used. Also, the text pickle protocols assure cross-platform portability by using the old algorithm.

(Contribution par Eric Smith et Mark Dickinson; bpo-1580 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1580].)

New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules

Added a collections.Counter class to support convenient counting of unique items in a sequence or iterable:

>>> Counter(['red', 'blue', 'red', 'green', 'blue', 'blue'])
Counter({'blue': 3, 'red': 2, 'green': 1})

(Contribution par Raymond Hettinger; bpo-1696199 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1696199].)

Added a new module, tkinter.ttk for access to the Tk themed widget set. The basic idea of ttk is to separate, to the extent possible, the code implementing a widget's behavior from the code implementing its appearance.

(Contribution par Guilherme Polo; bpo-2983 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2983].)

The gzip.GzipFile and bz2.BZ2File classes now support the context management protocol:

>>> # Automatically close file after writing
>>> with gzip.GzipFile(filename, "wb") as f:
...     f.write(b"xxx")

(Contribution par Antoine Pitrou)

The decimal module now supports methods for creating a decimal object from a binary float. The conversion is exact but can sometimes be surprising:

>>> Decimal.from_float(1.1)
Decimal('1.100000000000000088817841970012523233890533447265625')

The long decimal result shows the actual binary fraction being stored for 1.1. The fraction has many digits because 1.1 cannot be exactly represented in binary.

(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and Mark Dickinson.)

The itertools module grew two new functions. The itertools.combinations_with_replacement() function is one of four for generating combinatorics including permutations and Cartesian products. The itertools.compress() function mimics its namesake from APL. Also, the existing itertools.count() function now has an optional step argument and can accept any type of counting sequence including fractions.Fraction and decimal.Decimal:

>>> [p+q for p,q in combinations_with_replacement('LOVE', 2)]
['LL', 'LO', 'LV', 'LE', 'OO', 'OV', 'OE', 'VV', 'VE', 'EE']

>>> list(compress(data=range(10), selectors=[0,0,1,1,0,1,0,1,0,0]))
[2, 3, 5, 7]

>>> c = count(start=Fraction(1,2), step=Fraction(1,6))
>>> [next(c), next(c), next(c), next(c)]
[Fraction(1, 2), Fraction(2, 3), Fraction(5, 6), Fraction(1, 1)]

(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

collections.namedtuple() now supports a keyword argument rename which lets invalid fieldnames be automatically converted to positional names in the form _0, _1, etc. This is useful when the field names are being created by an external source such as a CSV header, SQL field list, or user input:

>>> query = input()
SELECT region, dept, count(*) FROM main GROUPBY region, dept

>>> cursor.execute(query)
>>> query_fields = [desc[0] for desc in cursor.description]
>>> UserQuery = namedtuple('UserQuery', query_fields, rename=True)
>>> pprint.pprint([UserQuery(*row) for row in cursor])
[UserQuery(region='South', dept='Shipping', _2=185),
 UserQuery(region='North', dept='Accounting', _2=37),
 UserQuery(region='West', dept='Sales', _2=419)]

(Contribution par Raymond Hettinger; bpo-1818 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1818].)

The re.sub(), re.subn() and re.split() functions now accept a flags parameter.

(Contributed by Gregory Smith.)

The logging module now implements a simple logging.NullHandler class for applications that are not using logging but are calling library code that does. Setting-up a null handler will suppress spurious warnings such as "No handlers could be found for logger foo":

>>> h = logging.NullHandler()
>>> logging.getLogger("foo").addHandler(h)

(Contribution par Vinay Sajip ; bpo-4384 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4384]).

The runpy module which supports the -m command line switch now supports the execution of packages by looking for and executing a __main__ submodule when a package name is supplied.

(Contribution par Andi Vajda; bpo-4195 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4195].)

The pdb module can now access and display source code loaded via zipimport (or any other conformant PEP 302 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/] loader).

(Contribution par Alexander Belopolsky; bpo-4201 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4201].)

functools.partial objects can now be pickled.

(Suggested by Antoine Pitrou and Jesse Noller. Implemented by Jack Diederich; bpo-5228 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5228].)

Add pydoc help topics for symbols so that help('@') works as expected in the interactive environment.

(Contribution par David Laban; bpo-4739 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4739].)

The unittest module now supports skipping individual tests or classes of tests. And it supports marking a test as an expected failure, a test that is known to be broken, but shouldn't be counted as a failure on a TestResult:

class TestGizmo(unittest.TestCase):

    @unittest.skipUnless(sys.platform.startswith("win"), "requires Windows")
    def test_gizmo_on_windows(self):
        ...

    @unittest.expectedFailure
    def test_gimzo_without_required_library(self):
        ...

Also, tests for exceptions have been builtout to work with context managers using the with statement:

def test_division_by_zero(self):
    with self.assertRaises(ZeroDivisionError):
        x / 0

In addition, several new assertion methods were added including assertSetEqual(), assertDictEqual(), assertDictContainsSubset(), assertListEqual(), assertTupleEqual(), assertSequenceEqual(), assertRaisesRegexp(), assertIsNone(), and assertIsNotNone().

(Contribution par Benjamin Peterson et Antoine Pitrou)

The io module has three new constants for the seek() method: SEEK_SET, SEEK_CUR, and SEEK_END.

The sys.version_info tuple is now a named tuple:

>>> sys.version_info
sys.version_info(major=3, minor=1, micro=0, releaselevel='alpha', serial=2)

(Contribution par Ross Ligh; bpo-4285 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4285].)

The nntplib and imaplib modules now support IPv6.

(Contribution par Derek Morr; bpo-1655 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1655] et bpo-1664 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1664])

The pickle module has been adapted for better interoperability with Python 2.x when used with protocol 2 or lower. The reorganization of the standard library changed the formal reference for many objects. For example, __builtin__.set in Python 2 is called builtins.set in Python 3. This change confounded efforts to share data between different versions of Python. But now when protocol 2 or lower is selected, the pickler will automatically use the old Python 2 names for both loading and dumping. This remapping is turned-on by default but can be disabled with the fix_imports option:

>>> s = {1, 2, 3}
>>> pickle.dumps(s, protocol=0)
b'c__builtin__\nset\np0\n((lp1\nL1L\naL2L\naL3L\natp2\nRp3\n.'
>>> pickle.dumps(s, protocol=0, fix_imports=False)
b'cbuiltins\nset\np0\n((lp1\nL1L\naL2L\naL3L\natp2\nRp3\n.'

An unfortunate but unavoidable side-effect of this change is that protocol 2 pickles produced by Python 3.1 won't be readable with Python 3.0. The latest pickle protocol, protocol 3, should be used when migrating data between Python 3.x implementations, as it doesn't attempt to remain compatible with Python 2.x.

(Contribution par Alexandre Vassalotti et Antoine Pitrou; bpo-6137 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6137].)

A new module, importlib was added. It provides a complete, portable, pure Python reference implementation of the import statement and its counterpart, the __import__() function. It represents a substantial step forward in documenting and defining the actions that take place during imports.

(Contributed by Brett Cannon.)

Optimizations

Major performance enhancements have been added:

The new I/O library (as defined in PEP 3116 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3116/]) was mostly written in Python and quickly proved to be a problematic bottleneck in Python 3.0. In Python 3.1, the I/O library has been entirely rewritten in C and is 2 to 20 times faster depending on the task at hand. The pure Python version is still available for experimentation purposes through the _pyio module.

(Contribution par Amaury Forgeot d'Arc et Antoine Pitrou)

Added a heuristic so that tuples and dicts containing only untrackable objects are not tracked by the garbage collector. This can reduce the size of collections and therefore the garbage collection overhead on long-running programs, depending on their particular use of datatypes.

(Contribution par Antoine Pitrou; bpo-4688 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4688].)

Enabling a configure option named --with-computed-gotos on compilers that support it (notably: gcc, SunPro, icc), the bytecode evaluation loop is compiled with a new dispatch mechanism which gives speedups of up to 20%, depending on the system, the compiler, and the benchmark.

(Contribution par Antoine Pitrou ainsi qu’un certain nombre d’autres participants ; bpo-4753 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4753]).

The decoding of UTF-8, UTF-16 and LATIN-1 is now two to four times faster.

(Contribution par Antoine Pitrou et Amaury Forgeot d'Arc; bpo-4868 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4868].)

The json module now has a C extension to substantially improve its performance. In addition, the API was modified so that json works only with str, not with bytes. That change makes the module closely match the JSON specification [https://json.org/] which is defined in terms of Unicode.

(Contributed by Bob Ippolito and converted to Py3.1 by Antoine Pitrou and Benjamin Peterson; bpo-4136 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4136].)

Unpickling now interns the attribute names of pickled objects. This saves memory and allows pickles to be smaller.

(Contribution par Jake McGuire et Antoine Pitrou; bpo-5084 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5084].)

IDLE

IDLE's format menu now provides an option to strip trailing whitespace from a source file.

(Contribution par Roger D. Serwy; bpo-5150 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5150].)

Build and C API Changes

Changes to Python's build process and to the C API include:

Integers are now stored internally either in base 2**15 or in base 2**30, the base being determined at build time. Previously, they were always stored in base 2**15. Using base 2**30 gives significant performance improvements on 64-bit machines, but benchmark results on 32-bit machines have been mixed. Therefore, the default is to use base 2**30 on 64-bit machines and base 2**15 on 32-bit machines; on Unix, there's a new configure option --enable-big-digits that can be used to override this default.

Apart from the performance improvements this change should be invisible to end users, with one exception: for testing and debugging purposes there's a new sys.int_info that provides information about the internal format, giving the number of bits per digit and the size in bytes of the C type used to store each digit:

>>> import sys
>>> sys.int_info
sys.int_info(bits_per_digit=30, sizeof_digit=4)

(Contribution par Mark Dickinson; bpo-4258 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4258].)

The PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLong() function now handles a negative pylong by raising OverflowError instead of TypeError.

(Contribution par Mark Dickinson et Lisandro Dalcrin; bpo-5175 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5175])

Deprecated PyNumber_Int(). Use PyNumber_Long() instead.

(Contribution par Mark Dickinson; bpo-4910 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4910])

Added a new PyOS_string_to_double() function to replace the deprecated functions PyOS_ascii_strtod() and PyOS_ascii_atof().

(Contribution par Mark Dickinson; bpo-5914 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5914])

Added PyCapsule as a replacement for the PyCObject API. The principal difference is that the new type has a well defined interface for passing typing safety information and a less complicated signature for calling a destructor. The old type had a problematic API and is now deprecated.

(Contribution par Larry Hastings; bpo-5630 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5630])

Portage vers Python 3.1

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that may require changes to your code:

The new floating-point string representations can break existing doctests. For example:

def e():
    '''Compute the base of natural logarithms.

    >>> e()
    2.7182818284590451

    '''
    return sum(1/math.factorial(x) for x in reversed(range(30)))

doctest.testmod()

**********************************************************************
Failed example:
    e()
Expected:
    2.7182818284590451
Got:
    2.718281828459045
**********************************************************************

The automatic name remapping in the pickle module for protocol 2 or lower can make Python 3.1 pickles unreadable in Python 3.0. One solution is to use protocol 3. Another solution is to set the fix_imports option to False. See the discussion above for more details.

Nouveautés de Python 3.0

Auteur:

Guido van Rossum

This article explains the new features in Python 3.0, compared to 2.6. Python 3.0, also known as "Python 3000" or "Py3K", is the first ever intentionally backwards incompatible Python release. Python 3.0 was released on December 3, 2008. There are more changes than in a typical release, and more that are important for all Python users. Nevertheless, after digesting the changes, you'll find that Python really hasn't changed all that much -- by and large, we're mostly fixing well-known annoyances and warts, and removing a lot of old cruft.

This article doesn't attempt to provide a complete specification of all new features, but instead tries to give a convenient overview. For full details, you should refer to the documentation for Python 3.0, and/or the many PEPs referenced in the text. If you want to understand the complete implementation and design rationale for a particular feature, PEPs usually have more details than the regular documentation; but note that PEPs usually are not kept up-to-date once a feature has been fully implemented.

Due to time constraints this document is not as complete as it should have been. As always for a new release, the Misc/NEWS file in the source distribution contains a wealth of detailed information about every small thing that was changed.

Common Stumbling Blocks

This section lists those few changes that are most likely to trip you up if you're used to Python 2.5.

Print Is A Function

The print statement has been replaced with a print() function, with keyword arguments to replace most of the special syntax of the old print statement (PEP 3105 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3105/]). Examples:

Old: print "The answer is", 2*2
New: print("The answer is", 2*2)

Old: print x,           # Trailing comma suppresses newline
New: print(x, end=" ")  # Appends a space instead of a newline

Old: print              # Prints a newline
New: print()            # You must call the function!

Old: print >>sys.stderr, "fatal error"
New: print("fatal error", file=sys.stderr)

Old: print (x, y)       # prints repr((x, y))
New: print((x, y))      # Not the same as print(x, y)!

You can also customize the separator between items, e.g.:

print("There are <", 2**32, "> possibilities!", sep="")

which produces:

There are <4294967296> possibilities!

Note:

The print() function doesn't support the "softspace" feature of the old print statement. For example, in Python 2.x, print "A\n", "B" would write "A\nB\n"; but in Python 3.0, print("A\n", "B") writes "A\n B\n".

Initially, you'll be finding yourself typing the old print x a lot in interactive mode. Time to retrain your fingers to type print(x) instead!

When using the 2to3 source-to-source conversion tool, all print statements are automatically converted to print() function calls, so this is mostly a non-issue for larger projects.

Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists

Some well-known APIs no longer return lists:

dict methods dict.keys(), dict.items() and dict.values() return "views" instead of lists. For example, this no longer works: k = d.keys(); k.sort(). Use k = sorted(d) instead (this works in Python 2.5 too and is just as efficient).

Also, the dict.iterkeys(), dict.iteritems() and dict.itervalues() methods are no longer supported.

map() and filter() return iterators. If you really need a list and the input sequences are all of equal length, a quick fix is to wrap map() in list(), e.g. list(map(...)), but a better fix is often to use a list comprehension (especially when the original code uses lambda), or rewriting the code so it doesn't need a list at all. Particularly tricky is map() invoked for the side effects of the function; the correct transformation is to use a regular for loop (since creating a list would just be wasteful).

If the input sequences are not of equal length, map() will stop at the termination of the shortest of the sequences. For full compatibility with map() from Python 2.x, also wrap the sequences in itertools.zip_longest(), e.g. map(func, *sequences) becomes list(map(func, itertools.zip_longest(*sequences))).

range() now behaves like xrange() used to behave, except it works with values of arbitrary size. The latter no longer exists.

zip() renvoie maintenant un itérateur.

Ordering Comparisons

Python 3.0 has simplified the rules for ordering comparisons:

The ordering comparison operators (<, <=, >=, >) raise a TypeError exception when the operands don't have a meaningful natural ordering. Thus, expressions like 1 < '', 0 > None or len <= len are no longer valid, and e.g. None < None raises TypeError instead of returning False. A corollary is that sorting a heterogeneous list no longer makes sense -- all the elements must be comparable to each other. Note that this does not apply to the == and != operators: objects of different incomparable types always compare unequal to each other.

sorted() and list.sort() no longer accept the cmp argument providing a comparison function. Use the key argument instead. N.B. the key and reverse arguments are now "keyword-only".

The cmp() function should be treated as gone, and the __cmp__() special method is no longer supported. Use __lt__() for sorting, __eq__() with __hash__(), and other rich comparisons as needed. (If you really need the cmp() functionality, you could use the expression (a > b) - (a < b) as the equivalent for cmp(a, b).)

Integers

PEP 237 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0237/]: Essentially, long renamed to int. That is, there is only one built-in integral type, named int; but it behaves mostly like the old long type.

PEP 238 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0238/]: An expression like 1/2 returns a float. Use 1//2 to get the truncating behavior. (The latter syntax has existed for years, at least since Python 2.2.)

The sys.maxint constant was removed, since there is no longer a limit to the value of integers. However, sys.maxsize can be used as an integer larger than any practical list or string index. It conforms to the implementation's "natural" integer size and is typically the same as sys.maxint in previous releases on the same platform (assuming the same build options).

The repr() of a long integer doesn't include the trailing L anymore, so code that unconditionally strips that character will chop off the last digit instead. (Use str() instead.)

Octal literals are no longer of the form 0720; use 0o720 instead.

Text Vs. Data Instead Of Unicode Vs. 8-bit

Everything you thought you knew about binary data and Unicode has changed.

Python 3.0 uses the concepts of text and (binary) data instead of Unicode strings and 8-bit strings. All text is Unicode; however encoded Unicode is represented as binary data. The type used to hold text is str, the type used to hold data is bytes. The biggest difference with the 2.x situation is that any attempt to mix text and data in Python 3.0 raises TypeError, whereas if you were to mix Unicode and 8-bit strings in Python 2.x, it would work if the 8-bit string happened to contain only 7-bit (ASCII) bytes, but you would get UnicodeDecodeError if it contained non-ASCII values. This value-specific behavior has caused numerous sad faces over the years.

As a consequence of this change in philosophy, pretty much all code that uses Unicode, encodings or binary data most likely has to change. The change is for the better, as in the 2.x world there were numerous bugs having to do with mixing encoded and unencoded text. To be prepared in Python 2.x, start using unicode for all unencoded text, and str for binary or encoded data only. Then the 2to3 tool will do most of the work for you.

You can no longer use u"..." literals for Unicode text. However, you must use b"..." literals for binary data.

As the str and bytes types cannot be mixed, you must always explicitly convert between them. Use str.encode() to go from str to bytes, and bytes.decode() to go from bytes to str. You can also use bytes(s, encoding=...) and str(b, encoding=...), respectively.

Like str, the bytes type is immutable. There is a separate mutable type to hold buffered binary data, bytearray. Nearly all APIs that accept bytes also accept bytearray. The mutable API is based on collections.MutableSequence.

All backslashes in raw string literals are interpreted literally. This means that '\U' and '\u' escapes in raw strings are not treated specially. For example, r'\u20ac' is a string of 6 characters in Python 3.0, whereas in 2.6, ur'\u20ac' was the single "euro" character. (Of course, this change only affects raw string literals; the euro character is '\u20ac' in Python 3.0.)

The built-in basestring abstract type was removed. Use str instead. The str and bytes types don't have functionality enough in common to warrant a shared base class. The 2to3 tool (see below) replaces every occurrence of basestring with str.

Files opened as text files (still the default mode for open()) always use an encoding to map between strings (in memory) and bytes (on disk). Binary files (opened with a b in the mode argument) always use bytes in memory. This means that if a file is opened using an incorrect mode or encoding, I/O will likely fail loudly, instead of silently producing incorrect data. It also means that even Unix users will have to specify the correct mode (text or binary) when opening a file. There is a platform-dependent default encoding, which on Unixy platforms can be set with the LANG environment variable (and sometimes also with some other platform-specific locale-related environment variables). In many cases, but not all, the system default is UTF-8; you should never count on this default. Any application reading or writing more than pure ASCII text should probably have a way to override the encoding. There is no longer any need for using the encoding-aware streams in the codecs module.

The initial values of sys.stdin, sys.stdout and sys.stderr are now unicode-only text files (i.e., they are instances of io.TextIOBase). To read and write bytes data with these streams, you need to use their io.TextIOBase.buffer attribute.

Filenames are passed to and returned from APIs as (Unicode) strings. This can present platform-specific problems because on some platforms filenames are arbitrary byte strings. (On the other hand, on Windows filenames are natively stored as Unicode.) As a work-around, most APIs (e.g. open() and many functions in the os module) that take filenames accept bytes objects as well as strings, and a few APIs have a way to ask for a bytes return value. Thus, os.listdir() returns a list of bytes instances if the argument is a bytes instance, and os.getcwdb() returns the current working directory as a bytes instance. Note that when os.listdir() returns a list of strings, filenames that cannot be decoded properly are omitted rather than raising UnicodeError.

Some system APIs like os.environ and sys.argv can also present problems when the bytes made available by the system is not interpretable using the default encoding. Setting the LANG variable and rerunning the program is probably the best approach.

PEP 3138 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3138/]: The repr() of a string no longer escapes non-ASCII characters. It still escapes control characters and code points with non-printable status in the Unicode standard, however.

PEP 3120 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3120/]: The default source encoding is now UTF-8.

PEP 3131 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3131/]: Non-ASCII letters are now allowed in identifiers. (However, the standard library remains ASCII-only with the exception of contributor names in comments.)

The StringIO and cStringIO modules are gone. Instead, import the io module and use io.StringIO or io.BytesIO for text and data respectively.

See also the Guide Unicode, which was updated for Python 3.0.

Overview Of Syntax Changes

This section gives a brief overview of every syntactic change in Python 3.0.

New Syntax

PEP 3107 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3107/]: Function argument and return value annotations. This provides a standardized way of annotating a function's parameters and return value. There are no semantics attached to such annotations except that they can be introspected at runtime using the __annotations__ attribute. The intent is to encourage experimentation through metaclasses, decorators or frameworks.

PEP 3102 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3102/]: Keyword-only arguments. Named parameters occurring after *args in the parameter list must be specified using keyword syntax in the call. You can also use a bare * in the parameter list to indicate that you don't accept a variable-length argument list, but you do have keyword-only arguments.

Keyword arguments are allowed after the list of base classes in a class definition. This is used by the new convention for specifying a metaclass (see next section), but can be used for other purposes as well, as long as the metaclass supports it.

PEP 3104 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3104/]: nonlocal statement. Using nonlocal x you can now assign directly to a variable in an outer (but non-global) scope. nonlocal is a new reserved word.

PEP 3132 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3132/]: Extended Iterable Unpacking. You can now write things like a, b, *rest = some_sequence. And even *rest, a = stuff. The rest object is always a (possibly empty) list; the right-hand side may be any iterable. Example:

(a, *rest, b) = range(5)

This sets a to 0, b to 4, and rest to [1, 2, 3].

Dictionary comprehensions: {k: v for k, v in stuff} means the same thing as dict(stuff) but is more flexible. (This is PEP 274 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0274/] vindicated. :-)

Set literals, e.g. {1, 2}. Note that {} is an empty dictionary; use set() for an empty set. Set comprehensions are also supported; e.g., {x for x in stuff} means the same thing as set(stuff) but is more flexible.

New octal literals, e.g. 0o720 (already in 2.6). The old octal literals (0720) are gone.

New binary literals, e.g. 0b1010 (already in 2.6), and there is a new corresponding built-in function, bin().

Bytes literals are introduced with a leading b or B, and there is a new corresponding built-in function, bytes().

Changed Syntax

PEP 3109 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3109/] and PEP 3134 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3134/]: new raise statement syntax: raise [expr [from expr]]. See below.

as and with are now reserved words. (Since 2.6, actually.)

True, False, and None are reserved words. (2.6 partially enforced the restrictions on None already.)

Change from except exc, var to except exc as var. See PEP 3110 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3110/].

PEP 3115 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3115/]: New Metaclass Syntax. Instead of:

class C:
    __metaclass__ = M
    ...

you must now use:

class C(metaclass=M):
    ...

The module-global __metaclass__ variable is no longer supported. (It was a crutch to make it easier to default to new-style classes without deriving every class from object.)

List comprehensions no longer support the syntactic form [... for var in item1, item2, ...]. Use [... for var in (item1, item2, ...)] instead. Also note that list comprehensions have different semantics: they are closer to syntactic sugar for a generator expression inside a list() constructor, and in particular the loop control variables are no longer leaked into the surrounding scope.

The ellipsis (...) can be used as an atomic expression anywhere. (Previously it was only allowed in slices.) Also, it must now be spelled as .... (Previously it could also be spelled as . . ., by a mere accident of the grammar.)

Removed Syntax

PEP 3113 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3113/]: Tuple parameter unpacking removed. You can no longer write def foo(a, (b, c)): .... Use def foo(a, b_c): b, c = b_c instead.

Removed backticks (use repr() instead).

Removed <> (use != instead).

Removed keyword: exec() is no longer a keyword; it remains as a function. (Fortunately the function syntax was also accepted in 2.x.) Also note that exec() no longer takes a stream argument; instead of exec(f) you can use exec(f.read()).

Integer literals no longer support a trailing l or L.

String literals no longer support a leading u or U.

The from module import * syntax is only allowed at the module level, no longer inside functions.

The only acceptable syntax for relative imports is from .[module] import name. All import forms not starting with . are interpreted as absolute imports. (PEP 328 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/])

Classic classes are gone.

Changes Already Present In Python 2.6

Since many users presumably make the jump straight from Python 2.5 to Python 3.0, this section reminds the reader of new features that were originally designed for Python 3.0 but that were back-ported to Python 2.6. The corresponding sections in Nouveautés de Python 2.6 should be consulted for longer descriptions.

PEP 343: The 'with' statement. The with statement is now a standard feature and no longer needs to be imported from the __future__. Also check out Écrire des gestionnaires de contexte and Le module contextlib.

PEP 366: Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module. This enhances the usefulness of the -m option when the referenced module lives in a package.

PEP 370: Per-user site-packages Directory.

PEP 371: The multiprocessing Package.

PEP 3101: Advanced String Formatting. Note: the 2.6 description mentions the format() method for both 8-bit and Unicode strings. In 3.0, only the str type (text strings with Unicode support) supports this method; the bytes type does not. The plan is to eventually make this the only API for string formatting, and to start deprecating the % operator in Python 3.1.

PEP 3105: print As a Function. This is now a standard feature and no longer needs to be imported from __future__. More details were given above.

PEP 3110: Exception-Handling Changes. The except exc as var syntax is now standard and except exc, var is no longer supported. (Of course, the as var part is still optional.)

PEP 3112: Byte Literals. The b"..." string literal notation (and its variants like b'...', b"""...""", and br"...") now produces a literal of type bytes.

PEP 3116: New I/O Library. The io module is now the standard way of doing file I/O. The built-in open() function is now an alias for io.open() and has additional keyword arguments encoding, errors, newline and closefd. Also note that an invalid mode argument now raises ValueError, not IOError. The binary file object underlying a text file object can be accessed as f.buffer (but beware that the text object maintains a buffer of itself in order to speed up the encoding and decoding operations).

PEP 3118: Revised Buffer Protocol. The old builtin buffer() is now really gone; the new builtin memoryview() provides (mostly) similar functionality.

PEP 3119: Abstract Base Classes. The abc module and the ABCs defined in the collections module plays a somewhat more prominent role in the language now, and built-in collection types like dict and list conform to the collections.MutableMapping and collections.MutableSequence ABCs, respectively.

PEP 3127: Integer Literal Support and Syntax. As mentioned above, the new octal literal notation is the only one supported, and binary literals have been added.

PEP 3129: Class Decorators.

PEP 3141: A Type Hierarchy for Numbers. The numbers module is another new use of ABCs, defining Python's "numeric tower". Also note the new fractions module which implements numbers.Rational.

Library Changes

Due to time constraints, this document does not exhaustively cover the very extensive changes to the standard library. PEP 3108 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3108/] is the reference for the major changes to the library. Here's a capsule review:

Many old modules were removed. Some, like gopherlib (no longer used) and md5 (replaced by hashlib), were already deprecated by PEP 4 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0004/]. Others were removed as a result of the removal of support for various platforms such as Irix, BeOS and Mac OS 9 (see PEP 11 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/]). Some modules were also selected for removal in Python 3.0 due to lack of use or because a better replacement exists. See PEP 3108 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3108/] for an exhaustive list.

The bsddb3 package was removed because its presence in the core standard library has proved over time to be a particular burden for the core developers due to testing instability and Berkeley DB's release schedule. However, the package is alive and well, externally maintained at https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm.

Some modules were renamed because their old name disobeyed PEP 8 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/], or for various other reasons. Here's the list:

Old Name

New Name

_winreg

winreg

ConfigParser

configparser

copy_reg

copyreg

File d'attente (queue)

queue

SocketServer

socketserver

markupbase

_markupbase

repr

reprlib

test.test_support

test.support

A common pattern in Python 2.x is to have one version of a module implemented in pure Python, with an optional accelerated version implemented as a C extension; for example, pickle and cPickle. This places the burden of importing the accelerated version and falling back on the pure Python version on each user of these modules. In Python 3.0, the accelerated versions are considered implementation details of the pure Python versions. Users should always import the standard version, which attempts to import the accelerated version and falls back to the pure Python version. The pickle / cPickle pair received this treatment. The profile module is on the list for 3.1. The StringIO module has been turned into a class in the io module.

Some related modules have been grouped into packages, and usually the submodule names have been simplified. The resulting new packages are:

dbm (anydbm, dbhash, dbm, dumbdbm, gdbm, whichdb).

html (HTMLParser, htmlentitydefs).

http (httplib, BaseHTTPServer, CGIHTTPServer, SimpleHTTPServer, Cookie, cookielib).

tkinter (all Tkinter-related modules except turtle). The target audience of turtle doesn't really care about tkinter. Also note that as of Python 2.6, the functionality of turtle has been greatly enhanced.

urllib (urllib, urllib2, urlparse, robotparse).

xmlrpc (xmlrpclib, DocXMLRPCServer, SimpleXMLRPCServer).

Some other changes to standard library modules, not covered by PEP 3108 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3108/]:

Killed sets. Use the built-in set() class.

Cleanup of the sys module: removed sys.exitfunc(), sys.exc_clear(), sys.exc_type, sys.exc_value, sys.exc_traceback. (Note that sys.last_type etc. remain.)

Cleanup of the array.array type: the read() and write() methods are gone; use fromfile() and tofile() instead. Also, the 'c' typecode for array is gone -- use either 'b' for bytes or 'u' for Unicode characters.

Cleanup of the operator module: removed sequenceIncludes() and isCallable().

Cleanup of the thread module: acquire_lock() and release_lock() are gone; use acquire() and release() instead.

Cleanup of the random module: removed the jumpahead() API.

The new module is gone.

The functions os.tmpnam(), os.tempnam() and os.tmpfile() have been removed in favor of the tempfile module.

The tokenize module has been changed to work with bytes. The main entry point is now tokenize.tokenize(), instead of generate_tokens.

string.letters and its friends (string.lowercase and string.uppercase) are gone. Use string.ascii_letters etc. instead. (The reason for the removal is that string.letters and friends had locale-specific behavior, which is a bad idea for such attractively named global "constants".)

Renamed module __builtin__ to builtins (removing the underscores, adding an 's'). The __builtins__ variable found in most global namespaces is unchanged. To modify a builtin, you should use builtins, not __builtins__!

PEP 3101 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3101/]: A New Approach To String Formatting

A new system for built-in string formatting operations replaces the % string formatting operator. (However, the % operator is still supported; it will be deprecated in Python 3.1 and removed from the language at some later time.) Read PEP 3101 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3101/] for the full scoop.

Changes To Exceptions

The APIs for raising and catching exception have been cleaned up and new powerful features added:

PEP 352 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0352/]: All exceptions must be derived (directly or indirectly) from BaseException. This is the root of the exception hierarchy. This is not new as a recommendation, but the requirement to inherit from BaseException is new. (Python 2.6 still allowed classic classes to be raised, and placed no restriction on what you can catch.) As a consequence, string exceptions are finally truly and utterly dead.

Almost all exceptions should actually derive from Exception; BaseException should only be used as a base class for exceptions that should only be handled at the top level, such as SystemExit or KeyboardInterrupt. The recommended idiom for handling all exceptions except for this latter category is to use except Exception.

StandardError was removed.

Exceptions no longer behave as sequences. Use the args attribute instead.

PEP 3109 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3109/]: Raising exceptions. You must now use raise Exception(args) instead of raise Exception, args. Additionally, you can no longer explicitly specify a traceback; instead, if you have to do this, you can assign directly to the __traceback__ attribute (see below).

PEP 3110 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3110/]: Catching exceptions. You must now use except SomeException as variable instead of except SomeException, variable. Moreover, the variable is explicitly deleted when the except block is left.

PEP 3134 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3134/]: Exception chaining. There are two cases: implicit chaining and explicit chaining. Implicit chaining happens when an exception is raised in an except or finally handler block. This usually happens due to a bug in the handler block; we call this a secondary exception. In this case, the original exception (that was being handled) is saved as the __context__ attribute of the secondary exception. Explicit chaining is invoked with this syntax:

raise SecondaryException() from primary_exception

(where primary_exception is any expression that produces an exception object, probably an exception that was previously caught). In this case, the primary exception is stored on the __cause__ attribute of the secondary exception. The traceback printed when an unhandled exception occurs walks the chain of __cause__ and __context__ attributes and prints a separate traceback for each component of the chain, with the primary exception at the top. (Java users may recognize this behavior.)

PEP 3134 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3134/]: Exception objects now store their traceback as the __traceback__ attribute. This means that an exception object now contains all the information pertaining to an exception, and there are fewer reasons to use sys.exc_info() (though the latter is not removed).

A few exception messages are improved when Windows fails to load an extension module. For example, error code 193 is now %1 is not a valid Win32 application. Strings now deal with non-English locales.

Miscellaneous Other Changes

Operators And Special Methods

!= now returns the opposite of ==, unless == returns NotImplemented.

The concept of "unbound methods" has been removed from the language. When referencing a method as a class attribute, you now get a plain function object.

__getslice__(), __setslice__() and __delslice__() were killed. The syntax a[i:j] now translates to a.__getitem__(slice(i, j)) (or __setitem__() or __delitem__(), when used as an assignment or deletion target, respectively).

PEP 3114 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3114/]: the standard next() method has been renamed to __next__().

The __oct__() and __hex__() special methods are removed -- oct() and hex() use __index__() now to convert the argument to an integer.

Removed support for __members__ and __methods__.

The function attributes named func_X have been renamed to use the __X__ form, freeing up these names in the function attribute namespace for user-defined attributes. To wit, func_closure, func_code, func_defaults, func_dict, func_doc, func_globals, func_name were renamed to __closure__, __code__, __defaults__, __dict__, __doc__, __globals__, __name__, respectively.

__nonzero__() is now __bool__().

Builtins

PEP 3135 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3135/]: New super(). You can now invoke super() without arguments and (assuming this is in a regular instance method defined inside a class statement) the right class and instance will automatically be chosen. With arguments, the behavior of super() is unchanged.

PEP 3111 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3111/]: raw_input() was renamed to input(). That is, the new input() function reads a line from sys.stdin and returns it with the trailing newline stripped. It raises EOFError if the input is terminated prematurely. To get the old behavior of input(), use eval(input()).

A new built-in function next() was added to call the __next__() method on an object.

The round() function rounding strategy and return type have changed. Exact halfway cases are now rounded to the nearest even result instead of away from zero. (For example, round(2.5) now returns 2 rather than 3.) round(x[, n]) now delegates to x.__round__([n]) instead of always returning a float. It generally returns an integer when called with a single argument and a value of the same type as x when called with two arguments.

Moved intern() to sys.intern().

Removed: apply(). Instead of apply(f, args) use f(*args).

Removed callable(). Instead of callable(f) you can use isinstance(f, collections.Callable). The operator.isCallable() function is also gone.

Removed coerce(). This function no longer serves a purpose now that classic classes are gone.

Removed execfile(). Instead of execfile(fn) use exec(open(fn).read()).

Removed the file type. Use open(). There are now several different kinds of streams that open can return in the io module.

Removed reduce(). Use functools.reduce() if you really need it; however, 99 percent of the time an explicit for loop is more readable.

Removed reload(). Use imp.reload().

Removed. dict.has_key() -- use the in operator instead.

Build and C API Changes

Due to time constraints, here is a very incomplete list of changes to the C API.

Support for several platforms was dropped, including but not limited to Mac OS 9, BeOS, RISCOS, Irix, and Tru64.

PEP 3118 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/]: New Buffer API.

PEP 3121 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3121/]: Extension Module Initialization & Finalization.

PEP 3123 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3123/]: Making PyObject_HEAD conform to standard C.

No more C API support for restricted execution.

PyNumber_Coerce(), PyNumber_CoerceEx(), PyMember_Get(), and PyMember_Set() C APIs are removed.

New C API PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(), works like PyImport_ImportModule() but won't block on the import lock (returning an error instead).

Renamed the boolean conversion C-level slot and method: nb_nonzero is now nb_bool.

Removed METH_OLDARGS and WITH_CYCLE_GC from the C API.

Performances

The net result of the 3.0 generalizations is that Python 3.0 runs the pystone benchmark around 10% slower than Python 2.5. Most likely the biggest cause is the removal of special-casing for small integers. There's room for improvement, but it will happen after 3.0 is released!

Portage vers Python 3.0

For porting existing Python 2.5 or 2.6 source code to Python 3.0, the best strategy is the following:

(Prerequisite:) Start with excellent test coverage.

Port to Python 2.6. This should be no more work than the average port from Python 2.x to Python 2.(x+1). Make sure all your tests pass.

(Still using 2.6:) Turn on the -3 command line switch. This enables warnings about features that will be removed (or change) in 3.0. Run your test suite again, and fix code that you get warnings about until there are no warnings left, and all your tests still pass.

Run the 2to3 source-to-source translator over your source code tree. Run the result of the translation under Python 3.0. Manually fix up any remaining issues, fixing problems until all tests pass again.

It is not recommended to try to write source code that runs unchanged under both Python 2.6 and 3.0; you'd have to use a very contorted coding style, e.g. avoiding print statements, metaclasses, and much more. If you are maintaining a library that needs to support both Python 2.6 and Python 3.0, the best approach is to modify step 3 above by editing the 2.6 version of the source code and running the 2to3 translator again, rather than editing the 3.0 version of the source code.

For porting C extensions to Python 3.0, please see Portage des modules d'extension vers Python 3.

Nouveautés de Python 2.7

Auteur:

A.M. Kuchling (amk at amk.ca)

This article explains the new features in Python 2.7. Python 2.7 was released on July 3, 2010.

Numeric handling has been improved in many ways, for both floating-point numbers and for the Decimal class. There are some useful additions to the standard library, such as a greatly enhanced unittest module, the argparse module for parsing command-line options, convenient OrderedDict and Counter classes in the collections module, and many other improvements.

Python 2.7 is planned to be the last of the 2.x releases, so we worked on making it a good release for the long term. To help with porting to Python 3, several new features from the Python 3.x series have been included in 2.7.

This article doesn't attempt to provide a complete specification of the new features, but instead provides a convenient overview. For full details, you should refer to the documentation for Python 2.7 at https://docs.python.org. If you want to understand the rationale for the design and implementation, refer to the PEP for a particular new feature or the issue on https://bugs.python.org in which a change was discussed. Whenever possible, "What's New in Python" links to the bug/patch item for each change.

The Future for Python 2.x

Python 2.7 is the last major release in the 2.x series, as the Python maintainers have shifted the focus of their new feature development efforts to the Python 3.x series. This means that while Python 2 continues to receive bug fixes, and to be updated to build correctly on new hardware and versions of supported operated systems, there will be no new full feature releases for the language or standard library.

However, while there is a large common subset between Python 2.7 and Python 3, and many of the changes involved in migrating to that common subset, or directly to Python 3, can be safely automated, some other changes (notably those associated with Unicode handling) may require careful consideration, and preferably robust automated regression test suites, to migrate effectively.

This means that Python 2.7 will remain in place for a long time, providing a stable and supported base platform for production systems that have not yet been ported to Python 3. The full expected lifecycle of the Python 2.7 series is detailed in PEP 373 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0373/].

Some key consequences of the long-term significance of 2.7 are:

As noted above, the 2.7 release has a much longer period of maintenance when compared to earlier 2.x versions. Python 2.7 is currently expected to remain supported by the core development team (receiving security updates and other bug fixes) until at least 2020 (10 years after its initial release, compared to the more typical support period of 18--24 months).

As the Python 2.7 standard library ages, making effective use of the Python Package Index (either directly or via a redistributor) becomes more important for Python 2 users. In addition to a wide variety of third party packages for various tasks, the available packages include backports of new modules and features from the Python 3 standard library that are compatible with Python 2, as well as various tools and libraries that can make it easier to migrate to Python 3. The Python Packaging User Guide [https://packaging.python.org] provides guidance on downloading and installing software from the Python Package Index.

While the preferred approach to enhancing Python 2 is now the publication of new packages on the Python Package Index, this approach doesn't necessarily work in all cases, especially those related to network security. In exceptional cases that cannot be handled adequately by publishing new or updated packages on PyPI, the Python Enhancement Proposal process may be used to make the case for adding new features directly to the Python 2 standard library. Any such additions, and the maintenance releases where they were added, will be noted in the New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases section below.

For projects wishing to migrate from Python 2 to Python 3, or for library and framework developers wishing to support users on both Python 2 and Python 3, there are a variety of tools and guides available to help decide on a suitable approach and manage some of the technical details involved. The recommended starting point is the How to port Python 2 Code to Python 3 HOWTO guide.

Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings

For Python 2.7, a policy decision was made to silence warnings only of interest to developers by default. DeprecationWarning and its descendants are now ignored unless otherwise requested, preventing users from seeing warnings triggered by an application. This change was also made in the branch that became Python 3.2. (Discussed on stdlib-sig and carried out in bpo-7319 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7319].)

In previous releases, DeprecationWarning messages were enabled by default, providing Python developers with a clear indication of where their code may break in a future major version of Python.

However, there are increasingly many users of Python-based applications who are not directly involved in the development of those applications. DeprecationWarning messages are irrelevant to such users, making them worry about an application that's actually working correctly and burdening application developers with responding to these concerns.

You can re-enable display of DeprecationWarning messages by running Python with the -Wdefault (short form: -Wd) switch, or by setting the PYTHONWARNINGS environment variable to "default" (or "d") before running Python. Python code can also re-enable them by calling warnings.simplefilter('default').

The unittest module also automatically reenables deprecation warnings when running tests.

Python 3.1 Features

Much as Python 2.6 incorporated features from Python 3.0, version 2.7 incorporates some of the new features in Python 3.1. The 2.x series continues to provide tools for migrating to the 3.x series.

A partial list of 3.1 features that were backported to 2.7:

The syntax for set literals ({1,2,3} is a mutable set).

Dictionary and set comprehensions ({i: i*2 for i in range(3)}).

Multiple context managers in a single with statement.

A new version of the io library, rewritten in C for performance.

The ordered-dictionary type described in PEP 372: Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections.

The new "," format specifier described in PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator.

The memoryview object.

A small subset of the importlib module, described below.

The repr() of a float x is shorter in many cases: it's now based on the shortest decimal string that's guaranteed to round back to x. As in previous versions of Python, it's guaranteed that float(repr(x)) recovers x.

Float-to-string and string-to-float conversions are correctly rounded. The round() function is also now correctly rounded.

The PyCapsule type, used to provide a C API for extension modules.

The PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow() C API function.

Other new Python3-mode warnings include:

operator.isCallable() and operator.sequenceIncludes(), which are not supported in 3.x, now trigger warnings.

The -3 switch now automatically enables the -Qwarn switch that causes warnings about using classic division with integers and long integers.

PEP 372: Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections

Regular Python dictionaries iterate over key/value pairs in arbitrary order. Over the years, a number of authors have written alternative implementations that remember the order that the keys were originally inserted. Based on the experiences from those implementations, 2.7 introduces a new OrderedDict class in the collections module.

The OrderedDict API provides the same interface as regular dictionaries but iterates over keys and values in a guaranteed order depending on when a key was first inserted:

>>> from collections import OrderedDict
>>> d = OrderedDict([('first', 1),
...                  ('second', 2),
...                  ('third', 3)])
>>> d.items()
[('first', 1), ('second', 2), ('third', 3)]

If a new entry overwrites an existing entry, the original insertion position is left unchanged:

>>> d['second'] = 4
>>> d.items()
[('first', 1), ('second', 4), ('third', 3)]

Deleting an entry and reinserting it will move it to the end:

>>> del d['second']
>>> d['second'] = 5
>>> d.items()
[('first', 1), ('third', 3), ('second', 5)]

The popitem() method has an optional last argument that defaults to True. If last is true, the most recently added key is returned and removed; if it's false, the oldest key is selected:

>>> od = OrderedDict([(x,0) for x in range(20)])
>>> od.popitem()
(19, 0)
>>> od.popitem()
(18, 0)
>>> od.popitem(last=False)
(0, 0)
>>> od.popitem(last=False)
(1, 0)

Comparing two ordered dictionaries checks both the keys and values, and requires that the insertion order was the same:

>>> od1 = OrderedDict([('first', 1),
...                    ('second', 2),
...                    ('third', 3)])
>>> od2 = OrderedDict([('third', 3),
...                    ('first', 1),
...                    ('second', 2)])
>>> od1 == od2
False
>>> # Move 'third' key to the end
>>> del od2['third']; od2['third'] = 3
>>> od1 == od2
True

Comparing an OrderedDict with a regular dictionary ignores the insertion order and just compares the keys and values.

How does the OrderedDict work? It maintains a doubly linked list of keys, appending new keys to the list as they're inserted. A secondary dictionary maps keys to their corresponding list node, so deletion doesn't have to traverse the entire linked list and therefore remains O(1).

The standard library now supports use of ordered dictionaries in several modules.

The ConfigParser module uses them by default, meaning that configuration files can now be read, modified, and then written back in their original order.

The _asdict() method for collections.namedtuple() now returns an ordered dictionary with the values appearing in the same order as the underlying tuple indices.

The json module's JSONDecoder class constructor was extended with an object_pairs_hook parameter to allow OrderedDict instances to be built by the decoder. Support was also added for third-party tools like PyYAML [https://pyyaml.org/].

Voir aussi

PEP 372 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0372/] - Adding an ordered dictionary to collections

PEP written by Armin Ronacher and Raymond Hettinger; implemented by Raymond Hettinger.

PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator

To make program output more readable, it can be useful to add separators to large numbers, rendering them as 18,446,744,073,709,551,616 instead of 18446744073709551616.

The fully general solution for doing this is the locale module, which can use different separators ("," in North America, "." in Europe) and different grouping sizes, but locale is complicated to use and unsuitable for multi-threaded applications where different threads are producing output for different locales.

Therefore, a simple comma-grouping mechanism has been added to the mini-language used by the str.format() method. When formatting a floating-point number, simply include a comma between the width and the precision:

>>> '{:20,.2f}'.format(18446744073709551616.0)
'18,446,744,073,709,551,616.00'

When formatting an integer, include the comma after the width:

>>> '{:20,d}'.format(18446744073709551616)
'18,446,744,073,709,551,616'

This mechanism is not adaptable at all; commas are always used as the separator and the grouping is always into three-digit groups. The comma-formatting mechanism isn't as general as the locale module, but it's easier to use.

Voir aussi

PEP 378 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0378/] - Format Specifier for Thousands Separator

PEP written by Raymond Hettinger; implemented by Eric Smith.

PEP 389: The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines

The argparse module for parsing command-line arguments was added as a more powerful replacement for the optparse module.

This means Python now supports three different modules for parsing command-line arguments: getopt, optparse, and argparse. The getopt module closely resembles the C library's getopt() function, so it remains useful if you're writing a Python prototype that will eventually be rewritten in C. optparse becomes redundant, but there are no plans to remove it because there are many scripts still using it, and there's no automated way to update these scripts. (Making the argparse API consistent with optparse's interface was discussed but rejected as too messy and difficult.)

In short, if you're writing a new script and don't need to worry about compatibility with earlier versions of Python, use argparse instead of optparse.

Voici un exemple :

import argparse

parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(description='Command-line example.')

# Add optional switches
parser.add_argument('-v', action='store_true', dest='is_verbose',
                    help='produce verbose output')
parser.add_argument('-o', action='store', dest='output',
                    metavar='FILE',
                    help='direct output to FILE instead of stdout')
parser.add_argument('-C', action='store', type=int, dest='context',
                    metavar='NUM', default=0,
                    help='display NUM lines of added context')

# Allow any number of additional arguments.
parser.add_argument(nargs='*', action='store', dest='inputs',
                    help='input filenames (default is stdin)')

args = parser.parse_args()
print args.__dict__

Unless you override it, -h and --help switches are automatically added, and produce neatly formatted output:

-> ./python.exe argparse-example.py --help
usage: argparse-example.py [-h] [-v] [-o FILE] [-C NUM] [inputs [inputs ...]]

Command-line example.

positional arguments:
  inputs      input filenames (default is stdin)

optional arguments:
  -h, --help  show this help message and exit
  -v          produce verbose output
  -o FILE     direct output to FILE instead of stdout
  -C NUM      display NUM lines of added context

As with optparse, the command-line switches and arguments are returned as an object with attributes named by the dest parameters:

-> ./python.exe argparse-example.py -v
{'output': None,
 'is_verbose': True,
 'context': 0,
 'inputs': []}

-> ./python.exe argparse-example.py -v -o /tmp/output -C 4 file1 file2
{'output': '/tmp/output',
 'is_verbose': True,
 'context': 4,
 'inputs': ['file1', 'file2']}

argparse has much fancier validation than optparse; you can specify an exact number of arguments as an integer, 0 or more arguments by passing '*', 1 or more by passing '+', or an optional argument with '?'. A top-level parser can contain sub-parsers to define subcommands that have different sets of switches, as in svn commit, svn checkout, etc. You can specify an argument's type as FileType, which will automatically open files for you and understands that '-' means standard input or output.

Voir aussi

Documentation du module argparse

The documentation page of the argparse module.

Migrating optparse code to argparse

Part of the Python documentation, describing how to convert code that uses optparse.

PEP 389 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0389/] - argparse - New Command Line Parsing Module

PEP written and implemented by Steven Bethard.

PEP 391: Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging

The logging module is very flexible; applications can define a tree of logging subsystems, and each logger in this tree can filter out certain messages, format them differently, and direct messages to a varying number of handlers.

All this flexibility can require a lot of configuration. You can write Python statements to create objects and set their properties, but a complex set-up requires verbose but boring code. logging also supports a fileConfig() function that parses a file, but the file format doesn't support configuring filters, and it's messier to generate programmatically.

Python 2.7 adds a dictConfig() function that uses a dictionary to configure logging. There are many ways to produce a dictionary from different sources: construct one with code; parse a file containing JSON; or use a YAML parsing library if one is installed. For more information see Configuration functions.

The following example configures two loggers, the root logger and a logger named "network". Messages sent to the root logger will be sent to the system log using the syslog protocol, and messages to the "network" logger will be written to a network.log file that will be rotated once the log reaches 1MB.

import logging
import logging.config

configdict = {
 'version': 1,    # Configuration schema in use; must be 1 for now
 'formatters': {
     'standard': {
         'format': ('%(asctime)s %(name)-15s '
                    '%(levelname)-8s %(message)s')}},

 'handlers': {'netlog': {'backupCount': 10,
                     'class': 'logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler',
                     'filename': '/logs/network.log',
                     'formatter': 'standard',
                     'level': 'INFO',
                     'maxBytes': 1000000},
              'syslog': {'class': 'logging.handlers.SysLogHandler',
                         'formatter': 'standard',
                         'level': 'ERROR'}},

 # Specify all the subordinate loggers
 'loggers': {
             'network': {
                         'handlers': ['netlog']
             }
 },
 # Specify properties of the root logger
 'root': {
          'handlers': ['syslog']
 },
}

# Set up configuration
logging.config.dictConfig(configdict)

# As an example, log two error messages
logger = logging.getLogger('/')
logger.error('Database not found')

netlogger = logging.getLogger('network')
netlogger.error('Connection failed')

Three smaller enhancements to the logging module, all implemented by Vinay Sajip, are:

The SysLogHandler class now supports syslogging over TCP. The constructor has a socktype parameter giving the type of socket to use, either socket.SOCK_DGRAM for UDP or socket.SOCK_STREAM for TCP. The default protocol remains UDP.

Logger instances gained a getChild() method that retrieves a descendant logger using a relative path. For example, once you retrieve a logger by doing log = getLogger('app'), calling log.getChild('network.listen') is equivalent to getLogger('app.network.listen').

The LoggerAdapter class gained an isEnabledFor() method that takes a level and returns whether the underlying logger would process a message of that level of importance.

Voir aussi

PEP 391 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0391/] - Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging

PEP written and implemented by Vinay Sajip.

PEP 3106: Dictionary Views

The dictionary methods keys(), values(), and items() are different in Python 3.x. They return an object called a view instead of a fully materialized list.

It's not possible to change the return values of keys(), values(), and items() in Python 2.7 because too much code would break. Instead the 3.x versions were added under the new names viewkeys(), viewvalues(), and viewitems().

>>> d = dict((i*10, chr(65+i)) for i in range(26))
>>> d
{0: 'A', 130: 'N', 10: 'B', 140: 'O', 20: ..., 250: 'Z'}
>>> d.viewkeys()
dict_keys([0, 130, 10, 140, 20, 150, 30, ..., 250])

Views can be iterated over, but the key and item views also behave like sets. The & operator performs intersection, and | performs a union:

>>> d1 = dict((i*10, chr(65+i)) for i in range(26))
>>> d2 = dict((i**.5, i) for i in range(1000))
>>> d1.viewkeys() & d2.viewkeys()
set([0.0, 10.0, 20.0, 30.0])
>>> d1.viewkeys() | range(0, 30)
set([0, 1, 130, 3, 4, 5, 6, ..., 120, 250])

The view keeps track of the dictionary and its contents change as the dictionary is modified:

>>> vk = d.viewkeys()
>>> vk
dict_keys([0, 130, 10, ..., 250])
>>> d[260] = '&'
>>> vk
dict_keys([0, 130, 260, 10, ..., 250])

However, note that you can't add or remove keys while you're iterating over the view:

>>> for k in vk:
...     d[k*2] = k
...
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
RuntimeError: dictionary changed size during iteration

You can use the view methods in Python 2.x code, and the 2to3 converter will change them to the standard keys(), values(), and items() methods.

Voir aussi

PEP 3106 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3106/] - Revamping dict.keys(), .values() and .items()

PEP written by Guido van Rossum. Backported to 2.7 by Alexandre Vassalotti; bpo-1967 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1967].

PEP 3137: The memoryview Object

The memoryview object provides a view of another object's memory content that matches the bytes type's interface.

>>> import string
>>> m = memoryview(string.letters)
>>> m
<memory at 0x37f850>
>>> len(m)           # Returns length of underlying object
52
>>> m[0], m[25], m[26]   # Indexing returns one byte
('a', 'z', 'A')
>>> m2 = m[0:26]         # Slicing returns another memoryview
>>> m2
<memory at 0x37f080>

The content of the view can be converted to a string of bytes or a list of integers:

>>> m2.tobytes()
'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'
>>> m2.tolist()
[97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, ... 121, 122]
>>>

memoryview objects allow modifying the underlying object if it's a mutable object.

>>> m2[0] = 75
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: cannot modify read-only memory
>>> b = bytearray(string.letters)  # Creating a mutable object
>>> b
bytearray(b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ')
>>> mb = memoryview(b)
>>> mb[0] = '*'         # Assign to view, changing the bytearray.
>>> b[0:5]              # The bytearray has been changed.
bytearray(b'*bcde')
>>>

Voir aussi

PEP 3137 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3137/] - Immutable Bytes and Mutable Buffer

PEP written by Guido van Rossum. Implemented by Travis Oliphant, Antoine Pitrou and others. Backported to 2.7 by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-2396 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2396].

Autres changements au langage

Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:

The syntax for set literals has been backported from Python 3.x. Curly brackets are used to surround the contents of the resulting mutable set; set literals are distinguished from dictionaries by not containing colons and values. {} continues to represent an empty dictionary; use set() for an empty set.

>>> {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
set([1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
>>> set() # empty set
set([])
>>> {}    # empty dict
{}

Backported by Alexandre Vassalotti; bpo-2335 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2335].

Dictionary and set comprehensions are another feature backported from 3.x, generalizing list/generator comprehensions to use the literal syntax for sets and dictionaries.

>>> {x: x*x for x in range(6)}
{0: 0, 1: 1, 2: 4, 3: 9, 4: 16, 5: 25}
>>> {('a'*x) for x in range(6)}
set(['', 'a', 'aa', 'aaa', 'aaaa', 'aaaaa'])

Backported by Alexandre Vassalotti; bpo-2333 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2333].

The with statement can now use multiple context managers in one statement. Context managers are processed from left to right and each one is treated as beginning a new with statement. This means that:

with A() as a, B() as b:
    ... suite of statements ...

est équivalente à :

with A() as a:
    with B() as b:
        ... suite of statements ...

The contextlib.nested() function provides a very similar function, so it's no longer necessary and has been deprecated.

(Proposed in https://codereview.appspot.com/53094; implemented by Georg Brandl.)

Conversions between floating-point numbers and strings are now correctly rounded on most platforms. These conversions occur in many different places: str() on floats and complex numbers; the float and complex constructors; numeric formatting; serializing and deserializing floats and complex numbers using the marshal, pickle and json modules; parsing of float and imaginary literals in Python code; and Decimal-to-float conversion.

Related to this, the repr() of a floating-point number x now returns a result based on the shortest decimal string that's guaranteed to round back to x under correct rounding (with round-half-to-even rounding mode). Previously it gave a string based on rounding x to 17 decimal digits.

The rounding library responsible for this improvement works on Windows and on Unix platforms using the gcc, icc, or suncc compilers. There may be a small number of platforms where correct operation of this code cannot be guaranteed, so the code is not used on such systems. You can find out which code is being used by checking sys.float_repr_style, which will be short if the new code is in use and legacy if it isn't.

Implemented by Eric Smith and Mark Dickinson, using David Gay's dtoa.c library; bpo-7117 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7117].

Conversions from long integers and regular integers to floating point now round differently, returning the floating-point number closest to the number. This doesn't matter for small integers that can be converted exactly, but for large numbers that will unavoidably lose precision, Python 2.7 now approximates more closely. For example, Python 2.6 computed the following:

>>> n = 295147905179352891391
>>> float(n)
2.9514790517935283e+20
>>> n - long(float(n))
65535L

Python 2.7's floating-point result is larger, but much closer to the true value:

>>> n = 295147905179352891391
>>> float(n)
2.9514790517935289e+20
>>> n - long(float(n))
-1L

(Implemented by Mark Dickinson; bpo-3166 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3166].)

Integer division is also more accurate in its rounding behaviours. (Also implemented by Mark Dickinson; bpo-1811 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1811].)

Implicit coercion for complex numbers has been removed; the interpreter will no longer ever attempt to call a __coerce__() method on complex objects. (Removed by Meador Inge and Mark Dickinson; bpo-5211 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5211].)

The str.format() method now supports automatic numbering of the replacement fields. This makes using str.format() more closely resemble using %s formatting:

>>> '{}:{}:{}'.format(2009, 04, 'Sunday')
'2009:4:Sunday'
>>> '{}:{}:{day}'.format(2009, 4, day='Sunday')
'2009:4:Sunday'

The auto-numbering takes the fields from left to right, so the first {...} specifier will use the first argument to str.format(), the next specifier will use the next argument, and so on. You can't mix auto-numbering and explicit numbering -- either number all of your specifier fields or none of them -- but you can mix auto-numbering and named fields, as in the second example above. (Contributed by Eric Smith; bpo-5237 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5237].)

Complex numbers now correctly support usage with format(), and default to being right-aligned. Specifying a precision or comma-separation applies to both the real and imaginary parts of the number, but a specified field width and alignment is applied to the whole of the resulting 1.5+3j output. (Contributed by Eric Smith; bpo-1588 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1588] and bpo-7988 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7988].)

The 'F' format code now always formats its output using uppercase characters, so it will now produce 'INF' and 'NAN'. (Contributed by Eric Smith; bpo-3382 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3382].)

A low-level change: the object.__format__() method now triggers a PendingDeprecationWarning if it's passed a format string, because the __format__() method for object converts the object to a string representation and formats that. Previously the method silently applied the format string to the string representation, but that could hide mistakes in Python code. If you're supplying formatting information such as an alignment or precision, presumably you're expecting the formatting to be applied in some object-specific way. (Fixed by Eric Smith; bpo-7994 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7994].)

The int() and long() types gained a bit_length method that returns the number of bits necessary to represent its argument in binary:

>>> n = 37
>>> bin(n)
'0b100101'
>>> n.bit_length()
6
>>> n = 2**123-1
>>> n.bit_length()
123
>>> (n+1).bit_length()
124

(Contributed by Fredrik Johansson and Victor Stinner; bpo-3439 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3439].)

The import statement will no longer try an absolute import if a relative import (e.g. from .os import sep) fails. This fixes a bug, but could possibly break certain import statements that were only working by accident. (Fixed by Meador Inge; bpo-7902 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7902].)

It's now possible for a subclass of the built-in unicode type to override the __unicode__() method. (Implemented by Victor Stinner; bpo-1583863 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1583863].)

The bytearray type's translate() method now accepts None as its first argument. (Fixed by Georg Brandl; bpo-4759 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4759].)

When using @classmethod and @staticmethod to wrap methods as class or static methods, the wrapper object now exposes the wrapped function as their __func__ attribute. (Contributed by Amaury Forgeot d'Arc, after a suggestion by George Sakkis; bpo-5982 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5982].)

When a restricted set of attributes were set using __slots__, deleting an unset attribute would not raise AttributeError as you would expect. Fixed by Benjamin Peterson; bpo-7604 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7604].)

Two new encodings are now supported: "cp720", used primarily for Arabic text; and "cp858", a variant of CP 850 that adds the euro symbol. (CP720 contributed by Alexander Belchenko and Amaury Forgeot d'Arc in bpo-1616979 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1616979]; CP858 contributed by Tim Hatch in bpo-8016 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8016].)

The file object will now set the filename attribute on the IOError exception when trying to open a directory on POSIX platforms (noted by Jan Kaliszewski; bpo-4764 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4764]), and now explicitly checks for and forbids writing to read-only file objects instead of trusting the C library to catch and report the error (fixed by Stefan Krah; bpo-5677 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5677]).

The Python tokenizer now translates line endings itself, so the compile() built-in function now accepts code using any line-ending convention. Additionally, it no longer requires that the code end in a newline.

Extra parentheses in function definitions are illegal in Python 3.x, meaning that you get a syntax error from def f((x)): pass. In Python3-warning mode, Python 2.7 will now warn about this odd usage. (Noted by James Lingard; bpo-7362 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7362].)

It's now possible to create weak references to old-style class objects. New-style classes were always weak-referenceable. (Fixed by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-8268 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8268].)

When a module object is garbage-collected, the module's dictionary is now only cleared if no one else is holding a reference to the dictionary (bpo-7140 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7140]).

Interpreter Changes

A new environment variable, PYTHONWARNINGS, allows controlling warnings. It should be set to a string containing warning settings, equivalent to those used with the -W switch, separated by commas. (Contributed by Brian Curtin; bpo-7301 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7301].)

For example, the following setting will print warnings every time they occur, but turn warnings from the Cookie module into an error. (The exact syntax for setting an environment variable varies across operating systems and shells.)

export PYTHONWARNINGS=all,error:::Cookie:0

Optimizations

Several performance enhancements have been added:

A new opcode was added to perform the initial setup for with statements, looking up the __enter__() and __exit__() methods. (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson.)

The garbage collector now performs better for one common usage pattern: when many objects are being allocated without deallocating any of them. This would previously take quadratic time for garbage collection, but now the number of full garbage collections is reduced as the number of objects on the heap grows. The new logic only performs a full garbage collection pass when the middle generation has been collected 10 times and when the number of survivor objects from the middle generation exceeds 10% of the number of objects in the oldest generation. (Suggested by Martin von Löwis and implemented by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-4074 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4074].)

The garbage collector tries to avoid tracking simple containers which can't be part of a cycle. In Python 2.7, this is now true for tuples and dicts containing atomic types (such as ints, strings, etc.). Transitively, a dict containing tuples of atomic types won't be tracked either. This helps reduce the cost of each garbage collection by decreasing the number of objects to be considered and traversed by the collector. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-4688 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4688].)

Long integers are now stored internally either in base 2**15 or in base 2**30, the base being determined at build time. Previously, they were always stored in base 2**15. Using base 2**30 gives significant performance improvements on 64-bit machines, but benchmark results on 32-bit machines have been mixed. Therefore, the default is to use base 2**30 on 64-bit machines and base 2**15 on 32-bit machines; on Unix, there's a new configure option --enable-big-digits that can be used to override this default.

Apart from the performance improvements this change should be invisible to end users, with one exception: for testing and debugging purposes there's a new structseq sys.long_info that provides information about the internal format, giving the number of bits per digit and the size in bytes of the C type used to store each digit:

>>> import sys
>>> sys.long_info
sys.long_info(bits_per_digit=30, sizeof_digit=4)

(Contribution par Mark Dickinson; bpo-4258 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4258].)

Another set of changes made long objects a few bytes smaller: 2 bytes smaller on 32-bit systems and 6 bytes on 64-bit. (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-5260 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5260].)

The division algorithm for long integers has been made faster by tightening the inner loop, doing shifts instead of multiplications, and fixing an unnecessary extra iteration. Various benchmarks show speedups of between 50% and 150% for long integer divisions and modulo operations. (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-5512 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5512].) Bitwise operations are also significantly faster (initial patch by Gregory Smith; bpo-1087418 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1087418]).

The implementation of % checks for the left-side operand being a Python string and special-cases it; this results in a 1--3% performance increase for applications that frequently use % with strings, such as templating libraries. (Implemented by Collin Winter; bpo-5176 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5176].)

List comprehensions with an if condition are compiled into faster bytecode. (Patch by Antoine Pitrou, back-ported to 2.7 by Jeffrey Yasskin; bpo-4715 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4715].)

Converting an integer or long integer to a decimal string was made faster by special-casing base 10 instead of using a generalized conversion function that supports arbitrary bases. (Patch by Gawain Bolton; bpo-6713 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6713].)

The split(), replace(), rindex(), rpartition(), and rsplit() methods of string-like types (strings, Unicode strings, and bytearray objects) now use a fast reverse-search algorithm instead of a character-by-character scan. This is sometimes faster by a factor of 10. (Added by Florent Xicluna; bpo-7462 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7462] and bpo-7622 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7622].)

The pickle and cPickle modules now automatically intern the strings used for attribute names, reducing memory usage of the objects resulting from unpickling. (Contributed by Jake McGuire; bpo-5084 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5084].)

The cPickle module now special-cases dictionaries, nearly halving the time required to pickle them. (Contributed by Collin Winter; bpo-5670 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5670].)

New and Improved Modules

As in every release, Python's standard library received a number of enhancements and bug fixes. Here's a partial list of the most notable changes, sorted alphabetically by module name. Consult the Misc/NEWS file in the source tree for a more complete list of changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.

The bdb module's base debugging class Bdb gained a feature for skipping modules. The constructor now takes an iterable containing glob-style patterns such as django.*; the debugger will not step into stack frames from a module that matches one of these patterns. (Contributed by Maru Newby after a suggestion by Senthil Kumaran; bpo-5142 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5142].)

The binascii module now supports the buffer API, so it can be used with memoryview instances and other similar buffer objects. (Backported from 3.x by Florent Xicluna; bpo-7703 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7703].)

Updated module: the bsddb module has been updated from 4.7.2devel9 to version 4.8.4 of the pybsddb package [https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm]. The new version features better Python 3.x compatibility, various bug fixes, and adds several new BerkeleyDB flags and methods. (Updated by Jesús Cea Avión; bpo-8156 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8156]. The pybsddb changelog can be read at https://hg.jcea.es/pybsddb/file/tip/ChangeLog.)

The bz2 module's BZ2File now supports the context management protocol, so you can write with bz2.BZ2File(...) as f:. (Contributed by Hagen Fürstenau; bpo-3860 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3860].)

New class: the Counter class in the collections module is useful for tallying data. Counter instances behave mostly like dictionaries but return zero for missing keys instead of raising a KeyError:

>>> from collections import Counter
>>> c = Counter()
>>> for letter in 'here is a sample of english text':
...   c[letter] += 1
...
>>> c
Counter({' ': 6, 'e': 5, 's': 3, 'a': 2, 'i': 2, 'h': 2,
'l': 2, 't': 2, 'g': 1, 'f': 1, 'm': 1, 'o': 1, 'n': 1,
'p': 1, 'r': 1, 'x': 1})
>>> c['e']
5
>>> c['z']
0

There are three additional Counter methods. most_common() returns the N most common elements and their counts. elements() returns an iterator over the contained elements, repeating each element as many times as its count. subtract() takes an iterable and subtracts one for each element instead of adding; if the argument is a dictionary or another Counter, the counts are subtracted.

>>> c.most_common(5)
[(' ', 6), ('e', 5), ('s', 3), ('a', 2), ('i', 2)]
>>> c.elements() ->
   'a', 'a', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ',
   'e', 'e', 'e', 'e', 'e', 'g', 'f', 'i', 'i',
   'h', 'h', 'm', 'l', 'l', 'o', 'n', 'p', 's',
   's', 's', 'r', 't', 't', 'x'
>>> c['e']
5
>>> c.subtract('very heavy on the letter e')
>>> c['e']    # Count is now lower
-1

Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-1696199 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1696199].

New class: OrderedDict is described in the earlier section PEP 372: Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections.

New method: The deque data type now has a count() method that returns the number of contained elements equal to the supplied argument x, and a reverse() method that reverses the elements of the deque in-place. deque also exposes its maximum length as the read-only maxlen attribute. (Both features added by Raymond Hettinger.)

The namedtuple class now has an optional rename parameter. If rename is true, field names that are invalid because they've been repeated or aren't legal Python identifiers will be renamed to legal names that are derived from the field's position within the list of fields:

>>> from collections import namedtuple
>>> T = namedtuple('T', ['field1', '$illegal', 'for', 'field2'], rename=True)
>>> T._fields
('field1', '_1', '_2', 'field2')

(Added by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-1818 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1818].)

Finally, the Mapping abstract base class now returns NotImplemented if a mapping is compared to another type that isn't a Mapping. (Fixed by Daniel Stutzbach; bpo-8729 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8729].)

Constructors for the parsing classes in the ConfigParser module now take an allow_no_value parameter, defaulting to false; if true, options without values will be allowed. For example:

>>> import ConfigParser, StringIO
>>> sample_config = """
... [mysqld]
... user = mysql
... pid-file = /var/run/mysqld/mysqld.pid
... skip-bdb
... """
>>> config = ConfigParser.RawConfigParser(allow_no_value=True)
>>> config.readfp(StringIO.StringIO(sample_config))
>>> config.get('mysqld', 'user')
'mysql'
>>> print config.get('mysqld', 'skip-bdb')
None
>>> print config.get('mysqld', 'unknown')
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
NoOptionError: No option 'unknown' in section: 'mysqld'

(Contributed by Mats Kindahl; bpo-7005 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7005].)

Deprecated function: contextlib.nested(), which allows handling more than one context manager with a single with statement, has been deprecated, because the with statement now supports multiple context managers.

The cookielib module now ignores cookies that have an invalid version field, one that doesn't contain an integer value. (Fixed by John J. Lee; bpo-3924 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3924].)

The copy module's deepcopy() function will now correctly copy bound instance methods. (Implemented by Robert Collins; bpo-1515 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1515].)

The ctypes module now always converts None to a C NULL pointer for arguments declared as pointers. (Changed by Thomas Heller; bpo-4606 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4606].) The underlying libffi library [https://sourceware.org/libffi/] has been updated to version 3.0.9, containing various fixes for different platforms. (Updated by Matthias Klose; bpo-8142 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8142].)

New method: the datetime module's timedelta class gained a total_seconds() method that returns the number of seconds in the duration. (Contributed by Brian Quinlan; bpo-5788 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5788].)

New method: the Decimal class gained a from_float() class method that performs an exact conversion of a floating-point number to a Decimal. This exact conversion strives for the closest decimal approximation to the floating-point representation's value; the resulting decimal value will therefore still include the inaccuracy, if any. For example, Decimal.from_float(0.1) returns Decimal('0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625'). (Implemented by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-4796 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4796].)

Comparing instances of Decimal with floating-point numbers now produces sensible results based on the numeric values of the operands. Previously such comparisons would fall back to Python's default rules for comparing objects, which produced arbitrary results based on their type. Note that you still cannot combine Decimal and floating point in other operations such as addition, since you should be explicitly choosing how to convert between float and Decimal. (Fixed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-2531 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2531].)

The constructor for Decimal now accepts floating-point numbers (added by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-8257 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8257]) and non-European Unicode characters such as Arabic-Indic digits (contributed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-6595 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6595]).

Most of the methods of the Context class now accept integers as well as Decimal instances; the only exceptions are the canonical() and is_canonical() methods. (Patch by Juan José Conti; bpo-7633 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7633].)

When using Decimal instances with a string's format() method, the default alignment was previously left-alignment. This has been changed to right-alignment, which is more sensible for numeric types. (Changed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-6857 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6857].)

Comparisons involving a signaling NaN value (or sNAN) now signal InvalidOperation instead of silently returning a true or false value depending on the comparison operator. Quiet NaN values (or NaN) are now hashable. (Fixed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-7279 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7279].)

The difflib module now produces output that is more compatible with modern diff/patch tools through one small change, using a tab character instead of spaces as a separator in the header giving the filename. (Fixed by Anatoly Techtonik; bpo-7585 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7585].)

The Distutils sdist command now always regenerates the MANIFEST file, since even if the MANIFEST.in or setup.py files haven't been modified, the user might have created some new files that should be included. (Fixed by Tarek Ziadé; bpo-8688 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8688].)

The doctest module's IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL flag will now ignore the name of the module containing the exception being tested. (Patch by Lennart Regebro; bpo-7490 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7490].)

The email module's Message class will now accept a Unicode-valued payload, automatically converting the payload to the encoding specified by output_charset. (Added by R. David Murray; bpo-1368247 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1368247].)

The Fraction class now accepts a single float or Decimal instance, or two rational numbers, as arguments to its constructor. (Implemented by Mark Dickinson; rationals added in bpo-5812 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5812], and float/decimal in bpo-8294 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8294].)

Ordering comparisons (<, <=, >, >=) between fractions and complex numbers now raise a TypeError. This fixes an oversight, making the Fraction match the other numeric types.

New class: FTP_TLS in the ftplib module provides secure FTP connections using TLS encapsulation of authentication as well as subsequent control and data transfers. (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola; bpo-2054 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2054].)

The storbinary() method for binary uploads can now restart uploads thanks to an added rest parameter (patch by Pablo Mouzo; bpo-6845 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6845].)

New class decorator: total_ordering() in the functools module takes a class that defines an __eq__() method and one of __lt__(), __le__(), __gt__(), or __ge__(), and generates the missing comparison methods. Since the __cmp__() method is being deprecated in Python 3.x, this decorator makes it easier to define ordered classes. (Added by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-5479 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5479].)

New function: cmp_to_key() will take an old-style comparison function that expects two arguments and return a new callable that can be used as the key parameter to functions such as sorted(), min() and max(), etc. The primary intended use is to help with making code compatible with Python 3.x. (Added by Raymond Hettinger.)

New function: the gc module's is_tracked() returns true if a given instance is tracked by the garbage collector, false otherwise. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-4688 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4688].)

The gzip module's GzipFile now supports the context management protocol, so you can write with gzip.GzipFile(...) as f: (contributed by Hagen Fürstenau; bpo-3860 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3860]), and it now implements the io.BufferedIOBase ABC, so you can wrap it with io.BufferedReader for faster processing (contributed by Nir Aides; bpo-7471 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7471]). It's also now possible to override the modification time recorded in a gzipped file by providing an optional timestamp to the constructor. (Contributed by Jacques Frechet; bpo-4272 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4272].)

Files in gzip format can be padded with trailing zero bytes; the gzip module will now consume these trailing bytes. (Fixed by Tadek Pietraszek and Brian Curtin; bpo-2846 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2846].)

New attribute: the hashlib module now has an algorithms attribute containing a tuple naming the supported algorithms. In Python 2.7, hashlib.algorithms contains ('md5', 'sha1', 'sha224', 'sha256', 'sha384', 'sha512'). (Contributed by Carl Chenet; bpo-7418 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7418].)

The default HTTPResponse class used by the httplib module now supports buffering, resulting in much faster reading of HTTP responses. (Contributed by Kristján Valur Jónsson; bpo-4879 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4879].)

The HTTPConnection and HTTPSConnection classes now support a source_address parameter, a (host, port) 2-tuple giving the source address that will be used for the connection. (Contributed by Eldon Ziegler; bpo-3972 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3972].)

The ihooks module now supports relative imports. Note that ihooks is an older module for customizing imports, superseded by the imputil module added in Python 2.0. (Relative import support added by Neil Schemenauer.)

The imaplib module now supports IPv6 addresses. (Contributed by Derek Morr; bpo-1655 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1655].)

New function: the inspect module's getcallargs() takes a callable and its positional and keyword arguments, and figures out which of the callable's parameters will receive each argument, returning a dictionary mapping argument names to their values. For example:

>>> from inspect import getcallargs
>>> def f(a, b=1, *pos, **named):
...     pass
...
>>> getcallargs(f, 1, 2, 3)
{'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'pos': (3,), 'named': {}}
>>> getcallargs(f, a=2, x=4)
{'a': 2, 'b': 1, 'pos': (), 'named': {'x': 4}}
>>> getcallargs(f)
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
TypeError: f() takes at least 1 argument (0 given)

Contributed by George Sakkis; bpo-3135 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3135].

Updated module: The io library has been upgraded to the version shipped with Python 3.1. For 3.1, the I/O library was entirely rewritten in C and is 2 to 20 times faster depending on the task being performed. The original Python version was renamed to the _pyio module.

One minor resulting change: the io.TextIOBase class now has an errors attribute giving the error setting used for encoding and decoding errors (one of 'strict', 'replace', 'ignore').

The io.FileIO class now raises an OSError when passed an invalid file descriptor. (Implemented by Benjamin Peterson; bpo-4991 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4991].) The truncate() method now preserves the file position; previously it would change the file position to the end of the new file. (Fixed by Pascal Chambon; bpo-6939 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6939].)

New function: itertools.compress(data, selectors) takes two iterators. Elements of data are returned if the corresponding value in selectors is true:

itertools.compress('ABCDEF', [1,0,1,0,1,1]) =>
  A, C, E, F

New function: itertools.combinations_with_replacement(iter, r) returns all the possible r-length combinations of elements from the iterable iter. Unlike combinations(), individual elements can be repeated in the generated combinations:

itertools.combinations_with_replacement('abc', 2) =>
  ('a', 'a'), ('a', 'b'), ('a', 'c'),
  ('b', 'b'), ('b', 'c'), ('c', 'c')

Note that elements are treated as unique depending on their position in the input, not their actual values.

The itertools.count() function now has a step argument that allows incrementing by values other than 1. count() also now allows keyword arguments, and using non-integer values such as floats or Decimal instances. (Implemented by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-5032 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5032].)

itertools.combinations() and itertools.product() previously raised ValueError for values of r larger than the input iterable. This was deemed a specification error, so they now return an empty iterator. (Fixed by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-4816 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4816].)

Updated module: The json module was upgraded to version 2.0.9 of the simplejson package, which includes a C extension that makes encoding and decoding faster. (Contributed by Bob Ippolito; bpo-4136 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4136].)

To support the new collections.OrderedDict type, json.load() now has an optional object_pairs_hook parameter that will be called with any object literal that decodes to a list of pairs. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-5381 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5381].)

The mailbox module's Maildir class now records the timestamp on the directories it reads, and only re-reads them if the modification time has subsequently changed. This improves performance by avoiding unneeded directory scans. (Fixed by A.M. Kuchling and Antoine Pitrou; bpo-1607951 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1607951], bpo-6896 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6896].)

New functions: the math module gained erf() and erfc() for the error function and the complementary error function, expm1() which computes e**x - 1 with more precision than using exp() and subtracting 1, gamma() for the Gamma function, and lgamma() for the natural log of the Gamma function. (Contributed by Mark Dickinson and nirinA raseliarison; bpo-3366 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3366].)

The multiprocessing module's Manager* classes can now be passed a callable that will be called whenever a subprocess is started, along with a set of arguments that will be passed to the callable. (Contributed by lekma; bpo-5585 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5585].)

The Pool class, which controls a pool of worker processes, now has an optional maxtasksperchild parameter. Worker processes will perform the specified number of tasks and then exit, causing the Pool to start a new worker. This is useful if tasks may leak memory or other resources, or if some tasks will cause the worker to become very large. (Contributed by Charles Cazabon; bpo-6963 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6963].)

The nntplib module now supports IPv6 addresses. (Contributed by Derek Morr; bpo-1664 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1664].)

New functions: the os module wraps the following POSIX system calls: getresgid() and getresuid(), which return the real, effective, and saved GIDs and UIDs; setresgid() and setresuid(), which set real, effective, and saved GIDs and UIDs to new values; initgroups(), which initialize the group access list for the current process. (GID/UID functions contributed by Travis H.; bpo-6508 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6508]. Support for initgroups added by Jean-Paul Calderone; bpo-7333 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7333].)

The os.fork() function now re-initializes the import lock in the child process; this fixes problems on Solaris when fork() is called from a thread. (Fixed by Zsolt Cserna; bpo-7242 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7242].)

In the os.path module, the normpath() and abspath() functions now preserve Unicode; if their input path is a Unicode string, the return value is also a Unicode string. (normpath() fixed by Matt Giuca in bpo-5827 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5827]; abspath() fixed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-3426 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3426].)

The pydoc module now has help for the various symbols that Python uses. You can now do help('<<') or help('@'), for example. (Contributed by David Laban; bpo-4739 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4739].)

The re module's split(), sub(), and subn() now accept an optional flags argument, for consistency with the other functions in the module. (Added by Gregory P. Smith.)

New function: run_path() in the runpy module will execute the code at a provided path argument. path can be the path of a Python source file (example.py), a compiled bytecode file (example.pyc), a directory (./package/), or a zip archive (example.zip). If a directory or zip path is provided, it will be added to the front of sys.path and the module __main__ will be imported. It's expected that the directory or zip contains a __main__.py; if it doesn't, some other __main__.py might be imported from a location later in sys.path. This makes more of the machinery of runpy available to scripts that want to mimic the way Python's command line processes an explicit path name. (Added by Nick Coghlan; bpo-6816 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6816].)

New function: in the shutil module, make_archive() takes a filename, archive type (zip or tar-format), and a directory path, and creates an archive containing the directory's contents. (Added by Tarek Ziadé.)

shutil's copyfile() and copytree() functions now raise a SpecialFileError exception when asked to copy a named pipe. Previously the code would treat named pipes like a regular file by opening them for reading, and this would block indefinitely. (Fixed by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-3002 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3002].)

The signal module no longer re-installs the signal handler unless this is truly necessary, which fixes a bug that could make it impossible to catch the EINTR signal robustly. (Fixed by Charles-Francois Natali; bpo-8354 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8354].)

New functions: in the site module, three new functions return various site- and user-specific paths. getsitepackages() returns a list containing all global site-packages directories, getusersitepackages() returns the path of the user's site-packages directory, and getuserbase() returns the value of the USER_BASE environment variable, giving the path to a directory that can be used to store data. (Contributed by Tarek Ziadé; bpo-6693 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6693].)

The site module now reports exceptions occurring when the sitecustomize module is imported, and will no longer catch and swallow the KeyboardInterrupt exception. (Fixed by Victor Stinner; bpo-3137 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3137].)

The create_connection() function gained a source_address parameter, a (host, port) 2-tuple giving the source address that will be used for the connection. (Contributed by Eldon Ziegler; bpo-3972 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3972].)

The recv_into() and recvfrom_into() methods will now write into objects that support the buffer API, most usefully the bytearray and memoryview objects. (Implemented by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-8104 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8104].)

The SocketServer module's TCPServer class now supports socket timeouts and disabling the Nagle algorithm. The disable_nagle_algorithm class attribute defaults to False; if overridden to be true, new request connections will have the TCP_NODELAY option set to prevent buffering many small sends into a single TCP packet. The timeout class attribute can hold a timeout in seconds that will be applied to the request socket; if no request is received within that time, handle_timeout() will be called and handle_request() will return. (Contributed by Kristján Valur Jónsson; bpo-6192 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6192] and bpo-6267 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6267].)

Updated module: the sqlite3 module has been updated to version 2.6.0 of the pysqlite package [https://github.com/ghaering/pysqlite]. Version 2.6.0 includes a number of bugfixes, and adds the ability to load SQLite extensions from shared libraries. Call the enable_load_extension(True) method to enable extensions, and then call load_extension() to load a particular shared library. (Updated by Gerhard Häring.)

The ssl module's SSLSocket objects now support the buffer API, which fixed a test suite failure (fix by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-7133 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7133]) and automatically set OpenSSL's SSL_MODE_AUTO_RETRY, which will prevent an error code being returned from recv() operations that trigger an SSL renegotiation (fix by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-8222 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8222]).

The wrap_socket() constructor function now takes a ciphers argument that's a string listing the encryption algorithms to be allowed; the format of the string is described in the OpenSSL documentation [https://docs.openssl.org/1.0.2/man1/ciphers/]. (Added by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-8322 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8322].)

Another change makes the extension load all of OpenSSL's ciphers and digest algorithms so that they're all available. Some SSL certificates couldn't be verified, reporting an "unknown algorithm" error. (Reported by Beda Kosata, and fixed by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-8484 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8484].)

The version of OpenSSL being used is now available as the module attributes ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION (a string), ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO (a 5-tuple), and ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER (an integer). (Added by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-8321 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8321].)

The struct module will no longer silently ignore overflow errors when a value is too large for a particular integer format code (one of bBhHiIlLqQ); it now always raises a struct.error exception. (Changed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-1523 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1523].) The pack() function will also attempt to use __index__() to convert and pack non-integers before trying the __int__() method or reporting an error. (Changed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-8300 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8300].)

New function: the subprocess module's check_output() runs a command with a specified set of arguments and returns the command's output as a string when the command runs without error, or raises a CalledProcessError exception otherwise.

>>> subprocess.check_output(['df', '-h', '.'])
'Filesystem     Size   Used  Avail Capacity  Mounted on\n
/dev/disk0s2    52G    49G   3.0G    94%    /\n'

>>> subprocess.check_output(['df', '-h', '/bogus'])
  ...
subprocess.CalledProcessError: Command '['df', '-h', '/bogus']' returned non-zero exit status 1

(Contributed by Gregory P. Smith.)

The subprocess module will now retry its internal system calls on receiving an EINTR signal. (Reported by several people; final patch by Gregory P. Smith in bpo-1068268 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1068268].)

New function: is_declared_global() in the symtable module returns true for variables that are explicitly declared to be global, false for ones that are implicitly global. (Contributed by Jeremy Hylton.)

The syslog module will now use the value of sys.argv[0] as the identifier instead of the previous default value of 'python'. (Changed by Sean Reifschneider; bpo-8451 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8451].)

The sys.version_info value is now a named tuple, with attributes named major, minor, micro, releaselevel, and serial. (Contributed by Ross Light; bpo-4285 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4285].)

sys.getwindowsversion() also returns a named tuple, with attributes named major, minor, build, platform, service_pack, service_pack_major, service_pack_minor, suite_mask, and product_type. (Contributed by Brian Curtin; bpo-7766 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7766].)

The tarfile module's default error handling has changed, to no longer suppress fatal errors. The default error level was previously 0, which meant that errors would only result in a message being written to the debug log, but because the debug log is not activated by default, these errors go unnoticed. The default error level is now 1, which raises an exception if there's an error. (Changed by Lars Gustäbel; bpo-7357 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7357].)

tarfile now supports filtering the TarInfo objects being added to a tar file. When you call add(), you may supply an optional filter argument that's a callable. The filter callable will be passed the TarInfo for every file being added, and can modify and return it. If the callable returns None, the file will be excluded from the resulting archive. This is more powerful than the existing exclude argument, which has therefore been deprecated. (Added by Lars Gustäbel; bpo-6856 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6856].) The TarFile class also now supports the context management protocol. (Added by Lars Gustäbel; bpo-7232 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7232].)

The wait() method of the threading.Event class now returns the internal flag on exit. This means the method will usually return true because wait() is supposed to block until the internal flag becomes true. The return value will only be false if a timeout was provided and the operation timed out. (Contributed by Tim Lesher; bpo-1674032 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1674032].)

The Unicode database provided by the unicodedata module is now used internally to determine which characters are numeric, whitespace, or represent line breaks. The database also includes information from the Unihan.txt data file (patch by Anders Chrigström and Amaury Forgeot d'Arc; bpo-1571184 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1571184]) and has been updated to version 5.2.0 (updated by Florent Xicluna; bpo-8024 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8024]).

The urlparse module's urlsplit() now handles unknown URL schemes in a fashion compliant with RFC 3986 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html]: if the URL is of the form "<something>://...", the text before the :// is treated as the scheme, even if it's a made-up scheme that the module doesn't know about. This change may break code that worked around the old behaviour. For example, Python 2.6.4 or 2.5 will return the following:

>>> import urlparse
>>> urlparse.urlsplit('invented://host/filename?query')
('invented', '', '//host/filename?query', '', '')

Python 2.7 (and Python 2.6.5) will return:

>>> import urlparse
>>> urlparse.urlsplit('invented://host/filename?query')
('invented', 'host', '/filename?query', '', '')

(Python 2.7 actually produces slightly different output, since it returns a named tuple instead of a standard tuple.)

The urlparse module also supports IPv6 literal addresses as defined by RFC 2732 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2732.html] (contributed by Senthil Kumaran; bpo-2987 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2987]).

>>> urlparse.urlparse('http://[1080::8:800:200C:417A]/foo')
ParseResult(scheme='http', netloc='[1080::8:800:200C:417A]',
            path='/foo', params='', query='', fragment='')

New class: the WeakSet class in the weakref module is a set that only holds weak references to its elements; elements will be removed once there are no references pointing to them. (Originally implemented in Python 3.x by Raymond Hettinger, and backported to 2.7 by Michael Foord.)

The xml.etree.ElementTree library, no longer escapes ampersands and angle brackets when outputting an XML processing instruction (which looks like <?xml-stylesheet href="#style1"?>) or comment (which looks like <!-- comment -->). (Patch by Neil Muller; bpo-2746 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2746].)

The XML-RPC client and server, provided by the xmlrpclib and SimpleXMLRPCServer modules, have improved performance by supporting HTTP/1.1 keep-alive and by optionally using gzip encoding to compress the XML being exchanged. The gzip compression is controlled by the encode_threshold attribute of SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler, which contains a size in bytes; responses larger than this will be compressed. (Contributed by Kristján Valur Jónsson; bpo-6267 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6267].)

The zipfile module's ZipFile now supports the context management protocol, so you can write with zipfile.ZipFile(...) as f:. (Contributed by Brian Curtin; bpo-5511 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5511].)

zipfile now also supports archiving empty directories and extracts them correctly. (Fixed by Kuba Wieczorek; bpo-4710 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4710].) Reading files out of an archive is faster, and interleaving read() and readline() now works correctly. (Contributed by Nir Aides; bpo-7610 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7610].)

The is_zipfile() function now accepts a file object, in addition to the path names accepted in earlier versions. (Contributed by Gabriel Genellina; bpo-4756 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4756].)

The writestr() method now has an optional compress_type parameter that lets you override the default compression method specified in the ZipFile constructor. (Contributed by Ronald Oussoren; bpo-6003 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6003].)

New module: importlib

Python 3.1 includes the importlib package, a re-implementation of the logic underlying Python's import statement. importlib is useful for implementers of Python interpreters and to users who wish to write new importers that can participate in the import process. Python 2.7 doesn't contain the complete importlib package, but instead has a tiny subset that contains a single function, import_module().

import_module(name, package=None) imports a module. name is a string containing the module or package's name. It's possible to do relative imports by providing a string that begins with a . character, such as ..utils.errors. For relative imports, the package argument must be provided and is the name of the package that will be used as the anchor for the relative import. import_module() both inserts the imported module into sys.modules and returns the module object.

Voici quelques exemples :

>>> from importlib import import_module
>>> anydbm = import_module('anydbm')  # Standard absolute import
>>> anydbm
<module 'anydbm' from '/p/python/Lib/anydbm.py'>
>>> # Relative import
>>> file_util = import_module('..file_util', 'distutils.command')
>>> file_util
<module 'distutils.file_util' from '/python/Lib/distutils/file_util.pyc'>

importlib was implemented by Brett Cannon and introduced in Python 3.1.

New module: sysconfig

The sysconfig module has been pulled out of the Distutils package, becoming a new top-level module in its own right. sysconfig provides functions for getting information about Python's build process: compiler switches, installation paths, the platform name, and whether Python is running from its source directory.

Some of the functions in the module are:

get_config_var() returns variables from Python's Makefile and the pyconfig.h file.

get_config_vars() returns a dictionary containing all of the configuration variables.

get_path() returns the configured path for a particular type of module: the standard library, site-specific modules, platform-specific modules, etc.

is_python_build() returns true if you're running a binary from a Python source tree, and false otherwise.

Consult the sysconfig documentation for more details and for a complete list of functions.

The Distutils package and sysconfig are now maintained by Tarek Ziadé, who has also started a Distutils2 package (source repository at https://hg.python.org/distutils2/) for developing a next-generation version of Distutils.

ttk: Themed Widgets for Tk

Tcl/Tk 8.5 includes a set of themed widgets that re-implement basic Tk widgets but have a more customizable appearance and can therefore more closely resemble the native platform's widgets. This widget set was originally called Tile, but was renamed to Ttk (for "themed Tk") on being added to Tcl/Tck release 8.5.

To learn more, read the ttk module documentation. You may also wish to read the Tcl/Tk manual page describing the Ttk theme engine, available at https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.5/TkCmd/ttk_intro.html. Some screenshots of the Python/Ttk code in use are at https://code.google.com/archive/p/python-ttk/wikis/Screenshots.wiki.

The tkinter.ttk module was written by Guilherme Polo and added in bpo-2983 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2983]. An alternate version called Tile.py, written by Martin Franklin and maintained by Kevin Walzer, was proposed for inclusion in bpo-2618 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2618], but the authors argued that Guilherme Polo's work was more comprehensive.

Updated module: unittest

The unittest module was greatly enhanced; many new features were added. Most of these features were implemented by Michael Foord, unless otherwise noted. The enhanced version of the module is downloadable separately for use with Python versions 2.4 to 2.6, packaged as the unittest2 package, from unittest2 [https://pypi.org/project/unittest2/].

When used from the command line, the module can automatically discover tests. It's not as fancy as py.test [https://pytest.org] or nose [https://nose.readthedocs.io/], but provides a simple way to run tests kept within a set of package directories. For example, the following command will search the test/ subdirectory for any importable test files named test*.py:

python -m unittest discover -s test

Consult the unittest module documentation for more details. (Developed in bpo-6001 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6001].)

The main() function supports some other new options:

-b or --buffer will buffer the standard output and standard error streams during each test. If the test passes, any resulting output will be discarded; on failure, the buffered output will be displayed.

-c or --catch will cause the control-C interrupt to be handled more gracefully. Instead of interrupting the test process immediately, the currently running test will be completed and then the partial results up to the interruption will be reported. If you're impatient, a second press of control-C will cause an immediate interruption.

This control-C handler tries to avoid causing problems when the code being tested or the tests being run have defined a signal handler of their own, by noticing that a signal handler was already set and calling it. If this doesn't work for you, there's a removeHandler() decorator that can be used to mark tests that should have the control-C handling disabled.

-f or --failfast makes test execution stop immediately when a test fails instead of continuing to execute further tests. (Suggested by Cliff Dyer and implemented by Michael Foord; bpo-8074 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8074].)

The progress messages now show 'x' for expected failures and 'u' for unexpected successes when run in verbose mode. (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson.)

Test cases can raise the SkipTest exception to skip a test (bpo-1034053 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1034053]).

The error messages for assertEqual(), assertTrue(), and assertFalse() failures now provide more information. If you set the longMessage attribute of your TestCase classes to true, both the standard error message and any additional message you provide will be printed for failures. (Added by Michael Foord; bpo-5663 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5663].)

The assertRaises() method now returns a context handler when called without providing a callable object to run. For example, you can write this:

with self.assertRaises(KeyError):
    {}['foo']

(Implemented by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-4444 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4444].)

Module- and class-level setup and teardown fixtures are now supported. Modules can contain setUpModule() and tearDownModule() functions. Classes can have setUpClass() and tearDownClass() methods that must be defined as class methods (using @classmethod or equivalent). These functions and methods are invoked when the test runner switches to a test case in a different module or class.

The methods addCleanup() and doCleanups() were added. addCleanup() lets you add cleanup functions that will be called unconditionally (after setUp() if setUp() fails, otherwise after tearDown()). This allows for much simpler resource allocation and deallocation during tests (bpo-5679 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5679]).

A number of new methods were added that provide more specialized tests. Many of these methods were written by Google engineers for use in their test suites; Gregory P. Smith, Michael Foord, and GvR worked on merging them into Python's version of unittest.

assertIsNone() and assertIsNotNone() take one expression and verify that the result is or is not None.

assertIs() and assertIsNot() take two values and check whether the two values evaluate to the same object or not. (Added by Michael Foord; bpo-2578 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2578].)

assertIsInstance() and assertNotIsInstance() check whether the resulting object is an instance of a particular class, or of one of a tuple of classes. (Added by Georg Brandl; bpo-7031 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7031].)

assertGreater(), assertGreaterEqual(), assertLess(), and assertLessEqual() compare two quantities.

assertMultiLineEqual() compares two strings, and if they're not equal, displays a helpful comparison that highlights the differences in the two strings. This comparison is now used by default when Unicode strings are compared with assertEqual().

assertRegexpMatches() and assertNotRegexpMatches() checks whether the first argument is a string matching or not matching the regular expression provided as the second argument (bpo-8038 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8038]).

assertRaisesRegexp() checks whether a particular exception is raised, and then also checks that the string representation of the exception matches the provided regular expression.

assertIn() and assertNotIn() tests whether first is or is not in second.

assertItemsEqual() tests whether two provided sequences contain the same elements.

assertSetEqual() compares whether two sets are equal, and only reports the differences between the sets in case of error.

Similarly, assertListEqual() and assertTupleEqual() compare the specified types and explain any differences without necessarily printing their full values; these methods are now used by default when comparing lists and tuples using assertEqual(). More generally, assertSequenceEqual() compares two sequences and can optionally check whether both sequences are of a particular type.

assertDictEqual() compares two dictionaries and reports the differences; it's now used by default when you compare two dictionaries using assertEqual(). assertDictContainsSubset() checks whether all of the key/value pairs in first are found in second.

assertAlmostEqual() and assertNotAlmostEqual() test whether first and second are approximately equal. This method can either round their difference to an optionally specified number of places (the default is 7) and compare it to zero, or require the difference to be smaller than a supplied delta value.

loadTestsFromName() properly honors the suiteClass attribute of the TestLoader. (Fixed by Mark Roddy; bpo-6866 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6866].)

A new hook lets you extend the assertEqual() method to handle new data types. The addTypeEqualityFunc() method takes a type object and a function. The function will be used when both of the objects being compared are of the specified type. This function should compare the two objects and raise an exception if they don't match; it's a good idea for the function to provide additional information about why the two objects aren't matching, much as the new sequence comparison methods do.

unittest.main() now takes an optional exit argument. If false, main() doesn't call sys.exit(), allowing main() to be used from the interactive interpreter. (Contributed by J. Pablo Fernández; bpo-3379 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3379].)

TestResult has new startTestRun() and stopTestRun() methods that are called immediately before and after a test run. (Contributed by Robert Collins; bpo-5728 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5728].)

With all these changes, the unittest.py was becoming awkwardly large, so the module was turned into a package and the code split into several files (by Benjamin Peterson). This doesn't affect how the module is imported or used.

Voir aussi

https://web.archive.org/web/20210619163128/http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/articles/unittest2.shtml

Describes the new features, how to use them, and the rationale for various design decisions. (By Michael Foord.)

Module mis-à-jour : ElementTree 1.3

The version of the ElementTree library included with Python was updated to version 1.3. Some of the new features are:

The various parsing functions now take a parser keyword argument giving an XMLParser instance that will be used. This makes it possible to override the file's internal encoding:

p = ET.XMLParser(encoding='utf-8')
t = ET.XML("""<root/>""", parser=p)

Errors in parsing XML now raise a ParseError exception, whose instances have a position attribute containing a (line, column) tuple giving the location of the problem.

ElementTree's code for converting trees to a string has been significantly reworked, making it roughly twice as fast in many cases. The ElementTree.write() and Element.write() methods now have a method parameter that can be "xml" (the default), "html", or "text". HTML mode will output empty elements as <empty></empty> instead of <empty/>, and text mode will skip over elements and only output the text chunks. If you set the tag attribute of an element to None but leave its children in place, the element will be omitted when the tree is written out, so you don't need to do more extensive rearrangement to remove a single element.

Namespace handling has also been improved. All xmlns:<whatever> declarations are now output on the root element, not scattered throughout the resulting XML. You can set the default namespace for a tree by setting the default_namespace attribute and can register new prefixes with register_namespace(). In XML mode, you can use the true/false xml_declaration parameter to suppress the XML declaration.

New Element method: extend() appends the items from a sequence to the element's children. Elements themselves behave like sequences, so it's easy to move children from one element to another:

from xml.etree import ElementTree as ET

t = ET.XML("""<list>
  <item>1</item> <item>2</item>  <item>3</item>
</list>""")
new = ET.XML('<root/>')
new.extend(t)

# Outputs <root><item>1</item>...</root>
print ET.tostring(new)

New Element method: iter() yields the children of the element as a generator. It's also possible to write for child in elem: to loop over an element's children. The existing method getiterator() is now deprecated, as is getchildren() which constructs and returns a list of children.

New Element method: itertext() yields all chunks of text that are descendants of the element. For example:

t = ET.XML("""<list>
  <item>1</item> <item>2</item>  <item>3</item>
</list>""")

# Outputs ['\n  ', '1', ' ', '2', '  ', '3', '\n']
print list(t.itertext())

Deprecated: using an element as a Boolean (i.e., if elem:) would return true if the element had any children, or false if there were no children. This behaviour is confusing -- None is false, but so is a childless element? -- so it will now trigger a FutureWarning. In your code, you should be explicit: write len(elem) != 0 if you're interested in the number of children, or elem is not None.

Fredrik Lundh develops ElementTree and produced the 1.3 version; you can read his article describing 1.3 at https://web.archive.org/web/20200703234532/http://effbot.org/zone/elementtree-13-intro.htm. Florent Xicluna updated the version included with Python, after discussions on python-dev and in bpo-6472 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6472].)

Build and C API Changes

Changes to Python's build process and to the C API include:

The latest release of the GNU Debugger, GDB 7, can be scripted using Python [https://web.archive.org/web/20110715084810/http://sourceware.org/gdb/current/onlinedocs/gdb/Python.html]. When you begin debugging an executable program P, GDB will look for a file named P-gdb.py and automatically read it. Dave Malcolm contributed a python-gdb.py that adds a number of commands useful when debugging Python itself. For example, py-up and py-down go up or down one Python stack frame, which usually corresponds to several C stack frames. py-print prints the value of a Python variable, and py-bt prints the Python stack trace. (Added as a result of bpo-8032 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8032].)

If you use the .gdbinit file provided with Python, the "pyo" macro in the 2.7 version now works correctly when the thread being debugged doesn't hold the GIL; the macro now acquires it before printing. (Contributed by Victor Stinner; bpo-3632 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3632].)

Py_AddPendingCall() is now thread-safe, letting any worker thread submit notifications to the main Python thread. This is particularly useful for asynchronous IO operations. (Contributed by Kristján Valur Jónsson; bpo-4293 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4293].)

New function: PyCode_NewEmpty() creates an empty code object; only the filename, function name, and first line number are required. This is useful for extension modules that are attempting to construct a more useful traceback stack. Previously such extensions needed to call PyCode_New(), which had many more arguments. (Added by Jeffrey Yasskin.)

New function: PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc() creates a new exception class, just as the existing PyErr_NewException() does, but takes an extra char * argument containing the docstring for the new exception class. (Added by 'lekma' on the Python bug tracker; bpo-7033 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7033].)

New function: PyFrame_GetLineNumber() takes a frame object and returns the line number that the frame is currently executing. Previously code would need to get the index of the bytecode instruction currently executing, and then look up the line number corresponding to that address. (Added by Jeffrey Yasskin.)

New functions: PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow() and PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow() approximates a Python long integer as a C long or long long. If the number is too large to fit into the output type, an overflow flag is set and returned to the caller. (Contributed by Case Van Horsen; bpo-7528 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7528] and bpo-7767 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7767].)

New function: stemming from the rewrite of string-to-float conversion, a new PyOS_string_to_double() function was added. The old PyOS_ascii_strtod() and PyOS_ascii_atof() functions are now deprecated.

New function: PySys_SetArgvEx() sets the value of sys.argv and can optionally update sys.path to include the directory containing the script named by sys.argv[0] depending on the value of an updatepath parameter.

This function was added to close a security hole for applications that embed Python. The old function, PySys_SetArgv(), would always update sys.path, and sometimes it would add the current directory. This meant that, if you ran an application embedding Python in a directory controlled by someone else, attackers could put a Trojan-horse module in the directory (say, a file named os.py) that your application would then import and run.

If you maintain a C/C++ application that embeds Python, check whether you're calling PySys_SetArgv() and carefully consider whether the application should be using PySys_SetArgvEx() with updatepath set to false.

Security issue reported as CVE 2008-5983 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2008-5983]; discussed in bpo-5753 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5753], and fixed by Antoine Pitrou.

New macros: the Python header files now define the following macros: Py_ISALNUM, Py_ISALPHA, Py_ISDIGIT, Py_ISLOWER, Py_ISSPACE, Py_ISUPPER, Py_ISXDIGIT, Py_TOLOWER, and Py_TOUPPER. All of these functions are analogous to the C standard macros for classifying characters, but ignore the current locale setting, because in several places Python needs to analyze characters in a locale-independent way. (Added by Eric Smith; bpo-5793 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5793].)

Removed function: PyEval_CallObject() is now only available as a macro. A function version was being kept around to preserve ABI linking compatibility, but that was in 1997; it can certainly be deleted by now. (Removed by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-8276 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8276].)

New format codes: the PyString_FromFormat(), PyString_FromFormatV(), and PyErr_Format() functions now accept %lld and %llu format codes for displaying C's long long types. (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-7228 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7228].)

The complicated interaction between threads and process forking has been changed. Previously, the child process created by os.fork() might fail because the child is created with only a single thread running, the thread performing the os.fork(). If other threads were holding a lock, such as Python's import lock, when the fork was performed, the lock would still be marked as "held" in the new process. But in the child process nothing would ever release the lock, since the other threads weren't replicated, and the child process would no longer be able to perform imports.

Python 2.7 acquires the import lock before performing an os.fork(), and will also clean up any locks created using the threading module. C extension modules that have internal locks, or that call fork() themselves, will not benefit from this clean-up.

(Fixed by Thomas Wouters; bpo-1590864 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1590864].)

The Py_Finalize() function now calls the internal threading._shutdown() function; this prevents some exceptions from being raised when an interpreter shuts down. (Patch by Adam Olsen; bpo-1722344 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1722344].)

When using the PyMemberDef structure to define attributes of a type, Python will no longer let you try to delete or set a T_STRING_INPLACE attribute.

Global symbols defined by the ctypes module are now prefixed with Py, or with _ctypes. (Implemented by Thomas Heller; bpo-3102 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3102].)

New configure option: the --with-system-expat switch allows building the pyexpat module to use the system Expat library. (Contributed by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis; bpo-7609 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7609].)

New configure option: the --with-valgrind option will now disable the pymalloc allocator, which is difficult for the Valgrind memory-error detector to analyze correctly. Valgrind will therefore be better at detecting memory leaks and overruns. (Contributed by James Henstridge; bpo-2422 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2422].)

New configure option: you can now supply an empty string to --with-dbmliborder= in order to disable all of the various DBM modules. (Added by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis; bpo-6491 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6491].)

The configure script now checks for floating-point rounding bugs on certain 32-bit Intel chips and defines a X87_DOUBLE_ROUNDING preprocessor definition. No code currently uses this definition, but it's available if anyone wishes to use it. (Added by Mark Dickinson; bpo-2937 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2937].)

configure also now sets a LDCXXSHARED Makefile variable for supporting C++ linking. (Contributed by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis; bpo-1222585 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1222585].)

The build process now creates the necessary files for pkg-config support. (Contributed by Clinton Roy; bpo-3585 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3585].)

The build process now supports Subversion 1.7. (Contributed by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis; bpo-6094 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6094].)

Capsules

Python 3.1 adds a new C datatype, PyCapsule, for providing a C API to an extension module. A capsule is essentially the holder of a C void * pointer, and is made available as a module attribute; for example, the socket module's API is exposed as socket.CAPI, and unicodedata exposes ucnhash_CAPI. Other extensions can import the module, access its dictionary to get the capsule object, and then get the void * pointer, which will usually point to an array of pointers to the module's various API functions.

There is an existing data type already used for this, PyCObject, but it doesn't provide type safety. Evil code written in pure Python could cause a segmentation fault by taking a PyCObject from module A and somehow substituting it for the PyCObject in module B. Capsules know their own name, and getting the pointer requires providing the name:

void *vtable;

if (!PyCapsule_IsValid(capsule, "mymodule.CAPI") {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_ValueError, "argument type invalid");
        return NULL;
}

vtable = PyCapsule_GetPointer(capsule, "mymodule.CAPI");

You are assured that vtable points to whatever you're expecting. If a different capsule was passed in, PyCapsule_IsValid() would detect the mismatched name and return false. Refer to Fournir une API en langage C pour un module d'extension for more information on using these objects.

Python 2.7 now uses capsules internally to provide various extension-module APIs, but the PyCObject_AsVoidPtr() was modified to handle capsules, preserving compile-time compatibility with the PyCObject interface. Use of PyCObject_AsVoidPtr() will signal a PendingDeprecationWarning, which is silent by default.

Implemented in Python 3.1 and backported to 2.7 by Larry Hastings; discussed in bpo-5630 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5630].

Port-Specific Changes: Windows

The msvcrt module now contains some constants from the crtassem.h header file: CRT_ASSEMBLY_VERSION, VC_ASSEMBLY_PUBLICKEYTOKEN, and LIBRARIES_ASSEMBLY_NAME_PREFIX. (Contributed by David Cournapeau; bpo-4365 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4365].)

The _winreg module for accessing the registry now implements the CreateKeyEx() and DeleteKeyEx() functions, extended versions of previously supported functions that take several extra arguments. The DisableReflectionKey(), EnableReflectionKey(), and QueryReflectionKey() were also tested and documented. (Implemented by Brian Curtin: bpo-7347 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7347].)

The new _beginthreadex() API is used to start threads, and the native thread-local storage functions are now used. (Contributed by Kristján Valur Jónsson; bpo-3582 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3582].)

The os.kill() function now works on Windows. The signal value can be the constants CTRL_C_EVENT, CTRL_BREAK_EVENT, or any integer. The first two constants will send Control-C and Control-Break keystroke events to subprocesses; any other value will use the TerminateProcess() API. (Contributed by Miki Tebeka; bpo-1220212 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1220212].)

The os.listdir() function now correctly fails for an empty path. (Fixed by Hirokazu Yamamoto; bpo-5913 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5913].)

The mimetypes module will now read the MIME database from the Windows registry when initializing. (Patch by Gabriel Genellina; bpo-4969 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4969].)

Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X

The path /Library/Python/2.7/site-packages is now appended to sys.path, in order to share added packages between the system installation and a user-installed copy of the same version. (Changed by Ronald Oussoren; bpo-4865 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4865].)

Modifié dans la version 2.7.13: As of 2.7.13, this change was removed. /Library/Python/2.7/site-packages, the site-packages directory used by the Apple-supplied system Python 2.7 is no longer appended to sys.path for user-installed Pythons such as from the python.org installers. As of macOS 10.12, Apple changed how the system site-packages directory is configured, which could cause installation of pip components, like setuptools, to fail. Packages installed for the system Python will no longer be shared with user-installed Pythons. (bpo-28440 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28440])

Port-Specific Changes: FreeBSD

FreeBSD 7.1's SO_SETFIB constant, used with the socket() methods getsockopt()/setsockopt() to select an alternate routing table, is now available in the socket module. (Added by Kyle VanderBeek; bpo-8235 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8235].)

Autres changements et corrections

Two benchmark scripts, iobench and ccbench, were added to the Tools directory. iobench measures the speed of the built-in file I/O objects returned by open() while performing various operations, and ccbench is a concurrency benchmark that tries to measure computing throughput, thread switching latency, and IO processing bandwidth when performing several tasks using a varying number of threads.

The Tools/i18n/msgfmt.py script now understands plural forms in .po files. (Fixed by Martin von Löwis; bpo-5464 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5464].)

When importing a module from a .pyc or .pyo file with an existing .py counterpart, the co_filename attributes of the resulting code objects are overwritten when the original filename is obsolete. This can happen if the file has been renamed, moved, or is accessed through different paths. (Patch by Ziga Seilnacht and Jean-Paul Calderone; bpo-1180193 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1180193].)

The regrtest.py script now takes a --randseed= switch that takes an integer that will be used as the random seed for the -r option that executes tests in random order. The -r option also reports the seed that was used (Added by Collin Winter.)

Another regrtest.py switch is -j, which takes an integer specifying how many tests run in parallel. This allows reducing the total runtime on multi-core machines. This option is compatible with several other options, including the -R switch which is known to produce long runtimes. (Added by Antoine Pitrou, bpo-6152 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6152].) This can also be used with a new -F switch that runs selected tests in a loop until they fail. (Added by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-7312 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7312].)

When executed as a script, the py_compile.py module now accepts '-' as an argument, which will read standard input for the list of filenames to be compiled. (Contributed by Piotr Ożarowski; bpo-8233 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8233].)

Portage vers Python 2.7

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that may require changes to your code:

The range() function processes its arguments more consistently; it will now call __int__() on non-float, non-integer arguments that are supplied to it. (Fixed by Alexander Belopolsky; bpo-1533 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1533].)

The string format() method changed the default precision used for floating-point and complex numbers from 6 decimal places to 12, which matches the precision used by str(). (Changed by Eric Smith; bpo-5920 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5920].)

Because of an optimization for the with statement, the special methods __enter__() and __exit__() must belong to the object's type, and cannot be directly attached to the object's instance. This affects new-style classes (derived from object) and C extension types. (bpo-6101 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6101].)

Due to a bug in Python 2.6, the exc_value parameter to __exit__() methods was often the string representation of the exception, not an instance. This was fixed in 2.7, so exc_value will be an instance as expected. (Fixed by Florent Xicluna; bpo-7853 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7853].)

When a restricted set of attributes were set using __slots__, deleting an unset attribute would not raise AttributeError as you would expect. Fixed by Benjamin Peterson; bpo-7604 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7604].)

In the standard library:

Operations with datetime instances that resulted in a year falling outside the supported range didn't always raise OverflowError. Such errors are now checked more carefully and will now raise the exception. (Reported by Mark Leander, patch by Anand B. Pillai and Alexander Belopolsky; bpo-7150 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7150].)

When using Decimal instances with a string's format() method, the default alignment was previously left-alignment. This has been changed to right-alignment, which might change the output of your programs. (Changed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-6857 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6857].)

Comparisons involving a signaling NaN value (or sNAN) now signal InvalidOperation instead of silently returning a true or false value depending on the comparison operator. Quiet NaN values (or NaN) are now hashable. (Fixed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-7279 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7279].)

The xml.etree.ElementTree library no longer escapes ampersands and angle brackets when outputting an XML processing instruction (which looks like <?xml-stylesheet href="#style1"?>) or comment (which looks like <!-- comment -->). (Patch by Neil Muller; bpo-2746 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2746].)

The readline() method of StringIO objects now does nothing when a negative length is requested, as other file-like objects do. (bpo-7348 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7348]).

The syslog module will now use the value of sys.argv[0] as the identifier instead of the previous default value of 'python'. (Changed by Sean Reifschneider; bpo-8451 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8451].)

The tarfile module's default error handling has changed, to no longer suppress fatal errors. The default error level was previously 0, which meant that errors would only result in a message being written to the debug log, but because the debug log is not activated by default, these errors go unnoticed. The default error level is now 1, which raises an exception if there's an error. (Changed by Lars Gustäbel; bpo-7357 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7357].)

The urlparse module's urlsplit() now handles unknown URL schemes in a fashion compliant with RFC 3986 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html]: if the URL is of the form "<something>://...", the text before the :// is treated as the scheme, even if it's a made-up scheme that the module doesn't know about. This change may break code that worked around the old behaviour. For example, Python 2.6.4 or 2.5 will return the following:

>>> import urlparse
>>> urlparse.urlsplit('invented://host/filename?query')
('invented', '', '//host/filename?query', '', '')

Python 2.7 (and Python 2.6.5) will return:

>>> import urlparse
>>> urlparse.urlsplit('invented://host/filename?query')
('invented', 'host', '/filename?query', '', '')

(Python 2.7 actually produces slightly different output, since it returns a named tuple instead of a standard tuple.)

For C extensions:

C extensions that use integer format codes with the PyArg_Parse* family of functions will now raise a TypeError exception instead of triggering a DeprecationWarning (bpo-5080 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5080]).

Use the new PyOS_string_to_double() function instead of the old PyOS_ascii_strtod() and PyOS_ascii_atof() functions, which are now deprecated.

For applications that embed Python:

The PySys_SetArgvEx() function was added, letting applications close a security hole when the existing PySys_SetArgv() function was used. Check whether you're calling PySys_SetArgv() and carefully consider whether the application should be using PySys_SetArgvEx() with updatepath set to false.

New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases

New features may be added to Python 2.7 maintenance releases when the situation genuinely calls for it. Any such additions must go through the Python Enhancement Proposal process, and make a compelling case for why they can't be adequately addressed by either adding the new feature solely to Python 3, or else by publishing it on the Python Package Index.

In addition to the specific proposals listed below, there is a general exemption allowing new -3 warnings to be added in any Python 2.7 maintenance release.

Two new environment variables for debug mode

In debug mode, the [xxx refs] statistic is not written by default, the PYTHONSHOWREFCOUNT environment variable now must also be set. (Contributed by Victor Stinner; bpo-31733 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31733].)

When Python is compiled with COUNT_ALLOC defined, allocation counts are no longer dumped by default anymore: the PYTHONSHOWALLOCCOUNT environment variable must now also be set. Moreover, allocation counts are now dumped into stderr, rather than stdout. (Contributed by Victor Stinner; bpo-31692 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31692].)

Ajouté dans la version 2.7.15.

PEP 434: IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches

PEP 434 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0434/] describes a general exemption for changes made to the IDLE development environment shipped along with Python. This exemption makes it possible for the IDLE developers to provide a more consistent user experience across all supported versions of Python 2 and 3.

For details of any IDLE changes, refer to the NEWS file for the specific release.

PEP 466: Network Security Enhancements for Python 2.7

PEP 466 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0466/] describes a number of network security enhancement proposals that have been approved for inclusion in Python 2.7 maintenance releases, with the first of those changes appearing in the Python 2.7.7 release.

PEP 466 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0466/] related features added in Python 2.7.7:

hmac.compare_digest() was backported from Python 3 to make a timing attack resistant comparison operation available to Python 2 applications. (Contributed by Alex Gaynor; bpo-21306 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21306].)

OpenSSL 1.0.1g was upgraded in the official Windows installers published on python.org. (Contributed by Zachary Ware; bpo-21462 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21462].)

PEP 466 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0466/] related features added in Python 2.7.8:

hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac() was backported from Python 3 to make a hashing algorithm suitable for secure password storage broadly available to Python 2 applications. (Contributed by Alex Gaynor; bpo-21304 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21304].)

OpenSSL 1.0.1h was upgraded for the official Windows installers published on python.org. (Contributed by Zachary Ware in bpo-21671 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21671] for CVE 2014-0224 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2014-0224].)

PEP 466 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0466/] related features added in Python 2.7.9:

Most of Python 3.4's ssl module was backported. This means ssl now supports Server Name Indication, TLS1.x settings, access to the platform certificate store, the SSLContext class, and other features. (Contributed by Alex Gaynor and David Reid; bpo-21308 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21308].)

Refer to the "Version added: 2.7.9" notes in the module documentation for specific details.

os.urandom() was changed to cache a file descriptor to /dev/urandom instead of reopening /dev/urandom on every call. (Contributed by Alex Gaynor; bpo-21305 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21305].)

hashlib.algorithms_guaranteed and hashlib.algorithms_available were backported from Python 3 to make it easier for Python 2 applications to select the strongest available hash algorithm. (Contributed by Alex Gaynor in bpo-21307 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21307])

PEP 477: Backport ensurepip (PEP 453) to Python 2.7

PEP 477 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0477/] approves the inclusion of the PEP 453 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/] ensurepip module and the improved documentation that was enabled by it in the Python 2.7 maintenance releases, appearing first in the Python 2.7.9 release.

Bootstrapping pip By Default

The new ensurepip module (defined in PEP 453 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/]) provides a standard cross-platform mechanism to bootstrap the pip installer into Python installations. The version of pip included with Python 2.7.9 is pip 1.5.6, and future 2.7.x maintenance releases will update the bundled version to the latest version of pip that is available at the time of creating the release candidate.

By default, the commands pip, pipX and pipX.Y will be installed on all platforms (where X.Y stands for the version of the Python installation), along with the pip Python package and its dependencies.

For CPython source builds on POSIX systems, the make install and make altinstall commands do not bootstrap pip by default. This behaviour can be controlled through configure options, and overridden through Makefile options.

On Windows and Mac OS X, the CPython installers now default to installing pip along with CPython itself (users may opt out of installing it during the installation process). Window users will need to opt in to the automatic PATH modifications to have pip available from the command line by default, otherwise it can still be accessed through the Python launcher for Windows as py -m pip.

As discussed in the PEP [https://peps.python.org/pep-0477/#disabling-ensurepip-by-downstream-distributors], platform packagers may choose not to install these commands by default, as long as, when invoked, they provide clear and simple directions on how to install them on that platform (usually using the system package manager).

Documentation Changes

As part of this change, the Installation de modules Python and Distribuer des modules Python sections of the documentation have been completely redesigned as short getting started and FAQ documents. Most packaging documentation has now been moved out to the Python Packaging Authority maintained Python Packaging User Guide [https://packaging.python.org] and the documentation of the individual projects.

However, as this migration is currently still incomplete, the legacy versions of those guides remaining available as Building C and C++ Extensions with setuptools and Building C and C++ Extensions with setuptools.

Voir aussi

PEP 453 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/] -- Explicit bootstrapping of pip in Python installations

PEP written by Donald Stufft and Nick Coghlan, implemented by Donald Stufft, Nick Coghlan, Martin von Löwis and Ned Deily.

PEP 476: Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients

PEP 476 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0476/] updated httplib and modules which use it, such as urllib2 and xmlrpclib, to now verify that the server presents a certificate which is signed by a Certificate Authority in the platform trust store and whose hostname matches the hostname being requested by default, significantly improving security for many applications. This change was made in the Python 2.7.9 release.

For applications which require the old previous behavior, they can pass an alternate context:

import urllib2
import ssl

# This disables all verification
context = ssl._create_unverified_context()

# This allows using a specific certificate for the host, which doesn't need
# to be in the trust store
context = ssl.create_default_context(cafile="/path/to/file.crt")

urllib2.urlopen("https://invalid-cert", context=context)

PEP 493: HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2.7

PEP 493 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0493/] provides additional migration tools to support a more incremental infrastructure upgrade process for environments containing applications and services relying on the historically permissive processing of server certificates when establishing client HTTPS connections. These additions were made in the Python 2.7.12 release.

These tools are intended for use in cases where affected applications and services can't be modified to explicitly pass a more permissive SSL context when establishing the connection.

For applications and services which can't be modified at all, the new PYTHONHTTPSVERIFY environment variable may be set to 0 to revert an entire Python process back to the default permissive behaviour of Python 2.7.8 and earlier.

For cases where the connection establishment code can't be modified, but the overall application can be, the new ssl._https_verify_certificates() function can be used to adjust the default behaviour at runtime.

New make regen-all build target

To simplify cross-compilation, and to ensure that CPython can reliably be compiled without requiring an existing version of Python to already be available, the autotools-based build system no longer attempts to implicitly recompile generated files based on file modification times.

Instead, a new make regen-all command has been added to force regeneration of these files when desired (e.g. after an initial version of Python has already been built based on the pregenerated versions).

More selective regeneration targets are also defined - see Makefile.pre.in [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Makefile.pre.in] for details.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23404 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404].)

Ajouté dans la version 2.7.14.

Removal of make touch build target

The make touch build target previously used to request implicit regeneration of generated files by updating their modification times has been removed.

It has been replaced by the new make regen-all target.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23404 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404].)

Modifié dans la version 2.7.14.

Remerciements

The author would like to thank the following people for offering suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this article: Nick Coghlan, Philip Jenvey, Ryan Lovett, R. David Murray, Hugh Secker-Walker.

Nouveautés de Python 2.6

Auteur:

A.M. Kuchling (amk at amk.ca)

This article explains the new features in Python 2.6, released on October 1, 2008. The release schedule is described in PEP 361 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0361/].

The major theme of Python 2.6 is preparing the migration path to Python 3.0, a major redesign of the language. Whenever possible, Python 2.6 incorporates new features and syntax from 3.0 while remaining compatible with existing code by not removing older features or syntax. When it's not possible to do that, Python 2.6 tries to do what it can, adding compatibility functions in a future_builtins module and a -3 switch to warn about usages that will become unsupported in 3.0.

Some significant new packages have been added to the standard library, such as the multiprocessing and json modules, but there aren't many new features that aren't related to Python 3.0 in some way.

Python 2.6 also sees a number of improvements and bugfixes throughout the source. A search through the change logs finds there were 259 patches applied and 612 bugs fixed between Python 2.5 and 2.6. Both figures are likely to be underestimates.

This article doesn't attempt to provide a complete specification of the new features, but instead provides a convenient overview. For full details, you should refer to the documentation for Python 2.6. If you want to understand the rationale for the design and implementation, refer to the PEP for a particular new feature. Whenever possible, "What's New in Python" links to the bug/patch item for each change.

Python 3.0

The development cycle for Python versions 2.6 and 3.0 was synchronized, with the alpha and beta releases for both versions being made on the same days. The development of 3.0 has influenced many features in 2.6.

Python 3.0 is a far-ranging redesign of Python that breaks compatibility with the 2.x series. This means that existing Python code will need some conversion in order to run on Python 3.0. However, not all the changes in 3.0 necessarily break compatibility. In cases where new features won't cause existing code to break, they've been backported to 2.6 and are described in this document in the appropriate place. Some of the 3.0-derived features are:

A __complex__() method for converting objects to a complex number.

Alternate syntax for catching exceptions: except TypeError as exc.

The addition of functools.reduce() as a synonym for the built-in reduce() function.

Python 3.0 adds several new built-in functions and changes the semantics of some existing builtins. Functions that are new in 3.0 such as bin() have simply been added to Python 2.6, but existing builtins haven't been changed; instead, the future_builtins module has versions with the new 3.0 semantics. Code written to be compatible with 3.0 can do from future_builtins import hex, map as necessary.

A new command-line switch, -3, enables warnings about features that will be removed in Python 3.0. You can run code with this switch to see how much work will be necessary to port code to 3.0. The value of this switch is available to Python code as the boolean variable sys.py3kwarning, and to C extension code as Py_Py3kWarningFlag.

Voir aussi

The 3xxx series of PEPs, which contains proposals for Python 3.0. PEP 3000 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3000/] describes the development process for Python 3.0. Start with PEP 3100 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3100/] that describes the general goals for Python 3.0, and then explore the higher-numbered PEPs that propose specific features.

Changes to the Development Process

While 2.6 was being developed, the Python development process underwent two significant changes: we switched from SourceForge's issue tracker to a customized Roundup installation, and the documentation was converted from LaTeX to reStructuredText.

New Issue Tracker: Roundup

For a long time, the Python developers had been growing increasingly annoyed by SourceForge's bug tracker. SourceForge's hosted solution doesn't permit much customization; for example, it wasn't possible to customize the life cycle of issues.

The infrastructure committee of the Python Software Foundation therefore posted a call for issue trackers, asking volunteers to set up different products and import some of the bugs and patches from SourceForge. Four different trackers were examined: Jira [https://www.atlassian.com/software/jira/], Launchpad [https://launchpad.net/], Roundup [https://roundup.sourceforge.io/], and Trac [https://trac.edgewall.org/]. The committee eventually settled on Jira and Roundup as the two candidates. Jira is a commercial product that offers no-cost hosted instances to free-software projects; Roundup is an open-source project that requires volunteers to administer it and a server to host it.

After posting a call for volunteers, a new Roundup installation was set up at https://bugs.python.org. One installation of Roundup can host multiple trackers, and this server now also hosts issue trackers for Jython and for the Python web site. It will surely find other uses in the future. Where possible, this edition of "What's New in Python" links to the bug/patch item for each change.

Hosting of the Python bug tracker is kindly provided by Upfront Systems [https://upfrontsoftware.co.za] of Stellenbosch, South Africa. Martin von Löwis put a lot of effort into importing existing bugs and patches from SourceForge; his scripts for this import operation are at https://svn.python.org/view/tracker/importer/ and may be useful to other projects wishing to move from SourceForge to Roundup.

Voir aussi

https://bugs.python.org

The Python bug tracker.

https://bugs.jython.org:

The Jython bug tracker.

https://roundup.sourceforge.io/

Roundup downloads and documentation.

https://svn.python.org/view/tracker/importer/

Martin von Löwis's conversion scripts.

New Documentation Format: reStructuredText Using Sphinx

The Python documentation was written using LaTeX since the project started around 1989. In the 1980s and early 1990s, most documentation was printed out for later study, not viewed online. LaTeX was widely used because it provided attractive printed output while remaining straightforward to write once the basic rules of the markup were learned.

Today LaTeX is still used for writing publications destined for printing, but the landscape for programming tools has shifted. We no longer print out reams of documentation; instead, we browse through it online and HTML has become the most important format to support. Unfortunately, converting LaTeX to HTML is fairly complicated and Fred L. Drake Jr., the long-time Python documentation editor, spent a lot of time maintaining the conversion process. Occasionally people would suggest converting the documentation into SGML and later XML, but performing a good conversion is a major task and no one ever committed the time required to finish the job.

During the 2.6 development cycle, Georg Brandl put a lot of effort into building a new toolchain for processing the documentation. The resulting package is called Sphinx, and is available from https://www.sphinx-doc.org/.

Sphinx concentrates on HTML output, producing attractively styled and modern HTML; printed output is still supported through conversion to LaTeX. The input format is reStructuredText, a markup syntax supporting custom extensions and directives that is commonly used in the Python community.

Sphinx is a standalone package that can be used for writing, and almost two dozen other projects (listed on the Sphinx web site [https://www.sphinx-doc.org/en/master/examples.html]) have adopted Sphinx as their documentation tool.

Voir aussi

Documenting Python [https://devguide.python.org/documenting/]

Describes how to write for Python's documentation.

Sphinx [https://www.sphinx-doc.org/]

Documentation and code for the Sphinx toolchain.

Docutils [https://docutils.sourceforge.io]

The underlying reStructuredText parser and toolset.

PEP 343: The 'with' statement

The previous version, Python 2.5, added the 'with' statement as an optional feature, to be enabled by a from __future__ import with_statement directive. In 2.6 the statement no longer needs to be specially enabled; this means that with is now always a keyword. The rest of this section is a copy of the corresponding section from the "What's New in Python 2.5" document; if you're familiar with the 'with' statement from Python 2.5, you can skip this section.

The 'with' statement clarifies code that previously would use try...finally blocks to ensure that clean-up code is executed. In this section, I'll discuss the statement as it will commonly be used. In the next section, I'll examine the implementation details and show how to write objects for use with this statement.

The 'with' statement is a control-flow structure whose basic structure is:

with expression [as variable]:
    with-block

The expression is evaluated, and it should result in an object that supports the context management protocol (that is, has __enter__() and __exit__() methods).

The object's __enter__() is called before with-block is executed and therefore can run set-up code. It also may return a value that is bound to the name variable, if given. (Note carefully that variable is not assigned the result of expression.)

After execution of the with-block is finished, the object's __exit__() method is called, even if the block raised an exception, and can therefore run clean-up code.

Some standard Python objects now support the context management protocol and can be used with the 'with' statement. File objects are one example:

with open('/etc/passwd', 'r') as f:
    for line in f:
        print line
        ... more processing code ...

After this statement has executed, the file object in f will have been automatically closed, even if the for loop raised an exception part-way through the block.

Note

In this case, f is the same object created by open(), because __enter__() returns self.

The threading module's locks and condition variables also support the 'with' statement:

lock = threading.Lock()
with lock:
    # Critical section of code
    ...

The lock is acquired before the block is executed and always released once the block is complete.

The localcontext() function in the decimal module makes it easy to save and restore the current decimal context, which encapsulates the desired precision and rounding characteristics for computations:

from decimal import Decimal, Context, localcontext

# Displays with default precision of 28 digits
v = Decimal('578')
print v.sqrt()

with localcontext(Context(prec=16)):
    # All code in this block uses a precision of 16 digits.
    # The original context is restored on exiting the block.
    print v.sqrt()

Écrire des gestionnaires de contexte

Under the hood, the 'with' statement is fairly complicated. Most people will only use 'with' in company with existing objects and don't need to know these details, so you can skip the rest of this section if you like. Authors of new objects will need to understand the details of the underlying implementation and should keep reading.

A high-level explanation of the context management protocol is:

The expression is evaluated and should result in an object called a "context manager". The context manager must have __enter__() and __exit__() methods.

The context manager's __enter__() method is called. The value returned is assigned to VAR. If no as VAR clause is present, the value is simply discarded.

Le code dans BLOCK est exécuté.

If BLOCK raises an exception, the context manager's __exit__() method is called with three arguments, the exception details (type, value, traceback, the same values returned by sys.exc_info(), which can also be None if no exception occurred). The method's return value controls whether an exception is re-raised: any false value re-raises the exception, and True will result in suppressing it. You'll only rarely want to suppress the exception, because if you do the author of the code containing the 'with' statement will never realize anything went wrong.

If BLOCK didn't raise an exception, the __exit__() method is still called, but type, value, and traceback are all None.

Let's think through an example. I won't present detailed code but will only sketch the methods necessary for a database that supports transactions.

(For people unfamiliar with database terminology: a set of changes to the database are grouped into a transaction. Transactions can be either committed, meaning that all the changes are written into the database, or rolled back, meaning that the changes are all discarded and the database is unchanged. See any database textbook for more information.)

Let's assume there's an object representing a database connection. Our goal will be to let the user write code like this:

db_connection = DatabaseConnection()
with db_connection as cursor:
    cursor.execute('insert into ...')
    cursor.execute('delete from ...')
    # ... more operations ...

The transaction should be committed if the code in the block runs flawlessly or rolled back if there's an exception. Here's the basic interface for DatabaseConnection that I'll assume:

class DatabaseConnection:
    # Database interface
    def cursor(self):
        "Returns a cursor object and starts a new transaction"
    def commit(self):
        "Commits current transaction"
    def rollback(self):
        "Rolls back current transaction"

The __enter__() method is pretty easy, having only to start a new transaction. For this application the resulting cursor object would be a useful result, so the method will return it. The user can then add as cursor to their 'with' statement to bind the cursor to a variable name.

class DatabaseConnection:
    ...
    def __enter__(self):
        # Code to start a new transaction
        cursor = self.cursor()
        return cursor

The __exit__() method is the most complicated because it's where most of the work has to be done. The method has to check if an exception occurred. If there was no exception, the transaction is committed. The transaction is rolled back if there was an exception.

In the code below, execution will just fall off the end of the function, returning the default value of None. None is false, so the exception will be re-raised automatically. If you wished, you could be more explicit and add a return statement at the marked location.

class DatabaseConnection:
    ...
    def __exit__(self, type, value, tb):
        if tb is None:
            # No exception, so commit
            self.commit()
        else:
            # Exception occurred, so rollback.
            self.rollback()
            # return False

Le module contextlib

The contextlib module provides some functions and a decorator that are useful when writing objects for use with the 'with' statement.

The decorator is called contextmanager(), and lets you write a single generator function instead of defining a new class. The generator should yield exactly one value. The code up to the yield will be executed as the __enter__() method, and the value yielded will be the method's return value that will get bound to the variable in the 'with' statement's as clause, if any. The code after the yield will be executed in the __exit__() method. Any exception raised in the block will be raised by the yield statement.

Using this decorator, our database example from the previous section could be written as:

from contextlib import contextmanager

@contextmanager
def db_transaction(connection):
    cursor = connection.cursor()
    try:
        yield cursor
    except:
        connection.rollback()
        raise
    else:
        connection.commit()

db = DatabaseConnection()
with db_transaction(db) as cursor:
    ...

The contextlib module also has a nested(mgr1, mgr2, ...) function that combines a number of context managers so you don't need to write nested 'with' statements. In this example, the single 'with' statement both starts a database transaction and acquires a thread lock:

lock = threading.Lock()
with nested (db_transaction(db), lock) as (cursor, locked):
    ...

Finally, the closing() function returns its argument so that it can be bound to a variable, and calls the argument's .close() method at the end of the block.

import urllib, sys
from contextlib import closing

with closing(urllib.urlopen('http://www.yahoo.com')) as f:
    for line in f:
        sys.stdout.write(line)

Voir aussi

PEP 343 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/] - The "with" statement

PEP written by Guido van Rossum and Nick Coghlan; implemented by Mike Bland, Guido van Rossum, and Neal Norwitz. The PEP shows the code generated for a 'with' statement, which can be helpful in learning how the statement works.

The documentation for the contextlib module.

PEP 366: Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module

Python's -m switch allows running a module as a script. When you ran a module that was located inside a package, relative imports didn't work correctly.

The fix for Python 2.6 adds a module.__package__ attribute. When this attribute is present, relative imports will be relative to the value of this attribute instead of the __name__ attribute.

PEP 302-style importers can then set __package__ as necessary. The runpy module that implements the -m switch now does this, so relative imports will now work correctly in scripts running from inside a package.

PEP 370: Per-user site-packages Directory

When you run Python, the module search path sys.path usually includes a directory whose path ends in "site-packages". This directory is intended to hold locally installed packages available to all users using a machine or a particular site installation.

Python 2.6 introduces a convention for user-specific site directories. The directory varies depending on the platform:

UNIX et Mac OS X : ~/.local/

Windows : %APPDATA%/Python

Within this directory, there will be version-specific subdirectories, such as lib/python2.6/site-packages on Unix/Mac OS and Python26/site-packages on Windows.

If you don't like the default directory, it can be overridden by an environment variable. PYTHONUSERBASE sets the root directory used for all Python versions supporting this feature. On Windows, the directory for application-specific data can be changed by setting the APPDATA environment variable. You can also modify the site.py file for your Python installation.

The feature can be disabled entirely by running Python with the -s option or setting the PYTHONNOUSERSITE environment variable.

Voir aussi

PEP 370 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0370/] - Per-user site-packages Directory

PEP written and implemented by Christian Heimes.

PEP 371: The multiprocessing Package

The new multiprocessing package lets Python programs create new processes that will perform a computation and return a result to the parent. The parent and child processes can communicate using queues and pipes, synchronize their operations using locks and semaphores, and can share simple arrays of data.

The multiprocessing module started out as an exact emulation of the threading module using processes instead of threads. That goal was discarded along the path to Python 2.6, but the general approach of the module is still similar. The fundamental class is the Process, which is passed a callable object and a collection of arguments. The start() method sets the callable running in a subprocess, after which you can call the is_alive() method to check whether the subprocess is still running and the join() method to wait for the process to exit.

Here's a simple example where the subprocess will calculate a factorial. The function doing the calculation is written strangely so that it takes significantly longer when the input argument is a multiple of 4.

import time
from multiprocessing import Process, Queue

def factorial(queue, N):
    "Compute a factorial."
    # If N is a multiple of 4, this function will take much longer.
    if (N % 4) == 0:
        time.sleep(.05 * N/4)

    # Calculate the result
    fact = 1L
    for i in range(1, N+1):
        fact = fact * i

    # Put the result on the queue
    queue.put(fact)

if __name__ == '__main__':
    queue = Queue()

    N = 5

    p = Process(target=factorial, args=(queue, N))
    p.start()
    p.join()

    result = queue.get()
    print 'Factorial', N, '=', result

A Queue is used to communicate the result of the factorial. The Queue object is stored in a global variable. The child process will use the value of the variable when the child was created; because it's a Queue, parent and child can use the object to communicate. (If the parent were to change the value of the global variable, the child's value would be unaffected, and vice versa.)

Two other classes, Pool and Manager, provide higher-level interfaces. Pool will create a fixed number of worker processes, and requests can then be distributed to the workers by calling apply() or apply_async() to add a single request, and map() or map_async() to add a number of requests. The following code uses a Pool to spread requests across 5 worker processes and retrieve a list of results:

from multiprocessing import Pool

def factorial(N, dictionary):
    "Compute a factorial."
    ...
p = Pool(5)
result = p.map(factorial, range(1, 1000, 10))
for v in result:
    print v

Ceci produit l’affichage suivant :

1
39916800
51090942171709440000
8222838654177922817725562880000000
33452526613163807108170062053440751665152000000000
...

The other high-level interface, the Manager class, creates a separate server process that can hold master copies of Python data structures. Other processes can then access and modify these data structures using proxy objects. The following example creates a shared dictionary by calling the dict() method; the worker processes then insert values into the dictionary. (Locking is not done for you automatically, which doesn't matter in this example. Manager's methods also include Lock(), RLock(), and Semaphore() to create shared locks.)

import time
from multiprocessing import Pool, Manager

def factorial(N, dictionary):
    "Compute a factorial."
    # Calculate the result
    fact = 1L
    for i in range(1, N+1):
        fact = fact * i

    # Store result in dictionary
    dictionary[N] = fact

if __name__ == '__main__':
    p = Pool(5)
    mgr = Manager()
    d = mgr.dict()         # Create shared dictionary

    # Run tasks using the pool
    for N in range(1, 1000, 10):
        p.apply_async(factorial, (N, d))

    # Mark pool as closed -- no more tasks can be added.
    p.close()

    # Wait for tasks to exit
    p.join()

    # Output results
    for k, v in sorted(d.items()):
        print k, v

This will produce the output:

1 1
11 39916800
21 51090942171709440000
31 8222838654177922817725562880000000
41 33452526613163807108170062053440751665152000000000
51 15511187532873822802242430164693032110632597200169861120000...

Voir aussi

The documentation for the multiprocessing module.

PEP 371 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0371/] - Addition of the multiprocessing package

PEP written by Jesse Noller and Richard Oudkerk; implemented by Richard Oudkerk and Jesse Noller.

PEP 3101: Advanced String Formatting

In Python 3.0, the % operator is supplemented by a more powerful string formatting method, format(). Support for the str.format() method has been backported to Python 2.6.

In 2.6, both 8-bit and Unicode strings have a .format() method that treats the string as a template and takes the arguments to be formatted. The formatting template uses curly brackets ({, }) as special characters:

>>> # Substitute positional argument 0 into the string.
>>> "User ID: {0}".format("root")
'User ID: root'
>>> # Use the named keyword arguments
>>> "User ID: {uid}   Last seen: {last_login}".format(
...    uid="root",
...    last_login = "5 Mar 2008 07:20")
'User ID: root   Last seen: 5 Mar 2008 07:20'

Curly brackets can be escaped by doubling them:

>>> "Empty dict: {{}}".format()
"Empty dict: {}"

Field names can be integers indicating positional arguments, such as {0}, {1}, etc. or names of keyword arguments. You can also supply compound field names that read attributes or access dictionary keys:

>>> import sys
>>> print 'Platform: {0.platform}\nPython version: {0.version}'.format(sys)
Platform: darwin
Python version: 2.6a1+ (trunk:61261M, Mar  5 2008, 20:29:41)
[GCC 4.0.1 (Apple Computer, Inc. build 5367)]'

>>> import mimetypes
>>> 'Content-type: {0[.mp4]}'.format(mimetypes.types_map)
'Content-type: video/mp4'

Note that when using dictionary-style notation such as [.mp4], you don't need to put any quotation marks around the string; it will look up the value using .mp4 as the key. Strings beginning with a number will be converted to an integer. You can't write more complicated expressions inside a format string.

So far we've shown how to specify which field to substitute into the resulting string. The precise formatting used is also controllable by adding a colon followed by a format specifier. For example:

>>> # Field 0: left justify, pad to 15 characters
>>> # Field 1: right justify, pad to 6 characters
>>> fmt = '{0:15} ${1:>6}'
>>> fmt.format('Registration', 35)
'Registration    $    35'
>>> fmt.format('Tutorial', 50)
'Tutorial        $    50'
>>> fmt.format('Banquet', 125)
'Banquet         $   125'

Format specifiers can reference other fields through nesting:

>>> fmt = '{0:{1}}'
>>> width = 15
>>> fmt.format('Invoice #1234', width)
'Invoice #1234  '
>>> width = 35
>>> fmt.format('Invoice #1234', width)
'Invoice #1234                      '

The alignment of a field within the desired width can be specified:

Caractère

Effect

< (par défaut)

Left-align

>

Right-align

^

Center

=

(For numeric types only) Pad after the sign.

Format specifiers can also include a presentation type, which controls how the value is formatted. For example, floating-point numbers can be formatted as a general number or in exponential notation:

>>> '{0:g}'.format(3.75)
'3.75'
>>> '{0:e}'.format(3.75)
'3.750000e+00'

A variety of presentation types are available. Consult the 2.6 documentation for a complete list; here's a sample:

b

Format binaire. Affiche le nombre en base 2.

c

Caractère. Convertit l'entier en le caractère Unicode associé avant de l'afficher.

d

Entier décimal. Affiche le nombre en base 10.

o

Format octal. Affiche le nombre en base 8.

x

Format hexadécimal. Affiche le nombre en base 16 en utilisant les lettres minuscules pour les chiffres au-dessus de 9.

e

Exponent notation. Prints the number in scientific notation using the letter 'e' to indicate the exponent.

g

General format. This prints the number as a fixed-point number, unless the number is too large, in which case it switches to 'e' exponent notation.

n

Number. This is the same as 'g' (for floats) or 'd' (for integers), except that it uses the current locale setting to insert the appropriate number separator characters.

%

Pourcentage. Multiplie le nombre par 100 et l'affiche en virgule fixe ('f'), suivi d'un symbole pourcent '%'.

Classes and types can define a __format__() method to control how they're formatted. It receives a single argument, the format specifier:

def __format__(self, format_spec):
    if isinstance(format_spec, unicode):
        return unicode(str(self))
    else:
        return str(self)

There's also a format() builtin that will format a single value. It calls the type's __format__() method with the provided specifier:

>>> format(75.6564, '.2f')
'75.66'

Voir aussi

Format string syntax

The reference documentation for format fields.

PEP 3101 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3101/] - Advanced String Formatting

PEP written by Talin. Implemented by Eric Smith.

PEP 3105: print As a Function

The print statement becomes the print() function in Python 3.0. Making print() a function makes it possible to replace the function by doing def print(...) or importing a new function from somewhere else.

Python 2.6 has a __future__ import that removes print as language syntax, letting you use the functional form instead. For example:

>>> from __future__ import print_function
>>> print('# of entries', len(dictionary), file=sys.stderr)

The signature of the new function is:

def print(*args, sep=' ', end='\n', file=None)

The parameters are:

args: positional arguments whose values will be printed out.

sep: the separator, which will be printed between arguments.

end: the ending text, which will be printed after all of the arguments have been output.

file: the file object to which the output will be sent.

Voir aussi

PEP 3105 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3105/] - Make print a function

PEP written by Georg Brandl.

PEP 3110: Exception-Handling Changes

One error that Python programmers occasionally make is writing the following code:

try:
    ...
except TypeError, ValueError:  # Wrong!
    ...

The author is probably trying to catch both TypeError and ValueError exceptions, but this code actually does something different: it will catch TypeError and bind the resulting exception object to the local name "ValueError". The ValueError exception will not be caught at all. The correct code specifies a tuple of exceptions:

try:
    ...
except (TypeError, ValueError):
    ...

This error happens because the use of the comma here is ambiguous: does it indicate two different nodes in the parse tree, or a single node that's a tuple?

Python 3.0 makes this unambiguous by replacing the comma with the word "as". To catch an exception and store the exception object in the variable exc, you must write:

try:
    ...
except TypeError as exc:
    ...

Python 3.0 will only support the use of "as", and therefore interprets the first example as catching two different exceptions. Python 2.6 supports both the comma and "as", so existing code will continue to work. We therefore suggest using "as" when writing new Python code that will only be executed with 2.6.

Voir aussi

PEP 3110 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3110/] - Catching Exceptions in Python 3000

PEP written and implemented by Collin Winter.

PEP 3112: Byte Literals

Python 3.0 adopts Unicode as the language's fundamental string type and denotes 8-bit literals differently, either as b'string' or using a bytes constructor. For future compatibility, Python 2.6 adds bytes as a synonym for the str type, and it also supports the b'' notation.

The 2.6 str differs from 3.0's bytes type in various ways; most notably, the constructor is completely different. In 3.0, bytes([65, 66, 67]) is 3 elements long, containing the bytes representing ABC; in 2.6, bytes([65, 66, 67]) returns the 12-byte string representing the str() of the list.

The primary use of bytes in 2.6 will be to write tests of object type such as isinstance(x, bytes). This will help the 2to3 converter, which can't tell whether 2.x code intends strings to contain either characters or 8-bit bytes; you can now use either bytes or str to represent your intention exactly, and the resulting code will also be correct in Python 3.0.

There's also a __future__ import that causes all string literals to become Unicode strings. This means that \u escape sequences can be used to include Unicode characters:

from __future__ import unicode_literals

s = ('\u751f\u3080\u304e\u3000\u751f\u3054'
     '\u3081\u3000\u751f\u305f\u307e\u3054')

print len(s)               # 12 Unicode characters

At the C level, Python 3.0 will rename the existing 8-bit string type, called PyStringObject in Python 2.x, to PyBytesObject. Python 2.6 uses #define to support using the names PyBytesObject(), PyBytes_Check(), PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(), and all the other functions and macros used with strings.

Instances of the bytes type are immutable just as strings are. A new bytearray type stores a mutable sequence of bytes:

>>> bytearray([65, 66, 67])
bytearray(b'ABC')
>>> b = bytearray(u'\u21ef\u3244', 'utf-8')
>>> b
bytearray(b'\xe2\x87\xaf\xe3\x89\x84')
>>> b[0] = '\xe3'
>>> b
bytearray(b'\xe3\x87\xaf\xe3\x89\x84')
>>> unicode(str(b), 'utf-8')
u'\u31ef \u3244'

Byte arrays support most of the methods of string types, such as startswith()/endswith(), find()/rfind(), and some of the methods of lists, such as append(), pop(), and reverse().

>>> b = bytearray('ABC')
>>> b.append('d')
>>> b.append(ord('e'))
>>> b
bytearray(b'ABCde')

There's also a corresponding C API, with PyByteArray_FromObject(), PyByteArray_FromStringAndSize(), and various other functions.

Voir aussi

PEP 3112 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3112/] - Bytes literals in Python 3000

PEP written by Jason Orendorff; backported to 2.6 by Christian Heimes.

PEP 3116: New I/O Library

Python's built-in file objects support a number of methods, but file-like objects don't necessarily support all of them. Objects that imitate files usually support read() and write(), but they may not support readline(), for example. Python 3.0 introduces a layered I/O library in the io module that separates buffering and text-handling features from the fundamental read and write operations.

There are three levels of abstract base classes provided by the io module:

RawIOBase defines raw I/O operations: read(), readinto(), write(), seek(), tell(), truncate(), and close(). Most of the methods of this class will often map to a single system call. There are also readable(), writable(), and seekable() methods for determining what operations a given object will allow.

Python 3.0 has concrete implementations of this class for files and sockets, but Python 2.6 hasn't restructured its file and socket objects in this way.

BufferedIOBase is an abstract base class that buffers data in memory to reduce the number of system calls used, making I/O processing more efficient. It supports all of the methods of RawIOBase, and adds a raw attribute holding the underlying raw object.

There are five concrete classes implementing this ABC. BufferedWriter and BufferedReader are for objects that support write-only or read-only usage that have a seek() method for random access. BufferedRandom objects support read and write access upon the same underlying stream, and BufferedRWPair is for objects such as TTYs that have both read and write operations acting upon unconnected streams of data. The BytesIO class supports reading, writing, and seeking over an in-memory buffer.

TextIOBase: Provides functions for reading and writing strings (remember, strings will be Unicode in Python 3.0), and supporting universal newlines. TextIOBase defines the readline() method and supports iteration upon objects.

There are two concrete implementations. TextIOWrapper wraps a buffered I/O object, supporting all of the methods for text I/O and adding a buffer attribute for access to the underlying object. StringIO simply buffers everything in memory without ever writing anything to disk.

(In Python 2.6, io.StringIO is implemented in pure Python, so it's pretty slow. You should therefore stick with the existing StringIO module or cStringIO for now. At some point Python 3.0's io module will be rewritten into C for speed, and perhaps the C implementation will be backported to the 2.x releases.)

In Python 2.6, the underlying implementations haven't been restructured to build on top of the io module's classes. The module is being provided to make it easier to write code that's forward-compatible with 3.0, and to save developers the effort of writing their own implementations of buffering and text I/O.

Voir aussi

PEP 3116 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3116/] - New I/O

PEP written by Daniel Stutzbach, Mike Verdone, and Guido van Rossum. Code by Guido van Rossum, Georg Brandl, Walter Doerwald, Jeremy Hylton, Martin von Löwis, Tony Lownds, and others.

PEP 3118: Revised Buffer Protocol

The buffer protocol is a C-level API that lets Python types exchange pointers into their internal representations. A memory-mapped file can be viewed as a buffer of characters, for example, and this lets another module such as re treat memory-mapped files as a string of characters to be searched.

The primary users of the buffer protocol are numeric-processing packages such as NumPy, which expose the internal representation of arrays so that callers can write data directly into an array instead of going through a slower API. This PEP updates the buffer protocol in light of experience from NumPy development, adding a number of new features such as indicating the shape of an array or locking a memory region.

The most important new C API function is PyObject_GetBuffer(PyObject *obj, Py_buffer *view, int flags), which takes an object and a set of flags, and fills in the Py_buffer structure with information about the object's memory representation. Objects can use this operation to lock memory in place while an external caller could be modifying the contents, so there's a corresponding PyBuffer_Release(Py_buffer *view) to indicate that the external caller is done.

The flags argument to PyObject_GetBuffer() specifies constraints upon the memory returned. Some examples are:

PyBUF_WRITABLE indicates that the memory must be writable.

PyBUF_LOCK requests a read-only or exclusive lock on the memory.

PyBUF_C_CONTIGUOUS and PyBUF_F_CONTIGUOUS requests a C-contiguous (last dimension varies the fastest) or Fortran-contiguous (first dimension varies the fastest) array layout.

Two new argument codes for PyArg_ParseTuple(), s* and z*, return locked buffer objects for a parameter.

Voir aussi

PEP 3118 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/] - Revising the buffer protocol

PEP written by Travis Oliphant and Carl Banks; implemented by Travis Oliphant.

PEP 3119: Abstract Base Classes

Some object-oriented languages such as Java support interfaces, declaring that a class has a given set of methods or supports a given access protocol. Abstract Base Classes (or ABCs) are an equivalent feature for Python. The ABC support consists of an abc module containing a metaclass called ABCMeta, special handling of this metaclass by the isinstance() and issubclass() builtins, and a collection of basic ABCs that the Python developers think will be widely useful. Future versions of Python will probably add more ABCs.

Let's say you have a particular class and wish to know whether it supports dictionary-style access. The phrase "dictionary-style" is vague, however. It probably means that accessing items with obj[1] works. Does it imply that setting items with obj[2] = value works? Or that the object will have keys(), values(), and items() methods? What about the iterative variants such as iterkeys()? copy`and :meth:()!update`? Iterating over the object with iter()?

The Python 2.6 collections module includes a number of different ABCs that represent these distinctions. Iterable indicates that a class defines __iter__(), and Container means the class defines a __contains__() method and therefore supports x in y expressions. The basic dictionary interface of getting items, setting items, and keys(), values(), and items(), is defined by the MutableMapping ABC.

You can derive your own classes from a particular ABC to indicate they support that ABC's interface:

import collections

class Storage(collections.MutableMapping):
    ...

Alternatively, you could write the class without deriving from the desired ABC and instead register the class by calling the ABC's register() method:

import collections

class Storage:
    ...

collections.MutableMapping.register(Storage)

For classes that you write, deriving from the ABC is probably clearer. The register() method is useful when you've written a new ABC that can describe an existing type or class, or if you want to declare that some third-party class implements an ABC. For example, if you defined a PrintableType ABC, it's legal to do:

# Register Python's types
PrintableType.register(int)
PrintableType.register(float)
PrintableType.register(str)

Classes should obey the semantics specified by an ABC, but Python can't check this; it's up to the class author to understand the ABC's requirements and to implement the code accordingly.

To check whether an object supports a particular interface, you can now write:

def func(d):
    if not isinstance(d, collections.MutableMapping):
        raise ValueError("Mapping object expected, not %r" % d)

Don't feel that you must now begin writing lots of checks as in the above example. Python has a strong tradition of duck-typing, where explicit type-checking is never done and code simply calls methods on an object, trusting that those methods will be there and raising an exception if they aren't. Be judicious in checking for ABCs and only do it where it's absolutely necessary.

You can write your own ABCs by using abc.ABCMeta as the metaclass in a class definition:

from abc import ABCMeta, abstractmethod

class Drawable():
    __metaclass__ = ABCMeta

    @abstractmethod
    def draw(self, x, y, scale=1.0):
        pass

    def draw_doubled(self, x, y):
        self.draw(x, y, scale=2.0)

class Square(Drawable):
    def draw(self, x, y, scale):
        ...

In the Drawable ABC above, the draw_doubled() method renders the object at twice its size and can be implemented in terms of other methods described in Drawable. Classes implementing this ABC therefore don't need to provide their own implementation of draw_doubled(), though they can do so. An implementation of draw() is necessary, though; the ABC can't provide a useful generic implementation.

You can apply the @~abc.abstractmethod decorator to methods such as draw() that must be implemented; Python will then raise an exception for classes that don't define the method. Note that the exception is only raised when you actually try to create an instance of a subclass lacking the method:

>>> class Circle(Drawable):
...     pass
...
>>> c = Circle()
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: Can't instantiate abstract class Circle with abstract methods draw
>>>

Abstract data attributes can be declared using the @abstractproperty decorator:

from abc import abstractproperty
...

@abstractproperty
def readonly(self):
   return self._x

Subclasses must then define a readonly property.

Voir aussi

PEP 3119 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3119/] -- Introduction aux classes de bases abstraites

PEP written by Guido van Rossum and Talin. Implemented by Guido van Rossum. Backported to 2.6 by Benjamin Aranguren, with Alex Martelli.

PEP 3127: Integer Literal Support and Syntax

Python 3.0 changes the syntax for octal (base-8) integer literals, prefixing them with "0o" or "0O" instead of a leading zero, and adds support for binary (base-2) integer literals, signalled by a "0b" or "0B" prefix.

Python 2.6 doesn't drop support for a leading 0 signalling an octal number, but it does add support for "0o" and "0b":

>>> 0o21, 2*8 + 1
(17, 17)
>>> 0b101111
47

The oct() builtin still returns numbers prefixed with a leading zero, and a new bin() builtin returns the binary representation for a number:

>>> oct(42)
'052'
>>> future_builtins.oct(42)
'0o52'
>>> bin(173)
'0b10101101'

The int() and long() builtins will now accept the "0o" and "0b" prefixes when base-8 or base-2 are requested, or when the base argument is zero (signalling that the base used should be determined from the string):

>>> int ('0o52', 0)
42
>>> int('1101', 2)
13
>>> int('0b1101', 2)
13
>>> int('0b1101', 0)
13

Voir aussi

PEP 3127 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3127/] - Integer Literal Support and Syntax

PEP written by Patrick Maupin; backported to 2.6 by Eric Smith.

PEP 3129: Class Decorators

Decorators have been extended from functions to classes. It's now legal to write:

@foo
@bar
class A:
  pass

C’est équivalent à :

class A:
  pass

A = foo(bar(A))

Voir aussi

PEP 3129 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3129/] -- Décorateurs de classes

PEP written by Collin Winter.

PEP 3141: A Type Hierarchy for Numbers

Python 3.0 adds several abstract base classes for numeric types inspired by Scheme's numeric tower. These classes were backported to 2.6 as the numbers module.

The most general ABC is Number. It defines no operations at all, and only exists to allow checking if an object is a number by doing isinstance(obj, Number).

Complex is a subclass of Number. Complex numbers can undergo the basic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and exponentiation, and you can retrieve the real and imaginary parts and obtain a number's conjugate. Python's built-in complex type is an implementation of Complex.

Real further derives from Complex, and adds operations that only work on real numbers: floor(), trunc(), rounding, taking the remainder mod N, floor division, and comparisons.

Rational numbers derive from Real, have numerator and denominator properties, and can be converted to floats. Python 2.6 adds a simple rational-number class, Fraction, in the fractions module. (It's called Fraction instead of Rational to avoid a name clash with numbers.Rational.)

Integral numbers derive from Rational, and can be shifted left and right with << and >>, combined using bitwise operations such as & and |, and can be used as array indexes and slice boundaries.

In Python 3.0, the PEP slightly redefines the existing builtins round(), math.floor(), math.ceil(), and adds a new one, math.trunc(), that's been backported to Python 2.6. math.trunc() rounds toward zero, returning the closest Integral that's between the function's argument and zero.

Voir aussi

PEP 3141 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3141/] - A Type Hierarchy for Numbers

PEP written by Jeffrey Yasskin.

Scheme's numerical tower [https://www.gnu.org/software/guile/manual/html_node/Numerical-Tower.html#Numerical-Tower], from the Guile manual.

Scheme's number datatypes [https://conservatory.scheme.org/schemers/Documents/Standards/R5RS/HTML/r5rs-Z-H-9.html#%_sec_6.2] from the R5RS Scheme specification.

The fractions Module

To fill out the hierarchy of numeric types, the fractions module provides a rational-number class. Rational numbers store their values as a numerator and denominator forming a fraction, and can exactly represent numbers such as 2/3 that floating-point numbers can only approximate.

The Fraction constructor takes two Integral values that will be the numerator and denominator of the resulting fraction.

>>> from fractions import Fraction
>>> a = Fraction(2, 3)
>>> b = Fraction(2, 5)
>>> float(a), float(b)
(0.66666666666666663, 0.40000000000000002)
>>> a+b
Fraction(16, 15)
>>> a/b
Fraction(5, 3)

For converting floating-point numbers to rationals, the float type now has an as_integer_ratio() method that returns the numerator and denominator for a fraction that evaluates to the same floating-point value:

>>> (2.5) .as_integer_ratio()
(5, 2)
>>> (3.1415) .as_integer_ratio()
(7074029114692207L, 2251799813685248L)
>>> (1./3) .as_integer_ratio()
(6004799503160661L, 18014398509481984L)

Note that values that can only be approximated by floating-point numbers, such as 1./3, are not simplified to the number being approximated; the fraction attempts to match the floating-point value exactly.

The fractions module is based upon an implementation by Sjoerd Mullender that was in Python's Demo/classes/ directory for a long time. This implementation was significantly updated by Jeffrey Yasskin.

Autres changements au langage

Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:

Directories and zip archives containing a __main__.py file can now be executed directly by passing their name to the interpreter. The directory or zip archive is automatically inserted as the first entry in sys.path. (Suggestion and initial patch by Andy Chu, subsequently revised by Phillip J. Eby and Nick Coghlan; bpo-1739468 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1739468].)

The hasattr() function was catching and ignoring all errors, under the assumption that they meant a __getattr__() method was failing somehow and the return value of hasattr() would therefore be False. This logic shouldn't be applied to KeyboardInterrupt and SystemExit, however; Python 2.6 will no longer discard such exceptions when hasattr() encounters them. (Fixed by Benjamin Peterson; bpo-2196 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2196].)

When calling a function using the ** syntax to provide keyword arguments, you are no longer required to use a Python dictionary; any mapping will now work:

>>> def f(**kw):
...    print sorted(kw)
...
>>> ud=UserDict.UserDict()
>>> ud['a'] = 1
>>> ud['b'] = 'string'
>>> f(**ud)
['a', 'b']

(Contribution par Alexander Belopolsky; bpo-1686487 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1686487].)

It's also become legal to provide keyword arguments after a *args argument to a function call.

>>> def f(*args, **kw):
...     print args, kw
...
>>> f(1,2,3, *(4,5,6), keyword=13)
(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) {'keyword': 13}

Previously this would have been a syntax error. (Contributed by Amaury Forgeot d'Arc; bpo-3473 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3473].)

A new builtin, next(iterator, [default]) returns the next item from the specified iterator. If the default argument is supplied, it will be returned if iterator has been exhausted; otherwise, the StopIteration exception will be raised. (Backported in bpo-2719 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2719].)

Tuples now have index() and count() methods matching the list type's index() and count() methods:

>>> t = (0,1,2,3,4,0,1,2)
>>> t.index(3)
3
>>> t.count(0)
2

(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger)

The built-in types now have improved support for extended slicing syntax, accepting various combinations of (start, stop, step). Previously, the support was partial and certain corner cases wouldn't work. (Implemented by Thomas Wouters.)

Properties now have three attributes, getter, setter and deleter, that are decorators providing useful shortcuts for adding a getter, setter or deleter function to an existing property. You would use them like this:

class C(object):
    @property
    def x(self):
        return self._x

    @x.setter
    def x(self, value):
        self._x = value

    @x.deleter
    def x(self):
        del self._x

class D(C):
    @C.x.getter
    def x(self):
        return self._x * 2

    @x.setter
    def x(self, value):
        self._x = value / 2

Several methods of the built-in set types now accept multiple iterables: intersection(), intersection_update(), union(), update(), difference() and difference_update().

>>> s=set('1234567890')
>>> s.intersection('abc123', 'cdf246')  # Intersection between all inputs
set(['2'])
>>> s.difference('246', '789')
set(['1', '0', '3', '5'])

(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

Many floating-point features were added. The float() function will now turn the string nan into an IEEE 754 Not A Number value, and +inf and -inf into positive or negative infinity. This works on any platform with IEEE 754 semantics. (Contributed by Christian Heimes; bpo-1635 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635].)

Other functions in the math module, isinf() and isnan(), return true if their floating-point argument is infinite or Not A Number. (bpo-1640 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1640])

Conversion functions were added to convert floating-point numbers into hexadecimal strings (bpo-3008 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3008]). These functions convert floats to and from a string representation without introducing rounding errors from the conversion between decimal and binary. Floats have a hex() method that returns a string representation, and the float.fromhex() method converts a string back into a number:

>>> a = 3.75
>>> a.hex()
'0x1.e000000000000p+1'
>>> float.fromhex('0x1.e000000000000p+1')
3.75
>>> b=1./3
>>> b.hex()
'0x1.5555555555555p-2'

A numerical nicety: when creating a complex number from two floats on systems that support signed zeros (-0 and +0), the complex() constructor will now preserve the sign of the zero. (Fixed by Mark T. Dickinson; bpo-1507 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1507].)

Classes that inherit a __hash__() method from a parent class can set __hash__ = None to indicate that the class isn't hashable. This will make hash(obj) raise a TypeError and the class will not be indicated as implementing the Hashable ABC.

You should do this when you've defined a __cmp__() or __eq__() method that compares objects by their value rather than by identity. All objects have a default hash method that uses id(obj) as the hash value. There's no tidy way to remove the __hash__() method inherited from a parent class, so assigning None was implemented as an override. At the C level, extensions can set tp_hash to PyObject_HashNotImplemented(). (Fixed by Nick Coghlan and Amaury Forgeot d'Arc; bpo-2235 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2235].)

The GeneratorExit exception now subclasses BaseException instead of Exception. This means that an exception handler that does except Exception: will not inadvertently catch GeneratorExit. (Contributed by Chad Austin; bpo-1537 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1537].)

Generator objects now have a gi_code attribute that refers to the original code object backing the generator. (Contributed by Collin Winter; bpo-1473257 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1473257].)

The compile() built-in function now accepts keyword arguments as well as positional parameters. (Contributed by Thomas Wouters; bpo-1444529 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1444529].)

The complex() constructor now accepts strings containing parenthesized complex numbers, meaning that complex(repr(cplx)) will now round-trip values. For example, complex('(3+4j)') now returns the value (3+4j). (bpo-1491866 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1491866])

The string translate() method now accepts None as the translation table parameter, which is treated as the identity transformation. This makes it easier to carry out operations that only delete characters. (Contributed by Bengt Richter and implemented by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-1193128 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1193128].)

The built-in dir() function now checks for a __dir__() method on the objects it receives. This method must return a list of strings containing the names of valid attributes for the object, and lets the object control the value that dir() produces. Objects that have __getattr__() or __getattribute__() methods can use this to advertise pseudo-attributes they will honor. (bpo-1591665 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1591665])

Instance method objects have new attributes for the object and function comprising the method; the new synonym for im_self is __self__, and im_func is also available as __func__. The old names are still supported in Python 2.6, but are gone in 3.0.

An obscure change: when you use the locals() function inside a class statement, the resulting dictionary no longer returns free variables. (Free variables, in this case, are variables referenced in the class statement that aren't attributes of the class.)

Optimizations

The warnings module has been rewritten in C. This makes it possible to invoke warnings from the parser, and may also make the interpreter's startup faster. (Contributed by Neal Norwitz and Brett Cannon; bpo-1631171 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1631171].)

Type objects now have a cache of methods that can reduce the work required to find the correct method implementation for a particular class; once cached, the interpreter doesn't need to traverse base classes to figure out the right method to call. The cache is cleared if a base class or the class itself is modified, so the cache should remain correct even in the face of Python's dynamic nature. (Original optimization implemented by Armin Rigo, updated for Python 2.6 by Kevin Jacobs; bpo-1700288 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1700288].)

By default, this change is only applied to types that are included with the Python core. Extension modules may not necessarily be compatible with this cache, so they must explicitly add Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VERSION_TAG to the module's tp_flags field to enable the method cache. (To be compatible with the method cache, the extension module's code must not directly access and modify the tp_dict member of any of the types it implements. Most modules don't do this, but it's impossible for the Python interpreter to determine that. See bpo-1878 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1878] for some discussion.)

Function calls that use keyword arguments are significantly faster by doing a quick pointer comparison, usually saving the time of a full string comparison. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger, after an initial implementation by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-1819 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1819].)

All of the functions in the struct module have been rewritten in C, thanks to work at the Need For Speed sprint. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

Some of the standard built-in types now set a bit in their type objects. This speeds up checking whether an object is a subclass of one of these types. (Contributed by Neal Norwitz.)

Unicode strings now use faster code for detecting whitespace and line breaks; this speeds up the split() method by about 25% and splitlines() by 35%. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou.) Memory usage is reduced by using pymalloc for the Unicode string's data.

The with statement now stores the __exit__() method on the stack, producing a small speedup. (Implemented by Jeffrey Yasskin.)

To reduce memory usage, the garbage collector will now clear internal free lists when garbage-collecting the highest generation of objects. This may return memory to the operating system sooner.

Interpreter Changes

Two command-line options have been reserved for use by other Python implementations. The -J switch has been reserved for use by Jython for Jython-specific options, such as switches that are passed to the underlying JVM. -X has been reserved for options specific to a particular implementation of Python such as CPython, Jython, or IronPython. If either option is used with Python 2.6, the interpreter will report that the option isn't currently used.

Python can now be prevented from writing .pyc or .pyo files by supplying the -B switch to the Python interpreter, or by setting the PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE environment variable before running the interpreter. This setting is available to Python programs as the sys.dont_write_bytecode variable, and Python code can change the value to modify the interpreter's behaviour. (Contributed by Neal Norwitz and Georg Brandl.)

The encoding used for standard input, output, and standard error can be specified by setting the PYTHONIOENCODING environment variable before running the interpreter. The value should be a string in the form <encoding> or <encoding>:<errorhandler>. The encoding part specifies the encoding's name, e.g. utf-8 or latin-1; the optional errorhandler part specifies what to do with characters that can't be handled by the encoding, and should be one of "error", "ignore", or "replace". (Contributed by Martin von Löwis.)

New and Improved Modules

As in every release, Python's standard library received a number of enhancements and bug fixes. Here's a partial list of the most notable changes, sorted alphabetically by module name. Consult the Misc/NEWS file in the source tree for a more complete list of changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.

The asyncore and asynchat modules are being actively maintained again, and a number of patches and bugfixes were applied. (Maintained by Josiah Carlson; see bpo-1736190 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1736190] for one patch.)

The bsddb module also has a new maintainer, Jesús Cea Avión, and the package is now available as a standalone package. The web page for the package is www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm [https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm]. The plan is to remove the package from the standard library in Python 3.0, because its pace of releases is much more frequent than Python's.

The bsddb.dbshelve module now uses the highest pickling protocol available, instead of restricting itself to protocol 1. (Contributed by W. Barnes.)

The cgi module will now read variables from the query string of an HTTP POST request. This makes it possible to use form actions with URLs that include query strings such as "/cgi-bin/add.py?category=1". (Contributed by Alexandre Fiori and Nubis; bpo-1817 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1817].)

The parse_qs() and parse_qsl() functions have been relocated from the cgi module to the urlparse module. The versions still available in the cgi module will trigger PendingDeprecationWarning messages in 2.6 (bpo-600362 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=600362]).

The cmath module underwent extensive revision, contributed by Mark Dickinson and Christian Heimes. Five new functions were added:

polar() converts a complex number to polar form, returning the modulus and argument of the complex number.

rect() does the opposite, turning a modulus, argument pair back into the corresponding complex number.

phase() returns the argument (also called the angle) of a complex number.

isnan() returns True if either the real or imaginary part of its argument is a NaN.

isinf() returns True if either the real or imaginary part of its argument is infinite.

The revisions also improved the numerical soundness of the cmath module. For all functions, the real and imaginary parts of the results are accurate to within a few units of least precision (ulps) whenever possible. See bpo-1381 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1381] for the details. The branch cuts for asinh(), atanh(): and atan() have also been corrected.

The tests for the module have been greatly expanded; nearly 2000 new test cases exercise the algebraic functions.

On IEEE 754 platforms, the cmath module now handles IEEE 754 special values and floating-point exceptions in a manner consistent with Annex 'G' of the C99 standard.

A new data type in the collections module: namedtuple(typename, fieldnames) is a factory function that creates subclasses of the standard tuple whose fields are accessible by name as well as index. For example:

>>> var_type = collections.namedtuple('variable',
...             'id name type size')
>>> # Names are separated by spaces or commas.
>>> # 'id, name, type, size' would also work.
>>> var_type._fields
('id', 'name', 'type', 'size')

>>> var = var_type(1, 'frequency', 'int', 4)
>>> print var[0], var.id    # Equivalent
1 1
>>> print var[2], var.type  # Equivalent
int int
>>> var._asdict()
{'size': 4, 'type': 'int', 'id': 1, 'name': 'frequency'}
>>> v2 = var._replace(name='amplitude')
>>> v2
variable(id=1, name='amplitude', type='int', size=4)

Several places in the standard library that returned tuples have been modified to return namedtuple() instances. For example, the Decimal.as_tuple() method now returns a named tuple with sign, digits, and exponent fields.

(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

Another change to the collections module is that the deque type now supports an optional maxlen parameter; if supplied, the deque's size will be restricted to no more than maxlen items. Adding more items to a full deque causes old items to be discarded.

>>> from collections import deque
>>> dq=deque(maxlen=3)
>>> dq
deque([], maxlen=3)
>>> dq.append(1); dq.append(2); dq.append(3)
>>> dq
deque([1, 2, 3], maxlen=3)
>>> dq.append(4)
>>> dq
deque([2, 3, 4], maxlen=3)

(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

The Cookie module's Morsel objects now support an httponly attribute. In some browsers. cookies with this attribute set cannot be accessed or manipulated by JavaScript code. (Contributed by Arvin Schnell; bpo-1638033 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1638033].)

A new window method in the curses module, chgat(), changes the display attributes for a certain number of characters on a single line. (Contributed by Fabian Kreutz.)

# Boldface text starting at y=0,x=21
# and affecting the rest of the line.
stdscr.chgat(0, 21, curses.A_BOLD)

The Textbox class in the curses.textpad module now supports editing in insert mode as well as overwrite mode. Insert mode is enabled by supplying a true value for the insert_mode parameter when creating the Textbox instance.

The datetime module's strftime() methods now support a %f format code that expands to the number of microseconds in the object, zero-padded on the left to six places. (Contributed by Skip Montanaro; bpo-1158 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1158].)

The decimal module was updated to version 1.66 of the General Decimal Specification [https://speleotrove.com/decimal/decarith.html]. New features include some methods for some basic mathematical functions such as exp() and log10():

>>> Decimal(1).exp()
Decimal("2.718281828459045235360287471")
>>> Decimal("2.7182818").ln()
Decimal("0.9999999895305022877376682436")
>>> Decimal(1000).log10()
Decimal("3")

The as_tuple() method of Decimal objects now returns a named tuple with sign, digits, and exponent fields.

(Implemented by Facundo Batista and Mark Dickinson. Named tuple support added by Raymond Hettinger.)

The difflib module's SequenceMatcher class now returns named tuples representing matches, with a, b, and size attributes. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

An optional timeout parameter, specifying a timeout measured in seconds, was added to the ftplib.FTP class constructor as well as the connect() method. (Added by Facundo Batista.) Also, the FTP class's storbinary() and storlines() now take an optional callback parameter that will be called with each block of data after the data has been sent. (Contributed by Phil Schwartz; bpo-1221598 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1221598].)

The reduce() built-in function is also available in the functools module. In Python 3.0, the builtin has been dropped and reduce() is only available from functools; currently there are no plans to drop the builtin in the 2.x series. (Patched by Christian Heimes; bpo-1739906 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1739906].)

When possible, the getpass module will now use /dev/tty to print a prompt message and read the password, falling back to standard error and standard input. If the password may be echoed to the terminal, a warning is printed before the prompt is displayed. (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith.)

The glob.glob() function can now return Unicode filenames if a Unicode path was used and Unicode filenames are matched within the directory. (bpo-1001604 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1001604])

A new function in the heapq module, merge(iter1, iter2, ...), takes any number of iterables returning data in sorted order, and returns a new generator that returns the contents of all the iterators, also in sorted order. For example:

>>> list(heapq.merge([1, 3, 5, 9], [2, 8, 16]))
[1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 9, 16]

Another new function, heappushpop(heap, item), pushes item onto heap, then pops off and returns the smallest item. This is more efficient than making a call to heappush() and then heappop().

heapq is now implemented to only use less-than comparison, instead of the less-than-or-equal comparison it previously used. This makes heapq's usage of a type match the list.sort() method. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

An optional timeout parameter, specifying a timeout measured in seconds, was added to the httplib.HTTPConnection and HTTPSConnection class constructors. (Added by Facundo Batista.)

Most of the inspect module's functions, such as getmoduleinfo() and getargs(), now return named tuples. In addition to behaving like tuples, the elements of the return value can also be accessed as attributes. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

Some new functions in the module include isgenerator(), isgeneratorfunction(), and isabstract().

The itertools module gained several new functions.

izip_longest(iter1, iter2, ...[, fillvalue]) makes tuples from each of the elements; if some of the iterables are shorter than others, the missing values are set to fillvalue. For example:

>>> tuple(itertools.izip_longest([1,2,3], [1,2,3,4,5]))
((1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (None, 4), (None, 5))

product(iter1, iter2, ..., [repeat=N]) returns the Cartesian product of the supplied iterables, a set of tuples containing every possible combination of the elements returned from each iterable.

>>> list(itertools.product([1,2,3], [4,5,6]))
[(1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6),
 (2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6),
 (3, 4), (3, 5), (3, 6)]

The optional repeat keyword argument is used for taking the product of an iterable or a set of iterables with themselves, repeated N times. With a single iterable argument, N-tuples are returned:

>>> list(itertools.product([1,2], repeat=3))
[(1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 2), (1, 2, 1), (1, 2, 2),
 (2, 1, 1), (2, 1, 2), (2, 2, 1), (2, 2, 2)]

With two iterables, 2N-tuples are returned.

>>> list(itertools.product([1,2], [3,4], repeat=2))
[(1, 3, 1, 3), (1, 3, 1, 4), (1, 3, 2, 3), (1, 3, 2, 4),
 (1, 4, 1, 3), (1, 4, 1, 4), (1, 4, 2, 3), (1, 4, 2, 4),
 (2, 3, 1, 3), (2, 3, 1, 4), (2, 3, 2, 3), (2, 3, 2, 4),
 (2, 4, 1, 3), (2, 4, 1, 4), (2, 4, 2, 3), (2, 4, 2, 4)]

combinations(iterable, r) returns sub-sequences of length r from the elements of iterable.

>>> list(itertools.combinations('123', 2))
[('1', '2'), ('1', '3'), ('2', '3')]
>>> list(itertools.combinations('123', 3))
[('1', '2', '3')]
>>> list(itertools.combinations('1234', 3))
[('1', '2', '3'), ('1', '2', '4'),
 ('1', '3', '4'), ('2', '3', '4')]

permutations(iter[, r]) returns all the permutations of length r of the iterable's elements. If r is not specified, it will default to the number of elements produced by the iterable.

>>> list(itertools.permutations([1,2,3,4], 2))
[(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4),
 (2, 1), (2, 3), (2, 4),
 (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 4),
 (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3)]

itertools.chain(*iterables) is an existing function in itertools that gained a new constructor in Python 2.6. itertools.chain.from_iterable(iterable) takes a single iterable that should return other iterables. chain() will then return all the elements of the first iterable, then all the elements of the second, and so on.

>>> list(itertools.chain.from_iterable([[1,2,3], [4,5,6]]))
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]

(All contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

The logging module's FileHandler class and its subclasses WatchedFileHandler, RotatingFileHandler, and TimedRotatingFileHandler now have an optional delay parameter to their constructors. If delay is true, opening of the log file is deferred until the first emit() call is made. (Contributed by Vinay Sajip.)

TimedRotatingFileHandler also has a utc constructor parameter. If the argument is true, UTC time will be used in determining when midnight occurs and in generating filenames; otherwise local time will be used.

Several new functions were added to the math module:

isinf() and isnan() determine whether a given float is a (positive or negative) infinity or a NaN (Not a Number), respectively.

copysign() copies the sign bit of an IEEE 754 number, returning the absolute value of x combined with the sign bit of y. For example, math.copysign(1, -0.0) returns -1.0. (Contributed by Christian Heimes.)

factorial() computes the factorial of a number. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-2138 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2138].)

fsum() adds up the stream of numbers from an iterable, and is careful to avoid loss of precision through using partial sums. (Contributed by Jean Brouwers, Raymond Hettinger, and Mark Dickinson; bpo-2819 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2819].)

acosh(), asinh() and atanh() compute the inverse hyperbolic functions.

log1p() returns the natural logarithm of 1+x (base e).

trunc() rounds a number toward zero, returning the closest Integral that's between the function's argument and zero. Added as part of the backport of PEP 3141's type hierarchy for numbers.

The math module has been improved to give more consistent behaviour across platforms, especially with respect to handling of floating-point exceptions and IEEE 754 special values.

Whenever possible, the module follows the recommendations of the C99 standard about 754's special values. For example, sqrt(-1.) should now give a ValueError across almost all platforms, while sqrt(float('NaN')) should return a NaN on all IEEE 754 platforms. Where Annex 'F' of the C99 standard recommends signaling 'divide-by-zero' or 'invalid', Python will raise ValueError. Where Annex 'F' of the C99 standard recommends signaling 'overflow', Python will raise OverflowError. (See bpo-711019 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=711019] and bpo-1640 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1640].)

(Contributed by Christian Heimes and Mark Dickinson.)

mmap objects now have a rfind() method that searches for a substring beginning at the end of the string and searching backwards. The find() method also gained an end parameter giving an index at which to stop searching. (Contributed by John Lenton.)

The operator module gained a methodcaller() function that takes a name and an optional set of arguments, returning a callable that will call the named function on any arguments passed to it. For example:

>>> # Equivalent to lambda s: s.replace('old', 'new')
>>> replacer = operator.methodcaller('replace', 'old', 'new')
>>> replacer('old wine in old bottles')
'new wine in new bottles'

(Contributed by Georg Brandl, after a suggestion by Gregory Petrosyan.)

The attrgetter() function now accepts dotted names and performs the corresponding attribute lookups:

>>> inst_name = operator.attrgetter(
...        '__class__.__name__')
>>> inst_name('')
'str'
>>> inst_name(help)
'_Helper'

(Contributed by Georg Brandl, after a suggestion by Barry Warsaw.)

The os module now wraps several new system calls. fchmod(fd, mode) and fchown(fd, uid, gid) change the mode and ownership of an opened file, and lchmod(path, mode) changes the mode of a symlink. (Contributed by Georg Brandl and Christian Heimes.)

chflags() and lchflags() are wrappers for the corresponding system calls (where they're available), changing the flags set on a file. Constants for the flag values are defined in the stat module; some possible values include UF_IMMUTABLE to signal the file may not be changed and UF_APPEND to indicate that data can only be appended to the file. (Contributed by M. Levinson.)

os.closerange(low, high) efficiently closes all file descriptors from low to high, ignoring any errors and not including high itself. This function is now used by the subprocess module to make starting processes faster. (Contributed by Georg Brandl; bpo-1663329 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1663329].)

The os.environ object's clear() method will now unset the environment variables using os.unsetenv() in addition to clearing the object's keys. (Contributed by Martin Horcicka; bpo-1181 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1181].)

The os.walk() function now has a followlinks parameter. If set to True, it will follow symlinks pointing to directories and visit the directory's contents. For backward compatibility, the parameter's default value is false. Note that the function can fall into an infinite recursion if there's a symlink that points to a parent directory. (bpo-1273829 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1273829])

In the os.path module, the splitext() function has been changed to not split on leading period characters. This produces better results when operating on Unix's dot-files. For example, os.path.splitext('.ipython') now returns ('.ipython', '') instead of ('', '.ipython'). (bpo-1115886 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1115886])

A new function, os.path.relpath(path, start='.'), returns a relative path from the start path, if it's supplied, or from the current working directory to the destination path. (Contributed by Richard Barran; bpo-1339796 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1339796].)

On Windows, os.path.expandvars() will now expand environment variables given in the form "%var%", and "~user" will be expanded into the user's home directory path. (Contributed by Josiah Carlson; bpo-957650 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=957650].)

The Python debugger provided by the pdb module gained a new command: "run" restarts the Python program being debugged and can optionally take new command-line arguments for the program. (Contributed by Rocky Bernstein; bpo-1393667 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1393667].)

The pdb.post_mortem() function, used to begin debugging a traceback, will now use the traceback returned by sys.exc_info() if no traceback is supplied. (Contributed by Facundo Batista; bpo-1106316 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1106316].)

The pickletools module now has an optimize() function that takes a string containing a pickle and removes some unused opcodes, returning a shorter pickle that contains the same data structure. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

A get_data() function was added to the pkgutil module that returns the contents of resource files included with an installed Python package. For example:

>>> import pkgutil
>>> print pkgutil.get_data('test', 'exception_hierarchy.txt')
BaseException
 +-- SystemExit
 +-- KeyboardInterrupt
 +-- GeneratorExit
 +-- Exception
      +-- StopIteration
      +-- StandardError
 ...

(Contributed by Paul Moore; bpo-2439 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2439].)

The pyexpat module's Parser objects now allow setting their buffer_size attribute to change the size of the buffer used to hold character data. (Contributed by Achim Gaedke; bpo-1137 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1137].)

The Queue module now provides queue variants that retrieve entries in different orders. The PriorityQueue class stores queued items in a heap and retrieves them in priority order, and LifoQueue retrieves the most recently added entries first, meaning that it behaves like a stack. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

The random module's Random objects can now be pickled on a 32-bit system and unpickled on a 64-bit system, and vice versa. Unfortunately, this change also means that Python 2.6's Random objects can't be unpickled correctly on earlier versions of Python. (Contributed by Shawn Ligocki; bpo-1727780 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1727780].)

The new triangular(low, high, mode) function returns random numbers following a triangular distribution. The returned values are between low and high, not including high itself, and with mode as the most frequently occurring value in the distribution. (Contributed by Wladmir van der Laan and Raymond Hettinger; bpo-1681432 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1681432].)

Long regular expression searches carried out by the re module will check for signals being delivered, so time-consuming searches can now be interrupted. (Contributed by Josh Hoyt and Ralf Schmitt; bpo-846388 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=846388].)

The regular expression module is implemented by compiling bytecodes for a tiny regex-specific virtual machine. Untrusted code could create malicious strings of bytecode directly and cause crashes, so Python 2.6 includes a verifier for the regex bytecode. (Contributed by Guido van Rossum from work for Google App Engine; bpo-3487 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3487].)

The rlcompleter module's Completer.complete() method will now ignore exceptions triggered while evaluating a name. (Fixed by Lorenz Quack; bpo-2250 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2250].)

The sched module's scheduler instances now have a read-only queue attribute that returns the contents of the scheduler's queue, represented as a list of named tuples with the fields (time, priority, action, argument). (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-1861 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1861].)

The select module now has wrapper functions for the Linux epoll() and BSD kqueue() system calls. modify() method was added to the existing poll objects; pollobj.modify(fd, eventmask) takes a file descriptor or file object and an event mask, modifying the recorded event mask for that file. (Contributed by Christian Heimes; bpo-1657 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1657].)

The shutil.copytree() function now has an optional ignore argument that takes a callable object. This callable will receive each directory path and a list of the directory's contents, and returns a list of names that will be ignored, not copied.

The shutil module also provides an ignore_patterns() function for use with this new parameter. ignore_patterns() takes an arbitrary number of glob-style patterns and returns a callable that will ignore any files and directories that match any of these patterns. The following example copies a directory tree, but skips both .svn directories and Emacs backup files, which have names ending with '~':

shutil.copytree('Doc/library', '/tmp/library',
                ignore=shutil.ignore_patterns('*~', '.svn'))

(Contribution par Tarek Ziadé; bpo-2663 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2663].)

Integrating signal handling with GUI handling event loops like those used by Tkinter or GTk+ has long been a problem; most software ends up polling, waking up every fraction of a second to check if any GUI events have occurred. The signal module can now make this more efficient. Calling signal.set_wakeup_fd(fd) sets a file descriptor to be used; when a signal is received, a byte is written to that file descriptor. There's also a C-level function, PySignal_SetWakeupFd(), for setting the descriptor.

Event loops will use this by opening a pipe to create two descriptors, one for reading and one for writing. The writable descriptor will be passed to set_wakeup_fd(), and the readable descriptor will be added to the list of descriptors monitored by the event loop via select() or poll(). On receiving a signal, a byte will be written and the main event loop will be woken up, avoiding the need to poll.

(Contributed by Adam Olsen; bpo-1583 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1583].)

The siginterrupt() function is now available from Python code, and allows changing whether signals can interrupt system calls or not. (Contributed by Ralf Schmitt.)

The setitimer() and getitimer() functions have also been added (where they're available). setitimer() allows setting interval timers that will cause a signal to be delivered to the process after a specified time, measured in wall-clock time, consumed process time, or combined process+system time. (Contributed by Guilherme Polo; bpo-2240 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2240].)

The smtplib module now supports SMTP over SSL thanks to the addition of the SMTP_SSL class. This class supports an interface identical to the existing SMTP class. (Contributed by Monty Taylor.) Both class constructors also have an optional timeout parameter that specifies a timeout for the initial connection attempt, measured in seconds. (Contributed by Facundo Batista.)

An implementation of the LMTP protocol (RFC 2033 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2033.html]) was also added to the module. LMTP is used in place of SMTP when transferring e-mail between agents that don't manage a mail queue. (LMTP implemented by Leif Hedstrom; bpo-957003 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=957003].)

SMTP.starttls() now complies with RFC 3207 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3207.html] and forgets any knowledge obtained from the server not obtained from the TLS negotiation itself. (Patch contributed by Bill Fenner; bpo-829951 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=829951].)

The socket module now supports TIPC (https://tipc.sourceforge.net/), a high-performance non-IP-based protocol designed for use in clustered environments. TIPC addresses are 4- or 5-tuples. (Contributed by Alberto Bertogli; bpo-1646 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1646].)

A new function, create_connection(), takes an address and connects to it using an optional timeout value, returning the connected socket object. This function also looks up the address's type and connects to it using IPv4 or IPv6 as appropriate. Changing your code to use create_connection() instead of socket(socket.AF_INET, ...) may be all that's required to make your code work with IPv6.

The base classes in the SocketServer module now support calling a handle_timeout() method after a span of inactivity specified by the server's timeout attribute. (Contributed by Michael Pomraning.) The serve_forever() method now takes an optional poll interval measured in seconds, controlling how often the server will check for a shutdown request. (Contributed by Pedro Werneck and Jeffrey Yasskin; bpo-742598 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=742598], bpo-1193577 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1193577].)

The sqlite3 module, maintained by Gerhard Häring, has been updated from version 2.3.2 in Python 2.5 to version 2.4.1.

The struct module now supports the C99 _Bool type, using the format character '?'. (Contributed by David Remahl.)

The Popen objects provided by the subprocess module now have terminate(), kill(), and send_signal() methods. On Windows, send_signal() only supports the SIGTERM signal, and all these methods are aliases for the Win32 API function TerminateProcess(). (Contributed by Christian Heimes.)

A new variable in the sys module, float_info, is an object containing information derived from the float.h file about the platform's floating-point support. Attributes of this object include mant_dig (number of digits in the mantissa), epsilon (smallest difference between 1.0 and the next largest value representable), and several others. (Contributed by Christian Heimes; bpo-1534 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1534].)

Another new variable, dont_write_bytecode, controls whether Python writes any .pyc or .pyo files on importing a module. If this variable is true, the compiled files are not written. The variable is initially set on start-up by supplying the -B switch to the Python interpreter, or by setting the PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE environment variable before running the interpreter. Python code can subsequently change the value of this variable to control whether bytecode files are written or not. (Contributed by Neal Norwitz and Georg Brandl.)

Information about the command-line arguments supplied to the Python interpreter is available by reading attributes of a named tuple available as sys.flags. For example, the verbose attribute is true if Python was executed in verbose mode, debug is true in debugging mode, etc. These attributes are all read-only. (Contributed by Christian Heimes.)

A new function, getsizeof(), takes a Python object and returns the amount of memory used by the object, measured in bytes. Built-in objects return correct results; third-party extensions may not, but can define a __sizeof__() method to return the object's size. (Contributed by Robert Schuppenies; bpo-2898 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2898].)

It's now possible to determine the current profiler and tracer functions by calling sys.getprofile() and sys.gettrace(). (Contributed by Georg Brandl; bpo-1648 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1648].)

The tarfile module now supports POSIX.1-2001 (pax) tarfiles in addition to the POSIX.1-1988 (ustar) and GNU tar formats that were already supported. The default format is GNU tar; specify the format parameter to open a file using a different format:

tar = tarfile.open("output.tar", "w",
                   format=tarfile.PAX_FORMAT)

The new encoding and errors parameters specify an encoding and an error handling scheme for character conversions. 'strict', 'ignore', and 'replace' are the three standard ways Python can handle errors,; 'utf-8' is a special value that replaces bad characters with their UTF-8 representation. (Character conversions occur because the PAX format supports Unicode filenames, defaulting to UTF-8 encoding.)

The TarFile.add() method now accepts an exclude argument that's a function that can be used to exclude certain filenames from an archive. The function must take a filename and return true if the file should be excluded or false if it should be archived. The function is applied to both the name initially passed to add() and to the names of files in recursively added directories.

(All changes contributed by Lars Gustäbel).

An optional timeout parameter was added to the telnetlib.Telnet class constructor, specifying a timeout measured in seconds. (Added by Facundo Batista.)

The tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile class usually deletes the temporary file it created when the file is closed. This behaviour can now be changed by passing delete=False to the constructor. (Contributed by Damien Miller; bpo-1537850 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1537850].)

A new class, SpooledTemporaryFile, behaves like a temporary file but stores its data in memory until a maximum size is exceeded. On reaching that limit, the contents will be written to an on-disk temporary file. (Contributed by Dustin J. Mitchell.)

The NamedTemporaryFile and SpooledTemporaryFile classes both work as context managers, so you can write with tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile() as tmp: .... (Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky; bpo-2021 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2021].)

The test.test_support module gained a number of context managers useful for writing tests. EnvironmentVarGuard() is a context manager that temporarily changes environment variables and automatically restores them to their old values.

Another context manager, TransientResource, can surround calls to resources that may or may not be available; it will catch and ignore a specified list of exceptions. For example, a network test may ignore certain failures when connecting to an external web site:

with test_support.TransientResource(IOError,
                                errno=errno.ETIMEDOUT):
    f = urllib.urlopen('https://sf.net')
    ...

Finally, check_warnings() resets the warning module's warning filters and returns an object that will record all warning messages triggered (bpo-3781 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3781]):

with test_support.check_warnings() as wrec:
    warnings.simplefilter("always")
    # ... code that triggers a warning ...
    assert str(wrec.message) == "function is outdated"
    assert len(wrec.warnings) == 1, "Multiple warnings raised"

(Contributed by Brett Cannon.)

The textwrap module can now preserve existing whitespace at the beginnings and ends of the newly created lines by specifying drop_whitespace=False as an argument:

>>> S = """This  sentence  has a bunch   of
...   extra   whitespace."""
>>> print textwrap.fill(S, width=15)
This  sentence
has a bunch
of    extra
whitespace.
>>> print textwrap.fill(S, drop_whitespace=False, width=15)
This  sentence
  has a bunch
   of    extra
   whitespace.
>>>

(Contributed by Dwayne Bailey; bpo-1581073 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1581073].)

The threading module API is being changed to use properties such as daemon instead of setDaemon() and isDaemon() methods, and some methods have been renamed to use underscores instead of camel-case; for example, the activeCount() method is renamed to active_count(). Both the 2.6 and 3.0 versions of the module support the same properties and renamed methods, but don't remove the old methods. No date has been set for the deprecation of the old APIs in Python 3.x; the old APIs won't be removed in any 2.x version. (Carried out by several people, most notably Benjamin Peterson.)

The threading module's Thread objects gained an ident property that returns the thread's identifier, a nonzero integer. (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith; bpo-2871 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2871].)

The timeit module now accepts callables as well as strings for the statement being timed and for the setup code. Two convenience functions were added for creating Timer instances: repeat(stmt, setup, time, repeat, number) and timeit(stmt, setup, time, number) create an instance and call the corresponding method. (Contributed by Erik Demaine; bpo-1533909 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1533909].)

The Tkinter module now accepts lists and tuples for options, separating the elements by spaces before passing the resulting value to Tcl/Tk. (Contributed by Guilherme Polo; bpo-2906 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2906].)

The turtle module for turtle graphics was greatly enhanced by Gregor Lingl. New features in the module include:

Better animation of turtle movement and rotation.

Control over turtle movement using the new delay(), tracer(), and speed() methods.

The ability to set new shapes for the turtle, and to define a new coordinate system.

Turtles now have an undo() method that can roll back actions.

Simple support for reacting to input events such as mouse and keyboard activity, making it possible to write simple games.

A turtle.cfg file can be used to customize the starting appearance of the turtle's screen.

The module's docstrings can be replaced by new docstrings that have been translated into another language.

(bpo-1513695 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1513695])

An optional timeout parameter was added to the urllib.urlopen function and the urllib.ftpwrapper class constructor, as well as the urllib2.urlopen function. The parameter specifies a timeout measured in seconds. For example:

>>> u = urllib2.urlopen("http://slow.example.com",
                        timeout=3)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
urllib2.URLError: <urlopen error timed out>
>>>

(Added by Facundo Batista.)

The Unicode database provided by the unicodedata module has been updated to version 5.1.0. (Updated by Martin von Löwis; bpo-3811 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3811].)

The warnings module's formatwarning() and showwarning() gained an optional line argument that can be used to supply the line of source code. (Added as part of bpo-1631171 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1631171], which re-implemented part of the warnings module in C code.)

A new function, catch_warnings(), is a context manager intended for testing purposes that lets you temporarily modify the warning filters and then restore their original values (bpo-3781 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3781]).

The XML-RPC SimpleXMLRPCServer and DocXMLRPCServer classes can now be prevented from immediately opening and binding to their socket by passing False as the bind_and_activate constructor parameter. This can be used to modify the instance's allow_reuse_address attribute before calling the server_bind() and server_activate() methods to open the socket and begin listening for connections. (Contributed by Peter Parente; bpo-1599845 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1599845].)

SimpleXMLRPCServer also has a _send_traceback_header attribute; if true, the exception and formatted traceback are returned as HTTP headers "X-Exception" and "X-Traceback". This feature is for debugging purposes only and should not be used on production servers because the tracebacks might reveal passwords or other sensitive information. (Contributed by Alan McIntyre as part of his project for Google's Summer of Code 2007.)

The xmlrpclib module no longer automatically converts datetime.date and datetime.time to the xmlrpclib.DateTime type; the conversion semantics were not necessarily correct for all applications. Code using xmlrpclib should convert date and time instances. (bpo-1330538 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1330538]) The code can also handle dates before 1900 (contributed by Ralf Schmitt; bpo-2014 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2014]) and 64-bit integers represented by using <i8> in XML-RPC responses (contributed by Riku Lindblad; bpo-2985 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2985]).

The zipfile module's ZipFile class now has extract() and extractall() methods that will unpack a single file or all the files in the archive to the current directory, or to a specified directory:

z = zipfile.ZipFile('python-251.zip')

# Unpack a single file, writing it relative
# to the /tmp directory.
z.extract('Python/sysmodule.c', '/tmp')

# Unpack all the files in the archive.
z.extractall()

(Contributed by Alan McIntyre; bpo-467924 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=467924].)

The open(), read() and extract() methods can now take either a filename or a ZipInfo object. This is useful when an archive accidentally contains a duplicated filename. (Contributed by Graham Horler; bpo-1775025 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1775025].)

Finally, zipfile now supports using Unicode filenames for archived files. (Contributed by Alexey Borzenkov; bpo-1734346 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1734346].)

The ast module

The ast module provides an Abstract Syntax Tree representation of Python code, and Armin Ronacher contributed a set of helper functions that perform a variety of common tasks. These will be useful for HTML templating packages, code analyzers, and similar tools that process Python code.

The parse() function takes an expression and returns an AST. The dump() function outputs a representation of a tree, suitable for debugging:

import ast

t = ast.parse("""
d = {}
for i in 'abcdefghijklm':
    d[i + i] = ord(i) - ord('a') + 1
print d
""")
print ast.dump(t)

This outputs a deeply nested tree:

Module(body=[
  Assign(targets=[
    Name(id='d', ctx=Store())
   ], value=Dict(keys=[], values=[]))
  For(target=Name(id='i', ctx=Store()),
      iter=Str(s='abcdefghijklm'), body=[
    Assign(targets=[
      Subscript(value=
        Name(id='d', ctx=Load()),
          slice=
          Index(value=
            BinOp(left=Name(id='i', ctx=Load()), op=Add(),
             right=Name(id='i', ctx=Load()))), ctx=Store())
     ], value=
     BinOp(left=
      BinOp(left=
       Call(func=
        Name(id='ord', ctx=Load()), args=[
          Name(id='i', ctx=Load())
         ], keywords=[], starargs=None, kwargs=None),
       op=Sub(), right=Call(func=
        Name(id='ord', ctx=Load()), args=[
          Str(s='a')
         ], keywords=[], starargs=None, kwargs=None)),
       op=Add(), right=Num(n=1)))
    ], orelse=[])
   Print(dest=None, values=[
     Name(id='d', ctx=Load())
   ], nl=True)
 ])

The literal_eval() method takes a string or an AST representing a literal expression, parses and evaluates it, and returns the resulting value. A literal expression is a Python expression containing only strings, numbers, dictionaries, etc. but no statements or function calls. If you need to evaluate an expression but cannot accept the security risk of using an eval() call, literal_eval() will handle it safely:

>>> literal = '("a", "b", {2:4, 3:8, 1:2})'
>>> print ast.literal_eval(literal)
('a', 'b', {1: 2, 2: 4, 3: 8})
>>> print ast.literal_eval('"a" + "b"')
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
ValueError: malformed string

The module also includes NodeVisitor and NodeTransformer classes for traversing and modifying an AST, and functions for common transformations such as changing line numbers.

The future_builtins module

Python 3.0 makes many changes to the repertoire of built-in functions, and most of the changes can't be introduced in the Python 2.x series because they would break compatibility. The future_builtins module provides versions of these built-in functions that can be imported when writing 3.0-compatible code.

The functions in this module currently include:

ascii(obj): equivalent to repr(). In Python 3.0, repr() will return a Unicode string, while ascii() will return a pure ASCII bytestring.

filter(predicate, iterable), map(func, iterable1, ...): the 3.0 versions return iterators, unlike the 2.x builtins which return lists.

hex(value), oct(value): instead of calling the __hex__() or __oct__() methods, these versions will call the __index__() method and convert the result to hexadecimal or octal. oct() will use the new 0o notation for its result.

The json module: JavaScript Object Notation

The new json module supports the encoding and decoding of Python types in JSON (Javascript Object Notation). JSON is a lightweight interchange format often used in web applications. For more information about JSON, see http://www.json.org.

json comes with support for decoding and encoding most built-in Python types. The following example encodes and decodes a dictionary:

>>> import json
>>> data = {"spam": "foo", "parrot": 42}
>>> in_json = json.dumps(data) # Encode the data
>>> in_json
'{"parrot": 42, "spam": "foo"}'
>>> json.loads(in_json) # Decode into a Python object
{"spam": "foo", "parrot": 42}

It's also possible to write your own decoders and encoders to support more types. Pretty-printing of the JSON strings is also supported.

json (originally called simplejson) was written by Bob Ippolito.

The plistlib module: A Property-List Parser

The .plist format is commonly used on Mac OS X to store basic data types (numbers, strings, lists, and dictionaries) by serializing them into an XML-based format. It resembles the XML-RPC serialization of data types.

Despite being primarily used on Mac OS X, the format has nothing Mac-specific about it and the Python implementation works on any platform that Python supports, so the plistlib module has been promoted to the standard library.

Using the module is simple:

import sys
import plistlib
import datetime as dt

# Create data structure
data_struct = dict(lastAccessed=dt.datetime.now(),
                   version=1,
                   categories=('Personal','Shared','Private'))

# Create string containing XML.
plist_str = plistlib.writePlistToString(data_struct)
new_struct = plistlib.readPlistFromString(plist_str)
print data_struct
print new_struct

# Write data structure to a file and read it back.
plistlib.writePlist(data_struct, '/tmp/customizations.plist')
new_struct = plistlib.readPlist('/tmp/customizations.plist')

# read/writePlist accepts file-like objects as well as paths.
plistlib.writePlist(data_struct, sys.stdout)

ctypes Enhancements

Thomas Heller continued to maintain and enhance the ctypes module.

ctypes now supports a c_bool datatype that represents the C99 bool type. (Contributed by David Remahl; bpo-1649190 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1649190].)

The ctypes string, buffer and array types have improved support for extended slicing syntax, where various combinations of (start, stop, step) are supplied. (Implemented by Thomas Wouters.)

All ctypes data types now support from_buffer() and from_buffer_copy() methods that create a ctypes instance based on a provided buffer object. from_buffer_copy() copies the contents of the object, while from_buffer() will share the same memory area.

A new calling convention tells ctypes to clear the errno or Win32 LastError variables at the outset of each wrapped call. (Implemented by Thomas Heller; bpo-1798 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1798].)

You can now retrieve the Unix errno variable after a function call. When creating a wrapped function, you can supply use_errno=True as a keyword parameter to the DLL() function and then call the module-level methods set_errno() and get_errno() to set and retrieve the error value.

The Win32 LastError variable is similarly supported by the DLL(), OleDLL(), and WinDLL() functions. You supply use_last_error=True as a keyword parameter and then call the module-level methods set_last_error() and get_last_error().

The byref() function, used to retrieve a pointer to a ctypes instance, now has an optional offset parameter that is a byte count that will be added to the returned pointer.

Improved SSL Support

Bill Janssen made extensive improvements to Python 2.6's support for the Secure Sockets Layer by adding a new module, ssl, that's built atop the OpenSSL [https://www.openssl.org/] library. This new module provides more control over the protocol negotiated, the X.509 certificates used, and has better support for writing SSL servers (as opposed to clients) in Python. The existing SSL support in the socket module hasn't been removed and continues to work, though it will be removed in Python 3.0.

To use the new module, you must first create a TCP connection in the usual way and then pass it to the ssl.wrap_socket() function. It's possible to specify whether a certificate is required, and to obtain certificate info by calling the getpeercert() method.

Voir aussi

The documentation for the ssl module.

Deprecations and Removals

String exceptions have been removed. Attempting to use them raises a TypeError.

Changes to the Exception interface as dictated by PEP 352 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0352/] continue to be made. For 2.6, the message attribute is being deprecated in favor of the args attribute.

(3.0-warning mode) Python 3.0 will feature a reorganized standard library that will drop many outdated modules and rename others. Python 2.6 running in 3.0-warning mode will warn about these modules when they are imported.

The list of deprecated modules is: audiodev, bgenlocations, buildtools, bundlebuilder, Canvas, compiler, dircache, dl, fpformat, gensuitemodule, ihooks, imageop, imgfile, linuxaudiodev, mhlib, mimetools, multifile, new, pure, statvfs, sunaudiodev, test.testall, and toaiff.

The gopherlib module has been removed.

The MimeWriter module and mimify module have been deprecated; use the email package instead.

The md5 module has been deprecated; use the hashlib module instead.

The posixfile module has been deprecated; fcntl.lockf() provides better locking.

The popen2 module has been deprecated; use the subprocess module.

The rgbimg module has been removed.

The sets module has been deprecated; it's better to use the built-in set and frozenset types.

The sha module has been deprecated; use the hashlib module instead.

Build and C API Changes

Changes to Python's build process and to the C API include:

Python now must be compiled with C89 compilers (after 19 years!). This means that the Python source tree has dropped its own implementations of memmove() and strerror(), which are in the C89 standard library.

Python 2.6 can be built with Microsoft Visual Studio 2008 (version 9.0), and this is the new default compiler. See the PCbuild directory for the build files. (Implemented by Christian Heimes.)

On Mac OS X, Python 2.6 can be compiled as a 4-way universal build. The configure script can take a --with-universal-archs=[32-bit|64-bit|all] switch, controlling whether the binaries are built for 32-bit architectures (x86, PowerPC), 64-bit (x86-64 and PPC-64), or both. (Contributed by Ronald Oussoren.)

A new function added in Python 2.6.6, PySys_SetArgvEx(), sets the value of sys.argv and can optionally update sys.path to include the directory containing the script named by sys.argv[0] depending on the value of an updatepath parameter.

This function was added to close a security hole for applications that embed Python. The old function, PySys_SetArgv(), would always update sys.path, and sometimes it would add the current directory. This meant that, if you ran an application embedding Python in a directory controlled by someone else, attackers could put a Trojan-horse module in the directory (say, a file named os.py) that your application would then import and run.

If you maintain a C/C++ application that embeds Python, check whether you're calling PySys_SetArgv() and carefully consider whether the application should be using PySys_SetArgvEx() with updatepath set to false. Note that using this function will break compatibility with Python versions 2.6.5 and earlier; if you have to continue working with earlier versions, you can leave the call to PySys_SetArgv() alone and call PyRun_SimpleString("sys.path.pop(0)\n") afterwards to discard the first sys.path component.

Security issue reported as CVE 2008-5983 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2008-5983]; discussed in gh-50003 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50003], and fixed by Antoine Pitrou.

The BerkeleyDB module now has a C API object, available as bsddb.db.api. This object can be used by other C extensions that wish to use the bsddb module for their own purposes. (Contributed by Duncan Grisby.)

The new buffer interface, previously described in the PEP 3118 section, adds PyObject_GetBuffer() and PyBuffer_Release(), as well as a few other functions.

Python's use of the C stdio library is now thread-safe, or at least as thread-safe as the underlying library is. A long-standing potential bug occurred if one thread closed a file object while another thread was reading from or writing to the object. In 2.6 file objects have a reference count, manipulated by the PyFile_IncUseCount() and PyFile_DecUseCount() functions. File objects can't be closed unless the reference count is zero. PyFile_IncUseCount() should be called while the GIL is still held, before carrying out an I/O operation using the FILE * pointer, and PyFile_DecUseCount() should be called immediately after the GIL is re-acquired. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou and Gregory P. Smith.)

Importing modules simultaneously in two different threads no longer deadlocks; it will now raise an ImportError. A new API function, PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(), will look for a module in sys.modules first, then try to import it after acquiring an import lock. If the import lock is held by another thread, an ImportError is raised. (Contributed by Christian Heimes.)

Several functions return information about the platform's floating-point support. PyFloat_GetMax() returns the maximum representable floating-point value, and PyFloat_GetMin() returns the minimum positive value. PyFloat_GetInfo() returns an object containing more information from the float.h file, such as "mant_dig" (number of digits in the mantissa), "epsilon" (smallest difference between 1.0 and the next largest value representable), and several others. (Contributed by Christian Heimes; bpo-1534 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1534].)

C functions and methods that use PyComplex_AsCComplex() will now accept arguments that have a __complex__() method. In particular, the functions in the cmath module will now accept objects with this method. This is a backport of a Python 3.0 change. (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-1675423 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1675423].)

Python's C API now includes two functions for case-insensitive string comparisons, PyOS_stricmp(char*, char*) and PyOS_strnicmp(char*, char*, Py_ssize_t). (Contributed by Christian Heimes; bpo-1635 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635].)

Many C extensions define their own little macro for adding integers and strings to the module's dictionary in the init* function. Python 2.6 finally defines standard macros for adding values to a module, PyModule_AddStringMacro and PyModule_AddIntMacro(). (Contributed by Christian Heimes.)

Some macros were renamed in both 3.0 and 2.6 to make it clearer that they are macros, not functions. Py_Size() became Py_SIZE(), Py_Type() became Py_TYPE(), and Py_Refcnt() became Py_REFCNT(). The mixed-case macros are still available in Python 2.6 for backward compatibility. (bpo-1629 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1629])

Distutils now places C extensions it builds in a different directory when running on a debug version of Python. (Contributed by Collin Winter; bpo-1530959 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1530959].)

Several basic data types, such as integers and strings, maintain internal free lists of objects that can be re-used. The data structures for these free lists now follow a naming convention: the variable is always named free_list, the counter is always named numfree, and a macro Py<typename>_MAXFREELIST is always defined.

A new Makefile target, "make patchcheck", prepares the Python source tree for making a patch: it fixes trailing whitespace in all modified .py files, checks whether the documentation has been changed, and reports whether the Misc/ACKS and Misc/NEWS files have been updated. (Contributed by Brett Cannon.)

Another new target, "make profile-opt", compiles a Python binary using GCC's profile-guided optimization. It compiles Python with profiling enabled, runs the test suite to obtain a set of profiling results, and then compiles using these results for optimization. (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith.)

Port-Specific Changes: Windows

The support for Windows 95, 98, ME and NT4 has been dropped. Python 2.6 requires at least Windows 2000 SP4.

The new default compiler on Windows is Visual Studio 2008 (version 9.0). The build directories for Visual Studio 2003 (version 7.1) and 2005 (version 8.0) were moved into the PC/ directory. The new PCbuild directory supports cross compilation for X64, debug builds and Profile Guided Optimization (PGO). PGO builds are roughly 10% faster than normal builds. (Contributed by Christian Heimes with help from Amaury Forgeot d'Arc and Martin von Löwis.)

The msvcrt module now supports both the normal and wide char variants of the console I/O API. The getwch() function reads a keypress and returns a Unicode value, as does the getwche() function. The putwch() function takes a Unicode character and writes it to the console. (Contributed by Christian Heimes.)

os.path.expandvars() will now expand environment variables in the form "%var%", and "~user" will be expanded into the user's home directory path. (Contributed by Josiah Carlson; bpo-957650 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=957650].)

The socket module's socket objects now have an ioctl() method that provides a limited interface to the WSAIoctl() system interface.

The _winreg module now has a function, ExpandEnvironmentStrings(), that expands environment variable references such as %NAME% in an input string. The handle objects provided by this module now support the context protocol, so they can be used in with statements. (Contributed by Christian Heimes.)

_winreg also has better support for x64 systems, exposing the DisableReflectionKey(), EnableReflectionKey(), and QueryReflectionKey() functions, which enable and disable registry reflection for 32-bit processes running on 64-bit systems. (bpo-1753245 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1753245])

The msilib module's Record object gained GetInteger() and GetString() methods that return field values as an integer or a string. (Contributed by Floris Bruynooghe; bpo-2125 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2125].)

Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X

When compiling a framework build of Python, you can now specify the framework name to be used by providing the --with-framework-name= option to the configure script.

The macfs module has been removed. This in turn required the macostools.touched() function to be removed because it depended on the macfs module. (bpo-1490190 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1490190])

Many other Mac OS modules have been deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.0: _builtinSuites, aepack, aetools, aetypes, applesingle, appletrawmain, appletrunner, argvemulator, Audio_mac, autoGIL, Carbon, cfmfile, CodeWarrior, ColorPicker, EasyDialogs, Explorer, Finder, FrameWork, findertools, ic, icglue, icopen, macerrors, MacOS, macfs, macostools, macresource, MiniAEFrame, Nav, Netscape, OSATerminology, pimp, PixMapWrapper, StdSuites, SystemEvents, Terminal, and terminalcommand.

Port-Specific Changes: IRIX

A number of old IRIX-specific modules were deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.0: al and AL, cd, cddb, cdplayer, CL and cl, DEVICE, ERRNO, FILE, FL and fl, flp, fm, GET, GLWS, GL and gl, IN, IOCTL, jpeg, panelparser, readcd, SV and sv, torgb, videoreader, and WAIT.

Portage vers Python 2.6

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that may require changes to your code:

Classes that aren't supposed to be hashable should set __hash__ = None in their definitions to indicate the fact.

String exceptions have been removed. Attempting to use them raises a TypeError.

The __init__() method of collections.deque now clears any existing contents of the deque before adding elements from the iterable. This change makes the behavior match list.__init__().

object.__init__() previously accepted arbitrary arguments and keyword arguments, ignoring them. In Python 2.6, this is no longer allowed and will result in a TypeError. This will affect __init__() methods that end up calling the corresponding method on object (perhaps through using super()). See bpo-1683368 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1683368] for discussion.

The Decimal constructor now accepts leading and trailing whitespace when passed a string. Previously it would raise an InvalidOperation exception. On the other hand, the create_decimal() method of Context objects now explicitly disallows extra whitespace, raising a ConversionSyntax exception.

Due to an implementation accident, if you passed a file path to the built-in __import__() function, it would actually import the specified file. This was never intended to work, however, and the implementation now explicitly checks for this case and raises an ImportError.

C API: the PyImport_Import() and PyImport_ImportModule() functions now default to absolute imports, not relative imports. This will affect C extensions that import other modules.

C API: extension data types that shouldn't be hashable should define their tp_hash slot to PyObject_HashNotImplemented().

The socket module exception socket.error now inherits from IOError. Previously it wasn't a subclass of StandardError but now it is, through IOError. (Implemented by Gregory P. Smith; bpo-1706815 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1706815].)

The xmlrpclib module no longer automatically converts datetime.date and datetime.time to the xmlrpclib.DateTime type; the conversion semantics were not necessarily correct for all applications. Code using xmlrpclib should convert date and time instances. (bpo-1330538 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1330538])

(3.0-warning mode) The Exception class now warns when accessed using slicing or index access; having Exception behave like a tuple is being phased out.

(3.0-warning mode) inequality comparisons between two dictionaries or two objects that don't implement comparison methods are reported as warnings. dict1 == dict2 still works, but dict1 < dict2 is being phased out.

Comparisons between cells, which are an implementation detail of Python's scoping rules, also cause warnings because such comparisons are forbidden entirely in 3.0.

For applications that embed Python:

The PySys_SetArgvEx() function was added in Python 2.6.6, letting applications close a security hole when the existing PySys_SetArgv() function was used. Check whether you're calling PySys_SetArgv() and carefully consider whether the application should be using PySys_SetArgvEx() with updatepath set to false.

Remerciements

The author would like to thank the following people for offering suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this article: Georg Brandl, Steve Brown, Nick Coghlan, Ralph Corderoy, Jim Jewett, Kent Johnson, Chris Lambacher, Martin Michlmayr, Antoine Pitrou, Brian Warner.

Nouveautés de Python 2.5

Auteur:

A.M. Kuchling

This article explains the new features in Python 2.5. The final release of Python 2.5 is scheduled for August 2006; PEP 356 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0356/] describes the planned release schedule. Python 2.5 was released on September 19, 2006.

The changes in Python 2.5 are an interesting mix of language and library improvements. The library enhancements will be more important to Python's user community, I think, because several widely useful packages were added. New modules include ElementTree for XML processing (xml.etree), the SQLite database module (sqlite), and the ctypes module for calling C functions.

The language changes are of middling significance. Some pleasant new features were added, but most of them aren't features that you'll use every day. Conditional expressions were finally added to the language using a novel syntax; see section PEP 308 : Expressions conditionnelles. The new 'with' statement will make writing cleanup code easier (section PEP 343: The 'with' statement). Values can now be passed into generators (section PEP 342: New Generator Features). Imports are now visible as either absolute or relative (section PEP 328: Absolute and Relative Imports). Some corner cases of exception handling are handled better (section PEP 341: Unified try/except/finally). All these improvements are worthwhile, but they're improvements to one specific language feature or another; none of them are broad modifications to Python's semantics.

As well as the language and library additions, other improvements and bugfixes were made throughout the source tree. A search through the SVN change logs finds there were 353 patches applied and 458 bugs fixed between Python 2.4 and 2.5. (Both figures are likely to be underestimates.)

This article doesn't try to be a complete specification of the new features; instead changes are briefly introduced using helpful examples. For full details, you should always refer to the documentation for Python 2.5 at https://docs.python.org. If you want to understand the complete implementation and design rationale, refer to the PEP for a particular new feature.

Comments, suggestions, and error reports for this document are welcome; please e-mail them to the author or open a bug in the Python bug tracker.

PEP 308 : Expressions conditionnelles

For a long time, people have been requesting a way to write conditional expressions, which are expressions that return value A or value B depending on whether a Boolean value is true or false. A conditional expression lets you write a single assignment statement that has the same effect as the following:

if condition:
    x = true_value
else:
    x = false_value

There have been endless tedious discussions of syntax on both python-dev and comp.lang.python. A vote was even held that found the majority of voters wanted conditional expressions in some form, but there was no syntax that was preferred by a clear majority. Candidates included C's cond ? true_v : false_v, if cond then true_v else false_v, and 16 other variations.

Guido van Rossum a finalement choisi une syntaxe surprenante :

x = true_value if condition else false_value

Evaluation is still lazy as in existing Boolean expressions, so the order of evaluation jumps around a bit. The condition expression in the middle is evaluated first, and the true_value expression is evaluated only if the condition was true. Similarly, the false_value expression is only evaluated when the condition is false.

This syntax may seem strange and backwards; why does the condition go in the middle of the expression, and not in the front as in C's c ? x : y? The decision was checked by applying the new syntax to the modules in the standard library and seeing how the resulting code read. In many cases where a conditional expression is used, one value seems to be the 'common case' and one value is an 'exceptional case', used only on rarer occasions when the condition isn't met. The conditional syntax makes this pattern a bit more obvious:

contents = ((doc + '\n') if doc else '')

I read the above statement as meaning "here contents is usually assigned a value of doc+'\n'; sometimes doc is empty, in which special case an empty string is returned." I doubt I will use conditional expressions very often where there isn't a clear common and uncommon case.

There was some discussion of whether the language should require surrounding conditional expressions with parentheses. The decision was made to not require parentheses in the Python language's grammar, but as a matter of style I think you should always use them. Consider these two statements:

# First version -- no parens
level = 1 if logging else 0

# Second version -- with parens
level = (1 if logging else 0)

In the first version, I think a reader's eye might group the statement into 'level = 1', 'if logging', 'else 0', and think that the condition decides whether the assignment to level is performed. The second version reads better, in my opinion, because it makes it clear that the assignment is always performed and the choice is being made between two values.

Another reason for including the brackets: a few odd combinations of list comprehensions and lambdas could look like incorrect conditional expressions. See PEP 308 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0308/] for some examples. If you put parentheses around your conditional expressions, you won't run into this case.

Voir aussi

PEP 308 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0308/] -- Expressions conditionnelles

PEP écrite par Guido van Rossum et Raymond D. Hettinger; implémentée par Thomas Wouters.

PEP 309 : Application partielle de fonction

The functools module is intended to contain tools for functional-style programming.

One useful tool in this module is the partial() function. For programs written in a functional style, you'll sometimes want to construct variants of existing functions that have some of the parameters filled in. Consider a Python function f(a, b, c); you could create a new function g(b, c) that was equivalent to f(1, b, c). This is called "partial function application".

partial() takes the arguments (function, arg1, arg2, ... kwarg1=value1, kwarg2=value2). The resulting object is callable, so you can just call it to invoke function with the filled-in arguments.

Voici un exemple court mais réaliste :

import functools

def log (message, subsystem):
    "Write the contents of 'message' to the specified subsystem."
    print '%s: %s' % (subsystem, message)
    ...

server_log = functools.partial(log, subsystem='server')
server_log('Unable to open socket')

Here's another example, from a program that uses PyGTK. Here a context-sensitive pop-up menu is being constructed dynamically. The callback provided for the menu option is a partially applied version of the open_item() method, where the first argument has been provided.

...
class Application:
    def open_item(self, path):
       ...
    def init (self):
        open_func = functools.partial(self.open_item, item_path)
        popup_menu.append( ("Open", open_func, 1) )

Another function in the functools module is the update_wrapper(wrapper, wrapped) function that helps you write well-behaved decorators. update_wrapper() copies the name, module, and docstring attribute to a wrapper function so that tracebacks inside the wrapped function are easier to understand. For example, you might write:

def my_decorator(f):
    def wrapper(*args, **kwds):
        print 'Calling decorated function'
        return f(*args, **kwds)
    functools.update_wrapper(wrapper, f)
    return wrapper

wraps() is a decorator that can be used inside your own decorators to copy the wrapped function's information. An alternate version of the previous example would be:

def my_decorator(f):
    @functools.wraps(f)
    def wrapper(*args, **kwds):
        print 'Calling decorated function'
        return f(*args, **kwds)
    return wrapper

Voir aussi

PEP 309 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0309/] -- Application partielle de fonction

PEP proposed and written by Peter Harris; implemented by Hye-Shik Chang and Nick Coghlan, with adaptations by Raymond Hettinger.

PEP 314: Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1

Some simple dependency support was added to Distutils. The setup() function now has requires, provides, and obsoletes keyword parameters. When you build a source distribution using the sdist command, the dependency information will be recorded in the PKG-INFO file.

Another new keyword parameter is download_url, which should be set to a URL for the package's source code. This means it's now possible to look up an entry in the package index, determine the dependencies for a package, and download the required packages.

VERSION = '1.0'
setup(name='PyPackage',
      version=VERSION,
      requires=['numarray', 'zlib (>=1.1.4)'],
      obsoletes=['OldPackage']
      download_url=('http://www.example.com/pypackage/dist/pkg-%s.tar.gz'
                    % VERSION),
     )

Another new enhancement to the Python package index at https://pypi.org is storing source and binary archives for a package. The new upload Distutils command will upload a package to the repository.

Before a package can be uploaded, you must be able to build a distribution using the sdist Distutils command. Once that works, you can run python setup.py upload to add your package to the PyPI archive. Optionally you can GPG-sign the package by supplying the --sign and --identity options.

Package uploading was implemented by Martin von Löwis and Richard Jones.

Voir aussi

PEP 314 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0314/] - Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1

PEP proposed and written by A.M. Kuchling, Richard Jones, and Fred Drake; implemented by Richard Jones and Fred Drake.

PEP 328: Absolute and Relative Imports

The simpler part of PEP 328 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/] was implemented in Python 2.4: parentheses could now be used to enclose the names imported from a module using the from ... import ... statement, making it easier to import many different names.

The more complicated part has been implemented in Python 2.5: importing a module can be specified to use absolute or package-relative imports. The plan is to move toward making absolute imports the default in future versions of Python.

Let's say you have a package directory like this:

pkg/
pkg/__init__.py
pkg/main.py
pkg/string.py

This defines a package named pkg containing the pkg.main and pkg.string submodules.

Consider the code in the main.py module. What happens if it executes the statement import string? In Python 2.4 and earlier, it will first look in the package's directory to perform a relative import, finds pkg/string.py, imports the contents of that file as the pkg.string module, and that module is bound to the name string in the pkg.main module's namespace.

That's fine if pkg.string was what you wanted. But what if you wanted Python's standard string module? There's no clean way to ignore pkg.string and look for the standard module; generally you had to look at the contents of sys.modules, which is slightly unclean. Holger Krekel's py.std package provides a tidier way to perform imports from the standard library, import py; py.std.string.join(), but that package isn't available on all Python installations.

Reading code which relies on relative imports is also less clear, because a reader may be confused about which module, string or pkg.string, is intended to be used. Python users soon learned not to duplicate the names of standard library modules in the names of their packages' submodules, but you can't protect against having your submodule's name being used for a new module added in a future version of Python.

In Python 2.5, you can switch import's behaviour to absolute imports using a from __future__ import absolute_import directive. This absolute-import behaviour will become the default in a future version (probably Python 2.7). Once absolute imports are the default, import string will always find the standard library's version. It's suggested that users should begin using absolute imports as much as possible, so it's preferable to begin writing from pkg import string in your code.

Relative imports are still possible by adding a leading period to the module name when using the from ... import form:

# Import names from pkg.string
from .string import name1, name2
# Import pkg.string
from . import string

This imports the string module relative to the current package, so in pkg.main this will import name1 and name2 from pkg.string. Additional leading periods perform the relative import starting from the parent of the current package. For example, code in the A.B.C module can do:

from . import D                 # Imports A.B.D
from .. import E                # Imports A.E
from ..F import G               # Imports A.F.G

Leading periods cannot be used with the import modname form of the import statement, only the from ... import form.

Voir aussi

PEP 328 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/] - Imports: Multi-Line and Absolute/Relative

PEP écrite par Aahz; implémentée par Thomas Wouters.

https://pylib.readthedocs.io/

The py library by Holger Krekel, which contains the py.std package.

PEP 338: Executing Modules as Scripts

The -m switch added in Python 2.4 to execute a module as a script gained a few more abilities. Instead of being implemented in C code inside the Python interpreter, the switch now uses an implementation in a new module, runpy.

The runpy module implements a more sophisticated import mechanism so that it's now possible to run modules in a package such as pychecker.checker. The module also supports alternative import mechanisms such as the zipimport module. This means you can add a .zip archive's path to sys.path and then use the -m switch to execute code from the archive.

Voir aussi

PEP 338 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0338/] - Executing modules as scripts

PEP written and implemented by Nick Coghlan.

PEP 341: Unified try/except/finally

Until Python 2.5, the try statement came in two flavours. You could use a finally block to ensure that code is always executed, or one or more except blocks to catch specific exceptions. You couldn't combine both except blocks and a finally block, because generating the right bytecode for the combined version was complicated and it wasn't clear what the semantics of the combined statement should be.

Guido van Rossum spent some time working with Java, which does support the equivalent of combining except blocks and a finally block, and this clarified what the statement should mean. In Python 2.5, you can now write:

try:
    block-1 ...
except Exception1:
    handler-1 ...
except Exception2:
    handler-2 ...
else:
    else-block
finally:
    final-block

The code in block-1 is executed. If the code raises an exception, the various except blocks are tested: if the exception is of class Exception1, handler-1 is executed; otherwise if it's of class Exception2, handler-2 is executed, and so forth. If no exception is raised, the else-block is executed.

No matter what happened previously, the final-block is executed once the code block is complete and any raised exceptions handled. Even if there's an error in an exception handler or the else-block and a new exception is raised, the code in the final-block is still run.

Voir aussi

PEP 341 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0341/] - Unifying try-except and try-finally

PEP written by Georg Brandl; implementation by Thomas Lee.

PEP 342: New Generator Features

Python 2.5 adds a simple way to pass values into a generator. As introduced in Python 2.3, generators only produce output; once a generator's code was invoked to create an iterator, there was no way to pass any new information into the function when its execution is resumed. Sometimes the ability to pass in some information would be useful. Hackish solutions to this include making the generator's code look at a global variable and then changing the global variable's value, or passing in some mutable object that callers then modify.

To refresh your memory of basic generators, here's a simple example:

def counter (maximum):
    i = 0
    while i < maximum:
        yield i
        i += 1

When you call counter(10), the result is an iterator that returns the values from 0 up to 9. On encountering the yield statement, the iterator returns the provided value and suspends the function's execution, preserving the local variables. Execution resumes on the following call to the iterator's next() method, picking up after the yield statement.

In Python 2.3, yield was a statement; it didn't return any value. In 2.5, yield is now an expression, returning a value that can be assigned to a variable or otherwise operated on:

val = (yield i)

I recommend that you always put parentheses around a yield expression when you're doing something with the returned value, as in the above example. The parentheses aren't always necessary, but it's easier to always add them instead of having to remember when they're needed.

(PEP 342 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0342/] explains the exact rules, which are that a yield-expression must always be parenthesized except when it occurs at the top-level expression on the right-hand side of an assignment. This means you can write val = yield i but have to use parentheses when there's an operation, as in val = (yield i) + 12.)

Values are sent into a generator by calling its send(value) method. The generator's code is then resumed and the yield expression returns the specified value. If the regular next() method is called, the yield returns None.

Here's the previous example, modified to allow changing the value of the internal counter.

def counter (maximum):
    i = 0
    while i < maximum:
        val = (yield i)
        # If value provided, change counter
        if val is not None:
            i = val
        else:
            i += 1

And here's an example of changing the counter:

>>> it = counter(10)
>>> print it.next()
0
>>> print it.next()
1
>>> print it.send(8)
8
>>> print it.next()
9
>>> print it.next()
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "t.py", line 15, in ?
    print it.next()
StopIteration

yield will usually return None, so you should always check for this case. Don't just use its value in expressions unless you're sure that the send() method will be the only method used to resume your generator function.

In addition to send(), there are two other new methods on generators:

throw(type, value=None, traceback=None) is used to raise an exception inside the generator; the exception is raised by the yield expression where the generator's execution is paused.

close() raises a new GeneratorExit exception inside the generator to terminate the iteration. On receiving this exception, the generator's code must either raise GeneratorExit or StopIteration. Catching the GeneratorExit exception and returning a value is illegal and will trigger a RuntimeError; if the function raises some other exception, that exception is propagated to the caller. close() will also be called by Python's garbage collector when the generator is garbage-collected.

If you need to run cleanup code when a GeneratorExit occurs, I suggest using a try: ... finally: suite instead of catching GeneratorExit.

Ces changements cumulés transforment les générateurs de producteurs unidirectionnels d'information vers un statut hybride à la fois producteur et consommateur.

Generators also become coroutines, a more generalized form of subroutines. Subroutines are entered at one point and exited at another point (the top of the function, and a return statement), but coroutines can be entered, exited, and resumed at many different points (the yield statements). We'll have to figure out patterns for using coroutines effectively in Python.

The addition of the close() method has one side effect that isn't obvious. close() is called when a generator is garbage-collected, so this means the generator's code gets one last chance to run before the generator is destroyed. This last chance means that try...finally statements in generators can now be guaranteed to work; the finally clause will now always get a chance to run. The syntactic restriction that you couldn't mix yield statements with a try...finally suite has therefore been removed. This seems like a minor bit of language trivia, but using generators and try...finally is actually necessary in order to implement the with statement described by PEP 343 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/]. I'll look at this new statement in the following section.

Another even more esoteric effect of this change: previously, the gi_frame attribute of a generator was always a frame object. It's now possible for gi_frame to be None once the generator has been exhausted.

Voir aussi

PEP 342 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0342/] -- Coroutines via des générateurs améliorés

PEP written by Guido van Rossum and Phillip J. Eby; implemented by Phillip J. Eby. Includes examples of some fancier uses of generators as coroutines.

Earlier versions of these features were proposed in PEP 288 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0288/] by Raymond Hettinger and PEP 325 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0325/] by Samuele Pedroni.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coroutine

L’article de Wikipédia sur les coroutines.

https://web.archive.org/web/20160321211320/http://www.sidhe.org/~dan/blog/archives/000178.html

An explanation of coroutines from a Perl point of view, written by Dan Sugalski.

PEP 343: The 'with' statement

The 'with' statement clarifies code that previously would use try...finally blocks to ensure that clean-up code is executed. In this section, I'll discuss the statement as it will commonly be used. In the next section, I'll examine the implementation details and show how to write objects for use with this statement.

The 'with' statement is a new control-flow structure whose basic structure is:

with expression [as variable]:
    with-block

The expression is evaluated, and it should result in an object that supports the context management protocol (that is, has __enter__() and __exit__() methods.

The object's __enter__() is called before with-block is executed and therefore can run set-up code. It also may return a value that is bound to the name variable, if given. (Note carefully that variable is not assigned the result of expression.)

After execution of the with-block is finished, the object's __exit__() method is called, even if the block raised an exception, and can therefore run clean-up code.

To enable the statement in Python 2.5, you need to add the following directive to your module:

from __future__ import with_statement

The statement will always be enabled in Python 2.6.

Some standard Python objects now support the context management protocol and can be used with the 'with' statement. File objects are one example:

with open('/etc/passwd', 'r') as f:
    for line in f:
        print line
        ... more processing code ...

After this statement has executed, the file object in f will have been automatically closed, even if the for loop raised an exception part-way through the block.

Note

In this case, f is the same object created by open(), because __enter__() returns self.

The threading module's locks and condition variables also support the 'with' statement:

lock = threading.Lock()
with lock:
    # Critical section of code
    ...

The lock is acquired before the block is executed and always released once the block is complete.

The new localcontext() function in the decimal module makes it easy to save and restore the current decimal context, which encapsulates the desired precision and rounding characteristics for computations:

from decimal import Decimal, Context, localcontext

# Displays with default precision of 28 digits
v = Decimal('578')
print v.sqrt()

with localcontext(Context(prec=16)):
    # All code in this block uses a precision of 16 digits.
    # The original context is restored on exiting the block.
    print v.sqrt()

Écrire des gestionnaires de contexte

Under the hood, the 'with' statement is fairly complicated. Most people will only use 'with' in company with existing objects and don't need to know these details, so you can skip the rest of this section if you like. Authors of new objects will need to understand the details of the underlying implementation and should keep reading.

A high-level explanation of the context management protocol is:

The expression is evaluated and should result in an object called a "context manager". The context manager must have __enter__() and __exit__() methods.

The context manager's __enter__() method is called. The value returned is assigned to VAR. If no 'as VAR' clause is present, the value is simply discarded.

Le code dans BLOCK est exécuté.

If BLOCK raises an exception, the __exit__(type, value, traceback) is called with the exception details, the same values returned by sys.exc_info(). The method's return value controls whether the exception is re-raised: any false value re-raises the exception, and True will result in suppressing it. You'll only rarely want to suppress the exception, because if you do the author of the code containing the 'with' statement will never realize anything went wrong.

If BLOCK didn't raise an exception, the __exit__() method is still called, but type, value, and traceback are all None.

Let's think through an example. I won't present detailed code but will only sketch the methods necessary for a database that supports transactions.

(For people unfamiliar with database terminology: a set of changes to the database are grouped into a transaction. Transactions can be either committed, meaning that all the changes are written into the database, or rolled back, meaning that the changes are all discarded and the database is unchanged. See any database textbook for more information.)

Let's assume there's an object representing a database connection. Our goal will be to let the user write code like this:

db_connection = DatabaseConnection()
with db_connection as cursor:
    cursor.execute('insert into ...')
    cursor.execute('delete from ...')
    # ... more operations ...

The transaction should be committed if the code in the block runs flawlessly or rolled back if there's an exception. Here's the basic interface for DatabaseConnection that I'll assume:

class DatabaseConnection:
    # Database interface
    def cursor (self):
        "Returns a cursor object and starts a new transaction"
    def commit (self):
        "Commits current transaction"
    def rollback (self):
        "Rolls back current transaction"

The __enter__() method is pretty easy, having only to start a new transaction. For this application the resulting cursor object would be a useful result, so the method will return it. The user can then add as cursor to their 'with' statement to bind the cursor to a variable name.

class DatabaseConnection:
    ...
    def __enter__ (self):
        # Code to start a new transaction
        cursor = self.cursor()
        return cursor

The __exit__() method is the most complicated because it's where most of the work has to be done. The method has to check if an exception occurred. If there was no exception, the transaction is committed. The transaction is rolled back if there was an exception.

In the code below, execution will just fall off the end of the function, returning the default value of None. None is false, so the exception will be re-raised automatically. If you wished, you could be more explicit and add a return statement at the marked location.

class DatabaseConnection:
    ...
    def __exit__ (self, type, value, tb):
        if tb is None:
            # No exception, so commit
            self.commit()
        else:
            # Exception occurred, so rollback.
            self.rollback()
            # return False

Le module contextlib

The new contextlib module provides some functions and a decorator that are useful for writing objects for use with the 'with' statement.

The decorator is called contextmanager(), and lets you write a single generator function instead of defining a new class. The generator should yield exactly one value. The code up to the yield will be executed as the __enter__() method, and the value yielded will be the method's return value that will get bound to the variable in the 'with' statement's as clause, if any. The code after the yield will be executed in the __exit__() method. Any exception raised in the block will be raised by the yield statement.

Our database example from the previous section could be written using this decorator as:

from contextlib import contextmanager

@contextmanager
def db_transaction (connection):
    cursor = connection.cursor()
    try:
        yield cursor
    except:
        connection.rollback()
        raise
    else:
        connection.commit()

db = DatabaseConnection()
with db_transaction(db) as cursor:
    ...

The contextlib module also has a nested(mgr1, mgr2, ...) function that combines a number of context managers so you don't need to write nested 'with' statements. In this example, the single 'with' statement both starts a database transaction and acquires a thread lock:

lock = threading.Lock()
with nested (db_transaction(db), lock) as (cursor, locked):
    ...

Finally, the closing(object) function returns object so that it can be bound to a variable, and calls object.close at the end of the block.

import urllib, sys
from contextlib import closing

with closing(urllib.urlopen('http://www.yahoo.com')) as f:
    for line in f:
        sys.stdout.write(line)

Voir aussi

PEP 343 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/] - The "with" statement

PEP written by Guido van Rossum and Nick Coghlan; implemented by Mike Bland, Guido van Rossum, and Neal Norwitz. The PEP shows the code generated for a 'with' statement, which can be helpful in learning how the statement works.

The documentation for the contextlib module.

PEP 352: Exceptions as New-Style Classes

Exception classes can now be new-style classes, not just classic classes, and the built-in Exception class and all the standard built-in exceptions (NameError, ValueError, etc.) are now new-style classes.

The inheritance hierarchy for exceptions has been rearranged a bit. In 2.5, the inheritance relationships are:

BaseException       # New in Python 2.5
|- KeyboardInterrupt
|- SystemExit
|- Exception
   |- (all other current built-in exceptions)

This rearrangement was done because people often want to catch all exceptions that indicate program errors. KeyboardInterrupt and SystemExit aren't errors, though, and usually represent an explicit action such as the user hitting Control-C or code calling sys.exit(). A bare except: will catch all exceptions, so you commonly need to list KeyboardInterrupt and SystemExit in order to re-raise them. The usual pattern is:

try:
    ...
except (KeyboardInterrupt, SystemExit):
    raise
except:
    # Log error...
    # Continue running program...

In Python 2.5, you can now write except Exception to achieve the same result, catching all the exceptions that usually indicate errors but leaving KeyboardInterrupt and SystemExit alone. As in previous versions, a bare except: still catches all exceptions.

The goal for Python 3.0 is to require any class raised as an exception to derive from BaseException or some descendant of BaseException, and future releases in the Python 2.x series may begin to enforce this constraint. Therefore, I suggest you begin making all your exception classes derive from Exception now. It's been suggested that the bare except: form should be removed in Python 3.0, but Guido van Rossum hasn't decided whether to do this or not.

Raising of strings as exceptions, as in the statement raise "Error occurred", is deprecated in Python 2.5 and will trigger a warning. The aim is to be able to remove the string-exception feature in a few releases.

Voir aussi

PEP 352 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0352/] - Required Superclass for Exceptions

PEP written by Brett Cannon and Guido van Rossum; implemented by Brett Cannon.

PEP 353: Using ssize_t as the index type

A wide-ranging change to Python's C API, using a new Py_ssize_t type definition instead of int, will permit the interpreter to handle more data on 64-bit platforms. This change doesn't affect Python's capacity on 32-bit platforms.

Various pieces of the Python interpreter used C's int type to store sizes or counts; for example, the number of items in a list or tuple were stored in an int. The C compilers for most 64-bit platforms still define int as a 32-bit type, so that meant that lists could only hold up to 2**31 - 1 = 2147483647 items. (There are actually a few different programming models that 64-bit C compilers can use -- see https://unix.org/version2/whatsnew/lp64_wp.html for a discussion -- but the most commonly available model leaves int as 32 bits.)

A limit of 2147483647 items doesn't really matter on a 32-bit platform because you'll run out of memory before hitting the length limit. Each list item requires space for a pointer, which is 4 bytes, plus space for a PyObject representing the item. 2147483647*4 is already more bytes than a 32-bit address space can contain.

It's possible to address that much memory on a 64-bit platform, however. The pointers for a list that size would only require 16 GiB of space, so it's not unreasonable that Python programmers might construct lists that large. Therefore, the Python interpreter had to be changed to use some type other than int, and this will be a 64-bit type on 64-bit platforms. The change will cause incompatibilities on 64-bit machines, so it was deemed worth making the transition now, while the number of 64-bit users is still relatively small. (In 5 or 10 years, we may all be on 64-bit machines, and the transition would be more painful then.)

This change most strongly affects authors of C extension modules. Python strings and container types such as lists and tuples now use Py_ssize_t to store their size. Functions such as PyList_Size() now return Py_ssize_t. Code in extension modules may therefore need to have some variables changed to Py_ssize_t.

The PyArg_ParseTuple() and Py_BuildValue() functions have a new conversion code, n, for Py_ssize_t. PyArg_ParseTuple()'s s# and t# still output int by default, but you can define the macro PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN before including Python.h to make them return Py_ssize_t.

PEP 353 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0353/] has a section on conversion guidelines that extension authors should read to learn about supporting 64-bit platforms.

Voir aussi

PEP 353 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0353/] - Using ssize_t as the index type

PEP written and implemented by Martin von Löwis.

PEP 357: The '__index__' method

The NumPy developers had a problem that could only be solved by adding a new special method, __index__(). When using slice notation, as in [start:stop:step], the values of the start, stop, and step indexes must all be either integers or long integers. NumPy defines a variety of specialized integer types corresponding to unsigned and signed integers of 8, 16, 32, and 64 bits, but there was no way to signal that these types could be used as slice indexes.

Slicing can't just use the existing __int__() method because that method is also used to implement coercion to integers. If slicing used __int__(), floating-point numbers would also become legal slice indexes and that's clearly an undesirable behaviour.

Instead, a new special method called __index__() was added. It takes no arguments and returns an integer giving the slice index to use. For example:

class C:
    def __index__ (self):
        return self.value

The return value must be either a Python integer or long integer. The interpreter will check that the type returned is correct, and raises a TypeError if this requirement isn't met.

A corresponding nb_index slot was added to the C-level PyNumberMethods structure to let C extensions implement this protocol. PyNumber_Index(obj) can be used in extension code to call the __index__() function and retrieve its result.

Voir aussi

PEP 357 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0357/] - Allowing Any Object to be Used for Slicing

PEP written and implemented by Travis Oliphant.

Autres changements au langage

Here are all of the changes that Python 2.5 makes to the core Python language.

The dict type has a new hook for letting subclasses provide a default value when a key isn't contained in the dictionary. When a key isn't found, the dictionary's __missing__(key) method will be called. This hook is used to implement the new defaultdict class in the collections module. The following example defines a dictionary that returns zero for any missing key:

class zerodict (dict):
    def __missing__ (self, key):
        return 0

d = zerodict({1:1, 2:2})
print d[1], d[2]   # Prints 1, 2
print d[3], d[4]   # Prints 0, 0

Both 8-bit and Unicode strings have new partition(sep) and rpartition(sep) methods that simplify a common use case.

The find(S) method is often used to get an index which is then used to slice the string and obtain the pieces that are before and after the separator. partition(sep) condenses this pattern into a single method call that returns a 3-tuple containing the substring before the separator, the separator itself, and the substring after the separator. If the separator isn't found, the first element of the tuple is the entire string and the other two elements are empty. rpartition(sep) also returns a 3-tuple but starts searching from the end of the string; the r stands for 'reverse'.

Quelques exemples :

>>> ('http://www.python.org').partition('://')
('http', '://', 'www.python.org')
>>> ('file:/usr/share/doc/index.html').partition('://')
('file:/usr/share/doc/index.html', '', '')
>>> (u'Subject: a quick question').partition(':')
(u'Subject', u':', u' a quick question')
>>> 'www.python.org'.rpartition('.')
('www.python', '.', 'org')
>>> 'www.python.org'.rpartition(':')
('', '', 'www.python.org')

(Implemented by Fredrik Lundh following a suggestion by Raymond Hettinger.)

The startswith() and endswith() methods of string types now accept tuples of strings to check for.

def is_image_file (filename):
    return filename.endswith(('.gif', '.jpg', '.tiff'))

(Implemented by Georg Brandl following a suggestion by Tom Lynn.)

The min() and max() built-in functions gained a key keyword parameter analogous to the key argument for sort(). This parameter supplies a function that takes a single argument and is called for every value in the list; min()/max() will return the element with the smallest/largest return value from this function. For example, to find the longest string in a list, you can do:

L = ['medium', 'longest', 'short']
# Prints 'longest'
print max(L, key=len)
# Prints 'short', because lexicographically 'short' has the largest value
print max(L)

(Contributed by Steven Bethard and Raymond Hettinger.)

Two new built-in functions, any() and all(), evaluate whether an iterator contains any true or false values. any() returns True if any value returned by the iterator is true; otherwise it will return False. all() returns True only if all of the values returned by the iterator evaluate as true. (Suggested by Guido van Rossum, and implemented by Raymond Hettinger.)

The result of a class's __hash__() method can now be either a long integer or a regular integer. If a long integer is returned, the hash of that value is taken. In earlier versions the hash value was required to be a regular integer, but in 2.5 the id() built-in was changed to always return non-negative numbers, and users often seem to use id(self) in __hash__() methods (though this is discouraged).

ASCII is now the default encoding for modules. It's now a syntax error if a module contains string literals with 8-bit characters but doesn't have an encoding declaration. In Python 2.4 this triggered a warning, not a syntax error. See PEP 263 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/] for how to declare a module's encoding; for example, you might add a line like this near the top of the source file:

# -*- coding: latin1 -*-

A new warning, UnicodeWarning, is triggered when you attempt to compare a Unicode string and an 8-bit string that can't be converted to Unicode using the default ASCII encoding. The result of the comparison is false:

>>> chr(128) == unichr(128)   # Can't convert chr(128) to Unicode
__main__:1: UnicodeWarning: Unicode equal comparison failed
  to convert both arguments to Unicode - interpreting them
  as being unequal
False
>>> chr(127) == unichr(127)   # chr(127) can be converted
True

Previously this would raise a UnicodeDecodeError exception, but in 2.5 this could result in puzzling problems when accessing a dictionary. If you looked up unichr(128) and chr(128) was being used as a key, you'd get a UnicodeDecodeError exception. Other changes in 2.5 resulted in this exception being raised instead of suppressed by the code in dictobject.c that implements dictionaries.

Raising an exception for such a comparison is strictly correct, but the change might have broken code, so instead UnicodeWarning was introduced.

(Implemented by Marc-André Lemburg.)

One error that Python programmers sometimes make is forgetting to include an __init__.py module in a package directory. Debugging this mistake can be confusing, and usually requires running Python with the -v switch to log all the paths searched. In Python 2.5, a new ImportWarning warning is triggered when an import would have picked up a directory as a package but no __init__.py was found. This warning is silently ignored by default; provide the -Wd option when running the Python executable to display the warning message. (Implemented by Thomas Wouters.)

The list of base classes in a class definition can now be empty. As an example, this is now legal:

class C():
    pass

(Implemented by Brett Cannon.)

Changements de l’interpréteur interactif

In the interactive interpreter, quit and exit have long been strings so that new users get a somewhat helpful message when they try to quit:

>>> quit
'Use Ctrl-D (i.e. EOF) to exit.'

In Python 2.5, quit and exit are now objects that still produce string representations of themselves, but are also callable. Newbies who try quit() or exit() will now exit the interpreter as they expect. (Implemented by Georg Brandl.)

The Python executable now accepts the standard long options --help and --version; on Windows, it also accepts the /? option for displaying a help message. (Implemented by Georg Brandl.)

Optimizations

Several of the optimizations were developed at the NeedForSpeed sprint, an event held in Reykjavik, Iceland, from May 21--28 2006. The sprint focused on speed enhancements to the CPython implementation and was funded by EWT LLC with local support from CCP Games. Those optimizations added at this sprint are specially marked in the following list.

When they were introduced in Python 2.4, the built-in set and frozenset types were built on top of Python's dictionary type. In 2.5 the internal data structure has been customized for implementing sets, and as a result sets will use a third less memory and are somewhat faster. (Implemented by Raymond Hettinger.)

The speed of some Unicode operations, such as finding substrings, string splitting, and character map encoding and decoding, has been improved. (Substring search and splitting improvements were added by Fredrik Lundh and Andrew Dalke at the NeedForSpeed sprint. Character maps were improved by Walter Dörwald and Martin von Löwis.)

The long(str, base) function is now faster on long digit strings because fewer intermediate results are calculated. The peak is for strings of around 800--1000 digits where the function is 6 times faster. (Contributed by Alan McIntyre and committed at the NeedForSpeed sprint.)

It's now illegal to mix iterating over a file with for line in file and calling the file object's read()/readline()/readlines() methods. Iteration uses an internal buffer and the read*() methods don't use that buffer. Instead they would return the data following the buffer, causing the data to appear out of order. Mixing iteration and these methods will now trigger a ValueError from the read*() method. (Implemented by Thomas Wouters.)

The struct module now compiles structure format strings into an internal representation and caches this representation, yielding a 20% speedup. (Contributed by Bob Ippolito at the NeedForSpeed sprint.)

The re module got a 1 or 2% speedup by switching to Python's allocator functions instead of the system's malloc() and free(). (Contributed by Jack Diederich at the NeedForSpeed sprint.)

The code generator's peephole optimizer now performs simple constant folding in expressions. If you write something like a = 2+3, the code generator will do the arithmetic and produce code corresponding to a = 5. (Proposed and implemented by Raymond Hettinger.)

Function calls are now faster because code objects now keep the most recently finished frame (a "zombie frame") in an internal field of the code object, reusing it the next time the code object is invoked. (Original patch by Michael Hudson, modified by Armin Rigo and Richard Jones; committed at the NeedForSpeed sprint.) Frame objects are also slightly smaller, which may improve cache locality and reduce memory usage a bit. (Contributed by Neal Norwitz.)

Python's built-in exceptions are now new-style classes, a change that speeds up instantiation considerably. Exception handling in Python 2.5 is therefore about 30% faster than in 2.4. (Contributed by Richard Jones, Georg Brandl and Sean Reifschneider at the NeedForSpeed sprint.)

Importing now caches the paths tried, recording whether they exist or not so that the interpreter makes fewer open() and stat() calls on startup. (Contributed by Martin von Löwis and Georg Brandl.)

Modules ajoutés, modifiés, et supprimés

The standard library received many enhancements and bug fixes in Python 2.5. Here's a partial list of the most notable changes, sorted alphabetically by module name. Consult the Misc/NEWS file in the source tree for a more complete list of changes, or look through the SVN logs for all the details.

The audioop module now supports the a-LAW encoding, and the code for u-LAW encoding has been improved. (Contributed by Lars Immisch.)

The codecs module gained support for incremental codecs. The codec.lookup() function now returns a CodecInfo instance instead of a tuple. CodecInfo instances behave like a 4-tuple to preserve backward compatibility but also have the attributes encode, decode, incrementalencoder, incrementaldecoder, streamwriter, and streamreader. Incremental codecs can receive input and produce output in multiple chunks; the output is the same as if the entire input was fed to the non-incremental codec. See the codecs module documentation for details. (Designed and implemented by Walter Dörwald.)

The collections module gained a new type, defaultdict, that subclasses the standard dict type. The new type mostly behaves like a dictionary but constructs a default value when a key isn't present, automatically adding it to the dictionary for the requested key value.

The first argument to defaultdict's constructor is a factory function that gets called whenever a key is requested but not found. This factory function receives no arguments, so you can use built-in type constructors such as list() or int(). For example, you can make an index of words based on their initial letter like this:

words = """Nel mezzo del cammin di nostra vita
mi ritrovai per una selva oscura
che la diritta via era smarrita""".lower().split()

index = defaultdict(list)

for w in words:
    init_letter = w[0]
    index[init_letter].append(w)

Printing index results in the following output:

defaultdict(<type 'list'>, {'c': ['cammin', 'che'], 'e': ['era'],
        'd': ['del', 'di', 'diritta'], 'm': ['mezzo', 'mi'],
        'l': ['la'], 'o': ['oscura'], 'n': ['nel', 'nostra'],
        'p': ['per'], 's': ['selva', 'smarrita'],
        'r': ['ritrovai'], 'u': ['una'], 'v': ['vita', 'via']}

(Contribution par Guido van Rossum.)

The deque double-ended queue type supplied by the collections module now has a remove(value) method that removes the first occurrence of value in the queue, raising ValueError if the value isn't found. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

New module: The contextlib module contains helper functions for use with the new 'with' statement. See section Le module contextlib for more about this module.

New module: The cProfile module is a C implementation of the existing profile module that has much lower overhead. The module's interface is the same as profile: you run cProfile.run('main()') to profile a function, can save profile data to a file, etc. It's not yet known if the Hotshot profiler, which is also written in C but doesn't match the profile module's interface, will continue to be maintained in future versions of Python. (Contributed by Armin Rigo.)

Also, the pstats module for analyzing the data measured by the profiler now supports directing the output to any file object by supplying a stream argument to the Stats constructor. (Contributed by Skip Montanaro.)

The csv module, which parses files in comma-separated value format, received several enhancements and a number of bugfixes. You can now set the maximum size in bytes of a field by calling the csv.field_size_limit(new_limit) function; omitting the new_limit argument will return the currently set limit. The reader class now has a line_num attribute that counts the number of physical lines read from the source; records can span multiple physical lines, so line_num is not the same as the number of records read.

The CSV parser is now stricter about multi-line quoted fields. Previously, if a line ended within a quoted field without a terminating newline character, a newline would be inserted into the returned field. This behavior caused problems when reading files that contained carriage return characters within fields, so the code was changed to return the field without inserting newlines. As a consequence, if newlines embedded within fields are important, the input should be split into lines in a manner that preserves the newline characters.

(Contributed by Skip Montanaro and Andrew McNamara.)

The datetime class in the datetime module now has a strptime(string, format) method for parsing date strings, contributed by Josh Spoerri. It uses the same format characters as time.strptime() and time.strftime():

import datetime as dt

ts = dt.datetime.strptime('10:13:15 2006-03-07',
                          '%H:%M:%S %Y-%m-%d')

The SequenceMatcher.get_matching_blocks() method in the difflib module now guarantees to return a minimal list of blocks describing matching subsequences. Previously, the algorithm would occasionally break a block of matching elements into two list entries. (Enhancement by Tim Peters.)

The doctest module gained a SKIP option that keeps an example from being executed at all. This is intended for code snippets that are usage examples intended for the reader and aren't actually test cases.

An encoding parameter was added to the testfile() function and the DocFileSuite class to specify the file's encoding. This makes it easier to use non-ASCII characters in tests contained within a docstring. (Contributed by Bjorn Tillenius.)

The email package has been updated to version 4.0. (Contributed by Barry Warsaw.)

The fileinput module was made more flexible. Unicode filenames are now supported, and a mode parameter that defaults to "r" was added to the input() function to allow opening files in binary or universal newlines mode. Another new parameter, openhook, lets you use a function other than open() to open the input files. Once you're iterating over the set of files, the FileInput object's new fileno() returns the file descriptor for the currently opened file. (Contributed by Georg Brandl.)

In the gc module, the new get_count() function returns a 3-tuple containing the current collection counts for the three GC generations. This is accounting information for the garbage collector; when these counts reach a specified threshold, a garbage collection sweep will be made. The existing gc.collect() function now takes an optional generation argument of 0, 1, or 2 to specify which generation to collect. (Contributed by Barry Warsaw.)

The nsmallest() and nlargest() functions in the heapq module now support a key keyword parameter similar to the one provided by the min()/max() functions and the sort() methods. For example:

>>> import heapq
>>> L = ["short", 'medium', 'longest', 'longer still']
>>> heapq.nsmallest(2, L)  # Return two lowest elements, lexicographically
['longer still', 'longest']
>>> heapq.nsmallest(2, L, key=len)   # Return two shortest elements
['short', 'medium']

(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

The itertools.islice() function now accepts None for the start and step arguments. This makes it more compatible with the attributes of slice objects, so that you can now write the following:

s = slice(5)     # Create slice object
itertools.islice(iterable, s.start, s.stop, s.step)

(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

The format() function in the locale module has been modified and two new functions were added, format_string() and currency().

The format() function's val parameter could previously be a string as long as no more than one %char specifier appeared; now the parameter must be exactly one %char specifier with no surrounding text. An optional monetary parameter was also added which, if True, will use the locale's rules for formatting currency in placing a separator between groups of three digits.

To format strings with multiple %char specifiers, use the new format_string() function that works like format() but also supports mixing %char specifiers with arbitrary text.

A new currency() function was also added that formats a number according to the current locale's settings.

(Contributed by Georg Brandl.)

The mailbox module underwent a massive rewrite to add the capability to modify mailboxes in addition to reading them. A new set of classes that include mbox, MH, and Maildir are used to read mailboxes, and have an add(message) method to add messages, remove(key) to remove messages, and lock()/unlock() to lock/unlock the mailbox. The following example converts a maildir-format mailbox into an mbox-format one:

import mailbox

# 'factory=None' uses email.Message.Message as the class representing
# individual messages.
src = mailbox.Maildir('maildir', factory=None)
dest = mailbox.mbox('/tmp/mbox')

for msg in src:
    dest.add(msg)

(Contributed by Gregory K. Johnson. Funding was provided by Google's 2005 Summer of Code.)

New module: the msilib module allows creating Microsoft Installer .msi files and CAB files. Some support for reading the .msi database is also included. (Contributed by Martin von Löwis.)

The nis module now supports accessing domains other than the system default domain by supplying a domain argument to the nis.match() and nis.maps() functions. (Contributed by Ben Bell.)

The operator module's itemgetter() and attrgetter() functions now support multiple fields. A call such as operator.attrgetter('a', 'b') will return a function that retrieves the a and b attributes. Combining this new feature with the sort() method's key parameter lets you easily sort lists using multiple fields. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

The optparse module was updated to version 1.5.1 of the Optik library. The OptionParser class gained an epilog attribute, a string that will be printed after the help message, and a destroy() method to break reference cycles created by the object. (Contributed by Greg Ward.)

The os module underwent several changes. The stat_float_times variable now defaults to true, meaning that os.stat() will now return time values as floats. (This doesn't necessarily mean that os.stat() will return times that are precise to fractions of a second; not all systems support such precision.)

Constants named os.SEEK_SET, os.SEEK_CUR, and os.SEEK_END have been added; these are the parameters to the os.lseek() function. Two new constants for locking are os.O_SHLOCK and os.O_EXLOCK.

Two new functions, wait3() and wait4(), were added. They're similar the waitpid() function which waits for a child process to exit and returns a tuple of the process ID and its exit status, but wait3() and wait4() return additional information. wait3() doesn't take a process ID as input, so it waits for any child process to exit and returns a 3-tuple of process-id, exit-status, resource-usage as returned from the resource.getrusage() function. wait4(pid) does take a process ID. (Contributed by Chad J. Schroeder.)

On FreeBSD, the os.stat() function now returns times with nanosecond resolution, and the returned object now has st_gen and st_birthtime. The st_flags attribute is also available, if the platform supports it. (Contributed by Antti Louko and Diego Pettenò.)

The Python debugger provided by the pdb module can now store lists of commands to execute when a breakpoint is reached and execution stops. Once breakpoint #1 has been created, enter commands 1 and enter a series of commands to be executed, finishing the list with end. The command list can include commands that resume execution, such as continue or next. (Contributed by Grégoire Dooms.)

The pickle and cPickle modules no longer accept a return value of None from the __reduce__() method; the method must return a tuple of arguments instead. The ability to return None was deprecated in Python 2.4, so this completes the removal of the feature.

The pkgutil module, containing various utility functions for finding packages, was enhanced to support PEP 302 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/]'s import hooks and now also works for packages stored in ZIP-format archives. (Contributed by Phillip J. Eby.)

The pybench benchmark suite by Marc-André Lemburg is now included in the Tools/pybench directory. The pybench suite is an improvement on the commonly used pystone.py program because pybench provides a more detailed measurement of the interpreter's speed. It times particular operations such as function calls, tuple slicing, method lookups, and numeric operations, instead of performing many different operations and reducing the result to a single number as pystone.py does.

The pyexpat module now uses version 2.0 of the Expat parser. (Contributed by Trent Mick.)

The Queue class provided by the Queue module gained two new methods. join() blocks until all items in the queue have been retrieved and all processing work on the items have been completed. Worker threads call the other new method, task_done(), to signal that processing for an item has been completed. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

The old regex and regsub modules, which have been deprecated ever since Python 2.0, have finally been deleted. Other deleted modules: statcache, tzparse, whrandom.

Also deleted: the lib-old directory, which includes ancient modules such as dircmp and ni, was removed. lib-old wasn't on the default sys.path, so unless your programs explicitly added the directory to sys.path, this removal shouldn't affect your code.

The rlcompleter module is no longer dependent on importing the readline module and therefore now works on non-Unix platforms. (Patch from Robert Kiendl.)

The SimpleXMLRPCServer and DocXMLRPCServer classes now have a rpc_paths attribute that constrains XML-RPC operations to a limited set of URL paths; the default is to allow only '/' and '/RPC2'. Setting rpc_paths to None or an empty tuple disables this path checking.

The socket module now supports AF_NETLINK sockets on Linux, thanks to a patch from Philippe Biondi. Netlink sockets are a Linux-specific mechanism for communications between a user-space process and kernel code; an introductory article about them is at https://www.linuxjournal.com/article/7356. In Python code, netlink addresses are represented as a tuple of 2 integers, (pid, group_mask).

Two new methods on socket objects, recv_into(buffer) and recvfrom_into(buffer), store the received data in an object that supports the buffer protocol instead of returning the data as a string. This means you can put the data directly into an array or a memory-mapped file.

Socket objects also gained getfamily(), gettype(), and getproto() accessor methods to retrieve the family, type, and protocol values for the socket.

New module: the spwd module provides functions for accessing the shadow password database on systems that support shadow passwords.

The struct is now faster because it compiles format strings into Struct objects with pack() and unpack() methods. This is similar to how the re module lets you create compiled regular expression objects. You can still use the module-level pack() and unpack() functions; they'll create Struct objects and cache them. Or you can use Struct instances directly:

s = struct.Struct('ih3s')

data = s.pack(1972, 187, 'abc')
year, number, name = s.unpack(data)

You can also pack and unpack data to and from buffer objects directly using the pack_into(buffer, offset, v1, v2, ...) and unpack_from(buffer, offset) methods. This lets you store data directly into an array or a memory-mapped file.

(Struct objects were implemented by Bob Ippolito at the NeedForSpeed sprint. Support for buffer objects was added by Martin Blais, also at the NeedForSpeed sprint.)

The Python developers switched from CVS to Subversion during the 2.5 development process. Information about the exact build version is available as the sys.subversion variable, a 3-tuple of (interpreter-name, branch-name, revision-range). For example, at the time of writing my copy of 2.5 was reporting ('CPython', 'trunk', '45313:45315').

This information is also available to C extensions via the Py_GetBuildInfo() function that returns a string of build information like this: "trunk:45355:45356M, Apr 13 2006, 07:42:19". (Contributed by Barry Warsaw.)

Another new function, sys._current_frames(), returns the current stack frames for all running threads as a dictionary mapping thread identifiers to the topmost stack frame currently active in that thread at the time the function is called. (Contributed by Tim Peters.)

The TarFile class in the tarfile module now has an extractall() method that extracts all members from the archive into the current working directory. It's also possible to set a different directory as the extraction target, and to unpack only a subset of the archive's members.

The compression used for a tarfile opened in stream mode can now be autodetected using the mode 'r|*'. (Contributed by Lars Gustäbel.)

The threading module now lets you set the stack size used when new threads are created. The stack_size([*size*]) function returns the currently configured stack size, and supplying the optional size parameter sets a new value. Not all platforms support changing the stack size, but Windows, POSIX threading, and OS/2 all do. (Contributed by Andrew MacIntyre.)

The unicodedata module has been updated to use version 4.1.0 of the Unicode character database. Version 3.2.0 is required by some specifications, so it's still available as unicodedata.ucd_3_2_0.

New module: the uuid module generates universally unique identifiers (UUIDs) according to RFC 4122 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4122.html]. The RFC defines several different UUID versions that are generated from a starting string, from system properties, or purely randomly. This module contains a UUID class and functions named uuid1(), uuid3(), uuid4(), and uuid5() to generate different versions of UUID. (Version 2 UUIDs are not specified in RFC 4122 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4122.html] and are not supported by this module.)

>>> import uuid
>>> # make a UUID based on the host ID and current time
>>> uuid.uuid1()
UUID('a8098c1a-f86e-11da-bd1a-00112444be1e')

>>> # make a UUID using an MD5 hash of a namespace UUID and a name
>>> uuid.uuid3(uuid.NAMESPACE_DNS, 'python.org')
UUID('6fa459ea-ee8a-3ca4-894e-db77e160355e')

>>> # make a random UUID
>>> uuid.uuid4()
UUID('16fd2706-8baf-433b-82eb-8c7fada847da')

>>> # make a UUID using a SHA-1 hash of a namespace UUID and a name
>>> uuid.uuid5(uuid.NAMESPACE_DNS, 'python.org')
UUID('886313e1-3b8a-5372-9b90-0c9aee199e5d')

(Contributed by Ka-Ping Yee.)

The weakref module's WeakKeyDictionary and WeakValueDictionary types gained new methods for iterating over the weak references contained in the dictionary. iterkeyrefs() and keyrefs() methods were added to WeakKeyDictionary, and itervaluerefs() and valuerefs() were added to WeakValueDictionary. (Contributed by Fred L. Drake, Jr.)

The webbrowser module received a number of enhancements. It's now usable as a script with python -m webbrowser, taking a URL as the argument; there are a number of switches to control the behaviour (-n for a new browser window, -t for a new tab). New module-level functions, open_new() and open_new_tab(), were added to support this. The module's open() function supports an additional feature, an autoraise parameter that signals whether to raise the open window when possible. A number of additional browsers were added to the supported list such as Firefox, Opera, Konqueror, and elinks. (Contributed by Oleg Broytmann and Georg Brandl.)

The xmlrpclib module now supports returning datetime objects for the XML-RPC date type. Supply use_datetime=True to the loads() function or the Unmarshaller class to enable this feature. (Contributed by Skip Montanaro.)

The zipfile module now supports the ZIP64 version of the format, meaning that a .zip archive can now be larger than 4 GiB and can contain individual files larger than 4 GiB. (Contributed by Ronald Oussoren.)

The zlib module's Compress and Decompress objects now support a copy() method that makes a copy of the object's internal state and returns a new Compress or Decompress object. (Contributed by Chris AtLee.)

The ctypes package

The ctypes package, written by Thomas Heller, has been added to the standard library. ctypes lets you call arbitrary functions in shared libraries or DLLs. Long-time users may remember the dl module, which provides functions for loading shared libraries and calling functions in them. The ctypes package is much fancier.

To load a shared library or DLL, you must create an instance of the CDLL class and provide the name or path of the shared library or DLL. Once that's done, you can call arbitrary functions by accessing them as attributes of the CDLL object.

import ctypes

libc = ctypes.CDLL('libc.so.6')
result = libc.printf("Line of output\n")

Type constructors for the various C types are provided: c_int(), c_float(), c_double(), c_char_p() (equivalent to char*), and so forth. Unlike Python's types, the C versions are all mutable; you can assign to their value attribute to change the wrapped value. Python integers and strings will be automatically converted to the corresponding C types, but for other types you must call the correct type constructor. (And I mean must; getting it wrong will often result in the interpreter crashing with a segmentation fault.)

You shouldn't use c_char_p() with a Python string when the C function will be modifying the memory area, because Python strings are supposed to be immutable; breaking this rule will cause puzzling bugs. When you need a modifiable memory area, use create_string_buffer():

s = "this is a string"
buf = ctypes.create_string_buffer(s)
libc.strfry(buf)

C functions are assumed to return integers, but you can set the restype attribute of the function object to change this:

>>> libc.atof('2.71828')
-1783957616
>>> libc.atof.restype = ctypes.c_double
>>> libc.atof('2.71828')
2.71828

ctypes also provides a wrapper for Python's C API as the ctypes.pythonapi object. This object does not release the global interpreter lock before calling a function, because the lock must be held when calling into the interpreter's code. There's a py_object type constructor that will create a PyObject* pointer. A simple usage:

import ctypes

d = {}
ctypes.pythonapi.PyObject_SetItem(ctypes.py_object(d),
          ctypes.py_object("abc"),  ctypes.py_object(1))
# d is now {'abc', 1}.

Don't forget to use py_object(); if it's omitted you end up with a segmentation fault.

ctypes has been around for a while, but people still write and distribution hand-coded extension modules because you can't rely on ctypes being present. Perhaps developers will begin to write Python wrappers atop a library accessed through ctypes instead of extension modules, now that ctypes is included with core Python.

Voir aussi

https://web.archive.org/web/20180410025338/http://starship.python.net/crew/theller/ctypes/

The pre-stdlib ctypes web page, with a tutorial, reference, and FAQ.

The documentation for the ctypes module.

The ElementTree package

A subset of Fredrik Lundh's ElementTree library for processing XML has been added to the standard library as xml.etree. The available modules are ElementTree, ElementPath, and ElementInclude from ElementTree 1.2.6. The cElementTree accelerator module is also included.

The rest of this section will provide a brief overview of using ElementTree. Full documentation for ElementTree is available at https://web.archive.org/web/20201124024954/http://effbot.org/zone/element-index.htm.

ElementTree represents an XML document as a tree of element nodes. The text content of the document is stored as the text and tail attributes of (This is one of the major differences between ElementTree and the Document Object Model; in the DOM there are many different types of node, including TextNode.)

The most commonly used parsing function is parse(), that takes either a string (assumed to contain a filename) or a file-like object and returns an ElementTree instance:

from xml.etree import ElementTree as ET

tree = ET.parse('ex-1.xml')

feed = urllib.urlopen(
          'http://planet.python.org/rss10.xml')
tree = ET.parse(feed)

Once you have an ElementTree instance, you can call its getroot() method to get the root Element node.

There's also an XML() function that takes a string literal and returns an Element node (not an ElementTree). This function provides a tidy way to incorporate XML fragments, approaching the convenience of an XML literal:

svg = ET.XML("""<svg width="10px" version="1.0">
             </svg>""")
svg.set('height', '320px')
svg.append(elem1)

Each XML element supports some dictionary-like and some list-like access methods. Dictionary-like operations are used to access attribute values, and list-like operations are used to access child nodes.

Opération

Résultat

elem[n]

Returns n'th child element.

elem[m:n]

Returns list of m'th through n'th child elements.

len(elem)

Returns number of child elements.

list(elem)

Returns list of child elements.

elem.append(elem2)

Adds elem2 as a child.

elem.insert(index, elem2)

Inserts elem2 at the specified location.

del elem[n]

Deletes n'th child element.

elem.keys()

Returns list of attribute names.

elem.get(name)

Returns value of attribute name.

elem.set(name, value)

Sets new value for attribute name.

elem.attrib

Retrieves the dictionary containing attributes.

del elem.attrib[name]

Supprime l’attribut name.

Comments and processing instructions are also represented as Element nodes. To check if a node is a comment or processing instructions:

if elem.tag is ET.Comment:
    ...
elif elem.tag is ET.ProcessingInstruction:
    ...

To generate XML output, you should call the ElementTree.write() method. Like parse(), it can take either a string or a file-like object:

# Encoding is US-ASCII
tree.write('output.xml')

# Encoding is UTF-8
f = open('output.xml', 'w')
tree.write(f, encoding='utf-8')

(Caution: the default encoding used for output is ASCII. For general XML work, where an element's name may contain arbitrary Unicode characters, ASCII isn't a very useful encoding because it will raise an exception if an element's name contains any characters with values greater than 127. Therefore, it's best to specify a different encoding such as UTF-8 that can handle any Unicode character.)

This section is only a partial description of the ElementTree interfaces. Please read the package's official documentation for more details.

Voir aussi

https://web.archive.org/web/20201124024954/http://effbot.org/zone/element-index.htm

Official documentation for ElementTree.

The hashlib package

A new hashlib module, written by Gregory P. Smith, has been added to replace the md5 and sha modules. hashlib adds support for additional secure hashes (SHA-224, SHA-256, SHA-384, and SHA-512). When available, the module uses OpenSSL for fast platform optimized implementations of algorithms.

The old md5 and sha modules still exist as wrappers around hashlib to preserve backwards compatibility. The new module's interface is very close to that of the old modules, but not identical. The most significant difference is that the constructor functions for creating new hashing objects are named differently.

# Old versions
h = md5.md5()
h = md5.new()

# New version
h = hashlib.md5()

# Old versions
h = sha.sha()
h = sha.new()

# New version
h = hashlib.sha1()

# Hash that weren't previously available
h = hashlib.sha224()
h = hashlib.sha256()
h = hashlib.sha384()
h = hashlib.sha512()

# Alternative form
h = hashlib.new('md5')          # Provide algorithm as a string

Once a hash object has been created, its methods are the same as before: update(string) hashes the specified string into the current digest state, digest() and hexdigest() return the digest value as a binary string or a string of hex digits, and copy() returns a new hashing object with the same digest state.

Voir aussi

The documentation for the hashlib module.

The sqlite3 package

The pysqlite module (https://www.pysqlite.org), a wrapper for the SQLite embedded database, has been added to the standard library under the package name sqlite3.

SQLite est une bibliothèque C qui fournit une base de données légère sur disque ne nécessitant pas de processus serveur et qui utilise une variante (non standard) du langage de requête SQL pour accéder aux données. Certaines applications peuvent utiliser SQLite pour le stockage de données internes. Il est également possible de créer une application prototype utilisant SQLite, puis de modifier le code pour utiliser une base de données plus robuste telle que PostgreSQL ou Oracle.

pysqlite was written by Gerhard Häring and provides a SQL interface compliant with the DB-API 2.0 specification described by PEP 249 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/].

If you're compiling the Python source yourself, note that the source tree doesn't include the SQLite code, only the wrapper module. You'll need to have the SQLite libraries and headers installed before compiling Python, and the build process will compile the module when the necessary headers are available.

To use the module, you must first create a Connection object that represents the database. Here the data will be stored in the /tmp/example file:

conn = sqlite3.connect('/tmp/example')

Vous pouvez également fournir le nom spécial :memory: pour créer une base de données dans la mémoire vive.

Once you have a Connection, you can create a Cursor object and call its execute() method to perform SQL commands:

c = conn.cursor()

# Create table
c.execute('''create table stocks
(date text, trans text, symbol text,
 qty real, price real)''')

# Insert a row of data
c.execute("""insert into stocks
          values ('2006-01-05','BUY','RHAT',100,35.14)""")

Usually your SQL operations will need to use values from Python variables. You shouldn't assemble your query using Python's string operations because doing so is insecure; it makes your program vulnerable to an SQL injection attack.

Instead, use the DB-API's parameter substitution. Put ? as a placeholder wherever you want to use a value, and then provide a tuple of values as the second argument to the cursor's execute() method. (Other database modules may use a different placeholder, such as %s or :1.) For example:

# Never do this -- insecure!
symbol = 'IBM'
c.execute("... where symbol = '%s'" % symbol)

# Do this instead
t = (symbol,)
c.execute('select * from stocks where symbol=?', t)

# Larger example
for t in (('2006-03-28', 'BUY', 'IBM', 1000, 45.00),
          ('2006-04-05', 'BUY', 'MSOFT', 1000, 72.00),
          ('2006-04-06', 'SELL', 'IBM', 500, 53.00),
         ):
    c.execute('insert into stocks values (?,?,?,?,?)', t)

To retrieve data after executing a SELECT statement, you can either treat the cursor as an iterator, call the cursor's fetchone() method to retrieve a single matching row, or call fetchall() to get a list of the matching rows.

Cet exemple utilise la forme itérateur :

>>> c = conn.cursor()
>>> c.execute('select * from stocks order by price')
>>> for row in c:
...    print row
...
(u'2006-01-05', u'BUY', u'RHAT', 100, 35.140000000000001)
(u'2006-03-28', u'BUY', u'IBM', 1000, 45.0)
(u'2006-04-06', u'SELL', u'IBM', 500, 53.0)
(u'2006-04-05', u'BUY', u'MSOFT', 1000, 72.0)
>>>

For more information about the SQL dialect supported by SQLite, see https://www.sqlite.org.

Voir aussi

https://www.pysqlite.org

The pysqlite web page.

https://www.sqlite.org

Dans la page Web de SQLite, la documentation décrit la syntaxe et les types de données disponibles qui sont pris en charge par cette variante SQL.

The documentation for the sqlite3 module.

PEP 249 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/] — Spécifications de l'API 2.0 pour la base de données

PEP écrite par Marc-André Lemburg.

The wsgiref package

The Web Server Gateway Interface (WSGI) v1.0 defines a standard interface between web servers and Python web applications and is described in PEP 333 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0333/]. The wsgiref package is a reference implementation of the WSGI specification.

The package includes a basic HTTP server that will run a WSGI application; this server is useful for debugging but isn't intended for production use. Setting up a server takes only a few lines of code:

from wsgiref import simple_server

wsgi_app = ...

host = ''
port = 8000
httpd = simple_server.make_server(host, port, wsgi_app)
httpd.serve_forever()

Voir aussi

https://web.archive.org/web/20160331090247/http://wsgi.readthedocs.org/en/latest/

A central web site for WSGI-related resources.

PEP 333 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0333/] - Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0

PEP written by Phillip J. Eby.

Build and C API Changes

Changes to Python's build process and to the C API include:

The Python source tree was converted from CVS to Subversion, in a complex migration procedure that was supervised and flawlessly carried out by Martin von Löwis. The procedure was developed as PEP 347 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0347/].

Coverity, a company that markets a source code analysis tool called Prevent, provided the results of their examination of the Python source code. The analysis found about 60 bugs that were quickly fixed. Many of the bugs were refcounting problems, often occurring in error-handling code. See https://scan.coverity.com for the statistics.

The largest change to the C API came from PEP 353 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0353/], which modifies the interpreter to use a Py_ssize_t type definition instead of int. See the earlier section PEP 353: Using ssize_t as the index type for a discussion of this change.

The design of the bytecode compiler has changed a great deal, no longer generating bytecode by traversing the parse tree. Instead the parse tree is converted to an abstract syntax tree (or AST), and it is the abstract syntax tree that's traversed to produce the bytecode.

It's possible for Python code to obtain AST objects by using the compile() built-in and specifying _ast.PyCF_ONLY_AST as the value of the flags parameter:

from _ast import PyCF_ONLY_AST
ast = compile("""a=0
for i in range(10):
    a += i
""", "<string>", 'exec', PyCF_ONLY_AST)

assignment = ast.body[0]
for_loop = ast.body[1]

No official documentation has been written for the AST code yet, but PEP 339 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0339/] discusses the design. To start learning about the code, read the definition of the various AST nodes in Parser/Python.asdl. A Python script reads this file and generates a set of C structure definitions in Include/Python-ast.h. The PyParser_ASTFromString() and PyParser_ASTFromFile(), defined in Include/pythonrun.h, take Python source as input and return the root of an AST representing the contents. This AST can then be turned into a code object by PyAST_Compile(). For more information, read the source code, and then ask questions on python-dev.

The AST code was developed under Jeremy Hylton's management, and implemented by (in alphabetical order) Brett Cannon, Nick Coghlan, Grant Edwards, John Ehresman, Kurt Kaiser, Neal Norwitz, Tim Peters, Armin Rigo, and Neil Schemenauer, plus the participants in a number of AST sprints at conferences such as PyCon.

Evan Jones's patch to obmalloc, first described in a talk at PyCon DC 2005, was applied. Python 2.4 allocated small objects in 256K-sized arenas, but never freed arenas. With this patch, Python will free arenas when they're empty. The net effect is that on some platforms, when you allocate many objects, Python's memory usage may actually drop when you delete them and the memory may be returned to the operating system. (Implemented by Evan Jones, and reworked by Tim Peters.)

Note that this change means extension modules must be more careful when allocating memory. Python's API has many different functions for allocating memory that are grouped into families. For example, PyMem_Malloc(), PyMem_Realloc(), and PyMem_Free() are one family that allocates raw memory, while PyObject_Malloc(), PyObject_Realloc(), and PyObject_Free() are another family that's supposed to be used for creating Python objects.

Previously these different families all reduced to the platform's malloc() and free() functions. This meant it didn't matter if you got things wrong and allocated memory with the PyMem function but freed it with the PyObject function. With 2.5's changes to obmalloc, these families now do different things and mismatches will probably result in a segfault. You should carefully test your C extension modules with Python 2.5.

The built-in set types now have an official C API. Call PySet_New() and PyFrozenSet_New() to create a new set, PySet_Add() and PySet_Discard() to add and remove elements, and PySet_Contains() and PySet_Size() to examine the set's state. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

C code can now obtain information about the exact revision of the Python interpreter by calling the Py_GetBuildInfo() function that returns a string of build information like this: "trunk:45355:45356M, Apr 13 2006, 07:42:19". (Contributed by Barry Warsaw.)

Two new macros can be used to indicate C functions that are local to the current file so that a faster calling convention can be used. Py_LOCAL declares the function as returning a value of the specified type and uses a fast-calling qualifier. Py_LOCAL_INLINE does the same thing and also requests the function be inlined. If macro PY_LOCAL_AGGRESSIVE is defined before python.h is included, a set of more aggressive optimizations are enabled for the module; you should benchmark the results to find out if these optimizations actually make the code faster. (Contributed by Fredrik Lundh at the NeedForSpeed sprint.)

PyErr_NewException(name, base, dict) can now accept a tuple of base classes as its base argument. (Contributed by Georg Brandl.)

The PyErr_Warn() function for issuing warnings is now deprecated in favour of PyErr_WarnEx(category, message, stacklevel) which lets you specify the number of stack frames separating this function and the caller. A stacklevel of 1 is the function calling PyErr_WarnEx(), 2 is the function above that, and so forth. (Added by Neal Norwitz.)

The CPython interpreter is still written in C, but the code can now be compiled with a C++ compiler without errors. (Implemented by Anthony Baxter, Martin von Löwis, Skip Montanaro.)

The PyRange_New() function was removed. It was never documented, never used in the core code, and had dangerously lax error checking. In the unlikely case that your extensions were using it, you can replace it by something like the following:

range = PyObject_CallFunction((PyObject*) &PyRange_Type, "lll",
                              start, stop, step);

Port-Specific Changes

MacOS X (10.3 and higher): dynamic loading of modules now uses the dlopen() function instead of MacOS-specific functions.

MacOS X: an --enable-universalsdk switch was added to the configure script that compiles the interpreter as a universal binary able to run on both PowerPC and Intel processors. (Contributed by Ronald Oussoren; bpo-2573 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2573].)

Windows: .dll is no longer supported as a filename extension for extension modules. .pyd is now the only filename extension that will be searched for.

Portage vers Python 2.5

This section lists previously described changes that may require changes to your code:

ASCII is now the default encoding for modules. It's now a syntax error if a module contains string literals with 8-bit characters but doesn't have an encoding declaration. In Python 2.4 this triggered a warning, not a syntax error.

Previously, the gi_frame attribute of a generator was always a frame object. Because of the PEP 342 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0342/] changes described in section PEP 342: New Generator Features, it's now possible for gi_frame to be None.

A new warning, UnicodeWarning, is triggered when you attempt to compare a Unicode string and an 8-bit string that can't be converted to Unicode using the default ASCII encoding. Previously such comparisons would raise a UnicodeDecodeError exception.

Library: the csv module is now stricter about multi-line quoted fields. If your files contain newlines embedded within fields, the input should be split into lines in a manner which preserves the newline characters.

Library: the locale module's format() function's would previously accept any string as long as no more than one %char specifier appeared. In Python 2.5, the argument must be exactly one %char specifier with no surrounding text.

Library: The pickle and cPickle modules no longer accept a return value of None from the __reduce__() method; the method must return a tuple of arguments instead. The modules also no longer accept the deprecated bin keyword parameter.

Library: The SimpleXMLRPCServer and DocXMLRPCServer classes now have a rpc_paths attribute that constrains XML-RPC operations to a limited set of URL paths; the default is to allow only '/' and '/RPC2'. Setting rpc_paths to None or an empty tuple disables this path checking.

C API: Many functions now use Py_ssize_t instead of int to allow processing more data on 64-bit machines. Extension code may need to make the same change to avoid warnings and to support 64-bit machines. See the earlier section PEP 353: Using ssize_t as the index type for a discussion of this change.

C API: The obmalloc changes mean that you must be careful to not mix usage of the PyMem_* and PyObject_* families of functions. Memory allocated with one family's *_Malloc must be freed with the corresponding family's *_Free function.

Remerciements

The author would like to thank the following people for offering suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this article: Georg Brandl, Nick Coghlan, Phillip J. Eby, Lars Gustäbel, Raymond Hettinger, Ralf W. Grosse-Kunstleve, Kent Johnson, Iain Lowe, Martin von Löwis, Fredrik Lundh, Andrew McNamara, Skip Montanaro, Gustavo Niemeyer, Paul Prescod, James Pryor, Mike Rovner, Scott Weikart, Barry Warsaw, Thomas Wouters.

Nouveautés de Python 2.4

Auteur:

A.M. Kuchling

This article explains the new features in Python 2.4.1, released on March 30, 2005.

Python 2.4 is a medium-sized release. It doesn't introduce as many changes as the radical Python 2.2, but introduces more features than the conservative 2.3 release. The most significant new language features are function decorators and generator expressions; most other changes are to the standard library.

According to the CVS change logs, there were 481 patches applied and 502 bugs fixed between Python 2.3 and 2.4. Both figures are likely to be underestimates.

This article doesn't attempt to provide a complete specification of every single new feature, but instead provides a brief introduction to each feature. For full details, you should refer to the documentation for Python 2.4, such as the Python Library Reference and the Python Reference Manual. Often you will be referred to the PEP for a particular new feature for explanations of the implementation and design rationale.

PEP 218: Built-In Set Objects

Python 2.3 introduced the sets module. C implementations of set data types have now been added to the Python core as two new built-in types, set(iterable) and frozenset(iterable). They provide high speed operations for membership testing, for eliminating duplicates from sequences, and for mathematical operations like unions, intersections, differences, and symmetric differences.

>>> a = set('abracadabra')              # form a set from a string
>>> 'z' in a                            # fast membership testing
False
>>> a                                   # unique letters in a
set(['a', 'r', 'b', 'c', 'd'])
>>> ''.join(a)                          # convert back into a string
'arbcd'

>>> b = set('alacazam')                 # form a second set
>>> a - b                               # letters in a but not in b
set(['r', 'd', 'b'])
>>> a | b                               # letters in either a or b
set(['a', 'c', 'r', 'd', 'b', 'm', 'z', 'l'])
>>> a & b                               # letters in both a and b
set(['a', 'c'])
>>> a ^ b                               # letters in a or b but not both
set(['r', 'd', 'b', 'm', 'z', 'l'])

>>> a.add('z')                          # add a new element
>>> a.update('wxy')                     # add multiple new elements
>>> a
set(['a', 'c', 'b', 'd', 'r', 'w', 'y', 'x', 'z'])
>>> a.remove('x')                       # take one element out
>>> a
set(['a', 'c', 'b', 'd', 'r', 'w', 'y', 'z'])

The frozenset() type is an immutable version of set(). Since it is immutable and hashable, it may be used as a dictionary key or as a member of another set.

The sets module remains in the standard library, and may be useful if you wish to subclass the Set or ImmutableSet classes. There are currently no plans to deprecate the module.

Voir aussi

PEP 218 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0218/] - Adding a Built-In Set Object Type

Originally proposed by Greg Wilson and ultimately implemented by Raymond Hettinger.

PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers

The lengthy transition process for this PEP, begun in Python 2.2, takes another step forward in Python 2.4. In 2.3, certain integer operations that would behave differently after int/long unification triggered FutureWarning warnings and returned values limited to 32 or 64 bits (depending on your platform). In 2.4, these expressions no longer produce a warning and instead produce a different result that's usually a long integer.

The problematic expressions are primarily left shifts and lengthy hexadecimal and octal constants. For example, 2 << 32 results in a warning in 2.3, evaluating to 0 on 32-bit platforms. In Python 2.4, this expression now returns the correct answer, 8589934592.

Voir aussi

PEP 237 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0237/] - Unifying Long Integers and Integers

Original PEP written by Moshe Zadka and GvR. The changes for 2.4 were implemented by Kalle Svensson.

PEP 289: Generator Expressions

The iterator feature introduced in Python 2.2 and the itertools module make it easier to write programs that loop through large data sets without having the entire data set in memory at one time. List comprehensions don't fit into this picture very well because they produce a Python list object containing all of the items. This unavoidably pulls all of the objects into memory, which can be a problem if your data set is very large. When trying to write a functionally styled program, it would be natural to write something like:

links = [link for link in get_all_links() if not link.followed]
for link in links:
    ...

instead of

for link in get_all_links():
    if link.followed:
        continue
    ...

The first form is more concise and perhaps more readable, but if you're dealing with a large number of link objects you'd have to write the second form to avoid having all link objects in memory at the same time.

Generator expressions work similarly to list comprehensions but don't materialize the entire list; instead they create a generator that will return elements one by one. The above example could be written as:

links = (link for link in get_all_links() if not link.followed)
for link in links:
    ...

Generator expressions always have to be written inside parentheses, as in the above example. The parentheses signalling a function call also count, so if you want to create an iterator that will be immediately passed to a function you could write:

print sum(obj.count for obj in list_all_objects())

Generator expressions differ from list comprehensions in various small ways. Most notably, the loop variable (obj in the above example) is not accessible outside of the generator expression. List comprehensions leave the variable assigned to its last value; future versions of Python will change this, making list comprehensions match generator expressions in this respect.

Voir aussi

PEP 289 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0289/] - Generator Expressions

Proposed by Raymond Hettinger and implemented by Jiwon Seo with early efforts steered by Hye-Shik Chang.

PEP 292: Simpler String Substitutions

Some new classes in the standard library provide an alternative mechanism for substituting variables into strings; this style of substitution may be better for applications where untrained users need to edit templates.

The usual way of substituting variables by name is the % operator:

>>> '%(page)i: %(title)s' % {'page':2, 'title': 'The Best of Times'}
'2: The Best of Times'

When writing the template string, it can be easy to forget the i or s after the closing parenthesis. This isn't a big problem if the template is in a Python module, because you run the code, get an "Unsupported format character" ValueError, and fix the problem. However, consider an application such as Mailman where template strings or translations are being edited by users who aren't aware of the Python language. The format string's syntax is complicated to explain to such users, and if they make a mistake, it's difficult to provide helpful feedback to them.

PEP 292 adds a Template class to the string module that uses $ to indicate a substitution:

>>> import string
>>> t = string.Template('$page: $title')
>>> t.substitute({'page':2, 'title': 'The Best of Times'})
'2: The Best of Times'

If a key is missing from the dictionary, the substitute() method will raise a KeyError. There's also a safe_substitute() method that ignores missing keys:

>>> t = string.Template('$page: $title')
>>> t.safe_substitute({'page':3})
'3: $title'

Voir aussi

PEP 292 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0292/] - Simpler String Substitutions

Écrit et implémenté par Barry Warsaw.

PEP 318: Decorators for Functions and Methods

Python 2.2 extended Python's object model by adding static methods and class methods, but it didn't extend Python's syntax to provide any new way of defining static or class methods. Instead, you had to write a def statement in the usual way, and pass the resulting method to a staticmethod() or classmethod() function that would wrap up the function as a method of the new type. Your code would look like this:

class C:
   def meth (cls):
       ...

   meth = classmethod(meth)   # Rebind name to wrapped-up class method

If the method was very long, it would be easy to miss or forget the classmethod() invocation after the function body.

The intention was always to add some syntax to make such definitions more readable, but at the time of 2.2's release a good syntax was not obvious. Today a good syntax still isn't obvious but users are asking for easier access to the feature; a new syntactic feature has been added to meet this need.

The new feature is called "function decorators". The name comes from the idea that classmethod(), staticmethod(), and friends are storing additional information on a function object; they're decorating functions with more details.

The notation borrows from Java and uses the '@' character as an indicator. Using the new syntax, the example above would be written:

class C:

   @classmethod
   def meth (cls):
       ...

The @classmethod is shorthand for the meth=classmethod(meth) assignment. More generally, if you have the following:

@A
@B
@C
def f ():
    ...

It's equivalent to the following pre-decorator code:

def f(): ...
f = A(B(C(f)))

Decorators must come on the line before a function definition, one decorator per line, and can't be on the same line as the def statement, meaning that @A def f(): ... is illegal. You can only decorate function definitions, either at the module level or inside a class; you can't decorate class definitions.

A decorator is just a function that takes the function to be decorated as an argument and returns either the same function or some new object. The return value of the decorator need not be callable (though it typically is), unless further decorators will be applied to the result. It's easy to write your own decorators. The following simple example just sets an attribute on the function object:

>>> def deco(func):
...    func.attr = 'decorated'
...    return func
...
>>> @deco
... def f(): pass
...
>>> f
<function f at 0x402ef0d4>
>>> f.attr
'decorated'
>>>

As a slightly more realistic example, the following decorator checks that the supplied argument is an integer:

def require_int (func):
    def wrapper (arg):
        assert isinstance(arg, int)
        return func(arg)

    return wrapper

@require_int
def p1 (arg):
    print arg

@require_int
def p2(arg):
    print arg*2

An example in PEP 318 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0318/] contains a fancier version of this idea that lets you both specify the required type and check the returned type.

Decorator functions can take arguments. If arguments are supplied, your decorator function is called with only those arguments and must return a new decorator function; this function must take a single function and return a function, as previously described. In other words, @A @B @C(args) becomes:

def f(): ...
_deco = C(args)
f = A(B(_deco(f)))

Getting this right can be slightly brain-bending, but it's not too difficult.

A small related change makes the func_name attribute of functions writable. This attribute is used to display function names in tracebacks, so decorators should change the name of any new function that's constructed and returned.

Voir aussi

PEP 318 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0318/] - Decorators for Functions, Methods and Classes

Written by Kevin D. Smith, Jim Jewett, and Skip Montanaro. Several people wrote patches implementing function decorators, but the one that was actually checked in was patch #979728, written by Mark Russell.

https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonDecoratorLibrary

This Wiki page contains several examples of decorators.

PEP 322: Reverse Iteration

A new built-in function, reversed(seq), takes a sequence and returns an iterator that loops over the elements of the sequence in reverse order.

>>> for i in reversed(xrange(1,4)):
...    print i
...
3
2
1

Compared to extended slicing, such as range(1,4)[::-1], reversed() is easier to read, runs faster, and uses substantially less memory.

Note that reversed() only accepts sequences, not arbitrary iterators. If you want to reverse an iterator, first convert it to a list with list().

>>> input = open('/etc/passwd', 'r')
>>> for line in reversed(list(input)):
...   print line
...
root:*:0:0:System Administrator:/var/root:/bin/tcsh
  ...

Voir aussi

PEP 322 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0322/] - Reverse Iteration

Written and implemented by Raymond Hettinger.

PEP 324: New subprocess Module

The standard library provides a number of ways to execute a subprocess, offering different features and different levels of complexity. os.system(command) is easy to use, but slow (it runs a shell process which executes the command) and dangerous (you have to be careful about escaping the shell's metacharacters). The popen2 module offers classes that can capture standard output and standard error from the subprocess, but the naming is confusing. The subprocess module cleans this up, providing a unified interface that offers all the features you might need.

Instead of popen2's collection of classes, subprocess contains a single class called subprocess.Popen whose constructor supports a number of different keyword arguments.

class Popen(args, bufsize=0, executable=None,
            stdin=None, stdout=None, stderr=None,
            preexec_fn=None, close_fds=False, shell=False,
            cwd=None, env=None, universal_newlines=False,
            startupinfo=None, creationflags=0):

args is commonly a sequence of strings that will be the arguments to the program executed as the subprocess. (If the shell argument is true, args can be a string which will then be passed on to the shell for interpretation, just as os.system() does.)

stdin, stdout, and stderr specify what the subprocess's input, output, and error streams will be. You can provide a file object or a file descriptor, or you can use the constant subprocess.PIPE to create a pipe between the subprocess and the parent.

The constructor has a number of handy options:

close_fds requests that all file descriptors be closed before running the subprocess.

cwd specifies the working directory in which the subprocess will be executed (defaulting to whatever the parent's working directory is).

env is a dictionary specifying environment variables.

preexec_fn is a function that gets called before the child is started.

universal_newlines opens the child's input and output using Python's universal newlines feature.

Once you've created the Popen instance, you can call its wait() method to pause until the subprocess has exited, poll() to check if it's exited without pausing, or communicate(data) to send the string data to the subprocess's standard input. communicate(data) then reads any data that the subprocess has sent to its standard output or standard error, returning a tuple (stdout_data, stderr_data).

call() is a shortcut that passes its arguments along to the Popen constructor, waits for the command to complete, and returns the status code of the subprocess. It can serve as a safer analog to os.system():

sts = subprocess.call(['dpkg', '-i', '/tmp/new-package.deb'])
if sts == 0:
    # Success
    ...
else:
    # dpkg returned an error
    ...

The command is invoked without use of the shell. If you really do want to use the shell, you can add shell=True as a keyword argument and provide a string instead of a sequence:

sts = subprocess.call('dpkg -i /tmp/new-package.deb', shell=True)

The PEP takes various examples of shell and Python code and shows how they'd be translated into Python code that uses subprocess. Reading this section of the PEP is highly recommended.

Voir aussi

PEP 324 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0324/] - subprocess - New process module

Written and implemented by Peter Åstrand, with assistance from Fredrik Lundh and others.

PEP 327: Decimal Data Type

Python has always supported floating-point (FP) numbers, based on the underlying C double type, as a data type. However, while most programming languages provide a floating-point type, many people (even programmers) are unaware that floating-point numbers don't represent certain decimal fractions accurately. The new Decimal type can represent these fractions accurately, up to a user-specified precision limit.

Why is Decimal needed?

The limitations arise from the representation used for floating-point numbers. FP numbers are made up of three components:

The sign, which is positive or negative.

The mantissa, which is a single-digit binary number followed by a fractional part. For example, 1.01 in base-2 notation is 1 + 0/2 + 1/4, or 1.25 in decimal notation.

The exponent, which tells where the decimal point is located in the number represented.

For example, the number 1.25 has positive sign, a mantissa value of 1.01 (in binary), and an exponent of 0 (the decimal point doesn't need to be shifted). The number 5 has the same sign and mantissa, but the exponent is 2 because the mantissa is multiplied by 4 (2 to the power of the exponent 2); 1.25 * 4 equals 5.

Modern systems usually provide floating-point support that conforms to a standard called IEEE 754. C's double type is usually implemented as a 64-bit IEEE 754 number, which uses 52 bits of space for the mantissa. This means that numbers can only be specified to 52 bits of precision. If you're trying to represent numbers whose expansion repeats endlessly, the expansion is cut off after 52 bits. Unfortunately, most software needs to produce output in base 10, and common fractions in base 10 are often repeating decimals in binary. For example, 1.1 decimal is binary 1.0001100110011 ...; .1 = 1/16 + 1/32 + 1/256 plus an infinite number of additional terms. IEEE 754 has to chop off that infinitely repeated decimal after 52 digits, so the representation is slightly inaccurate.

Sometimes you can see this inaccuracy when the number is printed:

>>> 1.1
1.1000000000000001

The inaccuracy isn't always visible when you print the number because the FP-to-decimal-string conversion is provided by the C library, and most C libraries try to produce sensible output. Even if it's not displayed, however, the inaccuracy is still there and subsequent operations can magnify the error.

For many applications this doesn't matter. If I'm plotting points and displaying them on my monitor, the difference between 1.1 and 1.1000000000000001 is too small to be visible. Reports often limit output to a certain number of decimal places, and if you round the number to two or three or even eight decimal places, the error is never apparent. However, for applications where it does matter, it's a lot of work to implement your own custom arithmetic routines.

Hence, the Decimal type was created.

The Decimal type

A new module, decimal, was added to Python's standard library. It contains two classes, Decimal and Context. Decimal instances represent numbers, and Context instances are used to wrap up various settings such as the precision and default rounding mode.

Decimal instances are immutable, like regular Python integers and FP numbers; once it's been created, you can't change the value an instance represents. Decimal instances can be created from integers or strings:

>>> import decimal
>>> decimal.Decimal(1972)
Decimal("1972")
>>> decimal.Decimal("1.1")
Decimal("1.1")

You can also provide tuples containing the sign, the mantissa represented as a tuple of decimal digits, and the exponent:

>>> decimal.Decimal((1, (1, 4, 7, 5), -2))
Decimal("-14.75")

Cautionary note: the sign bit is a Boolean value, so 0 is positive and 1 is negative.

Converting from floating-point numbers poses a bit of a problem: should the FP number representing 1.1 turn into the decimal number for exactly 1.1, or for 1.1 plus whatever inaccuracies are introduced? The decision was to dodge the issue and leave such a conversion out of the API. Instead, you should convert the floating-point number into a string using the desired precision and pass the string to the Decimal constructor:

>>> f = 1.1
>>> decimal.Decimal(str(f))
Decimal("1.1")
>>> decimal.Decimal('%.12f' % f)
Decimal("1.100000000000")

Once you have Decimal instances, you can perform the usual mathematical operations on them. One limitation: exponentiation requires an integer exponent:

>>> a = decimal.Decimal('35.72')
>>> b = decimal.Decimal('1.73')
>>> a+b
Decimal("37.45")
>>> a-b
Decimal("33.99")
>>> a*b
Decimal("61.7956")
>>> a/b
Decimal("20.64739884393063583815028902")
>>> a ** 2
Decimal("1275.9184")
>>> a**b
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
decimal.InvalidOperation: x ** (non-integer)

You can combine Decimal instances with integers, but not with floating-point numbers:

>>> a + 4
Decimal("39.72")
>>> a + 4.5
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
TypeError: You can interact Decimal only with int, long or Decimal data types.
>>>

Decimal numbers can be used with the math and cmath modules, but note that they'll be immediately converted to floating-point numbers before the operation is performed, resulting in a possible loss of precision and accuracy. You'll also get back a regular floating-point number and not a Decimal.

>>> import math, cmath
>>> d = decimal.Decimal('123456789012.345')
>>> math.sqrt(d)
351364.18288201344
>>> cmath.sqrt(-d)
351364.18288201344j

Decimal instances have a sqrt() method that returns a Decimal, but if you need other things such as trigonometric functions you'll have to implement them.

>>> d.sqrt()
Decimal("351364.1828820134592177245001")

The Context type

Instances of the Context class encapsulate several settings for decimal operations:

prec is the precision, the number of decimal places.

rounding specifies the rounding mode. The decimal module has constants for the various possibilities: ROUND_DOWN, ROUND_CEILING, ROUND_HALF_EVEN, and various others.

traps is a dictionary specifying what happens on encountering certain error conditions: either an exception is raised or a value is returned. Some examples of error conditions are division by zero, loss of precision, and overflow.

There's a thread-local default context available by calling getcontext(); you can change the properties of this context to alter the default precision, rounding, or trap handling. The following example shows the effect of changing the precision of the default context:

>>> decimal.getcontext().prec
28
>>> decimal.Decimal(1) / decimal.Decimal(7)
Decimal("0.1428571428571428571428571429")
>>> decimal.getcontext().prec = 9
>>> decimal.Decimal(1) / decimal.Decimal(7)
Decimal("0.142857143")

The default action for error conditions is selectable; the module can either return a special value such as infinity or not-a-number, or exceptions can be raised:

>>> decimal.Decimal(1) / decimal.Decimal(0)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
decimal.DivisionByZero: x / 0
>>> decimal.getcontext().traps[decimal.DivisionByZero] = False
>>> decimal.Decimal(1) / decimal.Decimal(0)
Decimal("Infinity")
>>>

The Context instance also has various methods for formatting numbers such as to_eng_string() and to_sci_string().

For more information, see the documentation for the decimal module, which includes a quick-start tutorial and a reference.

Voir aussi

PEP 327 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0327/] - Decimal Data Type

Written by Facundo Batista and implemented by Facundo Batista, Eric Price, Raymond Hettinger, Aahz, and Tim Peters.

http://www.lahey.com/float.htm [https://web.archive.org/web/20230604072523/http://www.lahey.com/float.htm]

The article uses Fortran code to illustrate many of the problems that floating-point inaccuracy can cause.

https://speleotrove.com/decimal/

A description of a decimal-based representation. This representation is being proposed as a standard, and underlies the new Python decimal type. Much of this material was written by Mike Cowlishaw, designer of the Rexx language.

PEP 328: Multi-line Imports

One language change is a small syntactic tweak aimed at making it easier to import many names from a module. In a from module import names statement, names is a sequence of names separated by commas. If the sequence is very long, you can either write multiple imports from the same module, or you can use backslashes to escape the line endings like this:

from SimpleXMLRPCServer import SimpleXMLRPCServer,\
            SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler,\
            CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler,\
            resolve_dotted_attribute

The syntactic change in Python 2.4 simply allows putting the names within parentheses. Python ignores newlines within a parenthesized expression, so the backslashes are no longer needed:

from SimpleXMLRPCServer import (SimpleXMLRPCServer,
                                SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler,
                                CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler,
                                resolve_dotted_attribute)

The PEP also proposes that all import statements be absolute imports, with a leading . character to indicate a relative import. This part of the PEP was not implemented for Python 2.4, but was completed for Python 2.5.

Voir aussi

PEP 328 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/] - Imports: Multi-Line and Absolute/Relative

Written by Aahz. Multi-line imports were implemented by Dima Dorfman.

PEP 331: Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions

The locale modules lets Python software select various conversions and display conventions that are localized to a particular country or language. However, the module was careful to not change the numeric locale because various functions in Python's implementation required that the numeric locale remain set to the 'C' locale. Often this was because the code was using the C library's atof() function.

Not setting the numeric locale caused trouble for extensions that used third-party C libraries, however, because they wouldn't have the correct locale set. The motivating example was GTK+, whose user interface widgets weren't displaying numbers in the current locale.

The solution described in the PEP is to add three new functions to the Python API that perform ASCII-only conversions, ignoring the locale setting:

PyOS_ascii_strtod(str, ptr) and PyOS_ascii_atof(str, ptr) both convert a string to a C double.

PyOS_ascii_formatd(buffer, buf_len, format, d) converts a double to an ASCII string.

The code for these functions came from the GLib library (https://developer-old.gnome.org/glib/2.26/ [http://web.archive.org/web/20210306104320/https://developer.gnome.org/glib/2.26/]), whose developers kindly relicensed the relevant functions and donated them to the Python Software Foundation. The locale module can now change the numeric locale, letting extensions such as GTK+ produce the correct results.

Voir aussi

PEP 331 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0331/] - Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions

Written by Christian R. Reis, and implemented by Gustavo Carneiro.

Autres changements au langage

Here are all of the changes that Python 2.4 makes to the core Python language.

Decorators for functions and methods were added (PEP 318 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0318/]).

Built-in set() and frozenset() types were added (PEP 218 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0218/]). Other new built-ins include the reversed(seq) function (PEP 322 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0322/]).

Generator expressions were added (PEP 289 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0289/]).

Certain numeric expressions no longer return values restricted to 32 or 64 bits (PEP 237 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0237/]).

You can now put parentheses around the list of names in a from module import names statement (PEP 328 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/]).

The dict.update() method now accepts the same argument forms as the dict constructor. This includes any mapping, any iterable of key/value pairs, and keyword arguments. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

The string methods ljust(), rjust(), and center() now take an optional argument for specifying a fill character other than a space. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

Strings also gained an rsplit() method that works like the split() method but splits from the end of the string. (Contributed by Sean Reifschneider.)

>>> 'www.python.org'.split('.', 1)
['www', 'python.org']
'www.python.org'.rsplit('.', 1)
['www.python', 'org']

Three keyword parameters, cmp, key, and reverse, were added to the sort() method of lists. These parameters make some common usages of sort() simpler. All of these parameters are optional.

For the cmp parameter, the value should be a comparison function that takes two parameters and returns -1, 0, or +1 depending on how the parameters compare. This function will then be used to sort the list. Previously this was the only parameter that could be provided to sort().

key should be a single-parameter function that takes a list element and returns a comparison key for the element. The list is then sorted using the comparison keys. The following example sorts a list case-insensitively:

>>> L = ['A', 'b', 'c', 'D']
>>> L.sort()                 # Case-sensitive sort
>>> L
['A', 'D', 'b', 'c']
>>> # Using 'key' parameter to sort list
>>> L.sort(key=lambda x: x.lower())
>>> L
['A', 'b', 'c', 'D']
>>> # Old-fashioned way
>>> L.sort(cmp=lambda x,y: cmp(x.lower(), y.lower()))
>>> L
['A', 'b', 'c', 'D']

The last example, which uses the cmp parameter, is the old way to perform a case-insensitive sort. It works but is slower than using a key parameter. Using key calls lower() method once for each element in the list while using cmp will call it twice for each comparison, so using key saves on invocations of the lower() method.

For simple key functions and comparison functions, it is often possible to avoid a lambda expression by using an unbound method instead. For example, the above case-insensitive sort is best written as:

>>> L.sort(key=str.lower)
>>> L
['A', 'b', 'c', 'D']

Finally, the reverse parameter takes a Boolean value. If the value is true, the list will be sorted into reverse order. Instead of L.sort(); L.reverse(), you can now write L.sort(reverse=True).

The results of sorting are now guaranteed to be stable. This means that two entries with equal keys will be returned in the same order as they were input. For example, you can sort a list of people by name, and then sort the list by age, resulting in a list sorted by age where people with the same age are in name-sorted order.

(All changes to sort() contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

There is a new built-in function sorted(iterable) that works like the in-place list.sort() method but can be used in expressions. The differences are:

the input may be any iterable;

a newly formed copy is sorted, leaving the original intact; and

the expression returns the new sorted copy

>>> L = [9,7,8,3,2,4,1,6,5]
>>> [10+i for i in sorted(L)]       # usable in a list comprehension
[11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19]
>>> L                               # original is left unchanged
[9,7,8,3,2,4,1,6,5]
>>> sorted('Monty Python')          # any iterable may be an input
[' ', 'M', 'P', 'h', 'n', 'n', 'o', 'o', 't', 't', 'y', 'y']

>>> # List the contents of a dict sorted by key values
>>> colormap = dict(red=1, blue=2, green=3, black=4, yellow=5)
>>> for k, v in sorted(colormap.iteritems()):
...     print k, v
...
black 4
blue 2
green 3
red 1
yellow 5

(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

Integer operations will no longer trigger an OverflowWarning. The OverflowWarning warning will disappear in Python 2.5.

The interpreter gained a new switch, -m, that takes a name, searches for the corresponding module on sys.path, and runs the module as a script. For example, you can now run the Python profiler with python -m profile. (Contributed by Nick Coghlan.)

The eval(expr, globals, locals) and execfile(filename, globals, locals) functions and the exec statement now accept any mapping type for the locals parameter. Previously this had to be a regular Python dictionary. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

The zip() built-in function and itertools.izip() now return an empty list if called with no arguments. Previously they raised a TypeError exception. This makes them more suitable for use with variable length argument lists:

>>> def transpose(array):
...    return zip(*array)
...
>>> transpose([(1,2,3), (4,5,6)])
[(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 6)]
>>> transpose([])
[]

(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

Encountering a failure while importing a module no longer leaves a partially initialized module object in sys.modules. The incomplete module object left behind would fool further imports of the same module into succeeding, leading to confusing errors. (Fixed by Tim Peters.)

None is now a constant; code that binds a new value to the name None is now a syntax error. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

Optimizations

The inner loops for list and tuple slicing were optimized and now run about one-third faster. The inner loops for dictionaries were also optimized, resulting in performance boosts for keys(), values(), items(), iterkeys(), itervalues(), and iteritems(). (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

The machinery for growing and shrinking lists was optimized for speed and for space efficiency. Appending and popping from lists now runs faster due to more efficient code paths and less frequent use of the underlying system realloc(). List comprehensions also benefit. list.extend() was also optimized and no longer converts its argument into a temporary list before extending the base list. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

list(), tuple(), map(), filter(), and zip() now run several times faster with non-sequence arguments that supply a __len__() method. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

The methods list.__getitem__(), dict.__getitem__(), and dict.__contains__() are now implemented as method_descriptor objects rather than wrapper_descriptor objects. This form of access doubles their performance and makes them more suitable for use as arguments to functionals: map(mydict.__getitem__, keylist). (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

Added a new opcode, LIST_APPEND, that simplifies the generated bytecode for list comprehensions and speeds them up by about a third. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

The peephole bytecode optimizer has been improved to produce shorter, faster bytecode; remarkably, the resulting bytecode is more readable. (Enhanced by Raymond Hettinger.)

String concatenations in statements of the form s = s + "abc" and s += "abc" are now performed more efficiently in certain circumstances. This optimization won't be present in other Python implementations such as Jython, so you shouldn't rely on it; using the join() method of strings is still recommended when you want to efficiently glue a large number of strings together. (Contributed by Armin Rigo.)

The net result of the 2.4 optimizations is that Python 2.4 runs the pystone benchmark around 5% faster than Python 2.3 and 35% faster than Python 2.2. (pystone is not a particularly good benchmark, but it's the most commonly used measurement of Python's performance. Your own applications may show greater or smaller benefits from Python 2.4.)

New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules

As usual, Python's standard library received a number of enhancements and bug fixes. Here's a partial list of the most notable changes, sorted alphabetically by module name. Consult the Misc/NEWS file in the source tree for a more complete list of changes, or look through the CVS logs for all the details.

The asyncore module's loop() function now has a count parameter that lets you perform a limited number of passes through the polling loop. The default is still to loop forever.

The base64 module now has more complete RFC 3548 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3548.html] support for Base64, Base32, and Base16 encoding and decoding, including optional case folding and optional alternative alphabets. (Contributed by Barry Warsaw.)

The bisect module now has an underlying C implementation for improved performance. (Contributed by Dmitry Vasiliev.)

The CJKCodecs collections of East Asian codecs, maintained by Hye-Shik Chang, was integrated into 2.4. The new encodings are:

Chinois (PRC) : gb2312, gbk, gb18030, big5hkscs, hz

Chinois (ROC) : big5, cp950

Japonais : cp932, euc-jis-2004, euc-jp, euc-jisx0213, iso-2022-jp,

iso-2022-jp-1, iso-2022-jp-2, iso-2022-jp-3, iso-2022-jp-ext, iso-2022-jp-2004, shift-jis, shift-jisx0213, shift-jis-2004

Coréen : cp949, euc-kr, johab, iso-2022-kr

D’autres encodages ont été ajoutés : HP Roman8, ISO_8859-11, ISO_8859-16, PCTP-154, et TIS-620.

The UTF-8 and UTF-16 codecs now cope better with receiving partial input. Previously the StreamReader class would try to read more data, making it impossible to resume decoding from the stream. The read() method will now return as much data as it can and future calls will resume decoding where previous ones left off. (Implemented by Walter Dörwald.)

There is a new collections module for various specialized collection datatypes. Currently it contains just one type, deque, a double-ended queue that supports efficiently adding and removing elements from either end:

>>> from collections import deque
>>> d = deque('ghi')        # make a new deque with three items
>>> d.append('j')           # add a new entry to the right side
>>> d.appendleft('f')       # add a new entry to the left side
>>> d                       # show the representation of the deque
deque(['f', 'g', 'h', 'i', 'j'])
>>> d.pop()                 # return and remove the rightmost item
'j'
>>> d.popleft()             # return and remove the leftmost item
'f'
>>> list(d)                 # list the contents of the deque
['g', 'h', 'i']
>>> 'h' in d                # search the deque
True

Several modules, such as the Queue and threading modules, now take advantage of collections.deque for improved performance. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

The ConfigParser classes have been enhanced slightly. The read() method now returns a list of the files that were successfully parsed, and the set() method raises TypeError if passed a value argument that isn't a string. (Contributed by John Belmonte and David Goodger.)

The curses module now supports the ncurses extension use_default_colors(). On platforms where the terminal supports transparency, this makes it possible to use a transparent background. (Contributed by Jörg Lehmann.)

The difflib module now includes an HtmlDiff class that creates an HTML table showing a side by side comparison of two versions of a text. (Contributed by Dan Gass.)

The email package was updated to version 3.0, which dropped various deprecated APIs and removes support for Python versions earlier than 2.3. The 3.0 version of the package uses a new incremental parser for MIME messages, available in the email.FeedParser module. The new parser doesn't require reading the entire message into memory, and doesn't raise exceptions if a message is malformed; instead it records any problems in the defect attribute of the message. (Developed by Anthony Baxter, Barry Warsaw, Thomas Wouters, and others.)

The heapq module has been converted to C. The resulting tenfold improvement in speed makes the module suitable for handling high volumes of data. In addition, the module has two new functions nlargest() and nsmallest() that use heaps to find the N largest or smallest values in a dataset without the expense of a full sort. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

The httplib module now contains constants for HTTP status codes defined in various HTTP-related RFC documents. Constants have names such as OK, CREATED, CONTINUE, and MOVED_PERMANENTLY; use pydoc to get a full list. (Contributed by Andrew Eland.)

The imaplib module now supports IMAP's THREAD command (contributed by Yves Dionne) and new deleteacl() and myrights() methods (contributed by Arnaud Mazin).

The itertools module gained a groupby(iterable[, *func*]) function. iterable is something that can be iterated over to return a stream of elements, and the optional func parameter is a function that takes an element and returns a key value; if omitted, the key is simply the element itself. groupby() then groups the elements into subsequences which have matching values of the key, and returns a series of 2-tuples containing the key value and an iterator over the subsequence.

Here's an example to make this clearer. The key function simply returns whether a number is even or odd, so the result of groupby() is to return consecutive runs of odd or even numbers.

>>> import itertools
>>> L = [2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 14]
>>> for key_val, it in itertools.groupby(L, lambda x: x % 2):
...    print key_val, list(it)
...
0 [2, 4, 6]
1 [7]
0 [8]
1 [9, 11]
0 [12, 14]
>>>

groupby() is typically used with sorted input. The logic for groupby() is similar to the Unix uniq filter which makes it handy for eliminating, counting, or identifying duplicate elements:

>>> word = 'abracadabra'
>>> letters = sorted(word)   # Turn string into a sorted list of letters
>>> letters
['a', 'a', 'a', 'a', 'a', 'b', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'r', 'r']
>>> for k, g in itertools.groupby(letters):
...    print k, list(g)
...
a ['a', 'a', 'a', 'a', 'a']
b ['b', 'b']
c ['c']
d ['d']
r ['r', 'r']
>>> # List unique letters
>>> [k for k, g in groupby(letters)]
['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'r']
>>> # Count letter occurrences
>>> [(k, len(list(g))) for k, g in groupby(letters)]
[('a', 5), ('b', 2), ('c', 1), ('d', 1), ('r', 2)]

(Contribution par Hye-Shik Chang.)

itertools also gained a function named tee(iterator, N) that returns N independent iterators that replicate iterator. If N is omitted, the default is 2.

>>> L = [1,2,3]
>>> i1, i2 = itertools.tee(L)
>>> i1,i2
(<itertools.tee object at 0x402c2080>, <itertools.tee object at 0x402c2090>)
>>> list(i1)               # Run the first iterator to exhaustion
[1, 2, 3]
>>> list(i2)               # Run the second iterator to exhaustion
[1, 2, 3]

Note that tee() has to keep copies of the values returned by the iterator; in the worst case, it may need to keep all of them. This should therefore be used carefully if the leading iterator can run far ahead of the trailing iterator in a long stream of inputs. If the separation is large, then you might as well use list() instead. When the iterators track closely with one another, tee() is ideal. Possible applications include bookmarking, windowing, or lookahead iterators. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

A number of functions were added to the locale module, such as bind_textdomain_codeset() to specify a particular encoding and a family of l*gettext() functions that return messages in the chosen encoding. (Contributed by Gustavo Niemeyer.)

Some keyword arguments were added to the logging package's basicConfig() function to simplify log configuration. The default behavior is to log messages to standard error, but various keyword arguments can be specified to log to a particular file, change the logging format, or set the logging level. For example:

import logging
logging.basicConfig(filename='/var/log/application.log',
    level=0,  # Log all messages
    format='%(levelname):%(process):%(thread):%(message)')

Other additions to the logging package include a log(level, msg) convenience method, as well as a TimedRotatingFileHandler class that rotates its log files at a timed interval. The module already had RotatingFileHandler, which rotated logs once the file exceeded a certain size. Both classes derive from a new BaseRotatingHandler class that can be used to implement other rotating handlers.

(Changements implémentés par Vinay Sajip.)

The marshal module now shares interned strings on unpacking a data structure. This may shrink the size of certain pickle strings, but the primary effect is to make .pyc files significantly smaller. (Contributed by Martin von Löwis.)

The nntplib module's NNTP class gained description() and descriptions() methods to retrieve newsgroup descriptions for a single group or for a range of groups. (Contributed by Jürgen A. Erhard.)

Two new functions were added to the operator module, attrgetter(attr) and itemgetter(index). Both functions return callables that take a single argument and return the corresponding attribute or item; these callables make excellent data extractors when used with map() or sorted(). For example:

>>> L = [('c', 2), ('d', 1), ('a', 4), ('b', 3)]
>>> map(operator.itemgetter(0), L)
['c', 'd', 'a', 'b']
>>> map(operator.itemgetter(1), L)
[2, 1, 4, 3]
>>> sorted(L, key=operator.itemgetter(1)) # Sort list by second tuple item
[('d', 1), ('c', 2), ('b', 3), ('a', 4)]

(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

The optparse module was updated in various ways. The module now passes its messages through gettext.gettext(), making it possible to internationalize Optik's help and error messages. Help messages for options can now include the string '%default', which will be replaced by the option's default value. (Contributed by Greg Ward.)

The long-term plan is to deprecate the rfc822 module in some future Python release in favor of the email package. To this end, the email.Utils.formatdate function has been changed to make it usable as a replacement for rfc822.formatdate(). You may want to write new e-mail processing code with this in mind. (Change implemented by Anthony Baxter.)

A new urandom(n) function was added to the os module, returning a string containing n bytes of random data. This function provides access to platform-specific sources of randomness such as /dev/urandom on Linux or the Windows CryptoAPI. (Contributed by Trevor Perrin.)

Another new function: os.path.lexists(path) returns true if the file specified by path exists, whether or not it's a symbolic link. This differs from the existing os.path.exists(path) function, which returns false if path is a symlink that points to a destination that doesn't exist. (Contributed by Beni Cherniavsky.)

A new getsid() function was added to the posix module that underlies the os module. (Contributed by J. Raynor.)

Le module poplib supporte maintenant POP sur SSL. (Contribution par Hector Urtubia.)

The profile module can now profile C extension functions. (Contributed by Nick Bastin.)

The random module has a new method called getrandbits(N) that returns a long integer N bits in length. The existing randrange() method now uses getrandbits() where appropriate, making generation of arbitrarily large random numbers more efficient. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

The regular expression language accepted by the re module was extended with simple conditional expressions, written as (?(group)A|B). group is either a numeric group ID or a group name defined with (?P<group>...) earlier in the expression. If the specified group matched, the regular expression pattern A will be tested against the string; if the group didn't match, the pattern B will be used instead. (Contributed by Gustavo Niemeyer.)

The re module is also no longer recursive, thanks to a massive amount of work by Gustavo Niemeyer. In a recursive regular expression engine, certain patterns result in a large amount of C stack space being consumed, and it was possible to overflow the stack. For example, if you matched a 30000-byte string of a characters against the expression (a|b)+, one stack frame was consumed per character. Python 2.3 tried to check for stack overflow and raise a RuntimeError exception, but certain patterns could sidestep the checking and if you were unlucky Python could segfault. Python 2.4's regular expression engine can match this pattern without problems.

The signal module now performs tighter error-checking on the parameters to the signal.signal() function. For example, you can't set a handler on the SIGKILL signal; previous versions of Python would quietly accept this, but 2.4 will raise a RuntimeError exception.

Two new functions were added to the socket module. socketpair() returns a pair of connected sockets and getservbyport(port) looks up the service name for a given port number. (Contributed by Dave Cole and Barry Warsaw.)

The sys.exitfunc() function has been deprecated. Code should be using the existing atexit module, which correctly handles calling multiple exit functions. Eventually sys.exitfunc() will become a purely internal interface, accessed only by atexit.

The tarfile module now generates GNU-format tar files by default. (Contributed by Lars Gustäbel.)

The threading module now has an elegantly simple way to support thread-local data. The module contains a local class whose attribute values are local to different threads.

import threading

data = threading.local()
data.number = 42
data.url = ('www.python.org', 80)

Other threads can assign and retrieve their own values for the number and url attributes. You can subclass local to initialize attributes or to add methods. (Contributed by Jim Fulton.)

The timeit module now automatically disables periodic garbage collection during the timing loop. This change makes consecutive timings more comparable. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

The weakref module now supports a wider variety of objects including Python functions, class instances, sets, frozensets, deques, arrays, files, sockets, and regular expression pattern objects. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

The xmlrpclib module now supports a multi-call extension for transmitting multiple XML-RPC calls in a single HTTP operation. (Contributed by Brian Quinlan.)

The mpz, rotor, and xreadlines modules have been removed.

cookielib

The cookielib library supports client-side handling for HTTP cookies, mirroring the Cookie module's server-side cookie support. Cookies are stored in cookie jars; the library transparently stores cookies offered by the web server in the cookie jar, and fetches the cookie from the jar when connecting to the server. As in web browsers, policy objects control whether cookies are accepted or not.

In order to store cookies across sessions, two implementations of cookie jars are provided: one that stores cookies in the Netscape format so applications can use the Mozilla or Lynx cookie files, and one that stores cookies in the same format as the Perl libwww library.

urllib2 has been changed to interact with cookielib: HTTPCookieProcessor manages a cookie jar that is used when accessing URLs.

This module was contributed by John J. Lee.

doctest

The doctest module underwent considerable refactoring thanks to Edward Loper and Tim Peters. Testing can still be as simple as running doctest.testmod(), but the refactorings allow customizing the module's operation in various ways

The new DocTestFinder class extracts the tests from a given object's docstrings:

def f (x, y):
    """>>> f(2,2)
4
>>> f(3,2)
6
    """
    return x*y

finder = doctest.DocTestFinder()

# Get list of DocTest instances
tests = finder.find(f)

The new DocTestRunner class then runs individual tests and can produce a summary of the results:

runner = doctest.DocTestRunner()
for t in tests:
    tried, failed = runner.run(t)

runner.summarize(verbose=1)

The above example produces the following output:

1 items passed all tests:
   2 tests in f
2 tests in 1 items.
2 passed and 0 failed.
Test passed.

DocTestRunner uses an instance of the OutputChecker class to compare the expected output with the actual output. This class takes a number of different flags that customize its behaviour; ambitious users can also write a completely new subclass of OutputChecker.

The default output checker provides a number of handy features. For example, with the doctest.ELLIPSIS option flag, an ellipsis (...) in the expected output matches any substring, making it easier to accommodate outputs that vary in minor ways:

def o (n):
    """>>> o(1)
<__main__.C instance at 0x...>
>>>
"""

Another special string, <BLANKLINE>, matches a blank line:

def p (n):
    """>>> p(1)
<BLANKLINE>
>>>
"""

Another new capability is producing a diff-style display of the output by specifying the doctest.REPORT_UDIFF (unified diffs), doctest.REPORT_CDIFF (context diffs), or doctest.REPORT_NDIFF (delta-style) option flags. For example:

def g (n):
    """>>> g(4)
here
is
a
lengthy
>>>"""
    L = 'here is a rather lengthy list of words'.split()
    for word in L[:n]:
        print word

Running the above function's tests with doctest.REPORT_UDIFF specified, you get the following output:

**********************************************************************
File "t.py", line 15, in g
Failed example:
    g(4)
Differences (unified diff with -expected +actual):
    @@ -2,3 +2,3 @@
     is
     a
    -lengthy
    +rather
**********************************************************************

Build and C API Changes

Some of the changes to Python's build process and to the C API are:

Three new convenience macros were added for common return values from extension functions: Py_RETURN_NONE, Py_RETURN_TRUE, and Py_RETURN_FALSE. (Contributed by Brett Cannon.)

Another new macro, Py_CLEAR, decreases the reference count of obj and sets obj to the null pointer. (Contributed by Jim Fulton.)

A new function, PyTuple_Pack(N, obj1, obj2, ..., objN), constructs tuples from a variable length argument list of Python objects. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

A new function, PyDict_Contains(d, k), implements fast dictionary lookups without masking exceptions raised during the look-up process. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

The Py_IS_NAN(X) macro returns 1 if its float or double argument X is a NaN. (Contributed by Tim Peters.)

C code can avoid unnecessary locking by using the new PyEval_ThreadsInitialized() function to tell if any thread operations have been performed. If this function returns false, no lock operations are needed. (Contributed by Nick Coghlan.)

A new function, PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords(), is the same as PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords() but takes a va_list instead of a number of arguments. (Contributed by Greg Chapman.)

A new method flag, METH_COEXIST, allows a function defined in slots to co-exist with a PyCFunction having the same name. This can halve the access time for a method such as set.__contains__(). (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

Python can now be built with additional profiling for the interpreter itself, intended as an aid to people developing the Python core. Providing --enable-profiling to the configure script will let you profile the interpreter with gprof, and providing the --with-tsc switch enables profiling using the Pentium's Time-Stamp-Counter register. Note that the --with-tsc switch is slightly misnamed, because the profiling feature also works on the PowerPC platform, though that processor architecture doesn't call that register "the TSC register". (Contributed by Jeremy Hylton.)

The tracebackobject type has been renamed to PyTracebackObject.

Port-Specific Changes

The Windows port now builds under MSVC++ 7.1 as well as version 6. (Contributed by Martin von Löwis.)

Portage vers Python 2.4

This section lists previously described changes that may require changes to your code:

Left shifts and hexadecimal/octal constants that are too large no longer trigger a FutureWarning and return a value limited to 32 or 64 bits; instead they return a long integer.

Integer operations will no longer trigger an OverflowWarning. The OverflowWarning warning will disappear in Python 2.5.

The zip() built-in function and itertools.izip() now return an empty list instead of raising a TypeError exception if called with no arguments.

You can no longer compare the date and datetime instances provided by the datetime module. Two instances of different classes will now always be unequal, and relative comparisons (<, >) will raise a TypeError.

dircache.listdir() now passes exceptions to the caller instead of returning empty lists.

LexicalHandler.startDTD() used to receive the public and system IDs in the wrong order. This has been corrected; applications relying on the wrong order need to be fixed.

fcntl.ioctl() now warns if the mutate argument is omitted and relevant.

The tarfile module now generates GNU-format tar files by default.

Encountering a failure while importing a module no longer leaves a partially initialized module object in sys.modules.

None is now a constant; code that binds a new value to the name None is now a syntax error.

The signals.signal() function now raises a RuntimeError exception for certain illegal values; previously these errors would pass silently. For example, you can no longer set a handler on the SIGKILL signal.

Remerciements

The author would like to thank the following people for offering suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this article: Koray Can, Hye-Shik Chang, Michael Dyck, Raymond Hettinger, Brian Hurt, Hamish Lawson, Fredrik Lundh, Sean Reifschneider, Sadruddin Rejeb.

Nouveautés de Python 2.3

Auteur:

A.M. Kuchling

This article explains the new features in Python 2.3. Python 2.3 was released on July 29, 2003.

The main themes for Python 2.3 are polishing some of the features added in 2.2, adding various small but useful enhancements to the core language, and expanding the standard library. The new object model introduced in the previous version has benefited from 18 months of bugfixes and from optimization efforts that have improved the performance of new-style classes. A few new built-in functions have been added such as sum() and enumerate(). The in operator can now be used for substring searches (e.g. "ab" in "abc" returns True).

Some of the many new library features include Boolean, set, heap, and date/time data types, the ability to import modules from ZIP-format archives, metadata support for the long-awaited Python catalog, an updated version of IDLE, and modules for logging messages, wrapping text, parsing CSV files, processing command-line options, using BerkeleyDB databases... the list of new and enhanced modules is lengthy.

This article doesn't attempt to provide a complete specification of the new features, but instead provides a convenient overview. For full details, you should refer to the documentation for Python 2.3, such as the Python Library Reference and the Python Reference Manual. If you want to understand the complete implementation and design rationale, refer to the PEP for a particular new feature.

PEP 218: A Standard Set Datatype

The new sets module contains an implementation of a set datatype. The Set class is for mutable sets, sets that can have members added and removed. The ImmutableSet class is for sets that can't be modified, and instances of ImmutableSet can therefore be used as dictionary keys. Sets are built on top of dictionaries, so the elements within a set must be hashable.

Here's a simple example:

>>> import sets
>>> S = sets.Set([1,2,3])
>>> S
Set([1, 2, 3])
>>> 1 in S
True
>>> 0 in S
False
>>> S.add(5)
>>> S.remove(3)
>>> S
Set([1, 2, 5])
>>>

The union and intersection of sets can be computed with the union() and intersection() methods; an alternative notation uses the bitwise operators & and |. Mutable sets also have in-place versions of these methods, union_update() and intersection_update().

>>> S1 = sets.Set([1,2,3])
>>> S2 = sets.Set([4,5,6])
>>> S1.union(S2)
Set([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6])
>>> S1 | S2                  # Alternative notation
Set([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6])
>>> S1.intersection(S2)
Set([])
>>> S1 & S2                  # Alternative notation
Set([])
>>> S1.union_update(S2)
>>> S1
Set([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6])
>>>

It's also possible to take the symmetric difference of two sets. This is the set of all elements in the union that aren't in the intersection. Another way of putting it is that the symmetric difference contains all elements that are in exactly one set. Again, there's an alternative notation (^), and an in-place version with the ungainly name symmetric_difference_update().

>>> S1 = sets.Set([1,2,3,4])
>>> S2 = sets.Set([3,4,5,6])
>>> S1.symmetric_difference(S2)
Set([1, 2, 5, 6])
>>> S1 ^ S2
Set([1, 2, 5, 6])
>>>

There are also issubset() and issuperset() methods for checking whether one set is a subset or superset of another:

>>> S1 = sets.Set([1,2,3])
>>> S2 = sets.Set([2,3])
>>> S2.issubset(S1)
True
>>> S1.issubset(S2)
False
>>> S1.issuperset(S2)
True
>>>

Voir aussi

PEP 218 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0218/] - Adding a Built-In Set Object Type

PEP written by Greg V. Wilson. Implemented by Greg V. Wilson, Alex Martelli, and GvR.

PEP 255 : Générateurs simples

In Python 2.2, generators were added as an optional feature, to be enabled by a from __future__ import generators directive. In 2.3 generators no longer need to be specially enabled, and are now always present; this means that yield is now always a keyword. The rest of this section is a copy of the description of generators from the "What's New in Python 2.2" document; if you read it back when Python 2.2 came out, you can skip the rest of this section.

You're doubtless familiar with how function calls work in Python or C. When you call a function, it gets a private namespace where its local variables are created. When the function reaches a return statement, the local variables are destroyed and the resulting value is returned to the caller. A later call to the same function will get a fresh new set of local variables. But, what if the local variables weren't thrown away on exiting a function? What if you could later resume the function where it left off? This is what generators provide; they can be thought of as resumable functions.

Here's the simplest example of a generator function:

def generate_ints(N):
    for i in range(N):
        yield i

A new keyword, yield, was introduced for generators. Any function containing a yield statement is a generator function; this is detected by Python's bytecode compiler which compiles the function specially as a result.

When you call a generator function, it doesn't return a single value; instead it returns a generator object that supports the iterator protocol. On executing the yield statement, the generator outputs the value of i, similar to a return statement. The big difference between yield and a return statement is that on reaching a yield the generator's state of execution is suspended and local variables are preserved. On the next call to the generator's .next() method, the function will resume executing immediately after the yield statement. (For complicated reasons, the yield statement isn't allowed inside the try block of a try...finally statement; read PEP 255 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0255/] for a full explanation of the interaction between yield and exceptions.)

Here's a sample usage of the generate_ints() generator:

>>> gen = generate_ints(3)
>>> gen
<generator object at 0x8117f90>
>>> gen.next()
0
>>> gen.next()
1
>>> gen.next()
2
>>> gen.next()
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "stdin", line 1, in ?
  File "stdin", line 2, in generate_ints
StopIteration

You could equally write for i in generate_ints(5), or a,b,c = generate_ints(3).

Inside a generator function, the return statement can only be used without a value, and signals the end of the procession of values; afterwards the generator cannot return any further values. return with a value, such as return 5, is a syntax error inside a generator function. The end of the generator's results can also be indicated by raising StopIteration manually, or by just letting the flow of execution fall off the bottom of the function.

You could achieve the effect of generators manually by writing your own class and storing all the local variables of the generator as instance variables. For example, returning a list of integers could be done by setting self.count to 0, and having the next() method increment self.count and return it. However, for a moderately complicated generator, writing a corresponding class would be much messier. Lib/test/test_generators.py contains a number of more interesting examples. The simplest one implements an in-order traversal of a tree using generators recursively.

# A recursive generator that generates Tree leaves in in-order.
def inorder(t):
    if t:
        for x in inorder(t.left):
            yield x
        yield t.label
        for x in inorder(t.right):
            yield x

Two other examples in Lib/test/test_generators.py produce solutions for the N-Queens problem (placing $N$ queens on an $NxN$ chess board so that no queen threatens another) and the Knight's Tour (a route that takes a knight to every square of an $NxN$ chessboard without visiting any square twice).

The idea of generators comes from other programming languages, especially Icon (https://www2.cs.arizona.edu/icon/), where the idea of generators is central. In Icon, every expression and function call behaves like a generator. One example from "An Overview of the Icon Programming Language" at https://www2.cs.arizona.edu/icon/docs/ipd266.htm gives an idea of what this looks like:

sentence := "Store it in the neighboring harbor"
if (i := find("or", sentence)) > 5 then write(i)

In Icon the find() function returns the indexes at which the substring "or" is found: 3, 23, 33. In the if statement, i is first assigned a value of 3, but 3 is less than 5, so the comparison fails, and Icon retries it with the second value of 23. 23 is greater than 5, so the comparison now succeeds, and the code prints the value 23 to the screen.

Python doesn't go nearly as far as Icon in adopting generators as a central concept. Generators are considered part of the core Python language, but learning or using them isn't compulsory; if they don't solve any problems that you have, feel free to ignore them. One novel feature of Python's interface as compared to Icon's is that a generator's state is represented as a concrete object (the iterator) that can be passed around to other functions or stored in a data structure.

Voir aussi

PEP 255 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0255/]: Générateurs simples

Written by Neil Schemenauer, Tim Peters, Magnus Lie Hetland. Implemented mostly by Neil Schemenauer and Tim Peters, with other fixes from the Python Labs crew.

PEP 263: Source Code Encodings

Python source files can now be declared as being in different character set encodings. Encodings are declared by including a specially formatted comment in the first or second line of the source file. For example, a UTF-8 file can be declared with:

#!/usr/bin/env python
# -*- coding: UTF-8 -*-

Without such an encoding declaration, the default encoding used is 7-bit ASCII. Executing or importing modules that contain string literals with 8-bit characters and have no encoding declaration will result in a DeprecationWarning being signalled by Python 2.3; in 2.4 this will be a syntax error.

The encoding declaration only affects Unicode string literals, which will be converted to Unicode using the specified encoding. Note that Python identifiers are still restricted to ASCII characters, so you can't have variable names that use characters outside of the usual alphanumerics.

Voir aussi

PEP 263 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/] - Defining Python Source Code Encodings

Written by Marc-André Lemburg and Martin von Löwis; implemented by Suzuki Hisao and Martin von Löwis.

PEP 273: Importing Modules from ZIP Archives

The new zipimport module adds support for importing modules from a ZIP-format archive. You don't need to import the module explicitly; it will be automatically imported if a ZIP archive's filename is added to sys.path. For example:

amk@nyman:~/src/python$ unzip -l /tmp/example.zip
Archive:  /tmp/example.zip
  Length     Date   Time    Name
 --------    ----   ----    ----
     8467  11-26-02 22:30   jwzthreading.py
 --------                   -------
     8467                   1 file
amk@nyman:~/src/python$ ./python
Python 2.3 (#1, Aug 1 2003, 19:54:32)
>>> import sys
>>> sys.path.insert(0, '/tmp/example.zip')  # Add .zip file to front of path
>>> import jwzthreading
>>> jwzthreading.__file__
'/tmp/example.zip/jwzthreading.py'
>>>

An entry in sys.path can now be the filename of a ZIP archive. The ZIP archive can contain any kind of files, but only files named *.py, *.pyc, or *.pyo can be imported. If an archive only contains *.py files, Python will not attempt to modify the archive by adding the corresponding *.pyc file, meaning that if a ZIP archive doesn't contain *.pyc files, importing may be rather slow.

A path within the archive can also be specified to only import from a subdirectory; for example, the path /tmp/example.zip/lib/ would only import from the lib/ subdirectory within the archive.

Voir aussi

PEP 273 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0273/] - Import Modules from Zip Archives

Written by James C. Ahlstrom, who also provided an implementation. Python 2.3 follows the specification in PEP 273 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0273/], but uses an implementation written by Just van Rossum that uses the import hooks described in PEP 302 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/]. See section PEP 302: New Import Hooks for a description of the new import hooks.

PEP 277: Unicode file name support for Windows NT

On Windows NT, 2000, and XP, the system stores file names as Unicode strings. Traditionally, Python has represented file names as byte strings, which is inadequate because it renders some file names inaccessible.

Python now allows using arbitrary Unicode strings (within the limitations of the file system) for all functions that expect file names, most notably the open() built-in function. If a Unicode string is passed to os.listdir(), Python now returns a list of Unicode strings. A new function, os.getcwdu(), returns the current directory as a Unicode string.

Byte strings still work as file names, and on Windows Python will transparently convert them to Unicode using the mbcs encoding.

Other systems also allow Unicode strings as file names but convert them to byte strings before passing them to the system, which can cause a UnicodeError to be raised. Applications can test whether arbitrary Unicode strings are supported as file names by checking os.path.supports_unicode_filenames, a Boolean value.

Under MacOS, os.listdir() may now return Unicode filenames.

Voir aussi

PEP 277 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0277/] - Unicode file name support for Windows NT

Written by Neil Hodgson; implemented by Neil Hodgson, Martin von Löwis, and Mark Hammond.

PEP 278: Universal Newline Support

The three major operating systems used today are Microsoft Windows, Apple's Macintosh OS, and the various Unix derivatives. A minor irritation of cross-platform work is that these three platforms all use different characters to mark the ends of lines in text files. Unix uses the linefeed (ASCII character 10), MacOS uses the carriage return (ASCII character 13), and Windows uses a two-character sequence of a carriage return plus a newline.

Python's file objects can now support end of line conventions other than the one followed by the platform on which Python is running. Opening a file with the mode 'U' or 'rU' will open a file for reading in universal newlines mode. All three line ending conventions will be translated to a '\n' in the strings returned by the various file methods such as read() and readline().

Universal newline support is also used when importing modules and when executing a file with the execfile() function. This means that Python modules can be shared between all three operating systems without needing to convert the line-endings.

This feature can be disabled when compiling Python by specifying the --without-universal-newlines switch when running Python's configure script.

Voir aussi

PEP 278 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0278/] - Universal Newline Support

Written and implemented by Jack Jansen.

PEP 279: enumerate()

A new built-in function, enumerate(), will make certain loops a bit clearer. enumerate(thing), where thing is either an iterator or a sequence, returns an iterator that will return (0, thing[0]), (1, thing[1]), (2, thing[2]), and so forth.

A common idiom to change every element of a list looks like this:

for i in range(len(L)):
    item = L[i]
    # ... compute some result based on item ...
    L[i] = result

This can be rewritten using enumerate() as:

for i, item in enumerate(L):
    # ... compute some result based on item ...
    L[i] = result

Voir aussi

PEP 279 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0279/] - The enumerate() built-in function

Written and implemented by Raymond D. Hettinger.

PEP 282: The logging Package

A standard package for writing logs, logging, has been added to Python 2.3. It provides a powerful and flexible mechanism for generating logging output which can then be filtered and processed in various ways. A configuration file written in a standard format can be used to control the logging behavior of a program. Python includes handlers that will write log records to standard error or to a file or socket, send them to the system log, or even e-mail them to a particular address; of course, it's also possible to write your own handler classes.

The Logger class is the primary class. Most application code will deal with one or more Logger objects, each one used by a particular subsystem of the application. Each Logger is identified by a name, and names are organized into a hierarchy using . as the component separator. For example, you might have Logger instances named server, server.auth and server.network. The latter two instances are below server in the hierarchy. This means that if you turn up the verbosity for server or direct server messages to a different handler, the changes will also apply to records logged to server.auth and server.network. There's also a root Logger that's the parent of all other loggers.

For simple uses, the logging package contains some convenience functions that always use the root log:

import logging

logging.debug('Debugging information')
logging.info('Informational message')
logging.warning('Warning:config file %s not found', 'server.conf')
logging.error('Error occurred')
logging.critical('Critical error -- shutting down')

Ceci produit l’affichage suivant :

WARNING:root:Warning:config file server.conf not found
ERROR:root:Error occurred
CRITICAL:root:Critical error -- shutting down

In the default configuration, informational and debugging messages are suppressed and the output is sent to standard error. You can enable the display of informational and debugging messages by calling the setLevel() method on the root logger.

Notice the warning() call's use of string formatting operators; all of the functions for logging messages take the arguments (msg, arg1, arg2, ...) and log the string resulting from msg % (arg1, arg2, ...).

There's also an exception() function that records the most recent traceback. Any of the other functions will also record the traceback if you specify a true value for the keyword argument exc_info.

def f():
    try:    1/0
    except: logging.exception('Problem recorded')

f()

Ceci produit l’affichage suivant :

ERROR:root:Problem recorded
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "t.py", line 6, in f
    1/0
ZeroDivisionError: integer division or modulo by zero

Slightly more advanced programs will use a logger other than the root logger. The getLogger(name) function is used to get a particular log, creating it if it doesn't exist yet. getLogger(None) returns the root logger.

log = logging.getLogger('server')
 ...
log.info('Listening on port %i', port)
 ...
log.critical('Disk full')
 ...

Log records are usually propagated up the hierarchy, so a message logged to server.auth is also seen by server and root, but a Logger can prevent this by setting its propagate attribute to False.

There are more classes provided by the logging package that can be customized. When a Logger instance is told to log a message, it creates a LogRecord instance that is sent to any number of different Handler instances. Loggers and handlers can also have an attached list of filters, and each filter can cause the LogRecord to be ignored or can modify the record before passing it along. When they're finally output, LogRecord instances are converted to text by a Formatter class. All of these classes can be replaced by your own specially written classes.

With all of these features the logging package should provide enough flexibility for even the most complicated applications. This is only an incomplete overview of its features, so please see the package's reference documentation for all of the details. Reading PEP 282 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0282/] will also be helpful.

Voir aussi

PEP 282 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0282/] - A Logging System

Written by Vinay Sajip and Trent Mick; implemented by Vinay Sajip.

PEP 285 : Un type booléen

A Boolean type was added to Python 2.3. Two new constants were added to the __builtin__ module, True and False. (True and False constants were added to the built-ins in Python 2.2.1, but the 2.2.1 versions are simply set to integer values of 1 and 0 and aren't a different type.)

The type object for this new type is named bool; the constructor for it takes any Python value and converts it to True or False.

>>> bool(1)
True
>>> bool(0)
False
>>> bool([])
False
>>> bool( (1,) )
True

Most of the standard library modules and built-in functions have been changed to return Booleans.

>>> obj = []
>>> hasattr(obj, 'append')
True
>>> isinstance(obj, list)
True
>>> isinstance(obj, tuple)
False

Python's Booleans were added with the primary goal of making code clearer. For example, if you're reading a function and encounter the statement return 1, you might wonder whether the 1 represents a Boolean truth value, an index, or a coefficient that multiplies some other quantity. If the statement is return True, however, the meaning of the return value is quite clear.

Python's Booleans were not added for the sake of strict type-checking. A very strict language such as Pascal would also prevent you performing arithmetic with Booleans, and would require that the expression in an if statement always evaluate to a Boolean result. Python is not this strict and never will be, as PEP 285 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0285/] explicitly says. This means you can still use any expression in an if statement, even ones that evaluate to a list or tuple or some random object. The Boolean type is a subclass of the int class so that arithmetic using a Boolean still works.

>>> True + 1
2
>>> False + 1
1
>>> False * 75
0
>>> True * 75
75

To sum up True and False in a sentence: they're alternative ways to spell the integer values 1 and 0, with the single difference that str() and repr() return the strings 'True' and 'False' instead of '1' and '0'.

Voir aussi

PEP 285 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0285/] -- Ajout d'un type bool

Written and implemented by GvR.

PEP 293: Codec Error Handling Callbacks

When encoding a Unicode string into a byte string, unencodable characters may be encountered. So far, Python has allowed specifying the error processing as either "strict" (raising UnicodeError), "ignore" (skipping the character), or "replace" (using a question mark in the output string), with "strict" being the default behavior. It may be desirable to specify alternative processing of such errors, such as inserting an XML character reference or HTML entity reference into the converted string.

Python now has a flexible framework to add different processing strategies. New error handlers can be added with codecs.register_error(), and codecs then can access the error handler with codecs.lookup_error(). An equivalent C API has been added for codecs written in C. The error handler gets the necessary state information such as the string being converted, the position in the string where the error was detected, and the target encoding. The handler can then either raise an exception or return a replacement string.

Two additional error handlers have been implemented using this framework: "backslashreplace" uses Python backslash quoting to represent unencodable characters and "xmlcharrefreplace" emits XML character references.

Voir aussi

PEP 293 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0293/] - Codec Error Handling Callbacks

Written and implemented by Walter Dörwald.

PEP 301: Package Index and Metadata for Distutils

Support for the long-requested Python catalog makes its first appearance in 2.3.

The heart of the catalog is the new Distutils register command. Running python setup.py register will collect the metadata describing a package, such as its name, version, maintainer, description, &c., and send it to a central catalog server. The resulting catalog is available from https://pypi.org.

To make the catalog a bit more useful, a new optional classifiers keyword argument has been added to the Distutils setup() function. A list of Trove [http://catb.org/~esr/trove/]-style strings can be supplied to help classify the software.

Here's an example setup.py with classifiers, written to be compatible with older versions of the Distutils:

from distutils import core
kw = {'name': "Quixote",
      'version': "0.5.1",
      'description': "A highly Pythonic Web application framework",
      # ...
      }

if (hasattr(core, 'setup_keywords') and
    'classifiers' in core.setup_keywords):
    kw['classifiers'] = \
        ['Topic :: Internet :: WWW/HTTP :: Dynamic Content',
         'Environment :: No Input/Output (Daemon)',
         'Intended Audience :: Developers'],

core.setup(**kw)

The full list of classifiers can be obtained by running python setup.py register --list-classifiers.

Voir aussi

PEP 301 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0301/] - Package Index and Metadata for Distutils

Written and implemented by Richard Jones.

PEP 302: New Import Hooks

While it's been possible to write custom import hooks ever since the ihooks module was introduced in Python 1.3, no one has ever been really happy with it because writing new import hooks is difficult and messy. There have been various proposed alternatives such as the imputil and iu modules, but none of them has ever gained much acceptance, and none of them were easily usable from C code.

PEP 302 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/] borrows ideas from its predecessors, especially from Gordon McMillan's iu module. Three new items are added to the sys module:

sys.path_hooks is a list of callable objects; most often they'll be classes. Each callable takes a string containing a path and either returns an importer object that will handle imports from this path or raises an ImportError exception if it can't handle this path.

sys.path_importer_cache caches importer objects for each path, so sys.path_hooks will only need to be traversed once for each path.

sys.meta_path is a list of importer objects that will be traversed before sys.path is checked. This list is initially empty, but user code can add objects to it. Additional built-in and frozen modules can be imported by an object added to this list.

Importer objects must have a single method, find_module(fullname, path=None). fullname will be a module or package name, e.g. string or distutils.core. find_module() must return a loader object that has a single method, load_module(fullname), that creates and returns the corresponding module object.

Pseudo-code for Python's new import logic, therefore, looks something like this (simplified a bit; see PEP 302 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/] for the full details):

for mp in sys.meta_path:
    loader = mp(fullname)
    if loader is not None:
        <module> = loader.load_module(fullname)

for path in sys.path:
    for hook in sys.path_hooks:
        try:
            importer = hook(path)
        except ImportError:
            # ImportError, so try the other path hooks
            pass
        else:
            loader = importer.find_module(fullname)
            <module> = loader.load_module(fullname)

# Not found!
raise ImportError

Voir aussi

PEP 302 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/] — Nouveaux crochets d'importation

Written by Just van Rossum and Paul Moore. Implemented by Just van Rossum.

PEP 305: Comma-separated Files

Comma-separated files are a format frequently used for exporting data from databases and spreadsheets. Python 2.3 adds a parser for comma-separated files.

Comma-separated format is deceptively simple at first glance:

Costs,150,200,3.95

Read a line and call line.split(','): what could be simpler? But toss in string data that can contain commas, and things get more complicated:

"Costs",150,200,3.95,"Includes taxes, shipping, and sundry items"

A big ugly regular expression can parse this, but using the new csv package is much simpler:

import csv

input = open('datafile', 'rb')
reader = csv.reader(input)
for line in reader:
    print line

The reader() function takes a number of different options. The field separator isn't limited to the comma and can be changed to any character, and so can the quoting and line-ending characters.

Different dialects of comma-separated files can be defined and registered; currently there are two dialects, both used by Microsoft Excel. A separate csv.writer class will generate comma-separated files from a succession of tuples or lists, quoting strings that contain the delimiter.

Voir aussi

PEP 305 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0305/] -- Interface des fichiers CSV

Written and implemented by Kevin Altis, Dave Cole, Andrew McNamara, Skip Montanaro, Cliff Wells.

PEP 307: Pickle Enhancements

The pickle and cPickle modules received some attention during the 2.3 development cycle. In 2.2, new-style classes could be pickled without difficulty, but they weren't pickled very compactly; PEP 307 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0307/] quotes a trivial example where a new-style class results in a pickled string three times longer than that for a classic class.

The solution was to invent a new pickle protocol. The pickle.dumps() function has supported a text-or-binary flag for a long time. In 2.3, this flag is redefined from a Boolean to an integer: 0 is the old text-mode pickle format, 1 is the old binary format, and now 2 is a new 2.3-specific format. A new constant, pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL, can be used to select the fanciest protocol available.

Unpickling is no longer considered a safe operation. 2.2's pickle provided hooks for trying to prevent unsafe classes from being unpickled (specifically, a __safe_for_unpickling__ attribute), but none of this code was ever audited and therefore it's all been ripped out in 2.3. You should not unpickle untrusted data in any version of Python.

To reduce the pickling overhead for new-style classes, a new interface for customizing pickling was added using three special methods: __getstate__(), __setstate__(), and __getnewargs__(). Consult PEP 307 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0307/] for the full semantics of these methods.

As a way to compress pickles yet further, it's now possible to use integer codes instead of long strings to identify pickled classes. The Python Software Foundation will maintain a list of standardized codes; there's also a range of codes for private use. Currently no codes have been specified.

Voir aussi

PEP 307 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0307/] - Extensions to the pickle protocol

Written and implemented by Guido van Rossum and Tim Peters.

Extended Slices

Ever since Python 1.4, the slicing syntax has supported an optional third "step" or "stride" argument. For example, these are all legal Python syntax: L[1:10:2], L[:-1:1], L[::-1]. This was added to Python at the request of the developers of Numerical Python, which uses the third argument extensively. However, Python's built-in list, tuple, and string sequence types have never supported this feature, raising a TypeError if you tried it. Michael Hudson contributed a patch to fix this shortcoming.

For example, you can now easily extract the elements of a list that have even indexes:

>>> L = range(10)
>>> L[::2]
[0, 2, 4, 6, 8]

Negative values also work to make a copy of the same list in reverse order:

>>> L[::-1]
[9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0]

This also works for tuples, arrays, and strings:

>>> s='abcd'
>>> s[::2]
'ac'
>>> s[::-1]
'dcba'

If you have a mutable sequence such as a list or an array you can assign to or delete an extended slice, but there are some differences between assignment to extended and regular slices. Assignment to a regular slice can be used to change the length of the sequence:

>>> a = range(3)
>>> a
[0, 1, 2]
>>> a[1:3] = [4, 5, 6]
>>> a
[0, 4, 5, 6]

Extended slices aren't this flexible. When assigning to an extended slice, the list on the right hand side of the statement must contain the same number of items as the slice it is replacing:

>>> a = range(4)
>>> a
[0, 1, 2, 3]
>>> a[::2]
[0, 2]
>>> a[::2] = [0, -1]
>>> a
[0, 1, -1, 3]
>>> a[::2] = [0,1,2]
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
ValueError: attempt to assign sequence of size 3 to extended slice of size 2

Deletion is more straightforward:

>>> a = range(4)
>>> a
[0, 1, 2, 3]
>>> a[::2]
[0, 2]
>>> del a[::2]
>>> a
[1, 3]

One can also now pass slice objects to the __getitem__() methods of the built-in sequences:

>>> range(10).__getitem__(slice(0, 5, 2))
[0, 2, 4]

Or use slice objects directly in subscripts:

>>> range(10)[slice(0, 5, 2)]
[0, 2, 4]

To simplify implementing sequences that support extended slicing, slice objects now have a method indices(length) which, given the length of a sequence, returns a (start, stop, step) tuple that can be passed directly to range(). indices() handles omitted and out-of-bounds indices in a manner consistent with regular slices (and this innocuous phrase hides a welter of confusing details!). The method is intended to be used like this:

class FakeSeq:
    ...
    def calc_item(self, i):
        ...
    def __getitem__(self, item):
        if isinstance(item, slice):
            indices = item.indices(len(self))
            return FakeSeq([self.calc_item(i) for i in range(*indices)])
        else:
            return self.calc_item(i)

From this example you can also see that the built-in slice object is now the type object for the slice type, and is no longer a function. This is consistent with Python 2.2, where int, str, etc., underwent the same change.

Autres changements au langage

Here are all of the changes that Python 2.3 makes to the core Python language.

The yield statement is now always a keyword, as described in section PEP 255 : Générateurs simples of this document.

A new built-in function enumerate() was added, as described in section PEP 279: enumerate() of this document.

Two new constants, True and False were added along with the built-in bool type, as described in section PEP 285 : Un type booléen of this document.

The int() type constructor will now return a long integer instead of raising an OverflowError when a string or floating-point number is too large to fit into an integer. This can lead to the paradoxical result that isinstance(int(expression), int) is false, but that seems unlikely to cause problems in practice.

Built-in types now support the extended slicing syntax, as described in section Extended Slices of this document.

A new built-in function, sum(iterable, start=0), adds up the numeric items in the iterable object and returns their sum. sum() only accepts numbers, meaning that you can't use it to concatenate a bunch of strings. (Contributed by Alex Martelli.)

list.insert(pos, value) used to insert value at the front of the list when pos was negative. The behaviour has now been changed to be consistent with slice indexing, so when pos is -1 the value will be inserted before the last element, and so forth.

list.index(value), which searches for value within the list and returns its index, now takes optional start and stop arguments to limit the search to only part of the list.

Dictionaries have a new method, pop(key[, *default*]), that returns the value corresponding to key and removes that key/value pair from the dictionary. If the requested key isn't present in the dictionary, default is returned if it's specified and KeyError raised if it isn't.

>>> d = {1:2}
>>> d
{1: 2}
>>> d.pop(4)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "stdin", line 1, in ?
KeyError: 4
>>> d.pop(1)
2
>>> d.pop(1)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "stdin", line 1, in ?
KeyError: 'pop(): dictionary is empty'
>>> d
{}
>>>

There's also a new class method, dict.fromkeys(iterable, value), that creates a dictionary with keys taken from the supplied iterator iterable and all values set to value, defaulting to None.

(Patches contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

Also, the dict() constructor now accepts keyword arguments to simplify creating small dictionaries:

>>> dict(red=1, blue=2, green=3, black=4)
{'blue': 2, 'black': 4, 'green': 3, 'red': 1}

(Contributed by Just van Rossum.)

The assert statement no longer checks the __debug__ flag, so you can no longer disable assertions by assigning to __debug__. Running Python with the -O switch will still generate code that doesn't execute any assertions.

Most type objects are now callable, so you can use them to create new objects such as functions, classes, and modules. (This means that the new module can be deprecated in a future Python version, because you can now use the type objects available in the types module.) For example, you can create a new module object with the following code:

>>> import types
>>> m = types.ModuleType('abc','docstring')
>>> m
<module 'abc' (built-in)>
>>> m.__doc__
'docstring'

A new warning, PendingDeprecationWarning was added to indicate features which are in the process of being deprecated. The warning will not be printed by default. To check for use of features that will be deprecated in the future, supply -Walways::PendingDeprecationWarning:: on the command line or use warnings.filterwarnings().

The process of deprecating string-based exceptions, as in raise "Error occurred", has begun. Raising a string will now trigger PendingDeprecationWarning.

Using None as a variable name will now result in a SyntaxWarning warning. In a future version of Python, None may finally become a keyword.

The xreadlines() method of file objects, introduced in Python 2.1, is no longer necessary because files now behave as their own iterator. xreadlines() was originally introduced as a faster way to loop over all the lines in a file, but now you can simply write for line in file_obj. File objects also have a new read-only encoding attribute that gives the encoding used by the file; Unicode strings written to the file will be automatically converted to bytes using the given encoding.

The method resolution order used by new-style classes has changed, though you'll only notice the difference if you have a really complicated inheritance hierarchy. Classic classes are unaffected by this change. Python 2.2 originally used a topological sort of a class's ancestors, but 2.3 now uses the C3 algorithm as described in the paper "A Monotonic Superclass Linearization for Dylan" [https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.19.3910]. To understand the motivation for this change, read Michele Simionato's article The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order, or read the thread on python-dev starting with the message at https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2002-October/029035.html. Samuele Pedroni first pointed out the problem and also implemented the fix by coding the C3 algorithm.

Python runs multithreaded programs by switching between threads after executing N bytecodes. The default value for N has been increased from 10 to 100 bytecodes, speeding up single-threaded applications by reducing the switching overhead. Some multithreaded applications may suffer slower response time, but that's easily fixed by setting the limit back to a lower number using sys.setcheckinterval(N). The limit can be retrieved with the new sys.getcheckinterval() function.

One minor but far-reaching change is that the names of extension types defined by the modules included with Python now contain the module and a '.' in front of the type name. For example, in Python 2.2, if you created a socket and printed its __class__, you'd get this output:

>>> s = socket.socket()
>>> s.__class__
<type 'socket'>

In 2.3, you get this:

>>> s.__class__
<type '_socket.socket'>

One of the noted incompatibilities between old- and new-style classes has been removed: you can now assign to the __name__ and __bases__ attributes of new-style classes. There are some restrictions on what can be assigned to __bases__ along the lines of those relating to assigning to an instance's __class__ attribute.

String Changes

The in operator now works differently for strings. Previously, when evaluating X in Y where X and Y are strings, X could only be a single character. That's now changed; X can be a string of any length, and X in Y will return True if X is a substring of Y. If X is the empty string, the result is always True.

>>> 'ab' in 'abcd'
True
>>> 'ad' in 'abcd'
False
>>> '' in 'abcd'
True

Note that this doesn't tell you where the substring starts; if you need that information, use the find() string method.

The strip(), lstrip(), and rstrip() string methods now have an optional argument for specifying the characters to strip. The default is still to remove all whitespace characters:

>>> '   abc '.strip()
'abc'
>>> '><><abc<><><>'.strip('<>')
'abc'
>>> '><><abc<><><>\n'.strip('<>')
'abc<><><>\n'
>>> u'\u4000\u4001abc\u4000'.strip(u'\u4000')
u'\u4001abc'
>>>

(Suggested by Simon Brunning and implemented by Walter Dörwald.)

The startswith() and endswith() string methods now accept negative numbers for the start and end parameters.

Another new string method is zfill(), originally a function in the string module. zfill() pads a numeric string with zeros on the left until it's the specified width. Note that the % operator is still more flexible and powerful than zfill().

>>> '45'.zfill(4)
'0045'
>>> '12345'.zfill(4)
'12345'
>>> 'goofy'.zfill(6)
'0goofy'

(Contributed by Walter Dörwald.)

A new type object, basestring, has been added. Both 8-bit strings and Unicode strings inherit from this type, so isinstance(obj, basestring) will return True for either kind of string. It's a completely abstract type, so you can't create basestring instances.

Interned strings are no longer immortal and will now be garbage-collected in the usual way when the only reference to them is from the internal dictionary of interned strings. (Implemented by Oren Tirosh.)

Optimizations

The creation of new-style class instances has been made much faster; they're now faster than classic classes!

The sort() method of list objects has been extensively rewritten by Tim Peters, and the implementation is significantly faster.

Multiplication of large long integers is now much faster thanks to an implementation of Karatsuba multiplication, an algorithm that scales better than the O(n²) required for the grade-school multiplication algorithm. (Original patch by Christopher A. Craig, and significantly reworked by Tim Peters.)

The SET_LINENO opcode is now gone. This may provide a small speed increase, depending on your compiler's idiosyncrasies. See section Autres changements et corrections for a longer explanation. (Removed by Michael Hudson.)

xrange() objects now have their own iterator, making for i in xrange(n) slightly faster than for i in range(n). (Patch by Raymond Hettinger.)

A number of small rearrangements have been made in various hotspots to improve performance, such as inlining a function or removing some code. (Implemented mostly by GvR, but lots of people have contributed single changes.)

The net result of the 2.3 optimizations is that Python 2.3 runs the pystone benchmark around 25% faster than Python 2.2.

New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules

As usual, Python's standard library received a number of enhancements and bug fixes. Here's a partial list of the most notable changes, sorted alphabetically by module name. Consult the Misc/NEWS file in the source tree for a more complete list of changes, or look through the CVS logs for all the details.

The array module now supports arrays of Unicode characters using the 'u' format character. Arrays also now support using the += assignment operator to add another array's contents, and the *= assignment operator to repeat an array. (Contributed by Jason Orendorff.)

The bsddb module has been replaced by version 4.1.6 of the PyBSDDB [https://pybsddb.sourceforge.net] package, providing a more complete interface to the transactional features of the BerkeleyDB library.

The old version of the module has been renamed to bsddb185 and is no longer built automatically; you'll have to edit Modules/Setup to enable it. Note that the new bsddb package is intended to be compatible with the old module, so be sure to file bugs if you discover any incompatibilities. When upgrading to Python 2.3, if the new interpreter is compiled with a new version of the underlying BerkeleyDB library, you will almost certainly have to convert your database files to the new version. You can do this fairly easily with the new scripts db2pickle.py and pickle2db.py which you will find in the distribution's Tools/scripts directory. If you've already been using the PyBSDDB package and importing it as bsddb3, you will have to change your import statements to import it as bsddb.

The new bz2 module is an interface to the bz2 data compression library. bz2-compressed data is usually smaller than corresponding zlib-compressed data. (Contributed by Gustavo Niemeyer.)

A set of standard date/time types has been added in the new datetime module. See the following section for more details.

The Distutils Extension class now supports an extra constructor argument named depends for listing additional source files that an extension depends on. This lets Distutils recompile the module if any of the dependency files are modified. For example, if sampmodule.c includes the header file sample.h, you would create the Extension object like this:

ext = Extension("samp",
                sources=["sampmodule.c"],
                depends=["sample.h"])

Modifying sample.h would then cause the module to be recompiled. (Contributed by Jeremy Hylton.)

Other minor changes to Distutils: it now checks for the CC, CFLAGS, CPP, LDFLAGS, and CPPFLAGS environment variables, using them to override the settings in Python's configuration (contributed by Robert Weber).

Previously the doctest module would only search the docstrings of public methods and functions for test cases, but it now also examines private ones as well. The DocTestSuite() function creates a unittest.TestSuite object from a set of doctest tests.

The new gc.get_referents(object) function returns a list of all the objects referenced by object.

The getopt module gained a new function, gnu_getopt(), that supports the same arguments as the existing getopt() function but uses GNU-style scanning mode. The existing getopt() stops processing options as soon as a non-option argument is encountered, but in GNU-style mode processing continues, meaning that options and arguments can be mixed. For example:

>>> getopt.getopt(['-f', 'filename', 'output', '-v'], 'f:v')
([('-f', 'filename')], ['output', '-v'])
>>> getopt.gnu_getopt(['-f', 'filename', 'output', '-v'], 'f:v')
([('-f', 'filename'), ('-v', '')], ['output'])

(Contributed by Peter Åstrand.)

The grp, pwd, and resource modules now return enhanced tuples:

>>> import grp
>>> g = grp.getgrnam('amk')
>>> g.gr_name, g.gr_gid
('amk', 500)

The gzip module can now handle files exceeding 2 GiB.

The new heapq module contains an implementation of a heap queue algorithm. A heap is an array-like data structure that keeps items in a partially sorted order such that, for every index k, heap[k] <= heap[2*k+1] and heap[k] <= heap[2*k+2]. This makes it quick to remove the smallest item, and inserting a new item while maintaining the heap property is O(log n). (See https://xlinux.nist.gov/dads//HTML/priorityque.html for more information about the priority queue data structure.)

The heapq module provides heappush() and heappop() functions for adding and removing items while maintaining the heap property on top of some other mutable Python sequence type. Here's an example that uses a Python list:

>>> import heapq
>>> heap = []
>>> for item in [3, 7, 5, 11, 1]:
...    heapq.heappush(heap, item)
...
>>> heap
[1, 3, 5, 11, 7]
>>> heapq.heappop(heap)
1
>>> heapq.heappop(heap)
3
>>> heap
[5, 7, 11]

(Contributed by Kevin O'Connor.)

The IDLE integrated development environment has been updated using the code from the IDLEfork project (https://idlefork.sourceforge.net). The most notable feature is that the code being developed is now executed in a subprocess, meaning that there's no longer any need for manual reload() operations. IDLE's core code has been incorporated into the standard library as the idlelib package.

The imaplib module now supports IMAP over SSL. (Contributed by Piers Lauder and Tino Lange.)

The itertools contains a number of useful functions for use with iterators, inspired by various functions provided by the ML and Haskell languages. For example, itertools.ifilter(predicate, iterator) returns all elements in the iterator for which the function predicate() returns True, and itertools.repeat(obj, N) returns obj N times. There are a number of other functions in the module; see the package's reference documentation for details. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

Two new functions in the math module, degrees(rads) and radians(degs), convert between radians and degrees. Other functions in the math module such as math.sin() and math.cos() have always required input values measured in radians. Also, an optional base argument was added to math.log() to make it easier to compute logarithms for bases other than e and 10. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

Several new POSIX functions (getpgid(), killpg(), lchown(), loadavg(), major(), makedev(), minor(), and mknod()) were added to the posix module that underlies the os module. (Contributed by Gustavo Niemeyer, Geert Jansen, and Denis S. Otkidach.)

In the os module, the *stat() family of functions can now report fractions of a second in a timestamp. Such time stamps are represented as floats, similar to the value returned by time.time().

During testing, it was found that some applications will break if time stamps are floats. For compatibility, when using the tuple interface of the stat_result time stamps will be represented as integers. When using named fields (a feature first introduced in Python 2.2), time stamps are still represented as integers, unless os.stat_float_times() is invoked to enable float return values:

>>> os.stat("/tmp").st_mtime
1034791200
>>> os.stat_float_times(True)
>>> os.stat("/tmp").st_mtime
1034791200.6335014

In Python 2.4, the default will change to always returning floats.

Application developers should enable this feature only if all their libraries work properly when confronted with floating-point time stamps, or if they use the tuple API. If used, the feature should be activated on an application level instead of trying to enable it on a per-use basis.

The optparse module contains a new parser for command-line arguments that can convert option values to a particular Python type and will automatically generate a usage message. See the following section for more details.

The old and never-documented linuxaudiodev module has been deprecated, and a new version named ossaudiodev has been added. The module was renamed because the OSS sound drivers can be used on platforms other than Linux, and the interface has also been tidied and brought up to date in various ways. (Contributed by Greg Ward and Nicholas FitzRoy-Dale.)

The new platform module contains a number of functions that try to determine various properties of the platform you're running on. There are functions for getting the architecture, CPU type, the Windows OS version, and even the Linux distribution version. (Contributed by Marc-André Lemburg.)

The parser objects provided by the pyexpat module can now optionally buffer character data, resulting in fewer calls to your character data handler and therefore faster performance. Setting the parser object's buffer_text attribute to True will enable buffering.

The sample(population, k) function was added to the random module. population is a sequence or xrange object containing the elements of a population, and sample() chooses k elements from the population without replacing chosen elements. k can be any value up to len(population). For example:

>>> days = ['Mo', 'Tu', 'We', 'Th', 'Fr', 'St', 'Sn']
>>> random.sample(days, 3)      # Choose 3 elements
['St', 'Sn', 'Th']
>>> random.sample(days, 7)      # Choose 7 elements
['Tu', 'Th', 'Mo', 'We', 'St', 'Fr', 'Sn']
>>> random.sample(days, 7)      # Choose 7 again
['We', 'Mo', 'Sn', 'Fr', 'Tu', 'St', 'Th']
>>> random.sample(days, 8)      # Can't choose eight
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
  File "random.py", line 414, in sample
      raise ValueError, "sample larger than population"
ValueError: sample larger than population
>>> random.sample(xrange(1,10000,2), 10)   # Choose ten odd nos. under 10000
[3407, 3805, 1505, 7023, 2401, 2267, 9733, 3151, 8083, 9195]

The random module now uses a new algorithm, the Mersenne Twister, implemented in C. It's faster and more extensively studied than the previous algorithm.

(All changes contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

The readline module also gained a number of new functions: get_history_item(), get_current_history_length(), and redisplay().

The rexec and Bastion modules have been declared dead, and attempts to import them will fail with a RuntimeError. New-style classes provide new ways to break out of the restricted execution environment provided by rexec, and no one has interest in fixing them or time to do so. If you have applications using rexec, rewrite them to use something else.

(Sticking with Python 2.2 or 2.1 will not make your applications any safer because there are known bugs in the rexec module in those versions. To repeat: if you're using rexec, stop using it immediately.)

The rotor module has been deprecated because the algorithm it uses for encryption is not believed to be secure. If you need encryption, use one of the several AES Python modules that are available separately.

The shutil module gained a move(src, dest) function that recursively moves a file or directory to a new location.

Support for more advanced POSIX signal handling was added to the signal but then removed again as it proved impossible to make it work reliably across platforms.

The socket module now supports timeouts. You can call the settimeout(t) method on a socket object to set a timeout of t seconds. Subsequent socket operations that take longer than t seconds to complete will abort and raise a socket.timeout exception.

The original timeout implementation was by Tim O'Malley. Michael Gilfix integrated it into the Python socket module and shepherded it through a lengthy review. After the code was checked in, Guido van Rossum rewrote parts of it. (This is a good example of a collaborative development process in action.)

On Windows, the socket module now ships with Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) support.

The value of the C PYTHON_API_VERSION macro is now exposed at the Python level as sys.api_version. The current exception can be cleared by calling the new sys.exc_clear() function.

The new tarfile module allows reading from and writing to tar-format archive files. (Contributed by Lars Gustäbel.)

The new textwrap module contains functions for wrapping strings containing paragraphs of text. The wrap(text, width) function takes a string and returns a list containing the text split into lines of no more than the chosen width. The fill(text, width) function returns a single string, reformatted to fit into lines no longer than the chosen width. (As you can guess, fill() is built on top of wrap(). For example:

>>> import textwrap
>>> paragraph = "Not a whit, we defy augury: ... more text ..."
>>> textwrap.wrap(paragraph, 60)
["Not a whit, we defy augury: there's a special providence in",
 "the fall of a sparrow. If it be now, 'tis not to come; if it",
 ...]
>>> print textwrap.fill(paragraph, 35)
Not a whit, we defy augury: there's
a special providence in the fall of
a sparrow. If it be now, 'tis not
to come; if it be not to come, it
will be now; if it be not now, yet
it will come: the readiness is all.
>>>

The module also contains a TextWrapper class that actually implements the text wrapping strategy. Both the TextWrapper class and the wrap() and fill() functions support a number of additional keyword arguments for fine-tuning the formatting; consult the module's documentation for details. (Contributed by Greg Ward.)

The thread and threading modules now have companion modules, dummy_thread and dummy_threading, that provide a do-nothing implementation of the thread module's interface for platforms where threads are not supported. The intention is to simplify thread-aware modules (ones that don't rely on threads to run) by putting the following code at the top:

try:
    import threading as _threading
except ImportError:
    import dummy_threading as _threading

In this example, _threading is used as the module name to make it clear that the module being used is not necessarily the actual threading module. Code can call functions and use classes in _threading whether or not threads are supported, avoiding an if statement and making the code slightly clearer. This module will not magically make multithreaded code run without threads; code that waits for another thread to return or to do something will simply hang forever.

The time module's strptime() function has long been an annoyance because it uses the platform C library's strptime() implementation, and different platforms sometimes have odd bugs. Brett Cannon contributed a portable implementation that's written in pure Python and should behave identically on all platforms.

The new timeit module helps measure how long snippets of Python code take to execute. The timeit.py file can be run directly from the command line, or the module's Timer class can be imported and used directly. Here's a short example that figures out whether it's faster to convert an 8-bit string to Unicode by appending an empty Unicode string to it or by using the unicode() function:

import timeit

timer1 = timeit.Timer('unicode("abc")')
timer2 = timeit.Timer('"abc" + u""')

# Run three trials
print timer1.repeat(repeat=3, number=100000)
print timer2.repeat(repeat=3, number=100000)

# On my laptop this outputs:
# [0.36831796169281006, 0.37441694736480713, 0.35304892063140869]
# [0.17574405670166016, 0.18193507194519043, 0.17565798759460449]

The Tix module has received various bug fixes and updates for the current version of the Tix package.

The Tkinter module now works with a thread-enabled version of Tcl. Tcl's threading model requires that widgets only be accessed from the thread in which they're created; accesses from another thread can cause Tcl to panic. For certain Tcl interfaces, Tkinter will now automatically avoid this when a widget is accessed from a different thread by marshalling a command, passing it to the correct thread, and waiting for the results. Other interfaces can't be handled automatically but Tkinter will now raise an exception on such an access so that you can at least find out about the problem. See https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2002-December/031107.html for a more detailed explanation of this change. (Implemented by Martin von Löwis.)

Calling Tcl methods through _tkinter no longer returns only strings. Instead, if Tcl returns other objects those objects are converted to their Python equivalent, if one exists, or wrapped with a _tkinter.Tcl_Obj object if no Python equivalent exists. This behavior can be controlled through the wantobjects() method of tkapp objects.

When using _tkinter through the Tkinter module (as most Tkinter applications will), this feature is always activated. It should not cause compatibility problems, since Tkinter would always convert string results to Python types where possible.

If any incompatibilities are found, the old behavior can be restored by setting the wantobjects variable in the Tkinter module to false before creating the first tkapp object.

import Tkinter
Tkinter.wantobjects = 0

Any breakage caused by this change should be reported as a bug.

The UserDict module has a new DictMixin class which defines all dictionary methods for classes that already have a minimum mapping interface. This greatly simplifies writing classes that need to be substitutable for dictionaries, such as the classes in the shelve module.

Adding the mix-in as a superclass provides the full dictionary interface whenever the class defines __getitem__(), __setitem__(), __delitem__(), and keys(). For example:

>>> import UserDict
>>> class SeqDict(UserDict.DictMixin):
...     """Dictionary lookalike implemented with lists."""
...     def __init__(self):
...         self.keylist = []
...         self.valuelist = []
...     def __getitem__(self, key):
...         try:
...             i = self.keylist.index(key)
...         except ValueError:
...             raise KeyError
...         return self.valuelist[i]
...     def __setitem__(self, key, value):
...         try:
...             i = self.keylist.index(key)
...             self.valuelist[i] = value
...         except ValueError:
...             self.keylist.append(key)
...             self.valuelist.append(value)
...     def __delitem__(self, key):
...         try:
...             i = self.keylist.index(key)
...         except ValueError:
...             raise KeyError
...         self.keylist.pop(i)
...         self.valuelist.pop(i)
...     def keys(self):
...         return list(self.keylist)
...
>>> s = SeqDict()
>>> dir(s)      # See that other dictionary methods are implemented
['__cmp__', '__contains__', '__delitem__', '__doc__', '__getitem__',
 '__init__', '__iter__', '__len__', '__module__', '__repr__',
 '__setitem__', 'clear', 'get', 'has_key', 'items', 'iteritems',
 'iterkeys', 'itervalues', 'keylist', 'keys', 'pop', 'popitem',
 'setdefault', 'update', 'valuelist', 'values']

(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

The DOM implementation in xml.dom.minidom can now generate XML output in a particular encoding by providing an optional encoding argument to the toxml() and toprettyxml() methods of DOM nodes.

The xmlrpclib module now supports an XML-RPC extension for handling nil data values such as Python's None. Nil values are always supported on unmarshalling an XML-RPC response. To generate requests containing None, you must supply a true value for the allow_none parameter when creating a Marshaller instance.

The new DocXMLRPCServer module allows writing self-documenting XML-RPC servers. Run it in demo mode (as a program) to see it in action. Pointing the web browser to the RPC server produces pydoc-style documentation; pointing xmlrpclib to the server allows invoking the actual methods. (Contributed by Brian Quinlan.)

Support for internationalized domain names (RFCs 3454, 3490, 3491, and 3492) has been added. The "idna" encoding can be used to convert between a Unicode domain name and the ASCII-compatible encoding (ACE) of that name.

>{}>{}> u"www.Alliancefrançaise.nu".encode("idna")
'www.xn--alliancefranaise-npb.nu'

The socket module has also been extended to transparently convert Unicode hostnames to the ACE version before passing them to the C library. Modules that deal with hostnames such as httplib and ftplib) also support Unicode host names; httplib also sends HTTP Host headers using the ACE version of the domain name. urllib supports Unicode URLs with non-ASCII host names as long as the path part of the URL is ASCII only.

To implement this change, the stringprep module, the mkstringprep tool and the punycode encoding have been added.

Date/Time Type

Date and time types suitable for expressing timestamps were added as the datetime module. The types don't support different calendars or many fancy features, and just stick to the basics of representing time.

The three primary types are: date, representing a day, month, and year; time, consisting of hour, minute, and second; and datetime, which contains all the attributes of both date and time. There's also a timedelta class representing differences between two points in time, and time zone logic is implemented by classes inheriting from the abstract tzinfo class.

You can create instances of date and time by either supplying keyword arguments to the appropriate constructor, e.g. datetime.date(year=1972, month=10, day=15), or by using one of a number of class methods. For example, the today() class method returns the current local date.

Once created, instances of the date/time classes are all immutable. There are a number of methods for producing formatted strings from objects:

>>> import datetime as dt
>>> now = dt.datetime.now()
>>> now.isoformat()
'2002-12-30T21:27:03.994956'
>>> now.ctime()  # Only available on date, datetime
'Mon Dec 30 21:27:03 2002'
>>> now.strftime('%Y %d %b')
'2002 30 Dec'

The replace() method allows modifying one or more fields of a date or datetime instance, returning a new instance:

>>> d = dt.datetime.now()
>>> d
datetime.datetime(2002, 12, 30, 22, 15, 38, 827738)
>>> d.replace(year=2001, hour=12)
datetime.datetime(2001, 12, 30, 12, 15, 38, 827738)
>>>

Instances can be compared, hashed, and converted to strings (the result is the same as that of isoformat()). date and datetime instances can be subtracted from each other, and added to timedelta instances. The largest missing feature is that there's no standard library support for parsing strings and getting back a date or datetime.

For more information, refer to the module's reference documentation. (Contributed by Tim Peters.)

The optparse Module

The getopt module provides simple parsing of command-line arguments. The new optparse module (originally named Optik) provides more elaborate command-line parsing that follows the Unix conventions, automatically creates the output for --help, and can perform different actions for different options.

You start by creating an instance of OptionParser and telling it what your program's options are.

import sys
from optparse import OptionParser

op = OptionParser()
op.add_option('-i', '--input',
              action='store', type='string', dest='input',
              help='set input filename')
op.add_option('-l', '--length',
              action='store', type='int', dest='length',
              help='set maximum length of output')

Parsing a command line is then done by calling the parse_args() method.

options, args = op.parse_args(sys.argv[1:])
print options
print args

This returns an object containing all of the option values, and a list of strings containing the remaining arguments.

Invoking the script with the various arguments now works as you'd expect it to. Note that the length argument is automatically converted to an integer.

$ ./python opt.py -i data arg1
<Values at 0x400cad4c: {'input': 'data', 'length': None}>
['arg1']
$ ./python opt.py --input=data --length=4
<Values at 0x400cad2c: {'input': 'data', 'length': 4}>
[]
$

The help message is automatically generated for you:

$ ./python opt.py --help
usage: opt.py [options]

options:
  -h, --help            show this help message and exit
  -iINPUT, --input=INPUT
                        set input filename
  -lLENGTH, --length=LENGTH
                        set maximum length of output
$

See the module's documentation for more details.

Optik was written by Greg Ward, with suggestions from the readers of the Getopt SIG.

Pymalloc: A Specialized Object Allocator

Pymalloc, a specialized object allocator written by Vladimir Marangozov, was a feature added to Python 2.1. Pymalloc is intended to be faster than the system malloc() and to have less memory overhead for allocation patterns typical of Python programs. The allocator uses C's malloc() function to get large pools of memory and then fulfills smaller memory requests from these pools.

In 2.1 and 2.2, pymalloc was an experimental feature and wasn't enabled by default; you had to explicitly enable it when compiling Python by providing the --with-pymalloc option to the configure script. In 2.3, pymalloc has had further enhancements and is now enabled by default; you'll have to supply --without-pymalloc to disable it.

This change is transparent to code written in Python; however, pymalloc may expose bugs in C extensions. Authors of C extension modules should test their code with pymalloc enabled, because some incorrect code may cause core dumps at runtime.

There's one particularly common error that causes problems. There are a number of memory allocation functions in Python's C API that have previously just been aliases for the C library's malloc() and free(), meaning that if you accidentally called mismatched functions the error wouldn't be noticeable. When the object allocator is enabled, these functions aren't aliases of malloc() and free() any more, and calling the wrong function to free memory may get you a core dump. For example, if memory was allocated using PyObject_Malloc(), it has to be freed using PyObject_Free(), not free(). A few modules included with Python fell afoul of this and had to be fixed; doubtless there are more third-party modules that will have the same problem.

As part of this change, the confusing multiple interfaces for allocating memory have been consolidated down into two API families. Memory allocated with one family must not be manipulated with functions from the other family. There is one family for allocating chunks of memory and another family of functions specifically for allocating Python objects.

To allocate and free an undistinguished chunk of memory use the "raw memory" family: PyMem_Malloc(), PyMem_Realloc(), and PyMem_Free().

The "object memory" family is the interface to the pymalloc facility described above and is biased towards a large number of "small" allocations: PyObject_Malloc(), PyObject_Realloc(), and PyObject_Free().

To allocate and free Python objects, use the "object" family PyObject_New, PyObject_NewVar, and PyObject_Del().

Thanks to lots of work by Tim Peters, pymalloc in 2.3 also provides debugging features to catch memory overwrites and doubled frees in both extension modules and in the interpreter itself. To enable this support, compile a debugging version of the Python interpreter by running configure with --with-pydebug.

To aid extension writers, a header file Misc/pymemcompat.h is distributed with the source to Python 2.3 that allows Python extensions to use the 2.3 interfaces to memory allocation while compiling against any version of Python since 1.5.2. You would copy the file from Python's source distribution and bundle it with the source of your extension.

Voir aussi

https://hg.python.org/cpython/file/default/Objects/obmalloc.c

For the full details of the pymalloc implementation, see the comments at the top of the file Objects/obmalloc.c in the Python source code. The above link points to the file within the python.org SVN browser.

Build and C API Changes

Changes to Python's build process and to the C API include:

The cycle detection implementation used by the garbage collection has proven to be stable, so it's now been made mandatory. You can no longer compile Python without it, and the --with-cycle-gc switch to configure has been removed.

Python can now optionally be built as a shared library (libpython2.3.so) by supplying --enable-shared when running Python's configure script. (Contributed by Ondrej Palkovsky.)

The DL_EXPORT and DL_IMPORT macros are now deprecated. Initialization functions for Python extension modules should now be declared using the new macro PyMODINIT_FUNC, while the Python core will generally use the PyAPI_FUNC and PyAPI_DATA macros.

The interpreter can be compiled without any docstrings for the built-in functions and modules by supplying --without-doc-strings to the configure script. This makes the Python executable about 10% smaller, but will also mean that you can't get help for Python's built-ins. (Contributed by Gustavo Niemeyer.)

The PyArg_NoArgs() macro is now deprecated, and code that uses it should be changed. For Python 2.2 and later, the method definition table can specify the METH_NOARGS flag, signalling that there are no arguments, and the argument checking can then be removed. If compatibility with pre-2.2 versions of Python is important, the code could use PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "") instead, but this will be slower than using METH_NOARGS.

PyArg_ParseTuple() accepts new format characters for various sizes of unsigned integers: B for unsigned char, H for unsigned short int, I for unsigned int, and K for unsigned long long.

A new function, PyObject_DelItemString(mapping, char *key) was added as shorthand for PyObject_DelItem(mapping, PyString_New(key)).

File objects now manage their internal string buffer differently, increasing it exponentially when needed. This results in the benchmark tests in Lib/test/test_bufio.py speeding up considerably (from 57 seconds to 1.7 seconds, according to one measurement).

It's now possible to define class and static methods for a C extension type by setting either the METH_CLASS or METH_STATIC flags in a method's PyMethodDef structure.

Python now includes a copy of the Expat XML parser's source code, removing any dependence on a system version or local installation of Expat.

If you dynamically allocate type objects in your extension, you should be aware of a change in the rules relating to the __module__ and __name__ attributes. In summary, you will want to ensure the type's dictionary contains a '__module__' key; making the module name the part of the type name leading up to the final period will no longer have the desired effect. For more detail, read the API reference documentation or the source.

Port-Specific Changes

Support for a port to IBM's OS/2 using the EMX runtime environment was merged into the main Python source tree. EMX is a POSIX emulation layer over the OS/2 system APIs. The Python port for EMX tries to support all the POSIX-like capability exposed by the EMX runtime, and mostly succeeds; fork() and fcntl() are restricted by the limitations of the underlying emulation layer. The standard OS/2 port, which uses IBM's Visual Age compiler, also gained support for case-sensitive import semantics as part of the integration of the EMX port into CVS. (Contributed by Andrew MacIntyre.)

On MacOS, most toolbox modules have been weaklinked to improve backward compatibility. This means that modules will no longer fail to load if a single routine is missing on the current OS version. Instead calling the missing routine will raise an exception. (Contributed by Jack Jansen.)

The RPM spec files, found in the Misc/RPM/ directory in the Python source distribution, were updated for 2.3. (Contributed by Sean Reifschneider.)

Other new platforms now supported by Python include AtheOS (http://www.atheos.cx/), GNU/Hurd, and OpenVMS.

Autres changements et corrections

As usual, there were a bunch of other improvements and bugfixes scattered throughout the source tree. A search through the CVS change logs finds there were 523 patches applied and 514 bugs fixed between Python 2.2 and 2.3. Both figures are likely to be underestimates.

Some of the more notable changes are:

If the PYTHONINSPECT environment variable is set, the Python interpreter will enter the interactive prompt after running a Python program, as if Python had been invoked with the -i option. The environment variable can be set before running the Python interpreter, or it can be set by the Python program as part of its execution.

The regrtest.py script now provides a way to allow "all resources except foo." A resource name passed to the -u option can now be prefixed with a hyphen ('-') to mean "remove this resource." For example, the option '-uall,-bsddb' could be used to enable the use of all resources except bsddb.

The tools used to build the documentation now work under Cygwin as well as Unix.

The SET_LINENO opcode has been removed. Back in the mists of time, this opcode was needed to produce line numbers in tracebacks and support trace functions (for, e.g., pdb). Since Python 1.5, the line numbers in tracebacks have been computed using a different mechanism that works with "python -O". For Python 2.3 Michael Hudson implemented a similar scheme to determine when to call the trace function, removing the need for SET_LINENO entirely.

It would be difficult to detect any resulting difference from Python code, apart from a slight speed up when Python is run without -O.

C extensions that access the f_lineno field of frame objects should instead call PyCode_Addr2Line(f->f_code, f->f_lasti). This will have the added effect of making the code work as desired under "python -O" in earlier versions of Python.

A nifty new feature is that trace functions can now assign to the f_lineno attribute of frame objects, changing the line that will be executed next. A jump command has been added to the pdb debugger taking advantage of this new feature. (Implemented by Richie Hindle.)

Portage vers Python 2.3

This section lists previously described changes that may require changes to your code:

yield is now always a keyword; if it's used as a variable name in your code, a different name must be chosen.

For strings X and Y, X in Y now works if X is more than one character long.

The int() type constructor will now return a long integer instead of raising an OverflowError when a string or floating-point number is too large to fit into an integer.

If you have Unicode strings that contain 8-bit characters, you must declare the file's encoding (UTF-8, Latin-1, or whatever) by adding a comment to the top of the file. See section PEP 263: Source Code Encodings for more information.

Calling Tcl methods through _tkinter no longer returns only strings. Instead, if Tcl returns other objects those objects are converted to their Python equivalent, if one exists, or wrapped with a _tkinter.Tcl_Obj object if no Python equivalent exists.

Large octal and hex literals such as 0xffffffff now trigger a FutureWarning. Currently they're stored as 32-bit numbers and result in a negative value, but in Python 2.4 they'll become positive long integers.

There are a few ways to fix this warning. If you really need a positive number, just add an L to the end of the literal. If you're trying to get a 32-bit integer with low bits set and have previously used an expression such as ~(1 << 31), it's probably clearest to start with all bits set and clear the desired upper bits. For example, to clear just the top bit (bit 31), you could write 0xffffffffL &~(1L<<31).

You can no longer disable assertions by assigning to __debug__.

The Distutils setup() function has gained various new keyword arguments such as depends. Old versions of the Distutils will abort if passed unknown keywords. A solution is to check for the presence of the new get_distutil_options() function in your setup.py and only uses the new keywords with a version of the Distutils that supports them:

from distutils import core

kw = {'sources': 'foo.c', ...}
if hasattr(core, 'get_distutil_options'):
    kw['depends'] = ['foo.h']
ext = Extension(**kw)

Using None as a variable name will now result in a SyntaxWarning warning.

Names of extension types defined by the modules included with Python now contain the module and a '.' in front of the type name.

Remerciements

The author would like to thank the following people for offering suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this article: Jeff Bauer, Simon Brunning, Brett Cannon, Michael Chermside, Andrew Dalke, Scott David Daniels, Fred L. Drake, Jr., David Fraser, Kelly Gerber, Raymond Hettinger, Michael Hudson, Chris Lambert, Detlef Lannert, Martin von Löwis, Andrew MacIntyre, Lalo Martins, Chad Netzer, Gustavo Niemeyer, Neal Norwitz, Hans Nowak, Chris Reedy, Francesco Ricciardi, Vinay Sajip, Neil Schemenauer, Roman Suzi, Jason Tishler, Just van Rossum.

Nouveautés de Python 2.2

Auteur:

A.M. Kuchling

Introduction

This article explains the new features in Python 2.2.2, released on October 14, 2002. Python 2.2.2 is a bugfix release of Python 2.2, originally released on December 21, 2001.

Python 2.2 can be thought of as the "cleanup release". There are some features such as generators and iterators that are completely new, but most of the changes, significant and far-reaching though they may be, are aimed at cleaning up irregularities and dark corners of the language design.

This article doesn't attempt to provide a complete specification of the new features, but instead provides a convenient overview. For full details, you should refer to the documentation for Python 2.2, such as the Python Library Reference [https://docs.python.org/2.2/lib/lib.html] and the Python Reference Manual [https://docs.python.org/2.2/ref/ref.html]. If you want to understand the complete implementation and design rationale for a change, refer to the PEP for a particular new feature.

PEP 252 et 253 : Changements concernant les types et classes

The largest and most far-reaching changes in Python 2.2 are to Python's model of objects and classes. The changes should be backward compatible, so it's likely that your code will continue to run unchanged, but the changes provide some amazing new capabilities. Before beginning this, the longest and most complicated section of this article, I'll provide an overview of the changes and offer some comments.

A long time ago I wrote a web page listing flaws in Python's design. One of the most significant flaws was that it's impossible to subclass Python types implemented in C. In particular, it's not possible to subclass built-in types, so you can't just subclass, say, lists in order to add a single useful method to them. The UserList module provides a class that supports all of the methods of lists and that can be subclassed further, but there's lots of C code that expects a regular Python list and won't accept a UserList instance.

Python 2.2 fixes this, and in the process adds some exciting new capabilities. A brief summary:

You can subclass built-in types such as lists and even integers, and your subclasses should work in every place that requires the original type.

It's now possible to define static and class methods, in addition to the instance methods available in previous versions of Python.

It's also possible to automatically call methods on accessing or setting an instance attribute by using a new mechanism called properties. Many uses of __getattr__() can be rewritten to use properties instead, making the resulting code simpler and faster. As a small side benefit, attributes can now have docstrings, too.

The list of legal attributes for an instance can be limited to a particular set using slots, making it possible to safeguard against typos and perhaps make more optimizations possible in future versions of Python.

Some users have voiced concern about all these changes. Sure, they say, the new features are neat and lend themselves to all sorts of tricks that weren't possible in previous versions of Python, but they also make the language more complicated. Some people have said that they've always recommended Python for its simplicity, and feel that its simplicity is being lost.

Personally, I think there's no need to worry. Many of the new features are quite esoteric, and you can write a lot of Python code without ever needed to be aware of them. Writing a simple class is no more difficult than it ever was, so you don't need to bother learning or teaching them unless they're actually needed. Some very complicated tasks that were previously only possible from C will now be possible in pure Python, and to my mind that's all for the better.

I'm not going to attempt to cover every single corner case and small change that were required to make the new features work. Instead this section will paint only the broad strokes. See section Related Links, "Related Links", for further sources of information about Python 2.2's new object model.

Anciennes et nouvelles classes

First, you should know that Python 2.2 really has two kinds of classes: classic or old-style classes, and new-style classes. The old-style class model is exactly the same as the class model in earlier versions of Python. All the new features described in this section apply only to new-style classes. This divergence isn't intended to last forever; eventually old-style classes will be dropped, possibly in Python 3.0.

So how do you define a new-style class? You do it by subclassing an existing new-style class. Most of Python's built-in types, such as integers, lists, dictionaries, and even files, are new-style classes now. A new-style class named object, the base class for all built-in types, has also been added so if no built-in type is suitable, you can just subclass object:

class C(object):
    def __init__ (self):
        ...
    ...

This means that class statements that don't have any base classes are always classic classes in Python 2.2. (Actually you can also change this by setting a module-level variable named __metaclass__ --- see PEP 253 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0253/] for the details --- but it's easier to just subclass object.)

The type objects for the built-in types are available as built-ins, named using a clever trick. Python has always had built-in functions named int(), float(), and str(). In 2.2, they aren't functions any more, but type objects that behave as factories when called.

>>> int
<type 'int'>
>>> int('123')
123

To make the set of types complete, new type objects such as dict() and file() have been added. Here's a more interesting example, adding a lock() method to file objects:

class LockableFile(file):
    def lock (self, operation, length=0, start=0, whence=0):
        import fcntl
        return fcntl.lockf(self.fileno(), operation,
                           length, start, whence)

The now-obsolete posixfile module contained a class that emulated all of a file object's methods and also added a lock() method, but this class couldn't be passed to internal functions that expected a built-in file, something which is possible with our new LockableFile.

Descripteurs

In previous versions of Python, there was no consistent way to discover what attributes and methods were supported by an object. There were some informal conventions, such as defining __members__ and __methods__ attributes that were lists of names, but often the author of an extension type or a class wouldn't bother to define them. You could fall back on inspecting the __dict__ of an object, but when class inheritance or an arbitrary __getattr__() hook were in use this could still be inaccurate.

The one big idea underlying the new class model is that an API for describing the attributes of an object using descriptors has been formalized. Descriptors specify the value of an attribute, stating whether it's a method or a field. With the descriptor API, static methods and class methods become possible, as well as more exotic constructs.

Attribute descriptors are objects that live inside class objects, and have a few attributes of their own:

__name__ is the attribute's name.

__doc__ is the attribute's docstring.

__get__(object) is a method that retrieves the attribute value from object.

__set__(object, value) sets the attribute on object to value.

__delete__(object, value) deletes the value attribute of object.

For example, when you write obj.x, the steps that Python actually performs are:

descriptor = obj.__class__.x
descriptor.__get__(obj)

For methods, descriptor.__get__ returns a temporary object that's callable, and wraps up the instance and the method to be called on it. This is also why static methods and class methods are now possible; they have descriptors that wrap up just the method, or the method and the class. As a brief explanation of these new kinds of methods, static methods aren't passed the instance, and therefore resemble regular functions. Class methods are passed the class of the object, but not the object itself. Static and class methods are defined like this:

class C(object):
    def f(arg1, arg2):
        ...
    f = staticmethod(f)

    def g(cls, arg1, arg2):
        ...
    g = classmethod(g)

The staticmethod() function takes the function f(), and returns it wrapped up in a descriptor so it can be stored in the class object. You might expect there to be special syntax for creating such methods (def static f, defstatic f(), or something like that) but no such syntax has been defined yet; that's been left for future versions of Python.

More new features, such as slots and properties, are also implemented as new kinds of descriptors, and it's not difficult to write a descriptor class that does something novel. For example, it would be possible to write a descriptor class that made it possible to write Eiffel-style preconditions and postconditions for a method. A class that used this feature might be defined like this:

from eiffel import eiffelmethod

class C(object):
    def f(self, arg1, arg2):
        # The actual function
        ...
    def pre_f(self):
        # Check preconditions
        ...
    def post_f(self):
        # Check postconditions
        ...

    f = eiffelmethod(f, pre_f, post_f)

Note that a person using the new eiffelmethod() doesn't have to understand anything about descriptors. This is why I think the new features don't increase the basic complexity of the language. There will be a few wizards who need to know about it in order to write eiffelmethod() or the ZODB or whatever, but most users will just write code on top of the resulting libraries and ignore the implementation details.

Héritage multiple : la règle du diamant

Multiple inheritance has also been made more useful through changing the rules under which names are resolved. Consider this set of classes (diagram taken from PEP 253 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0253/] by Guido van Rossum):

      class A:
        ^ ^  def save(self): ...
       /   \
      /     \
     /       \
    /         \
class B     class C:
    ^         ^  def save(self): ...
     \       /
      \     /
       \   /
        \ /
      class D

The lookup rule for classic classes is simple but not very smart; the base classes are searched depth-first, going from left to right. A reference to D.save() will search the classes D, B, and then A, where save() would be found and returned. C.save() would never be found at all. This is bad, because if C's save() method is saving some internal state specific to C, not calling it will result in that state never getting saved.

New-style classes follow a different algorithm that's a bit more complicated to explain, but does the right thing in this situation. (Note that Python 2.3 changes this algorithm to one that produces the same results in most cases, but produces more useful results for really complicated inheritance graphs.)

List all the base classes, following the classic lookup rule and include a class multiple times if it's visited repeatedly. In the above example, the list of visited classes is [D, B, A, C, A].

Scan the list for duplicated classes. If any are found, remove all but one occurrence, leaving the last one in the list. In the above example, the list becomes [D, B, C, A] after dropping duplicates.

Following this rule, referring to D.save() will return C.save(), which is the behaviour we're after. This lookup rule is the same as the one followed by Common Lisp. A new built-in function, super(), provides a way to get at a class's superclasses without having to reimplement Python's algorithm. The most commonly used form will be super(class, obj), which returns a bound superclass object (not the actual class object). This form will be used in methods to call a method in the superclass; for example, D's save() method would look like this:

class D (B,C):
    def save (self):
        # Call superclass .save()
        super(D, self).save()
        # Save D's private information here
        ...

super() can also return unbound superclass objects when called as super(class) or super(class1, class2), but this probably won't often be useful.

Attribute Access

A fair number of sophisticated Python classes define hooks for attribute access using __getattr__(); most commonly this is done for convenience, to make code more readable by automatically mapping an attribute access such as obj.parent into a method call such as obj.get_parent. Python 2.2 adds some new ways of controlling attribute access.

First, __getattr__(attr_name) is still supported by new-style classes, and nothing about it has changed. As before, it will be called when an attempt is made to access obj.foo and no attribute named foo is found in the instance's dictionary.

New-style classes also support a new method, __getattribute__(attr_name). The difference between the two methods is that __getattribute__() is always called whenever any attribute is accessed, while the old __getattr__() is only called if foo isn't found in the instance's dictionary.

However, Python 2.2's support for properties will often be a simpler way to trap attribute references. Writing a __getattr__() method is complicated because to avoid recursion you can't use regular attribute accesses inside them, and instead have to mess around with the contents of __dict__. __getattr__() methods also end up being called by Python when it checks for other methods such as __repr__() or __coerce__(), and so have to be written with this in mind. Finally, calling a function on every attribute access results in a sizable performance loss.

property is a new built-in type that packages up three functions that get, set, or delete an attribute, and a docstring. For example, if you want to define a size attribute that's computed, but also settable, you could write:

class C(object):
    def get_size (self):
        result = ... computation ...
        return result
    def set_size (self, size):
        ... compute something based on the size
        and set internal state appropriately ...

    # Define a property.  The 'delete this attribute'
    # method is defined as None, so the attribute
    # can't be deleted.
    size = property(get_size, set_size,
                    None,
                    "Storage size of this instance")

That is certainly clearer and easier to write than a pair of __getattr__()/__setattr__() methods that check for the size attribute and handle it specially while retrieving all other attributes from the instance's __dict__. Accesses to size are also the only ones which have to perform the work of calling a function, so references to other attributes run at their usual speed.

Finally, it's possible to constrain the list of attributes that can be referenced on an object using the new __slots__ class attribute. Python objects are usually very dynamic; at any time it's possible to define a new attribute on an instance by just doing obj.new_attr=1. A new-style class can define a class attribute named __slots__ to limit the legal attributes to a particular set of names. An example will make this clear:

>>> class C(object):
...     __slots__ = ('template', 'name')
...
>>> obj = C()
>>> print obj.template
None
>>> obj.template = 'Test'
>>> print obj.template
Test
>>> obj.newattr = None
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
AttributeError: 'C' object has no attribute 'newattr'

Note how you get an AttributeError on the attempt to assign to an attribute not listed in __slots__.

Related Links

This section has just been a quick overview of the new features, giving enough of an explanation to start you programming, but many details have been simplified or ignored. Where should you go to get a more complete picture?

The Descriptor Guide is a lengthy tutorial introduction to the descriptor features, written by Guido van Rossum. If my description has whetted your appetite, go read this tutorial next, because it goes into much more detail about the new features while still remaining quite easy to read.

Next, there are two relevant PEPs, PEP 252 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0252/] and PEP 253 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0253/]. PEP 252 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0252/] is titled "Making Types Look More Like Classes", and covers the descriptor API. PEP 253 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0253/] is titled "Subtyping Built-in Types", and describes the changes to type objects that make it possible to subtype built-in objects. PEP 253 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0253/] is the more complicated PEP of the two, and at a few points the necessary explanations of types and meta-types may cause your head to explode. Both PEPs were written and implemented by Guido van Rossum, with substantial assistance from the rest of the Zope Corp. team.

Finally, there's the ultimate authority: the source code. Most of the machinery for the type handling is in Objects/typeobject.c, but you should only resort to it after all other avenues have been exhausted, including posting a question to python-list or python-dev.

PEP 234 : Itérateurs

Another significant addition to 2.2 is an iteration interface at both the C and Python levels. Objects can define how they can be looped over by callers.

In Python versions up to 2.1, the usual way to make for item in obj work is to define a __getitem__() method that looks something like this:

def __getitem__(self, index):
    return <next item>

__getitem__() is more properly used to define an indexing operation on an object so that you can write obj[5] to retrieve the sixth element. It's a bit misleading when you're using this only to support for loops. Consider some file-like object that wants to be looped over; the index parameter is essentially meaningless, as the class probably assumes that a series of __getitem__() calls will be made with index incrementing by one each time. In other words, the presence of the __getitem__() method doesn't mean that using file[5] to randomly access the sixth element will work, though it really should.

In Python 2.2, iteration can be implemented separately, and __getitem__() methods can be limited to classes that really do support random access. The basic idea of iterators is simple. A new built-in function, iter(obj) or iter(C, sentinel), is used to get an iterator. iter(obj) returns an iterator for the object obj, while iter(C, sentinel) returns an iterator that will invoke the callable object C until it returns sentinel to signal that the iterator is done.

Python classes can define an __iter__() method, which should create and return a new iterator for the object; if the object is its own iterator, this method can just return self. In particular, iterators will usually be their own iterators. Extension types implemented in C can implement a tp_iter function in order to return an iterator, and extension types that want to behave as iterators can define a tp_iternext function.

So, after all this, what do iterators actually do? They have one required method, next(), which takes no arguments and returns the next value. When there are no more values to be returned, calling next() should raise the StopIteration exception.

>>> L = [1,2,3]
>>> i = iter(L)
>>> print i
<iterator object at 0x8116870>
>>> i.next()
1
>>> i.next()
2
>>> i.next()
3
>>> i.next()
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
StopIteration
>>>

In 2.2, Python's for statement no longer expects a sequence; it expects something for which iter() will return an iterator. For backward compatibility and convenience, an iterator is automatically constructed for sequences that don't implement __iter__() or a tp_iter slot, so for i in [1,2,3] will still work. Wherever the Python interpreter loops over a sequence, it's been changed to use the iterator protocol. This means you can do things like this:

>>> L = [1,2,3]
>>> i = iter(L)
>>> a,b,c = i
>>> a,b,c
(1, 2, 3)

Iterator support has been added to some of Python's basic types. Calling iter() on a dictionary will return an iterator which loops over its keys:

>>> m = {'Jan': 1, 'Feb': 2, 'Mar': 3, 'Apr': 4, 'May': 5, 'Jun': 6,
...      'Jul': 7, 'Aug': 8, 'Sep': 9, 'Oct': 10, 'Nov': 11, 'Dec': 12}
>>> for key in m: print key, m[key]
...
Mar 3
Feb 2
Aug 8
Sep 9
May 5
Jun 6
Jul 7
Jan 1
Apr 4
Nov 11
Dec 12
Oct 10

That's just the default behaviour. If you want to iterate over keys, values, or key/value pairs, you can explicitly call the iterkeys(), itervalues(), or iteritems() methods to get an appropriate iterator. In a minor related change, the in operator now works on dictionaries, so key in dict is now equivalent to dict.has_key(key).

Files also provide an iterator, which calls the readline() method until there are no more lines in the file. This means you can now read each line of a file using code like this:

for line in file:
    # do something for each line
    ...

Note that you can only go forward in an iterator; there's no way to get the previous element, reset the iterator, or make a copy of it. An iterator object could provide such additional capabilities, but the iterator protocol only requires a next() method.

Voir aussi

PEP 234 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0234/] -- Itérateurs

Written by Ka-Ping Yee and GvR; implemented by the Python Labs crew, mostly by GvR and Tim Peters.

PEP 255 : Générateurs simples

Generators are another new feature, one that interacts with the introduction of iterators.

You're doubtless familiar with how function calls work in Python or C. When you call a function, it gets a private namespace where its local variables are created. When the function reaches a return statement, the local variables are destroyed and the resulting value is returned to the caller. A later call to the same function will get a fresh new set of local variables. But, what if the local variables weren't thrown away on exiting a function? What if you could later resume the function where it left off? This is what generators provide; they can be thought of as resumable functions.

Here's the simplest example of a generator function:

def generate_ints(N):
    for i in range(N):
        yield i

A new keyword, yield, was introduced for generators. Any function containing a yield statement is a generator function; this is detected by Python's bytecode compiler which compiles the function specially as a result. Because a new keyword was introduced, generators must be explicitly enabled in a module by including a from __future__ import generators statement near the top of the module's source code. In Python 2.3 this statement will become unnecessary.

When you call a generator function, it doesn't return a single value; instead it returns a generator object that supports the iterator protocol. On executing the yield statement, the generator outputs the value of i, similar to a return statement. The big difference between yield and a return statement is that on reaching a yield the generator's state of execution is suspended and local variables are preserved. On the next call to the generator's next() method, the function will resume executing immediately after the yield statement. (For complicated reasons, the yield statement isn't allowed inside the try block of a try...finally statement; read PEP 255 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0255/] for a full explanation of the interaction between yield and exceptions.)

Here's a sample usage of the generate_ints() generator:

>>> gen = generate_ints(3)
>>> gen
<generator object at 0x8117f90>
>>> gen.next()
0
>>> gen.next()
1
>>> gen.next()
2
>>> gen.next()
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
  File "<stdin>", line 2, in generate_ints
StopIteration

You could equally write for i in generate_ints(5), or a,b,c = generate_ints(3).

Inside a generator function, the return statement can only be used without a value, and signals the end of the procession of values; afterwards the generator cannot return any further values. return with a value, such as return 5, is a syntax error inside a generator function. The end of the generator's results can also be indicated by raising StopIteration manually, or by just letting the flow of execution fall off the bottom of the function.

You could achieve the effect of generators manually by writing your own class and storing all the local variables of the generator as instance variables. For example, returning a list of integers could be done by setting self.count to 0, and having the next() method increment self.count and return it. However, for a moderately complicated generator, writing a corresponding class would be much messier. Lib/test/test_generators.py contains a number of more interesting examples. The simplest one implements an in-order traversal of a tree using generators recursively.

# A recursive generator that generates Tree leaves in in-order.
def inorder(t):
    if t:
        for x in inorder(t.left):
            yield x
        yield t.label
        for x in inorder(t.right):
            yield x

Two other examples in Lib/test/test_generators.py produce solutions for the N-Queens problem (placing $N$ queens on an $NxN$ chess board so that no queen threatens another) and the Knight's Tour (a route that takes a knight to every square of an $NxN$ chessboard without visiting any square twice).

The idea of generators comes from other programming languages, especially Icon (https://www2.cs.arizona.edu/icon/), where the idea of generators is central. In Icon, every expression and function call behaves like a generator. One example from "An Overview of the Icon Programming Language" at https://www2.cs.arizona.edu/icon/docs/ipd266.htm gives an idea of what this looks like:

sentence := "Store it in the neighboring harbor"
if (i := find("or", sentence)) > 5 then write(i)

In Icon the find() function returns the indexes at which the substring "or" is found: 3, 23, 33. In the if statement, i is first assigned a value of 3, but 3 is less than 5, so the comparison fails, and Icon retries it with the second value of 23. 23 is greater than 5, so the comparison now succeeds, and the code prints the value 23 to the screen.

Python doesn't go nearly as far as Icon in adopting generators as a central concept. Generators are considered a new part of the core Python language, but learning or using them isn't compulsory; if they don't solve any problems that you have, feel free to ignore them. One novel feature of Python's interface as compared to Icon's is that a generator's state is represented as a concrete object (the iterator) that can be passed around to other functions or stored in a data structure.

Voir aussi

PEP 255 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0255/]: Générateurs simples

Written by Neil Schemenauer, Tim Peters, Magnus Lie Hetland. Implemented mostly by Neil Schemenauer and Tim Peters, with other fixes from the Python Labs crew.

PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers

In recent versions, the distinction between regular integers, which are 32-bit values on most machines, and long integers, which can be of arbitrary size, was becoming an annoyance. For example, on platforms that support files larger than 2**32 bytes, the tell() method of file objects has to return a long integer. However, there were various bits of Python that expected plain integers and would raise an error if a long integer was provided instead. For example, in Python 1.5, only regular integers could be used as a slice index, and 'abc'[1L:] would raise a TypeError exception with the message 'slice index must be int'.

Python 2.2 will shift values from short to long integers as required. The 'L' suffix is no longer needed to indicate a long integer literal, as now the compiler will choose the appropriate type. (Using the 'L' suffix will be discouraged in future 2.x versions of Python, triggering a warning in Python 2.4, and probably dropped in Python 3.0.) Many operations that used to raise an OverflowError will now return a long integer as their result. For example:

>>> 1234567890123
1234567890123L
>>> 2 ** 64
18446744073709551616L

In most cases, integers and long integers will now be treated identically. You can still distinguish them with the type() built-in function, but that's rarely needed.

Voir aussi

PEP 237 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0237/] - Unifying Long Integers and Integers

Written by Moshe Zadka and Guido van Rossum. Implemented mostly by Guido van Rossum.

PEP 238: Changing the Division Operator

The most controversial change in Python 2.2 heralds the start of an effort to fix an old design flaw that's been in Python from the beginning. Currently Python's division operator, /, behaves like C's division operator when presented with two integer arguments: it returns an integer result that's truncated down when there would be a fractional part. For example, 3/2 is 1, not 1.5, and (-1)/2 is -1, not -0.5. This means that the results of division can vary unexpectedly depending on the type of the two operands and because Python is dynamically typed, it can be difficult to determine the possible types of the operands.

(The controversy is over whether this is really a design flaw, and whether it's worth breaking existing code to fix this. It's caused endless discussions on python-dev, and in July 2001 erupted into a storm of acidly sarcastic postings on comp.lang.python. I won't argue for either side here and will stick to describing what's implemented in 2.2. Read PEP 238 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0238/] for a summary of arguments and counter-arguments.)

Because this change might break code, it's being introduced very gradually. Python 2.2 begins the transition, but the switch won't be complete until Python 3.0.

First, I'll borrow some terminology from PEP 238 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0238/]. "True division" is the division that most non-programmers are familiar with: 3/2 is 1.5, 1/4 is 0.25, and so forth. "Floor division" is what Python's / operator currently does when given integer operands; the result is the floor of the value returned by true division. "Classic division" is the current mixed behaviour of /; it returns the result of floor division when the operands are integers, and returns the result of true division when one of the operands is a floating-point number.

Here are the changes 2.2 introduces:

A new operator, //, is the floor division operator. (Yes, we know it looks like C++'s comment symbol.) // always performs floor division no matter what the types of its operands are, so 1 // 2 is 0 and 1.0 // 2.0 is also 0.0.

// is always available in Python 2.2; you don't need to enable it using a __future__ statement.

By including a from __future__ import division in a module, the / operator will be changed to return the result of true division, so 1/2 is 0.5. Without the __future__ statement, / still means classic division. The default meaning of / will not change until Python 3.0.

Classes can define methods called __truediv__() and __floordiv__() to overload the two division operators. At the C level, there are also slots in the PyNumberMethods structure so extension types can define the two operators.

Python 2.2 supports some command-line arguments for testing whether code will work with the changed division semantics. Running python with -Q warn will cause a warning to be issued whenever division is applied to two integers. You can use this to find code that's affected by the change and fix it. By default, Python 2.2 will simply perform classic division without a warning; the warning will be turned on by default in Python 2.3.

Voir aussi

PEP 238 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0238/] - Changing the Division Operator

Written by Moshe Zadka and Guido van Rossum. Implemented by Guido van Rossum..

Unicode Changes

Python's Unicode support has been enhanced a bit in 2.2. Unicode strings are usually stored as UCS-2, as 16-bit unsigned integers. Python 2.2 can also be compiled to use UCS-4, 32-bit unsigned integers, as its internal encoding by supplying --enable-unicode=ucs4 to the configure script. (It's also possible to specify --disable-unicode to completely disable Unicode support.)

When built to use UCS-4 (a "wide Python"), the interpreter can natively handle Unicode characters from U+000000 to U+110000, so the range of legal values for the unichr() function is expanded accordingly. Using an interpreter compiled to use UCS-2 (a "narrow Python"), values greater than 65535 will still cause unichr() to raise a ValueError exception. This is all described in PEP 261 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0261/], "Support for 'wide' Unicode characters"; consult it for further details.

Another change is simpler to explain. Since their introduction, Unicode strings have supported an encode() method to convert the string to a selected encoding such as UTF-8 or Latin-1. A symmetric decode([*encoding*]) method has been added to 8-bit strings (though not to Unicode strings) in 2.2. decode() assumes that the string is in the specified encoding and decodes it, returning whatever is returned by the codec.

Using this new feature, codecs have been added for tasks not directly related to Unicode. For example, codecs have been added for uu-encoding, MIME's base64 encoding, and compression with the zlib module:

>>> s = """Here is a lengthy piece of redundant, overly verbose,
... and repetitive text.
... """
>>> data = s.encode('zlib')
>>> data
'x\x9c\r\xc9\xc1\r\x80 \x10\x04\xc0?Ul...'
>>> data.decode('zlib')
'Here is a lengthy piece of redundant, overly verbose,\nand repetitive text.\n'
>>> print s.encode('uu')
begin 666 <data>
M2&5R92!I<R!A(&QE;F=T:'D@<&EE8V4@;V8@<F5D=6YD86YT+"!O=F5R;'D@
>=F5R8F]S92P*86YD(')E<&5T:71I=F4@=&5X="X*

end
>>> "sheesh".encode('rot-13')
'furrfu'

To convert a class instance to Unicode, a __unicode__() method can be defined by a class, analogous to __str__().

encode(), decode(), and __unicode__() were implemented by Marc-André Lemburg. The changes to support using UCS-4 internally were implemented by Fredrik Lundh and Martin von Löwis.

Voir aussi

PEP 261 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0261/] - Support for 'wide' Unicode characters

Written by Paul Prescod.

PEP 227: Nested Scopes

In Python 2.1, statically nested scopes were added as an optional feature, to be enabled by a from __future__ import nested_scopes directive. In 2.2 nested scopes no longer need to be specially enabled, and are now always present. The rest of this section is a copy of the description of nested scopes from my "What's New in Python 2.1" document; if you read it when 2.1 came out, you can skip the rest of this section.

The largest change introduced in Python 2.1, and made complete in 2.2, is to Python's scoping rules. In Python 2.0, at any given time there are at most three namespaces used to look up variable names: local, module-level, and the built-in namespace. This often surprised people because it didn't match their intuitive expectations. For example, a nested recursive function definition doesn't work:

def f():
    ...
    def g(value):
        ...
        return g(value-1) + 1
    ...

The function g() will always raise a NameError exception, because the binding of the name g isn't in either its local namespace or in the module-level namespace. This isn't much of a problem in practice (how often do you recursively define interior functions like this?), but this also made using the lambda expression clumsier, and this was a problem in practice. In code which uses lambda you can often find local variables being copied by passing them as the default values of arguments.

def find(self, name):
    "Return list of any entries equal to 'name'"
    L = filter(lambda x, name=name: x == name,
               self.list_attribute)
    return L

The readability of Python code written in a strongly functional style suffers greatly as a result.

The most significant change to Python 2.2 is that static scoping has been added to the language to fix this problem. As a first effect, the name=name default argument is now unnecessary in the above example. Put simply, when a given variable name is not assigned a value within a function (by an assignment, or the def, class, or import statements), references to the variable will be looked up in the local namespace of the enclosing scope. A more detailed explanation of the rules, and a dissection of the implementation, can be found in the PEP.

This change may cause some compatibility problems for code where the same variable name is used both at the module level and as a local variable within a function that contains further function definitions. This seems rather unlikely though, since such code would have been pretty confusing to read in the first place.

One side effect of the change is that the from module import * and exec statements have been made illegal inside a function scope under certain conditions. The Python reference manual has said all along that from module import * is only legal at the top level of a module, but the CPython interpreter has never enforced this before. As part of the implementation of nested scopes, the compiler which turns Python source into bytecodes has to generate different code to access variables in a containing scope. from module import * and exec make it impossible for the compiler to figure this out, because they add names to the local namespace that are unknowable at compile time. Therefore, if a function contains function definitions or lambda expressions with free variables, the compiler will flag this by raising a SyntaxError exception.

To make the preceding explanation a bit clearer, here's an example:

x = 1
def f():
    # The next line is a syntax error
    exec 'x=2'
    def g():
        return x

Line 4 containing the exec statement is a syntax error, since exec would define a new local variable named x whose value should be accessed by g().

This shouldn't be much of a limitation, since exec is rarely used in most Python code (and when it is used, it's often a sign of a poor design anyway).

Voir aussi

PEP 227 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0227/] - Statically Nested Scopes

Écrit et implémenté par Jeremy Hylton.

New and Improved Modules

The xmlrpclib module was contributed to the standard library by Fredrik Lundh, providing support for writing XML-RPC clients. XML-RPC is a simple remote procedure call protocol built on top of HTTP and XML. For example, the following snippet retrieves a list of RSS channels from the O'Reilly Network, and then lists the recent headlines for one channel:

import xmlrpclib
s = xmlrpclib.Server(
      'http://www.oreillynet.com/meerkat/xml-rpc/server.php')
channels = s.meerkat.getChannels()
# channels is a list of dictionaries, like this:
# [{'id': 4, 'title': 'Freshmeat Daily News'}
#  {'id': 190, 'title': '32Bits Online'},
#  {'id': 4549, 'title': '3DGamers'}, ... ]

# Get the items for one channel
items = s.meerkat.getItems( {'channel': 4} )

# 'items' is another list of dictionaries, like this:
# [{'link': 'http://freshmeat.net/releases/52719/',
#   'description': 'A utility which converts HTML to XSL FO.',
#   'title': 'html2fo 0.3 (Default)'}, ... ]

The SimpleXMLRPCServer module makes it easy to create straightforward XML-RPC servers. See http://xmlrpc.scripting.com/ for more information about XML-RPC.

The new hmac module implements the HMAC algorithm described by RFC 2104 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2104.html]. (Contributed by Gerhard Häring.)

Several functions that originally returned lengthy tuples now return pseudo-sequences that still behave like tuples but also have mnemonic attributes such as memberst_mtime or tm_year. The enhanced functions include stat(), fstat(), statvfs(), and fstatvfs() in the os module, and localtime(), gmtime(), and strptime() in the time module.

For example, to obtain a file's size using the old tuples, you'd end up writing something like file_size = os.stat(filename)[stat.ST_SIZE], but now this can be written more clearly as file_size = os.stat(filename).st_size.

The original patch for this feature was contributed by Nick Mathewson.

The Python profiler has been extensively reworked and various errors in its output have been corrected. (Contributed by Fred L. Drake, Jr. and Tim Peters.)

The socket module can be compiled to support IPv6; specify the --enable-ipv6 option to Python's configure script. (Contributed by Jun-ichiro "itojun" Hagino.)

Two new format characters were added to the struct module for 64-bit integers on platforms that support the C long long type. q is for a signed 64-bit integer, and Q is for an unsigned one. The value is returned in Python's long integer type. (Contributed by Tim Peters.)

In the interpreter's interactive mode, there's a new built-in function help() that uses the pydoc module introduced in Python 2.1 to provide interactive help. help(object) displays any available help text about object. help() with no argument puts you in an online help utility, where you can enter the names of functions, classes, or modules to read their help text. (Contributed by Guido van Rossum, using Ka-Ping Yee's pydoc module.)

Various bugfixes and performance improvements have been made to the SRE engine underlying the re module. For example, the re.sub() and re.split() functions have been rewritten in C. Another contributed patch speeds up certain Unicode character ranges by a factor of two, and a new finditer() method that returns an iterator over all the non-overlapping matches in a given string. (SRE is maintained by Fredrik Lundh. The BIGCHARSET patch was contributed by Martin von Löwis.)

The smtplib module now supports RFC 2487 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2487.html], "Secure SMTP over TLS", so it's now possible to encrypt the SMTP traffic between a Python program and the mail transport agent being handed a message. smtplib also supports SMTP authentication. (Contributed by Gerhard Häring.)

The imaplib module, maintained by Piers Lauder, has support for several new extensions: the NAMESPACE extension defined in RFC 2342 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2342.html], SORT, GETACL and SETACL. (Contributed by Anthony Baxter and Michel Pelletier.)

The rfc822 module's parsing of email addresses is now compliant with RFC 2822 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html], an update to RFC 822 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html]. (The module's name is not going to be changed to rfc2822.) A new package, email, has also been added for parsing and generating e-mail messages. (Contributed by Barry Warsaw, and arising out of his work on Mailman.)

The difflib module now contains a new Differ class for producing human-readable lists of changes (a "delta") between two sequences of lines of text. There are also two generator functions, ndiff() and restore(), which respectively return a delta from two sequences, or one of the original sequences from a delta. (Grunt work contributed by David Goodger, from ndiff.py code by Tim Peters who then did the generatorization.)

New constants ascii_letters, ascii_lowercase, and ascii_uppercase were added to the string module. There were several modules in the standard library that used string.letters to mean the ranges A-Za-z, but that assumption is incorrect when locales are in use, because string.letters varies depending on the set of legal characters defined by the current locale. The buggy modules have all been fixed to use ascii_letters instead. (Reported by an unknown person; fixed by Fred L. Drake, Jr.)

The mimetypes module now makes it easier to use alternative MIME-type databases by the addition of a MimeTypes class, which takes a list of filenames to be parsed. (Contributed by Fred L. Drake, Jr.)

A Timer class was added to the threading module that allows scheduling an activity to happen at some future time. (Contributed by Itamar Shtull-Trauring.)

Interpreter Changes and Fixes

Some of the changes only affect people who deal with the Python interpreter at the C level because they're writing Python extension modules, embedding the interpreter, or just hacking on the interpreter itself. If you only write Python code, none of the changes described here will affect you very much.

Profiling and tracing functions can now be implemented in C, which can operate at much higher speeds than Python-based functions and should reduce the overhead of profiling and tracing. This will be of interest to authors of development environments for Python. Two new C functions were added to Python's API, PyEval_SetProfile() and PyEval_SetTrace(). The existing sys.setprofile() and sys.settrace() functions still exist, and have simply been changed to use the new C-level interface. (Contributed by Fred L. Drake, Jr.)

Another low-level API, primarily of interest to implementers of Python debuggers and development tools, was added. PyInterpreterState_Head() and PyInterpreterState_Next() let a caller walk through all the existing interpreter objects; PyInterpreterState_ThreadHead() and PyThreadState_Next() allow looping over all the thread states for a given interpreter. (Contributed by David Beazley.)

The C-level interface to the garbage collector has been changed to make it easier to write extension types that support garbage collection and to debug misuses of the functions. Various functions have slightly different semantics, so a bunch of functions had to be renamed. Extensions that use the old API will still compile but will not participate in garbage collection, so updating them for 2.2 should be considered fairly high priority.

To upgrade an extension module to the new API, perform the following steps:

Rename Py_TPFLAGS_GC to Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC.

Use PyObject_GC_New() or PyObject_GC_NewVar() to allocate

objects, and PyObject_GC_Del() to deallocate them.

Rename PyObject_GC_Init() to PyObject_GC_Track() and PyObject_GC_Fini() to PyObject_GC_UnTrack().

Remove PyGC_HEAD_SIZE from object size calculations.

Remove calls to PyObject_AS_GC() and PyObject_FROM_GC().

A new et format sequence was added to PyArg_ParseTuple(); et takes both a parameter and an encoding name, and converts the parameter to the given encoding if the parameter turns out to be a Unicode string, or leaves it alone if it's an 8-bit string, assuming it to already be in the desired encoding. This differs from the es format character, which assumes that 8-bit strings are in Python's default ASCII encoding and converts them to the specified new encoding. (Contributed by M.-A. Lemburg, and used for the MBCS support on Windows described in the following section.)

A different argument parsing function, PyArg_UnpackTuple(), has been added that's simpler and presumably faster. Instead of specifying a format string, the caller simply gives the minimum and maximum number of arguments expected, and a set of pointers to PyObject* variables that will be filled in with argument values.

Two new flags METH_NOARGS and METH_O are available in method definition tables to simplify implementation of methods with no arguments or a single untyped argument. Calling such methods is more efficient than calling a corresponding method that uses METH_VARARGS. Also, the old METH_OLDARGS style of writing C methods is now officially deprecated.

Two new wrapper functions, PyOS_snprintf() and PyOS_vsnprintf() were added to provide cross-platform implementations for the relatively new snprintf() and vsnprintf() C lib APIs. In contrast to the standard sprintf() and vsprintf() functions, the Python versions check the bounds of the buffer used to protect against buffer overruns. (Contributed by M.-A. Lemburg.)

The _PyTuple_Resize() function has lost an unused parameter, so now it takes 2 parameters instead of 3. The third argument was never used, and can simply be discarded when porting code from earlier versions to Python 2.2.

Autres changements et corrections

As usual there were a bunch of other improvements and bugfixes scattered throughout the source tree. A search through the CVS change logs finds there were 527 patches applied and 683 bugs fixed between Python 2.1 and 2.2; 2.2.1 applied 139 patches and fixed 143 bugs; 2.2.2 applied 106 patches and fixed 82 bugs. These figures are likely to be underestimates.

Some of the more notable changes are:

The code for the MacOS port for Python, maintained by Jack Jansen, is now kept in the main Python CVS tree, and many changes have been made to support MacOS X.

The most significant change is the ability to build Python as a framework, enabled by supplying the --enable-framework option to the configure script when compiling Python. According to Jack Jansen, "This installs a self-contained Python installation plus the OS X framework "glue" into /Library/Frameworks/Python.framework (or another location of choice). For now there is little immediate added benefit to this (actually, there is the disadvantage that you have to change your PATH to be able to find Python), but it is the basis for creating a full-blown Python application, porting the MacPython IDE, possibly using Python as a standard OSA scripting language and much more."

Most of the MacPython toolbox modules, which interface to MacOS APIs such as windowing, QuickTime, scripting, etc. have been ported to OS X, but they've been left commented out in setup.py. People who want to experiment with these modules can uncomment them manually.

Keyword arguments passed to built-in functions that don't take them now cause a TypeError exception to be raised, with the message "function takes no keyword arguments".

Weak references, added in Python 2.1 as an extension module, are now part of the core because they're used in the implementation of new-style classes. The ReferenceError exception has therefore moved from the weakref module to become a built-in exception.

A new script, Tools/scripts/cleanfuture.py by Tim Peters, automatically removes obsolete __future__ statements from Python source code.

An additional flags argument has been added to the built-in function compile(), so the behaviour of __future__ statements can now be correctly observed in simulated shells, such as those presented by IDLE and other development environments. This is described in PEP 264 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0264/]. (Contributed by Michael Hudson.)

The new license introduced with Python 1.6 wasn't GPL-compatible. This is fixed by some minor textual changes to the 2.2 license, so it's now legal to embed Python inside a GPLed program again. Note that Python itself is not GPLed, but instead is under a license that's essentially equivalent to the BSD license, same as it always was. The license changes were also applied to the Python 2.0.1 and 2.1.1 releases.

When presented with a Unicode filename on Windows, Python will now convert it to an MBCS encoded string, as used by the Microsoft file APIs. As MBCS is explicitly used by the file APIs, Python's choice of ASCII as the default encoding turns out to be an annoyance. On Unix, the locale's character set is used if locale.nl_langinfo(CODESET) is available. (Windows support was contributed by Mark Hammond with assistance from Marc-André Lemburg. Unix support was added by Martin von Löwis.)

Large file support is now enabled on Windows. (Contributed by Tim Peters.)

The Tools/scripts/ftpmirror.py script now parses a .netrc file, if you have one. (Contributed by Mike Romberg.)

Some features of the object returned by the xrange() function are now deprecated, and trigger warnings when they're accessed; they'll disappear in Python 2.3. xrange objects tried to pretend they were full sequence types by supporting slicing, sequence multiplication, and the in operator, but these features were rarely used and therefore buggy. The tolist() method and the start, stop, and step attributes are also being deprecated. At the C level, the fourth argument to the PyRange_New() function, repeat, has also been deprecated.

There were a bunch of patches to the dictionary implementation, mostly to fix potential core dumps if a dictionary contains objects that sneakily changed their hash value, or mutated the dictionary they were contained in. For a while python-dev fell into a gentle rhythm of Michael Hudson finding a case that dumped core, Tim Peters fixing the bug, Michael finding another case, and round and round it went.

On Windows, Python can now be compiled with Borland C thanks to a number of patches contributed by Stephen Hansen, though the result isn't fully functional yet. (But this is progress...)

Another Windows enhancement: Wise Solutions generously offered PythonLabs use of their InstallerMaster 8.1 system. Earlier PythonLabs Windows installers used Wise 5.0a, which was beginning to show its age. (Packaged up by Tim Peters.)

Files ending in .pyw can now be imported on Windows. .pyw is a Windows-only thing, used to indicate that a script needs to be run using PYTHONW.EXE instead of PYTHON.EXE in order to prevent a DOS console from popping up to display the output. This patch makes it possible to import such scripts, in case they're also usable as modules. (Implemented by David Bolen.)

On platforms where Python uses the C dlopen() function to load extension modules, it's now possible to set the flags used by dlopen() using the sys.getdlopenflags() and sys.setdlopenflags() functions. (Contributed by Bram Stolk.)

The pow() built-in function no longer supports 3 arguments when floating-point numbers are supplied. pow(x, y, z) returns (x**y) % z, but this is never useful for floating-point numbers, and the final result varies unpredictably depending on the platform. A call such as pow(2.0, 8.0, 7.0) will now raise a TypeError exception.

Remerciements

The author would like to thank the following people for offering suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this article: Fred Bremmer, Keith Briggs, Andrew Dalke, Fred L. Drake, Jr., Carel Fellinger, David Goodger, Mark Hammond, Stephen Hansen, Michael Hudson, Jack Jansen, Marc-André Lemburg, Martin von Löwis, Fredrik Lundh, Michael McLay, Nick Mathewson, Paul Moore, Gustavo Niemeyer, Don O'Donnell, Joonas Paalasma, Tim Peters, Jens Quade, Tom Reinhardt, Neil Schemenauer, Guido van Rossum, Greg Ward, Edward Welbourne.

Nouveautés de Python 2.1

Auteur:

A.M. Kuchling

Introduction

This article explains the new features in Python 2.1. While there aren't as many changes in 2.1 as there were in Python 2.0, there are still some pleasant surprises in store. 2.1 is the first release to be steered through the use of Python Enhancement Proposals, or PEPs, so most of the sizable changes have accompanying PEPs that provide more complete documentation and a design rationale for the change. This article doesn't attempt to document the new features completely, but simply provides an overview of the new features for Python programmers. Refer to the Python 2.1 documentation, or to the specific PEP, for more details about any new feature that particularly interests you.

One recent goal of the Python development team has been to accelerate the pace of new releases, with a new release coming every 6 to 9 months. 2.1 is the first release to come out at this faster pace, with the first alpha appearing in January, 3 months after the final version of 2.0 was released.

The final release of Python 2.1 was made on April 17, 2001.

PEP 227: Nested Scopes

The largest change in Python 2.1 is to Python's scoping rules. In Python 2.0, at any given time there are at most three namespaces used to look up variable names: local, module-level, and the built-in namespace. This often surprised people because it didn't match their intuitive expectations. For example, a nested recursive function definition doesn't work:

def f():
    ...
    def g(value):
        ...
        return g(value-1) + 1
    ...

The function g() will always raise a NameError exception, because the binding of the name g isn't in either its local namespace or in the module-level namespace. This isn't much of a problem in practice (how often do you recursively define interior functions like this?), but this also made using the lambda expression clumsier, and this was a problem in practice. In code which uses lambda you can often find local variables being copied by passing them as the default values of arguments.

def find(self, name):
    "Return list of any entries equal to 'name'"
    L = filter(lambda x, name=name: x == name,
               self.list_attribute)
    return L

The readability of Python code written in a strongly functional style suffers greatly as a result.

The most significant change to Python 2.1 is that static scoping has been added to the language to fix this problem. As a first effect, the name=name default argument is now unnecessary in the above example. Put simply, when a given variable name is not assigned a value within a function (by an assignment, or the def, class, or import statements), references to the variable will be looked up in the local namespace of the enclosing scope. A more detailed explanation of the rules, and a dissection of the implementation, can be found in the PEP.

This change may cause some compatibility problems for code where the same variable name is used both at the module level and as a local variable within a function that contains further function definitions. This seems rather unlikely though, since such code would have been pretty confusing to read in the first place.

One side effect of the change is that the from module import * and exec statements have been made illegal inside a function scope under certain conditions. The Python reference manual has said all along that from module import * is only legal at the top level of a module, but the CPython interpreter has never enforced this before. As part of the implementation of nested scopes, the compiler which turns Python source into bytecodes has to generate different code to access variables in a containing scope. from module import * and exec make it impossible for the compiler to figure this out, because they add names to the local namespace that are unknowable at compile time. Therefore, if a function contains function definitions or lambda expressions with free variables, the compiler will flag this by raising a SyntaxError exception.

To make the preceding explanation a bit clearer, here's an example:

x = 1
def f():
    # The next line is a syntax error
    exec 'x=2'
    def g():
        return x

Line 4 containing the exec statement is a syntax error, since exec would define a new local variable named x whose value should be accessed by g().

This shouldn't be much of a limitation, since exec is rarely used in most Python code (and when it is used, it's often a sign of a poor design anyway).

Compatibility concerns have led to nested scopes being introduced gradually; in Python 2.1, they aren't enabled by default, but can be turned on within a module by using a future statement as described in PEP 236 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0236/]. (See the following section for further discussion of PEP 236 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0236/].) In Python 2.2, nested scopes will become the default and there will be no way to turn them off, but users will have had all of 2.1's lifetime to fix any breakage resulting from their introduction.

Voir aussi

PEP 227 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0227/] - Statically Nested Scopes

Écrit et implémenté par Jeremy Hylton.

PEP 236 : Directives __future__

The reaction to nested scopes was widespread concern about the dangers of breaking code with the 2.1 release, and it was strong enough to make the Pythoneers take a more conservative approach. This approach consists of introducing a convention for enabling optional functionality in release N that will become compulsory in release N+1.

The syntax uses a from...import statement using the reserved module name __future__. Nested scopes can be enabled by the following statement:

from __future__ import nested_scopes

While it looks like a normal import statement, it's not; there are strict rules on where such a future statement can be put. They can only be at the top of a module, and must precede any Python code or regular import statements. This is because such statements can affect how the Python bytecode compiler parses code and generates bytecode, so they must precede any statement that will result in bytecodes being produced.

Voir aussi

PEP 236 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0236/] -- Retour vers le __future__

Écrit par Tim Peters, et implémenté principalement par Jeremy Hylton.

PEP 207: Rich Comparisons

In earlier versions, Python's support for implementing comparisons on user-defined classes and extension types was quite simple. Classes could implement a __cmp__() method that was given two instances of a class, and could only return 0 if they were equal or +1 or -1 if they weren't; the method couldn't raise an exception or return anything other than a Boolean value. Users of Numeric Python often found this model too weak and restrictive, because in the number-crunching programs that numeric Python is used for, it would be more useful to be able to perform elementwise comparisons of two matrices, returning a matrix containing the results of a given comparison for each element. If the two matrices are of different sizes, then the compare has to be able to raise an exception to signal the error.

In Python 2.1, rich comparisons were added in order to support this need. Python classes can now individually overload each of the <, <=, >, >=, ==, and != operations. The new magic method names are:

Opération

Nom de méthode

<

__lt__()

<=

__le__()

>

__gt__()

>=

__ge__()

==

__eq__()

!=

__ne__()

(The magic methods are named after the corresponding Fortran operators .LT.. .LE., &c. Numeric programmers are almost certainly quite familiar with these names and will find them easy to remember.)

Each of these magic methods is of the form method(self, other), where self will be the object on the left-hand side of the operator, while other will be the object on the right-hand side. For example, the expression A < B will cause A.__lt__(B) to be called.

Each of these magic methods can return anything at all: a Boolean, a matrix, a list, or any other Python object. Alternatively they can raise an exception if the comparison is impossible, inconsistent, or otherwise meaningless.

The built-in cmp(A,B) function can use the rich comparison machinery, and now accepts an optional argument specifying which comparison operation to use; this is given as one of the strings "<", "<=", ">", ">=", "==", or "!=". If called without the optional third argument, cmp() will only return -1, 0, or +1 as in previous versions of Python; otherwise it will call the appropriate method and can return any Python object.

There are also corresponding changes of interest to C programmers; there's a new slot tp_richcmp in type objects and an API for performing a given rich comparison. I won't cover the C API here, but will refer you to PEP 207 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0207/], or to 2.1's C API documentation, for the full list of related functions.

Voir aussi

PEP 207 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0207/] - Rich Comparisons

Written by Guido van Rossum, heavily based on earlier work by David Ascher, and implemented by Guido van Rossum.

PEP 230: Warning Framework

Over its 10 years of existence, Python has accumulated a certain number of obsolete modules and features along the way. It's difficult to know when a feature is safe to remove, since there's no way of knowing how much code uses it --- perhaps no programs depend on the feature, or perhaps many do. To enable removing old features in a more structured way, a warning framework was added. When the Python developers want to get rid of a feature, it will first trigger a warning in the next version of Python. The following Python version can then drop the feature, and users will have had a full release cycle to remove uses of the old feature.

Python 2.1 adds the warning framework to be used in this scheme. It adds a warnings module that provide functions to issue warnings, and to filter out warnings that you don't want to be displayed. Third-party modules can also use this framework to deprecate old features that they no longer wish to support.

For example, in Python 2.1 the regex module is deprecated, so importing it causes a warning to be printed:

>>> import regex
__main__:1: DeprecationWarning: the regex module
         is deprecated; please use the re module
>>>

Warnings can be issued by calling the warnings.warn() function:

warnings.warn("feature X no longer supported")

The first parameter is the warning message; an additional optional parameters can be used to specify a particular warning category.

Filters can be added to disable certain warnings; a regular expression pattern can be applied to the message or to the module name in order to suppress a warning. For example, you may have a program that uses the regex module and not want to spare the time to convert it to use the re module right now. The warning can be suppressed by calling

import warnings
warnings.filterwarnings(action = 'ignore',
                        message='.*regex module is deprecated',
                        category=DeprecationWarning,
                        module = '__main__')

This adds a filter that will apply only to warnings of the class DeprecationWarning triggered in the __main__ module, and applies a regular expression to only match the message about the regex module being deprecated, and will cause such warnings to be ignored. Warnings can also be printed only once, printed every time the offending code is executed, or turned into exceptions that will cause the program to stop (unless the exceptions are caught in the usual way, of course).

Functions were also added to Python's C API for issuing warnings; refer to PEP 230 or to Python's API documentation for the details.

Voir aussi

PEP 5 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0005/] - Guidelines for Language Evolution

Written by Paul Prescod, to specify procedures to be followed when removing old features from Python. The policy described in this PEP hasn't been officially adopted, but the eventual policy probably won't be too different from Prescod's proposal.

PEP 230 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0230/] - Warning Framework

Written and implemented by Guido van Rossum.

PEP 229: New Build System

When compiling Python, the user had to go in and edit the Modules/Setup file in order to enable various additional modules; the default set is relatively small and limited to modules that compile on most Unix platforms. This means that on Unix platforms with many more features, most notably Linux, Python installations often don't contain all useful modules they could.

Python 2.0 added the Distutils, a set of modules for distributing and installing extensions. In Python 2.1, the Distutils are used to compile much of the standard library of extension modules, autodetecting which ones are supported on the current machine. It's hoped that this will make Python installations easier and more featureful.

Instead of having to edit the Modules/Setup file in order to enable modules, a setup.py script in the top directory of the Python source distribution is run at build time, and attempts to discover which modules can be enabled by examining the modules and header files on the system. If a module is configured in Modules/Setup, the setup.py script won't attempt to compile that module and will defer to the Modules/Setup file's contents. This provides a way to specific any strange command-line flags or libraries that are required for a specific platform.

In another far-reaching change to the build mechanism, Neil Schemenauer restructured things so Python now uses a single makefile that isn't recursive, instead of makefiles in the top directory and in each of the Python/, Parser/, Objects/, and Modules/ subdirectories. This makes building Python faster and also makes hacking the Makefiles clearer and simpler.

Voir aussi

PEP 229 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0229/] - Using Distutils to Build Python

Written and implemented by A.M. Kuchling.

PEP 205: Weak References

Weak references, available through the weakref module, are a minor but useful new data type in the Python programmer's toolbox.

Storing a reference to an object (say, in a dictionary or a list) has the side effect of keeping that object alive forever. There are a few specific cases where this behaviour is undesirable, object caches being the most common one, and another being circular references in data structures such as trees.

For example, consider a memoizing function that caches the results of another function f(x) by storing the function's argument and its result in a dictionary:

_cache = {}
def memoize(x):
    if _cache.has_key(x):
        return _cache[x]

    retval = f(x)

    # Cache the returned object
    _cache[x] = retval

    return retval

This version works for simple things such as integers, but it has a side effect; the _cache dictionary holds a reference to the return values, so they'll never be deallocated until the Python process exits and cleans up. This isn't very noticeable for integers, but if f() returns an object, or a data structure that takes up a lot of memory, this can be a problem.

Weak references provide a way to implement a cache that won't keep objects alive beyond their time. If an object is only accessible through weak references, the object will be deallocated and the weak references will now indicate that the object it referred to no longer exists. A weak reference to an object obj is created by calling wr = weakref.ref(obj). The object being referred to is returned by calling the weak reference as if it were a function: wr(). It will return the referenced object, or None if the object no longer exists.

This makes it possible to write a memoize() function whose cache doesn't keep objects alive, by storing weak references in the cache.

_cache = {}
def memoize(x):
    if _cache.has_key(x):
        obj = _cache[x]()
        # If weak reference object still exists,
        # return it
        if obj is not None: return obj

    retval = f(x)

    # Cache a weak reference
    _cache[x] = weakref.ref(retval)

    return retval

The weakref module also allows creating proxy objects which behave like weak references --- an object referenced only by proxy objects is deallocated -- but instead of requiring an explicit call to retrieve the object, the proxy transparently forwards all operations to the object as long as the object still exists. If the object is deallocated, attempting to use a proxy will cause a weakref.ReferenceError exception to be raised.

proxy = weakref.proxy(obj)
proxy.attr   # Equivalent to obj.attr
proxy.meth() # Equivalent to obj.meth()
del obj
proxy.attr   # raises weakref.ReferenceError

Voir aussi

PEP 205 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0205/] - Weak References

Écrit et implémenté par Fred L. Drake, Jr.

PEP 232 : Attributs de fonctions

In Python 2.1, functions can now have arbitrary information attached to them. People were often using docstrings to hold information about functions and methods, because the __doc__ attribute was the only way of attaching any information to a function. For example, in the Zope web application server, functions are marked as safe for public access by having a docstring, and in John Aycock's SPARK parsing framework, docstrings hold parts of the BNF grammar to be parsed. This overloading is unfortunate, since docstrings are really intended to hold a function's documentation; for example, it means you can't properly document functions intended for private use in Zope.

Arbitrary attributes can now be set and retrieved on functions using the regular Python syntax:

def f(): pass

f.publish = 1
f.secure = 1
f.grammar = "A ::= B (C D)*"

The dictionary containing attributes can be accessed as the function's __dict__. Unlike the __dict__ attribute of class instances, in functions you can actually assign a new dictionary to __dict__, though the new value is restricted to a regular Python dictionary; you can't be tricky and set it to a UserDict instance, or any other random object that behaves like a mapping.

Voir aussi

PEP 232 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0232/] -- Attributs de fonctions

Écrit et implémenté par Barry Warsaw.

PEP 235: Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms

Some operating systems have filesystems that are case-insensitive, MacOS and Windows being the primary examples; on these systems, it's impossible to distinguish the filenames FILE.PY and file.py, even though they do store the file's name in its original case (they're case-preserving, too).

In Python 2.1, the import statement will work to simulate case-sensitivity on case-insensitive platforms. Python will now search for the first case-sensitive match by default, raising an ImportError if no such file is found, so import file will not import a module named FILE.PY. Case-insensitive matching can be requested by setting the PYTHONCASEOK environment variable before starting the Python interpreter.

PEP 217: Interactive Display Hook

When using the Python interpreter interactively, the output of commands is displayed using the built-in repr() function. In Python 2.1, the variable sys.displayhook() can be set to a callable object which will be called instead of repr(). For example, you can set it to a special pretty-printing function:

>>> # Create a recursive data structure
... L = [1,2,3]
>>> L.append(L)
>>> L # Show Python's default output
[1, 2, 3, [...]]
>>> # Use pprint.pprint() as the display function
... import sys, pprint
>>> sys.displayhook = pprint.pprint
>>> L
[1, 2, 3,  <Recursion on list with id=135143996>]
>>>

Voir aussi

PEP 217 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0217/] - Display Hook for Interactive Use

Written and implemented by Moshe Zadka.

PEP 208: New Coercion Model

How numeric coercion is done at the C level was significantly modified. This will only affect the authors of C extensions to Python, allowing them more flexibility in writing extension types that support numeric operations.

Extension types can now set the type flag Py_TPFLAGS_CHECKTYPES in their PyTypeObject structure to indicate that they support the new coercion model. In such extension types, the numeric slot functions can no longer assume that they'll be passed two arguments of the same type; instead they may be passed two arguments of differing types, and can then perform their own internal coercion. If the slot function is passed a type it can't handle, it can indicate the failure by returning a reference to the Py_NotImplemented singleton value. The numeric functions of the other type will then be tried, and perhaps they can handle the operation; if the other type also returns Py_NotImplemented, then a TypeError will be raised. Numeric methods written in Python can also return Py_NotImplemented, causing the interpreter to act as if the method did not exist (perhaps raising a TypeError, perhaps trying another object's numeric methods).

Voir aussi

PEP 208 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0208/] - Reworking the Coercion Model

Written and implemented by Neil Schemenauer, heavily based upon earlier work by Marc-André Lemburg. Read this to understand the fine points of how numeric operations will now be processed at the C level.

PEP 241: Metadata in Python Packages

A common complaint from Python users is that there's no single catalog of all the Python modules in existence. T. Middleton's Vaults of Parnassus at www.vex.net/parnassus/ (retired in February 2009, available in the Internet Archive Wayback Machine [https://web.archive.org/web/20090130140102/http://www.vex.net/parnassus/]) was the largest catalog of Python modules, but registering software at the Vaults is optional, and many people did not bother.

As a first small step toward fixing the problem, Python software packaged using the Distutils sdist command will include a file named PKG-INFO containing information about the package such as its name, version, and author (metadata, in cataloguing terminology). PEP 241 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0241/] contains the full list of fields that can be present in the PKG-INFO file. As people began to package their software using Python 2.1, more and more packages will include metadata, making it possible to build automated cataloguing systems and experiment with them. With the result experience, perhaps it'll be possible to design a really good catalog and then build support for it into Python 2.2. For example, the Distutils sdist and bdist_* commands could support an upload option that would automatically upload your package to a catalog server.

You can start creating packages containing PKG-INFO even if you're not using Python 2.1, since a new release of the Distutils will be made for users of earlier Python versions. Version 1.0.2 of the Distutils includes the changes described in PEP 241 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0241/], as well as various bugfixes and enhancements. It will be available from the Distutils SIG at https://www.python.org/community/sigs/current/distutils-sig/.

Voir aussi

PEP 241 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0241/] - Metadata for Python Software Packages

Written and implemented by A.M. Kuchling.

PEP 243 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0243/] - Module Repository Upload Mechanism

Written by Sean Reifschneider, this draft PEP describes a proposed mechanism for uploading Python packages to a central server.

New and Improved Modules

Ka-Ping Yee contributed two new modules: inspect.py, a module for getting information about live Python code, and pydoc.py, a module for interactively converting docstrings to HTML or text. As a bonus, Tools/scripts/pydoc, which is now automatically installed, uses pydoc.py to display documentation given a Python module, package, or class name. For example, pydoc xml.dom displays the following:

Python Library Documentation: package xml.dom in xml

NAME
    xml.dom - W3C Document Object Model implementation for Python.

FILE
    /usr/local/lib/python2.1/xml/dom/__init__.pyc

DESCRIPTION
    The Python mapping of the Document Object Model is documented in the
    Python Library Reference in the section on the xml.dom package.

    This package contains the following modules:
      ...

pydoc also includes a Tk-based interactive help browser. pydoc quickly becomes addictive; try it out!

Two different modules for unit testing were added to the standard library. The doctest module, contributed by Tim Peters, provides a testing framework based on running embedded examples in docstrings and comparing the results against the expected output. PyUnit, contributed by Steve Purcell, is a unit testing framework inspired by JUnit, which was in turn an adaptation of Kent Beck's Smalltalk testing framework. See https://pyunit.sourceforge.net/ for more information about PyUnit.

The difflib module contains a class, SequenceMatcher, which compares two sequences and computes the changes required to transform one sequence into the other. For example, this module can be used to write a tool similar to the Unix diff program, and in fact the sample program Tools/scripts/ndiff.py demonstrates how to write such a script.

curses.panel, a wrapper for the panel library, part of ncurses and of SYSV curses, was contributed by Thomas Gellekum. The panel library provides windows with the additional feature of depth. Windows can be moved higher or lower in the depth ordering, and the panel library figures out where panels overlap and which sections are visible.

The PyXML package has gone through a few releases since Python 2.0, and Python 2.1 includes an updated version of the xml package. Some of the noteworthy changes include support for Expat 1.2 and later versions, the ability for Expat parsers to handle files in any encoding supported by Python, and various bugfixes for SAX, DOM, and the minidom module.

Ping also contributed another hook for handling uncaught exceptions. sys.excepthook() can be set to a callable object. When an exception isn't caught by any try...except blocks, the exception will be passed to sys.excepthook(), which can then do whatever it likes. At the Ninth Python Conference, Ping demonstrated an application for this hook: printing an extended traceback that not only lists the stack frames, but also lists the function arguments and the local variables for each frame.

Various functions in the time module, such as asctime() and localtime(), require a floating-point argument containing the time in seconds since the epoch. The most common use of these functions is to work with the current time, so the floating-point argument has been made optional; when a value isn't provided, the current time will be used. For example, log file entries usually need a string containing the current time; in Python 2.1, time.asctime() can be used, instead of the lengthier time.asctime(time.localtime(time.time())) that was previously required.

This change was proposed and implemented by Thomas Wouters.

The ftplib module now defaults to retrieving files in passive mode, because passive mode is more likely to work from behind a firewall. This request came from the Debian bug tracking system, since other Debian packages use ftplib to retrieve files and then don't work from behind a firewall. It's deemed unlikely that this will cause problems for anyone, because Netscape defaults to passive mode and few people complain, but if passive mode is unsuitable for your application or network setup, call set_pasv(0) on FTP objects to disable passive mode.

Support for raw socket access has been added to the socket module, contributed by Grant Edwards.

The pstats module now contains a simple interactive statistics browser for displaying timing profiles for Python programs, invoked when the module is run as a script. Contributed by Eric S. Raymond.

A new implementation-dependent function, sys._getframe([depth]), has been added to return a given frame object from the current call stack. sys._getframe() returns the frame at the top of the call stack; if the optional integer argument depth is supplied, the function returns the frame that is depth calls below the top of the stack. For example, sys._getframe(1) returns the caller's frame object.

This function is only present in CPython, not in Jython or the .NET implementation. Use it for debugging, and resist the temptation to put it into production code.

Autres changements et corrections

There were relatively few smaller changes made in Python 2.1 due to the shorter release cycle. A search through the CVS change logs turns up 117 patches applied, and 136 bugs fixed; both figures are likely to be underestimates. Some of the more notable changes are:

A specialized object allocator is now optionally available, that should be faster than the system malloc() and have less memory overhead. The allocator uses C's malloc() function to get large pools of memory, and then fulfills smaller memory requests from these pools. It can be enabled by providing the --with-pymalloc option to the configure script; see Objects/obmalloc.c for the implementation details.

Authors of C extension modules should test their code with the object allocator enabled, because some incorrect code may break, causing core dumps at runtime. There are a bunch of memory allocation functions in Python's C API that have previously been just aliases for the C library's malloc() and free(), meaning that if you accidentally called mismatched functions, the error wouldn't be noticeable. When the object allocator is enabled, these functions aren't aliases of malloc() and free() any more, and calling the wrong function to free memory will get you a core dump. For example, if memory was allocated using PyMem_New, it has to be freed using PyMem_Del(), not free(). A few modules included with Python fell afoul of this and had to be fixed; doubtless there are more third-party modules that will have the same problem.

The object allocator was contributed by Vladimir Marangozov.

The speed of line-oriented file I/O has been improved because people often complain about its lack of speed, and because it's often been used as a naïve benchmark. The readline() method of file objects has therefore been rewritten to be much faster. The exact amount of the speedup will vary from platform to platform depending on how slow the C library's getc() was, but is around 66%, and potentially much faster on some particular operating systems. Tim Peters did much of the benchmarking and coding for this change, motivated by a discussion in comp.lang.python.

A new module and method for file objects was also added, contributed by Jeff Epler. The new method, xreadlines(), is similar to the existing xrange() built-in. xreadlines() returns an opaque sequence object that only supports being iterated over, reading a line on every iteration but not reading the entire file into memory as the existing readlines() method does. You'd use it like this:

for line in sys.stdin.xreadlines():
    # ... do something for each line ...
    ...

For a fuller discussion of the line I/O changes, see the python-dev summary for January 1--15, 2001 at https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2001-January/.

A new method, popitem(), was added to dictionaries to enable destructively iterating through the contents of a dictionary; this can be faster for large dictionaries because there's no need to construct a list containing all the keys or values. D.popitem() removes a random (key, value) pair from the dictionary D and returns it as a 2-tuple. This was implemented mostly by Tim Peters and Guido van Rossum, after a suggestion and preliminary patch by Moshe Zadka.

Modules can now control which names are imported when from module import * is used, by defining an __all__ attribute containing a list of names that will be imported. One common complaint is that if the module imports other modules such as sys or string, from module import * will add them to the importing module's namespace. To fix this, simply list the public names in __all__:

# List public names
__all__ = ['Database', 'open']

A stricter version of this patch was first suggested and implemented by Ben Wolfson, but after some python-dev discussion, a weaker final version was checked in.

Applying repr() to strings previously used octal escapes for non-printable characters; for example, a newline was '\012'. This was a vestigial trace of Python's C ancestry, but today octal is of very little practical use. Ka-Ping Yee suggested using hex escapes instead of octal ones, and using the \n, \t, \r escapes for the appropriate characters, and implemented this new formatting.

Syntax errors detected at compile-time can now raise exceptions containing the filename and line number of the error, a pleasant side effect of the compiler reorganization done by Jeremy Hylton.

C extensions which import other modules have been changed to use PyImport_ImportModule(), which means that they will use any import hooks that have been installed. This is also encouraged for third-party extensions that need to import some other module from C code.

The size of the Unicode character database was shrunk by another 340K thanks to Fredrik Lundh.

Some new ports were contributed: MacOS X (by Steven Majewski), Cygwin (by Jason Tishler); RISCOS (by Dietmar Schwertberger); Unixware 7 (by Billy G. Allie).

And there's the usual list of minor bugfixes, minor memory leaks, docstring edits, and other tweaks, too lengthy to be worth itemizing; see the CVS logs for the full details if you want them.

Remerciements

The author would like to thank the following people for offering suggestions on various drafts of this article: Graeme Cross, David Goodger, Jay Graves, Michael Hudson, Marc-André Lemburg, Fredrik Lundh, Neil Schemenauer, Thomas Wouters.

Nouveautés de Python 2.0

Auteur:

A.M. Kuchling et Moshe Zadka

Introduction

Une nouvelle version de Python, la version 2.0, est sortie le 16 octobre 2000. Cet article traite des nouvelles fonctionnalités intéressantes de cette version, met en évidence d'autres changements utiles, et souligne quelques incompatibilités qui peuvent nécessiter la réécriture du code.

Python's development never completely stops between releases, and a steady flow of bug fixes and improvements are always being submitted. A host of minor fixes, a few optimizations, additional docstrings, and better error messages went into 2.0; to list them all would be impossible, but they're certainly significant. Consult the publicly available CVS logs if you want to see the full list. This progress is due to the five developers working for PythonLabs are now getting paid to spend their days fixing bugs, and also due to the improved communication resulting from moving to SourceForge.

À propos de Python 1.6.

Python 1.6 peut être vu comme la version des obligations contractuelles. Après que l’équipe de développement eût quitté le CNRI en mai 2000, celui-ci a demandé la création d’une version 1.6, contenant tout le travail sur Python réalisé au CNRI. Python 1.6 représente de ce fait l’état de l’arbre CVS tel qu’il était en mai 2000, la nouvelle fonctionnalité la plus remarquable étant le support d’Unicode. Le développement a continué après mai bien sûr, donc la branche 1.6 a reçu quelques corrections pour être sûr qu’elle soit compatible avec Python 2.0. La version 1.6 fait donc partie de l’évolution de Python, ce n’est pas une branche séparée.

Alors, devriez-vous vous intéresser à Python 1.6 ? Probablement pas. Les versions 1.6final et 2.0beta1 sont sorties le même jour (5 septembre 2000), le plan étant de finaliser Python 2.0 environ un mois plus tard. Si vous avez des applications à maintenir, il n’y a pas vraiment d’intérêt à casser des choses en migrant sur la version 1.6, les réparer, puis avoir de nouveau des choses cassées à peine un mois plus tard en passant à la 2.0; il vaut mieux partir directement de la 2.0. La plupart des fonctionnalités vraiment intéressantes décrites dans ce document sont seulement dans la 2.0, parce que beaucoup de travail a été réalisé entre mai et septembre.

Nouveau processus de développement

Le changement le plus important dans Python 2.0 ne concerne peut-être pas le code, mais le développement de Python : en mai 2000, les développeurs Python ont commencé à utiliser les outils mis à disposition par SourceForge pour stocker le code source, suivre les rapports de bogues et gérer la file d’attente des soumissions de correctifs. Pour signaler des bogues ou soumettre des correctifs pour Python 2.0, utilisez les outils de suivi des bogues et de gestion des correctifs disponibles sur la page du projet Python, à l’adresse https://sourceforge.net/projects/python/.

Le plus important des services maintenant hébergé chez SourceForge est l’arborescence CVS Python, le référentiel sous contrôle de version contenant le code source de Python. Auparavant, environ 7 personnes avaient un accès en écriture à l’arborescence CVS et tous les correctifs devaient être inspectés et archivés par l’une des personnes figurant sur cette liste restreinte. Évidemment, ce n’était pas très évolutif. En déplaçant l’arborescence CVS vers SourceForge, il est devenu possible d’accorder un accès en écriture à davantage de personnes ; en septembre 2000, 27 personnes pouvaient enregistrer les modifications, soit quatre fois plus. Cela rend possible des modifications à grande échelle qui ne seraient pas tentées si elles devaient être filtrées par le petit groupe de développeurs principaux. Par exemple, un jour, Peter Schneider-Kamp a eu l’idée de supprimer la compatibilité K&R C et de convertir le code source C de Python en ANSI C. Après avoir obtenu l’approbation de la liste de diffusion python-dev, il s’est lancé dans une série d’archives qui ont duré environ une semaine, d’autres développeurs l'ont rejoint et le travail a été fait. S’il n’y avait eut que 5 personnes ayant un accès en écriture, cette tâche aurait probablement été considérée comme « agréable, mais ne valant pas le temps ni les efforts nécessaires » et cela ne se serait jamais fait.

Le passage à l’utilisation des services de SourceForge a entraîné une augmentation remarquable du rythme de développement. Les correctifs sont maintenant soumis, commentés, révisés par des personnes autres que l’auteur d’origine et échangés entre les personnes jusqu’à ce que le correctif soit jugé utile. Les bogues sont suivis dans un emplacement central et peuvent être attribués à une personne spécifique pour être corrigés. , et nous pouvons compter le nombre de bogues ouverts pour mesurer les progrès. Cela n’a pas coûté cher: les développeurs ont désormais plus de courrier électronique à traiter, davantage de listes de diffusion à suivre et des outils spéciaux ont dû être créés pour le nouvel environnement. Par exemple, SourceForge envoie des messages électroniques de correctif et de notification de bogues par défaut qui ne sont d’aucune utilité, Ka-Ping Yee a donc créé un scraper HTML qui envoie des messages plus utiles.

La facilité d’ajout de code a provoqué quelques problèmes de croissance initiaux, tels que le code a été archivé avant qu’il ne soit prêt ou sans l’accord clair du groupe de développeurs. Le processus d’approbation qui a émergé est quelque peu similaire à celui utilisé par le groupe Apache. Les développeurs peuvent voter +1, +0, -0 ou -1 sur un patch; +1 et -1 indiquent une acceptation ou un rejet, tandis que +0 et -0 signifient que le développeur est généralement indifférent au changement, bien qu’il présente une légère inclinaison positive ou négative. Le changement le plus important par rapport au modèle Apache est que le vote est essentiellement consultatif, permettant à Guido van Rossum, détenteur du statut de « dictateur bienveillant à vie », de connaître l’opinion générale. Il peut toujours ignorer le résultat d’un vote et approuver ou rejeter un changement même si la communauté n’est pas d’accord avec lui.

Producing an actual patch is the last step in adding a new feature, and is usually easy compared to the earlier task of coming up with a good design. Discussions of new features can often explode into lengthy mailing list threads, making the discussion hard to follow, and no one can read every posting to python-dev. Therefore, a relatively formal process has been set up to write Python Enhancement Proposals (PEPs), modelled on the internet RFC process. PEPs are draft documents that describe a proposed new feature, and are continually revised until the community reaches a consensus, either accepting or rejecting the proposal. Quoting from the introduction to PEP 1 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0001/], "PEP Purpose and Guidelines":

PEP signifie Python Enhancement Proposition. Une PEP est un document de conception fournissant des informations à la communauté Python ou décrivant une nouvelle fonctionnalité de Python. La PEP devrait fournir une spécification technique concise de la fonctionnalité et une justification de celle-ci.

Nous souhaitons que les PEP soient les principaux mécanismes permettant de proposer de nouvelles fonctionnalités, de recueillir les commentaires de la communauté sur un problème et de documenter les décisions de conception prises dans Python. L’auteur du PPE est chargé de créer un consensus au sein de la communauté et de documenter les opinions divergentes.

Read the rest of PEP 1 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0001/] for the details of the PEP editorial process, style, and format. PEPs are kept in the Python CVS tree on SourceForge, though they're not part of the Python 2.0 distribution, and are also available in HTML form from https://peps.python.org/. As of September 2000, there are 25 PEPs, ranging from PEP 201 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0201/], "Lockstep Iteration", to PEP 225, "Elementwise/Objectwise Operators".

Unicode

La plus grande nouveauté de Python 2.0 est un nouveau type de données fondamental: les chaînes Unicode. Unicode utilise des nombres à 16 bits pour représenter des caractères au lieu du nombre à 8 bits utilisé par ASCII, ce qui signifie que 65 536 caractères distincts peuvent être pris en charge.

La dernière interface de prise en charge Unicode a été mise au point après de nombreuses discussions souvent houleuses sur la liste de diffusion python-dev, et principalement implémentée par Marc-André Lemburg, basée sur une implémentation de type chaîne Unicode de Fredrik Lundh. Une explication détaillée de l’interface a été écrite ainsi PEP 100 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0100/], "Intégration Python Unicode". Cet article couvrira simplement les points les plus significatifs sur les interfaces Unicode.

In Python source code, Unicode strings are written as u"string". Arbitrary Unicode characters can be written using a new escape sequence, \uHHHH, where HHHH is a 4-digit hexadecimal number from 0000 to FFFF. The existing \xHH escape sequence can also be used, and octal escapes can be used for characters up to U+01FF, which is represented by \777.

Les chaînes Unicode, tout comme les chaînes ordinaires, sont un type de séquence immuable. Ils peuvent être indexés et tranchés, mais pas modifiés en place. Les chaînes Unicode ont une méthode encoder([encoding]) qui renvoie une chaîne de 8 bits dans l’encodage souhaité. Les codages sont nommés par des chaînes, telles que ’ascii’, ’utf-8’, ’iso-8859-1’, ou autre chose. Une API de codec est définie pour l’implémentation et l’enregistrement de nouveaux codages disponibles dans tout un programme Python. Si aucun codage n’est spécifié, le codage par défaut est généralement du code ASCII 7-bits, bien qu’il puisse être modifié pour votre installation Python en appelant la fonction sys.setdefaultencoding (encoding) dans une version personnalisée de site.py.

La combinaison de chaînes 8 bits et Unicode est toujours forcée en Unicode, à l’aide du codage ASCII par défaut; le résultat de ’a’ + u’bc’ est u’abc’.

De nouvelles fonctions primitives ont été ajoutées, et des fonctions existantes ont été modifiées pour supporter Unicode :

unichr(ch) renvoie une chaîne Unicode de longueur 1, contenant le caractère ch.

ord(u), quand u est une chaîne normale ou Unicode de longueur 1, renvoie un entier représentant le nombre de caractères.

unicode(string [, encoding]  [, errors] ) crée une chaîne Unicode à partir d’une chaîne de 8 bits. encoding est une chaîne nommant le codage à utiliser. Le paramètre errors spécifie le traitement des caractères non valides pour l’ encodage en cours; en passant ’strict’ comme valeur, une exception est générée pour toute erreur de codage, alors que ’ignore’ fait en sorte que les erreurs soient ignorées en silence et que ’replace’ utilise U+FFFD, caractère de remplacement officiel, en cas de problème.

L’instruction exec et divers éléments intégrés tels que eval(), getattr() et setattr() accepteront également les chaînes Unicode ainsi que les chaînes ordinaires. (Il est possible que le processus de résolution de ce problème ait échappé à certaines fonctions intégrées ; si vous trouvez une fonction intégrée qui accepte les chaînes mais n’accepte pas les chaînes Unicode, signalez-la comme un bogue.)

Un nouveau module, unicodedata, fournit une interface aux propriétés de caractère Unicode. Par exemple, unicodedata.category(u'A') renvoie la chaîne de 2 caractères « Lu », le « L » désignant une lettre et « u » signifiant qu’il s’agit d’une majuscule. unicodedata.bidirectional(u'\u0660') renvoie « AN », ce qui signifie que U+0660 est un nombre arabe.

Le module codecs contient des fonctions pour rechercher les codages existants et en enregistrer de nouveaux. À moins que vous ne souhaitiez implémenter un nouvel encodage, vous utiliserez le plus souvent la fonction codecs.lookup(encoding), qui renvoie un quadruplet : (encode_func, decode_func, stream_reader, stream_writer).

encode_func est une fonction qui prend une chaîne Unicode, et renvoie un n-uplet de longueur 2 (string, length). string est une chaîne de caractères à 8 bits contenant une partie (ou la totalité) de la chaîne Unicode convertie en codage donné, et length vous indique le nombre de caractères de la chaîne qui ont été convertis.

decode_func est l’opposé de encode_func, en prenant une chaîne de caractères à 8 bits et le retour d’une paire (ustring, longueur), composé de la chaîne Unicode résultante ustring et l’entier length indiquant combien de caractères de la chaîne de caractères à 8 bits ont été consommés.

stream_reader is a class that supports decoding input from a stream. stream_reader(file_obj) returns an object that supports the read(), readline(), and readlines() methods. These methods will all translate from the given encoding and return Unicode strings.

stream_writer, similarly, is a class that supports encoding output to a stream. stream_writer(file_obj) returns an object that supports the write() and writelines() methods. These methods expect Unicode strings, translating them to the given encoding on output.

Par exemple, le code suivant écrit une chaîne Unicode dans un fichier, en l’encodant en UTF-8 :

import codecs

unistr = u'\u0660\u2000ab ...'

(UTF8_encode, UTF8_decode,
 UTF8_streamreader, UTF8_streamwriter) = codecs.lookup('UTF-8')

output = UTF8_streamwriter( open( '/tmp/output', 'wb') )
output.write( unistr )
output.close()

Le code suivant lirait ensuite le texte UTF-8 du fichier :

input = UTF8_streamreader( open( '/tmp/output', 'rb') )
print repr(input.read())
input.close()

Des expressions rationnelles supportant l’Unicode sont disponibles dans le module re, qui a une implémentation sous-jacente appelée SRE écrite par Fredrik Lundh de Secret Labs AB.

Une option de ligne de commande -U a été ajoutée, ce qui fait que le compilateur Python interprète toutes les chaînes de caractères comme des chaînes de caractères Unicode. Ceci est destiné à être utilisé dans les tests et rendre votre code Python compatible avec les versions futures, car une version future de Python peut abandonner la prise en charge des chaînes de caractères 8-bits et fournir uniquement des chaînes de caractères Unicode.

Compréhensions de listes

Les listes sont un type de données crucial dans Python, et de nombreux programmes manipulent une liste à un moment donné. Deux opérations communes sur les listes sont de boucler sur elles, soit de choisir les éléments qui répondent à un certain critère, ou d’appliquer une certaine fonction à chaque élément. Par exemple, à partir d’une liste de chaînes de caractères, vous pouvez retirer toutes les chaînes contenant une sous-chaîne donnée, ou enlever les espaces de chaque ligne.

Les fonctions existantes map() et filter() peuvent être utilisées à cette fin, mais elles nécessitent une fonction en leurs arguments. C’est très bien s’il y a une fonction intégrée existante qui peut être passé directement, mais s’il n’y a pas, vous devez créer une petite fonction pour faire le travail requis, et les règles de portée de Python rendent le résultat laid si la petite fonction a besoin d’informations supplémentaires. Prenons le premier exemple du paragraphe précédent, en trouvant toutes les chaînes de la liste contenant une sous-chaîne donnée. Vous pouvez écrire ce qui suit pour le faire :

# Given the list L, make a list of all strings
# containing the substring S.
sublist = filter( lambda s, substring=S:
                     string.find(s, substring) != -1,
                  L)

En raison des règles de portée de Python, un argument par défaut est utilisé de sorte que la fonction anonyme créée par l’expression lambda sait quelle sous-chaîne est recherchée. Les listes en compréhension rendent ceci plus propre :

sublist = [ s for s in L if string.find(s, S) != -1 ]

Les compréhensions de liste sont de la forme suivante :

[ expression for expr in sequence1
             for expr2 in sequence2 ...
             for exprN in sequenceN
             if condition ]

Le for…in clauses contiennent les séquences à itérer. Les séquences n’ont pas à être de la même longueur, parce qu’elles ne sont pas itérées en parallèle, mais de gauche à droite; cela est expliqué plus clairement dans les paragraphes suivants. Les éléments de la liste générée seront les valeurs successives de l’expression. La clause finale if clause est facultative ; si présent, l’expression n’est évaluée et ajoutée au résultat que si la condition est vraie.

Pour que la sémantique soit très claire, une compréhension de liste est équivalente au code Python suivant :

for expr1 in sequence1:
    for expr2 in sequence2:
    ...
        for exprN in sequenceN:
             if (condition):
                  # Append the value of
                  # the expression to the
                  # resulting list.

Cela signifie que lorsqu’il y a plusieurs for…in clauses, la liste résultante sera égale au produit des longueurs de toutes les séquences. Si vous avez deux listes de longueur 3, la liste de sortie est de longueur 9 :

seq1 = 'abc'
seq2 = (1,2,3)
>>> [ (x,y) for x in seq1 for y in seq2]
[('a', 1), ('a', 2), ('a', 3), ('b', 1), ('b', 2), ('b', 3), ('c', 1),
('c', 2), ('c', 3)]

Afin de ne pas introduire une ambiguïté dans la grammaire de Python, expression doit être encadrée par des parenthèses si elle produit un n-uplet. La première compréhension de liste ci-dessous n'est pas valide syntaxiquement, tandis que la seconde l'est :

# Syntax error
[ x,y for x in seq1 for y in seq2]
# Correct
[ (x,y) for x in seq1 for y in seq2]

Le concept des liste en compréhension provient à l’origine du langage de programmation fonctionnelle Haskell (https://www.haskell.org). Greg Ewing a plaidé le plus efficacement pour les ajouter à Python et a écrit le patch de compréhension de liste initiale, qui a ensuite été discuté pendant un temps apparemment sans fin sur la liste de diffusion python-dev et maintenu à jour par Skip Montanaro.

Opérateurs d’affectation augmentées

Les opérateurs d’affectation soudées, une autre fonctionnalité demandée depuis longtemps, ont été ajoutés à Python 2.0. Les opérateurs d’affectations augmentées comprennent +=, -=, *= et ainsi de suite. Par exemple, l’instruction a += 2 incrémente la valeur de la variable a par 2, équivalente à l’opération a = a + 2 .

The full list of supported assignment operators is +=, -=, *=, /=, %=, **=, &=, |=, ^=, >>=, and <<=. Python classes can override the augmented assignment operators by defining methods named __iadd__(), __isub__(), etc. For example, the following Number class stores a number and supports using += to create a new instance with an incremented value.

class Number:
    def __init__(self, value):
        self.value = value
    def __iadd__(self, increment):
        return Number( self.value + increment)

n = Number(5)
n += 3
print n.value

The __iadd__() special method is called with the value of the increment, and should return a new instance with an appropriately modified value; this return value is bound as the new value of the variable on the left-hand side.

Augmented assignment operators were first introduced in the C programming language, and most C-derived languages, such as awk, C++, Java, Perl, and PHP also support them. The augmented assignment patch was implemented by Thomas Wouters.

Méthodes de chaînes de caractères

Until now string-manipulation functionality was in the string module, which was usually a front-end for the strop module written in C. The addition of Unicode posed a difficulty for the strop module, because the functions would all need to be rewritten in order to accept either 8-bit or Unicode strings. For functions such as string.replace(), which takes 3 string arguments, that means eight possible permutations, and correspondingly complicated code.

Instead, Python 2.0 pushes the problem onto the string type, making string manipulation functionality available through methods on both 8-bit strings and Unicode strings.

>>> 'andrew'.capitalize()
'Andrew'
>>> 'hostname'.replace('os', 'linux')
'hlinuxtname'
>>> 'moshe'.find('sh')
2

One thing that hasn't changed, a noteworthy April Fools' joke notwithstanding, is that Python strings are immutable. Thus, the string methods return new strings, and do not modify the string on which they operate.

The old string module is still around for backwards compatibility, but it mostly acts as a front-end to the new string methods.

Two methods which have no parallel in pre-2.0 versions, although they did exist in JPython for quite some time, are startswith() and endswith(). s.startswith(t) is equivalent to s[:len(t)] == t, while s.endswith(t) is equivalent to s[-len(t):] == t.

One other method which deserves special mention is join(). The join() method of a string receives one parameter, a sequence of strings, and is equivalent to the string.join() function from the old string module, with the arguments reversed. In other words, s.join(seq) is equivalent to the old string.join(seq, s).

Garbage Collection of Cycles

The C implementation of Python uses reference counting to implement garbage collection. Every Python object maintains a count of the number of references pointing to itself, and adjusts the count as references are created or destroyed. Once the reference count reaches zero, the object is no longer accessible, since you need to have a reference to an object to access it, and if the count is zero, no references exist any longer.

Reference counting has some pleasant properties: it's easy to understand and implement, and the resulting implementation is portable, fairly fast, and reacts well with other libraries that implement their own memory handling schemes. The major problem with reference counting is that it sometimes doesn't realise that objects are no longer accessible, resulting in a memory leak. This happens when there are cycles of references.

Consider the simplest possible cycle, a class instance which has a reference to itself:

instance = SomeClass()
instance.myself = instance

After the above two lines of code have been executed, the reference count of instance is 2; one reference is from the variable named 'instance', and the other is from the myself attribute of the instance.

If the next line of code is del instance, what happens? The reference count of instance is decreased by 1, so it has a reference count of 1; the reference in the myself attribute still exists. Yet the instance is no longer accessible through Python code, and it could be deleted. Several objects can participate in a cycle if they have references to each other, causing all of the objects to be leaked.

Python 2.0 fixes this problem by periodically executing a cycle detection algorithm which looks for inaccessible cycles and deletes the objects involved. A new gc module provides functions to perform a garbage collection, obtain debugging statistics, and tuning the collector's parameters.

Running the cycle detection algorithm takes some time, and therefore will result in some additional overhead. It is hoped that after we've gotten experience with the cycle collection from using 2.0, Python 2.1 will be able to minimize the overhead with careful tuning. It's not yet obvious how much performance is lost, because benchmarking this is tricky and depends crucially on how often the program creates and destroys objects. The detection of cycles can be disabled when Python is compiled, if you can't afford even a tiny speed penalty or suspect that the cycle collection is buggy, by specifying the --without-cycle-gc switch when running the configure script.

Several people tackled this problem and contributed to a solution. An early implementation of the cycle detection approach was written by Toby Kelsey. The current algorithm was suggested by Eric Tiedemann during a visit to CNRI, and Guido van Rossum and Neil Schemenauer wrote two different implementations, which were later integrated by Neil. Lots of other people offered suggestions along the way; the March 2000 archives of the python-dev mailing list contain most of the relevant discussion, especially in the threads titled "Reference cycle collection for Python" and "Finalization again".

Other Core Changes

Various minor changes have been made to Python's syntax and built-in functions. None of the changes are very far-reaching, but they're handy conveniences.

Changements mineurs du langage

A new syntax makes it more convenient to call a given function with a tuple of arguments and/or a dictionary of keyword arguments. In Python 1.5 and earlier, you'd use the apply() built-in function: apply(f, args, kw) calls the function f() with the argument tuple args and the keyword arguments in the dictionary kw. apply() is the same in 2.0, but thanks to a patch from Greg Ewing, f(*args, **kw) is a shorter and clearer way to achieve the same effect. This syntax is symmetrical with the syntax for defining functions:

def f(*args, **kw):
    # args is a tuple of positional args,
    # kw is a dictionary of keyword args
    ...

The print statement can now have its output directed to a file-like object by following the print with >> file, similar to the redirection operator in Unix shells. Previously you'd either have to use the write() method of the file-like object, which lacks the convenience and simplicity of print, or you could assign a new value to sys.stdout and then restore the old value. For sending output to standard error, it's much easier to write this:

print >> sys.stderr, "Warning: action field not supplied"

Modules can now be renamed on importing them, using the syntax import module as name or from module import name as othername. The patch was submitted by Thomas Wouters.

A new format style is available when using the % operator; '%r' will insert the repr() of its argument. This was also added from symmetry considerations, this time for symmetry with the existing '%s' format style, which inserts the str() of its argument. For example, '%r %s' % ('abc', 'abc') returns a string containing 'abc' abc.

Previously there was no way to implement a class that overrode Python's built-in in operator and implemented a custom version. obj in seq returns true if obj is present in the sequence seq; Python computes this by simply trying every index of the sequence until either obj is found or an IndexError is encountered. Moshe Zadka contributed a patch which adds a __contains__() magic method for providing a custom implementation for in. Additionally, new built-in objects written in C can define what in means for them via a new slot in the sequence protocol.

Earlier versions of Python used a recursive algorithm for deleting objects. Deeply nested data structures could cause the interpreter to fill up the C stack and crash; Christian Tismer rewrote the deletion logic to fix this problem. On a related note, comparing recursive objects recursed infinitely and crashed; Jeremy Hylton rewrote the code to no longer crash, producing a useful result instead. For example, after this code:

a = []
b = []
a.append(a)
b.append(b)

The comparison a==b returns true, because the two recursive data structures are isomorphic. See the thread "trashcan and PR#7" in the April 2000 archives of the python-dev mailing list for the discussion leading up to this implementation, and some useful relevant links. Note that comparisons can now also raise exceptions. In earlier versions of Python, a comparison operation such as cmp(a,b) would always produce an answer, even if a user-defined __cmp__() method encountered an error, since the resulting exception would simply be silently swallowed.

Work has been done on porting Python to 64-bit Windows on the Itanium processor, mostly by Trent Mick of ActiveState. (Confusingly, sys.platform is still 'win32' on Win64 because it seems that for ease of porting, MS Visual C++ treats code as 32 bit on Itanium.) PythonWin also supports Windows CE; see the Python CE page at https://pythonce.sourceforge.net/ for more information.

Another new platform is Darwin/MacOS X; initial support for it is in Python 2.0. Dynamic loading works, if you specify "configure --with-dyld --with-suffix=.x". Consult the README in the Python source distribution for more instructions.

An attempt has been made to alleviate one of Python's warts, the often-confusing NameError exception when code refers to a local variable before the variable has been assigned a value. For example, the following code raises an exception on the print statement in both 1.5.2 and 2.0; in 1.5.2 a NameError exception is raised, while 2.0 raises a new UnboundLocalError exception. UnboundLocalError is a subclass of NameError, so any existing code that expects NameError to be raised should still work.

def f():
    print "i=",i
    i = i + 1
f()

Two new exceptions, TabError and IndentationError, have been introduced. They're both subclasses of SyntaxError, and are raised when Python code is found to be improperly indented.

Changements concernant les fonctions primitives

A new built-in, zip(seq1, seq2, ...), has been added. zip() returns a list of tuples where each tuple contains the i-th element from each of the argument sequences. The difference between zip() and map(None, seq1, seq2) is that map() pads the sequences with None if the sequences aren't all of the same length, while zip() truncates the returned list to the length of the shortest argument sequence.

The int() and long() functions now accept an optional "base" parameter when the first argument is a string. int('123', 10) returns 123, while int('123', 16) returns 291. int(123, 16) raises a TypeError exception with the message "can't convert non-string with explicit base".

A new variable holding more detailed version information has been added to the sys module. sys.version_info is a tuple (major, minor, micro, level, serial) For example, in a hypothetical 2.0.1beta1, sys.version_info would be (2, 0, 1, 'beta', 1). level is a string such as "alpha", "beta", or "final" for a final release.

Dictionaries have an odd new method, setdefault(key, default), which behaves similarly to the existing get() method. However, if the key is missing, setdefault() both returns the value of default as get() would do, and also inserts it into the dictionary as the value for key. Thus, the following lines of code:

if dict.has_key( key ): return dict[key]
else:
    dict[key] = []
    return dict[key]

can be reduced to a single return dict.setdefault(key, []) statement.

The interpreter sets a maximum recursion depth in order to catch runaway recursion before filling the C stack and causing a core dump or GPF.. Previously this limit was fixed when you compiled Python, but in 2.0 the maximum recursion depth can be read and modified using sys.getrecursionlimit() and sys.setrecursionlimit(). The default value is 1000, and a rough maximum value for a given platform can be found by running a new script, Misc/find_recursionlimit.py.

Porting to 2.0

New Python releases try hard to be compatible with previous releases, and the record has been pretty good. However, some changes are considered useful enough, usually because they fix initial design decisions that turned out to be actively mistaken, that breaking backward compatibility can't always be avoided. This section lists the changes in Python 2.0 that may cause old Python code to break.

The change which will probably break the most code is tightening up the arguments accepted by some methods. Some methods would take multiple arguments and treat them as a tuple, particularly various list methods such as append() and insert(). In earlier versions of Python, if L is a list, L.append( 1,2 ) appends the tuple (1,2) to the list. In Python 2.0 this causes a TypeError exception to be raised, with the message: 'append requires exactly 1 argument; 2 given'. The fix is to simply add an extra set of parentheses to pass both values as a tuple: L.append( (1,2) ).

The earlier versions of these methods were more forgiving because they used an old function in Python's C interface to parse their arguments; 2.0 modernizes them to use PyArg_ParseTuple(), the current argument parsing function, which provides more helpful error messages and treats multi-argument calls as errors. If you absolutely must use 2.0 but can't fix your code, you can edit Objects/listobject.c and define the preprocessor symbol NO_STRICT_LIST_APPEND to preserve the old behaviour; this isn't recommended.

Some of the functions in the socket module are still forgiving in this way. For example, socket.connect( ('hostname', 25) ) is the correct form, passing a tuple representing an IP address, but socket.connect('hostname', 25) also works. socket.connect_ex and socket.bind are similarly easy-going. 2.0alpha1 tightened these functions up, but because the documentation actually used the erroneous multiple argument form, many people wrote code which would break with the stricter checking. GvR backed out the changes in the face of public reaction, so for the socket module, the documentation was fixed and the multiple argument form is simply marked as deprecated; it will be tightened up again in a future Python version.

The \x escape in string literals now takes exactly 2 hex digits. Previously it would consume all the hex digits following the 'x' and take the lowest 8 bits of the result, so \x123456 was equivalent to \x56.

The AttributeError and NameError exceptions have a more friendly error message, whose text will be something like 'Spam' instance has no attribute 'eggs' or name 'eggs' is not defined. Previously the error message was just the missing attribute name eggs, and code written to take advantage of this fact will break in 2.0.

Some work has been done to make integers and long integers a bit more interchangeable. In 1.5.2, large-file support was added for Solaris, to allow reading files larger than 2 GiB; this made the tell() method of file objects return a long integer instead of a regular integer. Some code would subtract two file offsets and attempt to use the result to multiply a sequence or slice a string, but this raised a TypeError. In 2.0, long integers can be used to multiply or slice a sequence, and it'll behave as you'd intuitively expect it to; 3L * 'abc' produces 'abcabcabc', and (0,1,2,3)[2L:4L] produces (2,3). Long integers can also be used in various contexts where previously only integers were accepted, such as in the seek() method of file objects, and in the formats supported by the % operator (%d, %i, %x, etc.). For example, "%d" % 2L**64 will produce the string 18446744073709551616.

The subtlest long integer change of all is that the str() of a long integer no longer has a trailing 'L' character, though repr() still includes it. The 'L' annoyed many people who wanted to print long integers that looked just like regular integers, since they had to go out of their way to chop off the character. This is no longer a problem in 2.0, but code which does str(longval)[:-1] and assumes the 'L' is there, will now lose the final digit.

Taking the repr() of a float now uses a different formatting precision than str(). repr() uses %.17g format string for C's sprintf(), while str() uses %.12g as before. The effect is that repr() may occasionally show more decimal places than str(), for certain numbers. For example, the number 8.1 can't be represented exactly in binary, so repr(8.1) is '8.0999999999999996', while str(8.1) is '8.1'.

The -X command-line option, which turned all standard exceptions into strings instead of classes, has been removed; the standard exceptions will now always be classes. The exceptions module containing the standard exceptions was translated from Python to a built-in C module, written by Barry Warsaw and Fredrik Lundh.

Extending/Embedding Changes

Some of the changes are under the covers, and will only be apparent to people writing C extension modules or embedding a Python interpreter in a larger application. If you aren't dealing with Python's C API, you can safely skip this section.

The version number of the Python C API was incremented, so C extensions compiled for 1.5.2 must be recompiled in order to work with 2.0. On Windows, it's not possible for Python 2.0 to import a third party extension built for Python 1.5.x due to how Windows DLLs work, so Python will raise an exception and the import will fail.

Users of Jim Fulton's ExtensionClass module will be pleased to find out that hooks have been added so that ExtensionClasses are now supported by isinstance() and issubclass(). This means you no longer have to remember to write code such as if type(obj) == myExtensionClass, but can use the more natural if isinstance(obj, myExtensionClass).

The Python/importdl.c file, which was a mass of #ifdefs to support dynamic loading on many different platforms, was cleaned up and reorganised by Greg Stein. importdl.c is now quite small, and platform-specific code has been moved into a bunch of Python/dynload_*.c files. Another cleanup: there were also a number of my*.h files in the Include/ directory that held various portability hacks; they've been merged into a single file, Include/pyport.h.

Vladimir Marangozov's long-awaited malloc restructuring was completed, to make it easy to have the Python interpreter use a custom allocator instead of C's standard malloc(). For documentation, read the comments in Include/pymem.h and Include/objimpl.h. For the lengthy discussions during which the interface was hammered out, see the web archives of the 'patches' and 'python-dev' lists at python.org.

Recent versions of the GUSI development environment for MacOS support POSIX threads. Therefore, Python's POSIX threading support now works on the Macintosh. Threading support using the user-space GNU pth library was also contributed.

Threading support on Windows was enhanced, too. Windows supports thread locks that use kernel objects only in case of contention; in the common case when there's no contention, they use simpler functions which are an order of magnitude faster. A threaded version of Python 1.5.2 on NT is twice as slow as an unthreaded version; with the 2.0 changes, the difference is only 10%. These improvements were contributed by Yakov Markovitch.

Python 2.0's source now uses only ANSI C prototypes, so compiling Python now requires an ANSI C compiler, and can no longer be done using a compiler that only supports K&R C.

Previously the Python virtual machine used 16-bit numbers in its bytecode, limiting the size of source files. In particular, this affected the maximum size of literal lists and dictionaries in Python source; occasionally people who are generating Python code would run into this limit. A patch by Charles G. Waldman raises the limit from 2**16 to 2**32.

Three new convenience functions intended for adding constants to a module's dictionary at module initialization time were added: PyModule_AddObject(), PyModule_AddIntConstant(), and PyModule_AddStringConstant(). Each of these functions takes a module object, a null-terminated C string containing the name to be added, and a third argument for the value to be assigned to the name. This third argument is, respectively, a Python object, a C long, or a C string.

A wrapper API was added for Unix-style signal handlers. PyOS_getsig() gets a signal handler and PyOS_setsig() will set a new handler.

Distutils: Making Modules Easy to Install

Before Python 2.0, installing modules was a tedious affair -- there was no way to figure out automatically where Python is installed, or what compiler options to use for extension modules. Software authors had to go through an arduous ritual of editing Makefiles and configuration files, which only really work on Unix and leave Windows and MacOS unsupported. Python users faced wildly differing installation instructions which varied between different extension packages, which made administering a Python installation something of a chore.

The SIG for distribution utilities, shepherded by Greg Ward, has created the Distutils, a system to make package installation much easier. They form the distutils package, a new part of Python's standard library. In the best case, installing a Python module from source will require the same steps: first you simply mean unpack the tarball or zip archive, and the run "python setup.py install". The platform will be automatically detected, the compiler will be recognized, C extension modules will be compiled, and the distribution installed into the proper directory. Optional command-line arguments provide more control over the installation process, the distutils package offers many places to override defaults -- separating the build from the install, building or installing in non-default directories, and more.

In order to use the Distutils, you need to write a setup.py script. For the simple case, when the software contains only .py files, a minimal setup.py can be just a few lines long:

from distutils.core import setup
setup (name = "foo", version = "1.0",
       py_modules = ["module1", "module2"])

The setup.py file isn't much more complicated if the software consists of a few packages:

from distutils.core import setup
setup (name = "foo", version = "1.0",
       packages = ["package", "package.subpackage"])

A C extension can be the most complicated case; here's an example taken from the PyXML package:

from distutils.core import setup, Extension

expat_extension = Extension('xml.parsers.pyexpat',
     define_macros = [('XML_NS', None)],
     include_dirs = [ 'extensions/expat/xmltok',
                      'extensions/expat/xmlparse' ],
     sources = [ 'extensions/pyexpat.c',
                 'extensions/expat/xmltok/xmltok.c',
                 'extensions/expat/xmltok/xmlrole.c', ]
       )
setup (name = "PyXML", version = "0.5.4",
       ext_modules =[ expat_extension ] )

The Distutils can also take care of creating source and binary distributions. The "sdist" command, run by "python setup.py sdist', builds a source distribution such as foo-1.0.tar.gz. Adding new commands isn't difficult, "bdist_rpm" and "bdist_wininst" commands have already been contributed to create an RPM distribution and a Windows installer for the software, respectively. Commands to create other distribution formats such as Debian packages and Solaris .pkg files are in various stages of development.

All this is documented in a new manual, Distributing Python Modules, that joins the basic set of Python documentation.

Modules XML

Python 1.5.2 included a simple XML parser in the form of the xmllib module, contributed by Sjoerd Mullender. Since 1.5.2's release, two different interfaces for processing XML have become common: SAX2 (version 2 of the Simple API for XML) provides an event-driven interface with some similarities to xmllib, and the DOM (Document Object Model) provides a tree-based interface, transforming an XML document into a tree of nodes that can be traversed and modified. Python 2.0 includes a SAX2 interface and a stripped-down DOM interface as part of the xml package. Here we will give a brief overview of these new interfaces; consult the Python documentation or the source code for complete details. The Python XML SIG is also working on improved documentation.

Support de SAX2

SAX defines an event-driven interface for parsing XML. To use SAX, you must write a SAX handler class. Handler classes inherit from various classes provided by SAX, and override various methods that will then be called by the XML parser. For example, the startElement() and endElement() methods are called for every starting and end tag encountered by the parser, the characters() method is called for every chunk of character data, and so forth.

The advantage of the event-driven approach is that the whole document doesn't have to be resident in memory at any one time, which matters if you are processing really huge documents. However, writing the SAX handler class can get very complicated if you're trying to modify the document structure in some elaborate way.

For example, this little example program defines a handler that prints a message for every starting and ending tag, and then parses the file hamlet.xml using it:

from xml import sax

class SimpleHandler(sax.ContentHandler):
    def startElement(self, name, attrs):
        print 'Start of element:', name, attrs.keys()

    def endElement(self, name):
        print 'End of element:', name

# Create a parser object
parser = sax.make_parser()

# Tell it what handler to use
handler = SimpleHandler()
parser.setContentHandler( handler )

# Parse a file!
parser.parse( 'hamlet.xml' )

For more information, consult the Python documentation, or the XML HOWTO at https://pyxml.sourceforge.net/topics/howto/xml-howto.html.

Support du DOM

The Document Object Model is a tree-based representation for an XML document. A top-level Document instance is the root of the tree, and has a single child which is the top-level Element instance. This Element has children nodes representing character data and any sub-elements, which may have further children of their own, and so forth. Using the DOM you can traverse the resulting tree any way you like, access element and attribute values, insert and delete nodes, and convert the tree back into XML.

The DOM is useful for modifying XML documents, because you can create a DOM tree, modify it by adding new nodes or rearranging subtrees, and then produce a new XML document as output. You can also construct a DOM tree manually and convert it to XML, which can be a more flexible way of producing XML output than simply writing <tag1>...</tag1> to a file.

The DOM implementation included with Python lives in the xml.dom.minidom module. It's a lightweight implementation of the Level 1 DOM with support for XML namespaces. The parse() and parseString() convenience functions are provided for generating a DOM tree:

from xml.dom import minidom
doc = minidom.parse('hamlet.xml')

doc is a Document instance. Document, like all the other DOM classes such as Element and Text, is a subclass of the Node base class. All the nodes in a DOM tree therefore support certain common methods, such as toxml() which returns a string containing the XML representation of the node and its children. Each class also has special methods of its own; for example, Element and Document instances have a method to find all child elements with a given tag name. Continuing from the previous 2-line example:

perslist = doc.getElementsByTagName( 'PERSONA' )
print perslist[0].toxml()
print perslist[1].toxml()

For the Hamlet XML file, the above few lines output:

<PERSONA>CLAUDIUS, king of Denmark. </PERSONA>
<PERSONA>HAMLET, son to the late, and nephew to the present king.</PERSONA>

The root element of the document is available as doc.documentElement, and its children can be easily modified by deleting, adding, or removing nodes:

root = doc.documentElement

# Remove the first child
root.removeChild( root.childNodes[0] )

# Move the new first child to the end
root.appendChild( root.childNodes[0] )

# Insert the new first child (originally,
# the third child) before the 20th child.
root.insertBefore( root.childNodes[0], root.childNodes[20] )

Again, I will refer you to the Python documentation for a complete listing of the different Node classes and their various methods.

Relationship to PyXML

The XML Special Interest Group has been working on XML-related Python code for a while. Its code distribution, called PyXML, is available from the SIG's web pages at https://www.python.org/community/sigs/current/xml-sig. The PyXML distribution also used the package name xml. If you've written programs that used PyXML, you're probably wondering about its compatibility with the 2.0 xml package.

The answer is that Python 2.0's xml package isn't compatible with PyXML, but can be made compatible by installing a recent version PyXML. Many applications can get by with the XML support that is included with Python 2.0, but more complicated applications will require that the full PyXML package will be installed. When installed, PyXML versions 0.6.0 or greater will replace the xml package shipped with Python, and will be a strict superset of the standard package, adding a bunch of additional features. Some of the additional features in PyXML include:

4DOM, a full DOM implementation from FourThought, Inc.

The xmlproc validating parser, written by Lars Marius Garshol.

The sgmlop parser accelerator module, written by Fredrik Lundh.

Module changes

Lots of improvements and bugfixes were made to Python's extensive standard library; some of the affected modules include readline, ConfigParser, cgi, calendar, posix, readline, xmllib, aifc, chunk, wave, random, shelve, and nntplib. Consult the CVS logs for the exact patch-by-patch details.

Brian Gallew contributed OpenSSL support for the socket module. OpenSSL is an implementation of the Secure Socket Layer, which encrypts the data being sent over a socket. When compiling Python, you can edit Modules/Setup to include SSL support, which adds an additional function to the socket module: socket.ssl(socket, keyfile, certfile), which takes a socket object and returns an SSL socket. The httplib and urllib modules were also changed to support https:// URLs, though no one has implemented FTP or SMTP over SSL.

The httplib module has been rewritten by Greg Stein to support HTTP/1.1.

Backward compatibility with the 1.5 version of httplib is provided, though using HTTP/1.1 features such as pipelining will require rewriting code to use a different set of interfaces.

The Tkinter module now supports Tcl/Tk version 8.1, 8.2, or 8.3, and support for the older 7.x versions has been dropped. The Tkinter module now supports displaying Unicode strings in Tk widgets. Also, Fredrik Lundh contributed an optimization which makes operations like create_line and create_polygon much faster, especially when using lots of coordinates.

The curses module has been greatly extended, starting from Oliver Andrich's enhanced version, to provide many additional functions from ncurses and SYSV curses, such as colour, alternative character set support, pads, and mouse support. This means the module is no longer compatible with operating systems that only have BSD curses, but there don't seem to be any currently maintained OSes that fall into this category.

As mentioned in the earlier discussion of 2.0's Unicode support, the underlying implementation of the regular expressions provided by the re module has been changed. SRE, a new regular expression engine written by Fredrik Lundh and partially funded by Hewlett Packard, supports matching against both 8-bit strings and Unicode strings.

Nouveaux modules

A number of new modules were added. We'll simply list them with brief descriptions; consult the 2.0 documentation for the details of a particular module.

atexit: For registering functions to be called before the Python interpreter exits. Code that currently sets sys.exitfunc directly should be changed to use the atexit module instead, importing atexit and calling atexit.register() with the function to be called on exit. (Contributed by Skip Montanaro.)

codecs, encodings, unicodedata: Added as part of the new Unicode support.

filecmp: Supersedes the old cmp, cmpcache and dircmp modules, which have now become deprecated. (Contributed by Gordon MacMillan and Moshe Zadka.)

gettext: This module provides internationalization (I18N) and localization (L10N) support for Python programs by providing an interface to the GNU gettext message catalog library. (Integrated by Barry Warsaw, from separate contributions by Martin von Löwis, Peter Funk, and James Henstridge.)

linuxaudiodev: Support for the /dev/audio device on Linux, a twin to the existing sunaudiodev module. (Contributed by Peter Bosch, with fixes by Jeremy Hylton.)

mmap: An interface to memory-mapped files on both Windows and Unix. A file's contents can be mapped directly into memory, at which point it behaves like a mutable string, so its contents can be read and modified. They can even be passed to functions that expect ordinary strings, such as the re module. (Contributed by Sam Rushing, with some extensions by A.M. Kuchling.)

pyexpat: An interface to the Expat XML parser. (Contributed by Paul Prescod.)

robotparser: Parse a robots.txt file, which is used for writing web spiders that politely avoid certain areas of a web site. The parser accepts the contents of a robots.txt file, builds a set of rules from it, and can then answer questions about the fetchability of a given URL. (Contributed by Skip Montanaro.)

tabnanny: A module/script to check Python source code for ambiguous indentation. (Contributed by Tim Peters.)

UserString: A base class useful for deriving objects that behave like strings.

webbrowser: A module that provides a platform independent way to launch a web browser on a specific URL. For each platform, various browsers are tried in a specific order. The user can alter which browser is launched by setting the BROWSER environment variable. (Originally inspired by Eric S. Raymond's patch to urllib which added similar functionality, but the final module comes from code originally implemented by Fred Drake as Tools/idle/BrowserControl.py, and adapted for the standard library by Fred.)

_winreg: An interface to the Windows registry. _winreg is an adaptation of functions that have been part of PythonWin since 1995, but has now been added to the core distribution, and enhanced to support Unicode. _winreg was written by Bill Tutt and Mark Hammond.

zipfile: A module for reading and writing ZIP-format archives. These are archives produced by PKZIP on DOS/Windows or zip on Unix, not to be confused with gzip-format files (which are supported by the gzip module) (Contributed by James C. Ahlstrom.)

imputil: A module that provides a simpler way for writing customized import hooks, in comparison to the existing ihooks module. (Implemented by Greg Stein, with much discussion on python-dev along the way.)

IDLE Improvements

IDLE is the official Python cross-platform IDE, written using Tkinter. Python 2.0 includes IDLE 0.6, which adds a number of new features and improvements. A partial list:

UI improvements and optimizations, especially in the area of syntax highlighting and auto-indentation.

The class browser now shows more information, such as the top level functions in a module.

Tab width is now a user settable option. When opening an existing Python file, IDLE automatically detects the indentation conventions, and adapts.

There is now support for calling browsers on various platforms, used to open the Python documentation in a browser.

IDLE now has a command line, which is largely similar to the vanilla Python interpreter.

Call tips were added in many places.

IDLE can now be installed as a package.

In the editor window, there is now a line/column bar at the bottom.

Three new keystroke commands: Check module (Alt-F5), Import module (F5) and Run script (Ctrl-F5).

Deleted and Deprecated Modules

A few modules have been dropped because they're obsolete, or because there are now better ways to do the same thing. The stdwin module is gone; it was for a platform-independent windowing toolkit that's no longer developed.

A number of modules have been moved to the lib-old subdirectory: cmp, cmpcache, dircmp, dump, find, grep, packmail, poly, util, whatsound, zmod. If you have code which relies on a module that's been moved to lib-old, you can simply add that directory to sys.path to get them back, but you're encouraged to update any code that uses these modules.

Remerciements

The authors would like to thank the following people for offering suggestions on various drafts of this article: David Bolen, Mark Hammond, Gregg Hauser, Jeremy Hylton, Fredrik Lundh, Detlef Lannert, Aahz Maruch, Skip Montanaro, Vladimir Marangozov, Tobias Polzin, Guido van Rossum, Neil Schemenauer, and Russ Schmidt.

Changelog

Python next

Release date: XXXX-XX-XX

macOS

gh-144551 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144551]: Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 3.0.19.

Windows

gh-145307 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145307]: Defers loading of the psapi.dll module until it is used by ctypes.util.dllist().

gh-144551 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144551]: Updated bundled version of OpenSSL to 3.0.19.

gh-140131 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140131]: Fix REPL cursor position on Windows when module completion suggestion line hits console width.

Tests

gh-146202 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146202]: Fix a race condition in regrtest: make sure that the temporary directory is created in the worker process. Previously, temp_cwd() could fail on Windows if the "build" directory was not created. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-144739 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144739]: When Python was compiled with system expat older then 2.7.2 but tests run with newer expat, still skip test.test_pyexpat.MemoryProtectionTest.

Security

gh-145986 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145986]: xml.parsers.expat: Fixed a crash caused by unbounded C recursion when converting deeply nested XML content models with ElementDeclHandler(). This addresses CVE 2026-4224 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2026-4224].

gh-145599 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145599]: Reject control characters in http.cookies.Morsel update() and js_output(). This addresses CVE 2026-3644 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2026-3644].

gh-145506 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145506]: Fixes CVE 2026-2297 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2026-2297] by ensuring that SourcelessFileLoader uses io.open_code() when opening .pyc files.

gh-144370 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144370]: Disallow usage of control characters in status in wsgiref.handlers to prevent HTTP header injections. Patch by Benedikt Johannes.

gh-143930 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143930]: Reject leading dashes in URLs passed to webbrowser.open()

Library

gh-146080 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146080]: ssl: fix a crash when an SNI callback tries to use an SSL object that has already been garbage-collected. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-146556 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146556]: Fix annotationlib.get_annotations() hanging indefinitely when called with eval_str=True on a callable that has a circular __wrapped__ chain (e.g. f.__wrapped__ = f). Cycle detection using an id-based visited set now stops the traversal and falls back to the globals found so far, mirroring the approach of inspect.unwrap().

gh-146090 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146090]: sqlite3: fix a crash when sqlite3.Connection.create_collation() fails with SQLITE_BUSY [https://sqlite.org/rescode.html#busy]. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-146090 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146090]: sqlite3: properly raise MemoryError instead of SystemError when a context callback fails to be allocated. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-145633 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145633]: Fix struct.pack('f', float): use PyFloat_Pack4() to raise OverflowError. Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev and Victor Stinner.

gh-146310 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146310]: The ensurepip module no longer looks for pip-*.whl wheel packages in the current directory.

gh-146083 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146083]: Update bundled libexpat [https://libexpat.github.io/] to version 2.7.5.

gh-146076 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146076]: zoneinfo: fix crashes when deleting _weak_cache from a zoneinfo.ZoneInfo subclass.

gh-146054 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146054]: Limit the size of encodings.search_function() cache. Found by OSS Fuzz in #493449985 [https://issues.oss-fuzz.com/issues/493449985].

gh-146004 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146004]: All -X options from the Python command line are now propagated to child processes spawned by multiprocessing, not just a hard-coded subset. This makes the behavior consistent between default "spawn" and "forkserver" start methods and the old "fork" start method. The options that were previously not propagated are: context_aware_warnings, cpu_count, disable-remote-debug, int_max_str_digits, lazy_imports, no_debug_ranges, pathconfig_warnings, perf, perf_jit, presite, pycache_prefix, thread_inherit_context, and warn_default_encoding.

gh-145754 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145754]: Request signature during mock autospec with FORWARDREF annotation format. This prevents runtime errors when an annotation uses a name that is not defined at runtime.

gh-145750 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145750]: Avoid undefined behaviour from signed integer overflow when parsing format strings in the struct module. Found by OSS Fuzz in #488466741 [https://issues.oss-fuzz.com/issues/488466741].

gh-145492 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145492]: Fix infinite recursion in collections.defaultdict __repr__ when a defaultdict contains itself. Based on analysis by KowalskiThomas in gh-145492 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145492].

gh-145623 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145623]: Fix crash in struct when calling repr() or __sizeof__() on an uninitialized struct.Struct object created via Struct.__new__() without calling __init__().

gh-145616 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145616]: Detect Android sysconfig ABI correctly on 32-bit ARM Android on 64-bit ARM kernel

gh-145551 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145551]: Fix InvalidStateError when cancelling process created by asyncio.create_subprocess_exec() or asyncio.create_subprocess_shell(). Patch by Daan De Meyer.

gh-145446 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145446]: Now functools is safer in free-threaded build when using keywords in functools.partial()

gh-145417 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145417]: venv: Prevent incorrect preservation of SELinux context when copying the Activate.ps1 script. The script inherited the SELinux security context of the system template directory, rather than the destination project directory.

gh-145376 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145376]: Fix double free and null pointer dereference in unusual error scenarios in hashlib and hmac modules.

gh-145301 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145301]: hmac: fix a crash when the initialization of the underlying C extension module fails.

gh-145301 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145301]: hashlib: fix a crash when the initialization of the underlying C extension module fails.

gh-145264 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145264]: Base64 decoder (see binascii.a2b_base64(), base64.b64decode(), etc) no longer ignores excess data after the first padded quad in non-strict (default) mode. Instead, in conformance with RFC 4648 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html], section 3.3, it now ignores the pad character, "=", if it is present before the end of the encoded data.

gh-145158 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145158]: Avoid undefined behaviour from signed integer overflow when parsing format strings in the struct module.

gh-144984 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144984]: Fix crash in xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ExternalEntityParserCreate() when an allocation fails. The error paths could dereference NULL handlers and double-decrement the parent parser's reference count.

gh-88091 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88091]: Fix unicodedata.decomposition() for Hangul characters.

gh-144986 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144986]: Fix a memory leak in atexit.register(). Patch by Shamil Abdulaev.

gh-144777 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144777]: Fix data races in io.IncrementalNewlineDecoder in the free-threaded build.

gh-144809 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144809]: Make collections.deque copy atomic in the free-threaded build.

gh-144835 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144835]: Added missing explanations for some parameters in glob.glob() and glob.iglob().

gh-144833 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144833]: Fixed a use-after-free in ssl when SSL_new() returns NULL in newPySSLSocket(). The error was reported via a dangling pointer after the object had already been freed.

gh-144782 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144782]: Fix argparse.ArgumentParser to be pickleable.

gh-144259 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144259]: Fix inconsistent display of long multiline pasted content in the REPL.

gh-144156 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144156]: Fix the folding of headers by the email library when RFC 2047 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html] encoded words are used. Now whitespace is correctly preserved and also correctly added between adjacent encoded words. The latter property was broken by the fix for gh-92081 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92081], which mostly fixed previous failures to preserve whitespace.

gh-66305 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66305]: Fixed a hang on Windows in the tempfile module when trying to create a temporary file or subdirectory in a non-writable directory.

gh-140814 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140814]: multiprocessing.freeze_support() no longer sets the default start method as a side effect, which previously caused a subsequent multiprocessing.set_start_method() call to raise RuntimeError.

gh-144475 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144475]: Calling repr() on functools.partial() is now safer when the partial object's internal attributes are replaced while the string representation is being generated.

gh-144538 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144538]: Bump the version of pip bundled in ensurepip to version 26.0.1

gh-144494 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144494]: Fix performance regression in asyncio.all_tasks() on free-threaded builds. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-144316 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144316]: Fix crash in _remote_debugging that caused test_external_inspection to intermittently fail. Patch by Taegyun Kim.

gh-144363 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144363]: Update bundled libexpat [https://libexpat.github.io/] to 2.7.4

gh-143637 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143637]: Fixed a crash in socket.sendmsg() that could occur if ancillary data is mutated re-entrantly during argument parsing.

gh-143543 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143543]: Fix a crash in itertools.groupby that could occur when a user-defined __eq__() method re-enters the iterator during key comparison.

gh-140652 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140652]: Fix a crash in _interpchannels.list_all() after closing a channel.

gh-143698 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143698]: Allow scheduler and setpgroup arguments to be explicitly None when calling os.posix_spawn() or os.posix_spawnp(). Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-143698 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143698]: Raise TypeError instead of SystemError when the scheduler in os.posix_spawn() or os.posix_spawnp() is not a tuple. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-142516 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142516]: ssl: fix reference leaks in ssl.SSLContext objects. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-143304 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143304]: Fix ctypes.CDLL to honor the handle parameter on POSIX systems.

gh-142781 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142781]: zoneinfo: fix a crash when instantiating ZoneInfo objects for which the internal class-level cache is inconsistent.

gh-142763 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142763]: Fix a race condition between zoneinfo.ZoneInfo creation and zoneinfo.ZoneInfo.clear_cache() that could raise KeyError.

gh-142787 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142787]: Fix assertion failure in sqlite3 blob subscript when slicing with indices that result in an empty slice.

gh-142352 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142352]: Fix asyncio.StreamWriter.start_tls() to transfer buffered data from StreamReader to the SSL layer, preventing data loss when upgrading a connection to TLS mid-stream (e.g., when implementing PROXY protocol support).

gh-141707 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141707]: Don't change tarfile.TarInfo type from AREGTYPE to DIRTYPE when parsing GNU long name or link headers.

gh-139933 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139933]: Improve AttributeError suggestions for classes with a custom __dir__() method returning a list of unsortable values. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-137335 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137335]: Get rid of any possibility of a name conflict for named pipes in multiprocessing and asyncio on Windows, no matter how small.

gh-80667 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80667]: Support lookup for Tangut Ideographs in unicodedata.

bpo-40243 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40243]: Fix unicodedata.ucd_3_2_0.numeric() for non-decimal values.

Documentation

gh-145649 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145649]: Fix text wrapping and formatting of -X option descriptions in the python(1) [https://manpages.debian.org/python(1)] man page by using proper roff markup.

gh-145450 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145450]: Document missing public wave.Wave_write getter methods.

gh-136246 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136246]: A new "Improve this page" link is available in the left-hand sidebar of the docs, offering links to create GitHub issues, discussion forum posts, or pull requests.

Core and Builtins

gh-146615 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146615]: Fix a crash in __get__() for METH_METHOD descriptors when an invalid (non-type) object is passed as the second argument. Patch by Steven Sun.

gh-146308 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146308]: Fixed several error handling issues in the _remote_debugging module, including safer validation of remote int objects, clearer asyncio task chain failures, and cache cleanup fixes that avoid leaking or double-freeing metadata on allocation failure. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

gh-146250 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146250]: Fixed a memory leak in SyntaxError when re-initializing it.

gh-146245 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146245]: Fixed reference leaks in socket when audit hooks raise exceptions in socket.getaddrinfo() and socket.sendto().

gh-146196 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146196]: Fix potential Undefined Behavior in PyUnicodeWriter_WriteASCII() by adding a zero-length check. Patch by Shamil Abdulaev.

gh-146227 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146227]: Fix wrong type in _Py_atomic_load_uint16 in the C11 atomics backend (pyatomic_std.h), which used a 32-bit atomic load instead of 16-bit. Found by Mohammed Zuhaib.

gh-146056 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146056]: Fix repr() for lists and tuples containing NULLs.

gh-146092 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146092]: Handle properly memory allocation failures on str and float opcodes. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-146041 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146041]: Fix free-threading scaling bottleneck in sys.intern() and PyObject_SetAttr() by avoiding the interpreter-wide lock when the string is already interned and immortalized.

gh-145990 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145990]: python --help-env sections are now sorted by environment variable name.

gh-145990 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145990]: python --help-xoptions is now sorted by -X option name.

gh-145376 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145376]: Fix GC tracking in structseq.__replace__().

gh-145792 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145792]: Fix out-of-bounds access when invoking faulthandler on a CPython build compiled without support for VLAs.

gh-142183 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142183]: Avoid a pathological case where repeated calls at a specific stack depth could be significantly slower.

gh-145779 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145779]: Improve scaling of classmethod() and staticmethod() calls in the free-threaded build by avoiding the descriptor __get__ call.

gh-145783 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145783]: Fix an unlikely crash in the parser when certain errors were erroneously not propagated. Found by OSS Fuzz in #491369109 [https://issues.oss-fuzz.com/issues/491369109].

gh-145685 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145685]: Improve scaling of type attribute lookups in the free-threaded build by avoiding contention on the internal type lock.

gh-145701 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145701]: Fix SystemError when __classdict__ or __conditional_annotations__ is in a class-scope inlined comprehension. Found by OSS Fuzz in #491105000 [https://issues.oss-fuzz.com/issues/491105000].

gh-145713 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145713]: Make bytearray.resize() thread-safe in the free-threaded build by using a critical section and calling the lock-held variant of the resize function.

gh-145615 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145615]: Fixed a memory leak in the free-threaded build where mimalloc pages could become permanently unreclaimable until the owning thread exited.

gh-145566 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145566]: In the free threading build, skip the stop-the-world pause when reassigning __class__ on a newly created object.

gh-145335 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145335]: Fix a crash in os.pathconf() when called with -1 as the path argument.

gh-145036 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145036]: In free-threaded build, fix race condition when calling __sizeof__() on a list

gh-145376 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145376]: Fix reference leaks in various unusual error scenarios.

gh-145234 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145234]: Fixed a SystemError in the parser when an encoding cookie (for example, UTF-7) decodes to carriage returns (\r). Newlines are now normalized after decoding in the string tokenizer.

Patch by Pablo Galindo.

gh-130555 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130555]: Fix use-after-free in dict.clear() when the dictionary values are embedded in an object and a destructor causes re-entrant mutation of the dictionary.

gh-145187 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145187]: Fix compiler assertion fail when a type parameter bound contains an invalid expression in a conditional block.

gh-145142 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145142]: Fix a crash in the free-threaded build when the dictionary argument to str.maketrans() is concurrently modified.

gh-144872 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144872]: Fix heap buffer overflow in the parser found by OSS-Fuzz.

gh-144766 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144766]: Fix a crash in fork child process when perf support is enabled.

gh-144759 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144759]: Fix undefined behavior in the lexer when start and multi_line_start pointers are NULL in _PyLexer_remember_fstring_buffers() and _PyLexer_restore_fstring_buffers(). The NULL pointer arithmetic (NULL - valid_pointer) is now guarded with explicit NULL checks.

gh-144563 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144563]: Fix interaction of the Tachyon profiler and ctypes and other modules that load the Python shared library (if present) in an independent map as this was causing the mechanism that loads the binary information to be confused. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-144601 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144601]: Fix crash when importing a module whose PyInit function raises an exception from a subinterpreter.

gh-144438 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144438]: Align the QSBR thread state array to a 64-byte cache line boundary to avoid false sharing in the free-threaded build.

gh-144513 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144513]: Fix potential deadlock when using critical sections during stop-the-world pauses in the free-threaded build.

gh-144446 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144446]: Fix data races in the free-threaded build when reading frame object attributes while another thread is executing the frame.

gh-143636 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143636]: Fix a crash when calling SimpleNamespace.__replace__() on non-namespace instances. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-143650 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143650]: Fix race condition in importlib where a thread could receive a stale module reference when another thread's import fails.

gh-141732 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141732]: Ensure the __repr__() for ExceptionGroup and BaseExceptionGroup does not change when the exception sequence that was original passed in to its constructor is subsequently mutated.

gh-140594 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140594]: Fix an out of bounds read when a single NUL character is read from the standard input. Patch by Shamil Abdulaev.

gh-91636 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91636]: While performing garbage collection, clear weakrefs to unreachable objects that are created during running of finalizers. If those weakrefs were are not cleared, they could reveal unreachable objects.

gh-130327 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130327]: Fix erroneous clearing of an object's __dict__ if overwritten at runtime.

gh-80667 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80667]: Literals using the \N{name} escape syntax can now construct CJK ideographs and Hangul syllables using case-insensitive names.

C API

gh-146056 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146056]: PyUnicodeWriter_WriteRepr() now supports NULL argument.

gh-145010 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145010]: Use GCC dialect alternatives for inline assembly in object.h so that the Python headers compile correctly with -masm=intel.

gh-144981 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144981]: Made PyUnstable_Code_SetExtra(), PyUnstable_Code_GetExtra(), and PyUnstable_Eval_RequestCodeExtraIndex() thread-safe on the free threaded build.

Build

gh-146498 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146498]: The iOS XCframework build script now ensures libpython isn't included in installed app content, and is more robust in identifying standard library binary content that requires processing.

gh-146446 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146446]: The clean target for the Apple/iOS XCframework build script is now more selective when targeting a single architecture.

gh-145801 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145801]: When Python build is optimized with GCC using PGO, use -fprofile-update=atomic option to use atomic operations when updating profile information. This option reduces the risk of gcov Data Files (.gcda) corruption which can cause random GCC crashes. Patch by Victor Stinner.

Python 3.14.3 final

Release date: 2026-02-03

Windows

gh-128067 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128067]: Fix a bug in PyREPL on Windows where output without a trailing newline was overwritten by the next prompt.

Tools/Demos

gh-142095 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142095]: Make gdb 'py-bt' command use frame from thread local state when available. Patch by Sam Gross and Victor Stinner.

Tests

gh-144415 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144415]: The Android testbed now distinguishes between stdout/stderr messages which were triggered by a newline, and those triggered by a manual call to flush. This fixes logging of progress indicators and similar content.

gh-143460 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143460]: Skip tests relying on infinite recusion if stack size is unlimited.

gh-65784 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65784]: Add support for parametrized resource wantobjects in regrtests, which allows to run Tkinter tests with the specified value of tkinter.wantobjects, for example -u wantobjects=0.

gh-143553 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143553]: Add support for parametrized resources, such as -u xpickle=2.7.

gh-142836 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142836]: Accommodated Solaris in test_pdb.test_script_target_anonymous_pipe.

bpo-31391 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31391]: Forward-port test_xpickle from Python 2 to Python 3 and add the resource back to test's command line.

Security

gh-144125 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144125]: BytesGenerator will now refuse to serialize (write) headers that are unsafely folded or delimited; see verify_generated_headers. (Contributed by Bas Bloemsaat and Petr Viktorin in gh-121650 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121650]).

gh-143935 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143935]: Fixed a bug in the folding of comments when flattening an email message using a modern email policy. Comments consisting of a very long sequence of non-foldable characters could trigger a forced line wrap that omitted the required leading space on the continuation line, causing the remainder of the comment to be interpreted as a new header field. This enabled header injection with carefully crafted inputs.

gh-143925 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143925]: Reject control characters in data: URL media types.

gh-143919 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143919]: Reject control characters in http.cookies.Morsel fields and values.

gh-143916 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143916]: Reject C0 control characters within wsgiref.headers.Headers fields, values, and parameters.

Library

gh-144380 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144380]: Improve performance of io.BufferedReader line iteration by ~49%.

gh-144169 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144169]: Fix three crashes when non-string keyword arguments are supplied to objects in the ast module.

gh-144100 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144100]: Fixed a crash in ctypes when using a deprecated POINTER(str) type in argtypes. Instead of aborting, ctypes now raises a proper Python exception when the pointer target type is unresolved.

gh-144050 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144050]: Fix stat.filemode() in the pure-Python implementation to avoid misclassifying invalid mode values as block devices.

gh-144023 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144023]: Fixed validation of file descriptor 0 in posix functions when used with follow_symlinks parameter.

gh-143999 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143999]: Fix an issue where inspect.getgeneratorstate() and inspect.getcoroutinestate() could fail for generators wrapped by types.coroutine() in the suspended state.

gh-143831 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143831]: annotationlib.ForwardRef objects are now hashable when created from annotation scopes with closures. Previously, hashing such objects would throw an exception. Patch by Bartosz Sławecki.

gh-143874 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143874]: Fixed a bug in pdb where expression results were not sent back to remote client.

gh-143880 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143880]: Fix data race in functools.partial() in the free threading build.

gh-143706 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143706]: Fix multiprocessing forkserver so that sys.argv is correctly set before __main__ is preloaded. Previously, sys.argv was empty during main module import in forkserver child processes. This fixes a regression introduced in 3.13.8 and 3.14.1. Root caused by Aaron Wieczorek, test provided by Thomas Watson, thanks!

gh-143638 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143638]: Forbid reentrant calls of the pickle.Pickler and pickle.Unpickler methods for the C implementation. Previously, this could cause crash or data corruption, now concurrent calls of methods of the same object raise RuntimeError.

gh-78724 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78724]: Raise RuntimeError's when user attempts to call methods on half-initialized Struct objects, For example, created by Struct.__new__(Struct). Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

gh-143196 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143196]: Fix crash when the internal encoder object returned by undocumented function json.encoder.c_make_encoder() was called with non-zero second (_current_indent_level) argument.

gh-143191 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143191]: _thread.stack_size() now raises ValueError if the stack size is too small. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-143602 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143602]: Fix a inconsistency issue in write() that leads to unexpected buffer overwrite by deduplicating the buffer exports.

gh-143547 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143547]: Fix sys.unraisablehook() when the hook raises an exception and changes sys.unraisablehook(): hold a strong reference to the old hook. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-143517 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143517]: annotationlib.get_annotations() no longer raises a SyntaxError when evaluating a stringified starred annotation that starts with one or more whitespace characters followed by a *. Patch by Bartosz Sławecki.

gh-143378 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143378]: Fix use-after-free crashes when a BytesIO object is concurrently mutated during write() or writelines().

gh-143346 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143346]: Fix incorrect wrapping of the Base64 data in plistlib._PlistWriter when the indent contains a mix of tabs and spaces.

gh-143310 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143310]: tkinter: fix a crash when a Python list is mutated during the conversion to a Tcl object (e.g., when setting a Tcl variable). Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-143309 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143309]: Fix a crash in os.execve() on non-Windows platforms when given a custom environment mapping which is then mutated during parsing. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-143308 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143308]: pickle: fix use-after-free crashes when a PickleBuffer is concurrently mutated by a custom buffer callback during pickling. Patch by Bénédikt Tran and Aaron Wieczorek.

gh-143237 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143237]: Fix support of named pipes in the rotating logging handlers.

gh-143249 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143249]: Fix possible buffer leaks in Windows overlapped I/O on error handling.

gh-143241 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143241]: zoneinfo: fix infinite loop in ZoneInfo.from_file when parsing a malformed TZif file. Patch by Fatih Celik.

gh-142830 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142830]: sqlite3: fix use-after-free crashes when the connection's callbacks are mutated during a callback execution. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-143200 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143200]: xml.etree.ElementTree: fix use-after-free crashes in __getitem__() and __setitem__() methods of Element when the element is concurrently mutated. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-142195 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142195]: Updated timeout evaluation logic in subprocess to be compatible with deterministic environments like Shadow where time moves exactly as requested.

gh-142164 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142164]: Fix the ctypes bitfield overflow error message to report the correct offset and size calculation.

gh-143145 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143145]: Fixed a possible reference leak in ctypes when constructing results with multiple output parameters on error.

gh-122431 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122431]: Corrected the error message in readline.append_history_file() to state that nelements must be non-negative instead of positive.

gh-143004 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143004]: Fix a potential use-after-free in collections.Counter.update() when user code mutates the Counter during an update.

gh-143046 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143046]: The asyncio REPL no longer prints copyright and version messages in the quiet mode (-q). Patch by Bartosz Sławecki.

gh-140648 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140648]: The asyncio REPL now respects the -I flag (isolated mode). Previously, it would load and execute PYTHONSTARTUP even if the flag was set. Contributed by Bartosz Sławecki.

gh-142991 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142991]: Fixed socket operations such as recvfrom() and sendto() for FreeBSD divert(4) socket.

gh-143010 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143010]: Fixed a bug in mailbox where the precise timing of an external event could result in the library opening an existing file instead of a file it expected to create.

gh-142881 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142881]: Fix concurrent and reentrant call of atexit.unregister().

gh-112127 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112127]: Fix possible use-after-free in atexit.unregister() when the callback is unregistered during comparison.

gh-142783 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142783]: Fix zoneinfo use-after-free with descriptor _weak_cache. a descriptor as _weak_cache could cause crashes during object creation. The fix ensures proper reference counting for descriptor-provided objects.

gh-142754 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142754]: Add the ownerDocument attribute to xml.dom.minidom elements and attributes created by directly instantiating the Element or Attr class. Note that this way of creating nodes is not supported; creator functions like xml.dom.Document.documentElement() should be used instead.

gh-142784 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142784]: The asyncio REPL now properly closes the loop upon the end of interactive session. Previously, it could cause surprising warnings. Contributed by Bartosz Sławecki.

gh-142555 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142555]: array: fix a crash in a[i] = v when converting i to an index via i.__index__ or i.__float__ mutates the array.

gh-142594 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142594]: Fix crash in TextIOWrapper.close() when the underlying buffer's closed property calls detach().

gh-142451 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142451]: hmac: Ensure that the HMAC.block_size attribute is correctly copied by HMAC.copy. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-142495 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142495]: collections.defaultdict now prioritizes __setitem__() when inserting default values from default_factory. This prevents race conditions where a default value would overwrite a value set before default_factory returns.

gh-142651 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142651]: unittest.mock: fix a thread safety issue where Mock.call_count may return inaccurate values when the mock is called concurrently from multiple threads.

gh-142595 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142595]: Added type check during initialization of the decimal module to prevent a crash in case of broken stdlib. Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

gh-142556 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142556]: Fix crash when a task gets re-registered during finalization in asyncio. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-123241 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123241]: Avoid reference count operations in garbage collection of ctypes objects.

gh-142517 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142517]: The non-compat32 email policies now correctly handle refolding encoded words that contain bytes that can not be decoded in their specified character set. Previously this resulted in an encoding exception during folding.

gh-112527 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112527]: The help text for required options in argparse no longer extended with " (default: None)".

gh-142346 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142346]: Fix usage formatting for mutually exclusive groups in argparse when they are preceded by positional arguments or followed or intermixed with other optional arguments.

gh-142315 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142315]: Pdb can now run scripts from anonymous pipes used in process substitution. Patch by Bartosz Sławecki.

gh-142332 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142332]: Fix usage formatting for positional arguments in mutually exclusive groups in argparse. in argparse.

gh-142282 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142282]: Fix winreg.QueryValueEx() to not accidentally read garbage buffer under race condition.

gh-75949 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75949]: Fix argparse to preserve | separators in mutually exclusive groups when the usage line wraps due to length.

gh-142267 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142267]: Improve argparse performance by caching the formatter used for argument validation.

gh-68552 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68552]: MisplacedEnvelopeHeaderDefect and Missing header name defects are now correctly passed to the handle_defect method of policy in FeedParser.

gh-142006 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142006]: Fix a bug in the email.policy.default folding algorithm which incorrectly resulted in a doubled newline when a line ending at exactly max_line_length was followed by an unfoldable token.

gh-105836 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105836]: Fix asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe() leaving underlying cancelled asyncio task running.

gh-139971 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139971]: pydoc: Ensure that the link to the online documentation of a stdlib module is correct.

gh-139262 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139262]: Some keystrokes can be swallowed in the new PyREPL on Windows, especially when used together with the ALT key. Fix by Chris Eibl.

gh-138897 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138897]: Improved license/copyright/credits display in the REPL: now uses a pager.

gh-79986 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79986]: Add parsing for References and In-Reply-To headers to the email library that parses the header content as lists of message id tokens. This prevents them from being folded incorrectly.

gh-136282 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136282]: Add support for UNNAMED_SECTION when creating a section via the mapping protocol access

gh-109263 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109263]: Starting a process from spawn context in multiprocessing no longer sets the start method globally.

gh-133253 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133253]: Fix thread-safety issues in linecache.

gh-132715 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132715]: Skip writing objects during marshalling once a failure has occurred.

IDLE

gh-143774 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143774]: Better explain the operation of Format / Format Paragraph.

Documentation

gh-140806 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140806]: Add documentation for enum.bin().

Core and Builtins

gh-144307 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144307]: Prevent a reference leak in module teardown at interpreter finalization.

gh-144194 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144194]: Fix error handling in perf jitdump initialization on memory allocation failure.

gh-144012 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144012]: Check if the result is NULL in BINARY_OP_EXTENT opcode.

gh-141805 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141805]: Fix crash in set when objects with the same hash are concurrently added to the set after removing an element with the same hash while the set still contains elements with the same hash.

gh-143670 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143670]: Fixes a crash in ga_repr_items_list function.

gh-143377 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143377]: Fix a crash in _interpreters.capture_exception() when the exception is incorrectly formatted. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-136924 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136924]: The interactive help mode in the REPL no longer incorrectly syntax highlights text input as Python code. Contributed by Olga Matoula.

gh-143189 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143189]: Fix crash when inserting a non-str key into a split table dictionary when the key matches an existing key in the split table but has no corresponding value in the dict.

gh-143228 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143228]: Fix use-after-free in perf trampoline when toggling profiling while threads are running or during interpreter finalization with daemon threads active. The fix uses reference counting to ensure trampolines are not freed while any code object could still reference them. Pach by Pablo Galindo

gh-142664 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142664]: Fix a use-after-free crash in memoryview.__hash__ when the __hash__ method of the referenced object mutates that object or the view. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-142557 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142557]: Fix a use-after-free crash in bytearray.__mod__ when the bytearray is mutated while formatting the %-style arguments. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-143195 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143195]: Fix use-after-free crashes in bytearray.hex() and memoryview.hex() when the separator's __len__() mutates the original object. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-142975 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142975]: Fix crash after unfreezing all objects tracked by the garbage collector on the free threaded build.

gh-143135 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143135]: Set sys.flags.inspect to 1 when PYTHONINSPECT is 0. Previously, it was set to 0 in this case.

gh-143003 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143003]: Fix an overflow of the shared empty buffer in bytearray.extend() when __length_hint__() returns 0 for non-empty iterator.

gh-143006 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143006]: Fix a possible assertion error when comparing negative non-integer float and int with the same number of bits in the integer part.

gh-143057 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143057]: Avoid locking in PyTraceMalloc_Track() and PyTraceMalloc_Untrack() when tracemalloc is not enabled.

gh-142776 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142776]: Fix a file descriptor leak in import.c

gh-142829 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142829]: Fix a use-after-free crash in contextvars.Context comparison when a custom __eq__ method modifies the context via set().

gh-142766 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142766]: Clear the frame of a generator when generator.close() is called.

gh-142737 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142737]: Tracebacks will be displayed in fallback mode even if io.open() is lost. Previously, this would crash the interpreter. Patch by Bartosz Sławecki.

gh-142554 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142554]: Fix a crash in divmod() when _pylong.int_divmod() does not return a tuple of length two exactly. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-142560 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142560]: Fix use-after-free in bytearray search-like methods (find(), count(), index(), rindex(), and rfind()) by marking the storage as exported which causes reallocation attempts to raise BufferError. For contains(), split(), and rsplit() the buffer protocol is used for this.

gh-142531 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142531]: Fix a free-threaded GC performance regression. If there are many untracked tuples, the GC will run too often, resulting in poor performance. The fix is to include untracked tuples in the "long lived" object count. The number of frozen objects is also now included since the free-threaded GC must scan those too.

gh-142402 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142402]: Fix reference counting when adjacent literal parts are merged while constructing string.templatelib.Template, preventing the displaced string object from leaking.

gh-133932 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133932]: Fix crash in the free threading build when clearing frames that hold tagged integers.

gh-142343 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142343]: Fix SIGILL crash on m68k due to incorrect assembly constraint.

gh-100964 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100964]: Fix reference cycle in exhausted generator frames. Patch by Savannah Ostrowski.

gh-69605 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69605]: Fix edge-cases around already imported modules in the REPL auto-completion of imports.

gh-138568 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138568]: Adjusted the built-in help() function so that empty inputs are ignored in interactive mode.

gh-137007 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137007]: Fix a bug during JIT compilation failure which caused garbage collection debug assertions to fail.

C API

gh-142589 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142589]: Fix PyUnstable_Object_IsUniqueReferencedTemporary() handling of tagged ints on the interpreter stack.

gh-142571 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142571]: PyUnstable_CopyPerfMapFile() now checks that opening the file succeeded before flushing.

Build

gh-142454 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142454]: When calculating the digest of the JIT stencils input, sort the hashed files by filenames before adding their content to the hasher. This ensures deterministic hash input and hence deterministic hash, independent on filesystem order.

gh-141808 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141808]: When running make clean-retain-profile, keep the generated JIT stencils. That way, the stencils are not generated twice when Profile-guided optimization (PGO) is used. It also allows distributors to supply their own pre-built JIT stencils.

gh-138061 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138061]: Ensure reproducible builds by making JIT stencil header generation deterministic.

Python 3.14.2 final

Release date: 2025-12-05

Security

gh-142145 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142145]: Remove quadratic behavior in xml.minidom node ID cache clearing.

gh-119452 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119452]: Fix a potential memory denial of service in the http.server module. When a malicious user is connected to the CGI server on Windows, it could cause an arbitrary amount of memory to be allocated. This could have led to symptoms including a MemoryError, swapping, out of memory (OOM) killed processes or containers, or even system crashes.

Library

gh-140797 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140797]: Revert changes to the undocumented re.Scanner class. Capturing groups are still allowed for backward compatibility, although using them can lead to incorrect result. They will be forbidden in future Python versions.

gh-142206 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142206]: The resource tracker in the multiprocessing module now uses the original communication protocol, as in Python 3.14.0 and below, by default. This avoids issues with upgrading Python while it is running. (Note that such 'in-place' upgrades are not tested.) The tracker remains compatible with subprocesses that use new protocol (that is, subprocesses using Python 3.13.10, 3.14.1 and 3.15).

gh-142214 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142214]: Fix two regressions in dataclasses in Python 3.14.1 related to annotations.

An exception is no longer raised if slots=True is used and the __init__ method does not have an __annotate__ attribute (likely because init=False was used).

An exception is no longer raised if annotations are requested on the __init__ method and one of the fields is not present in the class annotations. This can occur in certain dynamic scenarios.

Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

Core and Builtins

gh-142218 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142218]: Fix crash when inserting into a split table dictionary with a non str key that matches an existing key.

Library

gh-116738 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116738]: Fix cmath data race when initializing trigonometric tables with subinterpreters.

Python 3.14.1 final

Release date: 2025-12-02

Windows

gh-139810 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139810]: Installing with py install 3[.x]-dev will now select final versions as well as prereleases.

Tools/Demos

gh-141692 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141692]: Each slice of an iOS XCframework now contains a lib folder that contains a symlink to the libpython dylib. This allows binary modules to be compiled for iOS using dynamic libreary linking, rather than Framework linking.

gh-141442 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141442]: The iOS testbed now correctly handles test arguments that contain spaces.

gh-140702 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140702]: The iOS testbed app will now expose the GITHUB_ACTIONS environment variable to iOS apps being tested.

gh-137484 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137484]: Have Tools/wasm/wasi put the build Python into a directory named after the build triple instead of "build".

gh-137248 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137248]: Add a --logdir option to Tools/wasm/wasi for specifying where to write log files.

gh-137243 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137243]: Have Tools/wasm/wasi detect a WASI SDK install in /opt when it was directly extracted from a release tarball.

Tests

gh-140482 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140482]: Preserve and restore the state of stty echo as part of the test environment.

gh-140082 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140082]: Update python -m test to set FORCE_COLOR=1 when being run with color enabled so that unittest which is run by it with redirected output will output in color.

gh-139208 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139208]: Fix regrtest --fast-ci --verbose: don't ignore the --verbose option anymore. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-136442 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136442]: Use exitcode 1 instead of 5 if unittest.TestCase.setUpClass() raises an exception

Security

gh-139700 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139700]: Check consistency of the zip64 end of central directory record. Support records with "zip64 extensible data" if there are no bytes prepended to the ZIP file.

gh-139283 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139283]: sqlite3: correctly handle maximum number of rows to fetch in Cursor.fetchmany and reject negative values for Cursor.arraysize. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-137836 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137836]: Add support of the "plaintext" element, RAWTEXT elements "xmp", "iframe", "noembed" and "noframes", and optionally RAWTEXT element "noscript" in html.parser.HTMLParser.

gh-136063 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136063]: email.message: ensure linear complexity for legacy HTTP parameters parsing. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-136065 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136065]: Fix quadratic complexity in os.path.expandvars().

gh-119451 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119451]: Fix a potential memory denial of service in the http.client module. When connecting to a malicious server, it could cause an arbitrary amount of memory to be allocated. This could have led to symptoms including a MemoryError, swapping, out of memory (OOM) killed processes or containers, or even system crashes.

gh-119342 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119342]: Fix a potential memory denial of service in the plistlib module. When reading a Plist file received from untrusted source, it could cause an arbitrary amount of memory to be allocated. This could have led to symptoms including a MemoryError, swapping, out of memory (OOM) killed processes or containers, or even system crashes.

Library

gh-74389 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74389]: When the stdin being used by a subprocess.Popen instance is closed, this is now ignored in subprocess.Popen.communicate() instead of leaving the class in an inconsistent state.

gh-87512 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87512]: Fix subprocess.Popen.communicate() timeout handling on Windows when writing large input. Previously, the timeout was ignored during stdin writing, causing the method to block indefinitely if the child process did not consume input quickly. The stdin write is now performed in a background thread, allowing the timeout to be properly enforced.

gh-141473 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141473]: When subprocess.Popen.communicate() was called with input and a timeout and is called for a second time after a TimeoutExpired exception before the process has died, it should no longer hang.

gh-59000 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59000]: Fix pdb breakpoint resolution for class methods when the module defining the class is not imported.

gh-141570 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141570]: Support file-like object raising OSError from fileno() in color detection (_colorize.can_colorize()). This can occur when sys.stdout is redirected.

gh-141659 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141659]: Fix bad file descriptor errors from _posixsubprocess on AIX.

gh-141600 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141600]: Fix musl version detection on Void Linux.

gh-141497 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141497]: ipaddress: ensure that the methods IPv4Network.hosts() and IPv6Network.hosts() always return an iterator.

gh-140938 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140938]: The statistics.stdev() and statistics.pstdev() functions now raise a ValueError when the input contains an infinity or a NaN.

gh-124111 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124111]: Updated Tcl threading configuration in _tkinter to assume that threads are always available in Tcl 9 and later.

gh-137109 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137109]: The os.fork and related forking APIs will no longer warn in the common case where Linux or macOS platform APIs return the number of threads in a process and find the answer to be 1 even when a os.register_at_fork() after_in_parent= callback (re)starts a thread.

gh-141314 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141314]: Fix assertion failure in io.TextIOWrapper.tell() when reading files with standalone carriage return (\r) line endings.

gh-141311 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141311]: Fix assertion failure in io.BytesIO.readinto() and undefined behavior arising when read position is above capcity in io.BytesIO.

gh-141141 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141141]: Fix a thread safety issue with base64.b85decode(). Contributed by Benel Tayar.

gh-137969 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137969]: Fix annotationlib.ForwardRef.evaluate() returning ForwardRef objects which don't update with new globals.

gh-140911 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140911]: collections: Ensure that the methods UserString.rindex() and UserString.index() accept collections.UserString instances as the sub argument.

gh-140797 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140797]: The undocumented re.Scanner class now forbids regular expressions containing capturing groups in its lexicon patterns. Patterns using capturing groups could previously lead to crashes with segmentation fault. Use non-capturing groups (?:...) instead.

gh-125115 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125115]: Refactor the pdb parsing issue so positional arguments can pass through intuitively.

gh-140815 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140815]: faulthandler now detects if a frame or a code object is invalid or freed. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-100218 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100218]: Correctly set errno when socket.if_nametoindex() or socket.if_indextoname() raise an OSError. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-140875 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140875]: Fix handling of unclosed character references (named and numerical) followed by the end of file in html.parser.HTMLParser with convert_charrefs=False.

gh-140734 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140734]: multiprocessing: fix off-by-one error when checking the length of a temporary socket file path. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-140874 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140874]: Bump the version of pip bundled in ensurepip to version 25.3

gh-140691 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140691]: In urllib.request, when opening a FTP URL fails because a data connection cannot be made, the control connection's socket is now closed to avoid a ResourceWarning.

gh-103847 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103847]: Fix hang when cancelling process created by asyncio.create_subprocess_exec() or asyncio.create_subprocess_shell(). Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-120057 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120057]: Add os.reload_environ() to os.__all__.

gh-140228 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140228]: Avoid making unnecessary filesystem calls for frozen modules in linecache when the global module cache is not present.

gh-140590 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140590]: Fix arguments checking for the functools.partial.__setstate__() that may lead to internal state corruption and crash. Patch by Sergey Miryanov.

gh-125434 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125434]: Display thread name in faulthandler on Windows. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-140634 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140634]: Fix a reference counting bug in os.sched_param.__reduce__().

gh-140633 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140633]: Ignore AttributeError when setting a module's __file__ attribute when loading an extension module packaged as Apple Framework.

gh-140593 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140593]: xml.parsers.expat: Fix a memory leak that could affect users with ElementDeclHandler() set to a custom element declaration handler. Patch by Sebastian Pipping.

gh-140607 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140607]: Inside io.RawIOBase.read(), validate that the count of bytes returned by io.RawIOBase.readinto() is valid (inside the provided buffer).

gh-138162 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138162]: Fix logging.LoggerAdapter with merge_extra=True and without the extra argument.

gh-138774 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138774]: ast.unparse() now generates full source code when handling ast.Interpolation nodes that do not have a specified source.

gh-140474 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140474]: Fix memory leak in array.array when creating arrays from an empty str and the u type code.

gh-137530 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137530]: dataclasses Fix annotations for generated __init__ methods by replacing the annotations that were in-line in the generated source code with __annotate__ functions attached to the methods.

gh-140348 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140348]: Fix regression in Python 3.14.0 where using the | operator on a typing.Union object combined with an object that is not a type would raise an error.

gh-140272 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140272]: Fix memory leak in the clear() method of the dbm.gnu database.

gh-140041 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140041]: Fix import of ctypes on Android and Cygwin when ABI flags are present.

gh-140120 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140120]: Fixed a memory leak in hmac when it was using the hacl-star backend. Discovered by @ashm-dev using AddressSanitizer.

gh-139905 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139905]: Add suggestion to error message for typing.Generic subclasses when cls.__parameters__ is missing due to a parent class failing to call super().__init_subclass__() in its __init_subclass__.

gh-139894 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139894]: Fix incorrect sharing of current task with the child process while forking in asyncio. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-139845 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139845]: Fix to not print KeyboardInterrupt twice in default asyncio REPL.

gh-139783 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139783]: Fix inspect.getsourcelines() for the case when a decorator is followed by a comment or an empty line.

gh-139809 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139809]: Prevent premature colorization of subparser prog in argparse.ArgumentParser.add_subparsers() to respect color environment variable changes after parser creation.

gh-139736 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139736]: Fix excessive indentation in the default argparse HelpFormatter. Patch by Alexander Edland.

gh-70765 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70765]: http.server: fix default handling of HTTP/0.9 requests in BaseHTTPRequestHandler. Previously, BaseHTTPRequestHandler.parse_request() incorrectly waited for headers in the request although those are not supported in HTTP/0.9. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-63161 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/63161]: Fix tokenize.detect_encoding(). Support non-UTF-8 shebang and comments if non-UTF-8 encoding is specified. Detect decoding error for non-UTF-8 encoding. Detect null bytes in source code.

gh-139391 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139391]: Fix an issue when, on non-Windows platforms, it was not possible to gracefully exit a python -m asyncio process suspended by Ctrl+Z and later resumed by fg [https://manpages.debian.org/fg] other than with kill [https://manpages.debian.org/kill].

gh-101828 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101828]: Fix 'shift_jisx0213', 'shift_jis_2004', 'euc_jisx0213' and 'euc_jis_2004' codecs truncating null chars as they were treated as part of multi-character sequences.

gh-139289 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139289]: Do a real lazy-import on rlcompleter in pdb and restore the existing completer after importing rlcompleter.

gh-139246 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139246]: fix: paste zero-width in default repl width is wrong.

gh-90949 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90949]: Add SetAllocTrackerActivationThreshold() and SetAllocTrackerMaximumAmplification() to xmlparser objects to prevent use of disproportional amounts of dynamic memory from within an Expat parser. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-139210 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139210]: Fix use-after-free when reporting unknown event in xml.etree.ElementTree.iterparse(). Patch by Ken Jin.

gh-138860 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138860]: Lazy import rlcompleter in pdb to avoid deadlock in subprocess.

gh-112729 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112729]: Fix crash when calling concurrent.interpreters.create() when the process is out of memory.

gh-135729 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135729]: Fix unraisable exception during finalization when using concurrent.interpreters in the REPL.

gh-139076 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139076]: Fix a bug in the pydoc module that was hiding functions in a Python module if they were implemented in an extension module and the module did not have __all__.

gh-139065 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139065]: Fix trailing space before a wrapped long word if the line length is exactly width in textwrap.

gh-139001 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139001]: Fix race condition in pathlib.Path on the internal _raw_paths field.

gh-138813 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138813]: multiprocessing.BaseProcess defaults kwargs to None instead of a shared dictionary.

gh-138993 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138993]: Dedent credits text.

gh-138891 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138891]: Fix SyntaxError when inspect.get_annotations(f, eval_str=True) is called on a function annotated with a PEP 646 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0646/] star_expression

gh-130567 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130567]: Fix possible crash in locale.strxfrm() due to a platform bug on macOS.

gh-138859 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138859]: Fix generic type parameterization raising a TypeError when omitting a ParamSpec that has a default which is not a list of types.

gh-138764 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138764]: Prevent annotationlib.call_annotate_function() from calling __annotate__ functions that don't support VALUE_WITH_FAKE_GLOBALS in a fake globals namespace with empty globals.

Make FORWARDREF and STRING annotations fall back to using VALUE annotations in the case that neither their own format, nor VALUE_WITH_FAKE_GLOBALS are supported.

gh-138775 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138775]: Use of python -m with base64 has been fixed to detect input from a terminal so that it properly notices EOF.

gh-138779 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138779]: Support device numbers larger than 2**63-1 for the st_rdev field of the os.stat_result structure.

gh-137706 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137706]: Fix the partial evaluation of annotations that use typing.Annotated[T, x] where T is a forward reference.

gh-88375 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88375]: Fix normalization of the robots.txt rules and URLs in the urllib.robotparser module. No longer ignore trailing ?. Distinguish raw special characters ?, = and & from the percent-encoded ones.

gh-111788 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111788]: Fix parsing errors in the urllib.robotparser module. Don't fail trying to parse weird paths. Don't fail trying to decode non-UTF-8 robots.txt files.

gh-98896 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98896]: Fix a failure in multiprocessing resource_tracker when SharedMemory names contain colons. Patch by Rani Pinchuk.

gh-138425 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138425]: Fix partial evaluation of annotationlib.ForwardRef objects which rely on names defined as globals.

gh-138432 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138432]: zoneinfo.reset_tzpath() will now convert any os.PathLike objects it receives into strings before adding them to TZPATH. It will raise TypeError if anything other than a string is found after this conversion. If given an os.PathLike object that represents a relative path, it will now raise ValueError instead of TypeError, and present a more informative error message.

gh-138008 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138008]: Fix segmentation faults in the ctypes module due to invalid argtypes. Patch by Dung Nguyen.

gh-60462 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/60462]: Fix locale.strxfrm() on Solaris (and possibly other platforms).

gh-138239 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138239]: The REPL now highlights type as a soft keyword in type statements.

gh-138204 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138204]: Forbid expansion of shared anonymous memory maps on Linux, which caused a bus error.

gh-138010 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138010]: Fix an issue where defining a class with an @warnings.deprecated-decorated base class may not invoke the correct __init_subclass__() method in cases involving multiple inheritance. Patch by Brian Schubert.

gh-138151 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138151]: In annotationlib, improve evaluation of forward references to nonlocal variables that are not yet defined when the annotations are initially evaluated.

gh-137317 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137317]: inspect.signature() now correctly handles classes that use a descriptor on a wrapped __init__() or __new__() method. Contributed by Yongyu Yan.

gh-137754 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137754]: Fix import of the zoneinfo module if the C implementation of the datetime module is not available.

gh-137490 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137490]: Handle ECANCELED in the same way as EINTR in signal.sigwaitinfo() on NetBSD.

gh-137477 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137477]: Fix inspect.getblock(), inspect.getsourcelines() and inspect.getsource() for generator expressions.

gh-137044 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137044]: Return large limit values as positive integers instead of negative integers in resource.getrlimit(). Accept large values and reject negative values (except RLIM_INFINITY) for limits in resource.setrlimit().

gh-75989 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75989]: tarfile.TarFile.extractall() and tarfile.TarFile.extract() now overwrite symlinks when extracting hardlinks. (Contributed by Alexander Enrique Urieles Nieto in gh-75989 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75989].)

gh-137017 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137017]: Fix threading.Thread.is_alive to remain True until the underlying OS thread is fully cleaned up. This avoids false negatives in edge cases involving thread monitoring or premature threading.Thread.is_alive calls.

gh-137273 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137273]: Fix debug assertion failure in locale.setlocale() on Windows.

gh-137239 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137239]: heapq: Update heapq.__all__ with *_max functions.

gh-81325 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81325]: tarfile.TarFile now accepts a path-like when working on a tar archive. (Contributed by Alexander Enrique Urieles Nieto in gh-81325 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81325].)

gh-137185 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137185]: Fix a potential async-signal-safety issue in faulthandler when printing C stack traces.

gh-136914 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136914]: Fix retrieval of doctest.DocTest.lineno for objects decorated with functools.cache() or functools.cached_property.

gh-136912 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136912]: hmac.digest() now properly handles large keys and messages by falling back to the pure Python implementation when necessary. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-83424 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83424]: Allows creating a ctypes.CDLL without name when passing a handle as an argument.

gh-136234 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136234]: Fix asyncio.WriteTransport.writelines() to be robust to connection failure, by using the same behavior as write().

gh-136507 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136507]: Fix mimetypes CLI to handle multiple file parameters.

gh-136057 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136057]: Fixed the bug in pdb and bdb where next and step can't go over the line if a loop exists in the line.

gh-135386 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135386]: Fix opening a dbm.sqlite3 database for reading from read-only file or directory.

gh-135444 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135444]: Fix asyncio.DatagramTransport.sendto() to account for datagram header size when data cannot be sent.

gh-126631 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126631]: Fix multiprocessing forkserver bug which prevented __main__ from being preloaded.

gh-135307 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135307]: email: Fix exception in set_content() when encoding text and max_line_length is set to 0 or None (unlimited).

gh-134453 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134453]: Fixed subprocess.Popen.communicate() input= handling of memoryview instances that were non-byte shaped on POSIX platforms. Those are now properly cast to a byte shaped view instead of truncating the input. Windows platforms did not have this bug.

gh-134698 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134698]: Fix a crash when calling methods of ssl.SSLContext or ssl.SSLSocket across multiple threads.

gh-125996 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125996]: Fix thread safety of collections.OrderedDict. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-133789 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133789]: Fix unpickling of pathlib objects that were pickled in Python 3.13.

gh-127081 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127081]: Fix libc thread safety issues with dbm by performing stateful operations in critical sections.

gh-132551 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132551]: Make io.BytesIO safe in free-threaded build.

gh-131788 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131788]: Make ResourceTracker.send from multiprocessing re-entrant safe

gh-118981 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118981]: Fix potential hang in multiprocessing.popen_spawn_posix that can happen when the child proc dies early by closing the child fds right away.

gh-102431 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102431]: Clarify constraints for "logical" arguments in methods of decimal.Context.

gh-78319 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78319]: UTF8 support for the IMAP APPEND command has been made RFC compliant.

bpo-38735 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38735]: Fix failure when importing a module from the root directory on unix-like platforms with sys.pycache_prefix set.

bpo-41839 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41839]: Allow negative priority values from os.sched_get_priority_min() and os.sched_get_priority_max() functions.

IDLE

gh-96491 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96491]: Deduplicate version number in IDLE shell title bar after saving to a file.

gh-139742 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139742]: Colorize t-string prefixes for template strings in IDLE, as done for f-string prefixes.

Documentation

gh-141994 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141994]: xml.sax.handler: Make Documentation of xml.sax.handler.feature_external_ges warn of opening up to external entity attacks [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML_external_entity_attack]. Patch by Sebastian Pipping.

gh-140578 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140578]: Remove outdated sencence in the documentation for multiprocessing, that implied that concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor did not exist.

Core and Builtins

gh-142048 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142048]: Fix quadratically increasing garbage collection delays in free-threaded build.

Library

gh-116738 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116738]: Fix thread safety issue with re scanner objects in free-threaded builds.

Core and Builtins

gh-141930 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141930]: When importing a module, use Python's regular file object to ensure that writes to .pyc files are complete or an appropriate error is raised.

gh-120158 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120158]: Fix inconsistent state when enabling or disabling monitoring events too many times.

gh-139653 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139653]: Only raise a RecursionError or trigger a fatal error if the stack pointer is both below the limit pointer and above the stack base. If outside of these bounds assume that it is OK. This prevents false positives when user-space threads swap stacks.

gh-139103 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139103]: Improve multithreaded scaling of dataclasses on the free-threaded build.

gh-141579 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141579]: Fix sys.activate_stack_trampoline() to properly support the perf_jit backend. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

gh-114203 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114203]: Skip locking if object is already locked by two-mutex critical section.

gh-141528 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141528]: Suggest using concurrent.interpreters.Interpreter.close() instead of the private _interpreters.destroy function when warning about remaining subinterpreters. Patch by Sergey Miryanov.

gh-141312 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141312]: Fix the assertion failure in the __setstate__ method of the range iterator when a non-integer argument is passed. Patch by Sergey Miryanov.

Library

gh-116738 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116738]: Make csv module thread-safe on the free threaded build.

Core and Builtins

gh-140939 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140939]: Fix memory leak when bytearray or bytes is formated with the %*b format with a large width that results in a MemoryError.

Library

gh-140260 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140260]: Fix struct data race in endian table initialization with subinterpreters. Patch by Shamil Abdulaev.

Core and Builtins

gh-140530 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140530]: Fix a reference leak when raise exc from cause fails. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-140373 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140373]: Correctly emit PY_UNWIND event when generator object is closed. Patch by Mikhail Efimov.

gh-140576 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140576]: Fixed crash in tokenize.generate_tokens() in case of specific incorrect input. Patch by Mikhail Efimov.

gh-140551 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140551]: Fixed crash in dict if dict.clear() is called at the lookup stage. Patch by Mikhail Efimov and Inada Naoki.

gh-140517 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140517]: Fixed a reference leak when iterating over the result of map() with strict=True when the input iterables have different lengths. Patch by Mikhail Efimov.

gh-140471 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140471]: Fix potential buffer overflow in ast.AST node initialization when encountering malformed _fields containing non-str.

gh-140431 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140431]: Fix a crash in Python's garbage collector due to partially initialized coroutine objects when coroutine origin tracking depth is enabled (sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth()).

Library

gh-140398 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140398]: Fix memory leaks in readline functions read_init_file(), read_history_file(), write_history_file(), and append_history_file() when PySys_Audit() fails.

Core and Builtins

gh-140406 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140406]: Fix memory leak when an object's __hash__() method returns an object that isn't an int.

gh-140358 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140358]: Restore elapsed time and unreachable object count in GC debug output. These were inadvertently removed during a refactor of gc.c. The debug log now again reports elapsed collection time and the number of unreachable objects. Contributed by Pål Grønås Drange.

gh-140306 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140306]: Fix memory leaks in cross-interpreter channel operations and shared namespace handling.

gh-140301 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140301]: Fix memory leak of PyConfig in subinterpreters.

gh-140257 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140257]: Fix data race between interpreter_clear() and take_gil() on eval_breaker during finalization with daemon threads.

gh-139951 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139951]: Fixes a regression in GC performance for a growing heap composed mostly of small tuples.

Counts number of actually tracked objects, instead of trackable objects. This ensures that untracking tuples has the desired effect of reducing GC overhead.

Does not track most untrackable tuples during creation. This prevents large numbers of small tuples causing excessive GCs.

gh-140104 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140104]: Fix a bug with exception handling in the JIT. Patch by Ken Jin. Bug reported by Daniel Diniz.

gh-140061 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140061]: Fixing the checking of whether an object is uniquely referenced to ensure free-threaded compatibility. Patch by Sergey Miryanov.

gh-140067 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140067]: Fix memory leak in sub-interpreter creation.

gh-140000 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140000]: Fix potential memory leak when a reference cycle exists between an instance of typing.TypeAliasType, typing.TypeVar, typing.ParamSpec, or typing.TypeVarTuple and its __name__ attribute. Patch by Mikhail Efimov.

gh-139914 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139914]: Restore support for HP PA-RISC, which has an upwards-growing stack.

gh-139988 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139988]: Fix a memory leak when failing to create a Union type. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-139748 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139748]: Fix reference leaks in error branches of functions accepting path strings or bytes such as compile() and os.system(). Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-139516 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139516]: Fix lambda colon erroneously start format spec in f-string in tokenizer.

gh-139640 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139640]: ast.parse() no longer emits syntax warnings for return/break/continue in finally (see PEP 765 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0765/]) -- they are only emitted during compilation.

gh-139640 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139640]: Fix swallowing some syntax warnings in different modules if they accidentally have the same message and are emitted from the same line. Fix duplicated warnings in the finally block.

gh-63161 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/63161]: Support non-UTF-8 shebang and comments in Python source files if non-UTF-8 encoding is specified. Detect decoding error in comments for default (UTF-8) encoding. Show the line and position of decoding error for default encoding in a traceback. Show the line containing the coding cookie when it conflicts with the BOM in a traceback.

Library

gh-116738 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116738]: Make mmap thread-safe on the free threaded build.

Core and Builtins

gh-138558 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138558]: Fix handling of unusual t-string annotations in annotationlib. Patch by Dave Peck.

gh-134466 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134466]: Don't run PyREPL in a degraded environment where setting termios attributes is not allowed.

gh-138944 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138944]: Fix SyntaxError message when invalid syntax appears on the same line as a valid import ... as ... or from ... import ... as ... statement. Patch by Brian Schubert.

gh-105487 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105487]: Remove non-existent __copy__(), __deepcopy__(), and __bases__ from the __dir__() entries of types.GenericAlias.

gh-69605 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69605]: Fix some standard library submodules missing from the REPL auto-completion of imports.

Library

gh-116738 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116738]: Make cProfile thread-safe on the free threaded build.

gh-138004 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138004]: On Solaris/Illumos platforms, thread names are now encoded as ASCII to avoid errors on systems (e.g. OpenIndiana) that don't support non-ASCII names.

Core and Builtins

gh-137433 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137433]: Fix a potential deadlock in the free threading build when daemon threads enable or disable profiling or tracing while the main thread is shutting down the interpreter.

gh-137400 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137400]: Fix a crash in the free threading build when disabling profiling or tracing across all threads with PyEval_SetProfileAllThreads() or PyEval_SetTraceAllThreads() or their Python equivalents threading.settrace_all_threads() and threading.setprofile_all_threads().

gh-58124 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/58124]: Fix name of the Python encoding in Unicode errors of the code page codec: use "cp65000" and "cp65001" instead of "CP_UTF7" and "CP_UTF8" which are not valid Python code names. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-132657 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132657]: Improve performance of frozenset by removing locks in the free-threading build.

gh-133400 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133400]: Fixed Ctrl+D (^D) behavior in _pyrepl module to match old pre-3.13 REPL behavior.

gh-128640 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128640]: Fix a crash when using threads inside of a subinterpreter.

C API

gh-137422 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137422]: Fix free threading race condition in PyImport_AddModuleRef(). It was previously possible for two calls to the function return two different objects, only one of which was stored in sys.modules.

gh-140042 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140042]: Removed the sqlite3_shutdown call that could cause closing connections for sqlite when used with multiple sub interpreters.

gh-141042 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141042]: Make qNaN in PyFloat_Pack2() and PyFloat_Pack4(), if while conversion to a narrower precision floating-point format --- the remaining after truncation payload will be zero. Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

gh-140487 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140487]: Fix Py_RETURN_NOTIMPLEMENTED in limited C API 3.11 and older: don't treat Py_NotImplemented as immortal. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-140153 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140153]: Fix Py_REFCNT() definition on limited C API 3.11-3.13. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-139653 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139653]: Add PyUnstable_ThreadState_SetStackProtection() and PyUnstable_ThreadState_ResetStackProtection() functions to set the stack protection base address and stack protection size of a Python thread state. Patch by Victor Stinner.

Build

gh-141808 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141808]: Do not generate the jit stencils twice in case of PGO builds on Windows.

gh-141784 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141784]: Fix _remote_debugging_module.c compilation on 32-bit Linux. Include Python.h before system headers to make sure that _remote_debugging_module.c uses the same types (ABI) than Python. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-140768 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140768]: Warn when the WASI SDK version doesn't match what's supported.

gh-140513 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140513]: Generate a clear compilation error when _Py_TAIL_CALL_INTERP is enabled but either preserve_none or musttail is not supported.

gh-140189 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140189]: iOS builds were added to CI.

gh-138489 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138489]: When cross-compiling for WASI by build_wasm or build_emscripten, the build-details.json step is now included in the build process, just like with native builds.

This fixes the libinstall task which requires the build-details.json file during the process.

gh-137618 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137618]: PYTHON_FOR_REGEN now requires Python 3.10 to Python 3.15. Patch by Adam Turner.

gh-123681 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123681]: Check the strftime() behavior at runtime instead of at the compile time to support cross-compiling. Remove the internal macro _Py_NORMALIZE_CENTURY.

Python 3.14.0 final

Release date: 2025-10-07

macOS

gh-124111 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124111]: Update macOS installer to use Tcl/Tk 8.6.17.

gh-139573 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139573]: Updated bundled version of OpenSSL to 3.0.18.

Windows

gh-139573 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139573]: Updated bundled version of OpenSSL to 3.0.18.

Tools/Demos

gh-139330 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139330]: SBOM generation tool didn't cross-check the version and checksum values against the Modules/expat/refresh.sh script, leading to the values becoming out-of-date during routine updates.

gh-132006 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132006]: XCframeworks now include privacy manifests to satisfy Apple App Store submission requirements.

gh-138171 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138171]: A script for building an iOS XCframework was added. As part of this change, the top level iOS folder has been moved to be a subdirectory of the Apple folder.

Security

gh-139400 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139400]: xml.parsers.expat: Make sure that parent Expat parsers are only garbage-collected once they are no longer referenced by subparsers created by ExternalEntityParserCreate(). Patch by Sebastian Pipping.

Library

gh-139312 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139312]: Upgrade bundled libexpat to 2.7.3

Python 3.14.0 release candidate 3

Release date: 2025-09-18

Windows

gh-138896 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138896]: Fix error installing C runtime on non-updated Windows machines

Tools/Demos

gh-137873 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137873]: The iOS test runner has been simplified, resolving some issues that have been observed using the runner in GitHub Actions and Azure Pipelines test environments.

Security

gh-135661 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135661]: Fix CDATA section parsing in html.parser.HTMLParser according to the HTML5 standard: ] ]> and ]] > no longer end the CDATA section. Add private method _set_support_cdata() which can be used to specify how to parse <[CDATA[ --- as a CDATA section in foreign content (SVG or MathML) or as a bogus comment in the HTML namespace.

Library

gh-138998 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138998]: Update bundled libexpat to 2.7.2

gh-118803 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118803]: Add back collections.abc.ByteString and typing.ByteString. Both had been removed in prior alpha, beta and release candidates for Python 3.14, but their removal has now been postponed to Python 3.17.

gh-137226 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137226]: Fix typing.get_type_hints() calls on generic typing.TypedDict classes defined with string annotations.

gh-138804 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138804]: Raise TypeError instead of AttributeError when an argument of incorrect type is passed to shlex.quote(). This restores the behavior of the function prior to 3.14.

gh-128636 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128636]: Fix crash in PyREPL when os.environ is overwritten with an invalid value for mac

gh-138514 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138514]: Raise ValueError when a multi-character string is passed to the echo_char parameter of getpass.getpass(). Patch by Benjamin Johnson.

gh-138515 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138515]: email is added to Emscripten build.

gh-99948 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99948]: ctypes.util.find_library() now works in Emscripten build.

gh-138253 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138253]: Add the block parameter in the put() and get() methods of the concurrent.interpreters queues for compatibility with the queue.Queue interface.

gh-138133 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138133]: Prevent infinite traceback loop when sending CTRL^C to Python through strace.

gh-134869 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134869]: Fix an issue where pressing Ctrl+C during tab completion in the REPL would leave the autocompletion menu in a corrupted state.

gh-90548 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90548]: Fix musl detection for platform.libc_ver() on Alpine Linux if compiled with --strip-all.

gh-136134 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136134]: SMTP.auth_cram_md5() now raises an SMTPException instead of a ValueError if Python has been built without MD5 support. In particular, SMTP clients will not attempt to use this method even if the remote server is assumed to support it. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-136134 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136134]: IMAP4.login_cram_md5 now raises an IMAP4.error if CRAM-MD5 authentication is not supported. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-134953 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134953]: Expand _colorize theme with keyword_constant and implement in repl.

Core and Builtins

gh-71810 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71810]: Raise OverflowError for (-1).to_bytes() for signed conversions when bytes count is zero. Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

gh-138192 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138192]: Fix contextvars initialization so that all subinterpreters are assigned the MISSING value.

gh-138479 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138479]: Fix a crash when a generic object's __typing_subst__ returns an object that isn't a tuple.

gh-138372 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138372]: Fix SyntaxWarning emitted for erroneous subscript expressions involving template string literals. Patch by Brian Schubert.

gh-138318 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138318]: The default REPL now avoids highlighting built-in names (for instance set or format()) when they are used as attribute names (for instance in value.set or text.format).

gh-138349 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138349]: Fix crash in certain cases where a module contains both a module-level annotation and a comprehension.

gh-137384 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137384]: Fix a crash when using the warnings module in a finalizer at shutdown. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-137883 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137883]: Fix runaway recursion when calling a function with keyword arguments.

gh-137079 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137079]: Fix keyword typo recognition when parsing files. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

gh-137728 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137728]: Fix the JIT's handling of many local variables. This previously caused a segfault.

gh-137576 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137576]: Fix for incorrect source code being shown in tracebacks from the Basic REPL when PYTHONSTARTUP is given. Patch by Adam Hartz.

Python 3.14.0 release candidate 2

Release date: 2025-08-14

macOS

gh-137450 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137450]: macOS installer shell path management improvements: separate the installer Shell profile updater postinstall script from the Update Shell Profile.command to enable more robust error handling.

gh-137134 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137134]: Update macOS installer to ship with SQLite version 3.50.4.

Windows

gh-137134 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137134]: Update Windows installer to ship with SQLite 3.50.4.

Library

gh-137426 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137426]: Remove the code deprecation of importlib.abc.ResourceLoader. It is documented as deprecated, but left for backwards compatibility with other classes in importlib.abc.

gh-137282 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137282]: Fix tab completion and dir() on concurrent.futures.

gh-137257 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137257]: Bump the version of pip bundled in ensurepip to version 25.2

gh-137226 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137226]: Fix behavior of annotationlib.ForwardRef.evaluate() when the type_params parameter is passed and the name of a type param is also present in an enclosing scope.

gh-130522 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130522]: Fix unraisable TypeError raised during interpreter shutdown in the threading module.

gh-137059 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137059]: Fix handling of file URLs with a Windows drive letter in the URL authority by urllib.request.url2pathname(). This fixes a regression in earlier pre-releases of Python 3.14.

gh-130577 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130577]: tarfile now validates archives to ensure member offsets are non-negative. (Contributed by Alexander Enrique Urieles Nieto in gh-130577 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130577].)

gh-135228 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135228]: When dataclasses replaces a class with a slotted dataclass, the original class can now be garbage collected again. Earlier changes in Python 3.14 caused this class to always remain in existence together with the replacement class synthesized by dataclasses.

Documentation

gh-136155 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136155]: We are now checking for fatal errors in EPUB builds in CI.

Core and Builtins

gh-137400 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137400]: Fix a crash in the free threading build when disabling profiling or tracing across all threads with PyEval_SetProfileAllThreads() or PyEval_SetTraceAllThreads() or their Python equivalents threading.settrace_all_threads() and threading.setprofile_all_threads().

gh-137314 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137314]: Fixed a regression where raw f-strings incorrectly interpreted escape sequences in format specifications. Raw f-strings now properly preserve literal backslashes in format specs, matching the behavior from Python 3.11. For example, rf"{obj:\xFF}" now correctly produces '\\xFF' instead of 'ÿ'. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

gh-137308 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137308]: A standalone docstring in a node body is optimized as a pass statement to ensure that the node's body is never empty. There was a ValueError in compile() otherwise.

gh-137288 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137288]: Fix bug where some bytecode instructions of a boolean expression are not associated with the correct exception handler.

gh-134291 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134291]: Remove some newer macOS API usage from the JIT compiler in order to restore compatibility with older OSX 10.15 deployment targets.

gh-131338 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131338]: Disable computed stack limit checks on non-glibc linux platforms to fix crashes on deep recursion.

gh-136870 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136870]: Fix data races while de-instrumenting bytecode of code objects running concurrently in threads.

C API

gh-137573 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137573]: Mark _PyOptimizer_Optimize as Py_NO_INLINE to prevent stack overflow crashes on macOS.

Build

gh-132339 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132339]: Add support for OpenSSL 3.5.

Python 3.14.0 release candidate 1

Release date: 2025-07-22

Tools/Demos

gh-136251 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136251]: Fixes and usability improvements for Tools/wasm/emscripten/web_example

Security

gh-135661 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135661]: Fix parsing attributes with whitespaces around the = separator in html.parser.HTMLParser according to the HTML5 standard.

gh-118350 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118350]: Fix support of escapable raw text mode (elements "textarea" and "title") in html.parser.HTMLParser.

Library

gh-136170 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136170]: Removed the unreleased zipfile.ZipFile.data_offset property added in 3.14.0a7 as it wasn't fully clear which behavior it should have in some situations so the result was not always what a user might expect.

gh-124621 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124621]: pyrepl now works in Emscripten.

gh-136874 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136874]: Discard URL query and fragment in urllib.request.url2pathname().

gh-130645 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130645]: Enable color help by default in argparse.

gh-136549 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136549]: Fix signature of threading.excepthook().

gh-136523 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136523]: Fix wave.Wave_write emitting an unraisable when open raises.

gh-52876 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/52876]: Add missing keepends (default True) parameter to codecs.StreamReaderWriter.readline() and codecs.StreamReaderWriter.readlines().

gh-136470 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136470]: Correct concurrent.futures.InterpreterPoolExecutor's default thread name.

gh-136476 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136476]: Fix a bug that was causing the get_async_stack_trace function to miss some frames in the stack trace.

gh-136434 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136434]: Fix docs generation of UnboundItem in concurrent.interpreters when running with -OO.

gh-136380 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136380]: Raises AttributeError when accessing concurrent.futures.InterpreterPoolExecutor and subinterpreters are not available.

gh-134759 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134759]: Fix UnboundLocalError in email.message.Message.get_payload() when the payload to decode is a bytes object. Patch by Kliment Lamonov.

gh-134657 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134657]: asyncio: Remove some private names from asyncio.__all__.

Core and Builtins

gh-136801 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136801]: Fix PyREPL syntax highlighting on match cases after multi-line case. Contributed by Olga Matoula.

Library

gh-136421 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136421]: Fix crash when initializing datetime concurrently.

Core and Builtins

gh-136541 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136541]: Fix some issues with the perf trampolines on x86-64 and aarch64. The trampolines were not being generated correctly for some cases, which could lead to the perf integration not working correctly. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

gh-136517 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136517]: Fixed a typo that prevented printing of uncollectable objects when the gc.DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE mode was set.

gh-136525 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136525]: Fix issue where per-thread bytecode was not instrumented for newly created threads.

gh-132661 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132661]: Interpolation.expression now has a default, the empty string.

gh-132661 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132661]: Reflect recent PEP 750 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0750/] change.

Disallow concatenation of string.templatelib.Template and str. Also, disallow implicit concatenation of t-string literals with string or f-string literals.

Library

gh-116738 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116738]: Make functions in grp thread-safe on the free threaded build.

Core and Builtins

gh-135148 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135148]: Fixed a bug where f-string debug expressions (using =) would incorrectly strip out parts of strings containing escaped quotes and # characters. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

gh-133136 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133136]: Limit excess memory usage in the free threading build when a large dictionary or list is resized and accessed by multiple threads.

gh-91153 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91153]: Fix a crash when a bytearray is concurrently mutated during item assignment.

gh-127971 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127971]: Fix off-by-one read beyond the end of a string in string search.

C API

gh-112068 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112068]: Revert support of nullable arguments in PyArg_Parse().

gh-133296 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133296]: New variants for the critical section API that accept one or two PyMutex pointers rather than PyObject instances are now public in the non-limited C API.

gh-134009 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134009]: Expose PyMutex_IsLocked() as part of the public C API.

Build

gh-135621 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135621]: PyREPL no longer depends on the curses standard library. Contributed by Łukasz Langa.

Python 3.14.0 beta 4

Release date: 2025-07-08

Tools/Demos

gh-135968 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135968]: Stubs for strip are now provided as part of an iOS install.

gh-133600 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133600]: Backport file reorganization for Tools/wasm/wasi.

This should make backporting future code changes easier. It also simplifies instructions around how to do WASI builds in the devguide.

Tests

gh-135966 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135966]: The iOS testbed now handles the app_packages folder as a site directory.

gh-135494 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135494]: Fix regrtest to support excluding tests from --pgo tests. Patch by Victor Stinner.

Security

gh-136053 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136053]: marshal: fix a possible crash when deserializing slice objects.

gh-135661 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135661]: Fix parsing start and end tags in html.parser.HTMLParser according to the HTML5 standard.

Whitespaces no longer accepted between </ and the tag name. E.g. </ script> does not end the script section.

Vertical tabulation (\v) and non-ASCII whitespaces no longer recognized as whitespaces. The only whitespaces are \t\n\r\f and space.

Null character (U+0000) no longer ends the tag name.

Attributes and slashes after the tag name in end tags are now ignored, instead of terminating after the first > in quoted attribute value. E.g. </script/foo=">"/>.

Multiple slashes and whitespaces between the last attribute and closing > are now ignored in both start and end tags. E.g. <a foo=bar/ //>.

Multiple = between attribute name and value are no longer collapsed. E.g. <a foo==bar> produces attribute "foo" with value "=bar".

[Reverted in gh-136927 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136927]] Whitespaces between the = separator and attribute name or value are no longer ignored. E.g. <a foo =bar> produces two attributes "foo" and "=bar", both with value None; <a foo= bar> produces two attributes: "foo" with value "" and "bar" with value None.

gh-102555 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102555]: Fix comment parsing in html.parser.HTMLParser according to the HTML5 standard. --!> now ends the comment. -- > no longer ends the comment. Support abnormally ended empty comments <--> and <--->.

Library

gh-136286 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136286]: Fix pickling failures for protocols 0 and 1 for many objects realted to subinterpreters.

gh-136316 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136316]: Improve support for evaluating nested forward references in typing.evaluate_forward_ref().

gh-85702 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85702]: If zoneinfo._common.load_tzdata is given a package without a resource a zoneinfo.ZoneInfoNotFoundError is raised rather than a PermissionError. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-136028 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136028]: Fix parsing month names containing "İ" (U+0130, LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I WITH DOT ABOVE) in time.strptime(). This affects locales az_AZ, ber_DZ, ber_MA and crh_UA.

gh-135995 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135995]: In the palmos encoding, make byte 0x9b decode to › (U+203A - SINGLE RIGHT-POINTING ANGLE QUOTATION MARK).

gh-53203 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/53203]: Fix time.strptime() for %c and %x formats on locales byn_ER, wal_ET and lzh_TW, and for %X format on locales ar_SA, bg_BG and lzh_TW.

gh-91555 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91555]: An earlier change, which was introduced in 3.14.0b2, has been reverted. It disabled logging for a logger during handling of log messages for that logger. Since the reversion, the behaviour should be as it was before 3.14.0b2.

gh-135878 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135878]: Fixes a crash of types.SimpleNamespace on free threading builds, when several threads were calling its __repr__() method at the same time.

gh-135836 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135836]: Fix IndexError in asyncio.loop.create_connection() that could occur when non-OSError exception is raised during connection and socket's close() raises OSError.

gh-135836 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135836]: Fix IndexError in asyncio.loop.create_connection() that could occur when the Happy Eyeballs algorithm resulted in an empty exceptions list during connection attempts.

gh-135855 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135855]: Raise TypeError instead of SystemError when _interpreters.set___main___attrs() is passed a non-dict object. Patch by Brian Schubert.

gh-135815 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135815]: netrc: skip security checks if os.getuid() is missing. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-135640 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135640]: Address bug where it was possible to call xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.write() on an ElementTree object with an invalid root element. This behavior blanked the file passed to write if it already existed.

gh-135645 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135645]: Added supports_isolated_interpreters field to sys.implementation.

gh-135646 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135646]: Raise consistent NameError exceptions in annotationlib.ForwardRef.evaluate()

gh-135557 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135557]: Fix races on heapq updates and list reads on the free threaded build.

gh-119180 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119180]: Only fetch globals and locals if necessary in annotationlib.get_annotations()

gh-135561 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135561]: Fix a crash on DEBUG builds when an HACL* HMAC routine fails. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-135487 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135487]: Fix reprlib.Repr.repr_int() when given integers with more than sys.get_int_max_str_digits() digits. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-135335 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135335]: multiprocessing: Flush stdout and stderr after preloading modules in the forkserver.

gh-135069 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135069]: Fix the "Invalid error handling" exception in encodings.idna.IncrementalDecoder to correctly replace the 'errors' parameter.

gh-130662 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130662]: +Accept leading zeros in precision and width fields for +:class:Decimal formatting, for example format(Decimal(1.25), '.016f').

gh-130662 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130662]: Accept leading zeros in precision and width fields for Fraction formatting, for example format(Fraction(1, 3), '.016f').

gh-87790 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87790]: Support underscore and comma as thousands separators in the fractional part for Fraction's formatting. Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

gh-87790 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87790]: Support underscore and comma as thousands separators in the fractional part for Decimal's formatting. Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

gh-130664 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130664]: Handle corner-case for Fraction's formatting: treat zero-padding (preceding the width field by a zero ('0') character) as an equivalent to a fill character of '0' with an alignment type of '=', just as in case of float's.

Documentation

gh-136155 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136155]: EPUB builds are fixed by excluding non-XHTML-compatible tags.

Core and Builtins

gh-109700 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109700]: Fix memory error handling in PyDict_SetDefault().

gh-78465 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78465]: Fix error message for cls.__new__(cls, ...) where cls is not instantiable builtin or extension type (with tp_new set to NULL).

gh-129958 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129958]: Differentiate between t-strings and f-strings in syntax error for newlines in format specifiers of single-quoted interpolated strings.

gh-135871 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135871]: Non-blocking mutex lock attempts now return immediately when the lock is busy instead of briefly spinning in the free threading build.

gh-135106 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135106]: Restrict the trashcan mechanism to GC'ed objects and untrack them while in the trashcan to prevent the GC and trashcan mechanisms conflicting.

gh-135607 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135607]: Fix potential weakref races in an object's destructor on the free threaded build.

gh-135608 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135608]: Fix a crash in the JIT involving attributes of modules.

gh-135543 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135543]: Emit sys.remote_exec audit event when sys.remote_exec() is called and migrate remote_debugger_script to cpython.remote_debugger_script.

gh-134280 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134280]: Disable constant folding for ~ with a boolean argument. This moves the deprecation warning from compile time to runtime.

C API

gh-135906 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135906]: Fix compilation errors when compiling the internal headers with a C++ compiler.

Build

gh-134273 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134273]: Add support for configuring compiler flags for the JIT with CFLAGS_JIT

Python 3.14.0 beta 3

Release date: 2025-06-17

Windows

gh-135099 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135099]: Fix a crash that could occur on Windows when a background thread waits on a PyMutex while the main thread is shutting down the interpreter.

Tests

gh-132815 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132815]: Fix test__opcode: add JUMP_BACKWARD to specialization stats.

gh-135489 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135489]: Show verbose output for failing tests during PGO profiling step with --enable-optimizations.

gh-135120 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135120]: Add test.support.subTests().

Security

gh-135462 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135462]: Fix quadratic complexity in processing specially crafted input in html.parser.HTMLParser. End-of-file errors are now handled according to the HTML5 specs -- comments and declarations are automatically closed, tags are ignored.

gh-135034 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135034]: Fixes multiple issues that allowed tarfile extraction filters (filter="data" and filter="tar") to be bypassed using crafted symlinks and hard links.

Addresses CVE 2024-12718 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2024-12718], CVE 2025-4138 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2025-4138], CVE 2025-4330 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2025-4330], and CVE 2025-4517 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2025-4517].

Library

gh-65697 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65697]: configparser's error message when attempting to write an invalid key is now more helpful.

gh-135497 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135497]: Fix os.getlogin() failing for longer usernames on BSD-based platforms.

gh-135429 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135429]: Fix the argument mismatch in _lsprof for PY_THROW event.

gh-135368 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135368]: Fix unittest.mock.Mock generation on dataclasses.dataclass() objects. Now all special attributes are set as it was before gh-124429 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124429].

gh-133967 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133967]: Do not normalize locale name 'C.UTF-8' to 'en_US.UTF-8'.

gh-135321 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135321]: Raise a correct exception for values greater than 0x7fffffff for the BINSTRING opcode in the C implementation of pickle.

gh-135276 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135276]: Backported bugfixes in zipfile.Path from zipp 3.23. Fixed .name, .stem and other basename-based properties on Windows when working with a zipfile on disk.

gh-135244 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135244]: uuid: when the MAC address cannot be determined, the 48-bit node ID is now generated with a cryptographically-secure pseudo-random number generator (CSPRNG) as per RFC 9562, §6.10.3 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9562.html#section-6.10-3]. This affects uuid1() and uuid6().

gh-134970 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134970]: Fix the "unknown action" exception in argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument_group() to correctly replace the action class.

gh-134718 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134718]: ast.dump() now only omits None and [] values if they are default values.

gh-134939 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134939]: Add the concurrent.interpreters module. See PEP 734 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0734/].

gh-134885 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134885]: Fix possible crash in the compression.zstd module related to setting parameter types. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

gh-134857 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134857]: Improve error report for doctests run with unittest. Remove doctest module frames from tracebacks and redundant newline character from a failure message.

gh-128840 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128840]: Fix parsing long IPv6 addresses with embedded IPv4 address.

gh-134637 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134637]: Fix performance regression in calling a ctypes function pointer in free threading.

gh-134696 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134696]: Built-in HACL* and OpenSSL implementations of hash function constructors now correctly accept the same documented named arguments. For instance, md5() could be previously invoked as md5(data=data) or md5(string=string) depending on the underlying implementation but these calls were not compatible. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-134151 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134151]: email: Fix TypeError in email.utils.decode_params() when sorting RFC 2231 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html] continuations that contain an unnumbered section.

gh-134210 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134210]: curses.window.getch() now correctly handles signals. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-134152 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134152]: email: Fix parsing of email message ID with invalid domain.

gh-133489 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133489]: random.getrandbits() can now generate more that 2³¹ bits. random.randbytes() can now generate more that 256 MiB.

gh-132813 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132813]: Improve error messages for incorrect types and values of csv.Dialect attributes.

gh-132969 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132969]: Prevent the ProcessPoolExecutor executor thread, which remains running when shutdown(wait=False), from attempting to adjust the pool's worker processes after the object state has already been reset during shutdown. A combination of conditions, including a worker process having terminated abormally, resulted in an exception and a potential hang when the still-running executor thread attempted to replace dead workers within the pool.

gh-127081 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127081]: Fix libc thread safety issues with os by replacing getlogin with getlogin_r re-entrant version.

gh-131884 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131884]: Fix formatting issues in json.dump() when both indent and skipkeys are used.

gh-130999 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130999]: Avoid exiting the new REPL and offer suggestions even if there are non-string candidates when errors occur.

Documentation

gh-135171 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135171]: Document that the iterator for the leftmost for clause in the generator expression is created immediately.

bpo-45210 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45210]: Document that error indicator may be set in tp_dealloc, and how to avoid clobbering it.

Core and Builtins

gh-135496 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135496]: Fix typo in the f-string conversion type error ("exclamanation" -> "exclamation").

gh-135371 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135371]: Fixed asyncio debugging tools to properly display internal coroutine call stacks alongside external task dependencies. The python -m asyncio ps and python -m asyncio pstree commands now show complete execution context. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

Library

gh-127319 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127319]: Set the allow_reuse_port class variable to False on the XMLRPC, logging, and HTTP servers. This matches the behavior in prior Python releases, which is to not allow port reuse.

Core and Builtins

gh-135171 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135171]: Reverts the behavior of async generator expressions when created with object w/o __aiter__ method to the pre-3.13 behavior of raising a TypeError.

gh-130077 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130077]: Properly raise custom syntax errors when incorrect syntax containing names that are prefixes of soft keywords is encountered. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

gh-135171 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135171]: Reverts the behavior of generator expressions when created with a non-iterable to the pre-3.13 behavior of raising a TypeError. It is no longer possible to cause a crash in the debugger by altering the generator expression's local variables. This is achieved by moving the GET_ITER instruction back to the creation of the generator expression and adding an additional check to FOR_ITER.

Library

gh-116738 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116738]: Make methods in heapq thread-safe on the free threaded build.

Core and Builtins

gh-134876 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134876]: Add support to PEP 768 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0768/] remote debugging for Linux kernels which don't have CONFIG_CROSS_MEMORY_ATTACH configured.

gh-134889 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134889]: Fix handling of a few opcodes that leave operands on the stack when optimizing LOAD_FAST.

Library

gh-134908 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134908]: Fix crash when iterating over lines in a text file on the free threaded build.

Core and Builtins

gh-132617 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132617]: Fix dict.update() modification check that could incorrectly raise a "dict mutated during update" error when a different dictionary was modified that happens to share the same underlying keys object.

gh-134679 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134679]: Fix crash in the free threading build's QSBR code that could occur when changing an object's __dict__ attribute.

gh-127682 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127682]: No longer call __iter__ twice in list comprehensions. This brings the behavior of list comprehensions in line with other forms of iteration

gh-133912 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133912]: Fix the C API function PyObject_GenericSetDict to handle extension classes with inline values.

C API

gh-134989 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134989]: Fix Py_RETURN_NONE, Py_RETURN_TRUE and Py_RETURN_FALSE macros in the limited C API 3.11 and older: don't treat Py_None, Py_True and Py_False as immortal. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-134989 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134989]: Implement PyObject_DelAttr() and PyObject_DelAttrString() as macros in the limited C API 3.12 and older. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-133968 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133968]: Add PyUnicodeWriter_WriteASCII() function to write an ASCII string into a PyUnicodeWriter. The function is faster than PyUnicodeWriter_WriteUTF8(), but has an undefined behavior if the input string contains non-ASCII characters. Patch by Victor Stinner.

Build

gh-119132 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119132]: Remove "experimental" tag from the CPython free-threading build.

gh-135497 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135497]: Fix the detection of MAXLOGNAME in the configure.ac script.

gh-134923 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134923]: Windows builds with profile-guided optimization enabled now use /GENPROFILE and /USEPROFILE instead of deprecated /LTCG: options.

gh-134774 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134774]: Fix Py_DEBUG macro redefinition warnings on Windows debug builds. Patch by Chris Eibl.

gh-134632 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134632]: Fixed build-details.json generation to use INCLUDEPY, in order to reference the pythonX.Y subdirectory of the include directory, as required in PEP 739 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0739/], instead of the top-level include directory.

Python 3.14.0 beta 2

Release date: 2025-05-26

Windows

gh-130727 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130727]: Fix a race in internal calls into WMI that can result in an "invalid handle" exception under high load. Patch by Chris Eibl.

gh-76023 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/76023]: Make os.path.realpath() ignore Windows error 1005 when in non-strict mode.

gh-133779 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133779]: Reverts the change to generate different pyconfig.h files based on compiler settings, as it was frequently causing extension builds to break. In particular, the Py_GIL_DISABLED preprocessor variable must now always be defined explicitly when compiling for the experimental free-threaded runtime. The sysconfig.get_config_var() function can be used to determine whether the current runtime was compiled with that flag or not.

gh-133626 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133626]: Ensures packages are not accidentally bundled into the traditional installer.

Tools/Demos

gh-134215 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134215]: REPL import autocomplete only suggests private modules when explicitly specified.

Tests

gh-133744 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133744]: Fix multiprocessing interrupt test. Add an event to synchronize the parent process with the child process: wait until the child process starts sleeping. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-133682 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133682]: Fixed test case test.test_annotationlib.TestStringFormat.test_displays which ensures proper handling of complex data structures (lists, sets, dictionaries, and tuples) in string annotations.

gh-133639 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133639]: Fix TestPyReplAutoindent.test_auto_indent_default() doesn't run input_code.

Security

gh-133767 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133767]: Fix use-after-free in the "unicode-escape" decoder with a non-"strict" error handler.

gh-128840 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128840]: Short-circuit the processing of long IPv6 addresses early in ipaddress to prevent excessive memory consumption and a minor denial-of-service.

Library

gh-132710 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132710]: If possible, ensure that uuid.getnode() returns the same result even across different processes. Previously, the result was constant only within the same process. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-80334 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80334]: multiprocessing.freeze_support() now checks for work on any "spawn" start method platform rather than only on Windows.

gh-134582 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134582]: Fix tokenize.untokenize() round-trip errors related to t-strings braces escaping

gh-134546 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134546]: Ensure pdb remote debugging script is readable by remote Python process.

gh-134451 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134451]: Converted asyncio.tools.CycleFoundException from dataclass to a regular exception type.

gh-114177 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114177]: Fix asyncio to not close subprocess pipes which would otherwise error out when the event loop is already closed.

gh-90871 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90871]: Fixed an off by one error concerning the backlog parameter in create_unix_server(). Contributed by Christian Harries.

gh-134323 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134323]: Fix the threading.RLock.locked() method.

gh-86802 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86802]: Fixed asyncio memory leak in cancelled shield tasks. For shielded tasks where the shield was cancelled, log potential exceptions through the exception handler. Contributed by Christian Harries.

gh-134209 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134209]: curses: The curses.window.instr() and curses.window.getstr() methods now allocate their internal buffer on the heap instead of the stack; in addition, the max buffer size is increased from 1023 to 2047.

gh-134235 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134235]: Updated tab completion on REPL to include builtin modules. Contributed by Tom Wang, Hunter Young

gh-134152 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134152]: Fixed UnboundLocalError that could occur during email header parsing if an expected trailing delimiter is missing in some contexts.

gh-134168 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134168]: http.server: Fix IPv6 address binding and --directory handling when using HTTPS.

gh-62184 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/62184]: Remove import of C implementation of io.FileIO from Python implementation which has its own implementation

gh-133982 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133982]: Emit RuntimeWarning in the Python implementation of io when the file-like object is not closed explicitly in the presence of multiple I/O layers.

gh-133890 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133890]: The tarfile module now handles UnicodeEncodeError in the same way as OSError when cannot extract a member.

gh-134097 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134097]: Fix interaction of the new REPL and -X showrefcount command line option.

gh-133889 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133889]: The generated directory listing page in http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler now only shows the decoded path component of the requested URL, and not the query and fragment.

gh-134098 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134098]: Fix handling paths that end with a percent-encoded slash (%2f or %2F) in http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler.

gh-132124 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132124]: On POSIX-compliant systems, multiprocessing.util.get_temp_dir() now ignores TMPDIR (and similar environment variables) if the path length of AF_UNIX socket files exceeds the platform-specific maximum length when using the forkserver start method. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-134062 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134062]: ipaddress: fix collisions in __hash__() for IPv4Network and IPv6Network objects.

gh-133970 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133970]: Make string.templatelib.Template and string.templatelib.Interpolation generic.

gh-71253 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71253]: Raise ValueError in open() if opener returns a negative file-descriptor in the Python implementation of io to match the C implementation.

gh-133960 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133960]: Simplify and improve typing.evaluate_forward_ref(). It now no longer raises errors on certain invalid types. In several situations, it is now able to evaluate forward references that were previously unsupported.

gh-133925 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133925]: Make the private class typing._UnionGenericAlias hashable.

gh-133653 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133653]: Fix argparse.ArgumentParser with the formatter_class argument. Fix TypeError when formatter_class is a custom subclass of HelpFormatter. Fix TypeError when formatter_class is not a subclass of HelpFormatter and non-standard prefix_char is used. Fix support of colorizing when formatter_class is not a subclass of HelpFormatter.

gh-132641 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132641]: Fixed a race in functools.lru_cache() under free-threading.

gh-133783 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133783]: Fix bug with applying copy.replace() to ast objects. Attributes that default to None were incorrectly treated as required for manually created AST nodes.

gh-133684 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133684]: Fix bug where annotationlib.get_annotations() would return the wrong result for certain classes that are part of a class hierarchy where from __future__ import annotations is used.

gh-77057 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77057]: Fix handling of invalid markup declarations in html.parser.HTMLParser.

gh-130328 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130328]: Speedup pasting in PyREPL on Windows in a legacy console. Patch by Chris Eibl.

gh-133701 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133701]: Fix bug where typing.TypedDict classes defined under from __future__ import annotations and inheriting from another TypedDict had an incorrect __annotations__ attribute.

gh-133581 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133581]: Improve unparsing of t-strings in ast.unparse() and from __future__ import annotations. Empty t-strings now round-trip correctly and formatting in interpolations is preserved. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

gh-133551 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133551]: Support t-strings (PEP 750 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0750/]) in annotationlib. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

gh-133439 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133439]: Fix dot commands with trailing spaces are mistaken for multi-line SQL statements in the sqlite3 command-line interface.

gh-132493 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132493]: Avoid accessing __annotations__ unnecessarily in inspect.signature().

gh-132876 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132876]: ldexp() on Windows doesn't round subnormal results before Windows 11, but should. Python's math.ldexp() wrapper now does round them, so results may change slightly, in rare cases of very small results, on Windows versions before 11.

gh-133009 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133009]: xml.etree.ElementTree: Fix a crash in Element.__deepcopy__ when the element is concurrently mutated. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-91555 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91555]: Ignore log messages generated during handling of log messages, to avoid deadlock or infinite recursion. [NOTE: This change has since been reverted.]

gh-125028 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125028]: functools.Placeholder cannot be passed to functools.partial() as a keyword argument.

gh-62824 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/62824]: Fix aliases for iso8859_8 encoding. Patch by Dave Goncalves.

gh-86155 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86155]: html.parser.HTMLParser.close() no longer loses data when the <script> tag is not closed. Patch by Waylan Limberg.

gh-69426 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69426]: Fix html.parser.HTMLParser to not unescape character entities in attribute values if they are followed by an ASCII alphanumeric or an equals sign.

bpo-28494 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28494]: Improve Zip file validation false positive rate in zipfile.is_zipfile().

gh-134381 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134381]: Fix RuntimeError when using a not-started threading.Thread after calling os.fork()

Core and Builtins

gh-127960 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127960]: PyREPL interactive shell no longer starts with __package__ and __file__ global names set to _pyrepl package internals. Contributed by Yuichiro Tachibana.

gh-130397 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130397]: Remove special-casing for C stack depth limits for WASI. Due to WebAssembly's built-in stack protection this does not pose a security concern.

gh-128066 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128066]: Fixes an edge case where PyREPL improperly threw an error when Python is invoked on a read only filesystem while trying to write history file entries.

gh-69605 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69605]: When auto-completing an import in the REPL, finding no candidates now issues no suggestion, rather than suggestions from the current namespace.

gh-134158 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134158]: Fix coloring of double braces in f-strings and t-strings in the REPL.

gh-134119 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134119]: Fix crash when calling next() on an exhausted template string iterator. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

gh-134100 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134100]: Fix a use-after-free bug that occurs when an imported module isn't in sys.modules after its initial import. Patch by Nico-Posada.

gh-133999 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133999]: Fix SyntaxError regression in except parsing after gh-123440 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123440].

gh-133886 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133886]: Fix sys.remote_exec() for non-ASCII paths in non-UTF-8 locales and non-UTF-8 paths in UTF-8 locales.

gh-133703 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133703]: Fix hashtable in dict can be bigger than intended in some situations.

gh-133778 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133778]: Fix bug where assigning to the __annotations__ attributes of classes defined under from __future__ import annotations had no effect.

gh-132762 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132762]: fromkeys() no longer loops forever when adding a small set of keys to a large base dict. Patch by Angela Liss.

gh-133541 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133541]: Inconsistent indentation in user input crashed the new REPL when syntax highlighting was active. This is now fixed.

gh-133516 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133516]: Raise ValueError when constants True, False or None are used as an identifier after NFKC normalization.

gh-132542 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132542]: Update Thread.native_id after fork(2) [https://manpages.debian.org/fork(2)] to ensure accuracy. Patch by Noam Cohen.

C API

gh-134144 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134144]: Fix crash when calling Py_EndInterpreter() with a thread state that isn't the initial thread for the interpreter.

Build

gh-134455 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134455]: Fixed build-details.json generation to use the correct c_api.headers as defined in PEP 739 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0739/], instead of c_api.include.

gh-131769 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131769]: Fix detecting when the build Python in a cross-build is a pydebug build.

gh-117088 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117088]: AIX linker don't support -h option, so avoid it through platform check

Python 3.14.0 beta 1

Release date: 2025-05-06

Windows

gh-132930 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132930]: Marks the installer for Windows as deprecated and updates documentation to cover the new Python install manager.

gh-127405 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127405]: Add ABIFLAGS to sysconfig.get_config_vars() on Windows. Patch by Xuehai Pan.

Tools/Demos

gh-130453 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130453]: Allow passing multiple keyword arguments with the same function name in pygettext.

gh-130195 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130195]: Add warning messages when pygettext unimplemented -a/--extract-all option is called.

Tests

gh-133131 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133131]: The iOS testbed will now select the most recently released "SE-class" device for testing if a device isn't explicitly specified.

gh-91048 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91048]: Add ability to externally inspect all pending asyncio tasks, even if no task is currently entered on the event loop.

gh-109981 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109981]: The test helper that counts the list of open file descriptors now uses the optimised /dev/fd approach on all Apple platforms, not just macOS. This avoids crashes caused by guarded file descriptors.

gh-132678 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132678]: Add --prioritize to -m test. This option allows the user to specify which selected tests should execute first, even if the order is otherwise randomized. This is particularly useful for tests that run the longest.

gh-131290 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131290]: Tests in Lib/test can now be correctly executed as standalone scripts.

Security

gh-115322 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115322]: The underlying extension modules behind readline:, subprocess, and ctypes now raise audit events on previously uncovered code paths that could lead to file system access related to C function calling and external binary execution. The ctypes.call_function audit hook has also been fixed to use an unsigned value for its function pointer.

Library

gh-133490 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133490]: Add color support to PDB in remote mode.

gh-132493 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132493]: Avoid eagerly evaluating annotations in functions decorated with reprlib.recursive_repr().

gh-130645 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130645]: Add color to stdlib argparse CLIs. Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

gh-119180 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119180]: Make annotationlib.get_annotations() succeed with the FORWARDREF format if evaluating the annotations throws an exception other than NameError or AttributeError.

gh-133351 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133351]: Fix remote PDB to correctly request tab completions for Python expressions from the server when completing a continuation line of a multi-line Python block.

gh-133367 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133367]: Add the --feature-version, --optimize, and --show-empty options to the ast command-line interface. Patch by Semyon Moroz.

gh-133363 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133363]: The cmd.Cmd class has been fixed to reliably call the completedefault method whenever the do_shell method is not defined and tab completion is requested for a line beginning with !.

gh-113081 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113081]: Highlight syntax on source code in pdb.

gh-133349 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133349]: Introduced auto-indent in pdb multi-line input.

gh-133306 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133306]: Use \z instead of \Z in fnmatch.translate() and glob.translate().

gh-133306 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133306]: Support \z as a synonym for \Z in regular expressions.

gh-133300 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133300]: Make argparse.ArgumentParser's suggest_on_error a keyword-only parameter. Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

gh-133290 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133290]: Fix attribute caching issue when setting ctypes._Pointer._type_ in the undocumented and deprecated ctypes.SetPointerType() function and the undocumented set_type() method.

gh-133223 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133223]: When PDB is attached to a remote process, do a better job of intercepting Ctrl+C and forwarding it to the remote process.

gh-133153 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133153]: Do not complete pdb commands in interact mode of pdb.

gh-133139 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133139]: Add the curses.assume_default_colors() function, a refinement of the curses.use_default_colors() function which allows to change the color pair 0.

gh-133089 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133089]: Use original timeout value for subprocess.TimeoutExpired when the func subprocess.run() is called with a timeout instead of sometimes a confusing partial remaining time out value used internally on the final wait().

gh-133036 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133036]: codecs.open() is now deprecated. Use open() instead. Contributed by Inada Naoki.

gh-132987 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132987]: Many builtin and extension functions which accept an unsigned integer argument, now use __index__() if available.

gh-124703 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124703]: Set return code to 1 when aborting process from pdb.

gh-133005 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133005]: Support passing preset option to tarfile.open() when using 'w|xz' mode.

gh-115032 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115032]: Support for custom logging handlers with the strm argument is deprecated and scheduled for removal in Python 3.16. Define handlers with the stream argument instead. Patch by Mariusz Felisiak.

gh-132991 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132991]: Add socket.IP_FREEBIND constant on Linux 2.4 and later.

gh-132995 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132995]: Bump the version of pip bundled in ensurepip to version 25.1.1

gh-132933 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132933]: The zipapp module now applies the filter when creating the list of files to add, rather than waiting until the file is being added to the archive.

gh-121249 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121249]: Always support the float complex and double complex C types in the struct module. Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

gh-132915 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132915]: fcntl.fcntl() and fcntl.ioctl() can now detect a buffer overflow and raise SystemError. The stack and memory can be corrupted in such case, so treat this error as fatal.

gh-132017 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132017]: Fix error when pyrepl is suspended, then resumed and terminated.

gh-132893 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132893]: Improved statistics.NormalDist.cdf() accuracy for inputs smaller than the mean.

gh-130328 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130328]: Speedup pasting in PyREPL on Windows. Fix by Chris Eibl.

gh-132882 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132882]: Fix copying of typing.Union objects containing objects that do not support the | operator.

gh-93696 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93696]: Fixed the breakpoint display error for frozen modules in pdb.

gh-129965 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129965]: Add MIME types for .7z, .apk, .deb, .glb, .gltf, .gz, .m4v, .php, .rar, .rpm, .stl and .wmv. Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

gh-132742 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132742]: fcntl.fcntl() now supports arbitrary bytes-like objects, not only bytes. fcntl.ioctl() now automatically retries system calls failing with EINTR and releases the GIL during a system call even for large bytes-like object.

gh-132451 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132451]: The CLI for the PDB debugger now accepts a -p PID argument to allow attaching to a running process. The process must be running the same version of Python as the one running PDB.

gh-125618 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125618]: Add a format parameter to annotationlib.ForwardRef.evaluate(). Evaluating annotations in the FORWARDREF format now succeeds in more cases that would previously have raised an exception.

gh-132805 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132805]: Fix incorrect handling of nested non-constant values in the FORWARDREF format in annotationlib.

gh-132734 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132734]: Add new constants for Bluetooth sockets.

gh-132673 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132673]: Fix AssertionError raised on ctypes.Structure with _align_ = 0 and _fields_ = [].

gh-132578 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132578]: Rename the threading.Thread._handle field to avoid shadowing methods defined on subclasses of threading.Thread.

gh-132561 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132561]: Fix the public locked method of multiprocessing.SemLock class. Also adding 2 tests for the derivated multiprocessing.Lock and multiprocessing.RLock classes.

gh-121468 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121468]: Add pdb.set_trace_async() function to support await statements in pdb.

gh-132493 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132493]: typing.Protocol now uses annotationlib.get_annotations() when checking whether or not an instance implements the protocol with isinstance(). This enables support for isinstance checks against classes with deferred annotations.

gh-132536 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132536]: Do not disable PY_THROW event in bdb because it can't be disabled.

gh-132527 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132527]: Include the valid typecode 'w' in the error message when an invalid typecode is passed to array.array.

gh-132099 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132099]: The Bluetooth socket with the BTPROTO_HCI protocol on Linux now accepts an address in the format of an integer device_id, not only a tuple (device_id,).

gh-81793 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81793]: Fix os.link() on platforms (like Linux) where the system link() function does not follow symlinks. On Linux, it now follows symlinks by default or if follow_symlinks=True is specified. On Windows, it now raises an error if follow_symlinks=True is passed. On macOS, it now raises an error if follow_symlinks=False is passed and the system linkat() function is not available at runtime.

gh-132493 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132493]: Support creation of typing.Protocol classes with annotations that cannot be resolved at class creation time.

gh-132491 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132491]: Rename annotationlib.value_to_string to annotationlib.type_repr() and provide better handling for function objects.

gh-132426 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132426]: Add annotationlib.get_annotate_from_class_namespace() as a helper for accessing annotations in metaclasses, and remove annotationlib.get_annotate_function.

gh-70145 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70145]: Add support for channels in Bluetooth HCI protocol (BTPROTO_HCI).

gh-131913 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131913]: Add a shortcut function multiprocessing.Process.interrupt() alongside the existing multiprocessing.Process.terminate() and multiprocessing.Process.kill() for an improved control over child process termination.

gh-132439 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132439]: Fix PyREPL on Windows: characters entered via AltGr are swallowed. Patch by Chris Eibl.

gh-132429 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132429]: Fix support of Bluetooth sockets on NetBSD and DragonFly BSD. Add support for cid and bdaddr_type in the BTPROTO_L2CAP address on FreeBSD. Return cid in getsockname() for BTPROTO_L2CAP if it is not zero.

gh-132106 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132106]: QueueListener.start now raises a RuntimeError if the listener is already started.

gh-132417 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132417]: Fix a NULL pointer dereference when a C function called using ctypes with restype py_object returns NULL.

gh-132385 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132385]: Fix instance error suggestions trigger potential exceptions in object.__getattr__() in traceback.

gh-125866 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125866]: Add optional add_scheme argument to urllib.request.pathname2url(); when set to true, a complete URL is returned. Likewise add optional require_scheme argument to url2pathname(); when set to true, a complete URL is accepted.

gh-132308 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132308]: A traceback.TracebackException now correctly renders the __context__ and __cause__ attributes from falsey Exception, and the exceptions attribute from falsey ExceptionGroup.

gh-130645 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130645]: Add colour to argparse help output. Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

gh-127495 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127495]: In PyREPL, append a new entry to the PYTHON_HISTORY file after every statement. This should preserve command-line history after interpreter is terminated. Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

gh-129463 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129463]: Comparison of annotationlib.ForwardRef objects no longer uses the internal __code__ and __ast_node__ attributes, which are used as caches.

gh-132250 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132250]: Fixed the SystemError in cProfile when locating the actual C function of a method raises an exception.

gh-132064 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132064]: annotationlib.get_annotations() now uses the __annotate__ attribute if it is present, even if __annotations__ is not present. Additionally, the function now raises a TypeError if it is passed an object that does not have any annotatins.

gh-130664 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130664]: Support the '_' digit separator in formatting of the integral part of Decimal's. Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

gh-131952 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131952]: Add color output to the json CLI. Patch by Tomas Roun.

gh-132063 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132063]: Prevent exceptions that evaluate as falsey (namely, when their __bool__ method returns False or their __len__ method returns 0) from being ignored by concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor and concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor.

gh-132106 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132106]: logging.handlers.QueueListener now implements the context manager protocol, allowing it to be used in a with statement.

gh-132054 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132054]: The application/yaml mime type (RFC 9512 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9512.html]) is now supported by mimetypes. Patch by Sasha "Nelie" Chernykh and Hugo van Kemenade.

gh-119605 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119605]: Respect follow_wrapped for __init__() and __new__() methods when getting the class signature for a class with inspect.signature(). Preserve class signature after wrapping with warnings.deprecated(). Patch by Xuehai Pan.

gh-118761 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118761]: Improve import times by up to 33x for the shlex module, and improve the performance of shlex.quote() by up to 12x. Patch by Adam Turner.

gh-85302 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85302]: Add support for BTPROTO_SCO in sockets on FreeBSD.

gh-131757 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131757]: Make functools.lru_cache() call the cached function unlocked to allow concurrency.

gh-131423 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131423]: ssl can show descriptions for errors added in OpenSSL 3.4.1. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-131434 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131434]: Improve error reporting for incorrect format in time.strptime().

gh-131524 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131524]: Add help message to platform command-line interface. Contributed by Harry Lees.

gh-100926 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100926]: Move ctypes.POINTER() types cache from a global internal cache (_pointer_type_cache) to the ctypes._CData.__pointer_type__ attribute of the corresponding ctypes types. This will stop the cache from growing without limits in some situations.

gh-85702 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85702]: If zoneinfo._common.load_tzdata is given a package without a resource a ZoneInfoNotFoundError is raised rather than a IsADirectoryError.

gh-123471 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123471]: Make concurrent iterations over itertools.repeat safe under free-threading.

gh-131127 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131127]: Systems using LibreSSL now successfully build.

gh-89157 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89157]: Make the pure Python implementation of datetime.date.fromisoformat(), only accept ASCII strings for consistency with the C implementation.

gh-130941 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130941]: Fix configparser.ConfigParser parsing empty interpolation with allow_no_value set to True.

gh-110067 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110067]: Make heapq max-heap functions heapq.heapify_max(), heapq.heappush_max(), heapq.heappop_max(), and heapq.heapreplace_max() public. Previous underscored naming is kept for backwards compatibility. Additionally, the missing function heapq.heappushpop_max() has been added to both the C and Python implementations.

gh-129098 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129098]: Fix REPL traceback reporting when using compile() with an inexisting file. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-130631 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130631]: http.cookiejar.join_header_words() is now more similar to the original Perl version. It now quotes the same set of characters and always quote values that end with "\n".

gh-130482 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130482]: Add ability to specify name for tkinter.OptionMenu and tkinter.ttk.OptionMenu.

gh-77065 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77065]: Add keyword-only optional argument echo_char for getpass.getpass() for optional visual keyboard feedback support. Patch by Semyon Moroz.

gh-130317 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130317]: Fix PyFloat_Pack2() and PyFloat_Unpack2() for NaN's with payload. This corrects round-trip for struct.unpack() and struct.pack() in case of the IEEE 754 binary16 "half precision" type. Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

gh-130402 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130402]: Joining running daemon threads during interpreter shutdown now raises PythonFinalizationError.

gh-130167 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130167]: Improve speed of difflib.IS_LINE_JUNK(). Patch by Semyon Moroz.

gh-101410 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101410]: Added more detailed messages for domain errors in the math module.

gh-128384 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128384]: Make warnings.catch_warnings use a context variable for holding the warning filtering state if the sys.flags.context_aware_warnings flag is set to true. This makes using the context manager thread-safe in multi-threaded programs. The flag is true by default in free-threaded builds and is otherwise false. The value of the flag can be overridden by the the -X context_aware_warnings command-line option or by the PYTHON_CONTEXT_AWARE_WARNINGS environment variable.

gh-129719 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129719]: Fix missing socket.CAN_RAW_ERR_FILTER constant in the socket module on Linux systems. It was missing since Python 3.11.

gh-129027 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129027]: Raise DeprecationWarning for sys._clear_type_cache(). This function was deprecated in Python 3.13 but it didn't raise a runtime warning.

gh-128307 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128307]: Add eager_start keyword argument to asyncio.loop.create_task()

gh-127604 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127604]: Add support for printing the C stack trace on systems that support it via faulthandler.dump_c_stack() or via the c_stack argument in faulthandler.enable().

gh-127385 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127385]: Add the F_DUPFD_QUERY constant to the fcntl module.

gh-126838 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126838]: Add resolve_host keyword-only parameter to urllib.request.url2pathname(), and fix handling of file URLs with authorities.

gh-82129 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82129]: Fix NameError when calling typing.get_type_hints() on a dataclasses.dataclass() created by dataclasses.make_dataclass() with un-annotated fields.

gh-122559 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122559]: Remove __reduce__() and __reduce_ex__() methods that always raise TypeError in the C implementation of io.FileIO, io.BufferedReader, io.BufferedWriter and io.BufferedRandom and replace them with default __getstate__() methods that raise TypeError. This restores fine details of behavior of Python 3.11 and older versions.

gh-122179 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122179]: hashlib.file_digest() now raises BlockingIOError when no data is available during non-blocking I/O. Before, it added spurious null bytes to the digest.

gh-53032 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/53032]: Expose decimal.IEEEContext() to support creation of contexts corresponding to the IEEE 754 (2008) decimal interchange formats. Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

gh-120220 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120220]: Deprecate the tkinter.Variable methods trace_variable(), trace_vdelete() and trace_vinfo(). Methods trace_add(), trace_remove() and trace_info() can be used instead.

gh-113539 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113539]: webbrowser: Names in the BROWSER environment variable can now refer to already registered web browsers, instead of always generating a new browser command.

This makes it possible to set BROWSER to the value of one of the supported browsers on macOS.

bpo-44172 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44172]: Keep a reference to original curses windows in subwindows so that the original window does not get deleted before subwindows.

gh-75223 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75223]: Deprecate undotted extensions in mimetypes.MimeTypes.add_type(). Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

IDLE

gh-112936 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112936]: fix IDLE: no Shell menu item in single-process mode.

Documentation

gh-107006 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107006]: Move documentation and example code for threading.local from its docstring to the official docs.

gh-125142 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125142]: As part of the builtin help intro text, show the keyboard shortcuts for the new, non-basic REPL (F1, F2, and F3).

Core and Builtins

gh-133336 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133336]: -J is no longer reserved for use by Jython. Patch by Adam Turner.

gh-133261 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133261]: Fix bug where the cycle GC could untrack objects in the trashcan because they looked like they were immortal. When objects are added to the trashcan, we take care to ensure they keep a mortal reference count.

gh-133346 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133346]: Added experimental color theming support to the _colorize module.

gh-132917 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132917]: For the free-threaded build, check the process memory usage increase before triggering a full automatic garbage collection. If the memory used has not increased 10% since the last collection then defer it.

gh-91048 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91048]: Add a new python -m asyncio ps PID command-line interface to inspect asyncio tasks in a running Python process. Displays a flat table of await relationships. A variant showing a tree view is also available as python -m asyncio pstree PID. Both are useful for debugging async code. Patch by Pablo Galindo, Łukasz Langa, Yury Selivanov, and Marta Gomez Macias.

gh-133304 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133304]: Workaround NaN's "canonicalization" in PyFloat_Pack4() and PyFloat_Unpack4() on RISC-V.

gh-133197 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133197]: Improve SyntaxError error messages for incompatible string / bytes prefixes.

gh-133231 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133231]: Add new utilities of observing JIT compilation: sys._jit.is_available(), sys._jit.is_enabled(), and sys._jit.is_active().

Library

gh-133194 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133194]: ast.parse() will no longer parse new PEP 758 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0758/] syntax with older feature_version passed.

Core and Builtins

gh-131798 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131798]: Split CALL_LEN into several uops allowing the JIT to remove them when optimizing. Patch by Diego Russo.

gh-131798 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131798]: Use sym_new_type instead of sym_new_not_null for _BUILD_STRING, _BUILD_SET

gh-132942 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132942]: Fix two races in the type lookup cache. This affected the free-threaded build and could cause crashes (apparently quite difficult to trigger).

gh-131798 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131798]: Propagate the return type of _BINARY_OP_SUBSCR_TUPLE_INT in JIT. Patch by Tomas Roun

gh-132952 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132952]: Speed up startup with the -S argument by importing the private _io module instead of io. This fixes a performance regression introduced earlier in Python 3.14 development and restores performance to the level of Python 3.13.

gh-131798 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131798]: Allow the JIT to remove int guards after _CALL_LEN by setting the return type to int. Patch by Diego Russo

gh-131798 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131798]: Split CALL_TUPLE_1 into several uops allowing the JIT to remove some of them. Patch by Tomas Roun

gh-131798 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131798]: Split CALL_STR_1 into several uops allowing the JIT to remove some of them. Patch by Tomas Roun

gh-132825 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132825]: Enhance unhashable key/element error messages for dict and set. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-131591 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131591]: Reset any PEP 768 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0768/] remote debugging pending call in children after os.fork() calls.

gh-132713 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132713]: Fix repr(list) race condition: hold a strong reference to the item while calling repr(item). Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-132661 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132661]: Implement PEP 750 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0750/] (Template Strings). Add new syntax for t-strings and implement new internal string.templatelib.Template and string.templatelib.Interpolation types.

gh-132479 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132479]: Fix compiler crash in certain circumstances where multiple module-level annotations include comprehensions and other nested scopes.

gh-132747 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132747]: Fix a crash when calling __get__() of a method with a None second argument.

gh-132744 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132744]: Certain calls now check for runaway recursion and respect the system recursion limit.

gh-132449 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132449]: Syntax errors that look like misspellings of Python keywords now provide a helpful fix suggestion for the typo. Contributed by Pablo Galindo Salgado.

Library

gh-132737 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132737]: Support profiling code that requires __main__, such as pickle.

Core and Builtins

gh-132639 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132639]: Added PyLong_AsNativeBytes(), PyLong_FromNativeBytes() and PyLong_FromUnsignedNativeBytes() to the limited C API.

gh-100239 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100239]: Add specialisation for BINARY_OP/SUBSCR on list and slice.

gh-132508 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132508]: Uses tagged integers on the evaluation stack to represent the instruction offsets when reraising an exception. This avoids the need to box the integer which could fail in low memory conditions.

gh-124476 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124476]: Fix decoding from the locale encoding in the C.UTF-8 locale.

gh-131927 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131927]: Compiler warnings originating from the same module and line number are now only emitted once, matching the behaviour of warnings emitted from user code. This can also be configured with warnings filters.

gh-132457 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132457]: Make staticmethod() and classmethod() generic.

gh-131798 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131798]: Use sym_new_type instead of sym_new_not_null for _BUILD_LIST, _BUILD_SET, _BUILD_MAP

gh-131798 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131798]: Split CALL_TYPE_1 into several uops allowing the JIT to remove some of them.

gh-132386 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132386]: Fix crash when passing a dict subclass as the globals parameter to exec().

gh-127682 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127682]: No longer call __iter__ twice when creating and executing a generator expression. Creating a generator expression from a non-interable will raise only when the generator expression is executed. This brings the behavior of generator expressions in line with other generators.

gh-132261 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132261]: The internal storage for annotations and annotate functions on classes now uses different keys in the class dictionary. This eliminates various edge cases where access to the __annotate__ and __annotations__ attributes would behave unpredictably.

gh-132284 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132284]: Don't wrap base PyCFunction slots on class creation if not overridden.

gh-130415 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130415]: Improve the JIT's ability to remove unused constant and local variable loads, and fix an issue where deallocating unused values could cause JIT code to crash or behave incorrectly.

gh-126703 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126703]: Fix possible use after free in cases where a method's definition has the same lifetime as its self.

gh-132286 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132286]: Fix that type.__annotate__ was not deleted, when type.__annotations__ was deleted.

gh-131798 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131798]: Allow the JIT to remove an extra _TO_BOOL_BOOL instruction after _CONTAINS_OP_DICT by setting the return type to bool.

gh-124715 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124715]: Prevents against stack overflows when calling Py_DECREF(). Third-party extension objects no longer need to use the "trashcan" mechanism, as protection is now built into the Py_DECREF() macro.

gh-131798 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131798]: Allow the JIT compiler to remove some type checks for operations on lists, tuples, dictionaries, and sets.

gh-128398 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128398]: Improve error message when an object supporting the synchronous (resp. asynchronous) context manager protocol is entered using async with (resp. with) instead of with (resp. async with). Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-131798 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131798]: Allow the JIT to remove unicode guards after _BINARY_OP_SUBSCR_STR_INT by setting the return type to string.

gh-131878 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131878]: Handle uncaught exceptions in the main input loop for the new REPL.

gh-131878 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131878]: Fix support of unicode characters with two or more codepoints on Windows in the new REPL.

gh-126835 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126835]: Move constant folding to the peephole optimizer. Rename AST optimization related files (Python/ast_opt.c -> Python/ast_preprocess.c), structs (_PyASTOptimizeState -> _PyASTPreprocessState) and functions (_PyAST_Optimize -> _PyAST_Preprocess, _PyCompile_AstOptimize -> _PyCompile_AstPreprocess).

gh-114809 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114809]: Add support for macOS multi-arch builds with the JIT enabled

gh-131507 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131507]: PyREPL now supports syntax highlighting. Contributed by Łukasz Langa.

gh-130907 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130907]: If the __annotations__ of a module object are accessed while the module is executing, return the annotations that have been defined so far, without caching them.

gh-130104 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130104]: Three-argument pow() now try calling __rpow__() if necessary. Previously it was only called in two-argument pow() and the binary power operator.

gh-130070 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130070]: Fixed an assertion error for exec() passed a string source and a non-None closure. Patch by Bartosz Sławecki.

gh-129958 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129958]: Fix a bug that was allowing newlines inconsistently in format specifiers for single-quoted f-strings. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

gh-129858 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129858]: elif statements that follow an else block now have a specific error message.

gh-69605 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69605]: Add module autocomplete to PyREPL.

gh-128555 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128555]: Add the sys.flags.thread_inherit_context flag.

This flag is set to true by default on the free-threaded build and false otherwise. If the flag is true, starting a new thread using threading.Thread will, by default, use a copy of the contextvars.Context from the caller of threading.Thread.start() rather than using an empty context.

Add the -X thread_inherit_context command-line option and PYTHON_THREAD_INHERIT_CONTEXT environment variable, which set the thread_inherit_context flag.

Add the context keyword parameter to Thread. It can be used to explicitly pass a context value to be used by a new thread.

Make the _contextvars module built-in.

gh-123539 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123539]: Improve SyntaxError message for using import ... as and from ... import ... as with not a name.

gh-102567 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102567]: -X importtime now accepts value 2, which indicates that an importtime entry should also be printed if an imported module has already been loaded. Patch by Noah Kim and Adam Turner.

gh-116436 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116436]: Improve error message when TypeError occurs during dict.update()

gh-103997 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103997]: String arguments passed to "-c" are now automatically dedented as if by textwrap.dedent(). This allows "python -c" invocations to be indented in shell scripts without causing indentation errors. (Patch by Jon Crall and Steven Sun)

Library

gh-89562 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89562]: Remove hostflags member from PySSLContext struct.

C API

gh-133166 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133166]: Fix regression where PyType_GetModuleByDef() returns NULL without setting TypeError when a static type is passed.

gh-133164 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133164]: Add PyUnstable_Object_IsUniqueReferencedTemporary() function for determining if an object exists as a unique temporary variable on the interpreter's stack. This is a replacement for some cases where checking that Py_REFCNT() is one is no longer sufficient to determine if it's safe to modify a Python object in-place with no visible side effects.

gh-133140 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133140]: Add PyUnstable_Object_IsUniquelyReferenced() as a replacement for Py_REFNCT(op) == 1 on free threaded builds of Python.

gh-131747 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131747]: On non-Windows platforms, deprecate using ctypes.Structure._pack_ to use a Windows-compatible layout on non-Windows platforms. The layout should be specified explicitly by setting ctypes.Structure._layout_ to 'ms'.

gh-128972 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128972]: For non-free-threaded builds, the memory layout of PyASCIIObject is reverted to match Python 3.13. (Note that the structure is not part of stable ABI and so its memory layout is guaranteed to remain stable.)

gh-133079 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133079]: The undocumented APIs Py_C_RECURSION_LIMIT and PyThreadState.c_recursion_remaining, added in 3.13, are removed without a deprecation period.

gh-132987 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132987]: The k and K formats in PyArg_Parse() now support the __index__() special method, like all other integer formats.

gh-132909 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132909]: Fix an overflow when handling the K format in Py_BuildValue(). Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-132798 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132798]: Deprecated and undocumented functions PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject(), PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject(), PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode() and PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode() are scheduled for removal in 3.15.

gh-132470 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132470]: Creating a ctypes.CField with a byte_size that does not match the actual type size now raises a ValueError instead of crashing the interpreter.

gh-112068 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112068]: [Reverted in gh-136991 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136991]] Add support of nullable arguments in PyArg_Parse() and similar functions. Adding ? after any format unit makes None be accepted as a value.

gh-50333 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50333]: Non-tuple sequences are deprecated as argument for the (items) format unit in PyArg_ParseTuple() and other argument parsing functions if items contains format units which store a borrowed buffer or a borrowed reference.

Build

gh-113464 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113464]: Use the cpython-bin-deps "externals" repository for Windows LLVM dependency management. Installing LLVM manually is no longer necessary for Windows JIT builds.

gh-133183 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133183]: iOS compiler shims now include IPHONEOS_DEPLOYMENT_TARGET in target triples, ensuring that SDK version minimums are honored.

gh-133167 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133167]: Fix compilation process with --enable-optimizations and --without-docstrings.

gh-133171 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133171]: Since free-threaded builds do not support the experimental JIT compiler, prevent these configurations from being combined.

gh-132758 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132758]: Fix building with tail call interpreter and pystats.

gh-132649 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132649]: The PClayout script now allows passing --include-tcltk on Windows ARM64.

gh-132257 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132257]: Change the default LTO flags on GCC to not pass -flto-partition=none, and allow parallelization of LTO. For newer GNU makes and GCC, this has a multiple factor speedup for LTO build times, with no noticeable loss in performance.

gh-132026 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132026]: Fix use of undefined identifiers in platform triplet detection on MIPS Linux platforms.

Python 3.14.0 alpha 7

Release date: 2025-04-08

macOS

gh-124111 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124111]: Update macOS installer to use Tcl/Tk 8.6.16.

gh-131423 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131423]: Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 3.0.16. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-131025 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131025]: Update macOS installer to ship with SQLite 3.49.1.

Windows

gh-131423 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131423]: Update bundled version of OpenSSL to 3.0.16. The new build also disables uplink support, which may be relevant to embedders but has no impact on normal use.

gh-131453 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131453]: Some SND_* and MB_* constants are added to winsound.

gh-91349 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91349]: Replaces our copy of zlib with zlib-ng, for performance improvements in zlib.

gh-131025 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131025]: Update Windows installer to ship with SQLite 3.49.1.

Tools/Demos

gh-132121 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132121]: Always escape non-printable Unicode characters in pygettext.

gh-131852 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131852]: msgfmt no longer adds the POT-Creation-Date to generated .mo files for consistency with GNU msgfmt.

Tests

gh-131277 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131277]: Allow to unset one or more environment variables at once via EnvironmentVarGuard.unset(). Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-131050 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131050]: test_ssl.test_dh_params is skipped if the underlying TLS library does not support finite-field ephemeral Diffie-Hellman.

Security

gh-131809 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131809]: Update bundled libexpat to 2.7.1

gh-131261 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131261]: Upgrade to libexpat 2.7.0

gh-121284 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121284]: Fix bug in the folding of rfc2047 encoded-words when flattening an email message using a modern email policy. Previously when an encoded-word was too long for a line, it would be decoded, split across lines, and re-encoded. But commas and other special characters in the original text could be left unencoded and unquoted. This could theoretically be used to spoof header lines using a carefully constructed encoded-word if the resulting rendered email was transmitted or re-parsed.

Library

gh-132174 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132174]: Fix function name in error message of _interpreters.run_string.

gh-132171 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132171]: Fix crash of _interpreters.run_string on string subclasses.

gh-129204 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129204]: Introduce new _PYTHON_SUBPROCESS_USE_POSIX_SPAWN environment variable knob in subprocess to control the use of os.posix_spawn().

gh-132159 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132159]: Do not shadow user arguments in generated __new__() by decorator warnings.deprecated. Patch by Xuehai Pan.

gh-132168 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132168]: The ctypes.py_object type now supports subscription, making it a generic type.

gh-84481 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84481]: Add the zipfile.ZipFile.data_offset attribute, which stores the offset to the beginning of ZIP data in a file when available. When the zipfile.ZipFile is opened in either mode 'w' or 'x' and the underlying file does not support tell(), the value will be None instead.

gh-132075 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132075]: Fix possible use of socket address structures with uninitialized members. Now all structure members are initialized with zeroes by default.

gh-118761 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118761]: Improve import times by up to 27x for the string module. Patch by Adam Turner.

gh-125434 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125434]: Display thread name in faulthandler. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-132002 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132002]: Fix crash when deallocating contextvars.ContextVar with weird unahashable string names.

gh-131938 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131938]: xml.etree.ElementTree: update the error message when an element to remove via Element.remove is not found. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-115942 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115942]: Add threading.RLock.locked(), multiprocessing.Lock.locked(), multiprocessing.RLock.locked(), and allow multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.Lock() and multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.RLock() to proxy locked() call.

gh-131974 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131974]: Fix several thread-safety issues in ctypes on the free threaded build.

gh-118761 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118761]: Improve the import time of the ast module by extracting the unparse() function to a helper module.

gh-107369 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107369]: Improved performance of textwrap.indent() by an average of ~1.3x. Patch by Adam Turner.

gh-131792 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131792]: Improved performance of textwrap.dedent() by an average of ~2.4x, (with improvements of up to 4x for large inputs), and fixed a bug where blank lines with whitespace characters other than space or horizontal tab were not normalised to the newline. Patch by Adam Turner, Marius Juston, and Pieter Eendebak.

gh-131668 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131668]: socket: Fix code parsing AF_BLUETOOTH socket addresses.

gh-60115 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/60115]: Support frozen modules for linecache.getline().

gh-131492 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131492]: Fix a resource leak when constructing a gzip.GzipFile with a filename fails, for example when passing an invalid compresslevel.

gh-131435 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131435]: 10-20% performance improvement of random.randint().

gh-131461 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131461]: Fix ResourceWarning when constructing a gzip.GzipFile in write mode with a broken file object.

gh-125866 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125866]: Deprecate the nturl2path module. Call urllib.request.url2pathname() and pathname2url() instead.

gh-126367 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126367]: Fix issue where urllib.request.url2pathname() raised OSError when given a Windows URI containing a colon character not following a drive letter, such as before an NTFS alternate data stream.

gh-120144 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120144]: Disable CALL event in bdb in monitoring backend when we don't need any new events on the code object to get a better performance.

gh-131358 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131358]: Register cseuckr as an encoding alias for euc_kr.

gh-131325 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131325]: Fix sendfile fallback implementation to drain data after writing to transport in asyncio.

gh-90548 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90548]: platform.libc_ver() can now detect and report the version of musl on Alpine Linux.

gh-129843 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129843]: Fix incorrect argument passing in warnings.warn_explicit().

gh-70647 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70647]: When creating a datetime object with an out of range date a more informative error is raised.

gh-130914 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130914]: Allow graphlib.TopologicalSorter.prepare() to be called more than once as long as sorting has not started. Patch by Daniel Pope.

gh-131236 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131236]: Allow to generate multiple UUIDs at once via python -m uuid --count.

gh-126895 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126895]: Fix readline in free-threaded build.

gh-121468 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121468]: $_asynctask is added as a pdb convenience variable to access the current asyncio task if applicable.

gh-118761 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118761]: Improve import time of locale using lazy import re. Patch by Semyon Moroz.

gh-129598 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129598]: Fix ast.unparse() when ast.Interactive contains multiple statements.

gh-85162 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85162]: The http.server module now includes built-in support for HTTPS servers exposed by http.server.HTTPSServer. This functionality is exposed by the command-line interface (python -m http.server) through the --tls-cert, --tls-key and --tls-password-file options. Patch by Semyon Moroz.

gh-129463 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129463]: The implementations of equality and hashing for annotationlib.ForwardRef now use all attributes on the object. Two ForwardRef objects are equal only if all attributes are equal.

gh-128593 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128593]: annotationlib.ForwardRef objects no longer cache their value when they are successfully evaluated. Successive calls to annotationlib.ForwardRef.evaluate() may return different values.

gh-117779 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117779]: Fix reading duplicated entries in zipfile by name. Reading duplicated entries (except the last one) by ZipInfo now emits a warning instead of raising an exception.

gh-128715 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128715]: The class of Structure/Union field descriptors is now available as CField, and has new attributes to aid debugging and introspection.

gh-128055 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128055]: Fix test.test_sysconfig.test_sysconfigdata_json when running outside the build directory (eg. after installing).

gh-126037 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126037]: xml.etree.ElementTree: Fix a crash in Element.find, Element.findtext and Element.findall when the tag to find implements an __eq__() method mutating the element being queried. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-127794 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127794]: When headers are added to email.message.Message objects, either through email.message.Message.__setitem__() or email.message.Message.add_header(), the field name is now validated according to RFC 5322, Section 2.2 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html#section-2.2] and a ValueError is raised if the field name contains any invalid characters.

gh-123599 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123599]: Deprecate pathlib.PurePath.as_uri(); use pathlib.Path.as_uri() instead.

gh-126033 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126033]: xml.etree.ElementTree: Fix a crash in Element.remove when the element is concurrently mutated. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-120144 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120144]: Add the optional backend of sys.monitoring to bdb and use it for pdb.

gh-74598 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74598]: Add fnmatch.filterfalse() for excluding names matching a pattern. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-114917 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114917]: Add support for AI_NUMERICSERV in getaddrinfo emulation

bpo-17254 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17254]: Added aliases for Thai Language using Microsoft Code Pages.

Documentation

gh-131417 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131417]: Mention asyncio.Future and asyncio.Task in generic classes list.

Core and Builtins

gh-131798 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131798]: Allow the JIT to remove an extra _TO_BOOL_BOOL instruction after _CONTAINS_OP_SET by setting the return type to bool.

gh-132011 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132011]: Fix crash when calling list.append() as an unbound method.

gh-131998 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131998]: Fix a crash when using an unbound method descriptor object in a function where a bound method descriptor was used.

gh-131591 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131591]: Implement PEP 768 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0768/] (Safe external debugger interface for CPython). Add a new sys.remote_exec() function to the sys module. This function schedules the execution of a Python file in a separate process. Patch by Pablo Galindo, Matt Wozniski and Ivona Stojanovic.

gh-131798 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131798]: Allow JIT to omit str guard in truthiness test when str type is known.

gh-131833 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131833]: Add support for optionally dropping grouping parentheses when using multiple exception types as per PEP 758 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0758/]. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-130924 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130924]: Usage of a name in a function-scope annotation no longer triggers creation of a cell for that variable. This fixes a regression in earlier alphas of Python 3.14.

gh-131800 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131800]: Improve the experimental JIT's ability to remove type checks for certain subscripting operations.

gh-131738 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131738]: Compiler emits optimized code for builtin any/all/tuple calls over a generator expression.

gh-131719 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131719]: Fix missing NULL check in _PyMem_FreeDelayed in free-threaded build.

gh-131670 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131670]: Fix anext() failing on sync __anext__() raising an exception.

gh-131666 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131666]: Fix signature of anext_awaitable.close objects. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-130415 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130415]: Optimize comparison of two constants in JIT builds

gh-129149 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129149]: Add fast path for small and medium-size integers in PyLong_FromInt32(), PyLong_FromUInt32(), PyLong_FromInt64() and PyLong_FromUInt64(). Patch by Chris Eibl.

gh-130887 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130887]: Optimize the AArch64 code generation for the JIT. Patch by Diego Russo

gh-130956 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130956]: Optimize the AArch64 code generation for the JIT. Patch by Diego Russo

gh-130928 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130928]: Fix error message when formatting bytes using the 'i' flag. Patch by Maxim Ageev.

gh-130935 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130935]: Annotations at the class and module level that are conditionally defined are now only reflected in __annotations__ if the block they are in is executed. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

gh-130775 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130775]: Do not crash on negative column and end_column in ast locations.

gh-130704 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130704]: Optimize LOAD_FAST and its superinstruction form to reduce reference counting overhead. These instructions are replaced with faster variants that load borrowed references onto the operand stack when we can prove that the reference in the frame outlives the reference loaded onto the stack.

gh-88887 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88887]: Fixing multiprocessing Resource Tracker process leaking, usually observed when running Python as PID 1.

gh-130115 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130115]: Fix an issue with thread identifiers being sign-extended on some platforms.

Library

gh-99108 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108]: Add support for built-in implementation of HMAC (RFC 2104 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2104.html]) based on HACL*. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

Core and Builtins

gh-130080 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130080]: Implement PEP 765: Disallow return/break/continue that exit a finally block.

gh-129900 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129900]: Fix return codes inside SystemExit not getting returned by the REPL.

gh-128632 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128632]: Disallow __classdict__ as the name of a type parameter. Using this name would previously crash the interpreter in some circumstances.

gh-126703 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126703]: Improve performance of builtin methods by using a freelist.

gh-126703 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126703]: Improve performance of range by using a freelist.

C API

gh-131740 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131740]: Update PyUnstable_GC_VisitObjects to traverse perm gen.

gh-131525 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131525]: The PyTupleObject now caches the computed hash value in the new field ob_hash.

Build

gh-131865 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131865]: The DTrace build now properly passes the CC and CFLAGS variables to the dtrace command when utilizing SystemTap on Linux.

gh-131675 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131675]: Fix mimalloc library builds for 32-bit ARM targets.

gh-131691 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131691]: clang-cl on Windows needs option /EHa to support SEH (structured exception handling) correctly. Fix by Chris Eibl.

gh-131278 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131278]: Add optimizing flag WITH_COMPUTED_GOTOS to Windows builds for when using a compiler that supports it (currently clang-cl). Patch by Chris Eibl.

gh-130213 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130213]: Update the vendored HACL* library to fix build issues with older clang compilers.

gh-130673 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130673]: Fix potential KeyError when handling object sections during JIT building process.

Python 3.14.0 alpha 6

Release date: 2025-03-14

macOS

gh-128540 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128540]: Ensure web browser is launched by webbrowser.open() on macOS, even for file:// URLs.

Windows

gh-131020 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131020]: pylauncher [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/PC/launcher2.c] correctly detects a BOM when searching for the shebang. Fix by Chris Eibl.

Tools/Demos

gh-130453 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130453]: Make it possible to override default keywords in pygettext.

gh-85012 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85012]: Correctly reset msgctxt when compiling messages in msgfmt.

gh-130453 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130453]: Extend support for specifying custom keywords in pygettext.

gh-130195 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130195]: Add warning messages when pygettext unimplemented -a/--extract-all option is called.

gh-130057 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130057]: Add support for translator comments in pygettext.py.

gh-130025 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130025]: The iOS testbed now correctly handles symlinks used as Python framework references.

gh-129911 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129911]: Fix the keyword entry in the help output of pygettext.

Tests

gh-129200 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129200]: Multiple iOS testbed runners can now be started at the same time without introducing an ambiguity over simulator ownership.

gh-130292 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130292]: The iOS testbed will now run successfully on a machine that has not previously run Xcode tests (such as CI configurations).

gh-130293 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130293]: The tests of terminal colorization are no longer sensitive to the value of the TERM variable in the testing environment.

gh-129401 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129401]: Fix a flaky test in test_repr_rlock that checks the representation of multiprocessing.RLock.

gh-126332 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126332]: Add unit tests for pyrepl.

Security

gh-127371 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127371]: Avoid unbounded buffering for tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile.writelines(). Previously, disk spillover was only checked after the lines iterator had been exhausted. This is now done after each line is written.

Library

gh-131204 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131204]: Use monospace font from System Font Stack for cross-platform support in difflib.HtmlDiff.

gh-131196 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131196]: Improve performance of uuid.UUID.hex and uuid.UUID.__str__.

gh-130940 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130940]: The behavior of PyConfig.use_system_logger was modified to be enabled by default on iOS. It remains disabled by default on macOS.

gh-131123 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131123]: Supported completions for attributes of convenience variables in pdb.

gh-93096 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93096]: Removed undocumented CLI python -m difflib. Use python -m doctest Lib/difflib.py -v instead. Patch by Semyon Moroz.

gh-93096 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93096]: Removed undocumented -t and -v arguments of python -m pickle. Use python -m doctest Lib/pickle.py -v instead. Patch by Semyon Moroz.

gh-81267 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81267]: Correct time.sleep() error message when an object that cannot be interpreted as an integer or float is provided.

gh-93096 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93096]: Removed undocumented -t and -v arguments of python -m pickletools. Use python -m doctest Lib/pickletools.py -v instead. Patch by Semyon Moroz.

gh-131045 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131045]: Fix issue with __contains__, values, and pseudo-members for enum.Flag.

gh-130959 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130959]: Fix pure-Python implementation of datetime.time.fromisoformat() to reject times with spaces in fractional part (for example, 12:34:56.400 +02:00), matching the C implementation. Patch by Michał Gorny.

gh-130806 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130806]: Deleting gzip.GzipFile before it is closed now emits a ResourceWarning.

gh-130637 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130637]: Add validation for numeric response data in poplib.POP3.stat() method

gh-130665 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130665]: Only apply locale to calendar CLI when set via --locale and not via LANG environment variable.

gh-130660 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130660]: sys.ps1 and sys.ps2 are now restored after code.interact() call.

gh-130608 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130608]: Remove dirs_exist_ok argument from pathlib.Path.copy() and copy_into(). These methods are new in Python 3.14.

gh-130461 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130461]: Remove .. index:: directives from the uuid module documentation. These directives previously created entries in the general index for getnode() as well as the uuid1(), uuid3(), uuid4(), uuid5(), and uuid8() constructor functions.

gh-130379 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130379]: The zipapp module now calculates the list of files to be added to the archive before creating the archive. This avoids accidentally including the target when it is being created in the source directory.

gh-82987 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82987]: Inline breakpoints like breakpoint() or pdb.set_trace() will always stop the program at calling frame, ignoring the skip pattern (if any).

gh-125377 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125377]: <tab> at the beginning of the line in pdb multi-line input will fill in a 4-space indentation now, instead of inserting a \t character.

gh-125413 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125413]: Ensure the path returned from pathlib.Path.copy() or move() has fresh info.

gh-65697 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65697]: stdlib configparser will now attempt to validate that keys it writes will not result in file corruption (creating a file unable to be accurately parsed by a future read() call from the same parser). Attempting a corrupting write() will raise an InvalidWriteError.

gh-125413 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125413]: Speed up Path.copy by making better use of info internally.

gh-130285 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130285]: Fix corner case for random.sample() allowing the counts parameter to specify an empty population. So now, sample([], 0, counts=[]) and sample('abc', k=0, counts=[0, 0, 0]) both give the same result as sample([], 0).

gh-124703 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124703]: Executing quit command in pdb will raise bdb.BdbQuit when pdb is started from an interactive console using breakpoint() or pdb.set_trace().

gh-107773 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107773]: Make datetime subclass __repr__() consistent both implementations. Patch by Semyon Moroz.

gh-130250 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130250]: Fix regression in traceback.print_last().

gh-123471 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123471]: Make concurrent iterations over itertools.batched safe under free-threading.

gh-57537 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57537]: Support breakpoints for zipimport modules on pdb

gh-130230 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130230]: Fix crash in pow() with only Decimal third argument.

gh-126944 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126944]: Show explicit errors when required arguments of pdb commands are missing

gh-127750 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127750]: Improve repr of functools.singledispatchmethod methods and descriptors.

gh-128520 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128520]: Apply type conversion consistently in pathlib.PurePath and Path methods can accept a path object as an argument, such as match() and rename(). The argument is now converted to path object if it lacks a with_segments() attribute, and not otherwise.

gh-118761 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118761]: Reverts a change in the previous release attempting to make some stdlib imports used within the subprocess module lazy as this was causing errors during __del__ finalizers calling methods such as terminate, or kill, or send_signal.

gh-130164 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130164]: Fixed failure to raise TypeError in inspect.Signature.bind() for positional-only arguments provided by keyword when a variadic keyword argument (e.g. **kwargs) is present.

gh-130151 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130151]: Fix reference leaks in _hashlib.hmac_new() and _hashlib.hmac_digest(). Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-130145 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130145]: Fix asyncio.AbstractEventloop.run_forever() when another loop is already running.

gh-130139 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130139]: Fix bug where ast.parse() did not error on AST input which is not of the correct type, when called with optimize=False.

gh-127260 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127260]: Forbid the use of colon (":") as a fractional component separator and other improvements to the consistency of error raising between the C and Python implementations of datetime.time.fromisoformat() and datetime.datetime.fromisoformat(). Patch by Semyon Moroz.

gh-85795 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85795]: Using super() and __class__ closure variable in user-defined methods of typing.NamedTuple subclasses is now explicitly prohibited at runtime. Contributed by Bartosz Sławecki in gh-130082 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130082].

gh-118761 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118761]: Improve import time of cmd by lazy importing inspect and removing string. Patch by Semyon Moroz.

gh-129726 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129726]: Fix gzip.GzipFile raising an unraisable exception during garbage collection when referring to a temporary object by breaking the reference loop with weakref.

gh-127750 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127750]: Remove broken functools.singledispatchmethod() caching introduced in gh-85160 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85160]. Achieve the same performance using different optimization.

gh-129948 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129948]: Add support for shared set to multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager via SyncManager.set().

gh-129965 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129965]: Update MIME types for .avi and .wav. Add MIME types for .docx, .pptx, .xlsx, .epub, .flac, .m4a, .odg, .odp, .ods, .odt, .oga, .ogg, .ogx and .weba. Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

gh-129889 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129889]: Support context manager protocol by contextvars.Token. Patch by Andrew Svetlov.

gh-97850 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850]: Update the deprecation warning of importlib.abc.Loader.load_module().

gh-129678 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129678]: configparser.ConfigParser: do not write an empty unnamed section

gh-128641 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128641]: Restore configparser.ConfigParser.read() performance.

gh-129569 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129569]: Fix unicodedata.normalize() to always return a built-in str object when given an input of a str subclass, regardless of whether the string is already normalized.

gh-128231 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128231]: Execution of multiple statements in the new REPL now stops immediately upon the first exception encountered. Patch by Bartosz Sławecki.

gh-96092 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96092]: Fix bug in traceback.walk_stack() called with None where it was skipping more frames than in prior versions. This bug fix also changes walk_stack to walk the stack in the frame where it was called rather than where it first gets used.

gh-129288 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129288]: Add optional l2_cid and l2_bdaddr_type fields to socket BTPROTO_L2CAP sockaddr tuple.

gh-128703 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128703]: Fix mimetypes.guess_type() to use default mapping for empty Content-Type in registry.

gh-128647 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128647]: Eagerly write to buffers passed to gzip.GzipFile's readinto() and readinto1() implementations, avoiding unnecessary allocations. Patch by Chris Markiewicz.

gh-128184 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128184]: Improve display of annotationlib.ForwardRef object within inspect.Signature representations. This also fixes a NameError that was raised when using dataclasses.dataclass() on classes with unresolvable forward references.

gh-128041 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128041]: Add concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor.terminate_workers() and concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor.kill_workers() as ways to terminate or kill all living worker processes in the given pool. (Contributed by Charles Machalow in gh-130849 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130849].)

gh-127647 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127647]: Add protocols io.Reader and io.Writer as alternatives to typing.IO, typing.TextIO, and typing.BinaryIO.

gh-109798 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109798]: Added additional information into error messages in datetime, and made the messages more consistent between the C and Python implementations. Patch by Semyon Moroz.

gh-125746 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125746]: Delay deprecated zipimport.zipimporter.load_module() removal time to 3.15. Use zipimport.zipimporter.exec_module() instead.

gh-74028 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74028]: Add the optional buffersize parameter to concurrent.futures.Executor.map() to limit the number of submitted tasks whose results have not yet been yielded. If the buffer is full, iteration over the iterables pauses until a result is yielded from the buffer.

gh-124927 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124927]: Non-printing characters are now properly handled in the new REPL.

gh-124096 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124096]: Turn on virtual terminal mode and enable bracketed paste in REPL on Windows console. (If the terminal does not support bracketed paste, enabling it does nothing.)

gh-89083 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89083]: Add uuid.uuid7() for generating UUIDv7 objects as specified in RFC 9562 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9562.html]. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-89083 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89083]: Add uuid.uuid6() for generating UUIDv6 objects as specified in RFC 9562 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9562.html]. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-117151 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117151]: Increase io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE from 8k to 128k and adjust open() on platforms where os.fstat() provides a st_blksize field (such as Linux) to use max(min(blocksize, 8 MiB), io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE) rather than always using the device block size. This should improve I/O performance. Patch by Romain Morotti.

gh-105499 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105499]: Make types.UnionType an alias for typing.Union. Both int | str and Union[int, str] now create instances of the same type. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

gh-93096 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93096]: Document the command-line for mimetypes. It now exits with 1 on failure instead of 0 and 2 on incorrect command-line parameters instead of 1. Also, errors are printed to stderr instead of stdout and their text is made tighter. Patch by Oleg Iarygin and Hugo van Kemenade.

Documentation

gh-125722 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125722]: Require Sphinx 8.2.0 or later to build the Python documentation. Patch by Adam Turner.

gh-129712 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129712]: The wheel tags supported by each macOS universal SDK option are now documented.

gh-46236 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/46236]: C API: Document PyUnicode_RSplit(), PyUnicode_Partition() and PyUnicode_RPartition().

Core and Builtins

gh-131141 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131141]: Fix data race in sys.monitoring instrumentation while registering callback.

gh-130804 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130804]: Fix support of unicode characters on Windows in the new REPL.

gh-130932 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130932]: Fix incorrect exception handling in _PyModule_IsPossiblyShadowing

gh-122029 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122029]: sys.setprofile() and sys.settrace() will not generate a c_call event for INSTRUMENTED_CALL_FUNCTION_EX if the callable is a method with a C function wrapped, because we do not generate c_return event in such case.

gh-129964 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129964]: Fix JIT crash on Windows on Arm. Patch by Diego Russo and Brandt Bucher.

gh-130851 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130851]: Fix a crash in the free threading build when constructing a code object with co_consts that contains instances of types that are not otherwise generated by the bytecode compiler.

gh-128534 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128534]: Ensure that both left and right branches have the same source for async for loops. Add these branches to the co_branches() iterator.

gh-130794 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130794]: Fix memory leak in the free threaded build when resizing a shared list or dictionary from multiple short-lived threads.

gh-130415 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130415]: Improve JIT understanding of integers in boolean context.

gh-130382 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130382]: Fix PyRefTracer_DESTROY not being sent from Python/ceval.c Py_DECREF().

gh-130574 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130574]: Renumber RESUME from 149 to 128.

gh-124878 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124878]: Fix race conditions during runtime finalization that could lead to accessing freed memory.

gh-130415 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130415]: Improve the experimental JIT's ability to narrow boolean values based on the results of truthiness tests.

gh-130618 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130618]: Fix a bug that was causing UnicodeDecodeError or SystemError to be raised when using f-strings with lambda expressions with non-ASCII characters. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-123044 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123044]: Make sure that the location of branch targets in match cases is in the body, not the pattern.

gh-128534 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128534]: Add branch monitoring (BRANCH_LEFT and BRANCH_RIGHT events) for async for loops.

gh-130163 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130163]: Fix possible crashes related to concurrent change and use of the sys module attributes.

gh-122029 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122029]: INSTRUMENTED_CALL_KW will expand the method before monitoring to reflect the actual behavior more accurately.

gh-130415 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130415]: Improve JIT's ability to optimize strings in boolean contexts.

gh-130396 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130396]: Use actual stack limits (from pthread_getattr_np(3) [https://manpages.debian.org/pthread_getattr_np(3)]) for linux, and other systems with _GNU_SOURCE defined, when determining limits for C stack protection.

gh-128396 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128396]: Fix a crash that occurs when calling locals() inside an inline comprehension that uses the same local variable as the outer frame scope where the variable is a free or cell var.

gh-129107 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129107]: Fix two more bytearray functions for free threading.

gh-127705 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127705]: Use tagged references (_PyStackRef) for the default build as well as for the free-threading build. This has a small negative performance impact short-term but will enable larger speedups in the future and significantly reduce maintenance costs by allowing a single implementation of tagged references in the future.

gh-130094 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130094]: Fix two race conditions involving concurrent imports that could lead to spurious failures with ModuleNotFoundError.

gh-129107 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129107]: Make bytearray iterator safe under free threading.

gh-115802 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115802]: Use the more efficient "medium" code model for JIT-compiled code on supported platforms.

gh-107956 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107956]: A build-details.json file is now install in the platform-independent standard library directory (PEP 739 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0739/] implementation).

gh-116042 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116042]: Fix location for SyntaxErrors of invalid escapes in the tokenizer. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-91079 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91079]: Change C stack overflow protection to consider the amount of stack consumed, rather than a counter. This allows deeper recursion in many cases, but remains safe.

gh-129715 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129715]: Improve the experimental JIT's handling of returns to unknown callers.

Library

gh-129983 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129983]: Fix data race in compile_template in sre.c.

Core and Builtins

gh-129967 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129967]: Fix a race condition in the free threading build when repr(set) is called concurrently with set.clear().

gh-129953 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129953]: The internal (evaluation) stack is now spilled to memory whenever execution escapes from the interpreter or JIT compiled code. This should have no observable effect in either Python or builtin extensions, but will allow various important optimizations in the future.

gh-129515 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129515]: Clarify syntax error messages for conditional expressions when a statement is specified before an if or after an else keyword.

gh-129349 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129349]: bytes.fromhex() and bytearray.fromhex() now accepts ASCII bytes and bytes-like objects.

gh-129149 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129149]: Add fast path for medium-size integers in PyLong_FromSsize_t(). Patch by Chris Eibl.

gh-129107 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129107]: Make the bytearray safe under free threading.

gh-128974 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128974]: Fix a crash in UnicodeError.__str__ when custom attributes implement __str__() with side-effects. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-126085 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126085]: typing.TypeAliasType now supports star unpacking.

gh-125331 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125331]: from __future__ import barry_as_FLUFL now works in more contexts, including when it is used in files, with the -c flag, and in the REPL when there are multiple statements on the same line. Previously, it worked only on subsequent lines in the REPL, and when the appropriate flags were passed directly to compile(). Patch by Pablo Galindo.

gh-121464 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121464]: Make concurrent iterations over the same enumerate() iterator safe under free-threading. See Strategy for Iterators in Free Threading [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124397].

gh-87790 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87790]: Support underscore and comma as thousands separators in the fractional part for floating-point presentation types of the new-style string formatting (with format() or f-strings). Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

gh-124445 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124445]: Fix specialization of generic aliases that are generic over a typing.ParamSpec and have been specialized with a nested type variable.

gh-120608 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120608]: Adapt reversed() for use in the free-threading build. The reversed() is still not thread-safe in the sense that concurrent iterations may see the same object, but they will not corrupt the interpreter state.

Library

gh-100388 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100388]: Fix the platform._sys_version() method when __DATE__ is undefined at buildtime by changing default buildtime datetime string to the UNIX epoch.

Core and Builtins

bpo-44369 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44369]: Improve syntax errors for incorrectly closed strings. Patch by Pablo Galindo

C API

gh-111178 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111178]: Fix PyCMethod API: replace size_t nargs with Py_ssize_t nargs in PyCMethod. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-130947 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130947]: Add again PySequence_Fast() to the limited C API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-128863 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128863]: The following private functions are deprecated and planned for removal in Python 3.18:

_PyUnicodeWriter_Init(): replace _PyUnicodeWriter_Init(&writer) with writer = PyUnicodeWriter_Create(0).

_PyUnicodeWriter_Finish(): replace _PyUnicodeWriter_Finish(&writer) with PyUnicodeWriter_Finish(writer).

_PyUnicodeWriter_Dealloc(): replace _PyUnicodeWriter_Dealloc(&writer) with PyUnicodeWriter_Discard(writer).

_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteChar(): replace _PyUnicodeWriter_WriteChar(&writer, ch) with PyUnicodeWriter_WriteChar(writer, ch).

_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr(): replace _PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr(&writer, str) with PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr(writer, str).

_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteSubstring(): replace _PyUnicodeWriter_WriteSubstring(&writer, str, start, end) with PyUnicodeWriter_WriteSubstring(writer, str, start, end).

_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteASCIIString(): replace _PyUnicodeWriter_WriteASCIIString(&writer, str) with PyUnicodeWriter_WriteUTF8(writer, str).

_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteLatin1String(): replace _PyUnicodeWriter_WriteLatin1String(&writer, str) with PyUnicodeWriter_WriteUTF8(writer, str).

_PyUnicodeWriter_Prepare(): (no replacement).

_PyUnicodeWriter_PrepareKind(): (no replacement).

The pythoncapi-compat project [https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/] can be used to get these new public functions on Python 3.13 and older.

Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-45325 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/45325]: Add a new p format parameter to Py_BuildValue() that allows to take a C integer and produce a Python bool object. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

Build

gh-131035 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131035]: Use -flto=thin for faster build times using clang-cl on Windows. Patch by Chris Eibl.

gh-130740 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130740]: Ensure that Python.h is included before stdbool.h unless pyconfig.h is included before or in some platform-specific contexts.

gh-130090 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130090]: Building with PlatformToolset=ClangCL on Windows now supports PGO (profile guided optimization). Patch by Chris Eibl with invaluable support from Steve Dover.

gh-129819 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129819]: Allow building the JIT with the tailcall interpreter.

gh-129989 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129989]: Fix a bug where the tailcall interpreter was enabled when --without-tail-call-interp was provided to the configure script.

gh-129838 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129838]: Don't redefine _Py_NO_SANITIZE_UNDEFINED when compiling with a recent GCC version and undefined sanitizer enabled.

gh-82909 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82909]: #pragma-based linking with python3*.lib can now be switched off with Py_NO_LINK_LIB. Patch by Jean-Christophe Fillion-Robin.

Python 3.14.0 alpha 5

Release date: 2025-02-11

macOS

gh-91132 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91132]: Update macOS installer to use ncurses 6.5.

Tools/Demos

gh-129248 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129248]: The iOS test runner now strips the log prefix from each line output by the test suite.

gh-104400 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104400]: Fix several bugs in extraction by switching to an AST parser in pygettext.

Tests

gh-129386 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129386]: Add test.support.reset_code, which can be used to reset various bytecode-level optimizations and local instrumentation for a function.

gh-128474 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128474]: Disable test_embed test cases that segfault on BOLT instrument binaries. The tests are only disabled when BOLT is enabled.

gh-128003 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128003]: Add an option --parallel-threads=N to the regression test runner that runs individual tests in multiple threads in parallel in order to find concurrency bugs. Note that most of the test suite is not yet reviewed for thread-safety or annotated with @thread_unsafe when necessary.

Security

gh-105704 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105704]: When using urllib.parse.urlsplit() and urllib.parse.urlparse() host parsing would not reject domain names containing square brackets ([ and ]). Square brackets are only valid for IPv6 and IPvFuture hosts according to RFC 3986 Section 3.2.2 [https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc3986#section-3.2.2].

gh-126108 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126108]: Fix a possible NULL pointer dereference in PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode().

gh-80222 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80222]: Fix bug in the folding of quoted strings when flattening an email message using a modern email policy. Previously when a quoted string was folded so that it spanned more than one line, the surrounding quotes and internal escapes would be omitted. This could theoretically be used to spoof header lines using a carefully constructed quoted string if the resulting rendered email was transmitted or re-parsed.

gh-119511 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119511]: Fix a potential denial of service in the imaplib module. When connecting to a malicious server, it could cause an arbitrary amount of memory to be allocated. On many systems this is harmless as unused virtual memory is only a mapping, but if this hit a virtual address size limit it could lead to a MemoryError or other process crash. On unusual systems or builds where all allocated memory is touched and backed by actual ram or storage it could've consumed resources doing so until similarly crashing.

Library

gh-129939 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129939]: Comparison pages with highlighted changes generated by the difflib.HtmlDiff class now support dark mode.

gh-129928 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129928]: Raise sqlite3.ProgrammingError if a user-defined SQL function with invalid number of parameters is created. Patch by Erlend Aasland.

gh-129583 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129583]: Update bundled pip to 25.0.1

gh-129766 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129766]: Fix crash in warnings, when calling _release_lock() with no existing lock.

gh-129005 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129005]: _pyio.FileIO.readall() now allocates, resizes, and fills a data buffer using the same algorithm _io.FileIO.readall() uses.

gh-129646 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129646]: Update the locale alias mapping in the locale module to match the latest X Org locale alias mapping and support new locales in Glibc 2.41.

gh-128317 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128317]: Put CLI calendar highlighting in private class, removing highlight_day from public calendar.TextCalendar API. Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

gh-129603 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129603]: Fix bugs where sqlite3.Row objects could segfault if their inherited description was set to None. Patch by Erlend Aasland.

gh-129559 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129559]: Add bytearray.resize() method so bytearray can be efficiently resized in place.

gh-129502 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129502]: Unlikely errors in preparing arguments for ctypes callback are now handled in the same way as errors raised in the callback of in converting the result of the callback -- using sys.unraisablehook() instead of sys.excepthook() and not setting sys.last_exc and other variables.

gh-129403 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129403]: Corrected ValueError message for asyncio.Barrier and threading.Barrier.

gh-129409 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129409]: Fix an integer overflow in the csv module when writing a data field larger than 2GB.

gh-126400 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126400]: Add a socket timeout keyword argument to logging.handlers.SysLogHandler.

gh-118761 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118761]: Always lazy import warnings in threading. Patch by Taneli Hukkinen.

gh-118761 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118761]: Improve import time of subprocess by lazy importing locale and signal. Patch by Taneli Hukkinen.

gh-129346 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129346]: In sqlite3, handle out-of-memory when creating user-defined SQL functions.

gh-129005 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129005]: Optimize _pyio.FileIO.readinto by avoiding unnecessary objects and copies using os.readinto().

gh-129195 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129195]: Support reporting call graph information from asyncio.staggered.staggered_race().

gh-129205 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129205]: Add os.readinto() to read into a buffer object from a file descriptor.

gh-128772 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128772]: Fix pydoc for methods with the __module__ attribute equal to None.

gh-129061 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129061]: Fix FORCE_COLOR and NO_COLOR when empty strings. Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

gh-92897 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92897]: Scheduled the deprecation of the check_home argument of sysconfig.is_python_build() to Python 3.15.

gh-129064 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129064]: Deprecate sysconfig.expand_makefile_vars(), in favor of using sysconfig.get_paths() with the vars argument.

gh-128550 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128550]: Removed an incorrect optimization relating to eager tasks in asyncio.TaskGroup that resulted in cancellations being missed.

gh-128991 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128991]: Release the enter frame reference within bdb callback

gh-118761 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118761]: Reduce import time of pstats and zipfile by up to 20%, by removing unnecessary imports to typing. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-128978 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128978]: Fix a NameError in sysconfig.expand_makefile_vars(). Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-128961 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128961]: Fix a crash when setting state on an exhausted array.array iterator.

gh-128894 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128894]: Fix traceback.TracebackException._format_syntax_error not to fail on exceptions with custom metadata.

gh-128916 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128916]: Do not attempt to set SO_REUSEPORT on sockets of address families other than AF_INET and AF_INET6, as it is meaningless with these address families, and the call with fail with Linux kernel 6.12.9 and newer.

gh-118761 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118761]: Improve import time of tomllib by removing typing, string, and tomllib._types imports. Patch by Taneli Hukkinen.

gh-128679 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128679]: tracemalloc: Fix race conditions when tracemalloc.stop() is called by a thread, while other threads are tracing memory allocations. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-128891 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128891]: Add specialized opcodes to opcode.opname.

gh-118761 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118761]: Reduce import time of gettext by up to ten times, by importing re on demand. In particular, re is no longer implicitly exposed as gettext.re. Patch by Eli Schwartz.

gh-118761 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118761]: Reduce the import time of optparse when no help text is printed. Patch by Eli Schwartz.

gh-128657 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128657]: Fix possible extra reference when using objects returned by hashlib.sha256() under free threading.

gh-118761 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118761]: Reduce the import time of csv by up to five times, by importing re on demand. In particular, re is no more implicitly exposed as csv.re. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-128308 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128308]: Support the name keyword argument for eager tasks in asyncio.loop.create_task(), asyncio.create_task() and asyncio.TaskGroup.create_task(), by passing on all kwargs to the task factory set by asyncio.loop.set_task_factory().

gh-118761 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118761]: Improve the performance of base64.b16decode() by up to ten times by more efficiently checking the byte-string for hexadecimal digits. Reduce the import time of base64 by up to six times, by no longer importing re. Patch by Bénédikt Tran, Chris Markiewicz, and Adam Turner.

gh-128156 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128156]: When using macOS system libffi, support for complex types in ctypes is now checked at runtime (macOS 10.15 or newer). The types must also be available at build time.

gh-128636 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128636]: Fix PyREPL failure when os.environ is overwritten with an invalid value.

gh-128498 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128498]: Default to stdout isatty for color detection instead of stderr. Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

gh-128384 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128384]: Add locking to warnings to avoid some data races when free-threading is used. Change _warnings_runtime_state.mutex to be a recursive mutex and expose it to warnings, via the _acquire_lock() and _release_lock() functions. The lock is held when filters and _filters_version are updated.

gh-128509 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128509]: Add sys._is_immortal() for identifying immortal objects at runtime.

gh-128479 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128479]: Fix asyncio.staggered.staggered_race() leaking tasks and issuing an unhandled exception.

gh-128427 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128427]: uuid.NIL and uuid.MAX are now available to represent the Nil and Max UUID formats as defined by RFC 9562 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9562.html].

gh-91279 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91279]: zipfile.ZipFile.writestr() now respect SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH that distributions can set centrally and have build tools consume this in order to produce reproducible output.

gh-112064 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112064]: Fix incorrect handling of negative read sizes in HTTPResponse.read. Patch by Yury Manushkin.

gh-58956 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/58956]: Fixed a frame reference leak in bdb.

gh-128131 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128131]: Completely support random access of uncompressed unencrypted read-only zip files obtained by ZipFile.open.

gh-127975 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127975]: Avoid reusing quote types in ast.unparse() if not needed.

gh-115514 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115514]: Fix exceptions and incomplete writes after asyncio._SelectorTransport is closed before writes are completed.

gh-121604 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121604]: Add missing Deprecation warnings for importlib.machinery.DEBUG_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES, importlib.machinery.OPTIMIZED_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES, importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder, importlib.abc.ResourceLoader, importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_mtime().

gh-127873 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127873]: When -E is set, only ignore PYTHON_COLORS and not FORCE_COLOR/NO_COLOR/TERM when colourising output. Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

gh-125413 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125413]: Add pathlib.Path.info attribute, which stores an object implementing the pathlib.types.PathInfo protocol (also new). The object supports querying the file type and internally caching stat() results. Path objects generated by iterdir() are initialized with file type information gleaned from scanning the parent directory.

gh-127712 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127712]: Fix handling of the secure argument of logging.handlers.SMTPHandler.

gh-127096 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127096]: Do not recreate unnamed section on every read in configparser.ConfigParser. Patch by Andrey Efremov.

gh-124369 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124369]: Deprecate pdb.Pdb.curframe_locals

gh-126332 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126332]: Fix _pyrepl crash when entering a double CTRL-Z on an overflowing line.

gh-125553 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125553]: Fix round-trip invariance for backslash continuations in tokenize.untokenize().

gh-91048 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91048]: Add asyncio.capture_call_graph() and asyncio.print_call_graph() functions.

gh-124703 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124703]: Quitting pdb in inline mode will emit a confirmation prompt and exit gracefully now, instead of printing an exception traceback.

gh-123987 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123987]: Fixed issue in NamespaceReader where a non-path item in a namespace path, such as a sentinel added by an editable installer, would break resource loading.

gh-119349 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119349]: Add the ctypes.util.dllist() function to list the loaded shared libraries for the current process.

gh-55454 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/55454]: Add IMAP4 IDLE support to the imaplib module. Patch by Forest.

gh-119257 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119257]: Show tab completions menu below the current line, which results in less janky behaviour, and fixes a cursor movement bug. Patch by Daniel Hollas

gh-101410 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101410]: Support custom messages for domain errors in the math module (math.sqrt(), math.log() and math.atanh() were modified as examples). Patch by Charlie Zhao and Sergey B Kirpichev.

gh-81340 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81340]: Use os.copy_file_range() in shutil.copy(), shutil.copy2(), and shutil.copyfile() functions by default. An underlying Linux system call gives filesystems an opportunity to implement the use of copy-on-write (in case of btrfs and XFS) or server-side copy (in the case of NFS.) Patch by Illia Volochii.

bpo-27307 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27307]: Add attribute and item access support to string.Formatter in auto-numbering mode, which allows format strings like '{.name}' and '{[1]}'.

IDLE

gh-129873 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129873]: Simplify displaying the IDLE doc by only copying the text section of idle.html to idlelib/help.html. Patch by Stan Ulbrych.

Documentation

gh-125722 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125722]: Require Sphinx 8.1.3 or later to build the Python documentation. Patch by Adam Turner.

gh-67206 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67206]: Document that string.printable is not printable in the POSIX sense. In particular, string.printable.isprintable() returns False. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

Core and Builtins

gh-100239 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100239]: Replace the opcode BINARY_SUBSCR and its family by BINARY_OP with oparg NB_SUBSCR.

gh-129732 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129732]: Fixed a race in _Py_qsbr_reserve in the free threading build.

gh-129763 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129763]: Remove the internal LLTRACE macro (use Py_DEBUG instead).

gh-129715 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129715]: Improve JIT performance for generators.

gh-129643 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129643]: Fix thread safety of PyList_Insert() in free-threading builds.

gh-129668 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129668]: Fix race condition when raising MemoryError in the free threaded build.

gh-129643 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129643]: Fix thread safety of PyList_SetItem() in free-threading builds. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-128563 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128563]: Fix an issue where the "lltrace" debug feature could have been incorrectly enabled for some frames.

gh-129393 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129393]: On FreeBSD, sys.platform doesn't contain the major version anymore. It is always 'freebsd', instead of 'freebsd13' or 'freebsd14'.

Library

gh-129345 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129345]: Fix null pointer dereference in syslog.openlog() when an audit hook raises an exception.

Core and Builtins

gh-129231 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129231]: Improve memory layout of JIT traces. Patch by Diego Russo

gh-129149 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129149]: Add fast path for medium-size integers in PyLong_FromUnsignedLong(), PyLong_FromUnsignedLongLong() and PyLong_FromSize_t().

gh-129201 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129201]: The free-threaded version of the cyclic garbage collector has been optimized to conditionally use CPU prefetch instructions during the collection. This can reduce collection times by making it more likely that data is in the CPU cache when it is needed. The prefetch instructions are enabled if the number of long-lived objects (objects surviving a full collection) exceeds a threshold.

gh-129093 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129093]: Fix f-strings such as f'{expr=}' sometimes not displaying the full expression when the expression contains !=.

gh-124363 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124363]: Treat debug expressions in f-string as raw strings. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-128714 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128714]: Fix the potential races in get/set dunder methods __annotations__, __annotate__ and __type_params__ for function object, and add related tests.

gh-128799 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128799]: Add frame of except* to traceback when it wraps a naked exception.

gh-128842 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128842]: Collect JIT memory stats using pystats. Patch by Diego Russo.

gh-100239 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100239]: Specialize BINARY_OP for bitwise logical operations on compact ints.

gh-128910 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128910]: Undocumented and unused private C-API functions _PyTrash_begin and _PyTrash_end are removed.

gh-128807 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128807]: Add a marking phase to the free-threaded GC. This is similar to what was done in gh-126491 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126491]. Since the free-threaded GC does not have generations and is not incremental, the marking phase looks for all objects reachable from known roots. The roots are objects known to not be garbage, like the module dictionary for sys. For most programs, this marking phase should make the GC a bit faster since typically less work is done per object.

gh-100239 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100239]: Add opcode BINARY_OP_EXTEND which executes a pair of functions (guard and specialization functions) accessed from the inline cache.

gh-128563 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128563]: A new type of interpreter has been added to CPython. This interpreter uses tail calls for its instruction handlers. Preliminary benchmark results suggest 7-11% geometric mean faster on pyperformance (depending on platform), and up to 30% faster on Python-intensive workloads. This interpreter currently only works on newer compilers, such as clang-19. Other compilers will continue using the old interpreter. Patch by Ken Jin, with ideas on how to implement this in CPython by Mark Shannon, Garret Gu, Haoran Xu, and Josh Haberman.

gh-126703 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126703]: Improve performance of iterating over lists and tuples by using a freelist for the iterator objects.

gh-127953 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127953]: The time to handle a LINE event in sys.monitoring (and sys.settrace) is now independent of the number of lines in the code object.

gh-128330 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128330]: Restore terminal control characters on REPL exit.

gh-128016 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128016]: Improved the SyntaxWarning message for invalid escape sequences to clarify that such sequences will raise a SyntaxError in future Python releases. The new message also suggests a potential fix, i.e., Did you mean "\\e"?.

gh-126004 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126004]: Fix handling of UnicodeError.start and UnicodeError.end values in the codecs.replace_errors() error handler. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-126004 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126004]: Fix handling of UnicodeError.start and UnicodeError.end values in the codecs.backslashreplace_errors() error handler. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-126004 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126004]: Fix handling of UnicodeError.start and UnicodeError.end values in the codecs.xmlcharrefreplace_errors() error handler. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-127119 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127119]: Slightly optimize the int deallocator.

gh-127349 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127349]: Fixed the error when resizing terminal in Python REPL. Patch by Semyon Moroz.

gh-125723 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125723]: Fix crash with gi_frame.f_locals when generator frames outlive their generator. Patch by Mikhail Efimov.

Library

gh-126349 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126349]: Add turtle.fill(), turtle.poly() and turtle.no_animation() context managers. Patch by Marie Roald and Yngve Mardal Moe.

Core and Builtins

gh-115911 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115911]: If the current working directory cannot be determined due to permissions, then import will no longer raise PermissionError. Patch by Alex Willmer.

Library

gh-112713 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112713]: Added support for the Partitioned cookie flag in http.cookies.

C API

gh-129533 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129533]: Update PyGC_Enable(), PyGC_Disable(), PyGC_IsEnabled() to use atomic operation for thread-safety at free-threading build. Patch by Donghee Na.

gh-89188 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89188]: Implement PyUnicode_KIND() and PyUnicode_DATA() as function, in addition to the macros with the same names. The macros rely on C bit fields which have compiler-specific layout. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-91417 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91417]: Remove PySequence_Fast() from the limited C API, since this function has to be used with PySequence_Fast_GET_ITEM which never worked in the limited C API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-128509 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128509]: Add PyUnstable_IsImmortal() for determining whether an object is immortal.

gh-129033 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129033]: Remove _PyInterpreterState_GetConfigCopy() and _PyInterpreterState_SetConfig() private functions. Use instead PyConfig_Get() and PyConfig_Set(), public C API added by PEP 741 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0741/] "Python Configuration C API". Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-129033 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129033]: Remove the private _Py_InitializeMain() function. It was a provisional API added to Python 3.8 by PEP 587 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/]. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-128844 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128844]: Add PyUnstable_TryIncRef() and PyUnstable_EnableTryIncRef() unstable APIs. These are helpers for dealing with unowned references in a thread-safe way, particularly in the free threading build.

gh-128911 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128911]: Add PyImport_ImportModuleAttr() and PyImport_ImportModuleAttrString() helper functions to import a module and get an attribute of the module. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-128863 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128863]: The following private functions are deprecated and planned for removal in Python 3.18:

_PyBytes_Join(): use PyBytes_Join().

_PyDict_GetItemStringWithError(): use PyDict_GetItemStringRef().

_PyDict_Pop(): use PyDict_Pop().

_PyLong_Sign(): use PyLong_GetSign().

_PyLong_FromDigits() and _PyLong_New(): use PyLongWriter_Create().

_PyThreadState_UncheckedGet(): use PyThreadState_GetUnchecked().

_PyUnicode_AsString(): use PyUnicode_AsUTF8().

_Py_HashPointer(): use Py_HashPointer().

_Py_fopen_obj(): use Py_fopen().

The pythoncapi-compat project [https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/] can be used to get these new public functions on Python 3.13 and older.

Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-126599 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126599]: Remove some internal test APIs for the experimental JIT compiler.

gh-127925 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127925]: Convert the decimal module to use PEP 757 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0757/] C API (export-import integers), offering some speed-up if the integer part of the Decimal instance is small. Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

Build

gh-129660 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129660]: Drop test_embed from PGO training, whose contribution in recent versions is considered to be ignorable.

gh-128902 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128902]: Fix compile errors with Clang 9 and older due to lack of __attribute__((fallthrough)) support.

Python 3.14.0 alpha 4

Release date: 2025-01-14

macOS

gh-127592 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127592]: Usage of the unified Apple System Log APIs was disabled when the minimum macOS version is earlier than 10.12.

Tools/Demos

gh-128152 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128152]: Fix a bug where Argument Clinic's C pre-processor parser tried to parse pre-processor directives inside C comments. Patch by Erlend Aasland.

Tests

gh-128690 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128690]: Temporarily do not use test_embed in PGO profile builds until the problem with test_init_pyvenv_cfg failing in some configurations is resolved.

Library

gh-128731 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128731]: Fix ResourceWarning in urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser.read().

gh-71339 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71339]: Add new assertion methods for unittest: assertHasAttr(), assertNotHasAttr(), assertIsSubclass(), assertNotIsSubclass() assertStartsWith(), assertNotStartsWith(), assertEndsWith() and assertNotEndsWith().

gh-118761 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118761]: Improve import time of pickle by 25% by removing an unnecessary regular expression. As such, re is no more implicitly available as pickle.re. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-128661 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128661]: Fixes typing.evaluate_forward_ref() not showing deprecation when type_params arg is not passed.

gh-128562 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128562]: Fix possible conflicts in generated tkinter widget names if the widget class name ends with a digit.

gh-128559 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128559]: Improved import time of asyncio.

gh-128552 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128552]: Fix cyclic garbage introduced by asyncio.loop.create_task() and asyncio.TaskGroup.create_task() holding a reference to the created task if it is eager.

gh-128340 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128340]: Add internal thread safe handle to be used in asyncio.loop.call_soon_threadsafe() for thread safe cancellation.

gh-128182 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128182]: Fix crash when using ctypes pointers concurrently on the free threaded build.

gh-128400 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128400]: Only show the current thread in faulthandler on the free threaded build to prevent races.

gh-128400 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128400]: Fix crash when using faulthandler.dump_traceback() while other threads are active on the free threaded build.

gh-128388 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128388]: Fix PyREPL on Windows to support more keybindings, like the Control-← and Control-→ word-skipping keybindings and those with meta (i.e. Alt), e.g. Alt-d to kill-word or Alt-Backspace backward-kill-word.

gh-88834 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88834]: Unify the instance check for typing.Union and types.UnionType: Union now uses the instance checks against its parameters instead of the subclass checks.

gh-128302 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128302]: Fix xml.dom.xmlbuilder.DOMEntityResolver.resolveEntity(), which was broken by the Python 3.0 transition.

gh-128317 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128317]: Highlight today in colour in calendar's CLI output. Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

gh-128302 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128302]: Allow xml.dom.xmlbuilder.DOMParser.parse() to correctly handle xml.dom.xmlbuilder.DOMInputSource instances that only have a systemId attribute set.

gh-128151 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128151]: Improve generation of UUID objects version 3, 4, 5, and 8 via their dedicated functions by 30%. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-128118 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128118]: Improve performance of copy.copy() by 30% via a fast path for atomic types and container types.

gh-127946 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127946]: Fix crash when modifying ctypes._CFuncPtr objects concurrently on the free threaded build.

gh-128062 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128062]: Revert the font of turtledemo's menu bar to its default value and display the shortcut keys in the correct position.

gh-128014 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128014]: Fix resetting the default window icon by passing default='' to the tkinter method wm_iconbitmap().

gh-41872 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/41872]: Fix quick extraction of module docstrings from a file in pydoc. It now supports docstrings with single quotes, escape sequences, raw string literals, and other Python syntax.

gh-127060 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127060]: Set TERM environment variable to "dumb" to disable traceback colors in IDLE, since IDLE doesn't understand ANSI escape sequences. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-126742 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126742]: Fix support of localized error messages reported by dlerror(3) [https://manpages.debian.org/dlerror(3)] and gdbm_strerror [https://manpages.debian.org/gdbm(3)] in ctypes and dbm.gnu functions respectively. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-122548 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122548]: Adds two new local events to sys.monitoring, BRANCH_LEFT and BRANCH_RIGHT. This allows the two arms of the branch to be disabled independently, which should hugely improve performance of branch-level coverage tools. The old branch event, BRANCH is now deprecated.

gh-127847 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127847]: Fix the position when doing interleaved seeks and reads in uncompressed, unencrypted zip files returned by zipfile.ZipFile.open().

gh-127688 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127688]: Add the SCHED_DEADLINE and SCHED_NORMAL constants to the os module.

gh-83662 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83662]: Add missing __class_getitem__ method to the Python implementation of functools.partial(), to make it compatible with the C version. This is mainly relevant for alternative Python implementations like PyPy and GraalPy, because CPython will usually use the C-implementation of that function.

gh-127586 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127586]: multiprocessing.pool.Pool now properly restores blocked signal handlers of the parent thread when creating processes via either spawn or forkserver.

gh-98188 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98188]: Fix an issue in email.message.Message.get_payload() where data cannot be decoded if the Content Transfer Encoding mechanism contains trailing whitespaces or additional junk text. Patch by Hui Liu.

gh-127529 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127529]: Correct behavior of asyncio.selector_events.BaseSelectorEventLoop._accept_connection() in handling ConnectionAbortedError in a loop. This improves performance on OpenBSD.

gh-127360 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127360]: When a descriptive error message cannot be provided for an ssl.SSLError, the "unknown error" message now shows the internal error code (as retrieved by ERR_get_error and similar OpenSSL functions).

gh-127196 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127196]: Fix crash when dict with keys in invalid encoding were passed to several functions in _interpreters module.

gh-124130 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124130]: Fix a bug in matching regular expression \B in empty input string. Now it is always the opposite of \b. To get an old behavior, use (?!\A\Z)\B. To get a new behavior in old Python versions, use (?!\b).

gh-126639 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126639]: tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile will now issue a ResourceWarning when it is finalized by the garbage collector without being explicitly closed.

gh-126624 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126624]: Expose error code XML_ERROR_NOT_STARTED of Expat >=2.6.4 in xml.parsers.expat.errors.

gh-126225 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126225]: getopt and optparse are no longer marked as deprecated. There are legitimate reasons to use one of these modules in preference to argparse, and none of these modules are at risk of being removed from the standard library. Of the three, argparse remains the recommended default choice, unless one of the concerns noted at the top of the optparse module documentation applies.

gh-124761 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124761]: Add SO_REUSEPORT_LB constant to socket for FreeBSD.

gh-121720 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121720]: enum.EnumDict can now be used without resorting to private API.

gh-123424 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123424]: Add zipfile.ZipInfo._for_archive() setting default properties on ZipInfo objects. Patch by Bénédikt Tran and Jason R. Coombs.

gh-121676 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121676]: Deprecate calling the Python implementation of functools.reduce() with a function or sequence as a keyword argument. This will be forbidden in Python 3.16 in order to match the C implementation.

gh-112015 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112015]: ctypes.memoryview_at() now exists to create a memoryview object that refers to the supplied pointer and length. This works like ctypes.string_at() except it avoids a buffer copy, and is typically useful when implementing pure Python callback functions that are passed dynamically-sized buffers.

gh-95371 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95371]: Added support for other image formats (PNG, PGM, and PPM) to the turtle module. Patch by Shin-myoung-serp.

Core and Builtins

gh-128078 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128078]: Fix a SystemError when using anext() with a default tuple value. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-128717 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128717]: Fix a crash when setting the recursion limit while other threads are active on the free threaded build.

gh-124483 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124483]: Treat Py_DECREF and variants as escaping when generating opcode and uop metadata. This prevents the possibility of a __del__ method causing the JIT to behave incorrectly.

gh-126703 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126703]: Improve performance of class methods by using a freelist.

gh-128137 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128137]: Update PyASCIIObject layout to handle interned field with the atomic operation. Patch by Donghee Na.

Library

gh-128192 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128192]: Upgrade HTTP digest authentication algorithm for urllib.request by supporting SHA-256 digest authentication as specified in RFC 7616 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7616.html].

Core and Builtins

gh-126868 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126868]: Increase usage of freelist for int allocation.

gh-114203 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114203]: Optimize Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION for simple recursive calls.

gh-127705 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127705]: Adds stackref debugging when Py_STACKREF_DEBUG is set. Finds all double-closes and leaks, logging the origin and last borrow.

Inspired by HPy's debug mode. https://docs.hpyproject.org/en/latest/debug-mode.html

gh-128079 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128079]: Fix a bug where except* does not properly check the return value of an ExceptionGroup's split() function, leading to a crash in some cases. Now when split() returns an invalid object, except* raises a TypeError with the original raised ExceptionGroup object chained to it.

gh-128030 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128030]: Avoid error from calling PyModule_GetFilenameObject on a non-module object when importing a non-existent symbol from a non-module object.

Library

gh-128035 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128035]: Indicate through ssl.HAS_PHA whether the ssl module supports TLSv1.3 post-handshake client authentication (PHA). Patch by Will Childs-Klein.

Core and Builtins

gh-127274 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127274]: Add a new flag, CO_METHOD, to co_flags that indicates whether the code object belongs to a function defined in class scope.

gh-66409 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66409]: During the path initialization, we now check if base_exec_prefix is the same as base_prefix before falling back to searching the Python interpreter directory.

gh-127970 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127970]: We now use the location of the libpython runtime library used in the current process to determine sys.base_prefix on all platforms implementing the dladdr [https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/9799919799/functions/dladdr.html] function defined by the UNIX standard — this includes Linux, Android, macOS, iOS, FreeBSD, etc. This was already the case on Windows and macOS Framework builds.

gh-127773 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127773]: Do not use the type attribute cache for types with incompatible MRO.

gh-127903 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127903]: Objects/unicodeobject.c: fix a crash on DEBUG builds in _copy_characters when there is nothing to copy.

gh-127809 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127809]: Fix an issue where the experimental JIT may infer an incorrect result type for exponentiation (** and **=), leading to bugs or crashes.

gh-126862 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126862]: Fix a possible overflow when a class inherits from an absurd number of super-classes. Reported by Valery Fedorenko. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

C API

gh-128400 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128400]: Py_FatalError() no longer shows all threads on the free threaded build to prevent crashes.

gh-128629 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128629]: Add macros Py_PACK_VERSION() and Py_PACK_FULL_VERSION() for bit-packing Python version numbers.

gh-128008 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128008]: Add PyWeakref_IsDead() function, which tests if a weak reference is dead.

gh-127350 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127350]: Add Py_fopen() function to open a file. Similar to the fopen() function, but the path parameter is a Python object and an exception is set on error. Add also Py_fclose() function to close a file, function needed for Windows support. Patch by Victor Stinner.

Build

gh-128627 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128627]: For Emscripten builds the function pointer cast call trampoline now uses the wasm-gc ref.test instruction if it's available instead of Wasm JS type reflection.

gh-128472 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128472]: Skip BOLT optimization of functions using computed gotos, fixing errors on build with LLVM 19.

gh-115765 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115765]: GNU Autoconf 2.72 is now required to generate configure. Patch by Erlend Aasland.

gh-123925 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123925]: Fix building the curses module on platforms with libncurses but without libncursesw.

gh-90905 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90905]: Add support for cross-compiling to x86_64 on aarch64/arm64 macOS.

gh-128321 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128321]: Set LIBS instead of LDFLAGS when checking if sqlite3 library functions are available. This fixes the ordering of linked libraries during checks, which was incorrect when using a statically linked libsqlite3.

gh-100384 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100384]: Error on unguarded-availability in macOS builds, preventing invalid use of symbols that are not available in older versions of the OS.

gh-128104 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128104]: Remove Py_STRFTIME_C99_SUPPORT conditions in favor of requiring C99 strftime(3) [https://manpages.debian.org/strftime(3)] specifier support at build time. When cross-compiling, there is no build time check and support is assumed.

gh-127951 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127951]: Add option --pystats to the Windows build to enable performance statistics collection.

Python 3.14.0 alpha 3

Release date: 2024-12-17

Windows

gh-127353 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127353]: Allow to force color output on Windows using environment variables. Patch by Andrey Efremov.

gh-125729 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125729]: Makes the presence of the turtle module dependent on the Tcl/Tk installer option. Previously, the module was always installed but would be unusable without Tcl/Tk.

Tools/Demos

gh-126700 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126700]: Add support for multi-argument gettext functions in pygettext.py.

Tests

gh-127906 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127906]: Test the limited C API in test_cppext. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-127637 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127637]: Add tests for the dis command-line interface. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-126925 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126925]: iOS test results are now streamed during test execution, and the deprecated xcresulttool is no longer used.

gh-127076 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127076]: Disable strace based system call tests when LD_PRELOAD is set.

gh-127076 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127076]: Filter out memory-related mmap, munmap, and mprotect calls from file-related ones when testing io behavior using strace.

Security

gh-127655 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127655]: Fixed the asyncio.selector_events._SelectorSocketTransport transport not pausing writes for the protocol when the buffer reaches the high water mark when using asyncio.WriteTransport.writelines().

Library

gh-126907 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126907]: Fix crash when using atexit concurrently on the free-threaded build.

gh-127870 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127870]: Detect recursive calls in ctypes _as_parameter_ handling. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-127732 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127732]: The platform module now correctly detects Windows Server 2025.

gh-126789 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126789]: Fixed sysconfig.get_config_vars(), sysconfig.get_paths(), and siblings, returning outdated cached data if the value of sys.prefix or sys.exec_prefix changes. Overwriting sys.prefix or sys.exec_prefix still is discouraged, as that might break other parts of the code.

gh-127718 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127718]: Add colour to test.regrtest output. Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

gh-127610 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127610]: Added validation for more than one var-positional or var-keyword parameters in inspect.Signature. Patch by Maxim Ageev.

gh-127627 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127627]: Added posix._emscripten_debugger() to help with debugging the test suite on the Emscripten target.

gh-126821 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126821]: macOS and iOS apps can now choose to redirect stdout and stderr to the system log during interpreter configuration.

gh-93312 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93312]: Include <sys/pidfd.h> to get os.PIDFD_NONBLOCK constant. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-127481 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127481]: Add the EPOLLWAKEUP constant to the select module.

gh-127065 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127065]: Make operator.methodcaller() thread-safe and re-entrant safe.

gh-127321 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127321]: pdb.set_trace() will not stop at an opcode that does not have an associated line number anymore.

gh-127429 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127429]: Fixed bug where, on cross-builds, the sysconfig POSIX data was being generated with the host Python's Makefile. The data is now generated from current build's Makefile.

gh-127413 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127413]: Add the dis --specialized command-line option to show specialized bytecode. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-125413 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125413]: Revert addition of pathlib.Path.scandir(). This method was added in 3.14.0a2. The optimizations remain for file system paths, but other subclasses should only have to implement pathlib.Path.iterdir().

gh-127257 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127257]: In ssl, system call failures that OpenSSL reports using ERR_LIB_SYS are now raised as OSError.

gh-59705 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59705]: On Linux, threading.Thread now sets the thread name to the operating system. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-127303 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127303]: Publicly expose EXACT_TOKEN_TYPES in token.__all__.

gh-127331 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127331]: ssl can show descriptions for errors added in OpenSSL 3.4.

gh-123967 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123967]: Fix faulthandler for trampoline frames. If the top-most frame is a trampoline frame, skip it. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-127178 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127178]: A _sysconfig_vars_(...).json file is now shipped in the standard library directory. It contains the output of sysconfig.get_config_vars() on the default environment encoded as JSON data. This is an implementation detail, and may change at any time.

gh-127072 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127072]: Remove outdated socket.NETLINK_* constants not present in Linux kernels beyond 2.6.17.

gh-127255 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127255]: The CopyComPointer() function is now public. Previously, this was private and only available in _ctypes.

gh-127182 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127182]: Fix io.StringIO.__setstate__() crash, when None was passed as the first value.

gh-127217 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127217]: Fix urllib.request.pathname2url() for paths starting with multiple slashes on Posix.

gh-125866 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125866]: urllib.request.pathname2url() now adds an empty authority when generating a URL for a path that begins with exactly one slash. For example, the path /etc/hosts is converted to the scheme-less URL ///etc/hosts. As a result of this change, URLs without authorities are only generated for relative paths.

gh-127221 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127221]: Add colour to unittest output. Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

gh-127035 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127035]: Fix shutil.which on Windows. Now it looks at direct match if and only if the command ends with a PATHEXT extension or X_OK is not in mode. Support extensionless files if "." is in PATHEXT. Support PATHEXT extensions that end with a dot.

gh-122273 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122273]: Support PyREPL history on Windows. Patch by devdanzin and Victor Stinner.

gh-125866 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125866]: urllib.request.pathname2url() and url2pathname() no longer convert Windows drive letters to uppercase.

gh-127078 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127078]: Fix issue where urllib.request.url2pathname() failed to discard an extra slash before a UNC drive in the URL path on Windows.

gh-126766 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126766]: Fix issue where urllib.request.url2pathname() failed to discard any 'localhost' authority present in the URL.

gh-127065 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127065]: Fix crash when calling a operator.methodcaller() instance from multiple threads in the free threading build.

gh-127090 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127090]: Fix value of urllib.response.addinfourl.url for file: URLs that express relative paths and absolute Windows paths. The canonical URL generated by urllib.request.pathname2url() is now used.

gh-126992 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126992]: Fix LONG and INT opcodes to only use base 10 for string to integer conversion in pickle.

gh-126997 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126997]: Fix support of STRING and GLOBAL opcodes with non-ASCII arguments in pickletools. pickletools.dis() now outputs non-ASCII bytes in STRING, BINSTRING and SHORT_BINSTRING arguments as escaped (\xXX).

gh-126316 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126316]: grp: Make grp.getgrall() thread-safe by adding a mutex. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-126618 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126618]: Fix the representation of itertools.count objects when the count value is sys.maxsize.

gh-126615 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126615]: The COMError exception is now public. Previously, this was private and only available in _ctypes.

gh-126985 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126985]: When running under a virtual environment with the site disabled (see -S), sys.prefix and sys.base_prefix will now point to the virtual environment, instead of the base installation.

gh-112192 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112192]: In the trace module, increase the coverage precision (cov%) to one decimal.

gh-118761 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118761]: Improve import time of mimetypes by around 11-16 times. Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

gh-126947 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126947]: Raise TypeError in _pydatetime.timedelta.__new__() if the passed arguments are not int or float, so that the Python implementation is in line with the C implementation.

gh-126946 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126946]: Improve the GetoptError error message when a long option prefix matches multiple accepted options in getopt.getopt() and getopt.gnu_getopt().

gh-126899 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126899]: Make tkinter widget methods after() and after_idle() accept arguments passed by keyword.

gh-85168 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85168]: Fix issue where urllib.request.url2pathname() and pathname2url() always used UTF-8 when quoting and unquoting file URIs. They now use the filesystem encoding and error handler.

gh-126780 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126780]: Fix os.path.normpath() for drive-relative paths on Windows.

gh-126775 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126775]: Make linecache.checkcache() thread safe and GC re-entrancy safe.

gh-126601 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126601]: Fix issue where urllib.request.pathname2url() raised OSError when given a Windows path containing a colon character not following a drive letter, such as before an NTFS alternate data stream.

gh-126727 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126727]: locale.nl_langinfo(locale.ERA) now returns multiple era description segments separated by semicolons. Previously it only returned the first segment on platforms with Glibc.

gh-85046 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85046]: Add EHWPOISON error code to errno.

gh-118201 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118201]: Fixed intermittent failures of os.confstr, os.pathconf and os.sysconf on iOS and Android.

gh-86463 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86463]: The usage parameter of argparse.ArgumentParser no longer affects the default value of the prog parameter in subparsers.

gh-124008 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124008]: Fix possible crash (in debug build), incorrect output or returning incorrect value from raw binary write() when writing to console on Windows.

gh-123401 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123401]: The http.cookies module now supports parsing obsolete RFC 850 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc850.html] date formats, in accordance with RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html] requirements. Patch by Nano Zheng.

gh-122431 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122431]: readline.append_history_file() now raises a ValueError when given a negative value.

gh-122356 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122356]: Guarantee that the position of a file-like object passed to zipfile.is_zipfile() is left untouched after the call. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-122288 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122288]: Improve the performances of fnmatch.translate() by a factor 1.7. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-88110 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88110]: Fixed multiprocessing.Process reporting a .exitcode of 1 even on success when using the "fork" start method while using a concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor.

gh-97514 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97514]: Authentication was added to the multiprocessing forkserver start method control socket so that only processes with the authentication key generated by the process that spawned the forkserver can control it. This is an enhancement over the other gh-97514 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97514] fixes so that access is no longer limited only by filesystem permissions.

The file descriptor exchange of control pipes with the forked worker process now requires an explicit acknowledgement byte to be sent over the socket after the exchange on all forkserver supporting platforms. That makes testing the above much easier.

Documentation

gh-127347 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127347]: Publicly expose traceback.print_list() in traceback.__all__.

Core and Builtins

gh-127740 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127740]: Fix error message in bytes.fromhex() when given an odd number of digits to properly indicate that an even number of hexadecimal digits is required.

gh-127058 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127058]: PySequence_Tuple now creates the resulting tuple atomically, preventing partially created tuples being visible to the garbage collector or through gc.get_referrers()

gh-127599 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127599]: Fix statistics for increments of object reference counts (in particular, when a reference count was increased by more than 1 in a single operation).

gh-127651 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127651]: When raising ImportError for missing symbols in from imports, use __file__ in the error message if __spec__.origin is not a location

gh-127582 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127582]: Fix non-thread-safe object resurrection when calling finalizers and watcher callbacks in the free threading build.

gh-127434 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127434]: The iOS compiler shims can now accept arguments with spaces.

gh-127536 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127536]: Add missing locks around some list assignment operations in the free threading build.

gh-127085 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127085]: Fix race when exporting a buffer from a memoryview object on the free-threaded build.

gh-127238 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127238]: Correct error message for sys.set_int_max_str_digits().

gh-113841 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113841]: Fix possible undefined behavior division by zero in complex's _Py_c_pow().

Library

gh-127133 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127133]: Calling argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument_group() on an argument group, and calling argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument_group() or argparse.ArgumentParser.add_mutually_exclusive_group() on a mutually exclusive group now raise exceptions. This nesting was never supported, often failed to work correctly, and was unintentionally exposed through inheritance. This functionality has been deprecated since Python 3.11.

Core and Builtins

gh-126491 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126491]: Add a marking phase to the GC. All objects that can be transitively reached from builtin modules or the stacks are marked as reachable before cycle detection. This reduces the amount of work done by the GC by approximately half.

gh-127020 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127020]: Fix a crash in the free threading build when PyCode_GetCode(), PyCode_GetVarnames(), PyCode_GetCellvars(), or PyCode_GetFreevars() were called from multiple threads at the same time.

gh-127010 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127010]: Simplify GC tracking of dictionaries. All dictionaries are tracked when created, rather than being lazily tracked when a trackable object was added to them. This simplifies the code considerably and results in a slight speedup.

gh-126980 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126980]: Fix __buffer__() of bytearray crashing when READ or WRITE are passed as flags.

gh-126937 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126937]: Fix TypeError when a ctypes.Structure has a field size that doesn't fit into an unsigned 16-bit integer. Instead, the maximum number of bits is sys.maxsize.

gh-126868 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126868]: Increase performance of int by adding a freelist for compact ints.

gh-126881 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126881]: Fix crash in finalization of dtoa state. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-126892 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126892]: Require cold or invalidated code to "warm up" before being JIT compiled again.

gh-126091 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126091]: Ensure stack traces are complete when throwing into a generator chain that ends in a custom generator.

gh-126024 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126024]: Optimize decoding of short UTF-8 sequences containing non-ASCII characters by approximately 15%.

gh-125420 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125420]: Add memoryview.index() to memoryview objects. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-125420 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125420]: Add memoryview.count() to memoryview objects. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-124470 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124470]: Fix crash in free-threaded builds when replacing object dictionary while reading attribute on another thread

gh-69639 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69639]: Implement mixed-mode arithmetic rules combining real and complex numbers as specified by C standards since C99. Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

gh-120010 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120010]: Correct invalid corner cases which resulted in (nan+nanj) output in complex multiplication, e.g., (1e300+1j)*(nan+infj). Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

gh-109746 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109746]: If _thread.start_new_thread() fails to start a new thread, it deletes its state from interpreter and thus avoids its repeated cleanup on finalization.

C API

gh-127896 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127896]: The previously undocumented function PySequence_In() is soft deprecated. Use PySequence_Contains() instead.

gh-127791 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127791]: Fix loss of callbacks after more than one call to PyUnstable_AtExit().

gh-127691 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127691]: The Unicode Exception Objects C API now raises a TypeError if its exception argument is not a UnicodeError object. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-123378 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123378]: Ensure that the value of UnicodeEncodeError.end retrieved by PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEnd() lies in [min(1, objlen), max(min(1, objlen), objlen)] where objlen is the length of UnicodeEncodeError.object. Similar arguments apply to UnicodeDecodeError and UnicodeTranslateError and their corresponding C interface. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-127314 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127314]: Improve error message when calling the C API without an active thread state on the free-threaded build.

gh-123378 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123378]: Ensure that the value of UnicodeEncodeError.start retrieved by PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetStart() lies in [0, max(0, objlen - 1)] where objlen is the length of UnicodeEncodeError.object. Similar arguments apply to UnicodeDecodeError and UnicodeTranslateError and their corresponding C interface. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-109523 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109523]: Reading text from a non-blocking stream with read may now raise a BlockingIOError if the operation cannot immediately return bytes.

gh-102471 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102471]: Add a new import and export API for Python int objects (PEP 757 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0757/]):

PyLong_GetNativeLayout();

PyLong_Export();

PyLong_FreeExport();

PyLongWriter_Create();

PyLongWriter_Finish();

PyLongWriter_Discard().

Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-121058 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121058]: PyThreadState_Clear() now warns (and calls sys.excepthook) if the thread state still has an active exception.

Build

gh-127865 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127865]: Fix build failure on systems without thread-locals support.

gh-127629 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127629]: Emscripten builds now include ctypes support.

gh-127111 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127111]: Updated the Emscripten web example to use ES6 modules and be built into a distinct web_example subfolder.

gh-115869 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115869]: Make jit_stencils.h (which is produced during JIT builds) reproducible.

gh-126898 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126898]: The Emscripten build of Python is now based on ES6 modules.

Python 3.14.0 alpha 2

Release date: 2024-11-19

Windows

gh-126911 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126911]: Update credits command output.

gh-118973 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118973]: Ensures the experimental free-threaded install includes the _tkinter module. The optional Tcl/Tk component must also be installed in order for the module to work.

gh-126497 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126497]: Fixes venv failure due to missing redirector executables in experimental free-threaded installs.

gh-126074 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126074]: Removed unnecessary DLLs from Windows embeddable package

gh-125315 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125315]: Avoid crashing in platform due to slow WMI calls on some Windows machines.

gh-126084 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126084]: Fix venvwlauncher to launch pythonw instead of python so no extra console window is created.

gh-125842 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125842]: Fix a SystemError when sys.exit() is called with 0xffffffff on Windows.

gh-125550 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125550]: Enable the Python install manager to detect Python 3.14 installs from the Windows Store.

gh-123803 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123803]: All Windows code pages are now supported as "cpXXX" codecs on Windows.

Tools/Demos

gh-126807 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126807]: Fix extraction warnings in pygettext.py caused by mistaking function definitions for function calls.

gh-126167 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126167]: The iOS testbed was modified so that it can be used by third-party projects for testing purposes.

Tests

gh-126909 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126909]: Fix test_os extended attribute tests to work on filesystems with 1 KiB xattr size limit.

gh-125730 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125730]: Change make test to not run GUI tests by default. Use make ci to run tests with GUI tests instead.

gh-124295 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124295]: Add translation tests to the argparse module.

Security

gh-126623 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126623]: Upgrade libexpat to 2.6.4

Library

gh-85957 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85957]: Add missing MIME types for images with RFCs: emf, fits, g3fax, jp2, jpm, jpx, t38, tiff-fx and wmf. Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

gh-126920 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126920]: Fix the prefix and exec_prefix keys from sysconfig.get_config_vars() incorrectly having the same value as sys.base_prefix and sys.base_exec_prefix, respectively, inside virtual environments. They now accurately reflect sys.prefix and sys.exec_prefix.

gh-67877 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67877]: Fix memory leaks when regular expression matching terminates abruptly, either because of a signal or because memory allocation fails.

gh-125063 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125063]: marshal now supports slice objects. The marshal format version was increased to 5.

gh-126789 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126789]: Fixed the values of sysconfig.get_config_vars(), sysconfig.get_paths(), and their siblings when the site initialization happens after sysconfig has built a cache for sysconfig.get_config_vars().

gh-126188 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126188]: Update bundled pip to 24.3.1

gh-126766 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126766]: Fix issue where urllib.request.url2pathname() failed to discard two leading slashes introducing an empty authority section.

gh-126705 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126705]: Allow os.PathLike to be a base for Protocols.

gh-126699 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126699]: Allow collections.abc.AsyncIterator to be a base for Protocols.

gh-126654 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126654]: Fix crash when non-dict was passed to several functions in _interpreters module.

gh-104745 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104745]: Limit starting a patcher (from unittest.mock.patch() or unittest.mock.patch.object()) more than once without stopping it

gh-126595 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126595]: Fix a crash when instantiating itertools.count with an initial count of sys.maxsize on debug builds. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-120423 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120423]: Fix issue where urllib.request.pathname2url() mishandled Windows paths with embedded forward slashes.

gh-126565 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126565]: Improve performances of zipfile.Path.open() for non-reading modes.

gh-126505 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126505]: Fix bugs in compiling case-insensitive regular expressions with character classes containing non-BMP characters: upper-case non-BMP character did was ignored and the ASCII flag was ignored when matching a character range whose upper bound is beyond the BMP region.

gh-117378 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117378]: Fixed the multiprocessing "forkserver" start method forkserver process to correctly inherit the parent's sys.path during the importing of multiprocessing.set_forkserver_preload() modules in the same manner as sys.path is configured in workers before executing work items.

This bug caused some forkserver module preloading to silently fail to preload. This manifested as a performance degradation in child processes when the sys.path was required due to additional repeated work in every worker.

It could also have a side effect of "" remaining in sys.path during forkserver preload imports instead of the absolute path from os.getcwd() at multiprocessing import time used in the worker sys.path.

The sys.path differences between phases in the child process could potentially have caused preload to import incorrect things from the wrong location. We are unaware of that actually having happened in practice.

gh-125679 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125679]: The multiprocessing.Lock and multiprocessing.RLock repr values no longer say "unknown" on macOS.

gh-126476 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126476]: Raise calendar.IllegalMonthError (now a subclass of IndexError) for calendar.month() when the input month is not correct.

gh-126489 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126489]: The Python implementation of pickle no longer calls pickle.Pickler.persistent_id() for the result of persistent_id().

gh-126451 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126451]: Register the contextvars.Context type to collections.abc.Mapping.

gh-126175 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126175]: Add msg, doc, pos, lineno and colno attributes to tomllib.TOMLDecodeError. Deprecate instantiating with free-form arguments.

gh-89416 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89416]: Add RFC 9559 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9559.html] MIME types for Matroska audiovisual container formats. Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

gh-126417 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126417]: Register the multiprocessing.managers.DictProxy and multiprocessing.managers.ListProxy types in multiprocessing.managers to collections.abc.MutableMapping and collections.abc.MutableSequence, respectively.

gh-126390 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126390]: Add support for returning intermixed options and non-option arguments in order in getopt.gnu_getopt().

gh-126374 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126374]: Add support for options with optional arguments in the getopt module.

gh-126363 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126363]: Speed up pattern parsing in pathlib.Path.glob() by skipping creation of a pathlib.Path object for the pattern.

gh-126353 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126353]: asyncio.get_event_loop() now does not implicitly creates an event loop. It now raises a RuntimeError if there is no set event loop. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-126313 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126313]: Fix an issue in curses.napms() when curses.initscr() has not yet been called. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-126303 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126303]: Fix pickling and copying of os.sched_param objects.

gh-126138 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126138]: Fix a use-after-free crash on asyncio.Task objects whose underlying coroutine yields an object that implements an evil __getattribute__(). Patch by Nico Posada.

gh-120057 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120057]: Replace the os.environ.refresh() method with a new os.reload_environ() function. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-126220 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126220]: Fix crash in cProfile.Profile and _lsprof.Profiler when their callbacks were directly called with 0 arguments.

gh-126212 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126212]: Fix issue where urllib.request.pathname2url() and url2pathname() removed slashes from Windows DOS drive paths and URLs.

gh-126223 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126223]: Raise a UnicodeEncodeError instead of a SystemError upon calling _interpreters.create() with an invalid Unicode character.

gh-126205 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126205]: Fix issue where urllib.request.pathname2url() generated URLs beginning with four slashes (rather than two) when given a Windows UNC path.

gh-126156 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126156]: Improved performances of creating Morsel objects by a factor of 3.8x.

gh-126105 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126105]: Fix a crash in ast when the ast.AST._fields attribute is deleted.

gh-126106 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126106]: Fixes a possible NULL pointer dereference in ssl.

gh-126080 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126080]: Fix a use-after-free crash on asyncio.Task objects for which the underlying event loop implements an evil __getattribute__(). Reported by Nico-Posada. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-125322 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125322]: Correct detection of complex numbers support in libffi.

gh-126083 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126083]: Fixed a reference leak in asyncio.Task objects when reinitializing the same object with a non-None context. Patch by Nico Posada.

gh-126068 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126068]: Fix exceptions in the argparse module so that only error messages for ArgumentError and ArgumentTypeError are now translated. ArgumentError is now only used for command line errors, not for logical errors in the program. TypeError is now raised instead of ValueError for some logical errors.

gh-125413 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125413]: Add pathlib.Path.scandir() method to efficiently fetch directory children and their file attributes. This is a trivial wrapper of os.scandir().

gh-125984 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125984]: Fix use-after-free crashes on asyncio.Future objects for which the underlying event loop implements an evil __getattribute__(). Reported by Nico-Posada. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-125926 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125926]: Fix urllib.parse.urljoin() for base URI with undefined authority. Although RFC 3986 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html] only specify reference resolution for absolute base URI, urljoin() should continue to return sensible result for relative base URI.

gh-125969 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125969]: Fix an out-of-bounds crash when an evil asyncio.loop.call_soon() mutates the length of the internal callbacks list. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-125966 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125966]: Fix a use-after-free crash in asyncio.Future.remove_done_callback(). Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-125789 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125789]: Fix possible crash when mutating list of callbacks returned by asyncio.Future._callbacks. It now always returns a new copy in C implementation _asyncio. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-126916 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126916]: Allow the initial parameter of functools.reduce() to be passed as a keyword argument. Patch by Sayandip Dutta.

gh-124452 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124452]: Fix an issue in email.policy.EmailPolicy.header_source_parse() and email.policy.Compat32.header_source_parse() that introduced spurious leading whitespaces into header values when the header includes a newline character after the header name delimiter (:) and before the value.

gh-117941 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117941]: argparse.BooleanOptionalAction now rejects option names starting with --no-.

gh-125884 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125884]: Fixed the bug for pdb where it can't set breakpoints on functions with certain annotations.

gh-125355 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125355]: Fix several bugs in argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args().

The parser no longer changes temporarily during parsing.

Default values are not processed twice.

Required mutually exclusive groups containing positional arguments are now supported.

The missing arguments report now includes the names of all required optional and positional arguments.

Unknown options can be intermixed with positional arguments in parse_known_intermixed_args().

gh-125767 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125767]: super objects are now pickleable and copyable.

gh-124969 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124969]: locale.nl_langinfo(locale.ALT_DIGITS) now returns a string again. The returned value consists of up to 100 semicolon-separated symbols.

gh-84850 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84850]: Remove URLopener and FancyURLopener classes from urllib.request. They had previously raised DeprecationWarning since Python 3.3.

gh-125666 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125666]: Avoid the exiting the interpreter if a null byte is given as input in the new REPL.

gh-125710 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125710]: [Enum] fix hashable<->nonhashable comparisons for member values

gh-125631 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125631]: Restore ability to set persistent_id and persistent_load attributes of instances of the Pickler and Unpickler classes in the pickle module.

gh-125378 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125378]: Fixed the bug in pdb where after a multi-line command, an empty line repeats the first line of the multi-line command, instead of the full command.

gh-125682 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125682]: Reject non-ASCII digits in the Python implementation of json.loads() conforming to the JSON specification.

gh-125660 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125660]: Reject invalid unicode escapes for Python implementation of json.loads().

gh-52551 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/52551]: Use wcsftime() to implement time.strftime() on Windows.

gh-125259 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125259]: Fix the notes removal logic for errors thrown in enum initialization.

gh-125633 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125633]: Add function inspect.ispackage() to determine whether an object is a package or not.

gh-125614 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125614]: In the FORWARDREF format of annotationlib, fix bug where nested expressions were not returned as annotationlib.ForwardRef format.

gh-125590 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125590]: Allow FrameLocalsProxy to delete and pop if the key is not a fast variable.

gh-125600 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125600]: Only show stale code warning in pdb when we display source code.

gh-125542 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125542]: Deprecate passing keyword-only prefix_chars argument to argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument_group().

gh-125541 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125541]: Pressing Ctrl-C while blocked in threading.Lock.acquire(), threading.RLock.acquire(), and threading.Thread.join() now interrupts the function call and raises a KeyboardInterrupt exception on Windows, similar to how those functions behave on macOS and Linux.

gh-125519 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125519]: Improve traceback if importlib.reload() is called with an object that is not a module. Patch by Alex Waygood.

gh-125451 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125451]: Fix deadlock when concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor shuts down concurrently with an error when feeding a job to a worker process.

gh-125115 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125115]: Fixed a bug in pdb where arguments starting with - can't be passed to the debugged script.

gh-125398 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125398]: Fix the conversion of the VIRTUAL_ENV path in the activate script in venv when running in Git Bash for Windows.

gh-125245 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125245]: Fix race condition when importing collections.abc, which could incorrectly return an empty module.

gh-52551 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/52551]: Fix encoding issues in time.strftime(), the strftime() method of the datetime classes datetime, date and time and formatting of these classes. Characters not encodable in the current locale are now acceptable in the format string. Surrogate pairs and sequence of surrogatescape-encoded bytes are no longer recombinated. Embedded null character no longer terminates the format string.

gh-124984 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124984]: Fixed thread safety in ssl in the free-threaded build. OpenSSL operations are now protected by a per-object lock.

gh-124651 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124651]: Properly quote template strings in venv activation scripts.

gh-124694 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124694]: We've added concurrent.futures.InterpreterPoolExecutor, which allows you to run code in multiple isolated interpreters. This allows you to circumvent the limitations of CPU-bound threads (due to the GIL). Patch by Eric Snow.

This addition is unrelated to PEP 734 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0734/].

gh-58032 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/58032]: Deprecate the argparse.FileType type converter.

gh-99749 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99749]: Adds a feature to optionally enable suggestions for argument choices and subparser names if mistyped by the user.

gh-58956 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/58956]: Fixed a bug in pdb where sometimes the breakpoint won't trigger if it was set on a function which is already in the call stack.

gh-124111 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124111]: The tkinter module can now be built to use either the new version 9.0.0 of Tcl/Tk or the latest release 8.6.15 of Tcl/Tk 8. Tcl/Tk 9 includes many improvements, both to the Tcl language and to the appearance and utility of the graphical user interface provided by Tk.

gh-80958 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80958]: unittest discovery supports PEP 420 namespace packages as start directory again.

gh-123370 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123370]: Fix the canvas not clearing after running turtledemo clock.

gh-89083 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89083]: Add uuid.uuid8() for generating UUIDv8 objects as specified in RFC 9562 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9562.html]. Patch by Bénédikt Tran

gh-122549 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122549]: Add platform.invalidate_caches() to invalidate cached results.

gh-120754 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120754]: Update unbounded read calls in zipfile to specify an explicit size putting a limit on how much data they may read. This also updates handling around ZIP max comment size to match the standard instead of reading comments that are one byte too long.

gh-121267 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121267]: Improve the performance of tarfile when writing files, by caching user names and group names.

gh-70764 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70764]: Fixed an issue where inspect.getclosurevars() would incorrectly classify an attribute name as a global variable when the name exists both as an attribute name and a global variable.

gh-118289 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118289]: posixpath.realpath() now raises NotADirectoryError when strict mode is enabled and a non-directory path with a trailing slash is supplied.

gh-119826 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119826]: Always return an absolute path for os.path.abspath() on Windows.

gh-97850 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850]: Remove deprecated pkgutil.get_loader() and pkgutil.find_loader().

gh-118986 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118986]: Add socket.IPV6_RECVERR constant (available since Linux 2.2).

gh-116897 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116897]: Accepting objects with false values (like 0 and []) except empty strings, byte-like objects and None in urllib.parse functions parse_qsl() and parse_qs() is now deprecated.

gh-101955 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101955]: Fix SystemError when match regular expression pattern containing some combination of possessive quantifier, alternative and capture group.

gh-71936 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71936]: Fix a race condition in multiprocessing.pool.Pool.

bpo-46128 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46128]: Strip unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase stack frames from reported stacktraces.

gh-84852 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84852]: Add MIME types for MS Embedded OpenType, OpenType Layout, TrueType, WOFF 1.0 and 2.0 fonts. Patch by Sahil Prajapati and Hugo van Kemenade.

Documentation

gh-126622 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126622]: Added stub pages for removed modules explaining their removal, where to find replacements, and linking to the last Python version that supported them. Contributed by Ned Batchelder.

gh-125277 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125277]: Require Sphinx 7.2.6 or later to build the Python documentation. Patch by Adam Turner.

gh-60712 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/60712]: Include the object type in the lists of documented types. Change by Furkan Onder and Martin Panter.

Core and Builtins

gh-126795 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126795]: Increase the threshold for JIT code warmup. Depending on platform and workload, this can result in performance gains of 1-9% and memory savings of 3-5%.

gh-126341 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126341]: Now ValueError is raised instead of SystemError when trying to iterate over a released memoryview object.

gh-126688 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126688]: Fix a crash when calling os.fork() on some operating systems, including SerenityOS.

Library

gh-126066 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126066]: Fix importlib to not write an incomplete .pyc files when a ulimit or some other operating system mechanism is preventing the write to go through fully.

Core and Builtins

gh-126222 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126222]: Do not include count of "peek" items in _PyUop_num_popped. This ensures that the correct number of items are popped from the stack when a micro-op exits with an error.

gh-126366 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126366]: Fix crash when using yield from on an object that raises an exception in its __iter__.

Library

gh-126209 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126209]: Fix an issue with skip_file_prefixes parameter which resulted in an inconsistent behaviour between the C and Python implementations of warnings.warn(). Patch by Daehee Kim.

Core and Builtins

gh-126312 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126312]: Fix crash during garbage collection on an object frozen by gc.freeze() on the free-threaded build.

gh-103951 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103951]: Relax optimization requirements to allow fast attribute access to module subclasses.

gh-126072 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126072]: Following gh-126101 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126101], for Objets code like lambda, annotation and type alias, we no longer add None to its co_consts.

gh-126195 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126195]: Improve JIT performance by 1.4% on macOS Apple Silicon by using platform-specific memory protection APIs. Patch by Diego Russo.

gh-126139 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126139]: Provide better error location when attempting to use a future statement with an unknown future feature.

gh-126072 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126072]: Add a new attribute in co_flags to indicate whether the first item in co_consts is the docstring. If a code object has no docstring, None will NOT be inserted.

gh-126076 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126076]: Relocated objects such as tuple, bytes and str objects are properly tracked by tracemalloc and its associated hooks. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

gh-90370 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90370]: Avoid temporary tuple creation for vararg in argument passing with Argument Clinic generated code (if arguments either vararg or positional-only).

gh-126018 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126018]: Fix a crash in sys.audit() when passing a non-string as first argument and Python was compiled in debug mode.

gh-126012 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126012]: The memoryview type now supports subscription, making it a generic type.

gh-125837 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125837]: Adds LOAD_SMALL_INT and LOAD_CONST_IMMORTAL instructions. LOAD_SMALL_INT pushes a small integer equal to the oparg to the stack. LOAD_CONST_IMMORTAL does the same as LOAD_CONST but is more efficient for immortal objects. Removes RETURN_CONST instruction.

gh-125942 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125942]: On Android, the errors setting of sys.stdout was changed from surrogateescape to backslashreplace.

gh-125859 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125859]: Fix a crash in the free threading build when gc.get_objects() or gc.get_referrers() is called during an in-progress garbage collection.

gh-125868 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125868]: It was possible in 3.14.0a1 only for attribute lookup to give the wrong value. This was due to an incorrect specialization in very specific circumstances. This is fixed in 3.14.0a2.

gh-125498 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125498]: The JIT has been updated to leverage Clang 19’s new preserve_none attribute, which supports more platforms and is more useful than LLVM's existing ghccc calling convention. This also removes the need to manually patch the calling convention in LLVM IR, simplifying the JIT compilation process.

gh-125703 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125703]: Correctly honour tracemalloc hooks in specialized Py_DECREF paths. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-125593 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125593]: Use color to highlight error locations in traceback from exception group

gh-125017 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125017]: Fix crash on certain accesses to the __annotations__ of staticmethod and classmethod objects.

gh-125588 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125588]: The Python PEG generator can now use f-strings in the grammar actions. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-125444 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125444]: Fix illegal instruction for older Arm architectures. Patch by Diego Russo, testing by Ross Burton.

gh-118423 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118423]: Add a new INSTRUCTION_SIZE macro to the cases generator which returns the current instruction size.

gh-125038 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125038]: Fix crash when iterating over a generator expression after direct changes on gi_frame.f_locals. Patch by Mikhail Efimov.

gh-124855 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124855]: Don't allow the JIT and perf support to be active at the same time. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-123714 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123714]: Update JIT compilation to use LLVM 19

gh-123930 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123930]: Improve the error message when a script shadowing a module from the standard library causes ImportError to be raised during a "from" import. Similarly, improve the error message when a script shadowing a third party module attempts to "from" import an attribute from that third party module while still initialising.

gh-119793 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119793]: The map() built-in now has an optional keyword-only strict flag like zip() to check that all the iterables are of equal length. Patch by Wannes Boeykens.

Library

gh-118950 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118950]: Fix bug where SSLProtocol.connection_lost wasn't getting called when OSError was thrown on writing to socket.

gh-113570 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113570]: Fixed a bug in reprlib.repr where it incorrectly called the repr method on shadowed Python built-in types.

C API

gh-126554 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126554]: Fix error handling in ctypes.CDLL objects which could result in a crash in rare situations.

gh-126061 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126061]: Add PyLong_IsPositive(), PyLong_IsNegative() and PyLong_IsZero() for checking if a PyLongObject is positive, negative, or zero, respectively.

gh-125608 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125608]: Fix a bug where dictionary watchers (e.g., PyDict_Watch()) on an object's attribute dictionary (__dict__) were not triggered when the object's attributes were modified.

gh-123619 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123619]: Added the PyUnstable_Object_EnableDeferredRefcount() function for enabling PEP 703 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/] deferred reference counting.

gh-121654 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121654]: Add PyType_Freeze() function to make a type immutable. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-120026 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120026]: The Py_HUGE_VAL macro is soft deprecated.

Build

gh-126691 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126691]: Removed the --with-emscripten-target configure flag. We unified the node and browser options and the same build can now be used, independent of target runtime.

gh-123877 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123877]: Use wasm32-wasip1 as the target triple for WASI instead of wasm32-wasi. The latter will eventually be reclaimed for WASI 1.0 while CPython currently only supports WASI preview1.

gh-126458 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126458]: Disable SIMD support for HACL under WASI.

gh-89640 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89640]: Hard-code float word ordering as little endian on WASM.

gh-126206 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126206]: make clinic now runs Argument Clinic using the --force option, thus forcefully regenerating generated code.

gh-126187 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126187]: Introduced Tools/wasm/emscripten.py to simplify doing Emscripten builds.

gh-124932 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124932]: For cross builds, there is now support for having a different install prefix than the host_prefix used by getpath.py. This is set to / by default for Emscripten, on other platforms the default behavior is the same as before.

gh-125946 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125946]: The minimum supported Android version is now 7.0 (API level 24).

gh-125940 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125940]: The Android build now supports 16 KB page sizes [https://developer.android.com/guide/practices/page-sizes].

gh-89640 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89640]: Improve detection of float word ordering on Linux when link-time optimizations are enabled.

gh-124928 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124928]: Emscripten builds now require node >= 18.

gh-115382 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115382]: Fix cross compile failures when the host and target SOABIs match.

Python 3.14.0 alpha 1

Release date: 2024-10-15

macOS

gh-124448 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124448]: Update bundled Tcl/Tk in macOS installer to 8.6.15.

gh-123797 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123797]: Check for runtime availability of ptsname_r function on macos.

gh-123418 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123418]: Updated macOS installer build to use OpenSSL 3.0.15.

Windows

gh-124487 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124487]: Increases Windows required OS and API level to Windows 10.

gh-124609 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124609]: Fix _Py_ThreadId for Windows builds using MinGW. Patch by Tony Roberts.

gh-124448 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124448]: Updated bundled Tcl/Tk to 8.6.15.

gh-124254 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124254]: Ensures experimental free-threaded binaries remain installed when updating.

gh-123915 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123915]: Ensure that Tools\msi\buildrelease.bat uses different directories for AMD64 and ARM64 builds.

gh-123418 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123418]: Updated Windows build to use OpenSSL 3.0.15.

gh-123476 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123476]: Add support for socket.TCP_QUICKACK on Windows platforms.

gh-122573 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122573]: The Windows build of CPython now requires 3.10 or newer.

gh-100256 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100256]: mimetypes no longer fails when it encounters an inaccessible registry key.

gh-119679 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119679]: Ensures correct import libraries are included in Windows installs.

gh-119690 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119690]: Adds Unicode support and fixes audit events for _winapi.CreateNamedPipe.

gh-111201 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111201]: Add support for new pyrepl on Windows

gh-119070 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119070]: Fixes py.exe handling of shebangs like /usr/bin/env python3.12, which were previously interpreted as python3.exe instead of python3.12.exe.

gh-117505 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117505]: Fixes an issue with the Windows installer not running ensurepip in a fully isolated environment. This could cause unexpected interactions with the user site-packages.

gh-118209 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118209]: Avoid crashing in mmap on Windows when the mapped memory is inaccessible due to file system errors or access violations.

gh-79846 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79846]: Makes ssl.create_default_context() ignore invalid certificates in the Windows certificate store

Tools/Demos

gh-123418 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123418]: Update GitHub CI workflows to use OpenSSL 3.0.15 and multissltests to use 3.0.15, 3.1.7, and 3.2.3.

Tests

gh-125041 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125041]: Re-enable skipped tests for zlib on the s390x architecture: only skip checks of the compressed bytes, which can be different between zlib's software implementation and the hardware-accelerated implementation.

gh-124378 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124378]: Updated test_ttk to pass with Tcl/Tk 8.6.15.

gh-124213 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124213]: Detect whether the test suite is running inside a systemd-nspawn container with --suppress-sync=true option, and skip the test_os and test_mmap tests that are failing in this scenario.

gh-124190 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124190]: Add capability to ignore entire files or directories in check warning CI tool

gh-121921 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121921]: Update Lib/test/crashers/bogus_code_obj.py so that it crashes properly again.

gh-112301 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112301]: Add tooling to check for changes in compiler warnings. Patch by Nate Ohlson.

gh-59022 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59022]: Add tests for pkgutil.extend_path(). Patch by Andreas Stocker.

gh-99242 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99242]: os.getloadavg() may throw OSError when running regression tests under certain conditions (e.g. chroot). This error is now caught and ignored, since reporting load average is optional.

gh-121084 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121084]: Fix test_typing random leaks. Clear typing ABC caches when running tests for refleaks (-R option): call _abc_caches_clear() on typing abstract classes and their subclasses. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-121160 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121160]: Add a test for readline.set_history_length(). Note that this test may fail on readline libraries.

gh-121200 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121200]: Fix test_expanduser_pwd2() of test_posixpath. Call getpwnam() to get pw_dir, since it can be different than getpwall() pw_dir. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-121188 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121188]: When creating the JUnit XML file, regrtest now escapes characters which are invalid in XML, such as the chr(27) control character used in ANSI escape sequences. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-120801 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120801]: Cleaned up fixtures for importlib.metadata tests and consolidated behavior with 'test.support.os_helper'.

gh-119727 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119727]: Add --single-process command line option to Python test runner (regrtest). Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-119273 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119273]: Python test runner no longer runs tests using TTY (ex: test_ioctl) in a process group (using setsid()). Previously, tests using TTY were skipped. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-119050 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119050]: regrtest test runner: Add XML support to the refleak checker (-R option). Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-101525 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101525]: Skip test_gdb if the binary is relocated by BOLT. Patch by Donghee Na.

gh-107562 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107562]: Test certificates have been updated to expire far in the future. This allows testing Y2038 with system time set to after that, so that actual Y2038 issues can be exposed, and not masked by expired certificate errors.

Security

gh-125140 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125140]: Remove the current directory from sys.path when using PyREPL.

gh-123678 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123678]: Upgrade libexpat to 2.6.3

gh-112301 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112301]: Enable compiler options that warn of potential security vulnerabilities.

gh-122792 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122792]: Changed IPv4-mapped ipaddress.IPv6Address to consistently use the mapped IPv4 address value for deciding properties. Properties which have their behavior fixed are is_multicast, is_reserved, is_link_local, is_global, and is_unspecified.

gh-112301 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112301]: Add ability to ignore warnings per file with warning count in warning checking tooling. Patch by Nate Ohlson.

gh-112301 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112301]: Add macOS warning tracking to warning check tooling. Patch by Nate Ohlson.

gh-122133 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122133]: Authenticate the socket connection for the socket.socketpair() fallback on platforms where AF_UNIX is not available like Windows.

Patch by Gregory P. Smith <greg@krypto.org> and Seth Larson <seth@python.org>. Reported by Ellie <el@horse64.org>

gh-121957 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121957]: Fixed missing audit events around interactive use of Python, now also properly firing for python -i, as well as for python -m asyncio. The events in question are cpython.run_stdin and cpython.run_startup.

gh-112301 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112301]: Enable runtime protections for glibc to abort execution when unsafe behavior is encountered, for all platforms except Windows.

gh-121285 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121285]: Remove backtracking from tarfile header parsing for hdrcharset, PAX, and GNU sparse headers.

gh-112301 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112301]: Add default compiler options to improve security. Enable -Wimplicit-fallthrough, -fstack-protector-strong, -Wtrampolines.

gh-118773 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118773]: Fixes creation of ACLs in os.mkdir() on Windows to work correctly on non-English machines.

gh-118486 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118486]: os.mkdir() on Windows now accepts mode of 0o700 to restrict the new directory to the current user. This fixes CVE 2024-4030 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2024-4030] affecting tempfile.mkdtemp() in scenarios where the base temporary directory is more permissive than the default.

Library

gh-125422 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125422]: Fixed the bug where pdb and bdb can step into the bottom caller frame.

gh-100141 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100141]: Fixed the bug where pdb will be stuck in an infinite loop when debugging an empty file.

gh-53203 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/53203]: Fix time.strptime() for %c, %x and %X formats in many locales that use non-ASCII digits, like Persian, Burmese, Odia and Shan.

gh-125206 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125206]: Workaround for old libffi versions is added. Module ctypes supports double complex only with libffi >= 3.3.0. Patch by Mikhail Efimov.

gh-89967 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89967]: Make WeakKeyDictionary and WeakValueDictionary safe against concurrent mutations from other threads. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-125260 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125260]: The gzip.compress() mtime parameter now defaults to 0 for reproducible output. Patch by Bernhard M. Wiedemann and Adam Turner.

gh-125243 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125243]: Fix data race when creating zoneinfo.ZoneInfo objects in the free threading build.

gh-125254 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125254]: Fix a bug where ArgumentError includes the incorrect ambiguous option in argparse.

gh-125235 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125235]: Keep tkinter TCL paths in venv pointing to base installation on Windows.

gh-61011 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61011]: Fix inheritance of nested mutually exclusive groups from parent parser in argparse.ArgumentParser. Previously, all nested mutually exclusive groups lost their connection to the group containing them and were displayed as belonging directly to the parser.

gh-125118 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125118]: Don't copy arbitrary values to _Bool in the struct module.

gh-125069 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125069]: Fix an issue where providing a pathlib.PurePath object as an initializer argument to a second PurePath object with a different parser resulted in arguments to the former object's initializer being joined by the latter object's parser.

gh-125096 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125096]: If the PYTHON_BASIC_REPL environment variable is set, the site module no longer imports the _pyrepl module. Moreover, the site module now respects -E and -I command line options: ignore PYTHON_BASIC_REPL in this case. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-124969 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124969]: Fix locale.nl_langinfo(locale.ALT_DIGITS). Now it returns a tuple of up to 100 strings (an empty tuple on most locales). Previously it returned the first item of that tuple or an empty string.

gh-124960 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124960]: Fix support for the barry_as_FLUFL future flag in the new REPL.

gh-69998 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69998]: Fix locale.nl_langinfo() in case when different categories have different locales. The function now sets temporarily the LC_CTYPE locale in some cases. This temporary change affects other threads.

gh-124958 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124958]: Fix refcycles in exceptions raised from asyncio.TaskGroup and the python implementation of asyncio.Future

gh-53203 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/53203]: Fix time.strptime() for %c and %x formats in many locales: Arabic, Bislama, Breton, Bodo, Kashubian, Chuvash, Estonian, French, Irish, Ge'ez, Gurajati, Manx Gaelic, Hebrew, Hindi, Chhattisgarhi, Haitian Kreyol, Japanese, Kannada, Korean, Marathi, Malay, Norwegian, Nynorsk, Punjabi, Rajasthani, Tok Pisin, Yoruba, Yue Chinese, Yau/Nungon and Chinese.

gh-123961 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123961]: Convert curses to multi-phase initialization (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]), thereby fixing reference leaks at interpreter shutdown. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-124944 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124944]: Add SO_ORIGINAL_DST to the socket module.

gh-117151 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117151]: The default buffer size used by shutil.copyfileobj() has been increased from 64k to 256k on non-Windows platforms. It was already larger on Windows.

gh-90102 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90102]: Skip the isatty system call during open() when the file is known to not be a character device. This provides a slight performance improvement when reading whole files.

gh-124917 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124917]: Allow calling os.path.exists() and os.path.lexists() with keyword arguments on Windows. Fixes a regression in 3.13.0.

gh-65865 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65865]: argparse now raises early error for invalid help arguments to add_argument(), add_subparsers() and add_parser().

gh-124653 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124653]: Fix detection of the minimal Queue API needed by the logging module. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-91818 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91818]: The CLI of many modules (ast, ensurepip, json, pdb, sqlite3, tokenize, venv) now uses the actual executable name instead of simply "python" to display in the usage message.

gh-124858 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124858]: Fix reference cycles left in tracebacks in asyncio.open_connection() when used with happy_eyeballs_delay

gh-124390 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124390]: Fixed AssertionError when using asyncio.staggered.staggered_race() with asyncio.eager_task_factory.

gh-85935 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85935]: argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument() now raises an exception if an Le paramètre action that does not consume arguments (like 'store_const' or 'store_true') or explicit nargs=0 are specified for positional arguments.

gh-124835 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124835]: Make tomllib.loads() raise TypeError not AttributeError on bad input types that do not have the replace attribute. Improve error message when bytes is received.

gh-124693 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124693]: Fix a bug where argparse doesn't recognize negative complex numbers or negative numbers using scientific notation.

gh-124787 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124787]: Fix typing.TypeAliasType with incorrect type_params argument. Now it raises a TypeError when a type parameter without a default follows one with a default, and when an entry in the type_params tuple is not a type parameter object.

gh-66436 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66436]: Improved Le paramètre prog default value for argparse.ArgumentParser. It will now include the name of the Python executable along with the module or package name, or the path to a directory, ZIP file, or directory within a ZIP file if the code was run that way.

gh-116850 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116850]: Fix argparse for namespaces with not directly writable dict (e.g. classes).

gh-101552 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101552]: Add an annoation_format parameter to inspect.signature(). Add an quote_annotation_strings parameter to inspect.Signature.format(). Use the new functionality to improve the display of annotations in signatures in pydoc. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

gh-58573 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/58573]: Fix conflicts between abbreviated long options in the parent parser and subparsers in argparse.

gh-124594 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124594]: All asyncio REPL prompts run in the same context. Contributed by Bartosz Sławecki.

gh-61181 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61181]: Fix support of Le paramètre choices with string value in argparse. Substrings of the specified string no longer considered valid values.

gh-116750 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116750]: Provide sys.monitoring.clear_tool_id() to unregister all events and callbacks set by the tool.

gh-124552 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124552]: Improve the accuracy of bdb's check for the possibility of breakpoint in a frame. This makes it possible to disable unnecessary events in functions.

gh-124538 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124538]: Fixed crash when using gc.get_referents() on a capsule object.

gh-80259 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80259]: Fix argparse support of positional arguments with nargs='?', default=argparse.SUPPRESS and specified type.

gh-120378 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120378]: Fix a crash related to an integer overflow in curses.resizeterm() and curses.resize_term().

gh-124498 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124498]: Fix typing.TypeAliasType not to be generic, when type_params is an empty tuple.

gh-53834 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/53834]: Fix support of arguments with Le paramètre choices in argparse. Positional arguments with Le paramètre nargs equal to '?' or '*' no longer check Le paramètre default against choices. Optional arguments with nargs equal to '?' no longer check Le paramètre const against choices.

gh-123884 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123884]: Fixed bug in itertools.tee() handling of other tee inputs (a tee in a tee). The output now has the promised n independent new iterators. Formerly, the first iterator was identical (not independent) to the input iterator. This would sometimes give surprising results.

gh-123017 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123017]: Due to unreliable results on some devices, time.strftime() no longer accepts negative years on Android.

gh-123014 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123014]: os.pidfd_open() and signal.pidfd_send_signal() are now unavailable when building against Android API levels older than 31, since the underlying system calls may cause a crash.

gh-124176 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124176]: Add support for dataclasses.dataclass() in unittest.mock.create_autospec(). Now create_autospec will check for potential dataclasses and use dataclasses.fields() function to retrieve the spec information.

gh-124345 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124345]: argparse supports abbreviated single-dash long options separated by = from its value.

gh-124400 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124400]: Fixed a pdb bug where until has no effect when it appears in a commands sequence. Also avoid printing the frame information at a breakpoint that has a command list containing a command that resumes execution.

gh-90562 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90562]: Modify dataclasses to support zero-argument super() when slots=True is specified. This works by modifying all references to __class__ to point to the newly created class.

gh-104860 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104860]: Fix disallowing abbreviation of single-dash long options in argparse with allow_abbrev=False.

gh-63143 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/63143]: Fix parsing mutually exclusive arguments in argparse. Arguments with the value identical to the default value (e.g. booleans, small integers, empty or 1-character strings) are no longer considered "not present".

gh-72795 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72795]: Positional arguments with Le paramètre nargs equal to '*' or argparse.REMAINDER are no longer required. This allows to use positional argument with nargs='*' and without default in mutually exclusive group and improves error message about required arguments.

gh-59317 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59317]: Fix parsing positional argument with Le paramètre nargs equal to '?' or '*' if it is preceded by an option and another positional argument.

gh-100980 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100980]: The _fields_ attribute of ctypes.Structure and Union is no longer set if the setattr operation raises an error.

gh-53780 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/53780]: argparse now ignores the first "--" (double dash) between an option and command.

gh-124217 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124217]: Add RFC 9637 reserved IPv6 block 3fff::/20 in ipaddress module.

gh-111513 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111513]: Improve the error message that may be raised by datetime.date.fromtimestamp().

gh-124248 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124248]: Fixed potential crash when using struct to process zero-width 'Pascal string' fields (0p).

gh-81691 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81691]: Fix handling of multiple "--" (double dashes) in argparse. Only the first one has now been removed, all subsequent ones are now taken literally.

gh-87041 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87041]: Fix a bug in argparse where lengthy subparser argument help is incorrectly indented.

gh-84559 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84559]: The default multiprocessing start method on Linux and other POSIX systems has been changed away from often unsafe "fork" to "forkserver" (when the platform supports sending file handles over pipes as most do) or "spawn". Mac and Windows are unchanged as they already default to "spawn".

gh-124212 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124212]: Fix invalid variable in venv handling of failed symlink on Windows

gh-124171 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124171]: Add workaround for broken fmod() implementations on Windows, that loose zero sign (e.g. fmod(-10, 1) returns 0.0). Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

gh-123978 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123978]: Remove broken time.thread_time() and time.thread_time_ns() on NetBSD.

gh-123934 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123934]: Fix unittest.mock.MagicMock resetting magic methods return values after .reset_mock(return_value=True) was called.

gh-124016 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124016]: Update unicodedata database to Unicode 16.0.0.

gh-123968 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123968]: Fix the command-line interface for the random module to select floats between 0 and N, not 1 and N.

gh-123945 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123945]: Fix a bug where argparse doesn't recognize negative numbers with underscores

gh-123935 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123935]: Fix parent slots detection for dataclasses that inherit from classes with __dictoffset__.

gh-123892 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123892]: Add "_wmi" to sys.stdlib_module_names. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-84808 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84808]: Fix error handling in socket method connect_ex() on platforms where errno can be negative.

gh-123756 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123756]: Added a new argument mode to pdb.Pdb. Only allow pdb from command line to use restart command.

gh-122765 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122765]: Fix unbalanced quote errors occurring when activate.csh in venv was sourced with a custom prompt containing unpaired quotes or newlines.

gh-123657 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123657]: Fix crash and memory leak in decimal.getcontext(). It crashed when using a thread-local context by --with-decimal-contextvar=no.

gh-123339 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123339]: Fix inspect.getsource() for classes in collections.abc and decimal (for pure Python implementation) modules. inspect.getcomments() now raises OSError instead of IndexError if the __firstlineno__ value for a class is out of bound.

gh-123374 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123374]: Remove check for redefined memo entry in pickletools.dis().

gh-123504 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123504]: Fixed reference leak in the finalization of tkinter.

gh-123430 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123430]: Pages generated by the http.server module allow the browser to apply its default dark mode.

gh-123446 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123446]: Fix empty function name in TypeError when csv.reader(), csv.writer(), or csv.register_dialect() are used without the required args.

gh-123448 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123448]: Fixed memory leak of typing.NoDefault by moving it to the static types array.

gh-123409 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123409]: Fix ipaddress.IPv6Address.reverse_pointer output according to RFC 3596, §2.5 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3596.html#section-2.5]. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-123089 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123089]: Make weakref.WeakSet safe against concurrent mutations while it is being iterated. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-123363 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123363]: Show string value of CONTAINS_OP oparg in dis output. Patch by Alexandr153.

gh-123341 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123341]: Add __class_getitem__() to tkinter.Event for type subscript support at runtime. Patch by Adonis Rakateli.

gh-123340 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123340]: Show string value of IS_OP oparg in dis output.

gh-119518 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119518]: Speed up normalization of pathlib.PurePath and Path objects by not interning string parts.

gh-123270 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123270]: Applied a more surgical fix for malformed payloads in zipfile.Path causing infinite loops (gh-122905 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122905]) without breaking contents using legitimate characters.

gh-73991 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73991]: Add pathlib.Path.copy_into() and move_into(), which copy and move files and directories into existing directories.

gh-123228 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123228]: Fix return type for _pyrepl.readline._ReadlineWrapper.get_line_buffer() to be str(). Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

gh-123240 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123240]: Raise audit events for the input() in the new REPL.

gh-76960 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/76960]: Fix urllib.parse.urljoin() and urllib.parse.urldefrag() for URIs containing empty components. For example, urljoin() with relative reference "?" now sets empty query and removes fragment. Preserve empty components (authority, params, query, fragment) in urljoin(). Preserve empty components (authority, params, query) in urldefrag().

gh-116810 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116810]: Resolve a memory leak introduced in CPython 3.10's ssl when the ssl.SSLSocket.session property was accessed. Speeds up read and write access to said property by no longer unnecessarily cloning session objects via serialization.

gh-123243 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123243]: Fix memory leak in _decimal.

gh-122546 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122546]: Consistently use same file name for different exceptions in the new repl. Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

gh-123213 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123213]: xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.extend() and Element assignment no longer hide the internal exception if an erroneous generator is passed. Patch by Bar Harel.

gh-85110 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85110]: Preserve relative path in URL without netloc in urllib.parse.urlunsplit() and urllib.parse.urlunparse().

gh-123165 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123165]: Add support for rendering Positions in dis.

gh-122909 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122909]: In urllib.request when URLError is raised opening an ftp URL, the exception argument is now consistently a string. Earlier versions passed either a string or an ftplib exception instance as the argument to URLError.

gh-123084 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123084]: Deprecate shutil.ExecError, which hasn't been raised by any shutil function since Python 3.4. It's now an alias for RuntimeError.

gh-123085 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123085]: In a bare call to importlib.resources.files(), ensure the caller's frame is properly detected when importlib.resources is itself available as a compiled module only (no source).

gh-123067 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123067]: Fix quadratic complexity in parsing "-quoted cookie values with backslashes by http.cookies.

gh-123049 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123049]: Add support for UNNAMED_SECTION in configparser.ConfigParser.add_section().

gh-121735 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121735]: When working with zip archives, importlib.resources now properly honors module-adjacent references (e.g. files(pkg.mod) and not just files(pkg)).

gh-122981 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122981]: Fix inspect.getsource() for generated classes with Python base classes (e.g. enums).

gh-122903 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122903]: zipfile.Path.glob now correctly matches directories instead of silently omitting them.

gh-122905 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122905]: zipfile.Path objects now sanitize names from the zipfile.

gh-122873 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122873]: Enable json module to work as a script using the -m switch: python -m json. See the JSON command-line interface documentation. Patch by Trey Hunner.

gh-122858 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122858]: Deprecate asyncio.iscoroutinefunction() in favor of inspect.iscoroutinefunction().

gh-116263 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116263]: logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler no longer rolls over empty log files.

gh-105376 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105376]: Restore the deprecated logging warn() method. It was removed in Python 3.13 alpha 1. Keep the deprecated warn() method in Python 3.13. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-122311 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122311]: Improve errors in the pickle module. PicklingError is now raised more often instead of UnicodeEncodeError, ValueError and AttributeError, and the original exception is chained to it. Improve and unify error messages in Python and C implementations.

gh-122744 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122744]: Bump the version of pip bundled in ensurepip to version 24.2.

gh-118761 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118761]: Improve import time of pprint by around seven times. Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

gh-118974 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118974]: Add decorator parameter to dataclasses.make_dataclass() to customize the functional creation of dataclasses.

gh-118814 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118814]: Fix the typing.TypeVar constructor when name is passed by keyword.

gh-122637 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122637]: Adjust cmath.tanh(nanj) and cmath.tanh(infj) for recent C standards.

gh-122478 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122478]: Remove internal frames from tracebacks shown in code.InteractiveInterpreter with non-default sys.excepthook(). Save correct tracebacks in sys.last_traceback and update __traceback__ attribute of sys.last_value and sys.last_exc.

gh-116622 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116622]: On Android, the FICLONE and FICLONERANGE constants are no longer exposed by fcntl, as these ioctls are blocked by SELinux.

gh-82378 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82378]: Make sure that the new REPL interprets sys.tracebacklimit in the same way that the classic REPL did.

gh-122334 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122334]: Fix crash when importing ssl after the main interpreter restarts.

gh-122459 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122459]: Optimize pickling by name objects without the __module__ attribute.

gh-87320 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87320]: In code.InteractiveInterpreter, handle exceptions caused by calling a non-default sys.excepthook(). Before, the exception bubbled up to the caller, ending the REPL.

gh-122272 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122272]: On some platforms such as Linux, year with century was not 0-padded when formatted by strftime() with C99-specific specifiers '%C' or '%F'. The 0-padding behavior is now guaranteed when the format specifiers '%C' and '%F' are supported by the C library. Patch by Ben Hsing

gh-122400 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122400]: Handle ValueErrors raised by os.stat() in filecmp.dircmp and filecmp.cmpfiles(). Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-122311 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122311]: Fix some error messages in pickle.

gh-121650 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121650]: email headers with embedded newlines are now quoted on output. The generator will now refuse to serialize (write) headers that are unsafely folded or delimited; see verify_generated_headers. (Contributed by Bas Bloemsaat and Petr Viktorin in gh-121650 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121650].)

gh-122332 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122332]: Fixed segfault with asyncio.Task.get_coro() when using an eager task factory.

gh-105733 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105733]: ctypes.ARRAY() is now soft deprecated: it no longer emits deprecation warnings and is not scheduled for removal.

gh-122213 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122213]: Add notes for pickle serialization errors that allow to identify the source of the error.

gh-119180 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119180]: As part of PEP 749 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0749/], add the following attributes for customizing evaluation of annotation scopes:

evaluate_value on typing.TypeAliasType

evaluate_bound, evaluate_constraints, and evaluate_default on typing.TypeVar

evaluate_default on typing.ParamSpec

evaluate_default on typing.TypeVarTuple

gh-119180 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119180]: Fix handling of classes with custom metaclasses in annotationlib.get_annotations.

gh-122170 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122170]: Handle ValueErrors raised by os.stat() in linecache. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-122163 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122163]: Add notes for JSON serialization errors that allow to identify the source of the error.

gh-122129 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122129]: Improve support of method descriptors and wrappers in the help title.

gh-122145 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122145]: Fix an issue when reporting tracebacks corresponding to Python code emitting an empty AST body. Patch by Nikita Sobolev and Bénédikt Tran.

gh-121723 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121723]: Make logging.config.dictConfig() accept any object implementing the Queue public API. See the queue configuration section for details. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-82951 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82951]: Serializing objects with complex __qualname__ (such as unbound methods and nested classes) by name no longer involves serializing parent objects by value in pickle protocols < 4.

gh-120754 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120754]: Pathlib.read_bytes no longer opens the file in Python's buffered I/O mode. This reduces overheads as the code reads a file in whole leading to a modest speedup.

gh-113785 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113785]: csv now correctly parses numeric fields (when used with csv.QUOTE_NONNUMERIC or csv.QUOTE_STRINGS) which start with an escape character.

gh-122088 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122088]: @warnings.deprecated now copies the coroutine status of functions and methods so that inspect.iscoroutinefunction() returns the correct result.

gh-122081 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122081]: Fix a crash in the decimal.IEEEContext() optional function available via the EXTRA_FUNCTIONALITY configuration flag.

gh-73991 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73991]: Add pathlib.Path.move(), which moves a file or directory tree.

gh-121268 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121268]: Remove workarounds for non-IEEE 754 systems in cmath.

gh-119698 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119698]: Due to the lack of interest for symtable.Class.get_methods(), the method is marked as deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.16. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-121889 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121889]: Adjusts cmath.acosh(complex('0+nanj')) for recent C standards.

gh-121804 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121804]: Correctly show error locations, when SyntaxError raised in new repl. Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

gh-121797 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121797]: Add alternative Fraction constructor Fraction.from_number().

gh-121798 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121798]: Add alternative Decimal constructor Decimal.from_number().

gh-120930 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120930]: Fixed a bug introduced by gh-92081 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92081] that added an incorrect extra blank to encoded words occurring in wrapped headers.

gh-57141 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57141]: The shallow argument to filecmp.dircmp (new in Python 3.13) is now keyword-only.

gh-121245 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121245]: Simplify handling of the history file in site.register_readline() helper. The CAN_USE_PYREPL variable now will be initialized, when imported. Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

gh-121249 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121249]: Support the float complex and double complex C types in the struct module if the compiler has C11 complex arithmetic. Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

gh-121486 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121486]: math functions isqrt(), log(), log2() and log10() now support integers larger than 2**2**32 on 32-bit platforms.

gh-121474 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121474]: Fix missing sanity check for parties arg in threading.Barrier constructor. Patch by Clinton Christian (pygeek).

gh-121450 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121450]: Hard-coded breakpoints (breakpoint() and pdb.set_trace()) now reuse the most recent Pdb instance that calls Pdb.set_trace(), instead of creating a new one each time. As a result, all the instance specific data like display and commands are preserved across Hard-coded breakpoints.

gh-119169 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119169]: Slightly speed up os.walk() by simplifying exception handling.

gh-121423 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121423]: Improve import time of socket by lazy importing modules and writing socket.errorTab as a constant.

gh-59110 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59110]: zipimport supports now namespace packages when no directory entry exists.

gh-119004 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119004]: Fix a crash in OrderedDict.__eq__ when operands are mutated during the check. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-121313 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121313]: Limit the reading size in the multiprocessing.connection.Connection class to 64 KiB to prevent memory overallocation and unnecessary memory management system calls.

gh-121332 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121332]: Fix constructor of ast nodes with custom _attributes. Previously, passing custom attributes would raise a DeprecationWarning. Passing arguments to the constructor that are not in _fields or _attributes remains deprecated. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

gh-121245 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121245]: Fix a bug in the handling of the command history of the new REPL that caused the history file to be wiped at REPL exit.

gh-121210 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121210]: Handle AST nodes with missing runtime fields or attributes in ast.compare(). Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-121163 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121163]: Add support for all as an valid action for warnings.simplefilter() and warnings.filterwarnings().

gh-121151 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121151]: Fix wrapping of long usage text of arguments inside a mutually exclusive group in argparse.

gh-121141 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121141]: Add support for copy.replace() to AST nodes. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-87744 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87744]: Fix waitpid race while calling send_signal() in asyncio. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-121027 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121027]: Add a future warning in functools.partial.__get__(). In future Python versions functools.partial will be a method descriptor.

gh-121027 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121027]: Make the functools.partial object a method descriptor.

gh-117784 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117784]: CPython now detects whether its linked TLS library supports TLSv1.3 post-handshake authentication and disables that feature if support is lacking.

gh-121025 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121025]: Improve the __repr__() of functools.partialmethod. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-121018 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121018]: Fixed issues where argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args() did not honor exit_on_error=False. Based on patch by Ben Hsing.

gh-119614 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119614]: Fix truncation of strings with embedded null characters in some internal operations in tkinter.

gh-120910 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120910]: When reading installed files from an egg, use relative_to(walk_up=True) to honor files installed outside of the installation root.

gh-61103 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61103]: Support float complex, double complex and long double complex C types in ctypes as c_float_complex, c_double_complex and c_longdouble_complex if the compiler has C11 complex arithmetic. Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

gh-120888 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120888]: Upgrade pip wheel bundled with ensurepip (pip 24.1.1)

gh-101830 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101830]: Accessing the tkinter object's string representation no longer converts the underlying Tcl object to a string on Windows.

gh-120678 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120678]: Fix regression in the new REPL that meant that globals from files passed using the -i argument would not be included in the REPL's global namespace. Patch by Alex Waygood.

gh-120811 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120811]: Fix possible memory leak in contextvars.Context.run().

gh-120782 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120782]: Fix wrong references of the datetime types after reloading the module.

gh-120713 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120713]: datetime.datetime.strftime() now 0-pads years with less than four digits for the format specifiers %Y and %G on Linux. Patch by Ben Hsing

gh-120769 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120769]: Make empty line in pdb repeats the last command even when the command is from cmdqueue.

gh-120780 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120780]: Show string value of LOAD_SPECIAL oparg in dis output.

gh-41431 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/41431]: Add datetime.time.strptime() and datetime.date.strptime(). Contributed by Wannes Boeykens.

gh-120743 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120743]: Soft deprecate os.popen() and os.spawn* functions. They should no longer be used to write new code. The subprocess module is recommended instead. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-120732 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120732]: Fix name passing to unittest.mock.Mock object when using unittest.mock.create_autospec().

gh-111259 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111259]: re now handles patterns like "[\s\S]" or "\s|\S" which match any character as effectively as a dot with the DOTALL modifier ("(?s:.)").

gh-120683 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120683]: Fix an error in logging.LogRecord, when the integer part of the timestamp is rounded up, while the millisecond calculation truncates, causing the log timestamp to be wrong by up to 999 ms (affected roughly 1 in 8 million timestamps).

gh-118710 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118710]: ipaddress.IPv4Address and ipaddress.IPv6Address attributes version and max_prefixlen are now available on the class.

gh-120633 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120633]: Move scrollbar and remove tear-off menus in turtledemo.

gh-120606 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120606]: Allow users to use EOF to exit commands definition in pdb

gh-120284 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120284]: Allow asyncio.Runner.run() to accept awaitable objects instead of simply coroutines.

gh-120541 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120541]: Improve the prompt in the "less" pager when help() is called with non-string argument.

gh-120495 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120495]: Fix incorrect exception handling in Tab Nanny. Patch by Wulian233.

gh-120388 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120388]: Improve a warning message when a test method in unittest returns something other than None. Now we show the returned object type and optional asyncio-related tip.

gh-120381 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120381]: Correct inspect.ismethoddescriptor() to check also for the lack of __delete__(). Patch by Jan Kaliszewski.

gh-90425 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90425]: The OS byte in gzip headers is now always set to 255 when using gzip.compress().

gh-120343 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120343]: Fix column offset reporting for tokens that come after multiline f-strings in the tokenize module.

gh-119180 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119180]: As part of implementing PEP 649 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/] and PEP 749 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0749/], add a new module annotationlib. Add support for unresolved forward references in annotations to dataclasses, typing.TypedDict, and typing.NamedTuple.

gh-119600 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119600]: Fix unittest.mock.patch() to not read attributes of the target when new_callable is set. Patch by Robert Collins.

gh-120289 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120289]: Fixed the use-after-free issue in cProfile by disallowing disable() and clear() in external timers.

gh-82017 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82017]: Added support for converting any objects that have the as_integer_ratio() method to a Fraction.

gh-114053 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114053]: Fix edge-case bug where typing.get_type_hints() would produce incorrect results if type parameters in a class scope were overridden by assignments in a class scope and from __future__ import annotations semantics were enabled. Patch by Alex Waygood.

gh-114053 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114053]: Fix erroneous NameError when calling inspect.get_annotations() with eval_str=True` on a class that made use of PEP 695 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/] type parameters in a module that had from __future__ import annotations at the top of the file. Patch by Alex Waygood.

gh-120268 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120268]: Prohibit passing None to pure-Python datetime.date.fromtimestamp() to achieve consistency with C-extension implementation.

gh-120244 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120244]: Fix memory leak in re.sub() when the replacement string contains backreferences.

gh-120254 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120254]: Added commands argument to pdb.set_trace() which allows users to send debugger commands from the source file.

gh-120211 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120211]: Fix tkinter.ttk with Tcl/Tk 9.0.

gh-71587 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71587]: Fix crash in C version of datetime.datetime.strptime() when called again on the restarted interpreter.

gh-117983 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117983]: Defer the threading import in importlib.util until lazy loading is used.

gh-120157 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120157]: Remove unused constant concurrent.futures._base._FUTURE_STATES in concurrent.futures. Patch by Clinton Christian (pygeek).

gh-120161 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120161]: datetime no longer crashes in certain complex reference cycle situations.

gh-119698 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119698]: Fix symtable.Class.get_methods() and document its behaviour. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-120121 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120121]: Add concurrent.futures.InvalidStateError to module's __all__.

gh-119933 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119933]: Add the symtable.SymbolTableType enumeration to represent the possible outputs of the symtable.SymbolTable.get_type method. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-120029 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120029]: Expose symtable.Symbol methods is_free_class(), is_comp_iter() and is_comp_cell(). Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-120108 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120108]: Fix calling copy.deepcopy() on ast trees that have been modified to have references to parent nodes. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

gh-120056 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120056]: Add socket.IP_RECVERR and socket.IP_RECVTTL constants (both available since Linux 2.2). And socket.IP_RECVORIGDSTADDR constant (available since Linux 2.6.29).

gh-112672 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112672]: Support building tkinter with Tcl 9.0.

gh-120057 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120057]: Added the os.environ.refresh() method to update os.environ with changes to the environment made by os.putenv(), by os.unsetenv(), or made outside Python in the same process. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-120029 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120029]: Expose symtable.Symbol.is_type_parameter() in the symtable module. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-119819 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119819]: Fix regression to allow logging configuration with multiprocessing queue types.

gh-65454 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65454]: unittest.mock.Mock.attach_mock() no longer triggers a call to a PropertyMock being attached.

gh-117142 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117142]: The ctypes module may now be imported in all subinterpreters, including those that have their own GIL.

gh-118835 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118835]: Fix _pyrepl crash when using custom prompt with ANSI escape codes.

gh-81936 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81936]: help() and showtopic() methods now respect a configured output argument to pydoc.Helper and not use the pager in such cases. Patch by Enrico Tröger.

gh-117398 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117398]: The _datetime module (C implementation for datetime) now supports being imported in multiple interpreters.

gh-119824 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119824]: Print stack entry in pdb when and only when user input is needed.

gh-119838 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119838]: In mixed arithmetic operations with Fraction and complex, the fraction is now converted to float instead of complex.

gh-119770 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119770]: Make termios ioctl() constants positive. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-89727 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89727]: Fix issue with shutil.rmtree() where a RecursionError is raised on deep directory trees.

gh-119577 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119577]: The DeprecationWarning emitted when testing the truth value of an xml.etree.ElementTree.Element now describes unconditionally returning True in a future version rather than raising an exception in Python 3.14.

gh-89727 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89727]: Partially fix issue with shutil.rmtree() where a RecursionError is raised on deep directory trees. A recursion error is no longer raised when rmtree.avoids_symlink_attacks is false.

gh-93963 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93963]: Remove deprecated names from importlib.abc as found in importlib.resources.abc.

gh-119118 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119118]: Fix performance regression in the tokenize module by caching the line token attribute and calculating the column offset more efficiently.

gh-89727 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89727]: Fix issue with os.fwalk() where a RecursionError was raised on deep directory trees by adjusting the implementation to be iterative instead of recursive.

gh-119594 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119594]: If one calls pow(fractions.Fraction, x, module) with modulo not None, the error message now says that the types are incompatible rather than saying pow only takes 2 arguments. Patch by Wim Jeantine-Glenn and Mark Dickinson.

gh-119588 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119588]: zipfile.Path.is_symlink now assesses if the given path is a symlink.

gh-119562 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119562]: Remove ast.Num, ast.Str, ast.Bytes, ast.NameConstant and ast.Ellipsis. They had all emitted deprecation warnings since Python 3.12. Patch by Alex Waygood.

gh-119555 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119555]: Catch SyntaxError from compile() in the runsource() method of the InteractiveColoredConsole. Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

gh-118908 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118908]: Limit exposed globals from internal imports and definitions on new REPL startup. Patch by Eugene Triguba and Pablo Galindo.

gh-117865 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117865]: Improve the import time of the ast module by deferring the import of re. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

gh-119127 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119127]: Positional arguments of functools.partial() objects now support placeholders via functools.Placeholder.

gh-113892 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113892]: Now, the method sock_connect of asyncio.ProactorEventLoop raises a ValueError if given socket is not in non-blocking mode, as well as in other loop implementations.

gh-119506 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119506]: Fix io.TextIOWrapper.write() method breaks internal buffer when the method is called again during flushing internal buffer.

gh-69214 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69214]: Fix fcntl.ioctl() request parameter: use an unsigned long instead of an unsigned int for the request parameter of fcntl.ioctl() to support requests larger than UINT_MAX. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-119105 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119105]: difflib's DIffer.compare() (and so also ndiff) can no longer be provoked into cubic-time behavior, or into unbounded recursion, and should generally be faster in ordinary cases too. Results may change in some cases, although that should be rare. Correctness of diffs is not affected. Some similar lines far apart may be reported as deleting one and adding the other, where before they were displayed on adjacent output lines with markup showing the intraline differences.

gh-119443 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119443]: The interactive REPL no longer runs with from __future__ import annotations enabled. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

gh-119461 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119461]: Add socket.VMADDR_CID_LOCAL constant. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-117398 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117398]: Objects in the datetime C-API are now all statically allocated, which means better memory safety, especially when the module is reloaded. This should be transparent to users.

gh-118894 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118894]: asyncio REPL now has the same capabilities as PyREPL.

gh-118830 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118830]: Bump pickle default protocol to 5.

gh-118911 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118911]: In PyREPL, updated maybe-accept's logic so that if the user hits Enter twice, they are able to terminate the block even if there's trailing whitespace. Also, now when the user hits arrow up, the cursor is on the last functional line. This matches IPython's behavior. Patch by Aya Elsayed.

gh-115225 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115225]: Raise error on certain technically valid but pathological ISO 8601 strings passed to datetime.time.fromisoformat() that were previously parsed incorrectly.

gh-111201 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111201]: Remove dependency to readline from the new Python REPL.

gh-119189 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119189]: When using the ** operator or pow() with Fraction as the base and an exponent that is not rational, a float, or a complex, the fraction is no longer converted to a float.

gh-119174 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119174]: Fix high DPI causes turtledemo(turtle-graphics examples) windows blurry Patch by Wulian233 and Terry Jan Reedy

gh-119121 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119121]: Fix a NameError happening in asyncio.staggered.staggered_race. This function is now tested.

gh-119105 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119105]: difflib.Differ is much faster for some cases of diffs where many pairs of lines are equally similar.

gh-119113 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119113]: Fix issue where pathlib.PurePath.with_suffix() didn't raise TypeError when given None as a suffix.

gh-118643 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118643]: Fix an AttributeError in the email module when re-fold a long address list. Also fix more cases of incorrect encoding of the address separator in the address list.

gh-73991 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73991]: Add pathlib.Path.copy(), which copies a file or directory to another.

gh-58933 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/58933]: Make pdb return to caller frame correctly when f_trace of the caller frame is not set

gh-82805 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82805]: Support single-dot file extensions in pathlib.PurePath.suffix and related attributes and methods. For example, the suffixes of PurePath('foo.bar.') are now ['.bar', '.'] rather than []. This brings file extension splitting in line with os.path.splitext().

gh-118924 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118924]: Remove version and version_info from sqlite3. Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

gh-118928 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118928]: Disallow using a sequence of parameters with named placeholders in sqlite3 queries. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

gh-118895 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118895]: Setting attributes on typing.NoDefault now raises AttributeError instead of TypeError.

gh-118868 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118868]: Fixed issue where kwargs were no longer passed to the logging handler QueueHandler

gh-118827 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118827]: Remove deprecated Quoter class from urllib.parse. It had previously raised a DeprecationWarning since Python 3.11. Patch by Nikita Sobolev.

gh-118824 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118824]: Remove deprecated pty.master_open() and pty.slave_open(). Use pty.openpty() instead. Patch by Nikita Sobolev.

gh-118851 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118851]: ctx arguments to the constructors of ast node classes now default to ast.Load(). Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

gh-101588 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101588]: Remove copy, deepcopy, and pickle from itertools. These had previously raised a DeprecationWarning since Python 3.12.

gh-118805 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118805]: Remove type, choices, and metavar parameters of argparse.BooleanOptionalAction. They were deprecated since Python 3.12.

gh-118803 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118803]: typing.ByteString and collections.abc.ByteString are removed. They had previously raised a DeprecationWarning since Python 3.12.

gh-118798 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118798]: The isdst parameter has been removed from email.utils.localtime(). Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

gh-118760 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118760]: Restore the default value of tkiter.wantobjects to 1.

gh-118760 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118760]: Fix errors in calling Tkinter bindings on Windows.

gh-74033 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74033]: Drop support for passing keyword arguments to pathlib.Path.

gh-101357 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101357]: Suppress all OSError exceptions from pathlib.Path.exists() and is_*() methods, rather than a selection of more common errors. The new behaviour is consistent with os.path.exists(), os.path.isdir(), etc. Use pathlib.Path.stat() to retrieve the file status without suppressing exceptions.

gh-78707 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78707]: Drop support for passing additional positional arguments to pathlib.PurePath.relative_to() and is_relative_to().

gh-118507 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118507]: Fix os.path.isfile() on Windows for pipes. Speedup os.path.isjunction() and os.path.lexists() on Windows with a native implementation.

gh-118772 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118772]: Allow typing.TypeVar instances without a default to follow instances without a default in some cases. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

gh-118714 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118714]: Allow restart in post-mortem debugging of pdb. Removed restart message when the user quits pdb from post-mortem mode.

gh-118673 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118673]: Removed executable bits and shebang from stdlib modules.

gh-110863 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110863]: os.path.realpath() now suppresses any OSError from os.readlink() when strict mode is disabled (the default).

gh-118263 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118263]: Speed up os.path.splitroot() & os.path.normpath() with a direct C call.

gh-110190 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110190]: Fix ctypes structs with array on SPARC by setting MAX_STRUCT_SIZE to 32 in stgdict. Patch by Jakub Kulik

gh-118033 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118033]: Fix dataclasses.dataclass() not creating a __weakref__ slot when subclassing typing.Generic.

gh-117766 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117766]: Always use str() to print choices in argparse.

gh-106531 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106531]: In importlib.resources, sync with importlib_resources 6.3.2 [https://importlib-resources.readthedocs.io/en/latest/history.html#v6-3-2], including: MultiplexedPath now expects Traversable paths, deprecating string arguments to MultiplexedPath; Enabled support for resources in namespace packages in zip files; Fixed NotADirectoryError when calling files on a subdirectory of a namespace package.

gh-115937 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115937]: Removed extra preprocessing for the __signature__ attribute: the code just check if it's a inspect.Signature instance. Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

gh-115808 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115808]: Add operator.is_none() and operator.is_not_none() functions.

gh-114264 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114264]: Improve performance of copy.deepcopy() by adding a fast path for atomic types.

gh-113878 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113878]: Add doc parameter to dataclasses.field(), so it can be stored and shown as a documentation / metadata. If @dataclass(slots=True) is used, then the supplied string is available in the __slots__ dict. Otherwise, the supplied string is only available in the corresponding dataclasses.Field object.

In order to support this feature we are changing the __slots__ format in dataclasses from tuple to dict when documentation / metadata is present.

gh-113978 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113978]: Ignore warnings on text completion inside REPL.

gh-113008 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113008]: Correct argparse usage output for required, mutually exclusive groups containing a positional argument

gh-108172 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108172]: webbrowser honors OS preferred browser on Linux when its desktop entry name contains the text of a known browser name.

gh-109109 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109109]: You can now get the raw TLS certificate chains from TLS connections via ssl.SSLSocket.get_verified_chain() and ssl.SSLSocket.get_unverified_chain() methods.

Contributed by Mateusz Nowak.

gh-105623 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105623]: Fix performance degradation in logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler. Patch by Craig Robson.

gh-102450 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102450]: Add missing ISO-8601 24:00 alternative to midnight of next day to datetime.datetime.fromisoformat() and datetime.time.fromisoformat(). Patch by Izan "TizzySaurus" Robinson (tizzysaurus@gmail.com)

gh-103956 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103956]: Fix lack of newline characters in trace module output when line tracing is enabled but source code line for current frame is not available.

gh-92081 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92081]: Fix missing spaces in email headers when the spaces are mixed with encoded 8-bit characters.

gh-103194 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103194]: Prepare Tkinter for C API changes in Tcl 8.7/9.0 to avoid _tkinter.Tcl_Obj being unexpectedly returned instead of bool, str, bytearray, or int.

gh-87106 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87106]: Fixed handling in inspect.Signature.bind() of keyword arguments having the same name as positional-only arguments when a variadic keyword argument (e.g. **kwargs) is present.

gh-103134 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103134]: Add additional methods to proxy objects in the multiprocessing module:

clear() and copy() for proxies of list

fromkeys(), reversed(d), d | {}, {} | d, d |= {'b': 2} for proxies of dict

bpo-45767 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45767]: Fix integer conversion in os.major(), os.minor(), and os.makedev(). Support device numbers larger than 2**63-1. Support non-existent device number (NODEV).

bpo-44864 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44864]: Do not translate user-provided strings in argparse.ArgumentParser.

bpo-41843 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41843]: Solaris now uses os.sendfile() fast-copy syscall for more efficient shutil file copy related functions.

bpo-15987 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15987]: Implemented ast.compare() for comparing two ASTs. Patch by Batuhan Taskaya with some help from Jeremy Hylton.

gh-67693 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67693]: Fix urllib.parse.urlunparse() and urllib.parse.urlunsplit() for URIs with path starting with multiple slashes and no authority. Based on patch by Ashwin Ramaswami.

bpo-14074 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14074]: Fix argparse metavar processing to allow positional arguments to have a tuple metavar.

IDLE

gh-122392 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122392]: Increase currently inadequate vertical spacing for the IDLE browsers (path, module, and stack) on high-resolution monitors.

gh-112938 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112938]: Fix uninteruptable hang when Shell gets rapid continuous output.

gh-122482 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122482]: Change About IDLE to direct users to discuss.python.org instead of the now unused idle-dev email and mailing list.

gh-78889 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78889]: Stop Shell freezes by blocking user access to non-method sys.stdout.shell attributes, which are all private.

gh-120083 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120083]: Add explicit black IDLE Hovertip foreground color needed for recent macOS. Fixes Sonoma showing unreadable white on pale yellow. Patch by John Riggles.

gh-120104 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120104]: Fix padding in config and search dialog windows in IDLE.

Documentation

gh-124872 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124872]: Added definitions for context, current context, and context management protocol, updated related definitions to be consistent, and expanded the documentation for contextvars.Context.

gh-125018 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125018]: The importlib.metadata documentation now includes semantic cross-reference targets for the significant documented APIs. This means intersphinx references like importlib.metadata.version() will now work as expected.

gh-124720 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124720]: Update "Using Python on a Mac" section of the "Python Setup and Usage" document and include information on installing free-threading support.

gh-124457 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124457]: Remove coverity scan from the CPython repo. It has not been used since 2020 and is currently unmaintained.

gh-116622 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116622]: Add an Android platform guide, and flag modules not available on Android.

gh-123976 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123976]: Refresh docs around custom providers.

gh-70870 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70870]: Clarified the dual usage of the term "free variable" (both the formal meaning of any reference to names defined outside the local scope, and the narrower pragmatic meaning of nonlocal variables named in co_freevars).

gh-121277 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121277]: Writers of CPython's documentation can now use next as the version for the versionchanged, versionadded, deprecated directives.

gh-117765 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117765]: Improved documentation for unittest.mock.patch.dict()

gh-121749 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121749]: Fix documentation for PyModule_AddObjectRef().

gh-120012 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120012]: Clarify the behaviours of multiprocessing.Queue.empty() and multiprocessing.SimpleQueue.empty() on closed queues. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-119574 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119574]: Added some missing environment variables to the output of --help-env.

bpo-34008 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34008]: The Py_Main() documentation moved from the "Very High Level API" section to the "Initialization and Finalization" section.

Also make it explicit that we expect Py_Main to typically be called instead of Py_Initialize rather than after it (since Py_Main makes its own call to Py_Initialize). Document that calling both is supported but is version dependent on which settings will be applied correctly.

Core and Builtins

gh-124375 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124375]: Fix a crash in the free threading build when the GC runs concurrently with a new thread starting.

gh-125221 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125221]: Fix possible race condition when calling __reduce_ex__() for the first time in the free threading build.

gh-125174 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125174]: Make the handling of reference counts of immortal objects more robust. Immortal objects with reference counts that deviate from their original reference count by up to a billion (half a billion on 32 bit builds) are still counted as immortal.

gh-125039 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125039]: Make this_instr and prev_instr const in cases generator.

Library

gh-125008 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125008]: Fix tokenize.untokenize() producing invalid syntax for double braces preceded by certain escape characters.

Core and Builtins

gh-124871 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124871]: Fix compiler bug (in some versions of 3.13) where an assertion fails during reachability analysis.

gh-123378 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123378]: Fix a crash in the __str__() method of UnicodeError objects when the UnicodeError.start and UnicodeError.end values are invalid or out-of-range. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-118093 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118093]: Improve the experimental JIT compiler's ability to stay "on trace" when encountering highly-biased branches.

gh-124642 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124642]: Fixed scalability issue in free-threaded builds for lock-free reads from dictionaries in multi-threaded scenarios

gh-116510 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116510]: Fix a crash caused by immortal interned strings being shared between sub-interpreters that use basic single-phase init. In that case, the string can be used by an interpreter that outlives the interpreter that created and interned it. For interpreters that share obmalloc state, also share the interned dict with the main interpreter.

gh-116510 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116510]: Fix a bug that can cause a crash when sub-interpreters use "basic" single-phase extension modules. Shared objects could refer to PyGC_Head nodes that had been freed as part of interpreter cleanup.

gh-119180 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119180]: The __main__ module no longer always contains an __annotations__ dictionary in its global namespace.

gh-124547 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124547]: When deallocating an object with inline values whose __dict__ is still live: if memory allocation for the inline values fails, clear the dictionary. Prevents an interpreter crash.

gh-124513 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124513]: Fix a crash in FrameLocalsProxy constructor: check the number of arguments. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-124442 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124442]: Fix nondeterminism in compilation by sorting the value of __static_attributes__. Patch by kp2pml30.

gh-124285 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124285]: Fix bug where bool(a) can be invoked more than once during the evaluation of a compound boolean expression.

gh-123856 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123856]: Fix PyREPL failure when a keyboard interrupt is triggered after using a history search

gh-65961 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65961]: Deprecate the setting and using __package__ and __cached__.

gh-119726 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119726]: The JIT now generates more efficient code for calls to C functions resulting in up to 0.8% memory savings and 1.5% speed improvement on AArch64. Patch by Diego Russo.

gh-122878 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122878]: Use the pager binary, if available (e.g. on Debian and derivatives), to display REPL help().

gh-124188 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124188]: Fix reading and decoding a line from the source file with non-UTF-8 encoding for syntax errors raised in the compiler.

gh-124027 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124027]: Support <page up>, <page down>, and <delete> keys in the Python REPL when $TERM is set to vt100.

gh-124022 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124022]: Fix bug where docstring is removed from classes in interactive mode.

gh-123958 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123958]: docstrings are now removed from the optimized AST in optimization level 2.

gh-123923 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123923]: The f_executable field in the internal _PyInterpreterFrame struct now uses a tagged pointer. Profilers and debuggers that uses this field should clear the least significant bit to recover the PyObject* pointer.

gh-77894 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77894]: Fix possible crash in the garbage collector when it tries to break a reference loop containing a memoryview object. Now a memoryview object can only be cleared if there are no buffers that refer it.

gh-120221 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120221]: asyncio REPL is now again properly recognizing KeyboardInterrupts. Display of exceptions raised in secondary threads is fixed.

gh-119310 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119310]: Allow the new interactive shell to read history files written with the editline library that use unicode-escaped entries. Patch by aorcajo and Łukasz Langa.

gh-123572 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123572]: Fix key mappings for various F-keys in Windows for the new REPL. Patch by devdanzin

Library

gh-123614 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123614]: Add turtle.save() to easily save Turtle drawings as PostScript files. Patch by Marie Roald and Yngve Mardal Moe.

Core and Builtins

gh-123339 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123339]: Setting the __module__ attribute for a class now removes the __firstlineno__ item from the type's dict, so they will no longer be inconsistent.

gh-119034 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119034]: Change <page up> and <page down> keys of the Python REPL to history search forward/backward. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-123562 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123562]: Improve SyntaxError message for using case ... as ... with not a name.

gh-123545 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123545]: Fix a double decref in rare cases on experimental JIT builds.

gh-123484 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123484]: Fix _Py_DebugOffsets for long objects to be relative to the start of the object rather than the start of a subobject.

gh-123446 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123446]: Fix empty function name in TypeError when builtin magic methods are used without the required args.

gh-123440 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123440]: Improve SyntaxError message for using except as with not a name.

gh-116017 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116017]: Improved JIT memory consumption by periodically freeing memory used by infrequently-executed code. This change is especially likely to improve the memory footprint of long-running programs.

gh-123344 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123344]: Add AST optimizations for type parameter defaults.

gh-123321 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123321]: Prevent Parser/myreadline race condition from segfaulting on multi-threaded use. Patch by Bar Harel and Amit Wienner.

gh-123177 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123177]: Fix a bug causing stray prompts to appear in the middle of wrapped lines in the new REPL.

gh-122982 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122982]: Extend the deprecation period for bool inversion (~) by two years.

gh-123271 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123271]: Make concurrent iterations over the same zip() iterator safe under free-threading.

gh-123275 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123275]: Support -X gil=1 and PYTHON_GIL=1 on non-free-threaded builds.

gh-123177 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123177]: Deactivate line wrap in the Apple Terminal via a ANSI escape code. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-123229 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123229]: Fix valgrind warning by initializing the f-string buffers to 0 in the tokenizer. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-122298 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122298]: Restore printout of GC stats when gc.set_debug(gc.DEBUG_STATS) is called. This feature was accidentally removed when implementing incremental GC.

gh-121804 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121804]: Correctly show error locations when a SyntaxError is raised in the basic REPL. Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

gh-115776 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115776]: Enables inline values (Python's equivalent of hidden classes) on any class who's instances are of a fixed size.

gh-123142 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123142]: Fix too-wide source location in exception tracebacks coming from broken iterables in comprehensions.

gh-123048 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123048]: Fix a bug where pattern matching code could emit a JUMP_FORWARD with no source location.

gh-118093 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118093]: Break up CALL_ALLOC_AND_ENTER_INIT into micro-ops and relax requirement for exact args, in order to increase the amount of code supported by tier 2.

gh-123123 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123123]: Fix displaying SyntaxError exceptions covering multiple lines. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-123083 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123083]: Fix a potential use-after-free in STORE_ATTR_WITH_HINT.

gh-123022 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123022]: Fix crash in free-threaded build when calling Py_Initialize() from a non-main thread.

gh-118093 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118093]: Add three specializations for CALL_KW:

CALL_KW_PY for calls to Python functions

CALL_KW_BOUND_METHOD for calls to bound methods

CALL_KW_NON_PY for all other calls

gh-122821 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122821]: Make sure that branches in while statements have consistent offsets for sys.monitoring. while statements are now compiled with a simple jump at the end of the body, instead of duplicating the test.

gh-122907 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122907]: Building with HAVE_DYNAMIC_LOADING now works as well as it did in 3.12. Existing deficiences will be addressed separately. (See https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122950.)

gh-122888 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122888]: Fix crash on certain calls to str() with positional arguments of the wrong type. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

gh-118093 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118093]: Improve the experimental JIT's handling of polymorphic code.

gh-122697 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122697]: Fixed memory leaks at interpreter shutdown in the free-threaded build, and also reporting of leaked memory blocks via -X showrefcount.

gh-116622 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116622]: Fix Android stdout and stderr messages being truncated or lost.

gh-122527 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122527]: Fix a crash that occurred when a PyStructSequence was deallocated after its type's dictionary was cleared by the GC. The type's tp_basicsize now accounts for non-sequence fields that aren't included in the Py_SIZE of the sequence.

gh-122445 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122445]: Add only fields which are modified via self.* to __static_attributes__.

gh-122417 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122417]: In the free-threaded build, the reference counts for heap type objects are now partially stored in a distributed manner in per-thread arrays. This reduces contention on the heap type's reference count fields when creating or destroying instances of the same type from multiple threads concurrently.

gh-116090 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116090]: Fix an issue in JIT builds that prevented some for loops from correctly firing RAISE monitoring events.

gh-122300 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122300]: Preserve AST nodes for f-string with single-element format specifiers. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-120906 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120906]: frame.f_locals now supports arbitrary hashable objects as keys.

gh-122239 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122239]: When a list, tuple or dict with too many elements is unpacked, show the actual length in the error message.

gh-122245 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122245]: Detection of writes to __debug__ is moved from the compiler's codegen stage to the symtable. This means that these errors are now detected even in code that is optimized away before codegen (such as assertions with the -O command line option).

gh-122234 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122234]: Specializations for sums with float and complex inputs in sum() now always use compensated summation. Also, for integer items in above specializations: PyLong_AsDouble() is used, instead of PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow(). Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

gh-122208 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122208]: Dictionary watchers now only deliver the PyDict_EVENT_ADDED event when the insertion is in a known good state to succeed.

gh-122160 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122160]: Remove the BUILD_CONST_KEY_MAP opcode. Use BUILD_MAP instead.

gh-122029 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122029]: Emit c_call events in sys.setprofile() when a PyMethodObject pointing to a PyCFunction is called.

gh-122026 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122026]: Fix a bug that caused the tokenizer to not correctly identify mismatched parentheses inside f-strings in some situations. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-99108 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108]: Python's hashlib now unconditionally uses the vendored HACL* library for Blake2. Python no longer accepts libb2 as an optional dependency for Blake2.

We refreshed HACL* to the latest version, and now vendor HACL*'s 128-bit and 256-bit wide vector implementations for Blake2, which are used on x86/x64 toolchains when the required CPU features are available at runtime.

HACL*'s 128-bit wide vector implementation of Blake2 can also run on ARM NEON and Power8, but lacking evidence of a performance gain, these are not enabled (yet).

Library

gh-121999 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121999]: The default extraction filter for the tarfile module is now set to 'data'.

Core and Builtins

gh-121860 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121860]: Fix crash when rematerializing a managed dictionary after it was deleted.

gh-121795 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121795]: Improve performance of set membership testing, set.remove() and set.discard() when the argument is a set.

gh-121814 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121814]: Fixed the SegFault when PyEval_SetTrace() is used with no Python frame on stack.

gh-121295 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121295]: Fix PyREPL console getting into a blocked state after interrupting a long paste

gh-121794 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121794]: Fix bug in free-threaded Python where a resurrected object could lead to a negative ref count assertion failure.

gh-121657 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121657]: Improve the SyntaxError message if the user tries to use yield from outside a function.

gh-121609 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121609]: Fix pasting of characters containing unicode character joiners in the new REPL. Patch by Marta Gomez Macias

gh-121297 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121297]: Previously, incorrect usage of await or asynchronous comprehensions in code removed by the -O option was not flagged by the Python compiler. Now, such code raises SyntaxError. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

gh-117482 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117482]: Unexpected slot wrappers are no longer created for builtin static types in subinterpreters.

gh-121562 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121562]: Optimized performance of hex_from_char by replacing switch-case with a lookup table

gh-121499 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121499]: Fix a bug affecting how multi-line history was being rendered in the new REPL after interacting with the new screen cache. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-121497 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121497]: Fix a bug that was preventing the REPL to correctly respect the history when an input hook was set. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-121012 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121012]: Tier 2 execution now ensures that list iterators remain exhausted, once they become exhausted.

gh-121439 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121439]: Allow tuples of length 20 in the freelist to be reused.

gh-121288 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121288]: ValueError messages for list.index(), range.index(), deque.index(), deque.remove() and ShareableList.index() no longer contain the repr of the searched value (which can be arbitrary large) and are consistent with error messages for other index() and remove() methods.

gh-121368 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121368]: Fix race condition in _PyType_Lookup in the free-threaded build due to a missing memory fence. This could lead to _PyType_Lookup returning incorrect results on arm64.

gh-121149 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121149]: Added specialization for summation of complexes, this also improves accuracy of builtin sum() for such inputs. Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

gh-121130 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121130]: Fix f-strings with debug expressions in format specifiers. Patch by Pablo Galindo

Library

gh-121381 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121381]: Remove subprocess._USE_VFORK escape hatch code and documentation. It was added just in case, and doesn't have any known cases that require it.

Core and Builtins

gh-119726 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119726]: Optimize code layout for calls to C functions from the JIT on AArch64. Patch by Diego Russo.

gh-121115 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121115]: PyLong_AsNativeBytes() no longer uses __index__() methods by default. The Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_ALLOW_INDEX flag has been added to allow it.

gh-120838 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120838]: Py_Finalize() and Py_FinalizeEx() now always run with the main interpreter active.

gh-113433 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113433]: Subinterpreters now get cleaned up automatically during runtime finalization.

gh-119726 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119726]: Improve the speed and memory use of C function calls from JIT code on AArch64. Patch by Diego Russo

gh-116017 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116017]: Simplify the warmup mechanism used for "side exits" in JIT code, resulting in slightly better performance and slightly lower memory usage for most platforms.

gh-98442 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98442]: Fix too wide source locations of the cleanup instructions of a with statement.

gh-120754 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120754]: Reduce the number of system calls invoked when reading a whole file (ex. open('a.txt').read()). For a sample program that reads the contents of the 400+ .rst files in the cpython repository Doc folder, there is an over 10% reduction in system call count.

gh-119462 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119462]: Make sure that invariants of type versioning are maintained: * Superclasses always have their version number assigned before subclasses * The version tag is always zero if the tag is not valid. * The version tag is always non-if the tag is valid.

gh-120437 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120437]: Fix _CHECK_STACK_SPACE optimization problems introduced in gh-118322 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118322].

gh-120722 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120722]: Correctly set the bytecode position on return instructions within lambdas. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

gh-120367 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120367]: Fix bug where compiler creates a redundant jump during pseudo-op replacement. Can only happen with a synthetic AST that has a try on the same line as the instruction following the exception handler.

gh-120507 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120507]: Remove the BEFORE_WITH and BEFORE_ASYNC_WITH instructions. Add the new LOAD_SPECIAL instruction. Generate code for with and async with statements using the new instruction.

gh-113993 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113993]: Strings interned with sys.intern() are again garbage-collected when no longer used, as per the documentation. Strings interned with the C function PyUnicode_InternInPlace() are still immortal. Internals of the string interning mechanism have been changed. This may affect performance and identities of str objects.

Library

gh-120485 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120485]: Add an override of allow_reuse_port on classes subclassing socketserver.TCPServer where allow_reuse_address is also overridden.

Core and Builtins

gh-120384 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120384]: Fix an array out of bounds crash in list_ass_subscript, which could be invoked via some specifically tailored input: including concurrent modification of a list object, where one thread assigns a slice and another clears it.

gh-120367 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120367]: Fix crash in compiler on code with redundant NOPs and JUMPs which show up after exception handlers are moved to the end of the code.

Library

gh-120380 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120380]: Fix Python implementation of pickle.Pickler for bytes and bytearray objects when using protocol version 5. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

Core and Builtins

gh-120397 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120397]: Improve the throughput by up to two times for the str.count(), bytes.count() and bytearray.count() methods for counting single characters.

gh-120221 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120221]: Deliver real signals on Ctrl-C and Ctrl-Z in the new REPL. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-120346 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120346]: Respect PYTHON_BASIC_REPL when running in interactive inspect mode (python -i). Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-93691 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93691]: Fix source locations of instructions generated for the iterator of a for statement.

gh-120198 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120198]: Fix a crash when multiple threads read and write to the same __class__ of an object concurrently.

gh-120298 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120298]: Fix use-after free in list_richcompare_impl which can be invoked via some specifically tailored evil input.

gh-119666 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119666]: Fix a compiler crash in the case where two comprehensions in class scope both reference __class__.

gh-119726 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119726]: JIT: Re-use trampolines on AArch64 when creating stencils. Patch by Diego Russo

gh-120225 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120225]: Fix crash in compiler on empty block at end of exception handler.

gh-93691 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93691]: Fix source locations of instructions generated for with statements.

gh-120097 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120097]: FrameLocalsProxy now subclasses collections.abc.Mapping and can be matched as a mapping in match statements

gh-120080 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120080]: Direct call to the int.__round__() now accepts None as a valid argument.

gh-119933 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119933]: Improve SyntaxError messages for invalid expressions in a type parameters bound, a type parameter constraint tuple or a default type parameter. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-119724 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119724]: Reverted improvements to error messages for elif/else statements not matching any valid statements, which made in hard to locate the syntax errors inside those elif/else blocks.

gh-119879 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119879]: String search is now slightly faster for certain cases. It now utilizes last character gap (good suffix rule) for two-way periodic needles.

gh-119842 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119842]: Honor PyOS_InputHook() in the new REPL. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-119180 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119180]: classmethod() and staticmethod() now wrap the __annotations__ and __annotate__ attributes of their underlying callable lazily. See PEP 649 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/]. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

gh-119821 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119821]: Fix execution of annotation scopes within classes when globals is set to a non-dict. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

gh-118934 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118934]: Make PyEval_GetLocals return borrowed reference

gh-119740 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119740]: Remove the previously-deprecated delegation of int() to __trunc__().

gh-119689 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119689]: Generate stack effect metadata for pseudo instructions from bytecodes.c.

gh-109218 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109218]: complex() accepts now a string only as a positional argument. Passing a complex number as the "real" or "imag" argument is deprecated; it should only be passed as a single positional argument.

gh-119548 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119548]: Add a clear command to the REPL. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-111999 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111999]: Fix the signature of str.format_map().

gh-119560 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119560]: An invalid assert in beta 1 has been removed. The assert would fail if PyState_FindModule() was used in an extension module's init function before the module def had been initialized.

gh-119369 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119369]: Fix deadlock during thread deletion in free-threaded build, which could occur when the GIL was enabled at runtime.

gh-119525 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119525]: Fix deadlock involving _PyType_Lookup() cache in the free-threaded build when the GIL is dynamically enabled at runtime.

gh-119258 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119258]: Eliminate type version guards in the tier two interpreter.

Note that setting the tp_version_tag manually (which has never been supported) may result in crashes.

gh-119311 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119311]: Fix bug where names are unexpectedly mangled in the bases of generic classes.

gh-119395 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119395]: Fix bug where names appearing after a generic class are mangled as if they are in the generic class.

gh-119372 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119372]: Correct invalid corner cases in complex division (resulted in (nan+nanj) output), e.g. 1/complex('(inf+infj)'). Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

gh-119180 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119180]: Evaluation of annotations is now deferred. See PEP 649 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/] for details.

gh-119180 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119180]: Replace LOAD_ASSERTION_ERROR opcode with LOAD_COMMON_CONSTANT and add support for NotImplementedError.

gh-119213 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119213]: Non-builtin modules built with argument clinic were crashing if used in a subinterpreter before the main interpreter. The objects that were causing the problem by leaking between interpreters carelessly have been fixed.

gh-119011 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119011]: Fixes type.__type_params__ to return an empty tuple instead of a descriptor.

gh-118692 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118692]: Avoid creating unnecessary StopIteration instances for monitoring.

gh-119180 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119180]: Add an __annotate__ attribute to functions, classes, and modules as part of PEP 649 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/]. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

gh-119049 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119049]: Fix displaying the source line for warnings created by the C API if the warnings module had not yet been imported.

gh-119057 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119057]: Improve ZeroDivisionError error message. Now, all error messages are harmonized: all /, //, and % operations just use "division by zero" message. And 0 ** -1 operation uses "zero to a negative power".

gh-118844 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118844]: Fix build failures when configuring with both --disable-gil and --enable-experimental-jit.

gh-118921 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118921]: Add copy() method for FrameLocalsProxy which returns a snapshot dict for local variables.

gh-117657 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117657]: Fix data races on the field that stores a pointer to the interpreter's main thread that occur in free-threaded builds.

gh-118750 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118750]: If the C version of the decimal module is available, int(str) now uses it to supply an asymptotically much faster conversion. However, this only applies if the string contains over about 2 million digits.

gh-118767 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118767]: Using NotImplemented in a boolean context now raises TypeError. Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra.

gh-118561 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118561]: Fix race condition in free-threaded build where list.extend() could expose uninitialised memory to concurrent readers.

gh-117139 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117139]: Convert the Python evaluation stack to use internal stack references. The purpose is to support tagged pointers. In PEP 703 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/], this will allow for its form of deferred reference counting. For both the default and free-threaded builds, this sets up the infrastructure for unboxed integers in the future.

Library

gh-115801 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115801]: Raise TypeError when passing a string to difflib.unified_diff() and difflib.context_diff().

Core and Builtins

gh-117558 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117558]: Improve error messages when a string, bytes or bytearray object of length 1 is expected.

gh-117195 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117195]: Avoid assertion failure for debug builds when calling object.__sizeof__(1)

gh-116022 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116022]: Improve the __repr__() output of AST nodes.

gh-114091 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114091]: Changed the error message for awaiting something that can't be awaited from "object <type> can't be used in an await expression" to "'<type>' object can't be awaited".

gh-113190 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113190]: Py_Finalize() now deletes all interned strings.

gh-84978 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84978]: Add class methods float.from_number() and complex.from_number().

gh-95144 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95144]: Improve the error message from a in b when b is not a container to mention the term "container".

bpo-24766 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24766]: Fix handling of doc argument to subclasses of property.

C API

gh-123961 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123961]: Convert the curses.window static type exposed by the PyCursesWindow_Type macro in Include/py_curses.h to a heap type. Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

gh-124502 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124502]: Add PyUnicode_Equal() function to the limited C API: test if two strings are equal. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-124296 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124296]: PyDictObject no longer maintains a private version tag field ma_version_tag per PEP 699 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0699/]. This field was originally added in Python 3.6 (PEP 509 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0509/]) and deprecated in Python 3.12.

gh-124160 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124160]: Fix crash when importing modules containing state and single-phase initialization in a subinterpreter.

gh-124153 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124153]: Add PyType_GetBaseByToken() and Py_tp_token slot for easier type checking, related to PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/] and PEP 630 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0630/].

gh-124127 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124127]: In the limited C API 3.14 and newer, Py_REFCNT() is now implemented as an opaque function call to hide implementation details. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-123880 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123880]: Fixed a bug that prevented circular imports of extension modules that use single-phase initialization.

gh-123909 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123909]: PyType_FromSpec(), PyType_FromSpecWithBases() and PyType_FromModuleAndSpec() will now fail if the metaclass of the new type has custom tp_new.

gh-107954 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107954]: Add functions to configure the Python initialization (PEP 741 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0741/]):

PyInitConfig_Create()

PyInitConfig_Free()

PyInitConfig_GetError()

PyInitConfig_GetExitCode()

PyInitConfig_HasOption()

PyInitConfig_GetInt()

PyInitConfig_GetStr()

PyInitConfig_GetStrList()

PyInitConfig_FreeStrList()

PyInitConfig_SetInt()

PyInitConfig_SetStr()

PyInitConfig_SetStrList()

PyInitConfig_AddModule()

Py_InitializeFromInitConfig()

Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-107954 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107954]: Add functions to get and set the current runtime Python configuration:

PyConfig_Get()

PyConfig_GetInt()

PyConfig_Set()

PyConfig_Names()

Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-123465 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123465]: Py_RELATIVE_OFFSET is now allowed in PyMemberDef for the special offset member "__vectorcalloffset__", as well as the discouraged special offset members "__dictoffset__" and "__weaklistoffset__"

gh-100554 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100554]: Added a slot Py_tp_vectorcall to set tp_vectorcall via the PyType_FromSpec() function family. Limited API extensions can use this feature to provide more efficient vector call-based implementation of __new__ and __init__.

gh-122854 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122854]: Add Py_HashBuffer() to compute and return the hash value of a buffer. Patch by Antoine Pitrou and Victor Stinner.

gh-122728 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122728]: Fix PyEval_GetLocals() to avoid SystemError ("bad argument to internal function"). Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-116622 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116622]: Make PyObject_Print work around a bug in Android and OpenBSD which prevented it from throwing an exception when trying to write to a read-only stream.

gh-105201 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105201]: Add PyIter_NextItem() to replace PyIter_Next(), which has an ambiguous return value. Patch by Irit Katriel and Erlend Aasland.

gh-121489 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121489]: Export private _PyBytes_Join() again.

gh-121645 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121645]: Add PyBytes_Join(sep, iterable) function, similar to sep.join(iterable) in Python. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-89364 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89364]: Export the PySignal_SetWakeupFd() function. Previously, the function was documented but it couldn't be used in 3rd party code. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-113993 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113993]: PyUnicode_InternInPlace() no longer prevents its argument from being garbage collected.

Several functions that take char * are now documented as possibly preventing string objects from being garbage collected; refer to their documentation for details: PyUnicode_InternFromString(), PyDict_SetItemString(), PyObject_SetAttrString(), PyObject_DelAttrString(), PyUnicode_InternFromString(), and PyModule_Add* convenience functions.

gh-113601 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113601]: Removed debug build assertions related to interning strings, which were falsely triggered by stable ABI extensions.

gh-112136 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112136]: Restore the private _PyArg_Parser structure and the private _PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywordsFast() function, previously removed in Python 3.13 alpha 1. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-120642 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120642]: Remove the private _Py_CODEUNIT type from the public C API. The internal pycore_code.h header should now be used to get this internal type. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-120858 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120858]: PyDict_Next() no longer locks the dictionary in the free-threaded build. The locking needs to be done by the caller around the entire iteration loop.

gh-120642 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120642]: Remove the following unstable functions:

PyUnstable_Replace_Executor()

PyUnstable_SetOptimizer()

PyUnstable_GetOptimizer()

PyUnstable_GetExecutor()

PyUnstable_Optimizer_NewCounter()

PyUnstable_Optimizer_NewUOpOptimizer()

Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-120389 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120389]: Add new functions to convert C <stdint.h> numbers from/to Python int:

PyLong_FromInt32()

PyLong_FromUInt32()

PyLong_FromInt64()

PyLong_FromUInt64()

PyLong_AsInt32()

PyLong_AsUInt32()

PyLong_AsInt64()

PyLong_AsUInt64()

Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-120600 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120600]: In the limited C API 3.14 and newer, Py_TYPE() is now implemented as an opaque function call to hide implementation details. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-70278 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70278]: PyUnicode_FromFormat() no longer produces the ending \ufffd character for truncated C string when use precision with %s and %V. It now truncates the string before the start of truncated multibyte sequences.

gh-119771 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119771]: Set errno in _Py_c_pow() on overflows. Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

gh-119182 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119182]: Add a new PyUnicodeWriter API to create a Python str object:

PyUnicodeWriter_Create().

PyUnicodeWriter_Discard().

PyUnicodeWriter_Finish().

PyUnicodeWriter_WriteChar().

PyUnicodeWriter_WriteUTF8().

PyUnicodeWriter_WriteUCS4().

PyUnicodeWriter_WriteWideChar().

PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr().

PyUnicodeWriter_WriteRepr().

PyUnicodeWriter_WriteSubstring().

PyUnicodeWriter_Format().

PyUnicodeWriter_DecodeUTF8Stateful().

Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-119613 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119613]: Soft deprecate the Py_MEMCPY macro: use directly memcpy() instead. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-119775 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119775]: Creating immutable types with mutable bases was deprecated since 3.12 and now raises a TypeError.

gh-119585 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119585]: Fix crash when a thread state that was created by PyGILState_Ensure() calls a destructor that during PyThreadState_Clear() that calls back into PyGILState_Ensure() and PyGILState_Release(). This might occur when in the free-threaded build or when using thread-local variables whose destructors call PyGILState_Ensure().

gh-119613 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119613]: Macros Py_IS_NAN, Py_IS_INFINITY and Py_IS_FINITE are soft deprecated.

gh-119336 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119336]: Restore the removed _PyLong_NumBits() function. It is used by the pywin32 project. Patch by Ethan Smith

gh-119344 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119344]: The critical section API is now public as part of the non-limited C API.

gh-119333 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119333]: Add PyContext_AddWatcher() and PyContext_ClearWatcher() APIs to register callbacks to receive notification on enter and exit of context objects.

gh-119247 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119247]: Added Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION_SEQUENCE_FAST and Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION_SEQUENCE_FAST macros to make it possible to use PySequence_Fast APIs safely when free-threaded, and update str.join to work without the GIL using them.

gh-111389 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111389]: Add PyHASH_MULTIPLIER constant: prime multiplier used in string and various other hashes. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-118771 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118771]: Several C declarations with names that didn't start with the Py or _Py prefixes, which were added by mistake in 3.13 alpha and beta releases, were moved to internal headers.

gh-116984 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116984]: Make mimalloc includes relative to the current file to avoid embedders or extensions needing to include Internal/mimalloc if they are already including internal CPython headers.

gh-118789 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118789]: Add PyUnstable_Object_ClearWeakRefsNoCallbacks(), which clears weakrefs without calling their callbacks.

gh-118789 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118789]: Restore _PyWeakref_ClearRef that was previously removed in Python 3.13 alpha 1.

gh-117511 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117511]: Make the PyMutex public in the non-limited C API.

gh-116560 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116560]: Add PyLong_GetSign() function. Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

gh-97588 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97588]: Fix creating bitfields in ctypes structures and unions. Fields no longer overlap.

gh-87135 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87135]: Attempting to acquire the GIL after runtime finalization has begun in a different thread now causes the thread to hang rather than terminate, which avoids potential crashes or memory corruption caused by attempting to terminate a thread that is running code not specifically designed to support termination. In most cases this hanging is harmless since the process will soon exit anyway.

The PyThread_exit_thread function is now deprecated. Its behavior is inconsistent across platforms, and it can only be used safely in the unlikely case that every function in the entire call stack has been designed to support the platform-dependent termination mechanism. It is recommended that users of this function change their design to not require thread termination. In the unlikely case that thread termination is needed and can be done safely, users may migrate to calling platform-specific APIs such as pthread_exit (POSIX) or _endthreadex (Windows) directly.

bpo-34008 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34008]: Added Py_IsInitialized to the list of APIs that are safe to call before the interpreter is initialized, and updated the embedding tests to cover it.

Build

gh-125269 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125269]: Fix detection of whether -latomic is needed when cross-compiling CPython using the configure script.

gh-123990 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123990]: Remove WITH_FREELISTS macro and --without-freelists build configuration

gh-124102 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124102]: Update internal documentation under PCbuild, so it now correctly states that Windows requires VS2017 or later and Python 3.10 or later

gh-124043 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124043]: Building using --with-trace-refs is (temporarily) disallowed when the GIL is disabled.

gh-123418 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123418]: Updated Android build to use OpenSSL 3.0.15.

gh-123297 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123297]: Propagate the value of LDFLAGS to LDCXXSHARED in sysconfig. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-121634 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121634]: Allow for specifying the target compile triple for WASI.

gh-122578 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122578]: Use WASI SDK 24 for testing.

gh-116622 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116622]: Rename build variable MODULE_LDFLAGS back to LIBPYTHON, as it's used by package build systems (e.g. Meson).

gh-118943 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118943]: Fix an issue where the experimental JIT could be built several times by the make regen-all target, leading to possible race conditions on heavily parallelized builds.

gh-121996 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121996]: Introduce ./configure --disable-safety and --enable-slower-safety options. Patch by Donghee Na.

gh-120522 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120522]: Added a --with-app-store-compliance option to patch out known issues with macOS/iOS App Store review processes.

gh-120371 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120371]: Support WASI SDK 22 by explicitly skipping functions that are just stubs in wasi-libc.

gh-121731 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121731]: Fix mimalloc compile error on GNU/Hurd

gh-121487 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121487]: Fix deprecation warning for ATOMIC_VAR_INIT in mimalloc.

gh-121467 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121467]: Fix a Makefile bug that prevented mimalloc header files from being installed.

gh-121103 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121103]: On POSIX systems, excluding macOS framework installs, the lib directory for the free-threaded build now includes a "t" suffix to avoid conflicts with a co-located default build installation.

gh-120831 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120831]: The default minimum iOS version was increased to 13.0.

gh-121082 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121082]: Fix build failure when the developer use --enable-pystats arguments in configuration command after #118450.

gh-120671 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120671]: Fix failing configure tests due to a missing space when appending to CFLAGS.

gh-120602 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120602]: Correctly handle LLVM installs with LLVM_VERSION_SUFFIX when building with --enable-experimental-jit.

gh-120688 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120688]: On WASI in debug mode, Python is now built with compiler flag -O3 instead of -Og, to support more recursive calls. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-118943 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118943]: Fix a possible race condition affecting parallel builds configured with --enable-experimental-jit, in which FileNotFoundError could be caused by another process already moving jit_stencils.h.new to jit_stencils.h.

gh-120326 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120326]: On Windows, fix build error when --disable-gil and --experimental-jit options are combined.

gh-120291 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120291]: Make the python-config shell script compatible with non-bash shells.

gh-113565 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113565]: Improve curses and curses.panel dependency checks in configure.

gh-119729 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119729]: On POSIX systems, the pkg-config (.pc) filenames now include the ABI flags, which may include debug ("d") and free-threaded ("t"). For example: * python-3.14.pc (default, non-debug build) * python-3.14d.pc (default, debug build) * python-3.14t.pc (free-threaded build)

gh-119400 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119400]: make_ssl_certs, the script that prepares certificate data for the test suite, now allows specifying expiration dates.

gh-115119 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115119]: Fall back to the bundled libmpdec if a system version cannot be found.

gh-119132 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119132]: Update sys.version to identify whether the build is default build or free-threading build. Patch By Donghee Na.

gh-118836 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118836]: Fix an AssertionError when building with --enable-experimental-jit and the compiler emits a SHT_NOTE section.

gh-118943 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118943]: Fix a possible race condition affecting parallel builds configured with --enable-experimental-jit, in which compilation errors could be caused by an incompletely-generated header file.

Python 3.13.0 beta 1

Release date: 2024-05-08

Security

gh-116741 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116741]: Update bundled libexpat to 2.6.2

gh-117233 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117233]: Detect BLAKE2, SHA3, Shake, & truncated SHA512 support in the OpenSSL-ish libcrypto library at build time. This allows hashlib to be used with libraries that do not to support every algorithm that upstream OpenSSL does.

Core and Builtins

gh-118414 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118414]: Add instrumented opcodes to YIELD_VALUE assertion for tracing cases.

gh-117953 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117953]: When a builtin or extension module is imported for the first time, while a subinterpreter is active, the module's init function is now run by the main interpreter first before import continues in the subinterpreter. Consequently, single-phase init modules now fail in an isolated subinterpreter without the init function running under that interpreter, whereas before it would run under the subinterpreter before failing, potentially leaving behind global state and callbacks and otherwise leaving the module in an inconsistent state.

gh-117549 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117549]: Don't use designated initializer syntax in inline functions in internal headers. They cause problems for C++ or MSVC users who aren't yet using the latest C++ standard (C++20). While internal, pycore_backoff.h, is included (indirectly, via pycore_code.h) by some key 3rd party software that does so for speed.

Library

gh-95382 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95382]: Improve performance of json.dumps() and json.dump() when using the argument indent. Depending on the data the encoding using json.dumps() with indent can be up to 2 to 3 times faster.

Core and Builtins

gh-116322 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116322]: In --disable-gil builds, the GIL will be enabled while loading C extension modules. If the module indicates that it supports running without the GIL, the GIL will be disabled once loading is complete. Otherwise, the GIL will remain enabled for the remainder of the interpreter's lifetime. This behavior does not apply if the GIL has been explicitly enabled or disabled with PYTHON_GIL or -Xgil.

gh-118513 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118513]: Fix incorrect UnboundLocalError when two comprehensions in the same function both reference the same name, and in one comprehension the name is bound while in the other it's an implicit global.

gh-118518 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118518]: Allow the Linux perf support to work without frame pointers using perf's advanced JIT support. The feature is activated when using the PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT environment variable or when running Python with -Xperf_jit. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

gh-117514 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117514]: Add sys._is_gil_enabled() function that returns whether the GIL is currently enabled. In the default build it always returns True because the GIL is always enabled. In the free-threaded build, it may return True or False.

gh-118164 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118164]: Break a loop between the Python implementation of the decimal module and the Python code for integer to string conversion. Also optimize integer to string conversion for values in the range from 9_000 to 135_000 decimal digits.

gh-118473 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118473]: Fix sys.set_asyncgen_hooks() not to be partially set when raising TypeError.

gh-118465 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118465]: Compiler populates the new __firstlineno__ field on a class with the line number of the first line of the class definition.

gh-118492 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118492]: Fix an issue where the type cache can expose a previously accessed attribute when a finalizer is run.

gh-117714 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117714]: update async_generator.athrow().close() and async_generator.asend().close() to close their section of the underlying async generator

gh-111201 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111201]: The interactive interpreter is now implemented in Python, which allows for a number of new features like colors, multiline input, history viewing, and paste mode. Contributed by Pablo Galindo, Łukasz Langa and Lysandros Nikolaou based on code from the PyPy project.

gh-74929 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74929]: Implement PEP 667: converted FrameType.f_locals and PyFrame_GetLocals() to return a write-through proxy object when the frame refers to a function or comprehension.

gh-116767 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116767]: Fix crash in compiler on 'async with' that has many context managers.

gh-118335 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118335]: Change how to use the tier 2 interpreter. Instead of running Python with -X uops or setting the environment variable PYTHON_UOPS=1, this choice is now made at build time by configuring with --enable-experimental-jit=interpreter.

Beware! This changes the environment variable to enable or disable micro-ops to PYTHON_JIT. The old PYTHON_UOPS is no longer used.

gh-118306 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118306]: Update JIT compilation to use LLVM 18

gh-118160 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118160]: Annotation scopes within classes can now contain comprehensions. However, such comprehensions are not inlined into their parent scope at runtime. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

gh-118272 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118272]: Fix bug where generator.close does not free the generator frame's locals.

gh-118216 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118216]: Don't consider __future__ imports with dots before the module name.

gh-118074 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118074]: Make sure that the Executor objects in the COLD_EXITS array aren't assumed to be GC-able (which would access bytes outside the object).

gh-107674 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107674]: Lazy load frame line number to improve performance of tracing

gh-118082 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118082]: Improve SyntaxError message for imports without names, like in from x import and import cases. It now points out to users that import expects at least one name after it.

gh-118090 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118090]: Improve SyntaxError message for empty type param brackets.

gh-117958 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117958]: Added a get_jit_code() method to access JIT compiled machine code from the UOp Executor when the experimental JIT is enabled. Patch by Anthony Shaw.

gh-117901 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117901]: Add option for compiler's codegen to save nested instruction sequences for introspection.

gh-116622 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116622]: Redirect stdout and stderr to system log when embedded in an Android app.

gh-109118 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109118]: annotation scope within class scopes can now contain lambdas.

gh-117894 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117894]: Prevent agen.aclose() objects being re-used after .throw().

gh-117881 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117881]: prevent concurrent access to an async generator via athrow().throw() or asend().throw()

gh-117536 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117536]: Fix a RuntimeWarning when calling agen.aclose().throw(Exception).

gh-117755 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117755]: Fix mimalloc allocator for huge memory allocation (around 8,589,934,592 GiB) on s390x. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-117750 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117750]: Fix issue where an object's dict would get out of sync with the object's internal values when being cleared. obj.__dict__.clear() now clears the internal values, but leaves the dict attached to the object.

gh-117431 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117431]: Improve the performance of the following bytes and bytearray methods by adapting them to the METH_FASTCALL calling convention:

count()

find()

index()

rfind()

rindex()

gh-117709 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117709]: Speed up calls to str() with positional-only argument, by using the PEP 590 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/] vectorcall calling convention. Patch by Erlend Aasland.

gh-117680 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117680]: Give _PyInstructionSequence a Python interface and use it in tests.

gh-115776 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115776]: Statically allocated objects are, by definition, immortal so must be marked as such regardless of whether they are in extension modules or not.

gh-117385 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117385]: Remove unhandled PY_MONITORING_EVENT_BRANCH and PY_MONITORING_EVENT_EXCEPTION_HANDLED events from sys.settrace().

gh-116322 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116322]: Extension modules may indicate to the runtime that they can run without the GIL. Multi-phase init modules do so by calling providing Py_MOD_GIL_NOT_USED for the Py_mod_gil slot, while single-phase init modules call PyUnstable_Module_SetGIL(mod, Py_MOD_GIL_NOT_USED) from their init function.

gh-116129 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116129]: Implement PEP 696 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0696/], adding support for defaults on type parameters. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

gh-93502 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93502]: Add two new functions to the C-API, PyRefTracer_SetTracer() and PyRefTracer_GetTracer(), that allows to track object creation and destruction the same way the tracemalloc module does. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-107674 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107674]: Improved the performance of sys.settrace() significantly

gh-95754 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95754]: Improve the error message when a script shadowing a module from the standard library causes AttributeError to be raised. Similarly, improve the error message when a script shadowing a third party module attempts to access an attribute from that third party module while still initialising.

gh-99180 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99180]: Elide uninformative traceback indicators in return and simple assignment statements. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

gh-105879 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105879]: Allow the globals and locals arguments to exec() and eval() to be passed as keywords.

Library

gh-118418 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118418]: A DeprecationWarning is now emitted if you fail to pass a value to the new type_params parameter of typing._eval_type() or typing.ForwardRef._evaluate(). (Using either of these private and undocumented functions is discouraged to begin with, but failing to pass a value to the type_params parameter may lead to incorrect behaviour on Python 3.12 or newer.)

gh-118660 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118660]: Add an optional second type parameter to typing.ContextManager and typing.AsyncContextManager, representing the return types of __exit__() and __aexit__() respectively. This parameter defaults to bool | None.

gh-118650 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118650]: The enum module allows method named _repr_* to be defined on Enum types.

gh-118648 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118648]: Add type parameter defaults to typing.Generator and typing.AsyncGenerator.

gh-101137 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101137]: Mime type text/x-rst is now supported by mimetypes.

gh-118164 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118164]: The Python implementation of the decimal module could appear to hang in relatively small power cases (like 2**117) if context precision was set to a very high value. A different method to check for exactly representable results is used now that doesn't rely on computing 10**precision (which could be effectively too large to compute).

gh-111744 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111744]: breakpoint() and pdb.set_trace() now enter the debugger immediately after the call rather than before the next line is executed.

gh-118500 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118500]: Add pdb support for zipapps

gh-118406 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118406]: Add signature for sqlite3.Connection objects.

gh-101732 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101732]: Use a Y2038 compatible openssl time function when available.

gh-118404 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118404]: Fix inspect.signature() for non-comparable callables.

gh-118402 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118402]: Fix inspect.signature() for the result of the functools.cmp_to_key() call.

gh-116622 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116622]: On Android, sysconfig.get_platform now returns the format specified by PEP 738 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0738/].

gh-118285 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118285]: Allow to specify the signature of custom callable instances of extension type by the __text_signature__ attribute. Specify signatures of operator.attrgetter, operator.itemgetter, and operator.methodcaller instances.

gh-118314 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118314]: Fix an edge case in binascii.a2b_base64() strict mode, where excessive padding is not detected when no padding is necessary.

gh-118271 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118271]: Add the PhotoImage methods read() to read an image from a file and data() to get the image data. Add background and grayscale parameters to PhotoImage method write().

gh-118225 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118225]: Add the PhotoImage method copy_replace() to copy a region from one image to other image, possibly with pixel zooming and/or subsampling. Add from_coords parameter to PhotoImage methods copy(), zoom() and subsample(). Add zoom and subsample parameters to PhotoImage method copy().

gh-118221 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118221]: Fix a bug where sqlite3.Connection.iterdump() could fail if a custom row factory was used. Patch by Erlend Aasland.

gh-118013 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118013]: Fix regression introduced in gh-103193 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103193] that meant that calling inspect.getattr_static() on an instance would cause a strong reference to that instance's class to persist in an internal cache in the inspect module. This caused unexpected memory consumption if the class was dynamically created, the class held strong references to other objects which took up a significant amount of memory, and the cache contained the sole strong reference to the class. The fix for the regression leads to a slowdown in getattr_static(), but the function should still be significantly faster than it was in Python 3.11. Patch by Alex Waygood.

gh-118218 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118218]: Speed up itertools.pairwise() in the common case by up to 1.8x.

gh-117486 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117486]: Improve the behavior of user-defined subclasses of ast.AST. Such classes will now require no changes in the usual case to conform with the behavior changes of the ast module in Python 3.13. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

gh-90848 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90848]: Fixed unittest.mock.create_autospec() to configure parent mock with keyword arguments.

gh-118168 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118168]: Fix incorrect argument substitution when typing.Unpack is used with the builtin tuple. typing.Unpack now raises TypeError when used with certain invalid types. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

gh-118131 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118131]: Add command-line interface for the random module. Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

gh-118107 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118107]: Fix zipimport reading of ZIP64 files with file entries that are too big or offset too far.

gh-102511 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102511]: Fix os.path.normpath() for UNC paths on Windows. Speed up os.path.splitroot() with a native implementation.

gh-117535 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117535]: Change the unknown filename of warnings from sys to <sys> to clarify that it's not a real filename.

gh-114053 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114053]: Fix erroneous NameError when calling typing.get_type_hints() on a class that made use of PEP 695 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/] type parameters in a module that had from __future__ import annotations at the top of the file. Patch by Alex Waygood.

gh-116931 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116931]: Add parameter fileobj check for tarfile.TarFile.addfile()

gh-117995 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117995]: Don't raise DeprecationWarning when a sequence of parameters is used to bind indexed, nameless placeholders. See also gh-100668 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100668].

gh-80361 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80361]: Fix TypeError in email.message.Message.get_payload() when the charset is RFC 2231 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html] encoded.

gh-86650 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86650]: Fix IndexError when parse some emails with invalid Message-ID (including one-off addresses generated by Microsoft Outlook).

gh-117691 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117691]: Improve the error messages emitted by tarfile deprecation warnings relating to PEP 706. If a filter argument is not provided to extract() or extractall, the deprecation warning now points to the line in the user's code where the relevant function was called. Patch by Alex Waygood.

gh-115874 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115874]: Fixed a possible segfault during garbage collection of _asyncio.FutureIter objects. Patch by Savannah Ostrowski.

gh-115060 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115060]: Speed up pathlib.Path.glob() by omitting an initial is_dir() call. As a result of this change, glob() can no longer raise OSError.

gh-77102 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77102]: site module now parses .pth file with UTF-8 first, and locale encoding if UnicodeDecodeError happened. It supported only locale encoding before.

gh-76785 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/76785]: We've exposed the low-level _interpreters module for the sake of the PyPI implementation of PEP 734 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0734/]. It was sometimes available as the _xxsubinterpreters module and was formerly used only for testing. For the most part, it should be considered an internal module, like _thread and _imp. See https://discuss.python.org/t/pep-734-multiple-interpreters-in-the-stdlib/41147/26.

gh-115060 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115060]: Speed up pathlib.Path.glob() by not scanning directories for non-wildcard pattern segments.

gh-117727 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117727]: Speed up pathlib.Path.iterdir() by using os.scandir() internally.

gh-117586 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117586]: Speed up pathlib.Path.walk() by working with strings internally.

gh-117722 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117722]: Change the new multi-separator support in asyncio.StreamReader.readuntil() to only accept tuples of separators rather than arbitrary iterables.

gh-117692 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117692]: Fixes a bug when doctest.DocTestFinder was failing on wrapped builtin_function_or_method.

gh-117348 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117348]: Largely restored import time performance of configparser by avoiding dataclasses.

gh-117641 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117641]: Speedup os.path.commonpath() on Unix.

gh-117663 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117663]: Fix _simple_enum to detect aliases when multiple arguments are present but only one is the member value.

gh-117636 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117636]: Speedup os.path.join().

gh-117618 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117618]: Support package.module as filename for break command of pdb

gh-102247 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102247]: the status codes enum with constants in http.HTTPStatus are updated to include the names from RFC9110. This RFC includes some HTTP statuses previously only used for WEBDAV and assigns more generic names to them.

The old constants are preserved for backwards compatibility.

gh-117607 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117607]: Speedup os.path.relpath().

gh-117586 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117586]: Speed up pathlib.Path.glob() by working with strings internally.

gh-117225 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117225]: Add colour to doctest output. Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

gh-117566 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117566]: ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_loopback() will now return True for IPv4-mapped loopback addresses, i.e. addresses in the ::ffff:127.0.0.0/104 address space.

gh-117546 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117546]: Fix issue where os.path.realpath() stopped resolving symlinks after encountering a symlink loop on POSIX.

gh-116720 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116720]: Improved behavior of asyncio.TaskGroup when an external cancellation collides with an internal cancellation. For example, when two task groups are nested and both experience an exception in a child task simultaneously, it was possible that the outer task group would misbehave, because its internal cancellation was swallowed by the inner task group.

In the case where a task group is cancelled externally and also must raise an ExceptionGroup, it will now call the parent task's cancel() method. This ensures that a asyncio.CancelledError will be raised at the next await, so the cancellation is not lost.

An added benefit of these changes is that task groups now preserve the cancellation count (asyncio.Task.cancelling()).

In order to handle some corner cases, asyncio.Task.uncancel() may now reset the undocumented _must_cancel flag when the cancellation count reaches zero.

gh-117516 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117516]: Add typing.TypeIs, implementing PEP 742 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0742/]. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

gh-117503 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117503]: Fix support of non-ASCII user names in bytes paths in os.path.expanduser() on Posix.

gh-117394 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117394]: os.path.ismount() is now 2-3 times faster if the user has permissions.

gh-117313 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117313]: Only treat '\n', '\r' and '\r\n' as line separators in re-folding the email messages. Preserve control characters '\v', '\f', '\x1c', '\x1d' and '\x1e' and Unicode line separators '\x85', '\u2028' and '\u2029' as is.

gh-117142 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117142]: Convert _ctypes to multi-phase initialisation (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]).

gh-66543 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66543]: Add the mimetypes.guess_file_type() function which works with file path. Passing file path instead of URL in guess_type() is soft deprecated.

gh-68583 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68583]: webbrowser CLI: replace getopt with argparse, add long options. Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

gh-116871 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116871]: Name suggestions for AttributeError and ImportError now only include underscored names if the original name was underscored.

gh-116023 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116023]: Don't show empty fields (value None or []) in ast.dump() by default. Add show_empty=False parameter to optionally show them.

gh-115961 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115961]: Added name and mode attributes for compressed and archived file-like objects in modules bz2, lzma, tarfile and zipfile. The value of the mode attribute of gzip.GzipFile was changed from integer (1 or 2) to string ('rb' or 'wb'). The value of the mode attribute of the readable file-like object returned by zipfile.ZipFile.open() was changed from 'r' to 'rb'.

gh-82062 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82062]: Fix inspect.signature() to correctly handle parameter defaults on methods in extension modules that use names defined in the module namespace.

gh-83856 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83856]: Honor atexit for all multiprocessing start methods

gh-113081 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113081]: Print colorized exception just like built-in traceback in pdb

gh-112855 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112855]: Speed up pickling of pathlib.PurePath objects. Patch by Barney Gale.

gh-111744 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111744]: Support opcode events in bdb

gh-109617 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109617]: ncurses: fixed a crash that could occur on macOS 13 or earlier when Python was built with Apple Xcode 15's SDK.

gh-83151 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83151]: Enabled arbitrary statements and evaluations in pdb shell to access the local variables of the current frame, which made it possible for multi-scope code like generators or nested function to work.

gh-110209 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110209]: Add __class_getitem__() to types.GeneratorType and types.CoroutineType for type hinting purposes. Patch by James Hilton-Balfe.

gh-108191 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108191]: The types.SimpleNamespace now accepts an optional positional argument which specifies initial values of attributes as a dict or an iterable of key-value pairs.

gh-62090 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/62090]: Fix assertion errors caused by whitespace in metavars or SUPPRESS-ed groups in argparse by simplifying usage formatting. Patch by Ali Hamdan.

gh-102402 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102402]: Adjust logging.LogRecord to use time.time_ns() and fix minor bug related to floating-point math.

gh-100242 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100242]: Bring pure Python implementation functools.partial.__new__ more in line with the C-implementation by not just always checking for the presence of the attribute 'func' on the first argument of partial. Instead, both the Python version and the C version perform an isinstance(func, partial) check on the first argument of partial.

gh-99730 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99730]: HEAD requests are no longer upgraded to GET request during redirects in urllib.

gh-66410 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66410]: Setting the tkinter module global wantobjects to 2 before creating the Tk object or call the wantobjects() method of the Tk object with argument 2 makes now arguments to callbacks registered in the tkinter module to be passed as various Python objects (int, float, bytes, tuple), depending on their internal representation in Tcl, instead of always str. tkinter.wantobjects is now set to 2 by default.

bpo-40943 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40943]: Fix several IndexError when parse emails with truncated Message-ID, address, routes, etc, e.g. example@.

bpo-39324 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39324]: Add mime type mapping for .md <-> text/markdown

bpo-18108 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18108]: shutil.chown() now supports dir_fd and follow_symlinks keyword arguments.

bpo-30988 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30988]: Fix parsing of emails with invalid address headers having a leading or trailing dot. Patch by tsufeki.

bpo-32839 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32839]: Add the after_info() method for Tkinter widgets.

Documentation

gh-117928 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117928]: The minimum Sphinx version required for the documentation is now 6.2.1.

Build

gh-118734 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118734]: Fixes Windows build when invoked directly (not through the build.bat script) without specifying a value for UseTIER2.

gh-115119 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115119]: The configure option --with-system-libmpdec now defaults to yes. The bundled copy of libmpdecimal will be removed in Python 3.15.

gh-117845 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117845]: Fix building against recent libedit versions by detecting readline hook signatures in configure.

gh-116622 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116622]: A testbed project was added to run the test suite on Android.

gh-117645 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117645]: Increase WASI stack size from 512 KiB to 8 MiB and the initial memory from 10 MiB to 20 MiB. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-115119 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115119]: configure now uses pkg-config to detect decimal dependencies if the --with-system-libmpdec option is given.

Windows

gh-115119 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115119]: Update Windows installer to use libmpdecimal 4.0.0.

gh-118486 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118486]: os.mkdir() now accepts mode of 0o700 to restrict the new directory to the current user.

gh-118347 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118347]: Fixes launcher updates not being installed.

gh-118293 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118293]: The multiprocessing module now passes the STARTF_FORCEOFFFEEDBACK flag when spawning processes to tell Windows not to change the mouse cursor.

gh-115009 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115009]: Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.45.3.

gh-90329 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90329]: Suppress the warning displayed on virtual environment creation when the requested and created paths differ only by a short (8.3 style) name. Warnings will continue to be shown if a junction or symlink in the path caused the venv to be created in a different location than originally requested.

gh-117786 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117786]: Fixes virtual environments not correctly launching when created from a Store install.

macOS

gh-115119 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115119]: Update macOS installer to use libmpdecimal 4.0.0.

gh-114099 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114099]: iOS preprocessor symbol usage was made compatible with older macOS SDKs.

gh-115009 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115009]: Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.45.3.

gh-91629 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91629]: Use ~/.config/fish/conf.d configs and fish_add_path to set PATH when installing for the Fish shell.

IDLE

bpo-34774 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34774]: Use user-selected color theme for Help => IDLE Doc.

C API

gh-118124 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118124]: Fix Py_BUILD_ASSERT and Py_BUILD_ASSERT_EXPR for non-constant expressions: use static_assert() on C11 and newer. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-110850 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110850]: Add "Raw" variant of PyTime functions

PyTime_MonotonicRaw()

PyTime_PerfCounterRaw()

PyTime_TimeRaw()

Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-117987 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117987]: Restore functions removed in Python 3.13 alpha 1:

Py_SetPythonHome()

Py_SetProgramName()

PySys_SetArgvEx()

PySys_SetArgv()

Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-117929 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117929]: Restore removed PyEval_InitThreads() function. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-117534 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117534]: Improve validation logic in the C implementation of datetime.datetime.fromisoformat() to better handle invalid years. Patch by Vlad Efanov.

gh-68114 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68114]: Fixed skipitem()'s handling of the old 'w' and 'w#' formatters. These are no longer supported and now raise an exception if used.

gh-111997 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111997]: Add a C-API for firing monitoring events.

Python 3.13.0 alpha 6

Release date: 2024-04-09

Core and Builtins

gh-117494 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117494]: Refactored the instruction sequence data structure out of compile.c into instruction_sequence.c.

gh-116968 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116968]: Introduce a unified 16-bit backoff counter type (_Py_BackoffCounter), shared between the Tier 1 adaptive specializer and the Tier 2 optimizer. The API used for adaptive specialization counters is changed but the behavior is (supposed to be) identical.

The behavior of the Tier 2 counters is changed:

There are no longer dynamic thresholds (we never varied these).

All counters now use the same exponential backoff.

The counter for JUMP_BACKWARD starts counting down from 16.

The temperature in side exits starts counting down from 64.

gh-117431 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117431]: Improve the performance of the following bytes and bytearray methods by adapting them to the METH_FASTCALL calling convention:

endswith()

startswith()

gh-117431 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117431]: Improve the performance of the following str methods by adapting them to the METH_FASTCALL calling convention:

count()

endswith()

find()

index()

rfind()

rindex()

startswith()

gh-117411 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117411]: Move PyFutureFeatures to an internal header and make it private.

gh-109120 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109120]: Added handle of incorrect star expressions, e.g f(3, *). Patch by Grigoryev Semyon

gh-117266 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117266]: Fix crashes for certain user-created subclasses of ast.AST. Such classes are now expected to set the _field_types attribute.

gh-99108 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108]: Updated the hashlib built-in HACL* project [https://github.com/hacl-star/hacl-star] C code from upstream that we use for many implementations when they are not present via OpenSSL in a given build. This also avoids the rare potential for a C symbol name one definition rule linking issue.

gh-117108 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117108]: Change the old space bit of objects in the young generation from 0 to gcstate->visited, so that any objects created during GC will have the old bit set correctly if they get moved into the old generation.

gh-117108 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117108]: The cycle GC now chooses the size of increments based on the total heap size, instead of the rate of object creation. This ensures that it can keep up with growing heaps.

gh-116735 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116735]: For INSTRUMENTED_CALL_FUNCTION_EX, set arg0 to sys.monitoring.MISSING instead of None for CALL event.

gh-113964 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113964]: Starting new threads and process creation through os.fork() are now only prevented once all non-daemon threads exit.

gh-116626 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116626]: Ensure INSTRUMENTED_CALL_FUNCTION_EX always emits CALL

gh-116554 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116554]: list.sort() now exploits more cases of partial ordering, particularly those with long descending runs with sub-runs of equal values. Those are recognized as single runs now (previously, each block of repeated values caused a new run to be created).

gh-114099 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114099]: Added a Loader that can discover extension modules in an iOS-style Frameworks folder.

gh-115775 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115775]: Compiler populates the new __static_attributes__ field on a class with the names of attributes of this class which are accessed through self.X from any function in its body.

gh-115776 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115776]: The array of values, the PyDictValues struct is now embedded in the object during allocation. This provides better performance in the common case, and does not degrade as much when the object's __dict__ is materialized.

gh-108362 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108362]: Implement an incremental cyclic garbage collector. By collecting the old generation in increments, there is no need for a full heap scan. This can hugely reduce maximum pause time for programs with large heaps.

Reduce the number of generations from three to two. The old generation is split into two spaces, "visited" and "pending".

Collection happens in two steps:: * An increment is formed from the young generation and a small part of the pending space. * This increment is scanned and the survivors moved to the end of the visited space.

When the collecting space becomes empty, the two spaces are swapped.

Library

gh-109870 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109870]: Dataclasses now calls exec() once per dataclass, instead of once per method being added. This can speed up dataclass creation by up to 20%.

gh-97901 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97901]: Mime type text/rtf is now supported by mimetypes.

Core and Builtins

bpo-24612 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24612]: Improve the SyntaxError that happens when 'not' appears after an operator. Patch by Pablo Galindo

Library

gh-117648 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117648]: Improve performance of os.path.join() and os.path.expanduser().

gh-117584 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117584]: Raise TypeError for non-paths in posixpath.relpath.

gh-117467 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117467]: Preserve mailbox ownership when rewriting in mailbox.mbox.flush. Patch by Tony Mountifield.

gh-114848 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114848]: Raise FileNotFoundError when getcwd() returns '(unreachable)', which can happen on Linux >= 2.6.36 with glibc < 2.27.

gh-117459 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117459]: asyncio.asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe() now keeps the traceback of CancelledError, TimeoutError and InvalidStateError which are raised in the coroutine.

gh-117381 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117381]: Fix error message for ntpath.commonpath().

gh-117337 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117337]: Deprecate undocumented glob.glob0() and glob.glob1() functions. Use glob.glob() and pass a directory to its root_dir argument instead.

gh-117349 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117349]: Optimise several functions in os.path.

gh-117348 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117348]: Refactored configparser.RawConfigParser._read() to reduce cyclometric complexity and improve comprehensibility.

gh-117335 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117335]: Raise TypeError for non-sequences for ntpath.commonpath().

gh-66449 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66449]: configparser.ConfigParser now accepts unnamed sections before named ones, if configured to do so.

gh-88014 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88014]: In documentation of gzip.GzipFile in module gzip, explain data type of optional constructor argument mtime, and recommend mtime = 0 for generating deterministic streams.

gh-117310 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117310]: Fixed an unlikely early & extra Py_DECREF triggered crash in ssl when creating a new _ssl._SSLContext if CPython was built implausibly such that the default cipher list is empty or the SSL library it was linked against reports a failure from its C SSL_CTX_set_cipher_list() API.

gh-117294 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117294]: A DocTestCase now reports as skipped if all examples in the doctest are skipped.

gh-98966 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98966]: In subprocess, raise a more informative message when stdout=STDOUT.

gh-117225 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117225]: doctest: only print "and X failed" when non-zero, don't pluralise "1 items". Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

gh-117205 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117205]: Speed up compileall.compile_dir() by 20% when using multiprocessing by increasing chunksize.

gh-117178 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117178]: Fix regression in lazy loading of self-referential modules, introduced in gh-114781 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114781].

gh-112383 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112383]: Fix dis module's handling of ENTER_EXECUTOR instructions.

gh-117182 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117182]: Lazy-loading of modules that modify their own __class__ no longer reverts the __class__ to types.ModuleType.

gh-117084 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117084]: Fix zipfile extraction for directory entries with the name containing backslashes on Windows.

gh-117114 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117114]: Make os.path.isdevdrive() available on all platforms. For those that do not offer Dev Drives, it will always return False.

gh-117110 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117110]: Fix a bug that prevents subclasses of typing.Any to be instantiated with arguments. Patch by Chris Fu.

gh-109653 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109653]: Deferred select imports in importlib.metadata and importlib.resources for a 14% speedup.

gh-70647 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70647]: Start the deprecation period for the current behavior of datetime.datetime.strptime() and time.strptime() which always fails to parse a date string with a ValueError involving a day of month such as strptime("02-29", "%m-%d") when a year is not specified and the date happen to be February 29th. This should help avoid users finding new bugs every four years due to a natural mistaken assumption about the API when parsing partial date values.

gh-116987 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116987]: Fixed inspect.findsource() for class code objects.

gh-114099 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114099]: Modify standard library to allow for iOS platform differences.

gh-90872 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90872]: On Windows, subprocess.Popen.wait() no longer calls WaitForSingleObject() with a negative timeout: pass 0 ms if the timeout is negative. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-116957 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116957]: configparser: Don't leave ConfigParser values in an invalid state (stored as a list instead of a str) after an earlier read raised DuplicateSectionError or DuplicateOptionError.

gh-115538 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115538]: _io.WindowsConsoleIO now emit a warning if a boolean value is passed as a filedescriptor argument.

gh-90095 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90095]: Ignore empty lines and comments in .pdbrc

gh-106531 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106531]: Refreshed zipfile._path from zipp 3.18 [https://zipp.readthedocs.io/en/latest/history.html#v3-18-0], providing better compatibility for PyPy, better glob performance for deeply nested zipfiles, and providing internal access to CompleteDirs.inject for use in other tests (like importlib.resources).

gh-63207 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/63207]: On Windows, time.time() now uses the GetSystemTimePreciseAsFileTime() clock to have a resolution better than 1 us, instead of the GetSystemTimeAsFileTime() clock which has a resolution of 15.6 ms. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-116764 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116764]: Restore support of None and other false values in urllib.parse functions parse_qs() and parse_qsl(). Also, they now raise a TypeError for non-zero integers and non-empty sequences.

gh-116811 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116811]: In PathFinder.invalidate_caches, delegate to MetadataPathFinder.invalidate_caches.

gh-116647 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116647]: Fix recursive child in dataclasses

gh-113171 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113171]: Fixed various false positives and false negatives in

ipaddress.IPv4Address.is_private (see these docs for details)

ipaddress.IPv4Address.is_global

ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_private

ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_global

Also in the corresponding ipaddress.IPv4Network and ipaddress.IPv6Network attributes.

gh-63283 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/63283]: In encodings.idna, any capitalization of the ACE prefix (xn--) is now acceptable. Patch by Pepijn de Vos and Zackery Spytz.

gh-71042 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71042]: Add platform.android_ver(), which provides device and OS information on Android.

gh-73468 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73468]: Added new math.fma() function, wrapping C99's fma() operation: fused multiply-add function. Patch by Mark Dickinson and Victor Stinner.

gh-116608 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116608]: The importlib.resources functions is_resource(), open_binary(), open_text(), path(), read_binary(), and read_text() are un-deprecated, and support subdirectories via multiple positional arguments. The contents() function also allows subdirectories, but remains deprecated.

gh-116484 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116484]: Change automatically generated tkinter.Checkbutton widget names to avoid collisions with automatically generated tkinter.ttk.Checkbutton widget names within the same parent widget.

gh-114314 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114314]: In ctypes, ctype data is now stored in type objects directly rather than in a dict subclass. This is an internal change that should not affect usage.

gh-116401 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116401]: Fix blocking os.fwalk() and shutil.rmtree() on opening named pipe.

gh-71052 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71052]: Implement ctypes.util.find_library() on Android.

gh-90535 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90535]: Fix support of interval values > 1 in logging.TimedRotatingFileHandler for when='MIDNIGHT' and when='Wx'.

gh-113308 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113308]: Remove some internal protected parts from uuid: _has_uuid_generate_time_safe, _netbios_getnode, _ipconfig_getnode, and _load_system_functions. They were unused.

gh-115627 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115627]: Fix the ssl module error handling of connection terminate by peer. It now throws an OSError with the appropriate error code instead of an EOFError.

gh-114847 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114847]: Speed up os.path.realpath() on non-Windows platforms.

gh-114271 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114271]: Fix a race in threading.Thread.join().

threading._MainThread now always represents the main thread of the main interpreter.

PyThreadState.on_delete and PyThreadState.on_delete_data have been removed.

gh-113538 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113538]: Add asyncio.Server.close_clients() and asyncio.Server.abort_clients() methods which allow to more forcefully close an asyncio server.

gh-85287 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85287]: Changes Unicode codecs to return UnicodeEncodeError or UnicodeDecodeError, rather than just UnicodeError.

gh-113548 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113548]: pdb now allows CLI arguments to pdb -m.

gh-112948 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112948]: Make completion of pdb similar to Python REPL

gh-105866 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105866]: Fixed _get_slots bug which caused error when defining dataclasses with slots and a weakref_slot.

gh-96471 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96471]: Add asyncio.Queue termination with shutdown() method.

gh-89739 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89739]: The zipimport module can now read ZIP64 files.

bpo-33533 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33533]: asyncio.as_completed() now returns an object that is both an asynchronous iterator and plain iterator. The new asynchronous iteration pattern allows for easier correlation between prior tasks and their completed results. This is a closer match to concurrent.futures.as_completed()'s iteration pattern. Patch by Justin Arthur.

bpo-27578 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27578]: inspect.getsource() (and related functions) work with empty module files, returning '\n' (or reasonable equivalent) instead of raising OSError. Patch by Kernc.

bpo-37141 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37141]: Accept an iterable of separators in asyncio.StreamReader.readuntil(), stopping when one of them is encountered.

gh-66543 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66543]: Make mimetypes.guess_type() properly parsing of URLs with only a host name, URLs containing fragment or query, and filenames with only a UNC sharepoint on Windows. Based on patch by Dong-hee Na.

bpo-15010 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15010]: unittest.TestLoader.discover() now saves the original value of unittest.TestLoader._top_level_dir and restores it at the end of the call.

Documentation

gh-115977 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115977]: Remove compatibility references to Emscripten.

gh-114099 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114099]: Add an iOS platform guide, and flag modules not available on iOS.

gh-91565 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91565]: Changes to documentation files and config outputs to reflect the new location for reporting bugs - i.e. GitHub rather than bugs.python.org.

Tests

gh-83434 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83434]: Disable JUnit XML output (--junit-xml=FILE command line option) in regrtest when hunting for reference leaks (-R option). Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-117187 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117187]: Fix XML tests for vanilla Expat <2.6.0.

gh-116333 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116333]: Tests of TLS related things (error codes, etc) were updated to be more lenient about specific error message strings and behaviors as seen in the BoringSSL and AWS-LC forks of OpenSSL.

gh-117089 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117089]: Consolidated tests for importlib.metadata in their own metadata package.

gh-115979 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115979]: Update test_importlib so that it passes under WASI SDK 21.

gh-112536 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112536]: Add --tsan to test.regrtest for running TSAN tests in reasonable execution times. Patch by Donghee Na.

gh-116307 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116307]: Added import helper isolated_modules as CleanImport does not remove modules imported during the context. Use it in importlib.resources tests to avoid leaving mod around to impede importlib.metadata tests.

Build

gh-114736 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114736]: Have WASI builds use WASI SDK 21.

gh-115983 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115983]: Skip building test modules that must be built as shared under WASI.

gh-71052 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71052]: Add Android build script and instructions.

Windows

gh-117267 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117267]: Ensure DirEntry.stat().st_ctime behaves consistently with os.stat() during the deprecation period of st_ctime by containing the same value as st_birthtime. After the deprecation period, st_ctime will be the metadata change time (or unavailable through DirEntry), and only st_birthtime will contain the creation time.

gh-116195 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116195]: Improves performance of os.getppid() by using an alternate system API when available. Contributed by vxiiduu.

gh-88494 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88494]: On Windows, time.monotonic() now uses the QueryPerformanceCounter() clock to have a resolution better than 1 us, instead of the GetTickCount64() clock which has a resolution of 15.6 ms. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-116773 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116773]: Fix instances of <_overlapped.Overlapped object at 0xXXX> still has pending operation at deallocation, the process may crash.

gh-91227 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91227]: Fix the asyncio ProactorEventLoop implementation so that sending a datagram to an address that is not listening does not prevent receiving any more datagrams.

gh-115119 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115119]: Switched from vendored libmpdecimal code to a separately-hosted external package in the cpython-source-deps repository when building the _decimal module.

C API

gh-117642 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117642]: Fix PEP 737 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0737/] implementation for %#T and %#N.

gh-87193 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87193]: _PyBytes_Resize() can now be called for bytes objects with reference count > 1, including 1-byte bytes objects. It creates a new bytes object and destroys the old one if it has reference count > 1.

gh-117021 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117021]: Fix integer overflow in PyLong_AsPid() on non-Windows 64-bit platforms.

gh-115756 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115756]: PyCode_GetFirstFree() is an ustable API now and has been renamed to PyUnstable_Code_GetFirstFree(). (Contributed by Bogdan Romanyuk in gh-115781 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115781])

gh-116869 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116869]: Add test_cext test: build a C extension to check if the Python C API emits C compiler warnings. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-116869 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116869]: Make the C API compatible with -Werror=declaration-after-statement compiler flag again. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-116936 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116936]: Add PyType_GetModuleByDef() to the limited C API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-116809 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116809]: Restore removed private _PyErr_ChainExceptions1() function. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-115754 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115754]: In the limited C API version 3.13, getting Py_None, Py_False, Py_True, Py_Ellipsis and Py_NotImplemented singletons is now implemented as function calls at the stable ABI level to hide implementation details. Getting these constants still return borrowed references. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-115754 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115754]: Add Py_GetConstant() and Py_GetConstantBorrowed() functions to get constants. For example, Py_GetConstant(Py_CONSTANT_ZERO) returns a strong reference to the constant zero. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-111696 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111696]: Add support for %T, %T#, %N and %N# formats to PyUnicode_FromFormat(): format the fully qualified name of an object type and of a type: call PyType_GetModuleName(). See PEP 737 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0737/] for more information. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-111696 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111696]: Add PyType_GetModuleName() function to get the type's module name. Equivalent to getting the type.__module__ attribute. Patch by Eric Snow and Victor Stinner.

gh-111696 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111696]: Add PyType_GetFullyQualifiedName() function to get the type's fully qualified name. Equivalent to f"{type.__module__}.{type.__qualname__}", or type.__qualname__ if type.__module__ is not a string or is equal to "builtins". Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-85283 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283]: The fcntl, grp, pwd, termios, _statistics and _testconsole C extensions are now built with the limited C API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-111140 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111140]: Add additional flags to PyLong_AsNativeBytes() and PyLong_FromNativeBytes() to allow the caller to determine how to handle edge cases around values that fill the entire buffer.

gh-113024 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113024]: Add PyObject_GenericHash() function.

Python 3.13.0 alpha 5

Release date: 2024-03-12

Security

gh-115398 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115398]: Allow controlling Expat >=2.6.0 reparse deferral (CVE 2023-52425 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-52425]) by adding five new methods:

xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser.flush()

xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser.flush()

xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.GetReparseDeferralEnabled()

xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.SetReparseDeferralEnabled()

xml.sax.expatreader.ExpatParser.flush()

gh-114572 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114572]: ssl.SSLContext.cert_store_stats() and ssl.SSLContext.get_ca_certs() now correctly lock access to the certificate store, when the ssl.SSLContext is shared across multiple threads.

Core and Builtins

gh-116604 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116604]: Respect the status of the garbage collector when indirect calls are made via PyErr_CheckSignals() and the evaluation breaker. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-112087 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112087]: list is now compatible with the implementation of PEP 703 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/].

gh-116381 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116381]: Add specialization for CONTAINS_OP.

gh-116296 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116296]: Fix possible refleak in object.__reduce__() internal error handling.

gh-115823 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115823]: Properly calculate error ranges in the parser when raising SyntaxError exceptions caused by invalid byte sequences. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-115778 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115778]: Add tierN annotation for instruction definition in interpreter DSL.

gh-115733 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115733]: Fix crash when calling next() on exhausted list iterators.

gh-115700 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115700]: The regen-cases build stage now works on Windows.

gh-115347 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115347]: Fix bug where docstring was replaced by a redundant NOP when Python is run with -OO.

gh-115323 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115323]: Make error message more meaningful for when bytearray.extend() is called with a str object.

gh-112175 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112175]: Every PyThreadState now has its own eval_breaker, allowing specific threads to be interrupted.

Library

gh-115154 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115154]: Fix a bug that was causing the tokenize.untokenize() function to handle unicode named literals incorrectly. Patch by Pablo Galindo

Core and Builtins

gh-112433 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112433]: Add ability to force alignment of ctypes.Structure by way of the new _align_ attribute on the class.

Library

gh-104090 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104090]: The multiprocessing resource tracker now exits with non-zero status code if a resource leak was detected. It still exits with status code 0 otherwise.

Core and Builtins

gh-105858 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105858]: Improve the constructors for ast nodes. Arguments of list types now default to an empty list if omitted, and optional fields default to None. AST nodes now have an __annotations__ attribute with the expected types of their attributes. Passing unrecognized extra arguments to AST nodes is deprecated and will become an error in Python 3.15. Omitting a required argument to an AST node is deprecated and will become an error in Python 3.15. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

gh-101860 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101860]: Expose __name__ attribute on property.

gh-96497 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96497]: Fix incorrect resolution of mangled class variables used in assignment expressions in comprehensions.

Library

gh-116600 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116600]: Fix repr() for global Flag members.

gh-116349 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116349]: platform.java_ver() is deprecated and will be removed in 3.15. It was largely untested, had a confusing API, and was only useful for Jython support.

gh-116143 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116143]: Fix a race in pydoc _start_server, eliminating a window in which _start_server can return a thread that is "serving" but without a docserver set.

gh-116127 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116127]: typing: implement PEP 705 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0705/] which adds typing.ReadOnly support to typing.TypedDict.

gh-116325 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116325]: typing: raise SyntaxError instead of AttributeError on forward references as empty strings.

gh-115957 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115957]: When asyncio.TaskGroup.create_task is called on an inactive asyncio.TaskGroup, the given coroutine will be closed (which prevents a RuntimeWarning).

gh-115978 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115978]: Disable preadv(), readv(), pwritev(), and writev() on WASI.

Under wasmtime for WASI 0.2, these functions don't pass test_posix (https://github.com/bytecodealliance/wasmtime/issues/7830).

gh-88352 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88352]: Fix the computation of the next rollover time in the logging.TimedRotatingFileHandler handler. computeRollover() now always returns a timestamp larger than the specified time and works correctly during the DST change. doRollover() no longer overwrite the already rolled over file, saving from data loss when run at midnight or during repeated time at the DST change.

gh-87115 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87115]: Set __main__.__spec__ to None when running a script with pdb

gh-76511 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/76511]: Fix UnicodeEncodeError in email.Message.as_string() that results when a message that claims to be in the ascii character set actually has non-ascii characters. Non-ascii characters are now replaced with the U+FFFD replacement character, like in the replace error handler.

gh-89547 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89547]: Add support for nested typing special forms like Final[ClassVar[int]].

gh-65824 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65824]: Improve the less prompt in pydoc.

gh-116040 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116040]: [Enum] fix by-value calls when second value is falsey; e.g. Cardinal(1, 0)

gh-115821 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115821]: [Enum] Improve error message when calling super().__new__() in custom __new__.

gh-85644 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85644]: Use the XDG_CURRENT_DESKTOP environment variable in webbrowser to check desktop. Prefer it to the deprecated GNOME_DESKTOP_SESSION_ID for GNOME detection.

gh-75988 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75988]: Fixed unittest.mock.create_autospec() to pass the call through to the wrapped object to return the real result.

gh-115881 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115881]: Fix issue where ast.parse() would incorrectly flag conditional context managers (such as with (x() if y else z()): ...) as invalid syntax if feature_version=(3, 8) was passed. This reverts changes to the grammar made as part of gh-94949 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94949].

gh-115886 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115886]: Fix silent truncation of the name with an embedded null character in multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory.

gh-115532 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115532]: Add kernel density estimation to the statistics module.

gh-115714 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115714]: On WASI, the time module no longer get process time using times() or CLOCK_PROCESS_CPUTIME_ID, system API is that is unreliable and is likely to be removed from WASI. The affected clock functions fall back to calling clock().

gh-115809 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115809]: Improve algorithm for computing which rolled-over log files to delete in logging.TimedRotatingFileHandler. It is now reliable for handlers without namer and with arbitrary deterministic namer that leaves the datetime part in the file name unmodified.

gh-74668 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74668]: urllib.parse functions parse_qs() and parse_qsl() now support bytes arguments containing raw and percent-encoded non-ASCII data.

gh-67044 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67044]: csv.writer() now always quotes or escapes '\r' and '\n', regardless of lineterminator value.

gh-115712 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115712]: Restore support of space delimiter with skipinitialspace=True in csv. csv.writer() now quotes empty fields if delimiter is a space and skipinitialspace is true and raises exception if quoting is not possible.

gh-112364 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112364]: Fixed ast.unparse() to handle format_spec with ", ' or \\. Patched by Frank Hoffmann.

gh-112997 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112997]: Stop logging potentially sensitive callback arguments in asyncio unless debug mode is active.

gh-114914 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114914]: Fix an issue where an abandoned StreamWriter would not be garbage collected.

gh-111358 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111358]: Fix a bug in asyncio.BaseEventLoop.shutdown_default_executor() to ensure the timeout passed to the coroutine behaves as expected.

gh-115618 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115618]: Fix improper decreasing the reference count for None argument in property methods getter(), setter() and deleter().

gh-112720 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112720]: Refactor dis.ArgResolver to make it possible to subclass and change the way jump args are interpreted.

gh-112006 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112006]: Fix inspect.unwrap() for types with the __wrapper__ data descriptor. Fix inspect.Signature.from_callable() for builtins classmethod() and staticmethod().

gh-101293 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101293]: Support callables with the __call__() method and types with __new__() and __init__() methods set to class methods, static methods, bound methods, partial functions, and other types of methods and descriptors in inspect.Signature.from_callable().

gh-103092 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103092]: Isolate _lsprof (apply PEP 687 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/]).

gh-113942 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113942]: pydoc no longer skips global functions implemented as builtin methods, such as MethodDescriptorType and WrapperDescriptorType.

gh-115256 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115256]: Added DeprecationWarning when accessing the tarfile attribute of TarInfo objects. The attribute is never used internally and is only attached to TarInfos when the tarfile is opened in write-mode, not read-mode. The attribute creates an unnecessary reference cycle which may cause corruption when not closing the handle after writing a tarfile.

gh-115197 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115197]: urllib.request no longer resolves the hostname before checking it against the system's proxy bypass list on macOS and Windows.

gh-113812 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113812]: DatagramTransport.sendto() will now send zero-length datagrams if called with an empty bytes object. The transport flow control also now accounts for the datagram header when calculating the buffer size.

gh-114763 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114763]: Protect modules loaded with importlib.util.LazyLoader from race conditions when multiple threads try to access attributes before the loading is complete.

gh-114709 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114709]: posixpath.commonpath() now raises a ValueError exception when passed an empty iterable. Previously, IndexError was raised.

posixpath.commonpath() now raises a TypeError exception when passed None. Previously, ValueError was raised.

gh-114610 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114610]: Fix bug where pathlib.PurePath.with_stem() converted a non-empty path suffix to a stem when given an empty stem argument. It now raises ValueError, just like pathlib.PurePath.with_suffix() does when called on a path with an empty stem, given a non-empty suffix argument.

gh-107361 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107361]: Add ssl.VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN and VERIFY_X509_STRICT to the default SSL context created with ssl.create_default_context().

gh-112281 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112281]: Allow creating union of types for typing.Annotated with unhashable metadata.

gh-111775 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111775]: Fix importlib.resources.simple.ResourceHandle.open() for text mode, added missed stream argument.

gh-90095 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90095]: Make .pdbrc and -c work with any valid pdb commands.

gh-107625 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107625]: Raise configparser.ParsingError from read() and read_file() methods of configparser.ConfigParser if a key without a corresponding value is continued (that is, followed by an indented line).

gh-107155 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107155]: Fix incorrect output of help(x) where x is a lambda function, which has an __annotations__ dictionary attribute with a "return" key.

gh-57141 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57141]: Add option for non-shallow comparisons to filecmp.dircmp like filecmp.cmp(). Original patch by Steven Ward. Enhanced by Tobias Rautenkranz

gh-69990 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69990]: Profile.print_stats() has been improved to accept multiple sort arguments. Patched by Chiu-Hsiang Hsu and Furkan Onder.

gh-104061 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104061]: Add socket.SO_BINDTOIFINDEX constant.

gh-60346 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/60346]: Fix ArgumentParser inconsistent with parse_known_args.

gh-102389 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102389]: Add windows_31j to aliases for cp932 codec

gh-72249 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72249]: Always include the module name in the repr() of functools.partial() objects. Patch by Furkan Onder and Anilyka Barry.

gh-100985 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100985]: Update HTTPSConnection to consistently wrap IPv6 Addresses when using a proxy.

gh-100884 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100884]: email: fix misfolding of comma in address-lists over multiple lines in combination with unicode encoding.

gh-95782 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95782]: Fix io.BufferedReader.tell(), io.BufferedReader.seek(), _pyio.BufferedReader.tell(), io.BufferedRandom.tell(), io.BufferedRandom.seek() and _pyio.BufferedRandom.tell() being able to return negative offsets.

gh-96310 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96310]: Fix a traceback in argparse when all options in a mutually exclusive group are suppressed.

gh-93205 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93205]: Fixed a bug in logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler where multiple rotating handler instances pointing to files with the same name but different extensions would conflict and not delete the correct files.

bpo-31116 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31116]: Add Z85 encoding to base64.

bpo-44865 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44865]: Add missing call to localization function in argparse.

bpo-43952 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43952]: Fix multiprocessing.connection.Listener.accept() to accept empty bytes as authkey. Not accepting empty bytes as key causes it to hang indefinitely.

bpo-42125 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42125]: linecache: get module name from __spec__ if available. This allows getting source code for the __main__ module when a custom loader is used.

bpo-41122 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41122]: Failing to pass arguments properly to functools.singledispatchmethod() now throws a TypeError instead of hitting an index out of bounds internally.

bpo-40818 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40818]: The asyncio REPL now runs sys.__interactivehook__ on startup. The default implementation of sys.__interactivehook__ provides auto-completion to the asyncio REPL. Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

bpo-33775 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33775]: Add 'default' and 'version' help text for localization in argparse.

Documentation

gh-115399 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115399]: Document CVE 2023-52425 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-52425] of Expat <2.6.0 under "XML vulnerabilities".

gh-109653 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109653]: Improve import time of uuid on Linux.

Tests

gh-71052 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71052]: Add test exclusions to support running the test suite on Android.

gh-71052 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71052]: Enable test_concurrent_futures on platforms that support threading but not multiprocessing.

gh-115796 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115796]: Make '_testinternalcapi.assemble_code_object' construct the exception table for the code object.

gh-115720 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115720]: Leak tests (-R, --huntrleaks) now show a summary of the number of leaks found in each iteration.

gh-115122 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115122]: Add --bisect option to regrtest test runner: run failed tests with test.bisect_cmd to identify failing tests. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-115596 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115596]: Fix ProgramPriorityTests in test_os permanently changing the process priority.

gh-115556 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115556]: On Windows, commas passed in arguments to Tools\buildbot\test.bat and PCbuild\\rt.bat are now properly handled.

gh-115420 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115420]: Fix translation of exception handler targets by _testinternalcapi.optimize_cfg.

gh-115376 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115376]: Fix segfault in _testinternalcapi.compiler_codegen on bad input.

Build

gh-116313 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116313]: Get WASI builds to work under wasmtime 18 w/ WASI 0.2/preview2 primitives.

gh-71052 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71052]: Change Android's sys.platform from "linux" to "android".

gh-116117 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116117]: Backport libb2's PR #42 to fix compiling CPython on 32-bit Windows with clang-cl.

gh-71052 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71052]: Fix several Android build issues

gh-114099 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114099]: A testbed project was added to run the test suite on iOS.

gh-115350 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115350]: Fix building ctypes module with -DWIN32_LEAN_AND_MEAN defined

gh-111225 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111225]: Link extension modules against libpython on Android.

gh-115737 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115737]: The install name for libPython is now correctly set for non-framework macOS builds.

gh-114099 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114099]: Makefile targets were added to support compiling an iOS-compatible framework build.

Windows

gh-116012 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116012]: Ensure the value of GetLastError() is preserved across GIL operations.

gh-115582 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115582]: Building extensions intended for free-threaded builds of CPython now require compiling with /DPy_GIL_DISABLED manually when using a regular install. This is expected to change in future releases.

gh-115554 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115554]: The installer now has more strict rules about updating the Python install manager. In general, most users only have a single launcher installed and will see no difference. When multiple launchers have been installed, the option to install the launcher is disabled until all but one have been removed. Downgrading the launcher (which was never allowed) is now more obviously blocked.

gh-115543 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115543]: Python install manager can now detect Python 3.13 when installed from the Microsoft Store, and will install Python 3.12 by default when PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL is set.

macOS

gh-116145 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116145]: Update macOS installer to Tcl/Tk 8.6.14.

IDLE

gh-88516 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88516]: On macOS show a proxy icon in the title bar of editor windows to match platform behaviour.

Tools/Demos

gh-100176 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100176]: Remove outdated Tools/{io,cc,string}bench

bpo-45101 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45101]: Add consistency in usage message IO between 2 versions of python-config.

C API

gh-114626 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114626]: Add again _PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords name, removed in Python 3.13 alpha 4 by mistake. Keep the old private _PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords name (Python 3.7) as an alias to the new public name PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords (Python 3.13a4). Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-111418 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111418]: Add PyHASH_MODULUS, PyHASH_BITS, PyHASH_INF and PyHASH_IMAG C macros. Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

Python 3.13.0 alpha 4

Release date: 2024-02-15

Security

gh-115399 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115399]: Update bundled libexpat to 2.6.0

gh-115243 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115243]: Fix possible crashes in collections.deque.index() when the deque is concurrently modified.

Core and Builtins

gh-112087 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112087]: For an empty reverse iterator for list will be reduced to reversed(). Patch by Donghee Na

gh-114570 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114570]: Add PythonFinalizationError exception. This exception derived from RuntimeError is raised when an operation is blocked during the Python finalization. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-114695 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114695]: Add sys._clear_internal_caches(), which clears all internal performance-related caches (and deprecate the less-general sys._clear_type_cache() function).

gh-114828 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114828]: Fix compilation crashes in uncommon code examples using super() inside a comprehension in a class body.

gh-112069 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112069]: Adapt set and frozenset methods to Argument Clinic.

gh-115011 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115011]: Setters for members with an unsigned integer type now support the same range of valid values for objects that has a __index__() method as for int.

gh-114887 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114887]: Changed socket type validation in create_datagram_endpoint() to accept all non-stream sockets. This fixes a regression in compatibility with raw sockets.

gh-114944 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114944]: Fixes a race between PyParkingLot_Park and _PyParkingLot_UnparkAll.

gh-113462 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113462]: Limit the number of versions that a single class can use. Prevents a few wayward classes using up all the version numbers.

gh-76763 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/76763]: The chr() builtin function now always raises ValueError for values outside the valid range. Previously it raised OverflowError for very large or small values.

gh-114806 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114806]: No longer specialize calls to classes, if those classes have metaclasses. Fixes bug where the __call__ method of the metaclass was not being called.

gh-107944 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107944]: Improve error message for function calls with bad keyword arguments via getargs

gh-112529 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112529]: The free-threaded build no longer allocates space for the PyGC_Head structure in objects that support cyclic garbage collection. A number of other fields and data structures are used as replacements, including ob_gc_bits, ob_tid, and mimalloc internal data structures.

gh-114456 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114456]: Lower the recursion limit under a debug build of WASI.

gh-114083 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114083]: Compiler applies folding of LOAD_CONST with following instruction in a separate pass before other optimisations. This enables jump threading in certain circumstances.

gh-114388 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114388]: Fix a RuntimeWarning emitted when assign an integer-like value that is not an instance of int to an attribute that corresponds to a C struct member of type T_UINT and T_ULONG. Fix a double RuntimeWarning emitted when assign a negative integer value to an attribute that corresponds to a C struct member of type T_UINT.

gh-114265 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114265]: Compiler propagates line numbers before optimization, leading to more optimization opportunities and removing the need for the guarantee_lineno_for_exits hack.

gh-112529 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112529]: The free-threaded build now has its own thread-safe GC implementation that uses mimalloc to find GC tracked objects. It is non-generational, unlike the existing GC implementation.

gh-114050 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114050]: Fix segmentation fault caused by an incorrect format string in TypeError exception when more than two arguments are passed to int.

gh-112354 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112354]: The END_FOR instruction now pops only one value. This is to better support side exits in loops.

gh-113884 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113884]: Make queue.SimpleQueue thread safe when the GIL is disabled.

gh-114058 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114058]: Implement the foundations of the Tier 2 redundancy eliminator.

gh-113939 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113939]: frame.clear(): Clear frame.f_locals as well, and not only the fast locals. This is relevant once frame.f_locals was accessed, which would contain also references to all the locals.

gh-112050 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112050]: Convert collections.deque to use Argument Clinic.

gh-112050 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112050]: Make methods on collections.deque thread-safe when the GIL is disabled.

gh-113464 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113464]: Add an option (--enable-experimental-jit for configure-based builds or --experimental-jit for PCbuild-based ones) to build an experimental just-in-time compiler, based on copy-and-patch [https://fredrikbk.com/publications/copy-and-patch.pdf]

gh-113055 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113055]: Make interp->obmalloc a pointer. For interpreters that share state with the main interpreter, this points to the same static memory structure. For interpreters with their own obmalloc state, it is heap allocated. Add free_obmalloc_arenas() which will free the obmalloc arenas and radix tree structures for interpreters with their own obmalloc state.

gh-55664 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/55664]: Add warning when creating type using a namespace dictionary with non-string keys. Patched by Daniel Urban and Furkan Onder.

gh-104530 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104530]: Use native Win32 condition variables.

Library

gh-115392 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115392]: Fix a bug in doctest where incorrect line numbers would be reported for decorated functions.

gh-114563 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114563]: Fix several format() bugs when using the C implementation of Decimal: * memory leak in some rare cases when using the z format option (coerce negative 0) * incorrect output when applying the z format option to type F (fixed-point with capital NAN / INF) * incorrect output when applying the # format option (alternate form)

gh-102840 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102840]: Fix confused traceback when floordiv, mod, or divmod operations happens between instances of fractions.Fraction and complex.

gh-115165 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115165]: Most exceptions are now ignored when attempting to set the __orig_class__ attribute on objects returned when calling typing generic aliases (including generic aliases created using typing.Annotated). Previously only AttributeError was ignored. Patch by Dave Shawley.

gh-112903 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112903]: Fix "issubclass() arg 1 must be a class" errors in certain cases of multiple inheritance with generic aliases (regression in early 3.13 alpha releases).

gh-115133 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115133]: Fix tests for XMLPullParser with Expat 2.6.0.

gh-115059 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115059]: io.BufferedRandom.read1() now flushes the underlying write buffer.

gh-79382 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79382]: Trailing ** no longer allows to match files and non-existing paths in recursive glob().

gh-67837 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67837]: Avoid race conditions in the creation of directories during concurrent extraction in tarfile and zipfile.

gh-115060 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115060]: Speed up pathlib.Path.glob() by removing redundant regex matching.

gh-97928 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97928]: Partially revert the behavior of tkinter.Text.count(). By default it preserves the behavior of older Python versions, except that setting wantobjects to 0 no longer has effect. Add a new parameter return_ints: specifying return_ints=True makes Text.count() always returning the single count as an integer instead of a 1-tuple or None.

gh-114628 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114628]: When csv.Error is raised when handling TypeError, do not print the TypeError traceback.

gh-85984 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85984]: Added _POSIX_VDISABLE from C's <unistd.h> to termios.

gh-114965 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114965]: Update bundled pip to 24.0

gh-114959 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114959]: tarfile no longer ignores errors when trying to extract a directory on top of a file.

gh-114894 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114894]: Add array.array.clear().

gh-114071 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114071]: Support tuple subclasses using auto() for enum member value.

gh-109475 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109475]: Fix support of explicit option value "--" in argparse (e.g. --option=--).

gh-49766 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/49766]: Fix date-datetime comparison. Now the special comparison methods like __eq__ and __lt__ return NotImplemented if one of comparands is date and other is datetime instead of ignoring the time part and the time zone or forcefully return "not equal" or raise TypeError. It makes comparison of date and datetime subclasses more symmetric and allows to change the default behavior by overriding the special comparison methods in subclasses.

gh-110190 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110190]: Fix ctypes structs with array on Windows ARM64 platform by setting MAX_STRUCT_SIZE to 32 in stgdict. Patch by Diego Russo

gh-114678 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114678]: Ensure that deprecation warning for 'N' specifier in Decimal format is not raised for cases where 'N' appears in other places in the format specifier. Based on patch by Stefan Krah.

gh-70303 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70303]: Return both files and directories from pathlib.Path.glob() if a pattern ends with "**". Previously only directories were returned.

gh-109653 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109653]: Improve import time of importlib.metadata and email.utils.

gh-113280 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113280]: Fix a leak of open socket in rare cases when error occurred in ssl.SSLSocket creation.

gh-77749 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77749]: email.policy.EmailPolicy.fold() now always encodes non-ASCII characters in headers if utf8 is false.

gh-83383 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83383]: Synchronization of the dbm.dumb database is now no-op if there was no modification since opening or last synchronization. The directory file for a newly created empty dbm.dumb database is now created immediately after opening instead of deferring this until synchronizing or closing.

gh-91602 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91602]: Add filter keyword-only parameter to sqlite3.Connection.iterdump() for filtering database objects to dump. Patch by Mariusz Felisiak.

gh-112451 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112451]: Prohibit subclassing pure-Python datetime.timezone. This is consistent with C-extension implementation. Patch by Mariusz Felisiak.

gh-69893 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69893]: Add the close() method for the iterator returned by xml.etree.ElementTree.iterparse().

gh-109653 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109653]: Reduce the import time of threading module by ~50%. Patch by Daniel Hollas.

gh-114492 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114492]: Make the result of termios.tcgetattr() reproducible on Alpine Linux. Previously it could leave a random garbage in some fields.

gh-114315 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114315]: Make threading.Lock a real class, not a factory function. Add __new__ to _thread.lock type.

gh-100414 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100414]: Add dbm.sqlite3 as a backend to dbm, and make it the new default dbm backend. Patch by Raymond Hettinger and Erlend E. Aasland.

gh-113267 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113267]: Revert changes in gh-106584 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106584] which made calls of TestResult methods startTest() and stopTest() unbalanced.

gh-75128 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75128]: Ignore an OSError in asyncio.BaseEventLoop.create_server() when IPv6 is available but the interface cannot actually support it.

gh-114423 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114423]: _DummyThread entries in threading._active are now automatically removed when the related thread dies.

gh-114257 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114257]: Dismiss the FileNotFound error in ctypes.util.find_library() and just return None on Linux.

gh-114321 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114321]: Expose more platform specific constants in the fcntl module on Linux, macOS, FreeBSD and NetBSD.

gh-114328 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114328]: The tty.setcbreak() and new tty.cfmakecbreak() no longer clears the terminal input ICRLF flag. This fixes a regression introduced in 3.12 that no longer matched how OSes define cbreak mode in their stty(1) manual pages.

gh-114281 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114281]: Remove type hints from Lib/asyncio/staggered.py. The annotations in the typeshed [https://github.com/python/typeshed] project should be used instead.

gh-101438 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101438]: Avoid reference cycle in ElementTree.iterparse. The iterator returned by ElementTree.iterparse may hold on to a file descriptor. The reference cycle prevented prompt clean-up of the file descriptor if the returned iterator was not exhausted.

gh-114198 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114198]: The signature for the __replace__ method on dataclasses now has the first argument named self, rather than obj.

gh-104522 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104522]: OSError raised when run a subprocess now only has filename attribute set to cwd if the error was caused by a failed attempt to change the current directory.

gh-114149 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114149]: Enum: correctly handle tuple subclasses in custom __new__.

gh-83648 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83648]: Support deprecation of options, positional arguments and subcommands in argparse.

gh-114087 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114087]: Speed up dataclasses.asdict up to 1.35x.

gh-109534 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109534]: Fix a reference leak in asyncio.selector_events.BaseSelectorEventLoop when SSL handshakes fail. Patch contributed by Jamie Phan.

gh-79634 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79634]: Accept path-like objects as patterns in pathlib.Path.glob() and rglob().

gh-112202 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112202]: Ensure that a asyncio.Condition.notify() call does not get lost if the awakened Task is simultaneously cancelled or encounters any other error.

gh-113951 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113951]: Fix the behavior of tag_unbind() methods of tkinter.Text and tkinter.Canvas classes with three arguments. Previously, widget.tag_unbind(tag, sequence, funcid) destroyed the current binding for sequence, leaving sequence unbound, and deleted the funcid command. Now it removes only funcid from the binding for sequence, keeping other commands, and deletes the funcid command. It leaves sequence unbound only if funcid was the last bound command.

gh-97959 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97959]: Fix rendering class methods, bound methods, method and function aliases in pydoc. Class methods no longer have "method of builtins.type instance" note. Corresponding notes are now added for class and unbound methods. Method and function aliases now have references to the module or the class where the origin was defined if it differs from the current. Bound methods are now listed in the static methods section. Methods of builtin classes are now supported as well as methods of Python classes.

gh-113796 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113796]: Add more validation checks in the csv.Dialect constructor. ValueError is now raised if the same character is used in different roles.

gh-113732 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113732]: Fix support of QUOTE_NOTNULL and QUOTE_STRINGS in csv.reader().

gh-113225 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113225]: Speed up pathlib.Path.walk() by using os.DirEntry.path where possible.

gh-89039 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89039]: When replace() method is called on a subclass of datetime, date or time, properly call derived constructor. Previously, only the base class's constructor was called.

Also, make sure to pass non-zero fold values when creating subclasses in various methods. Previously, fold was silently ignored.

gh-112919 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112919]: Speed-up datetime.datetime.replace(), datetime.date.replace() and datetime.time.replace().

gh-59013 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59013]: Set breakpoint on the first executable line of the function, instead of the line of function definition when the user do break func using pdb

gh-112343 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112343]: Improve handling of pdb convenience variables to avoid replacing string contents.

gh-112240 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112240]: Add option to calendar module CLI to specify the weekday to start each week. Patch by Steven Ward.

gh-111741 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111741]: Recognise image/webp as a standard format in the mimetypes module.

gh-43457 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/43457]: Fix the tkinter widget method wm_attributes(). It now accepts the attribute name without the minus prefix to get window attributes and allows to specify attributes and values to set as keyword arguments. Add new optional keyword argument return_python_dict: calling w.wm_attributes(return_python_dict=True) returns the attributes as a dict instead of a tuple. Calling w.wm_attributes() now returns a tuple instead of string if wantobjects was set to 0.

gh-82626 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82626]: Many functions now emit a warning if a boolean value is passed as a file descriptor argument.

gh-111051 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111051]: Added check for file modification during debugging with pdb

gh-110345 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110345]: Show the Tcl/Tk patchlevel (rather than version) in tkinter._test().

gh-38807 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/38807]: Fix race condition in trace. Instead of checking if a directory exists and creating it, directly call os.makedirs() with the kwarg exist_ok=True.

gh-75705 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75705]: Set unixfrom envelope in mailbox.mbox and mailbox.MMDF.

gh-106233 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106233]: Fix stacklevel in InvalidTZPathWarning during zoneinfo module import.

gh-105102 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105102]: Allow ctypes.Union to be nested in ctypes.Structure when the system endianness is the opposite of the classes.

gh-104282 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104282]: Fix null pointer dereference in lzma._decode_filter_properties() due to improper handling of BCJ filters with properties of zero length. Patch by Radislav Chugunov.

gh-96471 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96471]: Add queue.Queue termination with shutdown().

gh-101599 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101599]: Changed argparse flag options formatting to remove redundancy.

gh-85984 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85984]: Add POSIX pseudo-terminal functions os.posix_openpt(), os.grantpt(), os.unlockpt(), and os.ptsname().

gh-102512 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102512]: When os.fork() is called from a foreign thread (aka _DummyThread), the type of the thread in a child process is changed to _MainThread. Also changed its name and daemonic status, it can be now joined.

gh-88569 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88569]: Add os.path.isreserved(), which identifies reserved pathnames such as "NUL", "AUX" and "CON". This function is only available on Windows.

Deprecate pathlib.PurePath.is_reserved().

bpo-38364 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38364]: The inspect functions isgeneratorfunction, iscoroutinefunction, isasyncgenfunction now support functools.partialmethod wrapped functions the same way they support functools.partial.

Documentation

gh-115233 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115233]: Fix an example for LoggerAdapter in the Logging Cookbook.

gh-114123 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114123]: Move the csv module docstring to the csv module instead of reexporting it from the internal _csv module, and remove __doc__ from csv.__all__.

Move csv.__version__ to the csv module instead of reexporting it from the internal _csv module, and remove __version__ from csv.__all__.

Tests

gh-114099 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114099]: Added test exclusions required to run the test suite on iOS.

gh-105089 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105089]: Fix test.test_zipfile.test_core.TestWithDirectory.test_create_directory_with_write test in AIX by doing a bitwise AND of 0xFFFF on mode , so that it will be in sync with zinfo.external_attr

Build

gh-115167 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115167]: Avoid vendoring vcruntime140_threads.dll when building with Visual Studio 2022 version 17.8.

gh-113632 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113632]: Promote WASI to a tier 2 platform and drop Emscripten from tier 3 in configure.ac.

gh-114099 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114099]: configure and Makefile were refactored to accommodate framework builds on Apple platforms other than macOS.

gh-114875 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114875]: Add getgrent() as a prerequisite for building the grp module.

Windows

gh-115049 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115049]: Fixes py.exe launcher failing when run as users without user profiles.

gh-115009 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115009]: Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.45.1.

gh-109991 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109991]: Update Windows build to use OpenSSL 3.0.13.

gh-111239 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111239]: Update Windows builds to use zlib v1.3.1.

gh-100107 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100107]: The py.exe launcher will no longer attempt to run the Microsoft Store redirector when launching a script containing a /usr/bin/env shebang

gh-112984 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112984]: Adds free-threaded binaries to Windows installer as an optional component.

gh-89240 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89240]: Allows multiprocessing to create pools of greater than 62 processes.

macOS

gh-115009 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115009]: Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.45.1.

gh-109991 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109991]: Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 3.0.13.

gh-114490 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114490]: Add Mach-O linkage support for platform.architecture().

gh-87804 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87804]: On macOS the result of os.statvfs and os.fstatvfs now correctly report the size of very large disks, in previous versions the reported number of blocks was wrong for disks with at least 2**32 blocks.

IDLE

gh-96905 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96905]: In idlelib code, stop redefining built-ins 'dict' and 'object'.

gh-103820 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103820]: Revise IDLE bindings so that events from mouse button 4/5 on non-X11 windowing systems (i.e. Win32 and Aqua) are not mistaken for scrolling.

Tools/Demos

gh-113516 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113516]: Don't set LDSHARED when building for WASI.

gh-109991 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109991]: Update GitHub CI workflows to use OpenSSL 3.0.13 and multissltests to use 1.1.1w, 3.0.13, 3.1.5, and 3.2.1.

gh-115015 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115015]: Fix a bug in Argument Clinic that generated incorrect code for methods with no parameters that use the METH_METHOD | METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS calling convention. Only the positional parameter count was checked; any keyword argument passed would be silently accepted.

C API

gh-111140 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111140]: Adds PyLong_AsNativeBytes(), PyLong_FromNativeBytes() and PyLong_FromUnsignedNativeBytes() functions.

gh-114685 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114685]: PyBuffer_FillInfo() now raises a SystemError if called with PyBUF_READ or PyBUF_WRITE as flags. These flags should only be used with the PyMemoryView_* C API.

gh-114685 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114685]: PyObject_GetBuffer() now raises a SystemError if called with PyBUF_READ or PyBUF_WRITE as flags. These flags should only be used with the PyMemoryView_* C API.

gh-114626 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114626]: Add PyCFunctionFast and PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords typedefs (identical to the existing _PyCFunctionFast and _PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords typedefs, just without a leading _ prefix).

gh-114329 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114329]: Add PyList_GetItemRef(), which is similar to PyList_GetItem() but returns a strong reference instead of a borrowed reference.

gh-110850 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110850]: Add PyTime C API:

PyTime_t type.

PyTime_MIN and PyTime_MAX constants.

PyTime_AsSecondsDouble(), PyTime_Monotonic(), PyTime_PerfCounter(), and PyTime_Time() functions.

Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-112066 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112066]: Add PyDict_SetDefaultRef(): insert a key and value into a dictionary if the key is not already present. This is similar to dict.setdefault(), but returns an integer value indicating if the key was already present. It is also similar to PyDict_SetDefault(), but returns a strong reference instead of a borrowed reference.

Python 3.13.0 alpha 3

Release date: 2024-01-17

Security

gh-113659 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113659]: Skip .pth files with names starting with a dot or hidden file attribute.

gh-112302 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112302]: Created a Software Bill-of-Materials document and tooling for tracking dependencies.

Core and Builtins

gh-107901 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107901]: Compiler duplicates basic blocks that have an eval breaker check, no line number, and multiple predecessors.

gh-107901 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107901]: A jump leaving an exception handler back to normal code no longer checks the eval breaker.

gh-113655 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113655]: Set the C recursion limit to 4000 on Windows, and 10000 on Linux/OSX. This seems to be near the sweet spot to maintain safety, but not compromise backwards compatibility.

gh-113710 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113710]: Add typed stack effects to the interpreter DSL, along with various instruction annotations.

gh-77046 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77046]: On Windows, file descriptors wrapping Windows handles are now created non inheritable by default (PEP 446 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0446/]). Patch by Zackery Spytz and Victor Stinner.

gh-113853 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113853]: Guarantee that all executors make progress. This then guarantees that tier 2 execution always makes progress.

gh-113753 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113753]: Fix an issue where the finalizer of PyAsyncGenASend objects might not be called if they were allocated from a free list.

gh-107901 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107901]: Compiler changed so that synthetic jumps which are not at loop end no longer check the eval breaker.

gh-113703 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113703]: Fix a regression in the codeop module that was causing it to incorrectly identify incomplete f-strings. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-89811 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89811]: Check for a valid tp_version_tag before performing bytecode specializations that rely on this value being usable.

gh-111488 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111488]: Changed error message in case of no 'in' keyword after 'for' in list comprehensions

gh-113657 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113657]: Fix an issue that caused important instruction pointer updates to be optimized out of tier two traces.

gh-113603 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113603]: Fixed bug where a redundant NOP is not removed, causing an assertion to fail in the compiler in debug mode.

gh-113602 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113602]: Fix an error that was causing the parser to try to overwrite existing errors and crashing in the process. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-113486 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113486]: No longer issue spurious PY_UNWIND events for optimized calls to classes.

gh-113297 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113297]: Fix segfault in the compiler on with statement with 19 context managers.

gh-113212 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113212]: Improve super error messages.

gh-111375 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111375]: Only use NULL in the exception stack to indicate an exception was handled. Patch by Carey Metcalfe.

gh-112215 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112215]: Increase the C recursion limit by a factor of 3 for non-debug builds, except for webassembly and s390 platforms which are unchanged. This mitigates some regressions in 3.12 with deep recursion mixing builtin (C) and Python code.

gh-113054 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113054]: Fixed bug where a redundant NOP is not removed, causing an assertion to fail in the compiler in debug mode.

gh-106905 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106905]: Use per AST-parser state rather than global state to track recursion depth within the AST parser to prevent potential race condition due to simultaneous parsing.

The issue primarily showed up in 3.11 by multithreaded users of ast.parse(). In 3.12 a change to when garbage collection can be triggered prevented the race condition from occurring.

gh-108866 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108866]: Change the API and contract of _PyExecutorObject to return the next_instr pointer, instead of the frame, and to always execute at least one instruction.

gh-90350 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90350]: Optimize builtin functions min() and max().

gh-112943 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112943]: Correctly compute end column offsets for multiline tokens in the tokenize module. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-112125 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112125]: Fix None.__ne__(None) returning NotImplemented instead of False.

gh-74616 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74616]: input() now raises a ValueError when output on the terminal if the prompt contains embedded null characters instead of silently truncating it.

gh-112716 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112716]: Fix SystemError in the import statement and in __reduce__() methods of builtin types when __builtins__ is not a dict.

gh-112730 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112730]: Use color to highlight error locations in tracebacks. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-112625 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112625]: Fixes a bug where a bytearray object could be cleared while iterating over an argument in the bytearray.join() method that could result in reading memory after it was freed.

gh-112660 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112660]: Do not clear unexpected errors during formatting error messages for ImportError and AttributeError for modules.

gh-105967 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105967]: Workaround a bug in Apple's macOS platform zlib library where zlib.crc32() and binascii.crc32() could produce incorrect results on multi-gigabyte inputs. Including when using zipfile on zips containing large data.

gh-95754 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95754]: Provide a better error message when accessing invalid attributes on partially initialized modules. The origin of the module being accessed is now included in the message to help with the common issue of shadowing other modules.

gh-112217 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112217]: Add check for the type of __cause__ returned from calling the type T in raise from T.

gh-111058 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111058]: Change coro.cr_frame/gen.gi_frame to return None after the coroutine/generator has been closed. This fixes a bug where getcoroutinestate() and getgeneratorstate() return the wrong state for a closed coroutine/generator.

gh-112388 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112388]: Fix an error that was causing the parser to try to overwrite tokenizer errors. Patch by pablo Galindo

gh-112387 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112387]: Fix error positions for decoded strings with backwards tokenize errors. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-99606 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99606]: Make code generated for an empty f-string identical to the code of an empty normal string.

gh-112367 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112367]: Avoid undefined behaviour when using the perf trampolines by not freeing the code arenas until shutdown. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-112320 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112320]: The Tier 2 translator now tracks the confidence level for staying "on trace" (i.e. not exiting back to the Tier 1 interpreter) for branch instructions based on the number of bits set in the branch "counter". Trace translation ends when the confidence drops below 1/3rd.

gh-109598 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109598]: PyComplex_RealAsDouble()/PyComplex_ImagAsDouble() now tries to convert an object to a complex instance using its __complex__() method before falling back to the __float__() method. Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

gh-94606 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94606]: Fix UnicodeEncodeError when email.message.get_payload() reads a message with a Unicode surrogate character and the message content is not well-formed for surrogateescape encoding. Patch by Sidney Markowitz.

bpo-21861 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21861]: Use the object's actual class name in _io.FileIO.__repr__(), _io._WindowsConsoleIO() and _io.TextIOWrapper.__repr__(), to make these methods subclass friendly.

bpo-45369 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45369]: Remove LibreSSL workarounds as per PEP 644 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/].

bpo-34392 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34392]: Added sys._is_interned().

Library

gh-114077 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114077]: Fix possible OverflowError in socket.socket.sendfile() when pass count larger than 2 GiB on 32-bit platform.

gh-111803 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111803]: plistlib now supports loading more deeply nested lists in binary format.

gh-114014 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114014]: Fixed a bug in fractions.Fraction where an invalid string using d in the decimals part creates a different error compared to other invalid letters/characters. Patch by Jeremiah Gabriel Pascual.

gh-108364 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108364]: sqlite3.Connection.iterdump() now ensures that foreign key support is disabled before dumping the database schema, if there is any foreign key violation. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland and Mariusz Felisiak.

gh-113971 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113971]: The zipfile.ZipInfo previously protected ._compresslevel attribute has been made public as .compress_level with the old _compresslevel name remaining available as a property to retain compatibility.

gh-113877 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113877]: Fix tkinter method winfo_pathname() on 64-bit Windows.

gh-113868 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113868]: Added mmap.MAP_NORESERVE, mmap.MAP_NOEXTEND, mmap.MAP_HASSEMAPHORE, mmap.MAP_NOCACHE, mmap.MAP_JIT, mmap.MAP_RESILIENT_CODESIGN, mmap.MAP_RESILIENT_MEDIA, mmap.MAP_32BIT, mmap.MAP_TRANSLATED_ALLOW_EXECUTE, mmap.MAP_UNIX03 and mmap.MAP_TPRO. All of them are mmap(2) flags on macOS.

gh-113848 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113848]: asyncio.TaskGroup() and asyncio.timeout() context managers now handle CancelledError subclasses as well as exact CancelledError.

gh-113661 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113661]: unittest runner: Don't exit 5 if tests were skipped. The intention of exiting 5 was to detect issues where the test suite wasn't discovered at all. If we skipped tests, it was correctly discovered.

gh-96037 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96037]: Insert TimeoutError in the context of the exception that was raised during exiting an expired asyncio.timeout() block.

gh-113781 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113781]: Silence unraisable AttributeError when warnings are emitted during Python finalization.

gh-113238 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113238]: Add Anchor to importlib.resources (in order for the code to comply with the documentation)

gh-111693 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111693]: asyncio.Condition.wait() now re-raises the same CancelledError instance that may have caused it to be interrupted. Fixed race condition in asyncio.Semaphore.acquire() when interrupted with a CancelledError.

gh-113791 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113791]: Add CLOCK_MONOTONIC_RAW_APPROX and CLOCK_UPTIME_RAW_APPROX to time on macOS. These are clocks available on macOS 10.12 or later.

gh-112932 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112932]: Restore the ability for zipfile to extractall from zip files with a "/" directory entry in them as is commonly added to zips by some wiki or bug tracker data exporters.

gh-113568 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113568]: Raise deprecation warnings from pathlib.PurePath and not its private base class PurePathBase.

gh-113594 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113594]: Fix UnicodeEncodeError in email when re-fold lines that contain unknown-8bit encoded part followed by non-unknown-8bit encoded part.

gh-113538 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113538]: In asyncio.StreamReaderProtocol.connection_made(), there is callback that logs an error if the task wrapping the "connected callback" fails. This callback would itself fail if the task was cancelled. Prevent this by checking whether the task was cancelled first. If so, close the transport but don't log an error.

gh-113626 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113626]: Add support for the allow_code argument in the marshal module. Passing allow_code=False prevents serialization and de-serialization of code objects which is incompatible between Python versions.

gh-85567 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85567]: Fix resource warnings for unclosed files in pickle and pickletools command line interfaces.

gh-113537 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113537]: Support loads str in plistlib.loads().

gh-89850 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89850]: Add default implementations of pickle.Pickler.persistent_id() and pickle.Unpickler.persistent_load() methods in the C implementation. Calling super().persistent_id() and super().persistent_load() in subclasses of the C implementation of pickle.Pickler and pickle.Unpickler classes no longer causes infinite recursion.

gh-113569 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113569]: Indicate if there were no actual calls in unittest assert_has_calls() failure.

gh-101225 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101225]: Increase the backlog for multiprocessing.connection.Listener objects created by multiprocessing.manager and multiprocessing.resource_sharer to significantly reduce the risk of getting a connection refused error when creating a multiprocessing.connection.Connection to them.

gh-113568 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113568]: Raise audit events from pathlib.Path and not its private base class PathBase.

gh-113543 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113543]: Make sure that webbrowser.MacOSXOSAScript sends webbrowser.open audit event.

gh-113028 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113028]: When a second reference to a string appears in the input to pickle, and the Python implementation is in use, we are guaranteed that a single copy gets pickled and a single object is shared when reloaded. Previously, in protocol 0, when a string contained certain characters (e.g. newline) it resulted in duplicate objects.

gh-113421 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113421]: Fix multiprocessing logger for %(filename)s.

gh-111784 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111784]: Fix segfaults in the _elementtree module. Fix first segfault during deallocation of _elementtree.XMLParser instances by keeping strong reference to pyexpat module in module state for capsule lifetime. Fix second segfault which happens in the same deallocation process by keeping strong reference to _elementtree module in XMLParser structure for _elementtree module lifetime.

gh-113407 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113407]: Fix import of unittest.mock when CPython is built without docstrings.

gh-113320 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113320]: Fix regression in Python 3.12 where Protocol classes that were not marked as runtime-checkable would be unnecessarily introspected, potentially causing exceptions to be raised if the protocol had problematic members. Patch by Alex Waygood.

gh-53502 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/53502]: Add a new option aware_datetime in plistlib to loads or dumps aware datetime.

gh-113358 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113358]: Fix rendering tracebacks with exceptions with a broken __getattr__

gh-113214 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113214]: Fix an AttributeError during asyncio SSL protocol aborts in SSL-over-SSL scenarios.

gh-113246 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113246]: Update bundled pip to 23.3.2.

gh-87264 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87264]: Fixed tarfile list() method to show file type.

gh-112182 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112182]: asyncio.futures.Future.set_exception() now transforms StopIteration into RuntimeError instead of hanging or other misbehavior. Patch contributed by Jamie Phan.

gh-113225 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113225]: Speed up pathlib.Path.glob() by using os.DirEntry.path where possible.

gh-113149 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113149]: Improve error message when a JSON array or object contains a trailing comma. Patch by Carson Radtke.

gh-113117 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113117]: The subprocess module can now use the os.posix_spawn() function with close_fds=True on platforms where posix_spawn_file_actions_addclosefrom_np is available. Patch by Jakub Kulik.

gh-113199 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113199]: Make http.client.HTTPResponse.read1 and http.client.HTTPResponse.readline close IO after reading all data when content length is known. Patch by Illia Volochii.

gh-113191 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113191]: Add support of os.fchmod() and a file descriptor in os.chmod() on Windows.

gh-113188 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113188]: Fix shutil.copymode() and shutil.copystat() on Windows. Previously they worked differently if dst is a symbolic link: they modified the permission bits of dst itself rather than the file it points to if follow_symlinks is true or src is not a symbolic link, and did not modify the permission bits if follow_symlinks is false and src is a symbolic link.

gh-113119 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113119]: os.posix_spawn() now accepts env=None, which makes the newly spawned process use the current process environment. Patch by Jakub Kulik.

gh-113202 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113202]: Add a strict option to batched() in the itertools module.

gh-61648 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61648]: Detect line numbers of properties in doctests.

gh-113175 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113175]: Sync with importlib_metadata 7.0, including improved type annotations, fixed issue with symlinked packages in package_distributions, added EntryPoints.__repr__, introduced the diagnose script, added Distribution.origin property, and removed deprecated EntryPoint access by numeric index (tuple behavior).

gh-59616 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59616]: Add support of os.lchmod() and the follow_symlinks argument in os.chmod() on Windows. Note that the default value of follow_symlinks in os.lchmod() is False on Windows.

gh-112559 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112559]: signal.signal() and signal.getsignal() no longer call repr on callable handlers. asyncio.run() and asyncio.Runner.run() no longer call repr on the task results. Patch by Yilei Yang.

gh-112962 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112962]: dis module functions add cache information to the Instruction instance rather than creating fake Instruction instances to represent the cache entries.

gh-112989 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112989]: Reduce overhead to connect sockets with asyncio SelectorEventLoop.

gh-112970 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112970]: Use closefrom() on Linux where available (e.g. glibc-2.34), rather than only FreeBSD.

gh-110190 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110190]: Fix ctypes structs with array on PPC64LE platform by setting MAX_STRUCT_SIZE to 64 in stgdict. Patch by Diego Russo.

gh-112540 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112540]: The statistics.geometric_mean() function now returns zero for datasets containing a zero. Formerly, it would raise an exception.

gh-87286 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87286]: Added LOG_FTP, LOG_NETINFO, LOG_REMOTEAUTH, LOG_INSTALL, LOG_RAS, and LOG_LAUNCHD tot the syslog module, all of them constants on used on macOS.

gh-112800 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112800]: Fix asyncio SubprocessTransport.close() not to throw PermissionError when used with setuid executables.

gh-51944 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/51944]: Add the following constants to the termios module. These values are present in macOS system headers: ALTWERASE, B14400, B28800, B7200, B76800, CCAR_OFLOW, CCTS_OFLOW, CDSR_OFLOW, CDTR_IFLOW, CIGNORE, CRTS_IFLOW, EXTPROC, IUTF8, MDMBUF, NL2, NL3, NOKERNINFO, ONOEOT, OXTABS, VDSUSP, VSTATUS.

gh-79325 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79325]: Fix an infinite recursion error in tempfile.TemporaryDirectory() cleanup on Windows.

gh-94692 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94692]: shutil.rmtree() now only catches OSError exceptions. Previously a symlink attack resistant version of shutil.rmtree() could ignore or pass to the error handler arbitrary exception when invalid arguments were provided.

gh-112736 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112736]: The use of del-safe symbols in subprocess was refactored to allow for use in cross-platform build environments.

gh-112727 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112727]: Speed up pathlib.Path.absolute(). Patch by Barney Gale.

gh-74690 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74690]: Speedup issubclass() checks against simple runtime-checkable protocols by around 6%. Patch by Alex Waygood.

gh-74690 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74690]: Speedup isinstance() checks by roughly 20% for runtime-checkable protocols that only have one callable member. Speedup issubclass() checks for these protocols by roughly 10%. Patch by Alex Waygood.

gh-112645 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112645]: Remove deprecation error on passing onerror to shutil.rmtree().

gh-112640 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112640]: Add kwdefaults parameter to types.FunctionType to set default keyword argument values.

gh-112622 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112622]: Ensure name parameter is passed to event loop in asyncio.create_task().

gh-112618 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112618]: Fix a caching bug relating to typing.Annotated. Annotated[str, True] is no longer identical to Annotated[str, 1].

gh-112334 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112334]: Fixed a performance regression in 3.12's subprocess on Linux where it would no longer use the fast-path vfork() system call when it could have due to a logic bug, instead falling back to the safe but slower fork().

Also fixed a second 3.12.0 potential security bug. If a value of extra_groups=[] was passed to subprocess.Popen or related APIs, the underlying setgroups(0, NULL) system call to clear the groups list would not be made in the child process prior to exec().

This was identified via code inspection in the process of fixing the first bug.

gh-110190 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110190]: Fix ctypes structs with array on Arm platform by setting MAX_STRUCT_SIZE to 32 in stgdict. Patch by Diego Russo.

gh-81194 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81194]: Fix a crash in socket.if_indextoname() with specific value (UINT_MAX). Fix an integer overflow in socket.if_indextoname() on 64-bit non-Windows platforms.

gh-112578 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112578]: Fix a spurious RuntimeWarning when executing the zipfile module.

gh-112516 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112516]: Update the bundled copy of pip to version 23.3.1.

gh-112510 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112510]: Add readline.backend for the backend readline uses (editline or readline)

gh-112328 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112328]: [Enum] Make EnumDict, EnumDict.member_names, EnumType._add_alias_ and EnumType._add_value_alias_ public.

gh-112509 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112509]: Fix edge cases that could cause a key to be present in both the __required_keys__ and __optional_keys__ attributes of a typing.TypedDict. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

gh-101336 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101336]: Add keep_alive keyword parameter for AbstractEventLoop.create_server() and BaseEventLoop.create_server().

gh-63284 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/63284]: Added support for TLS-PSK (pre-shared key) mode to the ssl module.

gh-112414 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112414]: Fix regression in Python 3.12 where calling repr() on a module that had been imported using a custom loader could fail with AttributeError. Patch by Alex Waygood.

gh-112358 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112358]: Revert change to struct.Struct initialization that broke some cases of subclassing.

gh-112405 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112405]: Optimize pathlib.PurePath.relative_to(). Patch by Alex Waygood.

gh-94722 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94722]: Fix bug where comparison between instances of DocTest fails if one of them has None as its lineno.

gh-112361 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112361]: Speed up a small handful of pathlib methods by removing some temporary objects.

gh-112345 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112345]: Improve error message when trying to call issubclass() against a typing.Protocol that has non-method members. Patch by Randolf Scholz.

gh-112137 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112137]: Change dis output to display no-lineno as "--" instead of "None".

gh-112332 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112332]: Deprecate the exc_type field of traceback.TracebackException. Add exc_type_str to replace it.

gh-81620 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81620]: Add extra tests for random.binomialvariate()

gh-112292 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112292]: Fix a crash in readline when imported from a sub interpreter. Patch by Anthony Shaw

gh-77621 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77621]: Slightly improve the import time of the pathlib module by deferring some imports. Patch by Barney Gale.

gh-112137 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112137]: Change dis output to display logical labels for jump targets instead of offsets.

gh-112139 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112139]: Add Signature.format() to format signatures to string with extra options. And use it in pydoc to render more readable signatures that have new lines between parameters.

gh-112105 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112105]: Make readline.set_completer_delims() work with libedit

gh-106922 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106922]: Display multiple lines with traceback when errors span multiple lines.

gh-111874 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111874]: When creating a typing.NamedTuple class, ensure __set_name__() is called on all objects that define __set_name__ and exist in the values of the NamedTuple class's class dictionary. Patch by Alex Waygood.

gh-68166 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68166]: Add support of the "vsapi" element type in tkinter.ttk.Style.element_create().

gh-110275 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110275]: Named tuple's methods _replace() and __replace__() now raise TypeError instead of ValueError for invalid keyword arguments.

gh-99367 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99367]: Do not mangle sys.path[0] in pdb if safe_path is set

gh-111615 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111615]: Fix a regression caused by a fix to gh-93162 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93162] whereby you couldn't configure a QueueHandler without specifying handlers.

gh-75666 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75666]: Fix the behavior of tkinter widget's unbind() method with two arguments. Previously, widget.unbind(sequence, funcid) destroyed the current binding for sequence, leaving sequence unbound, and deleted the funcid command. Now it removes only funcid from the binding for sequence, keeping other commands, and deletes the funcid command. It leaves sequence unbound only if funcid was the last bound command.

gh-67790 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67790]: Implement basic formatting support (minimum width, alignment, fill) for fractions.Fraction.

gh-111049 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111049]: Fix crash during garbage collection of the io.BytesIO buffer object.

gh-102980 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102980]: Redirect the output of interact command of pdb to the same channel as the debugger. Add tests and improve docs.

gh-102988 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102988]: email.utils.getaddresses() and email.utils.parseaddr() now return ('', '') 2-tuples in more situations where invalid email addresses are encountered instead of potentially inaccurate values. Add optional strict parameter to these two functions: use strict=False to get the old behavior, accept malformed inputs. getattr(email.utils, 'supports_strict_parsing', False) can be use to check if the strict parameter is available. Patch by Thomas Dwyer and Victor Stinner to improve the CVE 2023-27043 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-27043] fix.

gh-52161 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/52161]: cmd.Cmd.do_help() now cleans docstrings with inspect.cleandoc() before writing them. Patch by Filip Łapkiewicz.

gh-82300 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82300]: Add track parameter to multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory that allows using shared memory blocks without having to register with the POSIX resource tracker that automatically releases them upon process exit.

gh-110109 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110109]: Add private pathlib._PurePathBase class: a base class for pathlib.PurePath that omits certain magic methods. It may be made public (along with _PathBase) in future.

gh-109858 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109858]: Protect zipfile from "quoted-overlap" zipbomb. It now raises BadZipFile when try to read an entry that overlaps with other entry or central directory.

gh-109786 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109786]: Fix possible reference leaks and crash when re-enter the __next__() method of itertools.pairwise.

gh-91539 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91539]: Small (10 - 20%) and trivial performance improvement of urllib.request.getproxies_environment(), typically useful when there are many environment variables to go over.

gh-103363 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103363]: Add follow_symlinks keyword-only argument to pathlib.Path.owner() and group(), defaulting to True.

gh-102130 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102130]: Support tab completion in cmd for editline.

gh-99437 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99437]: runpy.run_path() now decodes path-like objects, making sure __file__ and sys.argv[0] of the module being run are always strings.

gh-104003 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104003]: Add warnings.deprecated(), a decorator to mark deprecated functions to static type checkers and to warn on usage of deprecated classes and functions. See PEP 702 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0702/]. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

gh-103708 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103708]: Make hardcoded python name, a configurable parameter so that different implementations of python can override it instead of making huge diffs in sysconfig.py

gh-66515 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66515]: mailbox.MH now supports folders that do not contain a .mh_sequences file (e.g. Claws Mail IMAP-cache folders). Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

gh-83162 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83162]: Renamed re.error to PatternError for clarity, and kept re.error for backward compatibility. Patch by Matthias Bussonnier and Adam Chhina.

gh-91133 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91133]: Fix a bug in tempfile.TemporaryDirectory cleanup, which now no longer dereferences symlinks when working around file system permission errors.

bpo-43153 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43153]: On Windows, tempfile.TemporaryDirectory previously masked a PermissionError with NotADirectoryError during directory cleanup. It now correctly raises PermissionError if errors are not ignored. Patch by Andrei Kulakov and Ken Jin.

bpo-32731 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32731]: getpass.getuser() now raises OSError for all failures rather than ImportError on systems lacking the pwd module or KeyError if the password database is empty.

bpo-34321 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34321]: mmap.mmap now has a trackfd parameter on Unix; if it is False, the file descriptor specified by fileno will not be duplicated.

bpo-35332 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35332]: The shutil.rmtree() function now ignores errors when calling os.close() when ignore_errors is True, and os.close() no longer retried after error.

bpo-35928 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35928]: io.TextIOWrapper now correctly handles the decoding buffer after read() and write().

bpo-26791 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26791]: shutil.move() now moves a symlink into a directory when that directory is the target of the symlink. This provides the same behavior as the mv shell command. The previous behavior raised an exception. Patch by Jeffrey Kintscher.

bpo-41422 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41422]: Fixed memory leaks of pickle.Pickler and pickle.Unpickler involving cyclic references via the internal memo mapping.

bpo-19821 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19821]: The pydoc.ispackage() function has been deprecated.

bpo-40262 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40262]: The ssl.SSLSocket.recv_into() method no longer requires the buffer argument to implement __len__ and supports buffers with arbitrary item size.

bpo-39912 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39912]: warnings.filterwarnings() and warnings.simplefilter() now raise appropriate exceptions instead of AssertionError. Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

bpo-37260 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37260]: Fixed a race condition in shutil.rmtree() in which directory entries removed by another process or thread while shutil.rmtree() is running can cause it to raise FileNotFoundError. Patch by Jeffrey Kintscher.

bpo-36959 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36959]: Fix some error messages for invalid ISO format string combinations in strptime() that referred to directives not contained in the format string. Patch by Gordon P. Hemsley.

bpo-18060 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18060]: Fixed a class inheritance issue that can cause segfaults when deriving two or more levels of subclasses from a base class of Structure or Union.

bpo-29779 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29779]: Add a new PYTHON_HISTORY environment variable to set the location of a .python_history file.

bpo-21360 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21360]: mailbox.Maildir now ignores files with a leading dot.

Documentation

gh-111699 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111699]: Relocate smtpd deprecation notice to its own section rather than under locale in What's New in Python 3.12 document

gh-110746 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110746]: Improved markup for valid options/values for methods ttk.treeview.column and ttk.treeview.heading, and for Layouts.

gh-95649 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95649]: Document that the asyncio module contains code taken from v0.16.0 of the uvloop project [https://github.com/MagicStack/uvloop/tree/v0.16.0], as well as the required MIT licensing information.

Tests

gh-111798 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111798]: Disable test_super_deep() from test_call under pydebug builds on WASI; the stack depth is too small to make the test useful.

gh-111801 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111801]: Lower the recursion limit in test_isinstance for test_infinitely_many_bases(). This prevents a stack overflow on a pydebug build of WASI.

gh-111802 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111802]: Specify a low recursion depth for test_bad_getattr() in test.pickletester to avoid exhausting the stack under a pydebug build for WASI.

gh-44626 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/44626]: Fix os.path.isabs() incorrectly returning True when given a path that starts with exactly one (back)slash on Windows.

Fix pathlib.PureWindowsPath.is_absolute() incorrectly returning False for some paths beginning with two (back)slashes.

gh-113633 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113633]: Use module state for the _testcapi extension module.

gh-109980 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109980]: Fix test_tarfile_vs_tar in test_shutil for macOS, where system tar can include more information in the archive than shutil.make_archive.

gh-112769 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112769]: The tests now correctly compare zlib version when zlib.ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION contains non-integer suffixes. For example zlib-ng defines the version as 1.3.0.zlib-ng.

gh-112334 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112334]: Adds a regression test to verify that vfork() is used when expected by subprocess on vfork enabled POSIX systems (Linux).

gh-108927 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108927]: Fixed order dependence in running tests in the same process when a test that has submodules (e.g. test_importlib) follows a test that imports its submodule (e.g. test_importlib.util) and precedes a test (e.g. test_unittest or test_compileall) that uses that submodule.

bpo-40648 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40648]: Test modes that file can get with chmod() on Windows.

Build

gh-114013 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114013]: Fix Tools/wasm/wasi.py to not include the path to python.wasm as part of HOSTRUNNER. The environment variable is meant to specify how to run the WASI host only, having python.wasm and relevant flags appended to the HOSTRUNNER. This fixes make test work.

gh-113258 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113258]: Changed the Windows build to write out generated frozen modules into the build tree instead of the source tree.

gh-112305 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112305]: Fixed the check-clean-src step performed on out of tree builds to detect errant $(srcdir)/Python/frozen_modules/*.h files and recommend appropriate source tree cleanup steps to get a working build again.

gh-112536 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112536]: Add support for thread sanitizer (TSAN)

gh-112867 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112867]: Fix the build for the case that WITH_PYMALLOC_RADIX_TREE=0 set.

gh-103065 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103065]: Introduce Tools/wasm/wasi.py to simplify doing a WASI build.

bpo-11102 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11102]: The os.major(), os.makedev(), and os.minor() functions are now available on HP-UX v3.

bpo-36351 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36351]: Do not set ipv6type when cross-compiling.

Windows

gh-114096 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114096]: Process privileges that are activated for creating directory junctions are now restored afterwards, avoiding behaviour changes in other parts of the program.

gh-111877 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111877]: os.stat() calls were returning incorrect time values for files that could not be accessed directly.

gh-111973 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111973]: Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.44.2.

gh-113009 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113009]: multiprocessing: On Windows, fix a race condition in Process.terminate(): no longer set the returncode attribute to always call WaitForSingleObject() in Process.wait(). Previously, sometimes the process was still running after TerminateProcess() even if GetExitCodeProcess() is not STILL_ACTIVE. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-86179 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86179]: Fixes path calculations when launching Python on Windows through a symlink.

gh-71383 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71383]: Update Tcl/Tk in Windows installer to 8.6.13 with a patch to suppress incorrect ThemeChanged warnings.

gh-111650 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111650]: Ensures the Py_GIL_DISABLED preprocessor variable is defined in pyconfig.h so that extension modules written in C are able to use it.

gh-112278 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112278]: Reduce the time cost for some functions in platform on Windows if current user has no permission to the WMI.

gh-73427 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73427]: Deprecate sys._enablelegacywindowsfsencoding(). Use PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING instead. Patch by Inada Naoki.

gh-87868 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87868]: Correctly sort and remove duplicate environment variables in _winapi.CreateProcess().

bpo-37308 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37308]: Fix mojibake in mmap.mmap when using a non-ASCII tagname argument on Windows.

macOS

gh-113666 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113666]: Add the following constants to module stat: UF_SETTABLE, UF_TRACKED, UF_DATAVAULT, SF_SUPPORTED, SF_SETTABLE, SF_SYNTHETIC, SF_RESTRICTED, SF_FIRMLINK and SF_DATALESS. The values UF_SETTABLE, SF_SUPPORTED, SF_SETTABLE and SF_SYNTHETIC are only available on macOS.

gh-113536 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113536]: os.waitid() is now available on macOS

gh-110459 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110459]: Running configure ... --with-openssl-rpath=X/Y/Z no longer fails to detect OpenSSL on macOS.

gh-74573 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74573]: Document that dbm.ndbm can silently corrupt DBM files on updates when exceeding undocumented platform limits, and can crash (segmentation fault) when reading such a corrupted file. (FB8919203)

gh-65701 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65701]: The freeze tool doesn't work with framework builds of Python. Document this and bail out early when running the tool with such a build.

gh-87277 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87277]: webbrowser: Don't look for X11 browsers on macOS. Those are generally not used and probing for them can result in starting XQuartz even if it isn't used otherwise.

gh-111973 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111973]: Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.44.2.

gh-108269 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108269]: Set CFBundleAllowMixedLocalizations to true in the Info.plist for the framework, embedded Python.app and IDLE.app with framework installs on macOS. This allows applications to pick up the user's preferred locale when that's different from english.

gh-102362 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102362]: Make sure the result of sysconfig.get_plaform() includes at least a major and minor versions, even if MACOSX_DEPLOYMENT_TARGET is set to only a major version during build to match the format expected by pip.

gh-110017 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110017]: Disable a signal handling stress test on macOS due to a bug in macOS (FB13453490).

gh-110820 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110820]: Make sure the preprocessor definitions for ALIGNOF_MAX_ALIGN_T, SIZEOF_LONG_DOUBLE and HAVE_GCC_ASM_FOR_X64 are correct for Universal 2 builds on macOS.

gh-109981 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109981]: Use /dev/fd on macOS to determine the number of open files in test.support.os_helper.fd_count to avoid a crash with "guarded" file descriptors when probing for open files.

IDLE

gh-72284 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72284]: Improve the lists of features, editor key bindings, and shell key bingings in the IDLE doc.

gh-113903 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113903]: Fix rare failure of test.test_idle, in test_configdialog.

gh-113729 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113729]: Fix the "Help -> IDLE Doc" menu bug in 3.11.7 and 3.12.1.

gh-113269 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113269]: Fix test_editor hang on macOS Catalina.

gh-112898 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112898]: Fix processing unsaved files when quitting IDLE on macOS.

bpo-13586 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13586]: Enter the selected text when opening the "Replace" dialog.

C API

gh-106560 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106560]: Fix redundant declarations in the public C API. Declare PyBool_Type, PyLong_Type and PySys_Audit() only once. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-112438 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112438]: Fix support of format units "es", "et", "es#", and "et#" in nested tuples in PyArg_ParseTuple()-like functions.

gh-111545 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111545]: Add Py_HashPointer() function to hash a pointer. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-65210 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65210]: Change the declaration of the keywords parameter of PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords() and PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords() for better compatibility with C++.

Python 3.13.0 alpha 2

Release date: 2023-11-22

Core and Builtins

gh-112243 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112243]: Don't include comments in f-string debug expressions. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-112287 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112287]: Slightly optimize the Tier 2 (uop) interpreter by only loading oparg and operand when needed. Also double the trace size limit again, to 512 this time.

gh-112266 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112266]: Change docstrings of __dict__ and __weakref__.

gh-111807 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111807]: Lower the max parser stack depth to 1000 under WASI debug builds.

gh-111798 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111798]: When Python is built in debug mode, set the C recursion limit to 500 instead of 1500. A debug build is likely built with low optimization level which implies higher stack memory usage than a release build. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-106529 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106529]: Enable translating unspecialized FOR_ITER to Tier 2.

gh-111916 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111916]: Make hashlib related modules thread-safe without the GIL

gh-81137 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81137]: Deprecate assignment to a function's __code__ field when the new code object is of a mismatched type (e.g., from a generator to a plain function).

gh-79932 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79932]: Raise exception if frame.clear() is called on a suspended frame.

gh-81925 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81925]: Implement native thread ids for GNU KFreeBSD.

gh-111843 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111843]: Use exponential backoff to reduce the number of failed tier 2 optimization attempts by over 99%.

gh-110829 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110829]: Joining a thread now ensures the underlying OS thread has exited. This is required for safer fork() in multi-threaded processes.

gh-109369 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109369]: Make sure that tier 2 traces are de-optimized if the code is instrumented

gh-111772 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111772]: Specialize slot loads and stores for _Py_T_OBJECT as well as Py_T_OBJECT_EX

gh-111666 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111666]: Speed up BaseExceptionGroup.derive(), BaseExceptionGroup.subgroup(), and BaseExceptionGroup.split() by changing how they parse passed arguments.

gh-111654 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111654]: Fix runtime crash when some error happens in opcode LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_DEREF.

gh-111623 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111623]: Add support for sharing tuples between interpreters using the cross-interpreter API. Patch by Anthony Shaw.

gh-111354 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111354]: The oparg of YIELD_VALUE is now 1 if the instruction is part of a yield-from or await, and 0 otherwise.

The SUSPENDED frame state is now split into SUSPENDED and SUSPENDED_YIELD_FROM. This simplifies the code in _PyGen_yf.

gh-111520 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111520]: Merge the Tier 1 (bytecode) and Tier 2 (micro-ops) interpreters together, moving the Tier 2 interpreter loop and switch into _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault() in Python/ceval.c. The Python/executor.c file is gone. Also the TIER_ONE and TIER_TWO macros are now handled by the code generator.

Beware! This changes the environment variables to enable micro-ops and their debugging to PYTHON_UOPS and PYTHON_LLTRACE.

gh-109181 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109181]: Speed up Traceback object creation by lazily compute the line number. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-111420 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111420]: Allow type comments in parenthesized with statements

gh-111438 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111438]: Add support for sharing floats between interpreters using the cross-interpreter API. Patch by Anthony Shaw.

gh-111435 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111435]: Add support for sharing of True and False between interpreters using the cross-interpreter API. Patch by Anthony Shaw.

gh-102388 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102388]: Fix a bug where iso2022_jp_3 and iso2022_jp_2004 codecs read out of bounds

gh-111366 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111366]: Fix an issue in the codeop that was causing SyntaxError exceptions raised in the presence of invalid syntax to not contain precise error messages. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-111380 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111380]: Fix a bug that was causing SyntaxWarning to appear twice when parsing if invalid syntax is encountered later. Patch by Pablo galindo

gh-111374 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111374]: Added a new environment variable PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES. It determines whether or not frozen modules are ignored by the import machinery, equivalent of the -X frozen_modules command-line option.

gh-111354 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111354]: Remove oparg from YIELD_VALUE. Change oparg of RESUME to include information about the except-depth. These changes make it possible to simplify the code in generator close.

gh-94438 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94438]: Fix a regression that prevented jumping across is None and is not None when debugging. Patch by Savannah Ostrowski.

gh-67224 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67224]: Show source lines in tracebacks when using the -c option when running Python. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-111123 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111123]: Fix a bug where a global declaration in an except block is rejected when the global is used in the else block.

gh-110938 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110938]: Fix error messages for indented blocks with functions and classes with generic type parameters. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-109214 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109214]: Remove unnecessary instruction pointer updates before returning from frames.

gh-110912 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110912]: Correctly display the traceback for MemoryError exceptions using the traceback module. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-109894 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109894]: Fixed crash due to improperly initialized static MemoryError in subinterpreter.

gh-110892 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110892]: Return NULL for PyTrace_RETURN events caused by an exception

gh-110864 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110864]: Fix argument parsing by _PyArg_UnpackKeywordsWithVararg for functions defining pos-or-keyword, vararg, and kw-only parameters.

gh-109094 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109094]: Replace prev_instr on the interpreter frame by instr_ptr which points to the beginning of the instruction that is currently executing (or will execute once the frame resumes).

gh-110805 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110805]: Allow the repl to show source code and complete tracebacks. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-110722 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110722]: Add PYTHON_PRESITE=package.module to import a module early in the interpreter lifecycle before site.py is executed. Python needs to be built in debug mode for this option to exist.

gh-110481 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110481]: Implement biased reference counting in --disable-gil builds.

gh-110543 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110543]: Fix regression in Python 3.12 where types.CodeType.replace() would produce a broken code object if called on a module or class code object that contains a comprehension. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

gh-89519 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89519]: Removed chained classmethod descriptors (introduced in bpo-19072 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19072]). This can no longer be used to wrap other descriptors such as property. The core design of this feature was flawed and caused a number of downstream problems. To "pass-through" a classmethod, consider using the __wrapped__ attribute that was added in Python 3.10.

gh-103615 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103615]: Use local events for opcode tracing

bpo-46657 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46657]: Add mimalloc memory allocator support.

gh-106718 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106718]: When PyConfig.stdlib_dir is explicitly set, it's now respected and won't be overridden by PyConfig.home.

gh-106905 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106905]: Fix incorrect SystemError about AST constructor recursion depth mismatch.

gh-100445 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100445]: Improve error message for unterminated strings with escapes.

bpo-45759 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45759]: Improved error messages for elif/else statements not matching any valid statements. Patch by Jeremiah Vivian.

Library

gh-111942 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111942]: Fix SystemError in the TextIOWrapper constructor with non-encodable "errors" argument in non-debug mode.

gh-111995 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111995]: Added the NI_IDN constant to the socket module when present in C at build time for use with socket.getnameinfo().

gh-109538 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109538]: Issue warning message instead of having RuntimeError be displayed when event loop has already been closed at StreamWriter.__del__().

gh-111942 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111942]: Fix crashes in io.TextIOWrapper.reconfigure() when pass invalid arguments, e.g. non-string encoding.

gh-111460 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111460]: curses: restore wide character support (including curses.unget_wch() and get_wch()) on macOS, which was unavailable due to a regression in Python 3.12.

gh-103791 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103791]: contextlib.suppress now supports suppressing exceptions raised as part of a BaseExceptionGroup, in addition to the recent support for ExceptionGroup.

gh-111835 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111835]: The mmap.mmap class now has an seekable() method that can be used when a seekable file-like object is required. The seek() method now returns the new absolute position. Patch by Donghee Na.

gh-111804 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111804]: Remove posix.fallocate() under WASI as the underlying posix_fallocate() is not available in WASI preview2.

gh-111841 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111841]: Fix truncating arguments on an embedded null character in os.putenv() and os.unsetenv() on Windows.

gh-111768 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111768]: wsgiref.util.is_hop_by_hop() is now exposed correctly in __all__.

gh-80731 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80731]: Avoid executing the default function in cmd.Cmd in an except block

gh-111541 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111541]: Fix doctest for SyntaxError not-builtin subclasses.

gh-111719 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111719]: Add extra argument validation for alias command in pdb

gh-111482 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111482]: time: Make time.clock_gettime() and time.clock_gettime_ns() functions up to 2x faster by faster calling convention. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-110894 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110894]: Call loop exception handler for exceptions in client_connected_cb of asyncio.start_server() so that applications can handle it. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-111531 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111531]: Fix reference leaks in bind_class() and bind_all() methods of tkinter widgets.

gh-111246 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111246]: asyncio.loop.create_unix_server() will now automatically remove the Unix socket when the server is closed.

gh-111356 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111356]: Added io.text_encoding(), io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE, and io.IncrementalNewlineDecoder to io.__all__.

gh-66425 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66425]: Remove the code to set the REMOTE_HOST header from wsgiref module, as it is unreachable. This header is used for performance reasons, which is not necessary in the wsgiref module.

gh-111429 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111429]: Speed up pathlib.PurePath.relative_to() and is_relative_to().

gh-111342 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111342]: Fixed typo in math.sumprod().

gh-68166 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68166]: Remove mention of not supported "vsapi" element type in tkinter.ttk.Style.element_create(). Add tests for element_create() and other ttk.Style methods. Add examples for element_create() in the documentation.

gh-111388 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111388]: Add show_group parameter to traceback.format_exception_only(), which allows to format ExceptionGroup instances.

gh-79033 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79033]: Another attempt at fixing asyncio.Server.wait_closed(). It now blocks until both conditions are true: the server is closed, and there are no more active connections. (This means that in some cases where in 3.12.0 this function would incorrectly have returned immediately, it will now block; in particular, when there are no active connections but the server hasn't been closed yet.)

gh-111259 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111259]: Optimize recursive wildcards in pathlib.

gh-111295 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111295]: Fix time not checking for errors when initializing.

gh-111253 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111253]: Add error checking during _socket module init.

gh-111251 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111251]: Fix _blake2 not checking for errors when initializing.

gh-111233 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111233]: Fix select not checking for errors when initializing.

gh-111230 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111230]: Fix ssl not checking for errors when initializing.

gh-111174 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111174]: Fix crash in io.BytesIO.getbuffer() called repeatedly for empty BytesIO.

gh-111187 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111187]: Postpone removal version for locale.getdefaultlocale() to Python 3.15.

gh-111159 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111159]: Fix doctest output comparison for exceptions with notes.

gh-110910 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110910]: Fix invalid state handling in asyncio.TaskGroup and asyncio.Timeout. They now raise proper RuntimeError if they are improperly used and are left in consistent state after this.

gh-111092 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111092]: Make turtledemo run without default root enabled.

gh-110944 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110944]: Support alias and convenience vars for pdb completion

gh-110745 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110745]: Added newline parameter to pathlib.Path.read_text(). Patch by Junya Okabe.

gh-84583 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84583]: Make pdb enter post-mortem mode even for SyntaxError

gh-80675 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80675]: Set f_trace_lines = True on all frames upon pdb.set_trace()

gh-110771 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110771]: Expose the setup and cleanup portions of asyncio.run_forever() as the standalone methods asyncio.run_forever_setup() and asyncio.run_forever_cleanup(). This allows for tighter integration with GUI event loops.

gh-110774 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110774]: Support setting the asyncio.Runner loop_factory kwarg in unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase

gh-110392 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110392]: Fix tty.setraw() and tty.setcbreak(): previously they returned partially modified list of the original tty attributes. tty.cfmakeraw() and tty.cfmakecbreak() now make a copy of the list of special characters before modifying it.

gh-59013 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59013]: Make line number of function breakpoint more precise in pdb

gh-88434 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88434]: Emit deprecation warning for non-integer numbers in gettext functions and methods that consider plural forms even if the translation was not found.

gh-110395 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110395]: Ensure that select.kqueue() objects correctly appear as closed in forked children, to prevent operations on an invalid file descriptor.

gh-110196 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110196]: Add __reduce__ method to IPv6Address in order to keep scope_id

gh-109747 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109747]: Improve errors for unsupported look-behind patterns. Now re.error is raised instead of OverflowError or RuntimeError for too large width of look-behind pattern.

gh-109466 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109466]: Add the ipaddress.IPv4Address.ipv6_mapped property, which returns the IPv4-mapped IPv6 address.

gh-85098 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85098]: Implement the CLI of the symtable module and improve the repr of Symbol.

gh-108791 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108791]: Improved error handling in pdb command line interface, making it produce more concise error messages.

gh-105931 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105931]: Change compileall to only strip the stripdir prefix from the full path recorded in the compiled .pyc file, when the prefix matches the start of the full path in its entirety. When the prefix does not match, no stripping is performed and a warning to this effect is displayed.

Previously all path components of the stripdir prefix that matched the full path were removed, while those that did not match were left alone (including ones interspersed between matching components).

gh-107431 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107431]: Make the DictProxy and ListProxy types in multiprocessing.managers Generic Alias Types for [] use in typing contexts.

gh-72904 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72904]: Add glob.translate(). This function converts a pathname with shell-style wildcards to a regular expression.

gh-90026 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90026]: Define USE_XATTRS on Cygwin so that XATTR-related functions in the os module become available.

gh-90890 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90890]: New methods mailbox.Maildir.get_info(), mailbox.Maildir.set_info(), mailbox.Maildir.get_flags(), mailbox.Maildir.set_flags(), mailbox.Maildir.add_flag(), mailbox.Maildir.remove_flag(). These methods speed up accessing a message's info and/or flags and are useful when it is not necessary to access the message's contents, as when iterating over a Maildir to find messages with specific flags.

gh-102956 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102956]: Fix returning of empty byte strings after seek in zipfile module

gh-102895 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102895]: Added a parameter local_exit for code.interact() to prevent exit() and quit from closing sys.stdin and raise SystemExit.

gh-97928 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97928]: Change the behavior of tkinter.Text.count(). It now always returns an integer if one or less counting options are specified. Previously it could return a single count as a 1-tuple, an integer (only if option "update" was specified) or None if no items found. The result is now the same if wantobjects is set to 0.

gh-96954 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96954]: Switch the storage of the unicode codepoint names to use a different data-structure, a directed acyclic word graph [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deterministic_acyclic_finite_state_automaton]. This makes the unicodedata shared library about 440 KiB smaller. Contributed by Carl Friedrich Bolz-Tereick using code from the PyPy project.

gh-73561 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73561]: Omit the interface scope from an IPv6 address when used as Host header by http.client.

gh-86826 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86826]: zipinfo now supports the full range of values in the TZ string determined by RFC 8536 and detects all invalid formats. Both Python and C implementations now raise exceptions of the same type on invalid data.

Tests

gh-111808 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111808]: Make the default value of test.support.infinite_recursion() to be conditional based on whether optimizations were used when compiling the interpreter. This helps with platforms like WASI whose stack size is greatly restricted in debug builds.

gh-110722 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110722]: Gathering line coverage of standard libraries within the regression test suite is now precise, as well as much faster. Patch by Łukasz Langa.

gh-110367 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110367]: Make regrtest --verbose3 option compatible with --huntrleaks -jN options. The ./python -m test -j1 -R 3:3 --verbose3 command now works as expected. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-111165 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111165]: Remove no longer used functions run_unittest() and run_doctest() from the test.support module.

gh-110932 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110932]: Fix regrtest if the SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH environment variable is defined: use the variable value as the random seed. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-110995 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110995]: test_gdb: Fix detection of gdb built without Python scripting support. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-110918 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110918]: Test case matching patterns specified by options --match, --ignore, --matchfile and --ignorefile are now tested in the order of specification, and the last match determines whether the test case be run or ignored.

gh-108747 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108747]: Add unit test for usercustomize and sitecustomize hooks from site.

Build

gh-96954 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96954]: Make make regen-unicodedata work for out-of-tree builds of CPython.

gh-112088 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112088]: Add Tools/build/regen-configure.sh script to regenerate the configure with an Ubuntu container image. The quay.io/tiran/cpython_autoconf:271 container image (tiran/cpython_autoconf [https://github.com/tiran/cpython_autoconf]) is no longer used. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-111046 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111046]: For wasi-threads, memory is now exported to fix compatibility issues with some wasm runtimes.

gh-110828 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110828]: AIX 32bit needs -latomic to build the _testcapi extension module.

gh-85283 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283]: The errno, md5, resource, winsound, _ctypes_test, _multiprocessing.posixshmem, _scproxy, _stat, _testimportmultiple and _uuid C extensions are now built with the limited C API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

Windows

gh-111856 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111856]: Fixes fstat() on file systems that do not support file ID requests. This includes FAT32 and exFAT.

gh-111293 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111293]: Fix os.DirEntry.inode dropping higher 64 bits of a file id on some filesystems on Windows.

gh-110913 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110913]: WindowsConsoleIO now correctly chunks large buffers without splitting up UTF-8 sequences.

macOS

gh-59703 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59703]: For macOS framework builds, in getpath.c use the system dladdr function to find the path to the shared library rather than depending on deprecated macOS APIs.

gh-110950 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110950]: Update macOS installer to include an upstream Tcl/Tk fix for the Secure coding is not enabled for restorable state! warning encountered in Tkinter on macOS 14 Sonoma.

gh-111015 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111015]: Ensure that IDLE.app and Python Launcher.app are installed with appropriate permissions on macOS builds.

gh-71383 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71383]: Update macOS installer to include an upstream Tcl/Tk fix for the ttk::ThemeChanged error encountered in Tkinter.

gh-92603 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92603]: Update macOS installer to include a fix accepted by upstream Tcl/Tk for a crash encountered after the first tkinter.Tk() instance is destroyed.

IDLE

bpo-35668 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35668]: Add docstrings to the IDLE debugger module. Fix two bugs: initialize Idb.botframe (should be in Bdb); in Idb.in_rpc_code, check whether prev_frame is None before trying to use it. Greatly expand test_debugger.

Tools/Demos

gh-111903 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111903]: Argument Clinic now supports the @critical_section directive that instructs Argument Clinic to generate a critical section around the function call, which locks the self object in --disable-gil builds. Patch by Sam Gross.

C API

gh-112026 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112026]: Add again the private _PyThreadState_UncheckedGet() function as an alias to the new public PyThreadState_GetUnchecked() function. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-112026 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112026]: Restore the removed _PyDict_GetItemStringWithError() function. It is used by numpy. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-112026 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112026]: Restore removed private C API functions, macros and structures which have no simple replacement for now:

_PyDict_GetItem_KnownHash()

_PyDict_NewPresized()

_PyHASH_BITS

_PyHASH_IMAG

_PyHASH_INF

_PyHASH_MODULUS

_PyHASH_MULTIPLIER

_PyLong_Copy()

_PyLong_FromDigits()

_PyLong_New()

_PyLong_Sign()

_PyObject_CallMethodId()

_PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs()

_PyObject_CallMethodOneArg()

_PyObject_CallOneArg()

_PyObject_EXTRA_INIT

_PyObject_FastCallDict()

_PyObject_GetAttrId()

_PyObject_Vectorcall()

_PyObject_VectorcallMethod()

_PyStack_AsDict()

_PyThread_CurrentFrames()

_PyUnicodeWriter structure

_PyUnicodeWriter_Dealloc()

_PyUnicodeWriter_Finish()

_PyUnicodeWriter_Init()

_PyUnicodeWriter_Prepare()

_PyUnicodeWriter_PrepareKind()

_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteASCIIString()

_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteChar()

_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteLatin1String()

_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr()

_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteSubstring()

_PyUnicode_AsString()

_PyUnicode_FromId()

_PyVectorcall_Function()

_Py_IDENTIFIER()

_Py_c_abs()

_Py_c_diff()

_Py_c_neg()

_Py_c_pow()

_Py_c_prod()

_Py_c_quot()

_Py_c_sum()

_Py_static_string()

_Py_static_string_init()

Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-112026 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112026]: Add again <ctype.h> and <unistd.h> includes in Python.h, but don't include them in the limited C API version 3.13 and newer. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-111956 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111956]: Add internal-only one-time initialization API: _PyOnceFlag and _PyOnceFlag_CallOnce.

gh-111262 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111262]: Add PyDict_Pop() and PyDict_PopString() functions: remove a key from a dictionary and optionally return the removed value. This is similar to dict.pop(), but without the default value and not raising KeyError if the key missing. Patch by Stefan Behnel and Victor Stinner.

gh-111863 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111863]: Rename Py_NOGIL to Py_GIL_DISABLED. Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

gh-111138 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111138]: Add PyList_Extend() and PyList_Clear() functions: similar to Python list.extend() and list.clear() methods. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-108765 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108765]: On Windows, Python.h no longer includes the <stddef.h> standard header file. If needed, it should now be included explicitly. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-111569 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111569]: Implement "Python Critical Sections" from PEP 703 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/]. These are macros to help replace the GIL with per-object locks in the --disable-gil build of CPython. The macros are no-ops in the default build.

gh-111506 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111506]: In the limited C API version 3.13, Py_SET_REFCNT() function is now implemented as an opaque function call. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-108082 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108082]: Add PyErr_FormatUnraisable() function.

gh-110964 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110964]: Move the undocumented private _PyArg functions and _PyArg_Parser structure to internal C API (pycore_modsupport.h). Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-110815 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110815]: Support non-ASCII keyword names in PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords().

gh-109587 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109587]: Introduced PyUnstable_PerfTrampoline_CompileCode(), PyUnstable_PerfTrampoline_SetPersistAfterFork() and PyUnstable_CopyPerfMapFile(). These functions allow extension modules to initialize trampolines eagerly, after the application is "warmed up". This makes it possible to have perf-trampolines running in an always-enabled fashion.

gh-85283 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283]: Add the PySys_Audit() function to the limited C API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-85283 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283]: Add PyMem_RawMalloc(), PyMem_RawCalloc(), PyMem_RawRealloc() and PyMem_RawFree() to the limited C API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-106672 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106672]: Functions PyDict_GetItem(), PyDict_GetItemString(), PyMapping_HasKey(), PyMapping_HasKeyString(), PyObject_HasAttr(), PyObject_HasAttrString(), and PySys_GetObject(), which clear all errors occurred during calling the function, report now them using sys.unraisablehook().

gh-67565 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67565]: Remove redundant C-contiguity check in getargs.c, binascii, ssl and Argument Clinic. Patched by Stefan Krah and Furkan Onder

Python 3.13.0 alpha 1

Release date: 2023-10-13

Security

gh-108310 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108310]: Fixed an issue where instances of ssl.SSLSocket were vulnerable to a bypass of the TLS handshake and included protections (like certificate verification) and treating sent unencrypted data as if it were post-handshake TLS encrypted data. Security issue reported as CVE 2023-40217 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-40217] by Aapo Oksman. Patch by Gregory P. Smith.

gh-107774 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107774]: PEP 669 specifies that sys.monitoring.register_callback will generate an audit event. Pre-releases of Python 3.12 did not generate the audit event. This is now fixed.

gh-102988 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102988]: Reverted the email.utils security improvement change released in 3.12beta4 that unintentionally caused email.utils.getaddresses to fail to parse email addresses with a comma in the quoted name field. See gh-106669 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106669].

gh-99108 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108]: Refresh our new HACL* built-in hashlib code from upstream. Built-in SHA2 should be faster and an issue with SHA3 on 32-bit platforms is fixed.

gh-102509 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102509]: Start initializing ob_digit during creation of PyLongObject objects. Patch by Illia Volochii.

Core and Builtins

gh-110782 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110782]: Fix crash when typing.TypeVar is constructed with a keyword argument. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

gh-110752 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110752]: Reset ceval.eval_breaker in interpreter_clear()

gh-110721 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110721]: Use the traceback implementation for the default PyErr_Display() functionality. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-110696 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110696]: Fix incorrect error message for invalid argument unpacking. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-104169 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104169]: Split the tokenizer into two separate directories: - One part includes the actual lexeme producing logic and lives in Parser/lexer. - The second part wraps the lexer according to the different tokenization modes we have (string, utf-8, file, interactive, readline) and lives in Parser/tokenizer.

gh-110688 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110688]: Remove undocumented test_c_api method from set, which was only defined for testing purposes under Py_DEBUG. Now we have proper CAPI tests.

gh-104584 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104584]: Fix a reference leak when running with PYTHONUOPS or -X uops enabled.

gh-110514 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110514]: Add PY_THROW to sys.setprofile() events

gh-110489 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110489]: Optimise math.ceil() when the input is exactly a float, resulting in about a 10% improvement.

gh-110455 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110455]: Guard assert(tstate->thread_id > 0) with #ifndef HAVE_PTHREAD_STUBS. This allows for for pydebug builds to work under WASI which (currently) lacks thread support.

gh-110309 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110309]: Remove unnecessary empty constant nodes in the ast of f-string specs.

gh-110259 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110259]: Correctly identify the format spec in f-strings (with single or triple quotes) that have multiple lines in the expression part and include a formatting spec. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-110237 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110237]: Fix missing error checks for calls to PyList_Append in _PyEval_MatchClass.

gh-110164 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110164]: regrtest: If the SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH environment variable is defined, regrtest now disables tests randomization. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-109889 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109889]: Fix the compiler's redundant NOP detection algorithm to skip over NOPs with no line number when looking for the next instruction's lineno.

gh-109853 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109853]: sys.path[0] is now set correctly for subinterpreters.

gh-109923 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109923]: Set line number on the POP_TOP that follows a RETURN_GENERATOR.

gh-105716 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105716]: Subinterpreters now correctly handle the case where they have threads running in the background. Before, such threads would interfere with cleaning up and destroying them, as well as prevent running another script.

gh-109369 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109369]: The internal eval_breaker and supporting flags, plus the monitoring version have been merged into a single atomic integer to speed up checks.

gh-109823 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109823]: Fix bug where compiler does not adjust labels when removing an empty basic block which is a jump target.

gh-109793 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109793]: The main thread no longer exits prematurely when a subinterpreter is cleaned up during runtime finalization. The bug was a problem particularly because, when triggered, the Python process would always return with a 0 exitcode, even if it failed.

gh-109719 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109719]: Fix missing jump target labels when compiler reorders cold/warm blocks.

gh-109595 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109595]: Add -X cpu_count command line option to override return results of os.cpu_count() and os.process_cpu_count(). This option is useful for users who need to limit CPU resources of a container system without having to modify the container (application code). Patch by Donghee Na.

gh-109627 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109627]: Fix bug where the compiler does not assign a new jump target label to a duplicated small exit block.

gh-109596 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109596]: Fix some tokens in the grammar that were incorrectly marked as soft keywords. Also fix some repeated rule names and ensure that repeated rules are not allowed. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-109496 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109496]: On a Python built in debug mode, Py_DECREF() now calls _Py_NegativeRefcount() if the object is a dangling pointer to deallocated memory: memory filled with 0xDD "dead byte" by the debug hook on memory allocators. The fix is to check the reference count before checking for _Py_IsImmortal(). Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-107265 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107265]: Deopt opcodes hidden by the executor when base opcode is needed

gh-109371 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109371]: Deopted instructions correctly for tool initialization and modified the incorrect assertion in instrumentation, when a previous tool already sets INSTRUCTION events

gh-105658 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105658]: Fix bug where the line trace of an except block ending with a conditional includes an excess event with the line of the conditional expression.

gh-109219 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109219]: Fix compiling type param scopes that use a name which is also free in an inner scope.

gh-109351 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109351]: Fix crash when compiling an invalid AST involving a named (walrus) expression.

gh-109341 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109341]: Fix crash when compiling an invalid AST involving a ast.TypeAlias.

gh-109195 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109195]: Fix source location for the LOAD_* instruction preceding a LOAD_SUPER_ATTR to load the super global (or shadowing variable) so that it encompasses only the name super and not the following parentheses.

gh-109256 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109256]: Opcode IDs for specialized opcodes are allocated in their own range to improve stability of the IDs for the 'real' opcodes.

gh-109216 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109216]: Fix possible memory leak in BUILD_MAP.

gh-109207 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109207]: Fix a SystemError in __repr__ of symtable entry object.

gh-109179 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109179]: Fix bug where the C traceback display drops notes from SyntaxError.

gh-109118 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109118]: Disallow nested scopes (lambdas, generator expressions, and comprehensions) within PEP 695 annotation scopes that are nested within classes.

gh-109156 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109156]: Add tests for de-instrumenting instructions while keeping the instrumentation for lines

gh-109114 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109114]: Relax the detection of the error message for invalid lambdas inside f-strings to not search for arbitrary replacement fields to avoid false positives. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-105848 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105848]: Add a new CALL_KW opcode, used for calls containing keyword arguments. Also, fix a possible crash when jumping over method calls in a debugger.

gh-109052 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109052]: Use the base opcode when comparing code objects to avoid interference from instrumentation

gh-109118 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109118]: Fix interpreter crash when a NameError is raised inside the type parameters of a generic class.

gh-88943 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88943]: Improve syntax error for non-ASCII character that follows a numerical literal. It now points on the invalid non-ASCII character, not on the valid numerical literal.

gh-108976 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108976]: Fix crash that occurs after de-instrumenting a code object in a monitoring callback.

gh-108732 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108732]: Make iteration variables of module- and class-scoped comprehensions visible to pdb and other tools that use frame.f_locals again.

gh-108959 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108959]: Fix caret placement for error locations for subscript and binary operations that involve non-semantic parentheses and spaces. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-104584 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104584]: Fix a crash when running with PYTHONUOPS or -X uops enabled and an error occurs during optimization.

gh-108727 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108727]: Define tp_dealloc for CounterOptimizer_Type. This fixes a segfault on deallocation.

gh-108520 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108520]: Fix multiprocessing.synchronize.SemLock.__setstate__() to properly initialize multiprocessing.synchronize.SemLock._is_fork_ctx. This fixes a regression when passing a SemLock across nested processes.

Rename multiprocessing.synchronize.SemLock.is_fork_ctx to multiprocessing.synchronize.SemLock._is_fork_ctx to avoid exposing it as public API.

gh-108654 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108654]: Restore locals shadowed by an inlined comprehension if the comprehension raises an exception.

gh-108488 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108488]: Change the initialization of inline cache entries so that the cache entry for JUMP_BACKWARD is initialized to zero, instead of the adaptive_counter_warmup() value used for all other instructions. This counter, unique among instructions, counts up from zero.

gh-108716 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108716]: Turn off deep-freezing of code objects. Modules are still frozen, so that a file system search is not needed for common modules.

gh-108614 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108614]: Add RESUME_CHECK instruction, to avoid having to handle instrumentation, signals, and contexts switches in the tier 2 execution engine.

gh-108487 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108487]: Move an assert that would cause a spurious crash in a devious case that should only trigger deoptimization.

gh-106176 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106176]: Use a WeakValueDictionary to track the lists containing the modules each thread is currently importing. This helps avoid a reference leak from keeping the list around longer than necessary. Weakrefs are used as GC can't interrupt the cleanup.

gh-105481 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105481]: The regen-opcode build stage was removed and its work is now done in regen-cases.

gh-107901 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107901]: Fix missing line number on JUMP_BACKWARD at the end of a for loop.

gh-108113 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108113]: The compile() built-in can now accept a new flag, ast.PyCF_OPTIMIZED_AST, which is similar to ast.PyCF_ONLY_AST except that the returned AST is optimized according to the value of the optimize argument.

ast.parse() now accepts an optional argument optimize which is passed on to the compile() built-in. This makes it possible to obtain an optimized AST.

gh-107971 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107971]: Opcode IDs are generated from bytecodes.c instead of being hard coded in opcode.py.

gh-107944 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107944]: Improve error message for function calls with bad keyword arguments. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-108390 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108390]: Raise an exception when setting a non-local event (RAISE, EXCEPTION_HANDLED, etc.) in sys.monitoring.set_local_events.

Fixes crash when tracing in recursive calls to Python classes.

gh-108035 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108035]: Remove the _PyCFrame struct, moving the pointer to the current interpreter frame back to the threadstate, as it was for 3.10 and earlier. The _PyCFrame existed as a performance optimization for tracing. Since PEP 669 has been implemented, this optimization no longer applies.

gh-91051 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91051]: Fix abort / segfault when using all eight type watcher slots, on platforms where char is signed by default.

gh-106581 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106581]: Fix possible assertion failures and missing instrumentation events when PYTHONUOPS or -X uops is enabled.

gh-107526 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107526]: Revert converting vars, dir, next, getattr, and iter to argument clinic.

gh-84805 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84805]: Autogenerate signature for METH_NOARGS and METH_O extension functions.

gh-107758 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107758]: Make the dump_stack() routine used by the lltrace feature (low-level interpreter debugging) robust against recursion by ensuring that it never calls a __repr__ method implemented in Python. Also make the similar output for Tier-2 uops appear on stdout (instead of stderr), to match the lltrace code in ceval.c.

gh-107659 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107659]: Add docstrings for ctypes.pointer() and ctypes.POINTER().

gh-105848 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105848]: Modify the bytecode so that the actual callable for a CALL is at a consistent position on the stack (regardless of whether or not bound-method-calling optimizations are active).

gh-107674 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107674]: Fixed performance regression in sys.settrace.

gh-107724 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107724]: In pre-release versions of 3.12, up to rc1, the sys.monitoring callback function for the PY_THROW event was missing the third, exception argument. That is now fixed.

gh-84436 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84436]: Skip reference count modifications for many known immortal objects.

gh-107596 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107596]: Specialize subscripting str objects by int indexes.

gh-107080 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107080]: Trace refs builds (--with-trace-refs) were crashing when used with isolated subinterpreters. The problematic global state has been isolated to each interpreter. Other fixing the crashes, this change does not affect users.

gh-107557 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107557]: Generate the cases needed for the barebones tier 2 abstract interpreter for optimization passes in CPython.

gh-106608 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106608]: Make _PyUOpExecutorObject variable length.

gh-100964 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100964]: Clear generators' exception state after return to break reference cycles.

gh-107455 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107455]: Improve error messages when converting an incompatible type to ctypes.c_char_p, ctypes.c_wchar_p and ctypes.c_void_p.

gh-107263 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107263]: Increase C recursion limit for functions other than the main interpreter from 800 to 1500. This should allow functions like list.__repr__ and json.dumps to handle all the inputs that they could prior to 3.12

gh-104584 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104584]: Fix an issue which caused incorrect inline caches to be read when running with PYTHONUOPS or -X uops enabled.

gh-104432 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104432]: Fix potential unaligned memory access on C APIs involving returned sequences of char * pointers within the grp and socket modules. These were revealed using a -fsaniziter=alignment build on ARM macOS. Patch by Christopher Chavez.

gh-106078 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106078]: Isolate _decimal (apply PEP 687 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/]). Patch by Charlie Zhao.

gh-106898 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106898]: Add the exception as the third argument to PY_UNIND callbacks in sys.monitoring. This makes the PY_UNWIND callback consistent with the other exception handling callbacks.

gh-106895 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106895]: Raise a ValueError when a monitoring callback function returns DISABLE for events that cannot be disabled locally.

gh-106897 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106897]: Add a RERAISE event to sys.monitoring, which occurs when an exception is reraise, either explicitly by a plain raise statement, or implicitly in an except or finally block.

gh-77377 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77377]: Ensure that multiprocessing synchronization objects created in a fork context are not sent to a different process created in a spawn context. This changes a segfault into an actionable RuntimeError in the parent process.

gh-106931 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106931]: Statically allocated string objects are now interned globally instead of per-interpreter. This fixes a situation where such a string would only be interned in a single interpreter. Normal string objects are unaffected.

gh-104621 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104621]: Unsupported modules now always fail to be imported.

gh-107122 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107122]: Add dbm.ndbm.ndbm.clear() to dbm.ndbm. Patch By Donghee Na.

gh-107122 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107122]: Add dbm.gnu.gdbm.clear() to dbm.gnu. Patch By Donghee Na.

gh-107015 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107015]: The ASYNC and AWAIT tokens are removed from the Grammar, which removes the possibility of making async and await soft keywords when using feature_version<7 in ast.parse().

gh-106917 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106917]: Fix classmethod-style super() method calls (i.e., where the second argument to super(), or the implied second argument drawn from self/cls in the case of zero-arg super, is a type) when the target of the call is not a classmethod.

gh-105699 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105699]: Python no longer crashes due an infrequent race when initializing per-interpreter interned strings. The crash would manifest when the interpreter was finalized.

gh-105699 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105699]: Python no longer crashes due to an infrequent race in setting Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding and Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors (both deprecated), when simultaneously initializing two isolated subinterpreters. Now they are only set during runtime initialization.

gh-106908 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106908]: Fix various hangs, reference leaks, test failures, and tracing/introspection bugs when running with PYTHONUOPS or -X uops enabled.

gh-106092 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106092]: Fix a segmentation fault caused by a use-after-free bug in frame_dealloc when the trashcan delays the deallocation of a PyFrameObject.

gh-106485 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106485]: Reduce the number of materialized instances dictionaries by dematerializing them when possible.

gh-106719 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106719]: No longer suppress arbitrary errors in the __annotations__ getter and setter in the type and module types.

gh-106723 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106723]: Propagate frozen_modules to multiprocessing spawned process interpreters.

gh-104909 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104909]: Split LOAD_ATTR_INSTANCE_VALUE into micro-ops.

gh-104909 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104909]: Split LOAD_GLOBAL specializations into micro-ops.

gh-106597 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106597]: A new debug structure of offsets has been added to the _PyRuntimeState that will help out-of-process debuggers and profilers to obtain the offsets to relevant interpreter structures in a way that is agnostic of how Python was compiled and that doesn't require copying the headers. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-106487 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106487]: Allow the count argument of str.replace() to be a keyword. Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

gh-96844 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96844]: Improve error message of list.remove(). Patch by Donghee Na.

gh-81283 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81283]: Compiler now strips indents from docstrings. It reduces pyc file size 5% when the module is heavily documented. This change affects to __doc__ so tools like doctest will be affected.

gh-106396 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106396]: When the format specification of an f-string expression is empty, the parser now generates an empty ast.JoinedStr node for it instead of an one-element ast.JoinedStr with an empty string ast.Constant.

gh-100288 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100288]: Specialize LOAD_ATTR for non-descriptors on the class. Adds LOAD_ATTR_NONDESCRIPTOR_WITH_VALUES and LOAD_ATTR_NONDESCRIPTOR_NO_DICT.

gh-106008 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106008]: Fix possible reference leaks when failing to optimize comparisons with None in the bytecode compiler.

gh-106145 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106145]: Make end_lineno and end_col_offset required on type_param ast nodes.

gh-106213 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106213]: Changed the way that Emscripten call trampolines work for compatibility with Wasm/JS Promise integration.

gh-106182 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106182]: sys.getfilesystemencoding() and sys.getfilesystemencodeerrors now return interned Unicode object.

gh-106210 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106210]: Removed Emscripten import trampoline as it was no longer necessary for Pyodide.

gh-104584 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104584]: Added a new, experimental, tracing optimizer and interpreter (a.k.a. "tier 2"). This currently pessimizes, so don't use yet -- this is infrastructure so we can experiment with optimizing passes. To enable it, pass -Xuops or set PYTHONUOPS=1. To get debug output, set PYTHONUOPSDEBUG=N where N is a debug level (0-4, where 0 is no debug output and 4 is excessively verbose).

gh-105775 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105775]: LOAD_CLOSURE is now a pseudo-op.

gh-105730 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105730]: Allow any callable other than type objects as the condition predicate in BaseExceptionGroup.split() and BaseExceptionGroup.subgroup().

gh-105979 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105979]: Fix crash in _imp.get_frozen_object() due to improper exception handling.

gh-106003 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106003]: Add a new TO_BOOL instruction, which performs boolean conversions for POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE, POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE, and UNARY_NOT (which all expect exact bool values now). Also, modify the oparg of COMPARE_OP to include an optional "boolean conversion" flag.

gh-98931 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98931]: Ensure custom SyntaxError error messages are raised for invalid imports with multiple targets. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-105724 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105724]: Improve assert error messages by providing exact error range.

gh-105908 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105908]: Fixed bug where gh-99111 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99111] breaks future import barry_as_FLUFL in the Python REPL.

gh-105840 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105840]: Fix possible crashes when specializing function calls with too many __defaults__.

gh-105831 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105831]: Fix an f-string bug, where using a debug expression (the = sign) that appears in the last line of a file results to the debug buffer that holds the expression text being one character too small.

gh-105800 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105800]: Correctly issue SyntaxWarning in f-strings if invalid sequences are used. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-105340 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105340]: Include the comprehension iteration variable in locals() inside a module- or class-scope comprehension.

gh-105331 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105331]: Raise ValueError if the delay argument to asyncio.sleep() is a NaN (matching time.sleep()).

gh-105587 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105587]: The runtime can't guarantee that immortal objects will not be mutated by Extensions. Thus, this modifies _PyStaticObject_CheckRefcnt to warn instead of asserting.

gh-105564 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105564]: Don't include artificil newlines in the line attribute of tokens in the APIs of the tokenize module. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-105549 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105549]: Tokenize separately NUMBER and NAME tokens that are not ambiguous. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

gh-105588 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105588]: Fix an issue that could result in crashes when compiling malformed ast nodes.

gh-100987 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100987]: Allow objects other than code objects as the "executable" in internal frames. In the long term, this can help tools like Cython and PySpy interact more efficiently. In the shorter term, it allows us to perform some optimizations more simply.

gh-105375 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375]: Fix bugs in the builtins module where exceptions could end up being overwritten.

gh-105375 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375]: Fix bug in the compiler where an exception could end up being overwritten.

gh-105375 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375]: Improve error handling in PyUnicode_BuildEncodingMap() where an exception could end up being overwritten.

gh-105486 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105486]: Change the repr of ParamSpec list of args in types.GenericAlias.

gh-105678 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105678]: Break the MAKE_FUNCTION instruction into two parts, MAKE_FUNCTION which makes the function and SET_FUNCTION_ATTRIBUTE which sets the attributes on the function. This makes the stack effect of MAKE_FUNCTION regular to ease optimization and code generation.

gh-105435 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105435]: Fix spurious newline character if file ends on a comment without a newline. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-105390 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105390]: Correctly raise tokenize.TokenError exceptions instead of SyntaxError for tokenize errors such as incomplete input. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-105259 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105259]: Don't include newline character for trailing NEWLINE tokens emitted in the tokenize module. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-104635 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104635]: Eliminate redundant STORE_FAST instructions in the compiler. Patch by Donghee Na and Carl Meyer.

gh-105324 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105324]: Fix the main function of the tokenize module when reading from sys.stdin. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-33092 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/33092]: Simplify and speed up interpreter for f-strings. Removes FORMAT_VALUE opcode. Add CONVERT_VALUE, FORMAT_SIMPLE and FORMAT_WITH_SPEC opcode. Compiler emits more efficient sequence for each format expression.

gh-105229 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105229]: Remove remaining two-codeunit superinstructions. All remaining superinstructions only take a single codeunit, simplifying instrumentation and quickening.

gh-105235 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105235]: Prevent out-of-bounds memory access during mmap.find() calls.

gh-98963 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98963]: Restore the ability for a subclass of property to define __slots__ or otherwise be dict-less by ignoring failures to set a docstring on such a class. This behavior had regressed in 3.12beta1. An AttributeError where there had not previously been one was disruptive to existing code.

gh-104812 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104812]: The "pending call" machinery now works for all interpreters, not just the main interpreter, and runs in all threads, not just the main thread. Some calls are still only done in the main thread, ergo in the main interpreter. This change does not affect signal handling nor the existing public C-API (Py_AddPendingCall()), which both still only target the main thread. The new functionality is meant strictly for internal use for now, since consequences of its use are not well understood yet outside some very restricted cases. This change brings the capability in line with the intention when the state was made per-interpreter several years ago.

gh-105194 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105194]: Do not escape with backslashes f-string format specifiers. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-105229 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105229]: Replace some dynamic superinstructions with single instruction equivalents.

gh-105162 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105162]: Fixed bug in generator.close()/throw() where an inner iterator would be ignored when the outer iterator was instrumented.

gh-105164 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105164]: Ensure annotations are set up correctly if the only annotation in a block is within a match block. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

gh-105148 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105148]: Make _PyASTOptimizeState internal to ast_opt.c. Make _PyAST_Optimize take two integers instead of a pointer to this struct. This avoids the need to include pycore_compile.h in ast_opt.c.

gh-104799 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104799]: Attributes of ast nodes that are lists now default to the empty list if omitted. This means that some code that previously raised TypeError when the AST node was used will now proceed with the empty list instead. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

gh-105111 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105111]: Remove the old trashcan macros Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN and Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END. They should be replaced by the new macros Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN and Py_TRASHCAN_END.

gh-105035 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105035]: Fix super() calls on types with custom tp_getattro implementation (e.g. meta-types.)

gh-105017 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105017]: Show CRLF lines in the tokenize string attribute in both NL and NEWLINE tokens. Patch by Marta Gómez.

gh-105013 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105013]: Fix handling of multiline parenthesized lambdas in inspect.getsource(). Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-105017 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105017]: Do not include an additional final NL token when parsing files having CRLF lines. Patch by Marta Gómez.

gh-104976 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104976]: Ensure that trailing DEDENT tokenize.TokenInfo objects emitted by the tokenize module are reported as in Python 3.11. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-104972 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104972]: Ensure that the line attribute in tokenize.TokenInfo objects in the tokenize module are always correct. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-104955 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104955]: Fix signature for the new __release_buffer__() slot. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

gh-104690 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104690]: Starting new threads and process creation through os.fork() during interpreter shutdown (such as from atexit handlers) is no longer supported. It can lead to race condition between the main Python runtime thread freeing thread states while internal threading routines are trying to allocate and use the state of just created threads. Or forked children trying to use the mid-shutdown runtime and thread state in the child process.

gh-104879 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104879]: Fix crash when accessing the __module__ attribute of type aliases defined outside a module. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

gh-104825 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104825]: Tokens emitted by the tokenize module do not include an implicit \n character in the line attribute anymore. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-104770 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104770]: If a generator returns a value upon being closed, the value is now returned by generator.close().

gh-89091 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89091]: Raise RuntimeWarning for unawaited async generator methods like asend(), athrow() and aclose(). Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-96663 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96663]: Add a better, more introspect-able error message when setting attributes on classes without a __dict__ and no slot member for the attribute.

gh-93627 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93627]: Update the Python pickle module implementation to match the C implementation of the pickle module. For objects setting reduction methods like __reduce_ex__() or __reduce__() to None, pickling will result in a TypeError.

gh-101006 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101006]: Improve error handling when read marshal data.

gh-91095 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91095]: Specializes calls to most Python classes. Specifically, any class that inherits from object, or another Python class, and does not override __new__.

The specialized instruction does the following:

Creates the object (by calling object.__new__)

Pushes a shim frame to the frame stack (to cleanup after __init__)

Pushes the frame for __init__ to the frame stack

Speeds up the instantiation of most Python classes.

Library

gh-110786 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110786]: sysconfig's CLI now ignores BrokenPipeError, making it exit normally if its output is being piped and the pipe closes.

gh-103480 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103480]: The sysconfig module is now a package, instead of a single-file module.

gh-110733 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110733]: Micro-optimization: Avoid calling min(), max() in BaseEventLoop._run_once().

gh-94597 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597]: Added asyncio.EventLoop for use with the asyncio.run() loop_factory kwarg to avoid calling the asyncio policy system.

gh-110682 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110682]: runtime-checkable protocols used to consider __match_args__ a protocol member in __instancecheck__ if it was present on the protocol. Now, this attribute is ignored if it is present.

gh-110488 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110488]: Fix a couple of issues in pathlib.PurePath.with_name(): a single dot was incorrectly considered a valid name, and in PureWindowsPath, a name with an NTFS alternate data stream, like a:b, was incorrectly considered invalid.

gh-110590 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110590]: Fix a bug in _sre.compile() where TypeError would be overwritten by OverflowError when the code argument was a list of non-ints.

gh-65052 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65052]: Prevent pdb from crashing when trying to display undisplayable objects

gh-110519 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110519]: Deprecation warning about non-integer number in gettext now always refers to the line in the user code where gettext function or method is used. Previously it could refer to a line in gettext code.

gh-89902 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89902]: Deprecate non-standard format specifier "N" for decimal.Decimal. It was not documented and only supported in the C implementation.

gh-110378 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110378]: contextmanager() and asynccontextmanager() context managers now close an invalid underlying generator object that yields more then one value.

gh-106670 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106670]: In pdb, set convenience variable $_exception for post mortem debugging.

gh-110365 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110365]: Fix termios.tcsetattr() bug that was overwriting existing errors during parsing integers from term list.

gh-109653 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109653]: Slightly improve the import time of several standard-library modules by deferring imports of warnings within those modules. Patch by Alex Waygood.

gh-110273 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110273]: dataclasses.replace() now raises TypeError instead of ValueError if specify keyword argument for a field declared with init=False or miss keyword argument for required InitVar field.

gh-110249 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110249]: Add --inline-caches flag to dis command line.

gh-109653 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109653]: Fix a Python 3.12 regression in the import time of random. Patch by Alex Waygood.

gh-110222 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110222]: Add support of struct sequence objects in copy.replace(). Patched by Xuehai Pan.

gh-109649 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109649]: multiprocessing, concurrent.futures, compileall: Replace os.cpu_count() with os.process_cpu_count() to select the default number of worker threads and processes. Get the CPU affinity if supported. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-110150 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110150]: Fix base case handling in statistics.quantiles. Now allows a single data point.

gh-110036 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110036]: On Windows, multiprocessing Popen.terminate() now catches PermissionError and get the process exit code. If the process is still running, raise again the PermissionError. Otherwise, the process terminated as expected: store its exit code. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-110038 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110038]: Fixed an issue that caused KqueueSelector.select() to not return all the ready events in some cases when a file descriptor is registered for both read and write.

gh-110045 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110045]: Update the symtable module to support the new scopes introduced by PEP 695 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/].

gh-88402 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88402]: Add new variables to sysconfig.get_config_vars() on Windows: LIBRARY, LDLIBRARY, LIBDIR, SOABI, and Py_NOGIL.

gh-109631 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109631]: re functions such as re.findall(), re.split(), re.search() and re.sub() which perform short repeated matches can now be interrupted by user.

gh-109653 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109653]: Reduce the import time of email.utils by around 43%. This results in the import time of email.message falling by around 18%, which in turn reduces the import time of importlib.metadata by around 6%. Patch by Alex Waygood.

gh-109818 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109818]: Fix reprlib.recursive_repr() not copying __type_params__ from decorated function.

gh-109047 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109047]: concurrent.futures: The executor manager thread now catches exceptions when adding an item to the call queue. During Python finalization, creating a new thread can now raise RuntimeError. Catch the exception and call terminate_broken() in this case. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-109782 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109782]: Ensure the signature of os.path.isdir() is identical on all platforms. Patch by Amin Alaee.

gh-109653 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109653]: Improve import time of functools by around 13%. Patch by Alex Waygood.

gh-109590 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109590]: shutil.which() will prefer files with an extension in PATHEXT if the given mode includes os.X_OK on win32. If no PATHEXT match is found, a file without an extension in PATHEXT can be returned. This change will have shutil.which() act more similarly to previous behavior in Python 3.11.

gh-109653 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109653]: Reduce the import time of enum by over 50%. Patch by Alex Waygood.

gh-109593 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109593]: Avoid deadlocking on a reentrant call to the multiprocessing resource tracker. Such a reentrant call, though unlikely, can happen if a GC pass invokes the finalizer for a multiprocessing object such as SemLock.

gh-109653 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109653]: Reduce the import time of typing by around a third. Patch by Alex Waygood.

gh-109649 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109649]: Add os.process_cpu_count() function to get the number of logical CPUs usable by the calling thread of the current process. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-74481 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74481]: Add set_error_mode related constants in msvcrt module in Python debug build.

gh-109613 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109613]: Fix os.stat() and os.DirEntry.stat(): check for exceptions. Previously, on Python built in debug mode, these functions could trigger a fatal Python error (and abort the process) when a function succeeded with an exception set. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-109599 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109599]: Expose the type of PyCapsule objects as types.CapsuleType.

gh-109109 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109109]: You can now get the raw TLS certificate chains from TLS connections via ssl.SSLSocket.get_verified_chain() and ssl.SSLSocket.get_unverified_chain() methods.

Contributed by Mateusz Nowak.

gh-109559 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109559]: Update unicodedata database to Unicode 15.1.0.

gh-109543 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109543]: Remove unnecessary hasattr() check during typing.TypedDict creation.

gh-109495 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109495]: Remove unnecessary extra __slots__ in datetime's pure python implementation to reduce memory size, as they are defined in the superclass. Patch by James Hilton-Balfe

gh-109461 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109461]: logging: Use a context manager for lock acquisition.

gh-109096 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109096]: http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler has been deprecated for removal in 3.15. Its design is old and the web world has long since moved beyond CGI.

gh-109409 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109409]: Fix error when it was possible to inherit a frozen dataclass from multiple parents some of which were possibly not frozen.

gh-109375 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109375]: The pdb alias command now prevents registering aliases without arguments.

gh-109319 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109319]: Deprecate the dis.HAVE_ARGUMENT field in favour of dis.hasarg.

gh-107219 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107219]: Fix a race condition in concurrent.futures. When a process in the process pool was terminated abruptly (while the future was running or pending), close the connection write end. If the call queue is blocked on sending bytes to a worker process, closing the connection write end interrupts the send, so the queue can be closed. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-66143 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66143]: The codecs.CodecInfo object has been made copyable and pickleable. Patched by Robert Lehmann and Furkan Onder.

gh-109187 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109187]: pathlib.Path.resolve() now treats symlink loops like other errors: in strict mode, OSError is raised, and in non-strict mode, no exception is raised.

gh-50644 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50644]: Attempts to pickle or create a shallow or deep copy of codecs streams now raise a TypeError. Previously, copying failed with a RecursionError, while pickling produced wrong results that eventually caused unpickling to fail with a RecursionError.

gh-109174 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109174]: Add support of types.SimpleNamespace in copy.replace().

gh-109164 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109164]: pdb: Replace getopt with argparse for parsing command line arguments.

gh-109151 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109151]: Enable readline editing features in the sqlite3 command-line interface (python -m sqlite3).

gh-108987 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108987]: Fix _thread.start_new_thread() race condition. If a thread is created during Python finalization, the newly spawned thread now exits immediately instead of trying to access freed memory and lead to a crash. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-108682 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108682]: Enum: require names=() or type=... to create an empty enum using the functional syntax.

gh-109033 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109033]: Exceptions raised by os.utime builtin function now include the related filename

gh-108843 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108843]: Fix an issue in ast.unparse() when unparsing f-strings containing many quote types.

gh-108469 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108469]: ast.unparse() now supports new f-string syntax introduced in Python 3.12. Note that the f-string quotes are reselected for simplicity under the new syntax. (Patch by Steven Sun)

gh-108751 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108751]: Add copy.replace() function which allows to create a modified copy of an object. It supports named tuples, dataclasses, and many other objects.

gh-108682 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108682]: Enum: raise TypeError if super().__new__() is called from a custom __new__.

gh-108278 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108278]: Deprecate passing the callback callable by keyword for the following sqlite3.Connection APIs:

set_authorizer()

set_progress_handler()

set_trace_callback()

The affected parameters will become positional-only in Python 3.15.

Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

gh-105829 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105829]: Fix concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor deadlock

gh-108295 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108295]: Fix crashes related to use of weakrefs on typing.TypeVar.

gh-108463 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108463]: Make expressions/statements work as expected in pdb

gh-108277 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108277]: Add os.timerfd_create(), os.timerfd_settime(), os.timerfd_gettime(), os.timerfd_settime_ns(), and os.timerfd_gettime_ns() to provide a low level interface for Linux's timer notification file descriptor.

gh-107811 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107811]: tarfile: extraction of members with overly large UID or GID (e.g. on an OS with 32-bit id_t) now fails in the same way as failing to set the ID.

gh-64662 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/64662]: Fix support for virtual tables in sqlite3.Connection.iterdump(). Patch by Aviv Palivoda.

gh-108111 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108111]: Fix a regression introduced in gh-101251 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101251] for 3.12, resulting in an incorrect offset calculation in gzip.GzipFile.seek().

gh-108294 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108294]: time.sleep() now raises an auditing event.

gh-108278 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108278]: Deprecate passing name, number of arguments, and the callable as keyword arguments, for the following sqlite3.Connection APIs:

create_function()

create_aggregate()

The affected parameters will become positional-only in Python 3.15.

Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

gh-108322 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108322]: Speed-up NormalDist.samples() by using the inverse CDF method instead of calling random.gauss().

gh-83417 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83417]: Add the ability for venv to create a .gitignore file which causes the created environment to be ignored by Git. It is on by default when venv is called via its CLI.

gh-105736 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105736]: Harmonized the pure Python version of OrderedDict with the C version. Now, both versions set up their internal state in __new__. Formerly, the pure Python version did the set up in __init__.

gh-108083 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108083]: Fix bugs in the constructor of sqlite3.Connection and sqlite3.Connection.close() where exceptions could be leaked. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

gh-107932 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107932]: Fix dis module to properly report and display bytecode that do not have source lines.

gh-105539 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105539]: sqlite3 now emits an ResourceWarning if a sqlite3.Connection object is not closed explicitly. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

gh-107995 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107995]: The __module__ attribute on instances of functools.cached_property is now set to the name of the module in which the cached_property is defined, rather than "functools". This means that doctests in cached_property docstrings are now properly collected by the doctest module. Patch by Tyler Smart.

gh-107963 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107963]: Fix multiprocessing.set_forkserver_preload() to check the given list of modules names. Patch by Donghee Na.

gh-106242 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106242]: Fixes os.path.normpath() to handle embedded null characters without truncating the path.

gh-81555 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81555]: xml.dom.minidom now only quotes " in attributes.

gh-50002 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50002]: xml.dom.minidom now preserves whitespaces in attributes.

gh-93057 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93057]: Passing more than one positional argument to sqlite3.connect() and the sqlite3.Connection constructor is deprecated. The remaining parameters will become keyword-only in Python 3.15. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

gh-76913 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/76913]: Add merge_extra parameter/feature to logging.LoggerAdapter

gh-107913 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107913]: Fix possible losses of errno and winerror values in OSError exceptions if they were cleared or modified by the cleanup code before creating the exception object.

gh-107845 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107845]: tarfile.data_filter() now takes the location of symlinks into account when determining their target, so it will no longer reject some valid tarballs with LinkOutsideDestinationError.

gh-107812 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107812]: Extend socket's netlink support to the FreeBSD platform.

gh-107805 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107805]: Fix signatures of module-level generated functions in turtle.

gh-107782 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107782]: pydoc is now able to show signatures which are not representable in Python, e.g. for getattr and dict.pop.

gh-56166 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/56166]: Deprecate passing optional arguments maxsplit, count and flags in module-level functions re.split(), re.sub() and re.subn() as positional. They should only be passed by keyword.

gh-107710 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107710]: Speed up logging.getHandlerNames().

gh-107715 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107715]: Fix doctest.DocTestFinder.find() in presence of class names with special characters. Patch by Gertjan van Zwieten.

gh-100814 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100814]: Passing a callable object as an option value to a Tkinter image now raises the expected TclError instead of an AttributeError.

gh-72684 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72684]: Add tkinter widget methods: tk_busy_hold(), tk_busy_configure(), tk_busy_cget(), tk_busy_forget(), tk_busy_current(), and tk_busy_status().

gh-106684 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106684]: Raise ResourceWarning when asyncio.StreamWriter is not closed leading to memory leaks. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-107465 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107465]: Add pathlib.Path.from_uri() classmethod.

gh-107077 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107077]: Seems that in some conditions, OpenSSL will return SSL_ERROR_SYSCALL instead of SSL_ERROR_SSL when a certification verification has failed, but the error parameters will still contain ERR_LIB_SSL and SSL_R_CERTIFICATE_VERIFY_FAILED. We are now detecting this situation and raising the appropriate ssl.SSLCertVerificationError. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-107576 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107576]: Fix types.get_original_bases() to only return __orig_bases__ if it is present on cls directly. Patch by James Hilton-Balfe.

gh-105481 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105481]: Remove opcode.is_pseudo, opcode.MIN_PSEUDO_OPCODE and opcode.MAX_PSEUDO_OPCODE, which were added in 3.12, were never documented and were not intended to be used externally.

gh-105481 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105481]: opcode.ENABLE_SPECIALIZATION (which was added in 3.12 but never documented or intended for external usage) is moved to _opcode.ENABLE_SPECIALIZATION where tests can access it.

gh-107396 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107396]: tarfiles; Fixed use before assignment of self.exception for gzip decompression

gh-107409 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107409]: Set __wrapped__ attribute in reprlib.recursive_repr().

gh-107406 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107406]: Implement new __repr__() method for struct.Struct. Now it returns Struct(<format repr>).

gh-107369 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107369]: Optimize textwrap.indent(). It is ~30% faster for large input. Patch by Inada Naoki.

gh-78722 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78722]: Fix issue where pathlib.Path.iterdir() did not raise OSError until iterated.

gh-105578 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105578]: Deprecate typing.AnyStr in favor of the new Type Parameter syntax. See PEP 695.

gh-62519 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/62519]: Make gettext.pgettext() search plural definitions when translation is not found.

gh-107089 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107089]: Shelves opened with shelve.open() have a much faster clear() method. Patch by James Cave.

gh-82500 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82500]: Fix overflow on 32-bit systems with asyncio os.sendfile() implementation.

gh-83006 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83006]: Document behavior of shutil.disk_usage() for non-mounted filesystems on Unix.

gh-65495 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65495]: Use lowercase mail from and rcpt to in smptlib.SMTP.

gh-106186 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106186]: Do not report MultipartInvariantViolationDefect defect when the email.parser.Parser class is used to parse emails with headersonly=True.

gh-105002 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105002]: Fix invalid result from PurePath.relative_to() method when attempting to walk a ".." segment in other with walk_up enabled. A ValueError exception is now raised in this case.

gh-106739 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106739]: Add the rtype_cache to the warning message (as an addition to the type of leaked objects and the number of leaked objects already included in the message) to make debugging leaked objects easier when the multiprocessing resource tracker process finds leaked objects at shutdown. This helps more quickly identify what was leaked and/or why the leaked object was not properly cleaned up.

gh-106751 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106751]: Optimize SelectSelector.select() for many iteration case. Patch By Donghee Na.

gh-106751 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106751]: Optimize _PollLikeSelector.select() for many iteration case.

gh-106751 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106751]: Optimize KqueueSelector.select() for many iteration case. Patch By Donghee Na.

gh-106831 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106831]: Fix potential missing NULL check of d2i_SSL_SESSION result in _ssl.c.

gh-105481 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105481]: The various opcode lists in the dis module are now generated from bytecodes.c instead of explicitly constructed in opcode.py.

gh-106727 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106727]: Make inspect.getsource() smarter for class for same name definitions

gh-106789 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106789]: Remove import of pprint from sysconfig.

gh-105726 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105726]: Added __slots__ to contextlib.AbstractContextManager and contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager so that child classes can use __slots__.

gh-106774 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106774]: Update the bundled copy of pip to version 23.2.1.

gh-106751 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106751]: selectors: Optimize EpollSelector.select() code by moving some code outside of the loop.

gh-106752 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106752]: Fixed several bugs in zipfile.Path, including: in zipfile.Path.match(), Windows separators are no longer honored (and never were meant to be); Fixed name/suffix/suffixes/stem operations when no filename is present and the Path is not at the root of the zipfile; Reworked glob for performance and more correct matching behavior.

gh-105293 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105293]: Remove call to SSL_CTX_set_session_id_context during client side context creation in the ssl module.

gh-106734 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106734]: Disable tab completion in multiline mode of pdb

gh-105481 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105481]: Expose opcode metadata through _opcode.

gh-106670 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106670]: Add the new exceptions command to the Pdb debugger. It makes it possible to move between chained exceptions when using post mortem debugging.

gh-106602 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106602]: Add __copy__ and __deepcopy__ in enum

gh-106664 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106664]: selectors: Add _SelectorMapping.get() method and optimize _SelectorMapping.__getitem__().

gh-106628 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106628]: Speed up parsing of emails by about 20% by not compiling a new regular expression for every single email.

gh-89427 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89427]: Set the environment variable VIRTUAL_ENV_PROMPT at venv activation, even when VIRTUAL_ENV_DISABLE_PROMPT is set.

gh-106530 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106530]: Revert a change to colorsys.rgb_to_hls() that caused division by zero for certain almost-white inputs. Patch by Terry Jan Reedy.

gh-106584 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106584]: Fix exit code for unittest if all tests are skipped. Patch by Egor Eliseev.

gh-106566 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106566]: Optimize (?!) (pattern which always fails) in regular expressions.

gh-106554 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106554]: selectors: Reduce Selector overhead by using a dict.get() to lookup file descriptors.

gh-106558 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106558]: Remove ref cycle in callers of convert_to_error() by deleting result from scope in a finally block.

gh-100502 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100502]: Add pathlib.PurePath.pathmod class attribute that stores the implementation of os.path used for low-level path operations: either posixpath or ntpath.

gh-106527 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106527]: Reduce overhead to add and remove asyncio readers and writers.

gh-106524 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106524]: Fix crash in _sre.template() with templates containing invalid group indices.

gh-106531 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106531]: Removed _legacy and the names it provided from importlib.resources: Resource, contents, is_resource, open_binary, open_text, path, read_binary, and read_text.

gh-106052 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106052]: re module: fix the matching of possessive quantifiers in the case of a subpattern containing backtracking.

gh-106510 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106510]: Improve debug output for atomic groups in regular expressions.

gh-106503 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106503]: Fix ref cycle in asyncio._SelectorSocketTransport by removing _write_ready in close.

gh-105497 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105497]: Fix flag mask inversion when unnamed flags exist.

gh-90876 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90876]: Prevent multiprocessing.spawn from failing to import in environments where sys.executable is None. This regressed in 3.11 with the addition of support for path-like objects in multiprocessing.

gh-106403 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106403]: Instances of typing.TypeVar, typing.ParamSpec, typing.ParamSpecArgs, typing.ParamSpecKwargs, and typing.TypeVarTuple once again support weak references, fixing a regression introduced in Python 3.12.0 beta 1. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

gh-89812 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89812]: Add private pathlib._PathBase class, which provides experimental support for virtual filesystems, and may be made public in a future version of Python.

gh-106292 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106292]: Check for an instance-dict cached value in the __get__() method of functools.cached_property(). This better matches the pre-3.12 behavior and improves compatibility for users subclassing functools.cached_property() and adding a __set__() method.

gh-106350 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106350]: Detect possible memory allocation failure in the libtommath function mp_init() used by the _tkinter module.

gh-106330 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106330]: Fix incorrect matching of empty paths in pathlib.PurePath.match(). This bug was introduced in Python 3.12.0 beta 1.

gh-106309 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106309]: Deprecate typing.no_type_check_decorator(). No major type checker ever added support for this decorator. Patch by Alex Waygood.

gh-102541 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102541]: Make pydoc.doc() catch bad module ImportError when output stream is not None.

gh-106263 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106263]: Fix crash when calling repr with a manually constructed SignalDict object. Patch by Charlie Zhao.

gh-106236 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106236]: Replace assert statements with raise RuntimeError in threading, so that _DummyThread cannot be joined even with -OO.

gh-106238 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106238]: Fix rare concurrency bug in lock acquisition by the logging package.

gh-106152 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106152]: Added PY_THROW event hook for cProfile for generators

gh-106075 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106075]: Added asyncio.taskgroups.__all__ to asyncio.__all__ for export in star imports.

gh-104527 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104527]: Zipapp will now skip over appending an archive to itself.

gh-106046 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106046]: Improve the error message from os.fspath() if called on an object where __fspath__ is set to None. Patch by Alex Waygood.

gh-105987 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105987]: Fix crash due to improper reference counting in asyncio eager task factory internal routines.

gh-105974 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105974]: Fix bug where a typing.Protocol class that had one or more non-callable members would raise TypeError when issubclass() was called against it, even if it defined a custom __subclasshook__ method. The behaviour in Python 3.11 and lower -- which has now been restored -- was not to raise TypeError in these situations if a custom __subclasshook__ method was defined. Patch by Alex Waygood.

gh-96145 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96145]: Reverted addition of json.AttrDict.

gh-89812 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89812]: Add pathlib.UnsupportedOperation, which is raised instead of NotImplementedError when a path operation isn't supported.

gh-105808 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105808]: Fix a regression introduced in gh-101251 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101251] for 3.12, causing gzip.GzipFile.flush() to not flush the compressor (nor pass along the zip_mode argument).

gh-105481 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105481]: stack_effect() no longer raises an exception if an oparg is provided for an opcode that doesn't use its arg, or when it is not provided for an opcode that does use it. In the latter case, the stack effect is returned for oparg=0.

gh-104799 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104799]: Enable ast.unparse() to unparse function and class definitions created without the new type_params field from PEP 695 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/]. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

gh-105793 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105793]: Add follow_symlinks keyword-only argument to pathlib.Path.is_dir() and is_file(), defaulting to True.

gh-105570 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105570]: Deprecate two methods of creating typing.TypedDict classes with 0 fields using the functional syntax: TD = TypedDict("TD") and TD = TypedDict("TD", None). Both will be disallowed in Python 3.15. To create a TypedDict class with 0 fields, either use class TD(TypedDict): pass or TD = TypedDict("TD", {}).

gh-105745 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105745]: Fix webbrowser.Konqueror.open method.

gh-105733 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105733]: ctypes: Deprecate undocumented ctypes.SetPointerType() and ctypes.ARRAY() functions. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-105687 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105687]: Remove deprecated re.template, re.T, re.TEMPLATE, sre_constans.SRE_FLAG_TEMPLATE.

gh-105684 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105684]: Supporting asyncio.Task.set_name() is now mandatory for third party task implementations. The undocumented _set_task_name() function (deprecated since 3.8) has been removed. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-105375 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375]: Fix a bug in _Unpickler_SetInputStream() where an exception could end up being overwritten in case of failure.

gh-105626 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105626]: Change the default return value of http.client.HTTPConnection.get_proxy_response_headers() to be None and not {}.

gh-105375 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375]: Fix bugs in sys where exceptions could end up being overwritten because of deferred error handling.

gh-105605 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105605]: Harden pyexpat error handling during module initialisation to prevent exceptions from possibly being overwritten, and objects from being dereferenced twice.

gh-105375 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375]: Fix bug in decimal where an exception could end up being overwritten.

gh-105375 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375]: Fix bugs in _datetime where exceptions could be overwritten in case of module initialisation failure.

gh-105375 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375]: Fix bugs in _ssl initialisation which could lead to leaked references and overwritten exceptions.

gh-105375 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375]: Fix a bug in array.array where an exception could end up being overwritten.

gh-105375 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375]: Fix bugs in _ctypes where exceptions could end up being overwritten.

gh-105375 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375]: Fix a bug in the posix module where an exception could be overwritten.

gh-105375 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375]: Fix bugs in _elementtree where exceptions could be overwritten.

gh-105375 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375]: Fix bugs in zoneinfo where exceptions could be overwritten.

gh-105375 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375]: Fix bugs in errno where exceptions could be overwritten.

gh-105566 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105566]: Deprecate creating a typing.NamedTuple class using keyword arguments to denote the fields (NT = NamedTuple("NT", x=int, y=str)). This will be disallowed in Python 3.15. Use the class-based syntax or the functional syntax instead.

Two methods of creating NamedTuple classes with 0 fields using the functional syntax are also deprecated, and will be disallowed in Python 3.15: NT = NamedTuple("NT") and NT = NamedTuple("NT", None). To create a NamedTuple class with 0 fields, either use class NT(NamedTuple): pass or NT = NamedTuple("NT", []).

gh-105545 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105545]: Remove deprecated in 3.11 webbrowser.MacOSXOSAScript._name attribute.

gh-105497 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105497]: Fix flag inversion when alias/mask members exist.

gh-105509 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105509]: typing.Annotated is now implemented as an instance of typing._SpecialForm rather than a class. This should have no user-facing impact for users of the typing module public API.

gh-105375 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375]: Fix bugs in pickle where exceptions could be overwritten.

gh-70303 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70303]: Emit FutureWarning from pathlib.Path.glob() and rglob() if the given pattern ends with "**". In a future Python release, patterns with this ending will match both files and directories. Add a trailing slash to only match directories.

gh-105375 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375]: Fix a bug in sqlite3 where an exception could be overwritten in the collation callback.

gh-105382 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105382]: Remove cafile, capath and cadefault parameters of the urllib.request.urlopen() function, deprecated in Python 3.6. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-105376 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105376]: logging: Remove undocumented and untested Logger.warn() and LoggerAdapter.warn() methods and logging.warn() function. Deprecated since Python 3.3, they were aliases to the logging.Logger.warning() method, logging.LoggerAdapter.warning() method and logging.warning() function. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-105332 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105332]: Revert pickling method from by-name back to by-value.

gh-104554 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104554]: Add RTSPS scheme support in urllib.parse

gh-105292 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105292]: Add option to traceback.format_exception_only() to recurse into the nested exception of a BaseExceptionGroup.

gh-105280 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105280]: Fix bug where isinstance([], collections.abc.Mapping) could evaluate to True if garbage collection happened at the wrong time. The bug was caused by changes to the implementation of typing.Protocol in Python 3.12.

gh-80480 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80480]: array: Add 'w' typecode that represents Py_UCS4.

gh-105239 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105239]: Fix longstanding bug where issubclass(object, typing.Protocol) would evaluate to True in some edge cases. Patch by Alex Waygood.

gh-104310 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104310]: In the beta 1 release we added a utility function for extension module authors, to use when testing their module for support in multiple interpreters or under a per-interpreter GIL. The name of that function has changed from allowing_all_extensions to _incompatible_extension_module_restrictions. The default for the "disable_check" argument has change from True to False, to better match the new function name.

gh-105080 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105080]: Fixed inconsistent signature on derived classes for inspect.signature()

gh-105144 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105144]: Fix a recent regression in the typing module. The regression meant that doing class Foo(X, typing.Protocol), where X was a class that had abc.ABCMeta as its metaclass, would then cause subsequent isinstance(1, X) calls to erroneously raise TypeError. Patch by Alex Waygood.

gh-62948 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/62948]: The io.IOBase finalizer now logs the close() method errors with sys.unraisablehook. Previously, errors were ignored silently by default, and only logged in Python Development Mode or on Python built on debug mode. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-105096 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105096]: wave: Deprecate the getmark(), setmark() and getmarkers() methods of the wave.Wave_read and wave.Wave_write classes. They will be removed in Python 3.15. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-104992 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104992]: Remove the untested and undocumented unittest.TestProgram.usageExit() method, deprecated in Python 3.11. Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

gh-104996 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104996]: Improve performance of pathlib.PurePath initialisation by deferring joining of paths when multiple arguments are given.

gh-101588 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101588]: Deprecate undocumented copy/deepcopy/pickle support for itertools.

gh-103631 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103631]: Fix pathlib.PurePosixPath(pathlib.PureWindowsPath(...)) not converting path separators to restore 3.11 compatible behavior.

gh-104947 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104947]: Make comparisons between pathlib.PureWindowsPath objects consistent across Windows and Posix to match 3.11 behavior.

gh-104773 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773]: PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/]: Remove the audioop module, deprecated in Python 3.11. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-104773 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773]: PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/]: Remove the aifc module, deprecated in Python 3.11. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-104773 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773]: PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/]: Remove the uu module, deprecated in Python 3.11. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-104935 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104935]: Fix bugs with the interaction between typing.runtime_checkable() and typing.Generic that were introduced by the PEP 695 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/] implementation. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

gh-104773 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773]: PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/]: Remove the crypt module and its private _crypt extension, deprecated in Python 3.11. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-104773 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773]: PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/]: Remove the nis module, deprecated in Python 3.11. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-104898 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104898]: Add missing __slots__ to os.PathLike.

gh-104773 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773]: PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/]: Remove the xdrlib module, deprecated in Python 3.11. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-104773 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773]: PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/]: Remove the nntplib module, deprecated in Python 3.11. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-104886 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104886]: Remove the undocumented configparser.LegacyInterpolation class, deprecated in the docstring since Python 3.2, and with a deprecation warning since Python 3.11. Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

gh-104786 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104786]: Remove kwargs-based typing.TypedDict creation

gh-104876 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104876]: Remove the turtle.RawTurtle.settiltangle() method, deprecated in docs since Python 3.1 and with a deprecation warning since Python 3.11. Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

gh-104773 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773]: PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/]: Removed the msilib package, deprecated in Python 3.11.

gh-104773 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773]: PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/]: Remove the spwd module, deprecated in Python 3.11: the python-pam [https://pypi.org/project/python-pam/] project can be used instead. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-75552 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75552]: Removed the tkinter.tix module, deprecated since Python 3.6.

gh-104773 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773]: PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/]: Remove the chunk module, deprecated in Python 3.11. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-104773 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773]: PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/]: Remove the mailcap module, deprecated in Python 3.11. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-104773 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773]: PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/]: Remove the sunau module, deprecated in Python 3.11. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-104780 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104780]: PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/]: Remove the ossaudiodev module, deprecated in Python 3.11. Patch Victor Stinner.

gh-104773 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773]: PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/]: Remove the pipes module, deprecated in Python 3.11. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-104873 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104873]: Add typing.get_protocol_members() to return the set of members defining a typing.Protocol. Add typing.is_protocol() to check whether a class is a typing.Protocol. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

gh-104874 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104874]: Document the __name__ and __supertype__ attributes of typing.NewType. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

gh-104835 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104835]: Removed the following unittest functions, deprecated in Python 3.11:

unittest.findTestCases()

unittest.makeSuite()

unittest.getTestCaseNames()

Use TestLoader methods instead:

unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule()

unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromTestCase()

unittest.TestLoader.getTestCaseNames()

Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

gh-104804 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104804]: Remove the untested and undocumented webbrowser MacOSX class, deprecated in Python 3.11. Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

gh-83863 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83863]: Support for using pathlib.Path objects as context managers has been removed. Before Python 3.9, exiting the context manager marked a path as "closed", which caused some (but not all!) methods to raise when called. Since Python 3.9, using a path as a context manager does nothing.

gh-104799 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104799]: Adjust the location of the (see PEP 695 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/]) type_params field on ast.ClassDef, ast.AsyncFunctionDef, and ast.FunctionDef to better preserve backward compatibility. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra

gh-104797 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104797]: Allow typing.Protocol classes to inherit from collections.abc.Buffer. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

gh-104783 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104783]: Remove locale.resetlocale() function deprecated in Python 3.11. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-104780 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104780]: Remove the 2to3 program and the lib2to3 module, deprecated in Python 3.11. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-104773 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773]: PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/]: Remove the telnetlib module, deprecated in Python 3.11. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-104773 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773]: PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/]: Remove the imghdr module, deprecated in Python 3.11. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-104773 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773]: PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/]: Remove the cgi and cgitb modules, deprecated in Python 3.11. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-104773 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773]: PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/]: Remove the sndhdr module, deprecated in Python 3.11. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-104372 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104372]: On Linux where subprocess can use the vfork() syscall for faster spawning, prevent the parent process from blocking other threads by dropping the GIL while it waits for the vfork'ed child process exec() outcome. This prevents spawning a binary from a slow filesystem from blocking the rest of the application.

gh-99108 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108]: We now release the GIL around built-in hashlib computations of reasonable size for the SHA families and MD5 hash functions, matching what our OpenSSL backed hash computations already does.

gh-102613 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102613]: Improve performance of pathlib.Path.glob() when expanding a pattern with a non-terminal "**" component by filtering walked paths through a regular expression, rather than calling os.scandir() more than once on each directory.

gh-104399 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104399]: Prepare the _tkinter module for building with Tcl 9.0 and future libtommath by replacing usage of deprecated functions mp_to_unsigned_bin_n() and mp_unsigned_bin_size() when necessary.

gh-102676 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102676]: Add fields start_offset, cache_offset, end_offset, baseopname, baseopcode, jump_target and oparg to dis.Instruction.

gh-103558 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103558]: Fixed parent argument validation mechanism of argparse. Improved test coverage.

gh-103464 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103464]: Provide helpful usage messages when parsing incorrect pdb commands.

gh-103384 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103384]: Generalize the regex pattern BaseConfigurator.INDEX_PATTERN to allow spaces and non-alphanumeric characters in keys.

gh-103124 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103124]: Added multiline statement support for pdb

gh-101162 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101162]: Forbid using builtins.issubclass() with types.GenericAlias as the first argument.

gh-103200 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103200]: Fix cache repopulation semantics of zipimport.invalidate_caches(). The cache is now repopulated upon retrieving files with an invalid cache, not when the cache is invalidated.

gh-100061 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100061]: Fix a bug that causes wrong matches for regular expressions with possessive qualifier.

gh-77609 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77609]: Add follow_symlinks argument to pathlib.Path.glob() and rglob(), defaulting to false.

gh-102541 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102541]: Hide traceback in help() prompt, when import failed.

gh-102120 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102120]: Added a stream mode to tarfile that allows for reading archives without caching info about the inner files.

gh-102029 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102029]: Deprecate passing any arguments to threading.RLock().

gh-88233 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88233]: Refactored zipfile._strip_extra to use higher level abstractions for extras instead of a heavy-state loop.

gh-102024 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102024]: Reduce calls of _idle_semaphore.release() in concurrent.futures.thread._worker().

gh-73435 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73435]: Add support for recursive wildcards in pathlib.PurePath.match().

gh-84867 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84867]: unittest.TestLoader no longer loads test cases from exact unittest.TestCase and unittest.FunctionTestCase classes.

gh-99203 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99203]: Restore following CPython <= 3.10.5 behavior of shutil.make_archive(): do not create an empty archive if root_dir is not a directory, and, in that case, raise FileNotFoundError or NotADirectoryError regardless of format choice. Beyond the brought-back behavior, the function may now also raise these exceptions in dry_run mode.

gh-80480 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80480]: Emit DeprecationWarning for array's 'u' type code, deprecated in docs since Python 3.3.

gh-94924 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94924]: unittest.mock.create_autospec() now properly returns coroutine functions compatible with inspect.iscoroutinefunction()

gh-94777 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94777]: Fix hanging multiprocessing ProcessPoolExecutor when a child process crashes while data is being written in the call queue.

gh-92871 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92871]: Remove the typing.io and typing.re namespaces, deprecated since Python 3.8. All items are still available from the main typing module.

bpo-43633 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43633]: Improve the textual representation of IPv4-mapped IPv6 addresses (RFC 4291 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4291.html] Sections 2.2, 2.5.5.2) in ipaddress. Patch by Oleksandr Pavliuk.

bpo-44850 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44850]: Improve performance of operator.methodcaller() using the PEP 590 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/] vectorcall convention. Patch by Anthony Lee and Pieter Eendebak.

bpo-44185 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44185]: unittest.mock.mock_open() will call the close() method of the file handle mock when it is exiting from the context manager. Patch by Samet Yaslan.

bpo-40988 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40988]: Improve performance of functools.singledispatchmethod by caching the generated dispatch wrapper. Optimization suggested by frederico. Patch by @mental32, Alex Waygood and Pieter Eendebak.

bpo-41768 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41768]: unittest.mock speccing no longer calls class properties. Patch by Melanie Witt.

bpo-18319 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18319]: Ensure gettext(msg) retrieve translations even if a plural form exists. In other words: gettext(msg) == ngettext(msg, '', 1).

bpo-17013 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17013]: Add ThreadingMock to unittest.mock that can be used to create Mock objects that can wait until they are called. Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan and Mario Corchero.

Documentation

gh-109209 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109209]: The minimum Sphinx version required for the documentation is now 4.2.

gh-108826 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108826]: dis module command-line interface is now mentioned in documentation.

gh-107305 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107305]: Add documentation for PyInterpreterConfig and Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(). Also clarify some of the nearby docs relative to per-interpreter GIL.

gh-107008 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107008]: Document the curses module variables LINES and COLS.

gh-106948 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106948]: Add a number of standard external names to nitpick_ignore.

gh-106232 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106232]: Make timeit doc command lines compatible with Windows by using double quotes for arguments. This works on linux and macOS also.

gh-105172 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105172]: Fixed functools.lru_cache() docstring accounting for typed argument's different handling of str and int. Patch by Bar Harel.

gh-105052 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105052]: Update timeit doc to specify that time in seconds is just the default.

gh-89455 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89455]: Add missing documentation for the max_group_depth and max_group_width parameters and the exceptions attribute of the traceback.TracebackException class.

gh-89412 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89412]: Add missing documentation for the end_lineno and end_offset attributes of the traceback.TracebackException class.

gh-104943 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104943]: Remove mentions of old Python versions in typing.NamedTuple.

gh-54738 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/54738]: Add documentation on how to localize the argparse module.

gh-102823 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102823]: Document the return type of x // y when x and y have type float.

gh-102759 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102759]: Align function signature for functools.reduce in documentation and docstring with the C implementation.

Tests

gh-110647 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110647]: Fix test_stress_modifying_handlers() of test_signal. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-103053 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103053]: Fix test_tools.test_freeze on FreeBSD: run "make distclean" instead of "make clean" in the copied source directory to remove also the "python" program. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-110167 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110167]: Fix a deadlock in test_socket when server fails with a timeout but the client is still running in its thread. Don't hold a lock to call cleanup functions in doCleanups(). One of the cleanup function waits until the client completes, whereas the client could deadlock if it called addCleanup() in such situation. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-110388 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110388]: Add tests for tty.

gh-81002 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81002]: Add tests for termios.

gh-110367 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110367]: regrtest: When using worker processes (-jN) with --verbose3 option, regrtest can now display the worker output even if a worker process does crash. Previously, sys.stdout and sys.stderr were replaced and so the worker output was lost on a crash. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-110267 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110267]: Add tests for pickling and copying PyStructSequence objects. Patched by Xuehai Pan.

gh-110171 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110171]: libregrtest now always sets and shows random.seed, so tests are more reproducible. Use --randseed flag to pass the explicit random seed for tests.

gh-110152 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110152]: Remove Tools/scripts/run_tests.py and make hostrunnertest. Just run ./python -m test --slow-ci, make buildbottest or make test instead. Python test runner (regrtest) now handles cross-compilation and HOSTRUNNER. It also adds options to Python such fast -u -E -W default -bb when --fast-ci or --slow-ci option is used. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-110031 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110031]: Skip test_threading tests using thread+fork if Python is built with Address Sanitizer (ASAN). Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-110088 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110088]: Fix test_asyncio timeouts: don't measure the maximum duration, a test should not measure a CI performance. Only measure the minimum duration when a task has a timeout or delay. Add CLOCK_RES to test_asyncio.utils. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-109974 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109974]: Fix race conditions in test_threading lock tests. Wait until a condition is met rather than using time.sleep() with a hardcoded number of seconds. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-110033 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110033]: Fix test_interprocess_signal() of test_signal. Make sure that the subprocess.Popen object is deleted before the test raising an exception in a signal handler. Otherwise, Popen.__del__() can get the exception which is logged as Exception ignored in: ... and the test fails. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-109594 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109594]: Fix test_timeout() of test_concurrent_futures.test_wait. Remove the future which may or may not complete depending if it takes longer than the timeout or not. Keep the second future which does not complete before wait() timeout. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-109972 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109972]: Split test_gdb.py file into a test_gdb package made of multiple tests, so tests can now be run in parallel. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-109566 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109566]: regrtest: When --fast-ci or --slow-ci option is used, regrtest now replaces the current process with a new process to add -u -W default -bb -E options to Python. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-109748 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109748]: Fix test_zippath_from_non_installed_posix() of test_venv: don't copy __pycache__/ sub-directories, because they can be modified by other Python tests running in parallel. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-109739 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109739]: regrtest: Fix reference leak check on Windows. Disable the load tracker on Windows in the reference leak check mode (-R option). Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-109276 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109276]: regrtest: When a test fails with "env changed" and the --rerun option is used, the test is now re-run in verbose mode in a fresh process. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-103053 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103053]: Skip test_freeze_simple_script() of test_tools.test_freeze if Python is built with ./configure --enable-optimizations, which means with Profile Guided Optimization (PGO): it just makes the test too slow. The freeze tool is tested by many other CIs with other (faster) compiler flags. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-109580 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109580]: Skip test_perf_profiler if Python is built with ASAN, MSAN or UBSAN sanitizer. Python does crash randomly in this test on such build. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-109566 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109566]: regrtest: Add --fast-ci and --slow-ci options. --fast-ci uses a default timeout of 10 minutes and -u all,-cpu (skip slowest tests). --slow-ci uses a default timeout of 20 minutes and -u all (run all tests). Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-109425 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109425]: libregrtest now decodes stdout of test worker processes with the "backslashreplace" error handler to log corrupted stdout, instead of failing with an error and not logging the stdout. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-109396 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109396]: Fix test_socket.test_hmac_sha1() in FIPS mode. Use a longer key: FIPS mode requires at least of at least 112 bits. The previous key was only 32 bits. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-104736 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104736]: Fix test_gdb on Python built with LLVM clang 16 on Linux ppc64le (ex: Fedora 38). Search patterns in gdb "bt" command output to detect when gdb fails to retrieve the traceback. For example, skip a test if Backtrace stopped: frame did not save the PC is found. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-109276 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109276]: libregrtest now calls random.seed() before running each test file when -r/--randomize command line option is used. Moreover, it's also called in worker processes. It should help to make tests more deterministic. Previously, it was only called once in the main process before running all test files and it was not called in worker processes. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-109276 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109276]: libregrtest now uses a separated file descriptor to write test result as JSON. Previously, if a test wrote debug messages late around the JSON, the main test process failed to parse JSON. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-108996 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108996]: Fix and enable test_msvcrt.

gh-109237 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109237]: Fix test_site.test_underpth_basic() when the working directory contains at least one non-ASCII character: encode the ._pth file to UTF-8 and enable the UTF-8 Mode to use UTF-8 for the child process stdout. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-109230 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109230]: Fix test_pyexpat.test_exception(): it can now be run from a directory different than Python source code directory. Before, the test failed in this case. Skip the test if Modules/pyexpat.c source is not available. Skip also the test on Python implementations other than CPython. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-108996 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108996]: Add tests for msvcrt.

gh-109015 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109015]: Fix test_asyncio, test_imaplib and test_socket tests on FreeBSD if the TCP blackhole is enabled (sysctl net.inet.tcp.blackhole). Skip the few tests which failed with ETIMEDOUT which such non standard configuration. Currently, the FreeBSD GCP image enables TCP and UDP blackhole [https://reviews.freebsd.org/D41751] (sysctl net.inet.tcp.blackhole=2 and sysctl net.inet.udp.blackhole=1). Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-91960 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91960]: Skip test_gdb if gdb is unable to retrieve Python frame objects: if a frame is <optimized out>. When Python is built with "clang -Og", gdb can fail to retrieve the frame parameter of _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault(). In this case, tests like py_bt() are likely to fail. Without getting access to Python frames, python-gdb.py is mostly clueless on retrieving the Python traceback. Moreover, test_gdb is no longer skipped on macOS if Python is built with Clang. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-108962 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108962]: Skip test_tempfile.test_flags() if chflags() fails with "OSError: [Errno 45] Operation not supported" (ex: on FreeBSD 13). Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-91960 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91960]: FreeBSD 13.2 CI coverage for pull requests is now provided by Cirrus-CI (a hosted CI service that supports Linux, macOS, Windows, and FreeBSD).

gh-89392 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89392]: Removed support of test_main() function in tests. They now always use normal unittest test runner.

gh-108851 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108851]: Fix test_tomllib recursion tests for WASI buildbots: reduce the recursion limit and compute the maximum nested array/dict depending on the current available recursion limit. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-108851 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108851]: Add get_recursion_available() and get_recursion_depth() functions to the test.support module. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-108834 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108834]: Add --fail-rerun option option to regrtest: if a test failed when then passed when rerun in verbose mode, exit the process with exit code 2 (error), instead of exit code 0 (success). Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-108834 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108834]: Rename regrtest --verbose2 option (-w) to --rerun. Keep --verbose2 as a deprecated alias. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-108834 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108834]: When regrtest reruns failed tests in verbose mode (./python -m test --rerun), tests are now rerun in fresh worker processes rather than being executed in the main process. If a test does crash or is killed by a timeout, the main process can detect and handle the killed worker process. Tests are rerun in parallel if the -jN option is used to run tests in parallel. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-108822 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108822]: regrtest now computes statistics on all tests: successes, failures and skipped. test_netrc, test_pep646_syntax and test_xml_etree now return results in their test_main() function. Patch by Victor Stinner and Alex Waygood.

gh-108794 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108794]: The doctest.DocTestRunner.run() method now counts the number of skipped tests. Add doctest.DocTestRunner.skips and doctest.TestResults.skipped attributes. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-108388 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108388]: Convert test_concurrent_futures to a package of 7 sub-tests. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-108388 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108388]: Split test_multiprocessing_fork, test_multiprocessing_forkserver and test_multiprocessing_spawn into test packages. Each package is made of 4 sub-tests: processes, threads, manager and misc. It allows running more tests in parallel and so reduce the total test duration. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-105776 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105776]: Fix test_cppext when the C compiler command -std=c11 option: remove -std= options from the compiler command. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-107652 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107652]: Set up CIFuzz to run fuzz targets in GitHub Actions. Patch by Illia Volochii.

gh-107237 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107237]: test_logging: Fix test_udp_reconnection() by increasing the timeout from 100 ms to 5 minutes (LONG_TIMEOUT). Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-107178 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107178]: Add the C API test for functions in the Mapping Protocol, the Sequence Protocol and some functions in the Object Protocol.

gh-106714 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106714]: test_capi: Fix test_no_FatalError_infinite_loop() to no longer write a coredump, by using test.support.SuppressCrashReport. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-104090 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104090]: Avoid creating a reference to the test object in collectedDurations().

gh-106752 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106752]: Moved tests for zipfile.Path into Lib/test/test_zipfile/_path. Made zipfile._path a package.

gh-106690 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106690]: Add .coveragerc to cpython repository for use with coverage package.

gh-101634 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101634]: When running the Python test suite with -jN option, if a worker stdout cannot be decoded from the locale encoding report a failed testn so the exitcode is non-zero. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-105084 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105084]: When the Python build is configured --with-wheel-pkg-dir, tests requiring the setuptools and wheel wheels will search for the wheels in WHEEL_PKG_DIR.

gh-81005 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81005]: String tests are modified to reflect that str and unicode are merged in Python 3. Patch by Daniel Fortunov.

gh-103186 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103186]: Suppress and assert expected RuntimeWarnings in test_sys_settrace.py

gh-69714 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69714]: Add additional tests to calendar to achieve full test coverage.

Build

gh-103053 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103053]: "make check-clean-src" now also checks if the "python" program is found in the source directory: fail with an error if it does exist. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-109191 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109191]: Fix compile error when building with recent versions of libedit.

gh-110276 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110276]: No longer ignore PROFILE_TASK failure silently: command used by Profile Guided Optimization (PGO). Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-109566 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109566]: Remove make testall target: use make buildbottest instead. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-109740 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109740]: The experimental --disable-gil configure flag now includes "t" (for "threaded") in extension ABI tags.

gh-109054 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109054]: Fix building the _testcapi extension on Linux AArch64 which requires linking to libatomic when <cpython/pyatomic.h> is used: the _Py_atomic_or_uint64() function requires libatomic __atomic_fetch_or_8() on this platform. The configure script now checks if linking to libatomic is needed and generates a new LIBATOMIC variable used to build the _testcapi extension. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-63760 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/63760]: Fix Solaris build: no longer redefine the gethostname() function. Solaris defines the function since 2005. Patch by Victor Stinner, original patch by Jakub Kulík.

gh-108740 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108740]: Fix a race condition in make regen-all. The deepfreeze.c source and files generated by Argument Clinic are now generated or updated before generating "global objects". Previously, some identifiers may miss depending on the order in which these files were generated. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-108634 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108634]: Python built with configure --with-trace-refs (tracing references) is now ABI compatible with Python release build and debug build. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-85283 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283]: The _stat C extension is now built with the limited C API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-108447 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108447]: Fix x86_64 GNU/Hurd build

gh-107814 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107814]: When calling find_python.bat with -q it did not properly silence the output of nuget. That is now fixed.

gh-105481 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105481]: Remove the make target regen-opcode-targets, merge its work into regen-opcode which repeats most of the calculation. This simplifies the code for the build and reduces code duplication.

gh-106881 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106881]: Check for linux/limits.h before including it in Modules/posixmodule.c.

gh-95855 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95855]: Refactor platform triplet detection code and add detection for MIPS soft float and musl libc.

gh-106962 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106962]: Detect MPI compilers in configure.

gh-106118 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106118]: Fix compilation for platforms without O_CLOEXEC. The issue was introduced with Python 3.12b1 in gh-103295 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103295]. Patch by Erlend Aasland.

gh-105875 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105875]: SQLite 3.15.2 or newer is required to build the sqlite3 extension module. Patch by Erlend Aasland.

gh-90005 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90005]: Fix a regression in configure where we could end up unintentionally linking with libbsd.

gh-102404 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102404]: Document how to perform a WASI build on Linux. Also add Tools/wasm/build_wasi.sh as a reference implementation of the docs.

gh-89886 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89886]: Autoconf 2.71 and aclocal 1.16.4 is now required to regenerate configure.

gh-104692 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104692]: Include commoninstall as a prerequisite for bininstall

This ensures that commoninstall is completed before bininstall is started when parallel builds are used (make -j install), and so the python3 symlink is only installed after all standard library modules are installed.

gh-101538 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101538]: Add experimental wasi-threads support. Patch by Takashi Yamamoto.

Windows

gh-110437 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110437]: Allows overriding the source of VC redistributables so that releases can be guaranteed to never downgrade between updates.

gh-109286 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109286]: Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.43.1.

gh-82367 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82367]: os.path.realpath() now resolves MS-DOS style file names even if the file is not accessible. Patch by Moonsik Park.

gh-109991 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109991]: Update Windows build to use OpenSSL 3.0.11.

gh-106242 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106242]: Fixes realpath() to behave consistently when passed a path containing an embedded null character on Windows. In strict mode, it now raises OSError instead of the unexpected ValueError, and in non-strict mode will make the path absolute.

gh-83180 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83180]: Changes the Python install manager to prefer an active virtual environment when the launched script has a shebang line using a Unix-like virtual command, even if the command requests a specific version of Python.

gh-106844 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106844]: Fix integer overflow and truncating by the null character in _winapi.LCMapStringEx() which affects ntpath.normcase().

gh-105436 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105436]: Ensure that an empty environment block is terminated by two null characters, as is required by Windows.

gh-105146 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105146]: Updated the links at the end of the installer to point to Discourse rather than the mailing lists.

gh-103646 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103646]: When installed from the Microsoft Store, pip no longer defaults to per-user installs. However, as the install directory is unwritable, it should automatically decide to do a per-user install anyway. This should resolve issues when pip is passed an option that conflicts with --user.

gh-88745 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88745]: Improve performance of shutil.copy2() by using the operating system's CopyFile2 function. This may result in subtle changes to metadata copied along with some files, bringing them in line with normal OS behavior.

gh-104820 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104820]: Fixes stat() and related functions on file systems that do not support file ID requests. This includes FAT32 and exFAT.

gh-104803 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104803]: Add os.path.isdevdrive() to detect whether a path is on a Windows Dev Drive. Returns False on platforms that do not support Dev Drive, and is absent on non-Windows platforms.

macOS

gh-109286 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109286]: Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.43.1.

gh-109991 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109991]: Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 3.0.11.

gh-99079 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99079]: Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 3.0.9.

IDLE

gh-104719 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104719]: Remove IDLE's modification of tokenize.tabsize and test other uses of tokenize data and methods.

Tools/Demos

gh-109991 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109991]: Update GitHub CI workflows to use OpenSSL 3.0.11 and multissltests to use 1.1.1w, 3.0.11, and 3.1.3.

gh-108494 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108494]: Argument Clinic [https://devguide.python.org/development-tools/clinic/] now has a partial support of the Limited API: see documentation in the Python Developer's Guide [https://devguide.python.org/development-tools/clinic/#clinic-howto-limited-capi] Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-107704 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107704]: It is now possible to deprecate passing keyword arguments for keyword-or-positional parameters with Argument Clinic, using the new / [from X.Y] syntax. (To be read as "positional-only from Python version X.Y".) See documentation in the Python Developer's Guide [https://devguide.python.org/development-tools/clinic/#clinic-howto-deprecate-keyword] for more information.

gh-107880 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107880]: Argument Clinic can now clone __init__() and __new__() methods.

gh-104683 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104683]: Add --exclude option to Argument Clinic CLI.

gh-95065 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95065]: Argument Clinic now supports overriding automatically generated signature by using directive @text_signature. See documentation in the Python Developer's Guide [https://devguide.python.org/development-tools/clinic/#clinic-howto-override-signature]

gh-107609 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107609]: Fix duplicate module check in Argument Clinic. Previously, a duplicate definition would incorrectly be silently accepted. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

gh-107467 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107467]: The Argument Clinic command-line tool now prints to stderr instead of stdout on failure.

gh-106970 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106970]: Fix bugs in the Argument Clinic destination <name> clear command; the destination buffers would never be cleared, and the destination directive parser would simply continue to the fault handler after processing the command. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

gh-106706 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106706]: Change bytecode syntax for families to remove redundant name matching pseudo syntax.

gh-106359 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106359]: Argument Clinic now explicitly forbids "kwarg splats" in function calls used as annotations.

gh-103186 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103186]: freeze now fetches CONFIG_ARGS from the original CPython instance the Makefile uses to call utility scripts. Patch by Ijtaba Hussain.

gh-95065 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95065]: It is now possible to deprecate passing parameters positionally with Argument Clinic, using the new * [from X.Y] syntax. (To be read as "keyword-only from Python version X.Y".) See documentation in the Python Developer's Guide [https://devguide.python.org/development-tools/clinic/#clinic-howto-deprecate-positional] for more information. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland with help from Alex Waygood, Nikita Sobolev, and Serhiy Storchaka.

C API

gh-85283 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283]: If the Py_LIMITED_API macro is defined, Py_BUILD_CORE, Py_BUILD_CORE_BUILTIN and Py_BUILD_CORE_MODULE macros are now undefined by <Python.h>. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-110289 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110289]: Add PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8AndSize() and PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8() functions.

gh-110235 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110235]: Raise TypeError for duplicate/unknown fields in PyStructSequence constructor. Patched by Xuehai Pan.

gh-110014 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110014]: Remove undocumented PY_TIMEOUT_MAX constant from the limited C API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-109521 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109521]: PyImport_GetImporter() now sets RuntimeError if it fails to get sys.path_hooks or sys.path_importer_cache or they are not list and dict correspondingly. Previously it could return NULL without setting error in obscure cases, crash or raise SystemError if these attributes have wrong type.

gh-108724 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108724]: Add PyMutex internal-only lightweight locking API.

gh-85283 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283]: Add PySys_AuditTuple() function: similar to PySys_Audit(), but pass event arguments as a Python tuple object. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-108867 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108867]: Add PyThreadState_GetUnchecked() function: similar to PyThreadState_Get(), but don't kill the process with a fatal error if it is NULL. The caller is responsible to check if the result is NULL. Previously, the function was private and known as _PyThreadState_UncheckedGet(). Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-108765 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108765]: Python.h no longer includes the <ctype.h> standard header file. If needed, it should now be included explicitly. For example, it provides isalpha() and tolower() functions which are locale dependent. Python provides locale independent functions, like Py_ISALPHA() and Py_TOLOWER(). Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-108765 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108765]: Python.h no longer includes the <unistd.h> standard header file. If needed, it should now be included explicitly. For example, it provides the functions: close(), getpagesize(), getpid() and sysconf(). Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-108765 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108765]: Python.h no longer includes the <ieeefp.h> standard header. It was included for the finite() function which is now provided by the <math.h> header. It should now be included explicitly if needed. Remove also the HAVE_IEEEFP_H macro. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-108765 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108765]: Python.h no longer includes these standard header files: <time.h>, <sys/select.h> and <sys/time.h>. If needed, they should now be included explicitly. For example, <time.h> provides the clock() and gmtime() functions, <sys/select.h> provides the select() function, and <sys/time.h> provides the futimes(), gettimeofday() and setitimer() functions. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-108511 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108511]: Add functions PyObject_HasAttrWithError(), PyObject_HasAttrStringWithError(), PyMapping_HasKeyWithError() and PyMapping_HasKeyStringWithError().

gh-107073 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107073]: Add PyObject_VisitManagedDict() and PyObject_ClearManagedDict() functions which must be called by the traverse and clear functions of a type using Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT flag. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-108634 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108634]: Python built with configure --with-trace-refs (tracing references) now supports the Limited API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-108014 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108014]: Add PyLong_AsInt() function: similar to PyLong_AsLong(), but store the result in a C int instead of a C long. Previously, it was known as the private function _PyLong_AsInt() (with an underscore prefix). Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-108314 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108314]: Add PyDict_ContainsString() function: same as PyDict_Contains(), but key is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a PyObject*. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-108337 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108337]: Add atomic operations on additional data types in pyatomic.h.

gh-108014 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108014]: Add Py_IsFinalizing() function: check if the main Python interpreter is shutting down. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-107916 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107916]: C API functions PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilename(), PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilename() and PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename() save now the error code before calling PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault().

gh-107915 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107915]: Such C API functions as PyErr_SetString(), PyErr_Format(), PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilename() and many others no longer crash or ignore errors if it failed to format the error message or decode the filename. Instead, they keep a corresponding error.

gh-107810 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107810]: Improve DeprecationWarning for uses of PyType_Spec with metaclasses that have custom tp_new.

gh-107249 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107249]: Implement the Py_UNUSED macro for Windows MSVC compiler. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-107226 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107226]: PyModule_AddObjectRef() is now only available in the limited API version 3.10 or later.

gh-106320 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106320]: Remove private _PyUnicode_AsString() alias to PyUnicode_AsUTF8(). It was kept for backward compatibility with Python 3.0 - 3.2. The PyUnicode_AsUTF8() is available since Python 3.3. The PyUnicode_AsUTF8String() function can be used to keep compatibility with Python 3.2 and older. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-106572 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106572]: Convert PyObject_DelAttr() and PyObject_DelAttrString() macros to functions. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-106307 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106307]: Add PyMapping_GetOptionalItem() function.

gh-106521 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106521]: Add PyObject_GetOptionalAttr() and PyObject_GetOptionalAttrString() functions.

gh-106320 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106320]: Remove _PyInterpreterState_Get() alias to PyInterpreterState_Get() which was kept for backward compatibility with Python 3.8. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-106316 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106316]: Remove cpython/pytime.h header file: it only contained private functions. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-106023 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106023]: Remove private _PyObject_FastCall() function: use PyObject_Vectorcall() which is available since Python 3.8 (PEP 590 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/]). Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-106168 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106168]: If Python is built in debug mode or with assertions, PyTuple_SET_ITEM() and PyList_SET_ITEM() now check the index argument with an assertion. If the assertion fails, make sure that the size is set before. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-106084 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106084]: Remove the old aliases to functions calling functions which were kept for backward compatibility with Python 3.8 provisional API:

_PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs(): use PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs()

_PyObject_CallMethodOneArg(): use PyObject_CallMethodOneArg()

_PyObject_CallOneArg(): use PyObject_CallOneArg()

_PyObject_FastCallDict(): use PyObject_VectorcallDict()

_PyObject_Vectorcall(): use PyObject_Vectorcall()

_PyObject_VectorcallMethod(): use PyObject_VectorcallMethod()

_PyVectorcall_Function(): use PyVectorcall_Function()

Just remove the underscore prefix to update your code. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-106004 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106004]: Adds PyDict_GetItemRef() and PyDict_GetItemStringRef() functions: similar to PyDict_GetItemWithError() but returning a strong reference instead of a borrowed reference. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-105927 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105927]: Deprecate the PyWeakref_GetObject() and PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT() functions: use the new PyWeakref_GetRef() function instead. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-105927 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105927]: Add PyWeakref_GetRef() function: similar to PyWeakref_GetObject() but returns a strong reference, or NULL if the referent is no longer live. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-105922 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105922]: Add PyImport_AddModuleRef(): similar to PyImport_AddModule(), but return a strong reference instead of a borrowed reference. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-105227 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105227]: The new PyType_GetDict() provides the dictionary for the given type object that is normally exposed by cls.__dict__. Normally it's sufficient to use tp_dict, but for the static builtin types tp_dict is now always NULL. PyType_GetDict() provides the correct dict object instead.

gh-105375 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375]: Fix a bug in PyErr_WarnExplicit() where an exception could end up being overwritten if the API failed internally.

gh-105603 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105603]: We've renamed the new (in 3.12) PyInterpreterConfig.own_gil to PyInterpreterConfig.gil and changed the meaning of the value from "bool" to an integer with supported values of PyInterpreterConfig_DEFAULT_GIL, PyInterpreterConfig_SHARED_GIL, and PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL. The default is "shared".

gh-105387 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105387]: In the limited C API version 3.12, Py_INCREF() and Py_DECREF() functions are now implemented as opaque function calls to hide implementation details. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-105396 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105396]: Deprecate the PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock() function which is just an alias to PyImport_ImportModule() since Python 3.3. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-103968 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103968]: PyType_FromMetaclass() now allows metaclasses with tp_new set to NULL.

gh-105268 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105268]: Remove the old private, undocumented and untested _PyGC_FINALIZED() macro which was kept for backward compatibility with Python 3.8 and older. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-105182 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105182]: Remove PyEval_AcquireLock() and PyEval_ReleaseLock() functions, deprecated in Python 3.2. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-105182 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105182]: Remove PyEval_InitThreads() and PyEval_ThreadsInitialized() functions, deprecated in Python 3.9. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-105145 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105145]: Deprecate old Python initialization functions:

PySys_ResetWarnOptions()

Py_GetExecPrefix()

Py_GetPath()

Py_GetPrefix()

Py_GetProgramFullPath()

Py_GetProgramName()

Py_GetPythonHome()

Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-85275 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85275]: PyObject_AsCharBuffer(), PyObject_AsReadBuffer(), PyObject_CheckReadBuffer(), and PyObject_AsWriteBuffer() are removed. Please migrate to new buffer protocol; PyObject_GetBuffer() and PyBuffer_Release().

gh-105156 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105156]: Deprecate the old Py_UNICODE and PY_UNICODE_TYPE types: use directly the wchar_t type instead. Since Python 3.3, Py_UNICODE and PY_UNICODE_TYPE are just aliases to wchar_t. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-105145 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105145]: Remove the following old functions to configure the Python initialization, deprecated in Python 3.11:

PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode()

PySys_AddWarnOption()

PySys_AddXOption()

PySys_HasWarnOptions()

PySys_SetArgvEx()

PySys_SetArgv()

PySys_SetPath()

Py_SetPath()

Py_SetProgramName()

Py_SetPythonHome()

Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding()

_Py_SetProgramFullPath()

Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-105107 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105107]: Remove functions deprecated in Python 3.9.

PyEval_CallObject(), PyEval_CallObjectWithKeywords(): use PyObject_CallNoArgs() and PyObject_Call() (positional arguments must not be NULL) instead.

PyEval_CallFunction(): use PyObject_CallFunction() instead.

PyEval_CallMethod(): use PyObject_CallMethod() instead.

PyCFunction_Call(): use PyObject_Call() instead.

Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-105115 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105115]: PyTypeObject.tp_bases (and tp_mro) for builtin static types are now shared by all interpreters, whereas in 3.12-beta1 they were stored on PyInterpreterState. Also note that now the tuples are immortal objects.

gh-105071 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105071]: Add PyUnstable_Exc_PrepReraiseStar to the unstable C api to expose the implementation of except*.

gh-104922 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104922]: PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN is no longer required to use '#' formats in APIs like PyArg_ParseTuple() and Py_BuildValue(). They uses Py_ssize_t for '#' regardless PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN.

gh-104584 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104584]: Add an unstable C API for hooking in an optimizer. This is mainly internal, but marked "unstable" to allow third-party experimentation.

gh-104668 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104668]: Don't call PyOS_InputHook or PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer in subinterpreters, since it's generally difficult to avoid using global state in their registered callbacks. This also avoids situations where extensions may find themselves running in a subinterpreter they don't support (or haven't yet been loaded in).

bpo-42327 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42327]: Add PyModule_Add() function: similar to PyModule_AddObjectRef() and PyModule_AddObject(), but always steals a reference to the value.

bpo-40309 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40309]: Properly handle trailing spaces before closing parenthesis in Py_BuildValue() format strings.

Python 3.12.0 beta 1

Release date: 2023-05-22

Security

gh-99889 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99889]: Fixed a security in flaw in uu.decode() that could allow for directory traversal based on the input if no out_file was specified.

gh-104049 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104049]: Do not expose the local on-disk location in directory indexes produced by http.client.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler.

gh-99108 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108]: Upgrade built-in hashlib SHA3 implementation to a verified implementation from the HACL* project. Used when OpenSSL is not present or lacks SHA3.

gh-102153 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102153]: urllib.parse.urlsplit() now strips leading C0 control and space characters following the specification for URLs defined by WHATWG in response to CVE 2023-24329 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-24329]. Patch by Illia Volochii.

Library

gh-102856 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102856]: Implement PEP 701 changes in the tokenize module. Patch by Marta Gómez Macías and Pablo Galindo Salgado

Core and Builtins

gh-104615 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104615]: Fix wrong ordering of assignments in code like a, a = x, y. Contributed by Carl Meyer.

gh-104572 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104572]: Improve syntax error message for invalid constructs in PEP 695 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/] contexts and in annotations when from __future__ import annotations is active.

gh-104482 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104482]: Fix three error handling bugs in ast.c's validation of pattern matching statements.

gh-102818 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102818]: Do not add a frame to the traceback in the sys.setprofile and sys.settrace trampoline functions. This ensures that frames are not duplicated if an exception is raised in the callback function, and ensures that frames are not omitted if a C callback is used and that does not add the frame.

gh-104405 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104405]: Fix an issue where some bytecode instructions could ignore PEP 523 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/] when "inlining" calls.

gh-103082 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103082]: Change behavior of sys.monitoring.events.LINE events in sys.monitoring: Line events now occur when a new line is reached dynamically, instead of using a static approximation, as before. This makes the behavior very similar to that of "line" events in sys.settrace. This should ease porting of tools from 3.11 to 3.12.

gh-104263 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104263]: Fix float("nan") to produce a quiet NaN on platforms (like MIPS) where the meaning of the signalling / quiet bit is inverted from its usual meaning. Also introduce a new macro Py_INFINITY matching C99's INFINITY, and refactor internals to rely on C99's NAN and INFINITY macros instead of hard-coding bit patterns for infinities and NaNs. Thanks Sebastian Berg.

gh-99113 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99113]: Multi-phase init extension modules may now indicate that they support running in subinterpreters that have their own GIL. This is done by using Py_MOD_PER_INTERPRETER_GIL_SUPPORTED as the value for the Py_mod_multiple_interpreters module def slot. Otherwise the module, by default, cannot be imported in such subinterpreters. (This does not affect the main interpreter or subinterpreters that do not have their own GIL.) In addition to the isolation that multi-phase init already normally requires, support for per-interpreter GIL involves one additional constraint: thread-safety. If the module has external (linked) dependencies and those libraries have any state that isn't thread-safe then the module must do the additional work to add thread-safety. This should be an uncommon case.

gh-99113 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99113]: The GIL is now (optionally) per-interpreter. This is the fundamental change for PEP 684. This is all made possible by virtue of the isolated state of each interpreter in the process. The behavior of the main interpreter remains unchanged. Likewise, interpreters created using Py_NewInterpreter() are not affected. To get an interpreter with its own GIL, call Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig().

gh-104108 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104108]: Multi-phase init extension modules may now indicate whether or not they actually support multiple interpreters. By default such modules are expected to support use in multiple interpreters. In the uncommon case that one does not, it may use the new Py_mod_multiple_interpreters module def slot. A value of 0 means the module does not support them. 1 means it does. The default is 1.

gh-104142 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104142]: Fix an issue where list or tuple repetition could fail to respect PEP 683 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0683/].

gh-104078 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104078]: Improve the performance of PyObject_HasAttrString()

gh-104066 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104066]: Improve the performance of hasattr() for module objects with a missing attribute.

gh-104028 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104028]: Reduce object creation while calling callback function from gc. Patch by Donghee Na.

gh-104018 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104018]: Disallow the "z" format specifier in %-format of bytes objects.

gh-102213 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102213]: Fix performance loss when accessing an object's attributes with __getattr__ defined.

gh-103895 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103895]: Improve handling of edge cases in showing Exception.__notes__. Ensures that the messages always end with a newline and that string/bytes are not exploded over multiple lines. Patch by Carey Metcalfe.

gh-103907 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103907]: Don't modify the refcounts of known immortal objects (True, False, and None) in the main interpreter loop.

gh-103899 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103899]: Provide a helpful hint in the TypeError message when accidentally calling a module object that has a callable attribute of the same name (such as dis.dis() or datetime.datetime).

gh-103845 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103845]: Remove both line and instruction instrumentation before adding new ones for monitoring, to avoid newly added instrumentation being removed immediately.

gh-103763 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103763]: Implement PEP 695 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/], adding syntactic support for generic classes, generic functions, and type aliases.

A new type X = ... syntax is added for type aliases, which resolves at runtime to an instance of the new class typing.TypeAliasType. The value is lazily evaluated and is accessible through the .__value__ attribute. This is implemented as a new AST node ast.TypeAlias.

New syntax (class X[T]: ..., def func[T](): ...) is added for defining generic functions and classes. This is implemented as a new type_params attribute on the AST nodes for classes and functions. This node holds instances of the new AST classes ast.TypeVar, ast.ParamSpec, and ast.TypeVarTuple.

typing.TypeVar, typing.ParamSpec, typing.ParamSpecArgs, typing.ParamSpecKwargs, typing.TypeVarTuple, and typing.Generic are now implemented in C rather than Python.

There are new bytecode instructions LOAD_LOCALS, LOAD_CLASSDICT_OR_GLOBAL, and LOAD_CLASSDICT_OR_DEREF to support correct resolution of names in class namespaces.

Patch by Eric Traut, Larry Hastings, and Jelle Zijlstra.

Library

gh-103801 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103801]: Adds three minor linting fixes to the wasm module caught that were caught by ruff.

gh-103793 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103793]: Optimized asyncio Task creation by deferring expensive string formatting (task name generation) from Task creation to the first time get_name is called. This makes asyncio benchmarks up to 5% faster.

Core and Builtins

gh-102310 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102310]: Change the error range for invalid bytes literals.

gh-103590 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103590]: Do not wrap a single exception raised from a try-except* construct in an ExceptionGroup.

gh-103650 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103650]: Change the perf map format to remove the '0x' prefix from the addresses

gh-102856 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102856]: Implement the required C tokenizer changes for PEP 701. Patch by Pablo Galindo Salgado, Lysandros Nikolaou, Batuhan Taskaya, Marta Gómez Macías and sunmy2019.

gh-100530 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100530]: Clarify the error message raised when the called part of a class pattern isn't actually a class.

gh-101517 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101517]: Fix bug in line numbers of instructions emitted for except*.

gh-103492 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103492]: Clarify SyntaxWarning with literal is comparison by specifying which literal is problematic, since comparisons using is with e.g. None and bool literals are idiomatic.

gh-87729 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87729]: Add LOAD_SUPER_ATTR (and a specialization for super().method()) to speed up super().method() and super().attr. This makes super().method() roughly 2.3x faster and brings it within 20% of the performance of a simple method call. Patch by Vladimir Matveev and Carl Meyer.

gh-103488 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103488]: Change the internal offset distinguishing yield and return target addresses, so that the instruction pointer is correct for exception handling and other stack unwinding.

gh-82012 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82012]: The bitwise inversion operator (~) on bool is deprecated. It returns the bitwise inversion of the underlying int representation such that bool(~True) == True, which can be confusing. Use not for logical negation of bools. In the rare case that you really need the bitwise inversion of the underlying int, convert to int explicitly ~int(x).

gh-77757 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77757]: Exceptions raised in a typeobject's __set_name__ method are no longer wrapped by a RuntimeError. Context information is added to the exception as a PEP 678 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0678/] note.

gh-103333 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103333]: AttributeError now retains the name attribute when pickled and unpickled.

gh-103242 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103242]: Migrate set_ecdh_curve() method not to use deprecated OpenSSL APIs. Patch by Donghee Na.

gh-103323 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103323]: We've replaced our use of _PyRuntime.tstate_current with a thread-local variable. This is a fairly low-level implementation detail, and there should be no change in behavior.

gh-84436 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84436]: The implementation of PEP-683 which adds Immortal Objects by using a fixed reference count that skips reference counting to make objects truly immutable.

gh-102700 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102700]: Allow built-in modules to be submodules. This allows submodules to be statically linked into a CPython binary.

gh-103082 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103082]: Implement PEP 669 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0669/] Low Impact Monitoring for CPython.

gh-88691 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88691]: Reduce the number of inline CACHE entries for CALL.

gh-102500 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102500]: Make the buffer protocol accessible in Python code using the new __buffer__ and __release_buffer__ magic methods. See PEP 688 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/] for details. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

gh-97933 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97933]: PEP 709 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0709/]: inline list, dict and set comprehensions to improve performance and reduce bytecode size.

gh-99184 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99184]: Bypass instance attribute access of __name__ in repr of weakref.ref.

gh-98003 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98003]: Complex function calls are now faster and consume no C stack space.

bpo-39610 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39610]: len() for 0-dimensional memoryview objects (such as memoryview(ctypes.c_uint8(42))) now raises a TypeError. Previously this returned 1, which was not consistent with mem_0d[0] raising an IndexError.

Library

bpo-31821 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31821]: Fix pause_reading() to work when called from connection_made() in asyncio.

gh-104600 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104600]: functools.update_wrapper() now sets the __type_params__ attribute (added by PEP 695 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/]).

gh-104340 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104340]: When an asyncio pipe protocol loses its connection due to an error, and the caller doesn't await wait_closed() on the corresponding StreamWriter, don't log a warning about an exception that was never retrieved. After all, according to the StreamWriter.close() docs, the wait_closed() call is optional ("not mandatory").

gh-104555 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104555]: Fix issue where an issubclass() check comparing a class X against a runtime-checkable protocol Y with non-callable members would not cause TypeError to be raised if an isinstance() call had previously been made comparing an instance of X to Y. This issue was present in edge cases on Python 3.11, but became more prominent in 3.12 due to some unrelated changes that were made to runtime-checkable protocols. Patch by Alex Waygood.

gh-104372 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104372]: Refactored the _posixsubprocess internals to avoid Python C API usage between fork and exec when marking pass_fds= file descriptors inheritable.

gh-104484 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104484]: Added case_sensitive argument to pathlib.PurePath.match()

gh-75367 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75367]: Fix data descriptor detection in inspect.getattr_static().

gh-104536 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104536]: Fix a race condition in the internal multiprocessing.process cleanup logic that could manifest as an unintended AttributeError when calling process.close().

gh-103857 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103857]: Update datetime deprecations' stracktrace to point to the calling line

gh-101520 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101520]: Move the core functionality of the tracemalloc module in the Python/ folder, leaving just the module wrapper in Modules/.

gh-104392 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104392]: Remove undocumented and unused _paramspec_tvars attribute from some classes in typing.

gh-102613 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102613]: Fix issue where pathlib.Path.glob() raised RecursionError when walking deep directory trees.

gh-103000 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103000]: Improve performance of dataclasses.asdict() for the common case where dict_factory is dict. Patch by David C Ellis.

gh-104301 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104301]: Allow leading whitespace in disambiguated statements in pdb.

gh-104139 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104139]: Teach urllib.parse.unsplit() to retain the "//" when assembling itms-services://?action=generate-bugs style Apple Platform Deployment [https://support.apple.com/en-gb/guide/deployment/depce7cefc4d/web] URLs.

gh-104307 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104307]: socket.getnameinfo() now releases the GIL while contacting the DNS server

gh-104310 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104310]: Users may now use importlib.util.allowing_all_extensions() (a context manager) to temporarily disable the strict compatibility checks for importing extension modules in subinterpreters.

gh-87695 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87695]: Fix issue where pathlib.Path.glob() raised OSError when it encountered a symlink to an overly long path.

gh-104265 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104265]: Prevent possible crash by disallowing instantiation of the _csv.Reader and _csv.Writer types. The regression was introduced in 3.10.0a4 with PR 23224 (bpo-14935 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14935]). Patch by Radislav Chugunov.

gh-102613 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102613]: Improve performance of pathlib.Path.glob() when expanding recursive wildcards ("**") by merging adjacent wildcards and de-duplicating results only when necessary.

gh-65772 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65772]: Remove unneeded comments and code in turtle.py.

gh-90208 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90208]: Fixed issue where pathlib.Path.glob() returned incomplete results when it encountered a PermissionError. This method now suppresses all OSError exceptions, except those raised from calling is_dir() on the top-level path.

gh-104144 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104144]: Optimize asyncio.TaskGroup when using asyncio.eager_task_factory(). Skip scheduling a done callback if a TaskGroup task completes eagerly.

gh-104144 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104144]: Optimize asyncio.gather() when using asyncio.eager_task_factory() to complete eagerly if all fututres completed eagerly. Avoid scheduling done callbacks for futures that complete eagerly.

gh-104114 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104114]: Fix issue where pathlib.Path.glob() returns paths using the case of non-wildcard segments for corresponding path segments, rather than the real filesystem case.

gh-104104 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104104]: Improve performance of pathlib.Path.glob() by using re.IGNORECASE to implement case-insensitive matching.

gh-104102 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104102]: Improve performance of pathlib.Path.glob() when evaluating patterns that contain '../' segments.

gh-103822 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103822]: Update the return type of weekday to the newly added Day attribute

gh-103629 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103629]: Update the repr of typing.Unpack according to PEP 692 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0692/].

gh-103963 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103963]: Make dis display the names of the args for CALL_INTRINSIC_*.

gh-104035 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104035]: Do not ignore user-defined __getstate__ and __setstate__ methods for slotted frozen dataclasses.

gh-103987 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103987]: In mmap, fix several bugs that could lead to access to memory-mapped files after they have been invalidated.

gh-103977 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103977]: Improve import time of platform module.

gh-88773 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88773]: Added turtle.teleport() to the turtle module to move a turtle to a new point without tracing a line, visible or invisible. Patch by Liam Gersten.

gh-103935 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103935]: Use io.open_code() for files to be executed instead of raw open()

gh-68968 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68968]: Fixed garbled output of assertEqual() when an input lacks final newline.

gh-100370 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100370]: Fix potential OverflowError in sqlite3.Connection.blobopen() for 32-bit builds. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

gh-102628 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102628]: Substitute CTRL-D with CTRL-Z in sqlite3 CLI banner when running on Windows.

gh-103636 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636]: Module-level attributes January and February are deprecated from calendar.

gh-103583 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103583]: Isolate _multibytecodec and codecs extension modules. Patches by Erlend E. Aasland.

gh-103848 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103848]: Add checks to ensure that [ bracketed ] hosts found by urllib.parse.urlsplit() are of IPv6 or IPvFuture format.

gh-103872 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103872]: Update the bundled copy of pip to version 23.1.2.

gh-99944 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99944]: Make dis display the value of oparg of KW_NAMES.

gh-74940 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74940]: The C.UTF-8 locale is no longer converted to en_US.UTF-8, enabling the use of UTF-8 encoding on systems which have no locales installed.

gh-103861 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103861]: Fix zipfile.Zipfile creating invalid zip files when force_zip64 was used to add files to them. Patch by Carey Metcalfe.

gh-103857 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103857]: Deprecated datetime.datetime.utcnow() and datetime.datetime.utcfromtimestamp(). (Patch by Paul Ganssle)

gh-103839 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103839]: Avoid compilation error due to tommath.h not being found when building Tkinter against Tcl 8.7 built with bundled libtommath.

gh-103791 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103791]: contextlib.suppress now supports suppressing exceptions raised as part of an ExceptionGroup. If other exceptions exist on the group, they are re-raised in a group that does not contain the suppressed exceptions.

gh-90750 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90750]: Use datetime.datetime.fromisocalendar() in the implementation of datetime.datetime.strptime(), which should now accept only valid ISO dates. (Patch by Paul Ganssle)

gh-103685 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103685]: Prepare tkinter.Menu.index() for Tk 8.7 so that it does not raise TclError: expected integer but got "" when it should return None.

gh-81403 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81403]: urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler no longer raises URLError if a cached FTP instance is reused. ftplib's endtransfer method calls voidresp to drain the connection to handle FTP instance reuse properly.

gh-103699 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103699]: Add __orig_bases__ to non-generic TypedDicts, call-based TypedDicts, and call-based NamedTuples. Other TypedDicts and NamedTuples already had the attribute.

gh-103693 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103693]: Add convenience variable feature to pdb

gh-92248 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92248]: Deprecate type, choices, and metavar parameters of argparse.BooleanOptionalAction.

gh-89415 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89415]: Add socket constants for source-specific multicast. Patch by Reese Hyde.

gh-103673 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103673]: socketserver gains ForkingUnixStreamServer and ForkingUnixDatagramServer classes. Patch by Jay Berry.

gh-103636 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636]: Added Enum for months and days in the calendar module.

gh-84976 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84976]: Create a new Lib/_pydatetime.py file that defines the Python version of the datetime module, and make datetime import the contents of the new library only if the C implementation is missing. Currently, the full Python implementation is defined and then deleted if the C implementation is not available, slowing down import datetime unnecessarily.

gh-103596 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103596]: Attributes/methods are no longer shadowed by same-named enum members, although they may be shadowed by enum.property's.

gh-103584 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103584]: Updated importlib.metadata with changes from importlib_metadata 5.2 through 6.5.0, including: Support installed-files.txt for Distribution.files when present. PackageMetadata now stipulates an additional get method allowing for easy querying of metadata keys that may not be present. packages_distributions now honors packages and modules with Python modules that not .py sources (e.g. .pyc, .so). Expand protocol for PackageMetadata.get_all to match the upstream implementation of email.message.Message.get_all in python/typeshed#9620. Deprecated use of Distribution without defining abstract methods. Deprecated expectation that PackageMetadata.__getitem__ will return None for missing keys. In the future, it will raise a KeyError.

gh-103578 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103578]: Fixed a bug where pdb crashes when reading source file with different encoding by replacing io.open() with io.open_code(). The new method would also call into the hook set by PyFile_SetOpenCodeHook().

gh-103556 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103556]: Now creating inspect.Signature objects with positional-only parameter with a default followed by a positional-or-keyword parameter without one is impossible.

gh-103559 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103559]: Update the bundled copy of pip to version 23.1.1.

gh-103548 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103548]: Improve performance of pathlib.Path.absolute() and cwd() by joining paths only when necessary. Also improve performance of pathlib.PurePath.is_absolute() on Posix by skipping path parsing and normalization.

gh-103538 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103538]: Remove _tkinter module code guarded by definition of the TK_AQUA macro which was only needed for Tk 8.4.7 or earlier and was never actually defined by any build system or documented for manual use.

gh-103533 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103533]: Update cProfile to use PEP 669 API

gh-103525 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103525]: Fix misleading exception message when mixed str and bytes arguments are supplied to pathlib.PurePath and Path.

gh-103489 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103489]: Add getconfig() and setconfig() to Connection to make configuration changes to a database connection. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

gh-103365 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103365]: Set default Flag boundary to STRICT and fix bitwise operations.

gh-103472 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103472]: Avoid a potential ResourceWarning in http.client.HTTPConnection by closing the proxy / tunnel's CONNECT response explicitly.

gh-103462 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103462]: Fixed an issue with using writelines() in asyncio to send very large payloads that exceed the amount of data that can be written in one call to socket.socket.send() or socket.socket.sendmsg(), resulting in the remaining buffer being left unwritten.

gh-103449 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103449]: Fix a bug in doc string generation in dataclasses.dataclass().

gh-103092 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103092]: Isolate _collections (apply PEP 687 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/]). Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

gh-103357 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103357]: Added support for logging.Formatter defaults parameter to logging.config.dictConfig() and logging.config.fileConfig(). Patch by Bar Harel.

gh-103092 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103092]: Adapt the winreg extension module to PEP 687 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/].

gh-74690 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74690]: The performance of isinstance() checks against runtime-checkable protocols has been considerably improved for protocols that only have a few members. To achieve this improvement, several internal implementation details of the typing module have been refactored, including typing._ProtocolMeta.__instancecheck__, typing._is_callable_members_only, and typing._get_protocol_attrs. Patches by Alex Waygood.

gh-74690 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74690]: The members of a runtime-checkable protocol are now considered "frozen" at runtime as soon as the class has been created. See "What's new in Python 3.12" for more details.

gh-103256 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103256]: Fixed a bug that caused hmac to raise an exception when the requested hash algorithm was not available in OpenSSL despite being available separately as part of hashlib itself. It now falls back properly to the built-in. This could happen when, for example, your OpenSSL does not include SHA3 support and you want to compute hmac.digest(b'K', b'M', 'sha3_256').

gh-102778 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102778]: Support sys.last_exc in idlelib.

gh-103285 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103285]: Improve performance of ast.get_source_segment().

gh-103225 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103225]: Fix a bug in pdb when displaying line numbers of module-level source code.

gh-103092 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103092]: Adapt the msvcrt extension module to PEP 687 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/].

gh-103092 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103092]: Adapt the winsound extension module to PEP 687 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/].

gh-93910 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93910]: Remove deprecation of enum member.member access.

gh-102978 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102978]: Fixes unittest.mock.patch() not enforcing function signatures for methods decorated with @classmethod or @staticmethod when patch is called with autospec=True.

gh-103092 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103092]: Isolate _socket (apply PEP 687 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/]). Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

gh-100479 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100479]: Add pathlib.PurePath.with_segments(), which creates a path object from arguments. This method is called whenever a derivative path is created, such as from pathlib.PurePath.parent. Subclasses may override this method to share information between path objects.

gh-103220 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103220]: Fix issue where os.path.join() added a slash when joining onto an incomplete UNC drive with a trailing slash on Windows.

gh-103204 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103204]: Fixes http.server accepting HTTP requests with HTTP version numbers preceded by '+', or '-', or with digit-separating '_' characters. The length of the version numbers is also constrained.

gh-75586 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75586]: Fix various Windows-specific issues with shutil.which.

gh-103193 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103193]: Improve performance of inspect.getattr_static(). Patch by Alex Waygood.

gh-103176 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103176]: sys._current_exceptions() now returns a mapping from thread-id to an exception instance, rather than to a (typ, exc, tb) tuple.

gh-103143 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103143]: Polish the help messages and docstrings of pdb.

gh-103015 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103015]: Add entrypoint keyword-only parameter to sqlite3.Connection.load_extension(), for overriding the SQLite extension entry point. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

gh-103000 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103000]: Improve performance of dataclasses.astuple() and dataclasses.asdict() in cases where the contents are common Python types.

gh-102953 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102953]: The extraction methods in tarfile, and shutil.unpack_archive(), have a new a filter argument that allows limiting tar features than may be surprising or dangerous, such as creating files outside the destination directory. See Extraction filters for details.

gh-97696 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97696]: Implemented an eager task factory in asyncio. When used as a task factory on an event loop, it performs eager execution of coroutines. Coroutines that are able to complete synchronously (e.g. return or raise without blocking) are returned immediately as a finished task, and the task is never scheduled to the event loop. If the coroutine blocks, the (pending) task is scheduled and returned.

gh-81079 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81079]: Add case_sensitive keyword-only argument to pathlib.Path.glob() and rglob().

gh-101819 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101819]: Isolate the io extension module by applying PEP 687 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/]. Patch by Kumar Aditya, Victor Stinner, and Erlend E. Aasland.

gh-91896 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896]: Deprecate collections.abc.ByteString

gh-101362 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101362]: Speed up pathlib.Path construction by omitting the path anchor from the internal list of path parts.

gh-102114 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102114]: Functions in the dis module that accept a source code string as argument now print a more concise traceback when the string contains a syntax or indentation error.

gh-62432 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/62432]: The unittest runner will now exit with status code 5 if no tests were run. It is common for test runner misconfiguration to fail to find any tests, this should be an error.

gh-78079 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78079]: Fix incorrect normalization of UNC device path roots, and partial UNC share path roots, in pathlib.PurePath. Pathlib no longer appends a trailing slash to such paths.

gh-85984 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85984]: Add tty.cfmakeraw() and tty.cfmakecbreak() to tty and modernize, the behavior of tty.setraw() and tty.setcbreak() to use POSIX.1-2017 Chapter 11 "General Terminal Interface" flag masks by default.

gh-101688 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101688]: Implement types.get_original_bases() to provide further introspection for types.

gh-101640 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101640]: argparse.ArgumentParser now catches errors when writing messages, such as when sys.stderr is None. Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

gh-83861 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83861]: Fix datetime.astimezone method return value when invoked on a naive datetime instance that represents local time falling in a timezone transition gap. PEP 495 requires that instances with fold=1 produce earlier times than those with fold=0 in this case.

gh-89550 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89550]: Decrease execution time of some gzip file writes by 15% by adding more appropriate buffering.

gh-95299 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95299]: Remove the bundled setuptools wheel from ensurepip, and stop installing setuptools in environments created by venv.

gh-99353 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99353]: Respect the http.client.HTTPConnection .debuglevel flag in urllib.request.AbstractHTTPHandler when its constructor parameter debuglevel is not set. And do the same for *HTTPS*.

gh-98040 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98040]: Remove the long-deprecated imp module.

gh-97850 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850]: Deprecate pkgutil.find_loader() and pkgutil.get_loader() in favor of importlib.util.find_spec().

gh-94473 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94473]: Flatten arguments in tkinter.Canvas.coords(). It now accepts not only x1, y1, x2, y2, ... and [x1, y1, x2, y2, ...], but also (x1, y1), (x2, y2), ... and [(x1, y1), (x2, y2), ...].

gh-98040 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98040]: Remove more deprecated importlib APIs: find_loader(), find_module(), importlib.abc.Finder, pkgutil.ImpImporter, pkgutil.ImpLoader.

gh-96522 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96522]: Fix potential deadlock in pty.spawn()

gh-96534 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96534]: Support divert(4) added in FreeBSD 14.

gh-87474 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87474]: Fix potential file descriptor leaks in subprocess.Popen.

gh-94906 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94906]: Support multiple steps in math.nextafter(). Patch by Shantanu Jain and Matthias Gorgens.

gh-51574 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/51574]: Make tempfile.mkdtemp() return absolute paths when its dir parameter is relative.

gh-94518 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94518]: Convert private _posixsubprocess.fork_exec() to use Argument Clinic.

gh-92184 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92184]: When creating zip files using zipfile, os.altsep, if not None, will always be treated as a path separator even when it is not /. Patch by Carey Metcalfe.

bpo-46797 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46797]: Deprecation warnings are now emitted for ast.Num, ast.Bytes, ast.Str, ast.NameConstant and ast.Ellipsis. These have been documented as deprecated since Python 3.8, and will be removed in Python 3.14.

bpo-44844 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44844]: Enables webbrowser to detect and launch Microsoft Edge browser.

bpo-45606 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45606]: Fixed the bug in pathlib.Path.glob() -- previously a dangling symlink would not be found by this method when the pattern is an exact match, but would be found when the pattern contains a wildcard or the recursive wildcard (**). With this change, a dangling symlink will be found in both cases.

bpo-23041 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23041]: Add QUOTE_STRINGS and QUOTE_NOTNULL to the suite of csv module quoting styles.

bpo-24964 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24964]: Added http.client.HTTPConnection.get_proxy_response_headers() that provides access to the HTTP headers on a proxy server response to the CONNECT request.

bpo-17258 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17258]: multiprocessing now supports stronger HMAC algorithms for inter-process connection authentication rather than only HMAC-MD5.

bpo-39744 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39744]: Make asyncio.subprocess.Process.communicate() close the subprocess's stdin even when called with input=None.

bpo-22708 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22708]: http.client CONNECT method tunnel improvements: Use HTTP 1.1 protocol; send a matching Host: header with CONNECT, if one is not provided; convert IDN domain names to Punycode. Patch by Michael Handler.

Documentation

gh-67056 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67056]: Document that the effect of registering or unregistering an atexit cleanup function from within a registered cleanup function is undefined.

gh-103629 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103629]: Mention the new way of typing **kwargs with Unpack and TypedDict introduced in PEP 692 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0692/].

gh-48241 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/48241]: Clarifying documentation about the url parameter to urllib.request.urlopen and urllib.request.Request needing to be encoded properly.

gh-86094 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86094]: Add support for Unicode Path Extra Field in ZipFile. Patch by Yeojin Kim and Andrea Giudiceandrea

gh-99202 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99202]: Fix extension type from documentation for compiling in C++20 mode

Tests

gh-104494 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104494]: Update test_pack_configure_in and test_place_configure_in for changes to error message formatting in Tk 8.7.

gh-104461 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104461]: Run test_configure_screen on X11 only, since the DISPLAY environment variable and -screen option for toplevels are not useful on Tk for Win32 or Aqua.

gh-86275 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86275]: Added property-based tests to the zoneinfo tests, along with stubs for the hypothesis interface. (Patch by Paul Ganssle)

gh-103329 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103329]: Regression tests for the behaviour of unittest.mock.PropertyMock were added.

gh-102795 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102795]: fix use of poll in test_epoll's test_control_and_wait

gh-75729 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75729]: Fix the os.spawn* tests failing on Windows when the working directory or interpreter path contains spaces.

Build

gh-101282 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101282]: BOLT optimization is now applied to the libpython shared library if building a shared library. BOLT instrumentation and application settings can now be influenced via the BOLT_INSTRUMENT_FLAGS and BOLT_APPLY_FLAGS configure variables.

gh-99017 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99017]: PYTHON_FOR_REGEN now require Python 3.10 or newer.

gh-104490 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104490]: Define .PHONY / virtual make targets consistently and properly.

gh-104106 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104106]: Add gcc fallback of mkfifoat/mknodat for macOS. Patch by Donghee Na.

gh-103532 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103532]: The TKINTER_PROTECT_LOADTK macro is no longer defined or used in the _tkinter module. It was previously only defined when building against Tk 8.4.13 and older, but Tk older than 8.5.12 has been unsupported since gh-91152 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91152].

gh-99069 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99069]: Extended workaround defining static_assert when missing from the libc headers to all clang and gcc builds. In particular, this fixes building on macOS <= 10.10.

gh-100220 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100220]: Changed the default value of the SHELL Makefile variable from /bin/sh to /bin/sh -e to ensure that complex recipes correctly fail after an error. Previously, make install could fail to install some files and yet return a successful result.

gh-90656 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90656]: Add platform triplets for 64-bit LoongArch:

loongarch64-linux-gnusf

loongarch64-linux-gnuf32

loongarch64-linux-gnu

Patch by Zhang Na.

Windows

gh-104623 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104623]: Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.42.0.

gh-82814 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82814]: Fix a potential [Errno 13] Permission denied when using shutil.copystat() within Windows Subsystem for Linux (WSL) on a mounted filesystem by adding errno.EACCES to the list of ignored errors within the internal implementation.

gh-103088 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103088]: Fix virtual environment activate script having incorrect line endings for Cygwin.

gh-103088 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103088]: Fixes venvs not working in bash on Windows across different disks

gh-102997 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102997]: Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.41.2.

gh-88013 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88013]: Fixed a bug where TypeError was raised when calling ntpath.realpath() with a bytes parameter in some cases.

macOS

gh-99834 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99834]: Update macOS installer to Tcl/Tk 8.6.13.

gh-104623 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104623]: Update macOS installer to SQLite 3.42.0.

gh-103545 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103545]: Add os.PRIO_DARWIN_THREAD, os.PRIO_DARWIN_PROCESS, os.PRIO_DARWIN_BG and os.PRIO_DARWIN_NONUI. These can be used with os.setpriority to run the process at a lower priority and make use of the efficiency cores on Apple Silicon systems.

gh-104180 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104180]: Support reading SOCKS proxy configuration from macOS System Configuration. Patch by Sam Schott.

gh-60436 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/60436]: update curses textbox to additionally handle backspace using the curses.ascii.DEL key press.

gh-102997 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102997]: Update macOS installer to SQLite 3.41.2.

IDLE

gh-104499 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104499]: Fix completions for Tk Aqua 8.7 (currently blank).

gh-104496 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104496]: About prints both tcl and tk versions if different (expected someday).

gh-88496 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88496]: Fix IDLE test hang on macOS.

Tools/Demos

gh-104389 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104389]: Argument Clinic C converters now accept the unused keyword, for wrapping a parameter with Py_UNUSED. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

C API

gh-101291 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101291]: Added unstable C API for extracting the value of "compact" integers: PyUnstable_Long_IsCompact() and PyUnstable_Long_CompactValue().

gh-104109 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104109]: We've added Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig() and PyInterpreterConfig to the public C-API (but not the stable ABI; not yet at least). The new function may be used to create a new interpreter with various features configured. The function was added to support PEP 684 (per-interpreter GIL).

gh-103968 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103968]: PyType_FromSpec() and its variants now allow creating classes whose metaclass overrides tp_new. The tp_new is ignored. This behavior is deprecated and will be disallowed in 3.14+. The new PyType_FromMetaclass() already disallows it.

gh-103743 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103743]: Add PyUnstable_Object_GC_NewWithExtraData() function that can be used to allocate additional memory after an object for data not managed by Python.

gh-103295 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103295]: Introduced PyUnstable_WritePerfMapEntry(), PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Init() and PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Fini(). These allow extension modules (JIT compilers in particular) to write to perf-map files in a thread safe manner. The Python support for the Linux perf profiler also uses these APIs to write entries in the perf-map file.

gh-103509 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103509]: Added C API for extending types whose instance memory layout is opaque: PyType_Spec.basicsize can now be zero or negative, PyObject_GetTypeData() can be used to get subclass-specific data, and Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END can be used to safely extend variable-size objects. See PEP 697 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0697/] for details.

gh-103091 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103091]: Add a new C-API function to eagerly assign a version tag to a PyTypeObject: PyUnstable_Type_AssignVersionTag().

gh-101408 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101408]: PyObject_GC_Resize should calculate preheader size if needed. Patch by Donghee Na.

gh-98836 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98836]: Add support of more formatting options (left aligning, octals, uppercase hexadecimals, intmax_t, ptrdiff_t, wchar_t C strings, variable width and precision) in PyUnicode_FromFormat() and PyUnicode_FromFormatV().

gh-96803 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96803]: Add unstable C-API functions to get the code object, lasti and line number from the internal _PyInterpreterFrame in the limited API. The functions are:

PyCodeObject * PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetCode(struct _PyInterpreterFrame *frame)

int PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetLasti(struct _PyInterpreterFrame *frame)

int PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetLine(struct _PyInterpreterFrame *frame)

Python 3.12.0 alpha 7

Release date: 2023-04-04

Core and Builtins

gh-102192 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102192]: Deprecated _PyErr_ChainExceptions in favour of _PyErr_ChainExceptions1.

gh-89987 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89987]: Reduce the number of inline CACHE entries for BINARY_SUBSCR.

gh-102859 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102859]: Removed JUMP_IF_FALSE_OR_POP and JUMP_IF_TRUE_OR_POP instructions.

gh-101975 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101975]: Fixed stacktop value on tracing entries to avoid corruption on garbage collection.

gh-102778 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102778]: Add sys.last_exc and deprecate sys.last_type, sys.last_value and sys.last_traceback, which hold the same information in its legacy form.

gh-100982 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100982]: Replace all occurrences of COMPARE_AND_BRANCH with COMPARE_OP.

gh-102701 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102701]: Fix overflow when creating very large dict.

gh-102755 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102755]: Add PyErr_DisplayException() which takes just an exception instance, to replace the legacy PyErr_Display() which takes the (typ, exc, tb) triplet.

gh-102594 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102594]: Add note to exception raised in PyErr_SetObject when normalization fails.

gh-90997 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90997]: Shrink the number of inline CACHE entries used by LOAD_GLOBAL.

Library

gh-102491 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102491]: Improve import time of platform by removing IronPython version parsing. The IronPython version parsing was not functional (see https://github.com/IronLanguages/ironpython3/issues/1667).

Core and Builtins

gh-101291 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101291]: Rearrage bits in first field (after header) of PyLongObject. * Bits 0 and 1: 1 - sign. I.e. 0 for positive numbers, 1 for zero and 2 for negative numbers. * Bit 2 reserved (probably for the immortal bit) * Bits 3+ the unsigned size.

This makes a few operations slightly more efficient, and will enable a more compact and faster 2s-complement representation of most ints in future.

gh-102397 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102397]: Fix segfault from race condition in signal handling during garbage collection. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-102406 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102406]: codecs encoding/decoding errors now get the context information (which operation and which codecs) attached as PEP 678 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0678/] notes instead of through chaining a new instance of the exception.

gh-102281 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102281]: Fix potential nullptr dereference and use of uninitialized memory in fileutils. Patch by Max Bachmann.

gh-102300 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102300]: Reuse operands with refcount of 1 in float specializations of BINARY_OP.

gh-102213 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102213]: Fix performance loss when accessing an object's attributes with __getattr__ defined.

gh-102255 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102255]: Improve build support for the Xbox. Patch by Max Bachmann.

Build

gh-102027 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102027]: Fix SSE2 and SSE3 detection in _blake2 internal module. Patch by Max Bachmann.

Core and Builtins

gh-101865 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101865]: Deprecate co_lnotab in code objects, schedule it for removal in Python 3.14

Library

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Adapt _pickle to PEP 687 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/]. Patch by Mohamed Koubaa and Erlend Aasland.

gh-103085 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103085]: Pure python locale.getencoding() will not warn deprecation.

gh-103068 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103068]: It's no longer possible to register conditional breakpoints in Pdb that raise SyntaxError. Patch by Tian Gao.

gh-102549 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102549]: Don't ignore exceptions in member type creation.

gh-103056 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103056]: Ensure final _generate_next_value_ is a staticmethod.

gh-103046 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103046]: Display current line label correctly in dis when show_caches is False and lasti points to a CACHE entry.

gh-102433 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102433]: isinstance() checks against runtime-checkable protocols now use inspect.getattr_static() rather than hasattr() to lookup whether attributes exist. This means that descriptors and __getattr__() methods are no longer unexpectedly evaluated during isinstance() checks against runtime-checkable protocols. However, it may also mean that some objects which used to be considered instances of a runtime-checkable protocol may no longer be considered instances of that protocol on Python 3.12+, and vice versa. Most users are unlikely to be affected by this change. Patch by Alex Waygood.

gh-103023 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103023]: It's no longer possible to register expressions to display in Pdb that raise SyntaxError. Patch by Tian Gao.

gh-102947 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102947]: Improve traceback when dataclasses.fields() is called on a non-dataclass. Patch by Alex Waygood

gh-102780 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102780]: The asyncio.Timeout context manager now works reliably even when performing cleanup due to task cancellation. Previously it could raise a CancelledError instead of an TimeoutError in such cases.

gh-102871 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102871]: Remove support for obsolete browsers from webbrowser. Removed browsers include Grail, Mosaic, Netscape, Galeon, Skipstone, Iceape, Firebird, and Firefox versions 35 and below.

gh-102839 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102839]: Improve performance of math.log() arguments handling by removing the argument clinic.

gh-102828 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102828]: Add the onexc arg to shutil.rmtree(), which is like onerror but expects an exception instance rather than an exc_info tuple. Deprecate onerror.

gh-88965 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88965]: typing: Fix a bug relating to substitution in custom classes generic over a ParamSpec. Previously, if the ParamSpec was substituted with a parameters list that itself contained a TypeVar, the TypeVar in the parameters list could not be subsequently substituted. This is now fixed.

Patch by Nikita Sobolev.

gh-76846 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/76846]: Fix issue where __new__() and __init__() methods of pathlib.PurePath and Path subclasses were not called in some circumstances.

gh-78530 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78530]: asyncio.wait() now accepts generators yielding tasks. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-102748 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102748]: asyncio.iscoroutine() now returns False for generators as asyncio does not support legacy generator-based coroutines. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-102670 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102670]: Optimized fmean(), correlation(), covariance(), and linear_regression() using the new math.sumprod() function.

gh-102615 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102615]: Typing: Improve the repr of generic aliases for classes generic over a ParamSpec. (Use square brackets to represent a parameter list.)

gh-100112 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100112]: asyncio.Task.get_coro() now always returns a coroutine when wrapping an awaitable object. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-102578 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102578]: Speed up setting or deleting mutable attributes on non-dataclass subclasses of frozen dataclasses. Due to the implementation of __setattr__ and __delattr__ for frozen dataclasses, this previously had a time complexity of O(n). It now has a time complexity of O(1).

gh-102519 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102519]: Add os.listdrives(), os.listvolumes() and os.listmounts() functions on Windows for enumerating drives, volumes and mount points

gh-74468 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74468]: Attribute name of the extracted tarfile file object now holds filename of itself rather than of the archive it is contained in. Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

gh-102378 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102378]: Private helper method inspect._signature_strip_non_python_syntax will no longer strip / from the input string.

gh-79940 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79940]: Add inspect.getasyncgenstate() and inspect.getasyncgenlocals(). Patch by Thomas Krennwallner.

gh-102103 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102103]: Add module argument to dataclasses.make_dataclass() and make classes produced by it pickleable.

gh-102069 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102069]: Fix __weakref__ descriptor generation for custom dataclasses.

gh-102038 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102038]: Skip a stat in site if we have already found a pyvenv.cfg

gh-98886 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98886]: Fix issues when defining dataclasses that have fields with specific underscore names that aren't clearly reserved by dataclasses.

gh-101673 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101673]: Fix a pdb bug where ll clears the changes to local variables.

gh-101313 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101313]: Added -h and --help arguments to the webbrowser CLI

gh-100372 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100372]: ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations() no longer incorrectly accepts some cases of trailing data when parsing DER.

gh-89727 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89727]: Fix pathlib.Path.walk RecursionError on deep directory trees by rewriting it using iteration instead of recursion.

gh-100131 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100131]: Added an optional delete keyword argument to tempfile.TemporaryDirectory.

gh-48330 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/48330]: Added --durations command line option, showing the N slowest test cases. unittest.TextTestRunner and unittest.TextTestResult constructors accept a new durations keyword argument. Subclasses should take this into account or accept **kwargs. Added unittest.TestResult.addDuration() method and unittest.TestResult.collectedDurations attribute.

(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola)

gh-98169 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98169]: Fix dataclasses.astuple() crash when collections.defaultdict is present in the attributes.

gh-96931 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96931]: Fix incorrect results from ssl.SSLSocket.shared_ciphers()

gh-95495 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95495]: When built against OpenSSL 3.0, the ssl module had a bug where it reported unauthenticated EOFs (i.e. without close_notify) as a clean TLS-level EOF. It now raises SSLEOFError, matching the behavior in previous versions of OpenSSL. The options attribute on SSLContext also no longer includes OP_IGNORE_UNEXPECTED_EOF by default. This option may be set to specify the previous OpenSSL 3.0 behavior.

gh-94684 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94684]: Now uuid.uuid3() and uuid.uuid5() functions support bytes objects as their name argument.

gh-94440 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94440]: Fix a concurrent.futures.process bug where ProcessPoolExecutor shutdown could hang after a future has been quickly submitted and canceled.

gh-72346 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72346]: Added deprecation warning to isdst parameter of email.utils.localtime().

bpo-36305 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36305]: Fix handling of Windows filenames that resemble drives, such as ./a:b, in pathlib.

Documentation

gh-103112 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103112]: Add docstring to http.client.HTTPResponse.read() to fix pydoc output.

Tests

gh-102980 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102980]: Improve test coverage on pdb.

gh-102537 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102537]: Adjust the error handling strategy in test_zoneinfo.TzPathTest.python_tzpath_context. Patch by Paul Ganssle.

gh-101377 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101377]: Improved test_locale_calendar_formatweekday of calendar.

Build

gh-102973 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102973]: Add a dev container (along with accompanying Dockerfile) for development purposes.

gh-102711 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102711]: Fix -Wstrict-prototypes compiler warnings.

Windows

gh-102690 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102690]: Update webbrowser to fall back to Microsoft Edge instead of Internet Explorer.

gh-99726 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99726]: Improves correctness of stat results for Windows, and uses faster API when available

Tools/Demos

gh-102809 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102809]: Misc/gdbinit was removed.

C API

gh-102013 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102013]: Add a new (unstable) C-API function for iterating over GC'able objects using a callback: PyUnstable_VisitObjects.

Python 3.12.0 alpha 6

Release date: 2023-03-07

Security

gh-99108 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108]: Replace builtin hashlib implementations of MD5 and SHA1 with verified ones from the HACL* project.

gh-101727 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101727]: Updated the OpenSSL version used in Windows and macOS binary release builds to 1.1.1t to address CVE 2023-0286 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-0286], CVE 2022-4303 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2022-4303], and CVE 2022-4303 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2022-4303] per the OpenSSL 2023-02-07 security advisory [https://openssl-library.org/news/secadv/20230207.txt].

gh-99108 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108]: Replace the builtin hashlib implementations of SHA2-384 and SHA2-512 originally from LibTomCrypt with formally verified, side-channel resistant code from the HACL* [https://github.com/hacl-star/hacl-star/] project. The builtins remain a fallback only used when OpenSSL does not provide them.

gh-101283 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101283]: subprocess.Popen now uses a safer approach to find cmd.exe when launching with shell=True. Patch by Eryk Sun, based on a patch by Oleg Iarygin.

Core and Builtins

gh-102493 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102493]: Fix regression in semantics of normalisation in PyErr_SetObject.

gh-102416 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102416]: Do not memoize incorrectly automatically generated loop rules in the parser. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

gh-102356 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102356]: Fix a bug that caused a crash when deallocating deeply nested filter objects. Patch by Marta Gómez Macías.

gh-102336 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102336]: Cleanup Windows 7 specific special handling. Patch by Max Bachmann.

gh-102250 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102250]: Fixed a segfault occurring when the interpreter calls a __bool__ method that raises.

gh-102126 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102126]: Fix deadlock at shutdown when clearing thread states if any finalizer tries to acquire the runtime head lock. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-102027 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102027]: Use GetCurrentProcessId on Windows when getpid is unavailable. Patch by Max Bachmann.

gh-102056 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102056]: Fix error handling bugs in interpreter's exception printing code, which could cause a crash on infinite recursion.

gh-100982 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100982]: Restrict the scope of the FOR_ITER_RANGE instruction to the scope of the original FOR_ITER instruction, to allow instrumentation.

gh-101967 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101967]: Fix possible segfault in positional_only_passed_as_keyword function, when new list created.

gh-101952 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101952]: Fix possible segfault in BUILD_SET opcode, when new set created.

gh-74895 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74895]: socket.getaddrinfo no longer raises OverflowError for int port values outside of the C long range. Out of range values are left up to the underlying string based C library API to report. A socket.gaierror SAI_SERVICE may occur instead, or no error at all as not all platform C libraries generate an error.

gh-101799 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101799]: Add CALL_INTRINSIC_2 and use it instead of PREP_RERAISE_STAR.

gh-101857 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101857]: Fix xattr support detection on Linux systems by widening the check to linux, not just glibc. This fixes support for musl.

gh-84783 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84783]: Make the slice object hashable. Patch by Will Bradshaw and Furkan Onder.

gh-87849 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87849]: Change the SEND instruction to leave the receiver on the stack. This allows the specialized form of SEND to skip the chain of C calls and jump directly to the RESUME in the generator or coroutine.

gh-101765 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101765]: Fix SystemError / segmentation fault in iter __reduce__ when internal access of builtins.__dict__ keys mutates the iter object.

gh-101430 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101430]: Update tracemalloc to handle presize of object properly. Patch by Donghee Na.

gh-101696 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101696]: Invalidate type version tag in _PyStaticType_Dealloc for static types, avoiding bug where a false cache hit could crash the interpreter. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-101632 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101632]: Adds a new RETURN_CONST instruction.

gh-100719 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100719]: Remove gi_code field from generator (and coroutine and async generator) objects as it is redundant. The frame already includes a reference to the code object.

gh-98627 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98627]: When an interpreter is configured to check (and only then), importing an extension module will now fail when the extension does not support multiple interpreters (i.e. doesn't implement PEP 489 multi-phase init). This does not apply to the main interpreter, nor to subinterpreters created with Py_NewInterpreter().

Library

gh-102302 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102302]: Micro-optimise hashing of inspect.Parameter, reducing the time it takes to hash an instance by around 40%.

gh-101979 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101979]: Fix a bug where parentheses in the metavar argument to argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument() were dropped. Patch by Yeojin Kim.

gh-91038 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91038]: platform.platform() now has boolean default arguments.

gh-81652 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81652]: Add mmap.MAP_ALIGNED_SUPER FreeBSD and mmap.MAP_CONCEAL OpenBSD constants to mmap. Patch by Yeojin Kim.

gh-102179 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102179]: Fix os.dup2() error message for negative fds.

gh-101961 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101961]: For the binary mode, fileinput.hookcompressed() doesn't set the encoding value even if the value is None. Patch by Gihwan Kim.

gh-101936 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101936]: The default value of fp becomes io.BytesIO if HTTPError is initialized without a designated fp parameter. Patch by Long Vo.

gh-101566 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101566]: In zipfile, sync Path with zipp 3.14 [https://zipp.readthedocs.io/en/latest/history.html#v3-14-0], including fix for extractall on the underlying zipfile after being wrapped in Path.

gh-97930 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97930]: Apply changes from importlib_resources 5.12 [https://importlib-resources.readthedocs.io/en/latest/history.html#v5-12-0], including fix for MultiplexedPath to support directories in multiple namespaces (python/importlib_resources#265).

gh-101997 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101997]: Upgrade pip wheel bundled with ensurepip (pip 23.0.1)

gh-99108 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108]: The built-in extension modules for hashlib SHA2 algorithms, used when OpenSSL does not provide them, now live in a single internal _sha2 module instead of separate _sha256 and _sha512 modules.

gh-101892 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101892]: Callable iterators no longer raise SystemError when the callable object exhausts the iterator but forgets to either return a sentinel value or raise StopIteration.

gh-87634 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87634]: Remove locking behavior from functools.cached_property().

gh-97786 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97786]: Fix potential undefined behaviour in corner cases of floating-point-to-time conversions.

gh-101517 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101517]: Fixed bug where bdb looks up the source line with linecache with a lineno=None, which causes it to fail with an unhandled exception.

gh-101773 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101773]: Optimize fractions.Fraction for small components. The private argument _normalize of the fractions.Fraction constructor has been removed.

gh-101693 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101693]: In sqlite3.Cursor.execute(), DeprecationWarning is now emitted when named placeholders are used together with parameters supplied as a sequence instead of as a dict. Starting from Python 3.14, using named placeholders with parameters supplied as a sequence will raise a ProgrammingError. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

gh-101446 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101446]: Change repr of collections.OrderedDict to use regular dictionary formatting instead of pairs of keys and values.

gh-101362 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101362]: Speed up pathlib.PurePath construction by handling arguments more uniformly. When a pathlib.Path argument is supplied, we use its string representation rather than joining its parts with os.path.join().

gh-101362 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101362]: Speed up pathlib.PurePath construction by calling os.path.join() only when two or more arguments are given.

gh-101362 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101362]: Speed up pathlib.Path construction by running the path flavour compatibility check only when pathlib is imported.

gh-85984 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85984]: Refactored the implementation of pty.fork() to use os.login_tty().

A DeprecationWarning is now raised by pty.master_open() and pty.slave_open(). They were undocumented and deprecated long long ago in the docstring in favor of pty.openpty().

gh-101561 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101561]: Add a new decorator typing.override(). See PEP 698 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0698/] for details. Patch by Steven Troxler.

gh-63301 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/63301]: Set exit code when tabnanny CLI exits on error.

gh-101360 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101360]: Fix anchor matching in pathlib.PureWindowsPath.match(). Path and pattern anchors are now matched with fnmatch, just like other path parts. This allows patterns such as "*:/Users/*" to be matched.

gh-101277 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101277]: Remove global state from itertools module (PEP 687 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/]). Patches by Erlend E. Aasland.

gh-100809 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100809]: Fix handling of drive-relative paths (like 'C:' and 'C:foo') in pathlib.Path.absolute(). This method now uses the OS API to retrieve the correct current working directory for the drive.

gh-99138 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99138]: Apply PEP 687 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/] to zoneinfo. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

gh-96764 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96764]: asyncio.wait_for() now uses asyncio.timeout() as its underlying implementation. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-88233 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88233]: Correctly preserve "extra" fields in zipfile regardless of their ordering relative to a zip64 "extra."

bpo-23224 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23224]: Fix segfaults when creating lzma.LZMADecompressor and bz2.BZ2Decompressor objects without calling __init__(), and fix leakage of locks and internal buffers when calling the __init__() methods of lzma.LZMADecompressor, lzma.LZMACompressor, bz2.BZ2Compressor, and bz2.BZ2Decompressor objects multiple times.

Documentation

gh-85417 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85417]: Update cmath documentation to clarify behaviour on branch cuts.

gh-97725 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97725]: Fix asyncio.Task.print_stack() description for file=None. Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

Tests

gh-102019 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102019]: Fix deadlock on shutdown if test_current_{exception,frames} fails. Patch by Jacob Bower.

gh-85984 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85984]: Utilize new "winsize" functions from termios in pty tests.

gh-89792 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89792]: test_tools now copies up to 10x less source data to a temporary directory during the freeze test by ignoring git metadata and other artifacts. It also limits its python build parallelism based on os.cpu_count instead of hard coding it as 8 cores.

Build

gh-99942 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99942]: On Android, in a static build, python-config in embed mode no longer incorrectly reports a library to link to.

gh-99942 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99942]: On Android, python.pc now correctly reports the library to link to, the same as python-config.sh.

gh-100221 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100221]: Fix creating install directories in make sharedinstall if they exist outside DESTDIR already.

gh-96821 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96821]: Explicitly mark C extension modules that need defined signed integer overflow, and add a configure option --with-strict-overflow. Patch by Matthias Görgens and Shantanu Jain.

Windows

gh-102344 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102344]: Implement winreg.QueryValue using QueryValueEx and winreg.SetValue using SetValueEx. Patch by Max Bachmann.

gh-101881 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101881]: Handle read and write operations on non-blocking pipes properly on Windows.

gh-101881 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101881]: Add support for the os.get_blocking() and os.set_blocking() functions on Windows.

gh-101849 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101849]: Ensures installer will correctly upgrade existing py.exe launcher installs.

gh-101763 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101763]: Updates copy of libffi bundled with Windows installs to 3.4.4.

gh-101759 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101759]: Update Windows installer to SQLite 3.40.1.

gh-101614 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101614]: Correctly handle extensions built against debug binaries that reference python3_d.dll.

gh-101196 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101196]: The functions os.path.isdir, os.path.isfile, os.path.islink and os.path.exists are now 13% to 28% faster on Windows, by making fewer Win32 API calls.

macOS

gh-101759 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101759]: Update macOS installer to SQLite 3.40.1.

C API

gh-101907 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101907]: Removes use of non-standard C++ extension in public header files.

gh-99293 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99293]: Document that the Py_TPFLAGS_VALID_VERSION_TAG is an internal feature, should not be used, and will be removed.

gh-101578 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101578]: Add PyErr_GetRaisedException() and PyErr_SetRaisedException() for saving and restoring the current exception. These functions return and accept a single exception object, rather than the triple arguments of the now-deprecated PyErr_Fetch() and PyErr_Restore(). This is less error prone and a bit more efficient.

Add PyException_GetArgs() and PyException_SetArgs() as convenience functions for retrieving and modifying the args passed to the exception's constructor.

gh-91744 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91744]: Introduced the Unstable C API tier, marking APi that is allowed to change in minor releases without a deprecation period. See PEP 689 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0689/] for details.

Python 3.12.0 alpha 5

Release date: 2023-02-07

Security

gh-99108 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108]: Replace the builtin hashlib implementations of SHA2-224 and SHA2-256 originally from LibTomCrypt with formally verified, side-channel resistant code from the HACL* [https://github.com/hacl-star/hacl-star/] project. The builtins remain a fallback only used when OpenSSL does not provide them.

Core and Builtins

gh-92173 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92173]: Fix the defs and kwdefs arguments to PyEval_EvalCodeEx() and a reference leak in that function.

gh-59956 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59956]: The GILState API is now partially compatible with subinterpreters. Previously, PyThreadState_GET() and PyGILState_GetThisThreadState() would get out of sync, causing inconsistent behavior and crashes.

gh-101400 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101400]: Fix wrong lineno in exception message on continue or break which are not in a loop. Patch by Donghee Na.

gh-101372 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101372]: Fix is_normalized() to properly handle the UCD 3.2.0 cases. Patch by Donghee Na.

gh-101266 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101266]: Fix sys.getsizeof() reporting for int subclasses.

gh-101291 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101291]: Refactor the PyLongObject struct into a normal Python object header and a PyLongValue struct.

gh-101046 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101046]: Fix a possible memory leak in the parser when raising MemoryError. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-101037 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101037]: Fix potential memory underallocation issue for instances of int subclasses with value zero.

gh-100762 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100762]: Record the (virtual) exception block depth in the oparg of YIELD_VALUE. Use this to avoid the expensive throw() when closing generators (and coroutines) that can be closed trivially.

gh-100982 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100982]: Adds a new COMPARE_AND_BRANCH instruction. This is a bit more efficient when performing a comparison immediately followed by a branch, and restores the design intent of PEP 659 that specializations are local to a single instruction.

gh-100942 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100942]: Fixed segfault in property.getter/setter/deleter that occurred when a property subclass overrode the __new__ method to return a non-property instance.

gh-100923 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100923]: Remove the mask cache entry for the COMPARE_OP instruction and embed the mask into the oparg.

gh-100892 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100892]: Fix race while iterating over thread states in clearing threading.local. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-91351 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91351]: Fix a case where re-entrant imports could corrupt the import deadlock detection code and cause a KeyError to be raised out of importlib/_bootstrap. In addition to the straightforward cases, this could also happen when garbage collection leads to a warning being emitted -- as happens when it collects an open socket or file)

gh-100726 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100726]: Optimize construction of range object for medium size integers.

gh-100712 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100712]: Added option to build cpython with specialization disabled, by setting ENABLE_SPECIALIZATION=False in opcode, followed by make regen-all.

Library

bpo-32780 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32780]: Inter-field padding is now inserted into the PEP3118 format strings obtained from ctypes.Structure objects, reflecting their true representation in memory.

gh-101541 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101541]: [Enum] - fix psuedo-flag creation

gh-101570 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101570]: Upgrade pip wheel bundled with ensurepip (pip 23.0)

gh-101323 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101323]: Fix a bug where errors where not thrown by zlib._ZlibDecompressor if encountered during decompressing.

gh-101317 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101317]: Add ssl_shutdown_timeout parameter for asyncio.StreamWriter.start_tls().

gh-101326 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101326]: Fix regression when passing None as second or third argument to FutureIter.throw.

gh-92123 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92123]: Adapt the _elementtree extension module to multi-phase init (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]). Patches by Erlend E. Aasland.

gh-100795 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100795]: Avoid potential unexpected freeaddrinfo call (double free) in socket when when a libc getaddrinfo() implementation leaves garbage in an output pointer when returning an error. Original patch by Sergey G. Brester.

gh-101143 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101143]: Remove unused references to TimerHandle in asyncio.base_events.BaseEventLoop._add_callback.

gh-101144 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101144]: Make zipfile.Path.open() and zipfile.Path.read_text() also accept encoding as a positional argument. This was the behavior in Python 3.9 and earlier. 3.10 introduced a regression where supplying it as a positional argument would lead to a TypeError.

gh-94518 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94518]: Group-related variables of _posixsubprocess module are renamed to stress that supplementary group affinity is added to a fork, not replace the inherited ones. Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

gh-101015 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101015]: Fix typing.get_type_hints() on '*tuple[...]' and *tuple[...]. It must not drop the Unpack part.

gh-101000 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101000]: Add os.path.splitroot(), which splits a path into a 3-item tuple (drive, root, tail). This new function is used by pathlib to improve the performance of path construction by up to a third.

gh-100573 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100573]: Fix a Windows asyncio bug with named pipes where a client doing os.stat() on the pipe would cause an error in the server that disabled serving future requests.

gh-39615 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/39615]: warnings.warn() now has the ability to skip stack frames based on code filename prefix rather than only a numeric stacklevel via the new skip_file_prefixes keyword argument.

gh-100750 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100750]: pass encoding kwarg to subprocess in platform

gh-100160 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100160]: Emit a deprecation warning in asyncio.DefaultEventLoopPolicy.get_event_loop() if there is no current event loop set and it decides to create one.

gh-96290 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96290]: Fix handling of partial and invalid UNC drives in ntpath.splitdrive(), and in ntpath.normpath() on non-Windows systems. Paths such as '\server' and '\' are now considered by splitdrive() to contain only a drive, and consequently are not modified by normpath() on non-Windows systems. The behaviour of normpath() on Windows systems is unaffected, as native OS APIs are used. Patch by Eryk Sun, with contributions by Barney Gale.

gh-99952 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99952]: Fix a reference undercounting issue in ctypes.Structure with from_param() results larger than a C pointer.

gh-67790 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67790]: Add float-style formatting support for fractions.Fraction instances.

gh-99266 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99266]: Preserve more detailed error messages in ctypes.

gh-86682 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86682]: Ensure runtime-created collections have the correct module name using the newly added (internal) sys._getframemodulename().

gh-88597 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88597]: uuid now has a command line interface. Try python -m uuid -h.

gh-60580 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/60580]: ctypes.wintypes.BYTE definition changed from c_byte to c_ubyte to match Windows SDK. Patch by Anatoly Techtonik and Oleg Iarygin.

gh-94518 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94518]: _posixsubprocess now initializes all UID and GID variables using a reserved -1 value instead of a separate flag. Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

bpo-38941 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38941]: The xml.etree.ElementTree module now emits DeprecationWarning when testing the truth value of an xml.etree.ElementTree.Element. Before, the Python implementation emitted FutureWarning, and the C implementation emitted nothing.

bpo-40077 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40077]: Convert elementtree types to heap types. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-29847 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29847]: Fix a bug where pathlib.Path accepted and ignored keyword arguments. Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

gh-77772 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77772]: ctypes.CDLL, ctypes.OleDLL, ctypes.WinDLL, and ctypes.PyDLL now accept path-like objects as their name argument. Patch by Robert Hoelzl.

Documentation

gh-88324 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88324]: Reword subprocess to emphasize default behavior of stdin, stdout, and stderr arguments. Remove inaccurate statement about child file handle inheritance.

Tests

gh-101334 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101334]: test_tarfile has been updated to pass when run as a high UID.

Build

gh-101282 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101282]: Update BOLT configuration not to use deprecated usage of --split functions. Patch by Donghee Na.

gh-101522 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101522]: Allow overriding Windows dependencies versions and paths using MSBuild properties.

gh-77532 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77532]: Minor fixes to allow building with PlatformToolset=ClangCL on Windows.

gh-101152 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101152]: In accordance with PEP 699 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0699/], the ma_version_tag field in PyDictObject is deprecated for extension modules. Accessing this field will generate a compiler warning at compile time. This field will be removed in Python 3.14.

gh-100340 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100340]: Allows -Wno-int-conversion for wasm-sdk 17 and onwards, thus enables building WASI builds once against the latest sdk.

gh-101060 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101060]: Conditionally add -fno-reorder-blocks-and-partition in configure. Effectively fixes --enable-bolt when using Clang, as this appears to be a GCC-only flag.

gh-98705 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98705]: __bool__ is defined in AIX system header files which breaks the build in AIX, so undefine it.

gh-98636 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98636]: Fix a regression in detecting gdbm_compat library for the _gdbm module build.

gh-96305 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96305]: _aix_support now uses a simple code to get platform details rather than the now non-existent _bootsubprocess during bootstrap.

Windows

gh-101543 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101543]: Ensure the install path in the registry is only used when the standard library hasn't been located in any other way.

gh-101467 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101467]: The py.exe launcher now correctly filters when only a single runtime is installed. It also correctly handles prefix matches on tags so that -3.1 does not match 3.11, but would still match 3.1-32.

gh-99834 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99834]: Updates bundled copy of Tcl/Tk to 8.6.13.0

gh-101135 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101135]: Restore ability to launch older 32-bit versions from the py.exe launcher when both 32-bit and 64-bit installs of the same version are available.

gh-82052 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82052]: Fixed an issue where writing more than 32K of Unicode output to the console screen in one go can result in mojibake.

gh-100320 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100320]: Ensures the PythonPath registry key from an install is used when launching from a different copy of Python that relies on an existing install to provide a copy of its modules and standard library.

gh-100247 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100247]: Restores support for the py.exe launcher finding shebang commands in its configuration file using the full command name.

Python 3.12.0 alpha 4

Release date: 2023-01-10

Core and Builtins

gh-100776 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100776]: Fix misleading default value in input()'s __text_signature__.

gh-99005 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99005]: Remove UNARY_POSITIVE, ASYNC_GEN_WRAP and LIST_TO_TUPLE, replacing them with intrinsics.

gh-99005 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99005]: Add new CALL_INTRINSIC_1 instruction. Remove IMPORT_STAR, PRINT_EXPR and STOPITERATION_ERROR, replacing them with the CALL_INTRINSIC_1 instruction.

gh-100288 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100288]: Remove the LOAD_ATTR_METHOD_WITH_DICT specialized instruction. Stats show it is not useful.

gh-100720 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100720]: Added _PyFrame_NumSlotsForCodeObject, which returns the number of slots needed in a frame for a given code object.

gh-100719 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100719]: Removed the co_nplaincellvars field from the code object, as it is redundant.

gh-100637 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100637]: Fix int.__sizeof__() calculation to include the 1-element ob_digit array for 0 and False.

gh-100649 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100649]: Update the native_thread_id field of PyThreadState after fork.

gh-100126 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100126]: Fix an issue where "incomplete" frames could be briefly visible to C code while other frames are being torn down, possibly resulting in corruption or hard crashes of the interpreter while running finalizers.

gh-87447 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87447]: Fix SyntaxError on comprehension rebind checking with names that are not actually redefined.

Now reassigning b in [(b := 1) for a, b.prop in some_iter] is allowed. Reassigning a is still disallowed as per PEP 572 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/].

gh-100268 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100268]: Add int.is_integer() to improve duck type compatibility between int and float.

gh-100425 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100425]: Improve the accuracy of sum() with compensated summation.

Library

gh-100374 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100374]: Fix incorrect result and delay in socket.getfqdn(). Patch by Dominic Socular.

Core and Builtins

gh-100357 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100357]: Convert vars, dir, next, getattr, and iter to argument clinic.

gh-100117 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100117]: Improve the output of codeobject.co_lines() by emitting only one entry for each line range.

gh-90043 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90043]: Handle NaNs when specializing COMPARE_OP for float values.

gh-100222 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100222]: Redefine the _Py_CODEUNIT typedef as a union to describe its layout to the C compiler, avoiding type punning and improving clarity.

gh-99955 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99955]: Internal compiler functions (in compile.c) now consistently return -1 on error and 0 on success.

gh-100188 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100188]: The BINARY_SUBSCR_LIST_INT and BINARY_SUBSCR_TUPLE_INT instructions are no longer used for negative integers because those instructions always miss when encountering negative integers.

gh-99110 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99110]: Initialize frame->previous in frameobject.c to fix a segmentation fault when accessing frames created by PyFrame_New().

gh-94155 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94155]: Improved the hashing algorithm for code objects, mitigating some hash collisions.

gh-99540 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99540]: None now hashes to a constant value. This is not a requirements change.

gh-100143 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100143]: When built with --enable-pystats, stats collection is now off by default. To enable it early at startup, pass the -Xpystats flag. Stats are now always dumped, even if switched off.

gh-100146 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100146]: Improve BUILD_LIST opcode so that it works similarly to the BUILD_TUPLE opcode, by stealing references from the stack rather than repeatedly using stack operations to set list elements. Implementation details are in a new private API _PyList_FromArraySteal().

gh-100110 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100110]: Specialize FOR_ITER for tuples.

gh-100050 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100050]: Honor existing errors obtained when searching for mismatching parentheses in the tokenizer. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-92216 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92216]: Improve the performance of hasattr() for type objects with a missing attribute.

gh-99582 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99582]: Freeze zipimport module into _bootstrap_python.

gh-99554 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99554]: Pack debugging location tables more efficiently during bytecode compilation.

gh-98522 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98522]: Add an internal version number to code objects, to give better versioning of inner functions and comprehensions, and thus better specialization of those functions. This change is invisible to both Python and C extensions.

gh-94603 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94603]: Improve performance of list.pop for small lists.

Library

gh-89051 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89051]: Add ssl.OP_LEGACY_SERVER_CONNECT

Core and Builtins

bpo-32782 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32782]: ctypes arrays of length 0 now report a correct itemsize when a memoryview is constructed from them, rather than always giving a value of 0.

Library

gh-100833 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100833]: Speed up math.fsum() by removing defensive volatile qualifiers.

gh-100805 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100805]: Modify random.choice() implementation to once again work with NumPy arrays.

gh-100813 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100813]: Add socket.IP_PKTINFO constant.

gh-100792 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100792]: Make email.message.Message.__contains__() twice as fast.

gh-91851 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91851]: Microoptimizations for fractions.Fraction.__round__(), fractions.Fraction.__ceil__() and fractions.Fraction.__floor__().

gh-90104 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90104]: Avoid RecursionError on repr if a dataclass field definition has a cyclic reference.

gh-100689 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100689]: Fix crash in pyexpat by statically allocating PyExpat_CAPI capsule.

gh-100740 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100740]: Fix unittest.mock.Mock not respecting the spec for attribute names prefixed with assert.

gh-91219 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91219]: Change SimpleHTTPRequestHandler to support subclassing to provide a different set of index file names instead of using __init__ parameters.

gh-100690 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100690]: Mock objects which are not unsafe will now raise an AttributeError when accessing an attribute that matches the name of an assertion but without the prefix assert_, e.g. accessing called_once instead of assert_called_once. This is in addition to this already happening for accessing attributes with prefixes assert, assret, asert, aseert, and assrt.

gh-89727 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89727]: Simplify and optimize os.walk() by using isinstance() checks to check the top of the stack.

gh-100485 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100485]: Add math.sumprod() to compute the sum of products.

gh-86508 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86508]: Fix asyncio.open_connection() to skip binding to local addresses of different family. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-97930 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97930]: importlib.resources.files now accepts a module as an anchor instead of only accepting packages. If a module is passed, resources are resolved adjacent to that module (in the same package or at the package root). The parameter was renamed from package to anchor with a compatibility shim for those passing by keyword. Additionally, the new anchor parameter is now optional and will default to the caller's module.

gh-100585 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100585]: Fixed a bug where importlib.resources.as_file was leaving file pointers open

gh-100562 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100562]: Improve performance of pathlib.Path.absolute() by nearly 2x. This comes at the cost of a performance regression in pathlib.Path.cwd(), which is generally used less frequently in user code.

gh-100519 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100519]: Small simplification of http.cookiejar.eff_request_host() that improves readability and better matches the RFC wording.

gh-100287 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100287]: Fix the interaction of unittest.mock.seal() with unittest.mock.AsyncMock.

gh-100488 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100488]: Add Fraction.is_integer() to check whether a fractions.Fraction is an integer. This improves duck type compatibility with float and int.

gh-100474 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100474]: http.server now checks that an index page is actually a regular file before trying to serve it. This avoids issues with directories named index.html.

gh-100363 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100363]: Speed up asyncio.get_running_loop() by removing redundant getpid checks. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-78878 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78878]: Fix crash when creating an instance of _ctypes.CField.

gh-100348 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100348]: Fix ref cycle in asyncio._SelectorSocketTransport by removing _read_ready_cb in close.

gh-100344 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100344]: Provide C implementation for asyncio.current_task() for a 4x-6x speedup.

gh-100272 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100272]: Fix JSON serialization of OrderedDict. It now preserves the order of keys.

gh-83076 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83076]: Instantiation of Mock() and AsyncMock() is now 3.8x faster.

gh-100234 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100234]: Set a default value of 1.0 for the lambd parameter in random.expovariate().

gh-100228 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100228]: A DeprecationWarning may be raised when os.fork() or os.forkpty() is called from multi-threaded processes. Forking with threads is unsafe and can cause deadlocks, crashes and subtle problems. Lack of a warning does not indicate that the fork call was actually safe, as Python may not be aware of all threads.

gh-100039 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100039]: Improve signatures for enums and flags.

gh-100133 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100133]: Fix regression in asyncio where a subprocess would sometimes lose data received from pipe.

bpo-44592 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44592]: Fixes inconsistent handling of case sensitivity of extrasaction arg in csv.DictWriter.

gh-100098 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100098]: Fix tuple subclasses being cast to tuple when used as enum values.

gh-85432 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85432]: Rename the fmt parameter of the pure-Python implementation of datetime.time.strftime() to format. Rename the t parameter of datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp() to timestamp. These changes mean the parameter names in the pure-Python implementation now match the parameter names in the C implementation. Patch by Alex Waygood.

gh-98778 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98778]: Update HTTPError to be initialized properly, even if the fp is None. Patch by Donghee Na.

gh-99925 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99925]: Unify error messages in JSON serialization between json.dumps(float('nan'), allow_nan=False) and json.dumps(float('nan'), allow_nan=False, indent=<SOMETHING>). Now both include the representation of the value that could not be serialized.

gh-89727 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89727]: Fix issue with os.walk() where a RecursionError would occur on deep directory structures by adjusting the implementation of os.walk() to be iterative instead of recursive.

gh-94943 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94943]: Add Dataclass support to the Enum __repr__(). When inheriting from a dataclass, only show the field names in the value section of the member repr(), and not the dataclass' class name.

gh-83035 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83035]: Fix inspect.getsource() handling of decorator calls with nested parentheses.

gh-99576 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99576]: Fix .save() method for LWPCookieJar and MozillaCookieJar: saved file was not truncated on repeated save.

gh-94912 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94912]: Add inspect.markcoroutinefunction() decorator which manually marks a function as a coroutine for the benefit of iscoroutinefunction().

gh-99509 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99509]: Add PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/] support for multiprocessing.queues.Queue.

gh-99482 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99482]: Remove Jython partial compatibility code from several stdlib modules.

gh-99433 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99433]: Fix doctest failure on types.MethodWrapperType in modules.

gh-85267 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85267]: Several improvements to inspect.signature()'s handling of __text_signature. - Fixes a case where inspect.signature() dropped parameters - Fixes a case where inspect.signature() raised tokenize.TokenError - Allows inspect.signature() to understand defaults involving binary operations of constants - inspect.signature() is documented as only raising TypeError or ValueError, but sometimes raised RuntimeError. These cases now raise ValueError - Removed a dead code path

gh-91166 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91166]: asyncio is optimized to avoid excessive copying when writing to socket and use sendmsg() if the platform supports it. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-98030 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98030]: Add missing TCP socket options from Linux: TCP_MD5SIG, TCP_THIN_LINEAR_TIMEOUTS, TCP_THIN_DUPACK, TCP_REPAIR, TCP_REPAIR_QUEUE, TCP_QUEUE_SEQ, TCP_REPAIR_OPTIONS, TCP_TIMESTAMP, TCP_CC_INFO, TCP_SAVE_SYN, TCP_SAVED_SYN, TCP_REPAIR_WINDOW, TCP_FASTOPEN_CONNECT, TCP_ULP, TCP_MD5SIG_EXT, TCP_FASTOPEN_KEY, TCP_FASTOPEN_NO_COOKIE, TCP_ZEROCOPY_RECEIVE, TCP_INQ, TCP_TX_DELAY.

gh-88500 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88500]: Reduced the memory usage of urllib.parse.unquote() and urllib.parse.unquote_to_bytes() on large values.

gh-96127 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96127]: inspect.signature was raising TypeError on call with mock objects. Now it correctly returns (*args, **kwargs) as inferred signature.

gh-95882 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95882]: Fix a 3.11 regression in asynccontextmanager(), which caused it to propagate exceptions with incorrect tracebacks and fix a 3.11 regression in contextmanager(), which caused it to propagate exceptions with incorrect tracebacks for StopIteration.

gh-78707 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78707]: Deprecate passing more than one positional argument to pathlib.PurePath.relative_to() and is_relative_to().

gh-92122 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92122]: Fix reStructuredText syntax errors in docstrings in the enum module.

gh-91851 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91851]: Optimize the Fraction arithmetics for small components.

bpo-24132 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24132]: Make pathlib.PurePath and Path subclassable (private to start). Previously, attempting to instantiate a subclass resulted in an AttributeError being raised. Patch by Barney Gale.

bpo-40447 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40447]: Accept os.PathLike (such as pathlib.Path) in the stripdir arguments of compileall.compile_file() and compileall.compile_dir().

bpo-36880 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36880]: Fix a reference counting issue when a ctypes callback with return type py_object returns None, which could cause crashes.

Documentation

gh-100616 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100616]: Document existing attr parameter to curses.window.vline() function in curses.

gh-100472 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100472]: Remove claim in documentation that the stripdir, prependdir and limit_sl_dest parameters of compileall.compile_dir() and compileall.compile_file() could be bytes.

bpo-25377 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25377]: Clarify use of octal format of mode argument in help(os.chmod) as well as help(os.fchmod)

Tests

gh-100454 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100454]: Start running SSL tests with OpenSSL 3.1.0-beta1.

gh-100086 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100086]: The Python test runner (libregrtest) now logs Python build information like "debug" vs "release" build, or LTO and PGO optimizations. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-93018 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93018]: Make two tests forgiving towards host system libexpat with backported security fixes applied.

Build

gh-100540 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100540]: Removed the --with-system-ffi configure option; libffi must now always be supplied by the system on all non-Windows platforms. The option has had no effect on non-Darwin platforms for several releases, and in 3.11 only had the non-obvious effect of invoking pkg-config to find libffi and never setting -DUSING_APPLE_OS_LIBFFI. Now on Darwin platforms configure will first check for the OS libffi and then fall back to the same processing as other platforms if it is not found.

gh-88267 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88267]: Avoid exporting Python symbols in linked Windows applications when the core is built as static.

bpo-41916 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41916]: Allow override of ac_cv_cxx_thread so that cross compiled python can set -pthread for CXX.

Windows

gh-100180 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100180]: Update Windows installer to OpenSSL 1.1.1s

gh-99191 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99191]: Use _MSVC_LANG >= 202002L instead of less-precise _MSC_VER >=1929 to more accurately test for C++20 support in PC/_wmimodule.cpp.

gh-79218 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79218]: Define MS_WIN64 for Mingw-w64 64bit, fix cython compilation failure.

gh-99941 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99941]: Ensure that asyncio.Protocol.data_received() receives an immutable bytes object (as documented), instead of bytearray.

bpo-43984 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43984]: winreg.SetValueEx() now leaves the target value untouched in the case of conversion errors. Previously, -1 would be written in case of such errors.

bpo-34816 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34816]: hasattr(ctypes.windll, 'nonexistant') now returns False instead of raising OSError.

macOS

gh-100180 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100180]: Update macOS installer to OpenSSL 1.1.1s

gh-100540 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100540]: Removed obsolete dlfcn.h shim from the _ctypes extension module, which has not been necessary since Mac OS X 10.2.

Tools/Demos

bpo-45256 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45256]: Fix a bug that caused an AttributeError to be raised in python-gdb.py when py-locals is used without a frame.

gh-100342 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100342]: Add missing NULL check for possible allocation failure in *args parsing in Argument Clinic.

C API

gh-99947 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99947]: Raising SystemError on import will now have its cause be set to the original unexpected exception.

gh-99240 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99240]: In argument parsing, after deallocating newly allocated memory, reset its pointer to NULL.

gh-98724 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98724]: The Py_CLEAR, Py_SETREF and Py_XSETREF macros now only evaluate their arguments once. If an argument has side effects, these side effects are no longer duplicated. Patch by Victor Stinner.

Python 3.12.0 alpha 3

Release date: 2022-12-06

Security

gh-100001 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100001]: python -m http.server no longer allows terminal control characters sent within a garbage request to be printed to the stderr server log.

This is done by changing the http.server BaseHTTPRequestHandler .log_message method to replace control characters with a \xHH hex escape before printing.

gh-87604 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87604]: Avoid publishing list of active per-interpreter audit hooks via the gc module

Core and Builtins

gh-99891 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99891]: Fix a bug in the tokenizer that could cause infinite recursion when showing syntax warnings that happen in the first line of the source. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-91054 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91054]: Add PyCode_AddWatcher() and PyCode_ClearWatcher() APIs to register callbacks to receive notification on creation and destruction of code objects.

gh-99729 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99729]: Fix an issue that could cause frames to be visible to Python code as they are being torn down, possibly leading to memory corruption or hard crashes of the interpreter.

gh-99708 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99708]: Fix bug where compiler crashes on an if expression with an empty body block.

gh-99578 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99578]: Fix a reference bug in _imp.create_builtin() after the creation of the first sub-interpreter for modules builtins and sys. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-99581 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99581]: Fixed a bug that was causing a buffer overflow if the tokenizer copies a line missing the newline character from a file that is as long as the available tokenizer buffer. Patch by Pablo galindo

gh-99553 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99553]: Fix bug where an ExceptionGroup subclass can wrap a BaseException.

Library

gh-99547 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99547]: Add a function to os.path to check if a path is a junction: isjunction. Add similar functionality to pathlib.Path as is_junction.

gh-99370 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99370]: Fix zip path for venv created from a non-installed python on POSIX platforms.

Core and Builtins

gh-99377 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99377]: Add audit events for thread creation and clear operations.

gh-98686 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98686]: Remove the BINARY_OP_GENERIC and COMPARE_OP_GENERIC "specializations".

gh-99298 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99298]: Remove the remaining error paths for attribute specializations, and refuse to specialize attribute accesses on types that haven't had PyType_Ready() called on them yet.

gh-99127 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99127]: Allow some features of syslog to the main interpreter only. Patch by Donghee Na.

gh-91053 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91053]: Optimizing interpreters and JIT compilers may need to invalidate internal metadata when functions are modified. This change adds the ability to provide a callback that will be invoked each time a function is created, modified, or destroyed.

gh-90994 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90994]: Improve error messages when there's a syntax error with call arguments. The following three cases are covered: - No value is assigned to a named argument, eg foo(a=). - A value is assigned to a star argument, eg foo(*args=[0]). - A value is assigned to a double-star keyword argument, eg foo(**kwarg={'a': 0}).

bpo-45026 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45026]: Optimize the range object iterator. It is now smaller, faster iteration of ranges containing large numbers. Smaller pickles, faster unpickling.

bpo-31718 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31718]: Raise ValueError instead of SystemError when methods of uninitialized io.IncrementalNewlineDecoder objects are called. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-38031 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38031]: Fix a possible assertion failure in io.FileIO when the opener returns an invalid file descriptor.

Library

gh-100001 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100001]: Also escape s in the http.server BaseHTTPRequestHandler.log_message so that it is technically possible to parse the line and reconstruct what the original data was. Without this a xHH is ambiguous as to if it is a hex replacement we put in or the characters r"x" came through in the original request line.

gh-99957 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99957]: Add frozen_default parameter to typing.dataclass_transform().

gh-79033 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79033]: Fix asyncio.Server.wait_closed() to actually do what the docs promise -- wait for all existing connections to complete, after closing the server.

gh-51524 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/51524]: Fix bug when calling trace.CoverageResults with valid infile.

gh-99645 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99645]: Fix a bug in handling class cleanups in unittest.TestCase. Now addClassCleanup() uses separate lists for different TestCase subclasses, and doClassCleanups() only cleans up the particular class.

gh-99508 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99508]: Fix TypeError in Lib/importlib/_bootstrap_external.py while calling _imp.source_hash().

gh-66285 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66285]: Fix asyncio to not share event loop and signal wakeupfd in forked processes. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-97001 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97001]: Release the GIL when calling termios APIs to avoid blocking threads.

gh-92647 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92647]: Use final status of an enum to determine lookup or creation branch of functional API.

gh-99388 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99388]: Add loop_factory parameter to asyncio.run() to allow specifying a custom event loop factory. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-99341 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99341]: Fix ast.increment_lineno() to also cover ast.TypeIgnore when changing line numbers.

gh-99382 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99382]: Check the number of arguments in substitution in user generics containing a TypeVarTuple and one or more TypeVar.

gh-99379 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99379]: Fix substitution of ParamSpec followed by TypeVarTuple in generic aliases.

gh-99344 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99344]: Fix substitution of TypeVarTuple and ParamSpec together in user generics.

gh-99284 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99284]: Remove _use_broken_old_ctypes_structure_semantics_ old untested and undocumented hack from ctypes.

gh-99201 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99201]: Fix IndexError when initializing the config variables on Windows if HAVE_DYNAMIC_LOADING is not set.

gh-99240 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99240]: Fix double-free bug in Argument Clinic str_converter by extracting memory clean up to a new post_parsing section.

gh-64490 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/64490]: Fix refcount error when arguments are packed to tuple in Argument Clinic.

gh-99029 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99029]: pathlib.PurePath.relative_to() now treats naked Windows drive paths as relative. This brings its behaviour in line with other parts of pathlib.

gh-98253 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98253]: The implementation of the typing module is now more resilient to reference leaks in binary extension modules.

Previously, a reference leak in a typed C API-based extension module could leak internals of the typing module, which could in turn introduce leaks in essentially any other package with typed function signatures. Although the typing package is not the original source of the problem, such non-local dependences exacerbate debugging of large-scale projects, and the implementation was therefore changed to reduce harm by providing better isolation.

gh-98458 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98458]: Fix infinite loop in unittest when a self-referencing chained exception is raised

gh-93453 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93453]: asyncio.get_event_loop() and many other asyncio functions like asyncio.ensure_future(), asyncio.shield() or asyncio.gather(), and also the get_event_loop() method of asyncio.BaseDefaultEventLoopPolicy now raise a RuntimeError if called when there is no running event loop and the current event loop was not set. Previously they implicitly created and set a new current event loop. DeprecationWarning is no longer emitted if there is no running event loop but the current event loop was set.

gh-97966 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97966]: On uname_result, restored expectation that _fields and _asdict would include all six properties including processor.

gh-98248 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98248]: Provide informative error messages in struct.pack() when its integral arguments are not in range.

gh-98108 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98108]: zipfile.Path is now pickleable if its initialization parameters were pickleable (e.g. for file system paths).

gh-98098 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98098]: Created packages from zipfile and test_zipfile modules, separating zipfile.Path functionality.

gh-82836 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82836]: Fix is_private properties in the ipaddress module. Previously non-private networks (0.0.0.0/0) would return True from this method; now they correctly return False.

gh-96828 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96828]: Add an OP_ENABLE_KTLS option for enabling the use of the kernel TLS (kTLS). Patch by Illia Volochii.

gh-88863 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88863]: To avoid apparent memory leaks when asyncio.open_connection() raises, break reference cycles generated by local exception and future instances (which has exception instance as its member var). Patch by Dong Uk, Kang.

gh-91078 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91078]: TarFile.next() now returns None when called on an empty tarfile.

bpo-47220 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47220]: Document the optional callback parameter of WeakMethod. Patch by Géry Ogam.

bpo-44817 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44817]: Ignore WinError 53 (ERROR_BAD_NETPATH), 65 (ERROR_NETWORK_ACCESS_DENIED) and 161 (ERROR_BAD_PATHNAME) when using ntpath.realpath().

bpo-41260 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41260]: Rename the fmt parameter of the pure Python implementation of datetime.date.strftime() to format.

bpo-15999 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15999]: All built-in functions now accept arguments of any type instead of just bool and int for boolean parameters.

Documentation

gh-99931 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99931]: Use sphinxext-opengraph [https://sphinxext-opengraph.readthedocs.io/] to generate OpenGraph metadata [https://ogp.me/].

gh-89682 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89682]: Reworded docstring of the default __contains__ to clarify that it returns a bool.

gh-88330 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88330]: Improved the description of what a resource is in importlib.resources docs.

gh-92892 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92892]: Document that calling variadic functions with ctypes requires special care on macOS/arm64 (and possibly other platforms).

bpo-41825 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41825]: Restructured the documentation for the os.wait* family of functions, and improved the docs for os.waitid() with more explanation of the possible argument constants.

Tests

gh-99892 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99892]: Skip test_normalization() of test_unicodedata if it fails to download NormalizationTest.txt file from pythontest.net. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-99934 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99934]: Correct test_marsh on (32 bit) x86: test_deterministic sets was failing.

gh-99741 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99741]: We've implemented multi-phase init (PEP 489/630/687) for the internal (for testing) _xxsubinterpreters module.

gh-99659 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99659]: Optional big memory tests in test_sqlite3 now catch the correct sqlite.DataError exception type in case of too large strings and/or blobs passed.

gh-99593 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99593]: Cover the Unicode C API with tests.

gh-96002 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96002]: Add functional test for Argument Clinic.

Build

gh-99086 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99086]: Fix -Wimplicit-int, -Wstrict-prototypes, and -Wimplicit-function-declaration compiler warnings in configure checks.

gh-99337 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99337]: Fix a compilation issue with GCC 12 on macOS.

gh-99289 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99289]: Add a COMPILEALL_OPTS variable in Makefile to override compileall options (default: -j0) in make install. Also merged the compileall commands into a single command building .pyc files for the all optimization levels (0, 1, 2) at once. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-98872 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98872]: Fix a possible fd leak in Programs/_freeze_module.c introduced in Python 3.11.

gh-88226 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88226]: Always define TARGET_* labels in Python/ceval.c, even if USE_COMPUTED_GOTOS is disabled. This allows breakpoints to be set at those labels in (for instance) gdb.

Windows

gh-99345 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99345]: Use faster initialization functions to detect install location for Windows Store package

gh-98629 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98629]: Fix initialization of sys.version and sys._git on Windows

gh-99442 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99442]: Fix handling in Python install manager when argv[0] does not include a file extension.

bpo-40882 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40882]: Fix a memory leak in multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory on Windows.

macOS

gh-87235 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87235]: On macOS python3 /dev/fd/9 9</path/to/script.py failed for any script longer than a couple of bytes.

gh-98940 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98940]: Fix Mac/Extras.install.py file filter bug.

Tools/Demos

gh-64490 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/64490]: Argument Clinic varargs bugfixes

Fix out-of-bounds error in _PyArg_UnpackKeywordsWithVararg().

Fix incorrect check which allowed more than one varargs in clinic.py.

Fix miscalculation of noptargs in generated code.

Do not generate noptargs when there is a vararg argument and no optional argument.

C API

gh-98680 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98680]: PyBUF_* constants were marked as part of Limited API of Python 3.11+. These were available in 3.11.0 with Py_LIMITED_API defined for 3.11, and are necessary to use the buffer API.

gh-99612 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99612]: Fix PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful() for ASCII-only data: *consumed was not set.

gh-47146 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/47146]: The structmember.h header is deprecated. Its non-deprecated contents are now available just by including Python.h, with a Py_ prefix added if it was missing. (Deprecated contents are T_OBJECT, T_NONE, and no-op flags.) Patch by Petr Viktorin, based on earlier work by Alexander Belopolsky and Matthias Braun.

Python 3.12.0 alpha 2

Release date: 2022-11-14

Security

gh-98433 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98433]: The IDNA codec decoder used on DNS hostnames by socket or asyncio related name resolution functions no longer involves a quadratic algorithm. This prevents a potential CPU denial of service if an out-of-spec excessive length hostname involving bidirectional characters were decoded. Some protocols such as urllib http 3xx redirects potentially allow for an attacker to supply such a name.

Individual labels within an IDNA encoded DNS name will now raise an error early during IDNA decoding if they are longer than 1024 unicode characters given that each decoded DNS label must be 63 or fewer characters and the entire decoded DNS name is limited to 255. Only an application presenting a hostname or label consisting primarily of RFC 3454 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3454.html] section 3.1 "Nothing" characters to be removed would run into of this new limit. See also RFC 5894 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5894.html] section 6 and RFC 3491 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3491.html].

gh-98739 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98739]: Update bundled libexpat to 2.5.0

Core and Builtins

gh-81057 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81057]: The docs clearly say that PyImport_Inittab, PyImport_AppendInittab(), and PyImport_ExtendInittab() should not be used after Py_Initialize() has been called. We now enforce this for the two functions. Additionally, the runtime now uses an internal copy of PyImport_Inittab, to guard against modification.

gh-99298 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99298]: Fix an issue that could potentially cause incorrect error handling for some bytecode instructions.

gh-99254 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99254]: The compiler now removes all unused constants from code objects (except the first one, which may be a docstring).

gh-99205 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99205]: Fix an issue that prevented PyThreadState and PyInterpreterState memory from being freed properly.

gh-81057 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81057]: The 18 global C variables holding the state of the allocators have been moved to _PyRuntimeState. This is a strictly internal change with no change in behavior.

gh-99181 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99181]: Fix failure in except* with unhashable exceptions.

gh-99204 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99204]: Fix calculation of sys._base_executable when inside a POSIX virtual environment using copies of the python binary when the base installation does not provide the executable name used by the venv. Calculation will fall back to alternative names ("python<MAJOR>", "python<MAJOR>.<MINOR>").

gh-96055 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96055]: Update faulthandler to emit an error message with the proper unexpected signal number. Patch by Donghee Na.

gh-99153 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99153]: Fix location of SyntaxError for a try block with both except and except*.

gh-98686 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98686]: Merge the adaptive opcode logic into each instruction's unquickened variant, and merge the logic in EXTENDED_ARG_QUICK into EXTENDED_ARG. With these changes, the quickening that happens at code object creation is now only responsible for initializing warmup counters and inserting superinstructions.

gh-99103 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99103]: Fix the error reporting positions of specialized traceback anchors when the source line contains Unicode characters.

gh-99139 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99139]: Improve the error suggestion for NameError exceptions for instances. Now if a NameError is raised in a method and the instance has an attribute that's exactly equal to the name in the exception, the suggestion will include self.<NAME> instead of the closest match in the method scope. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-98401 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98401]: Octal escapes with value larger than 0o377 (ex: "\477"), deprecated in Python 3.11, now produce a SyntaxWarning, instead of DeprecationWarning. In a future Python version they will be eventually a SyntaxError. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-98401 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98401]: A backslash-character pair that is not a valid escape sequence now generates a SyntaxWarning, instead of DeprecationWarning. For example, re.compile("\d+\.\d+") now emits a SyntaxWarning ("\d" is an invalid escape sequence), use raw strings for regular expression: re.compile(r"\d+\.\d+"). In a future Python version, SyntaxError will eventually be raised, instead of SyntaxWarning. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-96793 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96793]: Handle StopIteration and StopAsyncIteration raised in generator or coroutines in the bytecode, rather than in wrapping C code.

gh-98931 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98931]: Improve the SyntaxError error message when the user types import x from y instead of from y import x. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-98852 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98852]: Fix subscription of type aliases containing bare generic types or types like TypeVar: for example tuple[A, T][int] and tuple[TypeVar, T][int], where A is a generic type, and T is a type variable.

gh-98925 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98925]: Lower the recursion depth for marshal on WASI to support (in-development) wasmtime 2.0.

gh-98783 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98783]: Fix multiple crashes in debug mode when str subclasses are used instead of str itself.

gh-98811 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98811]: Use complete source locations to simplify detection of __future__ imports which are not at the beginning of the file. Also corrects the offset in the exception raised in one case, which was off by one and impeded highlighting.

gh-96793 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96793]: Add specialization of FOR_ITER for generators. Saves multiple layers of dispatch and checking to get from the FOR_ITER instruction in the caller to the RESUME in the generator.

gh-98762 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98762]: Fix source locations of match sub-patterns.

gh-98586 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98586]: Added the methods PyObject_Vectorcall() and PyObject_VectorcallMethod() to the Limited API along with the auxiliary macro constant PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET.

The availability of these functions enables more efficient PEP 590 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/] vector calls from binary extension modules that avoid argument boxing/unboxing overheads.

gh-99257 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99257]: Fix an issue where member descriptors (such as those for __slots__) could behave incorrectly or crash instead of raising a TypeError when accessed via an instance of an invalid type.

gh-93143 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93143]: Rather than changing co_code, the interpreter will now display a RuntimeWarning and assign None to any fast locals that are left unbound after jumps or del statements executed while tracing.

gh-96421 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96421]: When calling into Python code from C code, through PyEval_EvalFrameEx() or a related C-API function, a shim frame in inserted into the call stack. This occurs in the _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault() function. The extra frame should be invisible to all Python and most C extensions, but out-of-process profilers and debuggers need to be aware of it. These shim frames can be detected by checking frame->owner == FRAME_OWNED_BY_CSTACK.

Extensions implementing their own interpreters using PEP 523 need to be aware of this shim frame and the changes to the semantics of RETURN_VALUE, YIELD_VALUE, and RETURN_GENERATOR, which now clear the frame.

Build

gh-98415 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98415]: Fix detection of MAC addresses for uuid on certain OSs. Patch by Chaim Sanders

Core and Builtins

gh-98686 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98686]: Quicken all code objects, and specialize adaptive bytecode instructions more aggressively.

gh-92119 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92119]: Print exception class name instead of its string representation when raising errors from ctypes calls.

gh-91058 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91058]: ImportError raised from failed from <module> import <name> now include suggestions for the value of <name> based on the available names in <module>. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-96793 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96793]: The FOR_ITER now leaves the iterator on the stack on termination of the loop. This is to assist specialization of loops for generators.

gh-90716 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90716]: Add _pylong.py module. It includes asymptotically faster algorithms that can be used for operations on integers with many digits. It is used by longobject.c to speed up some operations.

gh-95389 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95389]: Expose ETH_P_ALL and some of the ETHERTYPE_* constants in socket. Patch by Noam Cohen.

Library

gh-93696 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93696]: Allow pdb to locate source for frozen modules in the standard library.

gh-99418 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99418]: Fix bug in urllib.parse.urlparse() that causes URL schemes that begin with a digit, a plus sign, or a minus sign to be parsed incorrectly.

gh-94597 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597]: Deprecate asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher to be removed in Python 3.14. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-99305 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99305]: Improve performance of secrets.token_hex().

gh-74044 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74044]: Fixed bug where inspect.signature() reported incorrect arguments for decorated methods.

gh-99275 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99275]: Fix SystemError in ctypes when exception was not set during __initsubclass__.

gh-99277 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99277]: Remove older version of _SSLProtocolTransport.get_write_buffer_limits in asyncio.sslproto

gh-99248 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99248]: fix negative numbers failing in verify()

gh-99155 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99155]: Fix statistics.NormalDist pickle with 0 and 1 protocols.

gh-93464 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93464]: enum.auto() is now correctly activated when combined with other assignment values. E.g. ONE = auto(), 'some text' will now evaluate as (1, 'some text').

gh-99134 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99134]: Update the bundled copy of pip to version 22.3.1.

gh-92584 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92584]: Remove the distutils package. It was deprecated in Python 3.10 by PEP 632 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/] "Deprecate distutils module". For projects still using distutils and cannot be updated to something else, the setuptools project can be installed: it still provides distutils. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-98999 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98999]: Now _pyio is consistent with _io in raising ValueError when executing methods over closed buffers.

gh-83004 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83004]: Clean up refleak on failed module initialisation in _zoneinfo

gh-83004 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83004]: Clean up refleaks on failed module initialisation in _pickle

gh-83004 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83004]: Clean up refleak on failed module initialisation in _io.

gh-98897 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98897]: Fix memory leak in math.dist() when both points don't have the same dimension. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-98878 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98878]: Use the frame bound builtins when offering a name suggestion in traceback to prevent crashing when __builtins__ is not a dict.

gh-98139 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98139]: In importlib._bootstrap, enhance namespace package repr to <module 'x' (namespace) from ['path']>.

gh-90352 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90352]: Fix _SelectorDatagramTransport to inherit from DatagramTransport in asyncio. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-98793 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98793]: Fix argument typechecks in _overlapped.WSAConnect() and _overlapped.Overlapped.WSASendTo() functions.

gh-98744 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98744]: Prevent crashing in traceback when retrieving the byte-offset for some source files that contain certain unicode characters.

gh-98740 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98740]: Fix internal error in the re module which in very rare circumstances prevented compilation of a regular expression containing a conditional expression without the "else" branch.

gh-98703 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98703]: Fix asyncio.StreamWriter.drain() to call protocol.connection_lost callback only once on Windows.

gh-98624 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98624]: Add a mutex to unittest.mock.NonCallableMock to protect concurrent access to mock attributes.

gh-98658 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98658]: The array.array class now supports subscripting, making it a generic type.

gh-98284 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98284]: Improved TypeError message for undefined abstract methods of a abc.ABC instance. The names of the missing methods are surrounded by single-quotes to highlight them.

gh-96151 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96151]: Allow BUILTINS to be a valid field name for frozen dataclasses.

gh-98086 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98086]: Make sure patch.dict() can be applied on async functions.

gh-72719 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72719]: Remove modules asyncore and asynchat, which were deprecated by PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/].

gh-96192 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96192]: Fix handling of bytes path-like objects in os.ismount().

gh-94172 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94172]: ftplib: Remove the FTP_TLS.ssl_version class attribute: use the context parameter instead. Patch by Victor Stinner

gh-94172 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94172]: Remove the keyfile and certfile parameters from the ftplib, imaplib, poplib and smtplib modules, and the key_file, cert_file and check_hostname parameters from the http.client module, all deprecated since Python 3.6. Use the context parameter (ssl_context in imaplib) instead. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-83638 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83638]: Add the autocommit attribute to sqlite3.Connection and the autocommit parameter to sqlite3.connect() to control PEP 249 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/]-compliant transaction handling. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

gh-92452 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92452]: Fixed a race condition that could cause sysconfig.get_config_var() to incorrectly return None in multi-threaded programs.

gh-91803 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91803]: Fix an error when using a method of objects mocked with unittest.mock.create_autospec() after it was sealed with unittest.mock.seal() function.

bpo-38523 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38523]: shutil.copytree() now applies the ignore_dangling_symlinks argument recursively.

bpo-40358 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40358]: Add walk_up argument in pathlib.PurePath.relative_to().

bpo-36267 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36267]: Fix IndexError in argparse.ArgumentParser when a store_true action is given an explicit argument.

Documentation

gh-98832 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98832]: Changes wording of docstring for pathlib.Path.iterdir().

gh-97966 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97966]: Update uname docs to clarify the special nature of the platform attribute and to indicate when it became late-bound.

Tests

gh-98903 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98903]: The Python test suite now fails with exit code 4 if no tests ran. It should help detecting typos in test names and test methods.

gh-98713 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98713]: Fix a bug in the typing tests where a test relying on CPython-specific implementation details was not decorated with @cpython_only and was not skipped on other implementations.

gh-87390 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87390]: Add tests for star-unpacking with PEP 646, and some other miscellaneous PEP 646 tests.

gh-96853 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96853]: Added explicit coverage of Py_Initialize (and hence Py_InitializeEx) back to the embedding tests (all other embedding tests migrated to Py_InitializeFromConfig in Python 3.11)

bpo-34272 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34272]: Some C API tests were moved into the new Lib/test/test_capi/ directory.

Build

gh-99086 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99086]: Fix -Wimplicit-int compiler warning in configure check for PTHREAD_SCOPE_SYSTEM.

gh-99016 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99016]: Fix build with PYTHON_FOR_REGEN=python3.8.

gh-97731 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97731]: Specify the full path to the source location for make docclean (needed for cross-builds).

gh-98949 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98949]: Drop unused build dependency on readelf.

gh-98989 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98989]: Use python3.11, if available, for regeneration and freezing.

gh-98831 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98831]: Add new tooling, in Tools/cases_generator, to generate the interpreter switch statement from a list of opcode definitions. This only affects adding, modifying or removing instruction definitions. The instruction definitions now live in Python/bytecodes.c, in the form of a custom DSL (under development) [https://github.com/faster-cpython/ideas/blob/main/3.12/interpreter_definition.md]. The tooling reads this file and writes Python/generated_cases.c.h, which is then included by Python/ceval.c to provide most of the cases of the main interpreter switch.

gh-98817 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98817]: Remove PCbuild/lib.pyproj: it's not used for anything, is only a minor convenience for Visual Studio users (who probably mostly don't even know about it), and it takes a lot of maintenance effort to keep updated.

gh-98776 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98776]: Fix make regen-test-levenshtein for out-of-tree builds.

gh-98707 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98707]: Don't use vendored libmpdec headers if --with-system-libmpdec is passed to configure. Don't use vendored libexpat headers if --with-system-expat is passed to configure.

Windows

gh-98689 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98689]: Update Windows builds to zlib v1.2.13. v1.2.12 has CVE 2022-37434 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2022-37434], but the vulnerable inflateGetHeader API is not used by Python.

gh-98790 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98790]: Assumes that a missing DLLs directory means that standard extension modules are in the executable's directory.

gh-98745 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98745]: Update py.exe launcher to install 3.11 by default and 3.12 on request.

gh-98692 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98692]: Fix the Python install manager ignoring unrecognized shebang lines instead of treating them as local paths

gh-94328 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94328]: Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.39.4.

macOS

gh-94328 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94328]: Update macOS installer to SQLite 3.39.4.

C API

gh-98724 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98724]: The Py_CLEAR, Py_SETREF and Py_XSETREF macros now only evaluate their argument once. If the argument has side effects, these side effects are no longer duplicated. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-98978 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98978]: Fix use-after-free in Py_SetPythonHome(NULL), Py_SetProgramName(NULL) and _Py_SetProgramFullPath(NULL) function calls. Issue reported by Benedikt Reinartz. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-98410 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98410]: Add getbufferproc and releasebufferproc to the stable API.

gh-98610 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98610]: Some configurable capabilities of sub-interpreters have changed. They always allow subprocesses (subprocess) now, whereas before subprocesses could be optionally disallowed for a sub-interpreter. Instead os.exec() can now be disallowed. Disallowing daemon threads is now supported. Disallowing all threads is still allowed, but is never done by default. Note that the optional restrictions are only available through _Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(), which isn't a public API. They do not affect the main interpreter, nor Py_NewInterpreter().

gh-98608 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98608]: A _PyInterpreterConfig has been added and _Py_NewInterpreter() has been renamed to _Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(). The "isolated_subinterpreters" argument is now a granular config that captures the previous behavior. Note that this is all "private" API.

gh-96853 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96853]: Py_InitializeEx now correctly calls PyConfig_Clear after initializing the interpreter (the omission didn't cause a memory leak only because none of the dynamically allocated config fields are populated by the wrapper function)

gh-91248 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91248]: Add PyFrame_GetVar() and PyFrame_GetVarString() functions to get a frame variable by its name. Patch by Victor Stinner.

Python 3.12.0 alpha 1

Release date: 2022-10-25

Security

gh-97616 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97616]: Fix multiplying a list by an integer (list *= int): detect the integer overflow when the new allocated length is close to the maximum size. Issue reported by Jordan Limor. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-97514 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97514]: On Linux the multiprocessing module returns to using filesystem backed unix domain sockets for communication with the forkserver process instead of the Linux abstract socket namespace. Only code that chooses to use the "forkserver" start method is affected.

Abstract sockets have no permissions and could allow any user on the system in the same network namespace [https://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man7/network_namespaces.7.html] (often the whole system) to inject code into the multiprocessing forkserver process. This was a potential privilege escalation. Filesystem based socket permissions restrict this to the forkserver process user as was the default in Python 3.8 and earlier.

This prevents Linux CVE 2022-42919 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2022-42919].

gh-87389 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87389]: http.server: Fix an open redirection vulnerability in the HTTP server when an URI path starts with //. Vulnerability discovered, and initial fix proposed, by Hamza Avvan.

gh-79096 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79096]: LWPCookieJar and MozillaCookieJar create files with file mode 600 instead of 644 (Microsoft Windows is not affected)

gh-92888 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92888]: Fix memoryview use after free when accessing the backing buffer in certain cases.

gh-68966 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68966]: The deprecated mailcap module now refuses to inject unsafe text (filenames, MIME types, parameters) into shell commands. Instead of using such text, it will warn and act as if a match was not found (or for test commands, as if the test failed).

Core and Builtins

gh-98374 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98374]: Suppress ImportError for invalid query for help() command. Patch by Donghee Na.

gh-98461 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98461]: Fix source location in bytecode for list, set and dict comprehensions as well as generator expressions.

gh-98354 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98354]: Added unicode check for name attribute of spec argument passed in _imp.create_builtin() function.

gh-98398 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98398]: Fix source location of 'assert' bytecodes.

gh-98390 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98390]: Fix location of sub-expressions of boolean expressions, by reducing their scope to that of the sub-expression.

gh-98254 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98254]: Modules from the standard library are now potentially suggested as part of the error messages displayed by the interpreter when an NameError is raised to the top level. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-97997 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97997]: Add running column offset to the tokenizer state to avoid calculating AST column information with pointer arithmetic.

gh-97973 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97973]: Modify the tokenizer to return all necessary information the parser needs to set location information in the AST nodes, so that the parser does not have to calculate those doing pointer arithmetic.

Library

gh-96078 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96078]: os.sched_yield() now release the GIL while calling sched_yield(2). Patch by Donghee Na.

gh-97955 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97955]: Migrate zoneinfo to Argument Clinic.

Core and Builtins

gh-97912 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97912]: The compiler now avoids quadratic behavior when finding which instructions should use the LOAD_FAST_CHECK opcode.

gh-97002 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97002]: Fix an issue where several frame objects could be backed by the same interpreter frame, possibly leading to corrupted memory and hard crashes of the interpreter.

gh-97943 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97943]: Bugfix: PyFunction_GetAnnotations() should return a borrowed reference. It was returning a new reference.

gh-97922 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97922]: The Garbage Collector now runs only on the eval breaker mechanism of the Python bytecode evaluation loop instead on object allocations. The GC can also run when PyErr_CheckSignals() is called so C extensions that need to run for a long time without executing any Python code also have a chance to execute the GC periodically.

gh-65961 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65961]: When __package__ is different than __spec__.parent, raise a DeprecationWarning instead of ImportWarning.

Also remove importlib.util.set_package() which was scheduled for removal.

gh-97850 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850]: Long deprecated, module_repr() should now be completely eradicated.

gh-86298 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86298]: In cases where warnings.warn_explicit() consults the module's loader, an DeprecationWarning is issued when m.__loader__ differs from m.__spec__.loader.

gh-97779 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97779]: Ensure that all Python frame objects are backed by "complete" frames.

gh-91052 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91052]: Add API for subscribing to modification events on selected dictionaries.

gh-97752 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97752]: Fix possible data corruption or crashes when accessing the f_back member of newly-created generator or coroutine frames.

gh-97591 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97591]: Fixed a missing incref/decref pair in Exception.__setstate__(). Patch by Ofey Chan.

gh-97670 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97670]: Remove the sys.getdxp() function and the Tools/scripts/analyze_dxp.py script. DXP stands for "dynamic execution pairs". They were related to DYNAMIC_EXECUTION_PROFILE and DXPAIRS macros which have been removed in Python 3.11. Python can now be built with ./configure --enable-pystats to gather statistics on Python opcodes. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-94526 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94526]: Fix the Python path configuration used to initialized sys.path at Python startup. Paths are no longer encoded to UTF-8/strict to avoid encoding errors if it contains surrogate characters (bytes paths are decoded with the surrogateescape error handler). Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-96670 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96670]: The parser now raises SyntaxError when parsing source code containing null bytes. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-96975 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96975]: Fix a crash occurring when PyEval_GetFrame() is called while the topmost Python frame is in a partially-initialized state.

gh-96848 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96848]: Fix command line parsing: reject -X int_max_str_digits option with no value (invalid) when the PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS environment variable is set to a valid limit. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-95921 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95921]: Fix overly-broad source position information for chained comparisons used as branching conditions.

Library

gh-96821 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96821]: Fix undefined behaviour in audioop.c.

Core and Builtins

gh-96821 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96821]: Fix undefined behaviour in _testcapimodule.c.

gh-95778 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95778]: When ValueError is raised if an integer is larger than the limit, mention the sys.set_int_max_str_digits() function in the error message. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-96387 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96387]: At Python exit, sometimes a thread holding the GIL can wait forever for a thread (usually a daemon thread) which requested to drop the GIL, whereas the thread already exited. To fix the race condition, the thread which requested the GIL drop now resets its request before exiting. Issue discovered and analyzed by Mingliang ZHAO. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-96864 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96864]: Fix a possible assertion failure, fatal error, or SystemError if a line tracing event raises an exception while opcode tracing is enabled.

gh-95778 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95778]: The PyLong_FromString function was refactored to make it more maintainable and extensible.

gh-96678 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96678]: Fix undefined behaviour in C code of null pointer arithmetic.

gh-96754 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96754]: Make sure that all frame objects created are created from valid interpreter frames. Prevents the possibility of invalid frames in backtraces and signal handlers.

gh-90997 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90997]: Improve the performance of reading and writing inline bytecode caches on some platforms.

gh-96751 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96751]: Remove dead code from CALL_FUNCTION_EX opcode.

gh-90751 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90751]: memoryview now supports half-floats. Patch by Donghee Na and Antoine Pitrou.

gh-96678 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96678]: Fix case of undefined behavior in ceval.c

Library

gh-64373 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/64373]: Convert _functools to argument clinic.

gh-96641 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96641]: Do not expose KeyWrapper in _functools.

Core and Builtins

gh-96636 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96636]: Ensure that tracing, sys.setrace(), is turned on immediately. In pre-release versions of 3.11, some tracing events might have been lost when turning on tracing in a __del__ method or interrupt.

gh-96572 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96572]: Fix use after free in trace refs build mode. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-96611 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96611]: When loading a file with invalid UTF-8 inside a multi-line string, a correct SyntaxError is emitted.

gh-96612 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96612]: Make sure that incomplete frames do not show up in tracemalloc traces.

gh-90230 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90230]: Fix compiler warnings and test failures when building with --enable-pystats.

gh-96587 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96587]: Correctly raise SyntaxError on exception groups (PEP 654 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0654/]) on python versions prior to 3.11

gh-96569 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96569]: Remove two cases of undefined behavior, by adding NULL checks.

gh-96582 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96582]: Fix possible NULL pointer dereference in _PyThread_CurrentFrames. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-91079 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91079]: Separate Python recursion checking from C recursion checking which reduces the chance of C stack overflow and allows the recursion limit to be increased safely.

gh-93911 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93911]: Fix an issue that could prevent LOAD_ATTR from specializing properly when accessing properties.

gh-96348 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96348]: Emit a DeprecationWarning when throw(), throw() or athrow() are called with more than one argument.

gh-95196 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95196]: Disable incorrect pickling of the C implemented classmethod descriptors.

gh-96364 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96364]: Fix text signatures of list.__getitem__ and dict.__getitem__.

gh-96352 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96352]: Fix AttributeError missing name and obj attributes in object.__getattribute__(). Patch by Philip Georgi.

gh-93554 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93554]: Change the jump opcodes so that all conditional jumps are forward jumps. Backward jumps are converted by the assembler into a conditional forward jump whose target is the fallthrough block (and with a reversed condition), followed by an unconditional backward jump. For example:

POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE BACKWARD_TARGET becomes POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE NEXT_BLOCK; JUMP BACKWARD_TARGET.

All the directed conditional jump opcodes were removed: POP_JUMP_FORWARD_IF_TRUE, POP_JUMP_BACKWARD_IF_TRUE, POP_JUMP_FORWARD_IF_FALSE, POP_JUMP_BACKWARD_IF_FALSE, POP_JUMP_FORWARD_IF_NONE, POP_JUMP_BACKWARD_IF_NONE, POP_JUMP_FORWARD_IF_NOT_NONE, POP_JUMP_BACKWARD_IF_NOT_NONE.

The corresponding opcodes without direction are no longer pseudo-instructions, and they implement the forward conditional jumps.

gh-96268 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96268]: Loading a file with invalid UTF-8 will now report the broken character at the correct location.

gh-96237 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96237]: The internal field _PyInterpreterFrame.f_func is renamed to _PyInterpreterFrame.f_funcobj and may be any object. The f_globals and f_builtin fields may hold junk values.

It is safest to treat the _PyInterpreterFrame struct as opaque.

gh-96187 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96187]: Fixed a bug that caused _PyCode_GetExtra to return garbage for negative indexes. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-96143 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96143]: Add a new -X perf Python command line option as well as sys.activate_stack_trampoline() and sys.deactivate_stack_trampoline() function in the sys module that allows to set/unset the interpreter in a way that the Linux perf profiler can detect Python calls. The new sys.is_stack_trampoline_active() function allows to query the state of the perf trampoline. Design by Pablo Galindo. Patch by Pablo Galindo and Christian Heimes with contributions from Gregory P. Smith [Google] and Mark Shannon.

gh-96071 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96071]: Fix a deadlock in PyGILState_Ensure() when allocating new thread state. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-96046 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96046]: PyType_Ready() now initializes ht_cached_keys and performs additional checks to ensure that type objects are properly configured. This avoids crashes in 3rd party packages that don't use regular API to create new types.

gh-96005 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96005]: On WASI ENOTCAPABLE is now mapped to PermissionError. The errno modules exposes the new error number. getpath.py now ignores PermissionError when it cannot open landmark files pybuilddir.txt and pyenv.cfg.

gh-93678 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93678]: Added test a harness for direct unit tests of the compiler's optimization stage. The _testinternalcapi.optimize_cfg() function runs the optimiser on a sequence of instructions. The CfgOptimizationTestCase class in test.support has utilities for invoking the optimizer and checking the output.

gh-95245 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95245]: Reduces the size of a "simple" Python object from 8 to 6 words by moving the weakreflist pointer into the pre-header directly before the object's dict/values pointer.

gh-90997 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90997]: Compile virtual try/except blocks to handle exceptions raised during close() or throw() calls through a suspended frame.

gh-95977 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95977]: Optimized calling __get__() with vectorcall. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-91210 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91210]: Improve error message when a parameter without a default value follows one with a default value, and show the same message, even when the non-default/default sequence is preceded by positional-only parameters.

gh-95922 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95922]: Fixed bug where the compiler's eliminate_empty_basic_blocks function ignores the last block of the code unit.

gh-95818 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95818]: Skip over incomplete frames in PyThreadState_GetFrame().

gh-95876 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95876]: Fix format string in _PyPegen_raise_error_known_location that can lead to memory corruption on some 64bit systems. The function was building a tuple with i (int) instead of n (Py_ssize_t) for Py_ssize_t arguments.

gh-95605 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95605]: Fix misleading contents of error message when converting an all-whitespace string to float.

gh-95150 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95150]: Update code object hashing and equality to consider all debugging and exception handling tables. This fixes an issue where certain non-identical code objects could be "deduplicated" during compilation.

gh-91146 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91146]: Reduce allocation size of list from str.split() and str.rsplit(). Patch by Donghee Na and Inada Naoki.

gh-87092 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87092]: Create a 'jump target label' abstraction in the compiler so that the compiler's codegen stage does not work directly with basic blocks. This prepares the code for changes to the underlying CFG generation mechanism.

gh-95355 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95355]: _PyPegen_Parser_New now properly detects token memory allocation errors. Patch by Honglin Zhu.

gh-90081 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90081]: Run Python code in tracer/profiler function at full speed. Fixes slowdown in earlier versions of 3.11.

gh-95324 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95324]: Emit a warning in debug mode if an object does not call PyObject_GC_UnTrack() before deallocation. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

gh-95245 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95245]: Merge managed dict and values pointer into a single tagged pointer to save one word in the pre-header.

gh-93678 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93678]: Add cfg_builder struct and refactor the relevant code so that a cfg can be constructed without an instance of the compiler struct.

gh-95185 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95185]: Prevented crashes in the AST constructor when compiling some absurdly long expressions like "+0"*1000000. RecursionError is now raised instead. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-93351 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93351]: ast.AST node positions are now validated when provided to compile() and other related functions. If invalid positions are detected, a ValueError will be raised.

gh-94438 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94438]: Fix an issue that caused extended opcode arguments and some conditional pops to be ignored when calculating valid jump targets for assignments to the f_lineno attribute of frame objects. In some cases, this could cause inconsistent internal state, resulting in a hard crash of the interpreter.

gh-95060 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95060]: Undocumented PyCode_Addr2Location function now properly returns when addrq argument is less than zero.

gh-95113 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95113]: Replace all EXTENDED_ARG_QUICK instructions with basic EXTENDED_ARG instructions in unquickened code. Consumers of non-adaptive bytecode should be able to handle extended arguments the same way they were handled in CPython 3.10 and older.

gh-91409 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91409]: Fix incorrect source location info caused by certain optimizations in the bytecode compiler.

Library

gh-95023 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95023]: Implement os.setns() and os.unshare() for Linux. Patch by Noam Cohen.

Core and Builtins

gh-94036 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94036]: Fix incorrect source location info for some multi-line attribute accesses and method calls.

gh-94938 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94938]: Fix error detection in some builtin functions when keyword argument name is an instance of a str subclass with overloaded __eq__ and __hash__. Previously it could cause SystemError or other undesired behavior.

Library

gh-94996 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94996]: ast.parse() will no longer parse function definitions with positional-only params when passed feature_version less than (3, 8). Patch by Shantanu Jain.

Core and Builtins

gh-94739 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94739]: Allow jumping within, out of, and across exception handlers in the debugger.

Library

gh-94949 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94949]: ast.parse() will no longer parse parenthesized context managers when passed feature_version less than (3, 9). Patch by Shantanu Jain.

gh-94947 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94947]: ast.parse() will no longer parse assignment expressions when passed feature_version less than (3, 8). Patch by Shantanu Jain.

Core and Builtins

gh-91256 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91256]: Ensures the program name is known for help text during interpreter startup.

gh-94869 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94869]: Fix the column offsets for some expressions in multi-line f-strings ast nodes. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

gh-94893 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94893]: Fix an issue where frame object manipulations could corrupt inline bytecode caches.

gh-94822 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94822]: Fix an issue where lookups of metaclass descriptors may be ignored when an identically-named attribute also exists on the class itself.

gh-91153 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91153]: Fix an issue where a bytearray item assignment could crash if it's resized by the new value's __index__() method.

gh-90699 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90699]: Fix reference counting bug in bool.__repr__(). Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-94694 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94694]: Fix an issue that could cause code with multi-line method lookups to have misleading or incorrect column offset information. In some cases (when compiling a hand-built AST) this could have resulted in a hard crash of the interpreter.

gh-93252 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93252]: Fix an issue that caused internal frames to outlive failed Python function calls, possibly resulting in memory leaks or hard interpreter crashes.

gh-94215 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94215]: Fix an issue where exceptions raised by line-tracing events would cause frames to be left in an invalid state, possibly resulting in a hard crash of the interpreter.

gh-92228 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92228]: Disable the compiler's inline-small-exit-blocks optimization for exit blocks that are associated with source code lines. This fixes a bug where the debugger cannot tell where an exception handler ends and the following code block begins.

gh-94485 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94485]: Line number of a module's RESUME instruction is set to 0 as specified in PEP 626 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/].

gh-94438 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94438]: Account for instructions that can push NULL to the stack when setting line number in a frame. Prevents some (unlikely) crashes.

gh-91719 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91719]: Reload opcode when raising unknown opcode error in the interpreter main loop, for C compilers to generate dispatching code independently.

gh-94329 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94329]: Compile and run code with unpacking of extremely large sequences (1000s of elements). Such code failed to compile. It now compiles and runs correctly.

gh-94360 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94360]: Fixed a tokenizer crash when reading encoded files with syntax errors from stdin with non utf-8 encoded text. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-88116 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88116]: Fix an issue when reading line numbers from code objects if the encoded line numbers are close to INT_MIN. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-94262 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94262]: Don't create frame objects for incomplete frames. Prevents the creation of generators and closures from being observable to Python and C extensions, restoring the behavior of 3.10 and earlier.

gh-94192 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94192]: Fix error for dictionary literals with invalid expression as value.

gh-87995 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87995]: types.MappingProxyType instances are now hashable if the underlying mapping is hashable.

gh-93883 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93883]: Revise the display strategy of traceback enhanced error locations. The indicators are only shown when the location doesn't span the whole line.

gh-94163 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94163]: Add BINARY_SLICE and STORE_SLICE instructions for more efficient handling and better specialization of slicing operations, where the slice is explicit in the source code.

gh-94021 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94021]: Fix unreachable code warning in Python/specialize.c.

gh-93911 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93911]: Specialize LOAD_ATTR for objects with custom __getattribute__.

gh-93955 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93955]: Improve performance of attribute lookups on objects with custom __getattribute__ and __getattr__. Patch by Ken Jin.

gh-93911 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93911]: Specialize LOAD_ATTR for property() attributes.

gh-93678 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93678]: Refactor compiler optimisation code so that it no longer needs the struct assembler and struct compiler passed around. Instead, each function takes the CFG and other data that it actually needs. This will make it possible to test this code directly.

gh-93841 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93841]: When built with -enable-pystats, sys._stats_on(), sys._stats_off(), sys._stats_clear() and sys._stats_dump() functions have been added to enable gathering stats for parts of programs.

gh-93516 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93516]: Store offset of first traceable instruction in code object to avoid having to recompute it for each instruction when tracing.

gh-93516 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93516]: Lazily create a table mapping bytecode offsets to line numbers to speed up calculation of line numbers when tracing.

gh-89828 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89828]: types.GenericAlias no longer relays the __class__ attribute. For example, isinstance(list[int], type) no longer returns True.

gh-93678 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93678]: Refactor the compiler to reduce boilerplate and repetition.

gh-93671 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93671]: Fix some exponential backtrace case happening with deeply nested sequence patterns in match statements. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-93662 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93662]: Make sure that the end column offsets are correct in multi-line method calls. Previously, the end column could precede the column offset.

Library

gh-93461 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93461]: importlib.invalidate_caches() now drops entries from sys.path_importer_cache with a relative path as name. This solves a caching issue when a process changes its current working directory.

FileFinder no longer inserts a dot in the path, e.g. /egg/./spam is now /egg/spam.

Core and Builtins

gh-93621 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93621]: Change order of bytecode instructions emitted for with and async with to reduce the number of entries in the exception table.

gh-93533 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93533]: Reduce the size of the inline cache for LOAD_METHOD by 2 bytes.

gh-93444 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93444]: Removed redundant fields from the compiler's basicblock struct: b_nofallthrough, b_exit, b_return. They can be easily calculated from the opcode of the last instruction of the block.

gh-93429 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93429]: LOAD_METHOD instruction has been removed. It was merged back into LOAD_ATTR.

gh-93418 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93418]: Fixed an assert where an f-string has an equal sign '=' following an expression, but there's no trailing brace. For example, f"{i=".

gh-93382 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93382]: Cache the result of PyCode_GetCode() function to restore the O(1) lookup of the co_code attribute.

gh-93359 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93359]: Ensure that custom ast nodes without explicit end positions can be compiled. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

gh-93356 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93356]: Code for exception handlers is emitted at the end of the code unit's bytecode. This avoids one jump when no exception is raised.

gh-93354 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93354]: Use exponential backoff for specialization counters in the interpreter. Can reduce the number of failed specializations significantly and avoid slowdown for those parts of a program that are not suitable for specialization.

gh-93283 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93283]: Improve error message for invalid syntax of conversion character in f-string expressions.

gh-93345 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93345]: Fix a crash in substitution of a TypeVar in nested generic alias after TypeVarTuple.

gh-93223 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93223]: When a bytecode instruction jumps to an unconditional jump instruction, the first instruction can often be optimized to target the unconditional jump's target directly. For tracing reasons, this would previously only occur if both instructions have the same line number. This also now occurs if the unconditional jump is artificial, i.e., if it has no associated line number.

gh-84694 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84694]: The --experimental-isolated-subinterpreters configure option and EXPERIMENTAL_ISOLATED_SUBINTERPRETERS macro have been removed.

gh-91924 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91924]: Fix __lltrace__ debug feature if the stdout encoding is not UTF-8. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-93040 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93040]: Wraps unused parameters in Objects/obmalloc.c with Py_UNUSED.

gh-93143 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93143]: Avoid NULL checks for uninitialized local variables by determining at compile time which variables must be initialized.

gh-93061 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93061]: Backward jumps after async for loops are no longer given dubious line numbers.

gh-93065 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93065]: Fix contextvars HAMT implementation to handle iteration over deep trees.

The bug was discovered and fixed by Eli Libman. See MagicStack/immutables#84 [https://github.com/MagicStack/immutables/issues/84] for more details.

gh-93012 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93012]: Added the new function PyType_FromMetaclass(), which generalizes the existing PyType_FromModuleAndSpec() using an additional metaclass argument. This is useful for language binding tools, where it can be used to intercept type-related operations like subclassing or static attribute access by specifying a metaclass with custom slots.

Importantly, PyType_FromMetaclass() is available in the Limited API, which provides a path towards migrating more binding tools onto the Stable ABI.

gh-93021 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93021]: Fix the __text_signature__ for __get__() methods implemented in C. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

gh-89914 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89914]: The operand of the YIELD_VALUE instruction is set to the stack depth. This is done to help frame handling on yield and may assist debuggers.

gh-92955 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92955]: Fix memory leak in code object's lines and positions iterators as they were not finalized at exit. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-92930 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92930]: Fixed a crash in _pickle.c from mutating collections during __reduce__ or persistent_id.

gh-90690 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90690]: The PRECALL instruction has been removed. It offered only a small advantage for specialization and is not needed in the vast majority of cases.

gh-92914 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92914]: Always round the allocated size for lists up to the nearest even number.

gh-92858 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92858]: Improve error message for some suites with syntax error before ':'

gh-90473 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90473]: Decrease default recursion limit on WASI to address limited call stack size.

gh-92804 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92804]: Fix memory leak in memoryview iterator as it was not finalized at exit. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-92777 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92777]: Specialize LOAD_METHOD for objects with lazy dictionaries. Patch by Ken Jin.

gh-92658 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92658]: Add support for connecting and binding to Hyper-V sockets on Windows Hyper-V hosts and guests.

gh-92236 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92236]: Remove spurious "LINE" event when starting a generator or coroutine, visible tracing functions implemented in C.

Library

gh-91102 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91102]: _warnings.warn_explicit() is ported to Argument Clinic.

Core and Builtins

gh-92619 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92619]: Make the compiler duplicate an exit block only if none of its instructions have a lineno (previously only the first instruction in the block was checked, leading to unnecessarily duplicated blocks).

gh-88750 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88750]: The deprecated debug build only PYTHONTHREADDEBUG environment variable no longer does anything.

Library

gh-92261 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92261]: Fix hang when trying to iterate over a typing.Union.

Core and Builtins

gh-91432 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91432]: Specialized the FOR_ITER opcode using the PEP 659 machinery

gh-91399 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91399]: Removed duplicate '{0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0}' entry in 'Objects/unicodetype_db.h'.

gh-91578 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91578]: Updates the error message for abstract class.

bpo-47091 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47091]: Improve performance of repetition of list and tuple by using memcpy to copy data and performing the reference increments in one step.

bpo-46142 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46142]: Make --help output shorter by moving some info to the new --help-env and --help-xoptions command-line options. Also add --help-all option to print complete usage.

bpo-42316 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42316]: Document some places where an assignment expression needs parentheses.

Library

gh-89237 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89237]: Fix hang on Windows in subprocess.wait_closed() in asyncio with ProactorEventLoop. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-97928 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97928]: tkinter.Text.count() raises now an exception for options starting with "-" instead of silently ignoring them.

gh-98393 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98393]: The os module no longer accepts bytes-like paths, like bytearray and memoryview types: only the exact bytes type is accepted for bytes strings. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-98363 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98363]: Added itertools.batched() to batch data into lists of a given length with the last list possibly being shorter than the others.

gh-98331 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98331]: Update the bundled copies of pip and setuptools to versions 22.3 and 65.5.0 respectively.

gh-98307 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98307]: A createSocket() method was added to SysLogHandler.

gh-96035 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96035]: Fix bug in urllib.parse.urlparse() that causes certain port numbers containing whitespace, underscores, plus and minus signs, or non-ASCII digits to be incorrectly accepted.

gh-98257 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98257]: Make sys.setprofile() and sys.settrace() functions reentrant. They can no long fail with: RuntimeError("Cannot install a trace function while another trace function is being installed"). Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-98251 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98251]: Allow venv to pass along PYTHON* variables to ensurepip and pip when they do not impact path resolution

gh-94597 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597]: Deprecated asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.get_child_watcher() and asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.set_child_watcher() methods to be removed in Python 3.14. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-98178 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98178]: On macOS, fix a crash in syslog.syslog() in multi-threaded applications. On macOS, the libc syslog() function is not thread-safe, so syslog.syslog() no longer releases the GIL to call it. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-44098 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/44098]: Release the GIL when creating mmap.mmap objects on Unix.

gh-87730 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87730]: Wrap network errors consistently in urllib FTP support, so the test suite doesn't fail when a network is available but the public internet is not reachable.

gh-94597 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597]: The child watcher classes MultiLoopChildWatcher, FastChildWatcher and SafeChildWatcher are deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.14. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-98023 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98023]: Change default child watcher to PidfdChildWatcher on Linux systems which supports it. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-90985 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90985]: Earlier in 3.11 we deprecated asyncio.Task.cancel("message"). We realized we were too harsh, and have undeprecated it.

gh-65961 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65961]: Do not rely solely on __cached__ on modules; code will also support __spec__.cached.

gh-97646 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97646]: Replace deprecated application/javascript with text/javascript in mimetypes. See RFC 9239 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9239.html]. Patch by Noam Cohen.

gh-97930 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97930]: Apply changes from importlib_resources 5.8 and 5.9: Traversable.joinpath provides a concrete implementation. as_file now supports directories of resources.

gh-97850 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850]: Remove deprecated importlib.util.set_loader() and importlib.util.module_for_loader() from importlib.util.

gh-97837 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97837]: Change deprecate warning message in unittest from

It is deprecated to return a value!=None

to

It is deprecated to return a value that is not None from a test case

gh-97825 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97825]: Fixes AttributeError when subprocess.check_output() is used with argument input=None and either of the arguments encoding or errors are used.

gh-97008 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97008]: NameError and AttributeError spelling suggestions provided since gh-82711 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82711] are now also emitted by the pure Python traceback module. Tests for those suggestions now exercise both implementations to ensure they are equivalent. Patch by Carl Friedrich Bolz-Tereick and Łukasz Langa.

gh-97799 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97799]: dataclass now uses inspect.get_annotations() to examine the annotations on class objects.

gh-97781 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97781]: Removed deprecated interfaces in importlib.metadata (entry points accessed as dictionary, implicit dictionary construction of sequence of EntryPoint objects, mutablility of EntryPoints result, access of entry point by index). entry_points now has a simpler, more straightforward API (returning EntryPoints).

gh-96827 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96827]: Avoid spurious tracebacks from asyncio when default executor cleanup is delayed until after the event loop is closed (e.g. as the result of a keyboard interrupt).

gh-95534 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95534]: gzip.GzipFile.read() reads 10% faster.

gh-97592 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97592]: Avoid a crash in the C version of asyncio.Future.remove_done_callback() when an evil argument is passed.

gh-97639 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97639]: Remove tokenize.NL check from tabnanny.

gh-97545 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97545]: Make Semaphore run faster.

gh-73588 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73588]: Fix generation of the default name of tkinter.Checkbutton. Previously, checkbuttons in different parent widgets could have the same short name and share the same state if arguments "name" and "variable" are not specified. Now they are globally unique.

gh-96865 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96865]: fix Flag to use boundary CONFORM

This restores previous Flag behavior of allowing flags with non-sequential values to be combined; e.g.

class Skip(Flag): TWO = 2 EIGHT = 8

Skip.TWO | Skip.EIGHT -> <Skip.TWO|EIGHT: 10>

gh-97005 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97005]: Update bundled libexpat to 2.4.9

gh-85760 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85760]: Fix race condition in asyncio where process_exited() called before the pipe_data_received() leading to inconsistent output. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-96704 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96704]: Pass the correct contextvars.Context when a asyncio exception handler is called on behalf of a task or callback handle. This adds a new Task method, get_context, and also a new Handle method with the same name. If this method is not found on a task object (perhaps because it is a third-party library that does not yet provide this method), the context prevailing at the time the exception handler is called is used.

gh-96819 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96819]: Fixed check in multiprocessing.resource_tracker that guarantees that the length of a write to a pipe is not greater than PIPE_BUF.

gh-95865 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95865]: Reduce urllib.parse.quote_from_bytes() memory use on large values.

Contributed by Dennis Sweeney.

gh-96741 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96741]: Corrected type annotation for dataclass attribute pstats.FunctionProfile.ncalls to be str.

gh-96734 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96734]: Update unicodedata database to Unicode 15.0.0.

gh-96735 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96735]: Fix undefined behaviour in struct.unpack().

gh-46412 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/46412]: Improve performance of bool(db) for large ndb/gdb databases. Previously this would call len(db) which would iterate over all keys -- the answer (empty or not) is known after the first key.

gh-96652 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96652]: Fix the faulthandler implementation of faulthandler.register(signal, chain=True) if the sigaction() function is not available: don't call the previous signal handler if it's NULL. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-68163 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68163]: Correct conversion of numbers.Rational's to float.

gh-96538 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96538]: Speed up bisect.bisect() functions by taking advantage of type-stability.

gh-96465 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96465]: Fraction hashes are now cached.

gh-96079 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96079]: In typing, fix missing field name and incorrect __module__ in _AnnotatedAlias.

gh-96415 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96415]: Remove types._cell_factory from module namespace.

gh-95987 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95987]: Fix repr of Any subclasses.

gh-96388 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96388]: Work around missing socket functions in socket's __repr__.

gh-96385 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96385]: Fix TypeVarTuple.__typing_prepare_subst__. TypeError was not raised when using more than one TypeVarTuple, like [*T, *V] in type alias substitutions.

gh-96142 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96142]: Add match_args, kw_only, slots, and weakref_slot to _DataclassParams.

gh-96073 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96073]: In inspect, fix overeager replacement of "typing." in formatting annotations.

gh-89258 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89258]: Added a getChildren() method to logging.Logger, to get the immediate child loggers of a logger.

gh-96346 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96346]: Use double caching for compiled RE patterns.

gh-96349 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96349]: Fixed a minor performance regression in threading.Event.__init__()

gh-90467 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90467]: Fix asyncio.streams.StreamReaderProtocol to keep a strong reference to the created task, so that it's not garbage collected

gh-96172 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96172]: Fix a bug in unicodedata: east_asian_width used to return the wrong value for unassigned characters; and for yet unassigned, but reserved characters.

gh-96159 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96159]: Fix a performance regression in logging TimedRotatingFileHandler. Only check for special files when the rollover time has passed.

gh-96175 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96175]: Fix unused localName parameter in the Attr class in xml.dom.minidom.

gh-96145 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96145]: Add AttrDict to JSON module for use with object_hook.

gh-96052 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96052]: Fix handling compiler warnings (SyntaxWarning and DeprecationWarning) in codeop.compile_command() when checking for incomplete input. Previously it emitted warnings and raised a SyntaxError. Now it always returns None for incomplete input without emitting any warnings.

gh-96125 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96125]: Fix incorrect condition that causes sys.thread_info.name to be wrong on pthread platforms.

gh-96019 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96019]: Fix a bug in the makeunicodedata.py script leading to about 13 KiB of space saving in the unicodedata module, specifically the character decomposition data.

gh-95463 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95463]: Remove an incompatible change from bpo-28080 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28080] that caused a regression that ignored the utf8 in ZipInfo.flag_bits. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

gh-69142 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69142]: Add %:z strftime format code (generates tzoffset with colons as separator), see strftime() and strptime() behavior.

gh-95899 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95899]: Fix asyncio.Runner to call asyncio.set_event_loop() only once to avoid calling attach_loop() multiple times on child watchers. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-95736 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95736]: Fix unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase to set event loop before calling setup functions. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-95865 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95865]: Speed up urllib.parse.quote_from_bytes() by replacing a list comprehension with map().

gh-95861 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95861]: Add support for computing Spearman's correlation coefficient to the existing statistics.correlation() function.

gh-95804 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95804]: Fix logging shutdown handler so it respects MemoryHandler.flushOnClose.

gh-95704 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95704]: When a task catches asyncio.CancelledError and raises some other error, the other error should generally not silently be suppressed.

gh-95149 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95149]: The HTTPStatus enum offers a couple of properties to indicate the HTTP status category e.g. HTTPStatus.OK.is_success.

gh-95609 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95609]: Update bundled pip to 22.2.2.

gh-95289 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95289]: Fix asyncio.TaskGroup to propagate exception when asyncio.CancelledError was replaced with another exception by a context manager. Patch by Kumar Aditya and Guido van Rossum.

gh-94909 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94909]: Fix incorrect joining of relative Windows paths with drives in pathlib.PurePath initializer.

gh-95385 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95385]: Faster json.dumps() when sorting of keys is not requested (default).

gh-83901 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83901]: Improve Signature.bind error message for missing keyword-only arguments.

gh-95339 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95339]: Update bundled pip to 22.2.1.

gh-95045 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95045]: Fix GC crash when deallocating _lsprof.Profiler by untracking it before calling any callbacks. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-95231 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95231]: Fail gracefully if EPERM or ENOSYS is raised when loading crypt methods. This may happen when trying to load MD5 on a Linux kernel with FIPS enabled.

gh-95097 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95097]: Fix asyncio.run() for asyncio.Task implementations without uncancel() method. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-95087 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95087]: Fix IndexError in parsing invalid date in the email module.

gh-95199 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95199]: Upgrade bundled setuptools to 63.2.0.

gh-95194 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95194]: Upgrade bundled pip to 22.2.

gh-93899 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93899]: Fix check for existence of os.EFD_CLOEXEC, os.EFD_NONBLOCK and os.EFD_SEMAPHORE flags on older kernel versions where these flags are not present. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-95166 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95166]: Fix concurrent.futures.Executor.map() to cancel the currently waiting on future on an error - e.g. TimeoutError or KeyboardInterrupt.

gh-95132 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95132]: Fix a sqlite3 regression where *args and **kwds were incorrectly relayed from connect() to the Connection factory. The regression was introduced in 3.11a1 with PR 24421 (gh-85128 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85128]). Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

gh-93157 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93157]: Fix fileinput module didn't support errors option when inplace is true.

gh-91212 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91212]: Fixed flickering of the turtle window when the tracer is turned off. Patch by Shin-myoung-serp.

gh-95077 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95077]: Add deprecation warning for enum member.member access (e.g. Color.RED.BLUE). Remove EnumMeta.__getattr__.

gh-95109 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95109]: Ensure that timeouts scheduled with asyncio.Timeout that have already expired are delivered promptly.

gh-95105 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95105]: wsgiref.types.InputStream.__iter__() should return Iterator[bytes], not Iterable[bytes]. Patch by Shantanu Jain.

gh-95066 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95066]: Replaced assert with exception in ast.parse(), when feature_version has an invalid major version. Patch by Shantanu Jain.

gh-77617 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77617]: Add sqlite3 command-line interface. Patch by Erlend Aasland.

gh-95005 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95005]: Replace _PyAccu with _PyUnicodeWriter in JSON encoder and StringIO and remove the _PyAccu implementation.

gh-90085 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90085]: Remove -c/--clock and -t/--time CLI options of timeit. The options had been deprecated since Python 3.3 and the functionality was removed in Python 3.7. Patch by Shantanu Jain.

gh-94857 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94857]: Fix refleak in _io.TextIOWrapper.reconfigure. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-94821 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94821]: Fix binding of unix socket to empty address on Linux to use an available address from the abstract namespace, instead of "0".

gh-94736 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94736]: Fix crash when deallocating an instance of a subclass of _multiprocessing.SemLock. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-81620 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81620]: Add random.binomialvariate().

gh-74116 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74116]: Allow asyncio.StreamWriter.drain() to be awaited concurrently by multiple tasks. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-87822 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87822]: When called with capture_locals=True, the traceback module functions swallow exceptions raised from calls to repr() on local variables of frames. This is in order to prioritize the original exception over rendering errors. An indication of the failure is printed in place of the missing value. (Patch by Simon-Martin Schroeder).

gh-88050 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88050]: Fix asyncio subprocess transport to kill process cleanly when process is blocked and avoid RuntimeError when loop is closed. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-94637 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94637]: SSLContext.set_default_verify_paths() now releases the GIL around SSL_CTX_set_default_verify_paths call. The function call performs I/O and CPU intensive work.

gh-94309 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94309]: Deprecate aliases typing.Hashable and typing.Sized

gh-92546 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92546]: An undocumented python -m pprint benchmark is moved into pprint suite of pyperformance. Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

gh-94607 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94607]: Fix subclassing complex generics with type variables in typing. Previously an error message saying Some type variables ... are not listed in Generic[...] was shown. typing no longer populates __parameters__ with the __parameters__ of a Python class.

gh-94619 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94619]: Remove the long-deprecated module_repr() from importlib.

gh-93910 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93910]: The ability to access the other values of an enum on an enum (e.g. Color.RED.BLUE) has been restored in order to fix a performance regression.

gh-93896 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93896]: Fix asyncio.run() and unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase to always the set event loop as it was done in Python 3.10 and earlier. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-94343 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94343]: Allow setting the attributes of reprlib.Repr during object initialization

gh-94382 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94382]: Port static types of _multiprocessing module to heap types. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-78724 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78724]: Fix crash in struct.Struct when it was not completely initialized by initializing it in __new__(). Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-94510 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94510]: Re-entrant calls to sys.setprofile() and sys.settrace() now raise RuntimeError. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

gh-92336 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92336]: Fix bug where linecache.getline() fails on bad files with UnicodeDecodeError or SyntaxError. It now returns an empty string as per the documentation.

gh-94398 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94398]: Once a asyncio.TaskGroup has started shutting down (i.e., at least one task has failed and the task group has started cancelling the remaining tasks), it should not be possible to add new tasks to the task group.

gh-94383 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94383]: xml.etree: Remove the ElementTree.Element.copy() method of the pure Python implementation, deprecated in Python 3.10, use the copy.copy() function instead. The C implementation of xml.etree has no copy() method, only a __copy__() method. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-94379 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94379]: zipimport: Remove find_loader() and find_module() methods, deprecated in Python 3.10: use the find_spec() method instead. See PEP 451 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/] for the rationale. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-94352 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94352]: shlex.split(): Passing None for s argument now raises an exception, rather than reading sys.stdin. The feature was deprecated in Python 3.9. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-94318 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94318]: Strip trailing spaces in pydoc text output.

gh-89988 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89988]: Fix memory leak in pickle.Pickler when looking up dispatch_table. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-90016 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90016]: Deprecate sqlite3 default adapters and converters. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

gh-94254 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94254]: Fixed types of struct module to be immutable. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-93259 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93259]: Now raise ValueError when None or an empty string are passed to Distribution.from_name (and other callers).

gh-74696 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74696]: shutil.make_archive() now passes the root_dir argument to custom archivers which support it.

gh-94216 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94216]: The dis module now has the opcodes for pseudo instructions (those which are used by the compiler during code generation but then removed or replaced by real opcodes before the final bytecode is emitted).

gh-93096 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93096]: Removed undocumented python -m codecs. Use python -m unittest test.test_codecs.EncodedFileTest instead.

gh-94207 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94207]: Made _struct.Struct GC-tracked in order to fix a reference leak in the _struct module.

gh-93096 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93096]: Removed undocumented -t argument of python -m base64. Use python -m unittest test.test_base64.LegacyBase64TestCase.test_encodebytes instead.

gh-94226 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94226]: Remove the locale.format() function, deprecated in Python 3.7: use locale.format_string() instead. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-94199 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94199]: Remove the ssl.match_hostname() function. The ssl.match_hostname() was deprecated in Python 3.7. OpenSSL performs hostname matching since Python 3.7, Python no longer uses the ssl.match_hostname() function. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-94214 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94214]: Document the context object used in the venv.EnvBuilder class, and add the new environment's library path to it.

gh-94199 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94199]: Remove the ssl.wrap_socket() function, deprecated in Python 3.7: instead, create a ssl.SSLContext object and call its ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket method. Any package that still uses ssl.wrap_socket() is broken and insecure. The function neither sends a SNI TLS extension nor validates server hostname. Code is subject to CWE 295 [https://cwe.mitre.org/data/definitions/295.html] Improper Certificate Validation. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-94199 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94199]: Remove the ssl.RAND_pseudo_bytes() function, deprecated in Python 3.6: use os.urandom() or ssl.RAND_bytes() instead. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-94199 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94199]: hashlib: Remove the pure Python implementation of hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac(), deprecated in Python 3.10. Python 3.10 and newer requires OpenSSL 1.1.1 (PEP 644 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/]): this OpenSSL version provides a C implementation of pbkdf2_hmac() which is faster. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-94196 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94196]: gzip: Remove the filename attribute of gzip.GzipFile, deprecated since Python 2.6, use the name attribute instead. In write mode, the filename attribute added '.gz' file extension if it was not present. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-94182 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94182]: run the asyncio.PidfdChildWatcher on the running loop, this allows event loops to run subprocesses when there is no default event loop running on the main thread

gh-94169 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94169]: Remove io.OpenWrapper and _pyio.OpenWrapper, deprecated in Python 3.10: just use open() instead. The open() (io.open()) function is a built-in function. Since Python 3.10, _pyio.open() is also a static method. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-91742 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91742]: Fix pdb crash after jump caused by a null pointer dereference. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-94101 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94101]: Manual instantiation of ssl.SSLSession objects is no longer allowed as it lead to misconfigured instances that crashed the interpreter when attributes where accessed on them.

gh-84753 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84753]: inspect.iscoroutinefunction(), inspect.isgeneratorfunction(), and inspect.isasyncgenfunction() now properly return True for duck-typed function-like objects like instances of unittest.mock.AsyncMock.

This makes inspect.iscoroutinefunction() consistent with the behavior of asyncio.iscoroutinefunction(). Patch by Mehdi ABAAKOUK.

gh-94028 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94028]: Fix a regression in the sqlite3 where statement objects were not properly cleared and reset after use in cursor iters. The regression was introduced by PR 27884 in Python 3.11a1. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

gh-93973 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93973]: Add keyword argument all_errors to asyncio.create_connection so that multiple connection errors can be raised as an ExceptionGroup.

gh-93963 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93963]: Officially deprecate from importlib.abc classes moved to importlib.resources.abc.

gh-93858 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93858]: Prevent error when activating venv in nested fish instances.

gh-93820 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93820]: Pickle enum.Flag by name.

gh-93847 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93847]: Fix repr of enum of generic aliases.

gh-91404 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91404]: Revert the re memory leak when a match is terminated by a signal or memory allocation failure as the implemented fix caused a major performance regression.

gh-83499 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83499]: Fix double closing of file description in tempfile.

gh-93820 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93820]: Fixed a regression when copy.copy()-ing enum.Flag with multiple flag members.

gh-79512 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79512]: Fixed names and __module__ value of weakref classes ReferenceType, ProxyType, CallableProxyType. It makes them pickleable.

gh-91389 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91389]: Fix an issue where dis utilities could report missing or incorrect position information in the presence of CACHE entries.

gh-93626 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93626]: Set __future__.annotations to have a None mandatoryRelease to indicate that it is currently 'TBD'.

gh-90473 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90473]: Emscripten and WASI have no home directory and cannot provide PEP 370 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0370/] user site directory.

gh-90494 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90494]: copy.copy() and copy.deepcopy() now always raise a TypeError if __reduce__() returns a tuple with length 6 instead of silently ignore the 6th item or produce incorrect result.

gh-90549 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90549]: Fix a multiprocessing bug where a global named resource (such as a semaphore) could leak when a child process is spawned (as opposed to forked).

gh-93521 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93521]: Fixed a case where dataclasses would try to add __weakref__ into the __slots__ for a dataclass that specified weakref_slot=True when it was already defined in one of its bases. This resulted in a TypeError upon the new class being created.

gh-79579 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79579]: sqlite3 now correctly detects DML queries with leading comments. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

gh-93421 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93421]: Update sqlite3.Cursor.rowcount when a DML statement has run to completion. This fixes the row count for SQL queries like UPDATE ... RETURNING. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

gh-93475 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93475]: Expose FICLONE and FICLONERANGE constants in fcntl. Patch by Illia Volochii.

gh-93370 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93370]: Deprecate version and version_info.

gh-91810 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91810]: Suppress writing an XML declaration in open files in ElementTree.write() with encoding='unicode' and xml_declaration=None.

gh-91162 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91162]: Support splitting of unpacked arbitrary-length tuple over TypeVar and TypeVarTuple parameters. For example:

A[T, *Ts][*tuple[int, ...]] -> A[int, *tuple[int, ...]]

A[*Ts, T][*tuple[int, ...]] -> A[*tuple[int, ...], int]

gh-93353 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93353]: Fix the importlib.resources.as_file() context manager to remove the temporary file if destroyed late during Python finalization: keep a local reference to the os.remove() function. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-83658 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83658]: Make multiprocessing.Pool raise an exception if maxtasksperchild is not None or a positive int.

gh-93312 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93312]: Add os.PIDFD_NONBLOCK flag to open a file descriptor for a process with os.pidfd_open() in non-blocking mode. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-88123 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88123]: Implement Enum.__contains__ that returns True or False to replace the deprecated behaviour that would sometimes raise a TypeError.

gh-93297 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93297]: Make asyncio task groups prevent child tasks from being GCed

gh-85308 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85308]: Changed argparse.ArgumentParser to use filesystem encoding and error handler instead of default text encoding to read arguments from file (e.g. fromfile_prefix_chars option). This change affects Windows; argument file should be encoded with UTF-8 instead of ANSI Codepage.

gh-93156 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93156]: Accessing the pathlib.PurePath.parents sequence of an absolute path using negative index values produced incorrect results.

gh-93162 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93162]: Add the ability for logging.config.dictConfig() to usefully configure QueueHandler and QueueListener as a pair, and add logging.getHandlerByName() and logging.getHandlerNames() APIs to allow access to handlers by name.

gh-93243 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93243]: The smtpd module was removed per the schedule in PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/].

gh-92886 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92886]: Replace assert statements with raise AssertionError() in BaseHandler so that the tested behaviour is maintained running with optimizations (-O).

gh-90155 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90155]: Fix broken asyncio.Semaphore when acquire is cancelled.

gh-90817 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90817]: The locale.resetlocale() function is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.13. Use locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, "") instead. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-91513 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91513]: Added taskName attribute to logging module for use with asyncio tasks.

gh-74696 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74696]: shutil.make_archive() no longer temporarily changes the current working directory during creation of standard .zip or tar archives.

gh-92728 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92728]: The re.template() function and the corresponding re.TEMPLATE and re.T flags are restored after they were removed in 3.11.0b1, but they are now deprecated, so they might be removed from Python 3.13.

gh-93033 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93033]: Search in some strings (platform dependent i.e [U+0xFFFF, U+0x0100] on Windows or [U+0xFFFFFFFF, U+0x00010000] on Linux 64-bit) are now up to 10 times faster.

gh-89973 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89973]: Fix re.error raised in fnmatch if the pattern contains a character range with upper bound lower than lower bound (e.g. [c-a]). Now such ranges are interpreted as empty ranges.

gh-93044 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93044]: No longer convert the database argument of sqlite3.connect() to bytes before passing it to the factory.

gh-93010 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93010]: In a very special case, the email package tried to append the nonexistent InvalidHeaderError to the defect list. It should have been InvalidHeaderDefect.

gh-92986 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92986]: Fix ast.unparse() when ImportFrom.level is None

gh-92932 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92932]: Now dis() and get_instructions() handle operand values for instructions prefixed by EXTENDED_ARG_QUICK. Patch by Sam Gross and Donghee Na.

gh-92675 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92675]: Fix venv.ensure_directories() to accept pathlib.Path arguments in addition to str paths. Patch by David Foster.

gh-87901 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87901]: Removed the encoding argument from os.popen() that was added in 3.11b1.

gh-91922 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91922]: Fix function sqlite.connect() and the sqlite.Connection constructor on non-UTF-8 locales. Also, they now support bytes paths non-decodable with the current FS encoding.

gh-92869 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92869]: Added c_time_t to ctypes, which has the same size as the time_t type in C.

gh-92839 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92839]: Fixed crash resulting from calling bisect.insort() or bisect.insort_left() with the key argument not equal to None.

gh-90473 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90473]: subprocess now fails early on Emscripten and WASI platforms to work around missing os.pipe() on WASI.

gh-89325 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89325]: Removed many old deprecated unittest features: TestCase method aliases, undocumented and broken TestCase method assertDictContainsSubset, undocumented TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule parameter use_load_tests, and an underscored alias of the TextTestResult class.

gh-92734 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92734]: Allow multi-element reprs emitted by reprlib to be pretty-printed using configurable indentation.

gh-92671 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92671]: Fixed ast.unparse() for empty tuples in the assignment target context.

gh-91581 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91581]: utcfromtimestamp() no longer attempts to resolve fold in the pure Python implementation, since the fold is never 1 in UTC. In addition to being slightly faster in the common case, this also prevents some errors when the timestamp is close to datetime.min. Patch by Paul Ganssle.

gh-86388 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86388]: Removed randrange() functionality deprecated since Python 3.10. Formerly, randrange(10.0) losslessly converted to randrange(10). Now, it raises a TypeError. Also, the exception raised for non-integral values such as randrange(10.5) or randrange('10') has been changed from ValueError to TypeError.

gh-90385 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90385]: Add pathlib.Path.walk() as an alternative to os.walk().

gh-92550 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92550]: Fix pathlib.Path.rglob() for empty pattern.

gh-92591 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92591]: Allow logging filters to return a logging.LogRecord instance so that filters attached to logging.Handlers can enrich records without side effects on other handlers.

gh-92445 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92445]: Fix a bug in argparse where nargs="*" would raise an error instead of returning an empty list when 0 arguments were supplied if choice was also defined in parser.add_argument.

gh-92547 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92547]: Remove undocumented sqlite3 features deprecated in Python 3.10:

sqlite3.enable_shared_cache()

sqlite3.OptimizedUnicode

Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

gh-92530 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92530]: Fix an issue that occurred after interrupting threading.Condition.notify().

gh-92531 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92531]: The statistics.median_grouped() function now always return a float. Formerly, it did not convert the input type when for sequences of length one.

gh-84131 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84131]: The pathlib.Path deprecated method link_to has been removed. Use 3.10's hardlink_to() method instead as its semantics are consistent with that of symlink_to().

gh-89336 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89336]: Removed configparser module APIs: the SafeConfigParser class alias, the ParsingError.filename property and parameter, and the ConfigParser.readfp method, all of which were deprecated since Python 3.2.

gh-92391 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92391]: Add __class_getitem__() to csv.DictReader and csv.DictWriter, allowing them to be parameterized at runtime. Patch by Marc Mueller.

gh-91968 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91968]: Add SO_RTABLE and SO_USER_COOKIE constants to socket.

gh-91810 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91810]: ElementTree method write() and function tostring() now use the text file's encoding ("UTF-8" if not available) instead of locale encoding in XML declaration when encoding="unicode" is specified.

gh-81790 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81790]: os.path.splitdrive() now understands DOS device paths with UNC links (beginning \\?\UNC\). Contributed by Barney Gale.

gh-91760 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91760]: Apply more strict rules for numerical group references and group names in regular expressions. Only sequence of ASCII digits is now accepted as a numerical reference. The group name in bytes patterns and replacement strings can now only contain ASCII letters and digits and underscore.

gh-90622 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90622]: Worker processes for concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor are no longer spawned on demand (a feature added in 3.9) when the multiprocessing context start method is "fork" as that can lead to deadlocks in the child processes due to a fork happening while threads are running.

gh-91577 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91577]: Move imports in SharedMemory methods to module level so that they can be executed late in python finalization.

gh-91581 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91581]: Remove an unhandled error case in the C implementation of calls to datetime.fromtimestamp with no time zone (i.e. getting a local time from an epoch timestamp). This should have no user-facing effect other than giving a possibly more accurate error message when called with timestamps that fall on 10000-01-01 in the local time. Patch by Paul Ganssle.

gh-91539 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91539]: Improve performance of urllib.request.getproxies_environment when there are many environment variables

gh-91524 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91524]: Speed up the regular expression substitution (functions re.sub() and re.subn() and corresponding re.Pattern methods) for replacement strings containing group references by 2--3 times.

gh-91447 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91447]: Fix findtext in the xml module to only give an empty string when the text attribute is set to None.

gh-91456 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91456]: Deprecate current default auto() behavior: In 3.13 the default will be for for auto() to always return the largest member value incremented by 1, and to raise if incompatible value types are used.

bpo-47231 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47231]: Fixed an issue with inconsistent trailing slashes in tarfile longname directories.

bpo-39064 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39064]: zipfile.ZipFile now raises zipfile.BadZipFile instead of ValueError when reading a corrupt zip file in which the central directory offset is negative.

bpo-41287 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41287]: Fix handling of the doc argument in subclasses of property().

gh-90005 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90005]: ctypes dependency libffi is now detected with pkg-config.

bpo-32547 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32547]: The constructors for DictWriter and DictReader now coerce the fieldnames argument to a list if it is an iterator.

bpo-35540 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35540]: Fix dataclasses.asdict() crash when collections.defaultdict is present in the attributes.

bpo-47063 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47063]: Add an index_pages parameter to support using non-default index page names.

bpo-47025 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47025]: Drop support for bytes on sys.path.

bpo-46951 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46951]: Order the contents of zipapp archives, to make builds more reproducible.

bpo-42777 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42777]: Implement pathlib.Path.is_mount() for Windows paths.

bpo-46755 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46755]: In QueueHandler, clear stack_info from LogRecord to prevent stack trace from being written twice.

bpo-45393 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45393]: Fix the formatting for await x and not x in the operator precedence table when using the help() system.

bpo-46642 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46642]: Improve error message when trying to subclass an instance of typing.TypeVar, typing.ParamSpec, typing.TypeVarTuple, etc. Based on patch by Gregory Beauregard.

bpo-46364 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46364]: Restrict use of sockets instead of pipes for stdin of subprocesses created by asyncio to AIX platform only.

bpo-28249 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28249]: Set doctest.DocTest.lineno to None when an object does not have __doc__.

bpo-46197 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46197]: Fix ensurepip environment isolation for subprocess running pip.

bpo-45924 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45924]: Fix asyncio incorrect traceback when future's exception is raised multiple times. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

bpo-45046 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45046]: Add support of context managers in unittest: methods enterContext() and enterClassContext() of class TestCase, method enterAsyncContext() of class IsolatedAsyncioTestCase and function unittest.enterModuleContext().

bpo-44173 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44173]: Enable fast seeking of uncompressed unencrypted zipfile.ZipExtFile

bpo-42627 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42627]: Fix incorrect parsing of Windows registry proxy settings

bpo-42047 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42047]: Add threading.get_native_id() support for DragonFly BSD. Patch by David Carlier.

bpo-14243 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14243]: The tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile function has a new optional parameter delete_on_close

bpo-41246 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41246]: Give the same callback function for when the overlapped operation is done to the functions recv, recv_into, recvfrom, sendto, send and sendfile inside IocpProactor.

bpo-39264 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39264]: Fixed collections.UserDict.get() to not call __missing__() when a value is not found. This matches the behavior of dict. Patch by Bar Harel.

bpo-38693 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38693]: importlib now uses f-strings internally instead of str.format.

bpo-38267 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38267]: Add timeout parameter to asyncio.loop.shutdown_default_executor(). The default value is None, which means the executor will be given an unlimited amount of time. When called from asyncio.Runner or asyncio.run(), the default timeout is 5 minutes.

bpo-34828 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34828]: sqlite3.Connection.iterdump() now handles databases that use AUTOINCREMENT in one or more tables.

bpo-32990 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32990]: Support reading wave files with the WAVE_FORMAT_EXTENSIBLE format in the wave module.

bpo-26253 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26253]: Allow adjustable compression level for tarfile streams in tarfile.open().

Documentation

gh-85525 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85525]: Remove extra row

gh-86404 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86404]: Deprecated tools make suspicious and rstlint.py are now removed. They have been replaced by sphinx-lint [https://pypi.org/project/sphinx-lint/].

gh-97741 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97741]: Fix ! in c domain ref target syntax via a conf.py patch, so it works as intended to disable ref target resolution.

gh-96432 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96432]: Fraction literals now support whitespace around the forward slash, Fraction('2 / 3').

gh-96098 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96098]: Improve discoverability of the higher level concurrent.futures module by providing clearer links from the lower level threading and multiprocessing modules.

gh-95957 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95957]: What's New 3.11 now has instructions for how to provide compiler and linker flags for Tcl/Tk and OpenSSL on RHEL 7 and CentOS 7.

gh-95588 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95588]: Clarified the conflicting advice given in the ast documentation about ast.literal_eval() being "safe" for use on untrusted input while at the same time warning that it can crash the process. The latter statement is true and is deemed unfixable without a large amount of work unsuitable for a bugfix. So we keep the warning and no longer claim that literal_eval is safe.

gh-91207 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91207]: Fix stylesheet not working in Windows CHM htmlhelp docs and add warning that they are deprecated. Contributed by C.A.M. Gerlach.

gh-95454 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95454]: Replaced incorrectly written true/false values in documentation. Patch by Robert O'Shea

gh-95451 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95451]: Update library documentation with availability information on WebAssembly platforms wasm32-emscripten and wasm32-wasi.

gh-95415 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95415]: Use consistent syntax for platform availability. The directive now supports a content body and emits a warning when it encounters an unknown platform.

gh-94321 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94321]: Document the PEP 246 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0246/] style protocol type sqlite3.PrepareProtocol.

gh-86128 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86128]: Document a limitation in ThreadPoolExecutor where its exit handler is executed before any handlers in atexit.

gh-61162 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61162]: Clarify sqlite3 behavior when How to use the connection context manager.

gh-87260 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87260]: Align sqlite3 argument specs with the actual implementation.

gh-86986 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86986]: The minimum Sphinx version required to build the documentation is now 3.2.

gh-88831 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88831]: Augmented documentation of asyncio.create_task(). Clarified the need to keep strong references to tasks and added a code snippet detailing how to do this.

gh-86438 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86438]: Clarify that -W and PYTHONWARNINGS are matched literally and case-insensitively, rather than as regular expressions, in warnings.

gh-93031 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93031]: Update tutorial introduction output to use 3.10+ SyntaxError invalid range.

gh-92240 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92240]: Added release dates for "What's New in Python 3.X" for 3.0, 3.1, 3.2, 3.8 and 3.10

bpo-47161 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47161]: Document that pathlib.PurePath does not collapse initial double slashes because they denote UNC paths.

bpo-40838 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40838]: Document that inspect.getdoc(), inspect.getmodule(), and inspect.getsourcefile() might return None.

bpo-43689 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43689]: The Differ documentation now also mentions other whitespace characters, which make it harder to understand the diff output.

bpo-38056 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38056]: Overhaul the Gestionnaires d'erreurs documentation in codecs.

bpo-13553 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13553]: Document tkinter.Tk args.

Tests

gh-95027 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95027]: On Windows, when the Python test suite is run with the -jN option, the ANSI code page is now used as the encoding for the stdout temporary file, rather than using UTF-8 which can lead to decoding errors. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-96624 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96624]: Fixed the failure of repeated runs of test.test_unittest caused by side effects in test_dotted_but_module_not_loaded.

gh-95243 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95243]: Mitigate the inherent race condition from using find_unused_port() in testSockName() by trying to find an unused port a few times before failing. Patch by Ross Burton.

gh-95573 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95573]: Lib/test/test_asyncio/test_ssl.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/test/test_asyncio/test_ssl.py] exposed a bug in the macOS kernel where intense concurrent load on non-blocking sockets occasionally causes errno.ENOBUFS ("No buffer space available") to be emitted. FB11063974 filed with Apple, in the mean time as a workaround buffer size used in tests on macOS is decreased to avoid intermittent failures. Patch by Fantix King.

gh-95280 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95280]: Fix problem with test_ssl test_get_ciphers on systems that require perfect forward secrecy (PFS) ciphers.

gh-95212 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95212]: Make multiprocessing test case test_shared_memory_recreate parallel-safe.

gh-95218 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95218]: Move tests for importlib.resources into test_importlib.resources.

gh-93963 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93963]: Updated tests to use preferred location for importlib.resources ABCs.

gh-94675 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94675]: Add a regression test for re exponentional slowdown when using rjsmin.

gh-91330 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91330]: Added more tests for dataclasses to cover behavior with data descriptor-based fields.

gh-94208 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94208]: test_ssl is now checking for supported TLS version and protocols in more tests.

gh-94315 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94315]: Tests now check for DAC override capability instead of relying on os.geteuid().

gh-54781 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/54781]: Rename test_tk to test_tkinter, and rename test_ttk_guionly to test_ttk. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-93839 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93839]: Move Lib/ctypes/test/ to Lib/test/test_ctypes/. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-93951 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93951]: In test_bdb.StateTestCase.test_skip, avoid including auxiliary importers.

gh-93957 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93957]: Provide nicer error reporting from subprocesses in test_venv.EnsurePipTest.test_with_pip.

gh-93884 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93884]: Add test cases for PyNumber_ToBase() that take a large number or a non-int object as parameter.

gh-93852 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93852]: test_asyncio, test_logging, test_socket and test_socketserver now create AF_UNIX domains in the current directory to no longer fail with OSError("AF_UNIX path too long") if the temporary directory (the TMPDIR environment variable) is too long. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-93353 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93353]: regrtest now checks if a test leaks temporary files or directories if run with -jN option. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-84461 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84461]: run_tests.py now handles cross compiling env vars correctly and pass HOSTRUNNER to regression tests.

gh-93616 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93616]: test_modulefinder now creates a temporary directory in ModuleFinderTest.setUp() instead of module scope.

gh-93575 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93575]: Fix issue with test_unicode test_raiseMemError. The test case now use test.support.calcobjsize to calculate size of PyUnicode structs. sys.getsizeof() may return different size when string has UTF-8 memory.

gh-90473 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90473]: WASI does not have a chmod(2) syscall. os.chmod() is now a dummy function on WASI. Skip all tests that depend on working os.chmod().

gh-90473 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90473]: Skip tests on WASI that require symlinks with absolute paths.

gh-57539 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57539]: Increase calendar test coverage for calendar.LocaleTextCalendar.formatweekday().

gh-90473 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90473]: Skip symlink tests on WASI. wasmtime uses openat2(2) with RESOLVE_BENEATH flag, which prevents symlinks with absolute paths.

gh-89858 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89858]: Fix test_embed for out-of-tree builds. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-92886 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92886]: Fixing tests that fail when running with optimizations (-O) in test_imaplib.py.

gh-92886 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92886]: Fixing tests that fail when running with optimizations (-O) in test_zipimport.py

gh-92886 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92886]: Fixing tests that fail when running with optimizations (-O) in test_py_compile.py

gh-92886 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92886]: Fixing tests that fail when running with optimizations (-O) in test_sys_settrace.py.

gh-92886 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92886]: Fixing tests that fail when running with optimizations (-O) in _test_multiprocessing.py

gh-92670 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92670]: Skip test_shutil.TestCopy.test_copyfile_nonexistent_dir test on AIX as the test uses a trailing slash to force the OS consider the path as a directory, but on AIX the trailing slash has no effect and is considered as a file.

gh-92514 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92514]: Remove unused test.support.BasicTestRunner. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

bpo-47016 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47016]: Create a GitHub Actions workflow for verifying bundled pip and setuptools. Patch by Illia Volochii and Adam Turner.

Build

gh-96761 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96761]: Fix the build process of clang compiler for _bootstrap_python if LTO optimization is applied. Patch by Matthias Görgens and Donghee Na.

gh-96883 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96883]: wasm32-emscripten builds for browsers now include concurrent.futures for asyncio and unittest.mock.

gh-85936 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85936]: CPython now uses the ThinLTO option as the default policy if the Clang compiler accepts the flag. Patch by Donghee Na.

gh-96729 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96729]: Ensure that Windows releases built with Tools\msi\buildrelease.bat are upgradable to and from official Python releases.

gh-96269 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96269]: Shared module targets now depend on new MODULE_DEPS variable, which includes EXPORTSYMS. This fixes a build order issue on unsupported AIX platform.

gh-84461 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84461]: wasm32-emscripten platform no longer builds resource module, getresuid(), getresgid(), and their setters. The APIs are stubs and not functional.

gh-95973 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95973]: Add a new --with-dsymutil configure option to link debug information in macOS. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

gh-90536 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90536]: Use the BOLT post-link optimizer to improve performance, particularly on medium-to-large applications.

gh-93744 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93744]: Remove the configure --with-cxx-main build option: it didn't work for many years. Remove the MAINCC variable from configure and Makefile. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-94801 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94801]: Fix a regression in configure script that caused some header checks to ignore custom CPPFLAGS. The regression was introduced in gh-94802 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94802].

gh-95145 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95145]: wasm32-wasi builds no longer depend on WASIX's pthread stubs. Python now has its own stubbed pthread API.

gh-95174 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95174]: Python now detects missing dup function in WASI and works around some missing errno, select, and socket constants.

gh-95174 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95174]: Python now skips missing socket functions and methods on WASI. WASI can only create sockets from existing fd / accept and has no netdb.

gh-95085 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95085]: Platforms wasm32-unknown-emscripten and wasm32-unknown-wasi have been promoted to PEP 11 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/] tier 3 platform support.

gh-94847 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94847]: Fixed _decimal module build issue on GCC when compiling with LTO and pydebug. Debug builds no longer force inlining of functions.

gh-94841 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94841]: Fix the possible performance regression of PyObject_Free() compiled with MSVC version 1932.

gh-94801 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94801]: configure now uses custom flags like ZLIB_CFLAGS and ZLIB_LIBS when searching for headers and libraries.

gh-94773 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94773]: deepfreeze.py now supports code object with frozensets that contain incompatible, unsortable types.

gh-94682 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94682]: Build and test with OpenSSL 1.1.1q

gh-90005 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90005]: Dependencies of readline and curses module are now detected in configure script with pkg-config. Only ncurses / ncursesw are detected automatically. The old curses library is not configured automatically. Workaround for missing termcap or tinfo library has been removed.

gh-90005 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90005]: Fix building _ctypes extension without pkg-config.

gh-90005 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90005]: _dbm module dependencies are now detected by configure.

gh-94404 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94404]: makesetup now works around an issue with sed on macOS and uses correct CFLAGS for object files that end up in a shared extension. Module CFLAGS are used before PY_STDMODULE_CFLAGS to avoid clashes with system headers.

gh-93939 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93939]: C extension modules are now built by configure and make instead of distutils and setup.py.

gh-93939 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93939]: The 2to3, idle, and pydoc scripts are now generated and installed by Makefile instead of setup.py.

gh-94280 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94280]: Updated pegen regeneration script on Windows to find and use Python 3.9 or higher. Prior to this, pegen regeneration already required 3.9 or higher, but the script may have used lower versions of Python.

gh-93584 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93584]: Address race condition in Makefile when installing a PGO build. All test and install targets now depend on all target.

gh-93491 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93491]: configure now detects and reports PEP 11 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/] support tiers.

gh-69093 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69093]: Fix Modules/Setup.stdlib.in rule for _sqlite3 extension.

gh-93207 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93207]: va_start() with two parameters, like va_start(args, format), is now required to build Python. va_start() is no longer called with a single parameter. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-93202 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93202]: Python now always use the %zu and %zd printf formats to format a size_t or Py_ssize_t number. Building Python 3.12 requires a C11 compiler, so these printf formats are now always supported. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-90473 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90473]: Disable pymalloc and increase stack size on wasm32-wasi.

bpo-34449 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34449]: Drop invalid compiler switch -fPIC for HP aCC on HP-UX. Patch by Michael Osipov.

Windows

gh-98360 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98360]: Fixes multiprocessing spawning child processes on Windows from a virtual environment to ensure that child processes that also use multiprocessing to spawn more children will recognize that they are in a virtual environment.

gh-98414 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98414]: Fix py.exe launcher handling of -V:<company>/ option when default preferences have been set in environment variables or configuration files.

gh-97728 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97728]: Fix possible crashes caused by the use of uninitialized variables when pass invalid arguments in os.system() on Windows and in Windows-specific modules (like winreg).

gh-90989 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90989]: Made Python install manager install per-user by default (unless an all users install already exists), and clarify some text in the installer.

gh-97649 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97649]: The Tools directory is no longer installed on Windows

gh-96965 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96965]: Update libffi to 3.4.3

gh-96577 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96577]: Fixes a potential buffer overrun in msilib.

gh-96559 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96559]: Fixes the Windows launcher not using the compatible interpretation of default tags found in configuration files when no tag was passed to the command.

gh-94781 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94781]: Fix pcbuild.proj to clean previous instances of output files in Python\deepfreeze and Python\frozen_modules directories on Windows. Patch by Charlie Zhao.

gh-89545 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89545]: Updates platform code getting the Windows version to use native Windows Management Instrumentation (WMI) queries to determine OS version, type, and architecture.

gh-95733 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95733]: Make certain requirements of the Windows Store package optional to allow installing on earlier updates of Windows.

gh-95656 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95656]: Enable the enable_load_extension() sqlite3 API.

gh-95587 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95587]: Fixes some issues where the Windows installer would incorrectly detect certain features of an existing install when upgrading.

gh-94399 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94399]: Restores the behaviour of Python install manager for /usr/bin/env shebang lines, which will now search PATH for an executable matching the given command. If none is found, the usual search process is used.

gh-95445 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95445]: Fixes the unsuccessful removal of the HTML document directory when uninstalling with Windows msi.

gh-95359 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95359]: Fix Python install manager handling of py.ini commands (it was incorrectly expecting a py_ prefix on keys) and crashes when reading per-user configuration file.

gh-95285 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95285]: Fix Python install manager handling of command lines where it is only passed a short executable name.

gh-90844 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90844]: Allow virtual environments to correctly launch when they have spaces in the path.

gh-94772 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94772]: Fix incorrect handling of shebang lines in py.exe launcher

gh-94018 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94018]: zipfile will now remove trailing spaces from path components when extracting files on Windows.

gh-93824 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93824]: Drag and drop of files onto Python files in Windows Explorer has been enabled for Windows ARM64.

gh-43414 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/43414]: os.get_terminal_size() now attempts to read the size from any provided handle, rather than only supporting file descriptors 0, 1 and 2.

gh-92817 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92817]: Ensures that py.exe will prefer an active virtual environment over default tags specified with environment variables or through a py.ini file.

gh-92984 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92984]: Explicitly disable incremental linking for non-Debug builds

gh-92841 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92841]: asyncio no longer throws RuntimeError: Event loop is closed on interpreter exit after asynchronous socket activity. Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

bpo-46907 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46907]: Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.38.4.

gh-91061 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91061]: Accept os.PathLike for the argument to winsound.PlaySound

bpo-42658 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42658]: Support native Windows case-insensitive path comparisons by using LCMapStringEx instead of str.lower() in ntpath.normcase(). Add LCMapStringEx to the _winapi module.

bpo-38704 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38704]: Prevent installation on unsupported Windows versions.

macOS

gh-97897 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97897]: The macOS 13 SDK includes support for the mkfifoat and mknodat system calls. Using the dir_fd option with either os.mkfifo() or os.mknod() could result in a segfault if cpython is built with the macOS 13 SDK but run on an earlier version of macOS. Prevent this by adding runtime support for detection of these system calls ("weaklinking") as is done for other newer syscalls on macOS.

IDLE

gh-97527 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97527]: Fix a bug in the previous bugfix that caused IDLE to not start when run with 3.10.8, 3.12.0a1, and at least Microsoft Python 3.10.2288.0 installed without the Lib/test package. 3.11.0 was never affected.

gh-65802 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65802]: Document handling of extensions in Save As dialogs.

gh-95191 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95191]: Include prompts when saving Shell (interactive input and output).

gh-95511 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95511]: Fix the Shell context menu copy-with-prompts bug of copying an extra line when one selects whole lines.

gh-95471 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95471]: In the Edit menu, move Select All and add a new separator.

gh-95411 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95411]: Enable using IDLE's module browser with .pyw files.

gh-89610 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89610]: Add .pyi as a recognized extension for IDLE on macOS. This allows opening stub files by double clicking on them in the Finder.

Tools/Demos

gh-68686 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68686]: Remove ptags and eptags scripts.

gh-97681 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97681]: Remove the Tools/demo/ directory which contained old demo scripts. A copy can be found in the old-demos project [https://github.com/gvanrossum/old-demos]. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-97669 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97669]: Remove outdated example scripts of the Tools/scripts/ directory. A copy can be found in the old-demos project [https://github.com/gvanrossum/old-demos]. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-95853 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95853]: The wasm_build.py script now pre-builds Emscripten ports, checks for broken EMSDK versions, and warns about pkg-config env vars.

gh-95853 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95853]: The new tool Tools/wasm/wasm_builder.py automates configure, compile, and test steps for building CPython on WebAssembly platforms.

gh-95731 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95731]: Fix handling of module docstrings in Tools/i18n/pygettext.py.

gh-93939 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93939]: Add script Tools/scripts/check_modules.py to check and validate builtin and shared extension modules. The script also handles Modules/Setup and will eventually replace setup.py.

gh-94538 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94538]: Fix Argument Clinic output to custom file destinations. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

gh-94430 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94430]: Allow parameters named module and self with custom C names in Argument Clinic. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland

gh-86087 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86087]: The Tools/scripts/parseentities.py script used to parse HTML4 entities has been removed.

C API

gh-98393 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98393]: The PyUnicode_FSDecoder() function no longer accepts bytes-like paths, like bytearray and memoryview types: only the exact bytes type is accepted for bytes strings. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-91051 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91051]: Add PyType_Watch() and related APIs to allow callbacks on PyType_Modified().

gh-95756 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95756]: Lazily create and cache co_ attributes for better performance for code getters.

gh-96512 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96512]: Configuration for the integer string conversion length limitation now lives in the PyConfig C API struct.

gh-95589 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95589]: Extensions classes that set tp_dictoffset and tp_weaklistoffset lose the support for multiple inheritance, but are now safe. Extension classes should use Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT and Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF instead.

gh-95781 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95781]: An unrecognized format character in PyUnicode_FromFormat() and PyUnicode_FromFormatV() now sets a SystemError. In previous versions it caused all the rest of the format string to be copied as-is to the result string, and any extra arguments discarded.

gh-92678 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92678]: Restore the 3.10 behavior for multiple inheritance of C extension classes that store their dictionary at the end of the struct.

gh-92678 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92678]: Support C extensions using managed dictionaries by setting the Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT flag.

gh-93274 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93274]: API for implementing vectorcall (Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL, PyVectorcall_NARGS() and PyVectorcall_Call()) was added to the limited API and stable ABI.

gh-95504 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95504]: Fix sign placement when specifying width or precision in PyUnicode_FromFormat() and PyUnicode_FromFormatV(). Patch by Philip Georgi.

gh-93012 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93012]: The Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL flag is now removed from a class when the class's __call__() method is reassigned. This makes vectorcall safe to use with mutable types (i.e. heap types without the immutable flag). Mutable types that do not override tp_call now inherit the Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL flag.

gh-95388 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95388]: Creating immutable types with mutable bases is deprecated and is planned to be disabled in Python 3.14.

gh-92678 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92678]: Adds unstable C-API functions _PyObject_VisitManagedDict and _PyObject_ClearManagedDict to allow C extensions to allow the VM to manage their object's dictionaries.

gh-94936 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94936]: Added PyCode_GetVarnames(), PyCode_GetCellvars() and PyCode_GetFreevars() for accessing co_varnames, co_cellvars and co_freevars respectively via the C API.

gh-94930 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94930]: Fix SystemError raised when PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords() is used with # in (...) but without PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN defined.

gh-94731 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94731]: Python again uses C-style casts for most casting operations when compiled with C++. This may trigger compiler warnings, if they are enabled with e.g. -Wold-style-cast or -Wzero-as-null-pointer-constant options for g++.

gh-93937 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93937]: The following frame functions and type are now directly available with #include <Python.h>, it's no longer needed to add #include <frameobject.h>:

PyFrame_Check()

PyFrame_GetBack()

PyFrame_GetBuiltins()

PyFrame_GetGenerator()

PyFrame_GetGlobals()

PyFrame_GetLasti()

PyFrame_GetLocals()

PyFrame_Type

Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-91321 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91321]: Fix the compatibility of the Python C API with C++ older than C++11. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-91731 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91731]: Avoid defining the static_assert when compiling with C++ 11, where this is a keyword and redefining it can lead to undefined behavior. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-89546 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89546]: PyType_FromMetaclass() (and other PyType_From* functions) now check that offsets and the base class's tp_basicsize fit in the new class's tp_basicsize.

gh-93503 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93503]: Add two new public functions to the public C-API, PyEval_SetProfileAllThreads() and PyEval_SetTraceAllThreads(), that allow to set tracing and profiling functions in all running threads in addition to the calling one. Also, two analogous functions to the threading module (threading.setprofile_all_threads() and threading.settrace_all_threads()) that allow to do the same from Python. Patch by Pablo Galindo

gh-93442 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93442]: Add C++ overloads for _Py_CAST_impl() to handle 0/NULL. This will allow C++ extensions that pass 0 or NULL to macros using _Py_CAST() to continue to compile.

gh-93466 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93466]: Slot IDs in PyType_Spec may not be repeated. The documentation was updated to mention this. For some cases of repeated slots, PyType_FromSpec and related functions will now raise an exception.

gh-92898 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92898]: Fix C++ compiler warnings when casting function arguments to PyObject*. Patch by Serge Guelton.

gh-93103 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93103]: Deprecate global configuration variables, like Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag, in the documentation: the Py_InitializeFromConfig() API should be instead. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-77782 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77782]: Deprecate global configuration variable like Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag: the Py_InitializeFromConfig() API should be instead. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-92913 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92913]: Ensures changes to PyConfig.module_search_paths are ignored unless PyConfig.module_search_paths_set is set

gh-92781 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92781]: Avoid mixing declarations and code in the C API to fix the compiler warning: "ISO C90 forbids mixed declarations and code" [-Werror=declaration-after-statement]. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-92651 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92651]: Remove the token.h header file. There was never any public tokenizer C API. The token.h header file was only designed to be used by Python internals. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-92536 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92536]: Remove legacy Unicode APIs based on Py_UNICODE*.

gh-85858 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85858]: Remove the PyUnicode_InternImmortal() function and the SSTATE_INTERNED_IMMORTAL macro. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-92193 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92193]: Add new function PyFunction_SetVectorcall() to the C API which sets the vectorcall field of a given PyFunctionObject.

Warning: extensions using this API must preserve the behavior of the unaltered function!

gh-59121 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59121]: Fixed an assert that prevented PyRun_InteractiveOne from providing tracebacks when parsing from the provided FD.

bpo-45383 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45383]: The PyType_FromSpec() API will now find and use a metaclass based on the provided bases. An error will be raised if there is a metaclass conflict.

Python 3.11.0 beta 1

Release date: 2022-05-06

Security

gh-57684 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57684]: Add the -P command line option and the PYTHONSAFEPATH environment variable to not prepend a potentially unsafe path to sys.path. Patch by Victor Stinner.

Core and Builtins

gh-89519 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89519]: Chaining classmethod descriptors (introduced in bpo-19072 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19072]) is deprecated. It can no longer be used to wrap other descriptors such as property(). The core design of this feature was flawed, and it caused a number of downstream problems.

gh-92345 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92345]: pymain_run_python() now imports readline and rlcompleter before sys.path is extended to include the current working directory of an interactive interpreter. Non-interactive interpreters are not affected.

bpo-43857 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43857]: Improve the AttributeError message when deleting a missing attribute. Patch by Géry Ogam.

gh-92245 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92245]: Make sure that PEP 523 is respected in all cases. In 3.11a7, specialization may have prevented Python-to-Python calls respecting PEP 523.

gh-92203 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92203]: Add a closure keyword-only parameter to exec(). It can only be specified when exec-ing a code object that uses free variables. When specified, it must be a tuple, with exactly the number of cell variables referenced by the code object. closure has a default value of None, and it must be None if the code object doesn't refer to any free variables.

gh-91173 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91173]: Disable frozen modules in debug builds. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-92114 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92114]: Improve error message when subscript a type with __class_getitem__ set to None.

gh-92112 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92112]: Fix crash triggered by an evil custom mro() on a metaclass.

gh-92063 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92063]: The PRECALL_METHOD_DESCRIPTOR_FAST_WITH_KEYWORDS instruction now ensures methods are called only on objects of the correct type.

gh-92031 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92031]: Deoptimize statically allocated code objects during Py_FINALIZE() so that future _PyCode_Quicken calls always start with unquickened code.

gh-92036 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92036]: Fix a crash in subinterpreters related to the garbage collector. When a subinterpreter is deleted, untrack all objects tracked by its GC. To prevent a crash in deallocator functions expecting objects to be tracked by the GC, leak a strong reference to these objects on purpose, so they are never deleted and their deallocator functions are not called. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-92032 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92032]: The interpreter can now autocomplete soft keywords, as of now match, case, and _ (wildcard pattern) from PEP 634 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/].

gh-87999 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87999]: The warning emitted by the Python parser for a numeric literal immediately followed by keyword has been changed from deprecation warning to syntax warning.

gh-91869 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91869]: Fix an issue where specialized opcodes with extended arguments could produce incorrect tracing output or lead to assertion failures.

gh-91603 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91603]: Speed up types.UnionType instantiation. Based on patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

gh-89373 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89373]: If Python is built in debug mode, Python now ensures that deallocator functions leave the current exception unchanged. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-91632 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91632]: Fix a minor memory leak at exit: release the memory of the generic_alias_iterator type. Patch by Donghee Na.

gh-81548 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81548]: Octal escapes with value larger than 0o377 now produce a DeprecationWarning. In a future Python version they will be a SyntaxWarning and eventually a SyntaxError.

bpo-43950 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43950]: Use a single compact table for line starts, ends and column offsets. Reduces memory consumption for location info by half

gh-91102 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91102]: Use Argument Clinic for EncodingMap. Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

gh-91636 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91636]: Fixed a crash in a garbage-collection edge-case, in which a PyFunction_Type.tp_clear function could leave a python function object in an inconsistent state.

gh-91603 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91603]: Speed up isinstance() and issubclass() checks for types.UnionType. Patch by Yurii Karabas.

gh-91625 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91625]: Fixed a bug in which adaptive opcodes ignored any preceding EXTENDED_ARGs on specialization failure.

gh-78607 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78607]: The LLTRACE special build now looks for the name __lltrace__ defined in module globals, rather than the name __ltrace__, which had been introduced as a typo.

gh-91576 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91576]: Speed up iteration of ascii strings by 50%. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

gh-89279 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89279]: Improve interpreter performance on Windows by inlining a few specific macros.

gh-91502 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91502]: Add a new _PyFrame_IsEntryFrame() API function, to check if a PyFrameObject is an entry frame. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

gh-91266 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91266]: Refactor the bytearray strip methods strip, lstrip and rstrip to use a common implementation.

gh-91479 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91479]: Replaced the __note__ field of BaseException (added in an earlier version of 3.11) with the final design of PEP 678 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0678/]. Namely, BaseException gets an add_note() method, and its __notes__ field is created when necessary.

gh-46055 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/46055]: Speed up right shift of negative integers, by removing unnecessary creation of temporaries. Original patch by Xinhang Xu, reworked by Mark Dickinson.

gh-91462 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91462]: Make the interpreter's low-level tracing (lltrace) feature output more readable by displaying opcode names (rather than just numbers), and by displaying stack contents before each opcode.

gh-89455 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89455]: Fixed an uninitialized bool value in the traceback printing code path that was introduced by the initial bpo-45292 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45292] exception groups work.

gh-91421 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91421]: Fix a potential integer overflow in _Py_DecodeUTF8Ex.

gh-91428 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91428]: Add static const char *const _PyOpcode_OpName[256] = {...}; to opcode.h for debug builds to assist in debugging the Python interpreter. It is now more convenient to make various forms of debugging output more human-readable by including opcode names rather than just the corresponding decimal digits.

bpo-47120 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47120]: Make POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE, POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE, POP_JUMP_IF_NONE and POP_JUMP_IF_NOT_NONE virtual, mapping to new relative jump opcodes.

bpo-45317 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45317]: Add internal documentation explaining design of new (for 3.11) frame stack.

Library

bpo-47197 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47197]: ctypes used to mishandle void return types, so that for instance a function declared like ctypes.CFUNCTYPE(None, ctypes.c_int) would be called with signature int f(int) instead of void f(int). Wasm targets require function pointers to be called with the correct signatures so this led to crashes. The problem is now fixed.

Core and Builtins

bpo-47120 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47120]: Make opcodes JUMP_IF_TRUE_OR_POP and JUMP_IF_FALSE_OR_POP relative rather than absolute.

bpo-47177 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47177]: Replace the f_lasti member of the internal _PyInterpreterFrame structure with a prev_instr pointer, which reduces overhead in the main interpreter loop. The f_lasti attribute of Python-layer frame objects is preserved for backward-compatibility.

bpo-46961 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46961]: Integer mod/remainder operations, including the three-argument form of pow(), now consistently return ints from the global small integer cache when applicable.

bpo-46962 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46962]: Classes and functions that unconditionally declared their docstrings ignoring the --without-doc-strings compilation flag no longer do so.

The classes affected are ctypes.UnionType, pickle.PickleBuffer, testcapi.RecursingInfinitelyError, and types.GenericAlias.

The functions affected are 24 methods in ctypes.

Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

bpo-46942 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46942]: Use Argument Clinic for the types.MethodType constructor. Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

bpo-46764 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46764]: Fix wrapping bound methods with @classmethod

bpo-43464 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43464]: Optimize set.intersection() for non-set arguments.

bpo-46721 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46721]: Optimize set.issuperset() for non-set argument.

bpo-46509 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46509]: Add type-specialized versions of the Py_DECREF(), and use them for float, int, str, bool, and None to avoid pointer-chasing at runtime where types are known at C compile time.

Build

bpo-46045 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46045]: Do not use POSIX semaphores on NetBSD

Core and Builtins

bpo-36819 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36819]: Fix crashes in built-in encoders with error handlers that return position less or equal than the starting position of non-encodable characters.

bpo-34093 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34093]: marshal.dumps() uses FLAG_REF for all interned strings. This makes output more deterministic and helps reproducible build.

bpo-26579 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26579]: Added object.__getstate__ which provides the default implementation of the __getstate__() method.

Copying and pickling instances of subclasses of builtin types bytearray, set, frozenset, collections.OrderedDict, collections.deque, weakref.WeakSet, and datetime.tzinfo now copies and pickles instance attributes implemented as slots.

Library

gh-87901 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87901]: Add the encoding parameter to os.popen().

gh-90997 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90997]: Fix an issue where dis utilities may interpret populated inline cache entries as valid instructions.

gh-92332 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92332]: Deprecate typing.Text (removal of the class is currently not planned). Patch by Alex Waygood.

gh-78157 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78157]: Deprecate nested classes in enum definitions becoming members -- in 3.13 they will be normal classes; add member and nonmember functions to allow control over results now.

gh-92356 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92356]: Fixed a performance regression in ctypes function calls.

gh-90997 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90997]: Show the actual named values stored in inline caches when show_caches=True is passed to dis utilities.

gh-92301 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92301]: Prefer close_range() to iterating over procfs for file descriptor closing in subprocess for better performance.

gh-67248 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67248]: Sort the miscellaneous topics in Cmd.do_help()

gh-92210 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92210]: Port socket.__init__ to Argument Clinic. Patch by Cinder.

gh-80010 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80010]: Add support for generalized ISO 8601 parsing to datetime.datetime.fromisoformat(), datetime.date.fromisoformat() and datetime.time.fromisoformat(). Patch by Paul Ganssle.

gh-92118 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92118]: Fix a 3.11 regression in contextmanager(), which caused it to propagate exceptions with incorrect tracebacks.

gh-90887 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90887]: Adding COPYFILE_STAT, COPYFILE_ACL and COPYFILE_XATTR constants for os.fcopyfile() available in macOs.

gh-91215 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91215]: For @~dataclasses.dataclass, add weakref_slot. The new parameter defaults to False. If true, and if slots=True, add a slot named "__weakref__", which will allow instances to be weakref'd. Contributed by Eric V. Smith

gh-85984 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85984]: New function os.login_tty() for Unix.

gh-92128 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92128]: Add __class_getitem__() to logging.LoggerAdapter and logging.StreamHandler, allowing them to be parameterized at runtime. Patch by Alex Waygood.

gh-92049 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92049]: Forbid pickling constants re._constants.SUCCESS etc. Previously, pickling did not fail, but the result could not be unpickled.

gh-92062 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92062]: inspect.Parameter now raises ValueError if name is a keyword, in addition to the existing check that it is an identifier.

gh-87390 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87390]: Add an __unpacked__ attribute to types.GenericAlias. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

gh-88089 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88089]: Add support for generic typing.NamedTuple.

gh-91996 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91996]: New http.HTTPMethod enum to represent all the available HTTP request methods in a convenient way

gh-91984 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91984]: Modified test strings in test_argparse.py to not contain trailing spaces before end of line.

gh-91952 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91952]: Add encoding="locale" support to TextIOWrapper.reconfigure().

gh-91954 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91954]: Add encoding and errors arguments to subprocess.getoutput() and subprocess.getstatusoutput().

bpo-47029 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47029]: Always close the read end of the pipe used by multiprocessing.Queue after the last write of buffered data to the write end of the pipe to avoid BrokenPipeError at garbage collection and at multiprocessing.Queue.close() calls. Patch by Géry Ogam.

gh-91928 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91928]: Add datetime.UTC alias for datetime.timezone.utc.

Patch by Kabir Kwatra.

gh-68966 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68966]: The mailcap module is now deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.13. See PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/] for the rationale and the mimetypes module for an alternative. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-91401 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91401]: Provide a way to disable subprocess use of vfork() just in case it is ever needed and document the existing mechanism for posix_spawn().

gh-64783 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/64783]: Fix signal.NSIG value on FreeBSD to accept signal numbers greater than 32, like signal.SIGRTMIN and signal.SIGRTMAX. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-91910 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91910]: Add missing f prefix to f-strings in error messages from the multiprocessing and asyncio modules.

gh-91860 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91860]: Add typing.dataclass_transform(), implementing PEP 681 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0681/]. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

gh-91832 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91832]: Add required attribute to argparse.Action repr output.

gh-91827 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91827]: In the tkinter module add method info_patchlevel() which returns the exact version of the Tcl library as a named tuple similar to sys.version_info.

gh-84461 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84461]: Add --enable-wasm-pthreads to enable pthreads support for WASM builds. Emscripten/node no longer has threading enabled by default. Include additional file systems.

gh-91821 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91821]: Fix unstable test_from_tuple test in test_decimal.py.

gh-91217 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217]: Deprecate the xdrlib module.

gh-91217 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217]: Deprecate the uu module.

gh-91760 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91760]: More strict rules will be applied for numerical group references and group names in regular expressions. For now, a deprecation warning is emitted for group references and group names which will be errors in future Python versions.

gh-84461 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84461]: Add provisional sys._emscripten_info named tuple with build-time and run-time information about Emscripten platform.

gh-90623 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90623]: signal.raise_signal() and os.kill() now check immediately for pending signals. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-91734 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91734]: Fix OSS audio support on Solaris.

gh-90633 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90633]: Include the passed value in the exception thrown by typing.assert_never(). Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

gh-91700 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91700]: Compilation of regular expression containing a conditional expression (?(group)...) now raises an appropriate re.error if the group number refers to not defined group. Previously an internal RuntimeError was raised.

gh-91231 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91231]: Add an optional keyword shutdown_timeout parameter to the multiprocessing.BaseManager constructor. Kill the process if terminate() takes longer than the timeout. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-91621 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91621]: Fix typing.get_type_hints() for collections.abc.Callable. Patch by Shantanu Jain.

gh-90568 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90568]: Parsing \N escapes of Unicode Named Character Sequences in a regular expression raises now re.error instead of TypeError.

gh-91670 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91670]: Remove deprecated SO config variable in sysconfig.

gh-91217 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217]: Deprecate the telnetlib module.

gh-91217 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217]: Deprecate the sunau module.

gh-91217 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217]: Deprecate the spwd module.

gh-91217 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217]: Deprecate the sndhdr module, as well as inline needed functionality for email.mime.MIMEAudio.

gh-91616 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91616]: re module, fix fullmatch() mismatch when using Atomic Grouping or Possessive Quantifiers.

gh-91217 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217]: Deprecate the 'pipes' module.

gh-91217 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217]: Deprecate the ossaudiodev module.

bpo-47256 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47256]: re module, limit the maximum capturing group to 1,073,741,823 in 64-bit build, this increases the depth of backtracking.

gh-91217 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217]: Deprecate the nis module.

gh-91595 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91595]: Fix the comparison of character and integer inside Tools.gdb.libpython.write_repr(). Patch by Yu Liu.

gh-74166 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74166]: Add option to raise all errors from create_connection() in an ExceptionGroup when it fails to create a connection. The default remains to raise only the last error that had occurred when multiple addresses were tried.

gh-91487 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91487]: Optimize asyncio UDP speed, over 100 times faster when transferring a large file.

gh-91575 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91575]: Update case-insensitive matching in the re module to the latest Unicode version.

gh-90622 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90622]: In concurrent.futures.process.ProcessPoolExecutor disallow the "fork" multiprocessing start method when the new max_tasks_per_child feature is used as the mix of threads+fork can hang the child processes. Default to using the safe "spawn" start method in that circumstance if no mp_context was supplied.

gh-89022 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89022]: In sqlite3, SQLITE_MISUSE result codes are now mapped to InterfaceError instead of ProgrammingError. Also, more accurate exceptions are raised when binding parameters fail. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

gh-91526 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91526]: Stop calling os.device_encoding(file.fileno()) in TextIOWrapper. It was complex, never documented, and didn't work for most cases. (Patch by Inada Naoki.)

gh-88116 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88116]: Change the frame-related functions in the inspect module to return a regular object (that is backwards compatible with the old tuple-like interface) that include the extended PEP 657 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0657/] position information (end line number, column and end column). The affected functions are: inspect.getframeinfo(), inspect.getouterframes(), inspect.getinnerframes(), inspect.stack() and inspect.trace(). Patch by Pablo Galindo.

gh-69093 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69093]: Add indexing and slicing support to sqlite3.Blob. Patch by Aviv Palivoda and Erlend E. Aasland.

gh-69093 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69093]: Add context manager support to sqlite3.Blob. Patch by Aviv Palivoda and Erlend E. Aasland.

gh-91217 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217]: Deprecate nntplib.

gh-91217 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217]: Deprecate msilib.

gh-91404 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91404]: Improve the performance of re matching by using computed gotos (or "threaded code") on supported platforms and removing expensive pointer indirections.

gh-91217 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217]: Deprecate the imghdr module.

gh-91217 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217]: Deprecate the crypt module.

gh-91276 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91276]: Make space for longer opcodes in dis output.

bpo-47000 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47000]: Make TextIOWrapper uses locale encoding when encoding="locale" is specified even in UTF-8 mode.

gh-91230 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91230]: warnings.catch_warnings() now accepts arguments for warnings.simplefilter(), providing a more concise way to locally ignore warnings or convert them to errors.

gh-91217 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217]: Deprecate the chunk module.

gh-91498 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91498]: Add the TCP_CONNECTION_INFO option (available on macOS) to socket.

bpo-47260 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47260]: Fix os.closerange() potentially being a no-op in a Linux seccomp sandbox.

bpo-47087 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47087]: Implement typing.Required and typing.NotRequired (PEP 655 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0655/]). Patch by David Foster and Jelle Zijlstra.

bpo-47061 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47061]: Deprecate cgi and cgitb.

bpo-47061 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47061]: Deprecate audioop.

bpo-47000 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47000]: Add locale.getencoding() to get the current locale encoding. It is similar to locale.getpreferredencoding(False) but ignores the Python UTF-8 Mode.

bpo-42012 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42012]: Add wsgiref.types, containing WSGI-specific types for static type checking.

bpo-47227 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47227]: Suppress expression chaining for more re parsing errors.

bpo-47211 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47211]: Remove undocumented and never working function re.template() and flag re.TEMPLATE. This was later reverted in 3.11.0b2 and deprecated instead.

bpo-47135 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47135]: decimal.localcontext() now accepts context attributes via keyword arguments

bpo-43323 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43323]: Fix errors in the email module if the charset itself contains undecodable/unencodable characters.

bpo-46841 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841]: Disassembly of quickened code.

bpo-46681 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46681]: Forward gzip.compress() compresslevel to zlib.

bpo-45100 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45100]: Add typing.get_overloads() and typing.clear_overloads(). Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

bpo-44807 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44807]: typing.Protocol no longer silently replaces __init__() methods defined on subclasses. Patch by Adrian Garcia Badaracco.

bpo-46787 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46787]: Fix concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor exception memory leak

bpo-46720 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46720]: Add support for path-like objects to multiprocessing.set_executable() for Windows to be on a par with Unix-like systems. Patch by Géry Ogam.

bpo-46696 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46696]: Add SO_INCOMING_CPU constant to socket.

bpo-46053 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46053]: Fix OSS audio support on NetBSD.

bpo-45639 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45639]: image/avif and image/webp were added to mimetypes.

bpo-46285 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46285]: Add command-line option -p/--protocol to module http.server which specifies the HTTP version to which the server is conformant (HTTP/1.1 conformant servers can now be run from the command-line interface of module http.server). Patch by Géry Ogam.

bpo-44791 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44791]: Accept ellipsis as the last argument of typing.Concatenate.

bpo-46547 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46547]: Remove variables leaking into pydoc.Helper class namespace.

bpo-46415 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46415]: Fix ipaddress.ip_{address,interface,network} raising TypeError instead of ValueError if given invalid tuple as address parameter.

bpo-46075 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46075]: CookieJar with DefaultCookiePolicy now can process cookies from localhost with domain=localhost explicitly specified in Set-Cookie header.

bpo-45995 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45995]: Add a "z" option to the string formatting specification that coerces negative zero floating-point values to positive zero after rounding to the format precision. Contributed by John Belmonte.

bpo-26175 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26175]: Fully implement the io.BufferedIOBase or io.TextIOBase interface for tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile objects. This lets them work correctly with higher-level layers (like compression modules). Patch by Carey Metcalfe.

bpo-45138 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45138]: Fix a regression in the sqlite3 trace callback where bound parameters were not expanded in the passed statement string. The regression was introduced in Python 3.10 by bpo-40318 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40318]. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-44863 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44863]: Allow TypedDict subclasses to also include Generic as a base class in class based syntax. Thereby allowing the user to define a generic TypedDict, just like a user-defined generic but with TypedDict semantics.

bpo-44587 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44587]: Fix BooleanOptionalAction to not automatically add a default string. If a default string is desired, use a formatter to add it.

bpo-43827 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43827]: All positional-or-keyword parameters to ABCMeta.__new__ are now positional-only to avoid conflicts with keyword arguments to be passed to __init_subclass__().

bpo-43218 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43218]: Prevent creation of a venv whose path contains the PATH separator. This could affect the usage of the activate script. Patch by Dustin Rodrigues.

bpo-38435 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38435]: Add a process_group parameter to subprocess.Popen to help move more things off of the unsafe preexec_fn parameter.

bpo-42066 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42066]: Fix cookies getting sorted in CookieJar.__iter__() which is an extra behavior and not mentioned in RFC 2965 or Netscape cookie protocol. Now the cookies in CookieJar follows the order of the Set-Cookie header. Patch by Iman Kermani.

bpo-40617 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40617]: Add create_window_function() to sqlite3.Connection for creating aggregate window functions. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-40676 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40676]: Convert csv to use Argument Clinic for csv.field_size_limit(), csv.get_dialect(), csv.unregister_dialect() and csv.list_dialects().

bpo-39716 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39716]: Raise an ArgumentError when the same subparser name is added twice to an argparse.ArgumentParser. This is consistent with the (default) behavior when the same option string is added twice to an ArgumentParser.

bpo-36073 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36073]: Raise ProgrammingError instead of segfaulting on recursive usage of cursors in sqlite3 converters. Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

bpo-34975 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34975]: Adds a start_tls() method to StreamWriter, which upgrades the connection with TLS using the given SSLContext.

bpo-22276 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22276]: Path methods glob() and rglob() return only directories if pattern ends with a pathname components separator (/ or sep). Patch by Eisuke Kawashima.

bpo-24905 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24905]: Add blobopen() to sqlite3.Connection. sqlite3.Blob allows incremental I/O operations on blobs. Patch by Aviv Palivoda and Erlend E. Aasland.

Documentation

gh-91888 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91888]: Add a new gh role to the documentation to link to GitHub issues.

gh-91783 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91783]: Document security issues concerning the use of the function shutil.unpack_archive()

gh-91547 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91547]: Remove "Undocumented modules" page.

gh-91298 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91298]: In importlib.resources.abc, refined the documentation of the Traversable Protocol, applying changes from importlib_resources 5.7.1.

bpo-44347 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44347]: Clarify the meaning of dirs_exist_ok, a kwarg of shutil.copytree().

bpo-36329 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36329]: Remove 'make -C Doc serve' in favour of 'make -C Doc htmlview'

bpo-47189 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47189]: Add a What's New in Python 3.11 entry for the Faster CPython project. Documentation by Ken Jin and Kumar Aditya.

bpo-38668 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38668]: Update the introduction to documentation for os.path to remove warnings that became irrelevant after the implementations of PEP 383 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0383/] and PEP 529 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/].

bpo-47115 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47115]: The documentation now lists which members of C structs are part of the Limited API/Stable ABI.

bpo-46962 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46962]: All docstrings in code snippets are now wrapped into PyDoc_STR to follow the guideline of PEP 7's Documentation Strings paragraph [https://peps.python.org/pep-0007/#documentation-strings]. Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

bpo-26792 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26792]: Improve the docstrings of runpy.run_module() and runpy.run_path(). Original patch by Andrew Brezovsky.

Tests

gh-92169 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92169]: Use warnings_helper.import_deprecated() to import deprecated modules uniformly in tests. Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

gh-84461 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84461]: When multiprocessing is enabled, libregrtest can now use a Python executable other than sys.executable via the --python flag.

gh-91904 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91904]: Fix initialization of PYTHONREGRTEST_UNICODE_GUARD which prevented running regression tests on non-UTF-8 locale.

gh-91752 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91752]: Added @requires_zlib to test.test_tools.test_freeze.TestFreeze.

gh-91607 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91607]: Fix test_concurrent_futures to test the correct multiprocessing start method context in several cases where the test logic mixed this up.

bpo-40280 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280]: Threading tests are now skipped on WASM targets without pthread support.

bpo-47109 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47109]: Test for ctypes.macholib.dyld, ctypes.macholib.dylib, and ctypes.macholib.framework are brought from manual pre-unittest times to ctypes.test location and structure. Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

bpo-29890 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29890]: Add tests for ipaddress.IPv4Interface and ipaddress.IPv6Interface construction with tuple arguments. Original patch and tests by louisom.

Build

gh-89452 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89452]: gdbm-compat is now preferred over ndbm if both are available on the system. This allows avoiding the problematic ndbm.h on macOS.

gh-91731 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91731]: Python is now built with -std=c11 compiler option, rather than -std=c99. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-47152 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47152]: Add script and make target for generating sre_constants.h.

bpo-47103 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47103]: Windows PGInstrument builds now copy a required DLL into the output directory, making it easier to run the profile stage of a PGO build.

Windows

bpo-46907 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46907]: Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.38.3.

bpo-47239 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47239]: Fixed --list and --list-paths output for Python install manager when used in an active virtual environment.

bpo-46907 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46907]: Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.38.2.

bpo-46785 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46785]: Fix race condition between os.stat() and unlinking a file on Windows, by using errors codes returned by FindFirstFileW() when appropriate in win32_xstat_impl.

bpo-40859 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40859]: Update Windows build to use xz-5.2.5

macOS

bpo-46907 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46907]: Update macOS installer to SQLite 3.38.4.

Tools/Demos

gh-91583 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91583]: Fix regression in the code generated by Argument Clinic for functions with the defining_class parameter.

gh-91575 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91575]: Add script Tools/scripts/generate_re_casefix.py and the make target regen-re for generating additional data for case-insensitive matching according to the current Unicode version.

gh-91551 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91551]: Remove the ancient Pynche color editor. It has moved to https://gitlab.com/warsaw/pynche

C API

gh-88279 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88279]: Deprecate the C functions: PySys_SetArgv(), PySys_SetArgvEx(), PySys_SetPath(). Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-92154 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92154]: Added the PyCode_GetCode() function. This function does the equivalent of the Python code getattr(code_object, 'co_code').

gh-92173 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92173]: Fix the closure argument to PyEval_EvalCodeEx().

gh-91320 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91320]: Fix C++ compiler warnings about "old-style cast" (g++ -Wold-style-cast) in the Python C API. Use C++ reinterpret_cast<> and static_cast<> casts when the Python C API is used in C++. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-80527 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80527]: Mark functions as deprecated by PEP 623 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/]: PyUnicode_AS_DATA(), PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE(), PyUnicode_GET_DATA_SIZE(), PyUnicode_GET_SIZE(). Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-91768 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91768]: Py_REFCNT(), Py_TYPE(), Py_SIZE() and Py_IS_TYPE() functions argument type is now PyObject*, rather than const PyObject*. Patch by Victor Stinner.

gh-91020 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91020]: Add PyBytes_Type.tp_alloc to initialize PyBytesObject.ob_shash for bytes subclasses.

bpo-40421 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40421]: Add PyFrame_GetLasti C-API function to access frame object's f_lasti attribute safely from C code.

bpo-35134 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134]: Remove the Include/code.h header file. C extensions should only include the main <Python.h> header file. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-47169 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47169]: PyOS_CheckStack() is now exported in the Stable ABI on Windows.

bpo-47169 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47169]: PyThread_get_thread_native_id() is excluded from the stable ABI on platforms where it doesn't exist (like Solaris).

bpo-46343 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46343]: Added PyErr_GetHandledException() and PyErr_SetHandledException() as simpler alternatives to PyErr_GetExcInfo() and PyErr_SetExcInfo().

They are included in the stable ABI.

Python 3.11.0 alpha 7

Release date: 2022-04-05

Core and Builtins

bpo-47212 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47212]: Raise IndentationError instead of SyntaxError for a bare except with no following indent. Improve SyntaxError locations for an un-parenthesized generator used as arguments. Patch by Matthieu Dartiailh.

bpo-47186 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47186]: Replace JUMP_IF_NOT_EG_MATCH by CHECK_EG_MATCH + jump.

bpo-47176 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47176]: Emscripten builds cannot handle signals in the usual way due to platform limitations. Python can now handle signals. To use, set Module.Py_EmscriptenSignalBuffer to be a single byte SharedArrayBuffer and set Py_EMSCRIPTEN_SIGNAL_HANDLING to 1. Writing a number into the SharedArrayBuffer will cause the corresponding signal to be raised into the Python thread.

bpo-47186 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47186]: Replace JUMP_IF_NOT_EXC_MATCH by CHECK_EXC_MATCH + jump.

bpo-47120 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47120]: Replace the absolute jump opcode JUMP_NO_INTERRUPT by the relative JUMP_BACKWARD_NO_INTERRUPT.

bpo-46841 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841]: Avoid unnecessary allocations when comparing code objects.

bpo-47182 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47182]: Fix a crash when using a named unicode character like "\N{digit nine}" after the main interpreter has been initialized a second time.

bpo-47162 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47162]: WebAssembly cannot deal with bad function pointer casts (different count or types of arguments). Python can now use call trampolines to mitigate the problem. Define PY_CALL_TRAMPOLINE to enable call trampolines.

bpo-46775 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46775]: Some Windows system error codes(>= 10000) are now mapped into the correct errno and may now raise a subclass of OSError. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-47129 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47129]: Improve error messages in f-string syntax errors concerning empty expressions.

bpo-47117 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47117]: Fix a crash if we fail to decode characters in interactive mode if the tokenizer buffers are uninitialized. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-47127 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47127]: Speed up calls to c functions with keyword arguments by 25% with specialization. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

bpo-47120 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47120]: Replaced JUMP_ABSOLUTE by the relative jump JUMP_BACKWARD.

bpo-42197 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42197]: PyFrame_FastToLocalsWithError() and PyFrame_LocalsToFast() are no longer called during profiling nor tracing. C code can access the f_locals attribute of PyFrameObject by calling PyFrame_GetLocals().

bpo-47070 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47070]: Improve performance of array_inplace_repeat by reducing the number of invocations of memcpy. Refactor the repeat and inplace repeat methods of array, bytes, bytearray and unicodeobject to use the common _PyBytes_Repeat.

bpo-47053 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47053]: Reduce de-optimization in the specialized BINARY_OP_INPLACE_ADD_UNICODE opcode.

bpo-47045 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47045]: Remove the f_state field from the _PyInterpreterFrame struct. Add the owner field to the _PyInterpreterFrame struct to make ownership explicit to simplify clearing and deallocing frames and generators.

Library

bpo-46968 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46968]: Check for the existence of the "sys/auxv.h" header in faulthandler to avoid compilation problems in systems where this header doesn't exist. Patch by Pablo Galindo

Core and Builtins

bpo-46329 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46329]: Use low bit of LOAD_GLOBAL to indicate whether to push a NULL before the global. Helps streamline the call sequence a bit.

bpo-46841 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841]: Quicken bytecode in-place by storing it as part of the corresponding PyCodeObject.

bpo-47012 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47012]: Speed up iteration of bytes and bytearray by 30%. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

bpo-47009 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47009]: Improved the performance of list.append() and list comprehensions by optimizing for the common case, where no resize is needed. Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

bpo-47005 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47005]: Improve performance of bytearray_repeat and bytearray_irepeat by reducing the number of invocations of memcpy.

Library

bpo-46829 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46829]: Deprecate passing a message into asyncio.Future.cancel() and asyncio.Task.cancel()

Core and Builtins

bpo-46993 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46993]: Speed up bytearray creation from list and tuple by 40%. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

bpo-39829 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39829]: Removed the __len__() call when initializing a list and moved initializing to list_extend. Patch by Jeremiah Pascual.

bpo-46944 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46944]: Speed up throwing exception in generator with METH_FASTCALL calling convention. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

bpo-46841 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841]: Modify STORE_SUBSCR to use an inline cache entry (rather than its oparg) as an adaptive counter.

bpo-46841 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841]: Use inline caching for PRECALL and CALL, and remove the internal machinery for managing the (now unused) non-inline caches.

bpo-46881 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46881]: Statically allocate and initialize the latin1 characters.

bpo-46838 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46838]: Improve syntax errors for incorrect function definitions. Patch by Pablo Galindo

bpo-43721 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43721]: Fix docstrings of getter, setter, and deleter to clarify that they create a new copy of the property.

bpo-43224 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43224]: Make grammar changes required for PEP 646.

Library

bpo-47208 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47208]: Allow vendors to override CTYPES_MAX_ARGCOUNT.

bpo-23689 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23689]: re module: fix memory leak when a match is terminated by a signal or memory allocation failure. Patch by Ma Lin.

bpo-47167 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47167]: Allow overriding a future compliance check in asyncio.Task.

bpo-47151 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47151]: When subprocess tries to use vfork, it now falls back to fork if vfork returns an error. This allows use in situations where vfork isn't allowed by the OS kernel.

bpo-47152 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47152]: Convert the re module into a package. Deprecate modules sre_compile, sre_constants and sre_parse.

bpo-4833 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4833]: Add ZipFile.mkdir()

bpo-27929 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27929]: Fix asyncio.loop.sock_connect() to only resolve names for socket.AF_INET or socket.AF_INET6 families. Resolution may not make sense for other families, like socket.AF_BLUETOOTH and socket.AF_UNIX.

bpo-14265 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14265]: Adds the fully qualified test name to unittest output

bpo-47061 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47061]: Deprecate the aifc module.

bpo-39622 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39622]: Handle Ctrl+C in asyncio programs to interrupt the main task.

bpo-47101 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47101]: hashlib.algorithms_available now lists only algorithms that are provided by activated crypto providers on OpenSSL 3.0. Legacy algorithms are not listed unless the legacy provider has been loaded into the default OSSL context.

bpo-47099 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47099]: All URLError exception messages raised in urllib.request.URLopener now contain a colon between ftp error and the rest of the message. Previously, open_ftp() missed the colon. Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

bpo-47099 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47099]: Exception chaining is changed from Exception.with_traceback()/sys.exc_info() to PEP 3134 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3134/]. Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

bpo-47095 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47095]: hashlib's internal _blake2 module now prefers libb2 from https://www.blake2.net/ over Python's vendored copy of blake2.

bpo-47098 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47098]: The Keccak Code Package for hashlib's internal _sha3 module has been replaced with tiny_sha3. The module is used as fallback when Python is built without OpenSSL.

bpo-47088 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47088]: Implement typing.LiteralString, part of PEP 675 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0675/]. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

bpo-42885 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42885]: Optimize re.search(), re.split(), re.findall(), re.finditer() and re.sub() for regular expressions starting with \A or ^.

bpo-23691 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23691]: Protect the re.finditer() iterator from re-entering.

bpo-47067 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47067]: Optimize calling GenericAlias objects by using PEP 590 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/] vectorcall and by replacing PyObject_SetAttrString with PyObject_SetAttr.

bpo-28080 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28080]: Add the metadata_encoding parameter in the zipfile.ZipFile constructor and the --metadata-encoding option in the zipfile CLI to allow reading zipfiles using non-standard codecs to encode the filenames within the archive.

bpo-47000 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47000]: Make io.text_encoding() returns "utf-8" when UTF-8 mode is enabled.

bpo-42369 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42369]: Fix thread safety of zipfile._SharedFile.tell() to avoid a "zipfile.BadZipFile: Bad CRC-32 for file" exception when reading a ZipFile from multiple threads.

bpo-38256 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38256]: Fix binascii.crc32() when it is compiled to use zlib'c crc32 to work properly on inputs 4+GiB in length instead of returning the wrong result. The workaround prior to this was to always feed the function data in increments smaller than 4GiB or to just call the zlib module function.

We also have binascii.crc32() release the GIL when computing on larger inputs as zlib.crc32() and hashlib do.

This also boosts performance on Windows as it now uses the zlib crc32 implementation for binascii.crc32() for a 2-3x speedup.

That the stdlib has a crc32 API in two modules is a known historical oddity. This moves us closer to a single implementation behind them.

bpo-47066 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47066]: Global inline flags (e.g. (?i)) can now only be used at the start of the regular expressions. Using them not at the start of expression was deprecated since Python 3.6.

bpo-39394 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39394]: A warning about inline flags not at the start of the regular expression now contains the position of the flag.

bpo-433030 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=433030]: Add support of atomic grouping ((?>...)) and possessive quantifiers (*+, ++, ?+, {m,n}+) in regular expressions.

bpo-47062 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47062]: Implement asyncio.Runner context manager.

bpo-46382 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46382]: dataclass() slots=True now correctly omits slots already defined in base classes. Patch by Arie Bovenberg.

bpo-47057 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47057]: Use FASTCALL convention for FutureIter.throw()

bpo-47061 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47061]: Deprecate the various modules listed by PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/]:

aifc, asynchat, asyncore, audioop, cgi, cgitb, chunk, crypt, imghdr, msilib, nntplib, nis, ossaudiodev, pipes, smtpd, sndhdr, spwd, sunau, telnetlib, uu, xdrlib

bpo-34790 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34790]: Remove passing coroutine objects to asyncio.wait().

bpo-47039 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47039]: Normalize repr() of asyncio future and task objects.

bpo-2604 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2604]: Fix bug where doctests using globals would fail when run multiple times.

bpo-45150 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45150]: Add hashlib.file_digest() helper for efficient hashing of file object.

bpo-34861 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34861]: Made cumtime the default sorting key for cProfile

bpo-45997 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45997]: Fix asyncio.Semaphore re-aquiring FIFO order.

bpo-47022 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47022]: The asynchat, asyncore and smtpd modules have been deprecated since at least Python 3.6. Their documentation and deprecation warnings and have now been updated to note they will removed in Python 3.12 (PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/]).

bpo-43253 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43253]: Fix a crash when closing transports where the underlying socket handle is already invalid on the Proactor event loop.

bpo-40280 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280]: select.select() now passes NULL to select for each empty fdset.

bpo-47004 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47004]: Apply bugfixes from importlib_metadata 4.11.3, including bugfix for EntryPoint.extras, which was returning match objects and not the extras strings.

bpo-46998 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46998]: Allow subclassing of typing.Any. Patch by Shantanu Jain.

bpo-46995 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46995]: Deprecate missing asyncio.Task.set_name() for third-party task implementations, schedule making it mandatory in Python 3.13.

bpo-46994 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46994]: Accept explicit contextvars.Context in asyncio.create_task() and asyncio.loop.create_task().

bpo-46981 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46981]: typing.get_args(typing.Tuple[()]) now returns () instead of ((),).

bpo-46968 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46968]: Add os.sysconf_names['SC_MINSIGSTKSZ'].

bpo-46985 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46985]: Upgrade pip wheel bundled with ensurepip (pip 22.0.4)

bpo-46968 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46968]: faulthandler: On Linux 5.14 and newer, dynamically determine size of signal handler stack size CPython allocates using getauxval(AT_MINSIGSTKSZ). This changes allows for Python extension's request to Linux kernel to use AMX_TILE instruction set on Sapphire Rapids Xeon processor to succeed, unblocking use of the ISA in frameworks.

bpo-46917 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46917]: The math.nan value is now always available. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-46955 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46955]: Expose asyncio.base_events.Server as asyncio.Server. Patch by Stefan Zabka.

bpo-23325 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23325]: The signal module no longer assumes that SIG_IGN and SIG_DFL are small int singletons.

bpo-46932 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46932]: Update bundled libexpat to 2.4.7

bpo-46933 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46933]: The pwd module is now optional. os.path.expanduser() returns the path when the pwd module is not available.

bpo-40059 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40059]: PEP 680 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0680/], the tomllib module. Adds support for parsing TOML.

bpo-464471 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=464471]: asyncio.timeout() and asyncio.timeout_at() context managers added. Patch by Tin Tvrtković and Andrew Svetlov.

bpo-46805 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46805]: Added raw datagram socket functions for asyncio: sock_sendto(), sock_recvfrom() and sock_recvfrom_into().

bpo-46644 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46644]: No longer require valid typeforms to be callable. This allows typing.Annotated to wrap typing.ParamSpecArgs and dataclasses.InitVar. Patch by Gregory Beauregard.

bpo-46581 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46581]: Brings ParamSpec propagation for GenericAlias in line with Concatenate (and others).

bpo-45413 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45413]: Define posix_venv and nt_venv sysconfig installation schemes to be used for bootstrapping new virtual environments. Add venv sysconfig installation scheme to get the appropriate one of the above. The schemes are identical to the pre-existing posix_prefix and nt install schemes. The venv module now uses the venv scheme to create new virtual environments instead of hardcoding the paths depending only on the platform. Downstream Python distributors customizing the posix_prefix or nt install scheme in a way that is not compatible with the install scheme used in virtual environments are encouraged not to customize the venv schemes. When Python itself runs in a virtual environment, sysconfig.get_default_scheme() and sysconfig.get_preferred_scheme() with key="prefix" returns venv.

bpo-43224 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43224]: Implement support for PEP 646 in typing.py.

bpo-43224 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43224]: Allow unpacking types.GenericAlias objects, e.g. *tuple[int, str].

bpo-46557 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46557]: Warnings captured by the logging module are now logged without a format string to prevent systems that group logs by the msg argument from grouping captured warnings together.

bpo-41370 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41370]: typing.get_type_hints() now supports evaluating strings as forward references in PEP 585 generic aliases.

bpo-46607 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46607]: Add DeprecationWarning to LegacyInterpolation, deprecated in the docstring since Python 3.2. Will be removed in Python 3.13. Use BasicInterpolation or ExtendedInterpolation instead.

bpo-26120 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26120]: pydoc now excludes __future__ imports from the module's data items.

bpo-46480 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46480]: Add typing.assert_type(). Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

bpo-46421 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46421]: Fix a unittest issue where if the command was invoked as python -m unittest and the filename(s) began with a dot (.), a ValueError is returned.

bpo-46245 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46245]: Add optional parameter dir_fd in shutil.rmtree().

bpo-22859 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22859]: unittest.TestProgram.usageExit() is marked as deprecated, to be removed in Python 3.13.

bpo-46170 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46170]: Improve the error message when you try to subclass an instance of typing.NewType.

bpo-40296 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40296]: Fix supporting generic aliases in pydoc.

bpo-20392 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20392]: Fix inconsistency with uppercase file extensions in MimeTypes.guess_type(). Patch by Kumar Aditya.

bpo-46030 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46030]: Add LOCAL_CREDS, LOCAL_CREDS_PERSISTENT and SCM_CREDS2 FreeBSD constants to the socket module.

bpo-44439 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44439]: Fix .write() method of a member file in ZipFile, when the input data is an object that supports the buffer protocol, the file length may be wrong.

bpo-45171 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45171]: Fix handling of the stacklevel argument to logging functions in the logging module so that it is consistent across all logging functions and, as advertised, similar to the stacklevel argument used in warn().

bpo-24959 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24959]: Fix bug where unittest sometimes drops frames from tracebacks of exceptions raised in tests.

bpo-44859 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44859]: Raise more accurate and PEP 249 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/] compatible exceptions in sqlite3.

Raise InterfaceError instead of ProgrammingError for SQLITE_MISUSE errors.

Don't overwrite BufferError with ValueError when conversion to BLOB fails.

Raise ProgrammingError instead of Warning if user tries to execute() more than one SQL statement.

Raise ProgrammingError instead of ValueError if an SQL query contains null characters.

bpo-44493 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44493]: Add missing terminated NUL in sockaddr_un's length

This was potentially observable when using non-abstract AF_UNIX datagram sockets to processes written in another programming language.

bpo-41930 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41930]: Add serialize() and deserialize() support to sqlite3. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-33178 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33178]: Added ctypes.BigEndianUnion and ctypes.LittleEndianUnion classes, as originally documented in the library docs but not yet implemented.

bpo-43352 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43352]: Add an Barrier object in synchronization primitives of asyncio Lib in order to be consistent with Barrier from threading and multiprocessing libs*

bpo-35859 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35859]: re module, fix a few bugs about capturing group. In rare cases, capturing group gets an incorrect string. Patch by Ma Lin.

Documentation

bpo-45099 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45099]: Document internal asyncio API.

bpo-47126 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47126]: Update PEP URLs to PEP 676 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0676/]'s new canonical form.

bpo-47040 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47040]: Clarified the old Python versions compatibility note of binascii.crc32() / zlib.adler32() / zlib.crc32() functions.

bpo-46033 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46033]: Clarify for statement execution in its doc.

bpo-45790 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45790]: Adjust inaccurate phrasing in Tutoriel : définir des types dans des extensions about the ob_base field and the macros used to access its contents.

bpo-42340 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42340]: Document that in some circumstances KeyboardInterrupt may cause the code to enter an inconsistent state. Provided a sample workaround to avoid it if needed.

bpo-41233 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41233]: Link the errnos referenced in Doc/library/exceptions.rst to their respective section in Doc/library/errno.rst, and vice versa. Previously this was only done for EINTR and InterruptedError. Patch by Yan "yyyyyyyan" Orestes.

Tests

bpo-47205 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47205]: Skip test for sched_getaffinity() and sched_setaffinity() error case on FreeBSD.

bpo-46126 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46126]: Restore 'descriptions' when running tests internally.

bpo-47104 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47104]: Rewrite asyncio.to_thread() tests to use unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase.

bpo-40280 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280]: The test suite is now passing on the Emscripten platform. All fork, socket, and subprocess-based tests are skipped.

bpo-47037 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47037]: Skip strftime("%4Y") feature test on Windows. It can cause an assertion error in debug builds.

bpo-46587 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46587]: Skip tests if platform's strftime does not support non-portable glibc extensions.

bpo-47015 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47015]: A test case for os.sendfile() is converted from deprecated asyncore (see PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/]) to asyncio. Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

Build

bpo-40280 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280]: Add configure option --enable-wasm-dynamic-linking to enable dlopen and MAIN_MODULE / SIDE_MODULE on wasm32-emscripten.

bpo-46023 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46023]: makesetup now detects and skips all duplicated module definitions. The first entry wins.

bpo-40280 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280]: Add SOABI wasm32-emscripten for Emscripten and wasm32-wasi for WASI on 32bit WASM as well as wasm64 counter parts.

bpo-47032 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47032]: Ensure Windows install builds fail correctly with a non-zero exit code when part of the build fails.

bpo-47024 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47024]: Update OpenSSL to 1.1.1n for macOS installers and all Windows builds.

bpo-46996 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46996]: The tkinter package now requires Tcl/Tk version 8.5.12 or newer.

bpo-46973 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46973]: Add regen-configure make target to regenerate configure script with Christian's container image quay.io/tiran/cpython_autoconf:269.

bpo-46917 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46917]: Building Python now requires support of IEEE 754 floating-point numbers. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-45774 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45774]: configure now verifies that all SQLite C APIs needed for the sqlite3 extension module are found.

Windows

bpo-47194 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47194]: Update zlib to v1.2.12 to resolve CVE 2018-25032 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-25032].

bpo-47171 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47171]: Enables installing the py.exe launcher on Windows ARM64.

bpo-46566 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46566]: Upgraded Python install manager to support a new -V:company/tag argument for full PEP 514 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0514/] support and to detect ARM64 installs. The -64 suffix on arguments is deprecated, but still selects any non-32-bit install. Setting PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL and specifying a version that is not installed will attempt to install the requested version from the Microsoft Store.

bpo-47086 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47086]: The installer for Windows now includes documentation as loose HTML files rather than a single compiled .chm file.

bpo-46907 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46907]: Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.38.1.

bpo-44549 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44549]: Update bzip2 to 1.0.8 in Windows builds to mitigate CVE 2016-3189 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-3189] and CVE 2019-12900 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2019-12900].

bpo-46948 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46948]: Prevent CVE 2022-26488 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2022-26488] by ensuring the Add to PATH option in the Windows installer uses the correct path when being repaired.

macOS

bpo-46890 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46890]: Fix a regression in the setting of sys._base_executable in framework builds, and thereby fix a regression in venv virtual environments with such builds.

bpo-46907 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46907]: Update macOS installer to SQLite 3.38.1.

Tools/Demos

bpo-40280 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280]: Replace Emscripten's limited shell with Katie Bell's browser-ui REPL from python-wasm project.

C API

bpo-40421 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40421]: Add PyFrame_GetBuiltins, PyFrame_GetGenerator and PyFrame_GetGlobals C-API functions to access frame object attributes safely from C code.

bpo-46850 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46850]: Move the private _PyFrameEvalFunction type, and private _PyInterpreterState_GetEvalFrameFunc() and _PyInterpreterState_SetEvalFrameFunc() functions to the internal C API. The _PyFrameEvalFunction callback function type now uses the _PyInterpreterFrame type which is part of the internal C API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-46850 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46850]: Move the private undocumented _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault() function to the internal C API. The function now uses the _PyInterpreterFrame type which is part of the internal C API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-46850 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46850]: Remove the private undocumented function _PyEval_CallTracing() from the C API. Call the public sys.call_tracing() function instead. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-46850 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46850]: Remove the private undocumented function _PyEval_GetCoroutineOriginTrackingDepth() from the C API. Call the public sys.get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth() function instead. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-46850 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46850]: Remove the following private undocumented functions from the C API:

_PyEval_GetAsyncGenFirstiter()

_PyEval_GetAsyncGenFinalizer()

_PyEval_SetAsyncGenFirstiter()

_PyEval_SetAsyncGenFinalizer()

Call the public sys.get_asyncgen_hooks() and sys.set_asyncgen_hooks() functions instead. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-46987 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46987]: Remove private functions _PySys_GetObjectId() and _PySys_SetObjectId(). Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-46906 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46906]: Add new functions to pack and unpack C double (serialize and deserialize): PyFloat_Pack2(), PyFloat_Pack4(), PyFloat_Pack8(), PyFloat_Unpack2(), PyFloat_Unpack4() and PyFloat_Unpack8(). Patch by Victor Stinner.

Python 3.11.0 alpha 6

Release date: 2022-03-07

Core and Builtins

bpo-46940 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46940]: Avoid overriding AttributeError metadata information for nested attribute access calls. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-46927 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46927]: Include the type's name in the error message for subscripting non-generic types.

bpo-46921 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46921]: Support vectorcall for super(). Patch by Ken Jin.

bpo-46841 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841]: Fix incorrect handling of inline cache entries when specializing BINARY_OP.

bpo-46841 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841]: Use an oparg to simplify the construction of helpful error messages in GET_AWAITABLE.

bpo-46903 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46903]: Make sure that str subclasses can be used as attribute names for instances with virtual dictionaries. Fixes regression in 3.11alpha

bpo-46841 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841]: Add more detailed specialization failure stats for COMPARE_OP followed by EXTENDED_ARG.

bpo-46891 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46891]: Fix bug introduced during 3.11alpha where subclasses of types.ModuleType with __slots__ were not initialized correctly, resulting in an interpreter crash.

bpo-46841 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841]: Use inline caching for LOAD_ATTR, LOAD_METHOD, and STORE_ATTR.

bpo-46841 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841]: Use inline cache for BINARY_SUBSCR.

bpo-46841 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841]: Use inline caching for COMPARE_OP.

bpo-46864 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46864]: Deprecate PyBytesObject.ob_shash. It will be removed in Python 3.13.

bpo-46841 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841]: Use inline caching for UNPACK_SEQUENCE.

bpo-46845 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46845]: Reduces dict size by removing hash value from hash table when all inserted keys are Unicode. For example, sys.getsizeof(dict.fromkeys("abcdefg")) becomes 272 bytes from 352 bytes on 64bit platform.

bpo-46841 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841]: Use inline cache for LOAD_GLOBAL.

bpo-46852 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46852]: Rename the private undocumented float.__set_format__() method to float.__setformat__() to fix a typo introduced in Python 3.7. The method is only used by test_float. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-46852 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46852]: Remove the undocumented private float.__set_format__() method, previously known as float.__setformat__() in Python 3.7. Its docstring said: "You probably don't want to use this function. It exists mainly to be used in Python's test suite." Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-40116 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40116]: Fix regression that dict.update(other) may don't respect iterate order of other when other is key sharing dict.

bpo-46712 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46712]: Share global string identifiers in deep-frozen modules.

bpo-46430 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46430]: Fix memory leak in interned strings of deep-frozen modules.

bpo-46841 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841]: Store BINARY_OP caches inline using a new CACHE instruction.

bpo-45107 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45107]: Specialize LOAD_METHOD for instances with a dict.

bpo-44337 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44337]: Reduce the memory usage of specialized LOAD_ATTR and STORE_ATTR instructions.

bpo-46729 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46729]: Add number of sub-exceptions to BaseException.__str__().

bpo-45885 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45885]: Don't un-adapt COMPARE_OP when collecting specialization stats.

bpo-46329 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46329]: Fix specialization stats gathering for PRECALL instructions.

Library

bpo-46794 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46794]: Bump up the libexpat version into 2.4.6

Core and Builtins

bpo-46823 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46823]: Implement a specialized combined opcode LOAD_FAST__LOAD_ATTR_INSTANCE_VALUE. Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

bpo-46820 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46820]: Fix parsing a numeric literal immediately (without spaces) followed by "not in" keywords, like in 1not in x. Now the parser only emits a warning, not a syntax error.

bpo-46329 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46329]: Move KW_NAMES before PRECALL instruction in call sequence. Change operand of CALL to match PRECALL for easier specialization.

bpo-46808 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46808]: Remove the NEXT_BLOCK macro from compile.c, and make the compiler automatically generate implicit blocks when they are needed.

bpo-46329 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46329]: Add PUSH_NULL instruction. This is used as a prefix when evaluating a callable, so that the stack has the same shape for methods and other calls. PRECALL_FUNCTION and PRECALL_METHOD are merged into a single PRECALL instruction.

There is no change in semantics.

bpo-46762 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46762]: Fix an assert failure in debug builds when a '<', '>', or '=' is the last character in an f-string that's missing a closing right brace.

bpo-46730 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46730]: Message of AttributeError caused by getting, setting or deleting a property without the corresponding function now mentions that the attribute is in fact a property and also specifies type of the class that it belongs to.

bpo-46724 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46724]: Make sure that all backwards jumps use the JUMP_ABSOLUTE instruction, rather than JUMP_FORWARD with an argument of (2**32)+offset.

bpo-46732 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46732]: Correct the docstring for the __bool__() method. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

bpo-46072 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46072]: Add more detailed specialization failure statistics for BINARY_OP.

bpo-46707 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46707]: Avoid potential exponential backtracking when producing some syntax errors involving lots of brackets. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

Library

bpo-46323 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46323]: ctypes now allocates memory on the stack instead of on the heap to pass arguments while calling a Python callback function. Patch by Donghee Na.

Core and Builtins

bpo-45923 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45923]: Add a quickened form of RESUME that skips quickening checks.

bpo-46702 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46702]: Specialize UNPACK_SEQUENCE for tuple and list unpackings.

bpo-46072 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46072]: Opcode pair stats are now gathered with --enable-pystats. Defining DYNAMIC_EXECUTION_PROFILE or DXPAIRS no longer has any effect.

bpo-46675 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46675]: Allow more than 16 items in a split dict before it is combined. The limit is now 254.

Library

bpo-40479 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40479]: Add a missing call to va_end() in Modules/_hashopenssl.c.

bpo-46323 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46323]: Use PyObject_Vectorcall() while calling ctypes callback function. Patch by Donghee Na.

Core and Builtins

bpo-46615 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46615]: When iterating over sets internally in setobject.c, acquire strong references to the resulting items from the set. This prevents crashes in corner-cases of various set operations where the set gets mutated.

bpo-45828 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45828]: The bytecode compiler now attempts to apply runtime stack manipulations at compile-time (whenever it is feasible to do so).

bpo-30496 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30496]: Fixed a minor portability issue in the implementation of PyLong_FromLong(), and added a fast path for single-digit integers to PyLong_FromLongLong().

Library

bpo-25707 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25707]: Fixed a file leak in xml.etree.ElementTree.iterparse() when the iterator is not exhausted. Patch by Jacob Walls.

bpo-46877 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46877]: Export unittest.doModuleCleanups() in unittest. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

bpo-46848 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46848]: For performance, use the optimized string-searching implementations from find() and rfind() for find() and rfind().

bpo-46736 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46736]: SimpleHTTPRequestHandler now uses HTML5 grammar. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-44886 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44886]: Inherit asyncio proactor datagram transport from asyncio.DatagramTransport.

bpo-46827 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46827]: Support UDP sockets in asyncio.loop.sock_connect() for selector-based event loops. Patch by Thomas Grainger.

bpo-46811 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46811]: Make test suite support Expat >=2.4.5

bpo-46252 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46252]: Raise TypeError if ssl.SSLSocket is passed to transport-based APIs.

bpo-46784 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46784]: Fix libexpat symbols collisions with user dynamically loaded or statically linked libexpat in embedded Python.

bpo-46786 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46786]: The HTML serialisation in xml.etree.ElementTree now writes embed, source, track and wbr as empty tags, as defined in HTML 5.

bpo-39327 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39327]: shutil.rmtree() can now work with VirtualBox shared folders when running from the guest operating-system.

bpo-45390 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45390]: Propagate asyncio.CancelledError message from inner task to outer awaiter.

bpo-46756 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46756]: Fix a bug in urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr.find_user_password() and urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.is_authenticated() which allowed to bypass authorization. For example, access to URI example.org/foobar was allowed if the user was authorized for URI example.org/foo.

bpo-46737 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46737]: random.gauss() and random.normalvariate() now have default arguments.

bpo-46752 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46752]: Add task groups to asyncio (structured concurrency, inspired by Trio's nurseries). This also introduces a change to task cancellation, where a cancelled task can't be cancelled again until it calls .uncancel().

bpo-46724 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46724]: Fix dis behavior on negative jump offsets.

bpo-46333 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46333]: The __repr__() method of typing.ForwardRef now includes the module parameter of typing.ForwardRef when it is set.

bpo-46643 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46643]: In typing.get_type_hints(), support evaluating stringified ParamSpecArgs and ParamSpecKwargs annotations. Patch by Gregory Beauregard.

bpo-45863 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45863]: When the tarfile module creates a pax format archive, it will put an integer representation of timestamps in the ustar header (if possible) for the benefit of older unarchivers, in addition to the existing full-precision timestamps in the pax extended header.

bpo-46066 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46066]: Deprecate kwargs-based syntax for typing.TypedDict definitions. It had confusing semantics when specifying totality, and was largely unused. Patch by Jingchen Ye.

bpo-46676 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46676]: Make typing.ParamSpec args and kwargs equal to themselves. Patch by Gregory Beauregard.

bpo-46323 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46323]: ctypes.CFUNCTYPE() and ctypes.WINFUNCTYPE() now fail to create the type if its _argtypes_ member contains too many arguments. Previously, the error was only raised when calling a function. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-46672 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46672]: Fix NameError in asyncio.gather() when initial type check fails.

bpo-46659 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46659]: The calendar.LocaleTextCalendar and calendar.LocaleHTMLCalendar classes now use locale.getlocale(), instead of using locale.getdefaultlocale(), if no locale is specified. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-46659 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46659]: The locale.getdefaultlocale() function is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.13. Use locale.setlocale(), locale.getpreferredencoding(False) and locale.getlocale() functions instead. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-46655 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46655]: In typing.get_type_hints(), support evaluating bare stringified TypeAlias annotations. Patch by Gregory Beauregard.

bpo-45948 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45948]: Fixed a discrepancy in the C implementation of the xml.etree.ElementTree module. Now, instantiating an xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser with a target=None keyword provides a default xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder target as the Python implementation does.

bpo-46626 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46626]: Expose Linux's IP_BIND_ADDRESS_NO_PORT option in socket.

bpo-46521 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46521]: Fix a bug in the codeop module that was incorrectly identifying invalid code involving string quotes as valid code.

bpo-46571 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46571]: Improve typing.no_type_check().

Now it does not modify external classes and functions. We also now correctly mark classmethods as not to be type checked.

bpo-46400 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46400]: expat: Update libexpat from 2.4.1 to 2.4.4

bpo-46556 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46556]: Deprecate undocumented support for using a pathlib.Path object as a context manager.

bpo-46534 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46534]: Implement PEP 673 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0673/] typing.Self. Patch by James Hilton-Balfe.

bpo-46522 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46522]: Make various module __getattr__ AttributeErrors more closely match a typical AttributeError

bpo-46475 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46475]: Add typing.Never and typing.assert_never(). Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

bpo-46333 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46333]: The __eq__() and __hash__() methods of typing.ForwardRef now honor the module parameter of typing.ForwardRef. Forward references from different modules are now differentiated.

bpo-46246 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46246]: Add missing __slots__ to importlib.metadata.DeprecatedList. Patch by Arie Bovenberg.

bpo-46232 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46232]: The ssl module now handles certificates with bit strings in DN correctly.

bpo-46195 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46195]: typing.get_type_hints() no longer adds Optional to parameters with None as a default. This aligns to changes to PEP 484 in https://github.com/python/peps/pull/689

bpo-31369 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31369]: Add RegexFlag to re.__all__ and documented it. Add NOFLAG to indicate no flags being set.

bpo-45898 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45898]: ctypes no longer defines ffi_type_* symbols in cfield.c. The symbols have been provided by libffi for over a decade.

bpo-44953 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44953]: Calling operator.itemgetter objects and operator.attrgetter objects is now faster due to use of the vectorcall calling convention.

bpo-44289 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44289]: Fix an issue with is_tarfile() method when using fileobj argument: position in the fileobj was advanced forward which made it unreadable with tarfile.TarFile.open().

bpo-44011 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44011]: Reimplement SSL/TLS support in asyncio, borrow the implementation from uvloop library.

bpo-41086 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41086]: Make the configparser.ConfigParser constructor raise TypeError if the interpolation parameter is not of type configparser.Interpolation

bpo-29418 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29418]: Implement inspect.ismethodwrapper() and fix inspect.isroutine() for cases where methodwrapper is given. Patch by Hakan Çelik.

bpo-14156 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14156]: argparse.FileType now supports an argument of '-' in binary mode, returning the .buffer attribute of sys.stdin/sys.stdout as appropriate. Modes including 'x' and 'a' are treated equivalently to 'w' when argument is '-'. Patch contributed by Josh Rosenberg

Documentation

bpo-42238 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42238]: Doc/tools/rstlint.py has moved to its own repository and is now packaged on PyPI as sphinx-lint.

Tests

bpo-46913 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46913]: Fix test_faulthandler.test_sigfpe() if Python is built with undefined behavior sanitizer (UBSAN): disable UBSAN on the faulthandler_sigfpe() function. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-46760 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46760]: Remove bytecode offsets from expected values in test.test_dis module. Reduces the obstacles to modifying the VM or compiler.

bpo-46708 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46708]: Prevent default asyncio event loop policy modification warning after test_asyncio execution.

bpo-46678 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46678]: The function make_legacy_pyc in Lib/test/support/import_helper.py no longer fails when PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX is set to a directory on a different device from where tempfiles are stored.

bpo-46623 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46623]: Skip test_pair() and test_speech128() of test_zlib on s390x since they fail if zlib uses the s390x hardware accelerator. Patch by Victor Stinner.

Build

bpo-46860 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46860]: Respect --with-suffix when building on case-insensitive file systems.

bpo-46656 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46656]: Building Python now requires a C11 compiler. Optional C11 features are not required. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-46656 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46656]: Building Python now requires support for floating-point Not-a-Number (NaN): remove the Py_NO_NAN macro. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-46640 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46640]: Building Python now requires a C99 <math.h> header file providing a NAN constant, or the __builtin_nan() built-in function. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-46608 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46608]: Exclude marshalled-frozen data if deep-freezing to save 300 KB disk space. This includes adding a new is_package field to _frozen. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

bpo-40280 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280]: Fix wasm32-emscripten test failures and platform issues. - Disable syscalls that are not supported or don't work, e.g. wait, getrusage, prlimit, mkfifo, mknod, setres[gu]id, setgroups. - Use fd_count to count open fds. - Add more checks for subprocess and fork. - Add workarounds for missing _multiprocessing and failing socket.accept(). - Enable bzip2. - Disable large file support. - Disable signal.alarm.

bpo-46430 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46430]: Intern strings in deep-frozen modules. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

Windows

bpo-46744 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46744]: The default all users install directory for ARM64 is now under the native Program Files folder, rather than Program Files (Arm) which is intended for ARM (32-bit) files.

bpo-46567 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46567]: Adds Tcl and Tk support for Windows ARM64. This also adds IDLE to the installation.

bpo-46638 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46638]: Ensures registry virtualization is consistently disabled. For 3.10 and earlier, it remains enabled (some registry writes are protected), while for 3.11 and later it is disabled (registry modifications affect all applications).

IDLE

bpo-46630 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46630]: Make query dialogs on Windows start with a cursor in the entry box.

bpo-45447 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45447]: Apply IDLE syntax highlighting to .pyi files. Patch by Alex Waygood and Terry Jan Reedy.

C API

bpo-46748 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46748]: Python's public headers no longer import <stdbool.h>, leaving code that embeds/extends Python free to define bool, true and false.

bpo-46836 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46836]: Move the PyFrameObject type definition (struct _frame) to the internal C API pycore_frame.h header file. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-45459 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45459]: Rename Include/buffer.h header file to Include/pybuffer.h to avoid conflicts with projects having an existing buffer.h header file. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-45412 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45412]: Remove the HAVE_PY_SET_53BIT_PRECISION macro (moved to the internal C API). Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-46613 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46613]: Added function PyType_GetModuleByDef(), which allows access to module state when a method's defining class is not available.

Python 3.11.0 alpha 5

Release date: 2022-02-03

Core and Builtins

bpo-45773 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45773]: Remove two invalid "peephole" optimizations from the bytecode compiler.

bpo-46564 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46564]: Do not create frame objects when creating super object. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

bpo-45885 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45885]: Added more fined-grained specialization failure stats regarding the COMPARE_OP bytecode.

bpo-44977 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44977]: The delegation of int() to __trunc__() is now deprecated. Calling int(a) when type(a) implements __trunc__() but not __int__() or __index__() now raises a DeprecationWarning.

bpo-46458 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46458]: Reorder code emitted by the compiler for a try-except block so that the else block's code immediately follows the try body (without a jump). This is more optimal for the happy path.

bpo-46527 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46527]: Allow passing iterable as a keyword argument to enumerate() again. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

bpo-46528 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46528]: Replace several stack manipulation instructions (DUP_TOP, DUP_TOP_TWO, ROT_TWO, ROT_THREE, ROT_FOUR, and ROT_N) with new COPY and SWAP instructions.

bpo-46329 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46329]: Use two or three bytecodes to implement most calls.

Calls without named arguments are implemented as a sequence of two instructions: PRECALL; CALL. Calls with named arguments are implemented as a sequence of three instructions: PRECALL; KW_NAMES; CALL. There are two different PRECALL instructions: PRECALL_FUNTION and PRECALL_METHOD. The latter pairs with LOAD_METHOD.

This partition into pre-call and call allows better specialization, and thus better performance ultimately.

There is no change in semantics.

bpo-46503 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46503]: Fix an assert when parsing some invalid N escape sequences in f-strings.

bpo-46431 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46431]: Improve error message on invalid calls to BaseExceptionGroup.__new__().

bpo-46476 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46476]: Fix memory leak in code objects generated by deepfreeze. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

bpo-46481 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46481]: Speed up calls to weakref.ref.__call__() by using the PEP 590 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/] vectorcall calling convention. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-46417 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46417]: Fix a race condition on setting a type __bases__ attribute: the internal function add_subclass() now gets the PyTypeObject.tp_subclasses member after calling PyWeakref_NewRef() which can trigger a garbage collection which can indirectly modify PyTypeObject.tp_subclasses. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-46417 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46417]: python -X showrefcount now shows the total reference count after clearing and destroyed the main Python interpreter. Previously, it was shown before. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-43683 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43683]: Add ASYNC_GEN_WRAP opcode to wrap the value to be yielded in async generators. Removes the need to special case async generators in the YIELD_VALUE instruction.

bpo-46407 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46407]: Optimize some modulo operations in Objects/longobject.c. Patch by Jeremiah Vivian.

bpo-46409 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46409]: Add new RETURN_GENERATOR bytecode to make generators. Simplifies calling Python functions in the VM, as they no longer any need to special case generator functions.

Also add JUMP_NO_INTERRUPT bytecode that acts like JUMP_ABSOLUTE, but does not check for interrupts.

bpo-46406 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46406]: The integer division // implementation has been optimized to better let the compiler understand its constraints. It can be 20% faster on the amd64 platform when dividing an int by a value smaller than 2**30.

Library

bpo-46383 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46383]: Fix invalid signature of _zoneinfo's module_free function to resolve a crash on wasm32-emscripten platform.

Core and Builtins

bpo-46361 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46361]: Ensure that "small" integers created by int.from_bytes() and decimal.Decimal are properly cached.

bpo-46161 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46161]: Fix the class building error when the arguments are constants and CALL_FUNCTION_EX is used.

bpo-46028 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46028]: Fixes calculation of sys._base_executable when inside a virtual environment that uses symlinks with different binary names than the base environment provides.

bpo-46091 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46091]: Correctly calculate indentation levels for lines with whitespace character that are ended by line continuation characters. Patch by Pablo Galindo

Library

bpo-30512 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30512]: Add CAN Socket support for NetBSD.

Build

bpo-46045 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46045]: Do not use POSIX semaphores on NetBSD

Core and Builtins

bpo-44024 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44024]: Improve the TypeError message for non-string second arguments passed to the built-in functions getattr() and hasattr(). Patch by Géry Ogam.

Library

bpo-46624 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46624]: Restore support for non-integer arguments of random.randrange() and random.randint().

bpo-46591 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46591]: Make the IDLE doc URL on the About IDLE dialog clickable.

bpo-46565 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46565]: Remove loop variables that are leaking into modules' namespaces.

bpo-46553 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46553]: In typing.get_type_hints(), support evaluating bare stringified ClassVar annotations. Patch by Gregory Beauregard.

bpo-46544 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46544]: Don't leak x & uspace intermediate vars in textwrap.TextWrapper.

bpo-46487 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46487]: Add the get_write_buffer_limits method to asyncio.transports.WriteTransport and to the SSL transport.

bpo-45173 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45173]: Note the configparser deprecations will be removed in Python 3.12.

bpo-45162 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45162]: The deprecated unittest APIs removed in 3.11a1 have been temporarily restored to be removed in 3.12 while cleanups in external projects go in.

bpo-46539 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46539]: In typing.get_type_hints(), support evaluating stringified ClassVar and Final annotations inside Annotated. Patch by Gregory Beauregard.

bpo-46510 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46510]: Add missing test for types.TracebackType and types.FrameType. Calculate them directly from the caught exception without calling sys.exc_info().

bpo-46491 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46491]: Allow typing.Annotated to wrap typing.Final and typing.ClassVar. Patch by Gregory Beauregard.

bpo-46483 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46483]: Remove __class_getitem__() from pathlib.PurePath as this class was not supposed to be generic.

bpo-46436 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46436]: Fix command-line option -d/--directory in module http.server which is ignored when combined with command-line option --cgi. Patch by Géry Ogam.

bpo-41403 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41403]: Make mock.patch() raise a TypeError with a relevant error message on invalid arg. Previously it allowed a cryptic AttributeError to escape.

bpo-46474 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46474]: In importlib.metadata.EntryPoint.pattern, avoid potential REDoS by limiting ambiguity in consecutive whitespace.

bpo-46474 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46474]: Removed private method from importlib.metadata.Path. Sync with importlib_metadata 4.10.0.

bpo-46470 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46470]: Remove unused branch from typing._remove_dups_flatten

bpo-46469 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46469]: asyncio generic classes now return types.GenericAlias in __class_getitem__ instead of the same class.

bpo-41906 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41906]: Support passing filter instances in the filters values of handlers and loggers in the dictionary passed to logging.config.dictConfig().

bpo-46422 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46422]: Use dis.Positions in dis.Instruction instead of a regular tuple.

bpo-46434 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46434]: pdb now gracefully handles help when __doc__ is missing, for example when run with pregenerated optimized .pyc files.

bpo-43869 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43869]: Python uses the same time Epoch on all platforms. Add an explicit unit test to ensure that it's the case. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-46414 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46414]: Add typing.reveal_type(). Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

bpo-40280 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280]: subprocess now imports Windows-specific imports when msvcrt module is available, and POSIX-specific imports on all other platforms. This gives a clean exception when _posixsubprocess is not available (e.g. Emscripten browser target).

bpo-40066 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40066]: IntEnum, IntFlag, and StrEnum use the mixed-in type for their str() and format() output.

bpo-46316 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46316]: Optimize pathlib.Path.iterdir() by removing an unnecessary check for special entries.

bpo-29688 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29688]: Document pathlib.Path.absolute() (which has always existed).

bpo-43012 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43012]: The pathlib module's obsolete and internal _Accessor class has been removed to prepare the terrain for upcoming enhancements to the module.

bpo-46258 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46258]: Speed up math.isqrt() for small positive integers by replacing two division steps with a lookup table.

bpo-46242 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46242]: Improve error message when creating a new enum.Enum type subclassing an existing Enum with _member_names_ using enum.Enum.__call__().

bpo-43118 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43118]: Fix a bug in inspect.signature() that was causing it to fail on some subclasses of classes with a __text_signature__ referencing module globals. Patch by Weipeng Hong.

bpo-26552 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26552]: Fixed case where failing asyncio.ensure_future() did not close the coroutine. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

bpo-21987 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21987]: Fix an issue with tarfile.TarFile.getmember() getting a directory name with a trailing slash.

bpo-46124 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46124]: Update zoneinfo to rely on importlib.resources traversable API.

bpo-46103 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46103]: Now inspect.getmembers() only gets __bases__ attribute from class type. Patch by Weipeng Hong.

bpo-46080 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46080]: Fix exception in argparse help text generation if a argparse.BooleanOptionalAction argument's default is argparse.SUPPRESS and it has help specified. Patch by Felix Fontein.

bpo-44791 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44791]: Fix substitution of ParamSpec in Concatenate with different parameter expressions. Substitution with a list of types returns now a tuple of types. Substitution with Concatenate returns now a Concatenate with concatenated lists of arguments.

Documentation

bpo-46463 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46463]: Fixes escape4chm.py script used when building the CHM documentation file

Tests

bpo-43478 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43478]: Mocks can no longer be provided as the specs for other Mocks. As a result, an already-mocked object cannot be passed to mock.Mock(). This can uncover bugs in tests since these Mock-derived Mocks will always pass certain tests (e.g. isinstance) and builtin assert functions (e.g. assert_called_once_with) will unconditionally pass.

bpo-46616 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46616]: Ensures test_importlib.test_windows cleans up registry keys after completion.

bpo-44359 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44359]: test_ftplib now silently ignores socket errors to prevent logging unhandled threading exceptions. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-46600 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46600]: Fix test_gdb.test_pycfunction() for Python built with clang -Og. Tolerate inlined functions in the gdb traceback. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-46542 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46542]: Fix a Python crash in test_lib2to3 when using Python built in debug mode: limit the recursion limit. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-46576 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46576]: test_peg_generator now disables compiler optimization when testing compilation of its own C extensions to significantly speed up the testing on non-debug builds of CPython.

bpo-46542 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46542]: Fix test_json tests checking for RecursionError: modify these tests to use support.infinite_recursion(). Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-13886 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13886]: Skip test_builtin PTY tests on non-ASCII characters if the readline module is loaded. The readline module changes input() behavior, but test_builtin is not intended to test the readline module. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-40280 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280]: Add test.support.requires_fork() decorators to mark tests that require a working os.fork().

bpo-40280 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280]: Add test.support.requires_subprocess() decorator to mark tests which require working subprocess module or os.spawn*. The wasm32-emscripten platform has no support for processes.

bpo-46126 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46126]: Disable 'descriptions' when running tests internally.

Build

bpo-46602 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46602]: Tidied up configure.ac so that conftest.c is truncated rather than appended. This assists in the case where the 'rm' of conftest.c fails to happen between tests. Downstream issues such as a clobbered SOABI can result.

bpo-46600 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46600]: Fix the test checking if the C compiler supports -Og option in the ./configure script to also use -Og on clang which supports it. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-38472 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38472]: Fix GCC detection in setup.py when cross-compiling. The C compiler is now run with LC_ALL=C. Previously, the detection failed with a German locale.

bpo-46513 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46513]: configure no longer uses AC_C_CHAR_UNSIGNED macro and pyconfig.h no longer defines reserved symbol __CHAR_UNSIGNED__.

bpo-46471 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46471]: Use global singletons for single byte bytes objects in deepfreeze.

bpo-46443 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46443]: Deepfreeze now uses cached small integers as it saves some space for common small integers.

bpo-46429 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46429]: Merge all deep-frozen files into one for space savings. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

bpo-45569 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45569]: The build now defaults to using 30-bit digits for Python integers. Previously either 15-bit or 30-bit digits would be selected, depending on the platform. 15-bit digits may still be selected using the --enable-big-digits=15 option to the configure script, or by defining PYLONG_BITS_IN_DIGIT in pyconfig.h.

bpo-45925 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45925]: Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.37.2.

bpo-43112 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43112]: Detect musl libc as a separate SOABI (tagged as linux-musl).

Windows

bpo-33125 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33125]: The traditional EXE/MSI based installer for Windows is now available for ARM64

bpo-46362 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46362]: os.path.abspath("C:CON") is now fixed to return "\.CON", not the same path. The regression was true of all legacy DOS devices such as COM1, LPT1, or NUL.

bpo-44934 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44934]: The installer now offers a command-line only option to add the installation directory to the end of PATH instead of at the start.

macOS

bpo-45925 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45925]: Update macOS installer to SQLite 3.37.2.

IDLE

bpo-45296 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45296]: Clarify close, quit, and exit in IDLE. In the File menu, 'Close' and 'Exit' are now 'Close Window' (the current one) and 'Exit' is now 'Exit IDLE' (by closing all windows). In Shell, 'quit()' and 'exit()' mean 'close Shell'. If there are no other windows, this also exits IDLE.

C API

bpo-40170 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170]: Remove the PyHeapType_GET_MEMBERS() macro. It was exposed in the public C API by mistake, it must only be used by Python internally. Use the PyTypeObject.tp_members member instead. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-40170 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170]: Move _Py_GetAllocatedBlocks() and _PyObject_DebugMallocStats() private functions to the internal C API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-46433 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46433]: The internal function _PyType_GetModuleByDef now correctly handles inheritance patterns involving static types.

bpo-45459 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45459]: Py_buffer and various Py_buffer related functions are now part of the limited API and stable ABI.

bpo-14916 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14916]: Fixed bug in the tokenizer that prevented PyRun_InteractiveOne from parsing from the provided FD.

Python 3.11.0 alpha 4

Release date: 2022-01-13

Core and Builtins

bpo-46070 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46070]: Py_EndInterpreter() now explicitly untracks all objects currently tracked by the GC. Previously, if an object was used later by another interpreter, calling PyObject_GC_UnTrack() on the object crashed if the previous or the next object of the PyGC_Head structure became a dangling pointer. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-46347 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46347]: Fix memory leak in PyEval_EvalCodeEx.

bpo-46339 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46339]: Fix a crash in the parser when retrieving the error text for multi-line f-strings expressions that do not start in the first line of the string. Patch by Pablo Galindo

bpo-46331 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46331]: Do not set line number of instruction storing doc-string. Fixes regression introduced in 3.11 alpha.

bpo-46314 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46314]: Remove spurious "call" event when creating a lambda function that was accidentally introduced in 3.11a4.

bpo-46289 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46289]: ASDL declaration of FormattedValue has changed to reflect conversion field is not optional.

bpo-46297 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46297]: Fixed an interpreter crash on bootup with multiple PythonPaths set in the Windows registry. Patch by Derzsi Dániel.

bpo-46237 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46237]: Fix the line number of tokenizer errors inside f-strings. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-46263 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46263]: We always expect the "use_frozen_modules" config to be set, now that getpath.c was rewritten in pure Python and the logic improved.

bpo-46006 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46006]: Fix a regression when a type method like __init__() is modified in a subinterpreter. Fix a regression in _PyUnicode_EqualToASCIIId() and type update_slot(). Revert the change which made the Unicode dictionary of interned strings compatible with subinterpreters: the internal interned dictionary is shared again by all interpreters. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-45923 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45923]: Add RESUME opcode. This is a logical no-op. It is emitted by the compiler anywhere a Python function can be entered. It is used by the interpreter to perform tracing and optimizer checks.

Library

bpo-46208 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46208]: Fix the regression of os.path.normpath("A/../../B") not returning expected "../B" but "B".

Core and Builtins

bpo-46240 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46240]: Correct the error message for unclosed parentheses when the tokenizer doesn't reach the end of the source when the error is reported. Patch by Pablo Galindo

bpo-46009 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46009]: Remove the GEN_START opcode.

bpo-46235 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46235]: Certain sequence multiplication operations like [0] * 1_000 are now faster due to reference-counting optimizations. Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

bpo-46221 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46221]: PREP_RERAISE_STAR no longer pushes lasti to the stack.

bpo-46202 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46202]: Remove POP_EXCEPT_AND_RERAISE and replace it by an equivalent sequence of other opcodes.

Library

bpo-46085 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46085]: Fix iterator cache mechanism of OrderedDict.

Core and Builtins

bpo-46055 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46055]: Speed up shifting operation involving integers less than PyLong_BASE. Patch by Xinhang Xu.

bpo-46110 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46110]: Add a maximum recursion check to the PEG parser to avoid stack overflow. Patch by Pablo Galindo

bpo-46107 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46107]: Fix bug where ExceptionGroup.split() and ExceptionGroup.subgroup() did not copy the exception group's __note__ field to the parts.

bpo-45711 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711]: The interpreter state's representation of handled exceptions (a.k.a exc_info, or _PyErr_StackItem) now has only the exc_value field, exc_type and exc_traceback have been removed as their values can be derived from exc_value.

bpo-44525 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44525]: Replace the four call bytecode instructions which one pre-call instruction and two call instructions.

Removes CALL_FUNCTION, CALL_FUNCTION_KW, CALL_METHOD and CALL_METHOD_KW.

Adds CALL_NO_KW and CALL_KW call instructions, and PRECALL_METHOD prefix for pairing with LOAD_METHOD.

bpo-46039 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46039]: Remove the YIELD_FROM instruction and replace it with the SEND instruction which performs the same operation, but without the loop.

bpo-45635 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45635]: The code called from _PyErr_Display() was refactored to improve error handling. It now exits immediately upon an unrecoverable error.

bpo-46054 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46054]: Fix parser error when parsing non-utf8 characters in source files. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-46042 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46042]: Improve the location of the caret in SyntaxError exceptions emitted by the symbol table. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-46049 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46049]: Ensure ._pth files work as intended on platforms other than Windows.

bpo-46048 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46048]: Fixes parsing of ._pth files on startup so that single-character paths are correctly read.

bpo-37971 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37971]: Fix a bug where the line numbers given in a traceback when a decorator application raised an exception were wrong.

bpo-46031 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46031]: Add POP_JUMP_IF_NOT_NONE and POP_JUMP_IF_NONE opcodes to speed up conditional jumps.

bpo-45654 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45654]: Deepfreeze runpy, patch by Kumar Aditya.

bpo-46025 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46025]: Fix a crash in the atexit module involving functions that unregister themselves before raising exceptions. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

Library

bpo-46000 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46000]: Improve compatibility of the curses module with NetBSD curses.

Core and Builtins

bpo-44525 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44525]: Specialize the CALL_FUNCTION instruction for calls to builtin types with a single argument. Speeds up range(x), list(x), and specifically type(obj).

bpo-42918 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42918]: Fix bug where the built-in compile() function did not always raise a SyntaxError when passed multiple statements in 'single' mode. Patch by Weipeng Hong.

bpo-45953 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45953]: The main interpreter in _PyRuntimeState.interpreters is now statically allocated (as part of _PyRuntime). Likewise for the initial thread state of each interpreter. This means less allocation during runtime init, as well as better memory locality for these key state objects.

bpo-45292 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45292]: Complete the PEP 654 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0654/] implementation: add except*.

bpo-43413 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43413]: Revert changes in set.__init__. Subclass of set needs to define a __init__() method if it defines a __new__() method with additional keyword parameters.

bpo-43931 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43931]: Added the Py_Version constant which bears the same value as PY_VERSION_HEX. Patch by Gabriele N. Tornetta.

Library

bpo-46342 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46342]: The @typing.final decorator now sets the __final__ attribute on the decorated object to allow runtime introspection. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

bpo-46328 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46328]: Added the sys.exception() method which returns the active exception instance.

bpo-46307 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46307]: Add string.Template.is_valid() and string.Template.get_identifiers() methods.

bpo-46306 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46306]: Assume that types.CodeType always has types.CodeType.co_firstlineno in doctest.

bpo-40479 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40479]: Fix hashlib usedforsecurity option to work correctly with OpenSSL 3.0.0 in FIPS mode.

bpo-46070 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46070]: Fix possible segfault when importing the asyncio module from different sub-interpreters in parallel. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-46244 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46244]: Removed __slots__ from typing.ParamSpec and typing.TypeVar. They served no purpose. Patch by Arie Bovenberg.

bpo-46278 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46278]: Reflect context argument in AbstractEventLoop.call_*() methods. Loop implementations already support it.

bpo-46269 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46269]: Remove special-casing of __new__ in enum.Enum.__dir__().

bpo-46266 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46266]: Improve day constants in calendar.

Now all constants (MONDAY ... SUNDAY) are documented, tested, and added to __all__.

bpo-46257 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46257]: Optimized the mean, variance, and stdev functions in the statistics module. If the input is an iterator, it is consumed in a single pass rather than eating memory by conversion to a list. The single pass algorithm is about twice as fast as the previous two pass code.

bpo-41011 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41011]: Added two new variables to pyvenv.cfg which is generated by venv module: executable for the executable and command for the command line used to create the environment.

bpo-46239 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46239]: Improve error message when importing asyncio.windows_events on non-Windows.

bpo-46238 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46238]: Reuse _winapi constants in asyncio.windows_events.

bpo-46222 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46222]: Adding SF_NOCACHE sendfile constant for FreeBSD for the posixmodule.

bpo-37295 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37295]: Add fast path for 0 <= k <= n <= 67 for math.comb().

bpo-46176 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46176]: Adding the MAP_STACK constant for the mmap module.

bpo-43424 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43424]: Deprecate webbrowser.MacOSXOSAScript._name and use name instead.

bpo-45321 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45321]: Added missing error codes to module xml.parsers.expat.errors.

bpo-46125 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46125]: Refactor tests to test traversable API directly. Includes changes from importlib 5.4.0.

bpo-46118 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46118]: Moved importlib.resources and its related functionality to a package.

bpo-37578 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37578]: Add include_hidden parameter to glob() and iglob() to match hidden files and directories when using special characters like *, **, ? and [].

bpo-20369 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20369]: concurrent.futures.wait() no longer blocks forever when given duplicate Futures. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

bpo-46105 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46105]: Honor spec when generating requirement specs with urls and extras (importlib_metadata 4.8.3).

bpo-44893 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44893]: EntryPoint objects are no longer tuples. Recommended means to access is by attribute ('.name', '.group') or accessor ('.load()'). Access by index is deprecated and will raise deprecation warning.

bpo-22815 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22815]: Print unexpected successes together with failures and errors in summary in unittest.TextTestResult.

bpo-22047 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22047]: Calling add_argument_group() on an argument group is deprecated. Calling add_argument_group() or add_mutually_exclusive_group() on a mutually exclusive group is deprecated.

These features were never supported and do not always work correctly. The functions exist on the API by accident through inheritance and will be removed in the future.

bpo-26952 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26952]: argparse raises ValueError with clear message when trying to render usage for an empty mutually exclusive group. Previously it raised a cryptic IndexError.

bpo-45615 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45615]: Functions in the traceback module raise TypeError rather than AttributeError when an exception argument is not of type BaseException.

bpo-16594 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16594]: Add allow allow_reuse_port flag in socketserver.

bpo-27718 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27718]: Fix help for the signal module. Some functions (e.g. signal() and getsignal()) were omitted.

bpo-46032 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46032]: The registry() method of functools.singledispatch() functions checks now the first argument or the first parameter annotation and raises a TypeError if it is not supported. Previously unsupported "types" were ignored (e.g. typing.List[int]) or caused an error at calling time (e.g. list[int]).

bpo-46014 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46014]: Add ability to use typing.Union and types.UnionType as dispatch argument to functools.singledispatch. Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

bpo-27062 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27062]: Add __all__ to inspect, patch by Kumar Aditya.

bpo-46018 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46018]: Ensure that math.expm1() does not raise on underflow.

bpo-46016 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46016]: Adding F_DUP2FD and F_DUP2FD_CLOEXEC constants from FreeBSD into the fcntl module.

bpo-45755 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45755]: typing generic aliases now reveal the class attributes of the original generic class when passed to dir(). This was the behavior up to Python 3.6, but was changed in 3.7-3.9.

bpo-45874 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45874]: The empty query string, consisting of no query arguments, is now handled correctly in urllib.parse.parse_qsl. This caused problems before when strict parsing was enabled.

bpo-44674 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44674]: Change how dataclasses disallows mutable default values. It used to use a list of known types (list, dict, set). Now it disallows unhashable objects to be defaults. It's using unhashability as a proxy for mutability. Patch by Eric V. Smith, idea by Raymond Hettinger.

bpo-23882 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23882]: Remove namespace package (PEP 420) support from unittest discovery. It was introduced in Python 3.4 but has been broken since Python 3.7.

bpo-25066 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25066]: Added a __repr__() method to multiprocessing.Event objects, patch by Kumar Aditya.

bpo-45643 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45643]: Added signal.SIGSTKFLT on platforms where this signal is defined.

bpo-44092 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44092]: Fetch across rollback no longer raises InterfaceError. Instead we leave it to the SQLite library to handle these cases. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-42413 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42413]: Replace concurrent.futures.TimeoutError and asyncio.TimeoutError with builtin TimeoutError, keep these names as deprecated aliases.

Documentation

bpo-46196 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46196]: Document method cmd.Cmd.columnize().

bpo-46120 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46120]: State that | is preferred for readability over Union in the typing docs.

bpo-46109 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46109]: Extracted importlib.resources and importlib.resources.abc documentation into separate files.

bpo-19737 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19737]: Update the documentation for the globals() function.

Tests

bpo-46296 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46296]: Add a test case for enum with _use_args_ == True and _member_type_ == object.

bpo-46205 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46205]: Fix hang in runtest_mp due to race condition

bpo-46263 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46263]: Fix test_capi on FreeBSD 14-dev: instruct jemalloc to not fill freed memory with junk byte.

bpo-46262 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46262]: Cover ValueError path in tests for enum.Flag._missing_().

bpo-46150 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46150]: Now fakename in test_pathlib.PosixPathTest.test_expanduser is checked to be non-existent.

bpo-46129 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46129]: Rewrite asyncio.locks tests with unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase usage.

bpo-23819 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23819]: Fixed asyncio tests in python optimized mode. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

bpo-46114 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46114]: Fix test case for OpenSSL 3.0.1 version. OpenSSL 3.0 uses 0xMNN00PP0L.

Build

bpo-44133 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44133]: When Python is configured with --without-static-libpython, the Python static library (libpython.a) is no longer built. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-44133 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44133]: When Python is built without --enable-shared, the python program is now linked to object files, rather than being linked to the Python static library (libpython.a), to make sure that all symbols are exported. Previously, the linker omitted some symbols like the Py_FrozenMain() function. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-40280 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280]: The configure script has a new option --with-emscripten-target to select browser or node as Emscripten build target.

bpo-46315 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46315]: Added and fixed #ifdef HAVE_FEATURE checks for functionality that is not available on WASI platform.

bpo-45723 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45723]: Fixed a regression in configure check for select.epoll().

bpo-46263 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46263]: configure no longer sets MULTIARCH on FreeBSD platforms.

bpo-46106 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46106]: Updated OpenSSL to 1.1.1m in Windows builds, macOS installer builds, and CI. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

bpo-46088 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46088]: Automatically detect or install bootstrap Python runtime when building from Visual Studio.

bpo-46072 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46072]: Add a --with-pystats configure option to turn on internal statistics gathering.

bpo-40280 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280]: A new directory Tools/wasm contains WebAssembly-related helpers like config.site override for wasm32-emscripten, wasm assets generator to bundle the stdlib, and a README.

bpo-46023 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46023]: makesetup no longer builds extensions that have been marked as disabled. This allows users to disable modules in Modules/Setup.local.

bpo-45949 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45949]: Use pure Python freeze_module for all but importlib bootstrap files. --with-freeze-module configure option is no longer needed for cross builds.

Windows

bpo-46217 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46217]: Removed parameter that is unsupported on Windows 8.1 and early Windows 10 and may have caused build or runtime failures.

macOS

bpo-40477 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40477]: The Python Launcher app for macOS now properly launches scripts and, if necessary, the Terminal app when running on recent macOS releases.

C API

bpo-46236 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46236]: Fix a bug in PyFunction_GetAnnotations() that caused it to return a tuple instead of a dict.

bpo-46140 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46140]: PyBuffer_GetPointer(), PyBuffer_FromContiguous(), PyBuffer_ToContiguous() and PyMemoryView_FromBuffer() now take buffer info by const Py_buffer * instead of Py_buffer *, as they do not need mutability. PyBuffer_FromContiguous() also now takes the source buffer as const void *, and similarly PyBuffer_GetPointer() takes the strides as const Py_ssize_t *.

bpo-45855 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45855]: Document that the no_block argument to PyCapsule_Import() is a no-op now.

bpo-45855 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45855]: Replaced deprecated usage of PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock() with PyImport_ImportModule() in stdlib modules. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

bpo-46007 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46007]: The PyUnicode_CHECK_INTERNED() macro has been excluded from the limited C API. It was never usable there, because it used internal structures which are not available in the limited C API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

Python 3.11.0 alpha 3

Release date: 2021-12-08

Core and Builtins

bpo-46009 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46009]: Restore behavior from 3.9 and earlier when sending non-None to newly started generator. In 3.9 this did not affect the state of the generator. In 3.10.0 and 3.10.1 gen_func().send(0) is equivalent to gen_func().throw(TypeError(...) which exhausts the generator. In 3.10.2 onward, the behavior has been reverted to that of 3.9.

bpo-46004 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46004]: Fix the SyntaxError location for errors involving for loops with invalid targets. Patch by Pablo Galindo

bpo-45711 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711]: _PyErr_ChainStackItem() no longer normalizes exc_info (including setting the traceback on the exception instance) because exc_info is always normalized.

bpo-45607 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45607]: The __note__ field was added to BaseException. It is None by default but can be set to a string which is added to the exception's traceback.

bpo-45947 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45947]: Place pointers to dict and values immediately before GC header. This reduces number of dependent memory loads to access either dict or values from 3 to 1.

bpo-45915 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45915]: is_valid_fd now uses faster fcntl(fd, F_GETFD) on Linux, macOS, and Windows.

bpo-44530 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44530]: Reverts a change to the code.__new__ audit event from an earlier prerelease.

bpo-42268 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42268]: Fail the configure step if the selected compiler doesn't support memory sanitizer. Patch by Pablo Galindo

bpo-45711 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711]: The three values of exc_info are now always consistent with each other. In particular, the type and traceback fields are now derived from the exception instance. This impacts the return values of sys.exc_info() and PyErr_GetExcInfo() if the exception instance is modified while the exception is handled, as well as PyErr_SetExcInfo(), which now ignores the type and traceback arguments provided to it.

bpo-45727 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45727]: Refine the custom syntax error that suggests that a comma may be missing to trigger only when the expressions are detected between parentheses or brackets. Patch by Pablo Galindo

bpo-45885 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45885]: Specialized the COMPARE_OP opcode using the PEP 659 machinery.

bpo-45786 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45786]: Allocate space for the interpreter frame in the frame object, to avoid an additional allocation when the frame object outlives the frame activation.

Library

bpo-45614 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45614]: Fix traceback display for exceptions with invalid module name.

Core and Builtins

bpo-45813 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45813]: Fix crash when calling coro.cr_frame.clear() after coroutine has been freed.

bpo-45811 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45811]: Improve the tokenizer errors when encountering invisible control characters in the parser. Patch by Pablo Galindo

bpo-45848 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45848]: Allow the parser to obtain error lines directly from encoded files. Patch by Pablo Galindo

bpo-45709 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45709]: Restore behavior from 3.10 when tracing an exception raised within a with statement.

bpo-44525 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44525]: Adds new COPY_FREE_VARS opcode, to make copying of free variables from function to frame explicit. Helps optimization of calls to Python function.

bpo-45829 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45829]: Specialize BINARY_SUBSCR for classes with a __getitem__ method implemented in Python

bpo-45826 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45826]: Fixed a crash when calling .with_traceback(None) on NameError. This occurs internally in unittest.TestCase.assertRaises().

bpo-45822 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45822]: Fixed a bug in the parser that was causing it to not respect PEP 263 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/] coding cookies when no flags are provided. Patch by Pablo Galindo

bpo-45820 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45820]: Fix a segfault when the parser fails without reading any input. Patch by Pablo Galindo

bpo-45636 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45636]: Simplify the implementation of BINARY_OP by indexing into an array of function pointers (rather than switching on the oparg).

bpo-42540 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42540]: Fix crash when os.fork() is called with an active non-default memory allocator.

bpo-45738 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45738]: Fix computation of error location for invalid continuation characters in the parser. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-45636 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45636]: Remove an existing "fast path" for old-style string formatting, since it no longer appears to have any measurable impact.

bpo-45753 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45753]: Make recursion checks a bit more efficient by tracking amount of calls left before overflow.

bpo-45773 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45773]: Fix a compiler hang when attempting to optimize certain jump patterns.

bpo-45764 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45764]: The parser now gives a better error message when leaving out the opening parenthesis ( after a def-statement:

>>> def f:
  File "<stdin>", line 1
    def f:
         ^
SyntaxError: expected '('

bpo-45609 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45609]: Specialized the STORE_SUBSCR opcode using the PEP 659 machinery.

bpo-45636 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45636]: Replace all numeric BINARY_* and INPLACE_* instructions with a single BINARY_OP implementation.

bpo-45582 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45582]: Path calculation (known as getpath) has been reimplemented as a frozen Python module. This should have no visible impact, but may affect calculation of all paths referenced in sys and sysconfig.

bpo-45450 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45450]: Improve the syntax error message for parenthesized arguments. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

Library

bpo-27946 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27946]: Fix possible crash when getting an attribute of xml.etree.ElementTree.Element simultaneously with replacing the attrib dict.

bpo-45711 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711]: Make asyncio normalize exceptions as soon as they are captured with PyErr_Fetch(), and before they are stored as an exc_info triplet. This brings asyncio in line with the rest of the codebase, where an exc_info triplet is always normalized.

bpo-23819 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23819]: Replaced asserts with exceptions in asyncio, patch by Kumar Aditya.

bpo-13236 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13236]: unittest.TextTestResult and unittest.TextTestRunner flush now the output stream more often.

bpo-45917 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45917]: Added math.exp2():, which returns 2 raised to the power of x.

bpo-37658 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37658]: Fix issue when on certain conditions asyncio.wait_for() may allow a coroutine to complete successfully, but fail to return the result, potentially causing memory leaks or other issues.

bpo-45876 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45876]: Improve the accuracy of stdev() and pstdev() in the statistics module. When the inputs are floats or fractions, the output is a correctly rounded float

bpo-44649 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44649]: Handle dataclass(slots=True) with a field that has default a default value, but for which init=False.

bpo-45803 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45803]: Added missing kw_only parameter to dataclasses.make_dataclass().

bpo-45837 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45837]: The turtle.RawTurtle.settiltangle() is deprecated since Python 3.1, it now emits a deprecation warning and will be removed in Python 3.13.

Use turtle.RawTurtle.tiltangle() instead.

turtle.RawTurtle.tiltangle() was earlier incorrectly marked as deprecated, its docstring has been corrected.

Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

bpo-45831 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45831]: faulthandler can now write ASCII-only strings (like filenames and function names) with a single write() syscall when dumping a traceback. It reduces the risk of getting an unreadable dump when two threads or two processes dump a traceback to the same file (like stderr) at the same time. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-45828 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45828]: sqlite C callbacks now use unraisable exceptions if callback tracebacks are enabled. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-41735 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41735]: Fix thread lock in zlib.Decompress.flush() method before PyObject_GetBuffer.

bpo-45235 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45235]: Reverted an argparse bugfix that caused regression in the handling of default arguments for subparsers. This prevented leaf level arguments from taking precedence over root level arguments.

bpo-45754 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45754]: Fix a regression in Python 3.11a1 and 3.11a2 where sqlite3 incorrectly would use SQLITE_LIMIT_LENGTH when checking SQL statement lengths. Now, SQLITE_LIMIT_SQL_LENGTH is used. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-45766 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45766]: Added proportional option to statistics.linear_regression().

bpo-45765 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45765]: In importlib.metadata, fix distribution discovery for an empty path.

bpo-45757 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45757]: Fix bug where dis produced an incorrect oparg when EXTENDED_ARG is followed by an opcode that does not use its argument.

bpo-45644 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45644]: In-place JSON file formatting using python3 -m json.tool infile infile now works correctly, previously it left the file empty. Patch by Chris Wesseling.

bpo-45703 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45703]: When a namespace package is imported before another module from the same namespace is created/installed in a different sys.path location while the program is running, calling the importlib.invalidate_caches() function will now also guarantee the new module is noticed.

bpo-45535 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45535]: Improve output of dir() with Enums.

bpo-45664 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45664]: Fix types.resolve_bases() and types.new_class() for types.GenericAlias instance as a base.

bpo-45663 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45663]: Fix dataclasses.is_dataclass() for dataclasses which are subclasses of types.GenericAlias.

bpo-45662 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45662]: Fix the repr of dataclasses.InitVar with a type alias to the built-in class, e.g. InitVar[list[int]].

bpo-43137 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43137]: Launch GNOME web browsers via gio tool instead of obsolete gvfs-open

bpo-45429 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45429]: On Windows, time.sleep() now uses a waitable timer which supports high-resolution timers. Patch by Donghee Na and Eryk Sun.

bpo-37295 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37295]: Optimize math.comb() and math.perm().

bpo-45514 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45514]: Deprecated legacy functions in importlib.resources.

bpo-45507 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45507]: Add tests for truncated/missing trailers in gzip.decompress implementation.

bpo-45359 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45359]: Implement PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/] for graphlib.TopologicalSorter.

bpo-44733 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44733]: Add max_tasks_per_child to concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor. This allows users to specify the maximum number of tasks a single process should execute before the process needs to be restarted.

bpo-28806 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28806]: Improve netrc library. netrc file no longer needs to contain all tokens. And if the login name is anonymous, security check is no longer need.

bpo-43498 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43498]: Avoid a possible "RuntimeError: dictionary changed size during iteration" when adjusting the process count of ProcessPoolExecutor.

bpo-42158 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42158]: Add MIME types for N-quads, N-triples, Notation3 and TriG to mimetypes.

bpo-30533 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30533]: Add inspect.getmembers_static() , it return all members without triggering dynamic lookup via the descriptor protocol. Patch by Weipeng Hong.

Documentation

bpo-42238 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42238]: make -C Doc suspicious will be removed soon in favor of make -C Doc check, mark it as deprecated.

bpo-45840 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45840]: Improve cross-references in the documentation for the data model.

bpo-45640 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45640]: Properly marked-up grammar tokens in the documentation are now clickable and take you to the definition of a given piece of grammar. Patch by Arthur Milchior.

bpo-45788 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45788]: Link doc for sys.prefix to sysconfig doc on installation paths.

bpo-45772 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45772]: socket.socket documentation is corrected to a class from a function.

bpo-45392 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45392]: Update the docstring of the type built-in to remove a redundant line and to mention keyword arguments for the constructor.

bpo-45250 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45250]: Update the documentation to note that CPython does not consistently require iterators to define __iter__.

bpo-25381 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25381]: In the extending chapter of the extending doc, update a paragraph about the global variables containing exception information.

bpo-43905 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43905]: Expanded astuple() and asdict() docs, warning about deepcopy being applied and providing a workaround.

Tests

bpo-45695 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45695]: Out-of-tree builds with a read-only source directory are now tested by CI.

bpo-19460 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19460]: Add new Test for Lib/email/mime/nonmultipart.py::MIMENonMultipart.

bpo-45835 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45835]: Fix race condition in test_queue tests with multiple "feeder" threads.

bpo-45783 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45783]: The test for the freeze tool now handles file moves and deletions.

bpo-45745 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45745]: Remove the --findleaks command line option of regrtest: use the --fail-env-changed option instead. Since Python 3.7, it was a deprecated alias to the --fail-env-changed option.

bpo-45701 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45701]: Add tests with tuple type with functools.lru_cache() to test_functools.

Build

bpo-44035 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44035]: CI now verifies that autoconf files have been regenerated with a current and unpatched autoconf package.

bpo-45950 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45950]: The build system now uses a _bootstrap_python interpreter for freezing and deepfreezing again. To speed up build process the build tools _bootstrap_python and _freeze_module are no longer build with LTO.

bpo-45881 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45881]: The configure script now accepts --with-build-python and --with-freeze-module options to make cross compiling easier.

bpo-40280 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280]: Emscripten platform now uses .wasm suffix by default.

bpo-40280 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280]: Disable unusable core extension modules on WASM/Emscripten targets.

bpo-40280 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280]: configure now checks for socket shutdown function. The check makes it possible to disable SYS_shutdown with ac_cv_func_shutdown=no in CONFIG_SITE.

bpo-40280 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280]: configure now checks for functions fork1, getegid, geteuid, getgid, getppid, getuid, opendir, pipe, system, wait, ttyname.

bpo-33393 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33393]: Update config.guess to 2021-06-03 and config.sub to 2021-08-14. Makefile now has an update-config target to make updating more convenient.

bpo-45866 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45866]: make regen-all now produces the same output when run from a directory other than the source tree: when building Python out of the source tree. pegen now strips directory of the "generated by pygen from <FILENAME>" header Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-40280 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280]: configure now accepts machine wasm32 or wasm64 and OS wasi or emscripten for cross building, e.g. wasm32-unknown-emscripten, wasm32-wasi, or wasm32-unknown-wasi.

bpo-41498 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41498]: Python now compiles on platforms without sigset_t. Several functions in signal are not available when sigset_t is missing.

Based on patch by Roman Yurchak for pyodide.

bpo-45881 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45881]: setup.py now uses CC from environment first to discover multiarch and cross compile paths.

bpo-45886 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45886]: The _freeze_module program path can now be overridden on the command line, e.g. make FREEZE_MODULE=../x86_64/Program/_freeze_module.

bpo-45873 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45873]: Get rid of the _bootstrap_python build step. The deepfreeze.py script is now run using $(PYTHON_FOR_REGEN) which can be Python 3.7 or newer (on Windows, 3.8 or newer).

bpo-45847 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45847]: Port builtin hashlib extensions to PY_STDLIB_MOD macro and addext().

bpo-45723 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45723]: Add autoconf helpers for saving and restoring environment variables:

SAVE_ENV: Save $CFLAGS, $LDFLAGS, $LIBS, and $CPPFLAGS.

RESTORE_ENV: Restore $CFLAGS, $LDFLAGS, $LIBS, and $CPPFLAGS.

WITH_SAVE_ENV([SCRIPT]): Run SCRIPT wrapped with SAVE_ENV and RESTORE_ENV.

Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-45573 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45573]: Mandatory core modules, that are required to bootstrap Python, are now in Modules/Setup.bootstrap.

bpo-45573 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45573]: configure now creates Modules/Setup.stdlib with conditionally enabled/disabled extension module lines. The file is not used, yet.

bpo-45573 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45573]: configure now uses a unified format to set state, compiler flags, and linker flags in Makefile. The new macro PY_STDLIB_MOD sets three variables that are consumed by Modules/Setup and setup.py.

bpo-45816 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45816]: Python now supports building with Visual Studio 2022 (MSVC v143, VS Version 17.0). Patch by Jeremiah Vivian.

bpo-45800 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45800]: Settings for pyexpat C extension are now detected by configure. The bundled expat library is built in Makefile.

bpo-45798 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45798]: Settings for decimal internal C extension are now detected by configure. The bundled libmpdec library is built in Makefile.

bpo-45723 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45723]: configure has a new option --with-pkg-config to disable or require pkg-config.

bpo-45774 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45774]: The build dependencies for sqlite3 are now detected by configure and pkg-config. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-45763 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45763]: The build dependencies for zlib, bz2, and lzma are now detected by configure.

bpo-45747 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45747]: gdbm and dbm build dependencies are now detected by configure.

bpo-45743 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45743]: On macOS, the build system no longer passes search_paths_first to the linker. The flag has been the default since Xcode 4 / macOS 10.6.

bpo-45723 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45723]: configure.ac is now compatible with autoconf 2.71. Deprecated checks STDC_HEADERS and AC_HEADER_TIME have been removed.

bpo-45723 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45723]: configure now prints a warning when pkg-config is missing.

bpo-45731 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45731]: configure --enable-loadable-sqlite-extensions is now handled by new PY_SQLITE_ENABLE_LOAD_EXTENSION macro instead of logic in setup.py.

bpo-45723 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45723]: configure.ac now uses custom helper macros and AC_CACHE_CHECK to simplify and speed up configure runs.

bpo-45696 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45696]: Skip the marshal step for frozen modules by generating C code that produces a set of ready-to-use code objects. This speeds up startup time by another 10% or more.

bpo-45561 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45561]: Run smelly.py tool from $(srcdir).

Windows

bpo-46105 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46105]: Fixed calculation of sys.path in a venv on Windows.

bpo-45901 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45901]: When installed through the Microsoft Store and set as the default app for *.py files, command line arguments will now be passed to Python when invoking a script without explicitly launching Python (that is, script.py args rather than python script.py args).

bpo-45616 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45616]: Fix Python Launcher's ability to distinguish between versions 3.1 and 3.10 when either one is explicitly requested. Previously, 3.1 would be used if 3.10 was requested but not installed, and 3.10 would be used if 3.1 was requested but 3.10 was installed.

bpo-45850 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45850]: Implement changes to build with deep-frozen modules on Windows. Note that we now require Python 3.10 as the "bootstrap" or "host" Python.

bpo-45732 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45732]: Updates bundled Tcl/Tk to 8.6.12.

bpo-45720 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45720]: Internal reference to shlwapi.dll was dropped to help improve startup time. This DLL will no longer be loaded at the start of every Python process.

macOS

bpo-45732 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45732]: Update python.org macOS installer to use Tcl/Tk 8.6.12.

C API

bpo-39026 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39026]: Fix Python.h to build C extensions with Xcode: remove a relative include from Include/cpython/pystate.h.

Python 3.11.0 alpha 2

Release date: 2021-11-05

Core and Builtins

bpo-45716 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45716]: Improve the SyntaxError message when using True, None or False as keywords in a function call. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-45688 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45688]: sys.stdlib_module_names now contains the macOS-specific module _scproxy.

bpo-45379 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45379]: Clarify ImportError message when we try to explicitly import a frozen module but frozen modules are disabled.

bpo-44525 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44525]: Specialize simple calls to Python functions (no starargs, keyword dict, or closure)

bpo-45530 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45530]: Cases of sorting using tuples as keys may now be significantly faster in some cases. Patch by Tim Peters.

The order of the result may differ from earlier releases if the tuple elements don't define a total ordering (see Comparaisons de valeurs for information on total ordering). It's generally true that the result of sorting simply isn't well-defined in the absence of a total ordering on list elements.

bpo-45526 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45526]: In obmalloc, set ADDRESS_BITS to not ignore any bits (ignored 16 before). That is safer in the case that the kernel gives user-space virtual addresses that span a range greater than 48 bits.

bpo-30570 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30570]: Fixed a crash in issubclass() from infinite recursion when searching pathological __bases__ tuples.

bpo-45521 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45521]: Fix a bug in the obmalloc radix tree code. On 64-bit machines, the bug causes the tree to hold 46-bits of virtual addresses, rather than the intended 48-bits.

bpo-45494 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45494]: Fix parser crash when reporting errors involving invalid continuation characters. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-45445 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45445]: Python now fails to initialize if it finds an invalid -X option in the command line. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-45340 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45340]: Object attributes are held in an array instead of a dictionary. An object's dictionary are created lazily, only when needed. Reduces the memory consumption of a typical Python object by about 30%. Patch by Mark Shannon.

bpo-45408 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45408]: Fix a crash in the parser when reporting tokenizer errors that occur at the same time unclosed parentheses are detected. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-29410 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29410]: Add SipHash13 for string hash algorithm and use it by default.

bpo-45385 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45385]: Fix reference leak from descr_check. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-45367 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45367]: Specialized the BINARY_MULTIPLY opcode to BINARY_MULTIPLY_INT and BINARY_MULTIPLY_FLOAT using the PEP 659 machinery.

bpo-21736 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21736]: Frozen stdlib modules now have __file__ to the .py file they would otherwise be loaded from, if possible. For packages, __path__ now has the correct entry instead of being an empty list, which allows unfrozen submodules to be imported. These are set only if the stdlib directory is known when the runtime is initialized. Note that the file at __file__ is not guaranteed to exist. None of this affects non-stdlib frozen modules nor, for now, frozen modules imported using PyImport_ImportFrozenModule(). Also, at the moment co_filename is not updated for the module.

bpo-45020 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45020]: For frozen stdlib modules, record the original module name as module.__spec__.loader_state.origname. If the value is different than module.__spec__.name then the module was defined as an alias in Tools/scripts/freeze_modules.py. If it is None then the module comes from a source file outside the stdlib.

bpo-45324 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45324]: In FrozenImporter.find_spec(), we now preserve the information needed in exec_module() to load the module. This change mostly impacts internal details, rather than changing the importer's behavior.

bpo-45292 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45292]: Implement PEP 654 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0654/]. Add ExceptionGroup and BaseExceptionGroup. Update traceback display code.

bpo-40116 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40116]: Change to the implementation of split dictionaries. Classes where the instances differ either in the exact set of attributes, or in the order in which those attributes are set, can still share keys. This should have no observable effect on users of Python or the C-API. Patch by Mark Shannon.

bpo-44050 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44050]: Extensions that indicate they use global state (by setting m_size to -1) can again be used in multiple interpreters. This reverts to behavior of Python 3.8.

bpo-44525 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44525]: Setup initial specialization infrastructure for the CALL_FUNCTION opcode. Implemented initial specializations for C function calls:

CALL_FUNCTION_BUILTIN_O for METH_O flag.

CALL_FUNCTION_BUILTIN_FAST for METH_FASTCALL flag without keywords.

CALL_FUNCTION_LEN for len(o).

CALL_FUNCTION_ISINSTANCE for isinstance(o, t).

bpo-44511 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44511]: Improve the generated bytecode for class and mapping patterns.

bpo-43706 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43706]: Speed up calls to enumerate() by using the PEP 590 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/] vectorcall calling convention. Patch by Donghee Na.

Library

bpo-45679 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45679]: Fix caching of multi-value typing.Literal. Literal[True, 2] is no longer equal to Literal[1, 2].

bpo-42064 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42064]: Convert sqlite3 to multi-phase initialisation (PEP 489). Patches by Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-45438 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45438]: Fix typing.Signature string representation for generic builtin types.

bpo-45613 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45613]: sqlite3 now sets sqlite3.threadsafety based on the default threading mode the underlying SQLite library has been compiled with. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-45574 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45574]: Fix warning about print_escape being unused.

bpo-45581 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45581]: sqlite3.connect() now correctly raises MemoryError if the underlying SQLite API signals memory error. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-45557 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45557]: pprint.pprint() now handles underscore_numbers correctly. Previously it was always setting it to False.

bpo-44019 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44019]: Add operator.call() to operator.__all__. Patch by Kreusada.

bpo-42174 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42174]: shutil.get_terminal_size() now falls back to sane values if the column or line count are 0.

bpo-35673 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35673]: Improve the introspectability of the __loader__ attribute for namespace packages. importlib.machinery.NamespaceLoader is now public, and implements the importlib.abc.InspectLoader interface. _NamespaceLoader is kept for backward compatibility.

bpo-45515 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45515]: Add references to zoneinfo in the datetime documentation, mostly replacing outdated references to dateutil.tz. Change by Paul Ganssle.

bpo-45475 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45475]: Reverted optimization of iterating gzip.GzipFile, bz2.BZ2File, and lzma.LZMAFile (see bpo-43787 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43787]) because it caused regression when user iterate them without having reference of them. Patch by Inada Naoki.

bpo-45489 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45489]: Update ForwardRef to support | operator. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-42222 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42222]: Removed deprecated support for float arguments in randrange().

bpo-45428 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45428]: Fix a regression in py_compile when reading filenames from standard input.

bpo-45467 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45467]: Fix incremental decoder and stream reader in the "raw-unicode-escape" codec. Previously they failed if the escape sequence was split.

bpo-45461 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45461]: Fix incremental decoder and stream reader in the "unicode-escape" codec. Previously they failed if the escape sequence was split.

bpo-45239 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45239]: Fixed email.utils.parsedate_tz() crashing with UnboundLocalError on certain invalid input instead of returning None. Patch by Ben Hoyt.

bpo-45417 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45417]: Fix quadratic behaviour in the enum module: Creation of enum classes with a lot of entries was quadratic.

bpo-45249 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45249]: Fix the behaviour of traceback.print_exc() when displaying the caret when the end_offset in the exception is set to 0. Patch by Pablo Galindo

bpo-45416 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45416]: Fix use of asyncio.Condition with explicit asyncio.Lock objects, which was a regression due to removal of explicit loop arguments. Patch by Joongi Kim.

bpo-20028 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20028]: Empty escapechar/quotechar is not allowed when initializing csv.Dialect. Patch by Vajrasky Kok and Donghee Na.

bpo-44904 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44904]: Fix bug in the doctest module that caused it to fail if a docstring included an example with a classmethod property. Patch by Alex Waygood.

bpo-45406 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45406]: Make inspect.getmodule() catch FileNotFoundError raised by inspect.getabsfile(), and return None to indicate that the module could not be determined.

bpo-45411 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45411]: Add extensions for files containing subtitles - .srt & .vtt - to the mimetypes.py module.

bpo-10716 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10716]: Migrated pydoc to HTML5 (without changing the look of it). Side effect is to update xmlrpc's ServerHTMLDoc which now uses the CSS too. cgitb now relies less on pydoc (as it can't use the CSS file).

bpo-27580 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27580]: Add support of null characters in csv.

bpo-45262 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45262]: Prevent use-after-free in asyncio. Make sure the cached running loop holder gets cleared on dealloc to prevent use-after-free in get_running_loop

bpo-45386 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45386]: Make xmlrpc.client more robust to C runtimes where the underlying C strftime function results in a ValueError when testing for year formatting options.

bpo-20028 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20028]: Improve error message of csv.Dialect when initializing. Patch by Vajrasky Kok and Donghee Na.

bpo-45343 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45343]: Update bundled pip to 21.2.4 and setuptools to 58.1.0

bpo-45328 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45328]: Fixed http.client.HTTPConnection to work properly in OSs that don't support the TCP_NODELAY socket option.

bpo-45243 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45243]: Add setlimit() and getlimit() to sqlite3.Connection for setting and getting SQLite limits by connection basis. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-45320 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45320]: Removed from the inspect module:

the getargspec function, deprecated since Python 3.0;

use inspect.signature() or inspect.getfullargspec() instead.

the formatargspec function, deprecated since Python 3.5; use the inspect.signature() function and Signature object directly.

the undocumented Signature.from_builtin and Signature.from_function functions, deprecated since Python 3.5; use the Signature.from_callable() method instead.

Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

bpo-45192 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45192]: Fix the tempfile._infer_return_type function so that the dir argument of the tempfile functions accepts an object implementing the os.PathLike protocol.

Patch by Kyungmin Lee.

bpo-45160 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45160]: When tracing a tkinter variable used by a ttk OptionMenu, callbacks are no longer made twice.

bpo-25625 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25625]: Added non parallel-safe chdir() context manager to change the current working directory and then restore it on exit. Simple wrapper around chdir().

bpo-24139 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24139]: Add support for SQLite extended result codes in sqlite3.Error. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-24444 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24444]: Fixed an error raised in argparse help display when help for an option is set to 1+ blank spaces or when choices arg is an empty container.

bpo-44547 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44547]: Implement Fraction.__int__, so that a fractions.Fraction instance f passes an isinstance(f, typing.SupportsInt) check.

bpo-40321 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40321]: Adds support for HTTP 308 redirects to urllib. See RFC 7538 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7538.html] for details. Patch by Jochem Schulenklopper.

bpo-41374 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41374]: Ensure that socket.TCP_* constants are exposed on Cygwin 3.1.6 and greater.

bpo-35970 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35970]: Add help flag to the base64 module's command line interface. Patch contributed by Robert Kuska.

Documentation

bpo-45726 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45726]: Improve documentation for functools.singledispatch() and functools.singledispatchmethod.

bpo-45680 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45680]: Amend the docs on GenericAlias objects to clarify that non-container classes can also implement __class_getitem__. Patch contributed by Alex Waygood.

bpo-45618 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45618]: Update Sphinx version used to build the documentation to 4.2.0. Patch by Maciej Olko.

bpo-45655 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45655]: Add a new "relevant PEPs" section to the top of the documentation for the typing module. Patch by Alex Waygood.

bpo-45604 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45604]: Add level argument to multiprocessing.log_to_stderr function docs.

bpo-45516 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45516]: Add protocol description to the importlib.abc.TraversableResources documentation.

bpo-45464 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45464]: Mention in the documentation of Built-in Exceptions that inheriting from multiple exception types in a single subclass is not recommended due to possible memory layout incompatibility.

bpo-45449 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45449]: Add note about PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/] in collections.abc.

bpo-45516 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45516]: Add protocol description to the importlib.abc.Traversable documentation.

bpo-20692 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20692]: Add Programming FAQ entry explaining that int literal attribute access requires either a space after or parentheses around the literal.

Tests

bpo-45678 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45678]: Add tests for scenarios in which functools.singledispatchmethod is stacked on top of a method that has already been wrapped by two other decorators. Patch by Alex Waygood.

bpo-45578 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45578]: Add tests for dis.distb()

bpo-45678 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45678]: Add tests to ensure that functools.singledispatchmethod correctly wraps the attributes of the target function.

bpo-45668 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45668]: PGO tests now pass when Python is built without test extension modules.

bpo-45577 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45577]: Add subtests for all pickle protocols in test_zoneinfo.

bpo-45566 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45566]: Fix test_frozen_pickle in test_dataclasses to check all pickle versions.

bpo-43592 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43592]: test.libregrtest now raises the soft resource limit for the maximum number of file descriptors when the default is too low for our test suite as was often the case on macOS.

bpo-39679 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39679]: Add more test cases for @functools.singledispatchmethod when combined with @classmethod or @staticmethod.

bpo-45410 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45410]: When libregrtest spawns a worker process, stderr is now written into stdout to keep messages order. Use a single pipe for stdout and stderr, rather than two pipes. Previously, messages were out of order which made analysis of buildbot logs harder Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-45402 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45402]: Fix test_tools.test_sundry() when Python is built out of tree: fix how the freeze_modules.py tool locates the _freeze_module program. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-45403 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45403]: Fix test_sys.test_stdlib_dir() when Python is built outside the source tree: compare normalized paths. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-45400 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45400]: Fix test_name_error_suggestions_do_not_trigger_for_too_many_locals() of test_exceptions if a directory name contains "a1" (like "Python-3.11.0a1"): use a stricter regular expression. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-10572 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10572]: Rename sqlite3 tests from test_sqlite to test_sqlite3, and relocate them to Lib/test/test_sqlite3. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

Build

bpo-43158 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43158]: setup.py now uses values from configure script to build the _uuid extension module. Configure now detects util-linux's libuuid, too.

bpo-45666 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45666]: Fix warning of swprintf and %s usage in _testembed.c

bpo-45548 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45548]: Modules/Setup and Modules/makesetup have been improved. The Setup file now contains working rules for all extensions. Outdated comments have been removed. Rules defined by makesetup track dependencies correctly.

bpo-45548 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45548]: The math and cmath implementation now require a C99 compatible libm and no longer ship with workarounds for missing acosh, asinh, atanh, expm1, and log1p functions.

bpo-45595 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45595]: setup.py and makesetup now track build dependencies on all Python header files and module specific header files.

bpo-45571 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45571]: Modules/Setup now use PY_CFLAGS_NODIST instead of PY_CFLAGS to compile shared modules.

bpo-45570 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45570]: pyexpat and _elementtree no longer define obsolete macros HAVE_EXPAT_CONFIG_H and USE_PYEXPAT_CAPI. XML_POOR_ENTROPY is now defined in expat_config.h.

bpo-43974 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43974]: setup.py no longer defines Py_BUILD_CORE_MODULE. Instead every module, that uses the internal API, defines the macro.

bpo-45548 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45548]: Fill in missing entries in Modules/Setup.

bpo-45532 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45532]: Update sys.version to use main as fallback information. Patch by Jeong YunWon.

bpo-45536 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45536]: The configure script now checks whether OpenSSL headers and libraries provide required APIs. Most common APIs are verified. The check detects outdated or missing OpenSSL. Failures do not stop configure.

bpo-45221 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45221]: Fixed regression in handling of LDFLAGS and CPPFLAGS options where argparse.parse_known_args() could interpret an option as one of the built-in command line argument, for example -h for help.

bpo-45440 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45440]: Building Python now requires a C99 <math.h> header file providing the following functions: copysign(), hypot(), isfinite(), isinf(), isnan(), round(). Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-45405 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45405]: Prevent internal configure error when running configure with recent versions of non-Apple clang. Patch by David Bohman.

bpo-45433 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45433]: Avoid linking libpython with libcrypt.

Windows

bpo-43652 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43652]: Update Tcl/Tk to 8.6.11, actually this time. The previous update incorrectly included 8.6.10.

bpo-45337 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45337]: venv now warns when the created environment may need to be accessed at a different path, due to redirections, links or junctions. It also now correctly installs or upgrades components when the alternate path is required.

bpo-43851 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43851]: Build SQLite SQLITE_OMIT_AUTOINIT on Windows. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

macOS

bpo-44828 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44828]: Avoid tkinter file dialog failure on macOS 12 Monterey when using the Tk 8.6.11 provided by python.org macOS installers. Patch by Marc Culler of the Tk project.

IDLE

bpo-45495 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45495]: Add context keywords 'case' and 'match' to completions list.

C API

bpo-29103 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29103]: PyType_FromSpec* now copies the class name from the spec to a buffer owned by the class, so the original can be safely deallocated. Patch by Petr Viktorin.

bpo-45522 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45522]: The internal freelists for frame, float, list, dict, async generators, and context objects can now be disabled.

bpo-35134 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134]: Exclude PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT() from the limited C API. It never worked since the PyWeakReference structure is opaque in the limited C API.

bpo-35081 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35081]: Move the interpreteridobject.h header file from Include/ to Include/internal/. It only provides private functions. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-35134 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134]: The non-limited API files cellobject.h, classobject.h, context.h, funcobject.h, genobject.h and longintrepr.h have been moved to the Include/cpython directory. Moreover, the eval.h header file was removed. These files must not be included directly, as they are already included in Python.h: Include Files. If they have been included directly, consider including Python.h instead. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-45474 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45474]: The following items are no longer available when Py_LIMITED_API is defined:

PyMarshal_WriteLongToFile()

PyMarshal_WriteObjectToFile()

PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromString()

PyMarshal_WriteObjectToString()

the Py_MARSHAL_VERSION macro

These are not part of the limited API.

Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-45434 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45434]: Remove the pystrhex.h header file. It only contains private functions. C extensions should only include the main <Python.h> header file. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-45440 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45440]: Remove the Py_FORCE_DOUBLE() macro. It was used by the Py_IS_INFINITY() macro. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-45434 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45434]: <Python.h> no longer includes the header files <stdlib.h>, <stdio.h>, <errno.h> and <string.h> when the Py_LIMITED_API macro is set to 0x030b0000 (Python 3.11) or higher. C extensions should explicitly include the header files after #include <Python.h>. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-41123 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41123]: Remove Py_UNICODE_COPY() and Py_UNICODE_FILL() macros, deprecated since Python 3.3. Use PyUnicode_CopyCharacters() or memcpy() (wchar_t* string), and PyUnicode_Fill() functions instead. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-45412 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45412]: Remove the following math macros using the errno variable:

Py_ADJUST_ERANGE1()

Py_ADJUST_ERANGE2()

Py_OVERFLOWED()

Py_SET_ERANGE_IF_OVERFLOW()

Py_SET_ERRNO_ON_MATH_ERROR()

Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-45395 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45395]: Custom frozen modules (the array set to PyImport_FrozenModules) are now treated as additions, rather than replacing all the default frozen modules. Frozen stdlib modules can still be disabled by setting the "code" field of the custom array entry to NULL.

bpo-43760 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43760]: Add new PyThreadState_EnterTracing(), and PyThreadState_LeaveTracing() functions to the limited C API to suspend and resume tracing and profiling. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-44220 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44220]: PyStructSequence_UnnamedField is added to the Stable ABI.

Python 3.11.0 alpha 1

Release date: 2021-10-05

Security

bpo-42278 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42278]: Replaced usage of tempfile.mktemp() with TemporaryDirectory to avoid a potential race condition.

bpo-44600 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44600]: Fix incorrect line numbers while tracing some failed patterns in match statements. Patch by Charles Burkland.

bpo-41180 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41180]: Add auditing events to the marshal module, and stop raising code.__init__ events for every unmarshalled code object. Directly instantiated code objects will continue to raise an event, and audit event handlers should inspect or collect the raw marshal data. This reduces a significant performance overhead when loading from .pyc files.

bpo-44394 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44394]: Update the vendored copy of libexpat to 2.4.1 (from 2.2.8) to get the fix for the CVE 2013-0340 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2013-0340] "Billion Laughs" vulnerability. This copy is most used on Windows and macOS.

bpo-43124 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43124]: Made the internal putcmd function in smtplib sanitize input for presence of \r and \n characters to avoid (unlikely) command injection.

bpo-44022 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44022]: http.client now avoids infinitely reading potential HTTP headers after a 100 Continue status response from the server.

Core and Builtins

bpo-43760 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43760]: The number of hardware branches per instruction dispatch is reduced from two to one by adding a special instruction for tracing. Patch by Mark Shannon.

bpo-45061 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45061]: Add a deallocator to the bool type to detect refcount bugs in C extensions which call Py_DECREF(Py_True) or Py_DECREF(Py_False) by mistake. Detect also refcount bugs when the empty tuple singleton or the Unicode empty string singleton is destroyed by mistake. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-24076 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24076]: sum() was further optimised for summing up single digit integers.

bpo-45190 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45190]: Update Unicode databases to Unicode 14.0.0.

bpo-45167 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45167]: Fix deepcopying of types.GenericAlias objects.

bpo-45155 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45155]: int.to_bytes() and int.from_bytes() now take a default value of "big" for the byteorder argument. int.to_bytes() also takes a default value of 1 for the length argument.

Library

bpo-44219 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44219]: Release the GIL while performing isatty system calls on arbitrary file descriptors. In particular, this affects os.isatty(), os.device_encoding() and io.TextIOWrapper. By extension, io.open() in text mode is also affected. This change solves a deadlock in os.isatty(). Patch by Vincent Michel in bpo-44219 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44219].

Core and Builtins

bpo-44959 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44959]: Added fallback to extension modules with '.sl' suffix on HP-UX

Library

bpo-45121 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45121]: Fix issue where Protocol.__init__ raises RecursionError when it's called directly or via super(). Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

Core and Builtins

bpo-44348 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44348]: The deallocator function of the BaseException type now uses the trashcan mechanism to prevent stack overflow. For example, when a RecursionError instance is raised, it can be linked to another RecursionError through the __context__ attribute or the __traceback__ attribute, and then a chain of exceptions is created. When the chain is destroyed, nested deallocator function calls can crash with a stack overflow if the chain is too long compared to the available stack memory. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-45123 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45123]: Fix PyAiter_Check to only check for the __anext__ presence (not for __aiter__). Rename PyAiter_Check to PyAIter_Check, PyObject_GetAiter -> PyObject_GetAIter.

bpo-1514420 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1514420]: Interpreter no longer attempts to open files with names in angle brackets (like "<string>" or "<stdin>") when formatting an exception.

bpo-41031 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41031]: Match C and Python code formatting of unprintable exceptions and exceptions in the __main__ module.

bpo-37330 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37330]: open(), io.open(), codecs.open() and fileinput.FileInput no longer accept 'U' ("universal newline") in the file mode. This flag was deprecated since Python 3.3. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-45083 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45083]: When the interpreter renders an exception, its name now has a complete qualname. Previously only the class name was concatenated to the module name, which sometimes resulted in an incorrect full name being displayed.

(This issue impacted only the C code exception rendering, the traceback module was using qualname already).

bpo-34561 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34561]: List sorting now uses the merge-ordering strategy from Munro and Wild's powersort(). Unlike the former strategy, this is provably near-optimal in the entropy of the distribution of run lengths. Most uses of list.sort() probably won't see a significant time difference, but may see significant improvements in cases where the former strategy was exceptionally poor. However, as these are all fast linear-time approximations to a problem that's inherently at best quadratic-time to solve truly optimally, it's also possible to contrive cases where the former strategy did better.

bpo-45056 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45056]: Compiler now removes trailing unused constants from co_consts.

bpo-45020 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45020]: Add a new command line option, "-X frozen_modules=[on|off]" to opt out of (or into) using optional frozen modules. This defaults to "on" (or "off" if it's running out of the source tree).

Library

bpo-45012 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45012]: In posix, release GIL during stat(), lstat(), and fstatat() syscalls made by os.DirEntry.stat(). Patch by Stanisław Skonieczny.

Core and Builtins

bpo-45018 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45018]: Fixed pickling of range iterators that iterated for over 2**32 times.

bpo-45000 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45000]: A SyntaxError is now raised when trying to delete __debug__. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-44963 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44963]: Implement send() and throw() methods for anext_awaitable objects. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

Library

bpo-44962 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44962]: Fix a race in WeakKeyDictionary, WeakValueDictionary and WeakSet when two threads attempt to commit the last pending removal. This fixes asyncio.create_task and fixes a data loss in asyncio.run where shutdown_asyncgens is not run

Core and Builtins

bpo-24234 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24234]: Implement the __bytes__() special method on the bytes type, so a bytes object b passes an isinstance(b, typing.SupportsBytes) check.

bpo-24234 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24234]: Implement the __complex__() special method on the complex type, so a complex number z passes an isinstance(z, typing.SupportsComplex) check.

bpo-44954 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44954]: Fixed a corner case bug where the result of float.fromhex('0x.8p-1074') was rounded the wrong way.

bpo-44947 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44947]: Refine the syntax error for trailing commas in import statements. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-44945 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44945]: Specialize the BINARY_ADD instruction using the PEP 659 machinery. Adds five new instructions:

BINARY_ADD_ADAPTIVE

BINARY_ADD_FLOAT

BINARY_ADD_INT

BINARY_ADD_UNICODE

BINARY_ADD_UNICODE_INPLACE_FAST

Library

bpo-44929 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44929]: Fix some edge cases of enum.Flag string representation in the REPL. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

Core and Builtins

bpo-44914 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44914]: Class version tags are no longer recycled.

This means that a version tag serves as a unique identifier for the state of a class. We rely on this for effective specialization of the LOAD_ATTR and other instructions.

bpo-44698 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44698]: Restore behaviour of complex exponentiation with integer-valued exponent of type float or complex.

bpo-44895 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44895]: A debug variable PYTHONDUMPREFSFILE is added for creating a dump file which is generated by --with-trace-refs. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-44900 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44900]: Add five superinstructions for PEP 659 quickening:

LOAD_FAST LOAD_FAST

STORE_FAST LOAD_FAST

LOAD_FAST LOAD_CONST

LOAD_CONST LOAD_FAST

STORE_FAST STORE_FAST

bpo-44889 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44889]: Initial implementation of adaptive specialization of LOAD_METHOD. The following specialized forms were added:

LOAD_METHOD_CACHED

LOAD_METHOD_MODULE

LOAD_METHOD_CLASS

bpo-44890 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44890]: Specialization stats are always collected in debug builds.

bpo-44885 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44885]: Correct the ast locations of f-strings with format specs and repeated expressions. Patch by Pablo Galindo

bpo-44878 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44878]: Remove the loop from the bytecode interpreter. All instructions end with a DISPATCH macro, so the loop is now redundant.

bpo-44878 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44878]: Remove switch statement for interpreter loop when using computed gotos. This makes sure that we only have one dispatch table in the interpreter.

bpo-44874 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44874]: Deprecate the old trashcan macros (Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN/Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END). They should be replaced by the new macros Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN and Py_TRASHCAN_END.

bpo-44872 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44872]: Use new trashcan macros (Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN/END) in frameobject.c instead of the old ones (Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN/END).

bpo-33930 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33930]: Fix segmentation fault with deep recursion when cleaning method objects. Patch by Augusto Goulart and Pablo Galindo.

bpo-25782 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25782]: Fix bug where PyErr_SetObject hangs when the current exception has a cycle in its context chain.

bpo-44856 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44856]: Fix reference leaks in the error paths of update_bases() and __build_class__. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-44826 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44826]: Initial implementation of adaptive specialization of STORE_ATTR

Three specialized forms of STORE_ATTR are added:

STORE_ATTR_SLOT

STORE_ATTR_SPLIT_KEYS

STORE_ATTR_WITH_HINT

bpo-44838 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44838]: Fixed a bug that was causing the parser to raise an incorrect custom SyntaxError for invalid 'if' expressions. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-44821 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44821]: Create instance dictionaries (__dict__) eagerly, to improve regularity of object layout and assist specialization.

bpo-44792 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44792]: Improve syntax errors for if expressions. Patch by Miguel Brito

bpo-34013 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34013]: Generalize the invalid legacy statement custom error message (like the one generated when "print" is called without parentheses) to include more generic expressions. Patch by Pablo Galindo

bpo-44732 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44732]: Rename types.Union to types.UnionType.

bpo-44725 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44725]: Expose specialization stats in python via _opcode.get_specialization_stats().

bpo-44717 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44717]: Improve AttributeError on circular imports of submodules.

bpo-44698 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44698]: Fix undefined behaviour in complex object exponentiation.

bpo-44653 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44653]: Support typing types in parameter substitution in the union type.

bpo-44676 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44676]: Add ability to serialise types.Union objects. Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

bpo-44633 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44633]: Parameter substitution of the union type with wrong types now raises TypeError instead of returning NotImplemented.

bpo-44661 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44661]: Update property_descr_set to use vectorcall if possible. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-44662 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44662]: Add __module__ to types.Union. This also fixes types.Union issues with typing.Annotated. Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

bpo-44655 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44655]: Include the name of the type in unset __slots__ attribute errors. Patch by Pablo Galindo

bpo-44655 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44655]: Don't include a missing attribute with the same name as the failing one when offering suggestions for missing attributes. Patch by Pablo Galindo

bpo-44646 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44646]: Fix the hash of the union type: it no longer depends on the order of arguments.

bpo-44636 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44636]: Collapse union of equal types. E.g. the result of int | int is now int. Fix comparison of the union type with non-hashable objects. E.g. int | str == {} no longer raises a TypeError.

Library

bpo-44611 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44611]: On Windows, os.urandom(): uses BCryptGenRandom API instead of CryptGenRandom API which is deprecated from Microsoft Windows API. Patch by Donghee Na.

Core and Builtins

bpo-44635 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44635]: Convert None to type(None) in the union type constructor.

bpo-26280 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26280]: Implement adaptive specialization for BINARY_SUBSCR

Three specialized forms of BINARY_SUBSCR are added:

BINARY_SUBSCR_LIST_INT

BINARY_SUBSCR_TUPLE_INT

BINARY_SUBSCR_DICT

bpo-44589 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44589]: Mapping patterns in match statements with two or more equal literal keys will now raise a SyntaxError at compile-time.

bpo-44606 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44606]: Fix __instancecheck__ and __subclasscheck__ for the union type.

bpo-42073 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42073]: The @classmethod decorator can now wrap other classmethod-like descriptors.

bpo-41972 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41972]: Tuned the string-searching algorithm of fastsearch.h to have a shorter inner loop for most cases.

bpo-44590 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44590]: All necessary data for executing a Python function (local variables, stack, etc) is now kept in a per-thread stack. Frame objects are lazily allocated on demand. This increases performance by about 7% on the standard benchmark suite. Introspection and debugging are unaffected as frame objects are always available when needed. Patch by Mark Shannon.

bpo-44584 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44584]: The threading debug (PYTHONTHREADDEBUG environment variable) is deprecated in Python 3.10 and will be removed in Python 3.12. This feature requires a debug build of Python. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-43895 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43895]: An obsolete internal cache of shared object file handles added in 1995 that attempted, but did not guarantee, that a .so would not be dlopen'ed twice to work around flaws in mid-1990s posix-ish operating systems has been removed from dynload_shlib.c.

Library

bpo-44490 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44490]: typing now searches for type parameters in types.Union objects. get_type_hints will also properly resolve annotations with nested types.Union objects. Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

Core and Builtins

bpo-43950 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43950]: Code objects can now provide the column information for instructions when available. This is levaraged during traceback printing to show the expressions responsible for errors.

Contributed by Pablo Galindo, Batuhan Taskaya and Ammar Askar as part of PEP 657 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0657/].

bpo-44562 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44562]: Remove uses of PyObject_GC_Del() in error path when initializing types.GenericAlias.

Library

bpo-41486 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41486]: Fix a memory consumption and copying performance regression in earlier 3.10 beta releases if someone used an output buffer larger than 4GiB with zlib.decompress on input data that expands that large.

Core and Builtins

bpo-43908 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43908]: Heap types with the Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE flag can now inherit the PEP 590 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/] vectorcall protocol. Previously, this was only possible for static types. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-44553 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44553]: Implement GC methods for types.Union to break reference cycles and prevent memory leaks.

bpo-44490 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44490]: Add __parameters__ attribute and __getitem__ operator to types.Union. Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

bpo-44523 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44523]: Remove the pass-through for hash() of weakref.proxy objects to prevent unintended consequences when the original referred object dies while the proxy is part of a hashable object. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-44483 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44483]: Fix a crash in types.Union objects when creating a union of an object with bad __module__ field.

bpo-44486 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44486]: Modules will always have a dictionary, even when created by types.ModuleType.__new__()

bpo-44472 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44472]: Fix ltrace functionality when exceptions are raised. Patch by Pablo Galindo

bpo-12022 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12022]: A TypeError is now raised instead of an AttributeError in with and async with statements for objects which do not support the context manager or asynchronous context manager protocols correspondingly.

bpo-44297 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44297]: Make sure that the line number is set when entering a comprehension scope. This ensures that backtraces including generator expressions show the correct line number.

bpo-44456 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44456]: Improve the syntax error when mixing positional and keyword patterns. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-44409 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44409]: Fix error location information for tokenizer errors raised on initialization of the tokenizer. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-44396 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44396]: Fix a possible crash in the tokenizer when raising syntax errors for unclosed strings. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-44376 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44376]: Exact integer exponentiation (like i**2 or pow(i, 2)) with a small exponent is much faster, due to reducing overhead in such cases.

bpo-44313 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44313]: Directly imported objects and modules (through import and from import statements) don't generate LOAD_METHOD/CALL_METHOD for directly accessed objects on their namespace. They now use the regular LOAD_ATTR/CALL_FUNCTION.

bpo-44338 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44338]: Implement adaptive specialization for LOAD_GLOBAL

Two specialized forms of LOAD_GLOBAL are added:

LOAD_GLOBAL_MODULE

LOAD_GLOBAL_BUILTIN

bpo-44368 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44368]: Improve syntax errors for invalid "as" targets. Patch by Pablo Galindo

bpo-44349 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44349]: Fix an edge case when displaying text from files with encoding in syntax errors. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-44337 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44337]: Initial implementation of adaptive specialization of LOAD_ATTR

Four specialized forms of LOAD_ATTR are added:

LOAD_ATTR_SLOT

LOAD_ATTR_SPLIT_KEYS

LOAD_ATTR_WITH_HINT

LOAD_ATTR_MODULE

bpo-44335 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44335]: Fix a regression when identifying incorrect characters in syntax errors. Patch by Pablo Galindo

bpo-43693 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43693]: Computation of the offsets of cell variables is done in the compiler instead of at runtime. This reduces the overhead of handling cell and free variables, especially in the case where a variable is both an argument and cell variable.

bpo-44317 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44317]: Improve tokenizer error with improved locations. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

Library

bpo-44304 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44304]: Fix a crash in the sqlite3 module that happened when the garbage collector clears sqlite.Statement objects. Patch by Pablo Galindo

Core and Builtins

bpo-44305 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44305]: Improve error message for try blocks without except or finally blocks. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-43413 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43413]: Constructors of subclasses of some builtin classes (e.g. tuple, list, frozenset) no longer accept arbitrary keyword arguments. [reverted in 3.11a4] Subclass of set can now define a __new__() method with additional keyword parameters without overriding also __init__().

bpo-43667 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43667]: Improve Unicode support in non-UTF locales on Oracle Solaris. This issue does not affect other Solaris systems.

bpo-43693 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43693]: A new opcode MAKE_CELL has been added that effectively moves some of the work done on function entry into the compiler and into the eval loop. In addition to creating the required cell objects, the new opcode converts relevant arguments (and other locals) to cell variables on function entry.

bpo-44232 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44232]: Fix a regression in type() when a metaclass raises an exception. The C function type_new() must properly report the exception when a metaclass constructor raises an exception and the winner class is not the metaclass. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-44201 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44201]: Avoid side effects of checking for specialized syntax errors in the REPL that was causing it to ask for extra tokens after a syntax error had been detected. Patch by Pablo Galindo

bpo-43693 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43693]: PyCodeObject gained co_fastlocalnames and co_fastlocalkinds as the authoritative source of fast locals info. Marshaled code objects have changed accordingly.

bpo-44184 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44184]: Fix a crash at Python exit when a deallocator function removes the last strong reference to a heap type. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-44187 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44187]: Implement quickening in the interpreter. This offers no advantages as yet, but is an enabler of future optimizations. See PEP 659 for full explanation.

bpo-44180 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44180]: The parser doesn't report generic syntax errors that happen in a position further away that the one it reached in the first pass. Patch by Pablo Galindo

bpo-44168 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44168]: Fix error message in the parser involving keyword arguments with invalid expressions. Patch by Pablo Galindo

bpo-44156 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44156]: String caches in compile.c are now subinterpreter compatible.

bpo-44143 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44143]: Fixed a crash in the parser that manifest when raising tokenizer errors when an existing exception was present. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-44032 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44032]: Move 'fast' locals and other variables from the frame object to a per-thread datastack.

bpo-44114 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44114]: Fix incorrect dictkeys_reversed and dictitems_reversed function signatures in C code, which broke webassembly builds.

bpo-44110 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44110]: Improve str.__getitem__() error message

bpo-26110 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26110]: Add CALL_METHOD_KW opcode to speed up method calls with keyword arguments. Idea originated from PyPy. A side effect is executing CALL_METHOD is now branchless in the evaluation loop.

bpo-28307 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28307]: Compiler now optimizes simple C-style formatting with literal format containing only format codes %s, %r and %a by converting them to f-string expressions.

bpo-43149 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43149]: Correct the syntax error message regarding multiple exception types to not refer to "exception groups". Patch by Pablo Galindo

bpo-43822 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43822]: The parser will prioritize tokenizer errors over custom syntax errors when raising exceptions. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-40222 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40222]: "Zero cost" exception handling.

Uses a lookup table to determine how to handle exceptions.

Removes SETUP_FINALLY and POP_TOP block instructions, eliminating the runtime overhead of try statements.

Reduces the size of the frame object by about 60%.

Patch by Mark Shannon

bpo-43918 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43918]: Document the signature and default argument in the docstring of the new anext builtin.

bpo-43833 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43833]: Emit a deprecation warning if the numeric literal is immediately followed by one of keywords: and, else, for, if, in, is, or. Raise a syntax error with more informative message if it is immediately followed by other keyword or identifier.

bpo-43879 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43879]: Add native_thread_id to PyThreadState. Patch by Gabriele N. Tornetta.

bpo-43693 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43693]: Compute cell offsets relative to locals in compiler. Allows the interpreter to treats locals and cells a single array, which is slightly more efficient. Also make the LOAD_CLOSURE opcode an alias for LOAD_FAST. Preserving LOAD_CLOSURE helps keep bytecode a bit more readable.

bpo-17792 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17792]: More accurate error messages for access of unbound locals or free vars.

bpo-28146 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28146]: Fix a confusing error message in str.format().

bpo-11105 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11105]: When compiling ast.AST objects with recursive references through compile(), the interpreter doesn't crash anymore instead it raises a RecursionError.

bpo-39091 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39091]: Fix crash when using passing a non-exception to a generator's throw() method. Patch by Noah Oxer

bpo-33346 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33346]: Asynchronous comprehensions are now allowed inside comprehensions in asynchronous functions. Outer comprehensions implicitly become asynchronous.

Library

bpo-45371 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45371]: Fix clang rpath issue in distutils. The UnixCCompiler now uses correct clang option to add a runtime library directory (rpath) to a shared library.

bpo-45329 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45329]: Fix freed memory access in pyexpat.xmlparser when building it with an installed expat library <= 2.2.0.

bpo-41710 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41710]: On Unix, if the sem_clockwait() function is available in the C library (glibc 2.30 and newer), the threading.Lock.acquire() method now uses the monotonic clock (time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC) for the timeout, rather than using the system clock (time.CLOCK_REALTIME), to not be affected by system clock changes. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-1596321 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1596321]: Fix the threading._shutdown() function when the threading module was imported first from a thread different than the main thread: no longer log an error at Python exit.

bpo-45274 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45274]: Fix a race condition in the Thread.join() method of the threading module. If the function is interrupted by a signal and the signal handler raises an exception, make sure that the thread remains in a consistent state to prevent a deadlock. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-21302 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21302]: In Unix operating systems, time.sleep() now uses the nanosleep() function, if clock_nanosleep() is not available but nanosleep() is available. nanosleep() allows to sleep with nanosecond precision.

bpo-21302 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21302]: On Windows, time.sleep() now uses a waitable timer which has a resolution of 100 nanoseconds (10⁻⁷ seconds). Previously, it had a resolution of 1 millisecond (10⁻³ seconds). Patch by Benjamin Szőke and Victor Stinner.

bpo-45238 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45238]: Fix unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase.debug(): it runs now asynchronous methods and callbacks.

bpo-36674 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36674]: unittest.TestCase.debug() raises now a unittest.SkipTest if the class or the test method are decorated with the skipping decorator.

bpo-45235 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45235]: Fix an issue where argparse would not preserve values in a provided namespace when using a subparser with defaults.

bpo-45183 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45183]: Have zipimport.zipimporter.find_spec() not raise an exception when the underlying zip file has been deleted and the internal cache has been reset via invalidate_cache().

bpo-45234 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45234]: Fixed a regression in copyfile(), copy(), copy2() raising FileNotFoundError when source is a directory, which should raise IsADirectoryError

bpo-45228 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45228]: Fix stack buffer overflow in parsing J1939 network address.

bpo-45225 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45225]: use map function instead of genexpr in capwords.

bpo-42135 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42135]: Fix typo: importlib.find_loader is really slated for removal in Python 3.12 not 3.10, like the others in PR 25169.

Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

bpo-20524 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20524]: Improves error messages on .format() operation for str, float, int, and complex. New format now shows the problematic pattern and the object type.

bpo-45168 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45168]: Change dis.dis() output to omit op arg values that cannot be resolved due to co_consts, co_names etc not being provided. Previously the oparg itself was repeated in the value field, which is not useful and can be confusing.

bpo-21302 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21302]: In Unix operating systems, time.sleep() now uses the clock_nanosleep() function, if available, which allows to sleep for an interval specified with nanosecond precision.

bpo-45173 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45173]: Remove from the configparser module: the SafeConfigParser class, the filename property of the ParsingError class, the readfp() method of the ConfigParser class, deprecated since Python 3.2.

Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

bpo-44987 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44987]: Pure ASCII strings are now normalized in constant time by unicodedata.normalize(). Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-35474 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35474]: Calling mimetypes.guess_all_extensions() with strict=False no longer affects the result of the following call with strict=True. Also, mutating the returned list no longer affects the global state.

bpo-45166 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45166]: typing.get_type_hints() now works with Final wrapped in ForwardRef.

bpo-45162 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45162]: Remove many old deprecated unittest features:

"fail*" and "assert*" aliases of TestCase methods.

Broken from start TestCase method assertDictContainsSubset().

Ignored <unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule> TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule() parameter use_load_tests.

Old alias _TextTestResult of TextTestResult.

bpo-38371 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38371]: Remove the deprecated split() method of _tkinter.TkappType. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-20499 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20499]: Improve the speed and accuracy of statistics.pvariance().

bpo-45132 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45132]: Remove __getitem__() methods of xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream, wsgiref.util.FileWrapper and fileinput.FileInput, deprecated since Python 3.9.

Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

bpo-45129 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45129]: Due to significant security concerns, the reuse_address parameter of asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint(), disabled in Python 3.9, is now entirely removed. This is because of the behavior of the socket option SO_REUSEADDR in UDP.

Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

bpo-45124 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45124]: The bdist_msi command, deprecated in Python 3.9, is now removed.

Use bdist_wheel (wheel packages) instead.

Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

bpo-30856 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30856]: unittest.TestResult methods addFailure(), addError(), addSkip() and addSubTest() are now called immediately after raising an exception in test or finishing a subtest. Previously they were called only after finishing the test clean up.

bpo-45034 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45034]: Changes how error is formatted for struct.pack with 'H' and 'h' modes and too large / small numbers. Now it shows the actual numeric limits, while previously it was showing arithmetic expressions.

bpo-25894 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25894]: unittest now always reports skipped and failed subtests separately: separate characters in default mode and separate lines in verbose mode. Also the test description is now output for errors in test method, class and module cleanups.

bpo-45081 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45081]: Fix issue when dataclasses that inherit from typing.Protocol subclasses have wrong __init__. Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

bpo-45085 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45085]: The binhex module, deprecated in Python 3.9, is now removed. The following binascii functions, deprecated in Python 3.9, are now also removed:

a2b_hqx(), b2a_hqx();

rlecode_hqx(), rledecode_hqx().

The binascii.crc_hqx() function remains available.

Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-40360 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40360]: The lib2to3 package is now deprecated and may not be able to parse Python 3.10 or newer. See the PEP 617 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/] (New PEG parser for CPython). Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-45075 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45075]: Rename traceback.StackSummary.format_frame() to traceback.StackSummary.format_frame_summary(). This method was added for 3.11 so it was not released yet.

Updated code and docs to better distinguish frame and FrameSummary.

bpo-31299 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31299]: Add option to completely drop frames from a traceback by returning None from a format_frame() override.

bpo-41620 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41620]: run() now always return a TestResult instance. Previously it returned None if the test class or method was decorated with a skipping decorator.

bpo-45021 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45021]: Fix a potential deadlock at shutdown of forked children when using concurrent.futures module

bpo-43913 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43913]: Fix bugs in cleaning up classes and modules in unittest:

Functions registered with addModuleCleanup() were not called unless the user defines tearDownModule() in their test module.

Functions registered with addClassCleanup() were not called if tearDownClass is set to None.

Buffering in TestResult did not work with functions registered with addClassCleanup() and addModuleCleanup().

Errors in functions registered with addClassCleanup() and addModuleCleanup() were not handled correctly in buffered and debug modes.

Errors in setUpModule() and functions registered with addModuleCleanup() were reported in wrong order.

And several lesser bugs.

bpo-45030 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45030]: Fix integer overflow in pickling and copying the range iterator.

bpo-45001 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45001]: Made email date parsing more robust against malformed input, namely a whitespace-only Date: header. Patch by Wouter Bolsterlee.

bpo-45010 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45010]: Remove support of special method __div__ in unittest.mock. It is not used in Python 3.

bpo-39218 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39218]: Improve accuracy of variance calculations by using x*x instead of x**2.

bpo-43613 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43613]: Improve the speed of gzip.compress() and gzip.decompress() by compressing and decompressing at once in memory instead of in a streamed fashion.

bpo-37596 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37596]: Ensure that set and frozenset objects are always marshalled reproducibly.

bpo-44019 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44019]: A new function operator.call has been added, such that operator.call(obj, *args, **kwargs) == obj(*args, **kwargs).

bpo-42255 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42255]: webbrowser.MacOSX is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.13. It is untested and undocumented and also not used by webbrowser itself. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-44955 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44955]: Method stopTestRun() is now always called in pair with method startTestRun() for TestResult objects implicitly created in run(). Previously it was not called for test methods and classes decorated with a skipping decorator.

bpo-39039 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39039]: tarfile.open raises ReadError when a zlib error occurs during file extraction.

bpo-44935 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44935]: subprocess on Solaris now also uses os.posix_spawn() for better performance.

bpo-44911 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44911]: IsolatedAsyncioTestCase will no longer throw an exception while cancelling leaked tasks. Patch by Bar Harel.

bpo-41322 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41322]: Added DeprecationWarning for tests and async tests that return a value!=None (as this may indicate an improperly written test, for example a test written as a generator function).

bpo-44524 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44524]: Make exception message more useful when subclass from typing special form alias. Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

bpo-38956 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38956]: argparse.BooleanOptionalAction's default value is no longer printed twice when used with argparse.ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter.

bpo-44860 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44860]: Fix the posix_user scheme in sysconfig to not depend on sys.platlibdir.

bpo-44859 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44859]: Improve error handling in sqlite3 and raise more accurate exceptions.

MemoryError is now raised instead of sqlite3.Warning when memory is not enough for encoding a statement to UTF-8 in Connection.__call__() and Cursor.execute().

UnicodEncodeError is now raised instead of sqlite3.Warning when the statement contains surrogate characters in Connection.__call__() and Cursor.execute().

TypeError is now raised instead of ValueError for non-string script argument in Cursor.executescript().

ValueError is now raised for script containing the null character instead of truncating it in Cursor.executescript().

Correctly handle exceptions raised when getting boolean value of the result of the progress handler.

Add many tests covering different corner cases.

bpo-44581 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44581]: Upgrade bundled pip to 21.2.3 and setuptools to 57.4.0

bpo-44849 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44849]: Fix the os.set_inheritable() function on FreeBSD 14 for file descriptor opened with the O_PATH flag: ignore the EBADF error on ioctl(), fallback on the fcntl() implementation. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-44605 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44605]: The @functools.total_ordering() decorator now works with metaclasses.

bpo-44524 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44524]: Fixed an issue wherein the __name__ and __qualname__ attributes of subscribed specialforms could be None.

bpo-44839 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44839]: MemoryError raised in user-defined functions will now produce a MemoryError in sqlite3. OverflowError will now be converted to DataError. Previously OperationalError was produced in these cases.

bpo-44822 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44822]: sqlite3 user-defined functions and aggregators returning strings with embedded NUL characters are no longer truncated. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-44801 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44801]: Ensure that the ParamSpec variable in Callable can only be substituted with a parameters expression (a list of types, an ellipsis, ParamSpec or Concatenate).

bpo-44806 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44806]: Non-protocol subclasses of typing.Protocol ignore now the __init__ method inherited from protocol base classes.

bpo-27275 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27275]: collections.OrderedDict.popitem() and collections.OrderedDict.pop() no longer call __getitem__ and __delitem__ methods of the OrderedDict subclasses.

bpo-44793 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44793]: Fix checking the number of arguments when subscribe a generic type with ParamSpec parameter.

bpo-44784 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44784]: In importlib.metadata tests, override warnings behavior under expected DeprecationWarnings (importlib_metadata 4.6.3).

bpo-44667 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44667]: The tokenize.tokenize() doesn't incorrectly generate a NEWLINE token if the source doesn't end with a new line character but the last line is a comment, as the function is already generating a NL token. Patch by Pablo Galindo

bpo-44771 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44771]: Added importlib.simple module implementing adapters from a low-level resources reader interface to a TraversableResources interface. Legacy API (path, contents, ...) is now supported entirely by the .files() API with a compatibility shim supplied for resource loaders without that functionality. Feature parity with importlib_resources 5.2.

bpo-44752 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44752]: rcompleter does not call getattr() on property objects to avoid the side-effect of evaluating the corresponding method.

bpo-44747 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44747]: Refactor usage of sys._getframe in typing module. Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

bpo-42378 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42378]: Fixes the issue with log file being overwritten when logging.FileHandler is used in atexit with filemode set to 'w'. Note this will cause the message in atexit not being logged if the log stream is already closed due to shutdown of logging.

bpo-44720 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44720]: weakref.proxy objects referencing non-iterators now raise TypeError rather than dereferencing the null tp_iternext slot and crashing.

bpo-44704 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44704]: The implementation of collections.abc.Set._hash() now matches that of frozenset.__hash__().

bpo-44666 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44666]: Fixed issue in compileall.compile_file() when sys.stdout is redirected. Patch by Stefan Hölzl.

bpo-44688 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44688]: sqlite3.Connection.create_collation() now accepts non-ASCII collation names. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-44690 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44690]: Adopt binacii.a2b_base64's strict mode in base64.b64decode.

bpo-42854 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42854]: Fixed a bug in the _ssl module that was throwing OverflowError when using _ssl._SSLSocket.write() and _ssl._SSLSocket.read() for a big value of the len parameter. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-44686 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44686]: Replace unittest.mock._importer with pkgutil.resolve_name.

bpo-44353 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44353]: Make NewType.__call__ faster by implementing it in C. Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

bpo-44682 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44682]: Change the pdb commands directive to disallow setting commands for an invalid breakpoint and to display an appropriate error.

bpo-44353 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44353]: Refactor typing.NewType from function into callable class. Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

bpo-44678 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44678]: Added a separate error message for discontinuous padding in binascii.a2b_base64 strict mode.

bpo-44524 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44524]: Add missing __name__ and __qualname__ attributes to typing module classes. Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

bpo-40897 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40897]: Give priority to using the current class constructor in inspect.signature(). Patch by Weipeng Hong.

bpo-44638 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44638]: Add a reference to the zipp project and hint as to how to use it.

bpo-44648 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44648]: Fixed wrong error being thrown by inspect.getsource() when examining a class in the interactive session. Instead of TypeError, it should be OSError with appropriate error message.

bpo-44608 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44608]: Fix memory leak in _tkinter._flatten() if it is called with a sequence or set, but not list or tuple.

bpo-44594 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44594]: Fix an edge case of ExitStack and AsyncExitStack exception chaining. They will now match with block behavior when __context__ is explicitly set to None when the exception is in flight.

bpo-42799 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42799]: In fnmatch, the cache size for compiled regex patterns (functools.lru_cache()) was bumped up from 256 to 32768, affecting functions: fnmatch.fnmatch(), fnmatch.fnmatchcase(), fnmatch.filter().

bpo-41928 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41928]: Update shutil.copyfile() to raise FileNotFoundError instead of confusing IsADirectoryError when a path ending with a os.path.sep does not exist; shutil.copy() and shutil.copy2() are also affected.

bpo-44569 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44569]: Added the StackSummary.format_frame() function in traceback. This allows users to customize the way individual lines are formatted in tracebacks without re-implementing logic to handle recursive tracebacks.

bpo-44566 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44566]: handle StopIteration subclass raised from @contextlib.contextmanager generator

bpo-44558 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44558]: Make the implementation consistency of indexOf() between C and Python versions. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-41249 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41249]: Fixes TypedDict to work with typing.get_type_hints() and postponed evaluation of annotations across modules.

bpo-44554 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44554]: Refactor argument processing in pdb.main() to simplify detection of errors in input loading and clarify behavior around module or script invocation.

bpo-34798 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34798]: Break up paragraph about pprint.PrettyPrinter construction parameters to make it easier to read.

bpo-44539 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44539]: Added support for recognizing JPEG files without JFIF or Exif markers.

bpo-44461 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44461]: Fix bug with pdb's handling of import error due to a package which does not have a __main__ module

bpo-43625 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43625]: Fix a bug in the detection of CSV file headers by csv.Sniffer.has_header() and improve documentation of same.

bpo-44516 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44516]: Update vendored pip to 21.1.3

bpo-42892 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42892]: Fixed an exception thrown while parsing a malformed multipart email by email.message.EmailMessage.

bpo-44468 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44468]: typing.get_type_hints() now finds annotations in classes and base classes with unexpected __module__. Previously, it skipped those MRO elements.

bpo-44491 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44491]: Allow clearing the sqlite3 authorizer callback by passing None to set_authorizer(). Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-43977 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43977]: Set the proper Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING and Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE flags for subclasses created before a parent has been registered as a collections.abc.Mapping or collections.abc.Sequence.

bpo-44482 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44482]: Fix very unlikely resource leak in glob in alternate Python implementations.

bpo-44466 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44466]: The faulthandler module now detects if a fatal error occurs during a garbage collector collection. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-44471 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44471]: A TypeError is now raised instead of an AttributeError in contextlib.ExitStack.enter_context() and contextlib.AsyncExitStack.enter_async_context() for objects which do not support the context manager or asynchronous context manager protocols correspondingly.

bpo-44404 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44404]: tkinter's after() method now supports callables without the __name__ attribute.

bpo-41546 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41546]: Make pprint (like the builtin print) not attempt to write to stdout when it is None.

bpo-44458 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44458]: BUFFER_BLOCK_SIZE is now declared static, to avoid linking collisions when bz2, lmza or zlib are statically linked.

bpo-44464 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44464]: Remove exception for flake8 in deprecated importlib.metadata interfaces. Sync with importlib_metadata 4.6.

bpo-44446 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44446]: Take into account that lineno might be None in traceback.FrameSummary.

bpo-44439 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44439]: Fix in bz2.BZ2File.write() / lzma.LZMAFile.write() methods, when the input data is an object that supports the buffer protocol, the file length may be wrong.

bpo-44434 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44434]: _thread.start_new_thread() no longer calls PyThread_exit_thread() explicitly at the thread exit, the call was redundant. On Linux with the glibc, pthread_exit() aborts the whole process if dlopen() fails to open libgcc_s.so file (ex: EMFILE error). Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-42972 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42972]: The _thread.RLock type now fully implement the GC protocol: add a traverse function and the Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC flag. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-44422 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44422]: The threading.enumerate() function now uses a reentrant lock to prevent a hang on reentrant call. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-38291 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38291]: Importing typing.io or typing.re now prints a DeprecationWarning.

bpo-37880 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37880]: argparse actions store_const and append_const each receive a default value of None when the const kwarg is not provided. Previously, this raised a TypeError.

bpo-44389 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44389]: Fix deprecation of ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1_3

bpo-27827 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27827]: pathlib.PureWindowsPath.is_reserved() now identifies a greater range of reserved filenames, including those with trailing spaces or colons.

bpo-44395 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44395]: Fix as_string() to pass unixfrom properly. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-34266 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34266]: Handle exceptions from parsing the arg of pdb's run/restart command.

bpo-44362 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44362]: Improve ssl module's deprecation messages, error reporting, and documentation for deprecations.

bpo-44342 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44342]: [Enum] Change pickling from by-value to by-name.

bpo-44356 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44356]: [Enum] Allow multiple data-type mixins if they are all the same.

bpo-44351 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44351]: Restore back parse_makefile() in distutils.sysconfig because it behaves differently than the similar implementation in sysconfig.

bpo-35800 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35800]: smtpd.MailmanProxy is now removed as it is unusable without an external module, mailman. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-44357 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44357]: Added a function that returns cube root of the given number math.cbrt()

bpo-44339 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44339]: Change math.pow(±0.0, -math.inf) to return inf instead of raising ValueError. This brings the special-case handling of math.pow into compliance with the IEEE 754 standard.

bpo-44242 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44242]: Remove missing flag check from Enum creation and move into a verify decorator.

bpo-44246 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44246]: In importlib.metadata, restore compatibility in the result from Distribution.entry_points (EntryPoints) to honor expectations in older implementations and issuing deprecation warnings for these cases: A. EntryPoints objects are once again mutable, allowing for sort() and other list-based mutation operations. Avoid deprecation warnings by casting to a mutable sequence (e.g. list(dist.entry_points).sort()). B. EntryPoints results once again allow for access by index. To avoid deprecation warnings, cast the result to a Sequence first (e.g. tuple(dist.entry_points)[0]).

bpo-44246 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44246]: In importlib.metadata.entry_points, de-duplication of distributions no longer requires loading the full metadata for PathDistribution objects, improving entry point loading performance by ~10x.

bpo-43858 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43858]: Added a function that returns a copy of a dict of logging levels: logging.getLevelNamesMapping()

bpo-44260 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44260]: The random.Random constructor no longer reads system entropy without need.

bpo-44254 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44254]: On Mac, give turtledemo button text a color that works on both light or dark background. Programmers cannot control the latter.

bpo-44258 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44258]: Support PEP 515 for Fraction's initialization from string.

bpo-44235 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44235]: Remove deprecated functions in the gettext. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-38693 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38693]: Prefer f-strings to .format in importlib.resources.

bpo-33693 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33693]: Importlib.metadata now prefers f-strings to .format.

bpo-44241 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44241]: Incorporate minor tweaks from importlib_metadata 4.1: SimplePath protocol, support for Metadata 2.2.

bpo-43216 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43216]: Remove the @asyncio.coroutine decorator enabling legacy generator-based coroutines to be compatible with async/await code; remove asyncio.coroutines.CoroWrapper used for wrapping legacy coroutine objects in the debug mode. The decorator has been deprecated since Python 3.8 and the removal was initially scheduled for Python 3.10. Patch by Illia Volochii.

bpo-44210 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44210]: Make importlib.metadata._meta.PackageMetadata public.

bpo-43643 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43643]: Declare readers.MultiplexedPath.name as a property per the spec.

bpo-27334 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27334]: The sqlite3 context manager now performs a rollback (thus releasing the database lock) if commit failed. Patch by Luca Citi and Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-4928 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4928]: Documented existing behavior on POSIX: NamedTemporaryFiles are not deleted when creating process is killed with SIGKILL

bpo-44154 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44154]: Optimize fractions.Fraction pickling for large components.

bpo-33433 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33433]: For IPv4 mapped IPv6 addresses (RFC 4291 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4291.html] Section 2.5.5.2), the ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_private check is deferred to the mapped IPv4 address. This solves a bug where public mapped IPv4 addresses were considered private by the IPv6 check.

bpo-44150 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44150]: Add optional weights argument to statistics.fmean().

bpo-44142 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44142]: ast.unparse() will now drop the redundant parentheses when tuples used as assignment targets (e.g in for loops).

bpo-44145 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44145]: hmac computations were not releasing the GIL while calling the OpenSSL HMAC_Update C API (a new feature in 3.9). This unintentionally prevented parallel computation as other hashlib algorithms support.

bpo-44095 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44095]: zipfile.Path now supports zipfile.Path.stem, zipfile.Path.suffixes, and zipfile.Path.suffix attributes.

bpo-44077 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44077]: It's now possible to receive the type of service (ToS), a.k.a. differentiated services (DS), a.k.a. differentiated services code point (DSCP) and explicit congestion notification (ECN) IP header fields with socket.IP_RECVTOS.

bpo-37788 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37788]: Fix a reference leak when a Thread object is never joined.

bpo-38908 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38908]: Subclasses of typing.Protocol which only have data variables declared will now raise a TypeError when checked with isinstance unless they are decorated with runtime_checkable(). Previously, these checks passed silently. Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

bpo-44098 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44098]: typing.ParamSpec will no longer be found in the __parameters__ of most typing generics except in valid use locations specified by PEP 612 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/]. This prevents incorrect usage like typing.List[P][int]. This change means incorrect usage which may have passed silently in 3.10 beta 1 and earlier will now error.

bpo-44089 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44089]: Allow subclassing csv.Error in 3.10 (it was allowed in 3.9 and earlier but was disallowed in early versions of 3.10).

bpo-44081 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44081]: ast.unparse() now doesn't use redundant spaces to separate lambda and the : if there are no parameters.

bpo-44061 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44061]: Fix regression in previous release when calling pkgutil.iter_modules() with a list of pathlib.Path objects

bpo-44059 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44059]: Register the SerenityOS Browser in the webbrowser module.

bpo-36515 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36515]: The hashlib module no longer does unaligned memory accesses when compiled for ARM platforms.

bpo-40465 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40465]: Remove random module features deprecated in Python 3.9.

bpo-44018 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44018]: random.seed() no longer mutates bytearray inputs.

bpo-38352 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38352]: Add IO, BinaryIO, TextIO, Match, and Pattern to typing.__all__. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

bpo-44002 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44002]: urllib.parse now uses functool.lru_cache() for its internal URL splitting and quoting caches instead of rolling its own like its the '90s.

The undocumented internal urllib.parse Quoted class API is now deprecated, for removal in 3.14.

bpo-43972 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43972]: When http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler sends a 301 (Moved Permanently) for a directory path not ending with /, add a Content-Length: 0 header. This improves the behavior for certain clients.

bpo-28528 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28528]: Fix a bug in pdb where checkline() raises AttributeError if it is called after reset().

bpo-43853 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43853]: Improved string handling for sqlite3 user-defined functions and aggregates:

It is now possible to pass strings with embedded null characters to UDFs

Conversion failures now correctly raise MemoryError

Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-43666 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43666]: AIX: Lib/_aix_support.get_platform() may fail in an AIX WPAR. The fileset bos.rte appears to have a builddate in both LPAR and WPAR so this fileset is queried rather than bos.mp64. To prevent a similar situation (no builddate in ODM) a value (9988) sufficient for completing a build is provided. Patch by M Felt.

bpo-43650 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43650]: Fix MemoryError in shutil.unpack_archive() which fails inside shutil._unpack_zipfile() on large files. Patch by Igor Bolshakov.

bpo-43612 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43612]: zlib.compress() now accepts a wbits parameter which allows users to compress data as a raw deflate block without zlib headers and trailers in one go. Previously this required instantiating a zlib.compressobj. It also provides a faster alternative to gzip.compress when wbits=31 is used.

bpo-43392 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43392]: importlib._bootstrap._find_and_load() now implements a two-step check to avoid locking when modules have been already imported and are ready. This improves performance of repeated calls to importlib.import_module() and importlib.__import__().

bpo-43318 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43318]: Fix a bug where pdb does not always echo cleared breakpoints.

bpo-43234 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43234]: Prohibit passing non-concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor executors to loop.set_default_executor() following a deprecation in Python 3.8. Patch by Illia Volochii.

bpo-43232 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43232]: Prohibit previously deprecated potentially disruptive operations on asyncio.trsock.TransportSocket. Patch by Illia Volochii.

bpo-30077 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30077]: Added support for Apple's aifc/sowt pseudo-compression

bpo-42971 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42971]: Add definition of errno.EQFULL for platforms that define this constant (such as macOS).

bpo-43086 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43086]: Added a new optional strict_mode parameter to binascii.a2b_base64. When scrict_mode is set to True, the a2b_base64 function will accept only valid base64 content. More details about what "valid base64 content" is, can be found in the function's documentation.

bpo-43024 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43024]: Improve the help signature of traceback.print_exception(), traceback.format_exception() and traceback.format_exception_only().

bpo-33809 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33809]: Add the traceback.TracebackException.print() method which prints the formatted exception information.

bpo-42862 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42862]: sqlite3 now utilizes functools.lru_cache() to implement the connection statement cache. As a small optimisation, the default statement cache size has been increased from 100 to 128. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-41818 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41818]: Soumendra Ganguly: add termios.tcgetwinsize(), termios.tcsetwinsize().

bpo-40497 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40497]: subprocess.check_output() now raises ValueError when the invalid keyword argument check is passed by user code. Previously such use would fail later with a TypeError. Patch by Rémi Lapeyre.

bpo-37449 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37449]: ensurepip now uses importlib.resources.files() traversable APIs

bpo-40956 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40956]: Use Argument Clinic in sqlite3. Patches by Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-41730 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41730]: DeprecationWarning is now raised when importing tkinter.tix, which has been deprecated in documentation since Python 3.6.

bpo-20684 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20684]: Remove unused _signature_get_bound_param function from inspect - by Anthony Sottile.

bpo-41402 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41402]: Fix email.message.EmailMessage.set_content() when called with binary data and 7bit content transfer encoding.

bpo-32695 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32695]: The compresslevel and preset keyword arguments of tarfile.open() are now both documented and tested.

bpo-41137 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41137]: Use utf-8 encoding while reading .pdbrc files. Patch by Srinivas Reddy Thatiparthy

bpo-24391 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24391]: Improved reprs of threading synchronization objects: Semaphore, BoundedSemaphore, Event and Barrier.

bpo-5846 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5846]: Deprecated the following unittest functions, scheduled for removal in Python 3.13:

findTestCases()

makeSuite()

getTestCaseNames()

Use TestLoader methods instead:

unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule()

unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromTestCase()

unittest.TestLoader.getTestCaseNames()

Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-40563 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40563]: Support pathlike objects on dbm/shelve. Patch by Hakan Çelik and Henry-Joseph Audéoud.

bpo-34990 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34990]: Fixed a Y2k38 bug in the compileall module where it would fail to compile files with a modification time after the year 2038.

bpo-39549 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39549]: Whereas the code for reprlib.Repr had previously used a hardcoded string value of '...', this PR updates it to use of a “fillvalue” attribute, whose value defaults to '...' and can be reset in either individual reprlib.Repr instances or in subclasses thereof.

bpo-37022 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37022]: pdb now displays exceptions from repr() with its p and pp commands.

bpo-38840 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38840]: Fix test___all__ on platforms lacking a shared memory implementation.

bpo-39359 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39359]: Add one missing check that the password is a bytes object for an encrypted zipfile.

bpo-38741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38741]: configparser: using ']' inside a section header will no longer cut the section name short at the ']'

bpo-38415 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38415]: Added missing behavior to contextlib.asynccontextmanager() to match contextlib.contextmanager() so decorated functions can themselves be decorators.

bpo-30256 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30256]: Pass multiprocessing BaseProxy argument manager_owned through AutoProxy.

bpo-27513 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27513]: email.utils.getaddresses() now accepts email.header.Header objects along with string values. Patch by Zackery Spytz.

bpo-16379 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16379]: Add SQLite error code and name to sqlite3 exceptions. Patch by Aviv Palivoda, Daniel Shahaf, and Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-26228 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26228]: pty.spawn no longer hangs on FreeBSD, macOS, and Solaris.

bpo-33349 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33349]: lib2to3 now recognizes async generators everywhere.

bpo-29298 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29298]: Fix TypeError when required subparsers without dest do not receive arguments. Patch by Anthony Sottile.

Documentation

bpo-45216 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45216]: Remove extra documentation listing methods in difflib. It was rendering twice in pydoc and was outdated in some places.

bpo-45024 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45024]: collections.abc documentation has been expanded to explicitly cover how instance and subclass checks work, with additional doctest examples and an exhaustive list of ABCs which test membership purely by presence of the right special methods. Patch by Raymond Hettinger.

bpo-44957 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44957]: Promote PEP 604 union syntax by using it where possible. Also, mention X | Y more prominently in section about Union and mention X | None at all in section about Optional.

bpo-16580 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16580]: Added code equivalents for the int.to_bytes() and int.from_bytes() methods, as well as tests ensuring that these code equivalents are valid.

bpo-44903 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44903]: Removed the othergui.rst file, any references to it, and the list of GUI frameworks in the FAQ. In their place I've added links to the Python Wiki page on GUI frameworks [https://wiki.python.org/moin/GuiProgramming].

bpo-33479 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33479]: Tkinter documentation has been greatly expanded with new "Architecture" and "Threading model" sections.

bpo-36700 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36700]: base64 RFC references were updated to point to RFC 4648 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html]; a section was added to point users to the new "security considerations" section of the RFC.

bpo-44740 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44740]: Replaced occurrences of uppercase "Web" and "Internet" with lowercase versions per the 2016 revised Associated Press Style Book.

bpo-44693 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44693]: Update the definition of __future__ in the glossary by replacing the confusing word "pseudo-module" with a more accurate description.

bpo-35183 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35183]: Add typical examples to os.path.splitext docs

bpo-30511 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30511]: Clarify that shutil.make_archive() is not thread-safe due to reliance on changing the current working directory.

bpo-44561 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44561]: Update of three expired hyperlinks in Doc/distributing/index.rst: "Project structure", "Building and packaging the project", and "Uploading the project to the Python Packaging Index".

bpo-44651 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44651]: Delete entry "coercion" in Doc/glossary.rst for its outdated definition.

bpo-42958 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42958]: Updated the docstring and docs of filecmp.cmp() to be more accurate and less confusing especially in respect to shallow arg.

bpo-44631 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44631]: Refactored the repr() code of the _Environ (os module).

bpo-44613 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44613]: importlib.metadata is no longer provisional.

bpo-44558 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44558]: Match the docstring and python implementation of countOf() to the behavior of its c implementation.

bpo-44544 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44544]: List all kwargs for textwrap.wrap(), textwrap.fill(), and textwrap.shorten(). Now, there are nav links to attributes of TextWrap, which makes navigation much easier while minimizing duplication in the documentation.

bpo-38062 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38062]: Clarify that atexit uses equality comparisons internally.

bpo-40620 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40620]: Convert examples in tutorial controlflow.rst section 4.3 to be interpreter-demo style.

bpo-43066 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43066]: Added a warning to zipfile docs: filename arg with a leading slash may cause archive to be un-openable on Windows systems.

bpo-39452 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39452]: Rewrote Doc/library/__main__.rst. Broadened scope of the document to explicitly discuss and differentiate between __main__.py in packages versus the __name__ == '__main__' expression (and the idioms that surround it).

bpo-13814 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13814]: In the Design FAQ, answer "Why don't generators support the with statement?"

bpo-27752 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27752]: Documentation of csv.Dialect is more descriptive.

bpo-44453 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44453]: Fix documentation for the return type of sysconfig.get_path().

bpo-44392 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44392]: Added a new section in the C API documentation for types used in type hinting. Documented Py_GenericAlias and Py_GenericAliasType.

bpo-38291 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38291]: Mark typing.io and typing.re as deprecated since Python 3.8 in the documentation. They were never properly supported by type checkers.

bpo-44322 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44322]: Document that SyntaxError args have a details tuple and that details are adjusted for errors in f-string field replacement expressions.

bpo-42392 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42392]: Document the deprecation and removal of the loop parameter for many functions and classes in asyncio.

bpo-44195 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44195]: Corrected references to TraversableResources in docs. There is no TraversableReader.

bpo-41963 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41963]: Document that ConfigParser strips off comments when reading configuration files.

bpo-44072 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44072]: Correct where in the numeric ABC hierarchy ** support is added, i.e., in numbers.Complex, not numbers.Integral.

bpo-43558 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43558]: Add the remark to dataclasses documentation that the __init__() of any base class has to be called in __post_init__(), along with a code example.

bpo-44025 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44025]: Clarify when '_' in match statements is a keyword, and when not.

bpo-41706 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41706]: Fix docs about how methods like __add__ are invoked when evaluating operator expressions.

bpo-41621 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41621]: Document that collections.defaultdict parameter default_factory defaults to None and is positional-only.

bpo-41576 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41576]: document BaseException in favor of bare except

bpo-21760 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21760]: The description for __file__ fixed. Patch by Furkan Onder

bpo-39498 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39498]: Add a "Security Considerations" index which links to standard library modules that have explicitly documented security considerations.

bpo-33479 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33479]: Remove the unqualified claim that tkinter is threadsafe. It has not been true for several years and likely never was. An explanation of what is true may be added later, after more discussion, and possibly after patching _tkinter.c,

Tests

bpo-40173 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40173]: Fix test.support.import_helper.import_fresh_module().

bpo-45280 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45280]: Add a test case for empty typing.NamedTuple.

bpo-45269 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45269]: Cover case when invalid markers type is supplied to c_make_encoder.

bpo-45128 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45128]: Fix test_multiprocessing_fork failure due to test_logging and sys.modules manipulation.

bpo-45209 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45209]: Fix UserWarning: resource_tracker warning in _test_multiprocessing._TestSharedMemory.test_shared_memory_cleaned_after_process_termination

bpo-45185 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45185]: Enables TestEnumerations test cases in test_ssl suite.

bpo-45195 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45195]: Fix test_readline.test_nonascii(): sometimes, the newline character is not written at the end, so don't expect it in the output. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-45156 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45156]: Fixes infinite loop on unittest.mock.seal() of mocks created by create_autospec().

bpo-45125 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45125]: Improves pickling tests and docs of SharedMemory and SharableList objects.

bpo-44860 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44860]: Update test_sysconfig.test_user_similar() for the posix_user scheme: platlib doesn't use sys.platlibdir. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-45052 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45052]: WithProcessesTestSharedMemory.test_shared_memory_basics test was ignored, because self.assertEqual(sms.size, sms2.size) line was failing. It is now removed and test is unskipped.

The main motivation for this line to be removed from the test is that the size of SharedMemory is not ever guaranteed to be the same. It is decided by the platform.

bpo-44895 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44895]: libregrtest now clears the type cache later to reduce the risk of false alarm when checking for reference leaks. Previously, the type cache was cleared too early and libregrtest raised a false alarm about reference leaks under very specific conditions. Patch by Irit Katriel and Victor Stinner.

bpo-45042 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45042]: Fixes that test classes decorated with @hashlib_helper.requires_hashdigest were skipped all the time.

bpo-25130 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25130]: Add calls of gc.collect() in tests to support PyPy.

bpo-45011 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45011]: Made tests relying on the _asyncio C extension module optional to allow running on alternative Python implementations. Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

bpo-44949 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44949]: Fix auto history tests of test_readline: sometimes, the newline character is not written at the end, so don't expect it in the output.

bpo-44891 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44891]: Tests were added to clarify id() is preserved when obj * 1 is used on str and bytes objects. Patch by Nikita Sobolev.

bpo-44852 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44852]: Add ability to wholesale silence DeprecationWarnings while running the regression test suite.

bpo-40928 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40928]: Notify users running test_decimal regression tests on macOS of potential harmless "malloc can't allocate region" messages spewed by test_decimal.

bpo-44734 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44734]: Fixed floating-point precision issue in turtle tests.

bpo-44708 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44708]: Regression tests, when run with -w, are now re-running only the affected test methods instead of re-running the entire test file.

bpo-42095 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42095]: Added interop tests for Apple plists: generate plist files with Python plistlib and parse with Apple plutil; and the other way round.

bpo-44647 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44647]: Added a permanent Unicode-valued environment variable to regression tests to ensure they handle this use case in the future. If your test environment breaks because of that, report a bug to us, and temporarily set PYTHONREGRTEST_UNICODE_GUARD=0 in your test environment.

bpo-44515 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44515]: Adjust recently added contextlib tests to avoid assuming the use of a refcounted GC

bpo-44287 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44287]: Fix asyncio test_popen() of test_windows_utils by using a longer timeout. Use military grade battle-tested test.support.SHORT_TIMEOUT timeout rather than a hardcoded timeout of 10 seconds: it's 30 seconds by default, but it is made longer on slow buildbots. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-44451 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44451]: Reset DeprecationWarning filters in test.test_importlib.test_metadata_api.APITests.test_entry_points_by_index to avoid StopIteration error if DeprecationWarnings are ignored.

bpo-44363 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44363]: Account for address sanitizer in test_capi. test_capi now passes when run GCC address sanitizer.

bpo-44364 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44364]: Add non integral tests for math.sqrt() function.

bpo-43921 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43921]: Fix test_ssl.test_wrong_cert_tls13(): use suppress_ragged_eofs=False, since read() can raise ssl.SSLEOFError on Windows. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-43921 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43921]: Fix test_pha_required_nocert() of test_ssl: catch two more EOF cases (when the recv() method returns an empty string). Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-44131 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44131]: Add test_frozenmain to test_embed to test the Py_FrozenMain() C function. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-31904 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904]: Ignore error string case in test_file_not_exists().

bpo-42083 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42083]: Add test to check that PyStructSequence_NewType accepts a PyStructSequence_Desc with doc field set to NULL.

bpo-35753 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35753]: Fix crash in doctest when doctest parses modules that include unwrappable functions by skipping those functions.

bpo-30256 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30256]: Add test for nested queues when using multiprocessing shared objects AutoProxy[Queue] inside ListProxy and DictProxy

Build

bpo-45220 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45220]: Avoid building with the Windows 11 SDK previews automatically. This may be overridden by setting the DefaultWindowsSDKVersion environment variable before building.

bpo-45020 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45020]: Freeze stdlib modules that are imported during startup. This provides significant performance improvements to startup. If necessary, use the previously added "-X frozen_modules=off" commandline option to force importing the source modules.

bpo-45188 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45188]: Windows builds now regenerate frozen modules as the first part of the build. Previously the regeneration was later in the build, which would require it to be restarted if any modules had changed.

bpo-45163 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45163]: Fixes Haiku platform build.

bpo-45067 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45067]: The ncurses function extended_color_content was introduced in 2017

(https://invisible-island.net/ncurses/NEWS.html#index-t20170401). The

ncurses-devel package in CentOS 7 had a older version ncurses resulted in compilation error. For compiling ncurses with extended color support, we verify the version of the ncurses library >= 20170401.

bpo-45019 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45019]: Generate lines in relevant files for frozen modules. Up until now each of the files had to be edited manually. This change makes it easier to add to and modify the frozen modules.

bpo-44340 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44340]: Add support for building with clang thin lto via --with-lto=thin/full. Patch by Donghee Na and Brett Holman.

bpo-44535 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44535]: Enable building using a Visual Studio 2022 install on Windows.

bpo-43298 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43298]: Improved error message when building without a Windows SDK installed.

bpo-44381 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44381]: The Windows build now accepts EnableControlFlowGuard set to guard to enable CFG.

bpo-41282 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41282]: Fix broken make install that caused standard library extension modules to be unnecessarily and incorrectly rebuilt during the install phase of cpython.

Windows

bpo-45375 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45375]: Fixes an assertion failure due to searching for the standard library in unnormalised paths.

bpo-45022 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45022]: Update Windows release to include libffi 3.4.2

bpo-45007 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45007]: Update to OpenSSL 1.1.1l in Windows build

bpo-44848 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44848]: Upgrade Windows installer to use SQLite 3.36.0.

bpo-44572 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44572]: Avoid consuming standard input in the platform module

bpo-44582 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44582]: Accelerate speed of mimetypes initialization using a native implementation of the registry scan.

bpo-41299 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41299]: Fix 16 milliseconds jitter when using timeouts in threading, such as with threading.Lock.acquire() or threading.Condition.wait().

bpo-42686 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42686]: Build sqlite3 with math functions enabled. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-40263 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40263]: This is a follow-on bug from https://bugs.python.org/issue26903. Once that is applied we run into an off-by-one assertion problem. The assert was not correct.

macOS

bpo-45007 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45007]: Update macOS installer builds to use OpenSSL 1.1.1l.

bpo-34602 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34602]: When building CPython on macOS with ./configure --with-undefined-behavior-sanitizer --with-pydebug, the stack size is now quadrupled to allow for the entire test suite to pass.

bpo-44848 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44848]: Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.36.0.

bpo-44689 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44689]: ctypes.util.find_library() now works correctly on macOS 11 Big Sur even if Python is built on an older version of macOS. Previously, when built on older macOS systems, find_library was not able to find macOS system libraries when running on Big Sur due to changes in how system libraries are stored.

bpo-41972 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41972]: The framework build's user header path in sysconfig is changed to add a 'pythonX.Y' component to match distutils's behavior.

bpo-43109 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43109]: Allow --with-lto configure option to work with Apple-supplied Xcode or Command Line Tools.

bpo-34932 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34932]: Add socket.TCP_KEEPALIVE support for macOS. Patch by Shane Harvey.

IDLE

bpo-45296 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45296]: On Windows, change exit/quit message to suggest Ctrl-D, which works, instead of <Ctrl-Z Return>, which does not work in IDLE.

bpo-45193 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45193]: Make completion boxes appear on Ubuntu again.

bpo-40128 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40128]: Mostly fix completions on macOS when not using tcl/tk 8.6.11 (as with 3.9). The added update_idletask call should be harmless and possibly helpful otherwise.

bpo-33962 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33962]: Move the indent space setting from the Font tab to the new Windows tab. Patch by Mark Roseman and Terry Jan Reedy.

bpo-40468 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40468]: Split the settings dialog General tab into Windows and Shell/ED tabs. Move help sources, which extend the Help menu, to the Extensions tab. Make space for new options and shorten the dialog. The latter makes the dialog better fit small screens.

bpo-41611 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41611]: Avoid uncaught exceptions in AutoCompleteWindow.winconfig_event().

bpo-41611 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41611]: Fix IDLE sometimes freezing upon tab-completion on macOS.

bpo-44010 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44010]: Highlight the new match statement's soft keywords: match, case, and _. However, this highlighting is not perfect and will be incorrect in some rare cases, including some _-s in case patterns.

bpo-44026 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44026]: Include interpreter's typo fix suggestions in message line for NameErrors and AttributeErrors. Patch by E. Paine.

Tools/Demos

bpo-44786 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44786]: Fix a warning in regular expression in the c-analyzer script.

bpo-44967 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44967]: pydoc now returns a non-zero status code when a module cannot be found.

bpo-44978 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44978]: Allow the Argument Clinic tool to handle __complex__ special methods.

bpo-43425 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43425]: Removed the 'test2to3' demo project that demonstrated using lib2to3 to support Python 2.x and Python 3.x from a single source in a distutils package. Patch by Donghee Na

bpo-44074 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44074]: Make patchcheck automatically detect the correct base branch name (previously it was hardcoded to 'master')

bpo-20291 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20291]: Added support for variadic positional parameters in Argument Clinic.

C API

bpo-41710 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41710]: The PyThread_acquire_lock_timed() function now clamps the timeout if it is too large, rather than aborting the process. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-44687 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44687]: BufferedReader.peek() no longer raises ValueError when the entire file has already been buffered.

bpo-45116 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45116]: Add the Py_ALWAYS_INLINE macro to ask the compiler to always inline a static inline function. The compiler can ignore it and decides to not inline the function. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-45094 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45094]: Add the Py_NO_INLINE macro to disable inlining on a function. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-45061 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45061]: Add a deallocator to the bool type to detect refcount bugs in C extensions which call Py_DECREF(Py_True); or Py_DECREF(Py_False); by mistake. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-42035 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42035]: Add a new PyType_GetQualName() function to get type's qualified name.

bpo-41103 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41103]: Reverts removal of the old buffer protocol because they are part of stable ABI.

bpo-44751 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44751]: Remove crypt.h include from the public Python.h header.

bpo-42747 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42747]: The Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VERSION_TAG type flag now does nothing. The Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_AM_SEND flag (which was added in 3.10) is removed. Both were unnecessary because it is not possible to have type objects with the relevant fields missing.

bpo-44530 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44530]: Added the co_qualname to the PyCodeObject structure to propagate the qualified name from the compiler to code objects.

Patch by Gabriele N. Tornetta

bpo-44441 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44441]: Py_RunMain() now resets PyImport_Inittab to its initial value at exit. It must be possible to call PyImport_AppendInittab() or PyImport_ExtendInittab() at each Python initialization. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-39947 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947]: Remove 4 private trashcan C API functions which were only kept for the backward compatibility of the stable ABI with Python 3.8 and older, since the trashcan API was not usable with the limited C API on Python 3.8 and older. The trashcan API was excluded from the limited C API in Python 3.9.

Removed functions:

_PyTrash_deposit_object()

_PyTrash_destroy_chain()

_PyTrash_thread_deposit_object()

_PyTrash_thread_destroy_chain()

The trashcan C API was never usable with the limited C API, since old trashcan macros accessed directly PyThreadState members like _tstate->trash_delete_nesting, whereas the PyThreadState structure is opaque in the limited C API.

Exclude also the PyTrash_UNWIND_LEVEL constant from the C API.

Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-40939 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40939]: Removed documentation for the removed PyParser_* C API.

bpo-43795 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43795]: The list in Contenu de l’API restreinte now shows the public name PyFrameObject rather than _frame. The non-existing entry _node no longer appears in the list.

bpo-44378 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44378]: Py_IS_TYPE() no longer uses Py_TYPE() to avoid a compiler warning: no longer cast const PyObject* to PyObject*. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-39573 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573]: Convert the Py_TYPE() and Py_SIZE() macros to static inline functions. The Py_SET_TYPE() and Py_SET_SIZE() functions must now be used to set an object type and size. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-44263 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44263]: The PyType_Ready() function now raises an error if a type is defined with the Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC flag set but has no traverse function (PyTypeObject.tp_traverse). Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-43795 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43795]: The undocumented function Py_FrozenMain() is removed from the Limited API.

bpo-44113 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44113]: Deprecate the following functions to configure the Python initialization:

PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode()

PySys_AddWarnOption()

PySys_AddXOption()

PySys_HasWarnOptions()

Py_SetPath()

Py_SetProgramName()

Py_SetPythonHome()

Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding()

_Py_SetProgramFullPath()

Use the new PyConfig API of the Python Initialization Configuration instead (PEP 587 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/]).

bpo-44094 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44094]: Remove PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithUnicodeFilename(), PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithUnicodeFilename(), and PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithUnicodeFilename(). They are not documented and have been deprecated since Python 3.3.

bpo-43795 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43795]: PyCodec_Unregister() is now properly exported as a function in the Windows Stable ABI DLL.

bpo-44029 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44029]: Remove deprecated Py_UNICODE APIs: PyUnicode_Encode, PyUnicode_EncodeUTF7, PyUnicode_EncodeUTF8, PyUnicode_EncodeUTF16, PyUnicode_EncodeUTF32, PyUnicode_EncodeLatin1, PyUnicode_EncodeMBCS, PyUnicode_EncodeDecimal, PyUnicode_EncodeRawUnicodeEscape, PyUnicode_EncodeCharmap, PyUnicode_EncodeUnicodeEscape, PyUnicode_TransformDecimalToASCII, PyUnicode_TranslateCharmap, PyUnicodeEncodeError_Create, PyUnicodeTranslateError_Create. See PEP 393 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/] and PEP 624 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0624/] for reference.

bpo-42035 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42035]: Add a new PyType_GetName() function to get type's short name.

Python 3.10.0 beta 1

Release date: 2021-05-03

Security

bpo-43434 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43434]: Creating sqlite3.Connection objects now also produces sqlite3.connect and sqlite3.connect/handle auditing events. Previously these events were only produced by sqlite3.connect() calls. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-43998 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43998]: The ssl module sets more secure cipher suites defaults. Ciphers without forward secrecy and with SHA-1 MAC are disabled by default. Security level 2 prohibits weak RSA, DH, and ECC keys with less than 112 bits of security. SSLContext defaults to minimum protocol version TLS 1.2. Settings are based on Hynek Schlawack's research.

bpo-43882 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43882]: The presence of newline or tab characters in parts of a URL could allow some forms of attacks.

Following the controlling specification for URLs defined by WHATWG urllib.parse() now removes ASCII newlines and tabs from URLs, preventing such attacks.

bpo-43472 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43472]: Ensures interpreter-level audit hooks receive the cpython.PyInterpreterState_New event when called through the _xxsubinterpreters module.

bpo-43362 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43362]: Fix invalid free in _sha3 module. The issue was introduced in 3.10.0a1. Python 3.9 and earlier are not affected.

bpo-43762 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43762]: Add audit events for sqlite3.connect/handle(), sqlite3.Connection.enable_load_extension(), and sqlite3.Connection.load_extension(). Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-43756 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43756]: Add new audit event glob.glob/2 to incorporate the new root_dir and dir_fd arguments added to glob.glob() and glob.iglob().

bpo-36384 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36384]: ipaddress module no longer accepts any leading zeros in IPv4 address strings. Leading zeros are ambiguous and interpreted as octal notation by some libraries. For example the legacy function socket.inet_aton() treats leading zeros as octal notation. glibc implementation of modern inet_pton() does not accept any leading zeros. For a while the ipaddress module used to accept ambiguous leading zeros.

bpo-43075 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43075]: Fix Regular Expression Denial of Service (ReDoS) vulnerability in urllib.request.AbstractBasicAuthHandler. The ReDoS-vulnerable regex has quadratic worst-case complexity and it allows cause a denial of service when identifying crafted invalid RFCs. This ReDoS issue is on the client side and needs remote attackers to control the HTTP server.

bpo-42800 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42800]: Audit hooks are now fired for frame.f_code, traceback.tb_frame, and generator code/frame attribute access.

bpo-37363 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37363]: Add audit events to the http.client module.

Core and Builtins

bpo-43977 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43977]: Prevent classes being both a sequence and a mapping when pattern matching.

bpo-43977 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43977]: Use tp_flags on the class object to determine if the subject is a sequence or mapping when pattern matching. Avoids the need to import collections.abc when pattern matching.

bpo-43892 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43892]: Restore proper validation of complex literal value patterns when parsing match blocks.

bpo-43933 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43933]: Set frame.f_lineno to the line number of the 'with' kweyword when executing the call to __exit__.

bpo-43933 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43933]: If the current position in a frame has no line number then set the f_lineno attribute to None, instead of -1, to conform to PEP 626. This should not normally be possible, but might occur in some unusual circumstances.

bpo-43963 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43963]: Importing the _signal module in a subinterpreter has no longer side effects.

bpo-42739 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42739]: The internal representation of line number tables is changed to not use sentinels, and an explicit length parameter is added to the out of process API function PyLineTable_InitAddressRange. This makes the handling of line number tables more robust in some circumstances.

Library

bpo-43908 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43908]: Make re types immutable. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-43908 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43908]: Make the array.array type immutable. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

Core and Builtins

bpo-43901 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43901]: Change class and module objects to lazy-create empty annotations dicts on demand. The annotations dicts are stored in the object's __dict__ for backwards compatibility.

bpo-43892 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43892]: Match patterns now use new dedicated AST nodes (MatchValue, MatchSingleton, MatchSequence, MatchStar, MatchMapping, MatchClass) rather than reusing expression AST nodes. MatchAs and MatchOr are now defined as pattern nodes rather than as expression nodes. Patch by Nick Coghlan.

bpo-42725 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42725]: Usage of await/yield/yield from and named expressions within an annotation is now forbidden when PEP 563 is activated.

bpo-43754 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43754]: When performing structural pattern matching (PEP 634 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/]), captured names are now left unbound until the entire pattern has matched successfully.

bpo-42737 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42737]: Annotations for complex targets (everything beside simple names) no longer cause any runtime effects with from __future__ import annotations.

bpo-43914 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43914]: SyntaxError exceptions raised by the interpreter will highlight the full error range of the expression that constitutes the syntax error itself, instead of just where the problem is detected. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-38605 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38605]: Revert making from __future__ import annotations the default. This follows the Steering Council decision to postpone PEP 563 changes to at least Python 3.11. See the original email for more information regarding the decision: https://mail.python.org/archives/list/python-dev@python.org/thread/CLVXXPQ2T2LQ5MP2Y53VVQFCXYWQJHKZ/. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-43475 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43475]: Hashes of NaN values now depend on object identity. Formerly, they always hashed to 0 even though NaN values are not equal to one another. Having the same hash for unequal values caused pile-ups in hash tables.

bpo-43859 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43859]: Improve the error message for IndentationError exceptions. Patch by Pablo Galindo

bpo-41323 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41323]: Constant tuple folding in bytecode optimizer now reuses tuple in constant table.

bpo-43846 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43846]: Data stack usage is much reduced for large literal and call expressions.

bpo-38530 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38530]: When printing NameError raised by the interpreter, PyErr_Display() will offer suggestions of similar variable names in the function that the exception was raised from. Patch by Pablo Galindo

bpo-43823 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43823]: Improve syntax errors for invalid dictionary literals. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-43822 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43822]: Improve syntax errors in the parser for missing commas between expressions. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-43798 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43798]: ast.alias nodes now include source location metadata attributes e.g. lineno, col_offset.

bpo-43797 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43797]: Improve SyntaxError error messages for invalid comparisons. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-43760 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43760]: Move the flag for checking whether tracing is enabled to the C stack, from the heap. Should speed up dispatch in the interpreter.

bpo-43682 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43682]: Static methods (@staticmethod) and class methods (@classmethod) now inherit the method attributes (__module__, __name__, __qualname__, __doc__, __annotations__) and have a new __wrapped__ attribute. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-43751 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43751]: Fixed a bug where anext(ait, default) would erroneously return None.

bpo-42128 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42128]: __match_args__ is no longer allowed to be a list.

bpo-43683 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43683]: Add GEN_START opcode. Marks start of generator, including async, or coroutine and handles sending values to a newly created generator or coroutine.

Library

bpo-43105 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43105]: Importlib now resolves relative paths when creating module spec objects from file locations.

Core and Builtins

bpo-43682 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43682]: Static methods (@staticmethod) are now callable as regular functions. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-42609 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42609]: Prevented crashes in the AST validator and optimizer when compiling some absurdly long expressions like "+0"*1000000. RecursionError is now raised instead.

bpo-38530 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38530]: When printing AttributeError, PyErr_Display() will offer suggestions of similar attribute names in the object that the exception was raised from. Patch by Pablo Galindo

Library

bpo-44015 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44015]: In @dataclass(), raise a TypeError if KW_ONLY is specified more than once.

bpo-25478 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25478]: Added a total() method to collections.Counter() to compute the sum of the counts.

bpo-43733 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43733]: Change netrc.netrc to use UTF-8 encoding before using locale encoding.

bpo-43979 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43979]: Removed an unnecessary list comprehension before looping from urllib.parse.parse_qsl(). Patch by Christoph Zwerschke and Donghee Na.

bpo-43993 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43993]: Update bundled pip to 21.1.1.

bpo-43957 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43957]: [Enum] Deprecate TypeError when non-member is used in a containment check; In 3.12 True or False will be returned instead, and containment will return True if the value is either a member of that enum or one of its members' value.

bpo-42904 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42904]: For backwards compatibility with previous minor versions of Python, if typing.get_type_hints() receives no namespace dictionary arguments, typing.get_type_hints() will search through the global then local namespaces during evaluation of stringized type annotations (string forward references) inside a class.

bpo-43945 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43945]: [Enum] Deprecate non-standard mixin format() behavior: in 3.12 the enum member, not the member's value, will be used for format() calls.

bpo-41139 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41139]: Deprecate undocumented cgi.log() API.

bpo-43937 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43937]: Fixed the turtle module working with non-default root window.

bpo-43930 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43930]: Update bundled pip to 21.1 and setuptools to 56.0.0

bpo-43907 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43907]: Fix a bug in the pure-Python pickle implementation when using protocol 5, where bytearray instances that occur several time in the pickled object graph would incorrectly unpickle into repeated copies of the bytearray object.

bpo-43926 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43926]: In importlib.metadata, provide a uniform interface to Description, allow for any field to be encoded with multiline values, remove continuation lines from multiline values, and add a .json property for easy access to the PEP 566 JSON-compatible form. Sync with importlib_metadata 4.0.

bpo-43920 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43920]: OpenSSL 3.0.0: load_verify_locations() now returns a consistent error message when cadata contains no valid certificate.

bpo-43607 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43607]: urllib can now convert Windows paths with \\?\ prefixes into URL paths.

bpo-43817 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43817]: Add inspect.get_annotations(), which safely computes the annotations defined on an object. It works around the quirks of accessing the annotations from various types of objects, and makes very few assumptions about the object passed in. inspect.get_annotations() can also correctly un-stringize stringized annotations.

inspect.signature(), inspect.from_callable(), and inspect.from_function() now call inspect.get_annotations() to retrieve annotations. This means inspect.signature() and inspect.from_callable() can now un-stringize stringized annotations, too.

bpo-43284 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43284]: platform.win32_ver derives the windows version from sys.getwindowsversion().platform_version which in turn derives the version from kernel32.dll (which can be of a different version than Windows itself). Therefore change the platform.win32_ver to determine the version using the platform module's _syscmd_ver private function to return an accurate version.

bpo-42854 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42854]: The ssl module now uses SSL_read_ex and SSL_write_ex internally. The functions support reading and writing of data larger than 2 GB. Writing zero-length data no longer fails with a protocol violation error.

bpo-42333 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42333]: Port _ssl extension module to multiphase initialization.

bpo-43880 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43880]: ssl now raises DeprecationWarning for OP_NO_SSL/TLS* options, old TLS versions, old protocols, and other features that have been deprecated since Python 3.6, 3.7, or OpenSSL 1.1.0.

bpo-41559 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41559]: PEP 612 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/] is now implemented purely in Python; builtin types.GenericAlias objects no longer include typing.ParamSpec in __parameters__ (with the exception of collections.abc.Callable's GenericAlias). This means previously invalid uses of ParamSpec (such as list[P]) which worked in earlier versions of Python 3.10 alpha, will now raise TypeError during substitution.

bpo-43867 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43867]: The multiprocessing Server class now explicitly catches SystemExit and closes the client connection in this case. It happens when the Server.serve_client() method reaches the end of file (EOF).

bpo-40443 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40443]: Remove unused imports: pyclbr no longer uses copy, and typing no longer uses ast. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-43820 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43820]: Remove an unneeded copy of the namespace passed to dataclasses.make_dataclass().

bpo-43787 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43787]: Add __iter__() method to bz2.BZ2File, gzip.GzipFile, and lzma.LZMAFile. It makes iterating them about 2x faster. Patch by Inada Naoki.

bpo-43680 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43680]: Deprecate io.OpenWrapper and _pyio.OpenWrapper: use io.open and _pyio.open instead. Until Python 3.9, _pyio.open was not a static method and builtins.open was set to OpenWrapper to not become a bound method when set to a class variable. _io.open is a built-in function whereas _pyio.open is a Python function. In Python 3.10, _pyio.open() is now a static method, and builtins.open() is now io.open().

bpo-43680 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43680]: The Python _pyio.open() function becomes a static method to behave as io.open() built-in function: don't become a bound method when stored as a class variable. It becomes possible since static methods are now callable in Python 3.10. Moreover, _pyio.OpenWrapper() becomes a simple alias to _pyio.open(). Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-41515 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41515]: Fix KeyError raised in typing.get_type_hints() due to synthetic modules that don't appear in sys.modules.

bpo-43776 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43776]: When subprocess.Popen args are provided as a string or as pathlib.Path, the Popen instance repr now shows the right thing.

bpo-42248 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42248]: [Enum] ensure exceptions raised in _missing__ are released

bpo-43744 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43744]: fix issue with enum member name matching the start of a private variable name

bpo-43772 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43772]: Fixed the return value of TypeVar.__ror__. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

bpo-43764 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43764]: Add match_args parameter to @dataclass decorator to allow suppression of __match_args__ generation.

bpo-43799 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43799]: OpenSSL 3.0.0: define OPENSSL_API_COMPAT 1.1.1 to suppress deprecation warnings. Python requires OpenSSL 1.1.1 APIs.

bpo-43478 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43478]: Mocks can no longer be used as the specs for other Mocks. As a result, an already-mocked object cannot have an attribute mocked using autospec=True or be the subject of a create_autospec(...) call. This can uncover bugs in tests since these Mock-derived Mocks will always pass certain tests (e.g. isinstance()) and builtin assert functions (e.g. assert_called_once_with) will unconditionally pass.

bpo-43794 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43794]: Add ssl.OP_IGNORE_UNEXPECTED_EOF constants (OpenSSL 3.0.0)

bpo-43785 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43785]: Improve bz2.BZ2File performance by removing the RLock from BZ2File. This makes BZ2File thread unsafe in the face of multiple simultaneous readers or writers, just like its equivalent classes in gzip and lzma have always been. Patch by Inada Naoki.

bpo-43789 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43789]: OpenSSL 3.0.0: Don't call the password callback function a second time when first call has signaled an error condition.

bpo-43788 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43788]: The header files for ssl error codes are now OpenSSL version-specific. Exceptions will now show correct reason and library codes. The make_ssl_data.py script has been rewritten to use OpenSSL's text file with error codes.

bpo-43766 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43766]: Implement PEP 647 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0647/] in the typing module by adding TypeGuard.

bpo-25264 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25264]: os.path.realpath() now accepts a strict keyword-only argument. When set to True, OSError is raised if a path doesn't exist or a symlink loop is encountered.

bpo-43780 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43780]: In importlib.metadata, incorporate changes from importlib_metadata 3.10: Add mtime-based caching during distribution discovery. Flagged use of dict result from entry_points() as deprecated.

gh-47383 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/47383]: The P.args and P.kwargs attributes of typing.ParamSpec are now instances of the new classes typing.ParamSpecArgs and typing.ParamSpecKwargs, which enables a more useful repr(). Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

bpo-43731 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43731]: Add an encoding parameter logging.fileConfig().

bpo-43712 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43712]: Add encoding and errors parameters to fileinput.input() and fileinput.FileInput.

bpo-38659 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38659]: A simple_enum decorator is added to the enum module to convert a normal class into an Enum. test_simple_enum added to test simple enums against a corresponding normal Enum. Standard library modules updated to use simple_enum.

bpo-43764 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43764]: Fix an issue where __match_args__ generation could fail for some dataclasses.

bpo-43752 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43752]: Fix sqlite3 regression for zero-sized blobs with converters, where b"" was returned instead of None. The regression was introduced by PR 24723. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-43655 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43655]: tkinter dialog windows are now recognized as dialogs by window managers on macOS and X Window.

bpo-43723 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43723]: The following threading methods are now deprecated and should be replaced:

currentThread => threading.current_thread()

activeCount => threading.active_count()

Condition.notifyAll => threading.Condition.notify_all()

Event.isSet => threading.Event.is_set()

Thread.setName => threading.Thread.name

thread.getName => threading.Thread.name

Thread.isDaemon => threading.Thread.daemon

Thread.setDaemon => threading.Thread.daemon

Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

bpo-2135 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2135]: Deprecate find_module() and find_loader() implementations in importlib and zipimport.

bpo-43534 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43534]: turtle.textinput() and turtle.numinput() create now a transient window working on behalf of the canvas window.

bpo-43532 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43532]: Add the ability to specify keyword-only fields to dataclasses. These fields will become keyword-only arguments to the generated __init__.

bpo-43522 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43522]: Fix problem with hostname_checks_common_name. OpenSSL does not copy hostflags from struct SSL_CTX to struct SSL.

bpo-8978 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8978]: Improve error message for tarfile.open() when lzma / bz2 are unavailable. Patch by Anthony Sottile.

bpo-42967 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42967]: Allow bytes separator argument in urllib.parse.parse_qs and urllib.parse.parse_qsl when parsing str query strings. Previously, this raised a TypeError.

bpo-43296 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43296]: Improve sqlite3 error handling: sqlite3_value_blob() errors that set SQLITE_NOMEM now raise MemoryError. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-43312 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43312]: New functions sysconfig.get_preferred_scheme() and sysconfig.get_default_scheme() are added to query a platform for its preferred "user", "home", and "prefix" (default) scheme names.

bpo-43265 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43265]: Improve sqlite3.Connection.backup() error handling. The error message for non-existent target database names is now unknown database <database name> instead of SQL logic error. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-41282 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41282]: Install schemes in distutils.command.install are now loaded from sysconfig.

bpo-41282 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41282]: distutils.sysconfig has been merged to sysconfig.

bpo-43176 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43176]: Fixed processing of a dataclass that inherits from a frozen dataclass with no fields. It is now correctly detected as an error.

bpo-43080 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43080]: pprint now has support for dataclasses.dataclass. Patch by Lewis Gaul.

bpo-39950 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39950]: Add pathlib.Path.hardlink_to() method that supersedes link_to(). The new method has the same argument order as symlink_to().

bpo-42904 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42904]: typing.get_type_hints() now checks the local namespace of a class when evaluating PEP 563 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/] annotations inside said class.

bpo-42269 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42269]: Add slots parameter to dataclasses.dataclass decorator to automatically generate __slots__ for class. Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

bpo-39529 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39529]: Deprecated use of asyncio.get_event_loop() without running event loop. Emit deprecation warning for asyncio functions which implicitly create a Future or Task objects if there is no running event loop and no explicit loop argument is passed: ensure_future(), wrap_future(), gather(), shield(), as_completed() and constructors of Future, Task, StreamReader, StreamReaderProtocol.

bpo-18369 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18369]: Certificate and PrivateKey classes were added to the ssl module. Certificates and keys can now be loaded from memory buffer, too.

bpo-41486 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41486]: Use a new output buffer management code for bz2 / lzma / zlib modules, and add .readall() function to _compression.DecompressReader class. These bring some performance improvements. Patch by Ma Lin.

bpo-31870 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31870]: The ssl.get_server_certificate() function now has a timeout parameter.

bpo-41735 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41735]: Fix thread locks in zlib module may go wrong in rare case. Patch by Ma Lin.

bpo-36470 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36470]: Fix dataclasses with InitVars and replace(). Patch by Claudiu Popa.

bpo-40849 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40849]: Expose X509_V_FLAG_PARTIAL_CHAIN ssl flag

bpo-35114 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35114]: ssl.RAND_status() now returns a boolean value (as documented) instead of 1 or 0.

bpo-39906 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39906]: pathlib.Path.stat() and chmod() now accept a follow_symlinks keyword-only argument for consistency with corresponding functions in the os module.

bpo-39899 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39899]: os.path.expanduser() now refuses to guess Windows home directories if the basename of current user's home directory does not match their username.

pathlib.Path.expanduser() and home() now consistently raise RuntimeError exception when a home directory cannot be resolved. Previously a KeyError exception could be raised on Windows when the "USERNAME" environment variable was unset.

bpo-36076 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36076]: Added SNI support to ssl.get_server_certificate().

bpo-38490 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38490]: Covariance, Pearson's correlation, and simple linear regression functionality was added to statistics module. Patch by Tymoteusz Wołodźko.

bpo-33731 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33731]: Provide a locale.localize() function, which converts a normalized number string into a locale format.

bpo-32745 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32745]: Fix a regression in the handling of ctypes' ctypes.c_wchar_p type: embedded null characters would cause a ValueError to be raised. Patch by Zackery Spytz.

Documentation

bpo-43987 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43987]: Add "Annotations Best Practices" document as a new HOWTO.

bpo-43977 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43977]: Document the new Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING and Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE type flags.

bpo-43959 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43959]: The documentation on the PyContextVar C-API was clarified.

bpo-43938 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43938]: Update dataclasses documentation to express that FrozenInstanceError is derived from AttributeError.

bpo-43778 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43778]: Fix the Sphinx glossary_search extension: create the _static/ sub-directory if it doesn't exist.

bpo-43755 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43755]: Update documentation to reflect that unparenthesized lambda expressions can no longer be the expression part in an if clause in comprehensions and generator expressions since Python 3.9.

bpo-43739 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43739]: Fixing the example code in Doc/extending/extending.rst to declare and initialize the pmodule variable to be of the right type.

Tests

bpo-43961 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43961]: Fix test_logging.test_namer_rotator_inheritance() on Windows: use os.replace() rather than os.rename(). Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-43842 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43842]: Fix a race condition in the SMTP test of test_logging. Don't close a file descriptor (socket) from a different thread while asyncore.loop() is polling the file descriptor. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-43843 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43843]: test.libregrtest now marks a test as ENV_CHANGED (altered the execution environment) if a thread raises an exception but does not catch it. It sets a hook on threading.excepthook(). Use --fail-env-changed option to mark the test as failed. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-43811 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43811]: Tests multiple OpenSSL versions on GitHub Actions. Use ccache to speed up testing.

bpo-43791 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43791]: OpenSSL 3.0.0: Disable testing of legacy protocols TLS 1.0 and 1.1. Tests are failing with TLSV1_ALERT_INTERNAL_ERROR.

Build

bpo-43567 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43567]: Improved generated code refresh (AST/tokens/opcodes/keywords) on Windows.

bpo-43669 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43669]: Implement PEP 644 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/]. Python now requires OpenSSL 1.1.1 or newer.

Windows

bpo-35306 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35306]: Adds additional arguments to os.startfile() function.

bpo-43538 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43538]: Avoid raising errors from pathlib.Path.exists() when passed an invalid filename.

bpo-38822 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38822]: Fixed os.stat() failing on inaccessible directories with a trailing slash, rather than falling back to the parent directory's metadata. This implicitly affected os.path.exists() and os.path.isdir().

bpo-26227 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26227]: Fixed decoding of host names in socket.gethostbyaddr() and socket.gethostbyname_ex().

bpo-40432 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40432]: Updated pegen regeneration script on Windows to find and use Python 3.8 or higher. Prior to this, pegen regeneration already required 3.8 or higher, but the script may have used lower versions of Python.

bpo-43745 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43745]: Actually updates Windows release to OpenSSL 1.1.1k. Earlier releases were mislabelled and actually included 1.1.1i again.

bpo-43652 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43652]: Update Tcl and Tk to 8.6.11 in Windows installer.

bpo-43492 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43492]: Upgrade Windows installer to use SQLite 3.35.5.

bpo-30555 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30555]: Fix WindowsConsoleIO errors in the presence of fd redirection. Patch by Segev Finer.

macOS

bpo-42119 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42119]: Fix check for macOS SDK paths when building Python. Narrow search to match contents of SDKs, namely only files in /System/Library, /System/IOSSupport, and /usr other than /usr/local. Previously, anything under /System was assumed to be in an SDK which causes problems with the new file system layout in 10.15+ where user file systems may appear to be mounted under /System. Paths in /Library were also incorrectly treated as SDK locations.

bpo-43568 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43568]: Drop support for MACOSX_DEPLOYMENT_TARGET < 10.3

bpo-44009 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44009]: Provide "python3.x-intel64" executable to allow reliably forcing macOS universal2 framework builds to run under Rosetta 2 Intel-64 emulation on Apple Silicon Macs. This can be useful for testing or when universal2 wheels are not yet available.

bpo-43851 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43851]: Build SQLite with SQLITE_OMIT_AUTOINIT on macOS. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-43492 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43492]: Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.35.4.

bpo-42235 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42235]: Mac/BuildScript/build-installer.py will now use "--enable-optimizations" and --with-lto when building on macOS 10.15 or later.

IDLE

bpo-37903 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37903]: Add mouse actions to the shell sidebar. Left click and optional drag selects one or more lines, as with the editor line number sidebar. Right click after selecting raises a context menu with 'copy with prompts'. This zips together prompts from the sidebar with lines from the selected text.

bpo-43981 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43981]: Fix reference leak in test_sidebar and test_squeezer. Patches by Terry Jan Reedy and Pablo Galindo

bpo-37892 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37892]: Indent IDLE Shell input with spaces instead of tabs

bpo-43655 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43655]: IDLE dialog windows are now recognized as dialogs by window managers on macOS and X Window.

bpo-37903 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37903]: IDLE's shell now shows prompts in a separate side-bar.

C API

bpo-43916 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43916]: Add a new Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION type flag to disallow creating type instances. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-43774 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43774]: Remove the now unused PYMALLOC_DEBUG macro. Debug hooks on memory allocators are now installed by default if Python is built in debug mode (if Py_DEBUG macro is defined). Moreover, they can now be used on Python build in release mode (ex: using PYTHONMALLOC=debug environment variable).

bpo-43962 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43962]: _PyInterpreterState_IDIncref() now calls _PyInterpreterState_IDInitref() and always increments id_refcount. Previously, calling _xxsubinterpreters.get_current() could create an id_refcount inconsistency when a _xxsubinterpreters.InterpreterID object was deallocated. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-28254 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28254]: Add new C-API functions to control the state of the garbage collector: PyGC_Enable(), PyGC_Disable(), PyGC_IsEnabled(), corresponding to the functions in the gc module.

bpo-43908 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43908]: Introduce Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE flag for immutable type objects, and modify PyType_Ready() to set it for static types. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-43795 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43795]: PyMem_Calloc() is now available in the limited C API (Py_LIMITED_API).

bpo-43868 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43868]: PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer() is no longer exported by limited C API headers and by python3.dll on Windows. Like any function that takes FILE*, it is not part of the stable ABI.

bpo-43795 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43795]: Stable ABI and limited API definitions are generated from a central manifest (PEP 652 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0652/]).

bpo-43753 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43753]: Add the Py_Is(x, y) function to test if the x object is the y object, the same as x is y in Python. Add also the Py_IsNone(), Py_IsTrue(), Py_IsFalse() functions to test if an object is, respectively, the None singleton, the True singleton or the False singleton. Patch by Victor Stinner.

Python 3.10.0 alpha 7

Release date: 2021-04-05

Security

bpo-42988 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42988]: CVE 2021-3426 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2021-3426]: Remove the getfile feature of the pydoc module which could be abused to read arbitrary files on the disk (directory traversal vulnerability). Moreover, even source code of Python modules can contain sensitive data like passwords. Vulnerability reported by David Schwörer.

bpo-43285 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43285]: ftplib no longer trusts the IP address value returned from the server in response to the PASV command by default. This prevents a malicious FTP server from using the response to probe IPv4 address and port combinations on the client network.

Code that requires the former vulnerable behavior may set a trust_server_pasv_ipv4_address attribute on their ftplib.FTP instances to True to re-enable it.

bpo-43439 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43439]: Add audit hooks for gc.get_objects(), gc.get_referrers() and gc.get_referents(). Patch by Pablo Galindo.

Core and Builtins

bpo-27129 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27129]: Update CPython bytecode magic number.

bpo-43672 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43672]: Raise ImportWarning when calling find_loader().

bpo-43660 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43660]: Fix crash that happens when replacing sys.stderr with a callable that can remove the object while an exception is being printed. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-27129 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27129]: The bytecode interpreter uses instruction, rather byte, offsets internally. This reduces the number of EXTENDED_ARG instructions needed and streamlines instruction dispatch a bit.

Library

bpo-40645 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40645]: Fix reference leak in the _hashopenssl extension. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

Core and Builtins

bpo-42134 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42134]: Calls to find_module() by the import system now raise ImportWarning.

bpo-41064 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41064]: Improve the syntax error for invalid usage of double starred elements ('**') in f-strings. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-43575 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43575]: Speed up calls to map() by using the PEP 590 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/] vectorcall calling convention. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-42137 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42137]: The import system now prefers using __spec__ for ModuleType.__repr__ over module_repr().

bpo-43452 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43452]: Added micro-optimizations to _PyType_Lookup() to improve cache lookup performance in the common case of cache hits.

bpo-43555 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43555]: Report the column offset for SyntaxError for invalid line continuation characters. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-43517 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43517]: Fix misdetection of circular imports when using from pkg.mod import attr, which caused false positives in non-trivial multi-threaded code.

bpo-43497 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43497]: Emit SyntaxWarnings for assertions with tuple constants, this is a regression introduced in python3.7

bpo-39316 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39316]: Tracing now has correct line numbers for attribute accesses when the attribute is on a different line from the object. Improves debugging and profiling for multi-line method chains.

bpo-35883 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35883]: Python no longer fails at startup with a fatal error if a command line argument contains an invalid Unicode character. The Py_DecodeLocale() function now escapes byte sequences which would be decoded as Unicode characters outside the [U+0000; U+10ffff] range.

bpo-43410 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43410]: Fix a bug that was causing the parser to crash when emitting syntax errors when reading input from stdin. Patch by Pablo Galindo

bpo-43406 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43406]: Fix a possible race condition where PyErr_CheckSignals tries to execute a non-Python signal handler.

bpo-42128 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42128]: Add __match_args__ to struct sequence objects. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-43390 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43390]: CPython now sets the SA_ONSTACK flag in PyOS_setsig for the VM's default signal handlers. This is friendlier to other in-process code that an extension module or embedding use could pull in (such as Golang's cgo) where tiny thread stacks are the norm and sigaltstack() has been used to provide for signal handlers. This is a no-op change for the vast majority of processes that don't use sigaltstack.

bpo-43287 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43287]: Speed up calls to filter() by using the PEP 590 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/] vectorcall calling convention. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-37448 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37448]: Add a radix tree based memory map to track in-use obmalloc arenas. Use to replace the old implementation of address_in_range(). The radix tree approach makes it easy to increase pool sizes beyond the OS page size. Boosting the pool and arena size allows obmalloc to handle a significantly higher percentage of requests from its ultra-fast paths.

It also has the advantage of eliminating the memory unsanitary behavior of the previous address_in_range(). The old address_in_range() was marked with the annotations _Py_NO_SANITIZE_ADDRESS, _Py_NO_SANITIZE_THREAD, and _Py_NO_SANITIZE_MEMORY. Those annotations are no longer needed.

To disable the radix tree map, set a preprocessor flag as follows: -DWITH_PYMALLOC_RADIX_TREE=0.

Co-authored-by: Tim Peters <tim.peters@gmail.com>

bpo-29988 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29988]: Only handle asynchronous exceptions and requests to drop the GIL when returning from a call or on the back edges of loops. Makes sure that __exit__() is always called in with statements, even for interrupts.

Library

bpo-43720 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43720]: Document various stdlib deprecations in imp, pkgutil, and importlib.util for removal in Python 3.12.

bpo-43433 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43433]: xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy no longer ignores query and fragment in the URL of the server.

bpo-31956 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31956]: The index() method of array.array now has optional start and stop parameters.

bpo-40066 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40066]: Enum: adjust repr() to show only enum and member name (not value, nor angle brackets) and str() to show only member name. Update and improve documentation to match.

bpo-42136 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42136]: Deprecate all module_repr() methods found in importlib as their use is being phased out by Python 3.12.

bpo-35930 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35930]: Raising an exception raised in a "future" instance will create reference cycles.

bpo-41369 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41369]: Finish updating the vendored libmpdec to version 2.5.1. Patch by Stefan Krah.

bpo-43422 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43422]: Revert the _decimal C API which was added in bpo-41324 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41324].

bpo-43577 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43577]: Fix deadlock when using ssl.SSLContext debug callback with ssl.SSLContext.sni_callback().

bpo-43571 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43571]: It's now possible to create MPTCP sockets with IPPROTO_MPTCP

bpo-43542 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43542]: image/heic and image/heif were added to mimetypes.

bpo-40645 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40645]: The hmac module now uses OpenSSL's HMAC implementation when digestmod argument is a hash name or builtin hash function.

bpo-43510 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43510]: Implement PEP 597 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0597/]: Add EncodingWarning warning, -X warn_default_encoding option, PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING environment variable and encoding="locale" argument value.

bpo-43521 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43521]: ast.unparse can now render NaNs and empty sets.

bpo-42914 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42914]: pprint.pprint() gains a new boolean underscore_numbers optional argument to emit integers with thousands separated by an underscore character for improved readability (for example 1_000_000 instead of 1000000).

bpo-41361 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41361]: rotate() calls are now slightly faster due to faster argument parsing.

bpo-43423 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43423]: subprocess.communicate() no longer raises an IndexError when there is an empty stdout or stderr IO buffer during a timeout on Windows.

bpo-27820 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27820]: Fixed long-standing bug of smtplib.SMTP where doing AUTH LOGIN with initial_response_ok=False will fail.

The cause is that SMTP.auth_login _always_ returns a password if provided with a challenge string, thus non-compliant with the standard for AUTH LOGIN.

Also fixes bug with the test for smtpd.

bpo-43445 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43445]: Add frozen modules to sys.stdlib_module_names. For example, add "_frozen_importlib" and "_frozen_importlib_external" names.

bpo-43245 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43245]: Add keyword arguments support to ChainMap.new_child().

bpo-29982 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29982]: Add optional parameter ignore_cleanup_errors to tempfile.TemporaryDirectory() and allow multiple cleanup() attempts. Contributed by C.A.M. Gerlach.

bpo-43428 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43428]: Include changes from importlib_metadata 3.7 [https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/en/latest/history.html#v3-7-0]:

Performance enhancements to distribution discovery.

entry_points only returns unique distributions.

Introduces new EntryPoints object for containing a set of entry points with convenience methods for selecting entry points by group or name. entry_points now returns this object if selection parameters are supplied but continues to return a dict object for compatibility. Users are encouraged to rely on the selection interface. The dict object result is likely to be deprecated in the future.

Added packages_distributions function to return a mapping of packages to the distributions that provide them.

bpo-43332 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43332]: Improves the networking efficiency of http.client when using a proxy via set_tunnel(). Fewer small send calls are made during connection setup.

bpo-43420 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43420]: Improve performance of fractions.Fraction arithmetics for large components. Contributed by Sergey B. Kirpichev.

bpo-43356 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43356]: Allow passing a signal number to _thread.interrupt_main().

bpo-43399 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43399]: Fix ElementTree.extend not working on iterators when using the Python implementation

bpo-43369 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43369]: Improve sqlite3 error handling: If sqlite3_column_text() and sqlite3_column_blob() set SQLITE_NOMEM, MemoryError is now raised. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-43368 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43368]: Fix a regression introduced in PR 24562, where an empty bytestring was fetched as None instead of b'' in sqlite3. Patch by Mariusz Felisiak.

bpo-41282 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41282]: Fixed stacklevel of DeprecationWarning emitted from import distutils.

bpo-42129 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42129]: importlib.resources now honors namespace packages, merging resources from each location in the namespace as introduced in importlib_resources 3.2 and including incidental changes through 5.0.3.

bpo-43295 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43295]: datetime.datetime.strptime() now raises ValueError instead of IndexError when matching 'z' with the %z format specifier.

bpo-43125 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43125]: Return empty string if base64mime.body_encode receive empty bytes

bpo-43084 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43084]: curses.window.enclose() returns now True or False (as was documented) instead of 1 or 0.

bpo-42994 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42994]: Add MIME types for opus, AAC, 3gpp and 3gpp2

bpo-14678 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14678]: Add an invalidate_caches() method to the zipimport.zipimporter class to support importlib.invalidate_caches(). Patch by Desmond Cheong.

bpo-42782 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42782]: Fail fast in shutil.move() to avoid creating destination directories on failure.

bpo-40066 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40066]: Enum's repr() and str() have changed: repr() is now EnumClass.MemberName and str() is MemberName. Additionally, stdlib Enum's whose contents are available as module attributes, such as RegexFlag.IGNORECASE, have their repr() as module.name, e.g. re.IGNORECASE.

bpo-26053 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26053]: Fixed bug where the pdb interactive run command echoed the args from the shell command line, even if those have been overridden at the pdb prompt.

bpo-24160 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24160]: Fixed bug where breakpoints did not persist across multiple debugger sessions in pdb's interactive mode.

bpo-40701 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40701]: When the tempfile.tempdir global variable is set to a value of type bytes, it is now handled consistently. Previously exceptions could be raised from some tempfile APIs when the directory did not already exist in this situation. Also ensures that the tempfile.gettempdir() and tempfile.gettempdirb() functions always return str and bytes respectively.

bpo-39342 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39342]: Expose X509_V_FLAG_ALLOW_PROXY_CERTS as VERIFY_ALLOW_PROXY_CERTS to allow proxy certificate validation as explained in https://docs.openssl.org/1.1.1/man7/proxy-certificates/.

bpo-31861 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31861]: Add builtins.aiter and builtins.anext. Patch by Joshua Bronson (@jab), Daniel Pope (@lordmauve), and Justin Wang (@justin39).

Documentation

bpo-43199 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43199]: Answer "Why is there no goto?" in the Design and History FAQ.

bpo-43407 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43407]: Clarified that a result from time.monotonic(), time.perf_counter(), time.process_time(), or time.thread_time() can be compared with the result from any following call to the same function - not just the next immediate call.

bpo-43354 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43354]: Fix type documentation for Fault.faultCode; the type has to be int instead of str.

bpo-41933 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41933]: Clarified wording of s * n in the Common Sequence Operations

Tests

bpo-37945 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37945]: Fix test_getsetlocale_issue1813() of test_locale: skip the test if setlocale() fails. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-41561 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41561]: Add workaround for Ubuntu's custom OpenSSL security level policy.

Build

bpo-43179 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43179]: Introduce and correctly use ALIGNOF_X in place of SIZEOF_X for alignment-related code in optimized string routines. Patch by Jessica Clarke.

bpo-43631 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43631]: Update macOS, Windows, and CI to OpenSSL 1.1.1k.

bpo-43617 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43617]: Improve configure.ac: Check for presence of autoconf-archive package and remove our copies of M4 macros.

bpo-43466 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43466]: The configure script now supports --with-openssl-rpath option.

bpo-43372 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43372]: Use _freeze_importlib to generate code for the __hello__ module. This approach ensures the code matches the interpreter version. Previously, PYTHON_FOR_REGEN was used to generate the code, which might be wrong. The marshal format for code objects has changed with bpo-42246 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42246], commit 877df851. Update the code and the expected code sizes in ctypes test_frozentable.

Windows

bpo-43440 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43440]: Build sqlite3 with the R*Tree module enabled. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

IDLE

bpo-42225 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42225]: Document that IDLE can fail on Unix either from misconfigured IP masquerade rules or failure displaying complex colored (non-ascii) characters.

C API

bpo-43688 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43688]: The limited C API is now supported if Python is built in debug mode (if the Py_DEBUG macro is defined). In the limited C API, the Py_INCREF() and Py_DECREF() functions are now implemented as opaque function calls, rather than accessing directly the PyObject.ob_refcnt member, if Python is built in debug mode and the Py_LIMITED_API macro targets Python 3.10 or newer. It became possible to support the limited C API in debug mode because the PyObject structure is the same in release and debug mode since Python 3.8 (see bpo-36465 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36465]).

The limited C API is still not supported in the --with-trace-refs special build (Py_TRACE_REFS macro).

Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-43244 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244]: Remove the pyarena.h header file with functions:

PyArena_New()

PyArena_Free()

PyArena_Malloc()

PyArena_AddPyObject()

These functions were undocumented, excluded from the limited C API, and were only used internally by the compiler. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-43244 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244]: Remove the compiler and parser functions using struct _mod type, because the public AST C API was removed:

PyAST_Compile()

PyAST_CompileEx()

PyAST_CompileObject()

PyFuture_FromAST()

PyFuture_FromASTObject()

PyParser_ASTFromFile()

PyParser_ASTFromFileObject()

PyParser_ASTFromFilename()

PyParser_ASTFromString()

PyParser_ASTFromStringObject()

These functions were undocumented and excluded from the limited C API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-43244 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244]: Remove ast.h, asdl.h, and Python-ast.h header files. These functions were undocumented and excluded from the limited C API. Most names defined by these header files were not prefixed by Py and so could create names conflicts. For example, Python-ast.h defined a Yield macro which was conflict with the Yield name used by the Windows <winbase.h> header. Use the Python ast module instead. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-43541 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43541]: Fix a PyEval_EvalCodeEx() regression: fix reference counting on builtins. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-43244 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244]: Remove the symtable.h header file and the undocumented functions:

PyST_GetScope()

PySymtable_Build()

PySymtable_BuildObject()

PySymtable_Free()

Py_SymtableString()

Py_SymtableStringObject()

The Py_SymtableString() function was part the stable ABI by mistake but it could not be used, because the symtable.h header file was excluded from the limited C API.

The Python symtable module remains available and is unchanged.

Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-43244 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244]: Remove the PyAST_Validate() function. It is no longer possible to build a AST object (mod_ty type) with the public C API. The function was already excluded from the limited C API (PEP 384 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0384/]). Patch by Victor Stinner.

Python 3.10.0 alpha 6

Release date: 2021-03-01

Security

bpo-42967 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42967]: Fix web cache poisoning vulnerability by defaulting the query args separator to &, and allowing the user to choose a custom separator.

Core and Builtins

bpo-43321 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43321]: Fix SystemError raised when PyArg_Parse*() is used with # but without PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN defined.

bpo-36346 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36346]: PyArg_Parse*() functions now emits DeprecationWarning when u or Z format is used. See PEP 623 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/] for detail.

bpo-43277 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43277]: Add a new PySet_CheckExact() function to the C-API to check if an object is an instance of set but not an instance of a subtype. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-42990 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42990]: The types.FunctionType constructor now inherits the current builtins if the globals dictionary has no "__builtins__" key, rather than using {"None": None} as builtins: same behavior as eval() and exec() functions. Defining a function with def function(...): ... in Python is not affected, globals cannot be overridden with this syntax: it also inherits the current builtins. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-42990 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42990]: Functions have a new __builtins__ attribute which is used to look for builtin symbols when a function is executed, instead of looking into __globals__['__builtins__']. Patch by Mark Shannon and Victor Stinner.

bpo-43149 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43149]: Improve the error message in the parser for exception groups without parentheses. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-43121 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43121]: Fixed an incorrect SyntaxError message for missing comma in literals. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

Library

bpo-42819 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42819]: readline: Explicitly disable bracketed paste in the interactive interpreter, even if it's set in the inputrc, is enabled by default (eg GNU Readline 8.1), or a user calls readline.read_init_file(). The Python REPL has not implemented bracketed paste support. Also, bracketed mode writes the "\x1b[?2004h" escape sequence into stdout which causes test failures in applications that don't support it. It can still be explicitly enabled by calling readline.parse_and_bind("set enable-bracketed-paste on"). Patch by Dustin Rodrigues.

Core and Builtins

bpo-42808 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42808]: Simple calls to type(object) are now faster due to the vectorcall calling convention. Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

bpo-42217 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42217]: Make the compiler merges same co_code and co_linetable objects in a module like already did for co_consts.

bpo-41972 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41972]: Substring search functions such as str1 in str2 and str2.find(str1) now sometimes use the "Two-Way" string comparison algorithm to avoid quadratic behavior on long strings.

bpo-42128 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42128]: Implement PEP 634 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/] (structural pattern matching). Patch by Brandt Bucher.

Library

bpo-40692 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40692]: In the concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor, validate that multiprocess.synchronize() is available on a given platform and rely on that check in the concurrent.futures test suite so we can run tests that are unrelated to ProcessPoolExecutor on those platforms.

Core and Builtins

bpo-38302 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38302]: If object.__ipow__() returns NotImplemented, the operator will correctly fall back to object.__pow__() and object.__rpow__() as expected.

Library

bpo-43316 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43316]: The python -m gzip command line application now properly fails when detecting an unsupported extension. It exits with a non-zero exit code and prints an error message to stderr.

bpo-43317 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43317]: Set the chunk size for the gzip module main function to io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE. This is slightly faster than the 1024 bytes constant that was used previously.

bpo-43146 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43146]: Handle None in single-arg versions of print_exception() and format_exception().

bpo-43260 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43260]: Fix TextIOWrapper can not flush internal buffer forever after very large text is written.

bpo-43258 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43258]: Prevent needless allocation of sqlite3 aggregate function context when no rows match an aggregate query. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-43251 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43251]: Improve sqlite3 error handling: sqlite3_column_name() failures now result in MemoryError. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-40956 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40956]: Fix segfault in sqlite3.Connection.backup() if no argument was provided. The regression was introduced by PR 23838. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-43172 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43172]: The readline module now passes its tests when built directly against libedit. Existing irreconcilable API differences remain in readline.get_begidx() and readline.get_endidx() behavior based on libreadline vs libedit use.

bpo-43163 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43163]: Fix a bug in codeop that was causing it to not ask for more input when multi-line snippets have unclosed parentheses. Patch by Pablo Galindo

bpo-43162 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43162]: deprecate unsupported ability to access enum members as attributes of other enum members

bpo-43146 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43146]: Fix recent regression in None argument handling in traceback module functions.

bpo-43102 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43102]: The namedtuple __new__ method had its __builtins__ set to None instead of an actual dictionary. This created problems for introspection tools.

bpo-43106 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43106]: Added O_EVTONLY, O_FSYNC, O_SYMLINK and O_NOFOLLOW_ANY for macOS. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-42960 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42960]: Adds resource.RLIMIT_KQUEUES constant from FreeBSD to the resource module.

bpo-42151 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42151]: Make the pure Python implementation of xml.etree.ElementTree behave the same as the C implementation (_elementree) regarding default attribute values (by not setting specified_attributes=1).

bpo-29753 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29753]: In ctypes, now packed bitfields are calculated properly and the first item of packed bitfields is now shrank correctly.

Documentation

bpo-27646 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27646]: Clarify that 'yield from <expr>' works with any iterable, not just iterators.

bpo-36346 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36346]: Update some deprecated unicode APIs which are documented as "will be removed in 4.0" to "3.12". See PEP 623 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/] for detail.

Tests

bpo-43288 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43288]: Fix test_importlib to correctly skip Unicode file tests if the filesystem does not support them.

Build

bpo-43174 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43174]: Windows build now uses /utf-8 compiler option.

bpo-43103 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43103]: Add a new configure --without-static-libpython option to not build the libpythonMAJOR.MINOR.a static library and not install the python.o object file.

bpo-13501 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13501]: The configure script can now use libedit instead of readline with the command line option --with-readline=editline.

bpo-42603 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42603]: Make configure script use pkg-config to detect the location of Tcl/Tk headers and libraries, used to build tkinter.

On macOS, a Tcl/Tk configuration provided by pkg-config will be preferred over Tcl/Tk frameworks installed in /{System/,}Library/Frameworks. If both exist and the latter is preferred, the appropriate --with-tcltk-* configuration options need to be explicitly set.

bpo-39448 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39448]: Add the "regen-frozen" makefile target that regenerates the code for the frozen __hello__ module.

Windows

bpo-43155 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43155]: PyCMethod_New() is now present in python3.lib.

macOS

bpo-41837 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41837]: Update macOS installer build to use OpenSSL 1.1.1j.

IDLE

bpo-43283 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43283]: Document why printing to IDLE's Shell is often slower than printing to a system terminal and that it can be made faster by pre-formatting a single string before printing.

C API

bpo-43278 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43278]: Always put compiler and system information on the first line of the REPL welcome message.

bpo-43270 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43270]: Remove the private _PyErr_OCCURRED() macro: use the public PyErr_Occurred() function instead.

bpo-35134 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134]: Move odictobject.h, parser_interface.h, picklebufobject.h, pydebug.h, and pyfpe.h into the cpython/ directory. They must not be included directly, as they are already included by Python.h: Include Files.

bpo-35134 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134]: Move pyarena.h, pyctype.h, and pytime.h into the cpython/ directory. They must not be included directly, as they are already included by Python.h: Include Files.

bpo-40170 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170]: PyExceptionClass_Name() is now always declared as a function, in order to hide implementation details. The macro accessed PyTypeObject.tp_name directly. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-43239 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43239]: The PyCFunction_New() function is now exported in the ABI when compiled with -fvisibility=hidden.

bpo-40170 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170]: PyIter_Check() is now always declared as a function, in order to hide implementation details. The macro accessed PyTypeObject.tp_iternext directly. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-40170 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170]: Convert PyDescr_IsData() macro to a function to hide implementation details: The macro accessed PyTypeObject.tp_descr_set directly. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-43181 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43181]: Convert PyObject_TypeCheck() macro to a static inline function. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

Python 3.10.0 alpha 5

Release date: 2021-02-02

Security

bpo-42938 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42938]: Avoid static buffers when computing the repr of ctypes.c_double and ctypes.c_longdouble values.

Core and Builtins

bpo-42990 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42990]: Refactor the PyEval_ family of functions.

An new function _PyEval_Vector is added to simplify calls to Python from C.

_PyEval_EvalCodeWithName is removed

PyEval_EvalCodeEx is retained as part of the API, but is not used internally

bpo-38631 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38631]: Replace Py_FatalError() calls in the compiler with regular SystemError exceptions. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-42997 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42997]: Improve error message for missing ":" before blocks. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-43017 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43017]: Improve error message in the parser when using un-parenthesised tuples in comprehensions. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-42986 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42986]: Fix parser crash when reporting syntax errors in f-string with newlines. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-40176 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40176]: Syntax errors for unterminated string literals now point to the start of the string instead of reporting EOF/EOL.

bpo-42927 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42927]: The inline cache for LOAD_ATTR now also optimizes access to attributes defined by __slots__. This makes reading such attribute up to 30% faster.

bpo-42864 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42864]: Improve error messages in the parser when parentheses are not closed. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-42924 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42924]: Fix bytearray repetition incorrectly copying data from the start of the buffer, even if the data is offset within the buffer (e.g. after reassigning a slice at the start of the bytearray to a shorter byte string).

bpo-42882 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42882]: Fix the _PyUnicode_FromId() function (_Py_IDENTIFIER(var) API) when Py_Initialize() / Py_Finalize() is called multiple times: preserve _PyRuntime.unicode_ids.next_index value.

bpo-42827 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42827]: Fix a crash when working out the error line of a SyntaxError in some multi-line expressions.

bpo-42823 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42823]: frame.f_lineno is correct even if frame.f_trace is set to True

Library

bpo-37324 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37324]: Remove deprecated aliases to Classes de base abstraites de collections from the collections module.

Core and Builtins

bpo-41994 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41994]: Fixed possible leak in import when sys.modules is not a dict.

bpo-27772 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27772]: In string formatting, preceding the width field by '0' no longer affects the default alignment for strings.

Library

bpo-43108 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43108]: Fixed a reference leak in the curses module. Patch by Pablo Galindo

bpo-43077 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43077]: Update the bundled pip to 21.0.1 and setuptools to 52.0.0.

bpo-41282 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41282]: Deprecate distutils in documentation and add warning on import.

bpo-43014 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43014]: Improve performance of tokenize by 20-30%. Patch by Anthony Sottile.

bpo-42323 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42323]: Fix math.nextafter() for NaN on AIX.

bpo-42955 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42955]: Add sys.stdlib_module_names, containing the list of the standard library module names. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-42944 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42944]: Fix random.Random.sample when counts argument is not None.

bpo-42934 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42934]: Use TracebackException's new compact param in TestResult to reduce time and memory consumed by traceback formatting.

bpo-42931 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42931]: Add randbytes() to random.__all__.

bpo-38250 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38250]: [Enum] Flags consisting of a single bit are now considered canonical, and will be the only flags returned from listing and iterating over a Flag class or a Flag member. Multi-bit flags are considered aliases; they will be returned from lookups and operations that result in their value. Iteration for both Flag and Flag members is in definition order.

bpo-42877 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42877]: Added the compact parameter to the constructor of traceback.TracebackException to reduce time and memory for use cases that only need to call TracebackException.format() and TracebackException.format_exception_only().

bpo-42923 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42923]: The Py_FatalError() function and the faulthandler module now dump the list of extension modules on a fatal error.

bpo-42848 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42848]: Removed recursion from TracebackException to allow it to handle long exception chains.

bpo-42901 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42901]: [Enum] move member creation from EnumMeta.__new__ to _proto_member.__set_name__, allowing members to be created and visible in __init_subclass__.

bpo-42780 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42780]: Fix os.set_inheritable() for O_PATH file descriptors on Linux.

bpo-42866 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42866]: Fix a reference leak in the getcodec() function of CJK codecs. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-42846 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42846]: Convert the 6 CJK codec extension modules (_codecs_cn, _codecs_hk, _codecs_iso2022, _codecs_jp, _codecs_kr and _codecs_tw) to the multiphase initialization API (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]). Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-42851 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42851]: remove __init_subclass__ support for Enum members

bpo-42834 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42834]: Make internal caches of the _json module compatible with subinterpreters.

bpo-41748 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41748]: Fix HTMLParser parsing rules for element attributes containing commas with spaces. Patch by Karl Dubost.

bpo-40810 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40810]: Require SQLite 3.7.15 or newer. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Convert the _multibytecodec extension module (CJK codecs) to multi-phase initialization (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]). Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-42802 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42802]: The distutils bdist_wininst command deprecated in Python 3.8 has been removed. The distutils bdist_wheel command is now recommended to distribute binary packages on Windows.

bpo-24464 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24464]: The undocumented built-in function sqlite3.enable_shared_cache is now deprecated, scheduled for removal in Python 3.12. Its use is strongly discouraged by the SQLite3 documentation. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-42384 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42384]: Make pdb populate sys.path[0] exactly the same as regular python execution.

bpo-42383 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42383]: Fix pdb: previously pdb would fail to restart the debugging target if it was specified using a relative path and the current directory changed.

bpo-42005 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42005]: Fix CLI of cProfile and profile to catch BrokenPipeError.

bpo-41604 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41604]: Don't decrement the reference count of the previous user_ptr when set_panel_userptr fails.

bpo-41149 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41149]: Allow executing callables that have a boolean value of False when passed to Threading.thread as the target. Patch contributed by Barney Stratford.

bpo-38307 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38307]: Add an 'end_lineno' attribute to the Class and Function objects that appear in the tree returned by pyclbr functions. This and the existing 'lineno' attribute define the extent of class and def statements. Patch by Aviral Srivastava.

bpo-39273 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39273]: The BUTTON5_* constants are now exposed in the curses module if available.

bpo-33289 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33289]: Correct call to tkinter.colorchooser to return RGB triplet of ints instead of floats. Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

Documentation

bpo-40304 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40304]: Fix doc for type(name, bases, dict). Patch by Boris Verkhovskiy and Éric Araujo.

bpo-42811 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42811]: Updated importlib.util.resolve_name() doc to use __spec__.parent instead of __package__. (Thanks Yair Frid.)

Tests

bpo-40823 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40823]: Use unittest.TestLoader().loadTestsFromTestCase() instead of unittest.makeSuite() in sqlite3 tests. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-40810 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40810]: In sqlite3, fix CheckTraceCallbackContent for SQLite pre 3.7.15.

Build

bpo-43031 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43031]: Pass --timeout=$(TESTTIMEOUT) option to the default profile task ./python -m test --pgo command.

bpo-36143 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36143]: make regen-all now also runs regen-keyword. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-42874 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42874]: Removed the grep -q and -E flags in the tzpath validation section of the configure script to better accommodate users of some platforms (specifically Solaris 10).

bpo-31904 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904]: Add library search path by wr-cc in add_cross_compiling_paths() for VxWorks.

bpo-42856 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42856]: Add --with-wheel-pkg-dir=PATH option to the ./configure script. If specified, the ensurepip module looks for setuptools and pip wheel packages in this directory: if both are present, these wheel packages are used instead of ensurepip bundled wheel packages.

Some Linux distribution packaging policies recommend against bundling dependencies. For example, Fedora installs wheel packages in the /usr/share/python-wheels/ directory and don't install the ensurepip._bundled package.

Windows

bpo-41837 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41837]: Updated Windows installer to include OpenSSL 1.1.1i

bpo-42584 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42584]: Upgrade Windows installer to use SQLite 3.34.0.

macOS

bpo-42504 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42504]: Ensure that the value of sysconfig.get_config_var('MACOSX_DEPLOYMENT_TARGET') is always a string, even in when the value is parsable as an integer.

IDLE

bpo-43008 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43008]: Make IDLE invoke sys.excepthook() in normal, 2-process mode. Patch by Ken Hilton.

bpo-33065 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33065]: Fix problem debugging user classes with __repr__ method.

bpo-23544 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23544]: Disable Debug=>Stack Viewer when user code is running or Debugger is active, to prevent hang or crash. Patch by Zackery Spytz.

bpo-32631 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32631]: Finish zzdummy example extension module: make menu entries work; add docstrings and tests with 100% coverage.

C API

bpo-42979 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42979]: When Python is built in debug mode (with C assertions), calling a type slot like sq_length (__len__() in Python) now fails with a fatal error if the slot succeeded with an exception set, or failed with no exception set. The error message contains the slot, the type name, and the current exception (if an exception is set). Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-43030 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43030]: Fixed a compiler warning in Py_UNICODE_ISSPACE() on platforms with signed wchar_t.

Python 3.10.0 alpha 4

Release date: 2021-01-04

Core and Builtins

bpo-42814 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42814]: Fix undefined behavior in Objects/genericaliasobject.c.

bpo-42806 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42806]: Fix the column offsets for f-strings ast nodes surrounded by parentheses and for nodes that spawn multiple lines. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-40631 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40631]: Fix regression where a single parenthesized starred expression was a valid assignment target.

bpo-27794 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27794]: Improve the error message for failed writes/deletes to property objects. When possible, the attribute name is now shown. Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

bpo-42745 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42745]: Make the type attribute lookup cache per-interpreter. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-42246 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42246]: Jumps to jumps are not eliminated when it would break PEP 626.

bpo-42246 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42246]: Make sure that the f_lasti and f_lineno attributes of a frame are set correctly when an exception is raised or re-raised. Required for PEP 626.

bpo-32381 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32381]: The coding cookie (ex: # coding: latin1) is now ignored in the command passed to the -c command line option. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-30858 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30858]: Improve error location in expressions that contain assignments. Patch by Pablo Galindo and Lysandros Nikolaou.

bpo-42615 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42615]: Remove jump commands made redundant by the deletion of unreachable bytecode blocks

Library

bpo-42639 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42639]: Make the atexit module state per-interpreter. It is now safe have more than one atexit module instance. Patch by Donghee Na and Victor Stinner.

Core and Builtins

bpo-32381 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32381]: Fix encoding name when running a .pyc file on Windows: PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags() now uses the correct encoding to decode the filename.

Library

bpo-42195 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42195]: The __args__ of the parameterized generics for typing.Callable and collections.abc.Callable are now consistent. The __args__ for collections.abc.Callable are now flattened while typing.Callable's have not changed. To allow this change, types.GenericAlias can now be subclassed and collections.abc.Callable's __class_getitem__ will now return a subclass of types.GenericAlias. Tests for typing were also updated to not subclass things like Callable[..., T] as that is not a valid base class. Finally, both Callables no longer validate their argtypes, in Callable[[argtypes], resulttype] to prepare for PEP 612 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/]. Patch by Ken Jin.

bpo-40137 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40137]: Convert functools module to use PyType_FromModuleAndSpec().

bpo-40077 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40077]: Convert array to use heap types, and establish module state for these.

bpo-42008 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42008]: Fix _random.Random() seeding.

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port the pyexpat extension module to multi-phase initialization (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]).

Core and Builtins

bpo-40521 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40521]: Make the Unicode dictionary of interned strings compatible with subinterpreters. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-39465 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39465]: Make _PyUnicode_FromId() function compatible with subinterpreters. Each interpreter now has an array of identifier objects (interned strings decoded from UTF-8). Patch by Victor Stinner.

Library

bpo-42257 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42257]: Handle empty string in variable executable in platform.libc_ver()

bpo-42772 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42772]: randrange() now raises a TypeError when step is specified without a stop argument. Formerly, it silently ignored the step argument.

bpo-42759 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42759]: Fixed equality comparison of tkinter.Variable and tkinter.font.Font. Objects which belong to different Tcl interpreters are now always different, even if they have the same name.

bpo-42756 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42756]: Configure LMTP Unix-domain socket to use socket global default timeout when a timeout is not explicitly provided.

bpo-23328 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23328]: Allow / character in username, password fields on _PROXY envars.

bpo-42740 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42740]: typing.get_args() and typing.get_origin() now support PEP 604 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0604/] union types and PEP 612 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/] additions to Callable.

bpo-42655 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42655]: subprocess extra_groups is now correctly passed into setgroups() system call.

bpo-42727 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42727]: EnumMeta.__prepare__ now accepts **kwds to properly support __init_subclass__

bpo-38308 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38308]: Add optional weights to statistics.harmonic_mean().

bpo-42721 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42721]: When simple query dialogs (tkinter.simpledialog), message boxes (tkinter.messagebox) or color choose dialog (tkinter.colorchooser) are created without arguments master and parent, and the default root window is not yet created, and NoDefaultRoot() was not called, a new temporal hidden root window will be created automatically. It will not be set as the default root window and will be destroyed right after closing the dialog window. It will help to use these simple dialog windows in programs which do not need other GUI.

bpo-25246 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25246]: Optimized collections.deque.remove().

bpo-35728 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35728]: Added a root parameter to tkinter.font.nametofont().

bpo-15303 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15303]: tkinter supports now widgets with boolean value False.

bpo-42681 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42681]: Fixed range checks for color and pair numbers in curses.

bpo-42685 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42685]: Improved placing of simple query windows in Tkinter (such as tkinter.simpledialog.askinteger()). They are now centered at the center of the parent window if it is specified and shown, otherwise at the center of the screen.

bpo-9694 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9694]: Argparse help no longer uses the confusing phrase, "optional arguments". It uses "options" instead.

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port the _thread extension module to the multiphase initialization API (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]) and convert its static types to heap types.

bpo-37961 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37961]: Fix crash in tracemalloc.Traceback.__repr__() (regressed in Python 3.9).

bpo-42630 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42630]: tkinter functions and constructors which need a default root window raise now RuntimeError with descriptive message instead of obscure AttributeError or NameError if it is not created yet or cannot be created automatically.

bpo-42639 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42639]: atexit._run_exitfuncs() now logs callback exceptions using sys.unraisablehook, rather than logging them directly into sys.stderr and raise the last exception.

bpo-42644 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42644]: logging.disable will now validate the types and value of its parameter. It also now accepts strings representing the levels (as does logging.setLevel) instead of only the numerical values.

bpo-42639 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42639]: At Python exit, if a callback registered with atexit.register() fails, its exception is now logged. Previously, only some exceptions were logged, and the last exception was always silently ignored.

bpo-36541 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36541]: Fixed lib2to3.pgen2 to be able to parse PEP-570 positional only argument syntax.

bpo-42382 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42382]: In importlib.metadata: - EntryPoint objects now expose a .dist object referencing the Distribution when constructed from a Distribution. - Add support for package discovery under package normalization rules. - The object returned by metadata() now has a formally defined protocol called PackageMetadata with declared support for the .get_all() method. - Synced with importlib_metadata 3.3.

bpo-41877 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41877]: A check is added against misspellings of autospect, auto_spec and set_spec being passed as arguments to patch, patch.object and create_autospec.

bpo-39717 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39717]: [tarfile] update nested exception raising to use from None or from e

bpo-41877 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41877]: AttributeError for suspected misspellings of assertions on mocks are now pointing out that the cause are misspelled assertions and also what to do if the misspelling is actually an intended attribute name. The unittest.mock document is also updated to reflect the current set of recognised misspellings.

bpo-41559 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41559]: Implemented PEP 612 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/]: added ParamSpec and Concatenate to typing. Patch by Ken Jin.

bpo-42385 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42385]: StrEnum: fix _generate_next_value_ to return a str

bpo-31904 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904]: Define THREAD_STACK_SIZE for VxWorks.

bpo-34750 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34750]: [Enum] _EnumDict.update() is now supported.

bpo-42517 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42517]: Enum: private names do not become members / do not generate errors -- they remain normal attributes

bpo-42678 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42678]: Enum: call __init_subclass__ after members have been added

bpo-28964 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28964]: ast.literal_eval() adds line number information (if available) in error message for malformed nodes.

bpo-42470 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42470]: random.sample() no longer warns on a sequence which is also a set.

bpo-31904 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904]: posixpath.expanduser() returns the input path unchanged if user home directory is None on VxWorks.

bpo-42388 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42388]: Fix subprocess.check_output(..., input=None) behavior when text=True to be consistent with that of the documentation and universal_newlines=True.

bpo-34463 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34463]: Fixed discrepancy between traceback and the interpreter in formatting of SyntaxError with lineno not set (traceback was changed to match interpreter).

bpo-42393 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42393]: Raise OverflowError instead of silent truncation in socket.ntohs() and socket.htons(). Silent truncation was deprecated in Python 3.7. Patch by Erlend E. Aasland

bpo-42222 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42222]: Harmonized random.randrange() argument handling to match range().

The integer test and conversion in randrange() now uses operator.index().

Non-integer arguments to randrange() are deprecated.

The ValueError is deprecated in favor of a TypeError.

It now runs a little faster than before.

(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and Serhiy Storchaka.)

bpo-42163 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42163]: Restore compatibility for uname_result around deepcopy and _replace.

bpo-42090 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42090]: zipfile.Path.joinpath now accepts arbitrary arguments, same as pathlib.Path.joinpath.

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port the _csv module to the multi-phase initialization API (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]).

bpo-42059 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42059]: typing.TypedDict types created using the alternative call-style syntax now correctly respect the total keyword argument when setting their __required_keys__ and __optional_keys__ class attributes.

bpo-41960 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41960]: Add globalns and localns parameters to the inspect.signature() and inspect.Signature.from_callable().

bpo-41907 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41907]: fix format() behavior for IntFlag

bpo-41891 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41891]: Ensure asyncio.wait_for waits for task completion

bpo-24792 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24792]: Fixed bug where zipimporter sometimes reports an incorrect cause of import errors.

bpo-31904 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904]: Fix site and sysconfig modules for VxWorks RTOS which has no home directories.

bpo-41462 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41462]: Add os.set_blocking() support for VxWorks RTOS.

bpo-40219 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40219]: Lowered tkinter.ttk.LabeledScale dummy widget to prevent hiding part of the content label.

bpo-37193 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37193]: Fixed memory leak in socketserver.ThreadingMixIn introduced in Python 3.7.

bpo-39068 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39068]: Fix initialization race condition in a85encode() and b85encode() in base64. Patch by Brandon Stansbury.

Documentation

bpo-17140 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17140]: Add documentation for the multiprocessing.pool.ThreadPool class.

bpo-34398 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34398]: Prominently feature listings from the glossary in documentation search results. Patch by Ammar Askar.

Tests

bpo-42794 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42794]: Update test_nntplib to use official group name of news.aioe.org for testing. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-31904 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904]: Skip some asyncio tests on VxWorks.

bpo-42641 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42641]: Enhance test_select.test_select(): it now takes 500 milliseconds rather than 10 seconds. Use Python rather than a shell to make the test more portable.

bpo-31904 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904]: Skip some tests in _test_all_chown_common() on VxWorks.

bpo-42199 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42199]: Fix bytecode helper assertNotInBytecode.

bpo-41443 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41443]: Add more attribute checking in test_posix.py

bpo-31904 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904]: Disable os.popen and impacted tests on VxWorks

bpo-41439 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41439]: Port test_ssl and test_uuid to VxWorks RTOS.

Build

bpo-42692 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42692]: Fix __builtin_available check on older compilers. Patch by Joshua Root.

bpo-27640 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27640]: Added --disable-test-modules option to the configure script: don't build nor install test modules. Patch by Xavier de Gaye, Thomas Petazzoni and Peixing Xin.

bpo-42604 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42604]: Now all platforms use a value for the "EXT_SUFFIX" build variable derived from SOABI (for instance in freeBSD, "EXT_SUFFIX" is now ".cpython-310d.so" instead of ".so"). Previously only Linux, Mac and VxWorks were using a value for "EXT_SUFFIX" that included "SOABI".

bpo-42598 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42598]: Fix implicit function declarations in configure which could have resulted in incorrect configuration checks. Patch contributed by Joshua Root.

bpo-31904 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904]: Enable libpython3.so for VxWorks.

bpo-29076 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29076]: Add fish shell support to macOS installer.

macOS

bpo-42361 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42361]: Update macOS installer build to use Tcl/Tk 8.6.11 (rc2, expected to be final release).

bpo-41837 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41837]: Update macOS installer build to use OpenSSL 1.1.1i.

bpo-42584 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42584]: Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.34.0.

Tools/Demos

bpo-42726 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42726]: Fixed Python 3 compatibility issue with gdb/libpython.py handling of attribute dictionaries.

bpo-42613 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42613]: Fix freeze.py tool to use the prope config and library directories. Patch by Victor Stinner.

C API

bpo-42591 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42591]: Export the Py_FrozenMain() function: fix a Python 3.9.0 regression. Python 3.9 uses -fvisibility=hidden and the function was not exported explicitly and so not exported.

bpo-32381 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32381]: Remove the private _Py_fopen() function which is no longer needed. Use _Py_wfopen() or _Py_fopen_obj() instead. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port resource extension module to module state

bpo-42111 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42111]: Update the xxlimited module to be a better example of how to use the limited C API.

bpo-40052 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40052]: Fix an alignment build warning/error in function PyVectorcall_Function(). Patch by Andreas Schneider, Antoine Pitrou and Petr Viktorin.

Python 3.10.0 alpha 3

Release date: 2020-12-07

Security

bpo-40791 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40791]: Add volatile to the accumulator variable in hmac.compare_digest, making constant-time-defeating optimizations less likely.

Core and Builtins

bpo-42576 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42576]: types.GenericAlias will now raise a TypeError when attempting to initialize with a keyword argument. Previously, this would cause the interpreter to crash if the interpreter was compiled with debug symbols. This does not affect interpreters compiled for release. Patch by Ken Jin.

bpo-42536 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42536]: Several built-in and standard library types now ensure that their internal result tuples are always tracked by the garbage collector:

collections.OrderedDict.items()

dict.items()

enumerate()

functools.reduce()

itertools.combinations()

itertools.combinations_with_replacement()

itertools.permutations()

itertools.product()

itertools.zip_longest()

zip()

Previously, they could have become untracked by a prior garbage collection. Patch by Brandt Bucher.

bpo-42500 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42500]: Improve handling of exceptions near recursion limit. Converts a number of Fatal Errors in RecursionErrors.

bpo-42246 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42246]: PEP 626: After a return, the f_lineno attribute of a frame is always the last line executed.

bpo-42435 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42435]: Speed up comparison of bytes objects with non-bytes objects when option -b is specified. Speed up comparison of bytarray objects with non-buffer object.

Library

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port the _warnings extension module to the multi-phase initialization API (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]). Patch by Victor Stinner.

Core and Builtins

bpo-41686 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41686]: On Windows, the SIGINT event, _PyOS_SigintEvent(), is now created even if Python is configured to not install signal handlers (if PyConfig.install_signal_handlers equals to 0, or Py_InitializeEx(0)).

bpo-42381 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42381]: Allow assignment expressions in set literals and set comprehensions as per PEP 572. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-42202 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42202]: Change function parameters annotations internal representation to tuple of strings. Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

bpo-42374 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42374]: Fix a regression introduced by the new parser, where an unparenthesized walrus operator was not allowed within generator expressions.

bpo-42316 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42316]: Allow an unparenthesized walrus in subscript indexes.

bpo-42349 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42349]: Make sure that the compiler front-end produces a well-formed control flow graph. Be more aggressive in the compiler back-end, as it is now safe to do so.

bpo-42296 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42296]: On Windows, fix a regression in signal handling which prevented to interrupt a program using CTRL+C. The signal handler can be run in a thread different than the Python thread, in which case the test deciding if the thread can handle signals is wrong.

bpo-42332 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42332]: types.GenericAlias objects can now be the targets of weakrefs.

bpo-42282 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42282]: Optimise constant subexpressions that appear as part of named expressions (previously the AST optimiser did not descend into named expressions). Patch by Nick Coghlan.

bpo-42266 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42266]: Fixed a bug with the LOAD_ATTR opcode cache that was not respecting monkey-patching a class-level attribute to make it a descriptor. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

Library

bpo-40077 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40077]: Convert queue to use heap types.

Core and Builtins

bpo-42246 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42246]: Improved accuracy of line tracing events and f_lineno attribute of Frame objects. See PEP 626 for details.

Library

bpo-40077 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40077]: Convert mmap to use heap types.

Core and Builtins

bpo-42233 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42233]: Allow GenericAlias objects to use union type expressions. This allows expressions like list[int] | dict[float, str] where previously a TypeError would have been thrown. This also fixes union type expressions not de-duplicating GenericAlias objects. (Contributed by Ken Jin in bpo-42233 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42233].)

bpo-26131 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26131]: The import system triggers a ImportWarning when it falls back to using load_module().

Library

bpo-5054 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5054]: CGIHTTPRequestHandler.run_cgi() HTTP_ACCEPT improperly parsed. Replace the special purpose getallmatchingheaders with generic get_all method and add relevant tests.

Original Patch by Martin Panter. Modified by Senthil Kumaran.

bpo-42562 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42562]: Fix issue when dis failed to parse function that has no line numbers. Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

bpo-17735 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17735]: inspect.findsource() now raises OSError instead of IndexError when co_lineno of a code object is greater than the file length. This can happen, for example, when a file is edited after it was imported. PR by Irit Katriel.

bpo-42116 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42116]: Fix handling of trailing comments by inspect.getsource().

bpo-42532 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42532]: Remove unexpected call of __bool__ when passing a spec_arg argument to a Mock.

bpo-38200 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38200]: Added itertools.pairwise()

bpo-41818 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41818]: Fix test_master_read() so that it succeeds on all platforms that either raise OSError or return b"" upon reading from master.

bpo-42487 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42487]: ChainMap.__iter__ no longer calls __getitem__ on underlying maps

bpo-42482 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42482]: TracebackException no longer holds a reference to the exception's traceback object. Consequently, instances of TracebackException for equivalent but non-equal exceptions now compare as equal.

bpo-41818 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41818]: Make test_openpty() avoid unexpected success due to number of rows and/or number of columns being == 0.

bpo-42392 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42392]: Remove loop parameter from asyncio.subprocess and asyncio.tasks functions. Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

bpo-42392 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42392]: Remove loop parameter from asyncio.open_connection and asyncio.start_server functions. Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

bpo-28468 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28468]: Add platform.freedesktop_os_release() function to parse freedesktop.org os-release files.

bpo-42299 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42299]: Removed the formatter module, which was deprecated in Python 3.4. It is somewhat obsolete, little used, and not tested. It was originally scheduled to be removed in Python 3.6, but such removals were delayed until after Python 2.7 EOL. Existing users should copy whatever classes they use into their code. Patch by Donghee Na and and Terry J. Reedy.

bpo-26131 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26131]: Deprecate zipimport.zipimporter.load_module() in favour of exec_module().

bpo-41818 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41818]: Updated tests for the pty library. test_basic() has been changed to test_openpty(); this additionally checks if slave termios and slave winsize are being set properly by pty.openpty(). In order to add support for FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD, and Darwin, this also adds test_master_read(), which demonstrates that pty.spawn() should not depend on an OSError to exit from its copy loop.

bpo-42392 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42392]: Remove loop parameter from __init__ in all asyncio.locks and asyncio.Queue classes. Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

bpo-15450 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15450]: Make filecmp.dircmp respect subclassing. Now the filecmp.dircmp.subdirs behaves as expected when subclassing dircmp.

bpo-42413 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42413]: The exception socket.timeout is now an alias of TimeoutError.

bpo-31904 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904]: Support signal module on VxWorks.

bpo-42406 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42406]: We fixed an issue in pickle.whichmodule in which importing multiprocessing could change the how pickle identifies which module an object belongs to, potentially breaking the unpickling of those objects.

bpo-42403 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42403]: Simplify the importlib external bootstrap code: importlib._bootstrap_external now uses regular imports to import builtin modules. When it is imported, the builtin __import__() function is already fully working and so can be used to import builtin modules like sys. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Convert _sre module types to heap types (PEP 384). Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-42375 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42375]: subprocess module update for DragonFlyBSD support.

bpo-41713 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41713]: Port the _signal extension module to the multi-phase initialization API (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]). Patch by Victor Stinner and Mohamed Koubaa.

bpo-37205 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37205]: time.time(), time.perf_counter() and time.monotonic() functions can no longer fail with a Python fatal error, instead raise a regular Python exception on failure.

bpo-42328 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42328]: Fixed tkinter.ttk.Style.map(). The function accepts now the representation of the default state as empty sequence (as returned by Style.map()). The structure of the result is now the same on all platform and does not depend on the value of wantobjects.

bpo-42345 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42345]: Fix various issues with typing.Literal parameter handling (flatten, deduplicate, use type to cache key). Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

bpo-37205 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37205]: time.perf_counter() on Windows and time.monotonic() on macOS are now system-wide. Previously, they used an offset computed at startup to reduce the precision loss caused by the float type. Use time.perf_counter_ns() and time.monotonic_ns() added in Python 3.7 to avoid this precision loss.

bpo-42318 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42318]: Fixed support of non-BMP characters in tkinter on macOS.

bpo-42350 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42350]: Fix the threading.Thread class at fork: do nothing if the thread is already stopped (ex: fork called at Python exit). Previously, an error was logged in the child process.

bpo-42333 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42333]: Port _ssl extension module to heap types.

bpo-42014 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42014]: The onerror callback from shutil.rmtree now receives correct function when os.open fails.

bpo-42237 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42237]: Fix os.sendfile() on illumos.

bpo-42308 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42308]: Add threading.__excepthook__ to allow retrieving the original value of threading.excepthook() in case it is set to a broken or a different value. Patch by Mario Corchero.

bpo-42131 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42131]: Implement PEP 451/spec methods on zipimport.zipimporter: find_spec(), create_module(), and exec_module().

This also allows for the documented deprecation of find_loader(), find_module(), and load_module().

bpo-41877 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41877]: Mock objects which are not unsafe will now raise an AttributeError if an attribute with the prefix asert, aseert, or assrt is accessed, in addition to this already happening for the prefixes assert or assret.

bpo-42264 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42264]: sqlite3.OptimizedUnicode has been undocumented and obsolete since Python 3.3, when it was made an alias to str. It is now deprecated, scheduled for removal in Python 3.12.

bpo-42251 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42251]: Added threading.gettrace() and threading.getprofile() to retrieve the functions set by threading.settrace() and threading.setprofile() respectively. Patch by Mario Corchero.

bpo-42249 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42249]: Fixed writing binary Plist files larger than 4 GiB.

bpo-42236 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42236]: On Unix, the os.device_encoding() function now returns 'UTF-8' rather than the device encoding if the Python UTF-8 Mode is enabled.

bpo-41754 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41754]: webbrowser: Ignore NotADirectoryError when calling xdg-settings.

bpo-42183 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42183]: Fix a stack overflow error for asyncio Task or Future repr().

The overflow occurs under some circumstances when a Task or Future recursively returns itself.

bpo-42140 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42140]: Improve asyncio.wait function to create the futures set just one time.

bpo-42133 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42133]: Update various modules in the stdlib to fall back on __spec__.loader when __loader__ isn't defined on a module.

bpo-26131 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26131]: The load_module() methods found in importlib now trigger a DeprecationWarning.

bpo-39825 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39825]: Windows: Change sysconfig.get_config_var('EXT_SUFFIX') to the expected full platform_tag.extension format. Previously it was hard-coded to .pyd, now it is compatible with distutils.sysconfig and will result in something like .cp38-win_amd64.pyd. This brings windows into conformance with the other platforms.

bpo-26389 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26389]: The traceback.format_exception(), traceback.format_exception_only(), and traceback.print_exception() functions can now take an exception object as a positional-only argument.

bpo-41889 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41889]: Enum: fix regression involving inheriting a multiply inherited enum

bpo-41861 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41861]: Convert sqlite3 to use heap types (PEP 384). Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-40624 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40624]: Added support for the XPath != operator in xml.etree

bpo-28850 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28850]: Fix pprint.PrettyPrinter.format() overrides being ignored for contents of small containers. The pprint._safe_repr() function was removed.

bpo-41625 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41625]: Expose the splice() as os.splice() in the os module. Patch by Pablo Galindo

bpo-34215 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34215]: Clarify the error message for asyncio.IncompleteReadError when expected is None.

bpo-41543 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41543]: Add async context manager support for contextlib.nullcontext.

bpo-21041 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21041]: pathlib.PurePath.parents now supports negative indexing. Patch contributed by Yaroslav Pankovych.

bpo-41332 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41332]: Added missing connect_accepted_socket() method to asyncio.AbstractEventLoop.

bpo-12800 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12800]: Extracting a symlink from a tarball should succeed and overwrite the symlink if it already exists. The fix is to remove the existing file or symlink before extraction. Based on patch by Chris AtLee, Jeffrey Kintscher, and Senthil Kumaran.

bpo-40968 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40968]: urllib.request and http.client now send http/1.1 ALPN extension during TLS handshake when no custom context is supplied.

bpo-41001 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41001]: Add os.eventfd() to provide a low level interface for Linux's event notification file descriptor.

bpo-40816 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40816]: Add AsyncContextDecorator to contextlib to support async context manager as a decorator.

bpo-40550 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40550]: Fix time-of-check/time-of-action issue in subprocess.Popen.send_signal.

bpo-39411 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39411]: Add an is_async identifier to pyclbr's Function objects. Patch by Batuhan Taskaya

bpo-35498 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35498]: Add slice support to pathlib.PurePath.parents.

Documentation

bpo-42238 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42238]: Tentative to deprecate make suspicious by first removing it from the CI and documentation builds, but keeping it around for manual uses.

bpo-42153 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42153]: Fix the URL for the IMAP protocol documents.

bpo-41028 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41028]: Language and version switchers, previously maintained in every cpython branches, are now handled by docsbuild-script.

Tests

bpo-41473 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41473]: Re-enable test_gdb on gdb 9.2 and newer: https://bugzilla.redhat.com/show_bug.cgi?id=1866884 bug is fixed in gdb 10.1.

bpo-42553 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42553]: Fix test_asyncio.test_call_later() race condition: don't measure asyncio performance in the call_later() unit test. The test failed randomly on the CI.

bpo-31904 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904]: Fix test_netrc on VxWorks: create temporary directories using temp_cwd().

bpo-31904 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904]: skip test_getaddrinfo_ipv6_scopeid_symbolic and test_getnameinfo_ipv6_scopeid_symbolic on VxWorks

bpo-31904 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904]: skip test_test of test_mailcap on VxWorks

bpo-31904 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904]: add shell requirement for test_pipes

bpo-31904 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904]: skip some tests related to fifo on VxWorks

bpo-31904 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904]: Fix test_doctest.py failures for VxWorks.

bpo-40754 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40754]: Include _testinternalcapi module in Windows installer for test suite

bpo-41561 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41561]: test_ssl: skip test_min_max_version_mismatch when TLS 1.0 is not available

bpo-31904 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904]: Fix os module failures for VxWorks RTOS.

bpo-31904 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904]: Fix fifo test cases for VxWorks RTOS.

Build

bpo-31904 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904]: remove libnet dependency from detect_socket() for VxWorks

bpo-42398 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42398]: Fix a race condition in "make regen-all" when make -jN option is used to run jobs in parallel. The clinic.py script now only use atomic write to write files. Moveover, generated files are now left unchanged if the content does not change, to not change the file modification time.

bpo-41617 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41617]: Fix building pycore_bitutils.h internal header on old clang version without __builtin_bswap16() (ex: Xcode 4.6.3 on Mac OS X 10.7). Patch by Joshua Root and Victor Stinner.

bpo-38823 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38823]: It is no longer possible to build the _ctypes extension module without wchar_t type: remove CTYPES_UNICODE macro. Anyway, the wchar_t type is required to build Python. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-42087 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42087]: Support was removed for AIX 5.3 and below. See bpo-40680 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40680].

bpo-40998 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40998]: Addressed three compiler warnings found by undefined behavior sanitizer (ubsan).

Windows

bpo-42120 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42120]: Remove macro definition of copysign (to _copysign) in headers.

bpo-38506 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38506]: The Windows launcher now properly handles Python 3.10 when listing installed Python versions.

macOS

bpo-42504 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42504]: Fix build on macOS Big Sur when MACOSX_DEPLOYMENT_TARGET=11

bpo-41116 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41116]: Ensure distutils.unixxcompiler.find_library_file can find system provided libraries on macOS 11.

bpo-41100 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41100]: Add support for macOS 11 and Apple Silicon systems.

It is now possible to build "Universal 2" binaries using "--enable-universalsdk --with-universal-archs=universal2".

Binaries build on later macOS versions can be deployed back to older versions (tested up to macOS 10.9), when using the correct deployment target. This is tested using Xcode 11 and later.

bpo-42232 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42232]: Added Darwin specific madvise options to mmap module.

bpo-38443 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38443]: The --enable-universalsdk and --with-universal-archs options for the configure script now check that the specified architectures can be used.

IDLE

bpo-42508 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42508]: Keep IDLE running on macOS. Remove obsolete workaround that prevented running files with shortcuts when using new universal2 installers built on macOS 11.

bpo-42426 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42426]: Fix reporting offset of the RE error in searchengine.

bpo-42415 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42415]: Get docstrings for IDLE calltips more often by using inspect.getdoc.

Tools/Demos

bpo-42212 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42212]: The smelly.py script now also checks the Python dynamic library and extension modules, not only the Python static library. Make also the script more verbose: explain what it does.

bpo-36310 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36310]: Allow Tools/i18n/pygettext.py to detect calls to gettext in f-strings.

C API

bpo-42423 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42423]: The PyType_FromSpecWithBases() and PyType_FromModuleAndSpec() functions now accept a single class as the bases argument.

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port select extension module to multiphase initialization (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]).

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port _posixsubprocess extension module to multiphase initialization (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]).

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port _posixshmem extension module to multiphase initialization (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/])

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port _struct extension module to multiphase initialization (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/])

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port spwd extension module to multiphase initialization (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/])

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port gc extension module to multiphase initialization (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/])

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port _queue extension module to multiphase initialization (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/])

bpo-39573 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573]: Convert Py_TYPE() and Py_SIZE() back to macros to allow using them as an l-value. Many third party C extension modules rely on the ability of using Py_TYPE() and Py_SIZE() to set an object type and size: Py_TYPE(obj) = type; and Py_SIZE(obj) = size;.

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port symtable extension module to multiphase initialization (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/])

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port grp and pwd extension modules to multiphase initialization (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/])

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port _random extension module to multiphase initialization (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/])

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port _hashlib extension module to multiphase initialization (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/])

bpo-41713 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41713]: Removed the undocumented PyOS_InitInterrupts() function. Initializing Python already implicitly installs signal handlers: see PyConfig.install_signal_handlers. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-40170 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170]: The Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN macro no longer accesses PyTypeObject attributes, but now can get the condition by calling the new private _PyTrash_cond() function which hides implementation details.

bpo-42260 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42260]: Py_GetPath(), Py_GetPrefix(), Py_GetExecPrefix(), Py_GetProgramFullPath(), Py_GetPythonHome() and Py_GetProgramName() functions now return NULL if called before Py_Initialize() (before Python is initialized). Use the new Python Initialization Configuration API to get the Python Path Configuration.. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-42260 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42260]: The PyConfig_Read() function now only parses PyConfig.argv arguments once: PyConfig.parse_argv is set to 2 after arguments are parsed. Since Python arguments are strippped from PyConfig.argv, parsing arguments twice would parse the application options as Python options.

bpo-42262 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42262]: Added Py_NewRef() and Py_XNewRef() functions to increment the reference count of an object and return the object. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-42260 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42260]: When Py_Initialize() is called twice, the second call now updates more sys attributes for the configuration, rather than only sys.argv. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-41832 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41832]: The PyType_FromModuleAndSpec() function now accepts NULL tp_doc slot.

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Added PyModule_AddObjectRef() function: similar to PyModule_AddObject() but don't steal a reference to the value on success. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-42171 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42171]: The METH_FASTCALL calling convention is added to the limited API. The functions PyModule_AddType(), PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(), PyType_GetModule() and PyType_GetModuleState() are added to the limited API on Windows.

bpo-42085 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42085]: Add dedicated entry to PyAsyncMethods for sending values

bpo-41073 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41073]: PyType_GetSlot() can now accept static types.

bpo-30459 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30459]: PyList_SET_ITEM(), PyTuple_SET_ITEM() and PyCell_SET() macros can no longer be used as l-value or r-value. For example, x = PyList_SET_ITEM(a, b, c) and PyList_SET_ITEM(a, b, c) = x now fail with a compiler error. It prevents bugs like if (PyList_SET_ITEM (a, b, c) < 0) ... test. Patch by Zackery Spytz and Victor Stinner.

Python 3.10.0 alpha 2

Release date: 2020-11-03

Security

bpo-42103 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42103]: Prevented potential DoS attack via CPU and RAM exhaustion when processing malformed Apple Property List files in binary format.

bpo-42051 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42051]: The plistlib module no longer accepts entity declarations in XML plist files to avoid XML vulnerabilities. This should not affect users as entity declarations are not used in regular plist files.

Core and Builtins

bpo-42236 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42236]: If the nl_langinfo(CODESET) function returns an empty string, Python now uses UTF-8 as the filesystem encoding. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-42218 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42218]: Fixed a bug in the PEG parser that was causing crashes in debug mode. Now errors are checked in left-recursive rules to avoid cases where such errors do not get handled in time and appear as long-distance crashes in other places.

bpo-42214 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42214]: Fixed a possible crash in the PEG parser when checking for the '!=' token in the barry_as_flufl rule. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-42206 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42206]: Propagate and raise the errors caused by PyAST_Validate() in the parser.

bpo-41796 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41796]: The ast module internal state is now per interpreter. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-42143 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42143]: Fix handling of errors during creation of PyFunctionObject, which resulted in operations on uninitialized memory. Patch by Yonatan Goldschmidt.

bpo-41659 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41659]: Fix a bug in the parser, where a curly brace following a primary didn't fail immediately. This led to invalid expressions like a {b} to throw a SyntaxError with a wrong offset, or invalid expressions ending with a curly brace like a { to not fail immediately in the REPL.

bpo-42150 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42150]: Fix possible buffer overflow in the new parser when checking for continuation lines. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-42123 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42123]: Run the parser two times. On the first run, disable all the rules that only generate better error messages to gain performance. If there's a parse failure, run the parser a second time with those enabled.

bpo-42093 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42093]: The LOAD_ATTR instruction now uses new "per opcode cache" mechanism and it is about 36% faster now. Patch by Pablo Galindo and Yury Selivanov.

bpo-42030 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42030]: Support for the legacy AIX-specific shared library loading support has been removed. All versions of AIX since 4.3 have supported and defaulted to using the common Unix mechanism instead.

bpo-41984 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41984]: The garbage collector now tracks all user-defined classes. Patch by Brandt Bucher.

bpo-41993 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41993]: Fixed potential issues with removing not completely initialized module from sys.modules when import fails.

bpo-41979 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41979]: Star-unpacking is now allowed for with item's targets in the PEG parser.

bpo-41974 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41974]: Removed special methods __int__, __float__, __floordiv__, __mod__, __divmod__, __rfloordiv__, __rmod__ and __rdivmod__ of the complex class. They always raised a TypeError.

bpo-41902 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41902]: Micro optimization when compute sq_item and mp_subscript of range. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-41894 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41894]: When loading a native module and a load failure occurs, prevent a possible UnicodeDecodeError when not running in a UTF-8 locale by decoding the load error message using the current locale's encoding.

bpo-41902 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41902]: Micro optimization for range.index if step is 1. Patch by Donghee Na.

Library

bpo-41435 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41435]: Add sys._current_exceptions() function to retrieve a dictionary mapping each thread's identifier to the topmost exception currently active in that thread at the time the function is called.

Core and Builtins

bpo-38605 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38605]: Enable from __future__ import annotations (PEP 563 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/]) by default. The values found in __annotations__ dicts are now strings, for example {"x": "int"} instead of {"x": int}.

Library

bpo-35455 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35455]: On Solaris, thread_time() is now implemented with gethrvtime() because clock_gettime(CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID) is not always available. Patch by Jakub Kulik.

bpo-42233 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42233]: The repr() of typing types containing Generic Alias Types previously did not show the parameterized types in the GenericAlias. They have now been changed to do so.

bpo-29566 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29566]: binhex.binhex() consistently writes macOS 9 line endings.

bpo-26789 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26789]: The logging.FileHandler class now keeps a reference to the builtin open() function to be able to open or reopen the file during Python finalization. Fix errors like: NameError: name 'open' is not defined. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-42157 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42157]: Removed the unicodedata.ucnhash_CAPI attribute which was an internal PyCapsule object. The related private _PyUnicode_Name_CAPI structure was moved to the internal C API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-42157 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42157]: Convert the unicodedata extension module to the multiphase initialization API (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]) and convert the unicodedata.UCD static type to a heap type. Patch by Mohamed Koubaa and Victor Stinner.

bpo-42146 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42146]: Fix memory leak in subprocess.Popen() in case an uid (gid) specified in user (group, extra_groups) overflows uid_t (gid_t).

bpo-42103 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42103]: InvalidFileException and RecursionError are now the only errors caused by loading malformed binary Plist file (previously ValueError and TypeError could be raised in some specific cases).

bpo-41490 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41490]: In importlib.resources, .path method is more aggressive about releasing handles to zipfile objects early, enabling use-cases like certifi to leave the context open but delete the underlying zip file.

bpo-41052 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41052]: Pickling heap types implemented in C with protocols 0 and 1 raises now an error instead of producing incorrect data.

bpo-42089 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42089]: In importlib.metadata.PackageNotFoundError, make reference to the package metadata being missing to improve the user experience.

bpo-41491 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41491]: plistlib: fix parsing XML plists with hexadecimal integer values

bpo-42065 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42065]: Fix an incorrectly formatted error from _codecs.charmap_decode() when called with a mapped value outside the range of valid Unicode code points. PR by Max Bernstein.

bpo-41966 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41966]: Fix pickling pure Python datetime.time subclasses. Patch by Dean Inwood.

bpo-19270 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19270]: sched.scheduler.cancel() will now cancel the correct event, if two events with same priority are scheduled for the same time. Patch by Bar Harel.

bpo-28660 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28660]: textwrap.wrap() now attempts to break long words after hyphens when break_long_words=True and break_on_hyphens=True.

bpo-35823 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35823]: Use vfork() instead of fork() for subprocess.Popen() on Linux to improve performance in cases where it is deemed safe.

bpo-42043 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42043]: Add support for zipfile.Path inheritance. zipfile.Path.is_file() now returns False for non-existent names. zipfile.Path objects now expose a .filename attribute and rely on that to resolve .name and .parent when the Path object is at the root of the zipfile.

bpo-42021 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42021]: Fix possible ref leaks in sqlite3 module init.

bpo-39101 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39101]: Fixed tests using IsolatedAsyncioTestCase from hanging on BaseExceptions.

bpo-41976 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41976]: Fixed a bug that was causing ctypes.util.find_library() to return None when triying to locate a library in an environment when gcc>=9 is available and ldconfig is not. Patch by Pablo Galindo

bpo-41943 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41943]: Fix bug where TestCase.assertLogs doesn't correctly filter messages by level.

bpo-41923 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41923]: Implement PEP 613 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0613/], introducing typing.TypeAlias annotation.

bpo-41905 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41905]: A new function in abc: update_abstractmethods to re-calculate an abstract class's abstract status. In addition, dataclass has been changed to call this function.

bpo-23706 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23706]: Added newline parameter to pathlib.Path.write_text().

bpo-41876 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41876]: Tkinter font class repr uses font name

bpo-41831 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41831]: str() for the type attribute of the tkinter.Event object always returns now the numeric code returned by Tk instead of the name of the event type.

bpo-39337 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39337]: encodings.normalize_encoding() now ignores non-ASCII characters.

bpo-41747 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41747]: Ensure all methods that generated from dataclasses.dataclass() objects now have the proper __qualname__ attribute referring to the class they belong to. Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

bpo-30681 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30681]: Handle exceptions caused by unparsable date headers when using email "default" policy. Patch by Tim Bell, Georges Toth

bpo-41586 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41586]: Add F_SETPIPE_SZ and F_GETPIPE_SZ to fcntl module. Allow setting pipesize on subprocess.Popen.

bpo-41229 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41229]: Add contextlib.aclosing for deterministic cleanup of async generators which is analogous to contextlib.closing for non-async generators. Patch by Joongi Kim and John Belmonte.

bpo-16396 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16396]: Allow ctypes.wintypes to be imported on non-Windows systems.

bpo-4356 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4356]: Add a key function to the bisect module.

bpo-40592 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40592]: shutil.which() now ignores empty entries in PATHEXT instead of treating them as a match.

bpo-40492 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40492]: Fix --outfile for cProfile / profile not writing the output file in the original directory when the program being profiled changes the working directory. PR by Anthony Sottile.

bpo-34204 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34204]: The shelve module now uses pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL by default instead of pickle protocol 3.

bpo-27321 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27321]: Fixed KeyError exception when flattening an email to a string attempts to replace a non-existent Content-Transfer-Encoding header.

bpo-38976 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38976]: The http.cookiejar module now supports the parsing of cookies in CURL-style cookiejar files through MozillaCookieJar on all platforms. Previously, such cookie entries would be silently ignored when loading a cookiejar with such entries.

Additionally, the HTTP Only attribute is persisted in the object, and will be correctly written to file if the MozillaCookieJar object is subsequently dumped.

Documentation

bpo-42061 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42061]: Document __format__ functionality for IP addresses.

bpo-41910 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41910]: Document the default implementation of object.__eq__.

bpo-42010 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42010]: Clarify that subscription expressions are also valid for certain classes and types in the standard library, and for user-defined classes and types if the classmethod __class_getitem__() is provided.

bpo-41805 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41805]: Documented generic alias type and types.GenericAlias. Also added an entry in glossary for generic types.

bpo-39693 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39693]: Fix tarfile's extractfile documentation

bpo-39416 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39416]: Document some restrictions on the default string representations of numeric classes.

Tests

bpo-41739 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41739]: Fix test_logging.test_race_between_set_target_and_flush(): the test now waits until all threads complete to avoid leaking running threads.

bpo-41970 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41970]: Avoid a test failure in test_lib2to3 if the module has already imported at the time the test executes. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-41944 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41944]: Tests for CJK codecs no longer call eval() on content received via HTTP.

bpo-41306 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41306]: Fixed a failure in test_tk.test_widgets.ScaleTest happening when executing the test with Tk 8.6.10.

Build

bpo-38980 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38980]: Add -fno-semantic-interposition to both the compile and link line when building with --enable-optimizations. Patch by Victor Stinner and Pablo Galindo.

Windows

bpo-38439 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38439]: Updates the icons for IDLE in the Windows Store package.

bpo-38252 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38252]: Use 8-byte step to detect ASCII sequence in 64-bit Windows build.

bpo-39107 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39107]: Update Tcl and Tk to 8.6.10 in Windows installer.

bpo-41557 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41557]: Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.33.0.

bpo-38324 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38324]: Avoid Unicode errors when accessing certain locale data on Windows.

macOS

bpo-41471 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41471]: Ignore invalid prefix lengths in system proxy excludes.

IDLE

bpo-33987 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33987]: Mostly finish using ttk widgets, mainly for editor, settings, and searches. Some patches by Mark Roseman.

bpo-40511 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40511]: Typing opening and closing parentheses inside the parentheses of a function call will no longer cause unnecessary "flashing" off and on of an existing open call-tip, e.g. when typed in a string literal.

bpo-38439 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38439]: Add a 256×256 pixel IDLE icon to the Windows .ico file. Created by Andrew Clover. Remove the low-color gif variations from the .ico file.

C API

bpo-42157 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42157]: The private _PyUnicode_Name_CAPI structure of the PyCapsule API unicodedata.ucnhash_CAPI has been moved to the internal C API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-42015 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42015]: Fix potential crash in deallocating method objects when dynamically allocated PyMethodDef's lifetime is managed through the self argument of a PyCFunction.

bpo-40423 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40423]: The subprocess module and os.closerange will now use the close_range(low, high, flags) syscall when it is available for more efficient closing of ranges of descriptors.

bpo-41845 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41845]: PyObject_GenericGetDict() is available again in the limited API when targeting 3.10 or later.

bpo-40422 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40422]: Add _Py_closerange function to provide performant closing of a range of file descriptors.

bpo-41986 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41986]: Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors and Py_UTF8Mode are available again in limited API.

bpo-41756 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41756]: Add PyIter_Send function to allow sending value into generator/coroutine/iterator without raising StopIteration exception to signal return.

bpo-41784 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41784]: Added PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize to the limited C API.

Python 3.10.0 alpha 1

Release date: 2020-10-05

Security

bpo-41304 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41304]: Fixes python3x._pth being ignored on Windows, caused by the fix for bpo-29778 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29778] (CVE 2020-15801 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-15801]).

bpo-41162 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41162]: Audit hooks are now cleared later during finalization to avoid missing events.

bpo-29778 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29778]: Ensure python3.dll is loaded from correct locations when Python is embedded (CVE 2020-15523 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-15523]).

bpo-41004 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41004]: The __hash__() methods of ipaddress.IPv4Interface and ipaddress.IPv6Interface incorrectly generated constant hash values of 32 and 128 respectively. This resulted in always causing hash collisions. The fix uses hash() to generate hash values for the tuple of (address, mask length, network address).

bpo-39603 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39603]: Prevent http header injection by rejecting control characters in http.client.putrequest(...).

Core and Builtins

bpo-41909 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41909]: Fixed stack overflow in issubclass() and isinstance() when getting the __bases__ attribute leads to infinite recursion.

bpo-41922 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41922]: Speed up calls to reversed() by using the PEP 590 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/] vectorcall calling convention. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-41873 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41873]: Calls to float() are now faster due to the vectorcall calling convention. Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

bpo-41870 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41870]: Speed up calls to bool() by using the PEP 590 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/] vectorcall calling convention. Patch by Donghee Na.

Library

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port the _bisect module to the multi-phase initialization API (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]).

Core and Builtins

bpo-39934 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39934]: Correctly count control blocks in 'except' in compiler. Ensures that a syntax error, rather a fatal error, occurs for deeply nested, named exception handlers.

bpo-41780 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41780]: Fix __dir__() of types.GenericAlias. Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

Library

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port the _lsprof extension module to multi-phase initialization (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]).

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port the cmath extension module to multi-phase initialization (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]).

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port the _scproxy extension module to multi-phase initialization (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]).

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port the termios extension module to multi-phase initialization (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]).

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Convert the _sha256 extension module types to heap types.

Core and Builtins

bpo-41690 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41690]: Fix a possible stack overflow in the parser when parsing functions and classes with a huge amount of arguments. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

Library

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port the _overlapped extension module to multi-phase initialization (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]).

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port the _curses_panel extension module to multi-phase initialization (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]).

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port the _opcode extension module to multi-phase initialization (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]).

Core and Builtins

bpo-41681 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41681]: Fixes the wrong error description in the error raised by using 2 , in format string in f-string and str.format().

Library

bpo-41675 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41675]: The implementation of signal.siginterrupt() now uses sigaction() (if it is available in the system) instead of the deprecated siginterrupt(). Patch by Pablo Galindo.

Core and Builtins

bpo-41670 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41670]: Prevent line trace being skipped on platforms not compiled with USE_COMPUTED_GOTOS. Fixes issue where some lines nested within a try-except block were not being traced on Windows.

bpo-41654 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41654]: Fix a crash that occurred when destroying subclasses of MemoryError. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

Library

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port the zlib extension module to multi-phase initialization (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]).

Core and Builtins

bpo-41631 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41631]: The _ast module uses again a global state. Using a module state per module instance is causing subtle practical problems. For example, the Mercurial project replaces the __import__() function to implement lazy import, whereas Python expected that import _ast always return a fully initialized _ast module.

Library

bpo-40077 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40077]: Convert _operator to use PyType_FromSpec().

Core and Builtins

bpo-1653741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1653741]: Port _sha3 to multi-phase init. Convert static types to heap types.

Library

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port the _blake2 extension module to the multi-phase initialization API (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]).

Core and Builtins

bpo-41533 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41533]: Free the stack allocated in va_build_stack if do_mkstack fails and the stack is not a small_stack.

bpo-41531 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41531]: Fix a bug that was dropping keys when compiling dict literals with more than 0xFFFF elements. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-41525 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41525]: The output of python --help contains now only ASCII characters.

Library

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port the _sha1, _sha512, and _md5 extension modules to multi-phase initialization API (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]).

Core and Builtins

bpo-41431 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41431]: Optimize dict_merge() for copying dict (e.g. dict(d) and {}.update(d)).

bpo-41428 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41428]: Implement PEP 604. This supports (int | str) etc. in place of Union[str, int].

bpo-41340 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41340]: Removed fallback implementation for strdup.

bpo-38156 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38156]: Handle interrupts that come after EOF correctly in PyOS_StdioReadline.

bpo-41342 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41342]: round() with integer argument is now faster (9--60%).

bpo-41334 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41334]: Constructors str(), bytes() and bytearray() are now faster (around 30--40% for small objects).

bpo-41295 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41295]: Resolve a regression in CPython 3.8.4 where defining "__setattr__" in a multi-inheritance setup and calling up the hierarchy chain could fail if builtins/extension types were involved in the base types.

bpo-41323 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41323]: Bytecode optimizations are performed directly on the control flow graph. This will result in slightly more compact code objects in some circumstances.

bpo-41247 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41247]: Always cache the running loop holder when running asyncio.set_running_loop.

bpo-41252 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41252]: Fix incorrect refcounting in _ssl.c's _servername_callback().

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port multiprocessing to multi-phase initialization

Library

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port winapi to multiphase initialization

Core and Builtins

bpo-41215 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41215]: Use non-NULL default values in the PEG parser keyword list to overcome a bug that was preventing Python from being properly compiled when using the XLC compiler. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-41218 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41218]: Python 3.8.3 had a regression where compiling with ast.PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT would aggressively mark list comprehension with CO_COROUTINE. Now only list comprehension making use of async/await will tagged as so.

Library

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port faulthandler to multiphase initialization.

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port sha256 to multiphase initialization

Core and Builtins

bpo-41175 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41175]: Guard against a NULL pointer dereference within bytearrayobject triggered by the bytearray() + bytearray() operation.

bpo-41100 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41100]: add arm64 to the allowable Mac OS arches in mpdecimal.h

bpo-41094 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41094]: Fix decoding errors with audit when open files with non-ASCII names on non-UTF-8 locale.

bpo-39960 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39960]: The "hackcheck" that prevents sneaking around a type's __setattr__() by calling the superclass method was rewritten to allow C implemented heap types.

bpo-41084 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41084]: Prefix the error message with 'f-string: ', when parsing an f-string expression which throws a SyntaxError.

bpo-40521 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40521]: Empty frozensets are no longer singletons.

bpo-41076 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41076]: Pre-feed the parser with the location of the f-string expression, not the f-string itself, which allows us to skip the shifting of the AST node locations after the parsing is completed.

bpo-41056 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41056]: Fixes a reference to deallocated stack space during startup when constructing sys.path involving a relative symlink when code was supplied via -c. (discovered via Coverity)

bpo-41061 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41061]: Fix incorrect expressions and asserts in hashtable code and tests.

bpo-41052 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41052]: Opt out serialization/deserialization for _random.Random

bpo-40939 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40939]: Rename PyPegen* functions to PyParser*, so that we can remove the old set of PyParser* functions that were using the old parser, but keep everything backwards-compatible.

bpo-35975 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35975]: Stefan Behnel reported that cf_feature_version is used even when PyCF_ONLY_AST is not set. This is against the intention and against the documented behavior, so it's been fixed.

bpo-40939 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40939]: Remove the remaining files from the old parser and the symbol module.

Library

bpo-40077 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40077]: Convert _bz2 to use PyType_FromSpec().

Core and Builtins

bpo-41006 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41006]: The encodings.latin_1 module is no longer imported at startup. Now it is only imported when it is the filesystem encoding or the stdio encoding.

bpo-40636 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40636]: zip() now supports PEP 618 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0618/]'s strict parameter, which raises a ValueError if the arguments are exhausted at different lengths. Patch by Brandt Bucher.

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port _gdbm to multiphase initialization.

bpo-40985 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40985]: Fix a bug that caused the SyntaxError text to be empty when a file ends with a line ending in a line continuation character (i.e. backslash). The error text should contain the text of the last line.

bpo-40958 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40958]: Fix a possible buffer overflow in the PEG parser when gathering information for emitting syntax errors. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port _dbm to multiphase initialization.

bpo-40957 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40957]: Fix refleak in _Py_fopen_obj() when PySys_Audit() fails

Library

bpo-40950 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40950]: Add a state to the nis module (PEP 3121 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3121/]) and apply the multiphase initialization. Patch by Donghee Na.

Core and Builtins

bpo-40947 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40947]: The Python Path Configuration now takes PyConfig.platlibdir in account.

bpo-40939 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40939]: Remove the old parser, the parser module and all associated support code, command-line options and environment variables. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-40847 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40847]: Fix a bug where a line with only a line continuation character is not considered a blank line at tokenizer level. In such cases, more than a single NEWLINE token was emitted. The old parser was working around the issue, but the new parser threw a SyntaxError for valid input due to this. For example, an empty line following a line continuation character was interpreted as a SyntaxError.

bpo-40890 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40890]: Each dictionary view now has a mapping attribute that provides a types.MappingProxyType wrapping the original dictionary. Patch contributed by Dennis Sweeney.

bpo-40889 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40889]: Improved the performance of symmetric difference operations on dictionary item views. Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

bpo-40904 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40904]: Fix possible segfault in the new PEG parser when parsing f-string containing yield statements with no value (f"{yield}"). Patch by Pablo Galindo

bpo-40903 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40903]: Fixed a possible segfault in the new PEG parser when producing error messages for invalid assignments of the form p=p=. Patch by Pablo Galindo

bpo-40880 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40880]: Fix invalid memory read in the new parser when checking newlines in string literals. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-40883 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40883]: Fix memory leak in when parsing f-strings in the new parser. Patch by Pablo Galindo

bpo-40870 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40870]: Raise ValueError when validating custom AST's where the constants True, False and None are used within a ast.Name node.

bpo-40854 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40854]: Allow overriding sys.platlibdir via a new PYTHONPLATLIBDIR environment variable.

bpo-40826 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40826]: Fix GIL usage in PyOS_Readline(): lock the GIL to set an exception and pass the Python thread state when checking if there is a pending signal.

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port fcntl to multiphase initialization.

bpo-19468 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19468]: Delete unnecessary instance check in importlib.reload(). Patch by Furkan Önder.

bpo-40824 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40824]: Unexpected errors in calling the __iter__ method are no longer masked by TypeError in the in operator and functions contains(), indexOf() and countOf() of the operator module.

bpo-40792 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40792]: Attributes start, stop and step of the range object now always has exact type int. Previously, they could have been an instance of a subclass of int.

bpo-40780 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40780]: Fix a corner case where g-style string formatting of a float failed to remove trailing zeros.

bpo-38964 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38964]: When there's a SyntaxError in the expression part of an fstring, the filename attribute of the SyntaxError gets correctly set to the name of the file the fstring resides in.

bpo-40750 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40750]: Support the "-d" debug flag in the new PEG parser. Patch by Pablo Galindo

bpo-40217 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40217]: Instances of types created with PyType_FromSpecWithBases() will no longer automatically visit their class object when traversing references in the garbage collector. The user is expected to manually visit the object's class. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-39573 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573]: Py_TYPE() is changed to the inline static function. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-40696 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40696]: Fix a hang that can arise after generator.throw() due to a cycle in the exception context chain.

bpo-40521 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40521]: Each interpreter now its has own free lists, singletons and caches:

Free lists: float, tuple, list, dict, frame, context, asynchronous generator, MemoryError.

Singletons: empty tuple, empty bytes string, empty Unicode string, single byte character, single Unicode (latin1) character.

Slice cache.

They are no longer shared by all interpreters.

bpo-40679 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40679]: Certain TypeError messages about missing or extra arguments now include the function's qualified name. Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

bpo-29590 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29590]: Make the stack trace correct after calling generator.throw() on a generator that has yielded from a yield from.

bpo-4022 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4022]: Improve performance of generators by not raising internal StopIteration.

Library

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port mmap to multiphase initialization.

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port _lzma to multiphase initialization.

Core and Builtins

bpo-37999 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37999]: Builtin and extension functions that take integer arguments no longer accept Decimals, Fractions and other objects that can be converted to integers only with a loss (e.g. that have the __int__() method but do not have the __index__() method).

bpo-29882 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29882]: Add int.bit_count(), counting the number of ones in the binary representation of an integer. Patch by Niklas Fiekas.

Library

bpo-36982 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36982]: Use ncurses extended color functions when available to support terminals with 256 colors, and add the new function curses.has_extended_color_support() to indicate whether extended color support is provided by the underlying ncurses library.

Core and Builtins

bpo-19569 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19569]: Add the private macros _Py_COMP_DIAG_PUSH, _Py_COMP_DIAG_IGNORE_DEPR_DECLS, and _Py_COMP_DIAG_POP.

bpo-26680 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26680]: The int type now supports the x.is_integer() method for compatibility with float.

Library

bpo-41900 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41900]: C14N 2.0 serialisation in xml.etree.ElementTree failed for unprefixed attributes when a default namespace was defined.

bpo-41887 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41887]: Strip leading spaces and tabs on ast.literal_eval(). Also document stripping of spaces and tabs for eval().

bpo-41773 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41773]: Note in documentation that random.choices() doesn't support non-finite weights, raise ValueError when given non-finite weights.

bpo-41840 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41840]: Fix a bug in the symtable module that was causing module-scope global variables to not be reported as both local and global. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-41842 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41842]: Add codecs.unregister() function to unregister a codec search function.

bpo-40564 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40564]: In zipfile.Path, mutate the passed ZipFile object type instead of making a copy. Prevents issues when both the local copy and the caller’s copy attempt to close the same file handle.

bpo-40670 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40670]: More reliable validation of statements in timeit.Timer. It now accepts "empty" statements (only whitespaces and comments) and rejects misindentent statements.

bpo-41833 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41833]: The threading.Thread constructor now uses the target name if the target argument is specified but the name argument is omitted.

bpo-41817 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41817]: fix tkinter.EventType Enum so all members are strings, and none are tuples

bpo-41810 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41810]: types.EllipsisType, types.NotImplementedType and types.NoneType have been reintroduced, providing a new set of types readily interpretable by static type checkers.

bpo-41815 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41815]: Fix SQLite3 segfault when backing up closed database. Patch contributed by Peter David McCormick.

bpo-41816 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41816]: StrEnum added: it ensures that all members are already strings or string candidates

bpo-41517 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41517]: fix bug allowing Enums to be extended via multiple inheritance

bpo-39587 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39587]: use the correct mix-in data type when constructing Enums

bpo-41792 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41792]: Add is_typeddict function to typing.py to check if a type is a TypedDict class

Previously there was no way to check that without using private API. See the relevant issue in python/typing [https://github.com/python/typing/issues/751].

bpo-41789 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41789]: Honor object overrides in Enum class creation (specifically, __str__, __repr__, __format__, and __reduce_ex__).

bpo-32218 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32218]: enum.Flag and enum.IntFlag members are now iterable.

bpo-39651 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39651]: Fix a race condition in the call_soon_threadsafe() method of asyncio.ProactorEventLoop: do nothing if the self-pipe socket has been closed.

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port the mashal extension module to the multi-phase initialization API (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]).

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port the _string extension module to the multi-phase initialization API (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]).

bpo-41732 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41732]: Added an iterator to memoryview.

bpo-41720 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41720]: Fixed turtle.Vec2D.__rmul__() for arguments which are not int or float.

bpo-41696 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41696]: Fix handling of debug mode in asyncio.run(). This allows setting PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG or -X dev to enable asyncio debug mode when using asyncio.run().

bpo-41687 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41687]: Fix implementation of sendfile to be compatible with Solaris.

bpo-41662 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41662]: No longer override exceptions raised in __len__() of a sequence of parameters in sqlite3 with ProgrammingError.

bpo-39010 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39010]: Restarting a ProactorEventLoop on Windows no longer logs spurious ConnectionResetErrors.

bpo-41638 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41638]: ProgrammingError message for absent parameter in sqlite3 contains now the name of the parameter instead of its index when parameters are supplied as a dict.

bpo-41662 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41662]: Fixed crash when mutate list of parameters during iteration in sqlite3.

bpo-41513 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41513]: Improved the accuracy of math.hypot(). Internally, each step is computed with extra precision so that the result is now almost always correctly rounded.

bpo-41609 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41609]: The pdb whatis command correctly reports instance methods as 'Method' rather than 'Function'.

bpo-39994 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39994]: Fixed pprint's handling of dict subclasses that override __repr__.

bpo-32751 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32751]: When cancelling the task due to a timeout, asyncio.wait_for() will now wait until the cancellation is complete also in the case when timeout is <= 0, like it does with positive timeouts.

bpo-37658 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37658]: asyncio.wait_for() now properly handles races between cancellation of itself and the completion of the wrapped awaitable.

bpo-40782 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40782]: Change the method asyncio.AbstractEventLoop.run_in_executor to not be a coroutine.

bpo-41520 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41520]: Fix codeop regression that prevented turning compile warnings into errors.

bpo-41528 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41528]: turtle uses math module functions to convert degrees to radians and vice versa and to calculate vector norm

bpo-41513 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41513]: Minor algorithmic improvement to math.hypot() and math.dist() giving small gains in speed and accuracy.

bpo-41503 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41503]: Fixed a race between setTarget and flush in logging.handlers.MemoryHandler.

bpo-41497 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41497]: Fix potential UnicodeDecodeError in dis module.

bpo-41467 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41467]: On Windows, fix asyncio recv_into() return value when the socket/pipe is closed (BrokenPipeError): return 0 rather than an empty byte string (b'').

bpo-41425 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41425]: Make tkinter doc example runnable.

bpo-41421 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41421]: Make an algebraic simplification to random.paretovariate(). It now is slightly less subject to round-off error and is slightly faster. Inputs that used to cause ZeroDivisionError now cause an OverflowError instead.

bpo-41440 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41440]: Add os.cpu_count() support for VxWorks RTOS.

bpo-41316 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41316]: Fix the tarfile module to write only basename of TAR file to GZIP compression header.

bpo-41384 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41384]: Raise TclError instead of TypeError when an unknown option is passed to tkinter.OptionMenu.

bpo-41317 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41317]: Use add_done_callback() in asyncio.loop.sock_accept() to unsubscribe reader early on cancellation.

bpo-41364 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41364]: Reduce import overhead of uuid.

bpo-35328 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35328]: Set the environment variable VIRTUAL_ENV_PROMPT at venv activation.

bpo-41341 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41341]: Recursive evaluation of typing.ForwardRef in get_type_hints.

bpo-41344 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41344]: Prevent creating shared_memory.SharedMemory objects with size=0.

bpo-41333 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41333]: collections.OrderedDict.pop() is now 2 times faster.

bpo-41288 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41288]: Unpickling invalid NEWOBJ_EX opcode with the C implementation raises now UnpicklingError instead of crashing.

bpo-39017 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39017]: Avoid infinite loop when reading specially crafted TAR files using the tarfile module (CVE 2019-20907 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2019-20907]).

bpo-41273 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41273]: Speed up any transport using _ProactorReadPipeTransport by calling recv_into instead of recv, thus not creating a new buffer for each recv call in the transport's read loop.

bpo-41235 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41235]: Fix the error handling in ssl.SSLContext.load_dh_params().

bpo-41207 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41207]: In distutils.spawn, restore expectation that DistutilsExecError is raised when the command is not found.

bpo-29727 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29727]: Register array.array as a MutableSequence. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-39168 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39168]: Remove the __new__ method of typing.Generic.

bpo-41194 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41194]: Fix a crash in the _ast module: it can no longer be loaded more than once. It now uses a global state rather than a module state.

bpo-41195 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41195]: Add read-only ssl.SSLContext.security_level attribute to retrieve the context's security level.

bpo-41193 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41193]: The write_history() atexit function of the readline completer now ignores any OSError to ignore error if the filesystem is read-only, instead of only ignoring FileNotFoundError and PermissionError.

bpo-41182 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41182]: selector: use DefaultSelector based upon implementation

bpo-41161 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41161]: The decimal module now requires libmpdec-2.5.0. Users of --with-system-libmpdec should update their system library.

bpo-40874 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40874]: The decimal module now requires libmpdec-2.5.0.

bpo-41138 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41138]: Fixed the trace module CLI for Python source files with non-UTF-8 encoding.

bpo-31082 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31082]: Use the term "iterable" in the docstring for functools.reduce().

bpo-40521 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40521]: Remove freelist from collections.deque().

bpo-31938 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31938]: Fix default-value signatures of several functions in the select module - by Anthony Sottile.

bpo-41068 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41068]: Fixed reading files with non-ASCII names from ZIP archive directly after writing them.

bpo-41058 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41058]: pdb.find_function() now correctly determines the source file encoding.

bpo-41056 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41056]: Invalid file descriptor values are now prevented from being passed to os.fpathconf. (discovered by Coverity)

bpo-41056 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41056]: Fix a NULL pointer dereference within the ssl module during a MemoryError in the keylog callback. (discovered by Coverity)

bpo-41056 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41056]: Fixed an instance where a MemoryError within the zoneinfo module might not be reported or not reported at its source. (found by Coverity)

bpo-41048 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41048]: mimetypes.read_mime_types() function reads the rule file using UTF-8 encoding, not the locale encoding. Patch by Srinivas Reddy Thatiparthy.

bpo-41043 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41043]: Fixed the use of glob() in the stdlib: literal part of the path is now always correctly escaped.

bpo-41025 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41025]: Fixed an issue preventing the C implementation of zoneinfo.ZoneInfo from being subclassed.

bpo-35018 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35018]: Add the xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler class that is present in other SAX XML implementations.

bpo-41002 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41002]: Improve performance of HTTPResponse.read with a given amount. Patch by Bruce Merry.

bpo-40448 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40448]: ensurepip now disables the use of pip cache when installing the bundled versions of pip and setuptools. Patch by Krzysztof Konopko.

bpo-40967 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40967]: Removed asyncio.Task.current_task() and asyncio.Task.all_tasks(). Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

bpo-40924 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40924]: Ensure importlib.resources.path returns an extant path for the SourceFileLoader's resource reader. Avoids the regression identified in master while a long-term solution is devised.

bpo-40955 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40955]: Fix a minor memory leak in subprocess module when extra_groups was specified.

bpo-40855 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40855]: The standard deviation and variance functions in the statistics module were ignoring their mu and xbar arguments.

bpo-40939 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40939]: Use the new PEG parser when generating the stdlib keyword module.

bpo-23427 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23427]: Add sys.orig_argv attribute: the list of the original command line arguments passed to the Python executable.

bpo-33689 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33689]: Ignore empty or whitespace-only lines in .pth files. This matches the documentated behavior. Before, empty lines caused the site-packages dir to appear multiple times in sys.path. By Ido Michael, contributors Malcolm Smith and Tal Einat.

bpo-40884 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40884]: Added a defaults parameter to logging.Formatter, to allow specifying default values for custom fields. Patch by Asaf Alon and Bar Harel.

bpo-40876 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40876]: Clarify error message in the csv module.

bpo-39791 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39791]: Refresh importlib.metadata from importlib_metadata 1.6.1.

bpo-40807 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40807]: Stop codeop._maybe_compile, used by code.InteractiveInterpreter (and IDLE). from emitting each warning three times.

bpo-32604 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32604]: Fix reference leak in the select module when the module is imported in a subinterpreter.

bpo-39791 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39791]: Built-in loaders (SourceFileLoader and ZipImporter) now supply TraversableResources implementations for ResourceReader, and the fallback function has been removed.

bpo-39314 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39314]: rlcompleter.Completer and the standard Python shell now close the parenthesis for functions that take no arguments. Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

bpo-17005 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17005]: The topological sort functionality that was introduced initially in the functools module has been moved to a new graphlib module to better accommodate the new tools and keep the original scope of the functools module. Patch by Pablo Galindo

bpo-40834 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40834]: Fix truncate when sending str object with_xxsubinterpreters.channel_send.

bpo-40755 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40755]: Add rich comparisons to collections.Counter().

bpo-26407 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26407]: Unexpected errors in calling the __iter__ method are no longer masked by TypeError in csv.reader(), csv.writer.writerow() and csv.writer.writerows().

bpo-39384 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39384]: Fixed email.contentmanager to allow set_content() to set a null string.

bpo-40744 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40744]: The sqlite3 module uses SQLite API functions that require SQLite v3.7.3 or higher. This patch removes support for older SQLite versions, and explicitly requires SQLite 3.7.3 both at build, compile and runtime. Patch by Sergey Fedoseev and Erlend E. Aasland.

bpo-40777 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40777]: Initialize PyDateTime_IsoCalendarDateType.tp_base at run-time to avoid errors on some compilers.

bpo-38488 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38488]: Update ensurepip to install pip 20.1.1 and setuptools 47.1.0.

bpo-40792 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40792]: The result of operator.index() now always has exact type int. Previously, the result could have been an instance of a subclass of int.

bpo-40767 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40767]: webbrowser now properly finds the default browser in pure Wayland systems by checking the WAYLAND_DISPLAY environment variable. Patch contributed by Jérémy Attali.

bpo-40791 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40791]: hashlib.compare_digest() uses OpenSSL's CRYPTO_memcmp() function when OpenSSL is available.

bpo-40795 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40795]: ctypes module: If ctypes fails to convert the result of a callback or if a ctypes callback function raises an exception, sys.unraisablehook is now called with an exception set. Previously, the error was logged into stderr by PyErr_Print().

bpo-16995 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16995]: Add base64.b32hexencode() and base64.b32hexdecode() to support the Base32 Encoding with Extended Hex Alphabet.

bpo-30008 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30008]: Fix ssl code to be compatible with OpenSSL 1.1.x builds that use no-deprecated and --api=1.1.0.

bpo-30064 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30064]: Fix asyncio loop.sock_* race condition issue

bpo-40759 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40759]: Deprecate the symbol module.

bpo-40756 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40756]: The second argument (extra) of LoggerAdapter.__init__ now defaults to None.

bpo-37129 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37129]: Add a new os.RWF_APPEND flag for os.pwritev().

bpo-40737 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40737]: Fix possible reference leak for sqlite3 initialization.

bpo-40726 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40726]: Handle cases where the end_lineno is None on ast.increment_lineno().

bpo-40698 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40698]: distutils upload creates SHA2-256 and Blake2b-256 digests. MD5 digests is skipped if platform blocks MD5.

bpo-40695 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40695]: hashlib no longer falls back to builtin hash implementations when OpenSSL provides a hash digest and the algorithm is blocked by security policy.

bpo-9216 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9216]: hashlib.new() passed usedforsecurity to OpenSSL EVP constructor _hashlib.new(). test_hashlib and test_smtplib handle strict security policy better.

bpo-40614 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40614]: ast.parse() will not parse self documenting expressions in f-strings when passed feature_version is less than (3, 8).

bpo-40626 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40626]: Add h5 file extension as MIME Type application/x-hdf5, as per HDF Group recommendation for HDF5 formatted data files. Patch contributed by Mark Schwab.

bpo-25920 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25920]: On macOS, when building Python for macOS 10.4 and older, which wasn't the case for python.org macOS installer, socket.getaddrinfo() no longer uses an internal lock to prevent race conditions when calling getaddrinfo() which is thread-safe since macOS 10.5. Python 3.9 requires macOS 10.6 or newer. The internal lock caused random hang on fork when another thread was calling socket.getaddrinfo(). The lock was also used on FreeBSD older than 5.3, OpenBSD older than 201311 and NetBSD older than 4.

bpo-40671 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40671]: Prepare _hashlib for PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/] and use PyModule_AddType().

bpo-32309 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32309]: Added a new coroutine asyncio.to_thread(). It is mainly used for running IO-bound functions in a separate thread to avoid blocking the event loop, and essentially works as a high-level version of run_in_executor() that can directly take keyword arguments.

bpo-36543 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36543]: Restored the deprecated xml.etree.cElementTree module.

bpo-40611 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40611]: MAP_POPULATE constant has now been added to the list of exported mmap module flags.

bpo-39881 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39881]: PEP 554 for use in the test suite. (Patch By Joannah Nanjekye)

bpo-13097 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13097]: ctypes now raises an ArgumentError when a callback is invoked with more than 1024 arguments.

bpo-39385 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39385]: A new test assertion context-manager, unittest.assertNoLogs() will ensure a given block of code emits no log messages using the logging module. Contributed by Kit Yan Choi.

bpo-23082 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23082]: Updated the error message and docs of PurePath.relative_to() to better reflect the function behaviour.

bpo-40318 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40318]: Use SQLite3 trace v2 API, if it is available.

bpo-40105 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40105]: ZipFile truncates files to avoid corruption when a shorter comment is provided in append ("a") mode. Patch by Jan Mazur.

bpo-40084 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40084]: Fix Enum.__dir__: dir(Enum.member) now includes attributes as well as methods.

bpo-31122 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31122]: ssl.wrap_socket() now raises ssl.SSLEOFError rather than OSError when peer closes connection during TLS negotiation

bpo-39728 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39728]: fix default _missing_ so a duplicate ValueError is not set as the __context__ of the original ValueError.

bpo-39244 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39244]: Fixed multiprocessing.context.get_all_start_methods to properly return the default method first on macOS.

bpo-39040 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39040]: Fix parsing of invalid mime headers parameters by collapsing whitespace between encoded words in a bare-quote-string.

bpo-38731 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38731]: Add --quiet option to command-line interface of py_compile. Patch by Gregory Schevchenko.

bpo-35714 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35714]: struct.error is now raised if there is a null character in a struct format string.

bpo-38144 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38144]: Added the root_dir and dir_fd parameters in glob.glob().

bpo-26543 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26543]: Fix IMAP4.noop() when debug mode is enabled (ex: imaplib.Debug = 3).

bpo-12178 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12178]: csv.writer() now correctly escapes escapechar when input contains escapechar. Patch by Catalin Iacob, Berker Peksag, and Itay Elbirt.

bpo-36290 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36290]: AST nodes are now raising TypeError on conflicting keyword arguments. Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

bpo-33944 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33944]: Added site.py site-packages tracing in verbose mode.

bpo-35078 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35078]: Refactor formatweekday, formatmonthname methods in LocaleHTMLCalendar and LocaleTextCalendar classes in calendar module to call the base class methods.This enables customizable CSS classes for LocaleHTMLCalendar. Patch by Srinivas Reddy Thatiparthy

bpo-29620 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29620]: assertWarns() no longer raises a RuntimeException when accessing a module's __warningregistry__ causes importation of a new module, or when a new module is imported in another thread. Patch by Kernc.

bpo-31844 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31844]: Remove ParserBase.error() method from the private and undocumented _markupbase module. html.parser.HTMLParser is the only subclass of ParserBase and its error() implementation was deprecated in Python 3.4 and removed in Python 3.5.

bpo-34226 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34226]: Fix cgi.parse_multipart without content_length. Patch by Roger Duran

bpo-33660 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33660]: Fix pathlib.PosixPath to resolve a relative path located on the root directory properly.

bpo-28557 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28557]: Improve the error message for a misbehaving rawio.readinto

bpo-26680 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26680]: The d.is_integer() method is added to the Decimal type, for compatibility with other number types.

bpo-26680 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26680]: The x.is_integer() method is incorporated into the abstract types of the numeric tower, Real, Rational and Integral, with appropriate default implementations.

Documentation

bpo-41428 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41428]: Add documentation for PEP 604 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0604/] (Allow writing union types as X | Y).

bpo-41774 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41774]: In Programming FAQ "Sequences (Tuples/Lists)" section, add "How do you remove multiple items from a list".

bpo-35293 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35293]: Fix RemovedInSphinx40Warning when building the documentation. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-37149 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37149]: Change Shipman tkinter doc link from archive.org to TkDocs. (The doc has been removed from the NMT server.) The new link responds much faster and includes a short explanatory note.

bpo-41726 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41726]: Update the refcounts info of PyType_FromModuleAndSpec.

bpo-41624 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41624]: Fix the signature of typing.Coroutine.

bpo-40204 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40204]: Enable Sphinx 3.2 c_allow_pre_v3 option and disable c_warn_on_allowed_pre_v3 option to make the documentation compatible with Sphinx 2 and Sphinx 3.

bpo-41045 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41045]: Add documentation for debug feature of f-strings.

bpo-41314 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41314]: Changed the release when from __future__ import annotations becomes the default from 4.0 to 3.10 (following a change in PEP 563).

bpo-40979 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40979]: Refactored typing.rst, arranging more than 70 classes, functions, and decorators into new sub-sections.

bpo-40552 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40552]: Fix in tutorial section 4.2. Code snippet is now correct.

bpo-39883 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39883]: Make code, examples, and recipes in the Python documentation be licensed under the more permissive BSD0 license in addition to the existing Python 2.0 license.

bpo-37703 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37703]: Updated Documentation to comprehensively elaborate on the behaviour of gather.cancel()

Tests

bpo-41939 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41939]: Fix test_site.test_license_exists_at_url(): call urllib.request.urlcleanup() to reset the global urllib.request._opener. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-41731 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41731]: Make test_cmd_line_script pass with option '-vv'.

bpo-41602 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41602]: Add tests for SIGINT handling in the runpy module.

bpo-41521 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41521]: test.support: Rename blacklist parameter of check__all__() to not_exported.

bpo-41477 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41477]: Make ctypes optional in test_genericalias.

bpo-41085 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41085]: Fix integer overflow in the array.array.index() method on 64-bit Windows for index larger than 2**31.

bpo-41069 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41069]: test.support.TESTFN and the current directory for tests when run via test.regrtest contain now non-ascii characters if possible.

bpo-38377 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38377]: On Linux, skip tests using multiprocessing if the current user cannot create a file in /dev/shm/ directory. Add the skip_if_broken_multiprocessing_synchronize() function to the test.support module.

bpo-41009 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41009]: Fix use of support.require_{linux|mac|freebsd}_version() decorators as class decorator.

bpo-41003 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41003]: Fix test_copyreg when numpy is installed: test.pickletester now saves/restores warnings filters when importing numpy, to ignore filters installed by numpy.

bpo-40964 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40964]: Disable remote imaplib tests, host cyrus.andrew.cmu.edu is blocking incoming connections.

bpo-40927 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40927]: Fix test_binhex when run twice: it now uses import_fresh_module() to ensure that it raises DeprecationWarning each time.

bpo-17258 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17258]: Skip some multiprocessing tests when MD5 hash digest is blocked.

bpo-31904 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904]: Increase LOOPBACK_TIMEOUT to 10 for VxWorks RTOS.

bpo-38169 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38169]: Increase code coverage for SharedMemory and ShareableList

bpo-34401 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34401]: Make test_gdb properly run on HP-UX. Patch by Michael Osipov.

Build

bpo-38249 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38249]: Update Py_UNREACHABLE to use __builtin_unreachable() if only the compiler is able to use it. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-41617 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41617]: Fix pycore_bitutils.h header file to support old clang versions: __builtin_bswap16() is not available in LLVM clang 3.0.

bpo-40204 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40204]: Pin Sphinx version to 2.3.1 in Doc/Makefile.

bpo-36020 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36020]: The C99 functions snprintf() and vsnprintf() are now required to build Python.

bpo-40684 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40684]: make install now uses the PLATLIBDIR variable for the destination lib-dynload/ directory when ./configure --with-platlibdir is used.

bpo-40683 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40683]: Fixed an issue where the zoneinfo module and its tests were not included when Python is installed with make.

Windows

bpo-41744 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41744]: Fixes automatic import of props file when using the Nuget package.

bpo-41627 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41627]: The user site directory for 32-bit now includes a -32 suffix to distinguish it from the 64-bit interpreter's directory.

bpo-41526 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41526]: Fixed layout of final page of the installer by removing the special thanks to Mark Hammond (with his permission).

bpo-41492 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41492]: Fixes the description that appears in UAC prompts.

bpo-40948 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40948]: Improve post-install message to direct people to the "py" command.

bpo-41412 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41412]: The installer will now fail to install on Windows 7 and Windows 8. Further, the UCRT dependency is now always downloaded on demand.

bpo-40741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40741]: Update Windows release to include SQLite 3.32.3.

bpo-41142 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41142]: msilib now supports creating CAB files with non-ASCII file path and adding files with non-ASCII file path to them.

bpo-41074 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41074]: Fixed support of non-ASCII names in functions msilib.OpenDatabase() and msilib.init_database() and non-ASCII SQL in method msilib.Database.OpenView().

bpo-41039 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41039]: Stable ABI redirection DLL (python3.dll) now uses #pragma comment(linker) for re-exporting.

bpo-40164 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40164]: Updates Windows OpenSSL to 1.1.1g

bpo-39631 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39631]: Changes the registered MIME type for .py files on Windows to text/x-python instead of text/plain.

bpo-40677 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40677]: Manually define IO_REPARSE_TAG_APPEXECLINK in case some old Windows SDK doesn't have it.

bpo-37556 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37556]: Extend py.exe help to mention overrides via venv, shebang, environmental variables & ini files.

macOS

bpo-41557 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41557]: Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.33.0.

bpo-39580 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39580]: Avoid opening Finder window if running installer from the command line. Patch contributed by Rick Heil.

bpo-41100 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41100]: Fix configure error when building on macOS 11. Note that the current Python release was released shortly after the first developer preview of macOS 11 (Big Sur); there are other known issues with building and running on the developer preview. Big Sur is expected to be fully supported in a future bugfix release of Python 3.8.x and with 3.9.0.

bpo-40741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40741]: Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.32.3.

bpo-41005 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41005]: fixed an XDG settings issue not allowing macos to open browser in webbrowser.py

bpo-40741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40741]: Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.32.2.

IDLE

bpo-41775 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41775]: Use 'IDLE Shell' as shell title

bpo-35764 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35764]: Rewrite the Calltips doc section.

bpo-40181 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40181]: In calltips, stop reminding that '/' marks the end of positional-only arguments.

bpo-41468 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41468]: Improve IDLE run crash error message (which users should never see).

bpo-41373 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41373]: Save files loaded with no line ending, as when blank, or different line endings, by setting its line ending to the system default. Fix regression in 3.8.4 and 3.9.0b4.

bpo-41300 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41300]: Save files with non-ascii chars. Fix regression released in 3.9.0b4 and 3.8.4.

bpo-37765 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37765]: Add keywords to module name completion list. Rewrite Completions section of IDLE doc.

bpo-41152 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41152]: The encoding of stdin, stdout and stderr in IDLE is now always UTF-8.

bpo-41144 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41144]: Make Open Module open a special module such as os.path.

bpo-39885 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39885]: Make context menu Cut and Copy work again when right-clicking within a selection.

bpo-40723 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40723]: Make test_idle pass when run after import.

C API

bpo-41936 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41936]: Removed undocumented macros Py_ALLOW_RECURSION and Py_END_ALLOW_RECURSION and the recursion_critical field of the PyInterpreterState structure.

bpo-41692 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41692]: The PyUnicode_InternImmortal() function is now deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.12: use PyUnicode_InternInPlace() instead. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-41842 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41842]: Add PyCodec_Unregister() function to unregister a codec search function.

bpo-41834 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41834]: Remove the _Py_CheckRecursionLimit variable: it has been replaced by ceval.recursion_limit of the PyInterpreterState structure. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-41689 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41689]: Types created with PyType_FromSpec() now make any signature in their tp_doc slot accessible from __text_signature__.

bpo-41524 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41524]: Fix bug in PyOS_mystrnicmp() and PyOS_mystricmp() that incremented pointers beyond the end of a string.

bpo-41324 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41324]: Add a minimal decimal capsule API. The API supports fast conversions between Decimals up to 38 digits and their triple representation as a C struct.

bpo-30155 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30155]: Add PyDateTime_DATE_GET_TZINFO() and PyDateTime_TIME_GET_TZINFO() macros for accessing the tzinfo attributes of datetime.datetime and datetime.time objects.

bpo-40170 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170]: Revert PyType_HasFeature() change: it reads again directly the PyTypeObject.tp_flags member when the limited C API is not used, rather than always calling PyType_GetFlags() which hides implementation details.

bpo-41123 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41123]: Remove PyUnicode_AsUnicodeCopy.

bpo-41123 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41123]: Removed PyLong_FromUnicode().

bpo-41123 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41123]: Removed PyUnicode_GetMax().

bpo-41123 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41123]: Removed Py_UNICODE_str* functions manipulating Py_UNICODE* strings.

bpo-41103 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41103]: PyObject_AsCharBuffer(), PyObject_AsReadBuffer(), PyObject_CheckReadBuffer(), and PyObject_AsWriteBuffer() are removed. Please migrate to new buffer protocol; PyObject_GetBuffer() and PyBuffer_Release().

bpo-36346 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36346]: Raises DeprecationWarning for PyUnicode_FromUnicode(NULL, size) and PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize(NULL, size) with size > 0.

bpo-36346 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36346]: Mark Py_UNICODE_COPY, Py_UNICODE_FILL, PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH, PyUnicode_FromUnicode, PyUnicode_AsUnicode, and PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize as deprecated in C. Remove Py_UNICODE_MATCH which was deprecated and broken since Python 3.3.

bpo-40989 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40989]: The PyObject_INIT() and PyObject_INIT_VAR() macros become aliases to, respectively, PyObject_Init() and PyObject_InitVar() functions.

bpo-36020 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36020]: On Windows, #include "pyerrors.h" no longer defines snprintf and vsnprintf macros.

bpo-40943 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40943]: The PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN macro must now be defined to use PyArg_ParseTuple() and Py_BuildValue() formats which use #: es#, et#, s#, u#, y#, z#, U# and Z#. See Parsing arguments and building values and the PEP 353 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0353/].

bpo-40910 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40910]: Export explicitly the Py_GetArgcArgv() function to the C API and document the function. Previously, it was exported implicitly which no longer works since Python is built with -fvisibility=hidden.

bpo-40724 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40724]: Allow defining buffer slots in type specs.

bpo-40679 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40679]: Fix a _PyEval_EvalCode() crash if qualname argument is NULL.

bpo-40839 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40839]: Calling PyDict_GetItem() without GIL held had been allowed for historical reason. It is no longer allowed.

bpo-40826 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40826]: PyOS_InterruptOccurred() now fails with a fatal error if it is called with the GIL released.

bpo-40792 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40792]: The result of PyNumber_Index() now always has exact type int. Previously, the result could have been an instance of a subclass of int.

bpo-39573 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573]: Convert Py_REFCNT() and Py_SIZE() macros to static inline functions. They cannot be used as l-value anymore: use Py_SET_REFCNT() and Py_SET_SIZE() to set an object reference count and size. This change is backward incompatible on purpose, to prepare the C API for an opaque PyObject structure.

bpo-40703 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40703]: The PyType_FromSpec*() functions no longer overwrite the type's "__module__" attribute if it is set via "Py_tp_members" or "Py_tp_getset".

bpo-39583 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39583]: Remove superfluous "extern C" declarations from Include/cpython/*.h.

Python 3.9.0 beta 1

Release date: 2020-05-19

Security

bpo-40501 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40501]: uuid no longer uses ctypes to load libuuid or rpcrt4.dll at runtime.

Core and Builtins

bpo-40663 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40663]: Correctly generate annotations where parentheses are omitted but required (e.g: Type[(str, int, *other))].

bpo-40596 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40596]: Fixed str.isidentifier() for non-canonicalized strings containing non-BMP characters on Windows.

bpo-40593 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40593]: Improved syntax errors for invalid characters in source code.

bpo-40585 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40585]: Fixed a bug when using codeop.compile_command() that was causing exceptions to be swallowed with the new parser. Patch by Pablo Galindo

bpo-40566 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40566]: Apply PEP 573 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0573/] to abc.

bpo-40502 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40502]: Initialize n->n_col_offset. (Patch by Joannah Nanjekye)

bpo-40527 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40527]: Fix command line argument parsing: no longer write errors multiple times into stderr.

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port errno to multiphase initialization (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]).

bpo-40523 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40523]: Add pass-throughs for hash() and reversed() to weakref.proxy objects. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port syslog to multiphase initialization (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]).

bpo-40246 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40246]: Reporting a specialised error message for invalid string prefixes, which was introduced in bpo-40246 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40246], is being reverted due to backwards compatibility concerns for strings that immediately follow a reserved keyword without whitespace between them. Constructs like bg="#d00" if clear else"#fca" were failing to parse, which is not an acceptable breakage on such short notice.

bpo-40417 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40417]: Fix imp module deprecation warning when PyImport_ReloadModule is called. Patch by Robert Rouhani.

bpo-40408 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40408]: Fixed support of nested type variables in GenericAlias (e.g. list[list[T]]).

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port _stat module to multiphase initialization (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]).

bpo-29587 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29587]: Enable implicit exception chaining when calling generator.throw().

bpo-40328 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40328]: Add tools for generating mappings headers for CJKCodecs.

bpo-40228 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40228]: Setting frame.f_lineno is now robust w.r.t. changes in the source-to-bytecode compiler

bpo-38880 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38880]: Added the ability to list interpreters associated with channel ends in the internal subinterpreters module.

bpo-37986 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37986]: Improve performance of PyLong_FromDouble() for values that fit into long.

Library

bpo-40662 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40662]: Fixed ast.get_source_segment() for ast nodes that have incomplete location information. Patch by Irit Katriel.

bpo-40665 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40665]: Convert bisect to use Argument Clinic.

bpo-40536 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40536]: Added the available_timezones() function to the zoneinfo module. Patch by Paul Ganssle.

bpo-40645 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40645]: The hmac.HMAC exposes internal implementation details. The attributes digest_cons, inner, and outer are deprecated and will be removed in the future.

bpo-40645 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40645]: The internal module _hashlib wraps and exposes OpenSSL's HMAC API. The new code will be used in Python 3.10 after the internal implementation details of the pure Python HMAC module are no longer part of the public API.

bpo-40637 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40637]: Builtin hash modules can now be disabled or selectively enabled with configure --with-builtin-hashlib-hashes=sha3,blake1 or --without-builtin-hashlib-hashes.

bpo-37630 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37630]: The hashlib module can now use SHA3 hashes and SHAKE XOF from OpenSSL when available.

bpo-40479 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40479]: The hashlib now compiles with OpenSSL 3.0.0-alpha2.

bpo-40257 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40257]: Revert changes to inspect.getdoc().

bpo-40607 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40607]: When cancelling a task due to timeout, asyncio.wait_for() will now propagate the exception if an error happens during cancellation. Patch by Roman Skurikhin.

bpo-40612 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40612]: Fix edge cases in SyntaxError formatting. If the offset is <= 0, no caret is printed. If the offset is > line length, the caret is printed pointing just after the last character.

bpo-40597 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40597]: If text content lines are longer than policy.max_line_length, always use a content-encoding to make sure they are wrapped.

bpo-40571 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40571]: Added functools.cache() as a simpler, more discoverable way to access the unbounded cache variant of lru_cache(maxsize=None).

bpo-40503 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40503]: PEP 615 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0615/], the zoneinfo module. Adds support for the IANA time zone database.

bpo-40397 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40397]: Removed attributes __args__ and __parameters__ from special generic aliases like typing.List (not subscripted).

bpo-40549 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40549]: Convert posixmodule.c ("posix" or "nt" module) to the multiphase initialization (PEP 489).

bpo-31033 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31033]: Add a msg argument to Future.cancel() and Task.cancel().

bpo-40541 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40541]: Added an optional counts parameter to random.sample().

bpo-40515 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40515]: The ssl and hashlib modules now actively check that OpenSSL is build with thread support. Python 3.7.0 made thread support mandatory and no longer works safely with a no-thread builds.

bpo-31033 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31033]: When a asyncio.Task is cancelled, the exception traceback now chains all the way back to where the task was first interrupted.

bpo-40504 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40504]: functools.lru_cache() objects can now be the targets of weakrefs.

bpo-40559 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40559]: Fix possible memory leak in the C implementation of asyncio.Task.

bpo-40480 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40480]: fnmatch.fnmatch() could take exponential time in the presence of multiple * pattern characters. This was repaired by generating more elaborate regular expressions to avoid futile backtracking.

bpo-40495 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40495]: compileall is now able to use hardlinks to prevent duplicates in a case when .pyc files for different optimization levels have the same content.

bpo-40457 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40457]: The ssl module now support OpenSSL builds without TLS 1.0 and 1.1 methods.

bpo-40355 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40355]: Improve error reporting in ast.literal_eval() in the presence of malformed ast.Dict nodes instead of silently ignoring any non-conforming elements. Patch by Curtis Bucher.

bpo-40465 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40465]: Deprecated the optional random argument to random.shuffle().

bpo-40459 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40459]: platform.win32_ver() now produces correct ptype strings instead of empty strings.

bpo-39435 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39435]: The first argument of pickle.loads() is now positional-only.

bpo-39305 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39305]: Update nntplib to merge nntplib.NNTP and nntplib._NNTPBase. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-32494 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32494]: Update dbm.gnu to use gdbm_count if possible when calling len(). Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-40453 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40453]: Add isolated=True keyword-only parameter to _xxsubinterpreters.create(). An isolated subinterpreter cannot spawn threads, spawn a child process or call os.fork().

bpo-40286 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40286]: Remove _random.Random.randbytes(): the C implementation of randbytes(). Implement the method in Python to ease subclassing: randbytes() now directly reuses getrandbits().

bpo-40394 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40394]: Added default arguments to difflib.SequenceMatcher.find_longest_match().

bpo-39995 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39995]: Fix a race condition in concurrent.futures._ThreadWakeup: access to _ThreadWakeup is now protected with the shutdown lock.

bpo-30966 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30966]: Process.shutdown(wait=True) of concurrent.futures now closes explicitly the result queue.

bpo-30966 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30966]: Add a new close() method to the SimpleQueue class to explicitly close the queue.

bpo-39966 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39966]: Revert bpo-25597 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25597]. unittest.mock.MagicMock with wraps' set uses default return values for magic methods.

bpo-39791 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39791]: Added files() function to importlib.resources with support for subdirectories in package data, matching backport in importlib_resources 1.5.

bpo-40375 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40375]: imaplib.IMAP4.unselect() is added. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-40389 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40389]: repr() now returns typing.Optional[T] when called for typing.Union of two types, one of which is NoneType.

bpo-40291 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40291]: Add support for CAN_J1939 sockets (available on Linux 5.4+)

bpo-40273 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40273]: types.MappingProxyType is now reversible.

bpo-39075 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39075]: The repr for types.SimpleNamespace is now insertion ordered rather than alphabetical.

bpo-40192 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40192]: On AIX, thread_time() is now implemented with thread_cputime() which has nanosecond resolution, rather than clock_gettime(CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID) which has a resolution of 10 milliseconds. Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

bpo-40025 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40025]: Raise TypeError when _generate_next_value_ is defined after members. Patch by Ethan Onstott.

bpo-39058 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39058]: In the argparse module, the repr for Namespace() and other argument holders now displayed in the order attributes were added. Formerly, it displayed in alphabetical order even though argument order is preserved the user visible parts of the module.

bpo-24416 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24416]: The isocalendar() methods of datetime.date and datetime.datetime now return a named tuple instead of a tuple.

Documentation

bpo-34790 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34790]: Add version of removal for explicit passing of coros to asyncio.wait()'s documentation

bpo-40561 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40561]: Provide docstrings for webbrowser open functions.

bpo-40499 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40499]: Mention that asyncio.wait() requires a non-empty set of awaitables.

bpo-39705 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39705]: Tutorial example for sorted() in the Loop Techniques section is given a better explanation. Also a new example is included to explain sorted()'s basic behavior.

bpo-39435 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39435]: Fix an incorrect signature for pickle.loads() in the docs

Tests

bpo-40055 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40055]: distutils.tests now saves/restores warnings filters to leave them unchanged. Importing tests imports docutils which imports pkg_resources which adds a warnings filter.

bpo-40436 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40436]: test_gdb and test.pythoninfo now check gdb command exit code.

Build

bpo-40653 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40653]: Move _dirnameW out of HAVE_SYMLINK to fix a potential compiling issue.

bpo-40514 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40514]: Add --with-experimental-isolated-subinterpreters build option to configure: better isolate subinterpreters, experimental build mode.

Windows

bpo-40650 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40650]: Include winsock2.h in pytime.c for timeval.

bpo-40458 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40458]: Increase reserved stack space to prevent overflow crash on Windows.

bpo-39148 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39148]: Add IPv6 support to asyncio datagram endpoints in ProactorEventLoop. Change the raised exception for unknown address families to ValueError as it's not coming from Windows API.

macOS

bpo-34956 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34956]: When building Python on macOS from source, _tkinter now links with non-system Tcl and Tk frameworks if they are installed in /Library/Frameworks, as had been the case on older releases of macOS. If a macOS SDK is explicitly configured, by using --enable-universalsdk= or -isysroot, only the SDK itself is searched. The default behavior can still be overridden with --with-tcltk-includes and --with-tcltk-libs.

bpo-35569 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35569]: Expose RFC 3542 IPv6 socket options.

Tools/Demos

bpo-40479 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40479]: Update multissltest helper to test with latest OpenSSL 1.0.2, 1.1.0, 1.1.1, and 3.0.0-alpha.

bpo-40431 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40431]: Fix a syntax typo in turtledemo that now raises a SyntaxError.

bpo-40163 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40163]: Fix multissltest tool. OpenSSL has changed download URL for old releases. The multissltest tool now tries to download from current and old download URLs.

C API

bpo-39465 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39465]: Remove the _PyUnicode_ClearStaticStrings() function from the C API.

bpo-38787 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38787]: Add PyCFunction_CheckExact() macro for exact type checks now that we allow subtypes of PyCFunction, as well as PyCMethod_CheckExact() and PyCMethod_Check() for the new PyCMethod subtype.

bpo-40545 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40545]: Declare _PyErr_GetTopmostException() with PyAPI_FUNC() to properly export the function in the C API. The function remains private (_Py) prefix.

bpo-40412 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40412]: Nullify inittab_copy during finalization, preventing future interpreter initializations in an embedded situation from crashing. Patch by Gregory Szorc.

bpo-40429 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40429]: The PyThreadState_GetFrame() function now returns a strong reference to the frame.

bpo-40428 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40428]: Remove the following functions from the C API. Call PyGC_Collect() explicitly to free all free lists.

PyAsyncGen_ClearFreeLists()

PyContext_ClearFreeList()

PyDict_ClearFreeList()

PyFloat_ClearFreeList()

PyFrame_ClearFreeList()

PyList_ClearFreeList()

PySet_ClearFreeList()

PyTuple_ClearFreeList()

bpo-40421 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40421]: New PyFrame_GetBack() function: get the frame next outer frame.

bpo-40421 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40421]: New PyFrame_GetCode() function: return a borrowed reference to the frame code.

bpo-40217 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40217]: Ensure that instances of types created with PyType_FromSpecWithBases() will visit its class object when traversing references in the garbage collector (implemented as an extension of the provided tp_traverse). Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-38787 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38787]: Module C state is now accessible from C-defined heap type methods (PEP 573 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0573/]). Patch by Marcel Plch and Petr Viktorin.

Python 3.9.0 alpha 6

Release date: 2020-04-27

Security

bpo-40121 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40121]: Fixes audit events raised on creating a new socket.

bpo-39073 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39073]: Disallow CR or LF in email.headerregistry.Address arguments to guard against header injection attacks.

bpo-39503 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39503]: CVE 2020-8492 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-8492]: The AbstractBasicAuthHandler class of the urllib.request module uses an inefficient regular expression which can be exploited by an attacker to cause a denial of service. Fix the regex to prevent the catastrophic backtracking. Vulnerability reported by Ben Caller and Matt Schwager.

Core and Builtins

bpo-40313 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40313]: Improve the performance of bytes.hex().

bpo-40334 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40334]: Switch to a new parser, based on PEG. For more details see PEP 617. To temporarily switch back to the old parser, use -X oldparser or PYTHONOLDPARSER=1. In Python 3.10 we will remove the old parser completely, including the parser module (already deprecated) and anything that depends on it.

bpo-40267 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40267]: Fix the tokenizer to display the correct error message, when there is a SyntaxError on the last input character and no newline follows. It used to be unexpected EOF while parsing, while it should be invalid syntax.

bpo-39522 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39522]: Correctly unparse explicit u prefix for strings when postponed evaluation for annotations activated. Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

bpo-40246 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40246]: Report a specialized error message, invalid string prefix, when the tokenizer encounters a string with an invalid prefix.

bpo-40082 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40082]: Fix the signal handler: it now always uses the main interpreter, rather than trying to get the current Python thread state.

bpo-37388 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37388]: str.encode() and str.decode() no longer check the encoding and errors in development mode or in debug mode during Python finalization. The codecs machinery can no longer work on very late calls to str.encode() and str.decode().

bpo-40077 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40077]: Fix possible refleaks in _json, memo of PyScannerObject should be traversed.

bpo-37207 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207]: Speed up calls to dict() by using the PEP 590 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/] vectorcall calling convention.

bpo-40141 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40141]: Add column and line information to ast.keyword nodes. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port resource to multiphase initialization (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]).

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port math to multiphase initialization (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]).

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port _uuid module to multiphase initialization (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]).

bpo-40077 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40077]: Convert json module to use PyType_FromSpec().

bpo-40067 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40067]: Improve the error message for multiple star expressions in an assignment. Patch by Furkan Onder

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port _functools module to multiphase initialization (PEP 489). Patch by Paulo Henrique Silva.

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port operator module to multiphase initialization (PEP 489). Patch by Paulo Henrique Silva.

bpo-20526 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20526]: Fix PyThreadState_Clear(). PyThreadState.frame is a borrowed reference, not a strong reference: PyThreadState_Clear() must not call Py_CLEAR(tstate->frame).

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port time module to multiphase initialization (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]). Patch by Paulo Henrique Silva.

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port _weakref extension module to multiphase initialization (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]).

bpo-40020 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40020]: Fix a leak and subsequent crash in parsetok.c caused by realloc misuse on a rare codepath.

bpo-39939 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39939]: Added str.removeprefix and str.removesuffix methods and corresponding bytes, bytearray, and collections.UserString methods to remove affixes from a string if present. See PEP 616 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0616/] for a full description. Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

bpo-39481 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39481]: Implement PEP 585. This supports list[int], tuple[str, ...] etc.

bpo-32894 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32894]: Support unparsing of infinity numbers in postponed annotations. Patch by Batuhan Taşkaya.

bpo-37207 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207]: Speed up calls to list() by using the PEP 590 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/] vectorcall calling convention. Patch by Mark Shannon.

Library

bpo-40398 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40398]: typing.get_args() now always returns an empty tuple for special generic aliases.

bpo-40396 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40396]: Functions typing.get_origin(), typing.get_args() and typing.get_type_hints() support now generic aliases like list[int].

bpo-38061 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38061]: Optimize the subprocess module on FreeBSD using closefrom(). A single close(fd) syscall is cheap, but when sysconf(_SC_OPEN_MAX) is high, the loop calling close(fd) on each file descriptor can take several milliseconds.

The workaround on FreeBSD to improve performance was to load and mount the fdescfs kernel module, but this is not enabled by default.

Initial patch by Ed Maste (emaste), Conrad Meyer (cem), Kyle Evans (kevans) and Kubilay Kocak (koobs): https://bugs.freebsd.org/bugzilla/show_bug.cgi?id=242274

bpo-38061 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38061]: On FreeBSD, os.closerange(fd_low, fd_high) now calls closefrom(fd_low) if fd_high is greater than or equal to sysconf(_SC_OPEN_MAX).

Initial patch by Ed Maste (emaste), Conrad Meyer (cem), Kyle Evans (kevans) and Kubilay Kocak (koobs): https://bugs.freebsd.org/bugzilla/show_bug.cgi?id=242274

bpo-40360 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40360]: The lib2to3 module is pending deprecation due to PEP 617 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/].

bpo-40138 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40138]: Fix the Windows implementation of os.waitpid() for exit code larger than INT_MAX >> 8. The exit status is now interpreted as an unsigned number.

bpo-39942 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39942]: Set "__main__" as the default module name when "__name__" is missing in typing.TypeVar. Patch by Weipeng Hong.

bpo-40275 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40275]: The logging package is now imported lazily in unittest only when the assertLogs() assertion is used.

bpo-40275 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40275]: The asyncio package is now imported lazily in unittest only when the IsolatedAsyncioTestCase class is used.

bpo-40330 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40330]: In ShareableList.__setitem__(), check the size of a new string item after encoding it to utf-8, not before.

bpo-40148 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40148]: Added pathlib.Path.with_stem() to create a new Path with the stem replaced.

bpo-40325 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40325]: Deprecated support for set objects in random.sample().

bpo-40257 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40257]: Improved help for the typing module. Docstrings are now shown for all special forms and special generic aliases (like Union and List). Using help() with generic alias like List[int] will show the help for the correspondent concrete type (list in this case).

bpo-40257 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40257]: inspect.getdoc() no longer returns docstring inherited from the type of the object or from parent class if it is a class if it is not defined in the object itself. In pydoc the documentation string is now shown not only for class, function, method etc, but for any object that has its own __doc__ attribute.

bpo-40287 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40287]: Fixed SpooledTemporaryFile.seek() to return the position.

bpo-40290 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40290]: Added zscore() to statistics.NormalDist().

bpo-40282 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40282]: Allow random.getrandbits(0) to succeed and to return 0.

bpo-40286 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40286]: Add random.randbytes() function and random.Random.randbytes() method to generate random bytes.

bpo-40277 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40277]: collections.namedtuple() now provides a human-readable repr for its field accessors.

bpo-40270 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40270]: The included copy of sqlite3 on Windows is now compiled with the json extension. This allows the use of functions such as json_object.

bpo-29255 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29255]: Wait in KqueueSelector.select when no fds are registered

bpo-40260 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40260]: Ensure modulefinder uses io.open_code() and respects coding comments.

bpo-40234 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40234]: Allow again to spawn daemon threads in subinterpreters (revert change which denied them).

bpo-39207 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39207]: Workers in ProcessPoolExecutor are now spawned on demand, only when there are no available idle workers to reuse. This optimizes startup overhead and reduces the amount of lost CPU time to idle workers. Patch by Kyle Stanley.

bpo-40091 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40091]: Fix a hang at fork in the logging module: the new private _at_fork_reinit() method is now used to reinitialize locks at fork in the child process.

bpo-40149 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40149]: Implement traverse and clear slots in _abc._abc_data type.

bpo-40208 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40208]: Remove deprecated symtable.SymbolTable.has_exec().

bpo-40196 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40196]: Fix a bug in the symtable module that was causing incorrectly report global variables as local. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-40190 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40190]: Add support for _SC_AIX_REALMEM to posix.sysconf().

bpo-40182 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40182]: Removed the _field_types attribute of the typing.NamedTuple class.

bpo-36517 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36517]: Multiple inheritance with typing.NamedTuple now raises an error instead of silently ignoring other types.

bpo-40126 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40126]: Fixed reverting multiple patches in unittest.mock. Patcher's __exit__() is now never called if its __enter__() is failed. Returning true from __exit__() silences now the exception.

bpo-40094 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40094]: CGIHTTPRequestHandler of http.server now logs the CGI script exit code, rather than the CGI script exit status of os.waitpid(). For example, if the script is killed by signal 11, it now logs: "CGI script exit code -11."

bpo-40108 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40108]: Improve the error message when triying to import a module using runpy and incorrectly using the ".py" extension at the end of the module name. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-40094 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40094]: Add os.waitstatus_to_exitcode() function: convert a wait status to an exit code.

bpo-40089 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40089]: Fix threading._after_fork(): if fork was not called by a thread spawned by threading.Thread, threading._after_fork() now creates a _MainThread instance for _main_thread, instead of a _DummyThread instance.

bpo-40089 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40089]: Add a private _at_fork_reinit() method to _thread.Lock, _thread.RLock, threading.RLock and threading.Condition classes: reinitialize the lock at fork in the child process, reset the lock to the unlocked state. Rename also the private _reset_internal_locks() method of threading.Event to _at_fork_reinit().

bpo-25780 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25780]: Expose CAN_RAW_JOIN_FILTERS in the socket module.

bpo-39503 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39503]: AbstractBasicAuthHandler of urllib.request now parses all WWW-Authenticate HTTP headers and accepts multiple challenges per header: use the realm of the first Basic challenge.

bpo-39812 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39812]: Removed daemon threads from concurrent.futures by adding an internal threading._register_atexit(), which calls registered functions prior to joining all non-daemon threads. This allows for compatibility with subinterpreters, which don't support daemon threads.

bpo-40050 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40050]: Fix importlib._bootstrap_external: avoid creating a new winreg builtin module if it's already available in sys.modules, and remove redundant imports.

bpo-40014 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40014]: Fix os.getgrouplist(): if getgrouplist() function fails because the group list is too small, retry with a larger group list. On failure, the glibc implementation of getgrouplist() sets ngroups to the total number of groups. For other implementations, double the group list size.

bpo-40017 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40017]: Add time.CLOCK_TAI constant if the operating system support it.

bpo-40016 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40016]: In re docstring, clarify the relationship between inline and argument compile flags.

bpo-39953 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39953]: Update internal table of OpenSSL error codes in the ssl module.

bpo-36144 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144]: Added PEP 584 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/] operators to weakref.WeakValueDictionary.

bpo-36144 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144]: Added PEP 584 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/] operators to weakref.WeakKeyDictionary.

bpo-38891 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38891]: Fix linear runtime behaviour of the __getitem__ and __setitem__ methods in multiprocessing.shared_memory.ShareableList. This avoids quadratic performance when iterating a ShareableList. Patch by Thomas Krennwallner.

bpo-39682 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39682]: Remove undocumented support for closing a pathlib.Path object via its context manager. The context manager magic methods remain, but they are now a no-op, making Path objects immutable.

bpo-36144 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144]: Added PEP 584 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/] operators (| and |=) to collections.ChainMap.

bpo-39011 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39011]: Normalization of line endings in ElementTree attributes was removed, as line endings which were replaced by entity numbers should be preserved in original form.

bpo-38410 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38410]: Properly handle sys.audit() failures in sys.set_asyncgen_hooks().

bpo-36541 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36541]: lib2to3 now recognizes named assignment expressions (the walrus operator, :=)

bpo-35967 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35967]: In platform, delay the invocation of 'uname -p' until the processor attribute is requested.

bpo-35113 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35113]: inspect.getsource() now returns correct source code for inner class with same name as module level class. Decorators are also returned as part of source of the class. Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

bpo-33262 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33262]: Deprecate passing None as an argument for shlex.split()'s s parameter. Patch by Zackery Spytz.

bpo-31758 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31758]: Prevent crashes when using an uninitialized _elementtree.XMLParser object. Patch by Oren Milman.

Documentation

bpo-27635 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27635]: The pickle documentation incorrectly claimed that __new__ isn't called by default when unpickling.

bpo-39879 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39879]: Updated Modèle de données docs to include dict() insertion order preservation. Patch by Furkan Onder and Samy Lahfa.

bpo-38387 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38387]: Document PyDoc_STRVAR macro in the C-API reference.

bpo-13743 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13743]: Some methods within xml.dom.minidom.Element class are now better documented.

Tests

bpo-31904 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904]: Set expected default encoding in test_c_locale_coercion.py for VxWorks RTOS.

bpo-40162 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40162]: Update Travis CI configuration to OpenSSL 1.1.1f.

bpo-40146 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40146]: Update OpenSSL to 1.1.1f in Azure Pipelines.

bpo-40094 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40094]: Add test.support.wait_process() function.

bpo-40003 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40003]: test.bisect_cmd now copies Python command line options like -O or -W. Moreover, emit a warning if test.bisect_cmd is used with -w/--verbose2 option.

bpo-39380 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39380]: Add the encoding in ftplib.FTP and ftplib.FTP_TLS to the constructor as keyword-only and change the default from latin-1 to utf-8 to follow RFC 2640 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2640.html].

bpo-39793 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39793]: Use the same domain when testing make_msgid. Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

bpo-1812 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1812]: Fix newline handling in doctest.testfile when loading from a package whose loader has a get_data method. Patch by Peter Donis.

Build

bpo-38360 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38360]: Support single-argument form of macOS -isysroot flag.

bpo-40158 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40158]: Fix CPython MSBuild Properties in NuGet Package (build/native/python.props)

bpo-38527 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38527]: Fix configure check on Solaris for "float word ordering": sometimes, the correct "grep" command was not being used. Patch by Arnon Yaari.

Windows

bpo-40164 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40164]: Updates Windows to OpenSSL 1.1.1f

bpo-8901 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8901]: Ignore the Windows registry when the -E option is used.

macOS

bpo-38329 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38329]: python.org macOS installers now update the Current version symlink of /Library/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions for 3.9 installs. Previously, Current was only updated for Python 2.x installs. This should make it easier to embed Python 3 into other macOS applications.

bpo-40164 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40164]: Update macOS installer builds to use OpenSSL 1.1.1g.

IDLE

bpo-38439 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38439]: Add a 256×256 pixel IDLE icon to support more modern environments. Created by Andrew Clover. Delete the unused macOS idle.icns icon file.

bpo-38689 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38689]: IDLE will no longer freeze when inspect.signature fails when fetching a calltip.

Tools/Demos

bpo-40385 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40385]: Removed the checkpyc.py tool. Please see compileall without force mode as a potential alternative.

bpo-40179 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40179]: Fixed translation of #elif in Argument Clinic.

bpo-40094 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40094]: Fix which.py script exit code: it now uses os.waitstatus_to_exitcode() to convert os.system() exit status into an exit code.

C API

bpo-40241 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40241]: Move the PyGC_Head structure to the internal C API.

bpo-40170 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170]: Convert PyObject_IS_GC() macro to a function to hide implementation details.

bpo-40241 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40241]: Add the functions PyObject_GC_IsTracked() and PyObject_GC_IsFinalized() to the public API to allow to query if Python objects are being currently tracked or have been already finalized by the garbage collector respectively. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-40170 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170]: The PyObject_NEW() macro becomes an alias to the PyObject_New() macro, and the PyObject_NEW_VAR() macro becomes an alias to the PyObject_NewVar() macro, to hide implementation details. They no longer access directly the PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize member.

bpo-40170 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170]: PyType_HasFeature() now always calls PyType_GetFlags() to hide implementation details. Previously, it accessed directly the PyTypeObject.tp_flags member when the limited C API was not used.

bpo-40170 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170]: Convert the PyObject_GET_WEAKREFS_LISTPTR() macro to a function to hide implementation details: the macro accessed directly to the PyTypeObject.tp_weaklistoffset member.

bpo-40170 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170]: Convert PyObject_CheckBuffer() macro to a function to hide implementation details: the macro accessed directly the PyTypeObject.tp_as_buffer member.

bpo-40170 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170]: Always declare PyIndex_Check() as an opaque function to hide implementation details: remove PyIndex_Check() macro. The macro accessed directly the PyTypeObject.tp_as_number member.

bpo-39947 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947]: Add PyThreadState_GetID() function: get the unique identifier of a Python thread state.

Python 3.9.0 alpha 5

Release date: 2020-03-23

Security

bpo-38576 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38576]: Disallow control characters in hostnames in http.client, addressing CVE 2019-18348 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2019-18348]. Such potentially malicious header injection URLs now cause a InvalidURL to be raised.

Core and Builtins

bpo-40010 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40010]: Optimize pending calls in multithreaded applications. If a thread different than the main thread schedules a pending call (Py_AddPendingCall()), the bytecode evaluation loop is no longer interrupted at each bytecode instruction to check for pending calls which cannot be executed. Only the main thread can execute pending calls.

Previously, the bytecode evaluation loop was interrupted at each instruction until the main thread executes pending calls.

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port _weakref extension module to multiphase initialization (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]).

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port _collections module to multiphase initialization (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]).

bpo-40010 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40010]: Optimize signal handling in multithreaded applications. If a thread different than the main thread gets a signal, the bytecode evaluation loop is no longer interrupted at each bytecode instruction to check for pending signals which cannot be handled. Only the main thread of the main interpreter can handle signals.

Previously, the bytecode evaluation loop was interrupted at each instruction until the main thread handles signals.

bpo-39984 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39984]: If Py_AddPendingCall() is called in a subinterpreter, the function is now scheduled to be called from the subinterpreter, rather than being called from the main interpreter. Each subinterpreter now has its own list of scheduled calls.

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port _heapq module to multiphase initialization.

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port itertools module to multiphase initialization (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]).

bpo-37207 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207]: Speed up calls to frozenset() by using the PEP 590 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/] vectorcall calling convention. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-39984 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39984]: subinterpreters: Move _PyRuntimeState.ceval.tracing_possible to PyInterpreterState.ceval.tracing_possible: each interpreter now has its own variable.

bpo-37207 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207]: Speed up calls to set() by using the PEP 590 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/] vectorcall calling convention. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port _statistics module to multiphase initialization (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]).

bpo-39968 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39968]: Use inline function to replace extension modules' get_module_state macros.

bpo-39965 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39965]: Correctly raise SyntaxError if await is used inside non-async functions and PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT is set (like in the asyncio REPL). Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-39562 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39562]: Allow executing asynchronous comprehensions on the top level when the PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT flag is given. Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

bpo-37207 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207]: Speed up calls to tuple() by using the PEP 590 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/] vectorcall calling convention. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-38373 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38373]: Changed list overallocation strategy. It no longer overallocates if the new size is closer to overallocated size than to the old size and adds padding.

bpo-39926 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39926]: Update Unicode database to Unicode version 13.0.0.

bpo-19466 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19466]: Clear the frames of daemon threads earlier during the Python shutdown to call objects destructors. So "unclosed file" resource warnings are now emitted for daemon threads in a more reliable way.

bpo-38894 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38894]: Fix a bug that was causing incomplete results when calling pathlib.Path.glob in the presence of symlinks that point to files where the user does not have read access. Patch by Pablo Galindo and Matt Wozniski.

bpo-39877 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39877]: Fix PyEval_RestoreThread() random crash at exit with daemon threads. It now accesses the _PyRuntime variable directly instead of using tstate->interp->runtime, since tstate can be a dangling pointer after Py_Finalize() has been called. Moreover, the daemon thread now exits before trying to take the GIL.

bpo-39871 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39871]: Fix a possible SystemError in math.{atan2,copysign,remainder}() when the first argument cannot be converted to a float. Patch by Zackery Spytz.

bpo-39776 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39776]: Fix race condition where threads created by PyGILState_Ensure() could get a duplicate id.

This affects consumers of tstate->id like the contextvar caching machinery, which could return invalid cached objects under heavy thread load (observed in embedded scenarios).

bpo-39778 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39778]: Fixed a crash due to incorrect handling of weak references in collections.OrderedDict classes. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port audioop extension module to multiphase initialization (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]).

bpo-39702 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39702]: Relax decorator grammar restrictions to allow any valid expression (PEP 614 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0614/]).

bpo-38091 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38091]: Tweak import deadlock detection code to not deadlock itself.

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port _locale extension module to multiphase initialization (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]).

bpo-39087 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39087]: Optimize PyUnicode_AsUTF8() and PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize() slightly when they need to create internal UTF-8 cache.

bpo-39520 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39520]: Fix unparsing of ext slices with no items (foo[:,]). Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

bpo-39220 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39220]: Do not optimize annotations if 'from __future__ import annotations' is used. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-35712 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35712]: Using NotImplemented in a boolean context has been deprecated. Patch contributed by Josh Rosenberg.

bpo-22490 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22490]: Don't leak environment variable __PYVENV_LAUNCHER__ into the interpreter session on macOS.

Library

bpo-39830 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39830]: Add zipfile.Path to __all__ in the zipfile module.

bpo-40000 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40000]: Improved error messages for validation of ast.Constant nodes. Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

bpo-39999 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39999]: __module__ of the AST node classes is now set to "ast" instead of "_ast". Added docstrings for dummy AST node classes and deprecated attributes.

bpo-39991 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39991]: uuid.getnode() now skips IPv6 addresses with the same string length than a MAC address (17 characters): only use MAC addresses.

bpo-39988 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39988]: Deprecated ast.AugLoad and ast.AugStore node classes because they are no longer used.

bpo-39656 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39656]: Ensure bin/python3.# is always present in virtual environments on POSIX platforms - by Anthony Sottile.

bpo-39969 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39969]: Deprecated ast.Param node class because it's no longer used. Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

bpo-39360 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39360]: Ensure all workers exit when finalizing a multiprocessing.Pool implicitly via the module finalization handlers of multiprocessing. This fixes a deadlock situation that can be experienced when the Pool is not properly finalized via the context manager or a call to multiprocessing.Pool.terminate. Patch by Batuhan Taskaya and Pablo Galindo.

bpo-35370 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35370]: sys.settrace(), sys.setprofile() and _lsprof.Profiler.enable() now properly report PySys_Audit() error if "sys.setprofile" or "sys.settrace" audit event is denied.

bpo-39936 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39936]: AIX: Fix _aix_support module when the subprocess is not available, when building Python from scratch. It now uses new private _bootsubprocess module, rather than having two implementations depending if subprocess is available or not. So _aix_support.aix_platform() result is now the same if subprocess is available or not.

bpo-36144 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144]: collections.OrderedDict now implements | and |= (PEP 584 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/]).

bpo-39652 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39652]: The column name found in sqlite3.Cursor.description is now truncated on the first '[' only if the PARSE_COLNAMES option is set.

bpo-39915 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39915]: Ensure unittest.mock.AsyncMock.await_args_list has call objects in the order of awaited arguments instead of using unittest.mock.Mock.call_args which has the last value of the call. Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

bpo-36144 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144]: Updated os.environ and os.environb to support PEP 584 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/]'s merge (|) and update (|=) operators.

bpo-38662 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38662]: The ensurepip module now invokes pip via the runpy module. Hence it is no longer tightly coupled with the internal API of the bundled pip version, allowing easier updates to a newer pip version both internally and for distributors.

bpo-38075 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38075]: Fix the random.Random.seed() method when a bool is passed as the seed.

bpo-39916 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39916]: More reliable use of os.scandir() in Path.glob(). It no longer emits a ResourceWarning when interrupted.

bpo-39850 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39850]: multiprocessing now supports abstract socket addresses (if abstract sockets are supported in the running platform). When creating arbitrary addresses (like when default-constructing multiprocessing.connection.Listener objects) abstract sockets are preferred to avoid the case when the temporary-file-generated address is too large for an AF_UNIX socket address. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-36287 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36287]: ast.dump() no longer outputs optional fields and attributes with default values. The default values for optional fields and attributes of AST nodes are now set as class attributes (e.g. Constant.kind is set to None).

bpo-39889 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39889]: Fixed ast.unparse() for extended slices containing a single element (e.g. a[i:j,]). Remove redundant tuples when index with a tuple (e.g. a[i, j]).

bpo-39828 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39828]: Fix json.tool to catch BrokenPipeError. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-13487 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13487]: Avoid a possible "RuntimeError: dictionary changed size during iteration" from inspect.getmodule() when it tried to loop through sys.modules.

bpo-39674 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39674]: Revert "bpo-37330 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37330]: open() no longer accept 'U' in file mode". The "U" mode of open() is kept in Python 3.9 to ease transition from Python 2.7, but will be removed in Python 3.10.

bpo-28577 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28577]: The hosts method on 32-bit prefix length IPv4Networks and 128-bit prefix IPv6Networks now returns a list containing the single Address instead of an empty list.

bpo-39826 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39826]: Add getConnection method to logging HTTPHandler to enable custom connections.

bpo-39763 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39763]: Reimplement distutils.spawn.spawn function with the subprocess module.

bpo-39794 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39794]: Add --without-decimal-contextvar build option. This enables a thread-local rather than a coroutine local context.

bpo-36144 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144]: collections.defaultdict now implements | (PEP 584 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/]).

bpo-39517 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39517]: Fix runpy.run_path() when using pathlike objects

bpo-39775 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39775]: Change inspect.Signature.parameters back to collections.OrderedDict. This was changed to dict in Python 3.9.0a4.

bpo-39678 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39678]: Refactor queue_manager in concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor to make it easier to maintain.

bpo-39764 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39764]: Fix AttributeError when calling get_stack on a PyAsyncGenObject Task

bpo-39769 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39769]: The compileall.compile_dir() function's ddir parameter and the compileall command line flag -d no longer write the wrong pathname to the generated pyc file for submodules beneath the root of the directory tree being compiled. This fixes a regression introduced with Python 3.5.

bpo-36144 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144]: types.MappingProxyType objects now support the merge (|) operator from PEP 584 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/].

bpo-38691 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38691]: The importlib module now ignores the PYTHONCASEOK environment variable when the -E or -I command line options are being used.

bpo-39719 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39719]: Remove tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile.softspace() as files no longer have the softspace attribute in Python 3. Patch by Shantanu.

bpo-39667 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39667]: Improve pathlib.Path compatibility on zipfile.Path and correct performance degradation as found in zipp 3.0.

bpo-39638 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39638]: Keep ASDL signatures in the docstrings for AST nodes. Patch by Batuhan Taskaya

bpo-39639 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39639]: Deprecated ast.Suite node class because it's no longer used. Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

bpo-39609 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39609]: Add thread_name_prefix to default asyncio executor

bpo-39548 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39548]: Fix handling of header in urllib.request.AbstractDigestAuthHandler when the optional qop parameter is not present.

bpo-39509 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39509]: HTTP status codes 103 EARLY_HINTS and 425 TOO_EARLY are added to http.HTTPStatus. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-39507 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39507]: Adding HTTP status 418 "I'm a Teapot" to HTTPStatus in http library. Patch by Ross Rhodes.

bpo-39495 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39495]: Remove default value from attrs parameter of xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.start() for consistency between Python and C implementations.

bpo-38971 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38971]: Open issue in the BPO indicated a desire to make the implementation of codecs.open() at parity with io.open(), which implements a try/except to assure file stream gets closed before an exception is raised.

bpo-38641 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38641]: Added starred expressions support to return and yield statements for lib2to3. Patch by Vlad Emelianov.

bpo-37534 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37534]: When using minidom module to generate XML documents the ability to add Standalone Document Declaration is added. All the changes are made to generate a document in compliance with Extensible Markup Language (XML) 1.0 (Fifth Edition) W3C Recommendation (available here: https://www.w3.org/TR/xml/#sec-prolog-dtd).

bpo-34788 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34788]: Add support for scoped IPv6 addresses to ipaddress. Patch by Oleksandr Pavliuk.

bpo-34822 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34822]: Simplified AST for subscription. Simple indices are now represented by their value, extended slices are represented as tuples. ast classes Index and ExtSlice are considered deprecated and will be removed in future Python versions. In the meantime, Index(value) now returns a value itself, ExtSlice(slices) returns Tuple(slices, Load()).

Documentation

bpo-39868 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39868]: Updated the Language Reference for PEP 572 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/].

bpo-13790 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13790]: Change 'string' to 'specification' in format doc.

bpo-17422 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17422]: The language reference no longer restricts default class namespaces to dicts only.

bpo-39530 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39530]: Fix misleading documentation about mixed-type numeric comparisons.

bpo-39718 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39718]: Update token documentation to reflect additions in Python 3.8

bpo-39677 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39677]: Changed operand name of MAKE_FUNCTION from argc to flags for module dis

Tests

bpo-40019 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40019]: test_gdb now skips tests if it detects that gdb failed to read debug information because the Python binary is optimized.

bpo-27807 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27807]: test_site.test_startup_imports() is now skipped if a path of sys.path contains a .pth file.

bpo-26067 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26067]: Do not fail test_shutil test_chown test when uid or gid of user cannot be resolved to a name.

bpo-39855 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39855]: test_subprocess.test_user() now skips the test on an user name if the user name doesn't exist. For example, skip the test if the user "nobody" doesn't exist on Linux.

Build

bpo-39761 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39761]: Fix build with DTrace but without additional DFLAGS.

bpo-39763 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39763]: setup.py now uses a basic implementation of the subprocess module if the subprocess module is not available: before required C extension modules are built.

bpo-1294959 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1294959]: Add --with-platlibdir option to the configure script: name of the platform-specific library directory, stored in the new sys.platlibdir attribute. It is used to build the path of platform-specific extension modules and the path of the standard library. It is equal to "lib" on most platforms. On Fedora and SuSE, it is equal to "lib64" on 64-bit platforms. Patch by Jan Matějek, Matěj Cepl, Charalampos Stratakis and Victor Stinner.

Windows

bpo-39930 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39930]: Ensures the required vcruntime140.dll is included in install packages.

bpo-39847 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39847]: Avoid hang when computer is hibernated whilst waiting for a mutex (for lock-related objects from threading) around 49-day uptime.

bpo-38597 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38597]: distutils will no longer statically link vcruntime140.dll when a redistributable version is unavailable. All future releases of CPython will include a copy of this DLL to ensure distributed extensions can continue to load.

bpo-38380 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38380]: Update Windows builds to use SQLite 3.31.1

bpo-39789 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39789]: Update Windows release build machines to Visual Studio 2019 (MSVC 14.2).

bpo-34803 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34803]: Package for nuget.org now includes repository reference and bundled icon image.

macOS

bpo-38380 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38380]: Update macOS builds to use SQLite 3.31.1

IDLE

bpo-27115 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27115]: For 'Go to Line', use a Query box subclass with IDLE standard behavior and improved error checking.

bpo-39885 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39885]: Since clicking to get an IDLE context menu moves the cursor, any text selection should be and now is cleared.

bpo-39852 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39852]: Edit "Go to line" now clears any selection, preventing accidental deletion. It also updates Ln and Col on the status bar.

bpo-39781 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39781]: Selecting code context lines no longer causes a jump.

Tools/Demos

bpo-36184 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36184]: Port python-gdb.py to FreeBSD. python-gdb.py now checks for "take_gil" function name to check if a frame tries to acquire the GIL, instead of checking for "pthread_cond_timedwait" which is specific to Linux and can be a different condition than the GIL.

bpo-38080 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38080]: Added support to fix getproxies in the lib2to3.fixes.fix_urllib module. Patch by José Roberto Meza Cabrera.

C API

bpo-40024 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40024]: Add PyModule_AddType() helper function: add a type to a module. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-39946 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39946]: Remove _PyRuntime.getframe hook and remove _PyThreadState_GetFrame macro which was an alias to _PyRuntime.getframe. They were only exposed by the internal C API. Remove also PyThreadFrameGetter type.

bpo-39947 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947]: Add PyThreadState_GetFrame() function: get the current frame of a Python thread state.

bpo-37207 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207]: Add _PyArg_NoKwnames helper function. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-39947 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947]: Add PyThreadState_GetInterpreter(): get the interpreter of a Python thread state.

bpo-39947 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947]: Add PyInterpreterState_Get() function to the limited C API.

bpo-35370 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35370]: If PySys_Audit() fails in PyEval_SetProfile() or PyEval_SetTrace(), log the error as an unraisable exception.

bpo-39947 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947]: Move the static inline function flavor of Py_EnterRecursiveCall() and Py_LeaveRecursiveCall() to the internal C API: they access PyThreadState attributes. The limited C API provides regular functions which hide implementation details.

bpo-39947 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947]: Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN_CONDITION and Py_TRASHCAN_END macro no longer access PyThreadState attributes, but call new private _PyTrash_begin() and _PyTrash_end() functions which hide implementation details.

bpo-39884 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39884]: PyDescr_NewMethod() and PyCFunction_NewEx() now include the method name in the SystemError "bad call flags" error message to ease debug.

bpo-39877 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39877]: Deprecated PyEval_InitThreads() and PyEval_ThreadsInitialized(). Calling PyEval_InitThreads() now does nothing.

bpo-38249 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38249]: Py_UNREACHABLE is now implemented with __builtin_unreachable() and analogs in release mode.

bpo-38643 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38643]: PyNumber_ToBase() now raises a SystemError instead of crashing when called with invalid base.

bpo-39882 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39882]: The Py_FatalError() function is replaced with a macro which logs automatically the name of the current function, unless the Py_LIMITED_API macro is defined.

bpo-39824 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39824]: Extension modules: m_traverse, m_clear and m_free functions of PyModuleDef are no longer called if the module state was requested but is not allocated yet. This is the case immediately after the module is created and before the module is executed (Py_mod_exec function). More precisely, these functions are not called if m_size is greater than 0 and the module state (as returned by PyModule_GetState()) is NULL.

Extension modules without module state (m_size <= 0) are not affected.

bpo-38913 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38913]: Fixed segfault in Py_BuildValue() called with a format containing "#" and undefined PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN whwn an exception is set.

bpo-38500 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38500]: Add a private API to get and set the frame evaluation function: add _PyInterpreterState_GetEvalFrameFunc() and _PyInterpreterState_SetEvalFrameFunc() C functions. The _PyFrameEvalFunction function type now takes a tstate parameter.

Python 3.9.0 alpha 4

Release date: 2020-02-25

Security

bpo-39184 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39184]: Add audit events to functions in fcntl, msvcrt, os, resource, shutil, signal and syslog.

bpo-39401 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39401]: Avoid unsafe DLL load at startup on Windows 7 and earlier.

bpo-39184 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39184]: Add audit events to command execution functions in os and pty modules.

Core and Builtins

bpo-39382 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39382]: Fix a use-after-free in the single inheritance path of issubclass(), when the __bases__ of an object has a single reference, and so does its first item. Patch by Yonatan Goldschmidt.

bpo-39573 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573]: Update clinic tool to use Py_IS_TYPE(). Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-39619 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39619]: Enable use of os.chroot() on HP-UX systems.

bpo-39573 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573]: Add Py_IS_TYPE() static inline function to check whether the object o type is type.

bpo-39606 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39606]: Fix regression caused by fix for bpo-39386 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39386], that prevented calling aclose on an async generator that had already been closed or exhausted.

bpo-39579 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39579]: Change the ending column offset of Attribute nodes constructed in ast_for_dotted_name to point at the end of the current node and not at the end of the last NAME node.

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port _crypt extension module to multiphase initialization (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]).

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port _contextvars extension module to multiphase initialization (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]).

bpo-39510 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39510]: Fix segfault in readinto() method on closed BufferedReader.

bpo-39502 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39502]: Fix time.localtime() on 64-bit AIX to support years before 1902 and after 2038. Patch by M Felt.

bpo-39492 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39492]: Fix a reference cycle in the C Pickler that was preventing the garbage collection of deleted, pickled objects.

bpo-39453 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39453]: Fixed a possible crash in list.__contains__() when a list is changed during comparing items. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-39434 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39434]: floor division of float operation now has a better performance. Also the message of ZeroDivisionError for this operation is updated. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port _codecs extension module to multiphase initialization (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]).

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port _bz2 extension module to multiphase initialization (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]).

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port _abc extension module to multiphase initialization (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]).

bpo-39320 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39320]: Replace two complex bytecodes for building dicts with two simpler ones. The new bytecodes DICT_MERGE and DICT_UPDATE have been added The old bytecodes BUILD_MAP_UNPACK and BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL have been removed.

bpo-39219 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39219]: Syntax errors raised in the tokenizer now always set correct "text" and "offset" attributes.

bpo-36051 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36051]: Drop the GIL during large bytes.join operations. Patch by Bruce Merry.

bpo-38960 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38960]: Fix DTrace build issues on FreeBSD. Patch by David Carlier.

bpo-37207 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207]: Speed up calls to range() by about 30%, by using the PEP 590 vectorcall calling convention. Patch by Mark Shannon.

bpo-36144 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144]: dict (and collections.UserDict) objects now support PEP 584's merge (|) and update (|=) operators. Patch by Brandt Bucher.

bpo-32856 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32856]: Optimized the idiom for assignment a temporary variable in comprehensions. Now for y in [expr] in comprehensions is as fast as a simple assignment y = expr.

Library

bpo-30566 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30566]: Fix IndexError when trying to decode an invalid string with punycode codec.

bpo-39649 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39649]: Remove obsolete check for __args__ in bdb.Bdb.format_stack_entry.

bpo-39648 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39648]: Expanded math.gcd() and math.lcm() to handle multiple arguments.

bpo-39681 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39681]: Fix a regression where the C pickle module wouldn't allow unpickling from a file-like object that doesn't expose a readinto() method.

bpo-35950 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35950]: Raise io.UnsupportedOperation in io.BufferedReader.truncate() when it is called on a read-only io.BufferedReader instance.

bpo-39479 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39479]: Add math.lcm() function: least common multiple.

bpo-39674 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39674]: Revert "Do not expose abstract collection classes in the collections module" change (bpo-25988 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25988]). Aliases to ABC like collections.Mapping are kept in Python 3.9 to ease transition from Python 2.7, but will be removed in Python 3.10.

bpo-39104 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39104]: Fix hanging ProcessPoolExcutor on shutdown(wait=False) when a task has failed pickling.

bpo-39627 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39627]: Fixed TypedDict totality check for inherited keys.

bpo-39474 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39474]: Fixed starting position of AST for expressions like (a)(b), (a)[b] and (a).b.

bpo-21016 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21016]: The pydoc and trace modules now use the sysconfig module to get the path to the Python standard library, to support uncommon installation path like /usr/lib64/python3.9/ on Fedora. Patch by Jan Matějek.

bpo-39590 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39590]: Collections.deque now holds strong references during deque.__contains__ and deque.count, fixing crashes.

bpo-39586 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39586]: The distutils bdist_msi command is deprecated in Python 3.9, use bdist_wheel (wheel packages) instead.

bpo-39595 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39595]: Improved performance of zipfile.Path for files with a large number of entries. Also improved performance and fixed minor issue as published with importlib_metadata 1.5 [https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/en/latest/history.html#v1-5-0].

bpo-39350 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39350]: Fix regression in fractions.Fraction if the numerator and/or the denominator is an int subclass. The math.gcd() function is now used to normalize the numerator and denominator. math.gcd() always return a int type. Previously, the GCD type depended on numerator and denominator.

bpo-39567 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39567]: Added audit for os.walk(), os.fwalk(), pathlib.Path.glob() and pathlib.Path.rglob().

bpo-39559 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39559]: Remove unused, undocumented argument getters from uuid.getnode()

bpo-38149 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38149]: sys.audit() is now called only once per call of glob.glob() and glob.iglob().

bpo-39546 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39546]: Fix a regression in ArgumentParser where allow_abbrev=False was ignored for long options that used a prefix character other than "-".

bpo-39450 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39450]: Striped whitespace from docstring before returning it from unittest.case.shortDescription().

bpo-12915 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12915]: A new function resolve_name has been added to the pkgutil module. This resolves a string of the form 'a.b.c.d' or 'a.b:c.d' to an object. In the example, a.b is a package/module and c.d is an object within that package/module reached via recursive attribute access.

bpo-39353 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39353]: The binascii.crc_hqx() function is no longer deprecated.

bpo-39493 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39493]: Mark typing.IO.closed as a property

bpo-39491 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39491]: Add typing.Annotated and include_extras parameter to typing.get_type_hints() as part of PEP 593 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0593/]. Patch by Till Varoquaux, documentation by Till Varoquaux and Konstantin Kashin.

bpo-39485 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39485]: Fix a bug in unittest.mock.create_autospec() that would complain about the wrong number of arguments for custom descriptors defined in an extension module returning functions.

bpo-38932 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38932]: Mock fully resets child objects on reset_mock(). Patch by Vegard Stikbakke

bpo-39082 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39082]: Allow AsyncMock to correctly patch static/class methods

bpo-39432 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39432]: Implement PEP-489 algorithm for non-ascii "PyInit_..." symbol names in distutils to make it export the correct init symbol also on Windows.

bpo-18819 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18819]: Omit devmajor and devminor fields for non-device files in tarfile archives, enabling bit-for-bit compatibility with GNU tar(1).

bpo-39349 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39349]: Added a new cancel_futures parameter to concurrent.futures.Executor.shutdown() that cancels all pending futures which have not started running, instead of waiting for them to complete before shutting down the executor.

bpo-39274 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39274]: bool(fraction.Fraction) now returns a boolean even if (numerator != 0) does not return a boolean (ex: numpy number).

bpo-34793 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34793]: Remove support for with (await asyncio.lock): and with (yield from asyncio.lock):. The same is correct for asyncio.Condition and asyncio.Semaphore.

bpo-25597 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25597]: Ensure, if wraps is supplied to unittest.mock.MagicMock, it is used to calculate return values for the magic methods instead of using the default return values. Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

bpo-36350 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36350]: inspect.Signature.parameters and inspect.BoundArguments.arguments are now dicts instead of OrderedDicts. Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

bpo-35727 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35727]: Fix sys.exit() and sys.exit(None) exit code propagation when used in multiprocessing.Process.

bpo-32173 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32173]: * Add lazycache function to __all__. * Use dict.clear to clear the cache. * Refactoring getline function and checkcache function.

Documentation

bpo-17422 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17422]: The language reference now specifies restrictions on class namespaces. Adapted from a patch by Ethan Furman.

bpo-39572 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39572]: Updated documentation of total flag of TypedDict.

bpo-39654 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39654]: In pyclbr doc, update 'class' to 'module' where appropriate and add readmodule comment. Patch by Hakan Çelik.

bpo-39153 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39153]: Clarify refcounting semantics for the following functions: - PyObject_SetItem - PyMapping_SetItemString - PyDict_SetItem - PyDict_SetItemString

bpo-39392 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39392]: Explain that when filling with turtle, overlap regions may be left unfilled.

bpo-39369 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39369]: Update mmap readline method description. The fact that the readline method does update the file position should not be ignored since this might give the impression for the programmer that it doesn't update it.

bpo-9056 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9056]: Include subsection in TOC for PDF version of docs.

Tests

bpo-38325 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38325]: Skip tests on non-BMP characters of test_winconsoleio.

bpo-39502 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39502]: Skip test_zipfile.test_add_file_after_2107() if time.localtime() fails with OverflowError. It is the case on AIX 6.1 for example.

Build

bpo-39489 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39489]: Remove COUNT_ALLOCS special build.

Windows

bpo-39553 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39553]: Delete unused code related to SxS manifests.

bpo-39439 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39439]: Honor the Python path when a virtualenv is active on Windows.

bpo-39393 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39393]: Improve the error message when attempting to load a DLL with unresolved dependencies.

bpo-38883 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38883]: home() and expanduser() on Windows now prefer USERPROFILE and no longer use HOME, which is not normally set for regular user accounts. This makes them again behave like os.path.expanduser(), which was changed to ignore HOME in 3.8, see bpo-36264 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36264].

bpo-39185 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39185]: The build.bat script has additional options for very-quiet output (-q) and very-verbose output (-vv)

IDLE

bpo-39663 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39663]: Add tests for pyparse find_good_parse_start().

bpo-39600 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39600]: In the font configuration window, remove duplicated font names.

bpo-30780 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30780]: Add remaining configdialog tests for buttons and highlights and keys tabs.

bpo-39388 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39388]: IDLE Settings Cancel button now cancels pending changes

bpo-38792 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38792]: Close an IDLE shell calltip if a KeyboardInterrupt or shell restart occurs. Patch by Zackery Spytz.

C API

bpo-35081 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35081]: Move the bytes_methods.h header file to the internal C API as pycore_bytes_methods.h: it only contains private symbols (prefixed by _Py), except of the PyDoc_STRVAR_shared() macro.

bpo-35081 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35081]: Move the dtoa.h header file to the internal C API as pycore_dtoa.h: it only contains private functions (prefixed by _Py). The math and cmath modules must now be compiled with the Py_BUILD_CORE macro defined.

bpo-39573 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573]: Add Py_SET_SIZE() function to set the size of an object.

bpo-39500 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39500]: PyUnicode_IsIdentifier() does not call Py_FatalError() anymore if the string is not ready.

bpo-39573 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573]: Add Py_SET_TYPE() function to set the type of an object.

bpo-39573 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573]: Add a Py_SET_REFCNT() function to set the reference counter of an object.

bpo-39542 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39542]: Convert PyType_HasFeature(), PyType_Check() and PyType_CheckExact() macros to static inline functions.

bpo-39542 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39542]: In the limited C API, PyObject_INIT() and PyObject_INIT_VAR() are now defined as aliases to PyObject_Init() and PyObject_InitVar() to make their implementation opaque. It avoids to leak implementation details in the limited C API. Exclude the following functions from the limited C API: _Py_NewReference(), _Py_ForgetReference(), _PyTraceMalloc_NewReference() and _Py_GetRefTotal().

bpo-39542 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39542]: Exclude trashcan mechanism from the limited C API: it requires access to PyTypeObject and PyThreadState structure fields, whereas these structures are opaque in the limited C API.

bpo-39511 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39511]: The PyThreadState_Clear() function now calls the PyThreadState.on_delete callback. Previously, that happened in PyThreadState_Delete().

bpo-38076 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38076]: Fix to clear the interpreter state only after clearing module globals to guarantee module state access from C Extensions during runtime destruction

bpo-39245 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39245]: The Vectorcall API (PEP 590) was made public, adding the functions PyObject_Vectorcall, PyObject_VectorcallMethod, PyVectorcall_Function, PyObject_CallOneArg, PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs, PyObject_CallMethodOneArg, PyObject_FastCallDict, and the flag Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL.

Python 3.9.0 alpha 3

Release date: 2020-01-24

Core and Builtins

bpo-39427 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39427]: Document all possibilities for the -X options in the command line help section. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-39421 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39421]: Fix possible crashes when operating with the functions in the heapq module and custom comparison operators.

bpo-39386 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39386]: Prevent double awaiting of async iterator.

bpo-17005 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17005]: Add functools.TopologicalSorter to the functools module to offers functionality to perform topological sorting of graphs. Patch by Pablo Galindo, Tim Peters and Larry Hastings.

bpo-39320 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39320]: Replace four complex bytecodes for building sequences with three simpler ones.

The following four bytecodes have been removed:

BUILD_LIST_UNPACK

BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK

BUILD_SET_UNPACK

BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL

The following three bytecodes have been added:

LIST_TO_TUPLE

LIST_EXTEND

SET_UPDATE

bpo-39336 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39336]: Import loaders which publish immutable module objects can now publish immutable packages in addition to individual modules.

bpo-39322 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39322]: Added a new function gc.is_finalized() to check if an object has been finalized by the garbage collector. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-39048 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39048]: Improve the displayed error message when incorrect types are passed to async with statements by looking up the __aenter__() special method before the __aexit__() special method when entering an asynchronous context manager. Patch by Géry Ogam.

bpo-39235 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39235]: Fix AST end location for lone generator expression in function call, e.g. f(i for i in a).

bpo-39209 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39209]: Correctly handle multi-line tokens in interactive mode. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-1635741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741]: Port _json extension module to multiphase initialization (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]).

bpo-39216 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39216]: Fix constant folding optimization for positional only arguments - by Anthony Sottile.

bpo-39215 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39215]: Fix SystemError when nested function has annotation on positional-only argument - by Anthony Sottile.

bpo-39200 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39200]: Correct the error message when calling the min() or max() with no arguments. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-39200 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39200]: Correct the error message when trying to construct range objects with no arguments. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-39166 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39166]: Fix incorrect line execution reporting in trace functions when tracing the last iteration of asynchronous for loops. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-39114 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39114]: Fix incorrect line execution reporting in trace functions when tracing exception handlers with name binding. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-39156 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39156]: Split the COMPARE_OP bytecode instruction into four distinct instructions.

COMPARE_OP for rich comparisons

IS_OP for 'is' and 'is not' tests

CONTAINS_OP for 'in' and 'is not' tests

JUMP_IF_NOT_EXC_MATCH for checking exceptions in 'try-except' statements.

This improves the clarity of the interpreter and should provide a modest speedup.

bpo-38588 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38588]: Fix possible crashes in dict and list when calling PyObject_RichCompareBool().

bpo-13601 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13601]: By default, sys.stderr is line-buffered now, even if stderr is redirected to a file. You can still make sys.stderr unbuffered by passing the -u command-line option or setting the PYTHONUNBUFFERED environment variable.

(Contributed by Jendrik Seipp in bpo-13601 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13601].)

bpo-38610 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38610]: Fix possible crashes in several list methods by holding strong references to list elements when calling PyObject_RichCompareBool().

bpo-32021 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32021]: Include brotli .br encoding in mimetypes encodings_map

Library

bpo-39430 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39430]: Fixed race condition in lazy imports in tarfile.

bpo-39413 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39413]: The os.unsetenv() function is now also available on Windows.

bpo-39390 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39390]: Fixed a regression with the ignore callback of shutil.copytree(). The argument types are now str and List[str] again.

bpo-39395 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39395]: The os.putenv() and os.unsetenv() functions are now always available.

bpo-39406 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39406]: If setenv() C function is available, os.putenv() is now implemented with setenv() instead of putenv(), so Python doesn't have to handle the environment variable memory.

bpo-39396 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39396]: Fix math.nextafter(-0.0, +0.0) on AIX 7.1.

bpo-29435 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29435]: Allow tarfile.is_tarfile() to be used with file and file-like objects, like zipfile.is_zipfile(). Patch by William Woodruff.

bpo-39377 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39377]: Removed encoding option from json.loads(). It has been deprecated since Python 3.1.

bpo-39389 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39389]: Write accurate compression level metadata in gzip archives, rather than always signaling maximum compression.

bpo-39366 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39366]: The previously deprecated xpath() and xgtitle() methods of nntplib.NNTP have been removed.

bpo-39357 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39357]: Remove the buffering parameter of bz2.BZ2File. Since Python 3.0, it was ignored and using it was emitting DeprecationWarning. Pass an open file object, to control how the file is opened. The compresslevel parameter becomes keyword-only.

bpo-39353 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39353]: Deprecate binhex4 and hexbin4 standards. Deprecate the binhex module and the following binascii functions: b2a_hqx(), a2b_hqx(), rlecode_hqx(), rledecode_hqx(), crc_hqx().

bpo-39351 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39351]: Remove base64.encodestring() and base64.decodestring(), aliases deprecated since Python 3.1: use base64.encodebytes() and base64.decodebytes() instead.

bpo-39350 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39350]: Remove fractions.gcd() function, deprecated since Python 3.5 (bpo-22486 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22486]): use math.gcd() instead.

bpo-39329 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39329]: LMTP constructor now has an optional timeout parameter. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-39313 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39313]: Add a new exec_function option (--exec-function in the CLI) to RefactoringTool for making exec a function. Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

bpo-39259 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259]: FTP_TLS and FTP_TLS now raise a ValueError if the given timeout for their constructor is zero to prevent the creation of a non-blocking socket. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-39259 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259]: SMTP and SMTP_SSL now raise a ValueError if the given timeout for their constructor is zero to prevent the creation of a non-blocking socket. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-39310 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39310]: Add math.ulp(): return the value of the least significant bit of a float.

bpo-39297 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39297]: Improved performance of importlib.metadata distribution discovery and resilients to inaccessible sys.path entries (importlib_metadata v1.4.0).

bpo-39259 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259]: NNTP and NNTP_SSL now raise a ValueError if the given timeout for their constructor is zero to prevent the creation of a non-blocking socket. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-38901 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38901]: When you specify prompt='.' or equivalently python -m venv --prompt . ... the basename of the current directory is used to set the created venv's prompt when it's activated.

bpo-39288 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39288]: Add math.nextafter(): return the next floating-point value after x towards y.

bpo-39259 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259]: POP3 and POP3_SSL now raise a ValueError if the given timeout for their constructor is zero to prevent the creation of a non-blocking socket. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-39242 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39242]: Updated the Gmane domain from news.gmane.org to news.gmane.io which is used for examples of NNTP news reader server and nntplib tests.

bpo-35292 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35292]: Proxy the SimpleHTTPRequestHandler.guess_type to mimetypes.guess_type so the mimetypes.init is called lazily to avoid unnecessary costs when http.server module is imported.

bpo-39239 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39239]: The select.epoll.unregister() method no longer ignores the EBADF error.

bpo-38907 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38907]: In http.server script, restore binding to IPv4 on Windows.

bpo-39152 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39152]: Fix ttk.Scale.configure([name]) to return configuration tuple for name or all options. Giovanni Lombardo contributed part of the patch.

bpo-39198 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39198]: If an exception were to be thrown in Logger.isEnabledFor (say, by asyncio timeouts or stopit) , the logging global lock may not be released appropriately, resulting in deadlock. This change wraps that block of code with try...finally to ensure the lock is released.

bpo-39191 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39191]: Perform a check for running loop before starting a new task in loop.run_until_complete() to fail fast; it prevents the side effect of new task spawning before exception raising.

bpo-38871 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38871]: Correctly parenthesize filter-based statements that contain lambda expressions in lib2to3. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-39142 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39142]: A change was made to logging.config.dictConfig to avoid converting instances of named tuples to ConvertingTuple. It's assumed that named tuples are too specialised to be treated like ordinary tuples; if a user of named tuples requires ConvertingTuple functionality, they will have to implement that themselves in their named tuple class.

bpo-39158 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39158]: ast.literal_eval() now supports empty sets.

bpo-39129 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39129]: Fix import path for asyncio.TimeoutError

bpo-39057 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39057]: urllib.request.proxy_bypass_environment() now ignores leading dots and no longer ignores a trailing newline.

bpo-39056 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39056]: Fixed handling invalid warning category in the -W option. No longer import the re module if it is not needed.

bpo-39055 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39055]: base64.b64decode() with validate=True raises now a binascii.Error if the input ends with a single \n.

bpo-21600 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21600]: Fix mock.patch.stopall() to stop active patches that were created with mock.patch.dict().

bpo-39019 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39019]: Implement dummy __class_getitem__ for tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile.

bpo-39019 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39019]: Implement dummy __class_getitem__ for subprocess.Popen, subprocess.CompletedProcess

bpo-38914 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38914]: Adjusted the wording of the warning issued by distutils' check command when the author and maintainer fields are supplied but no corresponding e-mail field (author_email or maintainer_email) is found. The wording now reflects the fact that these fields are suggested, but not required. Patch by Juergen Gmach.

bpo-38878 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38878]: Fixed __subclasshook__ of os.PathLike to return a correct result upon inheritance. Patch by Bar Harel.

bpo-38615 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38615]: IMAP4 and IMAP4_SSL now have an optional timeout parameter for their constructors. Also, the open() method now has an optional timeout parameter with this change. The overridden methods of IMAP4_SSL and IMAP4_stream were applied to this change. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-35182 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35182]: Fixed Popen.communicate() subsequent call crash when the child process has already closed any piped standard stream, but still continues to be running. Patch by Andriy Maletsky.

bpo-38630 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38630]: On Unix, subprocess.Popen.send_signal() now polls the process status. Polling reduces the risk of sending a signal to the wrong process if the process completed, the subprocess.Popen.returncode attribute is still None, and the pid has been reassigned (recycled) to a new different process.

bpo-38536 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38536]: Removes trailing space in formatted currency with international=True and a locale with symbol following value. E.g. locale.currency(12.34, international=True) returned '12,34 EUR ' instead of '12,34 EUR'.

bpo-38473 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38473]: Use signature from inner mock for autospecced methods attached with unittest.mock.attach_mock(). Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

bpo-38361 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38361]: Fixed an issue where ident could include a leading path separator when syslog.openlog() was called without arguments.

bpo-38293 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38293]: Add copy.copy() and copy.deepcopy() support to property() objects.

bpo-37958 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37958]: Added the pstats.Stats.get_profile_dict() method to return the profile data as a StatsProfile instance.

bpo-28367 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28367]: Termios magic constants for the following baud rates: - B500000 - B576000 - B921600 - B1000000 - B1152000 - B1500000 - B2000000 - B2500000 - B3000000 - B3500000 - B4000000 Patch by Andrey Smirnov

Documentation

bpo-39381 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39381]: Mention in docs that asyncio.get_event_loop() implicitly creates new event loop only if called from the main thread.

bpo-38918 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38918]: Add an entry for __module__ in the "function" & "method" sections of the inspect docs' Types et membres table.

bpo-3530 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3530]: In the ast module documentation, fix a misleading NodeTransformer example and add advice on when to use the fix_missing_locations function.

Build

bpo-39395 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39395]: On non-Windows platforms, the setenv() and unsetenv() functions are now required to build Python.

bpo-39160 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39160]: Updated the documentation in ./configure --help to show default values, reference documentation where required and add additional explanation where needed.

bpo-39144 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39144]: The ctags and etags build targets both include Modules/_ctypes and Python standard library source files.

IDLE

bpo-39050 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39050]: Make IDLE Settings dialog Help button work again.

bpo-34118 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34118]: Tag memoryview, range, and tuple as classes, the same as list, etcetera, in the library manual built-in functions list.

bpo-32989 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32989]: Add tests for editor newline_and_indent_event method. Remove dead code from pyparse find_good_parse_start method.

C API

bpo-39372 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39372]: Clean header files of interfaces defined but with no implementation. The public API symbols being removed are: _PyBytes_InsertThousandsGroupingLocale, _PyBytes_InsertThousandsGrouping, _Py_InitializeFromArgs, _Py_InitializeFromWideArgs, _PyFloat_Repr, _PyFloat_Digits, _PyFloat_DigitsInit, PyFrame_ExtendStack, _PyAIterWrapper_Type, PyNullImporter_Type, PyCmpWrapper_Type, PySortWrapper_Type, PyNoArgsFunction.

bpo-39164 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39164]: Add a private _PyErr_GetExcInfo() function to retrieve exception information of the specified Python thread state.

Python 3.9.0 alpha 2

Release date: 2019-12-18

Security

bpo-38945 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38945]: Newline characters have been escaped when performing uu encoding to prevent them from overflowing into to content section of the encoded file. This prevents malicious or accidental modification of data during the decoding process.

bpo-37228 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37228]: Due to significant security concerns, the reuse_address parameter of asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint() is no longer supported. This is because of the behavior of SO_REUSEADDR in UDP. For more details, see the documentation for loop.create_datagram_endpoint(). (Contributed by Kyle Stanley, Antoine Pitrou, and Yury Selivanov in bpo-37228 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37228].)

bpo-38804 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38804]: Fixes a ReDoS vulnerability in http.cookiejar. Patch by Ben Caller.

Core and Builtins

bpo-39028 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39028]: Slightly improve the speed of keyword argument parsing with many kwargs by strengthening the assumption that kwargs are interned strings.

bpo-39080 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39080]: Fix the value of end_col_offset for Starred Expression AST nodes when they are among the elements in the args attribute of Call AST nodes.

bpo-39031 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39031]: When parsing an "elif" node, lineno and col_offset of the node now point to the "elif" keyword and not to its condition, making it consistent with the "if" node. Patch by Lysandros Nikolaou.

bpo-20443 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20443]: In Python 3.9.0a1, sys.argv[0] was made an absolute path if a filename was specified on the command line. Revert this change, since most users expect sys.argv to be unmodified.

bpo-39008 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39008]: PySys_Audit() now requires Py_ssize_t to be used for size arguments in the format string, regardless of whether PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN was defined at include time.

bpo-38673 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38673]: In REPL mode, don't switch to PS2 if the line starts with comment or whitespace. Based on work by Batuhan Taşkaya.

bpo-38922 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38922]: Calling replace on a code object now raises the code.__new__ audit event.

bpo-38920 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38920]: Add audit hooks for when sys.excepthook() and sys.unraisablehook() are invoked.

bpo-38892 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38892]: Improve documentation for audit events table and functions.

bpo-38852 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38852]: Set the thread stack size to 8 Mb for debug builds on android platforms.

bpo-38858 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38858]: Each Python subinterpreter now has its own "small integer singletons": numbers in [-5; 257] range. It is no longer possible to change the number of small integers at build time by overriding NSMALLNEGINTS and NSMALLPOSINTS macros: macros should now be modified manually in pycore_pystate.h header file.

bpo-36854 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36854]: The garbage collector state becomes per interpreter (PyInterpreterState.gc), rather than being global (_PyRuntimeState.gc).

bpo-38835 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38835]: The PyFPE_START_PROTECT() and PyFPE_END_PROTECT() macros are empty: they have been doing nothing for the last year, so stop using them.

bpo-38328 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38328]: Sped up the creation time of constant list and set displays. Patch by Brandt Bucher.

bpo-38707 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38707]: MainThread.native_id is now correctly reset in child processes spawned using multiprocessing.Process, instead of retaining the parent's value.

bpo-38629 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38629]: Added __floor__ and __ceil__ methods to float object. Patch by Batuhan Taşkaya.

bpo-27145 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27145]: int + int and int - int operators can now return small integer singletons. Patch by hongweipeng.

bpo-38021 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38021]: Provide a platform tag for AIX that is sufficient for PEP425 binary distribution identification. Patch by Michael Felt.

bpo-35409 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35409]: Ignore GeneratorExit exceptions when throwing an exception into the aclose coroutine of an asynchronous generator.

bpo-33387 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33387]: Removed WITH_CLEANUP_START, WITH_CLEANUP_FINISH, BEGIN_FINALLY, END_FINALLY, CALL_FINALLY and POP_FINALLY bytecodes. Replaced with RERAISE and WITH_EXCEPT_START bytecodes. The compiler now generates different code for exceptional and non-exceptional branches for 'with' and 'try-except' statements. For 'try-finally' statements the 'finally' block is replicated for each exit from the 'try' body.

Library

bpo-39033 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39033]: Fix NameError in zipimport. Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

bpo-39022 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39022]: Update importlib.metadata to include improvements from importlib_metadata 1.3 including better serialization of EntryPoints and improved documentation for custom finders.

bpo-39006 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39006]: Fix asyncio when the ssl module is missing: only check for ssl.SSLSocket instance if the ssl module is available.

bpo-38708 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38708]: Fix a potential IndexError in email parser when parsing an empty msg-id.

bpo-38698 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38698]: Add a new InvalidMessageID token to email parser to represent invalid Message-ID headers. Also, add defects when there is remaining value after parsing the header.

bpo-38994 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38994]: Implement __class_getitem__ for os.PathLike, pathlib.Path.

bpo-38979 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38979]: Return class from ContextVar.__class_getitem__ to simplify subclassing.

bpo-38978 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38978]: Implement __class_getitem__ on asyncio objects (Future, Task, Queue). Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

bpo-38916 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38916]: array.array: Remove tostring() and fromstring() methods. They were aliases to tobytes() and frombytes(), deprecated since Python 3.2.

bpo-38986 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38986]: Make repr of C accelerated TaskWakeupMethWrapper the same as of pure Python version.

bpo-38982 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38982]: Fix asyncio PidfdChildWatcher: handle waitpid() error. If waitpid() is called elsewhere, waitpid() call fails with ChildProcessError: use return code 255 in this case, and log a warning. It ensures that the pidfd file descriptor is closed if this error occurs.

bpo-38529 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38529]: Drop too noisy asyncio warning about deletion of a stream without explicit .close() call.

bpo-27413 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27413]: Added ability to pass through ensure_ascii options to json.dumps in the json.tool command-line interface.

bpo-38634 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38634]: The readline module now detects if Python is linked to libedit at runtime on all platforms. Previously, the check was only done on macOS.

bpo-33684 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33684]: Fix json.tool failed to read a JSON file with non-ASCII characters when locale encoding is not UTF-8.

bpo-38698 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38698]: Prevent UnboundLocalError to pop up in parse_message_id.

parse_message_id() was improperly using a token defined inside an exception handler, which was raising UnboundLocalError on parsing an invalid value. Patch by Claudiu Popa.

bpo-38927 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38927]: Use python -m pip instead of pip to upgrade dependencies in venv.

bpo-26730 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26730]: Fix SpooledTemporaryFile.rollover() might corrupt the file when it is in text mode. Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

bpo-38881 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38881]: random.choices() now raises a ValueError when all the weights are zero.

bpo-38876 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38876]: Raise pickle.UnpicklingError when loading an item from memo for invalid input.

The previous code was raising a KeyError for both the Python and C implementation. This was caused by the specified index of an invalid input which did not exist in the memo structure, where the pickle stores what objects it has seen. The malformed input would have caused either a BINGET or LONG_BINGET load from the memo, leading to a KeyError as the determined index was bogus. Patch by Claudiu Popa.

bpo-38688 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38688]: Calling func:shutil.copytree to copy a directory tree from one directory to another subdirectory resulted in an endless loop and a RecursionError. A fix was added to consume an iterator and create the list of the entries to be copied, avoiding the recursion for newly created directories. Patch by Bruno P. Kinoshita.

bpo-38863 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38863]: Improve is_cgi() function in http.server, which enables processing the case that cgi directory is a child of another directory other than root.

bpo-37838 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37838]: typing.get_type_hints() properly handles functions decorated with functools.wraps().

bpo-38870 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38870]: Expose ast.unparse() as a function of the ast module that can be used to unparse an ast.AST object and produce a string with code that would produce an equivalent ast.AST object when parsed. Patch by Pablo Galindo and Batuhan Taskaya.

bpo-38859 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38859]: AsyncMock now returns StopAsyncIteration on the exhaustion of a side_effects iterable. Since PEP-479 its Impossible to raise a StopIteration exception from a coroutine.

bpo-38857 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38857]: AsyncMock fix for return values that are awaitable types. This also covers side_effect iterable values that happened to be awaitable, and wraps callables that return an awaitable type. Before these awaitables were being awaited instead of being returned as is.

bpo-38834 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38834]: typing.TypedDict subclasses now track which keys are optional using the __required_keys__ and __optional_keys__ attributes, to enable runtime validation by downstream projects. Patch by Zac Hatfield-Dodds.

bpo-38821 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38821]: Fix unhandled exceptions in argparse when internationalizing error messages for arguments with nargs set to special (non-integer) values. Patch by Federico Bond.

bpo-38820 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38820]: Make Python compatible with OpenSSL 3.0.0. ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert() no longer returns IPv6 addresses with a trailing new line.

bpo-38811 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38811]: Fix an unhandled exception in pathlib when os.link() is missing. Patch by Toke Høiland-Jørgensen.

bpo-38686 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38686]: Added support for multiple qop values in urllib.request.AbstractDigestAuthHandler.

bpo-38712 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38712]: Add the Linux-specific signal.pidfd_send_signal() function, which allows sending a signal to a process identified by a file descriptor rather than a pid.

bpo-38348 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38348]: Add -i and --indent (indentation level), and --no-type-comments (type comments) command line options to ast parsing tool.

bpo-37523 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37523]: Change zipfile.ZipExtFile to raise ValueError when trying to access the underlying file object after it has been closed. This new behavior is consistent with how accessing closed files is handled in other parts of Python.

bpo-38045 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38045]: Improve the performance of enum._decompose() in enum. Patch by hongweipeng.

bpo-36820 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36820]: Break cycle generated when saving an exception in socket.py, codeop.py and dyld.py as they keep alive not only the exception but user objects through the __traceback__ attribute. Patch by Mario Corchero.

bpo-36406 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36406]: Handle namespace packages in doctest. Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

bpo-34776 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34776]: Fix dataclasses to support forward references in type annotations

bpo-20928 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20928]: ElementTree supports recursive XInclude processing. Patch by Stefan Behnel.

bpo-29636 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29636]: Add whitespace options for formatting JSON with the json.tool CLI. The following mutually exclusive options are now supported: --indent for setting the indent level in spaces; --tab for indenting with tabs; --no-indent for suppressing newlines; and --compact for suppressing all whitespace. The default behavior remains the same as --indent=4.

Documentation

bpo-38928 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38928]: Correct when venv's upgrade_dependencies() and --upgrade-deps are added.

bpo-38899 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38899]: Update documentation to state that to activate virtual environments under fish one should use source, not . as documented at https://fishshell.com/docs/current/cmds/source.html.

bpo-22377 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22377]: Improves documentation of the values that datetime.datetime.strptime() accepts for %Z. Patch by Karl Dubost.

Tests

bpo-38546 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38546]: Fix test_ressources_gced_in_workers() of test_concurrent_futures: explicitly stop the manager to prevent leaking a child process running in the background after the test completes.

bpo-38546 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38546]: Multiprocessing and concurrent.futures tests now stop the resource tracker process when tests complete.

bpo-38614 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38614]: Replace hardcoded timeout constants in tests with new test.support constants: LOOPBACK_TIMEOUT, INTERNET_TIMEOUT, SHORT_TIMEOUT and LONG_TIMEOUT. It becomes easier to adjust these four timeout constants for all tests at once, rather than having to adjust every single test file.

bpo-38547 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38547]: Fix test_pty: if the process is the session leader, closing the master file descriptor raises a SIGHUP signal: simply ignore SIGHUP when running the tests.

bpo-38992 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38992]: Fix a test for math.fsum() that was failing due to constant folding.

bpo-38991 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38991]: test.support: run_python_until_end(), assert_python_ok() and assert_python_failure() functions no longer strip whitespaces from stderr. Remove test.support.strip_python_stderr() function.

bpo-38965 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38965]: Fix test_faulthandler on GCC 10. Use the "volatile" keyword in faulthandler._stack_overflow() to prevent tail call optimization on any compiler, rather than relying on compiler specific pragma.

bpo-38875 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38875]: test_capi: trashcan tests now require the test "cpu" resource.

bpo-38841 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38841]: Skip asyncio test_create_datagram_endpoint_existing_sock_unix on platforms lacking a functional bind() for named unix domain sockets.

bpo-38692 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38692]: Skip the test_posix.test_pidfd_open() test if os.pidfd_open() fails with a PermissionError. This situation can happen in a Linux sandbox using a syscall whitelist which doesn't allow the pidfd_open() syscall yet.

bpo-38839 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38839]: Fix some unused functions in tests. Patch by Adam Johnson.

bpo-38669 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38669]: Raise TypeError when passing target as a string with unittest.mock.patch.object().

bpo-37957 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37957]: test.regrtest now can receive a list of test patterns to ignore (using the -i/--ignore argument) or a file with a list of patterns to ignore (using the --ignore-file argument). Patch by Pablo Galindo.

Build

bpo-37404 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37404]: asyncio now raises TypeError when calling incompatible methods with an ssl.SSLSocket socket. Patch by Ido Michael.

bpo-36500 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36500]: Added an optional "regen" project to the Visual Studio solution that will regenerate all grammar, tokens, and opcodes.

Windows

bpo-39007 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39007]: Add auditing events to functions in winreg.

bpo-33125 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33125]: Add support for building and releasing Windows ARM64 packages.

macOS

bpo-37931 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37931]: Fixed a crash on OSX dynamic builds that occurred when re-initializing the posix module after a Py_Finalize if the environment had changed since the previous import posix. Patch by Benoît Hudson.

IDLE

bpo-38944 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38944]: Escape key now closes IDLE completion windows. Patch by Johnny Najera.

bpo-38943 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38943]: Fix IDLE autocomplete windows not always appearing on some systems. Patch by Johnny Najera.

bpo-38862 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38862]: 'Strip Trailing Whitespace' on the Format menu removes extra newlines at the end of non-shell files.

bpo-38636 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38636]: Fix IDLE Format menu tab toggle and file indent width. These functions (default shortcuts Alt-T and Alt-U) were mistakenly disabled in 3.7.5 and 3.8.0.

C API

bpo-38896 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38896]: Remove PyUnicode_ClearFreeList() function: the Unicode free list has been removed in Python 3.3.

bpo-37340 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37340]: Remove PyMethod_ClearFreeList() and PyCFunction_ClearFreeList() functions: the free lists of bound method objects have been removed.

bpo-38835 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38835]: Exclude PyFPE_START_PROTECT() and PyFPE_END_PROTECT() macros of pyfpe.h from Py_LIMITED_API (stable API).

Python 3.9.0 alpha 1

Release date: 2019-11-19

Security

bpo-38722 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38722]: runpy now uses io.open_code() to open code files. Patch by Jason Killen.

bpo-38622 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38622]: Add additional audit events for the ctypes module.

bpo-38418 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38418]: Fixes audit event for os.system() to be named os.system.

bpo-38243 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38243]: Escape the server title of xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer when rendering the document page as HTML. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-38243 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38243].)

bpo-38174 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38174]: Update vendorized expat library version to 2.2.8, which resolves CVE 2019-15903 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2019-15903].

bpo-37764 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37764]: Fixes email._header_value_parser.get_unstructured going into an infinite loop for a specific case in which the email header does not have trailing whitespace, and the case in which it contains an invalid encoded word. Patch by Ashwin Ramaswami.

bpo-37461 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37461]: Fix an infinite loop when parsing specially crafted email headers. Patch by Abhilash Raj.

bpo-37363 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37363]: Adds audit events for the range of supported run commands (see Ligne de commande et environnement).

bpo-37463 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37463]: ssl.match_hostname() no longer accepts IPv4 addresses with additional text after the address and only quad-dotted notation without trailing whitespaces. Some inet_aton() implementations ignore whitespace and all data after whitespace, e.g. '127.0.0.1 whatever'.

bpo-37363 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37363]: Adds audit events for ensurepip, ftplib, glob, imaplib, nntplib, pdb, poplib, shutil, smtplib, sqlite3, subprocess, telnetlib, tempfile and webbrowser, as well as os.listdir(), os.scandir() and breakpoint().

bpo-37364 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37364]: io.open_code() is now used when reading .pth files.

bpo-34631 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34631]: Updated OpenSSL to 1.1.1c in Windows installer

bpo-34155 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34155]: Fix parsing of invalid email addresses with more than one @ (e.g. a@b@c.com.) to not return the part before 2nd @ as valid email address. Patch by maxking & jpic.

Core and Builtins

bpo-38631 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38631]: Replace Py_FatalError() call with a regular RuntimeError exception in float.__getformat__().

bpo-38639 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38639]: Optimized math.floor(), math.ceil() and math.trunc() for floats.

bpo-38640 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38640]: Fixed a bug in the compiler that was causing to raise in the presence of break statements and continue statements inside always false while loops. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-38613 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38613]: Optimized some set operations (e.g. |, ^, and -) of dict_keys. d.keys() | other was slower than set(d) | other but they are almost same performance for now.

bpo-28029 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28029]: "".replace("", s, n) now returns s instead of an empty string for all non-zero n. There are similar changes for bytes and bytearray objects.

bpo-38535 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38535]: Fixed line numbers and column offsets for AST nodes for calls without arguments in decorators.

bpo-38525 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38525]: Fix a segmentation fault when using reverse iterators of empty dict objects. Patch by Donghee Na and Inada Naoki.

bpo-38465 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38465]: bytearray, array and mmap objects allow now to export more than 2**31 buffers at a time.

bpo-38469 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38469]: Fixed a bug where the scope of named expressions was not being resolved correctly in the presence of the global keyword. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-38437 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38437]: Activate the GC_DEBUG macro for debug builds of the interpreter (when Py_DEBUG is set). Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-38379 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38379]: When the garbage collector makes a collection in which some objects resurrect (they are reachable from outside the isolated cycles after the finalizers have been executed), do not block the collection of all objects that are still unreachable. Patch by Pablo Galindo and Tim Peters.

bpo-38379 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38379]: When cyclic garbage collection (gc) runs finalizers that resurrect unreachable objects, the current gc run ends, without collecting any cyclic trash. However, the statistics reported by collect() and get_stats() claimed that all cyclic trash found was collected, and that the resurrected objects were collected. Changed the stats to report that none were collected.

bpo-38392 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38392]: In debug mode, PyObject_GC_Track() now calls tp_traverse() of the object type to ensure that the object is valid: test that objects visited by tp_traverse() are valid.

bpo-38210 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38210]: Remove unnecessary intersection and update set operation in dictview with empty set. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-38210 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38210].)

bpo-38402 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38402]: Check the error from the system's underlying crypt or crypt_r.

bpo-37474 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37474]: On FreeBSD, Python no longer calls fedisableexcept() at startup to control the floating-point control mode. The call became useless since FreeBSD 6: it became the default mode.

bpo-38006 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38006]: Fix a bug due to the interaction of weakrefs and the cyclic garbage collector. We must clear any weakrefs in garbage in order to prevent their callbacks from executing and causing a crash.

bpo-38317 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38317]: Fix warnings options priority: PyConfig.warnoptions has the highest priority, as stated in the PEP 587 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/].

bpo-38310 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38310]: Predict BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL -> CALL_FUNCTION_EX opcode pairs in the main interpreter loop. Patch by Brandt Bucher.

bpo-36871 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36871]: Improve error handling for the assert_has_calls and assert_has_awaits methods of mocks. Fixed a bug where any errors encountered while binding the expected calls to the mock's spec were silently swallowed, leading to misleading error output.

bpo-11410 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11410]: Better control over symbol visibility is provided through use of the visibility attributes available in gcc >= 4.0, provided in a uniform way across POSIX and Windows. The POSIX build files have been updated to compile with -fvisibility=hidden, minimising exported symbols.

bpo-38219 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38219]: Optimized the dict constructor and the update() method for the case when the argument is a dict.

bpo-38236 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38236]: Python now dumps path configuration if it fails to import the Python codecs of the filesystem and stdio encodings.

bpo-38013 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38013]: Allow to call async_generator_athrow().throw(...) even for non-started async generator helper. It fixes annoying warning at the end of asyncio.run() call.

bpo-38124 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38124]: Fix an off-by-one error in PyState_AddModule that could cause out-of-bounds memory access.

bpo-38116 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38116]: The select module is now PEP-384 compliant and no longer has static state

bpo-38113 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38113]: ast module updated to PEP-384 and all statics removed

bpo-38076 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38076]: The struct module is now PEP-384 compatible

bpo-38075 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38075]: The random module is now PEP-384 compatible

bpo-38074 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38074]: zlib module made PEP-384 compatible

bpo-38073 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38073]: Make pwd extension module PEP-384 compatible

bpo-38072 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38072]: grp module made PEP-384 compatible

bpo-38069 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38069]: Make _posixsubprocess PEP-384 compatible

bpo-38071 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38071]: Make termios extension module PEP-384 compatible

bpo-38005 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38005]: Fixed comparing and creating of InterpreterID and ChannelID.

bpo-36946 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36946]: Fix possible signed integer overflow when handling slices. Patch by hongweipeng.

bpo-37994 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37994]: Fixed silencing arbitrary errors if an attribute lookup fails in several sites. Only AttributeError should be silenced.

bpo-8425 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8425]: Optimize set difference_update for the case when the other set is much larger than the base set. (Suggested by Evgeny Kapun with code contributed by Michele Orrù).

bpo-37966 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37966]: The implementation of is_normalized() has been greatly sped up on strings that aren't normalized, by implementing the full normalization-quick-check algorithm from the Unicode standard.

bpo-37947 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37947]: Adjust correctly the recursion level in the symtable generation for named expressions. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-37812 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37812]: The CHECK_SMALL_INT macro used inside Object/longobject.c has been replaced with an explicit return at each call site.

bpo-37751 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37751]: Fix codecs.lookup() to normalize the encoding name the same way than encodings.normalize_encoding(), except that codecs.lookup() also converts the name to lower case.

bpo-37830 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37830]: Fixed compilation of break and continue in the finally block when the corresponding try block contains return with a non-constant value.

bpo-20490 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20490]: Improve import error message for partially initialized module on circular from imports - by Anthony Sottile.

bpo-37840 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37840]: Fix handling of negative indices in sq_item of bytearray. Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

bpo-37802 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37802]: Slightly improve performance of PyLong_FromUnsignedLong(), PyLong_FromUnsignedLongLong() and PyLong_FromSize_t(). Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

bpo-37409 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37409]: Ensure explicit relative imports from interactive sessions and scripts (having no parent package) always raise ImportError, rather than treating the current module as the package. Patch by Ben Lewis.

bpo-32912 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32912]: Reverted bpo-32912 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32912]: emitting SyntaxWarning instead of DeprecationWarning for invalid escape sequences in string and bytes literals.

bpo-37757 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37757]: PEP 572 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/]: As described in the PEP, assignment expressions now raise SyntaxError when their interaction with comprehension scoping results in an ambiguous target scope.

The TargetScopeError subclass originally proposed by the PEP has been removed in favour of just raising regular syntax errors for the disallowed cases.

bpo-36279 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36279]: Fix potential use of uninitialized memory in os.wait3().

bpo-36311 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36311]: Decoding bytes objects larger than 2GiB is faster and no longer fails when a multibyte characters spans a chunk boundary.

bpo-34880 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34880]: The assert statement now works properly if the AssertionError exception is being shadowed. Patch by Zackery Spytz.

bpo-37340 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37340]: Removed object cache (free_list) for bound method objects. Temporary bound method objects are less used than before thanks to the LOAD_METHOD opcode and the _PyObject_VectorcallMethod C API.

bpo-37648 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37648]: Fixed minor inconsistency in list.__contains__(), tuple.__contains__() and a few other places. The collection's item is now always at the left and the needle is on the right of ==.

bpo-37444 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37444]: Update differing exception between builtins.__import__() and importlib.__import__().

bpo-37619 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37619]: When adding a wrapper descriptor from one class to a different class (for example, setting __add__ = str.__add__ on an int subclass), an exception is correctly raised when the operator is called.

bpo-37593 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37593]: Swap the positions of the posonlyargs and args parameters in the constructor of ast.parameters nodes.

bpo-37543 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37543]: Optimized pymalloc for non PGO build.

bpo-37537 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37537]: Compute allocated pymalloc blocks inside _Py_GetAllocatedBlocks(). This slows down _Py_GetAllocatedBlocks() but gives a small speedup to _PyObject_Malloc() and _PyObject_Free().

bpo-37467 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37467]: Fix sys.excepthook() and PyErr_Display() if a filename is a bytes string. For example, for a SyntaxError exception where the filename attribute is a bytes string.

bpo-37433 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37433]: Fix SyntaxError indicator printing too many spaces for multi-line strings - by Anthony Sottile.

bpo-37417 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37417]: bytearray.extend() now correctly handles errors that arise during iteration. Patch by Brandt Bucher.

bpo-37414 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37414]: The undocumented sys.callstats() function has been removed. Since Python 3.7, it was deprecated and always returned None. It required a special build option CALL_PROFILE which was already removed in Python 3.7.

bpo-37392 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37392]: Remove sys.getcheckinterval() and sys.setcheckinterval() functions. They were deprecated since Python 3.2. Use sys.getswitchinterval() and sys.setswitchinterval() instead. Remove also check_interval field of the PyInterpreterState structure.

bpo-37388 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37388]: In development mode and in debug build, encoding and errors arguments are now checked on string encoding and decoding operations. Examples: open(), str.encode() and bytes.decode().

By default, for best performances, the errors argument is only checked at the first encoding/decoding error, and the encoding argument is sometimes ignored for empty strings.

bpo-37348 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37348]: Optimized decoding short ASCII string with UTF-8 and ascii codecs. b"foo".decode() is about 15% faster. Patch by Inada Naoki.

bpo-24214 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24214]: Improved support of the surrogatepass error handler in the UTF-8 and UTF-16 incremental decoders.

bpo-37330 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37330]: open(), io.open(), codecs.open() and fileinput.FileInput no longer accept 'U' ("universal newline") in the file mode. This flag was deprecated since Python 3.3.

bpo-35224 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35224]: Reverse evaluation order of key: value in dict comprehensions as proposed in PEP 572. I.e. in {k: v for ...}, k will be evaluated before v.

bpo-37316 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37316]: Fix the PySys_Audit() call in mmap.mmap.

bpo-37300 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37300]: Remove an unnecessary Py_XINCREF in classobject.c.

bpo-37269 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37269]: Fix a bug in the peephole optimizer that was not treating correctly constant conditions with binary operators. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-20443 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20443]: Python now gets the absolute path of the script filename specified on the command line (ex: "python3 script.py"): the __file__ attribute of the __main__ module and sys.path[0] become an absolute path, rather than a relative path.

bpo-37257 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37257]: Python's small object allocator (obmalloc.c) now allows (no more than) one empty arena to remain available for immediate reuse, without returning it to the OS. This prevents thrashing in simple loops where an arena could be created and destroyed anew on each iteration.

bpo-37231 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37231]: The dispatching of type slots to special methods (for example calling __mul__ when doing x * y) has been made faster.

bpo-36974 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36974]: Implemented separate vectorcall functions for every calling convention of builtin functions and methods. This improves performance for calls.

bpo-37213 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37213]: Handle correctly negative line offsets in the peephole optimizer. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-37219 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37219]: Remove erroneous optimization for empty set differences.

bpo-15913 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15913]: Implement PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat() function (previously documented but not implemented): call struct.calcsize(). Patch by Joannah Nanjekye.

bpo-36922 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36922]: Slot functions optimize any callable with Py_TPFLAGS_METHOD_DESCRIPTOR instead of only instances of function.

bpo-36974 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36974]: The slot tp_vectorcall_offset is inherited unconditionally to support super().__call__() when the base class uses vectorcall.

bpo-37160 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37160]: threading.get_native_id() now also supports NetBSD.

bpo-37077 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37077]: Add threading.get_native_id() support for AIX. Patch by M. Felt

bpo-36781 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36781]: sum() has been optimized for boolean values.

bpo-34556 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34556]: Add --upgrade-deps to venv module. Patch by Cooper Ry Lees

bpo-20523 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20523]: pdb.Pdb supports ~/.pdbrc in Windows 7. Patch by Tim Hopper and Dan Lidral-Porter.

bpo-35551 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35551]: Updated encodings: - Removed the "tis260" encoding, which was an alias for the nonexistent "tactis" codec. - Added "mac_centeuro" as an alias for the mac_latin2 encoding.

bpo-19072 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19072]: The classmethod decorator can now wrap other descriptors such as property objects. Adapted from a patch written by Graham Dumpleton.

bpo-27575 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27575]: Improve speed of dictview intersection by directly using set intersection logic. Patch by David Su.

bpo-30773 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30773]: Prohibit parallel running of aclose() / asend() / athrow(). Fix ag_running to reflect the actual running status of the AG.

Library

bpo-36589 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36589]: The curses.update_lines_cols() function now returns None instead of 1 on success.

bpo-38807 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38807]: Update TypeError messages for os.path.join() to include os.PathLike objects as acceptable input types.

bpo-38724 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38724]: Add a repr for subprocess.Popen objects. Patch by Andrey Doroschenko.

bpo-38786 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38786]: pydoc now recognizes and parses HTTPS URLs. Patch by python273.

bpo-38785 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38785]: Prevent asyncio from crashing if parent __init__ is not called from a constructor of object derived from asyncio.Future.

bpo-38723 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38723]: pdb now uses io.open_code() to trigger auditing events.

bpo-27805 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27805]: Allow opening pipes and other non-seekable files in append mode with open().

bpo-38438 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38438]: Simplify the argparse usage message for nargs="*".

bpo-38761 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38761]: WeakSet is now registered as a collections.abc.MutableSet.

bpo-38716 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38716]: logging: change RotatingHandler namer and rotator to class-level attributes. This stops __init__ from setting them to None in the case where a subclass defines them with eponymous methods.

bpo-38713 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38713]: Add os.P_PIDFD constant, which may be passed to os.waitid() to wait on a Linux process file descriptor.

bpo-38692 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38692]: Add asyncio.PidfdChildWatcher, a Linux-specific child watcher implementation that polls process file descriptors.

bpo-38692 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38692]: Expose the Linux pidfd_open syscall as os.pidfd_open().

bpo-38602 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38602]: Added constants F_OFD_GETLK, F_OFD_SETLK and F_OFD_SETLKW to the fcntl module. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-38334 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38334]: Fixed seeking backward on an encrypted zipfile.ZipExtFile.

bpo-38312 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38312]: Add curses.get_escdelay(), curses.set_escdelay(), curses.get_tabsize(), and curses.set_tabsize() functions - by Anthony Sottile.

bpo-38586 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38586]: Now fileConfig() correctly sets the .name of handlers loaded.

bpo-38565 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38565]: Add new cache_parameters() method for functools.lru_cache() to better support pickling.

bpo-34679 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34679]: asynci.ProactorEventLoop.close() now only calls signal.set_wakeup_fd() in the main thread.

bpo-31202 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31202]: The case the result of pathlib.WindowsPath.glob() matches now the case of the pattern for literal parts.

bpo-36321 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36321]: Remove misspelled attribute. The 3.8 changelog noted that this would be removed in 3.9.

bpo-38521 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38521]: Fixed erroneous equality comparison in statistics.NormalDist().

bpo-38493 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38493]: Added CLD_KILLED and CLD_STOPPED for si_code. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-38478 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38478]: Fixed a bug in inspect.signature.bind() that was causing it to fail when handling a keyword argument with same name as positional-only parameter. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-33604 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33604]: Fixed hmac.new and hmac.HMAC to raise TypeError instead of ValueError when the digestmod parameter, now required in 3.8, is omitted. Also clarified the hmac module documentation and docstrings.

bpo-38378 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38378]: Parameters out and in of os.sendfile() was renamed to out_fd and in_fd.

bpo-38417 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38417]: Added support for setting the umask in the child process to the subprocess module on POSIX systems.

bpo-38449 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38449]: Revert PR 15522, which introduces a regression in mimetypes.guess_type() due to improper handling of filenames as urls.

bpo-38431 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38431]: Fix __repr__ method for dataclasses.InitVar to support typing objects, patch by Samuel Colvin.

bpo-38109 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38109]: Add missing stat.S_IFDOOR, stat.S_IFPORT, stat.S_IFWHT, stat.S_ISDOOR(), stat.S_ISPORT(), and stat.S_ISWHT() values to the Python implementation of stat.

bpo-38422 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38422]: Clarify docstrings of pathlib suffix(es)

bpo-38405 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38405]: Nested subclasses of typing.NamedTuple are now pickleable.

bpo-38332 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38332]: Prevent KeyError thrown by _encoded_words.decode() when given an encoded-word with invalid content-type encoding from propagating all the way to email.message.get().

bpo-38371 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38371]: Deprecated the split() method in _tkinter.TkappType in favour of the splitlist() method which has more consistent and predictable behavior.

bpo-38341 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38341]: Add smtplib.SMTPNotSupportedError to the smtplib exported names.

bpo-38319 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38319]: sendfile() used in socket and shutil modules was raising OverflowError for files >= 2GiB on 32-bit architectures. (patch by Giampaolo Rodola)

bpo-38242 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38242]: Revert the new asyncio Streams API

bpo-13153 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13153]: OS native encoding is now used for converting between Python strings and Tcl objects. This allows to display, copy and paste to clipboard emoji and other non-BMP characters. Converting strings from Tcl to Python and back now never fails (except MemoryError).

bpo-38019 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38019]: Correctly handle pause/resume reading of closed asyncio unix pipe.

bpo-38163 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38163]: Child mocks will now detect their type as either synchronous or asynchronous, asynchronous child mocks will be AsyncMocks and synchronous child mocks will be either MagicMock or Mock (depending on their parent type).

bpo-38161 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38161]: Removes _AwaitEvent from AsyncMock.

bpo-38216 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38216]: Allow the rare code that wants to send invalid http requests from the http.client library a way to do so. The fixes for bpo-30458 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30458] led to breakage for some projects that were relying on this ability to test their own behavior in the face of bad requests.

bpo-28286 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28286]: Deprecate opening GzipFile for writing implicitly. Always specify the mode argument for writing.

bpo-38108 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38108]: Any synchronous magic methods on an AsyncMock now return a MagicMock. Any asynchronous magic methods on a MagicMock now return an AsyncMock.

bpo-38265 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38265]: Update the length parameter of os.pread() to accept Py_ssize_t instead of int.

bpo-38112 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38112]: compileall has a higher default recursion limit and new command-line arguments for path manipulation, symlinks handling, and multiple optimization levels.

bpo-38248 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38248]: asyncio: Fix inconsistent immediate Task cancellation

bpo-38237 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38237]: The arguments for the builtin pow function are more descriptive. They can now also be passed in as keywords.

bpo-34002 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34002]: Improve efficiency in parts of email package by changing while-pop to a for loop, using isdisjoint instead of set intersections.

bpo-38191 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38191]: Constructors of NamedTuple and TypedDict types now accept arbitrary keyword argument names, including "cls", "self", "typename", "_typename", "fields" and "_fields".

bpo-38155 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38155]: Add __all__ to datetime. Patch by Tahia Khan.

bpo-38185 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38185]: Fixed case-insensitive string comparison in sqlite3.Row indexing.

bpo-38136 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38136]: Changes AsyncMock call count and await count to be two different counters. Now await count only counts when a coroutine has been awaited, not when it has been called, and vice-versa. Update the documentation around this.

bpo-37828 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37828]: Fix default mock name in unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called() exceptions. Patch by Abraham Toriz Cruz.

bpo-38175 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38175]: Fix a memory leak in comparison of sqlite3.Row objects.

bpo-33936 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33936]: _hashlib no longer calls obsolete OpenSSL initialization function with OpenSSL 1.1.0+.

bpo-34706 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34706]: Preserve subclassing in inspect.Signature.from_callable.

bpo-38153 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38153]: Names of hashing algorithms from OpenSSL are now normalized to follow Python's naming conventions. For example OpenSSL uses sha3-512 instead of sha3_512 or blake2b512 instead of blake2b.

bpo-38115 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38115]: Fix a bug in dis.findlinestarts() where it would return invalid bytecode offsets. Document that a code object's co_lnotab can contain invalid bytecode offsets.

bpo-38148 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38148]: Add slots to asyncio transport classes, which can reduce memory usage.

bpo-38142 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38142]: The _hashlib OpenSSL wrapper extension module is now PEP-384 compliant.

bpo-9216 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9216]: hashlib constructors now support usedforsecurity flag to signal that a hashing algorithm is not used in a security context.

bpo-36991 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36991]: Fixes a potential incorrect AttributeError exception escaping ZipFile.extract() in some unsupported input error situations.

bpo-38134 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38134]: Remove obsolete copy of PBKDF2_HMAC_fast. All supported OpenSSL versions contain a fast implementation.

bpo-38132 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38132]: The OpenSSL hashlib wrapper uses a simpler implementation. Several Macros and pointless caches are gone. The hash name now comes from OpenSSL's EVP. The algorithm name stays the same, except it is now always lower case.

bpo-38008 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38008]: Fix parent class check in protocols to correctly identify the module that provides a builtin protocol, instead of assuming they all come from the collections.abc module

bpo-34037 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34037]: For asyncio, add a new coroutine loop.shutdown_default_executor(). The new coroutine provides an API to schedule an executor shutdown that waits on the threadpool to finish closing. Also, asyncio.run() has been updated to utilize the new coroutine. Patch by Kyle Stanley.

bpo-37405 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37405]: Fixed regression bug for socket.getsockname() for non-CAN_ISOTP AF_CAN address family sockets by returning a 1-tuple instead of string.

bpo-38121 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38121]: Update parameter names on functions in importlib.metadata matching the changes in the 0.22 release of importlib_metadata.

bpo-38110 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38110]: The os.closewalk() implementation now uses the libc fdwalk() API on platforms where it is available.

bpo-38093 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38093]: Fixes AsyncMock so it doesn't crash when used with AsyncContextManagers or AsyncIterators.

bpo-37488 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37488]: Add warning to datetime.utctimetuple(), datetime.utcnow() and datetime.utcfromtimestamp() .

bpo-35640 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35640]: Allow passing a path-like object as directory argument to the http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler class. Patch by Géry Ogam.

bpo-38086 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38086]: Update importlib.metadata with changes from importlib_metadata 0.21 [https://gitlab.com/python-devs/importlib_metadata/blob/0.21/importlib_metadata/docs/changelog.rst].

bpo-37251 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37251]: Remove __code__ check in AsyncMock that incorrectly evaluated function specs as async objects but failed to evaluate classes with __await__ but no __code__ attribute defined as async objects.

bpo-38037 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38037]: Fix reference counters in the signal module.

bpo-38066 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38066]: Hide internal asyncio.Stream methods: feed_eof(), feed_data(), set_exception() and set_transport().

bpo-38059 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38059]: inspect.py now uses sys.exit() instead of exit()

bpo-38049 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38049]: Added command-line interface for the ast module.

bpo-37953 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37953]: In typing, improved the __hash__ and __eq__ methods for ForwardReferences.

bpo-38026 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38026]: Fixed inspect.getattr_static() used isinstance while it should avoid dynamic lookup.

bpo-35923 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35923]: Update importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter to use loader._ORIGIN instead of a hardcoded value. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-38010 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38010]: In importlib.metadata sync with importlib_metadata 0.20, clarifying behavior of files() and fixing issue where only one requirement was returned for requires() on dist-info packages.

bpo-38006 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38006]: weakref.WeakValueDictionary defines a local remove() function used as callback for weak references. This function was created with a closure. Modify the implementation to avoid the closure.

bpo-37995 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37995]: Added the indent option to ast.dump() which allows it to produce a multiline indented output.

bpo-34410 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34410]: Fixed a crash in the tee() iterator when re-enter it. RuntimeError is now raised in this case.

bpo-37140 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37140]: Fix a ctypes regression of Python 3.8. When a ctypes.Structure is passed by copy to a function, ctypes internals created a temporary object which had the side effect of calling the structure finalizer (__del__) twice. The Python semantics requires a finalizer to be called exactly once. Fix ctypes internals to no longer call the finalizer twice.

bpo-37587 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37587]: _json.scanstring is now up to 3x faster when there are many backslash escaped characters in the JSON string.

bpo-37834 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37834]: Prevent shutil.rmtree exception when built on non-Windows system without fd system call support, like older versions of macOS.

bpo-10978 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10978]: Semaphores and BoundedSemaphores can now release more than one waiting thread at a time.

bpo-37972 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37972]: Subscripts to the unittest.mock.call objects now receive the same chaining mechanism as any other custom attributes, so that the following usage no longer raises a TypeError:

call().foo().__getitem__('bar')

Patch by blhsing

bpo-37965 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37965]: Fix C compiler warning caused by distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.has_function.

bpo-37964 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37964]: Add F_GETPATH command to fcntl.

bpo-37960 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37960]: repr() of buffered and text streams now silences only expected exceptions when get the value of "name" and "mode" attributes.

bpo-37961 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37961]: Add a total_nframe field to the traces collected by the tracemalloc module. This field indicates the original number of frames before it was truncated.

bpo-37951 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37951]: Most features of the subprocess module now work again in subinterpreters. Only preexec_fn is restricted in subinterpreters.

bpo-36205 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36205]: Fix the rusage implementation of time.process_time() to correctly report the sum of the system and user CPU time.

bpo-37950 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37950]: Fix ast.dump() when call with incompletely initialized node.

bpo-34679 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34679]: Restores instantiation of Windows IOCP event loops from the non-main thread.

bpo-36917 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36917]: Add default implementation of the ast.NodeVisitor.visit_Constant() method which emits a deprecation warning and calls corresponding methods visit_Num(), visit_Str(), etc.

bpo-37798 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37798]: Update test_statistics.py to verify that the statistics module works well for both C and Python implementations. Patch by Donghee Na

bpo-26589 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26589]: Added a new status code to the http module: 451 UNAVAILABLE_FOR_LEGAL_REASONS

bpo-37915 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37915]: Fix a segmentation fault that appeared when comparing instances of datetime.timezone and datetime.tzinfo objects. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-32554 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32554]: Deprecate having random.seed() call hash on arbitrary types.

bpo-9938 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9938]: Add optional keyword argument exit_on_error for ArgumentParser.

bpo-37851 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37851]: The faulthandler module no longer allocates its alternative stack at Python startup. Now the stack is only allocated at the first faulthandler usage.

bpo-32793 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32793]: Fix a duplicated debug message when smtplib.SMTP.connect() is called.

bpo-37885 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37885]: venv: Don't generate unset variable warning on deactivate.

bpo-37868 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37868]: Fix dataclasses.is_dataclass when given an instance that never raises AttributeError in __getattr__. That is, an object that returns something for __dataclass_fields__ even if it's not a dataclass.

bpo-37811 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37811]: Fix socket module's socket.connect(address) function being unable to establish connection in case of interrupted system call. The problem was observed on all OSes which poll(2) system call can take only non-negative integers and -1 as a timeout value.

bpo-37863 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37863]: Optimizations for Fraction.__hash__ suggested by Tim Peters.

bpo-21131 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21131]: Fix faulthandler.register(chain=True) stack. faulthandler now allocates a dedicated stack of SIGSTKSZ*2 bytes, instead of just SIGSTKSZ bytes. Calling the previous signal handler in faulthandler signal handler uses more than SIGSTKSZ bytes of stack memory on some platforms.

bpo-37798 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37798]: Add C fastpath for statistics.NormalDist.inv_cdf() Patch by Donghee Na

bpo-37804 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37804]: Remove the deprecated method threading.Thread.isAlive(). Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-37819 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37819]: Add Fraction.as_integer_ratio() to match the corresponding methods in bool, int, float, and decimal.

bpo-14465 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14465]: Add an xml.etree.ElementTree.indent() function for pretty-printing XML trees. Contributed by Stefan Behnel.

bpo-37810 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37810]: Fix difflib ? hint in diff output when dealing with tabs. Patch by Anthony Sottile.

bpo-37772 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37772]: In zipfile.Path, when adding implicit dirs, ensure that ancestral directories are added and that duplicates are excluded.

bpo-18578 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18578]: Renamed and documented test.bytecode_helper as test.support.bytecode_helper. Patch by Joannah Nanjekye.

bpo-37785 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37785]: Fix xgettext warnings in argparse.

bpo-34488 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34488]: writelines() method of io.BytesIO is now slightly faster when many small lines are passed. Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

bpo-37449 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37449]: ensurepip now uses importlib.resources.read_binary() to read data instead of pkgutil.get_data(). Patch by Joannah Nanjekye.

bpo-28292 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28292]: Mark calendar.py helper functions as being private. The follows PEP 8 guidance to maintain the style conventions in the module and it addresses a known case of user confusion.

bpo-18049 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18049]: Add definition of THREAD_STACK_SIZE for AIX in Python/thread_pthread.h The default thread stacksize caused crashes with the default recursion limit Patch by M Felt

bpo-37742 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37742]: The logging.getLogger() API now returns the root logger when passed the name 'root', whereas previously it returned a non-root logger named 'root'. This could affect cases where user code explicitly wants a non-root logger named 'root', or instantiates a logger using logging.getLogger(__name__) in some top-level module called 'root.py'.

bpo-37738 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37738]: Fix the implementation of curses addch(str, color_pair): pass the color pair to setcchar(), instead of always passing 0 as the color pair.

bpo-37723 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37723]: Fix performance regression on regular expression parsing with huge character sets. Patch by Yann Vaginay.

bpo-35943 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35943]: The function PyImport_GetModule() now ensures any module it returns is fully initialized. Patch by Joannah Nanjekye.

bpo-32178 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32178]: Fix IndexError in email package when trying to parse invalid address fields starting with :.

bpo-37268 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37268]: The parser module is deprecated and will be removed in future versions of Python.

bpo-11953 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11953]: Completing WSA* error codes in socket.

bpo-37685 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37685]: Fixed comparisons of datetime.timedelta and datetime.timezone.

bpo-37697 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37697]: Synchronize importlib.metadata with importlib_metadata 0.19 [https://gitlab.com/python-devs/importlib_metadata/-/milestones/20], improving handling of EGG-INFO files and fixing a crash when entry point names contained colons.

bpo-37695 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37695]: Correct curses.unget_wch() error message. Patch by Anthony Sottile.

bpo-37689 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37689]: Add is_relative_to() in PurePath to determine whether or not one path is relative to another.

bpo-29553 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29553]: Fixed argparse.ArgumentParser.format_usage() for mutually exclusive groups. Patch by Andrew Nester.

bpo-37691 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37691]: Let math.dist() accept coordinates as sequences (or iterables) rather than just tuples.

bpo-37685 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37685]: Fixed __eq__, __lt__ etc implementations in some classes. They now return NotImplemented for unsupported type of the other operand. This allows the other operand to play role (for example the equality comparison with ANY will return True).

bpo-37354 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37354]: Make Activate.ps1 Powershell script static to allow for signing it.

bpo-37664 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37664]: Update wheels bundled with ensurepip (pip 19.2.3 and setuptools 41.2.0)

bpo-37663 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37663]: Bring consistency to venv shell activation scripts by always using __VENV_PROMPT__.

bpo-37642 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37642]: Allowed the pure Python implementation of datetime.timezone to represent sub-minute offsets close to minimum and maximum boundaries, specifically in the ranges (23:59, 24:00) and (-23:59, 24:00). Patch by Ngalim Siregar

bpo-36161 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36161]: In posix, use ttyname_r instead of ttyname for thread safety.

bpo-36324 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36324]: Make internal attributes for statistics.NormalDist() private.

bpo-37555 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37555]: Fix NonCallableMock._call_matcher returning tuple instead of _Call object when self._spec_signature exists. Patch by Elizabeth Uselton

bpo-29446 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29446]: Make from tkinter import * import only the expected objects.

bpo-16970 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16970]: Adding a value error when an invalid value in passed to nargs Patch by Robert Leenders

bpo-34443 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34443]: Exceptions from enum now use the __qualname of the enum class in the exception message instead of the __name__.

bpo-37491 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37491]: Fix IndexError when parsing email headers with unexpectedly ending bare-quoted string value. Patch by Abhilash Raj.

bpo-37587 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37587]: Make json.loads faster for long strings. (Patch by Marco Paolini)

bpo-18378 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18378]: Recognize "UTF-8" as a valid value for LC_CTYPE in locale._parse_localename.

bpo-37579 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37579]: Return NotImplemented in Python implementation of __eq__ for timedelta and time when the other object being compared is not of the same type to match C implementation. Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

bpo-21478 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21478]: Record calls to parent when autospecced object is attached to a mock using unittest.mock.attach_mock(). Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

bpo-37531 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37531]: "python3 -m test -jN --timeout=TIMEOUT" now kills a worker process if it runs longer than TIMEOUT seconds.

bpo-37482 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37482]: Fix serialization of display name in originator or destination address fields with both encoded words and special chars.

bpo-36993 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36993]: Improve error reporting for corrupt zip files with bad zip64 extra data. Patch by Daniel Hillier.

bpo-37502 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37502]: pickle.loads() no longer raises TypeError when the buffers argument is set to None

bpo-37520 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37520]: Correct behavior for zipfile.Path.parent when the path object identifies a subdirectory.

bpo-18374 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18374]: Fix the .col_offset attribute of nested ast.BinOp instances which had a too large value in some situations.

bpo-37424 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37424]: Fixes a possible hang when using a timeout on subprocess.run() while capturing output. If the child process spawned its own children or otherwise connected its stdout or stderr handles with another process, we could hang after the timeout was reached and our child was killed when attempting to read final output from the pipes.

bpo-37421 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421]: Fix multiprocessing.util.get_temp_dir() finalizer: clear also the 'tempdir' configuration of the current process, so next call to get_temp_dir() will create a new temporary directory, rather than reusing the removed temporary directory.

bpo-37481 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37481]: The distutils bdist_wininst command is deprecated in Python 3.8, use bdist_wheel (wheel packages) instead.

bpo-37479 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37479]: When Enum.__str__ is overridden in a derived class, the override will be used by Enum.__format__ regardless of whether mixin classes are present.

bpo-37440 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37440]: http.client now enables TLS 1.3 post-handshake authentication for default context or if a cert_file is passed to HTTPSConnection.

bpo-37437 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37437]: Update vendorized expat version to 2.2.7.

bpo-37428 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37428]: SSLContext.post_handshake_auth = True no longer sets SSL_VERIFY_POST_HANDSHAKE verify flag for client connections. Although the option is documented as ignored for clients, OpenSSL implicitly enables cert chain validation when the flag is set.

bpo-37420 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37420]: os.sched_setaffinity() now correctly handles errors that arise during iteration over its mask argument. Patch by Brandt Bucher.

bpo-37412 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37412]: The os.getcwdb() function now uses the UTF-8 encoding on Windows, rather than the ANSI code page: see PEP 529 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/] for the rationale. The function is no longer deprecated on Windows.

bpo-37406 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37406]: The sqlite3 module now raises TypeError, rather than ValueError, if operation argument type is not str: execute(), executemany() and calling a connection.

bpo-29412 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29412]: Fix IndexError in parsing a header value ending unexpectedly. Patch by Abhilash Raj.

bpo-36546 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36546]: The dist argument for statistics.quantiles() is now positional only. The current name doesn't reflect that the argument can be either a dataset or a distribution. Marking the parameter as positional avoids confusion and makes it possible to change the name later.

bpo-37394 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37394]: Fix a bug that was causing the queue module to fail if the accelerator module was not available. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-37376 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37376]: pprint now has support for types.SimpleNamespace. Patch by Carl Bordum Hansen.

bpo-26967 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26967]: An ArgumentParser with allow_abbrev=False no longer disables grouping of short flags, such as -vv, but only disables abbreviation of long flags as documented. Patch by Zac Hatfield-Dodds.

bpo-37212 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37212]: unittest.mock.call() now preserves the order of keyword arguments in repr output. Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

bpo-37372 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37372]: Fix error unpickling datetime.time objects from Python 2 with seconds>=24. Patch by Justin Blanchard.

bpo-37345 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37345]: Add formal support for UDPLITE sockets. Support was present before, but it is now easier to detect support with hasattr(socket, 'IPPROTO_UDPLITE') and there are constants defined for each of the values needed: socket.IPPROTO_UDPLITE, UDPLITE_SEND_CSCOV, and UDPLITE_RECV_CSCOV. Patch by Gabe Appleton.

bpo-37358 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37358]: Optimized functools.partial by using vectorcall.

bpo-37347 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37347]: sqlite3.Connection.create_aggregate(), sqlite3.Connection.create_function(), sqlite3.Connection.set_authorizer(), sqlite3.Connection.set_progress_handler() sqlite3.Connection.set_trace_callback() methods lead to segfaults if some of these methods are called twice with an equal object but not the same. Now callbacks are stored more carefully. Patch by Aleksandr Balezin.

bpo-37163 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37163]: The obj argument of dataclasses.replace() is positional-only now.

bpo-37085 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37085]: Add the optional Linux SocketCAN Broadcast Manager constants, used as flags to configure the BCM behaviour, in the socket module. Patch by Karl Ding.

bpo-37328 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37328]: HTMLParser.unescape is removed. It was undocumented and deprecated since Python 3.4.

bpo-37305 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37305]: Add .webmanifest -> application/manifest+json to list of recognized file types and content type headers

bpo-37320 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37320]: aifc.openfp() alias to aifc.open(), sunau.openfp() alias to sunau.open(), and wave.openfp() alias to wave.open() have been removed. They were deprecated since Python 3.7.

bpo-37315 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37315]: Deprecated accepting floats with integral value (like 5.0) in math.factorial().

bpo-37312 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37312]: _dummy_thread and dummy_threading modules have been removed. These modules were deprecated since Python 3.7 which requires threading support.

bpo-33972 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33972]: Email with single part but content-type set to multipart/* doesn't raise AttributeError anymore.

bpo-37280 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37280]: Use threadpool for reading from file for sendfile fallback mode.

bpo-37279 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37279]: Fix asyncio sendfile support when sendfile sends extra data in fallback mode.

bpo-19865 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19865]: ctypes.create_unicode_buffer() now also supports non-BMP characters on platforms with 16-bit wchar_t (for example, Windows and AIX).

bpo-37266 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37266]: In a subinterpreter, spawning a daemon thread now raises an exception. Daemon threads were never supported in subinterpreters. Previously, the subinterpreter finalization crashed with a Python fatal error if a daemon thread was still running.

bpo-37210 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37210]: Allow pure Python implementation of pickle to work even when the C _pickle module is unavailable.

bpo-21872 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21872]: Fix lzma: module decompresses data incompletely. When decompressing a FORMAT_ALONE format file, and it doesn't have the end marker, sometimes the last one to dozens bytes can't be output. Patch by Ma Lin.

bpo-35922 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35922]: Fix RobotFileParser.crawl_delay() and RobotFileParser.request_rate() to return None rather than raise AttributeError when no relevant rule is defined in the robots.txt file. Patch by Rémi Lapeyre.

bpo-35766 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35766]: Change the format of feature_version to be a (major, minor) tuple.

bpo-36607 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36607]: Eliminate RuntimeError raised by asyncio.all_tasks() if internal tasks weak set is changed by another thread during iteration.

bpo-18748 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18748]: _pyio.IOBase destructor now does nothing if getting the closed attribute fails to better mimic _io.IOBase finalizer.

bpo-36402 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36402]: Fix a race condition at Python shutdown when waiting for threads. Wait until the Python thread state of all non-daemon threads get deleted (join all non-daemon threads), rather than just wait until non-daemon Python threads complete.

bpo-37206 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37206]: Default values which cannot be represented as Python objects no longer improperly represented as None in function signatures.

bpo-37111 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37111]: Added encoding and errors keyword parameters to logging.basicConfig.

bpo-12144 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12144]: Ensure cookies with expires attribute are handled in CookieJar.make_cookies().

bpo-34886 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34886]: Fix an unintended ValueError from subprocess.run() when checking for conflicting input and stdin or capture_output and stdout or stderr args when they were explicitly provided but with None values within a passed in **kwargs dict rather than as passed directly by name. Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

bpo-37173 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37173]: The exception message for inspect.getfile() now correctly reports the passed class rather than the builtins module.

bpo-37178 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37178]: Give math.perm() a one argument form that means the same as math.factorial().

bpo-37178 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37178]: For math.perm(n, k), let k default to n, giving the same result as factorial.

bpo-37165 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37165]: Converted _collections._count_elements to use the Argument Clinic.

bpo-34767 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34767]: Do not always create a collections.deque in asyncio.Lock.

bpo-37158 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37158]: Speed-up statistics.fmean() by switching from a function to a generator.

bpo-34282 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34282]: Remove Enum._convert method, deprecated in 3.8.

bpo-37150 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37150]: argparse._ActionsContainer.add_argument now throws error, if someone accidentally pass FileType class object instead of instance of FileType as type argument.

bpo-28724 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28724]: The socket module now has the socket.send_fds() and socket.recv.fds() methods. Contributed by Joannah Nanjekye, Shinya Okano and Victor Stinner.

bpo-35621 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35621]: Support running asyncio subprocesses when execution event loop in a thread on UNIX.

bpo-36520 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36520]: Lengthy email headers with UTF-8 characters are now properly encoded when they are folded. Patch by Jeffrey Kintscher.

bpo-30835 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30835]: Fixed a bug in email parsing where a message with invalid bytes in content-transfer-encoding of a multipart message can cause an AttributeError. Patch by Andrew Donnellan.

bpo-31163 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31163]: pathlib.Path instance's rename and replace methods now return the new Path instance.

bpo-25068 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25068]: urllib.request.ProxyHandler now lowercases the keys of the passed dictionary.

bpo-26185 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26185]: Fix repr() on empty ZipInfo object. Patch by Mickaël Schoentgen.

bpo-21315 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21315]: Email headers containing RFC2047 encoded words are parsed despite the missing whitespace, and a defect registered. Also missing trailing whitespace after encoded words is now registered as a defect.

bpo-31904 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904]: Port test_datetime to VxWorks: skip zoneinfo tests on VxWorks

bpo-35805 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35805]: Add parser for Message-ID header and add it to default HeaderRegistry. This should prevent folding of Message-ID using RFC 2048 encoded words.

bpo-36871 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36871]: Ensure method signature is used instead of constructor signature of a class while asserting mock object against method calls. Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

bpo-35070 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35070]: posix.getgrouplist() now works correctly when the user belongs to NGROUPS_MAX supplemental groups. Patch by Jeffrey Kintscher.

bpo-31783 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31783]: Fix race condition in ThreadPoolExecutor when worker threads are created during interpreter shutdown.

bpo-36582 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36582]: Fix UserString.encode() to correctly return bytes rather than a UserString instance.

bpo-32424 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32424]: Deprecate xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.copy() in favor of copy.copy().

Patch by Gordon P. Hemsley

bpo-36564 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36564]: Fix infinite loop in email header folding logic that would be triggered when an email policy's max_line_length is not long enough to include the required markup and any values in the message. Patch by Paul Ganssle

bpo-36543 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36543]: Removed methods Element.getchildren(), Element.getiterator() and ElementTree.getiterator() and the xml.etree.cElementTree module.

bpo-36409 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36409]: Remove the old plistlib API deprecated in Python 3.4

bpo-36302 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36302]: distutils sorts source file lists so that Extension .so files build more reproducibly by default

bpo-36250 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36250]: Ignore ValueError from signal with interaction in non-main thread.

bpo-36046 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36046]: Added user, group and extra_groups parameters to the subprocess.Popen constructor. Patch by Patrick McLean.

bpo-32627 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32627]: Fix compile error when _uuid headers conflicting included.

bpo-35800 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35800]: Deprecate smtpd.MailmanProxy ready for future removal.

bpo-35168 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35168]: shlex.shlex.punctuation_chars is now a read-only property.

bpo-8538 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8538]: Add support for boolean actions like --foo and --no-foo to argparse. Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

bpo-20504 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20504]: Fixes a bug in cgi module when a multipart/form-data request has no Content-Length header.

bpo-25988 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25988]: The abstract base classes in collections.abc no longer are exposed in the regular collections module.

bpo-11122 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11122]: Distutils won't check for rpmbuild in specified paths only.

bpo-34775 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34775]: Division handling of PurePath now returns NotImplemented instead of raising a TypeError when passed something other than an instance of str or PurePath. Patch by Roger Aiudi.

bpo-34749 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34749]: binascii.a2b_base64() is now up to 2 times faster. Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

bpo-34519 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34519]: Add additional aliases for HP Roman 8. Patch by Michael Osipov.

bpo-28009 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28009]: Fix uuid.getnode() on platforms with '.' as MAC Addr delimiter as well fix for MAC Addr format that omits a leading 0 in MAC Addr values. Currently, AIX is the only know platform with these settings. Patch by Michael Felt.

bpo-30618 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30618]: Add readlink(). Patch by Girts Folkmanis.

bpo-32498 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32498]: Made urllib.parse.unquote() accept bytes in addition to strings. Patch by Stein Karlsen.

bpo-33348 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33348]: lib2to3 now recognizes expressions after * and ** like in f(*[] or []).

bpo-32689 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32689]: Update shutil.move() function to allow for Path objects to be used as source argument. Patch by Emily Morehouse and Maxwell "5.13b" McKinnon.

bpo-32820 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32820]: Added __format__ to IPv4 and IPv6 classes. Always outputs a fully zero-padded string. Supports b/x/n modifiers (bin/hex/native format). Native format for IPv4 is bin, native format for IPv6 is hex. Also supports '#' and '_' modifiers.

bpo-27657 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27657]: Fix urllib.parse.urlparse() with numeric paths. A string like "path:80" is no longer parsed as a path but as a scheme ("path") and a path ("80").

bpo-4963 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4963]: Fixed non-deterministic behavior related to mimetypes extension mapping and module reinitialization.

Documentation

bpo-21767 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21767]: Explicitly mention abc support in functools.singledispatch

bpo-38816 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38816]: Provides more details about the interaction between fork() and CPython's runtime, focusing just on the C-API. This includes cautions about where fork() should and shouldn't be called.

bpo-38351 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38351]: Modernize email examples from %-formatting to f-strings.

bpo-38778 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38778]: Document the fact that RuntimeError is raised if os.fork() is called in a subinterpreter.

bpo-38592 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38592]: Add Brazilian Portuguese to the language switcher at Python Documentation website.

bpo-38294 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38294]: Add list of no-longer-escaped chars to re.escape documentation

bpo-38053 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38053]: Modernized the plistlib documentation

bpo-26868 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26868]: Fix example usage of PyModule_AddObject() to properly handle errors.

bpo-36797 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36797]: Fix a dead link in the distutils API Reference.

bpo-37977 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37977]: Warn more strongly and clearly about pickle insecurity

bpo-37979 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37979]: Added a link to dateutil.parser.isoparse in the datetime.fromisoformat documentation. Patch by Paul Ganssle

bpo-12707 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12707]: Deprecate info(), geturl(), getcode() methods in favor of the headers, url, and status properties, respectively, for HTTPResponse and addinfourl. Also deprecate the code attribute of addinfourl in favor of the status attribute. Patch by Ashwin Ramaswami

bpo-37937 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37937]: Mention frame.f_trace in sys.settrace() docs.

bpo-37878 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37878]: Make PyThreadState_DeleteCurrent() Internal.

bpo-37759 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37759]: Beginning edits to Whatsnew 3.8

bpo-37726 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37726]: Stop recommending getopt in the tutorial for command line argument parsing and promote argparse.

bpo-32910 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32910]: Remove implementation-specific behaviour of how venv's Deactivate works.

bpo-37256 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37256]: Fix wording of arguments for Request in urllib.request

bpo-37284 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37284]: Add a brief note to indicate that any new sys.implementation required attributes must go through the PEP process.

bpo-30088 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30088]: Documented that mailbox.Maildir constructor doesn't attempt to verify the maildir folder layout correctness. Patch by Sviatoslav Sydorenko.

bpo-37521 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37521]: Fix importlib examples to insert any newly created modules via importlib.util.module_from_spec() immediately into sys.modules instead of after calling loader.exec_module().

Thanks to Benjamin Mintz for finding the bug.

bpo-37456 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37456]: Slash ('/') is now part of syntax.

bpo-37487 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37487]: Fix PyList_GetItem index description to include 0.

bpo-37149 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37149]: Replace the dead link to the Tkinter 8.5 reference by John Shipman, New Mexico Tech, with a link to the archive.org copy.

bpo-37478 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37478]: Added possible exceptions to the description of os.chdir().

bpo-34903 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34903]: Documented that in datetime.datetime.strptime(), the leading zero in some two-digit formats is optional. Patch by Mike Gleen.

bpo-36260 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36260]: Add decompression pitfalls to zipfile module documentation.

bpo-37004 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37004]: In the documentation for difflib, a note was added explicitly warning that the results of SequenceMatcher's ratio method may depend on the order of the input strings.

bpo-36960 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36960]: Restructured the datetime docs in the interest of making them more user-friendly and improving readability. Patch by Brad Solomon.

bpo-36487 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36487]: Make C-API docs clear about what the "main" interpreter is.

bpo-23460 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23460]: The documentation for decimal string formatting using the :g specifier has been updated to reflect the correct exponential notation cutoff point. Original patch contributed by Tuomas Suutari.

bpo-35803 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35803]: Document and test that tempfile functions may accept a path-like object for the dir argument. Patch by Anthony Sottile.

bpo-33944 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33944]: Added a note about the intended use of code in .pth files.

bpo-34293 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34293]: Fix the Doc/Makefile regarding PAPER environment variable and PDF builds

bpo-25237 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25237]: Add documentation for tkinter modules

Tests

bpo-38614 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38614]: Fix test_communicate() of test_asyncio.test_subprocess: use support.LONG_TIMEOUT (5 minutes), instead of just 1 minute.

bpo-38614 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38614]: Add timeout constants to test.support: LOOPBACK_TIMEOUT, INTERNET_TIMEOUT, SHORT_TIMEOUT and LONG_TIMEOUT.

bpo-38502 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38502]: test.regrtest now uses process groups in the multiprocessing mode (-jN command line option) if process groups are available: if os.setsid() and os.killpg() functions are available.

bpo-35998 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35998]: Fix a race condition in test_asyncio.test_start_tls_server_1(). Previously, there was a race condition between the test main() function which replaces the protocol and the test ServerProto protocol which sends ANSWER once it gets HELLO. Now, only the test main() function is responsible to send data, ServerProto no longer sends data.

bpo-38470 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38470]: Fix test_compileall.test_compile_dir_maxlevels() on Windows without long path support: only create 3 subdirectories instead of between 20 and 100 subdirectories.

bpo-37531 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37531]: On timeout, regrtest no longer attempts to call popen.communicate() again: it can hang until all child processes using stdout and stderr pipes completes. Kill the worker process and ignores its output. Change also the faulthandler timeout of the main process from 1 minute to 5 minutes, for Python slowest buildbots.

bpo-38239 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38239]: Fix test_gdb for Link Time Optimization (LTO) builds.

bpo-38275 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38275]: test_ssl now handles disabled TLS/SSL versions better. OpenSSL's crypto policy and run-time settings are recognized and tests for disabled versions are skipped. Tests also accept more TLS minimum_versions for platforms that override OpenSSL's default with strict settings.

bpo-38271 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38271]: The private keys for test_ssl were encrypted with 3DES in traditional PKCS#5 format. 3DES and the digest algorithm of PKCS#5 are blocked by some strict crypto policies. Use PKCS#8 format with AES256 encryption instead.

bpo-38270 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38270]: test.support now has a helper function to check for availability of a hash digest function. Several tests are refactored avoid MD5 and use SHA256 instead. Other tests are marked to use MD5 and skipped when MD5 is disabled.

bpo-37123 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37123]: Multiprocessing test test_mymanager() now also expects -SIGTERM, not only exitcode 0. BaseManager._finalize_manager() sends SIGTERM to the manager process if it takes longer than 1 second to stop, which happens on slow buildbots.

bpo-38212 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38212]: Multiprocessing tests: increase test_queue_feeder_donot_stop_onexc() timeout from 1 to 60 seconds.

bpo-38117 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38117]: Test with OpenSSL 1.1.1d

bpo-38018 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38018]: Increase code coverage for multiprocessing.shared_memory.

bpo-37805 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37805]: Add tests for json.dump(..., skipkeys=True). Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-37531 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37531]: Enhance regrtest multiprocess timeout: write a message when killing a worker process, catch popen.kill() and popen.wait() exceptions, put a timeout on the second call to popen.communicate().

bpo-37876 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37876]: Add tests for ROT-13 codec.

bpo-36833 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36833]: Added tests for PyDateTime_xxx_GET_xxx() macros of the C API of the datetime module. Patch by Joannah Nanjekye.

bpo-37558 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37558]: Fix test_shared_memory_cleaned_after_process_termination name handling

bpo-37526 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37526]: Add test.support.catch_threading_exception(): context manager catching threading.Thread exception using threading.excepthook().

bpo-37421 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421]: test_concurrent_futures now explicitly stops the ForkServer instance if it's running.

bpo-37421 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421]: multiprocessing tests now stop the ForkServer instance if it's running: close the "alive" file descriptor to ask the server to stop and then remove its UNIX address.

bpo-37421 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421]: test_distutils.test_build_ext() is now able to remove the temporary directory on Windows: don't import the newly built C extension ("xx") in the current process, but test it in a separated process.

bpo-37421 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421]: test_concurrent_futures now cleans up multiprocessing to remove immediately temporary directories created by multiprocessing.util.get_temp_dir().

bpo-37421 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421]: test_winconsoleio doesn't leak a temporary file anymore: use tempfile.TemporaryFile() to remove it when the test completes.

bpo-37421 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421]: multiprocessing tests now explicitly call _run_finalizers() to immediately remove temporary directories created by tests.

bpo-37421 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421]: urllib.request tests now call urlcleanup() to remove temporary files created by urlretrieve() tests and to clear the _opener global variable set by urlopen() and functions calling indirectly urlopen().

bpo-37472 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37472]: Remove Lib/test/outstanding_bugs.py.

bpo-37199 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37199]: Fix test failures when IPv6 is unavailable or disabled.

bpo-19696 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19696]: Replace deprecated method "random.choose" with "random.choice" in "test_pkg_import.py".

bpo-37335 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37335]: Remove no longer necessary code from c locale coercion tests

bpo-37421 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421]: Fix test_shutil to no longer leak temporary files.

bpo-37411 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37411]: Fix test_wsgiref.testEnviron() to no longer depend on the environment variables (don't fail if "X" variable is set).

bpo-37400 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37400]: Fix test_os.test_chown(): use os.getgroups() rather than grp.getgrall() to get groups. Rename also the test to test_chown_gid().

bpo-37359 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37359]: Add --cleanup option to python3 -m test to remove test_python_* directories of previous failed jobs. Add "make cleantest" to run python3 -m test --cleanup.

bpo-37362 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37362]: test_gdb no longer fails if it gets an "unexpected" message on stderr: it now ignores stderr. The purpose of test_gdb is to test that python-gdb.py commands work as expected, not to test gdb.

bpo-35998 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35998]: Avoid TimeoutError in test_asyncio: test_start_tls_server_1()

bpo-37278 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37278]: Fix test_asyncio ProactorLoopCtrlC: join the thread to prevent leaking a running thread and leaking a reference.

bpo-37261 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37261]: Fix test.support.catch_unraisable_exception(): its __exit__() method now ignores unraisable exception raised when clearing its unraisable attribute.

bpo-37069 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37069]: regrtest now uses sys.unraisablehook() to mark a test as "environment altered" (ENV_CHANGED) if it emits an "unraisable exception". Moreover, regrtest logs a warning in this case.

Use python3 -m test --fail-env-changed to catch unraisable exceptions in tests.

bpo-37252 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37252]: Fix assertions in test_close and test_events_mask_overflow devpoll tests.

bpo-37169 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37169]: Rewrite _PyObject_IsFreed() unit tests.

bpo-37153 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37153]: test_venv.test_multiprocessing() now explicitly calls pool.terminate() to wait until the pool completes.

bpo-34001 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34001]: Make test_ssl pass with LibreSSL. LibreSSL handles minimum and maximum TLS version differently than OpenSSL.

bpo-36919 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36919]: Make test_source_encoding.test_issue2301 implementation independent. The test will work now for both CPython and IronPython.

bpo-30202 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30202]: Update test.test_importlib.test_abc to test find_spec().

bpo-28009 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28009]: Modify the test_uuid logic to test when a program is available AND can be used to obtain a MACADDR as basis for an UUID. Patch by M. Felt

bpo-34596 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34596]: Fallback to a default reason when unittest.skip() is uncalled. Patch by Naitree Zhu.

Build

bpo-38809 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38809]: On Windows, build scripts will now recognize and use python.exe from an active virtual env.

bpo-38684 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38684]: Fix _hashlib build when Blake2 is disabled, but OpenSSL supports it.

bpo-38468 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38468]: Misc/python-config.in now uses getvar() for all still existing sysconfig.get_config_var() calls. Patch by Joannah Nanjekye.

bpo-37415 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37415]: Fix stdatomic.h header check for ICC compiler: the ICC implementation lacks atomic_uintptr_t type which is needed by Python.

bpo-38301 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38301]: In Solaris family, we must be sure to use -D_REENTRANT. Patch by Jesús Cea Avión.

bpo-36002 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36002]: Locate llvm-profdata and llvm-ar binaries using AC_PATH_TOOL rather than AC_PATH_TARGET_TOOL.

bpo-37936 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37936]: The .gitignore file systematically keeps "rooted", with a non-trailing slash, all the rules that are meant to apply to files in a specific place in the repo. Previously, when the intended file to ignore happened to be at the root of the repo, we'd most often accidentally also ignore files and directories with the same name anywhere in the tree.

bpo-37760 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37760]: The Tools/unicode/makeunicodedata.py script, which is used for converting information from the Unicode Character Database into generated code and data used by the methods of str and by the unicodedata module, now handles each character's data as a dataclass with named attributes, rather than a length-18 list of different fields.

bpo-37936 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37936]: The .gitignore file no longer applies to any files that are in fact tracked in the Git repository. Patch by Greg Price.

bpo-37725 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37725]: Change "clean" makefile target to also clean the program guided optimization (PGO) data. Previously you would have to use "make clean" and "make profile-removal", or "make clobber".

bpo-37707 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37707]: Mark some individual tests to skip when --pgo is used. The tests marked increase the PGO task time significantly and likely don't help improve optimization of the final executable.

bpo-36044 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36044]: Reduce the number of unit tests run for the PGO generation task. This speeds up the task by a factor of about 15x. Running the full unit test suite is slow. This change may result in a slightly less optimized build since not as many code branches will be executed. If you are willing to wait for the much slower build, the old behavior can be restored using './configure [..] PROFILE_TASK="-m test --pgo-extended"'. We make no guarantees as to which PGO task set produces a faster build. Users who care should run their own relevant benchmarks as results can depend on the environment, workload, and compiler tool chain.

bpo-37468 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37468]: make install no longer installs wininst-*.exe files used by distutils bdist_wininst: bdist_wininst only works on Windows.

bpo-37189 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37189]: Many PyRun_XXX() functions like PyRun_String() were no longer exported in libpython38.dll by mistake. Export them again to fix the ABI compatibility.

bpo-25361 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25361]: Enables use of SSE2 instructions in Windows 32-bit build.

bpo-36210 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36210]: Update optional extension module detection for AIX. ossaudiodev and spwd are not applicable for AIX, and are no longer reported as missing. 3rd-party packaging of ncurses (with ASIS support) conflicts with officially supported AIX curses library, so configure AIX to use libcurses.a. However, skip trying to build _curses_panel.

patch by M Felt

Windows

bpo-38589 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38589]: Fixes HTML Help shortcut when Windows is not installed to C drive

bpo-38453 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38453]: Ensure ntpath.realpath() correctly resolves relative paths.

bpo-38519 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38519]: Restores the internal C headers that were missing from the nuget.org and Microsoft Store packages.

bpo-38492 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38492]: Remove pythonw.exe dependency on the Microsoft C++ runtime.

bpo-38344 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38344]: Fix error message in activate.bat

bpo-38359 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38359]: Ensures pyw.exe launcher reads correct registry key.

bpo-38355 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38355]: Fixes ntpath.realpath failing on sys.executable.

bpo-38117 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38117]: Update bundled OpenSSL to 1.1.1d

bpo-38092 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38092]: Reduce overhead when using multiprocessing in a Windows virtual environment.

bpo-38133 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38133]: Allow py.exe launcher to locate installations from the Microsoft Store and improve display of active virtual environments.

bpo-38114 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38114]: The pip.ini is no longer included in the Nuget package.

bpo-32592 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32592]: Set Windows 8 as the minimum required version for API support

bpo-36634 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36634]: os.cpu_count() now returns active processors rather than maximum processors.

bpo-36634 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36634]: venv activate.bat now works when the existing variables contain double quote characters.

bpo-38081 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38081]: Prevent error calling os.path.realpath() on 'NUL'.

bpo-38087 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38087]: Fix case sensitivity in test_pathlib and test_ntpath.

bpo-38088 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38088]: Fixes distutils not finding vcruntime140.dll with only the v142 toolset installed.

bpo-37283 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37283]: Ensure command-line and unattend.xml setting override previously detected states in Windows installer.

bpo-38030 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38030]: Fixes os.stat() failing for block devices on Windows

bpo-38020 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38020]: Fixes potential crash when calling os.readlink() (or indirectly through realpath()) on a file that is not a supported link.

bpo-37705 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37705]: Improve the implementation of winerror_to_errno().

bpo-37549 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37549]: os.dup() no longer fails for standard streams on Windows 7.

bpo-1311 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1311]: The nul file on Windows now returns True from exists() and a valid result from os.stat() with S_IFCHR set.

bpo-9949 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9949]: Enable support for following symlinks in os.realpath().

bpo-37834 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37834]: Treat all name surrogate reparse points on Windows in os.lstat() and other reparse points as regular files in os.stat().

bpo-36266 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36266]: Add the module name in the formatted error message when DLL load fail happens during module import in _PyImport_FindSharedFuncptrWindows(). Patch by Srinivas Nyayapati.

bpo-25172 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25172]: Trying to import the crypt module on Windows will result in an ImportError with a message explaining that the module isn't supported on Windows. On other platforms, if the underlying _crypt module is not available, the ImportError will include a message explaining the problem.

bpo-37778 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37778]: Fixes the icons used for file associations to the Microsoft Store package.

bpo-37734 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37734]: Fix use of registry values to launch Python from Microsoft Store app.

bpo-37702 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37702]: Fix memory leak on Windows in creating an SSLContext object or running urllib.request.urlopen('https://...').

bpo-37672 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37672]: Switch Windows Store package's pip to use bundled pip.ini instead of PIP_USER variable.

bpo-10945 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10945]: Officially drop support for creating bdist_wininst installers on non-Windows systems.

bpo-37445 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37445]: Include the FORMAT_MESSAGE_IGNORE_INSERTS flag in FormatMessageW() calls.

bpo-37369 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37369]: Fixes path for sys.executable when running from the Microsoft Store.

bpo-37380 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37380]: Don't collect unfinished processes with subprocess._active on Windows to cleanup later. Patch by Ruslan Kuprieiev.

bpo-37351 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37351]: Removes libpython38.a from standard Windows distribution.

bpo-35360 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35360]: Update Windows builds to use SQLite 3.28.0.

bpo-37267 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37267]: On Windows, os.dup() no longer creates an inheritable fd when handling a character file.

bpo-36779 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36779]: Ensure time.tzname is correct on Windows when the active code page is set to CP_UTF7 or CP_UTF8.

bpo-32587 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32587]: Make winreg.REG_MULTI_SZ support zero-length strings.

bpo-28269 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28269]: Replace use of strcasecmp() for the system function _stricmp(). Patch by Minmin Gong.

bpo-36590 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36590]: Add native Bluetooth RFCOMM support to socket module.

macOS

bpo-38117 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38117]: Updated OpenSSL to 1.1.1d in macOS installer.

bpo-38089 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38089]: Move Azure Pipelines to latest VM versions and make macOS tests optional

bpo-18049 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18049]: Increase the default stack size of threads from 5MB to 16MB on macOS, to match the stack size of the main thread. This avoids crashes on deep recursion in threads.

bpo-34602 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34602]: Avoid test suite failures on macOS by no longer calling resource.setrlimit to increase the process stack size limit at runtime. The runtime change is no longer needed since the interpreter is being built with a larger default stack size.

bpo-35360 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35360]: Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.28.0.

bpo-34631 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34631]: Updated OpenSSL to 1.1.1c in macOS installer.

IDLE

bpo-26353 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26353]: Stop adding newline when saving an IDLE shell window.

bpo-4630 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4630]: Add an option to toggle IDLE's cursor blink for shell, editor, and output windows. See Settings, General, Window Preferences, Cursor Blink. Patch by Zackery Spytz.

bpo-38598 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38598]: Do not try to compile IDLE shell or output windows

bpo-36698 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36698]: IDLE no longer fails when write non-encodable characters to stderr. It now escapes them with a backslash, as the regular Python interpreter. Added the errors field to the standard streams.

bpo-35379 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35379]: When exiting IDLE, catch any AttributeError. One happens when EditorWindow.close is called twice. Printing a traceback, when IDLE is run from a terminal, is useless and annoying.

bpo-38183 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38183]: To avoid problems, test_idle ignores the user config directory. It no longer tries to create or access .idlerc or any files within. Users must run IDLE to discover problems with saving settings.

bpo-38077 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38077]: IDLE no longer adds 'argv' to the user namespace when initializing it. This bug only affected 3.7.4 and 3.8.0b2 to 3.8.0b4.

bpo-38041 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38041]: Shell restart lines now fill the window width, always start with '=', and avoid wrapping unnecessarily. The line will still wrap if the included file name is long relative to the width.

bpo-35771 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35771]: To avoid occasional spurious test_idle failures on slower machines, increase the hover_delay in test_tooltip.

bpo-37824 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37824]: Properly handle user input warnings in IDLE shell. Cease turning SyntaxWarnings into SyntaxErrors.

bpo-37929 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37929]: IDLE Settings dialog now closes properly when there is no shell window.

bpo-37902 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37902]: Add mousewheel scrolling for IDLE module, path, and stack browsers. Patch by George Zhang.

bpo-37849 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37849]: Fixed completions list appearing too high or low when shown above the current line.

bpo-36419 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36419]: Refactor IDLE autocomplete and improve testing.

bpo-37748 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37748]: Reorder the Run menu. Put the most common choice, Run Module, at the top.

bpo-37692 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37692]: Improve highlight config sample with example shell interaction and better labels for shell elements.

bpo-37628 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37628]: Settings dialog no longer expands with font size.

bpo-37627 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37627]: Initialize the Customize Run dialog with the command line arguments most recently entered before. The user can optionally edit before submitting them.

bpo-33610 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33610]: Fix code context not showing the correct context when first toggled on.

bpo-37530 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37530]: Optimize code context to reduce unneeded background activity. Font and highlight changes now occur along with text changes instead of after a random delay.

bpo-27452 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27452]: Cleanup config.py by inlining RemoveFile and simplifying the handling of file in CreateConfigHandlers.

bpo-37325 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37325]: Fix tab focus traversal order for help source and custom run dialogs.

bpo-37321 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37321]: Both subprocess connection error messages now refer to the 'Startup failure' section of the IDLE doc.

bpo-17535 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17535]: Add optional line numbers for IDLE editor windows. Windows open without line numbers unless set otherwise in the General tab of the configuration dialog.

bpo-26806 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26806]: To compensate for stack frames added by IDLE and avoid possible problems with low recursion limits, add 30 to limits in the user code execution process. Subtract 30 when reporting recursion limits to make this addition mostly transparent.

bpo-37177 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37177]: Properly 'attach' search dialogs to their main window so that they behave like other dialogs and do not get hidden behind their main window.

bpo-37039 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37039]: Adjust "Zoom Height" to individual screens by momentarily maximizing the window on first use with a particular screen. Changing screen settings may invalidate the saved height. While a window is maximized, "Zoom Height" has no effect.

bpo-35763 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35763]: Make calltip reminder about '/' meaning positional-only less obtrusive by only adding it when there is room on the first line.

bpo-5680 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5680]: Add 'Run... Customized' to the Run menu to run a module with customized settings. Any 'command line arguments' entered are added to sys.argv. One can suppress the normal Shell main module restart.

bpo-36390 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36390]: Gather Format menu functions into format.py. Combine paragraph.py, rstrip.py, and format methods from editor.py.

Tools/Demos

bpo-38118 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38118]: Update Valgrind suppression file to ignore a false alarm in PyUnicode_Decode() when using GCC builtin strcmp().

bpo-38347 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38347]: pathfix.py: Assume all files that end on '.py' are Python scripts when working recursively.

bpo-37803 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37803]: pdb's --help and --version long options now work.

bpo-37942 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37942]: Improve ArgumentClinic converter for floats.

bpo-37704 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37704]: Remove Tools/scripts/h2py.py: use cffi to access a C API in Python.

bpo-37675 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37675]: 2to3 now works when run from a zipped standard library.

bpo-37034 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37034]: Argument Clinic now uses the argument name on errors with keyword-only argument instead of their position. Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

bpo-37064 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37064]: Add option -k to pathscript.py script: preserve shebang flags. Add option -a to pathscript.py script: add flags.

C API

bpo-37633 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37633]: Re-export some function compatibility wrappers for macros in pythonrun.h.

bpo-38644 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38644]: Provide Py_EnterRecursiveCall() and Py_LeaveRecursiveCall() as regular functions for the limited API. Previously, there were defined as macros, but these macros didn't work with the limited API which cannot access PyThreadState.recursion_depth field. Remove _Py_CheckRecursionLimit from the stable ABI.

bpo-38650 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38650]: The global variable PyStructSequence_UnnamedField is now a constant and refers to a constant string.

bpo-38540 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38540]: Fixed possible leak in PyArg_Parse() and similar functions for format units "es#" and "et#" when the macro PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN is not defined.

bpo-38395 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38395]: Fix a crash in weakref.proxy objects due to incorrect lifetime management when calling some associated methods that may delete the last reference to object being referenced by the proxy. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-36389 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36389]: The _PyObject_CheckConsistency() function is now also available in release mode. For example, it can be used to debug a crash in the visit_decref() function of the GC.

bpo-38266 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38266]: Revert the removal of PyThreadState_DeleteCurrent() with documentation.

bpo-38303 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38303]: Update audioop extension module to use the stable ABI (PEP-384). Patch by Tyler Kieft.

bpo-38234 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38234]: Py_SetPath() now sets sys.executable to the program full path (Py_GetProgramFullPath()) rather than to the program name (Py_GetProgramName()).

bpo-38234 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38234]: Python ignored arguments passed to Py_SetPath(), Py_SetPythonHome() and Py_SetProgramName(): fix Python initialization to use specified arguments.

bpo-38205 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38205]: The Py_UNREACHABLE() macro now calls Py_FatalError().

bpo-38140 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38140]: Make dict and weakref offsets opaque for C heap types by passing the offsets through PyMemberDef

bpo-15088 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15088]: The C function PyGen_NeedsFinalizing has been removed. It was not documented, tested or used anywhere within CPython after the implementation of PEP 442 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/]. Patch by Joannah Nanjekye. (Patch by Joannah Nanjekye)

bpo-36763 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36763]: Options added by PySys_AddXOption() are now handled the same way than PyConfig.xoptions and command line -X options.

bpo-37926 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37926]: Fix a crash in PySys_SetArgvEx(0, NULL, 0).

bpo-37879 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37879]: Fix subtype_dealloc to suppress the type decref when the base type is a C heap type

bpo-37645 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37645]: Add _PyObject_FunctionStr() to get a user-friendly string representation of a function-like object. Patch by Jeroen Demeyer.

bpo-29548 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29548]: The functions PyEval_CallObject, PyEval_CallFunction, PyEval_CallMethod and PyEval_CallObjectWithKeywords are deprecated. Use PyObject_Call() and its variants instead.

bpo-37151 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37151]: PyCFunction_Call is now a deprecated alias of PyObject_Call().

bpo-37540 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37540]: The vectorcall protocol now requires that the caller passes only strings as keyword names.

bpo-37207 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207]: The vectorcall protocol is now enabled for type objects: set tp_vectorcall to a vectorcall function to be used instead of tp_new and tp_init when calling the class itself.

bpo-21120 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21120]: Exclude Python-ast.h, ast.h and asdl.h from the limited API.

bpo-37483 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37483]: Add new function _PyObject_CallOneArg for calling an object with one positional argument.

bpo-36763 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36763]: Add PyConfig_SetWideStringList() function.

bpo-37337 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37337]: Add fast functions for calling methods: _PyObject_VectorcallMethod(), _PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs() and _PyObject_CallMethodOneArg().

bpo-28805 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28805]: The METH_FASTCALL calling convention has been documented.

bpo-37221 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37221]: The new function PyCode_NewWithPosOnlyArgs() allows to create code objects like PyCode_New(), but with an extra posonlyargcount parameter for indicating the number of positonal-only arguments.

bpo-37215 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37215]: Fix dtrace issue introduce by bpo-36842 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36842]

bpo-37194 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37194]: Add a new public PyObject_CallNoArgs() function to the C API: call a callable Python object without any arguments. It is the most efficient way to call a callback without any argument. On x86-64, for example, PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs(func, NULL) allocates 960 bytes on the stack per call, whereas PyObject_CallNoArgs(func) only allocates 624 bytes per call.

bpo-37170 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37170]: Fix the cast on error in PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLongMask().

bpo-35381 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35381]: Convert posixmodule.c statically allocated types DirEntryType and ScandirIteratorType to heap-allocated types.

bpo-34331 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34331]: Use singular/plural noun in error message when instantiating an abstract class with non-overridden abstract method(s).

Python 3.8.0 beta 1

Release date: 2019-06-04

Security

bpo-35907 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35907]: CVE 2019-9948 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2019-9948]: Avoid file reading by disallowing local-file:// and local_file:// URL schemes in URLopener().open() and URLopener().retrieve() of urllib.request.

bpo-33529 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33529]: Prevent fold function used in email header encoding from entering infinite loop when there are too many non-ASCII characters in a header.

bpo-33164 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33164]: Updated blake2 implementation which uses secure memset implementation provided by platform.

Core and Builtins

bpo-35814 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35814]: Allow unpacking in the right hand side of annotated assignments. In particular, t: Tuple[int, ...] = x, y, *z is now allowed.

bpo-37126 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37126]: All structseq objects are now tracked by the garbage collector. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-37122 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37122]: Make the co_argcount attribute of code objects represent the total number of positional arguments (including positional-only arguments). The value of co_posonlyargcount can be used to distinguish which arguments are positional only, and the difference (co_argcount - co_posonlyargcount) is the number of positional-or-keyword arguments. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-20092 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20092]: Constructors of int, float and complex will now use the __index__() special method, if available and the corresponding method __int__(), __float__() or __complex__() is not available.

bpo-37087 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37087]: Add native thread ID (TID) support to OpenBSD.

bpo-26219 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26219]: Implemented per opcode cache mechanism and LOAD_GLOBAL instruction use it. LOAD_GLOBAL is now about 40% faster. Contributed by Yury Selivanov, and Inada Naoki.

bpo-37072 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37072]: Fix crash in PyAST_FromNodeObject() when flags is NULL.

bpo-37029 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37029]: Freeing a great many small objects could take time quadratic in the number of arenas, due to using linear search to keep obmalloc.c's list of usable arenas sorted by order of number of free memory pools. This is accomplished without search now, leaving the worst-case time linear in the number of arenas. For programs where this quite visibly matters (typically with more than 100 thousand small objects alive simultaneously), this can greatly reduce the time needed to release their memory.

bpo-26423 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26423]: Fix possible overflow in wrap_lenfunc() when sizeof(long) < sizeof(Py_ssize_t) (e.g., 64-bit Windows).

bpo-37050 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37050]: Improve the AST for "debug" f-strings, which use '=' to print out the source of the expression being evaluated. Delete expr_text from the FormattedValue node, and instead use a Constant string node (possibly merged with adjacent constant expressions inside the f-string).

bpo-22385 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22385]: The bytes.hex, bytearray.hex, and memoryview.hex methods as well as the binascii.hexlify and b2a_hex functions now have the ability to include an optional separator between hex bytes. This functionality was inspired by MicroPython's hexlify implementation.

bpo-26836 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26836]: Add os.memfd_create().

bpo-37032 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37032]: Added new replace() method to the code type (types.CodeType).

bpo-37007 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37007]: Implement socket.if_nameindex(), socket.if_nametoindex(), and socket.if_indextoname() on Windows.

bpo-36829 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36829]: PyErr_WriteUnraisable() now creates a traceback object if there is no current traceback. Moreover, call PyErr_NormalizeException() and PyException_SetTraceback() to normalize the exception value. Ignore any error.

bpo-36878 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36878]: Only accept text after # type: ignore if the first character is ASCII. This is to disallow things like # type: ignoreé.

bpo-36878 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36878]: Store text appearing after a # type: ignore comment in the AST. For example a type ignore like # type: ignore[E1000] will have the string "[E1000]" stored in its AST node.

bpo-2180 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2180]: Treat line continuation at EOF as a SyntaxError by Anthony Sottile.

bpo-36907 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36907]: Fix a crash when calling a C function with a keyword dict (f(**kwargs)) and changing the dict kwargs while that function is running.

bpo-36946 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36946]: Fix possible signed integer overflow when handling slices.

bpo-36826 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36826]: Add NamedExpression kind support to ast_unparse.c

bpo-1875 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1875]: A SyntaxError is now raised if a code blocks that will be optimized away (e.g. if conditions that are always false) contains syntax errors. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-36027 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36027]: Allow computation of modular inverses via three-argument pow: the second argument is now permitted to be negative in the case where the first and third arguments are relatively prime.

bpo-36861 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36861]: Update the Unicode database to version 12.1.0.

bpo-28866 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28866]: Avoid caching attributes of classes which type defines mro() to avoid a hard cache invalidation problem.

bpo-36851 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36851]: The FrameType stack is now correctly cleaned up if the execution ends with a return and the stack is not empty.

bpo-34616 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34616]: The compile() builtin functions now support the ast.PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT flag, which allow to compile sources that contains top-level await, async with or async for. This is useful to evaluate async-code from with an already async functions; for example in a custom REPL.

bpo-36842 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36842]: Implement PEP 578, adding sys.audit, io.open_code and related APIs.

bpo-27639 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27639]: Correct return type for UserList slicing operations. Patch by Michael Blahay, Erick Cervantes, and vaultah

bpo-36737 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36737]: Move PyRuntimeState.warnings into per-interpreter state (via "module state").

bpo-36793 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36793]: Removed __str__ implementations from builtin types bool, int, float, complex and few classes from the standard library. They now inherit __str__() from object.

bpo-36817 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36817]: Add a = feature f-strings for debugging. This can precede !s, !r, or !a. It produces the text of the expression, followed by an equal sign, followed by the repr of the value of the expression. So f'{3*9+15=}' would be equal to the string '3*9+15=42'. If = is specified, the default conversion is set to !r, unless a format spec is given, in which case the formatting behavior is unchanged, and __format__ will be used.

bpo-24048 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24048]: Save the live exception during import.c's remove_module().

bpo-27987 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27987]: pymalloc returns memory blocks aligned by 16 bytes, instead of 8 bytes, on 64-bit platforms to conform x86-64 ABI. Recent compilers assume this alignment more often. Patch by Inada Naoki.

bpo-36601 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36601]: A long-since-meaningless check for getpid() == main_pid was removed from Python's internal C signal handler.

bpo-36594 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36594]: Fix incorrect use of %p in format strings. Patch by Zackery Spytz.

bpo-36045 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36045]: builtins.help() now prefixes async for async functions.

bpo-36084 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36084]: Add native thread ID (TID) to threading.Thread objects (supported platforms: Windows, FreeBSD, Linux, macOS)

bpo-36035 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36035]: Added fix for broken symlinks in combination with pathlib

bpo-35983 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35983]: Added new trashcan macros to deal with a double deallocation that could occur when the tp_dealloc of a subclass calls the tp_dealloc of a base class and that base class uses the trashcan mechanism. Patch by Jeroen Demeyer.

bpo-20602 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20602]: Do not clear sys.flags and sys.float_info during shutdown. Patch by Zackery Spytz.

bpo-26826 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26826]: Expose copy_file_range() as a low level API in the os module.

bpo-32388 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32388]: Remove cross-version binary compatibility requirement in tp_flags.

bpo-31862 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31862]: Port binascii to PEP 489 multiphase initialization. Patch by Marcel Plch.

Library

bpo-37128 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37128]: Added math.perm().

bpo-37120 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37120]: Add SSLContext.num_tickets to control the number of TLSv1.3 session tickets.

bpo-12202 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12202]: Fix the error handling in msilib.SummaryInformation.GetProperty(). Patch by Zackery Spytz.

bpo-26835 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26835]: The fcntl module now contains file sealing constants for sealing of memfds.

bpo-29262 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29262]: Add get_origin() and get_args() introspection helpers to typing module.

bpo-12639 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12639]: msilib.Directory.start_component() no longer fails if keyfile is not None.

bpo-36999 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36999]: Add the asyncio.Task.get_coro() method to publicly expose the tasks's coroutine object.

bpo-35246 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35246]: Make asyncio.create_subprocess_exec() accept path-like arguments.

bpo-35279 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35279]: Change default max_workers of ThreadPoolExecutor from cpu_count() * 5 to min(32, cpu_count() + 4). Previous value was unreasonably large on many cores machines.

bpo-37076 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37076]: _thread.start_new_thread() now logs uncaught exception raised by the function using sys.unraisablehook(), rather than sys.excepthook(), so the hook gets access to the function which raised the exception.

bpo-33725 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33725]: On macOS, the multiprocessing module now uses spawn start method by default.

bpo-37054 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37054]: Fix destructor _pyio.BytesIO and _pyio.TextIOWrapper: initialize their _buffer attribute as soon as possible (in the class body), because it's used by __del__() which calls close().

bpo-37058 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37058]: PEP 544: Add Protocol and @runtime_checkable to the typing module.

bpo-36933 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36933]: The functions sys.set_coroutine_wrapper and sys.get_coroutine_wrapper that were deprecated and marked for removal in 3.8 have been removed.

bpo-37047 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37047]: Handle late binding and attribute access in unittest.mock.AsyncMock setup for autospeccing. Document newly implemented async methods in unittest.mock.MagicMock.

bpo-37049 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37049]: PEP 589: Add TypedDict to the typing module.

bpo-37046 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37046]: PEP 586: Add Literal to the typing module.

bpo-37045 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37045]: PEP 591: Add Final qualifier and @final decorator to the typing module.

bpo-37035 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37035]: Don't log OSError based exceptions if a fatal error has occurred in asyncio transport. Peer can generate almost any OSError, user cannot avoid these exceptions by fixing own code. Errors are still propagated to user code, it's just logging them is pointless and pollute asyncio logs.

bpo-37001 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37001]: symtable.symtable() now accepts the same input types for source code as the built-in compile() function. Patch by Dino Viehland.

bpo-37028 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37028]: Implement asyncio REPL

bpo-37027 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37027]: Return safe to use proxy socket object from transport.get_extra_info('socket')

bpo-32528 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32528]: Make asyncio.CancelledError a BaseException.

This will address the common mistake many asyncio users make: an "except Exception" clause breaking Tasks cancellation.

In addition to this change, we stop inheriting asyncio.TimeoutError and asyncio.InvalidStateError from their concurrent.futures.* counterparts. There's no point for these exceptions to share the inheritance chain.

bpo-1230540 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1230540]: Add a new threading.excepthook() function which handles uncaught threading.Thread.run() exception. It can be overridden to control how uncaught threading.Thread.run() exceptions are handled.

bpo-36996 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36996]: Handle unittest.mock.patch() used as a decorator on async functions.

bpo-37008 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37008]: Add support for calling next() with the mock resulting from unittest.mock.mock_open()

bpo-27737 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27737]: Allow whitespace only header encoding in email.header - by Batuhan Taskaya

bpo-36969 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36969]: PDB command args now display positional only arguments. Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

bpo-36969 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36969]: PDB command args now display keyword only arguments. Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

bpo-36983 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36983]: Add missing names to typing.__all__: ChainMap, ForwardRef, OrderedDict - by Anthony Sottile.

bpo-36972 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36972]: Add SupportsIndex protocol to the typing module to allow type checking to detect classes that can be passed to hex(), oct() and bin().

bpo-32972 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32972]: Implement unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase to help testing asyncio-based code.

bpo-36952 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36952]: fileinput.input() and fileinput.FileInput bufsize argument has been removed (was deprecated and ignored since Python 3.6), and as a result the mode and openhook arguments have been made keyword-only.

bpo-36952 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36952]: Starting with Python 3.3, importing ABCs from collections is deprecated, and import should be done from collections.abc. Still being able to import from collections was marked for removal in 3.8, but has been delayed to 3.9; documentation and DeprecationWarning clarified.

bpo-36949 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36949]: Implement __repr__ for WeakSet objects.

bpo-36948 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36948]: Fix NameError in urllib.request.URLopener.retrieve(). Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

bpo-33524 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33524]: Fix the folding of email header when the max_line_length is 0 or None and the header contains non-ascii characters. Contributed by Licht Takeuchi (@Licht-T).

bpo-24564 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24564]: shutil.copystat() now ignores errno.EINVAL on os.setxattr() which may occur when copying files on filesystems without extended attributes support.

Original patch by Giampaolo Rodola, updated by Ying Wang.

bpo-36888 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36888]: Python child processes can now access the status of their parent process using multiprocessing.process.parent_process

bpo-36921 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36921]: Deprecate @coroutine for sake of async def.

bpo-25652 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25652]: Fix bug in __rmod__ of UserString - by Batuhan Taskaya.

bpo-36916 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36916]: Remove a message about an unhandled exception in a task when writer.write() is used without await and writer.drain() fails with an exception.

bpo-36889 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36889]: Introduce asyncio.Stream class that merges asyncio.StreamReader and asyncio.StreamWriter functionality. asyncio.Stream can work in readonly, writeonly and readwrite modes. Provide asyncio.connect(), asyncio.connect_unix(), asyncio.connect_read_pipe() and asyncio.connect_write_pipe() factories to open asyncio.Stream connections. Provide asyncio.StreamServer and UnixStreamServer to serve servers with asyncio.Stream API. Modify asyncio.create_subprocess_shell() and asyncio.create_subprocess_exec() to use asyncio.Stream instead of deprecated StreamReader and StreamWriter. Deprecate asyncio.StreamReader and asyncio.StreamWriter. Deprecate usage of private classes, e.g. asyncio.FlowControlMixing and asyncio.StreamReaderProtocol outside of asyncio package.

bpo-36845 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36845]: Added validation of integer prefixes to the construction of IP networks and interfaces in the ipaddress module.

bpo-23378 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23378]: Add an extend action to argparser.

bpo-36867 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36867]: Fix a bug making a SharedMemoryManager instance and its parent process use two separate resource_tracker processes.

bpo-23896 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23896]: Adds a grammar to lib2to3.pygram that contains exec as a function not as statement.

bpo-36895 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36895]: The function time.clock() was deprecated in 3.3 in favor of time.perf_counter() and marked for removal in 3.8, it has removed.

bpo-35545 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35545]: Fix asyncio discarding IPv6 scopes when ensuring hostname resolutions internally

bpo-36887 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36887]: Add new function math.isqrt() to compute integer square roots.

bpo-34632 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34632]: Introduce the importlib.metadata module with (provisional) support for reading metadata from third-party packages.

bpo-36878 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36878]: When using type_comments=True in ast.parse, treat # type: ignore followed by a non-alphanumeric character and then arbitrary text as a type ignore, instead of requiring nothing but whitespace or another comment. This is to permit formations such as # type: ignore[E1000].

bpo-36778 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36778]: cp65001 encoding (Windows code page 65001) becomes an alias to utf_8 encoding.

bpo-36867 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36867]: The multiprocessing.resource_tracker replaces the multiprocessing.semaphore_tracker module. Other than semaphores, resource_tracker also tracks shared_memory segments.

bpo-30262 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30262]: The Cache and Statement objects of the sqlite3 module are not exposed to the user. Patch by Aviv Palivoda.

bpo-24538 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24538]: In shutil.copystat(), first copy extended file attributes and then file permissions, since extended attributes can only be set on the destination while it is still writeable.

bpo-36829 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36829]: Add new sys.unraisablehook() function which can be overridden to control how "unraisable exceptions" are handled. It is called when an exception has occurred but there is no way for Python to handle it. For example, when a destructor raises an exception or during garbage collection (gc.collect()).

bpo-36832 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36832]: Introducing zipfile.Path, a pathlib-compatible wrapper for traversing zip files.

bpo-36814 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36814]: Fix an issue where os.posix_spawnp() would incorrectly raise a TypeError when file_actions is None.

bpo-33110 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33110]: Handle exceptions raised by functions added by concurrent.futures add_done_callback correctly when the Future has already completed.

bpo-26903 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26903]: Limit max_workers in ProcessPoolExecutor to 61 to work around a WaitForMultipleObjects limitation.

bpo-36813 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36813]: Fix QueueListener to call queue.task_done() upon stopping. Patch by Bar Harel.

bpo-36806 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36806]: Forbid creation of asyncio stream objects like StreamReader, StreamWriter, Process, and their protocols outside of asyncio package.

bpo-36802 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36802]: Provide both sync and async calls for StreamWriter.write() and StreamWriter.close()

bpo-36801 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36801]: Properly handle SSL connection closing in asyncio StreamWriter.drain() call.

bpo-36785 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36785]: Implement PEP 574 (pickle protocol 5 with out-of-band buffers).

bpo-36772 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36772]: functools.lru_cache() can now be used as a straight decorator in addition to its existing usage as a function that returns a decorator.

bpo-6584 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6584]: Add a BadGzipFile exception to the gzip module.

bpo-36748 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36748]: Optimized write buffering in C implementation of TextIOWrapper. Writing ASCII string to TextIOWrapper with ascii, latin1, or utf-8 encoding is about 20% faster. Patch by Inada Naoki.

bpo-8138 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8138]: Don't mark wsgiref.simple_server.SimpleServer as multi-threaded since wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer is single-threaded.

bpo-22640 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22640]: py_compile.compile() now supports silent mode. Patch by Joannah Nanjekye

bpo-29183 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29183]: Fix double exceptions in wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler by calling its close() method only when no exception is raised.

bpo-36548 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36548]: Improved the repr of regular expression flags.

bpo-36542 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36542]: The signature of Python functions can now be overridden by specifying the __text_signature__ attribute.

bpo-36533 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36533]: Reinitialize logging.Handler locks in forked child processes instead of attempting to acquire them all in the parent before forking only to be released in the child process. The acquire/release pattern was leading to deadlocks in code that has implemented any form of chained logging handlers that depend upon one another as the lock acquisition order cannot be guaranteed.

bpo-35252 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35252]: Throw a TypeError instead of an AssertionError when using an invalid type annotation with singledispatch.

bpo-35900 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35900]: Allow reduction methods to return a 6-item tuple where the 6th item specifies a custom state-setting method that's called instead of the regular __setstate__ method.

bpo-35900 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35900]: enable custom reduction callback registration for functions and classes in _pickle.c, using the new Pickler's attribute reducer_override

bpo-36368 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36368]: Fix a bug crashing SharedMemoryManager instances in interactive sessions after a ctrl-c (KeyboardInterrupt) was sent

bpo-31904 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904]: Fix mmap fail for VxWorks

bpo-27497 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27497]: csv.DictWriter.writeheader() now returns the return value of the underlying csv.Writer.writerow() method. Patch contributed by Ashish Nitin Patil.

bpo-36239 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36239]: Parsing .mo files now ignores comments starting and ending with #-#-#-#-#.

bpo-26707 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26707]: Enable plistlib to read and write binary plist files that were created as a KeyedArchive file. Specifically, this allows the plistlib to process 0x80 tokens as UID objects.

bpo-31904 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904]: Add posix module support for VxWorks.

bpo-35125 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35125]: Asyncio: Remove inner callback on outer cancellation in shield

bpo-35721 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35721]: Fix asyncio.SelectorEventLoop.subprocess_exec() leaks file descriptors if Popen fails and called with stdin=subprocess.PIPE. Patch by Niklas Fiekas.

bpo-31855 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31855]: unittest.mock.mock_open() results now respects the argument of read([size]). Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

bpo-35431 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35431]: Implement math.comb() that returns binomial coefficient, that computes the number of ways to choose k items from n items without repetition and without order. Patch by Yash Aggarwal and Keller Fuchs.

bpo-26660 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26660]: Fixed permission errors in TemporaryDirectory clean up. Previously TemporaryDirectory.cleanup() failed when non-writeable or non-searchable files or directories were created inside a temporary directory.

bpo-34271 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34271]: Add debugging helpers to ssl module. It's now possible to dump key material and to trace TLS protocol. The default and stdlib contexts also support SSLKEYLOGFILE env var.

bpo-26467 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26467]: Added AsyncMock to support using unittest to mock asyncio coroutines. Patch by Lisa Roach.

bpo-33569 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33569]: dataclasses.InitVar: Exposes the type used to create the init var.

bpo-34424 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34424]: Fix serialization of messages containing encoded strings when the policy.linesep is set to a multi-character string. Patch by Jens Troeger.

bpo-34303 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34303]: Performance of functools.reduce() is slightly improved. Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

bpo-33361 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33361]: Fix a bug in codecs.StreamRecoder where seeking might leave old data in a buffer and break subsequent read calls. Patch by Ammar Askar.

bpo-22454 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22454]: The shlex module now exposes shlex.join(), the inverse of shlex.split(). Patch by Bo Bayles.

bpo-31922 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31922]: asyncio.AbstractEventLoop.create_datagram_endpoint(): Do not connect UDP socket when broadcast is allowed. This allows to receive replies after a UDP broadcast.

bpo-24882 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24882]: Change ThreadPoolExecutor to use existing idle threads before spinning up new ones.

bpo-31961 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31961]: Added support for bytes and path-like objects in subprocess.Popen() on Windows. The args parameter now accepts a path-like object if shell is False and a sequence containing bytes and path-like objects. The executable parameter now accepts a bytes and path-like object. The cwd parameter now accepts a bytes object. Based on patch by Anders Lorentsen.

bpo-33123 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33123]: pathlib.Path.unlink now accepts a missing_ok parameter to avoid a FileNotFoundError from being raised. Patch by Robert Buchholz.

bpo-32941 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32941]: Allow mmap.mmap objects to access the madvise() system call (through mmap.mmap.madvise()).

bpo-22102 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22102]: Added support for ZIP files with disks set to 0. Such files are commonly created by builtin tools on Windows when use ZIP64 extension. Patch by Francisco Facioni.

bpo-32515 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32515]: trace.py can now run modules via python3 -m trace -t --module module_name

bpo-32299 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32299]: Changed unittest.mock.patch.dict() to return the patched dictionary when used as context manager. Patch by Vadim Tsander.

bpo-27141 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27141]: Added a __copy__() to collections.UserList and collections.UserDict in order to correctly implement shallow copying of the objects. Patch by Bar Harel.

bpo-31829 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31829]: \r, \0 and \x1a (end-of-file on Windows) are now escaped in protocol 0 pickles of Unicode strings. This allows to load them without loss from files open in text mode in Python 2.

bpo-23395 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23395]: _thread.interrupt_main() now avoids setting the Python error status if the SIGINT signal is ignored or not handled by Python.

Documentation

bpo-36896 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36896]: Clarify that some types have unstable constructor signature between Python versions.

bpo-36686 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36686]: Improve documentation of the stdin, stdout, and stderr arguments of the asyncio.subprocess_exec function to specify which values are supported. Also mention that decoding as text is not supported.

Add a few tests to verify that the various values passed to the std* arguments actually work.

bpo-36984 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36984]: Improve version added references in typing module - by Anthony Sottile.

bpo-36868 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36868]: What's new now mentions SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name instead of SSLContext.host_flags.

bpo-35924 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35924]: Add a note to the curses.addstr() documentation to warn that multiline strings can cause segfaults because of an ncurses bug.

bpo-36783 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36783]: Added C API Documentation for Time_FromTimeAndFold and PyDateTime_FromDateAndTimeAndFold as per PEP 495. Patch by Edison Abahurire.

bpo-36797 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36797]: More of the legacy distutils documentation has been either pruned, or else more clearly marked as being retained solely until the setuptools documentation covers it independently.

bpo-22865 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22865]: Add detail to the documentation on the pty.spawn function.

bpo-35397 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35397]: Remove deprecation and document urllib.parse.unwrap(). Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

bpo-32995 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32995]: Added the context variable in glossary.

bpo-33519 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33519]: Clarify that copy() is not part of the MutableSequence ABC.

bpo-33482 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33482]: Make codecs.StreamRecoder.writelines take a list of bytes.

bpo-25735 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25735]: Added documentation for func factorial to indicate that returns integer values

bpo-20285 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20285]: Expand object.__doc__ (docstring) to make it clearer. Modify pydoc.py so that help(object) lists object methods (for other classes, help omits methods of the object base class.)

Tests

bpo-37069 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37069]: Modify test_coroutines, test_cprofile, test_generators, test_raise, test_ssl and test_yield_from to use test.support.catch_unraisable_exception() rather than test.support.captured_stderr().

bpo-37098 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37098]: Fix test_memfd_create on older Linux Kernels.

bpo-37081 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37081]: Test with OpenSSL 1.1.1c

bpo-36829 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36829]: Add test.support.catch_unraisable_exception(): context manager catching unraisable exception using sys.unraisablehook().

bpo-36915 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36915]: The main regrtest process now always removes all temporary directories of worker processes even if they crash or if they are killed on KeyboardInterrupt (CTRL+c).

bpo-36719 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36719]: "python3 -m test -jN ..." now continues the execution of next tests when a worker process crash (CHILD_ERROR state). Previously, the test suite stopped immediately. Use --failfast to stop at the first error.

bpo-36816 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36816]: Update Lib/test/selfsigned_pythontestdotnet.pem to match self-signed.pythontest.net's new TLS certificate.

bpo-35925 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35925]: Skip httplib and nntplib networking tests when they would otherwise fail due to a modern OS or distro with a default OpenSSL policy of rejecting connections to servers with weak certificates.

bpo-36782 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36782]: Add tests for several C API functions in the datetime module. Patch by Edison Abahurire.

bpo-36342 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36342]: Fix test_multiprocessing in test_venv if platform lacks functioning sem_open.

Build

bpo-36721 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36721]: To embed Python into an application, a new --embed option must be passed to python3-config --libs --embed to get -lpython3.8 (link the application to libpython). To support both 3.8 and older, try python3-config --libs --embed first and fallback to python3-config --libs (without --embed) if the previous command fails.

Add a pkg-config python-3.8-embed module to embed Python into an application: pkg-config python-3.8-embed --libs includes -lpython3.8. To support both 3.8 and older, try pkg-config python-X.Y-embed --libs first and fallback to pkg-config python-X.Y --libs (without --embed) if the previous command fails (replace X.Y with the Python version).

On the other hand, pkg-config python3.8 --libs no longer contains -lpython3.8. C extensions must not be linked to libpython (except on Android, case handled by the script); this change is backward incompatible on purpose.

bpo-36786 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36786]: "make install" now runs compileall in parallel.

Windows

bpo-36965 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36965]: include of STATUS_CONTROL_C_EXIT without depending on MSC compiler

bpo-35926 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35926]: Update to OpenSSL 1.1.1b for Windows.

bpo-29883 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29883]: Add Windows support for UDP transports for the Proactor Event Loop. Patch by Adam Meily.

bpo-33407 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33407]: The Py_DEPRECATED() macro has been implemented for MSVC.

macOS

bpo-36231 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36231]: Support building Python on macOS without /usr/include installed. As of macOS 10.14, system header files are only available within an SDK provided by either the Command Line Tools or the Xcode app.

IDLE

bpo-35610 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35610]: Replace now redundant .context_use_ps1 with .prompt_last_line. This finishes change started in bpo-31858 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31858].

bpo-37038 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37038]: Make idlelib.run runnable; add test clause.

bpo-36958 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36958]: Print any argument other than None or int passed to SystemExit or sys.exit().

bpo-36807 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36807]: When saving a file, call os.fsync() so bits are flushed to e.g. USB drive.

bpo-32411 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32411]: In browser.py, remove extraneous sorting by line number since dictionary was created in line number order.

Tools/Demos

bpo-37053 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37053]: Handle strings like u"bar" correctly in Tools/parser/unparse.py. Patch by Chih-Hsuan Yen.

C API

bpo-36763 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36763]: Implement the PEP 587 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/] "Python Initialization Configuration".

bpo-36379 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36379]: Fix crashes when attempting to use the modulo parameter when __ipow__ is implemented in C.

bpo-37107 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37107]: Update PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs() and _PyObject_CallMethodIdObjArgs to use _PyObject_GetMethod to avoid creating a bound method object in many cases. Patch by Michael J. Sullivan.

bpo-36974 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36974]: Implement PEP 590 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/]: Vectorcall: a fast calling protocol for CPython. This is a new protocol to optimize calls of custom callable objects.

bpo-36763 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36763]: Py_Main() now returns the exitcode rather than calling Py_Exit(exitcode) when calling PyErr_Print() if the current exception type is SystemExit.

bpo-36922 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36922]: Add new type flag Py_TPFLAGS_METHOD_DESCRIPTOR for objects behaving like unbound methods. These are objects supporting the optimization given by the LOAD_METHOD/CALL_METHOD opcodes. See PEP 590.

bpo-36728 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36728]: The PyEval_ReInitThreads() function has been removed from the C API. It should not be called explicitly: use PyOS_AfterFork_Child() instead.

Python 3.8.0 alpha 4

Release date: 2019-05-06

Security

bpo-36742 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36742]: Fixes mishandling of pre-normalization characters in urlsplit().

bpo-30458 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30458]: Address CVE 2019-9740 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2019-9740] by disallowing URL paths with embedded whitespace or control characters through into the underlying http client request. Such potentially malicious header injection URLs now cause an http.client.InvalidURL exception to be raised.

bpo-35755 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35755]: shutil.which() now uses os.confstr("CS_PATH") if available and if the PATH environment variable is not set. Remove also the current directory from posixpath.defpath. On Unix, shutil.which() and the subprocess module no longer search the executable in the current directory if the PATH environment variable is not set.

Core and Builtins

bpo-36722 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36722]: In debug build, import now also looks for C extensions compiled in release mode and for C extensions compiled in the stable ABI.

bpo-32849 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32849]: Fix Python Initialization code on FreeBSD to detect properly when stdin file descriptor (fd 0) is invalid.

bpo-36623 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36623]: Remove parser headers and related function declarations that lack implementations after the removal of pgen.

bpo-20180 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20180]: dict.pop() is now up to 33% faster thanks to Argument Clinic. Patch by Inada Naoki.

bpo-36611 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36611]: Debug memory allocators: disable serialno field by default from debug hooks on Python memory allocators to reduce the memory footprint by 5%. Enable tracemalloc to get the traceback where a memory block has been allocated when a fatal memory error is logged to decide where to put a breakpoint. Compile Python with PYMEM_DEBUG_SERIALNO defined to get back the field.

bpo-36588 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36588]: On AIX, sys.platform doesn't contain the major version anymore. Always return 'aix', instead of 'aix3' .. 'aix7'. Since older Python versions include the version number, it is recommended to always use sys.platform.startswith('aix'). Contributed by M. Felt.

bpo-36549 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36549]: Change str.capitalize to use titlecase for the first character instead of uppercase.

bpo-36540 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36540]: Implement PEP 570 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0570/] (Python positional-only parameters). Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-36475 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36475]: PyEval_AcquireLock() and PyEval_AcquireThread() now terminate the current thread if called while the interpreter is finalizing, making them consistent with PyEval_RestoreThread(), Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS(), and PyGILState_Ensure().

bpo-36504 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36504]: Fix signed integer overflow in _ctypes.c's PyCArrayType_new().

bpo-20844 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20844]: Fix running script with encoding cookie and LF line ending may fail on Windows.

bpo-24214 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24214]: Fixed support of the surrogatepass error handler in the UTF-8 incremental decoder.

bpo-36452 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36452]: Changing dict keys during iteration of the dict itself, keys(), values(), or items() will now be detected in certain corner cases where keys are deleted/added so that the number of keys isn't changed. A RuntimeError will be raised after len(dict) iterations. Contributed by Thomas Perl.

bpo-36459 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36459]: Fix a possible double PyMem_FREE() due to tokenizer.c's tok_nextc().

bpo-36433 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36433]: Fixed TypeError message in classmethoddescr_call.

bpo-36430 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36430]: Fix a possible reference leak in itertools.count().

bpo-36440 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36440]: Include node names in ParserError messages, instead of numeric IDs. Patch by A. Skrobov.

bpo-36143 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36143]: Regenerate keyword from the Grammar and Tokens file using pgen. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-18372 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18372]: Add missing PyObject_GC_Track() calls in the pickle module. Patch by Zackery Spytz.

Library

bpo-35952 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35952]: Fix pythoninfo when the compiler is missing.

bpo-28238 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28238]: The .find*() methods of xml.etree.ElementTree can now search for wildcards like {*}tag and {ns}* that match a tag in any namespace or all tags in a namespace. Patch by Stefan Behnel.

bpo-26978 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26978]: pathlib.path.link_to() is now implemented. It creates a hard link pointing to a path.

bpo-1613500 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1613500]: fileinput.FileInput now uses the input file mode to correctly set the output file mode (previously it was hardcoded to 'w') when inplace=True is passed to its constructor.

bpo-36734 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36734]: Fix compilation of faulthandler.c on HP-UX. Initialize stack_t current_stack to zero using memset().

bpo-13611 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13611]: The xml.etree.ElementTree packages gained support for C14N 2.0 serialisation. Patch by Stefan Behnel.

bpo-36669 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36669]: Add missing matrix multiplication operator support to weakref.proxy.

bpo-36676 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36676]: The XMLParser() in xml.etree.ElementTree provides namespace prefix context to the parser target if it defines the callback methods "start_ns()" and/or "end_ns()". Patch by Stefan Behnel.

bpo-36673 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36673]: The TreeBuilder and XMLPullParser in xml.etree.ElementTree gained support for parsing comments and processing instructions. Patch by Stefan Behnel.

bpo-36650 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36650]: The C version of functools.lru_cache() was treating calls with an empty **kwargs dictionary as being distinct from calls with no keywords at all. This did not result in an incorrect answer, but it did trigger an unexpected cache miss.

bpo-28552 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28552]: Fix distutils.sysconfig if sys.executable is None or an empty string: use os.getcwd() to initialize project_base. Fix also the distutils build command: don't use sys.executable if it is None or an empty string.

bpo-35755 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35755]: shutil.which() and distutils.spawn.find_executable now use os.confstr("CS_PATH") if available instead of os.defpath, if the PATH environment variable is not set. Moreover, don't use os.confstr("CS_PATH") nor os.defpath if the PATH environment variable is set to an empty string.

bpo-25430 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25430]: improve performance of IPNetwork.__contains__()

bpo-30485 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30485]: Path expressions in xml.etree.ElementTree can now avoid explicit namespace prefixes for tags (or the "{namespace}tag" notation) by passing a default namespace with an empty string prefix.

bpo-36613 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36613]: Fix asyncio wait() not removing callback if exception

bpo-36598 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36598]: Fix isinstance check for Mock objects with spec when the code is executed under tracing. Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

bpo-18748 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18748]: In development mode (-X dev) and in debug build, the io.IOBase destructor now logs close() exceptions. These exceptions are silent by default in release mode.

bpo-36575 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36575]: The _lsprof module now uses internal timer same to time.perf_counter() by default. gettimeofday(2) was used on Unix. New timer has better resolution on most Unix platforms and timings are no longer impacted by system clock updates since perf_counter() is monotonic. Patch by Inada Naoki.

bpo-33461 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33461]: json.loads now emits DeprecationWarning when encoding option is specified. Patch by Matthias Bussonnier.

bpo-36559 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36559]: The random module now prefers the lean internal _sha512 module over hashlib for seed(version=2) to optimize import time.

bpo-17561 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17561]: Set backlog=None as the default for socket.create_server.

bpo-34373 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34373]: Fix time.mktime() error handling on AIX for year before 1970.

bpo-36232 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36232]: Improve error message when trying to open existing DBM database that actually doesn't exist. Patch by Marco Rougeth.

bpo-36546 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36546]: Add statistics.quantiles()

bpo-36050 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36050]: Optimized http.client.HTTPResponse.read() for large response. Patch by Inada Naoki.

bpo-36522 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36522]: If debuglevel is set to >0 in http.client, print all values for headers with multiple values for the same header name. Patch by Matt Houglum.

bpo-36492 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36492]: Deprecated passing required arguments like func as keyword arguments in functions which should accept arbitrary keyword arguments and pass them to other function. Arbitrary keyword arguments (even with names "self" and "func") can now be passed to these functions if the required arguments are passed as positional arguments.

bpo-27181 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27181]: Add statistics.geometric_mean().

bpo-30427 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30427]: os.path.normcase() relies on os.fspath() to check the type of its argument. Redundant checks have been removed from its posixpath.normcase() and ntpath.normcase() implementations. Patch by Wolfgang Maier.

bpo-36385 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36385]: Stop rejecting IPv4 octets for being ambiguously octal. Leading zeros are ignored, and no longer are assumed to specify octal octets. Octets are always decimal numbers. Octets must still be no more than three digits, including leading zeroes.

bpo-36434 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36434]: Errors during writing to a ZIP file no longer prevent to properly close it.

bpo-36407 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36407]: Fixed wrong indentation writing for CDATA section in xml.dom.minidom. Patch by Vladimir Surjaninov.

bpo-36326 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36326]: inspect.getdoc() can now find docstrings for member objects when __slots__ is a dictionary.

bpo-36366 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36366]: Calling stop() on an unstarted or stopped unittest.mock.patch() object will now return None instead of raising RuntimeError, making the method idempotent. Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

bpo-36348 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36348]: The imap.IMAP4.logout() method no longer ignores silently arbitrary exceptions.

bpo-31904 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904]: Add time module support and fix test_time failures for VxWorks.

bpo-36227 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36227]: Added support for keyword arguments default_namespace and xml_declaration in functions ElementTree.tostring() and ElementTree.tostringlist().

bpo-36004 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36004]: Added new alternate constructors datetime.date.fromisocalendar() and datetime.datetime.fromisocalendar(), which construct date objects from ISO year, week number and weekday; these are the inverse of each class's isocalendar method. Patch by Paul Ganssle.

bpo-35936 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35936]: modulefinder no longer depends on the deprecated imp module, and the initializer for modulefinder.ModuleFinder now has immutable default arguments. Patch by Brandt Bucher.

bpo-35376 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35376]: modulefinder correctly handles modules that have the same name as a bad package. Patch by Brandt Bucher.

bpo-17396 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17396]: modulefinder no longer crashes when encountering syntax errors in followed imports. Patch by Brandt Bucher.

bpo-35934 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35934]: Added create_server() and has_dualstack_ipv6() convenience functions to automate the necessary tasks usually involved when creating a server socket, including accepting both IPv4 and IPv6 connections on the same socket. (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola in bpo-17561 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17561].)

bpo-23078 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23078]: Add support for classmethod() and staticmethod() to unittest.mock.create_autospec(). Initial patch by Felipe Ochoa.

bpo-35416 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35416]: Fix potential resource warnings in distutils. Patch by Mickaël Schoentgen.

bpo-25451 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25451]: Add transparency methods to tkinter.PhotoImage. Patch by Zackery Spytz.

bpo-35082 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35082]: Don't return deleted attributes when calling dir on a unittest.mock.Mock.

bpo-34547 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34547]: wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler now handles abrupt client connection terminations gracefully. Patch by Petter Strandmark.

bpo-31658 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31658]: xml.sax.parse() now supports path-like. Patch by Mickaël Schoentgen.

bpo-34139 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34139]: Remove stale unix datagram socket before binding

bpo-33530 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33530]: Implemented Happy Eyeballs in asyncio.create_connection(). Added two new arguments, happy_eyeballs_delay and interleave, to specify Happy Eyeballs behavior.

bpo-33291 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33291]: Do not raise AttributeError when calling the inspect functions isgeneratorfunction, iscoroutinefunction, isasyncgenfunction on a method created from an arbitrary callable. Instead, return False.

bpo-31310 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31310]: Fix the multiprocessing.semaphore_tracker so it is reused by child processes

bpo-31292 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31292]: Fix setup.py check --restructuredtext for files containing include directives.

Documentation

bpo-36625 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36625]: Remove obsolete comments from docstrings in fractions.Fraction

bpo-30840 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30840]: Document relative imports

bpo-36523 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36523]: Add docstring for io.IOBase.writelines().

bpo-36425 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36425]: New documentation translation: Simplified Chinese [https://docs.python.org/zh-cn/].

bpo-36345 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36345]: Avoid the duplication of code from Tools/scripts/serve.py in using the literalinclude directive for the basic wsgiref-based web server in the documentation of wsgiref. Contributed by Stéphane Wirtel.

bpo-36345 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36345]: Using the code of the Tools/scripts/serve.py script as an example in the wsgiref documentation. Contributed by Stéphane Wirtel.

bpo-36157 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36157]: Added documentation for PyInterpreterState_Main().

bpo-33043 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33043]: Updates the docs.python.org page with the addition of a 'Contributing to Docs' link at the end of the page (between 'Reporting Bugs' and 'About Documentation'). Updates the 'Found a Bug' page with additional links and information in the Documentation Bugs section.

bpo-35581 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35581]: @typing.type_check_only now allows type stubs to mark functions and classes not available during runtime.

bpo-33832 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33832]: Add glossary entry for 'magic method'.

bpo-32913 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32913]: Added re.Match.groupdict example to regex HOWTO.

Tests

bpo-36719 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36719]: regrtest now always detects uncollectable objects. Previously, the check was only enabled by --findleaks. The check now also works with -jN/--multiprocess N. --findleaks becomes a deprecated alias to --fail-env-changed.

bpo-36725 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36725]: When using multiprocessing mode (-jN), regrtest now better reports errors if a worker process fails, and it exits immediately on a worker thread failure or when interrupted.

bpo-36454 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36454]: Change test_time.test_monotonic() to test only the lower bound of elapsed time after a sleep command rather than the upper bound. This prevents unnecessary test failures on slow buildbots. Patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-32424 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32424]: Improve test coverage for xml.etree.ElementTree. Patch by Gordon P. Hemsley.

bpo-32424 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32424]: Fix typo in test_cyclic_gc() test for xml.etree.ElementTree. Patch by Gordon P. Hemsley.

bpo-36635 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36635]: Add a new _testinternalcapi module to test the internal C API.

bpo-36629 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36629]: Fix test_imap4_host_default_value() of test_imaplib: catch also errno.ENETUNREACH error.

bpo-36611 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36611]: Fix test_sys.test_getallocatedblocks() when tracemalloc is enabled.

bpo-36560 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36560]: Fix reference leak hunting in regrtest: compute also deltas (of reference count, allocated memory blocks, file descriptor count) during warmup, to ensure that everything is initialized before starting to hunt reference leaks.

bpo-36565 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36565]: Fix reference hunting (python3 -m test -R 3:3) when Python has no built-in abc module.

bpo-31904 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904]: Port test_resource to VxWorks: skip tests cases setting RLIMIT_FSIZE and RLIMIT_CPU.

bpo-31904 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904]: Fix test_tabnanny on VxWorks: adjust ENOENT error message.

bpo-36436 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36436]: Fix _testcapi.pymem_buffer_overflow(): handle memory allocation failure.

bpo-31904 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904]: Fix test_utf8_mode on VxWorks: Python always use UTF-8 on VxWorks.

bpo-36341 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36341]: Fix tests that may fail with PermissionError upon calling bind() on AF_UNIX sockets.

Build

bpo-36747 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36747]: Remove the stale scriptsinstall Makefile target.

bpo-21536 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21536]: On Unix, C extensions are no longer linked to libpython except on Android and Cygwin.

It is now possible for a statically linked Python to load a C extension built using a shared library Python.

When Python is embedded, libpython must not be loaded with RTLD_LOCAL, but RTLD_GLOBAL instead. Previously, using RTLD_LOCAL, it was already not possible to load C extensions which were not linked to libpython, such as C extensions of the standard library built by the *shared* section of Modules/Setup.

distutils, python-config and python-config.py have been modified.

bpo-36707 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36707]: ./configure --with-pymalloc no longer adds the m flag to SOABI (sys.implementation.cache_tag). Enabling or disabling pymalloc has no impact on the ABI.

bpo-36635 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36635]: Change PyAPI_FUNC(type), PyAPI_DATA(type) and PyMODINIT_FUNC macros of pyport.h when Py_BUILD_CORE_MODULE is defined. The Py_BUILD_CORE_MODULE define must be now be used to build a C extension as a dynamic library accessing Python internals: export the PyInit_xxx() function in DLL exports on Windows.

bpo-31904 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904]: Don't build the _crypt extension on VxWorks.

bpo-36618 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36618]: Add -fmax-type-align=8 to CFLAGS when clang compiler is detected. The pymalloc memory allocator aligns memory on 8 bytes. On x86-64, clang expects alignment on 16 bytes by default and so uses MOVAPS instruction which can lead to segmentation fault. Instruct clang that Python is limited to alignment on 8 bytes to use MOVUPS instruction instead: slower but don't trigger a SIGSEGV if the memory is not aligned on 16 bytes. Sadly, the flag must be added to CFLAGS and not just CFLAGS_NODIST, since third party C extensions can have the same issue.

bpo-36605 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36605]: make tags and make TAGS now also parse Modules/_io/*.c and Modules/_io/*.h.

bpo-36465 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36465]: Release builds and debug builds are now ABI compatible: defining the Py_DEBUG macro no longer implies the Py_TRACE_REFS macro, which introduces the only ABI incompatibility. The Py_TRACE_REFS macro, which adds the sys.getobjects() function and the PYTHONDUMPREFS environment variable, can be set using the new ./configure --with-trace-refs build option.

bpo-36577 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36577]: setup.py now correctly reports missing OpenSSL headers and libraries again.

bpo-36544 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36544]: Fix regression introduced in bpo-36146 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36146] refactoring setup.py

bpo-36508 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36508]: python-config --ldflags no longer includes flags of the LINKFORSHARED variable. The LINKFORSHARED variable must only be used to build executables.

bpo-36503 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36503]: Remove references to "aix3" and "aix4". Patch by M. Felt.

Windows

bpo-35920 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35920]: Added platform.win32_edition() and platform.win32_is_iot(). Added support for cross-compiling packages for Windows ARM32. Skip tests that are not expected to work on Windows IoT Core ARM32.

bpo-36649 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36649]: Remove trailing spaces for registry keys when installed via the Store.

bpo-34144 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34144]: Fixed activate.bat to correctly update codepage when chcp.com returns dots in output. Patch by Lorenz Mende.

bpo-36509 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36509]: Added preset-iot layout for Windows IoT ARM containers. This layout doesn't contain UI components like tkinter or IDLE. It also doesn't contain files to support on-target builds since Windows ARM32 builds must be cross-compiled when using MSVC.

bpo-35941 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35941]: enum_certificates function of the ssl module now returns certificates from all available certificate stores inside windows in a query instead of returning only certificates from the system wide certificate store. This includes certificates from these certificate stores: local machine, local machine enterprise, local machine group policy, current user, current user group policy, services, users. ssl.enum_crls() function is changed in the same way to return all certificate revocation lists inside the windows certificate revocation list stores.

bpo-36441 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36441]: Fixes creating a venv when debug binaries are installed.

bpo-36085 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36085]: Enable better DLL resolution on Windows by using safe DLL search paths and adding os.add_dll_directory().

bpo-36010 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36010]: Add the venv standard library module to the nuget distribution for Windows.

bpo-29515 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29515]: Add the following socket module constants on Windows: IPPROTO_AH IPPROTO_CBT IPPROTO_DSTOPTS IPPROTO_EGP IPPROTO_ESP IPPROTO_FRAGMENT IPPROTO_GGP IPPROTO_HOPOPTS IPPROTO_ICLFXBM IPPROTO_ICMPV6 IPPROTO_IDP IPPROTO_IGMP IPPROTO_IGP IPPROTO_IPV4 IPPROTO_IPV6 IPPROTO_L2TP IPPROTO_MAX IPPROTO_ND IPPROTO_NONE IPPROTO_PGM IPPROTO_PIM IPPROTO_PUP IPPROTO_RDP IPPROTO_ROUTING IPPROTO_SCTP IPPROTO_ST

bpo-35947 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35947]: Added current version of libffi to cpython-source-deps. Change _ctypes to use current version of libffi on Windows.

bpo-34060 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34060]: Report system load when running test suite on Windows. Patch by Ammar Askar. Based on prior work by Jeremy Kloth.

bpo-31512 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31512]: With the Windows 10 Creators Update, non-elevated users can now create symlinks as long as the computer has Developer Mode enabled.

macOS

bpo-34602 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34602]: Avoid failures setting macOS stack resource limit with resource.setrlimit. This reverts an earlier fix for bpo-18075 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18075] which forced a non-default stack size when building the interpreter executable on macOS.

IDLE

bpo-36429 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36429]: Fix starting IDLE with pyshell. Add idlelib.pyshell alias at top; remove pyshell alias at bottom. Remove obsolete __name__=='__main__' command.

Tools/Demos

bpo-14546 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14546]: Fix the argument handling in Tools/scripts/lll.py.

C API

bpo-36763 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36763]: Fix memory leak in Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding(): release memory if the function is called twice.

bpo-36641 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36641]: PyDoc_VAR(name) and PyDoc_STRVAR(name, str) now create static const char name[] instead of static char name[]. Patch by Inada Naoki.

bpo-36389 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36389]: Change the value of CLEANBYTE, DEADDYTE and FORBIDDENBYTE internal constants used by debug hooks on Python memory allocators (PyMem_SetupDebugHooks() function). Byte patterns 0xCB, 0xDB and 0xFB have been replaced with 0xCD, 0xDD and 0xFD to use the same values than Windows CRT debug malloc() and free().

bpo-36443 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36443]: Since Python 3.7.0, calling Py_DecodeLocale() before Py_Initialize() produces mojibake if the LC_CTYPE locale is coerced and/or if the UTF-8 Mode is enabled by the user configuration. The LC_CTYPE coercion and UTF-8 Mode are now disabled by default to fix the mojibake issue. They must now be enabled explicitly (opt-in) using the new _Py_PreInitialize() API with _PyPreConfig.

bpo-36025 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36025]: Fixed an accidental change to the datetime C API where the arguments to the PyDate_FromTimestamp() function were incorrectly interpreted as a single timestamp rather than an arguments tuple, which causes existing code to start raising TypeError. The backwards-incompatible change was only present in alpha releases of Python 3.8. Patch by Paul Ganssle.

bpo-35810 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35810]: Modify PyObject_Init to correctly increase the refcount of heap-allocated Type objects. Also fix the refcounts of the heap-allocated types that were either doing this manually or not decreasing the type's refcount in tp_dealloc

Python 3.8.0 alpha 3

Release date: 2019-03-25

Security

bpo-36216 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36216]: Changes urlsplit() to raise ValueError when the URL contains characters that decompose under IDNA encoding (NFKC-normalization) into characters that affect how the URL is parsed.

bpo-35121 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35121]: Don't send cookies of domain A without Domain attribute to domain B when domain A is a suffix match of domain B while using a cookiejar with http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy policy. Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

Core and Builtins

bpo-36421 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36421]: Fix a possible double decref in _ctypes.c's PyCArrayType_new().

bpo-36412 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36412]: Fix a possible crash when creating a new dictionary.

bpo-36398 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36398]: Fix a possible crash in structseq_repr().

bpo-36256 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36256]: Fix bug in parsermodule when parsing a state in a DFA that has two or more arcs with labels of the same type. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-36365 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36365]: repr(structseq) is no longer limited to 512 bytes.

bpo-36374 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36374]: Fix a possible null pointer dereference in merge_consts_recursive(). Patch by Zackery Spytz.

bpo-36236 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36236]: At Python initialization, the current directory is no longer prepended to sys.path if it has been removed.

bpo-36352 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36352]: Python initialization now fails with an error, rather than silently truncating paths, if a path is too long.

bpo-36301 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36301]: Python initialization now fails if decoding pybuilddir.txt configuration file fails at startup.

bpo-36333 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36333]: Fix leak in _PyRuntimeState_Fini. Contributed by Stéphane Wirtel.

bpo-36332 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36332]: The builtin compile() can now handle AST objects that contain assignment expressions. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-36282 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36282]: Improved error message for too much positional arguments in some builtin functions.

bpo-30040 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30040]: New empty dict uses fewer memory for now. It used more memory than empty dict created by dict.clear(). And empty dict creation and deletion is about 2x faster. Patch by Inada Naoki.

bpo-36262 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36262]: Fix an unlikely memory leak on conversion from string to float in the function _Py_dg_strtod() used by float(str), complex(str), pickle.load(), marshal.load(), etc.

bpo-36252 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36252]: Update Unicode databases to version 12.0.0.

bpo-36218 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36218]: Fix a segfault occurring when sorting a list of heterogeneous values. Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre and Elliot Gorokhovsky.

bpo-36188 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36188]: Cleaned up left-over vestiges of Python 2 unbound method handling in method objects and documentation. Patch by Martijn Pieters

bpo-36124 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36124]: Add a new interpreter-specific dict and expose it in the C-API via PyInterpreterState_GetDict(). This parallels PyThreadState_GetDict(). However, extension modules should continue using PyModule_GetState() for their own internal per-interpreter state.

bpo-35975 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35975]: Add a feature_version flag to ast.parse() (documented) and compile() (hidden) that allows tweaking the parser to support older versions of the grammar. In particular, if feature_version is 5 or 6, the hacks for the async and await keyword from PEP 492 are reinstated. (For 7 or higher, these are unconditionally treated as keywords, but they are still special tokens rather than NAME tokens that the parser driver recognizes.)

bpo-31904 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904]: Use UTF-8 as the system encoding on VxWorks.

bpo-36048 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36048]: The __index__() special method will be used instead of __int__() for implicit conversion of Python numbers to C integers. Using the __int__() method in implicit conversions has been deprecated.

bpo-35808 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35808]: Retire pgen and use a modified version of pgen2 to generate the parser. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

Library

bpo-36401 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36401]: The class documentation created by pydoc now has a separate section for readonly properties.

bpo-36320 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36320]: The typing.NamedTuple() class has deprecated the _field_types attribute in favor of the __annotations__ attribute which carried the same information. Also, both attributes were converted from OrderedDict to a regular dict.

bpo-34745 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34745]: Fix asyncio ssl memory issues caused by circular references

bpo-36324 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36324]: Add method to statistics.NormalDist for computing the inverse cumulative normal distribution.

bpo-36321 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36321]: collections.namedtuple() misspelled the name of an attribute. To be consistent with typing.NamedTuple, the attribute name should have been "_field_defaults" instead of "_fields_defaults". For backwards compatibility, both spellings are now created. The misspelled version may be removed in the future.

bpo-36297 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36297]: "unicode_internal" codec is removed. It was deprecated since Python 3.3. Patch by Inada Naoki.

bpo-36298 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36298]: Raise ModuleNotFoundError in pyclbr when a module can't be found. Thanks to 'mental' for the bug report.

bpo-36268 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36268]: Switch the default format used for writing tars with tarfile to the modern POSIX.1-2001 pax standard, from the vendor-specific GNU. Contributed by C.A.M. Gerlach.

bpo-36285 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36285]: Fix integer overflows in the array module. Patch by Stephan Hohe.

bpo-31904 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904]: Add _signal module support for VxWorks.

bpo-36272 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36272]: logging does not silently ignore RecursionError anymore. Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

bpo-36280 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36280]: Add a kind field to ast.Constant. It is 'u' if the literal has a 'u' prefix (i.e. a Python 2 style unicode literal), else None.

bpo-35931 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35931]: The pdb debug command now gracefully handles all exceptions.

bpo-36251 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36251]: Fix format strings used for stderrprinter and re.Match reprs. Patch by Stephan Hohe.

bpo-36235 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36235]: Fix CFLAGS in customize_compiler() of distutils.sysconfig: when the CFLAGS environment variable is defined, don't override CFLAGS variable with the OPT variable anymore. Initial patch written by David Malcolm.

bpo-35807 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35807]: Update ensurepip to install pip 19.0.3 and setuptools 40.8.0.

bpo-36139 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36139]: Release GIL when closing mmap objects.

bpo-36179 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36179]: Fix two unlikely reference leaks in _hashopenssl. The leaks only occur in out-of-memory cases.

bpo-36169 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36169]: Add overlap() method to statistics.NormalDist. Computes the overlapping coefficient for two normal distributions.

bpo-36103 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36103]: Default buffer size used by shutil.copyfileobj() is changed from 16 KiB to 64 KiB on non-Windows platform to reduce system call overhead. Contributed by Inada Naoki.

bpo-36130 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36130]: Fix pdb with skip=... when stepping into a frame without a __name__ global. Patch by Anthony Sottile.

bpo-35652 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35652]: shutil.copytree(copy_function=...) erroneously pass DirEntry instead of a path string.

bpo-35178 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35178]: Ensure custom warnings.formatwarning() function can receive line as positional argument. Based on patch by Tashrif Billah.

bpo-36106 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36106]: Resolve potential name clash with libm's sinpi(). Patch by Dmitrii Pasechnik.

bpo-36091 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36091]: Clean up reference to async generator in Lib/types. Patch by Henry Chen.

bpo-36043 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36043]: FileCookieJar supports path-like object. Contributed by Stéphane Wirtel

bpo-35899 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35899]: Enum has been fixed to correctly handle empty strings and strings with non-Latin characters (ie. 'α', 'א') without crashing. Original patch contributed by Maxwell. Assisted by Stéphane Wirtel.

bpo-21269 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21269]: Add args and kwargs properties to mock call objects. Contributed by Kumar Akshay.

bpo-30670 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30670]: pprint.pp has been added to pretty-print objects with dictionary keys being sorted with their insertion order by default. Parameter sort_dicts has been added to pprint.pprint, pprint.pformat and pprint.PrettyPrinter. Contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

bpo-35843 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35843]: Implement __getitem__ for _NamespacePath. Patch by Anthony Sottile.

bpo-35802 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35802]: Clean up code which checked presence of os.stat / os.lstat / os.chmod which are always present. Patch by Anthony Sottile.

bpo-35715 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35715]: Librates the return value of a ProcessPoolExecutor _process_worker after it's no longer needed to free memory

bpo-35493 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35493]: Use multiprocessing.connection.wait() instead of polling each 0.2 seconds for worker updates in multiprocessing.Pool. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-35661 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35661]: Store the venv prompt in pyvenv.cfg.

bpo-35121 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35121]: Don't set cookie for a request when the request path is a prefix match of the cookie's path attribute but doesn't end with "/". Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

bpo-21478 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21478]: Calls to a child function created with unittest.mock.create_autospec() should propagate to the parent. Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

bpo-35198 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35198]: Fix C++ extension compilation on AIX

Documentation

bpo-36329 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36329]: Declare the path of the Python binary for the usage of Tools/scripts/serve.py when executing make -C Doc/ serve. Contributed by Stéphane Wirtel

bpo-36138 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36138]: Improve documentation about converting datetime.timedelta to scalars.

bpo-21314 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21314]: A new entry was added to the Core Language Section of the Programming FAQ, which explaines the usage of slash(/) in the signature of a function. Patch by Lysandros Nikolaou

Tests

bpo-36234 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36234]: test_posix.PosixUidGidTests: add tests for invalid uid/gid type (str). Initial patch written by David Malcolm.

bpo-29571 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29571]: Fix test_re.test_locale_flag(): use locale.getpreferredencoding() rather than locale.getlocale() to get the locale encoding. With some locales, locale.getlocale() returns the wrong encoding.

bpo-36123 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36123]: Fix race condition in test_socket.

Build

bpo-36356 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36356]: Fix leaks that led to build failure when configured with address sanitizer.

bpo-36146 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36146]: Add TEST_EXTENSIONS constant to setup.py to allow to not build test extensions like _testcapi.

bpo-36146 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36146]: Fix setup.py on macOS: only add /usr/include/ffi to include directories of _ctypes, not for all extensions.

bpo-31904 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904]: Enable build system to cross-build for VxWorks RTOS.

Windows

bpo-36312 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36312]: Fixed decoders for the following code pages: 50220, 50221, 50222, 50225, 50227, 50229, 57002 through 57011, 65000 and 42.

bpo-36264 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36264]: Don't honor POSIX HOME in os.path.expanduser on windows. Patch by Anthony Sottile.

bpo-24643 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24643]: Fix name collisions due to #define timezone _timezone in PC/pyconfig.h.

IDLE

bpo-36405 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36405]: Use dict unpacking in idlelib.

bpo-36396 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36396]: Remove fgBg param of idlelib.config.GetHighlight(). This param was only used twice and changed the return type.

bpo-36176 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36176]: Fix IDLE autocomplete & calltip popup colors. Prevent conflicts with Linux dark themes (and slightly darken calltip background).

bpo-23205 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23205]: For the grep module, add tests for findfiles, refactor findfiles to be a module-level function, and refactor findfiles to use os.walk.

bpo-23216 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23216]: Add docstrings to IDLE search modules.

bpo-36152 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36152]: Remove colorizer.ColorDelegator.close_when_done and the corresponding argument of .close(). In IDLE, both have always been None or False since 2007.

bpo-32129 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32129]: Avoid blurry IDLE application icon on macOS with Tk 8.6. Patch by Kevin Walzer.

bpo-36096 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36096]: Refactor class variables to instance variables in colorizer.

bpo-30348 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30348]: Increase test coverage of idlelib.autocomplete by 30%. Patch by Louie Lu

Tools/Demos

bpo-35132 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35132]: Fix py-list and py-bt commands of python-gdb.py on gdb7.

bpo-32217 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32217]: Fix freeze script on Windows.

C API

bpo-36381 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36381]: Raise DeprecationWarning when '#' formats are used for building or parsing values without PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN.

bpo-36142 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36142]: The whole coreconfig.h header is now excluded from Py_LIMITED_API. Move functions definitions into a new internal pycore_coreconfig.h header.

Python 3.8.0 alpha 2

Release date: 2019-02-25

Core and Builtins

bpo-36052 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36052]: Raise a SyntaxError when assigning a value to __debug__ with the Assignment Operator. Contributed by Stéphane Wirtel and Pablo Galindo.

bpo-36012 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36012]: Doubled the speed of class variable writes. When a non-dunder attribute was updated, there was an unnecessary call to update slots.

bpo-35942 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35942]: The error message emitted when returning invalid types from __fspath__ in interfaces that allow passing PathLike objects has been improved and now it does explain the origin of the error.

bpo-36016 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36016]: gc.get_objects can now receive an optional parameter indicating a generation to get objects from. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-1054041 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1054041]: When the main interpreter exits due to an uncaught KeyboardInterrupt, the process now exits in the appropriate manner for its parent process to detect that a SIGINT or ^C terminated the process. This allows shells and batch scripts to understand that the user has asked them to stop.

bpo-35992 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35992]: Fix __class_getitem__() not being called on a class with a custom non-subscriptable metaclass.

bpo-35993 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35993]: Fix a crash on fork when using subinterpreters. Contributed by Stéphane Wirtel

bpo-35991 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35991]: Fix a potential double free in Modules/_randommodule.c.

bpo-35961 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35961]: Fix a crash in slice_richcompare(): use strong references rather than stolen references for the two temporary internal tuples.

bpo-35911 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35911]: Enable the creation of cell objects by adding a cell.__new__ method, and expose the type cell in Lib/types.py under the name CellType. Patch by Pierre Glaser.

bpo-12822 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12822]: Use monotonic clock for pthread_cond_timedwait when pthread_condattr_setclock and CLOCK_MONOTONIC are available.

bpo-15248 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15248]: The compiler emits now syntax warnings in the case when a comma is likely missed before tuple or list.

bpo-35886 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35886]: The implementation of PyInterpreterState has been moved into the internal header files (guarded by Py_BUILD_CORE).

bpo-31506 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31506]: Clarify the errors reported when object.__new__ and object.__init__ receive more than one argument. Contributed by Sanyam Khurana.

bpo-35724 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35724]: Signal-handling is now guaranteed to happen relative to the main interpreter.

bpo-33608 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33608]: We added a new internal _Py_AddPendingCall() that operates relative to the provided interpreter. This allows us to use the existing implementation to ask another interpreter to do work that cannot be done in the current interpreter, like decref an object the other interpreter owns. The existing Py_AddPendingCall() only operates relative to the main interpreter.

bpo-33989 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33989]: Fix a possible crash in list.sort() when sorting objects with ob_type->tp_richcompare == NULL. Patch by Zackery Spytz.

Library

bpo-35512 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35512]: unittest.mock.patch.dict() used as a decorator with string target resolves the target during function call instead of during decorator construction. Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

bpo-36018 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36018]: Add statistics.NormalDist, a tool for creating and manipulating normal distributions of random variable. Features a composite class that treats the mean and standard deviation of measurement data as single entity.

bpo-35904 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35904]: Added statistics.fmean() as a faster, floating-point variant of the existing mean() function.

bpo-35918 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35918]: Removed broken has_key method from multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.dict. Contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

bpo-18283 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18283]: Add support for bytes to shutil.which().

bpo-35960 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35960]: Fix dataclasses.field() throwing away empty mapping objects passed as metadata.

bpo-35500 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35500]: Write expected and actual call parameters on separate lines in unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called_with() assertion errors. Contributed by Susan Su.

bpo-35931 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35931]: The pdb debug command now gracefully handles syntax errors.

bpo-24209 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24209]: In http.server script, rely on getaddrinfo to bind to preferred address based on the bind parameter. Now default bind or binding to a name may bind to IPv6 or dual-stack, depending on the environment.

bpo-35321 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35321]: Set __spec__.origin of _frozen_importlib to frozen so that it matches the behavior of _frozen_importlib_external. Patch by Nina Zakharenko.

bpo-35378 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35378]: Fix a reference issue inside multiprocessing.Pool that caused the pool to remain alive if it was deleted without being closed or terminated explicitly. A new strong reference is added to the pool iterators to link the lifetime of the pool to the lifetime of its iterators so the pool does not get destroyed if a pool iterator is still alive.

bpo-34294 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34294]: re module, fix wrong capturing groups in rare cases. re.search(), re.findall(), re.sub() and other functions that scan through string looking for a match, should reset capturing groups between two match attempts. Patch by Ma Lin.

bpo-35615 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35615]: weakref: Fix a RuntimeError when copying a WeakKeyDictionary or a WeakValueDictionary, due to some keys or values disappearing while iterating.

bpo-35606 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35606]: Implement math.prod() as analogous function to sum() that returns the product of a 'start' value (default: 1) times an iterable of numbers. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-32417 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32417]: Performing arithmetic between datetime.datetime subclasses and datetime.timedelta now returns an object of the same type as the datetime.datetime subclass. As a result, datetime.datetime.astimezone() and alternate constructors like datetime.datetime.now() and datetime.fromtimestamp() called with a tz argument now also retain their subclass.

bpo-35153 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35153]: Add headers optional keyword-only parameter to xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy, xmlrpc.client.Transport and xmlrpc.client.SafeTransport. Patch by Cédric Krier.

bpo-34572 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34572]: Fix C implementation of pickle.loads to use importlib's locking mechanisms, and thereby avoid using partially loaded modules. Patch by Tim Burgess.

Documentation

bpo-36083 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36083]: Fix formatting of --check-hash-based-pycs options in the manpage Synopsis.

bpo-36007 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36007]: Bump minimum sphinx version to 1.8. Patch by Anthony Sottile.

bpo-22062 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22062]: Update documentation and docstrings for pathlib. Original patch by Mike Short.

Tests

bpo-27313 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27313]: Avoid test_ttk_guionly ComboboxTest failure with macOS Cocoa Tk.

bpo-36019 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36019]: Add test.support.TEST_HTTP_URL and replace references of http://www.example.com by this new constant. Contributed by Stéphane Wirtel.

bpo-36037 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36037]: Fix test_ssl for strict OpenSSL configuration like RHEL8 strict crypto policy. Use older TLS version for minimum TLS version of the server SSL context if needed, to test TLS version older than default minimum TLS version.

bpo-35798 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35798]: Added test.support.check_syntax_warning().

bpo-35505 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35505]: Make test_imap4_host_default_value independent on whether the local IMAP server is running.

bpo-35917 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35917]: multiprocessing: provide unit tests for SyncManager and SharedMemoryManager classes + all the shareable types which are supposed to be supported by them. (patch by Giampaolo Rodola)

bpo-35704 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35704]: Skip test_shutil.test_unpack_archive_xztar to prevent a MemoryError on 32-bit AIX when MAXDATA setting is less than 0x20000000.

Patch by Michael Felt (aixtools)

bpo-34720 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34720]: Assert m_state != NULL to mimic GC traversal functions that do not correctly handle module creation when the module state has not been created.

Windows

bpo-35976 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35976]: Added ARM build support to Windows build files in PCBuild.

bpo-35692 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35692]: pathlib no longer raises when checking file and directory existence on drives that are not ready

bpo-35872 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35872]: Uses the base Python executable when invoking venv in a virtual environment

bpo-35873 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35873]: Prevents venv paths being inherited by child processes

bpo-35299 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35299]: Fix sysconfig detection of the source directory and distutils handling of pyconfig.h during PGO profiling

IDLE

bpo-24310 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24310]: IDLE -- Document settings dialog font tab sample.

bpo-35833 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35833]: Revise IDLE doc for control codes sent to Shell. Add a code example block.

bpo-35689 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35689]: Add docstrings and unittests for colorizer.py.

Python 3.8.0 alpha 1

Release date: 2019-02-03

Security

bpo-35746 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35746]: CVE 2019-5010 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2019-5010]: Fix a NULL pointer deref in ssl module. The cert parser did not handle CRL distribution points with empty DP or URI correctly. A malicious or buggy certificate can result into segfault. Vulnerability (TALOS-2018-0758) reported by Colin Read and Nicolas Edet of Cisco.

bpo-34812 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34812]: The -I command line option (run Python in isolated mode) is now also copied by the multiprocessing and distutils modules when spawning child processes. Previously, only -E and -s options (enabled by -I) were copied.

bpo-34791 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34791]: The xml.sax and xml.dom.domreg no longer use environment variables to override parser implementations when sys.flags.ignore_environment is set by -E or -I arguments.

bpo-17239 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17239]: The xml.sax and xml.dom.minidom parsers no longer processes external entities by default. External DTD and ENTITY declarations no longer load files or create network connections.

bpo-34623 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34623]: CVE 2018-14647 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-14647]: The C accelerated _elementtree module now initializes hash randomization salt from _Py_HashSecret instead of libexpat's default CSPRNG.

bpo-34405 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34405]: Updated to OpenSSL 1.1.0i for Windows builds.

bpo-33871 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33871]: Fixed sending the part of the file in os.sendfile() on macOS. Using the trailers argument could cause sending more bytes from the input file than was specified.

bpo-32533 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32533]: Fixed thread-safety of error handling in _ssl.

bpo-33136 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33136]: Harden ssl module against LibreSSL CVE 2018-8970 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-8970]. X509_VERIFY_PARAM_set1_host() is called with an explicit namelen. A new test ensures that NULL bytes are not allowed.

bpo-33001 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33001]: Minimal fix to prevent buffer overrun in os.symlink on Windows

bpo-32981 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32981]: Regexes in difflib and poplib were vulnerable to catastrophic backtracking. These regexes formed potential DOS vectors (REDOS). They have been refactored. This resolves CVE 2018-1060 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-1060] and CVE 2018-1061 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-1061]. Patch by Jamie Davis.

bpo-28414 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28414]: The ssl module now allows users to perform their own IDN en/decoding when using SNI.

Core and Builtins

bpo-35877 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35877]: Make parenthesis optional for named expressions in while statement. Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

bpo-35814 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35814]: Allow same right hand side expressions in annotated assignments as in normal ones. In particular, x: Tuple[int, int] = 1, 2 (without parentheses on the right) is now allowed.

bpo-35766 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35766]: Add the option to parse PEP 484 type comments in the ast module. (Off by default.) This is merging the key functionality of the third party fork thereof, [typed_ast](https://github.com/python/typed_ast).

bpo-35713 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35713]: Reorganize Python initialization to get working exceptions and sys.stderr earlier.

bpo-33416 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33416]: Add end line and end column position information to the Python AST nodes. This is a C-level backwards incompatible change.

bpo-35720 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35720]: Fixed a minor memory leak in pymain_parse_cmdline_impl function in Modules/main.c

bpo-35634 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35634]: func(**kwargs) will now raise an error when kwargs is a mapping containing multiple entries with the same key. An error was already raised when other keyword arguments are passed before **kwargs since Python 3.6.

bpo-35623 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35623]: Fix a crash when sorting very long lists. Patch by Stephan Hohe.

bpo-35214 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35214]: clang Memory Sanitizer build instrumentation was added to work around false positives from posix, socket, time, test_io, and test_faulthandler.

bpo-35560 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35560]: Fix an assertion error in format() in debug build for floating-point formatting with "n" format, zero padding and small width. Release build is not impacted. Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

bpo-35552 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35552]: Format characters %s and %V in PyUnicode_FromFormat() and %s in PyBytes_FromFormat() no longer read memory past the limit if precision is specified.

bpo-35504 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35504]: Fix segfaults and SystemErrors when deleting certain attributes. Patch by Zackery Spytz.

bpo-35504 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35504]: Fixed a SystemError when delete the characters_written attribute of an OSError.

bpo-35494 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35494]: Improved syntax error messages for unbalanced parentheses in f-string.

bpo-35444 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35444]: Fixed error handling in pickling methods when fail to look up builtin "getattr". Sped up pickling iterators.

bpo-35436 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35436]: Fix various issues with memory allocation error handling. Patch by Zackery Spytz.

bpo-35423 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35423]: Separate the signal handling trigger in the eval loop from the "pending calls" machinery. There is no semantic change and the difference in performance is insignificant.

bpo-35357 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35357]: Internal attributes' names of unittest.mock._Call and unittest.mock.MagicProxy (name, parent & from_kall) are now prefixed with _mock_ in order to prevent clashes with widely used object attributes. Fixed minor typo in test function name.

bpo-35372 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35372]: Fixed the code page decoder for input longer than 2 GiB containing undecodable bytes.

bpo-35336 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35336]: Fix PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE=1 environment variable: only coerce the C locale if the LC_CTYPE locale is "C".

bpo-31241 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31241]: The lineno and col_offset attributes of AST nodes for list comprehensions, generator expressions and tuples are now point to the opening parenthesis or square brace. For tuples without parenthesis they point to the position of the first item.

bpo-33954 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33954]: For str.format(), float.__format__() and complex.__format__() methods for non-ASCII decimal point when using the "n" formatter.

bpo-35269 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35269]: Fix a possible segfault involving a newly created coroutine. Patch by Zackery Spytz.

bpo-35224 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35224]: Implement PEP 572 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/] (assignment expressions). Patch by Emily Morehouse.

bpo-32492 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32492]: Speed up namedtuple() attribute access by 1.6x using a C fast-path for the name descriptors. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-35214 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35214]: Fixed an out of bounds memory access when parsing a truncated unicode escape sequence at the end of a string such as '\N'. It would read one byte beyond the end of the memory allocation.

bpo-35214 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35214]: The interpreter and extension modules have had annotations added so that they work properly under clang's Memory Sanitizer. A new configure flag --with-memory-sanitizer has been added to make test builds of this nature easier to perform.

bpo-35193 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35193]: Fix an off by one error in the bytecode peephole optimizer where it could read bytes beyond the end of bounds of an array when removing unreachable code. This bug was present in every release of Python 3.6 and 3.7 until now.

bpo-35169 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35169]: Improved error messages for forbidden assignments.

bpo-34022 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34022]: Fix handling of hash-based bytecode files in zipimport. Patch by Elvis Pranskevichus.

bpo-28401 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28401]: Debug builds will no longer to attempt to import extension modules built for the ABI as they were never compatible to begin with. Patch by Stefano Rivera.

bpo-29341 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29341]: Clarify in the docstrings of os methods that path-like objects are also accepted as input parameters.

bpo-35050 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35050]: socket: Fix off-by-one bug in length check for AF_ALG name and type.

bpo-29743 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29743]: Raise ValueError instead of OverflowError in case of a negative _length_ in a ctypes.Array subclass. Also raise TypeError instead of AttributeError for non-integer _length_. Original patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-16806 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16806]: Fix lineno and col_offset for multi-line string tokens.

bpo-35029 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35029]: SyntaxWarning raised as an exception at code generation time will be now replaced with a SyntaxError for better error reporting.

bpo-34983 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34983]: Expose symtable.Symbol.is_nonlocal() in the symtable module. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-34974 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34974]: bytes and bytearray constructors no longer convert unexpected exceptions (e.g. MemoryError and KeyboardInterrupt) to TypeError.

bpo-34939 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34939]: Allow annotated names in module namespace that are declared global before the annotation happens. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-34973 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34973]: Fixed crash in bytes() when the list argument is mutated while it is iterated.

bpo-34876 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34876]: The lineno and col_offset attributes of the AST for decorated function and class refer now to the position of the corresponding def, async def and class instead of the position of the first decorator. This leads to more correct line reporting in tracing. This is the only case when the position of child AST nodes can precede the position of the parent AST node.

bpo-34879 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34879]: Fix a possible null pointer dereference in bytesobject.c. Patch by Zackery Spytz.

bpo-34784 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34784]: Fix the implementation of PyStructSequence_NewType in order to create heap allocated StructSequences.

bpo-32912 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32912]: A SyntaxWarning is now emitted instead of a DeprecationWarning for invalid escape sequences in string and bytes literals.

bpo-34854 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34854]: Fixed a crash in compiling string annotations containing a lambda with a keyword-only argument that doesn't have a default value.

bpo-34850 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34850]: The compiler now produces a SyntaxWarning when identity checks (is and is not) are used with certain types of literals (e.g. strings, ints). These can often work by accident in CPython, but are not guaranteed by the language spec. The warning advises users to use equality tests (== and !=) instead.

bpo-34824 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34824]: Fix a possible null pointer dereference in Modules/_ssl.c. Patch by Zackery Spytz.

bpo-30156 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30156]: The C function property_descr_get() uses a "cached" tuple to optimize function calls. But this tuple can be discovered in debug mode with sys.getobjects(). Remove the optimization, it's not really worth it and it causes 3 different crashes last years.

bpo-34762 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34762]: Fix contextvars C API to use PyObject* pointer types.

bpo-34751 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34751]: The hash function for tuples is now based on xxHash which gives better collision results on (formerly) pathological cases. Additionally, on 64-bit systems it improves tuple hashes in general. Patch by Jeroen Demeyer with substantial contributions by Tim Peters.

bpo-34735 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34735]: Fix a memory leak in Modules/timemodule.c. Patch by Zackery Spytz.

bpo-34683 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34683]: Fixed a bug where some SyntaxError error pointed to locations that were off-by-one.

bpo-34651 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34651]: Only allow the main interpreter to fork. The avoids the possibility of affecting the main interpreter, which is critical to operation of the runtime.

bpo-34653 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34653]: Remove unused function PyParser_SimpleParseStringFilename.

bpo-32236 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32236]: Warn that line buffering is not supported if open() is called with binary mode and buffering=1.

bpo-34641 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34641]: Further restrict the syntax of the left-hand side of keyword arguments in function calls. In particular, f((keyword)=arg) is now disallowed.

bpo-34637 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34637]: Make the start argument to sum() visible as a keyword argument.

bpo-1621 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1621]: Do not assume signed integer overflow behavior (C undefined behavior) when performing set hash table resizing.

bpo-34588 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34588]: Fix an off-by-one in the recursive call pruning feature of traceback formatting.

bpo-34485 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34485]: On Windows, the LC_CTYPE is now set to the user preferred locale at startup. Previously, the LC_CTYPE locale was "C" at startup, but changed when calling setlocale(LC_CTYPE, "") or setlocale(LC_ALL, "").

bpo-34485 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34485]: Standard streams like sys.stdout now use the "surrogateescape" error handler, instead of "strict", on the POSIX locale (when the C locale is not coerced and the UTF-8 Mode is disabled).

bpo-34485 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34485]: Fix the error handler of standard streams like sys.stdout: PYTHONIOENCODING=":" is now ignored instead of setting the error handler to "strict".

bpo-34485 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34485]: Python now gets the locale encoding with C code to initialize the encoding of standard streams like sys.stdout. Moreover, the encoding is now initialized to the Python codec name to get a normalized encoding name and to ensure that the codec is loaded. The change avoids importing _bootlocale and _locale modules at startup by default.

bpo-34527 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34527]: On FreeBSD, Py_DecodeLocale() and Py_EncodeLocale() now also forces the ASCII encoding if the LC_CTYPE locale is "POSIX", not only if the LC_CTYPE locale is "C".

bpo-34527 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34527]: The UTF-8 Mode is now also enabled by the "POSIX" locale, not only by the "C" locale.

bpo-34403 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34403]: On HP-UX with C or POSIX locale, sys.getfilesystemencoding() now returns "ascii" instead of "roman8" (when the UTF-8 Mode is disabled and the C locale is not coerced).

bpo-34523 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34523]: The Python filesystem encoding is now read earlier during the Python initialization.

bpo-12458 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12458]: Tracebacks show now correct line number for subexpressions in multiline expressions. Tracebacks show now the line number of the first line for multiline expressions instead of the line number of the last subexpression.

bpo-34408 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34408]: Prevent a null pointer dereference and resource leakage in PyInterpreterState_New().

bpo-34400 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34400]: Fix undefined behavior in parsetok.c. Patch by Zackery Spytz.

bpo-33073 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33073]: Added as_integer_ratio to ints to make them more interoperable with floats.

bpo-34377 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34377]: Update valgrind suppression list to use _PyObject_Free/_PyObject_Realloc instead of PyObject_Free/PyObject_Realloc.

bpo-34353 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34353]: Added the "socket" option in the stat.filemode() Python implementation to match the C implementation.

bpo-34320 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34320]: Fix dict(od) didn't copy iteration order of OrderedDict.

bpo-34113 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34113]: Fixed crash on debug builds when opcode stack was adjusted with negative numbers. Patch by Constantin Petrisor.

bpo-34100 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34100]: Compiler now merges constants in tuples and frozensets recursively. Code attributes like co_names are merged too.

bpo-34151 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34151]: Performance of list concatenation, repetition and slicing operations is slightly improved. Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

bpo-34170 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34170]: -X dev: it is now possible to override the memory allocator using PYTHONMALLOC even if the developer mode is enabled.

bpo-33237 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33237]: Improved AttributeError message for partially initialized module.

bpo-34149 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34149]: Fix min and max functions to get default behavior when key is None.

bpo-34125 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34125]: Profiling of unbound built-in methods now works when **kwargs is given.

bpo-34141 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34141]: Optimized pickling atomic types (None, bool, int, float, bytes, str).

bpo-34126 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34126]: Fix crashes when profiling certain invalid calls of unbound methods. Patch by Jeroen Demeyer.

bpo-24618 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24618]: Fixed reading invalid memory when create the code object with too small varnames tuple or too large argument counts.

bpo-34068 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34068]: In io.IOBase.close(), ensure that the closed attribute is not set with a live exception. Patch by Zackery Spytz and Serhiy Storchaka.

bpo-34087 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34087]: Fix buffer overflow while converting unicode to numeric values.

bpo-34080 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34080]: Fixed a memory leak in the compiler when it raised some uncommon errors during tokenizing.

bpo-34066 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34066]: Disabled interruption by Ctrl-C between calling open() and entering a with block in with open().

bpo-34042 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34042]: Fix dict.copy() to maintain correct total refcount (as reported by sys.gettotalrefcount()).

bpo-33418 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33418]: Fix potential memory leak in function object when it creates reference cycle.

bpo-33985 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33985]: Implement contextvars.ContextVar.name attribute.

bpo-33956 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33956]: Update vendored Expat library copy to version 2.2.5.

bpo-24596 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24596]: Decref the module object in PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags() before calling PyErr_Print(). Patch by Zackery Spytz.

bpo-33451 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33451]: Close directly executed pyc files before calling PyEval_EvalCode().

bpo-1617161 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1617161]: The hash of BuiltinMethodType instances (methods of built-in classes) now depends on the hash of the identity of __self__ instead of its value. The hash and equality of ModuleType and MethodWrapperType instances (methods of user-defined classes and some methods of built-in classes like str.__add__) now depend on the hash and equality of the identity of __self__ instead of its value. MethodWrapperType instances no longer support ordering.

bpo-33824 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33824]: Fix "LC_ALL=C python3.7 -V": reset properly the command line parser when the encoding changes after reading the Python configuration.

bpo-33803 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33803]: Fix a crash in hamt.c caused by enabling GC tracking for an object that hadn't all of its fields set to NULL.

bpo-33738 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33738]: Seven macro incompatibilities with the Limited API were fixed, and the macros PyIter_Check(), PyIndex_Check() and PyExceptionClass_Name() were added as functions. A script for automatic macro checks was added.

bpo-33786 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33786]: Fix asynchronous generators to handle GeneratorExit in athrow() correctly

bpo-30167 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30167]: PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags removes __cached__ from module in addition to __file__.

bpo-33706 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33706]: Fix a crash in Python initialization when parsing the command line options. Thanks Christoph Gohlke for the bug report and the fix!

bpo-33597 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33597]: Reduce PyGC_Head size from 3 words to 2 words.

bpo-30654 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30654]: Fixed reset of the SIGINT handler to SIG_DFL on interpreter shutdown even when there was a custom handler set previously. Patch by Philipp Kerling.

bpo-33622 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33622]: Fixed a leak when the garbage collector fails to add an object with the __del__ method or referenced by it into the gc.garbage list. PyGC_Collect() can now be called when an exception is set and preserves it.

bpo-33462 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33462]: Make dict and dict views reversible. Patch by Rémi Lapeyre.

bpo-23722 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23722]: A RuntimeError is now raised when the custom metaclass doesn't provide the __classcell__ entry in the namespace passed to type.__new__. A DeprecationWarning was emitted in Python 3.6--3.7.

bpo-33499 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33499]: Add PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX environment variable and -X pycache_prefix command-line option to set an alternate root directory for writing module bytecode cache files.

bpo-25711 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25711]: The zipimport module has been rewritten in pure Python.

bpo-33509 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33509]: Fix module_globals parameter of warnings.warn_explicit(): don't crash if module_globals is not a dict.

bpo-31849 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31849]: Fix signed/unsigned comparison warning in pyhash.c.

bpo-33475 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33475]: Fixed miscellaneous bugs in converting annotations to strings and optimized parentheses in the string representation.

bpo-20104 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20104]: Added support for the setpgroup, resetids, setsigmask, setsigdef and scheduler parameters of posix_spawn. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-33391 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33391]: Fix a leak in set_symmetric_difference().

bpo-33363 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33363]: Raise a SyntaxError for async with and async for statements outside of async functions.

bpo-28055 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28055]: Fix unaligned accesses in siphash24(). Patch by Rolf Eike Beer.

bpo-33128 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33128]: Fix a bug that causes PathFinder to appear twice on sys.meta_path. Patch by Pablo Galindo Salgado.

bpo-33331 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33331]: Modules imported last are now cleared first at interpreter shutdown.

bpo-33312 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33312]: Fixed clang ubsan (undefined behavior sanitizer) warnings in dictobject.c by adjusting how the internal struct _dictkeysobject shared keys structure is declared.

bpo-33305 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33305]: Improved syntax error messages for invalid numerical literals.

bpo-33306 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33306]: Improved syntax error messages for unbalanced parentheses.

bpo-33234 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33234]: The list constructor will pre-size and not over-allocate when the input length is known.

bpo-33270 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33270]: Intern the names for all anonymous code objects. Patch by Zackery Spytz.

bpo-30455 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30455]: The C and Python code and the documentation related to tokens are now generated from a single source file Grammar/Tokens.

bpo-33176 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33176]: Add a toreadonly() method to memoryviews.

bpo-33231 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33231]: Fix potential memory leak in normalizestring().

bpo-33205 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33205]: Change dict growth function from round_up_to_power_2(used*2+hashtable_size/2) to round_up_to_power_2(used*3). Previously, dict is shrunk only when used == 0. Now dict has more chance to be shrunk.

bpo-29922 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29922]: Improved error messages in 'async with' when __aenter__() or __aexit__() return non-awaitable object.

bpo-33199 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33199]: Fix ma_version_tag in dict implementation is uninitialized when copying from key-sharing dict.

bpo-33053 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33053]: When using the -m switch, sys.path[0] is now explicitly expanded as the starting working directory, rather than being left as the empty path (which allows imports from the current working directory at the time of the import)

bpo-33138 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33138]: Changed standard error message for non-pickleable and non-copyable types. It now says "cannot pickle" instead of "can't pickle" or "cannot serialize".

bpo-33018 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33018]: Improve consistency of errors raised by issubclass() when called with a non-class and an abstract base class as the first and second arguments, respectively. Patch by Josh Bronson.

bpo-33083 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33083]: math.factorial no longer accepts arguments that are not int-like. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-33041 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33041]: Added new opcode END_ASYNC_FOR and fixes the following issues:

Setting global StopAsyncIteration no longer breaks async for loops.

Jumping into an async for loop is now disabled.

Jumping out of an async for loop no longer corrupts the stack.

bpo-25750 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25750]: Fix rare Python crash due to bad refcounting in type_getattro() if a descriptor deletes itself from the class. Patch by Jeroen Demeyer.

bpo-33041 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33041]: Fixed bytecode generation for "async for" with a complex target. A StopAsyncIteration raised on assigning or unpacking will be now propagated instead of stopping the iteration.

bpo-33026 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33026]: Fixed jumping out of "with" block by setting f_lineno.

bpo-33005 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33005]: Fix a crash on fork when using a custom memory allocator (ex: using PYTHONMALLOC env var). _PyGILState_Reinit() and _PyInterpreterState_Enable() now use the default RAW memory allocator to allocate a new interpreters mutex on fork.

bpo-32911 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32911]: Due to unexpected compatibility issues discovered during downstream beta testing, reverted bpo-29463 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29463]. docstring field is removed from Module, ClassDef, FunctionDef, and AsyncFunctionDef ast nodes which was added in 3.7a1. Docstring expression is restored as a first statement in their body. Based on patch by Inada Naoki.

bpo-17288 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17288]: Prevent jumps from 'return' and 'exception' trace events.

bpo-32946 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32946]: Importing names from already imported module with "from ... import ..." is now 30% faster if the module is not a package.

bpo-32932 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32932]: Make error message more revealing when there are non-str objects in __all__.

bpo-32925 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32925]: Optimized iterating and containing test for literal lists consisting of non-constants: x in [a, b] and for x in [a, b]. The case of all constant elements already was optimized.

bpo-32889 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32889]: Update Valgrind suppression list to account for the rename of Py_ADDRESS_IN_RANG to address_in_range.

bpo-32836 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32836]: Don't use temporary variables in cases of list/dict/set comprehensions

bpo-31356 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31356]: Remove the new API added in bpo-31356 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31356] (gc.ensure_disabled() context manager).

bpo-32305 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32305]: For namespace packages, ensure that both __file__ and __spec__.origin are set to None.

bpo-32303 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32303]: Make sure __spec__.loader matches __loader__ for namespace packages.

bpo-32711 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32711]: Fix the warning messages for Python/ast_unparse.c. Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

bpo-32583 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32583]: Fix possible crashing in builtin Unicode decoders caused by write out-of-bound errors when using customized decode error handlers.

bpo-32489 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32489]: A continue statement is now allowed in the finally clause.

bpo-17611 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17611]: Simplified the interpreter loop by moving the logic of unrolling the stack of blocks into the compiler. The compiler emits now explicit instructions for adjusting the stack of values and calling the cleaning up code for break, continue and return.

Removed opcodes BREAK_LOOP, CONTINUE_LOOP, SETUP_LOOP and SETUP_EXCEPT. Added new opcodes ROT_FOUR, BEGIN_FINALLY and CALL_FINALLY and POP_FINALLY. Changed the behavior of END_FINALLY and WITH_CLEANUP_START.

bpo-32285 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32285]: New function unicodedata.is_normalized, which can check whether a string is in a specific normal form.

bpo-10544 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10544]: Yield expressions are now disallowed in comprehensions and generator expressions except the expression for the outermost iterable.

bpo-32117 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32117]: Iterable unpacking is now allowed without parentheses in yield and return statements, e.g. yield 1, 2, 3, *rest. Thanks to David Cuthbert for the change and Jordan Chapman for added tests.

bpo-31902 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31902]: Fix the col_offset attribute for ast nodes ast.AsyncFor, ast.AsyncFunctionDef, and ast.AsyncWith. Previously, col_offset pointed to the keyword after async.

bpo-25862 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25862]: Fix assertion failures in the tell() method of io.TextIOWrapper. Patch by Zackery Spytz.

bpo-21983 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21983]: Fix a crash in ctypes.cast() in case the type argument is a ctypes structured data type. Patch by Eryk Sun and Oren Milman.

bpo-31577 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31577]: Fix a crash in os.utime() in case of a bad ns argument. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-29832 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29832]: Remove references to 'getsockaddrarg' from various socket error messages. Patch by Oren Milman.

Library

bpo-35845 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35845]: Add 'order' parameter to memoryview.tobytes().

bpo-35864 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35864]: The _asdict() method for collections.namedtuple now returns a regular dict instead of an OrderedDict.

bpo-35537 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35537]: An ExitStack is now used internally within subprocess.Popen to clean up pipe file handles. No behavior change in normal operation. But if closing one handle were ever to cause an exception, the others will now be closed instead of leaked. (patch by Giampaolo Rodola)

bpo-35847 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35847]: RISC-V needed the CTYPES_PASS_BY_REF_HACK. Fixes ctypes Structure test_pass_by_value.

bpo-35813 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35813]: Shared memory submodule added to multiprocessing to avoid need for serialization between processes

bpo-35780 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35780]: Fix lru_cache() errors arising in recursive, reentrant, or multi-threaded code. These errors could result in orphan links and in the cache being trapped in a state with fewer than the specified maximum number of links. Fix handling of negative maxsize which should have been treated as zero. Fix errors in toggling the "full" status flag. Fix misordering of links when errors are encountered. Sync-up the C code and pure Python code for the space saving path in functions with a single positional argument. In this common case, the space overhead of an lru cache entry is reduced by almost half. Fix counting of cache misses. In error cases, the miss count was out of sync with the actual number of times the underlying user function was called.

bpo-35537 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35537]: os.posix_spawn() and os.posix_spawnp() now have a setsid parameter.

bpo-23846 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23846]: asyncio.ProactorEventLoop now catches and logs send errors when the self-pipe is full.

bpo-34323 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34323]: asyncio: Enhance IocpProactor.close() log: wait 1 second before the first log, then log every second. Log also the number of seconds since close() was called.

bpo-35674 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35674]: Add a new os.posix_spawnp() function. Patch by Joannah Nanjekye.

bpo-35733 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35733]: ast.Constant(boolean) no longer an instance of ast.Num. Patch by Anthony Sottile.

bpo-35726 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35726]: QueueHandler.prepare() now makes a copy of the record before modifying and enqueueing it, to avoid affecting other handlers in the chain.

bpo-35719 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35719]: Sped up multi-argument math functions atan2(), copysign(), remainder() and hypot() by 1.3--2.5 times.

bpo-35717 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35717]: Fix KeyError exception raised when using enums and compile. Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

bpo-35699 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35699]: Fixed detection of Visual Studio Build Tools 2017 in distutils

bpo-32710 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32710]: Fix memory leaks in asyncio ProactorEventLoop on overlapped operation failure.

bpo-35702 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35702]: The time.CLOCK_UPTIME_RAW constant is now available for macOS 10.12.

bpo-32710 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32710]: Fix a memory leak in asyncio in the ProactorEventLoop when ReadFile() or WSASend() overlapped operation fail immediately: release the internal buffer.

bpo-35682 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35682]: Fix asyncio.ProactorEventLoop.sendfile(): don't attempt to set the result of an internal future if it's already done.

bpo-35283 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35283]: Add a deprecated warning for the threading.Thread.isAlive() method. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-35664 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35664]: Improve operator.itemgetter() performance by 33% with optimized argument handling and with adding a fast path for the common case of a single non-negative integer index into a tuple (which is the typical use case in the standard library).

bpo-35643 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35643]: Fixed a SyntaxWarning: invalid escape sequence in Modules/_sha3/cleanup.py. Patch by Mickaël Schoentgen.

bpo-35619 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35619]: Improved support of custom data descriptors in help() and pydoc.

bpo-28503 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28503]: The crypt module now internally uses the crypt_r() library function instead of crypt() when available.

bpo-35614 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35614]: Fixed help() on metaclasses. Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

bpo-35568 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35568]: Expose raise(signum) as raise_signal

bpo-35588 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35588]: The floor division and modulo operations and the divmod() function on fractions.Fraction types are 2--4x faster. Patch by Stefan Behnel.

bpo-35585 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35585]: Speed-up building enums by value, e.g. http.HTTPStatus(200).

bpo-30561 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30561]: random.gammavariate(1.0, beta) now computes the same result as random.expovariate(1.0 / beta). This synchronizes the two algorithms and eliminates some idiosyncrasies in the old implementation. It does however produce a difference stream of random variables than it used to.

bpo-35537 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35537]: The subprocess module can now use the os.posix_spawn() function in some cases for better performance.

bpo-35526 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35526]: Delaying the 'joke' of barry_as_FLUFL.mandatory to Python version 4.0

bpo-35523 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35523]: Remove ctypes callback workaround: no longer create a callback at startup. Avoid SELinux alert on import ctypes and import uuid.

bpo-31784 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31784]: uuid.uuid1() now calls time.time_ns() rather than int(time.time() * 1e9).

bpo-35513 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35513]: TextTestRunner of unittest.runner now uses time.perf_counter() rather than time.time() to measure the execution time of a test: time.time() can go backwards, whereas time.perf_counter() is monotonic.

bpo-35502 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35502]: Fixed reference leaks in xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder in case of unfinished building of the tree (in particular when an error was raised during parsing XML).

bpo-35348 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35348]: Make platform.architecture() parsing of file command output more reliable: add the -b option to the file command to omit the filename, force the usage of the C locale, and search also the "shared object" pattern.

bpo-35491 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35491]: multiprocessing: Add Pool.__repr__() and enhance BaseProcess.__repr__() (add pid and parent pid) to ease debugging. Pool state constant values are now strings instead of integers, for example RUN value becomes 'RUN' instead of 0.

bpo-35477 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35477]: multiprocessing.Pool.__enter__() now fails if the pool is not running: with pool: fails if used more than once.

bpo-31446 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31446]: Copy command line that was passed to CreateProcessW since this function can change the content of the input buffer.

bpo-35471 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35471]: Python 2.4 dropped MacOS 9 support. The macpath module was deprecated in Python 3.7. The module is now removed.

bpo-23057 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23057]: Unblock Proactor event loop when keyboard interrupt is received on Windows

bpo-35052 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35052]: Fix xml.dom.minidom cloneNode() on a document with an entity: pass the correct arguments to the user data handler of an entity.

bpo-20239 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20239]: Allow repeated assignment deletion of unittest.mock.Mock attributes. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-17185 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17185]: Set __signature__ on mock for inspect to get signature. Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

bpo-35445 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35445]: Memory errors during creating posix.environ no longer ignored.

bpo-35415 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35415]: Validate fileno= argument to socket.socket().

bpo-35424 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35424]: multiprocessing.Pool destructor now emits ResourceWarning if the pool is still running.

bpo-35330 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35330]: When a Mock instance was used to wrap an object, if side_effect is used in one of the mocks of it methods, don't call the original implementation and return the result of using the side effect the same way that it is done with return_value.

bpo-35346 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35346]: Drop Mac OS 9 and Rhapsody support from the platform module. Rhapsody last release was in 2000. Mac OS 9 last release was in 2001.

bpo-10496 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10496]: check_environ() of distutils.utils now catches KeyError on calling pwd.getpwuid(): don't create the HOME environment variable in this case.

bpo-10496 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10496]: posixpath.expanduser() now returns the input path unchanged if the HOME environment variable is not set and the current user has no home directory (if the current user identifier doesn't exist in the password database). This change fix the site module if the current user doesn't exist in the password database (if the user has no home directory).

bpo-35389 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35389]: platform.libc_ver() now uses os.confstr('CS_GNU_LIBC_VERSION') if available and the executable parameter is not set.

bpo-35394 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35394]: Add empty slots to asyncio abstract protocols.

bpo-35310 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35310]: Fix a bug in select.select() where, in some cases, the file descriptor sequences were returned unmodified after a signal interruption, even though the file descriptors might not be ready yet. select.select() will now always return empty lists if a timeout has occurred. Patch by Oran Avraham.

bpo-35380 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35380]: Enable TCP_NODELAY on Windows for proactor asyncio event loop.

bpo-35341 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35341]: Add generic version of collections.OrderedDict to the typing module. Patch by Ismo Toijala.

bpo-35371 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35371]: Fixed possible crash in os.utime() on Windows when pass incorrect arguments.

bpo-35346 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35346]: platform.uname() now redirects stderr to os.devnull when running external programs like cmd /c ver.

bpo-35066 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35066]: Previously, calling the strftime() method on a datetime object with a trailing '%' in the format string would result in an exception. However, this only occurred when the datetime C module was being used; the python implementation did not match this behavior. Datetime is now PEP-399 compliant, and will not throw an exception on a trailing '%'.

bpo-35345 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35345]: The function platform.popen has been removed, it was deprecated since Python 3.3: use os.popen() instead.

bpo-35344 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35344]: On macOS, platform.platform() now uses platform.mac_ver(), if it returns a non-empty release string, to get the macOS version rather than the darwin version.

bpo-35312 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35312]: Make lib2to3.pgen2.parse.ParseError round-trip pickle-able. Patch by Anthony Sottile.

bpo-35308 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35308]: Fix regression in webbrowser where default browsers may be preferred over browsers in the BROWSER environment variable.

bpo-24746 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24746]: Avoid stripping trailing whitespace in doctest fancy diff. Original patch by R. David Murray & Jairo Trad. Enhanced by Sanyam Khurana.

bpo-28604 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28604]: locale.localeconv() now sets temporarily the LC_CTYPE locale to the LC_MONETARY locale if the two locales are different and monetary strings are non-ASCII. This temporary change affects other threads.

bpo-35277 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35277]: Update ensurepip to install pip 18.1 and setuptools 40.6.2.

bpo-24209 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24209]: Adds IPv6 support when invoking http.server directly.

bpo-35226 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35226]: Recursively check arguments when testing for equality of unittest.mock.call objects and add note that tracking of parameters used to create ancestors of mocks in mock_calls is not possible.

bpo-29564 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29564]: The warnings module now suggests to enable tracemalloc if the source is specified, the tracemalloc module is available, but tracemalloc is not tracing memory allocations.

bpo-35189 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35189]: Modify the following fnctl function to retry if interrupted by a signal (EINTR): flock, lockf, fnctl

bpo-30064 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30064]: Use add_done_callback() in sock_* asyncio API to unsubscribe reader/writer early on calcellation.

bpo-35186 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35186]: Removed the "built with" comment added when setup.py upload is used with either bdist_rpm or bdist_dumb.

bpo-35152 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35152]: Allow sending more than 2 GB at once on a multiprocessing connection on non-Windows systems.

bpo-35062 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35062]: Fix incorrect parsing of io.IncrementalNewlineDecoder's translate argument.

bpo-35065 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35065]: Remove StreamReaderProtocol._untrack_reader. The call to _untrack_reader is currently performed too soon, causing the protocol to forget about the reader before connection_lost can run and feed the EOF to the reader.

bpo-34160 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34160]: ElementTree and minidom now preserve the attribute order specified by the user.

bpo-35079 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35079]: Improve difflib.SequenceManager.get_matching_blocks doc by adding 'non-overlapping' and changing '!=' to '<'.

bpo-33710 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33710]: Deprecated l*gettext() functions and methods in the gettext module. They return encoded bytes instead of Unicode strings and are artifacts from Python 2 times. Also deprecated functions and methods related to setting the charset for l*gettext() functions and methods.

bpo-35017 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35017]: socketserver.BaseServer.serve_forever() now exits immediately if it's shutdown() method is called while it is polling for new events.

bpo-35024 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35024]: importlib no longer logs wrote <bytecode path> redundantly after (created|could not create) <bytecode path> is already logged. Patch by Quentin Agren.

bpo-35047 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35047]: unittest.mock now includes mock calls in exception messages if assert_not_called, assert_called_once, or assert_called_once_with fails. Patch by Petter Strandmark.

bpo-31047 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31047]: Fix ntpath.abspath regression where it didn't remove a trailing separator on Windows. Patch by Tim Graham.

bpo-35053 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35053]: tracemalloc now tries to update the traceback when an object is reused from a "free list" (optimization for faster object creation, used by the builtin list type for example).

bpo-31553 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31553]: Add the --json-lines option to json.tool. Patch by hongweipeng.

bpo-34794 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34794]: Fixed a leak in Tkinter when pass the Python wrapper around Tcl_Obj back to Tcl/Tk.

bpo-34909 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34909]: Enum: fix grandchildren subclassing when parent mixed with concrete data types.

bpo-35022 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35022]: unittest.mock.MagicMock now supports the __fspath__ method (from os.PathLike).

bpo-35008 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35008]: Fixed references leaks when call the __setstate__() method of xml.etree.ElementTree.Element in the C implementation for already initialized element.

bpo-23420 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23420]: Verify the value for the parameter '-s' of the cProfile CLI. Patch by Robert Kuska

bpo-33947 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33947]: dataclasses now handle recursive reprs without raising RecursionError.

bpo-34890 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34890]: Make inspect.iscoroutinefunction(), inspect.isgeneratorfunction() and inspect.isasyncgenfunction() work with functools.partial(). Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-34521 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34521]: Use socket.CMSG_SPACE() to calculate ancillary data size instead of socket.CMSG_LEN() in multiprocessing.reduction.recvfds() as RFC 3542 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3542.html] requires the use of the former for portable applications.

bpo-31522 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31522]: The mailbox.mbox.get_string function from_ parameter can now successfully be set to a non-default value.

bpo-34970 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34970]: Protect tasks weak set manipulation in asyncio.all_tasks()

bpo-34969 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34969]: gzip: Add --fast, --best on the gzip CLI, these parameters will be used for the fast compression method (quick) or the best method compress (slower, but smaller file). Also, change the default compression level to 6 (tradeoff).

bpo-16965 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16965]: The 2to3 execfile fixer now opens the file with mode 'rb'. Patch by Zackery Spytz.

bpo-34966 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34966]: pydoc now supports aliases not only to methods defined in the end class, but also to inherited methods. The docstring is not duplicated for aliases.

bpo-34926 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34926]: mimetypes.MimeTypes.guess_type() now accepts path-like object in addition to url strings. Patch by Mayank Asthana.

bpo-23831 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23831]: Add moveto() method to the tkinter.Canvas widget. Patch by Juliette Monsel.

bpo-34941 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34941]: Methods find(), findtext() and findall() of the Element class in the xml.etree.ElementTree module are now able to find children which are instances of Element subclasses.

bpo-32680 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32680]: smtplib.SMTP objects now always have a sock attribute present

bpo-34769 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34769]: Fix for async generators not finalizing when event loop is in debug mode and garbage collector runs in another thread.

bpo-34936 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34936]: Fix TclError in tkinter.Spinbox.selection_element(). Patch by Juliette Monsel.

bpo-34829 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34829]: Add methods selection_from, selection_range, selection_present and selection_to to the tkinter.Spinbox for consistency with the tkinter.Entry widget. Patch by Juliette Monsel.

bpo-34911 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34911]: Added secure_protocols argument to http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy to allow for tweaking of protocols and also to add support by default for wss, the secure websocket protocol.

bpo-34922 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34922]: Fixed integer overflow in the digest() and hexdigest() methods for the SHAKE algorithm in the hashlib module.

bpo-34925 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34925]: 25% speedup in argument parsing for the functions in the bisect module.

bpo-34900 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34900]: Fixed unittest.TestCase.debug() when used to call test methods with subtests. Patch by Bruno Oliveira.

bpo-34844 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34844]: logging.Formatter enhancement - Ensure styles and fmt matches in logging.Formatter - Added validate method in each format style class: StrFormatStyle, PercentStyle, StringTemplateStyle. - This method is called in the constructor of logging.Formatter class - Also re-raise the KeyError in the format method of each style class, so it would a bit clear that it's an error with the invalid format fields.

bpo-34897 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34897]: Adjust test.support.missing_compiler_executable check so that a nominal command name of "" is ignored. Patch by Michael Felt.

bpo-34871 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34871]: Fix inspect module polluted sys.modules when parsing __text_signature__ of callable.

bpo-34898 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34898]: Add mtime argument to gzip.compress for reproducible output. Patch by Guo Ci Teo.

bpo-28441 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28441]: On Cygwin and MinGW, ensure that sys.executable always includes the full filename in the path, including the .exe suffix (unless it is a symbolic link).

bpo-34866 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34866]: Adding max_num_fields to cgi.FieldStorage to make DOS attacks harder by limiting the number of MiniFieldStorage objects created by FieldStorage.

bpo-34711 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34711]: http.server ensures it reports HTTPStatus.NOT_FOUND when the local path ends with "/" and is not a directory, even if the underlying OS (e.g. AIX) accepts such paths as a valid file reference. Patch by Michael Felt.

bpo-34872 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34872]: Fix self-cancellation in C implementation of asyncio.Task

bpo-34849 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34849]: Don't log waiting for selector.select in asyncio loop iteration. The waiting is pretty normal for any asyncio program, logging its time just adds a noise to logs without any useful information provided.

bpo-34022 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34022]: The SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH environment variable no longer overrides the value of the invalidation_mode argument to py_compile.compile(), and determines its default value instead.

bpo-34819 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34819]: Use a monotonic clock to compute timeouts in Executor.map() and as_completed(), in order to prevent timeouts from deviating when the system clock is adjusted.

bpo-34758 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34758]: Add .wasm -> application/wasm to list of recognized file types and content type headers

bpo-34789 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34789]: xml.sax.make_parser() now accepts any iterable as its parser_list argument. Patch by Andrés Delfino.

bpo-34334 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34334]: In QueueHandler, clear exc_text from LogRecord to prevent traceback from being written twice.

bpo-34687 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34687]: On Windows, asyncio now uses ProactorEventLoop, instead of SelectorEventLoop, by default.

bpo-5950 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5950]: Support reading zip files with archive comments in zipimport.

bpo-32892 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32892]: The parser now represents all constants as ast.Constant instead of using specific constant AST types (Num, Str, Bytes, NameConstant and Ellipsis). These classes are considered deprecated and will be removed in future Python versions.

bpo-34728 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34728]: Add deprecation warning when loop is used in methods: asyncio.sleep, asyncio.wait and asyncio.wait_for.

bpo-34738 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34738]: ZIP files created by distutils will now include entries for directories.

bpo-34659 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34659]: Add an optional initial argument to itertools.accumulate().

bpo-29577 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29577]: Support multiple mixin classes when creating Enums.

bpo-34670 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34670]: Add SSLContext.post_handshake_auth and SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake for TLS 1.3's post handshake authentication feature.

bpo-32718 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32718]: The Activate.ps1 script from venv works with PowerShell Core 6.1 and is now available under all operating systems.

bpo-31177 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31177]: Fix bug that prevented using reset_mock on mock instances with deleted attributes

bpo-34672 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34672]: Add a workaround, so the 'Z' time.strftime() specifier on the musl C library can work in some cases.

bpo-34666 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34666]: Implement asyncio.StreamWriter.awrite and asyncio.StreamWriter.aclose() coroutines. Methods are needed for providing a consistent stream API with control flow switched on by default.

bpo-6721 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6721]: Acquire the logging module's commonly used internal locks while fork()ing to avoid deadlocks in the child process.

bpo-34658 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34658]: Fix a rare interpreter unhandled exception state SystemError only seen when using subprocess with a preexec_fn while an after_parent handler has been registered with os.register_at_fork and the fork system call fails.

bpo-34652 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34652]: Ensure os.lchmod() is never defined on Linux.

bpo-34638 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34638]: Store a weak reference to stream reader to break strong references loop between reader and protocol. It allows to detect and close the socket if the stream is deleted (garbage collected) without close() call.

bpo-34536 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34536]: Enum._missing_: raise ValueError if None returned and TypeError if non-member is returned.

bpo-34636 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34636]: Speed up re scanning of many non-matching characters for s w and d within bytes objects. (microoptimization)

bpo-24412 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24412]: Add addModuleCleanup() and addClassCleanup() to unittest to support cleanups for setUpModule() and setUpClass(). Patch by Lisa Roach.

bpo-34630 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34630]: Don't log SSL certificate errors in asyncio code (connection error logging is skipped already).

bpo-32490 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32490]: Prevent filename duplication in subprocess exception messages. Patch by Zackery Spytz.

bpo-34363 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34363]: dataclasses.asdict() and .astuple() now handle namedtuples correctly.

bpo-34625 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34625]: Update vendorized expat library version to 2.2.6.

bpo-32270 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32270]: The subprocess module no longer mistakenly closes redirected fds even when they were in pass_fds when outside of the default {0, 1, 2} set.

bpo-34622 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34622]: Create a dedicated asyncio.CancelledError, asyncio.InvalidStateError and asyncio.TimeoutError exception classes. Inherit them from corresponding exceptions from concurrent.futures package. Extract asyncio exceptions into a separate file.

bpo-34610 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34610]: Fixed iterator of multiprocessing.managers.DictProxy.

bpo-34421 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34421]: Fix distutils logging for non-ASCII strings. This caused installation issues on Windows.

bpo-34604 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34604]: Fix possible mojibake in the error message of pwd.getpwnam and grp.getgrnam using string representation because of invisible characters or trailing whitespaces. Patch by William Grzybowski.

bpo-30977 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30977]: Make uuid.UUID use __slots__ to reduce its memory footprint. Based on original patch by Wouter Bolsterlee.

bpo-34574 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34574]: OrderedDict iterators are not exhausted during pickling anymore. Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

bpo-8110 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8110]: Refactored subprocess to check for Windows-specific modules rather than sys.platform == 'win32'.

bpo-34530 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34530]: distutils.spawn.find_executable() now falls back on os.defpath if the PATH environment variable is not set.

bpo-34563 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34563]: On Windows, fix multiprocessing.Connection for very large read: fix _winapi.PeekNamedPipe() and _winapi.ReadFile() for read larger than INT_MAX (usually 2**31-1).

bpo-34558 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34558]: Correct typo in Lib/ctypes/_aix.py

bpo-34282 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34282]: Move Enum._convert to EnumMeta._convert_ and fix enum members getting shadowed by parent attributes.

bpo-22872 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22872]: When the queue is closed, ValueError is now raised by multiprocessing.Queue.put() and multiprocessing.Queue.get() instead of AssertionError and OSError, respectively. Patch by Zackery Spytz.

bpo-34515 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34515]: Fix parsing non-ASCII identifiers in lib2to3.pgen2.tokenize (PEP 3131 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3131/]).

bpo-13312 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13312]: Avoids a possible integer underflow (undefined behavior) in the time module's year handling code when passed a very low negative year value.

bpo-34472 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34472]: Improved compatibility for streamed files in zipfile. Previously an optional signature was not being written and certain ZIP applications were not supported. Patch by Silas Sewell.

bpo-34454 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34454]: Fix the .fromisoformat() methods of datetime types crashing when given unicode with non-UTF-8-encodable code points. Specifically, datetime.fromisoformat() now accepts surrogate unicode code points used as the separator. Report and tests by Alexey Izbyshev, patch by Paul Ganssle.

bpo-6700 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6700]: Fix inspect.getsourcelines for module level frames/tracebacks. Patch by Vladimir Matveev.

bpo-34171 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34171]: Running the trace module no longer creates the trace.cover file.

bpo-34441 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34441]: Fix crash when an ABC-derived class with invalid __subclasses__ is passed as the second argument to issubclass(). Patch by Alexey Izbyshev.

bpo-34427 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34427]: Fix infinite loop in a.extend(a) for MutableSequence subclasses.

bpo-34412 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34412]: Make signal.strsignal() work on HP-UX. Patch by Michael Osipov.

bpo-20849 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20849]: shutil.copytree now accepts a new dirs_exist_ok keyword argument. Patch by Josh Bronson.

bpo-31715 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31715]: Associate .mjs file extension with application/javascript MIME Type.

bpo-34384 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34384]: os.readlink() now accepts path-like and bytes objects on Windows.

bpo-22602 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22602]: The UTF-7 decoder now raises UnicodeDecodeError for ill-formed sequences starting with "+" (as specified in RFC 2152). Patch by Zackery Spytz.

bpo-2122 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2122]: The mmap.flush() method now returns None on success, raises an exception on error under all platforms.

bpo-34341 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34341]: Appending to the ZIP archive with the ZIP64 extension no longer grows the size of extra fields of existing entries.

bpo-34333 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34333]: Fix %-formatting in pathlib.PurePath.with_suffix() when formatting an error message.

bpo-18540 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18540]: The imaplib.IMAP4 and imaplib.IMAP4_SSL classes now resolve to the local host IP correctly when the default value of host parameter ('') is used.

bpo-26502 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26502]: Implement traceback.FrameSummary.__len__() method to preserve compatibility with the old tuple API.

bpo-34318 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34318]: assertRaises(), assertRaisesRegex(), assertWarns() and assertWarnsRegex() no longer success if the passed callable is None. They no longer ignore unknown keyword arguments in the context manager mode. A DeprecationWarning was raised in these cases since Python 3.5.

bpo-9372 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9372]: Deprecate __getitem__() methods of xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream, wsgiref.util.FileWrapper and fileinput.FileInput.

bpo-33613 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33613]: Fix a race condition in multiprocessing.semaphore_tracker when the tracker receives SIGINT before it can register signal handlers for ignoring it.

bpo-34248 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34248]: Report filename in the exception raised when the database file cannot be opened by dbm.gnu.open() and dbm.ndbm.open() due to OS-related error. Patch by Zsolt Cserna.

bpo-33089 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33089]: Add math.dist() to compute the Euclidean distance between two points.

bpo-34246 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34246]: smtplib.SMTP.send_message() no longer modifies the content of the mail_options argument. Patch by Pablo S. Blum de Aguiar.

bpo-31047 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31047]: Fix ntpath.abspath for invalid paths on windows. Patch by Franz Woellert.

bpo-32321 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32321]: Add pure Python fallback for functools.reduce. Patch by Robert Wright.

bpo-34270 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34270]: The default asyncio task class now always has a name which can be get or set using two new methods (get_name() and set_name()) and is visible in the repr() output. An initial name can also be set using the new name keyword argument to asyncio.create_task() or the create_task() method of the event loop. If no initial name is set, the default Task implementation generates a name like Task-1 using a monotonic counter.

bpo-34263 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34263]: asyncio's event loop will not pass timeouts longer than one day to epoll/select etc.

bpo-34035 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34035]: Fix several AttributeError in zipfile seek() methods. Patch by Mickaël Schoentgen.

bpo-32215 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32215]: Fix performance regression in sqlite3 when a DML statement appeared in a different line than the rest of the SQL query.

bpo-34075 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34075]: Deprecate passing non-ThreadPoolExecutor instances to AbstractEventLoop.set_default_executor().

bpo-34251 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34251]: Restore msilib.Win64 to preserve backwards compatibility since it's already used by distutils' bdist_msi command.

bpo-19891 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19891]: Ignore errors caused by missing / non-writable homedir while writing history during exit of an interactive session. Patch by Anthony Sottile.

bpo-33089 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33089]: Enhanced math.hypot() to support more than two dimensions.

bpo-34228 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34228]: tracemalloc: PYTHONTRACEMALLOC=0 environment variable and -X tracemalloc=0 command line option are now allowed to disable explicitly tracemalloc at startup.

bpo-13041 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13041]: Use shutil.get_terminal_size() to calculate the terminal width correctly in the argparse.HelpFormatter class. Initial patch by Zbyszek Jędrzejewski-Szmek.

bpo-34213 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34213]: Allow frozen dataclasses to have a field named "object". Previously this conflicted with an internal use of "object".

bpo-34052 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34052]: sqlite3.Connection.create_aggregate(), sqlite3.Connection.create_function(), sqlite3.Connection.set_authorizer(), sqlite3.Connection.set_progress_handler() methods raises TypeError when unhashable objects are passed as callable. These methods now don't pass such objects to SQLite API. Previous behavior could lead to segfaults. Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

bpo-34197 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34197]: Attributes skipinitialspace, doublequote and strict of the dialect attribute of the csv reader are now bool instances instead of integers 0 or 1.

bpo-32788 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32788]: Errors other than TypeError raised in methods __adapt__() and __conform__() in the sqlite3 module are now propagated to the user.

bpo-21446 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21446]: The reload fixer now uses importlib.reload() instead of deprecated imp.reload().

bpo-940286 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=940286]: pydoc's Helper.showtopic() method now prints the cross references of a topic correctly.

bpo-34164 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34164]: base64.b32decode() could raise UnboundLocalError or OverflowError for incorrect padding. Now it always raises base64.Error in these cases.

bpo-33729 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33729]: Fixed issues with arguments parsing in hashlib.

bpo-34097 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34097]: ZipFile can zip files older than 1980-01-01 and newer than 2107-12-31 using a new strict_timestamps parameter at the cost of setting the timestamp to the limit.

bpo-34108 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34108]: Remove extraneous CR in 2to3 refactor.

bpo-34070 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34070]: Make sure to only check if the handle is a tty, when opening a file with buffering=-1.

bpo-27494 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27494]: Reverted bpo-27494 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27494]. 2to3 rejects now a trailing comma in generator expressions.

bpo-33967 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33967]: functools.singledispatch now raises TypeError instead of IndexError when no positional arguments are passed.

bpo-34041 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34041]: Add the parameter deterministic to the sqlite3.Connection.create_function() method. Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

bpo-34056 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34056]: Ensure the loader shim created by imp.load_module always returns bytes from its get_data() function. This fixes using imp.load_module with PEP 552 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/] hash-based pycs.

bpo-34054 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34054]: The multiprocessing module now uses the monotonic clock time.monotonic() instead of the system clock time.time() to implement timeout.

bpo-34043 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34043]: Optimize tarfile uncompress performance about 15% when gzip is used.

bpo-34044 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34044]: subprocess.Popen now copies the startupinfo argument to leave it unchanged: it will modify the copy, so that the same STARTUPINFO object can be used multiple times.

bpo-34010 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34010]: Fixed a performance regression for reading streams with tarfile. The buffered read should use a list, instead of appending to a bytes object.

bpo-34019 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34019]: webbrowser: Correct the arguments passed to Opera Browser when opening a new URL using the webbrowser module. Patch by Bumsik Kim.

bpo-34003 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34003]: csv.DictReader now creates dicts instead of OrderedDicts. Patch by Michael Selik.

bpo-33978 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33978]: Closed existing logging handlers before reconfiguration via fileConfig and dictConfig. Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

bpo-14117 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14117]: Make minor tweaks to turtledemo. The 'wikipedia' example is now 'rosette', describing what it draws. The 'penrose' print output is reduced. The'1024' output of 'tree' is eliminated.

bpo-33974 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33974]: Fixed passing lists and tuples of strings containing special characters ", \, {, } and \n as options to ttk widgets.

bpo-27500 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27500]: Fix getaddrinfo to resolve IPv6 addresses correctly.

bpo-24567 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24567]: Improve random.choices() to handle subnormal input weights that could occasionally trigger an IndexError.

bpo-33871 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33871]: Fixed integer overflow in os.readv(), os.writev(), os.preadv() and os.pwritev() and in os.sendfile() with headers or trailers arguments (on BSD-based OSes and macOS).

bpo-25007 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25007]: Add copy.copy() and copy.deepcopy() support to zlib compressors and decompressors. Patch by Zackery Spytz.

bpo-33929 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33929]: multiprocessing: Fix a race condition in Popen of multiprocessing.popen_spawn_win32. The child process now duplicates the read end of pipe instead of "stealing" it. Previously, the read end of pipe was "stolen" by the child process, but it leaked a handle if the child process had been terminated before it could steal the handle from the parent process.

bpo-33899 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33899]: Tokenize module now implicitly emits a NEWLINE when provided with input that does not have a trailing new line. This behavior now matches what the C tokenizer does internally. Contributed by Ammar Askar.

bpo-33897 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33897]: Added a 'force' keyword argument to logging.basicConfig().

bpo-33695 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33695]: shutil.copytree() uses os.scandir() function and all copy functions depending from it use cached os.stat() values. The speedup for copying a directory with 8000 files is around +9% on Linux, +20% on Windows and + 30% on a Windows SMB share. Also the number of os.stat() syscalls is reduced by 38% making shutil.copytree() especially faster on network filesystems. (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola' in bpo-33695 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33695].)

bpo-33916 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33916]: bz2 and lzma: When Decompressor.__init__() is called twice, free the old lock to not leak memory.

bpo-32568 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32568]: Make select.epoll() and its documentation consistent regarding sizehint and flags.

bpo-33833 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33833]: Fixed bug in asyncio where ProactorSocketTransport logs AssertionError if force closed during write.

bpo-33663 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33663]: Convert content length to string before putting to header.

bpo-33721 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33721]: os.path functions that return a boolean result like exists(), lexists(), isdir(), isfile(), islink(), and ismount(), and pathlib.Path methods that return a boolean result like exists(), is_dir(), is_file(), is_mount(), is_symlink(), is_block_device(), is_char_device(), is_fifo(), is_socket() now return False instead of raising ValueError or its subclasses UnicodeEncodeError and UnicodeDecodeError for paths that contain characters or bytes unrepresentable at the OS level.

bpo-26544 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26544]: Fixed implementation of platform.libc_ver(). It almost always returned version '2.9' for glibc.

bpo-33843 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33843]: Remove deprecated cgi.escape, cgi.parse_qs and cgi.parse_qsl.

bpo-33842 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33842]: Remove tarfile.filemode which is deprecated since Python 3.3.

bpo-30167 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30167]: Prevent site.main() exception if PYTHONSTARTUP is set. Patch by Steve Weber.

bpo-33805 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33805]: Improve error message of dataclasses.replace() when an InitVar is not specified

bpo-33687 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33687]: Fix the call to os.chmod() for uu.decode() if a mode is given or decoded. Patch by Timo Furrer.

bpo-33812 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33812]: Datetime instance d with non-None tzinfo, but with d.tzinfo.utcoffset(d) returning None is now treated as naive by the astimezone() method.

bpo-32108 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32108]: In configparser, don't clear section when it is assigned to itself.

bpo-27397 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27397]: Make email module properly handle invalid-length base64 strings.

bpo-33578 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33578]: Implement multibyte encoder/decoder state methods

bpo-30805 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30805]: Avoid race condition with debug logging

bpo-33476 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33476]: Fix _header_value_parser.py when address group is missing final ';'. Contributed by Enrique Perez-Terron

bpo-33694 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33694]: asyncio: Fix a race condition causing data loss on pause_reading()/resume_reading() when using the ProactorEventLoop.

bpo-32493 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32493]: Correct test for uuid_enc_be availability in configure.ac. Patch by Michael Felt.

bpo-33792 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33792]: Add asyncio.WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy and asyncio.WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy.

bpo-33274 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33274]: W3C DOM Level 1 specifies return value of Element.removeAttributeNode() as "The Attr node that was removed." xml.dom.minidom now complies with this requirement.

bpo-33778 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33778]: Update unicodedata's database to Unicode version 11.0.0.

bpo-33165 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33165]: Added a stacklevel parameter to logging calls to allow use of wrapper/helper functions for logging APIs.

bpo-33770 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33770]: improve base64 exception message for encoded inputs of invalid length

bpo-33769 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33769]: asyncio/start_tls: Fix error message; cancel callbacks in case of an unhandled error; mark SSLTransport as closed if it is aborted.

bpo-33767 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33767]: The concatenation (+) and repetition (*) sequence operations now raise TypeError instead of SystemError when performed on mmap.mmap objects. Patch by Zackery Spytz.

bpo-33734 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33734]: asyncio/ssl: Fix AttributeError, increase default handshake timeout

bpo-31014 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31014]: Fixed creating a controller for webbrowser when a user specifies a path to an entry in the BROWSER environment variable. Based on patch by John Still.

bpo-2504 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2504]: Add gettext.pgettext() and variants.

bpo-33197 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33197]: Add description property for _ParameterKind

bpo-32751 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32751]: When cancelling the task due to a timeout, asyncio.wait_for() will now wait until the cancellation is complete.

bpo-32684 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32684]: Fix gather to propagate cancellation of itself even with return_exceptions.

bpo-33654 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33654]: Support protocol type switching in SSLTransport.set_protocol().

bpo-33674 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33674]: Pause the transport as early as possible to further reduce the risk of data_received() being called before connection_made().

bpo-33671 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33671]: shutil.copyfile(), shutil.copy(), shutil.copy2(), shutil.copytree() and shutil.move() use platform-specific fast-copy syscalls on Linux and macOS in order to copy the file more efficiently. On Windows shutil.copyfile() uses a bigger default buffer size (1 MiB instead of 16 KiB) and a memoryview()-based variant of shutil.copyfileobj() is used. The speedup for copying a 512MiB file is about +26% on Linux, +50% on macOS and +40% on Windows. Also, much less CPU cycles are consumed. (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola' in bpo-25427 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25427].)

bpo-33674 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33674]: Fix a race condition in SSLProtocol.connection_made() of asyncio.sslproto: start immediately the handshake instead of using call_soon(). Previously, data_received() could be called before the handshake started, causing the handshake to hang or fail.

bpo-31647 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31647]: Fixed bug where calling write_eof() on a _SelectorSocketTransport after it's already closed raises AttributeError.

bpo-32610 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32610]: Make asyncio.all_tasks() return only pending tasks.

bpo-32410 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32410]: Avoid blocking on file IO in sendfile fallback code

bpo-33469 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33469]: Fix RuntimeError after closing loop that used run_in_executor

bpo-33672 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33672]: Fix Task.__repr__ crash with Cython's bogus coroutines

bpo-33654 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33654]: Fix transport.set_protocol() to support switching between asyncio.Protocol and asyncio.BufferedProtocol. Fix loop.start_tls() to work with asyncio.BufferedProtocols.

bpo-33652 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33652]: Pickles of type variables and subscripted generics are now future-proof and compatible with older Python versions.

bpo-32493 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32493]: Fixed uuid.uuid1() on FreeBSD.

bpo-33238 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33238]: Add InvalidStateError to concurrent.futures. Future.set_result and Future.set_exception now raise InvalidStateError if the futures are not pending or running. Patch by Jason Haydaman.

bpo-33618 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33618]: Finalize and document preliminary and experimental TLS 1.3 support with OpenSSL 1.1.1

bpo-33625 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33625]: Release GIL on grp.getgrnam, grp.getgrgid, pwd.getpwnam and pwd.getpwuid if reentrant variants of these functions are available. Patch by William Grzybowski.

bpo-33623 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33623]: Fix possible SIGSGV when asyncio.Future is created in __del__

bpo-11874 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11874]: Use a better regex when breaking usage into wrappable parts. Avoids bogus assertion errors from custom metavar strings.

bpo-30877 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30877]: Fixed a bug in the Python implementation of the JSON decoder that prevented the cache of parsed strings from clearing after finishing the decoding. Based on patch by c-fos.

bpo-33604 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33604]: Remove HMAC default to md5 marked for removal in 3.8 (removal originally planned in 3.6, bump to 3.8 in PR 7062).

bpo-33582 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33582]: Emit a deprecation warning for inspect.formatargspec

bpo-21145 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21145]: Add functools.cached_property decorator, for computed properties cached for the life of the instance.

bpo-33570 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33570]: Change TLS 1.3 cipher suite settings for compatibility with OpenSSL 1.1.1-pre6 and newer. OpenSSL 1.1.1 will have TLS 1.3 ciphers enabled by default.

bpo-28556 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556]: Do not simplify arguments to typing.Union. Now Union[Manager, Employee] is not simplified to Employee at runtime. Such simplification previously caused several bugs and limited possibilities for introspection.

bpo-12486 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12486]: tokenize.generate_tokens() is now documented as a public API to tokenize unicode strings. It was previously present but undocumented.

bpo-33540 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33540]: Add a new block_on_close class attribute to ForkingMixIn and ThreadingMixIn classes of socketserver.

bpo-33548 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33548]: tempfile._candidate_tempdir_list should consider common TEMP locations

bpo-33109 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33109]: argparse subparsers are once again not required by default, reverting the change in behavior introduced by bpo-26510 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26510] in 3.7.0a2.

bpo-33541 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33541]: Remove unused private method _strptime.LocaleTime.__pad (a.k.a. _LocaleTime__pad).

bpo-33536 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33536]: dataclasses.make_dataclass now checks for invalid field names and duplicate fields. Also, added a check for invalid field specifications.

bpo-33542 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33542]: Prevent uuid.get_node from using a DUID instead of a MAC on Windows. Patch by Zvi Effron

bpo-26819 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26819]: Fix race condition with ReadTransport.resume_reading in Windows proactor event loop.

Fix failure in typing.get_type_hints() when ClassVar was provided as a string forward reference.

bpo-33516 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33516]: unittest.mock.MagicMock now supports the __round__ magic method.

bpo-28612 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28612]: Added support for Site Maps to urllib's RobotFileParser as RobotFileParser.site_maps(). Patch by Lady Red, based on patch by Peter Wirtz.

bpo-28167 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28167]: Remove platform.linux_distribution, which was deprecated since 3.5.

bpo-33504 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33504]: Switch the default dictionary implementation for configparser from collections.OrderedDict to the standard dict type.

bpo-33505 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33505]: Optimize asyncio.ensure_future() by reordering if checks: 1.17x faster.

bpo-33497 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33497]: Add errors param to cgi.parse_multipart and make an encoding in FieldStorage use the given errors (needed for Twisted). Patch by Amber Brown.

bpo-29235 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29235]: The cProfile.Profile class can now be used as a context manager. Patch by Scott Sanderson.

bpo-33495 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33495]: Change dataclasses.Fields repr to use the repr of each of its members, instead of str. This makes it more clear what each field actually represents. This is especially true for the 'type' member.

bpo-26103 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26103]: Correct inspect.isdatadescriptor to look for __set__ or __delete__. Patch by Aaron Hall.

bpo-29209 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29209]: Removed the doctype() method and the html parameter of the constructor of XMLParser. The doctype() method defined in a subclass will no longer be called. Deprecated methods getchildren() and getiterator() in the ElementTree module emit now a DeprecationWarning instead of PendingDeprecationWarning.

bpo-33453 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33453]: Fix dataclasses to work if using literal string type annotations or if using PEP 563 "Postponed Evaluation of Annotations". Only specific string prefixes are detected for both ClassVar ("ClassVar" and "typing.ClassVar") and InitVar ("InitVar" and "dataclasses.InitVar").

bpo-28556 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556]: Minor fixes in typing module: add annotations to NamedTuple.__new__, pass *args and **kwds in Generic.__new__. Original PRs by Paulius Šarka and Chad Dombrova.

bpo-33365 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33365]: Print the header values besides the header keys instead just the header keys if debuglevel is set to >0 in http.client. Patch by Marco Strigl.

bpo-20087 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20087]: Updated alias mapping with glibc 2.27 supported locales.

bpo-33422 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33422]: Fix trailing quotation marks getting deleted when looking up byte/string literals on pydoc. Patch by Andrés Delfino.

bpo-28167 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28167]: The function platform.linux_distribution and platform.dist now trigger a DeprecationWarning and have been marked for removal in Python 3.8

bpo-33281 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33281]: Fix ctypes.util.find_library regression on macOS.

bpo-33311 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33311]: Text and html output generated by cgitb does not display parentheses if the current call is done directly in the module. Patch by Stéphane Blondon.

bpo-27300 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27300]: The file classes in tempfile now accept an errors parameter that complements the already existing encoding. Patch by Stephan Hohe.

bpo-32933 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32933]: unittest.mock.mock_open() now supports iteration over the file contents. Patch by Tony Flury.

bpo-33217 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33217]: Raise TypeError when looking up non-Enum objects in Enum classes and Enum members.

bpo-33197 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33197]: Update error message when constructing invalid inspect.Parameters Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-33383 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33383]: Fixed crash in the get() method of the dbm.ndbm database object when it is called with a single argument.

bpo-33375 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33375]: The warnings module now finds the Python file associated with a warning from the code object, rather than the frame's global namespace. This is consistent with how tracebacks and pdb find filenames, and should work better for dynamically executed code.

bpo-33336 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33336]: imaplib now allows MOVE command in IMAP4.uid() (RFC 6851: IMAP MOVE Extension) and potentially as a name of supported method of IMAP4 object.

bpo-32455 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32455]: Added jump parameter to dis.stack_effect().

bpo-27485 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27485]: Rename and deprecate undocumented functions in urllib.parse().

bpo-33332 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33332]: Add signal.valid_signals() to expose the POSIX sigfillset() functionality.

bpo-33251 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33251]: ConfigParser.items() was fixed so that key-value pairs passed in via vars() are not included in the resulting output.

bpo-33329 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33329]: Fix multiprocessing regression on newer glibcs

bpo-33334 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33334]: dis.stack_effect() now supports all defined opcodes including NOP and EXTENDED_ARG.

bpo-991266 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=991266]: Fix quoting of the Comment attribute of http.cookies.SimpleCookie.

bpo-33131 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33131]: Upgrade bundled version of pip to 10.0.1.

bpo-33308 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33308]: Fixed a crash in the parser module when converting an ST object to a tree of tuples or lists with line_info=False and col_info=True.

bpo-23403 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23403]: lib2to3 now uses pickle protocol 4 for pre-computed grammars.

bpo-33266 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33266]: lib2to3 now recognizes rf'...' strings.

bpo-11594 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11594]: Ensure line-endings are respected when using lib2to3.

bpo-33254 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33254]: Have importlib.resources.contents() and importlib.abc.ResourceReader.contents() return an iterable instead of an iterator.

bpo-33265 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33265]: contextlib.ExitStack and contextlib.AsyncExitStack now use a method instead of a wrapper function for exit callbacks.

bpo-33263 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33263]: Fix FD leak in _SelectorSocketTransport Patch by Vlad Starostin.

bpo-33256 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33256]: Fix display of <module> call in the html produced by cgitb.html(). Patch by Stéphane Blondon.

bpo-33144 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33144]: random.Random() and its subclassing mechanism got optimized to check only once at class/subclass instantiation time whether its getrandbits() method can be relied on by other methods, including randrange(), for the generation of arbitrarily large random integers. Patch by Wolfgang Maier.

bpo-33185 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33185]: Fixed regression when running pydoc with the -m switch. (The regression was introduced in 3.7.0b3 by the resolution of bpo-33053 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33053])

This fix also changed pydoc to add os.getcwd() to sys.path when necessary, rather than adding ".".

bpo-29613 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29613]: Added support for the SameSite cookie flag to the http.cookies module.

bpo-33169 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33169]: Delete entries of None in sys.path_importer_cache when importlib.machinery.invalidate_caches() is called.

bpo-33203 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33203]: random.Random.choice() now raises IndexError for empty sequences consistently even when called from subclasses without a getrandbits() implementation.

bpo-33224 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33224]: Update difflib.mdiff() for PEP 479 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/]. Convert an uncaught StopIteration in a generator into a return-statement.

bpo-33209 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33209]: End framing at the end of C implementation of pickle.Pickler.dump().

bpo-32861 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32861]: The urllib.robotparser's __str__ representation now includes wildcard entries and the "Crawl-delay" and "Request-rate" fields. Also removes extra newlines that were being appended to the end of the string. Patch by Michael Lazar.

bpo-23403 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23403]: DEFAULT_PROTOCOL in pickle was bumped to 4. Protocol 4 is described in PEP 3154 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3154/] and available since Python 3.4. It offers better performance and smaller size compared to protocol 3 introduced in Python 3.0.

bpo-20104 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20104]: Improved error handling and fixed a reference leak in os.posix_spawn().

bpo-33106 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33106]: Deleting a key from a read-only dbm database raises module specific error instead of KeyError.

bpo-33175 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33175]: In dataclasses, Field.__set_name__ now looks up the __set_name__ special method on the class, not the instance, of the default value.

bpo-32380 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32380]: Create functools.singledispatchmethod to support generic single dispatch on descriptors and methods.

bpo-33141 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33141]: Have Field objects pass through __set_name__ to their default values, if they have their own __set_name__.

bpo-33096 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33096]: Allow ttk.Treeview.insert to insert iid that has a false boolean value. Note iid=0 and iid=False would be same. Patch by Garvit Khatri.

bpo-32873 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32873]: Treat type variables and special typing forms as immutable by copy and pickle. This fixes several minor issues and inconsistencies, and improves backwards compatibility with Python 3.6.

bpo-33134 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33134]: When computing dataclass's __hash__, use the lookup table to contain the function which returns the __hash__ value. This is an improvement over looking up a string, and then testing that string to see what to do.

bpo-33127 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33127]: The ssl module now compiles with LibreSSL 2.7.1.

bpo-32505 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32505]: Raise TypeError if a member variable of a dataclass is of type Field, but doesn't have a type annotation.

bpo-33078 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33078]: Fix the failure on OSX caused by the tests relying on sem_getvalue

bpo-33116 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33116]: Add 'Field' to dataclasses.__all__.

bpo-32896 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32896]: Fix an error where subclassing a dataclass with a field that uses a default_factory would generate an incorrect class.

bpo-33100 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33100]: Dataclasses: If a field has a default value that's a MemberDescriptorType, then it's from that field being in __slots__, not an actual default value.

bpo-32953 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32953]: If a non-dataclass inherits from a frozen dataclass, allow attributes to be added to the derived class. Only attributes from the frozen dataclass cannot be assigned to. Require all dataclasses in a hierarchy to be either all frozen or all non-frozen.

bpo-33097 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33097]: Raise RuntimeError when executor.submit is called during interpreter shutdown.

bpo-32968 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32968]: Modulo and floor division involving Fraction and float should return float.

bpo-33061 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33061]: Add missing NoReturn to __all__ in typing.py

bpo-33078 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33078]: Fix the size handling in multiprocessing.Queue when a pickling error occurs.

bpo-33064 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33064]: lib2to3 now properly supports trailing commas after *args and **kwargs in function signatures.

bpo-33056 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33056]: FIX properly close leaking fds in concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor.

bpo-33021 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33021]: Release the GIL during fstat() calls, avoiding hang of all threads when calling mmap.mmap(), os.urandom(), and random.seed(). Patch by Nir Soffer.

bpo-31804 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31804]: Avoid failing in multiprocessing.Process if the standard streams are closed or None at exit.

bpo-33034 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33034]: Providing an explicit error message when casting the port property to anything that is not an integer value using urlparse() and urlsplit(). Patch by Matt Eaton.

bpo-30249 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30249]: Improve struct.unpack_from() exception messages for problems with the buffer size and offset.

bpo-33037 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33037]: Skip sending/receiving data after SSL transport closing.

bpo-27683 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27683]: Fix a regression in ipaddress that result of hosts() is empty when the network is constructed by a tuple containing an integer mask and only 1 bit left for addresses.

bpo-22674 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22674]: Add the strsignal() function in the signal module that returns the system description of the given signal, as returned by strsignal(3).

bpo-32999 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32999]: Fix C implementation of ABC.__subclasscheck__(cls, subclass) crashed when subclass is not a type object.

bpo-33009 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33009]: Fix inspect.signature() for single-parameter partialmethods.

bpo-32969 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32969]: Expose several missing constants in zlib and fix corresponding documentation.

bpo-32056 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32056]: Improved exceptions raised for invalid number of channels and sample width when read an audio file in modules aifc, wave and sunau.

bpo-32970 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32970]: Improved disassembly of the MAKE_FUNCTION instruction.

bpo-32844 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32844]: Fix wrong redirection of a low descriptor (0 or 1) to stderr in subprocess if another low descriptor is closed.

bpo-32960 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32960]: For dataclasses, disallow inheriting frozen from non-frozen classes, and also disallow inheriting non-frozen from frozen classes. This restriction will be relaxed at a future date.

bpo-32713 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32713]: Fixed tarfile.itn handling of out-of-bounds float values. Patch by Joffrey Fuhrer.

bpo-32257 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32257]: The ssl module now contains OP_NO_RENEGOTIATION constant, available with OpenSSL 1.1.0h or 1.1.1.

bpo-32951 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32951]: Direct instantiation of SSLSocket and SSLObject objects is now prohibited. The constructors were never documented, tested, or designed as public constructors. Users were suppose to use ssl.wrap_socket() or SSLContext.

bpo-32929 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32929]: Remove the tri-state parameter "hash", and add the boolean "unsafe_hash". If unsafe_hash is True, add a __hash__ function, but if a __hash__ exists, raise TypeError. If unsafe_hash is False, add a __hash__ based on the values of eq= and frozen=. The unsafe_hash=False behavior is the same as the old hash=None behavior. unsafe_hash=False is the default, just as hash=None used to be.

bpo-32947 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32947]: Add OP_ENABLE_MIDDLEBOX_COMPAT and test workaround for TLSv1.3 for future compatibility with OpenSSL 1.1.1.

bpo-32146 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32146]: Document the interaction between frozen executables and the spawn and forkserver start methods in multiprocessing.

bpo-30622 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30622]: The ssl module now detects missing NPN support in LibreSSL.

bpo-32922 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32922]: dbm.open() now encodes filename with the filesystem encoding rather than default encoding.

bpo-32759 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32759]: Free unused arenas in multiprocessing.heap.

bpo-32859 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32859]: In os.dup2, don't check every call whether the dup3 syscall exists or not.

bpo-32556 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32556]: nt._getfinalpathname, nt._getvolumepathname and nt._getdiskusage now correctly convert from bytes.

bpo-21060 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21060]: Rewrite confusing message from setup.py upload from "No dist file created in earlier command" to the more helpful "Must create and upload files in one command".

bpo-32857 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32857]: In tkinter, after_cancel(None) now raises a ValueError instead of canceling the first scheduled function. Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

bpo-32852 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32852]: Make sure sys.argv remains as a list when running trace.

bpo-31333 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31333]: _abc module is added. It is a speedup module with C implementations for various functions and methods in abc. Creating an ABC subclass and calling isinstance or issubclass with an ABC subclass are up to 1.5x faster. In addition, this makes Python start-up up to 10% faster.

Note that the new implementation hides internal registry and caches, previously accessible via private attributes _abc_registry, _abc_cache, and _abc_negative_cache. There are three debugging helper methods that can be used instead _dump_registry, _abc_registry_clear, and _abc_caches_clear.

bpo-32841 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32841]: Fixed asyncio.Condition issue which silently ignored cancellation after notifying and cancelling a conditional lock. Patch by Bar Harel.

bpo-32819 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32819]: ssl.match_hostname() has been simplified and no longer depends on re and ipaddress module for wildcard and IP addresses. Error reporting for invalid wildcards has been improved.

bpo-19675 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19675]: multiprocessing.Pool no longer leaks processes if its initialization fails.

bpo-32394 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32394]: socket: Remove TCP_FASTOPEN,TCP_KEEPCNT,TCP_KEEPIDLE,TCP_KEEPINTVL flags on older version Windows during run-time.

bpo-31787 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31787]: Fixed refleaks of __init__() methods in various modules. (Contributed by Oren Milman)

bpo-30157 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30157]: Fixed guessing quote and delimiter in csv.Sniffer.sniff() when only the last field is quoted. Patch by Jake Davis.

bpo-30688 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30688]: Added support of \N{name} escapes in regular expressions. Based on patch by Jonathan Eunice.

bpo-32792 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32792]: collections.ChainMap() preserves the order of the underlying mappings.

bpo-32775 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32775]: fnmatch.translate() no longer produces patterns which contain set operations. Sets starting with '[' or containing '--', '&&', '~~' or '||' will be interpreted differently in regular expressions in future versions. Currently they emit warnings. fnmatch.translate() now avoids producing patterns containing such sets by accident.

bpo-32622 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32622]: Implement native fast sendfile for Windows proactor event loop.

bpo-32777 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32777]: Fix a rare but potential pre-exec child process deadlock in subprocess on POSIX systems when marking file descriptors inheritable on exec in the child process. This bug appears to have been introduced in 3.4.

bpo-32647 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32647]: The ctypes module used to depend on indirect linking for dlopen. The shared extension is now explicitly linked against libdl on platforms with dl.

bpo-32749 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32749]: A dbm.dumb database opened with flags 'r' is now read-only. dbm.dumb.open() with flags 'r' and 'w' no longer creates a database if it does not exist.

bpo-32741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32741]: Implement asyncio.TimerHandle.when() method.

bpo-32691 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32691]: Use mod_spec.parent when running modules with pdb

bpo-32734 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32734]: Fixed asyncio.Lock() safety issue which allowed acquiring and locking the same lock multiple times, without it being free. Patch by Bar Harel.

bpo-32727 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32727]: Do not include name field in SMTP envelope from address. Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

bpo-31453 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31453]: Add TLSVersion constants and SSLContext.maximum_version / minimum_version attributes. The new API wraps OpenSSL 1.1 https://web.archive.org/web/20180309043602/https://www.openssl.org/docs/man1.1.0/ssl/SSL_CTX_set_min_proto_version.html feature.

bpo-24334 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24334]: Internal implementation details of ssl module were cleaned up. The SSLSocket has one less layer of indirection. Owner and session information are now handled by the SSLSocket and SSLObject constructor. Channel binding implementation has been simplified.

bpo-31848 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31848]: Fix the error handling in Aifc_read.initfp() when the SSND chunk is not found. Patch by Zackery Spytz.

bpo-32585 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32585]: Add Ttk spinbox widget to tkinter.ttk. Patch by Alan D Moore.

bpo-32512 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32512]: profile CLI accepts -m module_name as an alternative to script path.

bpo-8525 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8525]: help() on a type now displays builtin subclasses. This is intended primarily to help with notification of more specific exception subclasses.

Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

bpo-31639 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31639]: http.server now exposes a ThreadingHTTPServer class and uses it when the module is run with -m to cope with web browsers pre-opening sockets.

bpo-29877 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29877]: compileall: import ProcessPoolExecutor only when needed, preventing hangs on low resource platforms

bpo-32221 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32221]: Various functions returning tuple containing IPv6 addresses now omit %scope part since the same information is already encoded in scopeid tuple item. Especially this speeds up socket.recvfrom() when it receives multicast packet since useless resolving of network interface name is omitted.

bpo-32147 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32147]: binascii.unhexlify() is now up to 2 times faster. Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

bpo-30693 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30693]: The TarFile class now recurses directories in a reproducible way.

bpo-30693 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30693]: The ZipFile class now recurses directories in a reproducible way.

bpo-31680 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31680]: Added curses.ncurses_version.

bpo-31908 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31908]: Fix output of cover files for trace module command-line tool. Previously emitted cover files only when --missing option was used. Patch by Michael Selik.

bpo-31608 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31608]: Raise a TypeError instead of crashing if a collections.deque subclass returns a non-deque from __new__. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-31425 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31425]: Add support for sockets of the AF_QIPCRTR address family, supported by the Linux kernel. This is used to communicate with services, such as GPS or radio, running on Qualcomm devices. Patch by Bjorn Andersson.

bpo-22005 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22005]: Implemented unpickling instances of datetime, date and time pickled by Python 2. encoding='latin1' should be used for successful decoding.

bpo-27645 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27645]: sqlite3.Connection now exposes a backup method, if the underlying SQLite library is at version 3.6.11 or higher. Patch by Lele Gaifax.

bpo-16865 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16865]: Support arrays >=2GiB in ctypes. Patch by Segev Finer.

bpo-31508 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31508]: Removed support of arguments in tkinter.ttk.Treeview.selection. It was deprecated in 3.6. Use specialized methods like selection_set for changing the selection.

bpo-29456 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29456]: Fix bugs in hangul normalization: u1176, u11a7 and u11c3

Documentation

bpo-21257 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21257]: Document http.client.parse_headers().

bpo-34764 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34764]: Improve example of iter() with 2nd sentinel argument.

bpo-35564 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35564]: Explicitly set master_doc variable in conf.py for compliance with Sphinx 2.0

bpo-35511 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35511]: Specified that profile.Profile class doesn't not support enable or disable methods. Also, elaborated that Profile object as a context manager is only supported in cProfile module.

bpo-10536 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10536]: Enhance the gettext docs. Patch by Éric Araujo

bpo-35089 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35089]: Remove mention of typing.io and typing.re. Their types should be imported from typing directly.

bpo-35038 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35038]: Fix the documentation about an unexisting f_restricted attribute in the frame object. Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

bpo-35042 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35042]: Replace PEP XYZ by the pep role and allow to use the direct links to the PEPs.

bpo-35044 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35044]: Fix the documentation with the role exc for the appropriated exception. Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

bpo-35035 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35035]: Rename documentation for email.utils to email.utils.rst.

bpo-34967 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34967]: Use app.add_object_type() instead of the deprecated Sphinx function app.description_unit()

bpo-34913 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34913]: Add documentation about the new command line interface of the gzip module.

bpo-32174 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32174]: chm document displays non-ASCII characters properly on some MBCS Windows systems.

bpo-11233 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11233]: Create availability directive for documentation. Original patch by Georg Brandl.

bpo-34790 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34790]: Document how passing coroutines to asyncio.wait() can be confusing.

bpo-34552 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34552]: Make clear that == operator sometimes is equivalent to is. The <, <=, > and >= operators are only defined where they make sense.

bpo-28617 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28617]: Fixed info in the stdtypes docs concerning the types that support membership tests.

bpo-20177 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20177]: Migrate datetime.date.fromtimestamp to Argument Clinic. Patch by Tim Hoffmann.

bpo-34065 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34065]: Fix wrongly written basicConfig documentation markup syntax

bpo-33460 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33460]: replaced ellipsis with correct error codes in tutorial chapter 3.

bpo-33847 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33847]: Add '@' operator entry to index.

bpo-33409 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33409]: Clarified the relationship between PEP 538 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/]'s PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE and PEP 540's PYTHONUTF8 mode.

bpo-33197 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33197]: Add versionadded tag to the documentation of ParameterKind.description

bpo-17045 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17045]: Improve the C-API doc for PyTypeObject. This includes adding several quick-reference tables and a lot of missing slot/typedef entries. The existing entries were also cleaned up with a slightly more consistent format.

bpo-33736 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33736]: Improve the documentation of asyncio.open_connection(), asyncio.start_server() and their UNIX socket counterparts.

bpo-23859 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23859]: Document that asyncio.wait() does not cancel its futures on timeout.

bpo-32436 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32436]: Document PEP 567 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/] changes to asyncio.

bpo-33604 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33604]: Update HMAC md5 default to a DeprecationWarning, bump removal to 3.8.

bpo-33594 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33594]: Document getargspec, from_function and from_builtin as deprecated in their respective docstring, and include version since deprecation in DeprecationWarning message.

bpo-33503 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33503]: Fix broken pypi link

bpo-33421 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33421]: Add missing documentation for typing.AsyncContextManager.

bpo-33487 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33487]: BZ2file now emit a DeprecationWarning when buffering=None is passed, the deprecation message and documentation also now explicitly state it is deprecated since 3.0.

bpo-33378 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33378]: Add Korean language switcher for https://docs.python.org/3/

bpo-33276 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33276]: Clarify that the __path__ attribute on modules cannot be just any value.

bpo-33201 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33201]: Modernize documentation for writing C extension types.

bpo-33195 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33195]: Deprecate Py_UNICODE usage in c-api/arg document. Py_UNICODE related APIs are deprecated since Python 3.3, but it is missed in the document.

bpo-33126 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33126]: Document PyBuffer_ToContiguous().

bpo-27212 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27212]: Modify documentation for the islice() recipe to consume initial values up to the start index.

bpo-28247 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28247]: Update zipapp documentation to describe how to make standalone applications.

bpo-18802 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18802]: Documentation changes for ipaddress. Patch by Jon Foster and Berker Peksag.

bpo-27428 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27428]: Update documentation to clarify that WindowsRegistryFinder implements MetaPathFinder. (Patch by Himanshu Lakhara)

bpo-28124 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28124]: The ssl module function ssl.wrap_socket() has been de-emphasized and deprecated in favor of the more secure and efficient SSLContext.wrap_socket() method.

bpo-17232 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17232]: Clarify docs for -O and -OO. Patch by Terry Reedy.

bpo-32436 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32436]: Add documentation for the contextvars module (PEP 567).

bpo-32800 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32800]: Update link to w3c doc for xml default namespaces.

bpo-11015 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11015]: Update test.support documentation.

bpo-32613 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32613]: Update the faq/windows.html to use the py command from PEP 397 instead of python.

bpo-8722 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8722]: Document __getattr__() behavior when property get() method raises AttributeError.

bpo-32614 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32614]: Modify RE examples in documentation to use raw strings to prevent DeprecationWarning and add text to REGEX HOWTO to highlight the deprecation.

bpo-20709 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20709]: Remove the paragraph where we explain that os.utime() does not support a directory as path under Windows. Patch by Jan-Philip Gehrcke

bpo-32722 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32722]: Remove the bad example in the tutorial of the Generator Expression. Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

bpo-31972 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31972]: Improve docstrings for pathlib.PurePath subclasses.

bpo-30607 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30607]: Use the externalized python-docs-theme package when building the documentation.

bpo-8243 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8243]: Add a note about curses.addch and curses.addstr exception behavior when writing outside a window, or pad.

bpo-32337 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32337]: Update documentation related with dict order.

bpo-25041 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25041]: Document AF_PACKET in the socket module.

bpo-31432 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31432]: Clarify meaning of CERT_NONE, CERT_OPTIONAL, and CERT_REQUIRED flags for ssl.SSLContext.verify_mode.

Tests

bpo-35772 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35772]: Fix sparse file tests of test_tarfile on ppc64 with the tmpfs filesystem. Fix the function testing if the filesystem supports sparse files: create a file which contains data and "holes", instead of creating a file which contains no data. tmpfs effective block size is a page size (tmpfs lives in the page cache). RHEL uses 64 KiB pages on aarch64, ppc64, ppc64le, only s390x and x86_64 use 4 KiB pages, whereas the test punch holes of 4 KiB.

bpo-35045 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35045]: Make ssl tests less strict and also accept TLSv1 as system default. The changes unbreaks test_min_max_version on Fedora 29.

bpo-32710 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32710]: test_asyncio/test_sendfile.py now resets the event loop policy using tearDownModule() as done in other tests, to prevent a warning when running tests on Windows.

bpo-33717 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33717]: test.pythoninfo now logs information of all clocks, not only time.time() and time.perf_counter().

bpo-35488 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35488]: Add a test to pathlib's Path.match() to verify it does not support glob-style ** recursive pattern matching.

bpo-31731 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31731]: Fix a race condition in check_interrupted_write() of test_io: create directly the thread with SIGALRM signal blocked, rather than blocking the signal later from the thread. Previously, it was possible that the thread gets the signal before the signal is blocked.

bpo-35424 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35424]: Fix test_multiprocessing_main_handling: use multiprocessing.Pool with a context manager and then explicitly join the pool.

bpo-35519 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35519]: Rename test.bisect module to test.bisect_cmd to avoid conflict with bisect module when running directly a test like ./python Lib/test/test_xmlrpc.py.

bpo-35513 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35513]: Replace time.time() with time.monotonic() in tests to measure time delta.

bpo-34279 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34279]: test.support.run_unittest() no longer raise TestDidNotRun if the test result contains skipped tests. The exception is now only raised if no test have been run and no test have been skipped.

bpo-35412 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35412]: Add testcase to test_future4: check unicode literal.

bpo-26704 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26704]: Added test demonstrating double-patching of an instance method. Patch by Anthony Sottile.

bpo-33725 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33725]: test_multiprocessing_fork may crash on recent versions of macOS. Until the issue is resolved, skip the test on macOS.

bpo-35352 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35352]: Modify test_asyncio to use the certificate set from the test directory.

bpo-35317 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35317]: Fix mktime() overflow error in test_email: run test_localtime_daylight_true_dst_true() and test_localtime_daylight_false_dst_true() with a specific timezone.

bpo-21263 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21263]: After several reports that test_gdb does not work properly on macOS and since gdb is not shipped by default anymore, test_gdb is now skipped on macOS when LLVM Clang has been used to compile Python. Patch by Lysandros Nikolaou

bpo-34279 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34279]: regrtest issue a warning when no tests have been executed in a particular test file. Also, a new final result state is issued if no test have been executed across all test files. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-34962 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34962]: make docstest in Doc now passes., and is enforced in CI

bpo-23596 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23596]: Use argparse for the command line of the gzip module. Patch by Antony Lee

bpo-34537 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34537]: Fix test_gdb.test_strings() when LC_ALL=C and GDB was compiled with Python 3.6 or earlier.

bpo-34587 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34587]: test_socket: Remove RDSTest.testCongestion(). The test tries to fill the receiver's socket buffer and expects an error. But the RDS protocol doesn't require that. Moreover, the Linux implementation of RDS expects that the producer of the messages reduces its rate, it's not the role of the receiver to trigger an error. The test fails on Fedora 28 by design, so just remove it.

bpo-34661 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34661]: Fix test_shutil if unzip doesn't support -t.

bpo-34200 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34200]: Fixed non-deterministic flakiness of test_pkg by not using the scary test.support.module_cleanup() logic to save and restore sys.modules contents between test cases.

bpo-34569 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34569]: The experimental PEP 554 data channels now correctly pass negative PyLong objects between subinterpreters on 32-bit systems. Patch by Michael Felt.

bpo-34594 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34594]: Fix usage of hardcoded errno values in the tests.

bpo-34579 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34579]: Fix test_embed for AIX Patch by Michael Felt

bpo-34542 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34542]: Use 3072 RSA keys and SHA-256 signature for test certs and keys.

bpo-11193 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11193]: Remove special condition for AIX in test_subprocess.test_undecodable_env

bpo-34347 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34347]: Fix test_utf8_mode.test_cmd_line for AIX

bpo-34490 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34490]: On AIX with AF_UNIX family sockets getsockname() does not provide 'sockname', so skip calls to transport.get_extra_info('sockname')

bpo-34391 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34391]: Fix ftplib test for TLS 1.3 by reading from data socket.

bpo-11192 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11192]: Fix test_socket on AIX 6.1 and later IPv6 zone id supports only supported by inet_pton6_zone(). Switch to runtime-based platform.system() to establish current platform rather than build-time based sys.platform()

bpo-34399 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34399]: Update all RSA keys and DH params to use at least 2048 bits.

bpo-34373 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34373]: Fix test_mktime and test_pthread_getcpuclickid tests for AIX Add range checking for _PyTime_localtime for AIX Patch by Michael Felt

bpo-11191 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11191]: Skip the distutils test 'test_search_cpp' when using XLC as compiler patch by aixtools (Michael Felt)

Improved an error message when mock assert_has_calls fails.

bpo-33746 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33746]: Fix test_unittest when run in verbose mode.

bpo-33901 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33901]: Fix test_dbm_gnu on macOS with gdbm 1.15: add a larger value to make sure that the file size changes.

bpo-33873 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33873]: Fix a bug in regrtest that caused an extra test to run if --huntrleaks/-R was used. Exit with error in case that invalid parameters are specified to --huntrleaks/-R (at least one warmup run and one repetition must be used).

bpo-33562 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33562]: Check that a global asyncio event loop policy is not left behind by any tests.

bpo-33655 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33655]: Ignore test_posix_fallocate failures on BSD platforms that might be due to running on ZFS.

bpo-32962 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32962]: Fixed test_gdb when Python is compiled with flags -mcet -fcf-protection -O0.

bpo-33358 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33358]: Fix test_embed.test_pre_initialization_sys_options() when the interpreter is built with --enable-shared.

bpo-32872 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32872]: Avoid regrtest compatibility issue with namespace packages.

bpo-32517 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32517]: Fix failing test_asyncio on macOS 10.12.2+ due to transport of KqueueSelector loop was not being closed.

bpo-32663 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32663]: Making sure the SMTPUTF8SimTests class of tests gets run in test_smtplib.py.

bpo-27643 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27643]: Test_C test case needs "signed short" bitfields, but the IBM XLC compiler (on AIX) does not support this Skip the code and test when AIX and XLC are used

Applicable to Python2-2.7 and later

bpo-19417 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19417]: Add test_bdb.py.

bpo-31809 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31809]: Add tests to verify connection with secp ECDH curves.

Build

bpo-34691 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34691]: The _contextvars module is now built into the core Python library on Windows.

bpo-35683 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35683]: Improved Azure Pipelines build steps and now verifying layouts correctly

bpo-35642 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35642]: Remove asynciomodule.c from pythoncore.vcxproj

bpo-35550 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35550]: Fix incorrect Solaris #ifdef checks to look for __sun && __SVR4 instead of sun when compiling.

bpo-35499 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35499]: make profile-opt no longer replaces CFLAGS_NODIST with CFLAGS. It now adds profile-guided optimization (PGO) flags to CFLAGS_NODIST: existing CFLAGS_NODIST flags are kept.

bpo-35257 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35257]: Avoid leaking the linker flags from Link Time Optimizations (LTO) into distutils when compiling C extensions.

bpo-35351 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35351]: When building Python with clang and LTO, LTO flags are no longer passed into CFLAGS to build third-party C extensions through distutils.

bpo-35139 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35139]: Fix a compiler error when statically linking pyexpat in Modules/Setup.

bpo-35059 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35059]: PCbuild: Set InlineFunctionExpansion to OnlyExplicitInline ("/Ob1" option) in pyproject.props in Debug mode to expand functions marked as inline. This change should make Python compiled in Debug mode a little bit faster on Windows.

bpo-35011 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35011]: Restores the use of pyexpatns.h to isolate our embedded copy of the expat C library so that its symbols do not conflict at link or dynamic loading time with an embedding application or other extension modules with their own version of libexpat.

bpo-28015 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28015]: Have --with-lto works correctly with clang.

bpo-34765 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34765]: Update the outdated install-sh file to the latest revision from automake v1.16.1

bpo-34585 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34585]: Check for floating-point byte order in configure.ac using compilation tests instead of executing code, so that these checks work in cross-compiled builds.

bpo-34710 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34710]: Fixed SSL module build with OpenSSL & pedantic CFLAGS.

bpo-34582 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34582]: Add JUnit XML output for regression tests and update Azure DevOps builds.

bpo-34081 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34081]: Make Sphinx warnings as errors in the Docs Makefile.

bpo-34555 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34555]: Fix for case where it was not possible to have both HAVE_LINUX_VM_SOCKETS_H and HAVE_SOCKADDR_ALG be undefined.

bpo-33015 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33015]: Fix an undefined behaviour in the pthread implementation of PyThread_start_new_thread(): add a function wrapper to always return NULL.

bpo-34245 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34245]: The Python shared library is now installed with write permission (mode 0755), which is the standard way of installing such libraries.

bpo-34121 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34121]: Fix detection of C11 atomic support on clang.

bpo-32430 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32430]: Rename Modules/Setup.dist to Modules/Setup, and remove the necessity to copy the former manually to the latter when updating the local source tree.

bpo-30345 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30345]: Add -g to LDFLAGS when compiling with LTO to get debug symbols.

bpo-5755 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5755]: Move -Wstrict-prototypes option to CFLAGS_NODIST from OPT. This option emitted annoying warnings when building extension modules written in C++.

bpo-33614 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33614]: Ensures module definition files for the stable ABI on Windows are correctly regenerated.

bpo-33648 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33648]: The --with-c-locale-warning configuration flag has been removed. It has had no effect for about a year.

bpo-33522 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33522]: Enable CI builds on Visual Studio Team Services at https://python.visualstudio.com/cpython

bpo-33512 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33512]: configure's check for "long double" has been simplified

bpo-33483 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33483]: C compiler is now correctly detected from the standard environment variables. --without-gcc and --with-icc options have been removed.

bpo-33394 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33394]: Enable the verbose build for extension modules, when GNU make is passed macros on the command line.

bpo-33393 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33393]: Update config.guess and config.sub files.

bpo-33377 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33377]: Add new triplets for mips r6 and riscv variants (used in extension suffixes).

bpo-32232 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32232]: By default, modules configured in Modules/Setup are no longer built with -DPy_BUILD_CORE. Instead, modules that specifically need that preprocessor definition include it in their individual entries.

bpo-33182 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33182]: The embedding tests can once again be built with clang 6.0

bpo-33163 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33163]: Upgrade pip to 9.0.3 and setuptools to v39.0.1.

bpo-33012 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33012]: gcc 8 has added a new warning heuristic to detect invalid function casts and a stock python build seems to hit that warning quite often. The most common is the cast of a METH_NOARGS function (that uses just one argument) to a PyCFunction. Fix this by adding a dummy argument to all functions that implement METH_NOARGS.

bpo-32898 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32898]: Fix the python debug build when using COUNT_ALLOCS.

bpo-29442 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29442]: Replace optparse with argparse in setup.py

Windows

bpo-35890 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35890]: Fix API calling consistency of GetVersionEx and wcstok.

bpo-32560 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32560]: The py launcher now forwards its STARTUPINFO structure to child processes.

bpo-35854 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35854]: Fix EnvBuilder and --symlinks in venv on Windows

bpo-35811 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35811]: Avoid propagating venv settings when launching via py.exe

bpo-35797 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35797]: Fix default executable used by the multiprocessing module

bpo-35758 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35758]: Allow building on ARM with MSVC.

bpo-29734 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29734]: Fix handle leaks in os.stat on Windows.

bpo-35596 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35596]: Use unchecked PYCs for the embeddable distro to avoid zipimport restrictions.

bpo-35596 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35596]: Fix vcruntime140.dll being added to embeddable distro multiple times.

bpo-35402 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35402]: Update Windows build to use Tcl and Tk 8.6.9

bpo-35401 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35401]: Updates Windows build to OpenSSL 1.1.0j

bpo-34977 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34977]: venv on Windows will now use a python.exe redirector rather than copying the actual binaries from the base environment.

bpo-34977 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34977]: Adds support for building a Windows App Store package

bpo-35067 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35067]: Remove _distutils_findvs module and use vswhere.exe instead.

bpo-32557 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32557]: Allow shutil.disk_usage to take a file path on Windows

bpo-34770 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34770]: Fix a possible null pointer dereference in pyshellext.cpp.

bpo-34603 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34603]: Fix returning structs from functions produced by MSVC

bpo-34581 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34581]: Guard MSVC-specific code in socketmodule.c with #ifdef _MSC_VER.

bpo-34532 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34532]: Fixes exit code of list version arguments for py.exe.

bpo-34062 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34062]: Fixed the '--list' and '--list-paths' arguments for the py.exe launcher

bpo-34225 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34225]: Ensure INCLUDE and LIB directories do not end with a backslash.

bpo-34011 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34011]: A suite of code has been changed which copied across DLLs and init.tcl from the running Python location into a venv being created. These copies are needed only when running from a Python source build, and the copying code is now only run when that is the case, rather than whenever a venv is created.

bpo-34006 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34006]: Revert line length limit for Windows help docs. The line-length limit is not needed because the pages appear in a separate app rather than on a browser tab. It can also interact badly with the DPI setting.

bpo-31546 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31546]: Restore running PyOS_InputHook while waiting for user input at the prompt. The restores integration of interactive GUI windows (such as Matplotlib figures) with the prompt on Windows.

bpo-30237 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30237]: Output error when ReadConsole is canceled by CancelSynchronousIo instead of crashing.

bpo-33895 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33895]: GIL is released while calling functions that acquire Windows loader lock.

bpo-33720 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33720]: Reduces maximum marshal recursion depth on release builds.

bpo-29097 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29097]: Fix bug where datetime.fromtimestamp() erroneously throws an OSError on Windows for values between 0 and 86400. Patch by Ammar Askar.

bpo-33316 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33316]: PyThread_release_lock always fails

bpo-33184 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33184]: Update Windows installer to use OpenSSL 1.1.0h.

bpo-32890 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32890]: Fix usage of GetLastError() instead of errno in os.execve() and os.truncate().

bpo-33016 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33016]: Fix potential use of uninitialized memory in nt._getfinalpathname

bpo-32903 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32903]: Fix a memory leak in os.chdir() on Windows if the current directory is set to a UNC path.

bpo-32901 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32901]: Update Tcl and Tk versions to 8.6.8

bpo-31966 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31966]: Fixed WindowsConsoleIO.write() for writing empty data.

bpo-32409 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32409]: Ensures activate.bat can handle Unicode contents.

bpo-32457 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32457]: Improves handling of denormalized executable path when launching Python.

bpo-32370 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32370]: Use the correct encoding for ipconfig output in the uuid module. Patch by Segev Finer.

bpo-29248 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29248]: Fix os.readlink() on Windows, which was mistakenly treating the PrintNameOffset field of the reparse data buffer as a number of characters instead of bytes. Patch by Craig Holmquist and SSE4.

bpo-1104 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1104]: Correctly handle string length in msilib.SummaryInfo.GetProperty() to prevent it from truncating the last character.

macOS

bpo-35401 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35401]: Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 1.1.0j.

bpo-35025 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35025]: Properly guard the use of the CLOCK_GETTIME et al. macros in timemodule on macOS.

bpo-24658 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24658]: On macOS, fix reading from and writing into a file with a size larger than 2 GiB.

bpo-34405 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34405]: Update to OpenSSL 1.1.0i for macOS installer builds.

bpo-33635 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33635]: In macOS stat on some file descriptors (/dev/fd/3 f.e) will result in bad file descriptor OSError. Guard against this exception was added in is_dir, is_file and similar methods. DirEntry.is_dir can also throw this exception so _RecursiveWildcardSelector._iterate_directories was also extended with the same error ignoring pattern.

bpo-13631 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13631]: The .editrc file in user's home directory is now processed correctly during the readline initialization through editline emulation on macOS.

bpo-33184 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33184]: Update macOS installer build to use OpenSSL 1.1.0h.

bpo-32726 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32726]: Build and link with private copy of Tcl/Tk 8.6 for the macOS 10.6+ installer. The 10.9+ installer variant already does this. This means that the Python 3.7 provided by the python.org macOS installers no longer need or use any external versions of Tcl/Tk, either system-provided or user-installed, such as ActiveTcl.

bpo-32901 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32901]: Update macOS 10.9+ installer to Tcl/Tk 8.6.8.

bpo-31903 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31903]: In _scproxy, drop the GIL when calling into SystemConfiguration to avoid deadlocks.

IDLE

bpo-35770 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35770]: IDLE macosx deletes Options => Configure IDLE. It previously deleted Window => Zoom Height by mistake. (Zoom Height is now on the Options menu). On Mac, the settings dialog is accessed via Preferences on the IDLE menu.

bpo-35769 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35769]: Change IDLE's new file name from 'Untitled' to 'untitled'

bpo-35660 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35660]: Fix imports in idlelib.window.

bpo-35641 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35641]: Proper format calltip when the function has no docstring.

bpo-33987 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33987]: Use ttk Frame for ttk widgets.

bpo-34055 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34055]: Fix erroneous 'smart' indents and newlines in IDLE Shell.

bpo-35591 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35591]: Find Selection now works when selection not found.

bpo-35196 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35196]: Speed up squeezer line counting.

bpo-35598 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35598]: Update config_key: use PEP 8 names and ttk widgets, make some objects global, and add tests.

bpo-28097 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28097]: Add Previous/Next History entries to Shell menu.

bpo-35208 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35208]: Squeezer now properly counts wrapped lines before newlines.

bpo-35555 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35555]: Gray out Code Context menu entry when it's not applicable.

bpo-35521 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35521]: Document the IDLE editor code context feature. Add some internal references within the IDLE doc.

bpo-22703 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22703]: The Code Context menu label now toggles between Show/Hide Code Context. The Zoom Height menu now toggles between Zoom/Restore Height. Zoom Height has moved from the Window menu to the Options menu.

bpo-35213 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35213]: Where appropriate, use 'macOS' in idlelib.

bpo-34864 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34864]: On macOS, warn if the system preference "Prefer tabs when opening documents" is set to "Always".

bpo-34864 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34864]: Document two IDLE on MacOS issues. The System Preferences Dock "prefer tabs always" setting disables some IDLE features. Menus are a bit different than as described for Windows and Linux.

bpo-35202 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35202]: Remove unused imports from lib/idlelib

bpo-33000 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33000]: Document that IDLE's shell has no line limit. A program that runs indefinitely can overfill memory.

bpo-23220 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23220]: Explain how IDLE's Shell displays output.

bpo-35099 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35099]: Improve the doc about IDLE running user code. The section is renamed from "IDLE -- console differences" is renamed "Running user code". It mostly covers the implications of using custom sys.stdxxx objects.

bpo-35097 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35097]: Add IDLE doc subsection explaining editor windows. Topics include opening, title and status bar, .py* extension, and running.

bpo-35093 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35093]: Document the IDLE document viewer in the IDLE doc. Add a paragraph in "Help and preferences", "Help sources" subsection.

bpo-35088 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35088]: Update idlelib.help.copy_string docstring. We now use git and backporting instead of hg and forward merging.

bpo-35087 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35087]: Update idlelib help files for the current doc build. The main change is the elimination of chapter-section numbers.

bpo-34548 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34548]: Use configured color theme for read-only text views.

bpo-1529353 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1529353]: Enable "squeezing" of long outputs in the shell, to avoid performance degradation and to clean up the history without losing it. Squeezed outputs may be copied, viewed in a separate window, and "unsqueezed".

bpo-34047 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34047]: Fixed mousewheel scrolling direction on macOS.

bpo-34275 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34275]: Make IDLE calltips always visible on Mac. Some MacOS-tk combinations need .update_idletasks(). Patch by Kevin Walzer.

bpo-34120 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34120]: Fix unresponsiveness after closing certain windows and dialogs.

bpo-33975 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33975]: Avoid small type when running htests. Since part of the purpose of human-viewed tests is to determine that widgets look right, it is important that they look the same for testing as when running IDLE.

bpo-33905 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33905]: Add test for idlelib.stackview.StackBrowser.

bpo-33924 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33924]: Change mainmenu.menudefs key 'windows' to 'window'. Every other menudef key is lowercase version of main menu entry.

bpo-33906 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33906]: Rename idlelib.windows as window Match Window on the main menu and remove last plural module name.

bpo-33917 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33917]: Fix and document idlelib/idle_test/template.py. The revised file compiles, runs, and tests OK. idle_test/README.txt explains how to use it to create new IDLE test files.

bpo-33904 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33904]: IDLE: In rstrip, rename class RstripExtension as Rstrip

bpo-33907 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33907]: For consistency and clarity, rename an IDLE module and classes. Module calltips and its class CallTips are now calltip and Calltip. In module calltip_w, class CallTip is now CalltipWindow.

bpo-33856 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33856]: Add "help" in the welcome message of IDLE

bpo-33839 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33839]: IDLE: refactor ToolTip and CallTip and add documentation and tests

bpo-33855 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33855]: Minimally test all IDLE modules. Add missing files, import module, instantiate classes, and check coverage. Check existing files.

bpo-33656 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33656]: On Windows, add API call saying that tk scales for DPI. On Windows 8.1+ or 10, with DPI compatibility properties of the Python binary unchanged, and a monitor resolution greater than 96 DPI, this should make text and lines sharper. It should otherwise have no effect.

bpo-33768 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33768]: Clicking on a context line moves that line to the top of the editor window.

bpo-33763 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33763]: IDLE: Use read-only text widget for code context instead of label widget.

bpo-33664 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33664]: Scroll IDLE editor text by lines. Previously, the mouse wheel and scrollbar slider moved text by a fixed number of pixels, resulting in partial lines at the top of the editor box. The change also applies to the shell and grep output windows, but not to read-only text views.

bpo-33679 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33679]: Enable theme-specific color configuration for Code Context. Use the Highlights tab to see the setting for built-in themes or add settings to custom themes.

bpo-33642 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33642]: Display up to maxlines non-blank lines for Code Context. If there is no current context, show a single blank line.

bpo-33628 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33628]: IDLE: Cleanup codecontext.py and its test.

bpo-33564 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33564]: IDLE's code context now recognizes async as a block opener.

bpo-21474 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21474]: Update word/identifier definition from ascii to unicode. In text and entry boxes, this affects selection by double-click, movement left/right by control-left/right, and deletion left/right by control-BACKSPACE/DEL.

bpo-33204 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33204]: IDLE: consistently color invalid string prefixes. A 'u' string prefix cannot be paired with either 'r' or 'f'. Consistently color as much of the prefix, starting at the right, as is valid. Revise and extend colorizer test.

bpo-32984 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32984]: Set __file__ while running a startup file. Like Python, IDLE optionally runs one startup file in the Shell window before presenting the first interactive input prompt. For IDLE, -s runs a file named in environmental variable IDLESTARTUP or PYTHONSTARTUP; -r file runs file. Python sets __file__ to the startup file name before running the file and unsets it before the first prompt. IDLE now does the same when run normally, without the -n option.

bpo-32940 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32940]: Simplify and rename StringTranslatePseudoMapping in pyparse.

bpo-32916 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32916]: Change str to code in pyparse.

bpo-32905 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32905]: Remove unused code in pyparse module.

bpo-32874 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32874]: Add tests for pyparse.

bpo-32837 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32837]: Using the system and place-dependent default encoding for open() is a bad idea for IDLE's system and location-independent files.

bpo-32826 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32826]: Add "encoding=utf-8" to open() in IDLE's test_help_about. GUI test test_file_buttons() only looks at initial ascii-only lines, but failed on systems where open() defaults to 'ascii' because readline() internally reads and decodes far enough ahead to encounter a non-ascii character in CREDITS.txt.

bpo-32831 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32831]: Add docstrings and tests for codecontext.

bpo-32765 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32765]: Update configdialog General tab docstring to add new widgets to the widget list.

Tools/Demos

bpo-35884 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35884]: Add a benchmark script for timing various ways to access variables: Tools/scripts/var_access_benchmark.py.

bpo-34989 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34989]: python-gdb.py now handles errors on computing the line number of a Python frame.

bpo-20260 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20260]: Argument Clinic now has non-bitwise unsigned int converters.

bpo-32962 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32962]: python-gdb now catches UnicodeDecodeError exceptions when calling string().

bpo-32962 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32962]: python-gdb now catches ValueError on read_var(): when Python has no debug symbols for example.

bpo-33189 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33189]: pygettext.py now recognizes only literal strings as docstrings and translatable strings, and rejects bytes literals and f-string expressions.

bpo-31920 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31920]: Fixed handling directories as arguments in the pygettext script. Based on patch by Oleg Krasnikov.

bpo-29673 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29673]: Fix pystackv and pystack gdbinit macros.

bpo-25427 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25427]: Remove the pyvenv script in favor of python3 -m venv in order to lower confusion as to what Python interpreter a virtual environment will be created for.

bpo-32885 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32885]: Add an -n flag for Tools/scripts/pathfix.py to disable automatic backup creation (files with ~ suffix).

bpo-32222 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32222]: Fix pygettext not extracting docstrings for functions with type annotated arguments. Patch by Toby Harradine.

bpo-31583 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31583]: Fix 2to3 for using with --add-suffix option but without --output-dir option for relative path to files in current directory.

C API

bpo-35713 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35713]: The PyByteArray_Init() and PyByteArray_Fini() functions have been removed. They did nothing since Python 2.7.4 and Python 3.2.0, were excluded from the limited API (stable ABI), and were not documented.

bpo-33817 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33817]: Fixed _PyBytes_Resize() for empty bytes objects.

bpo-35322 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35322]: Fix memory leak in PyUnicode_EncodeLocale() and PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault() on error handling.

bpo-35059 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35059]: The following C macros have been converted to static inline functions: Py_INCREF(), Py_DECREF(), Py_XINCREF(), Py_XDECREF(), PyObject_INIT(), PyObject_INIT_VAR().

bpo-35296 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35296]: make install now also installs the internal API: Include/internal/*.h header files.

bpo-35081 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35081]: Internal APIs surrounded by #ifdef Py_BUILD_CORE have been moved from Include/*.h headers to new header files Include/internal/pycore_*.h.

bpo-35259 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35259]: Conditionally declare Py_FinalizeEx() (new in 3.6) based on Py_LIMITED_API. Patch by Arthur Neufeld.

bpo-35081 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35081]: The _PyObject_GC_TRACK() and _PyObject_GC_UNTRACK() macros have been removed from the public C API.

bpo-35134 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134]: Creation of a new Include/cpython/ subdirectory.

bpo-34725 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34725]: Adds _Py_SetProgramFullPath so embedders may override sys.executable

bpo-34910 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34910]: Ensure that PyObject_Print() always returns -1 on error. Patch by Zackery Spytz.

bpo-34523 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34523]: Py_DecodeLocale() and Py_EncodeLocale() now use the UTF-8 encoding on Windows if Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag is zero.

bpo-34193 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34193]: Fix pluralization in TypeError messages in getargs.c and typeobject.c: '1 argument' instead of '1 arguments' and '1 element' instead of '1 elements'.

bpo-34127 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34127]: Return grammatically correct error message based on argument count. Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

bpo-23927 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23927]: Fixed SystemError in PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords() when the w* format unit is used for optional parameter.

bpo-32455 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32455]: Added PyCompile_OpcodeStackEffectWithJump().

bpo-34008 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34008]: Py_Main() can again be called after Py_Initialize(), as in Python 3.6.

bpo-32500 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32500]: Fixed error messages for PySequence_Size(), PySequence_GetItem(), PySequence_SetItem() and PySequence_DelItem() called with a mapping and PyMapping_Size() called with a sequence.

bpo-33818 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33818]: PyExceptionClass_Name() will now return const char * instead of char *.

bpo-33042 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33042]: Embedding applications may once again call PySys_ResetWarnOptions, PySys_AddWarnOption, and PySys_AddXOption prior to calling Py_Initialize.

bpo-32374 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32374]: Document that m_traverse for multi-phase initialized modules can be called with m_state=NULL, and add a sanity check

bpo-30863 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30863]: PyUnicode_AsWideChar() and PyUnicode_AsWideCharString() no longer cache the wchar_t* representation of string objects.

Python 3.7.0 final

Release date: 2018-06-27

Library

bpo-33851 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33851]: Fix ast.get_docstring() for a node that lacks a docstring.

C API

bpo-33932 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33932]: Calling Py_Initialize() twice does nothing, instead of failing with a fatal error: restore the Python 3.6 behaviour.

Python 3.7.0 release candidate 1

Release date: 2018-06-12

Core and Builtins

bpo-33803 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33803]: Fix a crash in hamt.c caused by enabling GC tracking for an object that hadn't all of its fields set to NULL.

bpo-33706 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33706]: Fix a crash in Python initialization when parsing the command line options. Thanks Christoph Gohlke for the bug report and the fix!

bpo-30654 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30654]: Fixed reset of the SIGINT handler to SIG_DFL on interpreter shutdown even when there was a custom handler set previously. Patch by Philipp Kerling.

bpo-31849 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31849]: Fix signed/unsigned comparison warning in pyhash.c.

Library

bpo-30167 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30167]: Prevent site.main() exception if PYTHONSTARTUP is set. Patch by Steve Weber.

bpo-33812 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33812]: Datetime instance d with non-None tzinfo, but with d.tzinfo.utcoffset(d) returning None is now treated as naive by the astimezone() method.

bpo-30805 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30805]: Avoid race condition with debug logging

bpo-33694 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33694]: asyncio: Fix a race condition causing data loss on pause_reading()/resume_reading() when using the ProactorEventLoop.

bpo-32493 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32493]: Correct test for uuid_enc_be availability in configure.ac. Patch by Michael Felt.

bpo-33792 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33792]: Add asyncio.WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy and asyncio.WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy.

bpo-33778 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33778]: Update unicodedata's database to Unicode version 11.0.0.

bpo-33770 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33770]: improve base64 exception message for encoded inputs of invalid length

bpo-33769 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33769]: asyncio/start_tls: Fix error message; cancel callbacks in case of an unhandled error; mark SSLTransport as closed if it is aborted.

bpo-33767 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33767]: The concatenation (+) and repetition (*) sequence operations now raise TypeError instead of SystemError when performed on mmap.mmap objects. Patch by Zackery Spytz.

bpo-33734 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33734]: asyncio/ssl: Fix AttributeError, increase default handshake timeout

bpo-11874 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11874]: Use a better regex when breaking usage into wrappable parts. Avoids bogus assertion errors from custom metavar strings.

bpo-33582 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33582]: Emit a deprecation warning for inspect.formatargspec

Documentation

bpo-33409 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33409]: Clarified the relationship between PEP 538 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/]'s PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE and PEP 540's PYTHONUTF8 mode.

bpo-33736 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33736]: Improve the documentation of asyncio.open_connection(), asyncio.start_server() and their UNIX socket counterparts.

bpo-31432 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31432]: Clarify meaning of CERT_NONE, CERT_OPTIONAL, and CERT_REQUIRED flags for ssl.SSLContext.verify_mode.

Build

bpo-5755 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5755]: Move -Wstrict-prototypes option to CFLAGS_NODIST from OPT. This option emitted annoying warnings when building extension modules written in C++.

Windows

bpo-33720 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33720]: Reduces maximum marshal recursion depth on release builds.

IDLE

bpo-33656 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33656]: On Windows, add API call saying that tk scales for DPI. On Windows 8.1+ or 10, with DPI compatibility properties of the Python binary unchanged, and a monitor resolution greater than 96 DPI, this should make text and lines sharper. It should otherwise have no effect.

bpo-33768 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33768]: Clicking on a context line moves that line to the top of the editor window.

bpo-33763 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33763]: IDLE: Use read-only text widget for code context instead of label widget.

bpo-33664 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33664]: Scroll IDLE editor text by lines. Previously, the mouse wheel and scrollbar slider moved text by a fixed number of pixels, resulting in partial lines at the top of the editor box. The change also applies to the shell and grep output windows, but not to read-only text views.

bpo-33679 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33679]: Enable theme-specific color configuration for Code Context. Use the Highlights tab to see the setting for built-in themes or add settings to custom themes.

bpo-33642 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33642]: Display up to maxlines non-blank lines for Code Context. If there is no current context, show a single blank line.

Python 3.7.0 beta 5

Release date: 2018-05-30

Core and Builtins

bpo-33622 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33622]: Fixed a leak when the garbage collector fails to add an object with the __del__ method or referenced by it into the gc.garbage list. PyGC_Collect() can now be called when an exception is set and preserves it.

bpo-33509 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33509]: Fix module_globals parameter of warnings.warn_explicit(): don't crash if module_globals is not a dict.

bpo-20104 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20104]: The new os.posix_spawn added in 3.7.0b1 was removed as we are still working on what the API should look like. Expect this in 3.8 instead.

bpo-33475 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33475]: Fixed miscellaneous bugs in converting annotations to strings and optimized parentheses in the string representation.

bpo-33391 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33391]: Fix a leak in set_symmetric_difference().

bpo-28055 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28055]: Fix unaligned accesses in siphash24(). Patch by Rolf Eike Beer.

bpo-32911 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32911]: Due to unexpected compatibility issues discovered during downstream beta testing, reverted bpo-29463 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29463]. docstring field is removed from Module, ClassDef, FunctionDef, and AsyncFunctionDef ast nodes which was added in 3.7a1. Docstring expression is restored as a first statement in their body. Based on patch by Inada Naoki.

bpo-21983 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21983]: Fix a crash in ctypes.cast() in case the type argument is a ctypes structured data type. Patch by Eryk Sun and Oren Milman.

Library

bpo-32751 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32751]: When cancelling the task due to a timeout, asyncio.wait_for() will now wait until the cancellation is complete.

bpo-32684 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32684]: Fix gather to propagate cancellation of itself even with return_exceptions.

bpo-33654 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33654]: Support protocol type switching in SSLTransport.set_protocol().

bpo-33674 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33674]: Pause the transport as early as possible to further reduce the risk of data_received() being called before connection_made().

bpo-33674 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33674]: Fix a race condition in SSLProtocol.connection_made() of asyncio.sslproto: start immediately the handshake instead of using call_soon(). Previously, data_received() could be called before the handshake started, causing the handshake to hang or fail.

bpo-31647 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31647]: Fixed bug where calling write_eof() on a _SelectorSocketTransport after it's already closed raises AttributeError.

bpo-32610 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32610]: Make asyncio.all_tasks() return only pending tasks.

bpo-32410 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32410]: Avoid blocking on file IO in sendfile fallback code

bpo-33469 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33469]: Fix RuntimeError after closing loop that used run_in_executor

bpo-33672 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33672]: Fix Task.__repr__ crash with Cython's bogus coroutines

bpo-33654 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33654]: Fix transport.set_protocol() to support switching between asyncio.Protocol and asyncio.BufferedProtocol. Fix loop.start_tls() to work with asyncio.BufferedProtocols.

bpo-33652 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33652]: Pickles of type variables and subscripted generics are now future-proof and compatible with older Python versions.

bpo-32493 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32493]: Fixed uuid.uuid1() on FreeBSD.

bpo-33618 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33618]: Finalize and document preliminary and experimental TLS 1.3 support with OpenSSL 1.1.1

bpo-33623 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33623]: Fix possible SIGSGV when asyncio.Future is created in __del__

bpo-30877 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30877]: Fixed a bug in the Python implementation of the JSON decoder that prevented the cache of parsed strings from clearing after finishing the decoding. Based on patch by c-fos.

bpo-33570 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33570]: Change TLS 1.3 cipher suite settings for compatibility with OpenSSL 1.1.1-pre6 and newer. OpenSSL 1.1.1 will have TLS 1.3 ciphers enabled by default.

bpo-28556 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556]: Do not simplify arguments to typing.Union. Now Union[Manager, Employee] is not simplified to Employee at runtime. Such simplification previously caused several bugs and limited possibilities for introspection.

bpo-33540 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33540]: Add a new block_on_close class attribute to ForkingMixIn and ThreadingMixIn classes of socketserver.

bpo-33548 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33548]: tempfile._candidate_tempdir_list should consider common TEMP locations

bpo-33109 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33109]: argparse subparsers are once again not required by default, reverting the change in behavior introduced by bpo-26510 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26510] in 3.7.0a2.

bpo-33536 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33536]: dataclasses.make_dataclass now checks for invalid field names and duplicate fields. Also, added a check for invalid field specifications.

bpo-33542 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33542]: Prevent uuid.get_node from using a DUID instead of a MAC on Windows. Patch by Zvi Effron

bpo-26819 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26819]: Fix race condition with ReadTransport.resume_reading in Windows proactor event loop.

Fix failure in typing.get_type_hints() when ClassVar was provided as a string forward reference.

bpo-33505 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33505]: Optimize asyncio.ensure_future() by reordering if checks: 1.17x faster.

bpo-33497 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33497]: Add errors param to cgi.parse_multipart and make an encoding in FieldStorage use the given errors (needed for Twisted). Patch by Amber Brown.

bpo-33495 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33495]: Change dataclasses.Fields repr to use the repr of each of its members, instead of str. This makes it more clear what each field actually represents. This is especially true for the 'type' member.

bpo-33453 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33453]: Fix dataclasses to work if using literal string type annotations or if using PEP 563 "Postponed Evaluation of Annotations". Only specific string prefixes are detected for both ClassVar ("ClassVar" and "typing.ClassVar") and InitVar ("InitVar" and "dataclasses.InitVar").

bpo-28556 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556]: Minor fixes in typing module: add annotations to NamedTuple.__new__, pass *args and **kwds in Generic.__new__. Original PRs by Paulius Šarka and Chad Dombrova.

bpo-20087 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20087]: Updated alias mapping with glibc 2.27 supported locales.

bpo-33422 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33422]: Fix trailing quotation marks getting deleted when looking up byte/string literals on pydoc. Patch by Andrés Delfino.

bpo-28167 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28167]: The function platform.linux_distribution and platform.dist now trigger a DeprecationWarning and have been marked for removal in Python 3.8

bpo-33197 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33197]: Update error message when constructing invalid inspect.Parameters Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-33263 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33263]: Fix FD leak in _SelectorSocketTransport Patch by Vlad Starostin.

bpo-32861 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32861]: The urllib.robotparser's __str__ representation now includes wildcard entries and the "Crawl-delay" and "Request-rate" fields. Patch by Michael Lazar.

bpo-32257 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32257]: The ssl module now contains OP_NO_RENEGOTIATION constant, available with OpenSSL 1.1.0h or 1.1.1.

bpo-16865 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16865]: Support arrays >=2GiB in ctypes. Patch by Segev Finer.

Documentation

bpo-23859 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23859]: Document that asyncio.wait() does not cancel its futures on timeout.

bpo-32436 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32436]: Document PEP 567 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/] changes to asyncio.

bpo-33604 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33604]: Update HMAC md5 default to a DeprecationWarning, bump removal to 3.8.

bpo-33503 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33503]: Fix broken pypi link

bpo-33421 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33421]: Add missing documentation for typing.AsyncContextManager.

Tests

bpo-33655 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33655]: Ignore test_posix_fallocate failures on BSD platforms that might be due to running on ZFS.

bpo-32604 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32604]: Remove the _xxsubinterpreters module (meant for testing) and associated helpers. This module was originally added recently in 3.7b1.

Build

bpo-33614 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33614]: Ensures module definition files for the stable ABI on Windows are correctly regenerated.

bpo-33522 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33522]: Enable CI builds on Visual Studio Team Services at https://python.visualstudio.com/cpython

bpo-33012 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33012]: Add -Wno-cast-function-type for gcc 8 for silencing warnings about function casts like casting to PyCFunction in method definition lists.

macOS

bpo-13631 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13631]: The .editrc file in user's home directory is now processed correctly during the readline initialization through editline emulation on macOS.

IDLE

bpo-33628 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33628]: IDLE: Cleanup codecontext.py and its test.

bpo-33564 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33564]: IDLE's code context now recognizes async as a block opener.

bpo-32831 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32831]: Add docstrings and tests for codecontext.

Python 3.7.0 beta 4

Release date: 2018-05-02

Core and Builtins

bpo-33363 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33363]: Raise a SyntaxError for async with and async for statements outside of async functions.

bpo-33128 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33128]: Fix a bug that causes PathFinder to appear twice on sys.meta_path. Patch by Pablo Galindo Salgado.

bpo-33312 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33312]: Fixed clang ubsan (undefined behavior sanitizer) warnings in dictobject.c by adjusting how the internal struct _dictkeysobject shared keys structure is declared.

bpo-33231 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33231]: Fix potential memory leak in normalizestring().

bpo-33205 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33205]: Change dict growth function from round_up_to_power_2(used*2+hashtable_size/2) to round_up_to_power_2(used*3). Previously, dict is shrunk only when used == 0. Now dict has more chance to be shrunk.

bpo-29922 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29922]: Improved error messages in 'async with' when __aenter__() or __aexit__() return non-awaitable object.

bpo-33199 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33199]: Fix ma_version_tag in dict implementation is uninitialized when copying from key-sharing dict.

Library

bpo-33281 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33281]: Fix ctypes.util.find_library regression on macOS.

bpo-33383 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33383]: Fixed crash in the get() method of the dbm.ndbm database object when it is called with a single argument.

bpo-33329 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33329]: Fix multiprocessing regression on newer glibcs

bpo-991266 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=991266]: Fix quoting of the Comment attribute of http.cookies.SimpleCookie.

bpo-33131 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33131]: Upgrade bundled version of pip to 10.0.1.

bpo-33308 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33308]: Fixed a crash in the parser module when converting an ST object to a tree of tuples or lists with line_info=False and col_info=True.

bpo-33266 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33266]: lib2to3 now recognizes rf'...' strings.

bpo-11594 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11594]: Ensure line-endings are respected when using lib2to3.

bpo-33254 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33254]: Have importlib.resources.contents() and importlib.abc.ResourceReader.contents() return an iterable instead of an iterator.

bpo-33256 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33256]: Fix display of <module> call in the html produced by cgitb.html(). Patch by Stéphane Blondon.

bpo-33185 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33185]: Fixed regression when running pydoc with the -m switch. (The regression was introduced in 3.7.0b3 by the resolution of bpo-33053 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33053]) This fix also changed pydoc to add os.getcwd() to sys.path when necessary, rather than adding ".".

bpo-33169 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33169]: Delete entries of None in sys.path_importer_cache when importlib.machinery.invalidate_caches() is called.

bpo-33217 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33217]: Deprecate looking up non-Enum objects in Enum classes and Enum members (will raise TypeError in 3.8+).

bpo-33203 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33203]: random.Random.choice() now raises IndexError for empty sequences consistently even when called from subclasses without a getrandbits() implementation.

bpo-33224 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33224]: Update difflib.mdiff() for PEP 479 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/]. Convert an uncaught StopIteration in a generator into a return-statement.

bpo-33209 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33209]: End framing at the end of C implementation of pickle.Pickler.dump().

bpo-20104 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20104]: Improved error handling and fixed a reference leak in os.posix_spawn().

bpo-33175 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33175]: In dataclasses, Field.__set_name__ now looks up the __set_name__ special method on the class, not the instance, of the default value.

bpo-33097 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33097]: Raise RuntimeError when executor.submit is called during interpreter shutdown.

bpo-31908 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31908]: Fix output of cover files for trace module command-line tool. Previously emitted cover files only when --missing option was used. Patch by Michael Selik.

Documentation

bpo-33378 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33378]: Add Korean language switcher for https://docs.python.org/3/

bpo-33276 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33276]: Clarify that the __path__ attribute on modules cannot be just any value.

bpo-33201 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33201]: Modernize documentation for writing C extension types.

bpo-33195 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33195]: Deprecate Py_UNICODE usage in c-api/arg document. Py_UNICODE related APIs are deprecated since Python 3.3, but it is missed in the document.

bpo-8243 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8243]: Add a note about curses.addch and curses.addstr exception behavior when writing outside a window, or pad.

bpo-32337 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32337]: Update documentation related with dict order.

Tests

bpo-33358 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33358]: Fix test_embed.test_pre_initialization_sys_options() when the interpreter is built with --enable-shared.

Build

bpo-33394 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33394]: Enable the verbose build for extension modules, when GNU make is passed macros on the command line.

bpo-33393 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33393]: Update config.guess and config.sub files.

bpo-33377 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33377]: Add new triplets for mips r6 and riscv variants (used in extension suffixes).

bpo-32232 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32232]: By default, modules configured in Modules/Setup are no longer built with -DPy_BUILD_CORE. Instead, modules that specifically need that preprocessor definition include it in their individual entries.

bpo-33182 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33182]: The embedding tests can once again be built with clang 6.0

Windows

bpo-33184 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33184]: Update Windows installer to use OpenSSL 1.1.0h.

macOS

bpo-33184 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33184]: Update macOS installer build to use OpenSSL 1.1.0h.

IDLE

bpo-21474 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21474]: Update word/identifier definition from ascii to unicode. In text and entry boxes, this affects selection by double-click, movement left/right by control-left/right, and deletion left/right by control-BACKSPACE/DEL.

bpo-33204 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33204]: IDLE: consistently color invalid string prefixes. A 'u' string prefix cannot be paired with either 'r' or 'f'. Consistently color as much of the prefix, starting at the right, as is valid. Revise and extend colorizer test.

Tools/Demos

bpo-33189 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33189]: pygettext.py now recognizes only literal strings as docstrings and translatable strings, and rejects bytes literals and f-string expressions.

bpo-31920 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31920]: Fixed handling directories as arguments in the pygettext script. Based on patch by Oleg Krasnikov.

bpo-29673 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29673]: Fix pystackv and pystack gdbinit macros.

bpo-31583 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31583]: Fix 2to3 for using with --add-suffix option but without --output-dir option for relative path to files in current directory.

Python 3.7.0 beta 3

Release date: 2018-03-29

Security

bpo-33136 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33136]: Harden ssl module against LibreSSL CVE 2018-8970 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-8970]. X509_VERIFY_PARAM_set1_host() is called with an explicit namelen. A new test ensures that NULL bytes are not allowed.

bpo-33001 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33001]: Minimal fix to prevent buffer overrun in os.symlink on Windows

bpo-32981 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32981]: Regexes in difflib and poplib were vulnerable to catastrophic backtracking. These regexes formed potential DOS vectors (REDOS). They have been refactored. This resolves CVE 2018-1060 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-1060] and CVE 2018-1061 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-1061]. Patch by Jamie Davis.

Core and Builtins

bpo-33053 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33053]: When using the -m switch, sys.path[0] is now explicitly expanded as the starting working directory, rather than being left as the empty path (which allows imports from the current working directory at the time of the import)

bpo-33018 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33018]: Improve consistency of errors raised by issubclass() when called with a non-class and an abstract base class as the first and second arguments, respectively. Patch by Josh Bronson.

bpo-33041 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33041]: Fixed jumping when the function contains an async for loop.

bpo-33026 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33026]: Fixed jumping out of "with" block by setting f_lineno.

bpo-33005 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33005]: Fix a crash on fork when using a custom memory allocator (ex: using PYTHONMALLOC env var). _PyGILState_Reinit() and _PyInterpreterState_Enable() now use the default RAW memory allocator to allocate a new interpreters mutex on fork.

bpo-17288 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17288]: Prevent jumps from 'return' and 'exception' trace events.

bpo-32836 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32836]: Don't use temporary variables in cases of list/dict/set comprehensions

Library

bpo-33141 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33141]: Have Field objects pass through __set_name__ to their default values, if they have their own __set_name__.

bpo-33096 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33096]: Allow ttk.Treeview.insert to insert iid that has a false boolean value. Note iid=0 and iid=False would be same. Patch by Garvit Khatri.

bpo-32873 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32873]: Treat type variables and special typing forms as immutable by copy and pickle. This fixes several minor issues and inconsistencies, and improves backwards compatibility with Python 3.6.

bpo-33134 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33134]: When computing dataclass's __hash__, use the lookup table to contain the function which returns the __hash__ value. This is an improvement over looking up a string, and then testing that string to see what to do.

bpo-33127 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33127]: The ssl module now compiles with LibreSSL 2.7.1.

bpo-32505 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32505]: Raise TypeError if a member variable of a dataclass is of type Field, but doesn't have a type annotation.

bpo-33078 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33078]: Fix the failure on OSX caused by the tests relying on sem_getvalue

bpo-33116 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33116]: Add 'Field' to dataclasses.__all__.

bpo-32896 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32896]: Fix an error where subclassing a dataclass with a field that uses a default_factory would generate an incorrect class.

bpo-33100 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33100]: Dataclasses: If a field has a default value that's a MemberDescriptorType, then it's from that field being in __slots__, not an actual default value.

bpo-32953 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32953]: If a non-dataclass inherits from a frozen dataclass, allow attributes to be added to the derived class. Only attributes from the frozen dataclass cannot be assigned to. Require all dataclasses in a hierarchy to be either all frozen or all non-frozen.

bpo-33061 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33061]: Add missing NoReturn to __all__ in typing.py

bpo-33078 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33078]: Fix the size handling in multiprocessing.Queue when a pickling error occurs.

bpo-33064 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33064]: lib2to3 now properly supports trailing commas after *args and **kwargs in function signatures.

bpo-33056 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33056]: FIX properly close leaking fds in concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor.

bpo-33021 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33021]: Release the GIL during fstat() calls, avoiding hang of all threads when calling mmap.mmap(), os.urandom(), and random.seed(). Patch by Nir Soffer.

bpo-31804 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31804]: Avoid failing in multiprocessing.Process if the standard streams are closed or None at exit.

bpo-33037 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33037]: Skip sending/receiving data after SSL transport closing.

bpo-27683 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27683]: Fix a regression in ipaddress that result of hosts() is empty when the network is constructed by a tuple containing an integer mask and only 1 bit left for addresses.

bpo-32999 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32999]: Fix C implementation of ABC.__subclasscheck__(cls, subclass) crashed when subclass is not a type object.

bpo-33009 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33009]: Fix inspect.signature() for single-parameter partialmethods.

bpo-32969 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32969]: Expose several missing constants in zlib and fix corresponding documentation.

bpo-32056 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32056]: Improved exceptions raised for invalid number of channels and sample width when read an audio file in modules aifc, wave and sunau.

bpo-32844 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32844]: Fix wrong redirection of a low descriptor (0 or 1) to stderr in subprocess if another low descriptor is closed.

bpo-32857 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32857]: In tkinter, after_cancel(None) now raises a ValueError instead of canceling the first scheduled function. Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

bpo-31639 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31639]: http.server now exposes a ThreadedHTTPServer class and uses it when the module is run with -m to cope with web browsers pre-opening sockets.

bpo-27645 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27645]: sqlite3.Connection now exposes a backup method, if the underlying SQLite library is at version 3.6.11 or higher. Patch by Lele Gaifax.

Documentation

bpo-33126 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33126]: Document PyBuffer_ToContiguous().

bpo-27212 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27212]: Modify documentation for the islice() recipe to consume initial values up to the start index.

bpo-28247 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28247]: Update zipapp documentation to describe how to make standalone applications.

bpo-18802 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18802]: Documentation changes for ipaddress. Patch by Jon Foster and Berker Peksag.

bpo-27428 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27428]: Update documentation to clarify that WindowsRegistryFinder implements MetaPathFinder. (Patch by Himanshu Lakhara)

Tests

bpo-32872 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32872]: Avoid regrtest compatibility issue with namespace packages.

bpo-32517 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32517]: Fix failing test_asyncio on macOS 10.12.2+ due to transport of KqueueSelector loop was not being closed.

bpo-19417 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19417]: Add test_bdb.py.

Build

bpo-33163 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33163]: Upgrade pip to 9.0.3 and setuptools to v39.0.1.

Windows

bpo-33016 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33016]: Fix potential use of uninitialized memory in nt._getfinalpathname

bpo-32903 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32903]: Fix a memory leak in os.chdir() on Windows if the current directory is set to a UNC path.

macOS

bpo-32726 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32726]: Build and link with private copy of Tcl/Tk 8.6 for the macOS 10.6+ installer. The 10.9+ installer variant already does this. This means that the Python 3.7 provided by the python.org macOS installers no longer need or use any external versions of Tcl/Tk, either system-provided or user-installed, such as ActiveTcl.

IDLE

bpo-32984 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32984]: Set __file__ while running a startup file. Like Python, IDLE optionally runs one startup file in the Shell window before presenting the first interactive input prompt. For IDLE, -s runs a file named in environmental variable IDLESTARTUP or PYTHONSTARTUP; -r file runs file. Python sets __file__ to the startup file name before running the file and unsets it before the first prompt. IDLE now does the same when run normally, without the -n option.

bpo-32940 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32940]: Simplify and rename StringTranslatePseudoMapping in pyparse.

Tools/Demos

bpo-32885 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32885]: Add an -n flag for Tools/scripts/pathfix.py to disable automatic backup creation (files with ~ suffix).

C API

bpo-33042 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33042]: Embedding applications may once again call PySys_ResetWarnOptions, PySys_AddWarnOption, and PySys_AddXOption prior to calling Py_Initialize.

bpo-32374 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32374]: Document that m_traverse for multi-phase initialized modules can be called with m_state=NULL, and add a sanity check

Python 3.7.0 beta 2

Release date: 2018-02-27

Security

bpo-28414 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28414]: The ssl module now allows users to perform their own IDN en/decoding when using SNI.

Core and Builtins

bpo-32889 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32889]: Update Valgrind suppression list to account for the rename of Py_ADDRESS_IN_RANG to address_in_range.

bpo-31356 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31356]: Remove the new API added in bpo-31356 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31356] (gc.ensure_disabled() context manager).

bpo-32305 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32305]: For namespace packages, ensure that both __file__ and __spec__.origin are set to None.

bpo-32303 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32303]: Make sure __spec__.loader matches __loader__ for namespace packages.

bpo-32711 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32711]: Fix the warning messages for Python/ast_unparse.c. Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

bpo-32583 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32583]: Fix possible crashing in builtin Unicode decoders caused by write out-of-bound errors when using customized decode error handlers.

Library

bpo-32960 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32960]: For dataclasses, disallow inheriting frozen from non-frozen classes, and also disallow inheriting non-frozen from frozen classes. This restriction will be relaxed at a future date.

bpo-32713 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32713]: Fixed tarfile.itn handling of out-of-bounds float values. Patch by Joffrey Fuhrer.

bpo-32951 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32951]: Direct instantiation of SSLSocket and SSLObject objects is now prohibited. The constructors were never documented, tested, or designed as public constructors. Users were suppose to use ssl.wrap_socket() or SSLContext.

bpo-32929 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32929]: Remove the tri-state parameter "hash", and add the boolean "unsafe_hash". If unsafe_hash is True, add a __hash__ function, but if a __hash__ exists, raise TypeError. If unsafe_hash is False, add a __hash__ based on the values of eq= and frozen=. The unsafe_hash=False behavior is the same as the old hash=None behavior. unsafe_hash=False is the default, just as hash=None used to be.

bpo-32947 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32947]: Add OP_ENABLE_MIDDLEBOX_COMPAT and test workaround for TLSv1.3 for future compatibility with OpenSSL 1.1.1.

bpo-30622 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30622]: The ssl module now detects missing NPN support in LibreSSL.

bpo-32922 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32922]: dbm.open() now encodes filename with the filesystem encoding rather than default encoding.

bpo-32859 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32859]: In os.dup2, don't check every call whether the dup3 syscall exists or not.

bpo-32556 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32556]: nt._getfinalpathname, nt._getvolumepathname and nt._getdiskusage now correctly convert from bytes.

bpo-25988 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25988]: Emit a DeprecationWarning when using or importing an ABC directly from collections rather than from collections.abc.

bpo-21060 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21060]: Rewrite confusing message from setup.py upload from "No dist file created in earlier command" to the more helpful "Must create and upload files in one command".

bpo-32852 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32852]: Make sure sys.argv remains as a list when running trace.

bpo-31333 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31333]: _abc module is added. It is a speedup module with C implementations for various functions and methods in abc. Creating an ABC subclass and calling isinstance or issubclass with an ABC subclass are up to 1.5x faster. In addition, this makes Python start-up up to 10% faster. Note that the new implementation hides internal registry and caches, previously accessible via private attributes _abc_registry, _abc_cache, and _abc_negative_cache. There are three debugging helper methods that can be used instead _dump_registry, _abc_registry_clear, and _abc_caches_clear.

bpo-32841 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32841]: Fixed asyncio.Condition issue which silently ignored cancellation after notifying and cancelling a conditional lock. Patch by Bar Harel.

bpo-32819 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32819]: ssl.match_hostname() has been simplified and no longer depends on re and ipaddress module for wildcard and IP addresses. Error reporting for invalid wildcards has been improved.

bpo-32394 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32394]: socket: Remove TCP_FASTOPEN,TCP_KEEPCNT,TCP_KEEPIDLE,TCP_KEEPINTVL flags on older version Windows during run-time.

bpo-31787 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31787]: Fixed refleaks of __init__() methods in various modules. (Contributed by Oren Milman)

bpo-30157 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30157]: Fixed guessing quote and delimiter in csv.Sniffer.sniff() when only the last field is quoted. Patch by Jake Davis.

bpo-32792 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32792]: collections.ChainMap() preserves the order of the underlying mappings.

bpo-32775 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32775]: fnmatch.translate() no longer produces patterns which contain set operations. Sets starting with '[' or containing '--', '&&', '~~' or '||' will be interpreted differently in regular expressions in future versions. Currently they emit warnings. fnmatch.translate() now avoids producing patterns containing such sets by accident.

bpo-32622 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32622]: Implement native fast sendfile for Windows proactor event loop.

bpo-32777 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32777]: Fix a rare but potential pre-exec child process deadlock in subprocess on POSIX systems when marking file descriptors inheritable on exec in the child process. This bug appears to have been introduced in 3.4.

bpo-32647 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32647]: The ctypes module used to depend on indirect linking for dlopen. The shared extension is now explicitly linked against libdl on platforms with dl.

bpo-32741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32741]: Implement asyncio.TimerHandle.when() method.

bpo-32691 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32691]: Use mod_spec.parent when running modules with pdb

bpo-32734 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32734]: Fixed asyncio.Lock() safety issue which allowed acquiring and locking the same lock multiple times, without it being free. Patch by Bar Harel.

bpo-32727 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32727]: Do not include name field in SMTP envelope from address. Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

bpo-31453 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31453]: Add TLSVersion constants and SSLContext.maximum_version / minimum_version attributes. The new API wraps OpenSSL 1.1 https://web.archive.org/web/20180309043602/https://www.openssl.org/docs/man1.1.0/ssl/SSL_CTX_set_min_proto_version.html feature.

bpo-24334 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24334]: Internal implementation details of ssl module were cleaned up. The SSLSocket has one less layer of indirection. Owner and session information are now handled by the SSLSocket and SSLObject constructor. Channel binding implementation has been simplified.

bpo-31848 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31848]: Fix the error handling in Aifc_read.initfp() when the SSND chunk is not found. Patch by Zackery Spytz.

bpo-32585 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32585]: Add Ttk spinbox widget to tkinter.ttk. Patch by Alan D Moore.

bpo-32221 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32221]: Various functions returning tuple containing IPv6 addresses now omit %scope part since the same information is already encoded in scopeid tuple item. Especially this speeds up socket.recvfrom() when it receives multicast packet since useless resolving of network interface name is omitted.

bpo-30693 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30693]: The TarFile class now recurses directories in a reproducible way.

bpo-30693 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30693]: The ZipFile class now recurses directories in a reproducible way.

Documentation

bpo-28124 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28124]: The ssl module function ssl.wrap_socket() has been de-emphasized and deprecated in favor of the more secure and efficient SSLContext.wrap_socket() method.

bpo-17232 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17232]: Clarify docs for -O and -OO. Patch by Terry Reedy.

bpo-32436 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32436]: Add documentation for the contextvars module (PEP 567).

bpo-32800 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32800]: Update link to w3c doc for xml default namespaces.

bpo-11015 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11015]: Update test.support documentation.

bpo-8722 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8722]: Document __getattr__() behavior when property get() method raises AttributeError.

bpo-32614 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32614]: Modify RE examples in documentation to use raw strings to prevent DeprecationWarning and add text to REGEX HOWTO to highlight the deprecation.

bpo-31972 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31972]: Improve docstrings for pathlib.PurePath subclasses.

Tests

bpo-31809 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31809]: Add tests to verify connection with secp ECDH curves.

Build

bpo-32898 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32898]: Fix the python debug build when using COUNT_ALLOCS.

Windows

bpo-32901 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32901]: Update Tcl and Tk versions to 8.6.8

bpo-31966 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31966]: Fixed WindowsConsoleIO.write() for writing empty data.

bpo-32409 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32409]: Ensures activate.bat can handle Unicode contents.

bpo-32457 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32457]: Improves handling of denormalized executable path when launching Python.

bpo-32370 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32370]: Use the correct encoding for ipconfig output in the uuid module. Patch by Segev Finer.

bpo-29248 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29248]: Fix os.readlink() on Windows, which was mistakenly treating the PrintNameOffset field of the reparse data buffer as a number of characters instead of bytes. Patch by Craig Holmquist and SSE4.

macOS

bpo-32901 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32901]: Update macOS 10.9+ installer to Tcl/Tk 8.6.8.

IDLE

bpo-32916 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32916]: Change str to code in pyparse.

bpo-32905 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32905]: Remove unused code in pyparse module.

bpo-32874 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32874]: Add tests for pyparse.

bpo-32837 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32837]: Using the system and place-dependent default encoding for open() is a bad idea for IDLE's system and location-independent files.

bpo-32826 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32826]: Add "encoding=utf-8" to open() in IDLE's test_help_about. GUI test test_file_buttons() only looks at initial ascii-only lines, but failed on systems where open() defaults to 'ascii' because readline() internally reads and decodes far enough ahead to encounter a non-ascii character in CREDITS.txt.

bpo-32765 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32765]: Update configdialog General tab docstring to add new widgets to the widget list.

Tools/Demos

bpo-32222 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32222]: Fix pygettext not extracting docstrings for functions with type annotated arguments. Patch by Toby Harradine.

Python 3.7.0 beta 1

Release date: 2018-01-30

Core and Builtins

bpo-32703 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32703]: Fix coroutine's ResourceWarning when there's an active error set when it's being finalized.

bpo-32650 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32650]: Pdb and other debuggers dependent on bdb.py will correctly step over (next command) native coroutines. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-28685 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28685]: Optimize list.sort() and sorted() by using type specialized comparisons when possible.

bpo-32685 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32685]: Improve suggestion when the Python 2 form of print statement is either present on the same line as the header of a compound statement or else terminated by a semi-colon instead of a newline. Patch by Nitish Chandra.

bpo-32697 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32697]: Python now explicitly preserves the definition order of keyword-only parameters. It's always preserved their order, but this behavior was never guaranteed before; this behavior is now guaranteed and tested.

bpo-32690 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32690]: The locals() dictionary now displays in the lexical order that variables were defined. Previously, the order was reversed.

bpo-32677 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32677]: Add .isascii() method to str, bytes and bytearray. It can be used to test that string contains only ASCII characters.

bpo-32670 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32670]: Enforce PEP 479 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/] for all code. This means that manually raising a StopIteration exception from a generator is prohibited for all code, regardless of whether 'from __future__ import generator_stop' was used or not.

bpo-32591 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32591]: Added built-in support for tracking the origin of coroutine objects; see sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth and CoroutineType.cr_origin. This replaces the asyncio debug mode's use of coroutine wrapping for native coroutine objects.

bpo-31368 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31368]: Expose preadv and pwritev system calls in the os module. Patch by Pablo Galindo

bpo-32544 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32544]: hasattr(obj, name) and getattr(obj, name, default) are about 4 times faster than before when name is not found and obj doesn't override __getattr__ or __getattribute__.

bpo-26163 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26163]: Improved frozenset() hash to create more distinct hash values when faced with datasets containing many similar values.

bpo-32550 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32550]: Remove the STORE_ANNOTATION bytecode.

bpo-20104 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20104]: Expose posix_spawn as a low level API in the os module. (removed before 3.7.0rc1)

bpo-24340 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24340]: Fixed estimation of the code stack size.

bpo-32436 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32436]: Implement PEP 567 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/] Context Variables.

bpo-18533 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18533]: repr() on a dict containing its own values() or items() no longer raises RecursionError; OrderedDict similarly. Instead, use ..., as for other recursive structures. Patch by Ben North.

bpo-20891 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20891]: Py_Initialize() now creates the GIL. The GIL is no longer created "on demand" to fix a race condition when PyGILState_Ensure() is called in a non-Python thread.

bpo-32028 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32028]: Leading whitespace is now correctly ignored when generating suggestions for converting Py2 print statements to Py3 builtin print function calls. Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

bpo-31179 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31179]: Make dict.copy() up to 5.5 times faster.

bpo-31113 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31113]: Get rid of recursion in the compiler for normal control flow.

Library

bpo-25988 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25988]: Deprecate exposing the contents of collections.abc in the regular collections module.

bpo-31429 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31429]: The default cipher suite selection of the ssl module now uses a blacklist approach rather than a hard-coded whitelist. Python no longer re-enables ciphers that have been blocked by OpenSSL security update. Default cipher suite selection can be configured on compile time.

bpo-30306 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30306]: contextlib.contextmanager now releases the arguments passed to the underlying generator as soon as the context manager is entered. Previously it would keep them alive for as long as the context manager was alive, even when not being used as a function decorator. Patch by Martin Teichmann.

bpo-21417 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21417]: Added support for setting the compression level for zipfile.ZipFile.

bpo-32251 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32251]: Implement asyncio.BufferedProtocol (provisional API).

bpo-32513 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32513]: In dataclasses, allow easier overriding of dunder methods without specifying decorator parameters.

bpo-32660 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32660]: termios makes available FIONREAD, FIONCLEX, FIOCLEX, FIOASYNC and FIONBIO also under Solaris/derivatives.

bpo-27931 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27931]: Fix email address header parsing error when the username is an empty quoted string. Patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-32659 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32659]: Under Solaris and derivatives, os.stat_result provides a st_fstype attribute.

bpo-32662 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32662]: Implement Server.start_serving(), Server.serve_forever(), and Server.is_serving() methods. Add 'start_serving' keyword parameter to loop.create_server() and loop.create_unix_server().

bpo-32391 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32391]: Implement asyncio.StreamWriter.wait_closed() and asyncio.StreamWriter.is_closing() methods

bpo-32643 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32643]: Make Task._step, Task._wakeup and Future._schedule_callbacks methods private.

bpo-32630 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32630]: Refactor decimal module to use contextvars to store decimal context.

bpo-32622 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32622]: Add asyncio.AbstractEventLoop.sendfile() method.

bpo-32304 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32304]: distutils' upload command no longer corrupts tar files ending with a CR byte, and no longer tries to convert CR to CRLF in any of the upload text fields.

bpo-32502 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32502]: uuid.uuid1 no longer raises an exception if a 64-bit hardware address is encountered.

bpo-32596 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32596]: concurrent.futures imports ThreadPoolExecutor and ProcessPoolExecutor lazily (using PEP 562 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0562/]). It makes import asyncio about 15% faster because asyncio uses only ThreadPoolExecutor by default.

bpo-31801 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31801]: Add _ignore_ to Enum so temporary variables can be used during class construction without being turned into members.

bpo-32576 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32576]: Use queue.SimpleQueue() in places where it can be invoked from a weakref callback.

bpo-32574 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32574]: Fix memory leak in asyncio.Queue, when the queue has limited size and it is full, the cancellation of queue.put() can cause a memory leak. Patch by: José Melero.

bpo-32521 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32521]: The nis module is now compatible with new libnsl and headers location.

bpo-32467 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32467]: collections.abc.ValuesView now inherits from collections.abc.Collection.

bpo-32473 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32473]: Improve ABCMeta._dump_registry() output readability

bpo-32102 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32102]: New argument capture_output for subprocess.run

bpo-32521 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32521]: glibc has removed Sun RPC. Use replacement libtirpc headers and library in nis module.

bpo-32493 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32493]: UUID module fixes build for FreeBSD/OpenBSD

bpo-32503 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32503]: Pickling with protocol 4 no longer creates too small frames.

bpo-29237 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29237]: Create enum for pstats sorting options

bpo-32454 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32454]: Add close(fd) function to the socket module.

bpo-25942 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25942]: The subprocess module is now more graceful when handling a Ctrl-C KeyboardInterrupt during subprocess.call, subprocess.run, or a Popen context manager. It now waits a short amount of time for the child (presumed to have also gotten the SIGINT) to exit, before continuing the KeyboardInterrupt exception handling. This still includes a SIGKILL in the call() and run() APIs, but at least the child had a chance first.

bpo-32433 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32433]: The hmac module now has hmac.digest(), which provides an optimized HMAC digest.

bpo-28134 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28134]: Sockets now auto-detect family, type and protocol from file descriptor by default.

bpo-32404 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32404]: Fix bug where datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp() did not call __new__ in datetime.datetime subclasses.

bpo-32403 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32403]: Improved speed of datetime.date and datetime.datetime alternate constructors.

bpo-32228 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32228]: Ensure that truncate() preserves the file position (as reported by tell()) after writes longer than the buffer size.

bpo-32410 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32410]: Implement loop.sock_sendfile for asyncio event loop.

bpo-22908 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22908]: Added seek and tell to the ZipExtFile class. This only works if the file object used to open the zipfile is seekable.

bpo-32373 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32373]: Add socket.getblocking() method.

bpo-32248 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32248]: Add importlib.resources and importlib.abc.ResourceReader as the unified API for reading resources contained within packages. Loaders wishing to support resource reading must implement the get_resource_reader() method. File-based and zipimport-based loaders both implement these APIs. importlib.abc.ResourceLoader is deprecated in favor of these new APIs.

bpo-32320 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32320]: collections.namedtuple() now supports default values.

bpo-29302 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29302]: Add contextlib.AsyncExitStack. Patch by Alexander Mohr and Ilya Kulakov.

bpo-31961 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31961]: Removed in Python 3.7.0b2. The args argument of subprocess.Popen can now be a path-like object. If args is given as a sequence, it's first element can now be a path-like object as well.

bpo-31900 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31900]: The locale.localeconv() function now sets temporarily the LC_CTYPE locale to the LC_NUMERIC locale to decode decimal_point and thousands_sep byte strings if they are non-ASCII or longer than 1 byte, and the LC_NUMERIC locale is different than the LC_CTYPE locale. This temporary change affects other threads. Same change for the str.format() method when formatting a number (int, float, float and subclasses) with the n type (ex: '{:n}'.format(1234)).

bpo-31853 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31853]: Use super().method instead of socket.method in SSLSocket. They were there most likely for legacy reasons.

bpo-31399 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31399]: The ssl module now uses OpenSSL's X509_VERIFY_PARAM_set1_host() and X509_VERIFY_PARAM_set1_ip() API to verify hostname and IP addresses. Subject common name fallback can be disabled with SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name.

bpo-14976 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14976]: Add a queue.SimpleQueue class, an unbounded FIFO queue with a reentrant C implementation of put().

Documentation

bpo-32724 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32724]: Add references to some commands in the documentation of Pdb. Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

bpo-32649 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32649]: Complete the C API documentation, profiling and tracing part with the newly added per-opcode events.

bpo-17799 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17799]: Explain real behaviour of sys.settrace and sys.setprofile and their C-API counterparts regarding which type of events are received in each function. Patch by Pablo Galindo Salgado.

Tests

bpo-32721 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32721]: Fix test_hashlib to not fail if the _md5 module is not built.

bpo-28414 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28414]: Add test cases for IDNA 2003 and 2008 host names. IDNA 2003 internationalized host names are working since bpo-31399 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31399] has landed. IDNA 2008 are still broken.

bpo-32604 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32604]: Add a new "_xxsubinterpreters" extension module that exposes the existing subinterpreter C-API and a new cross-interpreter data sharing mechanism. The module is primarily intended for more thorough testing of the existing subinterpreter support. Note that the _xxsubinterpreters module has been removed in 3.7.0rc1.

bpo-32602 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32602]: Add test certs and test for ECDSA cert and EC/RSA dual mode.

bpo-32549 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32549]: On Travis CI, Python now Compiles and uses a local copy of OpenSSL 1.1.0g for testing.

Build

bpo-32635 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32635]: Fix segfault of the crypt module when libxcrypt is provided instead of libcrypt at the system.

bpo-32598 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32598]: Use autoconf to detect OpenSSL libs, headers and supported features. The ax_check_openssl M4 macro uses pkg-config to locate OpenSSL and falls back to manual search.

bpo-32593 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32593]: Drop support of FreeBSD 9 and older.

bpo-29708 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29708]: If the SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH environment variable is set, py_compile will always create hash-based .pyc files.

Windows

bpo-32588 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32588]: Create standalone _distutils_findvs module and add missing _queue module to installer.

bpo-29911 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29911]: Ensure separate Modify and Uninstall buttons are displayed.

bpo-32507 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32507]: Use app-local UCRT install rather than the proper update for old versions of Windows.

macOS

bpo-32726 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32726]: Provide an additional, more modern macOS installer variant that supports macOS 10.9+ systems in 64-bit mode only. Upgrade the supplied third-party libraries to OpenSSL 1.1.0g and to SQLite 3.22.0. The 10.9+ installer now links with and supplies its own copy of Tcl/Tk 8.6.

bpo-28440 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28440]: No longer add /Library/Python/3.x/site-packages to sys.path for macOS framework builds to avoid future conflicts.

C API

bpo-32681 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32681]: Fix uninitialized variable 'res' in the C implementation of os.dup2. Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

bpo-10381 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10381]: Add C API access to the datetime.timezone constructor and datetime.timezone.UTC singleton.

Python 3.7.0 alpha 4

Release date: 2018-01-08

Core and Builtins

bpo-31975 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31975]: The default warning filter list now starts with a "default::DeprecationWarning:__main__" entry, so deprecation warnings are once again shown by default in single-file scripts and at the interactive prompt.

bpo-32226 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32226]: __class_getitem__ is now an automatic class method.

bpo-32399 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32399]: Add AIX uuid library support for RFC4122 using uuid_create() in libc.a

bpo-32390 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32390]: Fix the compilation failure on AIX after the f_fsid field has been added to the object returned by os.statvfs() (bpo-32143 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32143]). Original patch by Michael Felt.

bpo-32379 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32379]: Make MRO computation faster when a class inherits from a single base.

bpo-32259 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32259]: The error message of a TypeError raised when unpack non-iterable is now more specific.

bpo-27169 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27169]: The __debug__ constant is now optimized out at compile time. This fixes also bpo-22091 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22091].

bpo-32329 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32329]: The -R option now turns on hash randomization when the PYTHONHASHSEED environment variable is set to 0. Previously, the option was ignored. Moreover, sys.flags.hash_randomization is now properly set to 0 when hash randomization is turned off by PYTHONHASHSEED=0.

bpo-30416 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30416]: The optimizer is now protected from spending much time doing complex calculations and consuming much memory for creating large constants in constant folding. Increased limits for constants that can be produced in constant folding.

bpo-32282 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32282]: Fix an unnecessary ifdef in the include of VersionHelpers.h in socketmodule on Windows.

bpo-30579 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30579]: Implement TracebackType.__new__ to allow Python-level creation of traceback objects, and make TracebackType.tb_next mutable.

bpo-32260 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32260]: Don't byte swap the input keys to the SipHash algorithm on big-endian platforms. This should ensure siphash gives consistent results across platforms.

bpo-31506 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31506]: Improve the error message logic for object.__new__ and object.__init__. Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

bpo-20361 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20361]: -b and -bb now inject 'default::BytesWarning' and error::BytesWarning entries into sys.warnoptions, ensuring that they take precedence over any other warning filters configured via the -W option or the PYTHONWARNINGS environment variable.

bpo-32230 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32230]: -X dev now injects a 'default' entry into sys.warnoptions, ensuring that it behaves identically to actually passing -Wdefault at the command line.

bpo-29240 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29240]: Add a new UTF-8 mode: implementation of the PEP 540 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0540/].

bpo-32226 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32226]: PEP 560 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/]: Add support for __mro_entries__ and __class_getitem__. Implemented by Ivan Levkivskyi.

bpo-32225 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32225]: PEP 562 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0562/]: Add support for module __getattr__ and __dir__. Implemented by Ivan Levkivskyi.

bpo-31901 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31901]: The atexit module now has its callback stored per interpreter.

bpo-31650 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31650]: Implement PEP 552 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/] (Deterministic pycs). Python now supports invalidating bytecode cache files bashed on a source content hash rather than source last-modified time.

bpo-29469 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29469]: Move constant folding from bytecode layer to AST layer. Original patch by Eugene Toder.

Library

bpo-32506 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32506]: Now that dict is defined as keeping insertion order, drop OrderedDict and just use plain dict.

bpo-32279 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32279]: Add params to dataclasses.make_dataclasses(): init, repr, eq, order, hash, and frozen. Pass them through to dataclass().

bpo-32278 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32278]: Make type information optional on dataclasses.make_dataclass(). If omitted, the string 'typing.Any' is used.

bpo-32499 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32499]: Add dataclasses.is_dataclass(obj), which returns True if obj is a dataclass or an instance of one.

bpo-32468 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32468]: Improve frame repr() to mention filename, code name and current line number.

bpo-23749 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23749]: asyncio: Implement loop.start_tls()

bpo-32441 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32441]: Return the new file descriptor (i.e., the second argument) from os.dup2. Previously, None was always returned.

bpo-32422 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32422]: functools.lru_cache uses less memory (3 words for each cached key) and takes about 1/3 time for cyclic GC.

bpo-31721 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31721]: Prevent Python crash from happening when Future._log_traceback is set to True manually. Now it can only be set to False, or a ValueError is raised.

bpo-32415 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32415]: asyncio: Add Task.get_loop() and Future.get_loop()

bpo-26133 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26133]: Don't unsubscribe signals in asyncio UNIX event loop on interpreter shutdown.

bpo-32363 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32363]: Make asyncio.Task.set_exception() and set_result() raise NotImplementedError. Task._step() and Future.__await__() raise proper exceptions when they are in an invalid state, instead of raising an AssertionError.

bpo-32357 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32357]: Optimize asyncio.iscoroutine() and loop.create_task() for non-native coroutines (e.g. async/await compiled with Cython). 'loop.create_task(python_coroutine)' used to be 20% faster than 'loop.create_task(cython_coroutine)'. Now, the latter is as fast.

bpo-32356 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32356]: asyncio.transport.resume_reading() and pause_reading() are now idempotent. New transport.is_reading() method is added.

bpo-32355 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32355]: Optimize asyncio.gather(); now up to 15% faster.

bpo-32351 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32351]: Use fastpath in asyncio.sleep if delay<0 (2x boost)

bpo-32348 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32348]: Optimize asyncio.Future schedule/add/remove callback. The optimization shows 3-6% performance improvements of async/await code.

bpo-32331 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32331]: Fix socket.settimeout() and socket.setblocking() to keep socket.type as is. Fix socket.socket() constructor to reset any bit flags applied to socket's type. This change only affects OSes that have SOCK_NONBLOCK and/or SOCK_CLOEXEC.

bpo-32248 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32248]: Add importlib.abc.ResourceReader as an ABC for loaders to provide a unified API for reading resources contained within packages. Also add importlib.resources as the port of importlib_resources.

bpo-32311 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32311]: Implement asyncio.create_task(coro) shortcut

bpo-32327 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32327]: Convert asyncio functions that were documented as coroutines to coroutines. Affected functions: loop.sock_sendall, loop.sock_recv, loop.sock_accept, loop.getaddrinfo, loop.getnameinfo.

bpo-32323 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32323]: urllib.parse.urlsplit() does not convert zone-id (scope) to lower case for scoped IPv6 addresses in hostnames now.

bpo-32302 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32302]: Fix bdist_wininst of distutils for CRT v142: it binary compatible with CRT v140.

bpo-29711 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29711]: Fix stop_serving in asyncio proactor loop kill all listening servers

bpo-32308 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32308]: re.sub() now replaces empty matches adjacent to a previous non-empty match.

bpo-29970 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29970]: Abort asyncio SSLProtocol connection if handshake not complete within 10 seconds.

bpo-32314 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32314]: Implement asyncio.run().

bpo-17852 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17852]: Revert incorrect fix based on misunderstanding of _Py_PyAtExit() semantics.

bpo-32296 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32296]: Implement asyncio._get_running_loop() and get_event_loop() in C. This makes them 4x faster.

bpo-32250 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32250]: Implement asyncio.current_task() and asyncio.all_tasks(). Add helpers intended to be used by alternative task implementations: asyncio._register_task, asyncio._enter_task, asyncio._leave_task and asyncio._unregister_task. Deprecate asyncio.Task.current_task() and asyncio.Task.all_tasks().

bpo-32255 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32255]: A single empty field is now always quoted when written into a CSV file. This allows to distinguish an empty row from a row consisting of a single empty field. Patch by Licht Takeuchi.

bpo-32277 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32277]: Raise NotImplementedError instead of SystemError on platforms where chmod(..., follow_symlinks=False) is not supported. Patch by Anthony Sottile.

bpo-30050 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30050]: New argument warn_on_full_buffer to signal.set_wakeup_fd lets you control whether Python prints a warning on stderr when the wakeup fd buffer overflows.

bpo-29137 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29137]: The fpectl library has been removed. It was never enabled by default, never worked correctly on x86-64, and it changed the Python ABI in ways that caused unexpected breakage of C extensions.

bpo-32273 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32273]: Move asyncio.test_utils to test.test_asyncio.

bpo-32272 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32272]: Remove asyncio.async() function.

bpo-32269 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32269]: Add asyncio.get_running_loop() function.

bpo-32265 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32265]: All class and static methods of builtin types now are correctly classified by inspect.classify_class_attrs() and grouped in pydoc output. Added types.ClassMethodDescriptorType for unbound class methods of builtin types.

bpo-32253 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32253]: Deprecate yield from lock, await lock, with (yield from lock) and with await lock for asyncio synchronization primitives.

bpo-22589 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22589]: Changed MIME type of .bmp from 'image/x-ms-bmp' to 'image/bmp'

bpo-32193 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32193]: Convert asyncio to use async/await syntax. Old styled yield from is still supported too.

bpo-32206 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32206]: Add support to run modules with pdb

bpo-32227 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32227]: functools.singledispatch now supports registering implementations using type annotations.

bpo-15873 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15873]: Added new alternate constructors datetime.datetime.fromisoformat(), datetime.time.fromisoformat() and datetime.date.fromisoformat() as the inverse operation of each classes's respective isoformat methods.

bpo-32199 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32199]: The getnode() ip getter now uses 'ip link' instead of 'ip link list'.

bpo-32143 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32143]: os.statvfs() includes the f_fsid field from statvfs(2)

bpo-26439 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26439]: Fix ctypes.util.find_library() for AIX by implementing ctypes._aix.find_library() Patch by: Michael Felt

bpo-31993 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31993]: The pickler now uses less memory when serializing large bytes and str objects into a file. Pickles created with protocol 4 will require less memory for unpickling large bytes and str objects.

bpo-27456 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27456]: Ensure TCP_NODELAY is set on Linux. Tests by Victor Stinner.

bpo-31778 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31778]: ast.literal_eval() is now more strict. Addition and subtraction of arbitrary numbers no longer allowed.

bpo-31802 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31802]: Importing native path module (posixpath, ntpath) now works even if the os module still is not imported.

bpo-30241 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30241]: Add contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

bpo-31699 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31699]: Fix deadlocks in concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor when task arguments or results cause pickling or unpickling errors. This should make sure that calls to the ProcessPoolExecutor API always eventually return.

bpo-15216 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15216]: TextIOWrapper.reconfigure() supports changing encoding, errors, and newline.

Documentation

bpo-32418 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32418]: Add get_loop() method to Server and AbstractServer classes.

Tests

bpo-32252 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32252]: Fix faulthandler_suppress_crash_report() used to prevent core dump files when testing crashes. getrlimit() returns zero on success.

bpo-32002 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32002]: Adjust C locale coercion testing for the empty locale and POSIX locale cases to more readily adjust to platform dependent behaviour.

Windows

bpo-19764 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19764]: Implement support for subprocess.Popen(close_fds=True) on Windows. Patch by Segev Finer.

Tools/Demos

bpo-24960 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24960]: 2to3 and lib2to3 can now read pickled grammar files using pkgutil.get_data() rather than probing the filesystem. This lets 2to3 and lib2to3 work when run from a zipfile.

C API

bpo-32030 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32030]: Py_Initialize() doesn't reset the memory allocators to default if the PYTHONMALLOC environment variable is not set.

bpo-29084 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29084]: Undocumented C API for OrderedDict has been excluded from the limited C API. It was added by mistake and actually never worked in the limited C API.

bpo-32264 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32264]: Moved the pygetopt.h header into internal/, since it has no public APIs.

bpo-32241 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32241]: Py_SetProgramName() and Py_SetPythonHome() now take the const wchar * arguments instead of wchar *.

Python 3.7.0 alpha 3

Release date: 2017-12-05

Core and Builtins

bpo-32176 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32176]: co_flags.CO_NOFREE is now always set correctly by the code object constructor based on freevars and cellvars, rather than needing to be set correctly by the caller. This ensures it will be cleared automatically when additional cell references are injected into a modified code object and function.

bpo-10544 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10544]: Yield expressions are now deprecated in comprehensions and generator expressions. They are still permitted in the definition of the outermost iterable, as that is evaluated directly in the enclosing scope.

bpo-32137 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32137]: The repr of deeply nested dict now raises a RecursionError instead of crashing due to a stack overflow.

bpo-32096 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32096]: Revert memory allocator changes in the C API: move structures back from _PyRuntime to Objects/obmalloc.c. The memory allocators are once again initialized statically, and so PyMem_RawMalloc() and Py_DecodeLocale() can be called before _PyRuntime_Initialize().

bpo-32043 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32043]: Add a new "developer mode": new "-X dev" command line option to enable debug checks at runtime.

bpo-32023 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32023]: SyntaxError is now correctly raised when a generator expression without parenthesis is used instead of an inheritance list in a class definition. The duplication of the parentheses can be omitted only on calls.

bpo-32012 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32012]: SyntaxError is now correctly raised when a generator expression without parenthesis is passed as an argument, but followed by a trailing comma. A generator expression always needs to be directly inside a set of parentheses and cannot have a comma on either side.

bpo-28180 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28180]: A new internal _Py_SetLocaleFromEnv(category) helper function has been added in order to improve the consistency of behaviour across different libc implementations (e.g. Android doesn't support setting the locale from the environment by default).

bpo-31949 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31949]: Fixed several issues in printing tracebacks (PyTraceBack_Print()). Setting sys.tracebacklimit to 0 or less now suppresses printing tracebacks. Setting sys.tracebacklimit to None now causes using the default limit. Setting sys.tracebacklimit to an integer larger than LONG_MAX now means using the limit LONG_MAX rather than the default limit. Fixed integer overflows in the case of more than 2**31 traceback items on Windows. Fixed output errors handling.

bpo-30696 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30696]: Fix the interactive interpreter looping endlessly when no memory.

bpo-20047 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20047]: Bytearray methods partition() and rpartition() now accept only bytes-like objects as separator, as documented. In particular they now raise TypeError rather of returning a bogus result when an integer is passed as a separator.

bpo-21720 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21720]: BytesWarning no longer emitted when the fromlist argument of __import__() or the __all__ attribute of the module contain bytes instances.

bpo-31845 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31845]: Environment variables are once more read correctly at interpreter startup.

bpo-28936 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28936]: Ensure that lexically first syntax error involving a parameter and global or nonlocal is detected first at a given scope. Patch by Ivan Levkivskyi.

bpo-31825 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31825]: Fixed OverflowError in the 'unicode-escape' codec and in codecs.escape_decode() when decode an escaped non-ascii byte.

bpo-31618 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31618]: The per-frame tracing logic added in 3.7a1 has been altered so that frame->f_lineno is updated before either "line" or "opcode" events are emitted. Previously, opcode events were emitted first, and therefore would occasionally see stale line numbers on the frame. The behavior of this feature has changed slightly as a result: when both f_trace_lines and f_trace_opcodes are enabled, line events now occur first.

bpo-28603 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28603]: Print the full context/cause chain of exceptions on interpreter exit, even if an exception in the chain is unhashable or compares equal to later ones. Patch by Zane Bitter.

bpo-31786 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31786]: Fix timeout rounding in the select module to round correctly negative timeouts between -1.0 and 0.0. The functions now block waiting for events as expected. Previously, the call was incorrectly non-blocking. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-31781 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31781]: Prevent crashes when calling methods of an uninitialized zipimport.zipimporter object. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-30399 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30399]: Standard repr() of BaseException with a single argument no longer contains redundant trailing comma.

bpo-31626 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31626]: Fixed a bug in debug memory allocator. There was a write to freed memory after shrinking a memory block.

bpo-30817 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30817]: PyErr_PrintEx() clears now the ignored exception that may be raised by _PySys_SetObjectId(), for example when no memory.

Library

bpo-28556 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556]: Two minor fixes for typing module: allow shallow copying instances of generic classes, improve interaction of __init_subclass__ with generics. Original PRs by Ivan Levkivskyi.

bpo-32214 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32214]: PEP 557, Data Classes. Provides a decorator which adds boilerplate methods to classes which use type annotations so specify fields.

bpo-27240 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27240]: The header folding algorithm for the new email policies has been rewritten, which also fixes bpo-30788 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30788], bpo-31831 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31831], and bpo-32182 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32182]. In particular, RFC2231 folding is now done correctly.

bpo-32186 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32186]: io.FileIO.readall() and io.FileIO.read() now release the GIL when getting the file size. Fixed hang of all threads with inaccessible NFS server. Patch by Nir Soffer.

bpo-32101 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32101]: Add sys.flags.dev_mode flag

bpo-32154 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32154]: The asyncio.windows_utils.socketpair() function has been removed: use directly socket.socketpair() which is available on all platforms since Python 3.5 (before, it wasn't available on Windows). asyncio.windows_utils.socketpair() was just an alias to socket.socketpair on Python 3.5 and newer.

bpo-32089 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32089]: warnings: In development (-X dev) and debug mode (pydebug build), use the "default" action for ResourceWarning, rather than the "always" action, in the default warnings filters.

bpo-32107 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32107]: uuid.getnode() now preferentially returns universally administered MAC addresses if available, over locally administered MAC addresses. This makes a better guarantee for global uniqueness of UUIDs returned from uuid.uuid1(). If only locally administered MAC addresses are available, the first such one found is returned.

bpo-23033 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23033]: Wildcard is now supported in hostname when it is one and only character in the left most segment of hostname in second argument of ssl.match_hostname(). Patch by Mandeep Singh.

bpo-12239 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12239]: Make msilib.SummaryInformation.GetProperty() return None when the value of property is VT_EMPTY. Initial patch by Mark Mc Mahon.

bpo-28334 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28334]: Use os.path.expanduser() to find the ~/.netrc file in netrc.netrc. If it does not exist, FileNotFoundError is raised. Patch by Dimitri Merejkowsky.

bpo-32121 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32121]: Made tracemalloc.Traceback behave more like the traceback module, sorting the frames from oldest to most recent. Traceback.format() now accepts negative limit, truncating the result to the abs(limit) oldest frames. To get the old behaviour, one can use the new most_recent_first argument to Traceback.format(). (Patch by Jesse Bakker.)

bpo-31325 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31325]: Fix wrong usage of collections.namedtuple() in the RobotFileParser.parse() method. Initial patch by Robin Wellner.

bpo-12382 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12382]: msilib.OpenDatabase() now raises a better exception message when it couldn't open or create an MSI file. Initial patch by William Tisäter.

bpo-19610 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19610]: setup() now warns about invalid types for some fields. The distutils.dist.Distribution class now warns when classifiers, keywords and platforms fields are not specified as a list or a string.

bpo-32071 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32071]: Added the -k command-line option to python -m unittest to run only tests that match the given pattern(s).

bpo-10049 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10049]: Added nullcontext no-op context manager to contextlib. This provides a simpler and faster alternative to ExitStack() when handling optional context managers.

bpo-28684 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28684]: The new test.support.skip_unless_bind_unix_socket() decorator is used here to skip asyncio tests that fail because the platform lacks a functional bind() function for unix domain sockets (as it is the case for non root users on the recent Android versions that run now SELinux in enforcing mode).

bpo-32110 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32110]: codecs.StreamReader.read(n) now returns not more than n characters/bytes for non-negative n. This makes it compatible with read() methods of other file-like objects.

bpo-27535 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27535]: The warnings module doesn't leak memory anymore in the hidden warnings registry for the "ignore" action of warnings filters. warn_explicit() function doesn't add the warning key to the registry anymore for the "ignore" action.

bpo-32088 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32088]: warnings: When Python is build is debug mode (Py_DEBUG), DeprecationWarning, PendingDeprecationWarning and ImportWarning warnings are now displayed by default.

bpo-1647489 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1647489]: Fixed searching regular expression patterns that could match an empty string. Non-empty string can now be correctly found after matching an empty string.

bpo-25054 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25054]: Added support of splitting on a pattern that could match an empty string.

bpo-32072 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32072]: Fixed issues with binary plists: Fixed saving bytearrays. Identical objects will be saved only once. Equal references will be load as identical objects. Added support for saving and loading recursive data structures.

bpo-32069 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32069]: Drop legacy SSL transport from asyncio, ssl.MemoryBIO is always used anyway.

bpo-32066 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32066]: asyncio: Support pathlib.Path in create_unix_connection; sock arg should be optional

bpo-32046 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32046]: Updates 2to3 to convert from operator.isCallable(obj) to callable(obj). Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-32018 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32018]: inspect.signature should follow PEP 8 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/], if the parameter has an annotation and a default value. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-32025 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32025]: Add time.thread_time() and time.thread_time_ns()

bpo-32037 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32037]: Integers that fit in a signed 32-bit integer will be now pickled with protocol 0 using the INT opcode. This will decrease the size of a pickle, speed up pickling and unpickling, and make these integers be unpickled as int instances in Python 2.

bpo-32034 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32034]: Make asyncio.IncompleteReadError and LimitOverrunError pickleable.

bpo-32015 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32015]: Fixed the looping of asyncio in the case of reconnection the socket during waiting async read/write from/to the socket.

bpo-32011 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32011]: Restored support of loading marshal files with the TYPE_INT64 code. These files can be produced in Python 2.7.

bpo-28369 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28369]: Enhance add_reader/writer check that socket is not used by some transport. Before, only cases when add_reader/writer were called with an int FD were supported. Now the check is implemented correctly for all file-like objects.

bpo-31976 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31976]: Fix race condition when flushing a file is slow, which can cause a segfault if closing the file from another thread.

bpo-31985 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31985]: Formally deprecated aifc.openfp, sunau.openfp, and wave.openfp. Since change 7bc817d5ba917528e8bd07ec461c635291e7b06a in 1993, openfp in each of the three modules had been pointing to that module's open function as a matter of backwards compatibility, though it had been both untested and undocumented.

bpo-21862 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21862]: cProfile command line now accepts -m module_name as an alternative to script path. Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

bpo-31970 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31970]: Reduce performance overhead of asyncio debug mode.

bpo-31843 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31843]: database argument of sqlite3.connect() now accepts a path-like object, instead of just a string.

bpo-31945 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31945]: Add Configurable blocksize to HTTPConnection and HTTPSConnection for improved upload throughput. Patch by Nir Soffer.

bpo-31943 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31943]: Add a cancelled() method to asyncio.Handle. Patch by Marat Sharafutdinov.

bpo-9678 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9678]: Fixed determining the MAC address in the uuid module: Using ifconfig on NetBSD and OpenBSD. Using arp on Linux, FreeBSD, NetBSD and OpenBSD. Based on patch by Takayuki Shimizukawa.

bpo-30057 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30057]: Fix potential missed signal in signal.signal().

bpo-31933 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31933]: Fix Blake2 params leaf_size and node_offset on big endian platforms. Patch by Jack O'Connor.

bpo-21423 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21423]: Add an initializer argument to {Process,Thread}PoolExecutor

bpo-31927 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31927]: Fixed compilation of the socket module on NetBSD 8. Fixed assertion failure or reading arbitrary data when parse a AF_BLUETOOTH address on NetBSD and DragonFly BSD.

bpo-27666 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27666]: Fixed stack corruption in curses.box() and curses.ungetmouse() when the size of types chtype or mmask_t is less than the size of C long. curses.box() now accepts characters as arguments. Based on patch by Steve Fink.

bpo-31917 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31917]: Add 3 new clock identifiers: time.CLOCK_BOOTTIME, time.CLOCK_PROF and time.CLOCK_UPTIME.

bpo-31897 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31897]: plistlib now catches more errors when read binary plists and raises InvalidFileException instead of unexpected exceptions.

bpo-25720 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25720]: Fix the method for checking pad state of curses WINDOW. Patch by Masayuki Yamamoto.

bpo-31893 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31893]: Fixed the layout of the kqueue_event structure on OpenBSD and NetBSD. Fixed the comparison of the kqueue_event objects.

bpo-31891 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31891]: Fixed building the curses module on NetBSD.

bpo-31884 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31884]: added required constants to subprocess module for setting priority on windows

bpo-28281 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28281]: Remove year (1-9999) limits on the Calendar.weekday() function. Patch by Mark Gollahon.

bpo-31702 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31702]: crypt.mksalt() now allows to specify the number of rounds for SHA-256 and SHA-512 hashing.

bpo-30639 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30639]: inspect.getfile() no longer computes the repr of unknown objects to display in an error message, to protect against badly behaved custom reprs.

bpo-30768 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30768]: Fix the pthread+semaphore implementation of PyThread_acquire_lock_timed() when called with timeout > 0 and intr_flag=0: recompute the timeout if sem_timedwait() is interrupted by a signal (EINTR). See also the PEP 475 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/].

bpo-31854 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31854]: Add mmap.ACCESS_DEFAULT constant.

bpo-31834 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31834]: Use optimized code for BLAKE2 only with SSSE3+. The pure SSE2 implementation is slower than the pure C reference implementation.

bpo-28292 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28292]: Calendar.itermonthdates() will now consistently raise an exception when a date falls outside of the 0001-01-01 through 9999-12-31 range. To support applications that cannot tolerate such exceptions, the new methods itermonthdays3() and itermonthdays4() are added. The new methods return tuples and are not restricted by the range supported by datetime.date.

bpo-28564 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28564]: The shutil.rmtree() function has been sped up to 20--40%. This was done using the os.scandir() function.

bpo-28416 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28416]: Instances of pickle.Pickler subclass with the persistent_id() method and pickle.Unpickler subclass with the persistent_load() method no longer create reference cycles.

bpo-31653 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31653]: Don't release the GIL if we can acquire a multiprocessing semaphore immediately.

bpo-28326 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28326]: Fix multiprocessing.Process when stdout and/or stderr is closed or None.

bpo-20825 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20825]: Add subnet_of and superset_of containment tests to ipaddress.IPv6Network and ipaddress.IPv4Network. Patch by Michel Albert and Cheryl Sabella.

bpo-31827 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31827]: Remove the os.stat_float_times() function. It was introduced in Python 2.3 for backward compatibility with Python 2.2, and was deprecated since Python 3.1.

bpo-31756 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31756]: Add a subprocess.Popen(text=False) keyword argument to subprocess functions to be more explicit about when the library should attempt to decode outputs into text. Patch by Andrew Clegg.

bpo-31819 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31819]: Add AbstractEventLoop.sock_recv_into().

bpo-31457 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31457]: If nested log adapters are used, the inner process() methods are no longer omitted.

bpo-31457 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31457]: The manager property on LoggerAdapter objects is now properly settable.

bpo-31806 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31806]: Fix timeout rounding in time.sleep(), threading.Lock.acquire() and socket.socket.settimeout() to round correctly negative timeouts between -1.0 and 0.0. The functions now block waiting for events as expected. Previously, the call was incorrectly non-blocking. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-31803 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31803]: time.clock() and time.get_clock_info('clock') now emit a DeprecationWarning warning.

bpo-31800 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31800]: Extended support for parsing UTC offsets. strptime '%z' can now parse the output generated by datetime.isoformat, including seconds and microseconds.

bpo-28603 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28603]: traceback: Fix a TypeError that occurred during printing of exception tracebacks when either the current exception or an exception in its context/cause chain is unhashable. Patch by Zane Bitter.

bpo-30541 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30541]: Add new function to seal a mock and prevent the automatically creation of child mocks. Patch by Mario Corchero.

bpo-31784 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31784]: Implement the PEP 564 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0564/], add new 6 new functions with nanosecond resolution to the time module: clock_gettime_ns(), clock_settime_ns(), monotonic_ns(), perf_counter_ns(), process_time_ns(), time_ns().

bpo-30143 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30143]: 2to3 now generates a code that uses abstract collection classes from collections.abc rather than collections.

bpo-31770 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31770]: Prevent a crash when calling the __init__() method of a sqlite3.Cursor object more than once. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-31764 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31764]: Prevent a crash in sqlite3.Cursor.close() in case the Cursor object is uninitialized. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-31752 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31752]: Fix possible crash in timedelta constructor called with custom integers.

bpo-31620 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31620]: an empty asyncio.Queue now doesn't leak memory when queue.get pollers timeout

bpo-31690 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31690]: Allow the flags re.ASCII, re.LOCALE, and re.UNICODE to be used as group flags for regular expressions.

bpo-30349 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30349]: FutureWarning is now emitted if a regular expression contains character set constructs that will change semantically in the future (nested sets and set operations).

bpo-31664 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31664]: Added support for the Blowfish hashing in the crypt module.

bpo-31632 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31632]: Fix method set_protocol() of class _SSLProtocolTransport in asyncio module. This method was previously modifying a wrong reference to the protocol.

bpo-15037 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15037]: Added a workaround for getkey() in curses for ncurses 5.7 and earlier.

bpo-31307 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31307]: Allow use of bytes objects for arguments to configparser.ConfigParser.read(). Patch by Vincent Michel.

bpo-31334 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31334]: Fix poll.poll([timeout]) in the select module for arbitrary negative timeouts on all OSes where it can only be a non-negative integer or -1. Patch by Riccardo Coccioli.

bpo-31310 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31310]: multiprocessing's semaphore tracker should be launched again if crashed.

bpo-31308 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31308]: Make multiprocessing's forkserver process immune to Ctrl-C and other user interruptions. If it crashes, restart it when necessary.

bpo-31245 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31245]: Added support for AF_UNIX socket in asyncio create_datagram_endpoint.

bpo-30553 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30553]: Add HTTP/2 status code 421 (Misdirected Request) to http.HTTPStatus. Patch by Vitor Pereira.

Documentation

bpo-32105 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32105]: Added asyncio.BaseEventLoop.connect_accepted_socket versionadded marker.

Tests

bpo-31380 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31380]: Skip test_httpservers test_undecodable_file on macOS: fails on APFS.

bpo-31705 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31705]: Skip test_socket.test_sha256() on Linux kernel older than 4.5. The test fails with ENOKEY on kernel 3.10 (on ppc64le). A fix was merged into the kernel 4.5.

bpo-32138 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32138]: Skip on Android test_faulthandler tests that raise SIGSEGV and remove the test.support.requires_android_level decorator.

bpo-32136 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32136]: The runtime embedding tests have been split out from Lib/test/test_capi.py into a new Lib/test/test_embed.py file.

bpo-28668 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28668]: test.support.requires_multiprocessing_queue is removed. Skip tests with test.support.import_module('multiprocessing.synchronize') instead when the semaphore implementation is broken or missing.

bpo-32126 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32126]: Skip test_get_event_loop_new_process in test.test_asyncio.test_events when sem_open() is not functional.

bpo-31174 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31174]: Fix test_tools.test_unparse: DirectoryTestCase now stores the names sample to always test the same files. It prevents false alarms when hunting reference leaks.

Build

bpo-28538 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28538]: Revert the previous changes, the if_nameindex structure is defined by Unified Headers.

bpo-28762 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28762]: Revert the last commit, the F_LOCK macro is defined by Android Unified Headers.

bpo-29040 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29040]: Support building Android with Unified Headers. The first NDK release to support Unified Headers is android-ndk-r14.

bpo-32059 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32059]: detect_modules() in setup.py now also searches the sysroot paths when cross-compiling.

bpo-31957 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31957]: Fixes Windows SDK version detection when building for Windows.

bpo-31609 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31609]: Fixes quotes in PCbuild/clean.bat

bpo-31934 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31934]: Abort the build when building out of a not clean source tree.

bpo-31926 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31926]: Fixed Argument Clinic sometimes causing compilation errors when there was more than one function and/or method in a .c file with the same name.

bpo-28791 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28791]: Update Windows builds to use SQLite 3.21.0.

bpo-28791 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28791]: Update OS X installer to use SQLite 3.21.0.

bpo-28643 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28643]: Record profile-opt build progress with stamp files.

bpo-31866 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31866]: Finish removing support for AtheOS.

Windows

bpo-1102 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1102]: Return None when View.Fetch() returns ERROR_NO_MORE_ITEMS instead of raising MSIError. Initial patch by Anthony Tuininga.

bpo-31944 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31944]: Fixes Modify button in Apps and Features dialog.

bpo-20486 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20486]: Implement the Database.Close() method to help closing MSI database objects.

bpo-31857 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31857]: Make the behavior of USE_STACKCHECK deterministic in a multi-threaded environment.

macOS

bpo-31392 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31392]: Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 1.0.2m

IDLE

bpo-32207 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32207]: Improve tk event exception tracebacks in IDLE. When tk event handling is driven by IDLE's run loop, a confusing and distracting queue.EMPTY traceback context is no longer added to tk event exception tracebacks. The traceback is now the same as when event handling is driven by user code. Patch based on a suggestion by Serhiy Storchaka.

bpo-32164 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32164]: Delete unused file idlelib/tabbedpages.py. Use of TabbedPageSet in configdialog was replaced by ttk.Notebook.

bpo-32100 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32100]: IDLE: Fix old and new bugs in pathbrowser; improve tests. Patch mostly by Cheryl Sabella.

bpo-31858 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31858]: IDLE -- Restrict shell prompt manipulation to the shell. Editor and output windows only see an empty last prompt line. This simplifies the code and fixes a minor bug when newline is inserted. Sys.ps1, if present, is read on Shell start-up, but is not set or changed.

bpo-31860 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31860]: The font sample in the IDLE configuration dialog is now editable. Changes persist while IDLE remains open

bpo-31836 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31836]: Test_code_module now passes if run after test_idle, which sets ps1. The code module uses sys.ps1 if present or sets it to '>>> ' if not. Test_code_module now properly tests both behaviors. Ditto for ps2.

bpo-28603 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28603]: Fix a TypeError that caused a shell restart when printing a traceback that includes an exception that is unhashable. Patch by Zane Bitter.

bpo-13802 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13802]: Use non-Latin characters in the IDLE's Font settings sample. Even if one selects a font that defines a limited subset of the unicode Basic Multilingual Plane, tcl/tk will use other fonts that define a character. The expanded example give users of non-Latin characters a better idea of what they might see in IDLE's shell and editors. To make room for the expanded sample, frames on the Font tab are re-arranged. The Font/Tabs help explains a bit about the additions.

Tools/Demos

bpo-32159 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32159]: Remove CVS and Subversion tools: remove svneol.py and treesync.py scripts. CPython migrated from CVS to Subversion, to Mercurial, and then to Git. CVS and Subversion are no longer used to develop CPython.

bpo-30722 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30722]: Make redemo work with Python 3.6 and newer versions. Also, remove the LOCALE option since it doesn't work with string patterns in Python 3. Patch by Christoph Sarnowski.

C API

bpo-20891 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20891]: Fix PyGILState_Ensure(). When PyGILState_Ensure() is called in a non-Python thread before PyEval_InitThreads(), only call PyEval_InitThreads() after calling PyThreadState_New() to fix a crash.

bpo-32125 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32125]: The Py_UseClassExceptionsFlag flag has been removed. It was deprecated and wasn't used anymore since Python 2.0.

bpo-25612 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25612]: Move the current exception state from the frame object to the co-routine. This simplifies the interpreter and fixes a couple of obscure bugs caused by having swap exception state when entering or exiting a generator.

bpo-23699 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23699]: Add Py_RETURN_RICHCOMPARE macro to reduce boilerplate code in rich comparison functions.

bpo-30697 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30697]: The PyExc_RecursionErrorInst singleton is removed and PyErr_NormalizeException() does not use it anymore. This singleton is persistent and its members being never cleared may cause a segfault during finalization of the interpreter. See also bpo-22898 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22898].

Python 3.7.0 alpha 2

Release date: 2017-10-16

Core and Builtins

bpo-31558 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31558]: gc.freeze() is a new API that allows for moving all objects currently tracked by the garbage collector to a permanent generation, effectively removing them from future collection events. This can be used to protect those objects from having their PyGC_Head mutated. In effect, this enables great copy-on-write stability at fork().

bpo-31642 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31642]: Restored blocking "from package import module" by setting sys.modules["package.module"] to None.

bpo-31708 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31708]: Allow use of asynchronous generator expressions in synchronous functions.

bpo-31709 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31709]: Drop support of asynchronous __aiter__.

bpo-30404 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30404]: The -u option now makes the stdout and stderr streams unbuffered rather than line-buffered.

bpo-31619 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31619]: Fixed a ValueError when convert a string with large number of underscores to integer with binary base.

bpo-31602 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31602]: Fix an assertion failure in zipimporter.get_source() in case of a bad zlib.decompress(). Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-31592 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31592]: Fixed an assertion failure in Python parser in case of a bad unicodedata.normalize(). Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-31588 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31588]: Raise a TypeError with a helpful error message when class creation fails due to a metaclass with a bad __prepare__() method. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-31574 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31574]: Importlib was instrumented with two dtrace probes to profile import timing.

bpo-31566 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31566]: Fix an assertion failure in _warnings.warn() in case of a bad __name__ global. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-31506 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31506]: Improved the error message logic for object.__new__ and object.__init__.

bpo-31505 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31505]: Fix an assertion failure in json, in case _json.make_encoder() received a bad encoder() argument. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-31492 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31492]: Fix assertion failures in case of failing to import from a module with a bad __name__ attribute, and in case of failing to access an attribute of such a module. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-31478 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31478]: Fix an assertion failure in _random.Random.seed() in case the argument has a bad __abs__() method. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-31336 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31336]: Speed up class creation by 10-20% by reducing the overhead in the necessary special method lookups. Patch by Stefan Behnel.

bpo-31415 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31415]: Add -X importtime option to show how long each import takes. It can be used to optimize application's startup time. Support the PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME as an equivalent way to enable this.

bpo-31410 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31410]: Optimized calling wrapper and classmethod descriptors.

bpo-31353 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31353]: PEP 553 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0553/] - Add a new built-in called breakpoint() which calls sys.breakpointhook(). By default this imports pdb and calls pdb.set_trace(), but users may override sys.breakpointhook() to call whatever debugger they want. The original value of the hook is saved in sys.__breakpointhook__.

bpo-17852 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17852]: Maintain a list of open buffered files, flush them before exiting the interpreter. Based on a patch from Armin Rigo.

bpo-31315 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31315]: Fix an assertion failure in imp.create_dynamic(), when spec.name is not a string. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-31311 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31311]: Fix a crash in the __setstate__() method of ctypes._CData, in case of a bad __dict__. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-31293 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31293]: Fix crashes in true division and multiplication of a timedelta object by a float with a bad as_integer_ratio() method. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-31285 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31285]: Fix an assertion failure in warnings.warn_explicit, when the return value of the received loader's get_source() has a bad splitlines() method. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-30406 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30406]: Make async and await proper keywords, as specified in PEP 492 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/].

Library

bpo-30058 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30058]: Fixed buffer overflow in select.kqueue.control().

bpo-31672 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31672]: idpattern in string.Template matched some non-ASCII characters. Now it uses -i regular expression local flag to avoid non-ASCII characters.

bpo-31701 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31701]: On Windows, faulthandler.enable() now ignores MSC and COM exceptions.

bpo-31728 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31728]: Prevent crashes in _elementtree due to unsafe cleanup of Element.text and Element.tail. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-31671 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31671]: Now re.compile() converts passed RegexFlag to normal int object before compiling. bm_regex_compile benchmark shows 14% performance improvements.

bpo-30397 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30397]: The types of compiled regular objects and match objects are now exposed as re.Pattern and re.Match. This adds information in pydoc output for the re module.

bpo-31675 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31675]: Fixed memory leaks in Tkinter's methods splitlist() and split() when pass a string larger than 2 GiB.

bpo-31673 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31673]: Fixed typo in the name of Tkinter's method adderrorinfo().

bpo-31648 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31648]: Improvements to path predicates in ElementTree: Allow whitespace around predicate parts, i.e. "[a = 'text']" instead of requiring the less readable "[a='text']". Add support for text comparison of the current node, like "[.='text']". Patch by Stefan Behnel.

bpo-30806 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30806]: Fix the string representation of a netrc object.

bpo-31638 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31638]: Add optional argument compressed to zipapp.create_archive, and add option --compress to the command line interface of zipapp.

bpo-25351 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25351]: Avoid venv activate failures with undefined variables

bpo-20519 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20519]: Avoid ctypes use (if possible) and improve import time for uuid.

bpo-28293 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28293]: The regular expression cache is no longer completely dumped when it is full.

bpo-31596 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31596]: Added pthread_getcpuclockid() to the time module

bpo-27494 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27494]: Make 2to3 accept a trailing comma in generator expressions. For example, set(x for x in [],) is now allowed.

bpo-30347 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30347]: Stop crashes when concurrently iterate over itertools.groupby() iterators.

bpo-30346 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30346]: An iterator produced by itertools.groupby() iterator now becomes exhausted after advancing the groupby iterator.

bpo-31556 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31556]: Cancel asyncio.wait_for future faster if timeout <= 0

bpo-31540 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31540]: Allow passing a context object in concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor constructor. Also, free job resources in concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor earlier to improve memory usage when a worker waits for new jobs.

bpo-31516 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31516]: threading.current_thread() should not return a dummy thread at shutdown.

bpo-31525 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31525]: In the sqlite module, require the sqlite3_prepare_v2 API. Thus, the sqlite module now requires sqlite version at least 3.3.9.

bpo-26510 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26510]: argparse subparsers are now required by default. This matches behaviour in Python 2. For optional subparsers, use the new parameter add_subparsers(required=False). Patch by Anthony Sottile. (As of 3.7.0rc1, the default was changed to not required as had been the case since Python 3.3.)

bpo-27541 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27541]: Reprs of subclasses of some collection and iterator classes (bytearray, array.array, collections.deque, collections.defaultdict, itertools.count, itertools.repeat) now contain actual type name instead of hardcoded names of the base class.

bpo-31351 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31351]: python -m ensurepip now exits with non-zero exit code if pip bootstrapping has failed.

bpo-31389 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31389]: pdb.set_trace() now takes an optional keyword-only argument header. If given, this is printed to the console just before debugging begins.

Documentation

bpo-31537 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31537]: Fix incorrect usage of get_history_length in readline documentation example code. Patch by Brad Smith.

bpo-30085 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30085]: The operator functions without double underscores are preferred for clarity. The one with underscores are only kept for back-compatibility.

Build

bpo-31696 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31696]: Improve compiler version information in sys.version when Python is built with Clang.

bpo-31625 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31625]: Stop using ranlib on static libraries. Instead, we assume ar supports the 's' flag.

bpo-31624 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31624]: Remove support for BSD/OS.

bpo-22140 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22140]: Prevent double substitution of prefix in python-config.sh.

bpo-31569 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31569]: Correct PCBuild/ case to PCbuild/ in build scripts and documentation.

bpo-31536 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31536]: Avoid wholesale rebuild after make regen-all if nothing changed.

IDLE

bpo-31460 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31460]: Simplify the API of IDLE's Module Browser. Passing a widget instead of an flist with a root widget opens the option of creating a browser frame that is only part of a window. Passing a full file name instead of pieces assumed to come from a .py file opens the possibility of browsing python files that do not end in .py.

bpo-31649 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31649]: IDLE - Make _htest, _utest parameters keyword only.

bpo-31559 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31559]: Remove test order dependence in idle_test.test_browser.

bpo-31459 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31459]: Rename IDLE's module browser from Class Browser to Module Browser. The original module-level class and method browser became a module browser, with the addition of module-level functions, years ago. Nested classes and functions were added yesterday. For back-compatibility, the virtual event <<open-class-browser>>, which appears on the Keys tab of the Settings dialog, is not changed. Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

bpo-31500 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31500]: Default fonts now are scaled on HiDPI displays.

bpo-1612262 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1612262]: IDLE module browser now shows nested classes and functions. Original patches for code and tests by Guilherme Polo and Cheryl Sabella, respectively.

C API

bpo-28280 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28280]: Make PyMapping_Keys(), PyMapping_Values() and PyMapping_Items() always return a list (rather than a list or a tuple). Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-31532 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31532]: Fix memory corruption due to allocator mix in getpath.c between Py_GetPath() and Py_SetPath()

bpo-25658 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25658]: Implement PEP 539 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0539/] for Thread Specific Storage (TSS) API: it is a new Thread Local Storage (TLS) API to CPython which would supersede use of the existing TLS API within the CPython interpreter, while deprecating the existing API. PEP written by Erik M. Bray, patch by Masayuki Yamamoto.

Python 3.7.0 alpha 1

Release date: 2017-09-19

Security

bpo-29781 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29781]: SSLObject.version() now correctly returns None when handshake over BIO has not been performed yet.

bpo-29505 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29505]: Add fuzz tests for float(str), int(str), unicode(str); for oss-fuzz.

bpo-30947 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30947]: Upgrade libexpat embedded copy from version 2.2.1 to 2.2.3 to get security fixes.

bpo-30730 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30730]: Prevent environment variables injection in subprocess on Windows. Prevent passing other environment variables and command arguments.

bpo-30694 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30694]: Upgrade expat copy from 2.2.0 to 2.2.1 to get fixes of multiple security vulnerabilities including: CVE 2017-9233 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2017-9233] (External entity infinite loop DoS), CVE 2016-9063 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-9063] (Integer overflow, re-fix), CVE 2016-0718 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718] (Fix regression bugs from 2.2.0's fix to CVE 2016-0718 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718]) and CVE 2012-0876 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2012-0876] (Counter hash flooding with SipHash). Note: the CVE 2016-5300 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-5300] (Use os-specific entropy sources like getrandom) doesn't impact Python, since Python already gets entropy from the OS to set the expat secret using XML_SetHashSalt().

bpo-30500 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30500]: Fix urllib.parse.splithost() to correctly parse fragments. For example, splithost('//127.0.0.1#@evil.com/') now correctly returns the 127.0.0.1 host, instead of treating @evil.com as the host in an authentication (login@host).

bpo-29591 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29591]: Update expat copy from 2.1.1 to 2.2.0 to get fixes of CVE 2016-0718 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718] and CVE 2016-4472 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-4472]. See https://sourceforge.net/p/expat/bugs/537/ for more information.

Core and Builtins

bpo-31490 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31490]: Fix an assertion failure in ctypes class definition, in case the class has an attribute whose name is specified in _anonymous_ but not in _fields_. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-31471 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31471]: Fix an assertion failure in subprocess.Popen() on Windows, in case the env argument has a bad keys() method. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-31418 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31418]: Fix an assertion failure in PyErr_WriteUnraisable() in case of an exception with a bad __module__ attribute. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-31416 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31416]: Fix assertion failures in case of a bad warnings.filters or warnings.defaultaction. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-28411 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28411]: Change direct usage of PyInterpreterState.modules to PyImport_GetModuleDict(). Also introduce more uniformity in other code that deals with sys.modules. This helps reduce complications when working on sys.modules.

bpo-28411 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28411]: Switch to the abstract API when dealing with PyInterpreterState.modules. This allows later support for all dict subclasses and other Mapping implementations. Also add a PyImport_GetModule() function to reduce a bunch of duplicated code.

bpo-31411 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31411]: Raise a TypeError instead of SystemError in case warnings.onceregistry is not a dictionary. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-31344 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31344]: For finer control of tracing behaviour when testing the interpreter, two new frame attributes have been added to control the emission of particular trace events: f_trace_lines (True by default) to turn off per-line trace events; and f_trace_opcodes (False by default) to turn on per-opcode trace events.

bpo-31373 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31373]: Fix several possible instances of undefined behavior due to floating-point demotions.

bpo-30465 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30465]: Location information (lineno and col_offset) in f-strings is now (mostly) correct. This fixes tools like flake8 from showing warnings on the wrong line (typically the first line of the file).

bpo-30860 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30860]: Consolidate CPython's global runtime state under a single struct. This improves discoverability of the runtime state.

bpo-31347 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31347]: Fix possible undefined behavior in _PyObject_FastCall_Prepend.

bpo-31343 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31343]: Include sys/sysmacros.h for major(), minor(), and makedev(). GNU C library plans to remove the functions from sys/types.h.

bpo-31291 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31291]: Fix an assertion failure in zipimport.zipimporter.get_data on Windows, when the return value of pathname.replace('/','\\') isn't a string. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-31271 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31271]: Fix an assertion failure in the write() method of io.TextIOWrapper, when the encoder doesn't return a bytes object. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-31243 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31243]: Fix a crash in some methods of io.TextIOWrapper, when the decoder's state is invalid. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-30721 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30721]: print now shows correct usage hint for using Python 2 redirection syntax. Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

bpo-31070 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31070]: Fix a race condition in importlib _get_module_lock().

bpo-30747 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30747]: Add a non-dummy implementation of _Py_atomic_store and _Py_atomic_load on MSVC.

bpo-31095 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31095]: Fix potential crash during GC caused by tp_dealloc which doesn't call PyObject_GC_UnTrack().

bpo-31071 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31071]: Avoid masking original TypeError in call with * unpacking when other arguments are passed.

bpo-30978 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30978]: str.format_map() now passes key lookup exceptions through. Previously any exception was replaced with a KeyError exception.

bpo-30808 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30808]: Use _Py_atomic API for concurrency-sensitive signal state.

bpo-30876 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30876]: Relative import from unloaded package now reimports the package instead of failing with SystemError. Relative import from non-package now fails with ImportError rather than SystemError.

bpo-30703 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30703]: Improve signal delivery. Avoid using Py_AddPendingCall from signal handler, to avoid calling signal-unsafe functions. The tests I'm adding here fail without the rest of the patch, on Linux and OS X. This means our signal delivery logic had defects (some signals could be lost).

bpo-30765 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30765]: Avoid blocking in pthread_mutex_lock() when PyThread_acquire_lock() is asked not to block.

bpo-31161 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31161]: Make sure the 'Missing parentheses' syntax error message is only applied to SyntaxError, not to subclasses. Patch by Martijn Pieters.

bpo-30814 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30814]: Fixed a race condition when import a submodule from a package.

bpo-30736 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30736]: The internal unicodedata database has been upgraded to Unicode 10.0.

bpo-30604 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30604]: Move co_extra_freefuncs from per-thread to per-interpreter to avoid crashes.

bpo-30597 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30597]: print now shows expected input in custom error message when used as a Python 2 statement. Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

bpo-30682 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30682]: Removed a too-strict assertion that failed for certain f-strings, such as eval("f'\n'") and eval("f'\r'").

bpo-30501 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30501]: The compiler now produces more optimal code for complex condition expressions in the "if", "while" and "assert" statement, the "if" expression, and generator expressions and comprehensions.

bpo-28180 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28180]: Implement PEP 538 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/] (legacy C locale coercion). This means that when a suitable coercion target locale is available, both the core interpreter and locale-aware C extensions will assume the use of UTF-8 as the default text encoding, rather than ASCII.

bpo-30486 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30486]: Allows setting cell values for __closure__. Patch by Lisa Roach.

bpo-30537 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30537]: itertools.islice now accepts integer-like objects (having an __index__ method) as start, stop, and slice arguments

bpo-25324 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25324]: Tokens needed for parsing in Python moved to C. COMMENT, NL and ENCODING. This way the tokens and tok_names in the token module don't get changed when you import the tokenize module.

bpo-29104 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29104]: Fixed parsing backslashes in f-strings.

bpo-27945 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27945]: Fixed various segfaults with dict when input collections are mutated during searching, inserting or comparing. Based on patches by Duane Griffin and Tim Mitchell.

bpo-25794 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25794]: Fixed type.__setattr__() and type.__delattr__() for non-interned attribute names. Based on patch by Eryk Sun.

bpo-30039 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30039]: If a KeyboardInterrupt happens when the interpreter is in the middle of resuming a chain of nested 'yield from' or 'await' calls, it's now correctly delivered to the innermost frame.

bpo-28974 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28974]: object.__format__(x, '') is now equivalent to str(x) rather than format(str(self), '').

bpo-30024 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30024]: Circular imports involving absolute imports with binding a submodule to a name are now supported.

bpo-12414 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12414]: sys.getsizeof() on a code object now returns the sizes which includes the code struct and sizes of objects which it references. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-29839 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29839]: len() now raises ValueError rather than OverflowError if __len__() returned a large negative integer.

bpo-11913 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11913]: README.rst is now included in the list of distutils standard READMEs and therefore included in source distributions.

bpo-29914 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29914]: Fixed default implementations of __reduce__ and __reduce_ex__(). object.__reduce__() no longer takes arguments, object.__reduce_ex__() now requires one argument.

bpo-29949 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29949]: Fix memory usage regression of set and frozenset object.

bpo-29935 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29935]: Fixed error messages in the index() method of tuple, list and deque when pass indices of wrong type.

bpo-29816 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29816]: Shift operation now has less opportunity to raise OverflowError. ValueError always is raised rather than OverflowError for negative counts. Shifting zero with non-negative count always returns zero.

bpo-24821 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24821]: Fixed the slowing down to 25 times in the searching of some unlucky Unicode characters.

bpo-29102 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29102]: Add a unique ID to PyInterpreterState. This makes it easier to identify each subinterpreter.

bpo-29894 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29894]: The deprecation warning is emitted if __complex__ returns an instance of a strict subclass of complex. In a future versions of Python this can be an error.

bpo-29859 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29859]: Show correct error messages when any of the pthread_* calls in thread_pthread.h fails.

bpo-29849 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29849]: Fix a memory leak when an ImportError is raised during from import.

bpo-28856 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28856]: Fix an oversight that %b format for bytes should support objects follow the buffer protocol.

bpo-29723 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29723]: The sys.path[0] initialization change for bpo-29139 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29139] caused a regression by revealing an inconsistency in how sys.path is initialized when executing __main__ from a zipfile, directory, or other import location. The interpreter now consistently avoids ever adding the import location's parent directory to sys.path, and ensures no other sys.path entries are inadvertently modified when inserting the import location named on the command line.

bpo-29568 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29568]: Escaped percent "%%" in the format string for classic string formatting no longer allows any characters between two percents.

bpo-29714 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29714]: Fix a regression that bytes format may fail when containing zero bytes inside.

bpo-29695 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29695]: bool(), float(), list() and tuple() no longer take keyword arguments. The first argument of int() can now be passes only as positional argument.

bpo-28893 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28893]: Set correct __cause__ for errors about invalid awaitables returned from __aiter__ and __anext__.

bpo-28876 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28876]: bool(range) works even if len(range) raises OverflowError.

bpo-29683 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29683]: Fixes to memory allocation in _PyCode_SetExtra. Patch by Brian Coleman.

bpo-29684 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29684]: Fix minor regression of PyEval_CallObjectWithKeywords. It should raise TypeError when kwargs is not a dict. But it might cause segv when args=NULL and kwargs is not a dict.

bpo-28598 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28598]: Support __rmod__ for subclasses of str being called before str.__mod__. Patch by Martijn Pieters.

bpo-29607 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29607]: Fix stack_effect computation for CALL_FUNCTION_EX. Patch by Matthieu Dartiailh.

bpo-29602 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29602]: Fix incorrect handling of signed zeros in complex constructor for complex subclasses and for inputs having a __complex__ method. Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

bpo-29347 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29347]: Fixed possibly dereferencing undefined pointers when creating weakref objects.

bpo-29463 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29463]: Add docstring field to Module, ClassDef, FunctionDef, and AsyncFunctionDef ast nodes. docstring is not first stmt in their body anymore. It affects co_firstlineno and co_lnotab of code object for module and class. (Reverted in bpo-32911 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32911].)

bpo-29438 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29438]: Fixed use-after-free problem in key sharing dict.

bpo-29546 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29546]: Set the 'path' and 'name' attribute on ImportError for from ... import ....

bpo-29546 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29546]: Improve from-import error message with location

bpo-29478 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29478]: If max_line_length=None is specified while using the Compat32 policy, it is no longer ignored. Patch by Mircea Cosbuc.

bpo-29319 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29319]: Prevent RunMainFromImporter overwriting sys.path[0].

bpo-29337 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29337]: Fixed possible BytesWarning when compare the code objects. Warnings could be emitted at compile time.

bpo-29327 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29327]: Fixed a crash when pass the iterable keyword argument to sorted().

bpo-29034 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29034]: Fix memory leak and use-after-free in os module (path_converter).

bpo-29159 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29159]: Fix regression in bytes(x) when x.__index__() raises Exception.

bpo-29049 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29049]: Call _PyObject_GC_TRACK() lazily when calling Python function. Calling function is up to 5% faster.

bpo-28927 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28927]: bytes.fromhex() and bytearray.fromhex() now ignore all ASCII whitespace, not only spaces. Patch by Robert Xiao.

bpo-28932 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28932]: Do not include <sys/random.h> if it does not exist.

bpo-25677 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25677]: Correct the positioning of the syntax error caret for indented blocks. Based on patch by Michael Layzell.

bpo-29000 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29000]: Fixed bytes formatting of octals with zero padding in alternate form.

bpo-18896 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18896]: Python function can now have more than 255 parameters. collections.namedtuple() now supports tuples with more than 255 elements.

bpo-28596 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28596]: The preferred encoding is UTF-8 on Android. Patch written by Chi Hsuan Yen.

bpo-22257 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22257]: Clean up interpreter startup (see PEP 432 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0432/]).

bpo-26919 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26919]: On Android, operating system data is now always encoded/decoded to/from UTF-8, instead of the locale encoding to avoid inconsistencies with os.fsencode() and os.fsdecode() which are already using UTF-8.

bpo-28991 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28991]: functools.lru_cache() was susceptible to an obscure reentrancy bug triggerable by a monkey-patched len() function.

bpo-28147 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28147]: Fix a memory leak in split-table dictionaries: setattr() must not convert combined table into split table. Patch written by INADA Naoki.

bpo-28739 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28739]: f-string expressions are no longer accepted as docstrings and by ast.literal_eval() even if they do not include expressions.

bpo-28512 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28512]: Fixed setting the offset attribute of SyntaxError by PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx() and PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject().

bpo-28918 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28918]: Fix the cross compilation of xxlimited when Python has been built with Py_DEBUG defined.

bpo-23722 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23722]: Rather than silently producing a class that doesn't support zero-argument super() in methods, failing to pass the new __classcell__ namespace entry up to type.__new__ now results in a DeprecationWarning and a class that supports zero-argument super().

bpo-28797 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28797]: Modifying the class __dict__ inside the __set_name__ method of a descriptor that is used inside that class no longer prevents calling the __set_name__ method of other descriptors.

bpo-28799 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28799]: Remove the PyEval_GetCallStats() function and deprecate the untested and undocumented sys.callstats() function. Remove the CALL_PROFILE special build: use the sys.setprofile() function, cProfile or profile to profile function calls.

bpo-12844 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12844]: More than 255 arguments can now be passed to a function.

bpo-28782 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28782]: Fix a bug in the implementation yield from when checking if the next instruction is YIELD_FROM. Regression introduced by WORDCODE (bpo-26647 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26647]).

bpo-28774 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28774]: Fix error position of the unicode error in ASCII and Latin1 encoders when a string returned by the error handler contains multiple non-encodable characters (non-ASCII for the ASCII codec, characters out of the U+0000-U+00FF range for Latin1).

bpo-28731 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28731]: Optimize _PyDict_NewPresized() to create correct size dict. Improve speed of dict literal with constant keys up to 30%.

bpo-28532 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28532]: Show sys.version when -V option is supplied twice.

bpo-27100 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27100]: The with-statement now checks for __enter__ before it checks for __exit__. This gives less confusing error messages when both methods are missing. Patch by Jonathan Ellington.

bpo-28746 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28746]: Fix the set_inheritable() file descriptor method on platforms that do not have the ioctl FIOCLEX and FIONCLEX commands.

bpo-26920 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26920]: Fix not getting the locale's charset upon initializing the interpreter, on platforms that do not have langinfo.

bpo-28648 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28648]: Fixed crash in Py_DecodeLocale() in debug build on Mac OS X when decode astral characters. Patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-28665 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28665]: Improve speed of the STORE_DEREF opcode by 40%.

bpo-19398 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19398]: Extra slash no longer added to sys.path components in case of empty compile-time PYTHONPATH components.

bpo-28621 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28621]: Sped up converting int to float by reusing faster bits counting implementation. Patch by Adrian Wielgosik.

bpo-28580 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28580]: Optimize iterating split table values. Patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-28583 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28583]: PyDict_SetDefault didn't combine split table when needed. Patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-28128 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28128]: Deprecation warning for invalid str and byte escape sequences now prints better information about where the error occurs. Patch by Serhiy Storchaka and Eric Smith.

bpo-28509 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28509]: dict.update() no longer allocate unnecessary large memory.

bpo-28426 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28426]: Fixed potential crash in PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject() in debug build.

bpo-28517 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28517]: Fixed of-by-one error in the peephole optimizer that caused keeping unreachable code.

bpo-28214 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28214]: Improved exception reporting for problematic __set_name__ attributes.

bpo-23782 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23782]: Fixed possible memory leak in _PyTraceback_Add() and exception loss in PyTraceBack_Here().

bpo-28183 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28183]: Optimize and cleanup dict iteration.

bpo-26081 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26081]: Added C implementation of asyncio.Future. Original patch by Yury Selivanov.

bpo-28379 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28379]: Added sanity checks and tests for PyUnicode_CopyCharacters(). Patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-28376 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28376]: The type of long range iterator is now registered as Iterator. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-28376 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28376]: Creating instances of range_iterator by calling range_iterator type now is disallowed. Calling iter() on range instance is the only way. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-26906 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26906]: Resolving special methods of uninitialized type now causes implicit initialization of the type instead of a fail.

bpo-18287 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18287]: PyType_Ready() now checks that tp_name is not NULL. Original patch by Niklas Koep.

bpo-24098 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24098]: Fixed possible crash when AST is changed in process of compiling it.

bpo-28201 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28201]: Dict reduces possibility of 2nd conflict in hash table when hashes have same lower bits.

bpo-28350 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28350]: String constants with null character no longer interned.

bpo-26617 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26617]: Fix crash when GC runs during weakref callbacks.

bpo-27942 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27942]: String constants now interned recursively in tuples and frozensets.

bpo-28289 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28289]: ImportError.__init__ now resets not specified attributes.

bpo-21578 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21578]: Fixed misleading error message when ImportError called with invalid keyword args.

bpo-28203 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28203]: Fix incorrect type in complex(1.0, {2:3}) error message. Patch by Soumya Sharma.

bpo-28086 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28086]: Single var-positional argument of tuple subtype was passed unscathed to the C-defined function. Now it is converted to exact tuple.

bpo-28214 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28214]: Now __set_name__ is looked up on the class instead of the instance.

bpo-27955 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27955]: Fallback on reading /dev/urandom device when the getrandom() syscall fails with EPERM, for example when blocked by SECCOMP.

bpo-28192 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28192]: Don't import readline in isolated mode.

bpo-27441 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27441]: Remove some redundant assignments to ob_size in longobject.c. Thanks Oren Milman.

bpo-27222 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27222]: Clean up redundant code in long_rshift function. Thanks Oren Milman.

Upgrade internal unicode databases to Unicode version 9.0.0.

bpo-28131 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28131]: Fix a regression in zipimport's compile_source(). zipimport should use the same optimization level as the interpreter.

bpo-28126 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28126]: Replace Py_MEMCPY with memcpy(). Visual Studio can properly optimize memcpy().

bpo-28120 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28120]: Fix dict.pop() for split dictionary when trying to remove a "pending key" (Not yet inserted in split-table). Patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-26182 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26182]: Raise DeprecationWarning when async and await keywords are used as variable/attribute/class/function name.

bpo-26182 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26182]: Fix a refleak in code that raises DeprecationWarning.

bpo-28721 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28721]: Fix asynchronous generators aclose() and athrow() to handle StopAsyncIteration propagation properly.

bpo-26110 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26110]: Speed-up method calls: add LOAD_METHOD and CALL_METHOD opcodes.

Library

bpo-31499 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31499]: xml.etree: Fix a crash when a parser is part of a reference cycle.

bpo-31482 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31482]: random.seed() now works with bytes in version=1

bpo-28556 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556]: typing.get_type_hints now finds the right globalns for classes and modules by default (when no globalns was specified by the caller).

bpo-28556 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556]: Speed improvements to the typing module. Original PRs by Ivan Levkivskyi and Mitar.

bpo-31544 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31544]: The C accelerator module of ElementTree ignored exceptions raised when looking up TreeBuilder target methods in XMLParser().

bpo-31234 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31234]: socket.create_connection() now fixes manually a reference cycle: clear the variable storing the last exception on success.

bpo-31457 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31457]: LoggerAdapter objects can now be nested.

bpo-31431 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31431]: SSLContext.check_hostname now automatically sets SSLContext.verify_mode to ssl.CERT_REQUIRED instead of failing with a ValueError.

bpo-31233 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31233]: socketserver.ThreadingMixIn now keeps a list of non-daemonic threads to wait until all these threads complete in server_close().

bpo-28638 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28638]: Changed the implementation strategy for collections.namedtuple() to substantially reduce the use of exec() in favor of precomputed methods. As a result, the verbose parameter and _source attribute are no longer supported. The benefits include 1) having a smaller memory footprint for applications using multiple named tuples, 2) faster creation of the named tuple class (approx 4x to 6x depending on how it is measured), and 3) minor speed-ups for instance creation using __new__, _make, and _replace. (The primary patch contributor is Jelle Zijlstra with further improvements by INADA Naoki, Serhiy Storchaka, and Raymond Hettinger.)

bpo-31400 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31400]: Improves SSL error handling to avoid losing error numbers.

bpo-27629 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27629]: Make return types of SSLContext.wrap_bio() and SSLContext.wrap_socket() customizable.

bpo-28958 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28958]: ssl.SSLContext() now uses OpenSSL error information when a context cannot be instantiated.

bpo-28182 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28182]: The SSL module now raises SSLCertVerificationError when OpenSSL fails to verify the peer's certificate. The exception contains more information about the error.

bpo-27340 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27340]: SSLSocket.sendall() now uses memoryview to create slices of data. This fixes support for all bytes-like object. It is also more efficient and avoids costly copies.

bpo-14191 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14191]: A new function argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args provides the ability to parse command lines where there user intermixes options and positional arguments.

bpo-31178 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31178]: Fix string concatenation bug in rare error path in the subprocess module

bpo-31350 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31350]: Micro-optimize asyncio._get_running_loop() to become up to 10% faster.

bpo-31170 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31170]: expat: Update libexpat from 2.2.3 to 2.2.4. Fix copying of partial characters for UTF-8 input (libexpat bug 115): https://github.com/libexpat/libexpat/issues/115

bpo-29136 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29136]: Add TLS 1.3 cipher suites and OP_NO_TLSv1_3.

bpo-1198569 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1198569]: string.Template subclasses can optionally define braceidpattern if they want to specify different placeholder patterns inside and outside the braces. If None (the default) it falls back to idpattern.

bpo-31326 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31326]: concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor.shutdown() now explicitly closes the call queue. Moreover, shutdown(wait=True) now also join the call queue thread, to prevent leaking a dangling thread.

bpo-27144 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27144]: The map() and as_completed() iterators in concurrent.futures now avoid keeping a reference to yielded objects.

bpo-31281 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31281]: Fix fileinput.FileInput(files, inplace=True) when files contain pathlib.Path objects.

bpo-10746 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10746]: Fix ctypes producing wrong PEP 3118 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/] type codes for integer types.

bpo-27584 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27584]: AF_VSOCK has been added to the socket interface which allows communication between virtual machines and their host.

bpo-22536 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22536]: The subprocess module now sets the filename when FileNotFoundError is raised on POSIX systems due to the executable or cwd not being found.

bpo-29741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29741]: Update some methods in the _pyio module to also accept integer types. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-31249 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31249]: concurrent.futures: WorkItem.run() used by ThreadPoolExecutor now breaks a reference cycle between an exception object and the WorkItem object.

bpo-31247 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31247]: xmlrpc.server now explicitly breaks reference cycles when using sys.exc_info() in code handling exceptions.

bpo-23835 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23835]: configparser: reading defaults in the ConfigParser() constructor is now using read_dict(), making its behavior consistent with the rest of the parser. Non-string keys and values in the defaults dictionary are now being implicitly converted to strings. Patch by James Tocknell.

bpo-31238 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31238]: pydoc: the stop() method of the private ServerThread class now waits until DocServer.serve_until_quit() completes and then explicitly sets its docserver attribute to None to break a reference cycle.

bpo-5001 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5001]: Many asserts in multiprocessing are now more informative, and some error types have been changed to more specific ones.

bpo-31109 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31109]: Convert zipimport to use Argument Clinic.

bpo-30102 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30102]: The ssl and hashlib modules now call OPENSSL_add_all_algorithms_noconf() on OpenSSL < 1.1.0. The function detects CPU features and enables optimizations on some CPU architectures such as POWER8. Patch is based on research from Gustavo Serra Scalet.

bpo-18966 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18966]: Non-daemonic threads created by a multiprocessing.Process are now joined on child exit.

bpo-31183 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31183]: dis now works with asynchronous generator and coroutine objects. Patch by George Collins based on diagnosis by Luciano Ramalho.

bpo-5001 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5001]: There are a number of uninformative asserts in the multiprocessing module, as noted in issue 5001. This change fixes two of the most potentially problematic ones, since they are in error-reporting code, in the multiprocessing.managers.convert_to_error function. (It also makes more informative a ValueError message.) The only potentially problematic change is that the AssertionError is now a TypeError; however, this should also help distinguish it from an AssertionError being reported by the function/its caller (such as in issue 31169). - Patch by Allen W. Smith (drallensmith on github).

bpo-31185 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31185]: Fixed miscellaneous errors in asyncio speedup module.

bpo-31151 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31151]: socketserver.ForkingMixIn.server_close() now waits until all child processes completed to prevent leaking zombie processes.

bpo-31072 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31072]: Add an include_file parameter to zipapp.create_archive()

bpo-24700 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24700]: Optimize array.array comparison. It is now from 10x up to 70x faster when comparing arrays holding values of the same integer type.

bpo-31135 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31135]: ttk: fix the destroy() method of LabeledScale and OptionMenu classes. Call the parent destroy() method even if the used attribute doesn't exist. The LabeledScale.destroy() method now also explicitly clears label and scale attributes to help the garbage collector to destroy all widgets.

bpo-31107 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31107]: Fix copyreg._slotnames() mangled attribute calculation for classes whose name begins with an underscore. Patch by Shane Harvey.

bpo-31080 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31080]: Allow logging.config.fileConfig to accept kwargs and/or args.

bpo-30897 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30897]: pathlib.Path objects now include an is_mount() method (only implemented on POSIX). This is similar to os.path.ismount(p). Patch by Cooper Ry Lees.

bpo-31061 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31061]: Fixed a crash when using asyncio and threads.

bpo-30987 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30987]: Added support for CAN ISO-TP protocol in the socket module.

bpo-30522 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30522]: Added a setStream method to logging.StreamHandler to allow the stream to be set after creation.

bpo-30502 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30502]: Fix handling of long oids in ssl. Based on patch by Christian Heimes.

bpo-5288 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5288]: Support tzinfo objects with sub-minute offsets.

bpo-30919 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30919]: Fix shared memory performance regression in multiprocessing in 3.x. Shared memory used anonymous memory mappings in 2.x, while 3.x mmaps actual files. Try to be careful to do as little disk I/O as possible.

bpo-26732 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26732]: Fix too many fds in processes started with the "forkserver" method. A child process would inherit as many fds as the number of still-running children.

bpo-29403 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29403]: Fix unittest.mock's autospec to not fail on method-bound builtin functions. Patch by Aaron Gallagher.

bpo-30961 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30961]: Fix decrementing a borrowed reference in tracemalloc.

bpo-19896 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19896]: Fix multiprocessing.sharedctypes to recognize typecodes 'q' and 'Q'.

bpo-30946 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30946]: Remove obsolete code in readline module for platforms where GNU readline is older than 2.1 or where select() is not available.

bpo-25684 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25684]: Change ttk.OptionMenu radiobuttons to be unique across instances of OptionMenu.

bpo-30886 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30886]: Fix multiprocessing.Queue.join_thread(): it now waits until the thread completes, even if the thread was started by the same process which created the queue.

bpo-29854 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29854]: Fix segfault in readline when using readline's history-size option. Patch by Nir Soffer.

bpo-30794 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30794]: Added multiprocessing.Process.kill method to terminate using the SIGKILL signal on Unix.

bpo-30319 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30319]: socket.close() now ignores ECONNRESET error.

bpo-30828 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30828]: Fix out of bounds write in asyncio.CFuture.remove_done_callback().

bpo-30302 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30302]: Use keywords in the repr of datetime.timedelta.

bpo-30807 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30807]: signal.setitimer() may disable the timer when passed a tiny value. Tiny values (such as 1e-6) are valid non-zero values for setitimer(), which is specified as taking microsecond-resolution intervals. However, on some platform, our conversion routine could convert 1e-6 into a zero interval, therefore disabling the timer instead of (re-)scheduling it.

bpo-30441 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30441]: Fix bug when modifying os.environ while iterating over it

bpo-29585 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29585]: Avoid importing sysconfig from site to improve startup speed. Python startup is about 5% faster on Linux and 30% faster on macOS.

bpo-29293 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29293]: Add missing parameter "n" on multiprocessing.Condition.notify(). The doc claims multiprocessing.Condition behaves like threading.Condition, but its notify() method lacked the optional "n" argument (to specify the number of sleepers to wake up) that threading.Condition.notify() accepts.

bpo-30532 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30532]: Fix email header value parser dropping folding white space in certain cases.

bpo-30596 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30596]: Add a close() method to multiprocessing.Process.

bpo-9146 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9146]: Fix a segmentation fault in _hashopenssl when standard hash functions such as md5 are not available in the linked OpenSSL library. As in some special FIPS-140 build environments.

bpo-29169 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29169]: Update zlib to 1.2.11.

bpo-30119 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30119]: ftplib.FTP.putline() now throws ValueError on commands that contains CR or LF. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-30879 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30879]: os.listdir() and os.scandir() now emit bytes names when called with bytes-like argument.

bpo-30746 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30746]: Prohibited the '=' character in environment variable names in os.putenv() and os.spawn*().

bpo-30664 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30664]: The description of a unittest subtest now preserves the order of keyword arguments of TestCase.subTest().

bpo-21071 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21071]: struct.Struct.format type is now str instead of bytes.

bpo-29212 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29212]: Fix concurrent.futures.thread.ThreadPoolExecutor threads to have a non repr() based thread name by default when no thread_name_prefix is supplied. They will now identify themselves as "ThreadPoolExecutor-y_n".

bpo-29755 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29755]: Fixed the lgettext() family of functions in the gettext module. They now always return bytes.

bpo-30616 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30616]: Functional API of enum allows to create empty enums. Patched by Donghee Na

bpo-30038 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30038]: Fix race condition between signal delivery and wakeup file descriptor. Patch by Nathaniel Smith.

bpo-23894 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23894]: lib2to3 now recognizes rb'...' and f'...' strings.

bpo-24744 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24744]: pkgutil.walk_packages function now raises ValueError if path is a string. Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

bpo-24484 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24484]: Avoid race condition in multiprocessing cleanup.

bpo-30589 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30589]: Fix multiprocessing.Process.exitcode to return the opposite of the signal number when the process is killed by a signal (instead of 255) when using the "forkserver" method.

bpo-28994 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28994]: The traceback no longer displayed for SystemExit raised in a callback registered by atexit.

bpo-30508 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30508]: Don't log exceptions if Task/Future "cancel()" method was called.

bpo-30645 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30645]: Fix path calculation in imp.load_package(), fixing it for cases when a package is only shipped with bytecodes. Patch by Alexandru Ardelean.

bpo-11822 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11822]: The dis.dis() function now is able to disassemble nested code objects.

bpo-30624 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30624]: selectors does not take KeyboardInterrupt and SystemExit into account, leaving a fd in a bad state in case of error. Patch by Giampaolo Rodola'.

bpo-30595 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30595]: multiprocessing.Queue.get() with a timeout now polls its reader in non-blocking mode if it succeeded to acquire the lock but the acquire took longer than the timeout.

bpo-28556 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556]: Updates to typing module: Add generic AsyncContextManager, add support for ContextManager on all versions. Original PRs by Jelle Zijlstra and Ivan Levkivskyi

bpo-30605 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30605]: re.compile() no longer raises a BytesWarning when compiling a bytes instance with misplaced inline modifier. Patch by Roy Williams.

bpo-29870 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29870]: Fix ssl sockets leaks when connection is aborted in asyncio/ssl implementation. Patch by Michaël Sghaïer.

bpo-29743 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29743]: Closing transport during handshake process leaks open socket. Patch by Nikolay Kim

bpo-27585 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27585]: Fix waiter cancellation in asyncio.Lock. Patch by Mathieu Sornay.

bpo-30014 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30014]: modify() method of poll(), epoll() and devpoll() based classes of selectors module is around 10% faster. Patch by Giampaolo Rodola'.

bpo-30418 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30418]: On Windows, subprocess.Popen.communicate() now also ignore EINVAL on stdin.write() if the child process is still running but closed the pipe.

bpo-30463 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30463]: Added empty __slots__ to abc.ABC. This allows subclassers to deny __dict__ and __weakref__ creation. Patch by Aaron Hall.

bpo-30520 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30520]: Loggers are now pickleable.

bpo-30557 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30557]: faulthandler now correctly filters and displays exception codes on Windows

bpo-30526 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30526]: Add TextIOWrapper.reconfigure() and a TextIOWrapper.write_through attribute.

bpo-30245 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30245]: Fix possible overflow when organize struct.pack_into error message. Patch by Yuan Liu.

bpo-30378 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30378]: Fix the problem that logging.handlers.SysLogHandler cannot handle IPv6 addresses.

bpo-16500 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16500]: Allow registering at-fork handlers.

bpo-30470 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30470]: Deprecate invalid ctypes call protection on Windows. Patch by Mariatta Wijaya.

bpo-30414 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30414]: multiprocessing.Queue._feed background running thread do not break from main loop on exception.

bpo-30003 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30003]: Fix handling escape characters in HZ codec. Based on patch by Ma Lin.

bpo-30149 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30149]: inspect.signature() now supports callables with variable-argument parameters wrapped with partialmethod. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-30436 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30436]: importlib.find_spec() raises ModuleNotFoundError instead of AttributeError if the specified parent module is not a package (i.e. lacks a __path__ attribute).

bpo-30301 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30301]: Fix AttributeError when using SimpleQueue.empty() under spawn and forkserver start methods.

bpo-30375 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30375]: Warnings emitted when compile a regular expression now always point to the line in the user code. Previously they could point into inners of the re module if emitted from inside of groups or conditionals.

bpo-30329 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30329]: imaplib and poplib now catch the Windows socket WSAEINVAL error (code 10022) on shutdown(SHUT_RDWR): An invalid operation was attempted. This error occurs sometimes on SSL connections.

bpo-29196 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29196]: Removed previously deprecated in Python 2.4 classes Plist, Dict and _InternalDict in the plistlib module. Dict values in the result of functions readPlist() and readPlistFromBytes() are now normal dicts. You no longer can use attribute access to access items of these dictionaries.

bpo-9850 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9850]: The macpath is now deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.8.

bpo-30299 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30299]: Compiling regular expression in debug mode on CPython now displays the compiled bytecode in human readable form.

bpo-30048 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30048]: Fixed Task.cancel() can be ignored when the task is running coroutine and the coroutine returned without any more await.

bpo-30266 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30266]: contextlib.AbstractContextManager now supports anti-registration by setting __enter__ = None or __exit__ = None, following the pattern introduced in bpo-25958 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25958]. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

bpo-30340 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30340]: Enhanced regular expressions optimization. This increased the performance of matching some patterns up to 25 times.

bpo-30298 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30298]: Weaken the condition of deprecation warnings for inline modifiers. Now allowed several subsequential inline modifiers at the start of the pattern (e.g. '(?i)(?s)...'). In verbose mode whitespaces and comments now are allowed before and between inline modifiers (e.g. '(?x) (?i) (?s)...').

bpo-30285 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30285]: Optimized case-insensitive matching and searching of regular expressions.

bpo-29990 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29990]: Fix range checking in GB18030 decoder. Original patch by Ma Lin.

bpo-29979 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29979]: rewrite cgi.parse_multipart, reusing the FieldStorage class and making its results consistent with those of FieldStorage for multipart/form-data requests. Patch by Pierre Quentel.

bpo-30243 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30243]: Removed the __init__ methods of _json's scanner and encoder. Misusing them could cause memory leaks or crashes. Now scanner and encoder objects are completely initialized in the __new__ methods.

bpo-30215 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30215]: Compiled regular expression objects with the re.LOCALE flag no longer depend on the locale at compile time. Only the locale at matching time affects the result of matching.

bpo-30185 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30185]: Avoid KeyboardInterrupt tracebacks in forkserver helper process when Ctrl-C is received.

bpo-30103 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30103]: binascii.b2a_uu() and uu.encode() now support using '`' as zero instead of space.

bpo-28556 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556]: Various updates to typing module: add typing.NoReturn type, use WrapperDescriptorType, minor bug-fixes. Original PRs by Jim Fasarakis-Hilliard and Ivan Levkivskyi.

bpo-30205 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30205]: Fix getsockname() for unbound AF_UNIX sockets on Linux.

bpo-30228 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30228]: The seek() and tell() methods of io.FileIO now set the internal seekable attribute to avoid one syscall on open() (in buffered or text mode).

bpo-30190 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30190]: unittest's assertAlmostEqual and assertNotAlmostEqual provide a better message in case of failure which includes the difference between left and right arguments. (patch by Giampaolo Rodola')

bpo-30101 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30101]: Add support for curses.A_ITALIC.

bpo-29822 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29822]: inspect.isabstract() now works during __init_subclass__. Patch by Nate Soares.

bpo-29960 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29960]: Preserve generator state when _random.Random.setstate() raises an exception. Patch by Bryan Olson.

bpo-30070 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30070]: Fixed leaks and crashes in errors handling in the parser module.

bpo-22352 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22352]: Column widths in the output of dis.dis() are now adjusted for large line numbers and instruction offsets.

bpo-30061 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30061]: Fixed crashes in IOBase methods __next__() and readlines() when readline() or __next__() respectively return non-sizeable object. Fixed possible other errors caused by not checking results of PyObject_Size(), PySequence_Size(), or PyMapping_Size().

bpo-30218 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30218]: Fix PathLike support for shutil.unpack_archive. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

bpo-10076 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10076]: Compiled regular expression and match objects in the re module now support copy.copy() and copy.deepcopy() (they are considered atomic).

bpo-30068 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30068]: _io._IOBase.readlines will check if it's closed first when hint is present.

bpo-29694 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29694]: Fixed race condition in pathlib mkdir with flags parents=True. Patch by Armin Rigo.

bpo-29692 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29692]: Fixed arbitrary unchaining of RuntimeError exceptions in contextlib.contextmanager. Patch by Siddharth Velankar.

bpo-26187 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26187]: Test that sqlite3 trace callback is not called multiple times when schema is changing. Indirectly fixed by switching to use sqlite3_prepare_v2() in bpo-9303 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9303]. Patch by Aviv Palivoda.

bpo-30017 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30017]: Allowed calling the close() method of the zip entry writer object multiple times. Writing to a closed writer now always produces a ValueError.

bpo-29998 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29998]: Pickling and copying ImportError now preserves name and path attributes.

bpo-29995 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29995]: re.escape() now escapes only regex special characters.

bpo-29962 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29962]: Add math.remainder operation, implementing remainder as specified in IEEE 754.

bpo-29649 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29649]: Improve struct.pack_into() exception messages for problems with the buffer size and offset. Patch by Andrew Nester.

bpo-29654 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29654]: Support If-Modified-Since HTTP header (browser cache). Patch by Pierre Quentel.

bpo-29931 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29931]: Fixed comparison check for ipaddress.ip_interface objects. Patch by Sanjay Sundaresan.

bpo-29953 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29953]: Fixed memory leaks in the replace() method of datetime and time objects when pass out of bound fold argument.

bpo-29942 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29942]: Fix a crash in itertools.chain.from_iterable when encountering long runs of empty iterables.

bpo-10030 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10030]: Sped up reading encrypted ZIP files by 2 times.

bpo-29204 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29204]: Element.getiterator() and the html parameter of XMLParser() were deprecated only in the documentation (since Python 3.2 and 3.4 correspondingly). Now using them emits a deprecation warning.

bpo-27863 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27863]: Fixed multiple crashes in ElementTree caused by race conditions and wrong types.

bpo-25996 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25996]: Added support of file descriptors in os.scandir() on Unix. os.fwalk() is sped up by 2 times by using os.scandir().

bpo-28699 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28699]: Fixed a bug in pools in multiprocessing.pool that raising an exception at the very first of an iterable may swallow the exception or make the program hang. Patch by Davin Potts and Xiang Zhang.

bpo-23890 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23890]: unittest.TestCase.assertRaises() now manually breaks a reference cycle to not keep objects alive longer than expected.

bpo-29901 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29901]: The zipapp module now supports general path-like objects, not just pathlib.Path.

bpo-25803 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25803]: Avoid incorrect errors raised by Path.mkdir(exist_ok=True) when the OS gives priority to errors such as EACCES over EEXIST.

bpo-29861 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29861]: Release references to tasks, their arguments and their results as soon as they are finished in multiprocessing.Pool.

bpo-19930 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19930]: The mode argument of os.makedirs() no longer affects the file permission bits of newly created intermediate-level directories.

bpo-29884 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29884]: faulthandler: Restore the old sigaltstack during teardown. Patch by Christophe Zeitouny.

bpo-25455 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25455]: Fixed crashes in repr of recursive buffered file-like objects.

bpo-29800 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29800]: Fix crashes in partial.__repr__ if the keys of partial.keywords are not strings. Patch by Michael Seifert.

bpo-8256 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8256]: Fixed possible failing or crashing input() if attributes "encoding" or "errors" of sys.stdin or sys.stdout are not set or are not strings.

bpo-28692 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28692]: Using non-integer value for selecting a plural form in gettext is now deprecated.

bpo-26121 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26121]: Use C library implementation for math functions erf() and erfc().

bpo-29619 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29619]: os.stat() and os.DirEntry.inode() now convert inode (st_ino) using unsigned integers.

bpo-28298 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28298]: Fix a bug that prevented array 'Q', 'L' and 'I' from accepting big intables (objects that have __int__) as elements.

bpo-29645 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29645]: Speed up importing the webbrowser module. webbrowser.register() is now thread-safe.

bpo-28231 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28231]: The zipfile module now accepts path-like objects for external paths.

bpo-26915 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26915]: index() and count() methods of collections.abc.Sequence now check identity before checking equality when do comparisons.

bpo-28682 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28682]: Added support for bytes paths in os.fwalk().

bpo-29728 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29728]: Add new socket.TCP_NOTSENT_LOWAT (Linux 3.12) constant. Patch by Nathaniel J. Smith.

bpo-29623 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29623]: Allow use of path-like object as a single argument in ConfigParser.read(). Patch by David Ellis.

bpo-9303 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9303]: Migrate sqlite3 module to _v2 API. Patch by Aviv Palivoda.

bpo-28963 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28963]: Fix out of bound iteration in asyncio.Future.remove_done_callback implemented in C.

bpo-29704 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29704]: asyncio.subprocess.SubprocessStreamProtocol no longer closes before all pipes are closed.

bpo-29271 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29271]: Fix Task.current_task and Task.all_tasks implemented in C to accept None argument as their pure Python implementation.

bpo-29703 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29703]: Fix asyncio to support instantiation of new event loops in child processes.

bpo-29615 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29615]: SimpleXMLRPCDispatcher no longer chains KeyError (or any other exception) to exception(s) raised in the dispatched methods. Patch by Petr Motejlek.

bpo-7769 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7769]: Method register_function() of xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCDispatcher and its subclasses can now be used as a decorator.

bpo-29376 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29376]: Fix assertion error in threading._DummyThread.is_alive().

bpo-28624 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28624]: Add a test that checks that cwd parameter of Popen() accepts PathLike objects. Patch by Sayan Chowdhury.

bpo-28518 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28518]: Start a transaction implicitly before a DML statement. Patch by Aviv Palivoda.

bpo-29742 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29742]: get_extra_info() raises exception if get called on closed ssl transport. Patch by Nikolay Kim.

bpo-16285 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16285]: urllib.parse.quote is now based on RFC 3986 and hence includes '~' in the set of characters that is not quoted by default. Patch by Christian Theune and Ratnadeep Debnath.

bpo-29532 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29532]: Altering a kwarg dictionary passed to functools.partial() no longer affects a partial object after creation.

bpo-29110 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29110]: Fix file object leak in aifc.open() when file is given as a filesystem path and is not in valid AIFF format. Patch by Anthony Zhang.

bpo-22807 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22807]: Add uuid.SafeUUID and uuid.UUID.is_safe to relay information from the platform about whether generated UUIDs are generated with a multiprocessing safe method.

bpo-29576 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29576]: Improve some deprecations in importlib. Some deprecated methods now emit DeprecationWarnings and have better descriptive messages.

bpo-29534 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29534]: Fixed different behaviour of Decimal.from_float() for _decimal and _pydecimal. Thanks Andrew Nester.

bpo-10379 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10379]: locale.format_string now supports the 'monetary' keyword argument, and locale.format is deprecated.

bpo-29851 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29851]: importlib.reload() now raises ModuleNotFoundError if the module lacks a spec.

bpo-28556 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556]: Various updates to typing module: typing.Counter, typing.ChainMap, improved ABC caching, etc. Original PRs by Jelle Zijlstra, Ivan Levkivskyi, Manuel Krebber, and Łukasz Langa.

bpo-29100 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29100]: Fix datetime.fromtimestamp() regression introduced in Python 3.6.0: check minimum and maximum years.

bpo-29416 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29416]: Prevent infinite loop in pathlib.Path.mkdir

bpo-29444 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29444]: Fixed out-of-bounds buffer access in the group() method of the match object. Based on patch by WGH.

bpo-29377 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29377]: Add WrapperDescriptorType, MethodWrapperType, and MethodDescriptorType built-in types to types module. Original patch by Manuel Krebber.

bpo-29218 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29218]: Unused install_misc command is now removed. It has been documented as unused since 2000. Patch by Eric N. Vander Weele.

bpo-29368 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29368]: The extend() method is now called instead of the append() method when unpickle collections.deque and other list-like objects. This can speed up unpickling to 2 times.

bpo-29338 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29338]: The help of a builtin or extension class now includes the constructor signature if __text_signature__ is provided for the class.

bpo-29335 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29335]: Fix subprocess.Popen.wait() when the child process has exited to a stopped instead of terminated state (ex: when under ptrace).

bpo-29290 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29290]: Fix a regression in argparse that help messages would wrap at non-breaking spaces.

bpo-28735 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28735]: Fixed the comparison of mock.MagickMock with mock.ANY.

bpo-29197 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29197]: Removed deprecated function ntpath.splitunc().

bpo-29210 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29210]: Removed support of deprecated argument "exclude" in tarfile.TarFile.add().

bpo-29219 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29219]: Fixed infinite recursion in the repr of uninitialized ctypes.CDLL instances.

bpo-29192 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29192]: Removed deprecated features in the http.cookies module.

bpo-29193 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29193]: A format string argument for string.Formatter.format() is now positional-only.

bpo-29195 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29195]: Removed support of deprecated undocumented keyword arguments in methods of regular expression objects.

bpo-28969 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28969]: Fixed race condition in C implementation of functools.lru_cache. KeyError could be raised when cached function with full cache was simultaneously called from different threads with the same uncached arguments.

bpo-20804 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20804]: The unittest.mock.sentinel attributes now preserve their identity when they are copied or pickled.

bpo-29142 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29142]: In urllib.request, suffixes in no_proxy environment variable with leading dots could match related hostnames again (e.g. .b.c matches a.b.c). Patch by Milan Oberkirch.

bpo-28961 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28961]: Fix unittest.mock._Call helper: don't ignore the name parameter anymore. Patch written by Jiajun Huang.

bpo-15812 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15812]: inspect.getframeinfo() now correctly shows the first line of a context. Patch by Sam Breese.

bpo-28985 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28985]: Update authorizer constants in sqlite3 module. Patch by Dingyuan Wang.

bpo-29079 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29079]: Prevent infinite loop in pathlib.resolve() on Windows

bpo-13051 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13051]: Fixed recursion errors in large or resized curses.textpad.Textbox. Based on patch by Tycho Andersen.

bpo-9770 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9770]: curses.ascii predicates now work correctly with negative integers.

bpo-28427 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28427]: old keys should not remove new values from WeakValueDictionary when collecting from another thread.

bpo-28923 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28923]: Remove editor artifacts from Tix.py.

bpo-28871 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28871]: Fixed a crash when deallocate deep ElementTree.

bpo-19542 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19542]: Fix bugs in WeakValueDictionary.setdefault() and WeakValueDictionary.pop() when a GC collection happens in another thread.

bpo-20191 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20191]: Fixed a crash in resource.prlimit() when passing a sequence that doesn't own its elements as limits.

bpo-16255 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16255]: subprocess.Popen uses /system/bin/sh on Android as the shell, instead of /bin/sh.

bpo-28779 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28779]: multiprocessing.set_forkserver_preload() would crash the forkserver process if a preloaded module instantiated some multiprocessing objects such as locks.

bpo-26937 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26937]: The chown() method of the tarfile.TarFile class does not fail now when the grp module cannot be imported, as for example on Android platforms.

bpo-28847 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28847]: dbm.dumb now supports reading read-only files and no longer writes the index file when it is not changed. A deprecation warning is now emitted if the index file is missed and recreated in the 'r' and 'w' modes (will be an error in future Python releases).

bpo-27030 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27030]: Unknown escapes consisting of '\' and an ASCII letter in re.sub() replacement templates regular expressions now are errors.

bpo-28835 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28835]: Fix a regression introduced in warnings.catch_warnings(): call warnings.showwarning() if it was overridden inside the context manager.

bpo-27172 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27172]: To assist with upgrades from 2.7, the previously documented deprecation of inspect.getfullargspec() has been reversed. This decision may be revisited again after the Python 2.7 branch is no longer officially supported.

bpo-28740 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28740]: Add sys.getandroidapilevel(): return the build time API version of Android as an integer. Function only available on Android.

bpo-26273 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26273]: Add new socket.TCP_CONGESTION (Linux 2.6.13) and socket.TCP_USER_TIMEOUT (Linux 2.6.37) constants. Patch written by Omar Sandoval.

bpo-28752 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28752]: Restored the __reduce__() methods of datetime objects.

bpo-28727 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28727]: Regular expression patterns, _sre.SRE_Pattern objects created by re.compile(), become comparable (only x==y and x!=y operators). This change should fix the bpo-18383 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18383]: don't duplicate warning filters when the warnings module is reloaded (thing usually only done in unit tests).

bpo-20572 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20572]: Remove the subprocess.Popen.wait endtime parameter. It was deprecated in 3.4 and undocumented prior to that.

bpo-25659 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25659]: In ctypes, prevent a crash calling the from_buffer() and from_buffer_copy() methods on abstract classes like Array.

bpo-28548 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28548]: In the "http.server" module, parse the protocol version if possible, to avoid using HTTP 0.9 in some error responses.

bpo-19717 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19717]: Makes Path.resolve() succeed on paths that do not exist. Patch by Vajrasky Kok

bpo-28563 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28563]: Fixed possible DoS and arbitrary code execution when handle plural form selections in the gettext module. The expression parser now supports exact syntax supported by GNU gettext.

bpo-28387 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28387]: Fixed possible crash in _io.TextIOWrapper deallocator when the garbage collector is invoked in other thread. Based on patch by Sebastian Cufre.

bpo-27517 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27517]: LZMA compressor and decompressor no longer raise exceptions if given empty data twice. Patch by Benjamin Fogle.

bpo-28549 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28549]: Fixed segfault in curses's addch() with ncurses6.

bpo-28449 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28449]: tarfile.open() with mode "r" or "r:" now tries to open a tar file with compression before trying to open it without compression. Otherwise it had 50% chance failed with ignore_zeros=True.

bpo-23262 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23262]: The webbrowser module now supports Firefox 36+ and derived browsers. Based on patch by Oleg Broytman.

bpo-24241 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24241]: The webbrowser in an X environment now prefers using the default browser directly. Also, the webbrowser register() function now has a documented 'preferred' argument, to specify browsers to be returned by get() with no arguments. Patch by David Steele

bpo-27939 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27939]: Fixed bugs in tkinter.ttk.LabeledScale and tkinter.Scale caused by representing the scale as float value internally in Tk. tkinter.IntVar now works if float value is set to underlying Tk variable.

bpo-28255 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28255]: calendar.TextCalendar.prweek() no longer prints a space after a weeks's calendar. calendar.TextCalendar.pryear() no longer prints redundant newline after a year's calendar. Based on patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-28255 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28255]: calendar.TextCalendar.prmonth() no longer prints a space at the start of new line after printing a month's calendar. Patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-20491 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20491]: The textwrap.TextWrapper class now honors non-breaking spaces. Based on patch by Kaarle Ritvanen.

bpo-28353 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28353]: os.fwalk() no longer fails on broken links.

bpo-28430 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28430]: Fix iterator of C implemented asyncio.Future doesn't accept non-None value is passed to it.send(val).

bpo-27025 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27025]: Generated names for Tkinter widgets now start by the "!" prefix for readability.

bpo-25464 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25464]: Fixed HList.header_exists() in tkinter.tix module by addin a workaround to Tix library bug.

bpo-28488 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28488]: shutil.make_archive() no longer adds entry "./" to ZIP archive.

bpo-25953 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25953]: re.sub() now raises an error for invalid numerical group reference in replacement template even if the pattern is not found in the string. Error message for invalid group reference now includes the group index and the position of the reference. Based on patch by SilentGhost.

bpo-28469 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28469]: timeit now uses the sequence 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50,... instead of 1, 10, 100,... for autoranging.

bpo-28115 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28115]: Command-line interface of the zipfile module now uses argparse. Added support of long options.

bpo-18219 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18219]: Optimize csv.DictWriter for large number of columns. Patch by Mariatta Wijaya.

bpo-28448 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28448]: Fix C implemented asyncio.Future didn't work on Windows.

bpo-23214 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23214]: In the "io" module, the argument to BufferedReader and BytesIO's read1() methods is now optional and can be -1, matching the BufferedIOBase specification.

bpo-28480 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28480]: Fix error building socket module when multithreading is disabled.

bpo-28240 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28240]: timeit: remove -c/--clock and -t/--time command line options which were deprecated since Python 3.3.

bpo-28240 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28240]: timeit now repeats the benchmarks 5 times instead of only 3 to make benchmarks more reliable.

bpo-28240 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28240]: timeit autorange now uses a single loop iteration if the benchmark takes less than 10 seconds, instead of 10 iterations. "python3 -m timeit -s 'import time' 'time.sleep(1)'" now takes 4 seconds instead of 40 seconds.

Distutils.sdist now looks for README and setup.py files with case sensitivity. This behavior matches that found in Setuptools 6.0 and later. See setuptools 100 [https://github.com/pypa/setuptools/issues/100] for rationale.

bpo-24452 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24452]: Make webbrowser support Chrome on Mac OS X. Patch by Ned Batchelder.

bpo-20766 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20766]: Fix references leaked by pdb in the handling of SIGINT handlers.

bpo-27998 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27998]: Fixed bytes path support in os.scandir() on Windows. Patch by Eryk Sun.

bpo-28317 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28317]: The disassembler now decodes FORMAT_VALUE argument.

bpo-28380 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28380]: unittest.mock Mock autospec functions now properly support assert_called, assert_not_called, and assert_called_once.

bpo-28229 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28229]: lzma module now supports pathlib.

bpo-28321 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28321]: Fixed writing non-BMP characters with binary format in plistlib.

bpo-28225 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28225]: bz2 module now supports pathlib. Initial patch by Ethan Furman.

bpo-28227 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28227]: gzip now supports pathlib. Patch by Ethan Furman.

bpo-28332 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28332]: Deprecated silent truncations in socket.htons and socket.ntohs. Original patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-27358 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27358]: Optimized merging var-keyword arguments and improved error message when passing a non-mapping as a var-keyword argument.

bpo-28257 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28257]: Improved error message when passing a non-iterable as a var-positional argument. Added opcode BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL.

bpo-28322 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28322]: Fixed possible crashes when unpickle itertools objects from incorrect pickle data. Based on patch by John Leitch.

bpo-28228 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28228]: imghdr now supports pathlib.

bpo-28226 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28226]: compileall now supports pathlib.

bpo-28314 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28314]: Fix function declaration (C flags) for the getiterator() method of xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.

bpo-28148 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28148]: Stop using localtime() and gmtime() in the time module. Introduced platform independent _PyTime_localtime API that is similar to POSIX localtime_r, but available on all platforms. Patch by Ed Schouten.

bpo-28253 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28253]: Fixed calendar functions for extreme months: 0001-01 and 9999-12. Methods itermonthdays() and itermonthdays2() are reimplemented so that they don't call itermonthdates() which can cause datetime.date under/overflow.

bpo-28275 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28275]: Fixed possible use after free in the decompress() methods of the LZMADecompressor and BZ2Decompressor classes. Original patch by John Leitch.

bpo-27897 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27897]: Fixed possible crash in sqlite3.Connection.create_collation() if pass invalid string-like object as a name. Patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-18844 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18844]: random.choices() now has k as a keyword-only argument to improve the readability of common cases and come into line with the signature used in other languages.

bpo-18893 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18893]: Fix invalid exception handling in Lib/ctypes/macholib/dyld.py. Patch by Madison May.

bpo-27611 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27611]: Fixed support of default root window in the tkinter.tix module. Added the master parameter in the DisplayStyle constructor.

bpo-27348 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27348]: In the traceback module, restore the formatting of exception messages like "Exception: None". This fixes a regression introduced in 3.5a2.

bpo-25651 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25651]: Allow false values to be used for msg parameter of subTest().

bpo-27778 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27778]: Fix a memory leak in os.getrandom() when the getrandom() is interrupted by a signal and a signal handler raises a Python exception.

bpo-28200 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28200]: Fix memory leak on Windows in the os module (fix path_converter() function).

bpo-25400 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25400]: RobotFileParser now correctly returns default values for crawl_delay and request_rate. Initial patch by Peter Wirtz.

bpo-27932 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27932]: Prevent memory leak in win32_ver().

Fix UnboundLocalError in socket._sendfile_use_sendfile.

bpo-28075 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28075]: Check for ERROR_ACCESS_DENIED in Windows implementation of os.stat(). Patch by Eryk Sun.

bpo-22493 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22493]: Warning message emitted by using inline flags in the middle of regular expression now contains a (truncated) regex pattern. Patch by Tim Graham.

bpo-25270 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25270]: Prevent codecs.escape_encode() from raising SystemError when an empty bytestring is passed.

bpo-28181 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28181]: Get antigravity over HTTPS. Patch by Kaartic Sivaraam.

bpo-25895 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25895]: Enable WebSocket URL schemes in urllib.parse.urljoin. Patch by Gergely Imreh and Markus Holtermann.

bpo-28114 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28114]: Fix a crash in parse_envlist() when env contains byte strings. Patch by Eryk Sun.

bpo-27599 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27599]: Fixed buffer overrun in binascii.b2a_qp() and binascii.a2b_qp().

bpo-27906 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27906]: Fix socket accept exhaustion during high TCP traffic. Patch by Kevin Conway.

bpo-28174 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28174]: Handle when SO_REUSEPORT isn't properly supported. Patch by Seth Michael Larson.

bpo-26654 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26654]: Inspect functools.partial in asyncio.Handle.__repr__. Patch by iceboy.

bpo-26909 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26909]: Fix slow pipes IO in asyncio. Patch by INADA Naoki.

bpo-28176 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28176]: Fix callbacks race in asyncio.SelectorLoop.sock_connect.

bpo-27759 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27759]: Fix selectors incorrectly retain invalid file descriptors. Patch by Mark Williams.

bpo-28325 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28325]: Remove vestigial MacOS 9 macurl2path module and its tests.

bpo-28368 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28368]: Refuse monitoring processes if the child watcher has no loop attached. Patch by Vincent Michel.

bpo-28369 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28369]: Raise RuntimeError when transport's FD is used with add_reader, add_writer, etc.

bpo-28370 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28370]: Speedup asyncio.StreamReader.readexactly. Patch by Коренберг Марк.

bpo-28371 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28371]: Deprecate passing asyncio.Handles to run_in_executor.

bpo-28372 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28372]: Fix asyncio to support formatting of non-python coroutines.

bpo-28399 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28399]: Remove UNIX socket from FS before binding. Patch by Коренберг Марк.

bpo-27972 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27972]: Prohibit Tasks to await on themselves.

bpo-24142 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24142]: Reading a corrupt config file left configparser in an invalid state. Original patch by Florian Höch.

bpo-29581 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29581]: ABCMeta.__new__ now accepts **kwargs, allowing abstract base classes to use keyword parameters in __init_subclass__. Patch by Nate Soares.

bpo-25532 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25532]: inspect.unwrap() will now only try to unwrap an object sys.getrecursionlimit() times, to protect against objects which create a new object on every attribute access.

bpo-30177 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30177]: path.resolve(strict=False) no longer cuts the path after the first element not present in the filesystem. Patch by Antoine Pietri.

Documentation

bpo-31294 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31294]: Fix incomplete code snippet in the ZeroMQSocketListener and ZeroMQSocketHandler examples and adapt them to Python 3.

bpo-21649 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21649]: Add RFC 7525 and Mozilla server side TLS links to SSL documentation.

bpo-31128 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31128]: Allow the pydoc server to bind to arbitrary hostnames.

bpo-30803 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30803]: Clarify doc on truth value testing. Original patch by Peter Thomassen.

bpo-30176 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30176]: Add missing attribute related constants in curses documentation.

bpo-30052 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30052]: the link targets for bytes() and bytearray() are now their respective type definitions, rather than the corresponding builtin function entries. Use bytes and bytearray to reference the latter. In order to ensure this and future cross-reference updates are applied automatically, the daily documentation builds now disable the default output caching features in Sphinx.

bpo-26985 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26985]: Add missing info of code object in inspect documentation.

bpo-19824 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19824]: Improve the documentation for, and links to, template strings by emphasizing their utility for internationalization, and by clarifying some usage constraints. (See also: bpo-20314 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20314], bpo-12518 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12518])

bpo-28929 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28929]: Link the documentation to its source file on GitHub.

bpo-25008 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25008]: Document smtpd.py as effectively deprecated and add a pointer to aiosmtpd, a third-party asyncio-based replacement.

bpo-26355 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26355]: Add canonical header link on each page to corresponding major version of the documentation. Patch by Matthias Bussonnier.

bpo-29349 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29349]: Fix Python 2 syntax in code for building the documentation.

bpo-23722 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23722]: The data model reference and the porting section in the 3.6 What's New guide now cover the additional __classcell__ handling needed for custom metaclasses to fully support PEP 487 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0487/] and zero-argument super().

bpo-28513 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28513]: Documented command-line interface of zipfile.

Tests

bpo-29639 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29639]: test.support.HOST is now "localhost", a new HOSTv4 constant has been added for your 127.0.0.1 needs, similar to the existing HOSTv6 constant.

bpo-31320 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31320]: Silence traceback in test_ssl

bpo-31346 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31346]: Prefer PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT and PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER protocols for SSLContext.

bpo-25674 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25674]: Remove sha256.tbs-internet.com ssl test

bpo-30715 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30715]: Address ALPN callback changes for OpenSSL 1.1.0f. The latest version behaves like OpenSSL 1.0.2 and no longer aborts handshake.

bpo-30822 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30822]: regrtest: Exclude tzdata from regrtest --all. When running the test suite using --use=all / -u all, exclude tzdata since it makes test_datetime too slow (15-20 min on some buildbots) which then times out on some buildbots. Fix also regrtest command line parser to allow passing -u extralargefile to run test_zipfile64.

bpo-30695 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30695]: Add the set_nomemory(start, stop) and remove_mem_hooks() functions to the _testcapi module.

bpo-30357 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30357]: test_thread: setUp() now uses support.threading_setup() and support.threading_cleanup() to wait until threads complete to avoid random side effects on following tests. Initial patch written by Grzegorz Grzywacz.

bpo-30197 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30197]: Enhanced functions swap_attr() and swap_item() in the test.support module. They now work when delete replaced attribute or item inside the with statement. The old value of the attribute or item (or None if it doesn't exist) now will be assigned to the target of the "as" clause, if there is one.

bpo-24932 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24932]: Use proper command line parsing in _testembed

bpo-28950 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28950]: Disallow -j0 to be combined with -T/-l in regrtest command line arguments.

bpo-28683 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28683]: Fix the tests that bind() a unix socket and raise PermissionError on Android for a non-root user.

bpo-26936 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26936]: Fix the test_socket failures on Android - getservbyname(), getservbyport() and getaddrinfo() are broken on some Android API levels.

bpo-28666 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28666]: Now test.support.rmtree is able to remove unwritable or unreadable directories.

bpo-23839 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23839]: Various caches now are cleared before running every test file.

bpo-26944 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26944]: Fix test_posix for Android where 'id -G' is entirely wrong or missing the effective gid.

bpo-28409 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28409]: regrtest: fix the parser of command line arguments.

bpo-28217 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28217]: Adds _testconsole module to test console input.

bpo-26939 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26939]: Add the support.setswitchinterval() function to fix test_functools hanging on the Android armv7 qemu emulator.

Build

bpo-31354 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31354]: Allow --with-lto to be used on all builds, not just make profile-opt.

bpo-31370 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31370]: Remove support for building --without-threads. This option is not really useful anymore in the 21st century. Removing lots of conditional paths allows us to simplify the code base, including in difficult to maintain low-level internal code.

bpo-31341 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31341]: Per PEP 11 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/], support for the IRIX operating system was removed.

bpo-30854 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30854]: Fix compile error when compiling --without-threads. Patch by Masayuki Yamamoto.

bpo-30687 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30687]: Locate msbuild.exe on Windows when building rather than vcvarsall.bat

bpo-20210 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20210]: Support the disabled marker in Setup files. Extension modules listed after this marker are not built at all, neither by the Makefile nor by setup.py.

bpo-29941 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29941]: Add --with-assertions configure flag to explicitly enable C assert() checks. Defaults to off. --with-pydebug implies --with-assertions.

bpo-28787 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28787]: Fix out-of-tree builds of Python when configured with --with--dtrace.

bpo-29243 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29243]: Prevent unnecessary rebuilding of Python during make test, make install and some other make targets when configured with --enable-optimizations.

bpo-23404 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404]: Don't regenerate generated files based on file modification time anymore: the action is now explicit. Replace make touch with make regen-all.

bpo-29643 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29643]: Fix --enable-optimization didn't work.

bpo-27593 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27593]: sys.version and the platform module python_build(), python_branch(), and python_revision() functions now use git information rather than hg when building from a repo.

bpo-29572 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29572]: Update Windows build and OS X installers to use OpenSSL 1.0.2k.

bpo-27659 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27659]: Prohibit implicit C function declarations: use -Werror=implicit-function-declaration when possible (GCC and Clang, but it depends on the compiler version). Patch written by Chi Hsuan Yen.

bpo-29384 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29384]: Remove old Be OS helper scripts.

bpo-26851 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26851]: Set Android compilation and link flags.

bpo-28768 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28768]: Fix implicit declaration of function _setmode. Patch by Masayuki Yamamoto

bpo-29080 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29080]: Removes hard dependency on hg.exe from PCBuild/build.bat

bpo-23903 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23903]: Added missed names to PC/python3.def.

bpo-28762 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28762]: lockf() is available on Android API level 24, but the F_LOCK macro is not defined in android-ndk-r13.

bpo-28538 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28538]: Fix the compilation error that occurs because if_nameindex() is available on Android API level 24, but the if_nameindex structure is not defined.

bpo-20211 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20211]: Do not add the directory for installing C header files and the directory for installing object code libraries to the cross compilation search paths. Original patch by Thomas Petazzoni.

bpo-28849 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28849]: Do not define sys.implementation._multiarch on Android.

bpo-10656 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10656]: Fix out-of-tree building on AIX. Patch by Tristan Carel and Michael Haubenwallner.

bpo-26359 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26359]: Rename --with-optimiations to --enable-optimizations.

bpo-28444 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28444]: Fix missing extensions modules when cross compiling.

bpo-28208 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28208]: Update Windows build and OS X installers to use SQLite 3.14.2.

bpo-28248 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28248]: Update Windows build and OS X installers to use OpenSSL 1.0.2j.

bpo-21124 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21124]: Fix building the _struct module on Cygwin by passing NULL instead of &PyType_Type to PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT. Patch by Masayuki Yamamoto.

bpo-13756 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13756]: Fix building extensions modules on Cygwin. Patch by Roumen Petrov, based on original patch by Jason Tishler.

bpo-21085 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21085]: Add configure check for siginfo_t.si_band, which Cygwin does not provide. Patch by Masayuki Yamamoto with review and rebase by Erik Bray.

bpo-28258 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28258]: Fixed build with Estonian locale (python-config and distclean targets in Makefile). Patch by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis.

bpo-26661 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26661]: setup.py now detects system libffi with multiarch wrapper.

bpo-27979 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27979]: A full copy of libffi is no longer bundled for use when building _ctypes on non-OSX UNIX platforms. An installed copy of libffi is now required when building _ctypes on such platforms.

bpo-15819 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15819]: Remove redundant include search directory option for building outside the source tree.

bpo-28676 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28676]: Prevent missing 'getentropy' declaration warning on macOS. Patch by Gareth Rees.

Windows

bpo-31392 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31392]: Update Windows build to use OpenSSL 1.1.0f

bpo-30389 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30389]: Adds detection of Visual Studio 2017 to distutils on Windows.

bpo-31358 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31358]: zlib is no longer bundled in the CPython source, instead it is downloaded on demand just like bz2, lzma, OpenSSL, Tcl/Tk, and SQLite.

bpo-31340 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31340]: Change to building with MSVC v141 (included with Visual Studio 2017)

bpo-30581 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30581]: os.cpu_count() now returns the correct number of processors on Windows when the number of logical processors is greater than 64.

bpo-30916 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30916]: Pre-build OpenSSL, Tcl and Tk and include the binaries in the build.

bpo-30731 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30731]: Add a missing xmlns to python.manifest so that it matches the schema.

bpo-30291 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30291]: Allow requiring 64-bit interpreters from py.exe using -64 suffix. Contributed by Steve (Gadget) Barnes.

bpo-30362 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30362]: Adds list options (-0, -0p) to py.exe launcher. Contributed by Steve Barnes.

bpo-23451 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23451]: Fix socket deprecation warnings in socketmodule.c. Patch by Segev Finer.

bpo-30450 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30450]: The build process on Windows no longer depends on Subversion, instead pulling external code from GitHub via a Python script. If Python 3.6 is not found on the system (via py -3.6), NuGet is used to download a copy of 32-bit Python.

bpo-29579 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29579]: Removes readme.txt from the installer.

bpo-25778 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25778]: winreg does not truncate string correctly (Patch by Eryk Sun)

bpo-28896 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28896]: Deprecate WindowsRegistryFinder and disable it by default

bpo-28522 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28522]: Fixes mishandled buffer reallocation in getpathp.c

bpo-28402 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28402]: Adds signed catalog files for stdlib on Windows.

bpo-28333 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28333]: Enables Unicode for ps1/ps2 and input() prompts. (Patch by Eryk Sun)

bpo-28251 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28251]: Improvements to help manuals on Windows.

bpo-28110 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28110]: launcher.msi has different product codes between 32-bit and 64-bit

bpo-28161 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28161]: Opening CON for write access fails

bpo-28162 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28162]: WindowsConsoleIO readall() fails if first line starts with Ctrl+Z

bpo-28163 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28163]: WindowsConsoleIO fileno() passes wrong flags to _open_osfhandle

bpo-28164 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28164]: _PyIO_get_console_type fails for various paths

bpo-28137 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28137]: Renames Windows path file to ._pth

bpo-28138 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28138]: Windows ._pth file should allow import site

IDLE

bpo-31493 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31493]: IDLE code context -- fix code update and font update timers. Canceling timers prevents a warning message when test_idle completes.

bpo-31488 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31488]: IDLE - Update non-key options in former extension classes. When applying configdialog changes, call .reload for each feature class. Change ParenMatch so updated options affect existing instances attached to existing editor windows.

bpo-31477 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31477]: IDLE - Improve rstrip entry in doc. Strip trailing whitespace strips more than blank spaces. Multiline string literals are not skipped.

bpo-31480 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31480]: IDLE - make tests pass with zzdummy extension disabled by default.

bpo-31421 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31421]: Document how IDLE runs tkinter programs. IDLE calls tcl/tk update in the background in order to make live interaction and experimentation with tkinter applications much easier.

bpo-31414 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31414]: IDLE -- fix tk entry box tests by deleting first. Adding to an int entry is not the same as deleting and inserting because int('') will fail.

bpo-31051 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31051]: Rearrange IDLE configdialog GenPage into Window, Editor, and Help sections.

bpo-30617 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30617]: IDLE - Add docstrings and tests for outwin subclass of editor. Move some data and functions from the class to module level. Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

bpo-31287 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31287]: IDLE - Do not modify tkinter.message in test_configdialog.

bpo-27099 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27099]: Convert IDLE's built-in 'extensions' to regular features. About 10 IDLE features were implemented as supposedly optional extensions. Their different behavior could be confusing or worse for users and not good for maintenance. Hence the conversion. The main difference for users is that user configurable key bindings for builtin features are now handled uniformly. Now, editing a binding in a keyset only affects its value in the keyset. All bindings are defined together in the system-specific default keysets in config-extensions.def. All custom keysets are saved as a whole in config-extension.cfg. All take effect as soon as one clicks Apply or Ok. The affected events are '<<force-open-completions>>', '<<expand-word>>', '<<force-open-calltip>>', '<<flash-paren>>', '<<format-paragraph>>', '<<run-module>>', '<<check-module>>', and '<<zoom-height>>'. Any (global) customizations made before 3.6.3 will not affect their keyset-specific customization after 3.6.3. and vice versa. Initial patch by Charles Wohlganger.

bpo-31206 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31206]: IDLE: Factor HighPage(Frame) class from ConfigDialog. Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

bpo-31001 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31001]: Add tests for configdialog highlight tab. Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

bpo-31205 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31205]: IDLE: Factor KeysPage(Frame) class from ConfigDialog. The slightly modified tests continue to pass. Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

bpo-31130 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31130]: IDLE -- stop leaks in test_configdialog. Initial patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-31002 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31002]: Add tests for configdialog keys tab. Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

bpo-19903 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19903]: IDLE: Calltips use inspect.signature instead of inspect.getfullargspec. This improves calltips for builtins converted to use Argument Clinic. Patch by Louie Lu.

bpo-31083 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31083]: IDLE - Add an outline of a TabPage class in configdialog. Update existing classes to match outline. Initial patch by Cheryl Sabella.

bpo-31050 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31050]: Factor GenPage(Frame) class from ConfigDialog. The slightly modified tests continue to pass. Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

bpo-31004 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31004]: IDLE - Factor FontPage(Frame) class from ConfigDialog. Slightly modified tests continue to pass. Fix General tests. Patch mostly by Cheryl Sabella.

bpo-30781 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30781]: IDLE - Use ttk widgets in ConfigDialog. Patches by Terry Jan Reedy and Cheryl Sabella.

bpo-31060 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31060]: IDLE - Finish rearranging methods of ConfigDialog Grouping methods pertaining to each tab and the buttons will aid writing tests and improving the tabs and will enable splitting the groups into classes.

bpo-30853 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30853]: IDLE -- Factor a VarTrace class out of ConfigDialog. Instance tracers manages pairs consisting of a tk variable and a callback function. When tracing is turned on, setting the variable calls the function. Test coverage for the new class is 100%.

bpo-31003 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31003]: IDLE: Add more tests for General tab.

bpo-30993 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30993]: IDLE - Improve configdialog font page and tests. In configdialog: Document causal pathways in create_font_tab docstring. Simplify some attribute names. Move set_samples calls to var_changed_font (idea from Cheryl Sabella). Move related functions to positions after the create widgets function. In test_configdialog: Fix test_font_set so not order dependent. Fix renamed test_indent_scale so it tests the widget. Adjust tests for movement of set_samples call. Add tests for load functions. Put all font tests in one class and tab indent tests in another. Except for two lines, these tests completely cover the related functions.

bpo-30981 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30981]: IDLE -- Add more configdialog font page tests.

bpo-28523 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28523]: IDLE: replace 'colour' with 'color' in configdialog.

bpo-30917 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30917]: Add tests for idlelib.config.IdleConf. Increase coverage from 46% to 96%. Patch by Louie Lu.

bpo-30934 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30934]: Document coverage details for idlelib tests. Add section to idlelib/idle-test/README.txt. Include check that branches are taken both ways. Exclude IDLE-specific code that does not run during unit tests.

bpo-30913 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30913]: IDLE: Document ConfigDialog tk Vars, methods, and widgets in docstrings This will facilitate improving the dialog and splitting up the class. Original patch by Cheryl Sabella.

bpo-30899 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30899]: IDLE: Add tests for ConfigParser subclasses in config. Patch by Louie Lu.

bpo-30881 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30881]: IDLE: Add docstrings to browser.py. Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

bpo-30851 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30851]: IDLE: Remove unused variables in configdialog. One is a duplicate, one is set but cannot be altered by users. Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

bpo-30870 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30870]: IDLE: In Settings dialog, select font with Up, Down keys as well as mouse. Initial patch by Louie Lu.

bpo-8231 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8231]: IDLE: call config.IdleConf.GetUserCfgDir only once.

bpo-30779 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30779]: IDLE: Factor ConfigChanges class from configdialog, put in config; test. * In config, put dump test code in a function; run it and unittest in 'if __name__ == '__main__'. * Add class config.ConfigChanges based on changes_class_v4.py on bpo issue. * Add class test_config.ChangesTest, partly using configdialog_tests_v1.py. * Revise configdialog to use ConfigChanges; see tracker msg297804. * Revise test_configdialog to match configdialog changes. * Remove configdialog functions unused or moved to ConfigChanges. Cheryl Sabella contributed parts of the patch.

bpo-30777 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30777]: IDLE: configdialog - Add docstrings and fix comments. Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

bpo-30495 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30495]: IDLE: Improve textview with docstrings, PEP8 names, and more tests. Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

bpo-30723 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30723]: IDLE: Make several improvements to parenmatch. Add 'parens' style to highlight both opener and closer. Make 'default' style, which is not default, a synonym for 'opener'. Make time-delay work the same with all styles. Add help for config dialog extensions tab, including help for parenmatch. Add new tests. Original patch by Charles Wohlganger.

bpo-30674 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30674]: IDLE: add docstrings to grep module. Patch by Cheryl Sabella

bpo-21519 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21519]: IDLE's basic custom key entry dialog now detects duplicates properly. Original patch by Saimadhav Heblikar.

bpo-29910 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29910]: IDLE no longer deletes a character after commenting out a region by a key shortcut. Add return 'break' for this and other potential conflicts between IDLE and default key bindings.

bpo-30728 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30728]: Review and change idlelib.configdialog names. Lowercase method and attribute names. Replace 'colour' with 'color', expand overly cryptic names, delete unneeded underscores. Replace import * with specific imports. Patches by Cheryl Sabella.

bpo-6739 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6739]: IDLE: Verify user-entered key sequences by trying to bind them with tk. Add tests for all 3 validation functions. Original patch by G Polo. Tests added by Cheryl Sabella.

bpo-15786 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15786]: Fix several problems with IDLE's autocompletion box. The following should now work: clicking on selection box items; using the scrollbar; selecting an item by hitting Return. Hangs on MacOSX should no longer happen. Patch by Louie Lu.

bpo-25514 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25514]: Add doc subsubsection about IDLE failure to start. Popup no-connection message directs users to this section.

bpo-30642 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30642]: Fix reference leaks in IDLE tests. Patches by Louie Lu and Terry Jan Reedy.

bpo-30495 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30495]: Add docstrings for textview.py and use PEP8 names. Patches by Cheryl Sabella and Terry Jan Reedy.

bpo-30290 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30290]: Help-about: use pep8 names and add tests. Increase coverage to 100%. Patches by Louie Lu, Cheryl Sabella, and Terry Jan Reedy.

bpo-30303 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30303]: Add _utest option to textview; add new tests. Increase coverage to 100%. Patches by Louie Lu and Terry Jan Reedy.

bpo-29071 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29071]: IDLE colors f-string prefixes (but not invalid ur prefixes).

bpo-28572 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28572]: Add 10% to coverage of IDLE's test_configdialog. Update and augment description of the configuration system.

Tools/Demos

bpo-30983 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30983]: gdb integration commands (py-bt, etc.) work on optimized shared builds now, too. PEP 523 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/] introduced _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault which inlines PyEval_EvalFrameEx on non-debug shared builds. This broke the ability to use py-bt, py-up, and a few other Python-specific gdb integrations. The problem is fixed by only looking for _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault frames in python-gdb.py. Original patch by Bruno "Polaco" Penteado.

bpo-29748 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29748]: Added the slice index converter in Argument Clinic.

bpo-24037 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24037]: Argument Clinic now uses the converter bool(accept={int}) rather than int for semantical booleans. This avoids repeating the default value for Python and C and will help in converting to bool in future.

bpo-29367 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29367]: python-gdb.py now supports also method-wrapper (wrapperobject) objects.

bpo-28023 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28023]: Fix python-gdb.py didn't support new dict implementation.

bpo-15369 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15369]: The pybench and pystone microbenchmark have been removed from Tools. Please use the new Python benchmark suite https://github.com/python/pyperformance which is more reliable and includes a portable version of pybench working on Python 2 and Python 3.

bpo-28102 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28102]: The zipfile module CLI now prints usage to stderr. Patch by Stephen J. Turnbull.

C API

bpo-31338 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31338]: Added the Py_UNREACHABLE() macro for code paths which are never expected to be reached. This and a few other useful macros are now documented in the C API manual.

bpo-30832 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30832]: Remove own implementation for thread-local storage. CPython has provided the own implementation for thread-local storage (TLS) on Python/thread.c, it's used in the case which a platform has not supplied native TLS. However, currently all supported platforms (Windows and pthreads) have provided native TLS and defined the Py_HAVE_NATIVE_TLS macro with unconditional in any case.

bpo-30708 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30708]: PyUnicode_AsWideCharString() now raises a ValueError if the second argument is NULL and the wchar_t* string contains null characters.

bpo-16500 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16500]: Deprecate PyOS_AfterFork() and add PyOS_BeforeFork(), PyOS_AfterFork_Parent() and PyOS_AfterFork_Child().

bpo-6532 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6532]: The type of results of PyThread_start_new_thread() and PyThread_get_thread_ident(), and the id parameter of PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc() changed from "long" to "unsigned long".

bpo-27867 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27867]: Function PySlice_GetIndicesEx() is deprecated and replaced with a macro if Py_LIMITED_API is not set or set to the value between 0x03050400 and 0x03060000 (not including) or 0x03060100 or higher. Added functions PySlice_Unpack() and PySlice_AdjustIndices().

bpo-29083 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29083]: Fixed the declaration of some public API functions. PyArg_VaParse() and PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords() were not available in limited API. PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments(), PyArg_UnpackTuple() and Py_BuildValue() were not available in limited API of version < 3.3 when PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN is defined.

bpo-28769 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28769]: The result of PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize() and PyUnicode_AsUTF8() is now of type const char * rather of char *.

bpo-29058 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29058]: All stable API extensions added after Python 3.2 are now available only when Py_LIMITED_API is set to the PY_VERSION_HEX value of the minimum Python version supporting this API.

bpo-28822 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28822]: The index parameters start and end of PyUnicode_FindChar() are now adjusted to behave like str[start:end].

bpo-28808 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28808]: PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString() now never raises exceptions.

bpo-28761 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28761]: The fields name and doc of structures PyMemberDef, PyGetSetDef, PyStructSequence_Field, PyStructSequence_Desc, and wrapperbase are now of type const char * rather of char *.

bpo-28748 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28748]: Private variable _Py_PackageContext is now of type const char * rather of char *.

bpo-19569 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19569]: Compiler warnings are now emitted if use most of deprecated functions.

bpo-28426 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28426]: Deprecated undocumented functions PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject(), PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject(), PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode() and PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode().

Python 3.6.6 final

Release date: 2018-06-27

There were no new changes in version 3.6.6.

Python 3.6.6 release candidate 1

Release date: 2018-06-11

Core and Builtins

bpo-33786 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33786]: Fix asynchronous generators to handle GeneratorExit in athrow() correctly

bpo-30654 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30654]: Fixed reset of the SIGINT handler to SIG_DFL on interpreter shutdown even when there was a custom handler set previously. Patch by Philipp Kerling.

bpo-33622 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33622]: Fixed a leak when the garbage collector fails to add an object with the __del__ method or referenced by it into the gc.garbage list. PyGC_Collect() can now be called when an exception is set and preserves it.

bpo-31849 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31849]: Fix signed/unsigned comparison warning in pyhash.c.

bpo-33391 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33391]: Fix a leak in set_symmetric_difference().

bpo-28055 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28055]: Fix unaligned accesses in siphash24(). Patch by Rolf Eike Beer.

bpo-33231 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33231]: Fix potential memory leak in normalizestring().

bpo-29922 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29922]: Improved error messages in 'async with' when __aenter__() or __aexit__() return non-awaitable object.

bpo-33199 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33199]: Fix ma_version_tag in dict implementation is uninitialized when copying from key-sharing dict.

bpo-33041 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33041]: Fixed jumping when the function contains an async for loop.

bpo-32282 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32282]: Fix an unnecessary ifdef in the include of VersionHelpers.h in socketmodule on Windows.

bpo-21983 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21983]: Fix a crash in ctypes.cast() in case the type argument is a ctypes structured data type. Patch by Eryk Sun and Oren Milman.

Library

bpo-30167 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30167]: Prevent site.main() exception if PYTHONSTARTUP is set. Patch by Steve Weber.

bpo-33812 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33812]: Datetime instance d with non-None tzinfo, but with d.tzinfo.utcoffset(d) returning None is now treated as naive by the astimezone() method.

bpo-30805 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30805]: Avoid race condition with debug logging

bpo-33767 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33767]: The concatenation (+) and repetition (*) sequence operations now raise TypeError instead of SystemError when performed on mmap.mmap objects. Patch by Zackery Spytz.

bpo-32684 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32684]: Fix gather to propagate cancellation of itself even with return_exceptions.

bpo-33674 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33674]: Fix a race condition in SSLProtocol.connection_made() of asyncio.sslproto: start immediately the handshake instead of using call_soon(). Previously, data_received() could be called before the handshake started, causing the handshake to hang or fail.

bpo-31647 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31647]: Fixed bug where calling write_eof() on a _SelectorSocketTransport after it's already closed raises AttributeError.

bpo-33672 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33672]: Fix Task.__repr__ crash with Cython's bogus coroutines

bpo-33469 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33469]: Fix RuntimeError after closing loop that used run_in_executor

bpo-11874 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11874]: Use a better regex when breaking usage into wrappable parts. Avoids bogus assertion errors from custom metavar strings.

bpo-30877 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30877]: Fixed a bug in the Python implementation of the JSON decoder that prevented the cache of parsed strings from clearing after finishing the decoding. Based on patch by c-fos.

bpo-33548 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33548]: tempfile._candidate_tempdir_list should consider common TEMP locations

bpo-33542 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33542]: Prevent uuid.get_node from using a DUID instead of a MAC on Windows. Patch by Zvi Effron

bpo-26819 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26819]: Fix race condition with ReadTransport.resume_reading in Windows proactor event loop.

bpo-28556 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556]: Minor fixes in typing module: add annotations to NamedTuple.__new__, pass *args and **kwds in Generic.__new__. Original PRs by Paulius Šarka and Chad Dombrova.

bpo-20087 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20087]: Updated alias mapping with glibc 2.27 supported locales.

bpo-33422 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33422]: Fix trailing quotation marks getting deleted when looking up byte/string literals on pydoc. Patch by Andrés Delfino.

bpo-33197 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33197]: Update error message when constructing invalid inspect.Parameters Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-33383 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33383]: Fixed crash in the get() method of the dbm.ndbm database object when it is called with a single argument.

bpo-33329 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33329]: Fix multiprocessing regression on newer glibcs

bpo-991266 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=991266]: Fix quoting of the Comment attribute of http.cookies.SimpleCookie.

bpo-33131 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33131]: Upgrade bundled version of pip to 10.0.1.

bpo-33308 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33308]: Fixed a crash in the parser module when converting an ST object to a tree of tuples or lists with line_info=False and col_info=True.

bpo-33263 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33263]: Fix FD leak in _SelectorSocketTransport Patch by Vlad Starostin.

bpo-33256 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33256]: Fix display of <module> call in the html produced by cgitb.html(). Patch by Stéphane Blondon.

bpo-33203 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33203]: random.Random.choice() now raises IndexError for empty sequences consistently even when called from subclasses without a getrandbits() implementation.

bpo-33224 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33224]: Update difflib.mdiff() for PEP 479 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/]. Convert an uncaught StopIteration in a generator into a return-statement.

bpo-33209 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33209]: End framing at the end of C implementation of pickle.Pickler.dump().

bpo-32861 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32861]: The urllib.robotparser's __str__ representation now includes wildcard entries and the "Crawl-delay" and "Request-rate" fields. Patch by Michael Lazar.

bpo-33096 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33096]: Allow ttk.Treeview.insert to insert iid that has a false boolean value. Note iid=0 and iid=False would be same. Patch by Garvit Khatri.

bpo-33127 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33127]: The ssl module now compiles with LibreSSL 2.7.1.

bpo-33021 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33021]: Release the GIL during fstat() calls, avoiding hang of all threads when calling mmap.mmap(), os.urandom(), and random.seed(). Patch by Nir Soffer.

bpo-27683 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27683]: Fix a regression in ipaddress that result of hosts() is empty when the network is constructed by a tuple containing an integer mask and only 1 bit left for addresses.

bpo-32844 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32844]: Fix wrong redirection of a low descriptor (0 or 1) to stderr in subprocess if another low descriptor is closed.

bpo-31908 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31908]: Fix output of cover files for trace module command-line tool. Previously emitted cover files only when --missing option was used. Patch by Michael Selik.

bpo-31457 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31457]: If nested log adapters are used, the inner process() methods are no longer omitted.

bpo-16865 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16865]: Support arrays >=2GiB in ctypes. Patch by Segev Finer.

bpo-31238 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31238]: pydoc: the stop() method of the private ServerThread class now waits until DocServer.serve_until_quit() completes and then explicitly sets its docserver attribute to None to break a reference cycle.

Documentation

bpo-33503 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33503]: Fix broken pypi link

bpo-33421 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33421]: Add missing documentation for typing.AsyncContextManager.

bpo-33378 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33378]: Add Korean language switcher for https://docs.python.org/3/

bpo-33276 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33276]: Clarify that the __path__ attribute on modules cannot be just any value.

bpo-33201 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33201]: Modernize documentation for writing C extension types.

bpo-33195 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33195]: Deprecate Py_UNICODE usage in c-api/arg document. Py_UNICODE related APIs are deprecated since Python 3.3, but it is missed in the document.

bpo-33126 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33126]: Document PyBuffer_ToContiguous().

bpo-27212 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27212]: Modify documentation for the islice() recipe to consume initial values up to the start index.

bpo-28247 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28247]: Update zipapp documentation to describe how to make standalone applications.

bpo-18802 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18802]: Documentation changes for ipaddress. Patch by Jon Foster and Berker Peksag.

bpo-27428 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27428]: Update documentation to clarify that WindowsRegistryFinder implements MetaPathFinder. (Patch by Himanshu Lakhara)

bpo-8243 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8243]: Add a note about curses.addch and curses.addstr exception behavior when writing outside a window, or pad.

bpo-31432 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31432]: Clarify meaning of CERT_NONE, CERT_OPTIONAL, and CERT_REQUIRED flags for ssl.SSLContext.verify_mode.

Tests

bpo-33655 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33655]: Ignore test_posix_fallocate failures on BSD platforms that might be due to running on ZFS.

bpo-19417 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19417]: Add test_bdb.py.

Build

bpo-5755 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5755]: Move -Wstrict-prototypes option to CFLAGS_NODIST from OPT. This option emitted annoying warnings when building extension modules written in C++.

bpo-33614 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33614]: Ensures module definition files for the stable ABI on Windows are correctly regenerated.

bpo-33522 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33522]: Enable CI builds on Visual Studio Team Services at https://python.visualstudio.com/cpython

bpo-33012 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33012]: Add -Wno-cast-function-type for gcc 8 for silencing warnings about function casts like casting to PyCFunction in method definition lists.

bpo-33394 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33394]: Enable the verbose build for extension modules, when GNU make is passed macros on the command line.

Windows

bpo-33184 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33184]: Update Windows installer to OpenSSL 1.0.2o.

macOS

bpo-33184 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33184]: Update macOS installer build to use OpenSSL 1.0.2o.

IDLE

bpo-33656 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33656]: On Windows, add API call saying that tk scales for DPI. On Windows 8.1+ or 10, with DPI compatibility properties of the Python binary unchanged, and a monitor resolution greater than 96 DPI, this should make text and lines sharper. It should otherwise have no effect.

bpo-33768 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33768]: Clicking on a context line moves that line to the top of the editor window.

bpo-33763 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33763]: IDLE: Use read-only text widget for code context instead of label widget.

bpo-33664 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33664]: Scroll IDLE editor text by lines. Previously, the mouse wheel and scrollbar slider moved text by a fixed number of pixels, resulting in partial lines at the top of the editor box. The change also applies to the shell and grep output windows, but not to read-only text views.

bpo-33679 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33679]: Enable theme-specific color configuration for Code Context. Use the Highlights tab to see the setting for built-in themes or add settings to custom themes.

bpo-33642 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33642]: Display up to maxlines non-blank lines for Code Context. If there is no current context, show a single blank line.

bpo-33628 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33628]: IDLE: Cleanup codecontext.py and its test.

bpo-33564 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33564]: IDLE's code context now recognizes async as a block opener.

bpo-29706 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29706]: IDLE now colors async and await as keywords in 3.6. They become full keywords in 3.7.

bpo-21474 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21474]: Update word/identifier definition from ascii to unicode. In text and entry boxes, this affects selection by double-click, movement left/right by control-left/right, and deletion left/right by control-BACKSPACE/DEL.

bpo-33204 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33204]: IDLE: consistently color invalid string prefixes. A 'u' string prefix cannot be paired with either 'r' or 'f'. Consistently color as much of the prefix, starting at the right, as is valid. Revise and extend colorizer test.

bpo-32831 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32831]: Add docstrings and tests for codecontext.

Tools/Demos

bpo-33189 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33189]: pygettext.py now recognizes only literal strings as docstrings and translatable strings, and rejects bytes literals and f-string expressions.

bpo-31920 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31920]: Fixed handling directories as arguments in the pygettext script. Based on patch by Oleg Krasnikov.

bpo-29673 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29673]: Fix pystackv and pystack gdbinit macros.

bpo-32885 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32885]: Add an -n flag for Tools/scripts/pathfix.py to disable automatic backup creation (files with ~ suffix).

bpo-31583 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31583]: Fix 2to3 for using with --add-suffix option but without --output-dir option for relative path to files in current directory.

C API

bpo-32374 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32374]: Document that m_traverse for multi-phase initialized modules can be called with m_state=NULL, and add a sanity check

Python 3.6.5 final

Release date: 2018-03-28

Tests

bpo-32872 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32872]: Avoid regrtest compatibility issue with namespace packages.

Build

bpo-33163 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33163]: Upgrade pip to 9.0.3 and setuptools to v39.0.1.

Python 3.6.5 release candidate 1

Release date: 2018-03-13

Security

bpo-33001 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33001]: Minimal fix to prevent buffer overrun in os.symlink on Windows

bpo-32981 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32981]: Regexes in difflib and poplib were vulnerable to catastrophic backtracking. These regexes formed potential DOS vectors (REDOS). They have been refactored. This resolves CVE 2018-1060 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-1060] and CVE 2018-1061 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-1061]. Patch by Jamie Davis.

Core and Builtins

bpo-33026 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33026]: Fixed jumping out of "with" block by setting f_lineno.

bpo-17288 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17288]: Prevent jumps from 'return' and 'exception' trace events.

bpo-32889 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32889]: Update Valgrind suppression list to account for the rename of Py_ADDRESS_IN_RANG to address_in_range.

bpo-32650 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32650]: Pdb and other debuggers dependent on bdb.py will correctly step over (next command) native coroutines. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-32685 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32685]: Improve suggestion when the Python 2 form of print statement is either present on the same line as the header of a compound statement or else terminated by a semi-colon instead of a newline. Patch by Nitish Chandra.

bpo-32583 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32583]: Fix possible crashing in builtin Unicode decoders caused by write out-of-bound errors when using customized decode error handlers.

bpo-26163 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26163]: Improved frozenset() hash to create more distinct hash values when faced with datasets containing many similar values.

bpo-27169 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27169]: The __debug__ constant is now optimized out at compile time. This fixes also bpo-22091 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22091].

bpo-32329 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32329]: sys.flags.hash_randomization is now properly set to 0 when hash randomization is turned off by PYTHONHASHSEED=0.

bpo-30416 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30416]: The optimizer is now protected from spending much time doing complex calculations and consuming much memory for creating large constants in constant folding.

bpo-18533 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18533]: repr() on a dict containing its own values() or items() no longer raises RecursionError; OrderedDict similarly. Instead, use ..., as for other recursive structures. Patch by Ben North.

bpo-32028 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32028]: Leading whitespace is now correctly ignored when generating suggestions for converting Py2 print statements to Py3 builtin print function calls. Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

bpo-32137 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32137]: The repr of deeply nested dict now raises a RecursionError instead of crashing due to a stack overflow.

Library

bpo-33064 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33064]: lib2to3 now properly supports trailing commas after *args and **kwargs in function signatures.

bpo-31804 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31804]: Avoid failing in multiprocessing.Process if the standard streams are closed or None at exit.

bpo-33037 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33037]: Skip sending/receiving data after SSL transport closing.

bpo-30353 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30353]: Fix ctypes pass-by-value for structs on 64-bit Cygwin/MinGW.

bpo-33009 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33009]: Fix inspect.signature() for single-parameter partialmethods.

bpo-32969 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32969]: Expose several missing constants in zlib and fix corresponding documentation.

bpo-32713 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32713]: Fixed tarfile.itn handling of out-of-bounds float values. Patch by Joffrey Fuhrer.

bpo-30622 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30622]: The ssl module now detects missing NPN support in LibreSSL.

bpo-32922 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32922]: dbm.open() now encodes filename with the filesystem encoding rather than default encoding.

bpo-32859 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32859]: In os.dup2, don't check every call whether the dup3 syscall exists or not.

bpo-21060 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21060]: Rewrite confusing message from setup.py upload from "No dist file created in earlier command" to the more helpful "Must create and upload files in one command".

bpo-32857 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32857]: In tkinter, after_cancel(None) now raises a ValueError instead of canceling the first scheduled function. Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

bpo-32852 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32852]: Make sure sys.argv remains as a list when running trace.

bpo-32841 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32841]: Fixed asyncio.Condition issue which silently ignored cancellation after notifying and cancelling a conditional lock. Patch by Bar Harel.

bpo-31787 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31787]: Fixed refleaks of __init__() methods in various modules. (Contributed by Oren Milman)

bpo-30157 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30157]: Fixed guessing quote and delimiter in csv.Sniffer.sniff() when only the last field is quoted. Patch by Jake Davis.

bpo-32394 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32394]: socket: Remove TCP_FASTOPEN, TCP_KEEPCNT flags on older version Windows during run-time.

bpo-32777 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32777]: Fix a rare but potential pre-exec child process deadlock in subprocess on POSIX systems when marking file descriptors inheritable on exec in the child process. This bug appears to have been introduced in 3.4.

bpo-32647 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32647]: The ctypes module used to depend on indirect linking for dlopen. The shared extension is now explicitly linked against libdl on platforms with dl.

bpo-32734 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32734]: Fixed asyncio.Lock() safety issue which allowed acquiring and locking the same lock multiple times, without it being free. Patch by Bar Harel.

bpo-32727 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32727]: Do not include name field in SMTP envelope from address. Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

bpo-27931 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27931]: Fix email address header parsing error when the username is an empty quoted string. Patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-32304 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32304]: distutils' upload command no longer corrupts tar files ending with a CR byte, and no longer tries to convert CR to CRLF in any of the upload text fields.

bpo-32502 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32502]: uuid.uuid1 no longer raises an exception if a 64-bit hardware address is encountered.

bpo-31848 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31848]: Fix the error handling in Aifc_read.initfp() when the SSND chunk is not found. Patch by Zackery Spytz.

bpo-32555 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32555]: On FreeBSD and Solaris, os.strerror() now always decode the byte string from the current locale encoding, rather than using ASCII/surrogateescape in some cases.

bpo-32521 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32521]: The nis module is now compatible with new libnsl and headers location.

bpo-32473 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32473]: Improve ABCMeta._dump_registry() output readability

bpo-32521 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32521]: glibc has removed Sun RPC. Use replacement libtirpc headers and library in nis module.

bpo-32228 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32228]: Ensure that truncate() preserves the file position (as reported by tell()) after writes longer than the buffer size.

bpo-26133 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26133]: Don't unsubscribe signals in asyncio UNIX event loop on interpreter shutdown.

bpo-32185 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32185]: The SSL module no longer sends IP addresses in SNI TLS extension on platforms with OpenSSL 1.0.2+ or inet_pton.

bpo-32323 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32323]: urllib.parse.urlsplit() does not convert zone-id (scope) to lower case for scoped IPv6 addresses in hostnames now.

bpo-32302 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32302]: Fix bdist_wininst of distutils for CRT v142: it binary compatible with CRT v140.

bpo-32255 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32255]: A single empty field is now always quoted when written into a CSV file. This allows to distinguish an empty row from a row consisting of a single empty field. Patch by Licht Takeuchi.

bpo-32277 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32277]: Raise NotImplementedError instead of SystemError on platforms where chmod(..., follow_symlinks=False) is not supported. Patch by Anthony Sottile.

bpo-32199 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32199]: The getnode() ip getter now uses 'ip link' instead of 'ip link list'.

bpo-27456 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27456]: Ensure TCP_NODELAY is set on Linux. Tests by Victor Stinner.

bpo-31900 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31900]: The locale.localeconv() function now sets temporarily the LC_CTYPE locale to the LC_NUMERIC locale to decode decimal_point and thousands_sep byte strings if they are non-ASCII or longer than 1 byte, and the LC_NUMERIC locale is different than the LC_CTYPE locale. This temporary change affects other threads. Same change for the str.format() method when formatting a number (int, float, float and subclasses) with the n type (ex: '{:n}'.format(1234)).

bpo-31802 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31802]: Importing native path module (posixpath, ntpath) now works even if the os module still is not imported.

Documentation

bpo-17232 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17232]: Clarify docs for -O and -OO. Patch by Terry Reedy.

bpo-32800 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32800]: Update link to w3c doc for xml default namespaces.

bpo-8722 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8722]: Document __getattr__() behavior when property get() method raises AttributeError.

bpo-32614 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32614]: Modify RE examples in documentation to use raw strings to prevent DeprecationWarning and add text to REGEX HOWTO to highlight the deprecation.

bpo-31972 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31972]: Improve docstrings for pathlib.PurePath subclasses.

bpo-17799 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17799]: Explain real behaviour of sys.settrace and sys.setprofile and their C-API counterparts regarding which type of events are received in each function. Patch by Pablo Galindo Salgado.

Tests

bpo-32517 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32517]: Fix failing test_asyncio on macOS 10.12.2+ due to transport of KqueueSelector loop was not being closed.

bpo-32721 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32721]: Fix test_hashlib to not fail if the _md5 module is not built.

bpo-32252 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32252]: Fix faulthandler_suppress_crash_report() used to prevent core dump files when testing crashes. getrlimit() returns zero on success.

bpo-31518 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31518]: Debian Unstable has disabled TLS 1.0 and 1.1 for SSLv23_METHOD(). Change TLS/SSL protocol of some tests to PROTOCOL_TLS or PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2 to make them pass on Debian.

Build

bpo-32635 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32635]: Fix segfault of the crypt module when libxcrypt is provided instead of libcrypt at the system.

Windows

bpo-33016 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33016]: Fix potential use of uninitialized memory in nt._getfinalpathname

bpo-32903 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32903]: Fix a memory leak in os.chdir() on Windows if the current directory is set to a UNC path.

bpo-31966 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31966]: Fixed WindowsConsoleIO.write() for writing empty data.

bpo-32409 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32409]: Ensures activate.bat can handle Unicode contents.

bpo-32457 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32457]: Improves handling of denormalized executable path when launching Python.

bpo-32370 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32370]: Use the correct encoding for ipconfig output in the uuid module. Patch by Segev Finer.

bpo-29248 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29248]: Fix os.readlink() on Windows, which was mistakenly treating the PrintNameOffset field of the reparse data buffer as a number of characters instead of bytes. Patch by Craig Holmquist and SSE4.

bpo-32588 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32588]: Create standalone _distutils_findvs module.

macOS

bpo-32726 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32726]: Provide an additional, more modern macOS installer variant that supports macOS 10.9+ systems in 64-bit mode only. Upgrade the supplied third-party libraries to OpenSSL 1.0.2n, XZ 5.2.3, and SQLite 3.22.0. The 10.9+ installer now links with and supplies its own copy of Tcl/Tk 8.6.8.

IDLE

bpo-32984 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32984]: Set __file__ while running a startup file. Like Python, IDLE optionally runs one startup file in the Shell window before presenting the first interactive input prompt. For IDLE, -s runs a file named in environmental variable IDLESTARTUP or PYTHONSTARTUP; -r file runs file. Python sets __file__ to the startup file name before running the file and unsets it before the first prompt. IDLE now does the same when run normally, without the -n option.

bpo-32940 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32940]: Simplify and rename StringTranslatePseudoMapping in pyparse.

bpo-32916 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32916]: Change str to code in pyparse.

bpo-32905 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32905]: Remove unused code in pyparse module.

bpo-32874 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32874]: Add tests for pyparse.

bpo-32837 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32837]: Using the system and place-dependent default encoding for open() is a bad idea for IDLE's system and location-independent files.

bpo-32826 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32826]: Add "encoding=utf-8" to open() in IDLE's test_help_about. GUI test test_file_buttons() only looks at initial ascii-only lines, but failed on systems where open() defaults to 'ascii' because readline() internally reads and decodes far enough ahead to encounter a non-ascii character in CREDITS.txt.

bpo-32765 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32765]: Update configdialog General tab docstring to add new widgets to the widget list.

Tools/Demos

bpo-24960 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24960]: 2to3 and lib2to3 can now read pickled grammar files using pkgutil.get_data() rather than probing the filesystem. This lets 2to3 and lib2to3 work when run from a zipfile.

bpo-32222 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32222]: Fix pygettext not extracting docstrings for functions with type annotated arguments. Patch by Toby Harradine.

C API

bpo-29084 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29084]: Undocumented C API for OrderedDict has been excluded from the limited C API. It was added by mistake and actually never worked in the limited C API.

Python 3.6.4 final

Release date: 2017-12-18

There were no new code changes in version 3.6.4 since v3.6.4rc1.

Python 3.6.4 release candidate 1

Release date: 2017-12-05

Core and Builtins

bpo-32176 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32176]: co_flags.CO_NOFREE is now always set correctly by the code object constructor based on freevars and cellvars, rather than needing to be set correctly by the caller. This ensures it will be cleared automatically when additional cell references are injected into a modified code object and function.

bpo-31949 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31949]: Fixed several issues in printing tracebacks (PyTraceBack_Print()). Setting sys.tracebacklimit to 0 or less now suppresses printing tracebacks. Setting sys.tracebacklimit to None now causes using the default limit. Setting sys.tracebacklimit to an integer larger than LONG_MAX now means using the limit LONG_MAX rather than the default limit. Fixed integer overflows in the case of more than 2**31 traceback items on Windows. Fixed output errors handling.

bpo-30696 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30696]: Fix the interactive interpreter looping endlessly when no memory.

bpo-20047 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20047]: Bytearray methods partition() and rpartition() now accept only bytes-like objects as separator, as documented. In particular they now raise TypeError rather of returning a bogus result when an integer is passed as a separator.

bpo-31852 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31852]: Fix a segmentation fault caused by a combination of the async soft keyword and continuation lines.

bpo-21720 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21720]: BytesWarning no longer emitted when the fromlist argument of __import__() or the __all__ attribute of the module contain bytes instances.

bpo-31825 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31825]: Fixed OverflowError in the 'unicode-escape' codec and in codecs.escape_decode() when decode an escaped non-ascii byte.

bpo-28603 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28603]: Print the full context/cause chain of exceptions on interpreter exit, even if an exception in the chain is unhashable or compares equal to later ones. Patch by Zane Bitter.

bpo-31786 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31786]: Fix timeout rounding in the select module to round correctly negative timeouts between -1.0 and 0.0. The functions now block waiting for events as expected. Previously, the call was incorrectly non-blocking. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-31642 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31642]: Restored blocking "from package import module" by setting sys.modules["package.module"] to None.

bpo-31626 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31626]: Fixed a bug in debug memory allocator. There was a write to freed memory after shrinking a memory block.

bpo-31619 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31619]: Fixed a ValueError when convert a string with large number of underscores to integer with binary base.

bpo-31592 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31592]: Fixed an assertion failure in Python parser in case of a bad unicodedata.normalize(). Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-31588 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31588]: Raise a TypeError with a helpful error message when class creation fails due to a metaclass with a bad __prepare__() method. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-31566 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31566]: Fix an assertion failure in _warnings.warn() in case of a bad __name__ global. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-31505 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31505]: Fix an assertion failure in json, in case _json.make_encoder() received a bad encoder() argument. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-31492 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31492]: Fix assertion failures in case of failing to import from a module with a bad __name__ attribute, and in case of failing to access an attribute of such a module. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-31490 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31490]: Fix an assertion failure in ctypes class definition, in case the class has an attribute whose name is specified in _anonymous_ but not in _fields_. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-31478 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31478]: Fix an assertion failure in _random.Random.seed() in case the argument has a bad __abs__() method. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-31315 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31315]: Fix an assertion failure in imp.create_dynamic(), when spec.name is not a string. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-31311 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31311]: Fix a crash in the __setstate__() method of ctypes._CData, in case of a bad __dict__. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-31293 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31293]: Fix crashes in true division and multiplication of a timedelta object by a float with a bad as_integer_ratio() method. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-31285 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31285]: Fix an assertion failure in warnings.warn_explicit, when the return value of the received loader's get_source() has a bad splitlines() method. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-30817 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30817]: PyErr_PrintEx() clears now the ignored exception that may be raised by _PySys_SetObjectId(), for example when no memory.

Library

bpo-28556 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556]: Two minor fixes for typing module: allow shallow copying instances of generic classes, improve interaction of __init_subclass__ with generics. Original PRs by Ivan Levkivskyi.

bpo-27240 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27240]: The header folding algorithm for the new email policies has been rewritten, which also fixes bpo-30788 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30788], bpo-31831 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31831], and bpo-32182 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32182]. In particular, RFC2231 folding is now done correctly.

bpo-32186 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32186]: io.FileIO.readall() and io.FileIO.read() now release the GIL when getting the file size. Fixed hang of all threads with inaccessible NFS server. Patch by Nir Soffer.

bpo-12239 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12239]: Make msilib.SummaryInformation.GetProperty() return None when the value of property is VT_EMPTY. Initial patch by Mark Mc Mahon.

bpo-31325 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31325]: Fix wrong usage of collections.namedtuple() in the RobotFileParser.parse() method. Initial patch by Robin Wellner.

bpo-12382 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12382]: msilib.OpenDatabase() now raises a better exception message when it couldn't open or create an MSI file. Initial patch by William Tisäter.

bpo-32110 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32110]: codecs.StreamReader.read(n) now returns not more than n characters/bytes for non-negative n. This makes it compatible with read() methods of other file-like objects.

bpo-32072 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32072]: Fixed issues with binary plists: Fixed saving bytearrays. Identical objects will be saved only once. Equal references will be load as identical objects. Added support for saving and loading recursive data structures.

bpo-32034 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32034]: Make asyncio.IncompleteReadError and LimitOverrunError pickleable.

bpo-32015 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32015]: Fixed the looping of asyncio in the case of reconnection the socket during waiting async read/write from/to the socket.

bpo-32011 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32011]: Restored support of loading marshal files with the TYPE_INT64 code. These files can be produced in Python 2.7.

bpo-31970 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31970]: Reduce performance overhead of asyncio debug mode.

bpo-9678 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9678]: Fixed determining the MAC address in the uuid module: Using ifconfig on NetBSD and OpenBSD. Using arp on Linux, FreeBSD, NetBSD and OpenBSD. Based on patch by Takayuki Shimizukawa.

bpo-30057 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30057]: Fix potential missed signal in signal.signal().

bpo-31933 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31933]: Fix Blake2 params leaf_size and node_offset on big endian platforms. Patch by Jack O'Connor.

bpo-31927 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31927]: Fixed compilation of the socket module on NetBSD 8. Fixed assertion failure or reading arbitrary data when parse a AF_BLUETOOTH address on NetBSD and DragonFly BSD.

bpo-27666 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27666]: Fixed stack corruption in curses.box() and curses.ungetmouse() when the size of types chtype or mmask_t is less than the size of C long. curses.box() now accepts characters as arguments. Based on patch by Steve Fink.

bpo-31897 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31897]: plistlib now catches more errors when read binary plists and raises InvalidFileException instead of unexpected exceptions.

bpo-25720 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25720]: Fix the method for checking pad state of curses WINDOW. Patch by Masayuki Yamamoto.

bpo-31893 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31893]: Fixed the layout of the kqueue_event structure on OpenBSD and NetBSD. Fixed the comparison of the kqueue_event objects.

bpo-31891 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31891]: Fixed building the curses module on NetBSD.

bpo-28416 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28416]: Instances of pickle.Pickler subclass with the persistent_id() method and pickle.Unpickler subclass with the persistent_load() method no longer create reference cycles.

bpo-28326 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28326]: Fix multiprocessing.Process when stdout and/or stderr is closed or None.

bpo-31457 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31457]: If nested log adapters are used, the inner process() methods are no longer omitted.

bpo-31457 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31457]: The manager property on LoggerAdapter objects is now properly settable.

bpo-31806 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31806]: Fix timeout rounding in time.sleep(), threading.Lock.acquire() and socket.socket.settimeout() to round correctly negative timeouts between -1.0 and 0.0. The functions now block waiting for events as expected. Previously, the call was incorrectly non-blocking. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

bpo-28603 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28603]: traceback: Fix a TypeError that occurred during printing of exception tracebacks when either the current exception or an exception in its context/cause chain is unhashable. Patch by Zane Bitter.

bpo-30058 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30058]: Fixed buffer overflow in select.kqueue.control().

bpo-31770 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31770]: Prevent a crash when calling the __init__() method of a sqlite3.Cursor object more than once. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-31672 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31672]: idpattern in string.Template matched some non-ASCII characters. Now it uses -i regular expression local flag to avoid non-ASCII characters.

bpo-31764 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31764]: Prevent a crash in sqlite3.Cursor.close() in case the Cursor object is uninitialized. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-31752 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31752]: Fix possible crash in timedelta constructor called with custom integers.

bpo-31701 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31701]: On Windows, faulthandler.enable() now ignores MSC and COM exceptions.

bpo-31728 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31728]: Prevent crashes in _elementtree due to unsafe cleanup of Element.text and Element.tail. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-31620 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31620]: an empty asyncio.Queue now doesn't leak memory when queue.get pollers timeout

bpo-31632 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31632]: Fix method set_protocol() of class _SSLProtocolTransport in asyncio module. This method was previously modifying a wrong reference to the protocol.

bpo-31675 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31675]: Fixed memory leaks in Tkinter's methods splitlist() and split() when pass a string larger than 2 GiB.

bpo-31673 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31673]: Fixed typo in the name of Tkinter's method adderrorinfo().

bpo-30806 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30806]: Fix the string representation of a netrc object.

bpo-15037 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15037]: Added a workaround for getkey() in curses for ncurses 5.7 and earlier.

bpo-25351 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25351]: Avoid venv activate failures with undefined variables

bpo-25532 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25532]: inspect.unwrap() will now only try to unwrap an object sys.getrecursionlimit() times, to protect against objects which create a new object on every attribute access.

bpo-30347 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30347]: Stop crashes when concurrently iterate over itertools.groupby() iterators.

bpo-31516 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31516]: threading.current_thread() should not return a dummy thread at shutdown.

bpo-31351 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31351]: python -m ensurepip now exits with non-zero exit code if pip bootstrapping has failed.

bpo-31482 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31482]: random.seed() now works with bytes in version=1

bpo-31334 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31334]: Fix poll.poll([timeout]) in the select module for arbitrary negative timeouts on all OSes where it can only be a non-negative integer or -1. Patch by Riccardo Coccioli.

bpo-31310 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31310]: multiprocessing's semaphore tracker should be launched again if crashed.

bpo-31308 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31308]: Make multiprocessing's forkserver process immune to Ctrl-C and other user interruptions. If it crashes, restart it when necessary.

Documentation

bpo-32105 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32105]: Added asyncio.BaseEventLoop.connect_accepted_socket versionadded marker.

bpo-31537 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31537]: Fix incorrect usage of get_history_length in readline documentation example code. Patch by Brad Smith.

bpo-30085 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30085]: The operator functions without double underscores are preferred for clarity. The one with underscores are only kept for back-compatibility.

Tests

bpo-31380 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31380]: Skip test_httpservers test_undecodable_file on macOS: fails on APFS.

bpo-31705 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31705]: Skip test_socket.test_sha256() on Linux kernel older than 4.5. The test fails with ENOKEY on kernel 3.10 (on ppc64le). A fix was merged into the kernel 4.5.

bpo-31174 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31174]: Fix test_tools.test_unparse: DirectoryTestCase now stores the names sample to always test the same files. It prevents false alarms when hunting reference leaks.

bpo-30695 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30695]: Add the set_nomemory(start, stop) and remove_mem_hooks() functions to the _testcapi module.

Build

bpo-32059 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32059]: detect_modules() in setup.py now also searches the sysroot paths when cross-compiling.

bpo-31957 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31957]: Fixes Windows SDK version detection when building for Windows.

bpo-31609 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31609]: Fixes quotes in PCbuild/clean.bat

bpo-31934 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31934]: Abort the build when building out of a not clean source tree.

bpo-31926 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31926]: Fixed Argument Clinic sometimes causing compilation errors when there was more than one function and/or method in a .c file with the same name.

bpo-28791 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28791]: Update Windows builds to use SQLite 3.21.0.

bpo-28791 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28791]: Update OS X installer to use SQLite 3.21.0.

bpo-22140 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22140]: Prevent double substitution of prefix in python-config.sh.

bpo-31536 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31536]: Avoid wholesale rebuild after make regen-all if nothing changed.

Windows

bpo-1102 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1102]: Return None when View.Fetch() returns ERROR_NO_MORE_ITEMS instead of raising MSIError. Initial patch by Anthony Tuininga.

bpo-31944 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31944]: Fixes Modify button in Apps and Features dialog.

macOS

bpo-31392 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31392]: Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 1.0.2m

IDLE

bpo-32207 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32207]: Improve tk event exception tracebacks in IDLE. When tk event handling is driven by IDLE's run loop, a confusing and distracting queue.EMPTY traceback context is no longer added to tk event exception tracebacks. The traceback is now the same as when event handling is driven by user code. Patch based on a suggestion by Serhiy Storchaka.

bpo-32164 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32164]: Delete unused file idlelib/tabbedpages.py. Use of TabbedPageSet in configdialog was replaced by ttk.Notebook.

bpo-32100 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32100]: IDLE: Fix old and new bugs in pathbrowser; improve tests. Patch mostly by Cheryl Sabella.

bpo-31858 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31858]: IDLE -- Restrict shell prompt manipulation to the shell. Editor and output windows only see an empty last prompt line. This simplifies the code and fixes a minor bug when newline is inserted. Sys.ps1, if present, is read on Shell start-up, but is not set or changed.

bpo-31860 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31860]: The font sample in the IDLE configuration dialog is now editable. Changes persist while IDLE remains open

bpo-31836 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31836]: Test_code_module now passes if run after test_idle, which sets ps1. The code module uses sys.ps1 if present or sets it to '>>> ' if not. Test_code_module now properly tests both behaviors. Ditto for ps2.

bpo-28603 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28603]: Fix a TypeError that caused a shell restart when printing a traceback that includes an exception that is unhashable. Patch by Zane Bitter.

bpo-13802 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13802]: Use non-Latin characters in the IDLE's Font settings sample. Even if one selects a font that defines a limited subset of the unicode Basic Multilingual Plane, tcl/tk will use other fonts that define a character. The expanded example give users of non-Latin characters a better idea of what they might see in IDLE's shell and editors. To make room for the expanded sample, frames on the Font tab are re-arranged. The Font/Tabs help explains a bit about the additions.

bpo-31460 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31460]: Simplify the API of IDLE's Module Browser. Passing a widget instead of an flist with a root widget opens the option of creating a browser frame that is only part of a window. Passing a full file name instead of pieces assumed to come from a .py file opens the possibility of browsing python files that do not end in .py.

bpo-31649 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31649]: IDLE - Make _htest, _utest parameters keyword only.

bpo-31559 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31559]: Remove test order dependence in idle_test.test_browser.

bpo-31459 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31459]: Rename IDLE's module browser from Class Browser to Module Browser. The original module-level class and method browser became a module browser, with the addition of module-level functions, years ago. Nested classes and functions were added yesterday. For back-compatibility, the virtual event <<open-class-browser>>, which appears on the Keys tab of the Settings dialog, is not changed. Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

bpo-31500 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31500]: Default fonts now are scaled on HiDPI displays.

bpo-1612262 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1612262]: IDLE module browser now shows nested classes and functions. Original patches for code and tests by Guilherme Polo and Cheryl Sabella, respectively.

Tools/Demos

bpo-30722 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30722]: Make redemo work with Python 3.6 and newer versions. Also, remove the LOCALE option since it doesn't work with string patterns in Python 3. Patch by Christoph Sarnowski.

C API

bpo-20891 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20891]: Fix PyGILState_Ensure(). When PyGILState_Ensure() is called in a non-Python thread before PyEval_InitThreads(), only call PyEval_InitThreads() after calling PyThreadState_New() to fix a crash.

bpo-31532 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31532]: Fix memory corruption due to allocator mix in getpath.c between Py_GetPath() and Py_SetPath()

bpo-30697 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30697]: The PyExc_RecursionErrorInst singleton is removed and PyErr_NormalizeException() does not use it anymore. This singleton is persistent and its members being never cleared may cause a segfault during finalization of the interpreter. See also bpo-22898 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22898].

Python 3.6.3 final

Release date: 2017-10-03

Library

bpo-31641 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31641]: Re-allow arbitrary iterables in concurrent.futures.as_completed(). Fixes regression in 3.6.3rc1.

Build

bpo-31662 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31662]: Fix typos in Windows uploadrelease.bat script. Fix Windows Doc build issues in Doc/make.bat.

bpo-31423 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31423]: Fix building the PDF documentation with newer versions of Sphinx.

Python 3.6.3 release candidate 1

Release date: 2017-09-18

Security

bpo-29781 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29781]: SSLObject.version() now correctly returns None when handshake over BIO has not been performed yet.

bpo-30947 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30947]: Upgrade libexpat embedded copy from version 2.2.1 to 2.2.3 to get security fixes.

Core and Builtins

bpo-31471 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31471]: Fix an assertion failure in subprocess.Popen() on Windows, in case the env argument has a bad keys() method. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-31418 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31418]: Fix an assertion failure in PyErr_WriteUnraisable() in case of an exception with a bad __module__ attribute. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-31416 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31416]: Fix assertion failures in case of a bad warnings.filters or warnings.defaultaction. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-31411 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31411]: Raise a TypeError instead of SystemError in case warnings.onceregistry is not a dictionary. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-31373 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31373]: Fix several possible instances of undefined behavior due to floating-point demotions.

bpo-30465 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30465]: Location information (lineno and col_offset) in f-strings is now (mostly) correct. This fixes tools like flake8 from showing warnings on the wrong line (typically the first line of the file).

bpo-31343 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31343]: Include sys/sysmacros.h for major(), minor(), and makedev(). GNU C library plans to remove the functions from sys/types.h.

bpo-31291 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31291]: Fix an assertion failure in zipimport.zipimporter.get_data on Windows, when the return value of pathname.replace('/','\\') isn't a string. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-31271 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31271]: Fix an assertion failure in the write() method of io.TextIOWrapper, when the encoder doesn't return a bytes object. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-31243 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31243]: Fix a crash in some methods of io.TextIOWrapper, when the decoder's state is invalid. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-30721 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30721]: print now shows correct usage hint for using Python 2 redirection syntax. Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

bpo-31070 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31070]: Fix a race condition in importlib _get_module_lock().

bpo-31095 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31095]: Fix potential crash during GC caused by tp_dealloc which doesn't call PyObject_GC_UnTrack().

bpo-31071 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31071]: Avoid masking original TypeError in call with * unpacking when other arguments are passed.

bpo-30978 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30978]: str.format_map() now passes key lookup exceptions through. Previously any exception was replaced with a KeyError exception.

bpo-30808 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30808]: Use _Py_atomic API for concurrency-sensitive signal state.

bpo-30876 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30876]: Relative import from unloaded package now reimports the package instead of failing with SystemError. Relative import from non-package now fails with ImportError rather than SystemError.

bpo-30703 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30703]: Improve signal delivery. Avoid using Py_AddPendingCall from signal handler, to avoid calling signal-unsafe functions. The tests I'm adding here fail without the rest of the patch, on Linux and OS X. This means our signal delivery logic had defects (some signals could be lost).

bpo-30765 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30765]: Avoid blocking in pthread_mutex_lock() when PyThread_acquire_lock() is asked not to block.

bpo-31161 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31161]: Make sure the 'Missing parentheses' syntax error message is only applied to SyntaxError, not to subclasses. Patch by Martijn Pieters.

bpo-30814 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30814]: Fixed a race condition when import a submodule from a package.

bpo-30597 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30597]: print now shows expected input in custom error message when used as a Python 2 statement. Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

Library

bpo-31499 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31499]: xml.etree: Fix a crash when a parser is part of a reference cycle.

bpo-28556 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556]: typing.get_type_hints now finds the right globalns for classes and modules by default (when no globalns was specified by the caller).

bpo-28556 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556]: Speed improvements to the typing module. Original PRs by Ivan Levkivskyi and Mitar.

bpo-31544 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31544]: The C accelerator module of ElementTree ignored exceptions raised when looking up TreeBuilder target methods in XMLParser().

bpo-31234 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31234]: socket.create_connection() now fixes manually a reference cycle: clear the variable storing the last exception on success.

bpo-31457 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31457]: LoggerAdapter objects can now be nested.

bpo-31400 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31400]: Improves SSL error handling to avoid losing error numbers.

bpo-28958 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28958]: ssl.SSLContext() now uses OpenSSL error information when a context cannot be instantiated.

bpo-27340 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27340]: SSLSocket.sendall() now uses memoryview to create slices of data. This fixes support for all bytes-like object. It is also more efficient and avoids costly copies.

bpo-31178 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31178]: Fix string concatenation bug in rare error path in the subprocess module

bpo-31350 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31350]: Micro-optimize asyncio._get_running_loop() to become up to 10% faster.

bpo-31170 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31170]: expat: Update libexpat from 2.2.3 to 2.2.4. Fix copying of partial characters for UTF-8 input (libexpat bug 115): https://github.com/libexpat/libexpat/issues/115

bpo-29136 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29136]: Add TLS 1.3 cipher suites and OP_NO_TLSv1_3.

bpo-29212 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29212]: Fix concurrent.futures.thread.ThreadPoolExecutor threads to have a non repr() based thread name by default when no thread_name_prefix is supplied. They will now identify themselves as "ThreadPoolExecutor-y_n".

bpo-9146 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9146]: Fix a segmentation fault in _hashopenssl when standard hash functions such as md5 are not available in the linked OpenSSL library. As in some special FIPS-140 build environments.

bpo-27144 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27144]: The map() and as_completed() iterators in concurrent.futures now avoid keeping a reference to yielded objects.

bpo-10746 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10746]: Fix ctypes producing wrong PEP 3118 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/] type codes for integer types.

bpo-22536 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22536]: The subprocess module now sets the filename when FileNotFoundError is raised on POSIX systems due to the executable or cwd not being found.

bpo-31249 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31249]: concurrent.futures: WorkItem.run() used by ThreadPoolExecutor now breaks a reference cycle between an exception object and the WorkItem object.

bpo-31247 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31247]: xmlrpc.server now explicitly breaks reference cycles when using sys.exc_info() in code handling exceptions.

bpo-30102 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30102]: The ssl and hashlib modules now call OPENSSL_add_all_algorithms_noconf() on OpenSSL < 1.1.0. The function detects CPU features and enables optimizations on some CPU architectures such as POWER8. Patch is based on research from Gustavo Serra Scalet.

bpo-31185 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31185]: Fixed miscellaneous errors in asyncio speedup module.

bpo-31135 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31135]: ttk: fix the destroy() method of LabeledScale and OptionMenu classes. Call the parent destroy() method even if the used attribute doesn't exist. The LabeledScale.destroy() method now also explicitly clears label and scale attributes to help the garbage collector to destroy all widgets.

bpo-31107 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31107]: Fix copyreg._slotnames() mangled attribute calculation for classes whose name begins with an underscore. Patch by Shane Harvey.

bpo-31061 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31061]: Fixed a crash when using asyncio and threads.

bpo-30502 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30502]: Fix handling of long oids in ssl. Based on patch by Christian Heimes.

bpo-30119 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30119]: ftplib.FTP.putline() now throws ValueError on commands that contains CR or LF. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-30595 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30595]: multiprocessing.Queue.get() with a timeout now polls its reader in non-blocking mode if it succeeded to acquire the lock but the acquire took longer than the timeout.

bpo-29403 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29403]: Fix unittest.mock's autospec to not fail on method-bound builtin functions. Patch by Aaron Gallagher.

bpo-30961 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30961]: Fix decrementing a borrowed reference in tracemalloc.

bpo-25684 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25684]: Change ttk.OptionMenu radiobuttons to be unique across instances of OptionMenu.

bpo-30886 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30886]: Fix multiprocessing.Queue.join_thread(): it now waits until the thread completes, even if the thread was started by the same process which created the queue.

bpo-29854 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29854]: Fix segfault in readline when using readline's history-size option. Patch by Nir Soffer.

bpo-30319 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30319]: socket.close() now ignores ECONNRESET error.

bpo-30828 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30828]: Fix out of bounds write in asyncio.CFuture.remove_done_callback().

bpo-30807 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30807]: signal.setitimer() may disable the timer when passed a tiny value. Tiny values (such as 1e-6) are valid non-zero values for setitimer(), which is specified as taking microsecond-resolution intervals. However, on some platform, our conversion routine could convert 1e-6 into a zero interval, therefore disabling the timer instead of (re-)scheduling it.

bpo-30441 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30441]: Fix bug when modifying os.environ while iterating over it

bpo-30532 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30532]: Fix email header value parser dropping folding white space in certain cases.

bpo-30879 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30879]: os.listdir() and os.scandir() now emit bytes names when called with bytes-like argument.

bpo-30746 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30746]: Prohibited the '=' character in environment variable names in os.putenv() and os.spawn*().

bpo-29755 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29755]: Fixed the lgettext() family of functions in the gettext module. They now always return bytes.

Documentation

bpo-31294 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31294]: Fix incomplete code snippet in the ZeroMQSocketListener and ZeroMQSocketHandler examples and adapt them to Python 3.

bpo-21649 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21649]: Add RFC 7525 and Mozilla server side TLS links to SSL documentation.

bpo-30803 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30803]: Clarify doc on truth value testing. Original patch by Peter Thomassen.

Tests

bpo-31320 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31320]: Silence traceback in test_ssl

bpo-25674 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25674]: Remove sha256.tbs-internet.com ssl test

bpo-30715 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30715]: Address ALPN callback changes for OpenSSL 1.1.0f. The latest version behaves like OpenSSL 1.0.2 and no longer aborts handshake.

bpo-30822 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30822]: regrtest: Exclude tzdata from regrtest --all. When running the test suite using --use=all / -u all, exclude tzdata since it makes test_datetime too slow (15-20 min on some buildbots) which then times out on some buildbots. Fix also regrtest command line parser to allow passing -u extralargefile to run test_zipfile64.

Build

bpo-30854 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30854]: Fix compile error when compiling --without-threads. Patch by Masayuki Yamamoto.

Windows

bpo-30389 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30389]: Adds detection of Visual Studio 2017 to distutils on Windows.

bpo-31340 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31340]: Change to building with MSVC v141 (included with Visual Studio 2017)

bpo-30581 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30581]: os.cpu_count() now returns the correct number of processors on Windows when the number of logical processors is greater than 64.

bpo-30731 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30731]: Add a missing xmlns to python.manifest so that it matches the schema.

IDLE

bpo-31493 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31493]: IDLE code context -- fix code update and font update timers. Canceling timers prevents a warning message when test_idle completes.

bpo-31488 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31488]: IDLE - Update non-key options in former extension classes. When applying configdialog changes, call .reload for each feature class. Change ParenMatch so updated options affect existing instances attached to existing editor windows.

bpo-31477 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31477]: IDLE - Improve rstrip entry in doc. Strip trailing whitespace strips more than blank spaces. Multiline string literals are not skipped.

bpo-31480 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31480]: IDLE - make tests pass with zzdummy extension disabled by default.

bpo-31421 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31421]: Document how IDLE runs tkinter programs. IDLE calls tcl/tk update in the background in order to make live interaction and experimentation with tkinter applications much easier.

bpo-31414 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31414]: IDLE -- fix tk entry box tests by deleting first. Adding to an int entry is not the same as deleting and inserting because int('') will fail.

bpo-31051 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31051]: Rearrange IDLE configdialog GenPage into Window, Editor, and Help sections.

bpo-30617 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30617]: IDLE - Add docstrings and tests for outwin subclass of editor. Move some data and functions from the class to module level. Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

bpo-31287 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31287]: IDLE - Do not modify tkinter.message in test_configdialog.

bpo-27099 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27099]: Convert IDLE's built-in 'extensions' to regular features. About 10 IDLE features were implemented as supposedly optional extensions. Their different behavior could be confusing or worse for users and not good for maintenance. Hence the conversion. The main difference for users is that user configurable key bindings for builtin features are now handled uniformly. Now, editing a binding in a keyset only affects its value in the keyset. All bindings are defined together in the system-specific default keysets in config-extensions.def. All custom keysets are saved as a whole in config-extension.cfg. All take effect as soon as one clicks Apply or Ok. The affected events are '<<force-open-completions>>', '<<expand-word>>', '<<force-open-calltip>>', '<<flash-paren>>', '<<format-paragraph>>', '<<run-module>>', '<<check-module>>', and '<<zoom-height>>'. Any (global) customizations made before 3.6.3 will not affect their keyset-specific customization after 3.6.3. and vice versa. Initial patch by Charles Wohlganger.

bpo-31206 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31206]: IDLE: Factor HighPage(Frame) class from ConfigDialog. Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

bpo-31001 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31001]: Add tests for configdialog highlight tab. Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

bpo-31205 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31205]: IDLE: Factor KeysPage(Frame) class from ConfigDialog. The slightly modified tests continue to pass. Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

bpo-31130 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31130]: IDLE -- stop leaks in test_configdialog. Initial patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-31002 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31002]: Add tests for configdialog keys tab. Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

bpo-19903 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19903]: IDLE: Calltips use inspect.signature instead of inspect.getfullargspec. This improves calltips for builtins converted to use Argument Clinic. Patch by Louie Lu.

bpo-31083 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31083]: IDLE - Add an outline of a TabPage class in configdialog. Update existing classes to match outline. Initial patch by Cheryl Sabella.

bpo-31050 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31050]: Factor GenPage(Frame) class from ConfigDialog. The slightly modified tests continue to pass. Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

bpo-31004 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31004]: IDLE - Factor FontPage(Frame) class from ConfigDialog. Slightly modified tests continue to pass. Fix General tests. Patch mostly by Cheryl Sabella.

bpo-30781 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30781]: IDLE - Use ttk widgets in ConfigDialog. Patches by Terry Jan Reedy and Cheryl Sabella.

bpo-31060 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31060]: IDLE - Finish rearranging methods of ConfigDialog Grouping methods pertaining to each tab and the buttons will aid writing tests and improving the tabs and will enable splitting the groups into classes.

bpo-30853 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30853]: IDLE -- Factor a VarTrace class out of ConfigDialog. Instance tracers manages pairs consisting of a tk variable and a callback function. When tracing is turned on, setting the variable calls the function. Test coverage for the new class is 100%.

bpo-31003 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31003]: IDLE: Add more tests for General tab.

bpo-30993 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30993]: IDLE - Improve configdialog font page and tests. In configdialog: Document causal pathways in create_font_tab docstring. Simplify some attribute names. Move set_samples calls to var_changed_font (idea from Cheryl Sabella). Move related functions to positions after the create widgets function. In test_configdialog: Fix test_font_set so not order dependent. Fix renamed test_indent_scale so it tests the widget. Adjust tests for movement of set_samples call. Add tests for load functions. Put all font tests in one class and tab indent tests in another. Except for two lines, these tests completely cover the related functions.

bpo-30981 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30981]: IDLE -- Add more configdialog font page tests.

bpo-28523 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28523]: IDLE: replace 'colour' with 'color' in configdialog.

bpo-30917 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30917]: Add tests for idlelib.config.IdleConf. Increase coverage from 46% to 96%. Patch by Louie Lu.

bpo-30934 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30934]: Document coverage details for idlelib tests. Add section to idlelib/idle-test/README.txt. Include check that branches are taken both ways. Exclude IDLE-specific code that does not run during unit tests.

bpo-30913 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30913]: IDLE: Document ConfigDialog tk Vars, methods, and widgets in docstrings This will facilitate improving the dialog and splitting up the class. Original patch by Cheryl Sabella.

bpo-30899 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30899]: IDLE: Add tests for ConfigParser subclasses in config. Patch by Louie Lu.

bpo-30881 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30881]: IDLE: Add docstrings to browser.py. Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

bpo-30851 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30851]: IDLE: Remove unused variables in configdialog. One is a duplicate, one is set but cannot be altered by users. Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

bpo-30870 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30870]: IDLE: In Settings dialog, select font with Up, Down keys as well as mouse. Initial patch by Louie Lu.

bpo-8231 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8231]: IDLE: call config.IdleConf.GetUserCfgDir only once.

bpo-30779 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30779]: IDLE: Factor ConfigChanges class from configdialog, put in config; test. * In config, put dump test code in a function; run it and unittest in 'if __name__ == '__main__'. * Add class config.ConfigChanges based on changes_class_v4.py on bpo issue. * Add class test_config.ChangesTest, partly using configdialog_tests_v1.py. * Revise configdialog to use ConfigChanges; see tracker msg297804. * Revise test_configdialog to match configdialog changes. * Remove configdialog functions unused or moved to ConfigChanges. Cheryl Sabella contributed parts of the patch.

bpo-30777 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30777]: IDLE: configdialog - Add docstrings and fix comments. Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

bpo-30495 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30495]: IDLE: Improve textview with docstrings, PEP8 names, and more tests. Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

bpo-30723 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30723]: IDLE: Make several improvements to parenmatch. Add 'parens' style to highlight both opener and closer. Make 'default' style, which is not default, a synonym for 'opener'. Make time-delay work the same with all styles. Add help for config dialog extensions tab, including help for parenmatch. Add new tests. Original patch by Charles Wohlganger.

bpo-30674 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30674]: IDLE: add docstrings to grep module. Patch by Cheryl Sabella

bpo-21519 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21519]: IDLE's basic custom key entry dialog now detects duplicates properly. Original patch by Saimadhav Heblikar.

bpo-29910 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29910]: IDLE no longer deletes a character after commenting out a region by a key shortcut. Add return 'break' for this and other potential conflicts between IDLE and default key bindings.

bpo-30728 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30728]: Review and change idlelib.configdialog names. Lowercase method and attribute names. Replace 'colour' with 'color', expand overly cryptic names, delete unneeded underscores. Replace import * with specific imports. Patches by Cheryl Sabella.

bpo-6739 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6739]: IDLE: Verify user-entered key sequences by trying to bind them with tk. Add tests for all 3 validation functions. Original patch by G Polo. Tests added by Cheryl Sabella.

Tools/Demos

bpo-30983 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30983]: gdb integration commands (py-bt, etc.) work on optimized shared builds now, too. PEP 523 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/] introduced _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault which inlines PyEval_EvalFrameEx on non-debug shared builds. This broke the ability to use py-bt, py-up, and a few other Python-specific gdb integrations. The problem is fixed by only looking for _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault frames in python-gdb.py. Original patch by Bruno "Polaco" Penteado.

Python 3.6.2 final

Release date: 2017-07-17

No changes since release candidate 2

Python 3.6.2 release candidate 2

Release date: 2017-07-07

Security

bpo-30730 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30730]: Prevent environment variables injection in subprocess on Windows. Prevent passing other environment variables and command arguments.

bpo-30694 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30694]: Upgrade expat copy from 2.2.0 to 2.2.1 to get fixes of multiple security vulnerabilities including: CVE 2017-9233 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2017-9233] (External entity infinite loop DoS), CVE 2016-9063 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-9063] (Integer overflow, re-fix), CVE 2016-0718 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718] (Fix regression bugs from 2.2.0's fix to CVE 2016-0718 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718]) and CVE 2012-0876 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2012-0876] (Counter hash flooding with SipHash). Note: the CVE 2016-5300 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-5300] (Use os-specific entropy sources like getrandom) doesn't impact Python, since Python already gets entropy from the OS to set the expat secret using XML_SetHashSalt().

bpo-30500 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30500]: Fix urllib.parse.splithost() to correctly parse fragments. For example, splithost('//127.0.0.1#@evil.com/') now correctly returns the 127.0.0.1 host, instead of treating @evil.com as the host in an authentication (login@host).

Python 3.6.2 release candidate 1

Release date: 2017-06-17

Security

bpo-29591 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29591]: Update expat copy from 2.1.1 to 2.2.0 to get fixes of CVE 2016-0718 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718] and CVE 2016-4472 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-4472]. See https://sourceforge.net/p/expat/bugs/537/ for more information.

Core and Builtins

bpo-30682 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30682]: Removed a too-strict assertion that failed for certain f-strings, such as eval("f'\n'") and eval("f'\r'").

bpo-30604 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30604]: Move co_extra_freefuncs to not be per-thread to avoid crashes

bpo-29104 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29104]: Fixed parsing backslashes in f-strings.

bpo-27945 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27945]: Fixed various segfaults with dict when input collections are mutated during searching, inserting or comparing. Based on patches by Duane Griffin and Tim Mitchell.

bpo-25794 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25794]: Fixed type.__setattr__() and type.__delattr__() for non-interned attribute names. Based on patch by Eryk Sun.

bpo-30039 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30039]: If a KeyboardInterrupt happens when the interpreter is in the middle of resuming a chain of nested 'yield from' or 'await' calls, it's now correctly delivered to the innermost frame.

bpo-12414 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12414]: sys.getsizeof() on a code object now returns the sizes which includes the code struct and sizes of objects which it references. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-29949 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29949]: Fix memory usage regression of set and frozenset object.

bpo-29935 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29935]: Fixed error messages in the index() method of tuple, list and deque when pass indices of wrong type.

bpo-29859 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29859]: Show correct error messages when any of the pthread_* calls in thread_pthread.h fails.

bpo-28876 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28876]: bool(range) works even if len(range) raises OverflowError.

bpo-29600 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29600]: Fix wrapping coroutine return values in StopIteration.

bpo-28856 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28856]: Fix an oversight that %b format for bytes should support objects follow the buffer protocol.

bpo-29714 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29714]: Fix a regression that bytes format may fail when containing zero bytes inside.

bpo-29478 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29478]: If max_line_length=None is specified while using the Compat32 policy, it is no longer ignored. Patch by Mircea Cosbuc.

Library

bpo-30616 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30616]: Functional API of enum allows to create empty enums. Patched by Donghee Na

bpo-30038 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30038]: Fix race condition between signal delivery and wakeup file descriptor. Patch by Nathaniel Smith.

bpo-23894 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23894]: lib2to3 now recognizes rb'...' and f'...' strings.

bpo-23890 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23890]: unittest.TestCase.assertRaises() now manually breaks a reference cycle to not keep objects alive longer than expected.

bpo-30149 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30149]: inspect.signature() now supports callables with variable-argument parameters wrapped with partialmethod. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-30645 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30645]: Fix path calculation in imp.load_package(), fixing it for cases when a package is only shipped with bytecodes. Patch by Alexandru Ardelean.

bpo-29931 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29931]: Fixed comparison check for ipaddress.ip_interface objects. Patch by Sanjay Sundaresan.

bpo-30605 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30605]: re.compile() no longer raises a BytesWarning when compiling a bytes instance with misplaced inline modifier. Patch by Roy Williams.

bpo-24484 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24484]: Avoid race condition in multiprocessing cleanup (#2159)

bpo-28994 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28994]: The traceback no longer displayed for SystemExit raised in a callback registered by atexit.

bpo-30508 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30508]: Don't log exceptions if Task/Future "cancel()" method was called.

bpo-28556 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556]: Updates to typing module: Add generic AsyncContextManager, add support for ContextManager on all versions. Original PRs by Jelle Zijlstra and Ivan Levkivskyi

bpo-29870 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29870]: Fix ssl sockets leaks when connection is aborted in asyncio/ssl implementation. Patch by Michaël Sghaïer.

bpo-29743 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29743]: Closing transport during handshake process leaks open socket. Patch by Nikolay Kim

bpo-27585 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27585]: Fix waiter cancellation in asyncio.Lock. Patch by Mathieu Sornay.

bpo-30418 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30418]: On Windows, subprocess.Popen.communicate() now also ignore EINVAL on stdin.write() if the child process is still running but closed the pipe.

bpo-29822 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29822]: inspect.isabstract() now works during __init_subclass__. Patch by Nate Soares.

bpo-29581 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29581]: ABCMeta.__new__ now accepts **kwargs, allowing abstract base classes to use keyword parameters in __init_subclass__. Patch by Nate Soares.

bpo-30557 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30557]: faulthandler now correctly filters and displays exception codes on Windows

bpo-30378 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30378]: Fix the problem that logging.handlers.SysLogHandler cannot handle IPv6 addresses.

bpo-29960 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29960]: Preserve generator state when _random.Random.setstate() raises an exception. Patch by Bryan Olson.

bpo-30414 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30414]: multiprocessing.Queue._feed background running thread do not break from main loop on exception.

bpo-30003 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30003]: Fix handling escape characters in HZ codec. Based on patch by Ma Lin.

bpo-30301 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30301]: Fix AttributeError when using SimpleQueue.empty() under spawn and forkserver start methods.

bpo-30329 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30329]: imaplib and poplib now catch the Windows socket WSAEINVAL error (code 10022) on shutdown(SHUT_RDWR): An invalid operation was attempted. This error occurs sometimes on SSL connections.

bpo-30375 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30375]: Warnings emitted when compile a regular expression now always point to the line in the user code. Previously they could point into inners of the re module if emitted from inside of groups or conditionals.

bpo-30048 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30048]: Fixed Task.cancel() can be ignored when the task is running coroutine and the coroutine returned without any more await.

bpo-30266 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30266]: contextlib.AbstractContextManager now supports anti-registration by setting __enter__ = None or __exit__ = None, following the pattern introduced in bpo-25958 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25958]. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

bpo-30298 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30298]: Weaken the condition of deprecation warnings for inline modifiers. Now allowed several subsequential inline modifiers at the start of the pattern (e.g. '(?i)(?s)...'). In verbose mode whitespaces and comments now are allowed before and between inline modifiers (e.g. '(?x) (?i) (?s)...').

bpo-29990 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29990]: Fix range checking in GB18030 decoder. Original patch by Ma Lin.

bpo-26293 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26293]: Change resulted because of zipfile breakage. (See also: bpo-29094 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29094])

bpo-30243 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30243]: Removed the __init__ methods of _json's scanner and encoder. Misusing them could cause memory leaks or crashes. Now scanner and encoder objects are completely initialized in the __new__ methods.

bpo-30185 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30185]: Avoid KeyboardInterrupt tracebacks in forkserver helper process when Ctrl-C is received.

bpo-28556 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556]: Various updates to typing module: add typing.NoReturn type, use WrapperDescriptorType, minor bug-fixes. Original PRs by Jim Fasarakis-Hilliard and Ivan Levkivskyi.

bpo-30205 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30205]: Fix getsockname() for unbound AF_UNIX sockets on Linux.

bpo-30070 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30070]: Fixed leaks and crashes in errors handling in the parser module.

bpo-30061 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30061]: Fixed crashes in IOBase methods __next__() and readlines() when readline() or __next__() respectively return non-sizeable object. Fixed possible other errors caused by not checking results of PyObject_Size(), PySequence_Size(), or PyMapping_Size().

bpo-30017 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30017]: Allowed calling the close() method of the zip entry writer object multiple times. Writing to a closed writer now always produces a ValueError.

bpo-30068 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30068]: _io._IOBase.readlines will check if it's closed first when hint is present.

bpo-29694 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29694]: Fixed race condition in pathlib mkdir with flags parents=True. Patch by Armin Rigo.

bpo-29692 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29692]: Fixed arbitrary unchaining of RuntimeError exceptions in contextlib.contextmanager. Patch by Siddharth Velankar.

bpo-29998 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29998]: Pickling and copying ImportError now preserves name and path attributes.

bpo-29953 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29953]: Fixed memory leaks in the replace() method of datetime and time objects when pass out of bound fold argument.

bpo-29942 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29942]: Fix a crash in itertools.chain.from_iterable when encountering long runs of empty iterables.

bpo-27863 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27863]: Fixed multiple crashes in ElementTree caused by race conditions and wrong types.

bpo-28699 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28699]: Fixed a bug in pools in multiprocessing.pool that raising an exception at the very first of an iterable may swallow the exception or make the program hang. Patch by Davin Potts and Xiang Zhang.

bpo-25803 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25803]: Avoid incorrect errors raised by Path.mkdir(exist_ok=True) when the OS gives priority to errors such as EACCES over EEXIST.

bpo-29861 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29861]: Release references to tasks, their arguments and their results as soon as they are finished in multiprocessing.Pool.

bpo-29884 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29884]: faulthandler: Restore the old sigaltstack during teardown. Patch by Christophe Zeitouny.

bpo-25455 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25455]: Fixed crashes in repr of recursive buffered file-like objects.

bpo-29800 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29800]: Fix crashes in partial.__repr__ if the keys of partial.keywords are not strings. Patch by Michael Seifert.

bpo-29742 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29742]: get_extra_info() raises exception if get called on closed ssl transport. Patch by Nikolay Kim.

bpo-8256 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8256]: Fixed possible failing or crashing input() if attributes "encoding" or "errors" of sys.stdin or sys.stdout are not set or are not strings.

bpo-28298 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28298]: Fix a bug that prevented array 'Q', 'L' and 'I' from accepting big intables (objects that have __int__) as elements. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-28231 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28231]: The zipfile module now accepts path-like objects for external paths.

bpo-26915 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26915]: index() and count() methods of collections.abc.Sequence now check identity before checking equality when do comparisons.

bpo-29615 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29615]: SimpleXMLRPCDispatcher no longer chains KeyError (or any other exception) to exception(s) raised in the dispatched methods. Patch by Petr Motejlek.

bpo-30177 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30177]: path.resolve(strict=False) no longer cuts the path after the first element not present in the filesystem. Patch by Antoine Pietri.

IDLE

bpo-15786 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15786]: Fix several problems with IDLE's autocompletion box. The following should now work: clicking on selection box items; using the scrollbar; selecting an item by hitting Return. Hangs on MacOSX should no longer happen. Patch by Louie Lu.

bpo-25514 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25514]: Add doc subsubsection about IDLE failure to start. Popup no-connection message directs users to this section.

bpo-30642 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30642]: Fix reference leaks in IDLE tests. Patches by Louie Lu and Terry Jan Reedy.

bpo-30495 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30495]: Add docstrings for textview.py and use PEP8 names. Patches by Cheryl Sabella and Terry Jan Reedy.

bpo-30290 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30290]: Help-about: use pep8 names and add tests. Increase coverage to 100%. Patches by Louie Lu, Cheryl Sabella, and Terry Jan Reedy.

bpo-30303 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30303]: Add _utest option to textview; add new tests. Increase coverage to 100%. Patches by Louie Lu and Terry Jan Reedy.

C API

bpo-27867 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27867]: Function PySlice_GetIndicesEx() no longer replaced with a macro if Py_LIMITED_API is not set.

Build

bpo-29941 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29941]: Add --with-assertions configure flag to explicitly enable C assert() checks. Defaults to off. --with-pydebug implies --with-assertions.

bpo-28787 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28787]: Fix out-of-tree builds of Python when configured with --with--dtrace.

bpo-29243 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29243]: Prevent unnecessary rebuilding of Python during make test, make install and some other make targets when configured with --enable-optimizations.

bpo-23404 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404]: Don't regenerate generated files based on file modification time anymore: the action is now explicit. Replace make touch with make regen-all.

bpo-29643 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29643]: Fix --enable-optimization didn't work.

Documentation

bpo-30176 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30176]: Add missing attribute related constants in curses documentation.

bpo-30052 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30052]: the link targets for bytes() and bytearray() are now their respective type definitions, rather than the corresponding builtin function entries. Use bytes and bytearray to reference the latter. In order to ensure this and future cross-reference updates are applied automatically, the daily documentation builds now disable the default output caching features in Sphinx.

bpo-26985 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26985]: Add missing info of code object in inspect documentation.

Tools/Demos

bpo-29367 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29367]: python-gdb.py now supports also method-wrapper (wrapperobject) objects.

Tests

bpo-30357 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30357]: test_thread: setUp() now uses support.threading_setup() and support.threading_cleanup() to wait until threads complete to avoid random side effects on following tests. Initial patch written by Grzegorz Grzywacz.

bpo-30197 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30197]: Enhanced functions swap_attr() and swap_item() in the test.support module. They now work when delete replaced attribute or item inside the with statement. The old value of the attribute or item (or None if it doesn't exist) now will be assigned to the target of the "as" clause, if there is one.

Windows

bpo-30687 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30687]: Locate msbuild.exe on Windows when building rather than vcvarsall.bat

bpo-30450 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30450]: The build process on Windows no longer depends on Subversion, instead pulling external code from GitHub via a Python script. If Python 3.6 is not found on the system (via py -3.6), NuGet is used to download a copy of 32-bit Python.

Python 3.6.1 final

Release date: 2017-03-21

Core and Builtins

bpo-29723 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29723]: The sys.path[0] initialization change for bpo-29139 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29139] caused a regression by revealing an inconsistency in how sys.path is initialized when executing __main__ from a zipfile, directory, or other import location. The interpreter now consistently avoids ever adding the import location's parent directory to sys.path, and ensures no other sys.path entries are inadvertently modified when inserting the import location named on the command line.

Build

bpo-27593 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27593]: fix format of git information used in sys.version

Fix incompatible comment in python.h

Python 3.6.1 release candidate 1

Release date: 2017-03-04

Core and Builtins

bpo-28893 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28893]: Set correct __cause__ for errors about invalid awaitables returned from __aiter__ and __anext__.

bpo-29683 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29683]: Fixes to memory allocation in _PyCode_SetExtra. Patch by Brian Coleman.

bpo-29684 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29684]: Fix minor regression of PyEval_CallObjectWithKeywords. It should raise TypeError when kwargs is not a dict. But it might cause segv when args=NULL and kwargs is not a dict.

bpo-28598 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28598]: Support __rmod__ for subclasses of str being called before str.__mod__. Patch by Martijn Pieters.

bpo-29607 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29607]: Fix stack_effect computation for CALL_FUNCTION_EX. Patch by Matthieu Dartiailh.

bpo-29602 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29602]: Fix incorrect handling of signed zeros in complex constructor for complex subclasses and for inputs having a __complex__ method. Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

bpo-29347 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29347]: Fixed possibly dereferencing undefined pointers when creating weakref objects.

bpo-29438 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29438]: Fixed use-after-free problem in key sharing dict.

bpo-29319 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29319]: Prevent RunMainFromImporter overwriting sys.path[0].

bpo-29337 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29337]: Fixed possible BytesWarning when compare the code objects. Warnings could be emitted at compile time.

bpo-29327 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29327]: Fixed a crash when pass the iterable keyword argument to sorted().

bpo-29034 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29034]: Fix memory leak and use-after-free in os module (path_converter).

bpo-29159 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29159]: Fix regression in bytes(x) when x.__index__() raises Exception.

bpo-28932 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28932]: Do not include <sys/random.h> if it does not exist.

bpo-25677 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25677]: Correct the positioning of the syntax error caret for indented blocks. Based on patch by Michael Layzell.

bpo-29000 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29000]: Fixed bytes formatting of octals with zero padding in alternate form.

bpo-26919 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26919]: On Android, operating system data is now always encoded/decoded to/from UTF-8, instead of the locale encoding to avoid inconsistencies with os.fsencode() and os.fsdecode() which are already using UTF-8.

bpo-28991 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28991]: functools.lru_cache() was susceptible to an obscure reentrancy bug triggerable by a monkey-patched len() function.

bpo-28739 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28739]: f-string expressions are no longer accepted as docstrings and by ast.literal_eval() even if they do not include expressions.

bpo-28512 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28512]: Fixed setting the offset attribute of SyntaxError by PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx() and PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject().

bpo-28918 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28918]: Fix the cross compilation of xxlimited when Python has been built with Py_DEBUG defined.

bpo-28731 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28731]: Optimize _PyDict_NewPresized() to create correct size dict. Improve speed of dict literal with constant keys up to 30%.

Library

bpo-29169 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29169]: Update zlib to 1.2.11.

bpo-29623 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29623]: Allow use of path-like object as a single argument in ConfigParser.read(). Patch by David Ellis.

bpo-28963 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28963]: Fix out of bound iteration in asyncio.Future.remove_done_callback implemented in C.

bpo-29704 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29704]: asyncio.subprocess.SubprocessStreamProtocol no longer closes before all pipes are closed.

bpo-29271 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29271]: Fix Task.current_task and Task.all_tasks implemented in C to accept None argument as their pure Python implementation.

bpo-29703 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29703]: Fix asyncio to support instantiation of new event loops in child processes.

bpo-29376 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29376]: Fix assertion error in threading._DummyThread.is_alive().

bpo-28624 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28624]: Add a test that checks that cwd parameter of Popen() accepts PathLike objects. Patch by Sayan Chowdhury.

bpo-28518 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28518]: Start a transaction implicitly before a DML statement. Patch by Aviv Palivoda.

bpo-29532 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29532]: Altering a kwarg dictionary passed to functools.partial() no longer affects a partial object after creation.

bpo-29110 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29110]: Fix file object leak in aifc.open() when file is given as a filesystem path and is not in valid AIFF format. Patch by Anthony Zhang.

bpo-28556 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556]: Various updates to typing module: typing.Counter, typing.ChainMap, improved ABC caching, etc. Original PRs by Jelle Zijlstra, Ivan Levkivskyi, Manuel Krebber, and Łukasz Langa.

bpo-29100 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29100]: Fix datetime.fromtimestamp() regression introduced in Python 3.6.0: check minimum and maximum years.

bpo-29519 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29519]: Fix weakref spewing exceptions during interpreter shutdown when used with a rare combination of multiprocessing and custom codecs.

bpo-29416 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29416]: Prevent infinite loop in pathlib.Path.mkdir

bpo-29444 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29444]: Fixed out-of-bounds buffer access in the group() method of the match object. Based on patch by WGH.

bpo-29335 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29335]: Fix subprocess.Popen.wait() when the child process has exited to a stopped instead of terminated state (ex: when under ptrace).

bpo-29290 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29290]: Fix a regression in argparse that help messages would wrap at non-breaking spaces.

bpo-28735 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28735]: Fixed the comparison of mock.MagickMock with mock.ANY.

bpo-29316 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29316]: Restore the provisional status of typing module, add corresponding note to documentation. Patch by Ivan L.

bpo-29219 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29219]: Fixed infinite recursion in the repr of uninitialized ctypes.CDLL instances.

bpo-29011 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29011]: Fix an important omission by adding Deque to the typing module.

bpo-28969 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28969]: Fixed race condition in C implementation of functools.lru_cache. KeyError could be raised when cached function with full cache was simultaneously called from different threads with the same uncached arguments.

bpo-29142 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29142]: In urllib.request, suffixes in no_proxy environment variable with leading dots could match related hostnames again (e.g. .b.c matches a.b.c). Patch by Milan Oberkirch.

bpo-28961 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28961]: Fix unittest.mock._Call helper: don't ignore the name parameter anymore. Patch written by Jiajun Huang.

bpo-29203 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29203]: functools.lru_cache() now respects PEP 468 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0468/] and preserves the order of keyword arguments. f(a=1, b=2) is now cached separately from f(b=2, a=1) since both calls could potentially give different results.

bpo-15812 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15812]: inspect.getframeinfo() now correctly shows the first line of a context. Patch by Sam Breese.

bpo-29094 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29094]: Offsets in a ZIP file created with extern file object and modes "w" and "x" now are relative to the start of the file.

bpo-29085 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29085]: Allow random.Random.seed() to use high quality OS randomness rather than the pid and time.

bpo-29061 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29061]: Fixed bug in secrets.randbelow() which would hang when given a negative input. Patch by Brendan Donegan.

bpo-29079 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29079]: Prevent infinite loop in pathlib.resolve() on Windows

bpo-13051 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13051]: Fixed recursion errors in large or resized curses.textpad.Textbox. Based on patch by Tycho Andersen.

bpo-29119 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29119]: Fix weakrefs in the pure python version of collections.OrderedDict move_to_end() method. Contributed by Andra Bogildea.

bpo-9770 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9770]: curses.ascii predicates now work correctly with negative integers.

bpo-28427 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28427]: old keys should not remove new values from WeakValueDictionary when collecting from another thread.

bpo-28923 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28923]: Remove editor artifacts from Tix.py.

bpo-29055 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29055]: Neaten-up empty population error on random.choice() by suppressing the upstream exception.

bpo-28871 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28871]: Fixed a crash when deallocate deep ElementTree.

bpo-19542 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19542]: Fix bugs in WeakValueDictionary.setdefault() and WeakValueDictionary.pop() when a GC collection happens in another thread.

bpo-20191 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20191]: Fixed a crash in resource.prlimit() when passing a sequence that doesn't own its elements as limits.

bpo-28779 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28779]: multiprocessing.set_forkserver_preload() would crash the forkserver process if a preloaded module instantiated some multiprocessing objects such as locks.

bpo-28847 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28847]: dbm.dumb now supports reading read-only files and no longer writes the index file when it is not changed.

bpo-26937 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26937]: The chown() method of the tarfile.TarFile class does not fail now when the grp module cannot be imported, as for example on Android platforms.

IDLE

bpo-29071 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29071]: IDLE colors f-string prefixes (but not invalid ur prefixes).

bpo-28572 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28572]: Add 10% to coverage of IDLE's test_configdialog. Update and augment description of the configuration system.

Windows

bpo-29579 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29579]: Removes readme.txt from the installer

bpo-29326 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29326]: Ignores blank lines in ._pth files (Patch by Alexey Izbyshev)

bpo-28164 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28164]: Correctly handle special console filenames (patch by Eryk Sun)

bpo-29409 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29409]: Implement PEP 529 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/] for io.FileIO (Patch by Eryk Sun)

bpo-29392 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29392]: Prevent crash when passing invalid arguments into msvcrt module.

bpo-25778 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25778]: winreg does not truncate string correctly (Patch by Eryk Sun)

bpo-28896 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28896]: Deprecate WindowsRegistryFinder and disable it by default.

C API

bpo-27867 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27867]: Function PySlice_GetIndicesEx() is replaced with a macro if Py_LIMITED_API is not set or set to the value between 0x03050400 and 0x03060000 (not including) or 0x03060100 or higher.

bpo-29083 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29083]: Fixed the declaration of some public API functions. PyArg_VaParse() and PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords() were not available in limited API. PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments(), PyArg_UnpackTuple() and Py_BuildValue() were not available in limited API of version < 3.3 when PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN is defined.

bpo-29058 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29058]: All stable API extensions added after Python 3.2 are now available only when Py_LIMITED_API is set to the PY_VERSION_HEX value of the minimum Python version supporting this API.

Documentation

bpo-28929 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28929]: Link the documentation to its source file on GitHub.

bpo-25008 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25008]: Document smtpd.py as effectively deprecated and add a pointer to aiosmtpd, a third-party asyncio-based replacement.

bpo-26355 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26355]: Add canonical header link on each page to corresponding major version of the documentation. Patch by Matthias Bussonnier.

bpo-29349 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29349]: Fix Python 2 syntax in code for building the documentation.

Tests

bpo-28087 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28087]: Skip test_asyncore and test_eintr poll failures on macOS. Skip some tests of select.poll when running on macOS due to unresolved issues with the underlying system poll function on some macOS versions.

bpo-29571 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29571]: to match the behaviour of the re.LOCALE flag, test_re.test_locale_flag now uses locale.getpreferredencoding(False) to determine the candidate encoding for the test regex (allowing it to correctly skip the test when the default locale encoding is a multi-byte encoding)

bpo-28950 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28950]: Disallow -j0 to be combined with -T/-l in regrtest command line arguments.

bpo-28683 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28683]: Fix the tests that bind() a unix socket and raise PermissionError on Android for a non-root user.

bpo-26939 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26939]: Add the support.setswitchinterval() function to fix test_functools hanging on the Android armv7 qemu emulator.

Build

bpo-27593 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27593]: sys.version and the platform module python_build(), python_branch(), and python_revision() functions now use git information rather than hg when building from a repo.

bpo-29572 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29572]: Update Windows build and OS X installers to use OpenSSL 1.0.2k.

bpo-26851 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26851]: Set Android compilation and link flags.

bpo-28768 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28768]: Fix implicit declaration of function _setmode. Patch by Masayuki Yamamoto

bpo-29080 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29080]: Removes hard dependency on hg.exe from PCBuild/build.bat

bpo-23903 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23903]: Added missed names to PC/python3.def.

bpo-28762 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28762]: lockf() is available on Android API level 24, but the F_LOCK macro is not defined in android-ndk-r13.

bpo-28538 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28538]: Fix the compilation error that occurs because if_nameindex() is available on Android API level 24, but the if_nameindex structure is not defined.

bpo-20211 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20211]: Do not add the directory for installing C header files and the directory for installing object code libraries to the cross compilation search paths. Original patch by Thomas Petazzoni.

bpo-28849 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28849]: Do not define sys.implementation._multiarch on Android.

Python 3.6.0 final

Release date: 2016-12-23

No changes since release candidate 2

Python 3.6.0 release candidate 2

Release date: 2016-12-16

Core and Builtins

bpo-28147 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28147]: Fix a memory leak in split-table dictionaries: setattr() must not convert combined table into split table. Patch written by INADA Naoki.

bpo-28990 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28990]: Fix asyncio SSL hanging if connection is closed before handshake is completed. (Patch by HoHo-Ho)

Tools/Demos

bpo-28770 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28770]: Fix python-gdb.py for fastcalls.

Windows

bpo-28896 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28896]: Deprecate WindowsRegistryFinder.

Build

bpo-28898 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28898]: Prevent gdb build errors due to HAVE_LONG_LONG redefinition.

Python 3.6.0 release candidate 1

Release date: 2016-12-06

Core and Builtins

bpo-23722 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23722]: Rather than silently producing a class that doesn't support zero-argument super() in methods, failing to pass the new __classcell__ namespace entry up to type.__new__ now results in a DeprecationWarning and a class that supports zero-argument super().

bpo-28797 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28797]: Modifying the class __dict__ inside the __set_name__ method of a descriptor that is used inside that class no longer prevents calling the __set_name__ method of other descriptors.

bpo-28782 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28782]: Fix a bug in the implementation yield from when checking if the next instruction is YIELD_FROM. Regression introduced by WORDCODE (bpo-26647 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26647]).

Library

bpo-27030 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27030]: Unknown escapes in re.sub() replacement template are allowed again. But they still are deprecated and will be disabled in 3.7.

bpo-28835 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28835]: Fix a regression introduced in warnings.catch_warnings(): call warnings.showwarning() if it was overridden inside the context manager.

bpo-27172 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27172]: To assist with upgrades from 2.7, the previously documented deprecation of inspect.getfullargspec() has been reversed. This decision may be revisited again after the Python 2.7 branch is no longer officially supported.

bpo-26273 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26273]: Add new socket.TCP_CONGESTION (Linux 2.6.13) and socket.TCP_USER_TIMEOUT (Linux 2.6.37) constants. Patch written by Omar Sandoval.

bpo-24142 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24142]: Reading a corrupt config file left configparser in an invalid state. Original patch by Florian Höch.

bpo-28843 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28843]: Fix asyncio C Task to handle exceptions __traceback__.

C API

bpo-28808 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28808]: PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString() now never raises exceptions.

Documentation

bpo-23722 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23722]: The data model reference and the porting section in the What's New guide now cover the additional __classcell__ handling needed for custom metaclasses to fully support PEP 487 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0487/] and zero-argument super().

Tools/Demos

bpo-28023 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28023]: Fix python-gdb.py didn't support new dict implementation.

Python 3.6.0 beta 4

Release date: 2016-11-21

Core and Builtins

bpo-28532 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28532]: Show sys.version when -V option is supplied twice.

bpo-27100 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27100]: The with-statement now checks for __enter__ before it checks for __exit__. This gives less confusing error messages when both methods are missing. Patch by Jonathan Ellington.

bpo-28746 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28746]: Fix the set_inheritable() file descriptor method on platforms that do not have the ioctl FIOCLEX and FIONCLEX commands.

bpo-26920 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26920]: Fix not getting the locale's charset upon initializing the interpreter, on platforms that do not have langinfo.

bpo-28648 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28648]: Fixed crash in Py_DecodeLocale() in debug build on Mac OS X when decode astral characters. Patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-19398 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19398]: Extra slash no longer added to sys.path components in case of empty compile-time PYTHONPATH components.

bpo-28665 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28665]: Improve speed of the STORE_DEREF opcode by 40%.

bpo-28583 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28583]: PyDict_SetDefault didn't combine split table when needed. Patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-27243 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27243]: Change PendingDeprecationWarning -> DeprecationWarning. As it was agreed in the issue, __aiter__ returning an awaitable should result in PendingDeprecationWarning in 3.5 and in DeprecationWarning in 3.6.

bpo-26182 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26182]: Fix a refleak in code that raises DeprecationWarning.

bpo-28721 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28721]: Fix asynchronous generators aclose() and athrow() to handle StopAsyncIteration propagation properly.

Library

bpo-28752 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28752]: Restored the __reduce__() methods of datetime objects.

bpo-28727 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28727]: Regular expression patterns, _sre.SRE_Pattern objects created by re.compile(), become comparable (only x==y and x!=y operators). This change should fix the bpo-18383 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18383]: don't duplicate warning filters when the warnings module is reloaded (thing usually only done in unit tests).

bpo-20572 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20572]: The subprocess.Popen.wait method's undocumented endtime parameter now raises a DeprecationWarning.

bpo-25659 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25659]: In ctypes, prevent a crash calling the from_buffer() and from_buffer_copy() methods on abstract classes like Array.

bpo-19717 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19717]: Makes Path.resolve() succeed on paths that do not exist. Patch by Vajrasky Kok

bpo-28563 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28563]: Fixed possible DoS and arbitrary code execution when handle plural form selections in the gettext module. The expression parser now supports exact syntax supported by GNU gettext.

bpo-28387 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28387]: Fixed possible crash in _io.TextIOWrapper deallocator when the garbage collector is invoked in other thread. Based on patch by Sebastian Cufre.

bpo-28600 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28600]: Optimize loop.call_soon.

bpo-28613 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28613]: Fix get_event_loop() return the current loop if called from coroutines/callbacks.

bpo-28634 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28634]: Fix asyncio.isfuture() to support unittest.Mock.

bpo-26081 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26081]: Fix refleak in _asyncio.Future.__iter__().throw.

bpo-28639 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28639]: Fix inspect.isawaitable to always return bool Patch by Justin Mayfield.

bpo-28652 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28652]: Make loop methods reject socket kinds they do not support.

bpo-28653 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28653]: Fix a refleak in functools.lru_cache.

bpo-28703 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28703]: Fix asyncio.iscoroutinefunction to handle Mock objects.

bpo-28704 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28704]: Fix create_unix_server to support Path-like objects (PEP 519).

bpo-28720 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28720]: Add collections.abc.AsyncGenerator.

Documentation

bpo-28513 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28513]: Documented command-line interface of zipfile.

Tests

bpo-28666 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28666]: Now test.support.rmtree is able to remove unwritable or unreadable directories.

bpo-23839 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23839]: Various caches now are cleared before running every test file.

Build

bpo-10656 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10656]: Fix out-of-tree building on AIX. Patch by Tristan Carel and Michael Haubenwallner.

bpo-26359 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26359]: Rename --with-optimiations to --enable-optimizations.

bpo-28676 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28676]: Prevent missing 'getentropy' declaration warning on macOS. Patch by Gareth Rees.

Python 3.6.0 beta 3

Release date: 2016-10-31

Core and Builtins

bpo-28128 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28128]: Deprecation warning for invalid str and byte escape sequences now prints better information about where the error occurs. Patch by Serhiy Storchaka and Eric Smith.

bpo-28509 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28509]: dict.update() no longer allocate unnecessary large memory.

bpo-28426 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28426]: Fixed potential crash in PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject() in debug build.

bpo-28517 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28517]: Fixed of-by-one error in the peephole optimizer that caused keeping unreachable code.

bpo-28214 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28214]: Improved exception reporting for problematic __set_name__ attributes.

bpo-23782 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23782]: Fixed possible memory leak in _PyTraceback_Add() and exception loss in PyTraceBack_Here().

bpo-28471 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28471]: Fix "Python memory allocator called without holding the GIL" crash in socket.setblocking.

Library

bpo-27517 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27517]: LZMA compressor and decompressor no longer raise exceptions if given empty data twice. Patch by Benjamin Fogle.

bpo-28549 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28549]: Fixed segfault in curses's addch() with ncurses6.

bpo-28449 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28449]: tarfile.open() with mode "r" or "r:" now tries to open a tar file with compression before trying to open it without compression. Otherwise it had 50% chance failed with ignore_zeros=True.

bpo-23262 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23262]: The webbrowser module now supports Firefox 36+ and derived browsers. Based on patch by Oleg Broytman.

bpo-27939 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27939]: Fixed bugs in tkinter.ttk.LabeledScale and tkinter.Scale caused by representing the scale as float value internally in Tk. tkinter.IntVar now works if float value is set to underlying Tk variable.

bpo-18844 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18844]: The various ways of specifying weights for random.choices() now produce the same result sequences.

bpo-28255 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28255]: calendar.TextCalendar().prmonth() no longer prints a space at the start of new line after printing a month's calendar. Patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-20491 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20491]: The textwrap.TextWrapper class now honors non-breaking spaces. Based on patch by Kaarle Ritvanen.

bpo-28353 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28353]: os.fwalk() no longer fails on broken links.

bpo-28430 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28430]: Fix iterator of C implemented asyncio.Future doesn't accept non-None value is passed to it.send(val).

bpo-27025 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27025]: Generated names for Tkinter widgets now start by the "!" prefix for readability.

bpo-25464 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25464]: Fixed HList.header_exists() in tkinter.tix module by addin a workaround to Tix library bug.

bpo-28488 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28488]: shutil.make_archive() no longer adds entry "./" to ZIP archive.

bpo-25953 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25953]: re.sub() now raises an error for invalid numerical group reference in replacement template even if the pattern is not found in the string. Error message for invalid group reference now includes the group index and the position of the reference. Based on patch by SilentGhost.

bpo-18219 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18219]: Optimize csv.DictWriter for large number of columns. Patch by Mariatta Wijaya.

bpo-28448 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28448]: Fix C implemented asyncio.Future didn't work on Windows.

bpo-28480 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28480]: Fix error building socket module when multithreading is disabled.

bpo-24452 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24452]: Make webbrowser support Chrome on Mac OS X.

bpo-20766 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20766]: Fix references leaked by pdb in the handling of SIGINT handlers.

bpo-28492 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28492]: Fix how StopIteration exception is raised in _asyncio.Future.

bpo-28500 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28500]: Fix asyncio to handle async gens GC from another thread.

bpo-26923 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26923]: Fix asyncio.Gather to refuse being cancelled once all children are done. Patch by Johannes Ebke.

bpo-26796 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26796]: Don't configure the number of workers for default threadpool executor. Initial patch by Hans Lawrenz.

bpo-28544 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28544]: Implement asyncio.Task in C.

Windows

bpo-28522 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28522]: Fixes mishandled buffer reallocation in getpathp.c

Build

bpo-28444 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28444]: Fix missing extensions modules when cross compiling.

bpo-28208 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28208]: Update Windows build and OS X installers to use SQLite 3.14.2.

bpo-28248 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28248]: Update Windows build and OS X installers to use OpenSSL 1.0.2j.

Tests

bpo-26944 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26944]: Fix test_posix for Android where 'id -G' is entirely wrong or missing the effective gid.

bpo-28409 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28409]: regrtest: fix the parser of command line arguments.

Python 3.6.0 beta 2

Release date: 2016-10-10

Core and Builtins

bpo-28183 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28183]: Optimize and cleanup dict iteration.

bpo-26081 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26081]: Added C implementation of asyncio.Future. Original patch by Yury Selivanov.

bpo-28379 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28379]: Added sanity checks and tests for PyUnicode_CopyCharacters(). Patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-28376 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28376]: The type of long range iterator is now registered as Iterator. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-28376 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28376]: Creating instances of range_iterator by calling range_iterator type now is deprecated. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-28376 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28376]: The constructor of range_iterator now checks that step is not 0. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-26906 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26906]: Resolving special methods of uninitialized type now causes implicit initialization of the type instead of a fail.

bpo-18287 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18287]: PyType_Ready() now checks that tp_name is not NULL. Original patch by Niklas Koep.

bpo-24098 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24098]: Fixed possible crash when AST is changed in process of compiling it.

bpo-28201 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28201]: Dict reduces possibility of 2nd conflict in hash table when hashes have same lower bits.

bpo-28350 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28350]: String constants with null character no longer interned.

bpo-26617 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26617]: Fix crash when GC runs during weakref callbacks.

bpo-27942 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27942]: String constants now interned recursively in tuples and frozensets.

bpo-21578 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21578]: Fixed misleading error message when ImportError called with invalid keyword args.

bpo-28203 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28203]: Fix incorrect type in complex(1.0, {2:3}) error message. Patch by Soumya Sharma.

bpo-28086 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28086]: Single var-positional argument of tuple subtype was passed unscathed to the C-defined function. Now it is converted to exact tuple.

bpo-28214 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28214]: Now __set_name__ is looked up on the class instead of the instance.

bpo-27955 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27955]: Fallback on reading /dev/urandom device when the getrandom() syscall fails with EPERM, for example when blocked by SECCOMP.

bpo-28192 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28192]: Don't import readline in isolated mode.

Upgrade internal unicode databases to Unicode version 9.0.0.

bpo-28131 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28131]: Fix a regression in zipimport's compile_source(). zipimport should use the same optimization level as the interpreter.

bpo-28126 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28126]: Replace Py_MEMCPY with memcpy(). Visual Studio can properly optimize memcpy().

bpo-28120 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28120]: Fix dict.pop() for split dictionary when trying to remove a "pending key" (Not yet inserted in split-table). Patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-26182 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26182]: Raise DeprecationWarning when async and await keywords are used as variable/attribute/class/function name.

Library

bpo-27998 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27998]: Fixed bytes path support in os.scandir() on Windows. Patch by Eryk Sun.

bpo-28317 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28317]: The disassembler now decodes FORMAT_VALUE argument.

bpo-26293 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26293]: Fixed writing ZIP files that starts not from the start of the file. Offsets in ZIP file now are relative to the start of the archive in conforming to the specification.

bpo-28380 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28380]: unittest.mock Mock autospec functions now properly support assert_called, assert_not_called, and assert_called_once.

bpo-27181 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27181]: remove statistics.geometric_mean and defer until 3.7.

bpo-28229 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28229]: lzma module now supports pathlib.

bpo-28321 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28321]: Fixed writing non-BMP characters with binary format in plistlib.

bpo-28225 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28225]: bz2 module now supports pathlib. Initial patch by Ethan Furman.

bpo-28227 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28227]: gzip now supports pathlib. Patch by Ethan Furman.

bpo-27358 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27358]: Optimized merging var-keyword arguments and improved error message when passing a non-mapping as a var-keyword argument.

bpo-28257 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28257]: Improved error message when passing a non-iterable as a var-positional argument. Added opcode BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL.

bpo-28322 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28322]: Fixed possible crashes when unpickle itertools objects from incorrect pickle data. Based on patch by John Leitch.

bpo-28228 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28228]: imghdr now supports pathlib.

bpo-28226 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28226]: compileall now supports pathlib.

bpo-28314 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28314]: Fix function declaration (C flags) for the getiterator() method of xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.

bpo-28148 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28148]: Stop using localtime() and gmtime() in the time module. Introduced platform independent _PyTime_localtime API that is similar to POSIX localtime_r, but available on all platforms. Patch by Ed Schouten.

bpo-28253 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28253]: Fixed calendar functions for extreme months: 0001-01 and 9999-12. Methods itermonthdays() and itermonthdays2() are reimplemented so that they don't call itermonthdates() which can cause datetime.date under/overflow.

bpo-28275 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28275]: Fixed possible use after free in the decompress() methods of the LZMADecompressor and BZ2Decompressor classes. Original patch by John Leitch.

bpo-27897 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27897]: Fixed possible crash in sqlite3.Connection.create_collation() if pass invalid string-like object as a name. Patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-18844 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18844]: random.choices() now has k as a keyword-only argument to improve the readability of common cases and come into line with the signature used in other languages.

bpo-18893 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18893]: Fix invalid exception handling in Lib/ctypes/macholib/dyld.py. Patch by Madison May.

bpo-27611 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27611]: Fixed support of default root window in the tkinter.tix module. Added the master parameter in the DisplayStyle constructor.

bpo-27348 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27348]: In the traceback module, restore the formatting of exception messages like "Exception: None". This fixes a regression introduced in 3.5a2.

bpo-25651 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25651]: Allow false values to be used for msg parameter of subTest().

bpo-27778 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27778]: Fix a memory leak in os.getrandom() when the getrandom() is interrupted by a signal and a signal handler raises a Python exception.

bpo-28200 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28200]: Fix memory leak on Windows in the os module (fix path_converter() function).

bpo-25400 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25400]: RobotFileParser now correctly returns default values for crawl_delay and request_rate. Initial patch by Peter Wirtz.

bpo-27932 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27932]: Prevent memory leak in win32_ver().

Fix UnboundLocalError in socket._sendfile_use_sendfile.

bpo-28075 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28075]: Check for ERROR_ACCESS_DENIED in Windows implementation of os.stat(). Patch by Eryk Sun.

bpo-22493 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22493]: Warning message emitted by using inline flags in the middle of regular expression now contains a (truncated) regex pattern. Patch by Tim Graham.

bpo-25270 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25270]: Prevent codecs.escape_encode() from raising SystemError when an empty bytestring is passed.

bpo-28181 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28181]: Get antigravity over HTTPS. Patch by Kaartic Sivaraam.

bpo-25895 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25895]: Enable WebSocket URL schemes in urllib.parse.urljoin. Patch by Gergely Imreh and Markus Holtermann.

bpo-28114 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28114]: Fix a crash in parse_envlist() when env contains byte strings. Patch by Eryk Sun.

bpo-27599 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27599]: Fixed buffer overrun in binascii.b2a_qp() and binascii.a2b_qp().

bpo-27906 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27906]: Fix socket accept exhaustion during high TCP traffic. Patch by Kevin Conway.

bpo-28174 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28174]: Handle when SO_REUSEPORT isn't properly supported. Patch by Seth Michael Larson.

bpo-26654 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26654]: Inspect functools.partial in asyncio.Handle.__repr__. Patch by iceboy.

bpo-26909 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26909]: Fix slow pipes IO in asyncio. Patch by INADA Naoki.

bpo-28176 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28176]: Fix callbacks race in asyncio.SelectorLoop.sock_connect.

bpo-27759 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27759]: Fix selectors incorrectly retain invalid file descriptors. Patch by Mark Williams.

bpo-28368 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28368]: Refuse monitoring processes if the child watcher has no loop attached. Patch by Vincent Michel.

bpo-28369 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28369]: Raise RuntimeError when transport's FD is used with add_reader, add_writer, etc.

bpo-28370 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28370]: Speedup asyncio.StreamReader.readexactly. Patch by Коренберг Марк.

bpo-28371 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28371]: Deprecate passing asyncio.Handles to run_in_executor.

bpo-28372 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28372]: Fix asyncio to support formatting of non-python coroutines.

bpo-28399 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28399]: Remove UNIX socket from FS before binding. Patch by Коренберг Марк.

bpo-27972 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27972]: Prohibit Tasks to await on themselves.

Windows

bpo-28402 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28402]: Adds signed catalog files for stdlib on Windows.

bpo-28333 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28333]: Enables Unicode for ps1/ps2 and input() prompts. (Patch by Eryk Sun)

bpo-28251 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28251]: Improvements to help manuals on Windows.

bpo-28110 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28110]: launcher.msi has different product codes between 32-bit and 64-bit

bpo-28161 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28161]: Opening CON for write access fails

bpo-28162 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28162]: WindowsConsoleIO readall() fails if first line starts with Ctrl+Z

bpo-28163 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28163]: WindowsConsoleIO fileno() passes wrong flags to _open_osfhandle

bpo-28164 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28164]: _PyIO_get_console_type fails for various paths

bpo-28137 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28137]: Renames Windows path file to ._pth

bpo-28138 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28138]: Windows ._pth file should allow import site

C API

bpo-28426 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28426]: Deprecated undocumented functions PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject(), PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject(), PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode() and PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode().

Build

bpo-28258 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28258]: Fixed build with Estonian locale (python-config and distclean targets in Makefile). Patch by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis.

bpo-26661 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26661]: setup.py now detects system libffi with multiarch wrapper.

bpo-15819 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15819]: Remove redundant include search directory option for building outside the source tree.

Tests

bpo-28217 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28217]: Adds _testconsole module to test console input.

Python 3.6.0 beta 1

Release date: 2016-09-12

Core and Builtins

bpo-23722 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23722]: The __class__ cell used by zero-argument super() is now initialized from type.__new__ rather than __build_class__, so class methods relying on that will now work correctly when called from metaclass methods during class creation. Patch by Martin Teichmann.

bpo-25221 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25221]: Fix corrupted result from PyLong_FromLong(0) when Python is compiled with NSMALLPOSINTS = 0.

bpo-27080 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27080]: Implement formatting support for PEP 515 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0515/]. Initial patch by Chris Angelico.

bpo-27199 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27199]: In tarfile, expose copyfileobj bufsize to improve throughput. Patch by Jason Fried.

bpo-27948 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27948]: In f-strings, only allow backslashes inside the braces (where the expressions are). This is a breaking change from the 3.6 alpha releases, where backslashes are allowed anywhere in an f-string. Also, require that expressions inside f-strings be enclosed within literal braces, and not escapes like f'\x7b"hi"\x7d'.

bpo-28046 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28046]: Remove platform-specific directories from sys.path.

bpo-28071 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28071]: Add early-out for differencing from an empty set.

bpo-25758 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25758]: Prevents zipimport from unnecessarily encoding a filename (patch by Eryk Sun)

bpo-25856 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25856]: The __module__ attribute of extension classes and functions now is interned. This leads to more compact pickle data with protocol 4.

bpo-27213 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27213]: Rework CALL_FUNCTION* opcodes to produce shorter and more efficient bytecode. Patch by Demur Rumed, design by Serhiy Storchaka, reviewed by Serhiy Storchaka and Victor Stinner.

bpo-26331 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26331]: Implement tokenizing support for PEP 515 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0515/]. Patch by Georg Brandl.

bpo-27999 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27999]: Make "global after use" a SyntaxError, and ditto for nonlocal. Patch by Ivan Levkivskyi.

bpo-28003 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28003]: Implement PEP 525 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/] -- Asynchronous Generators.

bpo-27985 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27985]: Implement PEP 526 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/] -- Syntax for Variable Annotations. Patch by Ivan Levkivskyi.

bpo-26058 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26058]: Add a new private version to the builtin dict type, incremented at each dictionary creation and at each dictionary change. Implementation of the PEP 509.

bpo-27364 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27364]: A backslash-character pair that is not a valid escape sequence now generates a DeprecationWarning. Patch by Emanuel Barry.

bpo-27350 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27350]: dict implementation is changed like PyPy. It is more compact and preserves insertion order. (Concept developed by Raymond Hettinger and patch by Inada Naoki.)

bpo-27911 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27911]: Remove unnecessary error checks in exec_builtin_or_dynamic().

bpo-27078 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27078]: Added BUILD_STRING opcode. Optimized f-strings evaluation.

bpo-17884 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17884]: Python now requires systems with inttypes.h and stdint.h

bpo-27961 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27961]: Require platforms to support long long. Python hasn't compiled without long long for years, so this is basically a formality.

bpo-27355 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27355]: Removed support for Windows CE. It was never finished, and Windows CE is no longer a relevant platform for Python.

Implement PEP 523 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/].

bpo-27870 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27870]: A left shift of zero by a large integer no longer attempts to allocate large amounts of memory.

bpo-25402 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25402]: In int-to-decimal-string conversion, improve the estimate of the intermediate memory required, and remove an unnecessarily strict overflow check. Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

bpo-27214 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27214]: In long_invert, be more careful about modifying object returned by long_add, and remove an unnecessary check for small longs. Thanks Oren Milman for analysis and patch.

bpo-27506 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27506]: Support passing the bytes/bytearray.translate() "delete" argument by keyword.

bpo-27812 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27812]: Properly clear out a generator's frame's backreference to the generator to prevent crashes in frame.clear().

bpo-27811 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27811]: Fix a crash when a coroutine that has not been awaited is finalized with warnings-as-errors enabled.

bpo-27587 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27587]: Fix another issue found by PVS-Studio: Null pointer check after use of 'def' in _PyState_AddModule(). Initial patch by Christian Heimes.

bpo-27792 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27792]: The modulo operation applied to bool and other int subclasses now always returns an int. Previously the return type depended on the input values. Patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-26984 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26984]: int() now always returns an instance of exact int.

bpo-25604 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25604]: Fix a minor bug in integer true division; this bug could potentially have caused off-by-one-ulp results on platforms with unreliable ldexp implementations.

bpo-24254 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24254]: Make class definition namespace ordered by default.

bpo-27662 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27662]: Fix an overflow check in List_New: the original code was checking against Py_SIZE_MAX instead of the correct upper bound of Py_SSIZE_T_MAX. Patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-27782 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27782]: Multi-phase extension module import now correctly allows the m_methods field to be used to add module level functions to instances of non-module types returned from Py_create_mod. Patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-27936 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27936]: The round() function accepted a second None argument for some types but not for others. Fixed the inconsistency by accepting None for all numeric types.

bpo-27487 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27487]: Warn if a submodule argument to "python -m" or runpy.run_module() is found in sys.modules after parent packages are imported, but before the submodule is executed.

bpo-27157 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27157]: Make only type() itself accept the one-argument form. Patch by Eryk Sun and Emanuel Barry.

bpo-27558 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27558]: Fix a SystemError in the implementation of "raise" statement. In a brand new thread, raise a RuntimeError since there is no active exception to reraise. Patch written by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-28008 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28008]: Implement PEP 530 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0530/] -- asynchronous comprehensions.

bpo-27942 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27942]: Fix memory leak in codeobject.c

Library

bpo-28732 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28732]: Fix crash in os.spawnv() with no elements in args

bpo-28485 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28485]: Always raise ValueError for negative compileall.compile_dir(workers=...) parameter, even when multithreading is unavailable.

bpo-28037 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28037]: Use sqlite3_get_autocommit() instead of setting Connection->inTransaction manually.

bpo-25283 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25283]: Attributes tm_gmtoff and tm_zone are now available on all platforms in the return values of time.localtime() and time.gmtime().

bpo-24454 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24454]: Regular expression match object groups are now accessible using __getitem__. "mo[x]" is equivalent to "mo.group(x)".

bpo-10740 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10740]: sqlite3 no longer implicitly commit an open transaction before DDL statements.

bpo-17941 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17941]: Add a module parameter to collections.namedtuple().

bpo-22493 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22493]: Inline flags now should be used only at the start of the regular expression. Deprecation warning is emitted if uses them in the middle of the regular expression.

bpo-26885 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26885]: xmlrpc now supports unmarshalling additional data types used by Apache XML-RPC implementation for numerics and None.

bpo-28070 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28070]: Fixed parsing inline verbose flag in regular expressions.

bpo-19500 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19500]: Add client-side SSL session resumption to the ssl module.

bpo-28022 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28022]: Deprecate ssl-related arguments in favor of SSLContext. The deprecation include manual creation of SSLSocket and certfile/keyfile (or similar) in ftplib, httplib, imaplib, smtplib, poplib and urllib.

bpo-28043 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28043]: SSLContext has improved default settings: OP_NO_SSLv2, OP_NO_SSLv3, OP_NO_COMPRESSION, OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE, OP_SINGLE_DH_USE, OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE and HIGH ciphers without MD5.

bpo-24693 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24693]: Changed some RuntimeError's in the zipfile module to more appropriate types. Improved some error messages and debugging output.

bpo-17909 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17909]: json.load and json.loads now support binary input encoded as UTF-8, UTF-16 or UTF-32. Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

bpo-27137 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27137]: the pure Python fallback implementation of functools.partial now matches the behaviour of its accelerated C counterpart for subclassing, pickling and text representation purposes. Patch by Emanuel Barry and Serhiy Storchaka.

Fix possible integer overflows and crashes in the mmap module with unusual usage patterns.

bpo-1703178 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1703178]: Fix the ability to pass the --link-objects option to the distutils build_ext command.

bpo-28019 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28019]: itertools.count() no longer rounds non-integer step in range between 1.0 and 2.0 to 1.

bpo-18401 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18401]: Pdb now supports the 'readrc' keyword argument to control whether .pdbrc files should be read. Patch by Martin Matusiak and Sam Kimbrel.

bpo-25969 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25969]: Update the lib2to3 grammar to handle the unpacking generalizations added in 3.5.

bpo-14977 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14977]: mailcap now respects the order of the lines in the mailcap files ("first match"), as required by RFC 1542. Patch by Michael Lazar.

bpo-28082 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28082]: Convert re flag constants to IntFlag.

bpo-28025 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28025]: Convert all ssl module constants to IntEnum and IntFlags. SSLContext properties now return flags and enums.

bpo-23591 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23591]: Add Flag, IntFlag, and auto() to enum module.

bpo-433028 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=433028]: Added support of modifier spans in regular expressions.

bpo-24594 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24594]: Validates persist parameter when opening MSI database

bpo-17582 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17582]: xml.etree.ElementTree nows preserves whitespaces in attributes (Patch by Duane Griffin. Reviewed and approved by Stefan Behnel.)

bpo-28047 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28047]: Fixed calculation of line length used for the base64 CTE in the new email policies.

bpo-27576 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27576]: Fix call order in OrderedDict.__init__().

email.generator.DecodedGenerator now supports the policy keyword.

bpo-28027 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28027]: Remove undocumented modules from Lib/plat-*: IN, CDROM, DLFCN, TYPES, CDIO, and STROPTS.

bpo-27445 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27445]: Don't pass str(_charset) to MIMEText.set_payload(). Patch by Claude Paroz.

bpo-24277 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24277]: The new email API is no longer provisional, and the docs have been reorganized and rewritten to emphasize the new API.

bpo-22450 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22450]: urllib now includes an Accept: */* header among the default headers. This makes the results of REST API requests more consistent and predictable especially when proxy servers are involved.

lib2to3.pgen3.driver.load_grammar() now creates a stable cache file between runs given the same Grammar.txt input regardless of the hash randomization setting.

bpo-28005 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28005]: Allow ImportErrors in encoding implementation to propagate.

bpo-26667 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26667]: Support path-like objects in importlib.util.

bpo-27570 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27570]: Avoid zero-length memcpy() etc calls with null source pointers in the "ctypes" and "array" modules.

bpo-22233 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22233]: Break email header lines only on the RFC specified CR and LF characters, not on arbitrary unicode line breaks. This also fixes a bug in HTTP header parsing.

bpo-27331 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27331]: The email.mime classes now all accept an optional policy keyword.

bpo-27988 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27988]: Fix email iter_attachments incorrect mutation of payload list.

bpo-16113 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16113]: Add SHA-3 and SHAKE support to hashlib module.

Eliminate a tautological-pointer-compare warning in _scproxy.c.

bpo-27776 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27776]: The os.urandom() function does now block on Linux 3.17 and newer until the system urandom entropy pool is initialized to increase the security. This change is part of the PEP 524 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0524/].

bpo-27778 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27778]: Expose the Linux getrandom() syscall as a new os.getrandom() function. This change is part of the PEP 524 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0524/].

bpo-27691 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27691]: Fix ssl module's parsing of GEN_RID subject alternative name fields in X.509 certs.

bpo-18844 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18844]: Add random.choices().

bpo-25761 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25761]: Improved error reporting about truncated pickle data in C implementation of unpickler. UnpicklingError is now raised instead of AttributeError and ValueError in some cases.

bpo-26798 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26798]: Add BLAKE2 (blake2b and blake2s) to hashlib.

bpo-26032 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26032]: Optimized globbing in pathlib by using os.scandir(); it is now about 1.5--4 times faster.

bpo-25596 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25596]: Optimized glob() and iglob() functions in the glob module; they are now about 3--6 times faster.

bpo-27928 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27928]: Add scrypt (password-based key derivation function) to hashlib module (requires OpenSSL 1.1.0).

bpo-27850 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27850]: Remove 3DES from ssl module's default cipher list to counter measure sweet32 attack (CVE 2016-2183 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-2183]).

bpo-27766 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27766]: Add ChaCha20 Poly1305 to ssl module's default cipher list. (Required OpenSSL 1.1.0 or LibreSSL).

bpo-25387 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25387]: Check return value of winsound.MessageBeep.

bpo-27866 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27866]: Add SSLContext.get_ciphers() method to get a list of all enabled ciphers.

bpo-27744 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27744]: Add AF_ALG (Linux Kernel crypto) to socket module.

bpo-26470 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26470]: Port ssl and hashlib module to OpenSSL 1.1.0.

bpo-11620 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11620]: Fix support for SND_MEMORY in winsound.PlaySound. Based on a patch by Tim Lesher.

bpo-11734 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11734]: Add support for IEEE 754 half-precision floats to the struct module. Based on a patch by Eli Stevens.

bpo-27919 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27919]: Deprecated extra_path distribution option in distutils packaging.

bpo-23229 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23229]: Add new cmath constants: cmath.inf and cmath.nan to match math.inf and math.nan, and also cmath.infj and cmath.nanj to match the format used by complex repr.

bpo-27842 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27842]: The csv.DictReader now returns rows of type OrderedDict. (Contributed by Steve Holden.)

Remove support for passing a file descriptor to os.access. It never worked but previously didn't raise.

bpo-12885 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12885]: Fix error when distutils encounters symlink.

bpo-27881 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27881]: Fixed possible bugs when setting sqlite3.Connection.isolation_level. Based on patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-27861 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27861]: Fixed a crash in sqlite3.Connection.cursor() when a factory creates not a cursor. Patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-19884 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19884]: Avoid spurious output on OS X with Gnu Readline.

bpo-27706 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27706]: Restore deterministic behavior of random.Random().seed() for string seeds using seeding version 1. Allows sequences of calls to random() to exactly match those obtained in Python 2. Patch by Nofar Schnider.

bpo-10513 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10513]: Fix a regression in Connection.commit(). Statements should not be reset after a commit.

bpo-12319 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12319]: Chunked transfer encoding support added to http.client.HTTPConnection requests. The urllib.request.AbstractHTTPHandler class does not enforce a Content-Length header any more. If a HTTP request has a file or iterable body, but no Content-Length header, the library now falls back to use chunked transfer-encoding.

A new version of typing.py from https://github.com/python/typing: - Collection (only for 3.6) (bpo-27598 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27598]) - Add FrozenSet to __all__ (upstream #261) - fix crash in _get_type_vars() (upstream #259) - Remove the dict constraint in ForwardRef._eval_type (upstream #252)

bpo-27832 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27832]: Make _normalize parameter to Fraction constructor keyword-only, so that Fraction(2, 3, 4) now raises TypeError.

bpo-27539 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27539]: Fix unnormalised Fraction.__pow__ result in the case of negative exponent and negative base.

bpo-21718 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21718]: cursor.description is now available for queries using CTEs.

bpo-27819 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27819]: In distutils sdists, simply produce the "gztar" (gzipped tar format) distributions on all platforms unless "formats" is supplied.

bpo-2466 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2466]: posixpath.ismount now correctly recognizes mount points which the user does not have permission to access.

bpo-9998 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9998]: On Linux, ctypes.util.find_library now looks in LD_LIBRARY_PATH for shared libraries.

bpo-27573 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27573]: exit message for code.interact is now configurable.

bpo-27930 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27930]: Improved behaviour of logging.handlers.QueueListener. Thanks to Paulo Andrade and Petr Viktorin for the analysis and patch.

bpo-6766 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6766]: Distributed reference counting added to multiprocessing to support nesting of shared values / proxy objects.

bpo-21201 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21201]: Improves readability of multiprocessing error message. Thanks to Wojciech Walczak for patch.

asyncio: Add set_protocol / get_protocol to Transports.

bpo-27456 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27456]: asyncio: Set TCP_NODELAY by default.

IDLE

bpo-15308 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15308]: Add 'interrupt execution' (^C) to Shell menu. Patch by Roger Serwy, updated by Bayard Randel.

bpo-27922 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27922]: Stop IDLE tests from 'flashing' gui widgets on the screen.

bpo-27891 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27891]: Consistently group and sort imports within idlelib modules.

bpo-17642 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17642]: add larger font sizes for classroom projection.

Add version to title of IDLE help window.

bpo-25564 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25564]: In section on IDLE -- console differences, mention that using exec means that __builtins__ is defined for each statement.

bpo-27821 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27821]: Fix 3.6.0a3 regression that prevented custom key sets from being selected when no custom theme was defined.

C API

bpo-26900 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26900]: Excluded underscored names and other private API from limited API.

bpo-26027 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26027]: Add support for path-like objects in PyUnicode_FSConverter() & PyUnicode_FSDecoder().

Tests

bpo-27427 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27427]: Additional tests for the math module. Patch by Francisco Couzo.

bpo-27953 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27953]: Skip math and cmath tests that fail on OS X 10.4 due to a poor libm implementation of tan.

bpo-26040 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26040]: Improve test_math and test_cmath coverage and rigour. Patch by Jeff Allen.

bpo-27787 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27787]: Call gc.collect() before checking each test for "dangling threads", since the dangling threads are weak references.

Build

bpo-27566 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27566]: Fix clean target in freeze makefile (patch by Lisa Roach)

bpo-27705 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27705]: Update message in validate_ucrtbase.py

bpo-27976 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27976]: Deprecate building _ctypes with the bundled copy of libffi on non-OSX UNIX platforms.

bpo-27983 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27983]: Cause lack of llvm-profdata tool when using clang as required for PGO linking to be a configure time error rather than make time when --with-optimizations is enabled. Also improve our ability to find the llvm-profdata tool on MacOS and some Linuxes.

bpo-21590 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21590]: Support for DTrace and SystemTap probes.

bpo-26307 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26307]: The profile-opt build now applies PGO to the built-in modules.

bpo-26359 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26359]: Add the --with-optimizations flag to turn on LTO and PGO build support when available.

bpo-27917 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27917]: Set platform triplets for Android builds.

bpo-25825 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25825]: Update references to the $(LIBPL) installation path on AIX. This path was changed in 3.2a4.

Update OS X installer to use SQLite 3.14.1 and XZ 5.2.2.

bpo-21122 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21122]: Fix LTO builds on OS X.

bpo-17128 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17128]: Build OS X installer with a private copy of OpenSSL. Also provide a sample Install Certificates command script to install a set of root certificates from the third-party certifi module.

Tools/Demos

bpo-27952 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27952]: Get Tools/scripts/fixcid.py working with Python 3 and the current "re" module, avoid invalid Python backslash escapes, and fix a bug parsing escaped C quote signs.

Windows

bpo-28065 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28065]: Update xz dependency to 5.2.2 and build it from source.

bpo-25144 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25144]: Ensures TargetDir is set before continuing with custom install.

bpo-1602 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1602]: Windows console doesn't input or print Unicode (PEP 528)

bpo-27781 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27781]: Change file system encoding on Windows to UTF-8 (PEP 529)

bpo-27731 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27731]: Opt-out of MAX_PATH on Windows 10

bpo-6135 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6135]: Adds encoding and errors parameters to subprocess.

bpo-27959 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27959]: Adds oem encoding, alias ansi to mbcs, move aliasmbcs to codec lookup.

bpo-27982 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27982]: The functions of the winsound module now accept keyword arguments.

bpo-20366 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20366]: Build full text search support into SQLite on Windows.

bpo-27756 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27756]: Adds new icons for Python files and processes on Windows. Designs by Cherry Wang.

bpo-27883 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27883]: Update sqlite to 3.14.1.0 on Windows.

Python 3.6.0 alpha 4

Release date: 2016-08-15

Core and Builtins

bpo-27704 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27704]: Optimized creating bytes and bytearray from byte-like objects and iterables. Speed up to 3 times for short objects. Original patch by Naoki Inada.

bpo-26823 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26823]: Large sections of repeated lines in tracebacks are now abbreviated as "[Previous line repeated {count} more times]" by the builtin traceback rendering. Patch by Emanuel Barry.

bpo-27574 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27574]: Decreased an overhead of parsing keyword arguments in functions implemented with using Argument Clinic.

bpo-22557 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22557]: Now importing already imported modules is up to 2.5 times faster.

bpo-17596 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17596]: Include <wincrypt.h> to help with Min GW building.

bpo-17599 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17599]: On Windows, rename the privately defined REPARSE_DATA_BUFFER structure to avoid conflicting with the definition from Min GW.

bpo-27507 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27507]: Add integer overflow check in bytearray.extend(). Patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-27581 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27581]: Don't rely on wrapping for overflow check in PySequence_Tuple(). Patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-1621 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1621]: Avoid signed integer overflow in list and tuple operations. Patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-27419 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27419]: Standard __import__() no longer look up "__import__" in globals or builtins for importing submodules or "from import". Fixed a crash if raise a warning about unabling to resolve package from __spec__ or __package__.

bpo-27083 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27083]: Respect the PYTHONCASEOK environment variable under Windows.

bpo-27514 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27514]: Make having too many statically nested blocks a SyntaxError instead of SystemError.

bpo-27366 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27366]: Implemented PEP 487 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0487/] (Simpler customization of class creation). Upon subclassing, the __init_subclass__ classmethod is called on the base class. Descriptors are initialized with __set_name__ after class creation.

Library

bpo-26027 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26027]: Add PEP 519 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/]/__fspath__() support to the os and os.path modules. Includes code from Jelle Zijlstra. (See also: bpo-27524 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27524])

bpo-27598 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27598]: Add Collections to collections.abc. Patch by Ivan Levkivskyi, docs by Neil Girdhar.

bpo-25958 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25958]: Support "anti-registration" of special methods from various ABCs, like __hash__, __iter__ or __len__. All these (and several more) can be set to None in an implementation class and the behavior will be as if the method is not defined at all. (Previously, this mechanism existed only for __hash__, to make mutable classes unhashable.) Code contributed by Andrew Barnert and Ivan Levkivskyi.

bpo-16764 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16764]: Support keyword arguments to zlib.decompress(). Patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-27736 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27736]: Prevent segfault after interpreter re-initialization due to ref count problem introduced in code for bpo-27038 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27038] in 3.6.0a3. Patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-25628 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25628]: The verbose and rename parameters for collections.namedtuple are now keyword-only.

bpo-12345 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12345]: Add mathematical constant tau to math and cmath. See also PEP 628 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0628/].

bpo-26823 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26823]: traceback.StackSummary.format now abbreviates large sections of repeated lines as "[Previous line repeated {count} more times]" (this change then further affects other traceback display operations in the module). Patch by Emanuel Barry.

bpo-27664 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27664]: Add to concurrent.futures.thread.ThreadPoolExecutor() the ability to specify a thread name prefix.

bpo-27181 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27181]: Add geometric_mean and harmonic_mean to statistics module.

bpo-27573 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27573]: code.interact now prints an message when exiting.

bpo-6422 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6422]: Add autorange method to timeit.Timer objects.

bpo-27773 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27773]: Correct some memory management errors server_hostname in _ssl.wrap_socket().

bpo-26750 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26750]: unittest.mock.create_autospec() now works properly for subclasses of property() and other data descriptors. Removes the never publicly used, never documented unittest.mock.DescriptorTypes tuple.

bpo-26754 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26754]: Undocumented support of general bytes-like objects as path in compile() and similar functions is now deprecated.

bpo-26800 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26800]: Undocumented support of general bytes-like objects as paths in os functions is now deprecated.

bpo-26981 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26981]: Add _order_ compatibility shim to enum.Enum for Python 2/3 code bases.

bpo-27661 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27661]: Added tzinfo keyword argument to datetime.combine.

In the curses module, raise an error if window.getstr() or window.instr() is passed a negative value.

bpo-27783 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27783]: Fix possible usage of uninitialized memory in operator.methodcaller.

bpo-27774 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27774]: Fix possible Py_DECREF on unowned object in _sre.

bpo-27760 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27760]: Fix possible integer overflow in binascii.b2a_qp.

bpo-27758 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27758]: Fix possible integer overflow in the _csv module for large record lengths.

bpo-27568 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27568]: Prevent HTTPoxy attack (CVE 2016-1000110 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-1000110]). Ignore the HTTP_PROXY variable when REQUEST_METHOD environment is set, which indicates that the script is in CGI mode.

bpo-7063 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7063]: Remove dead code from the "array" module's slice handling. Patch by Chuck.

bpo-27656 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27656]: Do not assume sched.h defines any SCHED_* constants.

bpo-27130 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27130]: In the "zlib" module, fix handling of large buffers (typically 4 GiB) when compressing and decompressing. Previously, inputs were limited to 4 GiB, and compression and decompression operations did not properly handle results of 4 GiB.

bpo-24773 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24773]: Implemented PEP 495 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0495/] (Local Time Disambiguation).

Expose the EPOLLEXCLUSIVE constant (when it is defined) in the select module.

bpo-27567 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27567]: Expose the EPOLLRDHUP and POLLRDHUP constants in the select module.

bpo-1621 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1621]: Avoid signed int negation overflow in the "audioop" module.

bpo-27533 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27533]: Release GIL in nt._isdir

bpo-17711 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17711]: Fixed unpickling by the persistent ID with protocol 0. Original patch by Alexandre Vassalotti.

bpo-27522 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27522]: Avoid an unintentional reference cycle in email.feedparser.

bpo-27512 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27512]: Fix a segfault when os.fspath() called an __fspath__() method that raised an exception. Patch by Xiang Zhang.

IDLE

bpo-27714 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27714]: text_textview and test_autocomplete now pass when re-run in the same process. This occurs when test_idle fails when run with the -w option but without -jn. Fix warning from test_config.

bpo-27621 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27621]: Put query response validation error messages in the query box itself instead of in a separate messagebox. Redo tests to match. Add Mac OSX refinements. Original patch by Mark Roseman.

bpo-27620 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27620]: Escape key now closes Query box as cancelled.

bpo-27609 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27609]: IDLE: tab after initial whitespace should tab, not autocomplete. This fixes problem with writing docstrings at least twice indented.

bpo-27609 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27609]: Explicitly return None when there are also non-None returns. In a few cases, reverse a condition and eliminate a return.

bpo-25507 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25507]: IDLE no longer runs buggy code because of its tkinter imports. Users must include the same imports required to run directly in Python.

bpo-27173 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27173]: Add 'IDLE Modern Unix' to the built-in key sets. Make the default key set depend on the platform. Add tests for the changes to the config module.

bpo-27452 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27452]: add line counter and crc to IDLE configHandler test dump.

Tests

bpo-25805 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25805]: Skip a test in test_pkgutil as needed that doesn't work when __name__ == __main__. Patch by SilentGhost.

bpo-27472 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27472]: Add test.support.unix_shell as the path to the default shell.

bpo-27369 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27369]: In test_pyexpat, avoid testing an error message detail that changed in Expat 2.2.0.

bpo-27594 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27594]: Prevent assertion error when running test_ast with coverage enabled: ensure code object has a valid first line number. Patch suggested by Ivan Levkivskyi.

Windows

bpo-27647 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27647]: Update bundled Tcl/Tk to 8.6.6.

bpo-27610 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27610]: Adds PEP 514 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0514/] metadata to Windows installer

bpo-27469 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27469]: Adds a shell extension to the launcher so that drag and drop works correctly.

bpo-27309 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27309]: Enables proper Windows styles in python[w].exe manifest.

Build

bpo-27713 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27713]: Suppress spurious build warnings when updating importlib's bootstrap files. Patch by Xiang Zhang

bpo-25825 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25825]: Correct the references to Modules/python.exp, which is required on AIX. The references were accidentally changed in 3.5.0a1.

bpo-27453 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27453]: CPP invocation in configure must use CPPFLAGS. Patch by Chi Hsuan Yen.

bpo-27641 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27641]: The configure script now inserts comments into the makefile to prevent the pgen and _freeze_importlib executables from being cross-compiled.

bpo-26662 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26662]: Set PYTHON_FOR_GEN in configure as the Python program to be used for file generation during the build.

bpo-10910 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10910]: Avoid C++ compilation errors on FreeBSD and OS X. Also update FreedBSD version checks for the original ctype UTF-8 workaround.

Python 3.6.0 alpha 3

Release date: 2016-07-11

Security

bpo-27278 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27278]: Fix os.urandom() implementation using getrandom() on Linux. Truncate size to INT_MAX and loop until we collected enough random bytes, instead of casting a directly Py_ssize_t to int.

bpo-22636 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22636]: Avoid shell injection problems with ctypes.util.find_library().

Core and Builtins

bpo-27473 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27473]: Fixed possible integer overflow in bytes and bytearray concatenations. Patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-23034 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23034]: The output of a special Python build with defined COUNT_ALLOCS, SHOW_ALLOC_COUNT or SHOW_TRACK_COUNT macros is now off by default. It can be re-enabled using the "-X showalloccount" option. It now outputs to stderr instead of stdout.

bpo-27443 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27443]: __length_hint__() of bytearray iterators no longer return a negative integer for a resized bytearray.

bpo-27007 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27007]: The fromhex() class methods of bytes and bytearray subclasses now return an instance of corresponding subclass.

Library

bpo-26844 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26844]: Fix error message for imp.find_module() to refer to 'path' instead of 'name'. Patch by Lev Maximov.

bpo-23804 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23804]: Fix SSL zero-length recv() calls to not block and not raise an error about unclean EOF.

bpo-27466 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27466]: Change time format returned by http.cookie.time2netscape, confirming the netscape cookie format and making it consistent with documentation.

bpo-21708 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21708]: Deprecated dbm.dumb behavior that differs from common dbm behavior: creating a database in 'r' and 'w' modes and modifying a database in 'r' mode.

bpo-26721 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26721]: Change the socketserver.StreamRequestHandler.wfile attribute to implement BufferedIOBase. In particular, the write() method no longer does partial writes.

bpo-22115 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22115]: Added methods trace_add, trace_remove and trace_info in the tkinter.Variable class. They replace old methods trace_variable, trace, trace_vdelete and trace_vinfo that use obsolete Tcl commands and might not work in future versions of Tcl. Fixed old tracing methods: trace_vdelete() with wrong mode no longer break tracing, trace_vinfo() now always returns a list of pairs of strings, tracing in the "u" mode now works.

bpo-26243 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26243]: Only the level argument to zlib.compress() is keyword argument now. The first argument is positional-only.

bpo-27038 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27038]: Expose the DirEntry type as os.DirEntry. Code patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

bpo-27186 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186]: Update os.fspath()/PyOS_FSPath() to check the return value of __fspath__() to be either str or bytes.

bpo-18726 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18726]: All optional parameters of the dump(), dumps(), load() and loads() functions and JSONEncoder and JSONDecoder class constructors in the json module are now keyword-only.

bpo-27319 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27319]: Methods selection_set(), selection_add(), selection_remove() and selection_toggle() of ttk.TreeView now allow passing multiple items as multiple arguments instead of passing them as a tuple. Deprecated undocumented ability of calling the selection() method with arguments.

bpo-27079 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27079]: Fixed curses.ascii functions isblank(), iscntrl() and ispunct().

bpo-27294 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27294]: Numerical state in the repr for Tkinter event objects is now represented as a combination of known flags.

bpo-27177 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27177]: Match objects in the re module now support index-like objects as group indices. Based on patches by Jeroen Demeyer and Xiang Zhang.

bpo-26754 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26754]: Some functions (compile() etc) accepted a filename argument encoded as an iterable of integers. Now only strings and byte-like objects are accepted.

bpo-26536 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26536]: socket.ioctl now supports SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH. Patch by Daniel Stokes.

bpo-27048 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27048]: Prevents distutils failing on Windows when environment variables contain non-ASCII characters

bpo-27330 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27330]: Fixed possible leaks in the ctypes module.

bpo-27238 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27238]: Got rid of bare excepts in the turtle module. Original patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

bpo-27122 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27122]: When an exception is raised within the context being managed by a contextlib.ExitStack() and one of the exit stack generators catches and raises it in a chain, do not re-raise the original exception when exiting, let the new chained one through. This avoids the PEP 479 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/] bug described in issue25782.

bpo-16864 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16864]: sqlite3.Cursor.lastrowid now supports REPLACE statement. Initial patch by Alex LordThorsen.

bpo-26386 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26386]: Fixed ttk.TreeView selection operations with item id's containing spaces.

bpo-8637 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8637]: Honor a pager set by the env var MANPAGER (in preference to one set by the env var PAGER).

bpo-16182 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16182]: Fix various functions in the "readline" module to use the locale encoding, and fix get_begidx() and get_endidx() to return code point indexes.

bpo-27392 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27392]: Add loop.connect_accepted_socket(). Patch by Jim Fulton.

IDLE

bpo-27477 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27477]: IDLE search dialogs now use ttk widgets.

bpo-27173 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27173]: Add 'IDLE Modern Unix' to the built-in key sets. Make the default key set depend on the platform. Add tests for the changes to the config module.

bpo-27452 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27452]: make command line "idle-test> python test_help.py" work. __file__ is relative when python is started in the file's directory.

bpo-27452 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27452]: add line counter and crc to IDLE configHandler test dump.

bpo-27380 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27380]: IDLE: add query.py with base Query dialog and ttk widgets. Module had subclasses SectionName, ModuleName, and HelpSource, which are used to get information from users by configdialog and file =>Load Module. Each subclass has itw own validity checks. Using ModuleName allows users to edit bad module names instead of starting over. Add tests and delete the two files combined into the new one.

bpo-27372 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27372]: Test_idle no longer changes the locale.

bpo-27365 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27365]: Allow non-ascii chars in IDLE NEWS.txt, for contributor names.

bpo-27245 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27245]: IDLE: Cleanly delete custom themes and key bindings. Previously, when IDLE was started from a console or by import, a cascade of warnings was emitted. Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

bpo-24137 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24137]: Run IDLE, test_idle, and htest with tkinter default root disabled. Fix code and tests that fail with this restriction. Fix htests to not create a second and redundant root and mainloop.

bpo-27310 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27310]: Fix IDLE.app failure to launch on OS X due to vestigial import.

C API

bpo-26754 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26754]: PyUnicode_FSDecoder() accepted a filename argument encoded as an iterable of integers. Now only strings and byte-like objects are accepted.

Build

bpo-28066 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28066]: Fix the logic that searches build directories for generated include files when building outside the source tree.

bpo-27442 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27442]: Expose the Android API level that python was built against, in sysconfig.get_config_vars() as 'ANDROID_API_LEVEL'.

bpo-27434 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27434]: The interpreter that runs the cross-build, found in PATH, must now be of the same feature version (e.g. 3.6) as the source being built.

bpo-26930 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26930]: Update Windows builds to use OpenSSL 1.0.2h.

bpo-23968 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23968]: Rename the platform directory from plat-$(MACHDEP) to plat-$(PLATFORM_TRIPLET). Rename the config directory (LIBPL) from config-$(LDVERSION) to config-$(LDVERSION)-$(PLATFORM_TRIPLET). Install the platform specific _sysconfigdata module into the platform directory and rename it to include the ABIFLAGS.

Don't use largefile support for GNU/Hurd.

Tools/Demos

bpo-27332 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27332]: Fixed the type of the first argument of module-level functions generated by Argument Clinic. Patch by Petr Viktorin.

bpo-27418 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27418]: Fixed Tools/importbench/importbench.py.

Documentation

bpo-19489 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19489]: Moved the search box from the sidebar to the header and footer of each page. Patch by Ammar Askar.

bpo-27285 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27285]: Update documentation to reflect the deprecation of pyvenv and normalize on the term "virtual environment". Patch by Steve Piercy.

Tests

bpo-27027 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27027]: Added test.support.is_android that is True when this is an Android build.

Python 3.6.0 alpha 2

Release date: 2016-06-13

Security

bpo-26556 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26556]: Update expat to 2.1.1, fixes CVE 2015-1283 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2015-1283].

Fix TLS stripping vulnerability in smtplib, CVE 2016-0772 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0772]. Reported by Team Oststrom.

bpo-26839 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26839]: On Linux, os.urandom() now calls getrandom() with GRND_NONBLOCK to fall back on reading /dev/urandom if the urandom entropy pool is not initialized yet. Patch written by Colm Buckley.

Core and Builtins

bpo-27095 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27095]: Simplified MAKE_FUNCTION and removed MAKE_CLOSURE opcodes. Patch by Demur Rumed.

bpo-27190 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27190]: Raise NotSupportedError if sqlite3 is older than 3.3.1. Patch by Dave Sawyer.

bpo-27286 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27286]: Fixed compiling BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL opcode. Calling function with generalized unpacking (PEP 448) and conflicting keyword names could cause undefined behavior.

bpo-27140 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27140]: Added BUILD_CONST_KEY_MAP opcode.

bpo-27186 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186]: Add support for os.PathLike objects to open() (part of PEP 519 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/]).

bpo-27066 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27066]: Fixed SystemError if a custom opener (for open()) returns a negative number without setting an exception.

bpo-26983 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26983]: float() now always return an instance of exact float. The deprecation warning is emitted if __float__ returns an instance of a strict subclass of float. In a future versions of Python this can be an error.

bpo-27097 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27097]: Python interpreter is now about 7% faster due to optimized instruction decoding. Based on patch by Demur Rumed.

bpo-26647 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26647]: Python interpreter now uses 16-bit wordcode instead of bytecode. Patch by Demur Rumed.

bpo-23275 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23275]: Allow assigning to an empty target list in round brackets: () = iterable.

bpo-27243 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27243]: Update the __aiter__ protocol: instead of returning an awaitable that resolves to an asynchronous iterator, the asynchronous iterator should be returned directly. Doing the former will trigger a PendingDeprecationWarning.

Library

Comment out socket (SO_REUSEPORT) and posix (O_SHLOCK, O_EXLOCK) constants exposed on the API which are not implemented on GNU/Hurd. They would not work at runtime anyway.

bpo-27025 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27025]: Generated names for Tkinter widgets are now more meaningful and recognizable.

bpo-25455 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25455]: Fixed crashes in repr of recursive ElementTree.Element and functools.partial objects.

bpo-27294 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27294]: Improved repr for Tkinter event objects.

bpo-20508 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20508]: Improve exception message of IPv{4,6}Network.__getitem__. Patch by Gareth Rees.

bpo-21386 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21386]: Implement missing IPv4Address.is_global property. It was documented since 07a5610bae9d. Initial patch by Roger Luethi.

bpo-27029 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27029]: Removed deprecated support of universal newlines mode from ZipFile.open().

bpo-27030 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27030]: Unknown escapes consisting of '\' and an ASCII letter in regular expressions now are errors. The re.LOCALE flag now can be used only with bytes patterns.

bpo-27186 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186]: Add os.PathLike support to DirEntry (part of PEP 519 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/]). Initial patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

bpo-20900 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20900]: distutils register command now decodes HTTP responses correctly. Initial patch by ingrid.

bpo-27186 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186]: Add os.PathLike support to pathlib, removing its provisional status (part of PEP 519). Initial patch by Dusty Phillips.

bpo-27186 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186]: Add support for os.PathLike objects to os.fsencode() and os.fsdecode() (part of PEP 519 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/]).

bpo-27186 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186]: Introduce os.PathLike and os.fspath() (part of PEP 519 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/]).

A new version of typing.py provides several new classes and features: @overload outside stubs, Reversible, DefaultDict, Text, ContextManager, Type[], NewType(), TYPE_CHECKING, and numerous bug fixes (note that some of the new features are not yet implemented in mypy or other static analyzers). Also classes for PEP 492 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/] (Awaitable, AsyncIterable, AsyncIterator) have been added (in fact they made it into 3.5.1 but were never mentioned).

bpo-25738 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25738]: Stop http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_error() from sending a message body for 205 Reset Content. Also, don't send Content header fields in responses that don't have a body. Patch by Susumu Koshiba.

bpo-21313 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21313]: Fix the "platform" module to tolerate when sys.version contains truncated build information.

bpo-23883 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23883]: Added missing APIs to __all__ to match the documented APIs for the following modules: cgi, mailbox, mimetypes, plistlib and smtpd. Patches by Jacek Kołodziej.

bpo-27164 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27164]: In the zlib module, allow decompressing raw Deflate streams with a predefined zdict. Based on patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-24291 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24291]: Fix wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler to completely write data to the client. Previously it could do partial writes and truncate data. Also, wsgiref.handler.ServerHandler can now handle stdout doing partial writes, but this is deprecated.

bpo-21272 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21272]: Use _sysconfigdata.py to initialize distutils.sysconfig.

bpo-19611 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19611]: inspect now reports the implicit .0 parameters generated by the compiler for comprehension and generator expression scopes as if they were positional-only parameters called implicit0. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

bpo-26809 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26809]: Add __all__ to string. Patch by Emanuel Barry.

bpo-26373 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26373]: subprocess.Popen.communicate now correctly ignores BrokenPipeError when the child process dies before .communicate() is called in more/all circumstances.

signal, socket, and ssl module IntEnum constant name lookups now return a consistent name for values having multiple names. Ex: signal.Signals(6) now refers to itself as signal.SIGALRM rather than flipping between that and signal.SIGIOT based on the interpreter's hash randomization seed.

bpo-27167 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27167]: Clarify the subprocess.CalledProcessError error message text when the child process died due to a signal.

bpo-25931 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25931]: Don't define socketserver.Forking* names on platforms such as Windows that do not support os.fork().

bpo-21776 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21776]: distutils.upload now correctly handles HTTPError. Initial patch by Claudiu Popa.

bpo-26526 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26526]: Replace custom parse tree validation in the parser module with a simple DFA validator.

bpo-27114 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27114]: Fix SSLContext._load_windows_store_certs fails with PermissionError

bpo-18383 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18383]: Avoid creating duplicate filters when using filterwarnings and simplefilter. Based on patch by Alex Shkop.

bpo-23026 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23026]: winreg.QueryValueEx() now return an integer for REG_QWORD type.

bpo-26741 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26741]: subprocess.Popen destructor now emits a ResourceWarning warning if the child process is still running.

bpo-27056 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27056]: Optimize pickle.load() and pickle.loads(), up to 10% faster to deserialize a lot of small objects.

bpo-21271 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21271]: New keyword only parameters in reset_mock call.

IDLE

bpo-5124 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5124]: Paste with text selected now replaces the selection on X11. This matches how paste works on Windows, Mac, most modern Linux apps, and ttk widgets. Original patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

bpo-24750 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24750]: Switch all scrollbars in IDLE to ttk versions. Where needed, minimal tests are added to cover changes.

bpo-24759 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24759]: IDLE requires tk 8.5 and availability ttk widgets. Delete now unneeded tk version tests and code for older versions. Add test for IDLE syntax colorizer.

bpo-27239 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27239]: idlelib.macosx.isXyzTk functions initialize as needed.

bpo-27262 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27262]: move Aqua unbinding code, which enable context menus, to macosx.

bpo-24759 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24759]: Make clear in idlelib.idle_test.__init__ that the directory is a private implementation of test.test_idle and tool for maintainers.

bpo-27196 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27196]: Stop 'ThemeChanged' warnings when running IDLE tests. These persisted after other warnings were suppressed in #20567. Apply Serhiy Storchaka's update_idletasks solution to four test files. Record this additional advice in idle_test/README.txt

bpo-20567 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20567]: Revise idle_test/README.txt with advice about avoiding tk warning messages from tests. Apply advice to several IDLE tests.

bpo-24225 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24225]: Update idlelib/README.txt with new file names and event handlers.

bpo-27156 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27156]: Remove obsolete code not used by IDLE.

bpo-27117 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27117]: Make colorizer htest and turtledemo work with dark themes. Move code for configuring text widget colors to a new function.

bpo-24225 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24225]: Rename many idlelib/*.py and idle_test/test_*.py files. Edit files to replace old names with new names when the old name referred to the module rather than the class it contained. See the issue and IDLE section in What's New in 3.6 for more.

bpo-26673 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26673]: When tk reports font size as 0, change to size 10. Such fonts on Linux prevented the configuration dialog from opening.

bpo-21939 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21939]: Add test for IDLE's percolator. Original patch by Saimadhav Heblikar.

bpo-21676 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21676]: Add test for IDLE's replace dialog. Original patch by Saimadhav Heblikar.

bpo-18410 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18410]: Add test for IDLE's search dialog. Original patch by Westley Martínez.

bpo-21703 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21703]: Add test for undo delegator. Patch mostly by Saimadhav Heblikar .

bpo-27044 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27044]: Add ConfigDialog.remove_var_callbacks to stop memory leaks.

bpo-23977 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23977]: Add more asserts to test_delegator.

Documentation

bpo-16484 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16484]: Change the default PYTHONDOCS URL to "https:", and fix the resulting links to use lowercase. Patch by Sean Rodman, test by Kaushik Nadikuditi.

bpo-24136 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24136]: Document the new PEP 448 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/] unpacking syntax of 3.5.

bpo-22558 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22558]: Add remaining doc links to source code for Python-coded modules. Patch by Yoni Lavi.

Tests

bpo-25285 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25285]: regrtest now uses subprocesses when the -j1 command line option is used: each test file runs in a fresh child process. Before, the -j1 option was ignored.

bpo-25285 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25285]: Tools/buildbot/test.bat script now uses -j1 by default to run each test file in fresh child process.

Windows

bpo-27064 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27064]: The py.exe launcher now defaults to Python 3. The Windows launcher py.exe no longer prefers an installed Python 2 version over Python 3 by default when used interactively.

bpo-17500 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17500]: Remove unused and outdated icons. (See also: https://github.com/python/pythondotorg/issues/945)

Build

bpo-27229 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27229]: Fix the cross-compiling pgen rule for in-tree builds. Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

bpo-26930 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26930]: Update OS X 10.5+ 32-bit-only installer to build and link with OpenSSL 1.0.2h.

C API

bpo-27186 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186]: Add the PyOS_FSPath() function (part of PEP 519 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/]).

bpo-26282 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26282]: PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords() now supports positional-only parameters.

Tools/Demos

bpo-26282 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26282]: Argument Clinic now supports positional-only and keyword parameters in the same function.

Python 3.6.0 alpha 1

Release date: 2016-05-16

Security

bpo-26657 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26657]: Fix directory traversal vulnerability with http.server on Windows. This fixes a regression that was introduced in 3.3.4rc1 and 3.4.0rc1. Based on patch by Philipp Hagemeister.

bpo-26313 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26313]: ssl.py _load_windows_store_certs fails if windows cert store is empty. Patch by Baji.

bpo-25939 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25939]: On Windows open the cert store readonly in ssl.enum_certificates.

Core and Builtins

bpo-20041 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20041]: Fixed TypeError when frame.f_trace is set to None. Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

bpo-26168 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26168]: Fixed possible refleaks in failing Py_BuildValue() with the "N" format unit.

bpo-26991 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26991]: Fix possible refleak when creating a function with annotations.

bpo-27039 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27039]: Fixed bytearray.remove() for values greater than 127. Based on patch by Joe Jevnik.

bpo-23640 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23640]: int.from_bytes() no longer bypasses constructors for subclasses.

bpo-27005 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27005]: Optimized the float.fromhex() class method for exact float. It is now 2 times faster.

bpo-18531 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18531]: Single var-keyword argument of dict subtype was passed unscathed to the C-defined function. Now it is converted to exact dict.

bpo-26811 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26811]: gc.get_objects() no longer contains a broken tuple with NULL pointer.

bpo-20120 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20120]: Use RawConfigParser for .pypirc parsing, removing support for interpolation unintentionally added with move to Python 3. Behavior no longer does any interpolation in .pypirc files, matching behavior in Python 2.7 and Setuptools 19.0.

bpo-26249 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26249]: Memory functions of the PyMem_Malloc() domain (PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM) now use the pymalloc allocator rather than system malloc(). Applications calling PyMem_Malloc() without holding the GIL can now crash: use PYTHONMALLOC=debug environment variable to validate the usage of memory allocators in your application.

bpo-26802 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26802]: Optimize function calls only using unpacking like func(*tuple) (no other positional argument, no keyword): avoid copying the tuple. Patch written by Joe Jevnik.

bpo-26659 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26659]: Make the builtin slice type support cycle collection.

bpo-26718 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26718]: super.__init__ no longer leaks memory if called multiple times. NOTE: A direct call of super.__init__ is not endorsed!

bpo-27138 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27138]: Fix the doc comment for FileFinder.find_spec().

bpo-27147 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27147]: Mention PEP 420 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/] in the importlib docs.

bpo-25339 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25339]: PYTHONIOENCODING now has priority over locale in setting the error handler for stdin and stdout.

bpo-26494 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26494]: Fixed crash on iterating exhausting iterators. Affected classes are generic sequence iterators, iterators of str, bytes, bytearray, list, tuple, set, frozenset, dict, OrderedDict, corresponding views and os.scandir() iterator.

bpo-26574 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26574]: Optimize bytes.replace(b'', b'.') and bytearray.replace(b'', b'.'). Patch written by Josh Snider.

bpo-26581 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26581]: If coding cookie is specified multiple times on a line in Python source code file, only the first one is taken to account.

bpo-19711 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19711]: Add tests for reloading namespace packages.

bpo-21099 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21099]: Switch applicable importlib tests to use PEP 451 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/] API.

bpo-26563 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26563]: Debug hooks on Python memory allocators now raise a fatal error if functions of the PyMem_Malloc() family are called without holding the GIL.

bpo-26564 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26564]: On error, the debug hooks on Python memory allocators now use the tracemalloc module to get the traceback where a memory block was allocated.

bpo-26558 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26558]: The debug hooks on Python memory allocator PyObject_Malloc() now detect when functions are called without holding the GIL.

bpo-26516 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26516]: Add PYTHONMALLOC environment variable to set the Python memory allocators and/or install debug hooks.

bpo-26516 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26516]: The PyMem_SetupDebugHooks() function can now also be used on Python compiled in release mode.

bpo-26516 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26516]: The PYTHONMALLOCSTATS environment variable can now also be used on Python compiled in release mode. It now has no effect if set to an empty string.

bpo-26516 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26516]: In debug mode, debug hooks are now also installed on Python memory allocators when Python is configured without pymalloc.

bpo-26464 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26464]: Fix str.translate() when string is ASCII and first replacements removes character, but next replacement uses a non-ASCII character or a string longer than 1 character. Regression introduced in Python 3.5.0.

bpo-22836 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22836]: Ensure exception reports from PyErr_Display() and PyErr_WriteUnraisable() are sensible even when formatting them produces secondary errors. This affects the reports produced by sys.__excepthook__() and when __del__() raises an exception.

bpo-26302 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26302]: Correct behavior to reject comma as a legal character for cookie names.

bpo-26136 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26136]: Upgrade the warning when a generator raises StopIteration from PendingDeprecationWarning to DeprecationWarning. Patch by Anish Shah.

bpo-26204 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26204]: The compiler now ignores all constant statements: bytes, str, int, float, complex, name constants (None, False, True), Ellipsis and ast.Constant; not only str and int. For example, 1.0 is now ignored in def f(): 1.0.

bpo-4806 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4806]: Avoid masking the original TypeError exception when using star (*) unpacking in function calls. Based on patch by Hagen Fürstenau and Daniel Urban.

bpo-26146 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26146]: Add a new kind of AST node: ast.Constant. It can be used by external AST optimizers, but the compiler does not emit directly such node.

bpo-23601 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23601]: Sped-up allocation of dict key objects by using Python's small object allocator. (Contributed by Julian Taylor.)

bpo-18018 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18018]: Import raises ImportError instead of SystemError if a relative import is attempted without a known parent package.

bpo-25843 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25843]: When compiling code, don't merge constants if they are equal but have a different types. For example, f1, f2 = lambda: 1, lambda: 1.0 is now correctly compiled to two different functions: f1() returns 1 (int) and f2() returns 1.0 (float), even if 1 and 1.0 are equal.

bpo-26107 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26107]: The format of the co_lnotab attribute of code objects changes to support negative line number delta.

bpo-26154 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26154]: Add a new private _PyThreadState_UncheckedGet() function to get the current Python thread state, but don't issue a fatal error if it is NULL. This new function must be used instead of accessing directly the _PyThreadState_Current variable. The variable is no more exposed since Python 3.5.1 to hide the exact implementation of atomic C types, to avoid compiler issues.

bpo-25791 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25791]: If __package__ != __spec__.parent or if neither __package__ or __spec__ are defined then ImportWarning is raised.

bpo-22995 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22995]: [UPDATE] Comment out the one of the pickleability tests in _PyObject_GetState() due to regressions observed in Cython-based projects.

bpo-25961 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25961]: Disallowed null characters in the type name.

bpo-25973 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25973]: Fix segfault when an invalid nonlocal statement binds a name starting with two underscores.

bpo-22995 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22995]: Instances of extension types with a state that aren't subclasses of list or dict and haven't implemented any pickle-related methods (__reduce__, __reduce_ex__, __getnewargs__, __getnewargs_ex__, or __getstate__), can no longer be pickled. Including memoryview.

bpo-20440 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20440]: Massive replacing unsafe attribute setting code with special macro Py_SETREF.

bpo-25766 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25766]: Special method __bytes__() now works in str subclasses.

bpo-25421 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25421]: __sizeof__ methods of builtin types now use dynamic basic size. This allows sys.getsize() to work correctly with their subclasses with __slots__ defined.

bpo-25709 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25709]: Fixed problem with in-place string concatenation and utf-8 cache.

bpo-5319 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5319]: New Py_FinalizeEx() API allowing Python to set an exit status of 120 on failure to flush buffered streams.

bpo-25485 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25485]: telnetlib.Telnet is now a context manager.

bpo-24097 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24097]: Fixed crash in object.__reduce__() if slot name is freed inside __getattr__.

bpo-24731 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24731]: Fixed crash on converting objects with special methods __bytes__, __trunc__, and __float__ returning instances of subclasses of bytes, int, and float to subclasses of bytes, int, and float correspondingly.

bpo-25630 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25630]: Fix a possible segfault during argument parsing in functions that accept filesystem paths.

bpo-23564 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23564]: Fixed a partially broken sanity check in the _posixsubprocess internals regarding how fds_to_pass were passed to the child. The bug had no actual impact as subprocess.py already avoided it.

bpo-25388 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25388]: Fixed tokenizer crash when processing undecodable source code with a null byte.

bpo-25462 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25462]: The hash of the key now is calculated only once in most operations in C implementation of OrderedDict.

bpo-22995 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22995]: Default implementation of __reduce__ and __reduce_ex__ now rejects builtin types with not defined __new__.

bpo-24802 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24802]: Avoid buffer overreads when int(), float(), compile(), exec() and eval() are passed bytes-like objects. These objects are not necessarily terminated by a null byte, but the functions assumed they were.

bpo-25555 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25555]: Fix parser and AST: fill lineno and col_offset of "arg" node when compiling AST from Python objects.

bpo-24726 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24726]: Fixed a crash and leaking NULL in repr() of OrderedDict that was mutated by direct calls of dict methods.

bpo-25449 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25449]: Iterating OrderedDict with keys with unstable hash now raises KeyError in C implementations as well as in Python implementation.

bpo-25395 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25395]: Fixed crash when highly nested OrderedDict structures were garbage collected.

bpo-25401 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25401]: Optimize bytes.fromhex() and bytearray.fromhex(): they are now between 2x and 3.5x faster.

bpo-25399 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25399]: Optimize bytearray % args using the new private _PyBytesWriter API. Formatting is now between 2.5 and 5 times faster.

bpo-25274 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25274]: sys.setrecursionlimit() now raises a RecursionError if the new recursion limit is too low depending at the current recursion depth. Modify also the "lower-water mark" formula to make it monotonic. This mark is used to decide when the overflowed flag of the thread state is reset.

bpo-24402 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24402]: Fix input() to prompt to the redirected stdout when sys.stdout.fileno() fails.

bpo-25349 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25349]: Optimize bytes % args using the new private _PyBytesWriter API. Formatting is now up to 2 times faster.

bpo-24806 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24806]: Prevent builtin types that are not allowed to be subclassed from being subclassed through multiple inheritance.

bpo-25301 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25301]: The UTF-8 decoder is now up to 15 times as fast for error handlers: ignore, replace and surrogateescape.

bpo-24848 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24848]: Fixed a number of bugs in UTF-7 decoding of misformed data.

bpo-25267 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25267]: The UTF-8 encoder is now up to 75 times as fast for error handlers: ignore, replace, surrogateescape, surrogatepass. Patch co-written with Serhiy Storchaka.

bpo-25280 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25280]: Import trace messages emitted in verbose (-v) mode are no longer formatted twice.

bpo-25227 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25227]: Optimize ASCII and latin1 encoders with the surrogateescape error handler: the encoders are now up to 3 times as fast. Initial patch written by Serhiy Storchaka.

bpo-25003 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25003]: On Solaris 11.3 or newer, os.urandom() now uses the getrandom() function instead of the getentropy() function. The getentropy() function is blocking to generate very good quality entropy, os.urandom() doesn't need such high-quality entropy.

bpo-9232 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9232]: Modify Python's grammar to allow trailing commas in the argument list of a function declaration. For example, "def f(*, a = 3,): pass" is now legal. Patch from Mark Dickinson.

bpo-24965 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24965]: Implement PEP 498 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0498/] "Literal String Interpolation". This allows you to embed expressions inside f-strings, which are converted to normal strings at run time. Given x=3, then f'value={x}' == 'value=3'. Patch by Eric V. Smith.

bpo-26478 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26478]: Fix semantic bugs when using binary operators with dictionary views and tuples.

bpo-26171 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26171]: Fix possible integer overflow and heap corruption in zipimporter.get_data().

bpo-25660 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25660]: Fix TAB key behaviour in REPL with readline.

bpo-26288 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26288]: Optimize PyLong_AsDouble.

bpo-26289 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26289]: Optimize floor and modulo division for single-digit longs. Microbenchmarks show 2-2.5x improvement. Built-in 'divmod' function is now also ~10% faster. (See also: bpo-26315 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26315])

bpo-25887 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25887]: Raise a RuntimeError when a coroutine object is awaited more than once.

Library

bpo-27057 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27057]: Fix os.set_inheritable() on Android, ioctl() is blocked by SELinux and fails with EACCESS. The function now falls back to fcntl(). Patch written by Michał Bednarski.

bpo-27014 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27014]: Fix infinite recursion using typing.py. Thanks to Kalle Tuure!

bpo-27031 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27031]: Removed dummy methods in Tkinter widget classes: tk_menuBar() and tk_bindForTraversal().

bpo-14132 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14132]: Fix urllib.request redirect handling when the target only has a query string. Original fix by Ján Janech.

bpo-17214 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17214]: The "urllib.request" module now percent-encodes non-ASCII bytes found in redirect target URLs. Some servers send Location header fields with non-ASCII bytes, but "http.client" requires the request target to be ASCII-encodable, otherwise a UnicodeEncodeError is raised. Based on patch by Christian Heimes.

bpo-27033 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27033]: The default value of the decode_data parameter for smtpd.SMTPChannel and smtpd.SMTPServer constructors is changed to False.

bpo-27034 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27034]: Removed deprecated class asynchat.fifo.

bpo-26870 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26870]: Added readline.set_auto_history(), which can stop entries being automatically added to the history list. Based on patch by Tyler Crompton.

bpo-26039 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26039]: zipfile.ZipFile.open() can now be used to write data into a ZIP file, as well as for extracting data. Patch by Thomas Kluyver.

bpo-26892 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26892]: Honor debuglevel flag in urllib.request.HTTPHandler. Patch contributed by Chi Hsuan Yen.

bpo-22274 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22274]: In the subprocess module, allow stderr to be redirected to stdout even when stdout is not redirected. Patch by Akira Li.

bpo-26807 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26807]: mock_open 'files' no longer error on readline at end of file. Patch from Yolanda Robla.

bpo-25745 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25745]: Fixed leaking a userptr in curses panel destructor.

bpo-26977 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26977]: Removed unnecessary, and ignored, call to sum of squares helper in statistics.pvariance.

bpo-26002 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26002]: Use bisect in statistics.median instead of a linear search. Patch by Upendra Kuma.

bpo-25974 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25974]: Make use of new Decimal.as_integer_ratio() method in statistics module. Patch by Stefan Krah.

bpo-26996 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26996]: Add secrets module as described in PEP 506 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0506/].

bpo-26881 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26881]: The modulefinder module now supports extended opcode arguments.

bpo-23815 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23815]: Fixed crashes related to directly created instances of types in _tkinter and curses.panel modules.

bpo-17765 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17765]: weakref.ref() no longer silently ignores keyword arguments. Patch by Georg Brandl.

bpo-26873 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26873]: xmlrpc now raises ResponseError on unsupported type tags instead of silently return incorrect result.

bpo-26915 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26915]: The __contains__ methods in the collections ABCs now check for identity before checking equality. This better matches the behavior of the concrete classes, allows sensible handling of NaNs, and makes it easier to reason about container invariants.

bpo-26711 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26711]: Fixed the comparison of plistlib.Data with other types.

bpo-24114 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24114]: Fix an uninitialized variable in ctypes.util. The bug only occurs on SunOS when the ctypes implementation searches for the crle program. Patch by Xiang Zhang. Tested on SunOS by Kees Bos.

bpo-26864 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26864]: In urllib.request, change the proxy bypass host checking against no_proxy to be case-insensitive, and to not match unrelated host names that happen to have a bypassed hostname as a suffix. Patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-24902 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24902]: Print server URL on http.server startup. Initial patch by Felix Kaiser.

bpo-25788 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25788]: fileinput.hook_encoded() now supports an "errors" argument for passing to open. Original patch by Joseph Hackman.

bpo-26634 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26634]: recursive_repr() now sets __qualname__ of wrapper. Patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-26804 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26804]: urllib.request will prefer lower_case proxy environment variables over UPPER_CASE or Mixed_Case ones. Patch contributed by Hans-Peter Jansen.

bpo-26837 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26837]: assertSequenceEqual() now correctly outputs non-stringified differing items (like bytes in the -b mode). This affects assertListEqual() and assertTupleEqual().

bpo-26041 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26041]: Remove "will be removed in Python 3.7" from deprecation messages of platform.dist() and platform.linux_distribution(). Patch by Kumaripaba Miyurusara Athukorala.

bpo-26822 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26822]: itemgetter, attrgetter and methodcaller objects no longer silently ignore keyword arguments.

bpo-26733 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26733]: Disassembling a class now disassembles class and static methods. Patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-26801 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26801]: Fix error handling in shutil.get_terminal_size(), catch AttributeError instead of NameError. Patch written by Emanuel Barry.

bpo-24838 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24838]: tarfile's ustar and gnu formats now correctly calculate name and link field limits for multibyte character encodings like utf-8.

bpo-26717 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26717]: Stop encoding Latin-1-ized WSGI paths with UTF-8. Patch by Anthony Sottile.

bpo-26782 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26782]: Add STARTUPINFO to subprocess.__all__ on Windows.

bpo-26404 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26404]: Add context manager to socketserver. Patch by Aviv Palivoda.

bpo-26735 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26735]: Fix os.urandom() on Solaris 11.3 and newer when reading more than 1,024 bytes: call getrandom() multiple times with a limit of 1024 bytes per call.

bpo-26585 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26585]: Eliminate http.server._quote_html() and use html.escape(quote=False). Patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-26685 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26685]: Raise OSError if closing a socket fails.

bpo-16329 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16329]: Add .webm to mimetypes.types_map. Patch by Giampaolo Rodola'.

bpo-13952 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13952]: Add .csv to mimetypes.types_map. Patch by Geoff Wilson.

bpo-26587 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26587]: the site module now allows .pth files to specify files to be added to sys.path (e.g. zip files).

bpo-25609 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25609]: Introduce contextlib.AbstractContextManager and typing.ContextManager.

bpo-26709 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26709]: Fixed Y2038 problem in loading binary PLists.

bpo-23735 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23735]: Handle terminal resizing with Readline 6.3+ by installing our own SIGWINCH handler. Patch by Eric Price.

bpo-25951 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25951]: Change SSLSocket.sendall() to return None, as explicitly documented for plain socket objects. Patch by Aviv Palivoda.

bpo-26586 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26586]: In http.server, respond with "413 Request header fields too large" if there are too many header fields to parse, rather than killing the connection and raising an unhandled exception. Patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-26676 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26676]: Added missing XMLPullParser to ElementTree.__all__.

bpo-22854 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22854]: Change BufferedReader.writable() and BufferedWriter.readable() to always return False.

bpo-26492 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26492]: Exhausted iterator of array.array now conforms with the behavior of iterators of other mutable sequences: it lefts exhausted even if iterated array is extended.

bpo-26641 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26641]: doctest.DocFileTest and doctest.testfile() now support packages (module split into multiple directories) for the package parameter.

bpo-25195 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25195]: Fix a regression in mock.MagicMock. _Call is a subclass of tuple (changeset 3603bae63c13 only works for classes) so we need to implement __ne__ ourselves. Patch by Andrew Plummer.

bpo-26644 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26644]: Raise ValueError rather than SystemError when a negative length is passed to SSLSocket.recv() or read().

bpo-23804 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23804]: Fix SSL recv(0) and read(0) methods to return zero bytes instead of up to 1024.

bpo-26616 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26616]: Fixed a bug in datetime.astimezone() method.

bpo-26637 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26637]: The importlib module now emits an ImportError rather than a TypeError if __import__() is tried during the Python shutdown process but sys.path is already cleared (set to None).

bpo-21925 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21925]: warnings.formatwarning() now catches exceptions when calling linecache.getline() and tracemalloc.get_object_traceback() to be able to log ResourceWarning emitted late during the Python shutdown process.

bpo-23848 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23848]: On Windows, faulthandler.enable() now also installs an exception handler to dump the traceback of all Python threads on any Windows exception, not only on UNIX signals (SIGSEGV, SIGFPE, SIGABRT).

bpo-26530 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26530]: Add C functions _PyTraceMalloc_Track() and _PyTraceMalloc_Untrack() to track memory blocks using the tracemalloc module. Add _PyTraceMalloc_GetTraceback() to get the traceback of an object.

bpo-26588 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26588]: The _tracemalloc now supports tracing memory allocations of multiple address spaces (domains).

bpo-24266 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24266]: Ctrl+C during Readline history search now cancels the search mode when compiled with Readline 7.

bpo-26590 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26590]: Implement a safe finalizer for the _socket.socket type. It now releases the GIL to close the socket.

bpo-18787 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18787]: spwd.getspnam() now raises a PermissionError if the user doesn't have privileges.

bpo-26560 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26560]: Avoid potential ValueError in BaseHandler.start_response. Initial patch by Peter Inglesby.

bpo-26567 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26567]: Add a new function PyErr_ResourceWarning() function to pass the destroyed object. Add a source attribute to warnings.WarningMessage. Add warnings._showwarnmsg() which uses tracemalloc to get the traceback where source object was allocated.

bpo-26569 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26569]: Fix pyclbr.readmodule() and pyclbr.readmodule_ex() to support importing packages.

bpo-26499 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26499]: Account for remaining Content-Length in HTTPResponse.readline() and read1(). Based on patch by Silent Ghost. Also document that HTTPResponse now supports these methods.

bpo-25320 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25320]: Handle sockets in directories unittest discovery is scanning. Patch from Victor van den Elzen.

bpo-16181 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16181]: cookiejar.http2time() now returns None if year is higher than datetime.MAXYEAR.

bpo-26513 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26513]: Fixes platform module detection of Windows Server

bpo-23718 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23718]: Fixed parsing time in week 0 before Jan 1. Original patch by Tamás Bence Gedai.

bpo-26323 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26323]: Add Mock.assert_called() and Mock.assert_called_once() methods to unittest.mock. Patch written by Amit Saha.

bpo-20589 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20589]: Invoking Path.owner() and Path.group() on Windows now raise NotImplementedError instead of ImportError.

bpo-26177 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26177]: Fixed the keys() method for Canvas and Scrollbar widgets.

bpo-15068 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15068]: Got rid of excessive buffering in fileinput. The bufsize parameter is now deprecated and ignored.

bpo-19475 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19475]: Added an optional argument timespec to the datetime isoformat() method to choose the precision of the time component.

bpo-2202 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2202]: Fix UnboundLocalError in AbstractDigestAuthHandler.get_algorithm_impls. Initial patch by Mathieu Dupuy.

bpo-26167 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26167]: Minimized overhead in copy.copy() and copy.deepcopy(). Optimized copying and deepcopying bytearrays, NotImplemented, slices, short lists, tuples, dicts, sets.

bpo-25718 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25718]: Fixed pickling and copying the accumulate() iterator with total is None.

bpo-26475 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26475]: Fixed debugging output for regular expressions with the (?x) flag.

bpo-26482 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26482]: Allowed pickling recursive dequeues.

bpo-26335 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26335]: Make mmap.write() return the number of bytes written like other write methods. Patch by Jakub Stasiak.

bpo-26457 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26457]: Fixed the subnets() methods in IP network classes for the case when resulting prefix length is equal to maximal prefix length. Based on patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-26385 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26385]: Remove the file if the internal open() call in NamedTemporaryFile() fails. Patch by Silent Ghost.

bpo-26402 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26402]: Fix XML-RPC client to retry when the server shuts down a persistent connection. This was a regression related to the new http.client.RemoteDisconnected exception in 3.5.0a4.

bpo-25913 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25913]: Leading <~ is optional now in base64.a85decode() with adobe=True. Patch by Swati Jaiswal.

bpo-26186 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26186]: Remove an invalid type check in importlib.util.LazyLoader.

bpo-26367 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26367]: importlib.__import__() raises ImportError like builtins.__import__() when level is specified but without an accompanying package specified.

bpo-26309 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26309]: In the "socketserver" module, shut down the request (closing the connected socket) when verify_request() returns false. Patch by Aviv Palivoda.

bpo-23430 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23430]: Change the socketserver module to only catch exceptions raised from a request handler that are derived from Exception (instead of BaseException). Therefore SystemExit and KeyboardInterrupt no longer trigger the handle_error() method, and will now to stop a single-threaded server.

bpo-25995 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25995]: os.walk() no longer uses FDs proportional to the tree depth.

bpo-25994 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25994]: Added the close() method and the support of the context manager protocol for the os.scandir() iterator.

bpo-23992 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23992]: multiprocessing: make MapResult not fail-fast upon exception.

bpo-26243 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26243]: Support keyword arguments to zlib.compress(). Patch by Aviv Palivoda.

bpo-26117 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26117]: The os.scandir() iterator now closes file descriptor not only when the iteration is finished, but when it was failed with error.

bpo-25949 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25949]: __dict__ for an OrderedDict instance is now created only when needed.

bpo-25911 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25911]: Restored support of bytes paths in os.walk() on Windows.

bpo-26045 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26045]: Add UTF-8 suggestion to error message when posting a non-Latin-1 string with http.client.

bpo-26039 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26039]: Added zipfile.ZipInfo.from_file() and zipinfo.ZipInfo.is_dir(). Patch by Thomas Kluyver.

bpo-12923 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12923]: Reset FancyURLopener's redirect counter even if there is an exception. Based on patches by Brian Brazil and Daniel Rocco.

bpo-25945 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25945]: Fixed a crash when unpickle the functools.partial object with wrong state. Fixed a leak in failed functools.partial constructor. "args" and "keywords" attributes of functools.partial have now always types tuple and dict correspondingly.

bpo-26202 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26202]: copy.deepcopy() now correctly copies range() objects with non-atomic attributes.

bpo-23076 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23076]: Path.glob() now raises a ValueError if it's called with an invalid pattern. Patch by Thomas Nyberg.

bpo-19883 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19883]: Fixed possible integer overflows in zipimport.

bpo-26227 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26227]: On Windows, getnameinfo(), gethostbyaddr() and gethostbyname_ex() functions of the socket module now decode the hostname from the ANSI code page rather than UTF-8.

bpo-26099 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26099]: The site module now writes an error into stderr if sitecustomize module can be imported but executing the module raise an ImportError. Same change for usercustomize.

bpo-26147 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26147]: xmlrpc now works with strings not encodable with used non-UTF-8 encoding.

bpo-25935 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25935]: Garbage collector now breaks reference loops with OrderedDict.

bpo-16620 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16620]: Fixed AttributeError in msilib.Directory.glob().

bpo-26013 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26013]: Added compatibility with broken protocol 2 pickles created in old Python 3 versions (3.4.3 and lower).

bpo-26129 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26129]: Deprecated accepting non-integers in grp.getgrgid().

bpo-25850 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25850]: Use cross-compilation by default for 64-bit Windows.

bpo-25822 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25822]: Add docstrings to the fields of urllib.parse results. Patch contributed by Swati Jaiswal.

bpo-22642 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22642]: Convert trace module option parsing mechanism to argparse. Patch contributed by SilentGhost.

bpo-24705 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24705]: Fix sysconfig._parse_makefile not expanding ${} vars appearing before $() vars.

bpo-26069 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26069]: Remove the deprecated apis in the trace module.

bpo-22138 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22138]: Fix mock.patch behavior when patching descriptors. Restore original values after patching. Patch contributed by Sean McCully.

bpo-25672 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25672]: In the ssl module, enable the SSL_MODE_RELEASE_BUFFERS mode option if it is safe to do so.

bpo-26012 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26012]: Don't traverse into symlinks for ** pattern in pathlib.Path.[r]glob().

bpo-24120 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24120]: Ignore PermissionError when traversing a tree with pathlib.Path.[r]glob(). Patch by Ulrich Petri.

bpo-21815 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21815]: Accept ] characters in the data portion of imap responses, in order to handle the flags with square brackets accepted and produced by servers such as gmail.

bpo-25447 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25447]: fileinput now uses sys.stdin as-is if it does not have a buffer attribute (restores backward compatibility).

bpo-25971 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25971]: Optimized creating Fractions from floats by 2 times and from Decimals by 3 times.

bpo-25802 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25802]: Document as deprecated the remaining implementations of importlib.abc.Loader.load_module().

bpo-25928 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25928]: Add Decimal.as_integer_ratio().

bpo-25447 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25447]: Copying the lru_cache() wrapper object now always works, independently from the type of the wrapped object (by returning the original object unchanged).

bpo-25768 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25768]: Have the functions in compileall return booleans instead of ints and add proper documentation and tests for the return values.

bpo-24103 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24103]: Fixed possible use after free in ElementTree.XMLPullParser.

bpo-25860 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25860]: os.fwalk() no longer skips remaining directories when error occurs. Original patch by Samson Lee.

bpo-25914 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25914]: Fixed and simplified OrderedDict.__sizeof__.

bpo-25869 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25869]: Optimized deepcopying ElementTree; it is now 20 times faster.

bpo-25873 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25873]: Optimized iterating ElementTree. Iterating elements Element.iter() is now 40% faster, iterating text Element.itertext() is now up to 2.5 times faster.

bpo-25902 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25902]: Fixed various refcount issues in ElementTree iteration.

bpo-22227 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22227]: The TarFile iterator is reimplemented using generator. This implementation is simpler that using class.

bpo-25638 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25638]: Optimized ElementTree.iterparse(); it is now 2x faster. Optimized ElementTree parsing; it is now 10% faster.

bpo-25761 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25761]: Improved detecting errors in broken pickle data.

bpo-25717 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25717]: Restore the previous behaviour of tolerating most fstat() errors when opening files. This was a regression in 3.5a1, and stopped anonymous temporary files from working in special cases.

bpo-24903 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24903]: Fix regression in number of arguments compileall accepts when '-d' is specified. The check on the number of arguments has been dropped completely as it never worked correctly anyway.

bpo-25764 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25764]: In the subprocess module, preserve any exception caused by fork() failure when preexec_fn is used.

bpo-25771 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25771]: Tweak the exception message for importlib.util.resolve_name() when 'package' isn't specified but necessary.

bpo-6478 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6478]: _strptime's regexp cache now is reset after changing timezone with time.tzset().

bpo-14285 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14285]: When executing a package with the "python -m package" option, and package initialization fails, a proper traceback is now reported. The "runpy" module now lets exceptions from package initialization pass back to the caller, rather than raising ImportError.

bpo-19771 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19771]: Also in runpy and the "-m" option, omit the irrelevant message ". . . is a package and cannot be directly executed" if the package could not even be initialized (e.g. due to a bad *.pyc file).

bpo-25177 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25177]: Fixed problem with the mean of very small and very large numbers. As a side effect, statistics.mean and statistics.variance should be significantly faster.

bpo-25718 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25718]: Fixed copying object with state with boolean value is false.

bpo-10131 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10131]: Fixed deep copying of minidom documents. Based on patch by Marian Ganisin.

bpo-7990 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7990]: dir() on ElementTree.Element now lists properties: "tag", "text", "tail" and "attrib". Original patch by Santoso Wijaya.

bpo-25725 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25725]: Fixed a reference leak in pickle.loads() when unpickling invalid data including tuple instructions.

bpo-25663 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25663]: In the Readline completer, avoid listing duplicate global names, and search the global namespace before searching builtins.

bpo-25688 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25688]: Fixed file leak in ElementTree.iterparse() raising an error.

bpo-23914 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23914]: Fixed SystemError raised by unpickler on broken pickle data.

bpo-25691 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25691]: Fixed crash on deleting ElementTree.Element attributes.

bpo-25624 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25624]: ZipFile now always writes a ZIP_STORED header for directory entries. Patch by Dingyuan Wang.

bpo-25626 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25626]: Change three zlib functions to accept sizes that fit in Py_ssize_t, but internally cap those sizes to UINT_MAX. This resolves a regression in 3.5 where GzipFile.read() failed to read chunks larger than 2 or 4 GiB. The change affects the zlib.Decompress.decompress() max_length parameter, the zlib.decompress() bufsize parameter, and the zlib.Decompress.flush() length parameter.

bpo-25583 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25583]: Avoid incorrect errors raised by os.makedirs(exist_ok=True) when the OS gives priority to errors such as EACCES over EEXIST.

bpo-25593 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25593]: Change semantics of EventLoop.stop() in asyncio.

bpo-6973 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6973]: When we know a subprocess.Popen process has died, do not allow the send_signal(), terminate(), or kill() methods to do anything as they could potentially signal a different process.

bpo-23883 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23883]: Added missing APIs to __all__ to match the documented APIs for the following modules: calendar, csv, enum, fileinput, ftplib, logging, optparse, tarfile, threading and wave. Also added a test.support.check__all__() helper. Patches by Jacek Kołodziej, Mauro S. M. Rodrigues and Joel Taddei.

bpo-25590 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25590]: In the Readline completer, only call getattr() once per attribute. Also complete names of attributes such as properties and slots which are listed by dir() but not yet created on an instance.

bpo-25498 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25498]: Fix a crash when garbage-collecting ctypes objects created by wrapping a memoryview. This was a regression made in 3.5a1. Based on patch by Eryksun.

bpo-25584 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25584]: Added "escape" to the __all__ list in the glob module.

bpo-25584 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25584]: Fixed recursive glob() with patterns starting with **.

bpo-25446 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25446]: Fix regression in smtplib's AUTH LOGIN support.

bpo-18010 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18010]: Fix the pydoc web server's module search function to handle exceptions from importing packages.

bpo-25554 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25554]: Got rid of circular references in regular expression parsing.

bpo-18973 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18973]: Command-line interface of the calendar module now uses argparse instead of optparse.

bpo-25510 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25510]: fileinput.FileInput.readline() now returns b'' instead of '' at the end if the FileInput was opened with binary mode. Patch by Ryosuke Ito.

bpo-25503 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25503]: Fixed inspect.getdoc() for inherited docstrings of properties. Original patch by John Mark Vandenberg.

bpo-25515 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25515]: Always use os.urandom as a source of randomness in uuid.uuid4.

bpo-21827 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21827]: Fixed textwrap.dedent() for the case when largest common whitespace is a substring of smallest leading whitespace. Based on patch by Robert Li.

bpo-25447 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25447]: The lru_cache() wrapper objects now can be copied and pickled (by returning the original object unchanged).

bpo-25390 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25390]: typing: Don't crash on Union[str, Pattern].

bpo-25441 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25441]: asyncio: Raise error from drain() when socket is closed.

bpo-25410 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25410]: Cleaned up and fixed minor bugs in C implementation of OrderedDict.

bpo-25411 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25411]: Improved Unicode support in SMTPHandler through better use of the email package. Thanks to user simon04 for the patch.

Move the imp module from a PendingDeprecationWarning to DeprecationWarning.

bpo-25407 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25407]: Remove mentions of the formatter module being removed in Python 3.6.

bpo-25406 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25406]: Fixed a bug in C implementation of OrderedDict.move_to_end() that caused segmentation fault or hang in iterating after moving several items to the start of ordered dict.

bpo-25382 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25382]: pickletools.dis() now outputs implicit memo index for the MEMOIZE opcode.

bpo-25357 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25357]: Add an optional newline parameter to binascii.b2a_base64(). base64.b64encode() uses it to avoid a memory copy.

bpo-24164 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24164]: Objects that need calling __new__ with keyword arguments, can now be pickled using pickle protocols older than protocol version 4.

bpo-25364 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25364]: zipfile now works in threads disabled builds.

bpo-25328 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25328]: smtpd's SMTPChannel now correctly raises a ValueError if both decode_data and enable_SMTPUTF8 are set to true.

bpo-16099 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16099]: RobotFileParser now supports Crawl-delay and Request-rate extensions. Patch by Nikolay Bogoychev.

bpo-25316 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25316]: distutils raises OSError instead of DistutilsPlatformError when MSVC is not installed.

bpo-25380 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25380]: Fixed protocol for the STACK_GLOBAL opcode in pickletools.opcodes.

bpo-23972 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23972]: Updates asyncio datagram create method allowing reuseport and reuseaddr socket options to be set prior to binding the socket. Mirroring the existing asyncio create_server method the reuseaddr option for datagram sockets defaults to True if the O/S is 'posix' (except if the platform is Cygwin). Patch by Chris Laws.

bpo-25304 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25304]: Add asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe(). This lets you submit a coroutine to a loop from another thread, returning a concurrent.futures.Future. By Vincent Michel.

bpo-25232 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25232]: Fix CGIRequestHandler to split the query from the URL at the first question mark (?) rather than the last. Patch from Xiang Zhang.

bpo-24657 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24657]: Prevent CGIRequestHandler from collapsing slashes in the query part of the URL as if it were a path. Patch from Xiang Zhang.

bpo-25287 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25287]: Don't add crypt.METHOD_CRYPT to crypt.methods if it's not supported. Check if it is supported, it may not be supported on OpenBSD for example.

bpo-23600 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23600]: Default implementation of tzinfo.fromutc() was returning wrong results in some cases.

bpo-25203 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25203]: Failed readline.set_completer_delims() no longer left the module in inconsistent state.

bpo-25011 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25011]: rlcompleter now omits private and special attribute names unless the prefix starts with underscores.

bpo-25209 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25209]: rlcompleter now can add a space or a colon after completed keyword.

bpo-22241 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22241]: timezone.utc name is now plain 'UTC', not 'UTC-00:00'.

bpo-23517 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23517]: fromtimestamp() and utcfromtimestamp() methods of datetime.datetime now round microseconds to nearest with ties going to nearest even integer (ROUND_HALF_EVEN), as round(float), instead of rounding towards -Infinity (ROUND_FLOOR).

bpo-23552 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23552]: Timeit now warns when there is substantial (4x) variance between best and worst times. Patch from Serhiy Storchaka.

bpo-24633 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24633]: site-packages/README -> README.txt.

bpo-24879 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24879]: help() and pydoc can now list named tuple fields in the order they were defined rather than alphabetically. The ordering is determined by the _fields attribute if present.

bpo-24874 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24874]: Improve speed of itertools.cycle() and make its pickle more compact.

Fix crash in itertools.cycle.__setstate__() when the first argument wasn't a list.

bpo-20059 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20059]: urllib.parse raises ValueError on all invalid ports. Patch by Martin Panter.

bpo-24360 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24360]: Improve __repr__ of argparse.Namespace() for invalid identifiers. Patch by Matthias Bussonnier.

bpo-23426 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23426]: run_setup was broken in distutils. Patch from Alexander Belopolsky.

bpo-13938 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13938]: 2to3 converts StringTypes to a tuple. Patch from Mark Hammond.

bpo-2091 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2091]: open() accepted a 'U' mode string containing '+', but 'U' can only be used with 'r'. Patch from Jeff Balogh and John O'Connor.

bpo-8585 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8585]: improved tests for zipimporter2. Patch from Mark Lawrence.

bpo-18622 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18622]: unittest.mock.mock_open().reset_mock would recurse infinitely. Patch from Nicola Palumbo and Laurent De Buyst.

bpo-24426 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24426]: Fast searching optimization in regular expressions now works for patterns that starts with capturing groups. Fast searching optimization now can't be disabled at compile time.

bpo-23661 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23661]: unittest.mock side_effects can now be exceptions again. This was a regression vs Python 3.4. Patch from Ignacio Rossi

bpo-13248 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13248]: Remove deprecated inspect.getmoduleinfo function.

bpo-25578 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25578]: Fix (another) memory leak in SSLSocket.getpeercer().

bpo-25530 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25530]: Disable the vulnerable SSLv3 protocol by default when creating ssl.SSLContext.

bpo-25569 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25569]: Fix memory leak in SSLSocket.getpeercert().

bpo-25471 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25471]: Sockets returned from accept() shouldn't appear to be nonblocking.

bpo-25319 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25319]: When threading.Event is reinitialized, the underlying condition should use a regular lock rather than a recursive lock.

Skip getaddrinfo if host is already resolved. Patch by A. Jesse Jiryu Davis.

bpo-26050 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26050]: Add asyncio.StreamReader.readuntil() method. Patch by Марк Коренберг.

bpo-25924 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25924]: Avoid unnecessary serialization of getaddrinfo(3) calls on OS X versions 10.5 or higher. Original patch by A. Jesse Jiryu Davis.

bpo-26406 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26406]: Avoid unnecessary serialization of getaddrinfo(3) calls on current versions of OpenBSD and NetBSD. Patch by A. Jesse Jiryu Davis.

bpo-26848 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26848]: Fix asyncio/subprocess.communicate() to handle empty input. Patch by Jack O'Connor.

bpo-27040 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27040]: Add loop.get_exception_handler method

bpo-27041 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27041]: asyncio: Add loop.create_future method

IDLE

bpo-20640 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20640]: Add tests for idlelib.configHelpSourceEdit. Patch by Saimadhav Heblikar.

In the 'IDLE-console differences' section of the IDLE doc, clarify how running with IDLE affects sys.modules and the standard streams.

bpo-25507 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25507]: fix incorrect change in IOBinding that prevented printing. Augment IOBinding htest to include all major IOBinding functions.

bpo-25905 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25905]: Revert unwanted conversion of ' to ’ RIGHT SINGLE QUOTATION MARK in README.txt and open this and NEWS.txt with 'ascii'. Re-encode CREDITS.txt to utf-8 and open it with 'utf-8'.

bpo-15348 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15348]: Stop the debugger engine (normally in a user process) before closing the debugger window (running in the IDLE process). This prevents the RuntimeErrors that were being caught and ignored.

bpo-24455 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24455]: Prevent IDLE from hanging when a) closing the shell while the debugger is active (15347); b) closing the debugger with the [X] button (15348); and c) activating the debugger when already active (24455). The patch by Mark Roseman does this by making two changes. 1. Suspend and resume the gui.interaction method with the tcl vwait mechanism intended for this purpose (instead of root.mainloop & .quit). 2. In gui.run, allow any existing interaction to terminate first.

Change 'The program' to 'Your program' in an IDLE 'kill program?' message to make it clearer that the program referred to is the currently running user program, not IDLE itself.

bpo-24750 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24750]: Improve the appearance of the IDLE editor window status bar. Patch by Mark Roseman.

bpo-25313 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25313]: Change the handling of new built-in text color themes to better address the compatibility problem introduced by the addition of IDLE Dark. Consistently use the revised idleConf.CurrentTheme everywhere in idlelib.

bpo-24782 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24782]: Extension configuration is now a tab in the IDLE Preferences dialog rather than a separate dialog. The former tabs are now a sorted list. Patch by Mark Roseman.

bpo-22726 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22726]: Re-activate the config dialog help button with some content about the other buttons and the new IDLE Dark theme.

bpo-24820 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24820]: IDLE now has an 'IDLE Dark' built-in text color theme. It is more or less IDLE Classic inverted, with a cobalt blue background. Strings, comments, keywords, ... are still green, red, orange, ... . To use it with IDLEs released before November 2015, hit the 'Save as New Custom Theme' button and enter a new name, such as 'Custom Dark'. The custom theme will work with any IDLE release, and can be modified.

bpo-25224 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25224]: README.txt is now an idlelib index for IDLE developers and curious users. The previous user content is now in the IDLE doc chapter. 'IDLE' now means 'Integrated Development and Learning Environment'.

bpo-24820 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24820]: Users can now set breakpoint colors in Settings -> Custom Highlighting. Original patch by Mark Roseman.

bpo-24972 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24972]: Inactive selection background now matches active selection background, as configured by users, on all systems. Found items are now always highlighted on Windows. Initial patch by Mark Roseman.

bpo-24570 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24570]: Idle: make calltip and completion boxes appear on Macs affected by a tk regression. Initial patch by Mark Roseman.

bpo-24988 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24988]: Idle ScrolledList context menus (used in debugger) now work on Mac Aqua. Patch by Mark Roseman.

bpo-24801 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24801]: Make right-click for context menu work on Mac Aqua. Patch by Mark Roseman.

bpo-25173 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25173]: Associate tkinter messageboxes with a specific widget. For Mac OSX, make them a 'sheet'. Patch by Mark Roseman.

bpo-25198 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25198]: Enhance the initial html viewer now used for Idle Help. Properly indent fixed-pitch text (patch by Mark Roseman). Give code snippet a very Sphinx-like light blueish-gray background. Re-use initial width and height set by users for shell and editor. When the Table of Contents (TOC) menu is used, put the section header at the top of the screen.

bpo-25225 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25225]: Condense and rewrite Idle doc section on text colors.

bpo-21995 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21995]: Explain some differences between IDLE and console Python.

bpo-22820 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22820]: Explain need for print when running file from Idle editor.

bpo-25224 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25224]: Doc: augment Idle feature list and no-subprocess section.

bpo-25219 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25219]: Update doc for Idle command line options. Some were missing and notes were not correct.

bpo-24861 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24861]: Most of idlelib is private and subject to change. Use idleib.idle.* to start Idle. See idlelib.__init__.__doc__.

bpo-25199 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25199]: Idle: add synchronization comments for future maintainers.

bpo-16893 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16893]: Replace help.txt with help.html for Idle doc display. The new idlelib/help.html is rstripped Doc/build/html/library/idle.html. It looks better than help.txt and will better document Idle as released. The tkinter html viewer that works for this file was written by Rose Roseman. The now unused EditorWindow.HelpDialog class and helt.txt file are deprecated.

bpo-24199 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24199]: Deprecate unused idlelib.idlever with possible removal in 3.6.

bpo-24790 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24790]: Remove extraneous code (which also create 2 & 3 conflicts).

Documentation

bpo-26736 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26736]: Used HTTPS for external links in the documentation if possible.

bpo-6953 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6953]: Rework the Readline module documentation to group related functions together, and add more details such as what underlying Readline functions and variables are accessed.

bpo-23606 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23606]: Adds note to ctypes documentation regarding cdll.msvcrt.

bpo-24952 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24952]: Clarify the default size argument of stack_size() in the "threading" and "_thread" modules. Patch from Mattip.

bpo-26014 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26014]: Update 3.x packaging documentation: * "See also" links to the new docs are now provided in the legacy pages * links to setuptools documentation have been updated

Tests

bpo-21916 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21916]: Added tests for the turtle module. Patch by ingrid, Gregory Loyse and Jelle Zijlstra.

bpo-26295 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26295]: When using "python3 -m test --testdir=TESTDIR", regrtest doesn't add "test." prefix to test module names.

bpo-26523 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26523]: The multiprocessing thread pool (multiprocessing.dummy.Pool) was untested.

bpo-26015 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26015]: Added new tests for pickling iterators of mutable sequences.

bpo-26325 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26325]: Added test.support.check_no_resource_warning() to check that no ResourceWarning is emitted.

bpo-25940 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25940]: Changed test_ssl to use its internal local server more. This avoids relying on svn.python.org, which recently changed root certificate.

bpo-25616 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25616]: Tests for OrderedDict are extracted from test_collections into separate file test_ordered_dict.

bpo-25449 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25449]: Added tests for OrderedDict subclasses.

bpo-25188 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25188]: Add -P/--pgo to test.regrtest to suppress error output when running the test suite for the purposes of a PGO build. Initial patch by Alecsandru Patrascu.

bpo-22806 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22806]: Add python -m test --list-tests command to list tests.

bpo-18174 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18174]: python -m test --huntrleaks ... now also checks for leak of file descriptors. Patch written by Richard Oudkerk.

bpo-25260 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25260]: Fix python -m test --coverage on Windows. Remove the list of ignored directories.

PCbuild\rt.bat now accepts an unlimited number of arguments to pass along to regrtest.py. Previously there was a limit of 9.

bpo-26583 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26583]: Skip test_timestamp_overflow in test_import if bytecode files cannot be written.

Build

bpo-21277 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21277]: Don't try to link _ctypes with a ffi_convenience library.

bpo-26884 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26884]: Fix linking extension modules for cross builds. Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

bpo-26932 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26932]: Fixed support of RTLD_* constants defined as enum values, not via macros (in particular on Android). Patch by Chi Hsuan Yen.

bpo-22359 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22359]: Disable the rules for running _freeze_importlib and pgen when cross-compiling. The output of these programs is normally saved with the source code anyway, and is still regenerated when doing a native build. Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

bpo-21668 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21668]: Link audioop, _datetime, _ctypes_test modules to libm, except on Mac OS X. Patch written by Chi Hsuan Yen.

bpo-25702 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25702]: A --with-lto configure option has been added that will enable link time optimizations at build time during a make profile-opt. Some compilers and toolchains are known to not produce stable code when using LTO, be sure to test things thoroughly before relying on it. It can provide a few % speed up over profile-opt alone.

bpo-26624 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26624]: Adds validation of ucrtbase[d].dll version with warning for old versions.

bpo-17603 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17603]: Avoid error about nonexistent fileblocks.o file by using a lower-level check for st_blocks in struct stat.

bpo-26079 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26079]: Fixing the build output folder for tix-8.4.3.6. Patch by Bjoern Thiel.

bpo-26465 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26465]: Update Windows builds to use OpenSSL 1.0.2g.

bpo-25348 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25348]: Added --pgo and --pgo-job arguments to PCbuild\build.bat for building with Profile-Guided Optimization. The old PCbuild\build_pgo.bat script is removed.

bpo-25827 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25827]: Add support for building with ICC to configure, including a new --with-icc flag.

bpo-25696 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25696]: Fix installation of Python on UNIX with make -j9.

bpo-24986 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24986]: It is now possible to build Python on Windows without errors when external libraries are not available.

bpo-24421 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24421]: Compile Modules/_math.c once, before building extensions. Previously it could fail to compile properly if the math and cmath builds were concurrent.

bpo-26465 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26465]: Update OS X 10.5+ 32-bit-only installer to build and link with OpenSSL 1.0.2g.

bpo-26268 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26268]: Update Windows builds to use OpenSSL 1.0.2f.

bpo-25136 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25136]: Support Apple Xcode 7's new textual SDK stub libraries.

bpo-24324 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24324]: Do not enable unreachable code warnings when using gcc as the option does not work correctly in older versions of gcc and has been silently removed as of gcc-4.5.

Windows

bpo-27053 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27053]: Updates make_zip.py to correctly generate library ZIP file.

bpo-26268 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26268]: Update the prepare_ssl.py script to handle OpenSSL releases that don't include the contents of the include directory (that is, 1.0.2e and later).

bpo-26071 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26071]: bdist_wininst created binaries fail to start and find 32bit Python

bpo-26073 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26073]: Update the list of magic numbers in launcher

bpo-26065 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26065]: Excludes venv from library when generating embeddable distro.

bpo-25022 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25022]: Removed very outdated PC/example_nt/ directory.

Tools/Demos

bpo-26799 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26799]: Fix python-gdb.py: don't get C types once when the Python code is loaded, but get C types on demand. The C types can change if python-gdb.py is loaded before the Python executable. Patch written by Thomas Ilsche.

bpo-26271 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26271]: Fix the Freeze tool to properly use flags passed through configure. Patch by Daniel Shaulov.

bpo-26489 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26489]: Add dictionary unpacking support to Tools/parser/unparse.py. Patch by Guo Ci Teo.

bpo-26316 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26316]: Fix variable name typo in Argument Clinic.

bpo-25440 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25440]: Fix output of python-config --extension-suffix.

bpo-25154 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25154]: The pyvenv script has been deprecated in favour of python3 -m venv.

C API

bpo-26312 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26312]: SystemError is now raised in all programming bugs with using PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(). RuntimeError did raised before in some programming bugs.

bpo-26198 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26198]: ValueError is now raised instead of TypeError on buffer overflow in parsing "es#" and "et#" format units. SystemError is now raised instead of TypeError on programmatical error in parsing format string.

Python 3.5.5 final

Release date: 2018-02-04

There were no new changes in version 3.5.5.

Python 3.5.5 release candidate 1

Release date: 2018-01-23

Security

bpo-32551 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32551]: The sys.path[0] initialization change for bpo-29139 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29139] caused a regression by revealing an inconsistency in how sys.path is initialized when executing __main__ from a zipfile, directory, or other import location. This is considered a potential security issue, as it may lead to privileged processes unexpectedly loading code from user controlled directories in situations where that was not previously the case. The interpreter now consistently avoids ever adding the import location's parent directory to sys.path, and ensures no other sys.path entries are inadvertently modified when inserting the import location named on the command line. (Originally reported as bpo-29723 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29723] against Python 3.6rc1, but it was missed at the time that the then upcoming Python 3.5.4 release would also be affected)

bpo-30657 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30657]: Fixed possible integer overflow in PyBytes_DecodeEscape, CVE 2017-1000158 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2017-1000158]. Original patch by Jay Bosamiya; rebased to Python 3 by Miro Hrončok.

bpo-30947 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30947]: Upgrade libexpat embedded copy from version 2.2.1 to 2.2.3 to get security fixes.

Core and Builtins

bpo-31095 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31095]: Fix potential crash during GC caused by tp_dealloc which doesn't call PyObject_GC_UnTrack().

Library

bpo-32072 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32072]: Fixed issues with binary plists: Fixed saving bytearrays. Identical objects will be saved only once. Equal references will be load as identical objects. Added support for saving and loading recursive data structures.

bpo-31170 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31170]: expat: Update libexpat from 2.2.3 to 2.2.4. Fix copying of partial characters for UTF-8 input (libexpat bug 115): https://github.com/libexpat/libexpat/issues/115

Python 3.5.4 final

Release date: 2017-08-07

Library

bpo-30119 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30119]: ftplib.FTP.putline() now throws ValueError on commands that contains CR or LF. Patch by Donghee Na.

Python 3.5.4 release candidate 1

Release date: 2017-07-23

Security

bpo-30730 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30730]: Prevent environment variables injection in subprocess on Windows. Prevent passing other environment variables and command arguments.

bpo-30694 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30694]: Upgrade expat copy from 2.2.0 to 2.2.1 to get fixes of multiple security vulnerabilities including: CVE 2017-9233 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2017-9233] (External entity infinite loop DoS), CVE 2016-9063 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-9063] (Integer overflow, re-fix), CVE 2016-0718 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718] (Fix regression bugs from 2.2.0's fix to CVE 2016-0718 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718]) and CVE 2012-0876 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2012-0876] (Counter hash flooding with SipHash). Note: the CVE 2016-5300 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-5300] (Use os-specific entropy sources like getrandom) doesn't impact Python, since Python already gets entropy from the OS to set the expat secret using XML_SetHashSalt().

bpo-30500 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30500]: Fix urllib.parse.splithost() to correctly parse fragments. For example, splithost('//127.0.0.1#@evil.com/') now correctly returns the 127.0.0.1 host, instead of treating @evil.com as the host in an authentication (login@host).

bpo-29591 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29591]: Update expat copy from 2.1.1 to 2.2.0 to get fixes of CVE 2016-0718 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718] and CVE 2016-4472 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-4472]. See https://sourceforge.net/p/expat/bugs/537/ for more information.

Core and Builtins

bpo-30876 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30876]: Relative import from unloaded package now reimports the package instead of failing with SystemError. Relative import from non-package now fails with ImportError rather than SystemError.

bpo-30765 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30765]: Avoid blocking in pthread_mutex_lock() when PyThread_acquire_lock() is asked not to block.

bpo-27945 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27945]: Fixed various segfaults with dict when input collections are mutated during searching, inserting or comparing. Based on patches by Duane Griffin and Tim Mitchell.

bpo-25794 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25794]: Fixed type.__setattr__() and type.__delattr__() for non-interned attribute names. Based on patch by Eryk Sun.

bpo-29935 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29935]: Fixed error messages in the index() method of tuple, list and deque when pass indices of wrong type.

bpo-28876 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28876]: bool(range) works even if len(range) raises OverflowError.

bpo-29600 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29600]: Fix wrapping coroutine return values in StopIteration.

bpo-29537 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29537]: Restore runtime compatibility with bytecode files generated by CPython 3.5.0 to 3.5.2, and adjust the eval loop to avoid the problems that could be caused by the malformed variant of the BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL opcode that they may contain. Patch by Petr Viktorin, Serhiy Storchaka, and Nick Coghlan.

bpo-28598 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28598]: Support __rmod__ for subclasses of str being called before str.__mod__. Patch by Martijn Pieters.

bpo-29602 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29602]: Fix incorrect handling of signed zeros in complex constructor for complex subclasses and for inputs having a __complex__ method. Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

bpo-29347 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29347]: Fixed possibly dereferencing undefined pointers when creating weakref objects.

bpo-29438 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29438]: Fixed use-after-free problem in key sharing dict.

bpo-29319 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29319]: Prevent RunMainFromImporter overwriting sys.path[0].

bpo-29337 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29337]: Fixed possible BytesWarning when compare the code objects. Warnings could be emitted at compile time.

bpo-29478 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29478]: If max_line_length=None is specified while using the Compat32 policy, it is no longer ignored. Patch by Mircea Cosbuc.

Library

bpo-29403 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29403]: Fix unittest.mock's autospec to not fail on method-bound builtin functions. Patch by Aaron Gallagher.

bpo-30961 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30961]: Fix decrementing a borrowed reference in tracemalloc.

bpo-30886 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30886]: Fix multiprocessing.Queue.join_thread(): it now waits until the thread completes, even if the thread was started by the same process which created the queue.

bpo-29854 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29854]: Fix segfault in readline when using readline's history-size option. Patch by Nir Soffer.

bpo-30807 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30807]: signal.setitimer() may disable the timer when passed a tiny value. Tiny values (such as 1e-6) are valid non-zero values for setitimer(), which is specified as taking microsecond-resolution intervals. However, on some platform, our conversion routine could convert 1e-6 into a zero interval, therefore disabling the timer instead of (re-)scheduling it.

bpo-30441 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30441]: Fix bug when modifying os.environ while iterating over it

bpo-30532 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30532]: Fix email header value parser dropping folding white space in certain cases.

bpo-29169 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29169]: Update zlib to 1.2.11.

bpo-30879 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30879]: os.listdir() and os.scandir() now emit bytes names when called with bytes-like argument.

bpo-30746 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30746]: Prohibited the '=' character in environment variable names in os.putenv() and os.spawn*().

bpo-29755 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29755]: Fixed the lgettext() family of functions in the gettext module. They now always return bytes.

bpo-30645 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30645]: Fix path calculation in imp.load_package(), fixing it for cases when a package is only shipped with bytecodes. Patch by Alexandru Ardelean.

bpo-23890 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23890]: unittest.TestCase.assertRaises() now manually breaks a reference cycle to not keep objects alive longer than expected.

bpo-30149 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30149]: inspect.signature() now supports callables with variable-argument parameters wrapped with partialmethod. Patch by Donghee Na.

bpo-29931 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29931]: Fixed comparison check for ipaddress.ip_interface objects. Patch by Sanjay Sundaresan.

bpo-24484 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24484]: Avoid race condition in multiprocessing cleanup.

bpo-28994 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28994]: The traceback no longer displayed for SystemExit raised in a callback registered by atexit.

bpo-30508 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30508]: Don't log exceptions if Task/Future "cancel()" method was called.

bpo-28556 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556]: Updates to typing module: Add generic AsyncContextManager, add support for ContextManager on all versions. Original PRs by Jelle Zijlstra and Ivan Levkivskyi

bpo-29870 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29870]: Fix ssl sockets leaks when connection is aborted in asyncio/ssl implementation. Patch by Michaël Sghaïer.

bpo-29743 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29743]: Closing transport during handshake process leaks open socket. Patch by Nikolay Kim

bpo-27585 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27585]: Fix waiter cancellation in asyncio.Lock. Patch by Mathieu Sornay.

bpo-30418 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30418]: On Windows, subprocess.Popen.communicate() now also ignore EINVAL on stdin.write() if the child process is still running but closed the pipe.

bpo-30378 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30378]: Fix the problem that logging.handlers.SysLogHandler cannot handle IPv6 addresses.

bpo-29960 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29960]: Preserve generator state when _random.Random.setstate() raises an exception. Patch by Bryan Olson.

bpo-30414 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30414]: multiprocessing.Queue._feed background running thread do not break from main loop on exception.

bpo-30003 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30003]: Fix handling escape characters in HZ codec. Based on patch by Ma Lin.

bpo-30301 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30301]: Fix AttributeError when using SimpleQueue.empty() under spawn and forkserver start methods.

bpo-30329 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30329]: imaplib and poplib now catch the Windows socket WSAEINVAL error (code 10022) on shutdown(SHUT_RDWR): An invalid operation was attempted. This error occurs sometimes on SSL connections.

bpo-30375 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30375]: Warnings emitted when compile a regular expression now always point to the line in the user code. Previously they could point into inners of the re module if emitted from inside of groups or conditionals.

bpo-30048 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30048]: Fixed Task.cancel() can be ignored when the task is running coroutine and the coroutine returned without any more await.

bpo-29990 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29990]: Fix range checking in GB18030 decoder. Original patch by Ma Lin.

bpo-26293 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26293]: Change resulted because of zipfile breakage. (See also: bpo-29094 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29094])

bpo-30243 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30243]: Removed the __init__ methods of _json's scanner and encoder. Misusing them could cause memory leaks or crashes. Now scanner and encoder objects are completely initialized in the __new__ methods.

bpo-30185 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30185]: Avoid KeyboardInterrupt tracebacks in forkserver helper process when Ctrl-C is received.

bpo-28556 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556]: Various updates to typing module: add typing.NoReturn type, use WrapperDescriptorType, minor bug-fixes. Original PRs by Jim Fasarakis-Hilliard and Ivan Levkivskyi.

bpo-30205 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30205]: Fix getsockname() for unbound AF_UNIX sockets on Linux.

bpo-30070 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30070]: Fixed leaks and crashes in errors handling in the parser module.

bpo-30061 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30061]: Fixed crashes in IOBase methods __next__() and readlines() when readline() or __next__() respectively return non-sizeable object. Fixed possible other errors caused by not checking results of PyObject_Size(), PySequence_Size(), or PyMapping_Size().

bpo-30068 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30068]: _io._IOBase.readlines will check if it's closed first when hint is present.

bpo-29694 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29694]: Fixed race condition in pathlib mkdir with flags parents=True. Patch by Armin Rigo.

bpo-29692 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29692]: Fixed arbitrary unchaining of RuntimeError exceptions in contextlib.contextmanager. Patch by Siddharth Velankar.

bpo-29998 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29998]: Pickling and copying ImportError now preserves name and path attributes.

bpo-29942 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29942]: Fix a crash in itertools.chain.from_iterable when encountering long runs of empty iterables.

bpo-27863 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27863]: Fixed multiple crashes in ElementTree caused by race conditions and wrong types.

bpo-28699 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28699]: Fixed a bug in pools in multiprocessing.pool that raising an exception at the very first of an iterable may swallow the exception or make the program hang. Patch by Davin Potts and Xiang Zhang.

bpo-25803 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25803]: Avoid incorrect errors raised by Path.mkdir(exist_ok=True) when the OS gives priority to errors such as EACCES over EEXIST.

bpo-29861 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29861]: Release references to tasks, their arguments and their results as soon as they are finished in multiprocessing.Pool.

bpo-29884 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29884]: faulthandler: Restore the old sigaltstack during teardown. Patch by Christophe Zeitouny.

bpo-25455 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25455]: Fixed crashes in repr of recursive buffered file-like objects.

bpo-29800 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29800]: Fix crashes in partial.__repr__ if the keys of partial.keywords are not strings. Patch by Michael Seifert.

bpo-29742 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29742]: get_extra_info() raises exception if get called on closed ssl transport. Patch by Nikolay Kim.

bpo-8256 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8256]: Fixed possible failing or crashing input() if attributes "encoding" or "errors" of sys.stdin or sys.stdout are not set or are not strings.

bpo-28298 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28298]: Fix a bug that prevented array 'Q', 'L' and 'I' from accepting big intables (objects that have __int__) as elements. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-29615 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29615]: SimpleXMLRPCDispatcher no longer chains KeyError (or any other exception) to exception(s) raised in the dispatched methods. Patch by Petr Motejlek.

bpo-29704 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29704]: asyncio.subprocess.SubprocessStreamProtocol no longer closes before all pipes are closed.

bpo-29703 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29703]: Fix asyncio to support instantiation of new event loops in child processes.

bpo-29376 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29376]: Fix assertion error in threading._DummyThread.is_alive().

bpo-29110 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29110]: Fix file object leak in aifc.open() when file is given as a filesystem path and is not in valid AIFF format. Patch by Anthony Zhang.

bpo-28961 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28961]: Fix unittest.mock._Call helper: don't ignore the name parameter anymore. Patch written by Jiajun Huang.

bpo-29532 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29532]: Altering a kwarg dictionary passed to functools.partial() no longer affects a partial object after creation.

bpo-28556 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556]: Various updates to typing module: typing.Counter, typing.ChainMap, improved ABC caching, etc. Original PRs by Jelle Zijlstra, Ivan Levkivskyi, Manuel Krebber, and Łukasz Langa.

bpo-29100 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29100]: Fix datetime.fromtimestamp() regression introduced in Python 3.6.0: check minimum and maximum years.

bpo-29519 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29519]: Fix weakref spewing exceptions during interpreter shutdown when used with a rare combination of multiprocessing and custom codecs.

bpo-29416 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29416]: Prevent infinite loop in pathlib.Path.mkdir

bpo-29444 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29444]: Fixed out-of-bounds buffer access in the group() method of the match object. Based on patch by WGH.

bpo-29335 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29335]: Fix subprocess.Popen.wait() when the child process has exited to a stopped instead of terminated state (ex: when under ptrace).

bpo-29290 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29290]: Fix a regression in argparse that help messages would wrap at non-breaking spaces.

bpo-28735 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28735]: Fixed the comparison of mock.MagickMock with mock.ANY.

bpo-29011 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29011]: Fix an important omission by adding Deque to the typing module.

bpo-29219 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29219]: Fixed infinite recursion in the repr of uninitialized ctypes.CDLL instances.

bpo-28969 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28969]: Fixed race condition in C implementation of functools.lru_cache. KeyError could be raised when cached function with full cache was simultaneously called from different threads with the same uncached arguments.

bpo-29142 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29142]: In urllib.request, suffixes in no_proxy environment variable with leading dots could match related hostnames again (e.g. .b.c matches a.b.c). Patch by Milan Oberkirch.

Documentation

bpo-30176 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30176]: Add missing attribute related constants in curses documentation.

bpo-26985 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26985]: Add missing info of code object in inspect documentation.

bpo-28929 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28929]: Link the documentation to its source file on GitHub.

bpo-25008 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25008]: Document smtpd.py as effectively deprecated and add a pointer to aiosmtpd, a third-party asyncio-based replacement.

bpo-26355 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26355]: Add canonical header link on each page to corresponding major version of the documentation. Patch by Matthias Bussonnier.

bpo-29349 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29349]: Fix Python 2 syntax in code for building the documentation.

Tests

bpo-30822 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30822]: Fix regrtest command line parser to allow passing -u extralargefile to run test_zipfile64.

bpo-30383 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30383]: regrtest: Enhance regrtest and backport features from the master branch. Add options: --coverage, --testdir, --list-tests (list test files, don't run them), --list-cases (list test identifiers, don't run them, bpo-30523 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30523]), --matchfile (load a list of test filters from a text file, bpo-30540 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30540]), --slowest (alias to --slow). Enhance output: add timestamp, test result, currently running tests, "Tests result: xxx" summary with total duration, etc. Fix reference leak hunting in regrtest, --huntrleaks: regrtest now warms up caches, create explicitly all internal singletons which are created on demand to prevent false positives when checking for reference leaks. (bpo-30675 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30675]).

bpo-30357 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30357]: test_thread: setUp() now uses support.threading_setup() and support.threading_cleanup() to wait until threads complete to avoid random side effects on following tests. Initial patch written by Grzegorz Grzywacz.

bpo-28087 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28087]: Skip test_asyncore and test_eintr poll failures on macOS. Skip some tests of select.poll when running on macOS due to unresolved issues with the underlying system poll function on some macOS versions.

bpo-30197 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30197]: Enhanced functions swap_attr() and swap_item() in the test.support module. They now work when delete replaced attribute or item inside the with statement. The old value of the attribute or item (or None if it doesn't exist) now will be assigned to the target of the "as" clause, if there is one.

bpo-29571 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29571]: to match the behaviour of the re.LOCALE flag, test_re.test_locale_flag now uses locale.getpreferredencoding(False) to determine the candidate encoding for the test regex (allowing it to correctly skip the test when the default locale encoding is a multi-byte encoding)

Build

bpo-29243 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29243]: Prevent unnecessary rebuilding of Python during make test, make install and some other make targets when configured with --enable-optimizations.

bpo-23404 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404]: Don't regenerate generated files based on file modification time anymore: the action is now explicit. Replace make touch with make regen-all.

bpo-29643 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29643]: Fix --enable-optimization didn't work.

Windows

bpo-30687 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30687]: Locate msbuild.exe on Windows when building rather than vcvarsall.bat

bpo-29392 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29392]: Prevent crash when passing invalid arguments into msvcrt module.

C API

bpo-27867 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27867]: Function PySlice_GetIndicesEx() is replaced with a macro if Py_LIMITED_API is set to the value between 0x03050400 and 0x03060000 (not including) or 0x03060100 or higher.

bpo-29083 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29083]: Fixed the declaration of some public API functions. PyArg_VaParse() and PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords() were not available in limited API. PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments(), PyArg_UnpackTuple() and Py_BuildValue() were not available in limited API of version < 3.3 when PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN is defined.

Python 3.5.3 final

Release date: 2017-01-17

There were no code changes between 3.5.3rc1 and 3.5.3 final.

Python 3.5.3 release candidate 1

Release date: 2017-01-02

Security

bpo-27278 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27278]: Fix os.urandom() implementation using getrandom() on Linux. Truncate size to INT_MAX and loop until we collected enough random bytes, instead of casting a directly Py_ssize_t to int.

bpo-22636 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22636]: Avoid shell injection problems with ctypes.util.find_library().

Core and Builtins

bpo-29073 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29073]: bytearray formatting no longer truncates on first null byte.

bpo-28932 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28932]: Do not include <sys/random.h> if it does not exist.

bpo-28147 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28147]: Fix a memory leak in split-table dictionaries: setattr() must not convert combined table into split table.

bpo-25677 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25677]: Correct the positioning of the syntax error caret for indented blocks. Based on patch by Michael Layzell.

bpo-29000 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29000]: Fixed bytes formatting of octals with zero padding in alternate form.

bpo-28512 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28512]: Fixed setting the offset attribute of SyntaxError by PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx() and PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject().

bpo-28991 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28991]: functools.lru_cache() was susceptible to an obscure reentrancy bug caused by a monkey-patched len() function.

bpo-28648 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28648]: Fixed crash in Py_DecodeLocale() in debug build on Mac OS X when decode astral characters. Patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-19398 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19398]: Extra slash no longer added to sys.path components in case of empty compile-time PYTHONPATH components.

bpo-28426 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28426]: Fixed potential crash in PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject() in debug build.

bpo-23782 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23782]: Fixed possible memory leak in _PyTraceback_Add() and exception loss in PyTraceBack_Here().

bpo-28379 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28379]: Added sanity checks and tests for PyUnicode_CopyCharacters(). Patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-28376 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28376]: The type of long range iterator is now registered as Iterator. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-28376 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28376]: The constructor of range_iterator now checks that step is not 0. Patch by Oren Milman.

bpo-26906 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26906]: Resolving special methods of uninitialized type now causes implicit initialization of the type instead of a fail.

bpo-18287 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18287]: PyType_Ready() now checks that tp_name is not NULL. Original patch by Niklas Koep.

bpo-24098 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24098]: Fixed possible crash when AST is changed in process of compiling it.

bpo-28350 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28350]: String constants with null character no longer interned.

bpo-26617 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26617]: Fix crash when GC runs during weakref callbacks.

bpo-27942 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27942]: String constants now interned recursively in tuples and frozensets.

bpo-21578 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21578]: Fixed misleading error message when ImportError called with invalid keyword args.

bpo-28203 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28203]: Fix incorrect type in error message from complex(1.0, {2:3}). Patch by Soumya Sharma.

bpo-27955 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27955]: Fallback on reading /dev/urandom device when the getrandom() syscall fails with EPERM, for example when blocked by SECCOMP.

bpo-28131 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28131]: Fix a regression in zipimport's compile_source(). zipimport should use the same optimization level as the interpreter.

bpo-25221 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25221]: Fix corrupted result from PyLong_FromLong(0) when Python is compiled with NSMALLPOSINTS = 0.

bpo-25758 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25758]: Prevents zipimport from unnecessarily encoding a filename (patch by Eryk Sun)

bpo-28189 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28189]: dictitems_contains no longer swallows compare errors. (Patch by Xiang Zhang)

bpo-27812 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27812]: Properly clear out a generator's frame's backreference to the generator to prevent crashes in frame.clear().

bpo-27811 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27811]: Fix a crash when a coroutine that has not been awaited is finalized with warnings-as-errors enabled.

bpo-27587 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27587]: Fix another issue found by PVS-Studio: Null pointer check after use of 'def' in _PyState_AddModule(). Initial patch by Christian Heimes.

bpo-26020 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26020]: set literal evaluation order did not match documented behaviour.

bpo-27782 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27782]: Multi-phase extension module import now correctly allows the m_methods field to be used to add module level functions to instances of non-module types returned from Py_create_mod. Patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-27936 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27936]: The round() function accepted a second None argument for some types but not for others. Fixed the inconsistency by accepting None for all numeric types.

bpo-27487 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27487]: Warn if a submodule argument to "python -m" or runpy.run_module() is found in sys.modules after parent packages are imported, but before the submodule is executed.

bpo-27558 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27558]: Fix a SystemError in the implementation of "raise" statement. In a brand new thread, raise a RuntimeError since there is no active exception to reraise. Patch written by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-27419 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27419]: Standard __import__() no longer look up "__import__" in globals or builtins for importing submodules or "from import". Fixed handling an error of non-string package name.

bpo-27083 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27083]: Respect the PYTHONCASEOK environment variable under Windows.

bpo-27514 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27514]: Make having too many statically nested blocks a SyntaxError instead of SystemError.

bpo-27473 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27473]: Fixed possible integer overflow in bytes and bytearray concatenations. Patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-27507 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27507]: Add integer overflow check in bytearray.extend(). Patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-27581 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27581]: Don't rely on wrapping for overflow check in PySequence_Tuple(). Patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-27443 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27443]: __length_hint__() of bytearray iterators no longer return a negative integer for a resized bytearray.

bpo-27942 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27942]: Fix memory leak in codeobject.c

Library

bpo-15812 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15812]: inspect.getframeinfo() now correctly shows the first line of a context. Patch by Sam Breese.

bpo-29094 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29094]: Offsets in a ZIP file created with extern file object and modes "w" and "x" now are relative to the start of the file.

bpo-13051 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13051]: Fixed recursion errors in large or resized curses.textpad.Textbox. Based on patch by Tycho Andersen.

bpo-29119 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29119]: Fix weakrefs in the pure python version of collections.OrderedDict move_to_end() method. Contributed by Andra Bogildea.

bpo-9770 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9770]: curses.ascii predicates now work correctly with negative integers.

bpo-28427 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28427]: old keys should not remove new values from WeakValueDictionary when collecting from another thread.

bpo-28923 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28923]: Remove editor artifacts from Tix.py.

bpo-28871 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28871]: Fixed a crash when deallocate deep ElementTree.

bpo-19542 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19542]: Fix bugs in WeakValueDictionary.setdefault() and WeakValueDictionary.pop() when a GC collection happens in another thread.

bpo-20191 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20191]: Fixed a crash in resource.prlimit() when pass a sequence that doesn't own its elements as limits.

bpo-28779 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28779]: multiprocessing.set_forkserver_preload() would crash the forkserver process if a preloaded module instantiated some multiprocessing objects such as locks.

bpo-28847 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28847]: dbm.dumb now supports reading read-only files and no longer writes the index file when it is not changed.

bpo-25659 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25659]: In ctypes, prevent a crash calling the from_buffer() and from_buffer_copy() methods on abstract classes like Array.

bpo-28732 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28732]: Fix crash in os.spawnv() with no elements in args

bpo-28485 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28485]: Always raise ValueError for negative compileall.compile_dir(workers=...) parameter, even when multithreading is unavailable.

bpo-28387 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28387]: Fixed possible crash in _io.TextIOWrapper deallocator when the garbage collector is invoked in other thread. Based on patch by Sebastian Cufre.

bpo-27517 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27517]: LZMA compressor and decompressor no longer raise exceptions if given empty data twice. Patch by Benjamin Fogle.

bpo-28549 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28549]: Fixed segfault in curses's addch() with ncurses6.

bpo-28449 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28449]: tarfile.open() with mode "r" or "r:" now tries to open a tar file with compression before trying to open it without compression. Otherwise it had 50% chance failed with ignore_zeros=True.

bpo-23262 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23262]: The webbrowser module now supports Firefox 36+ and derived browsers. Based on patch by Oleg Broytman.

bpo-27939 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27939]: Fixed bugs in tkinter.ttk.LabeledScale and tkinter.Scale caused by representing the scale as float value internally in Tk. tkinter.IntVar now works if float value is set to underlying Tk variable.

bpo-28255 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28255]: calendar.TextCalendar().prmonth() no longer prints a space at the start of new line after printing a month's calendar. Patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-20491 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20491]: The textwrap.TextWrapper class now honors non-breaking spaces. Based on patch by Kaarle Ritvanen.

bpo-28353 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28353]: os.fwalk() no longer fails on broken links.

bpo-25464 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25464]: Fixed HList.header_exists() in tkinter.tix module by addin a workaround to Tix library bug.

bpo-28488 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28488]: shutil.make_archive() no longer add entry "./" to ZIP archive.

bpo-24452 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24452]: Make webbrowser support Chrome on Mac OS X.

bpo-20766 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20766]: Fix references leaked by pdb in the handling of SIGINT handlers.

bpo-26293 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26293]: Fixed writing ZIP files that starts not from the start of the file. Offsets in ZIP file now are relative to the start of the archive in conforming to the specification.

bpo-28321 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28321]: Fixed writing non-BMP characters with binary format in plistlib.

bpo-28322 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28322]: Fixed possible crashes when unpickle itertools objects from incorrect pickle data. Based on patch by John Leitch.

Fix possible integer overflows and crashes in the mmap module with unusual usage patterns.

bpo-1703178 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1703178]: Fix the ability to pass the --link-objects option to the distutils build_ext command.

bpo-28253 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28253]: Fixed calendar functions for extreme months: 0001-01 and 9999-12. Methods itermonthdays() and itermonthdays2() are reimplemented so that they don't call itermonthdates() which can cause datetime.date under/overflow.

bpo-28275 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28275]: Fixed possible use after free in the decompress() methods of the LZMADecompressor and BZ2Decompressor classes. Original patch by John Leitch.

bpo-27897 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27897]: Fixed possible crash in sqlite3.Connection.create_collation() if pass invalid string-like object as a name. Patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-18893 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18893]: Fix invalid exception handling in Lib/ctypes/macholib/dyld.py. Patch by Madison May.

bpo-27611 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27611]: Fixed support of default root window in the tkinter.tix module.

bpo-27348 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27348]: In the traceback module, restore the formatting of exception messages like "Exception: None". This fixes a regression introduced in 3.5a2.

bpo-25651 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25651]: Allow false values to be used for msg parameter of subTest().

bpo-27932 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27932]: Prevent memory leak in win32_ver().

Fix UnboundLocalError in socket._sendfile_use_sendfile.

bpo-28075 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28075]: Check for ERROR_ACCESS_DENIED in Windows implementation of os.stat(). Patch by Eryk Sun.

bpo-25270 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25270]: Prevent codecs.escape_encode() from raising SystemError when an empty bytestring is passed.

bpo-28181 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28181]: Get antigravity over HTTPS. Patch by Kaartic Sivaraam.

bpo-25895 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25895]: Enable WebSocket URL schemes in urllib.parse.urljoin. Patch by Gergely Imreh and Markus Holtermann.

bpo-27599 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27599]: Fixed buffer overrun in binascii.b2a_qp() and binascii.a2b_qp().

bpo-19003 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19003]: m email.generator now replaces only \r and/or \n line endings, per the RFC, instead of all unicode line endings.

bpo-28019 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28019]: itertools.count() no longer rounds non-integer step in range between 1.0 and 2.0 to 1.

bpo-25969 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25969]: Update the lib2to3 grammar to handle the unpacking generalizations added in 3.5.

bpo-14977 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14977]: mailcap now respects the order of the lines in the mailcap files ("first match"), as required by RFC 1542. Patch by Michael Lazar.

bpo-24594 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24594]: Validates persist parameter when opening MSI database

bpo-17582 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17582]: xml.etree.ElementTree nows preserves whitespaces in attributes (Patch by Duane Griffin. Reviewed and approved by Stefan Behnel.)

bpo-28047 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28047]: Fixed calculation of line length used for the base64 CTE in the new email policies.

bpo-27445 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27445]: Don't pass str(_charset) to MIMEText.set_payload(). Patch by Claude Paroz.

bpo-22450 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22450]: urllib now includes an Accept: */* header among the default headers. This makes the results of REST API requests more consistent and predictable especially when proxy servers are involved.

lib2to3.pgen3.driver.load_grammar() now creates a stable cache file between runs given the same Grammar.txt input regardless of the hash randomization setting.

bpo-27570 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27570]: Avoid zero-length memcpy() etc calls with null source pointers in the "ctypes" and "array" modules.

bpo-22233 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22233]: Break email header lines only on the RFC specified CR and LF characters, not on arbitrary unicode line breaks. This also fixes a bug in HTTP header parsing.

bpo-27988 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27988]: Fix email iter_attachments incorrect mutation of payload list.

bpo-27691 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27691]: Fix ssl module's parsing of GEN_RID subject alternative name fields in X.509 certs.

bpo-27850 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27850]: Remove 3DES from ssl module's default cipher list to counter measure sweet32 attack (CVE 2016-2183 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-2183]).

bpo-27766 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27766]: Add ChaCha20 Poly1305 to ssl module's default cipher list. (Required OpenSSL 1.1.0 or LibreSSL).

bpo-26470 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26470]: Port ssl and hashlib module to OpenSSL 1.1.0.

Remove support for passing a file descriptor to os.access. It never worked but previously didn't raise.

bpo-12885 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12885]: Fix error when distutils encounters symlink.

bpo-27881 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27881]: Fixed possible bugs when setting sqlite3.Connection.isolation_level. Based on patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-27861 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27861]: Fixed a crash in sqlite3.Connection.cursor() when a factory creates not a cursor. Patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-19884 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19884]: Avoid spurious output on OS X with Gnu Readline.

bpo-27706 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27706]: Restore deterministic behavior of random.Random().seed() for string seeds using seeding version 1. Allows sequences of calls to random() to exactly match those obtained in Python 2. Patch by Nofar Schnider.

bpo-10513 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10513]: Fix a regression in Connection.commit(). Statements should not be reset after a commit.

A new version of typing.py from https://github.com/python/typing: Collection (only for 3.6) (bpo-27598 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27598]). Add FrozenSet to __all__ (upstream #261). Fix crash in _get_type_vars() (upstream #259). Remove the dict constraint in ForwardRef._eval_type (upstream #252).

bpo-27539 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27539]: Fix unnormalised Fraction.__pow__ result in the case of negative exponent and negative base.

bpo-21718 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21718]: cursor.description is now available for queries using CTEs.

bpo-2466 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2466]: posixpath.ismount now correctly recognizes mount points which the user does not have permission to access.

bpo-27773 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27773]: Correct some memory management errors server_hostname in _ssl.wrap_socket().

bpo-26750 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26750]: unittest.mock.create_autospec() now works properly for subclasses of property() and other data descriptors.

In the curses module, raise an error if window.getstr() or window.instr() is passed a negative value.

bpo-27783 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27783]: Fix possible usage of uninitialized memory in operator.methodcaller.

bpo-27774 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27774]: Fix possible Py_DECREF on unowned object in _sre.

bpo-27760 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27760]: Fix possible integer overflow in binascii.b2a_qp.

bpo-27758 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27758]: Fix possible integer overflow in the _csv module for large record lengths.

bpo-27568 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27568]: Prevent HTTPoxy attack (CVE 2016-1000110 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-1000110]). Ignore the HTTP_PROXY variable when REQUEST_METHOD environment is set, which indicates that the script is in CGI mode.

bpo-27656 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27656]: Do not assume sched.h defines any SCHED_* constants.

bpo-27130 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27130]: In the "zlib" module, fix handling of large buffers (typically 4 GiB) when compressing and decompressing. Previously, inputs were limited to 4 GiB, and compression and decompression operations did not properly handle results of 4 GiB.

bpo-27533 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27533]: Release GIL in nt._isdir

bpo-17711 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17711]: Fixed unpickling by the persistent ID with protocol 0. Original patch by Alexandre Vassalotti.

bpo-27522 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27522]: Avoid an unintentional reference cycle in email.feedparser.

bpo-26844 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26844]: Fix error message for imp.find_module() to refer to 'path' instead of 'name'. Patch by Lev Maximov.

bpo-23804 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23804]: Fix SSL zero-length recv() calls to not block and not raise an error about unclean EOF.

bpo-27466 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27466]: Change time format returned by http.cookie.time2netscape, confirming the netscape cookie format and making it consistent with documentation.

bpo-26664 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26664]: Fix activate.fish by removing mis-use of $.

bpo-22115 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22115]: Fixed tracing Tkinter variables: trace_vdelete() with wrong mode no longer break tracing, trace_vinfo() now always returns a list of pairs of strings, tracing in the "u" mode now works.

Fix a scoping issue in importlib.util.LazyLoader which triggered an UnboundLocalError when lazy-loading a module that was already put into sys.modules.

bpo-27079 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27079]: Fixed curses.ascii functions isblank(), iscntrl() and ispunct().

bpo-26754 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26754]: Some functions (compile() etc) accepted a filename argument encoded as an iterable of integers. Now only strings and byte-like objects are accepted.

bpo-27048 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27048]: Prevents distutils failing on Windows when environment variables contain non-ASCII characters

bpo-27330 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27330]: Fixed possible leaks in the ctypes module.

bpo-27238 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27238]: Got rid of bare excepts in the turtle module. Original patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

bpo-27122 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27122]: When an exception is raised within the context being managed by a contextlib.ExitStack() and one of the exit stack generators catches and raises it in a chain, do not re-raise the original exception when exiting, let the new chained one through. This avoids the PEP 479 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/] bug described in issue25782.

bpo-26386 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26386]: Fixed ttk.TreeView selection operations with item id's containing spaces.

bpo-16182 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16182]: Fix various functions in the "readline" module to use the locale encoding, and fix get_begidx() and get_endidx() to return code point indexes.

bpo-27392 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27392]: Add loop.connect_accepted_socket(). Patch by Jim Fulton.

bpo-27930 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27930]: Improved behaviour of logging.handlers.QueueListener. Thanks to Paulo Andrade and Petr Viktorin for the analysis and patch.

bpo-21201 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21201]: Improves readability of multiprocessing error message. Thanks to Wojciech Walczak for patch.

bpo-27456 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27456]: asyncio: Set TCP_NODELAY by default.

bpo-27906 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27906]: Fix socket accept exhaustion during high TCP traffic. Patch by Kevin Conway.

bpo-28174 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28174]: Handle when SO_REUSEPORT isn't properly supported. Patch by Seth Michael Larson.

bpo-26654 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26654]: Inspect functools.partial in asyncio.Handle.__repr__. Patch by iceboy.

bpo-26909 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26909]: Fix slow pipes IO in asyncio. Patch by INADA Naoki.

bpo-28176 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28176]: Fix callbacks race in asyncio.SelectorLoop.sock_connect.

bpo-27759 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27759]: Fix selectors incorrectly retain invalid file descriptors. Patch by Mark Williams.

bpo-28368 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28368]: Refuse monitoring processes if the child watcher has no loop attached. Patch by Vincent Michel.

bpo-28369 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28369]: Raise RuntimeError when transport's FD is used with add_reader, add_writer, etc.

bpo-28370 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28370]: Speedup asyncio.StreamReader.readexactly. Patch by Коренберг Марк.

bpo-28371 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28371]: Deprecate passing asyncio.Handles to run_in_executor.

bpo-28372 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28372]: Fix asyncio to support formatting of non-python coroutines.

bpo-28399 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28399]: Remove UNIX socket from FS before binding. Patch by Коренберг Марк.

bpo-27972 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27972]: Prohibit Tasks to await on themselves.

bpo-26923 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26923]: Fix asyncio.Gather to refuse being cancelled once all children are done. Patch by Johannes Ebke.

bpo-26796 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26796]: Don't configure the number of workers for default threadpool executor. Initial patch by Hans Lawrenz.

bpo-28600 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28600]: Optimize loop.call_soon().

bpo-28613 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28613]: Fix get_event_loop() return the current loop if called from coroutines/callbacks.

bpo-28639 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28639]: Fix inspect.isawaitable to always return bool Patch by Justin Mayfield.

bpo-28652 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28652]: Make loop methods reject socket kinds they do not support.

bpo-28653 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28653]: Fix a refleak in functools.lru_cache.

bpo-28703 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28703]: Fix asyncio.iscoroutinefunction to handle Mock objects.

bpo-24142 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24142]: Reading a corrupt config file left the parser in an invalid state. Original patch by Florian Höch.

bpo-28990 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28990]: Fix SSL hanging if connection is closed before handshake completed. (Patch by HoHo-Ho)

IDLE

bpo-15308 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15308]: Add 'interrupt execution' (^C) to Shell menu. Patch by Roger Serwy, updated by Bayard Randel.

bpo-27922 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27922]: Stop IDLE tests from 'flashing' gui widgets on the screen.

Add version to title of IDLE help window.

bpo-25564 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25564]: In section on IDLE -- console differences, mention that using exec means that __builtins__ is defined for each statement.

bpo-27714 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27714]: text_textview and test_autocomplete now pass when re-run in the same process. This occurs when test_idle fails when run with the -w option but without -jn. Fix warning from test_config.

bpo-25507 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25507]: IDLE no longer runs buggy code because of its tkinter imports. Users must include the same imports required to run directly in Python.

bpo-27452 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27452]: add line counter and crc to IDLE configHandler test dump.

bpo-27365 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27365]: Allow non-ascii chars in IDLE NEWS.txt, for contributor names.

bpo-27245 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27245]: IDLE: Cleanly delete custom themes and key bindings. Previously, when IDLE was started from a console or by import, a cascade of warnings was emitted. Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

C API

bpo-28808 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28808]: PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString() now never raises exceptions.

bpo-26754 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26754]: PyUnicode_FSDecoder() accepted a filename argument encoded as an iterable of integers. Now only strings and bytes-like objects are accepted.

Documentation

bpo-28513 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28513]: Documented command-line interface of zipfile.

Tests

bpo-28950 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28950]: Disallow -j0 to be combined with -T/-l/-M in regrtest command line arguments.

bpo-28666 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28666]: Now test.support.rmtree is able to remove unwritable or unreadable directories.

bpo-23839 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23839]: Various caches now are cleared before running every test file.

bpo-28409 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28409]: regrtest: fix the parser of command line arguments.

bpo-27787 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27787]: Call gc.collect() before checking each test for "dangling threads", since the dangling threads are weak references.

bpo-27369 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27369]: In test_pyexpat, avoid testing an error message detail that changed in Expat 2.2.0.

Tools/Demos

bpo-27952 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27952]: Get Tools/scripts/fixcid.py working with Python 3 and the current "re" module, avoid invalid Python backslash escapes, and fix a bug parsing escaped C quote signs.

bpo-27332 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27332]: Fixed the type of the first argument of module-level functions generated by Argument Clinic. Patch by Petr Viktorin.

bpo-27418 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27418]: Fixed Tools/importbench/importbench.py.

Windows

bpo-28251 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28251]: Improvements to help manuals on Windows.

bpo-28110 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28110]: launcher.msi has different product codes between 32-bit and 64-bit

bpo-25144 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25144]: Ensures TargetDir is set before continuing with custom install.

bpo-27469 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27469]: Adds a shell extension to the launcher so that drag and drop works correctly.

bpo-27309 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27309]: Enabled proper Windows styles in python[w].exe manifest.

Build

bpo-29080 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29080]: Removes hard dependency on hg.exe from PCBuild/build.bat

bpo-23903 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23903]: Added missed names to PC/python3.def.

bpo-10656 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10656]: Fix out-of-tree building on AIX. Patch by Tristan Carel and Michael Haubenwallner.

bpo-26359 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26359]: Rename --with-optimiations to --enable-optimizations.

bpo-28444 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28444]: Fix missing extensions modules when cross compiling.

bpo-28248 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28248]: Update Windows build and OS X installers to use OpenSSL 1.0.2j.

bpo-28258 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28258]: Fixed build with Estonian locale (python-config and distclean targets in Makefile). Patch by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis.

bpo-26661 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26661]: setup.py now detects system libffi with multiarch wrapper.

bpo-28066 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28066]: Fix the logic that searches build directories for generated include files when building outside the source tree.

bpo-15819 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15819]: Remove redundant include search directory option for building outside the source tree.

bpo-27566 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27566]: Fix clean target in freeze makefile (patch by Lisa Roach)

bpo-27705 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27705]: Update message in validate_ucrtbase.py

bpo-27983 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27983]: Cause lack of llvm-profdata tool when using clang as required for PGO linking to be a configure time error rather than make time when --with-optimizations is enabled. Also improve our ability to find the llvm-profdata tool on MacOS and some Linuxes.

bpo-26307 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26307]: The profile-opt build now applies PGO to the built-in modules.

bpo-26359 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26359]: Add the --with-optimizations configure flag.

bpo-27713 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27713]: Suppress spurious build warnings when updating importlib's bootstrap files. Patch by Xiang Zhang

bpo-25825 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25825]: Correct the references to Modules/python.exp and ld_so_aix, which are required on AIX. This updates references to an installation path that was changed in 3.2a4, and undoes changed references to the build tree that were made in 3.5.0a1.

bpo-27453 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27453]: CPP invocation in configure must use CPPFLAGS. Patch by Chi Hsuan Yen.

bpo-27641 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27641]: The configure script now inserts comments into the makefile to prevent the pgen and _freeze_importlib executables from being cross-compiled.

bpo-26662 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26662]: Set PYTHON_FOR_GEN in configure as the Python program to be used for file generation during the build.

bpo-10910 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10910]: Avoid C++ compilation errors on FreeBSD and OS X. Also update FreedBSD version checks for the original ctype UTF-8 workaround.

bpo-28676 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28676]: Prevent missing 'getentropy' declaration warning on macOS. Patch by Gareth Rees.

Python 3.5.2 final

Release date: 2016-06-26

Core and Builtins

bpo-26930 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26930]: Update Windows builds to use OpenSSL 1.0.2h.

Tests

bpo-26867 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26867]: Ubuntu's openssl OP_NO_SSLv3 is forced on by default; fix test.

IDLE

bpo-27365 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27365]: Allow non-ascii in idlelib/NEWS.txt - minimal part for 3.5.2.

Python 3.5.2 release candidate 1

Release date: 2016-06-12

Security

bpo-26556 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26556]: Update expat to 2.1.1, fixes CVE 2015-1283 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2015-1283].

Fix TLS stripping vulnerability in smtplib, CVE 2016-0772 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0772]. Reported by Team Oststrom.

bpo-26839 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26839]: On Linux, os.urandom() now calls getrandom() with GRND_NONBLOCK to fall back on reading /dev/urandom if the urandom entropy pool is not initialized yet. Patch written by Colm Buckley.

bpo-26657 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26657]: Fix directory traversal vulnerability with http.server on Windows. This fixes a regression that was introduced in 3.3.4rc1 and 3.4.0rc1. Based on patch by Philipp Hagemeister.

bpo-26313 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26313]: ssl.py _load_windows_store_certs fails if windows cert store is empty. Patch by Baji.

bpo-25939 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25939]: On Windows open the cert store readonly in ssl.enum_certificates.

Core and Builtins

bpo-27066 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27066]: Fixed SystemError if a custom opener (for open()) returns a negative number without setting an exception.

bpo-20041 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20041]: Fixed TypeError when frame.f_trace is set to None. Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

bpo-26168 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26168]: Fixed possible refleaks in failing Py_BuildValue() with the "N" format unit.

bpo-26991 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26991]: Fix possible refleak when creating a function with annotations.

bpo-27039 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27039]: Fixed bytearray.remove() for values greater than 127. Patch by Joe Jevnik.

bpo-23640 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23640]: int.from_bytes() no longer bypasses constructors for subclasses.

bpo-26811 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26811]: gc.get_objects() no longer contains a broken tuple with NULL pointer.

bpo-20120 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20120]: Use RawConfigParser for .pypirc parsing, removing support for interpolation unintentionally added with move to Python 3. Behavior no longer does any interpolation in .pypirc files, matching behavior in Python 2.7 and Setuptools 19.0.

bpo-26659 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26659]: Make the builtin slice type support cycle collection.

bpo-26718 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26718]: super.__init__ no longer leaks memory if called multiple times. NOTE: A direct call of super.__init__ is not endorsed!

bpo-25339 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25339]: PYTHONIOENCODING now has priority over locale in setting the error handler for stdin and stdout.

bpo-26494 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26494]: Fixed crash on iterating exhausting iterators. Affected classes are generic sequence iterators, iterators of str, bytes, bytearray, list, tuple, set, frozenset, dict, OrderedDict, corresponding views and os.scandir() iterator.

bpo-26581 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26581]: If coding cookie is specified multiple times on a line in Python source code file, only the first one is taken to account.

bpo-26464 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26464]: Fix str.translate() when string is ASCII and first replacements removes character, but next replacement uses a non-ASCII character or a string longer than 1 character. Regression introduced in Python 3.5.0.

bpo-22836 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22836]: Ensure exception reports from PyErr_Display() and PyErr_WriteUnraisable() are sensible even when formatting them produces secondary errors. This affects the reports produced by sys.__excepthook__() and when __del__() raises an exception.

bpo-26302 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26302]: Correct behavior to reject comma as a legal character for cookie names.

bpo-4806 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4806]: Avoid masking the original TypeError exception when using star (*) unpacking in function calls. Based on patch by Hagen Fürstenau and Daniel Urban.

bpo-27138 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27138]: Fix the doc comment for FileFinder.find_spec().

bpo-26154 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26154]: Add a new private _PyThreadState_UncheckedGet() function to get the current Python thread state, but don't issue a fatal error if it is NULL. This new function must be used instead of accessing directly the _PyThreadState_Current variable. The variable is no more exposed since Python 3.5.1 to hide the exact implementation of atomic C types, to avoid compiler issues.

bpo-26194 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26194]: Deque.insert() gave odd results for bounded deques that had reached their maximum size. Now an IndexError will be raised when attempting to insert into a full deque.

bpo-25843 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25843]: When compiling code, don't merge constants if they are equal but have a different types. For example, f1, f2 = lambda: 1, lambda: 1.0 is now correctly compiled to two different functions: f1() returns 1 (int) and f2() returns 1.0 (int), even if 1 and 1.0 are equal.

bpo-22995 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22995]: [UPDATE] Comment out the one of the pickleability tests in _PyObject_GetState() due to regressions observed in Cython-based projects.

bpo-25961 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25961]: Disallowed null characters in the type name.

bpo-25973 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25973]: Fix segfault when an invalid nonlocal statement binds a name starting with two underscores.

bpo-22995 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22995]: Instances of extension types with a state that aren't subclasses of list or dict and haven't implemented any pickle-related methods (__reduce__, __reduce_ex__, __getnewargs__, __getnewargs_ex__, or __getstate__), can no longer be pickled. Including memoryview.

bpo-20440 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20440]: Massive replacing unsafe attribute setting code with special macro Py_SETREF.

bpo-25766 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25766]: Special method __bytes__() now works in str subclasses.

bpo-25421 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25421]: __sizeof__ methods of builtin types now use dynamic basic size. This allows sys.getsize() to work correctly with their subclasses with __slots__ defined.

bpo-25709 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25709]: Fixed problem with in-place string concatenation and utf-8 cache.

bpo-27147 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27147]: Mention PEP 420 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/] in the importlib docs.

bpo-24097 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24097]: Fixed crash in object.__reduce__() if slot name is freed inside __getattr__.

bpo-24731 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24731]: Fixed crash on converting objects with special methods __bytes__, __trunc__, and __float__ returning instances of subclasses of bytes, int, and float to subclasses of bytes, int, and float correspondingly.

bpo-26478 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26478]: Fix semantic bugs when using binary operators with dictionary views and tuples.

bpo-26171 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26171]: Fix possible integer overflow and heap corruption in zipimporter.get_data().

bpo-25660 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25660]: Fix TAB key behaviour in REPL with readline.

bpo-25887 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25887]: Raise a RuntimeError when a coroutine object is awaited more than once.

bpo-27243 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27243]: Update the __aiter__ protocol: instead of returning an awaitable that resolves to an asynchronous iterator, the asynchronous iterator should be returned directly. Doing the former will trigger a PendingDeprecationWarning.

Library

bpo-21386 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21386]: Implement missing IPv4Address.is_global property. It was documented since 07a5610bae9d. Initial patch by Roger Luethi.

bpo-20900 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20900]: distutils register command now decodes HTTP responses correctly. Initial patch by ingrid.

A new version of typing.py provides several new classes and features: @overload outside stubs, Reversible, DefaultDict, Text, ContextManager, Type[], NewType(), TYPE_CHECKING, and numerous bug fixes (note that some of the new features are not yet implemented in mypy or other static analyzers). Also classes for PEP 492 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/] (Awaitable, AsyncIterable, AsyncIterator) have been added (in fact they made it into 3.5.1 but were never mentioned).

bpo-25738 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25738]: Stop http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_error() from sending a message body for 205 Reset Content. Also, don't send Content header fields in responses that don't have a body. Patch by Susumu Koshiba.

bpo-21313 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21313]: Fix the "platform" module to tolerate when sys.version contains truncated build information.

bpo-27164 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27164]: In the zlib module, allow decompressing raw Deflate streams with a predefined zdict. Based on patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-24291 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24291]: Fix wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler to completely write data to the client. Previously it could do partial writes and truncate data. Also, wsgiref.handler.ServerHandler can now handle stdout doing partial writes, but this is deprecated.

bpo-26809 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26809]: Add __all__ to string. Patch by Emanuel Barry.

bpo-26373 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26373]: subprocess.Popen.communicate now correctly ignores BrokenPipeError when the child process dies before .communicate() is called in more/all circumstances.

bpo-21776 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21776]: distutils.upload now correctly handles HTTPError. Initial patch by Claudiu Popa.

bpo-27114 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27114]: Fix SSLContext._load_windows_store_certs fails with PermissionError

bpo-18383 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18383]: Avoid creating duplicate filters when using filterwarnings and simplefilter. Based on patch by Alex Shkop.

bpo-27057 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27057]: Fix os.set_inheritable() on Android, ioctl() is blocked by SELinux and fails with EACCESS. The function now falls back to fcntl(). Patch written by Michał Bednarski.

bpo-27014 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27014]: Fix infinite recursion using typing.py. Thanks to Kalle Tuure!

bpo-14132 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14132]: Fix urllib.request redirect handling when the target only has a query string. Original fix by Ján Janech.

bpo-17214 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17214]: The "urllib.request" module now percent-encodes non-ASCII bytes found in redirect target URLs. Some servers send Location header fields with non-ASCII bytes, but "http.client" requires the request target to be ASCII-encodable, otherwise a UnicodeEncodeError is raised. Based on patch by Christian Heimes.

bpo-26892 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26892]: Honor debuglevel flag in urllib.request.HTTPHandler. Patch contributed by Chi Hsuan Yen.

bpo-22274 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22274]: In the subprocess module, allow stderr to be redirected to stdout even when stdout is not redirected. Patch by Akira Li.

bpo-26807 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26807]: mock_open 'files' no longer error on readline at end of file. Patch from Yolanda Robla.

bpo-25745 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25745]: Fixed leaking a userptr in curses panel destructor.

bpo-26977 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26977]: Removed unnecessary, and ignored, call to sum of squares helper in statistics.pvariance.

bpo-26881 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26881]: The modulefinder module now supports extended opcode arguments.

bpo-23815 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23815]: Fixed crashes related to directly created instances of types in _tkinter and curses.panel modules.

bpo-17765 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17765]: weakref.ref() no longer silently ignores keyword arguments. Patch by Georg Brandl.

bpo-26873 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26873]: xmlrpc now raises ResponseError on unsupported type tags instead of silently return incorrect result.

bpo-26711 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26711]: Fixed the comparison of plistlib.Data with other types.

bpo-24114 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24114]: Fix an uninitialized variable in ctypes.util. The bug only occurs on SunOS when the ctypes implementation searches for the crle program. Patch by Xiang Zhang. Tested on SunOS by Kees Bos.

bpo-26864 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26864]: In urllib.request, change the proxy bypass host checking against no_proxy to be case-insensitive, and to not match unrelated host names that happen to have a bypassed hostname as a suffix. Patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-26634 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26634]: recursive_repr() now sets __qualname__ of wrapper. Patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-26804 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26804]: urllib.request will prefer lower_case proxy environment variables over UPPER_CASE or Mixed_Case ones. Patch contributed by Hans-Peter Jansen.

bpo-26837 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26837]: assertSequenceEqual() now correctly outputs non-stringified differing items (like bytes in the -b mode). This affects assertListEqual() and assertTupleEqual().

bpo-26041 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26041]: Remove "will be removed in Python 3.7" from deprecation messages of platform.dist() and platform.linux_distribution(). Patch by Kumaripaba Miyurusara Athukorala.

bpo-26822 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26822]: itemgetter, attrgetter and methodcaller objects no longer silently ignore keyword arguments.

bpo-26733 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26733]: Disassembling a class now disassembles class and static methods. Patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-26801 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26801]: Fix error handling in shutil.get_terminal_size(), catch AttributeError instead of NameError. Patch written by Emanuel Barry.

bpo-24838 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24838]: tarfile's ustar and gnu formats now correctly calculate name and link field limits for multibyte character encodings like utf-8.

bpo-26717 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26717]: Stop encoding Latin-1-ized WSGI paths with UTF-8. Patch by Anthony Sottile.

bpo-26735 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26735]: Fix os.urandom() on Solaris 11.3 and newer when reading more than 1,024 bytes: call getrandom() multiple times with a limit of 1024 bytes per call.

bpo-16329 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16329]: Add .webm to mimetypes.types_map. Patch by Giampaolo Rodola'.

bpo-13952 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13952]: Add .csv to mimetypes.types_map. Patch by Geoff Wilson.

bpo-26709 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26709]: Fixed Y2038 problem in loading binary PLists.

bpo-23735 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23735]: Handle terminal resizing with Readline 6.3+ by installing our own SIGWINCH handler. Patch by Eric Price.

bpo-26586 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26586]: In http.server, respond with "413 Request header fields too large" if there are too many header fields to parse, rather than killing the connection and raising an unhandled exception. Patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-22854 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22854]: Change BufferedReader.writable() and BufferedWriter.readable() to always return False.

bpo-25195 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25195]: Fix a regression in mock.MagicMock. _Call is a subclass of tuple (changeset 3603bae63c13 only works for classes) so we need to implement __ne__ ourselves. Patch by Andrew Plummer.

bpo-26644 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26644]: Raise ValueError rather than SystemError when a negative length is passed to SSLSocket.recv() or read().

bpo-23804 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23804]: Fix SSL recv(0) and read(0) methods to return zero bytes instead of up to 1024.

bpo-26616 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26616]: Fixed a bug in datetime.astimezone() method.

bpo-21925 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21925]: warnings.formatwarning() now catches exceptions on linecache.getline(...) to be able to log ResourceWarning emitted late during the Python shutdown process.

bpo-24266 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24266]: Ctrl+C during Readline history search now cancels the search mode when compiled with Readline 7.

bpo-26560 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26560]: Avoid potential ValueError in BaseHandler.start_response. Initial patch by Peter Inglesby.

bpo-26569 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26569]: Fix pyclbr.readmodule() and pyclbr.readmodule_ex() to support importing packages.

bpo-26499 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26499]: Account for remaining Content-Length in HTTPResponse.readline() and read1(). Based on patch by Silent Ghost. Also document that HTTPResponse now supports these methods.

bpo-25320 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25320]: Handle sockets in directories unittest discovery is scanning. Patch from Victor van den Elzen.

bpo-16181 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16181]: cookiejar.http2time() now returns None if year is higher than datetime.MAXYEAR.

bpo-26513 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26513]: Fixes platform module detection of Windows Server

bpo-23718 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23718]: Fixed parsing time in week 0 before Jan 1. Original patch by Tamás Bence Gedai.

bpo-20589 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20589]: Invoking Path.owner() and Path.group() on Windows now raise NotImplementedError instead of ImportError.

bpo-26177 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26177]: Fixed the keys() method for Canvas and Scrollbar widgets.

bpo-15068 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15068]: Got rid of excessive buffering in the fileinput module. The bufsize parameter is no longer used.

bpo-2202 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2202]: Fix UnboundLocalError in AbstractDigestAuthHandler.get_algorithm_impls. Initial patch by Mathieu Dupuy.

bpo-25718 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25718]: Fixed pickling and copying the accumulate() iterator with total is None.

bpo-26475 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26475]: Fixed debugging output for regular expressions with the (?x) flag.

bpo-26457 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26457]: Fixed the subnets() methods in IP network classes for the case when resulting prefix length is equal to maximal prefix length. Based on patch by Xiang Zhang.

bpo-26385 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26385]: Remove the file if the internal open() call in NamedTemporaryFile() fails. Patch by Silent Ghost.

bpo-26402 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26402]: Fix XML-RPC client to retry when the server shuts down a persistent connection. This was a regression related to the new http.client.RemoteDisconnected exception in 3.5.0a4.

bpo-25913 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25913]: Leading <~ is optional now in base64.a85decode() with adobe=True. Patch by Swati Jaiswal.

bpo-26186 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26186]: Remove an invalid type check in importlib.util.LazyLoader.

bpo-26367 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26367]: importlib.__import__() raises SystemError like builtins.__import__() when level is specified but without an accompanying package specified.

bpo-26309 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26309]: In the "socketserver" module, shut down the request (closing the connected socket) when verify_request() returns false. Patch by Aviv Palivoda.

bpo-25995 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25995]: os.walk() no longer uses FDs proportional to the tree depth.

bpo-26117 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26117]: The os.scandir() iterator now closes file descriptor not only when the iteration is finished, but when it was failed with error.

bpo-25911 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25911]: Restored support of bytes paths in os.walk() on Windows.

bpo-26045 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26045]: Add UTF-8 suggestion to error message when posting a non-Latin-1 string with http.client.

bpo-12923 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12923]: Reset FancyURLopener's redirect counter even if there is an exception. Based on patches by Brian Brazil and Daniel Rocco.

bpo-25945 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25945]: Fixed a crash when unpickle the functools.partial object with wrong state. Fixed a leak in failed functools.partial constructor. "args" and "keywords" attributes of functools.partial have now always types tuple and dict correspondingly.

bpo-26202 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26202]: copy.deepcopy() now correctly copies range() objects with non-atomic attributes.

bpo-23076 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23076]: Path.glob() now raises a ValueError if it's called with an invalid pattern. Patch by Thomas Nyberg.

bpo-19883 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19883]: Fixed possible integer overflows in zipimport.

bpo-26227 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26227]: On Windows, getnameinfo(), gethostbyaddr() and gethostbyname_ex() functions of the socket module now decode the hostname from the ANSI code page rather than UTF-8.

bpo-26147 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26147]: xmlrpc now works with strings not encodable with used non-UTF-8 encoding.

bpo-25935 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25935]: Garbage collector now breaks reference loops with OrderedDict.

bpo-16620 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16620]: Fixed AttributeError in msilib.Directory.glob().

bpo-26013 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26013]: Added compatibility with broken protocol 2 pickles created in old Python 3 versions (3.4.3 and lower).

bpo-25850 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25850]: Use cross-compilation by default for 64-bit Windows.

bpo-17633 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17633]: Improve zipimport's support for namespace packages.

bpo-24705 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24705]: Fix sysconfig._parse_makefile not expanding ${} vars appearing before $() vars.

bpo-22138 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22138]: Fix mock.patch behavior when patching descriptors. Restore original values after patching. Patch contributed by Sean McCully.

bpo-25672 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25672]: In the ssl module, enable the SSL_MODE_RELEASE_BUFFERS mode option if it is safe to do so.

bpo-26012 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26012]: Don't traverse into symlinks for ** pattern in pathlib.Path.[r]glob().

bpo-24120 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24120]: Ignore PermissionError when traversing a tree with pathlib.Path.[r]glob(). Patch by Ulrich Petri.

bpo-25447 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25447]: fileinput now uses sys.stdin as-is if it does not have a buffer attribute (restores backward compatibility).

bpo-25447 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25447]: Copying the lru_cache() wrapper object now always works, independently from the type of the wrapped object (by returning the original object unchanged).

bpo-24103 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24103]: Fixed possible use after free in ElementTree.XMLPullParser.

bpo-25860 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25860]: os.fwalk() no longer skips remaining directories when error occurs. Original patch by Samson Lee.

bpo-25914 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25914]: Fixed and simplified OrderedDict.__sizeof__.

bpo-25902 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25902]: Fixed various refcount issues in ElementTree iteration.

bpo-25717 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25717]: Restore the previous behaviour of tolerating most fstat() errors when opening files. This was a regression in 3.5a1, and stopped anonymous temporary files from working in special cases.

bpo-24903 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24903]: Fix regression in number of arguments compileall accepts when '-d' is specified. The check on the number of arguments has been dropped completely as it never worked correctly anyway.

bpo-25764 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25764]: In the subprocess module, preserve any exception caused by fork() failure when preexec_fn is used.

bpo-6478 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6478]: _strptime's regexp cache now is reset after changing timezone with time.tzset().

bpo-14285 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14285]: When executing a package with the "python -m package" option, and package initialization fails, a proper traceback is now reported. The "runpy" module now lets exceptions from package initialization pass back to the caller, rather than raising ImportError.

bpo-19771 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19771]: Also in runpy and the "-m" option, omit the irrelevant message ". . . is a package and cannot be directly executed" if the package could not even be initialized (e.g. due to a bad *.pyc file).

bpo-25177 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25177]: Fixed problem with the mean of very small and very large numbers. As a side effect, statistics.mean and statistics.variance should be significantly faster.

bpo-25718 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25718]: Fixed copying object with state with boolean value is false.

bpo-10131 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10131]: Fixed deep copying of minidom documents. Based on patch by Marian Ganisin.

bpo-25725 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25725]: Fixed a reference leak in pickle.loads() when unpickling invalid data including tuple instructions.

bpo-25663 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25663]: In the Readline completer, avoid listing duplicate global names, and search the global namespace before searching builtins.

bpo-25688 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25688]: Fixed file leak in ElementTree.iterparse() raising an error.

bpo-23914 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23914]: Fixed SystemError raised by unpickler on broken pickle data.

bpo-25691 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25691]: Fixed crash on deleting ElementTree.Element attributes.

bpo-25624 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25624]: ZipFile now always writes a ZIP_STORED header for directory entries. Patch by Dingyuan Wang.

Skip getaddrinfo if host is already resolved. Patch by A. Jesse Jiryu Davis.

bpo-26050 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26050]: Add asyncio.StreamReader.readuntil() method. Patch by Марк Коренберг.

bpo-25924 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25924]: Avoid unnecessary serialization of getaddrinfo(3) calls on OS X versions 10.5 or higher. Original patch by A. Jesse Jiryu Davis.

bpo-26406 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26406]: Avoid unnecessary serialization of getaddrinfo(3) calls on current versions of OpenBSD and NetBSD. Patch by A. Jesse Jiryu Davis.

bpo-26848 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26848]: Fix asyncio/subprocess.communicate() to handle empty input. Patch by Jack O'Connor.

bpo-27040 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27040]: Add loop.get_exception_handler method

bpo-27041 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27041]: asyncio: Add loop.create_future method

bpo-27223 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27223]: asyncio: Fix _read_ready and _write_ready to respect _conn_lost. Patch by Łukasz Langa.

bpo-22970 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22970]: asyncio: Fix inconsistency cancelling Condition.wait. Patch by David Coles.

IDLE

bpo-5124 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5124]: Paste with text selected now replaces the selection on X11. This matches how paste works on Windows, Mac, most modern Linux apps, and ttk widgets. Original patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

bpo-24759 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24759]: Make clear in idlelib.idle_test.__init__ that the directory is a private implementation of test.test_idle and tool for maintainers.

bpo-27196 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27196]: Stop 'ThemeChanged' warnings when running IDLE tests. These persisted after other warnings were suppressed in #20567. Apply Serhiy Storchaka's update_idletasks solution to four test files. Record this additional advice in idle_test/README.txt

bpo-20567 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20567]: Revise idle_test/README.txt with advice about avoiding tk warning messages from tests. Apply advice to several IDLE tests.

bpo-27117 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27117]: Make colorizer htest and turtledemo work with dark themes. Move code for configuring text widget colors to a new function.

bpo-26673 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26673]: When tk reports font size as 0, change to size 10. Such fonts on Linux prevented the configuration dialog from opening.

bpo-21939 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21939]: Add test for IDLE's percolator. Original patch by Saimadhav Heblikar.

bpo-21676 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21676]: Add test for IDLE's replace dialog. Original patch by Saimadhav Heblikar.

bpo-18410 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18410]: Add test for IDLE's search dialog. Original patch by Westley Martínez.

bpo-21703 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21703]: Add test for IDLE's undo delegator. Original patch by Saimadhav Heblikar .

bpo-27044 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27044]: Add ConfigDialog.remove_var_callbacks to stop memory leaks.

bpo-23977 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23977]: Add more asserts to test_delegator.

bpo-20640 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20640]: Add tests for idlelib.configHelpSourceEdit. Patch by Saimadhav Heblikar.

In the 'IDLE-console differences' section of the IDLE doc, clarify how running with IDLE affects sys.modules and the standard streams.

bpo-25507 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25507]: fix incorrect change in IOBinding that prevented printing. Augment IOBinding htest to include all major IOBinding functions.

bpo-25905 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25905]: Revert unwanted conversion of ' to ’ RIGHT SINGLE QUOTATION MARK in README.txt and open this and NEWS.txt with 'ascii'. Re-encode CREDITS.txt to utf-8 and open it with 'utf-8'.

Documentation

bpo-19489 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19489]: Moved the search box from the sidebar to the header and footer of each page. Patch by Ammar Askar.

bpo-24136 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24136]: Document the new PEP 448 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/] unpacking syntax of 3.5.

bpo-26736 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26736]: Used HTTPS for external links in the documentation if possible.

bpo-6953 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6953]: Rework the Readline module documentation to group related functions together, and add more details such as what underlying Readline functions and variables are accessed.

bpo-23606 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23606]: Adds note to ctypes documentation regarding cdll.msvcrt.

bpo-25500 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25500]: Fix documentation to not claim that __import__ is searched for in the global scope.

bpo-26014 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26014]: Update 3.x packaging documentation: * "See also" links to the new docs are now provided in the legacy pages * links to setuptools documentation have been updated

Tests

bpo-21916 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21916]: Added tests for the turtle module. Patch by ingrid, Gregory Loyse and Jelle Zijlstra.

bpo-26523 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26523]: The multiprocessing thread pool (multiprocessing.dummy.Pool) was untested.

bpo-26015 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26015]: Added new tests for pickling iterators of mutable sequences.

bpo-26325 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26325]: Added test.support.check_no_resource_warning() to check that no ResourceWarning is emitted.

bpo-25940 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25940]: Changed test_ssl to use self-signed.pythontest.net. This avoids relying on svn.python.org, which recently changed root certificate.

bpo-25616 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25616]: Tests for OrderedDict are extracted from test_collections into separate file test_ordered_dict.

bpo-26583 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26583]: Skip test_timestamp_overflow in test_import if bytecode files cannot be written.

Build

bpo-26884 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26884]: Fix linking extension modules for cross builds. Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

bpo-22359 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22359]: Disable the rules for running _freeze_importlib and pgen when cross-compiling. The output of these programs is normally saved with the source code anyway, and is still regenerated when doing a native build. Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

bpo-27229 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27229]: Fix the cross-compiling pgen rule for in-tree builds. Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

bpo-21668 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21668]: Link audioop, _datetime, _ctypes_test modules to libm, except on Mac OS X. Patch written by Xavier de Gaye.

bpo-25702 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25702]: A --with-lto configure option has been added that will enable link time optimizations at build time during a make profile-opt. Some compilers and toolchains are known to not produce stable code when using LTO, be sure to test things thoroughly before relying on it. It can provide a few % speed up over profile-opt alone.

bpo-26624 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26624]: Adds validation of ucrtbase[d].dll version with warning for old versions.

bpo-17603 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17603]: Avoid error about nonexistent fileblocks.o file by using a lower-level check for st_blocks in struct stat.

bpo-26079 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26079]: Fixing the build output folder for tix-8.4.3.6. Patch by Bjoern Thiel.

bpo-26465 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26465]: Update Windows builds to use OpenSSL 1.0.2g.

bpo-24421 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24421]: Compile Modules/_math.c once, before building extensions. Previously it could fail to compile properly if the math and cmath builds were concurrent.

bpo-25348 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25348]: Added --pgo and --pgo-job arguments to PCbuild\build.bat for building with Profile-Guided Optimization. The old PCbuild\build_pgo.bat script is now deprecated, and simply calls PCbuild\build.bat --pgo %*.

bpo-25827 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25827]: Add support for building with ICC to configure, including a new --with-icc flag.

bpo-25696 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25696]: Fix installation of Python on UNIX with make -j9.

bpo-26930 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26930]: Update OS X 10.5+ 32-bit-only installer to build and link with OpenSSL 1.0.2h.

bpo-26268 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26268]: Update Windows builds to use OpenSSL 1.0.2f.

bpo-25136 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25136]: Support Apple Xcode 7's new textual SDK stub libraries.

bpo-24324 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24324]: Do not enable unreachable code warnings when using gcc as the option does not work correctly in older versions of gcc and has been silently removed as of gcc-4.5.

Windows

bpo-27053 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27053]: Updates make_zip.py to correctly generate library ZIP file.

bpo-26268 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26268]: Update the prepare_ssl.py script to handle OpenSSL releases that don't include the contents of the include directory (that is, 1.0.2e and later).

bpo-26071 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26071]: bdist_wininst created binaries fail to start and find 32bit Python

bpo-26073 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26073]: Update the list of magic numbers in launcher

bpo-26065 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26065]: Excludes venv from library when generating embeddable distro.

bpo-17500 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17500]: Remove unused and outdated icons. (See also: https://github.com/python/pythondotorg/issues/945)

Tools/Demos

bpo-26799 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26799]: Fix python-gdb.py: don't get C types once when the Python code is loaded, but get C types on demand. The C types can change if python-gdb.py is loaded before the Python executable. Patch written by Thomas Ilsche.

bpo-26271 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26271]: Fix the Freeze tool to properly use flags passed through configure. Patch by Daniel Shaulov.

bpo-26489 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26489]: Add dictionary unpacking support to Tools/parser/unparse.py. Patch by Guo Ci Teo.

bpo-26316 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26316]: Fix variable name typo in Argument Clinic.

Python 3.5.1 final

Release date: 2015-12-06

Core and Builtins

bpo-25709 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25709]: Fixed problem with in-place string concatenation and utf-8 cache.

Windows

bpo-25715 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25715]: Python 3.5.1 installer shows wrong upgrade path and incorrect logic for launcher detection.

Python 3.5.1 release candidate 1

Release date: 2015-11-22

Core and Builtins

bpo-25630 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25630]: Fix a possible segfault during argument parsing in functions that accept filesystem paths.

bpo-23564 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23564]: Fixed a partially broken sanity check in the _posixsubprocess internals regarding how fds_to_pass were passed to the child. The bug had no actual impact as subprocess.py already avoided it.

bpo-25388 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25388]: Fixed tokenizer crash when processing undecodable source code with a null byte.

bpo-25462 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25462]: The hash of the key now is calculated only once in most operations in C implementation of OrderedDict.

bpo-22995 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22995]: Default implementation of __reduce__ and __reduce_ex__ now rejects builtin types with not defined __new__.

bpo-25555 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25555]: Fix parser and AST: fill lineno and col_offset of "arg" node when compiling AST from Python objects.

bpo-24802 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24802]: Avoid buffer overreads when int(), float(), compile(), exec() and eval() are passed bytes-like objects. These objects are not necessarily terminated by a null byte, but the functions assumed they were.

bpo-24726 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24726]: Fixed a crash and leaking NULL in repr() of OrderedDict that was mutated by direct calls of dict methods.

bpo-25449 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25449]: Iterating OrderedDict with keys with unstable hash now raises KeyError in C implementations as well as in Python implementation.

bpo-25395 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25395]: Fixed crash when highly nested OrderedDict structures were garbage collected.

bpo-25274 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25274]: sys.setrecursionlimit() now raises a RecursionError if the new recursion limit is too low depending at the current recursion depth. Modify also the "lower-water mark" formula to make it monotonic. This mark is used to decide when the overflowed flag of the thread state is reset.

bpo-24402 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24402]: Fix input() to prompt to the redirected stdout when sys.stdout.fileno() fails.

bpo-24806 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24806]: Prevent builtin types that are not allowed to be subclassed from being subclassed through multiple inheritance.

bpo-24848 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24848]: Fixed a number of bugs in UTF-7 decoding of misformed data.

bpo-25280 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25280]: Import trace messages emitted in verbose (-v) mode are no longer formatted twice.

bpo-25003 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25003]: On Solaris 11.3 or newer, os.urandom() now uses the getrandom() function instead of the getentropy() function. The getentropy() function is blocking to generate very good quality entropy, os.urandom() doesn't need such high-quality entropy.

bpo-25182 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25182]: The stdprinter (used as sys.stderr before the io module is imported at startup) now uses the backslashreplace error handler.

bpo-25131 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25131]: Make the line number and column offset of set/dict literals and comprehensions correspond to the opening brace.

bpo-25150 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25150]: Hide the private _Py_atomic_xxx symbols from the public Python.h header to fix a compilation error with OpenMP. PyThreadState_GET() becomes an alias to PyThreadState_Get() to avoid ABI incompatibilities.

Library

bpo-25626 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25626]: Change three zlib functions to accept sizes that fit in Py_ssize_t, but internally cap those sizes to UINT_MAX. This resolves a regression in 3.5 where GzipFile.read() failed to read chunks larger than 2 or 4 GiB. The change affects the zlib.Decompress.decompress() max_length parameter, the zlib.decompress() bufsize parameter, and the zlib.Decompress.flush() length parameter.

bpo-25583 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25583]: Avoid incorrect errors raised by os.makedirs(exist_ok=True) when the OS gives priority to errors such as EACCES over EEXIST.

bpo-25593 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25593]: Change semantics of EventLoop.stop() in asyncio.

bpo-6973 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6973]: When we know a subprocess.Popen process has died, do not allow the send_signal(), terminate(), or kill() methods to do anything as they could potentially signal a different process.

bpo-25590 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25590]: In the Readline completer, only call getattr() once per attribute.

bpo-25498 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25498]: Fix a crash when garbage-collecting ctypes objects created by wrapping a memoryview. This was a regression made in 3.5a1. Based on patch by Eryksun.

bpo-25584 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25584]: Added "escape" to the __all__ list in the glob module.

bpo-25584 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25584]: Fixed recursive glob() with patterns starting with **.

bpo-25446 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25446]: Fix regression in smtplib's AUTH LOGIN support.

bpo-18010 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18010]: Fix the pydoc web server's module search function to handle exceptions from importing packages.

bpo-25554 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25554]: Got rid of circular references in regular expression parsing.

bpo-25510 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25510]: fileinput.FileInput.readline() now returns b'' instead of '' at the end if the FileInput was opened with binary mode. Patch by Ryosuke Ito.

bpo-25503 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25503]: Fixed inspect.getdoc() for inherited docstrings of properties. Original patch by John Mark Vandenberg.

bpo-25515 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25515]: Always use os.urandom as a source of randomness in uuid.uuid4.

bpo-21827 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21827]: Fixed textwrap.dedent() for the case when largest common whitespace is a substring of smallest leading whitespace. Based on patch by Robert Li.

bpo-25447 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25447]: The lru_cache() wrapper objects now can be copied and pickled (by returning the original object unchanged).

bpo-25390 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25390]: typing: Don't crash on Union[str, Pattern].

bpo-25441 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25441]: asyncio: Raise error from drain() when socket is closed.

bpo-25410 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25410]: Cleaned up and fixed minor bugs in C implementation of OrderedDict.

bpo-25411 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25411]: Improved Unicode support in SMTPHandler through better use of the email package. Thanks to user simon04 for the patch.

bpo-25407 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25407]: Remove mentions of the formatter module being removed in Python 3.6.

bpo-25406 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25406]: Fixed a bug in C implementation of OrderedDict.move_to_end() that caused segmentation fault or hang in iterating after moving several items to the start of ordered dict.

bpo-25364 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25364]: zipfile now works in threads disabled builds.

bpo-25328 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25328]: smtpd's SMTPChannel now correctly raises a ValueError if both decode_data and enable_SMTPUTF8 are set to true.

bpo-25316 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25316]: distutils raises OSError instead of DistutilsPlatformError when MSVC is not installed.

bpo-25380 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25380]: Fixed protocol for the STACK_GLOBAL opcode in pickletools.opcodes.

bpo-23972 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23972]: Updates asyncio datagram create method allowing reuseport and reuseaddr socket options to be set prior to binding the socket. Mirroring the existing asyncio create_server method the reuseaddr option for datagram sockets defaults to True if the O/S is 'posix' (except if the platform is Cygwin). Patch by Chris Laws.

bpo-25304 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25304]: Add asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe(). This lets you submit a coroutine to a loop from another thread, returning a concurrent.futures.Future. By Vincent Michel.

bpo-25232 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25232]: Fix CGIRequestHandler to split the query from the URL at the first question mark (?) rather than the last. Patch from Xiang Zhang.

bpo-24657 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24657]: Prevent CGIRequestHandler from collapsing slashes in the query part of the URL as if it were a path. Patch from Xiang Zhang.

bpo-24483 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24483]: C implementation of functools.lru_cache() now calculates key's hash only once.

bpo-22958 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22958]: Constructor and update method of weakref.WeakValueDictionary now accept the self and the dict keyword arguments.

bpo-22609 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22609]: Constructor of collections.UserDict now accepts the self keyword argument.

bpo-25111 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25111]: Fixed comparison of traceback.FrameSummary.

bpo-25262 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25262]: Added support for BINBYTES8 opcode in Python implementation of unpickler. Highest 32 bits of 64-bit size for BINUNICODE8 and BINBYTES8 opcodes no longer silently ignored on 32-bit platforms in C implementation.

bpo-25034 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25034]: Fix string.Formatter problem with auto-numbering and nested format_specs. Patch by Anthon van der Neut.

bpo-25233 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25233]: Rewrite the guts of asyncio.Queue and asyncio.Semaphore to be more understandable and correct.

bpo-25203 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25203]: Failed readline.set_completer_delims() no longer left the module in inconsistent state.

bpo-23600 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23600]: Default implementation of tzinfo.fromutc() was returning wrong results in some cases.

bpo-23329 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23329]: Allow the ssl module to be built with older versions of LibreSSL.

Prevent overflow in _Unpickler_Read.

bpo-25047 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25047]: The XML encoding declaration written by Element Tree now respects the letter case given by the user. This restores the ability to write encoding names in uppercase like "UTF-8", which worked in Python 2.

bpo-25135 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25135]: Make deque_clear() safer by emptying the deque before clearing. This helps avoid possible reentrancy issues.

bpo-19143 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19143]: platform module now reads Windows version from kernel32.dll to avoid compatibility shims.

bpo-25092 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25092]: Fix datetime.strftime() failure when errno was already set to EINVAL.

bpo-23517 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23517]: Fix rounding in fromtimestamp() and utcfromtimestamp() methods of datetime.datetime: microseconds are now rounded to nearest with ties going to nearest even integer (ROUND_HALF_EVEN), instead of being rounding towards minus infinity (ROUND_FLOOR). It's important that these methods use the same rounding mode than datetime.timedelta to keep the property: (datetime(1970,1,1) + timedelta(seconds=t)) == datetime.utcfromtimestamp(t). It also the rounding mode used by round(float) for example.

bpo-25155 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25155]: Fix datetime.datetime.now() and datetime.datetime.utcnow() on Windows to support date after year 2038. It was a regression introduced in Python 3.5.0.

bpo-25108 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25108]: Omitted internal frames in traceback functions print_stack(), format_stack(), and extract_stack() called without arguments.

bpo-25118 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25118]: Fix a regression of Python 3.5.0 in os.waitpid() on Windows.

bpo-24684 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24684]: socket.socket.getaddrinfo() now calls PyUnicode_AsEncodedString() instead of calling the encode() method of the host, to handle correctly custom string with an encode() method which doesn't return a byte string. The encoder of the IDNA codec is now called directly instead of calling the encode() method of the string.

bpo-25060 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25060]: Correctly compute stack usage of the BUILD_MAP opcode.

bpo-24857 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24857]: Comparing call_args to a long sequence now correctly returns a boolean result instead of raising an exception. Patch by A Kaptur.

bpo-23144 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23144]: Make sure that HTMLParser.feed() returns all the data, even when convert_charrefs is True.

bpo-24982 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24982]: shutil.make_archive() with the "zip" format now adds entries for directories (including empty directories) in ZIP file.

bpo-25019 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25019]: Fixed a crash caused by setting non-string key of expat parser. Based on patch by John Leitch.

bpo-16180 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16180]: Exit pdb if file has syntax error, instead of trapping user in an infinite loop. Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

bpo-24891 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24891]: Fix a race condition at Python startup if the file descriptor of stdin (0), stdout (1) or stderr (2) is closed while Python is creating sys.stdin, sys.stdout and sys.stderr objects. These attributes are now set to None if the creation of the object failed, instead of raising an OSError exception. Initial patch written by Marco Paolini.

bpo-24992 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24992]: Fix error handling and a race condition (related to garbage collection) in collections.OrderedDict constructor.

bpo-24881 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24881]: Fixed setting binary mode in Python implementation of FileIO on Windows and Cygwin. Patch from Akira Li.

bpo-25578 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25578]: Fix (another) memory leak in SSLSocket.getpeercer().

bpo-25530 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25530]: Disable the vulnerable SSLv3 protocol by default when creating ssl.SSLContext.

bpo-25569 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25569]: Fix memory leak in SSLSocket.getpeercert().

bpo-25471 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25471]: Sockets returned from accept() shouldn't appear to be nonblocking.

bpo-25319 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25319]: When threading.Event is reinitialized, the underlying condition should use a regular lock rather than a recursive lock.

bpo-21112 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21112]: Fix regression in unittest.expectedFailure on subclasses. Patch from Berker Peksag.

bpo-24764 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24764]: cgi.FieldStorage.read_multi() now ignores the Content-Length header in part headers. Patch written by Peter Landry and reviewed by Pierre Quentel.

bpo-24913 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24913]: Fix overrun error in deque.index(). Found by John Leitch and Bryce Darling.

bpo-24774 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24774]: Fix docstring in http.server.test. Patch from Chiu-Hsiang Hsu.

bpo-21159 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21159]: Improve message in configparser.InterpolationMissingOptionError. Patch from Łukasz Langa.

bpo-20362 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20362]: Honour TestCase.longMessage correctly in assertRegex. Patch from Ilia Kurenkov.

bpo-23572 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23572]: Fixed functools.singledispatch on classes with false metaclasses. Patch by Ethan Furman.

asyncio: ensure_future() now accepts awaitable objects.

IDLE

bpo-15348 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15348]: Stop the debugger engine (normally in a user process) before closing the debugger window (running in the IDLE process). This prevents the RuntimeErrors that were being caught and ignored.

bpo-24455 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24455]: Prevent IDLE from hanging when a) closing the shell while the debugger is active (15347); b) closing the debugger with the [X] button (15348); and c) activating the debugger when already active (24455). The patch by Mark Roseman does this by making two changes. 1. Suspend and resume the gui.interaction method with the tcl vwait mechanism intended for this purpose (instead of root.mainloop & .quit). 2. In gui.run, allow any existing interaction to terminate first.

Change 'The program' to 'Your program' in an IDLE 'kill program?' message to make it clearer that the program referred to is the currently running user program, not IDLE itself.

bpo-24750 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24750]: Improve the appearance of the IDLE editor window status bar. Patch by Mark Roseman.

bpo-25313 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25313]: Change the handling of new built-in text color themes to better address the compatibility problem introduced by the addition of IDLE Dark. Consistently use the revised idleConf.CurrentTheme everywhere in idlelib.

bpo-24782 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24782]: Extension configuration is now a tab in the IDLE Preferences dialog rather than a separate dialog. The former tabs are now a sorted list. Patch by Mark Roseman.

bpo-22726 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22726]: Re-activate the config dialog help button with some content about the other buttons and the new IDLE Dark theme.

bpo-24820 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24820]: IDLE now has an 'IDLE Dark' built-in text color theme. It is more or less IDLE Classic inverted, with a cobalt blue background. Strings, comments, keywords, ... are still green, red, orange, ... . To use it with IDLEs released before November 2015, hit the 'Save as New Custom Theme' button and enter a new name, such as 'Custom Dark'. The custom theme will work with any IDLE release, and can be modified.

bpo-25224 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25224]: README.txt is now an idlelib index for IDLE developers and curious users. The previous user content is now in the IDLE doc chapter. 'IDLE' now means 'Integrated Development and Learning Environment'.

bpo-24820 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24820]: Users can now set breakpoint colors in Settings -> Custom Highlighting. Original patch by Mark Roseman.

bpo-24972 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24972]: Inactive selection background now matches active selection background, as configured by users, on all systems. Found items are now always highlighted on Windows. Initial patch by Mark Roseman.

bpo-24570 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24570]: Idle: make calltip and completion boxes appear on Macs affected by a tk regression. Initial patch by Mark Roseman.

bpo-24988 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24988]: Idle ScrolledList context menus (used in debugger) now work on Mac Aqua. Patch by Mark Roseman.

bpo-24801 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24801]: Make right-click for context menu work on Mac Aqua. Patch by Mark Roseman.

bpo-25173 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25173]: Associate tkinter messageboxes with a specific widget. For Mac OSX, make them a 'sheet'. Patch by Mark Roseman.

bpo-25198 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25198]: Enhance the initial html viewer now used for Idle Help. Properly indent fixed-pitch text (patch by Mark Roseman). Give code snippet a very Sphinx-like light blueish-gray background. Re-use initial width and height set by users for shell and editor. When the Table of Contents (TOC) menu is used, put the section header at the top of the screen.

bpo-25225 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25225]: Condense and rewrite Idle doc section on text colors.

bpo-21995 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21995]: Explain some differences between IDLE and console Python.

bpo-22820 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22820]: Explain need for print when running file from Idle editor.

bpo-25224 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25224]: Doc: augment Idle feature list and no-subprocess section.

bpo-25219 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25219]: Update doc for Idle command line options. Some were missing and notes were not correct.

bpo-24861 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24861]: Most of idlelib is private and subject to change. Use idleib.idle.* to start Idle. See idlelib.__init__.__doc__.

bpo-25199 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25199]: Idle: add synchronization comments for future maintainers.

bpo-16893 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16893]: Replace help.txt with help.html for Idle doc display. The new idlelib/help.html is rstripped Doc/build/html/library/idle.html. It looks better than help.txt and will better document Idle as released. The tkinter html viewer that works for this file was written by Mark Roseman. The now unused EditorWindow.HelpDialog class and helt.txt file are deprecated.

bpo-24199 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24199]: Deprecate unused idlelib.idlever with possible removal in 3.6.

bpo-24790 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24790]: Remove extraneous code (which also create 2 & 3 conflicts).

Documentation

bpo-22558 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22558]: Add remaining doc links to source code for Python-coded modules. Patch by Yoni Lavi.

bpo-12067 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12067]: Rewrite Comparisons section in the Expressions chapter of the language reference. Some of the details of comparing mixed types were incorrect or ambiguous. NotImplemented is only relevant at a lower level than the Expressions chapter. Added details of comparing range() objects, and default behaviour and consistency suggestions for user-defined classes. Patch from Andy Maier.

bpo-24952 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24952]: Clarify the default size argument of stack_size() in the "threading" and "_thread" modules. Patch from Mattip.

bpo-23725 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23725]: Overhaul tempfile docs. Note deprecated status of mktemp. Patch from Zbigniew Jędrzejewski-Szmek.

bpo-24808 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24808]: Update the types of some PyTypeObject fields. Patch by Joseph Weston.

bpo-22812 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22812]: Fix unittest discovery examples. Patch from Pam McA'Nulty.

Tests

bpo-25449 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25449]: Added tests for OrderedDict subclasses.

bpo-25099 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25099]: Make test_compileall not fail when an entry on sys.path cannot be written to (commonly seen in administrative installs on Windows).

bpo-23919 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23919]: Prevents assert dialogs appearing in the test suite.

PCbuild\rt.bat now accepts an unlimited number of arguments to pass along to regrtest.py. Previously there was a limit of 9.

Build

bpo-24915 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24915]: Add LLVM support for PGO builds and use the test suite to generate the profile data. Initial patch by Alecsandru Patrascu of Intel.

bpo-24910 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24910]: Windows MSIs now have unique display names.

bpo-24986 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24986]: It is now possible to build Python on Windows without errors when external libraries are not available.

Windows

bpo-25450 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25450]: Updates shortcuts to start Python in installation directory.

bpo-25164 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25164]: Changes default all-users install directory to match per-user directory.

bpo-25143 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25143]: Improves installer error messages for unsupported platforms.

bpo-25163 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25163]: Display correct directory in installer when using non-default settings.

bpo-25361 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25361]: Disables use of SSE2 instructions in Windows 32-bit build

bpo-25089 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25089]: Adds logging to installer for case where launcher is not selected on upgrade.

bpo-25165 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25165]: Windows uninstallation should not remove launcher if other versions remain

bpo-25112 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25112]: py.exe launcher is missing icons

bpo-25102 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25102]: Windows installer does not precompile for -O or -OO.

bpo-25081 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25081]: Makes Back button in installer go back to upgrade page when upgrading.

bpo-25091 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25091]: Increases font size of the installer.

bpo-25126 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25126]: Clarifies that the non-web installer will download some components.

bpo-25213 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25213]: Restores requestedExecutionLevel to manifest to disable UAC virtualization.

bpo-25022 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25022]: Removed very outdated PC/example_nt/ directory.

Tools/Demos

bpo-25440 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25440]: Fix output of python-config --extension-suffix.

Python 3.5.0 final

Release date: 2015-09-13

Build

bpo-25071 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25071]: Windows installer should not require TargetDir parameter when installing quietly.

Python 3.5.0 release candidate 4

Release date: 2015-09-09

Library

bpo-25029 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25029]: Fixes MemoryError in test_strptime.

Build

bpo-25027 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25027]: Reverts partial-static build options and adds vcruntime140.dll to Windows installation.

Python 3.5.0 release candidate 3

Release date: 2015-09-07

Core and Builtins

bpo-24305 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24305]: Prevent import subsystem stack frames from being counted by the warnings.warn(stacklevel=) parameter.

bpo-24912 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24912]: Prevent __class__ assignment to immutable built-in objects.

bpo-24975 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24975]: Fix AST compilation for PEP 448 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/] syntax.

Library

bpo-24917 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24917]: time_strftime() buffer over-read.

bpo-24748 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24748]: To resolve a compatibility problem found with py2exe and pywin32, imp.load_dynamic() once again ignores previously loaded modules to support Python modules replacing themselves with extension modules. Patch by Petr Viktorin.

bpo-24635 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24635]: Fixed a bug in typing.py where isinstance([], typing.Iterable) would return True once, then False on subsequent calls.

bpo-24989 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24989]: Fixed buffer overread in BytesIO.readline() if a position is set beyond size. Based on patch by John Leitch.

bpo-24913 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24913]: Fix overrun error in deque.index(). Found by John Leitch and Bryce Darling.

Python 3.5.0 release candidate 2

Release date: 2015-08-25

Core and Builtins

bpo-24769 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24769]: Interpreter now starts properly when dynamic loading is disabled. Patch by Petr Viktorin.

bpo-21167 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21167]: NAN operations are now handled correctly when python is compiled with ICC even if -fp-model strict is not specified.

bpo-24492 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24492]: A "package" lacking a __name__ attribute when trying to perform a from .. import ... statement will trigger an ImportError instead of an AttributeError.

Library

bpo-24847 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24847]: Removes vcruntime140.dll dependency from Tcl/Tk.

bpo-24839 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24839]: platform._syscmd_ver raises DeprecationWarning

bpo-24867 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24867]: Fix Task.get_stack() for 'async def' coroutines

Python 3.5.0 release candidate 1

Release date: 2015-08-09

Core and Builtins

bpo-24667 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24667]: Resize odict in all cases that the underlying dict resizes.

Library

bpo-24824 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24824]: Signatures of codecs.encode() and codecs.decode() now are compatible with pydoc.

bpo-24634 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24634]: Importing uuid should not try to load libc on Windows

bpo-24798 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24798]: _msvccompiler.py doesn't properly support manifests

bpo-4395 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4395]: Better testing and documentation of binary operators. Patch by Martin Panter.

bpo-23973 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23973]: Update typing.py from GitHub repo.

bpo-23004 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23004]: mock_open() now reads binary data correctly when the type of read_data is bytes. Initial patch by Aaron Hill.

bpo-23888 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23888]: Handle fractional time in cookie expiry. Patch by ssh.

bpo-23652 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23652]: Make it possible to compile the select module against the libc headers from the Linux Standard Base, which do not include some EPOLL macros. Patch by Matt Frank.

bpo-22932 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22932]: Fix timezones in email.utils.formatdate. Patch from Dmitry Shachnev.

bpo-23779 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23779]: imaplib raises TypeError if authenticator tries to abort. Patch from Craig Holmquist.

bpo-23319 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23319]: Fix ctypes.BigEndianStructure, swap correctly bytes. Patch written by Matthieu Gautier.

bpo-23254 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23254]: Document how to close the TCPServer listening socket. Patch from Martin Panter.

bpo-19450 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19450]: Update Windows and OS X installer builds to use SQLite 3.8.11.

bpo-17527 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17527]: Add PATCH to wsgiref.validator. Patch from Luca Sbardella.

bpo-24791 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24791]: Fix grammar regression for call syntax: 'g(*a or b)'.

IDLE

bpo-23672 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23672]: Allow Idle to edit and run files with astral chars in name. Patch by Mohd Sanad Zaki Rizvi.

bpo-24745 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24745]: Idle editor default font. Switch from Courier to platform-sensitive TkFixedFont. This should not affect current customized font selections. If there is a problem, edit $HOME/.idlerc/config-main.cfg and remove 'fontxxx' entries from [Editor Window]. Patch by Mark Roseman.

bpo-21192 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21192]: Idle editor. When a file is run, put its name in the restart bar. Do not print false prompts. Original patch by Adnan Umer.

bpo-13884 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13884]: Idle menus. Remove tearoff lines. Patch by Roger Serwy.

Documentation

bpo-24129 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24129]: Clarify the reference documentation for name resolution. This includes removing the assumption that readers will be familiar with the name resolution scheme Python used prior to the introduction of lexical scoping for function namespaces. Patch by Ivan Levkivskyi.

bpo-20769 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20769]: Improve reload() docs. Patch by Dorian Pula.

bpo-23589 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23589]: Remove duplicate sentence from the FAQ. Patch by Yongzhi Pan.

bpo-24729 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24729]: Correct IO tutorial to match implementation regarding encoding parameter to open function.

Tests

bpo-24751 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24751]: When running regrtest with the -w command line option, a test run is no longer marked as a failure if all tests succeed when re-run.

Python 3.5.0 beta 4

Release date: 2015-07-26

Core and Builtins

bpo-23573 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23573]: Restored optimization of bytes.rfind() and bytearray.rfind() for single-byte argument on Linux.

bpo-24569 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24569]: Make PEP 448 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/] dictionary evaluation more consistent.

bpo-24583 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24583]: Fix crash when set is mutated while being updated.

bpo-24407 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24407]: Fix crash when dict is mutated while being updated.

bpo-24619 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24619]: New approach for tokenizing async/await. As a consequence, it is now possible to have one-line 'async def foo(): await ..' functions.

bpo-24687 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24687]: Plug refleak on SyntaxError in function parameters annotations.

bpo-15944 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15944]: memoryview: Allow arbitrary formats when casting to bytes. Patch by Martin Panter.

Library

bpo-23441 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23441]: rcompleter now prints a tab character instead of displaying possible completions for an empty word. Initial patch by Martin Sekera.

bpo-24683 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24683]: Fixed crashes in _json functions called with arguments of inappropriate type.

bpo-21697 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21697]: shutil.copytree() now correctly handles symbolic links that point to directories. Patch by Eduardo Seabra and Thomas Kluyver.

bpo-14373 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14373]: Fixed segmentation fault when gc.collect() is called during constructing lru_cache (C implementation).

bpo-24695 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24695]: Fix a regression in traceback.print_exception(). If exc_traceback is None we shouldn't print a traceback header like described in the documentation.

bpo-24620 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24620]: Random.setstate() now validates the value of state last element.

bpo-22485 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22485]: Fixed an issue that caused inspect.getsource to return incorrect results on nested functions.

bpo-22153 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22153]: Improve unittest docs. Patch from Martin Panter and evilzero.

bpo-24580 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24580]: Symbolic group references to open group in re patterns now are explicitly forbidden as well as numeric group references.

bpo-24206 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24206]: Fixed __eq__ and __ne__ methods of inspect classes.

bpo-24631 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24631]: Fixed regression in the timeit module with multiline setup.

bpo-18622 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18622]: unittest.mock.mock_open().reset_mock would recurse infinitely. Patch from Nicola Palumbo and Laurent De Buyst.

bpo-23661 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23661]: unittest.mock side_effects can now be exceptions again. This was a regression vs Python 3.4. Patch from Ignacio Rossi

bpo-24608 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24608]: chunk.Chunk.read() now always returns bytes, not str.

bpo-18684 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18684]: Fixed reading out of the buffer in the re module.

bpo-24259 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24259]: tarfile now raises a ReadError if an archive is truncated inside a data segment.

bpo-15014 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15014]: SMTP.auth() and SMTP.login() now support RFC 4954's optional initial-response argument to the SMTP AUTH command.

bpo-24669 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24669]: Fix inspect.getsource() for 'async def' functions. Patch by Kai Groner.

bpo-24688 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24688]: ast.get_docstring() for 'async def' functions.

Build

bpo-24603 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24603]: Update Windows builds and OS X 10.5 installer to use OpenSSL 1.0.2d.

Python 3.5.0 beta 3

Release date: 2015-07-05

Core and Builtins

bpo-24467 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24467]: Fixed possible buffer over-read in bytearray. The bytearray object now always allocates place for trailing null byte and it's buffer now is always null-terminated.

Upgrade to Unicode 8.0.0.

bpo-24345 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24345]: Add Py_tp_finalize slot for the stable ABI.

bpo-24400 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24400]: Introduce a distinct type for PEP 492 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/] coroutines; add types.CoroutineType, inspect.getcoroutinestate, inspect.getcoroutinelocals; coroutines no longer use CO_GENERATOR flag; sys.set_coroutine_wrapper works only for 'async def' coroutines; inspect.iscoroutine no longer uses collections.abc.Coroutine, it's intended to test for pure 'async def' coroutines only; add new opcode: GET_YIELD_FROM_ITER; fix generators wrapper used in types.coroutine to be instance of collections.abc.Generator; collections.abc.Awaitable and collections.abc.Coroutine can no longer be used to detect generator-based coroutines--use inspect.isawaitable instead.

bpo-24450 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24450]: Add gi_yieldfrom to generators and cr_await to coroutines. Contributed by Benno Leslie and Yury Selivanov.

bpo-19235 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19235]: Add new RecursionError exception. Patch by Georg Brandl.

Library

bpo-21750 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21750]: mock_open.read_data can now be read from each instance, as it could in Python 3.3.

bpo-24552 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24552]: Fix use after free in an error case of the _pickle module.

bpo-24514 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24514]: tarfile now tolerates number fields consisting of only whitespace.

bpo-19176 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19176]: Fixed doctype() related bugs in C implementation of ElementTree. A deprecation warning no longer issued by XMLParser subclass with default doctype() method. Direct call of doctype() now issues a warning. Parser's doctype() now is not called if target's doctype() is called. Based on patch by Martin Panter.

bpo-20387 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20387]: Restore semantic round-trip correctness in tokenize/untokenize for tab-indented blocks.

bpo-24456 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24456]: Fixed possible buffer over-read in adpcm2lin() and lin2adpcm() functions of the audioop module.

bpo-24336 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24336]: The contextmanager decorator now works with functions with keyword arguments called "func" and "self". Patch by Martin Panter.

bpo-24522 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24522]: Fix possible integer overflow in json accelerator module.

bpo-24489 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24489]: ensure a previously set C errno doesn't disturb cmath.polar().

bpo-24408 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24408]: Fixed AttributeError in measure() and metrics() methods of tkinter.Font.

bpo-14373 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14373]: C implementation of functools.lru_cache() now can be used with methods.

bpo-24347 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24347]: Set KeyError if PyDict_GetItemWithError returns NULL.

bpo-24348 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24348]: Drop superfluous incref/decref.

bpo-24359 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24359]: Check for changed OrderedDict size during iteration.

bpo-24368 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24368]: Support keyword arguments in OrderedDict methods.

bpo-24362 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24362]: Simplify the C OrderedDict fast nodes resize logic.

bpo-24377 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24377]: Fix a ref leak in OrderedDict.__repr__.

bpo-24369 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24369]: Defend against key-changes during iteration.

Tests

bpo-24373 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24373]: _testmultiphase and xxlimited now use tp_traverse and tp_finalize to avoid reference leaks encountered when combining tp_dealloc with PyType_FromSpec (see bpo-16690 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16690] for details)

Documentation

bpo-24458 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24458]: Update documentation to cover multi-phase initialization for extension modules (PEP 489). Patch by Petr Viktorin.

bpo-24351 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24351]: Clarify what is meant by "identifier" in the context of string.Template instances.

Build

bpo-24432 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24432]: Update Windows builds and OS X 10.5 installer to use OpenSSL 1.0.2c.

Python 3.5.0 beta 2

Release date: 2015-05-31

Core and Builtins

bpo-24284 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24284]: The startswith and endswith methods of the str class no longer return True when finding the empty string and the indexes are completely out of range.

bpo-24115 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24115]: Update uses of PyObject_IsTrue(), PyObject_Not(), PyObject_IsInstance(), PyObject_RichCompareBool() and _PyDict_Contains() to check for and handle errors correctly.

bpo-24328 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24328]: Fix importing one character extension modules.

bpo-11205 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11205]: In dictionary displays, evaluate the key before the value.

bpo-24285 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24285]: Fixed regression that prevented importing extension modules from inside packages. Patch by Petr Viktorin.

Library

bpo-23247 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23247]: Fix a crash in the StreamWriter.reset() of CJK codecs.

bpo-24270 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24270]: Add math.isclose() and cmath.isclose() functions as per PEP 485 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0485/]. Contributed by Chris Barker and Tal Einat.

bpo-5633 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5633]: Fixed timeit when the statement is a string and the setup is not.

bpo-24326 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24326]: Fixed audioop.ratecv() with non-default weightB argument. Original patch by David Moore.

bpo-16991 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16991]: Add a C implementation of OrderedDict.

bpo-23934 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23934]: Fix inspect.signature to fail correctly for builtin types lacking signature information. Initial patch by James Powell.

Python 3.5.0 beta 1

Release date: 2015-05-24

Core and Builtins

bpo-24276 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24276]: Fixed optimization of property descriptor getter.

bpo-24268 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24268]: PEP 489: Multi-phase extension module initialization. Patch by Petr Viktorin.

bpo-23955 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23955]: Add pyvenv.cfg option to suppress registry/environment lookup for generating sys.path on Windows.

bpo-24257 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24257]: Fixed system error in the comparison of faked types.SimpleNamespace.

bpo-22939 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22939]: Fixed integer overflow in iterator object. Patch by Clement Rouault.

bpo-23985 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23985]: Fix a possible buffer overrun when deleting a slice from the front of a bytearray and then appending some other bytes data.

bpo-24102 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24102]: Fixed exception type checking in standard error handlers.

bpo-15027 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15027]: The UTF-32 encoder is now 3x to 7x faster.

bpo-23290 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23290]: Optimize set_merge() for cases where the target is empty. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka.)

bpo-2292 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2292]: PEP 448: Additional Unpacking Generalizations.

bpo-24096 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24096]: Make warnings.warn_explicit more robust against mutation of the warnings.filters list.

bpo-23996 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23996]: Avoid a crash when a delegated generator raises an unnormalized StopIteration exception. Patch by Stefan Behnel.

bpo-23910 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23910]: Optimize property() getter calls. Patch by Joe Jevnik.

bpo-23911 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23911]: Move path-based importlib bootstrap code to a separate frozen module.

bpo-24192 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24192]: Fix namespace package imports.

bpo-24022 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24022]: Fix tokenizer crash when processing undecodable source code.

bpo-9951 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9951]: Added a hex() method to bytes, bytearray, and memoryview.

bpo-22906 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22906]: PEP 479: Change StopIteration handling inside generators.

bpo-24017 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24017]: PEP 492: Coroutines with async and await syntax.

Library

bpo-14373 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14373]: Added C implementation of functools.lru_cache(). Based on patches by Matt Joiner and Alexey Kachayev.

bpo-24230 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24230]: The tempfile module now accepts bytes for prefix, suffix and dir parameters and returns bytes in such situations (matching the os module APIs).

bpo-22189 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22189]: collections.UserString now supports __getnewargs__(), __rmod__(), casefold(), format_map(), isprintable(), and maketrans(). Patch by Joe Jevnik.

bpo-24244 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24244]: Prevents termination when an invalid format string is encountered on Windows in strftime.

bpo-23973 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23973]: PEP 484: Add the typing module.

bpo-23086 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23086]: The collections.abc.Sequence() abstract base class added start and stop parameters to the index() mixin. Patch by Devin Jeanpierre.

bpo-20035 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20035]: Replaced the tkinter._fix module used for setting up the Tcl/Tk environment on Windows with a private function in the _tkinter module that makes no permanent changes to the environment.

bpo-24257 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24257]: Fixed segmentation fault in sqlite3.Row constructor with faked cursor type.

bpo-15836 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15836]: assertRaises(), assertRaisesRegex(), assertWarns() and assertWarnsRegex() assertments now check the type of the first argument to prevent possible user error. Based on patch by Daniel Wagner-Hall.

bpo-9858 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9858]: Add missing method stubs to _io.RawIOBase. Patch by Laura Rupprecht.

bpo-22955 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22955]: attrgetter, itemgetter and methodcaller objects in the operator module now support pickling. Added readable and evaluable repr for these objects. Based on patch by Josh Rosenberg.

bpo-22107 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22107]: tempfile.gettempdir() and tempfile.mkdtemp() now try again when a directory with the chosen name already exists on Windows as well as on Unix. tempfile.mkstemp() now fails early if parent directory is not valid (not exists or is a file) on Windows.

bpo-23780 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23780]: Improved error message in os.path.join() with single argument.

bpo-6598 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6598]: Increased time precision and random number range in email.utils.make_msgid() to strengthen the uniqueness of the message ID.

bpo-24091 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24091]: Fixed various crashes in corner cases in C implementation of ElementTree.

bpo-21931 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21931]: msilib.FCICreate() now raises TypeError in the case of a bad argument instead of a ValueError with a bogus FCI error number. Patch by Jeffrey Armstrong.

bpo-13866 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13866]: quote_via argument added to urllib.parse.urlencode.

bpo-20098 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20098]: New mangle_from policy option for email, default True for compat32, but False for all other policies.

bpo-24211 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24211]: The email library now supports RFC 6532: it can generate headers using utf-8 instead of encoded words.

bpo-16314 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16314]: Added support for the LZMA compression in distutils.

bpo-21804 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21804]: poplib now supports RFC 6856 (UTF8).

bpo-18682 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18682]: Optimized pprint functions for builtin scalar types.

bpo-22027 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22027]: smtplib now supports RFC 6531 (SMTPUTF8).

bpo-23488 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23488]: Random generator objects now consume 2x less memory on 64-bit.

bpo-1322 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1322]: platform.dist() and platform.linux_distribution() functions are now deprecated. Initial patch by Vajrasky Kok.

bpo-22486 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22486]: Added the math.gcd() function. The fractions.gcd() function now is deprecated. Based on patch by Mark Dickinson.

bpo-24064 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24064]: Property() docstrings are now writeable. (Patch by Berker Peksag.)

bpo-22681 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22681]: Added support for the koi8_t encoding.

bpo-22682 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22682]: Added support for the kz1048 encoding.

bpo-23796 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23796]: peek and read1 methods of BufferedReader now raise ValueError if they called on a closed object. Patch by John Hergenroeder.

bpo-21795 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21795]: smtpd now supports the 8BITMIME extension whenever the new decode_data constructor argument is set to False.

bpo-24155 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24155]: optimize heapq.heapify() for better cache performance when heapifying large lists.

bpo-21800 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21800]: imaplib now supports RFC 5161 (enable), RFC 6855 (utf8/internationalized email) and automatically encodes non-ASCII usernames and passwords to UTF8.

bpo-20274 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20274]: When calling a _sqlite.Connection, it now complains if passed any keyword arguments. Previously it silently ignored them.

bpo-20274 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20274]: Remove ignored and erroneous "kwargs" parameters from three METH_VARARGS methods on _sqlite.Connection.

bpo-24134 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24134]: assertRaises(), assertRaisesRegex(), assertWarns() and assertWarnsRegex() checks now emits a deprecation warning when callable is None or keyword arguments except msg is passed in the context manager mode.

bpo-24018 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24018]: Add a collections.abc.Generator abstract base class. Contributed by Stefan Behnel.

bpo-23880 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23880]: Tkinter's getint() and getdouble() now support Tcl_Obj. Tkinter's getdouble() now supports any numbers (in particular int).

bpo-22619 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22619]: Added negative limit support in the traceback module. Based on patch by Dmitry Kazakov.

bpo-24094 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24094]: Fix possible crash in json.encode with poorly behaved dict subclasses.

bpo-9246 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9246]: On POSIX, os.getcwd() now supports paths longer than 1025 bytes. Patch written by William Orr.

bpo-17445 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17445]: add difflib.diff_bytes() to support comparison of byte strings (fixes a regression from Python 2).

bpo-23917 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23917]: Fall back to sequential compilation when ProcessPoolExecutor doesn't exist. Patch by Claudiu Popa.

bpo-23008 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23008]: Fixed resolving attributes with boolean value is False in pydoc.

Fix asyncio issue 235: LifoQueue and PriorityQueue's put didn't increment unfinished tasks (this bug was introduced when JoinableQueue was merged with Queue).

bpo-23908 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23908]: os functions now reject paths with embedded null character on Windows instead of silently truncating them.

bpo-23728 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23728]: binascii.crc_hqx() could return an integer outside of the range 0-0xffff for empty data.

bpo-23887 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23887]: urllib.error.HTTPError now has a proper repr() representation. Patch by Berker Peksag.

asyncio: New event loop APIs: set_task_factory() and get_task_factory().

asyncio: async() function is deprecated in favour of ensure_future().

bpo-24178 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24178]: asyncio.Lock, Condition, Semaphore, and BoundedSemaphore support new 'async with' syntax. Contributed by Yury Selivanov.

bpo-24179 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24179]: Support 'async for' for asyncio.StreamReader. Contributed by Yury Selivanov.

bpo-24184 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24184]: Add AsyncIterator and AsyncIterable ABCs to collections.abc. Contributed by Yury Selivanov.

bpo-22547 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22547]: Implement informative __repr__ for inspect.BoundArguments. Contributed by Yury Selivanov.

bpo-24190 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24190]: Implement inspect.BoundArgument.apply_defaults() method. Contributed by Yury Selivanov.

bpo-20691 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20691]: Add 'follow_wrapped' argument to inspect.Signature.from_callable() and inspect.signature(). Contributed by Yury Selivanov.

bpo-24248 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24248]: Deprecate inspect.Signature.from_function() and inspect.Signature.from_builtin().

bpo-23898 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23898]: Fix inspect.classify_class_attrs() to support attributes with overloaded __eq__ and __bool__. Patch by Mike Bayer.

bpo-24298 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24298]: Fix inspect.signature() to correctly unwrap wrappers around bound methods.

IDLE

bpo-23184 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23184]: remove unused names and imports in idlelib. Initial patch by Al Sweigart.

Tests

bpo-21520 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21520]: test_zipfile no longer fails if the word 'bad' appears anywhere in the name of the current directory.

bpo-9517 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9517]: Move script_helper into the support package. Patch by Christie Wilson.

Documentation

bpo-22155 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22155]: Add File Handlers subsection with createfilehandler to tkinter doc. Remove obsolete example from FAQ. Patch by Martin Panter.

bpo-24029 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24029]: Document the name binding behavior for submodule imports.

bpo-24077 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24077]: Fix typo in man page for -I command option: -s, not -S

Tools/Demos

bpo-24000 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24000]: Improved Argument Clinic's mapping of converters to legacy "format units". Updated the documentation to match.

bpo-24001 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24001]: Argument Clinic converters now use accept={type} instead of types={'type'} to specify the types the converter accepts.

bpo-23330 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23330]: h2py now supports arbitrary filenames in #include.

bpo-24031 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24031]: make patchcheck now supports git checkouts, too.

Python 3.5.0 alpha 4

Release date: 2015-04-19

Core and Builtins

bpo-22980 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22980]: Under Linux, GNU/KFreeBSD and the Hurd, C extensions now include the architecture triplet in the extension name, to make it easy to test builds for different ABIs in the same working tree. Under OS X, the extension name now includes PEP 3149 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3149/]-style information.

bpo-22631 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22631]: Added Linux-specific socket constant CAN_RAW_FD_FRAMES. Patch courtesy of Joe Jevnik.

bpo-23731 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23731]: Implement PEP 488 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/]: removal of .pyo files.

bpo-23726 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23726]: Don't enable GC for user subclasses of non-GC types that don't add any new fields. Patch by Eugene Toder.

bpo-23309 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23309]: Avoid a deadlock at shutdown if a daemon thread is aborted while it is holding a lock to a buffered I/O object, and the main thread tries to use the same I/O object (typically stdout or stderr). A fatal error is emitted instead.

bpo-22977 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22977]: Fixed formatting Windows error messages on Wine. Patch by Martin Panter.

bpo-23466 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23466]: %c, %o, %x, and %X in bytes formatting now raise TypeError on non-integer input.

bpo-24044 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24044]: Fix possible null pointer dereference in list.sort in out of memory conditions.

bpo-21354 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21354]: PyCFunction_New function is exposed by python DLL again.

Library

bpo-23840 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23840]: tokenize.open() now closes the temporary binary file on error to fix a resource warning.

bpo-16914 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16914]: new debuglevel 2 in smtplib adds timestamps to debug output.

bpo-7159 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7159]: urllib.request now supports sending auth credentials automatically after the first 401. This enhancement is a superset of the enhancement from bpo-19494 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19494] and supersedes that change.

bpo-23703 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23703]: Fix a regression in urljoin() introduced in 901e4e52b20a. Patch by Demian Brecht.

bpo-4254 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4254]: Adds _curses.update_lines_cols(). Patch by Arnon Yaari

bpo-19933 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19933]: Provide default argument for ndigits in round. Patch by Vajrasky Kok.

bpo-23193 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23193]: Add a numeric_owner parameter to tarfile.TarFile.extract and tarfile.TarFile.extractall. Patch by Michael Vogt and Eric Smith.

bpo-23342 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23342]: Add a subprocess.run() function than returns a CalledProcess instance for a more consistent API than the existing call* functions.

bpo-21217 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21217]: inspect.getsourcelines() now tries to compute the start and end lines from the code object, fixing an issue when a lambda function is used as decorator argument. Patch by Thomas Ballinger and Allison Kaptur.

bpo-24521 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24521]: Fix possible integer overflows in the pickle module.

bpo-22931 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22931]: Allow '[' and ']' in cookie values.

The keywords attribute of functools.partial is now always a dictionary.

bpo-23811 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23811]: Add missing newline to the PyCompileError error message. Patch by Alex Shkop.

bpo-21116 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21116]: Avoid blowing memory when allocating a multiprocessing shared array that's larger than 50% of the available RAM. Patch by Médéric Boquien.

bpo-22982 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22982]: Improve BOM handling when seeking to multiple positions of a writable text file.

bpo-23464 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23464]: Removed deprecated asyncio JoinableQueue.

bpo-23529 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23529]: Limit the size of decompressed data when reading from GzipFile, BZ2File or LZMAFile. This defeats denial of service attacks using compressed bombs (i.e. compressed payloads which decompress to a huge size). Patch by Martin Panter and Nikolaus Rath.

bpo-21859 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21859]: Added Python implementation of io.FileIO.

bpo-23865 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23865]: close() methods in multiple modules now are idempotent and more robust at shutdown. If they need to release multiple resources, all are released even if errors occur.

bpo-23400 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23400]: Raise same exception on both Python 2 and 3 if sem_open is not available. Patch by Davin Potts.

bpo-10838 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10838]: The subprocess now module includes SubprocessError and TimeoutError in its list of exported names for the users wild enough to use from subprocess import *.

bpo-23411 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23411]: Added DefragResult, ParseResult, SplitResult, DefragResultBytes, ParseResultBytes, and SplitResultBytes to urllib.parse.__all__. Patch by Martin Panter.

bpo-23881 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23881]: urllib.request.ftpwrapper constructor now closes the socket if the FTP connection failed to fix a ResourceWarning.

bpo-23853 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23853]: socket.socket.sendall() does no more reset the socket timeout each time data is sent successfully. The socket timeout is now the maximum total duration to send all data.

bpo-22721 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22721]: An order of multiline pprint output of set or dict containing orderable and non-orderable elements no longer depends on iteration order of set or dict.

bpo-15133 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15133]: _tkinter.tkapp.getboolean() now supports Tcl_Obj and always returns bool. tkinter.BooleanVar now validates input values (accepted bool, int, str, and Tcl_Obj). tkinter.BooleanVar.get() now always returns bool.

bpo-10590 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10590]: xml.sax.parseString() now supports string argument.

bpo-23338 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23338]: Fixed formatting ctypes error messages on Cygwin. Patch by Makoto Kato.

bpo-15582 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15582]: inspect.getdoc() now follows inheritance chains.

bpo-2175 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2175]: SAX parsers now support a character stream of InputSource object.

bpo-16840 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16840]: Tkinter now supports 64-bit integers added in Tcl 8.4 and arbitrary precision integers added in Tcl 8.5.

bpo-23834 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23834]: Fix socket.sendto(), use the C Py_ssize_t type to store the result of sendto() instead of the C int type.

bpo-23618 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23618]: socket.socket.connect() now waits until the connection completes instead of raising InterruptedError if the connection is interrupted by signals, signal handlers don't raise an exception and the socket is blocking or has a timeout. socket.socket.connect() still raise InterruptedError for non-blocking sockets.

bpo-21526 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21526]: Tkinter now supports new boolean type in Tcl 8.5.

bpo-23836 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23836]: Fix the faulthandler module to handle reentrant calls to its signal handlers.

bpo-23838 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23838]: linecache now clears the cache and returns an empty result on MemoryError.

bpo-10395 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10395]: Added os.path.commonpath(). Implemented in posixpath and ntpath. Based on patch by Rafik Draoui.

bpo-23611 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23611]: Serializing more "lookupable" objects (such as unbound methods or nested classes) now are supported with pickle protocols < 4.

bpo-13583 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13583]: sqlite3.Row now supports slice indexing.

bpo-18473 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18473]: Fixed 2to3 and 3to2 compatible pickle mappings. Fixed ambiguous reverse mappings. Added many new mappings. Import mapping is no longer applied to modules already mapped with full name mapping.

bpo-23485 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23485]: select.select() is now retried automatically with the recomputed timeout when interrupted by a signal, except if the signal handler raises an exception. This change is part of the PEP 475 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/].

bpo-23752 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23752]: When built from an existing file descriptor, io.FileIO() now only calls fstat() once. Before fstat() was called twice, which was not necessary.

bpo-23704 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23704]: collections.deque() objects now support __add__, __mul__, and __imul__().

bpo-23171 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23171]: csv.Writer.writerow() now supports arbitrary iterables.

bpo-23745 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23745]: The new email header parser now handles duplicate MIME parameter names without error, similar to how get_param behaves.

bpo-22117 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22117]: Fix os.utime(), it now rounds the timestamp towards minus infinity (-inf) instead of rounding towards zero.

bpo-23310 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23310]: Fix MagicMock's initializer to work with __methods__, just like configure_mock(). Patch by Kasia Jachim.

Build

bpo-23817 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23817]: FreeBSD now uses "1.0" in the SOVERSION as other operating systems, instead of just "1".

bpo-23501 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23501]: Argument Clinic now generates code into separate files by default.

Tests

bpo-23799 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23799]: Added test.support.start_threads() for running and cleaning up multiple threads.

bpo-22390 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22390]: test.regrtest now emits a warning if temporary files or directories are left after running a test.

Tools/Demos

bpo-18128 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18128]: pygettext now uses standard +NNNN format in the POT-Creation-Date header.

bpo-23935 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23935]: Argument Clinic's understanding of format units accepting bytes, bytearrays, and buffers is now consistent with both the documentation and the implementation.

bpo-23944 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23944]: Argument Clinic now wraps long impl prototypes at column 78.

bpo-20586 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20586]: Argument Clinic now ensures that functions without docstrings have signatures.

bpo-23492 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23492]: Argument Clinic now generates argument parsing code with PyArg_Parse instead of PyArg_ParseTuple if possible.

bpo-23500 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23500]: Argument Clinic is now smarter about generating the "#ifndef" (empty) definition of the methoddef macro: it's only generated once, even if Argument Clinic processes the same symbol multiple times, and it's emitted at the end of all processing rather than immediately after the first use.

C API

bpo-23998 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23998]: PyImport_ReInitLock() now checks for lock allocation error

Python 3.5.0 alpha 3

Release date: 2015-03-28

Core and Builtins

bpo-23573 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23573]: Increased performance of string search operations (str.find, str.index, str.count, the in operator, str.split, str.partition) with arguments of different kinds (UCS1, UCS2, UCS4).

bpo-23753 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23753]: Python doesn't support anymore platforms without stat() or fstat(), these functions are always required.

bpo-23681 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23681]: The -b option now affects comparisons of bytes with int.

bpo-23632 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23632]: Memoryviews now allow tuple indexing (including for multi-dimensional memoryviews).

bpo-23192 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23192]: Fixed generator lambdas. Patch by Bruno Cauet.

bpo-23629 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23629]: Fix the default __sizeof__ implementation for variable-sized objects.

Library

bpo-14260 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14260]: The groupindex attribute of regular expression pattern object now is non-modifiable mapping.

bpo-23792 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23792]: Ignore KeyboardInterrupt when the pydoc pager is active. This mimics the behavior of the standard unix pagers, and prevents pipepager from shutting down while the pager itself is still running.

bpo-23775 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23775]: pprint() of OrderedDict now outputs the same representation as repr().

bpo-23765 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23765]: Removed IsBadStringPtr calls in ctypes

bpo-22364 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22364]: Improved some re error messages using regex for hints.

bpo-23742 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23742]: ntpath.expandvars() no longer loses unbalanced single quotes.

bpo-21717 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21717]: The zipfile.ZipFile.open function now supports 'x' (exclusive creation) mode.

bpo-21802 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21802]: The reader in BufferedRWPair now is closed even when closing writer failed in BufferedRWPair.close().

bpo-23622 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23622]: Unknown escapes in regular expressions that consist of '\' and ASCII letter now raise a deprecation warning and will be forbidden in Python 3.6.

bpo-23671 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23671]: string.Template now allows specifying the "self" parameter as a keyword argument. string.Formatter now allows specifying the "self" and the "format_string" parameters as keyword arguments.

bpo-23502 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23502]: The pprint module now supports mapping proxies.

bpo-17530 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17530]: pprint now wraps long bytes objects and bytearrays.

bpo-22687 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22687]: Fixed some corner cases in breaking words in tetxtwrap. Got rid of quadratic complexity in breaking long words.

bpo-4727 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4727]: The copy module now uses pickle protocol 4 (PEP 3154) and supports copying of instances of classes whose __new__ method takes keyword-only arguments.

bpo-23491 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23491]: Added a zipapp module to support creating executable zip file archives of Python code. Registered ".pyz" and ".pyzw" extensions on Windows for these archives (PEP 441).

bpo-23657 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23657]: Avoid explicit checks for str in zipapp, adding support for pathlib.Path objects as arguments.

bpo-23688 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23688]: Added support of arbitrary bytes-like objects and avoided unnecessary copying of memoryview in gzip.GzipFile.write(). Original patch by Wolfgang Maier.

bpo-23252 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23252]: Added support for writing ZIP files to unseekable streams.

bpo-23647 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23647]: Increase imaplib's MAXLINE to accommodate modern mailbox sizes.

bpo-23539 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23539]: If body is None, http.client.HTTPConnection.request now sets Content-Length to 0 for PUT, POST, and PATCH headers to avoid 411 errors from some web servers.

bpo-22351 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22351]: The nntplib.NNTP constructor no longer leaves the connection and socket open until the garbage collector cleans them up. Patch by Martin Panter.

bpo-23704 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23704]: collections.deque() objects now support methods for index(), insert(), and copy(). This allows deques to be registered as a MutableSequence and it improves their substitutability for lists.

bpo-23715 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23715]: signal.sigwaitinfo() and signal.sigtimedwait() are now retried when interrupted by a signal not in the sigset parameter, if the signal handler does not raise an exception. signal.sigtimedwait() recomputes the timeout with a monotonic clock when it is retried.

bpo-23001 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23001]: Few functions in modules mmap, ossaudiodev, socket, ssl, and codecs, that accepted only read-only bytes-like object now accept writable bytes-like object too.

bpo-23646 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23646]: If time.sleep() is interrupted by a signal, the sleep is now retried with the recomputed delay, except if the signal handler raises an exception (PEP 475).

bpo-23136 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23136]: _strptime now uniformly handles all days in week 0, including Dec 30 of previous year. Based on patch by Jim Carroll.

bpo-23700 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23700]: Iterator of NamedTemporaryFile now keeps a reference to NamedTemporaryFile instance. Patch by Bohuslav Kabrda.

bpo-22903 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22903]: The fake test case created by unittest.loader when it fails importing a test module is now picklable.

bpo-22181 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22181]: On Linux, os.urandom() now uses the new getrandom() syscall if available, syscall introduced in the Linux kernel 3.17. It is more reliable and more secure, because it avoids the need of a file descriptor and waits until the kernel has enough entropy.

bpo-2211 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2211]: Updated the implementation of the http.cookies.Morsel class. Setting attributes key, value and coded_value directly now is deprecated. update() and setdefault() now transform and check keys. Comparing for equality now takes into account attributes key, value and coded_value. copy() now returns a Morsel, not a dict. repr() now contains all attributes. Optimized checking keys and quoting values. Added new tests. Original patch by Demian Brecht.

bpo-18983 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18983]: Allow selection of output units in timeit. Patch by Julian Gindi.

bpo-23631 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23631]: Fix traceback.format_list when a traceback has been mutated.

bpo-23568 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23568]: Add rdivmod support to MagicMock() objects. Patch by Håkan Lövdahl.

bpo-2052 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2052]: Add charset parameter to HtmlDiff.make_file().

bpo-23668 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23668]: Support os.truncate and os.ftruncate on Windows.

bpo-23138 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23138]: Fixed parsing cookies with absent keys or values in cookiejar. Patch by Demian Brecht.

bpo-23051 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23051]: multiprocessing.Pool methods imap() and imap_unordered() now handle exceptions raised by an iterator. Patch by Alon Diamant and Davin Potts.

bpo-23581 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23581]: Add matmul support to MagicMock. Patch by Håkan Lövdahl.

bpo-23566 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23566]: enable(), register(), dump_traceback() and dump_traceback_later() functions of faulthandler now accept file descriptors. Patch by Wei Wu.

bpo-22928 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22928]: Disabled HTTP header injections in http.client. Original patch by Demian Brecht.

bpo-23615 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23615]: Modules bz2, tarfile and tokenize now can be reloaded with imp.reload(). Patch by Thomas Kluyver.

bpo-23605 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23605]: os.walk() now calls os.scandir() instead of os.listdir(). The usage of os.scandir() reduces the number of calls to os.stat(). Initial patch written by Ben Hoyt.

Build

bpo-23585 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23585]: make patchcheck will ensure the interpreter is built.

Tests

bpo-23583 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23583]: Added tests for standard IO streams in IDLE.

bpo-22289 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22289]: Prevent test_urllib2net failures due to ftp connection timeout.

Tools/Demos

bpo-22826 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22826]: The result of open() in Tools/freeze/bkfile.py is now better compatible with regular files (in particular it now supports the context management protocol).

Python 3.5.0 alpha 2

Release date: 2015-03-09

Core and Builtins

bpo-23571 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23571]: PyObject_Call() and PyCFunction_Call() now raise a SystemError if a function returns a result and raises an exception. The SystemError is chained to the previous exception.

Library

bpo-22524 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22524]: New os.scandir() function, part of the PEP 471 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0471/]: "os.scandir() function -- a better and faster directory iterator". Patch written by Ben Hoyt.

bpo-23103 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23103]: Reduced the memory consumption of IPv4Address and IPv6Address.

bpo-21793 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21793]: BaseHTTPRequestHandler again logs response code as numeric, not as stringified enum. Patch by Demian Brecht.

bpo-23476 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23476]: In the ssl module, enable OpenSSL's X509_V_FLAG_TRUSTED_FIRST flag on certificate stores when it is available.

bpo-23576 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23576]: Avoid stalling in SSL reads when EOF has been reached in the SSL layer but the underlying connection hasn't been closed.

bpo-23504 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23504]: Added an __all__ to the types module.

bpo-23563 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23563]: Optimized utility functions in urllib.parse.

bpo-7830 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7830]: Flatten nested functools.partial.

bpo-20204 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20204]: Added the __module__ attribute to _tkinter classes.

bpo-19980 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19980]: Improved help() for non-recognized strings. help('') now shows the help on str. help('help') now shows the help on help(). Original patch by Mark Lawrence.

bpo-23521 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23521]: Corrected pure python implementation of timedelta division. Eliminated OverflowError from timedelta * float for some floats; Corrected rounding in timedelta true division.

bpo-21619 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21619]: Popen objects no longer leave a zombie after exit in the with statement if the pipe was broken. Patch by Martin Panter.

bpo-22936 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22936]: Make it possible to show local variables in tracebacks for both the traceback module and unittest.

bpo-15955 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15955]: Add an option to limit the output size in bz2.decompress(). Patch by Nikolaus Rath.

bpo-6639 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6639]: Module-level turtle functions no longer raise TclError after closing the window.

bpo-814253 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=814253]: Group references and conditional group references now work in lookbehind assertions in regular expressions. (See also: bpo-9179 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9179])

bpo-23215 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23215]: Multibyte codecs with custom error handlers that ignores errors consumed too much memory and raised SystemError or MemoryError. Original patch by Aleksi Torhamo.

bpo-5700 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5700]: io.FileIO() called flush() after closing the file. flush() was not called in close() if closefd=False.

bpo-23374 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23374]: Fixed pydoc failure with non-ASCII files when stdout encoding differs from file system encoding (e.g. on Mac OS).

bpo-23481 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23481]: Remove RC4 from the SSL module's default cipher list.

bpo-21548 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21548]: Fix pydoc.synopsis() and pydoc.apropos() on modules with empty docstrings.

bpo-22885 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22885]: Fixed arbitrary code execution vulnerability in the dbm.dumb module. Original patch by Claudiu Popa.

bpo-23239 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23239]: ssl.match_hostname() now supports matching of IP addresses.

bpo-23146 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23146]: Fix mishandling of absolute Windows paths with forward slashes in pathlib.

bpo-23096 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23096]: Pickle representation of floats with protocol 0 now is the same for both Python and C implementations.

bpo-19105 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19105]: pprint now more efficiently uses free space at the right.

bpo-14910 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14910]: Add allow_abbrev parameter to argparse.ArgumentParser. Patch by Jonathan Paugh, Steven Bethard, paul j3 and Daniel Eriksson.

bpo-21717 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21717]: tarfile.open() now supports 'x' (exclusive creation) mode.

bpo-23344 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23344]: marshal.dumps() is now 20-25% faster on average.

bpo-20416 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20416]: marshal.dumps() with protocols 3 and 4 is now 40-50% faster on average.

bpo-23421 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23421]: Fixed compression in tarfile CLI. Patch by wdv4758h.

bpo-23367 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23367]: Fix possible overflows in the unicodedata module.

bpo-23361 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23361]: Fix possible overflow in Windows subprocess creation code.

logging.handlers.QueueListener now takes a respect_handler_level keyword argument which, if set to True, will pass messages to handlers taking handler levels into account.

bpo-19705 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19705]: turtledemo now has a visual sorting algorithm demo. Original patch from Jason Yeo.

bpo-23801 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23801]: Fix issue where cgi.FieldStorage did not always ignore the entire preamble to a multipart body.

Build

bpo-23445 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23445]: pydebug builds now use "gcc -Og" where possible, to make the resulting executable faster.

bpo-23686 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23686]: Update OS X 10.5 installer build to use OpenSSL 1.0.2a.

C API

bpo-20204 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20204]: Deprecation warning is now raised for builtin types without the __module__ attribute.

Windows

bpo-23465 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23465]: Implement PEP 486 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0486/] - Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments. Patch by Paul Moore.

bpo-23437 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23437]: Make user scripts directory versioned on Windows. Patch by Paul Moore.

Python 3.5.0 alpha 1

Release date: 2015-02-08

Core and Builtins

bpo-23285 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23285]: PEP 475 - EINTR handling.

bpo-22735 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22735]: Fix many edge cases (including crashes) involving custom mro() implementations.

bpo-22896 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22896]: Avoid using PyObject_AsCharBuffer(), PyObject_AsReadBuffer() and PyObject_AsWriteBuffer().

bpo-21295 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21295]: Revert some changes (bpo-16795 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16795]) to AST line numbers and column offsets that constituted a regression.

bpo-22986 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22986]: Allow changing an object's __class__ between a dynamic type and static type in some cases.

bpo-15859 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15859]: PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(), PyUnicode_EncodeMBCS() and PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage() now raise an exception if the object is not a Unicode object. For PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(), it was already the case on platforms other than Windows. Patch written by Campbell Barton.

bpo-21408 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21408]: The default __ne__() now returns NotImplemented if __eq__() returned NotImplemented. Original patch by Martin Panter.

bpo-23321 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23321]: Fixed a crash in str.decode() when error handler returned replacement string longer than malformed input data.

bpo-22286 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22286]: The "backslashreplace" error handlers now works with decoding and translating.

bpo-23253 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23253]: Delay-load ShellExecute[AW] in os.startfile for reduced startup overhead on Windows.

bpo-22038 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22038]: pyatomic.h now uses stdatomic.h or GCC built-in functions for atomic memory access if available. Patch written by Vitor de Lima and Gustavo Temple.

bpo-20284 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20284]: %-interpolation (aka printf) formatting added for bytes and bytearray.

bpo-23048 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23048]: Fix jumping out of an infinite while loop in the pdb.

bpo-20335 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20335]: bytes constructor now raises TypeError when encoding or errors is specified with non-string argument. Based on patch by Renaud Blanch.

bpo-22834 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22834]: If the current working directory ends up being set to a non-existent directory then import will no longer raise FileNotFoundError.

bpo-22869 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22869]: Move the interpreter startup & shutdown code to a new dedicated pylifecycle.c module

bpo-22847 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22847]: Improve method cache efficiency.

bpo-22335 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22335]: Fix crash when trying to enlarge a bytearray to 0x7fffffff bytes on a 32-bit platform.

bpo-22653 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22653]: Fix an assertion failure in debug mode when doing a reentrant dict insertion in debug mode.

bpo-22643 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22643]: Fix integer overflow in Unicode case operations (upper, lower, title, swapcase, casefold).

bpo-17636 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17636]: Circular imports involving relative imports are now supported.

bpo-22604 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22604]: Fix assertion error in debug mode when dividing a complex number by (nan+0j).

bpo-21052 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21052]: Do not raise ImportWarning when sys.path_hooks or sys.meta_path are set to None.

bpo-16518 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16518]: Use 'bytes-like object required' in error messages that previously used the far more cryptic "'x' does not support the buffer protocol.

bpo-22470 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22470]: Fixed integer overflow issues in "backslashreplace", "xmlcharrefreplace", and "surrogatepass" error handlers.

bpo-22540 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22540]: speed up PyObject_IsInstance and PyObject_IsSubclass in the common case that the second argument has metaclass type.

bpo-18711 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18711]: Add a new PyErr_FormatV function, similar to PyErr_Format but accepting a va_list argument.

bpo-22520 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22520]: Fix overflow checking when generating the repr of a unicode object.

bpo-22519 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22519]: Fix overflow checking in PyBytes_Repr.

bpo-22518 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22518]: Fix integer overflow issues in latin-1 encoding.

bpo-16324 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16324]: _charset parameter of MIMEText now also accepts email.charset.Charset instances. Initial patch by Claude Paroz.

bpo-1764286 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1764286]: Fix inspect.getsource() to support decorated functions. Patch by Claudiu Popa.

bpo-18554 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18554]: os.__all__ includes posix functions.

bpo-21391 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21391]: Use os.path.abspath in the shutil module.

bpo-11471 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11471]: avoid generating a JUMP_FORWARD instruction at the end of an if-block if there is no else-clause. Original patch by Eugene Toder.

bpo-22215 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22215]: Now ValueError is raised instead of TypeError when str or bytes argument contains not permitted null character or byte.

bpo-22258 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22258]: Fix the internal function set_inheritable() on Illumos. This platform exposes the function ioctl(FIOCLEX), but calling it fails with errno is ENOTTY: "Inappropriate ioctl for device". set_inheritable() now falls back to the slower fcntl() (F_GETFD and then F_SETFD).

bpo-21389 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21389]: Displaying the __qualname__ of the underlying function in the repr of a bound method.

bpo-22206 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22206]: Using pthread, PyThread_create_key() now sets errno to ENOMEM and returns -1 (error) on integer overflow.

bpo-20184 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20184]: Argument Clinic based signature introspection added for 30 of the builtin functions.

bpo-22116 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22116]: C functions and methods (of the 'builtin_function_or_method' type) can now be weakref'ed. Patch by Wei Wu.

bpo-22077 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22077]: Improve index error messages for bytearrays, bytes, lists, and tuples by adding 'or slices'. Added ', not <typename>' for bytearrays. Original patch by Claudiu Popa.

bpo-20179 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20179]: Apply Argument Clinic to bytes and bytearray. Patch by Tal Einat.

bpo-22082 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22082]: Clear interned strings in slotdefs.

Upgrade Unicode database to Unicode 7.0.0.

bpo-21897 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21897]: Fix a crash with the f_locals attribute with closure variables when frame.clear() has been called.

bpo-21205 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21205]: Add a new __qualname__ attribute to generator, the qualified name, and use it in the representation of a generator (repr(gen)). The default name of the generator (__name__ attribute) is now get from the function instead of the code. Use gen.gi_code.co_name to get the name of the code.

bpo-21669 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21669]: With the aid of heuristics in SyntaxError.__init__, the parser now attempts to generate more meaningful (or at least more search engine friendly) error messages when "exec" and "print" are used as statements.

bpo-21642 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21642]: In the conditional if-else expression, allow an integer written with no space between itself and the else keyword (e.g. True if 42else False) to be valid syntax.

bpo-21523 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21523]: Fix over-pessimistic computation of the stack effect of some opcodes in the compiler. This also fixes a quadratic compilation time issue noticeable when compiling code with a large number of "and" and "or" operators.

bpo-21418 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21418]: Fix a crash in the builtin function super() when called without argument and without current frame (ex: embedded Python).

bpo-21425 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21425]: Fix flushing of standard streams in the interactive interpreter.

bpo-21435 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21435]: In rare cases, when running finalizers on objects in cyclic trash a bad pointer dereference could occur due to a subtle flaw in internal iteration logic.

bpo-21377 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21377]: PyBytes_Concat() now tries to concatenate in-place when the first argument has a reference count of 1. Patch by Nikolaus Rath.

bpo-20355 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20355]: -W command line options now have higher priority than the PYTHONWARNINGS environment variable. Patch by Arfrever.

bpo-21274 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21274]: Define PATH_MAX for GNU/Hurd in Python/pythonrun.c.

bpo-20904 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20904]: Support setting FPU precision on m68k.

bpo-21209 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21209]: Fix sending tuples to custom generator objects with the yield from syntax.

bpo-21193 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21193]: pow(a, b, c) now raises ValueError rather than TypeError when b is negative. Patch by Josh Rosenberg.

bpo-21176 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21176]: PEP 465: Add the '@' operator for matrix multiplication.

bpo-21134 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21134]: Fix segfault when str is called on an uninitialized UnicodeEncodeError, UnicodeDecodeError, or UnicodeTranslateError object.

bpo-19537 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19537]: Fix PyUnicode_DATA() alignment under m68k. Patch by Andreas Schwab.

bpo-20929 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20929]: Add a type cast to avoid shifting a negative number.

bpo-20731 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20731]: Properly position in source code files even if they are opened in text mode. Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

bpo-20637 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20637]: Key-sharing now also works for instance dictionaries of subclasses. Patch by Peter Ingebretson.

bpo-8297 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8297]: Attributes missing from modules now include the module name in the error text. Original patch by ysj.ray.

bpo-19995 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19995]: %c, %o, %x, and %X now raise TypeError on non-integer input.

bpo-19655 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19655]: The ASDL parser - used by the build process to generate code for managing the Python AST in C - was rewritten. The new parser is self contained and does not require to carry long the spark.py parser-generator library; spark.py was removed from the source base.

bpo-12546 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12546]: Allow \x00 to be used as a fill character when using str, int, float, and complex __format__ methods.

bpo-20480 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20480]: Add ipaddress.reverse_pointer. Patch by Leon Weber.

bpo-13598 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13598]: Modify string.Formatter to support auto-numbering of replacement fields. It now matches the behavior of str.format() in this regard. Patches by Phil Elson and Ramchandra Apte.

bpo-8931 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8931]: Make alternate formatting ('#') for type 'c' raise an exception. In versions prior to 3.5, '#' with 'c' had no effect. Now specifying it is an error. Patch by Torsten Landschoff.

bpo-23165 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23165]: Perform overflow checks before allocating memory in the _Py_char2wchar function.

Library

bpo-23399 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23399]: pyvenv creates relative symlinks where possible.

bpo-20289 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20289]: cgi.FieldStorage() now supports the context management protocol.

bpo-13128 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13128]: Print response headers for CONNECT requests when debuglevel > 0. Patch by Demian Brecht.

bpo-15381 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15381]: Optimized io.BytesIO to make less allocations and copyings.

bpo-22818 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22818]: Splitting on a pattern that could match an empty string now raises a warning. Patterns that can only match empty strings are now rejected.

bpo-23099 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23099]: Closing io.BytesIO with exported buffer is rejected now to prevent corrupting exported buffer.

bpo-23326 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23326]: Removed __ne__ implementations. Since fixing default __ne__ implementation in bpo-21408 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21408] they are redundant.

bpo-23363 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23363]: Fix possible overflow in itertools.permutations.

bpo-23364 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23364]: Fix possible overflow in itertools.product.

bpo-23366 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23366]: Fixed possible integer overflow in itertools.combinations.

bpo-23369 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23369]: Fixed possible integer overflow in _json.encode_basestring_ascii.

bpo-23353 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23353]: Fix the exception handling of generators in PyEval_EvalFrameEx(). At entry, save or swap the exception state even if PyEval_EvalFrameEx() is called with throwflag=0. At exit, the exception state is now always restored or swapped, not only if why is WHY_YIELD or WHY_RETURN. Patch co-written with Antoine Pitrou.

bpo-14099 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14099]: Restored support of writing ZIP files to tellable but non-seekable streams.

bpo-14099 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14099]: Writing to ZipFile and reading multiple ZipExtFiles is threadsafe now.

bpo-19361 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19361]: JSON decoder now raises JSONDecodeError instead of ValueError.

bpo-18518 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18518]: timeit now rejects statements which can't be compiled outside a function or a loop (e.g. "return" or "break").

bpo-23094 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23094]: Fixed readline with frames in Python implementation of pickle.

bpo-23268 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23268]: Fixed bugs in the comparison of ipaddress classes.

bpo-21408 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21408]: Removed incorrect implementations of __ne__() which didn't returned NotImplemented if __eq__() returned NotImplemented. The default __ne__() now works correctly.

bpo-19996 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19996]: email.feedparser.FeedParser now handles (malformed) headers with no key rather than assuming the body has started.

bpo-20188 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20188]: Support Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation (ALPN) in the ssl module.

bpo-23133 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23133]: Pickling of ipaddress objects now produces more compact and portable representation.

bpo-23248 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23248]: Update ssl error codes from latest OpenSSL git master.

bpo-23266 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23266]: Much faster implementation of ipaddress.collapse_addresses() when there are many non-consecutive addresses.

bpo-23098 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23098]: 64-bit dev_t is now supported in the os module.

bpo-21817 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21817]: When an exception is raised in a task submitted to a ProcessPoolExecutor, the remote traceback is now displayed in the parent process. Patch by Claudiu Popa.

bpo-15955 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15955]: Add an option to limit output size when decompressing LZMA data. Patch by Nikolaus Rath and Martin Panter.

bpo-23250 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23250]: In the http.cookies module, capitalize "HttpOnly" and "Secure" as they are written in the standard.

bpo-23063 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23063]: In the distutils' check command, fix parsing of reST with code or code-block directives.

bpo-23209 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23209]: selectors.BaseSelector.get_key() now raises a RuntimeError if the selector is closed. And selectors.BaseSelector.close() now clears its internal reference to the selector mapping to break a reference cycle. Initial patch written by Martin Richard. (See also: bpo-23225 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23225])

bpo-17911 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17911]: Provide a way to seed the linecache for a PEP-302 module without actually loading the code.

bpo-17911 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17911]: Provide a new object API for traceback, including the ability to not lookup lines at all until the traceback is actually rendered, without any trace of the original objects being kept alive.

bpo-19777 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19777]: Provide a home() classmethod on Path objects. Contributed by Victor Salgado and Mayank Tripathi.

bpo-23206 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23206]: Make json.dumps(..., ensure_ascii=False) as fast as the default case of ensure_ascii=True. Patch by Naoki Inada.

bpo-23185 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23185]: Add math.inf and math.nan constants.

bpo-23186 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23186]: Add ssl.SSLObject.shared_ciphers() and ssl.SSLSocket.shared_ciphers() to fetch the client's list ciphers sent at handshake.

bpo-23143 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23143]: Remove compatibility with OpenSSLs older than 0.9.8.

bpo-23132 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23132]: Improve performance and introspection support of comparison methods created by functool.total_ordering.

bpo-19776 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19776]: Add an expanduser() method on Path objects.

bpo-23112 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23112]: Fix SimpleHTTPServer to correctly carry the query string and fragment when it redirects to add a trailing slash.

bpo-21793 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21793]: Added http.HTTPStatus enums (i.e. HTTPStatus.OK, HTTPStatus.NOT_FOUND). Patch by Demian Brecht.

bpo-23093 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23093]: In the io, module allow more operations to work on detached streams.

bpo-23111 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23111]: In the ftplib, make ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv23 the default protocol version.

bpo-22585 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22585]: On OpenBSD 5.6 and newer, os.urandom() now calls getentropy(), instead of reading /dev/urandom, to get pseudo-random bytes.

bpo-19104 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19104]: pprint now produces evaluable output for wrapped strings.

bpo-23071 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23071]: Added missing names to codecs.__all__. Patch by Martin Panter.

bpo-22783 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22783]: Pickling now uses the NEWOBJ opcode instead of the NEWOBJ_EX opcode if possible.

bpo-15513 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15513]: Added a __sizeof__ implementation for pickle classes.

bpo-19858 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19858]: pickletools.optimize() now aware of the MEMOIZE opcode, can produce more compact result and no longer produces invalid output if input data contains MEMOIZE opcodes together with PUT or BINPUT opcodes.

bpo-22095 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22095]: Fixed HTTPConnection.set_tunnel with default port. The port value in the host header was set to "None". Patch by Demian Brecht.

bpo-23016 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23016]: A warning no longer produces an AttributeError when the program is run with pythonw.exe.

bpo-21775 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21775]: shutil.copytree(): fix crash when copying to VFAT. An exception handler assumed that OSError objects always have a 'winerror' attribute. That is not the case, so the exception handler itself raised AttributeError when run on Linux (and, presumably, any other non-Windows OS). Patch by Greg Ward.

bpo-1218234 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1218234]: Fix inspect.getsource() to load updated source of reloaded module. Initial patch by Berker Peksag.

bpo-21740 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21740]: Support wrapped callables in doctest. Patch by Claudiu Popa.

bpo-23009 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23009]: Make sure selectors.EpollSelector.select() works when no FD is registered.

bpo-22959 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22959]: In the constructor of http.client.HTTPSConnection, prefer the context's check_hostname attribute over the check_hostname parameter.

bpo-22696 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22696]: Add function sys.is_finalizing() to know about interpreter shutdown.

bpo-16043 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16043]: Add a default limit for the amount of data xmlrpclib.gzip_decode will return. This resolves CVE 2013-1753 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2013-1753].

bpo-14099 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14099]: ZipFile.open() no longer reopen the underlying file. Objects returned by ZipFile.open() can now operate independently of the ZipFile even if the ZipFile was created by passing in a file-like object as the first argument to the constructor.

bpo-22966 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22966]: Fix __pycache__ pyc file name clobber when pyc_compile is asked to compile a source file containing multiple dots in the source file name.

bpo-21971 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21971]: Update turtledemo doc and add module to the index.

bpo-21032 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21032]: Fixed socket leak if HTTPConnection.getresponse() fails. Original patch by Martin Panter.

bpo-22407 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22407]: Deprecated the use of re.LOCALE flag with str patterns or re.ASCII. It was newer worked.

bpo-22902 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22902]: The "ip" command is now used on Linux to determine MAC address in uuid.getnode(). Patch by Bruno Cauet.

bpo-22960 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22960]: Add a context argument to xmlrpclib.ServerProxy constructor.

bpo-22389 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22389]: Add contextlib.redirect_stderr().

bpo-21356 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21356]: Make ssl.RAND_egd() optional to support LibreSSL. The availability of the function is checked during the compilation. Patch written by Bernard Spil.

bpo-22915 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22915]: SAX parser now supports files opened with file descriptor or bytes path.

bpo-22609 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22609]: Constructors and update methods of mapping classes in the collections module now accept the self keyword argument.

bpo-22940 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22940]: Add readline.append_history_file.

bpo-19676 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19676]: Added the "namereplace" error handler.

bpo-22788 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22788]: Add context parameter to logging.handlers.HTTPHandler.

bpo-22921 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22921]: Allow SSLContext to take the hostname parameter even if OpenSSL doesn't support SNI.

bpo-22894 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22894]: TestCase.subTest() would cause the test suite to be stopped when in failfast mode, even in the absence of failures.

bpo-22796 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22796]: HTTP cookie parsing is now stricter, in order to protect against potential injection attacks.

bpo-22370 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22370]: Windows detection in pathlib is now more robust.

bpo-22841 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22841]: Reject coroutines in asyncio add_signal_handler(). Patch by Ludovic.Gasc.

bpo-19494 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19494]: Added urllib.request.HTTPBasicPriorAuthHandler. Patch by Matej Cepl.

bpo-22578 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22578]: Added attributes to the re.error class.

bpo-22849 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22849]: Fix possible double free in the io.TextIOWrapper constructor.

bpo-12728 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12728]: Different Unicode characters having the same uppercase but different lowercase are now matched in case-insensitive regular expressions.

bpo-22821 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22821]: Fixed fcntl() with integer argument on 64-bit big-endian platforms.

bpo-21650 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21650]: Add an --sort-keys option to json.tool CLI.

bpo-22824 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22824]: Updated reprlib output format for sets to use set literals. Patch contributed by Berker Peksag.

bpo-22824 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22824]: Updated reprlib output format for arrays to display empty arrays without an unnecessary empty list. Suggested by Serhiy Storchaka.

bpo-22406 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22406]: Fixed the uu_codec codec incorrectly ported to 3.x. Based on patch by Martin Panter.

bpo-17293 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17293]: uuid.getnode() now determines MAC address on AIX using netstat. Based on patch by Aivars Kalvāns.

bpo-22769 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22769]: Fixed ttk.Treeview.tag_has() when called without arguments.

bpo-22417 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22417]: Verify certificates by default in httplib (PEP 476).

bpo-22775 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22775]: Fixed unpickling of http.cookies.SimpleCookie with protocol 2 and above. Patch by Tim Graham.

bpo-22776 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22776]: Brought excluded code into the scope of a try block in SysLogHandler.emit().

bpo-22665 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22665]: Add missing get_terminal_size and SameFileError to shutil.__all__.

bpo-6623 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6623]: Remove deprecated Netrc class in the ftplib module. Patch by Matt Chaput.

bpo-17381 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17381]: Fixed handling of case-insensitive ranges in regular expressions.

bpo-22410 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22410]: Module level functions in the re module now cache compiled locale-dependent regular expressions taking into account the locale.

bpo-22759 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22759]: Query methods on pathlib.Path() (exists(), is_dir(), etc.) now return False when the underlying stat call raises NotADirectoryError.

bpo-8876 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8876]: distutils now falls back to copying files when hard linking doesn't work. This allows use with special filesystems such as VirtualBox shared folders.

bpo-22217 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22217]: Implemented reprs of classes in the zipfile module.

bpo-22457 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22457]: Honour load_tests in the start_dir of discovery.

bpo-18216 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18216]: gettext now raises an error when a .mo file has an unsupported major version number. Patch by Aaron Hill.

bpo-13918 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13918]: Provide a locale.delocalize() function which can remove locale-specific number formatting from a string representing a number, without then converting it to a specific type. Patch by Cédric Krier.

bpo-22676 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22676]: Make the pickling of global objects which don't have a __module__ attribute less slow.

bpo-18853 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18853]: Fixed ResourceWarning in shlex.__nain__.

bpo-9351 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9351]: Defaults set with set_defaults on an argparse subparser are no longer ignored when also set on the parent parser.

bpo-7559 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7559]: unittest test loading ImportErrors are reported as import errors with their import exception rather than as attribute errors after the import has already failed.

bpo-19746 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19746]: Make it possible to examine the errors from unittest discovery without executing the test suite. The new errors attribute on TestLoader exposes these non-fatal errors encountered during discovery.

bpo-21991 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21991]: Make email.headerregistry's header 'params' attributes be read-only (MappingProxyType). Previously the dictionary was modifiable but a new one was created on each access of the attribute.

bpo-22638 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22638]: SSLv3 is now disabled throughout the standard library. It can still be enabled by instantiating a SSLContext manually.

bpo-22641 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22641]: In asyncio, the default SSL context for client connections is now created using ssl.create_default_context(), for stronger security.

bpo-17401 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17401]: Include closefd in io.FileIO repr.

bpo-21338 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21338]: Add silent mode for compileall. quiet parameters of compile_{dir, file, path} functions now have a multilevel value. Also, -q option of the CLI now have a multilevel value. Patch by Thomas Kluyver.

bpo-20152 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20152]: Convert the array and cmath modules to Argument Clinic.

bpo-18643 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18643]: Add socket.socketpair() on Windows.

bpo-22435 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22435]: Fix a file descriptor leak when socketserver bind fails.

bpo-13096 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13096]: Fixed segfault in CTypes POINTER handling of large values.

bpo-11694 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11694]: Raise ConversionError in xdrlib as documented. Patch by Filip Gruszczyński and Claudiu Popa.

bpo-19380 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19380]: Optimized parsing of regular expressions.

bpo-1519638 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1519638]: Now unmatched groups are replaced with empty strings in re.sub() and re.subn().

bpo-18615 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18615]: sndhdr.what/whathdr now return a namedtuple.

bpo-22462 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22462]: Fix pyexpat's creation of a dummy frame to make it appear in exception tracebacks.

bpo-21965 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21965]: Add support for in-memory SSL to the ssl module. Patch by Geert Jansen.

bpo-21173 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21173]: Fix len() on a WeakKeyDictionary when .clear() was called with an iterator alive.

bpo-11866 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11866]: Eliminated race condition in the computation of names for new threads.

bpo-21905 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21905]: Avoid RuntimeError in pickle.whichmodule() when sys.modules is mutated while iterating. Patch by Olivier Grisel.

bpo-11271 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11271]: concurrent.futures.Executor.map() now takes a chunksize argument to allow batching of tasks in child processes and improve performance of ProcessPoolExecutor. Patch by Dan O'Reilly.

bpo-21883 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21883]: os.path.join() and os.path.relpath() now raise a TypeError with more helpful error message for unsupported or mismatched types of arguments.

bpo-22219 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22219]: The zipfile module CLI now adds entries for directories (including empty directories) in ZIP file.

bpo-22449 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22449]: In the ssl.SSLContext.load_default_certs, consult the environmental variables SSL_CERT_DIR and SSL_CERT_FILE on Windows.

bpo-22508 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22508]: The email.__version__ variable has been removed; the email code is no longer shipped separately from the stdlib, and __version__ hasn't been updated in several releases.

bpo-20076 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20076]: Added non derived UTF-8 aliases to locale aliases table.

bpo-20079 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20079]: Added locales supported in glibc 2.18 to locale alias table.

bpo-20218 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20218]: Added convenience methods read_text/write_text and read_bytes/ write_bytes to pathlib.Path objects.

bpo-22396 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22396]: On 32-bit AIX platform, don't expose os.posix_fadvise() nor os.posix_fallocate() because their prototypes in system headers are wrong.

bpo-22517 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22517]: When an io.BufferedRWPair object is deallocated, clear its weakrefs.

bpo-22437 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22437]: Number of capturing groups in regular expression is no longer limited by 100.

bpo-17442 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17442]: InteractiveInterpreter now displays the full chained traceback in its showtraceback method, to match the built in interactive interpreter.

bpo-23392 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23392]: Added tests for marshal C API that works with FILE*.

bpo-10510 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10510]: distutils register and upload methods now use HTML standards compliant CRLF line endings.

bpo-9850 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9850]: Fixed macpath.join() for empty first component. Patch by Oleg Oshmyan.

bpo-5309 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5309]: distutils' build and build_ext commands now accept a -j option to enable parallel building of extension modules.

bpo-22448 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22448]: Improve canceled timer handles cleanup to prevent unbound memory usage. Patch by Joshua Moore-Oliva.

bpo-22427 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22427]: TemporaryDirectory no longer attempts to clean up twice when used in the with statement in generator.

bpo-22362 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22362]: Forbidden ambiguous octal escapes out of range 0-0o377 in regular expressions.

bpo-20912 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20912]: Now directories added to ZIP file have correct Unix and MS-DOS directory attributes.

bpo-21866 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21866]: ZipFile.close() no longer writes ZIP64 central directory records if allowZip64 is false.

bpo-22278 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22278]: Fix urljoin problem with relative urls, a regression observed after changes to issue22118 were submitted.

bpo-22415 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22415]: Fixed debugging output of the GROUPREF_EXISTS opcode in the re module. Removed trailing spaces in debugging output.

bpo-22423 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22423]: Unhandled exception in thread no longer causes unhandled AttributeError when sys.stderr is None.

bpo-21332 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21332]: Ensure that bufsize=1 in subprocess.Popen() selects line buffering, rather than block buffering. Patch by Akira Li.

bpo-21091 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21091]: Fix API bug: email.message.EmailMessage.is_attachment is now a method.

bpo-21079 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21079]: Fix email.message.EmailMessage.is_attachment to return the correct result when the header has parameters as well as a value.

bpo-22247 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22247]: Add NNTPError to nntplib.__all__.

bpo-22366 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22366]: urllib.request.urlopen will accept a context object (SSLContext) as an argument which will then be used for HTTPS connection. Patch by Alex Gaynor.

bpo-4180 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4180]: The warnings registries are now reset when the filters are modified.

bpo-22419 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22419]: Limit the length of incoming HTTP request in wsgiref server to 65536 bytes and send a 414 error code for higher lengths. Patch contributed by Devin Cook.

Lax cookie parsing in http.cookies could be a security issue when combined with non-standard cookie handling in some web browsers. Reported by Sergey Bobrov.

bpo-20537 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20537]: logging methods now accept an exception instance as well as a Boolean value or exception tuple. Thanks to Yury Selivanov for the patch.

bpo-22384 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22384]: An exception in Tkinter callback no longer crashes the program when it is run with pythonw.exe.

bpo-22168 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22168]: Prevent turtle AttributeError with non-default Canvas on OS X.

bpo-21147 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21147]: sqlite3 now raises an exception if the request contains a null character instead of truncating it. Based on patch by Victor Stinner.

bpo-13968 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13968]: The glob module now supports recursive search in subdirectories using the ** pattern.

bpo-21951 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21951]: Fixed a crash in Tkinter on AIX when called Tcl command with empty string or tuple argument.

bpo-21951 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21951]: Tkinter now most likely raises MemoryError instead of crash if the memory allocation fails.

bpo-22338 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22338]: Fix a crash in the json module on memory allocation failure.

bpo-12410 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12410]: imaplib.IMAP4 now supports the context management protocol. Original patch by Tarek Ziadé.

bpo-21270 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21270]: We now override tuple methods in mock.call objects so that they can be used as normal call attributes.

bpo-16662 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16662]: load_tests() is now unconditionally run when it is present in a package's __init__.py. TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule() still accepts use_load_tests, but it is deprecated and ignored. A new keyword-only attribute pattern is added and documented. Patch given by Robert Collins, tweaked by Barry Warsaw.

bpo-22226 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22226]: First letter no longer is stripped from the "status" key in the result of Treeview.heading().

bpo-19524 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19524]: Fixed resource leak in the HTTP connection when an invalid response is received. Patch by Martin Panter.

bpo-20421 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20421]: Add a .version() method to SSL sockets exposing the actual protocol version in use.

bpo-19546 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19546]: configparser exceptions no longer expose implementation details. Chained KeyErrors are removed, which leads to cleaner tracebacks. Patch by Claudiu Popa.

bpo-22051 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22051]: turtledemo no longer reloads examples to re-run them. Initialization of variables and gui setup should be done in main(), which is called each time a demo is run, but not on import.

bpo-21933 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21933]: Turtledemo users can change the code font size with a menu selection or control(command) '-' or '+' or control-mousewheel. Original patch by Lita Cho.

bpo-21597 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21597]: The separator between the turtledemo text pane and the drawing canvas can now be grabbed and dragged with a mouse. The code text pane can be widened to easily view or copy the full width of the text. The canvas can be widened on small screens. Original patches by Jan Kanis and Lita Cho.

bpo-18132 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18132]: Turtledemo buttons no longer disappear when the window is shrunk. Original patches by Jan Kanis and Lita Cho.

bpo-22043 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22043]: time.monotonic() is now always available. threading.Lock.acquire(), threading.RLock.acquire() and socket operations now use a monotonic clock, instead of the system clock, when a timeout is used.

bpo-21527 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21527]: Add a default number of workers to ThreadPoolExecutor equal to 5 times the number of CPUs. Patch by Claudiu Popa.

bpo-22216 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22216]: smtplib now resets its state more completely after a quit. The most obvious consequence of the previous behavior was a STARTTLS failure during a connect/starttls/quit/connect/starttls sequence.

bpo-22098 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22098]: ctypes' BigEndianStructure and LittleEndianStructure now define an empty __slots__ so that subclasses don't always get an instance dict. Patch by Claudiu Popa.

bpo-22185 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22185]: Fix an occasional RuntimeError in threading.Condition.wait() caused by mutation of the waiters queue without holding the lock. Patch by Doug Zongker.

bpo-22287 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22287]: On UNIX, _PyTime_gettimeofday() now uses clock_gettime(CLOCK_REALTIME) if available. As a side effect, Python now depends on the librt library on Solaris and on Linux (only with glibc older than 2.17).

bpo-22182 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22182]: Use e.args to unpack exceptions correctly in distutils.file_util.move_file. Patch by Claudiu Popa.

The webbrowser module now uses subprocess's start_new_session=True rather than a potentially risky preexec_fn=os.setsid call.

bpo-22042 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22042]: signal.set_wakeup_fd(fd) now raises an exception if the file descriptor is in blocking mode.

bpo-16808 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16808]: inspect.stack() now returns a named tuple instead of a tuple. Patch by Daniel Shahaf.

bpo-22236 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22236]: Fixed Tkinter images copying operations in NoDefaultRoot mode.

bpo-2527 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2527]: Add a globals argument to timeit functions, in order to override the globals namespace in which the timed code is executed. Patch by Ben Roberts.

bpo-22118 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22118]: Switch urllib.parse to use RFC 3986 semantics for the resolution of relative URLs, rather than RFCs 1808 and 2396. Patch by Demian Brecht.

bpo-21549 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21549]: Added the "members" parameter to TarFile.list().

bpo-19628 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19628]: Allow compileall recursion depth to be specified with a -r option.

bpo-15696 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15696]: Add a __sizeof__ implementation for mmap objects on Windows.

bpo-22068 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22068]: Avoided reference loops with Variables and Fonts in Tkinter.

bpo-22165 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22165]: SimpleHTTPRequestHandler now supports undecodable file names.

bpo-15381 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15381]: Optimized line reading in io.BytesIO.

bpo-8797 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8797]: Raise HTTPError on failed Basic Authentication immediately. Initial patch by Sam Bull.

bpo-20729 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20729]: Restored the use of lazy iterkeys()/itervalues()/iteritems() in the mailbox module.

bpo-21448 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21448]: Changed FeedParser feed() to avoid O(n²) behavior when parsing long line. Original patch by Raymond Hettinger.

bpo-22184 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22184]: The functools LRU Cache decorator factory now gives an earlier and clearer error message when the user forgets the required parameters.

bpo-17923 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17923]: glob() patterns ending with a slash no longer match non-dirs on AIX. Based on patch by Delhallt.

bpo-21725 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21725]: Added support for RFC 6531 (SMTPUTF8) in smtpd.

bpo-22176 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22176]: Update the ctypes module's libffi to v3.1. This release adds support for the Linux AArch64 and POWERPC ELF ABIv2 little endian architectures.

bpo-5411 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5411]: Added support for the "xztar" format in the shutil module.

bpo-21121 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21121]: Don't force 3rd party C extensions to be built with -Werror=declaration-after-statement.

bpo-21975 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21975]: Fixed crash when using uninitialized sqlite3.Row (in particular when unpickling pickled sqlite3.Row). sqlite3.Row is now initialized in the __new__() method.

bpo-20170 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20170]: Convert posixmodule to use Argument Clinic.

bpo-21539 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21539]: Add an exists_ok argument to Pathlib.mkdir() to mimic mkdir -p and os.makedirs() functionality. When true, ignore FileExistsErrors. Patch by Berker Peksag.

bpo-22127 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22127]: Bypass IDNA for pure-ASCII host names in the socket module (in particular for numeric IPs).

bpo-21047 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21047]: set the default value for the convert_charrefs argument of HTMLParser to True. Patch by Berker Peksag.

Add an __all__ to html.entities.

bpo-15114 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15114]: the strict mode and argument of HTMLParser, HTMLParser.error, and the HTMLParserError exception have been removed.

bpo-22085 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22085]: Dropped support of Tk 8.3 in Tkinter.

bpo-21580 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21580]: Now Tkinter correctly handles bytes arguments passed to Tk. In particular this allows initializing images from binary data.

bpo-22003 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22003]: When initialized from a bytes object, io.BytesIO() now defers making a copy until it is mutated, improving performance and memory use on some use cases. Patch by David Wilson.

bpo-22018 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22018]: On Windows, signal.set_wakeup_fd() now also supports sockets. A side effect is that Python depends to the WinSock library.

bpo-22054 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22054]: Add os.get_blocking() and os.set_blocking() functions to get and set the blocking mode of a file descriptor (False if the O_NONBLOCK flag is set, True otherwise). These functions are not available on Windows.

bpo-17172 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17172]: Make turtledemo start as active on OS X even when run with subprocess. Patch by Lita Cho.

bpo-21704 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21704]: Fix build error for _multiprocessing when semaphores are not available. Patch by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis.

bpo-20173 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20173]: Convert sha1, sha256, sha512 and md5 to ArgumentClinic. Patch by Vajrasky Kok.

Fix repr(_socket.socket) on Windows 64-bit: don't fail with OverflowError on closed socket. repr(socket.socket) already works fine.

bpo-22033 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22033]: Reprs of most Python implemented classes now contain actual class name instead of hardcoded one.

bpo-21947 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21947]: The dis module can now disassemble generator-iterator objects based on their gi_code attribute. Patch by Clement Rouault.

bpo-16133 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16133]: The asynchat.async_chat.handle_read() method now ignores BlockingIOError exceptions.

bpo-22044 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22044]: Fixed premature DECREF in call_tzinfo_method. Patch by Tom Flanagan.

bpo-19884 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19884]: readline: Disable the meta modifier key if stdout is not a terminal to not write the ANSI sequence "\033[1034h" into stdout. This sequence is used on some terminal (ex: TERM=xterm-256color") to enable support of 8 bit characters.

bpo-4350 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4350]: Removed a number of out-of-dated and non-working for a long time Tkinter methods.

bpo-6167 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6167]: Scrollbar.activate() now returns the name of active element if the argument is not specified. Scrollbar.set() now always accepts only 2 arguments.

bpo-15275 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15275]: Clean up and speed up the ntpath module.

bpo-21888 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21888]: plistlib's load() and loads() now work if the fmt parameter is specified.

bpo-22032 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22032]: __qualname__ instead of __name__ is now always used to format fully qualified class names of Python implemented classes.

bpo-22031 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22031]: Reprs now always use hexadecimal format with the "0x" prefix when contain an id in form " at 0x...".

bpo-22018 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22018]: signal.set_wakeup_fd() now raises an OSError instead of a ValueError on fstat() failure.

bpo-21044 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21044]: tarfile.open() now handles fileobj with an integer 'name' attribute. Based on patch by Antoine Pietri.

bpo-21966 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21966]: Respect -q command-line option when code module is ran.

bpo-19076 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19076]: Don't pass the redundant 'file' argument to self.error().

bpo-16382 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16382]: Improve exception message of warnings.warn() for bad category. Initial patch by Phil Elson.

bpo-21932 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21932]: os.read() now uses a Py_ssize_t() type instead of int for the size to support reading more than 2 GB at once. On Windows, the size is truncated to INT_MAX. As any call to os.read(), the OS may read less bytes than the number of requested bytes.

bpo-21942 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21942]: Fixed source file viewing in pydoc's server mode on Windows.

bpo-11259 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11259]: asynchat.async_chat().set_terminator() now raises a ValueError if the number of received bytes is negative.

bpo-12523 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12523]: asynchat.async_chat.push() now raises a TypeError if it doesn't get a bytes string

bpo-21707 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21707]: Add missing kwonlyargcount argument to ModuleFinder.replace_paths_in_code().

bpo-20639 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20639]: calling Path.with_suffix('') allows removing the suffix again. Patch by July Tikhonov.

bpo-21714 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21714]: Disallow the construction of invalid paths using Path.with_name(). Original patch by Antony Lee.

bpo-15014 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15014]: Added 'auth' method to smtplib to make implementing auth mechanisms simpler, and used it internally in the login method.

bpo-21151 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21151]: Fixed a segfault in the winreg module when None is passed as a REG_BINARY value to SetValueEx. Patch by John Ehresman.

bpo-21090 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21090]: io.FileIO.readall() does not ignore I/O errors anymore. Before, it ignored I/O errors if at least the first C call read() succeed.

bpo-5800 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5800]: headers parameter of wsgiref.headers.Headers is now optional. Initial patch by Pablo Torres Navarrete and SilentGhost.

bpo-21781 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21781]: ssl.RAND_add() now supports strings longer than 2 GB.

bpo-21679 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21679]: Prevent extraneous fstat() calls during open(). Patch by Bohuslav Kabrda.

bpo-21863 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21863]: cProfile now displays the module name of C extension functions, in addition to their own name.

bpo-11453 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11453]: asyncore: emit a ResourceWarning when an unclosed file_wrapper object is destroyed. The destructor now closes the file if needed. The close() method can now be called twice: the second call does nothing.

bpo-21858 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21858]: Better handling of Python exceptions in the sqlite3 module.

bpo-21476 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21476]: Make sure the email.parser.BytesParser TextIOWrapper is discarded after parsing, so the input file isn't unexpectedly closed.

bpo-20295 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20295]: imghdr now recognizes OpenEXR format images.

bpo-21729 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21729]: Used the "with" statement in the dbm.dumb module to ensure files closing. Patch by Claudiu Popa.

bpo-21491 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21491]: socketserver: Fix a race condition in child processes reaping.

bpo-21719 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21719]: Added the st_file_attributes field to os.stat_result on Windows.

bpo-21832 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21832]: Require named tuple inputs to be exact strings.

bpo-21722 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21722]: The distutils "upload" command now exits with a non-zero return code when uploading fails. Patch by Martin Dengler.

bpo-21723 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21723]: asyncio.Queue: support any type of number (ex: float) for the maximum size. Patch written by Vajrasky Kok.

bpo-21711 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21711]: support for "site-python" directories has now been removed from the site module (it was deprecated in 3.4).

bpo-17552 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17552]: new socket.sendfile() method allowing a file to be sent over a socket by using high-performance os.sendfile() on UNIX. Patch by Giampaolo Rodola'.

bpo-18039 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18039]: dbm.dump.open() now always creates a new database when the flag has the value 'n'. Patch by Claudiu Popa.

bpo-21326 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21326]: Add a new is_closed() method to asyncio.BaseEventLoop. run_forever() and run_until_complete() methods of asyncio.BaseEventLoop now raise an exception if the event loop was closed.

bpo-21766 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21766]: Prevent a security hole in CGIHTTPServer by URL unquoting paths before checking for a CGI script at that path.

bpo-21310 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21310]: Fixed possible resource leak in failed open().

bpo-21256 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21256]: Printout of keyword args should be in deterministic order in a mock function call. This will help to write better doctests.

bpo-21677 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21677]: Fixed chaining nonnormalized exceptions in io close() methods.

bpo-11709 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11709]: Fix the pydoc.help function to not fail when sys.stdin is not a valid file.

bpo-21515 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21515]: tempfile.TemporaryFile now uses os.O_TMPFILE flag is available.

bpo-13223 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13223]: Fix pydoc.writedoc so that the HTML documentation for methods that use 'self' in the example code is generated correctly.

bpo-21463 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21463]: In urllib.request, fix pruning of the FTP cache.

bpo-21618 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21618]: The subprocess module could fail to close open fds that were inherited by the calling process and already higher than POSIX resource limits would otherwise allow. On systems with a functioning /proc/self/fd or /dev/fd interface the max is now ignored and all fds are closed.

bpo-20383 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20383]: Introduce importlib.util.module_from_spec() as the preferred way to create a new module.

bpo-21552 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21552]: Fixed possible integer overflow of too long string lengths in the tkinter module on 64-bit platforms.

bpo-14315 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14315]: The zipfile module now ignores extra fields in the central directory that are too short to be parsed instead of letting a struct.unpack error bubble up as this "bad data" appears in many real world zip files in the wild and is ignored by other zip tools.

bpo-13742 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13742]: Added "key" and "reverse" parameters to heapq.merge(). (First draft of patch contributed by Simon Sapin.)

bpo-21402 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21402]: tkinter.ttk now works when default root window is not set.

bpo-3015 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3015]: _tkinter.create() now creates tkapp object with wantobjects=1 by default.

bpo-10203 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10203]: sqlite3.Row now truly supports sequence protocol. In particular it supports reverse() and negative indices. Original patch by Claudiu Popa.

bpo-18807 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18807]: If copying (no symlinks) specified for a venv, then the python interpreter aliases (python, python3) are now created by copying rather than symlinking.

bpo-20197 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20197]: Added support for the WebP image type in the imghdr module. Patch by Fabrice Aneche and Claudiu Popa.

bpo-21513 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21513]: Speedup some properties of IP addresses (IPv4Address, IPv6Address) such as .is_private or .is_multicast.

bpo-21137 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21137]: Improve the repr for threading.Lock() and its variants by showing the "locked" or "unlocked" status. Patch by Berker Peksag.

bpo-21538 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21538]: The plistlib module now supports loading of binary plist files when reference or offset size is not a power of two.

bpo-21455 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21455]: Add a default backlog to socket.listen().

bpo-21525 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21525]: Most Tkinter methods which accepted tuples now accept lists too.

bpo-22166 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22166]: With the assistance of a new internal _codecs._forget_codec helping function, test_codecs now clears the encoding caches to avoid the appearance of a reference leak

bpo-22236 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22236]: Tkinter tests now don't reuse default root window. New root window is created for every test class.

bpo-10744 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10744]: Fix PEP 3118 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/] format strings on ctypes objects with a nontrivial shape.

bpo-20826 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20826]: Optimize ipaddress.collapse_addresses().

bpo-21487 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21487]: Optimize ipaddress.summarize_address_range() and ipaddress.{IPv4Network,IPv6Network}.subnets().

bpo-21486 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21486]: Optimize parsing of netmasks in ipaddress.IPv4Network and ipaddress.IPv6Network.

bpo-13916 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13916]: Disallowed the surrogatepass error handler for non UTF-* encodings.

bpo-20998 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20998]: Fixed re.fullmatch() of repeated single character pattern with ignore case. Original patch by Matthew Barnett.

bpo-21075 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21075]: fileinput.FileInput now reads bytes from standard stream if binary mode is specified. Patch by Sam Kimbrel.

bpo-19775 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19775]: Add a samefile() method to pathlib Path objects. Initial patch by Vajrasky Kok.

bpo-21226 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21226]: Set up modules properly in PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject (and friends).

bpo-21398 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21398]: Fix a unicode error in the pydoc pager when the documentation contains characters not encodable to the stdout encoding.

bpo-16531 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16531]: ipaddress.IPv4Network and ipaddress.IPv6Network now accept an (address, netmask) tuple argument, so as to easily construct network objects from existing addresses.

bpo-21156 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21156]: importlib.abc.InspectLoader.source_to_code() is now a staticmethod.

bpo-21424 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21424]: Simplified and optimized heaqp.nlargest() and nmsmallest() to make fewer tuple comparisons.

bpo-21396 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21396]: Fix TextIOWrapper(..., write_through=True) to not force a flush() on the underlying binary stream. Patch by akira.

bpo-18314 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18314]: Unlink now removes junctions on Windows. Patch by Kim Gräsman

bpo-21088 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21088]: Bugfix for curses.window.addch() regression in 3.4.0. In porting to Argument Clinic, the first two arguments were reversed.

bpo-21407 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21407]: _decimal: The module now supports function signatures.

bpo-10650 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10650]: Remove the non-standard 'watchexp' parameter from the Decimal.quantize() method in the Python version. It had never been present in the C version.

bpo-21469 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21469]: Reduced the risk of false positives in robotparser by checking to make sure that robots.txt has been read or does not exist prior to returning True in can_fetch().

bpo-19414 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19414]: Have the OrderedDict mark deleted links as unusable. This gives an early failure if the link is deleted during iteration.

bpo-21421 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21421]: Add __slots__ to the MappingViews ABC. Patch by Josh Rosenberg.

bpo-21101 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21101]: Eliminate double hashing in the C speed-up code for collections.Counter().

bpo-21321 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21321]: itertools.islice() now releases the reference to the source iterator when the slice is exhausted. Patch by Anton Afanasyev.

bpo-21057 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21057]: TextIOWrapper now allows the underlying binary stream's read() or read1() method to return an arbitrary bytes-like object (such as a memoryview). Patch by Nikolaus Rath.

bpo-20951 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20951]: SSLSocket.send() now raises either SSLWantReadError or SSLWantWriteError on a non-blocking socket if the operation would block. Previously, it would return 0. Patch by Nikolaus Rath.

bpo-13248 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13248]: removed previously deprecated asyncore.dispatcher __getattr__ cheap inheritance hack.

bpo-9815 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9815]: assertRaises now tries to clear references to local variables in the exception's traceback.

bpo-19940 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19940]: ssl.cert_time_to_seconds() now interprets the given time string in the UTC timezone (as specified in RFC 5280), not the local timezone.

bpo-13204 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13204]: Calling sys.flags.__new__ would crash the interpreter, now it raises a TypeError.

bpo-19385 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19385]: Make operations on a closed dbm.dumb database always raise the same exception.

bpo-21207 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21207]: Detect when the os.urandom cached fd has been closed or replaced, and open it anew.

bpo-21291 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21291]: subprocess's Popen.wait() is now thread safe so that multiple threads may be calling wait() or poll() on a Popen instance at the same time without losing the Popen.returncode value.

bpo-21127 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21127]: Path objects can now be instantiated from str subclass instances (such as numpy.str_).

bpo-15002 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15002]: urllib.response object to use _TemporaryFileWrapper (and _TemporaryFileCloser) facility. Provides a better way to handle file descriptor close. Patch contributed by Christian Theune.

bpo-12220 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12220]: mindom now raises a custom ValueError indicating it doesn't support spaces in URIs instead of letting a 'split' ValueError bubble up.

bpo-21068 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21068]: The ssl.PROTOCOL* constants are now enum members.

bpo-21276 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21276]: posixmodule: Don't define USE_XATTRS on KFreeBSD and the Hurd.

bpo-21262 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21262]: New method assert_not_called for Mock. It raises AssertionError if the mock has been called.

bpo-21238 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21238]: New keyword argument unsafe to Mock. It raises AttributeError in case of an attribute startswith assert or assret.

bpo-20896 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20896]: ssl.get_server_certificate() now uses PROTOCOL_SSLv23, not PROTOCOL_SSLv3, for maximum compatibility.

bpo-21239 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21239]: patch.stopall() didn't work deterministically when the same name was patched more than once.

bpo-21203 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21203]: Updated fileConfig and dictConfig to remove inconsistencies. Thanks to Jure Koren for the patch.

bpo-21222 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21222]: Passing name keyword argument to mock.create_autospec now works.

bpo-21197 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21197]: Add lib64 -> lib symlink in venvs on 64-bit non-OS X POSIX.

bpo-17498 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17498]: Some SMTP servers disconnect after certain errors, violating strict RFC conformance. Instead of losing the error code when we issue the subsequent RSET, smtplib now returns the error code and defers raising the SMTPServerDisconnected error until the next command is issued.

bpo-17826 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17826]: setting an iterable side_effect on a mock function created by create_autospec now works. Patch by Kushal Das.

bpo-7776 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7776]: Fix Host: header and reconnection when using http.client.HTTPConnection.set_tunnel(). Patch by Nikolaus Rath.

bpo-20968 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20968]: unittest.mock.MagicMock now supports division. Patch by Johannes Baiter.

bpo-21529 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21529]: Fix arbitrary memory access in JSONDecoder.raw_decode with a negative second parameter. Bug reported by Guido Vranken. (See also: CVE 2014-4616 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2014-4616])

bpo-21169 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21169]: getpass now handles non-ascii characters that the input stream encoding cannot encode by re-encoding using the replace error handler.

bpo-21171 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21171]: Fixed undocumented filter API of the rot13 codec. Patch by Berker Peksag.

bpo-20539 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20539]: Improved math.factorial error message for large positive inputs and changed exception type (OverflowError -> ValueError) for large negative inputs.

bpo-21172 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21172]: isinstance check relaxed from dict to collections.Mapping.

bpo-21155 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21155]: asyncio.EventLoop.create_unix_server() now raises a ValueError if path and sock are specified at the same time.

bpo-21136 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21136]: Avoid unnecessary normalization of Fractions resulting from power and other operations. Patch by Raymond Hettinger.

bpo-17621 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17621]: Introduce importlib.util.LazyLoader.

bpo-21076 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21076]: signal module constants were turned into enums. Patch by Giampaolo Rodola'.

bpo-20636 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20636]: Improved the repr of Tkinter widgets.

bpo-19505 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19505]: The items, keys, and values views of OrderedDict now support reverse iteration using reversed().

bpo-21149 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21149]: Improved thread-safety in logging cleanup during interpreter shutdown. Thanks to Devin Jeanpierre for the patch.

bpo-21058 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21058]: Fix a leak of file descriptor in tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile(), close the file descriptor if io.open() fails

bpo-21200 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21200]: Return None from pkgutil.get_loader() when __spec__ is missing.

bpo-21013 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21013]: Enhance ssl.create_default_context() when used for server side sockets to provide better security by default.

bpo-20145 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20145]: assertRaisesRegex and assertWarnsRegex now raise a TypeError if the second argument is not a string or compiled regex.

bpo-20633 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20633]: Replace relative import by absolute import.

bpo-20980 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20980]: Stop wrapping exception when using ThreadPool.

bpo-21082 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21082]: In os.makedirs, do not set the process-wide umask. Note this changes behavior of makedirs when exist_ok=True.

bpo-20990 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20990]: Fix issues found by pyflakes for multiprocessing.

bpo-21015 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21015]: SSL contexts will now automatically select an elliptic curve for ECDH key exchange on OpenSSL 1.0.2 and later, and otherwise default to "prime256v1".

bpo-21000 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21000]: Improve the command-line interface of json.tool.

bpo-20995 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20995]: Enhance default ciphers used by the ssl module to enable better security and prioritize perfect forward secrecy.

bpo-20884 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20884]: Don't assume that __file__ is defined on importlib.__init__.

bpo-21499 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21499]: Ignore __builtins__ in several test_importlib.test_api tests.

bpo-20627 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20627]: xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy is now a context manager.

bpo-19165 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19165]: The formatter module now raises DeprecationWarning instead of PendingDeprecationWarning.

bpo-13936 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13936]: Remove the ability of datetime.time instances to be considered false in boolean contexts.

bpo-18931 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18931]: selectors module now supports /dev/poll on Solaris. Patch by Giampaolo Rodola'.

bpo-19977 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19977]: When the LC_TYPE locale is the POSIX locale (C locale), sys.stdin and sys.stdout are now using the surrogateescape error handler, instead of the strict error handler.

bpo-20574 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20574]: Implement incremental decoder for cp65001 code (Windows code page 65001, Microsoft UTF-8).

bpo-20879 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20879]: Delay the initialization of encoding and decoding tables for base32, ascii85 and base85 codecs in the base64 module, and delay the initialization of the unquote_to_bytes() table of the urllib.parse module, to not waste memory if these modules are not used.

bpo-19157 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19157]: Include the broadcast address in the usable hosts for IPv6 in ipaddress.

bpo-11599 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11599]: When an external command (e.g. compiler) fails, distutils now prints out the whole command line (instead of just the command name) if the environment variable DISTUTILS_DEBUG is set.

bpo-4931 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4931]: distutils should not produce unhelpful "error: None" messages anymore. distutils.util.grok_environment_error is kept but doc-deprecated.

bpo-20875 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20875]: Prevent possible gzip "'read' is not defined" NameError. Patch by Claudiu Popa.

bpo-11558 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11558]: email.message.Message.attach now returns a more useful error message if attach is called on a message for which is_multipart is False.

bpo-20283 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20283]: RE pattern methods now accept the string keyword parameters as documented. The pattern and source keyword parameters are left as deprecated aliases.

bpo-20778 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20778]: Fix modulefinder to work with bytecode-only modules.

bpo-20791 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20791]: copy.copy() now doesn't make a copy when the input is a bytes object. Initial patch by Peter Otten.

bpo-19748 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19748]: On AIX, time.mktime() now raises an OverflowError for year outsize range [1902; 2037].

bpo-19573 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19573]: inspect.signature: Use enum for parameter kind constants.

bpo-20726 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20726]: inspect.signature: Make Signature and Parameter picklable.

bpo-17373 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17373]: Add inspect.Signature.from_callable method.

bpo-20378 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20378]: Improve repr of inspect.Signature and inspect.Parameter.

bpo-20816 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20816]: Fix inspect.getcallargs() to raise correct TypeError for missing keyword-only arguments. Patch by Jeremiah Lowin.

bpo-20817 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20817]: Fix inspect.getcallargs() to fail correctly if more than 3 arguments are missing. Patch by Jeremiah Lowin.

bpo-6676 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6676]: Ensure a meaningful exception is raised when attempting to parse more than one XML document per pyexpat xmlparser instance. (Original patches by Hirokazu Yamamoto and Amaury Forgeot d'Arc, with suggested wording by David Gutteridge)

bpo-21117 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21117]: Fix inspect.signature to better support functools.partial. Due to the specifics of functools.partial implementation, positional-or-keyword arguments passed as keyword arguments become keyword-only.

bpo-20334 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20334]: inspect.Signature and inspect.Parameter are now hashable. Thanks to Antony Lee for bug reports and suggestions.

bpo-15916 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15916]: doctest.DocTestSuite returns an empty unittest.TestSuite instead of raising ValueError if it finds no tests

bpo-21209 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21209]: Fix asyncio.tasks.CoroWrapper to workaround a bug in yield-from implementation in CPythons prior to 3.4.1.

asyncio: Add gi_{frame,running,code} properties to CoroWrapper (upstream bpo-163 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=163]).

bpo-21311 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21311]: Avoid exception in _osx_support with non-standard compiler configurations. Patch by John Szakmeister.

bpo-11571 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11571]: Ensure that the turtle window becomes the topmost window when launched on OS X.

bpo-21801 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21801]: Validate that __signature__ is None or an instance of Signature.

bpo-21923 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21923]: Prevent AttributeError in distutils.sysconfig.customize_compiler due to possible uninitialized _config_vars.

bpo-21323 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21323]: Fix http.server to again handle scripts in CGI subdirectories, broken by the fix for security bpo-19435 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19435]. Patch by Zach Byrne.

bpo-22733 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22733]: Fix ffi_prep_args not zero-extending argument values correctly on 64-bit Windows.

bpo-23302 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23302]: Default to TCP_NODELAY=1 upon establishing an HTTPConnection. Removed use of hard-coded MSS as it's an optimization that's no longer needed with Nagle disabled.

IDLE

bpo-20577 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20577]: Configuration of the max line length for the FormatParagraph extension has been moved from the General tab of the Idle preferences dialog to the FormatParagraph tab of the Config Extensions dialog. Patch by Tal Einat.

bpo-16893 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16893]: Update Idle doc chapter to match current Idle and add new information.

bpo-3068 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3068]: Add Idle extension configuration dialog to Options menu. Changes are written to HOME/.idlerc/config-extensions.cfg. Original patch by Tal Einat.

bpo-16233 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16233]: A module browser (File : Class Browser, Alt+C) requires an editor window with a filename. When Class Browser is requested otherwise, from a shell, output window, or 'Untitled' editor, Idle no longer displays an error box. It now pops up an Open Module box (Alt+M). If a valid name is entered and a module is opened, a corresponding browser is also opened.

bpo-4832 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4832]: Save As to type Python files automatically adds .py to the name you enter (even if your system does not display it). Some systems automatically add .txt when type is Text files.

bpo-21986 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21986]: Code objects are not normally pickled by the pickle module. To match this, they are no longer pickled when running under Idle.

bpo-17390 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17390]: Adjust Editor window title; remove 'Python', move version to end.

bpo-14105 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14105]: Idle debugger breakpoints no longer disappear when inserting or deleting lines.

bpo-17172 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17172]: Turtledemo can now be run from Idle. Currently, the entry is on the Help menu, but it may move to Run. Patch by Ramchandra Apt and Lita Cho.

bpo-21765 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21765]: Add support for non-ascii identifiers to HyperParser.

bpo-21940 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21940]: Add unittest for WidgetRedirector. Initial patch by Saimadhav Heblikar.

bpo-18592 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18592]: Add unittest for SearchDialogBase. Patch by Phil Webster.

bpo-21694 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21694]: Add unittest for ParenMatch. Patch by Saimadhav Heblikar.

bpo-21686 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21686]: add unittest for HyperParser. Original patch by Saimadhav Heblikar.

bpo-12387 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12387]: Add missing upper(lower)case versions of default Windows key bindings for Idle so Caps Lock does not disable them. Patch by Roger Serwy.

bpo-21695 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21695]: Closing a Find-in-files output window while the search is still in progress no longer closes Idle.

bpo-18910 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18910]: Add unittest for textView. Patch by Phil Webster.

bpo-18292 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18292]: Add unittest for AutoExpand. Patch by Saihadhav Heblikar.

bpo-18409 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18409]: Add unittest for AutoComplete. Patch by Phil Webster.

bpo-21477 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21477]: htest.py - Improve framework, complete set of tests. Patches by Saimadhav Heblikar

bpo-18104 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18104]: Add idlelib/idle_test/htest.py with a few sample tests to begin consolidating and improving human-validated tests of Idle. Change other files as needed to work with htest. Running the module as __main__ runs all tests.

bpo-21139 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21139]: Change default paragraph width to 72, the PEP 8 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/] recommendation.

bpo-21284 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21284]: Paragraph reformat test passes after user changes reformat width.

bpo-17654 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17654]: Ensure IDLE menus are customized properly on OS X for non-framework builds and for all variants of Tk.

bpo-23180 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23180]: Rename IDLE "Windows" menu item to "Window". Patch by Al Sweigart.

Build

bpo-15506 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15506]: Use standard PKG_PROG_PKG_CONFIG autoconf macro in the configure script.

bpo-22935 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22935]: Allow the ssl module to be compiled if openssl doesn't support SSL 3.

bpo-22592 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22592]: Drop support of the Borland C compiler to build Python. The distutils module still supports it to build extensions.

bpo-22591 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22591]: Drop support of MS-DOS, especially of the DJGPP compiler (MS-DOS port of GCC).

bpo-16537 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16537]: Check whether self.extensions is empty in setup.py. Patch by Jonathan Hosmer.

bpo-22359 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22359]: Remove incorrect uses of recursive make. Patch by Jonas Wagner.

bpo-21958 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21958]: Define HAVE_ROUND when building with Visual Studio 2013 and above. Patch by Zachary Turner.

bpo-18093 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18093]: the programs that embed the CPython runtime are now in a separate "Programs" directory, rather than being kept in the Modules directory.

bpo-15759 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15759]: "make suspicious", "make linkcheck" and "make doctest" in Doc/ now display special message when and only when there are failures.

bpo-21141 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21141]: The Windows build process no longer attempts to find Perl, instead relying on OpenSSL source being configured and ready to build. The PCbuild\build_ssl.py script has been re-written and re-named to PCbuild\prepare_ssl.py, and takes care of configuring OpenSSL source for both 32 and 64 bit platforms. OpenSSL sources obtained from svn.python.org will always be pre-configured and ready to build.

bpo-21037 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21037]: Add a build option to enable AddressSanitizer support.

bpo-19962 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19962]: The Windows build process now creates "python.bat" in the root of the source tree, which passes all arguments through to the most recently built interpreter.

bpo-21285 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21285]: Refactor and fix curses configure check to always search in a ncursesw directory.

bpo-15234 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15234]: For BerkeleyDB and Sqlite, only add the found library and include directories if they aren't already being searched. This avoids an explicit runtime library dependency.

bpo-17861 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17861]: Tools/scripts/generate_opcode_h.py automatically regenerates Include/opcode.h from Lib/opcode.py if the latter gets any change.

bpo-20644 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20644]: OS X installer build support for documentation build changes in 3.4.1: assume externally supplied sphinx-build is available in /usr/bin.

bpo-20022 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20022]: Eliminate use of deprecated bundlebuilder in OS X builds.

bpo-15968 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15968]: Incorporated Tcl, Tk, and Tix builds into the Windows build solution.

bpo-17095 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17095]: Fix Modules/Setup shared support.

bpo-21811 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21811]: Anticipated fixes to support OS X versions > 10.9.

bpo-21166 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21166]: Prevent possible segfaults and other random failures of python --generate-posix-vars in pybuilddir.txt build target.

bpo-18096 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18096]: Fix library order returned by python-config.

bpo-17219 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17219]: Add library build dir for Python extension cross-builds.

bpo-22919 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22919]: Windows build updated to support VC 14.0 (Visual Studio 2015), which will be used for the official release.

bpo-21236 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21236]: Build _msi.pyd with cabinet.lib instead of fci.lib

bpo-17128 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17128]: Use private version of OpenSSL for OS X 10.5+ installer.

C API

bpo-14203 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14203]: Remove obsolete support for view==NULL in PyBuffer_FillInfo(), bytearray_getbuffer(), bytesiobuf_getbuffer() and array_buffer_getbuf(). All functions now raise BufferError in that case.

bpo-22445 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22445]: PyBuffer_IsContiguous() now implements precise contiguity tests, compatible with NumPy's NPY_RELAXED_STRIDES_CHECKING compilation flag. Previously the function reported false negatives for corner cases.

bpo-22079 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22079]: PyType_Ready() now checks that statically allocated type has no dynamically allocated bases.

bpo-22453 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22453]: Removed non-documented macro PyObject_REPR().

bpo-18395 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18395]: Rename _Py_char2wchar() to Py_DecodeLocale(), rename _Py_wchar2char() to Py_EncodeLocale(), and document these functions.

bpo-21233 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21233]: Add new C functions: PyMem_RawCalloc(), PyMem_Calloc(), PyObject_Calloc(), _PyObject_GC_Calloc(). bytes(int) is now using calloc() instead of malloc() for large objects which is faster and use less memory.

bpo-20942 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20942]: PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject() no longer sets __file__ to match what importlib does; this affects _frozen_importlib as well as any module loaded using imp.init_frozen().

Documentation

bpo-19548 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19548]: Update the codecs module documentation to better cover the distinction between text encodings and other codecs, together with other clarifications. Patch by Martin Panter.

bpo-22394 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22394]: Doc/Makefile now supports make venv PYTHON=../python to create a venv for generating the documentation, e.g., make html PYTHON=venv/bin/python3.

bpo-21514 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21514]: The documentation of the json module now refers to new JSON RFC 7159 instead of obsoleted RFC 4627.

bpo-21777 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21777]: The binary sequence methods on bytes and bytearray are now documented explicitly, rather than assuming users will be able to derive the expected behaviour from the behaviour of the corresponding str methods.

bpo-6916 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6916]: undocument deprecated asynchat.fifo class.

bpo-17386 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17386]: Expanded functionality of the Doc/make.bat script to make it much more comparable to Doc/Makefile.

bpo-21312 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21312]: Update the thread_foobar.h template file to include newer threading APIs. Patch by Jack McCracken.

bpo-21043 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21043]: Remove the recommendation for specific CA organizations and to mention the ability to load the OS certificates.

bpo-20765 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20765]: Add missing documentation for PurePath.with_name() and PurePath.with_suffix().

bpo-19407 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19407]: New package installation and distribution guides based on the Python Packaging Authority tools. Existing guides have been retained as legacy links from the distutils docs, as they still contain some required reference material for tool developers that isn't recorded anywhere else.

bpo-19697 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19697]: Document cases where __main__.__spec__ is None.

Tests

bpo-18982 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18982]: Add tests for CLI of the calendar module.

bpo-19548 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19548]: Added some additional checks to test_codecs to ensure that statements in the updated documentation remain accurate. Patch by Martin Panter.

bpo-22838 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22838]: All test_re tests now work with unittest test discovery.

bpo-22173 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22173]: Update lib2to3 tests to use unittest test discovery.

bpo-16000 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16000]: Convert test_curses to use unittest.

bpo-21456 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21456]: Skip two tests in test_urllib2net.py if _ssl module not present. Patch by Remi Pointel.

bpo-20746 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20746]: Fix test_pdb to run in refleak mode (-R). Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

bpo-22060 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22060]: test_ctypes has been somewhat cleaned up and simplified; it now uses unittest test discovery to find its tests.

bpo-22104 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22104]: regrtest.py no longer holds a reference to the suite of tests loaded from test modules that don't define test_main().

bpo-22111 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22111]: Assorted cleanups in test_imaplib. Patch by Milan Oberkirch.

bpo-22002 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22002]: Added load_package_tests function to test.support and used it to implement/augment test discovery in test_asyncio, test_email, test_importlib, test_json, and test_tools.

bpo-21976 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21976]: Fix test_ssl to accept LibreSSL version strings. Thanks to William Orr.

bpo-21918 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21918]: Converted test_tools from a module to a package containing separate test files for each tested script.

bpo-9554 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9554]: Use modern unittest features in test_argparse. Initial patch by Denver Coneybeare and Radu Voicilas.

bpo-20155 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20155]: Changed HTTP method names in failing tests in test_httpservers so that packet filtering software (specifically Windows Base Filtering Engine) does not interfere with the transaction semantics expected by the tests.

bpo-19493 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19493]: Refactored the ctypes test package to skip tests explicitly rather than silently.

bpo-18492 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18492]: All resources are now allowed when tests are not run by regrtest.py.

bpo-21634 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21634]: Fix pystone micro-benchmark: use floor division instead of true division to benchmark integers instead of floating-point numbers. Set pystone version to 1.2. Patch written by Lennart Regebro.

bpo-21605 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21605]: Added tests for Tkinter images.

bpo-21493 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21493]: Added test for ntpath.expanduser(). Original patch by Claudiu Popa.

bpo-19925 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19925]: Added tests for the spwd module. Original patch by Vajrasky Kok.

bpo-21522 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21522]: Added Tkinter tests for Listbox.itemconfigure(), PanedWindow.paneconfigure(), and Menu.entryconfigure().

bpo-17756 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17756]: Fix test_code test when run from the installed location.

bpo-17752 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17752]: Fix distutils tests when run from the installed location.

bpo-18604 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18604]: Consolidated checks for GUI availability. All platforms now at least check whether Tk can be instantiated when the GUI resource is requested.

bpo-21275 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21275]: Fix a socket test on KFreeBSD.

bpo-21223 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21223]: Pass test_site/test_startup_imports when some of the extensions are built as builtins.

bpo-20635 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20635]: Added tests for Tk geometry managers.

Add test case for freeze.

bpo-20743 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20743]: Fix a reference leak in test_tcl.

bpo-21097 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21097]: Move test_namespace_pkgs into test_importlib.

bpo-21503 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21503]: Use test_both() consistently in test_importlib.

bpo-20939 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20939]: Avoid various network test failures due to new redirect of http://www.python.org/ to https://www.python.org: use http://www.example.com instead.

bpo-20668 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20668]: asyncio tests no longer rely on tests.txt file. (Patch by Vajrasky Kok)

bpo-21093 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21093]: Prevent failures of ctypes test_macholib on OS X if a copy of libz exists in $HOME/lib or /usr/local/lib.

bpo-22770 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22770]: Prevent some Tk segfaults on OS X when running gui tests.

bpo-23211 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23211]: Workaround test_logging failure on some OS X 10.6 systems.

bpo-23345 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23345]: Prevent test_ssl failures with large OpenSSL patch level values (like 0.9.8zc).

Tools/Demos

bpo-22314 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22314]: pydoc now works when the LINES environment variable is set.

bpo-22615 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22615]: Argument Clinic now supports the "type" argument for the int converter. This permits using the int converter with enums and typedefs.

bpo-20076 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20076]: The makelocalealias.py script no longer ignores UTF-8 mapping.

bpo-20079 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20079]: The makelocalealias.py script now can parse the SUPPORTED file from glibc sources and supports command line options for source paths.

bpo-22201 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22201]: Command-line interface of the zipfile module now correctly extracts ZIP files with directory entries. Patch by Ryan Wilson.

bpo-22120 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22120]: For functions using an unsigned integer return converter, Argument Clinic now generates a cast to that type for the comparison to -1 in the generated code. (This suppresses a compilation warning.)

bpo-18974 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18974]: Tools/scripts/diff.py now uses argparse instead of optparse.

bpo-21906 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21906]: Make Tools/scripts/md5sum.py work in Python 3. Patch by Zachary Ware.

bpo-21629 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21629]: Fix Argument Clinic's "--converters" feature.

Add support for yield from to 2to3.

Add support for the PEP 465 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0465/] matrix multiplication operator to 2to3.

bpo-16047 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16047]: Fix module exception list and __file__ handling in freeze. Patch by Meador Inge.

bpo-11824 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11824]: Consider ABI tags in freeze. Patch by Meador Inge.

bpo-20535 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20535]: PYTHONWARNING no longer affects the run_tests.py script. Patch by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis.

Windows

bpo-23260 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23260]: Update Windows installer

The bundled version of Tcl/Tk has been updated to 8.6.3. The most visible result of this change is the addition of new native file dialogs when running on Windows Vista or newer. See Tcl/Tk's TIP 432 for more information. Also, this version of Tcl/Tk includes support for Windows 10.

bpo-17896 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17896]: The Windows build scripts now expect external library sources to be in PCbuild\..\externals rather than PCbuild\..\...

bpo-17717 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17717]: The Windows build scripts now use a copy of NASM pulled from svn.python.org to build OpenSSL.

bpo-21907 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21907]: Improved the batch scripts provided for building Python.

bpo-22644 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22644]: The bundled version of OpenSSL has been updated to 1.0.1j.

bpo-10747 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10747]: Use versioned labels in the Windows start menu. Patch by Olive Kilburn.

bpo-22980 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22980]: .pyd files with a version and platform tag (for example, ".cp35-win32.pyd") will now be loaded in preference to those without tags.

(For information about older versions, consult the HISTORY file.)

Le tutoriel Python

Astuce

This tutorial is designed for programmers that are new to the Python language, not beginners who are new to programming.

Python est un langage de programmation puissant et facile à apprendre. Il dispose de structures de données de haut niveau et permet une approche simple mais efficace de la programmation orientée objet. Parce que sa syntaxe est élégante, que son typage est dynamique et qu'il est interprété, Python est un langage idéal pour l'écriture de scripts et le développement rapide d'applications dans de nombreux domaines et sur la plupart des plateformes.

The Python interpreter and the extensive standard library are freely available in source or binary form for all major platforms from the Python website, https://www.python.org/, and may be freely distributed. The same site also contains distributions of and pointers to many free third party Python modules, programs and tools, and additional documentation.

L'interpréteur Python peut être facilement étendu par de nouvelles fonctions et types de données implémentés en C ou C++ (ou tout autre langage appelable depuis le C). Python est également adapté comme langage d'extension pour personnaliser des applications.

This tutorial introduces the reader informally to the basic concepts and features of the Python language and system. Be aware that it expects you to have a basic understanding of programming in general. It helps to have a Python interpreter handy for hands-on experience, but all examples are self-contained, so the tutorial can be read off-line as well.

Pour une description des objets et modules de la bibliothèque standard, reportez-vous à La bibliothèque standard. La référence du langage Python présente le langage de manière plus formelle. Pour écrire des extensions en C ou en C++, lisez Extension et intégration de l'interpréteur Python et Python/C API reference manual. Des livres sont également disponibles qui couvrent Python dans le détail.

L'ambition de ce tutoriel n'est pas d'être exhaustif et de couvrir chaque fonctionnalité, ni même toutes les fonctionnalités les plus utilisées. Il vise, en revanche, à introduire les fonctionnalités les plus notables et à vous donner une bonne idée de la saveur et du style du langage. Après l'avoir lu, vous serez capable de lire et d'écrire des modules et des programmes Python et vous serez prêt à en apprendre davantage sur les modules de la bibliothèque Python décrits dans La bibliothèque standard.

Pensez aussi à consulter le Glossaire.

1. Mise en bouche

2. Mode d'emploi de l'interpréteur Python

2.1. Lancement de l'interpréteur

2.1.1. Passage d'arguments

2.1.2. Mode interactif

2.2. L'interpréteur et son environnement

2.2.1. Encodage du code source

3. Introduction informelle à Python

3.1. Utilisation de Python comme une calculatrice

3.1.1. Les nombres

3.1.2. Text

3.1.3. Listes

3.2. Premiers pas vers la programmation

4. D'autres outils de contrôle de flux

4.1. L'instruction if

4.2. L'instruction for

4.3. La fonction range()

4.4. Les instructions break et continue

4.5. La clause else au sein des boucles

4.6. L'instruction pass

4.7. L'instruction match

4.8. Définir des fonctions

4.9. Davantage sur la définition des fonctions

4.9.1. Valeur par défaut des arguments

4.9.2. Les arguments nommés

4.9.3. Paramètres spéciaux

4.9.3.1. Les arguments positionnels-ou-nommés

4.9.3.2. Paramètres positionnels uniquement

4.9.3.3. Arguments nommés uniquement

4.9.3.4. Exemples de fonctions

4.9.3.5. Récapitulatif

4.9.4. Listes d'arguments arbitraires

4.9.5. Séparation des listes d'arguments

4.9.6. Fonctions anonymes

4.9.7. Chaînes de documentation

4.9.8. Annotations de fonctions

4.10. Aparté : le style de codage

5. Structures de données

5.1. Compléments sur les listes

5.1.1. Utilisation des listes comme des piles

5.1.2. Utilisation des listes comme des files

5.1.3. Listes en compréhension

5.1.4. Listes en compréhensions imbriquées

5.2. L'instruction del

5.3. n-uplets et séquences

5.4. Ensembles

5.5. Dictionnaires

5.6. Techniques de boucles

5.7. Plus d'informations sur les conditions

5.8. Comparer des séquences avec d'autres types

6. Modules

6.1. Les modules en détail

6.1.1. Exécuter des modules comme des scripts

6.1.2. Les dossiers de recherche de modules

6.1.3. Fichiers Python « compilés »

6.2. Modules standards

6.3. La fonction dir()

6.4. Les paquets

6.4.1. Importer * depuis un paquet

6.4.2. Références internes dans un paquet

6.4.3. Paquets dans plusieurs dossiers

7. Les entrées/sorties

7.1. Formatage de données

7.1.1. Les chaines de caractères formatées (f-strings)

7.1.2. La méthode de chaine de caractères format()

7.1.3. Formatage de chaînes à la main

7.1.4. Anciennes méthodes de formatage de chaînes

7.2. Lecture et écriture de fichiers

7.2.1. Méthodes des objets fichiers

7.2.2. Sauvegarde de données structurées avec le module json

8. Erreurs et exceptions

8.1. Les erreurs de syntaxe

8.2. Exceptions

8.3. Gestion des exceptions

8.4. Déclencher des exceptions

8.5. Chaînage d'exceptions

8.6. Exceptions définies par l'utilisateur

8.7. Définition d'actions de nettoyage

8.8. Actions de nettoyage prédéfinies

8.9. Levée et gestion de multiples exceptions non corrélées

8.10. Enrichissement des exceptions avec des notes

9. Classes

9.1. Objets et noms : préambule

9.2. Portées et espaces de nommage en Python

9.2.1. Exemple de portées et d'espaces de nommage

9.3. Une première approche des classes

9.3.1. Syntaxe de définition des classes

9.3.2. Objets classes

9.3.3. Objets instances

9.3.4. Objets méthode

9.3.5. Variables de classe et d’instance

9.4. Remarques diverses

9.5. Héritage

9.5.1. Héritage multiple

9.6. Variables privées

9.7. Trucs et astuces

9.8. Itérateurs

9.9. Générateurs

9.10. Expressions et générateurs

10. Brief tour of the standard library

10.1. Operating system interface

10.2. File wildcards

10.3. Command-line arguments

10.4. Error output redirection and program termination

10.5. String pattern matching

10.6. Mathématiques

10.7. Internet access

10.8. Dates and times

10.9. Data compression

10.10. Performance measurement

10.11. Quality control

10.12. Batteries included

11. Survol de la bibliothèque standard -- Deuxième partie

11.1. Formatage de l'affichage

11.2. Gabarits (templates en anglais)

11.3. Traitement des données binaires

11.4. Fils d'exécution

11.5. Journalisation

11.6. Références faibles

11.7. Outils pour les listes

11.8. Decimal Floating-Point Arithmetic

12. Environnements virtuels et paquets

12.1. Introduction

12.2. Création d'environnements virtuels

12.3. Gestion des paquets avec pip

13. Pour aller plus loin

14. Édition interactive des entrées et substitution d'historique

14.1. Complétion automatique et édition de l'historique

14.2. Alternatives à l'interpréteur interactif

15. Floating-Point Arithmetic: Issues and Limitations

15.1. Erreurs de représentation

16. Annexe

16.1. Mode interactif

16.1.1. Gestion des erreurs

16.1.2. Scripts Python exécutables

16.1.3. Configuration du mode interactif

16.1.4. Modules de personnalisation

1. Mise en bouche

Lorsqu'on travaille beaucoup sur ordinateur, on finit souvent par vouloir automatiser certaines tâches : par exemple, effectuer une recherche et un remplacement sur un grand nombre de fichiers de texte ; ou renommer et réorganiser des photos d'une manière un peu compliquée. Pour vous, ce peut être créer une petite base de données, une application graphique ou un simple jeu.

Quand on est un développeur professionnel, le besoin peut se faire sentir de travailler avec des bibliothèques C/C++/Java, mais on trouve que le cycle habituel écriture/compilation/test/compilation est trop lourd. Vous écrivez peut-être une suite de tests pour une telle bibliothèque et vous trouvez que l'écriture du code de test est pénible. Ou bien vous avez écrit un logiciel qui a besoin d'être extensible grâce à un langage de script, mais vous ne voulez pas concevoir ni implémenter un nouveau langage pour votre application.

Python est le langage parfait pour vous.

Vous pouvez écrire un script shell Unix ou des fichiers batch Windows pour certaines de ces tâches. Les scripts shell sont appropriés pour déplacer des fichiers et modifier des données textuelles, mais pas pour une application ayant une interface graphique ni pour des jeux. Vous pouvez écrire un programme en C/C++/Java, mais cela peut prendre beaucoup de temps, ne serait-ce que pour avoir une première maquette. Python est plus facile à utiliser et il vous aidera à terminer plus rapidement votre travail, que ce soit sous Windows, macOS ou Unix.

Python reste facile à utiliser, mais c'est un vrai langage de programmation : il offre une bien meilleure structure et prise en charge des grands programmes que les scripts shell ou les fichiers batch. Par ailleurs, Python permet de beaucoup mieux vérifier les erreurs que le langage C et, en tant que langage de très haut niveau, il possède nativement des types de données très évolués tels que les tableaux de taille variable ou les dictionnaires. Grâce à ses types de données plus universels, Python est utilisable pour des domaines beaucoup plus variés que ne peuvent l'être Awk ou même Perl. Pourtant, vous pouvez faire de nombreuses choses au moins aussi facilement en Python que dans ces langages.

Python vous permet de découper votre programme en modules qui peuvent être réutilisés dans d'autres programmes Python. Il est fourni avec une grande variété de modules standards que vous pouvez utiliser comme base de vos programmes, ou comme exemples pour apprendre à programmer. Certains de ces modules donnent accès aux entrées/sorties, aux appels système, aux connecteurs réseaux et même aux outils comme Tk pour créer des interfaces graphiques.

Python est un langage interprété, ce qui peut vous faire gagner un temps considérable pendant le développement de vos programmes car aucune compilation ni édition de liens n'est nécessaire. L'interpréteur peut être utilisé de manière interactive, pour vous permettre d'expérimenter les fonctionnalités du langage, d'écrire des programmes jetables ou de tester des fonctions lors d'un développement incrémental. C'est aussi une calculatrice de bureau bien pratique.

Python permet d'écrire des programmes compacts et lisibles. Les programmes écrits en Python sont généralement beaucoup plus courts que leurs équivalents en C, C++ ou Java. Et ceci pour plusieurs raisons :

les types de données de haut niveau vous permettent d'exprimer des opérations complexes en une seule instruction ;

les instructions sont regroupées entre elles grâce à l'indentation, plutôt que par l'utilisation d'accolades ;

aucune déclaration de variable ou d'argument n'est nécessaire.

Python est extensible : si vous savez écrire un programme en C, une nouvelle fonction ou module peut être facilement ajouté à l'interpréteur afin de l'étendre, que ce soit pour effectuer des opérations critiques à vitesse maximale ou pour lier des programmes en Python à des bibliothèques disponibles uniquement sous forme binaire (par exemple des bibliothèques graphiques dédiées à un matériel). Une fois que vous êtes à l'aise avec ces principes, vous pouvez relier l'interpréteur Python à une application écrite en C et l'utiliser comme un langage d'extensions ou de commandes pour cette application.

Au fait, le nom du langage provient de l'émission de la BBC « Monty Python's Flying Circus » et n'a rien à voir avec les reptiles. Faire référence aux sketchs des Monty Python dans la documentation n'est pas seulement permis, c'est encouragé !

Maintenant que vos papilles ont été chatouillées, nous allons pouvoir rentrer dans le vif du sujet Python. Et comme la meilleure façon d'apprendre un langage est de l'utiliser, ce tutoriel vous invite à jouer avec l'interpréteur au fur et à mesure de votre lecture.

Dans le prochain chapitre, nous expliquons l'utilisation de l'interpréteur. Ce n'est pas la section la plus passionnante, mais c'est un passage obligé pour que vous puissiez mettre en pratique les exemples donnés plus loin.

Le reste du tutoriel présente diverses fonctionnalités du langage et du système Python au travers d'exemples, en commençant par les expressions simples, les instructions et les types de données, jusqu'à aborder des concepts avancés comme les exceptions et les classes, en passant par les fonctions et modules.

2. Mode d'emploi de l'interpréteur Python

2.1. Lancement de l'interpréteur

En général, vous trouvez l'interpréteur Python sous /usr/local/bin/python3.14 sur les machines où il est disponible ; ajoutez /usr/local/bin au chemin de recherche de votre shell Unix afin de pouvoir le lancer en tapant la commande :

python3.14

dans le shell. [1] Le choix du répertoire où se trouve l'interpréteur étant une option d'installation, d'autres chemins sont possibles ; voyez avec votre gourou Python local ou votre administrateur système (par exemple, /usr/local/python est un endroit courant).

Sur les machines Windows sur lesquelles vous avez installé Python à partir du Microsoft Store, la commande python3.14 est disponible. Si le lanceur py.exe est installé, vous pouvez utiliser la commande py. Voir Python install manager pour d'autres façons de lancer Python.

Tapez un caractère de fin de fichier (Ctrl-D sous Unix, Ctrl-Z sous Windows) dans une invite de commande primaire provoque la fermeture de l'interpréteur avec un code de sortie nul. Si cela ne fonctionne pas, vous pouvez fermer l'interpréteur en tapant la commande quit().

The interpreter's line-editing features include interactive editing, history substitution and code completion on most systems. Perhaps the quickest check to see whether command line editing is supported is typing a word in on the Python prompt, then pressing Left arrow (or Control-b). If the cursor moves, you have command line editing; see Appendix Édition interactive des entrées et substitution d'historique for an introduction to the keys. If nothing appears to happen, or if a sequence like ^[[D or ^B appears, command line editing isn't available; you'll only be able to use backspace to remove characters from the current line.

L'interpréteur fonctionne de façon similaire au shell Unix : lorsqu'il est appelé avec l'entrée standard connectée à un périphérique tty, il lit et exécute les commandes de façon interactive ; lorsqu'il est appelé avec un nom de fichier en argument ou avec un fichier comme entrée standard, il lit et exécute un script depuis ce fichier.

Une autre façon de lancer l'interpréteur est python -c commande [arg] .... Cela exécute les instructions de commande de façon analogue à l'option -c du shell. Parce que les instructions Python contiennent souvent des espaces et d'autres caractères spéciaux pour le shell, il est généralement conseillé de mettre commande entre guillemets simples.

Certains modules Python sont aussi utiles en tant que scripts. Ils peuvent être appelés avec python -m module [arg] ... qui exécute le fichier source de module comme si vous aviez tapé son nom complet dans la ligne de commande.

Quand un fichier de script est utilisé, il est parfois utile de pouvoir lancer le script puis d'entrer dans le mode interactif après coup. Cela est possible en passant -i avant le script.

Tous les paramètres utilisables en ligne de commande sont documentés dans Ligne de commande et environnement.

2.1.1. Passage d'arguments

Lorsqu'ils sont connus de l'interpréteur, le nom du script et les arguments additionnels sont représentés sous forme d'une liste de chaînes de caractères assignée à la variable argv du module sys. Vous pouvez y accéder en exécutant import sys. La liste contient au minimum un élément ; quand aucun script ni aucun argument n'est donné, sys.argv[0] est une chaine vide. Quand '-' (qui représente l'entrée standard) est passé comme nom de script, sys.argv[0] contient '-'. Quand -c commande est utilisé, sys.argv[0] contient '-c'. Enfin, quand -m module est utilisé, le nom complet du module est assigné à sys.argv[0]. Les options trouvées après -c commande ou -m module ne sont pas lues comme options de l'interpréteur Python mais laissées dans sys.argv pour être utilisées par le module ou la commande.

2.1.2. Mode interactif

Lorsque des commandes sont lues depuis un tty, l'interpréteur est dit être en mode interactif. Dans ce mode, il demande la commande suivante avec le prompt primaire, en général trois signes plus-grand-que (>>>) ; pour les lignes de continuation, il affiche le prompt secondaire, par défaut trois points (...). L'interpréteur affiche un message de bienvenue indiquant son numéro de version et une notice de copyright avant d'afficher le premier prompt :

$ python3.14
Python 3.14 (default, April 4 2024, 09:25:04)
[GCC 10.2.0] on linux
Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
>>>

Les lignes de continuation sont nécessaires pour entrer une construction multi-lignes. Par exemple, regardez cette instruction if :

>>> the_world_is_flat = True
>>> if the_world_is_flat:
...     print("Be careful not to fall off!")
...
Be careful not to fall off!

Pour plus d'informations sur le mode interactif, voir Mode interactif.

2.2. L'interpréteur et son environnement

2.2.1. Encodage du code source

Par défaut, Python considère que ses fichiers sources sont encodés en UTF-8. Dans cet encodage, les caractères de la plupart des langues peuvent être utilisés à la fois dans les chaînes de caractères, identifiants et commentaires. Notez que la bibliothèque standard n'utilise que des caractères ASCII dans ses identifiants et que nous considérons que c'est une bonne habitude que tout code portable devrait suivre. Pour afficher correctement tous ces caractères, votre éditeur doit reconnaître que le fichier est en UTF-8 et utiliser une police qui comprend tous les caractères utilisés dans le fichier.

Pour annoncer un encodage différent de l'encodage par défaut, une ligne de commentaire particulière doit être ajoutée en tant que première ligne du fichier. Sa syntaxe est la suivante :

# -*- coding: encoding -*-

où encoding est un des codecs géré par Python.

Par exemple, pour déclarer un encodage Windows-1252, la première ligne de votre code source doit être :

# -*- coding: cp1252 -*-

Une exception à la règle première ligne est lorsque la première ligne est un shebang UNIX. Dans ce cas, la déclaration de l'encodage doit être placée sur la deuxième ligne du fichier. Par exemple :

#!/usr/bin/env python3
# -*- coding: cp1252 -*-

Notes

[1]

Sous Unix, par défaut, l'interpréteur Python 3.x n'est pas installé sous le nom de python afin de ne pas entrer en conflit avec une éventuelle installation de Python 2.x.

3. Introduction informelle à Python

Dans les exemples qui suivent, les entrées et sorties se distinguent par la présence ou l'absence d'invite (>>> et ...) : pour reproduire les exemples, vous devez taper tout ce qui est après l'invite, au moment où celle-ci apparaît ; les lignes qui n'affichent pas d'invite sont les sorties de l'interpréteur. Notez qu'une invite secondaire affichée seule sur une ligne dans un exemple indique que vous devez entrer une ligne vide ; ceci est utilisé pour terminer une commande multi-lignes.

You can use the "Copy" button (it appears in the upper-right corner when hovering over or tapping a code example), which strips prompts and omits output, to copy and paste the input lines into your interpreter.

Beaucoup d'exemples de ce manuel, même ceux saisis à l'invite de l'interpréteur, incluent des commentaires. Les commentaires en Python commencent avec un caractère croisillon, #, et s'étendent jusqu'à la fin de la ligne. Un commentaire peut apparaître au début d'une ligne ou à la suite d'un espace ou de code, mais pas à l'intérieur d'une chaîne de caractères littérale. Un caractère croisillon à l'intérieur d'une chaîne de caractères est juste un caractère croisillon. Comme les commentaires ne servent qu'à expliquer le code et ne sont pas interprétés par Python, ils peuvent être ignorés lorsque vous tapez les exemples.

Quelques exemples :

# this is the first comment
spam = 1  # and this is the second comment
          # ... and now a third!
text = "# This is not a comment because it's inside quotes."

3.1. Utilisation de Python comme une calculatrice

Essayons quelques commandes Python simples. Démarrez l'interpréteur et attendez l'invite primaire, >>>. Ça ne devrait pas être long.

3.1.1. Les nombres

The interpreter acts as a simple calculator: you can type an expression into it and it will write the value. Expression syntax is straightforward: the operators +, -, * and / can be used to perform arithmetic; parentheses (()) can be used for grouping. For example:

>>> 2 + 2
4
>>> 50 - 5*6
20
>>> (50 - 5*6) / 4
5.0
>>> 8 / 5  # division always returns a floating-point number
1.6

Les nombres entiers (comme 2, 4, 20) sont de type int, alors que les décimaux (comme 5.0, 1.6) sont de type float. Vous trouvez plus de détails sur les types numériques plus loin dans ce tutoriel.

Les divisions (/) donnent toujours des float. Utilisez l'opérateur // pour effectuer une division entière et donc obtenir un résultat entier. Pour obtenir le reste d'une division entière, utilisez l'opérateur % :

>>> 17 / 3  # classic division returns a float
5.666666666666667
>>>
>>> 17 // 3  # floor division discards the fractional part
5
>>> 17 % 3  # the % operator returns the remainder of the division
2
>>> 5 * 3 + 2  # floored quotient * divisor + remainder
17

En Python, il est possible de calculer des puissances avec l'opérateur ** [1] :

>>> 5 ** 2  # 5 squared
25
>>> 2 ** 7  # 2 to the power of 7
128

Le signe égal (=) est utilisé pour affecter une valeur à une variable. Dans ce cas, aucun résultat n'est affiché avant l'invite suivante :

>>> width = 20
>>> height = 5 * 9
>>> width * height
900

Si une variable n'est pas « définie » (si aucune valeur ne lui a été affectée), son utilisation produit une erreur :

>>> n  # try to access an undefined variable
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
NameError: name 'n' is not defined

Les nombres à virgule flottante sont tout à fait admis (NdT : Python utilise le point . comme séparateur entre la partie entière et la partie décimale des nombres, c'est la convention anglo-saxonne) ; les opérateurs avec des opérandes de types différents convertissent l'opérande de type entier en type virgule flottante :

>>> 4 * 3.75 - 1
14.0

En mode interactif, la dernière expression affichée est affectée à la variable _. Ainsi, lorsque vous utilisez Python comme calculatrice, cela vous permet de continuer des calculs facilement, par exemple :

>>> tax = 12.5 / 100
>>> price = 100.50
>>> price * tax
12.5625
>>> price + _
113.0625
>>> round(_, 2)
113.06

Cette variable doit être considérée comme une variable en lecture seule par l'utilisateur. Ne lui affectez pas de valeur explicitement — vous créeriez ainsi une variable locale indépendante, avec le même nom, qui masquerait la variable native et son fonctionnement magique.

En plus des int et des float, il existe les Decimal et les Fraction. Python gère aussi les nombres complexes, en utilisant le suffixe j ou J pour indiquer la partie imaginaire (tel que 3+5j).

3.1.2. Text

Python can manipulate text (represented by type str, so-called "strings") as well as numbers. This includes characters "!", words "rabbit", names "Paris", sentences "Got your back.", etc. "Yay! :)". They can be enclosed in single quotes ('...') or double quotes ("...") with the same result [2].

>>> 'spam eggs'  # single quotes
'spam eggs'
>>> "Paris rabbit got your back :)! Yay!"  # double quotes
'Paris rabbit got your back :)! Yay!'
>>> '1975'  # digits and numerals enclosed in quotes are also strings
'1975'

To quote a quote, we need to "escape" it, by preceding it with \. Alternatively, we can use the other type of quotation marks:

>>> 'doesn\'t'  # use \' to escape the single quote...
"doesn't"
>>> "doesn't"  # ...or use double quotes instead
"doesn't"
>>> '"Yes," they said.'
'"Yes," they said.'
>>> "\"Yes,\" they said."
'"Yes," they said.'
>>> '"Isn\'t," they said.'
'"Isn\'t," they said.'

In the Python shell, the string definition and output string can look different. The print() function produces a more readable output, by omitting the enclosing quotes and by printing escaped and special characters:

>>> s = 'First line.\nSecond line.'  # \n means newline
>>> s  # without print(), special characters are included in the string
'First line.\nSecond line.'
>>> print(s)  # with print(), special characters are interpreted, so \n produces new line
First line.
Second line.

Si vous ne voulez pas que les caractères précédés d'un \ soient interprétés comme étant spéciaux, utilisez les chaînes brutes (raw strings en anglais) en préfixant la chaîne d'un r :

>>> print('C:\this\name')  # here \t means tab, \n means newline
C:      his
ame
>>> print(r'C:\this\name')  # note the r before the quote
C:\this\name

Il existe une petite subtilité concernant les chaînes brutes : une chaîne brute ne peut pas se terminer par un nombre impair de caractères \ ; voir l'entrée FAQ pour plus d'informations et des solutions de contournement.

String literals can span multiple lines. One way is using triple-quotes: """...""" or '''...'''. End-of-line characters are automatically included in the string, but it's possible to prevent this by adding a \ at the end of the line. In the following example, the initial newline is not included:

>>> print("""\
... Usage: thingy [OPTIONS]
...      -h                        Display this usage message
...      -H hostname               Hostname to connect to
... """)
Usage: thingy [OPTIONS]
     -h                        Display this usage message
     -H hostname               Hostname to connect to

>>>

Les chaînes peuvent être concaténées (collées ensemble) avec l'opérateur + et répétées avec l'opérateur * :

>>> # 3 times 'un', followed by 'ium'
>>> 3 * 'un' + 'ium'
'unununium'

Plusieurs chaînes de caractères, écrites littéralement (c'est-à-dire entre guillemets), côte à côte, sont automatiquement concaténées.

>>> 'Py' 'thon'
'Python'

Cette fonctionnalité est surtout intéressante pour couper des chaînes trop longues :

>>> text = ('Put several strings within parentheses '
...         'to have them joined together.')
>>> text
'Put several strings within parentheses to have them joined together.'

Cela ne fonctionne cependant qu'avec les chaînes littérales, pas avec les variables ni les expressions :

>>> prefix = 'Py'
>>> prefix 'thon'  # can't concatenate a variable and a string literal
  File "<stdin>", line 1
    prefix 'thon'
           ^^^^^^
SyntaxError: invalid syntax
>>> ('un' * 3) 'ium'
  File "<stdin>", line 1
    ('un' * 3) 'ium'
               ^^^^^
SyntaxError: invalid syntax

Pour concaténer des variables, ou des variables avec des chaînes littérales, utilisez l'opérateur + :

>>> prefix + 'thon'
'Python'

Les chaînes de caractères peuvent être indexées (ou indicées, c'est-à-dire que l'on peut accéder aux caractères par leur position), le premier caractère d'une chaîne étant à la position 0. Il n'existe pas de type distinct pour les caractères, un caractère est simplement une chaîne de longueur 1 :

>>> word = 'Python'
>>> word[0]  # character in position 0
'P'
>>> word[5]  # character in position 5
'n'

Les indices peuvent également être négatifs, on compte alors en partant de la droite. Par exemple :

>>> word[-1]  # last character
'n'
>>> word[-2]  # second-last character
'o'
>>> word[-6]
'P'

Notez que, comme -0 égale 0, les indices négatifs commencent par -1.

En plus d'accéder à un élément par son indice, il est aussi possible de « trancher » (slice en anglais) une chaîne. Accéder à une chaîne par un indice permet d'obtenir un caractère, trancher permet d'obtenir une sous-chaîne :

>>> word[0:2]  # characters from position 0 (included) to 2 (excluded)
'Py'
>>> word[2:5]  # characters from position 2 (included) to 5 (excluded)
'tho'

Les valeurs par défaut des indices de tranches ont une utilité ; le premier indice vaut zéro par défaut (c.-à-d. lorsqu'il est omis), le deuxième correspond par défaut à la taille de la chaîne de caractères

>>> word[:2]   # character from the beginning to position 2 (excluded)
'Py'
>>> word[4:]   # characters from position 4 (included) to the end
'on'
>>> word[-2:]  # characters from the second-last (included) to the end
'on'

Notez que le début est toujours inclus et la fin toujours exclue. Cela assure que s[:i] + s[i:] est toujours égal à s :

>>> word[:2] + word[2:]
'Python'
>>> word[:4] + word[4:]
'Python'

Pour mémoriser la façon dont les tranches fonctionnent, vous pouvez imaginer que les indices pointent entre les caractères, le côté gauche du premier caractère ayant la position 0. Le côté droit du dernier caractère d'une chaîne de n caractères a alors pour indice n. Par exemple :

 +---+---+---+---+---+---+
 | P | y | t | h | o | n |
 +---+---+---+---+---+---+
 0   1   2   3   4   5   6
-6  -5  -4  -3  -2  -1

La première ligne de nombres donne la position des indices 0…6 dans la chaîne ; la deuxième ligne donne l'indice négatif correspondant. La tranche de i à j est constituée de tous les caractères situés entre les bords libellés i et j, respectivement.

Pour des indices non négatifs, la longueur d'une tranche est la différence entre ces indices, si les deux sont entre les bornes. Par exemple, la longueur de word[1:3] est 2.

Utiliser un indice trop grand produit une erreur :

>>> word[42]  # the word only has 6 characters
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
IndexError: string index out of range

Cependant, les indices hors bornes sont gérés silencieusement lorsqu'ils sont utilisés dans des tranches :

>>> word[4:42]
'on'
>>> word[42:]
''

Les chaînes de caractères, en Python, ne peuvent pas être modifiées. On dit qu'elles sont immuables. Affecter une nouvelle valeur à un indice dans une chaîne produit une erreur :

>>> word[0] = 'J'
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: 'str' object does not support item assignment
>>> word[2:] = 'py'
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: 'str' object does not support item assignment

Si vous avez besoin d'une chaîne différente, vous devez en créer une nouvelle :

>>> 'J' + word[1:]
'Jython'
>>> word[:2] + 'py'
'Pypy'

La fonction native len() renvoie la longueur d'une chaîne :

>>> s = 'supercalifragilisticexpialidocious'
>>> len(s)
34

Voir aussi

Type Séquence de Texte — str

Les chaînes de caractères sont des exemples de types séquences ; elles acceptent donc les opérations classiques prises en charge par ces types.

Méthodes de chaînes de caractères

Les chaînes de caractères gèrent un large éventail de méthodes de transformations basiques et de recherche.

f-strings

Des chaînes littérales qui contiennent des expressions.

Format string syntax

Informations sur le formatage des chaînes avec la méthode str.format().

Formatage de chaines à la printf

Description détaillée des anciennes méthodes de mise en forme, appelées lorsque les chaînes de caractères sont à gauche de l'opérateur %.

3.1.3. Listes

Python connaît différents types de données combinés, utilisés pour regrouper plusieurs valeurs. Le plus souple est la liste, qui peut être écrit comme une suite, placée entre crochets, de valeurs (éléments) séparées par des virgules. Les éléments d'une liste ne sont pas obligatoirement tous du même type, bien qu'à l'usage ce soit souvent le cas.

>>> squares = [1, 4, 9, 16, 25]
>>> squares
[1, 4, 9, 16, 25]

Comme les chaînes de caractères (et toute autre type de sequence), les listes peuvent être indicées et découpées :

>>> squares[0]  # indexing returns the item
1
>>> squares[-1]
25
>>> squares[-3:]  # slicing returns a new list
[9, 16, 25]

Les listes gèrent aussi les opérations comme les concaténations :

>>> squares + [36, 49, 64, 81, 100]
[1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100]

Mais à la différence des chaînes qui sont immuables, les listes sont mutables : il est possible de modifier leur contenu :

>>> cubes = [1, 8, 27, 65, 125]  # something's wrong here
>>> 4 ** 3  # the cube of 4 is 64, not 65!
64
>>> cubes[3] = 64  # replace the wrong value
>>> cubes
[1, 8, 27, 64, 125]

You can also add new items at the end of the list, by using the list.append() method (we will see more about methods later):

>>> cubes.append(216)  # add the cube of 6
>>> cubes.append(7 ** 3)  # and the cube of 7
>>> cubes
[1, 8, 27, 64, 125, 216, 343]

Simple assignment in Python never copies data. When you assign a list to a variable, the variable refers to the existing list. Any changes you make to the list through one variable will be seen through all other variables that refer to it.:

>>> rgb = ["Red", "Green", "Blue"]
>>> rgba = rgb
>>> id(rgb) == id(rgba)  # they reference the same object
True
>>> rgba.append("Alph")
>>> rgb
["Red", "Green", "Blue", "Alph"]

Toutes les opérations par tranches renvoient une nouvelle liste contenant les éléments demandés. Cela signifie que l'opération suivante renvoie une copie (superficielle) de la liste :

>>> correct_rgba = rgba[:]
>>> correct_rgba[-1] = "Alpha"
>>> correct_rgba
["Red", "Green", "Blue", "Alpha"]
>>> rgba
["Red", "Green", "Blue", "Alph"]

Des affectations de tranches sont également possibles, ce qui peut même modifier la taille de la liste ou la vider complètement :

>>> letters = ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g']
>>> letters
['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g']
>>> # replace some values
>>> letters[2:5] = ['C', 'D', 'E']
>>> letters
['a', 'b', 'C', 'D', 'E', 'f', 'g']
>>> # now remove them
>>> letters[2:5] = []
>>> letters
['a', 'b', 'f', 'g']
>>> # clear the list by replacing all the elements with an empty list
>>> letters[:] = []
>>> letters
[]

La primitive len() s'applique aussi aux listes :

>>> letters = ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd']
>>> len(letters)
4

Il est possible d'imbriquer des listes (c.-à-d. créer des listes contenant d'autres listes). Par exemple :

>>> a = ['a', 'b', 'c']
>>> n = [1, 2, 3]
>>> x = [a, n]
>>> x
[['a', 'b', 'c'], [1, 2, 3]]
>>> x[0]
['a', 'b', 'c']
>>> x[0][1]
'b'

3.2. Premiers pas vers la programmation

Bien entendu, on peut utiliser Python pour des tâches plus compliquées que d'additionner deux et deux. Par exemple, on peut écrire le début de la suite de Fibonacci [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suite_de_Fibonacci] comme ceci :

>>> # Fibonacci series:
>>> # the sum of two elements defines the next
>>> a, b = 0, 1
>>> while a < 10:
...     print(a)
...     a, b = b, a+b
...
0
1
1
2
3
5
8

Cet exemple introduit plusieurs nouvelles fonctionnalités.

La première ligne contient une affectation multiple : les variables a et b se voient affecter simultanément leurs nouvelles valeurs 0 et 1. Cette méthode est encore utilisée à la dernière ligne, pour démontrer que les expressions sur la partie droite de l'affectation sont toutes évaluées avant que les affectations ne soient effectuées. Ces expressions en partie droite sont toujours évaluées de la gauche vers la droite.

La boucle while s'exécute tant que la condition (ici : a < 10) reste vraie. En Python, comme en C, tout entier différent de zéro est vrai et zéro est faux. La condition peut aussi être une chaîne de caractères, une liste, ou en fait toute séquence ; une séquence avec une valeur non nulle est vraie, une séquence vide est fausse. Le test utilisé dans l'exemple est une simple comparaison. Les opérateurs de comparaison standards sont écrits comme en C : < (inférieur), > (supérieur), == (égal), <= (inférieur ou égal), >= (supérieur ou égal) et != (non égal).

Le corps de la boucle est indenté : l'indentation est la méthode utilisée par Python pour regrouper des instructions. En mode interactif, vous devez saisir une tabulation ou des espaces pour chaque ligne indentée. En pratique, vous aurez intérêt à utiliser un éditeur de texte pour les saisies plus compliquées ; tous les éditeurs de texte dignes de ce nom disposent d'une fonction d'auto-indentation. Lorsqu'une expression composée est saisie en mode interactif, elle doit être suivie d'une ligne vide pour indiquer qu'elle est terminée (car l'analyseur ne peut pas deviner que vous venez de saisir la dernière ligne). Notez bien que toutes les lignes à l'intérieur d'un bloc doivent être indentées au même niveau.

La fonction print() écrit les valeurs des paramètres qui lui sont fournis. Ce n'est pas la même chose que d'écrire l'expression que vous voulez afficher (comme nous l'avons fait dans l'exemple de la calculatrice), en raison de la manière qu'a print de gérer les paramètres multiples, les nombres décimaux et les chaînes. Les chaînes sont affichées sans apostrophe et une espace est insérée entre les éléments de telle sorte que vous pouvez facilement formater les choses, comme ceci :

>>> i = 256*256
>>> print('The value of i is', i)
The value of i is 65536

Le paramètre nommé end peut servir pour enlever le retour à la ligne ou pour terminer la ligne par une autre chaîne :

>>> a, b = 0, 1
>>> while a < 1000:
...     print(a, end=',')
...     a, b = b, a+b
...
0,1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34,55,89,144,233,377,610,987,

Notes

[1]

Puisque ** est prioritaire sur -, -3 ** 2 est interprété -(3 ** 2) et vaut donc -9. Pour éviter cela et obtenir 9, utilisez des parenthèses : (-3) ** 2.

[2]

Contrairement à d'autres langages, les caractères spéciaux comme \n ont la même signification entre guillemets ("...") ou entre guillemets simples ('...'). La seule différence est que, dans une chaîne entre guillemets, il n'est pas nécessaire de protéger les guillemets simples et vice-versa.

4. D'autres outils de contrôle de flux

En plus de l'instruction while qui vient d'être présentée, Python dispose d'autres instructions de contrôle de flux que l'on détaillera dans ce chapitre.

4.1. L'instruction if

L'instruction if est sans doute la plus connue. Par exemple :

>>> x = int(input("Please enter an integer: "))
Please enter an integer: 42
>>> if x < 0:
...     x = 0
...     print('Negative changed to zero')
... elif x == 0:
...     print('Zero')
... elif x == 1:
...     print('Single')
... else:
...     print('More')
...
More

Il peut y avoir un nombre quelconque de parties elif et la partie else est facultative. Le mot clé elif est un raccourci pour else if, et permet de gagner un niveau d'indentation. Une séquence if ... elif ... elif ... est par ailleurs équivalente aux instructions switch ou case disponibles dans d'autres langages.

Pour les comparaisons avec beaucoup de constantes, ainsi que les tests d'appartenance à un type ou de forme d'un attribut, l'instruction match décrite plus bas peut se révéler utile (voir L'instruction match).

4.2. L'instruction for

L'instruction for que propose Python est un peu différente de celle que l'on peut trouver en C ou en Pascal. Au lieu de toujours itérer sur une suite arithmétique de nombres (comme en Pascal), ou de donner à l'utilisateur la possibilité de définir le pas d'itération et la condition de fin (comme en C), l'instruction for en Python itère sur les éléments d'une séquence (qui peut être une liste, une chaîne de caractères…), dans l'ordre dans lequel ils apparaissent dans la séquence. Par exemple :

>>> # Measure some strings:
>>> words = ['cat', 'window', 'defenestrate']
>>> for w in words:
...     print(w, len(w))
...
cat 3
window 6
defenestrate 12

Écrire du code qui modifie une collection tout en itérant dessus peut s'avérer délicat. Il est généralement plus simple de boucler sur une copie de la collection ou de créer une nouvelle collection :

# Create a sample collection
users = {'Hans': 'active', 'Éléonore': 'inactive', '景太郎': 'active'}

# Strategy:  Iterate over a copy
for user, status in users.copy().items():
    if status == 'inactive':
        del users[user]

# Strategy:  Create a new collection
active_users = {}
for user, status in users.items():
    if status == 'active':
        active_users[user] = status

4.3. La fonction range()

Si vous devez itérer sur une suite de nombres, la fonction native range() est faite pour cela. Elle génère des suites arithmétiques :

>>> for i in range(5):
...     print(i)
...
0
1
2
3
4

Le dernier élément fourni en paramètre ne fait jamais partie de la liste générée ; range(10) génère une liste de 10 valeurs, dont les valeurs vont de 0 à 9. Il est possible de spécifier une valeur de début et une valeur d'incrément différentes (y compris négative pour cette dernière, que l'on appelle également parfois le « pas ») :

>>> list(range(5, 10))
[5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

>>> list(range(0, 10, 3))
[0, 3, 6, 9]

>>> list(range(-10, -100, -30))
[-10, -40, -70]

Pour itérer sur les indices d'une séquence, on peut combiner les fonctions range() et len() :

>>> a = ['Mary', 'had', 'a', 'little', 'lamb']
>>> for i in range(len(a)):
...     print(i, a[i])
...
0 Mary
1 had
2 a
3 little
4 lamb

Cependant, dans la plupart des cas, il est plus pratique d'utiliser la fonction enumerate(). Voyez pour cela Techniques de boucles.

Une chose étrange se produit lorsqu'on affiche un range :

>>> range(10)
range(0, 10)

L'objet renvoyé par range() se comporte presque comme une liste, mais ce n'en est pas une. Cet objet génère les éléments de la séquence au fur et à mesure de l'itération, sans réellement produire la liste en tant que telle, économisant ainsi de l'espace.

On appelle de tels objets des itérables, c'est-à-dire des objets qui conviennent à des fonctions ou constructions qui s'attendent à quelque chose duquel elles peuvent tirer des éléments, successivement, jusqu'à épuisement. Nous avons vu que l'instruction for est une de ces constructions, et un exemple de fonction qui prend un itérable en paramètre est sum() :

>>> sum(range(4))  # 0 + 1 + 2 + 3
6

Later we will see more functions that return iterables and take iterables as arguments. In chapter Structures de données, we will discuss list() in more detail.

4.4. Les instructions break et continue

L'instruction break interrompt la boucle for ou while la plus profonde.

>>> for n in range(2, 10):
...     for x in range(2, n):
...         if n % x == 0:
...             print(f"{n} equals {x} * {n//x}")
...             break
...
4 equals 2 * 2
6 equals 2 * 3
8 equals 2 * 4
9 equals 3 * 3

L'instruction continue fait passer la boucle à son itération suivante :

>>> for num in range(2, 10):
...     if num % 2 == 0:
...         print(f"Found an even number {num}")
...         continue
...     print(f"Found an odd number {num}")
...
Found an even number 2
Found an odd number 3
Found an even number 4
Found an odd number 5
Found an even number 6
Found an odd number 7
Found an even number 8
Found an odd number 9

4.5. La clause else au sein des boucles

Dans une boucle for ou while, l'instruction break peut être couplée à la clause else. Si la boucle finit sans exécuter le break, alors la clause else s'exécute.

Dans une boucle for, la clause else s'exécute après l'exécution de la dernière itération, c'est-à-dire uniquement si la boucle n'a pas été interrompue.

Dans une boucle while, celle-ci est exécutée lorsque la condition devient fausse.

Dans les deux types de boucles, la clause else n'est pas exécutée si la boucle a été interrompue par un break. Bien sûr, d'autres façons de terminer une boucle de manière prématurée, comme avec return ou le déclenchement d'une exception, vont aussi ignorer l'exécution de la clause else.

Un exemple est donné dans la boucle for ci-dessous, qui cherche des nombres premiers :

>>> for n in range(2, 10):
...     for x in range(2, n):
...         if n % x == 0:
...             print(n, 'equals', x, '*', n//x)
...             break
...     else:
...         # loop fell through without finding a factor
...         print(n, 'is a prime number')
...
2 is a prime number
3 is a prime number
4 equals 2 * 2
5 is a prime number
6 equals 2 * 3
7 is a prime number
8 equals 2 * 4
9 equals 3 * 3

(Oui, ce code est correct. Regardez attentivement : la clause else est rattachée à la boucle for, et non à l'instruction if.)

Une façon de voir la clause else est de l'imaginer couplée à if dans une boucle. Lorsque la boucle s'exécute, une séquence similaire à if/if/if/else est exécutée. Le if étant dans la boucle il est exécuté un certain nombre de fois. Si sa condition est vraie, un break est déclenché. Si la condition n'est jamais vraie, la clause else en dehors de la boucle est exécutée.

Lorsqu'elle utilisée dans une boucle, la clause else est donc plus proche de celle associée à une instruction try que de celle associée à une instruction if : la clause else d'une instruction try s'exécute lorsqu'aucune exception n'est déclenchée, et celle d'une boucle lorsqu'aucun break n'intervient. Pour plus d'informations sur l'instruction try et le traitement des exceptions, consultez la section Gestion des exceptions.

4.6. L'instruction pass

L'instruction pass ne fait rien. Elle peut être utilisée lorsqu'une instruction est nécessaire pour fournir une syntaxe correcte, mais qu'aucune action ne doit être effectuée. Par exemple :

>>> while True:
...     pass  # Busy-wait for keyboard interrupt (Ctrl+C)
...

On utilise couramment cette instruction pour créer des classes minimales :

>>> class MyEmptyClass:
...     pass
...

Un autre cas d'utilisation du pass est de réserver un espace en phase de développement pour une fonction ou un traitement conditionnel, vous permettant ainsi de construire votre code à un niveau plus abstrait. L'instruction pass est alors ignorée silencieusement :

>>> def initlog(*args):
...     pass   # Remember to implement this!
...

For this last case, many people use the ellipsis literal ... instead of pass. This use has no special meaning to Python, and is not part of the language definition (you could use any constant expression here), but ... is used conventionally as a placeholder body as well. See L'objet points de suspension (ou ellipse).

4.7. L'instruction match

A match statement takes an expression and compares its value to successive patterns given as one or more case blocks. This is superficially similar to a switch statement in C, Java or JavaScript (and many other languages), but it's more similar to pattern matching in languages like Rust or Haskell. Only the first pattern that matches gets executed and it can also extract components (sequence elements or object attributes) from the value into variables. If no case matches, none of the branches is executed.

Dans sa plus simple expression, une instruction match compare une valeur à des littéraux :

def http_error(status):
    match status:
        case 400:
            return "Bad request"
        case 404:
            return "Not found"
        case 418:
            return "I'm a teapot"
        case _:
            return "Something's wrong with the internet"

Note the last block: the "variable name" _ acts as a wildcard and never fails to match.

On peut combiner plusieurs littéraux en un seul filtre avec le signe |, qui se lit OU :

case 401 | 403 | 404:
    return "Not allowed"

Les filtres peuvent prendre une forme similaire aux affectations multiples, et provoquer la liaison de variables :

# point is an (x, y) tuple
match point:
    case (0, 0):
        print("Origin")
    case (0, y):
        print(f"Y={y}")
    case (x, 0):
        print(f"X={x}")
    case (x, y):
        print(f"X={x}, Y={y}")
    case _:
        raise ValueError("Not a point")

Observez bien cet exemple ! Le premier filtre contient simplement deux littéraux. C'est une sorte d'extension des filtres littéraux. Mais les deux filtres suivants mélangent un littéral et un nom de variable. Si un tel filtre réussit, il provoque l'affectation à la variable. Le quatrième filtre est constitué de deux variables, ce qui le fait beaucoup ressembler à l'affectation multiple (x, y) = point.

Si vous structurez vos données par l'utilisation de classes, vous pouvez former des filtres avec le nom de la classe suivi d'une liste d'arguments. Ces filtres sont semblables à l'appel d'un constructeur, et permettent de capturer des attributs :

class Point:
    def __init__(self, x, y):
        self.x = x
        self.y = y

def where_is(point):
    match point:
        case Point(x=0, y=0):
            print("Origin")
        case Point(x=0, y=y):
            print(f"Y={y}")
        case Point(x=x, y=0):
            print(f"X={x}")
        case Point():
            print("Somewhere else")
        case _:
            print("Not a point")

Un certain nombre de classes natives, notamment les classes de données, prennent en charge le filtrage par arguments positionnels en définissant un ordre des attributs. Vous pouvez ajouter cette possibilité à vos propres classes en y définissant l'attribut spécial __match_args__. Par exemple, le mettre à ("x", "y") rend tous les filtres ci-dessous équivalents (en particulier, tous provoquent la liaison de l'attribut y à la variable var) :

Point(1, var)
Point(1, y=var)
Point(x=1, y=var)
Point(y=var, x=1)

Une méthode préconisée pour lire les filtres est de les voir comme une extension de ce que l'on peut placer à gauche du signe = dans une affectation. Cela permet de visualiser quelles variables sont liées à quoi. Seuls les noms simples, comme var ci-dessus, sont des variables susceptibles d'être liées à une valeur. Il n'y a jamais de liaison pour les noms qualifiés (avec un point, comme dans truc.machin), les noms d'attributs (tels que x= et y= dans l'exemple précédent) et les noms de classes (identifiés par les parenthèses à leur droite, comme Point).

On peut imbriquer les filtres autant que de besoin. Ainsi, on peut lire une courte liste de points, avec __match_args__, comme ceci :

class Point:
    __match_args__ = ('x', 'y')
    def __init__(self, x, y):
        self.x = x
        self.y = y

match points:
    case []:
        print("No points")
    case [Point(0, 0)]:
        print("The origin")
    case [Point(x, y)]:
        print(f"Single point {x}, {y}")
    case [Point(0, y1), Point(0, y2)]:
        print(f"Two on the Y axis at {y1}, {y2}")
    case _:
        print("Something else")

Un filtre peut comporter un if, qui introduit ce que l'on appelle une garde. Si le filtre réussit, la garde est alors testée et, si elle s'évalue à une valeur fausse, l'exécution continue au bloc case suivant. Les variables sont liées avant l'évaluation de la garde, et peuvent être utilisées à l'intérieur :

match point:
    case Point(x, y) if x == y:
        print(f"Y=X at {x}")
    case Point(x, y):
        print(f"Not on the diagonal")

Voici d’autres caractéristiques importantes de cette instruction :

comme dans les affectations multiples, les filtres de n-uplet et de liste sont totalement équivalents et autorisent tous les types de séquences. Exception importante, ils n'autorisent pas les itérateurs ni les chaînes de caractères ;

les filtres de séquence peuvent faire intervenir l'affectation étoilée : [x, y, *reste] ou (x, y, *reste) ont le même sens que dans une affectation avec =. Le nom de variable après l'étoile peut aussi être l'attrape-tout _. Ainsi, (x, y, *_) est un filtre qui reconnaît les séquences à deux éléments ou plus, en capturant les deux premiers et en ignorant le reste ;

Il existe des filtres d'association. Par exemple, le filtre {"bande_passante": b, "latence": l} extrait les valeurs des clés "bande_passante" et "latence" dans un dictionnaire. Contrairement aux filtres de séquence, les clés absentes du filtre sont ignorées. L'affectation double-étoilée (**reste) fonctionne aussi (cependant, **_ serait redondant et n'est donc pas permis) ;

on peut capturer la valeur d'une partie d'un filtre avec le mot-clé as, par exemple :

case (Point(x1, y1), Point(x2, y2) as p2): ...

Ce filtre, lorsqu'il est comparé à une séquence de deux points, réussit et capture le second dans la variable p2 ;

la plupart des littéraux sont comparés par égalité. Néanmoins, les singletons True, False et None sont comparés par identité ;

Patterns may use named constants. These must be dotted names to prevent them from being interpreted as capture variables:

from enum import Enum
class Color(Enum):
    RED = 'red'
    GREEN = 'green'
    BLUE = 'blue'

color = Color(input("Enter your choice of 'red', 'blue' or 'green': "))

match color:
    case Color.RED:
        print("I see red!")
    case Color.GREEN:
        print("Grass is green")
    case Color.BLUE:
        print("I'm feeling the blues :(")

Pour plus d'explications et d'exemples, lire la PEP 636 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0636/] (en anglais), qui est écrite sous forme de tutoriel.

4.8. Définir des fonctions

On peut créer une fonction qui écrit la suite de Fibonacci jusqu'à une limite imposée :

>>> def fib(n):    # write Fibonacci series less than n
...     """Print a Fibonacci series less than n."""
...     a, b = 0, 1
...     while a < n:
...         print(a, end=' ')
...         a, b = b, a+b
...     print()
...
>>> # Now call the function we just defined:
>>> fib(2000)
0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 610 987 1597

Le mot-clé def introduit une définition de fonction. Il doit être suivi du nom de la fonction et d'une liste, entre parenthèses, de ses paramètres. L'instruction qui constitue le corps de la fonction débute à la ligne suivante et doit être indentée.

La première instruction d'une fonction peut, de façon facultative, être une chaîne de caractères littérale ; cette chaîne de caractères est alors la chaîne de documentation de la fonction, appelée docstring (consultez la section Chaînes de documentation pour en savoir plus). Il existe des outils qui utilisent ces chaînes de documentation pour générer automatiquement une documentation en ligne ou imprimée, ou pour permettre à l'utilisateur de naviguer de façon interactive dans le code ; prenez-en l'habitude, c'est une bonne pratique que de documenter le code que vous écrivez.

L'exécution d'une fonction introduit un nouvel espace de nommage (aussi appelé table des symboles) utilisé par les variables locales de la fonction. Plus précisément, toutes les affectations de variables effectuées au sein d'une fonction stockent les valeurs dans l'espace de nommage local à la fonction ; en revanche, les références de variables sont recherchées dans l'espace de nommage local, puis dans les espaces de nommage des fonctions englobantes, puis dans l'espace de nommage global et finalement dans l'espace de nommage des primitives. Par conséquent, bien qu'on puisse y faire référence, il est impossible d'affecter une valeur à une variable globale ou à une variable d'une fonction englobante (sauf pour les variables globales désignées dans une instruction global et, pour les variables des fonctions englobantes, désignées dans une instruction nonlocal).

Les paramètres effectifs (arguments) d'une fonction sont introduits dans l'espace de nommage local de la fonction appelée, au moment où elle est appelée ; par conséquent, les passages de paramètres se font par valeur, la valeur étant toujours une référence à un objet et non la valeur de l'objet lui-même [1]. Lorsqu'une fonction appelle une autre fonction, ou s'appelle elle-même par récursion, un nouvel espace de nommage local est créé pour cet appel.

Une définition de fonction associe un nom de fonction à un objet fonction dans l'espace de nommage actuel. Pour l'interpréteur, l'objet référencé par ce nom est une fonction définie par l'utilisateur. Plusieurs noms peuvent faire référence à une même fonction, ils peuvent alors tous être utilisés pour appeler la fonction :

>>> fib
<function fib at 10042ed0>
>>> f = fib
>>> f(100)
0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89

Si vous venez d'autres langages, vous pouvez penser que fib n'est pas une fonction mais une procédure, puisqu'elle ne renvoie pas de résultat. En fait, même les fonctions sans instruction return renvoient une valeur, quoique ennuyeuse. Cette valeur est appelée None (c'est le nom d'une primitive). Écrire la valeur None est normalement supprimé par l'interpréteur lorsqu'il s'agit de la seule valeur qui doit être écrite. Vous pouvez le constater, si vous y tenez vraiment, en utilisant print() :

>>> fib(0)
>>> print(fib(0))
None

Il est facile d'écrire une fonction qui renvoie une liste de la série de Fibonacci au lieu de l'afficher :

>>> def fib2(n):  # return Fibonacci series up to n
...     """Return a list containing the Fibonacci series up to n."""
...     result = []
...     a, b = 0, 1
...     while a < n:
...         result.append(a)    # see below
...         a, b = b, a+b
...     return result
...
>>> f100 = fib2(100)    # call it
>>> f100                # write the result
[0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89]

Cet exemple, comme d'habitude, illustre de nouvelles fonctionnalités de Python :

l'instruction return provoque la sortie de la fonction en renvoyant une valeur. return sans expression en paramètre renvoie None. Arriver à la fin d'une fonction renvoie également None ;

The statement result.append(a) calls a method of the list object result. A method is a function that 'belongs' to an object and is named obj.methodname, where obj is some object (this may be an expression), and methodname is the name of a method that is defined by the object's type. Different types define different methods. Methods of different types may have the same name without causing ambiguity. (It is possible to define your own object types and methods, using classes, see Classes) The method append() shown in the example is defined for list objects; it adds a new element at the end of the list. In this example it is equivalent to result = result + [a], but more efficient.

4.9. Davantage sur la définition des fonctions

Il est également possible de définir des fonctions avec un nombre variable d'arguments. Trois syntaxes peuvent être utilisées, éventuellement combinées.

4.9.1. Valeur par défaut des arguments

La forme la plus utile consiste à indiquer une valeur par défaut pour certains arguments. Ceci crée une fonction qui peut être appelée avec moins d'arguments que ceux présents dans sa définition. Par exemple :

def ask_ok(prompt, retries=4, reminder='Please try again!'):
    while True:
        reply = input(prompt)
        if reply in {'y', 'ye', 'yes'}:
            return True
        if reply in {'n', 'no', 'nop', 'nope'}:
            return False
        retries = retries - 1
        if retries < 0:
            raise ValueError('invalid user response')
        print(reminder)

Cette fonction peut être appelée de plusieurs façons :

en ne fournissant que les arguments obligatoires : ask_ok('Do you really want to quit?') ;

en fournissant une partie des arguments facultatifs : ask_ok('OK to overwrite the file?', 2) ;

en fournissant tous les arguments : ask_ok('OK to overwrite the file?', 2, 'Come on, only yes or no!').

Cet exemple présente également le mot-clé in. Celui-ci permet de tester si une séquence contient une certaine valeur.

Les valeurs par défaut sont évaluées lors de la définition de la fonction dans la portée de la définition, de telle sorte que

i = 5

def f(arg=i):
    print(arg)

i = 6
f()

affiche 5.

Avertissement important : la valeur par défaut n'est évaluée qu'une seule fois. Ceci fait une différence lorsque cette valeur par défaut est un objet mutable tel qu'une liste, un dictionnaire ou des instances de la plupart des classes. Par exemple, la fonction suivante accumule les arguments qui lui sont passés au fil des appels successifs :

def f(a, L=[]):
    L.append(a)
    return L

print(f(1))
print(f(2))
print(f(3))

affiche

[1]
[1, 2]
[1, 2, 3]

Si vous ne voulez pas que cette valeur par défaut soit partagée entre des appels successifs, vous pouvez écrire la fonction de cette façon :

def f(a, L=None):
    if L is None:
        L = []
    L.append(a)
    return L

4.9.2. Les arguments nommés

Les fonctions peuvent également être appelées en utilisant des arguments nommés sous la forme kwarg=value. Par exemple, la fonction suivante :

def parrot(voltage, state='a stiff', action='voom', type='Norwegian Blue'):
    print("-- This parrot wouldn't", action, end=' ')
    print("if you put", voltage, "volts through it.")
    print("-- Lovely plumage, the", type)
    print("-- It's", state, "!")

accepte un argument obligatoire (voltage) et trois arguments facultatifs (state, action et type). Cette fonction peut être appelée de n'importe laquelle des façons suivantes :

parrot(1000)                                          # 1 positional argument
parrot(voltage=1000)                                  # 1 keyword argument
parrot(voltage=1000000, action='VOOOOOM')             # 2 keyword arguments
parrot(action='VOOOOOM', voltage=1000000)             # 2 keyword arguments
parrot('a million', 'bereft of life', 'jump')         # 3 positional arguments
parrot('a thousand', state='pushing up the daisies')  # 1 positional, 1 keyword

mais tous les appels qui suivent sont incorrects :

parrot()                     # required argument missing
parrot(voltage=5.0, 'dead')  # non-keyword argument after a keyword argument
parrot(110, voltage=220)     # duplicate value for the same argument
parrot(actor='John Cleese')  # unknown keyword argument

Dans un appel de fonction, les arguments nommés doivent suivre les arguments positionnés. Tous les arguments nommés doivent correspondre à l'un des arguments acceptés par la fonction (par exemple, actor n'est pas un argument accepté par la fonction parrot), mais leur ordre n'est pas important. Ceci inclut également les arguments obligatoires (parrot(voltage=1000) est également correct). Aucun argument ne peut recevoir une valeur plus d'une fois, comme l'illustre cet exemple incorrect du fait de cette restriction :

>>> def function(a):
...     pass
...
>>> function(0, a=0)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: function() got multiple values for argument 'a'

Quand un dernier paramètre formel est présent sous la forme **name, il reçoit un dictionnaire (voir Les types de correspondances — dict) contenant tous les arguments nommés à l'exception de ceux correspondant à un paramètre formel. Ceci peut être combiné à un paramètre formel sous la forme *name (décrit dans la section suivante) qui lui reçoit un n-uplet contenant les arguments positionnés au-delà de la liste des paramètres formels (*name doit être présent avant **name). Par exemple, si vous définissez une fonction comme ceci :

def cheeseshop(kind, *arguments, **keywords):
    print("-- Do you have any", kind, "?")
    print("-- I'm sorry, we're all out of", kind)
    for arg in arguments:
        print(arg)
    print("-" * 40)
    for kw in keywords:
        print(kw, ":", keywords[kw])

Elle pourrait être appelée comme ceci :

cheeseshop("Limburger", "It's very runny, sir.",
           "It's really very, VERY runny, sir.",
           shopkeeper="Michael Palin",
           client="John Cleese",
           sketch="Cheese Shop Sketch")

et, bien sûr, elle affiche :

-- Do you have any Limburger ?
-- I'm sorry, we're all out of Limburger
It's very runny, sir.
It's really very, VERY runny, sir.
----------------------------------------
shopkeeper : Michael Palin
client : John Cleese
sketch : Cheese Shop Sketch

Notez que Python garantit que l'ordre d'affichage des arguments est le même que l'ordre dans lesquels ils sont fournis lors de l'appel à la fonction.

4.9.3. Paramètres spéciaux

Par défaut, les arguments peuvent être passés à une fonction Python par position, ou explicitement en les nommant. Pour la lisibilité et la performance, il est logique de restreindre la façon dont les arguments peuvent être transmis afin qu'un développeur n'ait qu'à regarder la définition de la fonction pour déterminer si les éléments sont transmis par position seule, par position ou nommé, ou seulement nommé.

Voici à quoi ressemble une définition de fonction :

def f(pos1, pos2, /, pos_or_kwd, *, kwd1, kwd2):
      -----------    ----------     ----------
        |             |                  |
        |        Positional or keyword   |
        |                                - Keyword only
         -- Positional only

où / et * sont facultatifs. S'ils sont utilisés, ces symboles indiquent par quel type de paramètre un argument peut être transmis à la fonction : position seule, position ou nommé, et seulement nommé. Les paramètres par mot-clé sont aussi appelés paramètres nommés.

4.9.3.1. Les arguments positionnels-ou-nommés

Si / et * ne sont pas présents dans la définition de fonction, les arguments peuvent être passés à une fonction par position ou par nommés.

4.9.3.2. Paramètres positionnels uniquement

En y regardant de plus près, il est possible de marquer certains paramètres comme positionnels uniquement. S'ils sont marqués comme positionnels uniquement, l'ordre des paramètres est important, et les paramètres ne peuvent pas être transmis en tant que « arguments nommés ». Les paramètres « positionnels uniquement » sont placés avant un /. Le / est utilisé pour séparer logiquement les paramètres « positionnels uniquement » du reste des paramètres. S'il n'y a pas de / dans la définition de fonction, il n'y a pas de paramètres « positionnels uniquement ».

Les paramètres qui suivent le / peuvent être positionnels-ou-nommés ou nommés-uniquement.

4.9.3.3. Arguments nommés uniquement

Pour marquer les paramètres comme uniquement nommés, indiquant que les paramètres doivent être passés avec l'argument comme mot-clé, placez un * dans la liste des arguments juste avant le premier paramètre uniquement nommé.

4.9.3.4. Exemples de fonctions

Considérons l'exemple suivant de définitions de fonctions en portant une attention particulière aux marqueurs / et * :

>>> def standard_arg(arg):
...     print(arg)
...
>>> def pos_only_arg(arg, /):
...     print(arg)
...
>>> def kwd_only_arg(*, arg):
...     print(arg)
...
>>> def combined_example(pos_only, /, standard, *, kwd_only):
...     print(pos_only, standard, kwd_only)

La première définition de fonction, standard_arg, la forme la plus familière, n'impose aucune restriction sur la convention d'appel et les arguments peuvent être passés par position ou nommés :

>>> standard_arg(2)
2

>>> standard_arg(arg=2)
2

La deuxième fonction pos_only_arg restreint le passage aux seuls arguments par position car il y a un / dans la définition de fonction :

>>> pos_only_arg(1)
1

>>> pos_only_arg(arg=1)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: pos_only_arg() got some positional-only arguments passed as keyword arguments: 'arg'

La troisième fonction kwd_only_arg n'autorise que les arguments nommés comme l'indique le * dans la définition de fonction :

>>> kwd_only_arg(3)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: kwd_only_arg() takes 0 positional arguments but 1 was given

>>> kwd_only_arg(arg=3)
3

Et la dernière utilise les trois conventions d'appel dans la même définition de fonction :

>>> combined_example(1, 2, 3)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: combined_example() takes 2 positional arguments but 3 were given

>>> combined_example(1, 2, kwd_only=3)
1 2 3

>>> combined_example(1, standard=2, kwd_only=3)
1 2 3

>>> combined_example(pos_only=1, standard=2, kwd_only=3)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: combined_example() got some positional-only arguments passed as keyword arguments: 'pos_only'

Enfin, considérons cette définition de fonction qui a une collision potentielle entre l'argument positionnel name et **kwds qui a name comme mot-clé :

def foo(name, **kwds):
    return 'name' in kwds

Il n'y a pas d'appel possible qui renvoie True car le mot-clé 'name' est toujours lié au premier paramètre. Par exemple :

>>> foo(1, **{'name': 2})
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: foo() got multiple values for argument 'name'
>>>

Mais en utilisant / (arguments positionnels seulement), c'est possible puisqu'il permet d'utiliser name comme argument positionnel et 'name' comme mot-clé dans les arguments nommés :

>>> def foo(name, /, **kwds):
...     return 'name' in kwds
...
>>> foo(1, **{'name': 2})
True

En d'autres termes, les noms des paramètres seulement positionnels peuvent être utilisés sans ambiguïté dans **kwds.

4.9.3.5. Récapitulatif

Le cas d'utilisation détermine les paramètres à utiliser dans la définition de fonction :

def f(pos1, pos2, /, pos_or_kwd, *, kwd1, kwd2):

Quelques conseils :

utilisez les paramètres positionnels si vous voulez que le nom des paramètres soit masqué à l'utilisateur. Ceci est utile lorsque les noms de paramètres n'ont pas de signification réelle, si vous voulez faire respecter l'ordre des arguments lorsque la fonction est appelée ou si vous avez besoin de prendre certains paramètres positionnels et mots-clés arbitraires ;

utilisez les paramètres nommés lorsque les noms ont un sens et que la définition de la fonction est plus compréhensible avec des noms explicites ou si vous voulez empêcher les utilisateurs de se fier à la position de l'argument qui est passé ;

dans le cas d'une API, utilisez les paramètres seulement positionnels pour éviter de casser l'API si le nom du paramètre est modifié dans l'avenir.

4.9.4. Listes d'arguments arbitraires

Pour terminer, l'option la moins fréquente consiste à indiquer qu'une fonction peut être appelée avec un nombre arbitraire d'arguments. Ces arguments sont intégrés dans un n-uplet (voir n-uplets et séquences). Avant le nombre variable d'arguments, zéro ou plus arguments normaux peuvent apparaître

def write_multiple_items(file, separator, *args):
    file.write(separator.join(args))

Normalement, ces arguments variadiques sont les derniers paramètres, parce qu'ils agrègent toutes les valeurs suivantes. Tout paramètre placé après le paramètre *arg ne pourra être utilisé que comme argument nommé, pas comme argument positionnel

>>> def concat(*args, sep="/"):
...     return sep.join(args)
...
>>> concat("earth", "mars", "venus")
'earth/mars/venus'
>>> concat("earth", "mars", "venus", sep=".")
'earth.mars.venus'

4.9.5. Séparation des listes d'arguments

La situation inverse intervient lorsque les arguments sont déjà dans une liste ou un n-uplet mais doivent être séparés pour un appel de fonction nécessitant des arguments positionnés séparés. Par exemple, la primitive range() attend des arguments start et stop distincts. S'ils ne sont pas disponibles séparément, écrivez l'appel de fonction en utilisant l'opérateur * pour séparer les arguments présents dans une liste ou un n-uplet :

>>> list(range(3, 6))            # normal call with separate arguments
[3, 4, 5]
>>> args = [3, 6]
>>> list(range(*args))            # call with arguments unpacked from a list
[3, 4, 5]

De la même façon, les dictionnaires peuvent fournir des arguments nommés en utilisant l'opérateur ** :

>>> def parrot(voltage, state='a stiff', action='voom'):
...     print("-- This parrot wouldn't", action, end=' ')
...     print("if you put", voltage, "volts through it.", end=' ')
...     print("E's", state, "!")
...
>>> d = {"voltage": "four million", "state": "bleedin' demised", "action": "VOOM"}
>>> parrot(**d)
-- This parrot wouldn't VOOM if you put four million volts through it. E's bleedin' demised !

4.9.6. Fonctions anonymes

Avec le mot-clé lambda, vous pouvez créer de petites fonctions anonymes. En voici une qui renvoie la somme de ses deux arguments : lambda a, b: a+b. Les fonctions lambda peuvent être utilisées partout où un objet fonction est attendu. Elles sont syntaxiquement restreintes à une seule expression. Sémantiquement, elles ne sont que du sucre syntaxique pour une définition de fonction normale. Comme les fonctions imbriquées, les fonctions lambda peuvent référencer des variables de la portée englobante :

>>> def make_incrementor(n):
...     return lambda x: x + n
...
>>> f = make_incrementor(42)
>>> f(0)
42
>>> f(1)
43

The above example uses a lambda expression to return a function. Another use is to pass a small function as an argument. For instance, list.sort() takes a sorting key function key which can be a lambda function:

>>> pairs = [(1, 'one'), (2, 'two'), (3, 'three'), (4, 'four')]
>>> pairs.sort(key=lambda pair: pair[1])
>>> pairs
[(4, 'four'), (1, 'one'), (3, 'three'), (2, 'two')]

4.9.7. Chaînes de documentation

Voici quelques conventions concernant le contenu et le format des chaînes de documentation.

Il convient que la première ligne soit toujours courte et résume de manière concise l'utilité de l'objet. Afin d'être bref, nul besoin de rappeler le nom de l'objet ou son type, qui sont accessibles par d'autres moyens (sauf si le nom est un verbe qui décrit une opération). La convention veut que la ligne commence par une majuscule et se termine par un point.

S'il y a d'autres lignes dans la chaîne de documentation, la deuxième ligne devrait être vide, pour la séparer visuellement du reste de la description. Les autres lignes peuvent alors constituer un ou plusieurs paragraphes décrivant le mode d'utilisation de l'objet, ses effets de bord, etc.

The Python parser strips indentation from multi-line string literals when they serve as module, class, or function docstrings.

Voici un exemple de chaîne de documentation multi-lignes :

>>> def my_function():
...     """Do nothing, but document it.
...
...     No, really, it doesn't do anything:
...
...         >>> my_function()
...         >>>
...     """
...     pass
...
>>> print(my_function.__doc__)
Do nothing, but document it.

No, really, it doesn't do anything:

    >>> my_function()
    >>>

4.9.8. Annotations de fonctions

Les annotations de fonction sont des métadonnées optionnelles décrivant les types utilisés par une fonction définie par l'utilisateur (voir les PEP 3107 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3107/] et PEP 484 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/] pour plus d'informations).

Annotations are stored in the __annotations__ attribute of the function as a dictionary and have no effect on any other part of the function. Parameter annotations are defined by a colon after the parameter name, followed by an expression evaluating to the value of the annotation. Return annotations are defined by a literal ->, followed by an expression, between the parameter list and the colon denoting the end of the def statement. The following example has a required argument, an optional argument, and the return value annotated:

>>> def f(ham: str, eggs: str = 'eggs') -> str:
...     print("Annotations:", f.__annotations__)
...     print("Arguments:", ham, eggs)
...     return ham + ' and ' + eggs
...
>>> f('spam')
Annotations: {'ham': <class 'str'>, 'return': <class 'str'>, 'eggs': <class 'str'>}
Arguments: spam eggs
'spam and eggs'

4.10. Aparté : le style de codage

Now that you are about to write longer, more complex pieces of Python, it is a good time to talk about coding style. Most languages can be written (or more concisely, formatted) in different styles; some are more readable than others. Making it easy for others to read your code is always a good idea, and adopting a nice coding style helps tremendously for that.

En Python, la plupart des projets adhèrent au style défini dans la PEP 8 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/] ; elle met en avant un style de codage très lisible et agréable à l’œil. Chaque développeur Python se doit donc de la lire et de s'en inspirer autant que possible ; voici ses principaux points notables :

utilisez des indentations de 4 espaces et pas de tabulation.

4 espaces constituent un bon compromis entre une indentation courte (qui permet une profondeur d'imbrication plus importante) et une longue (qui rend le code plus facile à lire). Les tabulations introduisent de la confusion et doivent être proscrites autant que possible ;

faites en sorte que les lignes ne dépassent pas 79 caractères, au besoin en insérant des retours à la ligne.

Vous facilitez ainsi la lecture pour les utilisateurs qui n'ont qu'un petit écran et, pour les autres, cela leur permet de visualiser plusieurs fichiers côte à côte ;

utilisez des lignes vides pour séparer les fonctions et les classes, ou pour scinder de gros blocs de code à l'intérieur de fonctions ;

lorsque c'est possible, placez les commentaires sur leurs propres lignes ;

utilisez les chaînes de documentation ;

utilisez des espaces autour des opérateurs et après les virgules, mais pas juste à l'intérieur des parenthèses : a = f(1, 2) + g(3, 4) ;

nommez toujours vos classes et fonctions de la même manière ; la convention est d'utiliser une notation UpperCamelCase pour les classes, et minuscules_avec_trait_bas pour les fonctions et méthodes. Utilisez toujours self comme nom du premier argument des méthodes (voyez Une première approche des classes pour en savoir plus sur les classes et les méthodes) ;

n’utilisez pas d'encodage exotique dès lors que votre code est censé être utilisé dans des environnements internationaux. Par défaut, Python travaille en UTF-8. Pour couvrir tous les cas, préférez le simple ASCII ;

de la même manière, n'utilisez que des caractères ASCII pour vos noms de variables s'il est envisageable qu'une personne parlant une autre langue lise ou doive modifier votre code.

Notes

[1]

En fait, appels par référence d'objets serait sans doute une description plus juste dans la mesure où, si un objet mutable est passé en argument, l'appelant verra toutes les modifications qui lui auront été apportées par l'appelé (insertion d'éléments dans une liste…).

5. Structures de données

Ce chapitre reprend plus en détail quelques points déjà décrits précédemment et introduit également de nouvelles notions.

5.1. Compléments sur les listes

The list data type has some more methods. Here are all of the methods of list objects:

list.append(value, /)

Add an item to the end of the list. Similar to a[len(a):] = [x].

list.extend(iterable, /)

Extend the list by appending all the items from the iterable. Similar to a[len(a):] = iterable.

list.insert(index, value, /)

Insère un élément à la position indiquée. Le premier argument est la position de l'élément avant lequel l'insertion doit s'effectuer, donc a.insert(0, x) insère l'élément en tête de la liste et a.insert(len(a), x) est équivalent à a.append(x).

list.remove(value, /)

Remove the first item from the list whose value is equal to value. It raises a ValueError if there is no such item.

list.pop(index=-1, /)

Remove the item at the given position in the list, and return it. If no index is specified, a.pop() removes and returns the last item in the list. It raises an IndexError if the list is empty or the index is outside the list range.

list.clear()

Remove all items from the list. Similar to del a[:].

list.index(value[, start[, stop]])

Return zero-based index of the first occurrence of value in the list. Raises a ValueError if there is no such item.

Les arguments optionnels start et end sont interprétés de la même manière que dans la notation des tranches et sont utilisés pour limiter la recherche à une sous-séquence particulière. L'indice renvoyé est calculé relativement au début de la séquence complète et non relativement à start.

list.count(value, /)

Return the number of times value appears in the list.

list.sort(*, key=None, reverse=False)

Ordonne les éléments dans la liste (les arguments peuvent personnaliser l'ordonnancement, voir sorted() pour leur explication).

list.reverse()

Inverse l'ordre des éléments dans la liste.

list.copy()

Return a shallow copy of the list. Similar to a[:].

L'exemple suivant utilise la plupart des méthodes des listes :

>>> fruits = ['orange', 'apple', 'pear', 'banana', 'kiwi', 'apple', 'banana']
>>> fruits.count('apple')
2
>>> fruits.count('tangerine')
0
>>> fruits.index('banana')
3
>>> fruits.index('banana', 4)  # Find next banana starting at position 4
6
>>> fruits.reverse()
>>> fruits
['banana', 'apple', 'kiwi', 'banana', 'pear', 'apple', 'orange']
>>> fruits.append('grape')
>>> fruits
['banana', 'apple', 'kiwi', 'banana', 'pear', 'apple', 'orange', 'grape']
>>> fruits.sort()
>>> fruits
['apple', 'apple', 'banana', 'banana', 'grape', 'kiwi', 'orange', 'pear']
>>> fruits.pop()
'pear'

Vous avez probablement remarqué que les méthodes qui ne font que modifier la liste, comme insert, remove ou sort, n'affichent pas de valeur de retour (elles renvoient None) [1]. C'est un principe respecté par toutes les structures de données mutables en Python.

Another thing you might notice is that not all data can be sorted or compared. For instance, [None, 'hello', 10] doesn't sort because integers can't be compared to strings and None can't be compared to other types. Also, there are some types that don't have a defined ordering relation. For example, 3+4j < 5+7j isn't a valid comparison.

5.1.1. Utilisation des listes comme des piles

The list methods make it very easy to use a list as a stack, where the last element added is the first element retrieved ("last-in, first-out"). To add an item to the top of the stack, use append(). To retrieve an item from the top of the stack, use pop() without an explicit index. For example:

>>> stack = [3, 4, 5]
>>> stack.append(6)
>>> stack.append(7)
>>> stack
[3, 4, 5, 6, 7]
>>> stack.pop()
7
>>> stack
[3, 4, 5, 6]
>>> stack.pop()
6
>>> stack.pop()
5
>>> stack
[3, 4]

5.1.2. Utilisation des listes comme des files

Il est également possible d'utiliser une liste comme une file, où le premier élément ajouté est le premier récupéré (« premier entré, premier sorti » ou FIFO pour first-in, first-out) ; toutefois, les listes ne sont pas très efficaces pour réaliser ce type de traitement. Alors que les ajouts et suppressions en fin de liste sont rapides, les insertions ou les retraits en début de liste sont lents (car tous les autres éléments doivent être décalés d'une position).

Pour implémenter une file, utilisez plutôt la classe collections.deque qui a été conçue spécialement pour réaliser rapidement les opérations d'ajout et de retrait aux deux extrémités. Par exemple :

>>> from collections import deque
>>> queue = deque(["Eric", "John", "Michael"])
>>> queue.append("Terry")           # Terry arrives
>>> queue.append("Graham")          # Graham arrives
>>> queue.popleft()                 # The first to arrive now leaves
'Eric'
>>> queue.popleft()                 # The second to arrive now leaves
'John'
>>> queue                           # Remaining queue in order of arrival
deque(['Michael', 'Terry', 'Graham'])

5.1.3. Listes en compréhension

Les listes en compréhension fournissent un moyen de construire des listes de manière très concise. Une application classique consiste à construire une liste dont les éléments sont les résultats d'une opération appliquée à chaque élément d'une autre séquence ; une autre consiste à créer une sous-séquence des éléments respectant une condition donnée.

Par exemple, supposons que l'on veuille créer une liste de carrés, comme :

>>> squares = []
>>> for x in range(10):
...     squares.append(x**2)
...
>>> squares
[0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81]

Notez que cela crée (ou remplace) une variable nommée x qui existe toujours après l'exécution de la boucle. On peut calculer une liste de carrés sans effet de bord avec :

squares = list(map(lambda x: x**2, range(10)))

ou, de manière équivalente :

squares = [x**2 for x in range(10)]

ce qui est plus court et lisible.

Une liste en compréhension consiste à placer entre crochets une expression suivie par une clause for puis par zéro ou plus clauses for ou if. Le résultat est une nouvelle liste résultat de l'évaluation de l'expression dans le contexte des clauses for et if qui la suivent. Par exemple, cette compréhension de liste combine les éléments de deux listes s'ils ne sont pas égaux :

>>> [(x, y) for x in [1,2,3] for y in [3,1,4] if x != y]
[(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 1), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 4)]

et c'est équivalent à :

>>> combs = []
>>> for x in [1,2,3]:
...     for y in [3,1,4]:
...         if x != y:
...             combs.append((x, y))
...
>>> combs
[(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 1), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 4)]

Notez que l'ordre des instructions for et if est le même dans ces différents extraits de code.

Si l'expression est un n-uplet (c'est-à-dire (x, y) dans cet exemple), elle doit être mise entre parenthèses

>>> vec = [-4, -2, 0, 2, 4]
>>> # create a new list with the values doubled
>>> [x*2 for x in vec]
[-8, -4, 0, 4, 8]
>>> # filter the list to exclude negative numbers
>>> [x for x in vec if x >= 0]
[0, 2, 4]
>>> # apply a function to all the elements
>>> [abs(x) for x in vec]
[4, 2, 0, 2, 4]
>>> # call a method on each element
>>> freshfruit = ['  banana', '  loganberry ', 'passion fruit  ']
>>> [weapon.strip() for weapon in freshfruit]
['banana', 'loganberry', 'passion fruit']
>>> # create a list of 2-tuples like (number, square)
>>> [(x, x**2) for x in range(6)]
[(0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 4), (3, 9), (4, 16), (5, 25)]
>>> # the tuple must be parenthesized, otherwise an error is raised
>>> [x, x**2 for x in range(6)]
  File "<stdin>", line 1
    [x, x**2 for x in range(6)]
     ^^^^^^^
SyntaxError: did you forget parentheses around the comprehension target?
>>> # flatten a list using a listcomp with two 'for'
>>> vec = [[1,2,3], [4,5,6], [7,8,9]]
>>> [num for elem in vec for num in elem]
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

Les listes en compréhension peuvent contenir des expressions complexes et des fonctions imbriquées :

>>> from math import pi
>>> [str(round(pi, i)) for i in range(1, 6)]
['3.1', '3.14', '3.142', '3.1416', '3.14159']

5.1.4. Listes en compréhensions imbriquées

La première expression dans une liste en compréhension peut être n'importe quelle expression, y compris une autre liste en compréhension.

Voyez l'exemple suivant d'une matrice de 3 par 4, implémentée sous la forme de 3 listes de 4 éléments :

>>> matrix = [
...     [1, 2, 3, 4],
...     [5, 6, 7, 8],
...     [9, 10, 11, 12],
... ]

Cette compréhension de liste transpose les lignes et les colonnes :

>>> [[row[i] for row in matrix] for i in range(4)]
[[1, 5, 9], [2, 6, 10], [3, 7, 11], [4, 8, 12]]

Comme nous l'avons vu dans la section précédente, la liste en compréhension à l'intérieur est évaluée dans le contexte de l'instruction for qui la suit, donc cet exemple est équivalent à :

>>> transposed = []
>>> for i in range(4):
...     transposed.append([row[i] for row in matrix])
...
>>> transposed
[[1, 5, 9], [2, 6, 10], [3, 7, 11], [4, 8, 12]]

lequel est lui-même équivalent à :

>>> transposed = []
>>> for i in range(4):
...     # the following 3 lines implement the nested listcomp
...     transposed_row = []
...     for row in matrix:
...         transposed_row.append(row[i])
...     transposed.append(transposed_row)
...
>>> transposed
[[1, 5, 9], [2, 6, 10], [3, 7, 11], [4, 8, 12]]

Dans des cas concrets, il est toujours préférable d'utiliser des fonctions natives plutôt que des instructions de contrôle de flux complexes. La fonction zip() fait dans ce cas un excellent travail :

>>> list(zip(*matrix))
[(1, 5, 9), (2, 6, 10), (3, 7, 11), (4, 8, 12)]

Voir Séparation des listes d'arguments pour plus de détails sur l'astérisque de cette ligne.

5.2. L'instruction del

There is a way to remove an item from a list given its index instead of its value: the del statement. This differs from the pop() method which returns a value. The del statement can also be used to remove slices from a list or clear the entire list (which we did earlier by assignment of an empty list to the slice). For example:

>>> a = [-1, 1, 66.25, 333, 333, 1234.5]
>>> del a[0]
>>> a
[1, 66.25, 333, 333, 1234.5]
>>> del a[2:4]
>>> a
[1, 66.25, 1234.5]
>>> del a[:]
>>> a
[]

del peut aussi être utilisée pour supprimer des variables :

>>> del a

À partir de là, référencer le nom a est une erreur (au moins jusqu'à ce qu'une autre valeur lui soit affectée). Vous trouverez d'autres utilisations de la fonction del dans la suite de ce tutoriel.

5.3. n-uplets et séquences

Nous avons vu que les listes et les chaînes de caractères ont beaucoup de propriétés en commun, comme l'indiçage et les opérations sur des tranches. Ce sont deux exemples de séquences (voir Types séquentiels — list, tuple, range). Comme Python est un langage en constante évolution, d'autres types de séquences y seront peut-être ajoutés. Il existe également un autre type standard de séquence : le n-uplet (tuple en anglais).

Un n-uplet consiste en différentes valeurs séparées par des virgules, par exemple :

>>> t = 12345, 54321, 'hello!'
>>> t[0]
12345
>>> t
(12345, 54321, 'hello!')
>>> # Tuples may be nested:
>>> u = t, (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
>>> u
((12345, 54321, 'hello!'), (1, 2, 3, 4, 5))
>>> # Tuples are immutable:
>>> t[0] = 88888
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment
>>> # but they can contain mutable objects:
>>> v = ([1, 2, 3], [3, 2, 1])
>>> v
([1, 2, 3], [3, 2, 1])

Comme vous pouvez le voir, les n-uplets sont toujours affichés entre parenthèses, de façon à ce que des n-uplets imbriqués soient interprétés correctement ; ils peuvent être saisis avec ou sans parenthèses, même si celles-ci sont souvent nécessaires (notamment lorsqu'un n-uplet fait partie d'une expression plus longue). Il n'est pas possible d'affecter de valeur à un élément d'un n-uplet ; par contre, il est en revanche possible de créer des n-uplets contenant des objets mutables, comme des listes.

Si les n-uplets peuvent sembler similaires aux listes, ils sont souvent utilisés dans des cas différents et pour des raisons différentes. Les n-uplets sont immuables et contiennent souvent des séquences hétérogènes d'éléments auxquelles on accède par « dissociation » (unpacking en anglais, voir plus loin) ou par indice (ou même par attribut dans le cas des namedtuples). Les listes sont souvent mutables et contiennent des éléments généralement homogènes auxquels on accède en itérant sur la liste.

La construction de n-uplets ne contenant aucun ou un seul élément est un cas particulier : la syntaxe a quelques tournures spécifiques pour le gérer. Un n-uplet vide se construit avec une paire de parenthèses vides ; un n-uplet avec un seul élément se construit en faisant suivre la valeur par une virgule (placer cette valeur entre parenthèses ne suffit pas). Pas très joli, mais efficace. Par exemple :

>>> empty = ()
>>> singleton = 'hello',    # <-- note trailing comma
>>> len(empty)
0
>>> len(singleton)
1
>>> singleton
('hello',)

L'instruction t = 12345, 54321, 'hello!' est un exemple d'agrégation de *n-uplet* (tuple packing en anglais) : les valeurs 12345, 54321 et hello! sont agrégées ensemble dans un n-uplet. L'opération inverse est aussi possible :

>>> x, y, z = t

Ceci est appelé, de façon plus ou moins appropriée, une dissociation de séquence (sequence unpacking en anglais) et fonctionne pour toute séquence placée à droite de l'expression. Cette dissociation requiert autant de variables dans la partie gauche qu'il y a d'éléments dans la séquence. Notez également que cette affectation multiple est juste une combinaison entre une agrégation de n-uplet et une dissociation de séquence.

5.4. Ensembles

Python also includes a data type for sets. A set is an unordered collection with no duplicate elements. Basic uses include membership testing and eliminating duplicate entries. Set objects also support mathematical operations like union, intersection, difference, and symmetric difference.

On crée des ensembles en appelant avec des accolades ou avec la fonction set(). Notez que {} ne crée pas un ensemble vide, mais un dictionnaire (une structure de données dont nous allons parler dans la séquence suivante) vide ; utilisez set() pour ce cas.

Because sets are unordered, iterating over them or printing them can produce the elements in a different order than you expect.

Voici une brève démonstration :

>>> basket = {'apple', 'orange', 'apple', 'pear', 'orange', 'banana'}
>>> print(basket)                      # show that duplicates have been removed
{'orange', 'banana', 'pear', 'apple'}
>>> 'orange' in basket                 # fast membership testing
True
>>> 'crabgrass' in basket
False

>>> # Demonstrate set operations on unique letters from two words
>>>
>>> a = set('abracadabra')
>>> b = set('alacazam')
>>> a                                  # unique letters in a
{'a', 'r', 'b', 'c', 'd'}
>>> a - b                              # letters in a but not in b
{'r', 'd', 'b'}
>>> a | b                              # letters in a or b or both
{'a', 'c', 'r', 'd', 'b', 'm', 'z', 'l'}
>>> a & b                              # letters in both a and b
{'a', 'c'}
>>> a ^ b                              # letters in a or b but not both
{'r', 'd', 'b', 'm', 'z', 'l'}

Tout comme pour les listes en compréhension, il est possible d'écrire des ensembles en compréhension :

>>> a = {x for x in 'abracadabra' if x not in 'abc'}
>>> a
{'r', 'd'}

5.5. Dictionnaires

Another useful data type built into Python is the dictionary (see Les types de correspondances — dict). Dictionaries are sometimes found in other languages as "associative memories" or "associative arrays". Unlike sequences, which are indexed by a range of numbers, dictionaries are indexed by keys, which can be any immutable type; strings and numbers can always be keys. Tuples can be used as keys if they contain only strings, numbers, or tuples; if a tuple contains any mutable object either directly or indirectly, it cannot be used as a key. You can't use lists as keys, since lists can be modified in place using index assignments, slice assignments, or methods like append() and extend().

Le plus simple est de voir un dictionnaire comme un ensemble de paires clé-valeur au sein duquel les clés doivent être uniques. Une paire d'accolades crée un dictionnaire vide : {}. Placer une liste de paires clé-valeur séparées par des virgules à l'intérieur des accolades ajoute les valeurs correspondantes au dictionnaire ; c'est également de cette façon que les dictionnaires sont affichés.

The main operations on a dictionary are storing a value with some key and extracting the value given the key. It is also possible to delete a key:value pair with del. If you store using a key that is already in use, the old value associated with that key is forgotten.

Extracting a value for a non-existent key by subscripting (d[key]) raises a KeyError. To avoid getting this error when trying to access a possibly non-existent key, use the get() method instead, which returns None (or a specified default value) if the key is not in the dictionary.

Exécuter list(d) sur un dictionnaire d renvoie une liste de toutes les clés utilisées dans le dictionnaire, dans l'ordre d'insertion (si vous voulez qu'elles soient ordonnées, utilisez sorted(d)). Pour tester si une clé est dans le dictionnaire, utilisez le mot-clé in.

Voici un petit exemple utilisant un dictionnaire :

>>> tel = {'jack': 4098, 'sape': 4139}
>>> tel['guido'] = 4127
>>> tel
{'jack': 4098, 'sape': 4139, 'guido': 4127}
>>> tel['jack']
4098
>>> tel['irv']
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
KeyError: 'irv'
>>> print(tel.get('irv'))
None
>>> del tel['sape']
>>> tel['irv'] = 4127
>>> tel
{'jack': 4098, 'guido': 4127, 'irv': 4127}
>>> list(tel)
['jack', 'guido', 'irv']
>>> sorted(tel)
['guido', 'irv', 'jack']
>>> 'guido' in tel
True
>>> 'jack' not in tel
False

Le constructeur dict() fabrique un dictionnaire directement à partir d'une liste de paires clé-valeur stockées sous la forme de n-uplets :

>>> dict([('sape', 4139), ('guido', 4127), ('jack', 4098)])
{'sape': 4139, 'guido': 4127, 'jack': 4098}

De plus, il est possible de créer des dictionnaires en compréhension depuis un jeu de clés et valeurs :

>>> {x: x**2 for x in (2, 4, 6)}
{2: 4, 4: 16, 6: 36}

Lorsque les clés sont de simples chaînes de caractères, il est parfois plus facile de définir les paires en utilisant des paramètres nommés :

>>> dict(sape=4139, guido=4127, jack=4098)
{'sape': 4139, 'guido': 4127, 'jack': 4098}

5.6. Techniques de boucles

When looping through dictionaries, the key and corresponding value can be retrieved at the same time using the items() method.

>>> knights = {'gallahad': 'the pure', 'robin': 'the brave'}
>>> for k, v in knights.items():
...     print(k, v)
...
gallahad the pure
robin the brave

Lorsque vous faites une boucle sur une séquence, la position et la valeur associée peuvent être récupérées en même temps en utilisant la fonction enumerate().

>>> for i, v in enumerate(['tic', 'tac', 'toe']):
...     print(i, v)
...
0 tic
1 tac
2 toe

Pour faire une boucle sur deux séquences ou plus en même temps, les éléments peuvent être associés en utilisant la fonction zip()

>>> questions = ['name', 'quest', 'favorite color']
>>> answers = ['lancelot', 'the holy grail', 'blue']
>>> for q, a in zip(questions, answers):
...     print('What is your {0}?  It is {1}.'.format(q, a))
...
What is your name?  It is lancelot.
What is your quest?  It is the holy grail.
What is your favorite color?  It is blue.

Pour faire une boucle en sens inverse sur une séquence, commencez par spécifier la séquence dans son ordre normal, puis appliquez la fonction reversed()

>>> for i in reversed(range(1, 10, 2)):
...     print(i)
...
9
7
5
3
1

Pour faire une boucle sur une séquence de manière ordonnée, utilisez la fonction sorted() qui renvoie une nouvelle liste ordonnée sans altérer la source

>>> basket = ['apple', 'orange', 'apple', 'pear', 'orange', 'banana']
>>> for i in sorted(basket):
...     print(i)
...
apple
apple
banana
orange
orange
pear

L'utilisation de la fonction set() sur une séquence élimine les doublons. Combiner les fonctions sorted() et set() sur une séquence est la façon « canonique » d'itérer sur les éléments uniques d'une séquence dans l'ordre.

>>> basket = ['apple', 'orange', 'apple', 'pear', 'orange', 'banana']
>>> for f in sorted(set(basket)):
...     print(f)
...
apple
banana
orange
pear

Il est parfois tentant de modifier une liste pendant que l'on itère dessus. Il est souvent plus simple et plus sûr de créer une nouvelle liste à la place.

>>> import math
>>> raw_data = [56.2, float('NaN'), 51.7, 55.3, 52.5, float('NaN'), 47.8]
>>> filtered_data = []
>>> for value in raw_data:
...     if not math.isnan(value):
...         filtered_data.append(value)
...
>>> filtered_data
[56.2, 51.7, 55.3, 52.5, 47.8]

5.7. Plus d'informations sur les conditions

Les conditions utilisées dans une instruction while ou if peuvent contenir n'importe quel opérateur, pas seulement des comparaisons.

Les opérateurs de comparaison in et not in testent si une valeur appartient (ou pas) à un conteneur. Les opérateurs is et is not testent si deux objets sont vraiment le même objet. Tous les opérateurs de comparaison ont la même priorité, qui est plus faible que celle des opérateurs numériques.

Les comparaisons peuvent être chaînées. Par exemple, a < b == c teste si a est inférieur à b et si, de plus, b égale c.

Les comparaisons peuvent être combinées en utilisant les opérateurs booléens and et or, le résultat d'une comparaison (ou de toute expression booléenne) pouvant être inversé avec not. Ces opérateurs ont une priorité inférieure à celle des opérateurs de comparaison ; entre eux, not a la priorité la plus élevée et or la plus faible, de telle sorte que A and not B or C est équivalent à (A and (not B)) or C. Comme d'habitude, les parenthèses permettent d'exprimer l'instruction désirée.

Les opérateurs booléens and et or sont appelés opérateurs en circuit court : leurs arguments sont évalués de la gauche vers la droite et l'évaluation s'arrête dès que le résultat est déterminé. Par exemple, si A et C sont vrais et B est faux, A and B and C n'évalue pas l'expression C. Lorsqu'elle est utilisée en tant que valeur et non en tant que booléen, la valeur de retour d'un opérateur en circuit court est celle du dernier argument évalué.

Il est possible d'affecter le résultat d'une comparaison ou d'une autre expression booléenne à une variable. Par exemple

>>> string1, string2, string3 = '', 'Trondheim', 'Hammer Dance'
>>> non_null = string1 or string2 or string3
>>> non_null
'Trondheim'

Notez qu'en Python, à la différence du C, une affectation à l'intérieur d'une expression doit être faite explicitement avec l'opérateur morse :=. Cela évite des erreurs fréquentes que l'on rencontre en C, lorsque l'on tape = alors que l'on voulait faire un test avec ==.

5.8. Comparer des séquences avec d'autres types

Des séquences peuvent être comparées avec d'autres séquences du même type. La comparaison utilise un ordre lexicographique : les deux premiers éléments de chaque séquence sont comparés et, s'ils diffèrent, cela détermine le résultat de la comparaison ; s'ils sont égaux, les deux éléments suivants sont comparés à leur tour et ainsi de suite jusqu'à ce que l'une des séquences soit épuisée. Si deux éléments à comparer sont eux-mêmes des séquences du même type, alors la comparaison lexicographique est effectuée récursivement. Si tous les éléments des deux séquences sont égaux, les deux séquences sont alors considérées comme égales. Si une séquence est une sous-séquence de l'autre, la séquence la plus courte est celle dont la valeur est inférieure. La comparaison lexicographique des chaînes de caractères utilise le code Unicode des caractères. Voici quelques exemples de comparaisons entre séquences de même type :

(1, 2, 3)              < (1, 2, 4)
[1, 2, 3]              < [1, 2, 4]
'ABC' < 'C' < 'Pascal' < 'Python'
(1, 2, 3, 4)           < (1, 2, 4)
(1, 2)                 < (1, 2, -1)
(1, 2, 3)             == (1.0, 2.0, 3.0)
(1, 2, ('aa', 'ab'))   < (1, 2, ('abc', 'a'), 4)

Comparer des objets de type différents avec < ou > est autorisé si les objets ont des méthodes de comparaison appropriées. Par exemple, les types numériques sont comparés via leur valeur numérique, donc 0 égale 0,0, etc. Dans les autres cas, au lieu de donner un ordre imprévisible, l'interpréteur lève une exception TypeError.

Notes

[1]

D'autres langages renvoient l'objet modifié, ce qui permet de chaîner les méthodes comme ceci : d->insert("a")->remove("b")->sort();.

6. Modules

Lorsque vous quittez et entrez à nouveau dans l'interpréteur Python, tout ce que vous avez déclaré dans la session précédente est perdu. Afin de rédiger des programmes plus longs, vous devez utiliser un éditeur de texte, préparer votre code dans un fichier et exécuter Python avec ce fichier en paramètre. Cela s'appelle créer un script. Lorsque votre programme grandit, vous pouvez séparer votre code dans plusieurs fichiers. Ainsi, il vous est facile de réutiliser des fonctions écrites pour un programme dans un autre sans avoir à les copier.

Pour gérer cela, Python vous permet de placer des définitions dans un fichier et de les utiliser dans un script ou une session interactive. Un tel fichier est appelé un module et les définitions d'un module peuvent être importées dans un autre module ou dans le module main (qui est le module qui contient vos variables et définitions lors de l'exécution d'un script au niveau le plus haut ou en mode interactif).

Un module est un fichier contenant des définitions et des instructions. Son nom de fichier est le nom du module suffixé de .py. À l'intérieur d'un module, son propre nom est accessible par la variable __name__. Par exemple, prenez votre éditeur favori et créez un fichier fibo.py dans le répertoire courant qui contient :

# Fibonacci numbers module

def fib(n):
    """Write Fibonacci series up to n."""
    a, b = 0, 1
    while a < n:
        print(a, end=' ')
        a, b = b, a+b
    print()

def fib2(n):
    """Return Fibonacci series up to n."""
    result = []
    a, b = 0, 1
    while a < n:
        result.append(a)
        a, b = b, a+b
    return result

Maintenant, ouvrez un interpréteur et importez le module en tapant :

>>> import fibo

Les noms des fonctions définies dans fibo ne sont pas ajoutés directement dans l'espace de nommage courant (voir Portées et espaces de nommage en Python pour plus de détails), seul le nom de module fibo est ajouté. L'appel des fonctions se fait donc via le nom du module :

>>> fibo.fib(1000)
0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 610 987
>>> fibo.fib2(100)
[0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89]
>>> fibo.__name__
'fibo'

Si vous avez l'intention d'utiliser souvent une fonction, il est possible de lui assigner un nom local :

>>> fib = fibo.fib
>>> fib(500)
0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377

6.1. Les modules en détail

Un module peut contenir aussi bien des instructions que des déclarations de fonctions. Ces instructions permettent d'initialiser le module. Elles ne sont exécutées que la première fois que le nom d'un module est trouvé dans un import [1] (elles sont aussi exécutées lorsque le fichier est exécuté en tant que script).

Chaque module possède son propre espace de nommage, utilisé comme espace de nommage global par toutes les fonctions définies par le module. Ainsi l'auteur d'un module peut utiliser des variables globales dans un module sans se soucier de collisions de noms avec des variables globales définies par l'utilisateur du module. Cependant, si vous savez ce que vous faites, vous pouvez modifier une variable globale d'un module avec la même notation que pour accéder aux fonctions : nommodule.nomelement.

Des modules peuvent importer d'autres modules. Il est courant, mais pas obligatoire, de ranger tous les import au début du module (ou du script). Les noms des modules importés, s'ils sont placés au début d'un module (en dehors des fonctions et des classes) sont ajoutés à l'espace de nommage global du module.

Il existe une variante de l'instruction import qui importe les noms d'un module directement dans l'espace de nommage du module qui l'importe, par exemple :

>>> from fibo import fib, fib2
>>> fib(500)
0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377

Cela n'insère pas le nom du module depuis lequel les définitions sont récupérées dans l'espace de nommage local (dans cet exemple, fibo n'est pas défini).

Il existe même une variante permettant d'importer tous les noms qu'un module définit :

>>> from fibo import *
>>> fib(500)
0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377

Tous les noms ne commençant pas par un tiret bas (_) sont importés. Dans la grande majorité des cas, les développeurs n'utilisent pas cette syntaxe puisqu'en important un ensemble indéfini de noms, des noms déjà définis peuvent se retrouver masqués.

Notez qu'en général, importer * d'un module ou d'un paquet est déconseillé. Souvent, le code devient difficilement lisible. Son utilisation en mode interactif est acceptée pour gagner quelques secondes.

Si le nom du module est suivi par as, alors le nom suivant as est directement lié au module importé.

>>> import fibo as fib
>>> fib.fib(500)
0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377

Dans les faits, le module est importé de la même manière qu'avec import fibo, la seule différence est qu'il sera disponible sous le nom de fib.

C'est aussi valide en utilisant from, et a le même effet :

>>> from fibo import fib as fibonacci
>>> fibonacci(500)
0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377

Note

pour des raisons d’efficacité, chaque module n’est importé qu’une fois par session de l’interpréteur. Par conséquent, si vous modifiez vos modules, vous devez redémarrer l’interpréteur — ou, si c’est juste un module que vous voulez tester interactivement, utilisez importlib.reload(), par exemple import importlib ; importlib.reload(modulename).

6.1.1. Exécuter des modules comme des scripts

Lorsque vous exécutez un module Python avec

python fibo.py <arguments>

le code du module est exécuté comme si vous l'aviez importé mais son __name__ vaut "__main__". Donc, en ajoutant ces lignes à la fin du module :

if __name__ == "__main__":
    import sys
    fib(int(sys.argv[1]))

vous pouvez rendre le fichier utilisable comme script aussi bien que comme module importable, car le code qui analyse la ligne de commande n'est lancé que si le module est exécuté comme fichier « main » :

$ python fibo.py 50
0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34

Si le fichier est importé, le code n'est pas exécuté :

>>> import fibo
>>>

C'est typiquement utilisé soit pour proposer une interface utilisateur pour un module, soit pour lancer les tests sur le module (exécuter le module en tant que script lance les tests).

6.1.2. Les dossiers de recherche de modules

When a module named spam is imported, the interpreter first searches for a built-in module with that name. These module names are listed in sys.builtin_module_names. If not found, it then searches for a file named spam.py in a list of directories given by the variable sys.path. sys.path is initialized from these locations:

le dossier contenant le script courant (ou le dossier courant si aucun script n'est donné) ;

PYTHONPATH (une liste de dossiers, utilisant la même syntaxe que la variable shell PATH) ;

La valeur par défaut, qui dépend de l'installation (incluant par convention un dossier site-packages, géré par le module site).

Vous trouverez plus de détails dans The initialization of the sys.path module search path.

Note

sur les systèmes qui gèrent les liens symboliques, le dossier contenant le script courant est résolu après avoir suivi le lien symbolique du script. Autrement dit, le dossier contenant le lien symbolique n'est pas ajouté aux dossiers de recherche de modules.

Après leur initialisation, les programmes Python peuvent modifier leur sys.path. Le dossier contenant le script courant est placé au début de la liste des dossiers à rechercher, avant les dossiers de bibliothèques. Cela signifie qu'un module dans ce dossier, ayant le même nom qu'un module, sera chargé à sa place. C'est une erreur typique, à moins que ce ne soit voulu. Voir Modules standards pour plus d'informations.

6.1.3. Fichiers Python « compilés »

Pour accélérer le chargement des modules, Python cache une version compilée de chaque module dans un fichier nommé module(version).pyc (ou version représente le format du fichier compilé, typiquement une version de Python) dans le dossier __pycache__. Par exemple, avec CPython 3.3, la version compilée de spam.py serait __pycache__/spam.cpython-33.pyc. Cette règle de nommage permet à des versions compilées par des versions différentes de Python de coexister.

Python compare les dates de modification du fichier source et de sa version compilée pour voir si le module doit être recompilé. Ce processus est entièrement automatique. Par ailleurs, les versions compilées sont indépendantes de la plateforme et peuvent donc être partagées entre des systèmes d'architectures différentes.

Il existe deux situations où Python ne vérifie pas le cache : le premier cas est lorsque le module est donné par la ligne de commande (cas où le module est toujours recompilé, sans même cacher sa version compilée) ; le second cas est lorsque le module n'a pas de source. Pour gérer un module sans source (où seule la version compilée est fournie), le module compilé doit se trouver dans le dossier source et sa source ne doit pas être présente.

Astuces pour les experts :

vous pouvez utiliser les options -O ou -OO lors de l'appel à Python pour réduire la taille des modules compilés. L'option -O supprime les instructions assert et l'option -OO supprime aussi les documentations __doc__. Cependant, puisque certains programmes ont besoin de ces __doc__, vous ne devriez utiliser -OO que si vous savez ce que vous faites. Les modules « optimisés » sont marqués d'un opt- et sont généralement plus petits. Les versions futures de Python pourraient changer les effets de l'optimisation ;

un programme ne s'exécute pas plus vite lorsqu'il est lu depuis un .pyc, il est juste chargé plus vite ;

le module compileall peut créer des fichiers .pyc pour tous les modules d'un dossier ;

vous trouvez plus de détails sur ce processus, ainsi qu'un organigramme des décisions, dans la PEP 3147 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/].

6.2. Modules standards

Python est accompagné d'une bibliothèque de modules standards, décrits dans la documentation de la Bibliothèque Python, plus loin. Certains modules sont intégrés dans l'interpréteur, ils proposent des outils qui ne font pas partie du langage mais qui font tout de même partie de l'interpréteur, soit pour le côté pratique, soit pour mettre à disposition des outils essentiels tels que l'accès aux appels système. La composition de ces modules est configurable à la compilation et dépend aussi de la plateforme cible. Par exemple, le module winreg n'est proposé que sur les systèmes Windows. Un module mérite une attention particulière, le module sys, qui est présent dans tous les interpréteurs Python. Les variables sys.ps1 et sys.ps2 définissent les chaînes d'invites principales et secondaires :

>>> import sys
>>> sys.ps1
'>>> '
>>> sys.ps2
'... '
>>> sys.ps1 = 'C> '
C> print('Yuck!')
Yuck!
C>

Ces deux variables ne sont définies que si l'interpréteur est en mode interactif.

La variable sys.path est une liste de chaînes qui détermine les chemins de recherche de modules pour l'interpréteur. Elle est initialisée à un chemin par défaut pris de la variable d'environnement PYTHONPATH ou d'une valeur par défaut interne si PYTHONPATH n'est pas définie. sys.path est modifiable en utilisant les opérations habituelles des listes :

>>> import sys
>>> sys.path.append('/ufs/guido/lib/python')

6.3. La fonction dir()

La fonction interne dir() est utilisée pour trouver quels noms sont définis par un module. Elle donne une liste de chaînes classées par ordre lexicographique :

>>> import fibo, sys
>>> dir(fibo)
['__name__', 'fib', 'fib2']
>>> dir(sys)
['__breakpointhook__', '__displayhook__', '__doc__', '__excepthook__',
 '__interactivehook__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__', '__spec__',
 '__stderr__', '__stdin__', '__stdout__', '__unraisablehook__',
 '_clear_type_cache', '_current_frames', '_debugmallocstats', '_framework',
 '_getframe', '_git', '_home', '_xoptions', 'abiflags', 'addaudithook',
 'api_version', 'argv', 'audit', 'base_exec_prefix', 'base_prefix',
 'breakpointhook', 'builtin_module_names', 'byteorder', 'call_tracing',
 'callstats', 'copyright', 'displayhook', 'dont_write_bytecode', 'exc_info',
 'excepthook', 'exec_prefix', 'executable', 'exit', 'flags', 'float_info',
 'float_repr_style', 'get_asyncgen_hooks', 'get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth',
 'getallocatedblocks', 'getdefaultencoding', 'getdlopenflags',
 'getfilesystemencodeerrors', 'getfilesystemencoding', 'getprofile',
 'getrecursionlimit', 'getrefcount', 'getsizeof', 'getswitchinterval',
 'gettrace', 'hash_info', 'hexversion', 'implementation', 'int_info',
 'intern', 'is_finalizing', 'last_traceback', 'last_type', 'last_value',
 'maxsize', 'maxunicode', 'meta_path', 'modules', 'path', 'path_hooks',
 'path_importer_cache', 'platform', 'prefix', 'ps1', 'ps2', 'pycache_prefix',
 'set_asyncgen_hooks', 'set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth', 'setdlopenflags',
 'setprofile', 'setrecursionlimit', 'setswitchinterval', 'settrace', 'stderr',
 'stdin', 'stdout', 'thread_info', 'unraisablehook', 'version', 'version_info',
 'warnoptions']

Sans paramètre, dir() liste les noms actuellement définis :

>>> a = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
>>> import fibo
>>> fib = fibo.fib
>>> dir()
['__builtins__', '__name__', 'a', 'fib', 'fibo', 'sys']

Notez qu'elle liste tous les types de noms : les variables, fonctions, modules, etc.

dir() ne liste ni les fonctions primitives, ni les variables internes. Si vous voulez les lister, elles sont définies dans le module builtins :

>>> import builtins
>>> dir(builtins)
['ArithmeticError', 'AssertionError', 'AttributeError', 'BaseException',
 'BlockingIOError', 'BrokenPipeError', 'BufferError', 'BytesWarning',
 'ChildProcessError', 'ConnectionAbortedError', 'ConnectionError',
 'ConnectionRefusedError', 'ConnectionResetError', 'DeprecationWarning',
 'EOFError', 'Ellipsis', 'EnvironmentError', 'Exception', 'False',
 'FileExistsError', 'FileNotFoundError', 'FloatingPointError',
 'FutureWarning', 'GeneratorExit', 'IOError', 'ImportError',
 'ImportWarning', 'IndentationError', 'IndexError', 'InterruptedError',
 'IsADirectoryError', 'KeyError', 'KeyboardInterrupt', 'LookupError',
 'MemoryError', 'NameError', 'None', 'NotADirectoryError', 'NotImplemented',
 'NotImplementedError', 'OSError', 'OverflowError',
 'PendingDeprecationWarning', 'PermissionError', 'ProcessLookupError',
 'ReferenceError', 'ResourceWarning', 'RuntimeError', 'RuntimeWarning',
 'StopIteration', 'SyntaxError', 'SyntaxWarning', 'SystemError',
 'SystemExit', 'TabError', 'TimeoutError', 'True', 'TypeError',
 'UnboundLocalError', 'UnicodeDecodeError', 'UnicodeEncodeError',
 'UnicodeError', 'UnicodeTranslateError', 'UnicodeWarning', 'UserWarning',
 'ValueError', 'Warning', 'ZeroDivisionError', '_', '__build_class__',
 '__debug__', '__doc__', '__import__', '__name__', '__package__', 'abs',
 'all', 'any', 'ascii', 'bin', 'bool', 'bytearray', 'bytes', 'callable',
 'chr', 'classmethod', 'compile', 'complex', 'copyright', 'credits',
 'delattr', 'dict', 'dir', 'divmod', 'enumerate', 'eval', 'exec', 'exit',
 'filter', 'float', 'format', 'frozenset', 'getattr', 'globals', 'hasattr',
 'hash', 'help', 'hex', 'id', 'input', 'int', 'isinstance', 'issubclass',
 'iter', 'len', 'license', 'list', 'locals', 'map', 'max', 'memoryview',
 'min', 'next', 'object', 'oct', 'open', 'ord', 'pow', 'print', 'property',
 'quit', 'range', 'repr', 'reversed', 'round', 'set', 'setattr', 'slice',
 'sorted', 'staticmethod', 'str', 'sum', 'super', 'tuple', 'type', 'vars',
 'zip']

6.4. Les paquets

Packages are a way of structuring Python's module namespace by using "dotted module names". For example, the module name A.B designates a submodule named B in a package named A. Just like the use of modules saves the authors of different modules from having to worry about each other's global variable names, the use of dotted module names saves the authors of multi-module packages like NumPy or Pillow from having to worry about each other's module names.

Imaginez que vous voulez construire un ensemble de modules (un « paquet ») pour gérer uniformément les fichiers contenant du son et des données sonores. Il existe un grand nombre de formats de fichiers pour stocker du son (généralement identifiés par leur extension, par exemple .wav, .aiff, .au), vous avez donc besoin de créer et maintenir un nombre croissant de modules pour gérer la conversion entre tous ces formats. Vous voulez aussi pouvoir appliquer un certain nombre d'opérations sur ces sons : mixer, ajouter de l'écho, égaliser, ajouter un effet stéréo artificiel, etc. Donc, en plus des modules de conversion, vous allez écrire une myriade de modules permettant d'effectuer ces opérations. Voici une structure possible pour votre paquet (exprimée sous la forme d'une arborescence de fichiers) :

sound/                          Top-level package
      __init__.py               Initialize the sound package
      formats/                  Subpackage for file format conversions
              __init__.py
              wavread.py
              wavwrite.py
              aiffread.py
              aiffwrite.py
              auread.py
              auwrite.py
              ...
      effects/                  Subpackage for sound effects
              __init__.py
              echo.py
              surround.py
              reverse.py
              ...
      filters/                  Subpackage for filters
              __init__.py
              equalizer.py
              vocoder.py
              karaoke.py
              ...

Lorsqu'il importe des paquets, Python cherche dans chaque dossier de sys.path un sous-dossier du nom du paquet.

The __init__.py files are required to make Python treat directories containing the file as packages (unless using a namespace package, a relatively advanced feature). This prevents directories with a common name, such as string, from unintentionally hiding valid modules that occur later on the module search path. In the simplest case, __init__.py can just be an empty file, but it can also execute initialization code for the package or set the __all__ variable, described later.

Les utilisateurs d'un module peuvent importer ses modules individuellement, par exemple :

import sound.effects.echo

This loads the submodule sound.effects.echo. It must be referenced with its full name.

sound.effects.echo.echofilter(input, output, delay=0.7, atten=4)

Une autre manière d'importer des sous-modules est :

from sound.effects import echo

This also loads the submodule echo, and makes it available without its package prefix, so it can be used as follows:

echo.echofilter(input, output, delay=0.7, atten=4)

Une autre méthode consiste à importer la fonction ou la variable désirée directement :

from sound.effects.echo import echofilter

Again, this loads the submodule echo, but this makes its function echofilter() directly available:

echofilter(input, output, delay=0.7, atten=4)

Notez que lorsque vous utilisez from package import element, element peut aussi bien être un sous-module, un sous-paquet ou simplement un nom déclaré dans le paquet (une variable, une fonction ou une classe). L'instruction import cherche en premier si element est défini dans le paquet ; s'il ne l'est pas, elle cherche à charger un module et, si elle n'en trouve pas, une exception ImportError est levée.

Au contraire, en utilisant la syntaxe import element.souselement.soussouselement, chaque element sauf le dernier doit être un paquet. Le dernier element peut être un module ou un paquet, mais ne peut être ni une fonction, ni une classe, ni une variable définie dans l'élément précédent.

6.4.1. Importer * depuis un paquet

Qu'arrive-t-il lorsqu'un utilisateur écrit from sound.effects import * ? Idéalement, on pourrait espérer que Python aille chercher tous les sous-modules du paquet sur le système de fichiers et qu'ils seraient tous importés. Cela pourrait être long et importer certains sous-modules pourrait avoir des effets secondaires indésirables ou, du moins, désirés seulement lorsque le sous-module est importé explicitement.

La seule solution, pour l'auteur du paquet, est de fournir un index explicite du contenu du paquet. L'instruction import utilise la convention suivante : si le fichier __init__.py du paquet définit une liste nommée __all__, cette liste est utilisée comme liste des noms de modules devant être importés lorsque from package import * est utilisé. Il est de la responsabilité de l'auteur du paquet de maintenir cette liste à jour lorsque de nouvelles versions du paquet sont publiées. Un auteur de paquet peut aussi décider de ne pas autoriser d'importer * pour son paquet. Par exemple, le fichier sound/effects/__init__.py peut contenir le code suivant :

__all__ = ["echo", "surround", "reverse"]

This would mean that from sound.effects import * would import the three named submodules of the sound.effects package.

Be aware that submodules might become shadowed by locally defined names. For example, if you added a reverse function to the sound/effects/__init__.py file, the from sound.effects import * would only import the two submodules echo and surround, but not the reverse submodule, because it is shadowed by the locally defined reverse function:

__all__ = [
    "echo",      # refers to the 'echo.py' file
    "surround",  # refers to the 'surround.py' file
    "reverse",   # !!! refers to the 'reverse' function now !!!
]

def reverse(msg: str):  # <-- this name shadows the 'reverse.py' submodule
    return msg[::-1]    #     in the case of a 'from sound.effects import *'

If __all__ is not defined, the statement from sound.effects import * does not import all submodules from the package sound.effects into the current namespace; it only ensures that the package sound.effects has been imported (possibly running any initialization code in __init__.py) and then imports whatever names are defined in the package. This includes any names defined (and submodules explicitly loaded) by __init__.py. It also includes any submodules of the package that were explicitly loaded by previous import statements. Consider this code:

import sound.effects.echo
import sound.effects.surround
from sound.effects import *

In this example, the echo and surround modules are imported in the current namespace because they are defined in the sound.effects package when the from...import statement is executed. (This also works when __all__ is defined.)

Bien que certains modules ont été pensés pour n'exporter que les noms respectant une certaine structure lorsque import * est utilisé, import * reste considéré comme une mauvaise pratique dans du code à destination d'un environnement de production.

Rappelez-vous que rien ne vous empêche d'utiliser from paquet import sous_module_specifique ! C'est d'ailleurs la manière recommandée, à moins que le module qui fait les importations ait besoin de sous-modules ayant le même nom mais provenant de paquets différents.

6.4.2. Références internes dans un paquet

When packages are structured into subpackages (as with the sound package in the example), you can use absolute imports to refer to submodules of siblings packages. For example, if the module sound.filters.vocoder needs to use the echo module in the sound.effects package, it can use from sound.effects import echo.

You can also write relative imports, with the from module import name form of import statement. These imports use leading dots to indicate the current and parent packages involved in the relative import. From the surround module for example, you might use:

from . import echo
from .. import formats
from ..filters import equalizer

Note that relative imports are based on the name of the current module's package. Since the main module does not have a package, modules intended for use as the main module of a Python application must always use absolute imports.

6.4.3. Paquets dans plusieurs dossiers

Packages support one more special attribute, __path__. This is initialized to be a sequence of strings containing the name of the directory holding the package's __init__.py before the code in that file is executed. This variable can be modified; doing so affects future searches for modules and subpackages contained in the package.

Bien que cette fonctionnalité ne soit que rarement utile, elle peut servir à élargir la liste des modules trouvés dans un paquet.

Notes

[1]

En réalité, la déclaration d'une fonction est elle-même une instruction ; son exécution ajoute le nom de la fonction dans l'espace de nommage global du module.

7. Les entrées/sorties

Il existe bien des moyens de présenter les sorties d'un programme ; les données peuvent être affichées sous une forme lisible par un être humain ou sauvegardées dans un fichier pour une utilisation future. Ce chapitre présente quelques possibilités.

7.1. Formatage de données

So far we've encountered two ways of writing values: expression statements and the print() function. (A third way is using the write() method of file objects; the standard output file can be referenced as sys.stdout. See the Library Reference for more information on this.)

Souvent vous voudrez plus de contrôle sur le formatage de vos sorties et aller au delà d’un affichage de valeurs séparées par des espaces. Il y a plusieurs moyens de les formater.

Pour utiliser les expressions formatées, commencez une chaine de caractère avec f ou F avant d’ouvrir vos guillemets doubles ou triples. Dans ces chaines de caractère, vous pouvez entrer des expressions Python entre les caractères { et } qui peuvent contenir des variables ou des valeurs littérales.

>>> year = 2016
>>> event = 'Referendum'
>>> f'Results of the {year} {event}'
'Results of the 2016 Referendum'

The str.format() method of strings requires more manual effort. You'll still use { and } to mark where a variable will be substituted and can provide detailed formatting directives, but you'll also need to provide the information to be formatted. In the following code block there are two examples of how to format variables:

>>> yes_votes = 42_572_654
>>> total_votes = 85_705_149
>>> percentage = yes_votes / total_votes
>>> '{:-9} YES votes  {:2.2%}'.format(yes_votes, percentage)
' 42572654 YES votes  49.67%'

Notice how the yes_votes are padded with spaces and a negative sign only for negative numbers. The example also prints percentage multiplied by 100, with 2 decimal places and followed by a percent sign (see Format specification mini-language for details).

Enfin, vous pouvez construire des concaténations de tranches de chaînes vous-même, et ainsi créer n'importe quel agencement. Le type des chaînes a des méthodes utiles pour aligner des chaînes dans une largeur de taille fixe.

Lorsque qu'un affichage basique suffit, pour afficher simplement une variable pour en inspecter le contenu, vous pouvez convertir n'importe quelle valeur en chaîne de caractères en utilisant la fonction repr() ou la fonction str().

La fonction str() est destinée à représenter les valeurs sous une forme lisible par un être humain, alors que la fonction repr() est destinée à générer des représentations qui puissent être lues par l'interpréteur (ou qui lèvera une SyntaxError s'il n'existe aucune syntaxe équivalente). Pour les objets qui n'ont pas de représentation humaine spécifique, str() renvoie la même valeur que repr(). Beaucoup de valeurs, comme les nombres ou les structures telles que les listes ou les dictionnaires, ont la même représentation en utilisant les deux fonctions. Les chaînes de caractères, en particulier, ont deux représentations distinctes.

Quelques exemples :

>>> s = 'Hello, world.'
>>> str(s)
'Hello, world.'
>>> repr(s)
"'Hello, world.'"
>>> str(1/7)
'0.14285714285714285'
>>> x = 10 * 3.25
>>> y = 200 * 200
>>> s = 'The value of x is ' + repr(x) + ', and y is ' + repr(y) + '...'
>>> print(s)
The value of x is 32.5, and y is 40000...
>>> # The repr() of a string adds string quotes and backslashes:
>>> hello = 'hello, world\n'
>>> hellos = repr(hello)
>>> print(hellos)
'hello, world\n'
>>> # The argument to repr() may be any Python object:
>>> repr((x, y, ('spam', 'eggs')))
"(32.5, 40000, ('spam', 'eggs'))"

The string module contains support for a simple templating approach based upon regular expressions, via string.Template. This offers yet another way to substitute values into strings, using placeholders like $x and replacing them with values from a dictionary. This syntax is easy to use, although it offers much less control for formatting.

7.1.1. Les chaines de caractères formatées (f-strings)

Les chaines de caractères formatées (aussi appelées f-strings) vous permettent d’inclure la valeur d’expressions Python dans des chaines de caractères en les préfixant avec f ou F et écrire des expressions comme {expression}.

L'expression peut être suivie d'un spécificateur de format. Cela permet un plus grand contrôle sur la façon dont la valeur est rendue. L'exemple suivant arrondit pi à trois décimales après la virgule :

>>> import math
>>> print(f'The value of pi is approximately {math.pi:.3f}.')
The value of pi is approximately 3.142.

Donner un entier après le ':' indique la largeur minimale de ce champ en nombre de caractères. C'est utile pour faire de jolis tableaux

>>> table = {'Sjoerd': 4127, 'Jack': 4098, 'Dcab': 7678}
>>> for name, phone in table.items():
...     print(f'{name:10} ==> {phone:10d}')
...
Sjoerd     ==>       4127
Jack       ==>       4098
Dcab       ==>       7678

D’autres modificateurs peuvent être utilisés pour convertir la valeur avant son formatage. '!a' applique ascii(), '!s' applique str(), et '!r' applique repr() :

>>> animals = 'eels'
>>> print(f'My hovercraft is full of {animals}.')
My hovercraft is full of eels.
>>> print(f'My hovercraft is full of {animals!r}.')
My hovercraft is full of 'eels'.

Le spécificateur = peut être utilisé pour développer une expression en « texte de l'expression, un signe égal, puis la représentation de l'expression évaluée » :

>>> bugs = 'roaches'
>>> count = 13
>>> area = 'living room'
>>> print(f'Debugging {bugs=} {count=} {area=}')
Debugging bugs='roaches' count=13 area='living room'

Lisez self-documenting expressions pour davantage d'information sur le spécificateur =. Pour une référence sur ces spécifications de formats, voir le guide de référence pour le Format specification mini-language.

7.1.2. La méthode de chaine de caractères format()

L'utilisation de base de la méthode str.format() ressemble à ceci :

>>> print('We are the {} who say "{}!"'.format('knights', 'Ni'))
We are the knights who say "Ni!"

Les accolades et les caractères à l'intérieur (appelés les champs de formatage) sont remplacés par les objets passés en paramètres à la méthode str.format(). Un nombre entre accolades se réfère à la position de l'objet passé à la méthode str.format().

>>> print('{0} and {1}'.format('spam', 'eggs'))
spam and eggs
>>> print('{1} and {0}'.format('spam', 'eggs'))
eggs and spam

Si des arguments nommés sont utilisés dans la méthode str.format(), leurs valeurs sont utilisées en se basant sur le nom des arguments

>>> print('This {food} is {adjective}.'.format(
...       food='spam', adjective='absolutely horrible'))
This spam is absolutely horrible.

Les arguments positionnés et nommés peuvent être combinés arbitrairement :

>>> print('The story of {0}, {1}, and {other}.'.format('Bill', 'Manfred',
...                                                    other='Georg'))
The story of Bill, Manfred, and Georg.

Si vous avez une chaîne de formatage vraiment longue que vous ne voulez pas découper, il est possible de référencer les variables à formater par leur nom plutôt que par leur position. Utilisez simplement un dictionnaire et la notation entre crochets '[]' pour accéder aux clés

>>> table = {'Sjoerd': 4127, 'Jack': 4098, 'Dcab': 8637678}
>>> print('Jack: {0[Jack]:d}; Sjoerd: {0[Sjoerd]:d}; '
...       'Dcab: {0[Dcab]:d}'.format(table))
Jack: 4098; Sjoerd: 4127; Dcab: 8637678

Vous pouvez obtenir le même résultat en passant le dictionnaire table comme des arguments nommés en utilisant la notation **

>>> table = {'Sjoerd': 4127, 'Jack': 4098, 'Dcab': 8637678}
>>> print('Jack: {Jack:d}; Sjoerd: {Sjoerd:d}; Dcab: {Dcab:d}'.format(**table))
Jack: 4098; Sjoerd: 4127; Dcab: 8637678

This is particularly useful in combination with the built-in function vars(), which returns a dictionary containing all local variables:

>>> table = {k: str(v) for k, v in vars().items()}
>>> message = " ".join([f'{k}: ' + '{' + k +'};' for k in table.keys()])
>>> print(message.format(**table))
__name__: __main__; __doc__: None; __package__: None; __loader__: ...

À titre d’exemple, les lignes suivantes produisent un ensemble de colonnes alignées de façon ordonnée donnant les entiers, leurs carrés et leurs cubes :

>>> for x in range(1, 11):
...     print('{0:2d} {1:3d} {2:4d}'.format(x, x*x, x*x*x))
...
 1   1    1
 2   4    8
 3   9   27
 4  16   64
 5  25  125
 6  36  216
 7  49  343
 8  64  512
 9  81  729
10 100 1000

Pour avoir une description complète du formatage des chaînes de caractères avec la méthode str.format(), lisez : Format string syntax.

7.1.3. Formatage de chaînes à la main

Voici le même tableau de carrés et de cubes, formaté à la main :

>>> for x in range(1, 11):
...     print(repr(x).rjust(2), repr(x*x).rjust(3), end=' ')
...     # Note use of 'end' on previous line
...     print(repr(x*x*x).rjust(4))
...
 1   1    1
 2   4    8
 3   9   27
 4  16   64
 5  25  125
 6  36  216
 7  49  343
 8  64  512
 9  81  729
10 100 1000

(Remarquez que l'espace séparant les colonnes vient de la manière dont print() fonctionne : il ajoute toujours des espaces entre ses arguments.)

La méthode str.rjust() des chaînes de caractères justifie à droite une chaîne dans un champ d'une largeur donnée en ajoutant des espaces sur la gauche. Il existe des méthodes similaires str.ljust() et str.center(). Ces méthodes n'écrivent rien, elles renvoient simplement une nouvelle chaîne. Si la chaîne passée en paramètre est trop longue, elle n'est pas tronquée mais renvoyée sans modification ; cela peut chambouler votre mise en page mais c'est souvent préférable à l'alternative, qui pourrait mentir sur une valeur (et si vous voulez vraiment tronquer vos valeurs, vous pouvez toujours utiliser une tranche, comme dans x.ljust(n)[:n]).

Il existe une autre méthode, str.zfill(), qui comble une chaîne numérique à gauche avec des zéros. Elle comprend les signes plus et moins :

>>> '12'.zfill(5)
'00012'
>>> '-3.14'.zfill(7)
'-003.14'
>>> '3.14159265359'.zfill(5)
'3.14159265359'

7.1.4. Anciennes méthodes de formatage de chaînes

The % operator (modulo) can also be used for string formatting. Given format % values (where format is a string), % conversion specifications in format are replaced with zero or more elements of values. This operation is commonly known as string interpolation. For example:

>>> import math
>>> print('The value of pi is approximately %5.3f.' % math.pi)
The value of pi is approximately 3.142.

Vous trouvez plus d'informations dans la section Formatage de chaines à la printf.

7.2. Lecture et écriture de fichiers

La fonction open() renvoie un objet fichier et est le plus souvent utilisée avec deux arguments positionnels et un argument nommé : open(filename, mode, encoding=None)

>>> f = open('workfile', 'w', encoding="utf-8")

Le premier argument est une chaîne contenant le nom du fichier. Le deuxième argument est une autre chaîne contenant quelques caractères décrivant la façon dont le fichier est utilisé. mode peut être 'r' quand le fichier n'est accédé qu'en lecture, 'w' en écriture seulement (un fichier existant portant le même nom sera alors écrasé) et 'a' ouvre le fichier en mode ajout (toute donnée écrite dans le fichier est automatiquement ajoutée à la fin). 'r+' ouvre le fichier en mode lecture/écriture. L'argument mode est optionnel, sa valeur par défaut est 'r'.

Normalement, les fichiers sont ouverts en mode texte, c'est-à-dire que vous lisez et écrivez des chaînes de caractères depuis et dans ce fichier, suivant un encodage donné via encoding. Si encoding n'est pas spécifié, l'encodage par défaut dépend de la plateforme (voir open()). UTF-8 étant le standard moderne de facto, encoding="utf-8" est recommandé à moins que vous ne sachiez que vous devez utiliser un autre encodage. L’ajout d’un 'b' au mode ouvre le fichier en mode binaire. Les données en mode binaire sont lues et écrites sous forme d’objets bytes. Vous ne pouvez pas spécifier encoding lorsque vous ouvrez un fichier en mode binaire.

En mode texte, le comportement par défaut, à la lecture, est de convertir les fin de lignes spécifiques à la plateforme (\n sur Unix, \r\n sur Windows, etc.) en simples \n. Lors de l'écriture, le comportement par défaut est d'appliquer l'opération inverse : les \n sont convertis dans leur équivalent sur la plateforme courante. Ces modifications effectuées automatiquement sont normales pour du texte mais détérioreraient des données binaires contenues dans un fichier de type JPEG ou EXE. Soyez particulièrement attentifs à ouvrir ces fichiers binaires en mode binaire.

C'est une bonne pratique d'utiliser le mot-clé with lorsque vous traitez des fichiers. Vous fermez ainsi toujours correctement le fichier, même si une exception est levée. Utiliser with est aussi beaucoup plus court que d'utiliser l'équivalent avec des blocs try…finally :

>>> with open('workfile', encoding="utf-8") as f:
...     read_data = f.read()

>>> # We can check that the file has been automatically closed.
>>> f.closed
True

Si vous n'utilisez pas le mot clé with, vous devez appeler f.close() pour fermer le fichier, et ainsi immédiatement libérer les ressources qu'il utilise.

Avertissement

Appeler f.write() sans utiliser le mot clé with ni appeler f.close() pourrait mener à une situation où les arguments de f.write() ne seraient pas complètement écrits sur le disque, même si le programme se termine avec succès.

Après la fermeture du fichier, que ce soit via une instruction with ou en appelant f.close(), toute tentative d'utilisation de l'objet fichier échoue systématiquement.

>>> f.close()
>>> f.read()
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
ValueError: I/O operation on closed file.

7.2.1. Méthodes des objets fichiers

Les derniers exemples de cette section supposent qu'un objet fichier appelé f a déjà été créé.

Pour lire le contenu d'un fichier, appelez f.read(taille), cette dernière lit une certaine quantité de données et la renvoie sous forme de chaîne (en mode texte) ou d'objet bytes (en mode binaire). taille est un argument numérique facultatif. Lorsque taille est omis ou négatif, la totalité du contenu du fichier sera lue et renvoyée ; c'est votre problème si le fichier est deux fois plus grand que la mémoire de votre machine. Sinon, au maximum taille caractères (en mode texte) ou taille octets (en mode binaire) sont lus et renvoyés. Si la fin du fichier est atteinte, f.read() renvoie une chaîne vide ('').

>>> f.read()
'This is the entire file.\n'
>>> f.read()
''

f.readline() lit une seule ligne du fichier ; un caractère de fin de ligne (\n) est laissé à la fin de la chaîne. Il n'est omis que sur la dernière ligne du fichier si celui-ci ne se termine pas un caractère de fin de ligne. Ceci permet de rendre la valeur de retour non ambigüe : si f.readline() renvoie une chaîne vide, c'est que la fin du fichier a été atteinte, alors qu'une ligne vide est représentée par '\n' (une chaîne de caractères ne contenant qu'une fin de ligne).

>>> f.readline()
'This is the first line of the file.\n'
>>> f.readline()
'Second line of the file\n'
>>> f.readline()
''

Pour lire ligne à ligne, vous pouvez aussi boucler sur l'objet fichier. C'est plus efficace en termes de gestion mémoire, plus rapide et donne un code plus simple :

>>> for line in f:
...     print(line, end='')
...
This is the first line of the file.
Second line of the file

Pour construire une liste avec toutes les lignes d'un fichier, il est aussi possible d'utiliser list(f) ou f.readlines().

f.write(chaine) écrit le contenu de chaine dans le fichier et renvoie le nombre de caractères écrits.

>>> f.write('This is a test\n')
15

Les autres types doivent être convertis, soit en une chaîne (en mode texte), soit en objet bytes (en mode binaire) avant de les écrire :

>>> value = ('the answer', 42)
>>> s = str(value)  # convert the tuple to string
>>> f.write(s)
18

f.tell() renvoie un entier indiquant la position actuelle dans le fichier, mesurée en octets à partir du début du fichier lorsque le fichier est ouvert en mode binaire, ou un nombre obscur en mode texte.

Pour modifier la position dans le fichier, utilisez f.seek(décalage, origine). La position est calculée en ajoutant décalage à un point de référence ; ce point de référence est déterminé par l'argument origine : la valeur 0 pour le début du fichier, 1 pour la position actuelle et 2 pour la fin du fichier. origine peut être omis et sa valeur par défaut est 0 (Python utilise le début du fichier comme point de référence).

>>> f = open('workfile', 'rb+')
>>> f.write(b'0123456789abcdef')
16
>>> f.seek(5)      # Go to the 6th byte in the file
5
>>> f.read(1)
b'5'
>>> f.seek(-3, 2)  # Go to the 3rd byte before the end
13
>>> f.read(1)
b'd'

Sur un fichier en mode texte (ceux ouverts sans b dans le mode), seuls les changements de position relatifs au début du fichier sont autorisés (sauf une exception : se rendre à la fin du fichier avec seek(0, 2)) et les seules valeurs possibles pour le paramètre décalage sont les valeurs renvoyées par f.tell(), ou zéro. Toute autre valeur pour le paramètre décalage produit un comportement indéfini.

File objects have some additional methods, such as isatty() and truncate() which are less frequently used; consult the Library Reference for a complete guide to file objects.

7.2.2. Sauvegarde de données structurées avec le module json

Strings can easily be written to and read from a file. Numbers take a bit more effort, since the read() method only returns strings, which will have to be passed to a function like int(), which takes a string like '123' and returns its numeric value 123. When you want to save more complex data types like nested lists and dictionaries, parsing and serializing by hand becomes complicated.

Plutôt que de passer son temps à écrire et déboguer du code permettant de sauvegarder des types de données compliqués, Python permet d'utiliser JSON (*JavaScript Object Notation*) [https://json.org], un format répandu de représentation et d'échange de données. Le module standard appelé json peut transformer des données hiérarchisées Python en une représentation sous forme de chaîne de caractères. Ce processus est nommé sérialiser. Reconstruire les données à partir de leur représentation sous forme de chaîne est appelé déserialiser. Entre sa sérialisation et sa dé-sérialisation, la chaîne représentant les données peut avoir été stockée ou transmise à une autre machine.

Note

Le format JSON est couramment utilisé dans les applications modernes pour échanger des données. Beaucoup de développeurs le maîtrisent, ce qui en fait un format de prédilection pour l'interopérabilité.

Si vous avez un objet x, vous pouvez voir sa représentation JSON en tapant simplement :

>>> import json
>>> x = [1, 'simple', 'list']
>>> json.dumps(x)
'[1, "simple", "list"]'

Une variante de la fonction dumps(), nommée dump(), sérialise simplement l'objet donné vers un text file. Donc si f est un text file ouvert en écriture, il est possible de faire :

json.dump(x, f)

Pour reconstruire l'objet, si f est cette fois un binary file ou un text file ouvert en lecture :

x = json.load(f)

Note

Les fichiers JSON doivent être encodés en UTF-8. Utilisez encoding="utf-8" lorsque vous ouvrez un fichier JSON en tant que fichier texte, que ce soit en lecture ou en écriture.

Cette méthode de sérialisation peut sérialiser des listes et des dictionnaires. Mais sérialiser d'autres types de données requiert un peu plus de travail. La documentation du module json explique comment faire.

Voir aussi

Le module pickle

Au contraire de JSON, pickle est un protocole permettant la sérialisation d'objets Python arbitrairement complexes. Il est donc spécifique à Python et ne peut pas être utilisé pour communiquer avec d'autres langages. Il est aussi, par défaut, une source de vulnérabilité : dé-sérialiser des données au format pickle provenant d'une source malveillante et particulièrement habile peut mener à exécuter du code arbitraire.

8. Erreurs et exceptions

Jusqu'ici, les messages d'erreurs ont seulement été mentionnés. Mais si vous avez essayé les exemples vous avez certainement vu plus que cela. En fait, il y a au moins deux types d'erreurs à distinguer : les erreurs de syntaxe et les exceptions.

8.1. Les erreurs de syntaxe

Les erreurs de syntaxe, qui sont des erreurs d'analyse du code, sont peut-être celles que vous rencontrez le plus souvent lorsque vous êtes encore en phase d'apprentissage de Python :

>>> while True print('Hello world')
  File "<stdin>", line 1
    while True print('Hello world')
               ^^^^^
SyntaxError: invalid syntax

The parser repeats the offending line and displays little arrows pointing at the place where the error was detected. Note that this is not always the place that needs to be fixed. In the example, the error is detected at the function print(), since a colon (':') is missing just before it.

The file name (<stdin> in our example) and line number are printed so you know where to look in case the input came from a file.

8.2. Exceptions

Même si une instruction ou une expression est syntaxiquement correcte, elle peut générer une erreur lors de son exécution. Les erreurs détectées durant l'exécution sont appelées des exceptions et ne sont pas toujours fatales : nous apprendrons bientôt comment les traiter dans vos programmes. La plupart des exceptions toutefois ne sont pas prises en charge par les programmes, ce qui génère des messages d'erreurs comme celui-ci :

>>> 10 * (1/0)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
    10 * (1/0)
          ~^~
ZeroDivisionError: division by zero
>>> 4 + spam*3
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
    4 + spam*3
        ^^^^
NameError: name 'spam' is not defined
>>> '2' + 2
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
    '2' + 2
    ~~~~^~~
TypeError: can only concatenate str (not "int") to str

La dernière ligne du message d'erreur indique ce qui s'est passé. Les exceptions peuvent être de différents types et ce type est indiqué dans le message : les types indiqués dans l'exemple sont ZeroDivisionError, NameError et TypeError. Le texte affiché comme type de l'exception est le nom de l'exception native qui a été déclenchée. Ceci est vrai pour toutes les exceptions natives mais n'est pas une obligation pour les exceptions définies par l'utilisateur (même si c'est une convention bien pratique). Les noms des exceptions standards sont des identifiants natifs (pas des mots-clef réservés).

Le reste de la ligne fournit plus de détails en fonction du type de l'exception et de ce qui l'a causée.

La partie précédente du message d'erreur indique le contexte dans lequel s'est produite l'exception, sous la forme d'une trace de pile d'exécution. En général, celle-ci contient les lignes du code source ; toutefois, les lignes lues à partir de l'entrée standard ne sont pas affichées.

Vous trouvez la liste des exceptions natives et leur signification dans Exceptions natives.

8.3. Gestion des exceptions

Il est possible d'écrire des programmes qui prennent en charge certaines exceptions. Regardez l'exemple suivant, qui demande une saisie à l'utilisateur jusqu'à ce qu'un entier valide ait été entré, mais permet à l'utilisateur d'interrompre le programme (en utilisant Control-C ou un autre raccourci que le système accepte) ; notez qu'une interruption générée par l'utilisateur est signalée en levant l'exception KeyboardInterrupt.

>>> while True:
...     try:
...         x = int(input("Please enter a number: "))
...         break
...     except ValueError:
...         print("Oops!  That was no valid number.  Try again...")
...

L'instruction try fonctionne comme ceci :

premièrement, la clause try (instruction(s) placée(s) entre les mots-clés try et except) est exécutée.

si aucune exception n'intervient, la clause except est sautée et l'exécution de l'instruction try est terminée.

si une exception intervient pendant l'exécution de la clause try, le reste de cette clause est sauté. Si le type d'exception levée correspond à un nom indiqué après le mot-clé except, la clause except correspondante est exécutée, puis l'exécution continue après le bloc try/except.

si une exception intervient et ne correspond à aucune exception mentionnée dans la clause except, elle est transmise à l'instruction try de niveau supérieur ; si aucun gestionnaire d'exception n'est trouvé, il s'agit d'une exception non gérée et l'exécution s'arrête avec un message.

A try statement may have more than one except clause, to specify handlers for different exceptions. At most one handler will be executed. Handlers only handle exceptions that occur in the corresponding try clause, not in other handlers of the same try statement. An except clause may name multiple exceptions, for example:

... except RuntimeError, TypeError, NameError:
...     pass

Une classe dans une clause except correspond avec une exception si elle est de la même classe ou d'une de ses classes dérivées. Mais l'inverse n'est pas vrai, une clause except spécifiant une classe dérivée ne correspond pas avec une classe mère. Par exemple, le code suivant affiche B, C et D dans cet ordre :

class B(Exception):
    pass

class C(B):
    pass

class D(C):
    pass

for cls in [B, C, D]:
    try:
        raise cls()
    except D:
        print("D")
    except C:
        print("C")
    except B:
        print("B")

Notez que si les clauses except avaient été inversées (avec except B en premier), il aurait affiché B, B, B — la première clause except qui correspond est déclenchée.

Quand une exception intervient, une valeur peut lui être associée, que l'on appelle l'argument de l'exception. La présence de cet argument et son type dépendent du type de l'exception.

La clause except peut spécifier un nom de variable après le nom de l'exception. Cette variable est liée à l'instance d'exception avec les arguments stockés dans l'attribut args. Pour plus de commodité, l'instance de l'exception définit la méthode __str__() afin que les arguments puissent être affichés directement sans avoir à référencer .args.

>>> try:
...     raise Exception('spam', 'eggs')
... except Exception as inst:
...     print(type(inst))    # the exception type
...     print(inst.args)     # arguments stored in .args
...     print(inst)          # __str__ allows args to be printed directly,
...                          # but may be overridden in exception subclasses
...     x, y = inst.args     # unpack args
...     print('x =', x)
...     print('y =', y)
...
<class 'Exception'>
('spam', 'eggs')
('spam', 'eggs')
x = spam
y = eggs

La sortie produite par __str__() de l'exception est affichée en dernière partie (« détail ») du message des exceptions qui ne sont pas gérées.

BaseException est la classe mère de toutes les exceptions. Une de ses sous-classes, Exception, est la classe mère de toutes les exceptions non fatales. Les exceptions qui ne sont pas des sous-classes de Exception ne sont normalement pas gérées, car elles sont utilisées pour indiquer que le programme doit se terminer. C'est le cas de SystemExit qui est levée par sys.exit() et KeyboardInterrupt qui est levée quand l'utilisateur souhaite interrompre le programme.

Exception peut être utilisée pour intercepter (presque) tous les cas. Cependant, une bonne pratique consiste à être aussi précis que possible dans les types d'exception que l'on souhaite gérer et autoriser toutes les exceptions non prévues à se propager.

La manière la plus utilisée pour gérer une Exception consiste à afficher ou journaliser l'exception et ensuite la lever à nouveau afin de permettre à l'appelant de la gérer à son tour :

import sys

try:
    f = open('myfile.txt')
    s = f.readline()
    i = int(s.strip())
except OSError as err:
    print("OS error:", err)
except ValueError:
    print("Could not convert data to an integer.")
except Exception as err:
    print(f"Unexpected {err=}, {type(err)=}")
    raise

L'instruction try … except accepte également une clause else optionnelle qui, lorsqu'elle est présente, doit se placer après toutes les clauses except. Elle est utile pour du code qui doit être exécuté lorsqu'aucune exception n'a été levée par la clause try. Par exemple :

for arg in sys.argv[1:]:
    try:
        f = open(arg, 'r')
    except OSError:
        print('cannot open', arg)
    else:
        print(arg, 'has', len(f.readlines()), 'lines')
        f.close()

Il vaut mieux utiliser la clause else plutôt que d'ajouter du code à la clause try car cela évite de capturer accidentellement une exception qui n'a pas été levée par le code initialement protégé par l'instruction try … except.

Les gestionnaires d'exceptions n'interceptent pas que les exceptions qui sont levées immédiatement dans leur clause try, mais aussi celles qui sont levées au sein de fonctions appelées (parfois indirectement) dans la clause try. Par exemple :

>>> def this_fails():
...     x = 1/0
...
>>> try:
...     this_fails()
... except ZeroDivisionError as err:
...     print('Handling run-time error:', err)
...
Handling run-time error: division by zero

8.4. Déclencher des exceptions

L'instruction raise permet au programmeur de déclencher une exception spécifique. Par exemple :

>>> raise NameError('HiThere')
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
    raise NameError('HiThere')
NameError: HiThere

Le seul argument à raise indique l'exception à déclencher. Cela peut être soit une instance d'exception, soit une classe d'exception (une classe dérivée de BaseException, telle que Exception ou une de ses sous-classes). Si une classe est donnée, elle est implicitement instanciée via l'appel de son constructeur, sans argument :

raise ValueError  # shorthand for 'raise ValueError()'

Si vous avez besoin de savoir si une exception a été levée mais que vous n'avez pas intention de la gérer, une forme plus simple de l'instruction raise permet de propager l'exception :

>>> try:
...     raise NameError('HiThere')
... except NameError:
...     print('An exception flew by!')
...     raise
...
An exception flew by!
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
    raise NameError('HiThere')
NameError: HiThere

8.5. Chaînage d'exceptions

Si une exception non gérée se produit à l'intérieur d'une section except, l'exception en cours de traitement est jointe à l'exception non gérée et incluse dans le message d'erreur :

>>> try:
...     open("database.sqlite")
... except OSError:
...     raise RuntimeError("unable to handle error")
...
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
    open("database.sqlite")
    ~~~~^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
FileNotFoundError: [Errno 2] No such file or directory: 'database.sqlite'

During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred:

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
    raise RuntimeError("unable to handle error")
RuntimeError: unable to handle error

Pour indiquer qu'une exception est la conséquence directe d'une autre, l'instruction raise autorise une clause facultative from :

# exc must be exception instance or None.
raise RuntimeError from exc

Cela peut être utile lorsque vous transformez des exceptions. Par exemple :

>>> def func():
...     raise ConnectionError
...
>>> try:
...     func()
... except ConnectionError as exc:
...     raise RuntimeError('Failed to open database') from exc
...
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
    func()
    ~~~~^^
  File "<stdin>", line 2, in func
ConnectionError

The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
    raise RuntimeError('Failed to open database') from exc
RuntimeError: Failed to open database

Cela permet également de désactiver le chaînage automatique des exceptions à l'aide de l'idiome from None :

>>> try:
...     open('database.sqlite')
... except OSError:
...     raise RuntimeError from None
...
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
    raise RuntimeError from None
RuntimeError

Pour plus d'informations sur les mécanismes de chaînage, voir Exceptions natives.

8.6. Exceptions définies par l'utilisateur

Les programmes peuvent nommer leurs propres exceptions en créant une nouvelle classe d'exception (voir Classes pour en savoir plus sur les classes de Python). Les exceptions sont typiquement dérivées de la classe Exception, directement ou non.

Les classes d'exceptions sont des classes comme les autres, et peuvent donc utiliser toutes les fonctionnalités des classes. Néanmoins, en général, elles demeurent assez simples, et se contentent d'offrir des attributs qui permettent aux gestionnaires de ces exceptions d'extraire les informations relatives à l'erreur qui s'est produite.

La plupart des exceptions sont définies avec des noms qui se terminent par "Error", comme les exceptions standards.

Beaucoup de modules standards définissent leurs propres exceptions pour signaler les erreurs possibles dans les fonctions qu'ils définissent.

8.7. Définition d'actions de nettoyage

L'instruction try a une autre clause optionnelle qui est destinée à définir des actions de nettoyage devant être exécutées dans certaines circonstances. Par exemple :

>>> try:
...     raise KeyboardInterrupt
... finally:
...     print('Goodbye, world!')
...
Goodbye, world!
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
    raise KeyboardInterrupt
KeyboardInterrupt

Si la clause finally est présente, la clause finally est la dernière tâche exécutée avant la fin du bloc try. La clause finally se lance que le bloc try produise une exception ou non. Les prochains points parlent de cas plus complexes lorsqu'une exception apparait :

Si une exception se produit durant l'exécution de la clause try, elle peut être récupérée par une clause except. Si l'exception n'est pas récupérée par une clause except, l'exception est levée à nouveau après que la clause finally a été exécutée.

Une exception peut se produire durant l'exécution d'une clause except ou else. Encore une fois, l'exception est reprise après que la clause finally a été exécutée.

If the finally clause executes a break, continue or return statement, exceptions are not re-raised. This can be confusing and is therefore discouraged. From version 3.14 the compiler emits a SyntaxWarning for it (see PEP 765 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0765/]).

Si dans l'exécution d'un bloc try, on atteint une instruction break, continue ou return, alors la clause finally s'exécute juste avant l'exécution de break, continue ou return.

If a finally clause includes a return statement, the returned value will be the one from the finally clause's return statement, not the value from the try clause's return statement. This can be confusing and is therefore discouraged. From version 3.14 the compiler emits a SyntaxWarning for it (see PEP 765 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0765/]).

Par exemple :

>>> def bool_return():
...     try:
...         return True
...     finally:
...         return False
...
>>> bool_return()
False

Un exemple plus compliqué :

>>> def divide(x, y):
...     try:
...         result = x / y
...     except ZeroDivisionError:
...         print("division by zero!")
...     else:
...         print("result is", result)
...     finally:
...         print("executing finally clause")
...
>>> divide(2, 1)
result is 2.0
executing finally clause
>>> divide(2, 0)
division by zero!
executing finally clause
>>> divide("2", "1")
executing finally clause
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
    divide("2", "1")
    ~~~~~~^^^^^^^^^^
  File "<stdin>", line 3, in divide
    result = x / y
             ~~^~~
TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for /: 'str' and 'str'

Comme vous pouvez le voir, la clause finally est exécutée dans tous les cas. L'exception de type TypeError, déclenchée en divisant deux chaînes de caractères, n'est pas prise en charge par la clause except et est donc propagée après que la clause finally a été exécutée.

Dans les vraies applications, la clause finally est notamment utile pour libérer des ressources externes (telles que des fichiers ou des connexions réseau), quelle qu'ait été l'utilisation de ces ressources.

8.8. Actions de nettoyage prédéfinies

Certains objets définissent des actions de nettoyage standards qui doivent être exécutées lorsque l'objet n'est plus nécessaire, indépendamment du fait que l'opération ayant utilisé l'objet ait réussi ou non. Regardez l'exemple suivant, qui tente d'ouvrir un fichier et d'afficher son contenu à l'écran

for line in open("myfile.txt"):
    print(line, end="")

Le problème avec ce code est qu'il laisse le fichier ouvert pendant une durée indéterminée après que le code a fini de s'exécuter. Ce n'est pas un problème avec des scripts simples, mais peut l'être au sein d'applications plus conséquentes. L'instruction with permet d'utiliser certains objets comme des fichiers d'une façon qui assure qu'ils seront toujours nettoyés rapidement et correctement.

with open("myfile.txt") as f:
    for line in f:
        print(line, end="")

Après l'exécution du bloc, le fichier f est toujours fermé, même si un problème est survenu pendant l'exécution de ces lignes. D'autres objets qui, comme pour les fichiers, fournissent des actions de nettoyage prédéfinies l'indiquent dans leur documentation.

8.9. Levée et gestion de multiples exceptions non corrélées

Il existe des situations où il est nécessaire de signaler plusieurs exceptions qui se sont produites. C'est souvent le cas dans les programmes à multiples fils, lorsque plusieurs tâches échouent en parallèle. Mais il existe également d'autres cas où il est souhaitable de poursuivre l'exécution, de collecter plusieurs erreurs plutôt que de lever la première exception rencontrée.

L'idiome natif ExceptionGroup englobe une liste d'instances d'exceptions afin de pouvoir les lever en même temps. C'est une exception, et peut donc être interceptée comme toute autre exception.

>>> def f():
...     excs = [OSError('error 1'), SystemError('error 2')]
...     raise ExceptionGroup('there were problems', excs)
...
>>> f()
  + Exception Group Traceback (most recent call last):
  |   File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
  |     f()
  |     ~^^
  |   File "<stdin>", line 3, in f
  |     raise ExceptionGroup('there were problems', excs)
  | ExceptionGroup: there were problems (2 sub-exceptions)
  +-+---------------- 1 ----------------
    | OSError: error 1
    +---------------- 2 ----------------
    | SystemError: error 2
    +------------------------------------
>>> try:
...     f()
... except Exception as e:
...     print(f'caught {type(e)}: {e}')
...
caught <class 'ExceptionGroup'>: there were problems (2 sub-exceptions)
>>>

En utilisant except* au lieu de except, vous pouvez choisir de ne gérer que les exceptions du groupe qui correspondent à un certain type. Dans l'exemple qui suit, dans lequel se trouve imbriqué un groupe d'exceptions, chaque clause except* extrait du groupe des exceptions d'un certain type tout en laissant toutes les autres exceptions se propager vers d'autres clauses et éventuellement être réactivées.

>>> def f():
...     raise ExceptionGroup(
...         "group1",
...         [
...             OSError(1),
...             SystemError(2),
...             ExceptionGroup(
...                 "group2",
...                 [
...                     OSError(3),
...                     RecursionError(4)
...                 ]
...             )
...         ]
...     )
...
>>> try:
...     f()
... except* OSError as e:
...     print("There were OSErrors")
... except* SystemError as e:
...     print("There were SystemErrors")
...
There were OSErrors
There were SystemErrors
  + Exception Group Traceback (most recent call last):
  |   File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
  |     f()
  |     ~^^
  |   File "<stdin>", line 2, in f
  |     raise ExceptionGroup(
  |     ...<12 lines>...
  |     )
  | ExceptionGroup: group1 (1 sub-exception)
  +-+---------------- 1 ----------------
    | ExceptionGroup: group2 (1 sub-exception)
    +-+---------------- 1 ----------------
      | RecursionError: 4
      +------------------------------------
>>>

Notez que les exceptions imbriquées dans un groupe d'exceptions doivent être des instances, pas des types. En effet, dans la pratique, les exceptions sont normalement celles qui ont déjà été déclenchées et interceptées par le programme, en utilisant le modèle suivant :

>>> excs = []
... for test in tests:
...     try:
...         test.run()
...     except Exception as e:
...         excs.append(e)
...
>>> if excs:
...    raise ExceptionGroup("Test Failures", excs)
...

8.10. Enrichissement des exceptions avec des notes

Quand une exception est créée pour être levée, elle est généralement initialisée avec des informations décrivant l'erreur qui s'est produite. Il existe des cas où il est utile d'ajouter des informations après que l'exception a été interceptée. Dans ce but, les exceptions ont une méthode add_note(note) qui reçoit une chaîne et l'ajoute à la liste des notes de l'exception. L'affichage de la pile de trace standard inclut toutes les notes, dans l'ordre dans lequel elles ont été ajoutées, après l'exception.

>>> try:
...     raise TypeError('bad type')
... except Exception as e:
...     e.add_note('Add some information')
...     e.add_note('Add some more information')
...     raise
...
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
    raise TypeError('bad type')
TypeError: bad type
Add some information
Add some more information
>>>

Par exemple, lors de la collecte d'exceptions dans un groupe d'exceptions, il est probable que vous souhaitiez ajouter des informations de contexte aux erreurs individuelles. Dans ce qui suit, chaque exception du groupe est accompagnée d'une note indiquant quand cette erreur s'est produite.

>>> def f():
...     raise OSError('operation failed')
...
>>> excs = []
>>> for i in range(3):
...     try:
...         f()
...     except Exception as e:
...         e.add_note(f'Happened in Iteration {i+1}')
...         excs.append(e)
...
>>> raise ExceptionGroup('We have some problems', excs)
  + Exception Group Traceback (most recent call last):
  |   File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
  |     raise ExceptionGroup('We have some problems', excs)
  | ExceptionGroup: We have some problems (3 sub-exceptions)
  +-+---------------- 1 ----------------
    | Traceback (most recent call last):
    |   File "<stdin>", line 3, in <module>
    |     f()
    |     ~^^
    |   File "<stdin>", line 2, in f
    |     raise OSError('operation failed')
    | OSError: operation failed
    | Happened in Iteration 1
    +---------------- 2 ----------------
    | Traceback (most recent call last):
    |   File "<stdin>", line 3, in <module>
    |     f()
    |     ~^^
    |   File "<stdin>", line 2, in f
    |     raise OSError('operation failed')
    | OSError: operation failed
    | Happened in Iteration 2
    +---------------- 3 ----------------
    | Traceback (most recent call last):
    |   File "<stdin>", line 3, in <module>
    |     f()
    |     ~^^
    |   File "<stdin>", line 2, in f
    |     raise OSError('operation failed')
    | OSError: operation failed
    | Happened in Iteration 3
    +------------------------------------
>>>

9. Classes

Les classes sont un moyen de réunir des données et des fonctionnalités. Créer une nouvelle classe crée un nouveau type d'objet et ainsi de nouvelles instances de ce type peuvent être construites. Chaque instance peut avoir ses propres attributs, ce qui définit son état. Une instance peut aussi avoir des méthodes (définies par la classe de l'instance) pour modifier son état.

La notion de classes en Python s'inscrit dans le langage avec un minimum de syntaxe et de sémantique nouvelles. C'est un mélange des mécanismes rencontrés dans C++ et Modula-3. Les classes fournissent toutes les fonctionnalités standards de la programmation orientée objet : l'héritage de classes autorise les héritages multiples, une classe dérivée peut surcharger les méthodes de sa ou ses classes mères et une méthode peut appeler la méthode d'une classe mère qui possède le même nom. Les objets peuvent contenir n'importe quel nombre ou type de données. De la même manière que les modules, les classes participent à la nature dynamique de Python : elles sont créées pendant l'exécution et peuvent être modifiées après leur création.

Dans la terminologie C++, les membres des classes (y compris les données) sont publics (sauf exception, voir Variables privées) et toutes les fonctions membres sont virtuelles. Comme avec Modula-3, il n'y a aucune façon d'accéder aux membres d'un objet à partir de ses méthodes : une méthode est déclarée avec un premier argument explicite représentant l'objet et cet argument est transmis de manière implicite lors de l'appel. Comme avec Smalltalk, les classes elles-mêmes sont des objets. Il existe ainsi une sémantique pour les importer et les renommer. Au contraire de C++ et Modula-3, les types natifs peuvent être utilisés comme classes mères pour être étendus par l'utilisateur. Enfin, comme en C++, la plupart des opérateurs natifs avec une syntaxe spéciale (opérateurs arithmétiques, indiçage, etc.) peuvent être redéfinis pour les instances de classes.

En l'absence d'une terminologie communément admise pour parler des classes, nous utilisons parfois des termes de Smalltalk et C++. Nous voulions utiliser les termes de Modula-3 puisque sa sémantique orientée objet est plus proche de celle de Python que C++, mais il est probable que seul un petit nombre de lecteurs les connaissent.

9.1. Objets et noms : préambule

Les objets possèdent une existence propre et plusieurs noms peuvent être utilisés (dans divers contextes) pour faire référence à un même objet. Ce concept est connu sous le nom d'alias dans d'autres langages. Il n'apparaît pas au premier coup d'œil en Python et il peut être ignoré tant qu'on travaille avec des types de base immuables (nombres, chaînes, n-uplets). Cependant, les alias peuvent produire des effets surprenants sur la sémantique d'un code Python mettant en jeu des objets mutables comme les listes, les dictionnaires et la plupart des autres types. En général, leur utilisation est bénéfique au programme car les alias se comportent, d'un certain point de vue, comme des pointeurs. Par exemple, transmettre un objet n'a aucun coût car c'est simplement un pointeur qui est transmis par l'implémentation ; et si une fonction modifie un objet passé en argument, le code à l'origine de l'appel voit le changement. Ceci élimine le besoin d'avoir deux mécanismes de transmission d'arguments comme en Pascal.

9.2. Portées et espaces de nommage en Python

Avant de présenter les classes, nous devons aborder la notion de portée en Python. Les définitions de classes font d'habiles manipulations avec les espaces de nommage, vous devez donc savoir comment les portées et les espaces de nommage fonctionnent. Soit dit en passant, la connaissance de ce sujet est aussi utile aux développeurs Python expérimentés.

Commençons par quelques définitions.

Un espace de nommage est une table de correspondance entre des noms et des objets. La plupart des espaces de nommage sont actuellement implémentés sous forme de dictionnaires Python, mais ceci n'est normalement pas visible (sauf pour les performances) et peut changer dans le futur. Comme exemples d'espaces de nommage, nous pouvons citer les primitives (fonctions comme abs() et les noms des exceptions de base) ; les noms globaux dans un module ; et les noms locaux lors d'un appel de fonction. D'une certaine manière, l'ensemble des attributs d'un objet forme lui-même un espace de nommage. L'important à retenir concernant les espaces de nommage est qu'il n'y a absolument aucun lien entre les noms de différents espaces de nommage ; par exemple, deux modules différents peuvent définir une fonction maximize sans qu'il n'y ait de confusion. Les utilisateurs des modules doivent préfixer le nom de la fonction avec celui du module.

À ce propos, nous utilisons le mot attribut pour tout nom suivant un point. Par exemple, dans l'expression z.real, real est un attribut de l'objet z. Rigoureusement parlant, les références à des noms dans des modules sont des références d'attributs : dans l'expression nommodule.nomfonction, nommodule est un objet module et nomfonction est un attribut de cet objet. Dans ces conditions, il existe une correspondance directe entre les attributs du module et les noms globaux définis dans le module : ils partagent le même espace de nommage [1] !

Les attributs peuvent être en lecture seule ou modifiables. S'ils sont modifiables, l'affectation à un attribut est possible. Les attributs de modules sont modifiables : vous pouvez écrire nommodule.la_reponse = 42. Les attributs modifiables peuvent aussi être effacés avec l'instruction del. Par exemple, del nommodule.la_reponse supprime l'attribut la_reponse de l'objet nommé nommodule.

Les espaces de nommage sont créés à différents moments et ont différentes durées de vie. L'espace de nommage contenant les primitives est créé au démarrage de l'interpréteur Python et n'est jamais effacé. L'espace de nommage globaux pour un module est créé lorsque la définition du module est lue. Habituellement, les espaces de nommage des modules durent aussi jusqu'à l'arrêt de l'interpréteur. Les instructions exécutées par la première invocation de l'interpréteur, qu'elles soient lues depuis un fichier de script ou de manière interactive, sont considérées comme faisant partie d'un module appelé __main__, de façon qu'elles possèdent leur propre espace de nommage (les primitives vivent elles-mêmes dans un module, appelé builtins).

L'espace des noms locaux d'une fonction est créé lors de son appel, puis effacé lorsqu'elle renvoie un résultat ou lève une exception non prise en charge (en fait, « oublié » serait une meilleure façon de décrire ce qui se passe réellement). Bien sûr, des invocations récursives ont chacune leur propre espace de nommage.

La portée est la zone textuelle d'un programme Python où un espace de nommage est directement accessible. « Directement accessible » signifie ici qu'une référence non qualifiée à un nom est cherchée dans l'espace de nommage.

Bien que les portées soient déterminées de manière statique, elles sont utilisées de manière dynamique. À n'importe quel moment de l'exécution, il y a au minimum trois ou quatre portées imbriquées dont les espaces de nommage sont directement accessibles :

la portée la plus au centre, celle qui est consultée en premier, contient les noms locaux ;

les portées des fonctions englobantes, qui sont consultées en commençant avec la portée englobante la plus proche, contiennent des noms non-locaux mais aussi non-globaux ;

l'avant-dernière portée contient les noms globaux du module courant ;

la portée englobante, consultée en dernier, est l'espace de nommage contenant les primitives.

Si un nom est déclaré comme global, alors toutes les références et affectations vont directement dans l'avant-dernière portée contenant les noms globaux du module. Pour pointer une variable qui se trouve en dehors de la portée la plus locale, vous pouvez utiliser l'instruction nonlocal. Si une telle variable n'est pas déclarée nonlocal, elle est en lecture seule (toute tentative de la modifier crée simplement une nouvelle variable dans la portée la plus locale, en laissant inchangée la variable du même nom dans sa portée d'origine).

Habituellement, la portée locale référence les noms locaux de la fonction courante. En dehors des fonctions, la portée locale référence le même espace de nommage que la portée globale : l'espace de nommage du module. Les définitions de classes créent un nouvel espace de nommage dans la portée locale.

Il est important de réaliser que les portées sont déterminées de manière textuelle : la portée globale d'une fonction définie dans un module est l'espace de nommage de ce module, quelle que soit la provenance de l'appel à la fonction. En revanche, la recherche réelle des noms est faite dynamiquement au moment de l'exécution. Cependant la définition du langage est en train d'évoluer vers une résolution statique des noms au moment de la « compilation », donc ne vous basez pas sur une résolution dynamique (en réalité, les variables locales sont déjà déterminées de manière statique) !

Une particularité de Python est que, si aucune instruction global ou nonlocal n'est active, les affectations de noms vont toujours dans la portée la plus proche. Les affectations ne copient aucune donnée : elles se contentent de lier des noms à des objets. Ceci est également vrai pour l'effacement : l'instruction del x supprime la liaison de x dans l'espace de nommage référencé par la portée locale. En réalité, toutes les opérations qui impliquent des nouveaux noms utilisent la portée locale : en particulier, les instructions import et les définitions de fonctions effectuent une liaison du module ou du nom de fonction dans la portée locale.

L'instruction global peut être utilisée pour indiquer que certaines variables existent dans la portée globale et doivent être reliées en local ; l'instruction nonlocal indique que certaines variables existent dans une portée supérieure et doivent être reliées en local.

9.2.1. Exemple de portées et d'espaces de nommage

Ceci est un exemple montrant comment utiliser les différentes portées et espaces de nommage, et comment global et nonlocal modifient l'affectation de variable :

def scope_test():
    def do_local():
        spam = "local spam"

    def do_nonlocal():
        nonlocal spam
        spam = "nonlocal spam"

    def do_global():
        global spam
        spam = "global spam"

    spam = "test spam"
    do_local()
    print("After local assignment:", spam)
    do_nonlocal()
    print("After nonlocal assignment:", spam)
    do_global()
    print("After global assignment:", spam)

scope_test()
print("In global scope:", spam)

Ce code donne le résultat suivant :

After local assignment: test spam
After nonlocal assignment: nonlocal spam
After global assignment: nonlocal spam
In global scope: global spam

Vous pouvez constater que l'affectation locale (qui est effectuée par défaut) n'a pas modifié la liaison de spam dans scope_test. L'affectation nonlocal a changé la liaison de spam dans scope_test et l'affectation global a changé la liaison au niveau du module.

Vous pouvez également voir qu'aucune liaison pour spam n'a été faite avant l'affectation global.

9.3. Une première approche des classes

Le concept de classe introduit un peu de syntaxe nouvelle, trois nouveaux types d'objets ainsi que quelques nouveaux éléments de sémantique.

9.3.1. Syntaxe de définition des classes

La forme la plus simple de définition d'une classe est la suivante :

class ClassName:
    <statement-1>
    .
    .
    .
    <statement-N>

Les définitions de classes, comme les définitions de fonctions (définitions def), doivent être exécutées avant d'avoir un effet. Vous pouvez tout à fait placer une définition de classe dans une branche d'une instruction conditionnelle if ou encore à l'intérieur d'une fonction.

Dans la pratique, les déclarations dans une définition de classe sont généralement des définitions de fonctions mais d'autres déclarations sont permises et parfois utiles (nous revenons sur ce point plus tard). Les définitions de fonction à l'intérieur d'une classe ont normalement une forme particulière de liste d'arguments, dictée par les conventions d'appel aux méthodes (à nouveau, tout ceci est expliqué plus loin).

Quand une classe est définie, un nouvel espace de nommage est créé et utilisé comme portée locale. Ainsi, toutes les affectations de variables locales entrent dans ce nouvel espace de nommage. En particulier, les définitions de fonctions y lient le nom de la nouvelle fonction.

À la fin de la définition d'une classe, un objet classe est créé. C'est, pour simplifier, une encapsulation du contenu de l'espace de nommage créé par la définition de classe. Nous en apprendrons plus sur les objets classes dans la prochaine section. La portée locale initiale (celle qui prévaut avant le début de la définition de la classe) est ré-instanciée et l'objet de classe est lié ici au nom de classe donné dans l'en-tête de définition de classe (ClassName dans l'exemple).

9.3.2. Objets classes

Les objets classes prennent en charge deux types d'opérations : des références à des attributs et l'instanciation.

Les références d'attributs utilisent la syntaxe standard utilisée pour toutes les références d'attributs en Python : obj.nom. Les noms d'attribut valides sont tous les noms qui se trouvaient dans l'espace de nommage de la classe quand l'objet classe a été créé. Donc, si la définition de classe est de cette forme :

class MyClass:
    """A simple example class"""
    i = 12345

    def f(self):
        return 'hello world'

alors MyClass.i et MyClass.f sont des références valides à des attributs, renvoyant respectivement un entier et un objet fonction. Les attributs de classes peuvent également être affectés, de sorte que vous pouvez modifier la valeur de MyClass.i par affectation. __doc__ est aussi un attribut valide, renvoyant la docstring appartenant à la classe : "A simple example class".

L'instanciation de classes utilise la notation des fonctions. Considérez simplement que l'objet classe est une fonction sans paramètre qui renvoie une nouvelle instance de la classe. Par exemple (en considérant la classe définie ci-dessus) :

x = MyClass()

crée une nouvelle instance de la classe et affecte cet objet à la variable locale x.

L'opération d'instanciation (en "appelant" un objet classe) crée un objet vide. De nombreuses classes aiment créer des instances personnalisées correspondant à un état initial spécifique. À cet effet, une classe peut définir une méthode spéciale nommée __init__(), comme ceci :

def __init__(self):
    self.data = []

Quand une classe définit une méthode __init__(), l'instanciation de la classe appelle automatiquement __init__() pour la nouvelle instance de la classe. Donc, dans cet exemple, l'initialisation d'une nouvelle instance peut être obtenue par :

x = MyClass()

Bien sûr, la méthode __init__() peut avoir des arguments pour une plus grande flexibilité. Dans ce cas, les arguments donnés à l'opérateur d'instanciation de classe sont transmis à __init__(). Par exemple

>>> class Complex:
...     def __init__(self, realpart, imagpart):
...         self.r = realpart
...         self.i = imagpart
...
>>> x = Complex(3.0, -4.5)
>>> x.r, x.i
(3.0, -4.5)

9.3.3. Objets instances

Maintenant, que pouvons-nous faire avec des objets instances ? Les seules opérations comprises par les objets instances sont des références d'attributs. Il y a deux sortes de noms d'attributs valides, les attributs 'données' et les méthodes.

Les attributs 'données' correspondent à des « variables d'instance » en Smalltalk et aux « membres de données » en C++. Les attributs 'données' n'ont pas à être déclarés. Comme les variables locales, ils existent dès lors qu'ils sont assignés une première fois. Par exemple, si x est l'instance de MyClass créée ci-dessus, le code suivant affiche la valeur 16, sans laisser de trace :

x.counter = 1
while x.counter < 10:
    x.counter = x.counter * 2
print(x.counter)
del x.counter

La deuxième sorte d'attribut d'instance est une méthode. Une méthode est une fonction qui « appartient à » un objet.

Les noms de méthodes valides d'un objet instance dépendent de sa classe. Par définition, tous les attributs d'une classe qui sont des objets fonctions définissent les méthodes correspondantes de ses instances. Donc, dans notre exemple, x.f est une référence valide à une méthode car MyClass.f est une fonction, mais pas x.i car MyClass.i n'en est pas une. Attention cependant, x.f n'est pas la même chose que MyClass.f. Il s'agit d'un objet méthode, pas d'un objet fonction.

9.3.4. Objets méthode

Le plus souvent, une méthode est appelée juste après avoir été liée :

x.f()

Si x = MyClass(), comme ci-dessus, cela renvoie la chaîne de caractères hello world. Toutefois, il n'est pas nécessaire d'appeler la méthode directement : x.f est un objet méthode, il peut être gardé de côté et être appelé plus tard. Par exemple :

xf = x.f
while True:
    print(xf())

affiche hello world jusqu'à la fin des temps.

Que se passe-t-il exactement quand une méthode est appelée ? Vous avez dû remarquer que x.f() a été appelée dans le code ci-dessus sans argument, alors que la définition de la méthode f() spécifie bien qu'elle prend un argument. Qu'est-il arrivé à l'argument ? Python doit sûrement lever une exception lorsqu'une fonction qui requiert un argument est appelée sans -- même si l'argument n'est pas utilisé…

En fait, vous avez peut-être deviné la réponse : la particularité des méthodes est que l'objet est passé comme premier argument de la fonction. Dans notre exemple, l'appel x.f() est exactement équivalent à MyClass.f(x). En général, appeler une méthode avec une liste de n arguments est équivalent à appeler la fonction correspondante avec une liste d'arguments créée en ajoutant l'instance de l'objet de la méthode avant le premier argument.

En général, les méthodes marchent de la manière suivante. Lorsque un attribut d'une instance est référencé et que ce n'est pas un attribut 'données', sa classe est recherchée. Si le nom correspond à un attribut valide et que c'est un objet fonction, des références à l'objet instance et l'objet fonction sont empaquetées dans un objet méthode. Quand l'objet méthode est appelé avec une liste d'arguments, une nouvelle liste d'arguments est construite à partir de l'objet instance et de la liste des arguments. L'objet fonction est alors appelé avec cette nouvelle liste d'arguments.

9.3.5. Variables de classe et d’instance

En général, les variables d'instance stockent des informations relatives à chaque instance alors que les variables de classe servent à stocker les attributs et méthodes communes à toutes les instances de la classe :

class Dog:

    kind = 'canine'         # class variable shared by all instances

    def __init__(self, name):
        self.name = name    # instance variable unique to each instance

>>> d = Dog('Fido')
>>> e = Dog('Buddy')
>>> d.kind                  # shared by all dogs
'canine'
>>> e.kind                  # shared by all dogs
'canine'
>>> d.name                  # unique to d
'Fido'
>>> e.name                  # unique to e
'Buddy'

As discussed in Objets et noms : préambule, shared data can have possibly surprising effects involving mutable objects such as lists and dictionaries. For example, the tricks list in the following code should not be used as a class variable because just a single list would be shared by all Dog instances:

class Dog:

    tricks = []             # mistaken use of a class variable

    def __init__(self, name):
        self.name = name

    def add_trick(self, trick):
        self.tricks.append(trick)

>>> d = Dog('Fido')
>>> e = Dog('Buddy')
>>> d.add_trick('roll over')
>>> e.add_trick('play dead')
>>> d.tricks                # unexpectedly shared by all dogs
['roll over', 'play dead']

Une conception correcte de la classe est d'utiliser une variable d'instance à la place :

class Dog:

    def __init__(self, name):
        self.name = name
        self.tricks = []    # creates a new empty list for each dog

    def add_trick(self, trick):
        self.tricks.append(trick)

>>> d = Dog('Fido')
>>> e = Dog('Buddy')
>>> d.add_trick('roll over')
>>> e.add_trick('play dead')
>>> d.tricks
['roll over']
>>> e.tricks
['play dead']

9.4. Remarques diverses

Si le même nom d'attribut apparaît à la fois dans une instance et dans une classe, alors la recherche d'attribut donne la priorité à l'instance :

>>> class Warehouse:
...    purpose = 'storage'
...    region = 'west'
...
>>> w1 = Warehouse()
>>> print(w1.purpose, w1.region)
storage west
>>> w2 = Warehouse()
>>> w2.region = 'east'
>>> print(w2.purpose, w2.region)
storage east

Les attributs 'données' peuvent être référencés par des méthodes comme par des utilisateurs ordinaires ("clients") d'un objet. En d'autres termes, les classes ne sont pas utilisables pour implémenter des types de données purement abstraits. En fait, il n'est pas possible en Python d'imposer de masquer des données — tout est basé sur des conventions (d'un autre côté, l'implémentation de Python, écrite en C, peut complètement masquer les détails d'implémentation et contrôler l'accès à un objet si nécessaire ; ceci peut être utilisé par des extensions de Python écrites en C).

Les clients doivent utiliser les attributs 'données' avec précaution, ils pourraient mettre le désordre dans les invariants gérés par les méthodes avec leurs propres valeurs d'attributs. Remarquez que les clients peuvent ajouter leurs propres attributs 'données' à une instance d'objet sans altérer la validité des méthodes, pour autant que les noms n'entrent pas en conflit, là aussi adopter une convention de nommage peut éviter bien des problèmes.

Il n'y a pas de notation abrégée pour référencer des attributs 'données' (ou les autres méthodes !) depuis les méthodes. Nous pensons que ceci améliore en fait la lisibilité des méthodes : il n'y a aucune chance de confondre variables locales et variables d'instances quand on regarde le code d'une méthode.

Souvent, le premier argument d'une méthode est nommé self. Ce n'est qu'une convention : le nom self n'a aucune signification particulière en Python. Notez cependant que si vous ne suivez pas cette convention, votre code risque d'être moins lisible pour d'autres programmeurs Python et il est aussi possible qu'un programme qui fasse l'introspection de classes repose sur une telle convention.

Tout objet fonction qui est un attribut de classe définit une méthode pour des instances de cette classe. Il n'est pas nécessaire que le texte de définition de la fonction soit dans la définition de la classe : il est possible d'affecter un objet fonction à une variable locale de la classe. Par exemple :

# Function defined outside the class
def f1(self, x, y):
    return min(x, x+y)

class C:
    f = f1

    def g(self):
        return 'hello world'

    h = g

Maintenant, f, g et h sont toutes des attributs de la classe C et font référence à des fonctions objets. Par conséquent, ce sont toutes des méthodes des instances de C, h est exactement identique à g. Remarquez qu'en pratique, ceci ne sert qu'à embrouiller le lecteur d'un programme.

Les méthodes peuvent appeler d'autres méthodes en utilisant des méthodes qui sont des attributs de l'argument self :

class Bag:
    def __init__(self):
        self.data = []

    def add(self, x):
        self.data.append(x)

    def addtwice(self, x):
        self.add(x)
        self.add(x)

Les méthodes peuvent faire référence à des noms globaux de la même manière que les fonctions. La portée globale associée à une méthode est le module contenant la définition de la classe (la classe elle-même n'est jamais utilisée en tant que portée globale). Alors qu'il est rare d'avoir une bonne raison d'utiliser des données globales dans une méthode, il y a de nombreuses utilisations légitimes de la portée globale : par exemple, les fonctions et modules importés dans une portée globale peuvent être utilisés par des méthodes, de même que les fonctions et classes définies dans cette même portée. Habituellement, la classe contenant la méthode est elle-même définie dans cette portée globale et, dans la section suivante, nous verrons de bonnes raisons pour qu'une méthode référence sa propre classe.

Toute valeur est un objet et a donc une classe (appelée aussi son type). Elle est stockée dans objet.__class__.

9.5. Héritage

Bien sûr, ce terme de "classe" ne serait pas utilisé s'il n'y avait pas d'héritage. La syntaxe pour définir une sous-classe est de cette forme :

class DerivedClassName(BaseClassName):
    <statement-1>
    .
    .
    .
    <statement-N>

Le nom BaseClassName doit être défini dans une portée contenant la définition de la classe dérivée. À la place du nom d'une classe mère, une expression est aussi autorisée. Ceci peut être utile, par exemple, lorsque la classe mère est définie dans un autre module :

class DerivedClassName(modname.BaseClassName):

L'exécution d'une définition de classe dérivée se déroule comme pour une classe mère. Quand l'objet de la classe est construit, la classe mère est mémorisée. Elle est utilisée pour la résolution des références d'attributs : si un attribut n'est pas trouvé dans la classe, la recherche se poursuit en regardant dans la classe mère. Cette règle est appliquée récursivement si la classe mère est elle-même dérivée d'une autre classe.

Il n'y a rien de particulier dans l'instanciation des classes dérivées : DerivedClassName() crée une nouvelle instance de la classe. Les références aux méthodes sont résolues comme suit : l'attribut correspondant de la classe est recherché, en remontant la hiérarchie des classes mères si nécessaire, et la référence de méthode est valide si cela conduit à une fonction.

Les classes dérivées peuvent surcharger des méthodes de leurs classes mères. Comme les méthodes n'ont aucun privilège particulier quand elles appellent d'autres méthodes d'un même objet, une méthode d'une classe mère qui appelle une autre méthode définie dans la même classe peut en fait appeler une méthode d'une classe dérivée qui la surcharge (pour les programmeurs C++ : toutes les méthodes de Python sont en effet "virtuelles").

Une méthode dans une classe dérivée peut aussi, en fait, vouloir étendre plutôt que simplement remplacer la méthode du même nom de sa classe mère. L'appel direct à la méthode de la classe mère s'écrit simplement BaseClassName.nomMethode(self, arguments). C'est parfois utile également aux clients (notez bien que ceci ne fonctionne que si la classe mère est accessible en tant que BaseClassName dans la portée globale).

Python définit deux fonctions primitives pour gérer l'héritage :

utilisez isinstance() pour tester le type d'une instance : isinstance(obj, int) renvoie True seulement si obj.__class__ est égal à int ou à une autre classe dérivée de int ;

utilisez issubclass() pour tester l'héritage d'une classe : issubclass(bool, int) renvoie True car la classe bool est une sous-classe de int. Cependant, issubclass(float, int) renvoie False car float n'est pas une sous-classe de int.

9.5.1. Héritage multiple

Python gère également une forme d'héritage multiple. Une définition de classe ayant plusieurs classes mères est de cette forme :

class DerivedClassName(Base1, Base2, Base3):
    <statement-1>
    .
    .
    .
    <statement-N>

Dans la plupart des cas, vous pouvez vous représenter la recherche d'attributs dans les classes parentes comme étant : le plus profond d'abord, de gauche à droite, sans chercher deux fois dans la même classe si elle apparaît plusieurs fois dans la hiérarchie. Ainsi, si un attribut n'est pas trouvé dans DerivedClassName, il est recherché dans Base1, puis (récursivement) dans les classes mères de Base1 ; s'il n'y est pas trouvé, il est recherché dans Base2 et ses classes mères, et ainsi de suite.

Dans les faits, c'est un peu plus complexe que ça ; l'ordre de la recherche (method resolution order, ou MRO en anglais) change dynamiquement pour gérer des appels coopératifs à super(). Cette approche est connue sous le nom de la "appel de la méthode la plus proche" (call-next-method en anglais) dans d'autres langages avec héritage multiple. Elle est plus puissante que le simple appel à super que l'on trouve dans les langages à héritage simple.

L'ordre défini dynamiquement est nécessaire car tous les cas d'héritage multiple comportent une ou plusieurs relations en losange (où au moins une classe peut être accédée à partir de plusieurs chemins en partant de la classe la plus basse). Par exemple, puisque toutes les classes héritent de object, tout héritage multiple ouvre plusieurs chemins pour atteindre object. Pour qu'une classe mère ne soit pas appelée plusieurs fois, l'algorithme dynamique linéarise l'ordre de recherche d'une façon qui préserve l'ordre d'héritage, de la gauche vers la droite, spécifié dans chaque classe, qui appelle chaque classe parente une seule fois, qui est monotone (ce qui signifie qu'une classe peut être sous-classée sans affecter l'ordre d'héritage de ses parents). Prises ensemble, ces propriétés permettent de concevoir des classes de façon fiable et extensible dans un contexte d'héritage multiple. Pour plus de détails, consultez The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order.

9.6. Variables privées

Les membres "privés", qui ne peuvent être accédés que depuis l'intérieur d'un objet, n'existent pas en Python. Toutefois, il existe une convention respectée par la majorité du code Python : un nom préfixé par un tiret bas (comme _spam) doit être considéré comme une partie non publique de l'API (qu'il s'agisse d'une fonction, d'une méthode ou d'un attribut 'données'). Il doit être vu comme un détail d'implémentation pouvant faire l'objet de modifications futures sans préavis.

Dès lors qu'il y a un cas d'utilisation valable pour avoir des attributs privés aux classes (notamment pour éviter des conflits avec des noms définis dans des sous-classes), il existe un support (certes limité) pour un tel mécanisme, appelé name mangling. Tout identifiant de la forme __spam (avec au moins deux tirets bas en tête et au plus un à la fin) est remplacé textuellement par _classname__spam, où classname est le nom de la classe sans le ou les premiers tirets-bas. Ce "découpage" est effectué sans tenir compte de la position syntaxique de l'identifiant, tant qu'il est présent dans la définition d'une classe.

Voir aussi

La spécification des transformations de noms pour les détails et cas particuliers.

Ce changement de nom est utile pour permettre à des sous-classes de surcharger des méthodes sans casser les appels de méthodes à l'intérieur d'une classe. Par exemple :

class Mapping:
    def __init__(self, iterable):
        self.items_list = []
        self.__update(iterable)

    def update(self, iterable):
        for item in iterable:
            self.items_list.append(item)

    __update = update   # private copy of original update() method

class MappingSubclass(Mapping):

    def update(self, keys, values):
        # provides new signature for update()
        # but does not break __init__()
        for item in zip(keys, values):
            self.items_list.append(item)

L'exemple si dessus fonctionnerait même si MappingSubclass introduisait un identifieur __update puisqu'il a été remplacé avec _Mapping__update dans la classe Mapping et _MappingSubclass__update dans la classe MappingSubclass respectivement.

Notez que ces règles sont conçues avant tout pour éviter les accidents ; il reste possible d'accéder ou de modifier une variable considérée comme privée. Ceci peut même être utile dans certaines circonstances, comme au sein du débogueur.

Remarquez que le code que vous passez à exec(), eval() ne considère pas le nom de la classe appelante comme étant la classe courante ; le même effet s'applique à la directive global dont l'effet est, de la même façon, restreint au code compilé dans le même ensemble de byte-code. Les mêmes restrictions s'appliquent à getattr(), setattr() et delattr(), ainsi qu'aux références directes à __dict__.

9.7. Trucs et astuces

Il est parfois utile d'avoir un type de donnée similaire au record du Pascal ou au struct du C, qui regroupent ensemble quelques attributs « données » nommés. L'approche idiomatique correspondante en Python est d'utiliser des dataclasses :

from dataclasses import dataclass

@dataclass
class Employee:
    name: str
    dept: str
    salary: int

>>> john = Employee('john', 'computer lab', 1000)
>>> john.dept
'computer lab'
>>> john.salary
1000

À du code Python qui s'attend à recevoir un type de donnée abstrait spécifique, on peut souvent fournir une classe qui simule les méthodes de ce type. Par exemple, à une fonction qui formate des données extraites d'un objet fichier, vous pouvez lui passer comme argument une instance d'une classe qui implémente les méthodes read() et readline() en puisant ses données à partir d'un tampon de chaînes de caractères.

Les objets méthode d'instance ont aussi des attributs : m.__self__ est l'instance de l’objet ayant la méthode m() et m.__func__ est l'objet fonction correspondant à la méthode.

9.8. Itérateurs

Vous avez maintenant certainement remarqué que l'on peut itérer sur la plupart des objets conteneurs en utilisant une instruction for :

for element in [1, 2, 3]:
    print(element)
for element in (1, 2, 3):
    print(element)
for key in {'one':1, 'two':2}:
    print(key)
for char in "123":
    print(char)
for line in open("myfile.txt"):
    print(line, end='')

Ce style est simple, concis et pratique. L'utilisation d'itérateurs imprègne et unifie Python. En arrière plan, l'instruction for appelle la fonction iter() sur l'objet conteneur. Cette fonction renvoie un objet itérateur qui définit la méthode __next__(), laquelle accède aux éléments du conteneur un par un. Lorsqu'il n'y a plus d'élément, __next__() lève une exception StopIteration qui indique à la boucle de l'instruction for de se terminer. Vous pouvez appeler la méthode __next__() en utilisant la fonction native next(). Cet exemple montre comment tout cela fonctionne :

>>> s = 'abc'
>>> it = iter(s)
>>> it
<str_iterator object at 0x10c90e650>
>>> next(it)
'a'
>>> next(it)
'b'
>>> next(it)
'c'
>>> next(it)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
    next(it)
StopIteration

Une fois compris les mécanismes de gestion des itérateurs, il est simple d'ajouter ce comportement à vos classes. Définissez une méthode __iter__() qui renvoie un objet disposant d'une méthode !__next__(). Si la classe définit elle-même la méthode __next__(), alors __iter__() peut simplement renvoyer self :

class Reverse:
    """Iterator for looping over a sequence backwards."""
    def __init__(self, data):
        self.data = data
        self.index = len(data)

    def __iter__(self):
        return self

    def __next__(self):
        if self.index == 0:
            raise StopIteration
        self.index = self.index - 1
        return self.data[self.index]

>>> rev = Reverse('spam')
>>> iter(rev)
<__main__.Reverse object at 0x00A1DB50>
>>> for char in rev:
...     print(char)
...
m
a
p
s

9.9. Générateurs

Les générateurs sont des outils simples et puissants pour créer des itérateurs. Ils sont écrits comme des fonctions classiques mais utilisent l'instruction yield lorsqu'ils veulent renvoyer des données. À chaque fois qu'il est appelé par next(), le générateur reprend son exécution là où il s'était arrêté (en conservant tout son contexte d'exécution). Un exemple montre très bien combien les générateurs sont simples à créer :

def reverse(data):
    for index in range(len(data)-1, -1, -1):
        yield data[index]

>>> for char in reverse('golf'):
...     print(char)
...
f
l
o
g

Tout ce qui peut être fait avec des générateurs peut également être fait avec des itérateurs basés sur des classes, comme décrit dans le paragraphe précédent. Ce qui rend les générateurs si compacts, c'est que les méthodes __iter__() et __next__() sont créées automatiquement.

Une autre fonctionnalité clé est que les variables locales ainsi que le contexte d'exécution sont sauvegardés automatiquement entre les appels. Cela simplifie d'autant plus l'écriture de ces fonctions et rend leur code beaucoup plus lisible qu'avec une approche utilisant des variables d'instance telles que self.index et self.data.

En plus de la création automatique de méthodes et de la sauvegarde du contexte d'exécution, les générateurs lèvent automatiquement une exception StopIteration lorsqu'ils terminent leur exécution. La combinaison de ces fonctionnalités rend très simple la création d'itérateurs, sans plus d'effort que l'écriture d'une fonction classique.

9.10. Expressions et générateurs

Des générateurs simples peuvent être codés très rapidement avec des expressions utilisant la même syntaxe que les compréhensions de listes, mais en utilisant des parenthèses à la place des crochets. Ces expressions sont conçues pour des situations où le générateur est utilisé tout de suite dans une fonction. Ces expressions sont plus compactes mais moins souples que des définitions complètes de générateurs et ont tendance à être plus économes en mémoire que leur équivalent en compréhension de listes.

Exemples :

>>> sum(i*i for i in range(10))                 # sum of squares
285

>>> xvec = [10, 20, 30]
>>> yvec = [7, 5, 3]
>>> sum(x*y for x,y in zip(xvec, yvec))         # dot product
260

>>> unique_words = set(word for line in page  for word in line.split())

>>> valedictorian = max((student.gpa, student.name) for student in graduates)

>>> data = 'golf'
>>> list(data[i] for i in range(len(data)-1, -1, -1))
['f', 'l', 'o', 'g']

Notes de bas de page

[1]

Il existe une exception : les modules disposent d'un attribut secret en lecture seule appelé __dict__ qui renvoie le dictionnaire utilisé pour implémenter l'espace de nommage du module ; le nom __dict__ est un attribut mais pas un nom global. Évidemment, si vous l'utilisez, vous brisez l'abstraction de l'implémentation des espaces de nommage. Il est donc réservé à des choses comme les débogueurs post-mortem.

10. Brief tour of the standard library

10.1. Operating system interface

Le module os propose des dizaines de fonctions pour interagir avec le système d'exploitation :

>>> import os
>>> os.getcwd()      # Return the current working directory
'C:\\Python314'
>>> os.chdir('/server/accesslogs')   # Change current working directory
>>> os.system('mkdir today')   # Run the command mkdir in the system shell
0

Veillez bien à utiliser import os plutôt que from os import *, sinon os.open() cache la primitive open() qui fonctionne différemment.

Les primitives dir() et help() sont des aides utiles lorsque vous travaillez en mode interactif avez des gros modules comme os :

>>> import os
>>> dir(os)
<returns a list of all module functions>
>>> help(os)
<returns an extensive manual page created from the module's docstrings>

Pour la gestion des fichiers et dossiers, le module shutil expose une interface plus abstraite et plus facile à utiliser :

>>> import shutil
>>> shutil.copyfile('data.db', 'archive.db')
'archive.db'
>>> shutil.move('/build/executables', 'installdir')
'installdir'

10.2. File wildcards

Le module glob fournit une fonction pour construire des listes de fichiers à partir de motifs :

>>> import glob
>>> glob.glob('*.py')
['primes.py', 'random.py', 'quote.py']

10.3. Command-line arguments

Common utility scripts often need to process command line arguments. These arguments are stored in the sys module's argv attribute as a list. For instance, let's take the following demo.py file:

# File demo.py
import sys
print(sys.argv)

Here is the output from running python demo.py one two three at the command line:

['demo.py', 'one', 'two', 'three']

Le module argparse fournit un mécanisme plus sophistiqué pour traiter les arguments de la ligne de commande. Le script suivant extrait un ou plusieurs noms de fichiers et un nombre facultatif de lignes à afficher :

import argparse

parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
    prog='top',
    description='Show top lines from each file')
parser.add_argument('filenames', nargs='+')
parser.add_argument('-l', '--lines', type=int, default=10)
args = parser.parse_args()
print(args)

Lorsqu'il est exécuté avec la ligne de commande python top.py --lines=5 alpha.txt beta.txt, le script définit args.lines à 5 et args.filenames à ['alpha.txt', 'beta.txt'].

10.4. Error output redirection and program termination

Le module sys a aussi des attributs pour stdin, stdout et stderr. Ce dernier est utile pour émettre des messages d'avertissement ou d'erreur qui restent visibles même si stdout est redirigé :

>>> sys.stderr.write('Warning, log file not found starting a new one\n')
Warning, log file not found starting a new one

Le moyen le plus direct de terminer un script est d'utiliser sys.exit().

10.5. String pattern matching

Le module re fournit des outils basés sur les expressions rationnelles permettant des opérations complexes sur les chaînes. C'est une solution optimisée, utilisant une syntaxe concise, pour rechercher des motifs complexes ou effectuer des remplacements complexes dans les chaînes :

>>> import re
>>> re.findall(r'\bf[a-z]*', 'which foot or hand fell fastest')
['foot', 'fell', 'fastest']
>>> re.sub(r'(\b[a-z]+) \1', r'\1', 'cat in the the hat')
'cat in the hat'

Lorsque les opérations sont simples, il est préférable d'utiliser les méthodes des chaînes. Elles sont plus lisibles et plus faciles à déboguer :

>>> 'tea for too'.replace('too', 'two')
'tea for two'

10.6. Mathématiques

The math module gives access to the underlying C library functions for floating-point math:

>>> import math
>>> math.cos(math.pi / 4)
0.70710678118654757
>>> math.log(1024, 2)
10.0

Le module random offre des outils pour faire des tirages aléatoires :

>>> import random
>>> random.choice(['apple', 'pear', 'banana'])
'apple'
>>> random.sample(range(100), 10)   # sampling without replacement
[30, 83, 16, 4, 8, 81, 41, 50, 18, 33]
>>> random.random()    # random float from the interval [0.0, 1.0)
0.17970987693706186
>>> random.randrange(6)    # random integer chosen from range(6)
4

Le module statistics permet de calculer des valeurs statistiques basiques (moyenne, médiane, variance…) :

>>> import statistics
>>> data = [2.75, 1.75, 1.25, 0.25, 0.5, 1.25, 3.5]
>>> statistics.mean(data)
1.6071428571428572
>>> statistics.median(data)
1.25
>>> statistics.variance(data)
1.3720238095238095

Le projet SciPy <https://scipy.org> contient beaucoup d'autres modules dédiés aux calculs numériques.

10.7. Internet access

Il existe beaucoup de modules permettant d'accéder à internet et gérer les protocoles réseaux. Les deux plus simples sont urllib.request qui permet de récupérer des données à partir d'une URL et smtplib pour envoyer des courriers électroniques :

>>> from urllib.request import urlopen
>>> with urlopen('https://docs.python.org/3/') as response:
...     for line in response:
...         line = line.decode()             # Convert bytes to a str
...         if 'updated' in line:
...             print(line.rstrip())         # Remove trailing newline
...
      Last updated on Nov 11, 2025 (20:11 UTC).

>>> import smtplib
>>> server = smtplib.SMTP('localhost')
>>> server.sendmail('soothsayer@example.org', 'jcaesar@example.org',
... """To: jcaesar@example.org
... From: soothsayer@example.org
...
... Beware the Ides of March.
... """)
>>> server.quit()

(Notez que le deuxième exemple a besoin d'un serveur mail tournant localement.)

10.8. Dates and times

Le module datetime propose des classes pour manipuler les dates et les heures de manière simple ou plus complexe. Bien que faire des calculs de dates et d'heures soit possible, la priorité de l'implémentation est mise sur l'extraction efficace des attributs pour le formatage et la manipulation. Le module gère aussi les objets dépendant des fuseaux horaires

>>> # dates are easily constructed and formatted
>>> import datetime as dt
>>> now = dt.date.today()
>>> now
datetime.date(2003, 12, 2)
>>> now.strftime("%m-%d-%y. %d %b %Y is a %A on the %d day of %B.")
'12-02-03. 02 Dec 2003 is a Tuesday on the 02 day of December.'

>>> # dates support calendar arithmetic
>>> birthday = dt.date(1964, 7, 31)
>>> age = now - birthday
>>> age.days
14368

10.9. Data compression

Les formats d'archivage et de compression les plus communs sont directement gérés par les modules zlib, gzip, bz2, lzma, zipfile et tarfile

>>> import zlib
>>> s = b'witch which has which witches wrist watch'
>>> len(s)
41
>>> t = zlib.compress(s)
>>> len(t)
37
>>> zlib.decompress(t)
b'witch which has which witches wrist watch'
>>> zlib.crc32(s)
226805979

10.10. Performance measurement

Certains utilisateurs de Python sont très intéressés par les performances de différentes approches d'un même problème. Python propose un outil de mesure répondant simplement à ces questions.

Par exemple, pour échanger deux variables, il peut être tentant d'utiliser l'empaquetage et le dépaquetage de n-uplets plutôt que la méthode traditionnelle. Le module timeit montre rapidement le léger gain de performance obtenu :

>>> from timeit import Timer
>>> Timer('t=a; a=b; b=t', 'a=1; b=2').timeit()
0.57535828626024577
>>> Timer('a,b = b,a', 'a=1; b=2').timeit()
0.54962537085770791

En opposition à timeit et sa granularité fine, profile et pstats fournissent des outils permettant d'identifier les parties les plus gourmandes en temps d'exécution dans des volumes de code plus grands.

10.11. Quality control

Une approche possible pour développer des applications de très bonne qualité est d'écrire des tests pour chaque fonction au fur et à mesure de son développement, puis d'exécuter ces tests fréquemment lors du processus de développement.

Le module doctest cherche des tests dans les chaînes de documentation. Un test ressemble à un simple copier-coller d'un appel et son résultat depuis le mode interactif. Cela améliore la documentation en fournissant des exemples tout en prouvant qu'ils sont justes :

def average(values):
    """Computes the arithmetic mean of a list of numbers.

    >>> print(average([20, 30, 70]))
    40.0
    """
    return sum(values) / len(values)

import doctest
doctest.testmod()   # automatically validate the embedded tests

Le module unittest requiert plus d'efforts que le module doctest mais il permet de construire un jeu de tests plus complet que l'on fait évoluer dans un fichier séparé :

import unittest

class TestStatisticalFunctions(unittest.TestCase):

    def test_average(self):
        self.assertEqual(average([20, 30, 70]), 40.0)
        self.assertEqual(round(average([1, 5, 7]), 1), 4.3)
        with self.assertRaises(ZeroDivisionError):
            average([])
        with self.assertRaises(TypeError):
            average(20, 30, 70)

unittest.main()  # Calling from the command line invokes all tests

10.12. Batteries included

Python adopte le principe des "piles fournies". Vous pouvez le constater au travers des fonctionnalités évoluées et solides fournies par ses plus gros paquets. Par exemple :

Les modules xmlrpc.client et xmlrpc.server permettent d'appeler des fonctions à distance quasiment sans effort. En dépit du nom des modules, aucune connaissance du XML n'est nécessaire.

The email package is a library for managing email messages, including MIME and other RFC 5322 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html]-based message documents. Unlike smtplib and poplib which actually send and receive messages, the email package has a complete toolset for building or decoding complex message structures (including attachments) and for implementing internet encoding and header protocols.

Le paquet json permet de lire et d'écrire du JSON, format d'encodage de données répandu. Le module csv gère la lecture et l'écriture de données stockées sous forme de valeurs séparées par des virgules dans des fichiers (Comma-Separated Values en anglais), format typiquement interopérable avec les bases de données et les feuilles de calculs. Pour la lecture du XML, utilisez les paquets xml.etree.ElementTree, xml.dom et xml.sax. Combinés, ces modules et paquets simplifient grandement l'échange de données entre les applications Python et les autres outils.

Le module sqlite3 est une abstraction de la bibliothèque SQLite, permettant de manipuler une base de données persistante, accédée et manipulée en utilisant une syntaxe SQL quasi standard.

L'internationalisation est possible grâce à de nombreux paquets tels que gettext, locale ou codecs.

11. Survol de la bibliothèque standard -- Deuxième partie

Cette deuxième partie aborde des modules plus à destination des programmeurs professionnels. Ces modules sont rarement nécessaires dans de petits scripts.

11.1. Formatage de l'affichage

Le module reprlib est une variante de la fonction repr(), spécialisé dans l'affichage concis de conteneurs volumineux ou fortement imbriqués :

>>> import reprlib
>>> reprlib.repr(set('supercalifragilisticexpialidocious'))
"{'a', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g', ...}"

Le module pprint propose un contrôle plus fin de l'affichage des objets, aussi bien natifs que ceux définis par l'utilisateur, de manière à être lisible par l'interpréteur. Lorsque le résultat fait plus d'une ligne, il est séparé sur plusieurs lignes et est indenté pour rendre la structure plus visible :

>>> import pprint
>>> t = [[[['black', 'cyan'], 'white', ['green', 'red']], [['magenta',
...     'yellow'], 'blue']]]
...
>>> pprint.pprint(t, width=30)
[[[['black', 'cyan'],
   'white',
   ['green', 'red']],
  [['magenta', 'yellow'],
   'blue']]]

Le module textwrap formate des paragraphes de texte pour tenir sur un écran d'une largeur donnée :

>>> import textwrap
>>> doc = """The wrap() method is just like fill() except that it returns
... a list of strings instead of one big string with newlines to separate
... the wrapped lines."""
...
>>> print(textwrap.fill(doc, width=40))
The wrap() method is just like fill()
except that it returns a list of strings
instead of one big string with newlines
to separate the wrapped lines.

Le module locale utilise une base de données des formats spécifiques à chaque région pour les dates, nombres, etc. L'attribut grouping de la fonction de formatage permet de formater directement des nombres avec un séparateur :

>>> import locale
>>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, 'English_United States.1252')
'English_United States.1252'
>>> conv = locale.localeconv()          # get a mapping of conventions
>>> x = 1234567.8
>>> locale.format_string("%d", x, grouping=True)
'1,234,567'
>>> locale.format_string("%s%.*f", (conv['currency_symbol'],
...                      conv['frac_digits'], x), grouping=True)
'$1,234,567.80'

11.2. Gabarits (templates en anglais)

Le module string contient une classe polyvalente : Template. Elle permet d'écrire des gabarits (templates en anglais) avec une syntaxe simple, dans le but d'être utilisable par des non-développeurs. Ainsi, vos utilisateurs peuvent personnaliser leur application sans la modifier.

Le format utilise des marqueurs formés d'un $ suivi d'un identifiant Python valide (caractères alphanumériques et tirets-bas). Entourer le marqueur d'accolades permet de lui coller d'autres caractères alphanumériques sans intercaler une espace. Écrire $$ produit un simple $ :

>>> from string import Template
>>> t = Template('${village}folk send $$10 to $cause.')
>>> t.substitute(village='Nottingham', cause='the ditch fund')
'Nottinghamfolk send $10 to the ditch fund.'

La méthode substitute() lève une exception KeyError lorsqu'un marqueur n'a pas été fourni, ni dans un dictionnaire, ni sous forme d'un paramètre nommé. Dans certains cas, lorsque la donnée à appliquer peut n'être fournie que partiellement par l'utilisateur, la méthode safe_substitute() est plus appropriée car elle laisse tels quels les marqueurs manquants :

>>> t = Template('Return the $item to $owner.')
>>> d = dict(item='unladen swallow')
>>> t.substitute(d)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
KeyError: 'owner'
>>> t.safe_substitute(d)
'Return the unladen swallow to $owner.'

Les classes filles de Template peuvent définir leur propre délimiteur. Typiquement, un script de renommage de photos par lots peut choisir le symbole pourcent comme marqueur pour les champs tels que la date actuelle, le numéro de l'image ou son format :

>>> import time, os.path
>>> photofiles = ['img_1074.jpg', 'img_1076.jpg', 'img_1077.jpg']
>>> class BatchRename(Template):
...     delimiter = '%'
...
>>> fmt = input('Enter rename style (%d-date %n-seqnum %f-format):  ')
Enter rename style (%d-date %n-seqnum %f-format):  Ashley_%n%f

>>> t = BatchRename(fmt)
>>> date = time.strftime('%d%b%y')
>>> for i, filename in enumerate(photofiles):
...     base, ext = os.path.splitext(filename)
...     newname = t.substitute(d=date, n=i, f=ext)
...     print('{0} --> {1}'.format(filename, newname))

img_1074.jpg --> Ashley_0.jpg
img_1076.jpg --> Ashley_1.jpg
img_1077.jpg --> Ashley_2.jpg

Une autre utilisation des gabarits consiste à séparer la logique métier des détails spécifiques à chaque format de sortie. Il est ainsi possible de générer des gabarits spécifiques pour les fichiers XML, texte, HTML…

11.3. Traitement des données binaires

Le module struct expose les fonctions pack() et unpack() permettant de travailler avec des données binaires. L'exemple suivant montre comment parcourir un entête de fichier ZIP sans recourir au module zipfile. Les marqueurs "H" et "I" représentent des nombres entiers non signés, stockés respectivement sur deux et quatre octets. Le "<" indique qu'ils ont une taille standard et utilisent la convention petit-boutiste :

import struct

with open('myfile.zip', 'rb') as f:
    data = f.read()

start = 0
for i in range(3):                      # show the first 3 file headers
    start += 14
    fields = struct.unpack('<IIIHH', data[start:start+16])
    crc32, comp_size, uncomp_size, filenamesize, extra_size = fields

    start += 16
    filename = data[start:start+filenamesize]
    start += filenamesize
    extra = data[start:start+extra_size]
    print(filename, hex(crc32), comp_size, uncomp_size)

    start += extra_size + comp_size     # skip to the next header

11.4. Fils d'exécution

Des tâches indépendantes peuvent être exécutées de manière non séquentielle en utilisant des fils d'exécution (threading en anglais). Les fils d'exécution peuvent être utilisés pour améliorer la réactivité d'une application qui interagit avec l'utilisateur pendant que d'autres traitements sont exécutés en arrière-plan. Une autre utilisation typique est de séparer sur deux fils d'exécution distincts les entrées / sorties et le calcul.

Le code suivant donne un exemple d'utilisation du module threading exécutant des tâches en arrière-plan pendant que le programme principal continue de s'exécuter :

import threading, zipfile

class AsyncZip(threading.Thread):
    def __init__(self, infile, outfile):
        threading.Thread.__init__(self)
        self.infile = infile
        self.outfile = outfile

    def run(self):
        f = zipfile.ZipFile(self.outfile, 'w', zipfile.ZIP_DEFLATED)
        f.write(self.infile)
        f.close()
        print('Finished background zip of:', self.infile)

background = AsyncZip('mydata.txt', 'myarchive.zip')
background.start()
print('The main program continues to run in foreground.')

background.join()    # Wait for the background task to finish
print('Main program waited until background was done.')

Le principal défi des applications avec plusieurs fils d'exécution consiste à coordonner ces fils qui partagent des données ou des ressources. Pour ce faire, le module threading expose quelques outils dédiés à la synchronisation comme les verrous (locks en anglais), les événements (events en anglais), les variables conditionnelles (condition variables en anglais) et les sémaphores (semaphore en anglais).

Bien que ces outils soient puissants, de petites erreurs de conception peuvent engendrer des problèmes difficiles à reproduire. Donc, l'approche classique pour coordonner des tâches est de restreindre l'accès d'une ressource à un seul fil d'exécution et d'utiliser le module queue pour alimenter ce fil d'exécution en requêtes venant d'autres fils d'exécution. Les applications utilisant des Queue pour leurs communication et coordination entre fils d'exécution sont plus simples à concevoir, plus lisibles et plus fiables.

11.5. Journalisation

Le module logging est un système de journalisation complet. Dans son utilisation la plus élémentaire, les messages sont simplement envoyés dans un fichier ou sur sys.stderr :

import logging
logging.debug('Debugging information')
logging.info('Informational message')
logging.warning('Warning:config file %s not found', 'server.conf')
logging.error('Error occurred')
logging.critical('Critical error -- shutting down')

Cela produit l'affichage suivant :

WARNING:root:Warning:config file server.conf not found
ERROR:root:Error occurred
CRITICAL:root:Critical error -- shutting down

Par défaut, les messages d'information et de débogage sont ignorés, les autres sont envoyés vers la sortie standard. Il est aussi possible d'envoyer les messages par courriel, datagrammes, en utilisant des connecteurs réseau ou vers un serveur HTTP. Des nouveaux filtres permettent d'utiliser des sorties différentes en fonction de la priorité du message : DEBUG, INFO, WARNING, ERROR et CRITICAL.

La configuration de la journalisation peut être effectuée directement dans le code Python ou peut être chargée depuis un fichier de configuration, permettant de personnaliser la journalisation sans modifier l'application.

11.6. Références faibles

Python gère lui-même la mémoire (par comptage des références pour la plupart des objets et en utilisant un ramasse-miettes (garbage collector en anglais) pour éliminer les cycles). La mémoire est libérée rapidement lorsque sa dernière référence est supprimée.

Cette approche fonctionne bien pour la majorité des applications mais, parfois, il est nécessaire de surveiller un objet seulement durant son utilisation par quelque chose d'autre. Malheureusement, le simple fait de le suivre crée une référence qui rend l'objet permanent. Le module weakref expose des outils pour suivre les objets sans pour autant créer une référence. Lorsqu'un objet n'est pas utilisé, il est automatiquement supprimé du tableau des références faibles et une fonction de rappel (callback en anglais) est appelée. Un exemple typique est le cache d'objets coûteux à créer :

>>> import weakref, gc
>>> class A:
...     def __init__(self, value):
...         self.value = value
...     def __repr__(self):
...         return str(self.value)
...
>>> a = A(10)                   # create a reference
>>> d = weakref.WeakValueDictionary()
>>> d['primary'] = a            # does not create a reference
>>> d['primary']                # fetch the object if it is still alive
10
>>> del a                       # remove the one reference
>>> gc.collect()                # run garbage collection right away
0
>>> d['primary']                # entry was automatically removed
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
    d['primary']                # entry was automatically removed
  File "C:/python314/lib/weakref.py", line 46, in __getitem__
    o = self.data[key]()
KeyError: 'primary'

11.7. Outils pour les listes

Beaucoup de structures de données peuvent être représentées avec les listes natives. Cependant, d'autres besoins peuvent émerger pour des structures ayant des caractéristiques différentes, typiquement en termes de performance.

The array module provides an array object that is like a list that stores only homogeneous data and stores it more compactly. The following example shows an array of numbers stored as two byte unsigned binary numbers (typecode "H") rather than the usual 16 bytes per entry for regular lists of Python int objects:

>>> from array import array
>>> a = array('H', [4000, 10, 700, 22222])
>>> sum(a)
26932
>>> a[1:3]
array('H', [10, 700])

The collections module provides a deque object that is like a list with faster appends and pops from the left side but slower lookups in the middle. These objects are well suited for implementing queues and breadth first tree searches:

>>> from collections import deque
>>> d = deque(["task1", "task2", "task3"])
>>> d.append("task4")
>>> print("Handling", d.popleft())
Handling task1

unsearched = deque([starting_node])
def breadth_first_search(unsearched):
    node = unsearched.popleft()
    for m in gen_moves(node):
        if is_goal(m):
            return m
        unsearched.append(m)

En plus de fournir des implémentations de listes alternatives, la bibliothèque fournit des outils tels que bisect, un module contenant des fonctions de manipulation de listes triées :

>>> import bisect
>>> scores = [(100, 'perl'), (200, 'tcl'), (400, 'lua'), (500, 'python')]
>>> bisect.insort(scores, (300, 'ruby'))
>>> scores
[(100, 'perl'), (200, 'tcl'), (300, 'ruby'), (400, 'lua'), (500, 'python')]

Le module heapq permet d'implémenter des tas (heap en anglais) à partir de simples listes. La valeur la plus faible est toujours à la première position (indice 0). C'est utile dans les cas où l'application accède souvent à l'élément le plus petit mais sans vouloir classer entièrement la liste :

>>> from heapq import heapify, heappop, heappush
>>> data = [1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 2, 4, 6, 8, 0]
>>> heapify(data)                      # rearrange the list into heap order
>>> heappush(data, -5)                 # add a new entry
>>> [heappop(data) for i in range(3)]  # fetch the three smallest entries
[-5, 0, 1]

11.8. Decimal Floating-Point Arithmetic

The decimal module offers a Decimal datatype for decimal floating-point arithmetic. Compared to the built-in float implementation of binary floating point, the class is especially helpful for

les applications traitant de finance et autres utilisations nécessitant une représentation décimale exacte,

le contrôle de la précision,

le contrôle sur les arrondis pour répondre à des obligations légales ou réglementaires,

suivre les décimales significatives, ou

les applications pour lesquelles l'utilisateur attend des résultats identiques aux calculs faits à la main.

Par exemple, calculer 5 % de taxe sur une facture de 70 centimes donne un résultat différent en nombre à virgule flottante binaire et décimale. La différence devient significative lorsqu'on arrondit le résultat au centime près :

>>> from decimal import *
>>> round(Decimal('0.70') * Decimal('1.05'), 2)
Decimal('0.74')
>>> round(.70 * 1.05, 2)
0.73

Le résultat d'un calcul donné par Decimal conserve les zéros non-significatifs. La classe conserve automatiquement quatre décimales significatives pour des opérandes à deux décimales significatives. La classe Decimal imite les mathématiques telles qu'elles pourraient être effectuées à la main, évitant les problèmes typiques de l'arithmétique binaire à virgule flottante qui n'est pas capable de représenter exactement certaines quantités décimales.

La représentation exacte de la classe Decimal lui permet de faire des calculs de modulo ou des tests d'égalité qui ne seraient pas possibles avec une représentation à virgule flottante binaire :

>>> Decimal('1.00') % Decimal('.10')
Decimal('0.00')
>>> 1.00 % 0.10
0.09999999999999995

>>> sum([Decimal('0.1')]*10) == Decimal('1.0')
True
>>> 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 == 1.0
False

Le module decimal permet de faire des calculs avec autant de précision que nécessaire :

>>> getcontext().prec = 36
>>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(7)
Decimal('0.142857142857142857142857142857142857')

12. Environnements virtuels et paquets

12.1. Introduction

Les programmes Python utilisent souvent des paquets et modules qui ne font pas partie de la bibliothèque standard. Ils nécessitent aussi, parfois, une version spécifique d'une bibliothèque, par exemple parce qu'un certain bogue a été corrigé ou encore que le programme a été implémenté en utilisant une version obsolète de l'interface de cette bibliothèque.

Cela signifie qu'il n'est pas toujours possible, pour une installation unique de Python, de couvrir tous les besoins de toutes les applications. Basiquement, si une application A dépend de la version 1.0 d'un module et qu'une application B dépend de la version 2.0, ces dépendances entrent en conflit et installer la version 1.0 ou 2.0 laisse une des deux applications incapable de fonctionner.

La solution est de créer un environnement virtuel, un dossier auto-suffisant qui contient une installation de Python pour une version particulière de Python ainsi que des paquets additionnels.

Différentes applications peuvent alors utiliser des environnements virtuels différents. Pour résoudre l'exemple précédent où il existe un conflit de dépendances, l'application A a son environnement virtuel avec la version 1.0 installée pendant que l'application B a un autre environnement virtuel avec la version 2.0. Si l'application B requiert que la bibliothèque soit mise à jour à la version 3.0, cela n'affecte pas l'environnement de A.

12.2. Création d'environnements virtuels

The module used to create and manage virtual environments is called venv. venv will install the Python version from which the command was run (as reported by the --version option). For instance, executing the command with python3.12 will install version 3.12.

Pour créer un environnement virtuel, décidez d'un dossier où vous voulez le placer et exécutez le module venv comme un script avec le chemin du dossier :

python -m venv tutorial-env

Cela crée le dossier tutorial-env (s'il n'existe pas) et des sous-dossiers contenant une copie de l'interpréteur Python et d'autres fichiers utiles.

Un répertoire habituel pour un environnement virtuel est .venv. Ce nom fait que le répertoire est généralement caché dans votre explorateur de fichiers, et donc non gênant, tout en lui donnant un nom qui explique pourquoi le répertoire existe. Il empêche également de rentrer en conflit avec les fichiers de définition de variable d'environnement .env que certains outils utilisent.

Une fois l'environnement virtuel créé, vous pouvez l'activer.

Sur Windows, lancez :

tutorial-env\Scripts\activate

Sur Unix et MacOS, lancez :

source tutorial-env/bin/activate

(Ce script est écrit pour le shell bash. Si vous utilisez csh ou fish, utilisez les variantes activate.csh ou activate.fish.)

Activer l'environnement virtuel change le prompt de votre ligne de commande pour afficher le nom de l'environnement virtuel que vous utilisez. Cela modifie aussi l'environnement afin, lorsque vous tapez python, d'exécuter la version spécifique de Python installée dans l'environnement. Par exemple :

$ source ~/envs/tutorial-env/bin/activate
(tutorial-env) $ python
Python 3.5.1 (default, May  6 2016, 10:59:36)
  ...
>>> import sys
>>> sys.path
['', '/usr/local/lib/python35.zip', ...,
'~/envs/tutorial-env/lib/python3.5/site-packages']
>>>

Pour désactiver un environnement virtuel, tapez :

deactivate

dans le terminal.

12.3. Gestion des paquets avec pip

Vous pouvez installer, mettre à jour et supprimer des paquets en utilisant un programme appelé pip. Par défaut, pip installe les paquets du Python Package Index [https://pypi.org]. Vous pouvez parcourir le Python Package Index avec un navigateur.

pip a plusieurs sous-commandes : install, uninstall, freeze, etc. Consultez le guide Installation de modules Python pour une documentation exhaustive sur pip.

Vous pouvez installer la dernière version d'un paquet en indiquant son nom :

(tutorial-env) $ python -m pip install novas
Collecting novas
  Downloading novas-3.1.1.3.tar.gz (136kB)
Installing collected packages: novas
  Running setup.py install for novas
Successfully installed novas-3.1.1.3

Vous pouvez installer une version spécifique d'un paquet en donnant le nom du paquet suivi de == et du numéro de version souhaitée :

(tutorial-env) $ python -m pip install requests==2.6.0
Collecting requests==2.6.0
  Using cached requests-2.6.0-py2.py3-none-any.whl
Installing collected packages: requests
Successfully installed requests-2.6.0

Si vous relancez cette commande, pip remarque que la version demandée est déjà installée et ne fait rien. Vous pouvez fournir un numéro de version différent pour récupérer cette version ou lancer python -m pip install --upgrade pour mettre à jour le paquet à la dernière version :

(tutorial-env) $ python -m pip install --upgrade requests
Collecting requests
Installing collected packages: requests
  Found existing installation: requests 2.6.0
    Uninstalling requests-2.6.0:
      Successfully uninstalled requests-2.6.0
Successfully installed requests-2.7.0

python -m pip uninstall suivi d'un ou plusieurs noms de paquets les supprime de votre environnement virtuel.

python -m pip show affiche des informations à propos d'un paquet précis :

(tutorial-env) $ python -m pip show requests
---
Metadata-Version: 2.0
Name: requests
Version: 2.7.0
Summary: Python HTTP for Humans.
Home-page: http://python-requests.org
Author: Kenneth Reitz
Author-email: me@kennethreitz.com
License: Apache 2.0
Location: /Users/akuchling/envs/tutorial-env/lib/python3.4/site-packages
Requires:

python -m pip list liste tous les paquets installés dans l'environnement virtuel :

(tutorial-env) $ python -m pip list
novas (3.1.1.3)
numpy (1.9.2)
pip (7.0.3)
requests (2.7.0)
setuptools (16.0)

python -m pip freeze produit une liste similaire des paquets installés mais l'affichage adopte un format que pip install peut lire. La convention habituelle est de mettre cette liste dans un fichier requirements.txt :

(tutorial-env) $ python -m pip freeze > requirements.txt
(tutorial-env) $ cat requirements.txt
novas==3.1.1.3
numpy==1.9.2
requests==2.7.0

Le fichier requirements.txt peut alors être ajouté dans un système de gestion de versions comme faisant partie de votre application. Les utilisateurs peuvent alors installer tous les paquets nécessaires à l'application avec install -r :

(tutorial-env) $ python -m pip install -r requirements.txt
Collecting novas==3.1.1.3 (from -r requirements.txt (line 1))
  ...
Collecting numpy==1.9.2 (from -r requirements.txt (line 2))
  ...
Collecting requests==2.7.0 (from -r requirements.txt (line 3))
  ...
Installing collected packages: novas, numpy, requests
  Running setup.py install for novas
Successfully installed novas-3.1.1.3 numpy-1.9.2 requests-2.7.0

pip has many more options. Consult the Installation de modules Python guide for complete documentation for pip. When you've written a package and want to make it available on the Python Package Index, consult the Python packaging user guide [https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/tutorials/packaging-projects/].

13. Pour aller plus loin

La lecture de ce tutoriel a probablement renforcé votre intérêt pour Python et vous devez être impatient de l'utiliser pour résoudre des vrais problèmes. Où aller pour en apprendre plus ?

Ce tutoriel fait partie de la documentation de Python, et la documentation de Python est vaste :

La bibliothèque standard :

Nous vous conseillons de naviguer dans le manuel, c'est une référence complète (quoique laconique) sur les types, fonctions et modules de la bibliothèque standard. La distribution standard de Python inclut énormément de code supplémentaire. Il existe des modules pour lire les courriels, récupérer des documents via HTTP, générer des nombres aléatoires, analyser les paramètres de la ligne de commande, compresser des données et beaucoup d'autres fonctions. Une balade dans la documentation de la bibliothèque vous donnera une idée de ce qui est disponible.

Installation de modules Python explique comment installer des paquets écrits par d'autres utilisateurs de Python.

La référence du langage Python contient une explication détaillée de la syntaxe et sémantique de Python. C'est une lecture fastidieuse, mais elle a sa place dans une documentation exhaustive.

D'autres ressources :

https://www.python.org: The major Python website. It contains code, documentation, and pointers to Python-related pages around the web.

https://docs.python.org/fr/ offre un accès rapide à la documentation de Python en français.

https://pypi.org (The Python Package Index en anglais, pour le "répertoire des paquets Python") : auparavant surnommé "La Fromagerie" [1] (The Cheese Shop en anglais), c'est un catalogue de modules Python disponibles au téléchargement, construit par les utilisateurs. Lorsque vous commencez à distribuer du code, vous pouvez l'inscrire ici afin que les autres puissent le trouver.

https://code.activestate.com/recipes/langs/python/ : "The Python Cookbook" est un recueil assez imposant d'exemples de code, de modules et de scripts. Les contributions les plus remarquables y sont regroupées dans le livre "Python Cookbook" (O'Reilly & Associates, ISBN 0-596-00797-3).

https://pyvideo.org regroupe des liens vers des vidéos relatives à Python, enregistrées lors de conférences ou de réunions de groupes d'utilisateurs.

https://scipy.org : le projet "The Scientific Python" contient des modules pour manipuler et calculer rapidement sur des tableaux. Le projet héberge aussi divers paquets sur l'algèbre linéaire, les transformées de Fourier, des résolveurs non-linéaires, différentes distributions de nombres aléatoires, l'analyse statistique et d'autres choses du domaine scientifique.

Pour poser des questions ou remonter des problèmes liés à Python, vous pouvez écrire sur le forum comp.lang.python ou les envoyer à la liste de diffusion <python-list@python.org>. Le forum et la liste de diffusion sont liées, un message publié sur l'un sera automatiquement transféré sur l'autre. Des centaines de messages y sont publiés chaque jour, posant (ou répondant à) des questions, suggérant de nouvelles fonctionnalités et annonçant des nouveaux modules. Les archives sont disponibles à https://mail.python.org/pipermail/.

Avant de publier un message, assurez-vous d'avoir lu la liste de la Foire Aux Questions (aussi appelée FAQ). La FAQ répond à beaucoup de questions fréquentes et contient probablement une solution à votre problème.

Notes

[1]

"Cheese Shop" is a Monty Python sketch: a customer enters a cheese shop, but whatever cheese he asks for, the clerk says it's missing.

14. Édition interactive des entrées et substitution d'historique

Certaines versions de l'interpréteur Python prennent en charge l'édition de la ligne d'entrée courante et la substitution d'historique, similaires aux facilités que l'on trouve dans le shell Korn et dans le shell GNU Bash. Ces implémentations utilisent la bibliothèque GNU Readline [https://tiswww.case.edu/php/chet/readline/rltop.html], qui gère plusieurs styles d'édition. La bibliothèque a sa propre documentation, nous ne la dupliquons pas ici.

14.1. Complétion automatique et édition de l'historique

Completion of variable and module names is automatically enabled at interpreter startup so that the Tab key invokes the completion function; it looks at Python statement names, the current local variables, and the available module names. For dotted expressions such as string.a, it will evaluate the expression up to the final '.' and then suggest completions from the attributes of the resulting object. Note that this may execute application-defined code if an object with a __getattr__() method is part of the expression. The default configuration also saves your history into a file named .python_history in your user directory. The history will be available again during the next interactive interpreter session.

14.2. Alternatives à l'interpréteur interactif

This facility is an enormous step forward compared to earlier versions of the interpreter; however, some wishes are left: It would be nice if the proper indentation were suggested on continuation lines (the parser knows if an INDENT token is required next). The completion mechanism might use the interpreter's symbol table. A command to check (or even suggest) matching parentheses, quotes, etc., would also be useful.

Une alternative améliorée de l'interpréteur interactif est développée depuis maintenant quelques temps : IPython [https://ipython.org/]. Il fournit la complétion, l'exploration d'objets et une gestion avancée de l'historique. Il peut également être personnalisé en profondeur et embarqué dans d'autres applications. Un autre environnement interactif amélioré similaire est bpython [https://bpython-interpreter.org/].

15. Floating-Point Arithmetic: Issues and Limitations

Floating-point numbers are represented in computer hardware as base 2 (binary) fractions. For example, the decimal fraction 0.625 has value 6/10 + 2/100 + 5/1000, and in the same way the binary fraction 0.101 has value 1/2 + 0/4 + 1/8. These two fractions have identical values, the only real difference being that the first is written in base 10 fractional notation, and the second in base 2.

Malheureusement, la plupart des fractions décimales ne peuvent pas avoir de représentation exacte en fractions binaires. Par conséquent, en général, les nombres à virgule flottante que vous donnez sont seulement approximés en fractions binaires pour être stockés dans la machine.

Le problème est plus simple à aborder en base 10. Prenons par exemple, la fraction 1/3. Vous pouvez l'approximer en une fraction décimale :

0.3

ou, mieux

0.33

ou, mieux

0.333

etc. Peu importe le nombre de décimales que vous écrivez, le résultat ne vaut jamais exactement 1/3, mais c'est une estimation s'en approchant toujours mieux.

De la même manière, peu importe combien de décimales en base 2 vous utilisez, la valeur décimale 0.1 ne peut pas être représentée exactement en fraction binaire. En base 2, 1/10 est le nombre périodique suivant

0.0001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011...

En se limitant à une quantité finie de bits, on ne peut obtenir qu'une approximation. Sur la majorité des machines aujourd'hui, les nombres à virgule flottante sont approximés par une fraction binaire avec les 53 premiers bits comme numérateur et une puissance de deux au dénominateur. Dans le cas de 1/10, la fraction binaire est 3602879701896397 / 2 ** 55 qui est proche mais ne vaut pas exactement 1/10.

Many users are not aware of the approximation because of the way values are displayed. Python only prints a decimal approximation to the true decimal value of the binary approximation stored by the machine. On most machines, if Python were to print the true decimal value of the binary approximation stored for 0.1, it would have to display:

>>> 0.1
0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625

That is more digits than most people find useful, so Python keeps the number of digits manageable by displaying a rounded value instead:

>>> 1 / 10
0.1

Rappelez-vous simplement que, bien que la valeur affichée ressemble à la valeur exacte de 1/10, la valeur stockée est la représentation la plus proche en fraction binaire.

Il existe beaucoup de nombres décimaux qui partagent une même approximation en fraction binaire. Par exemple, 0.1, 0.10000000000000001 et 0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625 ont tous pour approximation 3602879701896397 / 2 ** 55. Puisque toutes ces valeurs décimales partagent la même approximation, chacune peut être affichée tout en respectant eval(repr(x)) == x.

Historiquement, le mode interactif de Python et la primitive repr() choisissaient la version avec 17 décimales significatives, 0.10000000000000001. Python, depuis la version 3.1 (sur la majorité des systèmes) est maintenant capable de choisir la plus courte représentation et n'affiche que 0.1.

Note that this is in the very nature of binary floating point: this is not a bug in Python, and it is not a bug in your code either. You'll see the same kind of thing in all languages that support your hardware's floating-point arithmetic (although some languages may not display the difference by default, or in all output modes).

For more pleasant output, you may wish to use string formatting to produce a limited number of significant digits:

>>> format(math.pi, '.12g')  # give 12 significant digits
'3.14159265359'

>>> format(math.pi, '.2f')   # give 2 digits after the point
'3.14'

>>> repr(math.pi)
'3.141592653589793'

Il est important de comprendre que tout cela n'est, au sens propre, qu'une illusion : vous demandez simplement à Python d'arrondir la valeur stockée réellement dans la machine à l'affichage.

One illusion may beget another. For example, since 0.1 is not exactly 1/10, summing three values of 0.1 may not yield exactly 0.3, either:

>>> 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 == 0.3
False

Also, since the 0.1 cannot get any closer to the exact value of 1/10 and 0.3 cannot get any closer to the exact value of 3/10, then pre-rounding with round() function cannot help:

>>> round(0.1, 1) + round(0.1, 1) + round(0.1, 1) == round(0.3, 1)
False

Though the numbers cannot be made closer to their intended exact values, the math.isclose() function can be useful for comparing inexact values:

>>> math.isclose(0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1, 0.3)
True

Alternatively, the round() function can be used to compare rough approximations:

>>> round(math.pi, ndigits=2) == round(22 / 7, ndigits=2)
True

Binary floating-point arithmetic holds many surprises like this. The problem with "0.1" is explained in precise detail below, in the "Representation Error" section. See Examples of Floating Point Problems [https://jvns.ca/blog/2023/01/13/examples-of-floating-point-problems/] for a pleasant summary of how binary floating point works and the kinds of problems commonly encountered in practice. Also see The Perils of Floating Point [http://www.indowsway.com/floatingpoint.htm] for a more complete account of other common surprises.

As that says near the end, "there are no easy answers." Still, don't be unduly wary of floating point! The errors in Python float operations are inherited from the floating-point hardware, and on most machines are on the order of no more than 1 part in 2**53 per operation. That's more than adequate for most tasks, but you do need to keep in mind that it's not decimal arithmetic and that every float operation can suffer a new rounding error.

Bien que des cas pathologiques existent, pour la plupart des cas d'utilisations courants vous obtiendrez le résultat attendu à la fin en arrondissant simplement au nombre de décimales désirées à l'affichage avec str(). Pour un contrôle fin sur la manière dont les décimales sont affichées, consultez dans Format string syntax les spécifications de formatage de la méthode str.format().

Pour les cas requérant une représentation décimale exacte, le module decimal peut être utile : il implémente l'arithmétique décimale et peut donc être un choix adapté pour des applications nécessitant une grande précision.

Une autre forme d'arithmétique exacte est implémentée dans le module fractions qui se base sur les nombres rationnels (donc 1/3 peut y être représenté exactement).

If you are a heavy user of floating-point operations you should take a look at the NumPy package and many other packages for mathematical and statistical operations supplied by the SciPy project. See <https://scipy.org>.

Python provides tools that may help on those rare occasions when you really do want to know the exact value of a float. The float.as_integer_ratio() method expresses the value of a float as a fraction:

>>> x = 3.14159
>>> x.as_integer_ratio()
(3537115888337719, 1125899906842624)

Since the ratio is exact, it can be used to losslessly recreate the original value:

>>> x == 3537115888337719 / 1125899906842624
True

The float.hex() method expresses a float in hexadecimal (base 16), again giving the exact value stored by your computer:

>>> x.hex()
'0x1.921f9f01b866ep+1'

This precise hexadecimal representation can be used to reconstruct the float value exactly:

>>> x == float.fromhex('0x1.921f9f01b866ep+1')
True

Puisque cette représentation est exacte, elle est pratique pour échanger des valeurs entre différentes versions de Python (indépendamment de la machine) ou d'autres langages qui comprennent ce format (tels que Java et C99).

Another helpful tool is the sum() function which helps mitigate loss-of-precision during summation. It uses extended precision for intermediate rounding steps as values are added onto a running total. That can make a difference in overall accuracy so that the errors do not accumulate to the point where they affect the final total:

>>> 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 == 1.0
False
>>> sum([0.1] * 10) == 1.0
True

The math.fsum() goes further and tracks all of the "lost digits" as values are added onto a running total so that the result has only a single rounding. This is slower than sum() but will be more accurate in uncommon cases where large magnitude inputs mostly cancel each other out leaving a final sum near zero:

>>> arr = [-0.10430216751806065, -266310978.67179024, 143401161448607.16,
...        -143401161400469.7, 266262841.31058735, -0.003244936839808227]
>>> float(sum(map(Fraction, arr)))   # Exact summation with single rounding
8.042173697819788e-13
>>> math.fsum(arr)                   # Single rounding
8.042173697819788e-13
>>> sum(arr)                         # Multiple roundings in extended precision
8.042178034628478e-13
>>> total = 0.0
>>> for x in arr:
...     total += x                   # Multiple roundings in standard precision
...
>>> total                            # Straight addition has no correct digits!
-0.0051575902860057365

15.1. Erreurs de représentation

Cette section explique en détail l'exemple du « 0.1 » et montre comment vous pouvez effectuer une analyse exacte de ce type de cas par vous-même. Nous supposons que la représentation binaire des nombres flottants vous est familière.

Le terme Erreur de représentation (representation error en anglais) signifie que la plupart des fractions décimales ne peuvent être représentées exactement en binaire. C'est la principale raison pour laquelle Python (ou Perl, C, C++, Java, Fortran et beaucoup d'autres) n'affiche habituellement pas le résultat exact en décimal.

Why is that? 1/10 is not exactly representable as a binary fraction. Since at least 2000, almost all machines use IEEE 754 binary floating-point arithmetic, and almost all platforms map Python floats to IEEE 754 binary64 "double precision" values. IEEE 754 binary64 values contain 53 bits of precision, so on input the computer strives to convert 0.1 to the closest fraction it can of the form J/2**N where J is an integer containing exactly 53 bits. Rewriting

1 / 10 ~= J / (2**N)

en

J ~= 2**N / 10

and recalling that J has exactly 53 bits (is >= 2**52 but < 2**53), the best value for N is 56:

>>> 2**52 <=  2**56 // 10  < 2**53
True

That is, 56 is the only value for N that leaves J with exactly 53 bits. The best possible value for J is then that quotient rounded:

>>> q, r = divmod(2**56, 10)
>>> r
6

Since the remainder is more than half of 10, the best approximation is obtained by rounding up:

>>> q+1
7205759403792794

Therefore the best possible approximation to 1/10 in IEEE 754 double precision is:

7205759403792794 / 2 ** 56

Diviser le numérateur et le dénominateur par deux réduit la fraction à :

3602879701896397 / 2 ** 55

Notez que puisque l'arrondi a été fait vers le haut, le résultat est en réalité légèrement plus grand que 1/10 ; si nous n'avions pas arrondi par le haut, le quotient aurait été légèrement plus petit que 1/10. Mais dans aucun cas il ne vaut exactement 1/10 !

So the computer never "sees" 1/10: what it sees is the exact fraction given above, the best IEEE 754 double approximation it can get:

>>> 0.1 * 2 ** 55
3602879701896397.0

If we multiply that fraction by 10**55, we can see the value out to 55 decimal digits:

>>> 3602879701896397 * 10 ** 55 // 2 ** 55
1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625

meaning that the exact number stored in the computer is equal to the decimal value 0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625. Instead of displaying the full decimal value, many languages (including older versions of Python), round the result to 17 significant digits:

>>> format(0.1, '.17f')
'0.10000000000000001'

The fractions and decimal modules make these calculations easy:

>>> from decimal import Decimal
>>> from fractions import Fraction

>>> Fraction.from_float(0.1)
Fraction(3602879701896397, 36028797018963968)

>>> (0.1).as_integer_ratio()
(3602879701896397, 36028797018963968)

>>> Decimal.from_float(0.1)
Decimal('0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625')

>>> format(Decimal.from_float(0.1), '.17')
'0.10000000000000001'

16. Annexe

16.1. Mode interactif

There are two variants of the interactive REPL. The classic basic interpreter is supported on all platforms with minimal line control capabilities.

Since Python 3.13, a new interactive shell is used by default. This one supports color, multiline editing, history browsing, and paste mode. To disable color, see Controlling color for details. Function keys provide some additional functionality. F1 enters the interactive help browser pydoc. F2 allows for browsing command-line history with neither output nor the >>> and ... prompts. F3 enters "paste mode", which makes pasting larger blocks of code easier. Press F3 to return to the regular prompt.

When using the new interactive shell, exit the shell by typing exit or quit. Adding call parentheses after those commands is not required.

If the new interactive shell is not desired, it can be disabled via the PYTHON_BASIC_REPL environment variable.

16.1.1. Gestion des erreurs

When an error occurs, the interpreter prints an error message and a stack trace. In interactive mode, it then returns to the primary prompt; when input came from a file, it exits with a nonzero exit status after printing the stack trace. (Exceptions handled by an except clause in a try statement are not errors in this context.) Some errors are unconditionally fatal and cause an exit with a nonzero exit status; this applies to internal inconsistencies and some cases of running out of memory. All error messages are written to the standard error stream; normal output from executed commands is written to standard output.

Taper le caractère d'interruption (généralement Ctrl+C ou Supprimer) au niveau de l'invite de commande primaire annule l'entrée et revient à l'invite [1]. Saisir une interruption tandis qu'une commande s'exécute lève une exception KeyboardInterrupt qui peut être gérée par une instruction try.

16.1.2. Scripts Python exécutables

Sur les systèmes Unix, un script Python peut être rendu directement exécutable, comme un script shell, en ajoutant la ligne

#!/usr/bin/env python3

(en supposant que l'interpréteur est dans le PATH de l'utilisateur) au début du script et en rendant le fichier exécutable. '#!' doivent être les deux premiers caractères du fichier. Sur certaines plateformes, cette première ligne doit finir avec une fin de ligne de type Unix ('\n') et pas de type Windows ('\r\n'). Notez que le caractère croisillon, '#', est utilisé pour initier un commentaire en Python.

Un script peut être rendu exécutable en utilisant la commande chmod.

$ chmod +x myscript.py

Sur les systèmes Windows il n'y a pas de "mode exécutable". L'installateur Python associe automatiquement les fichiers en .py avec python.exe de telle sorte qu'un double clic sur un fichier Python le lance comme un script. L'extension peut aussi être .pyw. Dans ce cas, la console n'apparait pas.

16.1.3. Configuration du mode interactif

En mode interactif, il peut être pratique de faire exécuter quelques commandes au lancement de l’interpréteur. Configurez la variable d'environnement PYTHONSTARTUP avec le nom d'un fichier contenant les instructions à exécuter, à la même manière du .profile pour un shell Unix.

Ce fichier n'est lu qu'en mode interactif, pas quand Python lit les instructions depuis un fichier, ni quand /dev/tty est donné explicitement comme fichier source (pour tout le reste, Python se comporte alors comme dans une session interactive). Les instructions de ce fichier sont exécutées dans le même espace de nommage que vos commandes, donc les objets définis et modules importés peuvent être utilisés directement dans la session interactive. Dans ce fichier, il est aussi possible de changer les invites de commande sys.ps1 et sys.ps2.

Si vous voulez exécuter d'autres fichiers du dossier courant au démarrage, vous pouvez le programmer dans le fichier de démarrage global, par exemple avec le code suivant : if os.path.isfile('.pythonrc.py'): exec(open('.pythonrc.py').read()). Et si vous voulez exécuter le fichier de démarrage depuis un script, vous devez le faire explicitement dans le script :

import os
filename = os.environ.get('PYTHONSTARTUP')
if filename and os.path.isfile(filename):
    with open(filename) as fobj:
        startup_file = fobj.read()
    exec(startup_file)

16.1.4. Modules de personnalisation

Python provides two hooks to let you customize it: sitecustomize and usercustomize. To see how it works, you need first to find the location of your user site-packages directory. Start Python and run this code:

>>> import site
>>> site.getusersitepackages()
'/home/user/.local/lib/python3.x/site-packages'

Vous pouvez maintenant y créer un fichier usercustomize.py et y écrire ce que vous voulez. Il est toujours pris en compte par Python, peu importe le mode, sauf lorsque vous démarrez avec l'option -s qui désactive l'importation automatique.

sitecustomize works in the same way, but is typically created by an administrator of the computer in the global site-packages directory, and is imported before usercustomize. See the documentation of the site module for more details.

Notes

[1]

Un problème avec GNU Readline peut l'en empêcher.

Installation et utilisation de Python

Cette partie de la documentation est consacrée aux informations générales au sujet de l'installation de l'environnement Python sur différentes plateformes, l'invocation de l'interpréteur et des choses qui facilitent le travail avec Python.

1. Ligne de commande et environnement

1.1. Ligne de commande

1.2. Variables d'environnement

2. Utilisation de Python sur les plateformes Unix

2.1. Récupérer et installer la dernière version de Python

2.2. Compiler Python

2.3. Fichiers et chemins liés à Python

2.4. Divers

2.5. Version personnalisée d'OpenSSL

3. Configurer Python

3.1. Build Requirements

3.2. Generated files

3.3. Options de configuration

3.4. Python Build System

3.5. Compiler and linker flags

4. Utilisation de Python sur Windows

4.1. Python install manager

4.2. Le paquet intégrable

4.3. Les paquets nuget.org

4.4. Paquets alternatifs

4.5. Supported Windows versions

4.6. Removing the MAX_PATH limitation

4.7. Mode UTF-8

4.8. Recherche de modules

4.9. Modules supplémentaires

4.10. Compiler Python sous Windows

4.11. The full installer (deprecated)

4.12. Python launcher for Windows (deprecated)

5. Using Python on macOS

5.1. Using Python for macOS from python.org

5.2. Alternative Distributions

5.3. Installation de paquets Python additionnels

5.4. GUI Programming

5.5. Sujets avancés

5.6. Autres ressources

6. Using Python on Android

6.1. Adding Python to an Android app

6.2. Building a Python package for Android

7. Using Python on iOS

7.1. Python at runtime on iOS

7.2. Installing Python on iOS

7.3. App Store Compliance

8. Éditeurs et IDEs

8.1. IDLE --- Python editor and shell

8.2. Autres éditeurs et IDEs

1. Ligne de commande et environnement

L'interpréteur CPython analyse la ligne de commande et l'environnement à la recherche de différents paramètres.

Le format des lignes de commande utilisé par d'autres implémentations peut s'avérer différent. Voir Autres implémentations pour plus d'informations.

1.1. Ligne de commande

Quand vous invoquez Python, vous pouvez spécifier n’importe laquelle de ces options :

python [-bBdEhiIOPqRsSuvVWx?] [-c command | -m module-name | script | - ] [args]

Le cas d'utilisation le plus courant est, bien entendu, la simple invocation d'un script :

python myscript.py

1.1.1. Options de l'interface

L'interface de l’interpréteur ressemble à celle du shell UNIX mais fournit quelques méthodes d'invocation supplémentaires :

When called with standard input connected to a tty device, it prompts for commands and executes them until an EOF (an end-of-file character, you can produce that with Ctrl-D on UNIX or Ctrl-Z, Enter on Windows) is read. For more on interactive mode, see Mode interactif.

Quand l'interpréteur est appelé avec un argument correspondant à un nom de fichier ou avec un fichier comme entrée standard, il lit et exécute le script contenu dans ce fichier.

Quand l'interpréteur est appelé avec un argument correspondant à un répertoire, il lit et exécute un script d’un certain nom dans ce répertoire.

Quand l'interpréteur est appelé avec l'option -c commande, il exécute la ou les instructions Python données comme commande. Ici commande peut contenir plusieurs instructions séparées par des fins de ligne. Les blancs en début de ligne ne sont pas ignorés dans les instructions Python !

Quand l'interpréteur est appelé avec l'option -m nom-de-module, le module donné est recherché dans le chemin des modules Python et est exécuté en tant que script.

En mode non-interactif, toute l’entrée est analysée avant d’être exécutée.

Une option d'interface termine la liste des options consommées par l'interpréteur ; tous les arguments atterrissent dans sys.argv — notez que le premier élément, à l'indice zéro (sys.argv|0]), est une chaîne de caractères indiquant la source du programme.

-c <command>

Exécute le code Python dans command. command peut être une ou plusieurs instructions, séparées par des fins de ligne, dont les espaces en début de ligne sont significatives, comme dans le code d’un module.

Si cette option est donnée, le premier élément de sys.argv est "-c" et le répertoire courant est ajouté au début de sys.path (permettant aux modules de ce répertoire d'être importés comme des modules de premier niveau).

Lève un évènement d'audit cpython.run_command avec comme argument command.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: command is automatically dedented before execution.

-m <module-name>

Parcourt sys.path à la recherche du module donné et exécute son contenu en tant que module __main__.

L'argument étant un nom de module, vous ne devez pas fournir d’extension de fichier (.py). Le nom du module doit être un nom de module Python valide, absolu, mais l'implémentation peut ne pas l'imposer (par exemple, l'utilisation d'un trait d'union peut être autorisée).

Les noms de paquets sont aussi autorisés (ainsi que les paquets-espace de nommage, namespace packages en anglais). Quand un nom de paquet est donné à la place d'un simple module, l'interpréteur exécute <pkg>.__main__ comme module principal. Ce comportement est délibérément identique au traitement d'un dossier ou d'un fichier zip donné en argument à l'interpréteur comme script.

Note

Cette option ne peut pas être utilisée avec les modules natifs et les modules d'extension écrits en C, étant donné qu'ils ne possèdent pas de fichiers modules en Python. Cependant, elle peut toujours être utilisée pour les modules pré-compilés, même si le fichier source original n'est pas disponible.

Si cette option est donnée, le premier élément de sys.argv est le chemin complet d'accès au fichier du module (pendant que le fichier est recherché, le premier élément est mis à "-m"). Comme avec l'option -c, le dossier courant est ajouté au début de sys.path.

-I option can be used to run the script in isolated mode where sys.path contains neither the current directory nor the user's site-packages directory. All PYTHON* environment variables are ignored, too.

De nombreux modules de la bibliothèque standard contiennent du code qui est invoqué quand ils sont exécutés comme scripts. Un exemple est le module timeit :

python -m timeit -s "setup here" "benchmarked code here"
python -m timeit -h # for details

Lève un évènement d'audit cpython.run_command avec comme argument module-name.

Voir aussi

runpy.run_module()

Fonctionnalité équivalente directement disponible en code Python

PEP 338 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0338/] -- Exécuter des modules en tant que scripts

Modifié dans la version 3.1: Fournir le nom d'un paquet pour exécuter un sous-module __main__.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: les paquets-espaces de nommage sont aussi gérés

-

Lit les commandes depuis l'entrée standard (sys.stdin). Si l'entrée standard est un terminal, l'option -i est activée implicitement.

Si cette option est donnée, le premier élément de sys.argv est "-" et le dossier courant est ajouté au début de sys.path.

Lève un évènement d'audit cpython.run_stdin sans argument.

<script>

Exécute le code Python contenu dans script, qui doit être un chemin d'accès (absolu ou relatif) à un fichier, faisant référence à un fichier Python, à un répertoire contenant un fichier __main__.py ou à un fichier zip contenant un fichier __main__.py.

Si cette option est donnée, le premier élément de sys.argv est le nom du script tel que donné sur la ligne de commande.

Si le nom du script se réfère directement à un fichier Python, le répertoire contenant ce fichier est ajouté au début de sys.path et le fichier est exécuté en tant que module __main__.

Si le nom du script fait référence à un dossier ou à un fichier zip, le nom du script est ajouté au début de sys.path et le fichier __main__.py à cet endroit est exécuté en tant que module __main__.

-I option can be used to run the script in isolated mode where sys.path contains neither the script's directory nor the user's site-packages directory. All PYTHON* environment variables are ignored, too.

Lève un évènement d'audit cpython.run_file avec comme argument filename.

Voir aussi

runpy.run_path()

Fonctionnalité équivalente directement disponible en code Python

Si aucune option d'interface n'est donnée, l'option -i est activée implicitement, sys.argv[0] est une chaine vide ("") et le dossier courant est ajouté au début de sys.path. Aussi, la complétion par tabulation et l'édition de l'historique sont automatiquement activés, s'ils sont disponibles sur votre système (voir Readline configuration).

Voir aussi

Lancement de l'interpréteur

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Activation automatique de la complétion par tabulation et édition de l'historique.

1.1.2. Options génériques

-?

-h

--help

Affiche une brève description de toutes les options de la ligne de commande et des variables d'environnement correspondantes, puis quitte.

--help-env

Affiche une brève description des variables d'environnement spécifiques à Python et quitte.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

--help-xoptions

Affiche une description spécifique à l'implémentation des options -X et quitte.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

--help-all

Affiche toutes les informations d'utilisation et quitte.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

-V

--version

Affiche la version de Python et termine. Par exemple :

Python 3.8.0b2+

Lorsque l'option est doublée, affiche davantage d'informations sur la manière dont Python a été compilé, comme :

Python 3.8.0b2+ (3.8:0c076caaa8, Apr 20 2019, 21:55:00)
[GCC 6.2.0 20161005]

Ajouté dans la version 3.6: L'option -VV.

1.1.3. Options diverses

-b

Issue a warning when converting bytes or bytearray to str without specifying encoding or comparing bytes or bytearray with str or bytes with int. Issue an error when the option is given twice (-bb).

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Affects also comparisons of bytes with int.

-B

S'il est donné, Python ne tente pas d'écrire de fichier .pyc ou .pyo à l'importation des modules sources. Voir aussi PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE.

--check-hash-based-pycs default|always|never

Contrôle la façon dont sont validés les fichiers .pyc avec empreinte (voir Invalidation de bytecode mis en cache). Quand la valeur est default, les caches de fichiers de code intermédiaire sont validés en fonction de leur sémantique par défaut. Quand la valeur est always, tous les fichiers .pyc, qu'ils soient vérifiés ou non, sont validés par rapport à leurs fichiers sources correspondants. Quand la valeur est never, les fichiers .pyc ne sont pas validés par rapport à leurs fichiers sources correspondants.

La sémantique des fichiers .pyc générés en fonction de l'horodatage n'est pas affectée par cette option.

-d

Turn on parser debugging output (for expert only). See also the PYTHONDEBUG environment variable.

This option requires a debug build of Python, otherwise it's ignored.

-E

Ignore all PYTHON* environment variables, e.g. PYTHONPATH and PYTHONHOME, that might be set.

Voir aussi les options -P et -I (mode isolé).

-i

Enter interactive mode after execution.

Using the -i option will enter interactive mode in any of the following circumstances:

When a script is passed as first argument

When the -c option is used

When the -m option is used

Interactive mode will start even when sys.stdin does not appear to be a terminal. The PYTHONSTARTUP file is not read.

Cela peut être utile pour examiner les variables globales ou une trace de la pile lorsque le script lève une exception. Voir aussi PYTHONINSPECT.

-I

Lance Python en mode isolé. Cela implique les options -E, -P et -s.

In isolated mode sys.path contains neither the script's directory nor the user's site-packages directory. All PYTHON* environment variables are ignored, too. Further restrictions may be imposed to prevent the user from injecting malicious code.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

-O

Enlève les instructions assert et tout le code qui dépend de la valeur de __debug__. Ajoute .opt-1 au nom de fichier du code intermédiaire (bytecode), avant l'extension .pyc (voir la PEP 488 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/]). Voir aussi PYTHONOPTIMIZE.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Modifie les noms de fichiers .pyc suivant la PEP 488 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/].

-OO

Agit comme -O et ignore aussi les docstrings. Ajoute .opt-2 au nom de fichier du code intermédiaire (bytecode), avant l'extension .pyc (voir la PEP 488 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/]).

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Modifie les noms de fichiers .pyc suivant la PEP 488 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/].

-P

Ne pas ajouter de chemin (qui serait alors prioritaire) potentiellement non sûr à sys.path :

python -m module en ligne de commande : ne pas ajouter le répertoire de travail courant.

python script.py en ligne de commande : ne pas ajouter le répertoire du script. Si c'est un lien symbolique, résoudre les liens symboliques.

python -c code et python (REPL) en lignes de commande : ne pas ajouter de chaîne vide, ce qui voudrait dire le répertoire de travail courant.

Voir aussi la variable d'environnement PYTHONSAFEPATH ainsi que les options -E et -I (mode isolé).

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

-q

N'affiche pas le copyright et la version, même en mode interactif.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

-R

Turn on hash randomization. This option only has an effect if the PYTHONHASHSEED environment variable is set to anything other than random, since hash randomization is enabled by default.

On previous versions of Python, this option turns on hash randomization, so that the __hash__() values of str and bytes objects are "salted" with an unpredictable random value. Although they remain constant within an individual Python process, they are not predictable between repeated invocations of Python.

Hash randomization is intended to provide protection against a denial-of-service caused by carefully chosen inputs that exploit the worst case performance of a dict construction, O(n²) complexity. See https://ocert.org/advisories/ocert-2011-003.html for details.

PYTHONHASHSEED vous permet de définir vous-même la valeur du sel pour l'algorithme de calcul des empreintes.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Cette option n'est plus ignorée.

-s

N'ajoute pas le répertoire utilisateur site-packages à sys.path.

See also PYTHONNOUSERSITE.

Voir aussi

PEP 370 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0370/] -- Répertoire site-packages propre à l'utilisateur

-S

Désactive l’importation du module site et les modifications locales de sys.path qu’il implique. Désactive aussi ces manipulations si site est importé explicitement plus tard (appelez site.main() si vous voulez les déclencher).

-u

Force les flux de sortie et d'erreur standards à ne pas utiliser de tampon. Cette option n'a pas d'effet sur le flux d'entrée standard.

Voir aussi PYTHONUNBUFFERED.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: La couche texte des flux de sortie et d'erreur standards n'utilise maintenant plus de tampon.

-v

Affiche un message chaque fois qu'un module est initialisé, montrant l'emplacement (nom du fichier ou module natif) à partir duquel il est chargé. Lorsque l'option est doublée (-vv), affiche un message pour chaque fichier vérifié lors de la recherche du module. Fournit aussi des informations sur le nettoyage des modules à la fin.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Le module site affiche les emplacements de recherche de modules spécifiques à l'installation ainsi que les fichiers .pth qui sont lus.

Voir aussi PYTHONVERBOSE.

-W arg

Contrôle des avertissements. Le mécanisme d'avertissement de Python, par défaut, affiche les messages d'avertissement sur sys.stderr.

Les configurations les plus simples forcent l'application de l'action à tous les avertissements émis par un processus (même ceux qui auraient été ignorés par défaut) :

-Wdefault  # Warn once per call location
-Werror    # Convert to exceptions
-Walways   # Warn every time
-Wall      # Same as -Walways
-Wmodule   # Warn once per calling module
-Wonce     # Warn once per Python process
-Wignore   # Never warn

Les noms des actions peuvent être abrégés à votre convenance, l'interpréteur fait la résolution vers le nom adéquat. Par exemple, -Wi équivaut à -Wignore.

La forme développée de l'argument de -W est :

action:message:category:module:lineno

Les champs message, category, module, line appliquent des filtres de sélection. Ils sont facultatifs : on peut les laisser vides, ou en omettre certains à la fin. Par exemple, -W ignore::DeprecationWarning permet d'ignorer tous les avertissements de type DeprecationWarning.

Le champ action déjà décrit s'applique donc uniquement aux avertissements qui sont passés à travers les filtres.

Un filtre message restreint l'action aux avertissements dont le texte complet correspond à message (la comparaison ne prend pas en compte la casse).

Un filtre category restreint l'action aux avertissements dont la classe est celle nommée category, ou bien une classe fille de la classe nommée category. Un exemple pour category est DeprecationWarning.

The module field matches the (fully qualified) module name; this match is case-sensitive.

Enfin, un filtre lineno restreint l'action aux avertissements qui proviennent d'un numéro de ligne donné. La valeur zéro revient à appliquer le filtre sur toutes les lignes, c.-à-d. l'équivalent de ne pas mettre de numéro.

L'option -W peut être répétée ; lorsqu'un avertissement correspond à plus d'une option, l'action associée à la dernière correspondance est effectuée. Les options -W invalides sont ignorées (cependant, un message d'avertissement est affiché sur les options invalides au moment où le premier avertissement est généré).

Les avertissements peuvent aussi être contrôlés en utilisant la variable d'environnement PYTHONWARNINGS et depuis un programme Python en utilisant le module warnings. Par exemple, la fonction warnings.filterwarnings() peut être utilisée pour filtrer les messages d'avertissement en utilisant une expression rationnelle.

Voir Le filtre des avertissements et Rédaction de filtres d'avertissement pour plus de détails.

-x

Saute la première ligne du code source, autorisant ainsi les directives de type #!cmd non conformes au standard Unix. L'objectif est de proposer une astuce spécifique pour le DOS.

-X

Réservée pour les options spécifiques aux différentes implémentations. CPython reconnaît actuellement les valeurs suivantes :

-X faulthandler to enable faulthandler. See also PYTHONFAULTHANDLER.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

-X showrefcount pour afficher le compteur des références et le nombre de blocs mémoire utilisés lorsque le programme se termine ou après chaque entrée de l'interpréteur interactif. Ceci ne fonctionne que sur les versions compilées en mode débogage.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

-X tracemalloc to start tracing Python memory allocations using the tracemalloc module. By default, only the most recent frame is stored in a traceback of a trace. Use -X tracemalloc=NFRAME to start tracing with a traceback limit of NFRAME frames. See tracemalloc.start() and PYTHONTRACEMALLOC for more information.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

-X int_max_str_digits configure la limitation de la longueur de conversion des chaînes entières. Voir aussi PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

-X importtime to show how long each import takes. It shows module name, cumulative time (including nested imports) and self time (excluding nested imports). Note that its output may be broken in multi-threaded application. Typical usage is python -X importtime -c 'import asyncio'.

-X importtime=2 enables additional output that indicates when an imported module has already been loaded. In such cases, the string cached will be printed in both time columns.

See also PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Added -X importtime=2 to also trace imports of loaded modules, and reserved values other than 1 and 2 for future use.

-X dev: enable Python Development Mode, introducing additional runtime checks that are too expensive to be enabled by default. See also PYTHONDEVMODE.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

-X utf8 enables the Python UTF-8 Mode. -X utf8=0 explicitly disables Python UTF-8 Mode (even when it would otherwise activate automatically). See also PYTHONUTF8.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

-X pycache_prefix=PATH place l'arborescence des fichiers .pyc à partir du chemin donné au lieu de l'arborescence du code source. Voir aussi PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

-X warn_default_encoding pour émettre un EncodingWarning lorsqu'un fichier est ouvert avec l'encodage par défaut des paramètres régionaux. Voir aussi PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

-X no_debug_ranges désactive l'inclusion des tableaux qui font la correspondance avec des informations extérieures (ligne de fin, numéros des colonnes de début et de fin) pour toutes les instructions du code. C'est utile quand vous souhaitez diminuer la taille du code objet et des fichiers pyc ou alors quand vous voulez supprimer des informations de position quand l'interpréteur affiche les traces d'appels. Regardez aussi PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

-X frozen_modules determines whether or not frozen modules are ignored by the import machinery. A value of on means they get imported and off means they are ignored. The default is on if this is an installed Python (the normal case). If it's under development (running from the source tree) then the default is off. Note that the importlib_bootstrap and importlib_bootstrap_external frozen modules are always used, even if this flag is set to off. See also PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

-X perf enables support for the Linux perf profiler. When this option is provided, the perf profiler will be able to report Python calls. This option is only available on some platforms and will do nothing if is not supported on the current system. The default value is "off". See also PYTHONPERFSUPPORT and Python support for the Linux perf profiler.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

-X perf_jit enables support for the Linux perf profiler with DWARF support. When this option is provided, the perf profiler will be able to report Python calls using DWARF information. This option is only available on some platforms and will do nothing if is not supported on the current system. The default value is "off". See also PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT and Python support for the Linux perf profiler.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

-X disable_remote_debug disables the remote debugging support as described in PEP 768 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0768/]. This includes both the functionality to schedule code for execution in another process and the functionality to receive code for execution in the current process.

This option is only available on some platforms and will do nothing if is not supported on the current system. See also PYTHON_DISABLE_REMOTE_DEBUG and PEP 768 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0768/].

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

-X cpu_count=n overrides os.cpu_count(), os.process_cpu_count(), and multiprocessing.cpu_count(). n must be greater than or equal to 1. This option may be useful for users who need to limit CPU resources of a container system. See also PYTHON_CPU_COUNT. If n is default, nothing is overridden.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

-X presite=package.module specifies a module that should be imported before the site module is executed and before the __main__ module exists. Therefore, the imported module isn't __main__. This can be used to execute code early during Python initialization. Python needs to be built in debug mode for this option to exist. See also PYTHON_PRESITE.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

-X gil=0,1 forces the GIL to be disabled or enabled, respectively. Setting to 0 is only available in builds configured with --disable-gil. See also PYTHON_GIL and Free-threaded CPython.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

-X thread_inherit_context=0,1 causes Thread to, by default, use a copy of context of the caller of Thread.start() when starting. Otherwise, threads will start with an empty context. If unset, the value of this option defaults to 1 on free-threaded builds and to 0 otherwise. See also PYTHON_THREAD_INHERIT_CONTEXT.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

-X context_aware_warnings=0,1 causes the warnings.catch_warnings context manager to use a ContextVar to store warnings filter state. If unset, the value of this option defaults to 1 on free-threaded builds and to 0 otherwise. See also PYTHON_CONTEXT_AWARE_WARNINGS.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

-X tlbc=0,1 enables (1, the default) or disables (0) thread-local bytecode in builds configured with --disable-gil. When disabled, this also disables the specializing interpreter. See also PYTHON_TLBC.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Il est aussi possible de passer des valeurs arbitraires et de les récupérer par le dictionnaire sys._xoptions.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Removed the -X showalloccount option.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Removed the -X oldparser option.

Supprimé dans la version 3.14: -J is no longer reserved for use by Jython [https://www.jython.org/], and now has no special meaning.

1.1.4. Controlling color

The Python interpreter is configured by default to use colors to highlight output in certain situations such as when displaying tracebacks. This behavior can be controlled by setting different environment variables.

Setting the environment variable TERM to dumb will disable color.

If the FORCE_COLOR [https://force-color.org/] environment variable is set, then color will be enabled regardless of the value of TERM. This is useful on CI systems which aren’t terminals but can still display ANSI escape sequences.

If the NO_COLOR [https://no-color.org/] environment variable is set, Python will disable all color in the output. This takes precedence over FORCE_COLOR.

All these environment variables are used also by other tools to control color output. To control the color output only in the Python interpreter, the PYTHON_COLORS environment variable can be used. This variable takes precedence over NO_COLOR, which in turn takes precedence over FORCE_COLOR.

1.2. Variables d'environnement

Les variables d'environnement suivantes modifient le comportement de Python. Elles sont analysées avant les options de la ligne de commande, autres que -E ou -I. Il est d'usage que les options de la ligne de commande prennent le pas sur les variables d'environnement en cas de conflit.

PYTHONHOME

Modifie l'emplacement des bibliothèques standards de Python. Par défaut, les bibliothèques sont recherchées dans préfixe/lib/pythonversion et préfixe_exec/lib/pythonversion où préfixe et préfixe_exec sont des répertoires qui dépendent de l'installation (leur valeur par défaut étant /usr/local).

Quand PYTHONHOME est défini à un simple répertoire, sa valeur remplace à la fois préfixe et préfixe_exec. Pour spécifier des valeurs différentes à ces variables, définissez PYTHONHOME à préfixe:préfixe_exec.

PYTHONPATH

Augmente le chemin de recherche par défaut des fichiers de modules. Le format est le même que pour PATH du shell : un ou plusieurs chemins de répertoires séparés par os.pathsep (par exemple, le caractère deux-points sous Unix et point-virgule sous Windows). Les répertoires qui n'existent pas sont ignorés silencieusement.

En plus des répertoires normaux, des entrées individuelles de PYTHONPATH peuvent faire référence à des fichiers zip contenant des modules en pur Python (soit sous forme de code source, soit sous forme compilée). Les modules d'extensions ne peuvent pas être importés à partir de fichiers zip.

Le chemin de recherche par défaut dépend de l'installation mais commence généralement par préfixe/lib/pythonversion (voir PYTHONHOME ci-dessus). Il est toujours ajouté à PYTHONPATH.

Comme indiqué ci-dessus dans Options de l'interface, un répertoire supplémentaire est inséré dans le chemin de recherche devant PYTHONPATH. Le chemin de recherche peut être manipulé depuis un programme Python avec la variable sys.path.

PYTHONSAFEPATH

Si elle est définie à une chaîne non vide, ne pas ajouter un chemin potentiellement non sûr à sys.path : voir l'option -P pour les détails.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

PYTHONPLATLIBDIR

Si elle est définie à une chaîne non vide, elle remplace la valeur de sys.platlibdir.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

PYTHONSTARTUP

S'il s'agit d'un nom de fichier accessible en lecture, les commandes Python de ce fichier sont exécutées avant que la première invite ne soit affichée en mode interactif. Le fichier est exécuté dans le même espace de nommage que les commandes interactives, de manière à ce que les objets définis ou importés puissent être utilisés sans qualificatif dans la session interactive. Vous pouvez aussi changer les invites sys.ps1 et sys.ps2 ainsi que le point d'entrée (hook en anglais) sys.__interactivehook__ dans ce fichier.

Lève un évènement d'audit cpython.run_startup avec le nom du fichier en argument lorsqu'il est lancé au démarrage.

PYTHONOPTIMIZE

Si elle est définie à une chaîne non vide, c'est équivalent à spécifier l'option -O. Si elle est définie à un entier, c'est équivalent à spécifier l'option -O plusieurs fois.

PYTHONBREAKPOINT

Si elle est définie, elle fait référence à un appelable en utilisant la notation des chemins délimités par des points. Le module contenant l'appelable est importé et l'appelable est alors lancé par l'implémentation par défaut de sys.breakpointhook(), elle-même étant appelée par la fonction native breakpoint(). Si elle n'est pas définie ou définie par une chaîne vide, elle vaut la même chose que pdb.set_trace. La définir à la chaîne "0" entraine que l'implémentation par défaut de sys.breakpointhook() ne fait rien et s'interrompt immédiatement.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

PYTHONDEBUG

Si elle est définie à une chaîne non vide, c'est équivalent à spécifier l'option -d. Si elle est définie à un entier, c'est équivalent à spécifier l'option -d plusieurs fois.

This environment variable requires a debug build of Python, otherwise it's ignored.

PYTHONINSPECT

Si elle est définie à une chaîne non vide, c'est équivalent à spécifier l'option -i.

Cette variable peut aussi être modifiée par du code Python en utilisant os.environ pour forcer le mode introspectif à la fin du programme.

Lève un évènement d'audit cpython.run_stdin sans argument.

Modifié dans la version 3.12.5: (also 3.11.10, 3.10.15, 3.9.20, and 3.8.20) Emits audit events.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Uses PyREPL if possible, in which case PYTHONSTARTUP is also executed. Emits audit events.

PYTHONUNBUFFERED

Si elle est définie à une chaîne non vide, c'est équivalent à spécifier l'option -u.

PYTHONVERBOSE

Si elle est définie à une chaîne non vide, c'est équivalent à spécifier l'option -v. Si elle est définie à un entier, c'est équivalent à spécifier l'option -v plusieurs fois.

PYTHONCASEOK

Si elle est définie, Python ignore la casse dans les instructions import. Ceci ne fonctionne que sous Windows et macOS.

PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE

Si elle est définie et n'est pas une chaîne vide, Python n'écrit pas de fichier .pyc à l'importation des modules sources. C'est équivalent à spécifier l'option -B.

PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX

Si elle est définie, Python n'écrit pas ses fichiers .pyc dans __pycache__ mais dans une arborescence miroir à ce chemin. C'est l'équivalent de l'option -X pycache_prefix=PATH.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

PYTHONHASHSEED

Si cette variable n'est pas définie ou définie à random, une valeur aléatoire est utilisée pour saler les empreintes des objets str et bytes.

Si PYTHONHASHSEED est définie à une valeur entière, elle est utilisée comme valeur de salage pour générer les empreintes des types utilisant l'imprévisibilité du hachage.

L'objectif est d'avoir des empreintes reproductibles, pour des tests de l'interpréteur lui-même ou pour qu'un groupe de processus Python puisse partager des empreintes.

Le nombre entier doit être écrit en base 10 et être compris entre 0 et 4 294 967 295. Spécifier la valeur 0 désactive l'imprévisibilité des empreintes.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.3.

PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS

Si un entier est assigné à cette variable, elle est utilisée pour configurer la limite globale de l'interpréteur limitation de la longueur de conversion des chaînes de caractères entiers.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

PYTHONIOENCODING

Si la variable est définie sous la forme nom_encodage:gestionnaire_erreur avant le lancement de l'interpréteur, cela prend le pas sur l'encodage utilisé pour l'entrée standard, la sortie standard ou la sortie d'erreur. nom_encodage et :gestionnaire_erreur sont facultatifs tous les deux et possèdent la même signification que dans str.encode().

Pour la sortie d'erreur, la partie :gestionnaire_erreur est ignorée : le gestionnaire est toujours 'backslashreplace'.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: La partie nom_encodage est maintenant optionnelle.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Sous Windows, l'encodage spécifié par cette variable est ignoré pour le tampon des consoles interactives à moins que PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO ne soit aussi spécifié. Les fichiers et tubes (pipes en anglais) redirigés vers les flux standards ne sont pas concernés.

PYTHONNOUSERSITE

Si elle est définie, Python n'ajoute pas le répertoire site-packages propre à l'utilisateur à sys.path.

Voir aussi

PEP 370 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0370/] -- Répertoire site-packages propre à l'utilisateur

PYTHONUSERBASE

Defines the user base directory, which is used to compute the path of the user site-packages directory and installation paths for python -m pip install --user.

Voir aussi

PEP 370 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0370/] -- Répertoire site-packages propre à l'utilisateur

PYTHONEXECUTABLE

Si cette variable d'environnement est définie, sys.argv[0] est définie à cette valeur au lieu de la valeur fournie par l'exécutable. Ne fonctionne que sur macOS.

PYTHONWARNINGS

C'est équivalent à spécifier l'option -W. Si la valeur est une chaîne séparée par des virgules, c'est équivalent à spécifier l'option -W plusieurs fois. Dans ce cas, les filtres spécifiés en derniers prennent le pas sur ceux qui les précèdent dans la liste.

Les configurations les plus simples forcent l'application de l'action à tous les avertissements émis par un processus (même ceux qui auraient été ignorés par défaut) :

PYTHONWARNINGS=default  # Warn once per call location
PYTHONWARNINGS=error    # Convert to exceptions
PYTHONWARNINGS=always   # Warn every time
PYTHONWARNINGS=all      # Same as PYTHONWARNINGS=always
PYTHONWARNINGS=module   # Warn once per calling module
PYTHONWARNINGS=once     # Warn once per Python process
PYTHONWARNINGS=ignore   # Never warn

Voir Le filtre des avertissements et Rédaction de filtres d'avertissement pour plus de détails.

PYTHONFAULTHANDLER

If this environment variable is set to a non-empty string, faulthandler.enable() is called at startup: install a handler for SIGSEGV, SIGFPE, SIGABRT, SIGBUS and SIGILL signals to dump the Python traceback. This is equivalent to -X faulthandler option.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

PYTHONTRACEMALLOC

If this environment variable is set to a non-empty string, start tracing Python memory allocations using the tracemalloc module. The value of the variable is the maximum number of frames stored in a traceback of a trace. For example, PYTHONTRACEMALLOC=1 stores only the most recent frame. See the tracemalloc.start() function for more information. This is equivalent to setting the -X tracemalloc option.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME

If this environment variable is set to 1, Python will show how long each import takes. If set to 2, Python will include output for imported modules that have already been loaded. This is equivalent to setting the -X importtime option.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Added PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME=2 to also trace imports of loaded modules.

PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG

Si elle est définie à une chaîne non vide, active le mode debogage du module asyncio.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

PYTHONMALLOC

Définit l'allocateur mémoire de Python ou installe des points d'entrée (hooks en anglais) de débogage.

Définit la famille d'allocateurs mémoire utilisés par Python :

default: utilise les allocateurs de mémoire par défaut.

malloc: use the malloc() function of the C library for all domains (PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW, PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM, PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ).

pymalloc: use the pymalloc allocator for PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM and PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ domains and use the malloc() function for the PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW domain.

mimalloc: use the mimalloc allocator for PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM and PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ domains and use the malloc() function for the PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW domain.

Chacun de ces modes possède un pendant qui ajoute en plus des points d'entrée de débogage :

debug : installe des points d'entrée de débogage au-dessus des allocateurs de mémoire par défaut.

malloc_debug: identique à malloc mais installe aussi des points d'entrée de débogage.

pymalloc_debug pour pymalloc.

mimalloc_debug: same as mimalloc but also install debug hooks.

Note

In the free-threaded build, the malloc, malloc_debug, pymalloc, and pymalloc_debug values are not supported. Only default, debug, mimalloc, and mimalloc_debug are accepted.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: L'allocateur default a été ajouté.

PYTHONMALLOCSTATS

If set to a non-empty string, Python will print statistics of the pymalloc memory allocator or the mimalloc memory allocator (whichever is in use) every time a new object arena is created, and on shutdown.

This variable is ignored if the PYTHONMALLOC environment variable is used to force the malloc() allocator of the C library, or if Python is configured without both pymalloc and mimalloc support.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Cette variable peut maintenant être utilisée avec Python compilé en mode release. Elle n'a pas d'effet si elle est définie à une chaine vide.

PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING

Si elle est définie et n’est pas une chaîne vide, l'encodage utilisé pour interagir avec le système de fichiers et le gestionnaire d'erreurs associé reviennent à leurs valeurs par défaut pré-3.6, respectivement 'mbcs' et 'replace'. Sinon, elles prennent les nouvelles valeurs par défaut "UTF-8" et "surrogatepass".

This may also be enabled at runtime with sys._enablelegacywindowsfsencoding().

Disponibilité: Windows.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6: Voir la PEP 529 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/] pour plus d'informations.

PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO

Si elle est définie et n’est pas une chaîne vide, n'utilise pas les lecteur et écrivain de la nouvelle console. Cela signifie que les caractères Unicode sont encodés avec l'encodage de la console active plutôt qu'en UTF-8.

Cette variable est ignorée si les flux standards sont redirigés (vers des fichiers ou des tubes) plutôt que pointant vers des mémoires tampons de console.

Disponibilité: Windows.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE

Si elle est définie à la valeur 0, l'application en ligne de commande principale Python ne prend pas en compte les configurations régionales C et POSIX à base ASCII, mais bascule sur une alternative basée sur l'UTF-8 qui doit posséder plus de possibilités.

Si cette variable n'est pas définie (ou est définie à une valeur autre que 0), que la variable d'environnement de configuration régionale LC_ALL est également non définie et que la configuration régionale indiquée dans la catégorie LC_TYPE est soit la région par défaut C, soit la région POSIX qui demande explicitement de l'ASCII, alors l'interpréteur en ligne de commande Python essaie de configurer les paramètres régionaux pour la catégorie LC_TYPE dans l'ordre suivant avant de charger l'exécutable de l'interpréteur :

C.UTF-8

C.utf8

UTF-8

Si la définition d'une des configurations régionales fonctionne, la variable d'environnement LC_TYPE est aussi définie ainsi dans l'environnement du processus avant que l'exécutable Python ne soit initialisé. Ceci assure que, en plus d'être vue par l'interpréteur lui-même et tous les autres composants prenant en charge la configuration régionale dans le même processus (telle que la bibliothèque GNU readline), la configuration mise à jour est aussi valable pour les sous-processus (indépendamment du fait qu'ils utilisent un interpréteur Python ou non) ainsi que pour les opérations qui font appel à l'environnement (qui utiliseraient sinon la configuration régionale C courante, tel que c'est le cas pour la propre fonction Python locale.getdefaultlocale()).

La configuration d'une de ces variables régionales (soit explicitement, soit via le mécanisme décrit ci-dessus) active automatiquement surrogateescape pour la gestion des erreurs de sys.stdin et sys.stdout (sys.stderr continue d'utiliser backslashreplace comme pour toute autre configuration régionale). Ce comportement relatif à la gestion des flux standards peut être surchargé, comme d'habitude, par PYTHONIOENCODING.

À fin de débogage, définir PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE=warn indique à Python d'émettre les messages d'avertissement sur stderr si la configuration régionale est activée, ou si une configuration régionale qui aurait activé est toujours active quand l'interpréteur Python est initialisé.

Notez également que même si la contrainte sur la configuration régionale est désactivée, ou si elle ne trouve pas une configuration satisfaisante et échoue, PYTHONUTF8 s'active par défaut avec une configuration régionale par défaut à base ASCII. Ces fonctionnalités doivent être désactivées pour forcer l'interpréteur à utiliser ASCII en lieu et place de UTF-8 pour les interfaces avec le système.

Disponibilité: Unix.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7: Voir la PEP 538 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/] pour plus d'informations.

PYTHONDEVMODE

If this environment variable is set to a non-empty string, enable Python Development Mode, introducing additional runtime checks that are too expensive to be enabled by default. This is equivalent to setting the -X dev option.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

PYTHONUTF8

La valeur 1 active le mode UTF-8.

La valeur 0 désactive le mode UTF-8.

Définir une valeur autre (non vide) entraine une erreur pendant l'initialisation de l'interpréteur.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING

Si elle est définie à une chaîne non vide, un avertissement EncodingWarning est émis lorsque l'encodage par défaut de la configuration régionale est utilisé.

Voir Opt-in EncodingWarning pour plus de détails.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES

Si cette variable est définie, cela désactive l'inclusion des tableaux qui font la correspondance avec des informations extérieures (ligne de fin, numéros des colonnes de début et de fin) pour toutes les instructions du code. C'est utile quand vous souhaitez diminuer la taille du code objet et des fichiers pyc ou alors quand vous voulez supprimer des informations de position quand l'interpréteur affiche les traces d'appels.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

PYTHONPERFSUPPORT

If this variable is set to a nonzero value, it enables support for the Linux perf profiler so Python calls can be detected by it.

If set to 0, disable Linux perf profiler support.

See also the -X perf command-line option and Python support for the Linux perf profiler.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT

If this variable is set to a nonzero value, it enables support for the Linux perf profiler so Python calls can be detected by it using DWARF information.

If set to 0, disable Linux perf profiler support.

See also the -X perf_jit command-line option and Python support for the Linux perf profiler.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

PYTHON_DISABLE_REMOTE_DEBUG

If this variable is set to a non-empty string, it disables the remote debugging feature described in PEP 768 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0768/]. This includes both the functionality to schedule code for execution in another process and the functionality to receive code for execution in the current process.

See also the -X disable_remote_debug command-line option.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

PYTHON_CPU_COUNT

If this variable is set to a positive integer, it overrides the return values of os.cpu_count() and os.process_cpu_count().

See also the -X cpu_count command-line option.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES

If this variable is set to on or off, it determines whether or not frozen modules are ignored by the import machinery. A value of on means they get imported and off means they are ignored. The default is on for non-debug builds (the normal case) and off for debug builds. Note that the importlib_bootstrap and importlib_bootstrap_external frozen modules are always used, even if this flag is set to off.

See also the -X frozen_modules command-line option.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

PYTHON_COLORS

If this variable is set to 1, the interpreter will colorize various kinds of output. Setting it to 0 deactivates this behavior. See also Controlling color.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

PYTHON_BASIC_REPL

If this variable is set to any value, the interpreter will not attempt to load the Python-based REPL that requires readline, and will instead use the traditional parser-based REPL.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

PYTHON_HISTORY

This environment variable can be used to set the location of a .python_history file (by default, it is .python_history in the user's home directory).

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

PYTHON_GIL

If this variable is set to 1, the global interpreter lock (GIL) will be forced on. Setting it to 0 forces the GIL off (needs Python configured with the --disable-gil build option).

See also the -X gil command-line option, which takes precedence over this variable, and Free-threaded CPython.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

PYTHON_THREAD_INHERIT_CONTEXT

If this variable is set to 1 then Thread will, by default, use a copy of context of the caller of Thread.start() when starting. Otherwise, new threads will start with an empty context. If unset, this variable defaults to 1 on free-threaded builds and to 0 otherwise. See also -X thread_inherit_context.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

PYTHON_CONTEXT_AWARE_WARNINGS

If set to 1 then the warnings.catch_warnings context manager will use a ContextVar to store warnings filter state. If unset, this variable defaults to 1 on free-threaded builds and to 0 otherwise. See -X context_aware_warnings.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

PYTHON_JIT

On builds where experimental just-in-time compilation is available, this variable can force the JIT to be disabled (0) or enabled (1) at interpreter startup.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

PYTHON_TLBC

If set to 1 enables thread-local bytecode. If set to 0 thread-local bytecode and the specializing interpreter are disabled. Only applies to builds configured with --disable-gil.

See also the -X tlbc command-line option.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

1.2.1. Variables en mode débogage

PYTHONDUMPREFS

Si elle est définie, Python affiche (de manière brute) les objets et les compteurs de références toujours existant après la fermeture de l'interpréteur.

Needs Python configured with the --with-trace-refs build option.

PYTHONDUMPREFSFILE

If set, Python will dump objects and reference counts still alive after shutting down the interpreter into a file under the path given as the value to this environment variable.

Needs Python configured with the --with-trace-refs build option.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

PYTHON_PRESITE

If this variable is set to a module, that module will be imported early in the interpreter lifecycle, before the site module is executed, and before the __main__ module is created. Therefore, the imported module is not treated as __main__.

This can be used to execute code early during Python initialization.

To import a submodule, use package.module as the value, like in an import statement.

See also the -X presite command-line option, which takes precedence over this variable.

Needs Python configured with the --with-pydebug build option.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

2. Utilisation de Python sur les plateformes Unix

2.1. Récupérer et installer la dernière version de Python

2.1.1. Sur Linux

Python est préinstallé sur la plupart des distributions Linux, et est disponible en paquet sur toutes les autres. Cependant, il y a certaines fonctionnalités que vous pourriez vouloir utiliser qui ne sont pas disponibles dans le paquet de votre distribution. Vous pouvez compiler la dernière version de Python depuis les sources.

Dans le cas où Python n'est pas préinstallé et n'est pas disponible dans les dépôts, vous pouvez faire les paquets pour votre propre distribution. Jetez un œil à ces liens :

Voir aussi

https://www.debian.org/doc/manuals/maint-guide/first.fr.html

pour les utilisateurs de Debian

https://en.opensuse.org/Portal:Packaging

pour les utilisateurs d'OpenSuse

https://docs.fedoraproject.org/fr/package-maintainers/Packaging_Tutorial_2_GNU_Hello/

pour les utilisateurs de Fedora

https://slackbook.org/html/package-management-making-packages.html

pour les utilisateurs de Slackware

2.1.1.1. Installing IDLE

In some cases, IDLE might not be included in your Python installation.

For Debian and Ubuntu users:

sudo apt update
sudo apt install idle

For Fedora, RHEL, and CentOS users:

sudo dnf install python3-idle

For SUSE and OpenSUSE users:

sudo zypper install python3-idle

For Alpine Linux users:

sudo apk add python3-idle

2.1.2. Sur FreeBSD et OpenBSD

Utilisateurs de FreeBSD, pour installer le paquet, utilisez :

pkg install python3

Utilisateurs d'OpenBSD, pour installer le paquet, utilisez :

pkg_add -r python

pkg_add ftp://ftp.openbsd.org/pub/OpenBSD/4.2/packages/<insert your architecture here>/python-<version>.tgz

Par exemple les utilisateurs d'i386 récupèrent la version 2.5.1 de Python en faisant :

pkg_add ftp://ftp.openbsd.org/pub/OpenBSD/4.2/packages/i386/python-2.5.1p2.tgz

2.2. Compiler Python

Voir aussi

If you want to contribute to CPython, refer to the devguide [https://devguide.python.org/getting-started/setup-building/], which includes build instructions and other tips on setting up environment.

If you want to compile CPython yourself, first thing you should do is get the source [https://www.python.org/downloads/source/]. You can download either the latest release's source or grab a fresh clone [https://devguide.python.org/setup/#get-the-source-code]. You will also need to install the build requirements.

La compilation s'effectue avec les commandes habituelles :

./configure
make
make install

Les options de configuration et mises en garde pour certaines plateformes Unix spécifiques sont largement documentées dans le fichier README.rst [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/README.rst] à la racine du dossier des sources Python.

Avertissement

make install peut écraser ou cacher le binaire python3. make altinstall est donc recommandé à la place de make install puisqu'il installe seulement exec_prefix/bin/pythonversion.

2.3. Fichiers et chemins liés à Python

Ceux-ci sont sujets à des différences en fonction des conventions locales d'installation ; prefix et exec_prefix sont dépendants de l’installation et doivent être interprétés comme pour des logiciels GNU ; ils peuvent être égaux.

Par exemple, sur la plupart des systèmes Linux, leur valeur par défaut est /usr.

Fichier/dossier

Signification

exec_prefix/bin/python3

Emplacement recommandé de l'interpréteur.

prefix/lib/pythonversion, exec_prefix/lib/pythonversion

Emplacements recommandés des dossiers contenant les modules standards.

prefix/include/pythonversion, exec_prefix/include/pythonversion

Emplacements recommandés des dossiers contenant les entêtes nécessaires au développement d'extensions Python et à l'intégration de l'interpréteur.

2.4. Divers

Pour utiliser facilement des scripts Python sur Unix, vous devez les rendre exécutables, par exemple avec

$ chmod +x script

et mettre un shebang approprié en haut du script. Un bon choix est généralement

#!/usr/bin/env python3

qui cherche l’interpréteur Python dans le PATH complet. Cependant, certains systèmes Unix peuvent ne pas avoir la commande env, donc vous devrez littéralement écrire /usr/bin/python3 en tant que chemin d’interpréteur.

Pour utiliser des commandes shell dans vos scripts Python, regardez le module subprocess.

2.5. Version personnalisée d'OpenSSL

Pour compiler avec votre propre configuration d'OpenSSL et le magasin des certificats de confiance du système, commencez par trouver le sous-dossier de /etc qui contient le fichier ou le lien symbolique openssl.cnf. Sur la plupart des distributions, c'est soit /etc/ssl, soit /etc/pki/tls. Ce dossier doit également contenir un fichier cert.pem ou un sous-dossier certs (ou les deux).

$ find /etc/ -name openssl.cnf -printf "%h\n"
/etc/ssl

Téléchargez et compilez OpenSSL. Installez-le, en prenant bien garde de le faire avec la cible install_sw et non pas install. En effet, install réécrirait le fichier openssl.cnf.

$ curl -O https://www.openssl.org/source/openssl-VERSION.tar.gz
$ tar xzf openssl-VERSION
$ pushd openssl-VERSION
$ ./config \
    --prefix=/usr/local/custom-openssl \
    --libdir=lib \
    --openssldir=/etc/ssl
$ make -j1 depend
$ make -j8
$ make install_sw
$ popd

Ensuite, compilez Python avec votre version d'OpenSSL personnalisée (voir les options --with-openssl et --with-openssl-rpath du script configure).

$ pushd python-3.x.x
$ ./configure -C \
    --with-openssl=/usr/local/custom-openssl \
    --with-openssl-rpath=auto \
    --prefix=/usr/local/python-3.x.x
$ make -j8
$ make altinstall

Note

Les versions d'OpenSSL dans une même série (incrémentation du troisième chiffre) conservent la compatibilité de l'interface binaire. Pour mettre à jour OpenSSL, il n'y a pas besoin de recompiler Python, il suffit de remplacer l'installation d'OpenSSL avec la nouvelle version.

3. Configurer Python

3.1. Build Requirements

To build CPython, you will need:

A C11 [https://en.cppreference.com/w/c/11] compiler. Optional C11 features [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C11_(C_standard_revision)#Optional_features] are not required.

On Windows, Microsoft Visual Studio 2017 or later is required.

Support for IEEE 754 [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754] floating-point numbers and floating-point Not-a-Number (NaN) [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NaN#Floating_point].

Support for threads.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: On Windows, Visual Studio 2015 or later is now required.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Selected C99 features, like <stdint.h> and static inline functions, are now required.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Thread support is now required.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: C11 compiler, IEEE 754 and NaN support are now required. On Windows, Visual Studio 2017 or later is required.

See also PEP 7 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0007/] "Style Guide for C Code" and PEP 11 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/] "CPython platform support".

3.1.1. Requirements for optional modules

Some optional modules of the standard library require third-party libraries installed for development (for example, header files must be available).

Missing requirements are reported in the configure output. Modules that are missing due to missing dependencies are listed near the end of the make output, sometimes using an internal name, for example, _ctypes for ctypes module.

If you distribute a CPython interpreter without optional modules, it's best practice to advise users, who generally expect that standard library modules are available.

Dependencies to build optional modules are:

Dependency

Minimum version

Python module

libbz2 [https://sourceware.org/bzip2/]

bz2

libffi [https://sourceware.org/libffi/]

3.3.0 recommended

ctypes

liblzma [https://tukaani.org/xz/]

lzma

libmpdec [https://www.bytereef.org/mpdecimal/doc/libmpdec/]

2.5.0

decimal [1]

libreadline [https://tiswww.case.edu/php/chet/readline/rltop.html] or libedit [https://www.thrysoee.dk/editline/] [2]

readline

libuuid [https://linux.die.net/man/3/libuuid]

_uuid [3]

ncurses [https://gnu.org/software/ncurses/ncurses.html] [4]

curses

OpenSSL [https://openssl-library.org/]

3.0.18 recommended

(1.1.1 minimum)

ssl, hashlib [5]

SQLite [https://sqlite.org/]

3.15.2

sqlite3

Tcl/Tk [https://www.tcl-lang.org/]

8.5.12

tkinter, IDLE, turtle

zlib [https://www.zlib.net]

1.2.2.1

zlib, gzip, ensurepip

zstd [https://facebook.github.io/zstd/]

1.4.5

compression.zstd

[1]

If libmpdec is not available, the decimal module will use a pure-Python implementation. See --with-system-libmpdec for details.

[2]

See --with-readline for choosing the backend for the readline module.

[3]

The uuid module uses _uuid to generate "safe" UUIDs. See the module documentation for details.

[4]

The curses module requires the libncurses or libncursesw library. The curses.panel module additionally requires the libpanel or libpanelw library.

[5]

If OpenSSL is not available, the hashlib module will use bundled implementations of several hash functions. See --with-builtin-hashlib-hashes for forcing usage of OpenSSL.

Note that the table does not include all optional modules; in particular, platform-specific modules like winreg are not listed here.

Voir aussi

The devguide [https://devguide.python.org/getting-started/setup-building/#install-dependencies] includes a full list of dependencies required to build all modules and instructions on how to install them on common platforms.

--with-system-expat allows building with an external libexpat [https://libexpat.github.io/] library.

Options for third-party dependencies

Modifié dans la version 3.1: Tcl/Tk version 8.3.1 is now required for tkinter.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Tcl/Tk version 8.4 is now required for tkinter.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: OpenSSL 1.0.2 is now required for hashlib and ssl.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: OpenSSL 1.1.1 is now required for hashlib and ssl. SQLite 3.7.15 is now required for sqlite3.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Tcl/Tk version 8.5.12 is now required for tkinter.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: SQLite 3.15.2 is now required for sqlite3.

3.2. Generated files

To reduce build dependencies, Python source code contains multiple generated files. Commands to regenerate all generated files:

make regen-all
make regen-stdlib-module-names
make regen-limited-abi
make regen-configure

The Makefile.pre.in file documents generated files, their inputs, and tools used to regenerate them. Search for regen-* make targets.

3.2.1. configure script

The make regen-configure command regenerates the aclocal.m4 file and the configure script using the Tools/build/regen-configure.sh shell script which uses an Ubuntu container to get the same tools versions and have a reproducible output.

The container is optional, the following command can be run locally:

autoreconf -ivf -Werror

The generated files can change depending on the exact versions of the tools used. The container that CPython uses has Autoconf [https://gnu.org/software/autoconf] 2.72, aclocal from Automake [https://www.gnu.org/software/automake] 1.16.5, and pkg-config [https://www.freedesktop.org/wiki/Software/pkg-config/] 1.8.1.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Autoconf 2.71 and aclocal 1.16.5 and are now used to regenerate configure.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Autoconf 2.72 is now used to regenerate configure.

3.3. Options de configuration

List all configure script options using:

./configure --help

Voir aussi le fichier Misc/SpecialBuilds.txt dans la distribution des sources Python.

3.3.1. Options générales

--enable-loadable-sqlite-extensions

Support loadable extensions in the _sqlite extension module (default is no) of the sqlite3 module.

Voir la méthode sqlite3.Connection.enable_load_extension() du module sqlite3.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

--disable-ipv6

Désactive la prise en charge d'IPv6 (activé par défaut si géré), voir le module socket.

--enable-big-digits=[15|30]

Définit la taille en bits des chiffres Python int : 15 ou 30 bits.

La valeur par défaut est 30 bits.

Définit PYLONG_BITS_IN_DIGIT à 15 ou 30.

Voir sys.int_info.bits_per_digit.

--with-suffix=SUFFIX

Définit à SUFFIX le suffixe de l'exécutable Python.

Le suffixe par défaut est .exe sur Windows et macOS (exécutable python.exe), .js pour Emscripten (node), .html pour Emscripten (navigateur), .wasm pour WASI, et une chaîne vide sur les autres plateformes (exécutable python).

Modifié dans la version 3.11: les suffixes par défaut pour la plateforme WASM sont maintenant .js, .html et .wasm.

--with-tzpath=<list of absolute paths separated by pathsep>

Select the default time zone search path for zoneinfo.TZPATH. See the Compile-time configuration of the zoneinfo module.

Par défaut : /usr/share/zoneinfo:/usr/lib/zoneinfo:/usr/share/lib/zoneinfo:/etc/zoneinfo.

Voir le séparateur de chemins os.pathsep.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

--without-decimal-contextvar

Compile le module d'extension _decimal en utilisant un contexte local au fil d'exécution plutôt qu'un contexte local de coroutine (défaut). Voir le module decimal.

See decimal.HAVE_CONTEXTVAR and the contextvars module.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

--with-dbmliborder=<list of backend names>

Change l'ordre de détection des implémentations de base de données pour le module dbm.

Une valeur valide est une chaîne de noms d'implémentations séparés par des deux-points (:) :

ndbm ;

gdbm ;

bdb.

--without-c-locale-coercion

Désactive le forçage des paramètres régionaux C pour un paramètre régional basé sur UTF-8 (activé par défaut).

Ne pas définir la macro PY_COERCE_C_LOCALE.

Voir PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE et la PEP 538 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/].

--with-platlibdir=DIRNAME

Nom du dossier de bibliothèques Python (par défaut : lib).

Fedora et SuSE utilisent lib64 sur les systèmes 64-bit.

Voir sys.platlibdir.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

--with-wheel-pkg-dir=PATH

Dossier de paquets wheel utilisé par le module ensurepip (par défaut : aucun).

Some Linux distribution packaging policies recommend against bundling dependencies. For example, Fedora installs wheel packages in the /usr/share/python-wheels/ directory and don't install the ensurepip._bundled package.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

--with-pkg-config=[check|yes|no]

Est-ce que configure doit utiliser pkg-config pour détecter les dépendances de construction.

check (par défaut) : pkg-config est optionnel

yes : pkg-config est obligatoire

no : configure n'utilise pas pkg-config même s'il est présent

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

--enable-pystats

Turn on internal Python performance statistics gathering.

By default, statistics gathering is off. Use python3 -X pystats command or set PYTHONSTATS=1 environment variable to turn on statistics gathering at Python startup.

At Python exit, dump statistics if statistics gathering was on and not cleared.

Effects:

Add -X pystats command line option.

Add PYTHONSTATS environment variable.

Define the Py_STATS macro.

Add functions to the sys module:

sys._stats_on(): Turns on statistics gathering.

sys._stats_off(): Turns off statistics gathering.

sys._stats_clear(): Clears the statistics.

sys._stats_dump(): Dump statistics to file, and clears the statistics.

The statistics will be dumped to a arbitrary (probably unique) file in /tmp/py_stats/ (Unix) or C:\temp\py_stats\ (Windows). If that directory does not exist, results will be printed on stderr.

Utilisez Tools/scripts/summarize_stats.py pour lire les statistiques.

Statistics:

Opcode:

Specialization: success, failure, hit, deferred, miss, deopt, failures;

Execution count;

Pair count.

Call:

Inlined Python calls;

PyEval calls;

Frames pushed;

Frame object created;

Eval calls: vector, generator, legacy, function VECTORCALL, build class, slot, function "ex", API, method.

Object:

incref and decref;

interpreter incref and decref;

allocations: all, 512 bytes, 4 kiB, big;

free;

to/from free lists;

dictionary materialized/dematerialized;

type cache;

optimization attempts;

optimization traces created/executed;

uops executed.

Garbage collector:

Garbage collections;

Objects visited;

Objects collected.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

--disable-gil

Enables support for running Python without the global interpreter lock (GIL): free-threaded build.

Defines the Py_GIL_DISABLED macro and adds "t" to sys.abiflags.

See Free-threaded CPython for more detail.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

--enable-experimental-jit=[no|yes|yes-off|interpreter]

Indicate how to integrate the experimental just-in-time compiler.

no: Don't build the JIT.

yes: Enable the JIT. To disable it at runtime, set the environment variable PYTHON_JIT=0.

yes-off: Build the JIT, but disable it by default. To enable it at runtime, set the environment variable PYTHON_JIT=1.

interpreter: Enable the "JIT interpreter" (only useful for those debugging the JIT itself). To disable it at runtime, set the environment variable PYTHON_JIT=0.

--enable-experimental-jit=no is the default behavior if the option is not provided, and --enable-experimental-jit is shorthand for --enable-experimental-jit=yes. See Tools/jit/README.md for more information, including how to install the necessary build-time dependencies.

Note

When building CPython with JIT enabled, ensure that your system has Python 3.11 or later installed.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

PKG_CONFIG

Path to pkg-config utility.

PKG_CONFIG_LIBDIR

PKG_CONFIG_PATH

pkg-config options.

3.3.2. C compiler options

CC

C compiler command.

CFLAGS

C compiler flags.

CPP

C preprocessor command.

CPPFLAGS

C preprocessor flags, e.g. -Iinclude_dir.

3.3.3. Linker options

LDFLAGS

Linker flags, e.g. -Llibrary_directory.

LIBS

Libraries to pass to the linker, e.g. -llibrary.

MACHDEP

Name for machine-dependent library files.

3.3.4. Options for third-party dependencies

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

BZIP2_CFLAGS

BZIP2_LIBS

C compiler and linker flags to link Python to libbz2, used by bz2 module, overriding pkg-config.

CURSES_CFLAGS

CURSES_LIBS

C compiler and linker flags for libncurses or libncursesw, used by curses module, overriding pkg-config.

GDBM_CFLAGS

GDBM_LIBS

C compiler and linker flags for gdbm.

LIBEDIT_CFLAGS

LIBEDIT_LIBS

C compiler and linker flags for libedit, used by readline module, overriding pkg-config.

LIBFFI_CFLAGS

LIBFFI_LIBS

C compiler and linker flags for libffi, used by ctypes module, overriding pkg-config.

LIBMPDEC_CFLAGS

LIBMPDEC_LIBS

C compiler and linker flags for libmpdec, used by decimal module, overriding pkg-config.

Note

These environment variables have no effect unless --with-system-libmpdec is specified.

LIBLZMA_CFLAGS

LIBLZMA_LIBS

C compiler and linker flags for liblzma, used by lzma module, overriding pkg-config.

LIBREADLINE_CFLAGS

LIBREADLINE_LIBS

C compiler and linker flags for libreadline, used by readline module, overriding pkg-config.

LIBSQLITE3_CFLAGS

LIBSQLITE3_LIBS

C compiler and linker flags for libsqlite3, used by sqlite3 module, overriding pkg-config.

LIBUUID_CFLAGS

LIBUUID_LIBS

C compiler and linker flags for libuuid, used by uuid module, overriding pkg-config.

LIBZSTD_CFLAGS

LIBZSTD_LIBS

C compiler and linker flags for libzstd, used by compression.zstd module, overriding pkg-config.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

PANEL_CFLAGS

PANEL_LIBS

C compiler and linker flags for PANEL, overriding pkg-config.

C compiler and linker flags for libpanel or libpanelw, used by curses.panel module, overriding pkg-config.

TCLTK_CFLAGS

TCLTK_LIBS

C compiler and linker flags for TCLTK, overriding pkg-config.

ZLIB_CFLAGS

ZLIB_LIBS

C compiler and linker flags for libzlib, used by gzip module, overriding pkg-config.

3.3.5. Options de WebAssembly

--enable-wasm-dynamic-linking

Active la gestion d'édition de liens dynamique pour WASM

L'édition de liens dynamique autorise dlopen. La taille du fichier exécutable augmente en raison de l'élimination moindre du code mort et des fonctionnalités supplémentaires.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

--enable-wasm-pthreads

Active la gestion des pthreads pour WASM.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

3.3.6. Options d'installation

--prefix=PREFIX

Install architecture-independent files in PREFIX. On Unix, it defaults to /usr/local.

This value can be retrieved at runtime using sys.prefix.

As an example, one can use --prefix="$HOME/.local/" to install a Python in its home directory.

--exec-prefix=EPREFIX

Install architecture-dependent files in EPREFIX, defaults to --prefix.

This value can be retrieved at runtime using sys.exec_prefix.

--disable-test-modules

Don't build nor install test modules, like the test package or the _testcapi extension module (built and installed by default).

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

--with-ensurepip=[upgrade|install|no]

Sélectionne la commande ensurepip exécutée à l'installation de Python :

upgrade (défaut) : exécute la commande python -m ensurepip --altinstall --upgrade ;

install : exécute la commande python -m ensurepip --altinstall ;

no : n'exécute pas ensurepip.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

3.3.7. Options de performance

Configuring Python using --enable-optimizations --with-lto (PGO + LTO) is recommended for best performance. The experimental --enable-bolt flag can also be used to improve performance.

--enable-optimizations

Active l'optimisation guidée par profilage (Profile Guided Optimization, PGO) en utilisant PROFILE_TASK (désactivé par défaut).

L'utilisation de PGO avec le compilateur C Clang nécessite llvm-profdata. Sur macOS, GCC est juste un alias vers Clang et partage donc cette contrainte.

Désactive également l'interposition sémantique dans libpython si GCC est utilisé avec --enable-shared : ajoute l'option -fno-semantic-interposition à la compilation et à l'édition des liens.

Note

During the build, you may encounter compiler warnings about profile data not being available for some source files. These warnings are harmless, as only a subset of the code is exercised during profile data acquisition. To disable these warnings on Clang, manually suppress them by adding -Wno-profile-instr-unprofiled to CFLAGS.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Utilisation de -fno-semantic-interposition avec GCC.

PROFILE_TASK

Variable d'environnement utilisée dans le Makefile : arguments Python utilisés pour la tâche de préparation de la PGO.

Par défaut : -m test --pgo --timeout=$(TESTTIMEOUT).

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Task failure is no longer ignored silently.

--with-lto=[full|thin|no|yes]

Active l'optimisation à l'édition des liens (Link Time Optimization, LTO) à la compilation (désactivé par défaut).

Le compilateur C Clang nécessite llvm-ar pour la LTO (ar sur macOS), ainsi qu'un éditeur de liens implémentant la LTO (ld.gold ou lld).

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11: Pour avoir la fonctionnalité ThinLTO, utilisez --with-lto=thin avec Clang.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Use ThinLTO as the default optimization policy on Clang if the compiler accepts the flag.

--enable-bolt

Enable usage of the BOLT post-link binary optimizer [https://github.com/llvm/llvm-project/tree/main/bolt] (disabled by default).

BOLT is part of the LLVM project but is not always included in their binary distributions. This flag requires that llvm-bolt and merge-fdata are available.

BOLT is still a fairly new project so this flag should be considered experimental for now. Because this tool operates on machine code its success is dependent on a combination of the build environment + the other optimization configure args + the CPU architecture, and not all combinations are supported. BOLT versions before LLVM 16 are known to crash BOLT under some scenarios. Use of LLVM 16 or newer for BOLT optimization is strongly encouraged.

The BOLT_INSTRUMENT_FLAGS and BOLT_APPLY_FLAGS configure variables can be defined to override the default set of arguments for llvm-bolt to instrument and apply BOLT data to binaries, respectively.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

BOLT_APPLY_FLAGS

Arguments to llvm-bolt when creating a BOLT optimized binary [https://github.com/facebookarchive/BOLT].

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

BOLT_INSTRUMENT_FLAGS

Arguments to llvm-bolt when instrumenting binaries.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

--with-computed-gotos

Autorise les gotos calculés dans les boucles (activé par défaut pour les compilateurs qui le gèrent).

--with-tail-call-interp

Enable interpreters using tail calls in CPython. If enabled, enabling PGO (--enable-optimizations) is highly recommended. This option specifically requires a C compiler with proper tail call support, and the preserve_none [https://clang.llvm.org/docs/AttributeReference.html#preserve-none] calling convention. For example, Clang 19 and newer supports this feature.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

--without-mimalloc

Disable the fast mimalloc allocator (enabled by default).

This option cannot be used together with --disable-gil because the free-threaded build requires mimalloc.

Voir aussi la variable d'environnement PYTHONMALLOC.

--without-pymalloc

Désactive l'allocateur spécialisé de mémoire de Python pymalloc (activé par défaut).

Voir aussi la variable d'environnement PYTHONMALLOC.

--without-doc-strings

Désactive les chaînes de documentation statiques pour réduire l'empreinte mémoire (activé par défaut). Les chaînes définies dans Python ne sont pas affectées.

Ne définit pas la macro WITH_DOC_STRINGS.

Voir la macro PyDoc_STRVAR().

--enable-profiling

Active le profilage du code C avec gprof (désactivé par défaut).

--with-strict-overflow

Add -fstrict-overflow to the C compiler flags (by default we add -fno-strict-overflow instead).

--without-remote-debug

Deactivate remote debugging support described in PEP 768 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0768/] (enabled by default). When this flag is provided the code that allows the interpreter to schedule the execution of a Python file in a separate process as described in PEP 768 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0768/] is not compiled. This includes both the functionality to schedule code to be executed and the functionality to receive code to be executed.

Py_REMOTE_DEBUG

This macro is defined by default, unless Python is configured with --without-remote-debug.

Note that even if the macro is defined, remote debugging may not be available (for example, on an incompatible platform).

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

3.3.8. Compilation de Python en mode débogage

Une compilation de Python en mode débogage se fait avec l'option de configuration --with-pydebug.

Effets du mode débogage :

Affichage de tous les avertissements par défaut : le filtre par défaut des avertissements est vide dans le module warnings.

Ajout de d à sys.abiflags.

Add sys.gettotalrefcount() function.

Ajout de l'option de ligne de commande -X showrefcount.

Add -d command line option and PYTHONDEBUG environment variable to debug the parser.

Prise en charge de la variable __ltrace__ : si la variable est définie, active le traçage de bas niveau dans la boucle d'évaluation du code intermédiaire.

Installation des debug hooks on memory allocators pour détecter les débordements de mémoire tampon et autres erreurs de mémoire.

Définition des macros Py_DEBUG et Py_REF_DEBUG.

Ajout de vérifications à l'exécution : codes entourés de #ifdef Py_DEBUG et #endif. Active les assertions assert(...) et _PyObject_ASSERT(...) : ne définit pas la macro NDEBUG (voir aussi l'option de configuration --with-assertions). Les principales vérifications à l'exécution :

Ajout des contrôles d'intégrité sur les arguments de fonction.

Les objets unicode et int sont créés avec un motif particulier à l'initialisation de leur mémoire afin de détecter l'usage d'objets non initialisés.

S'assurer que les fonctions qui peuvent effacer ou remplacer l'exception courante ne sont pas appelées avec une exception levée.

S'assurer que les fonctions qui désallouent ne changent pas l'exception en cours.

Le ramasse-miettes (la fonction gc.collect()) effectue quelques tests basiques relatifs à la cohérence des objets.

The Py_SAFE_DOWNCAST() macro checks for integer underflow and overflow when downcasting from wide types to narrow types.

Voir aussi le mode de développement Python et l'option de configuration --with-trace-refs.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Release builds and debug builds are now ABI compatible: defining the Py_DEBUG macro no longer implies the Py_TRACE_REFS macro (see the --with-trace-refs option).

3.3.9. Debug options

--with-pydebug

Build Python in debug mode: define the Py_DEBUG macro (disabled by default).

--with-trace-refs

Enable tracing references for debugging purpose (disabled by default).

Effects:

Define the Py_TRACE_REFS macro.

Add sys.getobjects() function.

Add PYTHONDUMPREFS environment variable.

The PYTHONDUMPREFS environment variable can be used to dump objects and reference counts still alive at Python exit.

Statically allocated objects are not traced.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: This build is now ABI compatible with release build and debug build.

--with-assertions

Build with C assertions enabled (default is no): assert(...); and _PyObject_ASSERT(...);.

If set, the NDEBUG macro is not defined in the OPT compiler variable.

See also the --with-pydebug option (debug build) which also enables assertions.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

--with-valgrind

Enable Valgrind support (default is no).

--with-dtrace

Enable DTrace support (default is no).

See Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

--with-address-sanitizer

Enable AddressSanitizer memory error detector, asan (default is no). To improve ASan detection capabilities you may also want to combine this with --without-pymalloc to disable the specialized small-object allocator whose allocations are not tracked by ASan.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

--with-memory-sanitizer

Enable MemorySanitizer allocation error detector, msan (default is no).

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

--with-undefined-behavior-sanitizer

Enable UndefinedBehaviorSanitizer undefined behaviour detector, ubsan (default is no).

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

--with-thread-sanitizer

Enable ThreadSanitizer data race detector, tsan (default is no).

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

3.3.10. Linker options

--enable-shared

Enable building a shared Python library: libpython (default is no).

--without-static-libpython

Do not build libpythonMAJOR.MINOR.a and do not install python.o (built and enabled by default).

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

3.3.11. Libraries options

--with-libs='lib1 ...'

Link against additional libraries (default is no).

--with-system-expat

Build the pyexpat module using an installed expat library (default is no).

--with-system-libmpdec

Build the _decimal extension module using an installed mpdecimal library, see the decimal module (default is yes).

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Default to using the installed mpdecimal library.

Modifié dans la version 3.15: A bundled copy of the library will no longer be selected implicitly if an installed mpdecimal library is not found. In Python 3.15 only, it can still be selected explicitly using --with-system-libmpdec=no or --without-system-libmpdec.

Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.16: A copy of the mpdecimal library sources will no longer be distributed with Python 3.16.

Voir aussi

LIBMPDEC_CFLAGS and LIBMPDEC_LIBS.

--with-readline=readline|editline

Designate a backend library for the readline module.

readline: Use readline as the backend.

editline: Use editline as the backend.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

--without-readline

Don't build the readline module (built by default).

Don't define the HAVE_LIBREADLINE macro.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

--with-libm=STRING

Override libm math library to STRING (default is system-dependent).

--with-libc=STRING

Override libc C library to STRING (default is system-dependent).

--with-openssl=DIR

Root of the OpenSSL directory.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

--with-openssl-rpath=[no|auto|DIR]

Set runtime library directory (rpath) for OpenSSL libraries:

no (default): don't set rpath;

auto: auto-detect rpath from --with-openssl and pkg-config;

DIR: set an explicit rpath.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

3.3.12. Security Options

--with-hash-algorithm=[fnv|siphash13|siphash24]

Select hash algorithm for use in Python/pyhash.c:

siphash13 (default);

siphash24;

fnv.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11: siphash13 is added and it is the new default.

--with-builtin-hashlib-hashes=md5,sha1,sha256,sha512,sha3,blake2

Built-in hash modules:

md5;

sha1;

sha256;

sha512;

sha3 (with shake);

blake2.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

--with-ssl-default-suites=[python|openssl|STRING]

Override the OpenSSL default cipher suites string:

python (default): use Python's preferred selection;

openssl: leave OpenSSL's defaults untouched;

STRING: use a custom string

See the ssl module.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: The settings python and STRING also set TLS 1.2 as minimum protocol version.

--disable-safety

Disable compiler options that are recommended by OpenSSF [https://github.com/ossf/wg-best-practices-os-developers/blob/main/docs/Compiler-Hardening-Guides/Compiler-Options-Hardening-Guide-for-C-and-C++.md] for security reasons with no performance overhead. If this option is not enabled, CPython will be built based on safety compiler options with no slow down. When this option is enabled, CPython will not be built with the compiler options listed below.

The following compiler options are disabled with --disable-safety:

-fstack-protector-strong [https://github.com/ossf/wg-best-practices-os-developers/blob/main/docs/Compiler-Hardening-Guides/Compiler-Options-Hardening-Guide-for-C-and-C++.md#enable-run-time-checks-for-stack-based-buffer-overflows]: Enable run-time checks for stack-based buffer overflows.

-Wtrampolines [https://github.com/ossf/wg-best-practices-os-developers/blob/main/docs/Compiler-Hardening-Guides/Compiler-Options-Hardening-Guide-for-C-and-C++.md#enable-warning-about-trampolines-that-require-executable-stacks]: Enable warnings about trampolines that require executable stacks.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

--enable-slower-safety

Enable compiler options that are recommended by OpenSSF [https://github.com/ossf/wg-best-practices-os-developers/blob/main/docs/Compiler-Hardening-Guides/Compiler-Options-Hardening-Guide-for-C-and-C++.md] for security reasons which require overhead. If this option is not enabled, CPython will not be built based on safety compiler options which performance impact. When this option is enabled, CPython will be built with the compiler options listed below.

The following compiler options are enabled with --enable-slower-safety:

-D_FORTIFY_SOURCE=3 [https://github.com/ossf/wg-best-practices-os-developers/blob/main/docs/Compiler-Hardening-Guides/Compiler-Options-Hardening-Guide-for-C-and-C++.md#fortify-sources-for-unsafe-libc-usage-and-buffer-overflows]: Fortify sources with compile- and run-time checks for unsafe libc usage and buffer overflows.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

3.3.13. macOS Options

See Mac/README.rst [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Mac/README.rst].

--enable-universalsdk

--enable-universalsdk=SDKDIR

Create a universal binary build. SDKDIR specifies which macOS SDK should be used to perform the build (default is no).

--enable-framework

--enable-framework=INSTALLDIR

Create a Python.framework rather than a traditional Unix install. Optional INSTALLDIR specifies the installation path (default is no).

--with-universal-archs=ARCH

Specify the kind of universal binary that should be created. This option is only valid when --enable-universalsdk is set.

Options:

universal2 (x86-64 and arm64);

32-bit (PPC and i386);

64-bit (PPC64 and x86-64);

3-way (i386, PPC and x86-64);

intel (i386 and x86-64);

intel-32 (i386);

intel-64 (x86-64);

all (PPC, i386, PPC64 and x86-64).

Note that values for this configuration item are not the same as the identifiers used for universal binary wheels on macOS. See the Python Packaging User Guide for details on the packaging platform compatibility tags used on macOS [https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/specifications/platform-compatibility-tags/#macos]

--with-framework-name=FRAMEWORK

Specify the name for the python framework on macOS only valid when --enable-framework is set (default: Python).

--with-app-store-compliance

--with-app-store-compliance=PATCH-FILE

The Python standard library contains strings that are known to trigger automated inspection tool errors when submitted for distribution by the macOS and iOS App Stores. If enabled, this option will apply the list of patches that are known to correct app store compliance. A custom patch file can also be specified. This option is disabled by default.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

3.3.14. iOS Options

See iOS/README.rst [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/iOS/README.rst].

--enable-framework=INSTALLDIR

Create a Python.framework. Unlike macOS, the INSTALLDIR argument specifying the installation path is mandatory.

--with-framework-name=FRAMEWORK

Specify the name for the framework (default: Python).

3.3.15. Cross Compiling Options

Cross compiling, also known as cross building, can be used to build Python for another CPU architecture or platform. Cross compiling requires a Python interpreter for the build platform. The version of the build Python must match the version of the cross compiled host Python.

--build=BUILD

configure for building on BUILD, usually guessed by config.guess.

--host=HOST

cross-compile to build programs to run on HOST (target platform)

--with-build-python=path/to/python

path to build python binary for cross compiling

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

CONFIG_SITE=file

An environment variable that points to a file with configure overrides.

Example config.site file:

# config.site-aarch64
ac_cv_buggy_getaddrinfo=no
ac_cv_file__dev_ptmx=yes
ac_cv_file__dev_ptc=no

HOSTRUNNER

Program to run CPython for the host platform for cross-compilation.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

Cross compiling example:

CONFIG_SITE=config.site-aarch64 ../configure \
    --build=x86_64-pc-linux-gnu \
    --host=aarch64-unknown-linux-gnu \
    --with-build-python=../x86_64/python

3.4. Python Build System

3.4.1. Main files of the build system

configure.ac => configure;

Makefile.pre.in => Makefile (created by configure);

pyconfig.h (created by configure);

Modules/Setup: C extensions built by the Makefile using Module/makesetup shell script;

3.4.2. Main build steps

C files (.c) are built as object files (.o).

A static libpython library (.a) is created from objects files.

python.o and the static libpython library are linked into the final python program.

C extensions are built by the Makefile (see Modules/Setup).

3.4.3. Main Makefile targets

3.4.3.1. make

For the most part, when rebuilding after editing some code or refreshing your checkout from upstream, all you need to do is execute make, which (per Make's semantics) builds the default target, the first one defined in the Makefile. By tradition (including in the CPython project) this is usually the all target. The configure script expands an autoconf variable, @DEF_MAKE_ALL_RULE@ to describe precisely which targets make all will build. The three choices are:

profile-opt (configured with --enable-optimizations)

build_wasm (chosen if the host platform matches wasm32-wasi* or wasm32-emscripten)

build_all (configured without explicitly using either of the others)

Depending on the most recent source file changes, Make will rebuild any targets (object files and executables) deemed out-of-date, including running configure again if necessary. Source/target dependencies are many and maintained manually however, so Make sometimes doesn't have all the information necessary to correctly detect all targets which need to be rebuilt. Depending on which targets aren't rebuilt, you might experience a number of problems. If you have build or test problems which you can't otherwise explain, make clean && make should work around most dependency problems, at the expense of longer build times.

3.4.3.2. make platform

Build the python program, but don't build the standard library extension modules. This generates a file named platform which contains a single line describing the details of the build platform, e.g., macosx-14.3-arm64-3.12 or linux-x86_64-3.13.

3.4.3.3. make profile-opt

Build Python using profile-guided optimization (PGO). You can use the configure --enable-optimizations option to make this the default target of the make command (make all or just make).

3.4.3.4. make clean

Remove built files.

3.4.3.5. make distclean

In addition to the work done by make clean, remove files created by the configure script. configure will have to be run before building again. [6]

3.4.3.6. make install

Build the all target and install Python.

3.4.3.7. make test

Build the all target and run the Python test suite with the --fast-ci option without GUI tests. Variables:

TESTOPTS: additional regrtest command-line options.

TESTPYTHONOPTS: additional Python command-line options.

TESTTIMEOUT: timeout in seconds (default: 10 minutes).

3.4.3.8. make ci

This is similar to make test, but uses the -ugui to also run GUI tests.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

3.4.3.9. make buildbottest

This is similar to make test, but uses the --slow-ci option and default timeout of 20 minutes, instead of --fast-ci option.

3.4.3.10. make regen-all

Regenerate (almost) all generated files. These include (but are not limited to) bytecode cases, and parser generator file. make regen-stdlib-module-names and autoconf must be run separately for the remaining generated files.

3.4.4. C extensions

Some C extensions are built as built-in modules, like the sys module. They are built with the Py_BUILD_CORE_BUILTIN macro defined. Built-in modules have no __file__ attribute:

>>> import sys
>>> sys
<module 'sys' (built-in)>
>>> sys.__file__
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
AttributeError: module 'sys' has no attribute '__file__'

Other C extensions are built as dynamic libraries, like the _asyncio module. They are built with the Py_BUILD_CORE_MODULE macro defined. Example on Linux x86-64:

>>> import _asyncio
>>> _asyncio
<module '_asyncio' from '/usr/lib64/python3.9/lib-dynload/_asyncio.cpython-39-x86_64-linux-gnu.so'>
>>> _asyncio.__file__
'/usr/lib64/python3.9/lib-dynload/_asyncio.cpython-39-x86_64-linux-gnu.so'

Modules/Setup is used to generate Makefile targets to build C extensions. At the beginning of the files, C extensions are built as built-in modules. Extensions defined after the *shared* marker are built as dynamic libraries.

The PyAPI_FUNC(), PyAPI_DATA() and PyMODINIT_FUNC macros of Include/exports.h are defined differently depending if the Py_BUILD_CORE_MODULE macro is defined:

Use Py_EXPORTED_SYMBOL if the Py_BUILD_CORE_MODULE is defined

Use Py_IMPORTED_SYMBOL otherwise.

If the Py_BUILD_CORE_BUILTIN macro is used by mistake on a C extension built as a shared library, its PyInit_xxx() function is not exported, causing an ImportError on import.

3.5. Compiler and linker flags

Options set by the ./configure script and environment variables and used by Makefile.

3.5.1. Preprocessor flags

CONFIGURE_CPPFLAGS

Value of CPPFLAGS variable passed to the ./configure script.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

CPPFLAGS

(Objective) C/C++ preprocessor flags, e.g. -Iinclude_dir if you have headers in a nonstandard directory include_dir.

Both CPPFLAGS and LDFLAGS need to contain the shell's value to be able to build extension modules using the directories specified in the environment variables.

BASECPPFLAGS

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

PY_CPPFLAGS

Extra preprocessor flags added for building the interpreter object files.

Default: $(BASECPPFLAGS) -I. -I$(srcdir)/Include $(CONFIGURE_CPPFLAGS) $(CPPFLAGS).

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

3.5.2. Compiler flags

CC

C compiler command.

Example: gcc -pthread.

CXX

C++ compiler command.

Example: g++ -pthread.

CFLAGS

C compiler flags.

CFLAGS_NODIST

CFLAGS_NODIST is used for building the interpreter and stdlib C extensions. Use it when a compiler flag should not be part of CFLAGS once Python is installed (gh-65320 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65320]).

In particular, CFLAGS should not contain:

the compiler flag -I (for setting the search path for include files). The -I flags are processed from left to right, and any flags in CFLAGS would take precedence over user- and package-supplied -I flags.

hardening flags such as -Werror because distributions cannot control whether packages installed by users conform to such heightened standards.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

COMPILEALL_OPTS

Options passed to the compileall command line when building PYC files in make install. Default: -j0.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

EXTRA_CFLAGS

Extra C compiler flags.

CONFIGURE_CFLAGS

Value of CFLAGS variable passed to the ./configure script.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

CONFIGURE_CFLAGS_NODIST

Value of CFLAGS_NODIST variable passed to the ./configure script.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

BASECFLAGS

Base compiler flags.

OPT

Optimization flags.

CFLAGS_ALIASING

Strict or non-strict aliasing flags used to compile Python/dtoa.c.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

CCSHARED

Compiler flags used to build a shared library.

For example, -fPIC is used on Linux and on BSD.

CFLAGSFORSHARED

Extra C flags added for building the interpreter object files.

Default: $(CCSHARED) when --enable-shared is used, or an empty string otherwise.

PY_CFLAGS

Default: $(BASECFLAGS) $(OPT) $(CONFIGURE_CFLAGS) $(CFLAGS) $(EXTRA_CFLAGS).

PY_CFLAGS_NODIST

Default: $(CONFIGURE_CFLAGS_NODIST) $(CFLAGS_NODIST) -I$(srcdir)/Include/internal.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

PY_STDMODULE_CFLAGS

C flags used for building the interpreter object files.

Default: $(PY_CFLAGS) $(PY_CFLAGS_NODIST) $(PY_CPPFLAGS) $(CFLAGSFORSHARED).

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

PY_CORE_CFLAGS

Default: $(PY_STDMODULE_CFLAGS) -DPy_BUILD_CORE.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

PY_BUILTIN_MODULE_CFLAGS

Compiler flags to build a standard library extension module as a built-in module, like the posix module.

Default: $(PY_STDMODULE_CFLAGS) -DPy_BUILD_CORE_BUILTIN.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

PURIFY

Purify command. Purify is a memory debugger program.

Default: empty string (not used).

3.5.3. Linker flags

LINKCC

Linker command used to build programs like python and _testembed.

Default: $(PURIFY) $(CC).

CONFIGURE_LDFLAGS

Value of LDFLAGS variable passed to the ./configure script.

Avoid assigning CFLAGS, LDFLAGS, etc. so users can use them on the command line to append to these values without stomping the pre-set values.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

LDFLAGS_NODIST

LDFLAGS_NODIST is used in the same manner as CFLAGS_NODIST. Use it when a linker flag should not be part of LDFLAGS once Python is installed (gh-65320 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65320]).

In particular, LDFLAGS should not contain:

the compiler flag -L (for setting the search path for libraries). The -L flags are processed from left to right, and any flags in LDFLAGS would take precedence over user- and package-supplied -L flags.

CONFIGURE_LDFLAGS_NODIST

Value of LDFLAGS_NODIST variable passed to the ./configure script.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

LDFLAGS

Linker flags, e.g. -Llib_dir if you have libraries in a nonstandard directory lib_dir.

Both CPPFLAGS and LDFLAGS need to contain the shell's value to be able to build extension modules using the directories specified in the environment variables.

LIBS

Linker flags to pass libraries to the linker when linking the Python executable.

Example: -lrt.

LDSHARED

Command to build a shared library.

Default: @LDSHARED@ $(PY_LDFLAGS).

BLDSHARED

Command to build libpython shared library.

Default: @BLDSHARED@ $(PY_CORE_LDFLAGS).

PY_LDFLAGS

Default: $(CONFIGURE_LDFLAGS) $(LDFLAGS).

PY_LDFLAGS_NODIST

Default: $(CONFIGURE_LDFLAGS_NODIST) $(LDFLAGS_NODIST).

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

PY_CORE_LDFLAGS

Linker flags used for building the interpreter object files.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

Notes

[6]

git clean -fdx is an even more extreme way to "clean" your checkout. It removes all files not known to Git. When bug hunting using git bisect, this is recommended between probes [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114505#issuecomment-1907021718] to guarantee a completely clean build. Use with care, as it will delete all files not checked into Git, including your new, uncommitted work.

4. Utilisation de Python sur Windows

Ce document a pour but de donner une vue d'ensemble des comportements spécifiques à Windows dont vous devriez être au courant si vous utilisez Python sur Microsoft Windows.

Unlike most Unix systems and services, Windows does not include a system supported installation of Python. Instead, Python can be obtained from a number of distributors, including directly from the CPython team. Each Python distribution will have its own benefits and drawbacks, however, consistency with other tools you are using is generally a worthwhile benefit. Before committing to the process described here, we recommend investigating your existing tools to see if they can provide Python directly.

To obtain Python from the CPython team, use the Python Install Manager. This is a standalone tool that makes Python available as global commands on your Windows machine, integrates with the system, and supports updates over time. You can download the Python Install Manager from python.org/downloads [https://www.python.org/downloads/] or through the Microsoft Store app [https://apps.microsoft.com/detail/9NQ7512CXL7T].

Once you have installed the Python Install Manager, the global python command can be used from any terminal to launch your current latest version of Python. This version may change over time as you add or remove different versions, and the py list command will show which is current.

In general, we recommend that you create a virtual environment for each project and run <env>\Scripts\Activate in your terminal to use it. This provides isolation between projects, consistency over time, and ensures that additional commands added by packages are also available in your session. Create a virtual environment using python -m venv <env path>.

If the python or py commands do not seem to be working, please see the Troubleshooting section below. There are sometimes additional manual steps required to configure your PC.

Apart from using the Python install manager, Python can also be obtained as NuGet packages. See Les paquets nuget.org below for more information on these packages.

The embeddable distros are minimal packages of Python suitable for embedding into larger applications. They can be installed using the Python install manager. See Le paquet intégrable below for more information on these packages.

4.1. Python install manager

4.1.1. Installation

The Python install manager can be installed from the Microsoft Store app [https://apps.microsoft.com/detail/9NQ7512CXL7T] or downloaded and installed from python.org/downloads [https://www.python.org/downloads/]. The two versions are identical.

To install through the Store, simply click "Install". After it has completed, open a terminal and type python to get started.

To install the file downloaded from python.org, either double-click and select "Install", or run Add-AppxPackage <path to MSIX> in Windows Powershell.

After installation, the python, py, and pymanager commands should be available. If you have existing installations of Python, or you have modified your PATH variable, you may need to remove them or undo the modifications. See Troubleshooting for more help with fixing non-working commands.

When you first install a runtime, you will likely be prompted to add a directory to your PATH. This is optional, if you prefer to use the py command, but is offered for those who prefer the full range of aliases (such as python3.14.exe) to be available. The directory will be %LocalAppData%\Python\bin by default, but may be customized by an administrator. Click Start and search for "Edit environment variables for your account" for the system settings page to add the path.

Each Python runtime you install will have its own directory for scripts. These also need to be added to PATH if you want to use them.

The Python install manager will be automatically updated to new releases. This does not affect any installs of Python runtimes. Uninstalling the Python install manager does not uninstall any Python runtimes.

If you are not able to install an MSIX in your context, for example, you are using automated deployment software that does not support it, or are targeting Windows Server 2019, please see Advanced installation below for more information.

4.1.2. Utilisation basique

The recommended command for launching Python is python, which will either launch the version requested by the script being launched, an active virtual environment, or the default installed version, which will be the latest stable release unless configured otherwise. If no version is specifically requested and no runtimes are installed at all, the current latest release will be installed automatically.

For all scenarios involving multiple runtime versions, the recommended command is py. This may be used anywhere in place of python or the older py.exe launcher. By default, py matches the behaviour of python, but also allows command line options to select a specific version as well as subcommands to manage installations. These are detailed below.

Because the py command may already be taken by the previous version, there is also an unambiguous pymanager command. Scripted installs that are intending to use Python install manager should consider using pymanager, due to the lower chance of encountering a conflict with existing installs. The only difference between the two commands is when running without any arguments: py will launch your default interpreter, while pymanager will display help (pymanager exec ... provides equivalent behaviour to py ...).

Each of these commands also has a windowed version that avoids creating a console window. These are pyw, pythonw and pymanagerw. A python3 command is also included that mimics the python command. It is intended to catch accidental uses of the typical POSIX command on Windows, but is not meant to be widely used or recommended.

To launch your default runtime, run python or py with the arguments you want to be passed to the runtime (such as script files or the module to launch):

$> py
...
$> python my-script.py
...
$> py -m this
...

The default runtime can be overridden with the PYTHON_MANAGER_DEFAULT environment variable, or a configuration file. See Configuration for information about configuration settings.

To launch a specific runtime, the py command accepts a -V:<TAG> option. This option must be specified before any others. The tag is part or all of the identifier for the runtime; for those from the CPython team, it looks like the version, potentially with the platform. For compatibility, the V: may be omitted in cases where the tag refers to an official release and starts with 3.

$> py -V:3.14 ...
$> py -V:3-arm64 ...

Runtimes from other distributors may require the company to be included as well. This should be separated from the tag by a slash, and may be a prefix. Specifying the company is optional when it is PythonCore, and specifying the tag is optional (but not the slash) when you want the latest release from a specific company.

$> py -V:Distributor\1.0 ...
$> py -V:distrib/ ...

If no version is specified, but a script file is passed, the script will be inspected for a shebang line. This is a special format for the first line in a file that allows overriding the command. See Shebang lines for more information. When there is no shebang line, or it cannot be resolved, the script will be launched with the default runtime.

If you are running in an active virtual environment, have not requested a particular version, and there is no shebang line, the default runtime will be that virtual environment. In this scenario, the python command was likely already overridden and none of these checks occurred. However, this behaviour ensures that the py command can be used interchangeably.

When no runtimes are installed, any launch command will try to install the requested version and launch it. However, after any version is installed, only the py exec ... and pymanager exec ... commands will install if the requested version is absent. Other forms of commands will display an error and direct you to use py install first.

4.1.3. Command help

The py help command will display the full list of supported commands, along with their options. Any command may be passed the -? option to display its help, or its name passed to py help.

$> py help
$> py help install
$> py install /?

All commands support some common options, which will be shown by py help. These options must be specified after any subcommand. Specifying -v or --verbose will increase the amount of output shown, and -vv will increase it further for debugging purposes. Passing -q or --quiet will reduce output, and -qq will reduce it further.

The --config=<PATH> option allows specifying a configuration file to override multiple settings at once. See Configuration below for more information about these files.

4.1.4. Listing runtimes

$> py list [-f=|--format=<FMT>] [-1|--one] [--online|-s=|--source=<URL>] [<TAG>...]

The list of installed runtimes can be seen using py list. A filter may be added in the form of one or more tags (with or without company specifier), and each may include a <, <=, >= or > prefix to restrict to a range.

A range of formats are supported, and can be passed as the --format=<FMT> or -f <FMT> option. Formats include table (a user friendly table view), csv (comma-separated table), json (a single JSON blob), jsonl (one JSON blob per result), exe (just the executable path), prefix (just the prefix path).

The --one or -1 option only displays a single result. If the default runtime is included, it will be the one. Otherwise, the "best" result is shown ("best" is deliberately vaguely defined, but will usually be the most recent version). The result shown by py list --one <TAG> will match the runtime that would be launched by py -V:<TAG>.

The --only-managed option excludes results that were not installed by the Python install manager. This is useful when determining which runtimes may be updated or uninstalled through the py command.

The --online option is short for passing --source=<URL> with the default source. Passing either of these options will search the online index for runtimes that can be installed. The result shown by py list --online --one <TAG> will match the runtime that would be installed by py install <TAG>.

$> py list --online 3.14

For compatibility with the old launcher, the --list, --list-paths, -0 and -0p commands (e.g. py -0p) are retained. They do not allow additional options, and will produce legacy formatted output.

4.1.5. Installing runtimes

$> py install [-s=|--source=<URL>] [-f|--force] [-u|--update] [--dry-run] [<TAG>...]

New runtime versions may be added using py install. One or more tags may be specified, and the special tag default may be used to select the default. Ranges are not supported for installation.

The --source=<URL> option allows overriding the online index that is used to obtain runtimes. This may be used with an offline index, as shown in Offline installs.

Passing --force will ignore any cached files and remove any existing install to replace it with the specified one.

Passing --update will replace existing installs if the new version is newer. Otherwise, they will be left. If no tags are provided with --update, all installs managed by the Python install manager will be updated if newer versions are available. Updates will remove any modifications made to the install, including globally installed packages, but virtual environments will continue to work.

Passing --dry-run will generate output and logs, but will not modify any installs.

Passing --refresh will update all registrations for installed runtimes. This will recreate Start menu shortcuts, registry keys, and global aliases (such as python3.14.exe or for any installed scripts). These are automatically refreshed on installation of any runtime, but may need to be manually refreshed after installing packages.

In addition to the above options, the --target option will extract the runtime to the specified directory instead of doing a normal install. This is useful for embedding runtimes into larger applications. Unlike a normal install, py will not be aware of the extracted runtime, and no Start menu or other shortcuts will be created. To launch the runtime, directly execute the main executable (typically python.exe) in the target directory.

$> py install ... [-t=|--target=<PATH>] <TAG>

The py exec command will install the requested runtime if it is not already present. This is controlled by the automatic_install configuration (PYTHON_MANAGER_AUTOMATIC_INSTALL), and is enabled by default. If no runtimes are available at all, all launch commands will do an automatic install if the configuration setting allows. This is to ensure a good experience for new users, but should not generally be relied on rather than using the py exec command or explicit install commands.

4.1.6. Offline installs

To perform offline installs of Python, you will need to first create an offline index on a machine that has network access.

$> py install --download=<PATH> ... <TAG>...

The --download=<PATH> option will download the packages for the listed tags and create a directory containing them and an index.json file suitable for later installation. This entire directory can be moved to the offline machine and used to install one or more of the bundled runtimes:

$> py install --source="<PATH>\index.json" <TAG>...

The Python install manager can be installed by downloading its installer and moving it to another machine before installing.

Alternatively, the ZIP files in an offline index directory can simply be transferred to another machine and extracted. This will not register the install in any way, and so it must be launched by directly referencing the executables in the extracted directory, but it is sometimes a preferable approach in cases where installing the Python install manager is not possible or convenient.

In this way, Python runtimes can be installed and managed on a machine without access to the internet.

4.1.7. Uninstalling runtimes

$> py uninstall [-y|--yes] <TAG>...

Runtimes may be removed using the py uninstall command. One or more tags must be specified. Ranges are not supported here.

The --yes option bypasses the confirmation prompt before uninstalling.

Instead of passing tags individually, the --purge option may be specified. This will remove all runtimes managed by the Python install manager, including cleaning up the Start menu, registry, and any download caches. Runtimes that were not installed by the Python install manager will not be impacted, and neither will manually created configuration files.

$> py uninstall [-y|--yes] --purge

The Python install manager can be uninstalled through the Windows "Installed apps" settings page. This does not remove any runtimes, and they will still be usable, though the global python and py commands will be removed. Reinstalling the Python install manager will allow you to manage these runtimes again. To completely clean up all Python runtimes, run with --purge before uninstalling the Python install manager.

4.1.8. Configuration

Python install manager is configured with a hierarchy of configuration files, environment variables, command-line options, and registry settings. In general, configuration files have the ability to configure everything, including the location of other configuration files, while registry settings are administrator-only and will override configuration files. Command-line options override all other settings, but not every option is available.

This section will describe the defaults, but be aware that modified or overridden installs may resolve settings differently.

A global configuration file may be configured by an administrator, and would be read first. The user configuration file is stored at %AppData%\Python\pymanager.json (note that this location is under Roaming, not Local) and is read next, overwriting any settings from earlier files. An additional configuration file may be specified as the PYTHON_MANAGER_CONFIG environment variable or the --config command line option (but not both). These locations may be modified by administrative customization options listed later.

The following settings are those that are considered likely to be modified in normal use. Later sections list those that are intended for administrative customization.

Standard configuration options

Config Key

Environment Variable

Description

default_tag

PYTHON_MANAGER_DEFAULT

The preferred default version to launch or install. By default, this is interpreted as the most recent non-prerelease version from the CPython team.

default_platform

PYTHON_MANAGER_DEFAULT_PLATFORM

The preferred default platform to launch or install. This is treated as a suffix to the specified tag, such that py -V:3.14 would prefer an install for 3.14-64 if it exists (and default_platform is -64), but will use 3.14 if no tagged install exists.

logs_dir

PYTHON_MANAGER_LOGS

The location where log files are written. By default, %TEMP%.

automatic_install

PYTHON_MANAGER_AUTOMATIC_INSTALL

True to allow automatic installs when using py exec to launch (or py when no runtimes are installed yet). Other commands will not automatically install, regardless of this setting. By default, true.

include_unmanaged

PYTHON_MANAGER_INCLUDE_UNMANAGED

True to allow listing and launching runtimes that were not installed by the Python install manager, or false to exclude them. By default, true.

shebang_can_run_anything

PYTHON_MANAGER_SHEBANG_CAN_RUN_ANYTHING

True to allow shebangs in .py files to launch applications other than Python runtimes, or false to prevent it. By default, true.

log_level

PYMANAGER_VERBOSE, PYMANAGER_DEBUG

Set the default level of output (0-50). By default, 20. Lower values produce more output. The environment variables are boolean, and may produce additional output during startup that is later suppressed by other configuration.

confirm

PYTHON_MANAGER_CONFIRM

True to confirm certain actions before taking them (such as uninstall), or false to skip the confirmation. By default, true.

install.source

PYTHON_MANAGER_SOURCE_URL

Override the index feed to obtain new installs from.

install.enable_entrypoints

(none)

True to generate global commands for installed packages (such as pip.exe). These are defined by the packages themselves. If set to false, only the Python interpreter has global commands created. By default, true. You should run py install --refresh after changing this setting.

list.format

PYTHON_MANAGER_LIST_FORMAT

Specify the default format used by the py list command. By default, table.

install_dir

(none)

Specify the root directory that runtimes will be installed into. If you change this setting, previously installed runtimes will not be usable unless you move them to the new location.

global_dir

(none)

Specify the directory where global commands (such as python3.14.exe and pip.exe) are stored. This directory should be added to your PATH to make the commands available from your terminal.

download_dir

(none)

Specify the directory where downloaded files are stored. This directory is a temporary cache, and can be cleaned up from time to time.

Dotted names should be nested inside JSON objects, for example, list.format would be specified as {"list": {"format": "table"}}.

4.1.9. Shebang lines

If the first line of a script file starts with #!, it is known as a "shebang" line. Linux and other Unix like operating systems have native support for such lines and they are commonly used on such systems to indicate how a script should be executed. The python and py commands allow the same facilities to be used with Python scripts on Windows.

To allow shebang lines in Python scripts to be portable between Unix and Windows, a number of 'virtual' commands are supported to specify which interpreter to use. The supported virtual commands are:

/usr/bin/env <ALIAS>

/usr/bin/env -S <ALIAS>

/usr/bin/<ALIAS>

/usr/local/bin/<ALIAS>

<ALIAS>

Par exemple, si la première ligne de votre script commence par

#! /usr/bin/python

The default Python or an active virtual environment will be located and used. As many Python scripts written to work on Unix will already have this line, you should find these scripts can be used by the launcher without modification. If you are writing a new script on Windows which you hope will be useful on Unix, you should use one of the shebang lines starting with /usr.

Any of the above virtual commands can have <ALIAS> replaced by an alias from an installed runtime. That is, any command generated in the global aliases directory (which you may have added to your PATH environment variable) can be used in a shebang, even if it is not on your PATH. This allows the use of shebangs like /usr/bin/python3.12 to select a particular runtime.

If no runtimes are installed, or if automatic installation is enabled, the requested runtime will be installed if necessary. See Configuration for information about configuration settings.

The /usr/bin/env form of shebang line will also search the PATH environment variable for unrecognized commands. This corresponds to the behaviour of the Unix env program, which performs the same search, but prefers launching known Python commands. A warning may be displayed when searching for arbitrary executables, and this search may be disabled by the shebang_can_run_anything configuration option.

Shebang lines that do not match any of patterns are treated as Windows executable paths that are absolute or relative to the directory containing the script file. This is a convenience for Windows-only scripts, such as those generated by an installer, since the behavior is not compatible with Unix-style shells. These paths may be quoted, and may include multiple arguments, after which the path to the script and any additional arguments will be appended. This functionality may be disabled by the shebang_can_run_anything configuration option.

Note

The behaviour of shebangs in the Python install manager is subtly different from the previous py.exe launcher, and the old configuration options no longer apply. If you are specifically reliant on the old behaviour or configuration, we recommend installing the legacy launcher [https://www.python.org/ftp/python/3.14.0/win32/launcher.msi]. The legacy launcher's py command will override PyManager's one by default, and you will need to use pymanager commands for installing and uninstalling.

4.1.10. Advanced installation

For situations where an MSIX cannot be installed, such as some older administrative distribution platforms, there is an MSI available from the python.org downloads page. This MSI has no user interface, and can only perform per-machine installs to its default location in Program Files. It will attempt to modify the system PATH environment variable to include this install location, but be sure to validate this on your configuration.

Note

Windows Server 2019 is the only version of Windows that CPython supports that does not support MSIX. For Windows Server 2019, you should use the MSI.

Be aware that the MSI package does not bundle any runtimes, and so is not suitable for installs into offline environments without also creating an offline install index. See Offline installs and Administrative configuration for information on handling these scenarios.

Runtimes installed by the MSI are shared with those installed by the MSIX, and are all per-user only. The Python install manager does not support installing runtimes per-machine. To emulate a per-machine install, you can use py install --target=<shared location> as administrator and add your own system-wide modifications to PATH, the registry, or the Start menu.

When the MSIX is installed, but commands are not available in the PATH environment variable, they can be found under %LocalAppData%\Microsoft\WindowsApps\PythonSoftwareFoundation.PythonManager_3847v3x7pw1km or %LocalAppData%\Microsoft\WindowsApps\PythonSoftwareFoundation.PythonManager_qbz5n2kfra8p0, depending on whether it was installed from python.org or through the Windows Store. Attempting to run the executable directly from Program Files is not recommended.

To programmatically install the Python install manager, it is easiest to use WinGet, which is included with all supported versions of Windows:

$> winget install 9NQ7512CXL7T -e --accept-package-agreements --disable-interactivity

# Optionally run the configuration checker and accept all changes
$> py install --configure -y

To download the Python install manager and install on another machine, the following WinGet command will download the required files from the Store to your Downloads directory (add -d <location> to customize the output location). This also generates a YAML file that appears to be unnecessary, as the downloaded MSIX can be installed by launching or using the commands below.

$> winget download 9NQ7512CXL7T -e --skip-license --accept-package-agreements --accept-source-agreements

To programmatically install or uninstall an MSIX using only PowerShell, the Add-AppxPackage [https://learn.microsoft.com/powershell/module/appx/add-appxpackage] and Remove-AppxPackage [https://learn.microsoft.com/powershell/module/appx/remove-appxpackage] PowerShell cmdlets are recommended:

$> Add-AppxPackage C:\Downloads\python-manager-25.0.msix
...
$> Get-AppxPackage PythonSoftwareFoundation.PythonManager | Remove-AppxPackage

The latest release can be downloaded and installed by Windows by passing the AppInstaller file to the Add-AppxPackage command. This installs using the MSIX on python.org, and is only recommended for cases where installing via the Store (interactively or using WinGet) is not possible.

$> Add-AppxPackage -AppInstallerFile https://www.python.org/ftp/python/pymanager/pymanager.appinstaller

Other tools and APIs may also be used to provision an MSIX package for all users on a machine, but Python does not consider this a supported scenario. We suggest looking into the PowerShell Add-AppxProvisionedPackage [https://learn.microsoft.com/powershell/module/dism/add-appxprovisionedpackage] cmdlet, the native Windows PackageManager [https://learn.microsoft.com/uwp/api/windows.management.deployment.packagemanager] class, or the documentation and support for your deployment tool.

Regardless of the install method, users will still need to install their own copies of Python itself, as there is no way to trigger those installs without being a logged in user. When using the MSIX, the latest version of Python will be available for all users to install without network access.

Note that the MSIX downloadable from the Store and from the Python website are subtly different and cannot be installed at the same time. Wherever possible, we suggest using the above WinGet commands to download the package from the Store to reduce the risk of setting up conflicting installs. There are no licensing restrictions on the Python install manager that would prevent using the Store package in this way.

4.1.11. Administrative configuration

There are a number of options that may be useful for administrators to override configuration of the Python install manager. These can be used to provide local caching, disable certain shortcut types, override bundled content. All of the above configuration options may be set, as well as those below.

Configuration options may be overridden in the registry by setting values under HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\Software\Policies\Python\PyManager, where the value name matches the configuration key and the value type is REG_SZ. Note that this key can itself be customized, but only by modifying the core config file distributed with the Python install manager. We recommend, however, that registry values are used only to set base_config to a JSON file containing the full set of overrides. Registry key overrides will replace any other configured setting, while base_config allows users to further modify settings they may need.

Note that most settings with environment variables support those variables because their default setting specifies the variable. If you override them, the environment variable will no longer work, unless you override it with another one. For example, the default value of confirm is literally %PYTHON_MANAGER_CONFIRM%, which will resolve the variable at load time. If you override the value to yes, then the environment variable will no longer be used. If you override the value to %CONFIRM%, then that environment variable will be used instead.

Configuration settings that are paths are interpreted as relative to the directory containing the configuration file that specified them.

Administrative configuration options

Config Key

Description

base_config

The highest priority configuration file to read. Note that only the built-in configuration file and the registry can modify this setting.

user_config

The second configuration file to read.

additional_config

The third configuration file to read.

registry_override_key

Registry location to check for overrides. Note that only the built-in configuration file can modify this setting.

bundled_dir

Read-only directory containing locally cached files.

install.fallback_source

Path or URL to an index to consult when the main index cannot be accessed.

install.enable_shortcut_kinds

Comma-separated list of shortcut kinds to allow (e.g. "pep514,start"). Enabled shortcuts may still be disabled by disable_shortcut_kinds.

install.disable_shortcut_kinds

Comma-separated list of shortcut kinds to exclude (e.g. "pep514,start"). Disabled shortcuts are not reactivated by enable_shortcut_kinds.

install.hard_link_entrypoints

True to use hard links for global shortcuts to save disk space. If false, each shortcut executable is copied instead. After changing this setting, you must run py install --refresh --force to update existing commands. By default, true. Disabling this may be necessary for troubleshooting or systems that have issues with file links.

pep514_root

Registry location to read and write PEP 514 entries into. By default, HKEY_CURRENT_USER\Software\Python.

start_folder

Start menu folder to write shortcuts into. By default, Python. This path is relative to the user's Programs folder.

virtual_env

Path to the active virtual environment. By default, this is %VIRTUAL_ENV%, but may be set empty to disable venv detection.

shebang_can_run_anything_silently

True to suppress visible warnings when a shebang launches an application other than a Python runtime.

4.1.12. Installing free-threaded binaries

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Pre-built distributions of the free-threaded build are available by installing tags with the t suffix.

$> py install 3.14t
$> py install 3.14t-arm64
$> py install 3.14t-32

This will install and register as normal. If you have no other runtimes installed, then python will launch this one. Otherwise, you will need to use py -V:3.14t ... or, if you have added the global aliases directory to your PATH environment variable, the python3.14t.exe commands.

4.1.13. Troubleshooting

If your Python install manager does not seem to be working correctly, please work through these tests and fixes to see if it helps. If not, please report an issue at our bug tracker [https://github.com/python/pymanager/issues], including any relevant log files (written to your %TEMP% directory by default).

Troubleshooting

Symptom

Things to try

python gives me a "command not found" error or opens the Store app when I type it in my terminal.

Did you install the Python install manager?

Click Start, open "Manage app execution aliases", and check that the aliases for "Python (default)" are enabled. If they already are, try disabling and re-enabling to refresh the command. The "Python (default windowed)" and "Python install manager" commands may also need refreshing.

Check that the py and pymanager commands work.

Ensure your PATH variable contains the entry for %UserProfile%\AppData\Local\Microsoft\WindowsApps. The operating system includes this entry once by default, after other user paths. If removed, shortcuts will not be found.

py gives me a "command not found" error when I type it in my terminal.

Did you install the Python install manager?

Click Start, open "Manage app execution aliases", and check that the aliases for "Python (default)" are enabled. If they already are, try disabling and re-enabling to refresh the command. The "Python (default windowed)" and "Python install manager" commands may also need refreshing.

Ensure your PATH variable contains the entry for %UserProfile%\AppData\Local\Microsoft\WindowsApps. The operating system includes this entry once by default, after other user paths. If removed, shortcuts will not be found.

py gives me a "can't open file" error when I type commands in my terminal.

This usually means you have the legacy launcher installed and it has priority over the Python install manager. To remove, click Start, open "Installed apps", search for "Python launcher" and uninstall it.

python doesn't launch the same runtime as py

Click Start, open "Installed apps", look for any existing Python runtimes, and either remove them or Modify and disable the PATH options.

Click Start, open "Manage app execution aliases", and check that your python.exe alias is set to "Python (default)"

python and py don't launch the runtime I expect

Check your PYTHON_MANAGER_DEFAULT environment variable or default_tag configuration. The py list command will show your default based on these settings.

Installs that are managed by the Python install manager will be chosen ahead of unmanaged installs. Use py install to install the runtime you expect, or configure your default tag.

Prerelease and experimental installs that are not managed by the Python install manager may be chosen ahead of stable releases. Configure your default tag or uninstall the prerelease runtime and reinstall it using py install.

pythonw or pyw don't launch the same runtime as python or py

Click Start, open "Manage app execution aliases", and check that your pythonw.exe and pyw.exe aliases are consistent with your others.

pip gives me a "command not found" error when I type it in my terminal.

Have you activated a virtual environment? Run the .venv\Scripts\activate script in your terminal to activate.

The package may be available but missing the generated executable. We recommend using the python -m pip command instead. Running py install --refresh and ensuring that the global shortcuts directory is on PATH (it will be shown in the command output if it is not) should make commands such as pip (and other installed packages) available.

I installed a package with pip but its command is not found.

Have you activated a virtual environment? Run the .venv\Scripts\activate script in your terminal to activate.

New packages do not automatically have global shortcuts created by the Python install manager. Similarly, uninstalled packages do not have their shortcuts removed. Run py install --refresh to update the global shortcuts for newly installed packages.

Typing script-name.py in the terminal opens in a new window.

This is a known limitation of the operating system. Either specify py before the script name, create a batch file containing @py "%~dpn0.py" %* with the same name as the script, or install the legacy launcher [https://www.python.org/ftp/python/3.14.0/win32/launcher.msi] and select it as the association for scripts.

Drag-dropping files onto a script doesn't work

This is a known limitation of the operating system. It is supported with the legacy launcher [https://www.python.org/ftp/python/3.14.0/win32/launcher.msi], or with the Python install manager when installed from the MSI.

I have installed the Python install manager multiple times.

It is possible to install from the Store or WinGet, from the MSIX on the Python website, and from the MSI, all at once. They are all compatible and will share configuration and runtimes.

See the earlier Advanced installation section for ways to uninstall the install manager other than the typical Installed Apps (Add and Remove Programs) settings page.

My old py.ini settings no longer work.

The new Python install manager no longer supports this configuration file or its settings, and so it will be ignored. See Configuration for information about configuration settings.

4.2. Le paquet intégrable

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

La distribution embarquée est un fichier ZIP contenant un environnement Python minimal. Il est destiné à agir dans le cadre d'une autre application, plutôt que d'être directement accessible par les utilisateurs finaux.

To install an embedded distribution, we recommend using py install with the --target option:

$> py install 3.14-embed --target=<directory>

When extracted, the embedded distribution is (almost) fully isolated from the user's system, including environment variables, system registry settings, and installed packages. The standard library is included as pre-compiled and optimized .pyc files in a ZIP, and python3.dll, python313.dll, python.exe and pythonw.exe are all provided. Tcl/tk (including all dependents, such as Idle), pip and the Python documentation are not included.

A default ._pth file is included, which further restricts the default search paths (as described below in Recherche de modules). This file is intended for embedders to modify as necessary.

Les paquets tiers doivent être installés par le programme d'installation de l'application parallèlement à la distribution embarquée. L'utilisation de pip pour gérer les dépendances comme pour une installation Python régulière n'est pas prise en charge avec cette distribution, mais il reste possible d'inclure et d'utiliser pip pour les mises à jour automatiques. En général, les paquets tiers doivent être traités dans le cadre de l'application (vendoring) afin que le développeur puisse assurer la compatibilité avec les versions plus récentes avant de fournir des mises à jour aux utilisateurs.

Les deux cas d'utilisation recommandés pour cette distribution sont décrits ci-dessous.

4.2.1. Python application

Une application écrite en Python n'exige pas nécessairement que les utilisateurs soient au courant de ce fait. La distribution embarquée peut être utilisée dans ce cas pour inclure une version privée de Python dans un package d'installation. Selon la façon dont il devrait être transparent (ou inversement, à quel point il doit paraître professionnel), il y a deux options.

L'utilisation d'un exécutable spécialisé en tant que lanceur nécessite de la programmation, mais fournit l'expérience la plus transparente pour les utilisateurs. Avec un lanceur personnalisé, il n'y a pas d'indications évidentes que le programme s'exécute sur Python : les icônes peuvent être personnalisées, les informations de la société et de la version peuvent être spécifiées, et les associations de fichiers se comportent correctement. Dans la plupart des cas, un lanceur personnalisé devrait simplement pouvoir appeler Py_Main avec une ligne de commande codée en dur.

L'approche la plus simple consiste à fournir un fichier batch ou un raccourci généré qui appelle directement le python.exe ou pythonw.exe avec les arguments de ligne de commande requis. Dans ce cas, l'application semble être Python et non son nom réel, et les utilisateurs peuvent avoir du mal à le distinguer des autres processus Python en cours d'exécution ou des associations de fichiers.

Avec cette dernière approche, les packages doivent être installés en tant que répertoires à côté de l'exécutable Python pour s'assurer qu'ils soient visibles par Python. Avec le lanceur spécialisé, les paquets peuvent être installés dans d'autres emplacements car il y a une possibilité de spécifier le chemin de recherche avant de lancer l'application.

4.2.2. Embarquer Python

Les applications écrites en code natif nécessitent souvent une certaine forme de langage de scripting, et la distribution Python intégrée peut être utilisée à cette fin. En général, la majorité de l'application est dans le code natif, qui soit invoque python.exe soit utilise directement python3.dll. Dans les deux cas, l'extraction de la distribution intégrée dans un sous-répertoire de l'installation de l'application est suffisante pour fournir un interpréteur Python chargeable.

Comme pour l'utilisation de l'application, les paquets peuvent être installés sur n'importe quel emplacement, car il est possible de spécifier des chemins de recherche avant d'initialiser l'interpréteur. Sinon, il n'y a pas de différences fondamentales entre l'utilisation de la distribution embarquée et une installation classique.

4.3. Les paquets nuget.org

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.2.

Le paquet nuget.org est un environnement Python de taille réduite destiné à être utilisé sur des systèmes d'intégration et de génération continus qui n'ont pas Python d'installé. Alors que nuget est “le gestionnaire de package pour .NET”, il fonctionne également parfaitement bien pour les packages contenant des outils de build-time.

Visitez nuget.org [https://www.nuget.org/] pour les informations les plus à jour sur l'utilisation de nuget. Ce qui suit est un résumé suffisant pour les développeurs Python.

L'outil de ligne de commande nuget.exe peut être téléchargé directement à partir de https://aka.ms/nugetclidl, par exemple, à l'aide de curl ou de PowerShell. Avec l'outil, la dernière version de Python pour les machines 64 bits ou 32 bits est installée à l'aide de :

nuget.exe install python -ExcludeVersion -OutputDirectory .
nuget.exe install pythonx86 -ExcludeVersion -OutputDirectory .

Pour sélectionner une version particulière, ajoutez un -Version 3.x.y. Le répertoire d'installation être modifié (de .), et le paquet sera installé dans un sous-répertoire. Par défaut, le sous-répertoire est nommé comme le paquet, et sans l'option -ExcludeVersion, ce nom inclura la version spécifique installée. À l'intérieur du sous-répertoire se trouve un répertoire tools qui contient l'installation Python :

# Without -ExcludeVersion
> .\python.3.5.2\tools\python.exe -V
Python 3.5.2

# With -ExcludeVersion
> .\python\tools\python.exe -V
Python 3.5.2

En général, les paquets nuget ne peuvent pas êtres mis à jour et les versions plus récentes doivent être installées côte à côte et référencées à l'aide du chemin d'accès complet. Vous pouvez également supprimer le répertoire du paquet manuellement et l'installer à nouveau. De nombreux systèmes CI le feront automatiquement s'ils ne conservent pas les fichiers entre les builds.

À côté du répertoire tools est un répertoire build\native. Il contient un fichier de propriétés MSBuild python.props qui peut être utilisé dans un projet C++ pour référencer l'installation de Python. L'inclusion des paramètres utilisera automatiquement les en-têtes et les bibliothèques d'importation dans votre build.

The package information pages on nuget.org are www.nuget.org/packages/python [https://www.nuget.org/packages/python] for the 64-bit version, www.nuget.org/packages/pythonx86 [https://www.nuget.org/packages/pythonx86] for the 32-bit version, and www.nuget.org/packages/pythonarm64 [https://www.nuget.org/packages/pythonarm64] for the ARM64 version

4.3.1. Free-threaded packages

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Packages containing free-threaded binaries are named python-freethreaded [https://www.nuget.org/packages/python-freethreaded] for the 64-bit version, pythonx86-freethreaded [https://www.nuget.org/packages/pythonx86-freethreaded] for the 32-bit version, and pythonarm64-freethreaded [https://www.nuget.org/packages/pythonarm64-freethreaded] for the ARM64 version. These packages contain both the python3.13t.exe and python.exe entry points, both of which run free threaded.

4.4. Paquets alternatifs

À part la distribution standard CPython, il y a des paquets modifiés incluant des fonctionnalités additionnelles. La liste qui suit est une liste de versions populaires et de leurs fonctionnalités principales :

ActivePython [https://www.activestate.com/products/python/]

Installateur avec une compatibilité multiplateforme, de la documentation, et PyWin32

Anaconda [https://www.anaconda.com/download/]

Des modules scientifiques populaires (comme numpy, scipy et pandas) et le gestionnaire de paquets conda.

Enthought Deployment Manager [https://assets.enthought.com/downloads/edm/]

« L’environnement Python et gestionnaire de paquets de nouvelle génération ».

Auparavant, Enthought fournissait Canopy, mais celui-ci est arrivé en fin de vie en 2016 [https://support.enthought.com/hc/en-us/articles/360038600051-Canopy-GUI-end-of-life-transition-to-the-Enthought-Deployment-Manager-EDM-and-Visual-Studio-Code].

WinPython [https://winPython.github.io/]

Distribution spécifique à Windows avec des paquets scientifiques pré-compilés et des outils pour construire des paquets.

Notez que ces paquets peuvent ne pas inclure la dernière version de Python ou d'autres bibliothèques, et ne sont pas maintenus ni supportés par les core devs Python.

4.5. Supported Windows versions

As specified in PEP 11 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/], a Python release only supports a Windows platform while Microsoft considers the platform under extended support. This means that Python 3.14 supports Windows 10 and newer. If you require Windows 7 support, please install Python 3.8. If you require Windows 8.1 support, please install Python 3.12.

4.6. Removing the MAX_PATH limitation

Historiquement les chemins sous Windows étaient limités 260 caractères. Cela impliquait que les chemins plus longs n'étaient pas résolus, et seraient une cause d'erreurs.

In the latest versions of Windows, this limitation can be expanded to over 32,000 characters. Your administrator will need to activate the "Enable Win32 long paths" group policy, or set LongPathsEnabled to 1 in the registry key HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet\Control\FileSystem.

Ceci permet à la fonction open(), au module os et à la plupart des autres fonctionnalités utilisant des chemins d'accepter et de renvoyer des chemins plus longs que 260 caractères.

After changing the above option and rebooting, no further configuration is required.

4.7. Mode UTF-8

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Windows utilise toujours les anciens codages pour l'encodage du système (la page de code ANSI). Python l'utilise pour le codage par défaut des fichiers texte (par exemple locale.getencoding()).

Cela peut poser des problèmes car l'UTF-8 est largement utilisé sur Internet et sur la plupart des systèmes Unix, y compris le WSL (Windows Subsystem for Linux).

Vous pouvez utiliser le mode UTF-8 pour changer le codage de texte par défaut en UTF-8. Vous pouvez activer le mode UTF-8 via l'option de ligne de commande -X utf8 ou la variable d'environnement PYTHONUTF8=1. Voir PYTHONUTF8 pour activer le mode UTF-8, et Python install manager pour savoir comment modifier les variables d'environnement.

Lorsque le mode UTF-8 est activé, vous pouvez toujours utiliser l’encodage système (la page de code ANSI) via le codec « mbcs ».

Notez que l'ajout de PYTHONUTF8=1 aux variables d'environnement par défaut affectera toutes les applications Python 3.7+ sur votre système. Si vous avez des applications Python 3.7+ qui dépendent de l'encodage du système existant, il est recommandé de définir la variable d'environnement temporairement ou d'utiliser l'option de ligne de commande -X utf8.

Note

même lorsque le mode UTF-8 est désactivé, Python utilise UTF-8 par défaut sur Windows pour :

Les E/S de la console, y compris les E/S standards (voir PEP 528 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0528/] pour plus de détails).

L'encodage du système de fichiers (voir PEP 529 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/] pour plus de détails).

4.8. Recherche de modules

Ces notes complètent la description de The initialization of the sys.path module search path avec des notes Windows détaillées.

Lorsque aucun fichier ._pth n'est trouvé, voilà comment sys.path est construit sur Windows :

Une entrée vide est ajoutée au début, qui correspond au répertoire courant.

Si la variable d'environnement PYTHONPATH existe, comme décrit dans Variables d'environnement, ses entrées sont ajoutées ensuite. Notez que sur Windows, les chemins d'accès de cette variable doivent être séparés par des points-virgules, pour les distinguer des deux points utilisés dans les identificateurs de lecteur (C:\ etc.).

Des "chemins d'accès d'application" supplémentaires peuvent être ajoutés dans le registre en tant que sous-clés de \SOFTWARE\Python\PythonCore{version}\PythonPath sous les ruches HKEY_CURRENT_USER et HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE. Les sous-clés qui ont des chaînes de chemin délimitées par des points-virgules comme valeur par défaut entraînent l'ajout de chaque chemin d'accès à sys.path. (Notez que tous les installateurs connus utilisent seulement HKLM, donc HKCU est généralement vide.)

Si la variable d'environnement PYTHONHOME est définie, elle est supposée comme "Python Home". Sinon, le chemin de l'exécutable principal de Python est utilisé pour chercher un "fichier de repère" (soit Lib\os.py ou pythonXY.zip) pour déduire le "Python Home". Si un "Python Home" est trouvé, les sous-répertoires correspondants ajoutés à sys.path (Lib, plat-win, etc) sont basés sur ce dossier. Sinon, le chemin d'accès Python principal est construit à partir du PythonPath stocké dans le registre.

Si le "Python Home" ne peut pas être trouvé, PYTHONPATH n'est pas spécifié dans l'environnement et aucune entrée de registre ne peut être trouvée, un chemin par défaut avec des entrées relatives est utilisé (par exemple .\Lib ; .\plat-win, etc.).

Si un fichier pyvenv.cfg se trouve à côté de l'exécutable principal ou dans le répertoire un niveau au-dessus de l'exécutable, les variantes suivantes s'appliquent :

Si home est un chemin absolu et PYTHONHOME n'est pas défini, ce chemin d'accès est utilisé au lieu du chemin d'accès à l'exécutable principal lors de la déduction de l'emplacement du home.

Le résultat final de tout ceci est :

Lors de l'exécution de python.exe, ou tout autre .exe dans le répertoire principal de Python (soit une version installée, soit directement à partir du répertoire PCbuild), le chemin principal est déduit et les chemins d'accès principaux dans le Registre sont ignorés. D'autres "chemins d'application" dans le registre sont toujours lus.

Lorsque Python est hébergé dans un autre fichier .exe (répertoire différent, intégré via COM, etc.), le "Python Home" ne sera pas déduit, de sorte que le chemin d'accès principal du registre est utilisé. D'autres "chemins d'application" dans le registre sont toujours lus.

Si Python ne peut pas trouver son "home" et il n'y a pas de valeur de registre (.exe figé, une installation très étrange) vous obtenez un chemin d'accès avec certains chemins par défaut, mais relatif.

Pour ceux qui veulent intégrer Python dans leur application ou leur distribution, les conseils suivants empêcheront les conflits avec d'autres installations :

Incluez un fichier ._pth à côté de votre exécutable contenant les répertoires à inclure. Ceci ignorera les chemins répertoriés dans le registre et les variables d'environnement, et ignorera également site à moins que import site soit listé.

If you are loading python3.dll or python37.dll in your own executable, explicitly set PyConfig.module_search_paths before Py_InitializeFromConfig().

Effacer et/ou écraser PYTHONPATH et configurez PYTHONHOME avant de lancer le python.exe de votre application.

Si vous ne pouvez pas utiliser les suggestions précédentes (par exemple, vous êtes une distribution qui permet aux gens d'exécuter python.exe directement), assurez-vous que le point de repère Lib\os.py existe dans votre répertoire d'installation. (Notez qu'il ne sera pas détecté à l'intérieur d'un fichier ZIP, mais un fichier ZIP correctement nommé sera détecté à la place.)

Ceux-ci garantiront que les fichiers d'une installation à l'échelle du système n'auront pas la priorité sur la copie de la bibliothèque standard livrée avec votre application. Sinon, vos utilisateurs pourraient rencontrer des problèmes en utilisant votre application. Notez que la première suggestion est la meilleure, car les autres peuvent encore être sensibles aux chemins non-standard dans le registre et le site-packages utilisateur.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Add ._pth file support and removes applocal option from pyvenv.cfg.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Add pythonXX.zip as a potential landmark when directly adjacent to the executable.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.6: Modules specified in the registry under Modules (not PythonPath) may be imported by importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder. This finder is enabled on Windows in 3.6.0 and earlier, but may need to be explicitly added to sys.meta_path in the future.

4.9. Modules supplémentaires

Même si Python a l'ambition d'être portable parmi toutes les plates-formes, il existe des fonctionnalités propres à Windows. Certains modules, à la fois dans la bibliothèque standard et externe, et des exemples existent pour utiliser ces fonctionnalités.

Les modules standard de Windows sont documentés dans Services spécifiques à MS Windows.

4.9.1. PyWin32

The PyWin32 [https://pypi.org/project/PyWin32/] module by Mark Hammond is a collection of modules for advanced Windows-specific support. This includes utilities for:

Component Object Model [https://learn.microsoft.com/windows/win32/com/component-object-model--com--portal] (COM)

Appels à l'API Win32

Registre

Journal d'événement

Microsoft Foundation Classes [https://learn.microsoft.com/cpp/mfc/mfc-desktop-applications] (MFC) user interfaces

PythonWin [http://web.archive.org/web/20060524042422/http://www.python.org/windows/pythonwin/] est un exemple d'application MFC livrée avec PyWin32. Il s'agit d'un IDE embarqué avec débogueur intégré.

Voir aussi

Win32 How Do I...? [https://timgolden.me.uk/python/win32_how_do_i.html]

par Tim Golden

Python and COM [https://www.boddie.org.uk/python/COM.html]

par David et Paul Boddie

4.9.2. cx_Freeze

cx_Freeze [https://cx-freeze.readthedocs.io/en/latest/] wraps Python scripts into executable Windows programs (*.exe files). When you have done this, you can distribute your application without requiring your users to install Python.

4.10. Compiler Python sous Windows

Si vous voulez compiler CPython vous-même, la première chose à faire est obtenir la source [https://www.python.org/downloads/source/]. Vous pouvez télécharger soit la source de la dernière version ou tout simplement prendre un checkout [https://devguide.python.org/setup/#get-the-source-code].

L'arborescence source contient une solution de compilation et des fichiers projet pour Microsoft Visual Studio, qui est le compilateur utilisé pour générer les versions officielles de Python. Ces fichiers se trouvent dans le répertoire PCbuild.

Consultez PC/readme.txt pour des informations générales sur le processus de construction.

Pour les modules d'extension, consultez Construire des extensions C et C++ sur Windows.

4.11. The full installer (deprecated)

Obsolète depuis la version 3.14: This installer is deprecated since 3.14 and will not be produced for Python 3.16 or later. See Python install manager for the modern installer.

4.11.1. Étapes d'installation

Quatre installateurs Python 3.14 sont disponibles au téléchargement — deux de chaque pour les versions 32-bit et 64-bit de l'interpréteur. L'installateur web est léger, et téléchargera automatiquement les composants nécessaires. L'installateur hors-ligne inclut les composants nécessaires pour une installation par défaut et n'a besoin d'une connexion internet que pour des fonctionnalités optionnelles. Voir Installing without downloading pour d'autres moyens d’éviter des téléchargements durant l'installation.

Après avoir lancé l'installateur, deux options s'affichent :

Si vous sélectionnez « Installer Maintenant » (Install Now) :

Vous n'aurez pas besoin d'avoir les droits d'administrateur (sauf si une mise à jour de la bibliothèque d'exécution C est nécessaire ou si vous installez le Python install manager pour tous les utilisateurs)

Python sera installé dans votre répertoire utilisateur

Le Python install manager sera installé suivant l'option en bas de la première page

La bibliothèque standard, la suite de tests, le lanceur et pip seront installés

Si l'option est cochée, le dossier d'installation sera ajouté à votre PATH

Les raccourcis ne seront visibles que pour l'utilisateur actuel

Sélectionner « Personnaliser l’installation » (Customize installation) vous permettra de sélectionner les fonctionnalités à installer, le chemin d'installation et d'autres options ou des options post-installation. Pour installer des binaires ou symboles de débogage, vous devrez utiliser cette option.

Pour effectuer une installation pour tous les utilisateurs, vous devez sélectionner « Personnaliser l’installation ». Dans ce cas :

Vous pouvez avoir à donner une approbation ou des identifiants administrateur

Python sera installé dans le dossier Program Files

Le Python install manager sera installé dans le dossier Windows

Des fonctionnalités optionnelles peuvent être sélectionnées durant l'installation

La bibliothèque standard peut être pré-compilée en code intermédiaire (bytecode en anglais)

Si sélectionné, le chemin d'installation sera ajouté au PATH système

Les raccourcis sont disponibles pour tous les utilisateurs

4.11.2. Removing the MAX_PATH limitation

Historiquement les chemins sous Windows étaient limités 260 caractères. Cela impliquait que les chemins plus longs n'étaient pas résolus, et seraient une cause d'erreurs.

Dans les dernières versions de Windows, cette limitation peut être étendue à approximativement 32.000 caractères. Votre administrateur devra activer la stratégie de groupe « Enable Win32 long paths » ou mettre la valeur de LongPathsEnabled à 1 dans de registre à HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet\Control\FileSystem.

Ceci permet à la fonction open(), au module os et à la plupart des autres fonctionnalités utilisant des chemins d'accepter et de renvoyer des chemins plus longs que 260 caractères.

Après avoir changé l'option si-dessus, aucune configuration supplémentaire n'est requise.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Gestion des chemins longs.

4.11.3. Installing without UI

Toutes les options disponibles dans l'installateur graphique peuvent aussi être spécifiées dans l'invite de commande, permettant à des installateurs scriptés de répliquer une installation sur plusieurs machines sans interaction humaine. Ces options peuvent aussi être ajoutées sans enlever l'interface graphique pour changer les valeurs par défauts.

The following options (found by executing the installer with /?) can be passed into the installer:

Nom

Description

/passive

to display progress without requiring user interaction

/quiet

to install/uninstall without displaying any UI

/simple

to prevent user customization

/uninstall

to remove Python (without confirmation)

/layout [directory]

to pre-download all components

/log [filename]

to specify log files location

Toutes les autres options sont passées sous la forme name=value, ou value est normalement soit 0 pour désactiver une fonctionnalité, soit 1 pour activer une fonctionnalité, soit un chemin. Ci-dessous la liste complète des options.

Nom

Description

Valeur par défaut

InstallAllUsers

Effectue une installation pour tous les utilisateurs.

0

TargetDir

Le dossier d'installation

Sélection basée sur InstallAllUsers

DefaultAllUsersTargetDir

Le dossier d'installation par défaut pour les installations pour tous les utilisateurs

%ProgramFiles%\Python X.Y ou %ProgramFiles(x86)%\Python X.Y

DefaultJustForMeTargetDir

Le dossier d'installation par défaut pour des installations juste pour soi

%LocalAppData%\Programs\Python\PythonXY ou %LocalAppData%\Programs\Python\PythonXY-32 ou %LocalAppData%\Programs\Python\PythonXY-64

DefaultCustomTargetDir

Le dossier d'installation personnalisé par défaut affiché par l'interface utilisateur

(vide)

AssociateFiles

Crée les associations de fichiers si le lanceur est aussi installé.

1

CompileAll

Compile tous les fichiers .py en .pyc.

0

PrependPath

Ajoute les dossiers install et Scripts à PATH et assigne .PY à PATHEXT

0

AppendPath

Ajoute les dossiers install et Scripts à PATH et assigne .PY à PATHEXT

0

Shortcuts

Crée des raccourcis pour l'interpréteur, la documentation et IDLE si installé.

1

Include_doc

Installe le manuel Python

1

Include_debug

Installe les binaires de débogage

0

Include_dev

Installe les en-têtes et les bibliothèques de développement. L'omission de cette étape peut conduire à une installation inutilisable.

1

Include_exe

Installer python.exe et les fichiers associés. L'omission de cette étape peut conduire à une installation inutilisable.

1

Include_launcher

Installe le Python install manager.

1

InstallLauncherAllUsers

Installe le lanceur pour tous les utilisateurs. Nécessite que Include_launcher soit mis à 1

1

Include_lib

Installe la bibliothèque standard et les modules d'extension. L'omission de cette étape peut conduire à une installation inutilisable.

1

Include_pip

Installe pip et setuptools

1

Include_symbols

Installe les symboles de débogage (*.pdb)

0

Include_tcltk

Installe Tcl/Tk et IDLE

1

Include_test

Installe la suite de tests de la bibliothèque standard

1

Include_tools

Installe les scripts utilitaires

1

LauncherOnly

Installe seulement le lanceur. Ceci écrasera la plupart des autres options.

0

SimpleInstall

Désactive la plupart de l'interface d'installation

0

SimpleInstallDescription

Un message personnalisé à afficher quand l'interface d'installation simplifiée est utilisée.

(vide)

Par exemple, pour installer silencieusement Python sur tout le système, vous pourriez utilisez la commande suivante (depuis une invite de commande administrateur) :

python-3.9.0.exe /quiet InstallAllUsers=1 PrependPath=1 Include_test=0

Pour permettre à l'utilisateur d'installer facilement une copie de Python sans la suite de tests, vous pouvez proposer un raccourci avec la commande suivante. Cela affichera une page initiale simplifiée et interdira la personnalisation :

python-3.9.0.exe InstallAllUsers=0 Include_launcher=0 Include_test=0
    SimpleInstall=1 SimpleInstallDescription="Just for me, no test suite."

(Notez qu'omettre le lanceur omet aussi les associations de fichiers, et n'est recommandé que pour les installations par utilisateur quand il y a aussi une installation complète sur le système qui a inclus de lanceur.)

Les options listées ci-dessus peuvent aussi être passées dans un fichier nommé unattend.xml à côté de l'exécutable. Ce fichier spécifie une liste d'options et de valeurs. Quand une valeur est donnée en tant qu'attribut, elle sera convertie en nombre si possible. Les valeurs données en élément texte sont toujours laissées en tant que chaînes de caractères. Ce fichier d'exemple propose les mêmes options que l'exemple précédent :

<Options>
    <Option Name="InstallAllUsers" Value="no" />
    <Option Name="Include_launcher" Value="0" />
    <Option Name="Include_test" Value="no" />
    <Option Name="SimpleInstall" Value="yes" />
    <Option Name="SimpleInstallDescription">Just for me, no test suite</Option>
</Options>

4.11.4. Installing without downloading

Comme certaines fonctionnalités de Python ne sont pas incluses dans l'installateur initial, la sélection de certaines de ces fonctionnalités peut demander une connexion Internet. Pour éviter ce besoin, tous les composants nécessaires peuvent être téléchargés à la demande pour créer un agencement (layout) complet qui ne demandera plus de connexion Internet indépendamment des options sélectionnées. Notez que ce téléchargement peut être plus gros que nécessaire, mais lorsqu'un un grand nombre d'installations doivent être faites, il est très utile d'avoir une copie locale.

Exécutez la commande suivante depuis l'invite de commande pour télécharger tous les fichiers requis possibles. Rappelez-vous de remplacer python-3.9.0.exe par le nom réel de votre installateur et de créer des agencements avec leurs propres dossiers pour éviter les conflits entre fichiers du même nom.

python-3.9.0.exe /layout [optional target directory]

Vous pouvez aussi spécifier l'option /quiet pour masquer la progression.

4.11.5. Modification d'une installation

Une fois Python installé, vous pouvez ajouter ou supprimer des fonctionnalités depuis l'outil Windows Programs and Features (Programmes et Fonctionnalités). Sélectionnez la ligne Python et choisissez « Uninstall/Change » (Désinstaller/Modifier) pour ouvrir l'installateur en mode maintenance.

« Modify » vous permet d'ajouter ou d'enlever des fonctionnalités en modifiant les cases à cocher (les cases inchangées n'installeront ou ne supprimeront rien). Certaines options ne peuvent pas être modifiées dans ce mode, comme le dossier d'installation. Pour modifier ces options, vous devrez ré-installer Python entièrement.

« Repair » vérifiera tous les fichiers qui doivent être installés avec les paramètres actuels le sont, et remplacera ceux qui ont étés supprimés ou modifiés.

« Uninstall » désinstallera Python entièrement, à l'exception du Python install manager qui à sa propre ligne dans Programs and Features.

4.11.6. Installing free-threaded binaries

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

To install pre-built binaries with free-threading enabled (see PEP 703 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/]), you should select "Customize installation". The second page of options includes the "Download free-threaded binaries" checkbox.

Selecting this option will download and install additional binaries to the same location as the main Python install. The main executable is called python3.13t.exe, and other binaries either receive a t suffix or a full ABI suffix. Python source files and bundled third-party dependencies are shared with the main install.

The free-threaded version is registered as a regular Python install with the tag 3.13t (with a -32 or -arm64 suffix as normal for those platforms). This allows tools to discover it, and for the Python install manager to support py.exe -3.13t. Note that the launcher will interpret py.exe -3 (or a python3 shebang) as "the latest 3.x install", which will prefer the free-threaded binaries over the regular ones, while py.exe -3.13 will not. If you use the short style of option, you may prefer to not install the free-threaded binaries at this time.

To specify the install option at the command line, use Include_freethreaded=1. See Installing without downloading for instructions on pre-emptively downloading the additional binaries for offline install. The options to include debug symbols and binaries also apply to the free-threaded builds.

Free-threaded binaries are also available on nuget.org.

4.12. Python launcher for Windows (deprecated)

Obsolète depuis la version 3.14: The launcher and this documentation have been superseded by the Python Install Manager described above. This is preserved temporarily for historical interest.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Le lanceur Python pour Windows est un utilitaire qui facilite la recherche et l'exécution de différentes versions de Python. Il permet aux scripts (ou à la ligne de commande) d'indiquer une préférence pour une version Python spécifique, cherchera et exécutera cette version.

Contrairement à la variable PATH, le lanceur sélectionne correctement la version la plus appropriée de Python. Il préfère les installations par utilisateur sur celles du système, et les trie par version plutôt que d'utiliser la version la plus récente installée.

Le lanceur a été initialement spécifié dans PEP 397 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0397/].

4.12.1. Pour commencer

4.12.1.1. Depuis la ligne de commande

Modifié dans la version 3.6.

Les installations systèmes de Python 3.3 et ultérieur placent le lanceur dans votre PATH. Le lanceur est compatible avec toutes les versions disponibles de Python, peu importe lesquelles sont installées. Pour vérifier que le lanceur est disponible, exécutez la commande suivante dans l'invite de commandes :

py

Vous devriez voir se lancer la dernière version de Python installée — il peut être quitté normalement, et tous les arguments de ligne de commande supplémentaires spécifiés seront envoyés directement à Python.

Si plusieurs versions de Python sont installées (par exemple, 3.7 et 3.14), vous aurez remarqué que Python 3.14 se lance -- pour lancer Python 3.7, essayez la commande :

py -3.7

Si vous voulez que la dernière version de Python 2.x que vous avez installé, essayez la commande :

py -2

Si vous voyez l'erreur suivante, le lanceur n'est pas installé :

'py' is not recognized as an internal or external command,
operable program or batch file.

La commande :

py --list

affiche la ou les versions actuellement installées de Python.

The -x.y argument is the short form of the -V:Company/Tag argument, which allows selecting a specific Python runtime, including those that may have come from somewhere other than python.org. Any runtime registered by following PEP 514 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0514/] will be discoverable. The --list command lists all available runtimes using the -V: format.

When using the -V: argument, specifying the Company will limit selection to runtimes from that provider, while specifying only the Tag will select from all providers. Note that omitting the slash implies a tag:

# Select any '3.*' tagged runtime
py -V:3

# Select any 'PythonCore' released runtime
py -V:PythonCore/

# Select PythonCore's latest Python 3 runtime
py -V:PythonCore/3

The short form of the argument (-3) only ever selects from core Python releases, and not other distributions. However, the longer form (-V:3) will select from any.

The Company is matched on the full string, case-insensitive. The Tag is matched on either the full string, or a prefix, provided the next character is a dot or a hyphen. This allows -V:3.1 to match 3.1-32, but not 3.10. Tags are sorted using numerical ordering (3.10 is newer than 3.1), but are compared using text (-V:3.01 does not match 3.1).

4.12.1.2. Environnements virtuels

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Si le lanceur est exécuté sans version de Python explicite et qu'un environnement virtuel (créé avec le module de la bibliothèque standard venv ou l'outil externe virtualenv) est actif, le lanceur exécute l'interpréteur de l'environnement virtuel plutôt que l'interpréteur global. Pour exécuter l'interpréteur global, désactivez l'environnement virtuel ou spécifiez explicitement la version Python globale.

4.12.1.3. À partir d'un script

Créons un script Python de test, créez un fichier appelé hello.py avec le contenu suivant

#! python
import sys
sys.stdout.write("hello from Python %s\n" % (sys.version,))

À partir du répertoire dans lequel se trouve hello.py, exécutez la commande :

py hello.py

Vous devriez voir le numéro de version du Python 2.x le plus récemment installé. Maintenant, essayez de changer la première ligne en :

#! python3

La commande doit maintenant afficher les dernières informations de Python 3.x. Comme pour les exemples de ligne de commande ci-dessus, vous pouvez spécifier un qualificateur de version plus explicite. En supposant que vous avez installé Python 3.7, essayez de changer la première ligne en #! python3.7 et vous devriez trouver les informations de version 3.7 affichées.

Notez que, contrairement à l'utilisation interactive, un "python" nu utilisera la dernière version de Python 2.x que vous avez installé. C'est pour la compatibilité ascendante et pour la compatibilité avec UNIX, où la commande python fait généralement référence à Python 2.

4.12.1.4. À partir d'associations de fichiers

Le lanceur aurait dû être associé à des fichiers Python (des fichiers comme .py, .pyw, .pyc) lorsqu'il a été installé. Cela signifie que lorsque vous double-cliquez sur l'un de ces fichiers à partir de l'Explorateur Windows, le lanceur sera utilisé, et donc vous pouvez utiliser les mêmes installations décrites ci-dessus pour que le script spécifie la version qui doit être utilisée.

L'avantage principal de ceci est qu'un seul lanceur peut prendre en charge plusieurs versions de Python en même temps en fonction du contenu de la première ligne.

4.12.2. Shebang lines

Si la première ligne d'un fichier de script commence par #!, elle est connue sous le nom de ligne « shebang ». Linux et d'autres systèmes basés sur Unix ont une prise en charge native de ces lignes et les shebangs sont couramment utilisés sur ces systèmes pour indiquer comment un script doit être exécuté. Ce lanceur permet aux mêmes installations d'être utilisés avec des scripts Python sur Windows et les exemples ci-dessus démontrent leur utilisation.

Pour permettre aux shebang dans les scripts Python d'être portables entre UNIX et Windows, ce lanceur prend en charge un certain nombre de commandes « virtuelles » pour spécifier l'interpréteur à utiliser. Les commandes virtuelles prises en charge sont :

/usr/bin/env

/usr/bin/python

/usr/local/bin/python

python

Par exemple, si la première ligne de votre script commence par

#! /usr/bin/python

The default Python or an active virtual environment will be located and used. As many Python scripts written to work on Unix will already have this line, you should find these scripts can be used by the launcher without modification. If you are writing a new script on Windows which you hope will be useful on Unix, you should use one of the shebang lines starting with /usr.

Any of the above virtual commands can be suffixed with an explicit version (either just the major version, or the major and minor version). Furthermore the 32-bit version can be requested by adding "-32" after the minor version. I.e. /usr/bin/python3.7-32 will request usage of the 32-bit Python 3.7. If a virtual environment is active, the version will be ignored and the environment will be used.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7: Depuis la version 3.7 du lanceur Python, il est possible de demander une version 64-bit en utilisant le suffixe -64. De plus il est possible de spécifier une version majeure et une architecture sans version mineure (par exemple /usr/bin/python3-64).

Modifié dans la version 3.11: The "-64" suffix is deprecated, and now implies "any architecture that is not provably i386/32-bit". To request a specific environment, use the new -V:TAG argument with the complete tag.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Virtual commands referencing python now prefer an active virtual environment rather than searching PATH. This handles cases where the shebang specifies /usr/bin/env python3 but python3.exe is not present in the active environment.

The /usr/bin/env form of shebang line has one further special property. Before looking for installed Python interpreters, this form will search the executable PATH for a Python executable matching the name provided as the first argument. This corresponds to the behaviour of the Unix env program, which performs a PATH search. If an executable matching the first argument after the env command cannot be found, but the argument starts with python, it will be handled as described for the other virtual commands. The environment variable PYLAUNCHER_NO_SEARCH_PATH may be set (to any value) to skip this search of PATH.

Shebang lines that do not match any of these patterns are looked up in the [commands] section of the launcher's .INI file. This may be used to handle certain commands in a way that makes sense for your system. The name of the command must be a single argument (no spaces in the shebang executable), and the value substituted is the full path to the executable (additional arguments specified in the .INI will be quoted as part of the filename).

[commands]
/bin/xpython=C:\Program Files\XPython\python.exe

Any commands not found in the .INI file are treated as Windows executable paths that are absolute or relative to the directory containing the script file. This is a convenience for Windows-only scripts, such as those generated by an installer, since the behavior is not compatible with Unix-style shells. These paths may be quoted, and may include multiple arguments, after which the path to the script and any additional arguments will be appended.

4.12.3. Arguments dans les lignes shebang

Les lignes shebang peuvent également spécifier des options supplémentaires à passer à l'interpréteur Python. Par exemple, si vous avez une ligne shebang :

#! /usr/bin/python -v

Alors, Python sera démarré avec l'option -v

4.12.4. Personnalisation

4.12.4.1. Personnalisation via des fichiers INI

Deux fichiers .ini seront recherchés par le lanceur - py.ini dans le répertoire de données de l'application de l'utilisateur courant (%LOCALAPPDATA% ou $env:LocalAppData) et py.ini dans le même répertoire que le lanceur. Les mêmes fichiers .ini sont utilisés à la fois pour la version console du lanceur (i.e. py.exe) et pour la version windows (i.e. pyw.exe).

La personnalisation spécifiée dans le « répertoire de l'application » aura la priorité sur celle à côté de l'exécutable, de sorte qu'un utilisateur, qui peut ne pas avoir accès en écriture au fichier .ini à côté du lanceur, peut substituer des commandes dans ce fichier .ini global)

4.12.4.2. Personnalisation des versions Python par défaut

Dans certains cas, un qualificateur de version peut être inclus dans une commande pour dicter quelle version de Python sera utilisée par la commande. Un qualificateur de version commence par un numéro de version majeure et peut éventuellement être suivi d'un point (.) et d'un spécificateur de version secondaire. De plus il est possible de préciser si une implémentation 32 ou 64 bit doit être demandée en ajoutant -32 ou -64.

Par exemple, une ligne shebang valant #!python n'a pas de qualificateur de version, tandis que #!python3 a un qualificateur de version qui ne spécifie qu'une version majeure.

If no version qualifiers are found in a command, the environment variable PY_PYTHON can be set to specify the default version qualifier. If it is not set, the default is "3". The variable can specify any value that may be passed on the command line, such as "3", "3.7", "3.7-32" or "3.7-64". (Note that the "-64" option is only available with the launcher included with Python 3.7 or newer.)

Si aucun qualificateur de version mineure n'est trouvé, la variable d'environnement PY_PYTHON{major} (où {major} est le qualificateur de version principale actuelle tel que déterminé ci-dessus) peut être définie pour spécifier la version complète. Si aucune option de ce type n'est trouvée, le lanceur énumérera les versions de Python installées et utilisera la dernière version mineure trouvée pour la version principale, qui est probablement la plus récemment installée dans cette famille.

Sur Windows 64-bits avec les implémentations 32-bits et 64-bits de la même version Python (major.minor) installée, la version 64-bit est toujours préférée. Cela est vrai pour les implémentations 32-bits et 64-bits du lanceur – un lanceur 32-bits préfère exécuter une installation Python de 64-bits de la version spécifiée si elle est disponible. Le comportement du lanceur est donc prévisible en sachant seulement quelles versions sont installées sur le PC et sans tenir compte de l'ordre dans lequel ils ont été installés (c.-à-d. sans savoir si une version 32 ou 64-bit de Python et le lanceur correspondant a été installé en dernier). Comme indiqué ci-dessus, un suffixe optionnel -32 ou -64 peut être utilisé sur un spécificateur de version pour modifier ce comportement.

Exemples :

Si aucune option pertinente n'est définie, les commandes python et python2 utiliseront la dernière version de Python 2.x installée et la commande python3 utilisera le dernier Python 3.x installé.

La commande python3.7 ne consulte aucune option du tout car les versions sont entièrement spécifiées.

Si PY_PYTHON=3, les commandes python et python3 utiliseront la dernière version de Python 3 installée.

Si PY_PYTHON=3.7-32, la commande python utilisera l'implémentation 32-bits de 3.7 alors que la commande python3 utilisera le dernier Python installé (PY_PYTHON n'a pas été considéré du tout comme une version majeure a été spécifiée.)

Si PY_PYTHON=3 et PY_PYTHON3=3.7, les commandes python et python3 utiliseront spécifiquement 3.7

En plus des variables d'environnement, les mêmes paramètres peuvent être configurés dans le .INI utilisé par le lanceur. La section dans le fichier INI est appelée [defaults] et le nom de la clé sera le même que les variables d'environnement sans le préfixe PY_ principal (et notez que les noms de clés dans le fichier INI sont insensibles à la case.) Le contenu d'une variable d'environnement remplacera les éléments spécifiés dans le fichier INI.

Par exemple :

Le paramètre PY_PYTHON=3.7 équivaut au fichier INI contenant :

[defaults]
python=3.7

Le paramètre PY_PYTHON=3 et PY_PYTHON3=3.7 équivaut au fichier INI contenant :

[defaults]
python=3
python3=3.7

4.12.5. Diagnostics

If an environment variable PYLAUNCHER_DEBUG is set (to any value), the launcher will print diagnostic information to stderr (i.e. to the console). While this information manages to be simultaneously verbose and terse, it should allow you to see what versions of Python were located, why a particular version was chosen and the exact command-line used to execute the target Python. It is primarily intended for testing and debugging.

4.12.6. Dry run

If an environment variable PYLAUNCHER_DRYRUN is set (to any value), the launcher will output the command it would have run, but will not actually launch Python. This may be useful for tools that want to use the launcher to detect and then launch Python directly. Note that the command written to standard output is always encoded using UTF-8, and may not render correctly in the console.

4.12.7. Installation à la demande

If an environment variable PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL is set (to any value), and the requested Python version is not installed but is available on the Microsoft Store, the launcher will attempt to install it. This may require user interaction to complete, and you may need to run the command again.

An additional PYLAUNCHER_ALWAYS_INSTALL variable causes the launcher to always try to install Python, even if it is detected. This is mainly intended for testing (and should be used with PYLAUNCHER_DRYRUN).

4.12.8. Codes de retour

Les codes de retour suivants peuvent être renvoyés par le lanceur Python. Malheureusement, il n'y a aucun moyen de les distinguer du code de sortie de Python lui-même.

Les noms des codes sont tels qu'utilisés dans les sources et ne sont donnés qu'à titre de référence. Il n'y a aucun moyen d'y accéder ou de les résoudre en dehors de la lecture de cette page. Les entrées sont classées par ordre alphabétique des noms.

Nom

Valeur

Description

RC_BAD_VENV_CFG

107

pyvenv.cfg a été trouvé mais est corrompu.

RC_CREATE_PROCESS

101

Échec du lancement de Python.

RC_INSTALLING

111

Une installation a commencé, mais la commande doit être relancée après qu'elle a terminé.

RC_INTERNAL_ERROR

109

Erreur non prévue. Merci de remonter un bogue.

RC_NO_COMMANDLINE

108

Le système d'exploitation n'a pas fourni de ligne de commande.

RC_NO_PYTHON

103

Impossible de trouver la version demandée.

RC_NO_VENV_CFG

106

pyvenv.cfg est requis mais n'a pas été trouvé.

5. Using Python on macOS

This document aims to give an overview of macOS-specific behavior you should know about to get started with Python on Mac computers. Python on a Mac running macOS is very similar to Python on other Unix-derived platforms, but there are some differences in installation and some features.

There are various ways to obtain and install Python for macOS. Pre-built versions of the most recent versions of Python are available from a number of distributors. Much of this document describes use of the Pythons provided by the CPython release team for download from the python.org website [https://www.python.org/downloads/]. See Alternative Distributions for some other options.

5.1. Using Python for macOS from python.org

5.1.1. Étapes d'installation

For current Python versions [https://www.python.org/downloads/] (other than those in security status), the release team produces a Python for macOS installer package for each new release. A list of available installers is available here [https://www.python.org/downloads/macos/]. We recommend using the most recent supported Python version where possible. Current installers provide a universal2 binary [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_binary] build of Python which runs natively on all Macs (Apple Silicon and Intel) that are supported by a wide range of macOS versions, currently typically from at least macOS 10.15 Catalina on.

The downloaded file is a standard macOS installer package file (.pkg). File integrity information (checksum, size, sigstore signature, etc) for each file is included on the release download page. Installer packages and their contents are signed and notarized with Python Software Foundation Apple Developer ID certificates to meet macOS Gatekeeper requirements [https://support.apple.com/en-us/102445].

For a default installation, double-click on the downloaded installer package file. This should launch the standard macOS Installer app and display the first of several installer windows steps.

Clicking on the Continue button brings up the Read Me for this installer. Besides other important information, the Read Me documents which Python version is going to be installed and on what versions of macOS it is supported. You may need to scroll through to read the whole file. By default, this Read Me will also be installed in /Applications/Python 3.14/ and available to read anytime.

Clicking on Continue proceeds to display the license for Python and for other included software. You will then need to Agree to the license terms before proceeding to the next step. This license file will also be installed and available to be read later.

After the license terms are accepted, the next step is the Installation Type display. For most uses, the standard set of installation operations is appropriate.

By pressing the Customize button, you can choose to omit or select certain package components of the installer. Click on each package name to see a description of what it installs. To also install support for the optional free-threaded feature, see Installing Free-threaded Binaries.

In either case, clicking Install will begin the install process by asking permission to install new software. A macOS user name with Administrator privilege is needed as the installed Python will be available to all users of the Mac.

When the installation is complete, the Summary window will appear.

Double-click on the Install Certificates.command icon or file in the /Applications/Python 3.14/ window to complete the installation.

This will open a temporary Terminal shell window that will use the new Python to download and install SSL root certificates for its use.

If Successfully installed certifi and update complete appears in the terminal window, the installation is complete. Close this terminal window and the installer window.

A default install will include:

A Python 3.14 folder in your Applications folder. In here you find IDLE, the development environment that is a standard part of official Python distributions; and Python Launcher, which handles double-clicking Python scripts from the macOS Finder [https://support.apple.com/en-us/HT201732].

A framework /Library/Frameworks/Python.framework, which includes the Python executable and libraries. The installer adds this location to your shell path. To uninstall Python, you can remove these three things. Symlinks to the Python executable are placed in /usr/local/bin/.

Note

Recent versions of macOS include a python3 command in /usr/bin/python3 that links to a usually older and incomplete version of Python provided by and for use by the Apple development tools, Xcode or the Command Line Tools for Xcode. You should never modify or attempt to delete this installation, as it is Apple-controlled and is used by Apple-provided or third-party software. If you choose to install a newer Python version from python.org, you will have two different but functional Python installations on your computer that can co-exist. The default installer options should ensure that its python3 will be used instead of the system python3.

5.1.2. Comment exécuter un script Python

There are two ways to invoke the Python interpreter. If you are familiar with using a Unix shell in a terminal window, you can invoke python3.14 or python3 optionally followed by one or more command line options (described in Ligne de commande et environnement). The Python tutorial also has a useful section on using Python interactively from a shell.

You can also invoke the interpreter through an integrated development environment. IDLE --- Python editor and shell is a basic editor and interpreter environment which is included with the standard distribution of Python. IDLE includes a Help menu that allows you to access Python documentation. If you are completely new to Python, you can read the tutorial introduction in that document.

There are many other editors and IDEs available, see Éditeurs et IDEs for more information.

To run a Python script file from the terminal window, you can invoke the interpreter with the name of the script file:

python3.14 myscript.py

To run your script from the Finder, you can either:

Drag it to Python Launcher.

Select Python Launcher as the default application to open your script (or any .py script) through the Finder Info window and double-click it. Python Launcher has various preferences to control how your script is launched. Option-dragging allows you to change these for one invocation, or use its Preferences menu to change things globally.

Be aware that running the script directly from the macOS Finder might produce different results than when running from a terminal window as the script will not be run in the usual shell environment including any setting of environment variables in shell profiles. And, as with any other script or program, be certain of what you are about to run.

5.2. Alternative Distributions

Besides the standard python.org for macOS installer, there are third-party distributions for macOS that may include additional functionality. Some popular distributions and their key features:

ActivePython [https://www.activestate.com/products/python/]

Installer with multi-platform compatibility, documentation

Anaconda [https://www.anaconda.com/download/]

Popular scientific modules (such as numpy, scipy, and pandas) and the conda package manager.

Homebrew [https://brew.sh]

Package manager for macOS including multiple versions of Python and many third-party Python-based packages (including numpy, scipy, and pandas).

MacPorts [https://www.macports.org]

Another package manager for macOS including multiple versions of Python and many third-party Python-based packages. May include pre-built versions of Python and many packages for older versions of macOS.

Note that distributions might not include the latest versions of Python or other libraries, and are not maintained or supported by the core Python team.

5.3. Installation de paquets Python additionnels

Refer to the Python Packaging User Guide [https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/tutorials/installing-packages/] for more information.

5.4. GUI Programming

Il y a plusieurs options pour construire des applications avec interface graphique sur le Mac avec Python.

The standard Python GUI toolkit is tkinter, based on the cross-platform Tk toolkit (https://www.tcl.tk). A macOS-native version of Tk is included with the installer.

PyObjC is a Python binding to Apple's Objective-C/Cocoa framework. Information on PyObjC is available from pyobjc [https://pypi.org/project/pyobjc/].

A number of alternative macOS GUI toolkits are available including:

PySide [https://www.qt.io/qt-for-python]: Official Python bindings to the Qt GUI toolkit [https://wiki.qt.io/Qt_for_Python].

PyQt [https://riverbankcomputing.com/software/pyqt/]: Alternative Python bindings to Qt.

Kivy [https://kivy.org]: A cross-platform GUI toolkit that supports desktop and mobile platforms.

Toga [https://toga.readthedocs.io]: Part of the BeeWare Project [https://beeware.org]; supports desktop, mobile, web and console apps.

wxPython [https://wxpython.org]: A cross-platform toolkit that supports desktop operating systems.

5.5. Sujets avancés

5.5.1. Installing Free-threaded Binaries

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

The python.org Python for macOS installer package can optionally install an additional build of Python 3.14 that supports PEP 703 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/], the free-threading feature (running with the global interpreter lock disabled). Check the release page on python.org for possible updated information.

The free-threaded mode is working and continues to be improved, but there is some additional overhead in single-threaded workloads compared to the regular build. Additionally, third-party packages, in particular ones with an extension module, may not be ready for use in a free-threaded build, and will re-enable the GIL. Therefore, the support for free-threading is not installed by default. It is packaged as a separate install option, available by clicking the Customize button on the Installation Type step of the installer as described above.

If the box next to the Free-threaded Python package name is checked, a separate PythonT.framework will also be installed alongside the normal Python.framework in /Library/Frameworks. This configuration allows a free-threaded Python 3.14 build to co-exist on your system with a traditional (GIL only) Python 3.14 build with minimal risk while installing or testing. This installation layout may change in future releases.

Known cautions and limitations:

The UNIX command-line tools package, which is selected by default, will install links in /usr/local/bin for python3.14t, the free-threaded interpreter, and python3.14t-config, a configuration utility which may be useful for package builders. Since /usr/local/bin is typically included in your shell PATH, in most cases no changes to your PATH environment variables should be needed to use python3.14t.

For this release, the Shell profile updater package and the Update Shell Profile.command in /Applications/Python 3.14/ do not support the free-threaded package.

The free-threaded build and the traditional build have separate search paths and separate site-packages directories so, by default, if you need a package available in both builds, it may need to be installed in both. The free-threaded package will install a separate instance of pip for use with python3.14t.

To install a package using pip without a venv:

python3.14t -m pip install <package_name>

When working with multiple Python environments, it is usually safest and easiest to create and use virtual environments. This can avoid possible command name conflicts and confusion about which Python is in use:

python3.14t -m venv <venv_name>

then activate.

To run a free-threaded version of IDLE:

python3.14t -m idlelib

The interpreters in both builds respond to the same PYTHON environment variables which may have unexpected results, for example, if you have PYTHONPATH set in a shell profile. If necessary, there are command line options like -E to ignore these environment variables.

The free-threaded build links to the third-party shared libraries, such as OpenSSL and Tk, installed in the traditional framework. This means that both builds also share one set of trust certificates as installed by the Install Certificates.command script, thus it only needs to be run once.

If you cannot depend on the link in /usr/local/bin pointing to the python.org free-threaded python3.14t (for example, if you want to install your own version there or some other distribution does), you can explicitly set your shell PATH environment variable to include the PythonT framework bin directory:

export PATH="/Library/Frameworks/PythonT.framework/Versions/3.14/bin":"$PATH"

The traditional framework installation by default does something similar, except for Python.framework. Be aware that having both framework bin directories in PATH can lead to confusion if there are duplicate names like python3.14 in both; which one is actually used depends on the order they appear in PATH. The which python3.x or which python3.xt commands can show which path is being used. Using virtual environments can help avoid such ambiguities. Another option might be to create a shell alias to the desired interpreter, like:

alias py3.14="/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/3.14/bin/python3.14"
alias py3.14t="/Library/Frameworks/PythonT.framework/Versions/3.14/bin/python3.14t"

5.5.2. Installing using the command line

If you want to use automation to install the python.org installer package (rather than by using the familiar macOS Installer GUI app), the macOS command line installer utility lets you select non-default options, too. If you are not familiar with installer, it can be somewhat cryptic (see man installer for more information). As an example, the following shell snippet shows one way to do it, using the 3.14.0b2 release and selecting the free-threaded interpreter option:

RELEASE="python-3.140b2-macos11.pkg"

# download installer pkg
curl -O https://www.python.org/ftp/python/3.14.0/${RELEASE}

# create installer choicechanges to customize the install:
#    enable the PythonTFramework-3.14 package
#    while accepting the other defaults (install all other packages)
cat > ./choicechanges.plist <<EOF
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE plist PUBLIC "-//Apple//DTD PLIST 1.0//EN" "http://www.apple.com/DTDs/PropertyList-1.0.dtd">
<plist version="1.0">
<array>
        <dict>
                <key>attributeSetting</key>
                <integer>1</integer>
                <key>choiceAttribute</key>
                <string>selected</string>
                <key>choiceIdentifier</key>
                <string>org.python.Python.PythonTFramework-3.14</string>
        </dict>
</array>
</plist>
EOF

sudo installer -pkg ./${RELEASE} -applyChoiceChangesXML ./choicechanges.plist -target /

You can then test that both installer builds are now available with something like:

$ # test that the free-threaded interpreter was installed if the Unix Command Tools package was enabled
$ /usr/local/bin/python3.14t -VV
Python 3.14.0b2 free-threading build (v3.14.0b2:3a83b172af, Jun  5 2024, 12:57:31) [Clang 15.0.0 (clang-1500.3.9.4)]
$ #    and the traditional interpreter
$ /usr/local/bin/python3.14 -VV
Python 3.14.0b2 (v3.14.0b2:3a83b172af, Jun  5 2024, 12:50:24) [Clang 15.0.0 (clang-1500.3.9.4)]
$ # test that they are also available without the prefix if /usr/local/bin is on $PATH
$ python3.14t -VV
Python 3.14.0b2 free-threading build (v3.14.0b2:3a83b172af, Jun  5 2024, 12:57:31) [Clang 15.0.0 (clang-1500.3.9.4)]
$ python3.14 -VV
Python 3.14.0b2 (v3.14.0b2:3a83b172af, Jun  5 2024, 12:50:24) [Clang 15.0.0 (clang-1500.3.9.4)]

Note

Current python.org installers only install to fixed locations like /Library/Frameworks/, /Applications, and /usr/local/bin. You cannot use the installer -domain option to install to other locations.

5.5.3. Distributing Python Applications

A range of tools exist for converting your Python code into a standalone distributable application:

py2app [https://pypi.org/project/py2app/]: Supports creating macOS .app bundles from a Python project.

Briefcase [https://briefcase.readthedocs.io]: Part of the BeeWare Project [https://beeware.org]; a cross-platform packaging tool that supports creation of .app bundles on macOS, as well as managing signing and notarization.

PyInstaller [https://pyinstaller.org/]: A cross-platform packaging tool that creates a single file or folder as a distributable artifact.

5.5.4. App Store Compliance

Apps submitted for distribution through the macOS App Store must pass Apple's app review process. This process includes a set of automated validation rules that inspect the submitted application bundle for problematic code.

The Python standard library contains some code that is known to violate these automated rules. While these violations appear to be false positives, Apple's review rules cannot be challenged. Therefore, it is necessary to modify the Python standard library for an app to pass App Store review.

The Python source tree contains a patch file [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Mac/Resources/app-store-compliance.patch] that will remove all code that is known to cause issues with the App Store review process. This patch is applied automatically when CPython is configured with the --with-app-store-compliance option.

This patch is not normally required to use CPython on a Mac; nor is it required if you are distributing an app outside the macOS App Store. It is only required if you are using the macOS App Store as a distribution channel.

5.6. Autres ressources

The python.org Help page [https://www.python.org/about/help/] has links to many useful resources. The Pythonmac-SIG mailing list [https://www.python.org/community/sigs/current/pythonmac-sig/] is another support resource specifically for Python users and developers on the Mac.

6. Using Python on Android

Python on Android is unlike Python on desktop platforms. On a desktop platform, Python is generally installed as a system resource that can be used by any user of that computer. Users then interact with Python by running a python executable and entering commands at an interactive prompt, or by running a Python script.

On Android, there is no concept of installing as a system resource. The only unit of software distribution is an "app". There is also no console where you could run a python executable, or interact with a Python REPL.

As a result, the only way you can use Python on Android is in embedded mode – that is, by writing a native Android application, embedding a Python interpreter using libpython, and invoking Python code using the Python embedding API. The full Python interpreter, the standard library, and all your Python code is then packaged into your app for its own private use.

The Python standard library has some notable omissions and restrictions on Android. See the API availability guide for details.

6.1. Adding Python to an Android app

Most app developers should use one of the following tools, which will provide a much easier experience:

Briefcase [https://briefcase.readthedocs.io], from the BeeWare project

Buildozer [https://buildozer.readthedocs.io], from the Kivy project

Chaquopy [https://chaquo.com/chaquopy]

pyqtdeploy [https://www.riverbankcomputing.com/static/Docs/pyqtdeploy/]

Termux [https://termux.dev/en/]

If you're sure you want to do all of this manually, read on. You can use the testbed app [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Android/testbed] as a guide; each step below contains a link to the relevant file.

First, acquire a build of Python for Android:

The easiest way is to download an Android release from python.org [https://www.python.org/downloads/android/]. The prefix directory mentioned below is at the top level of the package.

Or if you want to build it yourself, follow the instructions in Android/README.md [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Android/README.md]. The prefix directory will be created under cross-build/HOST.

Add code to your build.gradle [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Android/testbed/app/build.gradle.kts] file to copy the following items into your project. All except your own Python code can be copied from prefix/lib:

In your JNI libraries:

libpython*.*.so

lib*_python.so (external libraries such as OpenSSL)

In your assets:

python*.* (the Python standard library)

python*.*/site-packages (your own Python code)

Add code to your app to extract the assets to the filesystem [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Android/testbed/app/src/main/java/org/python/testbed/MainActivity.kt].

Add code to your app to start Python in embedded mode [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Android/testbed/app/src/main/c/main_activity.c]. This will need to be C code called via JNI.

6.2. Building a Python package for Android

Python packages can be built for Android as wheels and released on PyPI. The recommended tool for doing this is cibuildwheel [https://cibuildwheel.pypa.io/en/stable/platforms/#android], which automates all the details of setting up a cross-compilation environment, building the wheel, and testing it on an emulator.

7. Using Python on iOS

Authors:

Russell Keith-Magee (2024-03)

Python on iOS is unlike Python on desktop platforms. On a desktop platform, Python is generally installed as a system resource that can be used by any user of that computer. Users then interact with Python by running a python executable and entering commands at an interactive prompt, or by running a Python script.

On iOS, there is no concept of installing as a system resource. The only unit of software distribution is an "app". There is also no console where you could run a python executable, or interact with a Python REPL.

As a result, the only way you can use Python on iOS is in embedded mode - that is, by writing a native iOS application, and embedding a Python interpreter using libPython, and invoking Python code using the Python embedding API. The full Python interpreter, the standard library, and all your Python code is then packaged as a standalone bundle that can be distributed via the iOS App Store.

If you're looking to experiment for the first time with writing an iOS app in Python, projects such as BeeWare [https://beeware.org] and Kivy [https://kivy.org] will provide a much more approachable user experience. These projects manage the complexities associated with getting an iOS project running, so you only need to deal with the Python code itself.

7.1. Python at runtime on iOS

7.1.1. iOS version compatibility

The minimum supported iOS version is specified at compile time, using the --host option to configure. By default, when compiled for iOS, Python will be compiled with a minimum supported iOS version of 13.0. To use a different minimum iOS version, provide the version number as part of the --host argument - for example, --host=arm64-apple-ios15.4-simulator would compile an ARM64 simulator build with a deployment target of 15.4.

7.1.2. Platform identification

When executing on iOS, sys.platform will report as ios. This value will be returned on an iPhone or iPad, regardless of whether the app is running on the simulator or a physical device.

Information about the specific runtime environment, including the iOS version, device model, and whether the device is a simulator, can be obtained using platform.ios_ver(). platform.system() will report iOS or iPadOS, depending on the device.

os.uname() reports kernel-level details; it will report a name of Darwin.

7.1.3. Standard library availability

The Python standard library has some notable omissions and restrictions on iOS. See the API availability guide for iOS for details.

7.1.4. Binary extension modules

One notable difference about iOS as a platform is that App Store distribution imposes hard requirements on the packaging of an application. One of these requirements governs how binary extension modules are distributed.

The iOS App Store requires that all binary modules in an iOS app must be dynamic libraries, contained in a framework with appropriate metadata, stored in the Frameworks folder of the packaged app. There can be only a single binary per framework, and there can be no executable binary material outside the Frameworks folder.

This conflicts with the usual Python approach for distributing binaries, which allows a binary extension module to be loaded from any location on sys.path. To ensure compliance with App Store policies, an iOS project must post-process any Python packages, converting .so binary modules into individual standalone frameworks with appropriate metadata and signing. For details on how to perform this post-processing, see the guide for adding Python to your project.

To help Python discover binaries in their new location, the original .so file on sys.path is replaced with a .fwork file. This file is a text file containing the location of the framework binary, relative to the app bundle. To allow the framework to resolve back to the original location, the framework must contain a .origin file that contains the location of the .fwork file, relative to the app bundle.

For example, consider the case of an import from foo.bar import _whiz, where _whiz is implemented with the binary module sources/foo/bar/_whiz.abi3.so, with sources being the location registered on sys.path, relative to the application bundle. This module must be distributed as Frameworks/foo.bar._whiz.framework/foo.bar._whiz (creating the framework name from the full import path of the module), with an Info.plist file in the .framework directory identifying the binary as a framework. The foo.bar._whiz module would be represented in the original location with a sources/foo/bar/_whiz.abi3.fwork marker file, containing the path Frameworks/foo.bar._whiz/foo.bar._whiz. The framework would also contain Frameworks/foo.bar._whiz.framework/foo.bar._whiz.origin, containing the path to the .fwork file.

When running on iOS, the Python interpreter will install an AppleFrameworkLoader that is able to read and import .fwork files. Once imported, the __file__ attribute of the binary module will report as the location of the .fwork file. However, the ModuleSpec for the loaded module will report the origin as the location of the binary in the framework folder.

7.1.5. Compiler stub binaries

Xcode doesn't expose explicit compilers for iOS; instead, it uses an xcrun script that resolves to a full compiler path (e.g., xcrun --sdk iphoneos clang to get the clang for an iPhone device). However, using this script poses two problems:

The output of xcrun includes paths that are machine specific, resulting in a sysconfig module that cannot be shared between users; and

It results in CC/CPP/LD/AR definitions that include spaces. There is a lot of C ecosystem tooling that assumes that you can split a command line at the first space to get the path to the compiler executable; this isn't the case when using xcrun.

To avoid these problems, Python provided stubs for these tools. These stubs are shell script wrappers around the underingly xcrun tools, distributed in a bin folder distributed alongside the compiled iOS framework. These scripts are relocatable, and will always resolve to the appropriate local system paths. By including these scripts in the bin folder that accompanies a framework, the contents of the sysconfig module becomes useful for end-users to compile their own modules. When compiling third-party Python modules for iOS, you should ensure these stub binaries are on your path.

7.2. Installing Python on iOS

7.2.1. Tools for building iOS apps

Building for iOS requires the use of Apple's Xcode tooling. It is strongly recommended that you use the most recent stable release of Xcode. This will require the use of the most (or second-most) recently released macOS version, as Apple does not maintain Xcode for older macOS versions. The Xcode Command Line Tools are not sufficient for iOS development; you need a full Xcode install.

If you want to run your code on the iOS simulator, you'll also need to install an iOS Simulator Platform. You should be prompted to select an iOS Simulator Platform when you first run Xcode. Alternatively, you can add an iOS Simulator Platform by selecting from the Platforms tab of the Xcode Settings panel.

7.2.2. Adding Python to an iOS project

Python can be added to any iOS project, using either Swift or Objective C. The following examples will use Objective C; if you are using Swift, you may find a library like PythonKit [https://github.com/pvieito/PythonKit] to be helpful.

To add Python to an iOS Xcode project:

Build or obtain a Python XCFramework. See the instructions in Apple/iOS/README.md [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Apple/iOS/README.md] (in the CPython source distribution) for details on how to build a Python XCFramework. At a minimum, you will need a build that supports arm64-apple-ios, plus one of either arm64-apple-ios-simulator or x86_64-apple-ios-simulator.

Drag the XCframework into your iOS project. In the following instructions, we'll assume you've dropped the XCframework into the root of your project; however, you can use any other location that you want by adjusting paths as needed.

Add your application code as a folder in your Xcode project. In the following instructions, we'll assume that your user code is in a folder named app in the root of your project; you can use any other location by adjusting paths as needed. Ensure that this folder is associated with your app target.

Select the app target by selecting the root node of your Xcode project, then the target name in the sidebar that appears.

In the "General" settings, under "Frameworks, Libraries and Embedded Content", add Python.xcframework, with "Embed & Sign" selected.

In the "Build Settings" tab, modify the following:

Build Options

User Script Sandboxing: No

Enable Testability: Yes

Search Paths

Framework Search Paths: $(PROJECT_DIR)

Header Search Paths: "$(BUILT_PRODUCTS_DIR)/Python.framework/Headers"

Apple Clang - Warnings - All languages

Quoted Include In Framework Header: No

Add a build step that processes the Python standard library, and your own Python binary dependencies. In the "Build Phases" tab, add a new "Run Script" build step before the "Embed Frameworks" step, but after the "Copy Bundle Resources" step. Name the step "Process Python libraries", disable the "Based on dependency analysis" checkbox, and set the script content to:

set -e
source $PROJECT_DIR/Python.xcframework/build/build_utils.sh
install_python Python.xcframework app

If you have placed your XCframework somewhere other than the root of your project, modify the path to the first argument.

Add Objective C code to initialize and use a Python interpreter in embedded mode. You should ensure that:

UTF-8 mode (PyPreConfig.utf8_mode) is enabled;

Buffered stdio (PyConfig.buffered_stdio) is disabled;

Writing bytecode (PyConfig.write_bytecode) is disabled;

Signal handlers (PyConfig.install_signal_handlers) are enabled;

System logging (PyConfig.use_system_logger) is enabled (optional, but strongly recommended; this is enabled by default);

PYTHONHOME for the interpreter is configured to point at the python subfolder of your app's bundle; and

The PYTHONPATH for the interpreter includes:

the python/lib/python3.X subfolder of your app's bundle,

the python/lib/python3.X/lib-dynload subfolder of your app's bundle, and

the app subfolder of your app's bundle

Your app's bundle location can be determined using [[NSBundle mainBundle] resourcePath].

Steps 7 and 8 of these instructions assume that you have a single folder of pure Python application code, named app. If you have third-party binary modules in your app, some additional steps will be required:

You need to ensure that any folders containing third-party binaries are either associated with the app target, or are explicitly copied as part of step 7. Step 7 should also purge any binaries that are not appropriate for the platform a specific build is targeting (i.e., delete any device binaries if you're building an app targeting the simulator).

If you're using a separate folder for third-party packages, ensure that folder is added to the end of the call to install_python in step 7, and as part of the PYTHONPATH configuration in step 8.

If any of the folders that contain third-party packages will contain .pth files, you should add that folder as a site directory (using site.addsitedir()), rather than adding to PYTHONPATH or sys.path directly.

7.2.3. Testing a Python package

The CPython source tree contains a testbed project [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Apple/iOS/testbed] that is used to run the CPython test suite on the iOS simulator. This testbed can also be used as a testbed project for running your Python library's test suite on iOS.

After building or obtaining an iOS XCFramework (see Apple/iOS/README.md [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Apple/iOS/README.md] for details), create a clone of the Python iOS testbed project. If you used the Apple build script to build the XCframework, you can run:

$ python cross-build/iOS/testbed clone --app <path/to/module1> --app <path/to/module2> app-testbed

Or, if you've sourced your own XCframework, by running:

$ python Apple/testbed clone --platform iOS --framework <path/to/Python.xcframework> --app <path/to/module1> --app <path/to/module2> app-testbed

Any folders specified with the --app flag will be copied into the cloned testbed project. The resulting testbed will be created in the app-testbed folder. In this example, the module1 and module2 would be importable modules at runtime. If your project has additional dependencies, they can be installed into the app-testbed/Testbed/app_packages folder (using pip install --target app-testbed/Testbed/app_packages or similar).

You can then use the app-testbed folder to run the test suite for your app, For example, if module1.tests was the entry point to your test suite, you could run:

$ python app-testbed run -- module1.tests

This is the equivalent of running python -m module1.tests on a desktop Python build. Any arguments after the -- will be passed to the testbed as if they were arguments to python -m on a desktop machine.

You can also open the testbed project in Xcode by running:

$ open app-testbed/iOSTestbed.xcodeproj

This will allow you to use the full Xcode suite of tools for debugging.

The arguments used to run the test suite are defined as part of the test plan. To modify the test plan, select the test plan node of the project tree (it should be the first child of the root node), and select the "Configurations" tab. Modify the "Arguments Passed On Launch" value to change the testing arguments.

The test plan also disables parallel testing, and specifies the use of the Testbed.lldbinit file for providing configuration of the debugger. The default debugger configuration disables automatic breakpoints on the SIGINT, SIGUSR1, SIGUSR2, and SIGXFSZ signals.

7.3. App Store Compliance

The only mechanism for distributing apps to third-party iOS devices is to submit the app to the iOS App Store; apps submitted for distribution must pass Apple's app review process. This process includes a set of automated validation rules that inspect the submitted application bundle for problematic code. There are some steps that must be taken to ensure that your app will be able to pass these validation steps.

7.3.1. Incompatible code in the standard library

The Python standard library contains some code that is known to violate these automated rules. While these violations appear to be false positives, Apple's review rules cannot be challenged; so, it is necessary to modify the Python standard library for an app to pass App Store review.

The Python source tree contains a patch file [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Mac/Resources/app-store-compliance.patch] that will remove all code that is known to cause issues with the App Store review process. This patch is applied automatically when building for iOS.

7.3.2. Privacy manifests

In April 2025, Apple introduced a requirement for certain third-party libraries to provide a Privacy Manifest [https://developer.apple.com/support/third-party-SDK-requirements]. As a result, if you have a binary module that uses one of the affected libraries, you must provide an .xcprivacy file for that library. OpenSSL is one library affected by this requirement, but there are others.

If you produce a binary module named mymodule.so, and use you the Xcode build script described in step 7 above, you can place a mymodule.xcprivacy file next to mymodule.so, and the privacy manifest will be installed into the required location when the binary module is converted into a framework.

8. Éditeurs et IDEs

Il y a un grand nombre d'environnement de développement qui gèrent le langage de programmation Python. Beaucoup d'éditeurs et d'EDIs proposent une mise en surbrillance de la syntaxe, des outils de débogage et une vérification PEP-8.

8.1. IDLE --- Python editor and shell

IDLE is Python’s Integrated Development and Learning Environment and is generally bundled with Python installs. If you are on Linux and do not have IDLE installed see Installing IDLE on Linux. For more information see the IDLE docs.

8.2. Autres éditeurs et IDEs

Le wiki communautaire Python contient des informations en anglais sur les éditeurs et les IDEs. Vous pouvez consulter les pages Python Editors [https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonEditors] et Integrated Development Environments [https://wiki.python.org/moin/IntegratedDevelopmentEnvironments] pour une liste exhaustive.

La référence du langage Python

Cette documentation décrit la syntaxe et la « sémantique interne » du langage. Elle peut être laconique, mais essaye d'être exhaustive et exacte. La sémantique des objets natifs secondaires, des fonctions, et des modules est documentée dans La bibliothèque standard. Pour une présentation informelle du langage, voyez plutôt Le tutoriel Python. Pour les développeurs C ou C++, deux manuels supplémentaires existent : Extension et intégration de l'interpréteur Python survole l'écriture d'extensions, et Python/C API reference manual décrit l'interface C/C++ en détail.

1. Introduction

1.1. Autres implémentations

1.2. Notations

2. Analyse lexicale

2.1. Structure des lignes

2.2. Autres lexèmes

2.3. Names (identifiers and keywords)

2.4. Littéraux

2.5. Littéraux de chaînes de caractères et de suites d'octets

2.6. Littéraux numériques

2.7. Operators and delimiters

3. Modèle de données

3.1. Objets, valeurs et types

3.2. Hiérarchie des types standards

3.3. Méthodes spéciales

3.4. Coroutines

4. Modèle d'exécution

4.1. Structure d'un programme

4.2. Noms et liaisons

4.3. Exceptions

4.4. Runtime Components

5. Le système d'importation

5.1. importlib

5.2. Les paquets

5.3. Recherche

5.4. Chargement

5.5. Le chercheur dans path

5.6. Remplacement du système d'importation standard

5.7. Importations relatives au paquet

5.8. Cas particulier de __main__

5.9. Références

6. Expressions

6.1. Conversions arithmétiques

6.2. Atomes

6.3. Primaires

6.4. Expression await

6.5. L'opérateur puissance

6.6. Arithmétique unaire et opérations sur les bits

6.7. Opérations arithmétiques binaires

6.8. Opérations de décalage

6.9. Opérations binaires bit à bit

6.10. Comparaisons

6.11. Opérations booléennes

6.12. Expressions d'affectation

6.13. Expressions conditionnelles

6.14. Expressions lambda

6.15. Listes d'expressions

6.16. Ordre d'évaluation

6.17. Priorités des opérateurs

7. Les instructions simples

7.1. Les expressions

7.2. Les assignations

7.3. L'instruction assert

7.4. L'instruction pass

7.5. L'instruction del

7.6. L'instruction return

7.7. L'instruction yield

7.8. L'instruction raise

7.9. L'instruction break

7.10. L'instruction continue

7.11. L'instruction import

7.12. L'instruction global

7.13. L'instruction nonlocal

7.14. The type statement

8. Instructions composées

8.1. L'instruction if

8.2. L'instruction while

8.3. L'instruction for

8.4. L'instruction try

8.5. L'instruction with

8.6. L'instruction match

8.7. Définition de fonctions

8.8. Définition de classes

8.9. Coroutines

8.10. Type parameter lists

8.11. Annotations

9. Composants de plus haut niveau

9.1. Programmes Python complets

9.2. Fichier d'entrée

9.3. Entrée interactive

9.4. Entrée d'expression

10. Spécification complète de la grammaire

1. Introduction

Ce manuel de référence décrit le langage de programmation Python. Il n'a pas vocation à être un tutoriel.

Nous essayons d'être le plus précis possible et nous utilisons le français (NdT : ou l’anglais pour les parties qui ne sont pas encore traduites) plutôt que des spécifications formelles, sauf pour la syntaxe et l’analyse lexicale. Nous espérons ainsi rendre ce document plus compréhensible pour un grand nombre de lecteurs, même si cela laisse un peu de place à l’ambiguïté. En conséquence, si vous arrivez de Mars et que vous essayez de ré-implémenter Python à partir de cet unique document, vous devrez faire des hypothèses et, finalement, vous aurez certainement implémenté un langage sensiblement différent. D’un autre côté, si vous utilisez Python et que vous vous demandez quelles règles s’appliquent pour telle partie du langage, vous devriez trouver une réponse satisfaisante ici. Si vous souhaitez voir une définition plus formelle du langage, nous acceptons toutes les bonnes volontés (ou bien inventez une machine pour nous cloner ☺).

S’agissant du manuel de référence d’un langage, il est dangereux de rentrer profondément dans les détails d’implémentation ; l’implémentation peut changer et d’autres implémentations du même langage peuvent fonctionner différemment. En même temps, CPython est l’implémentation de Python la plus répandue (bien que d’autres implémentations gagnent en popularité) et certaines de ses bizarreries méritent parfois d’être mentionnées, en particulier lorsque l’implémentation impose des limitations supplémentaires. Par conséquent, vous trouvez de courtes "notes d’implémentation" saupoudrées dans le texte.

Chaque implémentation de Python est livrée avec un certain nombre de modules natifs. Ceux-ci sont documentés dans La bibliothèque standard. Quelques modules natifs sont mentionnés quand ils interagissent significativement avec la définition du langage.

1.1. Autres implémentations

Bien qu’il existe une implémentation Python qui soit de loin la plus populaire, il existe d’autres implémentations qui présentent un intérêt particulier pour différents publics.

Parmi les implémentations les plus connues, nous pouvons citer :

CPython

C’est l’implémentation originelle et la plus entretenue de Python, écrite en C. Elle implémente généralement en premier les nouvelles fonctionnalités du langage.

Jython

Python implémenté en Java. Cette implémentation peut être utilisée comme langage de script pour les applications Java ou pour créer des applications utilisant des bibliothèques Java. Elle est également souvent utilisée pour créer des tests de bibliothèques Java. Plus d’informations peuvent être trouvées sur the Jython website [https://www.jython.org/] (site en anglais).

Python pour .NET

Cette implémentation utilise en fait l’implémentation CPython, mais c’est une application .NET et permet un accès aux bibliothèques .NET. Elle a été créée par Brian Lloyd. Pour plus d’informations, consultez la page d’accueil Python pour .NET [https://pythonnet.github.io/] (site en anglais).

IronPython

Un autre Python pour .NET. Contrairement à Python.NET, il s’agit d’une implémentation Python complète qui génère du code intermédiaire (IL) .NET et compile le code Python directement en assemblages .NET. Il a été créé par Jim Hugunin, le programmeur à l’origine de Jython. Pour plus d’informations, voir the IronPython website [https://ironpython.net/] (site en anglais).

PyPy

An implementation of Python written completely in Python. It supports several advanced features not found in other implementations like stackless support and a Just in Time compiler. One of the goals of the project is to encourage experimentation with the language itself by making it easier to modify the interpreter (since it is written in Python). Additional information is available on the PyPy project's home page [https://pypy.org/].

Chacune de ces implémentations diffère d'une manière ou d'une autre par rapport au langage décrit dans ce manuel, ou comporte des spécificités que la documentation standard de Python ne couvre pas. Reportez-vous à la documentation spécifique à l'implémentation pour déterminer ce que vous devez savoir sur l'implémentation que vous utilisez.

1.2. Notations

The descriptions of lexical analysis and syntax use a grammar notation that is a mixture of EBNF [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_Backus%E2%80%93Naur_form] and PEG [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parsing_expression_grammar]. For example:

name:   letter (letter | digit | "_")*
letter: "a"..."z" | "A"..."Z"
digit:  "0"..."9"

In this example, the first line says that a name is a letter followed by a sequence of zero or more letters, digits, and underscores. A letter in turn is any of the single characters 'a' through 'z' and A through Z; a digit is a single character from 0 to 9.

Each rule begins with a name (which identifies the rule that's being defined) followed by a colon, :. The definition to the right of the colon uses the following syntax elements:

name: A name refers to another rule. Where possible, it is a link to the rule's definition.

TOKEN: An uppercase name refers to a token. For the purposes of grammar definitions, tokens are the same as rules.

"text", 'text': Text in single or double quotes must match literally (without the quotes). The type of quote is chosen according to the meaning of text:

'if': A name in single quotes denotes a keyword.

"case": A name in double quotes denotes a soft-keyword.

'@': A non-letter symbol in single quotes denotes an OP token, that is, a delimiter or operator.

e1 e2: Items separated only by whitespace denote a sequence. Here, e1 must be followed by e2.

e1 | e2: A vertical bar is used to separate alternatives. It denotes PEG's "ordered choice": if e1 matches, e2 is not considered. In traditional PEG grammars, this is written as a slash, /, rather than a vertical bar. See PEP 617 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/] for more background and details.

e*: A star means zero or more repetitions of the preceding item.

e+: Likewise, a plus means one or more repetitions.

[e]: A phrase enclosed in square brackets means zero or one occurrences. In other words, the enclosed phrase is optional.

e?: A question mark has exactly the same meaning as square brackets: the preceding item is optional.

(e): Parentheses are used for grouping.

The following notation is only used in lexical definitions.

"a"..."z": Two literal characters separated by three dots mean a choice of any single character in the given (inclusive) range of ASCII characters.

<...>: A phrase between angular brackets gives an informal description of the matched symbol (for example, <any ASCII character except "\">), or an abbreviation that is defined in nearby text (for example, <Lu>).

Some definitions also use lookaheads, which indicate that an element must (or must not) match at a given position, but without consuming any input:

&e: a positive lookahead (that is, e is required to match)

!e: a negative lookahead (that is, e is required not to match)

The unary operators (*, +, ?) bind as tightly as possible; the vertical bar (|) binds most loosely.

White space is only meaningful to separate tokens.

Rules are normally contained on a single line, but rules that are too long may be wrapped:

literal: stringliteral | bytesliteral
         | integer | floatnumber | imagnumber

Alternatively, rules may be formatted with the first line ending at the colon, and each alternative beginning with a vertical bar on a new line. For example:

literal:
   | stringliteral
   | bytesliteral
   | integer
   | floatnumber
   | imagnumber

This does not mean that there is an empty first alternative.

1.2.1. Lexical and Syntactic definitions

There is some difference between lexical and syntactic analysis: the lexical analyzer operates on the individual characters of the input source, while the parser (syntactic analyzer) operates on the stream of tokens generated by the lexical analysis. However, in some cases the exact boundary between the two phases is a CPython implementation detail.

The practical difference between the two is that in lexical definitions, all whitespace is significant. The lexical analyzer discards all whitespace that is not converted to tokens like token.INDENT or NEWLINE. Syntactic definitions then use these tokens, rather than source characters.

This documentation uses the same BNF grammar for both styles of definitions. All uses of BNF in the next chapter (Analyse lexicale) are lexical definitions; uses in subsequent chapters are syntactic definitions.

2. Analyse lexicale

A Python program is read by a parser. Input to the parser is a stream of tokens, generated by the lexical analyzer (also known as the tokenizer). This chapter describes how the lexical analyzer produces these tokens.

The lexical analyzer determines the program text's encoding (UTF-8 by default), and decodes the text into source characters. If the text cannot be decoded, a SyntaxError is raised.

Next, the lexical analyzer uses the source characters to generate a stream of tokens. The type of a generated token generally depends on the next source character to be processed. Similarly, other special behavior of the analyzer depends on the first source character that hasn't yet been processed. The following table gives a quick summary of these source characters, with links to sections that contain more information.

Caractère

Next token (or other relevant documentation)

espace

tabulation

formfeed

Whitespace

CR, LF

New line

Indentation

backslash (\)

Explicit line joining

(Also significant in string escape sequences)

hash (#)

Comment

quote (', ")

String literal

ASCII letter (a-z, A-Z)

non-ASCII character

Name

Prefixed string or bytes literal

underscore (_)

Name

(Can also be part of numeric literals)

number (0-9)

Numeric literal

dot (.)

Numeric literal

Operator

question mark (?)

dollar ($)

backquote (​`​)

control character

Error (outside string literals and comments)

other printing character

Operator or delimiter

end of file

End marker

2.1. Structure des lignes

Un programme en Python est divisé en lignes logiques.

2.1.1. Lignes logiques

The end of a logical line is represented by the token NEWLINE. Statements cannot cross logical line boundaries except where NEWLINE is allowed by the syntax (e.g., between statements in compound statements). A logical line is constructed from one or more physical lines by following the explicit or implicit line joining rules.

2.1.2. Lignes physiques

A physical line is a sequence of characters terminated by one the following end-of-line sequences:

the Unix form using ASCII LF (linefeed),

the Windows form using the ASCII sequence CR LF (return followed by linefeed),

the 'Classic Mac OS [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classic_Mac_OS]' form using the ASCII CR (return) character.

Regardless of platform, each of these sequences is replaced by a single ASCII LF (linefeed) character. (This is done even inside string literals.) Each line can use any of the sequences; they do not need to be consistent within a file.

The end of input also serves as an implicit terminator for the final physical line.

Formally:

newline: <ASCII LF> | <ASCII CR> <ASCII LF> | <ASCII CR>

2.1.3. Commentaires

Un commentaire commence par le caractère croisillon (#, hash en anglais et qui ressemble au symbole musical dièse, c'est pourquoi il est souvent improprement appelé caractère dièse) situé en dehors d'une chaine de caractères littérale et se termine à la fin de la ligne physique. Un commentaire signifie la fin de la ligne logique à moins qu'une règle de continuation de ligne implicite ne s'applique. Les commentaires sont ignorés au niveau syntaxique, ce ne sont pas des lexèmes.

2.1.4. Déclaration d'encodage

Si un commentaire placé sur la première ou deuxième ligne du script Python correspond à l'expression rationnelle coding[=:]\s*([-\w.]+), ce commentaire est analysé comme une déclaration d'encodage ; le premier groupe de cette expression désigne l'encodage du fichier source. Cette déclaration d'encodage doit être seule sur sa ligne et, si elle est sur la deuxième ligne, la première ligne doit aussi être une ligne composée uniquement d'un commentaire. Les formes recommandées pour l'expression de l'encodage sont :

# -*- coding: <encoding-name> -*-

qui est reconnue aussi par GNU Emacs et :

# vim:fileencoding=<encoding-name>

qui est reconnue par VIM de Bram Moolenaar.

If no encoding declaration is found, the default encoding is UTF-8. If the implicit or explicit encoding of a file is UTF-8, an initial UTF-8 byte-order mark (b'\xef\xbb\xbf') is ignored rather than being a syntax error.

Si un encodage est déclaré, le nom de l'encodage doit être reconnu par Python (voir Standard Encodings). L'encodage est utilisé pour toute l'analyse lexicale, y compris les chaînes de caractères, les commentaires et les identifiants.

All lexical analysis, including string literals, comments and identifiers, works on Unicode text decoded using the source encoding. Any Unicode code point, except the NUL control character, can appear in Python source.

source_character:  <any Unicode code point, except NUL>

2.1.5. Continuation de ligne explicite

Deux lignes physiques, ou plus, peuvent être jointes pour former une seule ligne logique en utilisant la barre oblique inversée (\) selon la règle suivante : quand la ligne physique se termine par une barre oblique inversée qui ne fait pas partie d'une chaine de caractères ou d'un commentaire, la ligne immédiatement suivante lui est adjointe pour former une seule ligne logique, en supprimant la barre oblique inversée et le caractère de fin de ligne. Par exemple :

if 1900 < year < 2100 and 1 <= month <= 12 \
   and 1 <= day <= 31 and 0 <= hour < 24 \
   and 0 <= minute < 60 and 0 <= second < 60:   # Looks like a valid date
        return 1

Une ligne que se termine par une barre oblique inversée ne peut pas avoir de commentaire. La barre oblique inversée ne permet pas de continuer un commentaire. La barre oblique inversée ne permet pas de continuer un lexème, sauf s'il s'agit d'une chaîne de caractères (par exemple, les lexèmes autres que les chaînes de caractères ne peuvent pas être répartis sur plusieurs lignes en utilisant une barre oblique inversée). La barre oblique inversée n'est pas autorisée ailleurs sur la ligne, en dehors d'une chaîne de caractères.

2.1.6. Continuation de ligne implicite

Les expressions entre parenthèses, crochets ou accolades peuvent être réparties sur plusieurs lignes sans utiliser de barre oblique inversée. Par exemple :

month_names = ['Januari', 'Februari', 'Maart',      # These are the
               'April',   'Mei',      'Juni',       # Dutch names
               'Juli',    'Augustus', 'September',  # for the months
               'Oktober', 'November', 'December']   # of the year

Les lignes continuées implicitement peuvent avoir des commentaires. L'indentation des lignes de continuation n'est pas importante. Une ligne blanche est autorisée comme ligne de continuation. Il ne doit pas y avoir de lexème NEWLINE entre des lignes implicitement continuées. Les lignes continuées implicitement peuvent être utilisées dans des chaînes entre triples guillemets (voir ci-dessous) ; dans ce cas, elles ne peuvent pas avoir de commentaires.

2.1.7. Lignes vierges

A logical line that contains only spaces, tabs, formfeeds and possibly a comment, is ignored (i.e., no NEWLINE token is generated). During interactive input of statements, handling of a blank line may differ depending on the implementation of the read-eval-print loop. In the standard interactive interpreter, an entirely blank logical line (that is, one containing not even whitespace or a comment) terminates a multi-line statement.

2.1.8. Indentation

Des espaces ou tabulations au début d’une ligne logique sont utilisées pour connaître le niveau d’indentation de la ligne, qui est ensuite utilisé pour déterminer comment les instructions sont groupées.

Les tabulations sont remplacées (de la gauche vers la droite) par une à huit espaces de manière à ce que le nombre de caractères remplacés soit un multiple de huit (nous avons ainsi la même règle que celle d'Unix). Le nombre total d'espaces précédant le premier caractère non blanc détermine alors le niveau d'indentation de la ligne. L'indentation ne peut pas être répartie sur plusieurs lignes physiques à l'aide de barres obliques inversées ; les espaces jusqu'à la première barre oblique inversée déterminent l'indentation.

L'indentation est déclarée inconsistante et rejetée si, dans un même fichier source, le mélange des tabulations et des espaces est tel que la signification dépend du nombre d'espaces que représente une tabulation. Une exception TabError est levée dans ce cas.

Note de compatibilité entre les plateformes : en raison de la nature des éditeurs de texte sur les plateformes non Unix, il n'est pas judicieux d'utiliser un mélange d'espaces et de tabulations pour l'indentation dans un seul fichier source. Il convient également de noter que des plateformes peuvent explicitement limiter le niveau d'indentation maximal.

Un caractère de saut de page peut être présent au début de la ligne ; il est ignoré pour les calculs d'indentation ci-dessus. Les caractères de saut de page se trouvant ailleurs avec les espaces en tête de ligne ont un effet indéfini (par exemple, ils peuvent remettre à zéro le nombre d'espaces).

The indentation levels of consecutive lines are used to generate INDENT and DEDENT tokens, using a stack, as follows.

Before the first line of the file is read, a single zero is pushed on the stack; this will never be popped off again. The numbers pushed on the stack will always be strictly increasing from bottom to top. At the beginning of each logical line, the line's indentation level is compared to the top of the stack. If it is equal, nothing happens. If it is larger, it is pushed on the stack, and one INDENT token is generated. If it is smaller, it must be one of the numbers occurring on the stack; all numbers on the stack that are larger are popped off, and for each number popped off a DEDENT token is generated. At the end of the file, a DEDENT token is generated for each number remaining on the stack that is larger than zero.

Voici un exemple de code Python correctement indenté (bien que très confus) :

def perm(l):
        # Compute the list of all permutations of l
    if len(l) <= 1:
                  return [l]
    r = []
    for i in range(len(l)):
             s = l[:i] + l[i+1:]
             p = perm(s)
             for x in p:
              r.append(l[i:i+1] + x)
    return r

L'exemple suivant montre plusieurs erreurs d'indentation :

 def perm(l):                       # error: first line indented
for i in range(len(l)):             # error: not indented
    s = l[:i] + l[i+1:]
        p = perm(l[:i] + l[i+1:])   # error: unexpected indent
        for x in p:
                r.append(l[i:i+1] + x)
            return r                # error: inconsistent dedent

En fait, les trois premières erreurs sont détectées par l'analyseur syntaxique ; seule la dernière erreur est trouvée par l'analyseur lexical (l'indentation de return r ne correspond à aucun niveau dans la pile).

2.1.9. Espaces entre lexèmes

Except at the beginning of a logical line or in string literals, the whitespace characters space, tab and formfeed can be used interchangeably to separate tokens:

whitespace:  ' ' | tab | formfeed

Whitespace is needed between two tokens only if their concatenation could otherwise be interpreted as a different token. For example, ab is one token, but a b is two tokens. However, +a and + a both produce two tokens, + and a, as +a is not a valid token.

2.1.10. End marker

At the end of non-interactive input, the lexical analyzer generates an ENDMARKER token.

2.2. Autres lexèmes

Besides NEWLINE, INDENT and DEDENT, the following categories of tokens exist: identifiers and keywords (NAME), literals (such as NUMBER and STRING), and other symbols (operators and delimiters, OP). Whitespace characters (other than logical line terminators, discussed earlier) are not tokens, but serve to delimit tokens. Where ambiguity exists, a token comprises the longest possible string that forms a legal token, when read from left to right.

2.3. Names (identifiers and keywords)

NAME tokens represent identifiers, keywords, and soft keywords.

Names are composed of the following characters:

uppercase and lowercase letters (A-Z and a-z),

the underscore (_),

digits (0 through 9), which cannot appear as the first character, and

non-ASCII characters. Valid names may only contain "letter-like" and "digit-like" characters; see Non-ASCII characters in names for details.

Names must contain at least one character, but have no upper length limit. Case is significant.

Formally, names are described by the following lexical definitions:

NAME:          name_start name_continue*
name_start:    "a"..."z" | "A"..."Z" | "_" | <non-ASCII character>
name_continue: name_start | "0"..."9"
identifier:    <NAME, except keywords>

Note that not all names matched by this grammar are valid; see Non-ASCII characters in names for details.

2.3.1. Mots-clés

The following names are used as reserved words, or keywords of the language, and cannot be used as ordinary identifiers. They must be spelled exactly as written here:

False      await      else       import     pass
None       break      except     in         raise
True       class      finally    is         return
and        continue   for        lambda     try
as         def        from       nonlocal   while
assert     del        global     not        with
async      elif       if         or         yield

2.3.2. Mots-clés ad hoc

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

Some names are only reserved under specific contexts. These are known as soft keywords:

match, case, and _, when used in the match statement.

type, when used in the type statement.

These syntactically act as keywords in their specific contexts, but this distinction is done at the parser level, not when tokenizing.

As soft keywords, their use in the grammar is possible while still preserving compatibility with existing code that uses these names as identifier names.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: type is now a soft keyword.

2.3.3. Classes réservées pour les identifiants

Certaines classes d'identifiants (outre les mots-clés) ont une signification particulière. Ces classes se reconnaissent par des tirets bas (ou underscores) en tête et en queue d'identifiant :

_*

N'est pas importé par from module import *.

_

Dans un motif case d'une instruction match, _ est un mot-clé ad hoc qui décrit un motif attrape-tout.

De son côté, l'interpréteur interactif place le résultat de la dernière évaluation dans la variable _ (son emplacement se situe dans le module builtins, avec les fonctions natives telles que print).

Ailleurs, _ est un identifiant comme un autre. Il est souvent utilisé pour désigner des éléments « spéciaux », mais il n'est pas spécial pour Python en tant que tel.

Note

le nom _ est souvent utilisé pour internationaliser l'affichage ; reportez-vous à la documentation du module gettext pour plus d'informations sur cette convention.

Il est aussi communément utilisé pour signifier que la variable n'est pas utilisée.

__*__

Noms définis par le système, appelés noms « dunder » (pour Double Underscores) de manière informelle. Ces noms sont définis par l'interpréteur et son implémentation (y compris la bibliothèque standard). Les noms actuels définis par le système sont abordés dans la section Méthodes spéciales, mais aussi ailleurs. D'autres noms seront probablement définis dans les futures versions de Python. Toute utilisation de noms de la forme __*__, dans n'importe quel contexte, qui n'est pas conforme à ce qu'indique explicitement la documentation, est sujette à des mauvaises surprises sans avertissement.

__*

Noms privés pour une classe. Les noms de cette forme, lorsqu'ils sont utilisés dans le contexte d'une définition de classe, sont réécrits sous une forme modifiée pour éviter les conflits de noms entre les attributs « privés » des classes de base et les classes dérivées. Voir la section Identifiants (noms).

2.3.4. Non-ASCII characters in names

Names that contain non-ASCII characters need additional normalization and validation beyond the rules and grammar explained above. For example, ř_1, 蛇, or साँप are valid names, but r〰2, €, or 🐍 are not.

This section explains the exact rules.

All names are converted into the normalization form [https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr15/#Norm_Forms] NFKC while parsing. This means that, for example, some typographic variants of characters are converted to their "basic" form. For example, ﬁⁿₐˡᵢᶻₐᵗᵢᵒₙ normalizes to finalization, so Python treats them as the same name:

>>> ﬁⁿₐˡᵢᶻₐᵗᵢᵒₙ = 3
>>> finalization
3

Note

Normalization is done at the lexical level only. Run-time functions that take names as strings generally do not normalize their arguments. For example, the variable defined above is accessible at run time in the globals() dictionary as globals()["finalization"] but not globals()["ﬁⁿₐˡᵢᶻₐᵗᵢᵒₙ"].

Similarly to how ASCII-only names must contain only letters, digits and the underscore, and cannot start with a digit, a valid name must start with a character in the "letter-like" set xid_start, and the remaining characters must be in the "letter- and digit-like" set xid_continue.

These sets based on the XID_Start and XID_Continue sets as defined by the Unicode standard annex UAX-31 [https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr31/]. Python's xid_start additionally includes the underscore (_). Note that Python does not necessarily conform to UAX-31 [https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr31/].

A non-normative listing of characters in the XID_Start and XID_Continue sets as defined by Unicode is available in the DerivedCoreProperties.txt [https://www.unicode.org/Public/16.0.0/ucd/DerivedCoreProperties.txt] file in the Unicode Character Database. For reference, the construction rules for the xid_* sets are given below.

The set id_start is defined as the union of:

Unicode category <Lu> - uppercase letters (includes A to Z)

Unicode category <Ll> - lowercase letters (includes a to z)

Unicode category <Lt> - titlecase letters

Unicode category <Lm> - modifier letters

Unicode category <Lo> - other letters

Unicode category <Nl> - letter numbers

{"_"} - the underscore

<Other_ID_Start> - an explicit set of characters in PropList.txt [https://www.unicode.org/Public/16.0.0/ucd/PropList.txt] to support backwards compatibility

The set xid_start then closes this set under NFKC normalization, by removing all characters whose normalization is not of the form id_start id_continue*.

The set id_continue is defined as the union of:

id_start (see above)

Unicode category <Nd> - decimal numbers (includes 0 to 9)

Unicode category <Pc> - connector punctuations

Unicode category <Mn> - nonspacing marks

Unicode category <Mc> - spacing combining marks

<Other_ID_Continue> - another explicit set of characters in PropList.txt [https://www.unicode.org/Public/16.0.0/ucd/PropList.txt] to support backwards compatibility

Again, xid_continue closes this set under NFKC normalization.

Unicode categories use the version of the Unicode Character Database as included in the unicodedata module.

Voir aussi

PEP 3131 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3131/] -- Supporting Non-ASCII Identifiers

PEP 672 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0672/] -- Unicode-related Security Considerations for Python

2.4. Littéraux

Les littéraux sont des notations pour indiquer des valeurs constantes de certains types natifs.

In terms of lexical analysis, Python has string, bytes and numeric literals.

Other "literals" are lexically denoted using keywords (None, True, False) and the special ellipsis token (...).

2.5. Littéraux de chaînes de caractères et de suites d'octets

String literals are text enclosed in single quotes (') or double quotes ("). For example:

"spam"
'eggs'

The quote used to start the literal also terminates it, so a string literal can only contain the other quote (except with escape sequences, see below). For example:

'Say "Hello", please.'
"Don't do that!"

Except for this limitation, the choice of quote character (' or ") does not affect how the literal is parsed.

Inside a string literal, the backslash (\) character introduces an escape sequence, which has special meaning depending on the character after the backslash. For example, \" denotes the double quote character, and does not end the string:

>>> print("Say \"Hello\" to everyone!")
Say "Hello" to everyone!

See escape sequences below for a full list of such sequences, and more details.

2.5.1. Triple-quoted strings

Strings can also be enclosed in matching groups of three single or double quotes. These are generally referred to as triple-quoted strings:

"""This is a triple-quoted string."""

In triple-quoted literals, unescaped quotes are allowed (and are retained), except that three unescaped quotes in a row terminate the literal, if they are of the same kind (' or ") used at the start:

"""This string has "quotes" inside."""

Unescaped newlines are also allowed and retained:

'''This triple-quoted string
continues on the next line.'''

2.5.2. String prefixes

String literals can have an optional prefix that influences how the content of the literal is parsed, for example:

b"data"
f'{result=}'

The allowed prefixes are:

b: Bytes literal

r: Raw string

f: Formatted string literal ("f-string")

t: Template string literal ("t-string")

u: No effect (allowed for backwards compatibility)

See the linked sections for details on each type.

Prefixes are case-insensitive (for example, 'B' works the same as 'b'). The 'r' prefix can be combined with 'f', 't' or 'b', so 'fr', 'rf', 'tr', 'rt', 'br', and 'rb' are also valid prefixes.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3: le préfixe 'rb' a été ajouté comme synonyme de 'br' pour les littéraux de suites d'octets.

la gestion du préfixe historique pour les chaînes Unicode (u'chaine') a été réintroduite afin de simplifier la maintenance de code compatible Python 2.x et 3.x. Voir la PEP 414 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0414/] pour davantage d'informations.

2.5.3. Formal grammar

String literals, except "f-strings" and "t-strings", are described by the following lexical definitions.

These definitions use negative lookaheads (!) to indicate that an ending quote ends the literal.

STRING:          [stringprefix] (stringcontent)
stringprefix:    <("r" | "u" | "b" | "br" | "rb"), case-insensitive>
stringcontent:
   | "'''" ( !"'''" longstringitem)* "'''"
   | '"""' ( !'"""' longstringitem)* '"""'
   | "'" ( !"'" stringitem)* "'"
   | '"' ( !'"' stringitem)* '"'
stringitem:      stringchar | stringescapeseq
stringchar:      <any source_character, except backslash and newline>
longstringitem:  stringitem | newline
stringescapeseq: "\" <any source_character>

Note that as in all lexical definitions, whitespace is significant. In particular, the prefix (if any) must be immediately followed by the starting quote.

2.5.4. Escape sequences

Unless an 'r' or 'R' prefix is present, escape sequences in string and bytes literals are interpreted according to rules similar to those used by Standard C. The recognized escape sequences are:

Séquence d'échappement

Signification

\<newline>

Ignored end of line

\\

Backslash

\'

Single quote

\"

Double quote

\a

cloche ASCII (BEL)

\b

retour arrière ASCII (BS)

\f

saut de page ASCII (FF)

\n

saut de ligne ASCII (LF)

\r

retour à la ligne ASCII (CR)

\t

tabulation horizontale ASCII (TAB)

\v

tabulation verticale ASCII (VT)

\ooo

Octal character

\xhh

Hexadecimal character

\N{name}

Named Unicode character

\uxxxx

Hexadecimal Unicode character

\Uxxxxxxxx

Hexadecimal Unicode character

2.5.4.1. Ignored end of line

Une barre oblique inverse peut être ajoutée à la fin d'une ligne pour ignorer le caractère de nouvelle ligne :

>>> 'This string will not include \
... backslashes or newline characters.'
'This string will not include backslashes or newline characters.'

On obtient le même résultat avec les chaînes entre triples guillemets ou avec des parenthèses et la concaténation littérale de chaînes.

2.5.4.2. Escaped characters

To include a backslash in a non-raw Python string literal, it must be doubled. The \\ escape sequence denotes a single backslash character:

>>> print('C:\\Program Files')
C:\Program Files

Similarly, the \' and \" sequences denote the single and double quote character, respectively:

>>> print('\' and \"')
' and "

2.5.4.3. Octal character

The sequence \ooo denotes a character with the octal (base 8) value ooo:

>>> '\120'
'P'

Up to three octal digits (0 through 7) are accepted.

In a bytes literal, character means a byte with the given value. In a string literal, it means a Unicode character with the given value.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Octal escapes with value larger than 0o377 (255) produce a DeprecationWarning.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Octal escapes with value larger than 0o377 (255) produce a SyntaxWarning. In a future Python version they will raise a SyntaxError.

2.5.4.4. Hexadecimal character

The sequence \xhh denotes a character with the hex (base 16) value hh:

>>> '\x50'
'P'

Contrairement au C Standard, il est obligatoire de fournir deux chiffres hexadécimaux.

In a bytes literal, character means a byte with the given value. In a string literal, it means a Unicode character with the given value.

2.5.4.5. Named Unicode character

The sequence \N{name} denotes a Unicode character with the given name:

>>> '\N{LATIN CAPITAL LETTER P}'
'P'
>>> '\N{SNAKE}'
'🐍'

This sequence cannot appear in bytes literals.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Support for name aliases [https://www.unicode.org/Public/16.0.0/ucd/NameAliases.txt] has been added.

2.5.4.6. Hexadecimal Unicode characters

These sequences \uxxxx and \Uxxxxxxxx denote the Unicode character with the given hex (base 16) value. Exactly four digits are required for \u; exactly eight digits are required for \U. The latter can encode any Unicode character.

>>> '\u1234'
'ሴ'
>>> '\U0001f40d'
'🐍'

These sequences cannot appear in bytes literals.

2.5.4.7. Unrecognized escape sequences

Unlike in Standard C, all unrecognized escape sequences are left in the string unchanged, that is, the backslash is left in the result:

>>> print('\q')
\q
>>> list('\q')
['\\', 'q']

Note that for bytes literals, the escape sequences only recognized in string literals (\N..., \u..., \U...) fall into the category of unrecognized escapes.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Unrecognized escape sequences produce a DeprecationWarning.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Unrecognized escape sequences produce a SyntaxWarning. In a future Python version they will raise a SyntaxError.

2.5.5. Bytes literals

Bytes literals are always prefixed with 'b' or 'B'; they produce an instance of the bytes type instead of the str type. They may only contain ASCII characters; bytes with a numeric value of 128 or greater must be expressed with escape sequences (typically Hexadecimal character or Octal character):

>>> b'\x89PNG\r\n\x1a\n'
b'\x89PNG\r\n\x1a\n'
>>> list(b'\x89PNG\r\n\x1a\n')
[137, 80, 78, 71, 13, 10, 26, 10]

Similarly, a zero byte must be expressed using an escape sequence (typically \0 or \x00).

2.5.6. Raw string literals

Both string and bytes literals may optionally be prefixed with a letter 'r' or 'R'; such constructs are called raw string literals and raw bytes literals respectively and treat backslashes as literal characters. As a result, in raw string literals, escape sequences are not treated specially:

>>> r'\d{4}-\d{2}-\d{2}'
'\\d{4}-\\d{2}-\\d{2}'

Même dans une chaîne littérale brute, les guillemets peuvent être échappés avec une barre oblique inversée mais la barre oblique inversée reste dans le résultat ; par exemple, r"\"" est une chaîne de caractères valide composée de deux caractères : une barre oblique inversée et un guillemet double ; r"\" n'est pas une chaîne de caractères valide (même une chaîne de caractères brute ne peut pas se terminer par un nombre impair de barres obliques inversées). Plus précisément, une chaîne littérale brute ne peut pas se terminer par une seule barre oblique inversée (puisque la barre oblique inversée échappe le guillemet suivant). Notez également qu'une simple barre oblique inversée suivie d'un saut de ligne est interprétée comme deux caractères faisant partie du littéral et non comme une continuation de ligne.

2.5.7. f-strings

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: The await and async for can be used in expressions within f-strings.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added the debug specifier (=)

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Many restrictions on expressions within f-strings have been removed. Notably, nested strings, comments, and backslashes are now permitted.

A formatted string literal or f-string is a string literal that is prefixed with 'f' or 'F'. Unlike other string literals, f-strings do not have a constant value. They may contain replacement fields delimited by curly braces {}. Replacement fields contain expressions which are evaluated at run time. For example:

>>> who = 'nobody'
>>> nationality = 'Spanish'
>>> f'{who.title()} expects the {nationality} Inquisition!'
'Nobody expects the Spanish Inquisition!'

Any doubled curly braces ({{ or }}) outside replacement fields are replaced with the corresponding single curly brace:

>>> print(f'{{...}}')
{...}

Other characters outside replacement fields are treated like in ordinary string literals. This means that escape sequences are decoded (except when a literal is also marked as a raw string), and newlines are possible in triple-quoted f-strings:

>>> name = 'Galahad'
>>> favorite_color = 'blue'
>>> print(f'{name}:\t{favorite_color}')
Galahad:       blue
>>> print(rf"C:\Users\{name}")
C:\Users\Galahad
>>> print(f'''Three shall be the number of the counting
... and the number of the counting shall be three.''')
Three shall be the number of the counting
and the number of the counting shall be three.

Expressions in formatted string literals are treated like regular Python expressions. Each expression is evaluated in the context where the formatted string literal appears, in order from left to right. An empty expression is not allowed, and both lambda and assignment expressions := must be surrounded by explicit parentheses:

>>> f'{(half := 1/2)}, {half * 42}'
'0.5, 21.0'

Reusing the outer f-string quoting type inside a replacement field is permitted:

>>> a = dict(x=2)
>>> f"abc {a["x"]} def"
'abc 2 def'

Backslashes are also allowed in replacement fields and are evaluated the same way as in any other context:

>>> a = ["a", "b", "c"]
>>> print(f"List a contains:\n{"\n".join(a)}")
List a contains:
a
b
c

It is possible to nest f-strings:

>>> name = 'world'
>>> f'Repeated:{f' hello {name}' * 3}'
'Repeated: hello world hello world hello world'

Portable Python programs should not use more than 5 levels of nesting.

Particularité de l'implémentation CPython : CPython does not limit nesting of f-strings.

Replacement expressions can contain newlines in both single-quoted and triple-quoted f-strings and they can contain comments. Everything that comes after a # inside a replacement field is a comment (even closing braces and quotes). This means that replacement fields with comments must be closed in a different line:

>>> a = 2
>>> f"abc{a  # This comment  }"  continues until the end of the line
...       + 3}"
'abc5'

After the expression, replacement fields may optionally contain:

a debug specifier -- an equal sign (=), optionally surrounded by whitespace on one or both sides;

a conversion specifier -- !s, !r or !a; and/or

a format specifier prefixed with a colon (:).

See the Standard Library section on f-strings for details on how these fields are evaluated.

As that section explains, format specifiers are passed as the second argument to the format() function to format a replacement field value. For example, they can be used to specify a field width and padding characters using the Format Specification Mini-Language:

>>> number = 14.3
>>> f'{number:20.7f}'
'          14.3000000'

Top-level format specifiers may include nested replacement fields:

>>> field_size = 20
>>> precision = 7
>>> f'{number:{field_size}.{precision}f}'
'          14.3000000'

These nested fields may include their own conversion fields and format specifiers:

>>> number = 3
>>> f'{number:{field_size}}'
'                   3'
>>> f'{number:{field_size:05}}'
'00000000000000000003'

However, these nested fields may not include more deeply nested replacement fields.

Formatted string literals cannot be used as docstrings, even if they do not include expressions:

>>> def foo():
...     f"Not a docstring"
...
>>> print(foo.__doc__)
None

Voir aussi

PEP 498 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0498/] -- Literal String Interpolation

PEP 701 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/] -- Syntactic formalization of f-strings

str.format(), which uses a related format string mechanism.

2.5.8. t-strings

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

A template string literal or t-string is a string literal that is prefixed with 't' or 'T'. These strings follow the same syntax rules as formatted string literals. For differences in evaluation rules, see the Standard Library section on t-strings

2.5.9. Formal grammar for f-strings

F-strings are handled partly by the lexical analyzer, which produces the tokens FSTRING_START, FSTRING_MIDDLE and FSTRING_END, and partly by the parser, which handles expressions in the replacement field. The exact way the work is split is a CPython implementation detail.

Correspondingly, the f-string grammar is a mix of lexical and syntactic definitions.

Whitespace is significant in these situations:

There may be no whitespace in FSTRING_START (between the prefix and quote).

Whitespace in FSTRING_MIDDLE is part of the literal string contents.

In fstring_replacement_field, if f_debug_specifier is present, all whitespace after the opening brace until the f_debug_specifier, as well as whitespace immediately following f_debug_specifier, is retained as part of the expression.

Particularité de l'implémentation CPython : The expression is not handled in the tokenization phase; it is retrieved from the source code using locations of the { token and the token after =.

The FSTRING_MIDDLE definition uses negative lookaheads (!) to indicate special characters (backslash, newline, {, }) and sequences (f_quote).

fstring:    FSTRING_START fstring_middle* FSTRING_END

FSTRING_START:      fstringprefix ("'" | '"' | "'''" | '"""')
FSTRING_END:        f_quote
fstringprefix:      <("f" | "fr" | "rf"), case-insensitive>
f_debug_specifier:  '='
f_quote:            <the quote character(s) used in FSTRING_START>

fstring_middle:
   | fstring_replacement_field
   | FSTRING_MIDDLE
FSTRING_MIDDLE:
   | (!"\" !newline !'{' !'}' !f_quote) source_character
   | stringescapeseq
   | "{{"
   | "}}"
   | <newline, in triple-quoted f-strings only>
fstring_replacement_field:
   | '{' f_expression [f_debug_specifier] [fstring_conversion]
         [fstring_full_format_spec] '}'
fstring_conversion:
   | "!" ("s" | "r" | "a")
fstring_full_format_spec:
   | ':' fstring_format_spec*
fstring_format_spec:
   | FSTRING_MIDDLE
   | fstring_replacement_field
f_expression:
   | ','.(conditional_expression | "*" or_expr)+ [","]
   | yield_expression

Note

In the above grammar snippet, the f_quote and FSTRING_MIDDLE rules are context-sensitive -- they depend on the contents of FSTRING_START of the nearest enclosing fstring.

Constructing a more traditional formal grammar from this template is left as an exercise for the reader.

The grammar for t-strings is identical to the one for f-strings, with t instead of f at the beginning of rule and token names and in the prefix.

tstring:    TSTRING_START tstring_middle* TSTRING_END

<rest of the t-string grammar is omitted; see above>

2.6. Littéraux numériques

NUMBER tokens represent numeric literals, of which there are three types: integers, floating-point numbers, and imaginary numbers.

NUMBER: integer | floatnumber | imagnumber

The numeric value of a numeric literal is the same as if it were passed as a string to the int, float or complex class constructor, respectively. Note that not all valid inputs for those constructors are also valid literals.

Numeric literals do not include a sign; a phrase like -1 is actually an expression composed of the unary operator '-' and the literal 1.

2.6.1. Entiers littéraux

Integer literals denote whole numbers. For example:

7
3
2147483647

There is no limit for the length of integer literals apart from what can be stored in available memory:

7922816251426433759354395033679228162514264337593543950336

Underscores can be used to group digits for enhanced readability, and are ignored for determining the numeric value of the literal. For example, the following literals are equivalent:

100_000_000_000
100000000000
1_00_00_00_00_000

Underscores can only occur between digits. For example, _123, 321_, and 123__321 are not valid literals.

Integers can be specified in binary (base 2), octal (base 8), or hexadecimal (base 16) using the prefixes 0b, 0o and 0x, respectively. Hexadecimal digits 10 through 15 are represented by letters A-F, case-insensitive. For example:

0b100110111
0b_1110_0101
0o177
0o377
0xdeadbeef
0xDead_Beef

An underscore can follow the base specifier. For example, 0x_1f is a valid literal, but 0_x1f and 0x__1f are not.

Leading zeros in a non-zero decimal number are not allowed. For example, 0123 is not a valid literal. This is for disambiguation with C-style octal literals, which Python used before version 3.0.

Formally, integer literals are described by the following lexical definitions:

integer:      decinteger | bininteger | octinteger | hexinteger | zerointeger
decinteger:   nonzerodigit (["_"] digit)*
bininteger:   "0" ("b" | "B") (["_"] bindigit)+
octinteger:   "0" ("o" | "O") (["_"] octdigit)+
hexinteger:   "0" ("x" | "X") (["_"] hexdigit)+
zerointeger:  "0"+ (["_"] "0")*
nonzerodigit: "1"..."9"
digit:        "0"..."9"
bindigit:     "0" | "1"
octdigit:     "0"..."7"
hexdigit:     digit | "a"..."f" | "A"..."F"

Modifié dans la version 3.6: les tirets bas ne sont pas autorisés pour grouper les littéraux.

2.6.2. Floating-point literals

Floating-point (float) literals, such as 3.14 or 1.5, denote approximations of real numbers.

They consist of integer and fraction parts, each composed of decimal digits. The parts are separated by a decimal point, .:

2.71828
4.0

Unlike in integer literals, leading zeros are allowed. For example, 077.010 is legal, and denotes the same number as 77.01.

As in integer literals, single underscores may occur between digits to help readability:

96_485.332_123
3.14_15_93

Either of these parts, but not both, can be empty. For example:

10.  # (equivalent to 10.0)
.001  # (equivalent to 0.001)

Optionally, the integer and fraction may be followed by an exponent: the letter e or E, followed by an optional sign, + or -, and a number in the same format as the integer and fraction parts. The e or E represents "times ten raised to the power of":

1.0e3  # (represents 1.0×10³, or 1000.0)
1.166e-5  # (represents 1.166×10⁻⁵, or 0.00001166)
6.02214076e+23  # (represents 6.02214076×10²³, or 602214076000000000000000.)

In floats with only integer and exponent parts, the decimal point may be omitted:

1e3  # (equivalent to 1.e3 and 1.0e3)
0e0  # (equivalent to 0.)

Formally, floating-point literals are described by the following lexical definitions:

floatnumber:
   | digitpart "." [digitpart] [exponent]
   | "." digitpart [exponent]
   | digitpart exponent
digitpart: digit (["_"] digit)*
exponent:  ("e" | "E") ["+" | "-"] digitpart

Modifié dans la version 3.6: les tirets bas ne sont pas autorisés pour grouper les littéraux.

2.6.3. Imaginaires littéraux

Python has complex number objects, but no complex literals. Instead, imaginary literals denote complex numbers with a zero real part.

For example, in math, the complex number 3+4.2i is written as the real number 3 added to the imaginary number 4.2i. Python uses a similar syntax, except the imaginary unit is written as j rather than i:

3+4.2j

This is an expression composed of the integer literal 3, the operator '+', and the imaginary literal 4.2j. Since these are three separate tokens, whitespace is allowed between them:

3 + 4.2j

No whitespace is allowed within each token. In particular, the j suffix, may not be separated from the number before it.

The number before the j has the same syntax as a floating-point literal. Thus, the following are valid imaginary literals:

4.2j
3.14j
10.j
.001j
1e100j
3.14e-10j
3.14_15_93j

Unlike in a floating-point literal the decimal point can be omitted if the imaginary number only has an integer part. The number is still evaluated as a floating-point number, not an integer:

10j
0j
1000000000000000000000000j   # equivalent to 1e+24j

The j suffix is case-insensitive. That means you can use J instead:

3.14J   # equivalent to 3.14j

Formally, imaginary literals are described by the following lexical definition:

imagnumber: (floatnumber | digitpart) ("j" | "J")

2.7. Operators and delimiters

The following grammar defines operator and delimiter tokens, that is, the generic OP token type. A list of these tokens and their names is also available in the token module documentation.

OP:
   | assignment_operator
   | bitwise_operator
   | comparison_operator
   | enclosing_delimiter
   | other_delimiter
   | arithmetic_operator
   | "..."
   | other_op

assignment_operator:   "+=" | "-=" | "*=" | "**=" | "/="  | "//=" | "%=" |
                       "&=" | "|=" | "^=" | "<<=" | ">>=" | "@="  | ":="
bitwise_operator:      "&"  | "|"  | "^"  | "~"   | "<<"  | ">>"
comparison_operator:   "<=" | ">=" | "<"  | ">"   | "=="  | "!="
enclosing_delimiter:   "("  | ")"  | "["  | "]"   | "{"   | "}"
other_delimiter:       ","  | ":"  | "!"  | ";"   | "="   | "->"
arithmetic_operator:   "+"  | "-"  | "**" | "*"   | "//"  | "/"   | "%"
other_op:              "."  | "@"

Note

Generally, operators are used to combine expressions, while delimiters serve other purposes. However, there is no clear, formal distinction between the two categories.

Some tokens can serve as either operators or delimiters, depending on usage. For example, * is both the multiplication operator and a delimiter used for sequence unpacking, and @ is both the matrix multiplication and a delimiter that introduces decorators.

For some tokens, the distinction is unclear. For example, some people consider ., (, and ) to be delimiters, while others see the getattr() operator and the function call operator(s).

Some of Python's operators, like and, or, and not in, use keyword tokens rather than "symbols" (operator tokens).

A sequence of three consecutive periods (...) has a special meaning as an Ellipsis literal.

3. Modèle de données

3.1. Objets, valeurs et types

Objects are Python's abstraction for data. All data in a Python program is represented by objects or by relations between objects. Even code is represented by objects.

Every object has an identity, a type and a value. An object's identity never changes once it has been created; you may think of it as the object's address in memory. The is operator compares the identity of two objects; the id() function returns an integer representing its identity.

en CPython, id(x) est l'adresse mémoire où est stocké x.

Le type de l'objet détermine les opérations que l'on peut appliquer à l'objet (par exemple, « a-t-il une longueur ? ») et définit aussi les valeurs possibles pour les objets de ce type. La fonction type() renvoie le type de l'objet (qui est lui-même un objet). Comme l'identifiant, le type d'un objet ne peut pas être modifié [1].

La valeur de certains objets peut changer. Les objets dont la valeur peut changer sont dits mutables ; les objets dont la valeur est définitivement fixée à leur création sont dits immuables (immutable en anglais). La valeur d'un objet conteneur immuable qui contient une référence vers un objet mutable peut varier lorsque la valeur de l'objet mutable change ; cependant, le conteneur est quand même considéré comme immuable parce que l'ensemble des objets qu'il contient ne peut pas être modifié. Ainsi, l'immuabilité n'est pas strictement équivalente au fait d'avoir une valeur non modifiable, c'est plus subtil. La muabilité d'un objet est définie par son type ; par exemple, les nombres, les chaînes de caractères et les n-uplets sont immuables alors que les dictionnaires et les listes sont mutables.

Un objet n'est jamais explicitement détruit ; cependant, lorsqu'il ne peut plus être atteint, il a vocation à être supprimé par le ramasse-miettes (garbage-collector en anglais). L'implémentation peut retarder cette opération ou même ne pas la faire du tout — la façon dont fonctionne le ramasse-miette est particulière à chaque implémentation, l'important étant qu'il ne supprime pas d'objet qui peut encore être atteint.

CPython utilise aujourd'hui un mécanisme de compteur de références avec une détection, en temps différé et optionnelle, des cycles d'objets. Ce mécanisme supprime la plupart des objets dès qu'ils ne sont plus accessibles mais il ne garantit pas la suppression des objets où il existe des références circulaires. Consultez la documentation du module gc pour tout ce qui concerne la suppression des cycles. D'autres implémentations agissent différemment et CPython pourrait évoluer. Ne vous reposez pas sur la finalisation immédiate des objets devenus inaccessibles (ainsi, vous devez toujours fermer les fichiers explicitement).

Note that the use of the implementation's tracing or debugging facilities may keep objects alive that would normally be collectable. Also note that catching an exception with a try...except statement may keep objects alive.

Some objects contain references to "external" resources such as open files or windows. It is understood that these resources are freed when the object is garbage-collected, but since garbage collection is not guaranteed to happen, such objects also provide an explicit way to release the external resource, usually a close() method. Programs are strongly recommended to explicitly close such objects. The try...finally statement and the with statement provide convenient ways to do this.

Certains objets contiennent des références à d'autres objets ; on les appelle conteneurs. Comme exemples de conteneurs, nous pouvons citer les n-uplets, les listes et les dictionnaires. Les références sont parties intégrantes de la valeur d'un conteneur. Dans la plupart des cas, lorsque nous parlons de la valeur d'un conteneur, nous parlons des valeurs, pas des identifiants des objets contenus ; cependant, lorsque nous parlons de la muabilité d'un conteneur, seuls les identifiants des objets immédiatement contenus sont concernés. Ainsi, si un conteneur immuable (comme un n-uplet) contient une référence à un objet mutable, sa valeur change si cet objet mutable est modifié.

Types affect almost all aspects of object behavior. Even the importance of object identity is affected in some sense: for immutable types, operations that compute new values may actually return a reference to any existing object with the same type and value, while for mutable objects this is not allowed. For example, after a = 1; b = 1, a and b may or may not refer to the same object with the value one, depending on the implementation. This is because int is an immutable type, so the reference to 1 can be reused. This behaviour depends on the implementation used, so should not be relied upon, but is something to be aware of when making use of object identity tests. However, after c = []; d = [], c and d are guaranteed to refer to two different, unique, newly created empty lists. (Note that e = f = [] assigns the same object to both e and f.)

3.2. Hiérarchie des types standards

Vous trouvez ci-dessous une liste des types natifs de Python. Des modules d'extension (écrits en C, Java ou d'autres langages) peuvent définir des types supplémentaires. Les futures versions de Python pourront ajouter des types à cette hiérarchie (par exemple les nombres rationnels, des tableaux d'entiers stockés efficacement, etc.), bien que de tels ajouts se trouvent souvent plutôt dans la bibliothèque standard.

Quelques descriptions des types ci-dessous contiennent un paragraphe listant des « attributs spéciaux ». Ces attributs donnent accès à l'implémentation et n'ont, en général, pas vocation à être utilisés. Leur définition peut changer dans le futur.

3.2.1. None

Ce type ne possède qu'une seule valeur. Il n'existe qu'un seul objet avec cette valeur. Vous accédez à cet objet avec le nom natif None. Il est utilisé pour signifier l'absence de valeur dans de nombreux cas, par exemple pour des fonctions qui ne renvoient rien explicitement. Sa valeur booléenne est fausse.

3.2.2. NotImplemented

This type has a single value. There is a single object with this value. This object is accessed through the built-in name NotImplemented. Numeric methods and rich comparison methods should return this value if they do not implement the operation for the operands provided. (The interpreter will then try the reflected operation, or some other fallback, depending on the operator.) It should not be evaluated in a boolean context.

Consultez Implémentation des opérations arithmétiques pour davantage de détails.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Evaluating NotImplemented in a boolean context was deprecated.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Evaluating NotImplemented in a boolean context now raises a TypeError. It previously evaluated to True and emitted a DeprecationWarning since Python 3.9.

3.2.3. Ellipse

Ce type ne possède qu'une seule valeur. Il n'existe qu'un seul objet avec cette valeur. Vous accédez à cet objet avec le littéral ... ou le nom natif Ellipsis. Sa valeur booléenne est vraie.

3.2.4. numbers.Number

Ces objets sont créés par les littéraux numériques et renvoyés en tant que résultats par les opérateurs et les fonctions arithmétiques natives. Les objets numériques sont immuables ; une fois créés, leur valeur ne change pas. Les nombres Python sont bien sûr très fortement corrélés aux nombres mathématiques mais ils sont soumis aux limitations des représentations numériques par les ordinateurs.

Les représentations sous forme de chaînes de caractères des objets numériques, produites par __repr__() et __str__(), ont les propriétés suivantes :

Ce sont des littéraux numériques valides qui, s'ils sont passés au constructeur de leur classe, produisent un objet qui a la valeur numérique de l'objet d'origine.

La représentation est en base 10, si possible.

Les zéros en tête, sauf en ce qui concerne un zéro seul avant la virgule (représentée par un point en Python conformément à la convention anglo-saxonne), ne sont pas affichés.

Les zéros en fin, sauf en ce qui concerne un zéro seul après la virgule, ne sont pas affichés.

Le signe n'est affiché que lorsque le nombre est négatif.

Python distinguishes between integers, floating-point numbers, and complex numbers:

3.2.4.1. numbers.Integral

Ils représentent des éléments de l'ensemble mathématique des entiers (positifs ou négatifs).

Note

Les règles pour la représentation des entiers ont pour objet de donner l'interprétation la plus naturelle pour les opérations de décalage et masquage qui impliquent des entiers négatifs.

Il existe deux types d'entiers :

Entiers (int)

Ils représentent les nombres, sans limite de taille, sous réserve de pouvoir être stockés en mémoire (virtuelle). Afin de pouvoir effectuer des décalages et appliquer des masques, on considère qu'ils ont une représentation binaire. Les nombres négatifs sont représentés comme une variante du complément à 2, qui donne l'illusion d'une chaîne infinie de bits de signe s'étendant vers la gauche.

Booléens (bool)

Ils représentent les valeurs faux et vrai. Deux objets, False et True, sont les seuls objets booléens. Le type booléen est un sous-type du type entier et les valeurs booléennes se comportent comme les valeurs 0 (pour False) et 1 (pour True) dans presque tous les contextes. L'exception concerne la conversion en chaîne de caractères où "False" et "True" sont renvoyées.

3.2.4.2. numbers.Real (float)

These represent machine-level double precision floating-point numbers. You are at the mercy of the underlying machine architecture (and C or Java implementation) for the accepted range and handling of overflow. Python does not support single-precision floating-point numbers; the savings in processor and memory usage that are usually the reason for using these are dwarfed by the overhead of using objects in Python, so there is no reason to complicate the language with two kinds of floating-point numbers.

3.2.4.3. numbers.Complex (complex)

These represent complex numbers as a pair of machine-level double precision floating-point numbers. The same caveats apply as for floating-point numbers. The real and imaginary parts of a complex number z can be retrieved through the read-only attributes z.real and z.imag.

3.2.5. Séquences

These represent finite ordered sets indexed by non-negative numbers. The built-in function len() returns the number of items of a sequence. When the length of a sequence is n, the index set contains the numbers 0, 1, ..., n-1. Item i of sequence a is selected by a[i]. Some sequences, including built-in sequences, interpret negative subscripts by adding the sequence length. For example, a[-2] equals a[n-2], the second to last item of sequence a with length n.

The resulting value must be a nonnegative integer less than the number of items in the sequence. If it is not, an IndexError is raised.

Sequences also support slicing: a[start:stop] selects all items with index k such that start <= k < stop. When used as an expression, a slice is a sequence of the same type. The comment above about negative subscripts also applies to negative slice positions. Note that no error is raised if a slice position is less than zero or larger than the length of the sequence.

If start is missing or None, slicing behaves as if start was zero. If stop is missing or None, slicing behaves as if stop was equal to the length of the sequence.

Quelques séquences gèrent le « découpage étendu » (extended slicing en anglais) avec un troisième paramètre : a[i:j:k] sélectionne tous les éléments de a d'indice x où x = i + n*k, avec n >= 0 et i <= x < j.

Les séquences se différencient en fonction de leur muabilité :

3.2.5.1. Séquences immuables

Un objet de type de séquence immuable ne peut pas être modifié une fois qu'il a été créé. Si l'objet contient des références à d'autres objets, ces autres objets peuvent être mutables et peuvent être modifiés ; cependant, les objets directement référencés par un objet immuable ne peuvent pas être modifiés.

Les types suivants sont des séquences immuables :

Chaînes de caractères

A string (str) is a sequence of values that represent characters, or more formally, Unicode code points. All the code points in the range 0 to 0x10FFFF can be represented in a string.

Python doesn't have a dedicated character type. Instead, every code point in the string is represented as a string object with length 1.

The built-in function ord() converts a code point from its string form to an integer in the range 0 to 0x10FFFF; chr() converts an integer in the range 0 to 0x10FFFF to the corresponding length 1 string object. str.encode() can be used to convert a str to bytes using the given text encoding, and bytes.decode() can be used to achieve the opposite.

n-uplets (tuples en anglais)

The items of a tuple are arbitrary Python objects. Tuples of two or more items are formed by comma-separated lists of expressions. A tuple of one item (a 'singleton') can be formed by affixing a comma to an expression (an expression by itself does not create a tuple, since parentheses must be usable for grouping of expressions). An empty tuple can be formed by an empty pair of parentheses.

Chaînes d'octets (ou bytes)

A bytes object is an immutable array. The items are 8-bit bytes, represented by integers in the range 0 <= x < 256. Bytes literals (like b'abc') and the built-in bytes() constructor can be used to create bytes objects. Also, bytes objects can be decoded to strings via the decode() method.

3.2.5.2. Séquences mutables

Les séquences mutables peuvent être modifiées après leur création. Les notations de tranches et de sous-ensembles peuvent être utilisées en tant que cibles d'une affectation ou de l'instruction del (suppression).

Note

The collections and array module provide additional examples of mutable sequence types.

Il existe aujourd'hui deux types intrinsèques de séquences mutables :

Listes

N'importe quel objet Python peut être élément d'une liste. Les listes sont créées en plaçant entre crochets une liste d'expressions dont les éléments sont séparés par des virgules (notez que les listes de longueur 0 ou 1 ne sont pas des cas particuliers).

Tableaux d'octets

Un objet bytearray est un tableau mutable. Il est créé par la fonction native constructeur bytearray(). À part la propriété d'être mutable (et donc de ne pas pouvoir calculer son empreinte par hachage), un tableau d'octets possède la même interface et les mêmes fonctionnalités qu'un objet immuable bytes.

3.2.6. Ensembles

Ils représentent les ensembles d'objets, non ordonnés, finis et dont les éléments sont uniques. Tels quels, ils ne peuvent pas être indicés. Cependant, il est possible d'itérer dessus et la fonction native len() renvoie le nombre d'éléments de l'ensemble. Les utilisations classiques des ensembles sont les tests d'appartenance rapides, la suppression de doublons dans une séquence et le calcul d'opérations mathématiques telles que l'intersection, l'union, la différence et le complémentaire.

Pour les éléments des ensembles, les mêmes règles concernant l'immuabilité s'appliquent que pour les clés de dictionnaires. Notez que les types numériques obéissent aux règles normales pour les comparaisons numériques : si deux nombres sont égaux (pour l'opération de comparaison, par exemple 1 et 1.0), un seul élément est conservé dans l'ensemble.

Actuellement, il existe deux types d'ensembles natifs :

Ensembles

These represent a mutable set. They are created by the built-in set() constructor and can be modified afterwards by several methods, such as add().

Ensembles figés

Ils représentent les ensembles immuables. Ils sont créés par la fonction native constructeur frozenset(). Comme un ensemble figé est immuable et hachable, il peut être utilisé comme élément d'un autre ensemble ou comme clé de dictionnaire.

3.2.7. Tableaux de correspondances

Ils représentent les ensembles finis d'objets indicés par des ensembles index arbitraires. La notation a[k] sélectionne l'élément indicé par k dans le tableau de correspondances a ; elle peut être utilisée dans des expressions, comme cible d'une affectation ou avec l'instruction del. La fonction native len() renvoie le nombre d'éléments du tableau de correspondances.

Il n'existe actuellement qu'un seul type natif pour les tableaux de correspondances :

3.2.7.1. Dictionnaires

Ils représentent les ensembles finis d'objets indicés par des valeurs presque arbitraires. Les seuls types de valeurs non reconnus comme clés sont les valeurs contenant des listes, des dictionnaires ou les autres types mutables qui sont comparés par valeur plutôt que par l'identifiant de l'objet. La raison de cette limitation est qu'une implémentation efficace de dictionnaire requiert que l'empreinte par hachage des clés reste constante dans le temps. Les types numériques obéissent aux règles normales pour les comparaisons numériques : si deux nombres sont égaux pour l'opération de comparaison, par exemple 1 et 1.0, alors ces deux nombres peuvent être utilisés indifféremment pour désigner la même entrée du dictionnaire.

Les dictionnaires préservent l’ordre d’insertion, ce qui signifie que les clés sont renvoyées séquentiellement dans le même ordre que celui de l’insertion. Remplacer une clé existante ne change pas l’ordre. Par contre, la retirer puis la réinsérer la met à la fin et non à sa précédente position.

Dictionaries are mutable; they can be created by the {} notation (see section Agencements de dictionnaires).

Les modules d'extensions dbm.ndbm et dbm.gnu apportent d'autres exemples de types tableaux de correspondances, de même que le module collections.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: les dictionnaires ne conservaient pas l’ordre d’insertion dans les versions antérieures à Python 3.6. Dans CPython 3.6, l’ordre d’insertion était déjà conservé, mais considéré comme un détail d’implémentation et non comme une garantie du langage.

3.2.8. Types appelables

Ce sont les types sur lesquels on peut faire un appel de fonction (lisez la section Appels) :

3.2.8.1. Fonctions définies par l'utilisateur

Un objet fonction définie par l'utilisateur (mais ce n'est pas forcément l'utilisateur courant qui a défini cette fonction) est créé par la définition d'une fonction (voir la section Définition de fonctions). Il doit être appelé avec une liste d'arguments contenant le même nombre d'éléments que la liste des paramètres formels de la fonction.

3.2.8.1.1. Special read-only attributes

Attribut

Signification

function.__builtins__

A reference to the dictionary that holds the function's builtins namespace.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

function.__globals__

A reference to the dictionary that holds the function's global variables -- the global namespace of the module in which the function was defined.

function.__closure__

None or a tuple of cells that contain bindings for the names specified in the co_freevars attribute of the function's code object.

Un objet cellule possède un attribut cell_contents. Il peut être utilisé pour obtenir la valeur de la cellule et pour en définir la valeur.

3.2.8.1.2. Special writable attributes

Most of these attributes check the type of the assigned value:

Attribut

Signification

function.__doc__

The function's documentation string, or None if unavailable.

function.__name__

The function's name. See also: __name__ attributes.

function.__qualname__

The function's qualified name. See also: __qualname__ attributes.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

function.__module__

Nom du module où la fonction est définie ou None si ce nom n'est pas disponible.

function.__defaults__

A tuple containing default parameter values for those parameters that have defaults, or None if no parameters have a default value.

function.__code__

The code object representing the compiled function body.

function.__dict__

The namespace supporting arbitrary function attributes. See also: __dict__ attributes.

function.__annotations__

A dictionary containing annotations of parameters. The keys of the dictionary are the parameter names, and 'return' for the return annotation, if provided. See also: object.__annotations__.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Annotations are now lazily evaluated. See PEP 649 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/].

function.__annotate__

The annotate function for this function, or None if the function has no annotations. See object.__annotate__.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

function.__kwdefaults__

A dictionary containing defaults for keyword-only parameters.

function.__type_params__

A tuple containing the type parameters of a generic function.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Function objects also support getting and setting arbitrary attributes, which can be used, for example, to attach metadata to functions. Regular attribute dot-notation is used to get and set such attributes.

Particularité de l'implémentation CPython : CPython's current implementation only supports function attributes on user-defined functions. Function attributes on built-in functions may be supported in the future.

Additional information about a function's definition can be retrieved from its code object (accessible via the __code__ attribute).

3.2.8.2. Méthodes d'instances

Un objet méthode d'instance combine une classe, une instance de classe et tout objet appelable (normalement une fonction définie par l'utilisateur).

Special read-only attributes:

method.__self__

Refers to the class instance object to which the method is bound

method.__func__

Refers to the original function object

method.__doc__

The method's documentation (same as method.__func__.__doc__). A string if the original function had a docstring, else None.

method.__name__

The name of the method (same as method.__func__.__name__)

method.__module__

The name of the module the method was defined in, or None if unavailable.

Methods also support accessing (but not setting) the arbitrary function attributes on the underlying function object.

User-defined method objects may be created when getting an attribute of a class (perhaps via an instance of that class), if that attribute is a user-defined function object or a classmethod object.

When an instance method object is created by retrieving a user-defined function object from a class via one of its instances, its __self__ attribute is the instance, and the method object is said to be bound. The new method's __func__ attribute is the original function object.

When an instance method object is created by retrieving a classmethod object from a class or instance, its __self__ attribute is the class itself, and its __func__ attribute is the function object underlying the class method.

When an instance method object is called, the underlying function (__func__) is called, inserting the class instance (__self__) in front of the argument list. For instance, when C is a class which contains a definition for a function f(), and x is an instance of C, calling x.f(1) is equivalent to calling C.f(x, 1).

When an instance method object is derived from a classmethod object, the "class instance" stored in __self__ will actually be the class itself, so that calling either x.f(1) or C.f(1) is equivalent to calling f(C,1) where f is the underlying function.

It is important to note that user-defined functions which are attributes of a class instance are not converted to bound methods; this only happens when the function is an attribute of the class.

3.2.8.3. Fonctions génératrices (ou générateurs)

Une fonction ou une méthode qui utilise l'instruction yield (voir la section L'instruction yield) est appelée fonction génératrice. Une telle fonction, lorsqu'elle est appelée, renvoie toujours un objet itérateur qui peut être utilisé pour exécuter le corps de la fonction : appeler la méthode iterator.__next__() de l'itérateur exécute la fonction jusqu'à ce qu'elle renvoie une valeur à l'aide de l'instruction yield. Quand la fonction exécute l'instruction return ou se termine, une exception StopIteration est levée et l'itérateur a atteint la fin de l'ensemble de valeurs qu'il peut renvoyer.

3.2.8.4. Fonctions coroutines

Une fonction ou méthode définie en utilisant async def est appelée fonction coroutine. Une telle fonction, quand elle est appelée, renvoie un objet coroutine. Elle peut contenir des expressions await ou async with ou des instructions async for. Voir également la section Objets coroutines.

3.2.8.5. Fonctions génératrices asynchrones

Une fonction ou une méthode définie avec async def et qui utilise l'instruction yield est appelée fonction génératrice asynchrone. Une telle fonction, quand elle est appelée, renvoie un objet itérateur asynchrone qui peut être utilisé dans des instructions async for pour exécuter le corps de la fonction.

Appeler la méthode aiterator.__anext__ de l'itérateur asynchrone renvoie un awaitable qui, lorsqu'on l'attend, s'exécute jusqu'à ce qu'il fournisse une valeur à l'aide de l'expression yield. Quand la fonction exécute une instruction return (sans valeur) ou arrive à la fin, une exception StopAsyncIteration est levée et l'itérateur asynchrone a atteint la fin de l'ensemble des valeurs qu'il peut produire.

3.2.8.6. Fonctions natives

A built-in function object is a wrapper around a C function. Examples of built-in functions are len() and math.sin() (math is a standard built-in module). The number and type of the arguments are determined by the C function. Special read-only attributes:

__doc__ is the function's documentation string, or None if unavailable. See function.__doc__.

__name__ is the function's name. See function.__name__.

__self__ is set to None (but see the next item).

__module__ is the name of the module the function was defined in or None if unavailable. See function.__module__.

3.2.8.7. Méthodes natives

This is really a different disguise of a built-in function, this time containing an object passed to the C function as an implicit extra argument. An example of a built-in method is alist.append(), assuming alist is a list object. In this case, the special read-only attribute __self__ is set to the object denoted by alist. (The attribute has the same semantics as it does with other instance methods.)

3.2.8.8. Classes

Classes are callable. These objects normally act as factories for new instances of themselves, but variations are possible for class types that override __new__(). The arguments of the call are passed to __new__() and, in the typical case, to __init__() to initialize the new instance.

3.2.8.9. Instances de classe

Les instances d'une classe peuvent devenir des appelables si vous définissez la méthode __call__() de leur classe.

3.2.9. Modules

Modules are a basic organizational unit of Python code, and are created by the import system as invoked either by the import statement, or by calling functions such as importlib.import_module() and built-in __import__(). A module object has a namespace implemented by a dictionary object (this is the dictionary referenced by the __globals__ attribute of functions defined in the module). Attribute references are translated to lookups in this dictionary, e.g., m.x is equivalent to m.__dict__["x"]. A module object does not contain the code object used to initialize the module (since it isn't needed once the initialization is done).

L'affectation d'un attribut met à jour le dictionnaire d'espace de nommage du module, par exemple m.x = 1 est équivalent à m.__dict__["x"] = 1.

3.2.9.1. Import-related attributes on module objects

Module objects have the following attributes that relate to the import system. When a module is created using the machinery associated with the import system, these attributes are filled in based on the module's spec, before the loader executes and loads the module.

To create a module dynamically rather than using the import system, it's recommended to use importlib.util.module_from_spec(), which will set the various import-controlled attributes to appropriate values. It's also possible to use the types.ModuleType constructor to create modules directly, but this technique is more error-prone, as most attributes must be manually set on the module object after it has been created when using this approach.

Prudence

With the exception of __name__, it is strongly recommended that you rely on __spec__ and its attributes instead of any of the other individual attributes listed in this subsection. Note that updating an attribute on __spec__ will not update the corresponding attribute on the module itself:

>>> import typing
>>> typing.__name__, typing.__spec__.name
('typing', 'typing')
>>> typing.__spec__.name = 'spelling'
>>> typing.__name__, typing.__spec__.name
('typing', 'spelling')
>>> typing.__name__ = 'keyboard_smashing'
>>> typing.__name__, typing.__spec__.name
('keyboard_smashing', 'spelling')

module.__name__

The name used to uniquely identify the module in the import system. For a directly executed module, this will be set to "__main__".

This attribute must be set to the fully qualified name of the module. It is expected to match the value of module.__spec__.name.

module.__spec__

A record of the module's import-system-related state.

Set to the module spec that was used when importing the module. See Spécificateurs de modules for more details.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

module.__package__

The package a module belongs to.

If the module is top-level (that is, not a part of any specific package) then the attribute should be set to '' (the empty string). Otherwise, it should be set to the name of the module's package (which can be equal to module.__name__ if the module itself is a package). See PEP 366 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0366/] for further details.

This attribute is used instead of __name__ to calculate explicit relative imports for main modules. It defaults to None for modules created dynamically using the types.ModuleType constructor; use importlib.util.module_from_spec() instead to ensure the attribute is set to a str.

It is strongly recommended that you use module.__spec__.parent instead of module.__package__. __package__ is now only used as a fallback if __spec__.parent is not set, and this fallback path is deprecated.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: This attribute now defaults to None for modules created dynamically using the types.ModuleType constructor. Previously the attribute was optional.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: The value of __package__ is expected to be the same as __spec__.parent. __package__ is now only used as a fallback during import resolution if __spec__.parent is not defined.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: ImportWarning is raised if an import resolution falls back to __package__ instead of __spec__.parent.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Raise DeprecationWarning instead of ImportWarning when falling back to __package__ during import resolution.

Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: __package__ will cease to be set or taken into consideration by the import system or standard library.

module.__loader__

The loader object that the import machinery used to load the module.

This attribute is mostly useful for introspection, but can be used for additional loader-specific functionality, for example getting data associated with a loader.

__loader__ defaults to None for modules created dynamically using the types.ModuleType constructor; use importlib.util.module_from_spec() instead to ensure the attribute is set to a loader object.

It is strongly recommended that you use module.__spec__.loader instead of module.__loader__.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: This attribute now defaults to None for modules created dynamically using the types.ModuleType constructor. Previously the attribute was optional.

Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.16: Setting __loader__ on a module while failing to set __spec__.loader is deprecated. In Python 3.16, __loader__ will cease to be set or taken into consideration by the import system or the standard library.

module.__path__

A (possibly empty) sequence of strings enumerating the locations where the package's submodules will be found. Non-package modules should not have a __path__ attribute. See l'attribut __path__ des modules for more details.

It is strongly recommended that you use module.__spec__.submodule_search_locations instead of module.__path__.

module.__file__

module.__cached__

__file__ and __cached__ are both optional attributes that may or may not be set. Both attributes should be a str when they are available.

__file__ indicates the pathname of the file from which the module was loaded (if loaded from a file), or the pathname of the shared library file for extension modules loaded dynamically from a shared library. It might be missing for certain types of modules, such as C modules that are statically linked into the interpreter, and the import system may opt to leave it unset if it has no semantic meaning (for example, a module loaded from a database).

If __file__ is set then the __cached__ attribute might also be set, which is the path to any compiled version of the code (for example, a byte-compiled file). The file does not need to exist to set this attribute; the path can simply point to where the compiled file would exist (see PEP 3147 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/]).

Note that __cached__ may be set even if __file__ is not set. However, that scenario is quite atypical. Ultimately, the loader is what makes use of the module spec provided by the finder (from which __file__ and __cached__ are derived). So if a loader can load from a cached module but otherwise does not load from a file, that atypical scenario may be appropriate.

It is strongly recommended that you use module.__spec__.cached instead of module.__cached__.

Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: Setting __cached__ on a module while failing to set __spec__.cached is deprecated. In Python 3.15, __cached__ will cease to be set or taken into consideration by the import system or standard library.

3.2.9.2. Other writable attributes on module objects

As well as the import-related attributes listed above, module objects also have the following writable attributes:

module.__doc__

The module's documentation string, or None if unavailable. See also: __doc__ attributes.

module.__annotations__

A dictionary containing variable annotations collected during module body execution. For best practices on working with __annotations__, see annotationlib.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Annotations are now lazily evaluated. See PEP 649 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/].

module.__annotate__

The annotate function for this module, or None if the module has no annotations. See also: __annotate__ attributes.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

3.2.9.3. Module dictionaries

Module objects also have the following special read-only attribute:

module.__dict__

The module's namespace as a dictionary object. Uniquely among the attributes listed here, __dict__ cannot be accessed as a global variable from within a module; it can only be accessed as an attribute on module objects.

en raison de la manière dont CPython nettoie les dictionnaires de modules, le dictionnaire du module est effacé quand le module n'est plus visible, même si le dictionnaire possède encore des références actives. Pour éviter ceci, copiez le dictionnaire ou gardez le module dans votre champ de visibilité tant que vous souhaitez utiliser le dictionnaire directement.

3.2.10. Classes déclarées par le développeur

Custom class types are typically created by class definitions (see section Définition de classes). A class has a namespace implemented by a dictionary object. Class attribute references are translated to lookups in this dictionary, e.g., C.x is translated to C.__dict__["x"] (although there are a number of hooks which allow for other means of locating attributes). When the attribute name is not found there, the attribute search continues in the base classes. This search of the base classes uses the C3 method resolution order which behaves correctly even in the presence of 'diamond' inheritance structures where there are multiple inheritance paths leading back to a common ancestor. Additional details on the C3 MRO used by Python can be found at The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order.

When a class attribute reference (for class C, say) would yield a class method object, it is transformed into an instance method object whose __self__ attribute is C. When it would yield a staticmethod object, it is transformed into the object wrapped by the static method object. See section Implémentation de descripteurs for another way in which attributes retrieved from a class may differ from those actually contained in its __dict__.

Les affectations d'un attribut de classe mettent à jour le dictionnaire de la classe, jamais le dictionnaire d'une classe de base.

Un objet classe peut être appelé (voir ci-dessus) pour produire une instance de classe (voir ci-dessous).

3.2.10.1. Special attributes

Attribut

Signification

type.__name__

The class's name. See also: __name__ attributes.

type.__qualname__

The class's qualified name. See also: __qualname__ attributes.

type.__module__

Nom du module où la classe a été définie.

type.__dict__

A mapping proxy providing a read-only view of the class's namespace. See also: __dict__ attributes.

type.__bases__

A tuple containing the class's bases. In most cases, for a class defined as class X(A, B, C), X.__bases__ will be exactly equal to (A, B, C).

type.__base__

Particularité de l'implémentation CPython : The single base class in the inheritance chain that is responsible for the memory layout of instances. This attribute corresponds to tp_base at the C level.

type.__doc__

The class's documentation string, or None if undefined. Not inherited by subclasses.

type.__annotations__

A dictionary containing variable annotations collected during class body execution. See also: __annotations__ attributes.

For best practices on working with __annotations__, please see annotationlib. Use annotationlib.get_annotations() instead of accessing this attribute directly.

Avertissement

Accessing the __annotations__ attribute directly on a class object may return annotations for the wrong class, specifically in certain cases where the class, its base class, or a metaclass is defined under from __future__ import annotations. See 749 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0749/#pep749-metaclasses] for details.

This attribute does not exist on certain builtin classes. On user-defined classes without __annotations__, it is an empty dictionary.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Annotations are now lazily evaluated. See PEP 649 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/].

type.__annotate__()

The annotate function for this class, or None if the class has no annotations. See also: __annotate__ attributes.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

type.__type_params__

A tuple containing the type parameters of a generic class.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

type.__static_attributes__

A tuple containing names of attributes of this class which are assigned through self.X from any function in its body.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

type.__firstlineno__

The line number of the first line of the class definition, including decorators. Setting the __module__ attribute removes the __firstlineno__ item from the type's dictionary.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

type.__mro__

The tuple of classes that are considered when looking for base classes during method resolution.

3.2.10.2. Special methods

In addition to the special attributes described above, all Python classes also have the following two methods available:

type.mro()

This method can be overridden by a metaclass to customize the method resolution order for its instances. It is called at class instantiation, and its result is stored in __mro__.

type.__subclasses__()

Each class keeps a list of weak references to its immediate subclasses. This method returns a list of all those references still alive. The list is in definition order. Example:

>>> class A: pass
>>> class B(A): pass
>>> A.__subclasses__()
[<class 'B'>]

3.2.11. Instances de classe

A class instance is created by calling a class object (see above). A class instance has a namespace implemented as a dictionary which is the first place in which attribute references are searched. When an attribute is not found there, and the instance's class has an attribute by that name, the search continues with the class attributes. If a class attribute is found that is a user-defined function object, it is transformed into an instance method object whose __self__ attribute is the instance. Static method and class method objects are also transformed; see above under "Classes". See section Implémentation de descripteurs for another way in which attributes of a class retrieved via its instances may differ from the objects actually stored in the class's __dict__. If no class attribute is found, and the object's class has a __getattr__() method, that is called to satisfy the lookup.

Les affectations et suppressions d'attributs mettent à jour le dictionnaire de l'instance, jamais le dictionnaire de la classe. Si la classe possède une méthode __setattr__() ou __delattr__(), elle est appelée au lieu de mettre à jour le dictionnaire de l'instance directement.

Les instances de classes peuvent prétendre être des nombres, des séquences ou des tableaux de correspondances si elles ont des méthodes avec des noms spéciaux. Voir la section Méthodes spéciales.

3.2.11.1. Special attributes

object.__class__

Classe de l'instance de classe.

object.__dict__

A dictionary or other mapping object used to store an object's (writable) attributes. Not all instances have a __dict__ attribute; see the section on créneaux prédéfinis (__slots__) for more details.

3.2.12. Objets entrées-sorties (ou objets fichiers)

Un objet fichier représente un fichier ouvert. Différents raccourcis existent pour créer des objets fichiers : la fonction native open() et aussi os.popen(), os.fdopen() ou la méthode makefile() des objets connecteurs (et sûrement d'autres fonctions ou méthodes fournies par les modules d'extensions).

File objects implement common methods, listed below, to simplify usage in generic code. They are expected to be Gestionnaire de contexte With.

Les objets sys.stdin, sys.stdout et sys.stderr sont initialisés à des objets fichiers correspondant à l'entrée standard, la sortie standard et le flux d'erreurs de l'interpréteur ; ils sont tous ouverts en mode texte et se conforment donc à l'interface définie par la classe abstraite io.TextIOBase.

file.read(size=-1, /)

Retrieve up to size data from the file. As a convenience if size is unspecified or -1 retrieve all data available.

file.write(data, /)

Store data to the file.

file.close()

Flush any buffers and close the underlying file.

3.2.13. Types internes

Quelques types utilisés en interne par l'interpréteur sont accessibles à l'utilisateur. Leur définition peut changer dans les futures versions de l'interpréteur mais ils sont donnés ci-dessous à fin d'exhaustivité.

3.2.13.1. Objets Code

Un objet code représente le code Python sous sa forme compilée en code intermédiaire. La différence entre un objet code et un objet fonction est que l'objet fonction contient une référence explicite vers les globales de la fonction (le module dans lequel elle est définie) alors qu'un objet code ne contient aucun contexte ; par ailleurs, les valeurs par défaut des arguments sont stockées dans l'objet fonction, pas dans l'objet code (parce que ce sont des valeurs calculées au moment de l'exécution). Contrairement aux objets fonctions, les objets codes sont immuables et ne contiennent aucune référence (directe ou indirecte) à des objets mutables.

3.2.13.1.1. Special read-only attributes

codeobject.co_name

The function name

codeobject.co_qualname

The fully qualified function name

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

codeobject.co_argcount

The total number of positional parameters (including positional-only parameters and parameters with default values) that the function has

codeobject.co_posonlyargcount

The number of positional-only parameters (including arguments with default values) that the function has

codeobject.co_kwonlyargcount

The number of keyword-only parameters (including arguments with default values) that the function has

codeobject.co_nlocals

The number of local variables used by the function (including parameters)

codeobject.co_varnames

A tuple containing the names of the local variables in the function (starting with the parameter names)

codeobject.co_cellvars

A tuple containing the names of local variables that are referenced from at least one nested scope inside the function

codeobject.co_freevars

A tuple containing the names of free (closure) variables that a nested scope references in an outer scope. See also function.__closure__.

Note: references to global and builtin names are not included.

codeobject.co_code

A string representing the sequence of bytecode instructions in the function

codeobject.co_consts

A tuple containing the literals used by the bytecode in the function

codeobject.co_names

A tuple containing the names used by the bytecode in the function

codeobject.co_filename

The name of the file from which the code was compiled

codeobject.co_firstlineno

The line number of the first line of the function

codeobject.co_lnotab

A string encoding the mapping from bytecode offsets to line numbers. For details, see the source code of the interpreter.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.12: This attribute of code objects is deprecated, and may be removed in Python 3.15.

codeobject.co_stacksize

The required stack size of the code object

codeobject.co_flags

An integer encoding a number of flags for the interpreter.

The following flag bits are defined for co_flags: bit 0x04 is set if the function uses the *arguments syntax to accept an arbitrary number of positional arguments; bit 0x08 is set if the function uses the **keywords syntax to accept arbitrary keyword arguments; bit 0x20 is set if the function is a generator. See Bit d'option des objets code for details on the semantics of each flags that might be present.

Future feature declarations (for example, from __future__ import division) also use bits in co_flags to indicate whether a code object was compiled with a particular feature enabled. See compiler_flag.

Other bits in co_flags are reserved for internal use.

If a code object represents a function and has a docstring, the CO_HAS_DOCSTRING bit is set in co_flags and the first item in co_consts is the docstring of the function.

3.2.13.1.2. Methods on code objects

codeobject.co_positions()

Returns an iterable over the source code positions of each bytecode instruction in the code object.

The iterator returns tuples containing the (start_line, end_line, start_column, end_column). The i-th tuple corresponds to the position of the source code that compiled to the i-th code unit. Column information is 0-indexed utf-8 byte offsets on the given source line.

L'information sur la position peut être manquante. Ce peut être le cas si (liste non exhaustive) :

l'interpréteur est lancé avec l'option -X no_debug_ranges ;

le fichier .pyc est le produit d'une compilation avec l'option -X no_debug_ranges ;

le n-uplet de position correspond à des instructions artificielles ;

les lignes et colonnes ne peuvent pas être représentées en tant que nombre, en raison de limitations dues à l'implémentation ;

Dans ce cas, certains ou tous les éléments du n-uplet peuvent valoir None.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

Note

cette fonctionnalité nécessite de stocker les positions de colonne dans les objets code, ce qui peut conduire à une légère augmentation de l'utilisation du disque par les fichiers Python compilés ou de l'utilisation de la mémoire. Pour éviter de stocker cette information supplémentaire ou pour désactiver l'affichage supplémentaire dans la pile d'appels, vous pouvez activer l'option de ligne de commande -X no_debug_ranges ou la variable d'environnement PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES.

codeobject.co_lines()

Returns an iterator that yields information about successive ranges of bytecodes. Each item yielded is a (start, end, lineno) tuple:

start (an int) represents the offset (inclusive) of the start of the bytecode range

end (an int) represents the offset (exclusive) of the end of the bytecode range

lineno is an int representing the line number of the bytecode range, or None if the bytecodes in the given range have no line number

The items yielded will have the following properties:

The first range yielded will have a start of 0.

The (start, end) ranges will be non-decreasing and consecutive. That is, for any pair of tuples, the start of the second will be equal to the end of the first.

No range will be backwards: end >= start for all triples.

The last tuple yielded will have end equal to the size of the bytecode.

Zero-width ranges, where start == end, are allowed. Zero-width ranges are used for lines that are present in the source code, but have been eliminated by the bytecode compiler.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

Voir aussi

PEP 626 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/] - Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools.

The PEP that introduced the co_lines() method.

codeobject.replace(**kwargs)

Return a copy of the code object with new values for the specified fields.

Code objects are also supported by the generic function copy.replace().

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

3.2.13.2. Objets cadres

Frame objects represent execution frames. They may occur in traceback objects, and are also passed to registered trace functions.

3.2.13.2.1. Special read-only attributes

frame.f_back

Points to the previous stack frame (towards the caller), or None if this is the bottom stack frame

frame.f_code

The code object being executed in this frame. Accessing this attribute raises an auditing event object.__getattr__ with arguments obj and "f_code".

frame.f_locals

The mapping used by the frame to look up local variables. If the frame refers to an optimized scope, this may return a write-through proxy object.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Return a proxy for optimized scopes.

frame.f_globals

The dictionary used by the frame to look up global variables

frame.f_builtins

The dictionary used by the frame to look up built-in (intrinsic) names

frame.f_lasti

The "precise instruction" of the frame object (this is an index into the bytecode string of the code object)

frame.f_generator

The generator or coroutine object that owns this frame, or None if the frame is a normal function.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

3.2.13.2.2. Special writable attributes

frame.f_trace

If not None, this is a function called for various events during code execution (this is used by debuggers). Normally an event is triggered for each new source line (see f_trace_lines).

frame.f_trace_lines

Set this attribute to False to disable triggering a tracing event for each source line.

frame.f_trace_opcodes

Set this attribute to True to allow per-opcode events to be requested. Note that this may lead to undefined interpreter behaviour if exceptions raised by the trace function escape to the function being traced.

frame.f_lineno

The current line number of the frame -- writing to this from within a trace function jumps to the given line (only for the bottom-most frame). A debugger can implement a Jump command (aka Set Next Statement) by writing to this attribute.

3.2.13.2.3. Frame object methods

Les objets cadres comprennent une méthode :

frame.clear()

This method clears all references to local variables held by the frame. Also, if the frame belonged to a generator, the generator is finalized. This helps break reference cycles involving frame objects (for example when catching an exception and storing its traceback for later use).

RuntimeError is raised if the frame is currently executing or suspended.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Attempting to clear a suspended frame raises RuntimeError (as has always been the case for executing frames).

3.2.13.3. Objets traces d'appels

Traceback objects represent the stack trace of an exception. A traceback object is implicitly created when an exception occurs, and may also be explicitly created by calling types.TracebackType.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Traceback objects can now be explicitly instantiated from Python code.

For implicitly created tracebacks, when the search for an exception handler unwinds the execution stack, at each unwound level a traceback object is inserted in front of the current traceback. When an exception handler is entered, the stack trace is made available to the program. (See section L'instruction try.) It is accessible as the third item of the tuple returned by sys.exc_info(), and as the __traceback__ attribute of the caught exception.

When the program contains no suitable handler, the stack trace is written (nicely formatted) to the standard error stream; if the interpreter is interactive, it is also made available to the user as sys.last_traceback.

For explicitly created tracebacks, it is up to the creator of the traceback to determine how the tb_next attributes should be linked to form a full stack trace.

Special read-only attributes:

traceback.tb_frame

Points to the execution frame of the current level.

Accessing this attribute raises an auditing event object.__getattr__ with arguments obj and "tb_frame".

traceback.tb_lineno

Gives the line number where the exception occurred

traceback.tb_lasti

Indicates the "precise instruction".

The line number and last instruction in the traceback may differ from the line number of its frame object if the exception occurred in a try statement with no matching except clause or with a finally clause.

traceback.tb_next

The special writable attribute tb_next is the next level in the stack trace (towards the frame where the exception occurred), or None if there is no next level.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: This attribute is now writable

3.2.13.4. Objets tranches

Un objet tranche est utilisé pour représenter des découpes des méthodes __getitem__(). Ils sont aussi créés par la fonction native slice().

Attributs spéciaux en lecture seule : start est la borne inférieure ; stop est la borne supérieure ; step est la valeur du pas ; chaque attribut vaut None s'il est omis. Ces attributs peuvent être de n'importe quel type.

Les objets tranches comprennent une méthode :

slice.indices(self, length)

Cette méthode prend un argument entier length et calcule les informations de la tranche que l'objet slice décrit s'il est appliqué à une séquence de length éléments. Elle renvoie un triplet d'entiers ; respectivement, ce sont les indices de début et fin ainsi que le pas de découpe. Les indices manquants ou en dehors sont gérés de manière cohérente avec les tranches normales.

3.2.13.5. Objets méthodes statiques

Les objets méthodes statiques permettent la transformation des objets fonctions en objets méthodes décrits au-dessus. Un objet méthode statique encapsule tout autre objet, souvent un objet méthode définie par l'utilisateur. Quand un objet méthode statique est récupéré depuis une classe ou une instance de classe, l'objet réellement renvoyé est un objet encapsulé, qui n'a pas vocation à être transformé encore une fois. Les objets méthodes statiques sont aussi appelables. Les objets méthodes statiques sont créés par le constructeur natif staticmethod().

3.2.13.6. Objets méthodes de classes

A class method object, like a static method object, is a wrapper around another object that alters the way in which that object is retrieved from classes and class instances. The behaviour of class method objects upon such retrieval is described above, under "instance methods". Class method objects are created by the built-in classmethod() constructor.

3.3. Méthodes spéciales

Une classe peut implémenter certaines opérations que l'on invoque par une syntaxe spéciale (telles que les opérations arithmétiques ou la découpe en tranches) en définissant des méthodes aux noms particuliers. C'est l'approche utilisée par Python pour la surcharge d'opérateur, permettant à une classe de définir son propre comportement vis-à-vis des opérateurs du langage. Par exemple, si une classe définit une méthode __getitem__() et que x est une instance de cette classe, alors x[i] est globalement équivalent à type(x).__getitem__(x, i). Sauf lorsque c'est mentionné, toute tentative d'appliquer une opération alors que la méthode appropriée n'est pas définie lève une exception (typiquement AttributeError ou TypeError).

Définir une méthode spéciale à None indique que l'opération correspondante n'est pas disponible. Par exemple, si une classe assigne None à __iter__(), vous ne pouvez pas itérer sur la classe et appeler iter() sur une instance lève TypeError (sans se replier sur __getitem__()) [2].

When implementing a class that emulates any built-in type, it is important that the emulation only be implemented to the degree that it makes sense for the object being modelled. For example, some sequences may work well with retrieval of individual elements, but extracting a slice may not make sense. (One example of this is the NodeList interface in the W3C's Document Object Model.)

3.3.1. Personnalisation de base

object.__new__(cls[, ...])

Appelée pour créer une nouvelle instance de la classe cls. La méthode __new__() est statique (c'est un cas particulier, vous n'avez pas besoin de la déclarer comme telle) qui prend comme premier argument la classe pour laquelle on veut créer une instance. Les autres arguments sont ceux passés à l'expression de l'objet constructeur (l'appel à la classe). La valeur de retour de __new__() doit être l'instance du nouvel objet (classiquement une instance de cls).

Typical implementations create a new instance of the class by invoking the superclass's __new__() method using super().__new__(cls[, ...]) with appropriate arguments and then modifying the newly created instance as necessary before returning it.

Si __new__() est appelée pendant la construction de l'objet et renvoie une instance de cls, alors la méthode __init__() de la nouvelle instance est invoquée avec __init__(self[, …]) où self est la nouvelle instance et les autres arguments sont les mêmes que ceux passés au constructeur de l'objet.

Si __new__() ne renvoie pas une instance de cls, alors la méthode __init__() de la nouvelle instance n'est pas invoquée.

L'objectif de __new__() est principalement, pour les sous-classes de types immuables (comme int, str ou tuple), d'autoriser la création sur mesure des instances. Elle est aussi souvent surchargée dans les métaclasses pour particulariser la création des classes.

object.__init__(self[, ...])

Appelée après la création de l'instance (par __new__()), mais avant le retour vers l'appelant. Les arguments sont ceux passés à l'expression du constructeur de classe. Si une classe de base possède une méthode __init__(), la méthode __init__() de la classe dérivée, si elle existe, doit explicitement appeler cette méthode pour assurer une initialisation correcte de la partie classe de base de l'instance ; par exemple : super().__init__([args…]).

Comme __new__() et __init__() travaillent ensemble pour créer des objets (__new__() pour le créer, __init__() pour le particulariser), __init__() ne doit pas renvoyer de valeur None ; sinon une exception TypeError est levée à l'exécution.

object.__del__(self)

Appelée au moment où une instance est sur le point d'être détruite. On l'appelle aussi finaliseur ou (improprement) destructeur. Si une classe de base possède une méthode __del__(), la méthode __del__() de la classe dérivée, si elle existe, doit explicitement l'appeler pour s'assurer de l'effacement correct de la partie classe de base de l'instance.

Il est possible (mais pas recommandé) que la méthode __del__() retarde la destruction de l'instance en créant une nouvelle référence vers cet objet. Python appelle ceci la résurrection d'objet. En fonction de l'implémentation, __del__() peut être appelée une deuxième fois au moment où l'objet ressuscité va être détruit ; l'implémentation actuelle de CPython ne l'appelle qu'une fois.

It is not guaranteed that __del__() methods are called for objects that still exist when the interpreter exits. weakref.finalize provides a straightforward way to register a cleanup function to be called when an object is garbage collected.

Note

del x n'appelle pas directement x.__del__() — la première décrémente le compteur de références de x. La seconde n'est appelée que quand le compteur de références de x atteint zéro.

Il est possible qu'un cycle de référence empêche le compteur de références d'un objet d'atteindre zéro. Dans ce cas, le cycle sera ultérieurement détecté et supprimé par le ramasse-miettes. Une cause fréquente de cycle de références est lorsqu'une exception a été interceptée dans une variable locale. Les paramètres locaux de la trame font ensuite référence à l'exception, qui fait référence à sa propre trace d'appels, qui fait référence aux paramètres locaux de toutes les cadres capturés dans la trace d'appels.

Voir aussi

Documentation du module gc.

Avertissement

en raison des conditions particulières qui règnent quand __del__() est appelée, les exceptions levées pendant son exécution sont ignorées et, à la place, un avertissement est affiché sur sys.stderr. En particulier :

__del__() peut être invoquée quand du code arbitraire est en cours d'exécution, et ce dans n'importe quel fil d'exécution. Si __del__() a besoin de poser un verrou ou d'accéder à tout autre ressource bloquante, elle peut provoquer un blocage mutuel (deadlock en anglais) car la ressource peut être déjà utilisée par le code qui est interrompu pour exécuter la méthode __del__().

__del__() peut être exécutée pendant que l'interpréteur se ferme. En conséquence, les variables globales auxquelles elle souhaite accéder (y compris les autres modules) peuvent déjà être détruites ou assignées à None. Python garantit que les variables globales dont le nom commence par un tiret bas sont supprimées de leur module avant que les autres variables globales ne le soient ; si aucune autre référence vers ces variables globales n'existe, cela peut aider à s'assurer que les modules importés soient toujours accessibles au moment où la méthode __del__() est appelée.

object.__repr__(self)

Appelée par la fonction native repr() pour calculer la représentation « officielle » en chaîne de caractères d'un objet. Tout est fait pour que celle-ci ressemble à une expression Python valide pouvant être utilisée pour recréer un objet avec la même valeur (dans un environnement donné). Si ce n'est pas possible, une chaîne de la forme <…une description utile…> est renvoyée. La valeur renvoyée doit être un objet chaîne de caractères. Si une classe définit __repr__() mais pas __str__(), alors __repr__() est aussi utilisée quand une représentation « informelle » en chaîne de caractères est demandée pour une instance de cette classe.

This is typically used for debugging, so it is important that the representation is information-rich and unambiguous. A default implementation is provided by the object class itself.

object.__str__(self)

Called by str(object), the default __format__() implementation, and the built-in function print(), to compute the "informal" or nicely printable string representation of an object. The return value must be a str object.

Cette méthode diffère de object.__repr__() car il n'est pas attendu que __str__() renvoie une expression Python valide : une représentation plus agréable à lire ou plus concise peut être utilisée.

L'implémentation par défaut du type natif object appelle object.__repr__() .

object.__bytes__(self)

Called by bytes to compute a byte-string representation of an object. This should return a bytes object. The object class itself does not provide this method.

object.__format__(self, format_spec)

Appelée par la fonction native format() et, par extension, lors de l'évaluation de chaînes de caractères littérales formatées et la méthode str.format(). Elle produit une chaîne de caractères « formatée » représentant un objet. L'argument format_spec est une chaîne de caractères contenant la description des options de formatage voulues. L'interprétation de l'argument format_spec est laissée au type implémentant __format__(). Cependant, la plupart des classes délèguent le formatage aux types natifs ou utilisent une syntaxe similaire pour les options de formatage.

Lisez Format specification mini-language pour une description de la syntaxe standard du formatage.

La valeur renvoyée doit être un objet chaîne de caractères.

The default implementation by the object class should be given an empty format_spec string. It delegates to __str__().

Modifié dans la version 3.4: la méthode __format__ de object lui-même lève une TypeError si vous lui passez une chaîne non vide.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: object.__format__(x, '') est maintenant équivalent à str(x) plutôt qu'à format(str(x), '').

object.__lt__(self, other)

object.__le__(self, other)

object.__eq__(self, other)

object.__ne__(self, other)

object.__gt__(self, other)

object.__ge__(self, other)

Ce sont les méthodes dites de « comparaisons riches ». La correspondance entre les symboles opérateurs et les noms de méthodes est la suivante : x<y appelle x.__lt__(y), x<=y appelle x.__le__(y), x==y appelle x.__eq__(y), x!=y appelle x.__ne__(y), x>y appelle x.__gt__(y) et x>=y appelle x.__ge__(y).

A rich comparison method may return the singleton NotImplemented if it does not implement the operation for a given pair of arguments. By convention, False and True are returned for a successful comparison. However, these methods can return any value, so if the comparison operator is used in a Boolean context (e.g., in the condition of an if statement), Python will call bool() on the value to determine if the result is true or false.

By default, object implements __eq__() by using is, returning NotImplemented in the case of a false comparison: True if x is y else NotImplemented. For __ne__(), by default it delegates to __eq__() and inverts the result unless it is NotImplemented. There are no other implied relationships among the comparison operators or default implementations; for example, the truth of (x<y or x==y) does not imply x<=y. To automatically generate ordering operations from a single root operation, see functools.total_ordering().

By default, the object class provides implementations consistent with Comparaisons de valeurs: equality compares according to object identity, and order comparisons raise TypeError. Each default method may generate these results directly, but may also return NotImplemented.

Lisez le paragraphe __hash__() pour connaître certaines notions importantes relatives à la création d'objets hachables qui acceptent les opérations de comparaison personnalisées et qui sont utilisables en tant que clés de dictionnaires.

There are no swapped-argument versions of these methods (to be used when the left argument does not support the operation but the right argument does); rather, __lt__() and __gt__() are each other's reflection, __le__() and __ge__() are each other's reflection, and __eq__() and __ne__() are their own reflection. If the operands are of different types, and the right operand's type is a direct or indirect subclass of the left operand's type, the reflected method of the right operand has priority, otherwise the left operand's method has priority. Virtual subclassing is not considered.

When no appropriate method returns any value other than NotImplemented, the == and != operators will fall back to is and is not, respectively.

object.__hash__(self)

Appelée par la fonction native hash() et par les opérations sur les membres de collections hachées (ce qui comprend set, frozenset et dict). La méthode __hash__() doit renvoyer un entier. La seule propriété requise est que les objets qui sont égaux pour la comparaison doivent avoir la même valeur de hachage ; il est conseillé de mélanger les valeurs de hachage des composants d'un objet qui jouent un rôle dans la comparaison des objets, en les emballant dans un n-uplet dont on calcule l'empreinte. Par exemple :

def __hash__(self):
    return hash((self.name, self.nick, self.color))

Note

hash() limite la valeur renvoyée d'un objet ayant une méthode __hash__() personnalisée à la taille d'un Py_ssize_t. C'est classiquement 8 octets pour une implémentation 64 bits et 4 octets sur une implémentation 32 bits. Si la méthode __hash__() d'un objet doit être interopérable sur des plateformes ayant des implémentations différentes, assurez-vous de vérifier la taille du hachage sur toutes les plateformes. Une manière facile de le faire est la suivante : python -c "import sys; print(sys.hash_info.width)".

If a class does not define an __eq__() method it should not define a __hash__() operation either; if it defines __eq__() but not __hash__(), its instances will not be usable as items in hashable collections. If a class defines mutable objects and implements an __eq__() method, it should not implement __hash__(), since the implementation of hashable collections requires that a key's hash value is immutable (if the object's hash value changes, it will be in the wrong hash bucket).

User-defined classes have __eq__() and __hash__() methods by default (inherited from the object class); with them, all objects compare unequal (except with themselves) and x.__hash__() returns an appropriate value such that x == y implies both that x is y and hash(x) == hash(y).

Une classe qui surcharge __eq__() et qui ne définit pas __hash__() a sa méthode __hash__() implicitement assignée à None. Quand la méthode __hash__() d'une classe est None, une instance de cette classe lève TypeError quand un programme essaie de demander son empreinte et elle est correctement identifiée comme non hachable quand on vérifie isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Hashable).

Si une classe qui surcharge __eq__() a besoin de conserver l'implémentation de __hash__() de la classe parente, vous devez l'indiquer explicitement à l'interpréteur en définissant __hash__ = <ClasseParente>.__hash__.

Si une classe ne surcharge pas __eq__() et veut supprimer le calcul des empreintes, elle doit inclure __hash__ = None dans la définition de la classe. Une classe qui définit sa propre méthode __hash__() qui lève explicitement TypeError serait incorrectement identifiée comme hachable par un appel à isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Hashable).

Note

par défaut, les valeurs renvoyées par __hash__() pour les chaînes et les bytes sont « salées » avec une valeur aléatoire non prévisible. Bien qu'une empreinte reste constante tout au long d'un processus Python, sa valeur n'est pas prévisible entre deux invocations de Python.

This is intended to provide protection against a denial-of-service caused by carefully chosen inputs that exploit the worst case performance of a dict insertion, O(n²) complexity. See https://ocert.org/advisories/ocert-2011-003.html for details.

Modifier les empreintes obtenues par hachage modifie l'ordre d'itération sur les sets. Python n'a jamais donné de garantie sur cet ordre (d'ailleurs, l'ordre n'est pas le même entre les implémentations 32 et 64 bits).

Voir aussi PYTHONHASHSEED.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: la randomisation des empreintes est activée par défaut.

object.__bool__(self)

Called to implement truth value testing and the built-in operation bool(); should return False or True. When this method is not defined, __len__() is called, if it is defined, and the object is considered true if its result is nonzero. If a class defines neither __len__() nor __bool__() (which is true of the object class itself), all its instances are considered true.

3.3.2. Personnalisation de l'accès aux attributs

Les méthodes suivantes peuvent être définies pour personnaliser l'accès aux attributs (utilisation, assignation, suppression de x.name) pour les instances de classes.

object.__getattr__(self, name)

Called when the default attribute access fails with an AttributeError (either __getattribute__() raises an AttributeError because name is not an instance attribute or an attribute in the class tree for self; or __get__() of a name property raises AttributeError). This method should either return the (computed) attribute value or raise an AttributeError exception. The object class itself does not provide this method.

Note that if the attribute is found through the normal mechanism, __getattr__() is not called. (This is an intentional asymmetry between __getattr__() and __setattr__().) This is done both for efficiency reasons and because otherwise __getattr__() would have no way to access other attributes of the instance. Note that at least for instance variables, you can take total control by not inserting any values in the instance attribute dictionary (but instead inserting them in another object). See the __getattribute__() method below for a way to actually get total control over attribute access.

object.__getattribute__(self, name)

Appelée de manière inconditionnelle pour implémenter l'accès aux attributs des instances de la classe. Si la classe définit également __getattr__(), cette dernière n'est pas appelée à moins que __getattribute__() ne l'appelle explicitement ou ne lève une exception AttributeError. Cette méthode doit renvoyer la valeur (calculée) de l'attribut ou lever une exception AttributeError. Afin d'éviter une récursion infinie sur cette méthode, son implémentation doit toujours appeler la méthode de la classe de base avec le même paramètre name pour accéder à n'importe quel attribut dont elle a besoin. Par exemple, object.__getattribute__(self, name).

Note

This method may still be bypassed when looking up special methods as the result of implicit invocation via language syntax or built-in functions. See Recherche des méthodes spéciales.

Pour les accès à certains attributs sensibles, lève un événement d'audit object.__getattr__ avec les arguments obj et name.

object.__setattr__(self, name, value)

Appelée lors d'une assignation d'attribut. Elle est appelée à la place du mécanisme normal (c'est-à-dire stocker la valeur dans le dictionnaire de l'instance). name est le nom de l'attribut, value est la valeur à assigner à cet attribut.

Si __setattr__() veut assigner un attribut d'instance, elle doit appeler la méthode de la classe de base avec le même nom, par exemple object.__setattr__(self, name, value).

Pour les assignations de certains attributs sensibles, lève un événement d'audit object.__setattr__ avec les arguments obj, name et value.

object.__delattr__(self, name)

Comme __setattr__() mais pour supprimer un attribut au lieu de l'assigner. Elle ne doit être implémentée que si del obj.name a du sens pour cet objet.

Pour les suppressions de certains attributs sensibles, lève un événement d'audit object.__deltattr__ avec les arguments obj et name.

object.__dir__(self)

Called when dir() is called on the object. An iterable must be returned. dir() converts the returned iterable to a list and sorts it.

3.3.2.1. Personnalisation de l'accès aux attributs d'un module

module.__getattr__()

module.__dir__()

Les noms spéciaux __getattr__ et __dir__ peuvent aussi être personnalisés pour accéder aux attributs du module. La fonction __getattr__ au niveau du module doit accepter un argument qui est un nom d'attribut et doit renvoyer la valeur calculée ou lever une AttributeError. Si un attribut n'est pas trouvé dans l'objet module en utilisant la recherche normale, c'est-à-dire object.__getattribute__(), alors Python recherche __getattr__ dans le __dict__ du module avant de lever une AttributeError. S'il la trouve, il l'appelle avec le nom de l'attribut et renvoie le résultat.

The __dir__ function should accept no arguments, and return an iterable of strings that represents the names accessible on module. If present, this function overrides the standard dir() search on a module.

module.__class__

Pour une personnalisation plus fine du comportement d'un module (assignation des attributs, propriétés, etc.), vous pouvez assigner l'attribut __class__ d'un objet module à une sous-classe de types.ModuleType. Par exemple :

import sys
from types import ModuleType

class VerboseModule(ModuleType):
    def __repr__(self):
        return f'Verbose {self.__name__}'

    def __setattr__(self, attr, value):
        print(f'Setting {attr}...')
        super().__setattr__(attr, value)

sys.modules[__name__].__class__ = VerboseModule

Note

définir __getattr__ du module et __class__ pour le module impacte uniquement les recherches qui utilisent la syntaxe d'accès aux attributs — accéder directement aux globales d'un module (soit par le code dans le module, soit via une référence au dictionnaire des variables globales du module) fonctionne toujours de la même façon.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: l'attribut __class__ du module est maintenant en lecture-écriture.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7: attributs __getattr__ et __dir__ du module.

Voir aussi

PEP 562 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0562/] — __getattr__ et __dir__ pour un module

Décrit les fonctions __getattr__ et __dir__ des modules.

3.3.2.2. Implémentation de descripteurs

The following methods only apply when an instance of the class containing the method (a so-called descriptor class) appears in an owner class (the descriptor must be in either the owner's class dictionary or in the class dictionary for one of its parents). In the examples below, "the attribute" refers to the attribute whose name is the key of the property in the owner class' __dict__. The object class itself does not implement any of these protocols.

object.__get__(self, instance, owner=None)

Appelée pour obtenir l'attribut de la classe propriétaire (accès à un attribut de classe) ou d'une instance de cette classe (accès à un attribut d'instance). L'argument optionnel owner est la classe propriétaire alors que instance est l'instance par laquelle on accède à l'attribut ou None lorsque l'on accède par la classe owner.

Il convient que cette méthode renvoie la valeur calculée de l'attribut ou lève une exception AttributeError.

La PEP 252 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0252/] spécifie que __get__() soit un appelable avec un ou deux arguments. Les descripteurs natifs de Python suivent cette spécification ; cependant, il est probable que des outils tiers aient des descripteurs qui requièrent les deux arguments. L'implémentation de __getattribute__() de Python passe toujours les deux arguments, qu'ils soient requis ou non.

object.__set__(self, instance, value)

Appelée pour définir l'attribut d'une instance instance de la classe propriétaire à la nouvelle valeur value.

Notez que ajouter __set__() ou __delete__() modifie la nature du descripteur vers un « descripteur de donnée ». Reportez-vous à Invocation des descripteurs pour plus de détails.

object.__delete__(self, instance)

Appelée pour supprimer l'attribut de l'instance instance de la classe propriétaire.

Instances of descriptors may also have the __objclass__ attribute present:

object.__objclass__

The attribute __objclass__ is interpreted by the inspect module as specifying the class where this object was defined (setting this appropriately can assist in runtime introspection of dynamic class attributes). For callables, it may indicate that an instance of the given type (or a subclass) is expected or required as the first positional argument (for example, CPython sets this attribute for unbound methods that are implemented in C).

3.3.2.3. Invocation des descripteurs

En général, un descripteur est un attribut d'objet dont le comportement est « lié » (binding dehavior en anglais), c'est-à-dire que les accès aux attributs ont été surchargés par des méthodes conformes au protocole des descripteurs : __get__(), __set__() et __delete__(). Si l'une de ces méthodes est définie pour un objet, il est réputé être un descripteur.

Le comportement par défaut pour la gestion d'un attribut est de définir, obtenir et supprimer cet attribut du dictionnaire de l'objet. Par exemple, pour a.x Python commence d'abord par rechercher a.__dict__['x'], puis type(a).__dict__['x'] ; ensuite Python continue en remontant les classes de base de type(a), en excluant les métaclasses.

Cependant, si la valeur cherchée est un objet qui définit une des méthodes de descripteur, alors Python modifie son comportement et invoque la méthode du descripteur à la place. Le moment où cela intervient dans la recherche citée ci-dessus dépend de l'endroit où a été définie la méthode de descripteur et comment elle a été appelée.

Le point de départ pour une invocation de descripteur est la liaison a.x. La façon dont les arguments sont assemblés dépend de a :

Appel direct

Le plus simple et le plus rare des appels est quand l'utilisateur code directement l'appel à la méthode du descripteur : x.__get__(a).

Liaison avec une instance

Si elle est liée à un objet instance, a.x est transformé en l'appel suivant : type(a).__dict__['x'].__get__(a, type(a)).

Liaison avec une classe

Si elle est liée à une classe, A.x est transformé en l'appel suivant : A.__dict__['x'].__get__(None, A).

Liaison super

Une recherche avec un point telle que super(A, a).x cherche a.__class__.__mro__ pour une classe de base B qui suit (dans l'ordre MRO) A, puis renvoie B.__dict__['x'].__get__(a, A). Si ce n'est pas un descripteur, x est renvoyé inchangé.

For instance bindings, the precedence of descriptor invocation depends on which descriptor methods are defined. A descriptor can define any combination of __get__(), __set__() and __delete__(). If it does not define __get__(), then accessing the attribute will return the descriptor object itself unless there is a value in the object's instance dictionary. If the descriptor defines __set__() and/or __delete__(), it is a data descriptor; if it defines neither, it is a non-data descriptor. Normally, data descriptors define both __get__() and __set__(), while non-data descriptors have just the __get__() method. Data descriptors with __get__() and __set__() (and/or __delete__()) defined always override a redefinition in an instance dictionary. In contrast, non-data descriptors can be overridden by instances.

Python methods (including those decorated with @staticmethod and @classmethod) are implemented as non-data descriptors. Accordingly, instances can redefine and override methods. This allows individual instances to acquire behaviors that differ from other instances of the same class.

La fonction property() est implémentée en tant que descripteur de données. Ainsi, les instances ne peuvent pas surcharger le comportement d'une propriété.

3.3.2.4. créneaux prédéfinis (__slots__)

Les créneaux prédéfinis (__slots__) vous permettent de déclarer des membres d'une donnée (comme une propriété) et d'interdire la création de __dict__ ou de __weakref__ (à moins qu'ils ne soient explicitement déclarés dans le __slots__ ou présent dans le parent).

L'espace gagné par rapport à l'utilisation d'un __dict__ peut être significatif. La recherche d'attribut peut aussi s'avérer beaucoup plus rapide.

object.__slots__

Cette variable de classe peut être assignée avec une chaîne, un itérable ou une séquence de chaînes avec les noms de variables utilisés par les instances. __slots__ réserve de la place pour ces variables déclarées et interdit la création automatique de __dict__ et __weakref__ pour chaque instance.

Notes on using __slots__:

Lorsque vous héritez d'une classe sans __slots__, les attributs __dict__ et __weakref__ des instances sont toujours accessibles.

Sans variable __dict__, les instances ne peuvent pas assigner de nouvelles variables (non listées dans la définition de __slots__). Les tentatives d'assignation sur un nom de variable non listé lève AttributeError. Si l'assignation dynamique de nouvelles variables est nécessaire, ajoutez '__dict__' à la séquence de chaînes dans la déclaration __slots__.

Sans variable __weakref__ pour chaque instance, les classes qui définissent __slots__ ne gèrent pas les références faibles vers leurs instances. Si vous avez besoin de gérer des références faibles, ajoutez '__weakref__' à la séquence de chaînes dans la déclaration de __slots__.

Les __slots__ sont implémentés au niveau de la classe en créant des descripteurs pour chaque nom de variable. Ainsi, les attributs de classe ne peuvent pas être utilisés pour des valeurs par défaut aux variables d'instances définies par __slots__ ; sinon, l'attribut de classe surchargerait l'assignation par descripteur.

The action of a __slots__ declaration is not limited to the class where it is defined. __slots__ declared in parents are available in child classes. However, instances of a child subclass will get a __dict__ and __weakref__ unless the subclass also defines __slots__ (which should only contain names of any additional slots).

Si une classe définit un slot déjà défini dans une classe de base, la variable d'instance définie par la classe de base est inaccessible (sauf à utiliser le descripteur de la classe de base directement). Cela rend la signification du programme indéfinie. Dans le futur, une vérification sera ajoutée pour empêcher cela.

Une TypeError est levée si un __slot__ non vide est défini pour une classe dérivée des types natifs à longueur variable tels que int, bytes et tuple.

Tout itérable, sauf les chaînes de caractères, peuvent être affectés à __slots__.

Si vous affectez __slots__ à un dictionnaire, les clés du dictionnaires seront les noms du slot. Les valeurs du dictionnaire peuvent être utilisées en tant que chaines de description (docstrings) et sont reconnues par inspect.getdoc() qui les affiche dans la sortie de help().

__class__ assignment works only if both classes have the same __slots__.

L'héritage multiple avec plusieurs classes parentes qui ont des __slots__ est possible, mais seul un parent peut avoir des attributs créés par __slots__ (les autres classes parentes doivent avoir des __slots__ vides). La violation de cette règle lève TypeError.

Si un itérateur est utilisé pour __slots__, alors un descripteur est créé pour chacune des valeurs de l'itérateur. Cependant, l'attribut __slots__ est un itérateur vide.

3.3.3. Personnalisation de la création de classes

Quand une classe hérite d'une classe parente, la méthode __init_subclass__() de la classe parente est appelée. Ainsi, il est possible d'écrire des classes qui modifient le comportement des sous-classes. Ce comportement est corrélé aux décorateurs de classes mais, alors que les décorateurs de classes agissent seulement sur la classe qu'ils décorent, __init_subclass__ agit uniquement sur les futures sous-classes de la classe qui définit cette méthode.

classmethod object.__init_subclass__(cls)

Cette méthode est appelée quand la classe est sous-classée. cls est alors la nouvelle sous-classe. Si elle est définie en tant que méthode d'instance normale, cette méthode est implicitement convertie en méthode de classe.

Keyword arguments which are given to a new class are passed to the parent class's __init_subclass__. For compatibility with other classes using __init_subclass__, one should take out the needed keyword arguments and pass the others over to the base class, as in:

class Philosopher:
    def __init_subclass__(cls, /, default_name, **kwargs):
        super().__init_subclass__(**kwargs)
        cls.default_name = default_name

class AustralianPhilosopher(Philosopher, default_name="Bruce"):
    pass

L'implémentation par défaut de object.__init_subclass__ ne fait rien sans argument, mais lève une erreur si elle est appelée avec un argument ou plus.

Note

l'indication de métaclasse metaclass est absorbée par le reste du mécanisme de types et n'est jamais passée à l'implémentation de __init_subclass__. La métaclasse réelle (plutôt que l'indication explicite) peut être récupérée par type(cls).

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

When a class is created, type.__new__() scans the class variables and makes callbacks to those with a __set_name__() hook.

object.__set_name__(self, owner, name)

Appelée automatiquement au moment où la classe propriétaire owner est créée. L'objet self a été assigné à name dans owner :

class A:
    x = C()  # Automatically calls: x.__set_name__(A, 'x')

Si l'affectation se produit après la création de la classe, le point d'entrée __set_name__() n'est pas appelé automatiquement. Mais il est autorisé d'appeler __set_name__() manuellement :

class A:
   pass

c = C()
A.x = c                  # The hook is not called
c.__set_name__(A, 'x')   # Manually invoke the hook

Consultez Création de l'objet classe pour davantage de détails.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

3.3.3.1. Métaclasses

Par défaut, les classes sont construites en utilisant type(). Le corps de la classe est exécuté dans un nouvel espace de nommage et le nom de la classe est lié localement au résultat de type(name, bases, namespace).

Le déroulement de création de la classe peut être personnalisé en passant l'argument nommé metaclass dans la ligne de définition de la classe ou en héritant d'une classe existante qui comporte déjà un tel argument. Dans l'exemple qui suit, MyClass et MySubclass sont des instances de Meta :

class Meta(type):
    pass

class MyClass(metaclass=Meta):
    pass

class MySubclass(MyClass):
    pass

Tout autre argument nommé spécifié dans la définition de la classe est passé aux opérations de métaclasses décrites auparavant.

Quand la définition d'une classe est exécutée, les différentes étapes suivies sont :

les entrées MRO sont résolues ;

la métaclasse appropriée est déterminée ;

l'espace de nommage de la classe est préparé ;

le corps de la classe est exécuté ;

l'objet classe est créé.

3.3.3.2. Résolution des entrées MRO

object.__mro_entries__(self, bases)

Si une classe mère qui apparaît dans la définition d'une classe n'est pas une instance de type, alors Python cherche une méthode __mro_entries__() dans cette classe mère. S'il la trouve, au moment de la création de la classe, la classe mère est remplacée par le résultat de l'appel à __mro_entries__(). Cette méthode est appelée avec le n-uplet des classes mères originales passé au paramètre bases. Cette méthode doit renvoyer un n-uplet de classes qui seront utilisées à la place de la classe mère. Le n-uplet renvoyé peut être vide : dans ce cas la classe mère originale est ignorée.

Voir aussi

types.resolve_bases()

Résout dynamiquement les classes mères qui ne sont pas des instances de type.

types.get_original_bases()

Retrieve a class's "original bases" prior to modifications by __mro_entries__().

PEP 560 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/]

Prise en charge native du module typing et des types génériques

3.3.3.3. Détermination de la métaclasse appropriée

La métaclasse appropriée pour une définition de classe est déterminée de la manière suivante :

si aucune classe et aucune métaclasse n'est donnée, alors type() est utilisée ;

si une métaclasse explicite est donnée et que ce n'est pas une instance de type(), alors elle est utilisée directement en tant que métaclasse ;

si une instance de type() est donnée comme métaclasse explicite ou si bases est définie, alors la métaclasse la plus dérivée est utilisée.

La métaclasse la plus dérivée est choisie à partir des métaclasses explicitement spécifiées (s'il y en a) et les métaclasses (c'est-à-dire les type(cls)) de toutes les classes de base spécifiées. La métaclasse la plus dérivée est celle qui est un sous-type de toutes ces métaclasses candidates. Si aucune des métaclasses candidates ne remplit ce critère, alors la définition de la classe échoue en levant TypeError.

3.3.3.4. Préparation de l'espace de nommage de la classe

Une fois que la métaclasse appropriée est identifiée, l'espace de nommage de la classe est préparé. Si la métaclasse possède un attribut __prepare__, il est appelé avec namespace = metaclass.__prepare__(name, bases, **kwds) (où les arguments nommés supplémentaires, s'il y en a, sont les arguments de la définition de la classe). La méthode __prepare__ doit être implémentée comme une méthode de classe). L’espace de nommage renvoyé par __prepare__ est passé à __new__, mais quand l’instance finale est créée, l’espace de nommage est copié vers un nouveau dict.

Si la métaclasse ne possède pas d'attribut __prepare__, alors l'espace de nommage de la classe est initialisé en tant que tableau de correspondances ordonné.

Voir aussi

PEP 3115 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3115/] — Métaclasses dans Python 3000

introduction de la fonction automatique __prepare__ de l'espace de nommage

3.3.3.5. Exécution du corps de la classe

Le corps de la classe est exécuté (approximativement) avec exec(body, globals(), namespace). La principale différence avec un appel normal à exec() est que la portée lexicale autorise le corps de la classe (y compris les méthodes) à faire référence aux noms de la portée courante et des portées externes lorsque la définition de classe a lieu dans une fonction.

Cependant, même quand une définition de classe intervient dans une fonction, les méthodes définies à l'intérieur de la classe ne peuvent pas voir les noms définis en dehors de la portée de la classe. On accède aux variables de la classe via le premier paramètre des méthodes d'instance ou de classe, ou via la référence implicite __class__ incluse dans la portée lexicale et décrite dans la section suivante.

3.3.3.6. Création de l'objet classe

Quand l'espace de nommage a été rempli en exécutant le corps de la classe, l'objet classe est créé en appelant metaclass(name, bases, namespace, **kwds) (les arguments nommés supplémentaires passés ici sont les mêmes que ceux passés à __prepare__).

Cet objet classe est celui qui est référencé par la forme sans argument de super(). __class__ est une référence implicite créée par le compilateur si une méthode du corps de la classe fait référence soit à __class__, soit à super. Ceci permet que la forme sans argument de super() identifie la classe en cours de définition en fonction de la portée lexicale, tandis que la classe ou l'instance utilisée pour effectuer l'appel en cours est identifiée en fonction du premier argument transmis à la méthode.

dans CPython 3.6 et suivants, la cellule __class__ est passée à la métaclasse en tant qu'entrée __classcell__ dans l'espace de nommage de la classe. Si elle est présente, elle doit être propagée à l'appel type.__new__ pour que la classe soit correctement initialisée. Ne pas le faire se traduit par un RuntimeError dans Python 3.8.

Quand vous utilisez la métaclasse par défaut type ou toute autre métaclasse qui finit par appeler type.__new__, les étapes de personnalisation supplémentaires suivantes sont suivies après la création de l'objet classe :

type.__new__ récupère, dans l'espace de nommage de la classe, tous les descripteurs qui définissent une méthode __set_name__() ;

Toutes ces méthodes __set_name__ sont appelées avec la classe en cours de définition et le nom assigné à chaque descripteur ;

La méthode automatique __init_subclass__() est appelée sur le parent immédiat de la nouvelle classe en utilisant l'ordre de résolution des méthodes.

Après la création de l'objet classe, il est passé aux décorateurs de la classe, y compris ceux inclus dans la définition de la classe (s'il y en a) et l'objet résultant est lié à l'espace de nommage local en tant que classe définie.

When a new class is created by type.__new__, the object provided as the namespace parameter is copied to a new ordered mapping and the original object is discarded. The new copy is wrapped in a read-only proxy, which becomes the __dict__ attribute of the class object.

Voir aussi

PEP 3135 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3135/] — Nouvelle méthode super

Décrit la référence à la fermeture (closure en anglais) de la __class__ implicite

3.3.3.7. Cas d'utilisations des métaclasses

Les utilisations possibles des métaclasses sont immenses. Quelques pistes ont déjà été explorées comme l'énumération, la gestion des traces, le contrôle des interfaces, la délégation automatique, la création automatique de propriétés, les mandataires, les frameworks ainsi que le verrouillage ou la synchronisation automatique de ressources.

3.3.4. Personnalisation des instances et vérification des sous-classes

Les méthodes suivantes sont utilisées pour surcharger le comportement par défaut des fonctions natives isinstance() et issubclass().

En particulier, la métaclasse abc.ABCMeta implémente ces méthodes pour autoriser l'ajout de classes de base abstraites (ABC pour Abstract Base Classes en anglais) en tant que « classes de base virtuelles » pour toute classe ou type (y compris les types natifs).

type.__instancecheck__(self, instance)

Renvoie True si instance doit être considérée comme une instance (directe ou indirecte) de class. Si elle est définie, elle est appelée pour implémenter isinstance(instance, class).

type.__subclasscheck__(self, subclass)

Renvoie True si subclass doit être considérée comme une sous-classe (directe ou indirecte) de class. Si elle est définie, appelée pour implémenter issubclass(subclass, class).

Notez que ces méthodes sont recherchées dans le type (la métaclasse) d'une classe. Elles ne peuvent pas être définies en tant que méthodes de classe dans la classe réelle. C'est cohérent avec la recherche des méthodes spéciales qui sont appelées pour les instances, sauf qu'ici l'instance est elle-même une classe.

Voir aussi

PEP 3119 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3119/] — Introduction aux classes de bases abstraites

Includes the specification for customizing isinstance() and issubclass() behavior through __instancecheck__() and __subclasscheck__(), with motivation for this functionality in the context of adding Abstract Base Classes (see the abc module) to the language.

3.3.5. Émulation de types génériques

Lors de l'utilisation d'annotations de types, il est souvent utile de paramètrer un type générique en se servant de la notation crochets de Python. Par exemple, l'annotation list[int] peut être utilisée pour signifier une liste dans laquelle tous les éléments sont de type entiers.

Voir aussi

PEP 343 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/] — Indications de types

Introduction à l'annotation de types en Python (document en anglais)

Types alias génériques

Documentation pour les objets qui représentent des classes génériques paramétrées

Génériques, Types génériques définis par l'utilisateur et classe typing.Generic (classe de base abstraite pour les types génériques)

Documentation sur la manière d'implémenter des classes génériques qui peuvent être paramétrées à l'exécution et comprises par les vérificateurs statiques de types.

Généralement, une classe ne peut être paramétrée que si elle définit une méthode spéciale de classe __class_getitem__().

classmethod object.__class_getitem__(cls, key)

Renvoie un objet représentant la spécialisation d'une classe générique en fonction des arguments types trouvés dans key.

When defined on a class, __class_getitem__() is automatically a class method. As such, there is no need for it to be decorated with @classmethod when it is defined.

3.3.5.1. Intention de __class_getitem__

Le but de __class_getitem__() est de permettre la paramétrisation à l'exécution des classes génériques de la bibliothèque standard de façon à pouvoir appliquer plus facilement des annotations de type à ces classes.

Pour implémenter des classes génériques particularisées pouvant être paramétrées à l'exécution, et comprises par les vérificateurs statiques de type, vous pouvez soit hériter d'une classe de la bibliothèque standard qui implémente déjà __class_getitem__(), ou hériter de typing.Generic, qui a sa propre implémentation de __class_getitem__().

Les implémentations particularisées de __class_getitem__() sur des classes définies ailleurs que la bibliothèque standard peuvent ne pas être comprises par des vérificateurs de types tiers tels que mypy. L'utilisation de __class_getitem__() pour tout autre objectif que l'annotation de type n'est pas conseillée.

3.3.5.2. __class_getitem__ contre __getitem__

D'habitude, la sélection d'un objet en utilisant des crochets appelle la méthode __getitem__() de l'instance, définie dans la classe de l'objet. Cependant, si l'objet dont on cherche un indice est lui-même une classe, la méthode de classe __class_getitem__() peut être appelée à la place. __class_getitem__() doit renvoyer un objet GenericAlias si elle est correctement définie.

Lorsqu'on lui présente l'expression obj[x], l'interpréteur Python suit une sorte de processus suivant pour décider s'il faut appeler __getitem__() ou __class_getitem__() :

from inspect import isclass

def subscribe(obj, x):
    """Return the result of the expression 'obj[x]'"""

    class_of_obj = type(obj)

    # If the class of obj defines __getitem__,
    # call class_of_obj.__getitem__(obj, x)
    if hasattr(class_of_obj, '__getitem__'):
        return class_of_obj.__getitem__(obj, x)

    # Else, if obj is a class and defines __class_getitem__,
    # call obj.__class_getitem__(x)
    elif isclass(obj) and hasattr(obj, '__class_getitem__'):
        return obj.__class_getitem__(x)

    # Else, raise an exception
    else:
        raise TypeError(
            f"'{class_of_obj.__name__}' object is not subscriptable"
        )

En Python, toutes les classes sont des instances d'autres classes. La classe d'une classe est appelée la métaclasse de la classe et la plupart des classes ont la classe type comme métaclasse. type ne définit pas __getitem__(), ce qui veut dire que des expressions telles que list[int], dict[str, float] et tuple[str, bytes] aboutissent toutes à l'appel de __class_getitem__() :

>>> # list has class "type" as its metaclass, like most classes:
>>> type(list)
<class 'type'>
>>> type(dict) == type(list) == type(tuple) == type(str) == type(bytes)
True
>>> # "list[int]" calls "list.__class_getitem__(int)"
>>> list[int]
list[int]
>>> # list.__class_getitem__ returns a GenericAlias object:
>>> type(list[int])
<class 'types.GenericAlias'>

Cependant, si une classe a une métaclasse particularisée qui définit __getitem__(), la sélection d'indices de la classe peut conduire à un comportement différent. Un exemple peut être trouvé dans le module enum :

>>> from enum import Enum
>>> class Menu(Enum):
...     """A breakfast menu"""
...     SPAM = 'spam'
...     BACON = 'bacon'
...
>>> # Enum classes have a custom metaclass:
>>> type(Menu)
<class 'enum.EnumMeta'>
>>> # EnumMeta defines __getitem__,
>>> # so __class_getitem__ is not called,
>>> # and the result is not a GenericAlias object:
>>> Menu['SPAM']
<Menu.SPAM: 'spam'>
>>> type(Menu['SPAM'])
<enum 'Menu'>

Voir aussi

PEP 560 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/] — Gestion de base pour les types modules et les types génériques

Introduction de __class_getitem__(), et présentation des cas où une sélection d'indices conduit à l'appel de __class_getitem__() au lieu de __getitem__()

3.3.6. Émulation d'objets appelables

object.__call__(self[, args...])

Called when the instance is "called" as a function; if this method is defined, x(arg1, arg2, ...) roughly translates to type(x).__call__(x, arg1, ...). The object class itself does not provide this method.

3.3.7. Émulation de types conteneurs

The following methods can be defined to implement container objects. None of them are provided by the object class itself. Containers usually are sequences (such as lists or tuples) or mappings (like dictionaries), but can represent other containers as well. The first set of methods is used either to emulate a sequence or to emulate a mapping; the difference is that for a sequence, the allowable keys should be the integers k for which 0 <= k < N where N is the length of the sequence, or slice objects, which define a range of items. It is also recommended that mappings provide the methods keys(), values(), items(), get(), clear(), setdefault(), pop(), popitem(), copy(), and update() behaving similar to those for Python's standard dictionary objects. The collections.abc module provides a MutableMapping abstract base class to help create those methods from a base set of __getitem__(), __setitem__(), __delitem__(), and keys().

Mutable sequences should provide methods append(), clear(), count(), extend(), index(), insert(), pop(), remove(), and reverse(), like Python standard list objects. Finally, sequence types should implement addition (meaning concatenation) and multiplication (meaning repetition) by defining the methods __add__(), __radd__(), __iadd__(), __mul__(), __rmul__() and __imul__() described below; they should not define other numerical operators.

It is recommended that both mappings and sequences implement the __contains__() method to allow efficient use of the in operator; for mappings, in should search the mapping's keys; for sequences, it should search through the values. It is further recommended that both mappings and sequences implement the __iter__() method to allow efficient iteration through the container; for mappings, __iter__() should iterate through the object's keys; for sequences, it should iterate through the values.

object.__len__(self)

Called to implement the built-in function len(). Should return the length of the object, an integer >= 0. Also, an object that doesn't define a __bool__() method and whose __len__() method returns zero is considered to be false in a Boolean context.

Particularité de l'implémentation CPython : In CPython, the length is required to be at most sys.maxsize. If the length is larger than sys.maxsize some features (such as len()) may raise OverflowError. To prevent raising OverflowError by truth value testing, an object must define a __bool__() method.

object.__length_hint__(self)

Called to implement operator.length_hint(). Should return an estimated length for the object (which may be greater or less than the actual length). The length must be an integer >= 0. The return value may also be NotImplemented, which is treated the same as if the __length_hint__ method didn't exist at all. This method is purely an optimization and is never required for correctness.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

object.__getitem__(self, subscript)

Called to implement subscription, that is, self[subscript]. See Subscriptions and slicings for details on the syntax.

There are two types of built-in objects that support subscription via __getitem__():

sequences, where subscript (also called index) should be an integer or a slice object. See the sequence documentation for the expected behavior, including handling slice objects and negative indices.

mappings, where subscript is also called the key. See mapping documentation for the expected behavior.

If subscript is of an inappropriate type, __getitem__() should raise TypeError. If subscript has an inappropriate value, __getitem__() should raise an LookupError or one of its subclasses (IndexError for sequences; KeyError for mappings).

Note

Slicing is handled by __getitem__(), __setitem__(), and __delitem__(). A call like

a[1:2] = b

est traduit en

a[slice(1, 2, None)] = b

and so forth. Missing slice items are always filled in with None.

Note

The sequence iteration protocol (used, for example, in for loops), expects that an IndexError will be raised for illegal indexes to allow proper detection of the end of a sequence.

Note

When subscripting a class, the special class method __class_getitem__() may be called instead of __getitem__(). See __class_getitem__ contre __getitem__ for more details.

object.__setitem__(self, key, value)

Appelée pour implémenter l'assignation à self[key]. La même note que pour __getitem__() s'applique. Elle ne doit être implémentée que pour les tableaux de correspondances qui autorisent les modifications de valeurs des clés, ceux pour lesquels on peut ajouter de nouvelles clés ou, pour les séquences, celles dont les éléments peuvent être remplacés. Les mêmes exceptions que pour la méthode __getitem__() doivent être levées en cas de mauvaises valeurs de clés.

object.__delitem__(self, key)

Appelée pour implémenter la suppression de self[key]. La même note que pour __getitem__() s'applique. Elle ne doit être implémentée que pour les tableaux de correspondances qui autorisent les suppressions de clés ou pour les séquences dont les éléments peuvent être supprimés de la séquence. Les mêmes exceptions que pour la méthode __getitem__() doivent être levées en cas de mauvaises valeurs de clés.

object.__missing__(self, key)

Appelée par dict.__getitem__() pour implémenter self[key] dans les sous-classes de dictionnaires lorsque la clé n'est pas dans le dictionnaire.

object.__iter__(self)

Cette méthode est appelée quand un itérateur est requis pour un conteneur. Cette méthode doit renvoyer un nouvel objet itérateur qui peut itérer sur tous les objets du conteneur. Pour les tableaux de correspondances, elle doit itérer sur les clés du conteneur.

object.__reversed__(self)

Appelée (si elle existe) par la fonction native reversed() pour implémenter l'itération en sens inverse. Elle doit renvoyer un nouvel objet itérateur qui itère sur tous les objets du conteneur en sens inverse.

Si la méthode __reversed__() n'est pas fournie, la fonction native reversed() se replie sur le protocole de séquence (__len__() et __getitem__()). Les objets qui connaissent le protocole de séquence ne doivent fournir __reversed__() que si l'implémentation qu'ils proposent est plus efficace que celle de reversed().

Les opérateurs de tests d'appartenance (in et not in) sont normalement implémentés comme des itérations sur un conteneur. Cependant, les objets conteneurs peuvent fournir les méthodes spéciales suivantes avec une implémentation plus efficace, qui ne requièrent d'ailleurs pas que l'objet soit itérable.

object.__contains__(self, item)

Appelée pour implémenter les opérateurs de test d'appartenance. Elle doit renvoyer True si item est dans self et False sinon. Pour les tableaux de correspondances, seules les clés sont considérées (pas les valeurs des paires clés-valeurs).

Pour les objets qui ne définissent pas __contains__(), les tests d'appartenance essaient d'abord d'itérer avec __iter__() puis avec le vieux protocole d'itération sur les séquences via __getitem__(), reportez-vous à cette section dans la référence du langage.

3.3.8. Émulation de types numériques

Les méthodes suivantes peuvent être définies pour émuler des objets numériques. Les méthodes correspondant à des opérations qui ne sont pas autorisées pour la catégorie de nombres considérée (par exemple, les opérations bit à bit pour les nombres qui ne sont pas entiers) doivent être laissées indéfinies.

object.__add__(self, other)

object.__sub__(self, other)

object.__mul__(self, other)

object.__matmul__(self, other)

object.__truediv__(self, other)

object.__floordiv__(self, other)

object.__mod__(self, other)

object.__divmod__(self, other)

object.__pow__(self, other[, modulo])

object.__lshift__(self, other)

object.__rshift__(self, other)

object.__and__(self, other)

object.__xor__(self, other)

object.__or__(self, other)

These methods are called to implement the binary arithmetic operations (+, -, *, @, /, //, %, divmod(), pow(), **, <<, >>, &, ^, |). For instance, to evaluate the expression x + y, where x is an instance of a class that has an __add__() method, type(x).__add__(x, y) is called. The __divmod__() method should be the equivalent to using __floordiv__() and __mod__(); it should not be related to __truediv__(). Note that __pow__() should be defined to accept an optional third argument if the three-argument version of the built-in pow() function is to be supported.

If one of those methods does not support the operation with the supplied arguments, it should return NotImplemented.

object.__radd__(self, other)

object.__rsub__(self, other)

object.__rmul__(self, other)

object.__rmatmul__(self, other)

object.__rtruediv__(self, other)

object.__rfloordiv__(self, other)

object.__rmod__(self, other)

object.__rdivmod__(self, other)

object.__rpow__(self, other[, modulo])

object.__rlshift__(self, other)

object.__rrshift__(self, other)

object.__rand__(self, other)

object.__rxor__(self, other)

object.__ror__(self, other)

These methods are called to implement the binary arithmetic operations (+, -, *, @, /, //, %, divmod(), pow(), **, <<, >>, &, ^, |) with reflected (swapped) operands. These functions are only called if the operands are of different types, when the left operand does not support the corresponding operation [3], or the right operand's class is derived from the left operand's class. [4] For instance, to evaluate the expression x - y, where y is an instance of a class that has an __rsub__() method, type(y).__rsub__(y, x) is called if type(x).__sub__(x, y) returns NotImplemented or type(y) is a subclass of type(x). [5]

Note that __rpow__() should be defined to accept an optional third argument if the three-argument version of the built-in pow() function is to be supported.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Three-argument pow() now try calling __rpow__() if necessary. Previously it was only called in two-argument pow() and the binary power operator.

Note

si le type de l'opérande de droite est une sous-classe du type de l'opérande de gauche et que cette sous-classe fournit une implémentation différente de la méthode symétrique pour l'opération, cette méthode est appelée avant la méthode originelle de l'opérande gauche. Ce comportement permet à des sous-classes de surcharger les opérations de leurs ancêtres.

object.__iadd__(self, other)

object.__isub__(self, other)

object.__imul__(self, other)

object.__imatmul__(self, other)

object.__itruediv__(self, other)

object.__ifloordiv__(self, other)

object.__imod__(self, other)

object.__ipow__(self, other[, modulo])

object.__ilshift__(self, other)

object.__irshift__(self, other)

object.__iand__(self, other)

object.__ixor__(self, other)

object.__ior__(self, other)

These methods are called to implement the augmented arithmetic assignments (+=, -=, *=, @=, /=, //=, %=, **=, <<=, >>=, &=, ^=, |=). These methods should attempt to do the operation in-place (modifying self) and return the result (which could be, but does not have to be, self). If a specific method is not defined, or if that method returns NotImplemented, the augmented assignment falls back to the normal methods. For instance, if x is an instance of a class with an __iadd__() method, x += y is equivalent to x = x.__iadd__(y) . If __iadd__() does not exist, or if x.__iadd__(y) returns NotImplemented, x.__add__(y) and y.__radd__(x) are considered, as with the evaluation of x + y. In certain situations, augmented assignment can result in unexpected errors (see Pourquoi a_tuple[i] += ['item'] lève-t-il une exception alors que l'addition fonctionne ?), but this behavior is in fact part of the data model.

object.__neg__(self)

object.__pos__(self)

object.__abs__(self)

object.__invert__(self)

Appelées pour implémenter les opérations arithmétiques unaires (-, +, abs() et ~).

object.__complex__(self)

object.__int__(self)

object.__float__(self)

Appelées pour implémenter les fonctions natives complex(), int() et float(). Elles doivent renvoyer une valeur du type approprié.

object.__index__(self)

Appelée pour implémenter operator.index() et lorsque Python a besoin de convertir sans perte un objet numérique en objet entier (pour un découpage ou dans les fonctions natives bin(), hex() et oct()). La présence de cette méthode indique que l'objet numérique est un type entier. Elle doit renvoyer un entier.

Si __int__(), __float__() et __complex__() ne sont pas définies, alors les fonctions natives int(), float() et complex() redirigent par défaut vers __index__().

object.__round__(self[, ndigits])

object.__trunc__(self)

object.__floor__(self)

object.__ceil__(self)

Appelées pour implémenter la fonction native round() et les fonctions du module math trunc(), floor() et ceil(). À moins que ndigits ne soit passé à __round__(), toutes ces méthodes doivent renvoyer la valeur de l'objet tronquée pour donner un Integral (typiquement un int).

Modifié dans la version 3.14: int() no longer delegates to the __trunc__() method.

3.3.9. Gestionnaire de contexte With

Un gestionnaire de contexte est un objet qui met en place un contexte prédéfini au moment de l'exécution de l'instruction with. Le gestionnaire de contexte gère l'entrée et la sortie de ce contexte d'exécution pour tout un bloc de code. Les gestionnaires de contextes sont normalement invoqués en utilisant une instruction with (décrite dans la section L'instruction with), mais ils peuvent aussi être directement invoqués par leurs méthodes.

Les utilisations classiques des gestionnaires de contexte sont la sauvegarde et la restauration d'états divers, le verrouillage et le déverrouillage de ressources, la fermeture de fichiers ouverts, etc.

For more information on context managers, see Le type gestionnaire de contexte. The object class itself does not provide the context manager methods.

object.__enter__(self)

Entre dans le contexte d'exécution relatif à cet objet. L'instruction with lie la valeur de retour de cette méthode à une (ou plusieurs) cible spécifiée par la clause as de l'instruction, si elle est spécifiée.

object.__exit__(self, exc_type, exc_value, traceback)

Sort du contexte d'exécution relatif à cet objet. Les paramètres décrivent l'exception qui a causé la sortie du contexte. Si l'on sort du contexte sans exception, les trois arguments sont à None.

Si une exception est indiquée et que la méthode souhaite supprimer l'exception (c'est-à-dire qu'elle ne veut pas que l'exception soit propagée), elle doit renvoyer True. Sinon, l'exception est traitée normalement à la sortie de cette méthode.

Note that __exit__() methods should not reraise the passed-in exception; this is the caller's responsibility.

Voir aussi

PEP 343 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/] — L'instruction with

La spécification, les motivations et des exemples de l'instruction with en Python.

3.3.10. Arguments positionnels dans le filtrage par motif sur les classes

When using a class name in a pattern, positional arguments in the pattern are not allowed by default, i.e. case MyClass(x, y) is typically invalid without special support in MyClass. To be able to use that kind of pattern, the class needs to define a __match_args__ attribute.

object.__match_args__

Cet attribut de la classe est un n-uplet de chaînes. Lorsque la classe apparaît dans un filtre avec des arguments positionnels, ils sont convertis en arguments nommés avec les noms du n-uplet, dans l'ordre. Si l'attribut n'est pas défini, tout se passe comme si sa valeur était le n-uplet vide ().

Ainsi, si UneClasse.__match_args__ est mis à ("gauche", "milieu", "droite"), le filtre case UneClasse(x, y) est équivalent à case UneClasse(gauche=x, milieu=y). Le filtre doit comporter au maximum autant d'arguments positionnels que la longueur __match_args__. Dans le cas contraire, le filtrage lève l'exception TypeError.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

Voir aussi

PEP 634 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/] — Filtrage par motif structurel

Spécification de l'instruction match.

3.3.11. Emulating buffer types

The buffer protocol provides a way for Python objects to expose efficient access to a low-level memory array. This protocol is implemented by builtin types such as bytes and memoryview, and third-party libraries may define additional buffer types.

While buffer types are usually implemented in C, it is also possible to implement the protocol in Python.

object.__buffer__(self, flags)

Called when a buffer is requested from self (for example, by the memoryview constructor). The flags argument is an integer representing the kind of buffer requested, affecting for example whether the returned buffer is read-only or writable. inspect.BufferFlags provides a convenient way to interpret the flags. The method must return a memoryview object.

Thread safety: In free-threaded Python, implementations must manage any internal export counter using atomic operations. The method must be safe to call concurrently from multiple threads, and the returned buffer's underlying data must remain valid until the corresponding __release_buffer__() call completes. See Thread safety for memoryview objects for details.

object.__release_buffer__(self, buffer)

Called when a buffer is no longer needed. The buffer argument is a memoryview object that was previously returned by __buffer__(). The method must release any resources associated with the buffer. This method should return None.

Thread safety: In free-threaded Python, any export counter decrement must use atomic operations. Resource cleanup must be thread-safe, as the final release may race with concurrent releases from other threads.

Buffer objects that do not need to perform any cleanup are not required to implement this method.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Voir aussi

PEP 688 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/] - Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python

Introduces the Python __buffer__ and __release_buffer__ methods.

collections.abc.Buffer

ABC for buffer types.

3.3.12. Annotations

Functions, classes, and modules may contain annotations, which are a way to associate information (usually type hints) with a symbol.

object.__annotations__

This attribute contains the annotations for an object. It is lazily evaluated, so accessing the attribute may execute arbitrary code and raise exceptions. If evaluation is successful, the attribute is set to a dictionary mapping from variable names to annotations.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Annotations are now lazily evaluated.

object.__annotate__(format)

An annotate function. Returns a new dictionary object mapping attribute/parameter names to their annotation values.

Takes a format parameter specifying the format in which annotations values should be provided. It must be a member of the annotationlib.Format enum, or an integer with a value corresponding to a member of the enum.

If an annotate function doesn't support the requested format, it must raise NotImplementedError. Annotate functions must always support VALUE format; they must not raise NotImplementedError() when called with this format.

When called with VALUE format, an annotate function may raise NameError; it must not raise NameError when called requesting any other format.

If an object does not have any annotations, __annotate__ should preferably be set to None (it can’t be deleted), rather than set to a function that returns an empty dict.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Voir aussi

PEP 649 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/] --- Deferred evaluation of annotation using descriptors

Introduces lazy evaluation of annotations and the __annotate__ function.

3.3.13. Recherche des méthodes spéciales

Pour les classes définies par le développeur, l'invocation implicite de méthodes spéciales n'est garantie que si ces méthodes sont définies par le type d'objet, pas dans le dictionnaire de l'objet instance. Ce comportement explique pourquoi le code suivant lève une exception :

>>> class C:
...     pass
...
>>> c = C()
>>> c.__len__ = lambda: 5
>>> len(c)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: object of type 'C' has no len()

La raison de ce comportement vient de certaines méthodes spéciales telles que __hash__() et __repr__() qui sont implémentées par tous les objets, y compris les objets types. Si la recherche effectuée par ces méthodes utilisait le processus normal de recherche, elles ne fonctionneraient pas si on les appelait sur l'objet type lui-même :

>>> 1 .__hash__() == hash(1)
True
>>> int.__hash__() == hash(int)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: descriptor '__hash__' of 'int' object needs an argument

Essayer d'invoquer une méthode non liée d'une classe de cette manière est parfois appelé « confusion de métaclasse » et se contourne en shuntant l'instance lors de la recherche des méthodes spéciales :

>>> type(1).__hash__(1) == hash(1)
True
>>> type(int).__hash__(int) == hash(int)
True

En plus de shunter les attributs des instances pour fonctionner correctement, la recherche des méthodes spéciales implicites shunte aussi la méthode __getattribute__() même dans la métaclasse de l'objet :

>>> class Meta(type):
...     def __getattribute__(*args):
...         print("Metaclass getattribute invoked")
...         return type.__getattribute__(*args)
...
>>> class C(object, metaclass=Meta):
...     def __len__(self):
...         return 10
...     def __getattribute__(*args):
...         print("Class getattribute invoked")
...         return object.__getattribute__(*args)
...
>>> c = C()
>>> c.__len__()                 # Explicit lookup via instance
Class getattribute invoked
10
>>> type(c).__len__(c)          # Explicit lookup via type
Metaclass getattribute invoked
10
>>> len(c)                      # Implicit lookup
10

En shuntant le mécanisme de __getattribute__() de cette façon, cela permet d'optimiser la vitesse de l'interpréteur moyennant une certaine manœuvre dans la gestion des méthodes spéciales (la méthode spéciale doit être définie sur l'objet classe lui-même afin d'être invoquée de manière cohérente par l'interpréteur).

3.4. Coroutines

3.4.1. Objets attendables (awaitable)

Un objet awaitable implémente généralement une méthode __await__(). Les objets coroutine renvoyés par les fonctions async def sont des attendables (awaitable).

Note

les objets itérateur de générateur renvoyés par les générateurs décorés par types.coroutine() sont aussi des attendables (awaitable), mais ils n'implémentent pas __await__().

object.__await__(self)

Must return an iterator. Should be used to implement awaitable objects. For instance, asyncio.Future implements this method to be compatible with the await expression. The object class itself is not awaitable and does not provide this method.

Note

le langage n'impose aucune restriction sur le type ou la valeur des objets générés par l'itérateur renvoyé par __await__, car cela est spécifique à l'implémentation du cadriciel d'exécution asynchrone (par exemple asyncio) qui gère l'objet awaitable.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Voir aussi

PEP 492 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/] pour les informations relatives aux objets attendables (awaitable).

3.4.2. Objets coroutines

Les objets coroutine sont des objets awaitable. L'exécution d'une coroutine peut être contrôlée en appelant __await__() et en itérant sur le résultat. Quand la coroutine a fini de s'exécuter et termine, l'itérateur lève StopIteration et l'attribut value de l'exception contient la valeur de retour. Si la coroutine lève une exception, elle est propagée par l'itérateur. Les coroutines ne doivent pas lever directement des exceptions StopIteration non gérées.

Les coroutines disposent aussi des méthodes listées ci-dessous, analogues à celles des générateurs (voir Méthodes des générateurs-itérateurs). Cependant, au contraire des générateurs, vous ne pouvez pas itérer directement sur des coroutines.

Modifié dans la version 3.5.2: utiliser await plus d'une fois sur une coroutine lève une RuntimeError.

coroutine.send(value)

Starts or resumes execution of the coroutine. If value is None, this is equivalent to advancing the iterator returned by __await__(). If value is not None, this method delegates to the send() method of the iterator that caused the coroutine to suspend. The result (return value, StopIteration, or other exception) is the same as when iterating over the __await__() return value, described above.

coroutine.throw(value)

coroutine.throw(type[, value[, traceback]])

Lève l'exception spécifiée dans la coroutine. Cette méthode délègue à la méthode throw() de l'itérateur qui a causé la suspension de la coroutine, s'il possède une telle méthode. Sinon, l'exception est levée au point de suspension. Le résultat (valeur de retour, StopIteration ou une autre exception) est le même que lorsque vous itérez sur la valeur de retour de __await__(), décrite ci-dessus. Si l'exception n'est pas gérée par la coroutine, elle est propagée à l'appelant.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: The second signature (type[, value[, traceback]]) is deprecated and may be removed in a future version of Python.

coroutine.close()

Demande à la coroutine de faire le ménage et de se terminer. Si la coroutine est suspendue, cette méthode délègue d'abord à la méthode close() de l'itérateur qui a causé la suspension de la coroutine, s'il possède une telle méthode. Ensuite, elle lève GeneratorExit au point de suspension, ce qui fait le ménage dans la coroutine immédiatement. Enfin, la coroutine est marquée comme ayant terminé son exécution, même si elle n'a jamais démarré.

Les objets coroutines sont automatiquement fermés en utilisant le processus décrit au-dessus au moment où ils sont détruits.

3.4.3. Itérateurs asynchrones

Un itérateur asynchrone peut appeler du code asynchrone dans sa méthode __anext__.

Les itérateurs asynchrones peuvent être utilisés dans des instructions async for.

The object class itself does not provide these methods.

object.__aiter__(self)

Doit renvoyer un objet itérateur asynchrone.

object.__anext__(self)

Doit renvoyer un attendable (awaitable) qui se traduit par la valeur suivante de l'itérateur. Doit lever une StopAsyncIteration quand l'itération est terminée.

Un exemple d'objet itérateur asynchrone :

class Reader:
    async def readline(self):
        ...

    def __aiter__(self):
        return self

    async def __anext__(self):
        val = await self.readline()
        if val == b'':
            raise StopAsyncIteration
        return val

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: avant Python 3.7, __aiter__() pouvait renvoyer un attendable (awaitable) qui se résolvait potentiellement en un itérateur asynchrone.

À partir de Python 3.7, __aiter__() doit renvoyer un objet itérateur asynchrone. Renvoyer autre chose entraine une erreur TypeError.

3.4.4. Gestionnaires de contexte asynchrones

Un gestionnaire de contexte asynchrone est un gestionnaire de contexte qui est capable de suspendre son exécution dans ses méthodes __aenter__ et __aexit__.

Les gestionnaires de contexte asynchrones peuvent être utilisés dans des instructions async with.

The object class itself does not provide these methods.

object.__aenter__(self)

Semantically similar to __enter__(), the only difference being that it must return an awaitable.

object.__aexit__(self, exc_type, exc_value, traceback)

Semantically similar to __exit__(), the only difference being that it must return an awaitable.

Un exemple de classe de gestionnaire de contexte asynchrone :

class AsyncContextManager:
    async def __aenter__(self):
        await log('entering context')

    async def __aexit__(self, exc_type, exc, tb):
        await log('exiting context')

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Notes

[1]

Il est possible, dans certains cas, de changer le type d'un objet, sous certaines conditions. Cependant, ce n'est généralement pas une bonne idée car cela peut conduire à un comportement très étrange si ce n'est pas géré correctement.

[2]

The __hash__(), __iter__(), __reversed__(), __contains__(), __class_getitem__() and __fspath__() methods have special handling for this. Others will still raise a TypeError, but may do so by relying on the behavior that None is not callable.

[3]

"Does not support" here means that the class has no such method, or the method returns NotImplemented. Do not set the method to None if you want to force fallback to the right operand's reflected method—that will instead have the opposite effect of explicitly blocking such fallback.

[4]

For operands of the same type, it is assumed that if the non-reflected method (such as __add__()) fails then the operation is not supported, which is why the reflected method is not called.

[5]

If the right operand's type is a subclass of the left operand's type, the reflected method having precedence allows subclasses to override their ancestors' operations.

4. Modèle d'exécution

4.1. Structure d'un programme

Un programme Python est construit à partir de blocs de code. Un bloc est un morceau de texte de programme Python qui est exécuté en tant qu'unité. Les éléments suivants sont des blocs : un module, un corps de fonction et une définition de classe. Chaque commande écrite dans l'interpréteur interactif de Python est un bloc. Un fichier de script (un fichier donné en entrée standard à l'interpréteur ou spécifié en tant qu'argument de ligne de commande à l'interpréteur) est un bloc de code. Une commande de script (une commande spécifiée en ligne de commande à l'interpréteur avec l'option -c) est un bloc de code. Un module exécuté en tant que script principal (module __main__) depuis la ligne de commande en utilisant l'option -m est aussi un bloc de code. La chaîne passée en argument aux fonctions natives eval() et exec() est un bloc de code.

Un bloc de code est exécuté dans un cadre d'exécution. Un cadre contient des informations administratives (utilisées pour le débogage) et détermine où et comment l'exécution se poursuit après la fin de l'exécution du bloc de code.

4.2. Noms et liaisons

4.2.1. Liaisons des noms

Les noms sont des références aux objets. Ils sont créés lors des opérations de liaisons de noms (name binding en anglais).

Les noms sont liés via les constructions suivantes :

paramètres formels de fonctions,

définitions de classes,

définitions de fonctions,

expressions d'affectation,

cibles qui sont des identifiants, lorsque c'est une affectation :

de l'entête d'une boucle for,

après as dans une instruction with, dans une clause except, dans une clause except* ou dans un filtrage par motifs,

dans un champ de recherche d'un filtre de capture,

des instructions import.

type statements.

type parameter lists.

L'instruction import sous la forme from … import * lie tous les noms définis dans le module importé, sauf ceux qui commencent par le caractère souligné. Cette écriture ne peut être utilisée qu'au niveau du module.

Une cible qui apparaît dans une instruction del est aussi considérée comme une liaison à un nom dans ce cadre (bien que la sémantique véritable soit de délier le nom).

Chaque affectation ou instruction import a lieu dans un bloc défini par une définition de classe ou de fonction, ou au niveau du module (le bloc de code de plus haut niveau).

If a name is bound in a block, it is a local variable of that block, unless declared as nonlocal or global. If a name is bound at the module level, it is a global variable. (The variables of the module code block are local and global.) If a variable is used in a code block but not defined there, it is a free variable.

Chaque occurrence d'un nom dans un programme fait référence à la liaison de ce nom établie par les règles de résolution des noms suivantes.

4.2.2. Résolution des noms

La portée définit la visibilité d'un nom dans un bloc. Si une variable locale est définie dans un bloc, sa portée comprend ce bloc. Si la définition intervient dans le bloc d'une fonction, la portée s'étend à tous les blocs contenus dans celui qui comprend la définition, à moins qu'un bloc intérieur ne définisse une autre liaison pour ce nom.

Quand un nom est utilisé dans un bloc de code, la résolution utilise la portée la plus petite. L'ensemble de toutes les portées visibles dans un bloc de code s'appelle l'environnement du bloc.

Quand un nom n'est trouvé nulle part, une exception NameError est levée. Si la portée courante est celle d'une fonction et que le nom fait référence à une variable locale qui n'a pas encore été liée au moment où le nom est utilisé, une exception UnboundLocalError est levée. UnboundLocalError est une sous-classe de NameError.

Si une opération de liaison intervient dans un bloc de code, toutes les utilisations du nom dans le bloc sont considérées comme des références au bloc courant. Ceci peut conduire à des erreurs quand un nom est utilisé à l'intérieur d'un bloc avant d'être lié. La règle est subtile. Python n'attend pas de déclaration de variables et autorise les opérations de liaison n'importe où dans un bloc de code. Les variables locales d'un bloc de code peuvent être déterminées en parcourant tout le texte du bloc à la recherche des opérations de liaisons. Reportez-vous à l'entrée de la FAQ relative à UnboundLocalError pour des exemples.

If the global statement occurs within a block, all uses of the names specified in the statement refer to the bindings of those names in the top-level namespace. Names are resolved in the top-level namespace by searching the global namespace, i.e. the namespace of the module containing the code block, and the builtins namespace, the namespace of the module builtins. The global namespace is searched first. If the names are not found there, the builtins namespace is searched next. If the names are also not found in the builtins namespace, new variables are created in the global namespace. The global statement must precede all uses of the listed names.

L'instruction global a la même porte qu'une opération de liaison du même bloc. Si la portée englobante la plus petite pour une variable libre contient une instruction global, la variable libre est considérée globale.

The nonlocal statement causes corresponding names to refer to previously bound variables in the nearest enclosing function scope. SyntaxError is raised at compile time if the given name does not exist in any enclosing function scope. Type parameters cannot be rebound with the nonlocal statement.

L'espace de nommage pour un module est créé automatiquement la première fois que le module est importé. Le module principal d'un script s'appelle toujours __main__.

Class definition blocks and arguments to exec() and eval() are special in the context of name resolution. A class definition is an executable statement that may use and define names. These references follow the normal rules for name resolution with an exception that unbound local variables are looked up in the global namespace. The namespace of the class definition becomes the attribute dictionary of the class. The scope of names defined in a class block is limited to the class block; it does not extend to the code blocks of methods. This includes comprehensions and generator expressions, but it does not include annotation scopes, which have access to their enclosing class scopes. This means that the following will fail:

class A:
    a = 42
    b = list(a + i for i in range(10))

However, the following will succeed:

class A:
    type Alias = Nested
    class Nested: pass

print(A.Alias.__value__)  # <type 'A.Nested'>

4.2.3. Annotation scopes

Annotations, type parameter lists and type statements introduce annotation scopes, which behave mostly like function scopes, but with some exceptions discussed below.

Annotation scopes are used in the following contexts:

Function annotations.

Variable annotations.

Type parameter lists for generic type aliases.

Type parameter lists for generic functions. A generic function's annotations are executed within the annotation scope, but its defaults and decorators are not.

Type parameter lists for generic classes. A generic class's base classes and keyword arguments are executed within the annotation scope, but its decorators are not.

The bounds, constraints, and default values for type parameters (lazily evaluated).

The value of type aliases (lazily evaluated).

Annotation scopes differ from function scopes in the following ways:

Annotation scopes have access to their enclosing class namespace. If an annotation scope is immediately within a class scope, or within another annotation scope that is immediately within a class scope, the code in the annotation scope can use names defined in the class scope as if it were executed directly within the class body. This contrasts with regular functions defined within classes, which cannot access names defined in the class scope.

Expressions in annotation scopes cannot contain yield, yield from, await, or := expressions. (These expressions are allowed in other scopes contained within the annotation scope.)

Names defined in annotation scopes cannot be rebound with nonlocal statements in inner scopes. This includes only type parameters, as no other syntactic elements that can appear within annotation scopes can introduce new names.

While annotation scopes have an internal name, that name is not reflected in the qualified name of objects defined within the scope. Instead, the __qualname__ of such objects is as if the object were defined in the enclosing scope.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12: Annotation scopes were introduced in Python 3.12 as part of PEP 695 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/].

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Annotation scopes are also used for type parameter defaults, as introduced by PEP 696 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0696/].

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Annotation scopes are now also used for annotations, as specified in PEP 649 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/] and PEP 749 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0749/].

4.2.4. Lazy evaluation

Most annotation scopes are lazily evaluated. This includes annotations, the values of type aliases created through the type statement, and the bounds, constraints, and default values of type variables created through the type parameter syntax. This means that they are not evaluated when the type alias or type variable is created, or when the object carrying annotations is created. Instead, they are only evaluated when necessary, for example when the __value__ attribute on a type alias is accessed.

Exemple :

>>> type Alias = 1/0
>>> Alias.__value__
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
ZeroDivisionError: division by zero
>>> def func[T: 1/0](): pass
>>> T = func.__type_params__[0]
>>> T.__bound__
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

Here the exception is raised only when the __value__ attribute of the type alias or the __bound__ attribute of the type variable is accessed.

This behavior is primarily useful for references to types that have not yet been defined when the type alias or type variable is created. For example, lazy evaluation enables creation of mutually recursive type aliases:

from typing import Literal

type SimpleExpr = int | Parenthesized
type Parenthesized = tuple[Literal["("], Expr, Literal[")"]]
type Expr = SimpleExpr | tuple[SimpleExpr, Literal["+", "-"], Expr]

Lazily evaluated values are evaluated in annotation scope, which means that names that appear inside the lazily evaluated value are looked up as if they were used in the immediately enclosing scope.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

4.2.5. Noms natifs et restrictions d'exécution

l'utilisateur ne doit pas toucher à __builtins__ ; c'est et cela doit rester réservé aux besoins de l'implémentation. Les utilisateurs qui souhaitent surcharger des valeurs dans l'espace de nommage natif doivent importer le module builtins et modifier ses attributs judicieusement.

L'espace de nommage natif associé à l'exécution d'un bloc de code est effectivement trouvé en cherchant le nom __builtins__ dans l'espace de nommage globaux ; ce doit être un dictionnaire ou un module (dans ce dernier cas, le dictionnaire du module est utilisé). Par défaut, lorsque l'on se trouve dans le module __main__, __builtins__ est le module natif builtins ; lorsque l'on se trouve dans tout autre module, __builtins__ est un pseudonyme du dictionnaire du module builtins lui-même.

4.2.6. Interaction avec les fonctionnalités dynamiques

La résolution des noms de variables libres intervient à l'exécution, pas à la compilation. Cela signifie que le code suivant affiche 42 :

i = 10
def f():
    print(i)
i = 42
f()

Les fonctions eval() et exec() n'ont pas accès à l'environnement complet pour résoudre les noms. Les noms doivent être résolus dans les espaces de nommage locaux et globaux de l'appelant. Les variables libres ne sont pas résolues dans l'espace de nommage englobant le plus proche mais dans l'espace de nommage globaux [1]. Les fonctions eval() et exec() possèdent des arguments optionnels pour surcharger les espaces de nommage globaux et locaux. Si seulement un espace de nommage est spécifié, il est utilisé pour les deux.

4.3. Exceptions

Les exceptions sont un moyen de sortir du flot normal d'exécution d'un bloc de code de manière à gérer des erreurs ou des conditions exceptionnelles. Une exception est levée au moment où l'erreur est détectée ; elle doit être gérée par le bloc de code qui l'entoure ou par tout bloc de code qui a, directement ou indirectement, invoqué le bloc de code où l'erreur s'est produite.

L'interpréteur Python lève une exception quand il détecte une erreur à l'exécution (telle qu'une division par zéro). Un programme Python peut aussi lever explicitement une exception avec l'instruction raise. Les gestionnaires d'exception sont spécifiés avec l'instruction try … except. La clause finally d'une telle instruction peut être utilisée pour spécifier un code de nettoyage qui ne gère pas l'exception mais qui est exécuté quoi qu'il arrive (exception ou pas).

Python utilise le modèle par terminaison de gestion des erreurs : un gestionnaire d'exception peut trouver ce qui est arrivé et continuer l'exécution à un niveau plus élevé, mais il ne peut pas réparer l'origine de l'erreur et ré-essayer l'opération qui a échoué (sauf à entrer à nouveau dans le code en question par le haut).

Quand une exception n'est pas du tout gérée, l'interpréteur termine l'exécution du programme ou retourne à la boucle interactive. Dans ces cas, il affiche une trace de la pile d'appels, sauf si l'exception est SystemExit.

Les exceptions sont identifiées par des instances de classe. La clause except sélectionnée dépend de la classe de l'instance : elle doit faire référence à la classe de l'instance ou à une de ses classes ancêtres non virtuelles. L'instance peut être transmise au gestionnaire et peut apporter des informations complémentaires sur les conditions de l'exception.

Note

Les messages d'exception ne font pas partie de l'API Python. Leur contenu peut changer d'une version de Python à une autre sans avertissement et le code ne doit pas reposer sur ceux-ci s'il doit fonctionner sur plusieurs versions de l'interpréteur.

Reportez-vous aussi aux descriptions de l'instruction try dans la section L'instruction try et de l'instruction raise dans la section L'instruction raise.

4.4. Runtime Components

4.4.1. General Computing Model

Python's execution model does not operate in a vacuum. It runs on a host machine and through that host's runtime environment, including its operating system (OS), if there is one. When a program runs, the conceptual layers of how it runs on the host look something like this:

host machine

process (global resources)

thread (runs machine code)

Each process represents a program running on the host. Think of each process itself as the data part of its program. Think of the process' threads as the execution part of the program. This distinction will be important to understand the conceptual Python runtime.

The process, as the data part, is the execution context in which the program runs. It mostly consists of the set of resources assigned to the program by the host, including memory, signals, file handles, sockets, and environment variables.

Processes are isolated and independent from one another. (The same is true for hosts.) The host manages the process' access to its assigned resources, in addition to coordinating between processes.

Each thread represents the actual execution of the program's machine code, running relative to the resources assigned to the program's process. It's strictly up to the host how and when that execution takes place.

From the point of view of Python, a program always starts with exactly one thread. However, the program may grow to run in multiple simultaneous threads. Not all hosts support multiple threads per process, but most do. Unlike processes, threads in a process are not isolated and independent from one another. Specifically, all threads in a process share all of the process' resources.

The fundamental point of threads is that each one does run independently, at the same time as the others. That may be only conceptually at the same time ("concurrently") or physically ("in parallel"). Either way, the threads effectively run at a non-synchronized rate.

Note

That non-synchronized rate means none of the process' memory is guaranteed to stay consistent for the code running in any given thread. Thus multi-threaded programs must take care to coordinate access to intentionally shared resources. Likewise, they must take care to be absolutely diligent about not accessing any other resources in multiple threads; otherwise two threads running at the same time might accidentally interfere with each other's use of some shared data. All this is true for both Python programs and the Python runtime.

The cost of this broad, unstructured requirement is the tradeoff for the kind of raw concurrency that threads provide. The alternative to the required discipline generally means dealing with non-deterministic bugs and data corruption.

4.4.2. Python Runtime Model

The same conceptual layers apply to each Python program, with some extra data layers specific to Python:

host machine

process (global resources)

Python global runtime (state)

Python interpreter (state)

thread (runs Python bytecode and "C-API")

Python thread state

At the conceptual level: when a Python program starts, it looks exactly like that diagram, with one of each. The runtime may grow to include multiple interpreters, and each interpreter may grow to include multiple thread states.

Note

A Python implementation won't necessarily implement the runtime layers distinctly or even concretely. The only exception is places where distinct layers are directly specified or exposed to users, like through the threading module.

Note

The initial interpreter is typically called the "main" interpreter. Some Python implementations, like CPython, assign special roles to the main interpreter.

Likewise, the host thread where the runtime was initialized is known as the "main" thread. It may be different from the process' initial thread, though they are often the same. In some cases "main thread" may be even more specific and refer to the initial thread state. A Python runtime might assign specific responsibilities to the main thread, such as handling signals.

As a whole, the Python runtime consists of the global runtime state, interpreters, and thread states. The runtime ensures all that state stays consistent over its lifetime, particularly when used with multiple host threads.

The global runtime, at the conceptual level, is just a set of interpreters. While those interpreters are otherwise isolated and independent from one another, they may share some data or other resources. The runtime is responsible for managing these global resources safely. The actual nature and management of these resources is implementation-specific. Ultimately, the external utility of the global runtime is limited to managing interpreters.

In contrast, an "interpreter" is conceptually what we would normally think of as the (full-featured) "Python runtime". When machine code executing in a host thread interacts with the Python runtime, it calls into Python in the context of a specific interpreter.

Note

The term "interpreter" here is not the same as the "bytecode interpreter", which is what regularly runs in threads, executing compiled Python code.

In an ideal world, "Python runtime" would refer to what we currently call "interpreter". However, it's been called "interpreter" at least since introduced in 1997 (CPython:a027efa5b [https://github.com/python/cpython/commit/a027efa5b]).

Each interpreter completely encapsulates all of the non-process-global, non-thread-specific state needed for the Python runtime to work. Notably, the interpreter's state persists between uses. It includes fundamental data like sys.modules. The runtime ensures multiple threads using the same interpreter will safely share it between them.

A Python implementation may support using multiple interpreters at the same time in the same process. They are independent and isolated from one another. For example, each interpreter has its own sys.modules.

For thread-specific runtime state, each interpreter has a set of thread states, which it manages, in the same way the global runtime contains a set of interpreters. It can have thread states for as many host threads as it needs. It may even have multiple thread states for the same host thread, though that isn't as common.

Each thread state, conceptually, has all the thread-specific runtime data an interpreter needs to operate in one host thread. The thread state includes the current raised exception and the thread's Python call stack. It may include other thread-specific resources.

Note

The term "Python thread" can sometimes refer to a thread state, but normally it means a thread created using the threading module.

Each thread state, over its lifetime, is always tied to exactly one interpreter and exactly one host thread. It will only ever be used in that thread and with that interpreter.

Multiple thread states may be tied to the same host thread, whether for different interpreters or even the same interpreter. However, for any given host thread, only one of the thread states tied to it can be used by the thread at a time.

Thread states are isolated and independent from one another and don't share any data, except for possibly sharing an interpreter and objects or other resources belonging to that interpreter.

Once a program is running, new Python threads can be created using the threading module (on platforms and Python implementations that support threads). Additional processes can be created using the os, subprocess, and multiprocessing modules. Interpreters can be created and used with the interpreters module. Coroutines (async) can be run using asyncio in each interpreter, typically only in a single thread (often the main thread).

Notes

[1]

En effet, le code qui est exécuté par ces opérations n'est pas connu au moment où le module est compilé.

5. Le système d'importation

Le code Python d'un module peut accéder à du code d'un autre module par un mécanisme qui consiste à importer cet autre module. L'instruction import est la façon la plus courante de faire appel à ce système d'importation, mais ce n'est pas la seule. Les fonctions telles que importlib.import_module() et __import__() peuvent aussi être utilisées pour mettre en œuvre le mécanisme d'importation.

L'instruction import effectue deux opérations ; elle cherche le module dont le nom a été donné puis elle lie le résultat de cette recherche à un nom dans la portée locale. L'opération de recherche de l'instruction import consiste à appeler la fonction __import__() avec les arguments adéquats. La valeur renvoyée par __import__() est utilisée pour effectuer l'opération de liaison avec le nom fourni à l'instruction import. Reportez-vous à l'instruction import pour les détails exacts de l'opération de liaison avec le nom.

Un appel direct à __import__() effectue seulement la recherche du module et, s'il est trouvé, l'opération de création du module. Bien que des effets collatéraux puissent se produire, tels que l'importation de paquets parents et la mise à jour de divers caches (y compris sys.modules), il n'y a que l'instruction import qui déclenche l'opération de liaison avec le nom.

Quand une instruction import est exécutée, la fonction native __import__() est appelée. D'autres mécanismes d'appel au système d'importation (tels que importlib.import_module()) peuvent choisir d'ignorer __import__() et utiliser leurs propres solutions pour implémenter la sémantique d'importation.

Quand un module est importé pour la première fois, Python recherche le module et, s'il est trouvé, crée un objet module [1] en l'initialisant. Si le module n'est pas trouvé, une ModuleNotFoundError est levée. Python implémente plusieurs stratégies pour rechercher le module d'un nom donné quand le mécanisme d'importation est invoqué. Ces stratégies peuvent être modifiées et étendues par divers moyens décrits dans les sections suivantes.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: le système d'importation a été mis à jour pour implémenter complètement la deuxième partie de la PEP 302 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/]. Il n'existe plus de mécanisme implicite d'importation (le système d'importation complet est exposé via sys.meta_path). En complément, la gestion des paquets dans l'espace des noms natif a été implémentée (voir la PEP 420 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/]).

5.1. importlib

Le module importlib fournit une API riche pour interagir avec le système d'importation. Par exemple, importlib.import_module() fournit une API (que nous vous recommandons) plus simple que la fonction native __import__() pour mettre en œuvre le mécanisme d'importation. Reportez-vous à la documentation de la bibliothèque importlib pour obtenir davantage de détails.

5.2. Les paquets

Python ne connait qu'un seul type d'objet module et tous les modules sont donc de ce type, que le module soit implémenté en Python, en C ou quoi que ce soit d'autre. Pour aider à l'organisation des modules et fournir une hiérarchie des noms, Python développe le concept de paquets.

Vous pouvez vous représenter les paquets comme des répertoires dans le système de fichiers et les modules comme des fichiers dans ces répertoires. Mais ne prenez pas trop cette analogie au pied de la lettre car les paquets et les modules ne proviennent pas obligatoirement du système de fichiers. Dans le cadre de cette documentation, nous utilisons cette analogie bien pratique des répertoires et des fichiers. Comme les répertoires du système de fichiers, les paquets sont organisés de manière hiérarchique et les paquets peuvent eux-mêmes contenir des sous-paquets ou des modules.

Il est important de garder à l'esprit que tous les paquets sont des modules mais que tous les modules ne sont pas des paquets. Formulé autrement, les paquets sont juste un certain type de modules. Spécifiquement, tout module qui contient un attribut __path__ est réputé être un paquet.

Tous les modules ont un nom. Les noms des sous-paquets sont séparés du nom du paquet parent par un point (.), à l'instar de la syntaxe standard d'accès aux attributs en Python. Ainsi, vous pouvez avoir un paquet nommé email qui possède un sous-paquet nommé email.mime et un module dans ce sous-paquet nommé email.mime.text.

5.2.1. Paquets classiques

Python définit deux types de paquets, les paquets classiques et les paquets espaces de nommage. Les paquets classiques sont les paquets traditionnels tels qu'ils existaient dans Python 3.2 et antérieurs. Un paquet classique est typiquement implémenté sous la forme d'un répertoire contenant un fichier __init__.py. Quand un paquet classique est importé, ce fichier __init__.py est implicitement exécuté.

Par exemple, l'arborescence suivante définit un paquet parent au niveau le plus haut avec trois sous-paquets :

parent/
    __init__.py
    one/
        __init__.py
    two/
        __init__.py
    three/
        __init__.py

Importer parent.one exécute implicitement parent/__init__.py et parent/one/__init__.py. Les importations postérieures de parent.two ou parent.three respectivement exécutent parent/two/__init__.py ou parent/three/__init__.py respectivement.

5.2.2. Paquets espaces de nommage

Un paquet-espace de nommage est la combinaison de plusieurs portions où chaque portion fournit un sous-paquet au paquet parent. Les portions peuvent être situées à différents endroits du système de fichiers. Les portions peuvent aussi être stockées dans des fichiers zip, sur le réseau ou à tout autre endroit dans lequel Python cherche pendant l'importation. Les paquets-espaces de nommage peuvent correspondre directement à des objets du système de fichiers, ou pas ; ils peuvent être des modules virtuels qui n'ont aucune représentation concrète.

Les paquets-espaces de nommage n'utilisent pas une liste ordinaire pour leur attribut __path__. Ils utilisent en lieu et place un type itérable personnalisé qui effectue automatiquement une nouvelle recherche de portions de paquets à la tentative suivante d'importation dans ce paquet si le chemin de leur paquet parent (ou sys.path pour les paquets de plus haut niveau) change.

Pour les paquets-espaces de nommage, il n'existe pas de fichier parent/__init__.py. En fait, il peut y avoir plusieurs répertoires parent trouvés pendant le processus d'importation, où chacun est apporté par une portion différente. Ainsi, parent/one n'est pas forcément physiquement à côté de parent/two. Dans ce cas, Python crée un paquet-espace de nommage pour le paquet de plus haut niveau parent dès que lui ou l'un de ses sous-paquet est importé.

Voir aussi la PEP 420 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/] pour les spécifications des paquets-espaces de nommage.

5.3. Recherche

Pour commencer la recherche, Python a besoin du nom qualifié du module (ou du paquet, mais ici cela ne fait pas de différence) que vous souhaitez importer. Le nom peut être donné en argument à l'instruction import ou comme paramètre aux fonctions importlib.import_module() ou __import__().

Le nom est utilisé dans plusieurs phases de la recherche et peut être un chemin séparé par des points pour un sous-module, par exemple truc.machin.bidule. Dans ce cas, Python essaie d'abord d'importer truc puis truc.machin et enfin truc.machin.bidule. Si n'importe laquelle des importations intermédiaires échoue, une ModuleNotFoundError est levée.

5.3.1. Cache des modules

Le premier endroit vérifié pendant la recherche d'une importation est sys.modules. Ce tableau de correspondances est utilisé comme cache de tous les modules déjà importés, y compris les chemins intermédiaires. Ainsi, si truc.machin.bidule a déjà été importé, sys.modules contient les entrées correspondantes à truc, truc.machin et truc.machin.bidule. À chaque chemin correspond une clé.

Pendant l'importation, le nom de module est cherché dans sys.modules et, s'il est trouvé, la valeur associée est le module recherché et le processus est fini. Cependant, si la valeur est None, alors une ModuleNotFoundError est levée. Si le nom du module n'est pas trouvé, Python continue la recherche du module.

sys.modules est accessible en lecture-écriture. Supprimer une clé peut ne pas détruire le module associé (car d'autres modules contiennent possiblement des références vers ce module), mais cela invalide l'entrée du cache pour ce nom de module. Python cherche alors un nouveau module pour ce nom. La clé peut aussi être assignée à None de manière à forcer une ModuleNotFoundError lors de la prochaine importation du module.

Attention cependant : s'il reste une référence à l'objet module et que vous invalidez l'entrée dans le cache de sys.modules puis ré-importez le module, les deux objets modules ne seront pas les mêmes. À l'inverse, importlib.reload() ré-utilise le même objet module et ré-initialise simplement le contenu du module en ré-exécutant le code du module.

5.3.2. Chercheurs et chargeurs

Si le module n'est pas trouvé dans sys.modules, alors Python utilise son protocole d'importation pour chercher et charger le module. Ce protocole se compose de deux objets conceptuels : les chercheurs et les chargeurs. Le travail du chercheur consiste à trouver, à l'aide de différentes stratégies, le module dont le nom a été fourni. Les objets qui implémentent ces deux interfaces sont connus sous le vocable « importateurs » (ils renvoient une référence vers eux-mêmes quand ils trouvent un module qui répond aux attentes).

Python inclut plusieurs chercheurs et importateurs par défaut. Le premier sait comment trouver les modules natifs et le deuxième sait comment trouver les modules figés. Un troisième chercheur recherche les modules dans import path. import path est une énumération sous forme de liste de chemins ou de fichiers zip. Il peut être étendu pour rechercher aussi dans toute ressource qui dispose d'un identifiant pour la localiser, une URL par exemple.

Le mécanisme d'importation est extensible, vous pouvez donc ajouter de nouveaux chercheurs pour étendre le domaine de recherche des modules.

Les chercheurs ne chargent pas les modules. S'il trouve le module demandé, un chercheur renvoie un spécificateur de module, qui contient toutes les informations nécessaires pour importer le module ; celui-ci sera alors utilisé par le mécanisme d'importation pour charger le module.

Les sections suivantes décrivent plus en détail le protocole utilisé par les chercheurs et les chargeurs, y compris la manière de les créer et les enregistrer pour étendre le mécanisme d'importation.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: dans les versions précédentes de Python, les chercheurs renvoyaient directement les chargeurs. Dorénavant, ils renvoient des spécificateurs de modules qui contiennent les chargeurs. Les chargeurs sont encore utilisés lors de l'importation mais ont moins de responsabilités.

5.3.3. Points d'entrées automatiques pour l'importation

Le mécanisme d'importation est conçu pour être extensible ; vous pouvez y insérer des points d'entrée automatique (hooks en anglais). Il existe deux types de points d'entrée automatique pour l'importation : les méta-points d'entrée et les points d'entrée sur le chemin des importations.

Les méta-points d'entrée sont appelés au début du processus d'importation, juste après la vérification dans le cache sys.modules mais avant tout le reste. Cela permet aux méta-points d'entrée de surcharger le traitement effectué sur sys.path, les modules figés ou même les modules natifs. L'enregistrement des méta-points d'entrée se fait en ajoutant de nouveaux objets chercheurs à sys.meta_path, comme décrit ci-dessous.

Les points d'entrée sur le chemin des importations sont appelés pendant le traitement de sys.path (ou package.__path__), au moment où le chemin qui leur correspond est atteint. Les points d'entrée sur le chemin des importations sont enregistrés en ajoutant de nouveaux appelables à sys.path_hooks, comme décrit ci-dessous.

5.3.4. Méta-chemins

Quand le module demandé n'est pas trouvé dans sys.modules, Python recherche alors dans sys.meta_path qui contient une liste d'objets chercheurs dans des méta-chemins. Ces chercheurs sont interrogés dans l'ordre pour voir s'ils savent prendre en charge le module passé en paramètre. Les chercheurs dans les méta-chemins implémentent une méthode find_spec() qui prend trois arguments : un nom, un chemin d'importation et (optionnellement) un module cible. Un chercheur dans les méta-chemins peut utiliser n'importe quelle stratégie pour déterminer s'il est apte à prendre en charge le module.

Si un chercheur dans les méta-chemins sait prendre en charge le module donné, il renvoie un objet spécificateur. S'il ne sait pas, il renvoie None. Si le traitement de sys.meta_path arrive à la fin de la liste sans qu'aucun chercheur n'a renvoyé un objet spécificateur, alors une ModuleNotFoundError est levée. Toute autre exception levée est simplement propagée à l'appelant, mettant fin au processus d'importation.

La méthode find_spec() des chercheurs dans les méta-chemins est appelée avec deux ou trois arguments. Le premier est le nom complètement qualifié du module à importer, par exemple truc.machin.bidule. Le deuxième argument est l'ensemble des chemins dans lesquels chercher. Pour les modules de plus haut niveau, le deuxième argument est None mais pour les sous-modules ou les paquets, le deuxième argument est la valeur de l'attribut __path__ du paquet parent. Si l'attribut __path__ approprié n'est pas accessible, une ModuleNotFoundError est levée. Le troisième argument est un objet module existant qui va être la cible du chargement (plus tard). Le système d'importation ne passe le module cible en paramètre que lors d'un rechargement.

Le méta-chemin peut être parcouru plusieurs fois pour une seule requête d'importation. Par exemple, si nous supposons qu'aucun des modules concernés n'a déjà été mis en cache, importer truc.machin.bidule effectue une première importation au niveau le plus haut, en appelant c_m_c.find_spec("truc", None, None) pour chaque chercheur dans les méta-chemins (c_m_c). Après que truc a été importé, truc.machin est importé en parcourant le méta-chemin une deuxième fois, appelant c_m_c.find_spec("truc.machin", truc.__path__, None). Une fois truc.machin importé, le parcours final appelle c_m_c.find_spec("truc.machin.bidule", truc.machin.__path__, None).

Quelques chercheurs dans les méta-chemins ne gèrent que les importations de plus haut niveau. Ces importateurs renvoient toujours None si on leur passe un deuxième argument autre que None.

Le sys.meta_path de Python comprend trois chercheurs par défaut : un qui sait importer les modules natifs, un qui sait importer les modules figés et un qui sait importer les modules depuis un chemin des importations (c'est le chercheur dans path).

Modifié dans la version 3.4: La méthode find_spec() des chercheurs dans les méta-chemins a remplacé find_module(), devenue obsolète. Bien qu'elle continue de fonctionner comme avant, le mécanisme d'importation essaie find_module() uniquement si le chercheur n'implémente pas find_spec().

Modifié dans la version 3.10: L'utilisation de find_module() par le système d'importation lève maintenant un ImportWarning.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: find_module() a été supprimé. Utiliser find_spec() à la place.

5.4. Chargement

Quand un spécificateur de module est trouvé, le mécanisme d'importation l'utilise (et le chargeur qu'il contient) pour charger le module. Voici à peu près ce qui se passe au sein de l'importation pendant la phase de chargement :

module = None
if spec.loader is not None and hasattr(spec.loader, 'create_module'):
    # It is assumed 'exec_module' will also be defined on the loader.
    module = spec.loader.create_module(spec)
if module is None:
    module = ModuleType(spec.name)
# The import-related module attributes get set here:
_init_module_attrs(spec, module)

if spec.loader is None:
    # unsupported
    raise ImportError
if spec.origin is None and spec.submodule_search_locations is not None:
    # namespace package
    sys.modules[spec.name] = module
elif not hasattr(spec.loader, 'exec_module'):
    module = spec.loader.load_module(spec.name)
else:
    sys.modules[spec.name] = module
    try:
        spec.loader.exec_module(module)
    except BaseException:
        try:
            del sys.modules[spec.name]
        except KeyError:
            pass
        raise
return sys.modules[spec.name]

Notez les détails suivants :

S'il existe un objet module dans sys.modules avec le même nom, import l'aurait déjà renvoyé.

Le module existe dans sys.modules avant que le chargeur exécute le code du module. C'est crucial car le code du module peut (directement ou indirectement) s'importer lui-même ; l'ajouter à sys.modules avant évite les récursions infinies dans le pire cas et le chargement multiple dans le meilleur des cas.

Si le chargement échoue, le module en cause (et seulement ce module) est enlevé de sys.modules. Tout module déjà dans le cache de sys.modules et tout module qui a été chargé avec succès par effet de bord doit rester dans le cache. C'est différent dans le cas d'un rechargement où même le module qui a échoué est conservé dans sys.modules.

Après que le module est créé mais avant son exécution, le mécanisme d'importation définit les attributs relatifs à l'importation (_init_module_attrs dans l'exemple de pseudo-code ci-dessus), comme indiqué brièvement dans une section que nous abordons ensuite.

L'exécution du module est le moment clé du chargement dans lequel l'espace de nommage du module est peuplé. L'exécution est entièrement déléguée au chargeur qui doit décider ce qui est peuplé et comment.

Le modulé créé pendant le chargement et passé à exec_module() peut ne pas être celui qui est renvoyé à la fin de l'importation [2].

Modifié dans la version 3.4: le système d'importation a pris en charge les responsabilités des chargeurs. Celles-ci étaient auparavant effectuées par la méthode importlib.abc.Loader.load_module().

5.4.1. Chargeurs

Les chargeurs de modules fournissent la fonction critique du chargement : l'exécution du module. Le mécanisme d'importation appelle la méthode importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module() avec un unique argument, l'objet module à exécuter. Toute valeur renvoyée par exec_module() est ignorée.

Les chargeurs doivent satisfaire les conditions suivantes :

Si le module est un module Python (par opposition aux modules natifs ou aux extensions chargées dynamiquement), le chargeur doit exécuter le code du module dans l'espace des noms globaux du module (module.__dict__).

Si le chargeur ne peut pas exécuter le module, il doit lever une ImportError, alors que toute autre exception levée durant exec_module() est propagée.

Souvent, le chercheur et le chargeur sont le même objet ; dans ce cas, la méthode find_spec() doit juste renvoyer un spécificateur avec le chargeur défini à self.

Les chargeurs de modules peuvent choisir de créer l'objet module pendant le chargement en implémentant une méthode create_module(). Elle prend un argument, l'objet spécificateur du module et renvoie le nouvel objet du module à utiliser pendant le chargement. Notez que create_module() n'a besoin de définir aucun attribut sur l'objet module. Si cette méthode renvoie None, le mécanisme d'importation crée le nouveau module lui-même.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4: la méthode create_module() des chargeurs.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: la méthode load_module() a été remplacée par exec_module() et le mécanisme d'import assume toutes les responsabilités du chargement.

Par compatibilité avec les chargeurs existants, le mécanisme d'importation utilise la méthode load_module() des chargeurs si elle existe et si le chargeur n'implémente pas exec_module(). Cependant, load_module() est déclarée obsolète et les chargeurs doivent implémenter exec_module() à la place.

La méthode load_module() doit implémenter toutes les fonctionnalités de chargement décrites ci-dessus en plus de l'exécution du module. Toutes les contraintes s'appliquent aussi, avec quelques précisions supplémentaires :

S'il y a un objet module existant avec le même nom dans sys.modules, le chargeur doit utiliser le module existant (sinon, importlib.reload() ne fonctionnera pas correctement). Si le module considéré n'est pas trouvé dans sys.modules, le chargeur doit créer un nouvel objet module et l'ajouter à sys.modules.

Le module doit exister dans sys.modules avant que le chargeur n'exécute le code du module, afin d'éviter les récursions infinies ou le chargement multiple.

Si le chargement échoue, le chargeur ne doit enlever de sys.modules que le (ou les) module ayant échoué et seulement si le chargeur lui-même a chargé le module explicitement.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: un avertissement DeprecationWarning est levé quand exec_module() est définie mais create_module() ne l'est pas.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: une exception ImportError est levée quand exec_module() est définie mais create_module() ne l'est pas.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: l'utilisation de load_module() lève un ImportWarning.

5.4.2. Sous-modules

Quand un sous-module est chargé, quel que soit le mécanisme (par exemple avec les instructions import, import-from ou avec la fonction native __import__()), une liaison est créée dans l'espace de nommage du module parent vers l'objet sous-module. Par exemple, si le paquet spam possède un sous-module foo, après l'importation de spam.foo, spam possède un attribut foo qui est lié au sous-module. Supposons que nous ayons l'arborescence suivante :

spam/
    __init__.py
    foo.py

et que le contenu de spam/__init__.py contienne :

from .foo import Foo

alors exécuter les lignes suivantes crée des liens vers foo et Foo dans le module spam :

>>> import spam
>>> spam.foo
<module 'spam.foo' from '/tmp/imports/spam/foo.py'>
>>> spam.Foo
<class 'spam.foo.Foo'>

Connaissant la façon habituelle dont Python effectue les liens, cela peut sembler surprenant. Mais c'est en fait une fonctionnalité fondamentale du système d'importation. Si vous avez quelque part sys.modules['spam'] et sys.modules['spam.foo'] (comme dans c'est le cas ci-dessus après l'importation), alors le dernier doit apparaître comme l'attribut foo du premier.

5.4.3. Spécificateurs de modules

Le mécanisme d'importation utilise diverses informations de chaque module pendant l'importation, spécialement avant le chargement. La plupart de ces informations sont communes à tous les modules. Le but d'un spécificateur de module est d'encapsuler ces informations relatives à l'importation au sein de chaque module.

Utiliser un spécificateur pendant l'importation permet de transférer l'état entre les composants du système d'importation, par exemple entre le chercheur qui crée le spécificateur de module et le chargeur qui l'exécute. Surtout, cela permet au mécanisme d'importation d'effectuer toutes les opérations classiques de chargement, alors que c'était le chargeur qui en avait la responsabilité quand il n'y avait pas de spécificateur.

L'attribut module.__spec__ doit contenir un lien vers le spécificateur de module qui a été utilisé lors de l'importation du module. Définir __spec__ correctement s'applique aussi lors de l'initialisation des modules au démarrage de l'interpréteur. La seule exception est __main__ pour lequel la valeur de __spec__ peut être parfois None.

Lisez ModuleSpec pour davantage d'informations sur le contenu du spécificateur de module.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

5.4.4. l'attribut __path__ des modules

L'attribut __path__ doit être une sequence (possiblement vide) de chaînes de caractères listant tous les emplacements où se trouvent les sous-modules du paquet. Par définition, si un module a un attribut __path__ alors c'est un paquet

L'attribut __path__ d'un paquet est utilisé pendant l'importation de ses sous-paquets. Dans le mécanisme d'importation, son fonctionnement ressemble beaucoup à sys.path, c'est-à-dire qu'il fournit une liste d'emplacements où rechercher les modules pendant l'importation. Cependant, __path__ est beaucoup plus contraint que sys.path.

Les mêmes règles que pour sys.path s'appliquent au __path__ d'un paquet. Les sys.path_hooks (dont la description est donnée plus bas) sont consultés pendant le parcours du __path__ du paquet.

Le fichier __init__.py d'un paquet peut définir ou modifier l'attribut __path__ d'un paquet, et c'est ainsi qu'étaient implémentés les paquets-espaces de nommage avant la PEP 420 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/]. Depuis l'adoption de la PEP 420 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/], les paquets-espaces de nommage n'ont plus besoin d'avoir des fichiers __init__.py qui ne font que de la manipulation de __path__ ; le mécanisme d'importation définit automatiquement __path__ correctement pour un paquet-espace de nommage.

5.4.5. Représentation textuelle d'un module

Par défaut, tous les modules ont une représentation textuelle utilisable. Cependant, en utilisant les attributs définis ci-dessus et dans le spécificateur de module, vous pouvez explicitement mieux contrôler l'affichage des objets modules.

Si le module possède un spécificateur (__spec__), le mécanisme d'importation essaie de générer une représentation avec celui-ci. S'il échoue ou s'il n'y a pas de spécificateur, le système d'importation construit une représentation par défaut en utilisant toute information disponible sur le module. Il tente d'utiliser module.__name__, module.__file__ et module.__loader__ comme entrées pour la représentation, avec des valeurs par défaut lorsque l'information est manquante.

Les règles exactes utilisées sont :

Si le module possède un attribut __spec__, la valeur est utilisée pour générer la représentation. Les attributs name, loader, origin et has_location sont consultés.

Si le module possède un attribut __file__, il est utilisé pour construire la représentation du module.

Si le module ne possède pas d'attribut __file__ mais possède un __loader__ qui n'est pas None, alors la représentation du chargeur est utilisée pour construire la représentation du module.

Sinon, il utilise juste le __name__ du module dans la représentation.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: La méthode module_repr() est obsolète depuis Python 3.4, et a été supprimée en Python 3.12 et n'est donc plus appelée lors de la résolution du __repr__ d'un module.

5.4.6. Invalidation de bytecode mis en cache

Avant que Python ne charge du bytecode en cache à partir d'un fichier .pyc, il vérifie si ce cache est bien à jour par rapport au fichier source .py. Python effectue cette vérification en stockant l'horodatage de la dernière modification de la source ainsi que sa taille dans le fichier cache au moment où il l'écrit. À l'exécution, le système d'importation valide le fichier cache en comparant les métadonnées que le cache contient avec les métadonnées de la source.

Python gère également les fichiers caches « avec empreintes », qui stockent une empreinte (hash en anglais) du contenu de la source plutôt que des métadonnées. Il existe deux variations des fichiers .pyc avec empreintes : vérifiés et non-vérifiés. Pour les fichiers .pyc avec empreinte vérifiés, Python valide le fichier cache en calculant l'empreinte du fichier source et compare les empreintes. Si l'empreinte stockée dans le fichier cache est invalide, Python la recalcule et écrit un nouveau fichier cache avec empreinte. Pour les fichiers .pyc avec empreinte non vérifiés, Python considère simplement que le fichier cache est valide s'il existe. La validation (ou non) des fichiers .pyc avec empreinte peut être définie avec l'option --check-hash-based-pycs.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: ajout des fichiers .pyc avec empreinte. Auparavant, Python gérait les caches de bytecode sur la base de l'horodatage.

5.5. Le chercheur dans path

Comme indiqué précédemment, Python est livré par défaut avec plusieurs chercheurs dans les méta-chemins. L'un deux, appelé chercheur dans path (PathFinder), recherche dans le chemin des importations qui contient une liste d'entrées dans path. Chaque entrée désigne un emplacement où rechercher des modules.

Le chercheur dans path en tant que tel ne sait pas comment importer quoi que ce soit. Il ne fait que parcourir chaque entrée de path et associe à chacune d'elle un « chercheur d'entrée dans path » qui sait comment gérer le type particulier de chemin considéré.

L'ensemble par défaut des « chercheurs d'entrée dans path » implémente toute la sémantique pour trouver des modules dans le système de fichiers, gérer des fichiers spéciaux tels que le code source Python (fichiers .py), le bytecode Python (fichiers .pyc) et les bibliothèques partagées (par exemple les fichiers .so). Quand le module zipimport de la bibliothèque standard le permet, les « chercheurs d'entrée dans path » par défaut savent aussi gérer tous ces types de fichiers (autres que les bibliothèques partagées) encapsulés dans des fichiers zip.

Les chemins ne sont pas limités au système de fichiers. Ils peuvent faire référence à des URL, des requêtes dans des bases de données ou tout autre emplacement qui peut être spécifié dans une chaîne de caractères.

Le chercheur dans path fournit aussi des points d'entrées (ou hooks) et des protocoles de manière à pouvoir étendre et personnaliser les types de chemins dans lesquels chercher. Par exemple, si vous voulez pouvoir chercher dans des URL réseau, vous pouvez écrire une fonction « point d'entrée » qui implémente la sémantique HTTP pour chercher des modules sur la toile. Ce point d'entrée (qui doit être un appelable) doit renvoyer un chercheur d'entrée dans path qui gère le protocole décrit plus bas et qui sera utilisé pour obtenir un chargeur de module sur la toile.

Avertissement : cette section et la précédente utilisent toutes les deux le terme chercheur, dans un cas chercheur dans les méta-chemins et dans l'autre chercheur d'entrée dans path. Ces deux types de chercheurs sont très similaires, gèrent des protocoles similaires et fonctionnent de manière semblable pendant le processus d'importation, mais il est important de garder à l'esprit qu'ils sont subtilement différents. En particulier, les chercheurs dans les méta-chemins opèrent au début du processus d'importation, comme clé de parcours de sys.meta_path.

Au contraire, les « chercheurs d'entrée dans path » sont, dans un sens, un détail d'implémentation du chercheur dans path et, en fait, si le chercheur dans path était enlevé de sys.meta_path, aucune des sémantiques des « chercheurs d'entrée dans path » ne serait invoquée.

5.5.1. Chercheurs d'entrée dans path

Le chercheur dans path (path based finder en anglais) est responsable de trouver et charger les modules et les paquets Python dont l'emplacement est spécifié par une chaîne dite d'entrée dans path. La plupart de ces entrées désignent des emplacements sur le système de fichiers, mais il n'y a aucune raison de les limiter à ça.

En tant que chercheur dans les méta-chemins, un chercheur dans path implémente le protocole find_spec() décrit précédemment. Cependant, il autorise des points d'entrée (hooks en anglais) supplémentaires qui peuvent être utilisés pour personnaliser la façon dont les modules sont trouvés et chargés depuis le chemin des importations.

Trois variables sont utilisées par le chercheur dans path : sys.path, sys.path_hooks et sys.path_importer_cache. L'attribut __path__ des objets paquets est aussi utilisé. Il permet de personnaliser encore davantage le mécanisme d'importation.

sys.path contient une liste de chaînes de caractères indiquant des emplacements où chercher des modules ou des paquets. Elle est initialisée à partir de la variable d'environnement PYTHONPATH et de plusieurs autres valeurs par défaut qui dépendent de l'installation et de l'implémentation. Les entrées de sys.path désignent des répertoires du système de fichiers, des fichiers zip et possiblement d'autres « endroits » (lisez le module site) tels que des URL ou des requêtes dans des bases de données où Python doit rechercher des modules. sys.path ne doit contenir que des chaînes de caractères ; tous les autres types sont ignorés.

Le chercheur dans path est un chercheur dans les méta-chemins, donc le mécanisme d'importation commence la recherche dans le chemin des importations par un appel à la méthode find_spec() du chercheur dans path, comme décrit précédemment. Quand l'argument path de find_spec() est donné, c'est une liste de chemins à parcourir, typiquement un attribut __path__ pour une importation à l'intérieur d'un paquet. Si l'argument path est None, cela indique une importation de niveau le plus haut et sys.path est utilisée.

Le chercheur dans path itère sur chaque entrée dans le path et, pour chacune, regarde s'il trouve un chercheur d'entrée dans path (PathEntryFinder) approprié à cette entrée. Comme cette opération est coûteuse (elle peut faire appel à plusieurs appels stat() pour cela), le chercheur dans path maintient un cache de correspondance entre les entrées et les « chercheurs d'entrée dans path ». Ce cache est stocké sous sys.path_importer_cache (en dépit de son nom, ce cache stocke les objets chercheurs plutôt que les simples objets importateurs). Ainsi, la recherche coûteuse pour une entrée de path spécifique n'a besoin d'être effectuée qu'une seule fois par le chercheur d'entrée dans path. Le code de l'utilisateur peut très bien supprimer les entrées du cache sys.path_importer_cache, forçant ainsi le chercheur dans path à effectuer une nouvelle fois la recherche sur chaque entrée.

Si une entrée n'est pas présente dans le cache, le chercheur dans path itère sur chaque callable de sys.path_hooks. Chaque point d'entrée sur une entrée de path de cette liste est appelé avec un unique argument, l'entrée dans laquelle chercher. L'appelable peut soit renvoyer un chercheur d'entrée dans path apte à prendre en charge l'entrée ou lever une ImportError. Une ImportError est utilisée par le chercheur dans path pour signaler que le point d'entrée n'a pas trouvé de chercheur d'entrée dans path pour cette entrée. L'exception est ignorée et l'itération sur le chemin des importations se poursuit. Le point d'entrée doit attendre qu'on lui passe soit une chaîne de caractères soit une chaîne d'octets ; l'encodage des chaînes d'octets est à la main du point d'entrée (par exemple, ce peut être l'encodage du système de fichiers, de l'UTF-8 ou autre chose) et, si le point d'entrée n'arrive pas à décoder l'argument, il doit lever une ImportError.

Si l'itération sur sys.path_hooks se termine sans qu'aucun chercheur d'entrée dans path ne soit renvoyé, alors la méthode find_spec() du chercheur dans path stocke None dans le sys.path_importer_cache (pour indiquer qu'il n'y a pas de chercheur pour cette entrée) et renvoie None, indiquant que ce chercheur dans les méta-chemins n'a pas trouvé le module.

Si un chercheur d'entrée dans path est renvoyé par un des points d'entrée de sys.path_hooks, alors le protocole suivant est utilisé pour demander un spécificateur de module au chercheur, spécificateur qui sera utilisé pour charger le module.

The current working directory -- denoted by an empty string -- is handled slightly differently from other entries on sys.path. First, if the current working directory cannot be determined or is found not to exist, no value is stored in sys.path_importer_cache. Second, the value for the current working directory is looked up fresh for each module lookup. Third, the path used for sys.path_importer_cache and returned by importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_spec() will be the actual current working directory and not the empty string.

5.5.2. Protocole des chercheurs d'entrée dans path

Afin de gérer les importations de modules, l'initialisation des paquets et d'être capables de contribuer aux portions des paquets-espaces de nommage, les chercheurs d'entrée dans path doivent implémenter la méthode find_spec().

La méthode find_spec() prend deux arguments : le nom complètement qualifié du module en cours d'importation et (optionnellement) le module cible. find_spec() renvoie un spécificateur de module pleinement peuplé. Ce spécificateur doit avoir son chargeur (attribut loader) défini, à une exception près.

Pour indiquer au mécanisme d'importation que le spécificateur représente une portion d'un espace de nommage, le chercheur d'entrée dans path définit l'attribut submodule_search_locations à une liste contenant la portion.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: la méthode find_spec() remplace find_loader() et find_module(), ces deux méthodes étant dorénavant obsolètes mais restant utilisées si find_spec() n'est pas définie.

Les vieux chercheurs d'entrée dans path peuvent implémenter une des deux méthodes obsolètes à la place de find_spec(). Ces méthodes sont toujours prises en compte dans le cadre de la compatibilité descendante. Cependant, si find_spec() est implémentée par le chercheur d'entrée dans path, les méthodes historiques sont ignorées.

La méthode find_loader() prend un argument : le nom complètement qualifié du module en cours d'importation. find_loader() renvoie un couple dont le premier élément est le chargeur et le second est une portion d'espace de nommage.

À fin de compatibilité descendante avec d'autres implémentations du protocole d'importation, beaucoup de chercheurs d'entrée dans path gèrent aussi la méthode traditionnelle find_module() que l'on trouve dans les chercheurs dans les méta-chemins. Cependant, les méthodes find_module() des chercheurs d'entrée dans path ne sont jamais appelées avec un argument path (il est convenu qu'elles enregistrent les informations relatives au chemin approprié au moment de leur appel initial au point d'entrée).

La méthode find_module() des chercheurs d'entrée dans path est obsolète car elle n'autorise pas le chercheur d'entrée dans path à contribuer aux portions d'espaces de nommage des paquets-espaces de nommage. Si à la fois find_loader() et find_module() sont définies pour un chercheur d'entrée dans path, le système d'importation utilise toujours find_loader() plutôt que find_module().

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Les appels à find_module() et find_loader() par le système d'importation lèvent un ImportWarning.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: find_module() et find_loader() ont été supprimées.

5.6. Remplacement du système d'importation standard

La manière la plus fiable de remplacer tout le système d'importation est de supprimer le contenu par défaut de sys.meta_path et de le remplacer complètement par un chercheur dans les méta-chemins sur mesure.

If it is acceptable to only alter the behaviour of import statements without affecting other APIs that access the import system, then replacing the builtin __import__() function may be sufficient.

Pour empêcher sélectivement l'importation de certains modules par un point d'entrée placé en tête dans le méta-chemin (plutôt que de désactiver complètement le système d'importation), il suffit de lever une ModuleNotFoundError directement depuis find_spec() au lieu de renvoyer None. En effet, ce dernier indique que la recherche dans le méta-chemin peut continuer alors que la levée de l'exception termine immédiatement la recherche.

5.7. Importations relatives au paquet

Les importations relatives commencent par une suite de points. Un seul point avant indique une importation relative, démarrant avec le paquet actuel. Deux points ou plus avant indiquent une importation relative au parent du paquet actuel, un niveau par point avant le premier. Par exemple, en ayant le contenu suivant :

package/
    __init__.py
    subpackage1/
        __init__.py
        moduleX.py
        moduleY.py
    subpackage2/
        __init__.py
        moduleZ.py
    moduleA.py

Dans subpackage1/moduleX.py ou subpackage1/__init__.py, les importations suivantes sont des importations relatives valides :

from .moduleY import spam
from .moduleY import spam as ham
from . import moduleY
from ..subpackage1 import moduleY
from ..subpackage2.moduleZ import eggs
from ..moduleA import foo

Les importations absolues peuvent utiliser soit la syntaxe import <>, soit from <> import <>, mais les importations relatives doivent seulement utiliser la deuxième forme, la raison étant :

import XXX.YYY.ZZZ

devrait exposer XXX.YYY.ZZZ comme une expression utilisable, mais .moduleY n’est pas une expression valide.

5.8. Cas particulier de __main__

Le module __main__ est un cas particulier pour le système d'importation de Python. Comme indiqué par ailleurs, le module __main__ est initialisé directement au démarrage de l'interpréteur, un peu comme sys et builtins. Cependant, au contraire des deux cités précédemment, ce n'est pas vraiment un module natif. Effectivement, la manière dont est initialisé __main__ dépend des drapeaux et options avec lesquels l'interpréteur est lancé.

5.8.1. __main__.__spec__

En fonction de la manière dont __main__ est initialisé, __main__.__spec__ est défini de manière conforme ou mis à None.

Quand Python est démarré avec l'option -m, __spec__ est défini à la valeur du spécificateur du module ou paquet correspondant. Python peuple aussi __spec__ quand le module __main__ est chargé en tant que partie de l'exécution d'un répertoire, d'un fichier zip ou d'une entrée de sys.path.

Dans les autres cas, __main__.__spec__ est mis à None, car le code qui peuple __main__ ne trouve pas de correspondance directe avec un module que l'on importe :

invite de commande interactive

l'option -c

lecture depuis l'entrée standard

lecture depuis un fichier de code source ou de bytecode

Notez que __main__.__spec__ vaut toujours None dans le dernier cas, même si le fichier pourrait techniquement être importé directement en tant que module. Utilisez l'option -m si vous souhaitez disposer de métadonnées valides du module dans __main__.

Notez aussi que même quand __main__ correspond à un module importable et que __main__.__spec__ est défini en conséquence, ils seront toujours considérés comme des modules distincts. Cela est dû au fait que le bloc encadré par if __name__ == "__main__": ne s'exécute que quand le module est utilisé pour peupler l'espace de nommage de __main__, et pas durant une importation normale.

5.9. Références

Le mécanisme d'importation a considérablement évolué depuis les débuts de Python. La spécification des paquets [https://www.python.org/doc/essays/packages/] originale est toujours disponible, bien que quelques détails ont changé depuis l'écriture de ce document.

La spécification originale de sys.meta_path se trouve dans la PEP 302 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/]. La PEP 420 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/] contient des extensions significatives.

La PEP 420 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/] a introduit les paquets-espaces de nommage pour Python 3.3. La PEP 420 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/] a aussi introduit le protocole find_loader() comme une alternative à find_module().

La PEP 366 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0366/] décrit l'ajout de l'attribut __package__ pour les importations relatives explicites dans les modules principaux.

La PEP 328 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/] a introduit les importations absolues et les importations relatives explicites. Elle a aussi proposé __name__ pour la sémantique que la PEP 366 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0366/] attribuait à __package__.

PEP 338 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0338/] définit l'exécution de modules en tant que scripts.

PEP 451 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/] ajoute l'encapsulation dans les objets spécificateurs de l'état des importations, module par module. Elle reporte aussi la majorité des responsabilités des chargeurs vers le mécanisme d'importation. Ces changements permettent de supprimer plusieurs API dans le système d'importation et d'ajouter de nouvelles méthodes aux chercheurs et chargeurs.

Notes

[1]

Voir types.ModuleType.

[2]

L'implémentation de importlib évite d'utiliser directement la valeur de retour. À la place, elle récupère l'objet module en recherchant le nom du module dans sys.modules. L'effet indirect est que le module importé peut remplacer le module de même nom dans sys.modules. C'est un comportement spécifique à l'implémentation dont le résultat n'est pas garanti pour les autres implémentations de Python.

6. Expressions

Ce chapitre explique la signification des éléments des expressions en Python.

Syntax Notes: In this and the following chapters, grammar notation will be used to describe syntax, not lexical analysis.

When (one alternative of) a syntax rule has the form:

name: othername

et qu'aucune sémantique n'est donnée, la sémantique de name est la même que celle de othername.

6.1. Conversions arithmétiques

When a description of an arithmetic operator below uses the phrase "the numeric arguments are converted to a common real type", this means that the operator implementation for built-in numeric types works as described in the Numeric Types section of the standard library documentation.

Some additional rules apply for certain operators and non-numeric operands (for example, a string as a left argument to the % operator). Extensions must define their own conversion behavior.

6.2. Atomes

Atoms are the most basic elements of expressions. The simplest atoms are names or literals. Forms enclosed in parentheses, brackets or braces are also categorized syntactically as atoms.

Formally, the syntax for atoms is:

atom:
   | 'True'
   | 'False'
   | 'None'
   | '...'
   | identifier
   | literal
   | enclosure
enclosure:
   | parenth_form
   | list_display
   | dict_display
   | set_display
   | generator_expression
   | yield_atom

6.2.1. Built-in constants

The keywords True, False, and None name built-in constants. The token ... names the Ellipsis constant.

Evaluation of these atoms yields the corresponding value.

Note

Several more built-in constants are available as global variables, but only the ones mentioned here are keywords. In particular, these names cannot be reassigned or used as attributes:

>>> False = 123
  File "<input>", line 1
   False = 123
   ^^^^^
SyntaxError: cannot assign to False

6.2.2. Identifiants (noms)

Un identifiant qui apparaît en tant qu'atome est un nom. Lisez la section Names (identifiers and keywords) pour la définition lexicale et la section Noms et liaisons pour la documentation sur les noms et les liaisons afférentes.

Quand un nom est lié à un objet, l'évaluation de l'atome produit cet objet. Quand le nom n'est pas lié, toute tentative de l'évaluer lève une exception NameError.

6.2.2.1. Private name mangling

When an identifier that textually occurs in a class definition begins with two or more underscore characters and does not end in two or more underscores, it is considered a private name of that class.

Voir aussi

The class specifications.

More precisely, private names are transformed to a longer form before code is generated for them. If the transformed name is longer than 255 characters, implementation-defined truncation may happen.

The transformation is independent of the syntactical context in which the identifier is used but only the following private identifiers are mangled:

Any name used as the name of a variable that is assigned or read or any name of an attribute being accessed.

The __name__ attribute of nested functions, classes, and type aliases is however not mangled.

The name of imported modules, e.g., __spam in import __spam. If the module is part of a package (i.e., its name contains a dot), the name is not mangled, e.g., the __foo in import __foo.bar is not mangled.

The name of an imported member, e.g., __f in from spam import __f.

The transformation rule is defined as follows:

The class name, with leading underscores removed and a single leading underscore inserted, is inserted in front of the identifier, e.g., the identifier __spam occurring in a class named Foo, _Foo or __Foo is transformed to _Foo__spam.

If the class name consists only of underscores, the transformation is the identity, e.g., the identifier __spam occurring in a class named _ or __ is left as is.

6.2.3. Littéraux

A literal is a textual representation of a value. Python supports numeric, string and bytes literals. Format strings and template strings are treated as string literals.

Numeric literals consist of a single NUMBER token, which names an integer, floating-point number, or an imaginary number. See the Littéraux numériques section in Lexical analysis documentation for details.

String and bytes literals may consist of several tokens. See section Concaténation de chaînes de caractères for details.

Note that negative and complex numbers, like -3 or 3+4.2j, are syntactically not literals, but unary or binary arithmetic operations involving the - or + operator.

Evaluation of a literal yields an object of the given type (int, float, complex, str, bytes, or Template) with the given value. The value may be approximated in the case of floating-point and imaginary literals.

The formal grammar for literals is:

literal: strings | NUMBER

6.2.3.1. Literals and object identity

Tous les littéraux sont de types immuables et donc l'identifiant de l'objet est moins important que sa valeur. Des évaluations multiples de littéraux avec la même valeur (soit la même occurrence dans le texte du programme, soit une autre occurrence) résultent dans le même objet ou un objet différent avec la même valeur.

CPython implementation detail

For example, in CPython, small integers with the same value evaluate to the same object:

>>> x = 7
>>> y = 7
>>> x is y
True

However, large integers evaluate to different objects:

>>> x = 123456789
>>> y = 123456789
>>> x is y
False

This behavior may change in future versions of CPython. In particular, the boundary between "small" and "large" integers has already changed in the past.

CPython will emit a SyntaxWarning when you compare literals using is:

>>> x = 7
>>> x is 7
<input>:1: SyntaxWarning: "is" with 'int' literal. Did you mean "=="?
True

See Quand puis-je raisonnablement utiliser le test d'identité is ? for more information.

Template strings are immutable but may reference mutable objects as Interpolation values. For the purposes of this section, two t-strings have the "same value" if both their structure and the identity of the values match.

Particularité de l'implémentation CPython : Currently, each evaluation of a template string results in a different object.

6.2.3.2. Concaténation de chaînes de caractères

Multiple adjacent string or bytes literals, possibly using different quoting conventions, are allowed, and their meaning is the same as their concatenation:

>>> "hello" 'world'
"helloworld"

This feature is defined at the syntactical level, so it only works with literals. To concatenate string expressions at run time, the '+' operator may be used:

>>> greeting = "Hello"
>>> space = " "
>>> name = "Blaise"
>>> print(greeting + space + name)   # not: print(greeting space name)
Hello Blaise

Literal concatenation can freely mix raw strings, triple-quoted strings, and formatted string literals. For example:

>>> "Hello" r', ' f"{name}!"
"Hello, Blaise!"

This feature can be used to reduce the number of backslashes needed, to split long strings conveniently across long lines, or even to add comments to parts of strings. For example:

re.compile("[A-Za-z_]"       # letter or underscore
           "[A-Za-z0-9_]*"   # letter, digit or underscore
          )

However, bytes literals may only be combined with other byte literals; not with string literals of any kind. Also, template string literals may only be combined with other template string literals:

>>> t"Hello" t"{name}!"
Template(strings=('Hello', '!'), interpolations=(...))

Formally:

strings: (STRING | fstring)+ | tstring+

6.2.4. Formes parenthésées

Une forme parenthésée est une liste d'expressions (cette liste est en fait optionnelle) placée à l'intérieur de parenthèses :

parenth_form: "(" [starred_expression] ")"

Une liste d'expressions entre parenthèses produit ce que la liste de ces expressions produirait : si la liste contient au moins une virgule, elle produit un n-uplet (type n-uplet) ; sinon, elle produit l'expression elle-même (qui constitue donc elle-même la liste d'expressions).

Une paire de parenthèses vide produit un objet n-uplet vide. Comme les n-uplets sont immuables, la même règle que pour les littéraux s'applique (c'est-à-dire que deux occurrences du n-uplet vide peuvent, ou pas, produire le même objet).

Notez que les n-uplets ne sont pas créés par les parenthèses mais par l'utilisation de la virgule. L'exception est le n-uplet vide, pour lequel les parenthèses sont requises (autoriser que « rien » ne soit pas parenthésé dans les expressions aurait généré des ambigüités et aurait permis à certaines coquilles de passer inaperçu).

6.2.5. Agencements des listes, ensembles et dictionnaires

Pour construire une liste, un ensemble ou un dictionnaire, Python fournit des syntaxes spéciales dites « agencements » (displays en anglais), chaque agencement comportant deux variantes :

soit le contenu du conteneur est listé explicitement,

soit il est calculé à l'aide de la combinaison d'une boucle et d'instructions de filtrage, appelée une compréhension (dans le sens de ce qui sert à définir un concept, par opposition à extension).

Les compréhensions sont constituées des éléments de syntaxe communs suivants :

comprehension: assignment_expression comp_for
comp_for:      ["async"] "for" target_list "in" or_test [comp_iter]
comp_iter:     comp_for | comp_if
comp_if:       "if" or_test [comp_iter]

Une compréhension est constituée par une seule expression suivie par au moins une clause for et zéro ou plus clauses for ou if. Dans ce cas, les éléments du nouveau conteneur sont ceux qui auraient été produits si l'on avait considéré toutes les clauses for ou if comme des blocs, imbriqués de la gauche vers la droite, et évalué l'expression pour produire un élément à chaque fois que le bloc le plus imbriqué était atteint.

Cependant, à part l'expression de l'itérable dans la clause for la plus à gauche, la compréhension est exécutée dans une portée séparée, implicitement imbriquée. Ceci assure que les noms assignés dans la liste cible ne « fuient » pas en dehors de cette portée.

L'expression de l'itérable dans la clause for la plus à gauche est évaluée directement dans la portée englobante puis passée en tant qu'argument à la portée implicite imbriquée. Les clauses for suivantes et les filtres conditionnels de la clause for la plus à gauche ne peuvent pas être évalués dans la portée englobante, car ils peuvent dépendre de valeurs obtenues à partir de l'itérable le plus à gauche. Par exemple : [x*y for x in range(10) for y in range(x, x+10)].

Pour assurer que le résultat de la compréhension soit un conteneur du type approprié, les expressions yield et yield from sont interdites dans la portée implicite imbriquée.

Since Python 3.6, in an async def function, an async for clause may be used to iterate over a asynchronous iterator. A comprehension in an async def function may consist of either a for or async for clause following the leading expression, may contain additional for or async for clauses, and may also use await expressions.

If a comprehension contains async for clauses, or if it contains await expressions or other asynchronous comprehensions anywhere except the iterable expression in the leftmost for clause, it is called an asynchronous comprehension. An asynchronous comprehension may suspend the execution of the coroutine function in which it appears. See also PEP 530 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0530/].

Ajouté dans la version 3.6: Les compréhensions asynchrones ont été introduites.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: yield et yield from sont interdites dans la portée implicite imbriquée.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: les compréhensions asynchrones sont maintenant autorisées dans les compréhensions des fonctions asynchrones. Les compréhensions englobantes deviennent implicitement asynchrones.

6.2.6. Agencements de listes

Un agencement de liste est une suite (possiblement vide) d'expressions à l'intérieur de crochets :

list_display: "[" [flexible_expression_list | comprehension] "]"

Un agencement de liste produit un nouvel objet liste, dont le contenu est spécifié soit par une liste d'expression soit par une compréhension. Quand une liste d'expressions (dont les éléments sont séparés par des virgules) est fournie, ces éléments sont évalués de la gauche vers la droite et placés dans l'objet liste, dans cet ordre. Quand c'est une compréhension qui est fournie, la liste est construite à partir des éléments produits par la compréhension.

6.2.7. Agencements d'ensembles

Un agencement d'ensemble (type set) est délimité par des accolades et se distingue de l'agencement d'un dictionnaire par le fait qu'il n'y a pas de « deux points » : pour séparer les clés et les valeurs :

set_display: "{" (flexible_expression_list | comprehension) "}"

Un agencement d'ensemble produit un nouvel objet ensemble mutable, le contenu étant spécifié soit par une séquence d'expression, soit par une compréhension. Quand une liste (dont les éléments sont séparés par des virgules) est fournie, ses éléments sont évalués de la gauche vers la droite et ajoutés à l'objet ensemble. Quand une compréhension est fournie, l'ensemble est construit à partir des éléments produits par la compréhension.

Un ensemble vide ne peut pas être construit par {} ; cette écriture construit un dictionnaire vide.

6.2.8. Agencements de dictionnaires

Un agencement de dictionnaire est une série (possiblement vide) de couples clés-valeurs entourée par des accolades :

dict_display:       "{" [dict_item_list | dict_comprehension] "}"
dict_item_list:     dict_item ("," dict_item)* [","]
dict_item:          expression ":" expression | "**" or_expr
dict_comprehension: expression ":" expression comp_for

Un agencement de dictionnaire produit un nouvel objet dictionnaire.

Si une séquence (dont les éléments sont séparés par des virgules) de couples clés-valeurs est fournie, les couples sont évalués de la gauche vers la droite pour définir les entrées du dictionnaire : chaque objet clé est utilisé comme clé dans le dictionnaire pour stocker la valeur correspondante. Cela signifie que vous pouvez spécifier la même clé plusieurs fois dans la liste des couples clés-valeurs et, dans ce cas, la valeur finalement stockée dans le dictionnaire est la dernière donnée.

Une double astérisque ** demande de dépaqueter le dictionnaire. L'opérande doit être un tableau de correspondances. Chaque élément du tableau de correspondances est ajouté au nouveau dictionnaire. Les valeurs les plus récentes remplacent les valeurs déjà définies par des couples clés-valeurs antérieurs ou par d'autres dépaquetages de dictionnaires antérieurs.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5: le dépaquetage peut se faire vers un agencement de dictionnaire, proposé à l'origine par la PEP 448 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/].

Une compréhension de dictionnaire, au contraire des compréhensions de listes ou d'ensembles, requiert deux expressions séparées par une virgule et suivies par les clauses usuelles "for" et "if". Quand la compréhension est exécutée, les éléments clés-valeurs sont insérés dans le nouveau dictionnaire dans l'ordre dans lequel ils sont produits.

Les restrictions relatives aux types des clés sont données dans la section Hiérarchie des types standards (pour résumer, le type de la clé doit être hachable, ce qui exclut tous les objets mutables). Les collisions entre les clés dupliquées ne sont pas détectées ; la dernière valeur (celle qui apparaît le plus à droite dans l'agencement) stockée prévaut pour une clé donnée.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Avant Python 3.8, dans les compréhensions de dictionnaires, l'ordre d'évaluation entre les clés et les valeurs n'était pas bien défini. Dans CPython, la valeur était évaluée avant la clé. À partir de la version 3.8, la clé est évaluée avant la valeur, comme proposé par la PEP 572 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/].

6.2.9. Expressions génératrices

Une expression génératrice est une notation concise pour un générateur, entourée de parenthèses :

generator_expression: "(" expression comp_for ")"

Une expression génératrice produit un nouvel objet générateur. Sa syntaxe est la même que celle des compréhensions, sauf qu'elle est entourée de parenthèses au lieu de crochets ou d'accolades.

Variables used in the generator expression are evaluated lazily when the __next__() method is called for the generator object (in the same fashion as normal generators). However, the iterable expression in the leftmost for clause is immediately evaluated, and the iterator is immediately created for that iterable, so that an error produced while creating the iterator will be emitted at the point where the generator expression is defined, rather than at the point where the first value is retrieved. Subsequent for clauses and any filter condition in the leftmost for clause cannot be evaluated in the enclosing scope as they may depend on the values obtained from the leftmost iterable. For example: (x*y for x in range(10) for y in range(x, x+10)).

Les parenthèses peuvent être omises pour les appels qui ne possèdent qu'un seul argument. Voir la section Appels pour les détails.

Pour éviter d'interférer avec l'opération attendue de l'expression génératrice elle-même, les expressions yield et yield from sont interdites dans les générateurs définis de manière implicite.

Si une expression génératrice contient une ou des expressions async for ou await, elle est appelée expression génératrice asynchrone. Une expression génératrice asynchrone produit un nouvel objet générateur asynchrone qui est un itérateur asynchrone (voir Itérateurs asynchrones).

Ajouté dans la version 3.6: les expressions génératrices asynchrones ont été introduites.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Avant Python 3.7, les expressions génératrices asynchrones ne pouvaient apparaître que dans les coroutines async def. À partir de la version 3.7, toute fonction peut utiliser des expressions génératrices asynchrones.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: yield et yield from sont interdites dans la portée implicite imbriquée.

6.2.10. Expressions yield

yield_atom:       "(" yield_expression ")"
yield_from:       "yield" "from" expression
yield_expression: "yield" yield_list | yield_from

Une expression yield est utilisée pour définir une fonction génératrice ou une fonction génératrice asynchrone et ne peut donc être utilisée que dans le corps de la définition d'une fonction. L'utilisation d'une expression yield dans le corps d'une fonction entraîne que cette fonction devient une fonction génératrice et son utilisation dans le corps d'une fonction async def entraine que cette fonction coroutine devient une fonction génératrice asynchrone. Par exemple :

def gen():  # defines a generator function
    yield 123

async def agen(): # defines an asynchronous generator function
    yield 123

En raison des effets de bords sur la portée contenant, les expressions yield ne sont pas autorisées dans la portée implicite utilisée dans l'implémentation des compréhensions et des expressions génératrices.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Les expressions yield sont interdites dans la portée implicite imbriquée utilisée dans l'implémentation des compréhensions et des expressions génératrices.

Les fonctions génératrices sont décrites plus loin alors que les fonctions générateurs asynchrones sont décrites séparément dans la section Fonctions génératrices asynchrones.

When a generator function is called, it returns an iterator known as a generator. That generator then controls the execution of the generator function. The execution starts when one of the generator's methods is called. At that time, the execution proceeds to the first yield expression, where it is suspended again, returning the value of yield_list to the generator's caller, or None if yield_list is omitted. By suspended, we mean that all local state is retained, including the current bindings of local variables, the instruction pointer, the internal evaluation stack, and the state of any exception handling. When the execution is resumed by calling one of the generator's methods, the function can proceed exactly as if the yield expression were just another external call. The value of the yield expression after resuming depends on the method which resumed the execution. If __next__() is used (typically via either a for or the next() builtin) then the result is None. Otherwise, if send() is used, then the result will be the value passed in to that method.

Tout ceci rend les fonctions génératrices très similaires aux coroutines : elles produisent plusieurs objets via des expressions yield, elles possèdent plus qu'un seul point d'entrée et leur exécution peut être suspendue. La seule différence est qu'une fonction génératrice ne peut pas contrôler où l'exécution doit se poursuivre après une instruction yield ; ce contrôle est toujours du ressort de l'appelant au générateur.

Les expressions yield sont autorisées partout dans un bloc try. Si l'exécution du générateur ne reprend pas avant qu'il ne soit finalisé (parce que son compteur de référence est tombé à zéro ou parce qu'il est nettoyé par le ramasse-miettes), la méthode close() du générateur-itérateur est appelée, ce qui permet l'exécution de toutes les clauses finally en attente.

L'expression passée à yield from <expr> doit être un itérateur. Toutes les valeurs produites par cet itérateur sont directement passées à l'appelant des méthodes du générateur courant. Toute valeur passée par send() ou toute exception passée par throw() est transmise à l'itérateur sous-jacent s'il possède les méthodes appropriées. Si ce n'est pas le cas, alors send() lève une AttributeError ou une TypeError, alors que throw() ne fait que propager l'exception immédiatement.

Quand l'itérateur sous-jacent a terminé, l'attribut value de l'instance StopIteration qui a été levée devient la valeur produite par l'expression yield. Elle peut être définie explicitement quand vous levez StopIteration ou automatiquement que le sous-itérateur est un générateur (en renvoyant une valeur par le sous-générateur).

Modifié dans la version 3.3: yield from <expr> a été ajoutée pour déléguer le contrôle du flot d'exécution à un sous-itérateur.

Les parenthèses peuvent être omises quand l'expression yield est la seule expression à droite de l'instruction de l'instruction d'affectation.

Voir aussi

PEP 255 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0255/] : générateurs simples

La proposition d'ajouter à Python des générateurs et l'instruction yield.

PEP 342 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0342/] -- Coroutines via des générateurs améliorés

Proposition d'améliorer l'API et la syntaxe des générateurs, de manière à pouvoir les utiliser comme de simples coroutines.

PEP 380 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0380/] -- Syntaxe pour déléguer à un sous-générateur

Proposition d'introduire la syntaxe yield_from, de manière à déléguer facilement l'exécution à un sous-générateur.

PEP 525 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/] : Générateurs asynchrones

La proposition qui a amélioré la PEP 492 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/] en ajoutant des capacités de générateur pour les coroutines.

6.2.10.1. Méthodes des générateurs-itérateurs

Cette sous-section décrit les méthodes des générateurs-itérateurs. Elles peuvent être utilisées pour contrôler l'exécution des fonctions génératrices.

Notez que l'appel à une méthode ci-dessous d'un générateur alors que le générateur est déjà en cours d'exécution lève une exception ValueError.

generator.__next__()

Starts the execution of a generator function or resumes it at the last executed yield expression. When a generator function is resumed with a __next__() method, the current yield expression always evaluates to None. The execution then continues to the next yield expression, where the generator is suspended again, and the value of the yield_list is returned to __next__()'s caller. If the generator exits without yielding another value, a StopIteration exception is raised.

Cette méthode est normalement appelée implicitement, par exemple par une boucle for ou par la fonction native next().

generator.send(value)

Reprend l'exécution et « envoie » une valeur à la fonction génératrice. L'argument value devient le résultat de l'expression yield courante. La méthode send() renvoie la valeur suivante produite par le générateur ou lève StopIteration si le générateur termine sans produire de nouvelle valeur. Quand send() est utilisée pour démarrer le générateur, elle doit avoir None comme argument, car il n'y a aucune expression yield qui peut recevoir la valeur.

generator.throw(value)

generator.throw(type[, value[, traceback]])

Lève une exception à l'endroit où le générateur est en pause et renvoie la valeur suivante produite par la fonction génératrice. Si le générateur termine sans produire de nouvelle valeur, une exception StopIteration est levée. Si la fonction génératrice ne gère pas l'exception passée ou lève une autre exception, alors cette exception est propagée vers l'appelant.

Dans son utilisation typique, elle est appelée avec une seule instance d'exception, de façon similaire à l'utilisation du mot-clé raise.

Cependant, pour assurer la rétrocompatibilité, la deuxième signature est prise en charge, suivant une convention des anciennes versions de Python. L'argument type doit être une classe d'exception et value doit être une instance d'exception. Si value n'est pas fournie, le constructeur de type est appelé pour obtenir une instance. Si traceback est fournie, elle est liée sur l'exception, sinon tout attribut __traceback__ existant stocké dans value est possiblement effacé.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: The second signature (type[, value[, traceback]]) is deprecated and may be removed in a future version of Python.

generator.close()

Raises a GeneratorExit exception at the point where the generator function was paused (equivalent to calling throw(GeneratorExit)). The exception is raised by the yield expression where the generator was paused. If the generator function catches the exception and returns a value, this value is returned from close(). If the generator function is already closed, or raises GeneratorExit (by not catching the exception), close() returns None. If the generator yields a value, a RuntimeError is raised. If the generator raises any other exception, it is propagated to the caller. If the generator has already exited due to an exception or normal exit, close() returns None and has no other effect.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: If a generator returns a value upon being closed, the value is returned by close().

6.2.10.2. Exemples

Voici un exemple simple qui montre le comportement des générateurs et des fonctions génératrices :

>>> def echo(value=None):
...     print("Execution starts when 'next()' is called for the first time.")
...     try:
...         while True:
...             try:
...                 value = (yield value)
...             except Exception as e:
...                 value = e
...     finally:
...         print("Don't forget to clean up when 'close()' is called.")
...
>>> generator = echo(1)
>>> print(next(generator))
Execution starts when 'next()' is called for the first time.
1
>>> print(next(generator))
None
>>> print(generator.send(2))
2
>>> generator.throw(TypeError, "spam")
TypeError('spam',)
>>> generator.close()
Don't forget to clean up when 'close()' is called.

Pour des exemples d'utilisation de yield from, lisez la PEP 380: Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator dans « Les nouveautés de Python ».

6.2.10.3. Fonctions génératrices asynchrones

La présence d'une expression yield dans une fonction ou une méthode définie en utilisant async def transforme cette fonction en fonction générateur asynchrone.

Quand une fonction génératrice asynchrone est appelée, elle renvoie un itérateur asynchrone, autrement appelé objet générateur asynchrone. Cet objet contrôle l'exécution de la fonction génératrice. Un objet générateur asynchrone est typiquement utilisé dans une instruction async for à l'intérieur d'une fonction coroutine de la même manière qu'un objet générateur serait utilisé dans une instruction for.

Calling one of the asynchronous generator's methods returns an awaitable object, and the execution starts when this object is awaited on. At that time, the execution proceeds to the first yield expression, where it is suspended again, returning the value of yield_list to the awaiting coroutine. As with a generator, suspension means that all local state is retained, including the current bindings of local variables, the instruction pointer, the internal evaluation stack, and the state of any exception handling. When the execution is resumed by awaiting on the next object returned by the asynchronous generator's methods, the function can proceed exactly as if the yield expression were just another external call. The value of the yield expression after resuming depends on the method which resumed the execution. If __anext__() is used then the result is None. Otherwise, if asend() is used, then the result will be the value passed in to that method.

Si un générateur asynchrone se termine précipitamment en raison d'un break, de l'annulation de la tâche de l'appelant ou d'une exception, le code de nettoyage du générateur asynchrone est exécuté et lève possiblement des exceptions, accède à des variables de contexte dans un contexte inattendu — peut-être parce que la tâche de laquelle il dépend est finie, ou pendant la fermeture de la boucle d'événements quand le point d'entrée du ramasse-miettes a déjà été appelé. Afin d'éviter cette situation, l'appelant doit explicitement fermer le générateur asynchrone en appelant la méthode aclose() pour « finaliser » le générateur et le détacher de la boucle d'événements.

Dans une fonction génératrice asynchrone, les expressions yield sont autorisées n'importe où dans une construction try. Cependant, si l'exécution d'un générateur asynchrone n'a pas repris avant que le générateur ne soit finalisé (parce que son compteur de référence a atteint zéro ou parce qu'il est nettoyé par le ramasse-miettes), alors une expression yield dans une construction try pourrait ne pas atteindre la clause finally en attente. Dans ce cas, c'est la responsabilité de la boucle d'événements ou du programmateur exécutant le générateur asynchrone d'appeler la méthode aclose() du générateur asynchrone et d'exécuter l'objet coroutine résultant, permettant ainsi à toute clause finally en attente d'être exécutée.

Pour effectuer correctement la finalisation, une boucle d'événements doit définir une fonction finalizer qui prend un générateur-itérateur asynchrone, appelle sans doute aclose() et exécute la coroutine. Ce finalizer peut s'enregistrer en appelant sys.set_asyncgen_hooks(). Lors de la première itération, un générateur-itérateur asynchrone stocke le finalizer enregistré à appeler lors de la finalisation. Pour un exemple de référence relatif à une méthode de finalizer, regardez l'implémentation de asyncio.Loop.shutdown_asyncgens dans Lib/asyncio/base_events.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/asyncio/base_events.py].

L'expression yield from <expr> produit une erreur de syntaxe quand elle est utilisée dans une fonction génératrice asynchrone.

6.2.10.4. Méthodes des générateurs-itérateurs asynchrones

Cette sous-section décrit les méthodes des générateurs-itérateurs asynchrones. Elles sont utilisées pour contrôler l’exécution des fonctions génératrices.

async agen.__anext__()

Returns an awaitable which when run starts to execute the asynchronous generator or resumes it at the last executed yield expression. When an asynchronous generator function is resumed with an __anext__() method, the current yield expression always evaluates to None in the returned awaitable, which when run will continue to the next yield expression. The value of the yield_list of the yield expression is the value of the StopIteration exception raised by the completing coroutine. If the asynchronous generator exits without yielding another value, the awaitable instead raises a StopAsyncIteration exception, signalling that the asynchronous iteration has completed.

Cette méthode est normalement appelée implicitement par une boucle async for.

async agen.asend(value)

Returns an awaitable which when run resumes the execution of the asynchronous generator. As with the send() method for a generator, this "sends" a value into the asynchronous generator function, and the value argument becomes the result of the current yield expression. The awaitable returned by the asend() method will return the next value yielded by the generator as the value of the raised StopIteration, or raises StopAsyncIteration if the asynchronous generator exits without yielding another value. When asend() is called to start the asynchronous generator, it must be called with None as the argument, because there is no yield expression that could receive the value.

async agen.athrow(value)

async agen.athrow(type[, value[, traceback]])

Renvoie un awaitable qui lève une exception du type type à l'endroit où le générateur asynchrone a été mis en pause et renvoie la valeur suivante produite par la fonction génératrice comme valeur de l'exception StopIteration qui a été levée. Si le générateur asynchrone termine sans produire de nouvelle valeur, une exception StopAsyncIteration est levée par le awaitable. Si la fonction génératrice ne traite pas l'exception reçue ou lève une autre exception alors, quand le awaitable est lancé, cette exception est propagée vers l'appelant du awaitable.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: The second signature (type[, value[, traceback]]) is deprecated and may be removed in a future version of Python.

async agen.aclose()

Renvoie un awaitable qui, quand il s'exécute, lève une exception GeneratorExit dans la fonction génératrice asynchrone à l'endroit où le générateur était en pause. Si la fonction génératrice asynchrone termine normalement, est déjà fermée ou lève GeneratorExit (parce qu'elle ne gère pas l'exception), alors le awaitable renvoyé lève une exception StopIteration. Tout nouveau awaitable produit par un appel postérieur au générateur asynchrone lève une exception StopAsyncIteration. Si le générateur asynchrone produit une valeur, une RuntimeError est levée par le awaitable. Si le générateur asynchrone lève une autre exception, elle est propagée à l'appelant du awaitable. Si le générateur asynchrone a déjà terminé (soit par une exception, soit normalement), alors tout nouvel appel à aclose() renvoie un awaitable qui ne fait rien.

6.3. Primaires

Les primaires (primary dans la grammaire formelle ci-dessous) représentent les opérations qui se lient au plus proche dans le langage. Leur syntaxe est :

primary: atom | attributeref | subscription | call

6.3.1. Références à des attributs

Une référence à un attribut (attributeref dans la grammaire formelle ci-dessous) est une primaire suivie par un point et un nom :

attributeref: primary "." identifier

The primary must evaluate to an object of a type that supports attribute references, which most objects do. This object is then asked to produce the attribute whose name is the identifier. The type and value produced is determined by the object. Multiple evaluations of the same attribute reference may yield different objects.

This production can be customized by overriding the __getattribute__() method or the __getattr__() method. The __getattribute__() method is called first and either returns a value or raises AttributeError if the attribute is not available.

If an AttributeError is raised and the object has a __getattr__() method, that method is called as a fallback.

6.3.2. Subscriptions and slicings

The subscription syntax is usually used for selecting an element from a container -- for example, to get a value from a dict:

>>> digits_by_name = {'one': 1, 'two': 2}
>>> digits_by_name['two']  # Subscripting a dictionary using the key 'two'
2

In the subscription syntax, the object being subscribed -- a primary -- is followed by a subscript in square brackets. In the simplest case, the subscript is a single expression.

Depending on the type of the object being subscribed, the subscript is sometimes called a key (for mappings), index (for sequences), or type argument (for generic types). Syntactically, these are all equivalent:

>>> colors = ['red', 'blue', 'green', 'black']
>>> colors[3]  # Subscripting a list using the index 3
'black'

>>> list[str]  # Parameterizing the list type using the type argument str
list[str]

At runtime, the interpreter will evaluate the primary and the subscript, and call the primary's __getitem__() or __class_getitem__() special method with the subscript as argument. For more details on which of these methods is called, see __class_getitem__ contre __getitem__.

To show how subscription works, we can define a custom object that implements __getitem__() and prints out the value of the subscript:

>>> class SubscriptionDemo:
...     def __getitem__(self, key):
...         print(f'subscripted with: {key!r}')
...
>>> demo = SubscriptionDemo()
>>> demo[1]
subscripted with: 1
>>> demo['a' * 3]
subscripted with: 'aaa'

See __getitem__() documentation for how built-in types handle subscription.

Subscriptions may also be used as targets in assignment or deletion statements. In these cases, the interpreter will call the subscripted object's __setitem__() or __delitem__() special method, respectively, instead of __getitem__().

>>> colors = ['red', 'blue', 'green', 'black']
>>> colors[3] = 'white'  # Setting item at index
>>> colors
['red', 'blue', 'green', 'white']
>>> del colors[3]  # Deleting item at index 3
>>> colors
['red', 'blue', 'green']

All advanced forms of subscript documented in the following sections are also usable for assignment and deletion.

6.3.2.1. Tranches

A more advanced form of subscription, slicing, is commonly used to extract a portion of a sequence. In this form, the subscript is a slice: up to three expressions separated by colons. Any of the expressions may be omitted, but a slice must contain at least one colon:

>>> number_names = ['zero', 'one', 'two', 'three', 'four', 'five']
>>> number_names[1:3]
['one', 'two']
>>> number_names[1:]
['one', 'two', 'three', 'four', 'five']
>>> number_names[:3]
['zero', 'one', 'two']
>>> number_names[:]
['zero', 'one', 'two', 'three', 'four', 'five']
>>> number_names[::2]
['zero', 'two', 'four']
>>> number_names[:-3]
['zero', 'one', 'two']
>>> del number_names[4:]
>>> number_names
['zero', 'one', 'two', 'three']

When a slice is evaluated, the interpreter constructs a slice object whose start, stop and step attributes, respectively, are the results of the expressions between the colons. Any missing expression evaluates to None. This slice object is then passed to the __getitem__() or __class_getitem__() special method, as above.

# continuing with the SubscriptionDemo instance defined above:
>>> demo[2:3]
subscripted with: slice(2, 3, None)
>>> demo[::'spam']
subscripted with: slice(None, None, 'spam')

6.3.2.2. Comma-separated subscripts

The subscript can also be given as two or more comma-separated expressions or slices:

# continuing with the SubscriptionDemo instance defined above:
>>> demo[1, 2, 3]
subscripted with: (1, 2, 3)
>>> demo[1:2, 3]
subscripted with: (slice(1, 2, None), 3)

This form is commonly used with numerical libraries for slicing multi-dimensional data. In this case, the interpreter constructs a tuple of the results of the expressions or slices, and passes this tuple to the __getitem__() or __class_getitem__() special method, as above.

The subscript may also be given as a single expression or slice followed by a comma, to specify a one-element tuple:

>>> demo['spam',]
subscripted with: ('spam',)

6.3.2.3. "Starred" subscriptions

Ajouté dans la version 3.11: Expressions in tuple_slices may be starred. See PEP 646 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0646/].

The subscript can also contain a starred expression. In this case, the interpreter unpacks the result into a tuple, and passes this tuple to __getitem__() or __class_getitem__():

# continuing with the SubscriptionDemo instance defined above:
>>> demo[*range(10)]
subscripted with: (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9)

Starred expressions may be combined with comma-separated expressions and slices:

>>> demo['a', 'b', *range(3), 'c']
subscripted with: ('a', 'b', 0, 1, 2, 'c')

6.3.2.4. Formal subscription grammar

subscription:     primary '[' subscript ']'
subscript:        single_subscript | tuple_subscript
single_subscript: proper_slice | assignment_expression
proper_slice:     [expression] ":" [expression] [ ":" [expression] ]
tuple_subscript:  ','.(single_subscript | starred_expression)+ [',']

Recall that the | operator denotes ordered choice. Specifically, in subscript, if both alternatives would match, the first (single_subscript) has priority.

6.3.3. Appels

Un appel (call dans la grammaire ci-dessous) appelle un objet appelable (par exemple, une fonction) avec, possiblement, une liste d'arguments :

call:                 primary "(" [argument_list [","] | comprehension] ")"
argument_list:        positional_arguments ["," starred_and_keywords]
                        ["," keywords_arguments]
                      | starred_and_keywords ["," keywords_arguments]
                      | keywords_arguments
positional_arguments: positional_item ("," positional_item)*
positional_item:      assignment_expression | "*" expression
starred_and_keywords: ("*" expression | keyword_item)
                      ("," "*" expression | "," keyword_item)*
keywords_arguments:   (keyword_item | "**" expression)
                      ("," keyword_item | "," "**" expression)*
keyword_item:         identifier "=" expression

Une virgule finale (optionnelle) peut être présente, après les arguments positionnels et nommés, mais elle n'affecte pas la sémantique.

The primary must evaluate to a callable object (user-defined functions, built-in functions, methods of built-in objects, class objects, methods of class instances, and all objects having a __call__() method are callable). All argument expressions are evaluated before the call is attempted. Please refer to section Définition de fonctions for the syntax of formal parameter lists.

Si des arguments par mots-clés sont présents, ils sont d'abord convertis en arguments positionnels, comme suit. Pour commencer, une liste de slots vides est créée pour les paramètres formels. S'il y a N arguments positionnels, ils sont placés dans les N premiers slots. Ensuite, pour chaque argument nommé, l'identifiant est utilisé pour déterminer le slot correspondant (si l'identifiant est le même que le nom du premier paramètre formel, le premier slot est utilisé, et ainsi de suite). Si le slot est déjà rempli, une exception TypeError est levée. Sinon, l'argument est placé dans le slot, ce qui le remplit (même si l'expression est None, cela remplit le slot). Quand tous les arguments ont été traités, les slots qui sont toujours vides sont remplis avec la valeur par défaut correspondante dans la définition de la fonction (les valeurs par défaut sont calculées, une seule fois, lorsque la fonction est définie ; ainsi, un objet mutable tel qu'une liste ou un dictionnaire utilisé en tant valeur par défaut sera partagé entre tous les appels qui ne spécifient pas de valeur d argument pour ce slot ; on évite généralement de faire ça). S'il reste des slots pour lesquels aucune valeur par défaut n'est définie, une exception TypeError est levée. Sinon, la liste des slots remplie est utilisée en tant que liste des arguments pour l'appel.

Une implémentation peut fournir des fonctions natives dont les paramètres positionnels n'ont pas de nom, même s'ils sont « nommés » pour les besoins de la documentation. Ils ne peuvent donc pas être fournis comme arguments nommés. En CPython, les fonctions implémentées en C qui utilisent PyArg_ParseTuple() pour analyser leurs arguments en font partie.

S'il y a plus d'arguments positionnels que de slots de paramètres formels, une exception TypeError est levée, à moins qu'un paramètre formel n'utilise la syntaxe *identifier ; dans ce cas, le paramètre formel reçoit un n-uplet contenant les arguments positionnels en supplément (ou un n-uplet vide s'il n'y avait pas d'argument positionnel en trop).

Si un argument nommé ne correspond à aucun nom de paramètre formel, une exception TypeError est levée, à moins qu'un paramètre formel n'utilise la syntaxe **identifier ; dans ce cas, le paramètre formel reçoit un dictionnaire contenant les arguments nommés en trop (en utilisant les mots-clés comme clés et les arguments comme valeurs pour ce dictionnaire), ou un (nouveau) dictionnaire vide s'il n'y a pas d'argument nommé en trop.

Si la syntaxe *expression apparaît dans l'appel de la fonction, expression doit pouvoir s'évaluer à un itérable. Les éléments de ces itérables sont traités comme s'ils étaient des arguments positionnels supplémentaires. Pour l'appel f(x1, x2, *y, x3, x4), si y s'évalue comme une séquence y1 … yM, c'est équivalent à un appel avec M+4 arguments positionnels x1, x2, y1 … yM, x3, x4.

Une conséquence est que bien que la syntaxe *expression puisse apparaître après les arguments par nommés explicites, ils sont traités avant les arguments nommés (et avant tout argument **expression -- voir ci-dessous). Ainsi :

>>> def f(a, b):
...     print(a, b)
...
>>> f(b=1, *(2,))
2 1
>>> f(a=1, *(2,))
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: f() got multiple values for keyword argument 'a'
>>> f(1, *(2,))
1 2

Il est inhabituel que les syntaxes d'arguments par mots-clés et *expression soient utilisés simultanément dans un même appel, ce qui fait que la confusion reste rare.

Si la syntaxe **expression apparaît dans un appel de fonction, expression doit pouvoir s'évaluer comme un tableau de correspondances, dont le contenu est traité comme des arguments par mots-clés supplémentaires. Si un paramètre correspondant à une clé a déjà été fourni (en tant qu'argument nommé explicite, en provenance d'un autre dépaquetage), une exception TypeError est levée.

Lorsque **expression est utilisée, chaque clé de ce tableau de correspondances doit être une chaîne. Chaque valeur du tableau est affectée au premier paramètre formel éligible à l'affectation par mot-clé dont le nom est égal à la clé. Une clé n'a pas besoin d'être un identifiant Python (par exemple, "max-temp °F" est acceptable, bien qu'elle ne corresponde à aucun paramètre formel qui pourrait être déclaré). S'il n'y a pas de correspondance avec un paramètre formel, la paire clé-valeur est collectée par le paramètre **, s'il y en a un. S'il n'y a pas de paramètre **, une exception TypeError est levée.

Les paramètres formels qui utilisent la syntaxe *identifier ou **identifier ne peuvent pas être utilisés comme arguments positionnels ou comme noms d'arguments par mots-clés.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Les appels de fonction acceptent n'importe quel nombre de dépaquetages par * ou **. Des arguments positionnels peuvent suivre les dépaquetages d'itérables (*) et les arguments par mots-clés peuvent suivre les dépaquetages de dictionnaires (**). Proposé pour la première fois par la PEP 448 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/].

Un appel renvoie toujours une valeur, possiblement None, à moins qu'il ne lève une exception. La façon dont celle valeur est calculée dépend du type de l'objet appelable.

Si c'est

une fonction définie par l'utilisateur :

The code block for the function is executed, passing it the argument list. The first thing the code block will do is bind the formal parameters to the arguments; this is described in section Définition de fonctions. When the code block executes a return statement, this specifies the return value of the function call. If execution reaches the end of the code block without executing a return statement, the return value is None.

une fonction ou une méthode native :

le résultat dépend de l'interpréteur ; lisez Fonctions natives pour une description des fonctions et méthodes natives.

un objet classe :

une nouvelle instance de cette classe est renvoyée.

une méthode d'instance de classe :

la fonction correspondante définie par l'utilisateur est appelée, avec la liste d'arguments qui est plus grande d'un élément que la liste des arguments de l'appel : l'instance est placée en tête des arguments.

une instance de classe :

The class must define a __call__() method; the effect is then the same as if that method was called.

6.4. Expression await

Suspend l'exécution de la coroutine sur un objet awaitable. Ne peut être utilisée qu'à l'intérieur d'une coroutine function.

await_expr: "await" primary

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

6.5. L'opérateur puissance

L'opérateur puissance est plus prioritaire que les opérateurs unaires sur sa gauche ; il est moins prioritaire que les opérateurs unaires sur sa droite. La syntaxe est :

power: (await_expr | primary) ["**" u_expr]

Ainsi, dans une séquence sans parenthèse de puissance et d'opérateurs unaires, les opérateurs sont évalués de droite à gauche (ceci ne contraint pas l'ordre d'évaluation des opérandes) : -1**2 donne -1.

The power operator has the same semantics as the built-in pow() function, when called with two arguments: it yields its left argument raised to the power of its right argument. Numeric arguments are first converted to a common type, and the result is of that type.

Pour les opérandes entiers, le résultat est du même type à moins que le deuxième argument ne soit négatif ; dans ce cas, tous les arguments sont convertis en nombres à virgule flottante et le résultat est un nombre à virgule flottante. Par exemple, 10**2 renvoie 100 mais 10**-2 renvoie 0.01.

Élever 0.0 à une puissance négative entraîne une ZeroDivisionError. Élever un nombre négatif à une puissance fractionnaire renvoie un nombre complexe (dans les versions antérieures, cela levait une ValueError).

This operation can be customized using the special __pow__() and __rpow__() methods.

6.6. Arithmétique unaire et opérations sur les bits

Toute l'arithmétique unaire et les opérations sur les bits ont la même priorité :

u_expr: power | "-" u_expr | "+" u_expr | "~" u_expr

The unary - (minus) operator yields the negation of its numeric argument; the operation can be overridden with the __neg__() special method.

The unary + (plus) operator yields its numeric argument unchanged; the operation can be overridden with the __pos__() special method.

The unary ~ (invert) operator yields the bitwise inversion of its integer argument. The bitwise inversion of x is defined as -(x+1). It only applies to integral numbers or to custom objects that override the __invert__() special method.

Dans ces trois cas, si l'argument n'est pas du bon type, une exception TypeError est levée.

6.7. Opérations arithmétiques binaires

Les opérations arithmétiques binaires suivent les conventions pour les priorités. Notez que certaines de ces opérations s'appliquent aussi à des types non numériques. À part l'opérateur puissance, il n'y a que deux niveaux, le premier pour les opérateurs multiplicatifs et le second pour les opérateurs additifs :

m_expr: u_expr | m_expr "*" u_expr | m_expr "@" m_expr |
        m_expr "//" u_expr | m_expr "/" u_expr |
        m_expr "%" u_expr
a_expr: m_expr | a_expr "+" m_expr | a_expr "-" m_expr

The * (multiplication) operator yields the product of its arguments. The arguments must either both be numbers, or one argument must be an integer and the other must be a sequence. In the former case, the numbers are converted to a common real type and then multiplied together. In the latter case, sequence repetition is performed; a negative repetition factor yields an empty sequence.

This operation can be customized using the special __mul__() and __rmul__() methods.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: If only one operand is a complex number, the other operand is converted to a floating-point number.

L'opérateur @ (prononcé at en anglais) a vocation à multiplier des matrices. Aucun type Python natif n'implémente cet opérateur.

This operation can be customized using the special __matmul__() and __rmatmul__() methods.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

The / (division) and // (floor division) operators yield the quotient of their arguments. The numeric arguments are first converted to a common type. Division of integers yields a float, while floor division of integers results in an integer; the result is that of mathematical division with the 'floor' function applied to the result. Division by zero raises the ZeroDivisionError exception.

The division operation can be customized using the special __truediv__() and __rtruediv__() methods. The floor division operation can be customized using the special __floordiv__() and __rfloordiv__() methods.

The % (modulo) operator yields the remainder from the division of the first argument by the second. The numeric arguments are first converted to a common type. A zero right argument raises the ZeroDivisionError exception. The arguments may be floating-point numbers, e.g., 3.14%0.7 equals 0.34 (since 3.14 equals 4*0.7 + 0.34.) The modulo operator always yields a result with the same sign as its second operand (or zero); the absolute value of the result is strictly smaller than the absolute value of the second operand [1].

Les opérateurs division entière et modulo sont liés par la relation suivante : x == (x//y)*y + (x%y). La division entière et le module sont aussi liés à la fonction native divmod() : divmod(x, y) == (x//y, x%y) [2].

En plus de calculer le modulo sur les nombres, l'opérateur % est aussi surchargé par les objets chaînes de caractères pour effectuer le formatage de chaîne « à l'ancienne ». La syntaxe pour le formatage de chaînes est décrit dans la référence de la bibliothèque Python, dans la section Formatage de chaines à la printf.

The modulo operation can be customized using the special __mod__() and __rmod__() methods.

The floor division operator, the modulo operator, and the divmod() function are not defined for complex numbers. Instead, convert to a floating-point number using the abs() function if appropriate.

The + (addition) operator yields the sum of its arguments. The arguments must either both be numbers or both be sequences of the same type. In the former case, the numbers are converted to a common real type and then added together. In the latter case, the sequences are concatenated.

This operation can be customized using the special __add__() and __radd__() methods.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: If only one operand is a complex number, the other operand is converted to a floating-point number.

The - (subtraction) operator yields the difference of its arguments. The numeric arguments are first converted to a common real type.

This operation can be customized using the special __sub__() and __rsub__() methods.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: If only one operand is a complex number, the other operand is converted to a floating-point number.

6.8. Opérations de décalage

Les opérations de décalage sont moins prioritaires que les opérations arithmétiques :

shift_expr: a_expr | shift_expr ("<<" | ">>") a_expr

Ces opérateurs prennent des entiers comme arguments. Ils décalent le premier argument vers la gauche ou vers la droite du nombre de bits donné par le deuxième argument.

The left shift operation can be customized using the special __lshift__() and __rlshift__() methods. The right shift operation can be customized using the special __rshift__() and __rrshift__() methods.

Un décalage à droite de n bits est défini comme la division entière par pow(2,n). Un décalage à gauche de n bits est défini comme la multiplication par pow(2,n).

6.9. Opérations binaires bit à bit

Chacune des trois opérations binaires bit à bit possède une priorité différente :

and_expr: shift_expr | and_expr "&" shift_expr
xor_expr: and_expr | xor_expr "^" and_expr
or_expr:  xor_expr | or_expr "|" xor_expr

The & operator yields the bitwise AND of its arguments, which must be integers or one of them must be a custom object overriding __and__() or __rand__() special methods.

The ^ operator yields the bitwise XOR (exclusive OR) of its arguments, which must be integers or one of them must be a custom object overriding __xor__() or __rxor__() special methods.

The | operator yields the bitwise (inclusive) OR of its arguments, which must be integers or one of them must be a custom object overriding __or__() or __ror__() special methods.

6.10. Comparaisons

Au contraire du C, toutes les opérations de comparaison en Python possèdent la même priorité, qui est plus faible que celle des opérations arithmétiques, décalages ou binaires bit à bit. Toujours contrairement au C, les expressions telles que a < b < c sont interprétées comme elles le seraient conventionnellement en mathématiques :

comparison:    or_expr (comp_operator or_expr)*
comp_operator: "<" | ">" | "==" | ">=" | "<=" | "!="
               | "is" ["not"] | ["not"] "in"

Les comparaisons donnent des valeurs booléennes (True ou False). Cependant, les méthodes de comparaison riche définies par l'utilisateur peuvent renvoyer des non-booléens. Dans ce cas, le résultat de la comparaison est converti en booléen avec bool() dans les contextes qui attendent un booléen.

Les comparaisons peuvent être enchaînées arbitrairement, par exemple x < y <= z est équivalent à x < y and y <= z, sauf que y est évalué seulement une fois (mais dans les deux cas, z n'est pas évalué du tout si x < y s'avère être faux).

Formellement, si a, b, c … y, z sont des expressions et op1, op2 … opN sont des opérateurs de comparaison, alors a op1 b op2 c … y opN z est équivalent à a op1 b and b op2 c and … y opN z, sauf que chaque expression est évaluée au maximum une fois.

Notez que a op1 b op2 c n'implique aucune comparaison entre a et c. Ainsi, par exemple, x < y > z est parfaitement légal (mais peut-être pas très élégant).

6.10.1. Comparaisons de valeurs

Les opérateurs <, >, ==, >=, <= et != comparent les valeurs de deux objets. Les objets n'ont pas besoin d'être du même type.

Le chapitre Objets, valeurs et types indique que les objets ont une valeur (en plus d'un type et d'un identifiant). La valeur d'un objet est une notion plutôt abstraite en Python : par exemple, il n'existe pas de méthode canonique pour accéder à la valeur d'un objet. De la même manière, il n'y a aucune obligation concernant la construction de la valeur d'un objet, par exemple qu'elle prenne en compte toutes les données de ses attributs. Les opérateurs de comparaison implémentent une notion particulière de ce qu'est la valeur d'un objet. Vous pouvez vous le représenter comme une définition indirecte de la valeur d'un objet, via l'implémentation de leur comparaison.

Because all types are (direct or indirect) subtypes of object, they inherit the default comparison behavior from object. Types can customize their comparison behavior by implementing rich comparison methods like __lt__(), described in Personnalisation de base.

Le comportement par défaut pour le test d'égalité (== et !=) se base sur les identifiants des objets. Ainsi, un test d'égalité entre deux instances qui ont le même identifiant est vrai, un test d'égalité entre deux instances qui ont des identifiants différents est faux. La raison de ce choix est que Python souhaite que tous les objets soient réflexifs, c'est-à-dire que x is y implique x == y.

La relation d'ordre (<, >, <= et >=) n'est pas fournie par défaut ; une tentative se solde par une TypeError. La raison de ce choix est qu'il n'existe pas d'invariant similaire à celui de l'égalité.

Le comportement du test d'égalité par défaut, à savoir que les instances avec des identités différentes ne sont jamais égales, peut être en contradiction avec les types qui définissent la « valeur » d'un objet et se basent sur cette « valeur » pour l'égalité. De tels types doivent personnaliser leurs tests de comparaison et, en fait, c'est ce qu'ont fait un certain nombre de types natifs.

La liste suivante décrit le comportement des tests d'égalité pour les types natifs les plus importants.

Beaucoup de types numériques natifs (Types numériques — int, float, complex) et de types de la bibliothèque standard fractions.Fraction ainsi que decimal.decimal peuvent être comparés, au sein de leur propre classe ou avec d'autres objets de classes différentes. Une exception notable concerne les nombres complexes qui ne gèrent pas la relation d'ordre. Dans les limites des types concernés, la comparaison mathématique équivaut à la comparaison algorithmique, sans perte de précision.

Les valeurs non numériques float('NaN') et decimal.Decimal('NaN') sont spéciales : toute comparaison entre un nombre et une valeur non numérique est fausse. Une implication contre-intuitive à cela est que les valeurs non numériques ne sont pas égales à elles-mêmes. Par exemple, avec x = float('NaN'), les expressions 3 < x, x < 3 et x == x sont toutes fausses, mais l’expression x != x est vraie. Ce comportement est en accord avec IEEE 754.

None and NotImplemented are singletons. PEP 8 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/] advises that comparisons for singletons should always be done with is or is not, never the equality operators.

Les séquences binaires (instances du type bytes ou bytearray) peuvent être comparées au sein de la classe et entre classes. La comparaison est lexicographique, en utilisant la valeur numérique des éléments.

Les chaînes de caractères (instances de str) respectent l'ordre lexicographique en utilisant la valeur Unicode (le résultat de la fonction native ord()) des caractères [3].

Les chaînes de caractères et les séquences binaires ne peuvent pas être comparées directement.

Les séquences (instances de tuple, list ou range) peuvent être comparées uniquement entre instances de même type, en sachant que les intervalles (range) ne gèrent pas la relation d'ordre. Le test d'égalité entre ces types renvoie faux et une comparaison entre instances de types différents lève une TypeError.

Les séquences se comparent lexicographiquement en comparant les éléments correspondants. Les conteneurs natifs supposent généralement que les objets identiques sont égaux à eux-mêmes. Cela leur permet d'économiser les tests d’égalité pour des objets identiques afin d’améliorer les performances et de conserver leurs invariants internes.

L'ordre lexicographique pour les collections natives fonctionne comme suit :

Deux collections sont égales si elles sont du même type, ont la même longueur et si les éléments correspondants de chaque paire sont égaux. Par exemple, [1,2] == (1,2) est faux car les types sont différents.

Les collections qui gèrent la relation d'ordre sont ordonnées comme leur premier élément différent (par exemple, [1,2,x] <= [1,2,y] a la même valeur que x <= y). Si un élément n'a pas de correspondant, la collection la plus courte est la plus petite (par exemple, [1,2] < [1,2,3] est vrai).

Les tableaux de correspondances (instances de dict) sont égales si et seulement si toutes leurs paires (clé, valeur) sont égales. L'égalité des clés et des valeurs met en œuvre la réflexivité.

Les comparaisons (<, >, <= et >=) lèvent TypeError.

Les ensembles (instances de set ou frozenset) peuvent être comparés au sein de leur propre type et entre types différents.

Les opérateurs d'inclusion et de sur-ensemble sont définis. Ces relations ne sont pas des relations d'ordre total (par exemple, les deux ensembles {1,2} et {2,3} ne sont pas égaux, l'un n'est pas inclus dans l'autre, l'un n'est pas un sur-ensemble de l'autre). Ainsi, les ensembles ne sont pas des arguments appropriés pour les fonctions qui dépendent d'un ordre total (par exemple, les fonctions min(), max() et sorted() produisent des résultats indéfinis si on leur donne des listes d'ensembles en entrée).

La comparaison des ensembles met en œuvre la réflexivité des éléments.

La plupart des autres types natifs n'implémentent pas de méthodes de comparaisons, ils héritent donc du comportement par défaut.

Les classes définies par l'utilisateur qui particularisent les opérations de comparaison doivent, si possible, respecter quelques règles pour la cohérence :

Le test d'égalité doit être réflexif. En d'autres termes, des objets identiques doivent être égaux :

x is y implique x == y

La comparaison doit être symétrique. En d'autres termes, les expressions suivantes doivent donner le même résultat :

x == y et y == x

x != y et y != x

x < y et y > x

x <= y et y >= x

La comparaison doit être transitive. Les exemples suivants (liste non exhaustive) illustrent ce concept :

x > y and y > z implique x > z

x < y and y <= z implique x < z

Si vous inversez la comparaison, cela doit en produire la négation booléenne. En d'autres termes, les expressions suivantes doivent produire le même résultat :

x == y et not x != y

x < y et not x >= y (pour une relation d'ordre total)

x > y et not x <= y (pour une relation d'ordre total)

Ces deux dernières expressions s'appliquent pour les collections totalement ordonnées (par exemple, les séquences mais pas les ensembles ou les tableaux de correspondances). Regardez aussi le décorateur total_ordering().

Le résultat de hash() doit être cohérent avec l'égalité. Les objets qui sont égaux doivent avoir la même empreinte ou être marqués comme non-hachables.

Python ne vérifie pas ces règles de cohérence. En fait, l'utilisation de valeurs non numériques est un exemple de non-respect de ces règles.

6.10.2. Opérations de tests d’appartenance à un ensemble

Les opérateurs in et not in testent l’appartenance. x in s s’évalue à True si x appartient à s et à False sinon. x not in s renvoie la négation de x in s. Tous les types séquences et ensembles natifs gèrent ces opérateurs, ainsi que les dictionnaires pour lesquels in teste si dictionnaire possède une clé donnée. Pour les types conteneurs tels que les listes, n-uplets (tuple), ensembles (set), ensembles figés (frozen set), dictionnaires (dict) ou collections.deque, l’expression x in y est équivalente à any(x is e or x == e for e in y).

Pour les chaînes de caractères et chaînes d'octets, x in y vaut True si et seulement si x est une sous-chaîne de y. Un test équivalent est y.find(x) != -1. Une chaîne vide est considérée comme une sous-chaîne de toute autre chaîne, ainsi "" in "abc" renvoie True.

For user-defined classes which define the __contains__() method, x in y returns True if y.__contains__(x) returns a true value, and False otherwise.

For user-defined classes which do not define __contains__() but do define __iter__(), x in y is True if some value z, for which the expression x is z or x == z is true, is produced while iterating over y. If an exception is raised during the iteration, it is as if in raised that exception.

Lastly, the old-style iteration protocol is tried: if a class defines __getitem__(), x in y is True if and only if there is a non-negative integer index i such that x is y[i] or x == y[i], and no lower integer index raises the IndexError exception. (If any other exception is raised, it is as if in raised that exception).

L'opérateur not in est défini comme produisant le contraire de in.

6.10.3. Comparaisons d'identifiants

Les opérateurs is et is not testent l'égalité des identifiants des objets : x is y est vrai si et seulement si x et y sont le même objet. L'identifiant d'un objet est déterminé en utilisant la fonction id(). x is not y renvoie le résultat contraire de l'égalité des identifiants [4].

6.11. Opérations booléennes

or_test:  and_test | or_test "or" and_test
and_test: not_test | and_test "and" not_test
not_test: comparison | "not" not_test

In the context of Boolean operations, and also when expressions are used by control flow statements, the following values are interpreted as false: False, None, numeric zero of all types, and empty strings and containers (including strings, tuples, lists, dictionaries, sets and frozensets). All other values are interpreted as true. User-defined objects can customize their truth value by providing a __bool__() method.

L'opérateur not produit True si son argument est faux, False sinon.

L'expression x and y commence par évaluer x ; si x est faux, sa valeur est renvoyée ; sinon, y est évalué et la valeur résultante est renvoyée.

L'expression x or y commence par évaluer x ; si x est vrai, sa valeur est renvoyée ; sinon, y est évalué et la valeur résultante est renvoyée.

Notez que ni and ni or ne restreignent la valeur et le type qu'ils renvoient à False et True : ils renvoient le dernier argument évalué. Ceci peut être utile, par exemple : si une chaîne s doit être remplacée par une valeur par défaut si elle est vide, l'expression s or 'truc' produit la valeur voulue. Comme not doit créer une nouvelle valeur, il renvoie une valeur booléenne quel que soit le type de son argument (par exemple, not 'truc' produit False plutôt que ''.

6.12. Expressions d'affectation

assignment_expression: [identifier ":="] expression

Une expression d'affectation (parfois aussi appelée « expression nommée » ou « expression morse ») affecte l'expression à un identifiant et renvoie la valeur de l'expression.

Une utilisation classique concerne les correspondances d'expressions rationnelles :

if matching := pattern.search(data):
    do_something(matching)

Ou lorsqu'on traite le contenu d'un fichier par morceaux :

while chunk := file.read(9000):
    process(chunk)

Assignment expressions must be surrounded by parentheses when used as expression statements and when used as sub-expressions in slicing, conditional, lambda, keyword-argument, and comprehension-if expressions and in assert, with, and assignment statements. In all other places where they can be used, parentheses are not required, including in if and while statements.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8: Voir la PEP 572 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/] pour plus de détails sur les expressions d’affectation.

6.13. Expressions conditionnelles

conditional_expression: or_test ["if" or_test "else" expression]
expression:             conditional_expression | lambda_expr

A conditional expression (sometimes called a "ternary operator") is an alternative to the if-else statement. As it is an expression, it returns a value and can appear as a sub-expression.

L'expression x if C else y commence par évaluer la condition C. Si C est vrai, alors x est évalué et sa valeur est renvoyée ; sinon, y est évalué et sa valeur est renvoyée.

Voir la PEP 308 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0308/] pour plus de détails sur les expressions conditionnelles.

6.14. Expressions lambda

lambda_expr: "lambda" [parameter_list] ":" expression

Les expressions lambda sont utilisées pour créer des fonctions anonymes. L'expression lambda parameters: expression produit un objet fonction. Cet objet anonyme se comporte comme un objet fonction défini par :

def <lambda>(parameters):
    return expression

Voir la section Définition de fonctions pour la syntaxe des listes de paramètres. Notez que les fonctions créées par des expressions lambda ne peuvent pas contenir d'instructions ou d'annotations.

6.15. Listes d'expressions

starred_expression:       "*" or_expr | expression
flexible_expression:      assignment_expression | starred_expression
flexible_expression_list: flexible_expression ("," flexible_expression)* [","]
starred_expression_list:  starred_expression ("," starred_expression)* [","]
expression_list:          expression ("," expression)* [","]
yield_list:               expression_list | starred_expression "," [starred_expression_list]

Sauf lorsqu'elle fait partie d'un agencement de liste ou d'ensemble, une liste d'expressions qui contient au moins une virgule produit un n-uplet. La longueur du n-uplet est le nombre d'expressions dans la liste. Les expressions sont évaluées de la gauche vers la droite.

Un astérisque * indique dépaquetage d'itérable (iterable unpacking en anglais). Son opérande doit être un iterable. L'itérable est développé en une séquence d'éléments qui sont inclus dans un nouvel objet n-uplet, liste ou ensemble à l'emplacement du dépaquetage.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5: dépaquetage d'itérables dans les listes d'expressions, proposé à l'origine par la PEP 448 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/].

Ajouté dans la version 3.11: Any item in an expression list may be starred. See PEP 646 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0646/].

A trailing comma is required only to create a one-item tuple, such as 1,; it is optional in all other cases. A single expression without a trailing comma doesn't create a tuple, but rather yields the value of that expression. (To create an empty tuple, use an empty pair of parentheses: ().)

6.16. Ordre d'évaluation

Python évalue les expressions de la gauche vers la droite. Remarquez que lors de l'évaluation d'une affectation, la partie droite de l'affectation est évaluée avant la partie gauche.

Dans les lignes qui suivent, les expressions sont évaluées suivant l'ordre arithmétique de leurs suffixes :

expr1, expr2, expr3, expr4
(expr1, expr2, expr3, expr4)
{expr1: expr2, expr3: expr4}
expr1 + expr2 * (expr3 - expr4)
expr1(expr2, expr3, *expr4, **expr5)
expr3, expr4 = expr1, expr2

6.17. Priorités des opérateurs

Le tableau suivant résume les priorités des opérateurs en Python, du plus prioritaire (portée la plus courte) au moins prioritaire (portée la plus grande). Les opérateurs qui sont dans la même case ont la même priorité. À moins que la syntaxe ne soit explicitement indiquée, les opérateurs sont binaires. Les opérateurs dans la même case regroupent de la gauche vers la droite (sauf pour la puissance et les expressions conditionnelles qui regroupent de la droite vers la gauche).

Notez que les comparaisons, les tests d'appartenance et les tests d'identifiants possèdent tous la même priorité et s'enchaînent de la gauche vers la droite comme décrit dans la section Comparaisons.

Opérateur

Description

(expressions…),

[expressions…], {key: value…}, {expressions…}

Expression de liaison ou parenthèse, affichage de liste, affichage de dictionnaire, affichage de set

x[index], x[index:index] x(arguments...), x.attribute

Subscription (including slicing), call, attribute reference

await x

Expression await

**

Puissance [5]

+x, -x, ~x

NOT (positif, négatif, bit à bit)

*, @, /, //, %

Multiplication, multiplication de matrices, division, division entière, reste [6]

+, -

Addition et soustraction

<<, >>

décalages

&

AND (bit à bit)

^

XOR (bit à bit)

|

OR (bit à bit)

in, not in, is, is not, <, <=, >, >=, !=, ==

Comparaisons, y compris les tests d'appartenance et les tests d'identifiants

not x

NOT (booléen)

and

AND (booléen)

or

OR (booléen)

if -- else

Expressions conditionnelles

lambda

Expression lambda

:=

Expression d'affectation

Notes

[1]

Bien que abs(x%y) < abs(y) soit vrai mathématiquement, ce n'est pas toujours vrai pour les nombres à virgule flottante en raison des arrondis. Par exemple, en supposant que Python tourne sur une plateforme où les float sont des nombres à double précision IEEE 754, afin que -1e-100 % 1e100 soit du même signe que 1e100, le résultat calculé est -1e-100 + 1e100, qui vaut exactement 1e100 dans ce standard. Or, la fonction math.fmod() renvoie un résultat dont le signe est le signe du premier argument, c'est-à-dire -1e-100 dans ce cas. La meilleure approche dépend de l'application.

[2]

Si x est très proche d'un multiple entier de y, il est possible que x/y soit supérieur de un par rapport à (x-x%y)//y en raison des arrondis. Dans de tels cas, Python renvoie le second résultat afin d'avoir divmod(x,y)[0] * y + x % y le plus proche de x.

[3]

Le standard Unicode distingue les points codes (code points en anglais, par exemple U+0041) et les caractères abstraits (abstract characters en anglais, par exemple « LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A »). Bien que la plupart des caractères abstraits de l'Unicode ne sont représentés que par un seul point code, il y a un certain nombre de caractères abstraits qui peuvent être représentés par une séquence de plus qu'un point code. Par exemple, le caractère abstrait « LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C WITH CEDILLA » peut être représenté comme un unique caractère précomposé au point code U+00C7, ou en tant que séquence d'un caractère de base à la position U+0043 (LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C) du code, suivi par un caractère combiné à la position U+0327 (COMBINING CEDILLA) du code.

Les opérateurs de comparaison des chaînes opèrent au niveau des points codes Unicode. Cela peut être déroutant pour des humains. Par exemple, "\u00C7" == "\u0043\u0327" renvoie False, bien que les deux chaînes représentent le même caractère abstrait "LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C WITH CEDILLA".

Pour comparer des chaînes au niveau des caractères abstraits (afin d'avoir quelque chose d'intuitif pour les humains), utilisez unicodedata.normalize().

[4]

En raison du ramasse-miettes automatique et de la nature dynamique des descripteurs, vous pouvez être confronté à un comportement semblant bizarre lors de certaines utilisations de l'opérateur is, par exemple si cela implique des comparaisons entre des méthodes d'instances ou des constantes. Allez vérifier dans la documentation pour plus d'informations.

[5]

L'opérateur puissance ** est moins prioritaire qu'un opérateur unaire arithmétique ou bit à bit sur sa droite. Ainsi, 2**-1 vaut 0.5.

[6]

L'opérateur % est aussi utilisé pour formater les chaînes de caractères ; il y possède la même priorité.

7. Les instructions simples

Une instruction simple est contenue dans une seule ligne logique. Plusieurs instructions simples peuvent être écrites sur une seule ligne, séparées par des points-virgules. La syntaxe d'une instruction simple est :

simple_stmt: expression_stmt
             | assert_stmt
             | assignment_stmt
             | augmented_assignment_stmt
             | annotated_assignment_stmt
             | pass_stmt
             | del_stmt
             | return_stmt
             | yield_stmt
             | raise_stmt
             | break_stmt
             | continue_stmt
             | import_stmt
             | future_stmt
             | global_stmt
             | nonlocal_stmt
             | type_stmt

7.1. Les expressions

Les expressions sont utilisées (généralement de manière interactive) comme instructions pour calculer et écrire des valeurs, appeler une procédure (une fonction dont le résultat renvoyé n'a pas d'importance ; en Python, les procédures renvoient la valeur None). D'autres utilisations des expressions sont autorisées et parfois utiles. La syntaxe pour une expression en tant qu'instruction est :

expression_stmt: starred_expression

Ce genre d'instruction évalue la liste d'expressions (qui peut se limiter à une seule expression).

En mode interactif, si la valeur n'est pas None, elle est convertie en chaîne en utilisant la fonction native repr() et la chaîne résultante est écrite sur la sortie standard sur sa propre ligne. Si le résultat est None, rien n'est écrit ce qui est usuel pour les appels de procédures.

7.2. Les assignations

Les assignations sont utilisées pour lier ou relier des noms à des valeurs et modifier des attributs ou des éléments d'objets mutables :

assignment_stmt: (target_list "=")+ (starred_expression | yield_expression)
target_list:     target ("," target)* [","]
target:          identifier
                 | "(" [target_list] ")"
                 | "[" [target_list] "]"
                 | attributeref
                 | subscription
                 | "*" target

(See section Primaires for the syntax definitions for attributeref and subscription.)

Une assignation évalue la liste d'expressions (gardez en mémoire que ce peut être une simple expression ou une liste dont les éléments sont séparés par des virgules, cette dernière produisant un n-uplet) et assigne l'unique objet résultant à chaque liste cible, de la gauche vers la droite.

Assignment is defined recursively depending on the form of the target (list). When a target is part of a mutable object (an attribute reference or subscription), the mutable object must ultimately perform the assignment and decide about its validity, and may raise an exception if the assignment is unacceptable. The rules observed by various types and the exceptions raised are given with the definition of the object types (see section Hiérarchie des types standards).

L'assignation d'un objet à une liste cible, optionnellement entourée par des parenthèses ou des crochets, est définie récursivement comme suit.

Si la liste cible est une cible unique sans virgule de fin, optionnellement entre parenthèses, l'objet est assigné à cette cible.

Sinon :

Si la liste cible contient une cible préfixée par un astérisque, appelée cible étoilée (starred target en anglais) : l'objet doit être un itérable avec au moins autant d'éléments qu'il y a de cibles dans la liste cible, moins un. Les premiers éléments de l'itérable sont assignés, de la gauche vers la droite, aux cibles avant la cible étoilée. Les éléments de queue de l'itérable sont assignés aux cibles après la cible étoilée. Une liste des éléments restants dans l'itérable est alors assignée à la cible étoilée (cette liste peut être vide).

Sinon : l'objet doit être un itérable avec le même nombre d'éléments qu'il y a de cibles dans la liste cible ; les éléments sont assignés, de la gauche vers la droite, vers les cibles correspondantes.

L'assignation d'un objet vers une cible unique est définie récursivement comme suit.

Si la cible est une variable (un nom) :

si le nom n'apparaît pas dans une instruction global ou nonlocal (respectivement) du bloc de code courant, le nom est lié à l'objet dans l'espace courant des noms locaux ;

sinon le nom est lié à l'objet dans l'espace des noms globaux ou dans un espace de nommage plus large déterminé par nonlocal, respectivement.

Le lien du nom est modifié si le nom était déjà lié. Ceci peut faire que le compteur de références de l'objet auquel le nom était précédemment lié tombe à zéro, entrainant la dé-allocation de l'objet et l'appel de son destructeur (s'il existe).

Si la cible est une référence à un attribut : l'expression primaire de la référence est évaluée. Elle doit produire un objet avec des attributs que l'on peut assigner : si ce n'est pas le cas, une TypeError est levée. Python demande alors à cet objet d'assigner l'attribut donné ; si ce n'est pas possible, une exception est levée (habituellement, mais pas nécessairement, AttributeError).

Note : si l'objet est une instance de classe et que la référence à l'attribut apparaît des deux côtés de l'opérateur d'assignation, l'expression « à droite », a.x peut accéder soit à l'attribut d'instance ou (si cet attribut d'instance n'existe pas) à l'attribut de classe. L'expression cible « à gauche » a.x est toujours définie comme un attribut d'instance, en le créant si nécessaire. Ainsi, les deux occurrences de a.x ne font pas nécessairement référence au même attribut : si l'expression « à droite » fait référence à un attribut de classe, l'expression « à gauche » crée un nouvel attribut d'instance comme cible de l'assignation :

class Cls:
    x = 3             # class variable
inst = Cls()
inst.x = inst.x + 1   # writes inst.x as 4 leaving Cls.x as 3

Cette description ne s'applique pas nécessairement aux attributs des descripteurs, telles que les propriétés créées avec property().

If the target is a subscription: The primary expression in the reference is evaluated. Next, the subscript expression is evaluated. Then, the primary's __setitem__() method is called with two arguments: the subscript and the assigned object.

Typically, __setitem__() is defined on mutable sequence objects (such as lists) and mapping objects (such as dictionaries), and behaves as follows.

Si la primaire est un objet séquence mutable (telle qu'une liste), la sélection doit produire un entier. S'il est négatif, la longueur de la séquence lui est ajoutée. La valeur résultante doit être un entier positif ou nul, plus petit que la longueur de la séquence, et Python demande à la séquence d'assigner l'objet à l'élément se trouvant à cet indice. Si l'indice est hors limites, une IndexError est levée (une assignation à une sélection dans une séquence ne peut pas ajouter de nouveaux éléments à une liste).

Si la primaire est un objet tableau de correspondances (tel qu'un dictionnaire), la sélection doit être d'un type compatible avec le type des clés ; Python demande alors au tableau de correspondances de créer un couple clé-valeur qui associe la sélection à l'objet assigné. Ceci peut remplacer une correspondance déjà existante pour une clé donnée ou insérer un nouveau couple clé-valeur.

If the target is a slicing: The primary expression should evaluate to a mutable sequence object (such as a list). The assigned object should be iterable. The slicing's lower and upper bounds should be integers; if they are None (or not present), the defaults are zero and the sequence's length. If either bound is negative, the sequence's length is added to it. The resulting bounds are clipped to lie between zero and the sequence's length, inclusive. Finally, the sequence object is asked to replace the slice with the items of the assigned sequence. The length of the slice may be different from the length of the assigned sequence, thus changing the length of the target sequence, if the target sequence allows it.

Bien que la définition de l'assignation implique que le passage entre le côté gauche et le côté droit soient « simultanés » (par exemple, a, b = b, a permute les deux variables), le passage à l'intérieur des collections de variables que l'on assigne intervient de la gauche vers la droite, ce qui peut entraîner quelques confusions. Par exemple, le programme suivant affiche [0, 2] :

x = [0, 1]
i = 0
i, x[i] = 1, 2         # i is updated, then x[i] is updated
print(x)

Voir aussi

PEP 3132 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3132/] -- dépaquetage étendu d'itérable

Spécification de la fonctionnalité *cible.

7.2.1. Les assignations augmentées

Une assignation augmentée est la combinaison, dans une seule instruction, d'une opération binaire et d'une assignation :

augmented_assignment_stmt: augtarget augop (expression_list | yield_expression)
augtarget:                 identifier | attributeref | subscription
augop:                     "+=" | "-=" | "*=" | "@=" | "/=" | "//=" | "%=" | "**="
                           | ">>=" | "<<=" | "&=" | "^=" | "|="

Voir la section Primaires pour la définition des syntaxes des trois derniers symboles.

Une assignation augmentée évalue la cible (qui, au contraire des assignations normales, ne peut pas être un dépaquetage) et la liste d'expressions, effectue l'opération binaire (spécifique au type d'assignation) sur les deux opérandes et assigne le résultat à la cible originale. La cible n'est évaluée qu'une seule fois.

An augmented assignment statement like x += 1 can be rewritten as x = x + 1 to achieve a similar, but not exactly equal effect. In the augmented version, x is only evaluated once. Also, when possible, the actual operation is performed in-place, meaning that rather than creating a new object and assigning that to the target, the old object is modified instead.

Au contraire des assignations normales, les assignations augmentées évaluent la partie gauche avant d'évaluer la partie droite. Par exemple, a[i] += f(x) commence par s'intéresser à a[i], puis Python évalue f(x), effectue l'addition et, enfin, écrit le résultat dans a[i].

À l'exception de l'assignation de n-uplets et de cibles multiples dans une seule instruction, l'assignation effectuée par une assignation augmentée est traitée de la même manière qu'une assignation normale. De même, à l'exception du comportement possible sur place, l'opération binaire effectuée par assignation augmentée est la même que les opérations binaires normales.

Pour les cibles qui sont des références à des attributs, la même mise en garde sur les attributs de classe et d'instances s'applique que pour les assignations normales.

7.2.2. Les assignations annotées

Une assignation annotée est la combinaison, dans une seule instruction, d'une annotation de variable ou d'attribut et d'une assignation optionnelle :

annotated_assignment_stmt: augtarget ":" expression
                           ["=" (starred_expression | yield_expression)]

La différence avec une assignation normale (voir ci-dessus) est qu'une seule cible est autorisée.

The assignment target is considered "simple" if it consists of a single name that is not enclosed in parentheses. For simple assignment targets, if in class or module scope, the annotations are gathered in a lazily evaluated annotation scope. The annotations can be evaluated using the __annotations__ attribute of a class or module, or using the facilities in the annotationlib module.

If the assignment target is not simple (an attribute, subscript node, or parenthesized name), the annotation is never evaluated.

Si le nom est annoté dans la portée d'une fonction, alors ce nom est local à cette portée. Les annotations ne sont jamais évaluées et stockées dans les portées des fonctions.

If the right hand side is present, an annotated assignment performs the actual assignment as if there was no annotation present. If the right hand side is not present for an expression target, then the interpreter evaluates the target except for the last __setitem__() or __setattr__() call.

Voir aussi

PEP 526 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/] -- Syntaxe pour les annotations de variables

La proposition qui a ajouté la syntaxe pour annoter les types de variables (y compris les variables de classe et les variables d'instance), au lieu de les exprimer par le biais de commentaires.

PEP 484 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/] -- Indices de type

La proposition qui a ajouté le module typing pour fournir une syntaxe standard pour les annotations de type qui peuvent être utilisées dans les outils d'analyse statique et les environnements de développement intégrés (EDI).

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Dorénavant, côté droit des assignations annotées, peuvent figurer les mêmes expressions que pour les assignations normales. Auparavant, certaines expressions (comme des n-uplets sans parenthèse englobante) généraient des erreurs de syntaxe.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Annotations are now lazily evaluated in a separate annotation scope. If the assignment target is not simple, annotations are never evaluated.

7.3. L'instruction assert

Les instructions assert sont une manière pratique d'insérer des tests de débogage au sein d'un programme :

assert_stmt: "assert" expression ["," expression]

La forme la plus simple, assert expression, est équivalente à :

if __debug__:
    if not expression: raise AssertionError

La forme étendue, assert expression1, expression2, est équivalente à :

if __debug__:
    if not expression1: raise AssertionError(expression2)

These equivalences assume that __debug__ and AssertionError refer to the built-in variables with those names. In the current implementation, the built-in variable __debug__ is True under normal circumstances, False when optimization is requested (command line option -O). The current code generator emits no code for an assert statement when optimization is requested at compile time. Note that it is unnecessary to include the source code for the expression that failed in the error message; it will be displayed as part of the stack trace.

Assigner vers __debug__ est illégal. La valeur de cette variable native est déterminée au moment où l'interpréteur démarre.

7.4. L'instruction pass

pass_stmt: "pass"

pass est une opération vide. Quand elle est exécutée, rien ne se passe. Elle est utile comme bouche-trou lorsqu'une instruction est syntaxiquement requise mais qu'aucun code ne doit être exécuté. Par exemple :

def f(arg): pass    # a function that does nothing (yet)

class C: pass       # a class with no methods (yet)

7.5. L'instruction del

del_stmt: "del" target_list

La suppression est récursivement définie de la même manière que l'assignation. Plutôt que de détailler cela de manière approfondie, voici quelques indices.

La suppression d'une liste cible (target_list dans la grammaire ci-dessus) supprime récursivement chaque cible, de la gauche vers la droite.

Deletion of a name removes the binding of that name from the local or global namespace, depending on whether the name occurs in a global statement in the same code block. Trying to delete an unbound name raises a NameError exception.

Deletion of attribute references and subscriptions is passed to the primary object involved; deletion of a slicing is in general equivalent to assignment of an empty slice of the right type (but even this is determined by the sliced object).

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Auparavant, il était illégal de supprimer un nom dans l'espace des noms locaux si celui-ci apparaissait comme variable libre dans un bloc imbriqué.

7.6. L'instruction return

return_stmt: "return" [expression_list]

return ne peut être placée qu'à l'intérieur d'une définition de fonction, pas à l'intérieur d'une définition de classe.

Si une liste d'expressions (expression_list dans la grammaire ci-dessus) est présente, elle est évaluée, sinon None est utilisée comme valeur par défaut.

return quitte l'appel à la fonction courante avec la liste d'expressions (ou None) comme valeur de retour.

Quand return fait sortir d'une instruction try avec une clause finally, cette clause finally est exécutée avant de réellement quitter la fonction.

Dans une fonction génératrice, l'instruction return indique que le générateur est terminé et provoque la levée d'une StopIteration. La valeur de retour (s'il y en a une) est utilisée comme argument pour construire l'exception StopIteration et devient l'attribut StopIteration.value.

Dans une fonction génératrice asynchrone, une instruction return vide indique que le générateur asynchrone est terminé et provoque la levée d'une StopAsyncIteration. Une instruction return non vide est une erreur de syntaxe dans une fonction génératrice asynchrone.

7.7. L'instruction yield

yield_stmt: yield_expression

A yield statement is semantically equivalent to a yield expression. The yield statement can be used to omit the parentheses that would otherwise be required in the equivalent yield expression statement. For example, the yield statements

yield <expr>
yield from <expr>

sont équivalentes aux instructions expressions yield :

(yield <expr>)
(yield from <expr>)

Yield expressions and statements are only used when defining a generator function, and are only used in the body of the generator function. Using yield in a function definition is sufficient to cause that definition to create a generator function instead of a normal function.

Pour tous les détails sur la sémantique de yield, reportez-vous à la section Expressions yield.

7.8. L'instruction raise

raise_stmt: "raise" [expression ["from" expression]]

Si aucune expression n'est présente, raise propage l'exception en cours de traitement, aussi dénommée exception active. Si aucune exception n'est active, une exception RuntimeError est levée, indiquant que c'est une erreur.

Sinon, raise évalue la première expression en tant qu'objet exception. Ce doit être une sous-classe ou une instance de BaseException. Si c'est une classe, l'instance de l'exception est obtenue en instanciant la classe sans argument (au moment voulu).

Le type de l'exception est la classe de l'instance de l'exception, la value est l'instance elle-même.

A traceback object is normally created automatically when an exception is raised and attached to it as the __traceback__ attribute. You can create an exception and set your own traceback in one step using the with_traceback() exception method (which returns the same exception instance, with its traceback set to its argument), like so:

raise Exception("foo occurred").with_traceback(tracebackobj)

The from clause is used for exception chaining: if given, the second expression must be another exception class or instance. If the second expression is an exception instance, it will be attached to the raised exception as the __cause__ attribute (which is writable). If the expression is an exception class, the class will be instantiated and the resulting exception instance will be attached to the raised exception as the __cause__ attribute. If the raised exception is not handled, both exceptions will be printed:

>>> try:
...     print(1 / 0)
... except Exception as exc:
...     raise RuntimeError("Something bad happened") from exc
...
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
    print(1 / 0)
          ~~^~~
ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
    raise RuntimeError("Something bad happened") from exc
RuntimeError: Something bad happened

A similar mechanism works implicitly if a new exception is raised when an exception is already being handled. An exception may be handled when an except or finally clause, or a with statement, is used. The previous exception is then attached as the new exception's __context__ attribute:

>>> try:
...     print(1 / 0)
... except:
...     raise RuntimeError("Something bad happened")
...
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
    print(1 / 0)
          ~~^~~
ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred:

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
    raise RuntimeError("Something bad happened")
RuntimeError: Something bad happened

Exception chaining can be explicitly suppressed by specifying None in the from clause:

>>> try:
...     print(1 / 0)
... except:
...     raise RuntimeError("Something bad happened") from None
...
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
RuntimeError: Something bad happened

Des informations complémentaires sur les exceptions sont disponibles dans la section Exceptions et sur la gestion des exceptions dans la section L'instruction try.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: None est dorénavant autorisée en tant que Y dans raise X from Y.

Added the __suppress_context__ attribute to suppress automatic display of the exception context.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: si la trace d'appels de l'exception active est modifiée dans une clause except, une instruction raise postérieure lève à nouveau l'exception avec la trace modifiée. Auparavant, l'exception était levée à nouveau avec la trace qu'elle avait au moment de son interception.

7.9. L'instruction break

break_stmt: "break"

Une instruction break ne peut apparaître qu'à l'intérieur d'une boucle for ou while, mais pas dans une définition de fonction ou de classe à l'intérieur de cette boucle.

Elle termine la boucle la plus imbriquée, shuntant l'éventuelle clause else de la boucle.

Si une boucle for est terminée par un break, la cible qui contrôle la boucle garde sa valeur.

Quand break passe le contrôle en dehors d'une instruction try qui comporte une clause finally, cette clause finally est exécutée avant de quitter la boucle.

7.10. L'instruction continue

continue_stmt: "continue"

L'instruction continue ne peut apparaître qu'à l'intérieur d'une boucle for ou while, mais pas dans une définition de fonction ou de classe à l'intérieur de cette boucle. Elle fait continuer le flot d'exécution au prochain cycle de la boucle la plus imbriquée.

Quand continue passe le contrôle en dehors d'une instruction try qui comporte une clause finally, cette clause finally est exécutée avant de commencer le cycle suivant de la boucle.

7.11. L'instruction import

import_stmt:     "import" module ["as" identifier] ("," module ["as" identifier])*
                 | "from" relative_module "import" identifier ["as" identifier]
                 ("," identifier ["as" identifier])*
                 | "from" relative_module "import" "(" identifier ["as" identifier]
                 ("," identifier ["as" identifier])* [","] ")"
                 | "from" relative_module "import" "*"
module:          (identifier ".")* identifier
relative_module: "."* module | "."+

L'instruction de base import (sans clause from) est exécutée en deux étapes :

trouve un module, le charge et l'initialise si nécessaire

définit un ou des noms (name dans la grammaire ci-dessus) dans l'espace des noms locaux de la portée où l'instruction import apparaît.

Quand l'instruction contient plusieurs clauses (séparées par des virgules), les deux étapes sont menées séparément pour chaque clause, comme si les clauses étaient séparées dans des instructions d'importations individuelles.

Les détails de la première étape, de recherche et de chargement des modules, sont décrits largement dans la section relative au système d'importation, qui décrit également les différents types de paquets et modules qui peuvent être importés, de même que les points d'entrée pouvant être utilisés pour personnaliser le système d'importation. Notez que des erreurs dans cette étape peuvent indiquer soit que le module n'a pas été trouvé, soit qu'une erreur s'est produite lors de l'initialisation du module, ce qui comprend l'exécution du code du module.

Si le module requis est bien récupéré, il est mis à disposition de l'espace de nommage local suivant l'une des trois façons suivantes :

Si le nom du module est suivi par as, alors le nom suivant as est directement lié au module importé.

si aucun autre nom n'est spécifié et que le module en cours d'importation est un module de niveau le plus haut, le nom du module est lié dans l'espace des noms locaux au module importé ;

si le module en cours d'importation n'est pas un module de plus haut niveau, alors le nom du paquet de plus haut niveau qui contient ce module est lié dans l'espace des noms locaux au paquet de plus haut niveau. Vous pouvez accéder au module importé en utilisant son nom pleinement qualifié et non directement.

La forme from utilise un processus un peu plus complexe :

trouve le module spécifié dans la clause from, le charge et l'initialise si nécessaire ;

pour chaque nom spécifié dans les clauses import :

vérifie si le module importé possède un attribut avec ce nom ;

si non, essaie d'importer un sous-module avec ce nom puis vérifie si le module importé possède lui-même cet attribut ;

si l'attribut n'est pas trouvé, une ImportError est levée.

sinon, une référence à cette valeur est stockée dans l'espace des noms locaux, en utilisant le nom de la clause as si elle est présente, sinon en utilisant le nom de l'attribut.

Exemples :

import foo                 # foo imported and bound locally
import foo.bar.baz         # foo, foo.bar, and foo.bar.baz imported, foo bound locally
import foo.bar.baz as fbb  # foo, foo.bar, and foo.bar.baz imported, foo.bar.baz bound as fbb
from foo.bar import baz    # foo, foo.bar, and foo.bar.baz imported, foo.bar.baz bound as baz
from foo import attr       # foo imported and foo.attr bound as attr

Si la liste des noms est remplacée par une étoile ('*'), tous les noms publics définis dans le module sont liés dans l'espace des noms locaux de la portée où apparaît l'instruction import.

The public names defined by a module are determined by checking the module's namespace for a variable named __all__; if defined, it must be a sequence of strings which are names defined or imported by that module. Names containing non-ASCII characters must be in the normalization form [https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr15/#Norm_Forms] NFKC; see Non-ASCII characters in names for details. The names given in __all__ are all considered public and are required to exist. If __all__ is not defined, the set of public names includes all names found in the module's namespace which do not begin with an underscore character ('_'). __all__ should contain the entire public API. It is intended to avoid accidentally exporting items that are not part of the API (such as library modules which were imported and used within the module).

La forme d'import avec astérisque, from module import *, est autorisée seulement au niveau du module. Si vous essayez de l'utiliser dans une définition de classe ou de fonction, cela lève une SyntaxError.

Quand vous spécifiez les modules à importer, vous n'avez pas besoin de spécifier les noms absolus des modules. Quand un module ou un paquet est contenu dans un autre paquet, il est possible d'effectuer une importation relative à l'intérieur du même paquet de plus haut niveau sans avoir à mentionner le nom du paquet. En utilisant des points en entête du module ou du paquet spécifié après from, vous pouvez spécifier combien de niveaux vous souhaitez remonter dans la hiérarchie du paquet courant sans spécifier de nom exact. Un seul point en tête signifie le paquet courant où se situe le module qui effectue l'importation. Deux points signifient de remonter d'un niveau. Trois points, remonter de deux niveaux et ainsi de suite. Ainsi, si vous exécutez from . import mod dans un module du paquet pkg, vous importez finalement pkg.mod. Et si vous exécutez from ..souspkg2 import mod depuis pkg.souspkg1, vous importez finalement pkg.souspkg2.mod. La spécification des importations relatives se situe dans la section Importations relatives au paquet.

importlib.import_module() est fournie pour gérer les applications qui déterminent dynamiquement les modules à charger.

Lève un évènement d'audit avec les arguments module, filename, sys.path, sys.meta_path, sys.path_hooks.

7.11.1. L'instruction future

Une instruction future est une directive à l'attention du compilateur afin qu'un module particulier soit compilé en utilisant une syntaxe ou une sémantique qui sera disponible dans une future version de Python où cette fonctionnalité est devenue un standard.

L'instruction future a vocation à faciliter les migrations vers les futures versions de Python qui introduisent des changements incompatibles au langage. Cela permet l'utilisation de nouvelles fonctionnalités module par module avant qu'une version n'officialise cette fonctionnalité comme un standard.

future_stmt: "from" "__future__" "import" feature ["as" identifier]
             ("," feature ["as" identifier])*
             | "from" "__future__" "import" "(" feature ["as" identifier]
             ("," feature ["as" identifier])* [","] ")"
feature:     identifier

Une instruction future doit apparaître en haut du module. Les seules lignes autorisées avant une instruction future sont :

la chaîne de documentation du module (si elle existe),

des commentaires,

des lignes vides et

d'autres instructions future.

La seule fonctionnalité qui nécessite l'utilisation de l'instruction future est annotations (voir la PEP 563 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/]).

Toutes les fonctionnalités (feature dans la grammaire ci-dessus) autorisées par l'instruction future sont toujours reconnues par Python 3. Cette liste comprend absolute_import, division, generators, generator_stop, unicode_literals, print_function, nested_scopes et with_statement. Elles sont toutes redondantes car elles sont de toute manière activées ; elles ne sont conservées que par souci de compatibilité descendante.

Une instruction future est reconnue et traitée spécialement au moment de la compilation : les modifications à la sémantique des constructions de base sont souvent implémentées en générant un code différent. Il peut même arriver qu'une nouvelle fonctionnalité ait une syntaxe incompatible (tel qu'un nouveau mot réservé) ; dans ce cas, le compilateur a besoin d'analyser le module de manière différente. De telles décisions ne peuvent pas être différées au moment de l'exécution.

Pour une version donnée, le compilateur sait quelles fonctionnalités ont été définies et lève une erreur à la compilation si une instruction future contient une fonctionnalité qui lui est inconnue.

La sémantique à l'exécution est la même que pour toute autre instruction d'importation : il existe un module standard __future__, décrit plus loin, qui est importé comme les autres au moment où l'instruction future est exécutée.

La sémantique particulière à l'exécution dépend des fonctionnalités apportées par l'instruction future.

Notez que l'instruction suivante est tout à fait normale :

import __future__ [as name]

Ce n'est pas une instruction future ; c'est une instruction d'importation ordinaire qui n'a aucune sémantique particulière ou restriction de syntaxe.

Code compiled by calls to the built-in functions exec() and compile() that occur in a module M containing a future statement will, by default, use the new syntax or semantics associated with the future statement. This can be controlled by optional arguments to compile() --- see the documentation of that function for details.

Une instruction future entrée à l'invite de l'interpréteur interactif est effective pour le reste de la session de l'interpréteur. Si l'interpréteur est démarré avec l'option -i, qu'un nom de script est passé pour être exécuté et que ce script contient une instruction future, elle est effective pour la session interactive qui démarre après l'exécution du script.

Voir aussi

PEP 236 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0236/] — retour vers le __future__

La proposition originale pour le mécanisme de __future__.

7.12. L'instruction global

global_stmt: "global" identifier ("," identifier)*

The global statement causes the listed identifiers to be interpreted as globals. It would be impossible to assign to a global variable without global, although free variables may refer to globals without being declared global.

The global statement applies to the entire current scope (module, function body or class definition). A SyntaxError is raised if a variable is used or assigned to prior to its global declaration in the scope.

At the module level, all variables are global, so a global statement has no effect. However, variables must still not be used or assigned to prior to their global declaration. This requirement is relaxed in the interactive prompt (REPL).

Note pour les programmeurs : global est une directive à l'attention de l'analyseur syntaxique. Elle s'applique uniquement au code analysé en même temps que l'instruction global. En particulier, une instruction global contenue dans une chaîne ou un objet code fourni à la fonction native exec() n'affecte pas le code contenant cet appel et le code contenu dans un telle chaîne n'est pas affecté par une instruction global placée dans le code contenant l'appel. Il en est de même pour les fonctions eval() et compile().

7.13. L'instruction nonlocal

nonlocal_stmt: "nonlocal" identifier ("," identifier)*

When the definition of a function or class is nested (enclosed) within the definitions of other functions, its nonlocal scopes are the local scopes of the enclosing functions. The nonlocal statement causes the listed identifiers to refer to names previously bound in nonlocal scopes. It allows encapsulated code to rebind such nonlocal identifiers. If a name is bound in more than one nonlocal scope, the nearest binding is used. If a name is not bound in any nonlocal scope, or if there is no nonlocal scope, a SyntaxError is raised.

The nonlocal statement applies to the entire scope of a function or class body. A SyntaxError is raised if a variable is used or assigned to prior to its nonlocal declaration in the scope.

Voir aussi

PEP 3104 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3104/] -- Accès à des noms en dehors de la portée locale

Les spécifications pour l'instruction nonlocal.

Programmer's note: nonlocal is a directive to the parser and applies only to code parsed along with it. See the note for the global statement.

7.14. The type statement

type_stmt: 'type' identifier [type_params] "=" expression

The type statement declares a type alias, which is an instance of typing.TypeAliasType.

For example, the following statement creates a type alias:

type Point = tuple[float, float]

This code is roughly equivalent to:

annotation-def VALUE_OF_Point():
    return tuple[float, float]
Point = typing.TypeAliasType("Point", VALUE_OF_Point())

annotation-def indicates an annotation scope, which behaves mostly like a function, but with several small differences.

The value of the type alias is evaluated in the annotation scope. It is not evaluated when the type alias is created, but only when the value is accessed through the type alias's __value__ attribute (see Lazy evaluation). This allows the type alias to refer to names that are not yet defined.

Type aliases may be made generic by adding a type parameter list after the name. See Generic type aliases for more.

type is a soft keyword.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Voir aussi

PEP 695 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/] - Type Parameter Syntax

Introduced the type statement and syntax for generic classes and functions.

8. Instructions composées

Les instructions composées contiennent d'autres (groupes d’) instructions ; elles affectent ou contrôlent l'exécution de ces autres instructions d'une manière ou d'une autre. En général, une instruction composée couvre plusieurs lignes bien que, dans sa forme la plus simple, une instruction composée peut tenir sur une seule ligne.

Les instructions if, while et for implémentent les constructions classiques de contrôle de flux. try définit des gestionnaires d'exception et du code de nettoyage pour un groupe d'instructions, tandis que l'instruction with permet l'exécution de code d'initialisation et de finalisation autour d'un bloc de code. Les définitions de fonctions et de classes sont également, au sens syntaxique, des instructions composées.

Une instruction composée comporte une ou plusieurs « clauses ». Une clause se compose d'un en-tête et d'une « suite ». Les en-têtes des clauses d'une instruction composée particulière sont toutes placées au même niveau d'indentation. Chaque en-tête de clause commence par un mot-clé spécifique et se termine par le caractère deux-points (:) ; une suite est un groupe d'instructions contrôlées par une clause ; une suite se compose, après les deux points de l'en-tête, soit d'une ou plusieurs instructions simples séparées par des points-virgules si elles sont sur la même ligne que l'en-tête, soit d'une ou plusieurs instructions en retrait sur les lignes suivantes. Seule cette dernière forme d'une suite peut contenir des instructions composées ; ce qui suit n'est pas licite, principalement parce qu'il ne serait pas clair de savoir à quelle clause if se rapporterait une clause else placée en fin de ligne :

if test1: if test2: print(x)

Notez également que le point-virgule se lie plus étroitement que le deux-points dans ce contexte, de sorte que dans l'exemple suivant, soit tous les appels print() sont exécutés, soit aucun ne l'est :

if x < y < z: print(x); print(y); print(z)

En résumé :

compound_stmt: if_stmt
               | while_stmt
               | for_stmt
               | try_stmt
               | with_stmt
               | match_stmt
               | funcdef
               | classdef
               | async_with_stmt
               | async_for_stmt
               | async_funcdef
suite:         stmt_list NEWLINE | NEWLINE INDENT statement+ DEDENT
statement:     stmt_list NEWLINE | compound_stmt
stmt_list:     simple_stmt (";" simple_stmt)* [";"]

Notez que ces instructions se terminent toujours par un lexème NEWLINE suivi éventuellement d'un DEDENT. Notez également que les clauses facultatives qui suivent commencent toujours par un mot-clé qui ne peut pas commencer une instruction. Ainsi, il n'y a pas d'ambiguïté (le problème du else dont on ne sait pas à quel if il est relié est résolu en Python en exigeant que des instructions if imbriquées soient indentées les unes par rapport aux autres).

L'agencement des règles de grammaire dans les sections qui suivent place chaque clause sur une ligne séparée pour plus de clarté.

8.1. L'instruction if

L'instruction if est utilisée pour exécuter des instructions en fonction d'une condition :

if_stmt: "if" assignment_expression ":" suite
         ("elif" assignment_expression ":" suite)*
         ["else" ":" suite]

Elle sélectionne exactement une des suites en évaluant les expressions une par une jusqu'à ce qu'une soit vraie (voir la section Opérations booléennes pour la définition de vrai et faux) ; ensuite cette suite est exécutée (et aucune autre partie de l'instruction if n'est exécutée ou évaluée). Si toutes les expressions sont fausses, la suite de la clause else, si elle existe, est exécutée.

8.2. L'instruction while

L'instruction while est utilisée pour exécuter des instructions de manière répétée tant qu'une expression est vraie :

while_stmt: "while" assignment_expression ":" suite
            ["else" ":" suite]

Python évalue l'expression de manière répétée et, tant qu'elle est vraie, exécute la première suite ; si l'expression est fausse (ce qui peut arriver même lors du premier test), la suite de la clause else, si elle existe, est exécutée et la boucle se termine.

Une instruction break exécutée dans la première suite termine la boucle sans exécuter la suite de la clause else. Une instruction continue exécutée dans la première suite saute le reste de la suite et retourne au test de l'expression.

8.3. L'instruction for

L'instruction for est utilisée pour itérer sur les éléments d'une séquence (par exemple une chaîne, un n-uplet ou une liste) ou un autre objet itérable :

for_stmt: "for" target_list "in" starred_expression_list ":" suite
          ["else" ":" suite]

The starred_expression_list expression is evaluated once; it should yield an iterable object. An iterator is created for that iterable. The first item provided by the iterator is then assigned to the target list using the standard rules for assignments (see Les assignations), and the suite is executed. This repeats for each item provided by the iterator. When the iterator is exhausted, the suite in the else clause, if present, is executed, and the loop terminates.

Une instruction break exécutée dans la première suite termine la boucle sans exécuter la suite de la clause else. Une instruction continue exécutée dans la première suite saute le reste de la suite et continue avec l'élément suivant, ou avec la clause else s'il n'y a pas d'élément suivant.

La boucle for effectue des affectations aux variables de la liste cible, ce qui écrase toutes les affectations antérieures de ces variables, y compris celles effectuées dans la suite de la boucle for :

for i in range(10):
    print(i)
    i = 5             # this will not affect the for-loop
                      # because i will be overwritten with the next
                      # index in the range

Les noms dans la liste cible ne sont pas supprimés lorsque la boucle est terminée mais, si la séquence est vide, ils n'auront pas du tout été assignés par la boucle. Petite astuce : le type natif range() représente des suites arithmétiques immuables de nombres entiers ; par exemple, itérer sur range(3) renvoie successivement les entiers 0, 1 et 2.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: les éléments étoilés sont maintenant autorisés dans l'expression liste.

8.4. L'instruction try

L'instruction try définit les gestionnaires d'exception ou le code de nettoyage pour un groupe d'instructions :

try_stmt:  try1_stmt | try2_stmt | try3_stmt
try1_stmt: "try" ":" suite
           ("except" [expression ["as" identifier]] ":" suite)+
           ["else" ":" suite]
           ["finally" ":" suite]
try2_stmt: "try" ":" suite
           ("except" "*" expression ["as" identifier] ":" suite)+
           ["else" ":" suite]
           ["finally" ":" suite]
try3_stmt: "try" ":" suite
           "finally" ":" suite

Vous trouvez des informations supplémentaires relatives aux exceptions dans la section Exceptions et, dans la section L'instruction raise, des informations relatives à l'utilisation de l'instruction raise pour produire des exceptions.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Support for optionally dropping grouping parentheses when using multiple exception types. See PEP 758 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0758/].

8.4.1. clause except

The except clause(s) specify one or more exception handlers. When no exception occurs in the try clause, no exception handler is executed. When an exception occurs in the try suite, a search for an exception handler is started. This search inspects the except clauses in turn until one is found that matches the exception. An expression-less except clause, if present, must be last; it matches any exception.

For an except clause with an expression, the expression must evaluate to an exception type or a tuple of exception types. Parentheses can be dropped if multiple exception types are provided and the as clause is not used. The raised exception matches an except clause whose expression evaluates to the class or a non-virtual base class of the exception object, or to a tuple that contains such a class.

Si aucune clause except ne correspond à l'exception, la recherche d'un gestionnaire d'exception se poursuit dans le code englobant et dans la pile d'appels. [1]

Si l'évaluation d'une expression dans l'en-tête d'une clause except lève une exception, la recherche initiale d'un gestionnaire est annulée et une recherche commence pour la nouvelle exception dans le code englobant et dans la pile d'appels (c'est traité comme si l'instruction try avait levé l'exception).

Lorsqu'une clause except correspond, l'exception est affectée à la cible précisée après le mot-clé as dans cette clause except, si cette cible existe, et la suite de clause except est exécutée. Toutes les clauses except doivent avoir un bloc exécutable. Lorsque la fin de ce bloc est atteinte, l'exécution continue normalement après l'ensemble de l'instruction try (cela signifie que si deux gestionnaires imbriqués existent pour la même exception, et que l'exception se produit dans la clause try du gestionnaire interne, le gestionnaire externe ne gère pas l'exception).

Lorsqu'une exception a été affectée en utilisant as cible, elle est effacée à la fin de la clause except. C'est comme si :

except E as N:
    foo

avait été traduit en :

except E as N:
    try:
        foo
    finally:
        del N

Cela veut dire que l'exception doit être assignée à un nom différent pour pouvoir s'y référer après la clause except. Les exceptions sont effacées parce qu'avec la trace de la pile d'appels qui leur est attachée, elles créent un cycle dans les pointeurs de références (avec le cadre de la pile), ce qui conduit à conserver tous les noms locaux de ce cadre en mémoire jusqu'au passage du ramasse-miettes.

Avant qu'une suite de clauses except ne soit exécutée, l'exception est stockée dans le module sys, où elle est accessible depuis le corps de la clause except en appelant sys.exception(). Lorsque vous quittez un gestionnaire d'exceptions, l'exception stockée dans le module sys est réinitialisée à sa valeur précédente :

>>> print(sys.exception())
None
>>> try:
...     raise TypeError
... except:
...     print(repr(sys.exception()))
...     try:
...          raise ValueError
...     except:
...         print(repr(sys.exception()))
...     print(repr(sys.exception()))
...
TypeError()
ValueError()
TypeError()
>>> print(sys.exception())
None

8.4.2. clause except*

The except* clause(s) specify one or more handlers for groups of exceptions (BaseExceptionGroup instances). A try statement can have either except or except* clauses, but not both. The exception type for matching is mandatory in the case of except*, so except*: is a syntax error. The type is interpreted as in the case of except, but matching is performed on the exceptions contained in the group that is being handled. An TypeError is raised if a matching type is a subclass of BaseExceptionGroup, because that would have ambiguous semantics.

When an exception group is raised in the try block, each except* clause splits (see split()) it into the subgroups of matching and non-matching exceptions. If the matching subgroup is not empty, it becomes the handled exception (the value returned from sys.exception()) and assigned to the target of the except* clause (if there is one). Then, the body of the except* clause executes. If the non-matching subgroup is not empty, it is processed by the next except* in the same manner. This continues until all exceptions in the group have been matched, or the last except* clause has run.

After all except* clauses execute, the group of unhandled exceptions is merged with any exceptions that were raised or re-raised from within except* clauses. This merged exception group propagates on.:

>>> try:
...     raise ExceptionGroup("eg",
...         [ValueError(1), TypeError(2), OSError(3), OSError(4)])
... except* TypeError as e:
...     print(f'caught {type(e)} with nested {e.exceptions}')
... except* OSError as e:
...     print(f'caught {type(e)} with nested {e.exceptions}')
...
caught <class 'ExceptionGroup'> with nested (TypeError(2),)
caught <class 'ExceptionGroup'> with nested (OSError(3), OSError(4))
  + Exception Group Traceback (most recent call last):
  |   File "<doctest default[0]>", line 2, in <module>
  |     raise ExceptionGroup("eg",
  |         [ValueError(1), TypeError(2), OSError(3), OSError(4)])
  | ExceptionGroup: eg (1 sub-exception)
  +-+---------------- 1 ----------------
    | ValueError: 1
    +------------------------------------

If the exception raised from the try block is not an exception group and its type matches one of the except* clauses, it is caught and wrapped by an exception group with an empty message string. This ensures that the type of the target e is consistently BaseExceptionGroup:

>>> try:
...     raise BlockingIOError
... except* BlockingIOError as e:
...     print(repr(e))
...
ExceptionGroup('', (BlockingIOError(),))

break, continue and return cannot appear in an except* clause.

8.4.3. clause else

La clause optionnelle else n'est exécutée que si l'exécution atteint la fin de la clause try, aucune exception n'a été levée, et aucun return, continue, ou break ont étés exécutés. Les exceptions dans la clause else ne sont pas gérées par les clauses except précédentes.

8.4.4. clause finally

If finally is present, it specifies a 'cleanup' handler. The try clause is executed, including any except and else clauses. If an exception occurs in any of the clauses and is not handled, the exception is temporarily saved. The finally clause is executed. If there is a saved exception it is re-raised at the end of the finally clause. If the finally clause raises another exception, the saved exception is set as the context of the new exception. If the finally clause executes a return, break or continue statement, the saved exception is discarded. For example, this function returns 42.

def f():
    try:
        1/0
    finally:
        return 42

L'information relative à l'exception n'est pas disponible pour le programme pendant l'exécution de la clause finally.

Lorsqu'une instruction return, break ou continue est exécutée dans la suite d'une instruction try d'une construction try…finally, la clause finally est aussi exécutée « à la sortie ».

The return value of a function is determined by the last return statement executed. Since the finally clause always executes, a return statement executed in the finally clause will always be the last one executed. The following function returns 'finally'.

def foo():
    try:
        return 'try'
    finally:
        return 'finally'

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Avant Python 3.8, une instruction continue n'était pas licite dans une clause finally en raison d'un problème dans l'implémentation.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: The compiler emits a SyntaxWarning when a return, break or continue appears in a finally block (see PEP 765 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0765/]).

8.5. L'instruction with

L'instruction with est utilisée pour encapsuler l'exécution d'un bloc avec des méthodes définies par un gestionnaire de contexte (voir la section Gestionnaire de contexte With). Cela permet d'utiliser de manière simple le patron de conception classique try…except…finally.

with_stmt:          "with" ( "(" with_stmt_contents ","? ")" | with_stmt_contents ) ":" suite
with_stmt_contents: with_item ("," with_item)*
with_item:          expression ["as" target]

L'exécution de l'instruction with avec un seul « élément » (item dans la grammaire) se déroule comme suit :

L'expression de contexte (l'expression donnée dans le with_item) est évaluée pour obtenir un gestionnaire de contexte.

The context manager's __enter__() is loaded for later use.

The context manager's __exit__() is loaded for later use.

The context manager's __enter__() method is invoked.

If a target was included in the with statement, the return value from __enter__() is assigned to it.

Note

The with statement guarantees that if the __enter__() method returns without an error, then __exit__() will always be called. Thus, if an error occurs during the assignment to the target list, it will be treated the same as an error occurring within the suite would be. See step 7 below.

La suite est exécutée.

The context manager's __exit__() method is invoked. If an exception caused the suite to be exited, its type, value, and traceback are passed as arguments to __exit__(). Otherwise, three None arguments are supplied.

If the suite was exited due to an exception, and the return value from the __exit__() method was false, the exception is reraised. If the return value was true, the exception is suppressed, and execution continues with the statement following the with statement.

If the suite was exited for any reason other than an exception, the return value from __exit__() is ignored, and execution proceeds at the normal location for the kind of exit that was taken.

Le code suivant :

with EXPRESSION as TARGET:
    SUITE

est sémantiquement équivalent à :

manager = (EXPRESSION)
enter = manager.__enter__
exit = manager.__exit__
value = enter()
hit_except = False

try:
    TARGET = value
    SUITE
except:
    hit_except = True
    if not exit(*sys.exc_info()):
        raise
finally:
    if not hit_except:
        exit(None, None, None)

except that implicit special method lookup is used for __enter__() and __exit__().

Avec plus d'un élément, les gestionnaires de contexte sont traités comme si plusieurs instructions with étaient imbriquées :

with A() as a, B() as b:
    SUITE

est sémantiquement équivalent à :

with A() as a:
    with B() as b:
        SUITE

Vous pouvez aussi écrire des gestionnaires de contexte sur plusieurs lignes pour plus d'un élément si ceux-ci sont placés entre parenthèses. Par exemple :

with (
    A() as a,
    B() as b,
):
    SUITE

Modifié dans la version 3.1: Prise en charge de multiples expressions de contexte.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: prise en charge des parenthèses pour pouvoir écrire l'instruction sur plusieurs lignes.

Voir aussi

PEP 343 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/] — L'instruction with

La spécification, les motivations et des exemples de l'instruction with en Python.

8.6. L'instruction match

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

L'instruction match est utilisée pour le filtrage par motif. Sa syntaxe est :

match_stmt:   'match' subject_expr ":" NEWLINE INDENT case_block+ DEDENT
subject_expr: `!star_named_expression` "," `!star_named_expressions`?
              | `!named_expression`
case_block:   'case' patterns [guard] ":" `!block`

Note

cette section utilise les guillemets simples pour désigner les mots-clés ad-hoc.

Le filtrage par motif prend un motif en entrée (pattern après case) et un champ de recherche (subject_expr après match). Le motif du filtre (qui peut contenir des sous-motifs de filtrage) est confronté au contenu du champ de recherche. La sortie est composée de :

un indicateur de réussite ou d'échec pour le filtrage (on peut aussi dire que le motif a réussi ou échoué) ;

la possibilité de lier les valeurs filtrées à un nom. Les pré-requis sont indiqués plus bas.

Les mots-clés match et case sont des mots-clés ad-hoc.

Voir aussi

PEP 634 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/] — Spécifications pour le filtrage par motif

PEP 636 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0636/] — Tutoriel pour le filtrage par motif

8.6.1. Aperçu

Voici un aperçu du déroulement logique d'un filtrage par motif :

L'expression confrontée aux filtres, subject_expr, est évaluée pour obtenir la valeur résultante. Si l'expression contient une virgule, un n-uplet est construit en utilisant les règles classiques.

Chaque filtre des blocs case_block est confronté à la valeur résultante du champ de recherche. Les règles particulières pour la réussite ou l'échec sont décrites plus bas. La confrontation du filtre peut aussi conduire à lier un ou plusieurs noms présents dans le motif. Les règles pour lier les noms des motifs dépendent du type de filtre et sont décrites plus bas. Le nommage effectué lors d'un filtrage par motif qui a réussi persiste à l'extérieur du bloc et le nom peut être utilisé après l'instruction match.

Note

en cas d'échec de la recherche, certains sous-filtres peuvent avoir réussi. Ne vous fiez pas aux nommages faits lors d'un filtrage qui a échoué. Inversement, ne vous fiez pas aux variables qui restent inchangées après un filtrage infructueux. Le comportement exact dépend de l'implémentation et peut varier. Il s'agit d'un choix intentionnel afin de permettre aux implémentations d'ajouter des optimisations.

Si la recherche réussit, la garde correspondante (si elle existe) est évaluée. Dans ce cas, on est sûr que les nommages ont bien eu lieu.

Si la garde s'évalue à vrai ou s'il n'y a pas de garde, le block à l'intérieur du case_block est exécuté.

Sinon, le case_block est testé comme décrit ci-dessus.

S'il n'y a plus de bloc case_block, l'instruction est terminée.

Note

l'utilisateur ne doit jamais faire confiance à un filtre en cours d'évaluation. En fonction de l'implémentation, l'interpréteur peut mettre des valeurs en cache ou utiliser des optimisations qui évitent des réévaluations.

Voici un exemple d'instruction de filtrage par motif :

>>> flag = False
>>> match (100, 200):
...    case (100, 300):  # Mismatch: 200 != 300
...        print('Case 1')
...    case (100, 200) if flag:  # Successful match, but guard fails
...        print('Case 2')
...    case (100, y):  # Matches and binds y to 200
...        print(f'Case 3, y: {y}')
...    case _:  # Pattern not attempted
...        print('Case 4, I match anything!')
...
Case 3, y: 200

Dans cet exemple, if flag est une garde. Plus de détails sont fournis dans la prochaine section.

8.6.2. Gardes

guard: "if" `!named_expression`

Une garde (guard qui fait partie du case) doit s'évaluer à vrai pour que le code à l'intérieur du bloc case soit exécuté. Elle s'écrit sous la forme du mot-clé if suivi d'une expression.

Le déroulement logique d'un bloc case qui comprend une garde est le suivant :

Vérification que le filtrage dans le bloc case est fructueux. Si le filtrage échoue, la garde n'est pas évaluée et on passe au bloc case suivant.

Si le filtrage est fructueux, évaluation de la garde.

Si la garde s'évalue à vrai, le bloc est sélectionné.

Si la garde s'évalue à faux, le bloc n'est pas sélectionné.

Si une exception est levée lors de l'évaluation de la garde, cette exception est propagée.

Les gardes étant des expressions, il est possible qu'elles aient des effets secondaires. L'ordre d'évaluation des gardes est du premier au dernier bloc case, un à la fois, en sautant les blocs case dont la recherche de motif échouent. L'évaluation des gardes s'arrête dès qu'un bloc case est sélectionné.

8.6.3. Bloc case attrape-tout

Un bloc case attrape-tout est un bloc qui réussit toujours. Une instruction match ne peut avoir qu'un seul bloc attrape-tout, et ce doit être le dernier.

Un bloc case est considéré attrape-tout s'il n'y a pas de garde et que le motif est attrape-tout. Un motif est attrape-tout si l'on peut déterminer, simplement à partir de sa syntaxe, qu'il correspond toujours. Seuls les motifs suivants sont attrape-tout :

Les Filtres AS pour lesquels la partie gauche est attrape-tout

Les Filtres OU contenant au moins un filtre attrape-tout

Les Filtres de capture

Les Filtres attrape-tout

les filtres attrape-tout entre parenthèses

8.6.4. Filtres

Note

Cette section utilise des notations grammaticales qui ne font pas partie du standard EBNF :

la notation SEP.REGLE+ désigne REGLE (SEP REGLE)*

la notation !REGLE désigne la négation logique de l'assertion REGLE

La syntaxe générale pour les filtres patterns est :

patterns:       open_sequence_pattern | pattern
pattern:        as_pattern | or_pattern
closed_pattern: | literal_pattern
                | capture_pattern
                | wildcard_pattern
                | value_pattern
                | group_pattern
                | sequence_pattern
                | mapping_pattern
                | class_pattern

Les explications ci-dessous décrivent « en termes simples » ce qu'un modèle fait (merci à Raymond Hettinger pour son document qui a inspiré la plupart des descriptions). Notez que ces descriptions sont purement à fin d'illustration et peuvent ne pas être strictement conformes à l'implémentation sous-jacente. De plus, nous ne couvrons pas toutes les formes valides.

8.6.4.1. Filtres OU

Un filtre OU est composé de deux filtres ou plus séparés par des barres verticales |. La syntaxe est :

or_pattern: "|".closed_pattern+

Seul le dernier sous-filtre peut être attrape-tout et chaque sous-filtre doit être lié au même ensemble de noms pour éviter toute ambigüité.

Un filtre OU confronte chacun des sous-filtres à tour de rôle à la valeur du champ de recherche, jusqu'à ce que l'un d'eux réussisse. Le filtre OU réussit si l'un des sous-filtres a réussi, sinon il échoue.

En termes plus simples, M1 | M2 | ... teste le filtre par motif M1, s'il échoue il teste le filtre par motif M2, réussit immédiatement si l'un d'eux réussit, échoue dans le cas contraire.

8.6.4.2. Filtres AS

Un filtre AS confronte un filtre OU sur la gauche du mot-clé as au champ de recherche. La syntaxe est la suivante :

as_pattern: or_pattern "as" capture_pattern

Si le filtre OU échoue, le filtre AS échoue. Sinon, le filtre AS lie le champ de recherche au nom sur la droite du mot-clé as et réussit. capture_pattern ne peut pas être un _.

En termes simples, M as NOM filtre avec le motif M et, s'il réussit, définit NOM = <subject>.

8.6.4.3. Filtres littéraux

Un filtre littéral effectue une correspondance avec la plupart des littéraux en Python. La syntaxe est la suivante :

literal_pattern: signed_number
                 | signed_number "+" NUMBER
                 | signed_number "-" NUMBER
                 | strings
                 | "None"
                 | "True"
                 | "False"
signed_number:   ["-"] NUMBER

The rule strings and the token NUMBER are defined in the standard Python grammar. Triple-quoted strings are supported. Raw strings and byte strings are supported. f-strings and t-strings are not supported.

Les formes signed_number '+' NUMBER et signed_number '-' NUMBER permettent d'exprimer des nombres complexes ; vous devez indiquer un nombre réel sur la gauche et un nombre imaginaire sur la droite. Par exemple, 3 + 4j.

En termes simples, LITERAL réussit seulement si <subject> == LITERAL. Pour les singletons None, True et False, l'opérateur is est utilisé.

8.6.4.4. Filtres de capture

Un filtre de capture lie la valeur du champ de recherche à un nom. La syntaxe est la suivante :

capture_pattern: !'_' NAME

Un simple caractère souligné _ n'est pas un filtre de capture (c'est ce que !'_' veut dire). C'est le motif pour désigner un filtre attrape-tout (lexème wilcard_pattern, voir plus bas).

Dans un filtre donné, un nom ne peut être lié qu'une seule fois. Par exemple, case x, x: ... est invalide mais case [x] | x: ... est autorisé.

Les filtres de capture réussissent toujours. La portée du lien est conforme aux règles définies pour l'opérateur d'affectation indiquées dans la PEP 572 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/] ; le nom devient une variable locale dans la fonction la plus intérieure à moins qu'il n'y ait une instruction global ou nonlocal qui s'applique.

En termes simples, NAME réussit toujours et définit NAME = <subject>.

8.6.4.5. Filtres attrape-tout

Un filtre attrape-tout réussit toujours (quel que soit le champ de recherche) et ne lie aucun nom. La syntaxe est la suivante :

wildcard_pattern: '_'

_ est un mot-clé ad-hoc dans un filtre par motif, mais seulement dans un filtre. Ailleurs, c'est un identifiant, comme d'habitude, même à l'intérieur d'une expression champ de recherche de match, d'une garde ou d'un bloc case.

En termes simples, _ réussit toujours.

8.6.4.6. Filtres par valeurs

Un filtre par valeur représente une valeur nommée de Python. Sa syntaxe est la suivante :

value_pattern: attr
attr:          name_or_attr "." NAME
name_or_attr:  attr | NAME

Le nom qualifié dans le filtre est recherché en utilisant la méthode de résolution des noms standard de Python. Le filtrage réussit si la valeur trouvée vérifie l'égalité avec la valeur du champ de recherche (en utilisant l'opérateur d'égalité ==).

En termes plus simples, NOM1.NOM2 réussit seulement si <subject> == NOM1.NOM2

Note

si la même valeur apparaît plusieurs fois dans la même instruction match, l'interpréteur peut mettre en cache la première valeur trouvée et la réutiliser plutôt que de refaire une recherche. Ce cache est strictement limité à l'exécution de l'instruction match donnée.

8.6.4.7. Filtres de groupes

Un filtre de groupe permet au programmeur de souligner l’intention de regrouper des motifs en plaçant ceux-ci entre parenthèses. À part ça, il n’introduit aucune syntaxe supplémentaire. Sa syntaxe est la suivante :

group_pattern: "(" pattern ")"

En termes plus simples, (P) équivaut à P.

8.6.4.8. Filtres de séquences

Un filtre de séquence contient des sous-filtres par motif dont chacun doit correspondre à un élément d’une séquence. La syntaxe est similaire au déballage d’une liste ou d’un n-uplet.

sequence_pattern:       "[" [maybe_sequence_pattern] "]"
                        | "(" [open_sequence_pattern] ")"
open_sequence_pattern:  maybe_star_pattern "," [maybe_sequence_pattern]
maybe_sequence_pattern: ",".maybe_star_pattern+ ","?
maybe_star_pattern:     star_pattern | pattern
star_pattern:           "*" (capture_pattern | wildcard_pattern)

Vous pouvez utiliser indifféremment des parenthèses (...) ou des crochets [...] pour encadrer les filtres à regrouper.

Note

un filtre seul entre parenthèses qui ne se termine pas par une virgule (par exemple (3 | 4)) est un filtre de groupe. En revanche, un filtre seul entre crochets (par exemple [3 | 4]) reste un filtre de séquence.

Il peut y avoir au plus un sous-filtre étoilé (lexème star_pattern) dans un filtre de séquence. Le filtre étoilé peut se trouver à n’importe quelle position. S’il n’y en a pas, le filtre de séquence est un filtre de séquence à longueur fixe, sinon c’est un filtre de séquence à longueur variable.

Voici le déroulement logique d’un filtrage par motif de séquence sur une valeur du champ de recherche :

Si la valeur du champ de recherche n’est pas une séquence [2], le filtre de séquence échoue.

Si la valeur du champ de recherche est une instance de str, bytes ou bytearray, le filtre de séquence échoue.

Les étapes suivantes dépendent de la longueur fixe ou non du filtre de séquence.

Si le filtre de séquence est de longueur fixe :

Si la longueur de la séquence champ de recherche n’est pas égale au nombre de sous-filtres, le filtre de séquence échoue.

Les sous-filtres de la séquence sont confrontés aux éléments correspondants dans la séquence champ de recherche, de la gauche vers la droite. La recherche de correspondance s’arrête dès qu’un sous-filtre échoue. Si tous les sous-filtres réussissent la confrontation à l’élément du champ de recherche correspondant, le filtre de séquence réussit.

Sinon, si le filtre de séquence est de longueur variable :

Si la longueur de la séquence champ de recherche est plus petite que le nombre de sous-filtres sans étoile, le filtre de séquence échoue.

Les sous-filtres sans étoile du début sont confrontés aux éléments correspondants comme pour un filtre de séquences de longueur fixe.

Si les étapes précédentes ont réussi, le sous-filtre étoilé correspond à une liste formée des éléments restants du champ de recherche, en excluant les éléments restants qui correspondent à des sous-filtres sans étoile qui suivent le sous-filtre étoilé.

Les sous-filtres sans étoile qui restent sont confrontés aux éléments restants du champ de recherche, comme pour un filtre de séquences de longueur fixe.

Note

The length of the subject sequence is obtained via len() (i.e. via the __len__() protocol). This length may be cached by the interpreter in a similar manner as value patterns.

En termes plus simples, [M1, M2, M3, … , M<N>] réussit seulement si tout ce qui suit a lieu :

vérification que <subject> est une séquence,

len(subject) == <N>,

M1 correspond à <subject>[0] (notez que cette correspondance peut lier des noms),

M2 correspond à <subject>[1] (notez que cette correspondance peut lier des noms),

et ainsi de suite pour chaque filtre par motif / élément.

8.6.4.9. Filtres associatifs

Un filtre associatif contient un ou plusieurs motifs clé-valeur. La syntaxe est similaire à la construction d’un dictionnaire :

mapping_pattern:     "{" [items_pattern] "}"
items_pattern:       ",".key_value_pattern+ ","?
key_value_pattern:   (literal_pattern | value_pattern) ":" pattern
                     | double_star_pattern
double_star_pattern: "**" capture_pattern

Un seul sous-filtre doublement étoilé peut être présent dans le filtre associatif. Le filtre doublement étoilé doit être le dernier sous-filtre du filtre associatif.

Il est interdit d’avoir des clés en double dans les filtres associatifs. Une clé en double sous forme littérale lève une Syntax Error. Deux clés qui ont la même valeur lèvent une ValueError à l’exécution.

Voici le déroulement d’un filtrage associatif sur la valeur du champ de recherche :

Si la valeur du champ de recherche n'est pas un tableau associatif [3], le filtre associatif échoue.

Si chaque clé donnée dans le filtre associatif est présente dans le tableau associatif du champ de recherche, et que le filtre pour chaque clé correspond aux éléments du tableau associatif champ de recherche, le filtre associatif réussit.

Si des clés identiques sont détectées dans le filtre par motif, le filtre est déclaré invalide. Une SyntaxError est levée pour les valeurs littérales dupliquées ou une ValueError pour des clés s'évaluant à la même valeur.

Note

Key-value pairs are matched using the two-argument form of the mapping subject's get() method. Matched key-value pairs must already be present in the mapping, and not created on-the-fly via __missing__() or __getitem__().

En termes simples, {CLÉ1: M1, CLÉ2: M2, ... } réussit seulement si tout ce qui suit a lieu :

vérification que <subject> est un tableau associatif,

CLÉ1 in <subject>,

M1 correspond à <subject>[CLÉ1],

et ainsi de suite pour chaque paire CLÉ/Motif.

8.6.4.10. Filtres de classes

Un filtre de classe représente une classe et ses arguments positionnels et par mots-clés (s'il y en a). La syntaxe est la suivante :

class_pattern:       name_or_attr "(" [pattern_arguments ","?] ")"
pattern_arguments:   positional_patterns ["," keyword_patterns]
                     | keyword_patterns
positional_patterns: ",".pattern+
keyword_patterns:    ",".keyword_pattern+
keyword_pattern:     NAME "=" pattern

Le même mot-clé ne doit pas être répété dans les filtres de classes.

Voici le déroulement d’un filtrage de classe sur la valeur du champ de recherche :

Si name_or_attr n'est pas une instance de la classe native type, lève une TypeError.

Si la valeur du champ de recherche n'est pas une instance de name_or_attr (testé via isinstance()), le filtre de classe échoue.

S'il n'y a pas d'argument au filtre, le filtre réussit. Sinon, les étapes suivantes dépendent de la présence ou non de motifs pour les arguments positionnels ou par mot-clé.

Pour un certain nombre de types natifs (indiqués ci-dessous), un motif positionnel seul est accepté, qui est confronté au champ de recherche en entier ; pour ces types, les motifs par mots-clés fonctionnent comme les autres types.

S'il n'y a que des motifs par mot-clé (NdT : dans le sens « argument par mot-clé »), ils sont évalués comme ceci, un par un :

The keyword is looked up as an attribute on the subject.

Si cela lève une exception autre que AttributeError, l'exception est propagée vers le haut.

Si cela lève l'exception AttributeError, le filtre échoue.

Sinon, le motif associé au mot-clé est confronté à la valeur de l'attribut du champ de recherche. Si cela échoue, le filtre de classe échoue ; si cela réussit, le filtre passe au mot-clé suivant.

If all keyword patterns succeed, the class pattern succeeds.

Si des motifs positionnels sont présents, ils sont convertis en motifs par mot-clé en utilisant l'attribut __match_args__ de la classe name_or_attr avant le filtrage :

The equivalent of getattr(cls, "__match_args__", ()) is called.

Si cela lève une exception, elle est propagée vers le haut.

Si la valeur de retour n'est pas un n-uplet, la conversion échoue et une TypeError est levée.

S'il y a plus de motifs positionnels que len(cls.__match_args__), une TypeError est levée.

Sinon, le motif positionnel i est converti en motif par mot-clé (le mot-clé sera __match_args__[i]). __match_args__[i] doit être une chaîne, sinon une TypeError est levée.

Si un mot-clé est dupliqué, une TypeError est levée.

Voir aussi

Arguments positionnels dans le filtrage par motif sur les classes

Once all positional patterns have been converted to keyword patterns, the match proceeds as if there were only keyword patterns.

Pour les types natifs suivants, le traitement des motifs positionnels est différent :

bool

bytearray

bytes

dict

float

frozenset

int

list

set

str

tuple

Ces classes acceptent un argument positionnel seul et le filtre s'applique alors sur l'ensemble de l'objet plutôt que sur un simple attribut. Par exemple, int(0|1) réussit lorsqu'il est confronté à la valeur 0, mais pas lorsque c'est la valeur 0.0.

En termes simples, CLS(P1, attr=P2) réussit seulement si la séquence suivante est déroulée :

isinstance(<subject>, CLS)

convertit P1 vers un motif par mot-clé en utilisant CLS.__match_args__

Pour chaque argument par mot-clé attr=P2 :

hasattr(<subject>, "attr")

P2 correspond à <subject>.attr

… et ainsi de suite pour les paires motif/argument par mot-clé.

Voir aussi

PEP 634 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/] — Spécifications pour le filtrage par motif

PEP 636 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0636/] — Tutoriel pour le filtrage par motif

8.7. Définition de fonctions

Une définition de fonction définit un objet fonction défini par l'utilisateur (voir la section Hiérarchie des types standards) :

funcdef:                   [decorators] "def" funcname [type_params] "(" [parameter_list] ")"
                           ["->" expression] ":" suite
decorators:                decorator+
decorator:                 "@" assignment_expression NEWLINE
parameter_list:            defparameter ("," defparameter)* "," "/" ["," [parameter_list_no_posonly]]
                             | parameter_list_no_posonly
parameter_list_no_posonly: defparameter ("," defparameter)* ["," [parameter_list_starargs]]
                           | parameter_list_starargs
parameter_list_starargs:   "*" [star_parameter] ("," defparameter)* ["," [parameter_star_kwargs]]
                           | "*" ("," defparameter)+ ["," [parameter_star_kwargs]]
                           | parameter_star_kwargs
parameter_star_kwargs:     "**" parameter [","]
parameter:                 identifier [":" expression]
star_parameter:            identifier [":" ["*"] expression]
defparameter:              parameter ["=" expression]
funcname:                  identifier

Une définition de fonction est une instruction qui est exécutée. Son exécution lie le nom de la fonction, dans l'espace de nommage local courant, à un objet fonction (un objet qui encapsule le code exécutable de la fonction). Cet objet fonction contient une référence à l'espace des noms globaux courant comme espace des noms globaux à utiliser lorsque la fonction est appelée.

La définition de la fonction n'exécute pas le corps de la fonction ; elle n'est exécutée que lorsque la fonction est appelée. [4]

Une définition de fonction peut être encapsulée dans une ou plusieurs expressions decorator ; les décorateurs sont évalués lorsque la fonction est définie, dans la portée qui contient la définition de fonction ; le résultat doit être un appelable, qui est invoqué avec l'objet fonction comme seul argument ; la valeur renvoyée est liée au nom de la fonction en lieu et place de l'objet fonction. Lorsqu'il y a plusieurs décorateurs, ils sont appliqués par imbrication ; par exemple, le code suivant :

@f1(arg)
@f2
def func(): pass

est à peu près équivalent à :

def func(): pass
func = f1(arg)(f2(func))

sauf que la fonction originale n'est pas temporairement liée au nom func.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: les fonctions peuvent être décorées par toute expression d'affectation valide. Auparavant, la grammaire était beaucoup plus restrictive ; voir la PEP 614 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0614/] pour obtenir les détails.

A list of type parameters may be given in square brackets between the function's name and the opening parenthesis for its parameter list. This indicates to static type checkers that the function is generic. At runtime, the type parameters can be retrieved from the function's __type_params__ attribute. See Generic functions for more.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Type parameter lists are new in Python 3.12.

Lorsqu'un ou plusieurs paramètres sont de la forme parameter = expression, on dit que la fonction a des « valeurs de paramètres par défaut ». Pour un paramètre avec une valeur par défaut, l’argument correspondant peut être omis lors de l'appel, la valeur par défaut du paramètre est alors utilisée. Si un paramètre a une valeur par défaut, tous les paramètres suivants jusqu'à "*" doivent aussi avoir une valeur par défaut — ceci est une restriction syntaxique qui n'est pas exprimée dans la grammaire.

Les valeurs par défaut des paramètres sont évaluées de la gauche vers la droite quand la définition de la fonction est exécutée. Cela signifie que l'expression est évaluée une fois, lorsque la fonction est définie, et que c'est la même valeur « pré-calculée » qui est utilisée à chaque appel. C'est particulièrement important à comprendre lorsque la valeur d'un paramètre par défaut est un objet mutable (cas d'une liste ou un dictionnaire par exemple) : si la fonction modifie l'objet (par exemple en ajoutant un élément à une liste), la valeur par défaut est modifiée. En général, ce n'est pas l'effet voulu. Une façon d'éviter cet écueil est d'utiliser None par défaut et de tester explicitement la valeur dans le corps de la fonction. Par exemple :

def whats_on_the_telly(penguin=None):
    if penguin is None:
        penguin = []
    penguin.append("property of the zoo")
    return penguin

La sémantique de l'appel de fonction est décrite plus en détail dans la section Appels. Un appel de fonction assigne toujours des valeurs à tous les paramètres mentionnés dans la liste des paramètres, soit à partir d'arguments positionnels, d'arguments par mots-clés ou de valeurs par défaut. S'il y a un paramètre de la forme *identifier, il est initialisé à un n-uplet recevant les paramètres positionnels en surplus, la valeur par défaut étant le n-uplet vide. S'il y a un paramètre de la forme **identifier, il est initialisé à un nouveau tableau associatif ordonné qui récupère tous les arguments par mot-clé en surplus, la valeur par défaut étant un tableau associatif vide du même type. Les paramètres après * ou *identifier sont forcément des paramètres par mot-clé et ne peuvent être passés qu'en utilisant des arguments par mot-clé. Au contraire, ceux avant / ne peuvent être passés qu'avec des arguments positionnels.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: ajout de la syntaxe avec / pour indiquer les paramètre exclusivement positionnels (voir la PEP 570 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0570/]).

Parameters may have an annotation of the form ": expression" following the parameter name. Any parameter may have an annotation, even those of the form *identifier or **identifier. (As a special case, parameters of the form *identifier may have an annotation ": *expression".) Functions may have "return" annotation of the form "-> expression" after the parameter list. These annotations can be any valid Python expression. The presence of annotations does not change the semantics of a function. See Annotations for more information on annotations.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Parameters of the form "*identifier" may have an annotation ": *expression". See PEP 646 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0646/].

Il est aussi possible de créer des fonctions anonymes (fonctions non liées à un nom), pour une utilisation immédiate dans des expressions. Utilisez alors des expressions lambda, décrites dans la section Expressions lambda. Notez qu'une expression lambda est simplement un raccourci pour définir une fonction simple ; une fonction définie par une instruction "def" peut être passée (en argument) ou assignée à un autre nom, tout comme une fonction définie par une expression lambda. La forme "def" est en fait plus puissante puisqu'elle permet l'exécution de plusieurs instructions et les annotations.

Note pour les programmeurs : les fonctions sont des objets de première classe. Une instruction "def" exécutée à l'intérieur d'une définition de fonction définit une fonction locale qui peut être renvoyée ou passée en tant qu'argument. Les variables libres utilisées dans la fonction imbriquée ont accès aux variables locales de la fonction contenant le "def". Voir la section Noms et liaisons pour plus de détails.

Voir aussi

PEP 3107 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3107/] — Annotations de fonctions

La spécification originale pour les annotations de fonctions.

PEP 484 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/] — Indications de types

Définition de la signification standard pour les annotations : indications de types.

PEP 526 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/] — Syntaxe pour les annotations de variables

Ability to type hint variable declarations, including class variables and instance variables.

PEP 563 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/] — Évaluation différée des annotations

Gestion des références postérieures à l'intérieur des annotations en préservant les annotations sous forme de chaînes à l'exécution au lieu d'une évaluation directe.

PEP 318 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0318/] - Decorators for Functions and Methods

Function and method decorators were introduced. Class decorators were introduced in PEP 3129 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3129/].

8.8. Définition de classes

Une définition de classe définit un objet classe (voir la section Hiérarchie des types standards) :

classdef:    [decorators] "class" classname [type_params] [inheritance] ":" suite
inheritance: "(" [argument_list] ")"
classname:   identifier

Une définition de classe est une instruction qui est exécutée. La liste d'héritage (inheritance entre crochets dans la grammaire ci-dessus) donne habituellement une liste de classes mères (voir Métaclasses pour des utilisations plus avancées). Donc chaque élément de la liste doit pouvoir être évalué comme un objet classe qui autorise les sous-classes. Les classes sans liste d'héritage héritent, par défaut, de la classe mère object ; d'où :

class Foo:
    pass

est équivalente à :

class Foo(object):
    pass

La suite de la classe est ensuite exécutée dans un nouveau cadre d'exécution (voir Noms et liaisons), en utilisant un espace de nommage local nouvellement créé et l'espace de nommage global d'origine (habituellement, la suite contient principalement des définitions de fonctions). Lorsque la suite de la classe termine son exécution, son cadre d'exécution est abandonné mais son espace des noms locaux est sauvegardé [5]. Un objet classe est alors créé en utilisant la liste d'héritage pour les classes mères et l'espace de nommage sauvegardé comme dictionnaire des attributs. Le nom de classe est lié à l'objet classe dans l'espace de nommage local original.

The order in which attributes are defined in the class body is preserved in the new class's __dict__. Note that this is reliable only right after the class is created and only for classes that were defined using the definition syntax.

La création de classes peut être fortement personnalisée en utilisant les métaclasses.

Les classes peuvent aussi être décorées. Comme pour les décorateurs de fonctions :

@f1(arg)
@f2
class Foo: pass

est à peu près équivalent à :

class Foo: pass
Foo = f1(arg)(f2(Foo))

Les règles d'évaluation pour les expressions de décorateurs sont les mêmes que pour les décorateurs de fonctions. Le résultat est alors lié au nom de la classe.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: les classes peuvent être décorées par toute expression d'affectation valide. Auparavant, la grammaire était beaucoup plus restrictive ; voir la PEP 614 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0614/] pour obtenir les détails.

A list of type parameters may be given in square brackets immediately after the class's name. This indicates to static type checkers that the class is generic. At runtime, the type parameters can be retrieved from the class's __type_params__ attribute. See Generic classes for more.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Type parameter lists are new in Python 3.12.

Note pour les programmeurs : les variables définies dans la définition de classe sont des attributs de classe ; elles sont partagées par les instances. Les attributs d'instance peuvent être définis dans une méthode en utilisant self.name = value. Les attributs de classe et d'instance sont accessibles par la notation "self.name", et un attribut d'instance masque un attribut de classe de même nom lorsqu'on y accède de cette façon. Les attributs de classe peuvent être utilisés comme valeurs par défaut pour les attributs d'instances, mais l'utilisation de valeurs mutables peut conduire à des résultats inattendus. Les descripteurs peuvent être utilisés pour créer des variables d'instances avec des détails d'implémentation différents.

Voir aussi

PEP 3115 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3115/] — Métaclasses dans Python 3000

La proposition qui a modifié la déclaration de métaclasses à la syntaxe actuelle, et la sémantique pour la façon dont les classes avec métaclasses sont construites.

PEP 3129 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3129/] — Décorateurs de classes

La proposition qui a ajouté des décorateurs de classe. Les décorateurs de fonction et de méthode ont été introduits dans PEP 318 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0318/].

8.9. Coroutines

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

8.9.1. Définition de fonctions coroutines

async_funcdef: [decorators] "async" "def" funcname "(" [parameter_list] ")"
               ["->" expression] ":" suite

L'exécution de coroutines Python peut être suspendue et reprise à plusieurs endroits (voir coroutine). Les expressions await, async for et async with ne peuvent être utilisées que dans les corps de coroutines.

Les fonctions définies avec la syntaxe async def sont toujours des fonctions coroutines, même si elles ne contiennent aucun mot-clé await ou async.

C'est une SyntaxError d'utiliser une expression yield from dans une coroutine.

Un exemple de fonction coroutine :

async def func(param1, param2):
    do_stuff()
    await some_coroutine()

Modifié dans la version 3.7: await et async sont dorénavant des mots-clés ; auparavant, ils n'étaient traités comme tels que dans le corps d'une fonction coroutine.

8.9.2. L'instruction async for

async_for_stmt: "async" for_stmt

Un itérable asynchrone fournit une méthode __aiter__ qui renvoie directement un itérateur asynchrone, celui-ci pouvant appeler du code asynchrone dans sa méthode __anext__.

L'instruction async for permet d'itérer facilement sur des itérables asynchrones.

Le code suivant :

async for TARGET in ITER:
    SUITE
else:
    SUITE2

est sémantiquement équivalent à :

iter = (ITER).__aiter__()
running = True

while running:
    try:
        TARGET = await iter.__anext__()
    except StopAsyncIteration:
        running = False
    else:
        SUITE
else:
    SUITE2

except that implicit special method lookup is used for __aiter__() and __anext__().

C'est une SyntaxError d'utiliser une instruction async for en dehors d'une fonction coroutine.

8.9.3. L'instruction async with

async_with_stmt: "async" with_stmt

Un gestionnaire de contexte asynchrone est un gestionnaire de contexte qui est capable de suspendre l'exécution dans ses méthodes enter et exit.

Le code suivant :

async with EXPRESSION as TARGET:
    SUITE

est sémantiquement équivalent à :

manager = (EXPRESSION)
aenter = manager.__aenter__
aexit = manager.__aexit__
value = await aenter()
hit_except = False

try:
    TARGET = value
    SUITE
except:
    hit_except = True
    if not await aexit(*sys.exc_info()):
        raise
finally:
    if not hit_except:
        await aexit(None, None, None)

except that implicit special method lookup is used for __aenter__() and __aexit__().

C'est une SyntaxError d'utiliser l'instruction async with en dehors d'une fonction coroutine.

Voir aussi

PEP 492 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/] — Coroutines avec les syntaxes async et await

La proposition qui a fait que les coroutines soient un concept propre en Python, et a ajouté la syntaxe de prise en charge de celles-ci.

8.10. Type parameter lists

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Support for default values was added (see PEP 696 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0696/]).

type_params:  "[" type_param ("," type_param)* "]"
type_param:   typevar | typevartuple | paramspec
typevar:      identifier (":" expression)? ("=" expression)?
typevartuple: "*" identifier ("=" expression)?
paramspec:    "**" identifier ("=" expression)?

Functions (including coroutines), classes and type aliases may contain a type parameter list:

def max[T](args: list[T]) -> T:
    ...

async def amax[T](args: list[T]) -> T:
    ...

class Bag[T]:
    def __iter__(self) -> Iterator[T]:
        ...

    def add(self, arg: T) -> None:
        ...

type ListOrSet[T] = list[T] | set[T]

Semantically, this indicates that the function, class, or type alias is generic over a type variable. This information is primarily used by static type checkers, and at runtime, generic objects behave much like their non-generic counterparts.

Type parameters are declared in square brackets ([]) immediately after the name of the function, class, or type alias. The type parameters are accessible within the scope of the generic object, but not elsewhere. Thus, after a declaration def func[T](): pass, the name T is not available in the module scope. Below, the semantics of generic objects are described with more precision. The scope of type parameters is modeled with a special function (technically, an annotation scope) that wraps the creation of the generic object.

Generic functions, classes, and type aliases have a __type_params__ attribute listing their type parameters.

Type parameters come in three kinds:

typing.TypeVar, introduced by a plain name (e.g., T). Semantically, this represents a single type to a type checker.

typing.TypeVarTuple, introduced by a name prefixed with a single asterisk (e.g., *Ts). Semantically, this stands for a tuple of any number of types.

typing.ParamSpec, introduced by a name prefixed with two asterisks (e.g., **P). Semantically, this stands for the parameters of a callable.

typing.TypeVar declarations can define bounds and constraints with a colon (:) followed by an expression. A single expression after the colon indicates a bound (e.g. T: int). Semantically, this means that the typing.TypeVar can only represent types that are a subtype of this bound. A parenthesized tuple of expressions after the colon indicates a set of constraints (e.g. T: (str, bytes)). Each member of the tuple should be a type (again, this is not enforced at runtime). Constrained type variables can only take on one of the types in the list of constraints.

For typing.TypeVars declared using the type parameter list syntax, the bound and constraints are not evaluated when the generic object is created, but only when the value is explicitly accessed through the attributes __bound__ and __constraints__. To accomplish this, the bounds or constraints are evaluated in a separate annotation scope.

typing.TypeVarTuples and typing.ParamSpecs cannot have bounds or constraints.

All three flavors of type parameters can also have a default value, which is used when the type parameter is not explicitly provided. This is added by appending a single equals sign (=) followed by an expression. Like the bounds and constraints of type variables, the default value is not evaluated when the object is created, but only when the type parameter's __default__ attribute is accessed. To this end, the default value is evaluated in a separate annotation scope. If no default value is specified for a type parameter, the __default__ attribute is set to the special sentinel object typing.NoDefault.

The following example indicates the full set of allowed type parameter declarations:

def overly_generic[
   SimpleTypeVar,
   TypeVarWithDefault = int,
   TypeVarWithBound: int,
   TypeVarWithConstraints: (str, bytes),
   *SimpleTypeVarTuple = (int, float),
   **SimpleParamSpec = (str, bytearray),
](
   a: SimpleTypeVar,
   b: TypeVarWithDefault,
   c: TypeVarWithBound,
   d: Callable[SimpleParamSpec, TypeVarWithConstraints],
   *e: SimpleTypeVarTuple,
): ...

8.10.1. Generic functions

Generic functions are declared as follows:

def func[T](arg: T): ...

This syntax is equivalent to:

annotation-def TYPE_PARAMS_OF_func():
    T = typing.TypeVar("T")
    def func(arg: T): ...
    func.__type_params__ = (T,)
    return func
func = TYPE_PARAMS_OF_func()

Here annotation-def indicates an annotation scope, which is not actually bound to any name at runtime. (One other liberty is taken in the translation: the syntax does not go through attribute access on the typing module, but creates an instance of typing.TypeVar directly.)

The annotations of generic functions are evaluated within the annotation scope used for declaring the type parameters, but the function's defaults and decorators are not.

The following example illustrates the scoping rules for these cases, as well as for additional flavors of type parameters:

@decorator
def func[T: int, *Ts, **P](*args: *Ts, arg: Callable[P, T] = some_default):
    ...

Except for the lazy evaluation of the TypeVar bound, this is equivalent to:

DEFAULT_OF_arg = some_default

annotation-def TYPE_PARAMS_OF_func():

    annotation-def BOUND_OF_T():
        return int
    # In reality, BOUND_OF_T() is evaluated only on demand.
    T = typing.TypeVar("T", bound=BOUND_OF_T())

    Ts = typing.TypeVarTuple("Ts")
    P = typing.ParamSpec("P")

    def func(*args: *Ts, arg: Callable[P, T] = DEFAULT_OF_arg):
        ...

    func.__type_params__ = (T, Ts, P)
    return func
func = decorator(TYPE_PARAMS_OF_func())

The capitalized names like DEFAULT_OF_arg are not actually bound at runtime.

8.10.2. Generic classes

Generic classes are declared as follows:

class Bag[T]: ...

This syntax is equivalent to:

annotation-def TYPE_PARAMS_OF_Bag():
    T = typing.TypeVar("T")
    class Bag(typing.Generic[T]):
        __type_params__ = (T,)
        ...
    return Bag
Bag = TYPE_PARAMS_OF_Bag()

Here again annotation-def (not a real keyword) indicates an annotation scope, and the name TYPE_PARAMS_OF_Bag is not actually bound at runtime.

Generic classes implicitly inherit from typing.Generic. The base classes and keyword arguments of generic classes are evaluated within the type scope for the type parameters, and decorators are evaluated outside that scope. This is illustrated by this example:

@decorator
class Bag(Base[T], arg=T): ...

This is equivalent to:

annotation-def TYPE_PARAMS_OF_Bag():
    T = typing.TypeVar("T")
    class Bag(Base[T], typing.Generic[T], arg=T):
        __type_params__ = (T,)
        ...
    return Bag
Bag = decorator(TYPE_PARAMS_OF_Bag())

8.10.3. Generic type aliases

The type statement can also be used to create a generic type alias:

type ListOrSet[T] = list[T] | set[T]

Except for the lazy evaluation of the value, this is equivalent to:

annotation-def TYPE_PARAMS_OF_ListOrSet():
    T = typing.TypeVar("T")

    annotation-def VALUE_OF_ListOrSet():
        return list[T] | set[T]
    # In reality, the value is lazily evaluated
    return typing.TypeAliasType("ListOrSet", VALUE_OF_ListOrSet(), type_params=(T,))
ListOrSet = TYPE_PARAMS_OF_ListOrSet()

Here, annotation-def (not a real keyword) indicates an annotation scope. The capitalized names like TYPE_PARAMS_OF_ListOrSet are not actually bound at runtime.

8.11. Annotations

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Annotations are now lazily evaluated by default.

Variables and function parameters may carry annotations, created by adding a colon after the name, followed by an expression:

x: annotation = 1
def f(param: annotation): ...

Functions may also carry a return annotation following an arrow:

def f() -> annotation: ...

Annotations are conventionally used for type hints, but this is not enforced by the language, and in general annotations may contain arbitrary expressions. The presence of annotations does not change the runtime semantics of the code, except if some mechanism is used that introspects and uses the annotations (such as dataclasses or functools.singledispatch()).

By default, annotations are lazily evaluated in an annotation scope. This means that they are not evaluated when the code containing the annotation is evaluated. Instead, the interpreter saves information that can be used to evaluate the annotation later if requested. The annotationlib module provides tools for evaluating annotations.

If the future statement from __future__ import annotations is present, all annotations are instead stored as strings:

>>> from __future__ import annotations
>>> def f(param: annotation): ...
>>> f.__annotations__
{'param': 'annotation'}

This future statement will be deprecated and removed in a future version of Python, but not before Python 3.13 reaches its end of life (see PEP 749 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0749/]). When it is used, introspection tools like annotationlib.get_annotations() and typing.get_type_hints() are less likely to be able to resolve annotations at runtime.

Notes

[1]

L'exception est propagée à la pile d'appels à moins qu'il n'y ait une clause finally qui lève une autre exception, ce qui entraîne la perte de l'ancienne exception. Cette nouvelle exception entraîne la perte pure et simple de l'ancienne.

[2]

Dans le filtrage par motif, une séquence est définie comme suit :

une classe qui hérite de collections.abc.Sequence

une classe Python qui a été enregistrée en tant que collections.abc.Sequence

une classe native dont le bit (CPython) Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE est à 1

une classe qui hérite d'une classe citée ci-dessus

Les classes suivantes de la bibliothèque standard sont des séquences :

array.array

collections.deque

list

memoryview

range

tuple

Note

Les champs de recherche du type str, bytes et bytearray ne correspondent pas avec des filtres de séquence.

[3]

Dans le filtrage par motif, un tableau associatif est défini comme suit :

une classe qui hérite de collections.abc.Mapping

une classe Python qui a été enregistrée en tant que collections.abc.Mapping

une classe native dont le bit (CPython) Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING est à 1

une classe qui hérite d'une classe citée ci-dessus

Les classes dict et types.MappingProxyType de la bibliothèque standard sont des tableaux associatifs.

[4]

A string literal appearing as the first statement in the function body is transformed into the function's __doc__ attribute and therefore the function's docstring.

[5]

A string literal appearing as the first statement in the class body is transformed into the namespace's __doc__ item and therefore the class's docstring.

9. Composants de plus haut niveau

L'entrée de l'interpréteur Python peut provenir d'un certain nombre de sources : d'un script passé en entrée standard ou en argument de programme, tapée de manière interactive, à partir d'un fichier source de module, etc. Ce chapitre donne la syntaxe utilisée dans ces différents cas.

9.1. Programmes Python complets

Bien que les spécifications d'un langage n'ont pas à préciser comment l'interpréteur du langage est invoqué, il est utile d'avoir des notions sur ce qu'est un programme Python complet. Un programme Python complet est exécuté dans un environnement dont l'initialisation est minimale : tous les modules intégrés et standard sont disponibles mais aucun n'a été initialisé, à l'exception de sys (divers services système), builtins (fonctions natives, exceptions et None) et __main__. Ce dernier est utilisé pour avoir des espaces de nommage locaux et globaux pour l'exécution du programme complet.

La syntaxe d'un programme Python complet est celle d'un fichier d'entrée, dont la description est donnée dans la section suivante.

L'interpréteur peut également être invoqué en mode interactif ; dans ce cas, il ne lit et n'exécute pas un programme complet mais lit et exécute une seule instruction (éventuellement composée) à la fois. L'environnement initial est identique à celui d'un programme complet ; chaque instruction est exécutée dans l'espace de nommage de __main__.

Un programme complet peut être transmis à l'interpréteur sous trois formes : avec l'option -c chaîne en ligne de commande, avec un fichier passé comme premier argument de ligne de commande ou comme entrée standard. Si le fichier ou l'entrée standard est un périphérique tty, l'interpréteur entre en mode interactif ; sinon, il exécute le fichier comme un programme complet.

9.2. Fichier d'entrée

Toutes les entrées lues à partir de fichiers non interactifs sont de la même forme :

file_input: (NEWLINE | statement)* ENDMARKER

Cette syntaxe est utilisée dans les situations suivantes :

lors de l'analyse d'un programme Python complet (à partir d'un fichier ou d'une chaîne de caractères) ;

lors de l'analyse d'un module ;

lors de l'analyse d'une chaîne de caractères passée à la fonction exec().

9.3. Entrée interactive

L'entrée en mode interactif est analysée à l'aide de la grammaire suivante :

interactive_input: [stmt_list] NEWLINE | compound_stmt NEWLINE | ENDMARKER

Notez qu'une instruction composée (de niveau supérieur) doit être suivie d'une ligne blanche en mode interactif ; c'est nécessaire pour aider l'analyseur à détecter la fin de l'entrée.

9.4. Entrée d'expression

eval() est utilisée pour évaluer les expressions entrées. Elle ignore les espaces en tête. L'argument de eval(), de type chaîne de caractères, doit être de la forme suivante :

eval_input: expression_list NEWLINE* ENDMARKER

10. Spécification complète de la grammaire

Ceci est la grammaire complète de Python, issue directement de la grammaire utilisée pour générer l'analyseur syntaxique CPython (voir Grammar/python.gram [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Grammar/python.gram]). La version ci-dessous ne comprend pas les détails relatifs à la génération de code et la reprise sur erreur.

La notation employée ici est identique à celle présentée dans les sections précédentes et décrite dans la section notation, à une complication près :

~ ("cut"): commit to the current alternative; fail the rule if the alternative fails to parse

Python mainly uses cuts for optimizations or improved error messages. They often appear to be useless in the listing below.

Cuts currently don't appear inside parentheses, brackets, lookaheads and similar. Their behavior in these contexts is deliberately left unspecified.

# PEG grammar for Python

# ========================= START OF THE GRAMMAR =========================

# General grammatical elements and rules:
#
# * Strings with double quotes (") denote SOFT KEYWORDS
# * Strings with single quotes (') denote KEYWORDS
# * Upper case names (NAME) denote tokens in the Grammar/Tokens file
# * Rule names starting with "invalid_" are used for specialized syntax errors
#     - These rules are NOT used in the first pass of the parser.
#     - Only if the first pass fails to parse, a second pass including the invalid
#       rules will be executed.
#     - If the parser fails in the second phase with a generic syntax error, the
#       location of the generic failure of the first pass will be used (this avoids
#       reporting incorrect locations due to the invalid rules).
#     - The order of the alternatives involving invalid rules matter
#       (like any rule in PEG).
#
# Grammar Syntax (see PEP 617 for more information):
#
# rule_name: expression
#   Optionally, a type can be included right after the rule name, which
#   specifies the return type of the C or Python function corresponding to the
#   rule:
# rule_name[return_type]: expression
#   If the return type is omitted, then a void * is returned in C and an Any in
#   Python.
# e1 e2
#   Match e1, then match e2.
# e1 | e2
#   Match e1 or e2.
#   The first alternative can also appear on the line after the rule name for
#   formatting purposes. In that case, a | must be used before the first
#   alternative, like so:
#       rule_name[return_type]:
#            | first_alt
#            | second_alt
# ( e )
#   Match e (allows also to use other operators in the group like '(e)*')
# [ e ] or e?
#   Optionally match e.
# e*
#   Match zero or more occurrences of e.
# e+
#   Match one or more occurrences of e.
# s.e+
#   Match one or more occurrences of e, separated by s. The generated parse tree
#   does not include the separator. This is otherwise identical to (e (s e)*).
# &e
#   Succeed if e can be parsed, without consuming any input.
# !e
#   Fail if e can be parsed, without consuming any input.
# ~
#   Commit to the current alternative, even if it fails to parse.
# &&e
#   Eager parse e. The parser will not backtrack and will immediately
#   fail with SyntaxError if e cannot be parsed.
#

# STARTING RULES
# ==============

file: [statements] ENDMARKER
interactive: statement_newline
eval: expressions NEWLINE* ENDMARKER
func_type: '(' [type_expressions] ')' '->' expression NEWLINE* ENDMARKER

# GENERAL STATEMENTS
# ==================

statements: statement+

statement:
    | compound_stmt
    | simple_stmts

single_compound_stmt:
    | compound_stmt

statement_newline:
    | single_compound_stmt NEWLINE
    | simple_stmts
    | NEWLINE
    | ENDMARKER

simple_stmts:
    | simple_stmt !';' NEWLINE  # Not needed, there for speedup
    | ';'.simple_stmt+ [';'] NEWLINE

# NOTE: assignment MUST precede expression, else parsing a simple assignment
# will throw a SyntaxError.
simple_stmt:
    | assignment
    | type_alias
    | star_expressions
    | return_stmt
    | import_stmt
    | raise_stmt
    | pass_stmt
    | del_stmt
    | yield_stmt
    | assert_stmt
    | break_stmt
    | continue_stmt
    | global_stmt
    | nonlocal_stmt

compound_stmt:
    | function_def
    | if_stmt
    | class_def
    | with_stmt
    | for_stmt
    | try_stmt
    | while_stmt
    | match_stmt

# SIMPLE STATEMENTS
# =================

# NOTE: annotated_rhs may start with 'yield'; yield_expr must start with 'yield'
assignment:
    | NAME ':' expression ['=' annotated_rhs ]
    | ('(' single_target ')'
         | single_subscript_attribute_target) ':' expression ['=' annotated_rhs ]
    | (star_targets '=' )+ annotated_rhs !'=' [TYPE_COMMENT]
    | single_target augassign ~ annotated_rhs

annotated_rhs: yield_expr | star_expressions

augassign:
    | '+='
    | '-='
    | '*='
    | '@='
    | '/='
    | '%='
    | '&='
    | '|='
    | '^='
    | '<<='
    | '>>='
    | '**='
    | '//='

return_stmt:
    | 'return' [star_expressions]

raise_stmt:
    | 'raise' expression ['from' expression ]
    | 'raise'

pass_stmt:
    | 'pass'

break_stmt:
    | 'break'

continue_stmt:
    | 'continue'

global_stmt: 'global' ','.NAME+

nonlocal_stmt: 'nonlocal' ','.NAME+

del_stmt:
    | 'del' del_targets &(';' | NEWLINE)

yield_stmt: yield_expr

assert_stmt: 'assert' expression [',' expression ]

import_stmt:
    | import_name
    | import_from

# Import statements
# -----------------

import_name: 'import' dotted_as_names
# note below: the ('.' | '...') is necessary because '...' is tokenized as ELLIPSIS
import_from:
    | 'from' ('.' | '...')* dotted_name 'import' import_from_targets
    | 'from' ('.' | '...')+ 'import' import_from_targets
import_from_targets:
    | '(' import_from_as_names [','] ')'
    | import_from_as_names !','
    | '*'
import_from_as_names:
    | ','.import_from_as_name+
import_from_as_name:
    | NAME ['as' NAME ]

dotted_as_names:
    | ','.dotted_as_name+
dotted_as_name:
    | dotted_name ['as' NAME ]

dotted_name:
    | dotted_name '.' NAME
    | NAME

# COMPOUND STATEMENTS
# ===================

# Common elements
# ---------------

block:
    | NEWLINE INDENT statements DEDENT
    | simple_stmts

decorators: ('@' named_expression NEWLINE )+

# Class definitions
# -----------------

class_def:
    | decorators class_def_raw
    | class_def_raw

class_def_raw:
    | 'class' NAME [type_params] ['(' [arguments] ')' ] ':' block

# Function definitions
# --------------------

function_def:
    | decorators function_def_raw
    | function_def_raw

function_def_raw:
    | 'def' NAME [type_params] '(' [params] ')' ['->' expression ] ':' [func_type_comment] block
    | 'async' 'def' NAME [type_params] '(' [params] ')' ['->' expression ] ':' [func_type_comment] block

# Function parameters
# -------------------

params:
    | parameters

parameters:
    | slash_no_default param_no_default* param_with_default* [star_etc]
    | slash_with_default param_with_default* [star_etc]
    | param_no_default+ param_with_default* [star_etc]
    | param_with_default+ [star_etc]
    | star_etc

# Some duplication here because we can't write (',' | &')'),
# which is because we don't support empty alternatives (yet).

slash_no_default:
    | param_no_default+ '/' ','
    | param_no_default+ '/' &')'
slash_with_default:
    | param_no_default* param_with_default+ '/' ','
    | param_no_default* param_with_default+ '/' &')'

star_etc:
    | '*' param_no_default param_maybe_default* [kwds]
    | '*' param_no_default_star_annotation param_maybe_default* [kwds]
    | '*' ',' param_maybe_default+ [kwds]
    | kwds

kwds:
    | '**' param_no_default

# One parameter.  This *includes* a following comma and type comment.
#
# There are three styles:
# - No default
# - With default
# - Maybe with default
#
# There are two alternative forms of each, to deal with type comments:
# - Ends in a comma followed by an optional type comment
# - No comma, optional type comment, must be followed by close paren
# The latter form is for a final parameter without trailing comma.
#

param_no_default:
    | param ',' TYPE_COMMENT?
    | param TYPE_COMMENT? &')'
param_no_default_star_annotation:
    | param_star_annotation ',' TYPE_COMMENT?
    | param_star_annotation TYPE_COMMENT? &')'
param_with_default:
    | param default ',' TYPE_COMMENT?
    | param default TYPE_COMMENT? &')'
param_maybe_default:
    | param default? ',' TYPE_COMMENT?
    | param default? TYPE_COMMENT? &')'
param: NAME annotation?
param_star_annotation: NAME star_annotation
annotation: ':' expression
star_annotation: ':' star_expression
default: '=' expression  | invalid_default

# If statement
# ------------

if_stmt:
    | 'if' named_expression ':' block elif_stmt
    | 'if' named_expression ':' block [else_block]
elif_stmt:
    | 'elif' named_expression ':' block elif_stmt
    | 'elif' named_expression ':' block [else_block]
else_block:
    | 'else' ':' block

# While statement
# ---------------

while_stmt:
    | 'while' named_expression ':' block [else_block]

# For statement
# -------------

for_stmt:
    | 'for' star_targets 'in' ~ star_expressions ':' [TYPE_COMMENT] block [else_block]
    | 'async' 'for' star_targets 'in' ~ star_expressions ':' [TYPE_COMMENT] block [else_block]

# With statement
# --------------

with_stmt:
    | 'with' '(' ','.with_item+ ','? ')' ':' [TYPE_COMMENT] block
    | 'with' ','.with_item+ ':' [TYPE_COMMENT] block
    | 'async' 'with' '(' ','.with_item+ ','? ')' ':' block
    | 'async' 'with' ','.with_item+ ':' [TYPE_COMMENT] block

with_item:
    | expression 'as' star_target &(',' | ')' | ':')
    | expression

# Try statement
# -------------

try_stmt:
    | 'try' ':' block finally_block
    | 'try' ':' block except_block+ [else_block] [finally_block]
    | 'try' ':' block except_star_block+ [else_block] [finally_block]

# Except statement
# ----------------

except_block:
    | 'except' expression ':' block
    | 'except' expression 'as' NAME ':' block
    | 'except' expressions ':' block
    | 'except' ':' block
except_star_block:
    | 'except' '*' expression ':' block
    | 'except' '*' expression 'as' NAME ':' block
    | 'except' '*' expressions ':' block
finally_block:
    | 'finally' ':' block

# Match statement
# ---------------

match_stmt:
    | "match" subject_expr ':' NEWLINE INDENT case_block+ DEDENT

subject_expr:
    | star_named_expression ',' star_named_expressions?
    | named_expression

case_block:
    | "case" patterns guard? ':' block

guard: 'if' named_expression

patterns:
    | open_sequence_pattern
    | pattern

pattern:
    | as_pattern
    | or_pattern

as_pattern:
    | or_pattern 'as' pattern_capture_target

or_pattern:
    | '|'.closed_pattern+

closed_pattern:
    | literal_pattern
    | capture_pattern
    | wildcard_pattern
    | value_pattern
    | group_pattern
    | sequence_pattern
    | mapping_pattern
    | class_pattern

# Literal patterns are used for equality and identity constraints
literal_pattern:
    | signed_number !('+' | '-')
    | complex_number
    | strings
    | 'None'
    | 'True'
    | 'False'

# Literal expressions are used to restrict permitted mapping pattern keys
literal_expr:
    | signed_number !('+' | '-')
    | complex_number
    | strings
    | 'None'
    | 'True'
    | 'False'

complex_number:
    | signed_real_number '+' imaginary_number
    | signed_real_number '-' imaginary_number

signed_number:
    | NUMBER
    | '-' NUMBER

signed_real_number:
    | real_number
    | '-' real_number

real_number:
    | NUMBER

imaginary_number:
    | NUMBER

capture_pattern:
    | pattern_capture_target

pattern_capture_target:
    | !"_" NAME !('.' | '(' | '=')

wildcard_pattern:
    | "_"

value_pattern:
    | attr !('.' | '(' | '=')

attr:
    | name_or_attr '.' NAME

name_or_attr:
    | attr
    | NAME

group_pattern:
    | '(' pattern ')'

sequence_pattern:
    | '[' maybe_sequence_pattern? ']'
    | '(' open_sequence_pattern? ')'

open_sequence_pattern:
    | maybe_star_pattern ',' maybe_sequence_pattern?

maybe_sequence_pattern:
    | ','.maybe_star_pattern+ ','?

maybe_star_pattern:
    | star_pattern
    | pattern

star_pattern:
    | '*' pattern_capture_target
    | '*' wildcard_pattern

mapping_pattern:
    | '{' '}'
    | '{' double_star_pattern ','? '}'
    | '{' items_pattern ',' double_star_pattern ','? '}'
    | '{' items_pattern ','? '}'

items_pattern:
    | ','.key_value_pattern+

key_value_pattern:
    | (literal_expr | attr) ':' pattern

double_star_pattern:
    | '**' pattern_capture_target

class_pattern:
    | name_or_attr '(' ')'
    | name_or_attr '(' positional_patterns ','? ')'
    | name_or_attr '(' keyword_patterns ','? ')'
    | name_or_attr '(' positional_patterns ',' keyword_patterns ','? ')'

positional_patterns:
    | ','.pattern+

keyword_patterns:
    | ','.keyword_pattern+

keyword_pattern:
    | NAME '=' pattern

# Type statement
# ---------------

type_alias:
    | "type" NAME [type_params] '=' expression

# Type parameter declaration
# --------------------------

type_params:
    | '[' type_param_seq ']'

type_param_seq: ','.type_param+ [',']

type_param:
    | NAME [type_param_bound] [type_param_default]
    | '*' NAME [type_param_starred_default]
    | '**' NAME [type_param_default]

type_param_bound: ':' expression
type_param_default: '=' expression
type_param_starred_default: '=' star_expression

# EXPRESSIONS
# -----------

expressions:
    | expression (',' expression )+ [',']
    | expression ','
    | expression

expression:
    | disjunction 'if' disjunction 'else' expression
    | disjunction
    | lambdef

yield_expr:
    | 'yield' 'from' expression
    | 'yield' [star_expressions]

star_expressions:
    | star_expression (',' star_expression )+ [',']
    | star_expression ','
    | star_expression

star_expression:
    | '*' bitwise_or
    | expression

star_named_expressions: ','.star_named_expression+ [',']

star_named_expression:
    | '*' bitwise_or
    | named_expression

assignment_expression:
    | NAME ':=' ~ expression

named_expression:
    | assignment_expression
    | expression !':='

disjunction:
    | conjunction ('or' conjunction )+
    | conjunction

conjunction:
    | inversion ('and' inversion )+
    | inversion

inversion:
    | 'not' inversion
    | comparison

# Comparison operators
# --------------------

comparison:
    | bitwise_or compare_op_bitwise_or_pair+
    | bitwise_or

compare_op_bitwise_or_pair:
    | eq_bitwise_or
    | noteq_bitwise_or
    | lte_bitwise_or
    | lt_bitwise_or
    | gte_bitwise_or
    | gt_bitwise_or
    | notin_bitwise_or
    | in_bitwise_or
    | isnot_bitwise_or
    | is_bitwise_or

eq_bitwise_or: '==' bitwise_or
noteq_bitwise_or:
    | ('!=' ) bitwise_or
lte_bitwise_or: '<=' bitwise_or
lt_bitwise_or: '<' bitwise_or
gte_bitwise_or: '>=' bitwise_or
gt_bitwise_or: '>' bitwise_or
notin_bitwise_or: 'not' 'in' bitwise_or
in_bitwise_or: 'in' bitwise_or
isnot_bitwise_or: 'is' 'not' bitwise_or
is_bitwise_or: 'is' bitwise_or

# Bitwise operators
# -----------------

bitwise_or:
    | bitwise_or '|' bitwise_xor
    | bitwise_xor

bitwise_xor:
    | bitwise_xor '^' bitwise_and
    | bitwise_and

bitwise_and:
    | bitwise_and '&' shift_expr
    | shift_expr

shift_expr:
    | shift_expr '<<' sum
    | shift_expr '>>' sum
    | sum

# Arithmetic operators
# --------------------

sum:
    | sum '+' term
    | sum '-' term
    | term

term:
    | term '*' factor
    | term '/' factor
    | term '//' factor
    | term '%' factor
    | term '@' factor
    | factor

factor:
    | '+' factor
    | '-' factor
    | '~' factor
    | power

power:
    | await_primary '**' factor
    | await_primary

# Primary elements
# ----------------

# Primary elements are things like "obj.something.something", "obj[something]", "obj(something)", "obj" ...

await_primary:
    | 'await' primary
    | primary

primary:
    | primary '.' NAME
    | primary genexp
    | primary '(' [arguments] ')'
    | primary '[' slices ']'
    | atom

slices:
    | slice !','
    | ','.(slice | starred_expression)+ [',']

slice:
    | [expression] ':' [expression] [':' [expression] ]
    | named_expression

atom:
    | NAME
    | 'True'
    | 'False'
    | 'None'
    | strings
    | NUMBER
    | (tuple | group | genexp)
    | (list | listcomp)
    | (dict | set | dictcomp | setcomp)
    | '...'

group:
    | '(' (yield_expr | named_expression) ')'

# Lambda functions
# ----------------

lambdef:
    | 'lambda' [lambda_params] ':' expression

lambda_params:
    | lambda_parameters

# lambda_parameters etc. duplicates parameters but without annotations
# or type comments, and if there's no comma after a parameter, we expect
# a colon, not a close parenthesis.  (For more, see parameters above.)
#
lambda_parameters:
    | lambda_slash_no_default lambda_param_no_default* lambda_param_with_default* [lambda_star_etc]
    | lambda_slash_with_default lambda_param_with_default* [lambda_star_etc]
    | lambda_param_no_default+ lambda_param_with_default* [lambda_star_etc]
    | lambda_param_with_default+ [lambda_star_etc]
    | lambda_star_etc

lambda_slash_no_default:
    | lambda_param_no_default+ '/' ','
    | lambda_param_no_default+ '/' &':'

lambda_slash_with_default:
    | lambda_param_no_default* lambda_param_with_default+ '/' ','
    | lambda_param_no_default* lambda_param_with_default+ '/' &':'

lambda_star_etc:
    | '*' lambda_param_no_default lambda_param_maybe_default* [lambda_kwds]
    | '*' ',' lambda_param_maybe_default+ [lambda_kwds]
    | lambda_kwds

lambda_kwds:
    | '**' lambda_param_no_default

lambda_param_no_default:
    | lambda_param ','
    | lambda_param &':'
lambda_param_with_default:
    | lambda_param default ','
    | lambda_param default &':'
lambda_param_maybe_default:
    | lambda_param default? ','
    | lambda_param default? &':'
lambda_param: NAME

# LITERALS
# ========

fstring_middle:
    | fstring_replacement_field
    | FSTRING_MIDDLE
fstring_replacement_field:
    | '{' annotated_rhs '='? [fstring_conversion] [fstring_full_format_spec] '}'
fstring_conversion:
    | "!" NAME
fstring_full_format_spec:
    | ':' fstring_format_spec*
fstring_format_spec:
    | FSTRING_MIDDLE
    | fstring_replacement_field
fstring:
    | FSTRING_START fstring_middle* FSTRING_END

tstring_format_spec_replacement_field:
    | '{' annotated_rhs '='? [fstring_conversion] [tstring_full_format_spec] '}'
tstring_format_spec:
    | TSTRING_MIDDLE
    | tstring_format_spec_replacement_field
tstring_full_format_spec:
    | ':' tstring_format_spec*
tstring_replacement_field:
    | '{' annotated_rhs '='? [fstring_conversion] [tstring_full_format_spec] '}'
tstring_middle:
    | tstring_replacement_field
    | TSTRING_MIDDLE
tstring:
    | TSTRING_START tstring_middle* TSTRING_END

string: STRING
strings:
    | (fstring|string)+
    | tstring+

list:
    | '[' [star_named_expressions] ']'

tuple:
    | '(' [star_named_expression ',' [star_named_expressions]  ] ')'

set: '{' star_named_expressions '}'

# Dicts
# -----

dict:
    | '{' [double_starred_kvpairs] '}'

double_starred_kvpairs: ','.double_starred_kvpair+ [',']

double_starred_kvpair:
    | '**' bitwise_or
    | kvpair

kvpair: expression ':' expression

# Comprehensions & Generators
# ---------------------------

for_if_clauses:
    | for_if_clause+

for_if_clause:
    | 'async' 'for' star_targets 'in' ~ disjunction ('if' disjunction )*
    | 'for' star_targets 'in' ~ disjunction ('if' disjunction )*

listcomp:
    | '[' named_expression for_if_clauses ']'

setcomp:
    | '{' named_expression for_if_clauses '}'

genexp:
    | '(' ( assignment_expression | expression !':=') for_if_clauses ')'

dictcomp:
    | '{' kvpair for_if_clauses '}'

# FUNCTION CALL ARGUMENTS
# =======================

arguments:
    | args [','] &')'

args:
    | ','.(starred_expression | ( assignment_expression | expression !':=') !'=')+ [',' kwargs ]
    | kwargs

kwargs:
    | ','.kwarg_or_starred+ ',' ','.kwarg_or_double_starred+
    | ','.kwarg_or_starred+
    | ','.kwarg_or_double_starred+

starred_expression:
    | '*' expression

kwarg_or_starred:
    | NAME '=' expression
    | starred_expression

kwarg_or_double_starred:
    | NAME '=' expression
    | '**' expression

# ASSIGNMENT TARGETS
# ==================

# Generic targets
# ---------------

# NOTE: star_targets may contain *bitwise_or, targets may not.
star_targets:
    | star_target !','
    | star_target (',' star_target )* [',']

star_targets_list_seq: ','.star_target+ [',']

star_targets_tuple_seq:
    | star_target (',' star_target )+ [',']
    | star_target ','

star_target:
    | '*' (!'*' star_target)
    | target_with_star_atom

target_with_star_atom:
    | t_primary '.' NAME !t_lookahead
    | t_primary '[' slices ']' !t_lookahead
    | star_atom

star_atom:
    | NAME
    | '(' target_with_star_atom ')'
    | '(' [star_targets_tuple_seq] ')'
    | '[' [star_targets_list_seq] ']'

single_target:
    | single_subscript_attribute_target
    | NAME
    | '(' single_target ')'

single_subscript_attribute_target:
    | t_primary '.' NAME !t_lookahead
    | t_primary '[' slices ']' !t_lookahead

t_primary:
    | t_primary '.' NAME &t_lookahead
    | t_primary '[' slices ']' &t_lookahead
    | t_primary genexp &t_lookahead
    | t_primary '(' [arguments] ')' &t_lookahead
    | atom &t_lookahead

t_lookahead: '(' | '[' | '.'

# Targets for del statements
# --------------------------

del_targets: ','.del_target+ [',']

del_target:
    | t_primary '.' NAME !t_lookahead
    | t_primary '[' slices ']' !t_lookahead
    | del_t_atom

del_t_atom:
    | NAME
    | '(' del_target ')'
    | '(' [del_targets] ')'
    | '[' [del_targets] ']'

# TYPING ELEMENTS
# ---------------

# type_expressions allow */** but ignore them
type_expressions:
    | ','.expression+ ',' '*' expression ',' '**' expression
    | ','.expression+ ',' '*' expression
    | ','.expression+ ',' '**' expression
    | '*' expression ',' '**' expression
    | '*' expression
    | '**' expression
    | ','.expression+

func_type_comment:
    | NEWLINE TYPE_COMMENT &(NEWLINE INDENT)   # Must be followed by indented block
    | TYPE_COMMENT

# ========================= END OF THE GRAMMAR ===========================

# ========================= START OF INVALID RULES =======================

La bibliothèque standard

Alors que La référence du langage Python décrit exactement la syntaxe et la sémantique du langage Python, ce manuel de référence de la Bibliothèque décrit la bibliothèque standard distribuée avec Python. Il décrit aussi certains composants optionnels typiquement inclus dans les distributions de Python.

La bibliothèque standard de Python est très grande, elle offre un large éventail d'outils comme le montre la longueur de la table des matières ci-dessous. La bibliothèque contient des modules natifs (écrits en C) exposant les fonctionnalités du système telles que les interactions avec les fichiers qui autrement ne seraient pas accessibles aux développeurs Python, ainsi que des modules écrits en Python exposant des solutions standardisées à de nombreux problèmes du quotidien du développeur. Certains de ces modules sont définis explicitement pour encourager et améliorer la portabilité des programmes Python en abstrayant des spécificités sous-jacentes en API neutres.

Les installateurs de Python pour Windows incluent généralement la bibliothèque standard en entier, et y ajoutent souvent d'autres composants. Pour les systèmes d'exploitation Unix, Python est typiquement fourni sous forme d'une collection de paquets, il peut donc être nécessaire d'utiliser le gestionnaire de paquets fourni par le système d'exploitation pour obtenir certains composants optionnels.

Au delà de la bibliothèque standard, il existe une collection grandissante de plusieurs centaine de milliers de composants (des programmes, des modules, ou des frameworks), disponibles dans le Python Package Index [https://pypi.org].

Introduction

Notes sur la disponibilité

Fonctions natives

Constantes natives

Constantes ajoutées par le module site

Types natifs

Valeurs booléennes

Opérations booléennes — and, or, not

Comparaisons

Types numériques — int, float, complex

Boolean Type - bool

Les types itérateurs

Types séquentiels — list, tuple, range

Text and Binary Sequence Type Methods Summary

Type Séquence de Texte — str

Séquences Binaires — bytes, bytearray, vue mémoire

Types d'ensembles — set, frozenset

Les types de correspondances — dict

Le type gestionnaire de contexte

Types d'annotation de type — Alias générique, Union

Autres types natifs

Attributs spéciaux

Limitation de longueur de conversion de chaîne vers un entier

Exceptions natives

Contexte des exceptions

Hériter des exceptions natives

Classes mères

Exceptions concrètes

Avertissements

Exception groups

Hiérarchie des exceptions

Thread Safety Guarantees

Thread safety levels

Thread safety for list objects

Thread safety for dict objects

Thread safety for set objects

Thread safety for bytearray objects

Thread safety for memoryview objects

Services de Manipulation de Texte

string --- Common string operations

string.templatelib --- Support for template string literals

re --- Regular expression operations

difflib --- Helpers for computing deltas

textwrap --- Text wrapping and filling

unicodedata --- Unicode Database

stringprep --- Internet String Preparation

readline --- GNU readline interface

rlcompleter --- Completion function for GNU readline

Services autour des Données Binaires

struct --- Interpret bytes as packed binary data

codecs --- Codec registry and base classes

Types de données

datetime — Types de base pour la date et l'heure

zoneinfo --- IANA time zone support

calendar --- General calendar-related functions

collections --- Container datatypes

collections.abc --- Abstract Base Classes for Containers

heapq --- Heap queue algorithm

bisect --- Array bisection algorithm

array --- Efficient arrays of numeric values

weakref --- Weak references

types --- Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types

copy --- Shallow and deep copy operations

pprint — L’affichage élégant de données

reprlib --- Alternate repr() implementation

enum --- Support for enumerations

graphlib --- Functionality to operate with graph-like structures

Modules numériques et mathématiques

numbers --- Numeric abstract base classes

math --- Mathematical functions

cmath --- Mathematical functions for complex numbers

decimal --- Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

fractions --- Rational numbers

random — Génère des nombres pseudo-aléatoires

statistics --- Mathematical statistics functions

Modules de programmation fonctionnelle

itertools --- Functions creating iterators for efficient looping

functools --- Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects

operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions

Accès aux Fichiers et aux Dossiers

pathlib — Chemins de système de fichiers orientés objet

os.path --- Common pathname manipulations

stat --- Interpreting stat() results

filecmp --- File and Directory Comparisons

tempfile --- Generate temporary files and directories

glob --- Unix style pathname pattern expansion

fnmatch --- Unix filename pattern matching

linecache --- Random access to text lines

shutil --- High-level file operations

Persistance des données

pickle --- Python object serialization

copyreg --- Register pickle support functions

shelve --- Python object persistence

marshal --- Internal Python object serialization

dbm --- Interfaces to Unix "databases"

sqlite3 — Interface DB-API 2.0 pour bases de données SQLite

Compression de donnée et archivage

The compression package

compression.zstd --- Compression compatible with the Zstandard format

zlib --- Compression compatible with gzip

gzip --- Support for gzip files

bz2 --- Support for bzip2 compression

lzma --- Compression using the LZMA algorithm

zipfile --- Work with ZIP archives

tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files

Formats de fichiers

csv --- CSV File Reading and Writing

configparser --- Configuration file parser

tomllib --- Parse TOML files

netrc --- netrc file processing

plistlib --- Generate and parse Apple .plist files

Service de cryptographie

hashlib — Algorithmes de hachage sécurisés et synthèse de messages

hmac --- Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication

secrets --- Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets

Services génériques du système d'exploitation

os --- Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

io --- Core tools for working with streams

time --- Time access and conversions

logging --- Logging facility for Python

logging.config --- Logging configuration

logging.handlers --- Logging handlers

platform --- Access to underlying platform's identifying data

errno --- Standard errno system symbols

ctypes --- A foreign function library for Python

Command-line interface libraries

argparse --- Parser for command-line options, arguments and subcommands

optparse --- Parser for command line options

getpass --- Portable password input

fileinput --- Iterate over lines from multiple input streams

curses --- Terminal handling for character-cell displays

curses.textpad --- Text input widget for curses programs

curses.ascii — Utilitaires pour les caractères ASCII

curses.panel --- A panel stack extension for curses

cmd --- Support for line-oriented command interpreters

Exécution concourante

threading --- Thread-based parallelism

multiprocessing --- Process-based parallelism

multiprocessing.shared_memory --- Shared memory for direct access across processes

The concurrent package

concurrent.futures --- Launching parallel tasks

concurrent.interpreters --- Multiple interpreters in the same process

subprocess --- Subprocess management

sched --- Event scheduler

queue --- A synchronized queue class

contextvars --- Context Variables

_thread --- Low-level threading API

Réseau et communication entre processus

asyncio --- Asynchronous I/O

socket --- Low-level networking interface

ssl --- TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

select --- Waiting for I/O completion

selectors --- High-level I/O multiplexing

signal --- Set handlers for asynchronous events

mmap --- Memory-mapped file support

Traitement des données provenant d'Internet

email --- An email and MIME handling package

json --- JSON encoder and decoder

mailbox --- Manipulate mailboxes in various formats

mimetypes --- Map filenames to MIME types

base64 --- Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 Data Encodings

binascii --- Convert between binary and ASCII

quopri --- Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data

Outils de traitement de balises structurées

html --- HyperText Markup Language support

html.parser --- Simple HTML and XHTML parser

html.entities --- Definitions of HTML general entities

Modules de traitement XML

xml.etree.ElementTree --- The ElementTree XML API

xml.dom --- The Document Object Model API

xml.dom.minidom --- Minimal DOM implementation

xml.dom.pulldom --- Support for building partial DOM trees

xml.sax --- Support for SAX2 parsers

xml.sax.handler --- Base classes for SAX handlers

xml.sax.saxutils --- SAX Utilities

xml.sax.xmlreader — Interface pour les parseurs XML

xml.parsers.expat — Analyse XML rapide utilisant Expat

Gestion des protocoles internet

webbrowser --- Convenient web-browser controller

wsgiref --- WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation

urllib --- URL handling modules

urllib.request --- Extensible library for opening URLs

urllib.response --- Response classes used by urllib

urllib.parse --- Parse URLs into components

urllib.error --- Exception classes raised by urllib.request

urllib.robotparser --- Parser for robots.txt

http --- HTTP modules

http.client --- HTTP protocol client

ftplib --- FTP protocol client

poplib --- POP3 protocol client

imaplib --- IMAP4 protocol client

smtplib --- SMTP protocol client

uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 9562

socketserver --- A framework for network servers

http.server --- HTTP servers

http.cookies --- HTTP state management

http.cookiejar --- Cookie handling for HTTP clients

xmlrpc --- XMLRPC server and client modules

xmlrpc.client — Client XML-RPC

xmlrpc.server — Serveurs XML-RPC de base

ipaddress --- IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library

Services multimédia

wave --- Read and write WAV files

colorsys --- Conversions between color systems

Internationalisation

gettext --- Multilingual internationalization services

locale --- Internationalization services

Graphical user interfaces with Tk

tkinter --- Python interface to Tcl/Tk

tkinter.colorchooser --- Color choosing dialog

tkinter.font --- Tkinter font wrapper

Boîtes de dialogue Tkinter

tkinter.messagebox --- Tkinter message prompts

tkinter.scrolledtext --- Scrolled Text Widget

tkinter.dnd --- Drag and drop support

tkinter.ttk --- Tk themed widgets

IDLE --- Python editor and shell

turtle --- Turtle graphics

Outils de développement

typing --- Support for type hints

pydoc --- Documentation generator and online help system

Python Development Mode

doctest — Exemples de tests interactifs en Python

unittest --- Unit testing framework

unittest.mock --- mock object library

unittest.mock --- getting started

test --- Regression tests package for Python

test.support --- Utilities for the Python test suite

test.support.socket_helper --- Utilities for socket tests

test.support.script_helper --- Utilities for the Python execution tests

test.support.bytecode_helper --- Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation

test.support.threading_helper --- Utilities for threading tests

test.support.os_helper --- Utilities for os tests

test.support.import_helper --- Utilities for import tests

test.support.warnings_helper --- Utilities for warnings tests

Débogueur et instrumentation

Table des évènements d'audit

bdb --- Debugger framework

faulthandler --- Dump the Python traceback

pdb --- The Python Debugger

The Python Profilers

timeit --- Measure execution time of small code snippets

trace --- Trace or track Python statement execution

tracemalloc --- Trace memory allocations

Paquets et distribution de paquets logiciels

ensurepip --- Bootstrapping the pip installer

venv --- Creation of virtual environments

zipapp --- Manage executable Python zip archives

Environnement d'exécution Python

sys --- System-specific parameters and functions

sys.monitoring --- Execution event monitoring

sysconfig --- Provide access to Python's configuration information

builtins --- Built-in objects

__main__ --- Top-level code environment

warnings --- Warning control

dataclasses — Classes de données

contextlib — Utilitaires pour les contextes s'appuyant sur l'instruction with

abc --- Abstract Base Classes

atexit --- Exit handlers

traceback --- Print or retrieve a stack traceback

__future__ --- Future statement definitions

gc --- Garbage Collector interface

inspect --- Inspect live objects

annotationlib --- Functionality for introspecting annotations

site --- Site-specific configuration hook

Interpréteurs Python personnalisés

code --- Interpreter base classes

codeop --- Compile Python code

Importer des modules

zipimport --- Import modules from Zip archives

pkgutil --- Package extension utility

modulefinder --- Find modules used by a script

runpy --- Locating and executing Python modules

importlib --- The implementation of import

importlib.resources -- Package resource reading, opening and access

importlib.resources.abc -- Abstract base classes for resources

importlib.metadata -- Accessing package metadata

The initialization of the sys.path module search path

Services du Langage Python

ast --- Abstract syntax trees

symtable --- Access to the compiler's symbol tables

token --- Constants used with Python parse trees

keyword --- Testing for Python keywords

tokenize --- Tokenizer for Python source

tabnanny --- Detection of ambiguous indentation

pyclbr --- Python module browser support

py_compile --- Compile Python source files

compileall --- Byte-compile Python libraries

dis --- Disassembler for Python bytecode

pickletools --- Tools for pickle developers

Services spécifiques à MS Windows

msvcrt --- Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime

winreg --- Windows registry access

winsound --- Sound-playing interface for Windows

Unix-specific services

shlex --- Simple lexical analysis

posix --- The most common POSIX system calls

pwd --- The password database

grp --- The group database

termios --- POSIX style tty control

tty --- Terminal control functions

pty --- Pseudo-terminal utilities

fcntl --- The fcntl and ioctl system calls

resource --- Resource usage information

syslog --- Unix syslog library routines

Modules command-line interface (CLI)

Modules remplacés

getopt --- C-style parser for command line options

Removed Modules

Considérations de sécurité

Introduction

La « Bibliothèque Python » contient divers composants dans différentes catégories.

Elle contient des types de données qui seraient normalement considérés comme « fondamentaux » au langage, tel que les nombres et les listes. Pour ces types, le cœur du langage en définit les écritures littérales et impose quelques contraintes sémantiques, sans les définir exhaustivement. (Cependant le cœur du langage impose quelques propriétés comme l'orthographe des attributs ou les caractéristiques des opérateurs.)

La bibliothèque contient aussi des fonctions et des exceptions natives, pouvant être utilisées par tout code Python sans import. Certaines sont définies par le noyau de Python, bien qu'elles ne soient pas toutes essentielles.

La grande majorité de la bibliothèque consiste cependant en une collection de modules. Cette collection peut être parcourue de différentes manières. Certains modules sont rédigés en C et inclus dans l'interpréteur Python, d'autres sont écrits en Python et leur source est importée. Certains modules fournissent des interfaces extrêmement spécifiques à Python, tel que l'affichage d'une pile d'appels, d'autres fournissent des interfaces spécifiques à un système d'exploitation, comme l'accès à du matériel spécifique. D'autres fournissent des interfaces spécifiques à un domaine d'application, comme le World Wide Web. Certains modules sont disponibles dans toutes les versions et implémentations de Python, d'autres ne sont disponibles que si le système sous-jacent les gère ou en a besoin. Enfin, d'autres ne sont disponibles que si Python à été compilé avec une certaine option.

Cette documentation organise les modules « de l'intérieur vers l'extérieur », documentant en premier les fonctions natives, les types de données et exceptions, puis les modules, groupés par chapitre, par thématiques.

Ça signifie que si vous commencez à lire cette documentation du début, et sautez au chapitre suivant lorsqu'elle vous ennuie, vous aurez un aperçu global des modules et domaines couverts par cette bibliothèque. Bien sûr vous n'avez pas à la lire comme un roman, vous pouvez simplement survoler la table des matières (au début), ou chercher une fonction, un module, ou un mot dans l'index (à la fin). Et si vous appréciez apprendre sur des sujets au hasard, choisissez une page au hasard (avec le module random) et lisez un chapitre ou deux. Peu importe l'ordre que vous adopterez, commencez par le chapitre Fonctions natives, car les autres chapitres présument que vous en avez une bonne connaissance.

Que le spectacle commence !

Notes sur la disponibilité

Une note « Disponibilité : Unix » signifie que cette fonction est communément implémentée dans les systèmes Unix. Une telle note ne prétend pas l'existence de la fonction sur un système d'exploitation particulier.

If not separately noted, all functions that claim "Availability: Unix" are supported on macOS, iOS and Android, all of which build on a Unix core.

Si une note de disponibilité contient à la fois une version minimale du noyau et une version minimale de la libc, les deux conditions doivent être remplies. Par exemple, une fonctionnalité avec la note Disponibilité : Linux >= 3.17 avec glibc >= 2.27 nécessite à la fois Linux 3.17 ou plus récent et glibc 2.27 ou plus récent.

Plateformes WebAssembly

Les plates-formes WebAssembly [https://webassembly.org/] wasm32-emscripten (Emscripten [https://emscripten.org/]) et wasm32-wasi (WASI [https://wasi.dev/]) fournissent un sous-ensemble des API POSIX. Les environnements d'exécution WebAssembly et les navigateurs sont dans des bacs à sable et ont un accès limité à l'hôte et aux ressources externes. Tout module de bibliothèque standard Python qui utilise des processus, des threads, le réseau, des signaux ou d'autres formes de communication inter-processus (IPC) n'est pas disponible ou peut ne pas fonctionner comme sur d'autres systèmes de type Unix. Les entrées-sorties de fichiers, le système de fichiers et les fonctions liées aux autorisations Unix sont également restreintes. Emscripten ne permet pas d'effectuer des entrées-sorties bloquantes. D'autres opérations bloquantes comme sleep() bloquent la boucle d'événements du navigateur.

Les propriétés et le comportement de Python sur les plates-formes WebAssembly dépendent de la version du SDK Emscripten [https://emscripten.org/] ou WASI [https://wasi.dev/], des programmes exécutables WASM (navigateur, NodeJS, wasmtime [https://wasmtime.dev/]) et de la configuration de compilation de Python. WebAssembly, Emscripten et WASI sont des normes en évolution ; certaines fonctionnalités telles que la gestion du réseau pourraient être prises en charge à l'avenir.

Pour exécuter du Python dans le navigateur, les utilisateurs doivent envisager Pyodide [https://pyodide.org/] ou PyScript [https://pyscript.net/]. PyScript est construit sur Pyodide, qui est lui-même construit sur CPython et Emscripten. Pyodide donne accès aux API JavaScript et DOM des navigateurs ainsi qu'à des capacités réseau limitées avec les API XMLHttpRequest et Fetch de JavaScript.

Les API liées aux processus ne sont pas disponibles ou échouent toujours avec une erreur. Cela inclut les API qui génèrent de nouveaux processus (fork(), execve()), attendent des processus (waitpid()), envoient des signaux (kill()), ou interagissent d'une autre manière avec les processus. Le module subprocess peut être importé mais ne fonctionne pas.

Le module socket est disponible, mais est limité et n'a pas le même comportement que sur les autres plates-formes. Sur Emscripten, les connecteurs réseau sont toujours non bloquants et nécessitent du code JavaScript et du code supplémentaire sur le serveur pour faire mandataire TCP via WebSockets ; voir Emscripten Networking [https://emscripten.org/docs/porting/networking.html] pour plus d'informations. La pré-version 1 de WASI n'autorise que les connecteurs réseau utilisant un descripteur de fichier déjà existant.

Certaines fonctions sont des émulations embryonnaires qui ne font rien et renvoient toujours des valeurs codées en dur.

Les fonctions liées aux descripteurs de fichiers, aux autorisations de fichiers, aux propriétaires des fichiers et aux liens sont limitées et ne prennent pas en charge certaines opérations. Par exemple, WASI n'autorise pas les liens symboliques avec des noms de fichiers absolus.

Mobile platforms

Android and iOS are, in most respects, POSIX operating systems. File I/O, socket handling, and threading all behave as they would on any POSIX operating system. However, there are several major differences:

Mobile platforms can only use Python in "embedded" mode. There is no Python REPL, and no ability to use separate executables such as python or pip. To add Python code to your mobile app, you must use the Python embedding API. For more details, see Using Python on Android and Using Python on iOS.

Subprocesses:

On Android, creating subprocesses is possible but officially unsupported [https://issuetracker.google.com/issues/128554619#comment4]. In particular, Android does not support any part of the System V IPC API, so multiprocessing is not available.

An iOS app cannot use any form of subprocessing, multiprocessing, or inter-process communication. If an iOS app attempts to create a subprocess, the process creating the subprocess will either lock up, or crash. An iOS app has no visibility of other applications that are running, nor any ability to communicate with other running applications, outside of the iOS-specific APIs that exist for this purpose.

Mobile apps have limited access to modify system resources (such as the system clock). These resources will often be readable, but attempts to modify those resources will usually fail.

Console input and output:

On Android, the native stdout and stderr are not connected to anything, so Python installs its own streams which redirect messages to the system log. These can be seen under the tags python.stdout and python.stderr respectively.

iOS apps have a limited concept of console output. stdout and stderr exist, and content written to stdout and stderr will be visible in logs when running in Xcode, but this content won't be recorded in the system log. If a user who has installed your app provides their app logs as a diagnostic aid, they will not include any detail written to stdout or stderr.

Mobile apps have no usable stdin at all. While apps can display an on-screen keyboard, this is a software feature, not something that is attached to stdin.

As a result, Python modules that involve console manipulation (such as curses and readline) are not available on mobile platforms.

Fonctions natives

L'interpréteur Python propose quelques fonctions et types natifs qui sont toujours disponibles. Ils sont listés ici par ordre alphabétique.

Fonctions natives

A

abs()

aiter()

all()

anext()

any()

ascii()

B

bin()

bool()

breakpoint()

bytearray()

bytes()

C

callable()

chr()

classmethod()

compile()

complex()

D

delattr()

dict()

dir()

divmod()

E

enumerate()

eval()

exec()

F

filter()

float()

format()

frozenset()

G

getattr()

globals()

H

hasattr()

hash()

help()

hex()

I

id()

input()

int()

isinstance()

issubclass()

iter()

L

len()

list()

locals()

M

map()

max()

memoryview()

min()

N

next()

O

object()

oct()

open()

ord()

P

pow()

print()

property()

R

range()

repr()

reversed()

round()

S

set()

setattr()

slice()

sorted()

staticmethod()

str()

sum()

super()

T

tuple()

type()

V

vars()

Z

zip()

_

__import__()

abs(number, /)

Renvoie la valeur absolue d'un nombre. L'argument peut être un nombre entier, un nombre à virgule flottante, ou tout objet définissant __abs__(). Si l'argument est un nombre complexe, son module est renvoyé.

aiter(async_iterable, /)

Renvoie un itérateur asynchrone pour l'itérable asynchrone donné. Équivaut à appeler x.__aiter__().

Remarque : contrairement à iter(), aiter() n'a pas de variante à 2 arguments.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

all(iterable, /)

Renvoie True si tous les éléments de iterable sont vrais (ou s'il est vide). Équivaut à :

def all(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if not element:
            return False
    return True

awaitable anext(async_iterator, /)

awaitable anext(async_iterator, default, /)

Lorsqu'il est attendu, renvoie l'élément suivant à partir de l'itérateur asynchrone donné, ou default s'il est fourni et que l'itérateur est épuisé.

Il s'agit de la variante asynchrone de la fonction native next() et elle se comporte de la même manière.

Renvoie un attendable en appelant la méthode __anext__() de async_iterator. L'attente renvoie la prochaine valeur de l'itérateur. Si default est fourni, il est renvoyé si l'itérateur est épuisé, sinon StopAsyncIteration est levée.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

any(iterable, /)

Renvoie True si au moins un élément de iterable est vrai. False est renvoyé dans le cas où iterable est vide. Équivaut à :

def any(iterable):
    for element in iterable:
        if element:
            return True
    return False

ascii(object, /)

Renvoie, tout comme repr(), une chaîne contenant une représentation d'un objet destinée à l'affichage, mais en transformant les caractères non ASCII renvoyés par repr() par l'utilisation de séquences d'échappement \x, \u ou \U. Cela génère une chaîne similaire à ce que renvoie repr() dans Python 2.

bin(integer, /)

Convert an integer number to a binary string prefixed with "0b". The result is a valid Python expression. If integer is not a Python int object, it has to define an __index__() method that returns an integer. Some examples:

>>> bin(3)
'0b11'
>>> bin(-10)
'-0b1010'

Vous pouvez contrôler l'affichage du préfixe "0b" à l'aide d'un des moyens suivants.

>>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
('0b1110', '1110')
>>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
('0b1110', '1110')

See also enum.bin() to represent negative values as twos-complement.

Voir aussi format() pour plus d'informations.

class bool(object=False, /)

Renvoie une valeur booléenne, c'est-à-dire soit True, soit False. L'argument est converti en utilisant la procédure standard d'évaluation de valeur de vérité. Si l'argument est faux, ou omis, elle renvoie False, sinon, elle renvoie True. La classe bool hérite de la classe int (voir Types numériques — int, float, complex). Il n'est pas possible d'en hériter. Ses seules instances sont False et True (voir Boolean Type - bool).

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Le paramètre est désormais un argument exclusivement positionnel.

breakpoint(*args, **kws)

Cette fonction vous place dans le débogueur lorsqu'elle est appelée. Plus précisément, elle appelle sys.breakpointhook(), en lui passant les arguments args et kws. Par défaut, sys.breakpointhook() appelle pdb.set_trace() qui n'attend aucun argument. Dans ce cas, c'est purement une fonction de commodité donc vous n'avez pas à importer explicitement pdb ou à taper plus de code pour entrer dans le débogueur. Cependant, il est possible d'affecter une autre fonction à sys.breakpointhook(), que breakpoint() appellera automatiquement, vous permettant ainsi de basculer dans le débogueur de votre choix. Si sys.breakpointhook() n'est pas accessible, cette fonction lève RuntimeError.

Par défaut, le comportement de la fonction breakpoint() peut être changé par la variable d'environnement PYTHONBREAKPOINT. Voir sys.breakpointhook() pour plus de détails.

Notez que ceci n'est plus garanti si la fonction sys.breakpointhook() a été remplacée.

Lève un évènement d'audit builtins.breakpoint avec l'argument breakpointhook.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

class bytearray(source=b'')

class bytearray(source, encoding, errors='strict')

Renvoie un nouveau tableau d'octets. La classe bytearray est une séquence mutable de nombres entiers dans l'intervalle 0 ≤ x < 256. Il possède la plupart des méthodes des séquences variables, décrites dans Types de séquences mutables, ainsi que la plupart des méthodes de la classe bytes, voir Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.

Le paramètre optionnel source peut être utilisé pour initialiser le tableau de plusieurs façons :

si c'est une chaîne, vous devez aussi donner le paramètre encoding pour l'encodage (et éventuellement errors). La fonction bytearray() convertit ensuite la chaîne en octets via la méthode str.encode() ;

si c'est un entier, le tableau a cette taille et est initialisé d'octets null ;

si c'est un objet conforme à l'interface tampon, un tampon en lecture seule de l'objet est utilisé pour initialiser le tableau ;

si c'est un itérable, il doit itérer sur des nombres entier dans l'intervalle 0 <= x < 256, qui sont utilisés pour initialiser le contenu du tableau.

Sans argument, un tableau vide est créé.

Voir Séquences Binaires — bytes, bytearray, vue mémoire et Objets bytearray.

class bytes(source=b'')

class bytes(source, encoding, errors='strict')

Renvoie un nouvel objet bytes, qui est une séquence immuable de nombres entiers dans l'intervalle 0 <= x < 256. Un bytes est une version immuable de bytearray — avec les mêmes méthodes d'accès, et le même comportement lors de l'indexation ou du découpage.

En conséquence, les arguments du constructeur sont les mêmes que pour bytearray().

Les objets bytes peuvent aussi être créés à partir de littéraux, voir Littéraux de chaînes de caractères et de suites d'octets.

Voir aussi Séquences Binaires — bytes, bytearray, vue mémoire, Objets bytes, et Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.

callable(object, /)

Renvoie True si l'argument object semble être appelable, sinon False. Lorsqu'elle renvoie True, il est toujours possible qu'un appel échoue. Cependant, lorsqu'elle renvoie False, il n'est jamais possible d'appeler object. Notez qu'une classe est toujours appelable (appeler une classe donne une nouvelle instance) ; une instance n'est appelable que si sa classe définit une méthode __call__().

Ajouté dans la version 3.2: cette fonction a d'abord été supprimée avec Python 3.0 puis elle a été remise dans Python 3.2.

chr(codepoint, /)

Return the string representing a character with the specified Unicode code point. For example, chr(97) returns the string 'a', while chr(8364) returns the string '€'. This is the inverse of ord().

The valid range for the argument is from 0 through 1,114,111 (0x10FFFF in base 16). ValueError will be raised if it is outside that range.

@classmethod

Transforme une méthode en méthode de classe.

Une méthode de classe reçoit implicitement la classe en premier argument, tout comme une méthode d'instance reçoit l'instance. Voici comment déclarer une méthode de classe :

class C:
    @classmethod
    def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...

La forme @classmethod est un décorateur de fonction — consultez Définition de fonctions pour plus de détails.

Elle peut être appelée soit sur la classe (comme C.f()) ou sur une instance (comme C().f()). L'instance est ignorée, sauf pour déterminer sa classe. Si la méthode est appelée sur une instance de classe fille, c'est la classe fille qui sera donnée en premier argument implicite.

Les méthodes de classe sont différentes des méthodes statiques du C++ ou du Java. Si ce sont elles dont vous avez besoin, regardez du côté de staticmethod() dans cette section. Voir aussi Hiérarchie des types standards.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: les méthodes de classe peuvent encapsuler d'autres descripteurs comme property().

Modifié dans la version 3.10: les méthodes de classe héritent dorénavant des attributs des méthodes (__module__, __name__, __qualname__, __doc__ et __annotations__) et ont un nouvel attribut __wrapped__.

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13: les méthodes de classe ne peuvent plus encapsuler d'autres descripteurs comme property().

compile(source, filename, mode, flags=0, dont_inherit=False, optimize=-1)

Compile source en un objet code ou objet AST. Les objets code peuvent être exécutés par exec() ou eval(). source peut être une chaîne, une chaîne d'octets, ou un objet AST. Consultez la documentation du module ast pour des informations sur la manipulation d'objets AST.

L'argument filename doit désigner le fichier depuis lequel le code a été lu. Donnez quelque chose de reconnaissable lorsqu'il n'a pas été lu depuis un fichier (typiquement "<string>").

L'argument mode indique quel type de code doit être compilé : 'exec' si source est une suite d'instructions, 'eval' pour une seule expression, ou 'single' s'il ne contient qu'une instruction interactive (dans ce dernier cas, les résultats d'expressions donnant autre chose que None sont affichés).

Les arguments optionnels flags et dont_inherit contrôlent quelles options de compilation seront activées et quelles instructions future seront autorisées. Si aucun des deux n'est présent (ou que les deux sont à 0), le code est compilé avec les mêmes paramètres que le code appelant compile(). Si l'argument flags est fourni alors que dont_inherit ne l'est pas (ou vaut 0), les options de compilation et les instructions futures utilisées sont celles définies par flags en plus de celles qui auraient été utilisées. Si dont_inherit est un entier différent de zéro, flags est utilisé tel quel — les flags (instructions futures et options de compilation) valables pour le code encadrant compile sont ignorés.

Les instructions future sont contrôlées par des bits, il est ainsi possible d'en activer plusieurs en les combinant avec un OU binaire. Les bits requis pour demander une certaine fonctionnalité se trouvent dans l'attribut compiler_flag de la classe Feature du module __future__. Les options du compilateur se trouvent dans le module ast, avec le préfixe PyCF_.

L'argument optimize indique le niveau d'optimisation du compilateur. La valeur par défaut est -1 qui prend le niveau d'optimisation de l'interpréteur tel que reçu via l'option -O. Les niveaux explicites sont : 0 (pas d'optimisation, __debug__ est True), 1 (les assert sont supprimés, __debug__ est False) ou 2 (les chaines de documentation sont également supprimées).

This function raises SyntaxError or ValueError if the compiled source is invalid.

Si vous voulez transformer du code Python en sa représentation AST, voyez ast.parse().

Lève un évènement d'audit compile avec les arguments source et filename. Cet événement peut également être levé par une compilation implicite.

Note

lors de la compilation d'une chaîne de plusieurs lignes de code avec les modes 'single' ou 'eval', celles-ci doivent être terminées par au moins un retour à la ligne. Cela permet de faciliter la distinction entre les instructions complètes et incomplètes dans le module code.

Avertissement

il est possible de faire planter l'interpréteur Python avec des chaînes suffisamment grandes ou complexes lors de la compilation d'un objet AST. Ceci est dû à limitation de la profondeur de la pile d'appels.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: autorise l'utilisation de retours à la ligne Mac et Windows. Par ailleurs, la chaîne donnée à 'exec' n'a plus besoin de terminer par un retour à la ligne. Ajout du paramètre optimize.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: précédemment, l'exception TypeError était levée quand un caractère nul était rencontré dans source.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8: ast.PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT peut maintenant être passée à flags pour permettre une gestion haut niveau de await, async for et async with.

class complex(number=0, /)

class complex(string, /)

class complex(real=0, imag=0)

Convert a single string or number to a complex number, or create a complex number from real and imaginary parts.

Exemples :

>>> complex('+1.23')
(1.23+0j)
>>> complex('-4.5j')
-4.5j
>>> complex('-1.23+4.5j')
(-1.23+4.5j)
>>> complex('\t( -1.23+4.5J )\n')
(-1.23+4.5j)
>>> complex('-Infinity+NaNj')
(-inf+nanj)
>>> complex(1.23)
(1.23+0j)
>>> complex(imag=-4.5)
-4.5j
>>> complex(-1.23, 4.5)
(-1.23+4.5j)

If the argument is a string, it must contain either a real part (in the same format as for float()) or an imaginary part (in the same format but with a 'j' or 'J' suffix), or both real and imaginary parts (the sign of the imaginary part is mandatory in this case). The string can optionally be surrounded by whitespaces and the round parentheses '(' and ')', which are ignored. The string must not contain whitespace between '+', '-', the 'j' or 'J' suffix, and the decimal number. For example, complex('1+2j') is fine, but complex('1 + 2j') raises ValueError. More precisely, the input must conform to the complexvalue production rule in the following grammar, after parentheses and leading and trailing whitespace characters are removed:

complexvalue: floatvalue |
              floatvalue ("j" | "J") |
              floatvalue sign absfloatvalue ("j" | "J")

Si l'argument est un nombre, le constructeur le convertit, comme le font les classes int et float. Pour les autres objets x, complex(x) délègue à x.__complex__(). Si __complex__() n'est pas définie, elle délègue à __float__(). Si __float__() n'est pas défini, alors elle délègue à __index__().

If two arguments are provided or keyword arguments are used, each argument may be any numeric type (including complex). If both arguments are real numbers, return a complex number with the real component real and the imaginary component imag. If both arguments are complex numbers, return a complex number with the real component real.real-imag.imag and the imaginary component real.imag+imag.real. If one of arguments is a real number, only its real component is used in the above expressions.

See also complex.from_number() which only accepts a single numeric argument.

If all arguments are omitted, returns 0j.

Le type complexe est décrit dans Types numériques — int, float, complex.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: les chiffres peuvent être groupés avec des tirets bas comme dans les expressions littérales.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: délègue à __index__() si __complex__() et __float__() ne sont pas définies.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.14: Passing a complex number as the real or imag argument is now deprecated; it should only be passed as a single positional argument.

delattr(object, name, /)

C'est une cousine de setattr(). Les arguments sont un objet et une chaîne. La chaîne doit être le nom de l'un des attributs de l'objet. La fonction supprime l'attribut nommé, si l'objet l'y autorise. Par exemple delattr(x, 'foobar') est l'équivalent de del x.foobar. name n'a pas besoin d'être un identifiant Python (voir setattr()).

class dict(**kwargs)

class dict(mapping, /, **kwargs)

class dict(iterable, /, **kwargs)

Crée un nouveau dictionnaire. L'objet dict est la classe du dictionnaire. Voir dict et Les types de correspondances — dict pour vous documenter sur cette classe.

Pour les autres conteneurs, voir les classes natives list, set, et tuple, ainsi que le module collections.

dir()

dir(object, /)

Sans argument, elle donne la liste des noms dans l'espace de nommage local. Avec un argument, elle essaye de donner une liste d'attributs valides pour cet objet.

Si l'objet a une méthode __dir__(), elle est appelée et doit donner une liste d'attributs. Cela permet aux objets implémentant __getattr__() ou __getattribute__() de personnaliser ce que renvoie dir().

Si l'objet ne fournit pas de méthode __dir__(), la fonction fait de son mieux en rassemblant les informations de l'attribut __dict__ de l'objet, s'il est défini, et depuis son type. La liste résultante n'est pas nécessairement complète, et peut être erronée quand l'objet a une __getattr__() personnalisée.

Le mécanisme par défaut de dir() se comporte différemment avec différents types d'objets, car elle préfère donner une information pertinente plutôt qu'exhaustive :

si l'objet est un module, la liste contiendra les noms des attributs du module ;

si l'objet est un type ou une classe, la liste contiendra les noms de ses attributs et, récursivement, des attributs de ses parents ;

autrement, la liste contient les noms des attributs de l'objet, le nom des attributs de la classe, et récursivement des attributs des parents de la classe.

La liste donnée est triée par ordre alphabétique, par exemple :

>>> import struct
>>> dir()   # show the names in the module namespace
['__builtins__', '__name__', 'struct']
>>> dir(struct)   # show the names in the struct module
['Struct', '__all__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__',
 '__initializing__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__',
 '_clearcache', 'calcsize', 'error', 'pack', 'pack_into',
 'unpack', 'unpack_from']
>>> class Shape:
...     def __dir__(self):
...         return ['area', 'perimeter', 'location']
...
>>> s = Shape()
>>> dir(s)
['area', 'location', 'perimeter']

Note

étant donné que dir() est d'abord fournie pour son côté pratique en mode interactif, elle a tendance à fournir un ensemble de noms pertinents plutôt qu'un ensemble exhaustif et rigoureusement défini, son comportement peut aussi changer d'une version à l'autre. Par exemple, les attributs de méta-classes ne sont pas donnés lorsque l'argument est une classe.

divmod(a, b, /)

Prend deux nombres (qui ne sont pas des nombres complexes) et renvoie leur quotient et reste de leur division entière sous forme d'une paire de nombres. Avec des opérandes de types différents, les règles des opérateurs binaires s'appliquent. Pour deux entiers le résultat est le même que (a // b, a % b). Pour des nombres à virgule flottante le résultat est (q, a % b), où q est généralement math.floor(a / b) mais peut valoir 1 de moins. Dans tous les cas q * b + a % b est très proche de a. Si a % b est différent de zéro, il a le même signe que b et 0 <= abs(a % b) < abs(b).

enumerate(iterable, start=0)

Renvoie un objet énumérant. iterable doit être une séquence, un itérateur, ou tout autre objet prenant en charge l'itération. La méthode __next__() de l'itérateur donné par enumerate() renvoie un n-uplet contenant un compte (démarrant à start, 0 par défaut) et les valeurs obtenues de l'itération sur iterable.

>>> seasons = ['Spring', 'Summer', 'Fall', 'Winter']
>>> list(enumerate(seasons))
[(0, 'Spring'), (1, 'Summer'), (2, 'Fall'), (3, 'Winter')]
>>> list(enumerate(seasons, start=1))
[(1, 'Spring'), (2, 'Summer'), (3, 'Fall'), (4, 'Winter')]

Équivalent à :

def enumerate(iterable, start=0):
    n = start
    for elem in iterable:
        yield n, elem
        n += 1

eval(source, /, globals=None, locals=None)

Paramètres:

source (str | code object) -- A Python expression.

globals (dict | None) -- The global namespace (default: None).

locals (mapping | None) -- The local namespace (default: None).

Renvoie:

The result of the evaluated expression.

Raises:

Syntax errors are reported as exceptions.

Avertissement

This function executes arbitrary code. Calling it with untrusted user-supplied input will lead to security vulnerabilities.

The source argument is parsed and evaluated as a Python expression (technically speaking, a condition list) using the globals and locals mappings as global and local namespace. If the globals dictionary is present and does not contain a value for the key __builtins__, a reference to the dictionary of the built-in module builtins is inserted under that key before source is parsed. Overriding __builtins__ can be used to restrict or change the available names, but this is not a security mechanism: the executed code can still access all builtins. If the locals mapping is omitted it defaults to the globals dictionary. If both mappings are omitted, the source is executed with the globals and locals in the environment where eval() is called. Note, eval() will only have access to the nested scopes (non-locals) in the enclosing environment if they are already referenced in the scope that is calling eval() (e.g. via a nonlocal statement).

Example:

>>> x = 1
>>> eval('x+1')
2

Cette fonction peut aussi être utilisée pour exécuter n'importe quel objet code (tels que ceux créés par compile()). Dans ce cas, donnez un objet code plutôt qu'une chaîne. Si l'objet code a été compilé avec l'argument mode à 'exec', eval() renvoie None.

Conseils : l'exécution dynamique d'instructions est gérée par la fonction exec(). Les fonctions globals() et locals() renvoient respectivement les dictionnaires globaux et locaux, qui peuvent être utiles lors de l'usage de eval() et exec().

Si la source donnée est une chaîne, les espaces de début et de fin et les tabulations sont supprimées.

Utilisez ast.literal_eval() si vous avez besoin d'une fonction qui peut évaluer en toute sécurité des chaînes avec des expressions ne contenant que des valeurs littérales.

Lève un évènement d'audit exec avec l'objet de code comme argument. Les événements de compilation de code peuvent également être levés.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: The globals and locals arguments can now be passed as keywords.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: The semantics of the default locals namespace have been adjusted as described for the locals() builtin.

exec(source, /, globals=None, locals=None, *, closure=None)

Avertissement

This function executes arbitrary code. Calling it with untrusted user-supplied input will lead to security vulnerabilities.

This function supports dynamic execution of Python code. source must be either a string or a code object. If it is a string, the string is parsed as a suite of Python statements which is then executed (unless a syntax error occurs). [1] If it is a code object, it is simply executed. In all cases, the code that's executed is expected to be valid as file input (see the section Fichier d'entrée in the Reference Manual). Be aware that the nonlocal, yield, and return statements may not be used outside of function definitions even within the context of code passed to the exec() function. The return value is None.

In all cases, if the optional parts are omitted, the code is executed in the current scope. If only globals is provided, it must be a dictionary (and not a subclass of dictionary), which will be used for both the global and the local variables. If globals and locals are given, they are used for the global and local variables, respectively. If provided, locals can be any mapping object. Remember that at the module level, globals and locals are the same dictionary.

Note

When exec gets two separate objects as globals and locals, the code will be executed as if it were embedded in a class definition. This means functions and classes defined in the executed code will not be able to access variables assigned at the top level (as the "top level" variables are treated as class variables in a class definition).

If the globals dictionary does not contain a value for the key __builtins__, a reference to the dictionary of the built-in module builtins is inserted under that key. Overriding __builtins__ can be used to restrict or change the available names, but this is not a security mechanism: the executed code can still access all builtins.

The closure argument specifies a closure--a tuple of cellvars. It's only valid when the object is a code object containing free (closure) variables. The length of the tuple must exactly match the length of the code object's co_freevars attribute.

Lève un évènement d'audit exec avec l'objet de code comme argument. Les événements de compilation de code peuvent également être levés.

Note

The built-in functions globals() and locals() return the current global and local namespace, respectively, which may be useful to pass around for use as the second and third argument to exec().

Note

The default locals act as described for function locals() below. Pass an explicit locals dictionary if you need to see effects of the code on locals after function exec() returns.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: ajout du paramètre closure.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: The globals and locals arguments can now be passed as keywords.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: The semantics of the default locals namespace have been adjusted as described for the locals() builtin.

filter(function, iterable, /)

Construit un itérateur depuis les éléments d'iterable pour lesquels function renvoie True. iterable peut aussi bien être une séquence, un conteneur qui prend en charge l'itération, ou un itérateur. Si function est None, la fonction identité est prise, c'est-à-dire que tous les éléments faux d'iterable sont supprimés.

Notez que filter(function, iterable) est l'équivalent du générateur (item for item in iterable if function(item)) si function n'est pas None, et de (item for item in iterable if item) si function est None.

Voir itertools.filterfalse() pour la fonction complémentaire qui donne les éléments d'iterable pour lesquels function renvoie False.

class float(number=0.0, /)

class float(string, /)

Return a floating-point number constructed from a number or a string.

Exemples :

>>> float('+1.23')
1.23
>>> float('   -12345\n')
-12345.0
>>> float('1e-003')
0.001
>>> float('+1E6')
1000000.0
>>> float('-Infinity')
-inf

If the argument is a string, it should contain a decimal number, optionally preceded by a sign, and optionally embedded in whitespace. The optional sign may be '+' or '-'; a '+' sign has no effect on the value produced. The argument may also be a string representing a NaN (not-a-number), or positive or negative infinity. More precisely, the input must conform to the floatvalue production rule in the following grammar, after leading and trailing whitespace characters are removed:

sign:          "+" | "-"
infinity:      "Infinity" | "inf"
nan:           "nan"
digit:         <a Unicode decimal digit, i.e. characters in Unicode general category Nd>
digitpart:     digit (["_"] digit)*
number:        [digitpart] "." digitpart | digitpart ["."]
exponent:      ("e" | "E") [sign] digitpart
floatnumber:   number [exponent]
absfloatvalue: floatnumber | infinity | nan
floatvalue:    [sign] absfloatvalue

Case is not significant, so, for example, "inf", "Inf", "INFINITY", and "iNfINity" are all acceptable spellings for positive infinity.

Otherwise, if the argument is an integer or a floating-point number, a floating-point number with the same value (within Python's floating-point precision) is returned. If the argument is outside the range of a Python float, an OverflowError will be raised.

Pour un objet Python général x, float(x) est délégué à x.__float__(). Si __float__() n'est pas défini alors il est délégué à __index__().

See also float.from_number() which only accepts a numeric argument.

Sans argument, 0.0 est renvoyé.

Le type float est décrit dans Types numériques — int, float, complex.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: les chiffres peuvent être groupés avec des tirets bas comme dans les expressions littérales.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Le paramètre est désormais un argument exclusivement positionnel.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: délègue à __index__() si __float__() n'est pas définie.

format(value, format_spec='', /)

Convertit une valeur en sa représentation « formatée », contrôlée par format_spec. L'interprétation de format_spec dépend du type de la valeur. Cependant, il existe une syntaxe standard utilisée par la plupart des types natifs : Format specification mini-language.

Par défaut, format_spec est une chaîne vide. Dans ce cas, appeler cette fonction a généralement le même effet qu'appeler str(value).

A call to format(value, format_spec) is translated to type(value).__format__(value, format_spec) which bypasses the instance dictionary when searching for the value's __format__() method. A TypeError exception is raised if the method search reaches object and the format_spec is non-empty, or if either the format_spec or the return value are not strings.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: object().__format__(format_spec) lève TypeError si format_spec n'est pas une chaîne vide.

class frozenset(iterable=(), /)

Renvoie un nouveau frozenset, dont les objets sont éventuellement tirés d'iterable. frozenset est une classe native. Voir frozenset et Types d'ensembles — set, frozenset pour la documentation sur cette classe.

Pour d'autres conteneurs, voyez les classes natives set, list, tuple, et dict, ainsi que le module collections.

getattr(object, name, /)

getattr(object, name, default, /)

Renvoie la valeur de l'attribut nommé name de l'objet object. name doit être une chaîne. Si la chaîne est le nom d'un des attributs de l'objet, le résultat est la valeur de cet attribut. Par exemple, getattr(x, 'foobar') est équivalent à x.foobar. Si l'attribut n'existe pas, mais que default est fourni, celui-ci est renvoyé. Sinon l'exception AttributeError est levée. name n'a pas besoin d'être un identifiant Python (voir setattr()).

Note

étant donné que la transformation des noms privés se produit au moment de la compilation, il faut modifier manuellement le nom d'un attribut privé (attributs avec deux traits de soulignement en tête) afin de le récupérer avec getattr().

globals()

Renvoie le dictionnaire implémentant l'espace de nommage du module actuel. Pour le code dans les fonctions, il est défini lorsque la fonction est définie et reste le même quel que soit le moment où la fonction est appelée.

hasattr(object, name, /)

Les arguments sont : un objet et une chaîne de caractères. Le résultat est True si la chaîne est le nom d'un des attributs de l'objet, sinon False (l'implémentation appelle getattr(object, name) et regarde si une exception AttributeError a été levée).

hash(object, /)

Renvoie la valeur de hachage d'un objet (s'il en a une). Les valeurs de hachage sont des entiers. Elles sont utilisées pour comparer rapidement des clés de dictionnaire lors de leur recherche. Les valeurs numériques égales ont la même valeur de hachage (même si leurs types sont différents, comme pour 1 et 1.0).

Note

For objects with custom __hash__() methods, note that hash() truncates the return value based on the bit width of the host machine.

help()

help(request)

Invoque le système d'aide natif (cette fonction est destinée à l'usage en mode interactif). Si aucun argument n'est fourni, le système d'aide démarre dans l'interpréteur. Si l'argument est une chaîne, celle-ci est recherchée comme le nom d'un module, d'une fonction, d'une classe, d'une méthode, d'un mot clé, ou d'un sujet de documentation, et une page d'aide est affichée sur la console. Si l'argument est d'un autre type, une page d'aide sur cet objet est générée.

Notez que si une barre oblique (/) apparaît dans la liste des paramètres d'une fonction lorsque vous appelez help(), cela signifie que les paramètres placés avant la barre oblique sont strictement positionnels. Pour plus d'informations, voir La FAQ sur les arguments positionnels.

Cette fonction est ajoutée à l'espace de nommage natif par le module site.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: les changements aux modules pydoc et inspect rendent les signatures des appelables plus compréhensibles et cohérentes.

hex(integer, /)

Convert an integer number to a lowercase hexadecimal string prefixed with "0x". If integer is not a Python int object, it has to define an __index__() method that returns an integer. Some examples:

>>> hex(255)
'0xff'
>>> hex(-42)
'-0x2a'

Si vous voulez convertir un nombre entier en chaîne hexadécimale, en majuscule ou non, préfixée ou non, vous pouvez utiliser l'une des méthodes suivantes :

>>> '%#x' % 255, '%x' % 255, '%X' % 255
('0xff', 'ff', 'FF')
>>> format(255, '#x'), format(255, 'x'), format(255, 'X')
('0xff', 'ff', 'FF')
>>> f'{255:#x}', f'{255:x}', f'{255:X}'
('0xff', 'ff', 'FF')

Voir aussi format() pour plus d'informations.

Voir aussi int() pour convertir une chaîne hexadécimale en un entier (en affectant 16 à l'argument base).

Note

pour obtenir une représentation hexadécimale sous forme de chaîne d'un nombre à virgule flottante, utilisez la méthode float.hex().

id(object, /)

Renvoie l'« identité » d'un objet. C'est un nombre entier garanti unique et constant pour cet objet durant sa durée de vie. Deux objets dont les durées de vie ne se chevauchent pas peuvent partager le même id().

c'est l'adresse de l'objet en mémoire.

Lève un évènement d'audit builtins.id avec l'argument id.

input()

input(prompt, /)

Si l'argument prompt est donné, il est écrit sur la sortie standard sans le retour à la ligne final. La fonction lit ensuite une ligne sur l'entrée standard et la convertit en chaîne (supprimant le retour à la ligne final) qu'elle renvoie. Lorsque EOF est lu, EOFError est levée. Exemple :

>>> s = input('--> ')
--> Monty Python's Flying Circus
>>> s
"Monty Python's Flying Circus"

Si le module readline est chargé, input() l'utilisera pour fournir des fonctionnalités d'édition et d'historique élaborées.

Lève un évènement d'audit builtins.input avec l'argument prompt avant de lire l'entrée.

Lève un événement d'audit builtins.input/result avec le résultat après avoir lu avec succès l'entrée.

class int(number=0, /)

class int(string, /, base=10)

Return an integer object constructed from a number or a string, or return 0 if no arguments are given.

Exemples :

>>> int(123.45)
123
>>> int('123')
123
>>> int('   -12_345\n')
-12345
>>> int('FACE', 16)
64206
>>> int('0xface', 0)
64206
>>> int('01110011', base=2)
115

If the argument defines __int__(), int(x) returns x.__int__(). If the argument defines __index__(), it returns x.__index__(). For floating-point numbers, this truncates towards zero.

If the argument is not a number or if base is given, then it must be a string, bytes, or bytearray instance representing an integer in radix base. Optionally, the string can be preceded by + or - (with no space in between), have leading zeros, be surrounded by whitespace, and have single underscores interspersed between digits.

Une chaine représentant un entier en base n contient des chiffres, chacun représentant une valeur de 0 à n-1. Les valeurs 0 à 9 peuvent être représentées par n'importe lequel des chiffres décimaux Unicode. Les valeurs de 10 à 35 peuvent être représentées par a jusqu'à z (ou A à Z). La base par défaut est 10. Les valeurs autorisées pour base sont 0 et 2 à 36. Les littéraux en base 2, 8, et 16 peuvent être préfixés avec 0b/0B, 0o/0O, ou 0x/0X tout comme les littéraux dans le code. Fournir 0 comme base demande d'interpréter exactement comme un entier littéral dans du code Python, donc la base sera 2, 8, 10, ou 16 en fonction du préfixe. Indiquer 0 comme base interdit les zéros en tête, ainsi int('010', 0) n'est pas légal, alors que int('010') l'est tout comme int('010', 8).

Le type des entiers est décrit dans Types numériques — int, float, complex.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: si base n'est pas une instance d'int et que base a une méthode base.__index__, cette méthode est appelée pour obtenir un entier pour cette base. Les versions précédentes utilisaient base.__int__ au lieu de base.__index__.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: les chiffres peuvent être groupés avec des tirets bas comme dans les expressions littérales.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: The first parameter is now positional-only.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Revient à __index__() si __int__() n'est pas définie.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: int string inputs and string representations can be limited to help avoid denial of service attacks. A ValueError is raised when the limit is exceeded while converting a string to an int or when converting an int into a string would exceed the limit. See the integer string conversion length limitation documentation.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: int() no longer delegates to the __trunc__() method.

isinstance(object, classinfo, /)

Renvoie True si object est une instance de classinfo, ou d'une de ses classes filles, directe, indirecte, ou abstraite. Si object n'est pas un objet du type donné, la fonction renvoie toujours False. Si classinfo est un n-uplet de types (ou récursivement, d'autres n-uplets) ou une union de types différents, renvoie True si object est une instance de n'importe quel de ces types. Si classinfo n'est ni un type ni un n-uplet de types (et récursivement), une exception TypeError est levée. TypeError ne peut pas être levée pour un type invalide si une des vérifications précédentes réussit.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: classinfo peut être une union de types.

issubclass(class, classinfo, /)

Renvoie True si class est une classe fille (directe, indirecte ou abstraite) de classinfo. Une classe est considérée sous-classe d'elle-même. classinfo peut être un n-uplet de classes (ou récursivement, d'autres n-uplets) ou une union de types, dans ce cas elle renvoie True si class est une sous-classe d'une partie de classinfo. Dans tous les autres cas, une TypeError est levée.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: classinfo peut être une union de types.

iter(iterable, /)

iter(callable, sentinel, /)

Return an iterator object. The first argument is interpreted very differently depending on the presence of the second argument. Without a second argument, the single argument must be a collection object which supports the iterable protocol (the __iter__() method), or it must support the sequence protocol (the __getitem__() method with integer arguments starting at 0). If it does not support either of those protocols, TypeError is raised. If the second argument, sentinel, is given, then the first argument must be a callable object. The iterator created in this case will call callable with no arguments for each call to its __next__() method; if the value returned is equal to sentinel, StopIteration will be raised, otherwise the value will be returned.

Voir aussi Les types itérateurs.

Une autre application utile de la deuxième forme de iter() est de construire un lecteur par blocs. Par exemple, lire des blocs de taille fixe d'une base de donnée binaire jusqu'à ce que la fin soit atteinte :

from functools import partial
with open('mydata.db', 'rb') as f:
    for block in iter(partial(f.read, 64), b''):
        process_block(block)

len(object, /)

Renvoie la longueur (nombre d'éléments) d'un objet. L'argument peut être une séquence (telle qu'une chaîne de caractères ou d'octets, un n-uplet, une liste ou un intervalle) ou une collection (telle qu'un dictionnaire, un ensemble ou un ensemble figé).

len lève une OverflowError sur des longueurs supérieures à sys.maxsize, par exemple pour range(2 ** 100).

class list(iterable=(), /)

Contrairement aux apparences, list n'est pas une fonction mais un type séquentiel mutable, comme décrit dans Listes et Types séquentiels — list, tuple, range.

locals()

Return a mapping object representing the current local symbol table, with variable names as the keys, and their currently bound references as the values.

At module scope, as well as when using exec() or eval() with a single namespace, this function returns the same namespace as globals().

At class scope, it returns the namespace that will be passed to the metaclass constructor.

When using exec() or eval() with separate local and global arguments, it returns the local namespace passed in to the function call.

In all of the above cases, each call to locals() in a given frame of execution will return the same mapping object. Changes made through the mapping object returned from locals() will be visible as assigned, reassigned, or deleted local variables, and assigning, reassigning, or deleting local variables will immediately affect the contents of the returned mapping object.

In an optimized scope (including functions, generators, and coroutines), each call to locals() instead returns a fresh dictionary containing the current bindings of the function's local variables and any nonlocal cell references. In this case, name binding changes made via the returned dict are not written back to the corresponding local variables or nonlocal cell references, and assigning, reassigning, or deleting local variables and nonlocal cell references does not affect the contents of previously returned dictionaries.

Calling locals() as part of a comprehension in a function, generator, or coroutine is equivalent to calling it in the containing scope, except that the comprehension's initialised iteration variables will be included. In other scopes, it behaves as if the comprehension were running as a nested function.

Calling locals() as part of a generator expression is equivalent to calling it in a nested generator function.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: The behaviour of locals() in a comprehension has been updated as described in PEP 709 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0709/].

Modifié dans la version 3.13: As part of PEP 667 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/], the semantics of mutating the mapping objects returned from this function are now defined. The behavior in optimized scopes is now as described above. Aside from being defined, the behaviour in other scopes remains unchanged from previous versions.

map(function, iterable, /, *iterables, strict=False)

Return an iterator that applies function to every item of iterable, yielding the results. If additional iterables arguments are passed, function must take that many arguments and is applied to the items from all iterables in parallel. With multiple iterables, the iterator stops when the shortest iterable is exhausted. If strict is True and one of the iterables is exhausted before the others, a ValueError is raised. For cases where the function inputs are already arranged into argument tuples, see itertools.starmap().

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Added the strict parameter.

max(iterable, /, *, key=None)

max(iterable, /, *, default, key=None)

max(arg1, arg2, /, *args, key=None)

Renvoie le plus grand élément d'un itérable, ou l'argument le plus grand parmi au moins deux arguments.

Si un seul argument positionnel est fourni, il doit être itérable. Le plus grand élément de l'itérable est renvoyé. Si au moins deux arguments positionnels sont fournis, l'argument le plus grand sera renvoyé.

Elle accepte deux arguments nommés optionnels. L'argument key spécifie une fonction à un argument permettant de trier comme pour list.sort(). L'argument default fournit quant à lui un objet à donner si l'itérable fourni est vide. Si l'itérable est vide et que default n'est pas fourni, ValueError est levée.

Si plusieurs éléments représentent la plus grande valeur, le premier rencontré est renvoyé. C'est cohérent avec d'autres outils préservant une stabilité lors du tri, tels que sorted(iterable, key=keyfunc, reverse=True)[0] et heapq.nlargest(1, iterable, key=keyfunc).

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Added the default keyword-only parameter.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: l'argument key peut être None.

class memoryview(object)

Renvoie une « vue mémoire » (memory view) créée depuis l'argument. Voir Vues mémoire pour plus d'informations.

min(iterable, /, *, key=None)

min(iterable, /, *, default, key=None)

min(arg1, arg2, /, *args, key=None)

Renvoie le plus petit élément d'un itérable ou le plus petit d'au moins deux arguments.

Si un seul argument est fourni, il doit être itérable. Le plus petit élément de l'itérable est renvoyé. Si au moins deux arguments positionnels sont fournis, le plus petit argument positionnel est renvoyé.

Elle accepte deux arguments nommés optionnels. L'argument key spécifie une fonction à un argument permettant de trier comme pour list.sort(). L'argument default fournit quant à lui un objet à donner si l'itérable fourni est vide. Si l'itérable est vide et que default n'est pas fourni, ValueError est levée.

Si plusieurs éléments sont minimaux, la fonction renvoie le premier rencontré. C'est cohérent avec d'autres outils préservant une stabilité lors du tri, tels que sorted(iterable, key=keyfunc)[0] et heapq.nsmallest(1, iterable, key=keyfunc).

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Added the default keyword-only parameter.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: l'argument key peut être None.

next(iterator, /)

next(iterator, default, /)

Donne l'élément suivant de l'itérateur en appelant sa méthode __next__(). Si default est fourni, il est renvoyé quand l'itérateur est épuisé, sinon une StopIteration est levée.

class object

This is the ultimate base class of all other classes. It has methods that are common to all instances of Python classes. When the constructor is called, it returns a new featureless object. The constructor does not accept any arguments.

Note

object instances do not have __dict__ attributes, so you can't assign arbitrary attributes to an instance of object.

oct(integer, /)

Convert an integer number to an octal string prefixed with "0o". The result is a valid Python expression. If integer is not a Python int object, it has to define an __index__() method that returns an integer. For example:

>>> oct(8)
'0o10'
>>> oct(-56)
'-0o70'

Si vous voulez convertir un nombre entier en une chaîne octale, avec ou sans le préfixe 0o, vous pouvez utiliser l'une des méthodes suivantes.

>>> '%#o' % 10, '%o' % 10
('0o12', '12')
>>> format(10, '#o'), format(10, 'o')
('0o12', '12')
>>> f'{10:#o}', f'{10:o}'
('0o12', '12')

Voir aussi format() pour plus d'informations.

open(file, mode='r', buffering=-1, encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None, closefd=True, opener=None)

Ouvre file et donne un objet fichier correspondant. Si le fichier ne peut pas être ouvert, une OSError est levée. Voir Lecture et écriture de fichiers pour plus d'exemples d'utilisation de cette fonction.

file est un objet simili-chemin donnant le chemin (absolu ou relatif au répertoire courant) du fichier à ouvrir ou un nombre entier représentant le descripteur de fichier à envelopper (si un descripteur de fichier est donné, il sera fermé en même temps que l'objet d'entrée-sortie renvoyé, sauf si closefd est mis à False).

mode is an optional string that specifies the mode in which the file is opened. It defaults to 'r' which means open for reading in text mode. Other common values are 'w' for writing (truncating the file if it already exists), 'x' for exclusive creation, and 'a' for appending (which on some Unix systems, means that all writes append to the end of the file regardless of the current seek position). In text mode, if encoding is not specified the encoding used is platform-dependent: locale.getencoding() is called to get the current locale encoding. (For reading and writing raw bytes use binary mode and leave encoding unspecified.) The available modes are:

Caractère

Signification

'r'

ouvre en lecture (par défaut)

'w'

ouvre en écriture, en effaçant le contenu du fichier

'x'

ouvre pour une création exclusive, échouant si le fichier existe déjà

'a'

ouvre en écriture, ajoutant à la fin du fichier s'il existe

'b'

mode binaire

't'

mode texte (par défaut)

'+'

ouvre en modification (lecture et écriture)

Le mode par défaut est 'r' (ouverture pour lire du texte, un synonyme pour 'rt'). Les modes 'w+' et 'w+b' ouvrent et vident le fichier. Les modes 'r+' et 'r+b' ouvrent le fichier sans le vider.

Comme mentionné dans Aperçu, Python fait la différence entre les entrées-sorties binaires et textes. Les fichiers ouverts en mode binaire (avec 'b' dans mode) donnent leur contenu sous forme de bytes sans décodage. En mode texte (par défaut, ou lorsque 't' est dans le mode), le contenu du fichier est donné sous forme de str, les octets ayant été décodés au préalable en utilisant un encodage déduit de l'environnement ou encoding s'il est donné.

Note

Python ne dépend pas de la représentation du fichier texte du système sous-jacent. Tout le traitement est effectué par Python lui-même, et est ainsi indépendant de la plate-forme.

buffering is an optional integer used to set the buffering policy. Pass 0 to switch buffering off (only allowed in binary mode), 1 to select line buffering (only usable when writing in text mode), and an integer > 1 to indicate the size in bytes of a fixed-size chunk buffer. Note that specifying a buffer size this way applies for binary buffered I/O, but TextIOWrapper (i.e., files opened with mode='r+') would have another buffering. To disable buffering in TextIOWrapper, consider using the write_through flag for io.TextIOWrapper.reconfigure(). When no buffering argument is given, the default buffering policy works as follows:

Binary files are buffered in fixed-size chunks; the size of the buffer is max(min(blocksize, 8 MiB), DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE) when the device block size is available. On most systems, the buffer will typically be 128 kilobytes long.

les fichiers texte « interactifs » (fichiers pour lesquels io.IOBase.isatty() renvoie True) utilisent un tampon ligne par ligne. Les autres fichiers textes sont traités comme les fichiers binaires.

encoding est le nom de l'encodage utilisé pour encoder ou décoder le fichier. Il doit seulement être utilisé en mode texte. L'encodage par défaut dépend de la plateforme (ce que renvoie locale.getencoding()), mais n'importe quel encodage de texte pris en charge par Python peut être utilisé. Voir codecs pour une liste des encodages pris en charge.

errors est une chaîne facultative spécifiant comment les erreurs d'encodage et de décodage sont gérées, ce n'est pas utilisable en mode binaire. De nombreux gestionnaires d'erreurs standards sont disponibles (listés sous Gestionnaires d'erreurs), aussi, tout nom de gestionnaire d'erreur enregistré avec codecs.register_error() est aussi un argument valide. Les noms standards sont :

'strict' pour lever une ValueError si une erreur d'encodage est rencontrée. La valeur par défaut, None, a le même effet.

'ignore' ignore les erreurs. Notez qu'ignorer les erreurs d'encodage peut mener à des pertes de données.

'replace' insère un marqueur de substitution (tel que '?') en place des données mal formées.

'surrogateescape' représentera tous les octets incorrects comme des points de code de substitution de l'intervalle bas U+DC80 à U+DCFF. Ces points de code de substitution sont ensuite retransformés dans les mêmes octets lorsque le gestionnaire d'erreurs surrogateescape est utilisé pour l'écriture des données. C'est utile pour traiter des fichiers d'un encodage inconnu.

'xmlcharrefreplace' is only supported when writing to a file. Characters not supported by the encoding are replaced with the appropriate XML character reference &#nnn;.

'backslashreplace' remplace les données mal formées par des séquences d'échappement Python (utilisant des barres obliques inverses).

'namereplace' (aussi supporté lors de l'écriture) remplace les caractères non gérés par des séquences d'échappement \N{...}.

newline contrôle comment interpréter les retours à la ligne. Il peut être None, '', '\n', '\r', et '\r\n'. Il fonctionne comme suit :

Lors de la lecture, si newline est None, le mode universal newlines est activé. Les lignes lues peuvent se terminer par '\n', '\r', ou '\r\n', et sont remplacées par '\n', avant d'être renvoyées à l'appelant. S'il vaut '', le mode universal newline est activé mais les fins de ligne ne sont pas remplacées. S'il a n'importe quelle autre valeur autorisée, les lignes sont seulement terminées par la chaîne donnée, qui est rendue telle quelle.

Lors de l'écriture, si newline est None, chaque '\n' est remplacé par le séparateur de lignes par défaut du système os.linesep. Si newline est '' ou '\n' aucun remplacement n'est effectué. Si newline est un autre caractère valide, chaque '\n' sera remplacé par la chaîne donnée.

Si closefd est False et qu'un descripteur de fichier est fourni plutôt qu'un nom de fichier, le descripteur de fichier sera laissé ouvert lorsque le fichier sera fermé. Si un nom de fichier est donné, closefd doit rester True (la valeur par défaut) ; sinon, une erreur est levée.

Un opener personnalisé peut être utilisé en fournissant un appelable comme opener. Le descripteur de fichier de cet objet fichier sera alors obtenu en appelant opener avec (file, flags). opener doit renvoyer un descripteur de fichier ouvert (fournir os.open en tant qu'opener aura le même effet que donner None).

Il n'est pas possible d'hériter du descripteur de fichier nouvellement créé.

L'exemple suivant utilise le paramètre dir_fd de la fonction os.open() pour ouvrir un fichier relatif au dossier courant :

>>> import os
>>> dir_fd = os.open('somedir', os.O_RDONLY)
>>> def opener(path, flags):
...     return os.open(path, flags, dir_fd=dir_fd)
...
>>> with open('spamspam.txt', 'w', opener=opener) as f:
...     print('This will be written to somedir/spamspam.txt', file=f)
...
>>> os.close(dir_fd)  # don't leak a file descriptor

Le type d'objet fichier renvoyé par la fonction open() dépend du mode. Lorsque open() est utilisé pour ouvrir un fichier en mode texte (w, r, wt, rt, etc.), il renvoie une classe fille de io.TextIOBase (spécifiquement : io.TextIOWrapper). Lors de l'ouverture d'un fichier en mode binaire avec tampon, la classe renvoyée sera une fille de io.BufferedIOBase. La classe exacte varie : en lecture en mode binaire elle renvoie une io.BufferedReader, en écriture et ajout en mode binaire c'est une io.BufferedWriter, et en lecture-écriture, c'est une io.BufferedRandom. Lorsque le tampon est désactivé, le flux brut, une classe fille de io.RawIOBase, io.FileIO est renvoyée.

Consultez aussi les modules de gestion de fichiers tels que fileinput, io (où open() est déclarée), os, os.path, tempfile, et shutil.

Raises an auditing event open with arguments path, mode, flags.

Les arguments mode et flags peuvent avoir été modifiés ou déduits de l'appel original.

Modifié dans la version 3.3:

ajout du paramètre opener.

ajout du mode 'x'.

IOError était normalement levée, elle est maintenant un alias de OSError.

FileExistsError est maintenant levée si le fichier ouvert en mode création exclusive ('x') existe déjà.

Modifié dans la version 3.4:

Il n'est plus possible d'hériter de file.

Modifié dans la version 3.5:

Si l'appel système est interrompu et que le gestionnaire de signal ne lève aucune exception, la fonction réessaye l'appel système au lieu de lever une InterruptedError (voir la PEP 475 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/] pour la justification).

ajout du gestionnaire d'erreurs 'namereplace'.

Modifié dans la version 3.6:

prise en charge des objets implémentant os.PathLike.

Sous Windows, ouvrir un buffer du terminal peut renvoyer une sous-classe de io.RawIOBase autre que io.FileIO.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: le mode 'U` a été enlevé.

ord(character, /)

Return the ordinal value of a character.

If the argument is a one-character string, return the Unicode code point of that character. For example, ord('a') returns the integer 97 and ord('€') (Euro sign) returns 8364. This is the inverse of chr().

If the argument is a bytes or bytearray object of length 1, return its single byte value. For example, ord(b'a') returns the integer 97.

pow(base, exp, mod=None)

Renvoie base puissance exp et, si mod est présent, donne base puissance exp modulo mod (calculé de manière plus efficiente que pow(base, exp) % mod). La forme à deux arguments pow(base, exp) est équivalente à l'opérateur puissance : base**exp.

When arguments are builtin numeric types with mixed operand types, the coercion rules for binary arithmetic operators apply. For int operands, the result has the same type as the operands (after coercion) unless the second argument is negative; in that case, all arguments are converted to float and a float result is delivered. For example, pow(10, 2) returns 100, but pow(10, -2) returns 0.01. For a negative base of type int or float and a non-integral exponent, a complex result is delivered. For example, pow(-9, 0.5) returns a value close to 3j. Whereas, for a negative base of type int or float with an integral exponent, a float result is delivered. For example, pow(-9, 2.0) returns 81.0.

Pour des opérandes base et exp de type int, si mod est présent, mod doit également être de type entier et mod doit être non nul. Si mod est présent et que exp est négatif, base et mod doivent être premiers entre eux. Dans ce cas, pow(inv_base, -exp, mod) est renvoyé, où inv_base est un inverse de base modulo mod.

Voici un exemple de calcul d'un inverse de 38 modulo 97 :

>>> pow(38, -1, mod=97)
23
>>> 23 * 38 % 97 == 1
True

Modifié dans la version 3.8: pour les opérandes int, la forme à trois arguments de pow permet maintenant au deuxième argument d'être négatif, permettant le calcul des inverses modulaires.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: autorise les arguments nommés. Auparavant, seuls les arguments positionnels étaient autorisés.

print(*objects, sep=' ', end='\n', file=None, flush=False)

Écrit objects dans le flux texte file, séparés par sep et suivis de end. Les arguments sep, end, file, et flush, s'ils sont présents, doivent être passés en arguments nommés.

Tous les arguments positionnels sont convertis en chaîne comme le fait str(), puis écrits sur le flux, séparés par sep et terminés par end. sep et end doivent être des chaînes, ou None, indiquant de prendre les valeurs par défaut. Si aucun objects n'est donné print() écrit seulement end.

L'argument file doit être un objet avec une méthode write(string) ; s'il n'est pas fourni, ou vaut None, sys.stdout est utilisé. Puisque les arguments affichés sont convertis en chaîne, print() ne peut pas être utilisée avec des fichiers ouverts en mode binaire. Pour ceux-ci utilisez plutôt file.write(...).

Que la sortie utilise un tampon ou non est souvent décidé par file. Cependant, si l'argument flush est vrai, le tampon du flux est vidé explicitement.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: ajout de l'argument nommé flush.

class property(fget=None, fset=None, fdel=None, doc=None)

Renvoie un attribut propriété.

fget est une fonction permettant d'obtenir la valeur d'un attribut. fset est une fonction pour en définir la valeur. fdel quant à elle permet de supprimer la valeur d'un attribut, et doc crée une chaîne de documentation (docstring) pour l'attribut.

Une utilisation courante est de définir un attribut managé x :

class C:
    def __init__(self):
        self._x = None

    def getx(self):
        return self._x

    def setx(self, value):
        self._x = value

    def delx(self):
        del self._x

    x = property(getx, setx, delx, "I'm the 'x' property.")

Si c est une instance de C, c.x appelle l'accesseur (getter en anglais), c.x = value invoque le mutateur (setter), et del x le destructeur (deleter).

Si elle est fournie, doc est la chaîne de documentation de l'attribut. Autrement la propriété copie celle de fget (si elle existe). Cela rend possible la création de propriétés en lecture seule en utilisant simplement property() comme décorateur :

class Parrot:
    def __init__(self):
        self._voltage = 100000

    @property
    def voltage(self):
        """Get the current voltage."""
        return self._voltage

The @property decorator turns the voltage() method into a "getter" for a read-only attribute with the same name, and it sets the docstring for voltage to "Get the current voltage."

@getter

@setter

@deleter

A property object has getter, setter, and deleter methods usable as decorators that create a copy of the property with the corresponding accessor function set to the decorated function. This is best explained with an example:

class C:
    def __init__(self):
        self._x = None

    @property
    def x(self):
        """I'm the 'x' property."""
        return self._x

    @x.setter
    def x(self, value):
        self._x = value

    @x.deleter
    def x(self):
        del self._x

Ce code est l'exact équivalent du premier exemple. Soyez attentifs à bien donner aux fonctions additionnelles le même nom que la propriété (x dans ce cas).

L'objet propriété renvoyé possède aussi les attributs fget, fset et fdel correspondants aux arguments du constructeur.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: les chaînes de documentation des objets property sont maintenant en lecture-écriture.

__name__

Attribute holding the name of the property. The name of the property can be changed at runtime.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

class range(stop, /)

class range(start, stop, step=1, /)

Contrairement aux apparences, range n'est pas une fonction mais un type de séquence immuable, comme décrit dans Ranges et Types séquentiels — list, tuple, range.

repr(object, /)

Return a string containing a printable representation of an object. For many types, this function makes an attempt to return a string that would yield an object with the same value when passed to eval(); otherwise, the representation is a string enclosed in angle brackets that contains the name of the type of the object together with additional information often including the name and address of the object. A class can control what this function returns for its instances by defining a __repr__() method. If sys.displayhook() is not accessible, this function will raise RuntimeError.

This class has a custom representation that can be evaluated:

class Person:
   def __init__(self, name, age):
      self.name = name
      self.age = age

   def __repr__(self):
      return f"Person('{self.name}', {self.age})"

reversed(object, /)

Return a reverse iterator. The argument must be an object which has a __reversed__() method or supports the sequence protocol (the __len__() method and the __getitem__() method with integer arguments starting at 0).

round(number, ndigits=None)

Renvoie number arrondi avec une précision de ndigits chiffres après la virgule. Si ndigits est omis (ou est None), l'entier le plus proche est renvoyé.

Pour les types natifs prenant en charge round(), les valeurs sont arrondies au multiple de 10 puissance moins ndigits, si deux multiples sont équidistants, l'arrondi se fait vers la valeur paire (par exemple round(0.5) et round(-0.5) valent tous les deux 0, et round(1.5) vaut 2). ndigits accepte tout nombre entier (positif, zéro, ou négatif). La valeur renvoyée est un entier si ndigits n'est pas donné (ou est None). Sinon elle est du même type que number.

Pour tout autre objet Python number, round délègue à number.__round__.

Note

le comportement de round() avec les nombres à virgule flottante peut être surprenant. Par exemple round(2.675, 2) donne 2.67 au lieu de 2.68. Ce n'est pas un bogue, mais dû au fait que la plupart des fractions de décimaux ne peuvent pas être représentés exactement en nombre a virgule flottante. Voir Floating-Point Arithmetic: Issues and Limitations pour plus d'information.

class set(iterable=(), /)

Renvoie un nouvel ensemble, dont les éléments sont extraits d'iterable s'il est fourni. set est une classe native. Voir set et Types d'ensembles — set, frozenset pour la documentation de cette classe.

D'autres conteneurs existent, comme : frozenset, list, tuple, et dict, ainsi que le module collections.

setattr(object, name, value, /)

C'est le complément de getattr(). Les arguments sont : un objet, une chaîne et une valeur de type arbitraire. La chaîne name peut désigner un attribut existant ou un nouvel attribut. La fonction assigne la valeur à l'attribut, si l'objet l'autorise. Par exemple, setattr(x, 'foobar', 123) équivaut à x.foobar = 123.

name n'a pas besoin d'être un identifiant Python tel que défini dans Names (identifiers and keywords) sauf si l'objet choisit de l'imposer, par exemple en personnalisant __getattribute__() ou via __slots__. Un attribut dont le nom n'est pas un identifiant ne sera pas accessible en utilisant la notation pointée, mais est accessible via getattr() etc.

Note

étant donné que la transformation des noms privés se produit au moment de la compilation, il faut modifier manuellement le nom d'un attribut privé (attributs avec deux traits de soulignement en tête) afin de le définir avec setattr().

class slice(stop, /)

class slice(start, stop, step=None, /)

Return a slice object representing the set of indices specified by range(start, stop, step). The start and step arguments default to None.

Slice objects are also generated when slicing syntax is used. For example: a[start:stop:step] or a[start:stop, i].

See itertools.islice() for an alternate version that returns an iterator.

start

stop

step

These read-only attributes are set to the argument values (or their default). They have no other explicit functionality; however, they are used by NumPy and other third-party packages.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Slice objects are now hashable (provided start, stop, and step are hashable).

sorted(iterable, /, *, key=None, reverse=False)

Renvoie une nouvelle liste triée depuis les éléments d'iterable.

Possède deux arguments optionnels qui doivent être spécifiés par arguments nommés.

key spécifie une fonction à un argument utilisée pour extraire une clé de comparaison de chaque élément de l'itérable (par exemple, key=str.lower). La valeur par défaut est None (compare les éléments directement).

reverse est une valeur booléenne. Si elle est True, la liste d'éléments est triée comme si toutes les comparaisons étaient inversées.

Utilisez functools.cmp_to_key() pour convertir l'ancienne notation cmp en une fonction key.

La fonction native sorted() est garantie stable. Un tri est stable s'il garantit de ne pas changer l'ordre relatif des éléments égaux entre eux. C'est utile pour trier en plusieurs passes (par exemple par direction puis par salaire).

The sort algorithm uses only < comparisons between items. While defining an __lt__() method will suffice for sorting, PEP 8 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/] recommends that all six rich comparisons be implemented. This will help avoid bugs when using the same data with other ordering tools such as max() that rely on a different underlying method. Implementing all six comparisons also helps avoid confusion for mixed type comparisons which can call the reflected __gt__() method.

Pour des exemples de tris et un bref tutoriel, consultez Les techniques de tri.

@staticmethod

Transforme une méthode en méthode statique.

Une méthode statique ne reçoit pas de premier argument implicitement. Voici comment déclarer une méthode statique :

class C:
    @staticmethod
    def f(arg1, arg2, argN): ...

La forme @staticmethod est un décorateur de fonction. Consultez Définition de fonctions pour plus de détails.

A static method can be called either on the class (such as C.f()) or on an instance (such as C().f()). Moreover, the static method descriptor is also callable, so it can be used in the class definition (such as f()).

Les méthodes statiques en Python sont similaires à celles que l'on trouve en Java ou en C++. Consultez classmethod() pour une variante utile permettant de créer des constructeurs alternatifs.

Comme pour tous les décorateurs, il est possible d'appeler staticmethod comme une simple fonction, et faire quelque chose de son résultat. Ça peut être nécessaire dans le cas où vous souhaitez une référence à la fonction depuis le corps d'une classe, et voulez éviter sa transformation en méthode d'instance. Dans ce cas, faites comme suit :

def regular_function():
    ...

class C:
    method = staticmethod(regular_function)

Pour plus d'informations sur les méthodes statiques, consultez Hiérarchie des types standards.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Static methods now inherit the method attributes (__module__, __name__, __qualname__, __doc__ and __annotations__), have a new __wrapped__ attribute, and are now callable as regular functions.

class str(*, encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

class str(object)

class str(object, encoding, errors='strict')

class str(object, *, errors)

Renvoie une version d'object sous forme de str. Voir str() pour plus de détails.

str est la classe native des chaînes de caractères. Pour des informations générales à propos des chaînes, consultez Type Séquence de Texte — str.

sum(iterable, /, start=0)

Additionne start et les éléments d'un iterable de gauche à droite et en donne le total. Les éléments de l'iterable sont normalement des nombres, et la valeur de start ne peut pas être une chaîne de caractères.

For some use cases, there are good alternatives to sum(). The preferred, fast way to concatenate a sequence of strings is by calling ''.join(sequence). To add floating-point values with extended precision, see math.fsum(). To concatenate a series of iterables, consider using itertools.chain().

Modifié dans la version 3.8: le paramètre start peut être passé comme un argument nommé.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Summation of floats switched to an algorithm that gives higher accuracy and better commutativity on most builds.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Added specialization for summation of complexes, using same algorithm as for summation of floats.

class super

class super(type, object_or_type=None, /)

Renvoie un objet mandataire (proxy object en anglais) déléguant les appels de méthode à une classe parente ou sœur de type. C'est utile pour accéder aux méthodes héritées qui ont été remplacées dans une classe.

object_or_type détermine quel ordre de résolution des méthodes est utilisé pour la recherche. La recherche commence à partir de la classe qui suit immédiatement le type.

For example, if __mro__ of object_or_type is D -> B -> C -> A -> object and the value of type is B, then super() searches C -> A -> object.

The __mro__ attribute of the class corresponding to object_or_type lists the method resolution search order used by both getattr() and super(). The attribute is dynamic and can change whenever the inheritance hierarchy is updated.

Si le second argument est omis, l'objet super obtenu n'est pas lié. Si le second argument est un objet, isinstance(obj, type) doit être vrai. Si le second argument est un type, issubclass(type2, type) doit être vrai (c'est utile pour les méthodes de classe).

When called directly within an ordinary method of a class, both arguments may be omitted ("zero-argument super()"). In this case, type will be the enclosing class, and obj will be the first argument of the immediately enclosing function (typically self). (This means that zero-argument super() will not work as expected within nested functions, including generator expressions, which implicitly create nested functions.)

Il existe deux autres cas d'usage typiques pour super. Dans une hiérarchie de classes à héritage simple, super peut être utilisée pour obtenir la classe parente sans avoir à la nommer explicitement, rendant le code plus maintenable. Cet usage se rapproche de l'usage de super dans d'autres langages de programmation.

Le second est la gestion d'héritage multiple coopératif dans un environnement d'exécution dynamique. Cet usage est unique à Python, il ne se retrouve ni dans les langages compilés statiquement, ni dans les langages ne gérant que l'héritage simple. Cela rend possible d'implémenter un héritage en diamant dans lequel plusieurs classes parentes implémentent la même méthode. Une bonne conception implique que ces implémentations doivent avoir la même signature lors de leur appel dans tous les cas (parce que l'ordre des appels est déterminée à l'exécution, parce que l'ordre s'adapte aux changements dans la hiérarchie, et parce que l'ordre peut inclure des classes sœurs inconnues avant l'exécution).

Dans tous les cas, un appel typique à une classe parente ressemble à :

class C(B):
    def method(self, arg):
        super().method(arg)    # This does the same thing as:
                               # super(C, self).method(arg)

En plus de la recherche de méthodes, super() fonctionne également pour la recherche d'attributs. Un cas d'utilisation possible est l'appel d'un descripteur d'une classe parente ou sœur.

Note that super() is implemented as part of the binding process for explicit dotted attribute lookups such as super().__getitem__(name). It does so by implementing its own __getattribute__() method for searching classes in a predictable order that supports cooperative multiple inheritance. Accordingly, super() is undefined for implicit lookups using statements or operators such as super()[name].

Notez aussi que, en dehors de sa forme sans argument, super() peut être utilisée en dehors des méthodes. La forme à deux arguments est précise et contient tous les arguments nécessaires, donnant les références appropriées. La forme sans argument fonctionne seulement à l'intérieur d'une définition de classe, puisque c'est le compilateur qui donne les détails nécessaires à propos de la classe en cours de définition, ainsi qu'accéder à l'instance courante pour les méthodes ordinaires.

Pour des suggestions pratiques sur la conception de classes coopératives utilisant super(), consultez guide to using super() [http://rhettinger.wordpress.com/2011/05/26/super-considered-super/].

Modifié dans la version 3.14: super objects are now pickleable and copyable.

class tuple(iterable=(), /)

Ce n'est pas une fonction, tuple est en fait un type de séquence immuable, comme documenté dans N-uplets et Types séquentiels — list, tuple, range.

class type(object, /)

class type(name, bases, dict, /, **kwargs)

With one argument, return the type of an object. The return value is a type object and generally the same object as returned by object.__class__.

La fonction native isinstance() est recommandée pour tester le type d'un objet, car elle prend en compte l'héritage.

With three arguments, return a new type object. This is essentially a dynamic form of the class statement. The name string is the class name and becomes the __name__ attribute. The bases tuple contains the base classes and becomes the __bases__ attribute; if empty, object, the ultimate base of all classes, is added. The dict dictionary contains attribute and method definitions for the class body; it may be copied or wrapped before becoming the __dict__ attribute. The following two statements create identical type objects:

>>> class X:
...     a = 1
...
>>> X = type('X', (), dict(a=1))

See also:

Documentation on attributes and methods on classes.

Objets type

Les arguments nommés fournis à la forme à trois arguments sont passés au mécanisme de métaclasse approprié (généralement __init_subclass__()) de la même manière que les arguments nommés dans une définition de classe (en plus de metaclass).

Voir aussi Personnalisation de la création de classes.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Subclasses of type which don't override type.__new__ may no longer use the one-argument form to get the type of an object.

vars()

vars(object, /)

Return the __dict__ attribute for a module, class, instance, or any other object with a __dict__ attribute.

Objects such as modules and instances have an updateable __dict__ attribute; however, other objects may have write restrictions on their __dict__ attributes (for example, classes use a types.MappingProxyType to prevent direct dictionary updates).

Without an argument, vars() acts like locals().

Une exception TypeError est levée si un objet est spécifié mais qu'il n'a pas d'attribut __dict__ (par exemple, si sa classe définit l'attribut __slots__).

Modifié dans la version 3.13: The result of calling this function without an argument has been updated as described for the locals() builtin.

zip(*iterables, strict=False)

Itère sur plusieurs itérables en parallèle, produisant des n-uplets avec un élément provenant de chacun.

Exemple :

>>> for item in zip([1, 2, 3], ['sugar', 'spice', 'everything nice']):
...     print(item)
...
(1, 'sugar')
(2, 'spice')
(3, 'everything nice')

Plus formellement : zip() renvoie un itérateur de n-uplets, où le ie n-uplet contient le ie élément de chacun des itérables passés en arguments.

Une autre façon de voir zip() est qu'elle transforme les lignes en colonnes et les colonnes en lignes, fournissant la matrice transposée [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrice_transpos%C3%A9e].

zip() est paresseuse : les éléments ne sont traités qu'au moment où l'on itère, par exemple avec une boucle for ou en les plaçant dans une liste.

Il faut savoir que les itérables passés à zip() peuvent avoir des longueurs différentes ; parfois par conception, parfois à cause d'un bogue dans le code qui a préparé ces itérables. Python propose trois approches différentes pour traiter ce problème :

par défaut, zip() s'arrête lorsque l'itérable le plus court est épuisé. Elle ignore les éléments restants dans les itérables plus longs, coupant le résultat à la longueur de l'itérable le plus court :

>>> list(zip(range(3), ['fee', 'fi', 'fo', 'fum']))
[(0, 'fee'), (1, 'fi'), (2, 'fo')]

zip() est souvent utilisée dans les cas où les itérables sont supposés être de même longueur. Dans ce cas, il est recommandé d'utiliser l'option strict=True. Cela produit la même chose que la zip() habituelle :

>>> list(zip(('a', 'b', 'c'), (1, 2, 3), strict=True))
[('a', 1), ('b', 2), ('c', 3)]

Mais, contrairement au comportement par défaut, elle lève une ValueError si un itérable est épuisé avant les autres :

>>> for item in zip(range(3), ['fee', 'fi', 'fo', 'fum'], strict=True):
...     print(item)
...
(0, 'fee')
(1, 'fi')
(2, 'fo')
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
ValueError: zip() argument 2 is longer than argument 1

Sans l'argument strict=True, tout bogue entraînant des itérables de longueurs différentes est réduit au silence, se manifestant éventuellement comme un bogue difficile à trouver dans une autre partie du programme.

les itérables plus courts peuvent être remplis avec une valeur constante pour que tous les itérables aient la même longueur. C'est le cas pour itertools.zip_longest().

Cas extrêmes : avec un seul argument itérable, zip() renvoie un itérateur de « 1-uplet ». Sans argument, elle renvoie un itérateur vide.

Trucs et astuces :

il est garanti que les itérables sont évalués de gauche à droite. Cela rend possible de grouper une séquence de données en groupes de taille n via zip(*[iter(s)]*n, strict=True). Cela duplique le même itérateur n fois ; par conséquent le n-uplet obtenu contient le résultat de n appels à l'itérateur. Cela a pour effet de diviser la séquence en morceaux de taille n.

zip() peut être utilisée conjointement avec l'opérateur * pour dézipper une liste :

>>> x = [1, 2, 3]
>>> y = [4, 5, 6]
>>> list(zip(x, y))
[(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 6)]
>>> x2, y2 = zip(*zip(x, y))
>>> x == list(x2) and y == list(y2)
True

Modifié dans la version 3.10: ajout de l'argument strict.

__import__(name, globals=None, locals=None, fromlist=(), level=0)

Note

c'est une fonction avancée qui n'est pas fréquemment nécessaire, contrairement à importlib.import_module().

Cette fonction est invoquée via l'instruction import. Elle peut être remplacée (en important le module builtins et en y remplaçant builtins.__import__) afin de changer la sémantique de l'instruction import, mais c'est extrêmement déconseillé, car il est plus simple d'utiliser des points d'entrée pour les importations (import hooks, voir la PEP 302 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/]) pour le même résultat sans perturber du code s'attendant à trouver l'implémentation par défaut. L'usage direct de __import__() est aussi déconseillé en faveur de importlib.import_module().

La fonction importe le module name, utilisant potentiellement globals et locals pour déterminer comment interpréter le nom dans le contexte d'un paquet. fromlist donne le nom des objets ou sous-modules qui devraient être importés du module name. L'implémentation standard n'utilise pas l'argument locals et n'utilise globals que pour déterminer le contexte du paquet de l'instruction import.

level permet de choisir entre importation absolue ou relative. 0 (par défaut) force à effectuer uniquement des importations absolues. Une valeur positive indique le nombre de dossiers parents relativement au dossier du module appelant __import__() (voir la PEP 328 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/]).

Lorsque la variable name est de la forme package.module, normalement, le paquet de plus haut niveau (le nom jusqu'au premier point) est renvoyé, et pas le module nommé par name. Cependant, lorsqu'un argument fromlist est fourni, le module nommé par name est renvoyé.

Par exemple, l'instruction import spam renvoie un code intermédiaire (bytecode en anglais) ressemblant au code suivant :

spam = __import__('spam', globals(), locals(), [], 0)

L'instruction import spam.ham appelle :

spam = __import__('spam.ham', globals(), locals(), [], 0)

Notez comment __import__() renvoie ici le module de plus haut niveau parce que c'est l'objet lié à un nom par l'instruction import.

En revanche, l'instruction from spam.ham import eggs, sausage as saus donne

_temp = __import__('spam.ham', globals(), locals(), ['eggs', 'sausage'], 0)
eggs = _temp.eggs
saus = _temp.sausage

Ici le module spam.ham est renvoyé par __import__(). De cet objet, les noms à importer sont récupérés et assignés à leurs noms respectifs.

Si vous voulez simplement importer un module (potentiellement dans un paquet) par son nom, utilisez importlib.import_module().

Modifié dans la version 3.3: les valeurs négatives pour level ne sont plus prises en charge (et sa valeur par défaut est 0).

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Quand les options -E ou -I sont précisées dans la ligne de commande, la variable d'environnement PYTHONCASEOK est ignorée.

Notes

[1]

Notez que l'analyseur n'accepte que des fin de lignes de style Unix. Si vous lisez le code depuis un fichier, assurez-vous d'utiliser la conversion de retours à la ligne pour convertir les fin de lignes Windows et Mac.

Constantes natives

Un petit nombre de constantes existent dans le namespace natif. Elles sont :

False

La valeur fausse du type bool. Les assignations à False ne sont pas autorisées et lèvent une SyntaxError.

True

La valeur vraie du type bool. Les assignations à True ne sont pas autorisées et lèvent une SyntaxError.

None

An object frequently used to represent the absence of a value, as when default arguments are not passed to a function. Assignments to None are illegal and raise a SyntaxError. None is the sole instance of the NoneType type.

NotImplemented

A special value which should be returned by the binary special methods (e.g. __eq__(), __lt__(), __add__(), __rsub__(), etc.) to indicate that the operation is not implemented with respect to the other type; may be returned by the in-place binary special methods (e.g. __imul__(), __iand__(), etc.) for the same purpose. It should not be evaluated in a boolean context. NotImplemented is the sole instance of the types.NotImplementedType type.

Note

When a binary (or in-place) method returns NotImplemented the interpreter will try the reflected operation on the other type (or some other fallback, depending on the operator). If all attempts return NotImplemented, the interpreter will raise an appropriate exception. Incorrectly returning NotImplemented will result in a misleading error message or the NotImplemented value being returned to Python code.

Voir Implémentation des opérations arithmétiques pour des exemples.

Prudence

NotImplemented and NotImplementedError are not interchangeable. This constant should only be used as described above; see NotImplementedError for details on correct usage of the exception.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Evaluating NotImplemented in a boolean context was deprecated.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Evaluating NotImplemented in a boolean context now raises a TypeError. It previously evaluated to True and emitted a DeprecationWarning since Python 3.9.

Ellipsis

The same as the ellipsis literal "...", an object frequently used to indicate that something is omitted. Assignment to Ellipsis is possible, but assignment to ... raises a SyntaxError. Ellipsis is the sole instance of the types.EllipsisType type.

__debug__

Cette constante est vraie si Python n'a pas été démarré avec une option -O. Voir aussi l'expression assert.

Note

Les noms None, False, True et __debug__ ne peuvent pas être réassignés (des assignations à ces noms, ou aux noms de leurs attributs, lèvent une SyntaxError), donc ils peuvent être considérés comme des "vraies" constantes.

Constantes ajoutées par le module site

Le module site (qui est importé automatiquement au démarrage, sauf si l'option de ligne de commande -S est donnée ajoute un certain nombre de constantes au namespace natif. Elles sont utiles pour l'interpréteur interactif et ne devraient pas être utilisées par des programmes.

quit(code=None)

exit(code=None)

Objects that when printed, print a message like "Use quit() or Ctrl-D (i.e. EOF) to exit", and when accessed directly in the interactive interpreter or called as functions, raise SystemExit with the specified exit code.

help

Object that when printed, prints the message "Type help() for interactive help, or help(object) for help about object.", and when accessed directly in the interactive interpreter, invokes the built-in help system (see help()).

copyright

credits

Objets qui, lorsqu'ils sont affichés ou appelés, affichent le copyright ou les crédits, respectivement.

license

Objet qui, lorsqu'il est affiché, affiche un message comme "Type license() to see the full license text", et lorsqu'il est appelé, affiche le texte complet de la licence dans un style paginé (un écran à la fois).

Types natifs

Les sections suivantes décrivent les types standards intégrés à l'interpréteur.

Les principaux types natifs sont les numériques, les séquences, les dictionnaires, les classes, les instances et les exceptions.

Certaines classes de collection sont mutables. Les méthodes qui ajoutent, retirent, ou réorganisent leurs éléments sur place, et qui ne renvoient pas un élément spécifique, ne renvoient jamais l'instance de la collection elle-même, mais None.

Certaines opérations sont prises en charge par plusieurs types d'objets ; en particulier, pratiquement tous les objets peuvent être comparés en égalité, testés en véridicité (valeur booléenne) et convertis en une chaîne de caractères (avec la fonction repr() ou la fonction légèrement différente str()). Cette dernière est implicitement utilisée quand un objet est affiché par la fonction print().

Valeurs booléennes

Tout objet peut être comparé à une valeur booléenne, typiquement dans une condition if ou while ou comme opérande des opérations booléennes ci-dessous.

By default, an object is considered true unless its class defines either a __bool__() method that returns False or a __len__() method that returns zero, when called with the object. [1] If one of the methods raises an exception when called, the exception is propagated and the object does not have a truth value (for example, NotImplemented). Here are most of the built-in objects considered false:

les constantes définies comme étant fausses : None et False ;

zéro de tout type numérique : 0, 0.0, 0j, Decimal(0), Fraction(0, 1)

les chaînes et collections vides : '', (), [], {}, set(), range(0)

Les opérations et fonctions natives dont le résultat est booléen renvoient toujours 0 ou False pour faux et 1 ou True pour vrai, sauf indication contraire (exception importante : les opérations booléennes or et and renvoient toujours l'une de leurs opérandes).

Opérations booléennes — and, or, not

Ce sont les opérations booléennes, classées par priorité ascendante :

Opération

Résultat

Notes

x or y

si x est vrai, alors x, sinon y

(1)

x and y

si x est faux, alors x, sinon y

(2)

not x

si x est faux, alors True, sinon False

(3)

Notes :

C'est un opérateur court-circuit : il n'évalue le deuxième argument que si le premier est faux.

C'est un opérateur court-circuit : il n'évalue le deuxième argument que si le premier est vrai.

not a une priorité inférieure à celle des opérateurs non-booléens, donc not a == b est interprété comme not (a == b) et a == not b est une erreur de syntaxe.

Comparaisons

Il y a huit opérations de comparaison en Python. Elles ont toutes la même priorité (qui est supérieure à celle des opérations booléennes). Les comparaisons peuvent être enchaînées arbitrairement ; par exemple, x < y <= z est équivalent à x < y and y <= z, sauf que y n'est évalué qu'une seule fois (mais dans les deux cas z n'est pas évalué du tout quand x < y est faux).

Ce tableau résume les opérations de comparaison :

Opération

Signification

<

strictement inférieur

<=

inférieur ou égal

>

strictement supérieur

>=

supérieur ou égal

==

égal

!=

différent

is

identité d'objet

is not

contraire de l'identité d'objet

Unless stated otherwise, objects of different types never compare equal. The == operator is always defined but for some object types (for example, class objects) is equivalent to is. The <, <=, > and >= operators are only defined where they make sense; for example, they raise a TypeError exception when one of the arguments is a complex number.

Des instances différentes d'une classe sont normalement considérées différentes à moins que la classe ne définisse la méthode __eq__().

Les instances d'une classe ne peuvent pas être ordonnées par rapport à d'autres instances de la même classe, ou d'autres types d'objets, à moins que la classe ne définisse suffisamment de méthodes parmi __lt__(), __le__(), __gt__() et __ge__() (en général, __lt__() et __eq__() sont suffisantes, si vous voulez les significations classiques des opérateurs de comparaison).

Le comportement des opérateurs is et is not ne peut pas être personnalisé ; aussi ils peuvent être appliqués à deux objets quelconques et ne lèvent jamais d'exception.

Deux autres opérations avec la même priorité syntaxique, in et not in, sont pris en charge par les types iterable ou qui implémentent la méthode __contains__().

Types numériques — int, float, complex

Il existe trois types numériques distincts : les entiers (integers), les nombres flottants (floating point numbers) et les nombres complexes (complex numbers). En outre, les booléens sont un sous-type des entiers. Les entiers ont une précision illimitée. Les nombres à virgule flottante sont généralement implémentés en utilisant des double en C ; des informations sur la précision et la représentation interne des nombres à virgule flottante pour la machine sur laquelle le programme est en cours d'exécution sont disponibles dans sys.float_info. Les nombres complexes ont une partie réelle et une partie imaginaire, qui sont chacune des nombres à virgule flottante. Pour extraire ces parties d'un nombre complexe z, utilisez z.real et z.imag. (La bibliothèque standard comprend les types numériques additionnels fractions.Fraction pour les rationnels et decimal.Decimal pour les nombres à virgule flottante avec une précision définissable par l'utilisateur.)

Les nombres sont créés par des littéraux numériques ou sont le résultat de fonctions natives ou d'opérateurs. Les entiers littéraux basiques (y compris leur forme hexadécimale, octale et binaire) donnent des entiers. Les nombres littéraux contenant un point décimal (NdT : notation anglo-saxonne de la virgule) ou un exposant donnent des nombres à virgule flottante. Suffixer 'j' ou 'J' à un nombre littéral donne un nombre imaginaire (un nombre complexe avec une partie réelle nulle) que vous pouvez ajouter à un nombre (entier ou à virgule flottante) pour obtenir un nombre complexe avec une partie réelle et une partie imaginaire.

Les constructeurs int(), float() et complex() peuvent être utilisés pour produire des nombres d'un type numérique spécifique.

Python fully supports mixed arithmetic: when a binary arithmetic operator has operands of different built-in numeric types, the operand with the "narrower" type is widened to that of the other:

If both arguments are complex numbers, no conversion is performed;

if either argument is a complex or a floating-point number, the other is converted to a floating-point number;

otherwise, both must be integers and no conversion is necessary.

Arithmetic with complex and real operands is defined by the usual mathematical formula, for example:

x + complex(u, v) = complex(x + u, v)
x * complex(u, v) = complex(x * u, x * v)

A comparison between numbers of different types behaves as though the exact values of those numbers were being compared. [2]

Tous les types numériques (sauf complexe) gèrent les opérations suivantes (pour les priorités des opérations, voir Priorités des opérateurs) :

Opération

Résultat

Notes

Documentation complète

x + y

somme de x et y

x - y

différence de x et y

x * y

produit de x et y

x / y

quotient de x et y

x // y

quotient entier de x et y

(1)(2)

x % y

reste de x / y

(2)

-x

négatif de x

+x

x inchangé

abs(x)

valeur absolue de x

abs()

int(x)

x converti en nombre entier

(3)(6)

int()

float(x)

x converti en nombre à virgule flottante

(4)(6)

float()

complex(re, im)

un nombre complexe avec re pour partie réelle et im pour partie imaginaire. im vaut zéro par défaut.

(6)

complex()

c.conjugate()

conjugué du nombre complexe c

divmod(x, y)

la paire (x // y, x % y)

(2)

divmod()

pow(x, y)

x à la puissance y

(5)

pow()

x ** y

x à la puissance y

(5)

Notes :

Également appelé division entière. Pour les opérandes de type int, la valeur résultante est de type int. Pour les opérandes de type float,la valeur résultante est de type float. En général, la valeur résultante est strictement entière, bien que le type du résultat ne soit pas nécessairement int. Le résultat est toujours arrondi vers moins l'infini : 1//2 vaut 0, (-1)//2 vaut -1, 1//(-2) vaut -1, et (-1)//(-2) vaut 0.

Pas pour les nombres complexes. Convertissez-les plutôt en nombres flottants à l'aide de abs() si c'est approprié.

La conversion de float en int tronque la partie fractionnaire. Voir les fonctions math.floor() et math.ceil() pour d'autres conversions.

float accepte aussi les chaînes nan et inf avec un préfixe optionnel + ou - pour Not a Number (NaN) et les infinis positif ou négatif.

Python définit pow(0, 0) et 0 ** 0 valant 1, puisque c'est courant pour les langages de programmation, et logique.

Les littéraux numériques acceptés comprennent les chiffres 0 à 9 ou tout équivalent Unicode (caractères avec la propriété Nd).

See the Unicode Standard [https://unicode.org/Public/UNIDATA/extracted/DerivedNumericType.txt] for a complete list of code points with the Nd property.

Tous types numbers.Real (int et float) comprennent également les opérations suivantes :

Opération

Résultat

math.trunc(x)

x tronqué à l'Integral

round(x[, n])

x arrondi à n chiffres, arrondissant la moitié au pair. Si n est omis, la valeur par défaut est 0.

math.floor(x)

le plus grand Integral ≤ x

math.ceil(x)

le plus petit Integral ≥ x

Pour d'autres opérations numériques voir les modules math et cmath.

Opérations sur les bits des nombres entiers

Les opérations bit à bit n'ont de sens que pour les entiers relatifs. Le résultat d'une opération bit à bit est calculé comme si elle était effectuée en complément à deux avec un nombre infini de bits de signe.

Les priorités de toutes les opérations bit à bit à deux opérandes sont inférieures à celles des opérations numériques et plus élevées que les comparaisons ; l'opération unaire ~ a la même priorité que les autres opérations numériques unaires (+ et -).

Ce tableau répertorie les opérations binaires triées par priorité ascendante :

Opération

Résultat

Notes

x | y

OU bit à bit de x et y

(4)

x ^ y

OU exclusif bit à bit de x et y

(4)

x & y

ET bit à bit de x et y

(4)

x << n

x décalé vers la gauche de n bits

(1)(2)

x >> n

x décalé vers la droite de n bits

(1)(3)

~x

les bits de x, inversés

Notes :

Des valeurs de décalage négatives sont illégales et provoquent une exception ValueError.

Un décalage à gauche de n bits est équivalent à la multiplication par pow(2, n).

Un décalage à droite de n les bits est équivalent à la division par pow(2, n).

Effectuer ces calculs avec au moins un bit d'extension de signe supplémentaire dans une représentation finie du complément à deux éléments (une largeur de bit fonctionnelle de 1 + max(x.bit_length(), y.bit_length() ou plus) est suffisante pour obtenir le même résultat que s'il y avait un nombre infini de bits de signe.

Méthodes supplémentaires sur les entiers

Le type int implémente la classe mère abstraite numbers.Integral. Il fournit aussi quelques autres méthodes :

int.bit_length()

Renvoie le nombre de bits nécessaires pour représenter un nombre entier en binaire, à l'exclusion du signe et des zéros non significatifs :

>>> n = -37
>>> bin(n)
'-0b100101'
>>> n.bit_length()
6

Plus précisément, si x est différent de zéro, x.bit_length() est le nombre entier positif unique, k tel que 2**(k-1) <= abs(x) < 2**k. Équivalemment, quand abs(x) est assez petit pour avoir un logarithme correctement arrondi, k = 1 + int(log(abs(x), 2)). Si x est nul, alors x.bit_length() donne 0.

Équivalent à :

def bit_length(self):
    s = bin(self)       # binary representation:  bin(-37) --> '-0b100101'
    s = s.lstrip('-0b') # remove leading zeros and minus sign
    return len(s)       # len('100101') --> 6

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

int.bit_count()

Renvoie le nombre de 1 dans la représentation binaire de la valeur absolue de l'entier. On la connait également sous le nom de dénombrement de la population. Par exemple :

>>> n = 19
>>> bin(n)
'0b10011'
>>> n.bit_count()
3
>>> (-n).bit_count()
3

Équivalent à :

def bit_count(self):
    return bin(self).count("1")

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

int.to_bytes(length=1, byteorder='big', *, signed=False)

Renvoie un tableau d'octets représentant un nombre entier.

>>> (1024).to_bytes(2, byteorder='big')
b'\x04\x00'
>>> (1024).to_bytes(10, byteorder='big')
b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x04\x00'
>>> (-1024).to_bytes(10, byteorder='big', signed=True)
b'\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xfc\x00'
>>> x = 1000
>>> x.to_bytes((x.bit_length() + 7) // 8, byteorder='little')
b'\xe8\x03'

L'entier est représenté en utilisant length octets, dont la valeur par défaut est 1. Une exception OverflowError est levée s'il n'est pas possible de représenter l'entier avec le nombre donné d'octets.

L'argument byteorder détermine l'ordre des octets utilisé pour représenter le nombre entier, la valeur par défaut étant "big". Si byteorder est "big", l'octet le plus significatif est au début du tableau d'octets. Si byteorder est "little", l'octet le plus significatif est à la fin du tableau d'octets.

L'argument signed détermine si le complément à deux est utilisé pour représenter le nombre entier. Si signed est False et qu'un entier négatif est donné, une exception OverflowError est levée. La valeur par défaut pour signed est False.

Les valeurs par défaut peuvent être utilisées pour transformer facilement un entier en un objet à un seul octet :

>>> (65).to_bytes()
b'A'

Cependant, lorsque vous utilisez les arguments par défaut, n'essayez pas de convertir une valeur supérieure à 255 ou vous lèverez une OverflowError :

Équivalent à :

def to_bytes(n, length=1, byteorder='big', signed=False):
    if byteorder == 'little':
        order = range(length)
    elif byteorder == 'big':
        order = reversed(range(length))
    else:
        raise ValueError("byteorder must be either 'little' or 'big'")

    return bytes((n >> i*8) & 0xff for i in order)

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: ajout de valeurs par défaut pour les arguments length et byteorder.

classmethod int.from_bytes(bytes, byteorder='big', *, signed=False)

Renvoie le nombre entier représenté par le tableau d'octets fourni.

>>> int.from_bytes(b'\x00\x10', byteorder='big')
16
>>> int.from_bytes(b'\x00\x10', byteorder='little')
4096
>>> int.from_bytes(b'\xfc\x00', byteorder='big', signed=True)
-1024
>>> int.from_bytes(b'\xfc\x00', byteorder='big', signed=False)
64512
>>> int.from_bytes([255, 0, 0], byteorder='big')
16711680

L'argument bytes doit être soit un objet octet-compatible, soit un itérable produisant des bytes.

L'argument byteorder détermine l'ordre des octets utilisé pour représenter le nombre entier, la valeur par défaut étant "big". Si byteorder est "big", l'octet le plus significatif est au début du tableau d'octets. Si byteorder est "little", l'octet le plus significatif est à la fin du tableau d'octets. Pour demander l'ordre natif des octets du système hôte, donnez sys.byteorder comme byteorder.

L'argument signed indique si le complément à deux est utilisé pour représenter le nombre entier.

Équivalent à :

def from_bytes(bytes, byteorder='big', signed=False):
    if byteorder == 'little':
        little_ordered = list(bytes)
    elif byteorder == 'big':
        little_ordered = list(reversed(bytes))
    else:
        raise ValueError("byteorder must be either 'little' or 'big'")

    n = sum(b << i*8 for i, b in enumerate(little_ordered))
    if signed and little_ordered and (little_ordered[-1] & 0x80):
        n -= 1 << 8*len(little_ordered)

    return n

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: ajout de la valeur par défaut pour l'argument byteorder.

int.as_integer_ratio()

Return a pair of integers whose ratio is equal to the original integer and has a positive denominator. The integer ratio of integers (whole numbers) is always the integer as the numerator and 1 as the denominator.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

int.is_integer()

Returns True. Exists for duck type compatibility with float.is_integer().

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Méthodes supplémentaires sur les nombres à virgule flottante

Le type float implémente la classe mère abstraite numbers.Real et a également les méthodes suivantes.

classmethod float.from_number(x)

Class method to return a floating-point number constructed from a number x.

If the argument is an integer or a floating-point number, a floating-point number with the same value (within Python's floating-point precision) is returned. If the argument is outside the range of a Python float, an OverflowError will be raised.

For a general Python object x, float.from_number(x) delegates to x.__float__(). If __float__() is not defined then it falls back to __index__().

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

float.as_integer_ratio()

Return a pair of integers whose ratio is exactly equal to the original float. The ratio is in lowest terms and has a positive denominator. Raises OverflowError on infinities and a ValueError on NaNs.

float.is_integer()

Renvoie True si l'instance de float est finie avec une valeur entière, et False autrement :

>>> (-2.0).is_integer()
True
>>> (3.2).is_integer()
False

Deux méthodes prennent en charge la conversion vers et à partir de chaînes hexadécimales. Étant donné que les float de Python sont stockés en interne sous forme de nombres binaires, la conversion d'un float depuis ou vers une chaine décimale implique généralement une petite erreur d'arrondi. En revanche, les chaînes hexadécimales permettent de représenter exactement les nombres à virgule flottante. Cela peut être utile lors du débogage, et dans un travail numérique.

float.hex()

Renvoie une représentation d'un nombre à virgule flottante sous forme de chaîne hexadécimale. Pour les nombres à virgule flottante finis, cette représentation comprendra toujours un préfixe 0x, un suffixe p et un exposant.

classmethod float.fromhex(s)

Méthode de classe pour obtenir le float représenté par une chaîne de caractères hexadécimale s. La chaîne s peut contenir des espaces avant et après le nombre.

Notez que float.hex() est une méthode d'instance, alors que float.fromhex() est une méthode de classe.

Une chaîne hexadécimale prend la forme :

[sign] ['0x'] integer ['.' fraction] ['p' exponent]

où sign peut être soit + soit -, integer et fraction sont des chaînes de chiffres hexadécimaux, et exponent est un entier décimal facultativement signé. La casse n'est pas significative, et il doit y avoir au moins un chiffre hexadécimal soit dans le nombre entier soit dans la fraction. Cette syntaxe est similaire à la syntaxe spécifiée dans la section 6.4.4.2 de la norme C99, et est aussi la syntaxe utilisée à partir de Java 1.5. En particulier, la sortie de float.hex() est utilisable comme valeur hexadécimale à virgule flottante littérale en C ou Java, et des chaînes hexadécimales produites en C via un format %a ou Java via Double.toHexString sont acceptées par float.fromhex().

Notez que l'exposant est écrit en décimal plutôt qu'en hexadécimal, et qu'il donne la puissance de 2 par lequel multiplier le coefficient. Par exemple, la chaîne hexadécimale 0x3.a7p10 représente le nombre à virgule flottante (3 + 10./16 + 7./16**2) *2.0**10, ou 3740.0 :

>>> float.fromhex('0x3.a7p10')
3740.0

L'application de la conversion inverse à 3740.0 donne une chaîne hexadécimale différente représentant le même nombre :

>>> float.hex(3740.0)
'0x1.d380000000000p+11'

Additional Methods on Complex

The complex type implements the numbers.Complex abstract base class. complex also has the following additional methods.

classmethod complex.from_number(x)

Class method to convert a number to a complex number.

For a general Python object x, complex.from_number(x) delegates to x.__complex__(). If __complex__() is not defined then it falls back to __float__(). If __float__() is not defined then it falls back to __index__().

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Hachage des types numériques

For numbers x and y, possibly of different types, it's a requirement that hash(x) == hash(y) whenever x == y (see the __hash__() method documentation for more details). For ease of implementation and efficiency across a variety of numeric types (including int, float, decimal.Decimal and fractions.Fraction) Python's hash for numeric types is based on a single mathematical function that's defined for any rational number, and hence applies to all instances of int and fractions.Fraction, and all finite instances of float and decimal.Decimal. Essentially, this function is given by reduction modulo P for a fixed prime P. The value of P is made available to Python as the modulus attribute of sys.hash_info.

actuellement, le premier utilisé est P = 2 ** 31 - 1 sur des machines dont les longs en C sont de 32 bits P = 2 ** 61 - 1 sur des machines dont les longs en C font 64 bits.

Voici les règles en détail :

Si x = m / n est un nombre rationnel non négatif et n n'est pas divisible par P, définir hash(x) comme m * invmod(n, P) % P, où invmod(n, P) donne l'inverse de n modulo P.

Si x = m / n est un nombre rationnel non négatif et n est divisible par P (mais m ne l'est pas), alors n n'a pas de modulo inverse P et la règle ci-dessus n'est pas applicable ; dans ce cas définir hash(x) comme étant la valeur de la constante sys.hash_info.inf.

Si x = m / n est un nombre rationnel négatif définir hash(x) comme -hash(-x). Si le résultat est -1, le remplacer par -2.

Les valeurs particulières sys.hash_info.inf et -sys.hash_info.inf sont utilisées comme valeurs de hachage pour l'infini positif et l'infini négatif (respectivement).

Pour un nombre complexe z, les valeurs de hachage des parties réelles et imaginaires sont combinées en calculant hash(z.real) + sys.hash_info.imag * hash(z.imag), réduit au modulo 2**sys.hash_info.width de sorte qu'il se trouve dans range(-2**(sys.hash_info.width - 1), 2**(sys.hash_info.width - 1)). Encore une fois, si le résultat est -1, il est remplacé par -2.

Afin de clarifier les règles ci-dessus, voici quelques exemples de code Python, équivalent à la fonction de hachage native, pour calculer le hachage d'un nombre rationnel, d'un float, ou d'un complex :

import sys, math

def hash_fraction(m, n):
    """Compute the hash of a rational number m / n.

    Assumes m and n are integers, with n positive.
    Equivalent to hash(fractions.Fraction(m, n)).

    """
    P = sys.hash_info.modulus
    # Remove common factors of P.  (Unnecessary if m and n already coprime.)
    while m % P == n % P == 0:
        m, n = m // P, n // P

    if n % P == 0:
        hash_value = sys.hash_info.inf
    else:
        # Fermat's Little Theorem: pow(n, P-1, P) is 1, so
        # pow(n, P-2, P) gives the inverse of n modulo P.
        hash_value = (abs(m) % P) * pow(n, P - 2, P) % P
    if m < 0:
        hash_value = -hash_value
    if hash_value == -1:
        hash_value = -2
    return hash_value

def hash_float(x):
    """Compute the hash of a float x."""

    if math.isnan(x):
        return object.__hash__(x)
    elif math.isinf(x):
        return sys.hash_info.inf if x > 0 else -sys.hash_info.inf
    else:
        return hash_fraction(*x.as_integer_ratio())

def hash_complex(z):
    """Compute the hash of a complex number z."""

    hash_value = hash_float(z.real) + sys.hash_info.imag * hash_float(z.imag)
    # do a signed reduction modulo 2**sys.hash_info.width
    M = 2**(sys.hash_info.width - 1)
    hash_value = (hash_value & (M - 1)) - (hash_value & M)
    if hash_value == -1:
        hash_value = -2
    return hash_value

Boolean Type - bool

Booleans represent truth values. The bool type has exactly two constant instances: True and False.

The built-in function bool() converts any value to a boolean, if the value can be interpreted as a truth value (see section Valeurs booléennes above).

For logical operations, use the boolean operators and, or and not. When applying the bitwise operators &, |, ^ to two booleans, they return a bool equivalent to the logical operations "and", "or", "xor". However, the logical operators and, or and != should be preferred over &, | and ^.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.12: The use of the bitwise inversion operator ~ is deprecated and will raise an error in Python 3.16.

bool is a subclass of int (see Types numériques — int, float, complex). In many numeric contexts, False and True behave like the integers 0 and 1, respectively. However, relying on this is discouraged; explicitly convert using int() instead.

Les types itérateurs

Python gère un concept d'itération sur les conteneurs. Il l'implémente en utilisant deux méthodes distinctes qui permettent aux classes définies par l'utilisateur de devenir itérables. Les séquences, décrites plus bas en détail, savent toujours gérer les méthodes d'itération.

Une méthode doit être définie afin que les objets conteneurs prennent en charge l’itération :

container.__iter__()

Renvoie un objet itérateur. L'objet doit implémenter le protocole d'itération décrit ci-dessous. Si un conteneur prend en charge différents types d'itération, d'autres méthodes peuvent être fournies pour obtenir spécifiquement les itérateurs pour ces types d'itération. (Exemple d'un objet gérant plusieurs formes d'itération : une structure d'arbre pouvant être parcourue en largeur ou en profondeur.) Cette méthode correspond à l'attribut tp_iter de la structure du type des objets Python dans l'API Python/C.

Les itérateurs eux-mêmes doivent implémenter les deux méthodes suivantes, qui forment ensemble le protocole d'itération :

iterator.__iter__()

Renvoie l’objet itérateur lui-même. C'est nécessaire pour permettre à la fois à des conteneurs et des itérateurs d'être utilisés avec les instructions for et in. Cette méthode correspond à l'attribut tp_iter de la structure des types des objets Python dans l'API Python/C.

iterator.__next__()

Renvoie l'élément suivant de l’itérateur. S'il n'y a pas d'autres éléments, une exception StopIteration est levée. Cette méthode correspond à l'attribut tp_iternext de la structure du type des objets Python dans l'API Python/C.

Python définit plusieurs objets itérateurs pour itérer sur les types standards ou spécifiques de séquence, de dictionnaires et d'autres formes plus spécialisées. Les types spécifiques ne sont pas importants au-delà de leur implémentation du protocole d'itération.

Dès que la méthode __next__() lève une exception StopIteration, elle doit continuer à le faire lors des appels ultérieurs. Les implémentations qui ne respectent pas cette propriété sont considérées cassées.

Types générateurs

Python's generators provide a convenient way to implement the iterator protocol. If a container object's __iter__() method is implemented as a generator, it will automatically return an iterator object (technically, a generator object) supplying the __iter__() and __next__() methods. More information about generators can be found in the documentation for the yield expression.

Types séquentiels — list, tuple, range

Il existe trois types séquentiels élémentaires : les listes (objets list), n-uplets (objets tuple) et les intervalles (objets range). D'autres types séquentiels spécifiques au traitement de données binaires et chaînes de caractères sont décrits dans des sections dédiées.

Opérations communes sur les séquences

Les opérations dans le tableau ci-dessous sont prises en charge par la plupart des types séquentiels, variables et immuables. La classe mère abstraite collections.abc.Sequence est fournie pour aider à implémenter correctement ces opérations sur les types séquentiels personnalisés.

Ce tableau répertorie les opérations sur les séquences triées par priorité ascendante. Dans le tableau, s et t sont des séquences du même type, n, i, j et k sont des nombres entiers et x est un objet arbitraire qui répond à toutes les restrictions de type et de valeur imposée par s.

Les opérations in et not in ont les mêmes priorités que les opérations de comparaison. Les opérations + (concaténation) et * (répétition) ont la même priorité que les opérations numériques correspondantes [3].

Opération

Résultat

Notes

x in s

True si un élément de s est égal à x, sinon False

(1)

x not in s

False si un élément de s est égal à x, sinon True

(1)

s + t

la concaténation de s et t

(6)(7)

s * n ou n * s

équivalent à ajouter s n fois à lui-même

(2)(7)

s[i]

ie élément de s en commençant par 0

(3)(8)

s[i:j]

tranche (slice) de s de i à j

(3)(4)

s[i:j:k]

tranche (slice) de s de i à j avec un pas de k

(3)(5)

len(s)

longueur de s

min(s)

plus petit élément de s

max(s)

plus grand élément de s

Les séquences du même type gèrent également la comparaison. En particulier, les n-uplets et les listes sont comparés lexicographiquement en comparant les éléments correspondants. Cela signifie que, pour que deux séquences soit égales, les éléments les constituant doivent être égaux deux à deux et les deux séquences doivent être du même type et de la même longueur. (Pour plus de détails voir Comparaisons dans la référence du langage.)

Les itérateurs avant et arrière sur des séquences modifiables accèdent aux valeurs à l'aide d'un indice. Cet indice continue à avancer (ou à reculer) même si la séquence sous-jacente est modifiée. L'itérateur ne se termine que lorsqu'une IndexError ou une StopIteration est rencontrée (ou lorsque l'indice tombe en dessous de zéro).

Notes :

Bien que les opérations in et not in ne soient généralement utilisées que pour les tests d'appartenance simple, certaines séquences spécialisées (telles que str, bytes et bytearray) les utilisent aussi pour tester l'existence de sous-séquences :

>>> "gg" in "eggs"
True

Les valeurs de n plus petites que 0 sont traitées comme 0 (ce qui donne une séquence vide du même type que s). Notez que les éléments de s ne sont pas copiés ; ils sont référencés plusieurs fois. Cela hante souvent de nouveaux développeurs Python, typiquement :

>>> lists = [[]] * 3
>>> lists
[[], [], []]
>>> lists[0].append(3)
>>> lists
[[3], [3], [3]]

Ce qui est arrivé est que [[]] est une liste à un élément contenant une liste vide, de sorte que les trois éléments de [[]] * 3 sont des références à cette seule liste vide. Modifier l'un des éléments de lists modifie cette liste unique. Vous pouvez créer une liste des différentes listes de cette façon :

>>> lists = [[] for i in range(3)]
>>> lists[0].append(3)
>>> lists[1].append(5)
>>> lists[2].append(7)
>>> lists
[[3], [5], [7]]

De plus amples explications sont disponibles dans la FAQ à la question Comment créer une liste à plusieurs dimensions ?.

Si i ou j sont négatifs, l'indice est relatif à la fin de la séquence s : len(s) + i ou len(s) + j est substitué. Mais notez que -0 est toujours 0.

The slice of s from i to j is defined as the sequence of items with index k such that i <= k < j.

If i is omitted or None, use 0.

If j is omitted or None, use len(s).

If i or j is less than -len(s), use 0.

If i or j is greater than len(s), use len(s).

If i is greater than or equal to j, the slice is empty.

La tranche de s de i à j avec un pas de k est définie comme la séquence d'éléments d'indices x = i + n*k tels que 0 <= n < (j-i)/k. En d'autres termes, les indices sont i, i+k, i+2*k, i+3*k et ainsi de suite, en arrêtant lorsque j est atteint (mais jamais inclus). Si k est positif, i et j sont réduits, s'ils sont plus grands, à len(s). Si k est négatif, i et j sont réduits à len(s) - 1 s'ils sont plus grands. Si i ou j sont omis ou sont None, ils deviennent des valeurs « limites » (la limite haute ou basse dépend du signe de k). Notez que k ne peut pas valoir zéro. Si k est None, il est traité comme 1.

Concaténer des séquences immuables donne toujours un nouvel objet. Cela signifie que la construction d'une séquence par concaténations répétées aura une durée d'exécution quadratique par rapport à la longueur de la séquence totale. Pour obtenir un temps d'exécution linéaire, vous devez utiliser l'une des alternatives suivantes :

si vous concaténez des str, vous pouvez construire une liste puis utiliser str.join() à la fin, ou bien écrire dans une instance de io.StringIO et récupérer sa valeur lorsque vous avez terminé ;

si vous concaténez des bytes, vous pouvez aussi utiliser bytes.join() ou io.BytesIO, ou vous pouvez faire les concaténations sur place avec un objet bytearray. Les objets bytearray sont mutables et ont un mécanisme de sur-allocation efficace ;

si vous concaténez des n-uplets, utilisez plutôt extend sur une list ;

pour les autres types, cherchez dans la documentation de la classe concernée.

Certains types séquentiels (tels que range) ne gèrent que des séquences qui suivent des modèles spécifiques, et donc ne prennent pas en charge la concaténation ou la répétition.

An IndexError is raised if i is outside the sequence range.

Sequence Methods

Sequence types also support the following methods:

sequence.count(value, /)

Return the total number of occurrences of value in sequence.

sequence.index(value[, start[, stop]])

Return the index of the first occurrence of value in sequence.

Raises ValueError if value is not found in sequence.

The start or stop arguments allow for efficient searching of subsections of the sequence, beginning at start and ending at stop. This is roughly equivalent to start + sequence[start:stop].index(value), only without copying any data.

Prudence

Not all sequence types support passing the start and stop arguments.

Types de séquences immuables

La seule opération que les types de séquences immuables implémentent et qui n'est pas implémentée par les types de séquences mutables est la fonction native hash().

Cette implémentation permet d'utiliser des séquences immuables, comme les instances de n-uplets, en tant que clés de dict et stockées dans les instances de set et frozenset.

Essayer de hacher une séquence immuable qui contient des valeurs non hachables lève une TypeError.

Types de séquences mutables

Les opérations dans le tableau ci-dessous sont définies sur les types de séquences mutables. La classe mère abstraite collections.abc.MutableSequence est prévue pour faciliter l'implémentation correcte de ces opérations sur les types de séquences personnalisées.

Dans le tableau ci-dessosus, s est une instance d'un type de séquence mutable, t est un objet itérable et x est un objet arbitraire qui répond à toutes les restrictions de type et de valeur imposées par s (par exemple, bytearray accepte uniquement des nombres entiers qui répondent à la restriction de la valeur 0 <= x <= 255).

Opération

Résultat

Notes

s[i] = x

l'élément i de s est remplacé par x

del s[i]

removes item i of s

s[i:j] = t

la tranche de s de i à j est remplacée par le contenu de l'itérable t

del s[i:j]

removes the elements of s[i:j] from the list (same as s[i:j] = [])

s[i:j:k] = t

les éléments de s[i:j:k] sont remplacés par ceux de t

(1)

del s[i:j:k]

supprime les éléments de s[i:j:k] de la liste

s += t

étend s avec le contenu de t (proche de s[len(s):len(s)] = t)

s *= n

met à jour s avec son contenu répété n fois

(2)

Notes :

If k is not equal to 1, t must have the same length as the slice it is replacing.

La valeur n est un entier, ou un objet implémentant __index__(). Zéro et les valeurs négatives de n permettent d'effacer la séquence. Les éléments dans la séquence ne sont pas copiés ; ils sont référencés plusieurs fois, comme expliqué pour s * n dans Opérations communes sur les séquences.

Mutable Sequence Methods

Mutable sequence types also support the following methods:

sequence.append(value, /)

Append value to the end of the sequence. This is equivalent to writing seq[len(seq):len(seq)] = [value].

sequence.clear()

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Remove all items from sequence. This is equivalent to writing del sequence[:].

sequence.copy()

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Create a shallow copy of sequence. This is equivalent to writing sequence[:].

Indication

The copy() method is not part of the MutableSequence ABC, but most concrete mutable sequence types provide it.

sequence.extend(iterable, /)

Extend sequence with the contents of iterable. For the most part, this is the same as writing seq[len(seq):len(seq)] = iterable.

sequence.insert(index, value, /)

Insert value into sequence at the given index. This is equivalent to writing sequence[index:index] = [value].

sequence.pop(index=-1, /)

Retrieve the item at index and also removes it from sequence. By default, the last item in sequence is removed and returned.

sequence.remove(value, /)

Remove the first item from sequence where sequence[i] == value.

Raises ValueError if value is not found in sequence.

sequence.reverse()

Reverse the items of sequence in place. This method maintains economy of space when reversing a large sequence. To remind users that it operates by side-effect, it returns None.

Listes

Les listes sont des séquences mutables, généralement utilisées pour stocker des collections d'éléments homogènes (le degré de similitude varie selon l'usage).

class list(iterable=(), /)

Les listes peuvent être construites de différentes manières :

en utilisant une paire de crochets pour indiquer une liste vide : [] ;

au moyen de crochets, en séparant les éléments par des virgules : [a], [a, b, c] ;

en utilisant une liste en compréhension : [x for x in iterable] ;

en utilisant le constructeur du type : list() ou list(iterable).

Le constructeur crée une liste dont les éléments sont les mêmes et dans le même ordre que les éléments d'iterable. iterable peut être une séquence, un conteneur qui prend en charge l'itération, ou un itérateur. Si iterable est déjà une liste, une copie est faite et renvoyée, comme avec iterable[:]. Par exemple, list('abc') renvoie ['a', 'b', 'c'] et list( (1, 2, 3) ) renvoie [1, 2, 3]. Si aucun argument est donné, le constructeur crée une nouvelle liste vide, [].

De nombreuses autres opérations produisent des listes, comme la fonction native sorted().

Les listes gèrent toutes les opérations des séquences communes et mutables. Les listes fournissent également la méthode supplémentaire suivante :

sort(*, key=None, reverse=False)

Cette méthode trie la liste sur place, en utilisant uniquement des comparaisons < entre les éléments. Les exceptions ne sont pas supprimées : si n'importe quelle opération de comparaison échoue, le tri échoue (et la liste sera probablement laissée dans un état partiellement modifié).

sort() accepte deux arguments qui ne peuvent être fournis que nommés (voir arguments nommés) :

key spécifie une fonction d'un argument utilisée pour extraire une clé de comparaison de chaque élément de la liste (par exemple, key=str.lower). La clé correspondant à chaque élément de la liste n'est calculée qu'une seule fois, puis utilisée durant tout le processus. La valeur par défaut, None, signifie que les éléments sont triés directement sans calculer de « valeur clé » séparée.

La fonction utilitaire functools.cmp_to_key() est disponible pour convertir une fonction cmp du style 2.x à une fonction key.

reverse, une valeur booléenne. Si elle est True, la liste d'éléments est triée comme si toutes les comparaisons étaient inversées.

Cette méthode modifie la séquence sur place pour économiser de l'espace lors du tri de grandes séquences. Pour rappeler aux utilisateurs cet effet de bord, elle ne renvoie pas la séquence triée (utilisez sorted() pour demander explicitement une nouvelle instance de liste triée).

La méthode sort() est garantie stable. Un tri est stable s'il garantit de ne pas changer l'ordre relatif des éléments égaux — cela est utile pour trier en plusieurs passes (par exemple, trier par service, puis par niveau de salaire).

Pour des exemples de tris et un bref tutoriel, consultez Les techniques de tri.

l'effet de tenter de modifier, ou même inspecter la liste pendant qu'on la trie est indéfini. L'implémentation C de Python fait apparaître la liste comme vide pour la durée du traitement, et lève ValueError si elle détecte que la liste a été modifiée au cours du tri.

Voir aussi

For detailed information on thread-safety guarantees for list objects, see Thread safety for list objects.

N-uplets

Les n-uplets (tuples en anglais) sont des séquences immuables, généralement utilisées pour stocker des collections de données hétérogènes (telles que les paires produites par la fonction native enumerate()). Les n-uplets sont également utilisés dans des cas où une séquence homogène et immuable de données est nécessaire (pour, par exemple, les stocker dans un ensemble ou un dictionnaire).

class tuple(iterable=(), /)

Les n-uplets peuvent être construits de différentes façons :

en utilisant une paire de parenthèses pour désigner le n-uplet vide : () ;

en utilisant une virgule, pour créer un n-uplet d'un élément : a, ou (a,) ;

en séparant les éléments avec des virgules : a, b, c ou (a, b, c) ;

en utilisant la fonction native tuple() : tuple() ou tuple(iterable).

Le constructeur construit un n-uplet dont les éléments sont les mêmes et dans le même ordre que les éléments de iterable. iterable peut être une séquence, un conteneur qui prend en charge l'itération ou un itérateur. Si iterable est déjà un n-uplet, il est renvoyé inchangé. Par exemple, tuple('abc') renvoie ('a', 'b', 'c') et tuple( [1, 2, 3] ) renvoie (1, 2, 3). Si aucun argument n'est donné, le constructeur crée un nouveau n-uplet vide, ().

Notez que c'est en fait la virgule qui fait un n-uplet et non les parenthèses. Les parenthèses sont facultatives, sauf dans le cas du n-uplet vide, ou lorsqu'elles sont nécessaires pour éviter l'ambiguïté syntaxique. Par exemple, f(a, b, c) est un appel de fonction avec trois arguments, alors que f((a, b, c)) est un appel de fonction avec un triplet comme unique argument.

Les n-uplets implémentent toutes les opérations communes des séquences.

Pour les collections hétérogènes de données où l'accès par nom est plus clair que l'accès par indice, collections.namedtuple() peut être un choix plus approprié qu'un simple n-uplet.

Ranges

Le type range représente une séquence immuable de nombres et est couramment utilisé pour itérer un certain nombre de fois dans les boucles for.

class range(stop, /)

class range(start, stop, step=1, /)

Les arguments du constructeur de range doivent être des entiers (des int ou tout autre objet qui implémente la méthode spéciale __index__()). La valeur par défaut de l'argument step est 1. La valeur par défaut de l'argument start est 0. Si step est égal à zéro, une exception ValueError est levée.

Pour un step positif, le contenu d'un range r est déterminé par la formule r[i] = start + step*i où i >= 0 et r[i] < stop.

Pour un step négatif, le contenu du range est toujours déterminé par la formule r[i] = start + step*i, mais les contraintes sont i >= 0 et r[i] > stop.

Un objet range sera vide si r[0] ne répond pas à la contrainte de valeur. Les range prennent en charge les indices négatifs, mais ceux-ci sont interprétées comme un indice à partir de la fin de la séquence déterminée par les indices positifs.

Les range contenant des valeurs absolues plus grandes que sys.maxsize sont permises, mais certaines fonctionnalités (comme len()) peuvent lever OverflowError.

Exemples avec range :

>>> list(range(10))
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
>>> list(range(1, 11))
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]
>>> list(range(0, 30, 5))
[0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25]
>>> list(range(0, 10, 3))
[0, 3, 6, 9]
>>> list(range(0, -10, -1))
[0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9]
>>> list(range(0))
[]
>>> list(range(1, 0))
[]

range implémente toutes les opérations communes des séquences sauf la concaténation et la répétition (en raison du fait que les range ne peuvent représenter que des séquences qui respectent un motif strict et que la répétition et la concaténation les feraient dévier de ce motif).

start

Valeur du paramètre start (ou 0 si le paramètre n'a pas été fourni)

stop

Valeur du paramètre stop

step

Valeur du paramètre step (ou 1 si le paramètre n'a pas été fourni)

L'avantage du type range sur une liste classique ou un n-uplet est qu'un objet range occupe toujours la même (petite) quantité de mémoire, peu importe la taille de l'intervalle qu'il représente (car il ne stocke que les valeurs start, stop, step, le calcul des éléments individuels et les sous-intervalles au besoin).

Les range implémentent la classe mère abstraite collections.abc.Sequence et offrent des fonctionnalités telles que les tests d'appartenance (avec in), de recherche par indice, les tranches et ils gèrent les indices négatifs (voir Types séquentiels — list, tuple, range) :

>>> r = range(0, 20, 2)
>>> r
range(0, 20, 2)
>>> 11 in r
False
>>> 10 in r
True
>>> r.index(10)
5
>>> r[5]
10
>>> r[:5]
range(0, 10, 2)
>>> r[-1]
18

Comparer des range avec == et != les compare comme des séquences. C'est-à-dire que deux objets range sont considérés comme égaux s'ils représentent la même séquence de valeurs. (Notez que deux objets range dits égaux pourraient avoir leurs attributs start, stop et step différents, par exemple range(0) == range(2, 1, 3) ou range(0, 3, 2) == range(0, 4, 2).)

Modifié dans la version 3.2: implémente la classe mère abstraite Sequence. prend en charge les tranches (slicing) et les indices négatifs. Teste l'appartenance d'un int en temps constant au lieu d'itérer sur tous les éléments.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: == et != comparent des range en fonction de la séquence de valeurs qu'ils définissent (au lieu d'une comparaison fondée sur l'identité de l'objet).

Added the start, stop and step attributes.

Voir aussi

The linspace recipe [https://code.activestate.com/recipes/579000-equally-spaced-numbers-linspace/] shows how to implement a lazy version of range suitable for floating-point applications.

Text and Binary Sequence Type Methods Summary

The following table summarizes the text and binary sequence types methods by category.

Catégorie

str methods

bytes and bytearray methods

Formatting

str.format()

str.format_map()

f-strings

Formatage de chaines à la printf

Formatage de bytes a la printf

Searching and Replacing

str.find()

str.rfind()

bytes.find()

bytes.rfind()

str.index()

str.rindex()

bytes.index()

bytes.rindex()

str.startswith()

bytes.startswith()

str.endswith()

bytes.endswith()

str.count()

bytes.count()

str.replace()

bytes.replace()

Splitting and Joining

str.split()

str.rsplit()

bytes.split()

bytes.rsplit()

str.splitlines()

bytes.splitlines()

str.partition()

bytes.partition()

str.rpartition()

bytes.rpartition()

str.join()

bytes.join()

String Classification

str.isalpha()

bytes.isalpha()

str.isdecimal()

str.isdigit()

bytes.isdigit()

str.isnumeric()

str.isalnum()

bytes.isalnum()

str.isidentifier()

str.islower()

bytes.islower()

str.isupper()

bytes.isupper()

str.istitle()

bytes.istitle()

str.isspace()

bytes.isspace()

str.isprintable()

Case Manipulation

str.lower()

bytes.lower()

str.upper()

bytes.upper()

str.casefold()

str.capitalize()

bytes.capitalize()

str.title()

bytes.title()

str.swapcase()

bytes.swapcase()

Padding and Stripping

str.ljust()

str.rjust()

bytes.ljust()

bytes.rjust()

str.center()

bytes.center()

str.expandtabs()

bytes.expandtabs()

str.strip()

bytes.strip()

str.lstrip()

str.rstrip()

bytes.lstrip()

bytes.rstrip()

Translation and Encoding

str.translate()

bytes.translate()

str.maketrans()

bytes.maketrans()

str.encode()

bytes.decode()

Type Séquence de Texte — str

Les données textuelles en Python sont manipulées avec des objets str ou strings. Les chaînes sont des séquences immuables de points de code Unicode. Les chaînes littérales peuvent être écrites de différentes manières :

entre guillemets simples : 'cela autorise les "guillemets anglais"' ;

entre guillemets (anglais) : "cela autorise les guillemets 'simples'" ;

entre guillemets triples : '''Trois guillemets simples''', """Trois guillemets anglais""".

Les chaînes entre guillemets triples peuvent couvrir plusieurs lignes, tous les espaces associées sont alors incluses dans la chaîne littérale.

Les chaînes littérales qui font partie d'une seule expression et ont seulement des espaces entre elles sont implicitement converties en une seule chaîne littérale. Autrement dit, ("spam " "eggs") == "spam eggs".

See Littéraux de chaînes de caractères et de suites d'octets for more about the various forms of string literal, including supported escape sequences, and the r ("raw") prefix that disables most escape sequence processing.

Les chaînes peuvent également être créées à partir d'autres objets à l'aide du constructeur str.

Comme il n'y a pas de type « caractère » propre, un indice d'une chaîne produit une chaîne de longueur 1. Autrement dit, pour une chaîne non vide s, s[0] == s[0:1].

Il n'y a aucun type de chaîne mutable, mais str.join() ou io.StringIO peuvent être utilisées pour construire efficacement des chaînes à partir de plusieurs fragments.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: pour une compatibilité ascendante avec la série Python 2, le préfixe u est à nouveau autorisé sur les chaînes littérales. Il n'a aucun effet sur le sens des chaînes littérales et ne peut pas être combiné avec le préfixe r.

class str(*, encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

class str(object)

class str(object, encoding, errors='strict')

class str(object, *, errors)

Renvoie une représentation en chaîne de caractères de object. Si object n'est pas fourni, renvoie une chaîne vide. Sinon, le comportement de str() dépend des valeurs données pour encoding et errors, comme indiqué ci-dessous.

If neither encoding nor errors is given, str(object) returns type(object).__str__(object), which is the "informal" or nicely printable string representation of object. For string objects, this is the string itself. If object does not have a __str__() method, then str() falls back to returning repr(object).

Si au moins un des deux arguments encoding ou errors est donné, object doit être un objet octet-compatible (par exemple, bytes ou bytearray). Dans ce cas, si object est un objet bytes (ou bytearray), alors str(bytes, encoding, errors) est équivalent à bytes.decode(encoding, errors). Sinon, l'objet bytes sous-jacent au tampon est obtenu avant d'appeler bytes.decode(). Voir Séquences Binaires — bytes, bytearray, vue mémoire et Protocole tampon pour plus d'informations sur les tampons.

Donner un objet bytes à str() sans argument encoding ni argument errors relève du premier cas, où la représentation informelle de la chaîne est renvoyée (voir aussi l'option -b de Python). Par exemple :

>>> str(b'Zoot!')
"b'Zoot!'"

Pour plus d'informations sur la classe str et ses méthodes, voir les sections Type Séquence de Texte — str et Méthodes de chaînes de caractères. Pour formater des chaînes de caractères, voir les sections f-strings et Format string syntax. La section Services de Manipulation de Texte contient aussi des informations.

Méthodes de chaînes de caractères

Les chaînes implémentent toutes les opérations communes des séquences, ainsi que les autres méthodes décrites ci-dessous.

Les chaînes gèrent aussi deux styles de mise en forme, l'un fournissant une grande flexibilité et de personnalisation (voir str.format(), Format string syntax et Custom string formatting) et l'autre basée sur le style de formatage de printf du C qui gère une gamme plus étroite de types et est légèrement plus difficile à utiliser correctement, mais qui est souvent plus rapide pour les cas pris en charge (Formatage de chaines à la printf).

La section Services de Manipulation de Texte de la bibliothèque standard couvre un certain nombre d'autres modules qui fournissent différents services relatifs au texte (y compris les expressions rationnelles dans le module re).

str.capitalize()

Renvoie une copie de la chaîne avec son premier caractère en majuscule et le reste en minuscule.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: le premier caractère est maintenant mis en titlecase plutôt qu'en majuscule. Cela veut dire que les caractères comme les digrammes auront seulement leur première lettre en majuscule, au lieu du caractère en entier.

str.casefold()

Renvoie une copie casefolded de la chaîne. Les chaînes casefolded peuvent être utilisées dans des comparaisons insensibles à la casse.

Casefolding is similar to lowercasing but more aggressive because it is intended to remove all case distinctions in a string. For example, the German lowercase letter 'ß' is equivalent to "ss". Since it is already lowercase, lower() would do nothing to 'ß'; casefold() converts it to "ss". For example:

>>> 'straße'.lower()
'straße'
>>> 'straße'.casefold()
'strasse'

The casefolding algorithm is described in section 3.13 'Default Case Folding' of the Unicode Standard [https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode16.0.0/core-spec/chapter-3/#G33992].

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

str.center(width, fillchar=' ', /)

Return centered in a string of length width. Padding is done using the specified fillchar (default is an ASCII space). The original string is returned if width is less than or equal to len(s). For example:

>>> 'Python'.center(10)
'  Python  '
>>> 'Python'.center(10, '-')
'--Python--'
>>> 'Python'.center(4)
'Python'

str.count(sub[, start[, end]])

Renvoie le nombre d'occurrences de sub ne se chevauchant pas dans l'intervalle [start, end]. Les arguments facultatifs start et end sont interprétés comme dans la notation des tranches (slices en anglais).

If sub is empty, returns the number of empty strings between characters which is the length of the string plus one. For example:

>>> 'spam, spam, spam'.count('spam')
3
>>> 'spam, spam, spam'.count('spam', 5)
2
>>> 'spam, spam, spam'.count('spam', 5, 10)
1
>>> 'spam, spam, spam'.count('eggs')
0
>>> 'spam, spam, spam'.count('')
17

str.encode(encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

Renvoie la chaine encodée dans une instance de bytes.

encoding vaut par défaut utf-8 ; pour une liste des encodages possibles, voir la section Standard Encodings.

errors détermine la manière dont les erreurs sont traitées. La valeur par défaut est 'strict', ce qui signifie que les erreurs d'encodage lèvent une UnicodeError. Les autres valeurs possibles sont 'ignore', 'replace', 'xmlcharrefreplace', 'backslashreplace' et tout autre nom enregistré via codecs.register_error(). Voir la section Gestionnaires d'erreurs pour plus de détails.

For performance reasons, the value of errors is not checked for validity unless an encoding error actually occurs, Python Development Mode is enabled or a debug build is used. For example:

>>> encoded_str_to_bytes = 'Python'.encode()
>>> type(encoded_str_to_bytes)
<class 'bytes'>
>>> encoded_str_to_bytes
b'Python'

Modifié dans la version 3.1: gère les arguments nommés.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: les valeurs de errors sont maintenant vérifiées en mode de développement et en mode de débogage.

str.endswith(suffix[, start[, end]])

Return True if the string ends with the specified suffix, otherwise return False. suffix can also be a tuple of suffixes to look for. With optional start, test beginning at that position. With optional end, stop comparing at that position. Using start and end is equivalent to str[start:end].endswith(suffix). For example:

>>> 'Python'.endswith('on')
True
>>> 'a tuple of suffixes'.endswith(('at', 'in'))
False
>>> 'a tuple of suffixes'.endswith(('at', 'es'))
True
>>> 'Python is amazing'.endswith('is', 0, 9)
True

See also startswith() and removesuffix().

str.expandtabs(tabsize=8)

Return a copy of the string where all tab characters are replaced by one or more spaces, depending on the current column and the given tab size. Tab positions occur every tabsize characters (default is 8, giving tab positions at columns 0, 8, 16 and so on). To expand the string, the current column is set to zero and the string is examined character by character. If the character is a tab (\t), one or more space characters are inserted in the result until the current column is equal to the next tab position. (The tab character itself is not copied.) If the character is a newline (\n) or return (\r), it is copied and the current column is reset to zero. Any other character is copied unchanged and the current column is incremented by one regardless of how the character is represented when printed. For example:

>>> '01\t012\t0123\t01234'.expandtabs()
'01      012     0123    01234'
>>> '01\t012\t0123\t01234'.expandtabs(4)
'01  012 0123    01234'
>>> print('01\t012\n0123\t01234'.expandtabs(4))
01  012
0123    01234

str.find(sub[, start[, end]])

Return the lowest index in the string where substring sub is found within the slice s[start:end]. Optional arguments start and end are interpreted as in slice notation. Return -1 if sub is not found. For example:

>>> 'spam, spam, spam'.find('sp')
0
>>> 'spam, spam, spam'.find('sp', 5)
6

See also rfind() and index().

Note

la méthode find() ne doit être utilisée que si vous avez besoin de connaître la position de sub. Pour vérifier si sub est une sous chaine ou non, utilisez l'opérateur in :

>>> 'Py' in 'Python'
True

str.format(*args, **kwargs)

Perform a string formatting operation. The string on which this method is called can contain literal text or replacement fields delimited by braces {}. Each replacement field contains either the numeric index of a positional argument, or the name of a keyword argument. Returns a copy of the string where each replacement field is replaced with the string value of the corresponding argument. For example:

>>> "The sum of 1 + 2 is {0}".format(1+2)
'The sum of 1 + 2 is 3'
>>> "The sum of {a} + {b} is {answer}".format(answer=1+2, a=1, b=2)
'The sum of 1 + 2 is 3'
>>> "{1} expects the {0} Inquisition!".format("Spanish", "Nobody")
'Nobody expects the Spanish Inquisition!'

Voir Format string syntax pour une description des options de formatage qui peuvent être spécifiées dans les chaînes de format.

Note

lors du formatage avec le format n (comme '{:n}'.format(1234)) d'un nombre (int, float, complex, decimal.Decimal et classes dérivées), la fonction met temporairement la variable LC_CTYPE à la valeur de LC_NUMERIC pour décoder correctement les attributs decimal_point et thousands_sep de localeconv(), s'ils ne sont pas en ASCII ou font plus d'un octet et que LC_NUMERIC est différent de LC_CTYPE. Ce changement temporaire affecte les autres fils d'exécution.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: lors du formatage d'un nombre avec le format n, la fonction change temporairement LC_CTYPE par la valeur de LC_NUMERIC dans certains cas.

str.format_map(mapping, /)

Semblable à str.format(**mapping), sauf que mapping est utilisé directement et non copié dans un dict. C'est utile si, par exemple, mapping est une sous-classe de dict :

>>> class Default(dict):
...     def __missing__(self, key):
...         return key
...
>>> '{name} was born in {country}'.format_map(Default(name='Guido'))
'Guido was born in country'

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

str.index(sub[, start[, end]])

Like find(), but raise ValueError when the substring is not found. For example:

>>> 'spam, spam, spam'.index('spam')
0
>>> 'spam, spam, spam'.index('eggs')
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<python-input-0>", line 1, in <module>
    'spam, spam, spam'.index('eggs')
    ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^^^^^^^
ValueError: substring not found

See also rindex().

str.isalnum()

Return True if all characters in the string are alphanumeric and there is at least one character, False otherwise. A character c is alphanumeric if one of the following returns True: c.isalpha(), c.isdecimal(), c.isdigit(), or c.isnumeric(). For example:

>>> 'abc123'.isalnum()
True
>>> 'abc123!@#'.isalnum()
False
>>> ''.isalnum()
False
>>> ' '.isalnum()
False

str.isalpha()

Return True if all characters in the string are alphabetic and there is at least one character, False otherwise. Alphabetic characters are those characters defined in the Unicode character database as "Letter", i.e., those with general category property being one of "Lm", "Lt", "Lu", "Ll", or "Lo". Note that this is different from the Alphabetic property defined in the section 4.10 'Letters, Alphabetic, and Ideographic' of the Unicode Standard [https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode16.0.0/core-spec/chapter-4/#G91002]. For example:

>>> 'Letters and spaces'.isalpha()
False
>>> 'LettersOnly'.isalpha()
True
>>> 'µ'.isalpha()  # non-ASCII characters can be considered alphabetical too
True

See Propriétés Unicode.

str.isascii()

Return True if the string is empty or all characters in the string are ASCII, False otherwise. ASCII characters have code points in the range U+0000-U+007F. For example:

>>> 'ASCII characters'.isascii()
True
>>> 'µ'.isascii()
False

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

str.isdecimal()

Return True if all characters in the string are decimal characters and there is at least one character, False otherwise. Decimal characters are those that can be used to form numbers in base 10, such as U+0660, ARABIC-INDIC DIGIT ZERO. Formally a decimal character is a character in the Unicode General Category "Nd". For example:

>>> '0123456789'.isdecimal()
True
>>> '٠١٢٣٤٥٦٧٨٩'.isdecimal()  # Arabic-Indic digits zero to nine
True
>>> 'alphabetic'.isdecimal()
False

str.isdigit()

Renvoie True si tous les caractères de la chaîne sont des chiffres et qu'elle contient au moins un caractère, False sinon. Les chiffres incluent des caractères décimaux et des chiffres qui nécessitent une manipulation particulière, tels que les compatibility superscript digits. Ça couvre les chiffres qui ne peuvent pas être utilisés pour construire des nombres en base 10, tels que les nombres de Kharosthi. Formellement, un chiffre est un caractère dont la valeur de la propriété Numeric_Type est Digit ou Decimal.

str.isidentifier()

Renvoie True si la chaîne est un identifiant valide selon la définition du langage, section Names (identifiers and keywords).

keyword.iskeyword() can be used to test whether string s is a reserved identifier, such as def and class.

Par exemple :

>>> from keyword import iskeyword

>>> 'hello'.isidentifier(), iskeyword('hello')
(True, False)
>>> 'def'.isidentifier(), iskeyword('def')
(True, True)

str.islower()

Renvoie True si tous les caractères capitalisables [4] de la chaîne sont en minuscules et qu'elle contient au moins un caractère capitalisable. Renvoie False dans le cas contraire.

str.isnumeric()

Return True if all characters in the string are numeric characters, and there is at least one character, False otherwise. Numeric characters include digit characters, and all characters that have the Unicode numeric value property, e.g. U+2155, VULGAR FRACTION ONE FIFTH. Formally, numeric characters are those with the property value Numeric_Type=Digit, Numeric_Type=Decimal or Numeric_Type=Numeric. For example:

>>> '0123456789'.isnumeric()
True
>>> '٠١٢٣٤٥٦٧٨٩'.isnumeric()  # Arabic-indic digit zero to nine
True
>>> '⅕'.isnumeric()  # Vulgar fraction one fifth
True
>>> '²'.isdecimal(), '²'.isdigit(),  '²'.isnumeric()
(False, True, True)

See also isdecimal() and isdigit(). Numeric characters are a superset of decimal numbers.

str.isprintable()

Return True if all characters in the string are printable, False if it contains at least one non-printable character.

Here "printable" means the character is suitable for repr() to use in its output; "non-printable" means that repr() on built-in types will hex-escape the character. It has no bearing on the handling of strings written to sys.stdout or sys.stderr.

The printable characters are those which in the Unicode character database (see unicodedata) have a general category in group Letter, Mark, Number, Punctuation, or Symbol (L, M, N, P, or S); plus the ASCII space 0x20. Nonprintable characters are those in group Separator or Other (Z or C), except the ASCII space.

For example:

>>> ''.isprintable(), ' '.isprintable()
(True, True)
>>> '\t'.isprintable(), '\n'.isprintable()
(False, False)

See also isspace().

str.isspace()

Renvoie True s'il n'y a que des caractères d'espacement dans la chaîne et qu'elle comporte au moins un caractère. Renvoie False dans le cas contraire.

For example:

>>> ''.isspace()
False
>>> ' '.isspace()
True
>>> '\t\n'.isspace() # TAB and BREAK LINE
True
>>> '\u3000'.isspace() # IDEOGRAPHIC SPACE
True

Un caractère est considéré comme un caractère d'espacement (whitespace en anglais) si, dans la base de données caractères Unicode (voir unicodedata), sa catégorie générale est Zs (« séparateur, espace »), ou sa classe bidirectionnelle est une de WS, B, ou S.

See also isprintable().

str.istitle()

Renvoie True si la chaîne est une chaîne titlecased et qu'elle contient au moins un caractère, par exemple les caractères majuscules ne peuvent suivre les caractères non capitalisables et les caractères minuscules ne peuvent suivre que des caractères capitalisables. Renvoie False dans le cas contraire.

For example:

>>> 'Spam, Spam, Spam'.istitle()
True
>>> 'spam, spam, spam'.istitle()
False
>>> 'SPAM, SPAM, SPAM'.istitle()
False

See also title().

str.isupper()

Renvoie True si tous les caractères différentiables sur la casse [4] de la chaîne sont en majuscules et s'il y a au moins un caractère différentiable sur la casse, sinon False.

>>> 'BANANA'.isupper()
True
>>> 'banana'.isupper()
False
>>> 'baNana'.isupper()
False
>>> ' '.isupper()
False

str.join(iterable, /)

Return a string which is the concatenation of the strings in iterable. A TypeError will be raised if there are any non-string values in iterable, including bytes objects. The separator between elements is the string providing this method. For example:

>>> ', '.join(['spam', 'spam', 'spam'])
'spam, spam, spam'
>>> '-'.join('Python')
'P-y-t-h-o-n'

See also split().

str.ljust(width, fillchar=' ', /)

Renvoie la chaîne justifiée à gauche dans une chaîne de longueur width. Le bourrage est fait en utilisant fillchar (qui par défaut est une espace ASCII). La chaîne d'origine est renvoyée si width est inférieure ou égale à len(s).

For example:

>>> 'Python'.ljust(10)
'Python    '
>>> 'Python'.ljust(10, '.')
'Python....'
>>> 'Monty Python'.ljust(10, '.')
'Monty Python'

See also rjust().

str.lower()

Return a copy of the string with all the cased characters [4] converted to lowercase. For example:

>>> 'Lower Method Example'.lower()
'lower method example'

The lowercasing algorithm used is described in section 3.13 'Default Case Folding' of the Unicode Standard [https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode16.0.0/core-spec/chapter-3/#G33992].

str.lstrip(chars=None, /)

Renvoie une copie de la chaîne avec des caractères supprimés au début. L'argument chars est une chaîne spécifiant le jeu de caractères à supprimer. En cas d'omission ou None, la valeur par défaut de chars permet de supprimer des caractères d'espacement. L'argument chars n'est pas un préfixe, toutes les combinaisons de ses valeurs sont supprimées :

>>> '   spacious   '.lstrip()
'spacious   '
>>> 'www.example.com'.lstrip('cmowz.')
'example.com'

Voir str.removeprefix() pour une méthode qui supprime une seule chaîne de préfixe plutôt que la totalité d'un ensemble de caractères. Par exemple :

>>> 'Arthur: three!'.lstrip('Arthur: ')
'ee!'
>>> 'Arthur: three!'.removeprefix('Arthur: ')
'three!'

static str.maketrans(dict, /)

static str.maketrans(from, to, remove='', /)

Cette méthode statique renvoie une table de traduction utilisable pour str.translate().

Si un seul argument est fourni, ce soit être un dictionnaire faisant correspondre des points de code Unicode (nombres entiers) ou des caractères (chaînes de longueur 1) à des points de code Unicode.

If there are two arguments, they must be strings of equal length, and in the resulting dictionary, each character in from will be mapped to the character at the same position in to. If there is a third argument, it must be a string, whose characters will be mapped to None in the result.

str.partition(sep, /)

Divise la chaîne à la première occurrence de sep, et renvoie un triplet contenant la partie avant le séparateur, le séparateur lui-même, et la partie après le séparateur. Si le séparateur n'est pas trouvé, le triplet contient la chaîne elle-même, suivie de deux chaînes vides.

For example:

>>> 'Monty Python'.partition(' ')
('Monty', ' ', 'Python')
>>> "Monty Python's Flying Circus".partition(' ')
('Monty', ' ', "Python's Flying Circus")
>>> 'Monty Python'.partition('-')
('Monty Python', '', '')

See also rpartition().

str.removeprefix(prefix, /)

If the string starts with the prefix string, return string[len(prefix):]. Otherwise, return a copy of the original string:

>>> 'TestHook'.removeprefix('Test')
'Hook'
>>> 'BaseTestCase'.removeprefix('Test')
'BaseTestCase'

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

See also removesuffix() and startswith().

str.removesuffix(suffix, /)

If the string ends with the suffix string and that suffix is not empty, return string[:-len(suffix)]. Otherwise, return a copy of the original string:

>>> 'MiscTests'.removesuffix('Tests')
'Misc'
>>> 'TmpDirMixin'.removesuffix('Tests')
'TmpDirMixin'

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

See also removeprefix() and endswith().

str.replace(old, new, /, count=-1)

Return a copy of the string with all occurrences of substring old replaced by new. If count is given, only the first count occurrences are replaced. If count is not specified or -1, then all occurrences are replaced. For example:

>>> 'spam, spam, spam'.replace('spam', 'eggs')
'eggs, eggs, eggs'
>>> 'spam, spam, spam'.replace('spam', 'eggs', 1)
'eggs, spam, spam'

Modifié dans la version 3.13: count is now supported as a keyword argument.

str.rfind(sub[, start[, end]])

Return the highest index in the string where substring sub is found, such that sub is contained within s[start:end]. Optional arguments start and end are interpreted as in slice notation. Return -1 on failure. For example:

>>> 'spam, spam, spam'.rfind('sp')
12
>>> 'spam, spam, spam'.rfind('sp', 0, 10)
6

See also find() and rindex().

str.rindex(sub[, start[, end]])

Like rfind() but raises ValueError when the substring sub is not found. For example:

>>> 'spam, spam, spam'.rindex('spam')
12
>>> 'spam, spam, spam'.rindex('eggs')
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin-0>", line 1, in <module>
    'spam, spam, spam'.rindex('eggs')
    ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^^^^^^^
ValueError: substring not found

See also index() and find().

str.rjust(width, fillchar=' ', /)

Renvoie la chaîne justifiée à droite dans une chaîne de longueur width. Le bourrage est fait en utilisant le caractère spécifié par fillchar (par défaut une espace ASCII). La chaîne d'origine est renvoyée si width est inférieure ou égale à len(s).

For example:

>>> 'Python'.rjust(10)
'    Python'
>>> 'Python'.rjust(10, '.')
'....Python'
>>> 'Monty Python'.rjust(10, '.')
'Monty Python'

See also ljust() and zfill().

str.rpartition(sep, /)

Divise la chaîne à la dernière occurrence de sep, et renvoie un triplet contenant la partie avant le séparateur, le séparateur lui-même, et la partie après le séparateur. Si le séparateur n'est pas trouvé, le triplet contient deux chaînes vides, puis la chaîne elle-même.

For example:

>>> 'Monty Python'.rpartition(' ')
('Monty', ' ', 'Python')
>>> "Monty Python's Flying Circus".rpartition(' ')
("Monty Python's Flying", ' ', 'Circus')
>>> 'Monty Python'.rpartition('-')
('', '', 'Monty Python')

See also partition().

str.rsplit(sep=None, maxsplit=-1)

Renvoie une liste des mots de la chaîne, en utilisant sep comme séparateur. Si maxsplit est donné, c'est le nombre maximum de divisions qui pourront être faites, celles « les plus à droite ». Si sep est pas spécifié ou est None, tout caractère d'espacement est un séparateur. En dehors du fait qu'il découpe par la droite, rsplit() se comporte comme split() qui est décrit en détail ci-dessous.

str.rstrip(chars=None, /)

Return a copy of the string with trailing characters removed. The chars argument is a string specifying the set of characters to be removed. If omitted or None, the chars argument defaults to removing whitespace. The chars argument is not a suffix; rather, all combinations of its values are stripped. For example:

>>> '   spacious   '.rstrip()
'   spacious'
>>> 'mississippi'.rstrip('ipz')
'mississ'

See removesuffix() for a method that will remove a single suffix string rather than all of a set of characters. For example:

>>> 'Monty Python'.rstrip(' Python')
'M'
>>> 'Monty Python'.removesuffix(' Python')
'Monty'

See also strip().

str.split(sep=None, maxsplit=-1)

Renvoie une liste des mots de la chaîne, en utilisant sep comme séparateur de mots. Si maxsplit est donné, c'est le nombre maximum de divisions qui pourront être effectuées (donnant ainsi une liste de longueur maxsplit+1). Si maxsplit n'est pas fourni, ou vaut -1, le nombre de découpes n'est pas limité (toutes les découpes possibles sont faites).

If sep is given, consecutive delimiters are not grouped together and are deemed to delimit empty strings (for example, '1,,2'.split(',') returns ['1', '', '2']). The sep argument may consist of multiple characters as a single delimiter (to split with multiple delimiters, use re.split()). Splitting an empty string with a specified separator returns [''].

Par exemple :

>>> '1,2,3'.split(',')
['1', '2', '3']
>>> '1,2,3'.split(',', maxsplit=1)
['1', '2,3']
>>> '1,2,,3,'.split(',')
['1', '2', '', '3', '']
>>> '1<>2<>3<4'.split('<>')
['1', '2', '3<4']

Si sep n'est pas spécifié ou est None, un autre algorithme de découpage est appliqué : les caractères d'espacement consécutifs sont considérés comme un seul séparateur, et le résultat ne contient pas les chaînes vides de début ou de la fin si la chaîne est préfixée ou suffixé de caractères d'espacement. Par conséquent, diviser une chaîne vide ou une chaîne composée d'espaces avec un séparateur None renvoie [].

Par exemple :

>>> '1 2 3'.split()
['1', '2', '3']
>>> '1 2 3'.split(maxsplit=1)
['1', '2 3']
>>> '   1   2   3   '.split()
['1', '2', '3']

If sep is not specified or is None and maxsplit is 0, only leading runs of consecutive whitespace are considered.

Par exemple :

>>> "".split(None, 0)
[]
>>> "   ".split(None, 0)
[]
>>> "   foo   ".split(maxsplit=0)
['foo   ']

See also join().

str.splitlines(keepends=False)

Renvoie les lignes de la chaîne sous forme de liste, la découpe se faisant au niveau des limites des lignes. Les sauts de ligne ne sont pas inclus dans la liste des résultats, sauf si keepends est donné et est vrai.

Cette méthode découpe sur les limites de ligne suivantes. Ces limites sont un sur-ensemble de universal newlines.

Représentation

Description

\n

Saut de ligne

\r

Retour chariot

\r\n

Retour chariot + saut de ligne

\v or \x0b

Tabulation verticale

\f or \x0c

Saut de page

\x1c

Séparateur de fichiers

\x1d

Séparateur de groupes

\x1e

Séparateur d'enregistrements

\x85

Ligne suivante (code de contrôle C1)

\u2028

Séparateur de ligne

\u2029

Séparateur de paragraphe

Modifié dans la version 3.2: \v et \f ajoutés à la liste des limites de lignes.

Par exemple :

>>> 'ab c\n\nde fg\rkl\r\n'.splitlines()
['ab c', '', 'de fg', 'kl']
>>> 'ab c\n\nde fg\rkl\r\n'.splitlines(keepends=True)
['ab c\n', '\n', 'de fg\r', 'kl\r\n']

Contrairement à split() lorsque sep est fourni, cette méthode renvoie une liste vide pour la chaîne vide, et un saut de ligne à la fin ne se traduit pas par une ligne supplémentaire :

>>> "".splitlines()
[]
>>> "One line\n".splitlines()
['One line']

À titre de comparaison, split('\n') donne :

>>> ''.split('\n')
['']
>>> 'Two lines\n'.split('\n')
['Two lines', '']

str.startswith(prefix[, start[, end]])

Renvoie True si la chaîne commence par prefix, sinon False. prefix peut aussi être un n-uplet de préfixes à rechercher. Lorsque start est donné, la comparaison commence à cette position et, lorsque end est donné, la comparaison s'arrête à celle-ci.

For example:

>>> 'Python'.startswith('Py')
True
>>> 'a tuple of prefixes'.startswith(('at', 'a'))
True
>>> 'Python is amazing'.startswith('is', 7)
True

See also endswith() and removeprefix().

str.strip(chars=None, /)

Return a copy of the string with the leading and trailing characters removed. The chars argument is a string specifying the set of characters to be removed. If omitted or None, the chars argument defaults to removing whitespace. The chars argument is not a prefix or suffix; rather, all combinations of its values are stripped.

For example:

>>> '   spacious   '.strip()
'spacious'
>>> 'www.example.com'.strip('cmowz.')
'example'

The outermost leading and trailing chars argument values are stripped from the string. Characters are removed from the leading end until reaching a string character that is not contained in the set of characters in chars. A similar action takes place on the trailing end.

For example:

>>> comment_string = '#....... Section 3.2.1 Issue #32 .......'
>>> comment_string.strip('.#! ')
'Section 3.2.1 Issue #32'

See also rstrip().

str.swapcase()

Renvoie une copie de la chaîne dont les caractères majuscules sont convertis en minuscules et vice versa. Notez qu'il est pas nécessairement vrai que s.swapcase().swapcase() == s.

str.title()

Renvoie une version de la chaîne où les mots commencent par une capitale et les caractères restants sont en minuscules.

Par exemple :

>>> 'Hello world'.title()
'Hello World'

Pour l'algorithme, la notion de mot est définie simplement et indépendamment de la langue comme un groupe de lettres consécutives. La définition fonctionne dans de nombreux contextes, mais cela signifie que les apostrophes (typiquement de la forme possessive en Anglais) forment les limites de mot, ce qui n'est pas toujours le résultat souhaité :

>>> "they're bill's friends from the UK".title()
"They'Re Bill'S Friends From The Uk"

La fonction string.capwords() n'a pas ce problème, car elle sépare les mots uniquement sur les espaces.

Sinon, une solution pour contourner le problème des apostrophes est d'utiliser des expressions rationnelles :

>>> import re
>>> def titlecase(s):
...     return re.sub(r"[A-Za-z]+('[A-Za-z]+)?",
...                   lambda mo: mo.group(0).capitalize(),
...                   s)
...
>>> titlecase("they're bill's friends.")
"They're Bill's Friends."

See also istitle().

str.translate(table, /)

Return a copy of the string in which each character has been mapped through the given translation table. The table must be an object that implements indexing via __getitem__(), typically a mapping or sequence. When indexed by a Unicode ordinal (an integer), the table object can do any of the following: return a Unicode ordinal or a string, to map the character to one or more other characters; return None, to delete the character from the return string; or raise a LookupError exception, to map the character to itself.

Vous pouvez utiliser str.maketrans() pour créer une table de correspondances de caractères dans différents formats.

Voir aussi le module codecs pour une approche plus souple de changements de caractères par correspondance.

str.upper()

Renvoie une copie de la chaîne où tous les caractères capitalisables [4] ont été convertis en capitales. Notez que s.upper().isupper() peut être False si s contient des caractères non capitalisables ou si la catégorie Unicode d'un caractère du résultat n'est pas "Lu" (Letter, uppercase), mais par exemple "Lt" (Letter, titlecase).

The uppercasing algorithm used is described in section 3.13 'Default Case Folding' of the Unicode Standard [https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode16.0.0/core-spec/chapter-3/#G33992].

str.zfill(width, /)

Renvoie une copie de la chaîne remplie par la gauche du chiffre (le caractère ASCII) '0' pour faire une chaîne de longueur width. Un préfixe ('+' / '-') est permis par l'insertion du caractère de bourrage après le caractère désigné plutôt qu'avant. La chaîne d'origine est renvoyée si width est inférieure ou égale à len(s).

For example:

>>> "42".zfill(5)
'00042'
>>> "-42".zfill(5)
'-0042'

See also rjust().

Formatted String Literals (f-strings)

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: The await and async for can be used in expressions within f-strings.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added the debug specifier (=)

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Many restrictions on expressions within f-strings have been removed. Notably, nested strings, comments, and backslashes are now permitted.

An f-string (formally a formatted string literal) is a string literal that is prefixed with f or F. This type of string literal allows embedding the results of arbitrary Python expressions within replacement fields, which are delimited by curly brackets ({}). Each replacement field must contain an expression, optionally followed by:

a debug specifier -- an equal sign (=);

a conversion specifier -- !s, !r or !a; and/or

a format specifier prefixed with a colon (:).

See the Lexical Analysis section on f-strings for details on the syntax of these fields.

Debug specifier

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

If a debug specifier -- an equal sign (=) -- appears after the replacement field expression, the resulting f-string will contain the expression's source, the equal sign, and the value of the expression. This is often useful for debugging:

>>> number = 14.3
>>> f'{number=}'
'number=14.3'

Whitespace before, inside and after the expression, as well as whitespace after the equal sign, is significant --- it is retained in the result:

>>> f'{ number  -  4  = }'
' number  -  4  = 10.3'

Conversion specifier

By default, the value of a replacement field expression is converted to a string using str():

>>> from fractions import Fraction
>>> one_third = Fraction(1, 3)
>>> f'{one_third}'
'1/3'

When a debug specifier but no format specifier is used, the default conversion instead uses repr():

>>> f'{one_third = }'
'one_third = Fraction(1, 3)'

The conversion can be specified explicitly using one of these specifiers:

!s for str()

!r for repr()

!a for ascii()

Par exemple :

>>> str(one_third)
'1/3'
>>> repr(one_third)
'Fraction(1, 3)'

>>> f'{one_third!s} is {one_third!r}'
'1/3 is Fraction(1, 3)'

>>> string = "¡kočka 😸!"
>>> ascii(string)
"'\\xa1ko\\u010dka \\U0001f638!'"

>>> f'{string = !a}'
"string = '\\xa1ko\\u010dka \\U0001f638!'"

Format specifier

After the expression has been evaluated, and possibly converted using an explicit conversion specifier, it is formatted using the format() function. If the replacement field includes a format specifier introduced by a colon (:), the specifier is passed to format() as the second argument. The result of format() is then used as the final value for the replacement field. For example:

>>> from fractions import Fraction
>>> one_third = Fraction(1, 3)
>>> f'{one_third:.6f}'
'0.333333'
>>> f'{one_third:_^+10}'
'___+1/3___'
>>> >>> f'{one_third!r:_^20}'
'___Fraction(1, 3)___'
>>> f'{one_third = :~>10}~'
'one_third = ~~~~~~~1/3~'

Template String Literals (t-strings)

An t-string (formally a template string literal) is a string literal that is prefixed with t or T.

These strings follow the same syntax and evaluation rules as formatted string literals, with for the following differences:

Rather than evaluating to a str object, template string literals evaluate to a string.templatelib.Template object.

The format() protocol is not used. Instead, the format specifier and conversions (if any) are passed to a new Interpolation object that is created for each evaluated expression. It is up to code that processes the resulting Template object to decide how to handle format specifiers and conversions.

Format specifiers containing nested replacement fields are evaluated eagerly, prior to being passed to the Interpolation object. For instance, an interpolation of the form {amount:.{precision}f} will evaluate the inner expression {precision} to determine the value of the format_spec attribute. If precision were to be 2, the resulting format specifier would be '.2f'.

When the equals sign '=' is provided in an interpolation expression, the text of the expression is appended to the literal string that precedes the relevant interpolation. This includes the equals sign and any surrounding whitespace. The Interpolation instance for the expression will be created as normal, except that conversion will be set to 'r' (repr()) by default. If an explicit conversion or format specifier are provided, this will override the default behaviour.

Formatage de chaines à la printf

Note

The formatting operations described here exhibit a variety of quirks that lead to a number of common errors (such as failing to display tuples and dictionaries correctly).

Using formatted string literals, the str.format() interface, or string.Template may help avoid these errors. Each of these alternatives provides their own trade-offs and benefits of simplicity, flexibility, and/or extensibility.

String objects have one unique built-in operation: the % operator (modulo). This is also known as the string formatting or interpolation operator. Given format % values (where format is a string), % conversion specifications in format are replaced with zero or more elements of values. The effect is similar to using the sprintf() function in the C language. For example:

>>> print('%s has %d quote types.' % ('Python', 2))
Python has 2 quote types.

Si format ne nécessite qu'un seul argument, values peut être un objet unique [5]. Si values est un n-uplet, il doit contenir exactement le nombre d'éléments spécifiés par la chaîne de format, ou un seul objet tableau de correspondances (mapping object, par exemple, un dictionnaire).

Un indicateur de conversion contient deux ou plusieurs caractères et comporte les éléments suivants, qui doivent apparaître dans cet ordre :

le caractère '%', qui marque le début du marqueur ;

la clé de correspondance (facultative), composée d'une suite de caractères entre parenthèses (par exemple, (somename)) ;

des indications de conversion, facultatives, qui affectent le résultat de certains types de conversion ;

largeur minimum (facultative). Si elle vaut '*' (astérisque), la largeur est lue de l'élément suivant du n-uplet values, et l'objet à convertir vient après la largeur de champ minimale et la précision facultative ;

précision (facultatif), donnée sous la forme d'un '.' (point) suivi de la précision. Si la précision est '*' (un astérisque), la précision est lue à partir de l'élément suivant du n-uplet values et la valeur à convertir vient ensuite ;

modificateur de longueur (facultatif) ;

type de conversion.

Lorsque l'argument de droite est un dictionnaire (ou un autre type de tableau de correspondances), les marqueurs dans la chaîne doivent inclure une clé présente dans le dictionnaire, écrite entre parenthèses, immédiatement après le caractère '%'. La clé indique quelle valeur du dictionnaire doit être formatée. Par exemple :

>>> print('%(language)s has %(number)03d quote types.' %
...       {'language': "Python", "number": 2})
Python has 002 quote types.

Dans ce cas, aucune * ne peut se trouver dans le format (car ces * nécessitent une liste (accès séquentiel) de paramètres).

Les caractères indicateurs de conversion sont :

Option

Signification

'#'

La conversion utilise la « forme alternative » (définie ci-dessous).

'0'

Les valeurs numériques converties sont complétées de zéros.

'-'

La valeur convertie est ajustée à gauche (remplace la conversion '0' si les deux sont données).

' '

(une espace) Une espace doit être laissée avant un nombre positif (ou chaîne vide) produite par la conversion d'une valeur signée.

'+'

Un caractère de signe ('+' ou '-') précède la valeur convertie (remplace le marqueur « espace »).

Un modificateur de longueur (h, l ou L) peut être présent, mais est ignoré car il est pas nécessaire pour Python, donc par exemple %ld est identique à %d.

Les types utilisables dans les conversions sont :

Conversion

Signification

Notes

'd'

Entier décimal signé.

'i'

Entier décimal signé.

'o'

Valeur octale signée.

(1)

'u'

Type obsolète — identique à 'd'.

(6)

'x'

Hexadécimal signé (en minuscules).

(2)

'X'

Hexadécimal signé (capitales).

(2)

'e'

Floating-point exponential format (lowercase).

(3)

'E'

Floating-point exponential format (uppercase).

(3)

'f'

Floating-point decimal format.

(3)

'F'

Floating-point decimal format.

(3)

'g'

Floating-point format. Uses lowercase exponential format if exponent is less than -4 or not less than precision, decimal format otherwise.

(4)

'G'

Floating-point format. Uses uppercase exponential format if exponent is less than -4 or not less than precision, decimal format otherwise.

(4)

'c'

Un seul caractère (accepte des entiers ou une chaîne d'un seul caractère).

'r'

String (convertit n'importe quel objet Python avec repr()).

(5)

's'

String (convertit n'importe quel objet Python avec str()).

(5)

'a'

String (convertit n'importe quel objet Python en utilisant ascii()).

(5)

'%'

Aucun argument n'est converti, donne un caractère de '%' dans le résultat.

For floating-point formats, the result should be correctly rounded to a given precision p of digits after the decimal point. The rounding mode matches that of the round() builtin.

Notes :

La forme alternative entraîne l'insertion d'un préfixe octal ('0o') avant le premier chiffre.

La forme alternative entraîne l'insertion d'un préfixe '0x' ou '0X' (respectivement pour les formats 'x' et 'X') avant le premier chiffre.

La forme alternative implique la présence d'un point décimal, même si aucun chiffre ne le suit.

La précision détermine le nombre de chiffres après la virgule, 6 par défaut.

La forme alternative implique la présence d'un point décimal et les zéros non significatifs sont conservés (ils ne le seraient pas autrement).

La précision détermine le nombre de chiffres significatifs avant et après la virgule. 6 par défaut.

Si la précision est N, la sortie est tronquée à N caractères.

Voir la PEP 237 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0237/].

Puisque les chaînes Python ont une longueur explicite, les conversions %s ne considèrent pas '\0' comme la fin de la chaîne.

Modifié dans la version 3.1: les conversions %f des nombres dont la valeur absolue est supérieure à 1e50 ne sont plus remplacées par des conversions %g.

Séquences Binaires — bytes, bytearray, vue mémoire

Les principaux types natifs pour manipuler des données binaires sont bytes et bytearray. Ils sont gérés par les vues mémoire qui utilisent le protocole tampon pour accéder à la mémoire d'autres objets binaires sans avoir besoin d'en faire une copie.

Le module array permet le stockage efficace de types basiques comme les entiers de 32 bits et les float double précision IEEE754.

Objets bytes

Les bytes sont des séquences immuables d'octets. Comme beaucoup de protocoles binaires utilisent l'ASCII, les objets bytes offrent plusieurs méthodes qui ne sont valables que lors de la manipulation de données ASCII et sont étroitement liés aux objets str dans bien d'autres aspects.

class bytes(source=b'')

class bytes(source, encoding, errors='strict')

Tout d'abord, la syntaxe des bytes littéraux est en grande partie la même que pour les chaînes littérales, en dehors du préfixe b :

entre guillemets simples : b'cela autorise les guillemets "doubles"' ;

entre guillemets (anglais) : b"cela permet aussi les guillemets 'simples'" ;

entre guillemets triples : b'''3 single quotes''', b"""3 double quotes""".

Seuls les caractères ASCII sont autorisés dans les littéraux de bytes (quel que soit l'encodage du code source déclaré). Toutes les valeurs au-delà de 127 doivent être écrites en utilisant une séquence d'échappement appropriée.

Comme avec les chaînes littérales, les bytes littéraux peuvent également utiliser un préfixe r pour désactiver le traitement des séquences d'échappement. Voir Littéraux de chaînes de caractères et de suites d'octets pour plus d'informations sur les différentes formes littérales de bytes, y compris les séquences d'échappement gérées.

Bien que les bytes littéraux, et leur représentation, soient basés sur du texte ASCII, les bytes se comportent en fait comme des séquences immuables de nombres entiers, dont les valeurs sont restreintes dans l'intervalle 0 <= x < 256 (ne pas respecter cette restriction lève une ValueError). C'est délibéré afin de souligner que, bien que de nombreux encodages binaires soient compatibles avec l'ASCII, et peuvent être manipulés avec des algorithmes orientés texte, ce n'est généralement pas le cas pour les données binaires arbitraires (appliquer aveuglément des algorithmes de texte sur des données binaires qui ne sont pas compatibles ASCII conduit généralement à leur corruption).

En plus des formes littérales, des objets bytes peuvent être créés par de nombreux moyens :

un objet bytes rempli de zéros d'une longueur spécifiée : bytes(10) ;

un itérable d'entiers : bytes(range(20)) ;

la copie de données binaires existantes via le protocole tampon : bytes(obj).

Voir aussi la fonction native bytes.

Puisque 2 chiffres hexadécimaux correspondent précisément à un seul octet, les nombres hexadécimaux sont un format couramment utilisé pour décrire les données binaires. Par conséquent, le type bytes a une méthode de classe pour lire des données dans ce format :

classmethod fromhex(string, /)

Cette méthode de la classe bytes renvoie un objet bytes, décodant la chaîne donnée. La chaîne doit contenir deux chiffres hexadécimaux par octet, les espaces ASCII sont ignorés.

>>> bytes.fromhex('2Ef0 F1f2  ')
b'.\xf0\xf1\xf2'

Modifié dans la version 3.7: bytes.fromhex() saute maintenant dans la chaîne tous les caractères ASCII d'espacement, pas seulement les espaces.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: bytes.fromhex() now accepts ASCII bytes and bytes-like objects as input.

Une fonction de conversion inverse existe pour transformer un objet bytes en sa représentation hexadécimale.

hex(*, bytes_per_sep=1)

hex(sep, bytes_per_sep=1)

Renvoie une chaîne contenant deux chiffres hexadécimaux pour chaque octet de l'instance.

>>> b'\xf0\xf1\xf2'.hex()
'f0f1f2'

Si vous voulez obtenir une chaîne hexadécimale plus facile à lire, vous pouvez spécifier le paramètre sep comme « caractère de séparation », à inclure dans la sortie. Par défaut, ce caractère est inséré entre chaque octet. Un second paramètre optionnel bytes_per_sep contrôle l'espacement. Les valeurs positives calculent la position du séparateur en partant de la droite, les valeurs négatives de la gauche.

>>> value = b'\xf0\xf1\xf2'
>>> value.hex('-')
'f0-f1-f2'
>>> value.hex('_', 2)
'f0_f1f2'
>>> b'UUDDLRLRAB'.hex(' ', -4)
'55554444 4c524c52 4142'

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: bytes.hex() prend désormais en charge les paramètres optionnels sep et bytes_per_sep pour insérer des séparateurs entre les octets dans la sortie hexadécimale.

Comme les objets bytes sont des séquences d'entiers (semblables à un n-uplet), pour une instance de bytes b, b[0] est un entier, tandis que b[0:1] est un objet bytes de longueur 1. (Cela contraste avec les chaînes, où un indice et le découpage donnent une chaîne de longueur 1.)

La représentation des bytes utilise le format littéral (b'...') car il est souvent plus utile que par exemple bytes([46, 46, 46]). Vous pouvez toujours convertir un bytes en liste d'entiers en utilisant list(b).

Objets bytearray

Les objets bytearray sont l'équivalent mutable des objets bytes.

class bytearray(source=b'')

class bytearray(source, encoding, errors='strict')

Il n'y a pas de syntaxe littérale dédiée aux bytearray, ils sont toujours créés en appelant le constructeur :

créer une instance vide : bytearray() ;

crée une instance remplie de zéros d'une longueur donnée : bytearray(10) ;

à partir d'un itérable d'entiers : bytearray(range(20)) ;

copie des données binaires existantes via le protocole tampon : bytearray(b'Hi!').

Comme les bytearray sont mutables, ils prennent en charge les opérations de séquences mutables en plus des opérations communes de bytes et bytearray décrites dans Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray.

Voir aussi la fonction native bytearray.

Puisque 2 chiffres hexadécimaux correspondent précisément à un octet, les nombres hexadécimaux sont un format couramment utilisé pour décrire les données binaires. Par conséquent, le type bytearray a une méthode de classe pour lire les données dans ce format :

classmethod fromhex(string, /)

Cette méthode de la classe bytearray renvoie un objet bytearray, décodant la chaîne donnée. La chaîne doit contenir deux chiffres hexadécimaux par octet, les caractères d'espacement ASCII sont ignorés.

>>> bytearray.fromhex('2Ef0 F1f2  ')
bytearray(b'.\xf0\xf1\xf2')

Modifié dans la version 3.7: bytearray.fromhex() saute maintenant tous les caractères d'espacement ASCII dans la chaîne, pas seulement les espaces.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: bytearray.fromhex() now accepts ASCII bytes and bytes-like objects as input.

Une fonction de conversion inverse existe pour transformer un objet bytearray en sa représentation hexadécimale.

hex(*, bytes_per_sep=1)

hex(sep, bytes_per_sep=1)

Renvoie une chaîne contenant deux chiffres hexadécimaux pour chaque octet de l'instance.

>>> bytearray(b'\xf0\xf1\xf2').hex()
'f0f1f2'

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: similaire à bytes.hex(), bytearray.hex() prend désormais en charge les paramètres optionnels sep et bytes_per_sep pour insérer des séparateurs entre les octets dans la sortie hexadécimale.

resize(size, /)

Resize the bytearray to contain size bytes. size must be greater than or equal to 0.

If the bytearray needs to shrink, bytes beyond size are truncated.

If the bytearray needs to grow, all new bytes, those beyond size, will be set to null bytes.

This is equivalent to:

>>> def resize(ba, size):
...     if len(ba) > size:
...         del ba[size:]
...     else:
...         ba += b'\0' * (size - len(ba))

Examples:

>>> shrink = bytearray(b'abc')
>>> shrink.resize(1)
>>> (shrink, len(shrink))
(bytearray(b'a'), 1)
>>> grow = bytearray(b'abc')
>>> grow.resize(5)
>>> (grow, len(grow))
(bytearray(b'abc\x00\x00'), 5)

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Comme les bytearray sont des séquences d'entiers (semblables à une liste), pour un objet bytearray b, b[0] est un entier, tandis que b[0:1] est un objet bytearray de longueur 1. (Ceci contraste avec les chaînes de texte, où l'indice et le découpage produisent une chaîne de longueur 1)

La représentation des objets bytearray utilise le format littéral des bytes (bytearray(b'...')) car il est souvent plus utile que par exemple bytearray([46, 46, 46]). Vous pouvez toujours convertir un objet bytearray en une liste de nombres entiers en utilisant list(b).

Voir aussi

For detailed information on thread-safety guarantees for bytearray objects, see Thread safety for bytearray objects.

Opérations sur les bytes et bytearray

bytes et bytearray prennent en charge les opérations communes des séquences. Ils interagissent non seulement avec des opérandes de même type, mais aussi avec les objets octet-compatibles. En raison de cette flexibilité, ils peuvent être mélangés librement dans des opérations sans provoquer d'erreurs. Cependant, le type du résultat peut dépendre de l'ordre des opérandes.

Note

les méthodes sur les bytes et les bytearray n'acceptent pas les chaînes comme arguments, tout comme les méthodes sur les chaînes n'acceptent pas les bytes comme arguments. Par exemple, vous devez écrire :

a = "abc"
b = a.replace("a", "f")

et :

a = b"abc"
b = a.replace(b"a", b"f")

Quelques opérations de bytes et bytesarray supposent l'utilisation de formats binaires compatibles ASCII, et donc doivent être évités lorsque vous travaillez avec des données binaires arbitraires. Ces restrictions sont couvertes ci-dessous.

Note

utiliser ces opérations basées sur l'ASCII pour manipuler des données binaires qui ne sont pas au format ASCII peut les corrompre.

Les méthodes suivantes sur les bytes et bytearray peuvent être utilisées avec des données binaires arbitraires.

bytes.count(sub[, start[, end]])

bytearray.count(sub[, start[, end]])

Renvoie le nombre d'occurrences qui ne se chevauchent pas de la sous-séquence sub dans l'intervalle [start, end]. Les arguments facultatifs start et end sont interprétés comme dans la notation des découpages.

La sous-séquence à rechercher peut être un quelconque objet octet-compatible ou un nombre entier compris entre 0 et 255.

Si sub est vide, renvoie le nombre de tranches vides entre les caractères de début et de fin, ce qui correspond à la longueur de l'objet bytes plus un.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: accepte aussi un nombre entier compris entre 0 et 255 comme sous-séquence.

bytes.removeprefix(prefix, /)

bytearray.removeprefix(prefix, /)

Si les données binaires commencent par la chaîne prefix, renvoie bytes[len(prefix):]. Sinon, renvoie une copie des données binaires d'origine :

>>> b'TestHook'.removeprefix(b'Test')
b'Hook'
>>> b'BaseTestCase'.removeprefix(b'Test')
b'BaseTestCase'

Le prefix peut être n'importe quel objet octet-compatible.

Note

la version bytearray de cette méthode ne modifie pas les octets, elle produit toujours un nouvel objet, même si aucune modification n'a été effectuée.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

bytes.removesuffix(suffix, /)

bytearray.removesuffix(suffix, /)

Si les données binaires terminent par la chaîne suffix, renvoie bytes[:-len(suffix)]. Sinon, renvoie une copie des données binaires d'origine :

>>> b'MiscTests'.removesuffix(b'Tests')
b'Misc'
>>> b'TmpDirMixin'.removesuffix(b'Tests')
b'TmpDirMixin'

Le suffix peut être n'importe quel objet octet-compatible.

Note

la version bytearray de cette méthode ne modifie pas les octets, elle produit toujours un nouvel objet, même si aucune modification n'a été effectuée.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

bytes.decode(encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

bytearray.decode(encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

Renvoie la chaine d'octets décodée en instance de str.

encoding vaut par défaut utf-8 ; pour une liste des encodages possibles, voir la section Standard Encodings.

errors détermine la manière dont sont traitées les erreurs. Sa valeur par défaut est 'strict', ce qui signifie que les erreurs d'encodage lèvent une UnicodeError. Les autres valeurs possibles sont 'ignore', 'replace' et tout autre nom enregistré via codecs.register_error(), voir la section Gestionnaires d'erreurs pour les détails.

Pour des raisons de performances, la valeur de errors n'est pas vérifiée à moins qu'une erreur de décodage ne se produise réellement, que le mode développeur ne soit activé ou que Python ait été compilé en mode débogage.

Note

passer l'argument encoding à str permet de décoder tout objet octet-compatible directement, sans avoir besoin d'utiliser un bytes ou bytearray temporaire.

Modifié dans la version 3.1: gère les arguments nommés.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: les valeurs de errors sont maintenant vérifiées en mode de développement et en mode de débogage.

bytes.endswith(suffix[, start[, end]])

bytearray.endswith(suffix[, start[, end]])

Renvoie True si les octets se terminent par suffix, sinon False. suffix peut aussi être un n-uplet de suffixes à rechercher. Avec l'argument optionnel start, la recherche se fait à partir de cette position. Avec l'argument optionnel end, la comparaison s'arrête à cette position.

Les suffixes à rechercher peuvent être n'importe quel objet octet-compatible.

bytes.find(sub[, start[, end]])

bytearray.find(sub[, start[, end]])

Renvoie la première position où le sub se trouve dans les données, de telle sorte que sub soit contenue dans s[start:end]. Les arguments facultatifs start et end sont interprétés comme dans la notation des découpages. Renvoie -1 si sub n'est pas trouvé.

La sous-séquence à rechercher peut être un quelconque objet octet-compatible ou un nombre entier compris entre 0 et 255.

Note

la méthode find() ne doit être utilisée que si vous avez besoin de connaître la position de sub. Pour vérifier si sub est présent ou non, utilisez l'opérateur in :

>>> b'Py' in b'Python'
True

Modifié dans la version 3.3: accepte aussi un nombre entier compris entre 0 et 255 comme sous-séquence.

bytes.index(sub[, start[, end]])

bytearray.index(sub[, start[, end]])

Comme find(), mais lève une ValueError lorsque la séquence est introuvable.

La sous-séquence à rechercher peut être un quelconque objet octet-compatible ou un nombre entier compris entre 0 et 255.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: accepte aussi un nombre entier compris entre 0 et 255 comme sous-séquence.

bytes.join(iterable, /)

bytearray.join(iterable, /)

Renvoie un bytes ou bytearray qui est la concaténation des séquences de données binaires dans iterable. Une exception TypeError est levée si une valeur d'iterable n'est pas un objet octet-compatible, y compris pour des str. Le séparateur entre les éléments est le contenu du bytes ou du bytearray depuis lequel cette méthode est appelée.

static bytes.maketrans(from, to, /)

static bytearray.maketrans(from, to, /)

Cette méthode statique renvoie une table de traduction utilisable par bytes.translate() qui permettra de changer chaque caractère de from par un caractère à la même position dans to ; from et to doivent tous deux être des objets octet-compatibles et avoir la même longueur.

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

bytes.partition(sep, /)

bytearray.partition(sep, /)

Divise la séquence à la première occurrence de sep, et renvoie un triplet contenant la partie précédant le séparateur, le séparateur lui-même (ou sa copie en byterray), et la partie suivant le séparateur. Si le séparateur n'est pas trouvé, le triplet renvoyé contient une copie de la séquence d'origine, suivi de deux bytes ou bytearray vides.

Le séparateur à rechercher peut être tout objet octet-compatible.

bytes.replace(old, new, count=-1, /)

bytearray.replace(old, new, count=-1, /)

Renvoie une copie de la séquence dont toutes les occurrences de la sous-séquence old sont remplacées par new. Si l'argument optionnel count est donné, seules les count premières occurrences sont remplacées.

La sous-séquence à rechercher et son remplacement peuvent être n'importe quel objet octet-compatible.

Note

la version bytearray de cette méthode ne modifie pas les octets, elle produit toujours un nouvel objet, même si aucune modification n'a été effectuée.

bytes.rfind(sub[, start[, end]])

bytearray.rfind(sub[, start[, end]])

Renvoie la plus grande position de sub dans la séquence, de telle sorte que sub soit dans s[start:end]. Les arguments facultatifs start et end sont interprétés comme dans la notation des découpages. Renvoie -1 si sub n'est pas trouvable.

La sous-séquence à rechercher peut être un quelconque objet octet-compatible ou un nombre entier compris entre 0 et 255.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: accepte aussi un nombre entier compris entre 0 et 255 comme sous-séquence.

bytes.rindex(sub[, start[, end]])

bytearray.rindex(sub[, start[, end]])

Semblable à rfind() mais lève une ValueError lorsque sub est introuvable.

La sous-séquence à rechercher peut être un quelconque objet octet-compatible ou un nombre entier compris entre 0 et 255.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: accepte aussi un nombre entier compris entre 0 et 255 comme sous-séquence.

bytes.rpartition(sep, /)

bytearray.rpartition(sep, /)

Coupe la séquence à la dernière occurrence de sep, et renvoie un triplet de trois éléments contenant la partie précédant le séparateur, le séparateur lui-même (ou sa copie, un bytearray), et la partie suivant le séparateur. Si le séparateur n'est pas trouvé, le triplet contient deux bytes ou bytesarray vides suivi d’une copie de la séquence d'origine.

Le séparateur à rechercher peut être tout objet octet-compatible.

bytes.startswith(prefix[, start[, end]])

bytearray.startswith(prefix[, start[, end]])

Renvoie True si les données binaires commencent par le prefix spécifié, sinon False. prefix peut aussi être un n-uplet de préfixes à rechercher. Avec l'argument start la recherche commence à cette position. Avec l'argument end option, la recherche s'arrête à cette position.

Les préfixes à rechercher peuvent être n'importe quels objets octet-compatibles.

bytes.translate(table, /, delete=b'')

bytearray.translate(table, /, delete=b'')

Renvoie une copie du bytes ou bytearray dont tous les octets de delete sont supprimés, et les octets restants changés par la table de correspondance donnée, qui doit être un objet bytes d'une longueur de 256.

Vous pouvez utiliser la méthode bytes.maketrans() pour créer une table de correspondance.

Donnez None comme table pour seulement supprimer des caractères :

>>> b'read this short text'.translate(None, b'aeiou')
b'rd ths shrt txt'

Modifié dans la version 3.6: delete est maintenant accepté comme argument nommé.

Les méthodes suivantes sur les bytes et bytearray supposent par défaut que les données traitées sont compatibles ASCII, mais peuvent toujours être utilisées avec des données binaires, arbitraires, en passant des arguments appropriés. Notez que toutes les méthodes de bytearray de cette section ne travaillent jamais sur l'objet lui-même, mais renvoient un nouvel objet.

bytes.center(width, fillbyte=b' ', /)

bytearray.center(width, fillbyte=b' ', /)

Renvoie une copie de l'objet centrée dans une séquence de longueur width. Le remplissage est fait en utilisant fillbyte (qui par défaut est une espace ASCII). Pour les objets bytes, la séquence initiale est renvoyée si width est inférieure ou égale à len(s).

Note

la version bytearray de cette méthode ne modifie pas les octets, elle produit toujours un nouvel objet, même si aucune modification n'a été effectuée.

bytes.ljust(width, fillbyte=b' ', /)

bytearray.ljust(width, fillbyte=b' ', /)

Renvoie une copie de l'objet aligné à gauche dans une séquence de longueur width. Le remplissage est fait en utilisant fillbyte (par défaut un espace ASCII). Pour les objets bytes, la séquence initiale est renvoyée si width est inférieure ou égale à len(s).

Note

la version bytearray de cette méthode ne modifie pas les octets, elle produit toujours un nouvel objet, même si aucune modification n'a été effectuée.

bytes.lstrip(bytes=None, /)

bytearray.lstrip(bytes=None, /)

Return a copy of the sequence with specified leading bytes removed. The bytes argument is a binary sequence specifying the set of byte values to be removed. If omitted or None, the bytes argument defaults to removing ASCII whitespace. The bytes argument is not a prefix; rather, all combinations of its values are stripped:

>>> b'   spacious   '.lstrip()
b'spacious   '
>>> b'www.example.com'.lstrip(b'cmowz.')
b'example.com'

Les octets à retirer peuvent être n'importe quel bytes-like object. Voir removeprefix() pour une méthode qui supprime, au début de la séquence, la chaîne de caractères en tant que telle plutôt que l'ensemble des caractères passés en paramètre. Par exemple :

>>> b'Arthur: three!'.lstrip(b'Arthur: ')
b'ee!'
>>> b'Arthur: three!'.removeprefix(b'Arthur: ')
b'three!'

Note

la version bytearray de cette méthode ne modifie pas les octets, elle produit toujours un nouvel objet, même si aucune modification n'a été effectuée.

bytes.rjust(width, fillbyte=b' ', /)

bytearray.rjust(width, fillbyte=b' ', /)

Renvoie une copie de l'objet justifié à droite dans une séquence de longueur width. Le remplissage est fait en utilisant le caractère fillbyte (par défaut est un espace ASCII). Pour les objets bytes, la séquence d'origine est renvoyée si width est inférieure ou égale à len(s).

Note

la version bytearray de cette méthode ne modifie pas les octets, elle produit toujours un nouvel objet, même si aucune modification n'a été effectuée.

bytes.rsplit(sep=None, maxsplit=-1)

bytearray.rsplit(sep=None, maxsplit=-1)

Divise la séquence d'octets en sous-séquences du même type, en utilisant sep comme séparateur. Si maxsplit est donné, c'est le nombre maximum de divisions qui pourront être faites, celles "à droite". Si sep est pas spécifié ou est None, toute sous-séquence composée uniquement d'espaces ASCII est un séparateur. En dehors du fait qu'il découpe par la droite, rsplit() se comporte comme split() qui est décrit en détail ci-dessous.

bytes.rstrip(bytes=None, /)

bytearray.rstrip(bytes=None, /)

Return a copy of the sequence with specified trailing bytes removed. The bytes argument is a binary sequence specifying the set of byte values to be removed. If omitted or None, the bytes argument defaults to removing ASCII whitespace. The bytes argument is not a suffix; rather, all combinations of its values are stripped:

>>> b'   spacious   '.rstrip()
b'   spacious'
>>> b'mississippi'.rstrip(b'ipz')
b'mississ'

Les octets à retirer peuvent être n'importe quel bytes-like object. Voir removesuffix() pour une méthode qui supprime, à la fin de la séquence, la chaîne de caractères en tant que telle plutôt que l'ensemble des caractères passés en paramètre. Par exemple :

>>> b'Monty Python'.rstrip(b' Python')
b'M'
>>> b'Monty Python'.removesuffix(b' Python')
b'Monty'

Note

la version bytearray de cette méthode ne modifie pas les octets, elle produit toujours un nouvel objet, même si aucune modification n'a été effectuée.

bytes.split(sep=None, maxsplit=-1)

bytearray.split(sep=None, maxsplit=-1)

Divise la séquence en sous-séquences du même type, en utilisant sep comme séparateur. Si maxsplit est donné, c'est le nombre maximum de divisions qui pourront être faites (la liste aura donc au plus maxsplit+1 éléments), Si maxsplit n'est pas spécifié ou faut -1, il n'y a aucune limite au nombre de découpes (elles sont toutes effectuées).

If sep is given, consecutive delimiters are not grouped together and are deemed to delimit empty subsequences (for example, b'1,,2'.split(b',') returns [b'1', b'', b'2']). The sep argument may consist of a multibyte sequence as a single delimiter. Splitting an empty sequence with a specified separator returns [b''] or [bytearray(b'')] depending on the type of object being split. The sep argument may be any bytes-like object.

Par exemple :

>>> b'1,2,3'.split(b',')
[b'1', b'2', b'3']
>>> b'1,2,3'.split(b',', maxsplit=1)
[b'1', b'2,3']
>>> b'1,2,,3,'.split(b',')
[b'1', b'2', b'', b'3', b'']
>>> b'1<>2<>3<4'.split(b'<>')
[b'1', b'2', b'3<4']

Si sep n'est pas spécifié ou est None, un autre algorithme de découpe est appliqué : les espaces ASCII consécutifs sont considérés comme un seul séparateur, et le résultat ne contiendra pas les chaînes vides de début ou de la fin si la chaîne est préfixée ou suffixé d'espaces. Par conséquent, diviser une séquence vide ou une séquence composée d'espaces ASCII avec un séparateur None renvoie [].

Par exemple :

>>> b'1 2 3'.split()
[b'1', b'2', b'3']
>>> b'1 2 3'.split(maxsplit=1)
[b'1', b'2 3']
>>> b'   1   2   3   '.split()
[b'1', b'2', b'3']

bytes.strip(bytes=None, /)

bytearray.strip(bytes=None, /)

Return a copy of the sequence with specified leading and trailing bytes removed. The bytes argument is a binary sequence specifying the set of byte values to be removed. If omitted or None, the bytes argument defaults to removing ASCII whitespace. The bytes argument is not a prefix or suffix; rather, all combinations of its values are stripped:

>>> b'   spacious   '.strip()
b'spacious'
>>> b'www.example.com'.strip(b'cmowz.')
b'example'

Les octets à retirer peuvent être tout bytes-like object.

Note

la version bytearray de cette méthode ne modifie pas les octets, elle produit toujours un nouvel objet, même si aucune modification n'a été effectuée.

Les méthodes suivantes sur les bytes et bytearray supposent l'utilisation d'un format binaire compatible ASCII, et donc doivent être évités lorsque vous travaillez avec des données binaires arbitraires. Notez que toutes les méthodes de bytearray de cette section ne modifient pas les octets, ils produisent de nouveaux objets.

bytes.capitalize()

bytearray.capitalize()

Renvoie une copie de la séquence dont chaque octet est interprété comme un caractère ASCII, le premier octet en capitale et le reste en minuscules. Les octets non ASCII ne sont pas modifiés.

Note

la version bytearray de cette méthode ne modifie pas les octets, elle produit toujours un nouvel objet, même si aucune modification n'a été effectuée.

bytes.expandtabs(tabsize=8)

bytearray.expandtabs(tabsize=8)

Renvoie une copie de la séquence où toutes les tabulations ASCII sont remplacées par un ou plusieurs espaces ASCII, en fonction de la colonne courante et de la taille de tabulation donnée. Les positions des tabulations se trouvent tous les tabsize caractères (8 par défaut, ce qui donne les positions de tabulations aux colonnes 0, 8, 16 et ainsi de suite). Pour travailler sur la séquence, la colonne en cours est mise à zéro et la séquence est examinée octets par octets. Si l'octet est une tabulation ASCII (b'\t'), un ou plusieurs espaces sont insérés au résultat jusqu’à ce que la colonne courante soit égale à la position de tabulation suivante. (Le caractère tabulation lui-même n’est pas copié.) Si l'octet courant est un saut de ligne ASCII (b'\n') ou un retour chariot (b'\r'), il est copié et la colonne en cours est remise à zéro. Tout autre octet est copié inchangé et la colonne en cours est incrémentée de un indépendamment de la façon dont l'octet est représenté lors de l’affichage :

>>> b'01\t012\t0123\t01234'.expandtabs()
b'01      012     0123    01234'
>>> b'01\t012\t0123\t01234'.expandtabs(4)
b'01  012 0123    01234'

Note

la version bytearray de cette méthode ne modifie pas les octets, elle produit toujours un nouvel objet, même si aucune modification n'a été effectuée.

bytes.isalnum()

bytearray.isalnum()

Renvoie True si tous les caractères de la chaîne sont des caractères ASCII alphabétiques ou chiffres et que la séquence n'est pas vide, sinon False. Les caractères ASCII alphabétiques sont les suivants dans la séquence d'octets b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ' et les chiffres : b'0123456789'.

Par exemple :

>>> b'ABCabc1'.isalnum()
True
>>> b'ABC abc1'.isalnum()
False

bytes.isalpha()

bytearray.isalpha()

Renvoie True si tous les octets dans la séquence sont des caractères alphabétiques ASCII et que la séquence n'est pas vide, sinon False. Les caractères ASCII alphabétiques sont : b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'.

Par exemple :

>>> b'ABCabc'.isalpha()
True
>>> b'ABCabc1'.isalpha()
False

bytes.isascii()

bytearray.isascii()

Renvoie True si la séquence est vide, ou si tous ses octets sont des octets ASCII, renvoie False dans le cas contraire. Les octets ASCII dans l'intervalle 0–0x7F.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

bytes.isdigit()

bytearray.isdigit()

Renvoie True si tous les octets de la séquence sont des chiffres ASCII et que la séquence n'est pas vide, sinon False. Les chiffres ASCII sont ceux dans la séquence d'octets b'0123456789'.

Par exemple :

>>> b'1234'.isdigit()
True
>>> b'1.23'.isdigit()
False

bytes.islower()

bytearray.islower()

Renvoie True s'il y a au moins un caractère ASCII minuscule dans la séquence et aucune capitale, sinon False.

Par exemple :

>>> b'hello world'.islower()
True
>>> b'Hello world'.islower()
False

Les caractères ASCII minuscules sont b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'. Les capitales ASCII sont b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'.

bytes.isspace()

bytearray.isspace()

Renvoie True si tous les octets de la séquence sont des espaces ASCII et que la séquence n'est pas vide, sinon False. Les espèces ASCII sont b' \t\n\r\x0b\f' (espace, tabulation, saut de ligne, retour chariot, tabulation verticale, saut de page).

bytes.istitle()

bytearray.istitle()

Renvoie True si la séquence ASCII est titlecased, et qu'elle n'est pas vide, sinon False. Voir bytes.title() pour plus de détails sur la définition de titlecase.

Par exemple :

>>> b'Hello World'.istitle()
True
>>> b'Hello world'.istitle()
False

bytes.isupper()

bytearray.isupper()

Renvoie True s'il y a au moins un caractère alphabétique majuscule ASCII dans la séquence et aucun caractère ASCII minuscule, sinon False.

Par exemple :

>>> b'HELLO WORLD'.isupper()
True
>>> b'Hello world'.isupper()
False

Les caractères ASCII minuscules sont b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'. Les capitales ASCII sont b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'.

bytes.lower()

bytearray.lower()

Renvoie une copie de la séquence dont tous les caractères ASCII en majuscules sont convertis en leur équivalent en minuscules.

Par exemple :

>>> b'Hello World'.lower()
b'hello world'

Les caractères ASCII minuscules sont b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'. Les capitales ASCII sont b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'.

Note

la version bytearray de cette méthode ne modifie pas les octets, elle produit toujours un nouvel objet, même si aucune modification n'a été effectuée.

bytes.splitlines(keepends=False)

bytearray.splitlines(keepends=False)

Renvoie une liste des lignes de la séquence d'octets, découpant au niveau des fin de lignes ASCII. Cette méthode utilise l'approche universal newlines pour découper les lignes. Les fins de ligne ne sont pas inclus dans la liste des résultats, sauf si keepends est donné et vrai.

Par exemple :

>>> b'ab c\n\nde fg\rkl\r\n'.splitlines()
[b'ab c', b'', b'de fg', b'kl']
>>> b'ab c\n\nde fg\rkl\r\n'.splitlines(keepends=True)
[b'ab c\n', b'\n', b'de fg\r', b'kl\r\n']

Contrairement à split() lorsque le délimiteur sep est fourni, cette méthode renvoie une liste vide pour la chaîne vide, et un saut de ligne à la fin ne se traduit pas par une ligne supplémentaire :

>>> b"".split(b'\n'), b"Two lines\n".split(b'\n')
([b''], [b'Two lines', b''])
>>> b"".splitlines(), b"One line\n".splitlines()
([], [b'One line'])

bytes.swapcase()

bytearray.swapcase()

Renvoie une copie de la séquence dont tous les caractères ASCII minuscules sont convertis en majuscules et vice-versa.

Par exemple :

>>> b'Hello World'.swapcase()
b'hELLO wORLD'

Les caractères ASCII minuscules sont b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'. Les capitales ASCII sont b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'.

Unlike str.swapcase(), it is always the case that bin.swapcase().swapcase() == bin for the binary versions. Case conversions are symmetrical in ASCII, even though that is not generally true for arbitrary Unicode code points.

Note

la version bytearray de cette méthode ne modifie pas les octets, elle produit toujours un nouvel objet, même si aucune modification n'a été effectuée.

bytes.title()

bytearray.title()

Renvoie une version titlecased de la séquence d'octets où les mots commencent par un caractère ASCII majuscule et les caractères restants sont en minuscules. Les octets non capitalisables ne sont pas modifiés.

Par exemple :

>>> b'Hello world'.title()
b'Hello World'

Les caractères ASCII minuscules sont b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'. Les caractères ASCII majuscules sont b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'. Aucun autre octet n'est capitalisable.

Pour l'algorithme, la notion de mot est définie simplement et indépendamment de la langue comme un groupe de lettres consécutives. La définition fonctionne dans de nombreux contextes, mais cela signifie que les apostrophes (typiquement de la forme possessive en Anglais) forment les limites de mot, ce qui n'est pas toujours le résultat souhaité :

>>> b"they're bill's friends from the UK".title()
b"They'Re Bill'S Friends From The Uk"

Une solution pour contourner le problème des apostrophes peut être obtenue en utilisant des expressions rationnelles :

>>> import re
>>> def titlecase(s):
...     return re.sub(rb"[A-Za-z]+('[A-Za-z]+)?",
...                   lambda mo: mo.group(0)[0:1].upper() +
...                              mo.group(0)[1:].lower(),
...                   s)
...
>>> titlecase(b"they're bill's friends.")
b"They're Bill's Friends."

Note

la version bytearray de cette méthode ne modifie pas les octets, elle produit toujours un nouvel objet, même si aucune modification n'a été effectuée.

bytes.upper()

bytearray.upper()

Renvoie une copie de la séquence dont tous les caractères ASCII minuscules sont convertis en leur équivalent majuscule.

Par exemple :

>>> b'Hello World'.upper()
b'HELLO WORLD'

Les caractères ASCII minuscules sont b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'. Les capitales ASCII sont b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'.

Note

la version bytearray de cette méthode ne modifie pas les octets, elle produit toujours un nouvel objet, même si aucune modification n'a été effectuée.

bytes.zfill(width, /)

bytearray.zfill(width, /)

Renvoie une copie de la séquence remplie par la gauche du chiffre b'0' pour en faire une séquence de longueur width. Un préfixe (b'+' / b'-') est permis par l'insertion du caractère de remplissage après le caractère de signe plutôt qu'avant. Pour les objets bytes la séquence d'origine est renvoyée si width est inférieur ou égale à len(seq).

Par exemple :

>>> b"42".zfill(5)
b'00042'
>>> b"-42".zfill(5)
b'-0042'

Note

la version bytearray de cette méthode ne modifie pas les octets, elle produit toujours un nouvel objet, même si aucune modification n'a été effectuée.

Formatage de bytes a la printf

Note

Les opérations de formatage décrites ici présentent une variété de bizarreries qui conduisent à un certain nombre d’erreurs classiques (typiquement, échouer à afficher des n-uplets ou des dictionnaires correctement). Si la valeur à afficher peut être un n-uplet ou un dictionnaire, mettez-le à l'intérieur d'un autre n-uplet.

Les objets bytes (bytes et bytearray) ont un unique opérateur : l'opérateur % (modulo). Il est aussi connu sous le nom d'opérateur de mise en forme. Avec format % values (où format est un objet bytes), les marqueurs de conversion % dans format sont remplacés par zéro ou plus de values. L'effet est similaire à la fonction sprintf() du langage C.

Si format ne nécessite qu'un seul argument, values peut être un objet unique. [5] Si values est un n-uplet, il doit contenir exactement le nombre d'éléments spécifiés dans le format en bytes, ou un seul objet de correspondances (mapping object, par exemple, un dictionnaire).

Un indicateur de conversion contient deux ou plusieurs caractères et comporte les éléments suivants, qui doivent apparaître dans cet ordre :

le caractère '%', qui marque le début du marqueur ;

la clé de correspondance (facultative), composée d'une suite de caractères entre parenthèses (par exemple, (somename)) ;

des indications de conversion, facultatives, qui affectent le résultat de certains types de conversion ;

largeur minimum (facultative). Si elle vaut '*' (astérisque), la largeur est lue de l'élément suivant du n-uplet values, et l'objet à convertir vient après la largeur de champ minimale et la précision facultative ;

précision (facultatif), donnée sous la forme d'un '.' (point) suivi de la précision. Si la précision est '*' (un astérisque), la précision est lue à partir de l'élément suivant du n-uplet values et la valeur à convertir vient ensuite ;

modificateur de longueur (facultatif) ;

type de conversion.

Lorsque l'argument de droite est un dictionnaire (ou un autre type de mapping), les marqueurs dans le bytes doivent inclure une clé présente dans le dictionnaire, écrite entre parenthèses, immédiatement après le caractère '%'. La clé indique quelle valeur du dictionnaire doit être formatée. Par exemple :

>>> print(b'%(language)s has %(number)03d quote types.' %
...       {b'language': b"Python", b"number": 2})
b'Python has 002 quote types.'

Dans ce cas, aucune * ne peut se trouver dans le format (car ces * nécessitent une liste (accès séquentiel) de paramètres).

Les caractères indicateurs de conversion sont :

Option

Signification

'#'

La conversion utilise la « forme alternative » (définie ci-dessous).

'0'

Les valeurs numériques converties sont complétées de zéros.

'-'

La valeur convertie est ajustée à gauche (remplace la conversion '0' si les deux sont données).

' '

(une espace) Une espace doit être laissée avant un nombre positif (ou chaîne vide) produite par la conversion d'une valeur signée.

'+'

Un caractère de signe ('+' ou '-') précède la valeur convertie (remplace le marqueur « espace »).

Un modificateur de longueur (h, l ou L) peut être présent, mais est ignoré car il est pas nécessaire pour Python, donc par exemple %ld est identique à %d.

Les types utilisables dans les conversions sont :

Conversion

Signification

Notes

'd'

Entier décimal signé.

'i'

Entier décimal signé.

'o'

Valeur octale signée.

(1)

'u'

Type obsolète — identique à 'd'.

(8)

'x'

Hexadécimal signé (en minuscules).

(2)

'X'

Hexadécimal signé (capitales).

(2)

'e'

Floating-point exponential format (lowercase).

(3)

'E'

Floating-point exponential format (uppercase).

(3)

'f'

Floating-point decimal format.

(3)

'F'

Floating-point decimal format.

(3)

'g'

Floating-point format. Uses lowercase exponential format if exponent is less than -4 or not less than precision, decimal format otherwise.

(4)

'G'

Floating-point format. Uses uppercase exponential format if exponent is less than -4 or not less than precision, decimal format otherwise.

(4)

'c'

Octet simple (Accepte un nombre entier ou un seul objet byte).

'b'

Bytes (any object that follows the buffer protocol or has __bytes__()).

(5)

's'

's' est un alias de 'b' et ne devrait être utilisé que pour du code Python2/3.

(6)

'a'

Bytes (convertit n'importe quel objet Python en utilisant repr(obj).encode('ascii', 'backslashreplace)).

(5)

'r'

'r' est un alias de 'a' et ne devrait être utilise que dans du code Python2/3.

(7)

'%'

Aucun argument n'est converti, donne un caractère de '%' dans le résultat.

Notes :

La forme alternative entraîne l'insertion d'un préfixe octal ('0o') avant le premier chiffre.

La forme alternative entraîne l'insertion d'un préfixe '0x' ou '0X' (respectivement pour les formats 'x' et 'X') avant le premier chiffre.

La forme alternative implique la présence d'un point décimal, même si aucun chiffre ne le suit.

La précision détermine le nombre de chiffres après la virgule, 6 par défaut.

La forme alternative implique la présence d'un point décimal et les zéros non significatifs sont conservés (ils ne le seraient pas autrement).

La précision détermine le nombre de chiffres significatifs avant et après la virgule. 6 par défaut.

Si la précision est N, la sortie est tronquée à N caractères.

b'%s' est obsolète, mais ne sera pas retiré des version 3.x.

b'%r' est obsolète mais ne sera pas retiré dans Python 3.x.

Voir la PEP 237 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0237/].

Note

la version bytearray de cette méthode ne modifie pas les octets, elle produit toujours un nouvel objet, même si aucune modification n'a été effectuée.

Voir aussi

PEP 461 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0461/] -- Ajout du formatage via % aux bytes et bytesarray

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Vues mémoire

Les vues mémoire permettent à du code Python d'accéder sans copie aux données internes d'un objet prenant en charge le protocole tampon.

class memoryview(object)

Crée une vue mémoire faisant référence à object. object doit savoir gérer le protocole tampon. bytes et bytearray sont des classes natives prenant en charge le protocole tampon.

Une vue mémoire a la notion d'élement, qui est l'unité de mémoire atomique gérée par l'objet object d'origine. Pour de nombreux types simples comme bytes et bytearray, l'élément est l'octet, mais pour d'autres types tels que array.array les éléments peuvent être plus grands.

len(view) is equal to the length of tolist, which is the nested list representation of the view. If view.ndim = 1, this is equal to the number of elements in the view.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: If view.ndim == 0, len(view) now raises TypeError instead of returning 1.

The itemsize attribute will give you the number of bytes in a single element.

Une vue mémoire autorise le découpage et l'indiçage de ses données. Découper sur une dimension donne une sous-vue :

>>> v = memoryview(b'abcefg')
>>> v[1]
98
>>> v[-1]
103
>>> v[1:4]
<memory at 0x7f3ddc9f4350>
>>> bytes(v[1:4])
b'bce'

Si le format est un des formats natif du module struct, indexer avec un nombre entier ou un n-uplet de nombres entiers est aussi autorisé et renvoie un seul element du bon type. Les vues mémoire unidimensionnelles peuvent être indexées avec un nombre entier ou un n-uplet d'un entier. Les memoryview multi-dimensionnelles peuvent être indexées avec des ndim-uplets où ndim est le nombre de dimensions. Les memoryviews à zéro dimension peuvent être indexées avec un n-uplet vide.

Voici un exemple avec un autre format que byte :

>>> import array
>>> a = array.array('l', [-11111111, 22222222, -33333333, 44444444])
>>> m = memoryview(a)
>>> m[0]
-11111111
>>> m[-1]
44444444
>>> m[::2].tolist()
[-11111111, -33333333]

Si l'objet sous-jacent est accessible en écriture, la vue mémoire prend en charge les assignations de tranches unidimensionnelles. Redimensionner n'est cependant pas autorisé :

>>> data = bytearray(b'abcefg')
>>> v = memoryview(data)
>>> v.readonly
False
>>> v[0] = ord(b'z')
>>> data
bytearray(b'zbcefg')
>>> v[1:4] = b'123'
>>> data
bytearray(b'z123fg')
>>> v[2:3] = b'spam'
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
ValueError: memoryview assignment: lvalue and rvalue have different structures
>>> v[2:6] = b'spam'
>>> data
bytearray(b'z1spam')

Les vues mémoire unidimensionnelles de hachables (lecture seule) avec les formats 'B', 'b', ou 'c' sont aussi hachables. La fonction de hachage est définie telle que hash(m) == hash(m.tobytes()) :

>>> v = memoryview(b'abcefg')
>>> hash(v) == hash(b'abcefg')
True
>>> hash(v[2:4]) == hash(b'ce')
True
>>> hash(v[::-2]) == hash(b'abcefg'[::-2])
True

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Les vues mémoire unidimensionnelles peuvent aussi être découpées. Les vues mémoire unidimensionnelles avec les formats 'B', 'b' ou 'c' sont maintenant hachables.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: memoryview est maintenant enregistrée automatiquement avec collections.abc.Sequence

Modifié dans la version 3.5: les vues mémoire peuvent maintenant être indicées par un n-uplet d'entiers.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: memoryview is now a generic type.

La classe vue mémoire dispose de plusieurs méthodes :

__eq__(exporter)

Une vue mémoire et un exporter de la PEP 3118 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/] sont égaux si leurs formes sont équivalentes et si toutes les valeurs correspondantes sont égales, les formats respectifs des opérandes étant interprétés en utilisant la syntaxe de struct.

Pour le sous-ensemble des formats de struct pris en charge par tolist(), v et w sont égaux si v.tolist() ==w.tolist() :

>>> import array
>>> a = array.array('I', [1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
>>> b = array.array('d', [1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0])
>>> c = array.array('b', [5, 3, 1])
>>> x = memoryview(a)
>>> y = memoryview(b)
>>> x == a == y == b
True
>>> x.tolist() == a.tolist() == y.tolist() == b.tolist()
True
>>> z = y[::-2]
>>> z == c
True
>>> z.tolist() == c.tolist()
True

Si l'un des formats n'est pas géré par le module de struct, les objets sont toujours considérés différents (même si les formats et les valeurs contenues sont identiques) :

>>> from ctypes import BigEndianStructure, c_long
>>> class BEPoint(BigEndianStructure):
...     _fields_ = [("x", c_long), ("y", c_long)]
...
>>> point = BEPoint(100, 200)
>>> a = memoryview(point)
>>> b = memoryview(point)
>>> a == point
False
>>> a == b
False

Note that, as with floating-point numbers, v is w does not imply v == w for memoryview objects.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: les versions précédentes comparaient la mémoire brute sans tenir compte du format de l'objet ni de sa structure logique.

tobytes(order='C')

Renvoie les données de la vue mémoire sous forme de bytes. Cela équivaut à appeler le constructeur bytes sur la vue mémoire.

>>> m = memoryview(b"abc")
>>> m.tobytes()
b'abc'
>>> bytes(m)
b'abc'

Pour les tableaux non contigus le résultat est égal à la représentation en liste aplatie dont tous les éléments sont convertis en octets. tobytes() prend en charge toutes les chaînes de format, y compris celles qui ne sont pas connues du module struct.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8: order peut être 'C', 'F' ou 'A'. Lorsque order est 'C' ou 'F', les données du tableau original sont converties en ordre C ou Fortran. Pour les vues contiguës, 'A' renvoie une copie exacte de la mémoire physique. En particulier, l'ordre Fortran en mémoire est conservé. Pour les vues non contiguës, les données sont d'abord converties en C. order=None est identique à order='C'.

hex(*, bytes_per_sep=1)

hex(sep, bytes_per_sep=1)

Renvoie une chaîne contenant deux chiffres hexadécimaux pour chaque octet de la mémoire.

>>> m = memoryview(b"abc")
>>> m.hex()
'616263'

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: similaire à bytes.hex(), memoryview.hex() prend désormais en charge les paramètres optionnels sep et bytes_per_sep pour insérer des séparateurs entre les octets dans la sortie hexadécimale.

tolist()

Renvoie les données de la mémoire sous la forme d'une liste d'éléments.

>>> memoryview(b'abc').tolist()
[97, 98, 99]
>>> import array
>>> a = array.array('d', [1.1, 2.2, 3.3])
>>> m = memoryview(a)
>>> m.tolist()
[1.1, 2.2, 3.3]

Modifié dans la version 3.3: tolist() prend désormais en charge tous les formats d'un caractère du module struct ainsi que des représentations multidimensionnelles.

toreadonly()

Renvoie une version en lecture seule de l'objet memoryview. L'objet original memoryview est inchangé.

>>> m = memoryview(bytearray(b'abc'))
>>> mm = m.toreadonly()
>>> mm.tolist()
[97, 98, 99]
>>> mm[0] = 42
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: cannot modify read-only memory
>>> m[0] = 43
>>> mm.tolist()
[43, 98, 99]

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

release()

Libère le tampon sous-jacent exposé par l'objet memoryview. Beaucoup d'objets ont des comportements spécifiques lorsqu'ils sont liés à une vue (par exemple, un bytearray refusera temporairement de se faire redimensionner). Par conséquent, appeler release() peut être pratique pour lever ces restrictions (et libérer des ressources liées) aussi tôt que possible.

Après le premier appel de cette méthode, toute nouvelle opération sur la vue mémoire lève une ValueError (sauf release() elle-même qui peut être appelée plusieurs fois) :

>>> m = memoryview(b'abc')
>>> m.release()
>>> m[0]
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
ValueError: operation forbidden on released memoryview object

Le protocole de gestion de contexte peut être utilisé pour obtenir un effet similaire, via l'instruction with :

>>> with memoryview(b'abc') as m:
...     m[0]
...
97
>>> m[0]
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
ValueError: operation forbidden on released memoryview object

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

cast(format, /)

cast(format, shape, /)

Change le format ou la forme d'une vue mémoire. Par défaut shape vaut [byte_length//new_itemsize], ce qui signifie que la vue résultante n'a qu'une dimension. La valeur renvoyée est une nouvelle vue mémoire, mais le tampon sous-jacent lui-même n'est pas copié. Les changements de format pris en charge sont « une dimension vers C-contiguous » et « C-contiguous vers une dimension ».

The destination format is restricted to a single element native format in struct syntax. One of the formats must be a byte format ('B', 'b' or 'c'). The byte length of the result must be the same as the original length. Note that all byte lengths may depend on the operating system.

Transformer un 1D/long en 1D/unsigned bytes :

>>> import array
>>> a = array.array('l', [1,2,3])
>>> x = memoryview(a)
>>> x.format
'l'
>>> x.itemsize
8
>>> len(x)
3
>>> x.nbytes
24
>>> y = x.cast('B')
>>> y.format
'B'
>>> y.itemsize
1
>>> len(y)
24
>>> y.nbytes
24

Transformer un 1D/unsigned bytes en 1D/char :

>>> b = bytearray(b'zyz')
>>> x = memoryview(b)
>>> x[0] = b'a'
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
TypeError: memoryview: invalid type for format 'B'
>>> y = x.cast('c')
>>> y[0] = b'a'
>>> b
bytearray(b'ayz')

Transformer un 1D/bytes en 3D/ints en 1D/signed char :

>>> import struct
>>> buf = struct.pack("i"*12, *list(range(12)))
>>> x = memoryview(buf)
>>> y = x.cast('i', shape=[2,2,3])
>>> y.tolist()
[[[0, 1, 2], [3, 4, 5]], [[6, 7, 8], [9, 10, 11]]]
>>> y.format
'i'
>>> y.itemsize
4
>>> len(y)
2
>>> y.nbytes
48
>>> z = y.cast('b')
>>> z.format
'b'
>>> z.itemsize
1
>>> len(z)
48
>>> z.nbytes
48

Transformer un 1D/unsigned char en 2D/unsigned long :

>>> buf = struct.pack("L"*6, *list(range(6)))
>>> x = memoryview(buf)
>>> y = x.cast('L', shape=[2,3])
>>> len(y)
2
>>> y.nbytes
48
>>> y.tolist()
[[0, 1, 2], [3, 4, 5]]

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: le format de la source n'est plus restreint lors de la transformation vers une vue d'octets.

count(value, /)

Count the number of occurrences of value.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

index(value, start=0, stop=sys.maxsize, /)

Return the index of the first occurrence of value (at or after index start and before index stop).

Raises a ValueError if value cannot be found.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Plusieurs attributs en lecture seule sont également disponibles :

obj

L'objet sous-jacent de la vue mémoire :

>>> b  = bytearray(b'xyz')
>>> m = memoryview(b)
>>> m.obj is b
True

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

nbytes

nbytes == product(shape) * itemsize == len(m.tobytes()). C'est l'espace que la liste occuperait en octets, dans une représentation contiguë. Ce n'est pas nécessairement égal à len(m) :

>>> import array
>>> a = array.array('i', [1,2,3,4,5])
>>> m = memoryview(a)
>>> len(m)
5
>>> m.nbytes
20
>>> y = m[::2]
>>> len(y)
3
>>> y.nbytes
12
>>> len(y.tobytes())
12

Tableaux multidimensionnels :

>>> import struct
>>> buf = struct.pack("d"*12, *[1.5*x for x in range(12)])
>>> x = memoryview(buf)
>>> y = x.cast('d', shape=[3,4])
>>> y.tolist()
[[0.0, 1.5, 3.0, 4.5], [6.0, 7.5, 9.0, 10.5], [12.0, 13.5, 15.0, 16.5]]
>>> len(y)
3
>>> y.nbytes
96

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

readonly

Booléen indiquant si la mémoire est en lecture seule.

format

Chaîne contenant le format (dans le style de struct) pour chaque élément de la vue. Une vue mémoire peut être créée depuis des exportateurs de formats arbitraires, mais certaines méthodes (comme tolist()) sont limitées aux formats natifs à un seul élément.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: le format 'B' est maintenant traité selon la syntaxe du module struct. Cela signifie que memoryview(b'abc')[0] == b'abc'[0] == 97.

itemsize

Taille en octets de chaque élément de la vue mémoire :

>>> import array, struct
>>> m = memoryview(array.array('H', [32000, 32001, 32002]))
>>> m.itemsize
2
>>> m[0]
32000
>>> struct.calcsize('H') == m.itemsize
True

ndim

Nombre de dimensions du tableau multi-dimensionnel pointé par la vue mémoire.

shape

ndim-uplet d'entiers donnant la forme du tableau à N dimensions pointé par la vue mémoire.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: le n-uplet est vide au lieu de None lorsque ndim = 0.

strides

ndim-uplet d'entiers donnant la taille en octets permettant d'accéder à chaque élément pour chaque dimension du tableau.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: le n-uplet est vide au lieu de None lorsque ndim = 0.

suboffsets

Détail de l'implémentation des PIL-style arrays. La valeur n'est donnée qu'à titre d'information.

c_contiguous

Booléen indiquant si la mémoire est C-contiguë.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

f_contiguous

Booléen indiquant si la mémoire est Fortran-contiguë.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

contiguous

Booléen indiquant si la mémoire est contiguë.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

For information on the thread safety of memoryview objects in the free-threaded build, see Thread safety for memoryview objects.

Types d'ensembles — set, frozenset

Un ensemble (objet set) est une collection non triée d'objets hachables distincts. Les utilisations classiques sont le test d'appartenance, la déduplication d'une séquence, ou le calcul d'opérations mathématiques telles que l'intersection, l'union, la différence, ou la différence symétrique. (Pour les autres conteneurs, voir les classes natives dict, liste, et n-uplet, ainsi que le module collections.)

Comme pour les autres collections, les ensembles gèrent x in set, len(set), et for x in set. En tant que collection non triée, les ensembles n'enregistrent pas la position des éléments ou leur ordre d'insertion. En conséquence, les ensembles n'autorisent ni l'indexation, ni le découpage, ou tout autre comportement de séquence.

There are currently two built-in set types, set and frozenset. The set type is mutable --- the contents can be changed using methods like add() and remove(). Since it is mutable, it has no hash value and cannot be used as either a dictionary key or as an element of another set. The frozenset type is immutable and hashable --- its contents cannot be altered after it is created; it can therefore be used as a dictionary key or as an element of another set.

Des sets (mais pas des frozensets) peuvent être créés par une liste d'éléments séparés par des virgules et entre accolades, par exemple {'jack', 'sjoerd'}, en plus du constructeur de la classe set.

Les constructeurs des deux classes fonctionnent de la même manière :

class set(iterable=(), /)

class frozenset(iterable=(), /)

Renvoie un nouvel ensemble (set ou frozenset) dont les éléments viennent d'iterable. Les éléments d'un set doivent être hachables. Pour représenter des ensembles d'ensembles, les ensembles intérieurs doivent être des frozenset. Si iterable n'est pas spécifié, un nouvel ensemble vide est renvoyé.

Les ensembles peuvent être construits de différentes manières :

en utilisant une liste d'éléments séparés par des virgules entre accolades : {'jack', 'sjoerd'} ;

en utilisant un ensemble en compréhension : {c for c in 'abracadabra' if c not in 'abc'} ;

en utilisant le constructeur du type : set(), set('foobar'), set(['a', 'b', 'foo']).

Les instances de set et frozenset fournissent les opérations suivantes :

len(s)

Renvoie le nombre d'éléments dans l'ensemble s (cardinalité de s).

x in s

Test d'appartenance de x dans s.

x not in s

Test de non-appartenance de x dans s.

frozenset.isdisjoint(other, /)

set.isdisjoint(other, /)

Renvoie True si l'ensemble n'a aucun élément en commun avec other. Les ensembles sont disjoints si et seulement si leur intersection est un ensemble vide.

frozenset.issubset(other, /)

set.issubset(other, /)

set <= other

Teste si tous les éléments de l'ensemble sont dans other.

set < other

Teste si l'ensemble est un sous-ensemble propre de other, c'est-à-dire set <= other and set != other.

frozenset.issuperset(other, /)

set.issuperset(other, /)

set >= other

Teste si tous les éléments de other sont dans l'ensemble.

set > other

Teste si l'ensemble est un sur-ensemble propre de other, c'est-à-dire, set >= other and set != other.

frozenset.union(*others)

set.union(*others)

set | other | ...

Renvoie un nouvel ensemble dont les éléments viennent de l'ensemble et de tous les autres (others).

frozenset.intersection(*others)

set.intersection(*others)

set & other & ...

Renvoie un nouvel ensemble dont les éléments sont communs à l'ensemble et à tous les autres (others).

frozenset.difference(*others)

set.difference(*others)

set - other - ...

Renvoie un nouvel ensemble dont les éléments sont dans l'ensemble mais ne sont dans aucun des autres.

frozenset.symmetric_difference(other, /)

set.symmetric_difference(other, /)

set ^ other

Renvoie un nouvel ensemble dont les éléments sont soit dans l'ensemble, soit dans other, mais pas dans les deux.

frozenset.copy()

set.copy()

Renvoie une copie superficielle du dictionnaire.

Note, the non-operator versions of union(), intersection(), difference(), symmetric_difference(), issubset(), and issuperset() methods will accept any iterable as an argument. In contrast, their operator based counterparts require their arguments to be sets. This precludes error-prone constructions like set('abc') & 'cbs' in favor of the more readable set('abc').intersection('cbs').

Les classes set et frozenset gèrent les comparaisons d'ensemble à ensemble. Deux ensembles sont égaux si et seulement si chaque élément de chaque ensemble est contenu dans l'autre (autrement dit que chaque ensemble est un sous-ensemble de l'autre). Un ensemble est plus petit qu'un autre ensemble si et seulement si le premier est un sous-ensemble propre du second (un sous-ensemble, mais pas égal). Un ensemble est plus grand qu'un autre ensemble si et seulement si le premier est un sur-ensemble propre du second (est un sur-ensemble mais n'est pas égal).

Les instances de set se comparent aux instances de frozenset en fonction de leurs membres. Par exemple, set('abc') == frozenset('abc') envoie True, ainsi que set('abc') in set([frozenset('abc')]).

Les tests de sous-ensemble et d'égalité ne se généralisent pas pour former une fonction donnant un ordre total. Par exemple, deux ensembles disjoints non vides ne sont ni égaux et ni des sous-ensembles l'un de l'autre, donc toutes ces comparaisons donnent False : a<b, a==b et a>b.

Puisque les ensembles ne définissent qu'un ordre partiel (par leurs relations de sous-ensembles), la sortie de la méthode list.sort() n'est pas définie pour des listes d'ensembles.

Les éléments des ensembles, comme les clés de dictionnaires, doivent être hachables.

Les opérations binaires mélangeant des instances de set et frozenset renvoient le type de la première opérande. Par exemple, frozenset('ab') | set('bc') renvoie une instance de frozenset.

La table suivante liste les opérations disponibles pour les set mais qui ne s'appliquent pas aux instances de frozenset :

set.update(*others)

set |= other | ...

Met à jour l'ensemble, ajoutant les éléments de tous les autres (others).

set.intersection_update(*others)

set &= other & ...

Met à jour l'ensemble, ne gardant que les éléments trouvés dans tous les autres.

set.difference_update(*others)

set -= other | ...

Met à jour l'ensemble, retirant les éléments trouvés dans les autres.

set.symmetric_difference_update(other, /)

set ^= other

Met à jour l'ensemble, ne gardant que les éléments trouvés dans un des deux ensembles mais pas dans les deux.

set.add(elem, /)

Ajoute l'élément elem à l'ensemble.

set.remove(elem, /)

Retire l'élément elem de l'ensemble. Lève une exception KeyError si elem n'est pas dans l'ensemble.

set.discard(elem, /)

Retire l'élément elem de l'ensemble s'il y est.

set.pop()

Retire et renvoie un élément arbitraire de l'ensemble. Lève une exception KeyError si l'ensemble est vide.

set.clear()

Supprime tous les éléments de l'ensemble.

Note, the non-operator versions of the update(), intersection_update(), difference_update(), and symmetric_difference_update() methods will accept any iterable as an argument.

Note, the elem argument to the __contains__(), remove(), and discard() methods may be a set. To support searching for an equivalent frozenset, a temporary one is created from elem.

Voir aussi

For detailed information on thread-safety guarantees for set objects, see Thread safety for set objects.

Les types de correspondances — dict

Un objet tableau de correspondances (mapping) fait correspondre des valeurs hachables à des objets arbitraires. Les tableaux de correspondances sont des objets mutables. Il n'existe pour le moment qu'un type de tableau de correspondances standard, le dictionary. (Pour les autres conteneurs, voir les types natifs liste, ensemble et n-uplet, ainsi que le module collections.)

Les clés d'un dictionnaire sont presque des données arbitraires. Les valeurs qui ne sont pas hachables, c'est-à-dire les valeurs contenant des listes, dictionnaires ou autres types mutables (qui sont comparés à l'aide de leurs valeurs plutôt que par l'identité de l'objet) ne peuvent pas être utilisées comme clés. Des valeurs qui sont considérées égales lors d'une comparaison (comme 1, 1.0 et True) peuvent être utilisées pour obtenir la même entrée d'un dictionnaire.

class dict(**kwargs)

class dict(mapping, /, **kwargs)

class dict(iterable, /, **kwargs)

Renvoie un nouveau dictionnaire initialisé à partir d'un argument positionnel optionnel, et un ensemble (vide ou non) d'arguments nommés.

Les dictionnaires peuvent être construits de différentes manières :

en utilisant une liste de paires clé: valeur séparées par des virgules entre accolades : {'jack': 4098, 'sjoerd': 4127} ou {4098: 'jack', 4127: 'sjoerd'} ;

en utilisant un dictionnaire en compréhension : {}, {x: x ** 2 for x in range(10)} ;

en utilisant le constructeur du type : dict(), dict([('foo', 100), ('bar', 200)]), dict(foo=100, bar=200).

If no positional argument is given, an empty dictionary is created. If a positional argument is given and it defines a keys() method, a dictionary is created by calling __getitem__() on the argument with each returned key from the method. Otherwise, the positional argument must be an iterable object. Each item in the iterable must itself be an iterable with exactly two elements. The first element of each item becomes a key in the new dictionary, and the second element the corresponding value. If a key occurs more than once, the last value for that key becomes the corresponding value in the new dictionary.

Si des arguments nommés sont donnés, ils sont ajoutés au dictionnaire créé depuis l'argument positionnel. Si une clé est déjà présente, la valeur de l'argument nommé remplace la valeur reçue par l'argument positionnel.

Dictionaries compare equal if and only if they have the same (key, value) pairs (regardless of ordering). Order comparisons ('<', '<=', '>=', '>') raise TypeError. To illustrate dictionary creation and equality, the following examples all return a dictionary equal to {"one": 1, "two": 2, "three": 3}:

>>> a = dict(one=1, two=2, three=3)
>>> b = {'one': 1, 'two': 2, 'three': 3}
>>> c = dict(zip(['one', 'two', 'three'], [1, 2, 3]))
>>> d = dict([('two', 2), ('one', 1), ('three', 3)])
>>> e = dict({'three': 3, 'one': 1, 'two': 2})
>>> f = dict({'one': 1, 'three': 3}, two=2)
>>> a == b == c == d == e == f
True

Fournir les arguments nommés comme dans le premier exemple ne fonctionne que pour des clés qui sont des identifiants valides en Python. Dans les autres cas, toutes les clés valides sont utilisables.

Les dictionnaires préservent l'ordre des insertions. Notez que modifier une clé n'affecte pas l'ordre. Les clés ajoutées après un effacement sont insérées à la fin.

>>> d = {"one": 1, "two": 2, "three": 3, "four": 4}
>>> d
{'one': 1, 'two': 2, 'three': 3, 'four': 4}
>>> list(d)
['one', 'two', 'three', 'four']
>>> list(d.values())
[1, 2, 3, 4]
>>> d["one"] = 42
>>> d
{'one': 42, 'two': 2, 'three': 3, 'four': 4}
>>> del d["two"]
>>> d["two"] = None
>>> d
{'one': 42, 'three': 3, 'four': 4, 'two': None}

Modifié dans la version 3.7: l'ordre d'un dictionnaire est toujours l'ordre des insertions. Ce comportement était un détail d'implémentation de CPython depuis la version 3.6.

Voici les opérations gérées par les dictionnaires (par conséquent, d'autres types de tableaux de correspondances devraient les gérer aussi) :

list(d)

Renvoie une liste de toutes les clés utilisées dans le dictionnaire d.

len(d)

Renvoie le nombre d'éléments dans le dictionnaire d.

d[key]

Renvoie l'élément de d dont la clé est key. Lève une exception KeyError si key n'est pas dans le dictionnaire.

If a subclass of dict defines a method __missing__() and key is not present, the d[key] operation calls that method with the key key as argument. The d[key] operation then returns or raises whatever is returned or raised by the __missing__(key) call. No other operations or methods invoke __missing__(). If __missing__() is not defined, KeyError is raised. __missing__() must be a method; it cannot be an instance variable:

>>> class Counter(dict):
...     def __missing__(self, key):
...         return 0
...
>>> c = Counter()
>>> c['red']
0
>>> c['red'] += 1
>>> c['red']
1

The example above shows part of the implementation of collections.Counter. A different __missing__() method is used by collections.defaultdict.

d[key] = value

Assigne d[key] à value.

del d[key]

Supprime d[key] de d. Lève une exception KeyError si key n'est pas dans le dictionnaire.

key in d

Renvoie True si d a la clé key, sinon False.

key not in d

Équivalent à not key in d.

iter(d)

Renvoie un itérateur sur les clés du dictionnaire. C'est un raccourci pour iter(d.keys()).

clear()

Supprime tous les éléments du dictionnaire.

copy()

Renvoie une copie superficielle du dictionnaire.

classmethod fromkeys(iterable, value=None, /)

Crée un nouveau dictionnaire avec les clés de iterable et les valeurs à value.

fromkeys() est une méthode de classe qui renvoie un nouveau dictionnaire. value vaut par défaut None. Toutes les valeurs se réfèrent à une seule instance, donc il n'est généralement pas logique que value soit un objet mutable comme une liste vide. Pour avoir des valeurs distinctes, utilisez plutôt une compréhension de dictionnaire.

get(key, default=None, /)

Renvoie la valeur de key si key est dans le dictionnaire, sinon default. Si default n'est pas donné, il vaut None par défaut, de manière à ce que cette méthode ne lève jamais KeyError.

items()

Renvoie une nouvelle vue des éléments du dictionnaire (paires de (key, value)). Voir la documentation des vues.

keys()

Renvoie une nouvelle vue des clés du dictionnaire. Voir la documentation des vues.

pop(key, /)

pop(key, default, /)

Si key est dans le dictionnaire elle est supprimée et sa valeur est renvoyée, sinon renvoie default. Si default n'est pas donné et que key n'est pas dans le dictionnaire, une KeyError est levée.

popitem()

Supprime et renvoie une paire (key, value) du dictionnaire. Les paires sont renvoyées dans un ordre LIFO.

popitem() est pratique pour itérer un dictionnaire de manière destructive, comme souvent dans les algorithmes sur les ensembles. Si le dictionnaire est vide, appeler popitem() lève une KeyError.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: l'ordre « dernier entré, premier sorti » (LIFO) est désormais assuré. Dans les versions précédentes, popitem() renvoyait une paire clé-valeur arbitraire.

reversed(d)

Renvoie un itérateur inversé sur les clés du dictionnaire. C'est un raccourci pour reversed(d.keys()).

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

setdefault(key, default=None, /)

Si key est dans le dictionnaire, sa valeur est renvoyée. Sinon, insère key avec comme valeur default et renvoie default. default vaut None par défaut.

update(**kwargs)

update(mapping, /, **kwargs)

update(iterable, /, **kwargs)

Update the dictionary with the key/value pairs from mapping or iterable and kwargs, overwriting existing keys. Return None.

update() accepts either another object with a keys() method (in which case __getitem__() is called with every key returned from the method) or an iterable of key/value pairs (as tuples or other iterables of length two). If keyword arguments are specified, the dictionary is then updated with those key/value pairs: d.update(red=1, blue=2).

values()

Renvoie une nouvelle vue des valeurs du dictionnaire. Voir la documentation des vues.

Une comparaison d'égalité entre une vue de dict.values() et une autre renvoie toujours False. Cela s'applique aussi lorsque l'on compare dict.values() à lui-même :

>>> d = {'a': 1}
>>> d.values() == d.values()
False

d | other

Crée un nouveau dictionnaire avec les clés et les valeurs fusionnées de d et other, qui doivent tous deux être des dictionnaires. Les valeurs de other sont prioritaires lorsque d et other partagent des clés.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

d |= other

Met à jour le dictionnaire d avec les clés et les valeurs de other, qui peut être soit un tableau de correspondances soit un itérable de paires clé-valeur. Les valeurs de other sont prioritaires lorsque d et other partagent des clés.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

Les dictionnaires et les vues de dictionnaires sont réversibles.

>>> d = {"one": 1, "two": 2, "three": 3, "four": 4}
>>> d
{'one': 1, 'two': 2, 'three': 3, 'four': 4}
>>> list(reversed(d))
['four', 'three', 'two', 'one']
>>> list(reversed(d.values()))
[4, 3, 2, 1]
>>> list(reversed(d.items()))
[('four', 4), ('three', 3), ('two', 2), ('one', 1)]

Modifié dans la version 3.8: les dictionnaires sont maintenant réversibles.

Voir aussi

types.MappingProxyType peut être utilisé pour créer une vue en lecture seule d'un dict.

Voir aussi

For detailed information on thread-safety guarantees for dict objects, see Thread safety for dict objects.

Les vues de dictionnaires

Les objets renvoyés par dict.keys(), dict.values() et dict.items() sont des vues. Ils fournissent une vue dynamique des éléments du dictionnaire, ce qui signifie que si le dictionnaire change, la vue reflète ces changements.

Les vues de dictionnaires peuvent être itérées et ainsi renvoyer les données du dictionnaire ; elles gèrent aussi les tests d'appartenance :

len(dictview)

Renvoie le nombre d'entrées du dictionnaire.

iter(dictview)

Renvoie un itérateur sur les clés, les valeurs ou les éléments (représentés par des paires (clé, valeur)) du dictionnaire.

Les clés et les valeurs sont itérées dans l'ordre de leur insertion. Ceci permet la création de paires de (key, value) en utilisant zip() : pairs = zip(d.values(), d.keys()). Un autre moyen de construire la même liste est pairs = [(v, k) for (k, v) in d.items()].

Parcourir des vues tout en ajoutant ou supprimant des entrées dans un dictionnaire peut lever une RuntimeError ou ne pas fournir toutes les entrées.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: l'ordre d'un dictionnaire est toujours l'ordre des insertions.

x in dictview

Renvoie True si x est dans les clés, les valeurs ou les éléments du dictionnaire sous-jacent (dans le dernier cas, x doit être une paire (key, value)).

reversed(dictview)

Renvoie un itérateur inversé sur les clés, les valeurs ou les éléments du dictionnaire. La vue est itérée dans l'ordre inverse d'insertion.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: les vues de dictionnaires sont dorénavant réversibles.

dictview.mapping

Renvoie une types.MappingProxyType qui encapsule le dictionnaire original auquel la vue se réfère.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

Keys views are set-like since their entries are unique and hashable. Items views also have set-like operations since the (key, value) pairs are unique and the keys are hashable. If all values in an items view are hashable as well, then the items view can interoperate with other sets. (Values views are not treated as set-like since the entries are generally not unique.) For set-like views, all of the operations defined for the abstract base class collections.abc.Set are available (for example, ==, <, or ^). While using set operators, set-like views accept any iterable as the other operand, unlike sets which only accept sets as the input.

Voici un exemple d'utilisation de vue de dictionnaire :

>>> dishes = {'eggs': 2, 'sausage': 1, 'bacon': 1, 'spam': 500}
>>> keys = dishes.keys()
>>> values = dishes.values()

>>> # iteration
>>> n = 0
>>> for val in values:
...     n += val
...
>>> print(n)
504

>>> # keys and values are iterated over in the same order (insertion order)
>>> list(keys)
['eggs', 'sausage', 'bacon', 'spam']
>>> list(values)
[2, 1, 1, 500]

>>> # view objects are dynamic and reflect dict changes
>>> del dishes['eggs']
>>> del dishes['sausage']
>>> list(keys)
['bacon', 'spam']

>>> # set operations
>>> keys & {'eggs', 'bacon', 'salad'}
{'bacon'}
>>> keys ^ {'sausage', 'juice'} == {'juice', 'sausage', 'bacon', 'spam'}
True
>>> keys | ['juice', 'juice', 'juice'] == {'bacon', 'spam', 'juice'}
True

>>> # get back a read-only proxy for the original dictionary
>>> values.mapping
mappingproxy({'bacon': 1, 'spam': 500})
>>> values.mapping['spam']
500

Le type gestionnaire de contexte

L'instruction Python with permet de créer des contextes d'exécution à l'aide de gestionnaires de contextes. L'implémentation est réalisée via deux méthodes permettant aux classes définies par l'utilisateur de définir un contexte d'exécution, dans lequel on entre avant l'exécution du corps de l'instruction et que l'on quitte lorsque l'instruction se termine :

contextmanager.__enter__()

Entre dans le contexte d'exécution, soit se renvoyant lui-même, soit en renvoyant un autre objet en lien avec ce contexte. La valeur renvoyée par cette méthode est liée à l'identifiant donné au as de l'instruction with utilisant ce gestionnaire de contexte.

Un exemple de gestionnaire de contexte se renvoyant lui-même est l'objet fichier. Les objets fichiers se renvoient eux-mêmes depuis __enter__() pour ainsi permettre à open() d'être utilisée comme expression dans une instruction with.

Un exemple de gestionnaire de contexte renvoyant un objet connexe est celui renvoyé par decimal.localcontext(). Ces gestionnaires remplacent le contexte décimal courant par une copie de l'original, copie qui est renvoyée. Ça permet de changer le contexte courant dans le corps du with sans affecter le code en dehors de l'instruction with.

contextmanager.__exit__(exc_type, exc_val, exc_tb)

Sort du contexte et renvoie un booléen indiquant si une exception est survenue et doit être supprimée. Si une exception est survenue lors de l'exécution du corps de l'instruction with, les arguments contiennent le type de l'exception, sa valeur et la trace de la pile (traceback). Sinon les trois arguments valent None.

Returning a true value from this method will cause the with statement to suppress the exception and continue execution with the statement immediately following the with statement. Otherwise the exception continues propagating after this method has finished executing.

If this method raises an exception while handling an earlier exception from the with block, the new exception is raised, and the original exception is stored in its __context__ attribute.

L'exception reçue ne doit jamais être relancée explicitement, cette méthode devrait plutôt renvoyer une valeur fausse pour indiquer que son exécution s'est terminée avec succès et qu'elle ne veut pas supprimer l'exception. Ceci permet au code de gestion du contexte de comprendre si une méthode __exit__() a échoué.

Python définit plusieurs gestionnaires de contexte pour faciliter la synchronisation des fils d'exécution, la fermeture des fichiers ou d'autres objets, et la configuration du contexte arithmétique décimal. Ces types spécifiques ne sont pas traités différemment, ils respectent simplement le protocole de gestion du contexte. Voir les exemples dans la documentation du module contextlib.

Les générateurs Python et le décorateur contextlib.contextmanager permettent d'implémenter simplement ces protocoles. Si un générateur est décoré avec contextlib. contextmanager, il renvoie un gestionnaire de contexte implémentant les méthodes __enter__() et __exit__(), plutôt que l'itérateur produit par un générateur non décoré.

Notez qu'il n'y a pas d'emplacement spécifique pour ces méthodes dans la structure de type pour les objets Python dans l'API Python/C. Les types souhaitant définir ces méthodes doivent les fournir comme une méthode accessible en Python. Comparé au coût de la mise en place du contexte d'exécution, le coût d'un accès au dictionnaire d'une classe unique est négligeable.

Types d'annotation de type — Alias générique, Union

Les principaux types natifs pour l'annotation de types sont l'Alias générique et l'Union.

Type Alias générique

Les objets GenericAlias sont généralement créés en indiçant une classe. Ils sont le plus souvent utilisés avec des classes conteneurs, telles que list ou dict. Par exemple, list[int] est un objet GenericAlias créé en indiçant la classe list avec l'argument int. Les objets GenericAlias sont principalement destinés à être utilisés en tant qu'annotations de types.

Note

il n'est généralement possible d'indicer une classe que si la classe implémente la méthode spéciale __class_getitem__().

Un objet GenericAlias agit comme un mandataire pour un type générique, en implémentant des types génériques pouvant recevoir des paramètres.

Pour une classe conteneur, les arguments fournis comme indices de la classe indiquent les types des éléments que l'objet peut contenir. Par exemple, set[bytes] peut être utilisé dans les annotations de type pour signifier un ensemble dans lequel tous les éléments sont de type bytes.

Pour une classe qui définit __class_getitem__() mais n'est pas un conteneur, les arguments fournis comme indices de la classe indiquent souvent les types de retour d'une ou plusieurs méthodes définies sur un objet. Par exemple, re (expressions rationnelles) peut être utilisé à la fois sur le type de données str et sur le type de données bytes :

si x = re.search('foo', 'foo'), x est un objet re.Match où les valeurs de retour de x.group(0) et x[0] sont toutes les deux de type str. Nous pouvons représenter ce type d'objet dans des annotations de type avec le GenericAlias re.Match[str] ;

si y = re.search(b'bar', b'bar'), (notez le b pour bytes), y est également une instance de re.Match, mais les valeurs de retour de y.group(0) et y[0] sont toutes les deux de type bytes. Dans les annotations de type, nous représenterons cette variété d'objets re.Match par re.Match[bytes].

Les objets GenericAlias sont des instances de la classe types.GenericAlias, qui peut également être utilisée pour créer directement des objets GenericAlias.

T[X, Y, ...]

Crée un GenericAlias représentant un type T paramétré par les types X, Y et plus selon le T utilisé. Par exemple, pour une fonction attendant une list contenant des éléments float :

def average(values: list[float]) -> float:
    return sum(values) / len(values)

Un autre exemple peut être un objet tableau de correspondances, utilisant un dict, qui est un type générique attendant deux paramètres de type représentant le type clé et le type valeur. Dans cet exemple, la fonction attend un dict avec des clés de type str et des valeurs de type int :

def send_post_request(url: str, body: dict[str, int]) -> None:
    ...

Les fonctions natives isinstance() et issubclass() n'acceptent pas les types GenericAlias pour leur second argument :

>>> isinstance([1, 2], list[str])
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: isinstance() argument 2 cannot be a parameterized generic

Lors de l'exécution, Python ne regarde pas les annotations de type. Cela vaut pour les types génériques et les types qu'on leur passe en paramètres. Lors de la création d'un objet conteneur à partir d'un GenericAlias, les types des éléments du conteneur ne sont pas vérifiés. Par exemple, le code suivant est déconseillé, mais s'exécute sans erreur :

>>> t = list[str]
>>> t([1, 2, 3])
[1, 2, 3]

De plus, les types génériques pouvant recevoir des paramètres effacent les paramètres de type lors de la création d'objet :

>>> t = list[str]
>>> type(t)
<class 'types.GenericAlias'>

>>> l = t()
>>> type(l)
<class 'list'>

Appeler repr() ou str() sur un type générique affiche le type pouvant recevoir des paramètres :

>>> repr(list[int])
'list[int]'

>>> str(list[int])
'list[int]'

La méthode __getitem__() des conteneurs génériques lève une exception pour interdire les erreurs telles que dict[str][str] :

>>> dict[str][str]
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
TypeError: dict[str] is not a generic class

Cependant, de telles expressions sont valides lorsque des variables de type sont utilisées. L'indice doit avoir autant d'éléments qu'il y a d'éléments variables de type dans l'objet GenericAlias __args__.

>>> from typing import TypeVar
>>> Y = TypeVar('Y')
>>> dict[str, Y][int]
dict[str, int]

Classes génériques standards

Les classes suivantes de la bibliothèque standard prennent en charge les types génériques pouvant accepter des paramètres. Cette liste est non exhaustive.

tuple

list

dict

set

frozenset

type

asyncio.Future

asyncio.Task

collections.deque

collections.defaultdict

collections.OrderedDict

collections.Counter

collections.ChainMap

collections.abc.Awaitable

collections.abc.Coroutine

collections.abc.AsyncIterable

collections.abc.AsyncIterator

collections.abc.AsyncGenerator

collections.abc.Iterable

collections.abc.Iterator

collections.abc.Generator

collections.abc.Reversible

collections.abc.Container

collections.abc.Collection

collections.abc.Callable

collections.abc.Set

collections.abc.MutableSet

collections.abc.Mapping

collections.abc.MutableMapping

collections.abc.Sequence

collections.abc.MutableSequence

collections.abc.ByteString

collections.abc.MappingView

collections.abc.KeysView

collections.abc.ItemsView

collections.abc.ValuesView

contextlib.AbstractContextManager

contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager

dataclasses.Field

functools.cached_property

functools.partialmethod

os.PathLike

queue.LifoQueue

queue.Queue

queue.PriorityQueue

queue.SimpleQueue

re.Pattern

re.Match

shelve.BsdDbShelf

shelve.DbfilenameShelf

shelve.Shelf

types.MappingProxyType

weakref.WeakKeyDictionary

weakref.WeakMethod

weakref.WeakSet

weakref.WeakValueDictionary

Attributs spéciaux des alias génériques

Tous les types génériques pouvant accepter des paramètres implémentent des attributs spéciaux en lecture seule.

genericalias.__origin__

Cet attribut pointe vers la classe générique sans paramètres :

>>> list[int].__origin__
<class 'list'>

genericalias.__args__

Cet attribut est un n-uplet (éventuellement de longueur 1) de types génériques passés à la __class_getitem__() d'origine de la classe générique :

>>> dict[str, list[int]].__args__
(<class 'str'>, list[int])

genericalias.__parameters__

Cet attribut est un n-uplet calculé paresseusement (éventuellement vide) de variables de type (chaque type n'est mentionné qu'une seule fois) trouvées dans __args__ :

>>> from typing import TypeVar

>>> T = TypeVar('T')
>>> list[T].__parameters__
(~T,)

Note

un objet GenericAlias avec des paramètres typing.ParamSpec peut ne pas avoir de __parameters__ corrects après substitution car typing.ParamSpec est principalement destiné à la vérification de type statique.

genericalias.__unpacked__

Booléen qui est vrai si l'alias a été décompressé à l'aide de l'opérateur * (voir TypeVarTuple).

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

Voir aussi

PEP 484 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/] - Indications des types (page en anglais)

Présentation du cadre Python pour les annotations de type.

PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/] – Types génériques d'indication de type dans les conteneurs standard (page en anglais)

Présentation de la possibilité de paramétrer nativement les classes de la bibliothèque standard, à condition qu'elles implémentent la méthode de classe spéciale __class_getitem__().

Génériques, génériques personnalisés et typing.Generic

Documentation sur la façon d'implémenter des classes génériques qui peuvent être paramétrées à l'exécution et comprises par les vérificateurs de type statiques.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

Type Union

A union object holds the value of the | (bitwise or) operation on multiple type objects. These types are intended primarily for type annotations. The union type expression enables cleaner type hinting syntax compared to subscripting typing.Union.

X | Y | ...

Définit un objet union qui contient les types X, Y, etc. X | Y signifie X ou Y. Cela équivaut à typing.Union[X, Y]. Par exemple, la fonction suivante attend un argument de type int ou float :

def square(number: int | float) -> int | float:
    return number ** 2

Note

The | operand cannot be used at runtime to define unions where one or more members is a forward reference. For example, int | "Foo", where "Foo" is a reference to a class not yet defined, will fail at runtime. For unions which include forward references, present the whole expression as a string, e.g. "int | Foo".

union_object == other

Les objets union peuvent être testés pour savoir s'ils sont égaux à d'autres objets union. Plus en détails :

Les unions d'unions sont aplaties :

(int | str) | float == int | str | float

Les types redondants sont supprimés :

int | str | int == int | str

Lors de la comparaison d'unions, l'ordre est ignoré :

int | str == str | int

It creates instances of typing.Union:

int | str == typing.Union[int, str]
type(int | str) is typing.Union

Les types optionnels peuvent être orthographiés comme une union avec None :

str | None == typing.Optional[str]

isinstance(obj, union_object)

issubclass(obj, union_object)

Les appels à isinstance() et issubclass() sont également pris en charge avec un objet union :

>>> isinstance("", int | str)
True

However, parameterized generics in union objects cannot be checked:

>>> isinstance(1, int | list[int])  # short-circuit evaluation
True
>>> isinstance([1], int | list[int])
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
TypeError: isinstance() argument 2 cannot be a parameterized generic

The user-exposed type for the union object can be accessed from typing.Union and used for isinstance() checks:

>>> import typing
>>> isinstance(int | str, typing.Union)
True
>>> typing.Union()
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: cannot create 'typing.Union' instances

Note

The __or__() method for type objects was added to support the syntax X | Y. If a metaclass implements __or__(), the Union may override it:

>>> class M(type):
...     def __or__(self, other):
...         return "Hello"
...
>>> class C(metaclass=M):
...     pass
...
>>> C | int
'Hello'
>>> int | C
int | C

Voir aussi

PEP 604 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0604/] – PEP proposant la syntaxe X | Y et le type Union.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Union objects are now instances of typing.Union. Previously, they were instances of types.UnionType, which remains an alias for typing.Union.

Autres types natifs

L'interpréteur gère aussi d'autres types d'objets, la plupart ne gèrent cependant qu'une ou deux opérations.

Modules

La seule opération spéciale sur un module est l'accès à ses attributs : m.name, où m est un module et name donne accès un nom défini dans la table des symboles de m. Il est possible d'assigner un attribut de module. (Notez que l'instruction import n'est pas strictement une opération sur un objet module. import foo ne nécessite pas qu'un objet module nommé foo existe, il nécessite cependant une définition (externe) d'un module nommé foo quelque part.)

Un attribut spécial à chaque module est __dict__. C'est le dictionnaire contenant la table des symboles du module. Modifier ce dictionnaire change la table des symboles du module, mais assigner directement __dict__ n'est pas possible (vous pouvez écrire m.__dict__['a'] = 1, qui donne 1 comme valeur pour m.a, mais vous ne pouvez pas écrire m.__dict__ = {}). Modifier __dict__ directement n'est pas recommandé.

Les modules natifs de l'interpréteur sont affichés comme <module 'sys' (built-in)>. S'ils sont chargés depuis un fichier, ils sont affichés sous la forme <module 'os' from '/usr/local/lib/pythonX.Y/os.pyc'>.

Les classes et instances de classes

Voir Objets, valeurs et types et Définition de classes.

Fonctions

Les objets fonctions sont créés par les définitions de fonctions. La seule opération applicable à un objet fonction est de l'appeler : func(argument-list).

Il existe en fait deux catégories d'objets fonctions : les fonctions natives et les fonctions définies par l'utilisateur. Les deux gèrent les mêmes opérations (l'appel à la fonction), mais leur implémentation est différente, d'où les deux types distincts.

Voir Définition de fonctions pour plus d'information.

Méthodes

Methods are functions that are called using the attribute notation. There are two flavors: built-in methods (such as append() on lists) and class instance method. Built-in methods are described with the types that support them.

If you access a method (a function defined in a class namespace) through an instance, you get a special object: a bound method (also called instance method) object. When called, it will add the self argument to the argument list. Bound methods have two special read-only attributes: m.__self__ is the object on which the method operates, and m.__func__ is the function implementing the method. Calling m(arg-1, arg-2, ..., arg-n) is completely equivalent to calling m.__func__(m.__self__, arg-1, arg-2, ..., arg-n).

Like function objects, bound method objects support getting arbitrary attributes. However, since method attributes are actually stored on the underlying function object (method.__func__), setting method attributes on bound methods is disallowed. Attempting to set an attribute on a method results in an AttributeError being raised. In order to set a method attribute, you need to explicitly set it on the underlying function object:

>>> class C:
...     def method(self):
...         pass
...
>>> c = C()
>>> c.method.whoami = 'my name is method'  # can't set on the method
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
AttributeError: 'method' object has no attribute 'whoami'
>>> c.method.__func__.whoami = 'my name is method'
>>> c.method.whoami
'my name is method'

Voir Méthodes d'instances pour plus d'information.

Objets code

Code objects are used by the implementation to represent "pseudo-compiled" executable Python code such as a function body. They differ from function objects because they don't contain a reference to their global execution environment. Code objects are returned by the built-in compile() function and can be extracted from function objects through their __code__ attribute. See also the code module.

L'accès à __code__ déclenche un événement d'audit object.__getattr__ avec les arguments obj et "__code__".

Les objets code peuvent être exécutés ou évalués en les passant (au lieu d'une chaîne contenant du code) aux fonctions natives exec() ou eval().

Voir Hiérarchie des types standards pour plus d'information.

Objets type

Les objets types représentent les différents types d'objets. Le type d'un objet est obtenu via la fonction native type(). Il n'existe aucune opération spéciale sur les types. Le module standard types définit les noms de tous les types natifs.

Les types sont affichés comme suit : <class 'int'>.

L'objet Null

Cet objet est renvoyé par les fonctions ne renvoyant pas explicitement une valeur. Il ne gère aucune opération spéciale. Il existe exactement un seul objet null nommé None (c'est un nom natif). type(None)() produit ce singleton.

Il s'écrit None.

L'objet points de suspension (ou ellipse)

This object is commonly used to indicate that something is omitted. It supports no special operations. There is exactly one ellipsis object, named Ellipsis (a built-in name). type(Ellipsis)() produces the Ellipsis singleton.

Il s'écrit Ellipsis ou ....

In typical use, ... as the Ellipsis object appears in a few different places, for instance:

In type annotations, such as callable arguments or tuple elements.

As the body of a function instead of a pass statement.

In third-party libraries, such as Numpy's slicing and striding [https://numpy.org/doc/stable/user/basics.indexing.html#slicing-and-striding].

Python also uses three dots in ways that are not Ellipsis objects, for instance:

Doctest's ELLIPSIS, as a pattern for missing content.

The default Python prompt of the interactive shell when partial input is incomplete.

Lastly, the Python documentation often uses three dots in conventional English usage to mean omitted content, even in code examples that also use them as the Ellipsis.

L'objet NotImplemented

Cet objet est renvoyé depuis des comparaisons ou des opérations binaires effectuées sur des types qu'elles ne gèrent pas. Voir Comparaisons pour plus d'informations. Il n'y a qu'un seul objet NotImplemented. type(NotImplemented)() renvoie cette instance de singleton.

Il s'écrit NotImplemented.

Objets internes

See Hiérarchie des types standards for this information. It describes stack frame objects, traceback objects, and slice objects.

Attributs spéciaux

L'implémentation ajoute quelques attributs spéciaux en lecture seule à certains types, lorsque ça a du sens. Certains ne sont pas listés par la fonction native dir().

definition.__name__

Nom de la classe, fonction, méthode, descripteur ou instance du générateur.

definition.__qualname__

Nom qualifié de la classe, fonction, méthode, descripteur ou instance du générateur.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

definition.__module__

The name of the module in which a class or function was defined.

definition.__doc__

The documentation string of a class or function, or None if undefined.

definition.__type_params__

The type parameters of generic classes, functions, and type aliases. For classes and functions that are not generic, this will be an empty tuple.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Limitation de longueur de conversion de chaîne vers un entier

CPython a une limite globale pour la conversion entre int et str pour atténuer les attaques par déni de service. Cette limite s'applique uniquement aux décimaux ou autres bases de nombres qui ne sont pas des puissances de deux. Les conversions hexadécimales, octales et binaires sont illimitées. La limite peut être configurée.

Le type int dans CPython stocke un nombre de longueur arbitraire sous forme binaire (communément appelé « bignum »). Il n'existe aucun algorithme capable de convertir une chaîne en un entier binaire ou un entier binaire en une chaîne en temps linéaire, sauf si la base est une puissance de 2. Même les meilleurs algorithmes connus pour la base 10 ont une complexité sous-quadratique. La conversion d'une grande valeur telle que int('1' * 500_000) peut prendre plus d'une seconde sur un CPU rapide.

Limiter la taille de la conversion offre un moyen pratique d'éviter la vulnérabilité CVE 2020-10735 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-10735].

La limite est appliquée au nombre de caractères numériques dans la chaîne d'entrée ou de sortie lorsqu'un algorithme de conversion non linéaire doit être appliqué. Les traits de soulignement et le signe ne sont pas comptés dans la limite.

Si une opération va dépasser la limite, une ValueError est levée :

>>> import sys
>>> sys.set_int_max_str_digits(4300)  # Illustrative, this is the default.
>>> _ = int('2' * 5432)
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
ValueError: Exceeds the limit (4300 digits) for integer string conversion: value has 5432 digits; use sys.set_int_max_str_digits() to increase the limit
>>> i = int('2' * 4300)
>>> len(str(i))
4300
>>> i_squared = i*i
>>> len(str(i_squared))
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
ValueError: Exceeds the limit (4300 digits) for integer string conversion; use sys.set_int_max_str_digits() to increase the limit
>>> len(hex(i_squared))
7144
>>> assert int(hex(i_squared), base=16) == i*i  # Hexadecimal is unlimited.

La limite par défaut est de 4 300 chiffres comme indiqué dans sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits. La limite la plus basse pouvant être configurée est de 640 chiffres, comme indiqué dans sys.int_info.str_digits_check_threshold.

Vérification :

>>> import sys
>>> assert sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits == 4300, sys.int_info
>>> assert sys.int_info.str_digits_check_threshold == 640, sys.int_info
>>> msg = int('578966293710682886880994035146873798396722250538762761564'
...           '9252925514383915483333812743580549779436104706260696366600'
...           '571186405732').to_bytes(53, 'big')
...

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

API concernées

La limitation s'applique uniquement aux conversions potentiellement lentes entre int et str ou bytes :

int(string) en base 10 (par défaut).

int(string, base) pour toutes les bases qui ne sont pas des puissances de 2.

str(integer).

repr(integer).

toute autre conversion de chaîne en base 10, par exemple f"{integer}", "{}".format(integer) ou b"%d" % integer.

Les limitations ne s'appliquent pas aux fonctions avec un algorithme linéaire :

int(chaîne, base) en base 2, 4, 8, 16 ou 32.

int.from_bytes() et int.to_bytes().

hex(), oct(), bin().

Format specification mini-language pour les nombres hexadécimaux, octaux et binaires.

str vers float.

str vers decimal.Decimal.

Configuration de la limite

Avant le démarrage de Python, vous pouvez utiliser une variable d'environnement ou une option de ligne de commande d'interpréteur pour configurer la limite :

PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS, par exemple PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS=640 python3 pour fixer la limite à 640 chiffres ou PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS=0 python3 pour désactiver la limitation.

-X int_max_str_digits, par exemple python3 -X int_max_str_digits=640

sys.flags.int_max_str_digits contient la valeur de PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS ou -X int_max_str_digits. Si la variable d'environnement et l'option -X sont définies toutes les deux, l'option -X est prioritaire. Une valeur de -1 indique que les deux n'étaient pas définies, donc qu'une valeur de sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits a été utilisée lors de l'initialisation.

Depuis le code, vous pouvez inspecter la limite actuelle et en définir une nouvelle à l'aide de ces API sys :

sys.get_int_max_str_digits() et sys.set_int_max_str_digits() sont un accesseur et un mutateur pour la limite relative à l'interpréteur. Les sous-interprètes possèdent leur propre limite.

Des informations sur la valeur par défaut et le minimum peuvent être trouvées dans sys.int_info :

sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits est la limite par défaut pour la compilation.

sys.int_info.str_digits_check_threshold est la valeur la plus basse acceptée pour la limite (autre que 0 qui la désactive).

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

Prudence

fixer une limite basse peut entraîner des problèmes. Bien que rare, du code contenant des constantes entières en décimal dans la source qui dépasse le seuil minimum peut exister. Une conséquence de la définition de la limite est que le code source Python contenant des littéraux entiers décimaux plus longs que la limite lèvera une erreur lors de l'analyse, généralement au démarrage ou à l'importation ou même au moment de l'installation – dès qu'un .pyc à jour n'existe pas déjà pour le code. Une solution de contournement pour les sources qui contiennent de si grandes constantes consiste à les convertir au format hexadécimal 0x car il n'y a pas de limite.

Testez soigneusement votre application si vous utilisez une limite basse. Assurez-vous que vos tests s'exécutent avec la limite définie au début via l'environnement ou l'option de ligne de commande afin qu'elle s'applique au démarrage et même lors de toute étape d'installation pouvant invoquer Python pour compiler les sources .py en fichiers .pyc.

Configuration recommandée

La valeur par défaut sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits devrait être raisonnable pour la plupart des applications. Si votre application nécessite une limite différente, définissez-la à partir de votre point d'entrée principal à l'aide d'un code indépendant de la version Python, car ces API ont été ajoutées dans des correctifs de sécurité des versions antérieures à 3.12.

Par exemple :

>>> import sys
>>> if hasattr(sys, "set_int_max_str_digits"):
...     upper_bound = 68000
...     lower_bound = 4004
...     current_limit = sys.get_int_max_str_digits()
...     if current_limit == 0 or current_limit > upper_bound:
...         sys.set_int_max_str_digits(upper_bound)
...     elif current_limit < lower_bound:
...         sys.set_int_max_str_digits(lower_bound)

Pour la désactiver entièrement, réglez-la à 0.

Notes

[1]

Plus d'informations sur ces méthodes spéciales peuvent être trouvées dans le Python Reference Manual (Personnalisation de base).

[2]

Par conséquent, la liste [1, 2] est considérée égale à [1.0, 2.0]. Idem avec des n-uplets.

[3]

Nécessairement, puisque l'analyseur ne peut pas discerner le type des opérandes.

[4] (1,2,3,4)

Les caractères capitalisables sont ceux dont la propriété Unicode general category est soit "Lu" (pour Letter, uppercase), soit "Ll" (pour Letter, lowercase), soit "Lt" (pour Letter, titlecase).

[5] (1,2)

Pour insérer un n-uplet, vous devez donc donner un n-uplet d'un seul élément, contenant le n-uplet à insérer.

Exceptions natives

En python, une exception est une instance d'une classe héritée de BaseException. Dans un bloc try, la clause except traite non seulement la classe d'exception qu'elle mentionne, mais aussi toutes les classes dérivées de cette classe (contrairement à ses classes mères). Deux classes qui ne sont pas liées par héritage ne sont jamais équivalentes, même si elles ont le même nom.

The built-in exceptions listed in this chapter can be generated by the interpreter or built-in functions. Except where mentioned, they have an "associated value" indicating the detailed cause of the error. This may be a string or a tuple of several items of information (e.g., an error code and a string explaining the code). The associated value is usually passed as arguments to the exception class's constructor.

Du code utilisateur peut lever des exceptions natives. Cela peut être utilisé pour tester un gestionnaire d'exception ou pour rapporter une condition d'erreur "comme si" c'était l'interpréteur qui levait cette exception ; mais attention car rien n'empêche du code utilisateur de lever une erreur inappropriée.

Les classes d'exception natives peuvent être héritées pour définir de nouvelles exceptions ; les programmeurs sont encouragés à faire dériver les nouvelles exceptions de la classe Exception ou d'une de ses sous-classes, et non de BaseException. Plus d'informations sur la définition des exceptions sont disponibles dans le Tutoriel Python au chapitre Exceptions définies par l'utilisateur.

Contexte des exceptions

Three attributes on exception objects provide information about the context in which the exception was raised:

BaseException.__context__

BaseException.__cause__

BaseException.__suppress_context__

When raising a new exception while another exception is already being handled, the new exception's __context__ attribute is automatically set to the handled exception. An exception may be handled when an except or finally clause, or a with statement, is used.

Ce contexte implicite d'exception peut être complété par une cause explicite en utilisant from avec raise :

raise new_exc from original_exc

The expression following from must be an exception or None. It will be set as __cause__ on the raised exception. Setting __cause__ also implicitly sets the __suppress_context__ attribute to True, so that using raise new_exc from None effectively replaces the old exception with the new one for display purposes (e.g. converting KeyError to AttributeError), while leaving the old exception available in __context__ for introspection when debugging.

The default traceback display code shows these chained exceptions in addition to the traceback for the exception itself. An explicitly chained exception in __cause__ is always shown when present. An implicitly chained exception in __context__ is shown only if __cause__ is None and __suppress_context__ is false.

Dans les deux cas, l'exception elle-même est toujours affichée après toutes les exceptions enchaînées, de sorte que la dernière ligne de la trace d'appels montre toujours la dernière exception qui a été levée.

Hériter des exceptions natives

Le code de l'utilisateur peut créer des sous-classes qui dérivent d'un type d'exception. Il est recommandé de ne dériver que d'un seul type d'exception à la fois pour éviter des conflits possibles dans la façon dont les classes mères traitent l'argument args ainsi que des incompatibilités potentielles avec l'utilisation de la mémoire.

La majorité des exceptions natives sont implémentées en C pour des raisons d'efficacité, voir Objects/exceptions.c [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Objects/exceptions.c]. L'architecture interne de certaines est telle que cela rend impossible la création de sous-classes qui dérivent de plusieurs types d'exceptions. L'agencement de la mémoire est un détail d'implémentation qui est sujet à changement d'une version de Python à l'autre, ce qui peut poser conflit dans le futur. Il est donc déconseillé de dériver de plusieurs types d'exceptions.

Classes mères

Les exceptions suivantes sont utilisées principalement en tant que classes mères pour d'autres exceptions.

exception BaseException

La classe mère pour toutes les exceptions natives. Elle n'est pas vouée à être héritée directement par des classes utilisateur (pour cela, utilisez Exception). Si str() est appelée sur une instance de cette classe, la représentation du ou des argument(s) de l'instance est retournée, ou la chaîne vide s'il n'y avait pas d'arguments.

args

Le n-uplet d'arguments donné au constructeur d'exception. Certaines exceptions natives (comme OSError) attendent un certain nombre d'arguments et attribuent une signification spéciale aux éléments de ce n-uplet, alors que d'autres ne sont généralement appelées qu'avec une seule chaîne de caractères rendant un message d'erreur.

with_traceback(tb)

Cette méthode affecte tb comme la nouvelle trace d'appels de l'exception et renvoie l'objet exception. Elle était utilisée de façon plus courante avant que la fonctionnalité de chaînage des exceptions de la PEP 3134 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3134/] devienne disponible. L'exemple suivant démontre comment convertir une instance de SomeException en une instance de OtherException tout en préservant la pile d'appels. Une fois l'exception levée, le cadre courant est empilé sur la trace d'appels de OtherException, comme cela se serait produit pour la trace d'appels de SomeException si on l'avait laissée se propager jusqu'à l'appelant

try:
    ...
except SomeException:
    tb = sys.exception().__traceback__
    raise OtherException(...).with_traceback(tb)

__traceback__

A writable field that holds the traceback object associated with this exception. See also: L'instruction raise.

add_note(note)

Add the string note to the exception's notes which appear in the standard traceback after the exception string. A TypeError is raised if note is not a string.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

__notes__

A list of the notes of this exception, which were added with add_note(). This attribute is created when add_note() is called.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

exception Exception

Toutes les exceptions natives, qui n'entraînent pas une sortie du système dérivent de cette classe. Toutes les exceptions définies par l'utilisateur devraient également être dérivées de cette classe.

exception ArithmeticError

La classe mère pour les exceptions natives qui sont levées pour diverses erreurs arithmétiques : OverflowError, ZeroDivisionError, FloatingPointError.

exception BufferError

Levée lorsqu'une opération liée à un tampon ne peut pas être exécutée.

exception LookupError

La classe mère pour les exceptions qui sont levées lorsqu'une clé ou un index utilisé sur un tableau de correspondances ou une séquence est invalide : IndexError, KeyError. Peut être levée directement par codecs.lookup().

Exceptions concrètes

Les exceptions suivantes sont celles qui sont habituellement levées.

exception AssertionError

Levée lorsqu'une instruction assert échoue.

exception AttributeError

Levée lorsqu'une référence ou une assignation d'attribut (voir Références à des attributs) échoue. (Lorsqu'un objet ne supporte pas du tout la référence ou l'assignation d'attribut, TypeError est levé.)

The optional name and obj keyword-only arguments set the corresponding attributes:

name

The name of the attribute that was attempted to be accessed.

obj

The object that was accessed for the named attribute.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Ajout des attributs name et obj.

exception EOFError

Raised when the input() function hits an end-of-file condition (EOF) without reading any data. (Note: the io.TextIOBase.read() and io.IOBase.readline() methods return an empty string when they hit EOF.)

exception FloatingPointError

N’est pas utilisé pour le moment.

exception GeneratorExit

Levée lorsqu'un generator ou une coroutine est fermé, voir generator.close() et coroutine.close(). Elle hérite directement de BaseException au lieu de Exception puisqu'il ne s'agit pas techniquement d'une erreur.

exception ImportError

Levée lorsque l'instruction import a des problèmes pour essayer de charger un module. Également levée lorsque Python ne trouve pas un nom dans from ... import.

The optional name and path keyword-only arguments set the corresponding attributes:

name

The name of the module that was attempted to be imported.

path

The path to any file which triggered the exception.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Ajout des attributs name et path.

exception ModuleNotFoundError

Une sous-classe de ImportError qui est levée par import lorsqu'un module n'a pas pu être localisé. Elle est généralement levée quand None est trouvé dans sys.modules.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

exception IndexError

Levée lorsqu'un indice de séquence est hors de la plage. (Les indices de tranches (slices) sont tronqués silencieusement pour tomber dans la plage autorisée ; si un indice n'est pas un entier, TypeError est levée.)

exception KeyError

Levée lorsqu'une clef (de dictionnaire) n'est pas trouvée dans l'ensemble des clefs existantes.

exception KeyboardInterrupt

Levée lorsque l'utilisateur appuie sur la touche d'interruption (normalement Control-C or Delete). Pendant l'exécution, un contrôle des interruptions est effectué régulièrement. L'exception hérite de BaseException afin de ne pas être accidentellement interceptée par du code qui intercepte Exception et ainsi empêcher l'interpréteur de quitter.

Note

Attraper une KeyboardInterrupt demande une considération particulière. Comme elle peut être levée à des moments imprévisibles, elle peut dans certains cas laisser le programme en cours d'exécution dans un état incohérent. Il est généralement préférable de laisser KeyboardInterrupt arrêter le programme aussi rapidement que possible ou d'éviter catégoriquement de la lever (voir Note on Signal Handlers and Exceptions).

exception MemoryError

Levée lorsqu'une opération est à court de mémoire mais que la situation peut encore être rattrapée (en supprimant certains objets). La valeur associée est une chaîne de caractères indiquant quel type d'opération (interne) est à court de mémoire. À noter qu'en raison de l'architecture interne de gestion de la mémoire (la fonction malloc() du C), l'interpréteur peut ne pas toujours être capable de rattraper cette situation ; il lève néanmoins une exception pour qu'une pile d'appels puisse être affichée, dans le cas où un programme en cours d'exécution en était la cause.

exception NameError

Levée lorsqu'un nom local ou global n'est pas trouvé. Ceci ne s'applique qu'aux noms non qualifiés. La valeur associée est un message d'erreur qui inclut le nom qui n'a pas pu être trouvé.

The optional name keyword-only argument sets the attribute:

name

The name of the variable that was attempted to be accessed.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Ajout de l'attribut name.

exception NotImplementedError

Cette exception est dérivée de RuntimeError. Dans les classes mères définies par l'utilisateur, les méthodes abstraites devraient lever cette exception lorsqu'elles nécessitent des classes dérivées pour remplacer la méthode, ou lorsque la classe est en cours de développement pour indiquer que l'implémentation concrète doit encore être ajoutée.

Note

Elle ne devrait pas être utilisée pour indiquer qu'un opérateur ou qu'une méthode n'est pas destiné à être pris en charge du tout – dans ce cas, évitez de définir l'opérateur ou la méthode, ou s'il s'agit d'une sous-classe, assignez-le à None.

Prudence

NotImplementedError and NotImplemented are not interchangeable. This exception should only be used as described above; see NotImplemented for details on correct usage of the built-in constant.

exception OSError([arg])

exception OSError(errno, strerror[, filename[, winerror[, filename2]]])

Cette exception est levée lorsqu'une fonction système retourne une erreur liée au système, incluant les erreurs entrées-sorties telles que "fichier non trouvé" ou "disque plein" (pas pour les types d'arguments illégaux ou d'autres erreurs accidentelles).

La deuxième forme du constructeur définit les attributs correspondants, décrits ci-dessous. Les attributs par défaut sont None si non spécifiés. Pour la rétrocompatibilité, si trois arguments sont passés, l'attribut args contient seulement une paire avec les valeurs des deux premiers arguments du constructeur.

Le constructeur retourne souvent une sous-classe d'OSError, comme décrit dans OS exceptions ci-dessous. La sous-classe particulière dépend de la valeur finale d'errno. Ce comportement ne se produit que lors de la construction d'OSError directement ou via un alias, et n'est pas hérité lors du sous-classement.

errno

Code d'erreur numérique de la variable C errno.

winerror

Sous Windows, cela donne le code d'erreur Windows natif. L'attribut errno est alors une traduction approximative, en termes POSIX, de ce code d'erreur natif.

Sous Windows, si l'argument du constructeur winerror est un entier, l'attribut errno est déterminé à partir du code d'erreur Windows, et l'argument errno est ignoré. Sur d'autres plateformes, l'argument winerror est ignoré, et l'attribut winerror n'existe pas.

strerror

The corresponding error message, as provided by the operating system. It is formatted by the C functions perror() under POSIX, and FormatMessage() under Windows.

filename

filename2

Pour les exceptions qui font référence à un chemin d'accès au système de fichiers (comme open() ou os.unlink()), filename est le nom du fichier transmis à la fonction. Pour les fonctions qui font référence à deux chemins d'accès au système de fichiers (comme os.rename()), filename2 correspond au deuxième nom de fichier passé à la fonction.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: EnvironmentError, IOError, WindowsError, socket.error, select.error and mmap.error have been merged into OSError, and the constructor may return a subclass.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: L'attribut filename est maintenant le nom du fichier originel passé à la fonction, au lieu du nom encodé ou décodé à partir du gestionnaire d'encodage et d'erreur du système de fichiers. De plus, l'argument du constructeur et attribut filename2 a été ajouté.

exception OverflowError

Raised when the result of an arithmetic operation is too large to be represented. This cannot occur for integers (which would rather raise MemoryError than give up). However, for historical reasons, OverflowError is sometimes raised for integers that are outside a required range. Because of the lack of standardization of floating-point exception handling in C, most floating-point operations are not checked.

exception PythonFinalizationError

This exception is derived from RuntimeError. It is raised when an operation is blocked during interpreter shutdown also known as Python finalization.

Examples of operations which can be blocked with a PythonFinalizationError during the Python finalization:

Creating a new Python thread.

Joining a running daemon thread.

os.fork().

See also the sys.is_finalizing() function.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13: Auparavant, une simple RuntimeError était levée.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: threading.Thread.join() can now raise this exception.

exception RecursionError

Cette exception est dérivée de RuntimeError. Elle est levée lorsque l'interpréteur détecte que la profondeur de récursivité maximale (voir sys.getrecursionlimit()) est dépassée.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5: Auparavant, une simple RuntimeError était levée.

exception ReferenceError

Cette exception est levée lorsqu'un pointeur faible d'un objet proxy, créé par la fonction weakref.proxy(), est utilisé pour accéder à un attribut du référent après qu'il ait été récupéré par le ramasse-miettes. Pour plus d'informations sur les pointeurs faibles, voir le module weakref.

exception RuntimeError

Levée lorsqu'une erreur qui n'appartient à aucune des autres catégories est détectée. La valeur associée est une chaîne de caractères indiquant précisément ce qui s'est mal passé.

exception StopIteration

Levée par la fonction native next() et la méthode __next__() d'un iterator (itérateur) pour signaler qu'il n'y a pas d'autres éléments produits par l'itérateur.

value

The exception object has a single attribute value, which is given as an argument when constructing the exception, and defaults to None.

Lorsqu'une fonction de type generator ou coroutine retourne une valeur, une nouvelle instance de StopIteration est levée, et la valeur retournée par la fonction est passée au paramètre value du constructeur de l'exception.

Si le code d'un générateur lève, directement ou indirectement, une StopIteration, elle est convertie en RuntimeError (en conservant StopIteration comme cause de la nouvelle exception).

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Ajout de l'attribut value et de la possibilité pour les fonctions de générateur de l'utiliser pour retourner une valeur.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Introduit la transformation des erreurs RuntimeError via from __future__ import generator_stop, cf. PEP 479 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/].

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Active PEP 479 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/] pour tout le code par défaut : quand une erreur StopIteration est levée dans un générateur elle est transformée en une RuntimeError.

exception StopAsyncIteration

Must be raised by __anext__() method of an asynchronous iterator object to stop the iteration.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

exception SyntaxError(message, details)

Levée lorsque l'analyseur syntaxique rencontre une erreur de syntaxe. Cela peut se produire dans une instruction import, dans un appel aux fonctions natives compile(), exec() ou eval(), ou lors de la lecture du script initial ou de l'entrée standard (également de manière interactive).

La conversion en chaîne avec str() de l'instance de l'exception ne renvoie que le message d'erreur. L'argument details est un n-uplet dont les membres sont disponibles en tant qu'attributs séparés.

filename

Le nom du fichier dans lequel l'erreur de syntaxe a été rencontrée.

lineno

Le numéro de la ligne dans le fichier où l'erreur s'est produite. L'indiçage commence à 1 : lineno vaut 1 pour la première ligne du fichier.

offset

La colonne dans la ligne où l'erreur s'est produite. L'indiçage commence à 1 : offset vaut 1 pour le premier caractère de la ligne.

text

Le texte du code source impliqué dans l'erreur.

end_lineno

Le numéro de la dernière ligne produisant l'erreur. L'indiçage commence à 1 : lineno vaut 1 pour la première ligne du fichier.

end_offset

Le numéro de la dernière colonne (de la dernière ligne) produisant l'erreur. L'indiçage commence à 1 : offset vaut 1 pour le premier caractère de la ligne.

Pour les erreurs dans les chaînes de formatage f-strings, le message commence par « f-string: » et les champs offset sont les décalages dans un texte construit à partir de l’expression de remplacement. Par exemple, compiler f'Bad {a b} field' produit cet attribut args : ('f-string: ...', ('', 1, 2, '(a b)\n', 1, 5)).

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Ajout des attributs end_lineno et end_offset.

exception IndentationError

Classe mère pour les erreurs de syntaxe liées à une indentation incorrecte. C'est une sous-classe de SyntaxError.

exception TabError

Levée lorsqu'une indentation contient une utilisation incohérente des tabulations et des espaces. C'est une sous-classe de IndentationError.

exception SystemError

Raised when the interpreter finds an internal error, but the situation does not look so serious to cause it to abandon all hope. The associated value is a string indicating what went wrong (in low-level terms). In CPython, this could be raised by incorrectly using Python's C API, such as returning a NULL value without an exception set.

If you're confident that this exception wasn't your fault, or the fault of a package you're using, you should report this to the author or maintainer of your Python interpreter. Be sure to report the version of the Python interpreter (sys.version; it is also printed at the start of an interactive Python session), the exact error message (the exception's associated value) and if possible the source of the program that triggered the error.

exception SystemExit

This exception is raised by the sys.exit() function. It inherits from BaseException instead of Exception so that it is not accidentally caught by code that catches Exception. This allows the exception to properly propagate up and cause the interpreter to exit. When it is not handled, the Python interpreter exits; no stack traceback is printed. The constructor accepts the same optional argument passed to sys.exit(). If the value is an integer, it specifies the system exit status (passed to C's exit() function); if it is None, the exit status is zero; if it has another type (such as a string), the object's value is printed and the exit status is one.

Un appel à sys.exit() est traduit en une exception pour que les gestionnaires de nettoyage (les clauses finally des instructions try) puissent être exécutés, et pour qu'un débogueur puisse exécuter un script sans courir le risque de perdre le contrôle. La fonction os._exit() peut être utilisée s'il est absolument nécessaire de sortir immédiatement (par exemple, dans le processus enfant après un appel à os.fork()).

code

L'état de sortie ou le message d'erreur passé au constructeur. (None par défaut.)

exception TypeError

Levée lorsqu'une opération ou fonction est appliquée à un objet d'un type inapproprié. La valeur associée est une chaîne de caractères donnant des détails sur le type d'inadéquation.

Cette exception peut être levée par du code utilisateur pour indiquer qu'une tentative d'opération sur un objet n'est pas prise en charge, et n'est pas censée l'être. Si un objet est destiné à prendre en charge une opération donnée mais n'a pas encore fourni une implémentation, lever NotImplementedError est plus approprié.

Le passage d'arguments du mauvais type (e.g. passer une list quand un int est attendu) devrait résulter en un TypeError, mais le passage d'arguments avec la mauvaise valeur (e.g. un nombre en dehors des limites attendues) devrait résulter en une ValueError.

exception UnboundLocalError

Levée lorsqu'une référence est faite à une variable locale dans une fonction ou une méthode, mais qu'aucune valeur n'a été liée à cette variable. C'est une sous-classe de NameError.

exception UnicodeError

Levée lorsqu'une erreur d'encodage ou de décodage liée à Unicode se produit. C'est une sous-classe de ValueError.

UnicodeError a des attributs qui décrivent l'erreur d'encodage ou de décodage. Par exemple, err.object[err.start:err.end] donne l'entrée particulière invalide sur laquelle le codec a échoué.

encoding

Le nom de l'encodage qui a provoqué l'erreur.

reason

Une chaîne de caractères décrivant l'erreur de codec spécifique.

object

L'objet que le codec essayait d'encoder ou de décoder.

start

Le premier index des données invalides dans object.

This value should not be negative as it is interpreted as an absolute offset but this constraint is not enforced at runtime.

end

L'index après la dernière donnée invalide dans object.

This value should not be negative as it is interpreted as an absolute offset but this constraint is not enforced at runtime.

exception UnicodeEncodeError

Levée lorsqu'une erreur liée à Unicode se produit durant l'encodage. C'est une sous-classe d'UnicodeError.

exception UnicodeDecodeError

Levée lorsqu'une erreur liée à Unicode se produit durant le décodage. C'est une sous-classe d'UnicodeError.

exception UnicodeTranslateError

Levée lorsqu'une erreur liée à Unicode se produit durant la traduction. C'est une sous-classe d'UnicodeError.

exception ValueError

Levée lorsqu'une opération ou fonction native reçoit un argument qui possède le bon type mais une valeur inappropriée, et que la situation n'est pas décrite par une exception plus précise telle que IndexError.

exception ZeroDivisionError

Levée lorsque le second argument d'une opération de division ou d'un modulo est zéro. La valeur associée est une chaîne indiquant le type des opérandes et de l'opération.

Les exceptions suivantes sont conservées pour la compatibilité avec les anciennes versions ; depuis Python 3.3, ce sont des alias d'OSError.

exception EnvironmentError

exception IOError

exception WindowsError

Seulement disponible sous Windows.

Exceptions système

Les exceptions suivantes sont des sous-classes d'OSError, elles sont levées en fonction du code d'erreur système.

exception BlockingIOError

Raised when an operation would block on an object (e.g. socket) set for non-blocking operation. Corresponds to errno EAGAIN, EALREADY, EWOULDBLOCK and EINPROGRESS.

En plus de ceux de OSError, BlockingIOError peut avoir un attribut de plus :

characters_written

An integer containing the number of bytes written to the stream before it blocked. This attribute is available when using the buffered I/O classes from the io module.

exception ChildProcessError

Raised when an operation on a child process failed. Corresponds to errno ECHILD.

exception ConnectionError

Classe mère pour les problèmes de connexion.

Les sous-classes sont BrokenPipeError, ConnectionAbortedError, ConnectionRefusedError et ConnectionResetError.

exception BrokenPipeError

A subclass of ConnectionError, raised when trying to write on a pipe while the other end has been closed, or trying to write on a socket which has been shutdown for writing. Corresponds to errno EPIPE and ESHUTDOWN.

exception ConnectionAbortedError

A subclass of ConnectionError, raised when a connection attempt is aborted by the peer. Corresponds to errno ECONNABORTED.

exception ConnectionRefusedError

A subclass of ConnectionError, raised when a connection attempt is refused by the peer. Corresponds to errno ECONNREFUSED.

exception ConnectionResetError

A subclass of ConnectionError, raised when a connection is reset by the peer. Corresponds to errno ECONNRESET.

exception FileExistsError

Raised when trying to create a file or directory which already exists. Corresponds to errno EEXIST.

exception FileNotFoundError

Raised when a file or directory is requested but doesn't exist. Corresponds to errno ENOENT.

exception InterruptedError

Raised when a system call is interrupted by an incoming signal. Corresponds to errno EINTR.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Python relance maintenant les appels système lorsqu'ils sont interrompus par un signal, sauf si le gestionnaire de signal lève une exception (voir PEP 475 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/] pour les raisons), au lieu de lever InterruptedError.

exception IsADirectoryError

Raised when a file operation (such as os.remove()) is requested on a directory. Corresponds to errno EISDIR.

exception NotADirectoryError

Raised when a directory operation (such as os.listdir()) is requested on something which is not a directory. On most POSIX platforms, it may also be raised if an operation attempts to open or traverse a non-directory file as if it were a directory. Corresponds to errno ENOTDIR.

exception PermissionError

Raised when trying to run an operation without the adequate access rights - for example filesystem permissions. Corresponds to errno EACCES, EPERM, and ENOTCAPABLE.

Modifié dans la version 3.11.1: WASI's ENOTCAPABLE is now mapped to PermissionError.

exception ProcessLookupError

Raised when a given process doesn't exist. Corresponds to errno ESRCH.

exception TimeoutError

Raised when a system function timed out at the system level. Corresponds to errno ETIMEDOUT.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3: Toutes les sous-classes d'OSError ci-dessus ont été ajoutées.

Voir aussi

PEP 3151 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3151/] -- Refonte de la hiérarchie des exceptions système et IO

Avertissements

Les exceptions suivantes sont utilisées comme catégories d'avertissement ; voir warning-categories pour plus d'informations.

exception Warning

Classe mère pour les catégories d'avertissement.

exception UserWarning

Classe mère pour les avertissements générés par du code utilisateur.

exception DeprecationWarning

Classe mère pour les avertissements sur les fonctionnalités obsolètes, lorsque ces avertissements sont destinés aux autres développeurs Python.

Ignoré par les filtres d'avertissements par défaut, sauf dans le module __main__ (PEP 565 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0565/]). Activer le mode de développement de Python affiche cet avertissement.

La politique relative à l'obsolescence est décrite dans la PEP 387 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0387/].

exception PendingDeprecationWarning

Classe mère pour les avertissements d'obsolescence programmée. Ils indiquent que la fonctionnalité peut encore être utilisée actuellement, mais qu'elle sera supprimée dans le futur.

Cette classe est rarement utilisée car émettre un avertissement à propos d’une obsolescence à venir est inhabituel, et DeprecationWarning est préféré pour les obsolescences actuelles.

Ignoré par les filtres d'avertissements par défaut. Activer le mode de développement de Python affiche cet avertissement.

La politique relative à l'obsolescence est décrite dans la PEP 387 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0387/].

exception SyntaxWarning

Classe mère pour les avertissements sur de la syntaxe douteuse.

This warning is typically emitted when compiling Python source code, and usually won't be reported when running already compiled code.

exception RuntimeWarning

Classe mère pour les avertissements sur les comportements d'exécution douteux.

exception FutureWarning

Classe mère pour les avertissements à propos de fonctionnalités qui seront obsolètes dans le futur quand ces avertissements destinés aux utilisateurs finaux des applications écrites en Python.

exception ImportWarning

Classe mère pour les avertissements sur des erreurs probables dans les importations de modules.

Ignoré par les filtres d'avertissements par défaut. Activer le mode de développement de Python affiche cet avertissement.

exception UnicodeWarning

Classe mère pour les avertissements liés à l'Unicode.

exception EncodingWarning

Classe mère pour les avertissements liés à l'encodage des chaînes.

Voir Opt-in EncodingWarning pour plus d'informations.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

exception BytesWarning

Classe mère pour les avertissements liés à bytes et bytearray.

exception ResourceWarning

Classe mère pour les avertissements liés à l'utilisation des ressources.

Ignoré par les filtres d'avertissements par défaut. Activer le mode de développement de Python affiche cet avertissement.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Exception groups

The following are used when it is necessary to raise multiple unrelated exceptions. They are part of the exception hierarchy so they can be handled with except like all other exceptions. In addition, they are recognised by except*, which matches their subgroups based on the types of the contained exceptions.

exception ExceptionGroup(msg, excs)

exception BaseExceptionGroup(msg, excs)

Both of these exception types wrap the exceptions in the sequence excs. The msg parameter must be a string. The difference between the two classes is that BaseExceptionGroup extends BaseException and it can wrap any exception, while ExceptionGroup extends Exception and it can only wrap subclasses of Exception. This design is so that except Exception catches an ExceptionGroup but not BaseExceptionGroup.

The BaseExceptionGroup constructor returns an ExceptionGroup rather than a BaseExceptionGroup if all contained exceptions are Exception instances, so it can be used to make the selection automatic. The ExceptionGroup constructor, on the other hand, raises a TypeError if any contained exception is not an Exception subclass.

Particularité de l'implémentation CPython : The excs parameter may be any sequence, but lists and tuples are specifically processed more efficiently here. For optimal performance, pass a tuple as excs.

message

The msg argument to the constructor. This is a read-only attribute.

exceptions

A tuple of the exceptions in the excs sequence given to the constructor. This is a read-only attribute.

subgroup(condition)

Returns an exception group that contains only the exceptions from the current group that match condition, or None if the result is empty.

The condition can be an exception type or tuple of exception types, in which case each exception is checked for a match using the same check that is used in an except clause. The condition can also be a callable (other than a type object) that accepts an exception as its single argument and returns true for the exceptions that should be in the subgroup.

The nesting structure of the current exception is preserved in the result, as are the values of its message, __traceback__, __cause__, __context__ and __notes__ fields. Empty nested groups are omitted from the result.

The condition is checked for all exceptions in the nested exception group, including the top-level and any nested exception groups. If the condition is true for such an exception group, it is included in the result in full.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13: condition can be any callable which is not a type object.

split(condition)

Like subgroup(), but returns the pair (match, rest) where match is subgroup(condition) and rest is the remaining non-matching part.

derive(excs)

Returns an exception group with the same message, but which wraps the exceptions in excs.

This method is used by subgroup() and split(), which are used in various contexts to break up an exception group. A subclass needs to override it in order to make subgroup() and split() return instances of the subclass rather than ExceptionGroup.

subgroup() and split() copy the __traceback__, __cause__, __context__ and __notes__ fields from the original exception group to the one returned by derive(), so these fields do not need to be updated by derive().

>>> class MyGroup(ExceptionGroup):
...     def derive(self, excs):
...         return MyGroup(self.message, excs)
...
>>> e = MyGroup("eg", [ValueError(1), TypeError(2)])
>>> e.add_note("a note")
>>> e.__context__ = Exception("context")
>>> e.__cause__ = Exception("cause")
>>> try:
...    raise e
... except Exception as e:
...    exc = e
...
>>> match, rest = exc.split(ValueError)
>>> exc, exc.__context__, exc.__cause__, exc.__notes__
(MyGroup('eg', [ValueError(1), TypeError(2)]), Exception('context'), Exception('cause'), ['a note'])
>>> match, match.__context__, match.__cause__, match.__notes__
(MyGroup('eg', [ValueError(1)]), Exception('context'), Exception('cause'), ['a note'])
>>> rest, rest.__context__, rest.__cause__, rest.__notes__
(MyGroup('eg', [TypeError(2)]), Exception('context'), Exception('cause'), ['a note'])
>>> exc.__traceback__ is match.__traceback__ is rest.__traceback__
True

Note that BaseExceptionGroup defines __new__(), so subclasses that need a different constructor signature need to override that rather than __init__(). For example, the following defines an exception group subclass which accepts an exit_code and constructs the group's message from it.

class Errors(ExceptionGroup):
   def __new__(cls, errors, exit_code):
      self = super().__new__(Errors, f"exit code: {exit_code}", errors)
      self.exit_code = exit_code
      return self

   def derive(self, excs):
      return Errors(excs, self.exit_code)

Like ExceptionGroup, any subclass of BaseExceptionGroup which is also a subclass of Exception can only wrap instances of Exception.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

Hiérarchie des exceptions

La hiérarchie de classes pour les exceptions natives est la suivante :

BaseException
 ├── BaseExceptionGroup
 ├── GeneratorExit
 ├── KeyboardInterrupt
 ├── SystemExit
 └── Exception
      ├── ArithmeticError
      │    ├── FloatingPointError
      │    ├── OverflowError
      │    └── ZeroDivisionError
      ├── AssertionError
      ├── AttributeError
      ├── BufferError
      ├── EOFError
      ├── ExceptionGroup [BaseExceptionGroup]
      ├── ImportError
      │    └── ModuleNotFoundError
      ├── LookupError
      │    ├── IndexError
      │    └── KeyError
      ├── MemoryError
      ├── NameError
      │    └── UnboundLocalError
      ├── OSError
      │    ├── BlockingIOError
      │    ├── ChildProcessError
      │    ├── ConnectionError
      │    │    ├── BrokenPipeError
      │    │    ├── ConnectionAbortedError
      │    │    ├── ConnectionRefusedError
      │    │    └── ConnectionResetError
      │    ├── FileExistsError
      │    ├── FileNotFoundError
      │    ├── InterruptedError
      │    ├── IsADirectoryError
      │    ├── NotADirectoryError
      │    ├── PermissionError
      │    ├── ProcessLookupError
      │    └── TimeoutError
      ├── ReferenceError
      ├── RuntimeError
      │    ├── NotImplementedError
      │    ├── PythonFinalizationError
      │    └── RecursionError
      ├── StopAsyncIteration
      ├── StopIteration
      ├── SyntaxError
      │    └── IndentationError
      │         └── TabError
      ├── SystemError
      ├── TypeError
      ├── ValueError
      │    └── UnicodeError
      │         ├── UnicodeDecodeError
      │         ├── UnicodeEncodeError
      │         └── UnicodeTranslateError
      └── Warning
           ├── BytesWarning
           ├── DeprecationWarning
           ├── EncodingWarning
           ├── FutureWarning
           ├── ImportWarning
           ├── PendingDeprecationWarning
           ├── ResourceWarning
           ├── RuntimeWarning
           ├── SyntaxWarning
           ├── UnicodeWarning
           └── UserWarning

Thread Safety Guarantees

This page documents thread-safety guarantees for built-in types in Python's free-threaded build. The guarantees described here apply when using Python with the GIL disabled (free-threaded mode). When the GIL is enabled, most operations are implicitly serialized.

For general guidance on writing thread-safe code in free-threaded Python, see Python support for free threading.

Thread safety levels

The C API documentation uses the following levels to describe the thread safety guarantees of each function. The levels are listed from least to most safe.

Incompatible

A function or operation that cannot be made safe for concurrent use even with external synchronization. Incompatible code typically accesses global state in an unsynchronized way and must only be called from a single thread throughout the program's lifetime.

Example: a function that modifies process-wide state such as signal handlers or environment variables, where concurrent calls from any threads, even with external locking, can conflict with the runtime or other libraries.

Compatible

A function or operation that is safe to call from multiple threads provided the caller supplies appropriate external synchronization, for example by holding a lock for the duration of each call. Without such synchronization, concurrent calls may produce race conditions or data races.

Example: a function that reads from or writes to an object whose internal state is not protected by a lock. Callers must ensure that no two threads access the same object at the same time.

Safe on distinct objects

A function or operation that is safe to call from multiple threads without external synchronization, as long as each thread operates on a different object. Two threads may call the function at the same time, but they must not pass the same object (or objects that share underlying state) as arguments.

Example: a function that modifies fields of a struct using non-atomic writes. Two threads can each call the function on their own struct instance safely, but concurrent calls on the same instance require external synchronization.

Safe on shared objects

A function or operation that is safe for concurrent use on the same object. The implementation uses internal synchronization (such as per-object locks or critical sections) to protect shared mutable state, so callers do not need to supply their own locking.

Example: PyList_GetItemRef() can be called from multiple threads on the same PyListObject - it uses internal synchronization to serialize access.

Atomic

A function or operation that appears atomic with respect to other threads - it executes instantaneously from the perspective of other threads. This is the strongest form of thread safety.

Example: PyMutex_IsLocked() performs an atomic read of the mutex state and can be called from any thread at any time.

Thread safety for list objects

Reading a single element from a list is atomic:

lst[i]   # list.__getitem__

The following methods traverse the list and use atomic reads of each item to perform their function. That means that they may return results affected by concurrent modifications:

item in lst
lst.index(item)
lst.count(item)

All of the above operations avoid acquiring per-object locks. They do not block concurrent modifications. Other operations that hold a lock will not block these from observing intermediate states.

All other operations from here on block using the per-object lock.

Writing a single item via lst[i] = x is safe to call from multiple threads and will not corrupt the list.

The following operations return new objects and appear atomic to other threads:

lst1 + lst2    # concatenates two lists into a new list
x * lst        # repeats lst x times into a new list
lst.copy()     # returns a shallow copy of the list

The following methods that only operate on a single element with no shifting required are atomic:

lst.append(x)  # append to the end of the list, no shifting required
lst.pop()      # pop element from the end of the list, no shifting required

The clear() method is also atomic. Other threads cannot observe elements being removed.

The sort() method is not atomic. Other threads cannot observe intermediate states during sorting, but the list appears empty for the duration of the sort.

The following operations may allow lock-free operations to observe intermediate states since they modify multiple elements in place:

lst.insert(idx, item)  # shifts elements
lst.pop(idx)           # idx not at the end of the list, shifts elements
lst *= x               # copies elements in place

The remove() method may allow concurrent modifications since element comparison may execute arbitrary Python code (via __eq__()).

extend() is safe to call from multiple threads. However, its guarantees depend on the iterable passed to it. If it is a list, a tuple, a set, a frozenset, a dict or a dictionary view object (but not their subclasses), the extend operation is safe from concurrent modifications to the iterable. Otherwise, an iterator is created which can be concurrently modified by another thread. The same applies to inplace concatenation of a list with other iterables when using lst += iterable.

Similarly, assigning to a list slice with lst[i:j] = iterable is safe to call from multiple threads, but iterable is only locked when it is also a list (but not its subclasses).

Operations that involve multiple accesses, as well as iteration, are never atomic. For example:

# NOT atomic: read-modify-write
lst[i] = lst[i] + 1

# NOT atomic: check-then-act
if lst:
    item = lst.pop()

# NOT thread-safe: iteration while modifying
for item in lst:
    process(item)  # another thread may modify lst

Consider external synchronization when sharing list instances across threads.

Thread safety for dict objects

Creating a dictionary with the dict constructor is atomic when the argument to it is a dict or a tuple. When using the dict.fromkeys() method, dictionary creation is atomic when the argument is a dict, tuple, set or frozenset.

The following operations and functions are lock-free and atomic.

d[key]       # dict.__getitem__
d.get(key)   # dict.get
key in d     # dict.__contains__
len(d)       # dict.__len__

All other operations from here on hold the per-object lock.

Writing or removing a single item is safe to call from multiple threads and will not corrupt the dictionary:

d[key] = value        # write
del d[key]            # delete
d.pop(key)            # remove and return
d.popitem()           # remove and return last item
d.setdefault(key, v)  # insert if missing

These operations may compare keys using __eq__(), which can execute arbitrary Python code. During such comparisons, the dictionary may be modified by another thread. For built-in types like str, int, and float, that implement __eq__() in C, the underlying lock is not released during comparisons and this is not a concern.

The following operations return new objects and hold the per-object lock for the duration of the operation:

d.copy()      # returns a shallow copy of the dictionary
d | other     # merges two dicts into a new dict
d.keys()      # returns a new dict_keys view object
d.values()    # returns a new dict_values view object
d.items()     # returns a new dict_items view object

The clear() method holds the lock for its duration. Other threads cannot observe elements being removed.

The following operations lock both dictionaries. For update() and |=, this applies only when the other operand is a dict that uses the standard dict iterator (but not subclasses that override iteration). For equality comparison, this applies to dict and its subclasses:

d.update(other_dict)  # both locked when other_dict is a dict
d |= other_dict       # both locked when other_dict is a dict
d == other_dict       # both locked for dict and subclasses

All comparison operations also compare values using __eq__(), so for non-built-in types the lock may be released during comparison.

fromkeys() locks both the new dictionary and the iterable when the iterable is exactly a dict, set, or frozenset (not subclasses):

dict.fromkeys(a_dict)      # locks both
dict.fromkeys(a_set)       # locks both
dict.fromkeys(a_frozenset) # locks both

When updating from a non-dict iterable, only the target dictionary is locked. The iterable may be concurrently modified by another thread:

d.update(iterable)        # iterable is not a dict: only d locked
d |= iterable             # iterable is not a dict: only d locked
dict.fromkeys(iterable)   # iterable is not a dict/set/frozenset: only result locked

Operations that involve multiple accesses, as well as iteration, are never atomic:

# NOT atomic: read-modify-write
d[key] = d[key] + 1

# NOT atomic: check-then-act (TOCTOU)
if key in d:
    del d[key]

# NOT thread-safe: iteration while modifying
for key, value in d.items():
    process(key)  # another thread may modify d

To avoid time-of-check to time-of-use (TOCTOU) issues, use atomic operations or handle exceptions:

# Use pop() with default instead of check-then-delete
d.pop(key, None)

# Or handle the exception
try:
    del d[key]
except KeyError:
    pass

To safely iterate over a dictionary that may be modified by another thread, iterate over a copy:

# Make a copy to iterate safely
for key, value in d.copy().items():
    process(key)

Consider external synchronization when sharing dict instances across threads.

Thread safety for set objects

The len() function is lock-free and atomic.

The following read operation is lock-free. It does not block concurrent modifications and may observe intermediate states from operations that hold the per-object lock:

elem in s    # set.__contains__

This operation may compare elements using __eq__(), which can execute arbitrary Python code. During such comparisons, the set may be modified by another thread. For built-in types like str, int, and float, __eq__() does not release the underlying lock during comparisons and this is not a concern.

All other operations from here on hold the per-object lock.

Adding or removing a single element is safe to call from multiple threads and will not corrupt the set:

s.add(elem)      # add element
s.remove(elem)   # remove element, raise if missing
s.discard(elem)  # remove element if present
s.pop()          # remove and return arbitrary element

These operations also compare elements, so the same __eq__() considerations as above apply.

The copy() method returns a new object and holds the per-object lock for the duration so that it is always atomic.

The clear() method holds the lock for its duration. Other threads cannot observe elements being removed.

The following operations only accept set or frozenset as operands and always lock both objects:

s |= other                   # other must be set/frozenset
s &= other                   # other must be set/frozenset
s -= other                   # other must be set/frozenset
s ^= other                   # other must be set/frozenset
s & other                    # other must be set/frozenset
s | other                    # other must be set/frozenset
s - other                    # other must be set/frozenset
s ^ other                    # other must be set/frozenset

set.update(), set.union(), set.intersection() and set.difference() can take multiple iterables as arguments. They all iterate through all the passed iterables and do the following:

set.update() and set.union() lock both objects only when

the other operand is a set, frozenset, or dict.

set.intersection() and set.difference() always try to lock

all objects.

set.symmetric_difference() tries to lock both objects.

The update variants of the above methods also have some differences between them:

set.difference_update() and set.intersection_update() try

to lock all objects one-by-one.

set.symmetric_difference_update() only locks the arguments if it is

of type set, frozenset, or dict.

The following methods always try to lock both objects:

s.isdisjoint(other)          # both locked
s.issubset(other)            # both locked
s.issuperset(other)          # both locked

Operations that involve multiple accesses, as well as iteration, are never atomic:

# NOT atomic: check-then-act
if elem in s:
      s.remove(elem)

# NOT thread-safe: iteration while modifying
for elem in s:
      process(elem)  # another thread may modify s

Consider external synchronization when sharing set instances across threads. See Python support for free threading for more information.

Thread safety for bytearray objects

The len() function is lock-free and atomic.

Concatenation and comparisons use the buffer protocol, which prevents resizing but does not hold the per-object lock. These operations may observe intermediate states from concurrent modifications:

ba + other    # may observe concurrent writes
ba == other   # may observe concurrent writes
ba < other    # may observe concurrent writes

All other operations from here on hold the per-object lock.

Reading a single element or slice is safe to call from multiple threads:

ba[i]        # bytearray.__getitem__
ba[i:j]      # slice

The following operations are safe to call from multiple threads and will not corrupt the bytearray:

ba[i] = x         # write single byte
ba[i:j] = values  # write slice
ba.append(x)      # append single byte
ba.extend(other)  # extend with iterable
ba.insert(i, x)   # insert single byte
ba.pop()          # remove and return last byte
ba.pop(i)         # remove and return byte at index
ba.remove(x)      # remove first occurrence
ba.reverse()      # reverse in place
ba.clear()        # remove all bytes

Slice assignment locks both objects when values is a bytearray:

ba[i:j] = other_bytearray  # both locked

The following operations return new objects and hold the per-object lock for the duration:

ba.copy()     # returns a shallow copy
ba * n        # repeat into new bytearray

The membership test holds the lock for its duration:

x in ba       # bytearray.__contains__

All other bytearray methods (such as find(), replace(), split(), decode(), etc.) hold the per-object lock for their duration.

Operations that involve multiple accesses, as well as iteration, are never atomic:

# NOT atomic: check-then-act
if x in ba:
    ba.remove(x)

# NOT thread-safe: iteration while modifying
for byte in ba:
    process(byte)  # another thread may modify ba

To safely iterate over a bytearray that may be modified by another thread, iterate over a copy:

# Make a copy to iterate safely
for byte in ba.copy():
    process(byte)

Consider external synchronization when sharing bytearray instances across threads. See Python support for free threading for more information.

Thread safety for memoryview objects

memoryview objects provide access to the internal data of an underlying object without copying. Thread safety depends on both the memoryview itself and the underlying buffer exporter.

The memoryview implementation uses atomic operations to track its own exports in the free-threaded build. Creating and releasing a memoryview are thread-safe. Attribute access (e.g., shape, format) reads fields that are immutable for the lifetime of the memoryview, so concurrent reads are safe as long as the memoryview has not been released.

However, the actual data accessed through the memoryview is owned by the underlying object. Concurrent access to this data is only safe if the underlying object supports it:

For immutable objects like bytes, concurrent reads through multiple memoryviews are safe.

For mutable objects like bytearray, reading and writing the same memory region from multiple threads without external synchronization is not safe and may result in data corruption. Note that even read-only memoryviews of mutable objects do not prevent data races if the underlying object is modified from another thread.

# NOT safe: concurrent writes to the same buffer
data = bytearray(1000)
view = memoryview(data)
# Thread 1: view[0:500] = b'x' * 500
# Thread 2: view[0:500] = b'y' * 500

# Safe: use a lock for concurrent access
import threading
lock = threading.Lock()
data = bytearray(1000)
view = memoryview(data)

with lock:
    view[0:500] = b'x' * 500

Resizing or reallocating the underlying object (such as calling bytearray.resize()) while a memoryview is exported raises BufferError. This is enforced regardless of threading.

Services de Manipulation de Texte

Les modules décrits dans ce chapitre fournissent un large ensemble d'opérations de manipulation sur les chaînes de caractères et le texte en général.

Le module codecs documenté dans Services autour des Données Binaires est aussi très pertinent pour la manipulation de texte. Consultez aussi la documentation du type str natif Python dans Type Séquence de Texte — str.

string --- Common string operations

Chaînes constantes

Custom string formatting

Format string syntax

Format specification mini-language

Exemples de formats

Template strings ($-strings)

Fonctions d'assistance

string.templatelib --- Support for template string literals

Template strings

Types

Fonctions d'assistance

re --- Regular expression operations

Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles

Contenu du module

Flags

Fonctions

Exceptions

Objets d'expressions rationnelles

Objets de correspondance

Exemples d'expressions rationnelles

Rechercher une paire

Simuler scanf()

Comparaison de search() et match()

Construire un répertoire téléphonique

Mélanger les lettres des mots

Trouver tous les adverbes

Trouver tous les adverbes et leurs positions

Notation brute de chaînes

Écrire un analyseur lexical

difflib --- Helpers for computing deltas

SequenceMatcher objects

SequenceMatcher examples

Differ objects

Differ example

A command-line interface to difflib

ndiff example

textwrap --- Text wrapping and filling

unicodedata --- Unicode Database

stringprep --- Internet String Preparation

readline --- GNU readline interface

Fichier d'initialisation

Tampon de ligne

Fichier d'historique

Liste d'historique

Fonctions de rappel au démarrage

Complétion

Exemple

rlcompleter --- Completion function for GNU readline

string --- Common string operations

Source code: Lib/string/__init__.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/string/__init__.py]

Voir aussi

Type Séquence de Texte — str

Méthodes de chaînes de caractères

Chaînes constantes

Les constantes définies dans ce module sont :

string.ascii_letters

La concaténation des constantes ascii_lowercase et ascii_uppercase décrites ci-dessous. Cette valeur n'est pas dépendante de la configuration de la localisation.

string.ascii_lowercase

Les lettres minuscules 'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'. Cette valeur ne dépend pas de la configuration de localisation et ne changera pas.

string.ascii_uppercase

Les lettres majuscules 'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'. Cette valeur ne dépend pas de la configuration de la localisation et ne changera pas.

string.digits

La chaîne '0123456789'.

string.hexdigits

La chaîne '0123456789abcdefABCDEF'.

string.octdigits

La chaîne '01234567.

string.punctuation

Chaîne de caractères ASCII considérés comme ponctuation dans la configuration de localisation C : !"#$%&'()*+,-./:;<=>?@[\]^_`{|}~.

string.printable

String of ASCII characters which are considered printable by Python. This is a combination of digits, ascii_letters, punctuation, and whitespace.

Note

By design, string.printable.isprintable() returns False. In particular, string.printable is not printable in the POSIX sense (see LC_CTYPE [https://manpages.debian.org/locale(5)]).

string.whitespace

Une chaîne comprenant tous les caractères ASCII considérés comme espaces. Sont inclus les caractères espace, tabulations, saut de ligne, retour du chariot, saut de page, et tabulation verticale.

Custom string formatting

The built-in string class provides the ability to do complex variable substitutions and value formatting via the format() method described in PEP 3101 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3101/]. The Formatter class in the string module allows you to create and customize your own string formatting behaviors using the same implementation as the built-in format() method.

class string.Formatter

La classe Formatter a les méthodes publiques suivantes :

format(format_string, /, *args, **kwargs)

La méthode principale de l'API. Elle prend une chaîne de format et un ensemble arbitraire d'arguments positions et mot-clefs. C'est uniquement un conteneur qui appelle vformat().

Modifié dans la version 3.7: L'argument format_string est maintenant obligatoirement un paramètre positionnel.

vformat(format_string, args, kwargs)

Cette fonction fait le travail effectif du formatage. Elle existe comme méthode séparée au cas où vous voudriez passer un dictionnaire d'arguments prédéfini plutôt que décompresser et recompresser le dictionnaire en arguments individuels en utilisant la syntaxe *args et **kwargs. vformat() s'occupe de découper la chaîne de format en données de caractères et champs de remplacement. Elle appelle les différentes méthodes décrites ci-dessous.

De plus, la classe Formatter définit un certain nombre de méthodes qui ont pour vocation d'être remplacées par des sous-classes :

parse(format_string)

Boucle sur la chaîne de format et renvoie un itérable de quadruplets (literal_text, field_name, format_spec, conversion). Ceci est utilisé par vformat() pour découper la chaîne de format en littéraux ou en champs de remplacement.

The values in the tuple conceptually represent a span of literal text followed by a single replacement field. If there is no literal text (which can happen if two replacement fields occur consecutively), then literal_text will be a zero-length string. If there is no replacement field, then the values of field_name, format_spec and conversion will be None. The value of field_name is unmodified and auto-numbering of non-numbered positional fields is done by vformat().

get_field(field_name, args, kwargs)

Given field_name, convert it to an object to be formatted. Auto-numbering of field_name returned from parse() is done by vformat() before calling this method. Returns a tuple (obj, used_key). The default version takes strings of the form defined in PEP 3101 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3101/], such as "0[name]" or "label.title". args and kwargs are as passed in to vformat(). The return value used_key has the same meaning as the key parameter to get_value().

get_value(key, args, kwargs)

Récupère la valeur d'un champ donné. L'argument key est soit un entier, soit une chaîne. Si c'est un entier, il représente l'indice de l'argument dans args. Si c'est une chaîne de caractères, elle représente le nom de l'argument dans kwargs.

Le paramètre args est défini par la liste des arguments positionnels de vformat(), et le paramètre kwargs est défini par le dictionnaire des arguments mot-clefs.

Pour les noms de champs composés, ces fonctions sont uniquement appelées sur la première composante du nom. Les composantes suivantes sont manipulées au travers des attributs normaux et des opérations sur les indices.

Donc par exemple, le champ-expression 0.name amènerait get_value() à être appelée avec un argument key valant 0. L'attribut name sera recherché après l'appel get_value() en faisant appel à la primitive getattr().

Si l'indice ou le mot-clef fait référence à un objet qui n'existe pas, alors une exception IndexError ou KeyError doit être levée.

check_unused_args(used_args, args, kwargs)

Implémente une vérification pour les arguments non utilisés si désiré. L'argument de cette fonction est l'ensemble des clefs qui ont été effectivement référencées dans la chaîne de format (des entiers pour les indices et des chaînes de caractères pour les arguments nommés), et une référence vers les arguments args et kwargs qui ont été passés à vformat. L'ensemble des arguments non utilisés peut être calculé sur base de ces paramètres. check_unused_args() est censée lever une exception si la vérification échoue.

format_field(value, format_spec)

La méthode format_field() fait simplement appel à la primitive globale format(). Cette méthode est fournie afin que les sous-classes puissent la redéfinir.

convert_field(value, conversion)

Convertit la valeur (renvoyée par get_field()) selon un type de conversion donné (comme dans le n-uplet renvoyé par la méthode parse()). La version par défaut comprend 's' (str), 'r' (repr) et 'a' (ASCII) comme types de conversion.

Format string syntax

The str.format() method and the Formatter class share the same syntax for format strings (although in the case of Formatter, subclasses can define their own format string syntax). The syntax is related to that of formatted string literals and template string literals, but it is less sophisticated and, in particular, does not support arbitrary expressions in interpolations.

Les chaînes de formatage contiennent des "champs de remplacement" entourés d'accolades {}. Tout ce qui n'est pas placé entre deux accolades est considéré comme littéral, qui est copié tel quel dans le résultat. Si vous avez besoin d'inclure une accolade en littéral, elles peuvent être échappées en les doublant : {{ et }}.

La grammaire pour un champ de remplacement est définie comme suit :

replacement_field: "{" [field_name] ["!" conversion] [":" format_spec] "}"
field_name:        arg_name ("." attribute_name | "[" element_index "]")*
arg_name:          [identifier | digit+]
attribute_name:    identifier
element_index:     digit+ | index_string
index_string:      <any source character except "]"> +
conversion:        "r" | "s" | "a"
format_spec:       format-spec:format_spec

En termes moins formels, un champ de remplacement peut débuter par un field_name qui spécifie l'objet dont la valeur va être formatée et insérée dans le résultat à l'endroit du champ de remplacement Le field_name peut éventuellement être suivi d'un champ conversion qui est précédé d'un point d'exclamation '!', et d'un format_spec qui est précédé par deux-points ':'. Cela définit un format personnalisé pour le remplacement d'une valeur.

Voir également la section Format specification mini-language.

The field_name itself begins with an arg_name that is either a number or a keyword. If it's a number, it refers to a positional argument, and if it's a keyword, it refers to a named keyword argument. An arg_name is treated as a number if a call to str.isdecimal() on the string would return true. If the numerical arg_names in a format string are 0, 1, 2, ... in sequence, they can all be omitted (not just some) and the numbers 0, 1, 2, ... will be automatically inserted in that order. Because arg_name is not quote-delimited, it is not possible to specify arbitrary dictionary keys (e.g., the strings '10' or ':-]') within a format string. The arg_name can be followed by any number of index or attribute expressions. An expression of the form '.name' selects the named attribute using getattr(), while an expression of the form '[index]' does an index lookup using __getitem__().

Modifié dans la version 3.1: Les spécificateurs de position d'argument peuvent être omis dans les appels à str.format(). Donc '{} {}'.format(a, b) est équivalent à '{0} {1}'.format(a, b).

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Les spécificateurs de position d'argument peuvent être omis pour Formatter.

Quelques exemples simples de formatage de chaînes :

"First, thou shalt count to {0}"  # References first positional argument
"Bring me a {}"                   # Implicitly references the first positional argument
"From {} to {}"                   # Same as "From {0} to {1}"
"My quest is {name}"              # References keyword argument 'name'
"Weight in tons {0.weight}"       # 'weight' attribute of first positional arg
"Units destroyed: {players[0]}"   # First element of keyword argument 'players'.

The conversion field causes a type coercion before formatting. Normally, the job of formatting a value is done by the __format__() method of the value itself. However, in some cases it is desirable to force a type to be formatted as a string, overriding its own definition of formatting. By converting the value to a string before calling __format__(), the normal formatting logic is bypassed.

Actuellement, trois indicateurs sont gérés : '!s' qui appelle la fonction str() sur la valeur, '!r' qui appelle la fonction repr() et !a qui appelle la fonction ascii().

Quelques exemples :

"Harold's a clever {0!s}"        # Calls str() on the argument first
"Bring out the holy {name!r}"    # Calls repr() on the argument first
"More {!a}"                      # Calls ascii() on the argument first

Le champ format_spec contient une spécification sur la manière selon laquelle la valeur devrait être représentée : des informations telles que la longueur du champ, l'alignement, le remplissage, la précision décimale, etc. Chaque type peut définir son propre "mini-langage de formatage" ou sa propre interprétation de format_spec.

La plupart des types natifs gèrent un mini-langage de formatage usuel qui est décrit dans la section suivante.

Un champ format_spec peut contenir un champ de remplacement imbriqué. Ces champs de remplacement imbriqués peuvent contenir un nom de champ, un indicateur de conversion, mais une imbrication récursive plus profonde n'est pas permise. Les champs de remplacement au sein de format_spec sont substitués avant que la chaîne format_spec ne soit interprétée. Cela permet que le formatage d'une valeur soit dynamiquement spécifié.

Voir la section Exemples de formats pour des exemples.

Format specification mini-language

"Format specifications" are used within replacement fields contained within a format string to define how individual values are presented (see Format string syntax, f-strings, and t-strings). They can also be passed directly to the built-in format() function. Each formattable type may define how the format specification is to be interpreted.

La plupart des primitives implémentent les options suivantes, même si certaines options de formatage ne sont prises en charge que pour les types numériques.

Une convention généralement admise est qu'une chaîne vide produit le même résultat que si vous aviez appelé str() sur la valeur. Une chaîne de format non vide modifie habituellement le résultat.

La forme générale d'un spécificateur de format standard est :

format_spec:             [options][width_and_precision][type]
options:                 [[fill]align][sign]["z"]["#"]["0"]
fill:                    <any character>
align:                   "<" | ">" | "=" | "^"
sign:                    "+" | "-" | " "
width_and_precision:     [width_with_grouping][precision_with_grouping]
width_with_grouping:     [width][grouping]
precision_with_grouping: "." [precision][grouping] | "." grouping
width:                   digit+
precision:               digit+
grouping:                "," | "_"
type:                    "b" | "c" | "d" | "e" | "E" | "f" | "F" | "g"
                         | "G" | "n" | "o" | "s" | "x" | "X" | "%"

Si une valeur valide est spécifiée pour align, elle peut être précédée par un caractère fill, qui peut être n'importe quel caractère (espace par défaut si la valeur est omise). Il n'est pas possible d'utiliser une accolade littérale ("{" ou "}") comme caractère fill dans une chaîne de formatage littérale ou avec la méthode str.format(). Cependant, il est possible d'insérer une accolade à l'aide d'un champ de remplacement imbriqué. Cette limitation n'affecte pas la fonction format().

Le sens des différentes options d'alignement est donné comme suit :

Option

Signification

'<'

Force le champ à être aligné à gauche dans l'espace disponible (c'est le spécificateur par défaut pour la plupart des objets).

'>'

Force le champ à être aligné à droite dans l'espace disponible (c'est le spécificateur par défaut pour les nombres).

'='

Forces the padding to be placed after the sign (if any) but before the digits. This is used for printing fields in the form '+000000120'. This alignment option is only valid for numeric types, excluding complex. It becomes the default for numbers when '0' immediately precedes the field width.

'^'

Force le champ à être centré dans l'espace disponible.

Notons que la longueur du champ est toujours égale à la taille nécessaire pour remplir le champ avec l'objet à moins que la valeur minimum ne soit précisée. Ainsi, si aucune valeur n'est précisée, l'option d'alignement n'a aucun sens.

L'option sign est uniquement valide pour les types numériques, et peut valoir :

Option

Signification

'+'

Indicates that a sign should be used for both positive as well as negative numbers.

'-'

Indicates that a sign should be used only for negative numbers (this is the default behavior).

espace

Indicates that a leading space should be used on positive numbers, and a minus sign on negative numbers.

The 'z' option coerces negative zero floating-point values to positive zero after rounding to the format precision. This option is only valid for floating-point presentation types.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added the 'z' option (see also PEP 682 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0682/]).

L'option '#' impose l'utilisation de la "forme alternative" pour la conversion. La forme alternative est définie différemment pour différent types. Cette option est uniquement valide pour les types entiers, flottants et complexes. Pour les entiers, quand l'affichage binaire, octal ou hexadécimal est utilisé, cette option ajoute le préfixe '0b', '0o', '0x' ou '0X' à la valeur affichée. Pour les flottants et les complexes, la forme alternative impose que le résultat de la conversion contienne toujours une virgule, même si aucun chiffre ne vient après. Normalement, une virgule apparaît dans le résultat de ces conversions seulement si un chiffre le suit. De plus, pour les conversions 'g' et 'G', les zéros finaux ne sont pas retirés du résultat.

The width is a decimal integer defining the minimum total field width, including any prefixes, separators, and other formatting characters. If not specified, then the field width will be determined by the content.

When no explicit alignment is given, preceding the width field by a zero ('0') character enables sign-aware zero-padding for numeric types, excluding complex. This is equivalent to a fill character of '0' with an alignment type of '='.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Preceding the width field by '0' no longer affects the default alignment for strings.

The precision is a decimal integer indicating how many digits should be displayed after the decimal point for presentation types 'f' and 'F', or before and after the decimal point for presentation types 'g' or 'G'. For string presentation types the field indicates the maximum field size - in other words, how many characters will be used from the field content. The precision is not allowed for integer presentation types.

The grouping option after width and precision fields specifies a digit group separator for the integral and fractional parts of a number respectively. It can be one of the following:

Option

Signification

','

Inserts a comma every 3 digits for integer presentation type 'd' and floating-point presentation types, excluding 'n'. For other presentation types, this option is not supported.

'_'

Inserts an underscore every 3 digits for integer presentation type 'd' and floating-point presentation types, excluding 'n'. For integer presentation types 'b', 'o', 'x', and 'X', underscores are inserted every 4 digits. For other presentation types, this option is not supported.

For a locale aware separator, use the 'n' presentation type instead.

Modifié dans la version 3.1: Ajout de l'option ',' (voir PEP 378 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0378/]).

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Ajout de l'option '_' (voir aussi PEP 515 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0515/]).

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Support the grouping option for the fractional part.

Finalement, le spécificateur type détermine comment la donnée doit être représentée.

Les types disponibles de représentation de chaîne sont :

Type

Signification

's'

Format de chaîne. C'est le type par défaut pour les chaînes de caractères et peut être omis.

None

Pareil que 's'.

Les types disponibles de représentation d'entier sont :

Type

Signification

'b'

Format binaire. Affiche le nombre en base 2.

'c'

Caractère. Convertit l'entier en caractère Unicode associé avant de l'afficher.

'd'

Entier décimal. Affiche le nombre en base 10.

'o'

Format octal. Affiche le nombre en base 8.

'x'

Format hexadécimal. Affiche le nombre en base 16 en utilisant les lettres minuscules pour les chiffres au-dessus de 9.

'X'

Format hexadécimal. Affiche le nombre en base 16 en utilisant les lettres majuscules pour les chiffres au-dessus de 9. Si '#' est présent, le préfixe '0x' est également passé en majuscules pour devenir '0X'.

'n'

Number. This is the same as 'd', except that it uses the current locale setting to insert the appropriate digit group separators.

None

Pareil que 'd'.

In addition to the above presentation types, integers can be formatted with the floating-point presentation types listed below (except 'n' and None). When doing so, float() is used to convert the integer to a floating-point number before formatting.

Les représentations possibles pour les float et les Decimal sont :

Type

Signification

'e'

Scientific notation. For a given precision p, formats the number in scientific notation with the letter 'e' separating the coefficient from the exponent. The coefficient has one digit before and p digits after the decimal point, for a total of p + 1 significant digits. With no precision given, uses a precision of 6 digits after the decimal point for float, and shows all coefficient digits for Decimal. If p=0, the decimal point is omitted unless the # option is used.

For float, the exponent always contains at least two digits, and is zero if the value is zero.

'E'

Notation scientifique. Pareil que 'e' sauf que Python utilise la lettre majuscule 'E' comme séparateur.

'f'

Fixed-point notation. For a given precision p, formats the number as a decimal number with exactly p digits following the decimal point. With no precision given, uses a precision of 6 digits after the decimal point for float, and uses a precision large enough to show all coefficient digits for Decimal. If p=0, the decimal point is omitted unless the # option is used.

'F'

Virgule fixe. Pareil que 'f' à part nan qui devient NAN et inf qui devient INF.

'g'

Format général. Pour une précision donnée p >= 1, Python arrondit le nombre à p chiffres significatifs et puis formate le résultat soit en virgule fixe soit en notation scientifique, en fonction de la magnitude. Une précision de 0 est considérée équivalente à une précision de 1.

Les règles précises sont les suivantes : supposons que le résultat formaté avec le type de représentation 'e' et une précision p-1 ait un exposant exp. Alors, si m <= exp <= p où m vaut –4 pour les nombres à virgule flottante et –6 pour les Decimals, le nombre est formaté avec le type de représentation 'f' et une précision p-1-exp. Sinon, le nombre est formaté avec le type de représentation 'e' et une précision p-1. Dans les deux cas, les zéros finaux et non significatifs sont retirés, et la virgule est également retirée s'il n'y a aucun chiffre la suivant, sauf si l'option '#' est utilisée.

Si la précision n'est pas donnée, utilise une précision de 6 chiffres significatifs pour les float. Pour les Decimal, la mantisse du résultat dépend de la valeur : la notation scientifique est utilisée pour les valeurs inférieures à 1e-6 en valeur absolue et pour celles dont le dernier chiffre significatif a une position supérieure à 1 ; dans les autres cas, la notation en virgule fixe est utilisée.

Les valeurs suivantes : infini négatif, infini positif, zéro positif, zéro négatif, not a number sont formatées respectivement par inf, -inf, 0, -0 et nan, peu importe la précision.

'G'

Format général. Pareil que 'G' si ce n'est que 'E' est utilisé si le nombre est trop grand. La représentation des infinis et de NaN sont en majuscules également.

'n'

Number. This is the same as 'g', except that it uses the current locale setting to insert the appropriate digit group separators for the integral part of a number.

'%'

Pourcentage. Multiplie le nombre par 100 et l'affiche en virgule fixe ('f'), suivi d'un symbole pourcent '%'.

None

For float this is like the 'g' type, except that when fixed-point notation is used to format the result, it always includes at least one digit past the decimal point, and switches to the scientific notation when exp >= p - 1. When the precision is not specified, the latter will be as large as needed to represent the given value faithfully.

Pour les Decimal, c'est identique à 'g' ou 'G' en fonction de la valeur de context.capitals du contexte décimal courant.

L'effet visé est de coller à la valeur renvoyée par str() telle que modifiée par les autres modificateurs de format.

The result should be correctly rounded to a given precision p of digits after the decimal point. The rounding mode for float matches that of the round() builtin. For Decimal, the rounding mode of the current context will be used.

The available presentation types for complex are the same as those for float ('%' is not allowed). Both the real and imaginary components of a complex number are formatted as floating-point numbers, according to the specified presentation type. They are separated by the mandatory sign of the imaginary part, the latter being terminated by a j suffix. If the presentation type is missing, the result will match the output of str() (complex numbers with a non-zero real part are also surrounded by parentheses), possibly altered by other format modifiers.

Exemples de formats

Cette section contient des exemples de la syntaxe de str.format() et des comparaisons avec l'ancien formatage par %.

Dans la plupart des cas, la syntaxe est similaire à l'ancien formatage par %, avec l'ajout de {} et avec : au lieu de %. Par exemple : '%03.2f' peut être changé en '{03.2f}'.

La nouvelle syntaxe de formatage gère également de nouvelles options et des options différentes, montrées dans les exemples qui suivent.

Accéder à un argument par sa position :

>>> '{0}, {1}, {2}'.format('a', 'b', 'c')
'a, b, c'
>>> '{}, {}, {}'.format('a', 'b', 'c')  # 3.1+ only
'a, b, c'
>>> '{2}, {1}, {0}'.format('a', 'b', 'c')
'c, b, a'
>>> '{2}, {1}, {0}'.format(*'abc')      # unpacking argument sequence
'c, b, a'
>>> '{0}{1}{0}'.format('abra', 'cad')   # arguments' indices can be repeated
'abracadabra'

Accéder à un argument par son nom :

>>> 'Coordinates: {latitude}, {longitude}'.format(latitude='37.24N', longitude='-115.81W')
'Coordinates: 37.24N, -115.81W'
>>> coord = {'latitude': '37.24N', 'longitude': '-115.81W'}
>>> 'Coordinates: {latitude}, {longitude}'.format(**coord)
'Coordinates: 37.24N, -115.81W'

Accéder aux attributs d'un argument :

>>> c = 3-5j
>>> ('The complex number {0} is formed from the real part {0.real} '
...  'and the imaginary part {0.imag}.').format(c)
'The complex number (3-5j) is formed from the real part 3.0 and the imaginary part -5.0.'
>>> class Point:
...     def __init__(self, x, y):
...         self.x, self.y = x, y
...     def __str__(self):
...         return 'Point({self.x}, {self.y})'.format(self=self)
...
>>> str(Point(4, 2))
'Point(4, 2)'

Accéder aux éléments d'un argument :

>>> coord = (3, 5)
>>> 'X: {0[0]};  Y: {0[1]}'.format(coord)
'X: 3;  Y: 5'

Remplacer %s et %r :

>>> "repr() shows quotes: {!r}; str() doesn't: {!s}".format('test1', 'test2')
"repr() shows quotes: 'test1'; str() doesn't: test2"

Aligner le texte et spécifier une longueur minimale :

>>> '{:<30}'.format('left aligned')
'left aligned                  '
>>> '{:>30}'.format('right aligned')
'                 right aligned'
>>> '{:^30}'.format('centered')
'           centered           '
>>> '{:*^30}'.format('centered')  # use '*' as a fill char
'***********centered***********'

Remplacer %+f, %-f, et %f et spécifier un signe :

>>> '{:+f}; {:+f}'.format(3.14, -3.14)  # show it always
'+3.140000; -3.140000'
>>> '{: f}; {: f}'.format(3.14, -3.14)  # show a space for positive numbers
' 3.140000; -3.140000'
>>> '{:-f}; {:-f}'.format(3.14, -3.14)  # show only the minus -- same as '{:f}; {:f}'
'3.140000; -3.140000'

Remplacer %x et %o et convertir la valeur dans différentes bases :

>>> # format also supports binary numbers
>>> "int: {0:d};  hex: {0:x};  oct: {0:o};  bin: {0:b}".format(42)
'int: 42;  hex: 2a;  oct: 52;  bin: 101010'
>>> # with 0x, 0o, or 0b as prefix:
>>> "int: {0:d};  hex: {0:#x};  oct: {0:#o};  bin: {0:#b}".format(42)
'int: 42;  hex: 0x2a;  oct: 0o52;  bin: 0b101010'

Using the comma or the underscore as a digit group separator:

>>> '{:,}'.format(1234567890)
'1,234,567,890'
>>> '{:_}'.format(1234567890)
'1_234_567_890'
>>> '{:_b}'.format(1234567890)
'100_1001_1001_0110_0000_0010_1101_0010'
>>> '{:_x}'.format(1234567890)
'4996_02d2'
>>> '{:_}'.format(123456789.123456789)
'123_456_789.12345679'
>>> '{:.,}'.format(123456789.123456789)
'123456789.123,456,79'
>>> '{:,._}'.format(123456789.123456789)
'123,456,789.123_456_79'

Exprimer un pourcentage :

>>> points = 19
>>> total = 22
>>> 'Correct answers: {:.2%}'.format(points/total)
'Correct answers: 86.36%'

Utiliser un formatage propre au type :

>>> import datetime as dt
>>> d = dt.datetime(2010, 7, 4, 12, 15, 58)
>>> '{:%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S}'.format(d)
'2010-07-04 12:15:58'

Arguments imbriqués et des exemples plus complexes :

>>> for align, text in zip('<^>', ['left', 'center', 'right']):
...     '{0:{fill}{align}16}'.format(text, fill=align, align=align)
...
'left<<<<<<<<<<<<'
'^^^^^center^^^^^'
'>>>>>>>>>>>right'
>>>
>>> octets = [192, 168, 0, 1]
>>> '{:02X}{:02X}{:02X}{:02X}'.format(*octets)
'C0A80001'
>>> int(_, 16)
3232235521
>>>
>>> width = 5
>>> for num in range(5,12):
...     for base in 'dXob':
...         print('{0:{width}{base}}'.format(num, base=base, width=width), end=' ')
...     print()
...
    5     5     5   101
    6     6     6   110
    7     7     7   111
    8     8    10  1000
    9     9    11  1001
   10     A    12  1010
   11     B    13  1011

Template strings ($-strings)

Note

The feature described here was introduced in Python 2.4; a simple templating method based upon regular expressions. It predates str.format(), formatted string literals, and template string literals.

It is unrelated to template string literals (t-strings), which were introduced in Python 3.14. These evaluate to string.templatelib.Template objects, found in the string.templatelib module.

Template strings provide simpler string substitutions as described in PEP 292 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0292/]. A primary use case for template strings is for internationalization (i18n) since in that context, the simpler syntax and functionality makes it easier to translate than other built-in string formatting facilities in Python. As an example of a library built on template strings for i18n, see the flufl.i18n [https://flufli18n.readthedocs.io/en/latest/] package.

Les chaînes modèles prennent en charge les substitutions basées sur $ en utilisant les règles suivantes :

$$ est un échappement ; il est remplacé par un simple $.

$identifier dénomme un substituant lié à la clef "identifier". Par défaut, "identifier" est restreint à toute chaîne de caractères ASCII alphanumériques sensibles à la casse (avec les underscores) commençant avec un underscore ou un caractère alphanumérique. Le premier caractère n'étant pas un identifieur après le $ termine la spécification du substituant.

${identifier} est équivalent à $identifier. Cette notation est requise quand un caractère valide pour une clef de substituant suit directement le substituant mais ne fait pas partie du substituant, comme "${noun}ification".

Tout autre présence du symbole $ dans une chaîne résultera en la levée d'une ValueError.

The string module provides a Template class that implements these rules. The methods of Template are:

class string.Template(template)

Le constructeur prend un seul argument qui est la chaîne du template.

substitute(mapping={}, /, **kwds)

Applique les substitutions du template, et la renvoie dans une nouvelle chaîne. mapping est un objet dictionnaire-compatible qui lie les substituants dans le template. De même, vous pouvez fournir des arguments mot-clefs tels que les mot-clefs sont les substituants. Quand à la fois mapping et kwds sont donnés et qu'il y a des doublons, les substituants de kwds sont prioritaires.

safe_substitute(mapping={}, /, **kwds)

Comme substitute(), si ce n'est qu'au lieu de lever une KeyError si un substituant n'est ni dans mapping, ni dans kwds, c'est le nom du substituant inchangé qui apparaît dans la chaîne finale. Également, à l'inverse de substitute(), toute autre apparition de $ renverra simplement $ au lieu de lever une exception ValueError.

Bien que d'autres exceptions peuvent toujours être levées, cette méthode est dite sûre car elle tente de toujours renvoyer une chaîne utilisable au lieu de lever une exception. Ceci dit, safe_substitute() est tout sauf sûre car elle ignore silencieusement toute malformation dans le template qui contient des délimiteurs fantômes, des accolades non fermées, ou des substituants qui ne sont pas des identificateurs Python valides.

is_valid()

Returns False if the template has invalid placeholders that will cause substitute() to raise ValueError.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

get_identifiers()

Returns a list of the valid identifiers in the template, in the order they first appear, ignoring any invalid identifiers.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

Les instances de la classe Template fournissent également un attribut public :

template

C'est l'objet template passé comme argument au constructeur. En général, vous ne devriez pas le changer, mais un accès en lecture-seule n'est pas possible à fournir.

Voici un exemple de comment utiliser un Template :

>>> from string import Template
>>> s = Template('$who likes $what')
>>> s.substitute(who='tim', what='kung pao')
'tim likes kung pao'
>>> d = dict(who='tim')
>>> Template('Give $who $100').substitute(d)
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
ValueError: Invalid placeholder in string: line 1, col 11
>>> Template('$who likes $what').substitute(d)
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
KeyError: 'what'
>>> Template('$who likes $what').safe_substitute(d)
'tim likes $what'

Usage avancé : vous pouvez faire dériver vos sous-classes de Template pour personnaliser la syntaxe des substituants, les caractères délimiteurs, ou l'entièreté de l'expression rationnelle utilisée pour analyser les chaînes templates. Pour faire cela, vous pouvez redéfinir les attributs suivants :

delimiter — La chaîne littérale décrivant le délimiteur pour introduire un substituant. Sa valeur par défaut est $. Notez qu'elle ne doit pas être une expression rationnelle, puisque l'implémentation appelle re.escape() sur cette chaîne si nécessaire. Notez aussi que le délimiteur ne peut pas être changé après la création de la classe.

idpattern — L'expression rationnelle décrivant le motif pour les substituants non entourés d'accolades. La valeur par défaut de cette expression rationnelle est (?a:[_a-z][_a-z0-9]*). Si idpattern est donné et braceidpattern est None, ce motif est aussi utilisé pour les marqueurs entre accolades.

Note

Puisque par défaut flags vaut re.IGNORECASE, des caractères non-ASCII peuvent correspondre au motif [a-z]. C'est pourquoi on utilise une option locale a ici.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: braceidpattern peut être utilisé pour définir des motifs des motifs différents suivant qu’ils sont à l’intérieur ou à l’extérieur des accolades.

braceidpattern — Similaire à idpattern mais décrit le motif quand il est placé entre accolades. La valeur par défaut est None ce qui signifie que seul idpattern est pris en compte (le motif est le même, qu’il soit à l’intérieur d’accolades ou non). S’il est donné, cela vous permet de définir des motifs entre accolades différents des motifs sans accolades.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

flags — L'indicateur d'expression rationnelle qui sera appliqué lors de la compilation de l'expression rationnelle pour reconnaître les substitutions. La valeur par défaut est re.IGNORECASE. Notez que re.VERBOSE sera toujours ajouté à l'indicateur. Donc, un idpattern personnalisé doit suivre les conventions des expressions rationnelles verbose.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Également, vous pouvez fournir le motif d'expression rationnelle en entier en redéfinissant l'attribut pattern. Si vous faites cela, la valeur doit être un objet 'expression rationnelle' avec quatre groupes de capture de noms. Les groupes de capture correspondent aux règles données au-dessus, ainsi qu'à la règle du substituant invalide :

escaped — Ce groupe lie les séquences échappées (par exemple $$) dans le motif par défaut.

named — Ce groupe lie les substituants non entourés d'accolades ; il ne devrait pas inclure le délimiteur dans le groupe de capture.

braced — Ce groupe lie le nom entouré d'accolades ; il ne devrait inclure ni le délimiteur, ni les accolades dans le groupe de capture.

invalid — Ce groupe lie tout autre motif de délimitation (habituellement, un seul délimiteur) et il devrait apparaître en dernier dans l'expression rationnelle.

The methods on this class will raise ValueError if the pattern matches the template without one of these named groups matching.

Fonctions d'assistance

string.capwords(s, sep=None)

Divise l'argument en mots en utilisant str.split(), capitalise chaque mot en utilisant str.capitalize() et assemble les mots capitalisés en utilisant str.join(). Si le second argument optionnel sep est absent ou vaut None, les séquences de caractères blancs sont remplacées par un seul espace et les espaces débutant et finissant la chaîne sont retirés. Sinon, sep et utilisé pour séparer et ré-assembler les mots.

string.templatelib --- Support for template string literals

Source code: Lib/string/templatelib.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/string/templatelib.py]

Voir aussi

Format strings

Template string literal (t-string) syntax

PEP 750 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0750/]

Template strings

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Template strings are a mechanism for custom string processing. They have the full flexibility of Python's f-strings, but return a Template instance that gives access to the static and interpolated (in curly brackets) parts of a string before they are combined.

To write a t-string, use a 't' prefix instead of an 'f', like so:

>>> pi = 3.14
>>> t't-strings are new in Python {pi!s}!'
Template(
   strings=('t-strings are new in Python ', '!'),
   interpolations=(Interpolation(3.14, 'pi', 's', ''),)
)

Types

class string.templatelib.Template

The Template class describes the contents of a template string. It is immutable, meaning that attributes of a template cannot be reassigned.

The most common way to create a Template instance is to use the template string literal syntax. This syntax is identical to that of f-strings, except that it uses a t prefix in place of an f:

>>> cheese = 'Red Leicester'
>>> template = t"We're fresh out of {cheese}, sir."
>>> type(template)
<class 'string.templatelib.Template'>

Templates are stored as sequences of literal strings and dynamic interpolations. A values attribute holds the values of the interpolations:

>>> cheese = 'Camembert'
>>> template = t'Ah! We do have {cheese}.'
>>> template.strings
('Ah! We do have ', '.')
>>> template.interpolations
(Interpolation('Camembert', ...),)
>>> template.values
('Camembert',)

The strings tuple has one more element than interpolations and values; the interpolations “belong” between the strings. This may be easier to understand when tuples are aligned

template.strings:  ('Ah! We do have ',              '.')
template.values:   (                   'Camembert',    )

Attributes

strings: tuple[str, ...]

A tuple of the static strings in the template.

>>> cheese = 'Camembert'
>>> template = t'Ah! We do have {cheese}.'
>>> template.strings
('Ah! We do have ', '.')

Empty strings are included in the tuple:

>>> response = 'We do have '
>>> cheese = 'Camembert'
>>> template = t'Ah! {response}{cheese}.'
>>> template.strings
('Ah! ', '', '.')

The strings tuple is never empty, and always contains one more string than the interpolations and values tuples:

>>> t''.strings
('',)
>>> t''.values
()
>>> t'{'cheese'}'.strings
('', '')
>>> t'{'cheese'}'.values
('cheese',)

interpolations: tuple[Interpolation, ...]

A tuple of the interpolations in the template.

>>> cheese = 'Camembert'
>>> template = t'Ah! We do have {cheese}.'
>>> template.interpolations
(Interpolation('Camembert', 'cheese', None, ''),)

The interpolations tuple may be empty and always contains one fewer values than the strings tuple:

>>> t'Red Leicester'.interpolations
()

values: tuple[object, ...]

A tuple of all interpolated values in the template.

>>> cheese = 'Camembert'
>>> template = t'Ah! We do have {cheese}.'
>>> template.values
('Camembert',)

The values tuple always has the same length as the interpolations tuple. It is always equivalent to tuple(i.value for i in template.interpolations).

Méthodes

__new__(*args: str | Interpolation)

While literal syntax is the most common way to create a Template, it is also possible to create them directly using the constructor:

>>> from string.templatelib import Interpolation, Template
>>> cheese = 'Camembert'
>>> template = Template(
...     'Ah! We do have ', Interpolation(cheese, 'cheese'), '.'
... )
>>> list(template)
['Ah! We do have ', Interpolation('Camembert', 'cheese', None, ''), '.']

If multiple strings are passed consecutively, they will be concatenated into a single value in the strings attribute. For example, the following code creates a Template with a single final string:

>>> from string.templatelib import Template
>>> template = Template('Ah! We do have ', 'Camembert', '.')
>>> template.strings
('Ah! We do have Camembert.',)

If multiple interpolations are passed consecutively, they will be treated as separate interpolations and an empty string will be inserted between them. For example, the following code creates a template with empty placeholders in the strings attribute:

>>> from string.templatelib import Interpolation, Template
>>> template = Template(
...     Interpolation('Camembert', 'cheese'),
...     Interpolation('.', 'punctuation'),
... )
>>> template.strings
('', '', '')

iter(template)

Iterate over the template, yielding each non-empty string and Interpolation in the correct order:

>>> cheese = 'Camembert'
>>> list(t'Ah! We do have {cheese}.')
['Ah! We do have ', Interpolation('Camembert', 'cheese', None, ''), '.']

Prudence

Empty strings are not included in the iteration:

>>> response = 'We do have '
>>> cheese = 'Camembert'
>>> list(t'Ah! {response}{cheese}.')
['Ah! ',
 Interpolation('We do have ', 'response', None, ''),
 Interpolation('Camembert', 'cheese', None, ''),
 '.']

template + other

template += other

Concatenate this template with another, returning a new Template instance:

>>> cheese = 'Camembert'
>>> list(t'Ah! ' + t'We do have {cheese}.')
['Ah! We do have ', Interpolation('Camembert', 'cheese', None, ''), '.']

Concatenating a Template and a str is not supported. This is because it is unclear whether the string should be treated as a static string or an interpolation. If you want to concatenate a Template with a string, you should either wrap the string directly in a Template (to treat it as a static string) or use an Interpolation (to treat it as dynamic):

>>> from string.templatelib import Interpolation, Template
>>> template = t'Ah! '
>>> # Treat 'We do have ' as a static string
>>> template += Template('We do have ')
>>> # Treat cheese as an interpolation
>>> cheese = 'Camembert'
>>> template += Template(Interpolation(cheese, 'cheese'))
>>> list(template)
['Ah! We do have ', Interpolation('Camembert', 'cheese', None, '')]

class string.templatelib.Interpolation

The Interpolation type represents an expression inside a template string. It is immutable, meaning that attributes of an interpolation cannot be reassigned.

Interpolations support pattern matching, allowing you to match against their attributes with the match statement:

>>> from string.templatelib import Interpolation
>>> interpolation = t'{1. + 2.:.2f}'.interpolations[0]
>>> interpolation
Interpolation(3.0, '1. + 2.', None, '.2f')
>>> match interpolation:
...     case Interpolation(value, expression, conversion, format_spec):
...         print(value, expression, conversion, format_spec, sep=' | ')
...
3.0 | 1. + 2. | None | .2f

Attributes

value: object

The evaluated value of the interpolation.

>>> t'{1 + 2}'.interpolations[0].value
3

expression: str

For interpolations created by t-string literals, expression is the expression text found inside the curly brackets ({ & }), including any whitespace, excluding the curly brackets themselves, and ending before the first !, :, or = if any is present. For manually created interpolations, expression is the arbitrary string provided when constructing the interpolation instance.

We recommend using valid Python expressions or the empty string for the expression field of manually created Interpolation instances, although this is not enforced at runtime.

>>> t'{1 + 2}'.interpolations[0].expression
'1 + 2'

conversion: Literal['a', 'r', 's'] | None

The conversion to apply to the value, or None.

The conversion is the optional conversion to apply to the value:

>>> t'{1 + 2!a}'.interpolations[0].conversion
'a'

Note

Unlike f-strings, where conversions are applied automatically, the expected behavior with t-strings is that code that processes the Template will decide how to interpret and whether to apply the conversion. For convenience, the convert() function can be used to mimic f-string conversion semantics.

format_spec: str

The format specification to apply to the value.

The format_spec is an optional, arbitrary string used as the format specification to present the value:

>>> t'{1 + 2:.2f}'.interpolations[0].format_spec
'.2f'

Note

Unlike f-strings, where format specifications are applied automatically via the format() protocol, the expected behavior with t-strings is that code that processes the interpolation will decide how to interpret and whether to apply the format specification. As a result, format_spec values in interpolations can be arbitrary strings, including those that do not conform to the format() protocol.

Méthodes

__new__(value: object, expression: str, conversion: Literal['a', 'r', 's'] | None = None, format_spec: str = '')

Create a new Interpolation object from component parts.

Paramètres:

value -- The evaluated, in-scope result of the interpolation.

expression -- The text of a valid Python expression, or an empty string.

conversion -- The conversion to be used, one of None, 'a', 'r', or 's'.

format_spec -- An optional, arbitrary string used as the format specification to present the value.

Fonctions d'assistance

string.templatelib.convert(obj, /, conversion)

Applies formatted string literal conversion semantics to the given object obj. This is frequently useful for custom template string processing logic.

Three conversion flags are currently supported:

's' which calls str() on the value (like !s),

'r' which calls repr() (like !r), and

'a' which calls ascii() (like !a).

If the conversion flag is None, obj is returned unchanged.

re --- Regular expression operations

Code source : Lib/re/ [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/re/]

Ce module fournit des opérations sur les expressions rationnelles similaires à celles que l'on trouve dans Perl.

Both patterns and strings to be searched can be Unicode strings (str) as well as 8-bit strings (bytes). However, Unicode strings and 8-bit strings cannot be mixed: that is, you cannot match a Unicode string with a bytes pattern or vice-versa; similarly, when asking for a substitution, the replacement string must be of the same type as both the pattern and the search string.

Regular expressions use the backslash character ('\') to indicate special forms or to allow special characters to be used without invoking their special meaning. This collides with Python's usage of the same character for the same purpose in string literals; for example, to match a literal backslash, one might have to write '\\\\' as the pattern string, because the regular expression must be \\, and each backslash must be expressed as \\ inside a regular Python string literal. Also, please note that any invalid escape sequences in Python's usage of the backslash in string literals now generate a SyntaxWarning and in the future this will become a SyntaxError. This behaviour will happen even if it is a valid escape sequence for a regular expression.

La solution est d'utiliser la notation des chaînes brutes en Python pour les expressions rationnelles ; Les backslashs ne provoquent aucun traitement spécifique dans les chaînes littérales préfixées par 'r'. Ainsi, r"\n" est une chaîne de deux caractères contenant '\' et 'n', tandis que "\n" est une chaîne contenant un unique caractère : un saut de ligne. Généralement, les motifs seront exprimés en Python à l'aide de chaînes brutes.

Il est important de noter que la plupart des opérations sur les expressions rationnelles sont disponibles comme fonctions au niveau du module et comme méthodes des expressions rationnelles compilées. Les fonctions sont des raccourcis qui ne vous obligent pas à d'abord compiler un objet regex, mais auxquelles manquent certains paramètres de configuration fine.

Voir aussi

The third-party regex [https://pypi.org/project/regex/] module, which has an API compatible with the standard library re module, but offers additional functionality and a more thorough Unicode support.

Syntaxe des expressions rationnelles

Une expression rationnelle (regular expression ou RE) spécifie un ensemble de chaînes de caractères qui lui correspondent ; les fonctions de ce module vous permettent de vérifier si une chaîne particulière correspond à une expression rationnelle donnée (ou si un expression rationnelle donnée correspond à une chaîne particulière, ce qui revient à la même chose).

Les expressions rationnelles peuvent être concaténées pour former de nouvelles expressions : si A et B sont deux expressions rationnelles, alors AB est aussi une expression rationnelle. En général, si une chaîne p valide A et qu'une autre chaîne q valide B, la chaîne pq validera AB. Cela est vrai tant que A et B ne contiennent pas d'opérations de priorité ; de conditions de frontière entre A et B ; ou de références vers des groupes numérotés. Ainsi, des expressions complexes peuvent facilement être construites depuis de plus simples expressions primitives comme celles décrites ici. Pour plus de détails sur la théorie et l'implémentation des expressions rationnelles, consultez le livre de Friedl [Frie09], ou à peu près n'importe quel livre dédié à la construction de compilateurs.

Une brève explication sur le format des expressions rationnelles suit. Pour de plus amples informations et une présentation plus simple, référez-vous au Guide des expressions régulières.

Les expressions rationnelles peuvent contenir à la fois des caractères spéciaux et ordinaires. Les plus ordinaires, comme 'A', 'a' ou '0' sont les expressions rationnelles les plus simples : elles correspondent simplement à elles-mêmes. Vous pouvez concaténer des caractères ordinaires, ainsi last correspond à la chaîne 'last'. (Dans la suite de cette section, nous écrirons les expressions rationnelles dans ce style spécifique, généralement sans guillemets, et les chaînes à tester 'entourées de simples guillemets'.)

Certains caractères, comme '|' ou '(', sont spéciaux. Des caractères spéciaux peuvent aussi exister pour les classes de caractères ordinaires, ou affecter comment les expressions rationnelles autour d'eux seront interprétées.

Les caractères de répétition ou quantificateurs (*, +, ?, {m,n}, etc.) ne peuvent être directement imbriqués. Cela empêche l'ambiguïté avec le suffixe modificateur non gourmand ? et avec les autres modificateurs dans d'autres implémentations. Pour appliquer une seconde répétition à une première, des parenthèses peuvent être utilisées. Par exemple, l'expression (?:a{6})* valide toutes les chaînes composées d'un nombre de caractères 'a' multiple de six.

Les caractères spéciaux sont :

.

(Dot.) In the default mode, this matches any character except a newline. If the DOTALL flag has been specified, this matches any character including a newline. (?s:.) matches any character regardless of flags.

^

(Accent circonflexe.) Valide le début d'une chaîne de caractères, ainsi que ce qui suit chaque saut de ligne en mode MULTILINE.

$

Valide la fin d'une chaîne de caractères, ou juste avant le saut de ligne à la fin de la chaîne, ainsi qu'avant chaque saut de ligne en mode MULTILINE. foo valide à la fois foo et foobar, tandis que l'expression rationnelle foo$ ne correspond qu'à 'foo'. Plus intéressant, chercher foo.$ dans 'foo1\nfoo2\n' trouve normalement 'foo2', mais 'foo1' en mode MULTILINE ; chercher un simple $ dans 'foo\n' trouvera deux correspondances (vides) : une juste avant le saut de ligne, et une à la fin de la chaîne.

*

Fait valider par l'expression rationnelle résultante 0 répétition ou plus de l'expression qui précède, avec autant de répétitions que possible. ab* validera 'a', 'ab' ou 'a' suivi de n'importe quel nombre de 'b'.

+

Fait valider par l'expression rationnelle résultante 1 répétition ou plus de l'expression qui précède. ab+ validera 'a' suivi de n'importe quel nombre non nul de 'b' ; cela ne validera pas la chaîne 'a'.

?

Fait valider par l'expression rationnelle résultante 0 ou 1 répétition de l'expression qui précède. ab? correspondra à 'a' ou 'ab'.

*?, +?, ??

Les quantificateurs '*', '+' et '?' sont tous greedy (gourmands) ; ils valident autant de texte que possible. Parfois ce comportement n'est pas désiré ; si l'expression rationnelle <.*> est testée avec la chaîne '<a> b <c>', cela correspondra à la chaîne entière, et non juste à '<a>'. Ajouter ? derrière le quantificateur lui fait réaliser l'opération de façon non-greedy (ou minimal) ; le moins de caractères possibles seront validés. Utiliser l'expression rationnelle <.*?> validera uniquement '<a>'.

*+, ++, ?+

Like the '*', '+', and '?' quantifiers, those where '+' is appended also match as many times as possible. However, unlike the true greedy quantifiers, these do not allow back-tracking when the expression following it fails to match. These are known as possessive quantifiers. For example, a*a will match 'aaaa' because the a* will match all 4 'a's, but, when the final 'a' is encountered, the expression is backtracked so that in the end the a* ends up matching 3 'a's total, and the fourth 'a' is matched by the final 'a'. However, when a*+a is used to match 'aaaa', the a*+ will match all 4 'a', but when the final 'a' fails to find any more characters to match, the expression cannot be backtracked and will thus fail to match. x*+, x++ and x?+ are equivalent to (?>x*), (?>x+) and (?>x?) correspondingly.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

{m}

Spécifie qu'exactement m copies de l'expression rationnelle qui précède devront être validées ; un nombre plus faible de correspondances empêche l'expression entière de correspondre. Par exemple, a{6} correspondra exactement à six caractères 'a', mais pas à cinq.

{m,n}

Fait valider par l'expression rationnelle résultante entre m et n répétitions de l'expression qui précède, cherchant à en valider le plus possible. Par exemple, a{3,5} validera entre 3 et 5 caractères 'a'. Omettre m revient à spécifier 0 comme borne inférieure, et omettre n à avoir une borne supérieure infinie. Par exemple, a{4,}b correspondra à 'aaaab' ou à un millier de caractères 'a' suivis d'un 'b', mais pas à 'aaab'. La virgule ne doit pas être omise, auquel cas le modificateur serait confondu avec la forme décrite précédemment.

{m,n}?

Fait valider l'expression rationnelle résultante entre m et n répétitions de l'expression qui précède, cherchant à en valider le moins possible. Il s'agit de la version non gourmande du précédent quantificateur. Par exemple, dans la chaîne de 6 caractères 'aaaaaa', a{3,5} trouvera 5 caractères 'a', alors que a{3,5}? n'en trouvera que 3.

{m,n}+

Causes the resulting RE to match from m to n repetitions of the preceding RE, attempting to match as many repetitions as possible without establishing any backtracking points. This is the possessive version of the quantifier above. For example, on the 6-character string 'aaaaaa', a{3,5}+aa attempt to match 5 'a' characters, then, requiring 2 more 'a's, will need more characters than available and thus fail, while a{3,5}aa will match with a{3,5} capturing 5, then 4 'a's by backtracking and then the final 2 'a's are matched by the final aa in the pattern. x{m,n}+ is equivalent to (?>x{m,n}).

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

\

Échappe les caractères spéciaux (permettant d’identifier des caractères comme '*', '?' et autres) ou signale une séquence spéciale ; les séquences spéciales sont décrites ci-dessous.

Si vous n'utilisez pas de chaînes brutes pour exprimer le motif, souvenez-vous que Python utilise aussi le backslash comme une séquence d'échappement dans les chaînes littérales ; si la séquence d'échappement n'est pas reconnue par l'interpréteur Python, le backslash et les caractères qui le suivent sont inclus dans la chaîne renvoyée. Cependant, si Python reconnait la séquence, le backslash doit être doublé (pour ne plus être reconnu). C'est assez compliqué et difficile à comprendre, c'est pourquoi il est hautement recommandé d'utiliser des chaînes brutes pour tout sauf les expressions les plus simples.

[]

Utilisé pour indiquer un ensemble de caractères. Dans un ensemble :

Les caractères peuvent être listés individuellement, e.g. [amk] correspondra à 'a', 'm' ou 'k'.

Des intervalles de caractères peuvent être indiqués en donnant deux caractères et les séparant par un '-', par exemple [a-z] correspondra à toute lettre minuscule ASCII, [0-5][0-9] à tous nombres de deux chiffres entre 00 et 59, et [0-9A-Fa-f] correspondra à n'importe quel chiffre hexadécimal. Si '-' est échappé ([a\-z]) ou s'il est placé comme premier ou dernier caractère (e.g. [-a] ou [a-]), il correspondra à un '-' littéral.

Special characters except backslash lose their special meaning inside sets. For example, [(+*)] will match any of the literal characters '(', '+', '*', or ')'.

Backslash either escapes characters which have special meaning in a set such as '-', ']', '^' and '\\' itself or signals a special sequence which represents a single character such as \xa0 or \n or a character class such as \w or \S (defined below). Note that \b represents a single "backspace" character, not a word boundary as outside a set, and numeric escapes such as \1 are always octal escapes, not group references. Special sequences which do not match a single character such as \A and \z are not allowed.

Les caractères qui ne sont pas dans un intervalle peuvent être trouvés avec l'ensemble complémentaire (complementing). Si le premier caractère de l'ensemble est '^', tous les caractères qui ne sont pas dans l'ensemble seront validés. Par exemple, [^5] correspondra à tout caractère autre que '5' et [^^] validera n'importe quel caractère excepté '^'. ^ n'a pas de sens particulier s'il n'est pas le premier caractère de l'ensemble.

To match a literal ']' inside a set, precede it with a backslash, or place it at the beginning of the set. For example, both [()[\]{}] and []()[{}] will match a right bracket, as well as left bracket, braces, and parentheses.

La gestion des ensembles inclus l'un dans l'autre et les opérations d'ensemble comme dans Unicode Technical Standard #18 [https://unicode.org/reports/tr18/] pourrait être ajoutée par la suite. Ceci changerait la syntaxe, donc pour faciliter ce changement, une exception FutureWarning sera levée dans les cas ambigus pour le moment. Ceci inclut les ensembles commençant avec le caractère '[' ou contenant les séquences de caractères '--', '&&', '~~' et '||'. Pour éviter un message d'avertissement, échapper les séquences avec le caractère antislash ("\").

Modifié dans la version 3.7: L'exception FutureWarning est levée si un ensemble de caractères contient une construction dont la sémantique changera dans le futur.

|

A|B, où A et B peuvent être deux expressions rationnelles arbitraires, crée une expression rationnelle qui validera soit A soit B. Un nombre arbitraire d'expressions peuvent être séparées de cette façon par des '|'. Cela peut aussi être utilisé au sein de groupes (voir ci-dessous). Quand une chaîne cible est analysée, les expressions séparées par '|' sont essayées de la gauche vers la droite. Quand un motif correspond complètement, cette branche est acceptée. Cela signifie qu'une fois que A correspond, B ne sera pas testée plus loin, même si elle pourrait provoquer une plus ample correspondance. En d'autres termes, l'opérateur '|' n'est jamais gourmand. Pour valider un '|' littéral, utilisez \|, ou enveloppez-le dans une classe de caractères, comme [|].

(...)

Valide n'importe quelle expression rationnelle comprise entre les parenthèses, et indique le début et la fin d'un groupe ; le contenu d'un groupe peut être récupéré après qu'une analyse a été effectuée et peut être réutilisé plus loin dans la chaîne avec une séquence spéciale \number, décrite ci-dessous. Pour écrire des '(' ou ')' littéraux, utilisez \( ou \), ou enveloppez-les dans une classe de caractères : [(], [)].

(?...)

Il s'agit d'une notation pour les extensions (un '?' suivant une '(' n'a pas de sens autrement). Le premier caractère après le '?' détermine quel sens donner à l'expression. Les extensions ne créent généralement pas de nouveaux groupes ; (?P<name>...) est la seule exception à la règle. Retrouvez ci-dessous la liste des extensions actuellement supportées.

(?aiLmsux)

(One or more letters from the set 'a', 'i', 'L', 'm', 's', 'u', 'x'.) The group matches the empty string; the letters set the corresponding flags for the entire regular expression:

re.A (ASCII-only matching)

re.I (ignore case)

re.L (locale dependent)

re.M (multi-line)

re.S (dot matches all)

re.U (Unicode matching)

re.X (verbose)

(The flags are described in Contenu du module.) This is useful if you wish to include the flags as part of the regular expression, instead of passing a flag argument to the re.compile() function. Flags should be used first in the expression string.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Cette construction ne peut être utilisée qu'au début d'une chaîne de caractères.

(?:...)

Une version sans capture des parenthèses habituelles. Valide n'importe quelle expression rationnelle à l'intérieur des parenthèses, mais la sous-chaîne correspondant au groupe ne peut pas être récupérée après l'analyse ou être référencée plus loin dans le motif.

(?aiLmsux-imsx:...)

(Zero or more letters from the set 'a', 'i', 'L', 'm', 's', 'u', 'x', optionally followed by '-' followed by one or more letters from the 'i', 'm', 's', 'x'.) The letters set or remove the corresponding flags for the part of the expression:

re.A (ASCII-only matching)

re.I (ignore case)

re.L (locale dependent)

re.M (multi-line)

re.S (dot matches all)

re.U (Unicode matching)

re.X (verbose)

(The flags are described in Contenu du module.)

The letters 'a', 'L' and 'u' are mutually exclusive when used as inline flags, so they can't be combined or follow '-'. Instead, when one of them appears in an inline group, it overrides the matching mode in the enclosing group. In Unicode patterns (?a:...) switches to ASCII-only matching, and (?u:...) switches to Unicode matching (default). In bytes patterns (?L:...) switches to locale dependent matching, and (?a:...) switches to ASCII-only matching (default). This override is only in effect for the narrow inline group, and the original matching mode is restored outside of the group.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Les lettres 'a', 'L' et 'u' peuvent aussi être utilisées dans un groupe.

(?>...)

Attempts to match ... as if it was a separate regular expression, and if successful, continues to match the rest of the pattern following it. If the subsequent pattern fails to match, the stack can only be unwound to a point before the (?>...) because once exited, the expression, known as an atomic group, has thrown away all stack points within itself. Thus, (?>.*). would never match anything because first the .* would match all characters possible, then, having nothing left to match, the final . would fail to match. Since there are no stack points saved in the Atomic Group, and there is no stack point before it, the entire expression would thus fail to match.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

(?P<name>...)

Similar to regular parentheses, but the substring matched by the group is accessible via the symbolic group name name. Group names must be valid Python identifiers, and in bytes patterns they can only contain bytes in the ASCII range. Each group name must be defined only once within a regular expression. A symbolic group is also a numbered group, just as if the group were not named.

Les groupes nommés peuvent être référencés dans trois contextes. Si le motif est (?P<quote>['"]).*?(?P=quote) (c.-à-d. correspondant à une chaîne entourée de guillemets simples ou doubles) :

Contexte de référence au groupe quote

Manières de le référencer

lui-même dans le même motif

(?P=quote) (comme vu)

\1

en analysant l'objet résultat m

m.group('quote')

m.end('quote') (etc.)

dans une chaîne passée à l'argument repl de re.sub()

\g<quote>

\g<1>

\1

Modifié dans la version 3.12: In bytes patterns, group name can only contain bytes in the ASCII range (b'\x00'-b'\x7f').

(?P=name)

Une référence arrière à un groupe nommé ; elle correspond à n'importe quel texte validé plus tôt par le groupe nommé name.

(?#...)

Un commentaire ; le contenu des parenthèses est simplement ignoré.

(?=...)

Valide si ... valide la suite, mais ne consomme rien de la chaîne. On appelle cela une assertion lookahead. Par exemple, Isaac (?=Asimov) correspondra à la chaîne 'Isaac ' seulement si elle est suivie par 'Asimov'.

(?!...)

Valide si ... ne valide pas la suite. C'est une assertion negative lookahead. Par exemple, Isaac (?!Asimov) correspondra à la chaîne 'Isaac ' seulement si elle n'est pas suivie par 'Asimov'.

(?<=...)

Valide si la position courante dans la chaîne est précédée par une correspondance sur ... qui se termine à la position courante. On appelle cela une positive lookbehind assertion. (?<=abc)def cherchera une correspondance dans 'abcdef', puisque le lookbehind* mettra de côté 3 caractères et vérifiera que le motif contenu correspond. Le motif ne devra correspondre qu'à des chaînes de taille fixe, cela veut dire que abc ou a|b sont autorisées, mais pas a* ou a{3,4}. Notez que les motifs qui commencent par des assertions lookbehind positives ne peuvent pas correspondre au début de la chaîne analysée ; vous préférerez sûrement utiliser la fonction search() plutôt que la fonction match() :

>>> import re
>>> m = re.search('(?<=abc)def', 'abcdef')
>>> m.group(0)
'def'

Cet exemple recherche un mot suivi d'un trait d'union :

>>> m = re.search(r'(?<=-)\w+', 'spam-egg')
>>> m.group(0)
'egg'

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Ajout du support des références aux groupes de taille fixe.

(?<!...)

Valide si la position courante dans la chaîne n'est pas précédée par une correspondance sur .... On appelle cela une negative lookbehind assertion. À la manière des assertions lookbehind positives, le motif contenu ne peut que correspondre à des chaînes de taille fixe. Les motifs débutant par une assertion lookbehind négative peuvent correspondre au début de la chaîne analysée.

(?(id/name)yes-pattern|no-pattern)

Essaiera de faire la correspondance avec yes-pattern si le groupe indiqué par id ou name existe, et avec no-pattern s'il n'existe pas. no-pattern est optionnel et peut être omis. Par exemple, (<)?(\w+@\w+(?:\.\w+)+)(?(1)>|$) est un motif simpliste pour identifier une adresse courriel, qui validera '<user@host.com>' ainsi que 'user@host.com' mais pas '<user@host.com' ni 'user@host.com>'.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Group id can only contain ASCII digits. In bytes patterns, group name can only contain bytes in the ASCII range (b'\x00'-b'\x7f').

Les séquences spéciales sont composées de '\' et d'un caractère de la liste qui suit. Si le caractère ordinaire n'est pas un chiffre ASCII ou une lettre ASCII, alors l'expression rationnelle résultante validera le second caractère de la séquence. Par exemple, \$ correspond au caractère '$'.

\number

Correspond au contenu du groupe du même nombre. Les groupes sont numérotés à partir de 1. Par exemple, (.+) \1 correspond à 'the the' ou '55 55', mais pas à 'thethe' (notez l'espace après le groupe). Cette séquence spéciale ne peut être utilisée que pour faire référence aux 99 premiers groupes. Si le premier chiffre de number est 0, ou si number est un nombre octal de 3 chiffres, il ne sera pas interprété comme une référence à un groupe, mais comme le caractère à la valeur octale number. À l'intérieur des '[' et ']' d'une classe de caractères, tous les échappements numériques sont traités comme des caractères.

\A

Correspond uniquement au début d'une chaîne de caractères.

\b

Matches the empty string, but only at the beginning or end of a word. A word is defined as a sequence of word characters. Note that formally, \b is defined as the boundary between a \w and a \W character (or vice versa), or between \w and the beginning or end of the string. This means that r'\bat\b' matches 'at', 'at.', '(at)', and 'as at ay' but not 'attempt' or 'atlas'.

The default word characters in Unicode (str) patterns are Unicode alphanumerics and the underscore, but this can be changed by using the ASCII flag. Word boundaries are determined by the current locale if the LOCALE flag is used.

Note

Inside a character range, \b represents the backspace character, for compatibility with Python's string literals.

\B

Matches the empty string, but only when it is not at the beginning or end of a word. This means that r'at\B' matches 'athens', 'atom', 'attorney', but not 'at', 'at.', or 'at!'. \B is the opposite of \b, so word characters in Unicode (str) patterns are Unicode alphanumerics or the underscore, although this can be changed by using the ASCII flag. Word boundaries are determined by the current locale if the LOCALE flag is used.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: \B now matches empty input string.

\d

Pour les motifs Unicode (str) :

Matches any Unicode decimal digit (that is, any character in Unicode character category [Nd] [https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode15.0.0/ch04.pdf#G134153]). This includes [0-9], and also many other digit characters.

Matches [0-9] if the ASCII flag is used.

Pour les motifs 8-bits (bytes) :

Matches any decimal digit in the ASCII character set; this is equivalent to [0-9].

\D

Matches any character which is not a decimal digit. This is the opposite of \d.

Matches [^0-9] if the ASCII flag is used.

\s

Pour les motifs Unicode (str) :

Matches Unicode whitespace characters (as defined by str.isspace()). This includes [ \t\n\r\f\v], and also many other characters, for example the non-breaking spaces mandated by typography rules in many languages.

Matches [ \t\n\r\f\v] if the ASCII flag is used.

Pour les motifs 8-bits (bytes) :

Valide les caractères considérés comme des espacements dans la table ASCII ; équivalent à [ \t\n\r\f\v].

\S

Matches any character which is not a whitespace character. This is the opposite of \s.

Matches [^ \t\n\r\f\v] if the ASCII flag is used.

\w

Pour les motifs Unicode (str) :

Matches Unicode word characters; this includes all Unicode alphanumeric characters (as defined by str.isalnum()), as well as the underscore (_).

Matches [a-zA-Z0-9_] if the ASCII flag is used.

Pour les motifs 8-bits (bytes) :

Matches characters considered alphanumeric in the ASCII character set; this is equivalent to [a-zA-Z0-9_]. If the LOCALE flag is used, matches characters considered alphanumeric in the current locale and the underscore.

\W

Matches any character which is not a word character. This is the opposite of \w. By default, matches non-underscore (_) characters for which str.isalnum() returns False.

Matches [^a-zA-Z0-9_] if the ASCII flag is used.

If the LOCALE flag is used, matches characters which are neither alphanumeric in the current locale nor the underscore.

\z

Correspond uniquement à la fin d'une chaîne de caractères.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

\Z

The same as \z. For compatibility with old Python versions.

Most of the escape sequences supported by Python string literals are also accepted by the regular expression parser:

\a      \b      \f      \n
\N      \r      \t      \u
\U      \v      \x      \\

(Notez que \b est utilisé pour représenter les bornes d'un mot, et signifie « retour arrière » uniquement à l'intérieur d'une classe de caractères)

'\u', '\U', and '\N' escape sequences are only recognized in Unicode (str) patterns. In bytes patterns they are errors. Unknown escapes of ASCII letters are reserved for future use and treated as errors.

Les séquences octales d'échappement sont incluses dans une forme limitée. Si le premier chiffre est un 0, ou s'il y a trois chiffres octaux, la séquence est considérée comme octale. Autrement, il s'agit d'une référence vers un groupe. Comme pour les chaînes littérales, les séquences octales ne font jamais plus de 3 caractères de long.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Les séquences d'échappement '\u' et '\U' ont été ajoutées.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Les séquences inconnues composées de '\' et d'une lettre ASCII sont maintenant des erreurs.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: The '\N{name}' escape sequence has been added. As in string literals, it expands to the named Unicode character (e.g. '\N{EM DASH}').

Contenu du module

Le module définit plusieurs fonctions, constantes, et une exception. Certaines fonctions sont des versions simplifiées des méthodes plus complètes des expressions rationnelles compilées. La plupart des applications non triviales utilisent toujours la version compilée.

Flags

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Les constantes d'options sont maintenant des instances de RegexFlag, sous-classe de enum.IntFlag.

class re.RegexFlag

An enum.IntFlag class containing the regex options listed below.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11: - added to __all__

re.A

re.ASCII

Make \w, \W, \b, \B, \d, \D, \s and \S perform ASCII-only matching instead of full Unicode matching. This is only meaningful for Unicode (str) patterns, and is ignored for bytes patterns.

Corresponds to the inline flag (?a).

Note

The U flag still exists for backward compatibility, but is redundant in Python 3 since matches are Unicode by default for str patterns, and Unicode matching isn't allowed for bytes patterns. UNICODE and the inline flag (?u) are similarly redundant.

re.DEBUG

Display debug information about compiled expression.

No corresponding inline flag.

re.I

re.IGNORECASE

Perform case-insensitive matching; expressions like [A-Z] will also match lowercase letters. Full Unicode matching (such as Ü matching ü) also works unless the ASCII flag is used to disable non-ASCII matches. The current locale does not change the effect of this flag unless the LOCALE flag is also used.

Corresponds to the inline flag (?i).

Note that when the Unicode patterns [a-z] or [A-Z] are used in combination with the IGNORECASE flag, they will match the 52 ASCII letters and 4 additional non-ASCII letters: 'İ' (U+0130, Latin capital letter I with dot above), 'ı' (U+0131, Latin small letter dotless i), 'ſ' (U+017F, Latin small letter long s) and 'K' (U+212A, Kelvin sign). If the ASCII flag is used, only letters 'a' to 'z' and 'A' to 'Z' are matched.

re.L

re.LOCALE

Make \w, \W, \b, \B and case-insensitive matching dependent on the current locale. This flag can be used only with bytes patterns.

Corresponds to the inline flag (?L).

Avertissement

This flag is discouraged; consider Unicode matching instead. The locale mechanism is very unreliable as it only handles one "culture" at a time and only works with 8-bit locales. Unicode matching is enabled by default for Unicode (str) patterns and it is able to handle different locales and languages.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: LOCALE can be used only with bytes patterns and is not compatible with ASCII.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Compiled regular expression objects with the LOCALE flag no longer depend on the locale at compile time. Only the locale at matching time affects the result of matching.

re.M

re.MULTILINE

When specified, the pattern character '^' matches at the beginning of the string and at the beginning of each line (immediately following each newline); and the pattern character '$' matches at the end of the string and at the end of each line (immediately preceding each newline). By default, '^' matches only at the beginning of the string, and '$' only at the end of the string and immediately before the newline (if any) at the end of the string.

Corresponds to the inline flag (?m).

re.NOFLAG

Indicates no flag being applied, the value is 0. This flag may be used as a default value for a function keyword argument or as a base value that will be conditionally ORed with other flags. Example of use as a default value:

def myfunc(text, flag=re.NOFLAG):
    return re.match(text, flag)

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

re.S

re.DOTALL

Make the '.' special character match any character at all, including a newline; without this flag, '.' will match anything except a newline.

Corresponds to the inline flag (?s).

re.U

re.UNICODE

In Python 3, Unicode characters are matched by default for str patterns. This flag is therefore redundant with no effect and is only kept for backward compatibility.

See ASCII to restrict matching to ASCII characters instead.

re.X

re.VERBOSE

Cette option vous autorise à écrire des expressions rationnelles qui présentent mieux et sont plus lisibles en vous permettant de séparer visuellement les sections logiques du motif et d'ajouter des commentaires. Les caractères d'espacement à l'intérieur du motif sont ignorés, sauf à l'intérieur des classes de caractères ou quand ils sont précédés d'un backslash non échappé, ou dans des séquences comme *?, (?: ou (?P<...>.Par exemple, (? : et * ? ne sont pas autorisés. Quand une ligne contient un # qui n'est ni dans une classe de caractères, ni précédé d'un backslash non échappé, tous les caractères depuis le # le plus à gauche jusqu'à la fin de la ligne sont ignorés.

Cela signifie que les deux expressions rationnelles suivantes qui valident un nombre décimal sont fonctionnellement égales :

a = re.compile(r"""\d +  # the integral part
                   \.    # the decimal point
                   \d *  # some fractional digits""", re.X)
b = re.compile(r"\d+\.\d*")

Correspond à l'option de groupe (?x).

Fonctions

re.compile(pattern, flags=0)

Compile un motif vers une expression rationnelle compilée, dont les méthodes match() et search(), décrites ci-dessous, peuvent être utilisées pour analyser des textes.

The expression's behaviour can be modified by specifying a flags value. Values can be any of the flags variables, combined using bitwise OR (the | operator).

La séquence

prog = re.compile(pattern)
result = prog.match(string)

est équivalente à

result = re.match(pattern, string)

mais utiliser re.compile() et sauvegarder l'expression rationnelle renvoyée pour la réutiliser est plus efficace quand l'expression est amenée à être utilisée plusieurs fois dans un même programme.

Note

Les versions compilées des motifs les plus récents passés à re.compile() et autres fonctions d'analyse du module sont mises en cache, ainsi les programmes qui n'utilisent que quelques expressions rationnelles en même temps n'ont pas à s'inquiéter de la compilation de ces expressions.

re.search(pattern, string, flags=0)

Scan through string looking for the first location where the regular expression pattern produces a match, and return a corresponding Match. Return None if no position in the string matches the pattern; note that this is different from finding a zero-length match at some point in the string.

The expression's behaviour can be modified by specifying a flags value. Values can be any of the flags variables, combined using bitwise OR (the | operator).

re.match(pattern, string, flags=0)

If zero or more characters at the beginning of string match the regular expression pattern, return a corresponding Match. Return None if the string does not match the pattern; note that this is different from a zero-length match.

Notez que même en mode MULTILINE, re.match() ne validera qu'au début de la chaîne et non au début de chaque ligne.

Si vous voulez trouver une correspondance n'importe où dans string, utilisez plutôt search() (voir aussi Comparaison de search() et match()).

The expression's behaviour can be modified by specifying a flags value. Values can be any of the flags variables, combined using bitwise OR (the | operator).

re.fullmatch(pattern, string, flags=0)

If the whole string matches the regular expression pattern, return a corresponding Match. Return None if the string does not match the pattern; note that this is different from a zero-length match.

The expression's behaviour can be modified by specifying a flags value. Values can be any of the flags variables, combined using bitwise OR (the | operator).

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

re.split(pattern, string, maxsplit=0, flags=0)

Sépare string selon les occurrences de pattern. Si des parenthèses de capture sont utilisées dans pattern, alors les textes des groupes du motif sont aussi renvoyés comme éléments de la liste résultante. Si maxsplit est différent de zéro, il ne pourra y avoir plus de maxsplit séparations, et le reste de la chaîne sera renvoyé comme le dernier élément de la liste.

>>> re.split(r'\W+', 'Words, words, words.')
['Words', 'words', 'words', '']
>>> re.split(r'(\W+)', 'Words, words, words.')
['Words', ', ', 'words', ', ', 'words', '.', '']
>>> re.split(r'\W+', 'Words, words, words.', maxsplit=1)
['Words', 'words, words.']
>>> re.split('[a-f]+', '0a3B9', flags=re.IGNORECASE)
['0', '3', '9']

S'il y a des groupes de capture dans le séparateur et qu'ils trouvent une correspondance au début de la chaîne, le résultat commencera par une chaîne vide. La même chose se produit pour la fin de la chaîne :

>>> re.split(r'(\W+)', '...words, words...')
['', '...', 'words', ', ', 'words', '...', '']

De cette manière, les séparateurs sont toujours trouvés aux mêmes indices relatifs dans la liste résultante.

Adjacent empty matches are not possible, but an empty match can occur immediately after a non-empty match.

>>> re.split(r'\b', 'Words, words, words.')
['', 'Words', ', ', 'words', ', ', 'words', '.']
>>> re.split(r'\W*', '...words...')
['', '', 'w', 'o', 'r', 'd', 's', '', '']
>>> re.split(r'(\W*)', '...words...')
['', '...', '', '', 'w', '', 'o', '', 'r', '', 'd', '', 's', '...', '', '', '']

The expression's behaviour can be modified by specifying a flags value. Values can be any of the flags variables, combined using bitwise OR (the | operator).

Modifié dans la version 3.1: ajout de l'argument optionnel flags.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Gestion du découpage avec un motif qui pourrait correspondre à une chaine de caractère vide.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.13: Passing maxsplit and flags as positional arguments is deprecated. In future Python versions they will be keyword-only parameters.

re.findall(pattern, string, flags=0)

Renvoie toutes les correspondances, sans chevauchements, entre le motif pattern et la chaîne string, comme une liste de chaînes ou de n-uplets. La chaîne string est examinée de gauche à droite, et les correspondances sont données dans cet ordre. Le résultat peut contenir des correspondances vides.

Le type du résultat dépend du nombre de groupes capturants dans le motif. S'il n'y en a pas, le résultat est une liste de sous-chaînes de caractères qui correspondent au motif. S'il y a exactement un groupe, le résultat est une liste constituée des sous-chaînes qui correspondaient à ce groupe pour chaque correspondance entre le motif et la chaîne. S'il y a plusieurs groupes, le résultat est formé de n-uplets avec les sous-chaînes correspondant aux différents groupes.

>>> re.findall(r'\bf[a-z]*', 'which foot or hand fell fastest')
['foot', 'fell', 'fastest']
>>> re.findall(r'(\w+)=(\d+)', 'set width=20 and height=10')
[('width', '20'), ('height', '10')]

The expression's behaviour can be modified by specifying a flags value. Values can be any of the flags variables, combined using bitwise OR (the | operator).

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Les correspondances non vides peuvent maintenant démarrer juste après une correspondance vide précédente.

re.finditer(pattern, string, flags=0)

Return an iterator yielding Match objects over all non-overlapping matches for the RE pattern in string. The string is scanned left-to-right, and matches are returned in the order found. Empty matches are included in the result.

The expression's behaviour can be modified by specifying a flags value. Values can be any of the flags variables, combined using bitwise OR (the | operator).

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Les correspondances non vides peuvent maintenant démarrer juste après une correspondance vide précédente.

re.sub(pattern, repl, string, count=0, flags=0)

Renvoie la chaîne obtenue en remplaçant les occurrences (sans chevauchement) les plus à gauche de pattern dans string par le remplacement repl. Si le motif n'est pas trouvé, string est renvoyée inchangée. repl peut être une chaîne de caractères ou une fonction ; si c'est une chaîne, toutes les séquences d'échappement qu'elle contient sont traduites. Ainsi, \n est convertie en un simple saut de ligne, \r en un retour chariot, et ainsi de suite. Les échappements inconnus de lettres ASCII sont réservés pour une utilisation future et sont considérés comme des erreurs. Les autres échappements tels que \& sont laissés intacts. Les références arrières, telles que \6, sont remplacées par la sous-chaîne correspondant au groupe 6 dans le motif. Par exemple :

>>> re.sub(r'def\s+([a-zA-Z_][a-zA-Z_0-9]*)\s*\(\s*\):',
...        r'static PyObject*\npy_\1(void)\n{',
...        'def myfunc():')
'static PyObject*\npy_myfunc(void)\n{'

If repl is a function, it is called for every non-overlapping occurrence of pattern. The function takes a single Match argument, and returns the replacement string. For example:

>>> def dashrepl(matchobj):
...     if matchobj.group(0) == '-': return ' '
...     else: return '-'
...
>>> re.sub('-{1,2}', dashrepl, 'pro----gram-files')
'pro--gram files'
>>> re.sub(r'\sAND\s', ' & ', 'Baked Beans And Spam', flags=re.IGNORECASE)
'Baked Beans & Spam'

The pattern may be a string or a Pattern.

The optional argument count is the maximum number of pattern occurrences to be replaced; count must be a non-negative integer. If omitted or zero, all occurrences will be replaced.

Adjacent empty matches are not possible, but an empty match can occur immediately after a non-empty match. As a result, sub('x*', '-', 'abxd') returns '-a-b--d-' instead of '-a-b-d-'.

Dans les arguments repl de type string, en plus des séquences d'échappement et références arrières décrites au-dessus, \g<name> utilisera la sous-chaîne correspondant au groupe nommé name, comme défini par la syntaxe (?P<name>...). \g<number> utilise le groupe numéroté associé ; \g<2> est ainsi équivalent à \2, mais n'est pas ambigu dans un remplacement tel que \g<2>0, \20 serait interprété comme une référence au groupe 20, et non une référence au groupe 2 suivie par un caractère littéral '0'. La référence arrière \g<0> est remplacée par la sous-chaîne entière validée par l'expression rationnelle.

The expression's behaviour can be modified by specifying a flags value. Values can be any of the flags variables, combined using bitwise OR (the | operator).

Modifié dans la version 3.1: ajout de l'argument optionnel flags.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Les groupes sans correspondance sont remplacés par une chaîne vide.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Les séquences d'échappement inconnues dans pattern formées par '\' et une lettre ASCII sont maintenant des erreurs.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Unknown escapes in repl consisting of '\' and an ASCII letter now are errors. An empty match can occur immediately after a non-empty match.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Group id can only contain ASCII digits. In bytes replacement strings, group name can only contain bytes in the ASCII range (b'\x00'-b'\x7f').

Obsolète depuis la version 3.13: Passing count and flags as positional arguments is deprecated. In future Python versions they will be keyword-only parameters.

re.subn(pattern, repl, string, count=0, flags=0)

Réalise la même opération que sub(), mais renvoie une paire (nouvelle_chaîne, nombre_de_substitutions_réalisées).

The expression's behaviour can be modified by specifying a flags value. Values can be any of the flags variables, combined using bitwise OR (the | operator).

re.escape(pattern)

Échappe tous les caractères spéciaux de pattern. Cela est utile si vous voulez valider une quelconque chaîne littérale qui pourrait contenir des métacaractères d'expressions rationnelles. Par exemple :

>>> print(re.escape('https://www.python.org'))
https://www\.python\.org

>>> legal_chars = string.ascii_lowercase + string.digits + "!#$%&'*+-.^_`|~:"
>>> print('[%s]+' % re.escape(legal_chars))
[abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz0123456789!\#\$%\&'\*\+\-\.\^_`\|\~:]+

>>> operators = ['+', '-', '*', '/', '**']
>>> print('|'.join(map(re.escape, sorted(operators, reverse=True))))
/|\-|\+|\*\*|\*

Cette fonction ne doit pas être utilisée pour la chaîne de remplacement dans sub() et subn(), seuls les antislashs devraient être échappés. Par exemple :

>>> digits_re = r'\d+'
>>> sample = '/usr/sbin/sendmail - 0 errors, 12 warnings'
>>> print(re.sub(digits_re, digits_re.replace('\\', r'\\'), sample))
/usr/sbin/sendmail - \d+ errors, \d+ warnings

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Le caractère '_' n'est plus échappé.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Seuls les caractères qui peuvent avoir une signification spéciale dans une expression rationnelle sont échappés. De ce fait, '!', '"', '%', "'", ',', '/', ':', ';', '<', '=', '>', '@', et "`" ne sont plus échappés.

re.purge()

Vide le cache d'expressions rationnelles.

Exceptions

exception re.PatternError(msg, pattern=None, pos=None)

Exception raised when a string passed to one of the functions here is not a valid regular expression (for example, it might contain unmatched parentheses) or when some other error occurs during compilation or matching. It is never an error if a string contains no match for a pattern. The PatternError instance has the following additional attributes:

msg

Le message d'erreur non formaté.

pattern

Le motif d'expression rationnelle.

pos

L'index dans pattern où la compilation a échoué (peut valoir None).

lineno

La ligne correspondant à pos (peut valoir None).

colno

La colonne correspondant à pos (peut valoir None).

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Ajout des attributs additionnels.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: PatternError was originally named error; the latter is kept as an alias for backward compatibility.

Objets d'expressions rationnelles

class re.Pattern

Compiled regular expression object returned by re.compile().

Modifié dans la version 3.9: re.Pattern supports [] to indicate a Unicode (str) or bytes pattern. See Type Alias générique.

Pattern.search(string[, pos[, endpos]])

Scan through string looking for the first location where this regular expression produces a match, and return a corresponding Match. Return None if no position in the string matches the pattern; note that this is different from finding a zero-length match at some point in the string.

Le second paramètre pos (optionnel) donne l'index dans la chaîne où la recherche doit débuter ; il vaut 0 par défaut. Cela n'est pas complètement équivalent à un slicing sur la chaîne ; le caractère de motif '^' correspond au début réel de la chaîne et aux positions juste après un saut de ligne, mais pas nécessairement à l'index où la recherche commence.

Le paramètre optionnel endpos limite la longueur sur laquelle la chaîne sera analysée ; ce sera comme si la chaîne faisait endpos caractères de long, donc uniquement les caractères de pos à endpos - 1 seront analysés pour trouver une correspondance. Si endpos est inférieur à pos, aucune correspondance ne sera trouvée ; dit autrement, avec rx une expression rationnelle compilée, rx.search(string, 0, 50) est équivalent à rx.search(string[:50], 0).

>>> pattern = re.compile("d")
>>> pattern.search("dog")     # Match at index 0
<re.Match object; span=(0, 1), match='d'>
>>> pattern.search("dog", 1)  # No match; search doesn't include the "d"

Pattern.match(string[, pos[, endpos]])

If zero or more characters at the beginning of string match this regular expression, return a corresponding Match. Return None if the string does not match the pattern; note that this is different from a zero-length match.

Les paramètres optionnels pos et endpos ont le même sens que pour la méthode search().

>>> pattern = re.compile("o")
>>> pattern.match("dog")      # No match as "o" is not at the start of "dog".
>>> pattern.match("dog", 1)   # Match as "o" is the 2nd character of "dog".
<re.Match object; span=(1, 2), match='o'>

Si vous voulez une recherche n'importe où dans string, utilisez plutôt search() (voir aussi Comparaison de search() et match()).

Pattern.fullmatch(string[, pos[, endpos]])

If the whole string matches this regular expression, return a corresponding Match. Return None if the string does not match the pattern; note that this is different from a zero-length match.

Les paramètres optionnels pos et endpos ont le même sens que pour la méthode search().

>>> pattern = re.compile("o[gh]")
>>> pattern.fullmatch("dog")      # No match as "o" is not at the start of "dog".
>>> pattern.fullmatch("ogre")     # No match as not the full string matches.
>>> pattern.fullmatch("doggie", 1, 3)   # Matches within given limits.
<re.Match object; span=(1, 3), match='og'>

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Pattern.split(string, maxsplit=0)

Identique à la fonction split(), en utilisant le motif compilé.

Pattern.findall(string[, pos[, endpos]])

Similaire à la fonction findall(), en utilisant le motif compilé, mais accepte aussi des paramètres pos et endpos optionnels qui limitent la région de recherche comme pour search().

Pattern.finditer(string[, pos[, endpos]])

Similaire à la fonction finditer(), en utilisant le motif compilé, mais accepte aussi des paramètres pos et endpos optionnels qui limitent la région de recherche comme pour search().

Pattern.sub(repl, string, count=0)

Identique à la fonction sub(), en utilisant le motif compilé.

Pattern.subn(repl, string, count=0)

Identique à la fonction subn(), en utilisant le motif compilé.

Pattern.flags

The regex matching flags. This is a combination of the flags given to compile(), any (?...) inline flags in the pattern, and implicit flags such as UNICODE if the pattern is a Unicode string.

Pattern.groups

Le nombre de groupes de capture dans le motif.

Pattern.groupindex

Un dictionnaire associant les noms de groupes symboliques définis par (?P<id>) aux groupes numérotés. Le dictionnaire est vide si aucun groupe symbolique n'est utilisé dans le motif.

Pattern.pattern

La chaîne de motif depuis laquelle l'objet motif a été compilé.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Ajout du support des fonctions copy.copy() et copy.deepcopy(). Les expressions régulières compilées sont considérées atomiques.

Objets de correspondance

Les objets de correspondance ont toujours une valeur booléenne True. Puisque match() et search() renvoient None quand il n'y a pas de correspondance, vous pouvez tester s'il y a eu correspondance avec une simple instruction if :

match = re.search(pattern, string)
if match:
    process(match)

class re.Match

Match object returned by successful matches and searches.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: re.Match supports [] to indicate a Unicode (str) or bytes match. See Type Alias générique.

Match.expand(template)

Return the string obtained by doing backslash substitution on the template string template, as done by the sub() method. Escapes such as \n are converted to the appropriate characters, and numeric backreferences (\1, \2) and named backreferences (\g<1>, \g<name>) are replaced by the contents of the corresponding group. The backreference \g<0> will be replaced by the entire match.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Les groupes sans correspondance sont remplacés par une chaîne vide.

Match.group([group1, ...])

Returns one or more subgroups of the match. If there is a single argument, the result is a single string; if there are multiple arguments, the result is a tuple with one item per argument. Without arguments, group1 defaults to zero (the whole match is returned). If a groupN argument is zero, the corresponding return value is the entire matching string; if it is a positive integer, it is the string matching the corresponding parenthesized group. If a group number is negative or larger than the number of groups defined in the pattern, an IndexError exception is raised. If a group is contained in a part of the pattern that did not match, the corresponding result is None. If a group is contained in a part of the pattern that matched multiple times, the last match is returned.

>>> m = re.match(r"(\w+) (\w+)", "Isaac Newton, physicist")
>>> m.group(0)       # The entire match
'Isaac Newton'
>>> m.group(1)       # The first parenthesized subgroup.
'Isaac'
>>> m.group(2)       # The second parenthesized subgroup.
'Newton'
>>> m.group(1, 2)    # Multiple arguments give us a tuple.
('Isaac', 'Newton')

Si l'expression rationnelle utilise la syntaxe (?P<name>...), les arguments groupN peuvent alors aussi être des chaînes identifiant les groupes par leurs noms. Si une chaîne donnée en argument n'est pas utilisée comme nom de groupe dans le motif, une exception IndexError est levée.

Un exemple modérément compliqué :

>>> m = re.match(r"(?P<first_name>\w+) (?P<last_name>\w+)", "Malcolm Reynolds")
>>> m.group('first_name')
'Malcolm'
>>> m.group('last_name')
'Reynolds'

Les groupes nommés peuvent aussi être référencés par leur index :

>>> m.group(1)
'Malcolm'
>>> m.group(2)
'Reynolds'

Si un groupe a plusieurs correspondances, seule la dernière est accessible :

>>> m = re.match(r"(..)+", "a1b2c3")  # Matches 3 times.
>>> m.group(1)                        # Returns only the last match.
'c3'

Match.__getitem__(g)

Cela est identique à m.group(g). Cela permet un accès plus facile à un groupe individuel depuis une correspondance :

>>> m = re.match(r"(\w+) (\w+)", "Isaac Newton, physicist")
>>> m[0]       # The entire match
'Isaac Newton'
>>> m[1]       # The first parenthesized subgroup.
'Isaac'
>>> m[2]       # The second parenthesized subgroup.
'Newton'

Named groups are supported as well:

>>> m = re.match(r"(?P<first_name>\w+) (?P<last_name>\w+)", "Isaac Newton")
>>> m['first_name']
'Isaac'
>>> m['last_name']
'Newton'

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

Match.groups(default=None)

Renvoie un n-uplet contenant tous les sous-groupes de la correspondance, de 1 jusqu'au nombre de groupes dans le motif. L'argument default est utilisé pour les groupes sans correspondance ; il vaut None par défaut.

Par exemple :

>>> m = re.match(r"(\d+)\.(\d+)", "24.1632")
>>> m.groups()
('24', '1632')

Si on rend la partie décimale et tout ce qui la suit optionnels, tous les groupes ne figureront pas dans la correspondance. Ces groupes sans correspondance vaudront None sauf si une autre valeur est donnée à l'argument default :

>>> m = re.match(r"(\d+)\.?(\d+)?", "24")
>>> m.groups()      # Second group defaults to None.
('24', None)
>>> m.groups('0')   # Now, the second group defaults to '0'.
('24', '0')

Match.groupdict(default=None)

Renvoie un dictionnaire contenant tous les sous-groupes nommés de la correspondance, accessibles par leurs noms. L'argument default est utilisé pour les groupes qui ne figurent pas dans la correspondance ; il vaut None par défaut. Par exemple :

>>> m = re.match(r"(?P<first_name>\w+) (?P<last_name>\w+)", "Malcolm Reynolds")
>>> m.groupdict()
{'first_name': 'Malcolm', 'last_name': 'Reynolds'}

Match.start([group])

Match.end([group])

Renvoie les indices de début et de fin de la sous-chaîne correspondant au groupe group ; group vaut par défaut zéro (pour récupérer les indices de la correspondance complète). Renvoie -1 si group existe mais ne figure pas dans la correspondance. Pour un objet de correspondance m, et un groupe g qui y figure, la sous-chaîne correspondant au groupe g (équivalente à m.group(g)) est

m.string[m.start(g):m.end(g)]

Notez que m.start(group) sera égal à m.end(group) si group correspond à une chaîne vide. Par exemple, après m = re.search('b(c?)', 'cba'), m.start(0) vaut 1, m.end(0) vaut 2, m.start(1) et m.end(1) valent tous deux 2, et m.start(2) lève une exception IndexError.

Un exemple qui supprimera remove_this d'une adresse mail :

>>> email = "tony@tiremove_thisger.net"
>>> m = re.search("remove_this", email)
>>> email[:m.start()] + email[m.end():]
'tony@tiger.net'

Match.span([group])

Pour un objet de correspondance m, renvoie la paire (m.start(group), m.end(group)). Notez que si group ne figure pas dans la correspondance, (-1, -1) est renvoyé. group vaut par défaut zéro, pour la correspondance entière.

Match.pos

La valeur de pos qui a été passée à la méthode search() ou match() d'un objet expression rationnelle. C'est l'index dans la chaîne à partir duquel le moteur d'expressions rationnelles recherche une correspondance.

Match.endpos

La valeur de endpos qui a été passée à la méthode search() ou match() d'un objet expression rationnelle. C'est l'index dans la chaîne que le moteur d'expressions rationnelles ne dépassera pas.

Match.lastindex

L'index entier du dernier groupe de capture validé, ou None si aucun groupe ne correspondait. Par exemple, les expressions (a)b, ((a)(b)) et ((ab)) auront un lastindex == 1 si appliquées à la chaîne 'ab', alors que l'expression (a)(b) aura un lastindex == 2 si appliquée à la même chaîne.

Match.lastgroup

Le nom du dernier groupe capturant validé, ou None si le groupe n'a pas de nom, ou si aucun groupe ne correspondait.

Match.re

L'expression rationnelle dont la méthode match() ou search() a produit cet objet de correspondance.

Match.string

La chaîne passée à match() ou search().

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Ajout du support des fonctions copy.copy() et copy.deepcopy(). Les objets correspondants sont considérés atomiques.

Exemples d'expressions rationnelles

Rechercher une paire

Dans cet exemple, nous nous aidons de la fonction suivante pour afficher de manière plus jolie les objets qui correspondent :

def displaymatch(match):
    if match is None:
        return None
    return '<Match: %r, groups=%r>' % (match.group(), match.groups())

Supposez que vous écriviez un jeu de poker où la main d'un joueur est représentée par une chaîne de 5 caractères avec chaque caractère représentant une carte, « a » pour l'as, « k » pour le roi (king), « q » pour la reine (queen), « j » pour le valet (jack), « t » pour 10 (ten), et les caractères de « 2 » à « 9 » représentant les cartes avec ces valeurs.

Pour vérifier qu'une chaîne donnée est une main valide, on pourrait faire comme suit :

>>> valid = re.compile(r"^[a2-9tjqk]{5}$")
>>> displaymatch(valid.match("akt5q"))  # Valid.
"<Match: 'akt5q', groups=()>"
>>> displaymatch(valid.match("akt5e"))  # Invalid.
>>> displaymatch(valid.match("akt"))    # Invalid.
>>> displaymatch(valid.match("727ak"))  # Valid.
"<Match: '727ak', groups=()>"

La dernière main, "727ak", contenait une paire, deux cartes de la même valeur. Pour valider cela avec une expression rationnelle, on pourrait utiliser des références arrière comme :

>>> pair = re.compile(r".*(.).*\1")
>>> displaymatch(pair.match("717ak"))     # Pair of 7s.
"<Match: '717', groups=('7',)>"
>>> displaymatch(pair.match("718ak"))     # No pairs.
>>> displaymatch(pair.match("354aa"))     # Pair of aces.
"<Match: '354aa', groups=('a',)>"

Pour trouver de quelle carte est composée la paire, on pourrait utiliser la méthode group() de l'objet de correspondance de la manière suivante :

>>> pair = re.compile(r".*(.).*\1")
>>> pair.match("717ak").group(1)
'7'

# Error because re.match() returns None, which doesn't have a group() method:
>>> pair.match("718ak").group(1)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<pyshell#23>", line 1, in <module>
    re.match(r".*(.).*\1", "718ak").group(1)
AttributeError: 'NoneType' object has no attribute 'group'

>>> pair.match("354aa").group(1)
'a'

Simuler scanf()

Python does not currently have an equivalent to scanf(). Regular expressions are generally more powerful, though also more verbose, than scanf() format strings. The table below offers some more-or-less equivalent mappings between scanf() format tokens and regular expressions.

scanf() Token

Expression rationnelle

%c

.

%5c

.{5}

%d

[-+]?\d+

%e, %E, %f, %g

[-+]?(\d+(\.\d*)?|\.\d+)([eE][-+]?\d+)?

%i

[-+]?(0[xX][\dA-Fa-f]+|0[0-7]*|\d+)

%o

[-+]?[0-7]+

%s

\S+

%u

\d+

%x, %X

[-+]?(0[xX])?[\dA-Fa-f]+

Pour extraire le nom de fichier et les nombres depuis une chaîne comme

/usr/sbin/sendmail - 0 errors, 4 warnings

you would use a scanf() format like

%s - %d errors, %d warnings

L'expression rationnelle équivalente serait

(\S+) - (\d+) errors, (\d+) warnings

Comparaison de search() et match()

Python offre différentes opérations primitives basées sur des expressions régulières :

re.match() cherche une correspondance uniquement au début de la chaîne de caractères

re.search() cherche une correspondance n'importe où dans la chaîne de caractères (ce que fait Perl par défaut)

re.fullmatch() cherche une correspondance avec l'intégralité de la chaîne de caractères.

Par exemple :

>>> re.match("c", "abcdef")    # No match
>>> re.search("c", "abcdef")   # Match
<re.Match object; span=(2, 3), match='c'>
>>> re.fullmatch("p.*n", "python") # Match
<re.Match object; span=(0, 6), match='python'>
>>> re.fullmatch("r.*n", "python") # No match

Les expressions rationnelles commençant par '^' peuvent être utilisées avec search() pour restreindre la recherche au début de la chaîne :

>>> re.match("c", "abcdef")    # No match
>>> re.search("^c", "abcdef")  # No match
>>> re.search("^a", "abcdef")  # Match
<re.Match object; span=(0, 1), match='a'>

Notez cependant qu'en mode MULTILINE, match() ne recherche qu'au début de la chaîne, alors que search() avec une expression rationnelle commençant par '^' recherchera au début de chaque ligne.

>>> re.match("X", "A\nB\nX", re.MULTILINE)  # No match
>>> re.search("^X", "A\nB\nX", re.MULTILINE)  # Match
<re.Match object; span=(4, 5), match='X'>

Construire un répertoire téléphonique

split() découpe une chaîne en une liste délimitée par le motif donné. La méthode est inestimable pour convertir des données textuelles vers des structures de données qui peuvent être lues et modifiées par Python comme démontré dans l'exemple suivant qui crée un répertoire téléphonique.

Tout d'abord, voici l'entrée. Elle provient normalement d'un fichier, nous utilisons ici une chaîne à guillemets triples

>>> text = """Ross McFluff: 834.345.1254 155 Elm Street
...
... Ronald Heathmore: 892.345.3428 436 Finley Avenue
... Frank Burger: 925.541.7625 662 South Dogwood Way
...
...
... Heather Albrecht: 548.326.4584 919 Park Place"""

Les entrées sont séparées par un saut de ligne ou plus. Nous convertissons maintenant la chaîne en une liste où chaque ligne non vide aura sa propre entrée :

>>> entries = re.split("\n+", text)
>>> entries
['Ross McFluff: 834.345.1254 155 Elm Street',
'Ronald Heathmore: 892.345.3428 436 Finley Avenue',
'Frank Burger: 925.541.7625 662 South Dogwood Way',
'Heather Albrecht: 548.326.4584 919 Park Place']

Finalement, on sépare chaque entrée en une liste avec prénom, nom, numéro de téléphone et adresse. Nous utilisons le paramètre maxsplit de split() parce que l'adresse contient des espaces, qui sont notre motif de séparation :

>>> [re.split(":? ", entry, maxsplit=3) for entry in entries]
[['Ross', 'McFluff', '834.345.1254', '155 Elm Street'],
['Ronald', 'Heathmore', '892.345.3428', '436 Finley Avenue'],
['Frank', 'Burger', '925.541.7625', '662 South Dogwood Way'],
['Heather', 'Albrecht', '548.326.4584', '919 Park Place']]

Le motif :? trouve les deux points derrière le nom de famille, pour qu'ils n'apparaissent pas dans la liste résultante. Avec un maxsplit de 4, nous pourrions séparer le numéro du nom de la rue :

>>> [re.split(":? ", entry, maxsplit=4) for entry in entries]
[['Ross', 'McFluff', '834.345.1254', '155', 'Elm Street'],
['Ronald', 'Heathmore', '892.345.3428', '436', 'Finley Avenue'],
['Frank', 'Burger', '925.541.7625', '662', 'South Dogwood Way'],
['Heather', 'Albrecht', '548.326.4584', '919', 'Park Place']]

Mélanger les lettres des mots

sub() remplace toutes les occurrences d'un motif par une chaîne ou le résultat d'une fonction. Cet exemple le montre, en utilisant sub() avec une fonction qui mélange aléatoirement les caractères de chaque mot dans une phrase (à l'exception des premiers et derniers caractères) :

>>> def repl(m):
...     inner_word = list(m.group(2))
...     random.shuffle(inner_word)
...     return m.group(1) + "".join(inner_word) + m.group(3)
...
>>> text = "Professor Abdolmalek, please report your absences promptly."
>>> re.sub(r"(\w)(\w+)(\w)", repl, text)
'Poefsrosr Aealmlobdk, pslaee reorpt your abnseces plmrptoy.'
>>> re.sub(r"(\w)(\w+)(\w)", repl, text)
'Pofsroser Aodlambelk, plasee reoprt yuor asnebces potlmrpy.'

Trouver tous les adverbes

findall() trouve toutes les occurrences d'un motif, pas juste la première comme le fait search(). Par exemple, si un écrivain voulait trouver tous les adverbes dans un texte, il devrait utiliser findall() de la manière suivante :

>>> text = "He was carefully disguised but captured quickly by police."
>>> re.findall(r"\w+ly\b", text)
['carefully', 'quickly']

Trouver tous les adverbes et leurs positions

If one wants more information about all matches of a pattern than the matched text, finditer() is useful as it provides Match objects instead of strings. Continuing with the previous example, if a writer wanted to find all of the adverbs and their positions in some text, they would use finditer() in the following manner:

>>> text = "He was carefully disguised but captured quickly by police."
>>> for m in re.finditer(r"\w+ly\b", text):
...     print('%02d-%02d: %s' % (m.start(), m.end(), m.group(0)))
07-16: carefully
40-47: quickly

Notation brute de chaînes

La notation brute de chaînes (r"text") garde saines les expressions rationnelles. Sans elle, chaque backslash ('\') dans une expression rationnelle devrait être préfixé d'un autre backslash pour l'échapper. Par exemple, les deux lignes de code suivantes sont fonctionnellement identiques :

>>> re.match(r"\W(.)\1\W", " ff ")
<re.Match object; span=(0, 4), match=' ff '>
>>> re.match("\\W(.)\\1\\W", " ff ")
<re.Match object; span=(0, 4), match=' ff '>

Pour rechercher un backslash littéral, il faut l'échapper dans l'expression rationnelle. Avec la notation brute, cela signifie r"\\". Sans elle, il faudrait utiliser "\\\\", faisant que les deux lignes de code suivantes sont fonctionnellement identiques :

>>> re.match(r"\\", r"\\")
<re.Match object; span=(0, 1), match='\\'>
>>> re.match("\\\\", r"\\")
<re.Match object; span=(0, 1), match='\\'>

Écrire un analyseur lexical

Un analyseur lexical ou scanner [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexical_analysis] analyse une chaîne pour catégoriser les groupes de caractères. C'est une première étape utile dans l'écriture d'un compilateur ou d'un interpréteur.

Les catégories de texte sont spécifiées par des expressions rationnelles. La technique est de les combiner dans une unique expression rationnelle maîtresse, et de boucler sur les correspondances successives :

from typing import NamedTuple
import re

class Token(NamedTuple):
    type: str
    value: str
    line: int
    column: int

def tokenize(code):
    keywords = {'IF', 'THEN', 'ENDIF', 'FOR', 'NEXT', 'GOSUB', 'RETURN'}
    token_specification = [
        ('NUMBER',   r'\d+(\.\d*)?'),  # Integer or decimal number
        ('ASSIGN',   r':='),           # Assignment operator
        ('END',      r';'),            # Statement terminator
        ('ID',       r'[A-Za-z]+'),    # Identifiers
        ('OP',       r'[+\-*/]'),      # Arithmetic operators
        ('NEWLINE',  r'\n'),           # Line endings
        ('SKIP',     r'[ \t]+'),       # Skip over spaces and tabs
        ('MISMATCH', r'.'),            # Any other character
    ]
    tok_regex = '|'.join('(?P<%s>%s)' % pair for pair in token_specification)
    line_num = 1
    line_start = 0
    for mo in re.finditer(tok_regex, code):
        kind = mo.lastgroup
        value = mo.group()
        column = mo.start() - line_start
        if kind == 'NUMBER':
            value = float(value) if '.' in value else int(value)
        elif kind == 'ID' and value in keywords:
            kind = value
        elif kind == 'NEWLINE':
            line_start = mo.end()
            line_num += 1
            continue
        elif kind == 'SKIP':
            continue
        elif kind == 'MISMATCH':
            raise RuntimeError(f'{value!r} unexpected on line {line_num}')
        yield Token(kind, value, line_num, column)

statements = '''
    IF quantity THEN
        total := total + price * quantity;
        tax := price * 0.05;
    ENDIF;
'''

for token in tokenize(statements):
    print(token)

L'analyseur produit la sortie suivante :

Token(type='IF', value='IF', line=2, column=4)
Token(type='ID', value='quantity', line=2, column=7)
Token(type='THEN', value='THEN', line=2, column=16)
Token(type='ID', value='total', line=3, column=8)
Token(type='ASSIGN', value=':=', line=3, column=14)
Token(type='ID', value='total', line=3, column=17)
Token(type='OP', value='+', line=3, column=23)
Token(type='ID', value='price', line=3, column=25)
Token(type='OP', value='*', line=3, column=31)
Token(type='ID', value='quantity', line=3, column=33)
Token(type='END', value=';', line=3, column=41)
Token(type='ID', value='tax', line=4, column=8)
Token(type='ASSIGN', value=':=', line=4, column=12)
Token(type='ID', value='price', line=4, column=15)
Token(type='OP', value='*', line=4, column=21)
Token(type='NUMBER', value=0.05, line=4, column=23)
Token(type='END', value=';', line=4, column=27)
Token(type='ENDIF', value='ENDIF', line=5, column=4)
Token(type='END', value=';', line=5, column=9)

[Frie09]

Friedl, Jeffrey. Mastering Regular Expressions. 3rd ed., O'Reilly Media, 2009. La troisième édition de ce livre ne couvre plus du tout Python, mais la première version explique en détails comment écrire de bonnes expressions rationnelles.

difflib --- Helpers for computing deltas

Code source: Lib/difflib.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/difflib.py]

This module provides classes and functions for comparing sequences. It can be used for example, for comparing files, and can produce information about file differences in various formats, including HTML and context and unified diffs. For comparing directories and files, see also, the filecmp module.

class difflib.SequenceMatcher

C'est une classe flexible permettant de comparer des séquences deux à deux de n'importe quel type, tant que les éléments des séquences sont hachables. L'algorithme de base est antérieur, et un peu plus sophistiqué, à un algorithme publié à la fin des années 1980 par Ratcliff et Obershelp sous le nom hyperbolique de gestalt pattern matching. L'idée est de trouver la plus longue sous-séquence d'appariement contiguë qui ne contient pas d'éléments « indésirables » ; ces éléments « indésirables » sont ceux qui sont inintéressants dans un certain sens, comme les lignes blanches ou les espaces. (Le traitement des éléments indésirables est une extension de l'algorithme de Ratcliff et Obershelp). La même idée est ensuite appliquée récursivement aux morceaux des séquences à gauche et à droite de la sous-séquence correspondante. Cela ne donne pas des séquences de montage minimales, mais tend à donner des correspondances qui « semblent correctes » pour les gens.

Compléxité temporelle : l'algorithme de base de Ratcliff-Obershelp est de complexité cubique dans le pire cas et de complexité quadratique dans le cas attendu. SequenceMatcher est de complexité quadratique pour le pire cas et son comportement dans le cas attendu dépend de façon complexe du nombre d'éléments que les séquences ont en commun ; le temps dans le meilleur cas est linéaire.

Heuristique automatique des indésirables: SequenceMatcher utilise une heuristique qui traite automatiquement certains éléments de la séquence comme indésirables. L'heuristique compte combien de fois chaque élément individuel apparaît dans la séquence. Si les doublons d'un élément (après le premier) représentent plus de 1 % de la séquence et que la séquence compte au moins 200 éléments, cet élément est marqué comme « populaire » et est traité comme indésirable aux fins de la comparaison des séquences. Cette heuristique peut être désactivée en réglant l'argument autojunk sur False lors de la création de la classe SequenceMatcher.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Added the autojunk parameter.

class difflib.Differ

Il s'agit d'une classe permettant de comparer des séquences de lignes de texte et de produire des différences ou deltas humainement lisibles. Differ utilise SequenceMatcher à la fois pour comparer des séquences de lignes, et pour comparer des séquences de caractères dans des lignes similaires (quasi-correspondantes).

Chaque ligne d'un delta Differ commence par un code de deux lettres :

Code

Signification

'- '

ligne n'appartenant qu'à la séquence 1

'+ '

ligne n'appartenant qu'à la séquence 2

'  '

ligne commune aux deux séquences

'? '

ligne non présente dans l'une ou l'autre des séquences d'entrée

Lines beginning with '?' attempt to guide the eye to intraline differences, and were not present in either input sequence. These lines can be confusing if the sequences contain whitespace characters, such as spaces, tabs or line breaks.

class difflib.HtmlDiff

Cette classe peut être utilisée pour créer un tableau HTML (ou un fichier HTML complet contenant le tableau) montrant une comparaison côte à côte, ligne par ligne, du texte avec les changements inter-lignes et intralignes. Le tableau peut être généré en mode de différence complet ou contextuel.

Le constructeur pour cette classe est :

__init__(tabsize=8, wrapcolumn=None, linejunk=None, charjunk=IS_CHARACTER_JUNK)

Initialise l'instance de HtmlDiff.

tabsize est argument nommé optionnel pour spécifier l'espacement des tabulations et sa valeur par défaut est 8.

wrapcolumn est un argument nommé optionnel pour spécifier le numéro de la colonne où les lignes sont coupées pour être ré-agencées, la valeur par défaut est None lorsque les lignes ne sont pas ré-agencées.

linejunk et charjunk sont des arguments nommés optionnels passés dans ndiff() (utilisés par HtmlDiff pour générer les différences HTML côte à côte). Voir la documentation de ndiff() pour les valeurs par défaut des arguments et les descriptions.

Les méthodes suivantes sont publiques :

make_file(fromlines, tolines, fromdesc='', todesc='', context=False, numlines=5, *, charset='utf-8')

Compare fromlines et tolines (listes de chaînes de caractères) et renvoie une chaîne de caractères qui est un fichier HTML complet contenant un tableau montrant les différences ligne par ligne avec les changements inter-lignes et intralignes mis en évidence.

fromdesc et todesc sont des arguments nommés optionnels pour spécifier les chaînes d'en-tête des colonnes from/to du fichier (les deux sont des chaînes vides par défaut).

context et numlines sont tous deux des arguments nommés facultatifs. Mettre context à True lorsque les différences contextuelles doivent être affichées, sinon la valeur par défaut est False pour afficher les fichiers complets. Les numlines ont pour valeur par défaut 5. Lorsque context est True, numlines contrôle le nombre de lignes de contexte qui entourent les différences mise en évidence. Lorsque context est False, numlines contrôle le nombre de lignes qui sont affichées avant un surlignage de différence lors de l'utilisation des hyperliens « suivants » (un réglage à zéro ferait en sorte que les hyperliens « suivants » placeraient le surlignage de différence suivant en haut du navigateur sans aucun contexte introductif).

Note

fromdesc et todesc sont interprétés comme du HTML non échappé et doivent être correctement échappés lors de la réception de données provenant de sources non fiables.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: l'argument nommé charset a été ajouté. Le jeu de caractères par défaut du document HTML est passé de 'ISO-8859-1' à 'utf-8'.

make_table(fromlines, tolines, fromdesc='', todesc='', context=False, numlines=5)

Compare fromlines et tolines (listes de chaînes) et renvoie une chaîne qui est un tableau HTML complet montrant les différences ligne par ligne avec les changements inter-lignes et intralignes mis en évidence.

Les arguments pour cette méthode sont les mêmes que ceux de la méthode make_file().

difflib.context_diff(a, b, fromfile='', tofile='', fromfiledate='', tofiledate='', n=3, lineterm='\n')

Compare a et b (listes de chaînes de caractères) ; renvoie un delta (un generateur générant les lignes delta) dans un format de différence de contexte.

Context diffs are a compact way of showing just the lines that have changed plus a few lines of context. The changes are shown in a before/after style. The number of context lines is set by n which defaults to three.

Par défaut, les lignes de contrôle de la différence (celles avec *** ou ---) sont créées avec un saut de ligne à la fin. Ceci est utile pour que les entrées créées à partir de io.IOBase.readlines() résultent en des différences qui peuvent être utilisées avec io.IOBase.writelines() puisque les entrées et les sorties ont des nouvelles lignes de fin.

Pour les entrées qui n'ont pas de retour à la ligne, mettre l'argument lineterm à "" afin que la sortie soit uniformément sans retour à la ligne.

Le format de contexte de différence comporte normalement un en-tête pour les noms de fichiers et les heures de modification. Tout ou partie de ces éléments peuvent être spécifiés en utilisant les chaînes de caractères fromfile, tofile, fromfiledate et tofiledate. Les heures de modification sont normalement exprimées dans le format ISO 8601. Si elles ne sont pas spécifiées, les chaînes de caractères sont par défaut vierges.

>>> import sys
>>> from difflib import *
>>> s1 = ['bacon\n', 'eggs\n', 'ham\n', 'guido\n']
>>> s2 = ['python\n', 'eggy\n', 'hamster\n', 'guido\n']
>>> sys.stdout.writelines(context_diff(s1, s2, fromfile='before.py',
...                        tofile='after.py'))
*** before.py
--- after.py
***************
*** 1,4 ****
! bacon
! eggs
! ham
  guido
--- 1,4 ----
! python
! eggy
! hamster
  guido

Voir une interface de ligne de commandes pour difflib pour un exemple plus détaillé.

difflib.get_close_matches(word, possibilities, n=3, cutoff=0.6)

Return a list of the best "good enough" matches. word is a sequence for which close matches are desired (typically a string), and possibilities is a list of sequences against which to match word (typically a list of strings).

Optional argument n (default 3) is the maximum number of close matches to return; n must be greater than 0.

Optional argument cutoff (default 0.6) is a float in the range [0, 1]. Possibilities that don't score at least that similar to word are ignored.

The best (no more than n) matches among the possibilities are returned in a list, sorted by similarity score, most similar first.

>>> get_close_matches('appel', ['ape', 'apple', 'peach', 'puppy'])
['apple', 'ape']
>>> import keyword
>>> get_close_matches('wheel', keyword.kwlist)
['while']
>>> get_close_matches('pineapple', keyword.kwlist)
[]
>>> get_close_matches('accept', keyword.kwlist)
['except']

difflib.ndiff(a, b, linejunk=None, charjunk=IS_CHARACTER_JUNK)

Compare a and b (lists of strings); return a Differ-style delta (a generator generating the delta lines).

Optional keyword parameters linejunk and charjunk are filtering functions (or None):

linejunk: A function that accepts a single string argument, and returns true if the string is junk, or false if not. The default is None. There is also a module-level function IS_LINE_JUNK(), which filters out lines without visible characters, except for at most one hash character ('#') -- however the underlying SequenceMatcher class does a dynamic analysis of which lines are so frequent as to constitute noise, and this usually works better than using this function.

charjunk: A function that accepts a character (a string of length 1), and returns if the character is junk, or false if not. The default is module-level function IS_CHARACTER_JUNK(), which filters out whitespace characters (a blank or tab; it's a bad idea to include newline in this!).

>>> diff = ndiff('one\ntwo\nthree\n'.splitlines(keepends=True),
...              'ore\ntree\nemu\n'.splitlines(keepends=True))
>>> print(''.join(diff), end="")
- one
?  ^
+ ore
?  ^
- two
- three
?  -
+ tree
+ emu

difflib.restore(sequence, which)

Return one of the two sequences that generated a delta.

Given a sequence produced by Differ.compare() or ndiff(), extract lines originating from file 1 or 2 (parameter which), stripping off line prefixes.

Exemple :

>>> diff = ndiff('one\ntwo\nthree\n'.splitlines(keepends=True),
...              'ore\ntree\nemu\n'.splitlines(keepends=True))
>>> diff = list(diff) # materialize the generated delta into a list
>>> print(''.join(restore(diff, 1)), end="")
one
two
three
>>> print(''.join(restore(diff, 2)), end="")
ore
tree
emu

difflib.unified_diff(a, b, fromfile='', tofile='', fromfiledate='', tofiledate='', n=3, lineterm='\n')

Compare a and b (lists of strings); return a delta (a generator generating the delta lines) in unified diff format.

Unified diffs are a compact way of showing just the lines that have changed plus a few lines of context. The changes are shown in an inline style (instead of separate before/after blocks). The number of context lines is set by n which defaults to three.

By default, the diff control lines (those with ---, +++, or @@) are created with a trailing newline. This is helpful so that inputs created from io.IOBase.readlines() result in diffs that are suitable for use with io.IOBase.writelines() since both the inputs and outputs have trailing newlines.

Pour les entrées qui n'ont pas de retour à la ligne, mettre l'argument lineterm à "" afin que la sortie soit uniformément sans retour à la ligne.

The unified diff format normally has a header for filenames and modification times. Any or all of these may be specified using strings for fromfile, tofile, fromfiledate, and tofiledate. The modification times are normally expressed in the ISO 8601 format. If not specified, the strings default to blanks.

>>> s1 = ['bacon\n', 'eggs\n', 'ham\n', 'guido\n']
>>> s2 = ['python\n', 'eggy\n', 'hamster\n', 'guido\n']
>>> sys.stdout.writelines(unified_diff(s1, s2, fromfile='before.py', tofile='after.py'))
--- before.py
+++ after.py
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-bacon
-eggs
-ham
+python
+eggy
+hamster
 guido

Voir une interface de ligne de commandes pour difflib pour un exemple plus détaillé.

difflib.diff_bytes(dfunc, a, b, fromfile=b'', tofile=b'', fromfiledate=b'', tofiledate=b'', n=3, lineterm=b'\n')

Compare a and b (lists of bytes objects) using dfunc; yield a sequence of delta lines (also bytes) in the format returned by dfunc. dfunc must be a callable, typically either unified_diff() or context_diff().

Allows you to compare data with unknown or inconsistent encoding. All inputs except n must be bytes objects, not str. Works by losslessly converting all inputs (except n) to str, and calling dfunc(a, b, fromfile, tofile, fromfiledate, tofiledate, n, lineterm). The output of dfunc is then converted back to bytes, so the delta lines that you receive have the same unknown/inconsistent encodings as a and b.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

difflib.IS_LINE_JUNK(line)

Return True for ignorable lines. The line line is ignorable if line is blank or contains a single '#', otherwise it is not ignorable. Used as a default for parameter linejunk in ndiff() in older versions.

difflib.IS_CHARACTER_JUNK(ch)

Return True for ignorable characters. The character ch is ignorable if ch is a space or tab, otherwise it is not ignorable. Used as a default for parameter charjunk in ndiff().

Voir aussi

Pattern Matching: The Gestalt Approach [https://jacobfilipp.com/DrDobbs/articles/DDJ/1988/8807/8807c/8807c.htm]

Discussion of a similar algorithm by John W. Ratcliff and D. E. Metzener. This was published in Dr. Dobb's Journal in July, 1988.

SequenceMatcher objects

The SequenceMatcher class has this constructor:

class difflib.SequenceMatcher(isjunk=None, a='', b='', autojunk=True)

Optional argument isjunk must be None (the default) or a one-argument function that takes a sequence element and returns true if and only if the element is "junk" and should be ignored. Passing None for isjunk is equivalent to passing lambda x: False; in other words, no elements are ignored. For example, pass:

lambda x: x in " \t"

if you're comparing lines as sequences of characters, and don't want to synch up on blanks or hard tabs.

The optional arguments a and b are sequences to be compared; both default to empty strings. The elements of both sequences must be hashable.

The optional argument autojunk can be used to disable the automatic junk heuristic.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Added the autojunk parameter.

SequenceMatcher objects get three data attributes: bjunk is the set of elements of b for which isjunk is True; bpopular is the set of non-junk elements considered popular by the heuristic (if it is not disabled); b2j is a dict mapping the remaining elements of b to a list of positions where they occur. All three are reset whenever b is reset with set_seqs() or set_seq2().

Ajouté dans la version 3.2: The bjunk and bpopular attributes.

SequenceMatcher objects have the following methods:

set_seqs(a, b)

Set the two sequences to be compared.

SequenceMatcher computes and caches detailed information about the second sequence, so if you want to compare one sequence against many sequences, use set_seq2() to set the commonly used sequence once and call set_seq1() repeatedly, once for each of the other sequences.

set_seq1(a)

Set the first sequence to be compared. The second sequence to be compared is not changed.

set_seq2(b)

Set the second sequence to be compared. The first sequence to be compared is not changed.

find_longest_match(alo=0, ahi=None, blo=0, bhi=None)

Find longest matching block in a[alo:ahi] and b[blo:bhi].

If isjunk was omitted or None, find_longest_match() returns (i, j, k) such that a[i:i+k] is equal to b[j:j+k], where alo <= i <= i+k <= ahi and blo <= j <= j+k <= bhi. For all (i', j', k') meeting those conditions, the additional conditions k >= k', i <= i', and if i == i', j <= j' are also met. In other words, of all maximal matching blocks, return one that starts earliest in a, and of all those maximal matching blocks that start earliest in a, return the one that starts earliest in b.

>>> s = SequenceMatcher(None, " abcd", "abcd abcd")
>>> s.find_longest_match(0, 5, 0, 9)
Match(a=0, b=4, size=5)

If isjunk was provided, first the longest matching block is determined as above, but with the additional restriction that no junk element appears in the block. Then that block is extended as far as possible by matching (only) junk elements on both sides. So the resulting block never matches on junk except as identical junk happens to be adjacent to an interesting match.

Here's the same example as before, but considering blanks to be junk. That prevents ' abcd' from matching the ' abcd' at the tail end of the second sequence directly. Instead only the 'abcd' can match, and matches the leftmost 'abcd' in the second sequence:

>>> s = SequenceMatcher(lambda x: x==" ", " abcd", "abcd abcd")
>>> s.find_longest_match(0, 5, 0, 9)
Match(a=1, b=0, size=4)

If no blocks match, this returns (alo, blo, 0).

This method returns a named tuple Match(a, b, size).

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Added default arguments.

get_matching_blocks()

Return list of triples describing non-overlapping matching subsequences. Each triple is of the form (i, j, n), and means that a[i:i+n] == b[j:j+n]. The triples are monotonically increasing in i and j.

The last triple is a dummy, and has the value (len(a), len(b), 0). It is the only triple with n == 0. If (i, j, n) and (i', j', n') are adjacent triples in the list, and the second is not the last triple in the list, then i+n < i' or j+n < j'; in other words, adjacent triples always describe non-adjacent equal blocks.

>>> s = SequenceMatcher(None, "abxcd", "abcd")
>>> s.get_matching_blocks()
[Match(a=0, b=0, size=2), Match(a=3, b=2, size=2), Match(a=5, b=4, size=0)]

get_opcodes()

Return list of 5-tuples describing how to turn a into b. Each tuple is of the form (tag, i1, i2, j1, j2). The first tuple has i1 == j1 == 0, and remaining tuples have i1 equal to the i2 from the preceding tuple, and, likewise, j1 equal to the previous j2.

The tag values are strings, with these meanings:

Valeur

Signification

'replace'

a[i1:i2] should be replaced by b[j1:j2].

'delete'

a[i1:i2] should be deleted. Note that j1 == j2 in this case.

'insert'

b[j1:j2] should be inserted at a[i1:i1]. Note that i1 == i2 in this case.

'equal'

a[i1:i2] == b[j1:j2] (the sub-sequences are equal).

Par exemple :

>>> a = "qabxcd"
>>> b = "abycdf"
>>> s = SequenceMatcher(None, a, b)
>>> for tag, i1, i2, j1, j2 in s.get_opcodes():
...     print('{:7}   a[{}:{}] --> b[{}:{}] {!r:>8} --> {!r}'.format(
...         tag, i1, i2, j1, j2, a[i1:i2], b[j1:j2]))
delete    a[0:1] --> b[0:0]      'q' --> ''
equal     a[1:3] --> b[0:2]     'ab' --> 'ab'
replace   a[3:4] --> b[2:3]      'x' --> 'y'
equal     a[4:6] --> b[3:5]     'cd' --> 'cd'
insert    a[6:6] --> b[5:6]       '' --> 'f'

get_grouped_opcodes(n=3)

Return a generator of groups with up to n lines of context.

Starting with the groups returned by get_opcodes(), this method splits out smaller change clusters and eliminates intervening ranges which have no changes.

The groups are returned in the same format as get_opcodes().

ratio()

Return a measure of the sequences' similarity as a float in the range [0, 1].

Where T is the total number of elements in both sequences, and M is the number of matches, this is 2.0*M / T. Note that this is 1.0 if the sequences are identical, and 0.0 if they have nothing in common.

This is expensive to compute if get_matching_blocks() or get_opcodes() hasn't already been called, in which case you may want to try quick_ratio() or real_quick_ratio() first to get an upper bound.

Note

Caution: The result of a ratio() call may depend on the order of the arguments. For instance:

>>> SequenceMatcher(None, 'tide', 'diet').ratio()
0.25
>>> SequenceMatcher(None, 'diet', 'tide').ratio()
0.5

quick_ratio()

Return an upper bound on ratio() relatively quickly.

real_quick_ratio()

Return an upper bound on ratio() very quickly.

The three methods that return the ratio of matching to total characters can give different results due to differing levels of approximation, although quick_ratio() and real_quick_ratio() are always at least as large as ratio():

>>> s = SequenceMatcher(None, "abcd", "bcde")
>>> s.ratio()
0.75
>>> s.quick_ratio()
0.75
>>> s.real_quick_ratio()
1.0

SequenceMatcher examples

This example compares two strings, considering blanks to be "junk":

>>> s = SequenceMatcher(lambda x: x == " ",
...                     "private Thread currentThread;",
...                     "private volatile Thread currentThread;")

ratio() returns a float in [0, 1], measuring the similarity of the sequences. As a rule of thumb, a ratio() value over 0.6 means the sequences are close matches:

>>> print(round(s.ratio(), 3))
0.866

If you're only interested in where the sequences match, get_matching_blocks() is handy:

>>> for block in s.get_matching_blocks():
...     print("a[%d] and b[%d] match for %d elements" % block)
a[0] and b[0] match for 8 elements
a[8] and b[17] match for 21 elements
a[29] and b[38] match for 0 elements

Note that the last tuple returned by get_matching_blocks() is always a dummy, (len(a), len(b), 0), and this is the only case in which the last tuple element (number of elements matched) is 0.

If you want to know how to change the first sequence into the second, use get_opcodes():

>>> for opcode in s.get_opcodes():
...     print("%6s a[%d:%d] b[%d:%d]" % opcode)
 equal a[0:8] b[0:8]
insert a[8:8] b[8:17]
 equal a[8:29] b[17:38]

Voir aussi

The get_close_matches() function in this module which shows how simple code building on SequenceMatcher can be used to do useful work.

Simple version control recipe [https://code.activestate.com/recipes/576729-simple-version-control/] for a small application built with SequenceMatcher.

Differ objects

Note that Differ-generated deltas make no claim to be minimal diffs. To the contrary, minimal diffs are often counter-intuitive, because they synch up anywhere possible, sometimes accidental matches 100 pages apart. Restricting synch points to contiguous matches preserves some notion of locality, at the occasional cost of producing a longer diff.

The Differ class has this constructor:

class difflib.Differ(linejunk=None, charjunk=None)

Optional keyword parameters linejunk and charjunk are for filter functions (or None):

linejunk: A function that accepts a single string argument, and returns true if the string is junk. The default is None, meaning that no line is considered junk.

charjunk: A function that accepts a single character argument (a string of length 1), and returns true if the character is junk. The default is None, meaning that no character is considered junk.

These junk-filtering functions speed up matching to find differences and do not cause any differing lines or characters to be ignored. Read the description of the find_longest_match() method's isjunk parameter for an explanation.

Differ objects are used (deltas generated) via a single method:

compare(a, b)

Compare two sequences of lines, and generate the delta (a sequence of lines).

Each sequence must contain individual single-line strings ending with newlines. Such sequences can be obtained from the readlines() method of file-like objects. The delta generated also consists of newline-terminated strings, ready to be printed as-is via the writelines() method of a file-like object.

Differ example

This example compares two texts. First we set up the texts, sequences of individual single-line strings ending with newlines (such sequences can also be obtained from the readlines() method of file-like objects):

>>> text1 = '''  1. Beautiful is better than ugly.
...   2. Explicit is better than implicit.
...   3. Simple is better than complex.
...   4. Complex is better than complicated.
... '''.splitlines(keepends=True)
>>> len(text1)
4
>>> text1[0][-1]
'\n'
>>> text2 = '''  1. Beautiful is better than ugly.
...   3.   Simple is better than complex.
...   4. Complicated is better than complex.
...   5. Flat is better than nested.
... '''.splitlines(keepends=True)

Next we instantiate a Differ object:

>>> d = Differ()

Note that when instantiating a Differ object we may pass functions to filter out line and character "junk." See the Differ() constructor for details.

Finally, we compare the two:

>>> result = list(d.compare(text1, text2))

result is a list of strings, so let's pretty-print it:

>>> from pprint import pprint
>>> pprint(result)
['    1. Beautiful is better than ugly.\n',
 '-   2. Explicit is better than implicit.\n',
 '-   3. Simple is better than complex.\n',
 '+   3.   Simple is better than complex.\n',
 '?     ++\n',
 '-   4. Complex is better than complicated.\n',
 '?            ^                     ---- ^\n',
 '+   4. Complicated is better than complex.\n',
 '?           ++++ ^                      ^\n',
 '+   5. Flat is better than nested.\n']

As a single multi-line string it looks like this:

>>> import sys
>>> sys.stdout.writelines(result)
    1. Beautiful is better than ugly.
-   2. Explicit is better than implicit.
-   3. Simple is better than complex.
+   3.   Simple is better than complex.
?     ++
-   4. Complex is better than complicated.
?            ^                     ---- ^
+   4. Complicated is better than complex.
?           ++++ ^                      ^
+   5. Flat is better than nested.

A command-line interface to difflib

This example shows how to use difflib to create a diff-like utility.

""" Command-line interface to difflib.py providing diffs in four formats:

* ndiff:    lists every line and highlights interline changes.
* context:  highlights clusters of changes in a before/after format.
* unified:  highlights clusters of changes in an inline format.
* html:     generates side by side comparison with change highlights.

"""

import sys, os, difflib, argparse
import datetime as dt

def file_mtime(path):
    t = dt.datetime.fromtimestamp(os.stat(path).st_mtime,
                                  dt.timezone.utc)
    return t.astimezone().isoformat()

def main():

    parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
    parser.add_argument('-c', action='store_true', default=False,
                        help='Produce a context format diff (default)')
    parser.add_argument('-u', action='store_true', default=False,
                        help='Produce a unified format diff')
    parser.add_argument('-m', action='store_true', default=False,
                        help='Produce HTML side by side diff '
                             '(can use -c and -l in conjunction)')
    parser.add_argument('-n', action='store_true', default=False,
                        help='Produce a ndiff format diff')
    parser.add_argument('-l', '--lines', type=int, default=3,
                        help='Set number of context lines (default 3)')
    parser.add_argument('fromfile')
    parser.add_argument('tofile')
    options = parser.parse_args()

    n = options.lines
    fromfile = options.fromfile
    tofile = options.tofile

    fromdate = file_mtime(fromfile)
    todate = file_mtime(tofile)
    with open(fromfile) as ff:
        fromlines = ff.readlines()
    with open(tofile) as tf:
        tolines = tf.readlines()

    if options.u:
        diff = difflib.unified_diff(fromlines, tolines, fromfile, tofile, fromdate, todate, n=n)
    elif options.n:
        diff = difflib.ndiff(fromlines, tolines)
    elif options.m:
        diff = difflib.HtmlDiff().make_file(fromlines,tolines,fromfile,tofile,context=options.c,numlines=n)
    else:
        diff = difflib.context_diff(fromlines, tolines, fromfile, tofile, fromdate, todate, n=n)

    sys.stdout.writelines(diff)

if __name__ == '__main__':
    main()

ndiff example

This example shows how to use difflib.ndiff().

"""ndiff [-q] file1 file2
    or
ndiff (-r1 | -r2) < ndiff_output > file1_or_file2

Print a human-friendly file difference report to stdout.  Both inter-
and intra-line differences are noted.  In the second form, recreate file1
(-r1) or file2 (-r2) on stdout, from an ndiff report on stdin.

In the first form, if -q ("quiet") is not specified, the first two lines
of output are

-: file1
+: file2

Each remaining line begins with a two-letter code:

    "- "    line unique to file1
    "+ "    line unique to file2
    "  "    line common to both files
    "? "    line not present in either input file

Lines beginning with "? " attempt to guide the eye to intraline
differences, and were not present in either input file.  These lines can be
confusing if the source files contain tab characters.

The first file can be recovered by retaining only lines that begin with
"  " or "- ", and deleting those 2-character prefixes; use ndiff with -r1.

The second file can be recovered similarly, but by retaining only "  " and
"+ " lines; use ndiff with -r2; or, on Unix, the second file can be
recovered by piping the output through

    sed -n '/^[+ ] /s/^..//p'
"""

__version__ = 1, 7, 0

import difflib, sys

def fail(msg):
    out = sys.stderr.write
    out(msg + "\n\n")
    out(__doc__)
    return 0

# open a file & return the file object; gripe and return 0 if it
# couldn't be opened
def fopen(fname):
    try:
        return open(fname)
    except IOError as detail:
        return fail("couldn't open " + fname + ": " + str(detail))

# open two files & spray the diff to stdout; return false iff a problem
def fcompare(f1name, f2name):
    f1 = fopen(f1name)
    f2 = fopen(f2name)
    if not f1 or not f2:
        return 0

    a = f1.readlines(); f1.close()
    b = f2.readlines(); f2.close()
    for line in difflib.ndiff(a, b):
        print(line, end=' ')

    return 1

# crack args (sys.argv[1:] is normal) & compare;
# return false iff a problem

def main(args):
    import getopt
    try:
        opts, args = getopt.getopt(args, "qr:")
    except getopt.error as detail:
        return fail(str(detail))
    noisy = 1
    qseen = rseen = 0
    for opt, val in opts:
        if opt == "-q":
            qseen = 1
            noisy = 0
        elif opt == "-r":
            rseen = 1
            whichfile = val
    if qseen and rseen:
        return fail("can't specify both -q and -r")
    if rseen:
        if args:
            return fail("no args allowed with -r option")
        if whichfile in ("1", "2"):
            restore(whichfile)
            return 1
        return fail("-r value must be 1 or 2")
    if len(args) != 2:
        return fail("need 2 filename args")
    f1name, f2name = args
    if noisy:
        print('-:', f1name)
        print('+:', f2name)
    return fcompare(f1name, f2name)

# read ndiff output from stdin, and print file1 (which=='1') or
# file2 (which=='2') to stdout

def restore(which):
    restored = difflib.restore(sys.stdin.readlines(), which)
    sys.stdout.writelines(restored)

if __name__ == '__main__':
    main(sys.argv[1:])

textwrap --- Text wrapping and filling

Source code: Lib/textwrap.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/textwrap.py]

The textwrap module provides some convenience functions, as well as TextWrapper, the class that does all the work. If you're just wrapping or filling one or two text strings, the convenience functions should be good enough; otherwise, you should use an instance of TextWrapper for efficiency.

textwrap.wrap(text, width=70, *, initial_indent='', subsequent_indent='', expand_tabs=True, replace_whitespace=True, fix_sentence_endings=False, break_long_words=True, drop_whitespace=True, break_on_hyphens=True, tabsize=8, max_lines=None, placeholder=' [...]')

Reformate le paragraphe simple dans text (une chaîne de caractères) de sorte que chaque ligne ait au maximum largeur caractères. Renvoie une liste de lignes de sortie, sans ligne vide ou caractère de fin de ligne à la fin.

Optional keyword arguments correspond to the instance attributes of TextWrapper, documented below.

Consultez la méthode TextWrapper.wrap() pour plus de détails sur le comportement de wrap().

textwrap.fill(text, width=70, *, initial_indent='', subsequent_indent='', expand_tabs=True, replace_whitespace=True, fix_sentence_endings=False, break_long_words=True, drop_whitespace=True, break_on_hyphens=True, tabsize=8, max_lines=None, placeholder=' [...]')

Formate le paragraphe unique dans text et renvoie une seule chaîne dont le contenu est le paragraphe formaté. fill() est un raccourci pour

"\n".join(wrap(text, ...))

En particulier, fill() accepte exactement les mêmes arguments nommés que wrap().

textwrap.shorten(text, width, *, fix_sentence_endings=False, break_long_words=True, break_on_hyphens=True, placeholder=' [...]')

Réduit et tronque le text donné pour l'adapter à la largeur donnée.

First the whitespace in text is collapsed (all whitespace is replaced by single spaces). If the result fits in the width, it is returned. Otherwise, enough words are dropped from the end so that the remaining words plus the placeholder fit within width:

>>> textwrap.shorten("Hello  world!", width=12)
'Hello world!'
>>> textwrap.shorten("Hello  world!", width=11)
'Hello [...]'
>>> textwrap.shorten("Hello world", width=10, placeholder="...")
'Hello...'

Les arguments nommés optionnels correspondent aux attributs d'instance de TextWrapper, documentés ci-dessous. Notez que l'espace blanc est réduit avant que le texte ne soit passé à la fonction fill() de TextWrapper, donc changer la valeur de tabsize, expand_tabs, drop_whitespace, et replace_whitespace est sans effet.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

textwrap.dedent(text)

Supprime toutes les espaces en de tête de chaque ligne dans text.

Ceci peut être utilisé pour aligner les chaînes à trois guillemets avec le bord gauche de l'affichage, tout en les présentant sous forme indentée dans le code source.

Notez que les tabulations et les espaces sont traitées comme des espaces, mais qu'elles ne sont pas égales : les lignes "  hello" et "\thello" sont considérées comme n'ayant pas d'espaces de tête communes.

Les lignes contenant uniquement des espaces sont ignorées en entrée et réduites à un seul caractère de saut de ligne en sortie.

Par exemple :

def test():
    # end first line with \ to avoid the empty line!
    s = '''\
    hello
      world
    '''
    print(repr(s))          # prints '    hello\n      world\n    '
    print(repr(dedent(s)))  # prints 'hello\n  world\n'

Modifié dans la version 3.14: The dedent() function now correctly normalizes blank lines containing only whitespace characters. Previously, the implementation only normalized blank lines containing tabs and spaces.

textwrap.indent(text, prefix, predicate=None)

Ajoute prefix au début des lignes sélectionnées dans text.

Les lignes sont séparées en appelant text.splitlines(True).

Par défaut, prefix est ajouté à toutes les lignes qui ne sont pas constituées uniquement d'espaces (y compris les fins de ligne).

Par exemple :

>>> s = 'hello\n\n \nworld'
>>> indent(s, '  ')
'  hello\n\n \n  world'

L'argument optionnel predicate peut être utilisé pour contrôler quelles lignes sont en retrait. Par exemple, il est facile d'ajouter prefix aux lignes vides et aux lignes blanches seulement :

>>> print(indent(s, '+ ', lambda line: True))
+ hello
+
+
+ world

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

wrap(), fill() et shorten() travaillent en créant une instance TextWrapper et en appelant une méthode unique sur celle-ci. Cette instance n'est pas réutilisée, donc pour les applications qui traitent plusieurs chaînes de texte en utilisant wrap() et/ou fill(), il peut être plus efficace de créer votre propre objet TextWrapper.

Le formatage du texte s'effectue en priorité sur les espaces puis juste après les traits d'union dans des mots séparés par des traits d'union ; ce n'est qu'alors que les mots longs seront cassés si nécessaire, à moins que TextWrapper.break_long_words soit défini sur False.

class textwrap.TextWrapper(**kwargs)

Le constructeur TextWrapper accepte un certain nombre d'arguments nommés optionnels. Chaque argument nommé correspond à un attribut d'instance, donc par exemple

wrapper = TextWrapper(initial_indent="* ")

est identique à

wrapper = TextWrapper()
wrapper.initial_indent = "* "

You can reuse the same TextWrapper object many times, and you can change any of its options through direct assignment to instance attributes between uses.

Les attributs d'instance de la classe TextWrapper (et les arguments nommés au constructeur) sont les suivants :

width

(par défaut : 70) Longueur maximale des lignes reformatées. Tant qu'il n'y a pas de mots individuels dans le texte d'entrée plus longs que width, TextWrapper garantit qu'aucune ligne de sortie n'est plus longue que width caractères.

expand_tabs

(default: True) If true, then all tab characters in text will be expanded to spaces using the expandtabs() method of text.

tabsize

(par défaut : 8) Si expand_tabs est vrai, alors tous les caractères de tabulation dans text sont transformés en zéro ou plus d'espaces, selon la colonne courante et la taille de tabulation donnée.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

replace_whitespace

(par défaut : True) Si vrai, après l'expansion des tabulations mais avant le formatage, la méthode wrap() remplace chaque blanc par une espace unique. Les blancs remplacés sont les suivants : tabulation, nouvelle ligne, tabulation verticale, saut de page et retour chariot ('\t\n\v\f\r').

Note

Si expand_tabs est False et replace_whitespace est vrai, chaque caractère de tabulation est remplacé par une espace unique, ce qui n'est pas la même chose que l'extension des tabulations.

Note

Si replace_whitespace est faux, de nouvelles lignes peuvent apparaître au milieu d'une ligne et provoquer une sortie étrange. Pour cette raison, le texte doit être divisé en paragraphes (en utilisant str.splitlines() ou similaire) qui sont formatés séparément.

drop_whitespace

(par défaut : True) Si True, l'espace au début et à la fin de chaque ligne (après le formatage mais avant l'indentation) est supprimée. L'espace au début du paragraphe n'est cependant pas supprimée si elle n'est pas suivie par une espace. Si les espaces en cours de suppression occupent une ligne entière, la ligne entière est supprimée.

initial_indent

(par défaut : '') Chaîne qui est ajoutée à la première ligne de la sortie formatée. Elle compte pour le calcul de la longueur de la première ligne. La chaîne vide n'est pas indentée.

subsequent_indent

(par défaut : '') Chaîne qui préfixe toutes les lignes de la sortie formatée sauf la première. Elle compte pour le calcul de la longueur de chaque ligne à l'exception de la première.

fix_sentence_endings

(default: False) If true, TextWrapper attempts to detect sentence endings and ensure that sentences are always separated by exactly two spaces. This is generally desired for text in a monospaced font. However, the sentence detection algorithm is imperfect: it assumes that a sentence ending consists of a lowercase letter followed by one of '.', '!', or '?', possibly followed by one of '"' or "'", followed by a space. One problem with this algorithm is that it is unable to detect the difference between "Dr." in

[...] Dr. Frankenstein's monster [...]

et "Spot." dans

[...] See Spot. See Spot run [...]

fix_sentence_endings est False par défaut.

Étant donné que l'algorithme de détection de phrases repose sur string.lowercase pour la définition de « lettres minuscules » et sur une convention consistant à utiliser deux espaces après un point pour séparer les phrases sur la même ligne, ceci est spécifique aux textes de langue anglaise.

break_long_words

(par défaut : True) Si True, alors les mots plus longs que width sont cassés afin de s'assurer qu'aucune ligne ne soit plus longue que width. Si c'est False, les mots longs ne sont pas cassés et certaines lignes peuvent être plus longues que width (les mots longs seront mis sur une ligne qui leur est propre, afin de minimiser le dépassement de width).

break_on_hyphens

(par défaut : True) Si c'est vrai, le formatage se fait de préférence sur les espaces et juste après sur les traits d'union des mots composés, comme il est d'usage en anglais. Si False, seuls les espaces sont considérées comme de bons endroits pour les sauts de ligne, mais vous devez définir break_long_words à False si vous voulez des mots vraiment insécables. Le comportement par défaut dans les versions précédentes était de toujours permettre de couper les mots avec trait d'union.

max_lines

(par défaut : None) Si ce n'est pas None, alors la sortie contient au maximum max_lines lignes, avec placeholder à la fin de la sortie.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

placeholder

(par défaut : '' [...]') Chaîne qui apparaît à la fin du texte de sortie s'il a été tronqué.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

TextWrapper fournit également quelques méthodes publiques, analogues aux fonctions de commodité au niveau du module :

wrap(text)

Formate le paragraphe unique dans text (une chaîne de caractères) de sorte que chaque ligne ait au maximum width caractères. Toutes les options de formatage sont tirées des attributs d'instance de l'instance de classe TextWrapper. Renvoie une liste de lignes de sortie, sans nouvelles lignes finales. Si la sortie formatée n'a pas de contenu, la liste vide est renvoyée.

fill(text)

Formate le paragraphe unique de text et renvoie une seule chaîne contenant le paragraphe formaté.

unicodedata --- Unicode Database

This module provides access to the Unicode Character Database (UCD) which defines character properties for all Unicode characters. The data contained in this database is compiled from the UCD version 16.0.0 [https://www.unicode.org/Public/16.0.0/ucd].

The module uses the same names and symbols as defined by Unicode Standard Annex #44, "Unicode Character Database" [https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr44/]. It defines the following functions:

Voir aussi

The Guide Unicode for more information about Unicode and how to use this module.

unicodedata.lookup(name)

Look up character by name. If a character with the given name is found, return the corresponding character. If not found, KeyError is raised. For example:

>>> unicodedata.lookup('LEFT CURLY BRACKET')
'{'

The characters returned by this function are the same as those produced by \N escape sequence in string literals. For example:

>>> unicodedata.lookup('MIDDLE DOT') == '\N{MIDDLE DOT}'
True

Modifié dans la version 3.3: La gestion des alias [1] et des séquences nommées [2] a été ajouté.

unicodedata.name(chr, default=None, /)

Returns the name assigned to the character chr as a string. If no name is defined, default is returned, or, if not given, ValueError is raised. For example:

>>> unicodedata.name('½')
'VULGAR FRACTION ONE HALF'
>>> unicodedata.name('\uFFFF', 'fallback')
'fallback'

unicodedata.decimal(chr, default=None, /)

Returns the decimal value assigned to the character chr as integer. If no such value is defined, default is returned, or, if not given, ValueError is raised. For example:

>>> unicodedata.decimal('\N{ARABIC-INDIC DIGIT NINE}')
9
>>> unicodedata.decimal('\N{SUPERSCRIPT NINE}', -1)
-1

unicodedata.digit(chr, default=None, /)

Returns the digit value assigned to the character chr as integer. If no such value is defined, default is returned, or, if not given, ValueError is raised:

>>> unicodedata.digit('\N{SUPERSCRIPT NINE}')
9

unicodedata.numeric(chr, default=None, /)

Returns the numeric value assigned to the character chr as float. If no such value is defined, default is returned, or, if not given, ValueError is raised:

>>> unicodedata.numeric('½')
0.5

unicodedata.category(chr)

Returns the general category assigned to the character chr as string. General category names consist of two letters. See the General Category Values section of the Unicode Character Database documentation [https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr44/tr44-34.html#General_Category_Values] for a list of category codes. For example:

>>> unicodedata.category('A')  # 'L'etter, 'u'ppercase
'Lu'

unicodedata.bidirectional(chr)

Returns the bidirectional class assigned to the character chr as string. If no such value is defined, an empty string is returned. See the Bidirectional Class Values section of the Unicode Character Database [https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr44/tr44-34.html#Bidi_Class_Values] documentation for a list of bidirectional codes. For example:

>>> unicodedata.bidirectional('\N{ARABIC-INDIC DIGIT SEVEN}') # 'A'rabic, 'N'umber
'AN'

unicodedata.combining(chr)

Returns the canonical combining class assigned to the character chr as integer. Returns 0 if no combining class is defined. See the Canonical Combining Class Values section of the Unicode Character Database [https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr44/tr44-34.html#Canonical_Combining_Class_Values] for more information.

unicodedata.east_asian_width(chr)

Returns the east asian width assigned to the character chr as string. For a list of widths and or more information, see the Unicode Standard Annex #11 [https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr11/tr11-43.html].

unicodedata.mirrored(chr)

Returns the mirrored property assigned to the character chr as integer. Returns 1 if the character has been identified as a "mirrored" character in bidirectional text, 0 otherwise. For example:

>>> unicodedata.mirrored('>')
1

unicodedata.decomposition(chr)

Returns the character decomposition mapping assigned to the character chr as string. An empty string is returned in case no such mapping is defined. For example:

>>> unicodedata.decomposition('Ã')
'0041 0303'

unicodedata.normalize(form, unistr)

Renvoie la forme normale form de la chaîne de caractère Unicode unistr. Les valeurs valides de form sont NFC, NFKC, NFD, et NFKD.

Le standard Unicode définit les différentes variantes de normalisation d'une chaîne de caractères Unicode en se basant sur les définitions d'équivalence canonique et d'équivalence de compatibilité. En Unicode, plusieurs caractères peuvent être exprimés de différentes façons. Par exemple, le caractère U+00C7 (LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C WITH CEDILLA) peut aussi être exprimé comme la séquence U+0043 (LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C) U+0327 (COMBINING CEDILLA).

Pour chaque caractère, il existe deux formes normales: la forme normale C et la forme normale D. La forme normale D (NFD) est aussi appelée décomposition canonique, et traduit chaque caractère dans sa forme décomposée. La forme normale C (NFC) applique d'abord la décomposition canonique, puis compose à nouveau les caractères pré-combinés.

In addition to these two forms, there are two additional normal forms based on compatibility equivalence. In Unicode, certain characters are supported which normally would be unified with other characters. For example, U+2160 (ROMAN NUMERAL ONE) is really the same thing as U+0049 (LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I). However, it is supported in Unicode for compatibility with existing character sets (for example, gb2312).

The normal form KD (NFKD) will apply the compatibility decomposition, that is, replace all compatibility characters with their equivalents. The normal form KC (NFKC) first applies the compatibility decomposition, followed by the canonical composition.

Même si deux chaînes de caractères Unicode sont normalisées et ont la même apparence pour un lecteur humain , si un a des caractères combinés et l'autre n'en a pas, elles peuvent ne pas être égales lors d'une comparaison.

unicodedata.is_normalized(form, unistr)

Return whether the Unicode string unistr is in the normal form form. Valid values for form are 'NFC', 'NFKC', 'NFD', and 'NFKD'.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

De plus, ce module expose la constante suivante :

unicodedata.unidata_version

La version de la base de données Unicode utilisée dans ce module.

unicodedata.ucd_3_2_0

Ceci est un objet qui a les mêmes méthodes que le module, mais qui utilise la version 3.2 de la base de données Unicode, pour les applications qui nécessitent cette version spécifique de la base de données Unicode (comme l'IDNA).

Notes

[1]

https://www.unicode.org/Public/16.0.0/ucd/NameAliases.txt

[2]

https://www.unicode.org/Public/16.0.0/ucd/NamedSequences.txt

stringprep --- Internet String Preparation

Code source : Lib/stringprep.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/stringprep.py]

Nommer les différentes choses d'internet (comme les hôtes) amène souvent au besoin de comparer ces identifiants, ce qui nécessite un critère d'« égalité ». La manière dont cette comparaison est effectuée dépend du domaine d'application, c'est-à-dire si elle doit être sensible à la casse ou non. Il peut être aussi nécessaire de restreindre les identifiants possibles, pour permettre uniquement les identifiants composés de caractères « imprimables ».

La RFC 3454 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3454.html] définit une procédure pour "préparer" des chaines de caractères Unicode dans les protocoles internet. Avant de passer des chaines de caractères sur le câble, elles sont traitées avec la procédure de préparation, après laquelle ils obtiennent une certaines forme normalisée. Les RFC définissent un lot de tables, qui peuvent être combinées en profils. Chaque profil doit définir quelles tables il utilise et quelles autres parties optionnelles de la procédure stringprep font partie du profil. Un exemple de profil stringprep est nameprep, qui est utilisé pour les noms de domaine internationalisés.

The module stringprep only exposes the tables from RFC 3454 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3454.html]. As these tables would be very large to represent as dictionaries or lists, the module uses the Unicode character database internally. The module source code itself was generated using the mkstringprep.py utility.

As a result, these tables are exposed as functions, not as data structures. There are two kinds of tables in the RFC: sets and mappings. For a set, stringprep provides the "characteristic function", i.e. a function that returns True if the parameter is part of the set. For mappings, it provides the mapping function: given the key, it returns the associated value. Below is a list of all functions available in the module.

stringprep.in_table_a1(code)

Détermine si le code est en table A.1 (points de code non-assigné dans Unicode 3.2).

stringprep.in_table_b1(code)

Détermine si le code est en table B.1 (habituellement mis en correspondance avec rien).

stringprep.map_table_b2(code)

Renvoie la valeur correspondante à code selon la table B.2 (mise en correspondance pour la gestion de la casse utilisée avec NFKC).

stringprep.map_table_b3(code)

Renvoie la valeur correspondante à code dans la table B.3 (mise en correspondance pour la gestion de la casse utilisée sans normalisation).

stringprep.in_table_c11(code)

Détermine si le code est dans la table C.1.1 (caractères d'espacement ASCII).

stringprep.in_table_c12(code)

Détermine si le code est dans la table C.1.2 (caractères d'espacement non ASCII).

stringprep.in_table_c11_c12(code)

Détermine si le code est dans la table C.1 (caractères d'espacement, union de C.1.1 et C.1.2).

stringprep.in_table_c21(code)

Détermine si le code est dans la table C.2.1 (caractères de contrôle ASCII).

stringprep.in_table_c22(code)

Détermine si le code est en table C.2.2 (caractères de contrôle non ASCII).

stringprep.in_table_c21_c22(code)

Détermine si le code est dans la table C.2 (caractères de contrôle, union de C.2.1 et C.2.2).

stringprep.in_table_c3(code)

Détermine si le code est en table C.3 (usage privé).

stringprep.in_table_c4(code)

Détermine si le code est dans la table C.4 (points de code non-caractère).

stringprep.in_table_c5(code)

Détermine si le code est en table C.5 (codes substituts).

stringprep.in_table_c6(code)

Détermine si le code est dans la table C.6 (Inapproprié pour texte brut).

stringprep.in_table_c7(code)

Détermine si le code est dans la table C.7 (inapproprié pour les représentations canonics1).

stringprep.in_table_c8(code)

Détermine si le code est dans la table C.8 (change de propriétés d'affichage ou sont obsolètes).

stringprep.in_table_c9(code)

Détermine si le code est dans la table C.9 (caractères de marquage).

stringprep.in_table_d1(code)

Détermine si le code est en table D.1 (caractères avec propriété bidirectionnelle "R" ou "AL").

stringprep.in_table_d2(code)

Détermine si le code est dans la table D.2 (caractères avec propriété bidirectionnelle "L").

readline --- GNU readline interface

The readline module defines a number of functions to facilitate completion and reading/writing of history files from the Python interpreter. This module can be used directly, or via the rlcompleter module, which supports completion of Python identifiers at the interactive prompt. Settings made using this module affect the behaviour of both the interpreter's interactive prompt and the prompts offered by the built-in input() function.

Readline keybindings may be configured via an initialization file, typically .inputrc in your home directory. See Readline Init File [https://tiswww.cwru.edu/php/chet/readline/rluserman.html#Readline-Init-File] in the GNU Readline manual for information about the format and allowable constructs of that file, and the capabilities of the Readline library in general.

Disponibilité: not Android, not iOS, not WASI.

This module is not supported on mobile platforms or WebAssembly platforms.

This is an optional module. If it is missing from your copy of CPython, look for documentation from your distributor (that is, whoever provided Python to you). If you are the distributor, see Requirements for optional modules.

Disponibilité: Unix.

Note

The underlying Readline library API may be implemented by the editline (libedit) library instead of GNU readline. On macOS the readline module detects which library is being used at run time.

The configuration file for editline is different from that of GNU readline. If you programmatically load configuration strings you can use backend to determine which library is being used.

If you use editline/libedit readline emulation on macOS, the initialization file located in your home directory is named .editrc. For example, the following content in ~/.editrc will turn ON vi keybindings and TAB completion:

python:bind -v
python:bind ^I rl_complete

Also note that different libraries may use different history file formats. When switching the underlying library, existing history files may become unusable.

readline.backend

The name of the underlying Readline library being used, either "readline" or "editline".

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Fichier d'initialisation

Les fonctions suivantes se rapportent au fichier d'initialisation et à la configuration utilisateur :

readline.parse_and_bind(string)

Execute the init line provided in the string argument. This calls rl_parse_and_bind() in the underlying library.

readline.read_init_file([filename])

Execute a readline initialization file. The default filename is the last filename used. This calls rl_read_init_file() in the underlying library. It raises an auditing event open with the file name if given, and "<readline_init_file>" otherwise, regardless of which file the library resolves.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: The auditing event was added.

Tampon de ligne

Les fonctions suivantes opèrent sur le tampon de ligne :

readline.get_line_buffer()

Return the current contents of the line buffer (rl_line_buffer in the underlying library).

readline.insert_text(string)

Insert text into the line buffer at the cursor position. This calls rl_insert_text() in the underlying library, but ignores the return value.

readline.redisplay()

Change what's displayed on the screen to reflect the current contents of the line buffer. This calls rl_redisplay() in the underlying library.

Fichier d'historique

les fonctions suivantes opèrent sur un fichier d'historique :

readline.read_history_file([filename])

Load a readline history file, and append it to the history list. The default filename is ~/.history. This calls read_history() in the underlying library and raises an auditing event open with the file name if given and "~/.history" otherwise.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: The auditing event was added.

readline.write_history_file([filename])

Save the history list to a readline history file, overwriting any existing file. The default filename is ~/.history. This calls write_history() in the underlying library and raises an auditing event open with the file name if given and "~/.history" otherwise.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: The auditing event was added.

readline.append_history_file(nelements[, filename])

Append the last nelements items of history to a file. The default filename is ~/.history. The file must already exist. This calls append_history() in the underlying library. This function only exists if Python was compiled for a version of the library that supports it. It raises an auditing event open with the file name if given and "~/.history" otherwise.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: The auditing event was added.

readline.get_history_length()

readline.set_history_length(length)

Set or return the desired number of lines to save in the history file. The write_history_file() function uses this value to truncate the history file, by calling history_truncate_file() in the underlying library. Negative values imply unlimited history file size.

Liste d'historique

Les fonctions suivantes opèrent sur une liste d'historique globale :

readline.clear_history()

Clear the current history. This calls clear_history() in the underlying library. The Python function only exists if Python was compiled for a version of the library that supports it.

readline.get_current_history_length()

Renvoie le nombre d'objets actuellement dans l'historique. (C'est différent de get_history_length(), qui renvoie le nombre maximum de lignes qui vont être écrites dans un fichier d'historique.)

readline.get_history_item(index)

Return the current contents of history item at index. The item index is one-based. This calls history_get() in the underlying library.

readline.remove_history_item(pos)

Remove history item specified by its position from the history. The position is zero-based. This calls remove_history() in the underlying library.

readline.replace_history_item(pos, line)

Replace history item specified by its position with line. The position is zero-based. This calls replace_history_entry() in the underlying library.

readline.add_history(line)

Append line to the history buffer, as if it was the last line typed. This calls add_history() in the underlying library.

readline.set_auto_history(enabled)

Enable or disable automatic calls to add_history() when reading input via readline. The enabled argument should be a Boolean value that when true, enables auto history, and that when false, disables auto history.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

Particularité de l'implémentation CPython : Auto history is enabled by default, and changes to this do not persist across multiple sessions.

Fonctions de rappel au démarrage

readline.set_startup_hook([function])

Set or remove the function invoked by the rl_startup_hook callback of the underlying library. If function is specified, it will be used as the new hook function; if omitted or None, any function already installed is removed. The hook is called with no arguments just before readline prints the first prompt.

readline.set_pre_input_hook([function])

Set or remove the function invoked by the rl_pre_input_hook callback of the underlying library. If function is specified, it will be used as the new hook function; if omitted or None, any function already installed is removed. The hook is called with no arguments after the first prompt has been printed and just before readline starts reading input characters. This function only exists if Python was compiled for a version of the library that supports it.

Complétion

The following functions relate to implementing a custom word completion function. This is typically operated by the Tab key, and can suggest and automatically complete a word being typed. By default, Readline is set up to be used by rlcompleter to complete Python identifiers for the interactive interpreter. If the readline module is to be used with a custom completer, a different set of word delimiters should be set.

readline.set_completer([function])

Définit ou supprime la fonction de complétion. Si function est spécifié, il sera utilisé en tant que nouvelle fonction de complétion; si omis ou None, toute fonction de complétion déjà installé est supprimé. La fonction de complétion est appelée telle que function(text, state), pour state valant 0, 1, 2, ..., jusqu'à ce qu'elle renvoie une valeur qui n'est pas une chaîne de caractères. Elle doit renvoyer les prochaines complétions possibles commençant par text.

The installed completer function is invoked by the entry_func callback passed to rl_completion_matches() in the underlying library. The text string comes from the first parameter to the rl_attempted_completion_function callback of the underlying library.

readline.get_completer()

Récupère la fonction de complétion, ou None si aucune fonction de complétion n'a été définie.

readline.get_completion_type()

Get the type of completion being attempted. This returns the rl_completion_type variable in the underlying library as an integer.

readline.get_begidx()

readline.get_endidx()

Get the beginning or ending index of the completion scope. These indexes are the start and end arguments passed to the rl_attempted_completion_function callback of the underlying library. The values may be different in the same input editing scenario based on the underlying C readline implementation. Ex: libedit is known to behave differently than libreadline.

readline.set_completer_delims(string)

readline.get_completer_delims()

Set or get the word delimiters for completion. These determine the start of the word to be considered for completion (the completion scope). These functions access the rl_completer_word_break_characters variable in the underlying library.

readline.set_completion_display_matches_hook([function])

Set or remove the completion display function. If function is specified, it will be used as the new completion display function; if omitted or None, any completion display function already installed is removed. This sets or clears the rl_completion_display_matches_hook callback in the underlying library. The completion display function is called as function(substitution, [matches], longest_match_length) once each time matches need to be displayed.

Exemple

The following example demonstrates how to use the readline module's history reading and writing functions to automatically load and save a history file named .python_history from the user's home directory. The code below would normally be executed automatically during interactive sessions from the user's PYTHONSTARTUP file.

import atexit
import os
import readline

histfile = os.path.join(os.path.expanduser("~"), ".python_history")
try:
    readline.read_history_file(histfile)
    # default history len is -1 (infinite), which may grow unruly
    readline.set_history_length(1000)
except FileNotFoundError:
    pass

atexit.register(readline.write_history_file, histfile)

Ce code est en réalité automatiquement exécuté lorsque Python tourne en mode interactif (voir Readline configuration).

L'exemple suivant atteint le même objectif mais gère des sessions interactives concurrentes, en ajoutant seulement le nouvel historique.

import atexit
import os
import readline
histfile = os.path.join(os.path.expanduser("~"), ".python_history")

try:
    readline.read_history_file(histfile)
    h_len = readline.get_current_history_length()
except FileNotFoundError:
    open(histfile, 'wb').close()
    h_len = 0

def save(prev_h_len, histfile):
    new_h_len = readline.get_current_history_length()
    readline.set_history_length(1000)
    readline.append_history_file(new_h_len - prev_h_len, histfile)
atexit.register(save, h_len, histfile)

L'exemple suivant étend la classe code.InteractiveConsole pour gérer la sauvegarde/restauration de l'historique.

import atexit
import code
import os
import readline

class HistoryConsole(code.InteractiveConsole):
    def __init__(self, locals=None, filename="<console>",
                 histfile=os.path.expanduser("~/.console-history")):
        code.InteractiveConsole.__init__(self, locals, filename)
        self.init_history(histfile)

    def init_history(self, histfile):
        readline.parse_and_bind("tab: complete")
        if hasattr(readline, "read_history_file"):
            try:
                readline.read_history_file(histfile)
            except FileNotFoundError:
                pass
            atexit.register(self.save_history, histfile)

    def save_history(self, histfile):
        readline.set_history_length(1000)
        readline.write_history_file(histfile)

Note

The new REPL introduced in version 3.13 doesn't support readline. However, readline can still be used by setting the PYTHON_BASIC_REPL environment variable.

rlcompleter --- Completion function for GNU readline

Code source : Lib/rlcompleter.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/rlcompleter.py]

The rlcompleter module defines a completion function suitable to be passed to set_completer() in the readline module.

When this module is imported on a Unix platform with the readline module available, an instance of the Completer class is automatically created and its complete() method is set as the readline completer. The method provides completion of valid Python identifiers and keywords.

Exemple :

>>> import rlcompleter
>>> import readline
>>> readline.parse_and_bind("tab: complete")
>>> readline. <TAB PRESSED>
readline.__doc__          readline.get_line_buffer(  readline.read_init_file(
readline.__file__         readline.insert_text(      readline.set_completer(
readline.__name__         readline.parse_and_bind(
>>> readline.

The rlcompleter module is designed for use with Python's interactive mode. Unless Python is run with the -S option, the module is automatically imported and configured (see Readline configuration).

Sur les plate-formes sans readline, la classe Completer définie par ce module peut quand même être utilisée pour des fins personnalisées.

class rlcompleter.Completer

Les objets pour la complétion (Completer objects en anglais) disposent de la méthode suivante :

complete(text, state)

Return the next possible completion for text.

When called by the readline module, this method is called successively with state == 0, 1, 2, ... until the method returns None.

Si text ne contient pas un caractère point ('.'), il puise dans les noms actuellement définis dans __main__, builtins ainsi que les mots-clés (ainsi que définis par le module keyword)

If called for a dotted name, it will try to evaluate anything without obvious side-effects (functions will not be evaluated, but it can generate calls to __getattr__()) up to the last part, and find matches for the rest via the dir() function. Any exception raised during the evaluation of the expression is caught, silenced and None is returned.

Services autour des Données Binaires

Les modules décrits dans ce chapitre fournissent des services élémentaires pour manipuler des données binaires. Les autres manipulations sur les données binaires, particulièrement celles en relation avec les formats de fichier et les protocoles réseaux sont décrits dans leurs propres chapitres.

Certaines bibliothèques décrites dans Services de Manipulation de Texte fonctionnent aussi avec soit des formats binaires compatibles ASCII (comme le module re) soit toutes les données binaires (comme le module difflib).

En complément, consultez la documentation des types natifs binaires dans Séquences Binaires — bytes, bytearray, vue mémoire.

struct --- Interpret bytes as packed binary data

Fonctions et exceptions

Chaînes de spécification du format

Boutisme, taille et alignement

Caractères de format

Exemples

Applications

Native Formats

Standard Formats

Classes

codecs --- Codec registry and base classes

Classes de base de codecs

Gestionnaires d'erreurs

Stateless Encoding and Decoding

Incremental Encoding and Decoding

IncrementalEncoder Objects

IncrementalDecoder Objects

Stream Encoding and Decoding

StreamWriter Objects

StreamReader Objects

StreamReaderWriter Objects

StreamRecoder Objects

Encodings and Unicode

Standard Encodings

Python Specific Encodings

Text Encodings

Binary Transforms

Standalone Codec Functions

Text Transforms

encodings --- Encodings package

encodings.idna --- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications

encodings.mbcs --- Windows ANSI codepage

encodings.utf_8_sig --- UTF-8 codec with BOM signature

struct --- Interpret bytes as packed binary data

Code source : Lib/struct.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/struct.py]

This module converts between Python values and C structs represented as Python bytes objects. Compact format strings describe the intended conversions to/from Python values. The module's functions and objects can be used for two largely distinct applications, data exchange with external sources (files or network connections), or data transfer between the Python application and the C layer.

Note

When no prefix character is given, native mode is the default. It packs or unpacks data based on the platform and compiler on which the Python interpreter was built. The result of packing a given C struct includes pad bytes which maintain proper alignment for the C types involved; similarly, alignment is taken into account when unpacking. In contrast, when communicating data between external sources, the programmer is responsible for defining byte ordering and padding between elements. See Boutisme, taille et alignement for details.

Several struct functions (and methods of Struct) take a buffer argument. This refers to objects that implement the Protocole tampon and provide either a readable or read-writable buffer. The most common types used for that purpose are bytes and bytearray, but many other types that can be viewed as an array of bytes implement the buffer protocol, so that they can be read/filled without additional copying from a bytes object.

Fonctions et exceptions

Le module définit les exceptions et fonctions suivantes :

exception struct.error

Exception levée à plusieurs occasions ; l'argument est une chaîne qui décrit ce qui ne va pas.

struct.pack(format, v1, v2, ...)

Renvoie un objet bytes contenant les valeurs v1, v2… agrégées conformément à la chaîne de format format. Les arguments doivent correspondre exactement aux valeurs requises par le format.

struct.pack_into(format, buffer, offset, v1, v2, ...)

Agrège les valeurs v1, v2… conformément à la chaîne de format format et écrit les octets agrégés dans le tampon buffer, en commençant à la position offset. Notez que offset est un argument obligatoire.

struct.unpack(format, buffer)

Dissocie depuis le tampon buffer (en supposant que celui-ci a été agrégé avec pack(format, …)) à l'aide de la chaîne de format format. Le résultat est un n-uplet, qui peut éventuellement ne contenir qu'un seul élément. La taille de buffer en octets doit correspondre à la taille requise par le format, telle que calculée par calcsize().

struct.unpack_from(format, /, buffer, offset=0)

Dissocie les éléments du tampon buffer, en commençant à la position offset, conformément à la chaîne de format format. Le résultat est un n-uplet, qui peut éventuellement ne contenir qu'un seul élément. La taille du tampon en octets, en commençant à la position offset, doit être au moins égale à la taille requise par le format, telle que calculée par calcsize().

struct.iter_unpack(format, buffer)

Iteratively unpack from the buffer buffer according to the format string format. This function returns an iterator which will read equally sized chunks from the buffer until all its contents have been consumed. The buffer's size in bytes must be a multiple of the size required by the format, as reflected by calcsize().

Chaque itération produit un n-uplet tel que spécifié par la chaîne de format.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

struct.calcsize(format)

Renvoie la taille de la structure (et donc celle de l'objet bytes produit par pack(format, ...)) correspondant à la chaîne de format format.

Chaînes de spécification du format

Format strings describe the data layout when packing and unpacking data. They are built up from format characters, which specify the type of data being packed/unpacked. In addition, special characters control the byte order, size and alignment. Each format string consists of an optional prefix character which describes the overall properties of the data and one or more format characters which describe the actual data values and padding.

Boutisme, taille et alignement

By default, C types are represented in the machine's native format and byte order, and properly aligned by skipping pad bytes if necessary (according to the rules used by the C compiler). This behavior is chosen so that the bytes of a packed struct correspond exactly to the memory layout of the corresponding C struct. Whether to use native byte ordering and padding or standard formats depends on the application.

Cependant, le premier caractère de la chaîne de format peut être utilisé pour indiquer le boutisme, la taille et l'alignement des données agrégées, conformément à la table suivante :

Caractère

Boutisme

Taille

Alignement

@

natif

natif

natif

=

natif

standard

aucun

<

petit-boutiste

standard

aucun

>

gros-boutiste

standard

aucun

!

réseau (= gros-boutiste)

standard

aucun

Si le premier caractère n'est pas dans cette liste, le module se comporte comme si '@' avait été indiqué.

Note

The number 1023 (0x3ff in hexadecimal) has the following byte representations:

03 ff in big-endian (>)

ff 03 in little-endian (<)

Python example:

>>> import struct
>>> struct.pack('>h', 1023)
b'\x03\xff'
>>> struct.pack('<h', 1023)
b'\xff\x03'

Native byte order is big-endian or little-endian, depending on the host system. For example, Intel x86, AMD64 (x86-64), and Apple M1 are little-endian; IBM z and many legacy architectures are big-endian. Use sys.byteorder to check the endianness of your system.

La taille et l'alignement natifs sont déterminés en utilisant l'expression sizeof du compilateur C. Leur valeur est toujours combinée au boutisme natif.

La taille standard dépend seulement du caractère du format ; référez-vous au tableau dans la section Caractères de format.

Notez la différence entre '@' et '=' : les deux utilisent le boutisme natif mais la taille et l'alignement du dernier sont standards.

The form '!' represents the network byte order which is always big-endian as defined in IETF RFC 1700 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1700].

Il n'y a pas de moyen de spécifier le boutisme contraire au boutisme natif (c'est-à-dire forcer la permutation des octets) ; utilisez le bon caractère entre '<' et '>'.

Notes :

Le bourrage (padding en anglais) n'est automatiquement ajouté qu'entre les membres successifs de la structure. Il n'y a pas de bourrage au début ou à la fin de la structure agrégée.

Il n'y a pas d'ajout de bourrage lorsque vous utilisez une taille et un alignement non-natifs, par exemple avec '<', '>', '=' ou '!'.

Pour aligner la fin d'une structure à l'alignement requis par un type particulier, terminez le format avec le code du type voulu et une valeur de répétition à zéro. Référez-vous à Exemples.

Caractères de format

Les caractères de format possèdent les significations suivantes ; la conversion entre les valeurs C et Python doit être évidente compte tenu des types concernés. La colonne « taille standard » fait référence à la taille en octets de la valeur agrégée avec l'utilisation de la taille standard (c'est-à-dire lorsque la chaîne de format commence par l'un des caractères suivants : '<', '>', '!' ou '='). Si vous utilisez la taille native, la taille de la valeur agrégée dépend de la plateforme.

Format

Type C

Type Python

Taille standard

Notes

x

octet de bourrage

pas de valeur

(7)

c

char

bytes (suite d'octets) de taille 1

1

b

signed char

int (entier)

1

(1), (2)

B

unsigned char

int (entier)

1

(2)

?

_Bool

bool (booléen)

1

(1)

h

short

int (entier)

2

(2)

H

unsigned short

int (entier)

2

(2)

i

int

int (entier)

4

(2)

I

unsigned int

int (entier)

4

(2)

l

long

int (entier)

4

(2)

L

unsigned long

int (entier)

4

(2)

q

long long

int (entier)

8

(2)

Q

unsigned long long

int (entier)

8

(2)

n

ssize_t

int (entier)

(3)

N

size_t

int (entier)

(3)

e

_Float16

float (nombre à virgule flottante)

2

(4), (6)

f

float

float (nombre à virgule flottante)

4

(4)

d

double

float (nombre à virgule flottante)

8

(4)

F

float complex

complex

8

(10)

D

double complex

complex

16

(10)

s

char[]

bytes (séquence d'octets)

(9)

p

char[]

bytes (séquence d'octets)

(8)

P

void*

int (entier)

(5)

Modifié dans la version 3.3: ajouté la gestion des formats 'n' et 'N'.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: ajouté la gestion du format 'e'.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Added support for the 'F' and 'D' formats.

Voir aussi

The array and ctypes modules, as well as third-party modules like numpy [https://numpy.org/doc/stable/reference/arrays.interface.html#object.__array_interface__], use similar -- but slightly different -- type codes.

Notes :

The '?' conversion code corresponds to the _Bool type defined by C standards since C99. In standard mode, it is represented by one byte.

When attempting to pack a non-integer using any of the integer conversion codes, if the non-integer has a __index__() method then that method is called to convert the argument to an integer before packing.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Added use of the __index__() method for non-integers.

Les codes de conversion 'n' et 'N' ne sont disponibles que pour la taille native (choisie par défaut ou à l'aide du caractère de boutisme '@'). Pour la taille standard, vous pouvez utiliser n'importe quel format d'entier qui convient à votre application.

Pour les codes de conversion 'f', 'd' et 'e', la représentation agrégée utilise respectivement le format IEEE 754 binaire32, binaire64 ou binaire16 (pour 'f', 'd' ou 'e' respectivement), quel que soit le format des nombres à virgule flottante de la plateforme.

Le caractère de format 'P' n'est disponible que pour le boutisme natif (choisi par défaut ou à l'aide du caractère '@' de boutisme). Le caractère de boutisme '=' choisit d'utiliser un petit ou un gros en fonction du système hôte. Le module struct ne l'interprète pas comme un boutisme natif, donc le format 'P' n'est pas disponible.

The IEEE 754 binary16 "half precision" type was introduced in the 2008 revision of the IEEE 754 standard [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754-2008_revision]. It has a sign bit, a 5-bit exponent and 11-bit precision (with 10 bits explicitly stored), and can represent numbers between approximately 6.1e-05 and 6.5e+04 at full precision. This type is not widely supported by C compilers: it's available as _Float16 type, if the compiler supports the Annex H of the C23 standard. On a typical machine, an unsigned short can be used for storage, but not for math operations. See the Wikipedia page on the half-precision floating-point format [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Half-precision_floating-point_format] for more information.

When packing, 'x' inserts one NUL byte.

Le caractère de format 'p' sert à encoder une « chaîne Pascal », c'est-à-dire une courte chaîne de longueur variable, stockée dans un nombre défini d'octets dont la valeur est définie par la répétition. Le premier octet stocké est la longueur de la chaîne (dans la limite maximum de 255). Les octets composant la chaîne suivent. Si la chaîne passée à pack() est trop longue (supérieure à la valeur de la répétition moins 1), seuls les count-1 premiers octets de la chaîne sont stockés. Si la chaîne est plus courte que count-1, des octets de bourrage nuls sont insérés de manière à avoir exactement count octets au final. Notez que pour unpack(), le caractère de format 'p' consomme count octets mais que la chaîne renvoyée ne peut pas excéder 255 octets.

For the 's' format character, the count is interpreted as the length of the bytes, not a repeat count like for the other format characters; for example, '10s' means a single 10-byte string mapping to or from a single Python byte string, while '10c' means 10 separate one byte character elements (e.g., cccccccccc) mapping to or from ten different Python byte objects. (See Exemples for a concrete demonstration of the difference.) If a count is not given, it defaults to 1. For packing, the string is truncated or padded with null bytes as appropriate to make it fit. For unpacking, the resulting bytes object always has exactly the specified number of bytes. As a special case, '0s' means a single, empty string (while '0c' means 0 characters).

For the 'F' and 'D' format characters, the packed representation uses the IEEE 754 binary32 and binary64 format for components of the complex number, regardless of the floating-point format used by the platform. Note that complex types (F and D) are available unconditionally, despite complex types being an optional feature in C. As specified in the C11 standard, each complex type is represented by a two-element C array containing, respectively, the real and imaginary parts.

Un caractère de format peut être précédé par un entier indiquant le nombre de répétitions. Par exemple, la chaîne de format '4h' a exactement la même signification que 'hhhh'.

Les caractères d'espacement entre les indications de format sont ignorés ; cependant, le nombre de répétitions et le format associé ne doivent pas être séparés par des caractères d'espacement.

Lors de l'agrégation d'une valeur x en utilisant l'un des formats pour les entiers ('b', 'B', 'h', 'H', 'i', 'I', 'l', 'L', 'q', 'Q'), si x est en dehors de l'intervalle du format spécifié, une struct.error est levée.

Modifié dans la version 3.1: Previously, some of the integer formats wrapped out-of-range values and raised DeprecationWarning instead of struct.error.

Pour le caractère de format '?', la valeur renvoyée est True ou False. Lors de l'agrégation, la valeur de vérité de l'objet argument est utilisée. La valeur agrégée est 0 ou 1 dans la représentation native ou standard et, lors de la dissociation, n'importe quelle valeur différente de zéro est renvoyée True.

Exemples

Note

Native byte order examples (designated by the '@' format prefix or lack of any prefix character) may not match what the reader's machine produces as that depends on the platform and compiler.

Pack and unpack integers of three different sizes, using big endian ordering:

>>> from struct import *
>>> pack(">bhl", 1, 2, 3)
b'\x01\x00\x02\x00\x00\x00\x03'
>>> unpack('>bhl', b'\x01\x00\x02\x00\x00\x00\x03')
(1, 2, 3)
>>> calcsize('>bhl')
7

Attempt to pack an integer which is too large for the defined field:

>>> pack(">h", 99999)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
struct.error: 'h' format requires -32768 <= number <= 32767

Demonstrate the difference between 's' and 'c' format characters:

>>> pack("@ccc", b'1', b'2', b'3')
b'123'
>>> pack("@3s", b'123')
b'123'

Les champs dissociés peuvent être nommés en leur assignant des variables ou en encapsulant le résultat dans un n-uplet nommé :

>>> record = b'raymond   \x32\x12\x08\x01\x08'
>>> name, serialnum, school, gradelevel = unpack('<10sHHb', record)

>>> from collections import namedtuple
>>> Student = namedtuple('Student', 'name serialnum school gradelevel')
>>> Student._make(unpack('<10sHHb', record))
Student(name=b'raymond   ', serialnum=4658, school=264, gradelevel=8)

The ordering of format characters may have an impact on size in native mode since padding is implicit. In standard mode, the user is responsible for inserting any desired padding. Note in the first pack call below that three NUL bytes were added after the packed '#' to align the following integer on a four-byte boundary. In this example, the output was produced on a little endian machine:

>>> pack('@ci', b'#', 0x12131415)
b'#\x00\x00\x00\x15\x14\x13\x12'
>>> pack('@ic', 0x12131415, b'#')
b'\x15\x14\x13\x12#'
>>> calcsize('@ci')
8
>>> calcsize('@ic')
5

The following format 'llh0l' results in two pad bytes being added at the end, assuming the platform's longs are aligned on 4-byte boundaries:

>>> pack('@llh0l', 1, 2, 3)
b'\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x00\x00\x02\x00\x03\x00\x00'

Voir aussi

Module array

Stockage agrégé binaire de données homogènes.

Module json

JSON encoder and decoder.

Module pickle

Python object serialization.

Applications

Two main applications for the struct module exist, data interchange between Python and C code within an application or another application compiled using the same compiler (native formats), and data interchange between applications using agreed upon data layout (standard formats). Generally speaking, the format strings constructed for these two domains are distinct.

Native Formats

When constructing format strings which mimic native layouts, the compiler and machine architecture determine byte ordering and padding. In such cases, the @ format character should be used to specify native byte ordering and data sizes. Internal pad bytes are normally inserted automatically. It is possible that a zero-repeat format code will be needed at the end of a format string to round up to the correct byte boundary for proper alignment of consecutive chunks of data.

Consider these two simple examples (on a 64-bit, little-endian machine):

>>> calcsize('@lhl')
24
>>> calcsize('@llh')
18

Data is not padded to an 8-byte boundary at the end of the second format string without the use of extra padding. A zero-repeat format code solves that problem:

>>> calcsize('@llh0l')
24

The 'x' format code can be used to specify the repeat, but for native formats it is better to use a zero-repeat format like '0l'.

By default, native byte ordering and alignment is used, but it is better to be explicit and use the '@' prefix character.

Standard Formats

When exchanging data beyond your process such as networking or storage, be precise. Specify the exact byte order, size, and alignment. Do not assume they match the native order of a particular machine. For example, network byte order is big-endian, while many popular CPUs are little-endian. By defining this explicitly, the user need not care about the specifics of the platform their code is running on. The first character should typically be < or > (or !). Padding is the responsibility of the programmer. The zero-repeat format character won't work. Instead, the user must explicitly add 'x' pad bytes where needed. Revisiting the examples from the previous section, we have:

>>> calcsize('<qh6xq')
24
>>> pack('<qh6xq', 1, 2, 3) == pack('@lhl', 1, 2, 3)
True
>>> calcsize('@llh')
18
>>> pack('@llh', 1, 2, 3) == pack('<qqh', 1, 2, 3)
True
>>> calcsize('<qqh6x')
24
>>> calcsize('@llh0l')
24
>>> pack('@llh0l', 1, 2, 3) == pack('<qqh6x', 1, 2, 3)
True

The above results (executed on a 64-bit machine) aren't guaranteed to match when executed on different machines. For example, the examples below were executed on a 32-bit machine:

>>> calcsize('<qqh6x')
24
>>> calcsize('@llh0l')
12
>>> pack('@llh0l', 1, 2, 3) == pack('<qqh6x', 1, 2, 3)
False

Classes

The struct module also defines the following type:

class struct.Struct(format)

Return a new Struct object which writes and reads binary data according to the format string format. Creating a Struct object once and calling its methods is more efficient than calling module-level functions with the same format since the format string is only compiled once.

Note

The compiled versions of the most recent format strings passed to the module-level functions are cached, so programs that use only a few format strings needn't worry about reusing a single Struct instance.

Les objets Struct compilés gèrent les méthodes et attributs suivants :

pack(v1, v2, ...)

Identique à la fonction pack(), en utilisant le format compilé (len(result) vaut size).

pack_into(buffer, offset, v1, v2, ...)

Identique à la fonction pack_into(), en utilisant le format compilé.

unpack(buffer)

Identique à la fonction unpack(), en utilisant le format compilé. La taille du tampon buffer en octets doit valoir size.

unpack_from(buffer, offset=0)

Identique à la fonction unpack_from(), en utilisant le format compilé. La taille du tampon buffer en octets, en commençant à la position offset, doit valoir au moins size.

iter_unpack(buffer)

Identique à la fonction iter_unpack(), en utilisant le format compilé. La taille du tampon buffer en octets doit être un multiple de size.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

format

La chaîne de format utilisée pour construire l'objet Struct.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: la chaîne de format est maintenant de type str au lieu de bytes.

size

La taille calculée de la structure agrégée (et donc de l'objet bytes produit par la méthode pack()) correspondante à format.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: The repr() of structs has changed. It is now:

>>> Struct('i')
Struct('i')

codecs --- Codec registry and base classes

Code source : Lib/codecs.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/codecs.py]

This module defines base classes for standard Python codecs (encoders and decoders) and provides access to the internal Python codec registry, which manages the codec and error handling lookup process. Most standard codecs are text encodings, which encode text to bytes (and decode bytes to text), but there are also codecs provided that encode text to text, and bytes to bytes. Custom codecs may encode and decode between arbitrary types, but some module features are restricted to be used specifically with text encodings or with codecs that encode to bytes.

Le module définit les fonctions suivantes pour encoder et décoder à l'aide de n'importe quel codec :

codecs.encode(obj, encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

Encode obj en utilisant le codec enregistré pour encoding.

Vous pouvez spécifier errors pour définir la façon de gérer les erreurs. Le gestionnaire d'erreurs par défaut est 'strict', ce qui veut dire qu'une erreur lors de l'encodage lève ValueError (ou une sous-classe spécifique du codec, telle que UnicodeEncodeError). Référez-vous aux classes de base des codecs pour plus d'informations sur la gestion des erreurs par les codecs.

codecs.decode(obj, encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

Décode obj en utilisant le codec enregistré pour encoding.

Vous pouvez spécifier errors pour définir la façon de gérer les erreurs. Le gestionnaire d'erreurs par défaut est 'strict', ce qui veut dire qu'une erreur lors du décodage lève ValueError (ou une sous-classe spécifique du codec, telle que UnicodeDecodeError). Référez-vous aux classes de base des codecs pour plus d'informations sur la gestion des erreurs par les codecs.

codecs.charmap_build(string)

Return a mapping suitable for encoding with a custom single-byte encoding. Given a str string of up to 256 characters representing a decoding table, returns either a compact internal mapping object EncodingMap or a dictionary mapping character ordinals to byte values. Raises a TypeError on invalid input.

Les détails complets de chaque codec peuvent être examinés directement :

codecs.lookup(encoding, /)

Recherche les informations relatives au codec dans le registre des codecs de Python et renvoie l'objet CodecInfo tel que défini ci-dessous.

Les encodeurs sont recherchés en priorité dans le cache du registre. S'ils n'y sont pas, la liste des fonctions de recherche enregistrées est passée en revue. Si aucun objet CodecInfo n'est trouvé, une LookupError est levée. Sinon, l'objet CodecInfo est mis en cache et renvoyé vers l'appelant.

class codecs.CodecInfo(encode, decode, streamreader=None, streamwriter=None, incrementalencoder=None, incrementaldecoder=None, name=None)

Les détails d'un codec trouvé dans le registre des codecs. Les arguments du constructeur sont stockés dans les attributs éponymes :

name

Le nom de l'encodeur.

encode

decode

Les fonctions d'encodage et de décodage. Ces fonctions ou méthodes doivent avoir la même interface que les méthodes encode() et decode() des instances de Codec (voir Interface des codecs). Les fonctions et méthodes sont censées fonctionner sans état interne.

incrementalencoder

incrementaldecoder

Classes d'encodeurs et de décodeurs incrémentaux ou fonctions usines. Elles doivent avoir respectivement les mêmes interfaces que celles définies par les classes de base IncrementalEncoder et IncrementalDecoder. Les codecs incrémentaux peuvent conserver des états internes.

streamwriter

streamreader

Classes d'écriture et de lecture de flux ou fonctions usines. Elles doivent avoir les mêmes interfaces que celles définies par les classes de base StreamWriter et StreamReader, respectivement. Les codecs de flux peuvent conserver un état interne.

Pour simplifier l'accès aux différents composants du codec, le module fournit les fonctions supplémentaires suivantes qui utilisent lookup() pour la recherche du codec :

codecs.getencoder(encoding)

Recherche le codec pour l'encodage encoding et renvoie sa fonction d'encodage.

Lève une LookupError si l'encodage encoding n'est pas trouvé.

codecs.getdecoder(encoding)

Recherche le codec pour l'encodage encoding et renvoie sa fonction de décodage.

Lève une LookupError si l'encodage encoding n'est pas trouvé.

codecs.getincrementalencoder(encoding)

Recherche le codec pour l'encodage encoding et renvoie sa classe d'encodage incrémental ou la fonction usine.

Lève une LookupError si l'encodage encoding n'est pas trouvé ou si le codec ne gère pas l'encodage incrémental.

codecs.getincrementaldecoder(encoding)

Recherche le codec pour l'encodage encoding et renvoie sa classe de décodage incrémental ou la fonction usine.

Lève une LookupError si l'encodage encoding n'est pas trouvé ou si le codec ne gère pas le décodage incrémental.

codecs.getreader(encoding)

Recherche le codec pour l'encodage encoding et renvoie sa classe StreamReader ou la fonction usine.

Lève une LookupError si l'encodage encoding n'est pas trouvé.

codecs.getwriter(encoding)

Recherche le codec pour l'encodage encoding et renvoie sa classe StreamWriter ou la fonction usine.

Lève une LookupError si l'encodage encoding n'est pas trouvé.

Les codecs personnalisés sont mis à disposition en enregistrant une fonction de recherche de codecs adaptée :

codecs.register(search_function, /)

Register a codec search function. Search functions are expected to take one argument, being the encoding name in all lower case letters with hyphens and spaces converted to underscores, and return a CodecInfo object. In case a search function cannot find a given encoding, it should return None.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Hyphens and spaces are converted to underscore.

codecs.unregister(search_function, /)

Unregister a codec search function and clear the registry's cache. If the search function is not registered, do nothing.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

Alors qu'il est recommandé d'utiliser la fonction native open() et le module associé io pour travailler avec des fichiers texte encodés, le présent module fournit des fonctions et classes utilitaires supplémentaires qui permettent l'utilisation d'une plus large gamme de codecs si vous travaillez avec des fichiers binaires :

codecs.open(filename, mode='r', encoding=None, errors='strict', buffering=-1)

Ouvre un fichier encodé en utilisant le mode donné et renvoie une instance de StreamReaderWriter, permettant un encodage-décodage transparent. Le mode de fichier par défaut est 'r', ce qui signifie que le fichier est ouvert en lecture.

Note

If encoding is not None, then the underlying encoded files are always opened in binary mode. No automatic conversion of '\n' is done on reading and writing. The mode argument may be any binary mode acceptable to the built-in open() function; the 'b' is automatically added.

encoding spécifie l'encodage à utiliser pour le fichier. Tout encodage qui encode et décode des octets (type bytes) est autorisé et les types de données pris en charge par les méthodes relatives aux fichiers dépendent du codec utilisé.

errors peut être spécifié pour définir la gestion des erreurs. La valeur par défaut est 'strict', ce qui lève une ValueError en cas d'erreur lors du codage.

buffering a la même signification que pour la fonction native open(). Il vaut -1 par défaut, ce qui signifie que la taille par défaut du tampon est utilisée.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: le mode 'U` a été enlevé.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.14: codecs.open() has been superseded by open().

codecs.EncodedFile(file, data_encoding, file_encoding=None, errors='strict')

Renvoie une instance de StreamRecoder, version encapsulée de file qui fournit un transcodage transparent. Le fichier original est fermé quand la version encapsulée est fermée.

Les données écrites dans un fichier encapsulant sont décodées en fonction du data_encoding spécifié puis écrites vers le fichier original en tant que bytes en utilisant file_encoding. Les octets lus dans le fichier original sont décodés conformément à file_encoding et le résultat est encodé en utilisant data_encoding.

Si file_encoding n'est pas spécifié, la valeur par défaut est data_encoding.

errors peut être spécifié pour définir la gestion des erreurs. La valeur par défaut est 'strict', ce qui lève une ValueError en cas d'erreur lors du codage.

codecs.iterencode(iterator, encoding, errors='strict', **kwargs)

Uses an incremental encoder to iteratively encode the input provided by iterator. iterator must yield str objects. This function is a generator. The errors argument (as well as any other keyword argument) is passed through to the incremental encoder.

Cette fonction nécessite que le codec accepte les objets texte (classe str) en entrée. Par conséquent, il ne prend pas en charge les encodeurs bytes vers bytes tels que base64_codec.

codecs.iterdecode(iterator, encoding, errors='strict', **kwargs)

Uses an incremental decoder to iteratively decode the input provided by iterator. iterator must yield bytes objects. This function is a generator. The errors argument (as well as any other keyword argument) is passed through to the incremental decoder.

Cette fonction requiert que le codec accepte les objets bytes en entrée. Par conséquent, elle ne prend pas en charge les encodeurs de texte vers texte tels que rot_13, bien que rot_13 puisse être utilisé de manière équivalente avec iterencode().

codecs.readbuffer_encode(buffer, errors=None, /)

Return a tuple containing the raw bytes of buffer, a buffer-compatible object or str (encoded to UTF-8 before processing), and their length in bytes.

The errors argument is ignored.

>>> codecs.readbuffer_encode(b"Zito")
(b'Zito', 4)

Le module fournit également les constantes suivantes qui sont utiles pour lire et écrire les fichiers dépendants de la plateforme :

codecs.BOM

codecs.BOM_BE

codecs.BOM_LE

codecs.BOM_UTF8

codecs.BOM_UTF16

codecs.BOM_UTF16_BE

codecs.BOM_UTF16_LE

codecs.BOM_UTF32

codecs.BOM_UTF32_BE

codecs.BOM_UTF32_LE

Ces constantes définissent diverses séquences d'octets, les marques d'ordre d'octets (BOM pour byte order mark en anglais) Unicode pour plusieurs encodages. Elles sont utilisées dans les flux de données UTF-16 et UTF-32 pour indiquer l'ordre des octets utilisé, et dans UTF-8 comme signature Unicode. BOM_UTF16 vaut soit BOM_UTF16_BE, soit BOM_UTF16_LE selon le boutisme natif de la plateforme, BOM est un alias pour BOM_UTF16, BOM_LE pour BOM_UTF16_LE et BOM_BE pour BOM_UTF16_BE. Les autres sont les marques BOM dans les encodages UTF-8 et UTF-32.

Classes de base de codecs

The codecs module defines a set of base classes which define the interfaces for working with codec objects, and can also be used as the basis for custom codec implementations.

Chaque codec doit définir quatre interfaces pour être utilisable comme codec en Python : codeur sans état, décodeur sans état, lecteur de flux et écrivain de flux. Le lecteur et l'écrivain de flux réutilisent généralement l'encodeur-décodeur sans état pour implémenter les protocoles de fichiers. Les auteurs de codecs doivent également définir comment le codec gère les erreurs d'encodage et de décodage.

Gestionnaires d'erreurs

To simplify and standardize error handling, codecs may implement different error handling schemes by accepting the errors string argument:

>>> 'German ß, ♬'.encode(encoding='ascii', errors='backslashreplace')
b'German \\xdf, \\u266c'
>>> 'German ß, ♬'.encode(encoding='ascii', errors='xmlcharrefreplace')
b'German &#223;, &#9836;'

The following error handlers can be used with all Python Standard Encodings codecs:

Valeur

Signification

'strict'

Raise UnicodeError (or a subclass), this is the default. Implemented in strict_errors().

'ignore'

Ignore les données incorrectement formatées et continue sans rien signaler. Implémenté dans ignore_errors().

'replace'

Replace with a replacement marker. On encoding, use ? (ASCII character). On decoding, use � (U+FFFD, the official REPLACEMENT CHARACTER). Implemented in replace_errors().

'backslashreplace'

Replace with backslashed escape sequences. On encoding, use hexadecimal form of Unicode code point with formats \xhh \uxxxx \Uxxxxxxxx. On decoding, use hexadecimal form of byte value with format \xhh. Implemented in backslashreplace_errors().

'surrogateescape'

Lors du décodage, remplace un octet par un code de substitution individuel allant de U+DC80 à U+DCFF. Ce code est reconverti vers l'octet de départ quand le gestionnaire d'erreurs 'surrogateescape' est utilisé pour l'encodage des données (voir la PEP 383 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0383/] pour plus de détails).

The following error handlers are only applicable to encoding (within text encodings):

Valeur

Signification

'xmlcharrefreplace'

Replace with XML/HTML numeric character reference, which is a decimal form of Unicode code point with format &#num;. Implemented in xmlcharrefreplace_errors().

'namereplace'

Replace with \N{...} escape sequences, what appears in the braces is the Name property from Unicode Character Database. Implemented in namereplace_errors().

En plus, le gestionnaire d'erreurs suivant est spécifique aux codecs suivants :

Valeur

Codecs

Signification

'surrogatepass'

utf-8, utf-16, utf-32, utf-16-be, utf-16-le, utf-32-be, utf-32-le

Allow encoding and decoding surrogate code point (U+D800 - U+DFFF) as normal code point. Otherwise these codecs treat the presence of surrogate code point in str as an error.

Ajouté dans la version 3.1: les gestionnaires d'erreurs 'surrogateescape' et 'surrogatepass'.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: The 'surrogatepass' error handler now works with utf-16* and utf-32* codecs.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5: le gestionnaire d'erreurs 'namereplace'.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: The 'backslashreplace' error handler now works with decoding and translating.

L'ensemble des valeurs autorisées peut être étendu en enregistrant un nouveau gestionnaire d'erreurs nommé :

codecs.register_error(name, error_handler, /)

Register the error handling function error_handler under the name name. The error_handler argument will be called during encoding and decoding in case of an error, when name is specified as the errors parameter.

For encoding, error_handler will be called with a UnicodeEncodeError instance, which contains information about the location of the error. The error handler must either raise this or a different exception, or return a tuple with a replacement for the unencodable part of the input and a position where encoding should continue. The replacement may be either str or bytes. If the replacement is bytes, the encoder will simply copy them into the output buffer. If the replacement is a string, the encoder will encode the replacement. Encoding continues on original input at the specified position. Negative position values will be treated as being relative to the end of the input string. If the resulting position is out of bound an IndexError will be raised.

Decoding and translating works similarly, except UnicodeDecodeError or UnicodeTranslateError will be passed to the handler and that the replacement from the error handler will be put into the output directly.

Previously registered error handlers (including the standard error handlers) can be looked up by name:

codecs.lookup_error(name, /)

Return the error handler previously registered under the name name.

Raises a LookupError in case the handler cannot be found.

The following standard error handlers are also made available as module level functions:

codecs.strict_errors(exception)

Implements the 'strict' error handling.

Each encoding or decoding error raises a UnicodeError.

codecs.ignore_errors(exception)

Implements the 'ignore' error handling.

Malformed data is ignored; encoding or decoding is continued without further notice.

codecs.replace_errors(exception)

Implements the 'replace' error handling.

Substitutes ? (ASCII character) for encoding errors or � (U+FFFD, the official REPLACEMENT CHARACTER) for decoding errors.

codecs.backslashreplace_errors(exception)

Implements the 'backslashreplace' error handling.

Malformed data is replaced by a backslashed escape sequence. On encoding, use the hexadecimal form of Unicode code point with formats \xhh \uxxxx \Uxxxxxxxx. On decoding, use the hexadecimal form of byte value with format \xhh.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Works with decoding and translating.

codecs.xmlcharrefreplace_errors(exception)

Implements the 'xmlcharrefreplace' error handling (for encoding within text encoding only).

The unencodable character is replaced by an appropriate XML/HTML numeric character reference, which is a decimal form of Unicode code point with format &#num; .

codecs.namereplace_errors(exception)

Implements the 'namereplace' error handling (for encoding within text encoding only).

The unencodable character is replaced by a \N{...} escape sequence. The set of characters that appear in the braces is the Name property from Unicode Character Database. For example, the German lowercase letter 'ß' will be converted to byte sequence \N{LATIN SMALL LETTER SHARP S} .

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Stateless Encoding and Decoding

The base Codec class defines these methods which also define the function interfaces of the stateless encoder and decoder:

class codecs.Codec

encode(input, errors='strict')

Encodes the object input and returns a tuple (output object, length consumed). For instance, text encoding converts a string object to a bytes object using a particular character set encoding (e.g., cp1252 or iso-8859-1).

The errors argument defines the error handling to apply. It defaults to 'strict' handling.

The method may not store state in the Codec instance. Use StreamWriter for codecs which have to keep state in order to make encoding efficient.

The encoder must be able to handle zero length input and return an empty object of the output object type in this situation.

decode(input, errors='strict')

Decodes the object input and returns a tuple (output object, length consumed). For instance, for a text encoding, decoding converts a bytes object encoded using a particular character set encoding to a string object.

For text encodings and bytes-to-bytes codecs, input must be a bytes object or one which provides the read-only buffer interface -- for example, buffer objects and memory mapped files.

The errors argument defines the error handling to apply. It defaults to 'strict' handling.

The method may not store state in the Codec instance. Use StreamReader for codecs which have to keep state in order to make decoding efficient.

The decoder must be able to handle zero length input and return an empty object of the output object type in this situation.

Incremental Encoding and Decoding

The IncrementalEncoder and IncrementalDecoder classes provide the basic interface for incremental encoding and decoding. Encoding/decoding the input isn't done with one call to the stateless encoder/decoder function, but with multiple calls to the encode()/decode() method of the incremental encoder/decoder. The incremental encoder/decoder keeps track of the encoding/decoding process during method calls.

The joined output of calls to the encode()/decode() method is the same as if all the single inputs were joined into one, and this input was encoded/decoded with the stateless encoder/decoder.

IncrementalEncoder Objects

The IncrementalEncoder class is used for encoding an input in multiple steps. It defines the following methods which every incremental encoder must define in order to be compatible with the Python codec registry.

class codecs.IncrementalEncoder(errors='strict')

Constructor for an IncrementalEncoder instance.

All incremental encoders must provide this constructor interface. They are free to add additional keyword arguments, but only the ones defined here are used by the Python codec registry.

The IncrementalEncoder may implement different error handling schemes by providing the errors keyword argument. See Gestionnaires d'erreurs for possible values.

The errors argument will be assigned to an attribute of the same name. Assigning to this attribute makes it possible to switch between different error handling strategies during the lifetime of the IncrementalEncoder object.

encode(object, final=False)

Encodes object (taking the current state of the encoder into account) and returns the resulting encoded object. If this is the last call to encode() final must be true (the default is false).

reset()

Reset the encoder to the initial state. The output is discarded: call .encode(object, final=True), passing an empty byte or text string if necessary, to reset the encoder and to get the output.

getstate()

Return the current state of the encoder which must be an integer. The implementation should make sure that 0 is the most common state. (States that are more complicated than integers can be converted into an integer by marshaling/pickling the state and encoding the bytes of the resulting string into an integer.)

setstate(state)

Set the state of the encoder to state. state must be an encoder state returned by getstate().

IncrementalDecoder Objects

The IncrementalDecoder class is used for decoding an input in multiple steps. It defines the following methods which every incremental decoder must define in order to be compatible with the Python codec registry.

class codecs.IncrementalDecoder(errors='strict')

Constructor for an IncrementalDecoder instance.

All incremental decoders must provide this constructor interface. They are free to add additional keyword arguments, but only the ones defined here are used by the Python codec registry.

The IncrementalDecoder may implement different error handling schemes by providing the errors keyword argument. See Gestionnaires d'erreurs for possible values.

The errors argument will be assigned to an attribute of the same name. Assigning to this attribute makes it possible to switch between different error handling strategies during the lifetime of the IncrementalDecoder object.

decode(object, final=False)

Decodes object (taking the current state of the decoder into account) and returns the resulting decoded object. If this is the last call to decode() final must be true (the default is false). If final is true the decoder must decode the input completely and must flush all buffers. If this isn't possible (e.g. because of incomplete byte sequences at the end of the input) it must initiate error handling just like in the stateless case (which might raise an exception).

reset()

Reset the decoder to the initial state.

getstate()

Return the current state of the decoder. This must be a tuple with two items, the first must be the buffer containing the still undecoded input. The second must be an integer and can be additional state info. (The implementation should make sure that 0 is the most common additional state info.) If this additional state info is 0 it must be possible to set the decoder to the state which has no input buffered and 0 as the additional state info, so that feeding the previously buffered input to the decoder returns it to the previous state without producing any output. (Additional state info that is more complicated than integers can be converted into an integer by marshaling/pickling the info and encoding the bytes of the resulting string into an integer.)

setstate(state)

Set the state of the decoder to state. state must be a decoder state returned by getstate().

Stream Encoding and Decoding

The StreamWriter and StreamReader classes provide generic working interfaces which can be used to implement new encoding submodules very easily. See encodings.utf_8 for an example of how this is done.

StreamWriter Objects

The StreamWriter class is a subclass of Codec and defines the following methods which every stream writer must define in order to be compatible with the Python codec registry.

class codecs.StreamWriter(stream, errors='strict')

Constructor for a StreamWriter instance.

All stream writers must provide this constructor interface. They are free to add additional keyword arguments, but only the ones defined here are used by the Python codec registry.

The stream argument must be a file-like object open for writing text or binary data, as appropriate for the specific codec.

The StreamWriter may implement different error handling schemes by providing the errors keyword argument. See Gestionnaires d'erreurs for the standard error handlers the underlying stream codec may support.

The errors argument will be assigned to an attribute of the same name. Assigning to this attribute makes it possible to switch between different error handling strategies during the lifetime of the StreamWriter object.

write(object)

Writes the object's contents encoded to the stream.

writelines(list)

Writes the concatenated iterable of strings to the stream (possibly by reusing the write() method). Infinite or very large iterables are not supported. The standard bytes-to-bytes codecs do not support this method.

reset()

Resets the codec buffers used for keeping internal state.

Calling this method should ensure that the data on the output is put into a clean state that allows appending of new fresh data without having to rescan the whole stream to recover state.

In addition to the above methods, the StreamWriter must also inherit all other methods and attributes from the underlying stream.

StreamReader Objects

The StreamReader class is a subclass of Codec and defines the following methods which every stream reader must define in order to be compatible with the Python codec registry.

class codecs.StreamReader(stream, errors='strict')

Constructor for a StreamReader instance.

All stream readers must provide this constructor interface. They are free to add additional keyword arguments, but only the ones defined here are used by the Python codec registry.

The stream argument must be a file-like object open for reading text or binary data, as appropriate for the specific codec.

The StreamReader may implement different error handling schemes by providing the errors keyword argument. See Gestionnaires d'erreurs for the standard error handlers the underlying stream codec may support.

The errors argument will be assigned to an attribute of the same name. Assigning to this attribute makes it possible to switch between different error handling strategies during the lifetime of the StreamReader object.

The set of allowed values for the errors argument can be extended with register_error().

read(size=-1, chars=-1, firstline=False)

Decodes data from the stream and returns the resulting object.

The chars argument indicates the number of decoded code points or bytes to return. The read() method will never return more data than requested, but it might return less, if there is not enough available.

The size argument indicates the approximate maximum number of encoded bytes or code points to read for decoding. The decoder can modify this setting as appropriate. The default value -1 indicates to read and decode as much as possible. This parameter is intended to prevent having to decode huge files in one step.

The firstline flag indicates that it would be sufficient to only return the first line, if there are decoding errors on later lines.

The method should use a greedy read strategy meaning that it should read as much data as is allowed within the definition of the encoding and the given size, e.g. if optional encoding endings or state markers are available on the stream, these should be read too.

readline(size=None, keepends=True)

Read one line from the input stream and return the decoded data.

size, if given, is passed as size argument to the stream's read() method.

If keepends is false line-endings will be stripped from the lines returned.

readlines(sizehint=None, keepends=True)

Read all lines available on the input stream and return them as a list of lines.

Line-endings are implemented using the codec's decode() method and are included in the list entries if keepends is true.

sizehint, if given, is passed as the size argument to the stream's read() method.

reset()

Resets the codec buffers used for keeping internal state.

Note that no stream repositioning should take place. This method is primarily intended to be able to recover from decoding errors.

In addition to the above methods, the StreamReader must also inherit all other methods and attributes from the underlying stream.

StreamReaderWriter Objects

The StreamReaderWriter is a convenience class that allows wrapping streams which work in both read and write modes.

The design is such that one can use the factory functions returned by the lookup() function to construct the instance.

class codecs.StreamReaderWriter(stream, Reader, Writer, errors='strict')

Creates a StreamReaderWriter instance. stream must be a file-like object. Reader and Writer must be factory functions or classes providing the StreamReader and StreamWriter interface resp. Error handling is done in the same way as defined for the stream readers and writers.

StreamReaderWriter instances define the combined interfaces of StreamReader and StreamWriter classes. They inherit all other methods and attributes from the underlying stream.

StreamRecoder Objects

The StreamRecoder translates data from one encoding to another, which is sometimes useful when dealing with different encoding environments.

The design is such that one can use the factory functions returned by the lookup() function to construct the instance.

class codecs.StreamRecoder(stream, encode, decode, Reader, Writer, errors='strict')

Creates a StreamRecoder instance which implements a two-way conversion: encode and decode work on the frontend — the data visible to code calling read() and write(), while Reader and Writer work on the backend — the data in stream.

You can use these objects to do transparent transcodings, e.g., from Latin-1 to UTF-8 and back.

The stream argument must be a file-like object.

The encode and decode arguments must adhere to the Codec interface. Reader and Writer must be factory functions or classes providing objects of the StreamReader and StreamWriter interface respectively.

Error handling is done in the same way as defined for the stream readers and writers.

StreamRecoder instances define the combined interfaces of StreamReader and StreamWriter classes. They inherit all other methods and attributes from the underlying stream.

Encodings and Unicode

Strings are stored internally as sequences of code points in range U+0000--U+10FFFF. (See PEP 393 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/] for more details about the implementation.) Once a string object is used outside of CPU and memory, endianness and how these arrays are stored as bytes become an issue. As with other codecs, serialising a string into a sequence of bytes is known as encoding, and recreating the string from the sequence of bytes is known as decoding. There are a variety of different text serialisation codecs, which are collectivity referred to as text encodings.

The simplest text encoding (called 'latin-1' or 'iso-8859-1') maps the code points 0--255 to the bytes 0x0--0xff, which means that a string object that contains code points above U+00FF can't be encoded with this codec. Doing so will raise a UnicodeEncodeError that looks like the following (although the details of the error message may differ): UnicodeEncodeError: 'latin-1' codec can't encode character '\u1234' in position 3: ordinal not in range(256).

There's another group of encodings (the so called charmap encodings) that choose a different subset of all Unicode code points and how these code points are mapped to the bytes 0x0--0xff. To see how this is done simply open e.g. encodings/cp1252.py (which is an encoding that is used primarily on Windows). There's a string constant with 256 characters that shows you which character is mapped to which byte value.

All of these encodings can only encode 256 of the 1114112 code points defined in Unicode. A simple and straightforward way that can store each Unicode code point, is to store each code point as four consecutive bytes. There are two possibilities: store the bytes in big endian or in little endian order. These two encodings are called UTF-32-BE and UTF-32-LE respectively. Their disadvantage is that if, for example, you use UTF-32-BE on a little endian machine you will always have to swap bytes on encoding and decoding. Python's UTF-16 and UTF-32 codecs avoid this problem by using the platform's native byte order when no BOM is present. Python follows prevailing platform practice, so native-endian data round-trips without redundant byte swapping, even though the Unicode Standard defaults to big-endian when the byte order is unspecified. When these bytes are read by a CPU with a different endianness, the bytes have to be swapped. To be able to detect the endianness of a UTF-16 or UTF-32 byte sequence, a BOM ("Byte Order Mark") is used. This is the Unicode character U+FEFF. This character can be prepended to every UTF-16 or UTF-32 byte sequence. The byte swapped version of this character (0xFFFE) is an illegal character that may not appear in a Unicode text. When the first character of a UTF-16 or UTF-32 byte sequence is U+FFFE, the bytes have to be swapped on decoding.

Unfortunately the character U+FEFF had a second purpose as a ZERO WIDTH NO-BREAK SPACE: a character that has no width and doesn't allow a word to be split. It can e.g. be used to give hints to a ligature algorithm. With Unicode 4.0 using U+FEFF as a ZERO WIDTH NO-BREAK SPACE has been deprecated (with U+2060 (WORD JOINER) assuming this role). Nevertheless Unicode software still must be able to handle U+FEFF in both roles: as a BOM it's a device to determine the storage layout of the encoded bytes, and vanishes once the byte sequence has been decoded into a string; as a ZERO WIDTH NO-BREAK SPACE it's a normal character that will be decoded like any other.

There's another encoding that is able to encode the full range of Unicode characters: UTF-8. UTF-8 is an 8-bit encoding, which means there are no issues with byte order in UTF-8. Each byte in a UTF-8 byte sequence consists of two parts: marker bits (the most significant bits) and payload bits. The marker bits are a sequence of zero to four 1 bits followed by a 0 bit. Unicode characters are encoded like this (with x being payload bits, which when concatenated give the Unicode character):

Range

Encoding

U-00000000 ... U-0000007F

0xxxxxxx

U-00000080 ... U-000007FF

110xxxxx 10xxxxxx

U-00000800 ... U-0000FFFF

1110xxxx 10xxxxxx 10xxxxxx

U-00010000 ... U-0010FFFF

11110xxx 10xxxxxx 10xxxxxx 10xxxxxx

The least significant bit of the Unicode character is the rightmost x bit.

As UTF-8 is an 8-bit encoding no BOM is required and any U+FEFF character in the decoded string (even if it's the first character) is treated as a ZERO WIDTH NO-BREAK SPACE.

Without external information it's impossible to reliably determine which encoding was used for encoding a string. Each charmap encoding can decode any random byte sequence. However that's not possible with UTF-8, as UTF-8 byte sequences have a structure that doesn't allow arbitrary byte sequences. To increase the reliability with which a UTF-8 encoding can be detected, Microsoft invented a variant of UTF-8 (that Python calls "utf-8-sig") for its Notepad program: Before any of the Unicode characters is written to the file, a UTF-8 encoded BOM (which looks like this as a byte sequence: 0xef, 0xbb, 0xbf) is written. As it's rather improbable that any charmap encoded file starts with these byte values (which would e.g. map to

LATIN SMALL LETTER I WITH DIAERESIS

RIGHT-POINTING DOUBLE ANGLE QUOTATION MARK

INVERTED QUESTION MARK

in iso-8859-1), this increases the probability that a utf-8-sig encoding can be correctly guessed from the byte sequence. So here the BOM is not used to be able to determine the byte order used for generating the byte sequence, but as a signature that helps in guessing the encoding. On encoding the utf-8-sig codec will write 0xef, 0xbb, 0xbf as the first three bytes to the file. On decoding utf-8-sig will skip those three bytes if they appear as the first three bytes in the file. In UTF-8, the use of the BOM is discouraged and should generally be avoided.

Standard Encodings

Python comes with a number of codecs built-in, either implemented as C functions or with dictionaries as mapping tables. The following table lists the codecs by name, together with a few common aliases, and the languages for which the encoding is likely used. Neither the list of aliases nor the list of languages is meant to be exhaustive. Notice that spelling alternatives that only differ in case or use a hyphen instead of an underscore are also valid aliases because they are equivalent when normalized by normalize_encoding(). For example, 'utf-8' is a valid alias for the 'utf_8' codec.

Note

The below table lists the most common aliases, for a complete list refer to the source aliases.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/encodings/aliases.py] file.

On Windows, cpXXX codecs are available for all code pages. But only codecs listed in the following table are guarantead to exist on other platforms.

Particularité de l'implémentation CPython : Some common encodings can bypass the codecs lookup machinery to improve performance. These optimization opportunities are only recognized by CPython for a limited set of (case insensitive) aliases: utf-8, utf8, latin-1, latin1, iso-8859-1, iso8859-1, mbcs (Windows only), ascii, us-ascii, utf-16, utf16, utf-32, utf32, and the same using underscores instead of dashes. Using alternative aliases for these encodings may result in slower execution.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Optimization opportunity recognized for us-ascii.

Many of the character sets support the same languages. They vary in individual characters (e.g. whether the EURO SIGN is supported or not), and in the assignment of characters to code positions. For the European languages in particular, the following variants typically exist:

an ISO 8859 codeset

a Microsoft Windows code page, which is typically derived from an 8859 codeset, but replaces control characters with additional graphic characters

an IBM EBCDIC code page

an IBM PC code page, which is ASCII compatible

Codec

Aliases

Languages

ascii

646, us-ascii

Anglais

big5

big5-tw, csbig5

Chinois Traditionnel

big5hkscs

big5-hkscs, hkscs

Chinois Traditionnel

cp037

IBM037, IBM039

Anglais

cp273

273, IBM273, csIBM273

Allemand

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

cp424

EBCDIC-CP-HE, IBM424

Hébreux

cp437

437, IBM437

Anglais

cp500

EBCDIC-CP-BE, EBCDIC-CP-CH, IBM500

Europe de l'ouest

cp720

Arabe

cp737

Grec

cp775

IBM775

Langues Baltiques

cp850

850, IBM850

Europe de l'ouest

cp852

852, IBM852

Europe centrale et Europe de l'Est

cp855

855, IBM855

Belarusian, Bulgarian, Macedonian, Russian, Serbian

cp856

Hébreux

cp857

857, IBM857

Turc

cp858

858, IBM858

Europe de l'ouest

cp860

860, IBM860

Portugais

cp861

861, CP-IS, IBM861

Islandais

cp862

862, IBM862

Hébreux

cp863

863, IBM863

Canadien

cp864

IBM864

Arabe

cp865

865, IBM865

Danish, Norwegian

cp866

866, IBM866

Russe

cp869

869, CP-GR, IBM869

Grec

cp874

Thai

cp875

Grec

cp932

932, ms932, mskanji, ms-kanji, windows-31j

Japanese

cp949

949, ms949, uhc

Korean

cp950

950, ms950

Chinois Traditionnel

cp1006

Urdu

cp1026

ibm1026

Turc

cp1125

1125, ibm1125, cp866u, ruscii

Ukrainian

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

cp1140

ibm1140

Europe de l'ouest

cp1250

windows-1250

Europe centrale et Europe de l'Est

cp1251

windows-1251

Belarusian, Bulgarian, Macedonian, Russian, Serbian

cp1252

windows-1252

Europe de l'ouest

cp1253

windows-1253

Grec

cp1254

windows-1254

Turc

cp1255

windows-1255

Hébreux

cp1256

windows-1256

Arabe

cp1257

windows-1257

Langues Baltiques

cp1258

windows-1258

Vietnamese

euc_jp

eucjp, ujis, u-jis

Japanese

euc_jis_2004

jisx0213, eucjis2004

Japanese

euc_jisx0213

eucjisx0213

Japanese

euc_kr

euckr, korean, ksc5601, ks_c-5601, ks_c-5601-1987, ksx1001, ks_x-1001

Korean

gb2312

chinese, csiso58gb231280, euc-cn, euccn, eucgb2312-cn, gb2312-1980, gb2312-80, iso-ir-58

Simplified Chinese

gbk

936, cp936, ms936

Unified Chinese

gb18030

gb18030-2000

Unified Chinese

hz

hzgb, hz-gb, hz-gb-2312

Simplified Chinese

iso2022_jp

csiso2022jp, iso2022jp, iso-2022-jp

Japanese

iso2022_jp_1

iso2022jp-1, iso-2022-jp-1

Japanese

iso2022_jp_2

iso2022jp-2, iso-2022-jp-2

Japanese, Korean, Simplified Chinese, Western Europe, Greek

iso2022_jp_2004

iso2022jp-2004, iso-2022-jp-2004

Japanese

iso2022_jp_3

iso2022jp-3, iso-2022-jp-3

Japanese

iso2022_jp_ext

iso2022jp-ext, iso-2022-jp-ext

Japanese

iso2022_kr

csiso2022kr, iso2022kr, iso-2022-kr

Korean

latin_1

iso-8859-1, iso8859-1, 8859, cp819, latin, latin1, L1

Europe de l'ouest

iso8859_2

iso-8859-2, latin2, L2

Europe centrale et Europe de l'Est

iso8859_3

iso-8859-3, latin3, L3

Esperanto, Maltese

iso8859_4

iso-8859-4, latin4, L4

Northern Europe

iso8859_5

iso-8859-5, cyrillic

Belarusian, Bulgarian, Macedonian, Russian, Serbian

iso8859_6

iso-8859-6, arabic

Arabe

iso8859_7

iso-8859-7, greek, greek8

Grec

iso8859_8

iso-8859-8, hebrew

Hébreux

iso8859_9

iso-8859-9, latin5, L5

Turc

iso8859_10

iso-8859-10, latin6, L6

Nordic languages

iso8859_11

iso-8859-11, thai

Thai languages

iso8859_13

iso-8859-13, latin7, L7

Langues Baltiques

iso8859_14

iso-8859-14, latin8, L8

Celtic languages

iso8859_15

iso-8859-15, latin9, L9

Europe de l'ouest

iso8859_16

iso-8859-16, latin10, L10

South-Eastern Europe

johab

cp1361, ms1361

Korean

koi8_r

Russe

koi8_t

Tajik

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

koi8_u

Ukrainian

kz1048

kz_1048, strk1048_2002, rk1048

Kazakh

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

mac_cyrillic

maccyrillic

Belarusian, Bulgarian, Macedonian, Russian, Serbian

mac_greek

macgreek

Grec

mac_iceland

maciceland

Islandais

mac_latin2

maclatin2, maccentraleurope, mac_centeuro

Europe centrale et Europe de l'Est

mac_roman

macroman, macintosh

Europe de l'ouest

mac_turkish

macturkish

Turc

ptcp154

csptcp154, pt154, cp154, cyrillic-asian

Kazakh

shift_jis

csshiftjis, shiftjis, sjis, s_jis

Japanese

shift_jis_2004

shiftjis2004, sjis_2004, sjis2004

Japanese

shift_jisx0213

shiftjisx0213, sjisx0213, s_jisx0213

Japanese

utf_32

U32, utf32

all languages

utf_32_be

UTF-32BE

all languages

utf_32_le

UTF-32LE

all languages

utf_16

U16, utf16

all languages

utf_16_be

UTF-16BE

all languages

utf_16_le

UTF-16LE

all languages

utf_7

U7, unicode-1-1-utf-7

all languages

utf_8

U8, UTF, utf8, cp65001

all languages

utf_8_sig

all languages

Modifié dans la version 3.4: The utf-16* and utf-32* encoders no longer allow surrogate code points (U+D800--U+DFFF) to be encoded. The utf-32* decoders no longer decode byte sequences that correspond to surrogate code points.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: cp65001 is now an alias to utf_8.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: On Windows, cpXXX codecs are now available for all code pages.

Python Specific Encodings

A number of predefined codecs are specific to Python, so their codec names have no meaning outside Python. These are listed in the tables below based on the expected input and output types (note that while text encodings are the most common use case for codecs, the underlying codec infrastructure supports arbitrary data transforms rather than just text encodings). For asymmetric codecs, the stated meaning describes the encoding direction.

Text Encodings

The following codecs provide str to bytes encoding and bytes-like object to str decoding, similar to the Unicode text encodings.

Codec

Aliases

Signification

idna

Implement RFC 3490 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3490.html], see also encodings.idna. Only errors='strict' is supported.

mbcs

ansi, dbcs

Windows only: Encode the operand according to the ANSI codepage (CP_ACP).

oem

Windows only: Encode the operand according to the OEM codepage (CP_OEMCP).

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

palmos

Encoding of PalmOS 3.5.

punycode

Implement RFC 3492 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3492.html]. Stateful codecs are not supported.

raw_unicode_escape

Latin-1 encoding with \uXXXX and \UXXXXXXXX for other code points. Existing backslashes are not escaped in any way. It is used in the Python pickle protocol.

undefined

This Codec should only be used for testing purposes.

Raise an exception for all conversions, even empty strings. The error handler is ignored.

unicode_escape

Encoding suitable as the contents of a Unicode literal in ASCII-encoded Python source code, except that quotes are not escaped. Decode from Latin-1 source code. Beware that Python source code actually uses UTF-8 by default.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: "unicode_internal" codec is removed.

Binary Transforms

The following codecs provide binary transforms: bytes-like object to bytes mappings. They are not supported by bytes.decode() (which only produces str output).

Codec

Aliases

Signification

Encoder / decoder

base64_codec [1]

base64, base_64

Convert the operand to multiline MIME base64 (the result always includes a trailing '\n').

Modifié dans la version 3.4: accepts any bytes-like object as input for encoding and decoding

base64.encodebytes() / base64.decodebytes()

bz2_codec

bz2

Compress the operand using bz2.

bz2.compress() / bz2.decompress()

hex_codec

hex

Convert the operand to hexadecimal representation, with two digits per byte.

binascii.b2a_hex() / binascii.a2b_hex()

quopri_codec

quopri, quotedprintable, quoted_printable

Convert the operand to MIME quoted printable.

quopri.encode() with quotetabs=True / quopri.decode()

uu_codec

uu

Convert the operand using uuencode.

zlib_codec

zip, zlib

Compress the operand using gzip.

zlib.compress() / zlib.decompress()

[1]

In addition to bytes-like objects, 'base64_codec' also accepts ASCII-only instances of str for decoding

Ajouté dans la version 3.2: Restoration of the binary transforms.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Restoration of the aliases for the binary transforms.

Standalone Codec Functions

The following functions provide encoding and decoding functionality similar to codecs, but are not available as named codecs through codecs.encode() or codecs.decode(). They are used internally (for example, by pickle) and behave similarly to the string_escape codec that was removed in Python 3.

codecs.escape_encode(input, errors=None)

Encode input using escape sequences. Similar to how repr() on bytes produces escaped byte values.

input must be a bytes object.

Returns a tuple (output, length) where output is a bytes object and length is the number of bytes consumed.

codecs.escape_decode(input, errors=None)

Decode input from escape sequences back to the original bytes.

input must be a bytes-like object.

Returns a tuple (output, length) where output is a bytes object and length is the number of bytes consumed.

Text Transforms

The following codec provides a text transform: a str to str mapping. It is not supported by str.encode() (which only produces bytes output).

Codec

Aliases

Signification

rot_13

rot13

Return the Caesar-cypher encryption of the operand.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2: Restoration of the rot_13 text transform.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Restoration of the rot13 alias.

encodings --- Encodings package

This module implements the following functions:

encodings.normalize_encoding(encoding)

Normalize encoding name encoding.

Normalization works as follows: all non-alphanumeric characters except the dot used for Python package names are collapsed and replaced with a single underscore, leading and trailing underscores are removed. For example, '  -;#' becomes '_'.

Note that encoding should be ASCII only.

Note

The following functions should not be used directly, except for testing purposes; codecs.lookup() should be used instead.

encodings.search_function(encoding)

Search for the codec module corresponding to the given encoding name encoding.

This function first normalizes the encoding using normalize_encoding(), then looks for a corresponding alias. It attempts to import a codec module from the encodings package using either the alias or the normalized name. If the module is found and defines a valid getregentry() function that returns a codecs.CodecInfo object, the codec is cached and returned.

If the codec module defines a getaliases() function any returned aliases are registered for future use.

encodings.win32_code_page_search_function(encoding)

Search for a Windows code page encoding encoding of the form cpXXXX.

If the code page is valid and supported, return a codecs.CodecInfo object for it.

Disponibilité: Windows.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

This module implements the following exception:

exception encodings.CodecRegistryError

Raised when a codec is invalid or incompatible.

encodings.idna --- Internationalized Domain Names in Applications

This module implements RFC 3490 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3490.html] (Internationalized Domain Names in Applications) and RFC 3492 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3492.html] (Nameprep: A Stringprep Profile for Internationalized Domain Names (IDN)). It builds upon the punycode encoding and stringprep.

If you need the IDNA 2008 standard from RFC 5891 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5891.html] and RFC 5895 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5895.html], use the third-party idna [https://pypi.org/project/idna/] module.

These RFCs together define a protocol to support non-ASCII characters in domain names. A domain name containing non-ASCII characters (such as www.Alliancefrançaise.nu) is converted into an ASCII-compatible encoding (ACE, such as www.xn--alliancefranaise-npb.nu). The ACE form of the domain name is then used in all places where arbitrary characters are not allowed by the protocol, such as DNS queries, HTTP Host fields, and so on. This conversion is carried out in the application; if possible invisible to the user: The application should transparently convert Unicode domain labels to IDNA on the wire, and convert back ACE labels to Unicode before presenting them to the user.

Python supports this conversion in several ways: the idna codec performs conversion between Unicode and ACE, separating an input string into labels based on the separator characters defined in section 3.1 of RFC 3490 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3490.html#section-3.1] and converting each label to ACE as required, and conversely separating an input byte string into labels based on the . separator and converting any ACE labels found into unicode. Furthermore, the socket module transparently converts Unicode host names to ACE, so that applications need not be concerned about converting host names themselves when they pass them to the socket module. On top of that, modules that have host names as function parameters, such as http.client and ftplib, accept Unicode host names (http.client then also transparently sends an IDNA hostname in the Host field if it sends that field at all).

When receiving host names from the wire (such as in reverse name lookup), no automatic conversion to Unicode is performed: applications wishing to present such host names to the user should decode them to Unicode.

The module encodings.idna also implements the nameprep procedure, which performs certain normalizations on host names, to achieve case-insensitivity of international domain names, and to unify similar characters. The nameprep functions can be used directly if desired.

encodings.idna.nameprep(label)

Return the nameprepped version of label. The implementation currently assumes query strings, so AllowUnassigned is true.

encodings.idna.ToASCII(label)

Convert a label to ASCII, as specified in RFC 3490 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3490.html]. UseSTD3ASCIIRules is assumed to be false.

encodings.idna.ToUnicode(label)

Convert a label to Unicode, as specified in RFC 3490 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3490.html].

encodings.mbcs --- Windows ANSI codepage

This module implements the ANSI codepage (CP_ACP).

Disponibilité: Windows.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Before 3.2, the errors argument was ignored; 'replace' was always used to encode, and 'ignore' to decode.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Support any error handler.

encodings.utf_8_sig --- UTF-8 codec with BOM signature

This module implements a variant of the UTF-8 codec. On encoding, a UTF-8 encoded BOM will be prepended to the UTF-8 encoded bytes. For the stateful encoder this is only done once (on the first write to the byte stream). On decoding, an optional UTF-8 encoded BOM at the start of the data will be skipped.

Types de données

Les modules documentés dans ce chapitre fournissent une gamme de types de données spécialisés tel que les dates et les heures, les listes à type prédéfini, les heap queue, les queues synchronisées et les énumérations.

Python fournit aussi quelques types natifs, typiquement dict, list, set, frozenset, et tuple. La classe str est utilisée pour stocker des chaînes Unicode, et les classes bytes et bytearray des données binaires.

Les modules suivants sont documentés dans ce chapitre :

datetime — Types de base pour la date et l'heure

Aware and naive objects

Constantes

Available types

Common properties

Determining if an object is aware or naive

timedelta objects

Examples of usage: timedelta

date objects

Examples of usage: date

datetime objects

Examples of usage: datetime

time objects

Examples of usage: time

tzinfo objects

timezone objects

strftime() and strptime() behavior

strftime() and strptime() format codes

Technical detail

zoneinfo --- IANA time zone support

Utilisation de ZoneInfo

Sources de données

Configurer les sources de données

Configuration à la compilation

Configuration par l'environnement

Configuration à l'exécution

La classe ZoneInfo

Représentation sous forme de chaîne de caractères

Sérialisation Pickle

Fonctions

Variables globales

Exceptions et avertissements

calendar --- General calendar-related functions

Command-line usage

collections --- Container datatypes

Objets ChainMap

Exemples et cas pratiques utilisant ChainMap

Objets Counter

Objets deque

Cas pratiques utilisant deque

Objets defaultdict

Exemples utilisant defaultdict

namedtuple() : fonction de construction pour n-uplets avec des champs nommés

Objets OrderedDict

Exemples et cas pratiques utilisant OrderDict

Objets UserDict

Objets UserList

Objets UserString

collections.abc --- Abstract Base Classes for Containers

Classes de base abstraites de collections

Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions

Exemples et recettes

heapq --- Heap queue algorithm

Exemples simples

Other Applications

Notes d'implémentation de la file de priorité

Théorie

bisect --- Array bisection algorithm

Notes sur la performance

Chercher dans des listes triées

Exemples

array --- Efficient arrays of numeric values

weakref --- Weak references

Objets à références faibles

Exemple

Finalizer Objects

Comparing finalizers with __del__() methods

types --- Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types

Dynamic Type Creation

Standard Interpreter Types

Additional Utility Classes and Functions

Coroutine Utility Functions

copy --- Shallow and deep copy operations

pprint — L’affichage élégant de données

Fonctions

Les Objets PrettyPrinter

Exemple

reprlib --- Alternate repr() implementation

Repr Objects

Subclassing Repr Objects

enum --- Support for enumerations

Module contents

Data types

Noms de la forme __dunder__ disponibles

Noms de la forme _sunder_ disponibles

Utilities and decorators

Notes

graphlib --- Functionality to operate with graph-like structures

Exceptions

datetime — Types de base pour la date et l'heure

Code source : Lib/datetime.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/datetime.py]

Le module datetime fournit des classes permettant de manipuler les dates et les heures.

Bien que les calculs de date et d'heure sont gérés, l'attention lors de l'implémentation s'est essentiellement portée sur l'efficacité de l'extraction des attributs en vue de leur manipulation et formatage pour l'affichage.

Astuce

Skip to the format codes.

Voir aussi

Module calendar

Fonctions génériques associées au calendrier.

Module time

Accès aux données d'horaires et aux conversions associées.

Module zoneinfo

Fuseaux horaires concrets représentant la base de données IANA.

Paquet dateutil [https://dateutil.readthedocs.io/en/stable/]

Bibliothèque tierce avec prise en charge complète du fuseau horaire et de l'analyse de dates sous forme textuelle.

Package DateType [https://pypi.org/project/DateType/]

Third-party library that introduces distinct static types to for example, allow static type checkers to differentiate between naive and aware datetimes.

Aware and naive objects

Les objets date et time peuvent être classés comme « avisés » ou « naïfs » selon qu'ils contiennent ou non des informations sur le fuseau horaire.

Un objet avisé possède suffisamment de connaissance des règles à appliquer et des politiques d'ajustement de l'heure comme les informations sur les fuseaux horaires et l'heure d'été pour se situer de façon relative par rapport à d'autres objets avisés. Un objet avisé est utilisé pour représenter un instant précis qui n'est pas ouvert à l'interprétation [1].

Un objet naïf ne comporte pas assez d'informations pour se situer sans ambiguïté par rapport à d'autres objets date/time. Le fait qu'un objet naïf représente un Temps universel coordonné (UTC), une heure locale ou une heure dans un autre fuseau horaire dépend complètement du programme, tout comme un nombre peut représenter une longueur, un poids ou une distance pour le programme. Les objets naïfs sont simples à comprendre et il est aisé de travailler avec, au prix de négliger certains aspects de la réalité.

For applications requiring aware objects, datetime and time objects have an optional time zone information attribute, tzinfo, that can be set to an instance of a subclass of the abstract tzinfo class. These tzinfo objects capture information about the offset from UTC time, the time zone name, and whether daylight saving time is in effect.

Notez qu'une seule classe concrète tzinfo, la classe timezone, est proposée par le module datetime. La classe timezone peut représenter des fuseaux horaires simples avec un décalage fixe par rapport à UTC, comme UTC lui-même ou les fuseaux EST et EDT d'Amérique du Nord. Gérer des fuseaux horaires d'un niveau de détails plus avancé est à la charge de l'application. Les règles d'ajustement du temps à travers le monde sont plus politiques que rationnelles, changent fréquemment, et il n'y a pas de standard qui vaille pour toute application, en dehors d'UTC.

Constantes

Le module datetime exporte les constantes suivantes :

datetime.MINYEAR

Le numéro d'année le plus petit autorisé dans un objet date ou datetime. MINYEAR vaut 1.

datetime.MAXYEAR

Le numéro d'année le plus grand autorisé dans un objet date ou datetime. MAXYEAR vaut 9999.

datetime.UTC

Alias du singleton de fuseau horaire UTC datetime.timezone.utc.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

Available types

class datetime.date

Une date naïve idéalisée, en supposant que le calendrier Grégorien actuel a toujours existé et qu'il existera toujours. Attributs : year, month et day.

class datetime.time

Un temps idéalisé, indépendant d'une date particulière, en supposant qu'une journée est composée d'exactement 24*60*60 secondes (il n'y a pas ici de notion de « seconde intercalaire »). Attributs : hour, minute, second, microsecond et tzinfo.

class datetime.datetime

Une combinaison d'une date et d'une heure. Attributs : year, month, day, hour, minute, second, microsecond, et tzinfo.

class datetime.timedelta

Une durée qui exprime la différence entre deux instances de datetime ou date en microsecondes.

class datetime.tzinfo

Une classe mère abstraite pour les objets portants des informations sur les fuseaux horaires. Ceux-ci sont utilisés par les classes datetime et time pour donner une notion personnalisable d'ajustement d'horaire (par exemple la prise en compte d'un fuseau horaire et/ou de l'heure d'été).

class datetime.timezone

Une classe qui implémente la classe mère abstraite tzinfo en tant que décalage fixe par rapport au temps UTC.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Les objets issus de ces types sont immuables.

Subclass relationships:

Common properties

Les types date, datetime, time, et timezone partagent les caractéristiques suivantes :

Les objets issus de ces types sont immuables.

Les objets de ces types sont hachable, ce qui signifie qu'ils peuvent être utilisés comme clés de dictionnaire.

Les objets de ces types peuvent être sérialisés efficacement par le module pickle.

Determining if an object is aware or naive

Les objets de type date sont toujours naïfs.

Un objet du type time ou datetime peut être avisé ou naïf.

Un objet datetime d est avisé si les deux conditions suivantes vérifient :

d.tzinfo ne vaut pas None

d.tzinfo.utcoffset(d) ne renvoie pas None

Autrement, d est naïf.

Un objet time t est avisé si les deux conditions suivantes vérifient :

t.tzinfo ne vaut pas None

t.tzinfo.utcoffset(None) ne renvoie pas None.

Autrement, t est naïf.

La distinction entre avisé et naïf ne s'applique pas aux objets de type timedelta.

timedelta objects

Un objet timedelta représente une durée, c'est-à-dire la différence entre deux instances de datetime ou date.

class datetime.timedelta(days=0, seconds=0, microseconds=0, milliseconds=0, minutes=0, hours=0, weeks=0)

Tous les arguments sont optionnels et ont 0 comme valeur par défaut. Les arguments peuvent être des entiers ou des flottants et ils peuvent être positifs ou négatifs.

Seuls les jours, les secondes et les microsecondes sont stockés en interne. Les arguments sont convertis dans ces unités :

Une milliseconde est convertie en 1000 microsecondes.

Une minute est convertie en 60 secondes.

Une heure est convertie en 3600 secondes.

Une semaine est convertie en 7 jours.

et ensuite les jours, secondes et microsecondes sont normalisés pour que la représentation soit unique avec

0 <= microseconds < 1000000

0 <= secondes < 3600*24 (le nombre de secondes dans une journée)

-999999999 <= days <= 999999999

L'exemple suivant illustre comment tous les arguments autres que days, seconds et microseconds sont « fusionnés » et normalisés dans ces trois attributs résultants :

>>> import datetime as dt
>>> delta = dt.timedelta(
...     days=50,
...     seconds=27,
...     microseconds=10,
...     milliseconds=29000,
...     minutes=5,
...     hours=8,
...     weeks=2
... )
>>> # Only days, seconds, and microseconds remain
>>> delta
datetime.timedelta(days=64, seconds=29156, microseconds=10)

Astuce

import datetime as dt instead of import datetime or from datetime import datetime to avoid confusion between the module and the class. See How I Import Python’s datetime Module [https://adamj.eu/tech/2019/09/12/how-i-import-pythons-datetime-module/].

Si l'un des arguments est un flottant et qu'il y a des microsecondes décimales, les microsecondes décimales laissées par les arguments sont combinées et leur somme est arrondie à la microseconde la plus proche en arrondissant les demis vers le nombre pair. Si aucun argument n'est flottant, les processus de conversion et de normalisation seront exacts (pas d'informations perdues).

Si la valeur normalisée des jours déborde de l'intervalle indiqué, une OverflowError est levée.

Notez que la normalisation de valeurs négatives peut être surprenante au premier abord. Par exemple :

>>> import datetime as dt
>>> d = dt.timedelta(microseconds=-1)
>>> (d.days, d.seconds, d.microseconds)
(-1, 86399, 999999)

Since the string representation of timedelta objects can be confusing, use the following recipe to produce a more readable format:

>>> def pretty_timedelta(td):
...     if td.days >= 0:
...         return str(td)
...     return f'-({-td!s})'
...
>>> d = timedelta(hours=-1)
>>> str(d)  # not human-friendly
'-1 day, 23:00:00'
>>> pretty_timedelta(d)
'-(1:00:00)'

Attributs de la classe :

timedelta.min

L'objet timedelta le plus négatif, timedelta(-999999999).

timedelta.max

L'objet timedelta le plus positif, timedelta(days=999999999, hours=23, minutes=59, seconds=59, microseconds=999999).

timedelta.resolution

La plus petite différence entre des objets timedelta non égaux, timedelta(microseconds=1).

Il est à noter, du fait de la normalisation, que timedelta.max est plus grand que -timedelta.min. -timedelta.max n'est pas représentable sous la forme d'un objet timedelta.

Attributs de l'instance (en lecture seule) :

timedelta.days

Entre -999999999 et 999999999 inclus

timedelta.seconds

Entre 0 et 86399 inclus.

Prudence

It is a somewhat common bug for code to unintentionally use this attribute when it is actually intended to get a total_seconds() value instead:

>>> import datetime as dt
>>> duration = dt.timedelta(seconds=11235813)
>>> duration.days, duration.seconds
(130, 3813)
>>> duration.total_seconds()
11235813.0

timedelta.microseconds

Entre 0 et 999999 inclus.

Opérations gérées :

Opération

Résultat

t1 = t2 + t3

Somme de t2 et t3. Ensuite t1 - t2 == t3 et t1 - t3 == t2 sont des expressions vraies. (1)

t1 = t2 - t3

Différence entre t2 et t3. Ensuite t1 == t2 - t3 et t2 == t1 + t3 sont des expressions vraies. (1)(6)

t1 = t2 * i or t1 = i * t2

Delta multiplié par un entier. Ensuite t1 // i == t2 est vrai, en admettant que i != 0.

De manière générale, t1  * i == t1  * (i-1) + t1 est vrai. (1)

t1 = t2 * f or t1 = f * t2

Delta multiplié par un flottant. Le résultat est arrondi au multiple le plus proche de timedelta.resolution en utilisant la règle de l'arrondi au pair le plus proche.

f = t2 / t3

Division (3) de la durée totale t2 par l'unité d'intervalle t3. Renvoie un objet float.

t1 = t2 / f or t1 = t2 / i

Delta divisé par un flottant ou un entier. Le résultat est arrondi au multiple le plus proche de timedelta.resolution en utilisant la règle de l'arrondi au pair le plus proche.

t1 = t2 // i or t1 = t2 // t3

Le quotient est calculé et le reste (s'il y en a un) est ignoré. Dans le second cas, un entier est renvoyé. (3)

t1 = t2 % t3

Le reste est calculé comme un objet de type timedelta. (3)

q, r = divmod(t1, t2)

Calcule le quotient et le reste : q = t1 // t2 (3) et r = t1 % t2. q est un entier et r est un objet timedelta.

+t1

Renvoie un objet timedelta avec la même valeur. (2)

-t1

Équivalent à timedelta(-t1.days, -t1.seconds, -t1.microseconds), et à t1 * -1. (1)(4)

abs(t)

Équivalent à +t quand t.days >= 0, et à -t quand t.days < 0. (2)

str(t)

Renvoie une chaîne de la forme [D day[s], ][H]H:MM:SS[.UUUUUU], où D est négatif pour t négatif. (5)

repr(t)

Renvoie une chaîne de la forme objet timedelta comme un appel construit avec des valeurs d'attributs canoniques.

Notes :

Ceci est exact, mais peut provoquer un débordement.

Ceci est exact, et ne peut pas provoquer un débordement.

Une division par zéro lève une ZeroDivisionError.

-timedelta.max n'est pas représentable avec un objet timedelta.

La représentation en chaîne des objets timedelta est normalisée similairement à leur représentation interne. Cela amène à des résultats inhabituels pour des timedeltas négatifs. Par exemple :

>>> timedelta(hours=-5)
datetime.timedelta(days=-1, seconds=68400)
>>> print(_)
-1 day, 19:00:00

L'expression t2 - t3 est toujours égale à l'expression t2 + (-t3) sauf si t3 vaut timedelta.max ; dans ce cas, la première expression produit une valeur alors que la seconde produit un débordement.

En plus des opérations listées ci-dessus, les objets timedelta implémentent certaines additions et soustractions avec des objets date et datetime (voir ci-dessous).

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Floor division and true division of a timedelta object by another timedelta object are now supported, as are remainder operations and the divmod() function. True division and multiplication of a timedelta object by a float object are now supported.

Les objets timedelta supportent les comparaisons d'égalité et d'ordre.

Dans les contextes booléens, un objet timedelta est considéré comme vrai si et seulement s'il n'est pas égal à timedelta(0).

Méthodes de l'instance :

timedelta.total_seconds()

Return the total number of seconds contained in the duration. Equivalent to td / timedelta(seconds=1). For interval units other than seconds, use the division form directly (for example, td / timedelta(microseconds=1)).

Notez que pour des intervalles de temps très larges (supérieurs à 270 ans sur la plupart des plateformes), cette méthode perdra la précision des microsecondes.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Examples of usage: timedelta

Un exemple supplémentaire de normalisation :

>>> # Components of another_year add up to exactly 365 days
>>> import datetime as dt
>>> year = dt.timedelta(days=365)
>>> another_year = dt.timedelta(weeks=40, days=84, hours=23,
...                             minutes=50, seconds=600)
>>> year == another_year
True
>>> year.total_seconds()
31536000.0

Exemples d'arithmétique avec la classe timedelta :

>>> import datetime as dt
>>> year = dt.timedelta(days=365)
>>> ten_years = 10 * year
>>> ten_years
datetime.timedelta(days=3650)
>>> ten_years.days // 365
10
>>> nine_years = ten_years - year
>>> nine_years
datetime.timedelta(days=3285)
>>> three_years = nine_years // 3
>>> three_years, three_years.days // 365
(datetime.timedelta(days=1095), 3)

date objects

Un objet date représente une date (année, mois et jour) dans un calendrier idéal, le calendrier grégorien actuel étant indéfiniment étendu dans les deux sens.

Le 1 er janvier de l'année 1 est appelé jour numéro 1, le 2 janvier de l'année 1 est appelé jour numéro 2, et ainsi de suite. [2]

class datetime.date(year, month, day)

Tous les arguments sont requis. Les arguments peuvent être des entiers, dans les intervalles suivants :

MINYEAR <= year <= MAXYEAR

1 <= month <= 12

1 <= day <= nombre de jours dans le mois et l'année donnés

Si un argument est donné en dehors de ces intervalles, une ValueError est levée.

Autres constructeurs, méthodes de classe :

classmethod date.today()

Renvoie la date locale courante.

Cela est équivalent à date.fromtimestamp(time.time()).

classmethod date.fromtimestamp(timestamp)

Return the local date corresponding to the POSIX timestamp, such as is returned by time.time().

Elle peut lever une OverflowError, si l'horodatage est en dehors des bornes gérées par la fonction C localtime() de la plateforme, et une exception OSError en cas d'échec de localtime(). Il est commun d'être restreint aux années entre 1970 et 2038. Notez que sur les systèmes non POSIX qui incluent les secondes intercalaires dans leur notion d'horodatage, ces secondes sont ignorées par fromtimestamp().

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Lève une OverflowError plutôt qu'une ValueError si l'horodatage (timestamp en anglais) est en dehors des bornes gérées par la fonction C localtime() de la plateforme. Lève une OSError plutôt qu'une ValueError en cas d'échec de localtime().

classmethod date.fromordinal(ordinal)

Return the date corresponding to the proleptic Gregorian ordinal, where January 1 of year 1 has ordinal 1.

ValueError est levée à moins que 1 <= ordinal <= date.max.toordinal(). Pour toute date d, date.fromordinal(d.toordinal()) == d.

classmethod date.fromisoformat(date_string)

Renvoie une date correspondant à date_string dans un format ISO 8601 valide, avec les exceptions suivantes :

Les dates à précision réduite ne sont actuellement pas gérées (YYYY-MM, YYYY).

Extended date representations are not currently supported (±YYYYYY-MM-DD).

Ordinal dates are not currently supported (YYYY-OOO).

Exemples :

>>> import datetime as dt
>>> dt.date.fromisoformat('2019-12-04')
datetime.date(2019, 12, 4)
>>> dt.date.fromisoformat('20191204')
datetime.date(2019, 12, 4)
>>> dt.date.fromisoformat('2021-W01-1')
datetime.date(2021, 1, 4)

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Auparavant, cette méthode prenait en charge seulement le format YYYY-MM-DD.

classmethod date.fromisocalendar(year, week, day)

Return a date corresponding to the ISO calendar date specified by year, week and day. This is the inverse of the function date.isocalendar().

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

classmethod date.strptime(date_string, format)

Return a date corresponding to date_string, parsed according to format. This is equivalent to:

date(*(time.strptime(date_string, format)[0:3]))

ValueError is raised if the date_string and format can't be parsed by time.strptime() or if it returns a value which isn't a time tuple. See also strftime() and strptime() behavior and date.fromisoformat().

Note

If format specifies a day of month without a year a DeprecationWarning is emitted. This is to avoid a quadrennial leap year bug in code seeking to parse only a month and day as the default year used in absence of one in the format is not a leap year. Such format values may raise an error as of Python 3.15. The workaround is to always include a year in your format. If parsing date_string values that do not have a year, explicitly add a year that is a leap year before parsing:

>>> import datetime as dt
>>> date_string = "02/29"
>>> when = dt.date.strptime(f"{date_string};1984", "%m/%d;%Y")  # Avoids leap year bug.
>>> when.strftime("%B %d")
'February 29'

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Attributs de la classe :

date.min

La plus vieille date représentable, date(MINYEAR, 1, 1).

date.max

La dernière date représentable, date(MAXYEAR, 12, 31).

date.resolution

La plus petite différence possible entre deux objets dates non-égaux, timedelta(days=1).

Attributs de l'instance (en lecture seule) :

date.year

Entre MINYEAR et MAXYEAR inclus.

date.month

Entre 1 et 12 inclus.

date.day

Entre 1 et le nombre de jours du mois donné de l'année donnée.

Opérations gérées :

Opération

Résultat

date2 = date1 + timedelta

date2 will be timedelta.days days after date1. (1)

date2 = date1 - timedelta

Computes date2 such that date2 + timedelta == date1. (2)

timedelta = date1 - date2

(3)

date1 == date2

date1 != date2

Equality comparison. (4)

date1 < date2

date1 > date2

date1 <= date2

date1 >= date2

Order comparison. (5)

Notes :

date2 est déplacée en avant dans le temps si timedelta.days > 0, ou en arrière si timedelta.days < 0. Après quoi date2 - date1 == timedelta.days. timedelta.seconds et timedelta.microseconds sont ignorés. Une OverflowError est levée si date2.year devait être inférieure à MINYEAR ou supérieure à MAXYEAR.

timedelta.seconds et timedelta.microseconds sont ignorés.

This is exact, and cannot overflow. timedelta.seconds and timedelta.microseconds are 0, and date2 + timedelta == date1 after.

date objects are equal if they represent the same date.

date objects that are not also datetime instances are never equal to datetime objects, even if they represent the same date.

date1 is considered less than date2 when date1 precedes date2 in time. In other words, date1 < date2 if and only if date1.toordinal() < date2.toordinal().

Order comparison between a date object that is not also a datetime instance and a datetime object raises TypeError.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Comparison between datetime object and an instance of the date subclass that is not a datetime subclass no longer converts the latter to date, ignoring the time part and the time zone. The default behavior can be changed by overriding the special comparison methods in subclasses.

Dans des contextes booléens, tous les objets date sont considérés comme vrai.

Méthodes de l'instance :

date.replace(year=self.year, month=self.month, day=self.day)

Return a new date object with the same values, but with specified parameters updated.

Exemple :

>>> import datetime as dt
>>> d = dt.date(2002, 12, 31)
>>> d.replace(day=26)
datetime.date(2002, 12, 26)

The generic function copy.replace() also supports date objects.

date.timetuple()

Renvoie une time.struct_time telle que renvoyée par time.localtime().

Les heures, minutes et secondes sont égales à 0 et le drapeau DST vaut -1.

d.timetuple() est équivalent à :

time.struct_time((d.year, d.month, d.day, 0, 0, 0, d.weekday(), yday, -1))

where yday = d.toordinal() - date(d.year, 1, 1).toordinal() + 1 is the day number within the current year starting with 1 for January 1st.

date.toordinal()

Return the proleptic Gregorian ordinal of the date, where January 1 of year 1 has ordinal 1. For any date object d, date.fromordinal(d.toordinal()) == d.

date.weekday()

Renvoie le jour de la semaine sous forme de nombre, où lundi vaut 0 et dimanche vaut 6. Par exemple, date(2002, 12, 4).weekday() == 2, un mercredi. Voir aussi isoweekday().

date.isoweekday()

Renvoie le jour de la semaine sous forme de nombre, où lundi vaut 1 et dimanche vaut 7. Par exemple, date(2002, 12, 4).isoweekday() == 3, un mercredi. Voir aussi weekday(), isocalendar().

date.isocalendar()

Renvoie un objet named tuple avec trois composants : year, week et weekday.

Le calendrier ISO est une variante largement utilisée du calendrier grégorien. [3]

Une année ISO est composée de 52 ou 53 semaines pleines, où chaque semaine débute un lundi et se termine un dimanche. La première semaine d'une année ISO est la première semaine calendaire (grégorienne) de l'année comportant un jeudi. Elle est appelée la semaine numéro 1, et l'année ISO de ce jeudi est la même que son année Grégorienne.

Par exemple, l'année 2004 débute un jeudi, donc la première semaine de l'année ISO 2004 débute le lundi 29 décembre 2003 et se termine le dimanche 4 janvier 2004 :

>>> import datetime as dt
>>> dt.date(2003, 12, 29).isocalendar()
datetime.IsoCalendarDate(year=2004, week=1, weekday=1)
>>> dt.date(2004, 1, 4).isocalendar()
datetime.IsoCalendarDate(year=2004, week=1, weekday=7)

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Le résultat a changé d'un n-uplet à un named tuple.

date.isoformat()

Renvoie une chaîne représentant la date au format ISO 8601, YYYY-MM-DD :

>>> import datetime as dt
>>> dt.date(2002, 12, 4).isoformat()
'2002-12-04'

date.__str__()

For a date d, str(d) is equivalent to d.isoformat().

date.ctime()

Renvoie une chaîne représentant la date :

>>> import datetime as dt
>>> dt.date(2002, 12, 4).ctime()
'Wed Dec  4 00:00:00 2002'

d.ctime() est équivalent à :

time.ctime(time.mktime(d.timetuple()))

sur les plateformes où la fonction C native ctime() (que time.ctime() invoque, mais pas date.ctime()) est conforme au standard C.

date.strftime(format)

Renvoie une chaîne représentant la date, contrôlée par une chaîne de formatage explicite. Les codes de formatage se référant aux heures, minutes ou secondes auront pour valeur 0. Voir strftime() and strptime() behavior et date.isoformat().

date.__format__(format)

Identique à date.strftime(). Cela permet de spécifier une chaîne de formatage pour un objet date dans une chaîne de formatage littérale et à l'utilisation de str.format(). Voir strftime() and strptime() behavior et date.isoformat().

Examples of usage: date

Exemple de décompte des jours avant un évènement :

>>> import time
>>> import datetime as dt
>>> today = dt.date.today()
>>> today
datetime.date(2007, 12, 5)
>>> today == dt.date.fromtimestamp(time.time())
True
>>> my_birthday = dt.date(today.year, 6, 24)
>>> if my_birthday < today:
...     my_birthday = my_birthday.replace(year=today.year + 1)
...
>>> my_birthday
datetime.date(2008, 6, 24)
>>> time_to_birthday = abs(my_birthday - today)
>>> time_to_birthday.days
202

Plus d'exemples avec la classe date :

>>> import datetime as dt
>>> d = dt.date.fromordinal(730920) # 730920th day after 1. 1. 0001
>>> d
datetime.date(2002, 3, 11)

>>> # Methods related to formatting string output
>>> d.isoformat()
'2002-03-11'
>>> d.strftime("%d/%m/%y")
'11/03/02'
>>> d.strftime("%A %d. %B %Y")
'Monday 11. March 2002'
>>> d.ctime()
'Mon Mar 11 00:00:00 2002'
>>> 'The {1} is {0:%d}, the {2} is {0:%B}.'.format(d, "day", "month")
'The day is 11, the month is March.'

>>> # Methods for extracting 'components' under different calendars
>>> t = d.timetuple()
>>> for i in t:
...     print(i)
2002                # year
3                   # month
11                  # day
0
0
0
0                   # weekday (0 = Monday)
70                  # 70th day in the year
-1
>>> ic = d.isocalendar()
>>> for i in ic:
...     print(i)
2002                # ISO year
11                  # ISO week number
1                   # ISO day number ( 1 = Monday )

>>> # A date object is immutable; all operations produce a new object
>>> d.replace(year=2005)
datetime.date(2005, 3, 11)

datetime objects

Un objet datetime est un seul et même objet contenant toute l'information d'un objet date et d'un objet time.

Like a date object, datetime assumes the current Gregorian calendar extended in both directions; like a time object, datetime assumes there are exactly 3600*24 seconds in every day.

Constructeur :

class datetime.datetime(year, month, day, hour=0, minute=0, second=0, microsecond=0, tzinfo=None, *, fold=0)

Les arguments year, month et day sont requis. tzinfo peut être None ou une instance d'une sous-classe de tzinfo. Les arguments restant doivent être des nombres, dans les intervalles suivants :

MINYEAR <= year <= MAXYEAR,

1 <= month <= 12,

1 <= day <= nombre de jours dans le mois donné de l'année donnée,

0 <= hour < 24,

0 <= minute < 60,

0 <= second < 60,

0 <= microsecond < 1000000,

fold in [0, 1].

Si un argument est donné en dehors de ces intervalles, une ValueError est levée.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Added the fold parameter.

Autres constructeurs, méthodes de classe :

classmethod datetime.today()

Return the current local date and time, with tzinfo None.

Équivalent à :

datetime.fromtimestamp(time.time())

Voir aussi now(), fromtimestamp().

Cette méthode est fonctionnellement équivalente à now(), mais sans le paramètre tz.

classmethod datetime.now(tz=None)

Renvoie la date et l'heure locale actuelle.

Si l'argument optionnel tz est None ou n'est pas spécifié, la méthode est similaire à today(), mais, si possible, apporte plus de précisions que ce qui peut être trouvé à travers un horodatage time.time() (par exemple, cela peut être possible sur des plateformes fournissant la fonction C gettimeofday()).

Si tz n'est pas None, il doit être une instance d'une sous-classe tzinfo, et la date et l'heure courantes sont converties vers le fuseau horaire tz.

Cette fonction est préférée à today() et utcnow().

Note

Subsequent calls to datetime.now() may return the same instant depending on the precision of the underlying clock.

classmethod datetime.utcnow()

Renvoie la date et l'heure UTC actuelle, avec tzinfo None.

C'est semblable à now(), mais renvoie la date et l'heure UTC courantes, comme un objet datetime naïf. Un datetime UTC courant avisé peut être obtenu en appelant datetime.now(timezone.utc). Voir aussi now().

Avertissement

Parce que les objets naïfs datetime sont traités par de nombreuses méthodes datetime comme des heures locales, il est préférable d'utiliser les dates connues pour représenter les heures en UTC. En tant que tel, le moyen recommandé pour créer un objet représentant l'heure actuelle en UTC est d'appeler datetime.now(timezone.utc).

Obsolète depuis la version 3.12: Use datetime.now() with UTC instead.

classmethod datetime.fromtimestamp(timestamp, tz=None)

Renvoie la date et l'heure locales correspondant à l'horodatage (timestamp en anglais) POSIX, comme renvoyé par time.time(). Si l'argument optionnel tz est None ou n'est pas spécifié, l'horodatage est converti vers la date et l'heure locales de la plateforme, et l'objet datetime renvoyé est naïf.

Si tz n'est pas None, il doit être une instance d'une sous-classe tzinfo, et l'horodatage (timestamp en anglais) est converti vers le fuseau horaire tz.

fromtimestamp() peut lever une OverflowError, si l'horodatage est en dehors de l'intervalle de valeurs gérées par les fonctions C localtime() ou gmtime() de la plateforme, et une OSError en cas d'échec de localtime() ou gmtime(). Il est courant d'être restreint aux années de 1970 à 2038. Notez que sur les systèmes non POSIX qui incluent les secondes intercalaires dans leur notion d'horodatage, les secondes intercalaires sont ignorées par fromtimestamp(), et il est alors possible d'avoir deux horodatages différant d'une seconde produisant un objet datetime identique. Cette méthode est préférée à utcfromtimestamp().

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Lève une OverflowError plutôt qu'une ValueError si l'horodatage est en dehors de l'intervalle de valeurs gérées par les fonctions C localtime() ou gmtime() de la plateforme. Lève une OSError plutôt qu'une ValueError en cas d'échec de localtime() ou gmtime().

Modifié dans la version 3.6: fromtimestamp() peut renvoyer des instances avec l'attribut fold à 1.

classmethod datetime.utcfromtimestamp(timestamp)

Renvoie la classe UTC datetime correspondant à l'horodatage POSIX, avec tzinfo None (l'objet résultant est naïf).

Cela peut lever une OverflowError, si l'horodatage est en dehors de l'intervalle de valeurs gérées par la fonction C gmtime() de la plateforme, et une OSError en cas d'échec de gmtime(). Il est courant d'être restreint aux années de 1970 à 2038.

Pour obtenir un objet datetime avisé, appelez fromtimestamp() :

datetime.fromtimestamp(timestamp, timezone.utc)

Sur les plateformes respectant POSIX, cela est équivalent à l'expression suivante :

datetime(1970, 1, 1, tzinfo=timezone.utc) + timedelta(seconds=timestamp)

excepté que la dernière formule gère l'intervalle complet des années entre MINYEAR et MAXYEAR incluses.

Avertissement

Parce que les objets naïfs datetime sont traités par de nombreuses méthodes datetime comme des heures locales, il est préférable d'utiliser les dates connues pour représenter les heures en UTC. En tant que tel, le moyen recommandé pour créer un objet représentant un horodatage spécifique en UTC est d'appeler datetime.fromtimestamp(timestamp, tz=timezone.utc).

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Lève une OverflowError plutôt qu'une ValueError si l'horodatage est en dehors de l'intervalle de valeurs gérées par la fonction C gmtime() de la plateforme. Lève une OSError plutôt qu'une ValueError en cas d'échec de gmtime().

Modifié dans la version 3.15: Accepts any real number as timestamp, not only integer or float.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.12: Use datetime.fromtimestamp() with UTC instead.

classmethod datetime.fromordinal(ordinal)

Renvoie le datetime correspondant à l'ordinal du calendrier grégorien proleptique, où le 1er janvier de l'an 1 a l'ordinal 1. Une ValueError est levée à moins que 1 <= ordinal <= datetime.max.toordinal(). Les heures, minutes, secondes et microsecondes du résultat valent toutes 0, et tzinfo est None.

classmethod datetime.combine(date, time, tzinfo=time.tzinfo)

Return a new datetime object whose date components are equal to the given date object's, and whose time components are equal to the given time object's. If the tzinfo argument is provided, its value is used to set the tzinfo attribute of the result, otherwise the tzinfo attribute of the time argument is used. If the date argument is a datetime object, its time components and tzinfo attributes are ignored.

For any datetime object d, d == datetime.combine(d.date(), d.time(), d.tzinfo).

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Ajout de l'argument tzinfo.

classmethod datetime.fromisoformat(date_string)

Renvoie une classe datetime correspondant à date_string dans un format ISO 8601 valide, avec les exceptions suivantes :

Les décalages de fuseaux horaires peuvent comporter des fractions de secondes.

Le séparateur T peut être remplacé par n'importe quel caractère Unicode.

Les fractions d'heures et de minutes ne sont pas gérées.

Les dates à précision réduite ne sont actuellement pas gérées (YYYY-MM, YYYY).

Extended date representations are not currently supported (±YYYYYY-MM-DD).

Ordinal dates are not currently supported (YYYY-OOO).

Exemples :

>>> import datetime as dt
>>> dt.datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04')
datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 0)
>>> dt.datetime.fromisoformat('20111104')
datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 0)
>>> dt.datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04T00:05:23')
datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 5, 23)
>>> dt.datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04T00:05:23Z')
datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 5, 23, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)
>>> dt.datetime.fromisoformat('20111104T000523')
datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 5, 23)
>>> dt.datetime.fromisoformat('2011-W01-2T00:05:23.283')
datetime.datetime(2011, 1, 4, 0, 5, 23, 283000)
>>> dt.datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04 00:05:23.283')
datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 5, 23, 283000)
>>> dt.datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04 00:05:23.283+00:00')
datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 5, 23, 283000, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)
>>> dt.datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04T00:05:23+04:00')
datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 5, 23,
    tzinfo=datetime.timezone(datetime.timedelta(seconds=14400)))

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Previously, this method only supported formats that could be emitted by date.isoformat() or datetime.isoformat().

classmethod datetime.fromisocalendar(year, week, day)

Return a datetime corresponding to the ISO calendar date specified by year, week and day. The non-date components of the datetime are populated with their normal default values. This is the inverse of the function datetime.isocalendar().

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

classmethod datetime.strptime(date_string, format)

Renvoie une classe datetime correspondant à date_string, analysée selon format.

If format does not contain microseconds or time zone information, this is equivalent to:

datetime(*(time.strptime(date_string, format)[0:6]))

Une ValueError est levée si date_string et format ne peuvent être analysés par time.strptime() ou si elle renvoie une valeur qui n'est pas un n-uplet de temps. Voir strftime() and strptime() behavior et datetime.fromisoformat().

Modifié dans la version 3.13: If format specifies a day of month without a year a DeprecationWarning is now emitted. This is to avoid a quadrennial leap year bug in code seeking to parse only a month and day as the default year used in absence of one in the format is not a leap year. Such format values may raise an error as of Python 3.15. The workaround is to always include a year in your format. If parsing date_string values that do not have a year, explicitly add a year that is a leap year before parsing:

>>> import datetime as dt
>>> date_string = "02/29"
>>> when = dt.datetime.strptime(f"{date_string};1984", "%m/%d;%Y")  # Avoids leap year bug.
>>> when.strftime("%B %d")
'February 29'

Attributs de la classe :

datetime.min

Le plus ancien datetime représentable, datetime(MINYEAR, 1, 1, tzinfo=None).

datetime.max

Le dernier datetime représentable, datetime(MAXYEAR, 12, 31, 23, 59, 59, 999999, tzinfo=None).

datetime.resolution

La plus petite différence possible entre deux objets datetime non-égaux, timedelta(microseconds=1).

Attributs de l'instance (en lecture seule) :

datetime.year

Entre MINYEAR et MAXYEAR inclus.

datetime.month

Entre 1 et 12 inclus.

datetime.day

Entre 1 et le nombre de jours du mois donné de l'année donnée.

datetime.hour

Dans range(24).

datetime.minute

Dans range(60).

datetime.second

Dans range(60).

datetime.microsecond

Dans range(1000000).

datetime.tzinfo

L'objet passé en tant que paramètre tzinfo du constructeur de la classe datetime ou None si aucun n'a été donné.

datetime.fold

In [0, 1]. Used to disambiguate wall times during a repeated interval. (A repeated interval occurs when clocks are rolled back at the end of daylight saving time or when the UTC offset for the current zone is decreased for political reasons.) The values 0 and 1 represent, respectively, the earlier and later of the two moments with the same wall time representation.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

Opérations gérées :

Opération

Résultat

datetime2 = datetime1 + timedelta

(1)

datetime2 = datetime1 - timedelta

(2)

timedelta = datetime1 - datetime2

(3)

datetime1 == datetime2

datetime1 != datetime2

Equality comparison. (4)

datetime1 < datetime2

datetime1 > datetime2

datetime1 <= datetime2

datetime1 >= datetime2

Order comparison. (5)

datetime2 is a duration of timedelta removed from datetime1, moving forward in time if timedelta.days > 0, or backward if timedelta.days < 0. The result has the same tzinfo attribute as the input datetime, and datetime2 - datetime1 == timedelta after. OverflowError is raised if datetime2.year would be smaller than MINYEAR or larger than MAXYEAR. Note that no time zone adjustments are done even if the input is an aware object.

Computes the datetime2 such that datetime2 + timedelta == datetime1. As for addition, the result has the same tzinfo attribute as the input datetime, and no time zone adjustments are done even if the input is aware.

Subtraction of a datetime from a datetime is defined only if both operands are naive, or if both are aware. If one is aware and the other is naive, TypeError is raised.

If both are naive, or both are aware and have the same tzinfo attribute, the tzinfo attributes are ignored, and the result is a timedelta object t such that datetime2 + t == datetime1. No time zone adjustments are done in this case.

If both are aware and have different tzinfo attributes, a-b acts as if a and b were first converted to naive UTC datetimes. The result is (a.replace(tzinfo=None) - a.utcoffset()) - (b.replace(tzinfo=None) - b.utcoffset()) except that the implementation never overflows.

datetime objects are equal if they represent the same date and time, taking into account the time zone.

Naive and aware datetime objects are never equal.

If both comparands are aware, and have the same tzinfo attribute, the tzinfo and fold attributes are ignored and the base datetimes are compared. If both comparands are aware and have different tzinfo attributes, the comparison acts as comparands were first converted to UTC datetimes except that the implementation never overflows. datetime instances in a repeated interval are never equal to datetime instances in other time zone.

datetime1 is considered less than datetime2 when datetime1 precedes datetime2 in time, taking into account the time zone.

Order comparison between naive and aware datetime objects raises TypeError.

If both comparands are aware, and have the same tzinfo attribute, the tzinfo and fold attributes are ignored and the base datetimes are compared. If both comparands are aware and have different tzinfo attributes, the comparison acts as comparands were first converted to UTC datetimes except that the implementation never overflows.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Les comparaisons d'égalité entre des instances datetime naïves et avisées ne lèvent pas d'exception TypeError.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Comparison between datetime object and an instance of the date subclass that is not a datetime subclass no longer converts the latter to date, ignoring the time part and the time zone. The default behavior can be changed by overriding the special comparison methods in subclasses.

Méthodes de l'instance :

datetime.date()

Renvoie un objet date avec les mêmes année, mois et jour.

datetime.time()

Renvoie un objet time avec les mêmes heures, minutes, secondes, microsecondes et fold. tzinfo est None. Voir aussi la méthode timetz().

Modifié dans la version 3.6: La valeur fold est copiée vers l'objet time renvoyé.

datetime.timetz()

Renvoie un objet time avec les mêmes attributs heure, minute, seconde, microseconde, fold et tzinfo. Voir aussi la méthode time().

Modifié dans la version 3.6: La valeur fold est copiée vers l'objet time renvoyé.

datetime.replace(year=self.year, month=self.month, day=self.day, hour=self.hour, minute=self.minute, second=self.second, microsecond=self.microsecond, tzinfo=self.tzinfo, *, fold=0)

Return a new datetime object with the same attributes, but with specified parameters updated. Note that tzinfo=None can be specified to create a naive datetime from an aware datetime with no conversion of date and time data.

datetime objects are also supported by generic function copy.replace().

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Added the fold parameter.

datetime.astimezone(tz=None)

Renvoie un objet datetime avec un nouvel attribut tzinfo valant tz, ajustant la date et l'heure pour que le résultat soit le même temps UTC que self, mais dans le temps local au fuseau tz.

If provided, tz must be an instance of a tzinfo subclass, and its utcoffset() and dst() methods must not return None. If self is naive, it is presumed to represent time in the system time zone.

If called without arguments (or with tz=None) the system local time zone is assumed for the target time zone. The .tzinfo attribute of the converted datetime instance will be set to an instance of timezone with the zone name and offset obtained from the OS.

If self.tzinfo is tz, self.astimezone(tz) is equal to self: no adjustment of date or time data is performed. Else the result is local time in the time zone tz, representing the same UTC time as self: after astz = dt.astimezone(tz), astz - astz.utcoffset() will have the same date and time data as dt - dt.utcoffset().

If you merely want to attach a timezone object tz to a datetime dt without adjustment of date and time data, use dt.replace(tzinfo=tz). If you merely want to remove the timezone object from an aware datetime dt without conversion of date and time data, use dt.replace(tzinfo=None).

Notez que la méthode par défaut tzinfo.fromutc() peut être redéfinie dans une sous-classe tzinfo pour affecter le résultat renvoyé par astimezone(). En ignorant les cas d'erreurs, astimezone() se comporte comme :

def astimezone(self, tz):
    if self.tzinfo is tz:
        return self
    # Convert self to UTC, and attach the new timezone object.
    utc = (self - self.utcoffset()).replace(tzinfo=tz)
    # Convert from UTC to tz's local time.
    return tz.fromutc(utc)

Modifié dans la version 3.3: tz peut maintenant être omis.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: La méthode astimezone() peut maintenant être appelée sur des instances naïves qui sont supposées représenter un temps local au système.

datetime.utcoffset()

Si tzinfo est None, renvoie None, sinon renvoie self.tzinfo.utcoffset(self), et lève une exception si l'expression précédente ne renvoie pas None ou un objet timedelta d'une magnitude inférieure à un jour.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Le décalage UTC peut aussi être autre chose qu'un ensemble de minutes.

datetime.dst()

Si tzinfo est None, renvoie None, sinon renvoie self.tzinfo.dst(self), et lève une exception si l'expression précédente ne renvoie pas None ou un objet timedelta d'une magnitude inférieure à un jour.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Le décalage DST n'est pas restreint à des minutes entières.

datetime.tzname()

Si tzinfo est None, renvoie None, sinon renvoie self.tzinfo.tzname(self), lève une exception si l'expression précédente ne renvoie pas None ou une chaîne de caractères,

datetime.timetuple()

Renvoie une time.struct_time telle que renvoyée par time.localtime().

d.timetuple() est équivalent à :

time.struct_time((d.year, d.month, d.day,
                  d.hour, d.minute, d.second,
                  d.weekday(), yday, dst))

where yday = d.toordinal() - date(d.year, 1, 1).toordinal() + 1 is the day number within the current year starting with 1 for January 1st. The tm_isdst flag of the result is set according to the dst() method: tzinfo is None or dst() returns None, tm_isdst is set to -1; else if dst() returns a non-zero value, tm_isdst is set to 1; else tm_isdst is set to 0.

datetime.utctimetuple()

If datetime instance d is naive, this is the same as d.timetuple() except that tm_isdst is forced to 0 regardless of what d.dst() returns. DST is never in effect for a UTC time.

If d is aware, d is normalized to UTC time, by subtracting d.utcoffset(), and a time.struct_time for the normalized time is returned. tm_isdst is forced to 0. Note that an OverflowError may be raised if d.year was MINYEAR or MAXYEAR and UTC adjustment spills over a year boundary.

Avertissement

Comme les objets datetime naïfs sont traités par de nombreuses méthodes datetime comme des heures locales, il est préférable d'utiliser les datetime avisés pour représenter les heures en UTC ; par conséquent, l'utilisation de datetime.utcfromtimetuple() peut donner des résultats trompeurs. Si vous disposez d'une datetime naïve représentant l'heure UTC, utilisez datetime.replace(tzinfo=timezone.utc) pour la rendre avisée, puis vous pouvez utiliser datetime.timetuple().

datetime.toordinal()

Renvoie l'ordinal du calendrier grégorien proleptique de cette date. Identique à self.date().toordinal().

datetime.timestamp()

Renvoie l'horodatage POSIX correspondant à l'instance datetime. La valeur renvoyée est un float similaire à ceux renvoyés par time.time().

Naive datetime instances are assumed to represent local time and this method relies on the platform C mktime() function to perform the conversion. Since datetime supports wider range of values than mktime() on many platforms, this method may raise OverflowError or OSError for times far in the past or far in the future.

Pour les instances datetime avisées, la valeur renvoyée est calculée comme suit :

(dt - datetime(1970, 1, 1, tzinfo=timezone.utc)).total_seconds()

Note

There is no method to obtain the POSIX timestamp directly from a naive datetime instance representing UTC time. If your application uses this convention and your system time zone is not set to UTC, you can obtain the POSIX timestamp by supplying tzinfo=timezone.utc:

timestamp = dt.replace(tzinfo=timezone.utc).timestamp()

ou en calculant l'horodatage (timestamp en anglais) directement :

timestamp = (dt - datetime(1970, 1, 1)) / timedelta(seconds=1)

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: La méthode timestamp() utilise l'attribut fold pour désambiguïser le temps dans un intervalle répété.

datetime.weekday()

Renvoie le jour de la semaine sous forme de nombre, où lundi vaut 0 et dimanche vaut 6. Identique à self.date().weekday(). Voir aussi isoweekday().

datetime.isoweekday()

Renvoie le jour de la semaine sous forme de nombre, où lundi vaut 1 et dimanche vaut 7. Identique à self.date().isoweekday(). Voir aussi weekday(), isocalendar().

datetime.isocalendar()

Renvoie un n-uplet nommé de 3 éléments : year, week et weekday. Identique à self.date().isocalendar().

datetime.isoformat(sep='T', timespec='auto')

Renvoie une chaîne représentant la date et l'heure au format ISO 8601 :

YYYY-MM-DDTHH:MM:SS.ffffff, si microsecond ne vaut pas 0

YYYY-MM-DDTHH:MM:SS, si microsecond vaut 0

Si utcoffset() ne renvoie pas None, une chaîne est ajoutée, donnant le décalage UTC :

YYYY-MM-DDTHH:MM:SS.ffffff+HH:MM[:SS[.ffffff]], si microsecond ne vaut pas 0

YYYY-MM-DDTHH:MM:SS+HH:MM[:SS[.ffffff]], si microsecond vaut 0

Exemples :

>>> import datetime as dt
>>> dt.datetime(2019, 5, 18, 15, 17, 8, 132263).isoformat()
'2019-05-18T15:17:08.132263'
>>> dt.datetime(2019, 5, 18, 15, 17, tzinfo=dt.timezone.utc).isoformat()
'2019-05-18T15:17:00+00:00'

L'argument optionnel sep (par défaut 'T') est un séparateur d'un caractère, placé entre les portions du résultat correspondant à la date et à l'heure. Par exemple :

>>> import datetime as dt
>>> class TZ(dt.tzinfo):
...     """A time zone with an arbitrary, constant -06:39 offset."""
...     def utcoffset(self, when):
...         return dt.timedelta(hours=-6, minutes=-39)
...
>>> dt.datetime(2002, 12, 25, tzinfo=TZ()).isoformat(' ')
'2002-12-25 00:00:00-06:39'
>>> dt.datetime(2009, 11, 27, microsecond=100, tzinfo=TZ()).isoformat()
'2009-11-27T00:00:00.000100-06:39'

L'argument optionnel timespec spécifie le nombre de composants additionnels de temps à inclure (par défaut 'auto'). Il peut valoir l'une des valeurs suivantes :

'auto' : Identique à 'seconds' si microsecond vaut 0, à 'microseconds' sinon.

'hours' : Inclut hour au format à deux chiffres HH.

'minutes' : Inclut hour et minute au format HH:MM.

'seconds' : Inclut hour, minute et second au format HH:MM:SS.

'milliseconds' : Inclut le temps complet, mais tronque la partie fractionnaire des millisecondes, au format HH:MM:SS.sss.

'microseconds' : Inclut le temps complet, au format HH:MM:SS.ffffff.

Note

Les composants de temps exclus sont tronqués et non arrondis.

Une ValueError est levée en cas d'argument timespec invalide :

>>> import datetime as dt
>>> dt.datetime.now().isoformat(timespec='minutes')
'2002-12-25T00:00'
>>> my_datetime = dt.datetime(2015, 1, 1, 12, 30, 59, 0)
>>> my_datetime.isoformat(timespec='microseconds')
'2015-01-01T12:30:59.000000'

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Added the timespec parameter.

datetime.__str__()

For a datetime instance d, str(d) is equivalent to d.isoformat(' ').

datetime.ctime()

Renvoie une chaîne représentant la date et l'heure :

>>> import datetime as dt
>>> dt.datetime(2002, 12, 4, 20, 30, 40).ctime()
'Wed Dec  4 20:30:40 2002'

La chaîne de caractères en sortie n'inclura pas d'informations sur le fuseau horaire, que l'entrée soit avisée ou naïve.

d.ctime() est équivalent à :

time.ctime(time.mktime(d.timetuple()))

sur les plateformes où la fonction C native ctime() (que time.ctime() invoque, mais pas datetime.ctime()) est conforme au standard C.

datetime.strftime(format)

Renvoie une chaîne représentant la date et l'heure, contrôlée par une chaîne de format explicite. Voir strftime() and strptime() behavior et datetime.isoformat().

datetime.__format__(format)

Identique à datetime.strftime(). Cela permet de spécifier une chaîne de format pour un objet datetime dans une chaîne de formatage littérale et en utilisant str.format(). Voir strftime() and strptime() behavior et datetime.isoformat().

Examples of usage: datetime

Examples of working with datetime objects:

>>> import datetime as dt

>>> # Using datetime.combine()
>>> d = dt.date(2005, 7, 14)
>>> t = dt.time(12, 30)
>>> dt.datetime.combine(d, t)
datetime.datetime(2005, 7, 14, 12, 30)

>>> # Using datetime.now()
>>> dt.datetime.now()
datetime.datetime(2007, 12, 6, 16, 29, 43, 79043)   # GMT +1
>>> dt.datetime.now(dt.timezone.utc)
datetime.datetime(2007, 12, 6, 15, 29, 43, 79060, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)

>>> # Using datetime.strptime()
>>> my_datetime = dt.datetime.strptime("21/11/06 16:30", "%d/%m/%y %H:%M")
>>> my_datetime
datetime.datetime(2006, 11, 21, 16, 30)

>>> # Using datetime.timetuple() to get tuple of all attributes
>>> tt = my_datetime.timetuple()
>>> for it in tt:
...     print(it)
...
2006    # year
11      # month
21      # day
16      # hour
30      # minute
0       # second
1       # weekday (0 = Monday)
325     # number of days since 1st January
-1      # dst - method tzinfo.dst() returned None

>>> # Date in ISO format
>>> ic = my_datetime.isocalendar()
>>> for it in ic:
...     print(it)
...
2006    # ISO year
47      # ISO week
2       # ISO weekday

>>> # Formatting a datetime
>>> my_datetime.strftime("%A, %d. %B %Y %I:%M%p")
'Tuesday, 21. November 2006 04:30PM'
>>> 'The {1} is {0:%d}, the {2} is {0:%B}, the {3} is {0:%I:%M%p}.'.format(my_datetime, "day", "month", "time")
'The day is 21, the month is November, the time is 04:30PM.'

L'exemple ci-dessous définit une sous-classe tzinfo qui regroupe des informations sur les fuseaux horaires pour Kaboul, en Afghanistan, qui a utilisé +4 UTC jusqu'en 1945, puis +4:30 UTC par la suite :

import datetime as dt

class KabulTz(dt.tzinfo):
    # Kabul used +4 until 1945, when they moved to +4:30
    UTC_MOVE_DATE = dt.datetime(1944, 12, 31, 20, tzinfo=dt.timezone.utc)

    def utcoffset(self, when):
        if when.year < 1945:
            return dt.timedelta(hours=4)
        elif (1945, 1, 1, 0, 0) <= when.timetuple()[:5] < (1945, 1, 1, 0, 30):
            # An ambiguous ("imaginary") half-hour range representing
            # a 'fold' in time due to the shift from +4 to +4:30.
            # If when falls in the imaginary range, use fold to decide how
            # to resolve. See PEP 495.
            return dt.timedelta(hours=4, minutes=(30 if when.fold else 0))
        else:
            return dt.timedelta(hours=4, minutes=30)

    def fromutc(self, when):
        # Follow same validations as in datetime.tzinfo
        if not isinstance(when, dt.datetime):
            raise TypeError("fromutc() requires a datetime argument")
        if when.tzinfo is not self:
            raise ValueError("when.tzinfo is not self")

        # A custom implementation is required for fromutc as
        # the input to this function is a datetime with utc values
        # but with a tzinfo set to self.
        # See datetime.astimezone or fromtimestamp.
        if when.replace(tzinfo=dt.timezone.utc) >= self.UTC_MOVE_DATE:
            return when + dt.timedelta(hours=4, minutes=30)
        else:
            return when + dt.timedelta(hours=4)

    def dst(self, when):
        # Kabul does not observe daylight saving time.
        return dt.timedelta(0)

    def tzname(self, when):
        if when >= self.UTC_MOVE_DATE:
            return "+04:30"
        return "+04"

Utilisation de KabulTz cité plus haut :

>>> tz1 = KabulTz()

>>> # Datetime before the change
>>> dt1 = dt.datetime(1900, 11, 21, 16, 30, tzinfo=tz1)
>>> print(dt1.utcoffset())
4:00:00

>>> # Datetime after the change
>>> dt2 = dt.datetime(2006, 6, 14, 13, 0, tzinfo=tz1)
>>> print(dt2.utcoffset())
4:30:00

>>> # Convert datetime to another time zone
>>> dt3 = dt2.astimezone(dt.timezone.utc)
>>> dt3
datetime.datetime(2006, 6, 14, 8, 30, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)
>>> dt2
datetime.datetime(2006, 6, 14, 13, 0, tzinfo=KabulTz())
>>> dt2 == dt3
True

time objects

A time object represents a (local) time of day, independent of any particular day, and subject to adjustment via a tzinfo object.

class datetime.time(hour=0, minute=0, second=0, microsecond=0, tzinfo=None, *, fold=0)

Tous les arguments sont optionnels. tzinfo peut être None ou une instance d'une sous-classe tzinfo. Les autres arguments doivent être des nombres entiers, dans les intervalles suivants :

0 <= hour < 24,

0 <= minute < 60,

0 <= second < 60,

0 <= microsecond < 1000000,

fold in [0, 1].

If an argument outside those ranges is given, ValueError is raised. All default to 0 except tzinfo, which defaults to None.

Attributs de la classe :

time.min

Le plus petit objet time représentable, time(0, 0, 0, 0).

time.max

Le plus grand objet time représentable, time(23, 59, 59, 999999).

time.resolution

La plus petite différence possible entre deux objets time non-égaux, timedelta(microseconds=1), notez cependant que les objets time n'implémentent pas d'opérations arithmétiques.

Attributs de l'instance (en lecture seule) :

time.hour

Dans range(24).

time.minute

Dans range(60).

time.second

Dans range(60).

time.microsecond

Dans range(1000000).

time.tzinfo

L'objet passé comme argument tzinfo au constructeur de time, ou None si aucune valeur n'a été passée.

time.fold

In [0, 1]. Used to disambiguate wall times during a repeated interval. (A repeated interval occurs when clocks are rolled back at the end of daylight saving time or when the UTC offset for the current zone is decreased for political reasons.) The values 0 and 1 represent, respectively, the earlier and later of the two moments with the same wall time representation.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

time objects support equality and order comparisons, where a is considered less than b when a precedes b in time.

Naive and aware time objects are never equal. Order comparison between naive and aware time objects raises TypeError.

If both comparands are aware, and have the same tzinfo attribute, the tzinfo and fold attributes are ignored and the base times are compared. If both comparands are aware and have different tzinfo attributes, the comparands are first adjusted by subtracting their UTC offsets (obtained from self.utcoffset()).

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Equality comparisons between aware and naive time instances don't raise TypeError.

Dans un contexte booléen, un objet time est toujours considéré comme vrai.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Before Python 3.5, a time object was considered to be false if it represented midnight in UTC. This behavior was considered obscure and error-prone and has been removed in Python 3.5. See bpo-13936 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13936] for more information.

Other constructors:

classmethod time.fromisoformat(time_string)

Renvoie une time correspondant à time_string dans un format ISO 8601 valide, avec les exceptions suivantes :

Les décalages de fuseaux horaires peuvent comporter des fractions de secondes.

Le T initial, normalement requis dans les cas où il peut y avoir une ambiguïté entre une date et une heure, n'est pas nécessaire.

Les fractions de secondes peuvent avoir un nombre quelconque de décimales (tout ce qui dépasse 6 décimales sera tronqué).

Les fractions d'heures et de minutes ne sont pas gérées.

Examples:

>>> import datetime as dt
>>> dt.time.fromisoformat('04:23:01')
datetime.time(4, 23, 1)
>>> dt.time.fromisoformat('T04:23:01')
datetime.time(4, 23, 1)
>>> dt.time.fromisoformat('T042301')
datetime.time(4, 23, 1)
>>> dt.time.fromisoformat('04:23:01.000384')
datetime.time(4, 23, 1, 384)
>>> dt.time.fromisoformat('04:23:01,000384')
datetime.time(4, 23, 1, 384)
>>> dt.time.fromisoformat('04:23:01+04:00')
datetime.time(4, 23, 1, tzinfo=datetime.timezone(datetime.timedelta(seconds=14400)))
>>> dt.time.fromisoformat('04:23:01Z')
datetime.time(4, 23, 1, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)
>>> dt.time.fromisoformat('04:23:01+00:00')
datetime.time(4, 23, 1, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Previously, this method only supported formats that could be emitted by time.isoformat().

classmethod time.strptime(date_string, format)

Return a time corresponding to date_string, parsed according to format.

If format does not contain microseconds or timezone information, this is equivalent to:

time(*(time.strptime(date_string, format)[3:6]))

ValueError is raised if the date_string and format cannot be parsed by time.strptime() or if it returns a value which is not a time tuple. See also strftime() and strptime() behavior and time.fromisoformat().

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Méthodes de l'instance :

time.replace(hour=self.hour, minute=self.minute, second=self.second, microsecond=self.microsecond, tzinfo=self.tzinfo, *, fold=0)

Return a new time with the same values, but with specified parameters updated. Note that tzinfo=None can be specified to create a naive time from an aware time, without conversion of the time data.

time objects are also supported by generic function copy.replace().

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Added the fold parameter.

time.isoformat(timespec='auto')

Renvoie une chaîne représentant la date au format ISO 8601 :

HH:MM:SS.ffffff, si microsecond ne vaut pas 0

HH:MM:SS, si microsecond vaut 0

HH:MM:SS.ffffff+HH:MM[:SS[.ffffff]], si utcoffset() ne renvoie pas None

HH:MM:SS+HH:MM[:SS[.ffffff]], si microsecond vaut 0 et utcoffset() ne renvoie pas None

L'argument optionnel timespec spécifie le nombre de composants additionnels de temps à inclure (par défaut 'auto'). Il peut valoir l'une des valeurs suivantes :

'auto' : Identique à 'seconds' si microsecond vaut 0, à 'microseconds' sinon.

'hours' : Inclut hour au format à deux chiffres HH.

'minutes' : Inclut hour et minute au format HH:MM.

'seconds' : Inclut hour, minute et second au format HH:MM:SS.

'milliseconds' : Inclut le temps complet, mais tronque la partie fractionnaire des millisecondes, au format HH:MM:SS.sss.

'microseconds' : Inclut le temps complet, au format HH:MM:SS.ffffff.

Note

Les composants de temps exclus sont tronqués et non arrondis.

Une ValueError sera levée en cas d'argument timespec invalide.

Exemple :

>>> import datetime as dt
>>> dt.time(hour=12, minute=34, second=56, microsecond=123456).isoformat(timespec='minutes')
'12:34'
>>> my_time = dt.time(hour=12, minute=34, second=56, microsecond=0)
>>> my_time.isoformat(timespec='microseconds')
'12:34:56.000000'
>>> my_time.isoformat(timespec='auto')
'12:34:56'

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Added the timespec parameter.

time.__str__()

For a time t, str(t) is equivalent to t.isoformat().

time.strftime(format)

Renvoie une chaîne représentant l'heure, contrôlée par une chaîne de formatage explicite. Voir strftime() and strptime() behavior et time.isoformat().

time.__format__(format)

Identique à time.strftime(). Cela permet de spécifier une chaîne de formatage pour un objet time dans une chaîne de formatage littérale et à l'utilisation de str.format(). Voir strftime() and strptime() behavior et time.isoformat().

time.utcoffset()

Si tzinfo est None, renvoie None, sinon renvoie self.tzinfo.utcoffset(None), et lève une exception si l'expression précédente ne renvoie pas None ou un objet timedelta d'une magnitude inférieure à un jour.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Le décalage UTC peut aussi être autre chose qu'un ensemble de minutes.

time.dst()

Si tzinfo est None, renvoie None, sinon renvoie self.tzinfo.dst(None), et lève une exception si l'expression précédente ne renvoie pas None ou un objet timedelta d'une magnitude inférieure à un jour.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Le décalage DST n'est pas restreint à des minutes entières.

time.tzname()

Si tzinfo est None, renvoie None, sinon renvoie self.tzinfo.tzname(None), et lève une exception si l'expression précédente ne renvoie pas None ou une chaîne de caractères.

Examples of usage: time

Exemples d'utilisation de l'objet time :

>>> import datetime as dt
>>> class TZ1(dt.tzinfo):
...     def utcoffset(self, when):
...         return dt.timedelta(hours=1)
...     def dst(self, when):
...         return dt.timedelta(0)
...     def tzname(self, when):
...         return "+01:00"
...     def  __repr__(self):
...         return f"{self.__class__.__name__}()"
...
>>> t = dt.time(12, 10, 30, tzinfo=TZ1())
>>> t
datetime.time(12, 10, 30, tzinfo=TZ1())
>>> t.isoformat()
'12:10:30+01:00'
>>> t.dst()
datetime.timedelta(0)
>>> t.tzname()
'+01:00'
>>> t.strftime("%H:%M:%S %Z")
'12:10:30 +01:00'
>>> 'The {} is {:%H:%M}.'.format("time", t)
'The time is 12:10.'

tzinfo objects

class datetime.tzinfo

This is an abstract base class, meaning that this class should not be instantiated directly. Define a subclass of tzinfo to capture information about a particular time zone.

An instance of (a concrete subclass of) tzinfo can be passed to the constructors for datetime and time objects. The latter objects view their attributes as being in local time, and the tzinfo object supports methods revealing offset of local time from UTC, the name of the time zone, and DST offset, all relative to a date or time object passed to them.

You need to derive a concrete subclass, and (at least) supply implementations of the standard tzinfo methods needed by the datetime methods you use. The datetime module provides timezone, a simple concrete subclass of tzinfo which can represent time zones with fixed offset from UTC such as UTC itself or North American EST and EDT.

Special requirement for pickling: A tzinfo subclass must have an __init__() method that can be called with no arguments, otherwise it can be pickled but possibly not unpickled again. This is a technical requirement that may be relaxed in the future.

A concrete subclass of tzinfo may need to implement the following methods. Exactly which methods are needed depends on the uses made of aware datetime objects. If in doubt, simply implement all of them.

tzinfo.utcoffset(dt)

Renvoie le décalage de l'heure locale par rapport à UTC, sous la forme d'un objet timedelta qui est positif à l'est de UTC. Si l'heure locale est à l'ouest de UTC, il doit être négatif.

Cela représente le décalage total par rapport à UTC ; par exemple, si un objet tzinfo représente à la fois un fuseau horaire et son ajustement à l'heure d'été, utcoffset() devrait renvoyer leur somme. Si le décalage UTC n'est pas connu, elle renvoie None. Sinon, la valeur renvoyée doit être un objet timedelta compris strictement entre -timedelta(hours=24) et timedelta(hours=24) (l'amplitude du décalage doit être inférieure à un jour). La plupart des implémentations de utcoffset() ressembleront probablement à l'une des deux suivantes :

return CONSTANT                 # fixed-offset class
return CONSTANT + self.dst(dt)  # daylight-aware class

Si utcoffset() ne renvoie pas None, dst() ne doit pas non plus renvoyer None.

L'implémentation par défaut de utcoffset() lève une NotImplementedError.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Le décalage UTC peut aussi être autre chose qu'un ensemble de minutes.

tzinfo.dst(dt)

Renvoie le réglage de l'heure d'été (DST), sous la forme d'un objet timedelta ou None si l'information DST n'est pas connue.

Return timedelta(0) if DST is not in effect. If DST is in effect, return the offset as a timedelta object (see utcoffset() for details). Note that DST offset, if applicable, has already been added to the UTC offset returned by utcoffset(), so there's no need to consult dst() unless you're interested in obtaining DST info separately. For example, datetime.timetuple() calls its tzinfo attribute's dst() method to determine how the tm_isdst flag should be set, and tzinfo.fromutc() calls dst() to account for DST changes when crossing time zones.

Une instance tz d'une sous-classe tzinfo convenant à la fois pour une heure standard et une heure d'été doit être cohérente :

tz.utcoffset(dt) - tz.dst(dt)

must return the same result for every datetime dt with dt.tzinfo == tz. For sane tzinfo subclasses, this expression yields the time zone's "standard offset", which should not depend on the date or the time, but only on geographic location. The implementation of datetime.astimezone() relies on this, but cannot detect violations; it's the programmer's responsibility to ensure it. If a tzinfo subclass cannot guarantee this, it may be able to override the default implementation of tzinfo.fromutc() to work correctly with astimezone() regardless.

La plupart des implémentations de dst() ressembleront probablement à l'une des deux suivantes :

import datetime as dt

def dst(self, when):
    # a fixed-offset class:  doesn't account for DST
    return dt.timedelta(0)

ou :

import datetime as dt

def dst(self, when):
    # Code to set dston and dstoff to the time zone's DST
    # transition times based on the input when.year, and expressed
    # in standard local time.

    if dston <= when.replace(tzinfo=None) < dstoff:
        return dt.timedelta(hours=1)
    else:
        return dt.timedelta(0)

L'implémentation par défaut de dst() lève une NotImplementedError.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Le décalage DST n'est pas restreint à des minutes entières.

tzinfo.tzname(dt)

Return the time zone name corresponding to the datetime object dt, as a string. Nothing about string names is defined by the datetime module, and there's no requirement that it mean anything in particular. For example, "GMT", "UTC", "-500", "-5:00", "EDT", "US/Eastern", "America/New York" are all valid replies. Return None if a string name isn't known. Note that this is a method rather than a fixed string primarily because some tzinfo subclasses will wish to return different names depending on the specific value of dt passed, especially if the tzinfo class is accounting for daylight time.

L'implémentation par défaut de tzname() lève une NotImplementedError.

These methods are called by a datetime or time object, in response to their methods of the same names. A datetime object passes itself as the argument, and a time object passes None as the argument. A tzinfo subclass's methods should therefore be prepared to accept a dt argument of None, or of class datetime.

Quand None est passé, il est de la responsabilité du designer de la classe de choisir la meilleure réponse. Par exemple, renvoyer None est approprié si la classe souhaite signaler que les objets de temps ne participent pas au protocole tzinfo. Il peut être plus utile pour utcoffset(None) de renvoyer le décalage UTC standard, comme il n'existe aucune autre convention pour obtenir ce décalage.

When a datetime object is passed in response to a datetime method, dt.tzinfo is the same object as self. tzinfo methods can rely on this, unless user code calls tzinfo methods directly. The intent is that the tzinfo methods interpret dt as being in local time, and not need worry about objects in other time zones.

Il y a une dernière méthode de tzinfo que les sous-classes peuvent vouloir redéfinir :

tzinfo.fromutc(dt)

This is called from the default datetime.astimezone() implementation. When called from that, dt.tzinfo is self, and dt's date and time data are to be viewed as expressing a UTC time. The purpose of fromutc() is to adjust the date and time data, returning an equivalent datetime in self's local time.

Most tzinfo subclasses should be able to inherit the default fromutc() implementation without problems. It's strong enough to handle fixed-offset time zones, and time zones accounting for both standard and daylight time, and the latter even if the DST transition times differ in different years. An example of a time zone the default fromutc() implementation may not handle correctly in all cases is one where the standard offset (from UTC) depends on the specific date and time passed, which can happen for political reasons. The default implementations of astimezone() and fromutc() may not produce the result you want if the result is one of the hours straddling the moment the standard offset changes.

En omettant le code des cas d'erreurs, l'implémentation par défaut de fromutc() se comporte comme suit :

import datetime as dt

def fromutc(self, when):
    # raise ValueError error if when.tzinfo is not self
    dtoff = when.utcoffset()
    dtdst = when.dst()
    # raise ValueError if dtoff is None or dtdst is None
    delta = dtoff - dtdst  # this is self's standard offset
    if delta:
        when += delta   # convert to standard local time
        dtdst = when.dst()
        # raise ValueError if dtdst is None
    if dtdst:
        return when + dtdst
    else:
        return when

Dans le fichier tzinfo_examples.py il y a des exemples de tzinfo classes :

import datetime as dt

# A class capturing the platform's idea of local time.
# (May result in wrong values on historical times in
#  timezones where UTC offset and/or the DST rules had
#  changed in the past.)
import time

ZERO = dt.timedelta(0)
HOUR = dt.timedelta(hours=1)
SECOND = dt.timedelta(seconds=1)

STDOFFSET = dt.timedelta(seconds=-time.timezone)
if time.daylight:
    DSTOFFSET = dt.timedelta(seconds=-time.altzone)
else:
    DSTOFFSET = STDOFFSET

DSTDIFF = DSTOFFSET - STDOFFSET

class LocalTimezone(dt.tzinfo):

    def fromutc(self, when):
        assert when.tzinfo is self
        stamp = (when - dt.datetime(1970, 1, 1, tzinfo=self)) // SECOND
        args = time.localtime(stamp)[:6]
        dst_diff = DSTDIFF // SECOND
        # Detect fold
        fold = (args == time.localtime(stamp - dst_diff))
        return dt.datetime(*args, microsecond=when.microsecond,
                           tzinfo=self, fold=fold)

    def utcoffset(self, when):
        if self._isdst(when):
            return DSTOFFSET
        else:
            return STDOFFSET

    def dst(self, when):
        if self._isdst(when):
            return DSTDIFF
        else:
            return ZERO

    def tzname(self, when):
        return time.tzname[self._isdst(when)]

    def _isdst(self, when):
        tt = (when.year, when.month, when.day,
              when.hour, when.minute, when.second,
              when.weekday(), 0, 0)
        stamp = time.mktime(tt)
        tt = time.localtime(stamp)
        return tt.tm_isdst > 0

Local = LocalTimezone()

# A complete implementation of current DST rules for major US time zones.

def first_sunday_on_or_after(when):
    days_to_go = 6 - when.weekday()
    if days_to_go:
        when += dt.timedelta(days_to_go)
    return when

# US DST Rules
#
# This is a simplified (i.e., wrong for a few cases) set of rules for US
# DST start and end times. For a complete and up-to-date set of DST rules
# and timezone definitions, visit the Olson Database (or try pytz):
# http://www.twinsun.com/tz/tz-link.htm
# https://sourceforge.net/projects/pytz/ (might not be up-to-date)
#
# In the US, since 2007, DST starts at 2am (standard time) on the second
# Sunday in March, which is the first Sunday on or after Mar 8.
DSTSTART_2007 = dt.datetime(1, 3, 8, 2)
# and ends at 2am (DST time) on the first Sunday of Nov.
DSTEND_2007 = dt.datetime(1, 11, 1, 2)
# From 1987 to 2006, DST used to start at 2am (standard time) on the first
# Sunday in April and to end at 2am (DST time) on the last
# Sunday of October, which is the first Sunday on or after Oct 25.
DSTSTART_1987_2006 = dt.datetime(1, 4, 1, 2)
DSTEND_1987_2006 = dt.datetime(1, 10, 25, 2)
# From 1967 to 1986, DST used to start at 2am (standard time) on the last
# Sunday in April (the one on or after April 24) and to end at 2am (DST time)
# on the last Sunday of October, which is the first Sunday
# on or after Oct 25.
DSTSTART_1967_1986 = dt.datetime(1, 4, 24, 2)
DSTEND_1967_1986 = DSTEND_1987_2006

def us_dst_range(year):
    # Find start and end times for US DST. For years before 1967, return
    # start = end for no DST.
    if 2006 < year:
        dststart, dstend = DSTSTART_2007, DSTEND_2007
    elif 1986 < year < 2007:
        dststart, dstend = DSTSTART_1987_2006, DSTEND_1987_2006
    elif 1966 < year < 1987:
        dststart, dstend = DSTSTART_1967_1986, DSTEND_1967_1986
    else:
        return (dt.datetime(year, 1, 1), ) * 2

    start = first_sunday_on_or_after(dststart.replace(year=year))
    end = first_sunday_on_or_after(dstend.replace(year=year))
    return start, end

class USTimeZone(dt.tzinfo):

    def __init__(self, hours, reprname, stdname, dstname):
        self.stdoffset = dt.timedelta(hours=hours)
        self.reprname = reprname
        self.stdname = stdname
        self.dstname = dstname

    def __repr__(self):
        return self.reprname

    def tzname(self, when):
        if self.dst(when):
            return self.dstname
        else:
            return self.stdname

    def utcoffset(self, when):
        return self.stdoffset + self.dst(when)

    def dst(self, when):
        if when is None or when.tzinfo is None:
            # An exception may be sensible here, in one or both cases.
            # It depends on how you want to treat them.  The default
            # fromutc() implementation (called by the default astimezone()
            # implementation) passes a datetime with when.tzinfo is self.
            return ZERO
        assert when.tzinfo is self
        start, end = us_dst_range(when.year)
        # Can't compare naive to aware objects, so strip the timezone from
        # when first.
        when = when.replace(tzinfo=None)
        if start + HOUR <= when < end - HOUR:
            # DST is in effect.
            return HOUR
        if end - HOUR <= when < end:
            # Fold (an ambiguous hour): use when.fold to disambiguate.
            return ZERO if when.fold else HOUR
        if start <= when < start + HOUR:
            # Gap (a non-existent hour): reverse the fold rule.
            return HOUR if when.fold else ZERO
        # DST is off.
        return ZERO

    def fromutc(self, when):
        assert when.tzinfo is self
        start, end = us_dst_range(when.year)
        start = start.replace(tzinfo=self)
        end = end.replace(tzinfo=self)
        std_time = when + self.stdoffset
        dst_time = std_time + HOUR
        if end <= dst_time < end + HOUR:
            # Repeated hour
            return std_time.replace(fold=1)
        if std_time < start or dst_time >= end:
            # Standard time
            return std_time
        if start <= std_time < end - HOUR:
            # Daylight saving time
            return dst_time

Eastern  = USTimeZone(-5, "Eastern",  "EST", "EDT")
Central  = USTimeZone(-6, "Central",  "CST", "CDT")
Mountain = USTimeZone(-7, "Mountain", "MST", "MDT")
Pacific  = USTimeZone(-8, "Pacific",  "PST", "PDT")

Notez que, deux fois par an, on rencontre des subtilités inévitables dans les sous-classes de tzinfo représentant à la fois des heures standard et d'été, au passage de l'une à l'autre. Concrètement, considérez le fuseau de l'est des États-Unis (UTC -0500), où EDT (heure d'été) débute à la minute qui suit 1:59 (EST) le second dimanche de mars, et se termine à la minute qui suit 1:59 (EDT) le premier dimanche de novembre :

  UTC   3:MM  4:MM  5:MM  6:MM  7:MM  8:MM
  EST  22:MM 23:MM  0:MM  1:MM  2:MM  3:MM
  EDT  23:MM  0:MM  1:MM  2:MM  3:MM  4:MM

start  22:MM 23:MM  0:MM  1:MM  3:MM  4:MM

  end  23:MM  0:MM  1:MM  1:MM  2:MM  3:MM

Quand l'heure d'été débute (la ligne « start »), l'horloge locale passe de 1:59 à 3:00. Une heure de la forme 2:MM n'a pas vraiment de sens ce jour là, donc astimezone(Eastern) ne fournira pas de résultat avec hour == 2 pour le jour où débute l'heure d'été. Par exemple, lors du changement d'heure du printemps 2016, nous obtenons :

>>> import datetime as dt
>>> from tzinfo_examples import HOUR, Eastern
>>> u0 = dt.datetime(2016, 3, 13, 5, tzinfo=dt.timezone.utc)
>>> for i in range(4):
...     u = u0 + i*HOUR
...     t = u.astimezone(Eastern)
...     print(u.time(), 'UTC =', t.time(), t.tzname())
...
05:00:00 UTC = 00:00:00 EST
06:00:00 UTC = 01:00:00 EST
07:00:00 UTC = 03:00:00 EDT
08:00:00 UTC = 04:00:00 EDT

When DST ends (the "end" line), there's a potentially worse problem: there's an hour that can't be spelled unambiguously in local wall time: the last hour of daylight time. In Eastern, that's times of the form 5:MM UTC on the day daylight time ends. The local wall clock leaps from 1:59 (daylight time) back to 1:00 (standard time) again. Local times of the form 1:MM are ambiguous. astimezone() mimics the local clock's behavior by mapping two adjacent UTC hours into the same local hour then. In the Eastern example, UTC times of the form 5:MM and 6:MM both map to 1:MM when converted to Eastern, but earlier times have the fold attribute set to 0 and the later times have it set to 1. For example, at the Fall back transition of 2016, we get:

>>> import datetime as dt
>>> from tzinfo_examples import HOUR, Eastern
>>> u0 = dt.datetime(2016, 11, 6, 4, tzinfo=dt.timezone.utc)
>>> for i in range(4):
...     u = u0 + i*HOUR
...     t = u.astimezone(Eastern)
...     print(u.time(), 'UTC =', t.time(), t.tzname(), t.fold)
...
04:00:00 UTC = 00:00:00 EDT 0
05:00:00 UTC = 01:00:00 EDT 0
06:00:00 UTC = 01:00:00 EST 1
07:00:00 UTC = 02:00:00 EST 0

Note that the datetime instances that differ only by the value of the fold attribute are considered equal in comparisons.

Applications that can't bear wall-time ambiguities should explicitly check the value of the fold attribute or avoid using hybrid tzinfo subclasses; there are no ambiguities when using timezone, or any other fixed-offset tzinfo subclass (such as a class representing only EST (fixed offset -5 hours), or only EDT (fixed offset -4 hours)).

Voir aussi

zoneinfo

The datetime module has a basic timezone class (for handling arbitrary fixed offsets from UTC) and its timezone.utc attribute (a UTC timezone instance).

zoneinfo brings the IANA time zone database (also known as the Olson database) to Python, and its usage is recommended.

IANA time zone database [https://www.iana.org/time-zones]

La Time Zone Database (souvent appelée tz, tzdata ou zoneinfo) contient les codes et les données représentant l'historique du temps local pour un grand nombre d'emplacements représentatifs autour du globe. Elle est mise à jour périodiquement, pour refléter les changements opérés par des politiques sur les bornes du fuseau, les décalages UTC, et les règles de passage à l'heure d'été.

timezone objects

The timezone class is a subclass of tzinfo, each instance of which represents a time zone defined by a fixed offset from UTC.

Objects of this class cannot be used to represent time zone information in the locations where different offsets are used in different days of the year or where historical changes have been made to civil time.

class datetime.timezone(offset, name=None)

L'argument offset doit être spécifié comme un objet timedelta représentant la différence entre le temps local et UTC. Il doit être strictement compris entre -timedelta(hours=24) et timedelta(hours=24), autrement une ValueError est levée.

L'argument name est optionnel. S'il est spécifié, il doit être une chaîne qui sera utilisée comme valeur de retour de la méthode datetime.tzname().

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Le décalage UTC peut aussi être autre chose qu'un ensemble de minutes.

timezone.utcoffset(dt)

Renvoie la valeur fixe spécifiée lorsque l'instance timezone est construite.

L'argument dt est ignoré. La valeur de retour est une instance timedelta égale à la différence entre le temps local et UTC.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Le décalage UTC peut aussi être autre chose qu'un ensemble de minutes.

timezone.tzname(dt)

Renvoie la valeur fixe spécifiée lorsque l'instance timezone est construite.

Si name n'est pas fourni au constructeur, le nom renvoyé par tzname(dt) est généré comme suit à partir de la valeur de offset. Si offset vaut timedelta(0), le nom sera « UTC », autrement le nom sera une chaîne de la forme UTC±HH:MM, où ± est le signe d'offset, et HH et MM sont respectivement les représentations à deux chiffres de offset.hours et offset.minutes.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Le nom généré à partir de offset=timedelta(0) est maintenant 'UTC' plutôt que 'UTC+00:00'.

timezone.dst(dt)

Renvoie toujours None.

timezone.fromutc(dt)

Renvoie dt + offset. L'argument dt doit être une instance avisée de datetime, avec tzinfo valant self.

Attributs de la classe :

timezone.utc

The UTC time zone, timezone(timedelta(0)).

strftime() and strptime() behavior

Les objets date, datetime et time comportent tous une méthode strftime(format), pour créer une représentation du temps sous forme d'une chaîne, contrôlée par une chaîne de formatage explicite.

Conversely, the date.strptime(), datetime.strptime() and time.strptime() class methods create an object from a string representing the time and a corresponding format string.

The table below provides a high-level comparison of strftime() versus strptime():

strftime

strptime

Utilisation

Convertit un objet en une chaîne selon un format donné

Parse a string into an object given a corresponding format

Type de méthode

Méthode d'instance

Méthode de classe

Signature

strftime(format)

strptime(date_string, format)

strftime() and strptime() format codes

Ces méthodes acceptent des codes de formatage qui peuvent être utilisés pour analyser et formater les dates :

>>> import datetime as dt
>>> dt.datetime.strptime('31/01/22 23:59:59.999999',
...                      '%d/%m/%y %H:%M:%S.%f')
datetime.datetime(2022, 1, 31, 23, 59, 59, 999999)
>>> _.strftime('%a %d %b %Y, %I:%M%p')
'Mon 31 Jan 2022, 11:59PM'

Voici la liste de tous les codes de formatage requis par le C standard 1989, et ils fonctionnent sur toutes les plateformes possédant une implémentation de C standard.

Directive

Signification

Exemple

Notes

%a

Jour de la semaine abrégé dans la langue locale.

Sun, Mon, ..., Sat (en_US);

Lu, Ma, ..., Di (fr_FR)

(1)

%A

Jour de la semaine complet dans la langue locale.

Sunday, Monday, ..., Saturday (en_US);

Lundi, Mardi, ..., Dimanche (fr_FR)

(1)

%w

Jour de la semaine en chiffre, avec 0 pour le dimanche et 6 pour le samedi.

0, 1, ..., 6

%d

Jour du mois sur deux chiffres.

01, 02, ..., 31

(9)

%b

Nom du mois abrégé dans la langue locale.

Jan, Feb, ..., Dec (en_US);

janv., févr., ..., déc. (fr_FR)

(1)

%B

Nom complet du mois dans la langue locale.

January, February, ..., December (en_US);

janvier, février, ..., décembre (fr_FR)

(1)

%m

Numéro du mois sur deux chiffres.

01, 02, ..., 12

(9)

%y

Année sur deux chiffres (sans le siècle).

00, 01, ..., 99

(9)

%Y

Année complète sur quatre chiffres.

0001, 0002, ..., 2013, 2014, ..., 9998, 9999

(2)

%H

Heure à deux chiffres de 00 à 23.

00, 01, ..., 23

(9)

%I

Heure à deux chiffres pour les horloges 12h (01 à 12).

01, 02, ..., 12

(9)

%p

Équivalent local à AM/PM.

AM, PM (en_US);

am, pm (de_DE)

(1), (3)

%M

Minutes sur deux chiffres.

00, 01, ..., 59

(9)

%S

Secondes sur deux chiffres.

00, 01, ..., 59

(4), (9)

%f

Microsecondes sur 6 chiffres.

000000, 000001, ..., 999999

(5)

%z

Décalage horaire UTC sous la forme ±HHMM[SS[.ffffff]] (chaîne vide si l'instance est naïve).

(vide), +0000, -0400, +1030, +063415, -030712.345216

(6)

%Z

Nom du fuseau horaire (chaîne vide si l'instance est naïve).

(vide), UTC, GMT

(6)

%j

Numéro du jour dans l'année sur trois chiffres.

001, 002, ..., 366

(9)

%U

Numéro de la semaine à deux chiffres (où dimanche est considéré comme le premier jour de la semaine). Tous les jours de l'année précédent le premier dimanche sont considérés comme appartenant à la semaine 0.

00, 01, ..., 53

(7), (9)

%W

Numéro de la semaine à deux chiffres (où lundi est considéré comme le premier jour de la semaine). Tous les jours de l'année précédent le premier lundi sont considérés comme appartenant à la semaine 0.

00, 01, ..., 53

(7), (9)

%c

Représentation locale de la date et de l'heure.

Tue Aug 16 21:30:00 1988 (en_US);

mar. 16 août 1988 21:30:00 (fr_FR)

(1)

%x

Représentation locale de la date.

08/16/88 (None);

08/16/1988 (en_US);

16/08/1988 (fr_FR)

(1)

%X

Représentation locale de l'heure.

21:30:00 (en_US) ;

21:30:00 (fr_FR)

(1)

%%

Un caractère '%' littéral.

%

Plusieurs directives supplémentaires non requises par la norme C89 sont incluses pour des raisons de commodité. Ces paramètres correspondent tous aux valeurs de date de la norme ISO 8601.

Directive

Signification

Exemple

Notes

%G

Année complète ISO 8601 représentant l'année contenant la plus grande partie de la semaine ISO (%V).

0001, 0002, ..., 2013, 2014, ..., 9998, 9999

(8)

%u

Jour de la semaine ISO 8601 où 1 correspond au lundi.

1, 2, ..., 7

%V

Numéro de la semaine ISO 8601, avec lundi étant le premier jour de la semaine. La semaine 01 est la semaine contenant le 4 janvier.

01, 02, ..., 53

(8), (9)

%:z

UTC offset in the form ±HH:MM[:SS[.ffffff]] (empty string if the object is naive).

(empty), +00:00, -04:00, +10:30, +06:34:15, -03:07:12.345216

(6)

These may not be available on all platforms when used with the strftime() method. The ISO 8601 year and ISO 8601 week directives are not interchangeable with the year and week number directives above. Calling strptime() with incomplete or ambiguous ISO 8601 directives will raise a ValueError.

The full set of format codes supported varies across platforms, because Python calls the platform C library's strftime() function, and platform variations are common. To see the full set of format codes supported on your platform, consult the strftime(3) [https://manpages.debian.org/strftime(3)] documentation. There are also differences between platforms in handling of unsupported format specifiers.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6: %G, %u et %V ont été ajoutés.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12: %:z was added.

Technical detail

Broadly speaking, d.strftime(fmt) acts like the time module's time.strftime(fmt, d.timetuple()) although not all objects support a timetuple() method.

For the datetime.strptime() and date.strptime() class methods, the default value is 1900-01-01T00:00:00.000: any components not specified in the format string will be pulled from the default value.

Note

Format strings without separators can be ambiguous for parsing. For example, with %Y%m%d, the string 2026111 may be parsed either as 2026-11-01 or as 2026-01-11. Use separators to ensure the input is parsed as intended.

Note

When used to parse partial dates lacking a year, datetime.strptime() and date.strptime() will raise when encountering February 29 because the default year of 1900 is not a leap year. Always add a default leap year to partial date strings before parsing.

>>> import datetime as dt
>>> value = "2/29"
>>> dt.datetime.strptime(value, "%m/%d")
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
ValueError: day 29 must be in range 1..28 for month 2 in year 1900
>>> dt.datetime.strptime(f"1904 {value}", "%Y %m/%d")
datetime.datetime(1904, 2, 29, 0, 0)

L'utilisation de datetime.strptime(date_string, format) équivaut à :

datetime(*(time.strptime(date_string, format)[0:6]))

except when the format includes sub-second components or time zone offset information, which are supported in datetime.strptime but are discarded by time.strptime.

For time objects, the format codes for year, month, and day should not be used, as time objects have no such values. If they're used anyway, 1900 is substituted for the year, and 1 for the month and day.

For date objects, the format codes for hours, minutes, seconds, and microseconds should not be used, as date objects have no such values. If they're used anyway, 0 is substituted for them.

Pour la même raison, la gestion des chaînes contenant des caractères (ou points) Unicode qui ne peuvent pas être représentés dans la locale actuelle dépend aussi de la plateforme. Sur certaines plateformes, ces caractères sont conservés tels quels dans la sortie, alors que sur d'autres plateformes strftime lève une UnicodeError ou renvoie une chaîne vide.

Notes :

Comme le format dépend de la locale courante, les assomptions sur la valeur de retour doivent être prises soigneusement. L'ordre des champs variera (par exemple, « mois/jour/année » au lieu de « année/mois/jour »), et le résultat peut contenir des caractères non-ASCII.

The strptime() method can parse years in the full [1, 9999] range, but years < 1000 must be zero-filled to 4-digit width.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: In previous versions, strftime() method was restricted to years >= 1900.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: In version 3.2, strftime() method was restricted to years >= 1000.

When used with the strptime() method, the %p directive only affects the output hour field if the %I directive is used to parse the hour.

Unlike the time module, the datetime module does not support leap seconds.

When used with the strptime() method, the %f directive accepts from one to six digits and zero pads on the right. %f is an extension to the set of format characters in the C standard (but implemented separately in datetime objects, and therefore always available).

For a naive object, the %z, %:z and %Z format codes are replaced by empty strings.

Pour un objet avisé :

%z

utcoffset() is transformed into a string of the form ±HHMM[SS[.ffffff]], where HH is a 2-digit string giving the number of UTC offset hours, MM is a 2-digit string giving the number of UTC offset minutes, SS is a 2-digit string giving the number of UTC offset seconds and ffffff is a 6-digit string giving the number of UTC offset microseconds. The ffffff part is omitted when the offset is a whole number of seconds and both the ffffff and the SS part is omitted when the offset is a whole number of minutes. For example, if utcoffset() returns timedelta(hours=-3, minutes=-30), %z is replaced with the string '-0330'.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Le décalage UTC peut aussi être autre chose qu'un ensemble de minutes.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: When the %z directive is provided to the strptime() method, the UTC offsets can have a colon as a separator between hours, minutes and seconds. For example, '+01:00:00' will be parsed as an offset of one hour. In addition, providing 'Z' is identical to '+00:00'.

%:z

Behaves exactly as %z, but has a colon separator added between hours, minutes and seconds.

%Z

In strftime(), %Z is replaced by an empty string if tzname() returns None; otherwise %Z is replaced by the returned value, which must be a string.

strptime() only accepts certain values for %Z:

toute valeur dans time.tzname pour votre machine locale

les valeurs UTC et GMT codés en dur

Ainsi, quelqu'un qui vit au Japon peut avoir comme valeurs valides JST, UTC et GMT, mais probablement pas EST. Les valeurs invalides lèvent ValueError.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: When the %z directive is provided to the strptime() method, an aware datetime object will be produced. The tzinfo of the result will be set to a timezone instance.

When used with the strptime() method, %U and %W are only used in calculations when the day of the week and the calendar year (%Y) are specified.

Similar to %U and %W, %V is only used in calculations when the day of the week and the ISO year (%G) are specified in a strptime() format string. Also note that %G and %Y are not interchangeable.

When used with the strptime() method, the leading zero is optional for formats %d, %m, %H, %I, %M, %S, %j, %U, %W, and %V. Format %y does require a leading zero.

When parsing a month and day using strptime(), always include a year in the format. If the value you need to parse lacks a year, append an explicit dummy leap year. Otherwise your code will raise an exception when it encounters leap day because the default year used by the parser (1900) is not a leap year. Users run into that bug every leap year.

>>> month_day = "02/29"
>>> dt.datetime.strptime(f"{month_day};1984", "%m/%d;%Y")  # No leap year bug.
datetime.datetime(1984, 2, 29, 0, 0)

Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: strptime() calls using a format string containing a day of month without a year now emit a DeprecationWarning. In 3.15 or later we may change this into an error or change the default year to a leap year. See gh-70647 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70647].

Notes

[1]

If, that is, we ignore the effects of relativity.

[2]

Cela correspond à la définition du calendrier « grégorien proleptique » dans le livre Calendrical Calculations de Dershowitz et Reingold, où il est la base de tous les calculs. Référez-vous au livre pour les algorithmes de conversion entre calendriers grégorien proleptique et les autres systèmes.

[3]

Voir R. H. van Gent guide des mathématiques du calendrier ISO 8601 [https://web.archive.org/web/20220531051136/https://webspace.science.uu.nl/~gent0113/calendar/isocalendar.htm] pour une bonne explication.

zoneinfo --- IANA time zone support

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

Code source : Lib/zoneinfo [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/zoneinfo]

The zoneinfo module provides a concrete time zone implementation to support the IANA time zone database as originally specified in PEP 615 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0615/]. By default, zoneinfo uses the system's time zone data if available; if no system time zone data is available, the library will fall back to using the first-party tzdata [https://pypi.org/project/tzdata/] package available on PyPI.

Voir aussi

Module : datetime

Fournit les types time et datetime attendus par ZoneInfo.

Package tzdata [https://pypi.org/project/tzdata/]

Paquet « quasi natif » maintenu par les développeurs de CPython pour fournir les données des fuseaux horaires via PyPI.

Disponibilité: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly. See Plateformes WebAssembly for more information.

Utilisation de ZoneInfo

ZoneInfo est une implémentation concrète de la classe de base abstraite datetime.tzinfo et est destinée à être rattachée à tzinfo, par le constructeur, par datetime.replace ou par datetime.astimezone :

>>> from zoneinfo import ZoneInfo
>>> import datetime as dt

>>> when = dt.datetime(2020, 10, 31, 12, tzinfo=ZoneInfo("America/Los_Angeles"))
>>> print(when)
2020-10-31 12:00:00-07:00

>>> when.tzname()
'PDT'

Les datetime construits de cette manière sont compatibles avec l'arithmétique datetime et gèrent le passage à l'heure d'été sans autre intervention :

>>> when_add = when + dt.timedelta(days=1)

>>> print(when_add)
2020-11-01 12:00:00-08:00

>>> when_add.tzname()
'PST'

Ces fuseaux horaires prennent aussi en charge l'attribut fold introduit dans la PEP 495 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0495/]. Pendant les transitions des décalages horaires qui induisent des temps ambigus (comme le passage de l'heure d'été à l'heure normale), le décalage avant la transition est utilisé quand fold=0, et le décalage après la transition est utilisé quand fold=1, par exemple :

>>> when = dt.datetime(2020, 11, 1, 1, tzinfo=ZoneInfo("America/Los_Angeles"))
>>> print(when)
2020-11-01 01:00:00-07:00

>>> print(when.replace(fold=1))
2020-11-01 01:00:00-08:00

Lors de la conversion à partir d'un autre fuseau horaire, fold est réglé à la valeur correcte :

>>> LOS_ANGELES = ZoneInfo("America/Los_Angeles")
>>> when_utc = dt.datetime(2020, 11, 1, 8, tzinfo=dt.timezone.utc)

>>> # Before the PDT -> PST transition
>>> print(when_utc.astimezone(LOS_ANGELES))
2020-11-01 01:00:00-07:00

>>> # After the PDT -> PST transition
>>> print((when_utc + dt.timedelta(hours=1)).astimezone(LOS_ANGELES))
2020-11-01 01:00:00-08:00

Sources de données

The zoneinfo module does not directly provide time zone data, and instead pulls time zone information from the system time zone database or the first-party PyPI package tzdata [https://pypi.org/project/tzdata/], if available. Some systems, including notably Windows systems, do not have an IANA database available, and so for projects targeting cross-platform compatibility that require time zone data, it is recommended to declare a dependency on tzdata. If neither system data nor tzdata are available, all calls to ZoneInfo will raise ZoneInfoNotFoundError.

Configurer les sources de données

Lorsque ZoneInfo(key) est appelé, le constructeur recherche d'abord un fichier nommé key dans les répertoires spécifiés par TZPATH et, en cas d'échec, recherche dans le paquet tzdata. Ce comportement peut être configuré de trois manières :

La valeur par défaut TZPATH, lorsqu'elle n'est pas spécifiée autrement, peut être configurée à la compilation.

TZPATH peut être configuré en utilisant une variable d'environnement.

À l'exécution, le chemin de recherche peut être manipulé à l'aide de la fonction reset_tzpath().

Configuration à la compilation

Par défaut, TZPATH indique plusieurs emplacements de déploiement courants pour la base de données de fuseaux horaires (sauf sous Windows, où il n'existe pas de consensus pour l'emplacement des données de fuseaux horaires). Sur les systèmes POSIX, les distributeurs en aval ainsi que ceux qui construisent Python à partir des sources et qui savent où sont déployées les données de fuseau horaire de leur système peuvent modifier le chemin par défaut en spécifiant l'option de compilation TZPATH (ou, plus probablement, en utilisant l'option --with-tzpath du script configure), qui doit être une chaîne délimitée par os.pathsep.

Sur toutes les plates-formes, la valeur configurée est disponible en tant que clé de TZPATH dans sysconfig.get_config_var().

Configuration par l'environnement

Lors de l'initialisation de TZPATH (soit au moment de l'importation, soit lorsque reset_tzpath() est appelé sans argument), le module zoneinfo utilise la variable d'environnement PYTHONTZPATH, si elle existe, pour définir le chemin de recherche.

PYTHONTZPATH

Il s'agit d'une chaîne séparée par os.pathsep contenant le chemin de recherche du fuseau horaire à utiliser. Elle doit être constituée uniquement de chemins absolus et non de chemins relatifs. Les composants relatifs spécifiés dans PYTHONTZPATH ne sont pas utilisés, mais le comportement reste défini par l'implémentation lorsqu'un chemin relatif est spécifié. CPython lève InvalidTZPathWarning dans ce cas. Les autres implémentations sont libres d'ignorer silencieusement le composant erroné ou de lever une exception.

Pour que le système ignore les données système et utilise le paquet tzdata à la place, définissez PYTHONTZPATH="".

Configuration à l'exécution

Le chemin de recherche TZ peut également être configuré au moment de l'exécution à l'aide de la fonction reset_tzpath(). Cette opération n'est généralement pas conseillée, bien qu'il soit raisonnable de l'utiliser dans les fonctions de test qui nécessitent l'utilisation d'un chemin de fuseau horaire spécifique (ou qui nécessitent de désactiver l'accès aux fuseaux horaires du système).

La classe ZoneInfo

class zoneinfo.ZoneInfo(key)

Une sous-classe concrète de datetime.tzinfo qui représente un fuseau horaire IANA spécifié par la chaîne key. Les appels au constructeur principal renvoient toujours des objets dont la comparaison est identique ; autrement dit, sauf invalidation du cache via ZoneInfo.clear_cache(), pour toutes les valeurs de key, l'assertion suivante est toujours vraie :

a = ZoneInfo(key)
b = ZoneInfo(key)
assert a is b

key doit être sous la forme d'un chemin POSIX relatif et normalisé, sans références de niveau supérieur. Le constructeur lève ValueError si une clé non conforme est passée.

Si aucun fichier correspondant à key n'est trouvé, le constructeur lève ZoneInfoNotFoundError.

La classe ZoneInfo possède deux constructeurs alternatifs :

classmethod ZoneInfo.from_file(file_obj, /, key=None)

Construit un objet ZoneInfo à partir d'un objet fichier renvoyant des octets (par exemple, un fichier ouvert en mode binaire ou un objet io.BytesIO). Contrairement au constructeur principal, il construit toujours un nouvel objet.

Le paramètre key définit le nom de la zone pour les besoins de __str__() et __repr__().

Les objets créés via ce constructeur ne peuvent pas être sérialisés (voir pickling).

ValueError is raised if the data read from file_obj is not a valid TZif file.

classmethod ZoneInfo.no_cache(key)

Un constructeur alternatif qui contourne le cache du constructeur. Il est identique au constructeur principal, mais renvoie un nouvel objet à chaque appel. Il est surtout utile à des fins de test ou de démonstration, mais il peut également être utilisé pour créer un système avec une stratégie d'invalidation du cache différente.

Les objets créés via ce constructeur contournent également le cache d'un processus de désérialisation lorsqu'ils sont désérialisés.

Prudence

L'utilisation de ce constructeur peut modifier la sémantique de vos datetimes de manière surprenante, ne l'utilisez que si vous en avez vraiment besoin.

Les méthodes de classe suivantes sont également disponibles :

classmethod ZoneInfo.clear_cache(*, only_keys=None)

Une méthode pour invalider le cache de la classe ZoneInfo. Si aucun argument n'est passé, tous les caches sont invalidés et le prochain appel au constructeur principal pour chaque clé renverra une nouvelle instance.

Si un itérable de noms de clés est passé au paramètre only_keys, seules les clés spécifiées sont retirées du cache. Les clés passées à only_keys mais non trouvées dans le cache sont ignorées.

Avertissement

Invoking this function may change the semantics of datetimes using ZoneInfo in surprising ways; this modifies module state and thus may have wide-ranging effects. Only use it if you know that you need to.

La classe a un attribut :

ZoneInfo.key

Il s'agit d'un attribut en lecture seule qui renvoie la valeur de key passée au constructeur, qui doit être une clé de recherche dans la base de données des fuseaux horaires de l'IANA (par exemple, America/New_York, Europe/Paris ou Asia/Tokyo).

Pour les zones construites à partir d'un fichier sans spécifier de paramètre key, cette valeur sera fixée à None.

Note

Bien qu'il soit assez courant de les exposer aux utilisateurs finaux, ces valeurs sont conçues pour être des clés primaires permettant de représenter les zones concernées et pas nécessairement des éléments destinés à l'utilisateur. Des projets comme CLDR (Unicode Common Locale Data Repository) peuvent être utilisés pour obtenir des chaînes de caractères plus conviviales à partir de ces clés.

Représentation sous forme de chaîne de caractères

La représentation sous forme de chaîne renvoyée lors de l’appel de str sur un objet ZoneInfo utilise par défaut l’attribut ZoneInfo.key (voir la note sur l’utilisation dans la documentation de l’attribut) :

>>> zone = ZoneInfo("Pacific/Kwajalein")
>>> str(zone)
'Pacific/Kwajalein'

>>> when = dt.datetime(2020, 4, 1, 3, 15, tzinfo=zone)
>>> f"{when.isoformat()} [{when.tzinfo}]"
'2020-04-01T03:15:00+12:00 [Pacific/Kwajalein]'

Pour les objets construits à partir d’un fichier sans spécifier de paramètre key, str revient à appeler repr(). Le repr de ZoneInfo est défini par l’implémentation et n’est pas nécessairement stable entre les versions, mais il est garanti qu’il ne fournit pas un paramètre key ZoneInfo valide.

Sérialisation Pickle

Plutôt que de sérialiser toutes les données de transition, les objets ZoneInfo sont sérialisés à partir de l'attribut key et les objets ZoneInfo construits à partir de fichiers (même ceux avec une valeur pour key spécifiée) ne peuvent pas être sérialisés.

Le comportement d’un fichier ZoneInfo dépend de la façon dont il a été construit :

ZoneInfo(key): When constructed with the primary constructor, a ZoneInfo object is serialized by key, and when deserialized, the deserializing process uses the primary and thus it is expected that these are the same object as other references to the same time zone. For example, if europe_berlin_pkl is a string containing a pickle constructed from ZoneInfo("Europe/Berlin"), one would expect the following behavior:

>>> a = ZoneInfo("Europe/Berlin")
>>> b = pickle.loads(europe_berlin_pkl)
>>> a is b
True

ZoneInfo.no_cache(key) : lorsqu’il est construit à partir du constructeur de contournement de cache, l’objet ZoneInfo est également sérialisé en utilisant l'attribut key mais, lorsqu’il est désérialisé, le processus de désérialisation utilise le constructeur de contournement de cache. Si europe_berlin_pkl_nc est une chaîne contenant un objet sérialisé construit à partir de ZoneInfo.no_cache("Europe/Berlin"), le comportement suivant est attendu :

>>> a = ZoneInfo("Europe/Berlin")
>>> b = pickle.loads(europe_berlin_pkl_nc)
>>> a is b
False

ZoneInfo.from_file(file_obj, /, key=None): When constructed from a file, the ZoneInfo object raises an exception on pickling. If an end user wants to pickle a ZoneInfo constructed from a file, it is recommended that they use a wrapper type or a custom serialization function: either serializing by key or storing the contents of the file object and serializing that.

Cette méthode de sérialisation nécessite que les données de fuseau horaire relatives à l'attribut key soient disponibles à la fois du côté de la sérialisation et de la désérialisation, de la même manière que les références aux classes et aux fonctions sont censées exister dans les environnements de sérialisation et de désérialisation. Cela signifie également qu’aucune garantie n’est donnée quant à la cohérence des résultats lors de la désérialisation d’un ZoneInfo sérialisé dans un environnement avec une version différente des données de fuseau horaire.

Fonctions

zoneinfo.available_timezones()

Fournit un ensemble contenant toutes les clés valides pour les fuseaux horaires IANA disponibles n’importe où sur TZPATH. Il est recalculé à chaque appel à la fonction.

Cette fonction n’inclut que les noms de zone canoniques et n’inclut pas les zones « spéciales » telles que celles sous les répertoires posix/ et right/, ou la zone posixrules.

Prudence

cette fonction peut ouvrir un grand nombre de fichiers, car la meilleure façon de déterminer si un fichier sur le chemin du fuseau horaire est un fuseau horaire valide est de lire la « chaîne magique » au début.

Note

ces valeurs n’ont pas vocation à être montrées aux utilisateurs ; pour les éléments destinés à l’utilisateur, les applications doivent utiliser quelque chose comme CLDR (le référentiel de données Unicode Common Locale) afin d’obtenir des chaînes plus conviviales. Voir aussi la note d’avertissement sur ZoneInfo.key.

zoneinfo.reset_tzpath(to=None)

Définit ou réinitialise le chemin de recherche des fuseaux horaires (TZPATH) pour le module. Lorsqu’il est appelé sans arguments, TZPATH est défini sur la valeur par défaut.

Appeler reset_tzpath n’invalide pas le cache ZoneInfo, donc les appels au constructeur primaire ZoneInfo n’utiliseront le nouveau TZPATH qu’en cas d’échec du cache.

Le paramètre to doit être une séquence de chaînes ou os.PathLike et non une chaîne, qui doivent toutes être des chemins absolus. ValueError est levée si autre chose qu’un chemin absolu est passé.

Variables globales

zoneinfo.TZPATH

Séquence en lecture seule représentant le chemin de recherche des fuseaux horaires – lors de la construction d’un ZoneInfo à partir de l'attribut key, la clé est jointe à chaque entrée dans le TZPATH et le premier fichier trouvé est utilisé.

TZPATH ne peut contenir que des chemins absolus, jamais des chemins relatifs, quelle que soit sa configuration.

L’objet vers lequel zoneinfo.TZPATH pointe peut changer suite à un appel à reset_tzpath(), il est donc recommandé d’utiliser zoneinfo.TZPATH plutôt que d’importer TZPATH de zoneinfo ou en assignant une variable de longue durée à zoneinfo.TZPATH.

Pour plus d’informations sur la configuration du chemin de recherche des fuseaux horaires, consultez Configurer les sources de données.

Exceptions et avertissements

exception zoneinfo.ZoneInfoNotFoundError

Levée lorsque la construction d’un objet ZoneInfo échoue parce que la clé spécifiée est introuvable sur le système. C’est une sous-classe de KeyError.

exception zoneinfo.InvalidTZPathWarning

Levée lorsque PYTHONTZPATH contient un composant non valide qui ne sera pas retenu, tel qu’un chemin relatif.

calendar --- General calendar-related functions

Code source : Lib/calendar.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/calendar.py]

Ce module permet d'afficher un calendrier comme le fait le programme Unix cal, et il fournit des fonctions utiles relatives au calendrier. Par défaut, ces calendriers ont le lundi comme premier jour de la semaine et le dimanche comme dernier jour. Utilisez setfirstweekday() pour définir le premier jour de la semaine à dimanche (6) ou à tout autre jour de la semaine. Les paramètres pour spécifier les dates sont donnés sous forme de nombres entiers. Voir aussi les modules datetime et time.

Les fonctions et les classes définies dans ce module utilisent un calendrier idéalisé, le calendrier grégorien actuel s'étendant indéfiniment dans les deux sens. Cela correspond à la définition du calendrier grégorien proleptique dans le livre de Dershowitz et Reingold « Calendrical Calculations », œuvre dans lequel il est le calendrier de référence de tous les calculs. Les années zéros et les années négatives sont interprétées comme prescrit par la norme ISO 8601. L'année 0 est 1 avant JC, l'année -1 est 2 avant JC et ainsi de suite.

class calendar.Calendar(firstweekday=0)

Crée un objet Calendar. firstweekday est un entier spécifiant le premier jour de la semaine, valant par défaut 0 (soit MONDAY pour lundi), pouvant aller jusqu'à 6 (soit SUNDAY pour dimanche).

L'objet Calendar fournit plusieurs méthodes pouvant être utilisées pour préparer les données du calendrier pour le formatage. Cette classe ne fait pas de formatage elle-même. Il s'agit du travail des sous-classes.

Calendar instances have the following methods and attributes:

firstweekday

The first weekday as an integer (0--6).

This property can also be set and read using setfirstweekday() and getfirstweekday() respectively.

getfirstweekday()

Return an int for the current first weekday (0--6).

Identical to reading the firstweekday property.

setfirstweekday(firstweekday)

Set the first weekday to firstweekday, passed as an int (0--6)

Identical to setting the firstweekday property.

iterweekdays()

Return an iterator for the week day numbers that will be used for one week. The first value from the iterator will be the same as the value of the firstweekday property.

itermonthdates(year, month)

Renvoie un itérateur sur les jours du mois month (1 à 12) de l'année year. Cet itérateur renvoie tous les jours du mois (sous forme d'instances de datetime.date) ainsi que tous les jours avant le début du mois et après la fin du mois nécessaires pour obtenir des semaines complètes.

itermonthdays(year, month)

Renvoie un itérateur sur les jours du mois month de l'année year, comme itermonthdates(), sans être limité par l'intervalle de datetime.date. Les jours renvoyés sont simplement les numéros des jours du mois. Pour les jours en dehors du mois spécifié, le numéro du jour est 0.

itermonthdays2(year, month)

Renvoie un itérateur sur les jours du mois month de l'année year comme itermonthdates(), sans être limité par la plage datetime.date. Les jours renvoyés sont des paires composées du numéro du jour dans le mois et du numéro du jour dans la semaine.

itermonthdays3(year, month)

Renvoie un itérateur sur les jours du month de l'année year, comme itermonthdates(), sans être limité par l'intervalle de datetime.date. Les jours sont renvoyés sous forme de triplets composés du numéro de l'année, du mois et du jour dans le mois.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

itermonthdays4(year, month)

Renvoie un itérateur sur les jours du mois month de l'année year, comme itermonthdates(), sans être limité par l'intervalle de datetime.date. Le jours sont renvoyés sous forme de quadruplets contenant le numéro de l'année, du mois, du jour du mois et du jour de la semaine.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

monthdatescalendar(year, month)

Renvoie la liste des semaines complètes du mois month de l'année year. Les semaines sont des listes de sept objets datetime.date.

monthdays2calendar(year, month)

Renvoie la liste des semaines complètes du mois month de l'année year. Les semaines sont des listes de sept paires contenant le numéro du jour dans le mois et du numéro du jour dans la semaine.

monthdayscalendar(year, month)

Renvoie la liste des semaines complètes du mois month de l'année year. Les semaines sont une liste de sept numéros de jours.

yeardatescalendar(year, width=3)

Renvoie ce qu'il faut pour afficher correctement une année. La valeur renvoyée est une liste de lignes de mois. Chaque ligne mensuelle contient jusqu'à width mois (avec une valeur par défaut à 3). Chaque mois contient de 4 à 6 semaines et chaque semaine 1 à 7 jours. Les jours sont des objets datetime.date.

yeardays2calendar(year, width=3)

Renvoie ce qu'il faut pour afficher correctement une année, (similaire à yeardatescalendar()). Les listes des semaines contiennent des paires contenant le numéro du jour du mois et le numéro du jour de la semaine. Les numéro des jours en dehors de ce mois sont à zéro.

yeardayscalendar(year, width=3)

Renvoie ce qu'il faut pour afficher correctement une année, (similaire à yeardatescalendar()). Les listes de semaines contiennent des numéros de jours. Les numéros de jours en dehors de ce mois sont de zéro.

class calendar.TextCalendar(firstweekday=0)

Cette classe peut être utilisée pour générer des calendriers en texte brut.

Les instances TextCalendar exposent les méthodes suivantes :

formatday(theday, weekday, width)

Return a string representing a single day formatted with the given width. If theday is 0, return a string of spaces of the specified width, representing an empty day. The weekday parameter is unused.

formatweek(theweek, w=0)

Return a single week in a string with no newline. If w is provided, it specifies the width of the date columns, which are centered. Depends on the first weekday as specified in the constructor or set by the setfirstweekday() method.

formatweekday(weekday, width)

Return a string representing the name of a single weekday formatted to the specified width. The weekday parameter is an integer representing the day of the week, where 0 is Monday and 6 is Sunday.

formatweekheader(width)

Return a string containing the header row of weekday names, formatted with the given width for each column. The names depend on the locale settings and are padded to the specified width.

formatmonth(theyear, themonth, w=0, l=0)

Donne le calendrier d'un mois dans une chaîne multi-ligne. Si w est fourni, il spécifie la largeur des colonnes de date, qui sont centrées. Si l est donné, il spécifie le nombre de lignes que chaque semaine utilisera. Le résultat varie en fonction du premier jour de la semaine spécifié dans le constructeur ou défini par la méthode setfirstweekday().

formatmonthname(theyear, themonth, width=0, withyear=True)

Return a string representing the month's name centered within the specified width. If withyear is True, include the year in the output. The theyear and themonth parameters specify the year and month for the name to be formatted respectively.

prmonth(theyear, themonth, w=0, l=0)

Affiche le calendrier d'un mois tel que renvoyé par formatmonth().

formatyear(theyear, w=2, l=1, c=6, m=3)

Renvoie un calendrier de m colonnes pour une année entière sous forme de chaîne multi-ligne. Les paramètres facultatifs w, l et c correspondent respectivement à la largeur de la colonne date, les lignes par semaines, le nombre d'espace entre les colonnes de mois. Le résultat varie en fonction du premier jour de la semaine spécifié dans le constructeur ou défini par la méthode setfirstweekday(). La première année pour laquelle un calendrier peut être généré, dépend de la plateforme.

pryear(theyear, w=2, l=1, c=6, m=3)

Affiche le calendrier pour une année entière comme renvoyé par formatyear().

class calendar.HTMLCalendar(firstweekday=0)

Cette classe peut être utilisée pour générer des calendriers HTML.

Les instances de HTMLCalendar utilisent les méthodes suivantes :

formatmonth(theyear, themonth, withyear=True)

Renvoie le calendrier d'un mois sous la forme d'une table HTML. Si withyear est vrai l'année sera inclue dans l'en-tête, sinon seul le nom du mois sera utilisé.

formatyear(theyear, width=3)

Renvoie le calendrier d'une année sous la forme d'une table HTML. width (par défaut à 3) spécifie le nombre de mois par ligne.

formatyearpage(theyear, width=3, css='calendar.css', encoding=None)

Renvoie le calendrier d'une année sous la forme d'une page HTML complète. width (par défaut à 3) spécifie le nombre de mois par ligne. css est le nom de la feuille de style en cascade à utiliser. None peut être passé si aucune feuille de style ne doit être utilisée. encoding spécifie l'encodage à utiliser pour les données de sortie (par défaut l'encodage par défaut du système).

formatmonthname(theyear, themonth, withyear=True)

Return a month name as an HTML table row. If withyear is true the year will be included in the row, otherwise just the month name will be used.

HTMLCalendar possède les attributs suivants que vous pouvez surcharger pour personnaliser les classes CSS utilisées par le calendrier :

cssclasses

Une liste de classes CSS utilisées pour chaque jour de la semaine. La liste par défaut de la classe est :

cssclasses = ["mon", "tue", "wed", "thu", "fri", "sat", "sun"]

davantage de styles peuvent être ajoutés pour chaque jour :

cssclasses = ["mon text-bold", "tue", "wed", "thu", "fri", "sat", "sun red"]

Notez que la longueur de cette liste doit être de sept éléments.

cssclass_noday

La classe CSS pour le jour de la semaine apparaissant dans le mois précédent ou à venir.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

cssclasses_weekday_head

Une liste de classes CSS utilisées pour les noms des jours de la semaine dans la ligne d'en-tête. Par défaut les mêmes que cssclasses.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

cssclass_month_head

La classe CSS du mois en en-tête (utilisé par formatmonthname()). La valeur par défaut est "month".

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

cssclass_month

La classe CSS pour la table du mois entière (utilisé par formatmonth()). La valeur par défaut est "month".

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

cssclass_year

La classe CSS pour la table entière des tables de l'année (utilisé par formatyear()). La valeur par défaut est "year".

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

cssclass_year_head

La classe CSS pour l'en-tête de la table pour l'année entière (utilisé par formatyear()). La valeur par défaut est "year".

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Notez que même si le nommage ci-dessus des attributs de classe est au singulier (p. ex. cssclass_month cssclass_noday), on peut remplacer la seule classe CSS par une liste de classes CSS séparées par une espace, par exemple :

"text-bold text-red"

Voici un exemple de comment peut être personnalisée HTMLCalendar :

class CustomHTMLCal(calendar.HTMLCalendar):
    cssclasses = [style + " text-nowrap" for style in
                  calendar.HTMLCalendar.cssclasses]
    cssclass_month_head = "text-center month-head"
    cssclass_month = "text-center month"
    cssclass_year = "text-italic lead"

class calendar.LocaleTextCalendar(firstweekday=0, locale=None)

Il est possible de passer un nom de locale au constructeur de la sous-classe de TextCalendar. Elle renvoie les noms des mois et des jours de la semaine dans la locale précisée.

class calendar.LocaleHTMLCalendar(firstweekday=0, locale=None)

Il est possible de passer un nom de locale au constructeur de la sous-classe de HTMLCalendar. Elle renvoie les noms des mois et des jours de la semaine dans la locale précisée.

Note

The constructor, formatweekday() and formatmonthname() methods of these two classes temporarily change the LC_TIME locale to the given locale. Because the current locale is a process-wide setting, they are not thread-safe.

Pour les calendriers texte simples ce module fournit les fonctions suivantes.

calendar.setfirstweekday(weekday)

Fixe le jour de la semaine (0 pour lundi, 6 pour dimanche) qui débute chaque semaine. Les valeurs MONDAY, TUESDAY, WEDNESDAY, THURSDAY, FRIDAY, SATURDAY, et SUNDAY sont fournies par commodité. Par exemple, pour fixer le premier jour de la semaine à dimanche :

import calendar
calendar.setfirstweekday(calendar.SUNDAY)

calendar.firstweekday()

Renvoie le réglage courant pour le jour de la semaine débutant chaque semaine.

calendar.isleap(year)

Renvoie True si year est une année bissextile, sinon False.

calendar.leapdays(y1, y2)

Renvoie le nombre d'années bissextiles dans la période de y1 à y2 (non inclus), où y1 et y2 sont des années.

Cette fonction marche pour les périodes couvrant un changement de siècle.

calendar.weekday(year, month, day)

Renvoie le jour de la semaine (0 pour lundi) pour year (1970-- …), month (1--12), day (1--31).

calendar.weekheader(n)

Renvoie un en-tête contenant les jours de la semaine en abrégé. n spécifie la largeur en caractères pour un jour de la semaine.

calendar.monthrange(year, month)

Renvoie le jour de la semaine correspondant au premier jour du mois et le nombre de jours dans le mois, pour l'année year et le mois month spécifiés.

calendar.monthcalendar(year, month)

Renvoie une matrice représentant le calendrier d'un mois. Chaque ligne représente une semaine ; les jours en dehors du mois sont représentés par des zéros. Chaque semaine débute avec le lundi à moins de l'avoir modifié avec setfirstweekday().

calendar.prmonth(theyear, themonth, w=0, l=0)

Affiche le calendrier d'un mois tel que renvoyé par month().

calendar.month(theyear, themonth, w=0, l=0)

Returns a month's calendar in a multi-line string using the formatmonth() of the TextCalendar class.

calendar.prcal(year, w=0, l=0, c=6, m=3)

Affiche le calendrier pour une année entière tel que renvoyé par calendar().

calendar.calendar(year, w=2, l=1, c=6, m=3)

Returns a 3-column calendar for an entire year as a multi-line string using the formatyear() of the TextCalendar class.

calendar.timegm(tuple)

Une fonction sans rapport mais pratique, qui prend un n-uplet temporel tel que celui renvoyé par la fonction gmtime() dans le module time, et renvoie la valeur d'horodatage Unix (timestamp en anglais) correspondante, en supposant une époque de 1970, et l'encodage POSIX. En fait, time.gmtime() et timegm() sont l'inverse l'un de l'autre.

The calendar module exports the following data attributes:

calendar.day_name

A sequence that represents the days of the week in the current locale, where Monday is day number 0.

>>> import calendar
>>> list(calendar.day_name)
['Monday', 'Tuesday', 'Wednesday', 'Thursday', 'Friday', 'Saturday', 'Sunday']

calendar.day_abbr

A sequence that represents the abbreviated days of the week in the current locale, where Mon is day number 0.

>>> import calendar
>>> list(calendar.day_abbr)
['Mon', 'Tue', 'Wed', 'Thu', 'Fri', 'Sat', 'Sun']

calendar.MONDAY

calendar.TUESDAY

calendar.WEDNESDAY

calendar.THURSDAY

calendar.FRIDAY

calendar.SATURDAY

calendar.SUNDAY

Aliases for the days of the week, where MONDAY is 0 and SUNDAY is 6.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

class calendar.Day

Enumeration defining days of the week as integer constants. The members of this enumeration are exported to the module scope as MONDAY through SUNDAY.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

calendar.month_name

A sequence that represents the months of the year in the current locale. This follows normal convention of January being month number 1, so it has a length of 13 and month_name[0] is the empty string.

>>> import calendar
>>> list(calendar.month_name)
['', 'January', 'February', 'March', 'April', 'May', 'June', 'July', 'August', 'September', 'October', 'November', 'December']

calendar.month_abbr

A sequence that represents the abbreviated months of the year in the current locale. This follows normal convention of January being month number 1, so it has a length of 13 and month_abbr[0] is the empty string.

>>> import calendar
>>> list(calendar.month_abbr)
['', 'Jan', 'Feb', 'Mar', 'Apr', 'May', 'Jun', 'Jul', 'Aug', 'Sep', 'Oct', 'Nov', 'Dec']

calendar.JANUARY

calendar.FEBRUARY

calendar.MARCH

calendar.APRIL

calendar.MAY

calendar.JUNE

calendar.JULY

calendar.AUGUST

calendar.SEPTEMBER

calendar.OCTOBER

calendar.NOVEMBER

calendar.DECEMBER

Aliases for the months of the year, where JANUARY is 1 and DECEMBER is 12.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

class calendar.Month

Enumeration defining months of the year as integer constants. The members of this enumeration are exported to the module scope as JANUARY through DECEMBER.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

The calendar module defines the following exceptions:

exception calendar.IllegalMonthError(month)

A subclass of ValueError, raised when the given month number is outside of the range 1-12 (inclusive).

month

The invalid month number.

exception calendar.IllegalWeekdayError(weekday)

A subclass of ValueError, raised when the given weekday number is outside of the range 0-6 (inclusive).

weekday

The invalid weekday number.

Voir aussi

Module datetime

Interface orientée objet pour les dates et les heures avec des fonctionnalités similaires au module time.

Module time

Fonctions bas niveau relatives au temps.

Command-line usage

Ajouté dans la version 2.5.

The calendar module can be executed as a script from the command line to interactively print a calendar.

python -m calendar [-h] [-L LOCALE] [-e ENCODING] [-t {text,html}]
                   [-w WIDTH] [-l LINES] [-s SPACING] [-m MONTHS] [-c CSS]
                   [-f FIRST_WEEKDAY] [year] [month]

For example, to print a calendar for the year 2000:

$ python -m calendar 2000
                                  2000

      January                   February                   March
Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su
                1  2          1  2  3  4  5  6             1  2  3  4  5
 3  4  5  6  7  8  9       7  8  9 10 11 12 13       6  7  8  9 10 11 12
10 11 12 13 14 15 16      14 15 16 17 18 19 20      13 14 15 16 17 18 19
17 18 19 20 21 22 23      21 22 23 24 25 26 27      20 21 22 23 24 25 26
24 25 26 27 28 29 30      28 29                     27 28 29 30 31
31

       April                      May                       June
Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su
                1  2       1  2  3  4  5  6  7                1  2  3  4
 3  4  5  6  7  8  9       8  9 10 11 12 13 14       5  6  7  8  9 10 11
10 11 12 13 14 15 16      15 16 17 18 19 20 21      12 13 14 15 16 17 18
17 18 19 20 21 22 23      22 23 24 25 26 27 28      19 20 21 22 23 24 25
24 25 26 27 28 29 30      29 30 31                  26 27 28 29 30

        July                     August                  September
Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su
                1  2          1  2  3  4  5  6                   1  2  3
 3  4  5  6  7  8  9       7  8  9 10 11 12 13       4  5  6  7  8  9 10
10 11 12 13 14 15 16      14 15 16 17 18 19 20      11 12 13 14 15 16 17
17 18 19 20 21 22 23      21 22 23 24 25 26 27      18 19 20 21 22 23 24
24 25 26 27 28 29 30      28 29 30 31               25 26 27 28 29 30
31

      October                   November                  December
Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su
                   1             1  2  3  4  5                   1  2  3
 2  3  4  5  6  7  8       6  7  8  9 10 11 12       4  5  6  7  8  9 10
 9 10 11 12 13 14 15      13 14 15 16 17 18 19      11 12 13 14 15 16 17
16 17 18 19 20 21 22      20 21 22 23 24 25 26      18 19 20 21 22 23 24
23 24 25 26 27 28 29      27 28 29 30               25 26 27 28 29 30 31
30 31

Les options suivantes sont acceptées :

--help, -h

Affiche un message d'aide et quitte.

--locale LOCALE, -L LOCALE

The locale to use for month and weekday names. Defaults to English.

--encoding ENCODING, -e ENCODING

The encoding to use for output. --encoding is required if --locale is set.

--type {text,html}, -t {text,html}

Print the calendar to the terminal as text, or as an HTML document.

--first-weekday FIRST_WEEKDAY, -f FIRST_WEEKDAY

The weekday to start each week. Must be a number between 0 (Monday) and 6 (Sunday). Defaults to 0.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

year

The year to print the calendar for. Defaults to the current year.

month

The month of the specified year to print the calendar for. Must be a number between 1 and 12, and may only be used in text mode. Defaults to printing a calendar for the full year.

Text-mode options:

--width WIDTH, -w WIDTH

The width of the date column in terminal columns. The date is printed centred in the column. Any value lower than 2 is ignored. Defaults to 2.

--lines LINES, -l LINES

The number of lines for each week in terminal rows. The date is printed top-aligned. Any value lower than 1 is ignored. Defaults to 1.

--spacing SPACING, -s SPACING

The space between months in columns. Any value lower than 2 is ignored. Defaults to 6.

--months MONTHS, -m MONTHS

The number of months printed per row. Defaults to 3.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: By default, today's date is highlighted in color and can be controlled using environment variables.

HTML-mode options:

--css CSS, -c CSS

The path of a CSS stylesheet to use for the calendar. This must either be relative to the generated HTML, or an absolute HTTP or file:/// URL.

collections --- Container datatypes

Code source : Lib/collections/__init__.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/collections/__init__.py]

Ce module implémente des types de données de conteneurs spécialisés qui apportent des alternatives aux conteneurs natifs de Python plus généraux dict, list, set et tuple.

namedtuple()

fonction permettant de créer des sous-classes de tuple avec des champs nommés

deque

conteneur se comportant comme une liste avec des ajouts et retraits rapides à chaque extrémité

ChainMap

classe semblable aux dictionnaires qui crée une unique vue à partir de plusieurs dictionnaires

Counter

dict subclass for counting hashable objects

OrderedDict

sous-classe de dict qui garde en mémoire l'ordre dans lequel les entrées ont été ajoutées

defaultdict

sous-classe de dict qui appelle une fonction de fabrication en cas de valeur manquante

UserDict

surcouche autour des objets dictionnaires pour faciliter l'héritage de dict

UserList

surcouche autour des objets listes pour faciliter l'héritage de list

UserString

surcouche autour des objets chaînes de caractères pour faciliter l'héritage de str

Objets ChainMap

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Le module fournit une classe ChainMap afin de réunir rapidement plusieurs dictionnaires en une unique entité. Cela est souvent plus rapide que de créer un nouveau dictionnaire et d'effectuer plusieurs appels de update().

Cette classe peut être utilisée pour simuler des portées imbriquées, elle est aussi utile pour le templating.

class collections.ChainMap(*maps)

Un objet ChainMap regroupe plusieurs dictionnaires (ou autres tableaux de correspondance) en une vue que l'on peut mettre à jour. Si le paramètre maps est vide, un dictionnaire vide est fourni de telle manière qu'une nouvelle chaîne possède toujours au moins un dictionnaire.

Les dictionnaires sous-jacents sont stockés dans une liste. Celle-ci est publique et peut être consultée ou mise à jour via l'attribut maps. Il n'y a pas d'autre état.

Les recherches s'effectuent successivement dans chaque dictionnaire jusqu'à la première clé correspondante. En revanche, les écritures, mises à jour et suppressions n'affectent que le premier dictionnaire.

Un objet ChainMap incorpore les dictionnaires sous-jacents par leur référence. Ainsi, si l'un d'eux est modifié, les changements affectent également la ChainMap.

Toutes les méthodes usuelles des dictionnaires sont gérées. De plus, cette classe fournit un attribut maps, une méthode pour créer de nouveaux sous-contextes et une propriété pour accéder à tous les dictionnaires sous-jacents excepté le premier :

maps

Liste de dictionnaires éditable par l'utilisateur et classée selon l'ordre de recherche. Il s'agit de l'unique état stocké et elle peut être modifiée pour changer l'ordre de recherche. La liste doit toujours contenir au moins un dictionnaire.

new_child(m=None, **kwargs)

Renvoie un nouvel objet ChainMap contenant un nouveau dictionnaire suivi par tous les autres de l'instance actuelle. Si m est spécifié, il devient le nouveau dictionnaire au début de la liste ; sinon, un dictionnaire vide est utilisé, de telle manière qu'appeler d.new_child() équivaut à appeler ChainMap({}, *d.maps). Si des arguments sont passés par mot-clé, ils sont insérés comme de nouvelles entrées du dictionnaire ajouté. Cette méthode est utile pour créer des sous-contextes qui peuvent être mis à jour sans altérer les valeurs dans les dictionnaires parents.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: ajout du paramètre optionnel m.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: prise en charge des arguments par mot-clé.

parents

Propriété qui renvoie un nouvel objet ChainMap contenant tous les dictionnaires de l'instance actuelle hormis le premier. Cette propriété est utile pour ignorer le premier dictionnaire dans les recherches ; son utilisation rappelle le mot-clé nonlocal (utilisé pour les portées imbriquées), ou bien la fonction native super(). Une référence à d.parents est équivalente à : ChainMap(*d.maps[1:]).

Note, the iteration order of a ChainMap is determined by scanning the mappings last to first:

>>> baseline = {'music': 'bach', 'art': 'rembrandt'}
>>> adjustments = {'art': 'van gogh', 'opera': 'carmen'}
>>> list(ChainMap(adjustments, baseline))
['music', 'art', 'opera']

Cela produit le même ordre qu'une suite d'appels à dict.update() en commençant par le dernier tableau de correspondances :

>>> combined = baseline.copy()
>>> combined.update(adjustments)
>>> list(combined)
['music', 'art', 'opera']

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Ajout de la gestion des opérateurs | et |= tels que définis dans PEP 584 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/].

Voir aussi

La classe MultiContext [https://github.com/enthought/codetools/blob/4.0.0/codetools/contexts/multi_context.py] dans le package CodeTools [https://github.com/enthought/codetools] d'Enthought possède des options pour gérer l'écriture dans n'importe quel dictionnaire de la chaîne.

La classe de contexte de Django [https://github.com/django/django/blob/main/django/template/context.py] pour la création de modèles est une chaîne de dictionnaires en lecture seule. Elle comporte également des fonctionnalités d'ajouts et de retraits de contextes similaires à la méthode new_child() et à la propriété parents.

The Nested Contexts recipe [https://code.activestate.com/recipes/577434-nested-contexts-a-chain-of-mapping-objects/] has options to control whether writes and other mutations apply only to the first mapping or to any mapping in the chain.

Une version grandement simplifiée de Chainmap en lecture seule [https://code.activestate.com/recipes/305268/].

Exemples et cas pratiques utilisant ChainMap

Cette partie montre diverses approches afin de travailler avec les dictionnaires chaînés.

Exemple 1 : simulation de la chaîne de recherche interne de Python :

import builtins
pylookup = ChainMap(locals(), globals(), vars(builtins))

Exemple 2 : spécification d'une hiérarchie pour les options : ligne de commande, variable d'environnement, valeurs par défaut :

import os, argparse

defaults = {'color': 'red', 'user': 'guest'}

parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
parser.add_argument('-u', '--user')
parser.add_argument('-c', '--color')
namespace = parser.parse_args()
command_line_args = {k: v for k, v in vars(namespace).items() if v is not None}

combined = ChainMap(command_line_args, os.environ, defaults)
print(combined['color'])
print(combined['user'])

Exemple 3 : modèles pour simuler des contextes imbriqués avec la classe ChainMap :

c = ChainMap()        # Create root context
d = c.new_child()     # Create nested child context
e = c.new_child()     # Child of c, independent from d
e.maps[0]             # Current context dictionary -- like Python's locals()
e.maps[-1]            # Root context -- like Python's globals()
e.parents             # Enclosing context chain -- like Python's nonlocals

d['x'] = 1            # Set value in current context
d['x']                # Get first key in the chain of contexts
del d['x']            # Delete from current context
list(d)               # All nested values
k in d                # Check all nested values
len(d)                # Number of nested values
d.items()             # All nested items
dict(d)               # Flatten into a regular dictionary

La classe ChainMap ne met à jour (écriture et suppression) que le premier dictionnaire de la chaîne, alors qu'une recherche inspecte toute la chaîne. Cependant, si l'on veut effectuer des écritures ou suppressions en profondeur, on peut facilement faire une sous-classe qui met à jour les clés trouvées de la chaîne en profondeur :

class DeepChainMap(ChainMap):
    'Variant of ChainMap that allows direct updates to inner scopes'

    def __setitem__(self, key, value):
        for mapping in self.maps:
            if key in mapping:
                mapping[key] = value
                return
        self.maps[0][key] = value

    def __delitem__(self, key):
        for mapping in self.maps:
            if key in mapping:
                del mapping[key]
                return
        raise KeyError(key)

>>> d = DeepChainMap({'zebra': 'black'}, {'elephant': 'blue'}, {'lion': 'yellow'})
>>> d['lion'] = 'orange'         # update an existing key two levels down
>>> d['snake'] = 'red'           # new keys get added to the topmost dict
>>> del d['elephant']            # remove an existing key one level down
>>> d                            # display result
DeepChainMap({'zebra': 'black', 'snake': 'red'}, {}, {'lion': 'orange'})

Objets Counter

Ce module fournit un outil pour effectuer rapidement et facilement des dénombrements. Par exemple :

>>> # Tally occurrences of words in a list
>>> cnt = Counter()
>>> for word in ['red', 'blue', 'red', 'green', 'blue', 'blue']:
...     cnt[word] += 1
...
>>> cnt
Counter({'blue': 3, 'red': 2, 'green': 1})

>>> # Find the ten most common words in Hamlet
>>> import re
>>> words = re.findall(r'\w+', open('hamlet.txt').read().lower())
>>> Counter(words).most_common(10)
[('the', 1143), ('and', 966), ('to', 762), ('of', 669), ('i', 631),
 ('you', 554),  ('a', 546), ('my', 514), ('hamlet', 471), ('in', 451)]

class collections.Counter(**kwargs)

class collections.Counter(iterable, /, **kwargs)

class collections.Counter(mapping, /, **kwargs)

A Counter is a dict subclass for counting hashable objects. It is a collection where elements are stored as dictionary keys and their counts are stored as dictionary values. Counts are allowed to be any integer value including zero or negative counts. The Counter class is similar to bags or multisets in other languages.

Les éléments sont comptés à partir d'un itérable ou initialisés à partir d'un autre dictionnaire (ou compteur) :

>>> c = Counter()                           # a new, empty counter
>>> c = Counter('gallahad')                 # a new counter from an iterable
>>> c = Counter({'red': 4, 'blue': 2})      # a new counter from a mapping
>>> c = Counter(cats=4, dogs=8)             # a new counter from keyword args

Les objets Counter ont une interface de dictionnaire, à l'exception près qu'ils renvoient zéro au lieu de lever une exception KeyError pour des éléments manquants :

>>> c = Counter(['eggs', 'ham'])
>>> c['bacon']                              # count of a missing element is zero
0

Mettre un comptage à zéro pour un élément ne le retire pas de l'objet Counter. Il faut utiliser del pour le supprimer complètement :

>>> c['sausage'] = 0                        # counter entry with a zero count
>>> del c['sausage']                        # del actually removes the entry

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: As a dict subclass, Counter inherited the capability to remember insertion order. Math operations on Counter objects also preserve order. Results are ordered according to when an element is first encountered in the left operand and then by the order encountered in the right operand.

Counter objects support additional methods beyond those available for all dictionaries:

elements()

Renvoie un itérateur sur chaque élément en le répétant autant de fois que la valeur du compteur associé. Les éléments sont renvoyés dans l'ordre selon lequel ils sont rencontrés pour la première fois. Si le comptage d'un élément est strictement inférieur à 1, alors elements() l'ignore.

>>> c = Counter(a=4, b=2, c=0, d=-2)
>>> sorted(c.elements())
['a', 'a', 'a', 'a', 'b', 'b']

most_common(n=None)

Renvoie une liste des n éléments les plus nombreux et leur valeur respective dans l'ordre décroissant. Si n n'est pas fourni ou vaut None, most_common() renvoie tous les éléments du compteur. Les éléments qui ont le même nombre d'occurrences sont ordonnés par l'ordre selon lequel ils ont été rencontrés pour la première fois :

>>> Counter('abracadabra').most_common(3)
[('a', 5), ('b', 2), ('r', 2)]

subtract(**kwargs)

subtract(iterable, /, **kwargs)

subtract(mapping, /, **kwargs)

Les éléments sont soustraits à partir d'un itérable ou d'un autre dictionnaire (ou compteur). Cette méthode se comporte comme dict.update() mais soustrait les nombres d'occurrences au lieu de les remplacer. Les entrées et sorties peuvent être négatives ou nulles.

>>> c = Counter(a=4, b=2, c=0, d=-2)
>>> d = Counter(a=1, b=2, c=3, d=4)
>>> c.subtract(d)
>>> c
Counter({'a': 3, 'b': 0, 'c': -3, 'd': -6})

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

total()

Calcule la somme totale des nombres d'occurrences.

>>> c = Counter(a=10, b=5, c=0)
>>> c.total()
15

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

Les méthodes usuelles des dictionnaires sont disponibles pour les objets Counter à l'exception de deux méthodes qui fonctionnent différemment pour les compteurs.

fromkeys(iterable)

Cette méthode de classe n'est pas implémentée pour les objets Counter.

update(**kwargs)

update(iterable, /, **kwargs)

update(mapping, /, **kwargs)

Les éléments sont comptés à partir d'un itérable ou ajoutés d'un autre dictionnaire (ou compteur). Cette méthode se comporte comme dict.update() mais additionne les nombres d'occurrences au lieu de les remplacer. De plus, l'itérable doit être une séquence d'éléments et non une séquence de paires (clé, valeur).

Les compteurs prennent en charge les comparaisons riches pour les tests d'égalité ainsi que d'inclusion du membre gauche dans le membre droite et réciproquement, avec les opérateurs ==, !=, <, <=, > et >=. Les éléments dont le nombre d'occurrences est à zéro sont ignorés. Par exemple, on a Counter(a=1) == Counter(a=1, b=0).

Modifié dans la version 3.10: ajout des comparaisons riches.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: les éléments dont le nombre d'occurrences est à zéro sont désormais ignorés dans les tests d'égalité. On avait auparavant Counter(a=3) != Counter(a=3, b=0).

Opérations usuelles sur les objets Counter :

c.total()                       # total of all counts
c.clear()                       # reset all counts
list(c)                         # list unique elements
set(c)                          # convert to a set
dict(c)                         # convert to a regular dictionary
c.items()                       # access the (elem, cnt) pairs
Counter(dict(list_of_pairs))    # convert from a list of (elem, cnt) pairs
c.most_common()[:-n-1:-1]       # n least common elements
+c                              # remove zero and negative counts

Several mathematical operations are provided for combining Counter objects to produce multisets (counters that have counts greater than zero). Addition and subtraction combine counters by adding or subtracting the counts of corresponding elements. Intersection and union return the minimum and maximum of corresponding counts. Equality and inclusion compare corresponding counts. Each operation can accept inputs with signed counts, but the output will exclude results with counts of zero or less.

>>> c = Counter(a=3, b=1)
>>> d = Counter(a=1, b=2)
>>> c + d                       # add two counters together:  c[x] + d[x]
Counter({'a': 4, 'b': 3})
>>> c - d                       # subtract (keeping only positive counts)
Counter({'a': 2})
>>> c & d                       # intersection:  min(c[x], d[x])
Counter({'a': 1, 'b': 1})
>>> c | d                       # union:  max(c[x], d[x])
Counter({'a': 3, 'b': 2})
>>> c == d                      # equality:  c[x] == d[x]
False
>>> c <= d                      # inclusion:  c[x] <= d[x]
False

L'addition et la soustraction unaires (avec un seul terme) sont des raccourcis pour respectivement additionner un compteur avec un compteur vide ou et pour retrancher un compteur d'un compteur vide.

>>> c = Counter(a=2, b=-4)
>>> +c
Counter({'a': 2})
>>> -c
Counter({'b': 4})

Ajouté dans la version 3.3: Ajout de la gestion des additions et soustractions unaires, et des remplacements dans les multiensembles.

Note

Les compteurs ont été conçus essentiellement pour fonctionner avec des entiers naturels pour représenter les dénombrements en cours ; cependant, les cas d'utilisation nécessitant d'autres types ou des valeurs négatives n'ont pas été écartés. Pour vous aider dans ces cas particuliers, cette section documente la plage minimale et les restrictions de type.

La classe Counter est elle-même une sous-classe de dictionnaire sans restriction particulière sur ces clés ou valeurs. Les valeurs ont vocation à être des nombres représentants des comptages, mais il est possible de stocker n'importe quel type de valeur.

La méthode most_common() exige uniquement que les valeurs soient ordonnables.

Les opérations de remplacement telles que c[key] += 1 exigent une valeur dont le type gère l'addition et la soustraction. Cela inclut donc les fractions, les flottants et les décimaux, y compris négatifs. Il en va de même pour update() et substract() qui acceptent des valeurs négatives ou nulles dans les entrées et sorties.

Les méthodes de multiensembles sont uniquement conçues pour les cas d'utilisation avec des valeurs positives. Les entrées peuvent contenir des valeurs négatives ou nulles, mais seules les sorties avec des valeurs positives sont créées. Il n'y a pas de restriction de type, mais les types des valeurs doivent gérer l'addition, la soustraction et la comparaison.

La méthode elements() exige des valeurs entières et ignore les valeurs négatives ou nulles.

Voir aussi

Bag class [https://www.gnu.org/software/smalltalk/manual-base/html_node/Bag.html] dans Smalltalk.

L'article Wikipédia sur les multiensembles [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiensemble] sur Wikipédia (ou l'article en anglais [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiset]).

Des guides et exemples à propos des multiensembles en C++ [http://www.java2s.com/Tutorial/Cpp/0380__set-multiset/Catalog0380__set-multiset.htm].

Pour les opérations mathématiques sur les multiensembles et leurs applications, voir Knuth, Donald. The Art of Computer Programming Volume II, Section 4.6.3, Exercise 19.

Pour lister tous les multiensembles distincts de même taille parmi un ensemble donné d'éléments, voir itertools.combinations_with_replacement() :

map(Counter, combinations_with_replacement('ABC', 2)) # --> AA AB AC BB BC CC

Objets deque

class collections.deque([iterable[, maxlen]])

Renvoie un nouvel objet deque initialisé de gauche à droite (en utilisant append()) avec les données d'iterable. Si iterable n'est pas spécifié, alors la nouvelle deque est vide.

Deques are a generalization of stacks and queues (the name is pronounced "deck" and is short for "double-ended queue"). Deques support thread-safe, memory efficient appends and pops from either side of the deque with approximately the same O(1) performance in either direction.

Though list objects support similar operations, they are optimized for fast fixed-length operations and incur O(n) memory movement costs for pop(0) and insert(0, v) operations which change both the size and position of the underlying data representation.

Si maxlen n'est pas spécifié ou vaut None, les deques peuvent atteindre une taille arbitraire. Sinon, la deque est limitée par cette taille maximale. Une fois que celle-ci est atteinte, un ajout d'un ou plusieurs éléments engendre la suppression du nombre correspondant d'éléments à l'autre extrémité de la deque. Les deques à longueur limitée apportent des fonctionnalités similaires au filtre tail d'Unix. Elles sont aussi utiles pour le suivi de transactions et autres lots de données où seule l'activité récente est intéressante.

Les objets deques gèrent les méthodes suivantes :

append(item, /)

Add item to the right side of the deque.

appendleft(item, /)

Add item to the left side of the deque.

clear()

Supprime tous les éléments de la deque et la laisse avec une longueur de 0.

copy()

Crée une copie superficielle de la deque.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

count(value, /)

Count the number of deque elements equal to value.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

extend(iterable, /)

Étend la deque en ajoutant les éléments de l'itérable en argument à son extrémité droite.

extendleft(iterable, /)

Étend la deque en ajoutant les éléments d'iterable à son extrémité gauche. Dans ce cas, notez que la série d'ajouts inverse l'ordre des éléments de l'argument itérable.

index(value[, start[, stop]])

Return the position of value in the deque (at or after index start and before index stop). Returns the first match or raises ValueError if not found.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

insert(index, value, /)

Insert value into the deque at position index.

Si une insertion provoque un dépassement de la taille limitée d'une deque, alors elle lève une exception IndexError.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

pop()

Retire et renvoie un élément de l'extrémité droite de la deque. S'il n'y a aucun élément, lève une exception IndexError.

popleft()

Retire et renvoie un élément de l'extrémité gauche de la deque. S'il n'y a aucun élément, lève une exception IndexError.

remove(value, /)

Supprime la première occurrence de value. Si aucune occurrence n'est trouvée, lève une exception ValueError.

reverse()

Inverse le sens des éléments de la deque sans créer de copie et renvoie None.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

rotate(n=1, /)

Décale les éléments de la deque de n places vers la droite (le dernier élément revient au début). Si n est négatif, décale vers la gauche.

Quand la deque n'est pas vide, un décalage d'une place vers la droite équivaut à d.appendleft(d.pop()) et un décalage d'une place vers la gauche est équivalent à d.append(d.popleft()).

Les objets deques fournissent également un attribut en lecture seule :

maxlen

La taille maximale d'une deque, ou None si illimitée.

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

In addition to the above, deques support iteration, pickling, len(d), reversed(d), copy.copy(d), copy.deepcopy(d), membership testing with the in operator, and subscript references such as d[0] to access the first element. Indexed access is O(1) at both ends but slows to O(n) in the middle. For fast random access, use lists instead.

Depuis la version 3.5, les deques gèrent __add__(), __mul__() et __imul__().

Exemple :

>>> from collections import deque
>>> d = deque('ghi')                 # make a new deque with three items
>>> for elem in d:                   # iterate over the deque's elements
...     print(elem.upper())
G
H
I

>>> d.append('j')                    # add a new entry to the right side
>>> d.appendleft('f')                # add a new entry to the left side
>>> d                                # show the representation of the deque
deque(['f', 'g', 'h', 'i', 'j'])

>>> d.pop()                          # return and remove the rightmost item
'j'
>>> d.popleft()                      # return and remove the leftmost item
'f'
>>> list(d)                          # list the contents of the deque
['g', 'h', 'i']
>>> d[0]                             # peek at leftmost item
'g'
>>> d[-1]                            # peek at rightmost item
'i'

>>> list(reversed(d))                # list the contents of a deque in reverse
['i', 'h', 'g']
>>> 'h' in d                         # search the deque
True
>>> d.extend('jkl')                  # add multiple elements at once
>>> d
deque(['g', 'h', 'i', 'j', 'k', 'l'])
>>> d.rotate(1)                      # right rotation
>>> d
deque(['l', 'g', 'h', 'i', 'j', 'k'])
>>> d.rotate(-1)                     # left rotation
>>> d
deque(['g', 'h', 'i', 'j', 'k', 'l'])

>>> deque(reversed(d))               # make a new deque in reverse order
deque(['l', 'k', 'j', 'i', 'h', 'g'])
>>> d.clear()                        # empty the deque
>>> d.pop()                          # cannot pop from an empty deque
Traceback (most recent call last):
    File "<pyshell#6>", line 1, in -toplevel-
        d.pop()
IndexError: pop from an empty deque

>>> d.extendleft('abc')              # extendleft() reverses the input order
>>> d
deque(['c', 'b', 'a'])

Cas pratiques utilisant deque

Cette partie montre diverses approches afin de travailler avec les deques.

Les deques à taille limitée apportent une fonctionnalité similaire au filtre tail d'Unix :

def tail(filename, n=10):
    'Return the last n lines of a file'
    with open(filename) as f:
        return deque(f, n)

Une autre approche d'utilisation des deques est de maintenir une séquence d'éléments récemment ajoutés en les ajoutant à droite et en retirant les anciens par la gauche :

def moving_average(iterable, n=3):
    # moving_average([40, 30, 50, 46, 39, 44]) --> 40.0 42.0 45.0 43.0
    # https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moving_average
    it = iter(iterable)
    d = deque(itertools.islice(it, n-1))
    d.appendleft(0)
    s = sum(d)
    for elem in it:
        s += elem - d.popleft()
        d.append(elem)
        yield s / n

Un ordonnancement en round-robin [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round-robin_(informatique)] peut être implémenté avec des entrées itérateurs stockées dans une deque. Les valeurs sont produites par l'itérateur actif en position zéro. Si cet itérateur est épuisé, il peut être retiré avec la méthode popleft() ; ou bien il peut être remis à la fin avec la méthode rotate() :

def roundrobin(*iterables):
    "roundrobin('ABC', 'D', 'EF') --> A D E B F C"
    iterators = deque(map(iter, iterables))
    while iterators:
        try:
            while True:
                yield next(iterators[0])
                iterators.rotate(-1)
        except StopIteration:
            # Remove an exhausted iterator.
            iterators.popleft()

La méthode rotate() apporte une façon d'implémenter la sélection d'intervalle (slicing) et les suppressions pour les deques. Par exemple, une implémentation de del d[n] en Python pur utilise la méthode rotate() pour mettre en position les éléments à éjecter :

def delete_nth(d, n):
    d.rotate(-n)
    d.popleft()
    d.rotate(n)

Pour implémenter le slicing pour les deques, il est possible d'utiliser une approche similaire en appliquant rotate() afin d'apporter un élément cible à l'extrémité gauche de la deque. On éjecte les anciennes entrées avec popleft() et on ajoute les nouvelles avec extend(), puis on inverse la rotation. Il est aisé d'implémenter les manipulations des piles inspirées du Forth telles que dup, drop, swap, over, pick, rot et roll.

Objets defaultdict

class collections.defaultdict(default_factory=None, /, **kwargs)

class collections.defaultdict(default_factory, mapping, /, **kwargs)

class collections.defaultdict(default_factory, iterable, /, **kwargs)

Renvoie un nouvel objet qui se comporte comme un dictionnaire. defaultdict est une sous-classe de la classe native dict. Elle surcharge une méthode et ajoute une variable d'instance modifiable. Les autres fonctionnalités sont les mêmes que celles des objets dict et ne sont pas documentées ici.

Le premier argument fournit la valeur initiale de l'attribut default_factory qui doit être un objet appelable sans paramètre ou None, sa valeur par défaut. Tous les autres arguments sont traités comme si on les passait au constructeur de dict, y compris les arguments nommés.

En plus des opérations usuelles de dict, les objets defaultdict gèrent les méthodes supplémentaires suivantes :

__missing__(key, /)

Si l'attribut default_factory est None, lève une exception KeyError avec key comme argument.

Si default_fatory ne vaut pas None, cet attribut est appelé sans argument pour fournir une valeur par défaut pour la key demandée. Cette valeur est insérée dans le dictionnaire avec pour clé key et est renvoyée.

Si appeler default_factory lève une exception, celle-ci est transmise inchangée.

This method is called by the __getitem__() method of the dict class when the requested key is not found; whatever it returns or raises is then returned or raised by __getitem__().

Note that __missing__() is not called for any operations besides __getitem__(). This means that get() will, like normal dictionaries, return None as a default rather than using default_factory.

Les objets defaultdict gèrent la variable d'instance :

default_factory

This attribute is used by the __missing__() method; it is initialized from the first argument to the constructor, if present, or to None, if absent.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: ajout des opérateurs fusion (|) et mise-à-jour (|=) tels que définis dans PEP 584 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/].

Exemples utilisant defaultdict

Utiliser list comme default_factory facilite le regroupement d'une séquence de paires clé-valeur en un dictionnaire de listes :

>>> s = [('yellow', 1), ('blue', 2), ('yellow', 3), ('blue', 4), ('red', 1)]
>>> d = defaultdict(list)
>>> for k, v in s:
...     d[k].append(v)
...
>>> sorted(d.items())
[('blue', [2, 4]), ('red', [1]), ('yellow', [1, 3])]

Lorsque chaque clé est rencontrée pour la première fois, elle n'est pas encore présente dans le dictionnaire, donc une entrée est automatiquement créée grâce à la fonction default_factory qui renvoie un objet list vide. L'opération list.append() ajoute la valeur à la nouvelle liste. Quand les clés sont à nouveau rencontrées, la recherche se déroule correctement (elle renvoie la liste de cette clé) et l'opération list.append() ajoute une autre valeur à la liste. Cette technique est plus simple et plus rapide qu'une technique équivalente utilisant dict.setdefault() :

>>> d = {}
>>> for k, v in s:
...     d.setdefault(k, []).append(v)
...
>>> sorted(d.items())
[('blue', [2, 4]), ('red', [1]), ('yellow', [1, 3])]

Utiliser int comme default_factory rend la classe defaultdict pratique pour le comptage (comme un sac ou multi-ensemble dans d'autres langages) :

>>> s = 'mississippi'
>>> d = defaultdict(int)
>>> for k in s:
...     d[k] += 1
...
>>> sorted(d.items())
[('i', 4), ('m', 1), ('p', 2), ('s', 4)]

Quand une lettre est rencontrée pour la première fois, elle n'est pas dans le dictionnaire, donc la fonction default_factory appelle int() pour mettre un nouveau compteur à zéro. L'incrémentation augmente ensuite le comptage pour chaque lettre.

La fonction int() qui retourne toujours zéro est simplement une fonction constante particulière. Un moyen plus flexible et rapide de créer une fonction constante est d'utiliser une fonction lambda qui peut fournir n'importe quelle valeur constante (pas seulement zéro) :

>>> def constant_factory(value):
...     return lambda: value
...
>>> d = defaultdict(constant_factory('<missing>'))
>>> d.update(name='John', action='ran')
>>> '%(name)s %(action)s to %(object)s' % d
'John ran to <missing>'

Utiliser set comme default_factory rend la classe defaultdict pratique pour créer un dictionnaire d'ensembles :

>>> s = [('red', 1), ('blue', 2), ('red', 3), ('blue', 4), ('red', 1), ('blue', 4)]
>>> d = defaultdict(set)
>>> for k, v in s:
...     d[k].add(v)
...
>>> sorted(d.items())
[('blue', {2, 4}), ('red', {1, 3})]

namedtuple() : fonction de construction pour n-uplets avec des champs nommés

Les n-uplets nommés assignent une signification à chacun de leur élément, ce qui rend le code plus lisible et explicite. Ils peuvent être utilisés partout où les n-uplets natifs sont utilisés, et ils ajoutent la possibilité d'accéder à leurs champs grâce à leur nom au lieu de leur index de position.

collections.namedtuple(typename, field_names, *, rename=False, defaults=None, module=None)

Returns a new tuple subclass named typename. The new subclass is used to create tuple-like objects that have fields accessible by attribute lookup as well as being indexable and iterable. Instances of the subclass also have a helpful docstring (with typename and field_names) and a helpful __repr__() method which lists the tuple contents in a name=value format.

field_names peut être une séquence de chaînes de caractères telle que ['x', 'y'] ou bien une unique chaîne de caractères où les noms de champs sont séparés par un espace et/ou une virgule, par exemple 'x y' ou 'x, y'.

N'importe quel identifiant Python peut être utilisé pour un nom de champ hormis ceux commençant par un tiret bas. Les identifiants valides peuvent contenir des lettres, des chiffres (sauf en première position) et des tirets bas (sauf en première position). Un identifiant ne peut pas être un keyword tel que class, for, return, global, pass ou raise.

Si rename vaut True, alors les noms de champs invalides sont automatiquement renommés en noms positionnels. Par exemple, ['abc', 'def', 'ghi', 'abc'] est converti en ['abc, '_1', 'ghi', '_3'] afin d'éliminer le mot-clé def et le doublon de abc.

defaults peut être None ou un iterable de valeurs par défaut. Comme les champs avec une valeur par défaut doivent être définis après les champs sans valeur par défaut, les defaults sont appliqués aux paramètres les plus à droite. Par exemple, si les noms des champs sont ['x', 'y', 'z'] et les valeurs par défaut (1, 2), alors x est un argument obligatoire tandis que y et y valent par défaut 1 et 2.

If module is defined, the __module__ attribute of the named tuple is set to that value.

Les instances de n-uplets nommés n'ont pas de dictionnaires propres, elles sont donc légères et ne requièrent pas plus de mémoire que les n-uplets natifs.

Pour permettre la sérialisation, la classe de n-uplet nommée doit être assignée à une variable qui correspond à typename.

Modifié dans la version 3.1: Gestion de rename.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Les paramètres verbose et rename deviennent des arguments obligatoirement nommés.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Ajout du paramètre module.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Removed the verbose parameter and the _source attribute.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Added the defaults parameter and the _field_defaults attribute.

>>> # Basic example
>>> Point = namedtuple('Point', ['x', 'y'])
>>> p = Point(11, y=22)     # instantiate with positional or keyword arguments
>>> p[0] + p[1]             # indexable like the plain tuple (11, 22)
33
>>> x, y = p                # unpack like a regular tuple
>>> x, y
(11, 22)
>>> p.x + p.y               # fields also accessible by name
33
>>> p                       # readable __repr__ with a name=value style
Point(x=11, y=22)

Les n-uplets nommés sont particulièrement utiles pour associer des noms de champs à des n-uplets renvoyés par les modules csv ou sqlite3 :

EmployeeRecord = namedtuple('EmployeeRecord', 'name, age, title, department, paygrade')

import csv
for emp in map(EmployeeRecord._make, csv.reader(open("employees.csv", "rb"))):
    print(emp.name, emp.title)

import sqlite3
conn = sqlite3.connect('/companydata')
cursor = conn.cursor()
cursor.execute('SELECT name, age, title, department, paygrade FROM employees')
for emp in map(EmployeeRecord._make, cursor.fetchall()):
    print(emp.name, emp.title)

En plus des méthodes héritées de tuple, les n-uplets nommés implémentent trois méthodes et deux attributs supplémentaires. Pour éviter les conflits avec noms de champs, leurs noms commencent par un tiret bas.

classmethod somenamedtuple._make(iterable, /)

Méthode de classe qui construit une nouvelle instance à partir d'une séquence ou d'un itérable existant.

>>> t = [11, 22]
>>> Point._make(t)
Point(x=11, y=22)

somenamedtuple._asdict()

Renvoie un nouveau dict qui associe chaque nom de champ à sa valeur correspondante :

>>> p = Point(x=11, y=22)
>>> p._asdict()
{'x': 11, 'y': 22}

Modifié dans la version 3.1: Renvoie un OrderedDict au lieu d'un dict natif.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: renvoie un dict natif plutôt qu'un OrderedDict. À partir de Python 3.7, les dictionnaires natifs garantissent la préservation de l'ordre. Si les autres fonctionnalités d'OrderedDict sont nécessaires, la solution préconisée est de convertir le résultat vers le type souhaité : OrderedDict(nt._asdict()).

somenamedtuple._replace(**kwargs)

Renvoie une nouvelle instance du n-uplet nommé en remplaçant les champs spécifiés par leurs nouvelles valeurs :

>>> p = Point(x=11, y=22)
>>> p._replace(x=33)
Point(x=33, y=22)

>>> for partnum, record in inventory.items():
...     inventory[partnum] = record._replace(price=newprices[partnum], timestamp=time.now())

Named tuples are also supported by generic function copy.replace().

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Raise TypeError instead of ValueError for invalid keyword arguments.

somenamedtuple._fields

Tuple de chaînes de caractères listant les noms de champs. Pratique pour l'introspection et pour créer de nouveaux types de n-uplets nommés à partir d'existants.

>>> p._fields            # view the field names
('x', 'y')

>>> Color = namedtuple('Color', 'red green blue')
>>> Pixel = namedtuple('Pixel', Point._fields + Color._fields)
>>> Pixel(11, 22, 128, 255, 0)
Pixel(x=11, y=22, red=128, green=255, blue=0)

somenamedtuple._field_defaults

Dictionnaire qui assigne les valeurs par défaut aux noms des champs.

>>> Account = namedtuple('Account', ['type', 'balance'], defaults=[0])
>>> Account._field_defaults
{'balance': 0}
>>> Account('premium')
Account(type='premium', balance=0)

Pour récupérer un champ dont le nom est une chaîne de caractères, utilisez la fonction getattr() :

>>> getattr(p, 'x')
11

Pour convertir un dictionnaire en n-uplet nommé, utilisez l'opérateur double-étoile (comme expliqué dans Séparation des listes d'arguments) :

>>> d = {'x': 11, 'y': 22}
>>> Point(**d)
Point(x=11, y=22)

Il est aisé d'ajouter ou de modifier les fonctionnalités des n-uplets nommés grâce à l'héritage puisqu'il s'agit de simples classes. Voici comment ajouter un champ calculé avec une longueur fixe d'affichage :

>>> class Point(namedtuple('Point', ['x', 'y'])):
...     __slots__ = ()
...     @property
...     def hypot(self):
...         return (self.x ** 2 + self.y ** 2) ** 0.5
...     def __str__(self):
...         return 'Point: x=%6.3f  y=%6.3f  hypot=%6.3f' % (self.x, self.y, self.hypot)

>>> for p in Point(3, 4), Point(14, 5/7):
...     print(p)
Point: x= 3.000  y= 4.000  hypot= 5.000
Point: x=14.000  y= 0.714  hypot=14.018

La sous-classe ci-dessus définit __slots__ comme un n-uplet vide. Cela permet de garder une emprunte mémoire faible en empêchant la création de dictionnaire d'instance.

L'héritage n'est pas pertinent pour ajouter de nouveaux champs. Il est préférable de simplement créer un nouveau type de n-uplet nommé avec l'attribut _fields :

>>> Point3D = namedtuple('Point3D', Point._fields + ('z',))

Les docstrings peuvent être personnalisées en modifiant directement l'attribut __doc__ :

>>> Book = namedtuple('Book', ['id', 'title', 'authors'])
>>> Book.__doc__ += ': Hardcover book in active collection'
>>> Book.id.__doc__ = '13-digit ISBN'
>>> Book.title.__doc__ = 'Title of first printing'
>>> Book.authors.__doc__ = 'List of authors sorted by last name'

Modifié dans la version 3.5: La propriété devient éditable.

Voir aussi

Voir typing.NamedTuple() pour un moyen d'ajouter des indications de type pour les n-uplets nommés. Cela propose aussi une notation élégante utilisant le mot-clé class :

class Component(NamedTuple):
    part_number: int
    weight: float
    description: Optional[str] = None

Voir types.SimpleNamespace() pour un espace de nommage mutable basé sur un dictionnaire sous-jacent à la place d'un n-uplet.

Le module dataclasses fournit un décorateur et des fonctions pour ajouter automatiquement des méthodes spéciales générées aux classes définies par l’utilisateur.

Objets OrderedDict

Les dictionnaires ordonnés sont des dictionnaires comme les autres mais possèdent des capacités supplémentaires pour s'ordonner. Ils sont maintenant moins importants puisque la classe native dict sait se souvenir de l'ordre d'insertion (cette fonctionnalité a été garantie par Python 3.7).

Quelques différences persistent vis-à-vis de dict :

Les dict classiques ont été conçus pour être performants dans les opérations de correspondance. Garder une trace de l'ordre d'insertion était secondaire.

Les OrderedDict ont été conçus pour être performants dans les opérations de ré-arrangement. L'occupation mémoire, la vitesse de parcours et les performances de mise à jour étaient secondaires.

The OrderedDict algorithm can handle frequent reordering operations better than dict. As shown in the recipes below, this makes it suitable for implementing various kinds of LRU caches.

Le test d'égalité de OrderedDict vérifie si l'ordre correspond.

A regular dict can emulate the order sensitive equality test with p == q and all(k1 == k2 for k1, k2 in zip(p, q)).

The popitem() method of OrderedDict has a different signature. It accepts an optional argument to specify which item is popped.

A regular dict can emulate OrderedDict's od.popitem(last=True) with d.popitem() which is guaranteed to pop the rightmost (last) item.

A regular dict can emulate OrderedDict's od.popitem(last=False) with (k := next(iter(d)), d.pop(k)) which will return and remove the leftmost (first) item if it exists.

OrderedDict has a move_to_end() method to efficiently reposition an element to an endpoint.

A regular dict can emulate OrderedDict's od.move_to_end(k, last=True) with d[k] = d.pop(k) which will move the key and its associated value to the rightmost (last) position.

A regular dict does not have an efficient equivalent for OrderedDict's od.move_to_end(k, last=False) which moves the key and its associated value to the leftmost (first) position.

Until Python 3.8, dict lacked a __reversed__() method.

class collections.OrderedDict(**kwargs)

class collections.OrderedDict(mapping, /, **kwargs)

class collections.OrderedDict(iterable, /, **kwargs)

Renvoie une instance d'une sous-classe de dict qui possède des méthodes spécialisées pour redéfinir l'ordre du dictionnaire.

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

popitem(last=True)

La méthode popitem() pour les dictionnaires ordonnés retire et renvoie une paire (clé, valeur). Les paires sont renvoyées comme pour une pile, c'est-à-dire dernier entré, premier sorti (en anglais LIFO) si last vaut True. Si last vaut False, alors les paires sont renvoyées comme pour une file, c'est-à-dire premier entré, premier sorti (en anglais FIFO).

move_to_end(key, last=True)

Move an existing key to either end of an ordered dictionary. The item is moved to the right end if last is true (the default) or to the beginning if last is false. Raises KeyError if the key does not exist:

>>> d = OrderedDict.fromkeys('abcde')
>>> d.move_to_end('b')
>>> ''.join(d)
'acdeb'
>>> d.move_to_end('b', last=False)
>>> ''.join(d)
'bacde'

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

En plus des méthodes usuelles des dictionnaires, les dictionnaires ordonnés gèrent l'itération en sens inverse grâce à reversed().

Equality tests between OrderedDict objects are order-sensitive and are roughly equivalent to list(od1.items())==list(od2.items()).

Equality tests between OrderedDict objects and other Mapping objects are order-insensitive like regular dictionaries. This allows OrderedDict objects to be substituted anywhere a regular dictionary is used.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Les vues d'éléments, de clés et de valeurs de OrderedDict gèrent maintenant l'itération en sens inverse en utilisant reversed().

Modifié dans la version 3.6: With the acceptance of PEP 468 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0468/], order is retained for keyword arguments passed to the OrderedDict constructor and its update() method.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: ajout des opérateurs fusion (|) et mise-à-jour (|=) tels que définis dans PEP 584 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/].

Exemples et cas pratiques utilisant OrderDict

Il est facile de créer une variante de dictionnaire ordonné qui retient l'ordre dans lequel les clés ont été insérées en dernier. Si une nouvelle entrée écrase une existante, la position d'insertion d'origine est modifiée et déplacée à la fin :

class LastUpdatedOrderedDict(OrderedDict):
    'Store items in the order the keys were last added'

    def __setitem__(self, key, value):
        super().__setitem__(key, value)
        self.move_to_end(key)

Un OrderedDict peut aussi être utile pour implémenter des variantes de functools.lru_cache() :

from collections import OrderedDict
from time import time

class TimeBoundedLRU:
    "LRU Cache that invalidates and refreshes old entries."

    def __init__(self, func, maxsize=128, maxage=30):
        self.cache = OrderedDict()      # { args : (timestamp, result)}
        self.func = func
        self.maxsize = maxsize
        self.maxage = maxage

    def __call__(self, *args):
        if args in self.cache:
            self.cache.move_to_end(args)
            timestamp, result = self.cache[args]
            if time() - timestamp <= self.maxage:
                return result
        result = self.func(*args)
        self.cache[args] = time(), result
        if len(self.cache) > self.maxsize:
            self.cache.popitem(last=False)
        return result

class MultiHitLRUCache:
    """ LRU cache that defers caching a result until
        it has been requested multiple times.

        To avoid flushing the LRU cache with one-time requests,
        we don't cache until a request has been made more than once.

    """

    def __init__(self, func, maxsize=128, maxrequests=4096, cache_after=1):
        self.requests = OrderedDict()   # { uncached_key : request_count }
        self.cache = OrderedDict()      # { cached_key : function_result }
        self.func = func
        self.maxrequests = maxrequests  # max number of uncached requests
        self.maxsize = maxsize          # max number of stored return values
        self.cache_after = cache_after

    def __call__(self, *args):
        if args in self.cache:
            self.cache.move_to_end(args)
            return self.cache[args]
        result = self.func(*args)
        self.requests[args] = self.requests.get(args, 0) + 1
        if self.requests[args] <= self.cache_after:
            self.requests.move_to_end(args)
            if len(self.requests) > self.maxrequests:
                self.requests.popitem(last=False)
        else:
            self.requests.pop(args, None)
            self.cache[args] = result
            if len(self.cache) > self.maxsize:
                self.cache.popitem(last=False)
        return result

Objets UserDict

La classe UserDict se comporte comme une surcouche autour des dictionnaires. L'utilité de cette classe est réduite, car on peut maintenant hériter directement de dict. Cependant, il peut être plus facile de travailler avec celle-ci, car le dictionnaire sous-jacent est accessible comme attribut.

class collections.UserDict(**kwargs)

class collections.UserDict(mapping, /, **kwargs)

class collections.UserDict(iterable, /, **kwargs)

Class that simulates a dictionary. The instance's contents are kept in a regular dictionary, which is accessible via the data attribute of UserDict instances. If arguments are provided, they are used to initialize data, like a regular dictionary.

In addition to supporting the methods and operations of mappings, UserDict instances provide the following attribute:

data

Un dictionnaire natif où est stocké le contenu de la classe UserDict.

Objets UserList

Cette classe agit comme une surcouche autour des objets list. C'est une classe mère utile pour vos classes listes-compatibles qui peuvent en hériter et surcharger les méthodes existantes ou en ajouter de nouvelles. Ainsi, on peut ajouter de nouveaux comportements aux listes.

L'utilité de cette classe a été partiellement réduite par la possibilité d'hériter directement de list. Cependant, il peut être plus facile de travailler avec cette classe, car la liste sous-jacente est accessible via un attribut.

class collections.UserList([list])

Classe simulant une liste. Les instances de UserList possèdent un attribut UserList où est stocké leur contenu sous forme de liste native. Il est initialement une copie de list, ou [] par défaut. list peut être un itérable, par exemple une liste native ou un objet UserList.

En plus de gérer les méthodes et opérations des séquences mutables, les instances de UserList possèdent l'attribut suivant :

data

Un objet list natif utilisé pour stocker le contenu de la classe UserList.

Prérequis pour l'héritage : Les sous-classes de UserList doivent implémenter un constructeur qui peut être appelé avec zéro ou un argument. Les opérations sur les listes qui renvoient une nouvelle séquence essayent de créer une instance de la classe courante. C'est pour cela que le constructeur doit pouvoir être appelé avec un unique paramètre, un objet séquence utilisé comme source de données.

Si une classe fille ne remplit pas cette condition, toutes les méthodes spéciales gérées par cette classe devront être implémentées à nouveau. Merci de consulter les sources pour obtenir des informations sur les méthodes qui doivent être fournies dans ce cas.

Objets UserString

La classe UserString agit comme une surcouche autour des objets str. L'utilité de cette classe a été partiellement réduite par la possibilité d'hériter directement de str. Cependant, il peut être plus facile de travailler avec cette classe, car la chaîne de caractère sous-jacente est accessible via un attribut.

class collections.UserString(seq)

Classe simulant une chaîne de caractères. Les instances de UserString possèdent un attribut data où est stocké leur contenu sous forme de chaîne de caractères native. Le contenu de l'instance est initialement une copie de seq, qui peut être n'importe quel objet convertible en chaîne de caractère avec la fonction native str().

En plus de gérer les méthodes et opérations sur les chaînes de caractères, les instances de UserString possèdent l'attribut suivant :

data

Un objet str natif utilisé pour stocker le contenu de la classe UserString.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Nouvelles méthodes __getnewargs__, __rmod__, casefold, format_map, isprintable et maketrans.

collections.abc --- Abstract Base Classes for Containers

Ajouté dans la version 3.3: Auparavant, ce module faisait partie du module collections.

Code source : Lib/_collections_abc.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/_collections_abc.py]

This module provides abstract base classes that can be used to test whether a class provides a particular interface; for example, whether it is hashable or whether it is a mapping.

An issubclass() or isinstance() test for an interface works in one of three ways.

A newly written class can inherit directly from one of the abstract base classes. The class must supply the required abstract methods. The remaining mixin methods come from inheritance and can be overridden if desired. Other methods may be added as needed:

class C(Sequence):                      # Direct inheritance
    def __init__(self): ...             # Extra method not required by the ABC
    def __getitem__(self, index):  ...  # Required abstract method
    def __len__(self):  ...             # Required abstract method
    def count(self, value): ...         # Optionally override a mixin method

>>> issubclass(C, Sequence)
True
>>> isinstance(C(), Sequence)
True

Existing classes and built-in classes can be registered as "virtual subclasses" of the ABCs. Those classes should define the full API including all of the abstract methods and all of the mixin methods. This lets users rely on issubclass() or isinstance() tests to determine whether the full interface is supported. The exception to this rule is for methods that are automatically inferred from the rest of the API:

class D:                                 # No inheritance
    def __init__(self): ...              # Extra method not required by the ABC
    def __getitem__(self, index):  ...   # Abstract method
    def __len__(self):  ...              # Abstract method
    def count(self, value): ...          # Mixin method
    def index(self, value): ...          # Mixin method

Sequence.register(D)                     # Register instead of inherit

>>> issubclass(D, Sequence)
True
>>> isinstance(D(), Sequence)
True

In this example, class D does not need to define __contains__, __iter__, and __reversed__ because the in-operator, the iteration logic, and the reversed() function automatically fall back to using __getitem__ and __len__.

Some simple interfaces are directly recognizable by the presence of the required methods (unless those methods have been set to None):

class E:
    def __iter__(self): ...
    def __next__(self): ...

>>> issubclass(E, Iterable)
True
>>> isinstance(E(), Iterable)
True

Complex interfaces do not support this last technique because an interface is more than just the presence of method names. Interfaces specify semantics and relationships between methods that cannot be inferred solely from the presence of specific method names. For example, knowing that a class supplies __getitem__, __len__, and __iter__ is insufficient for distinguishing a Sequence from a Mapping.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9: These abstract classes now support []. See Type Alias générique and PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/].

Classes de base abstraites de collections

Le module collections apporte les ABC suivantes :

ABC

Hérite de

Méthodes abstraites

Méthodes mixin

Container [1]

__contains__

Hashable [1]

__hash__

Iterable [1] [2]

__iter__

Iterator [1]

Iterable

__next__

__iter__

Reversible [1]

Iterable

__reversed__

Generator [1]

Iterator

send, throw

close, __iter__, __next__

Sized [1]

__len__

Callable [1]

__call__

Collection [1]

Sized, Iterable, Container

__contains__, __iter__, __len__

Sequence

Reversible, Collection

__getitem__, __len__

__contains__, __iter__, __reversed__, index et count

MutableSequence

Sequence

__getitem__, __setitem__, __delitem__, __len__, insert

Inherited Sequence methods and append, clear, reverse, extend, pop, remove, and __iadd__

ByteString

Sequence

__getitem__, __len__

Méthodes héritées de Sequence

Set

Collection

__contains__, __iter__, __len__

__le__, __lt__, __eq__, __ne__, __gt__, __ge__, __and__, __or__, __sub__, __rsub__, __xor__, __rxor__ and isdisjoint

MutableSet

Set

__contains__, __iter__, __len__, add, discard

Méthodes héritées de Set, et clear, pop, remove, __ior__, __iand__, __ixor__ et __isub__

Mapping

Collection

__getitem__, __iter__, __len__

__contains__, keys, items, values, get, __eq__ et __ne__

MutableMapping

Mapping

__getitem__, __setitem__, __delitem__, __iter__, __len__

Méthodes héritées de Mapping, et pop, popitem, clear, update et setdefault

MappingView

Sized

__init__, __len__ and __repr__

ItemsView

MappingView, Set

__contains__, __iter__

KeysView

MappingView, Set

__contains__, __iter__

ValuesView

MappingView, Collection

__contains__, __iter__

Awaitable [1]

__await__

Coroutine [1]

Awaitable

send, throw

close

AsyncIterable [1]

__aiter__

AsyncIterator [1]

AsyncIterable

__anext__

__aiter__

AsyncGenerator [1]

AsyncIterator

asend, athrow

aclose, __aiter__, __anext__

Buffer [1]

__buffer__

Notes

[1] (1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15)

These ABCs override __subclasshook__() to support testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and have not been set to None. This only works for simple interfaces. More complex interfaces require registration or direct subclassing.

[2]

Checking isinstance(obj, Iterable) detects classes that are registered as Iterable or that have an __iter__() method, but it does not detect classes that iterate with the __getitem__() method. The only reliable way to determine whether an object is iterable is to call iter(obj).

Collections Abstract Base Classes -- Detailed Descriptions

class collections.abc.Container

ABC for classes that provide the __contains__() method.

class collections.abc.Hashable

ABC for classes that provide the __hash__() method.

class collections.abc.Sized

ABC for classes that provide the __len__() method.

class collections.abc.Callable

ABC for classes that provide the __call__() method.

See Annotating callable objects for details on how to use Callable in type annotations.

class collections.abc.Iterable

ABC for classes that provide the __iter__() method.

Checking isinstance(obj, Iterable) detects classes that are registered as Iterable or that have an __iter__() method, but it does not detect classes that iterate with the __getitem__() method. The only reliable way to determine whether an object is iterable is to call iter(obj).

class collections.abc.Collection

ABC pour les classes de conteneurs itérables et sized.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

class collections.abc.Iterator

ABC pour les classes qui définissent les méthodes __iter__() et __next__(). Voir aussi la définition d'itérateur.

class collections.abc.Reversible

ABC for iterable classes that also provide the __reversed__() method.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

class collections.abc.Generator

ABC for generator classes that implement the protocol defined in PEP 342 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0342/] that extends iterators with the send(), throw() and close() methods.

See Annotating generators and coroutines for details on using Generator in type annotations.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

class collections.abc.Sequence

class collections.abc.MutableSequence

class collections.abc.ByteString

ABC pour les séquences immuables et mutables.

Implementation note: Some of the mixin methods, such as __iter__(), __reversed__(), and index() make repeated calls to the underlying __getitem__() method. Consequently, if __getitem__() is implemented with constant access speed, the mixin methods will have linear performance; however, if the underlying method is linear (as it would be with a linked list), the mixins will have quadratic performance and will likely need to be overridden.

index(value, start=0, stop=None)

Return first index of value.

Raises ValueError if the value is not present.

Supporting the start and stop arguments is optional, but recommended.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: The index() method gained support for the stop and start arguments.

Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.17: The ByteString ABC has been deprecated.

Use isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Buffer) to test if obj implements the buffer protocol at runtime. For use in type annotations, either use Buffer or a union that explicitly specifies the types your code supports (e.g., bytes | bytearray | memoryview).

ByteString was originally intended to be an abstract class that would serve as a supertype of both bytes and bytearray. However, since the ABC never had any methods, knowing that an object was an instance of ByteString never actually told you anything useful about the object. Other common buffer types such as memoryview were also never understood as subtypes of ByteString (either at runtime or by static type checkers).

See PEP 688 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/#current-options] for more details.

class collections.abc.Set

class collections.abc.MutableSet

ABCs for read-only and mutable sets.

class collections.abc.Mapping

class collections.abc.MutableMapping

ABC pour les tables de correspondances immuables et mutables.

class collections.abc.MappingView

class collections.abc.ItemsView

class collections.abc.KeysView

class collections.abc.ValuesView

ABC pour les vues de mappings (tableaux de correspondances), d'éléments, de clés et de valeurs.

class collections.abc.Awaitable

ABC for awaitable objects, which can be used in await expressions. Custom implementations must provide the __await__() method.

Les objets coroutines et les instances de l'ABC Coroutine sont tous des instances de cette ABC.

Note

In CPython, generator-based coroutines (generators decorated with @types.coroutine) are awaitables, even though they do not have an __await__() method. Using isinstance(gencoro, Awaitable) for them will return False. Use inspect.isawaitable() to detect them.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

class collections.abc.Coroutine

ABC for coroutine compatible classes. These implement the following methods, defined in Objets coroutines: send(), throw(), and close(). Custom implementations must also implement __await__(). All Coroutine instances are also instances of Awaitable.

Note

In CPython, generator-based coroutines (generators decorated with @types.coroutine) are awaitables, even though they do not have an __await__() method. Using isinstance(gencoro, Coroutine) for them will return False. Use inspect.isawaitable() to detect them.

See Annotating generators and coroutines for details on using Coroutine in type annotations. The variance and order of type parameters correspond to those of Generator.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

class collections.abc.AsyncIterable

ABC for classes that provide an __aiter__ method. See also the definition of asynchronous iterable.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

class collections.abc.AsyncIterator

ABC pour les classes qui définissent les méthodes __aiter__ et __anext__. Voir aussi la définition d'itérateur asynchrone.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

class collections.abc.AsyncGenerator

ABC for asynchronous generator classes that implement the protocol defined in PEP 525 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/] and PEP 492 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/].

See Annotating generators and coroutines for details on using AsyncGenerator in type annotations.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

class collections.abc.Buffer

ABC for classes that provide the __buffer__() method, implementing the buffer protocol. See PEP 688 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/].

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Exemples et recettes

ABCs allow us to ask classes or instances if they provide particular functionality, for example:

size = None
if isinstance(myvar, collections.abc.Sized):
    size = len(myvar)

Several of the ABCs are also useful as mixins that make it easier to develop classes supporting container APIs. For example, to write a class supporting the full Set API, it is only necessary to supply the three underlying abstract methods: __contains__(), __iter__(), and __len__(). The ABC supplies the remaining methods such as __and__() and isdisjoint():

class ListBasedSet(collections.abc.Set):
    ''' Alternate set implementation favoring space over speed
        and not requiring the set elements to be hashable. '''
    def __init__(self, iterable):
        self.elements = lst = []
        for value in iterable:
            if value not in lst:
                lst.append(value)

    def __iter__(self):
        return iter(self.elements)

    def __contains__(self, value):
        return value in self.elements

    def __len__(self):
        return len(self.elements)

s1 = ListBasedSet('abcdef')
s2 = ListBasedSet('defghi')
overlap = s1 & s2            # The __and__() method is supported automatically

Notes à propos de l'utilisation de Set et MutableSet comme mixin :

Since some set operations create new sets, the default mixin methods need a way to create new instances from an iterable. The class constructor is assumed to have a signature in the form ClassName(iterable). That assumption is factored-out to an internal classmethod called _from_iterable() which calls cls(iterable) to produce a new set. If the Set mixin is being used in a class with a different constructor signature, you will need to override _from_iterable() with a classmethod or regular method that can construct new instances from an iterable argument.

To override the comparisons (presumably for speed, as the semantics are fixed), redefine __le__() and __ge__(), then the other operations will automatically follow suit.

The Set mixin provides a _hash() method to compute a hash value for the set; however, __hash__() is not defined because not all sets are hashable or immutable. To add set hashability using mixins, inherit from both Set() and Hashable(), then define __hash__ = Set._hash.

Voir aussi

OrderedSet recipe [https://code.activestate.com/recipes/576694/] pour un exemple construit sur MutableSet.

Pour plus d'informations à propos des ABC, voir le module abc et la PEP 3119 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3119/].

heapq --- Heap queue algorithm

Code source : Lib/heapq.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/heapq.py]

Ce module expose une implémentation de l'algorithme de file de priorité, basée sur un tas.

Min-heaps are binary trees for which every parent node has a value less than or equal to any of its children. We refer to this condition as the heap invariant.

For min-heaps, this implementation uses lists for which heap[k] <= heap[2*k+1] and heap[k] <= heap[2*k+2] for all k for which the compared elements exist. Elements are counted from zero. The interesting property of a min-heap is that its smallest element is always the root, heap[0].

Max-heaps satisfy the reverse invariant: every parent node has a value greater than any of its children. These are implemented as lists for which maxheap[2*k+1] <= maxheap[k] and maxheap[2*k+2] <= maxheap[k] for all k for which the compared elements exist. The root, maxheap[0], contains the largest element; heap.sort(reverse=True) maintains the max-heap invariant.

The heapq API differs from textbook heap algorithms in two aspects: (a) We use zero-based indexing. This makes the relationship between the index for a node and the indexes for its children slightly less obvious, but is more suitable since Python uses zero-based indexing. (b) Textbooks often focus on max-heaps, due to their suitability for in-place sorting. Our implementation favors min-heaps as they better correspond to Python lists.

These two aspects make it possible to view the heap as a regular Python list without surprises: heap[0] is the smallest item, and heap.sort() maintains the heap invariant!

Like list.sort(), this implementation uses only the < operator for comparisons, for both min-heaps and max-heaps.

In the API below, and in this documentation, the unqualified term heap generally refers to a min-heap. The API for max-heaps is named using a _max suffix.

To create a heap, use a list initialized as [], or transform an existing list into a min-heap or max-heap using the heapify() or heapify_max() functions, respectively.

The following functions are provided for min-heaps:

heapq.heapify(x)

Transform list x into a min-heap, in-place, in linear time.

heapq.heappush(heap, item)

Push the value item onto the heap, maintaining the min-heap invariant.

heapq.heappop(heap)

Pop and return the smallest item from the heap, maintaining the min-heap invariant. If the heap is empty, IndexError is raised. To access the smallest item without popping it, use heap[0].

heapq.heappushpop(heap, item)

Introduit l'élément item dans le tas, puis extraie le plus petit élément de heap. Cette action combinée est plus efficace que heappush() suivie par un appel séparé à heappop().

heapq.heapreplace(heap, item)

Extraie le plus petit élément de heap et introduit le nouvel élément item. La taille du tas ne change pas. Si le tas est vide, une exception IndexError est levée.

Cette opération en une étape est plus efficace qu'un appel à heappop() suivi d'un appel à heappush() et est plus appropriée lorsque le tas est de taille fixe. La combinaison pop/push renvoie toujours un élément du tas et le remplace par item.

La valeur renvoyée peut être plus grande que l'élément item ajouté. Si cela n'est pas souhaitable, utilisez plutôt heappushpop() à la place. Sa combinaison push/pop renvoie le plus petit élément des deux valeurs et laisse la plus grande sur le tas.

For max-heaps, the following functions are provided:

heapq.heapify_max(x)

Transform list x into a max-heap, in-place, in linear time.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

heapq.heappush_max(heap, item)

Push the value item onto the max-heap heap, maintaining the max-heap invariant.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

heapq.heappop_max(heap)

Pop and return the largest item from the max-heap heap, maintaining the max-heap invariant. If the max-heap is empty, IndexError is raised. To access the largest item without popping it, use maxheap[0].

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

heapq.heappushpop_max(heap, item)

Push item on the max-heap heap, then pop and return the largest item from heap. The combined action runs more efficiently than heappush_max() followed by a separate call to heappop_max().

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

heapq.heapreplace_max(heap, item)

Pop and return the largest item from the max-heap heap and also push the new item. The max-heap size doesn't change. If the max-heap is empty, IndexError is raised.

The value returned may be smaller than the item added. Refer to the analogous function heapreplace() for detailed usage notes.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Ce module contient également trois fonctions génériques utilisant les tas.

heapq.merge(*iterables, key=None, reverse=False)

Fusionne plusieurs entrées ordonnées en une unique sortie ordonnée (par exemple, fusionne des entrées datées provenant de multiples journaux applicatifs). Renvoie un iterator sur les valeurs ordonnées.

Similaire à sorted(itertools.chain(*iterables)) mais renvoie un itérable, ne stocke pas toutes les données en mémoire en une fois et suppose que chaque flux d'entrée est déjà classé (en ordre croissant).

A deux arguments optionnels qui doivent être fournis par mot clef.

key spécifie une key function d'un argument utilisée pour extraire une clef de comparaison de chaque élément de la liste. La valeur par défaut est None (compare les éléments directement).

reverse est une valeur booléenne. Si elle est True, la liste d'éléments est fusionnée comme si toutes les comparaisons étaient inversées. Pour obtenir un comportement similaire à sorted(itertools.chain(*iterables), reverse=True), tous les itérables doivent être classés par ordre décroissant.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Ajout des paramètres optionnels key et reverse.

heapq.nlargest(n, iterable, key=None)

Renvoie une liste contenant les n plus grands éléments du jeu de données défini par iterable. Si l'option key est fournie, celle-ci spécifie une fonction à un argument qui est utilisée pour extraire la clé de comparaison de chaque élément dans iterable (par exemple, key=str.lower). Équivalent à : sorted(iterable, key=key, reverse=True)[:n].

heapq.nsmallest(n, iterable, key=None)

Renvoie une liste contenant les n plus petits éléments du jeu de données défini par iterable. Si l'option key est fournie, celle-ci spécifie une fonction à un argument qui est utilisée pour extraire la clé de comparaison de chaque élément dans iterable (par exemple, key=str.lower). Équivalent à : sorted(iterable, key=key)[:n].

Les deux fonctions précédentes sont les plus efficaces pour des petites valeurs de n. Pour de grandes valeurs, il est préférable d'utiliser la fonction sorted(). En outre, lorsque n==1, il est plus efficace d'utiliser les fonctions natives min() et max(). Si vous devez utiliser ces fonctions de façon répétée, il est préférable de transformer l'itérable en tas.

Exemples simples

Un tri par tas [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tri_par_tas] peut être implémenté en introduisant toutes les valeurs dans un tas puis en effectuant l'extraction des éléments un par un :

>>> def heapsort(iterable):
...     h = []
...     for value in iterable:
...         heappush(h, value)
...     return [heappop(h) for i in range(len(h))]
...
>>> heapsort([1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 2, 4, 6, 8, 0])
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

Ceci est similaire à sorted(iterable) mais, contrairement à sorted(), cette implémentation n'est pas stable.

Les éléments d'un tas peuvent être des n-uplets. C'est pratique pour assigner des valeurs de comparaison (par exemple, des priorités de tâches) en plus de l'élément qui est suivi :

>>> h = []
>>> heappush(h, (5, 'write code'))
>>> heappush(h, (7, 'release product'))
>>> heappush(h, (1, 'write spec'))
>>> heappush(h, (3, 'create tests'))
>>> heappop(h)
(1, 'write spec')

Other Applications

Medians [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Median] are a measure of central tendency for a set of numbers. In distributions skewed by outliers, the median provides a more stable estimate than an average (arithmetic mean). A running median is an online algorithm [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_algorithm] that updates continuously as new data arrives.

A running median can be efficiently implemented by balancing two heaps, a max-heap for values at or below the midpoint and a min-heap for values above the midpoint. When the two heaps have the same size, the new median is the average of the tops of the two heaps; otherwise, the median is at the top of the larger heap:

def running_median(iterable):
    "Yields the cumulative median of values seen so far."

    lo = []  # max-heap
    hi = []  # min-heap (same size as or one smaller than lo)

    for x in iterable:
        if len(lo) == len(hi):
            heappush_max(lo, heappushpop(hi, x))
            yield lo[0]
        else:
            heappush(hi, heappushpop_max(lo, x))
            yield (lo[0] + hi[0]) / 2

For example:

>>> list(running_median([5.0, 9.0, 4.0, 12.0, 8.0, 9.0]))
[5.0, 7.0, 5.0, 7.0, 8.0, 8.5]

Notes d'implémentation de la file de priorité

Une file de priorité [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_de_priorit%C3%A9] est une application courante des tas et présente plusieurs défis d'implémentation :

Stabilité du classement : comment s'assurer que deux tâches avec la même priorité sont renvoyées dans l'ordre de leur ajout ?

La comparaison des couples (priorité, tâche) échoue si les priorités sont identiques et que les tâches n'ont pas de relation d'ordre par défaut.

Si la priorité d'une tâche change, comment la déplacer à sa nouvelle position dans le tas ?

Si une tâche en attente doit être supprimée, comment la trouver et la supprimer de la file ?

Une solution aux deux premiers problèmes consiste à stocker les entrées sous forme de liste à 3 éléments incluant la priorité, le numéro d'ajout et la tâche. Le numéro d'ajout sert à briser les égalités de telle sorte que deux tâches avec la même priorité sont renvoyées dans l'ordre de leur insertion. Puisque deux tâches ne peuvent jamais avoir le même numéro d'ajout, la comparaison des triplets ne va jamais chercher à comparer des tâches entre elles.

Une autre solution au fait que les tâches ne possèdent pas de relation d'ordre est de créer une classe d'encapsulation qui ignore l'élément tâche et ne compare que le champ priorité :

from dataclasses import dataclass, field
from typing import Any

@dataclass(order=True)
class PrioritizedItem:
    priority: int
    item: Any=field(compare=False)

Le problème restant consiste à trouver une tâche en attente et modifier sa priorité ou la supprimer. Trouver une tâche peut être réalisé à l'aide d'un dictionnaire pointant vers une entrée dans la file.

Supprimer une entrée ou changer sa priorité est plus difficile puisque cela romprait l'invariant de la structure de tas. Une solution possible est de marquer l'entrée comme supprimée et d'ajouter une nouvelle entrée avec sa priorité modifiée :

pq = []                         # list of entries arranged in a heap
entry_finder = {}               # mapping of tasks to entries
REMOVED = '<removed-task>'      # placeholder for a removed task
counter = itertools.count()     # unique sequence count

def add_task(task, priority=0):
    'Add a new task or update the priority of an existing task'
    if task in entry_finder:
        remove_task(task)
    count = next(counter)
    entry = [priority, count, task]
    entry_finder[task] = entry
    heappush(pq, entry)

def remove_task(task):
    'Mark an existing task as REMOVED.  Raise KeyError if not found.'
    entry = entry_finder.pop(task)
    entry[-1] = REMOVED

def pop_task():
    'Remove and return the lowest priority task. Raise KeyError if empty.'
    while pq:
        priority, count, task = heappop(pq)
        if task is not REMOVED:
            del entry_finder[task]
            return task
    raise KeyError('pop from an empty priority queue')

Théorie

Les tas sont des tableaux pour lesquels a[k] <= a[2*k+1] et a[k] <= a[2*k+2] pour tout k en comptant les éléments à partir de 0. Pour simplifier la comparaison, les éléments inexistants sont considérés comme étant infinis. L'intérêt des tas est que a[0] est toujours leur plus petit élément.

L'invariant étrange ci-dessus est une représentation efficace en mémoire d'un tournoi. Les nombres ci-dessous sont k et non a[k] :

                               0

              1                                 2

      3               4                5               6

  7       8       9       10      11      12      13      14

15 16   17 18   19 20   21 22   23 24   25 26   27 28   29 30

Dans l'arbre ci-dessus, chaque nœud k a pour enfants 2*k+1 et 2*k+2. Dans les tournois binaires habituels dans les compétitions sportives, chaque nœud est le vainqueur des deux nœuds inférieurs et nous pouvons tracer le chemin du vainqueur le long de l'arbre afin de voir qui étaient ses adversaires. Cependant, dans de nombreuses applications informatiques de ces tournois, nous n'avons pas besoin de produire l'historique du vainqueur. Afin d'occuper moins de mémoire, on remplace le vainqueur lors de sa promotion par un autre élément à un plus bas niveau. La règle devient alors qu'un nœud et les deux nœuds qu'il chapeaute contiennent trois éléments différents, mais le nœud supérieur « gagne » contre les deux nœuds inférieurs.

If this heap invariant is protected at all time, index 0 is clearly the overall winner. The simplest algorithmic way to remove it and find the "next" winner is to move some loser (let's say cell 30 in the diagram above) into the 0 position, and then percolate this new 0 down the tree, exchanging values, until the invariant is re-established. This is clearly logarithmic on the total number of items in the tree. By iterating over all items, you get an O(n log n) sort.

Une propriété agréable de cet algorithme est qu'il est possible d'insérer efficacement de nouveaux éléments en cours de classement, du moment que les éléments insérés ne sont pas « meilleurs » que le dernier élément qui a été extrait. Ceci s'avère très utile dans des simulations où l'arbre contient la liste des événements arrivants et que la condition de « victoire » est le plus petit temps d'exécution planifié. Lorsqu'un événement programme l'exécution d'autres événements, ceux-ci sont planifiés pour le futur et peuvent donc rejoindre le tas. Ainsi, le tas est une bonne structure pour implémenter un ordonnanceur (et c'est ce que j'ai utilisé pour mon séquenceur MIDI ☺).

Plusieurs structures ont été étudiées en détail pour implémenter des ordonnanceurs et les tas sont bien adaptés : ils sont raisonnablement rapides, leur vitesse est presque constante et le pire cas ne diffère pas trop du cas moyen. S'il existe des représentations qui sont plus efficaces en général, les pires cas peuvent être terriblement mauvais.

Les tas sont également très utiles pour ordonner les données sur de gros disques. Vous savez probablement qu'un gros tri implique la production de séquences pré-classées (dont la taille est généralement liée à la quantité de mémoire CPU disponible), suivie par une passe de fusion qui est généralement organisée de façon très intelligente [1]. Il est très important que le classement initial produise des séquences les plus longues possibles. Les tournois sont une bonne façon d'arriver à ce résultat. Si, en utilisant toute la mémoire disponible pour stocker un tournoi, vous remplacez et faites percoler les éléments qui s'avèrent acceptables pour la séquence courante, vous produirez des séquences d'une taille égale au double de la mémoire pour une entrée aléatoire et bien mieux pour une entrée approximativement triée.

Qui plus est, si vous écrivez l'élément 0 sur le disque et que vous recevez en entrée un élément qui n'est pas adapté au tournoi actuel (parce que sa valeur « gagne » par rapport à la dernière valeur de sortie), alors il ne peut pas être stocké dans le tas donc la taille de ce dernier diminue. La mémoire libérée peut être réutilisée immédiatement pour progressivement construire un deuxième tas, qui croit à la même vitesse que le premier décroît. Lorsque le premier tas a complètement disparu, vous échangez les tas et démarrez une nouvelle séquence. Malin et plutôt efficace !

Pour résumer, les tas sont des structures de données qu'il est bon de connaître. Je les utilise dans quelques applications et je pense qu'il est bon de garder le module heap sous le coude. ☺

Notes

[1]

Les algorithmes de répartition de charge pour les disques, courants de nos jours, sont plus embêtants qu'utiles, en raison de la capacité des disques à réaliser des accès aléatoires. Sur les périphériques qui ne peuvent faire que de la lecture séquentielle, comme les gros lecteurs à bandes, le besoin était différent et il fallait être malin pour s'assurer (bien à l'avance) que chaque mouvement de bande serait le plus efficace possible (c'est-à-dire participerait au mieux à l'« avancée » de la fusion). Certaines cassettes pouvaient même lire à l'envers et cela était aussi utilisé pour éviter de remonter dans le temps. Croyez-moi, les bons tris sur bandes étaient spectaculaires à regarder ! Depuis la nuit des temps, trier a toujours été le Grand Art ! ☺

bisect --- Array bisection algorithm

Code source : Lib/bisect.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/bisect.py]

This module provides support for maintaining a list in sorted order without having to sort the list after each insertion. For long lists of items with expensive comparison operations, this can be an improvement over linear searches or frequent resorting.

The module is called bisect because it uses a basic bisection algorithm to do its work. Unlike other bisection tools that search for a specific value, the functions in this module are designed to locate an insertion point. Accordingly, the functions never call an __eq__() method to determine whether a value has been found. Instead, the functions only call the __lt__() method and will return an insertion point between values in an array.

Note

The functions in this module are not thread-safe. If multiple threads concurrently use bisect functions on the same sequence, this may result in undefined behaviour. Likewise, if the provided sequence is mutated by a different thread while a bisect function is operating on it, the result is undefined. For example, using insort_left() on the same list from multiple threads may result in the list becoming unsorted.

Les fonctions suivantes sont fournies :

bisect.bisect_left(a, x, lo=0, hi=len(a), *, key=None)

Trouve le point d'insertion de x dans a permettant de conserver l'ordre. Les paramètres lo et hi permettent de limiter les emplacements à vérifier dans la liste, par défaut toute la liste est utilisée. Si x est déjà présent dans a, le point d'insertion proposé sera avant (à gauche) de l'entrée existante. Si a est déjà triée, la valeur renvoyée peut directement être utilisée comme premier paramètre de list.insert().

The returned insertion point ip partitions the array a into two slices such that all(elem < x for elem in a[lo : ip]) is true for the left slice and all(elem >= x for elem in a[ip : hi]) is true for the right slice.

key specifies a key function of one argument that is used to extract a comparison key from each element in the array. To support searching complex records, the key function is not applied to the x value.

If key is None, the elements are compared directly and no key function is called.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: ajout du paramètre key.

bisect.bisect_right(a, x, lo=0, hi=len(a), *, key=None)

bisect.bisect(a, x, lo=0, hi=len(a), *, key=None)

Similar to bisect_left(), but returns an insertion point which comes after (to the right of) any existing entries of x in a.

The returned insertion point ip partitions the array a into two slices such that all(elem <= x for elem in a[lo : ip]) is true for the left slice and all(elem > x for elem in a[ip : hi]) is true for the right slice.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: ajout du paramètre key.

bisect.insort_left(a, x, lo=0, hi=len(a), *, key=None)

Insère x dans a en préservant l'ordre.

This function first runs bisect_left() to locate an insertion point. Next, it runs the insert() method on a to insert x at the appropriate position to maintain sort order.

To support inserting records in a table, the key function (if any) is applied to x for the search step but not for the insertion step.

Keep in mind that the O(log n) search is dominated by the slow O(n) insertion step.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: ajout du paramètre key.

bisect.insort_right(a, x, lo=0, hi=len(a), *, key=None)

bisect.insort(a, x, lo=0, hi=len(a), *, key=None)

Similar to insort_left(), but inserting x in a after any existing entries of x.

This function first runs bisect_right() to locate an insertion point. Next, it runs the insert() method on a to insert x at the appropriate position to maintain sort order.

To support inserting records in a table, the key function (if any) is applied to x for the search step but not for the insertion step.

Keep in mind that the O(log n) search is dominated by the slow O(n) insertion step.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: ajout du paramètre key.

Notes sur la performance

Pour écrire du code sensible à la performance utilisant bisect() et insort(), prenez en compte ces quelques considérations :

La bissection est une bonne idée pour rechercher une plage de valeurs. Pour une seule valeur, mieux vaut un dictionnaire.

The insort() functions are O(n) because the logarithmic search step is dominated by the linear time insertion step.

The search functions are stateless and discard key function results after they are used. Consequently, if the search functions are used in a loop, the key function may be called again and again on the same array elements. If the key function isn't fast, consider wrapping it with functools.cache() to avoid duplicate computations. Alternatively, consider searching an array of precomputed keys to locate the insertion point (as shown in the examples section below).

Voir aussi

Sorted Collections [https://grantjenks.com/docs/sortedcollections/] is a high performance module that uses bisect to managed sorted collections of data.

SortedCollection recipe [https://code.activestate.com/recipes/577197-sortedcollection/] utilise le module bisect pour construire une classe collection exposant des méthodes de recherches naturelles et gérant une fonction clef. Les clefs sont pré-calculées pour économiser des appels inutiles à la fonction clef durant les recherches.

Chercher dans des listes triées

The above bisect functions are useful for finding insertion points but can be tricky or awkward to use for common searching tasks. The following five functions show how to transform them into the standard lookups for sorted lists:

def index(a, x):
    'Locate the leftmost value exactly equal to x'
    i = bisect_left(a, x)
    if i != len(a) and a[i] == x:
        return i
    raise ValueError

def find_lt(a, x):
    'Find rightmost value less than x'
    i = bisect_left(a, x)
    if i:
        return a[i-1]
    raise ValueError

def find_le(a, x):
    'Find rightmost value less than or equal to x'
    i = bisect_right(a, x)
    if i:
        return a[i-1]
    raise ValueError

def find_gt(a, x):
    'Find leftmost value greater than x'
    i = bisect_right(a, x)
    if i != len(a):
        return a[i]
    raise ValueError

def find_ge(a, x):
    'Find leftmost item greater than or equal to x'
    i = bisect_left(a, x)
    if i != len(a):
        return a[i]
    raise ValueError

Exemples

The bisect() function can be useful for numeric table lookups. This example uses bisect() to look up a letter grade for an exam score (say) based on a set of ordered numeric breakpoints: 90 and up is an 'A', 80 to 89 is a 'B', and so on:

>>> def grade(score)
...     i = bisect([60, 70, 80, 90], score)
...     return "FDCBA"[i]
...
>>> [grade(score) for score in [33, 99, 77, 70, 89, 90, 100]]
['F', 'A', 'C', 'C', 'B', 'A', 'A']

The bisect() and insort() functions also work with lists of tuples. The key argument can serve to extract the field used for ordering records in a table:

>>> from collections import namedtuple
>>> from operator import attrgetter
>>> from bisect import bisect, insort
>>> from pprint import pprint

>>> Movie = namedtuple('Movie', ('name', 'released', 'director'))

>>> movies = [
...     Movie('Jaws', 1975, 'Spielberg'),
...     Movie('Titanic', 1997, 'Cameron'),
...     Movie('The Birds', 1963, 'Hitchcock'),
...     Movie('Aliens', 1986, 'Cameron')
... ]

>>> # Find the first movie released after 1960
>>> by_year = attrgetter('released')
>>> movies.sort(key=by_year)
>>> movies[bisect(movies, 1960, key=by_year)]
Movie(name='The Birds', released=1963, director='Hitchcock')

>>> # Insert a movie while maintaining sort order
>>> romance = Movie('Love Story', 1970, 'Hiller')
>>> insort(movies, romance, key=by_year)
>>> pprint(movies)
[Movie(name='The Birds', released=1963, director='Hitchcock'),
 Movie(name='Love Story', released=1970, director='Hiller'),
 Movie(name='Jaws', released=1975, director='Spielberg'),
 Movie(name='Aliens', released=1986, director='Cameron'),
 Movie(name='Titanic', released=1997, director='Cameron')]

If the key function is expensive, it is possible to avoid repeated function calls by searching a list of precomputed keys to find the index of a record:

>>> data = [('red', 5), ('blue', 1), ('yellow', 8), ('black', 0)]
>>> data.sort(key=lambda r: r[1])       # Or use operator.itemgetter(1).
>>> keys = [r[1] for r in data]         # Precompute a list of keys.
>>> data[bisect_left(keys, 0)]
('black', 0)
>>> data[bisect_left(keys, 1)]
('blue', 1)
>>> data[bisect_left(keys, 5)]
('red', 5)
>>> data[bisect_left(keys, 8)]
('yellow', 8)

array --- Efficient arrays of numeric values

This module defines an object type which can compactly represent an array of basic values: characters, integers, floating-point numbers. Arrays are mutable sequence types and behave very much like lists, except that the type of objects stored in them is constrained. The type is specified at object creation time by using a type code, which is a single character. The following type codes are defined:

Code d'indication du type

Type C

Type Python

Taille minimum en octets

Notes

'b'

signed char

int

1

'B'

unsigned char

int

1

'u'

wchar_t

Caractère Unicode

2

(1)

'w'

Py_UCS4

Caractère Unicode

4

(2)

'h'

signed short

int

2

'H'

unsigned short

int

2

'i'

signed int

int

2

'I'

unsigned int

int

2

'l'

signed long

int

4

'L'

unsigned long

int

4

'q'

signed long long

int

8

'Q'

unsigned long long

int

8

'f'

float

float

4

'd'

double

float

8

Notes :

It can be 16 bits or 32 bits depending on the platform.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: array('u') now uses wchar_t as C type instead of deprecated Py_UNICODE. This change doesn't affect its behavior because Py_UNICODE is alias of wchar_t since Python 3.3.

Deprecated since version 3.3, will be removed in version 3.16: Please migrate to 'w' typecode.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Voir aussi

The ctypes and struct modules, as well as third-party modules like numpy [https://numpy.org/doc/stable/reference/arrays.interface.html#object.__array_interface__], use similar -- but slightly different -- type codes.

The actual representation of values is determined by the machine architecture (strictly speaking, by the C implementation). The actual size can be accessed through the array.itemsize attribute.

The module defines the following item:

array.typecodes

Une chaîne avec tous les codes de types disponibles.

Le module définit le type suivant :

class array.array(typecode[, initializer])

A new array whose items are restricted by typecode, and initialized from the optional initializer value, which must be a bytes or bytearray object, a Unicode string, or iterable over elements of the appropriate type.

If given a bytes or bytearray object, the initializer is passed to the new array's frombytes() method; if given a Unicode string, the initializer is passed to the fromunicode() method; otherwise, the initializer's iterator is passed to the extend() method to add initial items to the array.

Array objects support the ordinary mutable sequence operations of indexing, slicing, concatenation, and multiplication. When using slice assignment, the assigned value must be an array object with the same type code; in all other cases, TypeError is raised. Array objects also implement the buffer interface, and may be used wherever bytes-like objects are supported.

Lève un événement d'audit array.__new__ avec les arguments typecode, initializer.

typecode

Le code (de type Python caractère) utilisé pour spécifier le type des éléments du tableau.

itemsize

La longueur en octets d'un élément du tableau dans la représentation interne.

append(value, /)

Append a new item with the specified value to the end of the array.

buffer_info()

Return a tuple (address, length) giving the current memory address and the length in elements of the buffer used to hold array's contents. The size of the memory buffer in bytes can be computed as array.buffer_info()[1] * array.itemsize. This is occasionally useful when working with low-level (and inherently unsafe) I/O interfaces that require memory addresses, such as certain ioctl() operations. The returned numbers are valid as long as the array exists and no length-changing operations are applied to it.

Note

Lors de l'utilisation d'objets tableaux provenant de codes écrits en C ou C++ (le seul moyen d'utiliser efficacement ces informations), il est plus logique d'utiliser l'interface tampon supportée par les objets tableaux. Cette méthode est maintenue pour des raisons de rétrocompatibilité et devrait être évitée dans un nouveau code. L'interface tampon est documentée dans Protocole tampon.

byteswap()

Boutisme de tous les éléments du tableau. Ceci n'est pris en charge que pour les valeurs de 1, 2, 4 ou 8 octets ; pour les autres types de valeur, RuntimeError est levée. Il est utile lors de la lecture de données à partir d'un fichier écrit sur une machine avec un ordre d'octets différent.

count(value, /)

Return the number of occurrences of value in the array.

extend(iterable, /)

Ajoute les éléments de iterable à la fin du tableau. Si iterable est un autre tableau, il doit le même code d'indication du type ; dans le cas contraire, TypeError sera levée. Si iterable n'est pas un tableau, il doit être itérable et ces éléments doivent être du bon type pour être ajoutés dans le tableau.

frombytes(buffer, /)

Appends items from the bytes-like object, interpreting its content as an array of machine values (as if it had been read from a file using the fromfile() method).

Ajouté dans la version 3.2: fromstring() is renamed to frombytes() for clarity.

fromfile(f, n, /)

Read n items (as machine values) from the file object f and append them to the end of the array. If less than n items are available, EOFError is raised, but the items that were available are still inserted into the array.

fromlist(list, /)

Ajoute les éléments de la liste. C'est l'équivalent de for x in list: a.append(x) sauf que s'il y a une erreur de type, le tableau est inchangé.

fromunicode(ustr, /)

Extends this array with data from the given Unicode string. The array must have type code 'u' or 'w'; otherwise a ValueError is raised. Use array.frombytes(unicodestring.encode(enc)) to append Unicode data to an array of some other type.

index(value[, start[, stop]])

Return the smallest i such that i is the index of the first occurrence of value in the array. The optional arguments start and stop can be specified to search for value within a subsection of the array. Raise ValueError if value is not found.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Added optional start and stop parameters.

insert(index, value, /)

Insert a new item value in the array before position index. Negative values are treated as being relative to the end of the array.

pop(index=-1, /)

Supprime l'élément du tableau avec l'index i et le renvoie. L'argument optionnel par défaut est à -1, de sorte que par défaut le dernier élément est supprimé et renvoyé.

remove(value, /)

Remove the first occurrence of value from the array.

clear()

Remove all elements from the array.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

reverse()

Inverse l'ordre des éléments du tableau.

tobytes()

Convertit le tableau en un tableau de valeurs machine et renvoie la représentation en octets (la même séquence d'octets qui serait écrite par la méthode tofile()).

Ajouté dans la version 3.2: tostring() is renamed to tobytes() for clarity.

tofile(f, /)

Écrit tous les éléments (en tant que valeurs machine) du file object f.

tolist()

Convertit le tableau en une liste ordinaire avec les mêmes éléments.

tounicode()

Convert the array to a Unicode string. The array must have a type 'u' or 'w'; otherwise a ValueError is raised. Use array.tobytes().decode(enc) to obtain a Unicode string from an array of some other type.

The string representation of array objects has the form array(typecode, initializer). The initializer is omitted if the array is empty, otherwise it is a Unicode string if the typecode is 'u' or 'w', otherwise it is a list of numbers. The string representation is guaranteed to be able to be converted back to an array with the same type and value using eval(), so long as the array class has been imported using from array import array. Variables inf and nan must also be defined if it contains corresponding floating-point values. Examples:

array('l')
array('w', 'hello \u2641')
array('l', [1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
array('d', [1.0, 2.0, 3.14, -inf, nan])

Voir aussi

Module struct

Empaquetage et dépaquetage de données binaires hétérogènes.

NumPy [https://numpy.org/]

The NumPy package defines another array type.

weakref --- Weak references

Code source : Lib/weakref.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/weakref.py]

The weakref module allows the Python programmer to create weak references to objects.

In the following, the term referent means the object which is referred to by a weak reference.

A weak reference to an object is not enough to keep the object alive: when the only remaining references to a referent are weak references, garbage collection is free to destroy the referent and reuse its memory for something else. However, until the object is actually destroyed the weak reference may return the object even if there are no strong references to it.

A primary use for weak references is to implement caches or mappings holding large objects, where it's desired that a large object not be kept alive solely because it appears in a cache or mapping.

For example, if you have a number of large binary image objects, you may wish to associate a name with each. If you used a Python dictionary to map names to images, or images to names, the image objects would remain alive just because they appeared as values or keys in the dictionaries. The WeakKeyDictionary and WeakValueDictionary classes supplied by the weakref module are an alternative, using weak references to construct mappings that don't keep objects alive solely because they appear in the mapping objects. If, for example, an image object is a value in a WeakValueDictionary, then when the last remaining references to that image object are the weak references held by weak mappings, garbage collection can reclaim the object, and its corresponding entries in weak mappings are simply deleted.

WeakKeyDictionary and WeakValueDictionary use weak references in their implementation, setting up callback functions on the weak references that notify the weak dictionaries when a key or value has been reclaimed by garbage collection. WeakSet implements the set interface, but keeps weak references to its elements, just like a WeakKeyDictionary does.

finalize provides a straight forward way to register a cleanup function to be called when an object is garbage collected. This is simpler to use than setting up a callback function on a raw weak reference, since the module automatically ensures that the finalizer remains alive until the object is collected.

Most programs should find that using one of these weak container types or finalize is all they need -- it's not usually necessary to create your own weak references directly. The low-level machinery is exposed by the weakref module for the benefit of advanced uses.

Not all objects can be weakly referenced. Objects which support weak references include class instances, functions written in Python (but not in C), instance methods, sets, frozensets, some file objects, generators, type objects, sockets, arrays, deques, regular expression pattern objects, and code objects.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Added support for thread.lock, threading.Lock, and code objects.

Several built-in types such as list and dict do not directly support weak references but can add support through subclassing:

class Dict(dict):
    pass

obj = Dict(red=1, green=2, blue=3)   # this object is weak referenceable

Particularité de l'implémentation CPython : Other built-in types such as tuple and int do not support weak references even when subclassed.

Extension types can easily be made to support weak references; see Prise en charge de la référence faible.

When __slots__ are defined for a given type, weak reference support is disabled unless a '__weakref__' string is also present in the sequence of strings in the __slots__ declaration. See __slots__ documentation for details.

class weakref.ref(object[, callback])

Return a weak reference to object. The original object can be retrieved by calling the reference object if the referent is still alive; if the referent is no longer alive, calling the reference object will cause None to be returned. If callback is provided and not None, and the returned weakref object is still alive, the callback will be called when the object is about to be finalized; the weak reference object will be passed as the only parameter to the callback; the referent will no longer be available.

It is allowable for many weak references to be constructed for the same object. Callbacks registered for each weak reference will be called from the most recently registered callback to the oldest registered callback.

Exceptions raised by the callback will be noted on the standard error output, but cannot be propagated; they are handled in exactly the same way as exceptions raised from an object's __del__() method.

Weak references are hashable if the object is hashable. They will maintain their hash value even after the object was deleted. If hash() is called the first time only after the object was deleted, the call will raise TypeError.

Weak references support tests for equality, but not ordering. If the referents are still alive, two references have the same equality relationship as their referents (regardless of the callback). If either referent has been deleted, the references are equal only if the reference objects are the same object.

This is a subclassable type rather than a factory function.

__callback__

This read-only attribute returns the callback currently associated to the weakref. If there is no callback or if the referent of the weakref is no longer alive then this attribute will have value None.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Added the __callback__ attribute.

weakref.proxy(object[, callback])

Return a proxy to object which uses a weak reference. This supports use of the proxy in most contexts instead of requiring the explicit dereferencing used with weak reference objects. The returned object will have a type of either ProxyType or CallableProxyType, depending on whether object is callable. Proxy objects are not hashable regardless of the referent; this avoids a number of problems related to their fundamentally mutable nature, and prevents their use as dictionary keys. callback is the same as the parameter of the same name to the ref() function.

Accessing an attribute of the proxy object after the referent is garbage collected raises ReferenceError.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Extended the operator support on proxy objects to include the matrix multiplication operators @ and @=.

weakref.getweakrefcount(object)

Return the number of weak references and proxies which refer to object.

weakref.getweakrefs(object)

Return a list of all weak reference and proxy objects which refer to object.

class weakref.WeakKeyDictionary([dict])

Mapping class that references keys weakly. Entries in the dictionary will be discarded when there is no longer a strong reference to the key. This can be used to associate additional data with an object owned by other parts of an application without adding attributes to those objects. This can be especially useful with objects that override attribute accesses.

Note that when a key with equal value to an existing key (but not equal identity) is inserted into the dictionary, it replaces the value but does not replace the existing key. Due to this, when the reference to the original key is deleted, it also deletes the entry in the dictionary:

>>> class T(str): pass
...
>>> k1, k2 = T(), T()
>>> d = weakref.WeakKeyDictionary()
>>> d[k1] = 1   # d = {k1: 1}
>>> d[k2] = 2   # d = {k1: 2}
>>> del k1      # d = {}

A workaround would be to remove the key prior to reassignment:

>>> class T(str): pass
...
>>> k1, k2 = T(), T()
>>> d = weakref.WeakKeyDictionary()
>>> d[k1] = 1   # d = {k1: 1}
>>> del d[k1]
>>> d[k2] = 2   # d = {k2: 2}
>>> del k1      # d = {k2: 2}

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Added support for | and |= operators, as specified in PEP 584 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/].

WeakKeyDictionary objects have an additional method that exposes the internal references directly. The references are not guaranteed to be "live" at the time they are used, so the result of calling the references needs to be checked before being used. This can be used to avoid creating references that will cause the garbage collector to keep the keys around longer than needed.

WeakKeyDictionary.keyrefs()

Return an iterable of the weak references to the keys.

class weakref.WeakValueDictionary([dict])

Mapping class that references values weakly. Entries in the dictionary will be discarded when no strong reference to the value exists any more.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Added support for | and |= operators, as specified in PEP 584 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/].

WeakValueDictionary objects have an additional method that has the same issues as the WeakKeyDictionary.keyrefs() method.

WeakValueDictionary.valuerefs()

Return an iterable of the weak references to the values.

class weakref.WeakSet([elements])

Set class that keeps weak references to its elements. An element will be discarded when no strong reference to it exists any more.

class weakref.WeakMethod(method[, callback])

A custom ref subclass which simulates a weak reference to a bound method (i.e., a method defined on a class and looked up on an instance). Since a bound method is ephemeral, a standard weak reference cannot keep hold of it. WeakMethod has special code to recreate the bound method until either the object or the original function dies:

>>> class C:
...     def method(self):
...         print("method called!")
...
>>> c = C()
>>> r = weakref.ref(c.method)
>>> r()
>>> r = weakref.WeakMethod(c.method)
>>> r()
<bound method C.method of <__main__.C object at 0x7fc859830220>>
>>> r()()
method called!
>>> del c
>>> gc.collect()
0
>>> r()
>>>

callback is the same as the parameter of the same name to the ref() function.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

class weakref.finalize(obj, func, /, *args, **kwargs)

Return a callable finalizer object which will be called when obj is garbage collected. Unlike an ordinary weak reference, a finalizer will always survive until the reference object is collected, greatly simplifying lifecycle management.

A finalizer is considered alive until it is called (either explicitly or at garbage collection), and after that it is dead. Calling a live finalizer returns the result of evaluating func(*arg, **kwargs), whereas calling a dead finalizer returns None.

Exceptions raised by finalizer callbacks during garbage collection will be shown on the standard error output, but cannot be propagated. They are handled in the same way as exceptions raised from an object's __del__() method or a weak reference's callback.

When the program exits, each remaining live finalizer is called unless its atexit attribute has been set to false. They are called in reverse order of creation.

A finalizer will never invoke its callback during the later part of the interpreter shutdown when module globals are liable to have been replaced by None.

__call__()

If self is alive then mark it as dead and return the result of calling func(*args, **kwargs). If self is dead then return None.

detach()

If self is alive then mark it as dead and return the tuple (obj, func, args, kwargs). If self is dead then return None.

peek()

If self is alive then return the tuple (obj, func, args, kwargs). If self is dead then return None.

alive

Property which is true if the finalizer is alive, false otherwise.

atexit

A writable boolean property which by default is true. When the program exits, it calls all remaining live finalizers for which atexit is true. They are called in reverse order of creation.

Note

It is important to ensure that func, args and kwargs do not own any references to obj, either directly or indirectly, since otherwise obj will never be garbage collected. In particular, func should not be a bound method of obj.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

weakref.ReferenceType

The type object for weak references objects.

weakref.ProxyType

The type object for proxies of objects which are not callable.

weakref.CallableProxyType

The type object for proxies of callable objects.

weakref.ProxyTypes

Sequence containing all the type objects for proxies. This can make it simpler to test if an object is a proxy without being dependent on naming both proxy types.

Voir aussi

PEP 205 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0205/] - Weak References

The proposal and rationale for this feature, including links to earlier implementations and information about similar features in other languages.

Objets à références faibles

Weak reference objects have no methods and no attributes besides ref.__callback__. A weak reference object allows the referent to be obtained, if it still exists, by calling it:

>>> import weakref
>>> class Object:
...     pass
...
>>> o = Object()
>>> r = weakref.ref(o)
>>> o2 = r()
>>> o is o2
True

If the referent no longer exists, calling the reference object returns None:

>>> del o, o2
>>> print(r())
None

Testing that a weak reference object is still live should be done using the expression ref() is not None. Normally, application code that needs to use a reference object should follow this pattern:

# r is a weak reference object
o = r()
if o is None:
    # referent has been garbage collected
    print("Object has been deallocated; can't frobnicate.")
else:
    print("Object is still live!")
    o.do_something_useful()

Using a separate test for "liveness" creates race conditions in threaded applications; another thread can cause a weak reference to become invalidated before the weak reference is called; the idiom shown above is safe in threaded applications as well as single-threaded applications.

Specialized versions of ref objects can be created through subclassing. This is used in the implementation of the WeakValueDictionary to reduce the memory overhead for each entry in the mapping. This may be most useful to associate additional information with a reference, but could also be used to insert additional processing on calls to retrieve the referent.

This example shows how a subclass of ref can be used to store additional information about an object and affect the value that's returned when the referent is accessed:

import weakref

class ExtendedRef(weakref.ref):
    def __init__(self, ob, callback=None, /, **annotations):
        super().__init__(ob, callback)
        self.__counter = 0
        for k, v in annotations.items():
            setattr(self, k, v)

    def __call__(self):
        """Return a pair containing the referent and the number of
        times the reference has been called.
        """
        ob = super().__call__()
        if ob is not None:
            self.__counter += 1
            ob = (ob, self.__counter)
        return ob

Exemple

This simple example shows how an application can use object IDs to retrieve objects that it has seen before. The IDs of the objects can then be used in other data structures without forcing the objects to remain alive, but the objects can still be retrieved by ID if they do.

import weakref

_id2obj_dict = weakref.WeakValueDictionary()

def remember(obj):
    oid = id(obj)
    _id2obj_dict[oid] = obj
    return oid

def id2obj(oid):
    return _id2obj_dict[oid]

Finalizer Objects

The main benefit of using finalize is that it makes it simple to register a callback without needing to preserve the returned finalizer object. For instance

>>> import weakref
>>> class Object:
...     pass
...
>>> kenny = Object()
>>> weakref.finalize(kenny, print, "You killed Kenny!")
<finalize object at ...; for 'Object' at ...>
>>> del kenny
You killed Kenny!

The finalizer can be called directly as well. However the finalizer will invoke the callback at most once.

>>> def callback(x, y, z):
...     print("CALLBACK")
...     return x + y + z
...
>>> obj = Object()
>>> f = weakref.finalize(obj, callback, 1, 2, z=3)
>>> assert f.alive
>>> assert f() == 6
CALLBACK
>>> assert not f.alive
>>> f()                     # callback not called because finalizer dead
>>> del obj                 # callback not called because finalizer dead

You can unregister a finalizer using its detach() method. This kills the finalizer and returns the arguments passed to the constructor when it was created.

>>> obj = Object()
>>> f = weakref.finalize(obj, callback, 1, 2, z=3)
>>> f.detach()
(<...Object object ...>, <function callback ...>, (1, 2), {'z': 3})
>>> newobj, func, args, kwargs = _
>>> assert not f.alive
>>> assert newobj is obj
>>> assert func(*args, **kwargs) == 6
CALLBACK

Unless you set the atexit attribute to False, a finalizer will be called when the program exits if it is still alive. For instance

>>> obj = Object()
>>> weakref.finalize(obj, print, "obj dead or exiting")
<finalize object at ...; for 'Object' at ...>
>>> exit()
obj dead or exiting

Comparing finalizers with __del__() methods

Suppose we want to create a class whose instances represent temporary directories. The directories should be deleted with their contents when the first of the following events occurs:

the object is garbage collected,

the object's remove() method is called, or

the program exits.

We might try to implement the class using a __del__() method as follows:

class TempDir:
    def __init__(self):
        self.name = tempfile.mkdtemp()

    def remove(self):
        if self.name is not None:
            shutil.rmtree(self.name)
            self.name = None

    @property
    def removed(self):
        return self.name is None

    def __del__(self):
        self.remove()

Starting with Python 3.4, __del__() methods no longer prevent reference cycles from being garbage collected, and module globals are no longer forced to None during interpreter shutdown. So this code should work without any issues on CPython.

However, handling of __del__() methods is notoriously implementation specific, since it depends on internal details of the interpreter's garbage collector implementation.

A more robust alternative can be to define a finalizer which only references the specific functions and objects that it needs, rather than having access to the full state of the object:

class TempDir:
    def __init__(self):
        self.name = tempfile.mkdtemp()
        self._finalizer = weakref.finalize(self, shutil.rmtree, self.name)

    def remove(self):
        self._finalizer()

    @property
    def removed(self):
        return not self._finalizer.alive

Defined like this, our finalizer only receives a reference to the details it needs to clean up the directory appropriately. If the object never gets garbage collected the finalizer will still be called at exit.

The other advantage of weakref based finalizers is that they can be used to register finalizers for classes where the definition is controlled by a third party, such as running code when a module is unloaded:

import weakref, sys
def unloading_module():
    # implicit reference to the module globals from the function body
weakref.finalize(sys.modules[__name__], unloading_module)

Note

If you create a finalizer object in a daemonic thread just as the program exits then there is the possibility that the finalizer does not get called at exit. However, in a daemonic thread atexit.register(), try: ... finally: ... and with: ... do not guarantee that cleanup occurs either.

types --- Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types

Code source : Lib/types.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/types.py]

This module defines utility functions to assist in dynamic creation of new types.

It also defines names for some object types that are used by the standard Python interpreter, but not exposed as builtins like int or str are.

Finally, it provides some additional type-related utility classes and functions that are not fundamental enough to be builtins.

Dynamic Type Creation

types.new_class(name, bases=(), kwds=None, exec_body=None)

Creates a class object dynamically using the appropriate metaclass.

The first three arguments are the components that make up a class definition header: the class name, the base classes (in order), the keyword arguments (such as metaclass).

The exec_body argument is a callback that is used to populate the freshly created class namespace. It should accept the class namespace as its sole argument and update the namespace directly with the class contents. If no callback is provided, it has the same effect as passing in lambda ns: None.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

types.prepare_class(name, bases=(), kwds=None)

Calculates the appropriate metaclass and creates the class namespace.

The arguments are the components that make up a class definition header: the class name, the base classes (in order) and the keyword arguments (such as metaclass).

The return value is a 3-tuple: metaclass, namespace, kwds

metaclass is the appropriate metaclass, namespace is the prepared class namespace and kwds is an updated copy of the passed in kwds argument with any 'metaclass' entry removed. If no kwds argument is passed in, this will be an empty dict.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: The default value for the namespace element of the returned tuple has changed. Now an insertion-order-preserving mapping is used when the metaclass does not have a __prepare__ method.

Voir aussi

Métaclasses

Full details of the class creation process supported by these functions

PEP 3115 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3115/] — Méta-classes dans Python 3000

introduction de la fonction automatique __prepare__ de l'espace de nommage

types.resolve_bases(bases)

Resolve MRO entries dynamically as specified by PEP 560 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/].

This function looks for items in bases that are not instances of type, and returns a tuple where each such object that has an __mro_entries__() method is replaced with an unpacked result of calling this method. If a bases item is an instance of type, or it doesn't have an __mro_entries__() method, then it is included in the return tuple unchanged.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

types.get_original_bases(cls, /)

Return the tuple of objects originally given as the bases of cls before the __mro_entries__() method has been called on any bases (following the mechanisms laid out in PEP 560 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/]). This is useful for introspecting Generics.

For classes that have an __orig_bases__ attribute, this function returns the value of cls.__orig_bases__. For classes without the __orig_bases__ attribute, cls.__bases__ is returned.

Exemples :

from typing import TypeVar, Generic, NamedTuple, TypedDict

T = TypeVar("T")
class Foo(Generic[T]): ...
class Bar(Foo[int], float): ...
class Baz(list[str]): ...
Eggs = NamedTuple("Eggs", [("a", int), ("b", str)])
Spam = TypedDict("Spam", {"a": int, "b": str})

assert Bar.__bases__ == (Foo, float)
assert get_original_bases(Bar) == (Foo[int], float)

assert Baz.__bases__ == (list,)
assert get_original_bases(Baz) == (list[str],)

assert Eggs.__bases__ == (tuple,)
assert get_original_bases(Eggs) == (NamedTuple,)

assert Spam.__bases__ == (dict,)
assert get_original_bases(Spam) == (TypedDict,)

assert int.__bases__ == (object,)
assert get_original_bases(int) == (object,)

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Voir aussi

PEP 560 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/] — Gestion de base pour les types modules et les types génériques

Standard Interpreter Types

This module provides names for many of the types that are required to implement a Python interpreter. It deliberately avoids including some of the types that arise only incidentally during processing such as the listiterator type.

Typical use of these names is for isinstance() or issubclass() checks.

If you instantiate any of these types, note that signatures may vary between Python versions.

Standard names are defined for the following types:

types.NoneType

The type of None.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

types.FunctionType

types.LambdaType

The type of user-defined functions and functions created by lambda expressions.

Raises an auditing event function.__new__ with argument code.

The audit event only occurs for direct instantiation of function objects, and is not raised for normal compilation.

types.GeneratorType

The type of generator-iterator objects, created by generator functions.

types.CoroutineType

The type of coroutine objects, created by async def functions.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

types.AsyncGeneratorType

The type of asynchronous generator-iterator objects, created by asynchronous generator functions.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

class types.CodeType(**kwargs)

The type of code objects such as returned by compile().

Raises an auditing event code.__new__ with arguments code, filename, name, argcount, posonlyargcount, kwonlyargcount, nlocals, stacksize, flags.

Note that the audited arguments may not match the names or positions required by the initializer. The audit event only occurs for direct instantiation of code objects, and is not raised for normal compilation.

types.CellType

The type for cell objects: such objects are used as containers for a function's closure variables.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

types.MethodType

The type of methods of user-defined class instances.

types.BuiltinFunctionType

types.BuiltinMethodType

The type of built-in functions like len() or sys.exit(), and methods of built-in classes. (Here, the term "built-in" means "written in C".)

types.WrapperDescriptorType

The type of methods of some built-in data types and base classes such as object.__init__() or object.__lt__().

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

types.MethodWrapperType

The type of bound methods of some built-in data types and base classes. For example it is the type of object().__str__.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

types.NotImplementedType

The type of NotImplemented.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

types.MethodDescriptorType

The type of methods of some built-in data types such as str.join().

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

types.ClassMethodDescriptorType

The type of unbound class methods of some built-in data types such as dict.__dict__['fromkeys'].

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

class types.ModuleType(name, doc=None)

The type of modules. The constructor takes the name of the module to be created and optionally its docstring.

Voir aussi

Documentation on module objects

Provides details on the special attributes that can be found on instances of ModuleType.

importlib.util.module_from_spec()

Modules created using the ModuleType constructor are created with many of their special attributes unset or set to default values. module_from_spec() provides a more robust way of creating ModuleType instances which ensures the various attributes are set appropriately.

types.EllipsisType

The type of Ellipsis.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

class types.GenericAlias(t_origin, t_args)

The type of parameterized generics such as list[int].

t_origin should be a non-parameterized generic class, such as list, tuple or dict. t_args should be a tuple (possibly of length 1) of types which parameterize t_origin:

>>> from types import GenericAlias

>>> list[int] == GenericAlias(list, (int,))
True
>>> dict[str, int] == GenericAlias(dict, (str, int))
True

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

Modifié dans la version 3.9.2: This type can now be subclassed.

Voir aussi

Types alias génériques

In-depth documentation on instances of types.GenericAlias

PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/] – Types génériques d'indication de type dans les conteneurs standard (page en anglais)

Introducing the types.GenericAlias class

class types.UnionType

The type of union type expressions.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: This is now an alias for typing.Union.

class types.TracebackType(tb_next, tb_frame, tb_lasti, tb_lineno)

The type of traceback objects such as found in sys.exception().__traceback__.

See the language reference for details of the available attributes and operations, and guidance on creating tracebacks dynamically.

types.FrameType

The type of frame objects such as found in tb.tb_frame if tb is a traceback object.

types.GetSetDescriptorType

The type of objects defined in extension modules with PyGetSetDef, such as FrameType.f_locals or array.array.typecode. This type is used as descriptor for object attributes; it has the same purpose as the property type, but for classes defined in extension modules.

types.MemberDescriptorType

The type of objects defined in extension modules with PyMemberDef, such as datetime.timedelta.days. This type is used as descriptor for simple C data members which use standard conversion functions; it has the same purpose as the property type, but for classes defined in extension modules.

In addition, when a class is defined with a __slots__ attribute, then for each slot, an instance of MemberDescriptorType will be added as an attribute on the class. This allows the slot to appear in the class's __dict__.

Particularité de l'implémentation CPython : In other implementations of Python, this type may be identical to GetSetDescriptorType.

class types.MappingProxyType(mapping)

Read-only proxy of a mapping. It provides a dynamic view on the mapping's entries, which means that when the mapping changes, the view reflects these changes.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Updated to support the new union (|) operator from PEP 584 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/], which simply delegates to the underlying mapping.

key in proxy

Return True if the underlying mapping has a key key, else False.

proxy[key]

Return the item of the underlying mapping with key key. Raises a KeyError if key is not in the underlying mapping.

iter(proxy)

Return an iterator over the keys of the underlying mapping. This is a shortcut for iter(proxy.keys()).

len(proxy)

Return the number of items in the underlying mapping.

copy()

Return a shallow copy of the underlying mapping.

get(key[, default])

Return the value for key if key is in the underlying mapping, else default. If default is not given, it defaults to None, so that this method never raises a KeyError.

items()

Return a new view of the underlying mapping's items ((key, value) pairs).

keys()

Return a new view of the underlying mapping's keys.

values()

Return a new view of the underlying mapping's values.

reversed(proxy)

Return a reverse iterator over the keys of the underlying mapping.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

hash(proxy)

Return a hash of the underlying mapping.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

class types.CapsuleType

The type of capsule objects.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Additional Utility Classes and Functions

class types.SimpleNamespace

A simple object subclass that provides attribute access to its namespace, as well as a meaningful repr.

Unlike object, with SimpleNamespace you can add and remove attributes.

SimpleNamespace objects may be initialized in the same way as dict: either with keyword arguments, with a single positional argument, or with both. When initialized with keyword arguments, those are directly added to the underlying namespace. Alternatively, when initialized with a positional argument, the underlying namespace will be updated with key-value pairs from that argument (either a mapping object or an iterable object producing key-value pairs). All such keys must be strings.

The type is roughly equivalent to the following code:

class SimpleNamespace:
    def __init__(self, mapping_or_iterable=(), /, **kwargs):
        self.__dict__.update(mapping_or_iterable)
        self.__dict__.update(kwargs)

    def __repr__(self):
        items = (f"{k}={v!r}" for k, v in self.__dict__.items())
        return "{}({})".format(type(self).__name__, ", ".join(items))

    def __eq__(self, other):
        if isinstance(self, SimpleNamespace) and isinstance(other, SimpleNamespace):
           return self.__dict__ == other.__dict__
        return NotImplemented

SimpleNamespace may be useful as a replacement for class NS: pass. However, for a structured record type use namedtuple() instead.

SimpleNamespace objects are supported by copy.replace().

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Attribute order in the repr changed from alphabetical to insertion (like dict).

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added support for an optional positional argument.

types.DynamicClassAttribute(fget=None, fset=None, fdel=None, doc=None)

Route attribute access on a class to __getattr__.

This is a descriptor, used to define attributes that act differently when accessed through an instance and through a class. Instance access remains normal, but access to an attribute through a class will be routed to the class's __getattr__ method; this is done by raising AttributeError.

This allows one to have properties active on an instance, and have virtual attributes on the class with the same name (see enum.Enum for an example).

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Coroutine Utility Functions

types.coroutine(gen_func)

This function transforms a generator function into a coroutine function which returns a generator-based coroutine. The generator-based coroutine is still a generator iterator, but is also considered to be a coroutine object and is awaitable. However, it may not necessarily implement the __await__() method.

If gen_func is a generator function, it will be modified in-place.

If gen_func is not a generator function, it will be wrapped. If it returns an instance of collections.abc.Generator, the instance will be wrapped in an awaitable proxy object. All other types of objects will be returned as is.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

copy --- Shallow and deep copy operations

Code source : Lib/copy.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/copy.py]

Les instructions d'affectation en Python ne copient pas les objets, elles créent des liens entre la cible et l'objet. Concernant les collections qui sont mutables ou contiennent des éléments mutables, une copie est parfois nécessaire, pour pouvoir modifier une copie sans modifier l'autre. Ce module met à disposition des opérations de copie génériques superficielle et récursive (comme expliqué ci-dessous).

Résumé de l'interface :

copy.copy(obj)

Return a shallow copy of obj.

copy.deepcopy(obj[, memo])

Return a deep copy of obj.

copy.replace(obj, /, **changes)

Creates a new object of the same type as obj, replacing fields with values from changes.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

exception copy.Error

Levée pour les erreurs spécifiques au module.

La différence entre copie superficielle et récursive n'est pertinente que pour les objets composés (objets contenant d'autres objets, comme des listes ou des instances de classe) :

Une copie superficielle construit un nouvel objet composé puis (dans la mesure du possible) insère dans l'objet composé des références aux objets trouvés dans l'original.

Une copie récursive (ou profonde) construit un nouvel objet composé puis, récursivement, insère dans l'objet composé des copies des objets trouvés dans l'objet original.

On rencontre souvent deux problèmes avec les opérations de copie récursive qui n'existent pas avec les opérations de copie superficielle :

Les objets récursifs (objets composés qui, directement ou indirectement, contiennent une référence à eux-mêmes) peuvent causer une boucle récursive.

Comme une copie récursive copie tout, elle peut en copier trop, par exemple des données qui sont destinées à être partagées entre différentes copies.

La fonction deepcopy() évite ces problèmes en :

gardant en mémoire dans un dictionnaire memo les objets déjà copiés durant la phase de copie actuelle ; et

laissant les classes créées par l'utilisateur écraser l'opération de copie ou l'ensemble de composants copiés.

This module does not copy types like module, method, stack trace, stack frame, file, socket, window, or any similar types. It does "copy" functions and classes (shallow and deeply), by returning the original object unchanged; this is compatible with the way these are treated by the pickle module.

Les copies superficielles de dictionnaires peuvent être faites en utilisant dict.copy(), et de listes en affectant un slice de la liste, par exemple, copied_list = original_list[:].

Classes can use the same interfaces to control copying that they use to control pickling. See the description of module pickle for information on these methods. In fact, the copy module uses the registered pickle functions from the copyreg module.

In order for a class to define its own copy implementation, it can define special methods __copy__() and __deepcopy__().

object.__copy__(self)

Called to implement the shallow copy operation; no additional arguments are passed.

object.__deepcopy__(self, memo)

Called to implement the deep copy operation; it is passed one argument, the memo dictionary. If the __deepcopy__ implementation needs to make a deep copy of a component, it should call the deepcopy() function with the component as first argument and the memo dictionary as second argument. The memo dictionary should be treated as an opaque object.

Function copy.replace() is more limited than copy() and deepcopy(), and only supports named tuples created by namedtuple(), dataclasses, and other classes which define method __replace__().

object.__replace__(self, /, **changes)

This method should create a new object of the same type, replacing fields with values from changes.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Voir aussi

Module pickle

Discussion sur les méthodes spéciales utilisées pour gérer la récupération et la restauration de l'état d'un objet.

pprint — L’affichage élégant de données

Code source : Lib/pprint.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/pprint.py]

The pprint module provides a capability to "pretty-print" arbitrary Python data structures in a form which can be used as input to the interpreter. If the formatted structures include objects which are not fundamental Python types, the representation may not be loadable. This may be the case if objects such as files, sockets or classes are included, as well as many other objects which are not representable as Python literals.

L’affichage formaté affiche, tant que possible, les objets sur une seule ligne et les sépare sur plusieurs lignes s’ils dépassent la largeur autorisée par l’interpréteur. Cette largeur est ajustable par le paramètre width qui est par défaut de 80 caractères.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Prise en charge de l’affichage élégant de types.SimpleNamespace.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Prise en charge de l’affichage élégant de dataclasses.dataclass.

Fonctions

pprint.pp(object, stream=None, indent=1, width=80, depth=None, *, compact=False, sort_dicts=False, underscore_numbers=False)

Affiche la représentation formatée de object, suivie d’un retour à la ligne. Cette fonction peut être utilisée dans l’interpréteur interactif au lieu de la fonction print() pour inspecter les valeurs. Astuce : vous pouvez réassigner print = pprint.pp pour l’utiliser dans une portée.

Paramètres:

object -- L’objet à afficher.

stream (file-like object | None) -- Un objet fichier-compatible sur lequel la sortie sera écrite en appelant sa méthode write(). Si la valeur est None (la valeur par défaut), sys.stdout est utilisé.

indent (int) -- La quantité d’indentation ajoutée pour chaque niveau d’imbrication.

width (int) -- Le nombre maximal de caractères souhaités par ligne dans la sortie. Si une structure ne peut pas être formatée dans la largeur limite donnée, un effort maximal sera fait.

depth (int | None) -- Le nombre de niveaux d’imbrication qui peuvent être affichés. Si la structure de données à afficher est trop profonde, le niveau suivant est remplacé par .... Si la valeur est None (la valeur par défaut), il n’y a pas de contrainte sur la profondeur des objets formatés.

compact (bool) -- Contrôle la façon dont les longues sequences sont formatées. Si la valeur est False (la valeur par défaut), chaque élément d’une séquence sera formaté sur une ligne séparée, sinon autant d’éléments que possible qui peuvent tenir dans la width (la largeur) seront formatés sur chaque ligne de sortie.

sort_dicts (bool) -- Si la valeur est True, les dictionnaires seront formatés avec leurs clés triées, sinon ils seront affichés dans l'ordre d'insertion (la valeur par défaut).

underscore_numbers (bool) -- Si la valeur est True, les entiers seront formatés avec le caractère _ comme séparateur de milliers, sinon les underscores ne sont pas affichés (le comportement par défaut).

>>> import pprint
>>> stuff = ['spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack', 'knights', 'ni']
>>> stuff.insert(0, stuff)
>>> pprint.pp(stuff)
[<Recursion on list with id=...>,
 'spam',
 'eggs',
 'lumberjack',
 'knights',
 'ni']

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

pprint.pprint(object, stream=None, indent=1, width=80, depth=None, *, compact=False, sort_dicts=True, underscore_numbers=False)

Alias pour pp() avec sort_dicts initialisé à True par défaut (ce qui trie automatiquement les clés des dictionnaires), vous pourriez préférer utiliser pp() à la place où sort_dicts est initialisé à False par défaut.

pprint.pformat(object, indent=1, width=80, depth=None, *, compact=False, sort_dicts=True, underscore_numbers=False)

Renvoie une représentation formatée de object sous forme de chaîne de caractères. indent, width, depth, compact, sort_dicts et underscore_numbers sont passés au constructeur de PrettyPrinter comme paramètres de formatage et leurs significations sont telles que décrites dans la documentation ci-dessus.

pprint.isreadable(object)

Détermine si la représentation formatée de object est « lisible », ou s’il peut être utilisé pour recomposer sa valeur en utilisant la fonction eval(). Cela renvoie toujours False pour les objets récursifs.

>>> pprint.isreadable(stuff)
False

pprint.isrecursive(object)

Détermine si object nécessite une représentation récursive. Cette fonction est soumise aux mêmes limitations que celles notées dans saferepr() ci-dessous et peut lever une exception RecursionError si elle échoue à détecter un objet récursif.

pprint.saferepr(object)

Renvoie une représentation de object, protégée contre la récursivité dans certaines structures de données courantes, à savoir que les instances de dict, list et tuple ou les sous-classes dont la méthode __repr__ n’ont pas été surchargées. Si la représentation de object présente une entrée récursive, celle-ci sera représentée telle que <Recursion on typename with id=number>. Par ailleurs, la représentation de l’objet n’est pas formatée.

>>> pprint.saferepr(stuff)
"[<Recursion on list with id=...>, 'spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack', 'knights', 'ni']"

Les Objets PrettyPrinter

class pprint.PrettyPrinter(indent=1, width=80, depth=None, stream=None, *, compact=False, sort_dicts=True, underscore_numbers=False)

Crée une instance de PrettyPrinter.

Les arguments ont la même signification que pour pp(). Notez qu’ils sont dans un ordre différent, et que sort_dicts est initialisé à True par défaut.

>>> import pprint
>>> stuff = ['spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack', 'knights', 'ni']
>>> stuff.insert(0, stuff[:])
>>> pp = pprint.PrettyPrinter(indent=4)
>>> pp.pprint(stuff)
[   ['spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack', 'knights', 'ni'],
    'spam',
    'eggs',
    'lumberjack',
    'knights',
    'ni']
>>> pp = pprint.PrettyPrinter(width=41, compact=True)
>>> pp.pprint(stuff)
[['spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack',
  'knights', 'ni'],
 'spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack', 'knights',
 'ni']
>>> tup = ('spam', ('eggs', ('lumberjack', ('knights', ('ni', ('dead',
... ('parrot', ('fresh fruit',))))))))
>>> pp = pprint.PrettyPrinter(depth=6)
>>> pp.pprint(tup)
('spam', ('eggs', ('lumberjack', ('knights', ('ni', ('dead', (...)))))))

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Ajout du paramètre compact.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Ajout du paramètre sort_dicts.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Ajout du paramètre underscore_numbers.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: N'essaie plus d’écrire sur sys.stdout lorsqu'il vaut None.

Les instances de la classe PrettyPrinter ont les méthodes suivantes :

PrettyPrinter.pformat(object)

Renvoie la représentation formatée de object. Cela prend en compte les options passées au constructeur de la classe PrettyPrinter.

PrettyPrinter.pprint(object)

Affiche sur le flux configuré la représentation formatée de object, suivie d’une fin de ligne.

Les méthodes suivantes fournissent les implémentations pour les fonctions correspondantes de mêmes noms. L’utilisation de ces méthodes sur une instance est légèrement plus efficace, car les nouveaux objets PrettyPrinter n’ont pas besoin d’être créés.

PrettyPrinter.isreadable(object)

Détermine si la représentation formatée de object est « lisible », ou si elle peut être utilisée pour recomposer sa valeur en utilisant la fonction eval(). Cela renvoie toujours False pour les objets récursifs. Si le paramètre depth de la classe PrettyPrinter est initialisé et que l’objet est plus « profond » que permis, cela renvoie False.

PrettyPrinter.isrecursive(object)

Détermine si l’objet nécessite une représentation récursive.

Cette méthode est fournie sous forme de point d’entrée ou méthode (à déclenchement) automatique (hook en anglais) pour permettre aux sous-classes de modifier la façon dont les objets sont convertis en chaînes. L’implémentation par défaut est celle de la fonction saferepr().

PrettyPrinter.format(object, context, maxlevels, level)

Renvoie trois valeurs : la version formatée de object sous forme de chaîne de caractères, une option indiquant si le résultat est « lisible », et une option indiquant si une récursion a été détectée. Le premier argument est l’objet à représenter. Le deuxième est un dictionnaire qui contient l'id() des objets (conteneurs directs ou indirects de objet qui affectent sa représentation) qui font partie du contexte de représentation courant tel que les clés; si un objet doit être représenté, mais l’a déjà été dans ce contexte, le troisième argument renvoie True. Des appels récursifs à la méthode format() doivent ajouter des entrés additionnelles aux conteneurs de ce dictionnaire. Le troisième argument maxlevels, donne la limite maximale de récursivité; la valeur par défaut est 0. Cet argument doit être passé non modifié pour des appels non récursifs. Le quatrième argument, level, donne le niveau de récursivité courant; les appels récursifs doivent être passés à une valeur inférieure à celle de l’appel courant.

Exemple

Pour illustrer quelques cas pratiques de l’utilisation de la fonction pp() et de ses paramètres, allons chercher des informations sur un projet PyPI [https://pypi.org] :

>>> import json
>>> import pprint
>>> from urllib.request import urlopen
>>> with urlopen('https://pypi.org/pypi/sampleproject/1.2.0/json') as resp:
...     project_info = json.load(resp)['info']

Dans sa forme basique, la fonction pp() affiche l’intégralité de l’objet :

>>> pprint.pp(project_info)
{'author': 'The Python Packaging Authority',
 'author_email': 'pypa-dev@googlegroups.com',
 'bugtrack_url': None,
 'classifiers': ['Development Status :: 3 - Alpha',
                 'Intended Audience :: Developers',
                 'License :: OSI Approved :: MIT License',
                 'Programming Language :: Python :: 2',
                 'Programming Language :: Python :: 2.6',
                 'Programming Language :: Python :: 2.7',
                 'Programming Language :: Python :: 3',
                 'Programming Language :: Python :: 3.2',
                 'Programming Language :: Python :: 3.3',
                 'Programming Language :: Python :: 3.4',
                 'Topic :: Software Development :: Build Tools'],
 'description': 'A sample Python project\n'
                '=======================\n'
                '\n'
                'This is the description file for the project.\n'
                '\n'
                'The file should use UTF-8 encoding and be written using '
                'ReStructured Text. It\n'
                'will be used to generate the project webpage on PyPI, and '
                'should be written for\n'
                'that purpose.\n'
                '\n'
                'Typical contents for this file would include an overview of '
                'the project, basic\n'
                'usage examples, etc. Generally, including the project '
                'changelog in here is not\n'
                'a good idea, although a simple "What\'s New" section for the '
                'most recent version\n'
                'may be appropriate.',
 'description_content_type': None,
 'docs_url': None,
 'download_url': 'UNKNOWN',
 'downloads': {'last_day': -1, 'last_month': -1, 'last_week': -1},
 'home_page': 'https://github.com/pypa/sampleproject',
 'keywords': 'sample setuptools development',
 'license': 'MIT',
 'maintainer': None,
 'maintainer_email': None,
 'name': 'sampleproject',
 'package_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/',
 'platform': 'UNKNOWN',
 'project_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/',
 'project_urls': {'Download': 'UNKNOWN',
                  'Homepage': 'https://github.com/pypa/sampleproject'},
 'release_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/1.2.0/',
 'requires_dist': None,
 'requires_python': None,
 'summary': 'A sample Python project',
 'version': '1.2.0'}

Le résultat peut être limité à une certaine profondeur en initialisant depth. ( … est utilisé pour des contenus plus « profonds ») :

>>> pprint.pp(project_info, depth=1)
{'author': 'The Python Packaging Authority',
 'author_email': 'pypa-dev@googlegroups.com',
 'bugtrack_url': None,
 'classifiers': [...],
 'description': 'A sample Python project\n'
                '=======================\n'
                '\n'
                'This is the description file for the project.\n'
                '\n'
                'The file should use UTF-8 encoding and be written using '
                'ReStructured Text. It\n'
                'will be used to generate the project webpage on PyPI, and '
                'should be written for\n'
                'that purpose.\n'
                '\n'
                'Typical contents for this file would include an overview of '
                'the project, basic\n'
                'usage examples, etc. Generally, including the project '
                'changelog in here is not\n'
                'a good idea, although a simple "What\'s New" section for the '
                'most recent version\n'
                'may be appropriate.',
 'description_content_type': None,
 'docs_url': None,
 'download_url': 'UNKNOWN',
 'downloads': {...},
 'home_page': 'https://github.com/pypa/sampleproject',
 'keywords': 'sample setuptools development',
 'license': 'MIT',
 'maintainer': None,
 'maintainer_email': None,
 'name': 'sampleproject',
 'package_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/',
 'platform': 'UNKNOWN',
 'project_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/',
 'project_urls': {...},
 'release_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/1.2.0/',
 'requires_dist': None,
 'requires_python': None,
 'summary': 'A sample Python project',
 'version': '1.2.0'}

De plus, une valeur maximale de caractères sur une ligne peut être définie en initialisant le paramètre width. Si un long objet ne peut être scindé, la valeur donnée à width sera outrepassée :

>>> pprint.pp(project_info, depth=1, width=60)
{'author': 'The Python Packaging Authority',
 'author_email': 'pypa-dev@googlegroups.com',
 'bugtrack_url': None,
 'classifiers': [...],
 'description': 'A sample Python project\n'
                '=======================\n'
                '\n'
                'This is the description file for the '
                'project.\n'
                '\n'
                'The file should use UTF-8 encoding and be '
                'written using ReStructured Text. It\n'
                'will be used to generate the project '
                'webpage on PyPI, and should be written '
                'for\n'
                'that purpose.\n'
                '\n'
                'Typical contents for this file would '
                'include an overview of the project, '
                'basic\n'
                'usage examples, etc. Generally, including '
                'the project changelog in here is not\n'
                'a good idea, although a simple "What\'s '
                'New" section for the most recent version\n'
                'may be appropriate.',
 'description_content_type': None,
 'docs_url': None,
 'download_url': 'UNKNOWN',
 'downloads': {...},
 'home_page': 'https://github.com/pypa/sampleproject',
 'keywords': 'sample setuptools development',
 'license': 'MIT',
 'maintainer': None,
 'maintainer_email': None,
 'name': 'sampleproject',
 'package_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/',
 'platform': 'UNKNOWN',
 'project_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/',
 'project_urls': {...},
 'release_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/1.2.0/',
 'requires_dist': None,
 'requires_python': None,
 'summary': 'A sample Python project',
 'version': '1.2.0'}

reprlib --- Alternate repr() implementation

Code source : Lib/reprlib.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/reprlib.py]

The reprlib module provides a means for producing object representations with limits on the size of the resulting strings. This is used in the Python debugger and may be useful in other contexts as well.

This module provides a class, an instance, and a function:

class reprlib.Repr(*, maxlevel=6, maxtuple=6, maxlist=6, maxarray=5, maxdict=4, maxset=6, maxfrozenset=6, maxdeque=6, maxstring=30, maxlong=40, maxother=30, fillvalue='...', indent=None)

Class which provides formatting services useful in implementing functions similar to the built-in repr(); size limits for different object types are added to avoid the generation of representations which are excessively long.

The keyword arguments of the constructor can be used as a shortcut to set the attributes of the Repr instance. Which means that the following initialization:

aRepr = reprlib.Repr(maxlevel=3)

est équivalent à :

aRepr = reprlib.Repr()
aRepr.maxlevel = 3

See section Repr Objects for more information about Repr attributes.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Allow attributes to be set via keyword arguments.

reprlib.aRepr

This is an instance of Repr which is used to provide the repr() function described below. Changing the attributes of this object will affect the size limits used by repr() and the Python debugger.

reprlib.repr(obj)

This is the repr() method of aRepr. It returns a string similar to that returned by the built-in function of the same name, but with limits on most sizes.

In addition to size-limiting tools, the module also provides a decorator for detecting recursive calls to __repr__() and substituting a placeholder string instead.

@reprlib.recursive_repr(fillvalue='...')

Decorator for __repr__() methods to detect recursive calls within the same thread. If a recursive call is made, the fillvalue is returned, otherwise, the usual __repr__() call is made. For example:

>>> from reprlib import recursive_repr
>>> class MyList(list):
...     @recursive_repr()
...     def __repr__(self):
...         return '<' + '|'.join(map(repr, self)) + '>'
...
>>> m = MyList('abc')
>>> m.append(m)
>>> m.append('x')
>>> print(m)
<'a'|'b'|'c'|...|'x'>

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Repr Objects

Repr instances provide several attributes which can be used to provide size limits for the representations of different object types, and methods which format specific object types.

Repr.fillvalue

This string is displayed for recursive references. It defaults to ....

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

Repr.maxlevel

Depth limit on the creation of recursive representations. The default is 6.

Repr.maxdict

Repr.maxlist

Repr.maxtuple

Repr.maxset

Repr.maxfrozenset

Repr.maxdeque

Repr.maxarray

Limits on the number of entries represented for the named object type. The default is 4 for maxdict, 5 for maxarray, and 6 for the others.

Repr.maxlong

Maximum number of characters in the representation for an integer. Digits are dropped from the middle. The default is 40.

Repr.maxstring

Limit on the number of characters in the representation of the string. Note that the "normal" representation of the string is used as the character source: if escape sequences are needed in the representation, these may be mangled when the representation is shortened. The default is 30.

Repr.maxother

This limit is used to control the size of object types for which no specific formatting method is available on the Repr object. It is applied in a similar manner as maxstring. The default is 20.

Repr.indent

If this attribute is set to None (the default), the output is formatted with no line breaks or indentation, like the standard repr(). For example:

>>> example = [
...     1, 'spam', {'a': 2, 'b': 'spam eggs', 'c': {3: 4.5, 6: []}}, 'ham']
>>> import reprlib
>>> aRepr = reprlib.Repr()
>>> print(aRepr.repr(example))
[1, 'spam', {'a': 2, 'b': 'spam eggs', 'c': {3: 4.5, 6: []}}, 'ham']

If indent is set to a string, each recursion level is placed on its own line, indented by that string:

>>> aRepr.indent = '-->'
>>> print(aRepr.repr(example))
[
-->1,
-->'spam',
-->{
-->-->'a': 2,
-->-->'b': 'spam eggs',
-->-->'c': {
-->-->-->3: 4.5,
-->-->-->6: [],
-->-->},
-->},
-->'ham',
]

Setting indent to a positive integer value behaves as if it was set to a string with that number of spaces:

>>> aRepr.indent = 4
>>> print(aRepr.repr(example))
[
    1,
    'spam',
    {
        'a': 2,
        'b': 'spam eggs',
        'c': {
            3: 4.5,
            6: [],
        },
    },
    'ham',
]

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Repr.repr(obj)

The equivalent to the built-in repr() that uses the formatting imposed by the instance.

Repr.repr1(obj, level)

Recursive implementation used by repr(). This uses the type of obj to determine which formatting method to call, passing it obj and level. The type-specific methods should call repr1() to perform recursive formatting, with level - 1 for the value of level in the recursive call.

Repr.repr_TYPE(obj, level)

Formatting methods for specific types are implemented as methods with a name based on the type name. In the method name, TYPE is replaced by '_'.join(type(obj).__name__.split()). Dispatch to these methods is handled by repr1(). Type-specific methods which need to recursively format a value should call self.repr1(subobj, level - 1).

Subclassing Repr Objects

The use of dynamic dispatching by Repr.repr1() allows subclasses of Repr to add support for additional built-in object types or to modify the handling of types already supported. This example shows how special support for file objects could be added:

import reprlib
import sys

class MyRepr(reprlib.Repr):

    def repr_TextIOWrapper(self, obj, level):
        if obj.name in {'<stdin>', '<stdout>', '<stderr>'}:
            return obj.name
        return repr(obj)

aRepr = MyRepr()
print(aRepr.repr(sys.stdin))         # prints '<stdin>'

<stdin>

enum --- Support for enumerations

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Code source : Lib/enum.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/enum.py]

Important

Cette page contient les informations de référence de l'API. Pour des informations sur le didacticiel et une discussion sur des sujets plus avancés, reportez-vous à

Tutoriel de base

Tutoriel avancé

Recettes pour les énumérations

Une énumération :

est un ensemble de noms symboliques (appelés membres) liés à des valeurs uniques,

can be iterated over to return its canonical (i.e. non-alias) members in definition order

utilise la syntaxe d'appel pour renvoyer les valeurs de ses membres,

utilise la syntaxe d'indiçage pour renvoyer les noms de ses membres.

Les énumérations sont créées soit en utilisant la syntaxe class, soit en utilisant la syntaxe d'appel de fonction :

>>> from enum import Enum

>>> # class syntax
>>> class Color(Enum):
...     RED = 1
...     GREEN = 2
...     BLUE = 3

>>> # functional syntax
>>> Color = Enum('Color', [('RED', 1), ('GREEN', 2), ('BLUE', 3)])

Même si on peut utiliser la syntaxe class pour créer des énumérations, les Enums ne sont pas des vraies classes Python. Lisez En quoi les énumérations sont-elles différentes ? pour plus de détails.

Note

Nomenclature

The class Color is an enumeration (or enum)

The attributes Color.RED, Color.GREEN, etc., are enumeration members (or members) and are functionally constants.

The enum members have names and values (the name of Color.RED is RED, the value of Color.BLUE is 3, etc.)

Module contents

EnumType

Le type d'Enum et de ses sous-classes.

Enum

Classe mère pour créer une énumération de constantes.

IntEnum

Classe mère pour créer une énumération de constantes qui sont également des sous-classes de int (notes).

StrEnum

Classe mère pour créer une énumération de constantes qui sont également des sous-classes de str (notes).

Flag

Classe mère pour créer une énumération de constantes pouvant être combinées avec des opérateurs de comparaison bit-à-bit, sans perdre leur qualité de Flag.

IntFlag

Classe mère pour créer une énumération de constantes pouvant être combinées avec des opérateurs de comparaison bit-à-bit, sans perdre leur qualité de IntFlag. Les membres de IntFlag sont aussi des sous-classes de int (notes).

ReprEnum

Used by IntEnum, StrEnum, and IntFlag to keep the str() of the mixed-in type.

EnumCheck

Énumération avec les valeurs CONTINUOUS, NAMED_FLAGS et UNIQUE, à utiliser avec verify() pour s'assurer que diverses contraintes sont satisfaites par une énumération donnée.

FlagBoundary

Énumération avec les valeurs STRICT, CONFORM, EJECT et KEEP qui permet un contrôle plus précis sur la façon dont les valeurs invalides sont traitées dans une énumération.

EnumDict

A subclass of dict for use when subclassing EnumType.

auto

Les instances sont remplacées par une valeur appropriée pour les membres de l'énumération. StrEnum utilise par défaut la version minuscule du nom du membre, tandis que les autres énumérations utilisent 1 par défaut et puis augmentent.

property()

Allows Enum members to have attributes without conflicting with member names. The value and name attributes are implemented this way.

unique()

Décorateur de classe qui garantit qu'une valeur ne puisse être associée qu'à un seul nom.

verify()

Décorateur de classe qui vérifie des contraintes personnalisées pour une énumération.

member()

Fait de obj un membre. Peut être utilisé comme décorateur.

nonmember()

Fait que obj n'est pas un membre. Peut être utilisé comme décorateur.

global_enum()

Modify the str() and repr() of an enum to show its members as belonging to the module instead of its class, and export the enum members to the global namespace.

show_flag_values()

Return a list of all power-of-two integers contained in a flag.

enum.bin()

Like built-in bin(), except negative values are represented in two's complement, and the leading bit always indicates sign (0 implies positive, 1 implies negative).

Ajouté dans la version 3.6: Flag, IntFlag, auto

Ajouté dans la version 3.11: StrEnum, EnumCheck, ReprEnum, FlagBoundary, property, member, nonmember, global_enum, show_flag_values

Ajouté dans la version 3.13: EnumDict

Data types

class enum.EnumType

EnumType est la métaclasse pour les énumérations. Il est possible de sous-classer EnumType — voir Sous-classer EnumType pour plus de détails.

EnumType is responsible for setting the correct __repr__(), __str__(), __format__(), and __reduce__() methods on the final enum, as well as creating the enum members, properly handling duplicates, providing iteration over the enum class, etc.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11: Before 3.11 EnumType was called EnumMeta, which is still available as an alias.

__call__(cls, value, names=None, *, module=None, qualname=None, type=None, start=1, boundary=None)

Cette méthode peut être appelée de deux manières différentes :

pour chercher un membre existant :

cls:

Classe de l'énumération concernée.

value:

Valeur à chercher.

to use the cls enum to create a new enum (only if the existing enum does not have any members):

cls:

Classe de l'énumération concernée.

value:

Nom de la nouvelle énumération à créer.

names:

Couples nom-valeur des membres de la nouvelle énumération.

module:

Nom du module dans lequel la classe Enum se trouve.

qualname:

Position dans le module où la classe Enum se trouve.

type:

Type à mélanger pour la nouvelle énumération.

start:

The first integer value for the Enum (used by auto).

boundary:

How to handle out-of-range values from bit operations (Flag only).

__contains__(cls, member)

Renvoie True si le membre appartient à cls :

>>> some_var = Color.RED
>>> some_var in Color
True
>>> Color.RED.value in Color
True

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Before Python 3.12, a TypeError is raised if a non-Enum-member is used in a containment check.

__dir__(cls)

Renvoie ['__class__', '__doc__', '__members__', '__module__'] et les noms des membres de cls :

>>> dir(Color)
['BLUE', 'GREEN', 'RED', '__class__', '__contains__', '__doc__', '__getitem__', '__init_subclass__', '__iter__', '__len__', '__members__', '__module__', '__name__', '__qualname__']

__getitem__(cls, name)

Returns the Enum member in cls matching name, or raises a KeyError:

>>> Color['BLUE']
<Color.BLUE: 3>

__iter__(cls)

Renvoie chaque membre de cls dans l'ordre de définition :

>>> list(Color)
[<Color.RED: 1>, <Color.GREEN: 2>, <Color.BLUE: 3>]

__len__(cls)

Renvoie le nombre de membres de cls :

>>> len(Color)
3

__members__

Returns a mapping of every enum name to its member, including aliases

__reversed__(cls)

Renvoie chaque membre de cls dans l'ordre inverse de définition :

>>> list(reversed(Color))
[<Color.BLUE: 3>, <Color.GREEN: 2>, <Color.RED: 1>]

class enum.Enum

Enum est la classe mère de toutes les énumérations.

name

Le nom utilisé pour définir le membre de l'Enum :

>>> Color.BLUE.name
'BLUE'

value

La valeur attribuée au membre de l'Enum :

>>> Color.RED.value
1

Value of the member, can be set in __new__().

Note

Valeurs des membres d'une Enum

Member values can be anything: int, str, etc. If the exact value is unimportant you may use auto instances and an appropriate value will be chosen for you. See auto for the details.

While mutable/unhashable values, such as dict, list or a mutable dataclass, can be used, they will have a quadratic performance impact during creation relative to the total number of mutable/unhashable values in the enum.

_name_

Name of the member.

_value_

Value of the member, can be set in __new__().

_order_

No longer used, kept for backward compatibility. (class attribute, removed during class creation).

The _order_ attribute can be provided to help keep Python 2 / Python 3 code in sync. It will be checked against the actual order of the enumeration and raise an error if the two do not match:

>>> class Color(Enum):
...     _order_ = 'RED GREEN BLUE'
...     RED = 1
...     BLUE = 3
...     GREEN = 2
...
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
TypeError: member order does not match _order_:
   ['RED', 'BLUE', 'GREEN']
   ['RED', 'GREEN', 'BLUE']

Note

In Python 2 code the _order_ attribute is necessary as definition order is lost before it can be recorded.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

_ignore_

_ignore_ n'est utilisé que lors de la création et est supprimé de l'énumération une fois la création terminée.

_ignore_ est une liste de noms qui ne deviendront pas membres et qui seront également supprimés de l'énumération terminée. Voir Intervalle de temps pour un exemple.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

__dir__(self)

Renvoie ['__class__', '__doc__', '__module__', 'name', 'value'] et toutes les méthodes publiques définies pour self.__class__ :

>>> from enum import Enum
>>> import datetime as dt
>>> class Weekday(Enum):
...     MONDAY = 1
...     TUESDAY = 2
...     WEDNESDAY = 3
...     THURSDAY = 4
...     FRIDAY = 5
...     SATURDAY = 6
...     SUNDAY = 7
...     @classmethod
...     def today(cls):
...         print(f'today is {cls(dt.date.today().isoweekday()).name}')
...
>>> dir(Weekday.SATURDAY)
['__class__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__hash__', '__module__', 'name', 'today', 'value']

_generate_next_value_(name, start, count, last_values)

name:

Nom du membre en cours de définition (par ex. RED).

start:

Valeur de départ pour l'énumération ; 1 par défaut.

count:

Nombre de membres actuellement définis, le membre actuel n'étant pas inclus.

last_values:

Liste des valeurs précédentes.

A staticmethod that is used to determine the next value returned by auto.

Note

For standard Enum classes the next value chosen is the highest value seen incremented by one.

For Flag classes the next value chosen will be the next highest power-of-two.

This method may be overridden, e.g.:

>>> from enum import auto, Enum
>>> class PowersOfThree(Enum):
...     @staticmethod
...     def _generate_next_value_(name, start, count, last_values):
...         return 3 ** (count + 1)
...     FIRST = auto()
...     SECOND = auto()
...
>>> PowersOfThree.SECOND.value
9

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Prior versions would use the last seen value instead of the highest value.

__init__(self, *args, **kwds)

By default, does nothing. If multiple values are given in the member assignment, those values become separate arguments to __init__; e.g.

>>> from enum import Enum
>>> class Weekday(Enum):
...     MONDAY = 1, 'Mon'

Weekday.__init__() would be called as Weekday.__init__(self, 1, 'Mon')

__init_subclass__(cls, **kwds)

Méthode de classe utilisée pour personnaliser davantage les sous-classes à venir. Ne fait rien par défaut.

_missing_(cls, value)

Méthode de classe pour chercher des valeurs non trouvées dans cls. Ne fait rien par défaut mais peut être surchargée pour implémenter un comportement personnalisé de recherche :

>>> from enum import auto, StrEnum
>>> class Build(StrEnum):
...     DEBUG = auto()
...     OPTIMIZED = auto()
...     @classmethod
...     def _missing_(cls, value):
...         value = value.lower()
...         for member in cls:
...             if member.value == value:
...                 return member
...         return None
...
>>> Build.DEBUG.value
'debug'
>>> Build('deBUG')
<Build.DEBUG: 'debug'>

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

__new__(cls, *args, **kwds)

By default, doesn't exist. If specified, either in the enum class definition or in a mixin class (such as int), all values given in the member assignment will be passed; e.g.

>>> from enum import Enum
>>> class MyIntEnum(int, Enum):
...     TWENTYSIX = '1a', 16

results in the call int('1a', 16) and a value of 26 for the member.

Note

When writing a custom __new__, do not use super().__new__ -- call the appropriate __new__ instead.

__repr__(self)

Renvoie la chaîne utilisée pour les appels à repr(). Par défaut, renvoie le nom de l'énumération, le nom du membre et sa valeur, mais peut être surchargée :

>>> from enum import auto, Enum
>>> class OtherStyle(Enum):
...     ALTERNATE = auto()
...     OTHER = auto()
...     SOMETHING_ELSE = auto()
...     def __repr__(self):
...         cls_name = self.__class__.__name__
...         return f'{cls_name}.{self.name}'
...
>>> OtherStyle.ALTERNATE, str(OtherStyle.ALTERNATE), f"{OtherStyle.ALTERNATE}"
(OtherStyle.ALTERNATE, 'OtherStyle.ALTERNATE', 'OtherStyle.ALTERNATE')

__str__(self)

Renvoie la chaîne utilisée pour les appels à str(). Par défaut, renvoie le nom Enum et le nom du membre, mais peut être remplacé :

>>> from enum import auto, Enum
>>> class OtherStyle(Enum):
...     ALTERNATE = auto()
...     OTHER = auto()
...     SOMETHING_ELSE = auto()
...     def __str__(self):
...         return f'{self.name}'
...
>>> OtherStyle.ALTERNATE, str(OtherStyle.ALTERNATE), f"{OtherStyle.ALTERNATE}"
(<OtherStyle.ALTERNATE: 1>, 'ALTERNATE', 'ALTERNATE')

__format__(self)

Returns the string used for format() and f-string calls. By default, returns __str__() return value, but can be overridden:

>>> from enum import auto, Enum
>>> class OtherStyle(Enum):
...     ALTERNATE = auto()
...     OTHER = auto()
...     SOMETHING_ELSE = auto()
...     def __format__(self, spec):
...         return f'{self.name}'
...
>>> OtherStyle.ALTERNATE, str(OtherStyle.ALTERNATE), f"{OtherStyle.ALTERNATE}"
(<OtherStyle.ALTERNATE: 1>, 'OtherStyle.ALTERNATE', 'ALTERNATE')

Note

L'utilisation de auto avec Enum donne des nombres entiers de valeur croissante, en commençant par 1.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added Dataclass support

_add_alias_()

Adds a new name as an alias to an existing member:

>>> Color.RED._add_alias_("ERROR")
>>> Color.ERROR
<Color.RED: 1>

Raises a NameError if the name is already assigned to a different member.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

_add_value_alias_()

Adds a new value as an alias to an existing member:

>>> Color.RED._add_value_alias_(42)
>>> Color(42)
<Color.RED: 1>

Raises a ValueError if the value is already linked with a different member.

See MultiValueEnum for an example.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

class enum.IntEnum

IntEnum is the same as Enum, but its members are also integers and can be used anywhere that an integer can be used. If any integer operation is performed with an IntEnum member, the resulting value loses its enumeration status.

>>> from enum import IntEnum
>>> class Number(IntEnum):
...     ONE = 1
...     TWO = 2
...     THREE = 3
...
>>> Number.THREE
<Number.THREE: 3>
>>> Number.ONE + Number.TWO
3
>>> Number.THREE + 5
8
>>> Number.THREE == 3
True

Note

L'utilisation de auto avec IntEnum donne des entiers de valeur croissante, en commençant par 1.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: __str__() is now int.__str__() to better support the replacement of existing constants use-case. __format__() was already int.__format__() for that same reason.

class enum.StrEnum

StrEnum is the same as Enum, but its members are also strings and can be used in most of the same places that a string can be used. The result of any string operation performed on or with a StrEnum member is not part of the enumeration.

>>> from enum import StrEnum, auto
>>> class Color(StrEnum):
...     RED = 'r'
...     GREEN = 'g'
...     BLUE = 'b'
...     UNKNOWN = auto()
...
>>> Color.RED
<Color.RED: 'r'>
>>> Color.UNKNOWN
<Color.UNKNOWN: 'unknown'>
>>> str(Color.UNKNOWN)
'unknown'

Note

There are places in the stdlib that check for an exact str instead of a str subclass (i.e. type(unknown) == str instead of isinstance(unknown, str)), and in those locations you will need to use str(MyStrEnum.MY_MEMBER).

Note

L'utilisation de auto avec StrEnum donne le nom du membre en minuscule comme valeur.

Note

__str__() is str.__str__() to better support the replacement of existing constants use-case. __format__() is likewise str.__format__() for that same reason.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

class enum.Flag

Flag is the same as Enum, but its members support the bitwise operators & (AND), | (OR), ^ (XOR), and ~ (INVERT); the results of those operations are (aliases of) members of the enumeration.

__contains__(self, value)

Renvoie True si la valeur est dans self :

>>> from enum import Flag, auto
>>> class Color(Flag):
...     RED = auto()
...     GREEN = auto()
...     BLUE = auto()
...
>>> purple = Color.RED | Color.BLUE
>>> white = Color.RED | Color.GREEN | Color.BLUE
>>> Color.GREEN in purple
False
>>> Color.GREEN in white
True
>>> purple in white
True
>>> white in purple
False

__iter__(self):

Returns all contained non-alias members:

>>> list(Color.RED)
[<Color.RED: 1>]
>>> list(purple)
[<Color.RED: 1>, <Color.BLUE: 4>]

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

__len__(self):

Renvoie le nombre de membres de Flag :

>>> len(Color.GREEN)
1
>>> len(white)
3

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

__bool__(self):

Renvoie True s'il y a un membre dans les bits de Flag, False sinon :

>>> bool(Color.GREEN)
True
>>> bool(white)
True
>>> black = Color(0)
>>> bool(black)
False

__or__(self, other)

Renvoie le OU logique entre le membre et other :

>>> Color.RED | Color.GREEN
<Color.RED|GREEN: 3>

__and__(self, other)

Renvoie le ET logique entre le membre et other :

>>> purple & white
<Color.RED|BLUE: 5>
>>> purple & Color.GREEN
<Color: 0>

__xor__(self, other)

Renvoie le OU Exclusif logique entre le membre et other :

>>> purple ^ white
<Color.GREEN: 2>
>>> purple ^ Color.GREEN
<Color.RED|GREEN|BLUE: 7>

__invert__(self):

Returns all the flags in type(self) that are not in self:

>>> ~white
<Color: 0>
>>> ~purple
<Color.GREEN: 2>
>>> ~Color.RED
<Color.GREEN|BLUE: 6>

_numeric_repr_()

Fonction utilisée pour formater toutes les valeurs numériques sans nom restantes. La valeur par défaut est la représentation de la valeur ; les choix courants sont hex() et oct().

Note

L'utilisation de auto avec Flag donne des entiers qui sont des puissances de deux, en commençant par 1.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: The repr() of zero-valued flags has changed. It is now:

>>> Color(0)
<Color: 0>

class enum.IntFlag

IntFlag is the same as Flag, but its members are also integers and can be used anywhere that an integer can be used.

>>> from enum import IntFlag, auto
>>> class Color(IntFlag):
...     RED = auto()
...     GREEN = auto()
...     BLUE = auto()
...
>>> Color.RED & 2
<Color: 0>
>>> Color.RED | 2
<Color.RED|GREEN: 3>

Si une opération sur un entier est effectuée avec un membre d'un IntFlag, le résultat n'est pas un IntFlag :

>>> Color.RED + 2
3

If a Flag operation is performed with an IntFlag member and:

le résultat est un IntFlag valide : un IntFlag est renvoyé ;

the result is not a valid IntFlag: the result depends on the FlagBoundary setting

The repr() of unnamed zero-valued flags has changed. It is now:

>>> Color(0)
<Color: 0>

Note

L'utilisation de auto avec IntFlag donne des entiers qui sont des puissances de deux, en commençant par 1.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: __str__() is now int.__str__() to better support the replacement of existing constants use-case. __format__() was already int.__format__() for that same reason.

Inversion of an IntFlag now returns a positive value that is the union of all flags not in the given flag, rather than a negative value. This matches the existing Flag behavior.

class enum.ReprEnum

ReprEnum uses the repr() of Enum, but the str() of the mixed-in data type:

int.__str__() for IntEnum and IntFlag

str.__str__() for StrEnum

Inherit from ReprEnum to keep the str() / format() of the mixed-in data type instead of using the Enum-default str().

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

class enum.EnumCheck

EnumCheck contient les options utilisées par le décorateur verify() pour assurer diverses contraintes ; si une contrainte n'est pas validée, une ValueError est levée.

UNIQUE

Assure que chaque valeur n'a qu'un seul nom :

>>> from enum import Enum, verify, UNIQUE
>>> @verify(UNIQUE)
... class Color(Enum):
...     RED = 1
...     GREEN = 2
...     BLUE = 3
...     CRIMSON = 1
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
ValueError: aliases found in <enum 'Color'>: CRIMSON -> RED

CONTINUOUS

Assure qu'il n'y a pas de valeurs manquantes entre le membre ayant la valeur la plus faible et le membre ayant la valeur la plus élevée :

>>> from enum import Enum, verify, CONTINUOUS
>>> @verify(CONTINUOUS)
... class Color(Enum):
...     RED = 1
...     GREEN = 2
...     BLUE = 5
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
ValueError: invalid enum 'Color': missing values 3, 4

NAMED_FLAGS

Ensure that any flag groups/masks contain only named flags -- useful when values are specified instead of being generated by auto():

>>> from enum import Flag, verify, NAMED_FLAGS
>>> @verify(NAMED_FLAGS)
... class Color(Flag):
...     RED = 1
...     GREEN = 2
...     BLUE = 4
...     WHITE = 15
...     NEON = 31
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
ValueError: invalid Flag 'Color': aliases WHITE and NEON are missing combined values of 0x18 [use enum.show_flag_values(value) for details]

Note

CONTINUOUS et NAMED_FLAGS sont conçus pour fonctionner avec des membres à valeur entière.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

class enum.FlagBoundary

FlagBoundary controls how out-of-range values are handled in Flag and its subclasses.

STRICT

Out-of-range values cause a ValueError to be raised. This is the default for Flag:

>>> from enum import Flag, STRICT, auto
>>> class StrictFlag(Flag, boundary=STRICT):
...     RED = auto()
...     GREEN = auto()
...     BLUE = auto()
...
>>> StrictFlag(2**2 + 2**4)
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
ValueError: <flag 'StrictFlag'> invalid value 20
    given 0b0 10100
  allowed 0b0 00111

CONFORM

Out-of-range values have invalid values removed, leaving a valid Flag value:

>>> from enum import Flag, CONFORM, auto
>>> class ConformFlag(Flag, boundary=CONFORM):
...     RED = auto()
...     GREEN = auto()
...     BLUE = auto()
...
>>> ConformFlag(2**2 + 2**4)
<ConformFlag.BLUE: 4>

EJECT

Out-of-range values lose their Flag membership and revert to int.

>>> from enum import Flag, EJECT, auto
>>> class EjectFlag(Flag, boundary=EJECT):
...     RED = auto()
...     GREEN = auto()
...     BLUE = auto()
...
>>> EjectFlag(2**2 + 2**4)
20

KEEP

Out-of-range values are kept, and the Flag membership is kept. This is the default for IntFlag:

>>> from enum import Flag, KEEP, auto
>>> class KeepFlag(Flag, boundary=KEEP):
...     RED = auto()
...     GREEN = auto()
...     BLUE = auto()
...
>>> KeepFlag(2**2 + 2**4)
<KeepFlag.BLUE|16: 20>

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

class enum.EnumDict

EnumDict is a subclass of dict that is used as the namespace for defining enum classes (see Préparation de l'espace de nommage de la classe). It is exposed to allow subclasses of EnumType with advanced behavior like having multiple values per member. It should be called with the name of the enum class being created, otherwise private names and internal classes will not be handled correctly.

Note that only the MutableMapping interface (__setitem__() and update()) is overridden. It may be possible to bypass the checks using other dict operations like |=.

member_names

A list of member names.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Noms de la forme __dunder__ disponibles

__members__ is a read-only ordered mapping of member_name:member items. It is only available on the class.

__new__(), if specified, must create and return the enum members; it is also a very good idea to set the member's _value_ appropriately. Once all the members are created it is no longer used.

Noms de la forme _sunder_ disponibles

_name_ -- name of the member

_value_ -- value of the member; can be set in __new__

_missing_() -- a lookup function used when a value is not found; may be overridden

_ignore_ -- a list of names, either as a list or a str, that will not be transformed into members, and will be removed from the final class

_order_ -- no longer used, kept for backward compatibility (class attribute, removed during class creation)

_generate_next_value_() -- used to get an appropriate value for an enum member; may be overridden

_add_alias_() -- adds a new name as an alias to an existing member.

_add_value_alias_() -- adds a new value as an alias to an existing member.

While _sunder_ names are generally reserved for the further development of the Enum class and can not be used, some are explicitly allowed:

_repr_* (e.g. _repr_html_), as used in IPython's rich display [https://ipython.readthedocs.io/en/stable/config/integrating.html#rich-display]

Ajouté dans la version 3.6: _missing_, _order_, _generate_next_value_

Ajouté dans la version 3.7: _ignore_

Ajouté dans la version 3.13: _add_alias_, _add_value_alias_, _repr_*

Utilities and decorators

class enum.auto

auto can be used in place of a value. If used, the Enum machinery will call an Enum's _generate_next_value_() to get an appropriate value. For Enum and IntEnum that appropriate value will be the last value plus one; for Flag and IntFlag it will be the first power-of-two greater than the highest value; for StrEnum it will be the lower-cased version of the member's name. Care must be taken if mixing auto() with manually specified values.

auto instances are only resolved when at the top level of an assignment, either by itself or as part of a tuple:

FIRST = auto() will work (auto() is replaced with 1);

SECOND = auto(), -2 will work (auto is replaced with 2, so 2, -2 is used to create the SECOND enum member;

THREE = [auto(), -3] will not work ([<auto instance>, -3] is used to create the THREE enum member)

Modifié dans la version 3.11.1: In prior versions, auto() had to be the only thing on the assignment line to work properly.

_generate_next_value_ peut être surchargée pour personnaliser les valeurs produites par auto.

Note

in 3.13 the default _generate_next_value_ will always return the highest member value incremented by 1, and will fail if any member is an incompatible type.

@enum.property

Décorateur similaire au property natif, mais spécifique aux énumérations. Il permet aux attributs de membre d'avoir les mêmes noms que les membres eux-mêmes.

Note

property et le membre doivent être définis dans des classes distinctes ; par exemple, les attributs value et name sont définis dans la classe Enum, et les sous-classes d'Enum peuvent définir des membres avec les noms value et name.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

@enum.unique

A class decorator specifically for enumerations. It searches an enumeration's __members__, gathering any aliases it finds; if any are found ValueError is raised with the details:

>>> from enum import Enum, unique
>>> @unique
... class Mistake(Enum):
...     ONE = 1
...     TWO = 2
...     THREE = 3
...     FOUR = 3
...
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
ValueError: duplicate values found in <enum 'Mistake'>: FOUR -> THREE

@enum.verify

Décorateur de classe spécifique aux énumérations. Utilisé pour spécifier quelles contraintes doivent être vérifiées par les membres de l'EnumCheck décorée.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

@enum.member

Décorateur à utiliser dans les énumérations : sa cible devient un membre.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

@enum.nonmember

Décorateur à utiliser dans les énumérations : sa cible ne devient pas un membre.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

@enum.global_enum

A decorator to change the str() and repr() of an enum to show its members as belonging to the module instead of its class. Should only be used when the enum members are exported to the module global namespace (see re.RegexFlag for an example).

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

enum.show_flag_values(value)

Return a list of all power-of-two integers contained in a flag value.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

enum.bin(num, max_bits=None)

Like built-in bin(), except negative values are represented in two's complement, and the leading bit always indicates sign (0 implies positive, 1 implies negative).

>>> import enum
>>> enum.bin(10)
'0b0 1010'
>>> enum.bin(~10)   # ~10 is -11
'0b1 0101'

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

Notes

IntEnum, StrEnum et IntFlag

Ces trois types d'énumération sont conçus pour remplacer directement les valeurs existantes basées sur des entiers et des chaînes ; en tant que tels, ils ont des limitations supplémentaires :

__str__ utilise la valeur et pas le nom du membre de l'énumération

__format__, parce qu'elle fait appel à __str__, utilise également la valeur du membre de l'énumération au lieu de son nom

Si ces limitations ne vous conviennent pas, vous pouvez créer votre propre classe mère en mélangeant vous-même le type int ou str :

>>> from enum import Enum
>>> class MyIntEnum(int, Enum):
...     pass

ou vous pouvez réassigner la str() appropriée, etc., dans votre énumération :

>>> from enum import Enum, IntEnum
>>> class MyIntEnum(IntEnum):
...     __str__ = Enum.__str__

graphlib --- Functionality to operate with graph-like structures

Code source: Lib/graphlib.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/graphlib.py]

class graphlib.TopologicalSorter(graph=None)

Provides functionality to topologically sort a graph of hashable nodes.

L'ordre topologique est un ordre linéaire des sommets d'un graphe afin que pour chaque arête u → v d'un sommet u à un sommet v, cet ordre va placer le sommet u avant le sommet v. Par exemple, les sommets d'un graphe peuvent représenter une tâche à faire et une arête peut représenter la contrainte comme quoi telle tâche doit être réalisée avant telle autre. Dans cet exemple, un ordre topologique est simplement une séquence valide pour ces tâches. Cet ordre n'est possible que si le graphe n'a pas de circuit, c'est-à-dire si c'est un graphe orienté acyclique.

Si l'argument optionnel graph est fourni, cela doit être un dictionnaire représentant un graphe acyclique avec comme clés les nœuds et comme valeurs des itérables sur les prédécesseurs de ces nœuds dans le graphe (les nœuds qui ont des arêtes qui pointent vers la valeur de la clé). Les nœuds s'ajoutent en utilisant la méthode add()

De manière générale, les étapes nécessaires pour trier un graphe donné sont les suivantes :

créer une instance de la classe TopologicalSorter avec éventuellement un graphe initial ;

ajouter d'autres nœuds au graphe ;

appeler prepare() sur le graphe ;

tant que is_active() est à True, itérer sur les nœuds renvoyés par get_ready() pour les traiter. Appeler done() sur chaque nœud une fois le traitement terminé.

Si vous souhaitez simplement trier des nœuds du graphe sans parallélisme, la méthode TopologicalSorter.static_order() peut être utilisée directement :

>>> graph = {"D": {"B", "C"}, "C": {"A"}, "B": {"A"}}
>>> ts = TopologicalSorter(graph)
>>> tuple(ts.static_order())
('A', 'C', 'B', 'D')

La classe est conçue pour prendre facilement en charge le traitement en parallèle des nœuds quand ils deviennent disponibles. Par exemple :

topological_sorter = TopologicalSorter()

# Add nodes to 'topological_sorter'...

topological_sorter.prepare()
while topological_sorter.is_active():
    for node in topological_sorter.get_ready():
        # Worker threads or processes take nodes to work on off the
        # 'task_queue' queue.
        task_queue.put(node)

    # When the work for a node is done, workers put the node in
    # 'finalized_tasks_queue' so we can get more nodes to work on.
    # The definition of 'is_active()' guarantees that, at this point, at
    # least one node has been placed on 'task_queue' that hasn't yet
    # been passed to 'done()', so this blocking 'get()' must (eventually)
    # succeed.  After calling 'done()', we loop back to call 'get_ready()'
    # again, so put newly freed nodes on 'task_queue' as soon as
    # logically possible.
    node = finalized_tasks_queue.get()
    topological_sorter.done(node)

add(node, *predecessors)

Add a new node and its predecessors to the graph. Both the node and all elements in predecessors must be hashable.

S'il est appelé plusieurs fois avec le même nœud en tant qu'argument, l'ensemble des dépendances sera l'union de toutes les dépendances qui auront été transmises.

Il est possible d'ajouter un nœud sans dépendance (predecessors n'est pas fourni) ou de fournir une dépendance deux fois. Si un nœud qui n'a jamais été fourni auparavant est inclus dans predecessors il sera automatiquement ajouté au graphe sans prédécesseur lui-même.

Lève une ValueError si appelée après prepare().

prepare()

Indique que le graphe est terminé et vérifie les circuits du graphe. Si un circuit est détecté, une CycleError est levée mais get_ready() peut encore être utilisée pour obtenir autant de nœuds que possible avant que les circuits ne bloquent la progression. Après un appel de cette fonction, le graphe ne peut pas être modifié, et donc aucun nœud ne peut être ajouté avec add().

A ValueError will be raised if the sort has been started by static_order() or get_ready().

Modifié dans la version 3.14: prepare() can now be called more than once as long as the sort has not started. Previously this raised ValueError.

is_active()

Renvoie True si une progression peut être faite et False dans le cas contraire. La progression est possible si des circuits ne bloquent pas la résolution ou qu'il reste des nœuds prêts qui n'ont pas encore été renvoyés par TopologicalSorter.get_ready() ou que le nombre de nœuds marqués TopologicalSorter.done() est inférieur au nombre qui a été renvoyé par TopologicalSorter.get_ready().

The __bool__() method of this class defers to this function, so instead of:

if ts.is_active():
    ...

il est plus simple de faire :

if ts:
    ...

Lève une ValueError si l'appel à prepare() n'a pas été fait au préalable.

done(*nodes)

Marque un ensemble de nœuds renvoyé par TopologicalSorter.get_ready() comme traités, permettant aux successeurs de chaque nœud de nodes d'être renvoyés lors d'un prochain appel à get_ready().

Lève une ValueError si n'importe quel nœud dans nodes a déjà été marqué comme traité par un précédent appel à cette méthode ou si un nœud n'a pas été ajouté au graphe en utilisant TopologicalSorter.add(), si l'appel est fait sans appel à prepare() ou si le nœud n'a pas encore été renvoyé par get_ready().

get_ready()

Renvoie un n-uplet avec tous les nœuds prêts. Renvoie d'abord tous les nœuds sans prédécesseurs, et une fois marqués comme traités avec un appel de TopologicalSorter.done(), les autres appels renvoient tous les nouveaux nœuds dont tous les prédécesseurs sont traités. Une fois que la progression n'est plus possible, des tuples vides sont renvoyés.

Lève une ValueError si l'appel à prepare() n'a pas été fait au préalable.

static_order()

Returns an iterator object which will iterate over nodes in a topological order. When using this method, prepare() and done() should not be called. This method is equivalent to:

def static_order(self):
    self.prepare()
    while self.is_active():
        node_group = self.get_ready()
        yield from node_group
        self.done(*node_group)

Le tri obtenu peut dépendre de l'ordre dans lequel les éléments ont été ajoutés dans le graphe. Par exemple :

>>> ts = TopologicalSorter()
>>> ts.add(3, 2, 1)
>>> ts.add(1, 0)
>>> print([*ts.static_order()])
[2, 0, 1, 3]

>>> ts2 = TopologicalSorter()
>>> ts2.add(1, 0)
>>> ts2.add(3, 2, 1)
>>> print([*ts2.static_order()])
[0, 2, 1, 3]

Ceci est dû au fait que "0" et "2" sont au même niveau dans le graphe (ils auraient été renvoyés dans le même appel à get_ready()) et l'ordre entre eux est déterminé par l'ordre lors de l'insertion.

Si un circuit est détecté alors une CycleError est levée.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

Exceptions

The graphlib module defines the following exception classes:

exception graphlib.CycleError

Une classe héritant de ValueError levée par TopologicalSorter.prepare() si un circuit existe dans le graphe courant. Si plusieurs circuits existent, un seul est inclus dans l'exception.

The detected cycle can be accessed via the second element in the args attribute of the exception instance and consists in a list of nodes, such that each node is, in the graph, an immediate predecessor of the next node in the list. In the reported list, the first and the last node will be the same, to make it clear that it is cyclic.

Modules numériques et mathématiques

Les modules documentés dans ce chapitre fournissent des fonctions et des types autour des nombres et des mathématiques. Le module numbers définit une hiérarchie abstraite des types numériques. Les modules math et cmath contiennent des fonctions mathématiques pour les nombres à virgule flottante ou les nombres complexes. Le module decimal permet de représenter des nombres décimaux de manière exacte, et utilise une arithmétique de précision arbitraire.

Les modules suivants sont documentés dans ce chapitre :

numbers --- Numeric abstract base classes

La tour numérique

Notes for type implementers

Ajouter plus d'ABC numériques

Implémentation des opérations arithmétiques

math --- Mathematical functions

Number-theoretic functions

Floating point arithmetic

Floating point manipulation functions

Power, exponential and logarithmic functions

Summation and product functions

Conversion angulaire

Fonctions trigonométriques

Fonctions hyperboliques

Fonctions spéciales

Constantes

cmath --- Mathematical functions for complex numbers

Conversion vers et à partir de coordonnées polaires

Fonctions logarithme et exponentielle

Fonctions trigonométriques

Fonctions hyperboliques

Fonctions de classifications

Constantes

decimal --- Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

Quick-start tutorial

Les objets Decimal

Opérandes logiques

Objets de contexte

Constantes

Modes d'arrondi

Signaux

Floating-point notes

Mitigating round-off error with increased precision

Special values

Working with threads

Cas pratiques

FAQ decimal

fractions --- Rational numbers

random — Génère des nombres pseudo-aléatoires

Fonctions de gestion d'état

Fonctions pour les octets

Fonctions pour les entiers

Fonctions pour les séquences

Discrete distributions

Distributions pour les nombres réels

Générateur alternatif

Remarques sur la reproductibilité

Exemples

Cas pratiques

Command-line usage

Command-line example

statistics --- Mathematical statistics functions

Moyennes et mesures de la tendance centrale

Mesures de la dispersion

Statistics for relations between two inputs

Détails des fonctions

Exceptions

Objets NormalDist

Examples and Recipes

Classic probability problems

Monte Carlo inputs for simulations

Approximating binomial distributions

Naive bayesian classifier

numbers --- Numeric abstract base classes

Code source : Lib/numbers.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/numbers.py]

The numbers module (PEP 3141 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3141/]) defines a hierarchy of numeric abstract base classes which progressively define more operations. None of the types defined in this module are intended to be instantiated.

class numbers.Number

La base de la hiérarchie numérique. Si vous voulez juste vérifier qu'un argument x est un nombre, peu importe le type, utilisez isinstance(x, Number).

La tour numérique

class numbers.Complex

Subclasses of this type describe complex numbers and include the operations that work on the built-in complex type. These are: conversions to complex and bool, real, imag, +, -, *, /, **, abs(), conjugate(), ==, and !=. All except - and != are abstract.

real

Abstrait. Récupère la partie réelle de ce nombre.

imag

Abstrait. Retrouve la partie imaginaire de ce nombre.

abstractmethod conjugate()

Abstrait. Renvoie le complexe conjugué. Par exemple, (1+3j).conjugate() == (1-3j).

class numbers.Real

To Complex, Real adds the operations that work on real numbers.

En bref, celles-ci sont : une conversion vers float, math.trunc(), round(), math.floor(), math.ceil(), divmod(), //, %, <, <=, > et >=.

Real fournit également des valeurs par défaut pour complex(), real, imag et conjugate().

class numbers.Rational

Subtypes Real and adds numerator and denominator properties. It also provides a default for float().

The numerator and denominator values should be instances of Integral and should be in lowest terms with denominator positive.

numerator

Abstract. The numerator of this rational number.

denominator

Abstract. The denominator of this rational number.

class numbers.Integral

Subtypes Rational and adds a conversion to int. Provides defaults for float(), numerator, and denominator. Adds abstract methods for pow() with modulus and bit-string operations: <<, >>, &, ^, |, ~.

Notes for type implementers

Implementers should be careful to make equal numbers equal and hash them to the same values. This may be subtle if there are two different extensions of the real numbers. For example, fractions.Fraction implements hash() as follows:

def __hash__(self):
    if self.denominator == 1:
        # Get integers right.
        return hash(self.numerator)
    # Expensive check, but definitely correct.
    if self == float(self):
        return hash(float(self))
    else:
        # Use tuple's hash to avoid a high collision rate on
        # simple fractions.
        return hash((self.numerator, self.denominator))

Ajouter plus d'ABC numériques

Il est bien entendu possible de créer davantage d’ABC pour les nombres et cette hiérarchie serait médiocre si elle excluait la possibilité d'en ajouter. Vous pouvez ajouter MyFoo entre Complex et Real ainsi :

class MyFoo(Complex): ...
MyFoo.register(Real)

Implémentation des opérations arithmétiques

We want to implement the arithmetic operations so that mixed-mode operations either call an implementation whose author knew about the types of both arguments, or convert both to the nearest built in type and do the operation there. For subtypes of Integral, this means that __add__() and __radd__() should be defined as:

class MyIntegral(Integral):

    def __add__(self, other):
        if isinstance(other, MyIntegral):
            return do_my_adding_stuff(self, other)
        elif isinstance(other, OtherTypeIKnowAbout):
            return do_my_other_adding_stuff(self, other)
        else:
            return NotImplemented

    def __radd__(self, other):
        if isinstance(other, MyIntegral):
            return do_my_adding_stuff(other, self)
        elif isinstance(other, OtherTypeIKnowAbout):
            return do_my_other_adding_stuff(other, self)
        elif isinstance(other, Integral):
            return int(other) + int(self)
        elif isinstance(other, Real):
            return float(other) + float(self)
        elif isinstance(other, Complex):
            return complex(other) + complex(self)
        else:
            return NotImplemented

Il existe 5 cas différents pour une opération de type mixte sur des sous-classes de Complex. Nous nous référerons à tout le code ci-dessus qui ne se réfère pas à MyIntegral et OtherTypeIKnowAbout comme "expression générique". a est une instance de A, qui est un sous-type de Complex (a : A <: Complex) et b : B <: Complex. Considérons a + b :

If A defines an __add__() which accepts b, all is well.

If A falls back to the boilerplate code, and it were to return a value from __add__(), we'd miss the possibility that B defines a more intelligent __radd__(), so the boilerplate should return NotImplemented from __add__(). (Or A may not implement __add__() at all.)

Then B's __radd__() gets a chance. If it accepts a, all is well.

Si elle fait appel au code générique, il n'y a plus de méthode possible à essayer, c'est donc ici que l'implémentation par défaut intervient.

Si B < : A, Python essaie B.__radd__ avant A.__add__. C'est valable parce qu'elle est implémentée avec la connaissance de A, donc elle peut gérer ces instances avant de déléguer à Complex.

If A <: Complex and B <: Real without sharing any other knowledge, then the appropriate shared operation is the one involving the built in complex, and both __radd__() s land there, so a+b == b+a.

Comme la plupart des opérations sur un type donné seront très similaires, il peut être utile de définir une fonction accessoire qui génère les instances résultantes et inverses d'un opérateur donné. Par exemple, fractions.Fraction utilise :

def _operator_fallbacks(monomorphic_operator, fallback_operator):
    def forward(a, b):
        if isinstance(b, (int, Fraction)):
            return monomorphic_operator(a, b)
        elif isinstance(b, float):
            return fallback_operator(float(a), b)
        elif isinstance(b, complex):
            return fallback_operator(complex(a), b)
        else:
            return NotImplemented
    forward.__name__ = '__' + fallback_operator.__name__ + '__'
    forward.__doc__ = monomorphic_operator.__doc__

    def reverse(b, a):
        if isinstance(a, Rational):
            # Includes ints.
            return monomorphic_operator(a, b)
        elif isinstance(a, Real):
            return fallback_operator(float(a), float(b))
        elif isinstance(a, Complex):
            return fallback_operator(complex(a), complex(b))
        else:
            return NotImplemented
    reverse.__name__ = '__r' + fallback_operator.__name__ + '__'
    reverse.__doc__ = monomorphic_operator.__doc__

    return forward, reverse

def _add(a, b):
    """a + b"""
    return Fraction(a.numerator * b.denominator +
                    b.numerator * a.denominator,
                    a.denominator * b.denominator)

__add__, __radd__ = _operator_fallbacks(_add, operator.add)

# ...

math --- Mathematical functions

This module provides access to common mathematical functions and constants, including those defined by the C standard.

Ces fonctions ne peuvent pas être utilisées avec les nombres complexes ; si vous avez besoin de la prise en charge des nombres complexes, utilisez les fonctions du même nom du module cmath. La séparation entre les fonctions qui gèrent les nombres complexes et les autres vient du constat que tous les utilisateurs ne souhaitent pas acquérir le niveau mathématique nécessaire à la compréhension des nombres complexes. Recevoir une exception plutôt qu'un nombre complexe en retour d'une fonction permet au programmeur de déterminer immédiatement comment et pourquoi ce nombre a été généré, avant que celui-ci ne soit passé involontairement en paramètre d'une autre fonction.

Les fonctions suivantes sont fournies dans ce module. Sauf mention contraire explicite, toutes les valeurs de retour sont des flottants.

Number-theoretic functions

comb(n, k)

Number of ways to choose k items from n items without repetition and without order

factorial(n)

n factorial

gcd(*integers)

Greatest common divisor of the integer arguments

isqrt(n)

Integer square root of a nonnegative integer n

lcm(*integers)

Least common multiple of the integer arguments

perm(n, k)

Number of ways to choose k items from n items without repetition and with order

Floating point arithmetic

ceil(x)

Ceiling of x, the smallest integer greater than or equal to x

fabs(x)

Absolute value of x

floor(x)

Floor of x, the largest integer less than or equal to x

fma(x, y, z)

Fused multiply-add operation: (x * y) + z

fmod(x, y)

Remainder of division x / y

modf(x)

Fractional and integer parts of x

remainder(x, y)

Remainder of x with respect to y

trunc(x)

Integer part of x

Floating point manipulation functions

copysign(x, y)

Magnitude (absolute value) of x with the sign of y

frexp(x)

Mantissa and exponent of x

isclose(a, b, rel_tol, abs_tol)

Check if the values a and b are close to each other

isfinite(x)

Check if x is neither an infinity nor a NaN

isinf(x)

Check if x is a positive or negative infinity

isnan(x)

Check if x is a NaN (not a number)

ldexp(x, i)

x * (2**i), inverse of function frexp()

nextafter(x, y, steps)

Floating-point value steps steps after x towards y

ulp(x)

Value of the least significant bit of x

Power, exponential and logarithmic functions

cbrt(x)

Cube root of x

exp(x)

e raised to the power x

exp2(x)

2 raised to the power x

expm1(x)

e raised to the power x, minus 1

log(x, base)

Logarithm of x to the given base (e by default)

log1p(x)

Natural logarithm of 1+x (base e)

log2(x)

Base-2 logarithm of x

log10(x)

Base-10 logarithm of x

pow(x, y)

x raised to the power y

sqrt(x)

Square root of x

Summation and product functions

dist(p, q)

Euclidean distance between two points p and q given as an iterable of coordinates

fsum(iterable)

Sum of values in the input iterable

hypot(*coordinates)

Euclidean norm of an iterable of coordinates

prod(iterable, start)

Product of elements in the input iterable with a start value

sumprod(p, q)

Sum of products from two iterables p and q

Angular conversion

degrees(x)

Convert angle x from radians to degrees

radians(x)

Convert angle x from degrees to radians

Trigonometric functions

acos(x)

Arc cosine of x

asin(x)

Arc sine of x

atan(x)

Arc tangent of x

atan2(y, x)

atan(y / x)

cos(x)

Cosine of x

sin(x)

Sine of x

tan(x)

Tangent of x

Hyperbolic functions

acosh(x)

Inverse hyperbolic cosine of x

asinh(x)

Inverse hyperbolic sine of x

atanh(x)

Inverse hyperbolic tangent of x

cosh(x)

Hyperbolic cosine of x

sinh(x)

Hyperbolic sine of x

tanh(x)

Hyperbolic tangent of x

Special functions

erf(x)

Error function [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_function] at x

erfc(x)

Complementary error function [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_function] at x

gamma(x)

Gamma function [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_function] at x

lgamma(x)

Natural logarithm of the absolute value of the Gamma function [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_function] at x

Constants

pi

π = 3.141592...

e

e = 2.718281...

tau

τ = 2π = 6.283185...

inf

Positive infinity

nan

"Not a number" (NaN)

Number-theoretic functions

math.comb(n, k)

Renvoie le nombre de façons de choisir k éléments parmi n de manière non-ordonnée et sans répétition.

Vaut n! / (k! * (n - k)!) quand k <= n et zéro quand k > n.

Also called the binomial coefficient because it is equivalent to the coefficient of k-th term in polynomial expansion of (1 + x)ⁿ.

Lève une TypeError si un des paramètres n'est pas un entier. Lève une ValueError si un des paramètres est négatif.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

math.factorial(n)

Return factorial of the nonnegative integer n.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Floats with integral values (like 5.0) are no longer accepted.

math.gcd(*integers)

Return the greatest common divisor of the specified integer arguments. If any of the arguments is nonzero, then the returned value is the largest positive integer that is a divisor of all arguments. If all arguments are zero, then the returned value is 0. gcd() without arguments returns 0.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Added support for an arbitrary number of arguments. Formerly, only two arguments were supported.

math.isqrt(n)

Renvoie la racine carrée entière du nombre positif n. C'est la partie entière de la valeur exacte de la racine carrée de n ou, de manière équivalente, le plus grand entier a tel que a*² ≤ n.

Pour certaines applications, il est plus pratique d'avoir le plus petit entier a tel que n ≤ a² ou, en d'autres termes, la partie entière de la valeur exacte de la racine carrée de n. Pour n positif, on peut le calculer avec a = 1 + isqrt(n - 1).

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

math.lcm(*integers)

Return the least common multiple of the specified integer arguments. If all arguments are nonzero, then the returned value is the smallest positive integer that is a multiple of all arguments. If any of the arguments is zero, then the returned value is 0. lcm() without arguments returns 1.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

math.perm(n, k=None)

Renvoie le nombre de façons de choisir k éléments parmi n de manière ordonnée sans répétition.

Vaut n! / (n - k)! quand k <= n et vaut zéro quand k > n.

If k is not specified or is None, then k defaults to n and the function returns n!.

Lève une TypeError si un des paramètres n'est pas un entier. Lève une ValueError si un des paramètres est négatif.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

Floating point arithmetic

math.ceil(x)

Return the ceiling of x, the smallest integer greater than or equal to x. If x is not a float, delegates to x.__ceil__, which should return an Integral value.

math.fabs(x)

Renvoie la valeur absolue de x.

math.floor(x)

Return the floor of x, the largest integer less than or equal to x. If x is not a float, delegates to x.__floor__, which should return an Integral value.

math.fma(x, y, z)

Fused multiply-add operation. Return (x * y) + z, computed as though with infinite precision and range followed by a single round to the float format. This operation often provides better accuracy than the direct expression (x * y) + z.

This function follows the specification of the fusedMultiplyAdd operation described in the IEEE 754 standard. The standard leaves one case implementation-defined, namely the result of fma(0, inf, nan) and fma(inf, 0, nan). In these cases, math.fma returns a NaN, and does not raise any exception.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

math.fmod(x, y)

Return the floating-point remainder of x / y, as defined by the platform C library function fmod(x, y). Note that the Python expression x % y may not return the same result. The intent of the C standard is that fmod(x, y) be exactly (mathematically; to infinite precision) equal to x - n*y for some integer n such that the result has the same sign as x and magnitude less than abs(y). Python's x % y returns a result with the sign of y instead, and may not be exactly computable for float arguments. For example, fmod(-1e-100, 1e100) is -1e-100, but the result of Python's -1e-100 % 1e100 is 1e100-1e-100, which cannot be represented exactly as a float, and rounds to the surprising 1e100. For this reason, function fmod() is generally preferred when working with floats, while Python's x % y is preferred when working with integers.

math.modf(x)

Renvoie les parties entière et fractionnelle de x. Les deux résultats ont le signe de x et sont flottants.

Note that modf() has a different call/return pattern than its C equivalents: it takes a single argument and return a pair of values, rather than returning its second return value through an 'output parameter' (there is no such thing in Python).

math.remainder(x, y)

Renvoie le reste selon la norme IEEE 754 de x par rapport à y. Pour x fini et y fini non nul, il s'agit de la différence x - n*y, où n est l'entier le plus proche de la valeur exacte du quotient x / y. Si x / y est exactement à mi-chemin de deux entiers consécutifs, le plus proche entier pair est utilisé pour n. Ainsi, le reste r = remainder(x, y) vérifie toujours abs(r) <= 0.5 * abs(y).

Les cas spéciaux suivent la norme IEEE 754 : en particulier, remainder(x, math.inf) vaut x pour tout x fini, et remainder(x, 0) et remainder(math.inf, x) lèvent ValueError pour tout x non-NaN. Si le résultat de l'opération remainder est zéro, alors ce zéro aura le même signe que x.

On platforms using IEEE 754 binary floating point, the result of this operation is always exactly representable: no rounding error is introduced.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

math.trunc(x)

Return x with the fractional part removed, leaving the integer part. This rounds toward 0: trunc() is equivalent to floor() for positive x, and equivalent to ceil() for negative x. If x is not a float, delegates to x.__trunc__, which should return an Integral value.

Pour les fonctions ceil(), floor(), et modf(), notez que tous les nombres flottants de magnitude suffisamment grande sont des entiers exacts. Les flottants de Python n'ont généralement pas plus de 53 bits de précision (tels que le type C double de la plate-forme), en quel cas tout flottant x tel que abs(x) >= 2**52 n'a aucun bit fractionnel.

Floating point manipulation functions

math.copysign(x, y)

Renvoie un flottant contenant la magnitude (valeur absolue) de x mais avec le signe de y. Sur les plates-formes prenant en charge les zéros signés, copysign(1.0, -0.0) renvoie -1.0.

math.frexp(x)

Renvoie la mantisse et l'exposant de x dans un couple (m, e). m est un flottant et e est un entier tels que x == m * 2**e exactement. Si x vaut zéro, renvoie (0, 0), sinon 0.5 <= abs(m) < 1. Ceci est utilisé pour « extraire » la représentation interne d'un flottant de manière portable.

Note that frexp() has a different call/return pattern than its C equivalents: it takes a single argument and return a pair of values, rather than returning its second return value through an 'output parameter' (there is no such thing in Python).

math.isclose(a, b, *, rel_tol=1e-09, abs_tol=0.0)

Renvoie True si les valeurs a et b sont proches l'une de l'autre, et False sinon.

Whether or not two values are considered close is determined according to given absolute and relative tolerances. If no errors occur, the result will be: abs(a-b) <= max(rel_tol * max(abs(a), abs(b)), abs_tol).

rel_tol is the relative tolerance -- it is the maximum allowed difference between a and b, relative to the larger absolute value of a or b. For example, to set a tolerance of 5%, pass rel_tol=0.05. The default tolerance is 1e-09, which assures that the two values are the same within about 9 decimal digits. rel_tol must be nonnegative and less than 1.0.

abs_tol is the absolute tolerance; it defaults to 0.0 and it must be nonnegative. When comparing x to 0.0, isclose(x, 0) is computed as abs(x) <= rel_tol  * abs(x), which is False for any nonzero x and rel_tol less than 1.0. So add an appropriate positive abs_tol argument to the call.

Les valeurs spécifiques suivantes : NaN, inf, et -inf définies dans la norme IEEE 754 seront manipulées selon les règles du standard IEEE. En particulier, NaN n'est considéré proche d'aucune autre valeur, NaN inclus. inf et -inf ne sont considérées proches que d'elles-mêmes.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Voir aussi

PEP 485 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0485/] — Une fonction pour tester des quasi-égalités

math.isfinite(x)

Renvoie True si n n'est ni infini, ni NaN, et False sinon. (Notez que 0.0 est considéré comme fini.)

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

math.isinf(x)

Renvoie True si x vaut l'infini positif ou négatif, et False sinon.

math.isnan(x)

Renvoie True si x est NaN (Not a Number, ou Pas un Nombre en français), et False sinon.

math.ldexp(x, i)

Renvoie x * (2**i). C'est essentiellement l'inverse de la fonction frexp().

math.nextafter(x, y, steps=1)

Return the floating-point value steps steps after x towards y.

If x is equal to y, return y, unless steps is zero.

Exemples :

math.nextafter(x, math.inf) augmente de valeur : vers l'infini positif.

math.nextafter(x, -math.inf) baisse de valeur : vers l'infini négatif.

math.nextafter(x, 0.0) augmente ou baisse de valeur, vers zéro.

math.nextafter(x, math.copysign(math.inf, x)) augmente ou baisse de valeur, en s'éloignant de zéro.

Voir aussi : math.ulp().

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added the steps argument.

math.ulp(x)

Return the value of the least significant bit of the float x:

If x is a NaN (not a number), return x.

If x is negative, return ulp(-x).

If x is a positive infinity, return x.

If x is equal to zero, return the smallest positive denormalized representable float (smaller than the minimum positive normalized float, sys.float_info.min).

If x is equal to the largest positive representable float, return the value of the least significant bit of x, such that the first float smaller than x is x - ulp(x).

Otherwise (x is a positive finite number), return the value of the least significant bit of x, such that the first float bigger than x is x + ulp(x).

ULP stands for "Unit in the Last Place".

See also math.nextafter() and sys.float_info.epsilon.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

Power, exponential and logarithmic functions

math.cbrt(x)

Return the cube root of x.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

math.exp(x)

Renvoie e à la puissance x, où e = 2.718281… est la base des logarithmes naturels. Cela est en général plus précis que math.e ** x ou pow(math.e, x).

math.exp2(x)

Return 2 raised to the power x.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

math.expm1(x)

Return e raised to the power x, minus 1. Here e is the base of natural logarithms. For small floats x, the subtraction in exp(x) - 1 can result in a significant loss of precision [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loss_of_significance]; the expm1() function provides a way to compute this quantity to full precision:

>>> from math import exp, expm1
>>> exp(1e-5) - 1  # gives result accurate to 11 places
1.0000050000069649e-05
>>> expm1(1e-5)    # result accurate to full precision
1.0000050000166668e-05

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

math.log(x[, base])

Avec un argument, renvoie le logarithme naturel de x (en base e).

Avec deux arguments, renvoie le logarithme de x en la base donnée, calculé par log(x)/log(base).

math.log1p(x)

Renvoie le logarithme naturel de 1+x (en base e). Le résultat est calculé par un moyen qui reste exact pour x proche de zéro.

math.log2(x)

Renvoie le logarithme en base 2 de x. C'est en général plus précis que log(x, 2).

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Voir aussi

int.bit_length() renvoie le nombre de bits nécessaires pour représenter un entier en binaire, en excluant le signe et les zéros de début.

math.log10(x)

Renvoie le logarithme de x en base 10. C'est habituellement plus exact que log(x, 10).

math.pow(x, y)

Return x raised to the power y. Exceptional cases follow the IEEE 754 standard as far as possible. In particular, pow(1.0, x) and pow(x, 0.0) always return 1.0, even when x is a zero or a NaN. If both x and y are finite, x is negative, and y is not an integer then pow(x, y) is undefined, and raises ValueError.

À l'inverse de l'opérateur interne **, la fonction math.pow() convertit ses deux arguments en float. Utilisez ** ou la primitive pow() pour calculer des puissances exactes d'entiers.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: The special cases pow(0.0, -inf) and pow(-0.0, -inf) were changed to return inf instead of raising ValueError, for consistency with IEEE 754.

math.sqrt(x)

Renvoie la racine carrée de x.

Summation and product functions

math.dist(p, q)

Renvoie la distance Euclienne entre deux points p et q, passés comme des séquences (ou des itérables) de coordonnées. Les deux points doivent avoir la même dimension.

À peu près équivalent à :

sqrt(sum((px - qx) ** 2.0 for px, qx in zip(p, q)))

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

math.fsum(iterable)

Return an accurate floating-point sum of values in the iterable. Avoids loss of precision by tracking multiple intermediate partial sums.

La précision de cet algorithme dépend des garanties arithmétiques de IEEE-754 et des cas standards où le mode d'arrondi est half-even. Sur certaines versions non Windows, la bibliothèque C sous-jacente utilise une addition par précision étendue et peut occasionnellement effectuer un double-arrondi sur une somme intermédiaire causant la prise d'une mauvaise valeur du bit de poids faible.

For further discussion and two alternative approaches, see the ASPN cookbook recipes for accurate floating-point summation [https://code.activestate.com/recipes/393090-binary-floating-point-summation-accurate-to-full-p/].

math.hypot(*coordinates)

Renvoie la norme Euclidienne, sqrt(sum(x**2 for x in coordinates)). C'est la norme du vecteur entre l'origine et le point donné par les coordonnées.

Pour un point bi-dimensionnel (x, y), c'est équivalent à calculer la valeur de l’hypoténuse d'un triangle rectangle en utilisant le théorème de Pythagore, sqrt(x*x + y*y).

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Ajout de la gestion des points à n-dimensions. Auparavant seuls les points bi-dimensionnels étaient gérés.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Improved the algorithm's accuracy so that the maximum error is under 1 ulp (unit in the last place). More typically, the result is almost always correctly rounded to within 1/2 ulp.

math.prod(iterable, *, start=1)

Calcule le produit de tous les éléments passés dans l'entrée iterable. La valeur de départ par défaut du produit vaut 1.

Quand l'itérable est vide, renvoie la valeur de départ. Cette fonction ne doit être utilisée qu'avec des valeurs numériques et peut rejeter les types non-numériques.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

math.sumprod(p, q)

Return the sum of products of values from two iterables p and q.

Raises ValueError if the inputs do not have the same length.

À peu près équivalent à :

sum(map(operator.mul, p, q, strict=True))

For float and mixed int/float inputs, the intermediate products and sums are computed with extended precision.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Conversion angulaire

math.degrees(x)

Convertit l'angle x de radians en degrés.

math.radians(x)

Convertit l'ange x de degrés en radians.

Fonctions trigonométriques

math.acos(x)

Return the arc cosine of x, in radians. The result is between 0 and pi.

math.asin(x)

Return the arc sine of x, in radians. The result is between -pi/2 and pi/2.

math.atan(x)

Return the arc tangent of x, in radians. The result is between -pi/2 and pi/2.

math.atan2(y, x)

Renvoie atan(y / x), en radians. Le résultat est entre -pi et pi. Le vecteur du plan allant de l'origine vers le point (x, y) forme cet angle avec l'axe X positif. L'intérêt de atan2() est que le signe des deux entrées est connu. Donc elle peut calculer le bon quadrant pour l'angle. par exemple atan(1) et atan2(1, 1) donnent tous deux pi/4, mais atan2(-1, -1) donne -3*pi/4.

math.cos(x)

Renvoie le cosinus de x radians.

math.sin(x)

Renvoie le sinus de x radians.

math.tan(x)

Renvoie la tangente de x radians.

Fonctions hyperboliques

Hyperbolic functions [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperbolic_functions] are analogs of trigonometric functions that are based on hyperbolas instead of circles.

math.acosh(x)

Renvoie l'arc cosinus hyperbolique de x.

math.asinh(x)

Renvoie l'arc sinus hyperbolique de x.

math.atanh(x)

Renvoie l'arc tangente hyperbolique de x.

math.cosh(x)

Renvoie le cosinus hyperbolique de x.

math.sinh(x)

Renvoie le sinus hyperbolique de x.

math.tanh(x)

Renvoie la tangente hyperbolique de x.

Fonctions spéciales

math.erf(x)

Renvoie la fonction d'erreur [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_function] en x.

The erf() function can be used to compute traditional statistical functions such as the cumulative standard normal distribution [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumulative_distribution_function]:

def phi(x):
    'Cumulative distribution function for the standard normal distribution'
    return (1.0 + erf(x / sqrt(2.0))) / 2.0

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

math.erfc(x)

Renvoie la fonction d'erreur complémentaire en x. La fonction d'erreur complémentaire [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonction_d'erreur] est définie par 1.0 - erf(x). Elle est utilisée pour les grandes valeurs de x, où la soustraction en partant de 1,0 entraînerait une perte de précision [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loss_of_significance].

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

math.gamma(x)

Renvoie la fonction Gamma [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonction_gamma] en x.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

math.lgamma(x)

Renvoie le logarithme naturel de la valeur absolue de la fonction gamma en x.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Constantes

math.pi

La constante mathématique π = 3.141592…, à la précision disponible.

math.e

La constante mathématique e = 2.718281…, à la précision disponible.

math.tau

The mathematical constant τ = 6.283185..., to available precision. Tau is a circle constant equal to 2π, the ratio of a circle's circumference to its radius. To learn more about Tau, check out Vi Hart's video Pi is (still) Wrong [https://vimeo.com/147792667], and start celebrating Tau day [https://tauday.com/] by eating twice as much pie!

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

math.inf

Un flottant positif infini. (Pour un infini négatif, utilisez -math.inf.) Équivalent au résultat de float('inf').

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

math.nan

A floating-point "not a number" (NaN) value. Equivalent to the output of float('nan'). Due to the requirements of the IEEE-754 standard [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754], math.nan and float('nan') are not considered to equal to any other numeric value, including themselves. To check whether a number is a NaN, use the isnan() function to test for NaNs instead of is or ==. Example:

>>> import math
>>> math.nan == math.nan
False
>>> float('nan') == float('nan')
False
>>> math.isnan(math.nan)
True
>>> math.isnan(float('nan'))
True

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: It is now always available.

Particularité de l'implémentation CPython : The math module consists mostly of thin wrappers around the platform C math library functions. Behavior in exceptional cases follows Annex F of the C99 standard where appropriate. The current implementation will raise ValueError for invalid operations like sqrt(-1.0) or log(0.0) (where C99 Annex F recommends signaling invalid operation or divide-by-zero), and OverflowError for results that overflow (for example, exp(1000.0)). A NaN will not be returned from any of the functions above unless one or more of the input arguments was a NaN; in that case, most functions will return a NaN, but (again following C99 Annex F) there are some exceptions to this rule, for example pow(float('nan'), 0.0) or hypot(float('nan'), float('inf')).

Notez que Python ne fait aucun effort pour distinguer les NaNs signalétiques des NaNs silencieux, et le comportement de signalement des NaNs reste non-spécifié. Le comportement standard est de traiter tous les NaNs comme s'ils étaient silencieux.

Voir aussi

Module cmath

Version complexe de beaucoup de ces fonctions.

cmath --- Mathematical functions for complex numbers

This module provides access to mathematical functions for complex numbers. The functions in this module accept integers, floating-point numbers or complex numbers as arguments. They will also accept any Python object that has either a __complex__() or a __float__() method: these methods are used to convert the object to a complex or floating-point number, respectively, and the function is then applied to the result of the conversion.

Note

For functions involving branch cuts, we have the problem of deciding how to define those functions on the cut itself. Following Kahan's "Branch cuts for complex elementary functions" paper, as well as Annex G of C99 and later C standards, we use the sign of zero to distinguish one side of the branch cut from the other: for a branch cut along (a portion of) the real axis we look at the sign of the imaginary part, while for a branch cut along the imaginary axis we look at the sign of the real part.

For example, the cmath.sqrt() function has a branch cut along the negative real axis. An argument of -2-0j is treated as though it lies below the branch cut, and so gives a result on the negative imaginary axis:

>>> cmath.sqrt(-2-0j)
-1.4142135623730951j

But an argument of -2+0j is treated as though it lies above the branch cut:

>>> cmath.sqrt(-2+0j)
1.4142135623730951j

Conversions to and from polar coordinates

phase(z)

Return the phase of z

polar(z)

Return the representation of z in polar coordinates

rect(r, phi)

Return the complex number z with polar coordinates r and phi

Power and logarithmic functions

exp(z)

Return e raised to the power z

log(z[, base])

Return the logarithm of z to the given base (e by default)

log10(z)

Return the base-10 logarithm of z

sqrt(z)

Return the square root of z

Trigonometric functions

acos(z)

Return the arc cosine of z

asin(z)

Return the arc sine of z

atan(z)

Return the arc tangent of z

cos(z)

Return the cosine of z

sin(z)

Return the sine of z

tan(z)

Return the tangent of z

Hyperbolic functions

acosh(z)

Return the inverse hyperbolic cosine of z

asinh(z)

Return the inverse hyperbolic sine of z

atanh(z)

Return the inverse hyperbolic tangent of z

cosh(z)

Return the hyperbolic cosine of z

sinh(z)

Return the hyperbolic sine of z

tanh(z)

Return the hyperbolic tangent of z

Classification functions

isfinite(z)

Check if all components of z are finite

isinf(z)

Check if any component of z is infinite

isnan(z)

Check if any component of z is a NaN

isclose(a, b, *, rel_tol, abs_tol)

Check if the values a and b are close to each other

Constants

pi

π = 3.141592...

e

e = 2.718281...

tau

τ = 2π = 6.283185...

inf

Positive infinity

infj

Pure imaginary infinity

nan

"Not a number" (NaN)

nanj

Pure imaginary NaN

Conversion vers et à partir de coordonnées polaires

A Python complex number z is stored internally using rectangular or Cartesian coordinates. It is completely determined by its real part z.real and its imaginary part z.imag.

Les coordonnées polaires donnent une manière alternative de représenter un nombre complexe. En coordonnées polaires, un nombre complexe z est défini par son module r et par son argument (angle de phase) phi. Le module r est la distance entre z et l'origine, alors que l'argument phi est l'angle (dans le sens inverse des aiguilles d'une montre, ou sens trigonométrique), mesuré en radians, à partir de l'axe X positif, et vers le segment de droite joignant z à l'origine.

Les fonctions suivantes peuvent être utilisées pour convertir à partir des coordonnées rectangulaires natives vers les coordonnées polaires, et vice-versa.

cmath.phase(z)

Return the phase of z (also known as the argument of z), as a float. phase(z) is equivalent to math.atan2(z.imag, z.real). The result lies in the range [-π, π], and the branch cut for this operation lies along the negative real axis. The sign of the result is the same as the sign of z.imag, even when z.imag is zero:

>>> phase(-1+0j)
3.141592653589793
>>> phase(-1-0j)
-3.141592653589793

Note

The modulus (absolute value) of a complex number z can be computed using the built-in abs() function. There is no separate cmath module function for this operation.

cmath.polar(z)

Return the representation of z in polar coordinates. Returns a pair (r, phi) where r is the modulus of z and phi is the phase of z. polar(z) is equivalent to (abs(z), phase(z)).

cmath.rect(r, phi)

Return the complex number z with polar coordinates r and phi. Equivalent to complex(r * math.cos(phi), r * math.sin(phi)).

Fonctions logarithme et exponentielle

cmath.exp(z)

Return e raised to the power z, where e is the base of natural logarithms.

cmath.log(z[, base])

Return the logarithm of z to the given base. If the base is not specified, returns the natural logarithm of z. There is one branch cut, from 0 along the negative real axis to -∞.

cmath.log10(z)

Return the base-10 logarithm of z. This has the same branch cut as log().

cmath.sqrt(z)

Return the square root of z. This has the same branch cut as log().

Fonctions trigonométriques

cmath.acos(z)

Return the arc cosine of z. There are two branch cuts: One extends right from 1 along the real axis to ∞. The other extends left from -1 along the real axis to -∞.

cmath.asin(z)

Return the arc sine of z. This has the same branch cuts as acos().

cmath.atan(z)

Return the arc tangent of z. There are two branch cuts: One extends from 1j along the imaginary axis to ∞j. The other extends from -1j along the imaginary axis to -∞j.

cmath.cos(z)

Return the cosine of z.

cmath.sin(z)

Return the sine of z.

cmath.tan(z)

Return the tangent of z.

Fonctions hyperboliques

cmath.acosh(z)

Return the inverse hyperbolic cosine of z. There is one branch cut, extending left from 1 along the real axis to -∞.

cmath.asinh(z)

Return the inverse hyperbolic sine of z. There are two branch cuts: One extends from 1j along the imaginary axis to ∞j. The other extends from -1j along the imaginary axis to -∞j.

cmath.atanh(z)

Return the inverse hyperbolic tangent of z. There are two branch cuts: One extends from 1 along the real axis to ∞. The other extends from -1 along the real axis to -∞.

cmath.cosh(z)

Return the hyperbolic cosine of z.

cmath.sinh(z)

Return the hyperbolic sine of z.

cmath.tanh(z)

Return the hyperbolic tangent of z.

Fonctions de classifications

cmath.isfinite(z)

Return True if both the real and imaginary parts of z are finite, and False otherwise.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

cmath.isinf(z)

Return True if either the real or the imaginary part of z is an infinity, and False otherwise.

cmath.isnan(z)

Return True if either the real or the imaginary part of z is a NaN, and False otherwise.

cmath.isclose(a, b, *, rel_tol=1e-09, abs_tol=0.0)

Renvoie True si les valeurs a et b sont proches l'une de l'autre, et False sinon.

Whether or not two values are considered close is determined according to given absolute and relative tolerances. If no errors occur, the result will be: abs(a-b) <= max(rel_tol * max(abs(a), abs(b)), abs_tol).

rel_tol is the relative tolerance -- it is the maximum allowed difference between a and b, relative to the larger absolute value of a or b. For example, to set a tolerance of 5%, pass rel_tol=0.05. The default tolerance is 1e-09, which assures that the two values are the same within about 9 decimal digits. rel_tol must be nonnegative and less than 1.0.

abs_tol is the absolute tolerance; it defaults to 0.0 and it must be nonnegative. When comparing x to 0.0, isclose(x, 0) is computed as abs(x) <= rel_tol  * abs(x), which is False for any x and rel_tol less than 1.0. So add an appropriate positive abs_tol argument to the call.

Les valeurs spécifiques suivantes : NaN, inf, et -inf définies dans la norme IEEE 754 seront manipulées selon les règles du standard IEEE. En particulier, NaN n'est considéré proche d'aucune autre valeur, NaN inclus. inf et -inf ne sont considérés proches que d'eux-mêmes.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Voir aussi

PEP 485 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0485/] -- Une fonction pour tester des égalités approximées

Constantes

cmath.pi

La constante mathématique π, en tant que flottant.

cmath.e

La constante mathématique e, en tant que flottant.

cmath.tau

La constante mathématique τ, sous forme de flottant.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

cmath.inf

Nombre à virgule flottante positif infini. Équivaut à float('inf').

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

cmath.infj

Nombre complexe dont la partie réelle vaut zéro et la partie imaginaire un infini positif. Équivalent à complex(0.0, float('inf')).

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

cmath.nan

A floating-point "not a number" (NaN) value. Equivalent to float('nan'). See also math.nan.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

cmath.nanj

Nombre complexe dont la partie réelle vaut zéro et la partie imaginaire vaut un NaN. Équivalent à complex(0.0, float('nan')).

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

Note that the selection of functions is similar, but not identical, to that in module math. The reason for having two modules is that some users aren't interested in complex numbers, and perhaps don't even know what they are. They would rather have math.sqrt(-1) raise an exception than return a complex number. Also note that the functions defined in cmath always return a complex number, even if the answer can be expressed as a real number (in which case the complex number has an imaginary part of zero).

Une note sur les coupures : ce sont des courbes sur lesquelles la fonction n'est pas continue. Ce sont des caractéristiques nécessaires de beaucoup de fonctions complexes. Il est supposé que si vous avez besoin d'utiliser des fonctions complexes, vous comprendrez ce que sont les coupures. Consultez n'importe quel livre (pas trop élémentaire) sur les variables complexes pour plus d'informations. Pour des informations sur les choix des coupures à des fins numériques, voici une bonne référence :

Voir aussi

Kahan, W: Branch cuts for complex elementary functions; or, Much ado about nothing's sign bit. In Iserles, A., and Powell, M. (eds.), The state of the art in numerical analysis. Clarendon Press (1987) pp165--211.

decimal --- Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

Code source : Lib/decimal.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/decimal.py]

The decimal module provides support for fast correctly rounded decimal floating-point arithmetic. It offers several advantages over the float datatype:

Decimal "is based on a floating-point model [https://speleotrove.com/decimal/damodel.html#refnumber] which was designed with people in mind, and necessarily has a paramount guiding principle -- computers must provide an arithmetic that works in the same way as the arithmetic that people learn at school." -- excerpt from the decimal arithmetic specification.

Les nombres décimaux peuvent être représentés exactement en base décimale flottante. En revanche, des nombres tels que 1.1 ou 1.2 n'ont pas de représentation exacte en base binaire flottante. L'utilisateur final ne s'attend typiquement pas à obtenir 3.3000000000000003 lorsqu'il saisit 1.1 + 2.2, ce qui se passe en arithmétique binaire à virgule flottante.

Ces inexactitudes ont des conséquences en arithmétique. En base décimale à virgule flottante, 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 - 0.3 est exactement égal à zéro. En virgule flottante binaire, l'ordinateur l'évalue à 5.5511151231257827e-017. Bien que très proche de zéro, cette différence induit des erreurs lors des tests d'égalité, erreurs qui peuvent s'accumuler. Pour ces raisons decimal est le module utilisé pour des applications comptables ayant des contraintes strictes de fiabilité.

Le module decimal incorpore la notion de chiffres significatifs, de façon à ce que 1.30 + 1.20 égale 2.50. Le dernier zéro est conservé pour respecter le nombre de chiffres significatifs. C'est l'affichage préféré pour représenter des sommes d'argent. Pour la multiplication, l'approche « scolaire » utilise tous les chiffres présents dans les facteurs. Par exemple, 1.3 * 1.2 donne 1.56 tandis que 1.30 * 1.20 donne 1.5600.

Contrairement à l'arithmétique en virgule flottante binaire, le module decimal possède un paramètre de précision ajustable (par défaut à 28 chiffres significatifs) qui peut être aussi élevée que nécessaire pour un problème donné :

>>> from decimal import *
>>> getcontext().prec = 6
>>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(7)
Decimal('0.142857')
>>> getcontext().prec = 28
>>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(7)
Decimal('0.1428571428571428571428571429')

L'arithmétique binaire et décimale en virgule flottante sont implémentées selon des standards publiés. Alors que le type float n'expose qu'une faible portion de ses capacités, le module decimal expose tous les composants nécessaires du standard. Lorsque nécessaire, le développeur a un contrôle total de la gestion des signaux et de l'arrondi. Cela inclut la possibilité de forcer une arithmétique exacte en utilisant des exceptions pour bloquer toute opération inexacte.

Le module decimal a été conçu pour gérer « sans préjugé, à la fois une arithmétique décimale non-arrondie (aussi appelée arithmétique en virgule fixe) et à la fois une arithmétique en virgule flottante » (extrait traduit de la spécification de l'arithmétique décimale).

Le module est conçu autour de trois concepts : le nombre décimal, le contexte arithmétique et les signaux.

Un Decimal est immuable. Il a un signe, un coefficient et un exposant. Pour préserver le nombre de chiffres significatifs, les zéros en fin de chaîne ne sont pas tronqués. Les décimaux incluent aussi des valeurs spéciales telles que Infinity, -Infinity et NaN. Le standard fait également la différence entre -0 et +0.

Le contexte de l'arithmétique est un environnement qui permet de configurer une précision, une règle pour l'arrondi, des limites sur l'exposant, des options indiquant le résultat des opérations et si les signaux (remontés lors d'opérations illégales) sont traités comme des exceptions Python. Les options d'arrondi incluent ROUND_CEILING, ROUND_DOWN, ROUND_FLOOR, ROUND_HALF_DOWN, ROUND_HALF_EVEN, ROUND_HALF_UP, ROUND_UP et ROUND_05UP.

Les signaux sont des groupes de conditions exceptionnelles qui surviennent durant le calcul. Selon les besoins de l'application, les signaux peuvent être ignorés, considérés comme de l'information, ou bien traités comme des exceptions. Les signaux dans le module decimal sont : Clamped, InvalidOperation, DivisionByZero, Inexact, Rounded, Subnormal, Overflow, Underflow et FloatOperation.

Chaque signal est configurable indépendamment, à travers un drapeau (ou option) et un activateur de déroutement. Quand une opération illégale survient, le drapeau du signal est mis à 1 puis, si l'activateur est configuré, une exception est levée. La mise à 1 du drapeau est persistante, l'utilisateur doit donc remettre les drapeaux à zéro avant de commencer un calcul qu'il souhaite surveiller.

Voir aussi

Spécification d'IBM sur l'arithmétique décimale : The General Decimal Arithmetic Specification [https://speleotrove.com/decimal/decarith.html] (article en anglais).

Quick-start tutorial

Commençons par importer le module, regarder le contexte actuel avec getcontext() et, si nécessaire, configurer la précision, l'arrondi et la gestion des signaux :

>>> from decimal import *
>>> getcontext()
Context(prec=28, rounding=ROUND_HALF_EVEN, Emin=-999999, Emax=999999,
        capitals=1, clamp=0, flags=[], traps=[Overflow, DivisionByZero,
        InvalidOperation])

>>> getcontext().prec = 7       # Set a new precision

Les instances de Decimal peuvent être construites avec des entiers, des chaînes de caractères, des floats ou des n-uplets. La construction depuis un entier ou un float effectue la conversion exacte de cet entier ou de ce float. Les nombres décimaux incluent des valeurs spéciales telles que NaN qui signifie en anglais « Not a number », en français « pas un nombre », des Infinity positifs ou négatifs et -0 :

>>> getcontext().prec = 28
>>> Decimal(10)
Decimal('10')
>>> Decimal('3.14')
Decimal('3.14')
>>> Decimal(3.14)
Decimal('3.140000000000000124344978758017532527446746826171875')
>>> Decimal((0, (3, 1, 4), -2))
Decimal('3.14')
>>> Decimal(str(2.0 ** 0.5))
Decimal('1.4142135623730951')
>>> Decimal(2) ** Decimal('0.5')
Decimal('1.414213562373095048801688724')
>>> Decimal('NaN')
Decimal('NaN')
>>> Decimal('-Infinity')
Decimal('-Infinity')

Si le signal FloatOperation est activé pour déroutement, un mélange accidentel d'objets Decimal et de float dans les constructeurs ou des opérations de comparaison lève une exception :

>>> c = getcontext()
>>> c.traps[FloatOperation] = True
>>> Decimal(3.14)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
decimal.FloatOperation: [<class 'decimal.FloatOperation'>]
>>> Decimal('3.5') < 3.7
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
decimal.FloatOperation: [<class 'decimal.FloatOperation'>]
>>> Decimal('3.5') == 3.5
True

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Le nombre de chiffres significatifs d'un nouvel objet Decimal est déterminé entièrement par le nombre de chiffres saisis. La précision et les règles d'arrondis n'interviennent que lors d'opérations arithmétiques.

>>> getcontext().prec = 6
>>> Decimal('3.0')
Decimal('3.0')
>>> Decimal('3.1415926535')
Decimal('3.1415926535')
>>> Decimal('3.1415926535') + Decimal('2.7182818285')
Decimal('5.85987')
>>> getcontext().rounding = ROUND_UP
>>> Decimal('3.1415926535') + Decimal('2.7182818285')
Decimal('5.85988')

Si les limites internes de la version en C sont dépassées, la construction d'un objet décimal lève l'exception InvalidOperation :

>>> Decimal("1e9999999999999999999")
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
decimal.InvalidOperation: [<class 'decimal.InvalidOperation'>]

Modifié dans la version 3.3.

Decimals interact well with much of the rest of Python. Here is a small decimal floating-point flying circus:

>>> data = list(map(Decimal, '1.34 1.87 3.45 2.35 1.00 0.03 9.25'.split()))
>>> max(data)
Decimal('9.25')
>>> min(data)
Decimal('0.03')
>>> sorted(data)
[Decimal('0.03'), Decimal('1.00'), Decimal('1.34'), Decimal('1.87'),
 Decimal('2.35'), Decimal('3.45'), Decimal('9.25')]
>>> sum(data)
Decimal('19.29')
>>> a,b,c = data[:3]
>>> str(a)
'1.34'
>>> float(a)
1.34
>>> round(a, 1)
Decimal('1.3')
>>> int(a)
1
>>> a * 5
Decimal('6.70')
>>> a * b
Decimal('2.5058')
>>> c % a
Decimal('0.77')

Decimals can be formatted (with format() built-in or f-strings) in fixed-point or scientific notation, using the same formatting syntax (see Format specification mini-language) as builtin float type:

>>> format(Decimal('2.675'), "f")
'2.675'
>>> format(Decimal('2.675'), ".2f")
'2.68'
>>> f"{Decimal('2.675'):.2f}"
'2.68'
>>> format(Decimal('2.675'), ".2e")
'2.68e+0'
>>> with localcontext() as ctx:
...     ctx.rounding = ROUND_DOWN
...     print(format(Decimal('2.675'), ".2f"))
...
2.67

Et certaines fonctions mathématiques sont également disponibles sur des instances de Decimal :

>>> getcontext().prec = 28
>>> Decimal(2).sqrt()
Decimal('1.414213562373095048801688724')
>>> Decimal(1).exp()
Decimal('2.718281828459045235360287471')
>>> Decimal('10').ln()
Decimal('2.302585092994045684017991455')
>>> Decimal('10').log10()
Decimal('1')

La méthode quantize() arrondit un nombre à un exposant déterminé. Cette méthode est utile pour des applications monétaires qui arrondissent souvent un résultat à un nombre déterminé de chiffres après la virgule :

>>> Decimal('7.325').quantize(Decimal('.01'), rounding=ROUND_DOWN)
Decimal('7.32')
>>> Decimal('7.325').quantize(Decimal('1.'), rounding=ROUND_UP)
Decimal('8')

Comme montré plus haut, la fonction getcontext() accède au contexte actuel et permet de modifier les paramètres. Cette approche répond aux besoins de la plupart des applications.

For more advanced work, it may be useful to create alternate contexts using the Context() constructor. To make an alternate active, use the setcontext() function.

In accordance with the standard, the decimal module provides two ready to use standard contexts, BasicContext and ExtendedContext. The former is especially useful for debugging because many of the traps are enabled:

>>> myothercontext = Context(prec=60, rounding=ROUND_HALF_DOWN)
>>> setcontext(myothercontext)
>>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(7)
Decimal('0.142857142857142857142857142857142857142857142857142857142857')

>>> ExtendedContext
Context(prec=9, rounding=ROUND_HALF_EVEN, Emin=-999999, Emax=999999,
        capitals=1, clamp=0, flags=[], traps=[])
>>> setcontext(ExtendedContext)
>>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(7)
Decimal('0.142857143')
>>> Decimal(42) / Decimal(0)
Decimal('Infinity')

>>> setcontext(BasicContext)
>>> Decimal(42) / Decimal(0)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<pyshell#143>", line 1, in -toplevel-
    Decimal(42) / Decimal(0)
DivisionByZero: x / 0

Les objets Context ont aussi des options pour détecter des opérations illégales lors des calculs. Ces options restent activées jusqu'à ce qu'elles soit remises à zéro de manière explicite. Il convient donc de remettre à zéro ces options avant chaque inspection de chaque calcul, avec la méthode clear_flags().

>>> setcontext(ExtendedContext)
>>> getcontext().clear_flags()
>>> Decimal(355) / Decimal(113)
Decimal('3.14159292')
>>> getcontext()
Context(prec=9, rounding=ROUND_HALF_EVEN, Emin=-999999, Emax=999999,
        capitals=1, clamp=0, flags=[Inexact, Rounded], traps=[])

Les options montrent que l'approximation de π par une fraction a été arrondie (les chiffres au-delà de la précision spécifiée par l'objet Context ont été tronqués) et que le résultat est différent (certains des chiffres tronqués étaient différents de zéro).

L'activation du déroutement se fait en utilisant un dictionnaire dans l'attribut traps du contexte :

>>> setcontext(ExtendedContext)
>>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(0)
Decimal('Infinity')
>>> getcontext().traps[DivisionByZero] = 1
>>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(0)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<pyshell#112>", line 1, in -toplevel-
    Decimal(1) / Decimal(0)
DivisionByZero: x / 0

La plupart des applications n'ajustent l'objet Context qu'une seule fois, au démarrage. Et, dans beaucoup d'applications, les données sont converties une fois pour toutes en Decimal. Une fois le Context initialisé et les objets Decimal créés, la majeure partie du programme manipule les données de la même manière qu'avec d'autres types numériques Python.

Les objets Decimal

class decimal.Decimal(value='0', context=None)

Construit un nouvel objet Decimal à partir de value.

value peut être un entier, une chaîne de caractères, un n-uplet, un float ou une autre instance de Decimal. Si value n'est pas fourni, le constructeur renvoie Decimal('0'). Si value est une chaîne de caractères, elle doit correspondre à la syntaxe décimale en dehors des espaces de début et de fin, ou des tirets bas, qui sont enlevés :

sign           ::=  '+' | '-'
digit          ::=  '0' | '1' | '2' | '3' | '4' | '5' | '6' | '7' | '8' | '9'
indicator      ::=  'e' | 'E'
digits         ::=  digit [digit]...
decimal-part   ::=  digits '.' [digits] | ['.'] digits
exponent-part  ::=  indicator [sign] digits
infinity       ::=  'Infinity' | 'Inf'
nan            ::=  'NaN' [digits] | 'sNaN' [digits]
numeric-value  ::=  decimal-part [exponent-part] | infinity
numeric-string ::=  [sign] numeric-value | [sign] nan

Other Unicode decimal digits are also permitted where digit appears above. These include decimal digits from various other alphabets (for example, Arabic-Indic and Devanāgarī digits) along with the fullwidth digits '\uff10' through '\uff19'. Case is not significant, so, for example, inf, Inf, INFINITY, and iNfINity are all acceptable spellings for positive infinity.

Si value est un n-uplet, il doit avoir trois éléments, le signe (0 pour positif ou 1 pour négatif), un n-uplet de chiffres et un entier représentant l'exposant. Par exemple, Decimal((0, (1, 4, 1, 4), -3)) construit l'objet Decimal('1.414').

If value is a float, the binary floating-point value is losslessly converted to its exact decimal equivalent. This conversion can often require 53 or more digits of precision. For example, Decimal(float('1.1')) converts to Decimal('1.100000000000000088817841970012523233890533447265625').

La précision spécifiée dans le contexte n'affecte pas le nombre de chiffres stockés. Cette valeur est déterminée exclusivement par le nombre de chiffres dans value. Par exemple, Decimal('3.00000') enregistre les 5 zéros même si la précision du contexte est de 3.

L'objectif de l'argument context est de déterminer ce que Python doit faire si value est une chaîne avec un mauvais format. Si le déroutement est activé pour InvalidOperation, une exception est levée, sinon le constructeur renvoie un objet Decimal de valeur NaN.

Une fois construit, un objet Decimal est immuable.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: l'argument du constructeur peut désormais être un objet float.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: un argument float lève une exception si le déroutement est activé pour FloatOperation. Par défaut le déroutement n'est pas activé.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: les tirets bas sont autorisés pour regrouper, tout comme pour l'arithmétique en virgule fixe et flottante.

Decimal floating-point objects share many properties with the other built-in numeric types such as float and int. All of the usual math operations and special methods apply. Likewise, decimal objects can be copied, pickled, printed, used as dictionary keys, used as set elements, compared, sorted, and coerced to another type (such as float or int).

Il existe quelques différences mineures entre l'arithmétique entre les objets décimaux et l'arithmétique avec les entiers et les float. Quand l'opérateur modulo % est appliqué sur des objets décimaux, le signe du résultat est le signe du dividende plutôt que le signe du diviseur :

>>> (-7) % 4
1
>>> Decimal(-7) % Decimal(4)
Decimal('-3')

L'opérateur division entière (//) se comporte de la même manière, renvoyant la partie entière du quotient plutôt que son arrondi, de manière à préserver l'identité d'Euclide x == (x // y) * y + x % y :

>>> -7 // 4
-2
>>> Decimal(-7) // Decimal(4)
Decimal('-1')

Les opérateurs // et % implémentent la division entière et le reste (ou modulo), respectivement, tels que décrits dans la spécification.

Les objets Decimal ne peuvent généralement pas être combinés avec des float ou des objets fractions.Fraction lors d'opérations arithmétiques : toute addition entre un Decimal et un float, par exemple, lève une exception TypeError. Cependant, il est possible d'utiliser les opérateurs de comparaison entre instances de Decimal et les autres types numériques. Cela évite d'avoir des résultats absurdes lors des tests d'égalité entre différents types.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: les comparaisons inter-types entre Decimal et les autres types numériques sont désormais intégralement gérées.

In addition to the standard numeric properties, decimal floating-point objects also have a number of specialized methods:

adjusted()

Renvoie l'exposant ajusté après avoir décalé les chiffres les plus à droite du coefficient jusqu'à ce qu'il ne reste que le premier chiffre : Decimal('321e+5').adjusted() renvoie sept. Utilisée pour déterminer la position du chiffre le plus significatif par rapport à la virgule.

as_integer_ratio()

Renvoie un couple d'entiers (n, d) qui représentent l'instance Decimal donnée sous la forme d'une fraction, avec les termes les plus petits possibles et avec un dénominateur positif :

>>> Decimal('-3.14').as_integer_ratio()
(-157, 50)

La conversion est exacte. Lève une OverflowError sur l'infini et ValueError sur les Nan.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

as_tuple()

Renvoie une représentation sous la forme d'un n-uplet nommé du nombre DecimalTuple(sign, digits, exposant).

canonical()

Renvoie la forme canonique de l'argument. Actuellement, la forme d'une instance Decimal est toujours canonique, donc cette opération renvoie son argument inchangé.

compare(other, context=None)

Compare les valeurs de deux instances Decimal. compare() renvoie une instance Decimal et, si l'un des opérandes est un NaN, alors le résultat est un NaN :

a or b is a NaN  ==> Decimal('NaN')
a < b            ==> Decimal('-1')
a == b           ==> Decimal('0')
a > b            ==> Decimal('1')

compare_signal(other, context=None)

Cette opération est identique à la méthode compare(), sauf que tous les NaN activent un déroutement. Autrement dit, si aucun des opérandes n'est un NaN de signalisation, alors tout opérande NaN silencieux est traité comme s'il s'agissait d'un NaN de signalisation.

compare_total(other, context=None)

Compare deux opérandes en utilisant leur représentation abstraite plutôt que leur valeur numérique. Similaire à la méthode compare(), mais le résultat donne un ordre total sur les instances Decimal. Deux instances de Decimal avec la même valeur numérique mais des représentations différentes se comparent de manière inégale dans cet ordre :

>>> Decimal('12.0').compare_total(Decimal('12'))
Decimal('-1')

Les NaN silencieux et de signalisation sont également inclus dans l'ordre total. Le résultat de cette fonction est Decimal('0') si les deux opérandes ont la même représentation, Decimal('-1') si le premier opérande est inférieur au second, et Decimal('1') si le premier opérande est supérieur au deuxième opérande. Voir les spécifications pour les détails de l'ordre total.

Cette opération ne dépend pas du contexte et est silencieuse : aucun indicateur n'est modifié et aucun arrondi n'est effectué. Exceptionnellement, la version C peut lever une InvalidOperation si le deuxième opérande ne peut pas être converti exactement.

compare_total_mag(other, context=None)

Compare deux opérandes en utilisant leur représentation abstraite plutôt que leur valeur comme dans compare_total(), mais en ignorant le signe de chaque opérande. x.compare_total_mag(y) est équivalent à x.copy_abs().compare_total(y.copy_abs()).

Cette opération ne dépend pas du contexte et est silencieuse : aucun indicateur n'est modifié et aucun arrondi n'est effectué. Exceptionnellement, la version C peut lever une InvalidOperation si le deuxième opérande ne peut pas être converti exactement.

conjugate()

Ne fait que renvoyer self ; cette méthode existe uniquement pour se conformer à la spécification.

copy_abs()

Renvoie la valeur absolue de l'argument. Cette opération ne dépend pas du contexte et est silencieuse : aucun drapeau n'est modifié et aucun arrondi n'est effectué.

copy_negate()

Renvoie la négation de l'argument. Cette opération ne dépend pas du contexte et est silencieuse : aucun drapeau n'est modifié et aucun arrondi n'est effectué.

copy_sign(other, context=None)

Renvoie une copie du premier opérande mais avec le même signe que celui du deuxième opérande. Par exemple :

>>> Decimal('2.3').copy_sign(Decimal('-1.5'))
Decimal('-2.3')

Cette opération ne dépend pas du contexte et est silencieuse : aucun indicateur n'est modifié et aucun arrondi n'est effectué. Exceptionnellement, la version C peut lever une InvalidOperation si le deuxième opérande ne peut pas être converti exactement.

exp(context=None)

Renvoie la valeur e**x (fonction exponentielle) du nombre donné. Le résultat est correctement arrondi en utilisant le mode d'arrondi ROUND_HALF_EVEN.

>>> Decimal(1).exp()
Decimal('2.718281828459045235360287471')
>>> Decimal(321).exp()
Decimal('2.561702493119680037517373933E+139')

classmethod from_float(f, /)

Constructeur alternatif qui n'accepte que les instances de float ou int.

Remarquez que Decimal.from_float(0.1) est différent de Decimal('0.1'). Puisque 0.1 n'est pas exactement représentable en virgule flottante binaire, la valeur est stockée comme la valeur représentable la plus proche qui est 0x1.999999999999ap-4. La valeur équivalente en décimal est 0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625.

Note

depuis Python 3.2, une instance Decimal peut également être construite directement à partir d'un float.

>>> Decimal.from_float(0.1)
Decimal('0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625')
>>> Decimal.from_float(float('nan'))
Decimal('NaN')
>>> Decimal.from_float(float('inf'))
Decimal('Infinity')
>>> Decimal.from_float(float('-inf'))
Decimal('-Infinity')

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

classmethod from_number(number, /)

Alternative constructor that only accepts instances of float, int or Decimal, but not strings or tuples.

>>> Decimal.from_number(314)
Decimal('314')
>>> Decimal.from_number(0.1)
Decimal('0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625')
>>> Decimal.from_number(Decimal('3.14'))
Decimal('3.14')

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

fma(other, third, context=None)

Multiplier-ajouter fusionné. Renvoie self*other+third sans arrondir le produit intermédiaire self*other.

>>> Decimal(2).fma(3, 5)
Decimal('11')

is_canonical()

Renvoie True si l'argument est sous forme canonique et False sinon. Actuellement, une instance Decimal est toujours canonique, donc cette opération renvoie toujours True.

is_finite()

Renvoie True si l'argument est un nombre fini et False si l'argument est un infini ou un NaN.

is_infinite()

Renvoie True si l'argument est un infini positif ou négatif, False sinon.

is_nan()

Renvoie True si l'argument est un NaN (signalétique ou silencieux), False sinon.

is_normal(context=None)

Renvoie True si l'argument est un nombre fini normal. Renvoie False si l'argument est zéro, infini, résultat d'un dépassement par valeur inférieure ou un NaN.

is_qnan()

Renvoie True si l'argument est un NaN silencieux, False sinon.

is_signed()

Renvoie True si l'argument est négatif, False sinon. Remarquez que les zéros et les NaN peuvent être signés.

is_snan()

Renvoie True si l'argument est un NaN signalétique, False sinon.

is_subnormal(context=None)

Renvoie True si l'argument est le résultat d'un dépassement par valeur inférieure, False sinon.

is_zero()

Renvoie True si l'argument est un zéro (positif ou négatif), False sinon.

ln(context=None)

Renvoie le logarithme naturel (base e) de l'opérande. Le résultat est arrondi avec le mode ROUND_HALF_EVEN.

log10(context=None)

Renvoie le logarithme en base 10 de l'opérande. Le résultat est arrondi avec le mode ROUND_HALF_EVEN.

logb(context=None)

Pour un nombre non nul, renvoie l'exposant ajusté de son opérande en tant qu'instance Decimal. Si l'opérande est un zéro alors Decimal('-Infinity') est renvoyé et le drapeau DivisionByZero est levé. Si l'opérande est un infini alors Decimal('Infinity') est renvoyé.

logical_and(other, context=None)

logical_and() est une opération logique qui prend deux opérandes logiques (voir Opérandes logiques). Le résultat est le ET des chiffres des deux opérandes.

logical_invert(context=None)

logical_invert() est une opération logique. Le résultat est l'inversion de chacun des chiffres de l'opérande.

logical_or(other, context=None)

logical_or() est une opération logique qui prend deux opérandes logiques (voir Opérandes logiques). Le résultat est le OU des chiffres des deux opérandes.

logical_xor(other, context=None)

logical_xor() est une opération logique qui prend deux opérandes logiques (voir Opérandes logiques). Le résultat est le OU EXCLUSIF des chiffres des deux opérandes.

max(other, context=None)

Comme max(self, other) sauf que la règle d'arrondi de context est appliquée avant le retour et que les valeurs NaN sont signalées ou ignorées (selon le contexte et si elles sont signalétiques ou silencieuses).

max_mag(other, context=None)

Semblable à la méthode max(), mais la comparaison est effectuée en utilisant les valeurs absolues des opérandes.

min(other, context=None)

Comme min(self, other) sauf que la règle d'arrondi de context est appliquée avant le retour et que les valeurs NaN sont signalées ou ignorées (selon le contexte et si elles sont signalétiques ou silencieuses).

min_mag(other, context=None)

Semblable à la méthode min(), mais la comparaison est effectuée en utilisant les valeurs absolues des opérandes.

next_minus(context=None)

Renvoie le plus grand nombre représentable dans le context donné (ou dans le contexte du fil d'exécution actuel si aucun contexte n'est donné) qui est plus petit que l'opérande donné.

next_plus(context=None)

Renvoie le plus petit nombre représentable dans le context donné (ou dans le contexte du fil d'exécution actuel si aucun contexte n'est donné) qui est supérieur à l'opérande donné.

next_toward(other, context=None)

Si les deux opérandes ne sont pas égaux, renvoie le nombre le plus proche du premier opérande dans la direction du deuxième opérande. Si les deux opérandes sont numériquement égaux, renvoie une copie du premier opérande avec le signe défini comme étant le même que le signe du second opérande.

normalize(context=None)

Utilisé pour produire des valeurs canoniques d'une classe d'équivalence dans le contexte actuel ou dans le contexte spécifié.

C'est la même sémantique que l'opération unaire plus, sauf que si le résultat final est fini, il est réduit à sa forme la plus simple, avec tous les zéros à droite supprimés et son signe conservé. Autrement dit, tant que la mantisse est différente de zéro et est un multiple de dix, elle est divisée par dix et l'exposant est incrémenté de 1. Sinon (la mantisse est nulle), l'exposant est mis à 0. Dans tous les cas, le signe est inchangé.

Par exemple, Decimal('32.100') et Decimal('0.321000e+2') se normalisent tous deux à la valeur équivalente Decimal('32.1').

Notez que l'arrondi est appliqué avant la réduction à la forme la plus simple.

Dans les dernières versions de la spécification, cette opération est également connue sous le nom de reduce.

number_class(context=None)

Renvoie une chaîne décrivant la classe de l'opérande. La valeur renvoyée est l'une des dix chaînes suivantes.

"-Infinity", indiquant que l'opérande est l'infini négatif ;

"-Normal", indiquant que l'opérande est un nombre négatif normal ;

"-Subnormal", indiquant que l'opérande est négatif et qu'il est le résultat d'un dépassement par valeur inférieure ;

"-Zero", indiquant que l'opérande est un zéro négatif ;

"+Zero", indiquant que l'opérande est un zéro positif ;

"+Subnormal", indiquant que l'opérande est positif et qu'il est le résultat un dépassement par valeur inférieure ;

"+Normal", indiquant que l'opérande est un nombre positif normal ;

"+Infinity", indiquant que l'opérande est l'infini positif ;

"NaN", indiquant que l'opérande est un NaN (Not a Number, pas un nombre) silencieux ;

"sNaN", indiquant que l'opérande est un NaN (Not a Number, pas un nombre) signalétique.

quantize(exp, rounding=None, context=None)

Renvoie une valeur égale au premier opérande après arrondi et ayant l'exposant du second opérande.

>>> Decimal('1.41421356').quantize(Decimal('1.000'))
Decimal('1.414')

Contrairement aux autres opérations, si la longueur du coefficient après l'opération de quantification est supérieure à la précision, alors une InvalidOperation est signalée. Ceci garantit que, sauf condition d'erreur, l'exposant quantifié est toujours égal à celui de l'opérande de droite.

Contrairement aux autres opérations, la quantification ne signale jamais de dépassement par valeur inférieure, même si le résultat est inférieur à la valeur minimale représentable et inexact.

Si l'exposant du deuxième opérande est supérieur à celui du premier, un arrondi peut être nécessaire. Dans ce cas, le mode d'arrondi est déterminé par l'argument rounding s'il est donné, sinon par l'argument context donné ; si aucun argument n'est donné, le mode d'arrondi du contexte du fil d'exécution courant est utilisé.

Une erreur est renvoyée chaque fois que l'exposant résultant est supérieur à Emax ou inférieur à Etiny().

radix()

Renvoie Decimal(10), la base (base) dans laquelle la classe Decimal fait toute son arithmétique. Inclus pour la compatibilité avec la spécification.

remainder_near(other, context=None)

Renvoie le reste de la division de self par other. La différence avec self % other réside dans le signe du reste, qui est choisi de manière à minimiser sa valeur absolue. Plus précisément, la valeur de retour est self - n * other où n est l'entier le plus proche de la valeur exacte de self / other et, si deux entiers sont également proches, alors l'entier pair est choisi.

Si le résultat est zéro, alors son signe est le signe de self.

>>> Decimal(18).remainder_near(Decimal(10))
Decimal('-2')
>>> Decimal(25).remainder_near(Decimal(10))
Decimal('5')
>>> Decimal(35).remainder_near(Decimal(10))
Decimal('-5')

rotate(other, context=None)

Renvoie le résultat de la rotation des chiffres du premier opérande d'une quantité spécifiée par le deuxième opérande. Le deuxième opérande doit être un entier compris dans la plage -précision à précision. La valeur absolue du deuxième opérande donne le nombre de rotations unitaires à faire. Si le deuxième opérande est positif alors la rotation se fait vers la gauche ; sinon la rotation se fait vers la droite. Le coefficient du premier opérande est complété à gauche avec des zéros à la précision de la longueur si nécessaire. Le signe et l'exposant du premier opérande sont inchangés.

same_quantum(other, context=None)

Teste si self et other ont le même exposant ou si les deux sont NaN.

Cette opération ne dépend pas du contexte et est silencieuse : aucun indicateur n'est modifié et aucun arrondi n'est effectué. Exceptionnellement, la version C peut lever une InvalidOperation si le deuxième opérande ne peut pas être converti exactement.

scaleb(other, context=None)

Renvoie le premier opérande avec l'exposant ajusté par le second. De manière équivalente, renvoie le premier opérande multiplié par 10**other. Le deuxième opérande doit être entier.

shift(other, context=None)

Renvoie le résultat du décalage des chiffres du premier opérande d'une quantité spécifiée par le deuxième opérande. Le deuxième opérande doit être un entier compris dans la plage -précision à précision. La valeur absolue du deuxième opérande donne le nombre de décalages unitaires à effectuer. Si le deuxième opérande est positif alors le décalage est vers la gauche ; sinon le décalage est vers la droite. Les chiffres insérés dans le nombre par le décalage sont des zéros. Le signe et l'exposant du premier opérande sont inchangés.

sqrt(context=None)

Renvoie la racine carrée de l'argument avec une précision maximale.

to_eng_string(context=None)

Convertir en chaîne, en utilisant la notation ingénieur si un exposant est nécessaire.

La notation ingénieur possède un exposant qui est un multiple de 3. Cela peut laisser jusqu'à 3 chiffres à gauche de la décimale et peut nécessiter l'ajout d'un ou de deux zéros à la fin.

Par exemple, Decimal('123E+1') est converti en Decimal('1.23E+3').

to_integral(rounding=None, context=None)

Identique à la méthode to_integral_value(). Le nom to_integral a été conservé pour la compatibilité avec les anciennes versions.

to_integral_exact(rounding=None, context=None)

Arrondit à l'entier le plus proche, en signalant Inexact ou Rounded selon le cas si l'arrondi se produit. Le mode d'arrondi est déterminé par le paramètre rounding s'il est donné, sinon par le context donné. Si aucun paramètre n'est donné, le mode d'arrondi du contexte courant est utilisé.

to_integral_value(rounding=None, context=None)

Arrondit à l'entier le plus proche sans signaler Inexact ou Rounded. Si donné, applique rounding ; sinon, utilise la méthode d'arrondi dans le context fourni ou dans le contexte actuel.

Decimal numbers can be rounded using the round() function:

round(number)

round(number, ndigits)

If ndigits is not given or None, returns the nearest int to number, rounding ties to even, and ignoring the rounding mode of the Decimal context. Raises OverflowError if number is an infinity or ValueError if it is a (quiet or signaling) NaN.

If ndigits is an int, the context's rounding mode is respected and a Decimal representing number rounded to the nearest multiple of Decimal('1E-ndigits') is returned; in this case, round(number, ndigits) is equivalent to self.quantize(Decimal('1E-ndigits')). Returns Decimal('NaN') if number is a quiet NaN. Raises InvalidOperation if number is an infinity, a signaling NaN, or if the length of the coefficient after the quantize operation would be greater than the current context's precision. In other words, for the non-corner cases:

if ndigits is positive, return number rounded to ndigits decimal places;

if ndigits is zero, return number rounded to the nearest integer;

if ndigits is negative, return number rounded to the nearest multiple of 10**abs(ndigits).

Par exemple :

>>> from decimal import Decimal, getcontext, ROUND_DOWN
>>> getcontext().rounding = ROUND_DOWN
>>> round(Decimal('3.75'))     # context rounding ignored
4
>>> round(Decimal('3.5'))      # round-ties-to-even
4
>>> round(Decimal('3.75'), 0)  # uses the context rounding
Decimal('3')
>>> round(Decimal('3.75'), 1)
Decimal('3.7')
>>> round(Decimal('3.75'), -1)
Decimal('0E+1')

Opérandes logiques

Les méthodes logical_and(), logical_invert(), logical_or() et logical_xor() s'attendent à ce que leurs arguments soient des opérandes logiques. Un opérande logique est une instance Decimal dont l'exposant et le signe sont tous les deux zéro et dont les chiffres sont tous 0 ou 1.

Objets de contexte

Les contextes sont des environnements pour les opérations arithmétiques. Ils régissent la précision, établissent des règles d'arrondi, déterminent quels signaux sont traités comme des exceptions et limitent la plage des exposants.

Chaque fil d'exécution a son propre contexte actuel qui est accessible ou modifié à l'aide des fonctions getcontext() et setcontext() :

decimal.getcontext()

Renvoie le contexte actuel du fil d'exécution courant.

decimal.setcontext(c, /)

Définit le contexte du fil d'exécution courant à c.

Vous pouvez également utiliser l'instruction with et la fonction localcontext() pour modifier temporairement le contexte actif.

decimal.localcontext(ctx=None, **kwargs)

Renvoie un gestionnaire de contexte qui définira le contexte actuel du fil d'exécution actif sur une copie de ctx à l'entrée de l'instruction with et restaurera le contexte précédent lors de la sortie de l'instruction with. Si aucun contexte n'est spécifié, une copie du contexte actuel est utilisée. L'argument kwargs est utilisé pour définir les attributs du nouveau contexte.

Par exemple, le code suivant définit la précision décimale actuelle à 42 chiffres, effectue un calcul, puis restaure automatiquement le contexte précédent :

from decimal import localcontext

with localcontext() as ctx:
    ctx.prec = 42   # Perform a high precision calculation
    s = calculate_something()
s = +s  # Round the final result back to the default precision

En utilisant des arguments nommés, le code serait le suivant :

from decimal import localcontext

with localcontext(prec=42) as ctx:
    s = calculate_something()
s = +s

Lève TypeError si kwargs fournit un attribut que Context ne prend pas en charge. Lève soit TypeError ou ValueError si kwargs fournit une valeur invalide pour un attribut.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: localcontext() prend désormais en charge la définition des attributs de contexte grâce à l'utilisation d'arguments nommés.

decimal.IEEEContext(bits)

Return a context object initialized to the proper values for one of the IEEE interchange formats. The argument must be a multiple of 32 and less than IEEE_CONTEXT_MAX_BITS.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

De nouveaux contextes peuvent également être créés à l'aide du constructeur Context décrit ci-dessous. De plus, le module fournit trois contextes prédéfinis :

decimal.BasicContext

Il s'agit d'un contexte standard défini par la General Decimal Arithmetic Specification. La précision est fixée à neuf. L'arrondi est défini sur ROUND_HALF_UP. Tous les drapeaux sont effacés. Tous les déroutements sont activés (ils lèvent des exceptions) sauf Inexact, Rounded et Subnormal.

Étant donné que de nombreuses options de déroutement sont activées, ce contexte est utile pour le débogage.

decimal.ExtendedContext

Il s'agit d'un contexte standard défini par la General Decimal Arithmetic Specification. La précision est fixée à neuf. L'arrondi est défini sur ROUND_HALF_EVEN. Toutes les options de déroutement sont désactivées (afin que les exceptions ne soient pas levées pendant les calculs).

Comme les interruptions sont désactivées, ce contexte est utile pour les applications qui préfèrent avoir une valeur de résultat NaN ou Infinity au lieu de lever des exceptions. Cela permet à une application de terminer une exécution en présence de conditions qui, autrement, arrêteraient le programme.

decimal.DefaultContext

Ce contexte est utilisé par le constructeur Context comme prototype pour de nouveaux contextes. Changer un champ (par exemple la précision) a pour effet de changer la valeur par défaut pour les nouveaux contextes créés par le constructeur Context.

Ce contexte est particulièrement utile dans les environnements à plusieurs fils d'exécution. La modification de l'un des champs avant le démarrage des fils a pour effet de définir des valeurs par défaut à l'échelle du système. La modification des champs après le démarrage des fils d'exécution n'est pas recommandée car cela nécessiterait une synchronisation des fils d'exécution pour éviter des conditions de concurrence.

Dans les environnements à fil d'exécution unique, il est préférable de ne pas utiliser ce contexte du tout. Créez plutôt simplement des contextes explicitement comme décrit ci-dessous.

Les valeurs par défaut sont Context.prec=28, Context.rounding=ROUND_HALF_EVEN et les interruptions sont activées pour Overflow, InvalidOperation et DivisionByZero.

En plus des trois contextes fournis, de nouveaux contextes peuvent être créés avec le constructeur Context.

class decimal.Context(prec=None, rounding=None, Emin=None, Emax=None, capitals=None, clamp=None, flags=None, traps=None)

Crée un nouveau contexte. Si un champ n'est pas spécifié ou est None, les valeurs par défaut sont copiées à partir du DefaultContext. Si le champ flags n'est pas spécifié ou est None, tous les indicateurs sont effacés.

prec

An integer in the range [1, MAX_PREC] that sets the precision for arithmetic operations in the context.

rounding

One of the constants listed in the section Rounding Modes.

traps

flags

Lists of any signals to be set. Generally, new contexts should only set traps and leave the flags clear.

Emin

Emax

Integers specifying the outer limits allowable for exponents. Emin must be in the range [MIN_EMIN, 0], Emax in the range [0, MAX_EMAX].

capitals

Either 0 or 1 (the default). If set to 1, exponents are printed with a capital E; otherwise, a lowercase e is used: Decimal('6.02e+23').

clamp

Either 0 (the default) or 1. If set to 1, the exponent e of a Decimal instance representable in this context is strictly limited to the range Emin - prec + 1 <= e <= Emax - prec + 1. If clamp is 0 then a weaker condition holds: the adjusted exponent of the Decimal instance is at most Emax. When clamp is 1, a large normal number will, where possible, have its exponent reduced and a corresponding number of zeros added to its coefficient, in order to fit the exponent constraints; this preserves the value of the number but loses information about significant trailing zeros. For example:

>>> Context(prec=6, Emax=999, clamp=1).create_decimal('1.23e999')
Decimal('1.23000E+999')

Une valeur clamp de 1 permet la compatibilité avec les formats d'échange décimaux à largeur fixe spécifiés dans la norme IEEE 754.

La classe Context définit plusieurs méthodes à usage général ainsi qu'un grand nombre de méthodes permettant de faire de l'arithmétique directement dans un contexte donné. De plus, pour chacune des méthodes Decimal décrites ci-dessus (à l'exception des méthodes adjusted() et as_tuple()), il existe une méthode Context correspondante. Par exemple, pour une instance Context C et une instance Decimal x, C.exp(x) est équivalent à x.exp(context=C). Chaque méthode Context accepte un entier Python (une instance de int) partout où une instance Decimal est acceptée.

clear_flags()

Réinitialise tous les drapeaux à 0.

clear_traps()

Réinitialise toutes les surveillances à 0.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

copy()

Renvoie une copie du contexte.

copy_decimal(num, /)

Renvoie une copie de l'instance Decimal num.

create_decimal(num='0', /)

Crée une nouvelle instance Decimal à partir de num mais en utilisant self comme contexte. Contrairement au constructeur Decimal, la précision du contexte, la méthode d'arrondi, les indicateurs et les surveillances sont appliqués à la conversion.

C'est utile car les constantes sont souvent données avec une précision supérieure à celle requise par l'application. Un autre avantage est que l’arrondi élimine immédiatement les effets involontaires des chiffres au-delà de la précision actuelle. Dans l'exemple suivant, l'utilisation d'entrées non arrondies signifie que l'ajout de zéro à une somme peut modifier le résultat :

>>> getcontext().prec = 3
>>> Decimal('3.4445') + Decimal('1.0023')
Decimal('4.45')
>>> Decimal('3.4445') + Decimal(0) + Decimal('1.0023')
Decimal('4.44')

Cette méthode implémente l'opération to-number de la spécification IBM. Si l’argument est une chaîne, aucun espace ou trait de soulignement de début ou de fin n’est autorisé.

create_decimal_from_float(f, /)

Crée une nouvelle instance Decimal à partir d'un float f mais en arrondissant en utilisant self comme contexte. Contrairement à la méthode de classe Decimal.from_float(), la précision du contexte, la méthode d'arrondi, les indicateurs et les surveillances sont appliqués à la conversion.

>>> context = Context(prec=5, rounding=ROUND_DOWN)
>>> context.create_decimal_from_float(math.pi)
Decimal('3.1415')
>>> context = Context(prec=5, traps=[Inexact])
>>> context.create_decimal_from_float(math.pi)
Traceback (most recent call last):
    ...
decimal.Inexact: None

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

Etiny()

Renvoie une valeur égale à Emin - prec + 1 qui est la valeur minimale de l'exposant pour les résultats avec dépassement inférieur. Lorsqu'un dépassement inférieur se produit, l'exposant est défini sur Etiny.

Etop()

Renvoie une valeur égale à Emax - prec + 1.

L'approche habituelle pour travailler avec des décimaux consiste à créer des instances Decimal, puis à appliquer des opérations arithmétiques qui ont lieu dans le contexte actuel du fil d'exécution actif. Une approche alternative consiste à utiliser des méthodes contextuelles pour calculer dans un contexte spécifique. Les méthodes sont similaires à celles de la classe Decimal et ne sont décrites que brièvement ici.

abs(x, /)

Renvoie la valeur absolue de x.

add(x, y, /)

Renvoie la somme de x et y.

canonical(x, /)

Renvoie l'objet Decimal x lui-même.

compare(x, y, /)

Compare x et y numériquement.

compare_signal(x, y, /)

Compare numériquement les valeurs des deux opérandes.

compare_total(x, y, /)

Compare deux opérandes en utilisant leur représentation abstraite.

compare_total_mag(x, y, /)

Compare deux opérandes en utilisant leur représentation abstraite, en ignorant le signe.

copy_abs(x, /)

Renvoie une copie de x avec le signe à 0 (c.-à-d. positif).

copy_negate(x, /)

Renvoie une copie de x mais de signe opposé.

copy_sign(x, y, /)

Copie le signe de y vers x.

divide(x, y, /)

Renvoie x divisé par y.

divide_int(x, y, /)

Renvoie x divisé par y, tronqué comme entier.

divmod(x, y, /)

Renvoie la partie entière de la division entre deux nombres.

exp(x, /)

Renvoie e ** x.

fma(x, y, z, /)

Renvoie x multiplié par y, plus z.

is_canonical(x, /)

Renvoie True si x est canonique ; False sinon.

is_finite(x, /)

Renvoie True si x est fini ; False sinon.

is_infinite(x, /)

Renvoie True si x est infini et False sinon.

is_nan(x, /)

Renvoie True si x est un NaN (silencieux ou signalétique), False sinon.

is_normal(x, /)

Renvoie True si x est un nombre normal ; False sinon.

is_qnan(x, /)

Renvoie True si x est un NaN silencieux, False sinon.

is_signed(x, /)

Renvoie True si x est négatif et False sinon.

is_snan(x, /)

Renvoie True si x est un NaN signalétique, False sinon.

is_subnormal(x, /)

Renvoie True si x est est inférieur à la valeur minimale représentable ; sinon, renvoie False.

is_zero(x, /)

Renvoie True si x est un zéro et False sinon.

ln(x, /)

Renvoie le logarithme naturel (en base e) de x.

log10(x, /)

Renvoie le logarithme en base 10 de x.

logb(x, /)

Renvoie l'exposant correspondant du chiffre de poids fort de la mantisse de l'opérande.

logical_and(x, y, /)

Applique l'opération logique ET entre les chiffres de chaque opérande.

logical_invert(x, /)

Inverse tous les chiffres de x.

logical_or(x, y, /)

Applique l'opération logique OU entre les chiffres de chaque opérande.

logical_xor(x, y, /)

Applique l'opération logique OU EXCLUSIF entre les chiffres de chaque opérande.

max(x, y, /)

Renvoie le maximum entre les deux valeurs numériques.

max_mag(x, y, /)

Compare les valeurs numériquement en ignorant leur signe.

min(x, y, /)

Compare numériquement deux valeurs et renvoie le minimum.

min_mag(x, y, /)

Compare les valeurs numériquement en ignorant leur signe.

minus(x, /)

Correspond à l’opérateur unaire préfixé « moins » en Python.

multiply(x, y, /)

Renvoie la multiplication de x avec y.

next_minus(x, /)

Renvoie le plus grand nombre représentable inférieur à x.

next_plus(x, /)

Renvoie le plus petit nombre représentable supérieur à x.

next_toward(x, y, /)

Renvoie le nombre le plus proche de x, en direction de y.

normalize(x, /)

Réduit x à sa forme la plus simple.

number_class(x, /)

Renvoie une indication de la classe de x.

plus(x, /)

Correspond à l'opérateur unaire préfixé « plus » en Python. Cette opération applique la précision du contexte et l'arrondi, ce n'est donc pas une opération d'identité.

power(x, y, modulo=None)

Renvoie x à la puissance y, réduit modulo modulo si celui-ci est donné.

Avec deux arguments, calcule x**y. Si x est négatif alors y doit être entier. Le résultat est inexact à moins que y soit entier et que le résultat soit fini et puisse être exprimé exactement en precision chiffres. Le mode d'arrondi du contexte est utilisé. Les résultats sont toujours correctement arrondis à la manière de Python.

Decimal(0) ** Decimal(0) donne InvalidOperation et, si InvalidOperation n'est pas surveillé, cela donne Decimal('NaN').

Modifié dans la version 3.3: le module C calcule power() en termes de fonctions exp() et ln() correctement arrondies. Le résultat est bien défini mais seulement « presque toujours correctement arrondi ».

Avec trois arguments, calcule (x**y) % modulo. Pour la forme à trois arguments, les restrictions suivantes sur les arguments s'appliquent :

les trois arguments doivent être entiers ;

y ne doit pas être négatif ;

au moins l'un de x ou y doit être différent de zéro ;

modulo doit être différent de zéro et avoir au plus precision chiffres.

La valeur résultant de Context.power(x, y, modulo) est égale à la valeur qui serait obtenue en calculant (x**y) % modulo avec une précision illimitée, mais est calculée plus efficacement. L'exposant du résultat est zéro, quels que soient les exposants de x, y et modulo. Le résultat est toujours exact.

quantize(x, y, /)

Renvoie une valeur égale à x (arrondie), ayant l'exposant de y.

radix()

Renvoie 10 car c'est Decimal, :)

remainder(x, y, /)

Renvoie le reste de la division entière.

Le signe du résultat, s'il est différent de zéro, est le même que celui du dividende initial.

remainder_near(x, y, /)

Renvoie x - y * n, où n est l'entier le plus proche de la valeur exacte de x / y (si le résultat est 0 alors son signe est le signe de x).

rotate(x, y, /)

Renvoie une copie pivotée de x, y fois.

same_quantum(x, y, /)

Renvoie True si les deux opérandes ont le même exposant.

scaleb(x, y, /)

Renvoie le premier opérande après avoir ajouté la deuxième valeur à son exp.

shift(x, y, /)

Renvoie une copie décalée de x, y fois.

sqrt(x, /)

Renvoie la racine carrée d'un nombre non négatif avec la précision donnée par le contexte.

subtract(x, y, /)

Renvoie la différence entre x et y.

to_eng_string(x, /)

Convertir en chaîne, en utilisant la notation ingénieur si un exposant est nécessaire.

La notation ingénieur possède un exposant qui est un multiple de 3. Cela peut laisser jusqu'à 3 chiffres à gauche de la décimale et peut nécessiter l'ajout d'un ou de deux zéros à la fin.

to_integral_exact(x, /)

Arrondit à un entier.

to_sci_string(x, /)

Convertit un nombre en chaîne en utilisant la notation scientifique.

Constantes

Les constantes de cette section ne sont pertinentes que pour le module C. Elles sont aussi incluses pour la compatibilité dans la version en Python pur.

32-bit

64-bit

decimal.MAX_PREC

425000000

999999999999999999

decimal.MAX_EMAX

425000000

999999999999999999

decimal.MIN_EMIN

-425000000

-999999999999999999

decimal.MIN_ETINY

-849999999

-1999999999999999997

decimal.IEEE_CONTEXT_MAX_BITS

256

512

decimal.HAVE_THREADS

La valeur est True. Déprécié, parce que maintenant Python possède toujours des fils d'exécution.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9.

decimal.HAVE_CONTEXTVAR

The default value is True. If Python is configured using the --without-decimal-contextvar option, the C version uses a thread-local rather than a coroutine-local context and the value is False. This is slightly faster in some nested context scenarios.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.3.

Modes d'arrondi

decimal.ROUND_CEILING

Round towards Infinity.

decimal.ROUND_DOWN

Round towards zero.

decimal.ROUND_FLOOR

Round towards -Infinity.

decimal.ROUND_HALF_DOWN

Round to nearest with ties going towards zero.

decimal.ROUND_HALF_EVEN

Round to nearest with ties going to nearest even integer.

decimal.ROUND_HALF_UP

Round to nearest with ties going away from zero.

decimal.ROUND_UP

Round away from zero.

decimal.ROUND_05UP

Round away from zero if last digit after rounding towards zero would have been 0 or 5; otherwise round towards zero.

Signaux

Signals represent conditions that arise during computation. Each corresponds to one context flag and one context trap enabler.

The context flag is set whenever the condition is encountered. After the computation, flags may be checked for informational purposes (for instance, to determine whether a computation was exact). After checking the flags, be sure to clear all flags before starting the next computation.

If the context's trap enabler is set for the signal, then the condition causes a Python exception to be raised. For example, if the DivisionByZero trap is set, then a DivisionByZero exception is raised upon encountering the condition.

class decimal.Clamped

Altered an exponent to fit representation constraints.

Typically, clamping occurs when an exponent falls outside the context's Emin and Emax limits. If possible, the exponent is reduced to fit by adding zeros to the coefficient.

class decimal.DecimalException

Base class for other signals and a subclass of ArithmeticError.

class decimal.DivisionByZero

Signals the division of a non-infinite number by zero.

Can occur with division, modulo division, or when raising a number to a negative power. If this signal is not trapped, returns Infinity or -Infinity with the sign determined by the inputs to the calculation.

class decimal.Inexact

Indicates that rounding occurred and the result is not exact.

Signals when non-zero digits were discarded during rounding. The rounded result is returned. The signal flag or trap is used to detect when results are inexact.

class decimal.InvalidOperation

An invalid operation was performed.

Indicates that an operation was requested that does not make sense. If not trapped, returns NaN. Possible causes include:

Infinity - Infinity
0 * Infinity
Infinity / Infinity
x % 0
Infinity % x
sqrt(-x) and x > 0
0 ** 0
x ** (non-integer)
x ** Infinity

class decimal.Overflow

Débordement numérique.

Indicates the exponent is larger than Context.Emax after rounding has occurred. If not trapped, the result depends on the rounding mode, either pulling inward to the largest representable finite number or rounding outward to Infinity. In either case, Inexact and Rounded are also signaled.

class decimal.Rounded

Rounding occurred though possibly no information was lost.

Signaled whenever rounding discards digits; even if those digits are zero (such as rounding 5.00 to 5.0). If not trapped, returns the result unchanged. This signal is used to detect loss of significant digits.

class decimal.Subnormal

Exponent was lower than Emin prior to rounding.

Occurs when an operation result is subnormal (the exponent is too small). If not trapped, returns the result unchanged.

class decimal.Underflow

Numerical underflow with result rounded to zero.

Occurs when a subnormal result is pushed to zero by rounding. Inexact and Subnormal are also signaled.

class decimal.FloatOperation

Enable stricter semantics for mixing floats and Decimals.

If the signal is not trapped (default), mixing floats and Decimals is permitted in the Decimal constructor, create_decimal() and all comparison operators. Both conversion and comparisons are exact. Any occurrence of a mixed operation is silently recorded by setting FloatOperation in the context flags. Explicit conversions with from_float() or create_decimal_from_float() do not set the flag.

Otherwise (the signal is trapped), only equality comparisons and explicit conversions are silent. All other mixed operations raise FloatOperation.

The following table summarizes the hierarchy of signals:

exceptions.ArithmeticError(exceptions.Exception)
    DecimalException
        Clamped
        DivisionByZero(DecimalException, exceptions.ZeroDivisionError)
        Inexact
            Overflow(Inexact, Rounded)
            Underflow(Inexact, Rounded, Subnormal)
        InvalidOperation
        Rounded
        Subnormal
        FloatOperation(DecimalException, exceptions.TypeError)

Floating-point notes

Mitigating round-off error with increased precision

The use of decimal floating point eliminates decimal representation error (making it possible to represent 0.1 exactly); however, some operations can still incur round-off error when non-zero digits exceed the fixed precision.

The effects of round-off error can be amplified by the addition or subtraction of nearly offsetting quantities resulting in loss of significance. Knuth provides two instructive examples where rounded floating-point arithmetic with insufficient precision causes the breakdown of the associative and distributive properties of addition:

# Examples from Seminumerical Algorithms, Section 4.2.2.
>>> from decimal import Decimal, getcontext
>>> getcontext().prec = 8

>>> u, v, w = Decimal(11111113), Decimal(-11111111), Decimal('7.51111111')
>>> (u + v) + w
Decimal('9.5111111')
>>> u + (v + w)
Decimal('10')

>>> u, v, w = Decimal(20000), Decimal(-6), Decimal('6.0000003')
>>> (u*v) + (u*w)
Decimal('0.01')
>>> u * (v+w)
Decimal('0.0060000')

The decimal module makes it possible to restore the identities by expanding the precision sufficiently to avoid loss of significance:

>>> getcontext().prec = 20
>>> u, v, w = Decimal(11111113), Decimal(-11111111), Decimal('7.51111111')
>>> (u + v) + w
Decimal('9.51111111')
>>> u + (v + w)
Decimal('9.51111111')
>>>
>>> u, v, w = Decimal(20000), Decimal(-6), Decimal('6.0000003')
>>> (u*v) + (u*w)
Decimal('0.0060000')
>>> u * (v+w)
Decimal('0.0060000')

Special values

The number system for the decimal module provides special values including NaN, sNaN, -Infinity, Infinity, and two zeros, +0 and -0.

Infinities can be constructed directly with: Decimal('Infinity'). Also, they can arise from dividing by zero when the DivisionByZero signal is not trapped. Likewise, when the Overflow signal is not trapped, infinity can result from rounding beyond the limits of the largest representable number.

The infinities are signed (affine) and can be used in arithmetic operations where they get treated as very large, indeterminate numbers. For instance, adding a constant to infinity gives another infinite result.

Some operations are indeterminate and return NaN, or if the InvalidOperation signal is trapped, raise an exception. For example, 0/0 returns NaN which means "not a number". This variety of NaN is quiet and, once created, will flow through other computations always resulting in another NaN. This behavior can be useful for a series of computations that occasionally have missing inputs --- it allows the calculation to proceed while flagging specific results as invalid.

A variant is sNaN which signals rather than remaining quiet after every operation. This is a useful return value when an invalid result needs to interrupt a calculation for special handling.

The behavior of Python's comparison operators can be a little surprising where a NaN is involved. A test for equality where one of the operands is a quiet or signaling NaN always returns False (even when doing Decimal('NaN')==Decimal('NaN')), while a test for inequality always returns True. An attempt to compare two Decimals using any of the <, <=, > or >= operators will raise the InvalidOperation signal if either operand is a NaN, and return False if this signal is not trapped. Note that the General Decimal Arithmetic specification does not specify the behavior of direct comparisons; these rules for comparisons involving a NaN were taken from the IEEE 854 standard (see Table 3 in section 5.7). To ensure strict standards-compliance, use the compare() and compare_signal() methods instead.

The signed zeros can result from calculations that underflow. They keep the sign that would have resulted if the calculation had been carried out to greater precision. Since their magnitude is zero, both positive and negative zeros are treated as equal and their sign is informational.

In addition to the two signed zeros which are distinct yet equal, there are various representations of zero with differing precisions yet equivalent in value. This takes a bit of getting used to. For an eye accustomed to normalized floating-point representations, it is not immediately obvious that the following calculation returns a value equal to zero:

>>> 1 / Decimal('Infinity')
Decimal('0E-1000026')

Working with threads

The getcontext() function accesses a different Context object for each thread. Having separate thread contexts means that threads may make changes (such as getcontext().prec=10) without interfering with other threads.

Likewise, the setcontext() function automatically assigns its target to the current thread.

If setcontext() has not been called before getcontext(), then getcontext() will automatically create a new context for use in the current thread. New context objects have default values set from the decimal.DefaultContext object.

The sys.flags.thread_inherit_context flag affects the context for new threads. If the flag is false, new threads will start with an empty context. In this case, getcontext() will create a new context object when called and use the default values from DefaultContext. If the flag is true, new threads will start with a copy of context from the caller of threading.Thread.start().

To control the defaults so that each thread will use the same values throughout the application, directly modify the DefaultContext object. This should be done before any threads are started so that there won't be a race condition between threads calling getcontext(). For example:

# Set applicationwide defaults for all threads about to be launched
DefaultContext.prec = 12
DefaultContext.rounding = ROUND_DOWN
DefaultContext.traps = ExtendedContext.traps.copy()
DefaultContext.traps[InvalidOperation] = 1
setcontext(DefaultContext)

# Afterwards, the threads can be started
t1.start()
t2.start()
t3.start()
 . . .

Cas pratiques

Here are a few recipes that serve as utility functions and that demonstrate ways to work with the Decimal class:

def moneyfmt(value, places=2, curr='', sep=',', dp='.',
             pos='', neg='-', trailneg=''):
    """Convert Decimal to a money formatted string.

    places:  required number of places after the decimal point
    curr:    optional currency symbol before the sign (may be blank)
    sep:     optional grouping separator (comma, period, space, or blank)
    dp:      decimal point indicator (comma or period)
             only specify as blank when places is zero
    pos:     optional sign for positive numbers: '+', space or blank
    neg:     optional sign for negative numbers: '-', '(', space or blank
    trailneg:optional trailing minus indicator:  '-', ')', space or blank

    >>> d = Decimal('-1234567.8901')
    >>> moneyfmt(d, curr='$')
    '-$1,234,567.89'
    >>> moneyfmt(d, places=0, sep='.', dp='', neg='', trailneg='-')
    '1.234.568-'
    >>> moneyfmt(d, curr='$', neg='(', trailneg=')')
    '($1,234,567.89)'
    >>> moneyfmt(Decimal(123456789), sep=' ')
    '123 456 789.00'
    >>> moneyfmt(Decimal('-0.02'), neg='<', trailneg='>')
    '<0.02>'

    """
    q = Decimal(10) ** -places      # 2 places --> '0.01'
    sign, digits, exp = value.quantize(q).as_tuple()
    result = []
    digits = list(map(str, digits))
    build, next = result.append, digits.pop
    if sign:
        build(trailneg)
    for i in range(places):
        build(next() if digits else '0')
    if places:
        build(dp)
    if not digits:
        build('0')
    i = 0
    while digits:
        build(next())
        i += 1
        if i == 3 and digits:
            i = 0
            build(sep)
    build(curr)
    build(neg if sign else pos)
    return ''.join(reversed(result))

def pi():
    """Compute Pi to the current precision.

    >>> print(pi())
    3.141592653589793238462643383

    """
    getcontext().prec += 2  # extra digits for intermediate steps
    three = Decimal(3)      # substitute "three=3.0" for regular floats
    lasts, t, s, n, na, d, da = 0, three, 3, 1, 0, 0, 24
    while s != lasts:
        lasts = s
        n, na = n+na, na+8
        d, da = d+da, da+32
        t = (t * n) / d
        s += t
    getcontext().prec -= 2
    return +s               # unary plus applies the new precision

def exp(x):
    """Return e raised to the power of x.  Result type matches input type.

    >>> print(exp(Decimal(1)))
    2.718281828459045235360287471
    >>> print(exp(Decimal(2)))
    7.389056098930650227230427461
    >>> print(exp(2.0))
    7.38905609893
    >>> print(exp(2+0j))
    (7.38905609893+0j)

    """
    getcontext().prec += 2
    i, lasts, s, fact, num = 0, 0, 1, 1, 1
    while s != lasts:
        lasts = s
        i += 1
        fact *= i
        num *= x
        s += num / fact
    getcontext().prec -= 2
    return +s

def cos(x):
    """Return the cosine of x as measured in radians.

    The Taylor series approximation works best for a small value of x.
    For larger values, first compute x = x % (2 * pi).

    >>> print(cos(Decimal('0.5')))
    0.8775825618903727161162815826
    >>> print(cos(0.5))
    0.87758256189
    >>> print(cos(0.5+0j))
    (0.87758256189+0j)

    """
    getcontext().prec += 2
    i, lasts, s, fact, num, sign = 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1
    while s != lasts:
        lasts = s
        i += 2
        fact *= i * (i-1)
        num *= x * x
        sign *= -1
        s += num / fact * sign
    getcontext().prec -= 2
    return +s

def sin(x):
    """Return the sine of x as measured in radians.

    The Taylor series approximation works best for a small value of x.
    For larger values, first compute x = x % (2 * pi).

    >>> print(sin(Decimal('0.5')))
    0.4794255386042030002732879352
    >>> print(sin(0.5))
    0.479425538604
    >>> print(sin(0.5+0j))
    (0.479425538604+0j)

    """
    getcontext().prec += 2
    i, lasts, s, fact, num, sign = 1, 0, x, 1, x, 1
    while s != lasts:
        lasts = s
        i += 2
        fact *= i * (i-1)
        num *= x * x
        sign *= -1
        s += num / fact * sign
    getcontext().prec -= 2
    return +s

FAQ decimal

Q: It is cumbersome to type decimal.Decimal('1234.5'). Is there a way to minimize typing when using the interactive interpreter?

A: Some users abbreviate the constructor to just a single letter:

>>> D = decimal.Decimal
>>> D('1.23') + D('3.45')
Decimal('4.68')

Q: In a fixed-point application with two decimal places, some inputs have many places and need to be rounded. Others are not supposed to have excess digits and need to be validated. What methods should be used?

A: The quantize() method rounds to a fixed number of decimal places. If the Inexact trap is set, it is also useful for validation:

>>> TWOPLACES = Decimal(10) ** -2       # same as Decimal('0.01')

>>> # Round to two places
>>> Decimal('3.214').quantize(TWOPLACES)
Decimal('3.21')

>>> # Validate that a number does not exceed two places
>>> Decimal('3.21').quantize(TWOPLACES, context=Context(traps=[Inexact]))
Decimal('3.21')

>>> Decimal('3.214').quantize(TWOPLACES, context=Context(traps=[Inexact]))
Traceback (most recent call last):
   ...
Inexact: None

Q: Once I have valid two place inputs, how do I maintain that invariant throughout an application?

A: Some operations like addition, subtraction, and multiplication by an integer will automatically preserve fixed point. Others operations, like division and non-integer multiplication, will change the number of decimal places and need to be followed-up with a quantize() step:

>>> a = Decimal('102.72')           # Initial fixed-point values
>>> b = Decimal('3.17')
>>> a + b                           # Addition preserves fixed-point
Decimal('105.89')
>>> a - b
Decimal('99.55')
>>> a * 42                          # So does integer multiplication
Decimal('4314.24')
>>> (a * b).quantize(TWOPLACES)     # Must quantize non-integer multiplication
Decimal('325.62')
>>> (b / a).quantize(TWOPLACES)     # And quantize division
Decimal('0.03')

Lors du développement d'applications en virgule fixe, il est pratique de définir des fonctions pour gérer cette étape de quantification par quantize() :

>>> def mul(x, y, fp=TWOPLACES):
...     return (x * y).quantize(fp)
...
>>> def div(x, y, fp=TWOPLACES):
...     return (x / y).quantize(fp)

>>> mul(a, b)                       # Automatically preserve fixed-point
Decimal('325.62')
>>> div(b, a)
Decimal('0.03')

Q: There are many ways to express the same value. The numbers 200, 200.000, 2E2, and .02E+4 all have the same value at various precisions. Is there a way to transform them to a single recognizable canonical value?

A: The normalize() method maps all equivalent values to a single representative:

>>> values = map(Decimal, '200 200.000 2E2 .02E+4'.split())
>>> [v.normalize() for v in values]
[Decimal('2E+2'), Decimal('2E+2'), Decimal('2E+2'), Decimal('2E+2')]

Q: When does rounding occur in a computation?

A: It occurs after the computation. The philosophy of the decimal specification is that numbers are considered exact and are created independent of the current context. They can even have greater precision than current context. Computations process with those exact inputs and then rounding (or other context operations) is applied to the result of the computation:

>>> getcontext().prec = 5
>>> pi = Decimal('3.1415926535')   # More than 5 digits
>>> pi                             # All digits are retained
Decimal('3.1415926535')
>>> pi + 0                         # Rounded after an addition
Decimal('3.1416')
>>> pi - Decimal('0.00005')        # Subtract unrounded numbers, then round
Decimal('3.1415')
>>> pi + 0 - Decimal('0.00005').   # Intermediate values are rounded
Decimal('3.1416')

Q: Some decimal values always print with exponential notation. Is there a way to get a non-exponential representation?

A: For some values, exponential notation is the only way to express the number of significant places in the coefficient. For example, expressing 5.0E+3 as 5000 keeps the value constant but cannot show the original's two-place significance.

If an application does not care about tracking significance, it is easy to remove the exponent and trailing zeroes, losing significance, but keeping the value unchanged:

>>> def remove_exponent(d):
...     return d.quantize(Decimal(1)) if d == d.to_integral() else d.normalize()

>>> remove_exponent(Decimal('5E+3'))
Decimal('5000')

Q: Is there a way to convert a regular float to a Decimal?

A: Yes, any binary floating-point number can be exactly expressed as a Decimal though an exact conversion may take more precision than intuition would suggest:

>>> Decimal(math.pi)
Decimal('3.141592653589793115997963468544185161590576171875')

Q: Within a complex calculation, how can I make sure that I haven't gotten a spurious result because of insufficient precision or rounding anomalies.

A: The decimal module makes it easy to test results. A best practice is to re-run calculations using greater precision and with various rounding modes. Widely differing results indicate insufficient precision, rounding mode issues, ill-conditioned inputs, or a numerically unstable algorithm.

Q: I noticed that context precision is applied to the results of operations but not to the inputs. Is there anything to watch out for when mixing values of different precisions?

A: Yes. The principle is that all values are considered to be exact and so is the arithmetic on those values. Only the results are rounded. The advantage for inputs is that "what you type is what you get". A disadvantage is that the results can look odd if you forget that the inputs haven't been rounded:

>>> getcontext().prec = 3
>>> Decimal('3.104') + Decimal('2.104')
Decimal('5.21')
>>> Decimal('3.104') + Decimal('0.000') + Decimal('2.104')
Decimal('5.20')

The solution is either to increase precision or to force rounding of inputs using the unary plus operation:

>>> getcontext().prec = 3
>>> +Decimal('1.23456789')      # unary plus triggers rounding
Decimal('1.23')

Alternatively, inputs can be rounded upon creation using the Context.create_decimal() method:

>>> Context(prec=5, rounding=ROUND_DOWN).create_decimal('1.2345678')
Decimal('1.2345')

Q: Is the CPython implementation fast for large numbers?

A: Yes. In the CPython and PyPy3 implementations, the C/CFFI versions of the decimal module integrate the high speed libmpdec [https://www.bytereef.org/mpdecimal/doc/libmpdec/index.html] library for arbitrary precision correctly rounded decimal floating-point arithmetic [1]. libmpdec uses Karatsuba multiplication [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karatsuba_algorithm] for medium-sized numbers and the Number Theoretic Transform [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_Fourier_transform_(general)#Number-theoretic_transform] for very large numbers.

The context must be adapted for exact arbitrary precision arithmetic. Emin and Emax should always be set to the maximum values, clamp should always be 0 (the default). Setting prec requires some care.

The easiest approach for trying out bignum arithmetic is to use the maximum value for prec as well [2]:

>>> setcontext(Context(prec=MAX_PREC, Emax=MAX_EMAX, Emin=MIN_EMIN))
>>> x = Decimal(2) ** 256
>>> x / 128
Decimal('904625697166532776746648320380374280103671755200316906558262375061821325312')

For inexact results, MAX_PREC is far too large on 64-bit platforms and the available memory will be insufficient:

>>> Decimal(1) / 3
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
MemoryError

On systems with overallocation (e.g. Linux), a more sophisticated approach is to adjust prec to the amount of available RAM. Suppose that you have 8GB of RAM and expect 10 simultaneous operands using a maximum of 500MB each:

>>> import sys
>>>
>>> # Maximum number of digits for a single operand using 500MB in 8-byte words
>>> # with 19 digits per word (4-byte and 9 digits for the 32-bit build):
>>> maxdigits = 19 * ((500 * 1024**2) // 8)
>>>
>>> # Check that this works:
>>> c = Context(prec=maxdigits, Emax=MAX_EMAX, Emin=MIN_EMIN)
>>> c.traps[Inexact] = True
>>> setcontext(c)
>>>
>>> # Fill the available precision with nines:
>>> x = Decimal(0).logical_invert() * 9
>>> sys.getsizeof(x)
524288112
>>> x + 2
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
  decimal.Inexact: [<class 'decimal.Inexact'>]

In general (and especially on systems without overallocation), it is recommended to estimate even tighter bounds and set the Inexact trap if all calculations are expected to be exact.

[1]

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

[2]

Modifié dans la version 3.9: This approach now works for all exact results except for non-integer powers.

fractions --- Rational numbers

Code source : Lib/fractions.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/fractions.py]

The fractions module provides support for rational number arithmetic.

A Fraction instance can be constructed from a pair of rational numbers, from a single number, or from a string.

class fractions.Fraction(numerator=0, denominator=1)

class fractions.Fraction(number)

class fractions.Fraction(string)

The first version requires that numerator and denominator are instances of numbers.Rational and returns a new Fraction instance with a value equal to numerator/denominator. If denominator is zero, it raises a ZeroDivisionError.

The second version requires that number is an instance of numbers.Rational or has the as_integer_ratio() method (this includes float and decimal.Decimal). It returns a Fraction instance with exactly the same value. Assumed, that the as_integer_ratio() method returns a pair of coprime integers and last one is positive. Note that due to the usual issues with binary point (see Floating-Point Arithmetic: Issues and Limitations), the argument to Fraction(1.1) is not exactly equal to 11/10, and so Fraction(1.1) does not return Fraction(11, 10) as one might expect. (But see the documentation for the limit_denominator() method below.)

The last version of the constructor expects a string. The usual form for this instance is:

[sign] numerator ['/' denominator]

where the optional sign may be either '+' or '-' and numerator and denominator (if present) are strings of decimal digits (underscores may be used to delimit digits as with integral literals in code). In addition, any string that represents a finite value and is accepted by the float constructor is also accepted by the Fraction constructor. In either form the input string may also have leading and/or trailing whitespace. Here are some examples:

>>> from fractions import Fraction
>>> Fraction(16, -10)
Fraction(-8, 5)
>>> Fraction(123)
Fraction(123, 1)
>>> Fraction()
Fraction(0, 1)
>>> Fraction('3/7')
Fraction(3, 7)
>>> Fraction(' -3/7 ')
Fraction(-3, 7)
>>> Fraction('1.414213 \t\n')
Fraction(1414213, 1000000)
>>> Fraction('-.125')
Fraction(-1, 8)
>>> Fraction('7e-6')
Fraction(7, 1000000)
>>> Fraction(2.25)
Fraction(9, 4)
>>> Fraction(1.1)
Fraction(2476979795053773, 2251799813685248)
>>> from decimal import Decimal
>>> Fraction(Decimal('1.1'))
Fraction(11, 10)

The Fraction class inherits from the abstract base class numbers.Rational, and implements all of the methods and operations from that class. Fraction instances are hashable, and should be treated as immutable. In addition, Fraction has the following properties and methods:

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Le constructeur de Fraction accepte maintenant des instances de float et decimal.Decimal.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: The math.gcd() function is now used to normalize the numerator and denominator. math.gcd() always returns an int type. Previously, the GCD type depended on numerator and denominator.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Underscores are now permitted when creating a Fraction instance from a string, following PEP 515 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0515/] rules.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Fraction implements __int__ now to satisfy typing.SupportsInt instance checks.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Space is allowed around the slash for string inputs: Fraction('2 / 3').

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Fraction instances now support float-style formatting, with presentation types "e", "E", "f", "F", "g", "G" and "%"".

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Formatting of Fraction instances without a presentation type now supports fill, alignment, sign handling, minimum width and grouping.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: The Fraction constructor now accepts any objects with the as_integer_ratio() method.

numerator

Numérateur de la fraction irréductible.

denominator

Denominator of the Fraction in lowest terms. Guaranteed to be positive.

as_integer_ratio()

Return a tuple of two integers, whose ratio is equal to the original Fraction. The ratio is in lowest terms and has a positive denominator.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

is_integer()

Return True if the Fraction is an integer.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

classmethod from_float(f)

Ce constructeur alternatif accepte (uniquement) des nombres à virgule flottante, de classe float, ou plus généralement des instances de numbers.Integral. Attention, Fraction.from_float(0.3) est différent de Fraction(3, 10).

Note

Depuis Python 3.2, vous pouvez aussi construire une instance de Fraction directement depuis un float.

classmethod from_decimal(dec)

Ce constructeur alternatif accepte (uniquement) les instances de decimal.Decimal ou numbers.Integral.

Note

Depuis Python 3.2, vous pouvez aussi construire une instance de Fraction directement depuis une instance de decimal.Decimal.

classmethod from_number(number)

Alternative constructor which only accepts instances of numbers.Integral, numbers.Rational, float or decimal.Decimal, and objects with the as_integer_ratio() method, but not strings.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

limit_denominator(max_denominator=1000000)

Trouve et renvoie la Fraction la plus proche de self qui a au plus max_denominator comme dénominateur. Cette méthode est utile pour trouver des approximations rationnelles de nombres flottants donnés :

>>> from fractions import Fraction
>>> Fraction('3.1415926535897932').limit_denominator(1000)
Fraction(355, 113)

ou pour retrouver un nombre rationnel représenté par un flottant :

>>> from math import pi, cos
>>> Fraction(cos(pi/3))
Fraction(4503599627370497, 9007199254740992)
>>> Fraction(cos(pi/3)).limit_denominator()
Fraction(1, 2)
>>> Fraction(1.1).limit_denominator()
Fraction(11, 10)

__floor__()

Renvoie le plus grand int <= self. Cette méthode peut aussi être utilisée à travers la fonction math.floor() :

>>> from math import floor
>>> floor(Fraction(355, 113))
3

__ceil__()

Renvoie le plus petit int >= self. Cette méthode peut aussi être utilisée à travers la fonction math.ceil().

__round__()

__round__(ndigits)

La première version renvoie l'int le plus proche de self, arrondissant les demis au nombre pair le plus proche. La seconde version arrondit self au plus proche multiple de Fraction(1, 10**ndigits) (logiquement, si ndigits est négatif), arrondissant toujours les demis au nombre pair le plus proche. Cette méthode peut aussi être utilisée à via la fonction round().

__format__(format_spec, /)

Provides support for formatting of Fraction instances via the str.format() method, the format() built-in function, or Formatted string literals.

If the format_spec format specification string does not end with one of the presentation types 'e', 'E', 'f', 'F', 'g', 'G' or '%' then formatting follows the general rules for fill, alignment, sign handling, minimum width, and grouping as described in the format specification mini-language. The "alternate form" flag '#' is supported: if present, it forces the output string to always include an explicit denominator, even when the value being formatted is an exact integer. The zero-fill flag '0' is not supported.

If the format_spec format specification string ends with one of the presentation types 'e', 'E', 'f', 'F', 'g', 'G' or '%' then formatting follows the rules outlined for the float type in the Format specification mini-language section.

Voici quelques exemples :

>>> from fractions import Fraction
>>> format(Fraction(103993, 33102), '_')
'103_993/33_102'
>>> format(Fraction(1, 7), '.^+10')
'...+1/7...'
>>> format(Fraction(3, 1), '')
'3'
>>> format(Fraction(3, 1), '#')
'3/1'
>>> format(Fraction(1, 7), '.40g')
'0.1428571428571428571428571428571428571429'
>>> format(Fraction('1234567.855'), '_.2f')
'1_234_567.86'
>>> f"{Fraction(355, 113):*>20.6e}"
'********3.141593e+00'
>>> old_price, new_price = 499, 672
>>> "{:.2%} price increase".format(Fraction(new_price, old_price) - 1)
'34.67% price increase'

Voir aussi

Module numbers

Les classes abstraites représentant la hiérarchie des nombres.

random — Génère des nombres pseudo-aléatoires

Code source : Lib/random.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/random.py]

Ce module implémente des générateurs de nombres pseudo-aléatoires pour différentes distributions.

Pour les entiers, il existe une sélection uniforme à partir d'une plage. Pour les séquences, il existe une sélection uniforme d'un élément aléatoire, une fonction pour générer une permutation aléatoire d'une liste sur place et une fonction pour un échantillonnage aléatoire sans remplacement.

Pour l'ensemble des réels, il y a des fonctions pour calculer des distributions uniformes, normales (gaussiennes), log-normales, exponentielles négatives, gamma et bêta. Pour générer des distributions d'angles, la distribution de von Mises est disponible.

Almost all module functions depend on the basic function random(), which generates a random float uniformly in the half-open range 0.0 <= X < 1.0. Python uses the Mersenne Twister as the core generator. It produces 53-bit precision floats and has a period of 2**19937-1. The underlying implementation in C is both fast and threadsafe. The Mersenne Twister is one of the most extensively tested random number generators in existence. However, being completely deterministic, it is not suitable for all purposes, and is completely unsuitable for cryptographic purposes.

Les fonctions fournies par ce module dépendent en réalité de méthodes d’une instance cachée de la classe random.Random. Vous pouvez créer vos propres instances de Random pour obtenir des générateurs sans états partagés.

Class Random can also be subclassed if you want to use a different basic generator of your own devising: see the documentation on that class for more details.

The random module also provides the SystemRandom class which uses the system function os.urandom() to generate random numbers from sources provided by the operating system.

Avertissement

Les générateurs pseudo-aléatoires de ce module ne doivent pas être utilisés à des fins de sécurité. Pour des utilisations de sécurité ou cryptographiques, voir le module secrets.

Voir aussi

M. Matsumoto and T. Nishimura, "Mersenne Twister: A 623-dimensionally equidistributed uniform pseudorandom number generator", ACM Transactions on Modeling and Computer Simulation Vol. 8, No. 1, Janvier pp.3--30 1998.

Complementary-Multiply-with-Carry recipe [https://code.activestate.com/recipes/576707-long-period-random-number-generator/] for a compatible alternative random number generator with a long period and comparatively simple update operations.

Note

The global random number generator and instances of Random are thread-safe. However, in the free-threaded build, concurrent calls to the global generator or to the same instance of Random may encounter contention and poor performance. Consider using separate instances of Random per thread instead.

Fonctions de gestion d'état

random.seed(a=None, version=2)

Initialise le générateur de nombres aléatoires.

Si a est omis ou None, l'heure système actuelle est utilisée. Si des sources aléatoires sont fournies par le système d'exploitation, elles sont utilisées à la place de l'heure système (voir la fonction os.urandom() pour les détails sur la disponibilité).

If a is an int, its absolute value is used directly.

Avec la version 2 (par défaut), un objet str, bytes ou bytearray est converti en int et tous ses bits sont utilisés.

Avec la version 1 (fournie pour reproduire des séquences aléatoires produites par d'anciennes versions de Python), l'algorithme pour str et bytes génère une gamme plus étroite de graines.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Passée à la version 2 du schéma qui utilise tous les bits d'une graine de chaîne de caractères.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: The seed must be one of the following types: None, int, float, str, bytes, or bytearray.

random.getstate()

Renvoie un objet capturant l'état interne actuel du générateur. Cet objet peut être passé à setstate() pour restaurer cet état.

random.setstate(state)

Il convient que state ait été obtenu à partir d'un appel précédent à getstate(), et setstate() restaure l'état interne du générateur à ce qu'il était au moment où getstate() a été appelé.

Fonctions pour les octets

random.randbytes(n)

Génère n octets aléatoires.

Cette méthode ne doit pas être utilisée pour générer des jetons de sécurité. Utiliser secrets.token_bytes() à la place.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

Fonctions pour les entiers

random.randrange(stop)

random.randrange(start, stop[, step])

Return a randomly selected element from range(start, stop, step).

This is roughly equivalent to choice(range(start, stop, step)) but supports arbitrarily large ranges and is optimized for common cases.

The positional argument pattern matches the range() function.

Keyword arguments should not be used because they can be interpreted in unexpected ways. For example randrange(start=100) is interpreted as randrange(0, 100, 1).

Modifié dans la version 3.2: randrange() est plus sophistiquée dans la production de valeurs uniformément distribuées. Auparavant, elle utilisait un style comme int(random()*n) qui pouvait produire des distributions légèrement inégales.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Automatic conversion of non-integer types is no longer supported. Calls such as randrange(10.0) and randrange(Fraction(10, 1)) now raise a TypeError.

random.randint(a, b)

Renvoie un entier aléatoire N tel que a <= N <= b. Alias pour randrange(a, b+1).

random.getrandbits(k)

Returns a non-negative Python integer with k random bits. This method is supplied with the Mersenne Twister generator and some other generators may also provide it as an optional part of the API. When available, getrandbits() enables randrange() to handle arbitrarily large ranges.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Cette méthode accepte désormais zéro pour k.

Fonctions pour les séquences

random.choice(seq)

Renvoie un élément aléatoire de la séquence non vide seq. Si seq est vide, lève IndexError.

random.choices(population, weights=None, *, cum_weights=None, k=1)

Renvoie une liste de taille k d'éléments choisis dans la population avec remise. Si la population est vide, lève IndexError.

Si une séquence de poids est spécifiée, les tirages sont effectués en fonction des poids relatifs. Alternativement, si une séquence cum_weights est donnée, les tirages sont faits en fonction des poids cumulés (peut-être calculés en utilisant itertools.accumulate()). Par exemple, les poids relatifs [10, 5, 30, 5] sont équivalents aux poids cumulatifs [10, 15, 45, 50]. En interne, les poids relatifs sont convertis en poids cumulatifs avant d'effectuer les tirages, ce qui vous permet d'économiser du travail en fournissant des pondérations cumulatives.

Si ni weights ni cum_weights ne sont spécifiés, les tirages sont effectués avec une probabilité uniforme. Si une séquence de poids est fournie, elle doit être de la même longueur que la séquence population. Spécifier à la fois weights et cum_weights lève une TypeError.

Les weights ou cum_weights peuvent utiliser n'importe quel type numérique interopérable avec les valeurs float renvoyées par random() (qui inclut les entiers, les flottants et les fractions mais exclut les décimaux). Les poids sont présumés être non négatifs et finis. Une exception ValueError est levée si tous les poids sont à zéro.

For a given seed, the choices() function with equal weighting typically produces a different sequence than repeated calls to choice(). The algorithm used by choices() uses floating-point arithmetic for internal consistency and speed. The algorithm used by choice() defaults to integer arithmetic with repeated selections to avoid small biases from round-off error.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Lève une ValueError si tous les poids sont à zéro.

random.shuffle(x)

Mélange la séquence x sans créer de nouvelle instance (« sur place »).

Pour mélanger une séquence immuable et renvoyer une nouvelle liste mélangée, utilisez sample(x, k=len(x)) à la place.

Notez que même pour les petits len(x), le nombre total de permutations de x peut rapidement devenir plus grand que la période de la plupart des générateurs de nombres aléatoires. Cela implique que la plupart des permutations d'une longue séquence ne peuvent jamais être générées. Par exemple, une séquence de longueur 2080 est la plus grande qui puisse tenir dans la période du générateur de nombres aléatoires Mersenne Twister.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Removed the optional parameter random.

random.sample(population, k, *, counts=None)

Return a k length list of unique elements chosen from the population sequence. Used for random sampling without replacement.

Renvoie une nouvelle liste contenant des éléments de la population tout en laissant la population originale inchangée. La liste résultante est classée par ordre de sélection de sorte que toutes les sous-tranches soient également des échantillons aléatoires valides. Cela permet aux gagnants du tirage (l'échantillon) d'être divisés en gagnants du grand prix et en gagnants de la deuxième place (les sous-tranches).

Les membres de la population n'ont pas besoin d'être hachables ou uniques. Si la population contient des répétitions, alors chaque occurrence est un tirage possible dans l'échantillon.

Les éléments répétés peuvent être spécifiés un à la fois ou avec le paramètre optionnel uniquement nommé counts. Par exemple, sample([‘red’, ‘blue’], counts=[4, 2], k=5) est équivalent à sample([‘red’, ‘red’, ‘red’, ‘red’, ‘blue’, ‘blue’], k=5).

Pour choisir un échantillon parmi un intervalle d'entiers, utilisez un objet range() comme argument. Ceci est particulièrement rapide et économe en mémoire pour un tirage dans une grande population : échantillon(range(10000000), k=60).

Si la taille de l'échantillon est supérieure à la taille de la population, une ValueError est levée.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Ajoute le paramètre counts.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: The population must be a sequence. Automatic conversion of sets to lists is no longer supported.

Discrete distributions

The following function generates a discrete distribution.

random.binomialvariate(n=1, p=0.5)

Binomial distribution [https://mathworld.wolfram.com/BinomialDistribution.html]. Return the number of successes for n independent trials with the probability of success in each trial being p:

Mathematically equivalent to:

sum(random() < p for i in range(n))

The number of trials n should be a non-negative integer. The probability of success p should be between 0.0 <= p <= 1.0. The result is an integer in the range 0 <= X <= n.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Distributions pour les nombres réels

Les fonctions suivantes génèrent des distributions spécifiques en nombre réels. Les paramètres de fonction sont nommés d'après les variables correspondantes de l'équation de la distribution, telles qu'elles sont utilisées dans la pratique mathématique courante ; la plupart de ces équations peuvent être trouvées dans tout document traitant de statistiques.

random.random()

Return the next random floating-point number in the range 0.0 <= X < 1.0

random.uniform(a, b)

Return a random floating-point number N such that a <= N <= b for a <= b and b <= N <= a for b < a.

The end-point value b may or may not be included in the range depending on floating-point rounding in the expression a + (b-a) * random().

random.triangular(low, high, mode)

Return a random floating-point number N such that low <= N <= high and with the specified mode between those bounds. The low and high bounds default to zero and one. The mode argument defaults to the midpoint between the bounds, giving a symmetric distribution.

random.betavariate(alpha, beta)

Distribution bêta. Les conditions sur les paramètres sont alpha > 0 et beta > 0. Les valeurs renvoyées varient entre 0 et 1.

random.expovariate(lambd=1.0)

Distribution exponentielle. lambd est 1,0 divisé par la moyenne désirée. Ce ne doit pas être zéro. (Le paramètre aurait dû s'appeler "lambda", mais c'est un mot réservé en Python.) Les valeurs renvoyées vont de 0 à plus l'infini positif si lambd est positif, et de moins l'infini à 0 si lambd est négatif.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added the default value for lambd.

random.gammavariate(alpha, beta)

Gamma distribution. (Not the gamma function!) The shape and scale parameters, alpha and beta, must have positive values. (Calling conventions vary and some sources define 'beta' as the inverse of the scale).

La fonction de distribution de probabilité est :

          x ** (alpha - 1) * math.exp(-x / beta)
pdf(x) =  --------------------------------------
            math.gamma(alpha) * beta ** alpha

random.gauss(mu=0.0, sigma=1.0)

Normal distribution, also called the Gaussian distribution. mu is the mean, and sigma is the standard deviation. This is slightly faster than the normalvariate() function defined below.

Note sur les fils d’exécution multiples (Multithreading) : quand deux fils d’exécution appellent cette fonction simultanément, il est possible qu’ils reçoivent la même valeur de retour. On peut l’éviter de 3 façons. 1) Avoir chaque fil utilisant une instance différente du générateur de nombres aléatoires. 2) Mettre des verrous autour de tous les appels. 3) Utiliser la fonction plus lente, mais compatible avec les programmes à fils d’exécution multiples, normalvariate() à la place.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: mu and sigma now have default arguments.

random.lognormvariate(mu, sigma)

Logarithme de la distribution normale. Si vous prenez le logarithme naturel de cette distribution, vous obtiendrez une distribution normale avec mu moyen et écart-type sigma. mu peut avoir n'importe quelle valeur et sigma doit être supérieur à zéro.

random.normalvariate(mu=0.0, sigma=1.0)

Distribution normale. mu est la moyenne et sigma est l'écart type.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: mu and sigma now have default arguments.

random.vonmisesvariate(mu, kappa)

mu est l'angle moyen, exprimé en radians entre 0 et 2*pi, et kappa est le paramètre de concentration, qui doit être supérieur ou égal à zéro. Si kappa est égal à zéro, cette distribution se réduit à un angle aléatoire uniforme sur la plage de 0 à 2*pi.

random.paretovariate(alpha)

Distribution de Pareto. alpha est le paramètre de forme.

random.weibullvariate(alpha, beta)

Distribution de Weibull. alpha est le paramètre de l'échelle et beta est le paramètre de forme.

Générateur alternatif

class random.Random([seed])

Class that implements the default pseudo-random number generator used by the random module.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Formerly the seed could be any hashable object. Now it is limited to: None, int, float, str, bytes, or bytearray.

Subclasses of Random should override the following methods if they wish to make use of a different basic generator:

seed(a=None, version=2)

Override this method in subclasses to customise the seed() behaviour of Random instances.

getstate()

Override this method in subclasses to customise the getstate() behaviour of Random instances.

setstate(state)

Override this method in subclasses to customise the setstate() behaviour of Random instances.

random()

Override this method in subclasses to customise the random() behaviour of Random instances.

Optionally, a custom generator subclass can also supply the following method:

getrandbits(k)

Override this method in subclasses to customise the getrandbits() behaviour of Random instances.

randbytes(n)

Override this method in subclasses to customise the randbytes() behaviour of Random instances.

class random.SystemRandom([seed])

Classe qui utilise la fonction os.urandom() pour générer des nombres aléatoires à partir de sources fournies par le système d'exploitation. Non disponible sur tous les systèmes. Ne repose pas sur un état purement logiciel et les séquences ne sont pas reproductibles. Par conséquent, la méthode seed() n'a aucun effet et est ignorée. Les méthodes getstate() et setstate() lèvent NotImplementedError si vous les appelez.

Remarques sur la reproductibilité

Sometimes it is useful to be able to reproduce the sequences given by a pseudo-random number generator. By reusing a seed value, the same sequence should be reproducible from run to run as long as multiple threads are not running.

La plupart des algorithmes et des fonctions de génération de graine du module aléatoire sont susceptibles d'être modifiés d'une version à l'autre de Python, mais deux aspects sont garantis de ne pas changer :

Si une nouvelle méthode de génération de graine est ajoutée, une fonction rétro-compatible sera offerte.

La méthode random() du générateur continuera à produire la même séquence lorsque la fonction de génération de graine compatible recevra la même semence.

Exemples

Exemples de base :

>>> random()                          # Random float:  0.0 <= x < 1.0
0.37444887175646646

>>> uniform(2.5, 10.0)                # Random float:  2.5 <= x <= 10.0
3.1800146073117523

>>> expovariate(1 / 5)                # Interval between arrivals averaging 5 seconds
5.148957571865031

>>> randrange(10)                     # Integer from 0 to 9 inclusive
7

>>> randrange(0, 101, 2)              # Even integer from 0 to 100 inclusive
26

>>> choice(['win', 'lose', 'draw'])   # Single random element from a sequence
'draw'

>>> deck = 'ace two three four'.split()
>>> shuffle(deck)                     # Shuffle a list
>>> deck
['four', 'two', 'ace', 'three']

>>> sample([10, 20, 30, 40, 50], k=4) # Four samples without replacement
[40, 10, 50, 30]

Simulations :

>>> # Six roulette wheel spins (weighted sampling with replacement)
>>> choices(['red', 'black', 'green'], [18, 18, 2], k=6)
['red', 'green', 'black', 'black', 'red', 'black']

>>> # Deal 20 cards without replacement from a deck
>>> # of 52 playing cards, and determine the proportion of cards
>>> # with a ten-value:  ten, jack, queen, or king.
>>> deal = sample(['tens', 'low cards'], counts=[16, 36], k=20)
>>> deal.count('tens') / 20
0.15

>>> # Estimate the probability of getting 5 or more heads from 7 spins
>>> # of a biased coin that settles on heads 60% of the time.
>>> sum(binomialvariate(n=7, p=0.6) >= 5 for i in range(10_000)) / 10_000
0.4169

>>> # Probability of the median of 5 samples being in middle two quartiles
>>> def trial():
...     return 2_500 <= sorted(choices(range(10_000), k=5))[2] < 7_500
...
>>> sum(trial() for i in range(10_000)) / 10_000
0.7958

Exemple de *bootstrapping* statistique [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bootstrap_(statistiques)] utilisant le ré-échantillonnage avec remise pour estimer un intervalle de confiance pour la moyenne d'un échantillon :

# https://www.thoughtco.com/example-of-bootstrapping-3126155
from statistics import fmean as mean
from random import choices

data = [41, 50, 29, 37, 81, 30, 73, 63, 20, 35, 68, 22, 60, 31, 95]
means = sorted(mean(choices(data, k=len(data))) for i in range(100))
print(f'The sample mean of {mean(data):.1f} has a 90% confidence '
      f'interval from {means[5]:.1f} to {means[94]:.1f}')

Exemple d'un *resampling permutation test* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resampling_(statistics)#Permutation_tests] pour déterminer la signification statistique ou valeur p [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valeur_p] d'une différence observée entre les effets d'un médicament et ceux d'un placebo :

# Example from "Statistics is Easy" by Dennis Shasha and Manda Wilson
from statistics import fmean as mean
from random import shuffle

drug = [54, 73, 53, 70, 73, 68, 52, 65, 65]
placebo = [54, 51, 58, 44, 55, 52, 42, 47, 58, 46]
observed_diff = mean(drug) - mean(placebo)

n = 10_000
count = 0
combined = drug + placebo
for i in range(n):
    shuffle(combined)
    new_diff = mean(combined[:len(drug)]) - mean(combined[len(drug):])
    count += (new_diff >= observed_diff)

print(f'{n} label reshufflings produced only {count} instances with a difference')
print(f'at least as extreme as the observed difference of {observed_diff:.1f}.')
print(f'The one-sided p-value of {count / n:.4f} leads us to reject the null')
print(f'hypothesis that there is no difference between the drug and the placebo.')

Simulation des heures d'arrivée et des livraisons de services pour une file d'attente de serveurs :

from heapq import heapify, heapreplace
from random import expovariate, gauss
from statistics import mean, quantiles

average_arrival_interval = 5.6
average_service_time = 15.0
stdev_service_time = 3.5
num_servers = 3

waits = []
arrival_time = 0.0
servers = [0.0] * num_servers  # time when each server becomes available
heapify(servers)
for i in range(1_000_000):
    arrival_time += expovariate(1.0 / average_arrival_interval)
    next_server_available = servers[0]
    wait = max(0.0, next_server_available - arrival_time)
    waits.append(wait)
    service_duration = max(0.0, gauss(average_service_time, stdev_service_time))
    service_completed = arrival_time + wait + service_duration
    heapreplace(servers, service_completed)

print(f'Mean wait: {mean(waits):.1f}   Max wait: {max(waits):.1f}')
print('Quartiles:', [round(q, 1) for q in quantiles(waits)])

Voir aussi

Statistics for Hackers [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Iq9DzN6mvYA] un tutoriel vidéo par Jake Vanderplas [https://us.pycon.org/2016/speaker/profile/295/] sur l'analyse statistique en utilisant seulement quelques concepts fondamentaux dont la simulation, l'échantillonnage, le brassage et la validation croisée.

Economics Simulation [https://nbviewer.org/url/norvig.com/ipython/Economics.ipynb] a simulation of a marketplace by Peter Norvig [https://norvig.com/bio.html] that shows effective use of many of the tools and distributions provided by this module (gauss, uniform, sample, betavariate, choice, triangular, and randrange).

A Concrete Introduction to Probability (using Python) [https://nbviewer.org/url/norvig.com/ipython/Probability.ipynb] a tutorial by Peter Norvig [https://norvig.com/bio.html] covering the basics of probability theory, how to write simulations, and how to perform data analysis using Python.

Cas pratiques

These recipes show how to efficiently make random selections from the combinatoric iterators in the itertools module:

import random

def random_product(*iterables, repeat=1):
    "Random selection from itertools.product(*iterables, repeat=repeat)"
    pools = tuple(map(tuple, iterables)) * repeat
    return tuple(map(random.choice, pools))

def random_permutation(iterable, r=None):
    "Random selection from itertools.permutations(iterable, r)"
    pool = tuple(iterable)
    r = len(pool) if r is None else r
    return tuple(random.sample(pool, r))

def random_combination(iterable, r):
    "Random selection from itertools.combinations(iterable, r)"
    pool = tuple(iterable)
    n = len(pool)
    indices = sorted(random.sample(range(n), r))
    return tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)

def random_combination_with_replacement(iterable, r):
    "Choose r elements with replacement.  Order the result to match the iterable."
    # Result will be in set(itertools.combinations_with_replacement(iterable, r)).
    pool = tuple(iterable)
    n = len(pool)
    indices = sorted(random.choices(range(n), k=r))
    return tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)

def random_derangement(iterable):
    "Choose a permutation where no element stays in its original position."
    seq = tuple(iterable)
    if len(seq) < 2:
        if not seq:
            return ()
        raise IndexError('No derangments to choose from')
    perm = list(range(len(seq)))
    start = tuple(perm)
    while True:
        random.shuffle(perm)
        if all(p != q for p, q in zip(start, perm)):
            return tuple([seq[i] for i in perm])

Par défaut random() renvoie des multiples de 2⁻⁵³ dans la plage 0.0 ≤ x < 1.0. Tous ces nombres sont uniformément répartis et sont représentés exactement en tant que nombre à virgule flottante Python. Cependant, de nombreux autres nombres à virgule flottante dans cette plage, et représentables en Python, ne sont pas sélectionnables. Par exemple 0.05954861408025609 n’est pas un multiple de 2⁻⁵³.

La recette suivante utilise une approche différente. Tous les nombres à virgule flottante de l’intervalle sont sélectionnables. La mantisse provient d’une distribution uniforme d’entiers dans la plage 2⁵² ≤ mantisse < 2⁵³. L’exposant provient d’une distribution géométrique où les exposants plus petits que -53 apparaissent moitié moins souvent que l’exposant suivant juste plus grand.

from random import Random
from math import ldexp

class FullRandom(Random):

    def random(self):
        mantissa = 0x10_0000_0000_0000 | self.getrandbits(52)
        exponent = -53
        x = 0
        while not x:
            x = self.getrandbits(32)
            exponent += x.bit_length() - 32
        return ldexp(mantissa, exponent)

Toutes les real valued distributions dans la classe seront utilisées dans la nouvelle méthode :

>>> fr = FullRandom()
>>> fr.random()
0.05954861408025609
>>> fr.expovariate(0.25)
8.87925541791544

La recette est conceptuellement équivalente à un algorithme qui choisit parmi tous les multiples de 2⁻¹⁰⁷⁴ dans la plage 0.0 ≤ x < 1.0. Tous ces nombres sont uniformément répartis, mais la plupart doivent être arrondis au nombre à virgule Python inférieur. (La valeur 2⁻¹⁰⁷⁴ est le plus petit nombre à virgule flottante positif et est égal à math.ulp(0.0).)

Voir aussi

Generating Pseudo-random Floating-Point Values [https://allendowney.com/research/rand/downey07randfloat.pdf] une publication par Allen B. Downey décrivant des manières de générer des nombres à virgule flottante plus fins que normalement générés par random().

Command-line usage

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

The random module can be executed from the command line.

python -m random [-h] [-c CHOICE [CHOICE ...] | -i N | -f N] [input ...]

Les options suivantes sont acceptées :

-h, --help

Affiche un message d'aide et quitte.

-c CHOICE [CHOICE ...]

--choice CHOICE [CHOICE ...]

Print a random choice, using choice().

-i <N>

--integer <N>

Print a random integer between 1 and N inclusive, using randint().

-f <N>

--float <N>

Print a random floating-point number between 0 and N inclusive, using uniform().

If no options are given, the output depends on the input:

String or multiple: same as --choice.

Integer: same as --integer.

Float: same as --float.

Command-line example

Here are some examples of the random command-line interface:

$ # Choose one at random
$ python -m random egg bacon sausage spam "Lobster Thermidor aux crevettes with a Mornay sauce"
Lobster Thermidor aux crevettes with a Mornay sauce

$ # Random integer
$ python -m random 6
6

$ # Random floating-point number
$ python -m random 1.8
1.7080016272295635

$ # With explicit arguments
$ python  -m random --choice egg bacon sausage spam "Lobster Thermidor aux crevettes with a Mornay sauce"
egg

$ python -m random --integer 6
3

$ python -m random --float 1.8
1.5666339105010318

$ python -m random --integer 6
5

$ python -m random --float 6
3.1942323316565915

statistics --- Mathematical statistics functions

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Code source : Lib/statistics.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/statistics.py]

Ce module fournit des fonctions pour le calcul de valeurs statistiques sur des données numériques (valeurs réelles de la classe Real).

The module is not intended to be a competitor to third-party libraries such as NumPy [https://numpy.org], SciPy [https://scipy.org/], or proprietary full-featured statistics packages aimed at professional statisticians such as Minitab, SAS and Matlab. It is aimed at the level of graphing and scientific calculators.

À moins que cela ne soit précisé différemment, ces fonctions gèrent les objets int, float, Decimal et Fraction. Leur bon comportement avec d'autres types (numériques ou non) n'est pas garanti. Le comportement de ces fonctions sur des collections mixtes de différents types est indéfini et dépend de l'implémentation. Si vos données comportement un mélange de plusieurs types, vous pouvez utiliser map() pour vous assurer que le résultat est cohérent, par exemple : map(float, input_data).

Some datasets use NaN (not a number) values to represent missing data. Since NaNs have unusual comparison semantics, they cause surprising or undefined behaviors in the statistics functions that sort data or that count occurrences. The functions affected are median(), median_low(), median_high(), median_grouped(), mode(), multimode(), and quantiles(). The NaN values should be stripped before calling these functions:

>>> from statistics import median
>>> from math import isnan
>>> from itertools import filterfalse

>>> data = [20.7, float('NaN'),19.2, 18.3, float('NaN'), 14.4]
>>> sorted(data)  # This has surprising behavior
[20.7, nan, 14.4, 18.3, 19.2, nan]
>>> median(data)  # This result is unexpected
16.35

>>> sum(map(isnan, data))    # Number of missing values
2
>>> clean = list(filterfalse(isnan, data))  # Strip NaN values
>>> clean
[20.7, 19.2, 18.3, 14.4]
>>> sorted(clean)  # Sorting now works as expected
[14.4, 18.3, 19.2, 20.7]
>>> median(clean)       # This result is now well defined
18.75

Moyennes et mesures de la tendance centrale

Ces fonctions calculent une moyenne ou une valeur typique à partir d'une population ou d'un échantillon.

mean()

Moyenne arithmétique des données.

fmean()

Fast, floating-point arithmetic mean, with optional weighting.

geometric_mean()

Moyenne géométrique des données.

harmonic_mean()

Moyenne harmonique des données.

kde()

Estimate the probability density distribution of the data.

kde_random()

Random sampling from the PDF generated by kde().

median()

Médiane (valeur centrale) des données.

median_low()

Médiane basse des données.

median_high()

Médiane haute des données.

median_grouped()

Median (50th percentile) of grouped data.

mode()

Mode principal (la valeur la plus représentée) de données discrètes ou nominales.

multimode()

Liste des modes (les valeurs les plus représentées) de données discrètes ou nominales.

quantiles()

Divise les données en intervalles de même probabilité.

Mesures de la dispersion

Ces fonctions mesurent la tendance de la population ou d'un échantillon à dévier des valeurs typiques ou des valeurs moyennes.

pstdev()

Écart-type de la population.

pvariance()

Variance de la population.

stdev()

Écart-type d'un échantillon.

variance()

Variance d'un échantillon.

Statistics for relations between two inputs

These functions calculate statistics regarding relations between two inputs.

covariance()

Covariance d'un échantillon pour deux variables.

correlation()

Pearson and Spearman's correlation coefficients.

linear_regression()

Slope and intercept for simple linear regression.

Détails des fonctions

Note : les fonctions ne requièrent pas que les données soient ordonnées. Toutefois, pour en faciliter la lecture, les exemples utiliseront des séquences croissantes.

statistics.mean(data)

Renvoie la moyenne arithmétique de l'échantillon data qui peut être une séquence ou un itérable.

La moyenne arithmétique est la somme des valeurs divisée par le nombre d'observations. Il s'agit de la valeur couramment désignée comme la « moyenne » bien qu'il existe de multiples façons de définir mathématiquement la moyenne. C'est une mesure de la tendance centrale des données.

Une erreur StatisticsError est levée si data est vide.

Exemples d'utilisation :

>>> mean([1, 2, 3, 4, 4])
2.8
>>> mean([-1.0, 2.5, 3.25, 5.75])
2.625

>>> from fractions import Fraction as F
>>> mean([F(3, 7), F(1, 21), F(5, 3), F(1, 3)])
Fraction(13, 21)

>>> from decimal import Decimal as D
>>> mean([D("0.5"), D("0.75"), D("0.625"), D("0.375")])
Decimal('0.5625')

Note

La moyenne arithmétique est fortement impactée par la présence de valeurs aberrantes [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donn%C3%A9e_aberrante] et n'est pas un estimateur robuste de la tendance centrale : la moyenne n'est pas nécessairement un exemple représentatif de l'échantillon. Voir median() pour des mesures plus robustes de la tendance centrale [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indicateur_de_tendance_centrale].

La moyenne de l'échantillon est une estimation non biaisée de la moyenne de la véritable population. Ainsi, en calculant la moyenne sur tous les échantillons possibles, mean(sample) converge vers la moyenne réelle de la population entière. Si data est une population entière plutôt qu'un échantillon, alors mean(data) équivaut à calculer la véritable moyenne μ.

statistics.fmean(data, weights=None)

Convertit data en nombres à virgule flottante et calcule la moyenne arithmétique.

Cette fonction est plus rapide que mean() et renvoie toujours un float. data peut être une séquence ou un itérable. Si les données d'entrée sont vides, la fonction lève une erreur StatisticsError.

>>> fmean([3.5, 4.0, 5.25])
4.25

Optional weighting is supported. For example, a professor assigns a grade for a course by weighting quizzes at 20%, homework at 20%, a midterm exam at 30%, and a final exam at 30%:

>>> grades = [85, 92, 83, 91]
>>> weights = [0.20, 0.20, 0.30, 0.30]
>>> fmean(grades, weights)
87.6

If weights is supplied, it must be the same length as the data or a ValueError will be raised.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added support for weights.

statistics.geometric_mean(data)

Convertit data en nombres à virgule flottante et calcule la moyenne géométrique.

La moyenne géométrique mesure la tendance centrale ou la valeur typique de data en utilisant le produit des valeurs (par opposition à la moyenne arithmétique qui utilise la somme).

Lève une erreur StatisticsError si les données sont vides, si elles contiennent un zéro ou une valeur négative. data peut être une séquence ou un itérable.

Aucune mesure particulière n'est prise pour garantir que le résultat est parfaitement exact (cela peut toutefois changer dans une version future).

>>> round(geometric_mean([54, 24, 36]), 1)
36.0

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

statistics.harmonic_mean(data, weights=None)

Return the harmonic mean of data, a sequence or iterable of real-valued numbers. If weights is omitted or None, then equal weighting is assumed.

The harmonic mean is the reciprocal of the arithmetic mean() of the reciprocals of the data. For example, the harmonic mean of three values a, b and c will be equivalent to 3/(1/a + 1/b + 1/c). If one of the values is zero, the result will be zero.

The harmonic mean is a type of average, a measure of the central location of the data. It is often appropriate when averaging ratios or rates, for example speeds.

Supposons qu'une voiture parcoure 10 km à 40 km/h puis 10 km à 60 km/h. Quelle a été sa vitesse moyenne ?

>>> harmonic_mean([40, 60])
48.0

Suppose a car travels 40 km/hr for 5 km, and when traffic clears, speeds-up to 60 km/hr for the remaining 30 km of the journey. What is the average speed?

>>> harmonic_mean([40, 60], weights=[5, 30])
56.0

StatisticsError is raised if data is empty, any element is less than zero, or if the weighted sum isn't positive.

L'algorithme actuellement implémenté s'arrête prématurément lors de la rencontre d'un zéro dans le parcours de l'entrée. Cela signifie que la validité des valeurs suivantes n'est pas testée (ce comportement est susceptible de changer dans une version future).

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Added support for weights.

statistics.kde(data, h, kernel='normal', *, cumulative=False)

Kernel Density Estimation (KDE) [https://www.itm-conferences.org/articles/itmconf/pdf/2018/08/itmconf_sam2018_00037.pdf]: Create a continuous probability density function or cumulative distribution function from discrete samples.

The basic idea is to smooth the data using a kernel function [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel_(statistics)]. to help draw inferences about a population from a sample.

The degree of smoothing is controlled by the scaling parameter h which is called the bandwidth. Smaller values emphasize local features while larger values give smoother results.

The kernel determines the relative weights of the sample data points. Generally, the choice of kernel shape does not matter as much as the more influential bandwidth smoothing parameter.

Kernels that give some weight to every sample point include normal (gauss), logistic, and sigmoid.

Kernels that only give weight to sample points within the bandwidth include rectangular (uniform), triangular, parabolic (epanechnikov), quartic (biweight), triweight, and cosine.

If cumulative is true, will return a cumulative distribution function.

A StatisticsError will be raised if the data sequence is empty.

Wikipedia has an example [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel_density_estimation#Example] where we can use kde() to generate and plot a probability density function estimated from a small sample:

>>> sample = [-2.1, -1.3, -0.4, 1.9, 5.1, 6.2]
>>> f_hat = kde(sample, h=1.5)
>>> xarr = [i/100 for i in range(-750, 1100)]
>>> yarr = [f_hat(x) for x in xarr]

The points in xarr and yarr can be used to make a PDF plot:

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

statistics.kde_random(data, h, kernel='normal', *, seed=None)

Return a function that makes a random selection from the estimated probability density function produced by kde(data, h, kernel).

Providing a seed allows reproducible selections. In the future, the values may change slightly as more accurate kernel inverse CDF estimates are implemented. The seed may be an integer, float, str, or bytes.

A StatisticsError will be raised if the data sequence is empty.

Continuing the example for kde(), we can use kde_random() to generate new random selections from an estimated probability density function:

>>> data = [-2.1, -1.3, -0.4, 1.9, 5.1, 6.2]
>>> rand = kde_random(data, h=1.5, seed=8675309)
>>> new_selections = [rand() for i in range(10)]
>>> [round(x, 1) for x in new_selections]
[0.7, 6.2, 1.2, 6.9, 7.0, 1.8, 2.5, -0.5, -1.8, 5.6]

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

statistics.median(data)

Renvoie la médiane (la valeur centrale) de données numériques en utilisant la méthode classique « moyenne des deux du milieu ». Lève une erreur StatisticsError si data est vide. data peut être une séquence ou un itérable.

La médiane est une mesure robuste de la tendance centrale et est moins sensible à la présence de valeurs aberrantes que la moyenne. Lorsque le nombre d'observations est impair, la valeur du milieu est renvoyée :

>>> median([1, 3, 5])
3

Lorsque le nombre d'observations est pair, la médiane est interpolée en calculant la moyenne des deux valeurs du milieu :

>>> median([1, 3, 5, 7])
4.0

Cette approche est adaptée à des données discrètes à condition que vous acceptiez que la médiane ne fasse pas nécessairement partie des observations.

Si les données sont ordinales (elles peuvent être ordonnées) mais pas numériques (elles ne peuvent être additionnées), utilisez median_low() ou median_high() à la place.

statistics.median_low(data)

Renvoie la médiane basse de données numériques. Lève une erreur StatisticsError si data est vide. data peut être une séquence ou un itérable.

La médiane basse est toujours une valeur représentée dans les données. Lorsque le nombre d'observations est impair, la valeur du milieu est renvoyée. Sinon, la plus petite des deux valeurs du milieu est renvoyée.

>>> median_low([1, 3, 5])
3
>>> median_low([1, 3, 5, 7])
3

Utilisez la médiane basse lorsque vos données sont discrètes et que vous préférez que la médiane soit une valeur représentée dans vos observations plutôt que le résultat d'une interpolation.

statistics.median_high(data)

Renvoie la médiane haute des données. Lève une erreur StatisticsError si data est vide. data peut être une séquence ou un itérable.

La médiane haute est toujours une valeur représentée dans les données. Lorsque le nombre d'observations est impair, la valeur du milieu est renvoyée. Sinon, la plus grande des deux valeurs du milieu est renvoyée.

>>> median_high([1, 3, 5])
3
>>> median_high([1, 3, 5, 7])
5

Utilisez la médiane haute lorsque vos données sont discrètes et que vous préférez que la médiane soit une valeur représentée dans vos observations plutôt que le résultat d'une interpolation.

statistics.median_grouped(data, interval=1.0)

Estimates the median for numeric data that has been grouped or binned [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_binning] around the midpoints of consecutive, fixed-width intervals.

The data can be any iterable of numeric data with each value being exactly the midpoint of a bin. At least one value must be present.

The interval is the width of each bin.

For example, demographic information may have been summarized into consecutive ten-year age groups with each group being represented by the 5-year midpoints of the intervals:

>>> from collections import Counter
>>> demographics = Counter({
...    25: 172,   # 20 to 30 years old
...    35: 484,   # 30 to 40 years old
...    45: 387,   # 40 to 50 years old
...    55:  22,   # 50 to 60 years old
...    65:   6,   # 60 to 70 years old
... })
...

The 50th percentile (median) is the 536th person out of the 1071 member cohort. That person is in the 30 to 40 year old age group.

The regular median() function would assume that everyone in the tricenarian age group was exactly 35 years old. A more tenable assumption is that the 484 members of that age group are evenly distributed between 30 and 40. For that, we use median_grouped():

>>> data = list(demographics.elements())
>>> median(data)
35
>>> round(median_grouped(data, interval=10), 1)
37.5

The caller is responsible for making sure the data points are separated by exact multiples of interval. This is essential for getting a correct result. The function does not check this precondition.

Inputs may be any numeric type that can be coerced to a float during the interpolation step.

statistics.mode(data)

Renvoie la valeur la plus représentée dans la collection data (discrète ou nominale). Ce mode, lorsqu'il existe, est la valeur la plus représentative des données et est une mesure de la tendance centrale.

S'il existe plusieurs modes avec la même fréquence, cette fonction renvoie le premier qui a été rencontré dans data. Utilisez min(multimode(data)) ou max(multimode(data)) si vous désirez le plus petit mode ou le plus grand mode. Lève une erreur StatisticsError si data est vide.

mode suppose que les données sont discrètes et renvoie une seule valeur. Il s'agit de la définition usuelle du mode telle qu'enseignée dans à l'école :

>>> mode([1, 1, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 4])
3

Le mode a la particularité d'être la seule statistique de ce module à pouvoir être calculée sur des données nominales (non numériques) :

>>> mode(["red", "blue", "blue", "red", "green", "red", "red"])
'red'

Only hashable inputs are supported. To handle type set, consider casting to frozenset. To handle type list, consider casting to tuple. For mixed or nested inputs, consider using this slower quadratic algorithm that only depends on equality tests: max(data, key=data.count).

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Gère désormais des jeux de données avec plusieurs modes en renvoyant le premier mode rencontré. Précédemment, une erreur StatisticsError était levée si plusieurs modes étaient trouvés.

statistics.multimode(data)

Renvoie une liste des valeurs les plus fréquentes en suivant leur ordre d'apparition dans data. Renvoie plusieurs résultats s'il y a plusieurs modes ou une liste vide si data est vide :

>>> multimode('aabbbbccddddeeffffgg')
['b', 'd', 'f']
>>> multimode('')
[]

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

statistics.pstdev(data, mu=None)

Renvoie l'écart-type de la population (racine carrée de la variance de la population). Voir pvariance() pour les arguments et d'autres précisions.

>>> pstdev([1.5, 2.5, 2.5, 2.75, 3.25, 4.75])
0.986893273527251

statistics.pvariance(data, mu=None)

Renvoie la variance de la population data, une séquence non-vide ou un itérable de valeurs réelles. La variance, ou moment de second ordre, est une mesure de la variabilité (ou dispersion) des données. Une variance élevée indique une large dispersion des valeurs ; une faible variance indique que les valeurs sont resserrées autour de la moyenne.

If the optional second argument mu is given, it should be the population mean of the data. It can also be used to compute the second moment around a point that is not the mean. If it is missing or None (the default), the arithmetic mean is automatically calculated.

Utilisez cette fonction pour calculer la variance sur une population complète. Pour estimer la variance à partir d'un échantillon, utilisez plutôt variance() à la place.

Lève une erreur StatisticsError si data est vide.

Exemples :

>>> data = [0.0, 0.25, 0.25, 1.25, 1.5, 1.75, 2.75, 3.25]
>>> pvariance(data)
1.25

Si vous connaissez la moyenne de vos données, il est possible de la passer comme argument optionnel mu lors de l'appel de fonction pour éviter de la calculer une nouvelle fois :

>>> mu = mean(data)
>>> pvariance(data, mu)
1.25

La fonction gère les nombres décimaux et les fractions :

>>> from decimal import Decimal as D
>>> pvariance([D("27.5"), D("30.25"), D("30.25"), D("34.5"), D("41.75")])
Decimal('24.815')

>>> from fractions import Fraction as F
>>> pvariance([F(1, 4), F(5, 4), F(1, 2)])
Fraction(13, 72)

Note

Cette fonction renvoie la variance de la population σ² lorsqu'elle est appliquée sur la population entière. Si elle est appliquée seulement sur un échantillon, le résultat est alors la variance de l'échantillon s² ou variance à N degrés de liberté.

Si vous connaissez d'avance la vraie moyenne de la population μ, vous pouvez utiliser cette fonction pour calculer la variance de l'échantillon sachant la moyenne de la population en la passante comme second argument. En supposant que les observations sont issues d'un tirage aléatoire uniforme dans la population, le résultat sera une estimation non biaisée de la variance de la population.

statistics.stdev(data, xbar=None)

Renvoie l'écart-type de l'échantillon (racine carrée de la variance de l'échantillon). Voir variance() pour les arguments et plus de détails.

>>> stdev([1.5, 2.5, 2.5, 2.75, 3.25, 4.75])
1.0810874155219827

statistics.variance(data, xbar=None)

Renvoie la variance de l'échantillon data, un itérable d'au moins deux valeurs réelles. La variance, ou moment de second ordre, est une mesure de la variabilité (ou dispersion) des données. Une variance élevée indique que les données sont très dispersées ; une variance faible indique que les valeurs sont resserrées autour de la moyenne.

If the optional second argument xbar is given, it should be the sample mean of data. If it is missing or None (the default), the mean is automatically calculated.

Utilisez cette fonction lorsque vos données forment un échantillon d'une population plus grande. Pour calculer la variance d'une population complète, utilisez pvariance().

Lève une erreur StatisticsError si data contient moins de deux éléments.

Exemples :

>>> data = [2.75, 1.75, 1.25, 0.25, 0.5, 1.25, 3.5]
>>> variance(data)
1.3720238095238095

If you have already calculated the sample mean of your data, you can pass it as the optional second argument xbar to avoid recalculation:

>>> m = mean(data)
>>> variance(data, m)
1.3720238095238095

Cette fonction ne vérifie pas que la valeur passée dans l'argument xbar correspond bien à la moyenne. Utiliser des valeurs arbitraires pour xbar produit des résultats impossibles ou incorrects.

La fonction gère les nombres décimaux et les fractions :

>>> from decimal import Decimal as D
>>> variance([D("27.5"), D("30.25"), D("30.25"), D("34.5"), D("41.75")])
Decimal('31.01875')

>>> from fractions import Fraction as F
>>> variance([F(1, 6), F(1, 2), F(5, 3)])
Fraction(67, 108)

Note

Cela correspond à la variance s² de l'échantillon avec correction de Bessel (ou variance à N-1 degrés de liberté). En supposant que les observations sont représentatives de la population (c'est-à-dire indépendantes et identiquement distribuées), alors le résultat est une estimation non biaisée de la variance.

Si vous connaissez d'avance la vraie moyenne μ de la population, vous devriez la passer à pvariance() comme paramètre mu pour obtenir la variance de l'échantillon.

statistics.quantiles(data, *, n=4, method='exclusive')

Divise data en n intervalles réels de même probabilité. Renvoie une liste de n - 1 valeurs délimitant les intervalles (les quantiles).

Utilisez n = 4 pour obtenir les quartiles (le défaut), n = 10 pour obtenir les déciles et n = 100 pour obtenir les centiles (ce qui produit 99 valeurs qui séparent data en 100 groupes de même taille). Lève une erreur StatisticsError si n est strictement inférieur à 1.

The data can be any iterable containing sample data. For meaningful results, the number of data points in data should be larger than n. Raises StatisticsError if there is not at least one data point.

Les quantiles sont linéairement interpolées à partir des deux valeurs les plus proches dans l'échantillon. Par exemple, si un quantile se situe à un tiers de la distance entre les deux valeurs de l'échantillon 100 et 112, le quantile vaudra 104.

L'argument method indique la méthode à utiliser pour calculer les quantiles et peut être modifié pour spécifier s'il faut inclure ou exclure les valeurs basses et hautes de data de la population.

La valeur par défaut pour method est "exclusive" et est applicable pour des données échantillonnées dans une population dont une des valeurs extrêmes peut être plus grande (respectivement plus petite) que le maximum (respectivement le minimum) des valeurs de l'échantillon. La proportion de la population se situant en-dessous du ie de m valeurs ordonnées est calculée par la formule i / (m + 1). Par exemple, en supposant 9 valeurs dans l'échantillon, cette méthode les ordonne et leur associe les quantiles suivants : 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%.

En utilisant "inclusive" comme valeur du paramètre method, on suppose que data correspond soit à une population entière, soit que les valeurs extrêmes de la population sont représentées dans l'échantillon. Le minimum de data est alors considéré comme 0e centile et le maximum comme 100e centile. La proportion de la population se situant sous la ie valeur de m valeurs ordonnées est calculée par la formule (i - 1)/(m - 1). En supposant que l'on a 11 valeurs dans l'échantillon, cette méthode les ordonne et leur associe les quantiles suivants : 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 100%.

# Decile cut points for empirically sampled data
>>> data = [105, 129, 87, 86, 111, 111, 89, 81, 108, 92, 110,
...         100, 75, 105, 103, 109, 76, 119, 99, 91, 103, 129,
...         106, 101, 84, 111, 74, 87, 86, 103, 103, 106, 86,
...         111, 75, 87, 102, 121, 111, 88, 89, 101, 106, 95,
...         103, 107, 101, 81, 109, 104]
>>> [round(q, 1) for q in quantiles(data, n=10)]
[81.0, 86.2, 89.0, 99.4, 102.5, 103.6, 106.0, 109.8, 111.0]

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: No longer raises an exception for an input with only a single data point. This allows quantile estimates to be built up one sample point at a time becoming gradually more refined with each new data point.

statistics.covariance(x, y, /)

Return the sample covariance of two inputs x and y. Covariance is a measure of the joint variability of two inputs.

Both inputs must be of the same length (no less than two), otherwise StatisticsError is raised.

Exemples :

>>> x = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
>>> y = [1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3]
>>> covariance(x, y)
0.75
>>> z = [9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1]
>>> covariance(x, z)
-7.5
>>> covariance(z, x)
-7.5

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

statistics.correlation(x, y, /, *, method='linear')

Return the Pearson's correlation coefficient [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearson_correlation_coefficient] for two inputs. Pearson's correlation coefficient r takes values between -1 and +1. It measures the strength and direction of a linear relationship.

If method is "ranked", computes Spearman's rank correlation coefficient [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spearman%27s_rank_correlation_coefficient] for two inputs. The data is replaced by ranks. Ties are averaged so that equal values receive the same rank. The resulting coefficient measures the strength of a monotonic relationship.

Spearman's correlation coefficient is appropriate for ordinal data or for continuous data that doesn't meet the linear proportion requirement for Pearson's correlation coefficient.

Both inputs must be of the same length (no less than two), and need not to be constant, otherwise StatisticsError is raised.

Example with Kepler's laws of planetary motion [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler's_laws_of_planetary_motion]:

>>> # Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and  Neptune
>>> orbital_period = [88, 225, 365, 687, 4331, 10_756, 30_687, 60_190]    # days
>>> dist_from_sun = [58, 108, 150, 228, 778, 1_400, 2_900, 4_500] # million km

>>> # Show that a perfect monotonic relationship exists
>>> correlation(orbital_period, dist_from_sun, method='ranked')
1.0

>>> # Observe that a linear relationship is imperfect
>>> round(correlation(orbital_period, dist_from_sun), 4)
0.9882

>>> # Demonstrate Kepler's third law: There is a linear correlation
>>> # between the square of the orbital period and the cube of the
>>> # distance from the sun.
>>> period_squared = [p * p for p in orbital_period]
>>> dist_cubed = [d * d * d for d in dist_from_sun]
>>> round(correlation(period_squared, dist_cubed), 4)
1.0

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added support for Spearman's rank correlation coefficient.

statistics.linear_regression(x, y, /, *, proportional=False)

Return the slope and intercept of simple linear regression [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_linear_regression] parameters estimated using ordinary least squares. Simple linear regression describes the relationship between an independent variable x and a dependent variable y in terms of this linear function:

y = slope * x + intercept + noise

where slope and intercept are the regression parameters that are estimated, and noise represents the variability of the data that was not explained by the linear regression (it is equal to the difference between predicted and actual values of the dependent variable).

Both inputs must be of the same length (no less than two), and the independent variable x cannot be constant; otherwise a StatisticsError is raised.

For example, we can use the release dates of the Monty Python films [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monty_Python#Films] to predict the cumulative number of Monty Python films that would have been produced by 2019 assuming that they had kept the pace.

>>> year = [1971, 1975, 1979, 1982, 1983]
>>> films_total = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
>>> slope, intercept = linear_regression(year, films_total)
>>> round(slope * 2019 + intercept)
16

If proportional is true, the independent variable x and the dependent variable y are assumed to be directly proportional. The data is fit to a line passing through the origin. Since the intercept will always be 0.0, the underlying linear function simplifies to:

y = slope * x + noise

Continuing the example from correlation(), we look to see how well a model based on major planets can predict the orbital distances for dwarf planets:

>>> model = linear_regression(period_squared, dist_cubed, proportional=True)
>>> slope = model.slope

>>> # Dwarf planets:   Pluto,  Eris,    Makemake, Haumea, Ceres
>>> orbital_periods = [90_560, 204_199, 111_845, 103_410, 1_680]  # days
>>> predicted_dist = [math.cbrt(slope * (p * p)) for p in orbital_periods]
>>> list(map(round, predicted_dist))
[5912, 10166, 6806, 6459, 414]

>>> [5_906, 10_152, 6_796, 6_450, 414]  # actual distance in million km
[5906, 10152, 6796, 6450, 414]

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added support for proportional.

Exceptions

Une seule exception est définie :

exception statistics.StatisticsError

Sous-classe de ValueError pour les exceptions liées aux statistiques.

Objets NormalDist

NormalDist est un outil permettant de créer et manipuler des lois normales de variables aléatoires [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_al%C3%A9atoire]. Cette classe gère la moyenne et l'écart-type d'un ensemble d'observations comme une seule entité.

Les lois normales apparaissent dans de très nombreuses applications des statistiques. Leur ubiquité découle du théorème central limite [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9or%C3%A8me_central_limite].

class statistics.NormalDist(mu=0.0, sigma=1.0)

Renvoie un nouvel objet NormalDist où mu représente la moyenne arithmétique [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moyenne_arithm%C3%A9tique] et sigma l'écart-type [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89cart_type].

Lève une erreur StatisticsError si sigma est négatif.

mean

Attribut en lecture seule correspondant à la moyenne arithmétique [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moyenne_arithm%C3%A9tique] d'une loi normale.

median

Attribut en lecture seule correspondant à la médiane [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9diane_(statistiques)] d'une loi normale.

mode

Attribut en lecture seule correspondant au mode [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mode_(statistiques)] d'une loi normale.

stdev

Attribut en lecture seule correspondant à l'écart-type [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89cart_type] d'une loi normale.

variance

Attribut en lecture seule correspondant à la variance [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variance] d'une loi normale. La variance est égale au carré de l'écart-type.

classmethod from_samples(data)

Crée une instance de loi normale de paramètres mu et sigma estimés à partir de data en utilisant fmean() et stdev().

data peut être n'importe quel iterable de valeurs pouvant être converties en float. Lève une erreur StatisticsError si data ne contient pas au moins deux éléments car il faut au moins un point pour estimer la moyenne et deux points pour estimer la variance.

samples(n, *, seed=None)

Génère n valeurs aléatoires suivant une loi normale de moyenne et écart-type connus. Renvoie une list de float.

Si seed est spécifié, sa valeur est utilisée pour initialiser une nouvelle instance du générateur de nombres aléatoires. Cela permet de produire des résultats reproductibles même dans un contexte de parallélisme par fils d'exécution.

Modifié dans la version 3.13.

Switched to a faster algorithm. To reproduce samples from previous versions, use random.seed() and random.gauss().

pdf(x)

Calcule la vraisemblance qu'une variable aléatoire X soit proche de la valeur x à partir de la fonction de densité [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_al%C3%A9atoire_%C3%A0_densit%C3%A9]. Mathématiquement, cela correspond à la limite de la fraction P(x <= X < x + dx) / dx lorsque dx tend vers zéro.

The relative likelihood is computed as the probability of a sample occurring in a narrow range divided by the width of the range (hence the word "density"). Since the likelihood is relative to other points, its value can be greater than 1.0.

cdf(x)

Calcule la probabilité qu'une variable aléatoire X soit inférieure ou égale à x à partir de la fonction de répartition [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonction_de_r%C3%A9partition]. Mathématiquement, cela correspond à P(X <= x).

inv_cdf(p)

Compute the inverse cumulative distribution function, also known as the quantile function [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantile_function] or the percent-point [https://web.archive.org/web/20190203145224/https://www.statisticshowto.datasciencecentral.com/inverse-distribution-function/] function. Mathematically, it is written x : P(X <= x) = p.

Détermine la valeur x de la variable aléatoire X telle que la probabilité que la variable soit inférieure ou égale à cette valeur x est égale à p.

overlap(other)

Mesure le recouvrement entre deux lois normales. Renvoie une valeur réelle entre 0 et 1 indiquant l'aire du recouvrement de deux densités de probabilité [https://www.rasch.org/rmt/rmt101r.htm].

quantiles(n=4)

Divise la loi normale entre n intervalles réels équiprobables. Renvoie une liste de (n - 1) quantiles séparant les intervalles.

Utilisez n = 4 pour obtenir les quartiles (le défaut), n = 10 pour obtenir les déciles et n = 100 pour obtenir les centiles (ce qui produit 99 valeurs qui séparent data en 100 groupes de même taille).

zscore(x)

Compute the Standard Score [https://www.statisticshowto.com/probability-and-statistics/z-score/] describing x in terms of the number of standard deviations above or below the mean of the normal distribution: (x - mean) / stdev.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

Les instances de la classe NormalDist gèrent l'addition, la soustraction, la multiplication et la division par une constante. Ces opérations peuvent être utilisées pour la translation ou la mise à l'échelle, par exemple :

>>> temperature_february = NormalDist(5, 2.5)             # Celsius
>>> temperature_february * (9/5) + 32                     # Fahrenheit
NormalDist(mu=41.0, sigma=4.5)

Diviser une constante par une instance de NormalDist n'est pas pris en charge car le résultat ne serait pas une loi normale.

Étant donné que les lois normales sont issues des propriétés additives de variables indépendantes, il est possible d'ajouter ou de soustraite deux variables normales indépendantes [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sum_of_normally_distributed_random_variables] représentées par des instances de NormalDist. Par exemple :

>>> birth_weights = NormalDist.from_samples([2.5, 3.1, 2.1, 2.4, 2.7, 3.5])
>>> drug_effects = NormalDist(0.4, 0.15)
>>> combined = birth_weights + drug_effects
>>> round(combined.mean, 1)
3.1
>>> round(combined.stdev, 1)
0.5

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

Examples and Recipes

Classic probability problems

NormalDist permet de résoudre aisément des problèmes probabilistes classiques.

Par exemple, sachant que les scores aux examens SAT [https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d17/tables/dt17_226.40.asp] suivent une loi normale de moyenne 1060 et d'écart-type 195, déterminer le pourcentage d'étudiants dont les scores se situent entre 1100 et 1200, arrondi à l'entier le plus proche :

>>> sat = NormalDist(1060, 195)
>>> fraction = sat.cdf(1200 + 0.5) - sat.cdf(1100 - 0.5)
>>> round(fraction * 100.0, 1)
18.4

Déterminer les quartiles [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartile] et les déciles [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decile] des scores SAT :

>>> list(map(round, sat.quantiles()))
[928, 1060, 1192]
>>> list(map(round, sat.quantiles(n=10)))
[810, 896, 958, 1011, 1060, 1109, 1162, 1224, 1310]

Monte Carlo inputs for simulations

To estimate the distribution for a model that isn't easy to solve analytically, NormalDist can generate input samples for a Monte Carlo simulation [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monte_Carlo_method]:

>>> def model(x, y, z):
...     return (3*x + 7*x*y - 5*y) / (11 * z)
...
>>> n = 100_000
>>> X = NormalDist(10, 2.5).samples(n, seed=3652260728)
>>> Y = NormalDist(15, 1.75).samples(n, seed=4582495471)
>>> Z = NormalDist(50, 1.25).samples(n, seed=6582483453)
>>> quantiles(map(model, X, Y, Z))
[1.4591308524824727, 1.8035946855390597, 2.175091447274739]

Approximating binomial distributions

Normal distributions can be used to approximate Binomial distributions [https://mathworld.wolfram.com/BinomialDistribution.html] when the sample size is large and when the probability of a successful trial is near 50%.

Par exemple, 750 personnes assistent à une conférence sur le logiciel libre. Il y a deux salles pouvant chacune accueillir 500 personnes. Dans la première salle a lieu une présentation sur Python, dans l'autre une présentation à propos de Ruby. Lors des conférences passées, 65% des personnes ont préféré écouter les présentations sur Python. En supposant que les préférences de la population n'ont pas changé, quelle est la probabilité que la salle Python reste en-dessous de sa capacité d'accueil ?

>>> n = 750             # Sample size
>>> p = 0.65            # Preference for Python
>>> q = 1.0 - p         # Preference for Ruby
>>> k = 500             # Room capacity

>>> # Approximation using the cumulative normal distribution
>>> from math import sqrt
>>> round(NormalDist(mu=n*p, sigma=sqrt(n*p*q)).cdf(k + 0.5), 4)
0.8402

>>> # Exact solution using the cumulative binomial distribution
>>> from math import comb, fsum
>>> round(fsum(comb(n, r) * p**r * q**(n-r) for r in range(k+1)), 4)
0.8402

>>> # Approximation using a simulation
>>> from random import seed, binomialvariate
>>> seed(8675309)
>>> mean(binomialvariate(n, p) <= k for i in range(10_000))
0.8406

Naive bayesian classifier

Les lois normales interviennent souvent en apprentissage automatique.

Wikipedia has a nice example of a Naive Bayesian Classifier [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naive_Bayes_classifier#Person_classification]. The challenge is to predict a person's gender from measurements of normally distributed features including height, weight, and foot size.

Nous avons à notre disposition un jeu de données d'apprentissage contenant les mesures de huit personnes. On suppose que ces mesures suivent une loi normale. Nous pouvons donc synthétiser les données à l'aide de NormalDist :

>>> height_male = NormalDist.from_samples([6, 5.92, 5.58, 5.92])
>>> height_female = NormalDist.from_samples([5, 5.5, 5.42, 5.75])
>>> weight_male = NormalDist.from_samples([180, 190, 170, 165])
>>> weight_female = NormalDist.from_samples([100, 150, 130, 150])
>>> foot_size_male = NormalDist.from_samples([12, 11, 12, 10])
>>> foot_size_female = NormalDist.from_samples([6, 8, 7, 9])

Ensuite, nous rencontrons un nouvel individu dont nous connaissons les proportions mais pas le sexe :

>>> ht = 6.0        # height
>>> wt = 130        # weight
>>> fs = 8          # foot size

En partant d'une probabilité a priori [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9or%C3%A8me_de_Bayes] de 50% d'être un homme ou une femme, nous calculons la probabilité a posteriori comme le produit de la probabilité antérieure et de la vraisemblance des différentes mesures étant donné le sexe :

>>> prior_male = 0.5
>>> prior_female = 0.5
>>> posterior_male = (prior_male * height_male.pdf(ht) *
...                   weight_male.pdf(wt) * foot_size_male.pdf(fs))

>>> posterior_female = (prior_female * height_female.pdf(ht) *
...                     weight_female.pdf(wt) * foot_size_female.pdf(fs))

La prédiction finale est celle qui a la plus grande probabilité a posteriori. Cette approche est appelée maximum a posteriori [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum_a_posteriori] ou MAP :

>>> 'male' if posterior_male > posterior_female else 'female'
'female'

Modules de programmation fonctionnelle

Les modules décrits dans ce chapitre fournissent des fonctions et des classes permettant d'adopter un style fonctionnel, ainsi que des manipulations sur des appelables.

Les modules suivants sont documentés dans ce chapitre :

itertools --- Functions creating iterators for efficient looping

Itertool Functions

Recettes itertools

functools --- Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects

Objets partial

operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions

Correspondances entre opérateurs et fonctions

Opérateurs en-place

itertools --- Functions creating iterators for efficient looping

Ce module implémente de nombreuses briques d'itérateurs inspirées par des éléments de APL, Haskell et SML. Toutes ont été retravaillées dans un format adapté à Python.

Ce module standardise un ensemble de base d'outils rapides et efficaces en mémoire qui peuvent être utilisés individuellement ou en les combinant. Ensemble, ils forment une « algèbre d'itérateurs » rendant possible la construction rapide et efficace d'outils spécialisés en Python.

Par exemple, SML fournit un outil de tabulation tabulate(f) qui produit une séquence f(0), f(1), .... Le même résultat peut être obtenu en Python en combinant map() et count() pour former map(f, count()).

General iterators:

Itérateur

Arguments

Résultats

Exemple

accumulate()

p [,func]

p0, p0+p1, p0+p1+p2, ...

accumulate([1,2,3,4,5]) → 1 3 6 10 15

batched()

p, n

(p0, p1, ..., p_n-1), ...

batched('ABCDEFG', n=3) → ABC DEF G

chain()

p, q, ...

p0, p1, ... plast, q0, q1, ...

chain('ABC', 'DEF') → A B C D E F

chain.from_iterable()

itérable

p0, p1, ... plast, q0, q1, ...

chain.from_iterable(['ABC', 'DEF']) → A B C D E F

compress()

data, selectors

(d[0] if s[0]), (d[1] if s[1]), ...

compress('ABCDEF', [1,0,1,0,1,1]) → A C E F

count()

[start[, step]]

start, start+step, start+2*step, ...

count(10) → 10 11 12 13 14 ...

cycle()

p

p0, p1, ... plast, p0, p1, ...

cycle('ABCD') → A B C D A B C D ...

dropwhile()

predicate, seq

seq[n], seq[n+1], starting when predicate fails

dropwhile(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 6 3 8

filterfalse()

predicate, seq

elements of seq where predicate(elem) fails

filterfalse(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 6 8

groupby()

iterable[, key]

sous-itérateurs groupés par la valeur de key(v)

groupby(['A','B','DEF'], len) → (1, A B) (3, DEF)

islice()

seq, [start,] stop [, step]

éléments de seq[start:stop:step]

islice('ABCDEFG', 2, None) → C D E F G

pairwise()

itérable

(p[0], p[1]), (p[1], p[2])

pairwise('ABCDEFG') → AB BC CD DE EF FG

repeat()

elem [,n]

elem, elem, elem, ... à l'infini ou jusqu'à n fois

repeat(10, 3) → 10 10 10

starmap()

func, seq

func(*seq[0]), func(*seq[1]), ...

starmap(pow, [(2,5), (3,2), (10,3)]) → 32 9 1000

takewhile()

predicate, seq

seq[0], seq[1], until predicate fails

takewhile(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 1 4

tee()

it, n

it1, it2, ... itn sépare un itérateur en n

tee('ABC', 2) → A B C, A B C

zip_longest()

p, q, ...

(p[0], q[0]), (p[1], q[1]), ...

zip_longest('ABCD', 'xy', fillvalue='-') → Ax By C- D-

Itérateurs combinatoires :

Itérateur

Arguments

Résultats

product()

p, q, ... [repeat=1]

produit cartésien, équivalent à une boucle for imbriquée

permutations()

p[, r]

n-uplets de longueur r, tous les ré-arrangements possibles, sans répétition d'éléments

combinations()

p, r

n-uplets de longueur r, ordonnés, sans répétition d'éléments

combinations_with_replacement()

p, r

n-uplets de longueur r, ordonnés, avec répétition d'éléments

Exemples

Résultats

product('ABCD', repeat=2)

AA AB AC AD BA BB BC BD CA CB CC CD DA DB DC DD

permutations('ABCD', 2)

AB AC AD BA BC BD CA CB CD DA DB DC

combinations('ABCD', 2)

AB AC AD BC BD CD

combinations_with_replacement('ABCD', 2)

AA AB AC AD BB BC BD CC CD DD

Itertool Functions

The following functions all construct and return iterators. Some provide streams of infinite length, so they should only be accessed by functions or loops that truncate the stream.

itertools.accumulate(iterable[, function, *, initial=None])

Make an iterator that returns accumulated sums or accumulated results from other binary functions.

The function defaults to addition. The function should accept two arguments, an accumulated total and a value from the iterable.

If an initial value is provided, the accumulation will start with that value and the output will have one more element than the input iterable.

À peu près équivalent à :

def accumulate(iterable, function=operator.add, *, initial=None):
    'Return running totals'
    # accumulate([1,2,3,4,5]) → 1 3 6 10 15
    # accumulate([1,2,3,4,5], initial=100) → 100 101 103 106 110 115
    # accumulate([1,2,3,4,5], operator.mul) → 1 2 6 24 120

    iterator = iter(iterable)
    total = initial
    if initial is None:
        try:
            total = next(iterator)
        except StopIteration:
            return

    yield total
    for element in iterator:
        total = function(total, element)
        yield total

To compute a running minimum, set function to min(). For a running maximum, set function to max(). Or for a running product, set function to operator.mul(). To build an amortization table [https://www.ramseysolutions.com/real-estate/amortization-schedule], accumulate the interest and apply payments:

>>> data = [3, 4, 6, 2, 1, 9, 0, 7, 5, 8]
>>> list(accumulate(data, max))              # running maximum
[3, 4, 6, 6, 6, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9]
>>> list(accumulate(data, operator.mul))     # running product
[3, 12, 72, 144, 144, 1296, 0, 0, 0, 0]

# Amortize a 5% loan of 1000 with 10 annual payments of 90
>>> update = lambda balance, payment: round(balance * 1.05) - payment
>>> list(accumulate(repeat(90, 10), update, initial=1_000))
[1000, 960, 918, 874, 828, 779, 728, 674, 618, 559, 497]

Voir functools.reduce() pour une fonction similaire qui ne renvoie que la valeur accumulée finale.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Added the optional function parameter.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Ajout du paramètre optionnel initial.

itertools.batched(iterable, n, *, strict=False)

Batch data from the iterable into tuples of length n. The last batch may be shorter than n.

If strict is true, will raise a ValueError if the final batch is shorter than n.

Loops over the input iterable and accumulates data into tuples up to size n. The input is consumed lazily, just enough to fill a batch. The result is yielded as soon as the batch is full or when the input iterable is exhausted:

>>> flattened_data = ['roses', 'red', 'violets', 'blue', 'sugar', 'sweet']
>>> unflattened = list(batched(flattened_data, 2))
>>> unflattened
[('roses', 'red'), ('violets', 'blue'), ('sugar', 'sweet')]

À peu près équivalent à :

def batched(iterable, n, *, strict=False):
    # batched('ABCDEFG', 3) → ABC DEF G
    if n < 1:
        raise ValueError('n must be at least one')
    iterator = iter(iterable)
    while batch := tuple(islice(iterator, n)):
        if strict and len(batch) != n:
            raise ValueError('batched(): incomplete batch')
        yield batch

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the strict option.

itertools.chain(*iterables)

Make an iterator that returns elements from the first iterable until it is exhausted, then proceeds to the next iterable, until all of the iterables are exhausted. This combines multiple data sources into a single iterator. Roughly equivalent to:

def chain(*iterables):
    # chain('ABC', 'DEF') → A B C D E F
    for iterable in iterables:
        yield from iterable

classmethod chain.from_iterable(iterable)

Constructeur alternatif pour chain(). Récupère des entrées chaînées depuis un unique itérable passé en argument, qui est évalué de manière paresseuse. À peu près équivalent à :

def from_iterable(iterables):
    # chain.from_iterable(['ABC', 'DEF']) → A B C D E F
    for iterable in iterables:
        yield from iterable

itertools.combinations(iterable, r)

Renvoie les combinaisons de longueur r de iterable.

The output is a subsequence of product() keeping only entries that are subsequences of the iterable. The length of the output is given by math.comb() which computes n! / r! / (n - r)! when 0 ≤ r ≤ n or zero when r > n.

The combination tuples are emitted in lexicographic order according to the order of the input iterable. If the input iterable is sorted, the output tuples will be produced in sorted order.

Elements are treated as unique based on their position, not on their value. If the input elements are unique, there will be no repeated values within each combination.

À peu près équivalent à :

def combinations(iterable, r):
    # combinations('ABCD', 2) → AB AC AD BC BD CD
    # combinations(range(4), 3) → 012 013 023 123

    pool = tuple(iterable)
    n = len(pool)
    if r > n:
        return
    indices = list(range(r))

    yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)
    while True:
        for i in reversed(range(r)):
            if indices[i] != i + n - r:
                break
        else:
            return
        indices[i] += 1
        for j in range(i+1, r):
            indices[j] = indices[j-1] + 1
        yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)

itertools.combinations_with_replacement(iterable, r)

Renvoyer les sous-séquences de longueur r des éléments de l'itérable iterable d'entrée, permettant aux éléments individuels d'être répétés plus d'une fois.

The output is a subsequence of product() that keeps only entries that are subsequences (with possible repeated elements) of the iterable. The number of subsequence returned is (n + r - 1)! / r! / (n - 1)! when n > 0.

The combination tuples are emitted in lexicographic order according to the order of the input iterable. if the input iterable is sorted, the output tuples will be produced in sorted order.

Elements are treated as unique based on their position, not on their value. If the input elements are unique, the generated combinations will also be unique.

À peu près équivalent à :

def combinations_with_replacement(iterable, r):
    # combinations_with_replacement('ABC', 2) → AA AB AC BB BC CC

    pool = tuple(iterable)
    n = len(pool)
    if not n and r:
        return
    indices = [0] * r

    yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)
    while True:
        for i in reversed(range(r)):
            if indices[i] != n - 1:
                break
        else:
            return
        indices[i:] = [indices[i] + 1] * (r - i)
        yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

itertools.compress(data, selectors)

Make an iterator that returns elements from data where the corresponding element in selectors is true. Stops when either the data or selectors iterables have been exhausted. Roughly equivalent to:

def compress(data, selectors):
    # compress('ABCDEF', [1,0,1,0,1,1]) → A C E F
    return (datum for datum, selector in zip(data, selectors) if selector)

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

itertools.count(start=0, step=1)

Make an iterator that returns evenly spaced values beginning with start. Can be used with map() to generate consecutive data points or with zip() to add sequence numbers. Roughly equivalent to:

def count(start=0, step=1):
    # count(10) → 10 11 12 13 14 ...
    # count(2.5, 0.5) → 2.5 3.0 3.5 ...
    n = start
    while True:
        yield n
        n += step

When counting with floating-point numbers, better accuracy can sometimes be achieved by substituting multiplicative code such as: (start + step * i for i in count()).

Modifié dans la version 3.1: Ajout de l'argument step et ajout du support pour les arguments non-entiers.

itertools.cycle(iterable)

Make an iterator returning elements from the iterable and saving a copy of each. When the iterable is exhausted, return elements from the saved copy. Repeats indefinitely. Roughly equivalent to:

def cycle(iterable):
    # cycle('ABCD') → A B C D A B C D A B C D ...

    saved = []
    for element in iterable:
        yield element
        saved.append(element)

    while saved:
        for element in saved:
            yield element

This itertool may require significant auxiliary storage (depending on the length of the iterable).

itertools.dropwhile(predicate, iterable)

Make an iterator that drops elements from the iterable while the predicate is true and afterwards returns every element. Roughly equivalent to:

def dropwhile(predicate, iterable):
    # dropwhile(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 6 3 8

    iterator = iter(iterable)
    for x in iterator:
        if not predicate(x):
            yield x
            break

    for x in iterator:
        yield x

Note this does not produce any output until the predicate first becomes false, so this itertool may have a lengthy start-up time.

itertools.filterfalse(predicate, iterable)

Make an iterator that filters elements from the iterable returning only those for which the predicate returns a false value. If predicate is None, returns the items that are false. Roughly equivalent to:

def filterfalse(predicate, iterable):
    # filterfalse(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 6 8

    if predicate is None:
        predicate = bool

    for x in iterable:
        if not predicate(x):
            yield x

itertools.groupby(iterable, key=None)

Crée un itérateur qui renvoie les clés et les groupes de l'itérable iterable. La clé key est une fonction qui génère une clé pour chaque élément. Si key n'est pas spécifiée ou est None, elle vaut par défaut une fonction d'identité qui renvoie l'élément sans le modifier. Généralement, l'itérable a besoin d'avoir ses éléments déjà classés selon cette même fonction de clé.

L'opération de groupby() est similaire au filtre uniq dans Unix. Elle génère un nouveau groupe à chaque fois que la valeur de la fonction key change (ce pourquoi il est souvent nécessaire d'avoir trié les données selon la même fonction de clé). Ce comportement est différent de celui de GROUP BY de SQL qui agrège les éléments sans prendre compte de leur ordre d'entrée.

Le groupe renvoyé est lui-même un itérateur qui partage l'itérable sous-jacent avec groupby(). Puisque que la source est partagée, quand l'objet groupby() est avancé, le groupe précédent n'est plus visible. Ainsi, si cette donnée doit être utilisée plus tard, elle doit être stockée comme une liste :

groups = []
uniquekeys = []
data = sorted(data, key=keyfunc)
for k, g in groupby(data, keyfunc):
    groups.append(list(g))      # Store group iterator as a list
    uniquekeys.append(k)

groupby() est à peu près équivalente à :

def groupby(iterable, key=None):
    # [k for k, g in groupby('AAAABBBCCDAABBB')] → A B C D A B
    # [list(g) for k, g in groupby('AAAABBBCCD')] → AAAA BBB CC D

    keyfunc = (lambda x: x) if key is None else key
    iterator = iter(iterable)
    exhausted = False

    def _grouper(target_key):
        nonlocal curr_value, curr_key, exhausted
        yield curr_value
        for curr_value in iterator:
            curr_key = keyfunc(curr_value)
            if curr_key != target_key:
                return
            yield curr_value
        exhausted = True

    try:
        curr_value = next(iterator)
    except StopIteration:
        return
    curr_key = keyfunc(curr_value)

    while not exhausted:
        target_key = curr_key
        curr_group = _grouper(target_key)
        yield curr_key, curr_group
        if curr_key == target_key:
            for _ in curr_group:
                pass

itertools.islice(iterable, stop)

itertools.islice(iterable, start, stop[, step])

Make an iterator that returns selected elements from the iterable. Works like sequence slicing but does not support negative values for start, stop, or step.

If start is zero or None, iteration starts at zero. Otherwise, elements from the iterable are skipped until start is reached.

If stop is None, iteration continues until the input is exhausted, if at all. Otherwise, it stops at the specified position.

If step is None, the step defaults to one. Elements are returned consecutively unless step is set higher than one which results in items being skipped.

À peu près équivalent à :

def islice(iterable, *args):
    # islice('ABCDEFG', 2) → A B
    # islice('ABCDEFG', 2, 4) → C D
    # islice('ABCDEFG', 2, None) → C D E F G
    # islice('ABCDEFG', 0, None, 2) → A C E G

    s = slice(*args)
    start = 0 if s.start is None else s.start
    stop = s.stop
    step = 1 if s.step is None else s.step
    if start < 0 or (stop is not None and stop < 0) or step <= 0:
        raise ValueError

    indices = count() if stop is None else range(max(start, stop))
    next_i = start
    for i, element in zip(indices, iterable):
        if i == next_i:
            yield element
            next_i += step

If the input is an iterator, then fully consuming the islice advances the input iterator by max(start, stop) steps regardless of the step value.

itertools.pairwise(iterable)

Renvoie des paires successives d'éléments consécutifs de iterable.

En toute logique, il y a une paire de moins que d'éléments dans l'itérable. Aucune paire n'est renvoyée si l'itérable a zéro ou une valeur.

À peu près équivalent à :

def pairwise(iterable):
    # pairwise('ABCDEFG') → AB BC CD DE EF FG

    iterator = iter(iterable)
    a = next(iterator, None)

    for b in iterator:
        yield a, b
        a = b

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

itertools.permutations(iterable, r=None)

Return successive r length permutations of elements [https://www.britannica.com/science/permutation] from the iterable.

Si r n'est pas spécifié ou vaut None, alors r a pour valeur la longueur de iterable et toutes les permutations de longueur r possibles sont générées.

The output is a subsequence of product() where entries with repeated elements have been filtered out. The length of the output is given by math.perm() which computes n! / (n - r)! when 0 ≤ r ≤ n or zero when r > n.

The permutation tuples are emitted in lexicographic order according to the order of the input iterable. If the input iterable is sorted, the output tuples will be produced in sorted order.

Elements are treated as unique based on their position, not on their value. If the input elements are unique, there will be no repeated values within a permutation.

À peu près équivalent à :

def permutations(iterable, r=None):
    # permutations('ABCD', 2) → AB AC AD BA BC BD CA CB CD DA DB DC
    # permutations(range(3)) → 012 021 102 120 201 210

    pool = tuple(iterable)
    n = len(pool)
    r = n if r is None else r
    if r > n:
        return

    indices = list(range(n))
    cycles = list(range(n, n-r, -1))
    yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices[:r])

    while n:
        for i in reversed(range(r)):
            cycles[i] -= 1
            if cycles[i] == 0:
                indices[i:] = indices[i+1:] + indices[i:i+1]
                cycles[i] = n - i
            else:
                j = cycles[i]
                indices[i], indices[-j] = indices[-j], indices[i]
                yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices[:r])
                break
        else:
            return

itertools.product(*iterables, repeat=1)

Cartesian product [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartesian_product] of the input iterables.

À peu près équivalent à des boucles for imbriquées dans une expression de générateur. Par exemple product(A, B) renvoie la même chose que ((x, y) for x in A for y in B).

Les boucles imbriquées tournent comme un compteur kilométrique avec l'élément le plus à droite avançant à chaque itération. Ce motif défini un ordre lexicographique afin que, si les éléments des itérables en l'entrée sont ordonnés, les n-uplets produits le sont aussi.

Pour générer le produit d'un itérable avec lui-même, spécifiez le nombre de répétitions avec le paramètre nommé optionnel repeat. Par exemple, product(A, repeat=4) est équivalent à product(A, A, A, A).

Cette fonction est à peu près équivalente au code suivant, à la différence près que la vraie implémentation ne crée pas de résultats intermédiaires en mémoire :

def product(*iterables, repeat=1):
    # product('ABCD', 'xy') → Ax Ay Bx By Cx Cy Dx Dy
    # product(range(2), repeat=3) → 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111

    if repeat < 0:
        raise ValueError('repeat argument cannot be negative')
    pools = [tuple(pool) for pool in iterables] * repeat

    result = [[]]
    for pool in pools:
        result = [x+[y] for x in result for y in pool]

    for prod in result:
        yield tuple(prod)

product() commence par consommer totalement les itérables qui lui sont passés et les conserve en mémoire pour générer les produits. Par conséquent, cette fonction ne sert que sur des itérables finis.

itertools.repeat(object[, times])

Crée un itérateur qui renvoie object à l'infini. S'exécute indéfiniment sauf si l'argument times est spécifié.

À peu près équivalent à :

def repeat(object, times=None):
    # repeat(10, 3) → 10 10 10
    if times is None:
        while True:
            yield object
    else:
        for i in range(times):
            yield object

Une utilisation courante de repeat est de fournir un flux constant de valeurs à map ou zip :

>>> list(map(pow, range(10), repeat(2)))
[0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81]

itertools.starmap(function, iterable)

Make an iterator that computes the function using arguments obtained from the iterable. Used instead of map() when argument parameters have already been "pre-zipped" into tuples.

The difference between map() and starmap() parallels the distinction between function(a,b) and function(*c). Roughly equivalent to:

def starmap(function, iterable):
    # starmap(pow, [(2,5), (3,2), (10,3)]) → 32 9 1000
    for args in iterable:
        yield function(*args)

itertools.takewhile(predicate, iterable)

Make an iterator that returns elements from the iterable as long as the predicate is true. Roughly equivalent to:

def takewhile(predicate, iterable):
    # takewhile(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 1 4
    for x in iterable:
        if not predicate(x):
            break
        yield x

Note, the element that first fails the predicate condition is consumed from the input iterator and there is no way to access it. This could be an issue if an application wants to further consume the input iterator after takewhile has been run to exhaustion. To work around this problem, consider using more-itertools before_and_after() [https://more-itertools.readthedocs.io/en/stable/api.html#more_itertools.before_and_after] instead.

itertools.tee(iterable, n=2)

Renvoie n itérateurs indépendants depuis un unique itérable.

À peu près équivalent à :

def tee(iterable, n=2):
    if n < 0:
        raise ValueError
    if n == 0:
        return ()
    iterator = _tee(iterable)
    result = [iterator]
    for _ in range(n - 1):
        result.append(_tee(iterator))
    return tuple(result)

class _tee:

    def __init__(self, iterable):
        it = iter(iterable)
        if isinstance(it, _tee):
            self.iterator = it.iterator
            self.link = it.link
        else:
            self.iterator = it
            self.link = [None, None]

    def __iter__(self):
        return self

    def __next__(self):
        link = self.link
        if link[1] is None:
            link[0] = next(self.iterator)
            link[1] = [None, None]
        value, self.link = link
        return value

When the input iterable is already a tee iterator object, all members of the return tuple are constructed as if they had been produced by the upstream tee() call. This "flattening step" allows nested tee() calls to share the same underlying data chain and to have a single update step rather than a chain of calls.

The flattening property makes tee iterators efficiently peekable:

def lookahead(tee_iterator):
     "Return the next value without moving the input forward"
     [forked_iterator] = tee(tee_iterator, 1)
     return next(forked_iterator)

>>> iterator = iter('abcdef')
>>> [iterator] = tee(iterator, 1)   # Make the input peekable
>>> next(iterator)                  # Move the iterator forward
'a'
>>> lookahead(iterator)             # Check next value
'b'
>>> next(iterator)                  # Continue moving forward
'b'

tee iterators are not threadsafe. A RuntimeError may be raised when simultaneously using iterators returned by the same tee() call, even if the original iterable is threadsafe.

Cet outil peut avoir besoin d'un stockage auxiliaire important (en fonction de la taille des données temporaires nécessaires). En général, si un itérateur utilise la majorité ou toute la donnée avant qu'un autre itérateur ne commence, il est plus rapide d'utiliser list() à la place de tee().

itertools.zip_longest(*iterables, fillvalue=None)

Make an iterator that aggregates elements from each of the iterables.

If the iterables are of uneven length, missing values are filled-in with fillvalue. If not specified, fillvalue defaults to None.

Iteration continues until the longest iterable is exhausted.

À peu près équivalent à :

def zip_longest(*iterables, fillvalue=None):
    # zip_longest('ABCD', 'xy', fillvalue='-') → Ax By C- D-

    iterators = list(map(iter, iterables))
    num_active = len(iterators)
    if not num_active:
        return

    while True:
        values = []
        for i, iterator in enumerate(iterators):
            try:
                value = next(iterator)
            except StopIteration:
                num_active -= 1
                if not num_active:
                    return
                iterators[i] = repeat(fillvalue)
                value = fillvalue
            values.append(value)
        yield tuple(values)

If one of the iterables is potentially infinite, then the zip_longest() function should be wrapped with something that limits the number of calls (for example islice() or takewhile()).

Recettes itertools

Cette section présente des recettes pour créer une vaste boîte à outils en se servant des itertools existants comme des briques.

The primary purpose of the itertools recipes is educational. The recipes show various ways of thinking about individual tools — for example, that chain.from_iterable is related to the concept of flattening. The recipes also give ideas about ways that the tools can be combined — for example, how starmap() and repeat() can work together. The recipes also show patterns for using itertools with the operator and collections modules as well as with the built-in itertools such as map(), filter(), reversed(), and enumerate().

A secondary purpose of the recipes is to serve as an incubator. The accumulate(), compress(), and pairwise() itertools started out as recipes. Currently, the sliding_window(), derangements(), and sieve() recipes are being tested to see whether they prove their worth.

Substantially all of these recipes and many, many others can be installed from the more-itertools [https://pypi.org/project/more-itertools/] project found on the Python Package Index:

python -m pip install more-itertools

Many of the recipes offer the same high performance as the underlying toolset. Superior memory performance is kept by processing elements one at a time rather than bringing the whole iterable into memory all at once. Code volume is kept small by linking the tools together in a functional style [https://www.cs.kent.ac.uk/people/staff/dat/miranda/whyfp90.pdf]. High speed is retained by preferring "vectorized" building blocks over the use of for-loops and generators which incur interpreter overhead.

from itertools import (accumulate, batched, chain, combinations, compress,
     count, cycle, filterfalse, groupby, islice, permutations, product,
     repeat, starmap, tee, zip_longest)
from collections import Counter, deque
from contextlib import suppress
from functools import reduce
from math import comb, isqrt, prod, sumprod
from operator import getitem, is_not, itemgetter, mul, neg, truediv

# ==== Basic one liners ====

def take(n, iterable):
    "Return first n items of the iterable as a list."
    return list(islice(iterable, n))

def prepend(value, iterable):
    "Prepend a single value in front of an iterable."
    # prepend(1, [2, 3, 4]) → 1 2 3 4
    return chain([value], iterable)

def running_mean(iterable):
    "Yield the average of all values seen so far."
    # running_mean([8.5, 9.5, 7.5, 6.5]) -> 8.5 9.0 8.5 8.0
    return map(truediv, accumulate(iterable), count(1))

def repeatfunc(function, times=None, *args):
    "Repeat calls to a function with specified arguments."
    if times is None:
        return starmap(function, repeat(args))
    return starmap(function, repeat(args, times))

def flatten(list_of_lists):
    "Flatten one level of nesting."
    return chain.from_iterable(list_of_lists)

def ncycles(iterable, n):
    "Returns the sequence elements n times."
    return chain.from_iterable(repeat(tuple(iterable), n))

def loops(n):
    "Loop n times. Like range(n) but without creating integers."
    # for _ in loops(100): ...
    return repeat(None, n)

def tail(n, iterable):
    "Return an iterator over the last n items."
    # tail(3, 'ABCDEFG') → E F G
    return iter(deque(iterable, maxlen=n))

def consume(iterator, n=None):
    "Advance the iterator n-steps ahead. If n is None, consume entirely."
    # Use functions that consume iterators at C speed.
    if n is None:
        deque(iterator, maxlen=0)
    else:
        next(islice(iterator, n, n), None)

def nth(iterable, n, default=None):
    "Returns the nth item or a default value."
    return next(islice(iterable, n, None), default)

def quantify(iterable, predicate=bool):
    "Given a predicate that returns True or False, count the True results."
    return sum(map(predicate, iterable))

def first_true(iterable, default=False, predicate=None):
    "Returns the first true value or the *default* if there is no true value."
    # first_true([a, b, c], x) → a or b or c or x
    # first_true([a, b], x, f) → a if f(a) else b if f(b) else x
    return next(filter(predicate, iterable), default)

def all_equal(iterable, key=None):
    "Returns True if all the elements are equal to each other."
    # all_equal('4٤௪౪໔', key=int) → True
    return len(take(2, groupby(iterable, key))) <= 1

# ==== Data pipelines ====

def unique_justseen(iterable, key=None):
    "Yield unique elements, preserving order. Remember only the element just seen."
    # unique_justseen('AAAABBBCCDAABBB') → A B C D A B
    # unique_justseen('ABBcCAD', str.casefold) → A B c A D
    if key is None:
        return map(itemgetter(0), groupby(iterable))
    return map(next, map(itemgetter(1), groupby(iterable, key)))

def unique_everseen(iterable, key=None):
    "Yield unique elements, preserving order. Remember all elements ever seen."
    # unique_everseen('AAAABBBCCDAABBB') → A B C D
    # unique_everseen('ABBcCAD', str.casefold) → A B c D
    seen = set()
    if key is None:
        for element in filterfalse(seen.__contains__, iterable):
            seen.add(element)
            yield element
    else:
        for element in iterable:
            k = key(element)
            if k not in seen:
                seen.add(k)
                yield element

def unique(iterable, key=None, reverse=False):
   "Yield unique elements in sorted order. Supports unhashable inputs."
   # unique([[1, 2], [3, 4], [1, 2]]) → [1, 2] [3, 4]
   sequenced = sorted(iterable, key=key, reverse=reverse)
   return unique_justseen(sequenced, key=key)

def sliding_window(iterable, n):
    "Collect data into overlapping fixed-length chunks or blocks."
    # sliding_window('ABCDEFG', 3) → ABC BCD CDE DEF EFG
    iterator = iter(iterable)
    window = deque(islice(iterator, n - 1), maxlen=n)
    for x in iterator:
        window.append(x)
        yield tuple(window)

def grouper(iterable, n, *, incomplete='fill', fillvalue=None):
    "Collect data into non-overlapping fixed-length chunks or blocks."
    # grouper('ABCDEFG', 3, fillvalue='x')       → ABC DEF Gxx
    # grouper('ABCDEFG', 3, incomplete='strict') → ABC DEF ValueError
    # grouper('ABCDEFG', 3, incomplete='ignore') → ABC DEF
    iterators = [iter(iterable)] * n
    match incomplete:
        case 'fill':
            return zip_longest(*iterators, fillvalue=fillvalue)
        case 'strict':
            return zip(*iterators, strict=True)
        case 'ignore':
            return zip(*iterators)
        case _:
            raise ValueError('Expected fill, strict, or ignore')

def roundrobin(*iterables):
    "Visit input iterables in a cycle until each is exhausted."
    # roundrobin('ABC', 'D', 'EF') → A D E B F C
    # Algorithm credited to George Sakkis
    iterators = map(iter, iterables)
    for num_active in range(len(iterables), 0, -1):
        iterators = cycle(islice(iterators, num_active))
        yield from map(next, iterators)

def subslices(seq):
    "Return all contiguous non-empty subslices of a sequence."
    # subslices('ABCD') → A AB ABC ABCD B BC BCD C CD D
    slices = starmap(slice, combinations(range(len(seq) + 1), 2))
    return map(getitem, repeat(seq), slices)

def derangements(iterable, r=None):
    "Produce r length permutations without fixed points."
    # derangements('ABCD') → BADC BCDA BDAC CADB CDAB CDBA DABC DCAB DCBA
    # Algorithm credited to Stefan Pochmann
    seq = tuple(iterable)
    pos = tuple(range(len(seq)))
    have_moved = map(map, repeat(is_not), repeat(pos), permutations(pos, r=r))
    valid_derangements = map(all, have_moved)
    return compress(permutations(seq, r=r), valid_derangements)

def iter_index(iterable, value, start=0, stop=None):
    "Return indices where a value occurs in a sequence or iterable."
    # iter_index('AABCADEAF', 'A') → 0 1 4 7
    seq_index = getattr(iterable, 'index', None)
    if seq_index is None:
        iterator = islice(iterable, start, stop)
        for i, element in enumerate(iterator, start):
            if element is value or element == value:
                yield i
    else:
        stop = len(iterable) if stop is None else stop
        i = start
        with suppress(ValueError):
            while True:
                yield (i := seq_index(value, i, stop))
                i += 1

def iter_except(function, exception, first=None):
    "Convert a call-until-exception interface to an iterator interface."
    # iter_except(d.popitem, KeyError) → non-blocking dictionary iterator
    with suppress(exception):
        if first is not None:
            yield first()
        while True:
            yield function()

# ==== Mathematical operations ====

def multinomial(*counts):
    "Number of distinct arrangements of a multiset."
    # Counter('abracadabra').values() → 5 2 2 1 1
    # multinomial(5, 2, 2, 1, 1) → 83160
    return prod(map(comb, accumulate(counts), counts))

def powerset(iterable):
    "Subsequences of the iterable from shortest to longest."
    # powerset([1,2,3]) → () (1,) (2,) (3,) (1,2) (1,3) (2,3) (1,2,3)
    s = list(iterable)
    return chain.from_iterable(combinations(s, r) for r in range(len(s)+1))

def sum_of_squares(iterable):
    "Add up the squares of the input values."
    # sum_of_squares([10, 20, 30]) → 1400
    return sumprod(*tee(iterable))

# ==== Matrix operations ====

def reshape(matrix, columns):
    "Reshape a 2-D matrix to have a given number of columns."
    # reshape([(0, 1), (2, 3), (4, 5)], 3) →  (0, 1, 2) (3, 4, 5)
    return batched(chain.from_iterable(matrix), columns, strict=True)

def transpose(matrix):
    "Swap the rows and columns of a 2-D matrix."
    # transpose([(1, 2, 3), (11, 22, 33)]) → (1, 11) (2, 22) (3, 33)
    return zip(*matrix, strict=True)

def matmul(m1, m2):
    "Multiply two matrices."
    # matmul([(7, 5), (3, 5)], [(2, 5), (7, 9)]) → (49, 80) (41, 60)
    n = len(m2[0])
    return batched(starmap(sumprod, product(m1, transpose(m2))), n)

# ==== Polynomial arithmetic ====

def convolve(signal, kernel):
    """Discrete linear convolution of two iterables.
    Equivalent to polynomial multiplication.

    Convolutions are mathematically commutative; however, the inputs are
    evaluated differently.  The signal is consumed lazily and can be
    infinite. The kernel is fully consumed before the calculations begin.

    Article:  https://betterexplained.com/articles/intuitive-convolution/
    Video:    https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KuXjwB4LzSA
    """
    # convolve([1, -1, -20], [1, -3]) → 1 -4 -17 60
    # convolve(data, [0.25, 0.25, 0.25, 0.25]) → Moving average (blur)
    # convolve(data, [1/2, 0, -1/2]) → 1st derivative estimate
    # convolve(data, [1, -2, 1]) → 2nd derivative estimate
    kernel = tuple(kernel)[::-1]
    n = len(kernel)
    padded_signal = chain(repeat(0, n-1), signal, repeat(0, n-1))
    windowed_signal = sliding_window(padded_signal, n)
    return map(sumprod, repeat(kernel), windowed_signal)

def polynomial_from_roots(roots):
    """Compute a polynomial's coefficients from its roots.

       (x - 5) (x + 4) (x - 3)  expands to:   x³ -4x² -17x + 60
    """
    # polynomial_from_roots([5, -4, 3]) → [1, -4, -17, 60]
    factors = zip(repeat(1), map(neg, roots))
    return list(reduce(convolve, factors, [1]))

def polynomial_eval(coefficients, x):
    """Evaluate a polynomial at a specific value.

    Computes with better numeric stability than Horner's method.
    """
    # Evaluate x³ -4x² -17x + 60 at x = 5
    # polynomial_eval([1, -4, -17, 60], x=5) → 0
    n = len(coefficients)
    if not n:
        return type(x)(0)
    powers = map(pow, repeat(x), reversed(range(n)))
    return sumprod(coefficients, powers)

def polynomial_derivative(coefficients):
    """Compute the first derivative of a polynomial.

       f(x)  =  x³ -4x² -17x + 60
       f'(x) = 3x² -8x  -17
    """
    # polynomial_derivative([1, -4, -17, 60]) → [3, -8, -17]
    n = len(coefficients)
    powers = reversed(range(1, n))
    return list(map(mul, coefficients, powers))

# ==== Number theory ====

def sieve(n):
    "Primes less than n."
    # sieve(30) → 2 3 5 7 11 13 17 19 23 29
    if n > 2:
        yield 2
    data = bytearray((0, 1)) * (n // 2)
    for p in iter_index(data, 1, start=3, stop=isqrt(n) + 1):
        data[p*p : n : p+p] = bytes(len(range(p*p, n, p+p)))
    yield from iter_index(data, 1, start=3)

def factor(n):
    "Prime factors of n."
    # factor(99) → 3 3 11
    # factor(1_000_000_000_000_007) → 47 59 360620266859
    # factor(1_000_000_000_000_403) → 1000000000000403
    for prime in sieve(isqrt(n) + 1):
        while not n % prime:
            yield prime
            n //= prime
            if n == 1:
                return
    if n > 1:
        yield n

def is_prime(n):
    "Return True if n is prime."
    # is_prime(1_000_000_000_000_403) → True
    return n > 1 and next(factor(n)) == n

def totient(n):
    "Count of natural numbers up to n that are coprime to n."
    # https://mathworld.wolfram.com/TotientFunction.html
    # totient(12) → 4 because len([1, 5, 7, 11]) == 4
    for prime in set(factor(n)):
        n -= n // prime
    return n

functools --- Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects

Code source : Lib/functools.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/functools.py]

The functools module is for higher-order functions: functions that act on or return other functions. In general, any callable object can be treated as a function for the purposes of this module.

The functools module defines the following functions:

@functools.cache(user_function)

Fonction de cache très simple et sans limite de taille. Cette technique est parfois appelée « mémoïsation » [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9mo%C3%AFsation].

Returns the same as lru_cache(maxsize=None), creating a thin wrapper around a dictionary lookup for the function arguments. Because it never needs to evict old values, this is smaller and faster than lru_cache() with a size limit.

Par exemple :

@cache
def factorial(n):
    return n * factorial(n-1) if n else 1

>>> factorial(10)   # no previously cached result, makes 11 recursive calls
3628800
>>> factorial(5)    # no new calls, just returns the cached result
120
>>> factorial(12)   # two new recursive calls, factorial(10) is cached
479001600

The cache is threadsafe so that the wrapped function can be used in multiple threads. This means that the underlying data structure will remain coherent during concurrent updates.

It is possible for the wrapped function to be called more than once if another thread makes an additional call before the initial call has been completed and cached.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

@functools.cached_property(func)

Transform a method of a class into a property whose value is computed once and then cached as a normal attribute for the life of the instance. Similar to property(), with the addition of caching. Useful for expensive computed properties of instances that are otherwise effectively immutable.

Exemple :

class DataSet:

    def __init__(self, sequence_of_numbers):
        self._data = tuple(sequence_of_numbers)

    @cached_property
    def stdev(self):
        return statistics.stdev(self._data)

The mechanics of cached_property() are somewhat different from property(). A regular property blocks attribute writes unless a setter is defined. In contrast, a cached_property allows writes.

The cached_property decorator only runs on lookups and only when an attribute of the same name doesn't exist. When it does run, the cached_property writes to the attribute with the same name. Subsequent attribute reads and writes take precedence over the cached_property method and it works like a normal attribute.

The cached value can be cleared by deleting the attribute. This allows the cached_property method to run again.

The cached_property does not prevent a possible race condition in multi-threaded usage. The getter function could run more than once on the same instance, with the latest run setting the cached value. If the cached property is idempotent or otherwise not harmful to run more than once on an instance, this is fine. If synchronization is needed, implement the necessary locking inside the decorated getter function or around the cached property access.

Note, this decorator interferes with the operation of PEP 412 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0412/] key-sharing dictionaries. This means that instance dictionaries can take more space than usual.

Also, this decorator requires that the __dict__ attribute on each instance be a mutable mapping. This means it will not work with some types, such as metaclasses (since the __dict__ attributes on type instances are read-only proxies for the class namespace), and those that specify __slots__ without including __dict__ as one of the defined slots (as such classes don't provide a __dict__ attribute at all).

If a mutable mapping is not available or if space-efficient key sharing is desired, an effect similar to cached_property() can also be achieved by stacking property() on top of lru_cache(). See Comment mettre en cache le résultat d'une méthode ? for more details on how this differs from cached_property().

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Prior to Python 3.12, cached_property included an undocumented lock to ensure that in multi-threaded usage the getter function was guaranteed to run only once per instance. However, the lock was per-property, not per-instance, which could result in unacceptably high lock contention. In Python 3.12+ this locking is removed.

functools.cmp_to_key(func)

Transforme une fonction de comparaison à l'ancienne en une fonction clé. Utilisé avec des outils qui acceptent des fonctions clef (comme sorted(), min(), max(), heapq.nlargest(), heapq.nsmallest(), itertools.groupby()). Cette fonction est destinée au portage de fonctions python 2 utilisant des fonctions de comparaison vers Python 3.

A comparison function is any callable that accepts two arguments, compares them, and returns a negative number for less-than, zero for equality, or a positive number for greater-than. A key function is a callable that accepts one argument and returns another value to be used as the sort key.

Exemple :

sorted(iterable, key=cmp_to_key(locale.strcoll))  # locale-aware sort order

Pour des exemples de tris et un bref tutoriel, consultez Les techniques de tri.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

@functools.lru_cache(user_function)

@functools.lru_cache(maxsize=128, typed=False)

Décorateur qui englobe une fonction avec un appelable mémoïsant qui enregistre jusqu'à maxsize appels récents. Cela peut gagner du temps quand une fonction coûteuse en ressources est souvent appelée avec les mêmes arguments.

The cache is threadsafe so that the wrapped function can be used in multiple threads. This means that the underlying data structure will remain coherent during concurrent updates.

It is possible for the wrapped function to be called more than once if another thread makes an additional call before the initial call has been completed and cached.

Since a dictionary is used to cache results, the positional and keyword arguments to the function must be hashable.

Distinct argument patterns may be considered to be distinct calls with separate cache entries. For example, f(a=1, b=2) and f(b=2, a=1) differ in their keyword argument order and may have two separate cache entries.

Si user_function est défini, ce doit être un appelable. Ceci permet à lru_cache d'être appliqué directement sur une fonction de l'utilisateur, sans préciser maxsize (qui est alors défini à sa valeur par défaut, 128) :

@lru_cache
def count_vowels(sentence):
    return sum(sentence.count(vowel) for vowel in 'AEIOUaeiou')

Si maxsize est à None, la fonctionnalité LRU est désactivée et le cache peut grossir sans limite.

If typed is set to true, function arguments of different types will be cached separately. If typed is false, the implementation will usually regard them as equivalent calls and only cache a single result. (Some types such as str and int may be cached separately even when typed is false.)

Note, type specificity applies only to the function's immediate arguments rather than their contents. The scalar arguments, Decimal(42) and Fraction(42) are treated as distinct calls with distinct results. In contrast, the tuple arguments ('answer', Decimal(42)) and ('answer', Fraction(42)) are treated as equivalent.

The wrapped function is instrumented with a cache_parameters() function that returns a new dict showing the values for maxsize and typed. This is for information purposes only. Mutating the values has no effect.

To help measure the effectiveness of the cache and tune the maxsize parameter, the wrapped function is instrumented with a cache_info() function that returns a named tuple showing hits, misses, maxsize and currsize.

The decorator also provides a cache_clear() function for clearing or invalidating the cache.

La fonction sous-jacente originale est accessible à travers l'attribut __wrapped__. Ceci est utile pour l'introspection, pour outrepasser le cache, ou pour ré-englober la fonction avec un cache différent.

The cache keeps references to the arguments and return values until they age out of the cache or until the cache is cleared.

If a method is cached, the self instance argument is included in the cache. See Comment mettre en cache le résultat d'une méthode ?

An LRU (least recently used) cache [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cache_replacement_policies#Least_Recently_Used_(LRU)] works best when the most recent calls are the best predictors of upcoming calls (for example, the most popular articles on a news server tend to change each day). The cache's size limit assures that the cache does not grow without bound on long-running processes such as web servers.

In general, the LRU cache should only be used when you want to reuse previously computed values. Accordingly, it doesn't make sense to cache functions with side-effects, functions that need to create distinct mutable objects on each call (such as generators and async functions), or impure functions such as time() or random().

Exemple d'un cache LRU pour du contenu web statique :

@lru_cache(maxsize=32)
def get_pep(num):
    'Retrieve text of a Python Enhancement Proposal'
    resource = f'https://peps.python.org/pep-{num:04d}'
    try:
        with urllib.request.urlopen(resource) as s:
            return s.read()
    except urllib.error.HTTPError:
        return 'Not Found'

>>> for n in 8, 290, 308, 320, 8, 218, 320, 279, 289, 320, 9991:
...     pep = get_pep(n)
...     print(n, len(pep))

>>> get_pep.cache_info()
CacheInfo(hits=3, misses=8, maxsize=32, currsize=8)

Exemple de calcul efficace de la suite de Fibonacci [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suite_de_Fibonacci] en utilisant un cache pour implémenter la technique de programmation dynamique [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmation_dynamique] :

@lru_cache(maxsize=None)
def fib(n):
    if n < 2:
        return n
    return fib(n-1) + fib(n-2)

>>> [fib(n) for n in range(16)]
[0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, 610]

>>> fib.cache_info()
CacheInfo(hits=28, misses=16, maxsize=None, currsize=16)

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: L'option typed a été ajoutée.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Ajout de l'option user_function.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Added the function cache_parameters()

@functools.total_ordering

A partir d'une classe définissant une ou plusieurs méthodes de comparaison riches, ce décorateur de classe fournit le reste. Ceci simplifie l'effort à fournir dans la spécification de toutes les opérations de comparaison riche :

The class must define one of __lt__(), __le__(), __gt__(), or __ge__(). In addition, the class should supply an __eq__() method.

Par exemple :

@total_ordering
class Student:
    def _is_valid_operand(self, other):
        return (hasattr(other, "lastname") and
                hasattr(other, "firstname"))
    def __eq__(self, other):
        if not self._is_valid_operand(other):
            return NotImplemented
        return ((self.lastname.lower(), self.firstname.lower()) ==
                (other.lastname.lower(), other.firstname.lower()))
    def __lt__(self, other):
        if not self._is_valid_operand(other):
            return NotImplemented
        return ((self.lastname.lower(), self.firstname.lower()) <
                (other.lastname.lower(), other.firstname.lower()))

Note

Même si ce décorateur permet de créer des types ordonnables facilement, cela vient avec un coût d'exécution et des traces d'exécution complexes pour les méthodes de comparaison dérivées. Si des tests de performances le révèlent comme un goulot d'étranglement, l'implémentation manuelle des six méthodes de comparaison riches résoudra normalement vos problèmes de rapidité.

Note

This decorator makes no attempt to override methods that have been declared in the class or its superclasses. Meaning that if a superclass defines a comparison operator, total_ordering will not implement it again, even if the original method is abstract.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Returning NotImplemented from the underlying comparison function for unrecognised types is now supported.

functools.Placeholder

A singleton object used as a sentinel to reserve a place for positional arguments when calling partial() and partialmethod().

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

functools.partial(func, /, *args, **keywords)

Retourne un nouvel objet partiel qui, quand il est appelé, fonctionne comme func appelée avec les arguments positionnels args et les arguments nommés keywords. Si plus d'arguments sont fournis à l'appel, ils sont ajoutés à args. Si plus d'arguments nommés sont fournis, ils étendent et surchargent keywords. À peu près équivalent à :

def partial(func, /, *args, **keywords):
    def newfunc(*more_args, **more_keywords):
        return func(*args, *more_args, **(keywords | more_keywords))
    newfunc.func = func
    newfunc.args = args
    newfunc.keywords = keywords
    return newfunc

The partial() function is used for partial function application which "freezes" some portion of a function's arguments and/or keywords resulting in a new object with a simplified signature. For example, partial() can be used to create a callable that behaves like the int() function where the base argument defaults to 2:

>>> basetwo = partial(int, base=2)
>>> basetwo.__doc__ = 'Convert base 2 string to an int.'
>>> basetwo('10010')
18

If Placeholder sentinels are present in args, they will be filled first when partial() is called. This makes it possible to pre-fill any positional argument with a call to partial(); without Placeholder, only the chosen number of leading positional arguments can be pre-filled.

If any Placeholder sentinels are present, all must be filled at call time:

>>> say_to_world = partial(print, Placeholder, Placeholder, "world!")
>>> say_to_world('Hello', 'dear')
Hello dear world!

Calling say_to_world('Hello') raises a TypeError, because only one positional argument is provided, but there are two placeholders that must be filled in.

If partial() is applied to an existing partial() object, Placeholder sentinels of the input object are filled in with new positional arguments. A placeholder can be retained by inserting a new Placeholder sentinel to the place held by a previous Placeholder:

>>> from functools import partial, Placeholder as _
>>> remove = partial(str.replace, _, _, '')
>>> message = 'Hello, dear dear world!'
>>> remove(message, ' dear')
'Hello, world!'
>>> remove_dear = partial(remove, _, ' dear')
>>> remove_dear(message)
'Hello, world!'
>>> remove_first_dear = partial(remove_dear, _, 1)
>>> remove_first_dear(message)
'Hello, dear world!'

Placeholder cannot be passed to partial() as a keyword argument.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Added support for Placeholder in positional arguments.

class functools.partialmethod(func, /, *args, **keywords)

Retourne un nouveau descripteur partialmethod qui se comporte comme partial sauf qu'il est fait pour être utilisé comme une définition de méthode plutôt que d'être appelé directement.

func doit être un descriptor ou un appelable (les objets qui sont les deux, comme les fonction normales, sont gérés comme des descripteurs).

When func is a descriptor (such as a normal Python function, classmethod(), staticmethod(), abstractmethod() or another instance of partialmethod), calls to __get__ are delegated to the underlying descriptor, and an appropriate partial object returned as the result.

Quand func est un appelable non-descripteur, une méthode liée appropriée est crée dynamiquement. Elle se comporte comme une fonction Python normale quand elle est utilisée comme méthode : l'argument self sera inséré comme premier argument positionnel, avant les args et keywords fournis au constructeur partialmethod.

Exemple :

>>> class Cell:
...     def __init__(self):
...         self._alive = False
...     @property
...     def alive(self):
...         return self._alive
...     def set_state(self, state):
...         self._alive = bool(state)
...     set_alive = partialmethod(set_state, True)
...     set_dead = partialmethod(set_state, False)
...
>>> c = Cell()
>>> c.alive
False
>>> c.set_alive()
>>> c.alive
True

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

functools.reduce(function, iterable, /[, initial])

Apply function of two arguments cumulatively to the items of iterable, from left to right, so as to reduce the iterable to a single value. For example, reduce(lambda x, y: x+y, [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]) calculates ((((1+2)+3)+4)+5). The left argument, x, is the accumulated value and the right argument, y, is the update value from the iterable. If the optional initial is present, it is placed before the items of the iterable in the calculation, and serves as a default when the iterable is empty. If initial is not given and iterable contains only one item, the first item is returned.

À peu près équivalent à :

initial_missing = object()

def reduce(function, iterable, /, initial=initial_missing):
    it = iter(iterable)
    if initial is initial_missing:
        value = next(it)
    else:
        value = initial
    for element in it:
        value = function(value, element)
    return value

Voir itertools.accumulate() pour un itérateur qui génère toutes les valeurs intermédiaires.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: initial is now supported as a keyword argument.

@functools.singledispatch

Transforme une fonction en une fonction générique single-dispatch.

To define a generic function, decorate it with the @singledispatch decorator. When defining a function using @singledispatch, note that the dispatch happens on the type of the first argument:

>>> from functools import singledispatch
>>> @singledispatch
... def fun(arg, verbose=False):
...     if verbose:
...         print("Let me just say,", end=" ")
...     print(arg)

To add overloaded implementations to the function, use the register() attribute of the generic function, which can be used as a decorator. For functions annotated with types, the decorator will infer the type of the first argument automatically:

>>> @fun.register
... def _(arg: int, verbose=False):
...     if verbose:
...         print("Strength in numbers, eh?", end=" ")
...     print(arg)
...
>>> @fun.register
... def _(arg: list, verbose=False):
...     if verbose:
...         print("Enumerate this:")
...     for i, elem in enumerate(arg):
...         print(i, elem)

typing.Union can also be used:

>>> @fun.register
... def _(arg: int | float, verbose=False):
...     if verbose:
...         print("Strength in numbers, eh?", end=" ")
...     print(arg)
...
>>> from typing import Union
>>> @fun.register
... def _(arg: Union[list, set], verbose=False):
...     if verbose:
...         print("Enumerate this:")
...     for i, elem in enumerate(arg):
...         print(i, elem)
...

Pour le code qui n’utilise pas les indications de type, le type souhaité peut être passé explicitement en argument au décorateur :

>>> @fun.register(complex)
... def _(arg, verbose=False):
...     if verbose:
...         print("Better than complicated.", end=" ")
...     print(arg.real, arg.imag)
...

For code that dispatches on a collections type (e.g., list), but wants to typehint the items of the collection (e.g., list[int]), the dispatch type should be passed explicitly to the decorator itself with the typehint going into the function definition:

>>> @fun.register(list)
... def _(arg: list[int], verbose=False):
...     if verbose:
...         print("Enumerate this:")
...     for i, elem in enumerate(arg):
...         print(i, elem)

Note

At runtime the function will dispatch on an instance of a list regardless of the type contained within the list i.e. [1,2,3] will be dispatched the same as ["foo", "bar", "baz"]. The annotation provided in this example is for static type checkers only and has no runtime impact.

To enable registering lambdas and pre-existing functions, the register() attribute can also be used in a functional form:

>>> def nothing(arg, verbose=False):
...     print("Nothing.")
...
>>> fun.register(type(None), nothing)

The register() attribute returns the undecorated function. This enables decorator stacking, pickling, and the creation of unit tests for each variant independently:

>>> @fun.register(float)
... @fun.register(Decimal)
... def fun_num(arg, verbose=False):
...     if verbose:
...         print("Half of your number:", end=" ")
...     print(arg / 2)
...
>>> fun_num is fun
False

Quand elle est appelée, la fonction générique distribue sur le type du premier argument :

>>> fun("Hello, world.")
Hello, world.
>>> fun("test.", verbose=True)
Let me just say, test.
>>> fun(42, verbose=True)
Strength in numbers, eh? 42
>>> fun(['spam', 'spam', 'eggs', 'spam'], verbose=True)
Enumerate this:
0 spam
1 spam
2 eggs
3 spam
>>> fun(None)
Nothing.
>>> fun(1.23)
0.615

Where there is no registered implementation for a specific type, its method resolution order is used to find a more generic implementation. The original function decorated with @singledispatch is registered for the base object type, which means it is used if no better implementation is found.

If an implementation is registered to an abstract base class, virtual subclasses of the base class will be dispatched to that implementation:

>>> from collections.abc import Mapping
>>> @fun.register
... def _(arg: Mapping, verbose=False):
...     if verbose:
...         print("Keys & Values")
...     for key, value in arg.items():
...         print(key, "=>", value)
...
>>> fun({"a": "b"})
a => b

To check which implementation the generic function will choose for a given type, use the dispatch() attribute:

>>> fun.dispatch(float)
<function fun_num at 0x1035a2840>
>>> fun.dispatch(dict)    # note: default implementation
<function fun at 0x103fe0000>

Pour accéder à toutes les implémentations enregistrées, utiliser l'attribut en lecture seule registry :

>>> fun.registry.keys()
dict_keys([<class 'NoneType'>, <class 'int'>, <class 'object'>,
          <class 'decimal.Decimal'>, <class 'list'>,
          <class 'float'>])
>>> fun.registry[float]
<function fun_num at 0x1035a2840>
>>> fun.registry[object]
<function fun at 0x103fe0000>

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: The register() attribute now supports using type annotations.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: The register() attribute now supports typing.Union as a type annotation.

class functools.singledispatchmethod(func)

Transforme une méthode en une fonction générique single-dispatch.

To define a generic method, decorate it with the @singledispatchmethod decorator. When defining a method using @singledispatchmethod, note that the dispatch happens on the type of the first non-self or non-cls argument:

class Negator:
    @singledispatchmethod
    def neg(self, arg):
        raise NotImplementedError("Cannot negate a")

    @neg.register
    def _(self, arg: int):
        return -arg

    @neg.register
    def _(self, arg: bool):
        return not arg

@singledispatchmethod supports nesting with other decorators such as @classmethod. Note that to allow for dispatcher.register, singledispatchmethod must be the outer most decorator. Here is the Negator class with the neg methods bound to the class, rather than an instance of the class:

class Negator:
    @singledispatchmethod
    @classmethod
    def neg(cls, arg):
        raise NotImplementedError("Cannot negate a")

    @neg.register
    @classmethod
    def _(cls, arg: int):
        return -arg

    @neg.register
    @classmethod
    def _(cls, arg: bool):
        return not arg

The same pattern can be used for other similar decorators: @staticmethod, @~abc.abstractmethod, and others.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

functools.update_wrapper(wrapper, wrapped, assigned=WRAPPER_ASSIGNMENTS, updated=WRAPPER_UPDATES)

Update a wrapper function to look like the wrapped function. The optional arguments are tuples to specify which attributes of the original function are assigned directly to the matching attributes on the wrapper function and which attributes of the wrapper function are updated with the corresponding attributes from the original function. The default values for these arguments are the module level constants WRAPPER_ASSIGNMENTS (which assigns to the wrapper function's __module__, __name__, __qualname__, __annotations__, __type_params__, and __doc__, the documentation string) and WRAPPER_UPDATES (which updates the wrapper function's __dict__, i.e. the instance dictionary).

Pour autoriser l'accès à la fonction originale pour l'introspection ou à d'autres fins (par ex. outrepasser l'accès à un décorateur de cache comme lru_cache()), cette fonction ajoute automatiquement un attribut __wrapped__ qui référence la fonction englobée.

La principale utilisation de cette fonction est dans les décorateurs qui renvoient une nouvelle fonction. Si la fonction crée n'est pas mise à jour, ses métadonnées refléteront sa définition dans le décorateur, au lieu de la définition originale, métadonnées souvent bien moins utiles.

update_wrapper() peut être utilisé avec des appelables autres que des fonctions. Tout attribut défini dans assigned ou updated qui ne sont pas l'objet englobé sont ignorés (cette fonction n'essaiera pas de les définir dans la fonction englobante). AttributeError est toujours levée si le fonction englobante elle même a des attributs non existants dans updated.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: The __wrapped__ attribute is now automatically added. The __annotations__ attribute is now copied by default. Missing attributes no longer trigger an AttributeError.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: L'attribut __wrapped__ renvoie toujours la fonction englobée, même si cette fonction définit un attribut __wrapped__. (voir bpo-17482 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17482])

Modifié dans la version 3.12: The __type_params__ attribute is now copied by default.

@functools.wraps(wrapped, assigned=WRAPPER_ASSIGNMENTS, updated=WRAPPER_UPDATES)

Ceci est une fonction d'aide pour appeler update_wrapper() comme décorateur de fonction lors de la définition d'une fonction englobante. C'est équivalent à partial(update_wrapper, wrapped=wrapped, assigned=assigned, updated=updated). Par exemple :

>>> from functools import wraps
>>> def my_decorator(f):
...     @wraps(f)
...     def wrapper(*args, **kwds):
...         print('Calling decorated function')
...         return f(*args, **kwds)
...     return wrapper
...
>>> @my_decorator
... def example():
...     """Docstring"""
...     print('Called example function')
...
>>> example()
Calling decorated function
Called example function
>>> example.__name__
'example'
>>> example.__doc__
'Docstring'

Without the use of this decorator factory, the name of the example function would have been 'wrapper', and the docstring of the original example() would have been lost.

Objets partial

Les objets partial sont des objets appelables créés par partial(). Ils ont trois attributs en lecture seule :

partial.func

Un objet ou une fonction appelable. Les appels à l'objet partial seront transmis à func avec les nouveaux arguments et mots-clés.

partial.args

Les arguments positionnels qui seront ajoutés avant les arguments fournis lors de l'appel d'un objet partial.

partial.keywords

Les arguments nommés qui seront fournis quand l'objet partial est appelé.

partial objects are like function objects in that they are callable, weak referenceable, and can have attributes. There are some important differences. For instance, the __name__ and __doc__ attributes are not created automatically.

operator — Opérateurs standards en tant que fonctions

Code source : Lib/operator.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/operator.py]

The operator module exports a set of efficient functions corresponding to the intrinsic operators of Python. For example, operator.add(x, y) is equivalent to the expression x+y. Many function names are those used for special methods, without the double underscores. For backward compatibility, many of these have a variant with the double underscores kept. The variants without the double underscores are preferred for clarity.

Les fonctions sont divisées en différentes catégories selon l'opération effectuée : comparaison entre objets, opérations logiques, opérations mathématiques ou opérations sur séquences.

Les fonctions de comparaison s'appliquent à tous les objets, et leur nom vient des opérateurs de comparaison qu'elles implémentent :

operator.lt(a, b)

operator.le(a, b)

operator.eq(a, b)

operator.ne(a, b)

operator.ge(a, b)

operator.gt(a, b)

operator.__lt__(a, b)

operator.__le__(a, b)

operator.__eq__(a, b)

operator.__ne__(a, b)

operator.__ge__(a, b)

operator.__gt__(a, b)

Effectue une « comparaison riche » entre a et b. Plus précisément, lt(a, b) équivaut à a < b, le(a, b) équivaut à a <= b, eq(a, b) équivaut à a == b, ne(a, b) équivaut à a != b, gt(a, b) équivaut à a > b et ge(a, b) équivaut à a >= b. Notez que ces fonctions peuvent renvoyer n'importe quelle valeur, convertible ou non en booléen. Voir Comparaisons pour plus d'informations sur les méthodes de comparaison riches.

En général, les opérations logiques s'appliquent aussi à tous les objets et implémentent les tests de vérité, d'identité et les opérations booléennes :

operator.not_(obj)

operator.__not__(obj)

Renvoie le résultat de not obj. (Notez qu'il n'existe pas de méthode __not__() pour les instances d'objet; seul le cœur de l'interpréteur définit cette opération. Le résultat dépend des méthodes __bool__() et __len__().)

operator.truth(obj)

Renvoie True si obj est vrai, et False dans le cas contraire. Équivaut à utiliser le constructeur de bool.

operator.is_(a, b)

Renvoie a is b. Vérifie si les deux paramètres sont le même objet.

operator.is_not(a, b)

Renvoie a is not b. Vérifie si les deux paramètres sont deux objets distincts.

operator.is_none(a)

Return a is None. Tests object identity.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

operator.is_not_none(a)

Return a is not None. Tests object identity.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Les opérations mathématiques ou bit à bit sont les plus nombreuses :

operator.abs(obj)

operator.__abs__(obj)

Renvoie la valeur absolue de obj.

operator.add(a, b)

operator.__add__(a, b)

Renvoie a + b où a et b sont des nombres.

operator.and_(a, b)

operator.__and__(a, b)

Renvoie le et bit à bit de a et b.

operator.floordiv(a, b)

operator.__floordiv__(a, b)

Renvoie a // b.

operator.index(a)

operator.__index__(a)

Renvoie a converti en entier. Équivaut à a.__index__().

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Le résultat a toujours le type int. Précédemment, le résultat aurait pu être une instance d'une sous-classe de int.

operator.inv(obj)

operator.invert(obj)

operator.__inv__(obj)

operator.__invert__(obj)

Renvoie l'inverse bit à bit du nombre obj. Équivaut à ~obj.

operator.lshift(a, b)

operator.__lshift__(a, b)

Renvoie le décalage de b bits vers la gauche de a.

operator.mod(a, b)

operator.__mod__(a, b)

Renvoie a % b.

operator.mul(a, b)

operator.__mul__(a, b)

Renvoie a * b où a et b sont des nombres.

operator.matmul(a, b)

operator.__matmul__(a, b)

Renvoie a @ b.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

operator.neg(obj)

operator.__neg__(obj)

Renvoie l'opposé de obj (-obj).

operator.or_(a, b)

operator.__or__(a, b)

Renvoie le ou bit à bit de a et b.

operator.pos(obj)

operator.__pos__(obj)

Renvoie la valeur positive de obj (+obj).

operator.pow(a, b)

operator.__pow__(a, b)

Renvoie a ** b où a et b sont des nombres.

operator.rshift(a, b)

operator.__rshift__(a, b)

Renvoie le décalage de b bits vers la droite de a.

operator.sub(a, b)

operator.__sub__(a, b)

Renvoie a - b.

operator.truediv(a, b)

operator.__truediv__(a, b)

Renvoie a / b où 2/3 est 0.66 et non 0. Appelée aussi division « réelle ».

operator.xor(a, b)

operator.__xor__(a, b)

Renvoie le ou exclusif bit à bit de a et b.

Les opérations sur séquences (et pour certaines, sur correspondances) sont :

operator.concat(a, b)

operator.__concat__(a, b)

Renvoie a + b où a et b sont des séquences.

operator.contains(a, b)

operator.__contains__(a, b)

Renvoie le résultat du test b in a. Notez que les opérandes sont inversées.

operator.countOf(a, b)

Renvoie le nombre d’occurrences de b dans a.

operator.delitem(a, b)

operator.__delitem__(a, b)

Renvoie la valeur de a à l'indice b.

operator.getitem(a, b)

operator.__getitem__(a, b)

Renvoie la valeur de a à l'indice b.

operator.indexOf(a, b)

Renvoie l'indice de la première occurrence de b dans a.

operator.setitem(a, b, c)

operator.__setitem__(a, b, c)

Affecte c dans a à l'indice b.

operator.length_hint(obj, default=0)

Renvoie une estimation de la taille de l'objet obj. Tente d'abord de renvoyer la taille réelle, puis une estimation en appelant object.__length_hint__(), ou sinon la valeur par défaut.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

L'opération suivante marche avec les objets appelables :

operator.call(obj, /, *args, **kwargs)

operator.__call__(obj, /, *args, **kwargs)

Return obj(*args, **kwargs).

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

The operator module also defines tools for generalized attribute and item lookups. These are useful for making fast field extractors as arguments for map(), sorted(), itertools.groupby(), or other functions that expect a function argument.

operator.attrgetter(attr)

operator.attrgetter(*attrs)

Renvoie un objet appelable qui récupère attr de son opérande. Si plus d'un attribut est demandé, renvoie un n-uplet d'attributs. Les noms des attributs peuvent aussi comporter des points. Par exemple :

Avec f = attrgetter('name'), l'appel f(b) renvoie b.name.

Avec f = attrgetter('name', 'date'), l'appel f(b) renvoie (b.name, b.date).

Après f = attrgetter('name.first', 'name.last'), l'appel f(b) renvoie (b.name.first, b.name.last).

Équivalent à :

def attrgetter(*items):
    if any(not isinstance(item, str) for item in items):
        raise TypeError('attribute name must be a string')
    if len(items) == 1:
        attr = items[0]
        def g(obj):
            return resolve_attr(obj, attr)
    else:
        def g(obj):
            return tuple(resolve_attr(obj, attr) for attr in items)
    return g

def resolve_attr(obj, attr):
    for name in attr.split("."):
        obj = getattr(obj, name)
    return obj

operator.itemgetter(item)

operator.itemgetter(*items)

Renvoie un objet appelable qui récupère item de l'opérande en utilisant la méthode __getitem__(). Si plusieurs item sont passés en paramètre, renvoie un n-uplet des valeurs récupérées. Par exemple :

Avec f = itemgetter(2), f(r) renvoie r[2].

Avec g = itemgetter(2, 5, 3), g(r) renvoie (r[2], r[5], r[3]).

Équivalent à :

def itemgetter(*items):
    if len(items) == 1:
        item = items[0]
        def g(obj):
            return obj[item]
    else:
        def g(obj):
            return tuple(obj[item] for item in items)
    return g

Les items en entrée peuvent être de n'importe quel type tant que celui-ci est géré par la méthode __getitem__() de l'opérande. Les dictionnaires acceptent toute valeur hachable. Les listes, n-uplets et chaînes de caractères acceptent un index ou une tranche :

>>> itemgetter(1)('ABCDEFG')
'B'
>>> itemgetter(1, 3, 5)('ABCDEFG')
('B', 'D', 'F')
>>> itemgetter(slice(2, None))('ABCDEFG')
'CDEFG'
>>> soldier = dict(rank='captain', name='dotterbart')
>>> itemgetter('rank')(soldier)
'captain'

Exemple d'utilisation de itemgetter() pour récupérer des champs spécifiques d'un n-uplet :

>>> inventory = [('apple', 3), ('banana', 2), ('pear', 5), ('orange', 1)]
>>> getcount = itemgetter(1)
>>> list(map(getcount, inventory))
[3, 2, 5, 1]
>>> sorted(inventory, key=getcount)
[('orange', 1), ('banana', 2), ('apple', 3), ('pear', 5)]

operator.methodcaller(name, /, *args, **kwargs)

Renvoie un objet appelable qui appelle la méthode name de son opérande. Si des paramètres supplémentaires et/ou des paramètres nommés sont donnés, ils seront aussi passés à la méthode. Par exemple :

Avec f = methodcaller('name'), f(b) renvoie b.name().

Avec f = methodcaller('name', 'foo', bar=1), f(b) renvoie b.name('foo', bar=1).

Équivalent à :

def methodcaller(name, /, *args, **kwargs):
    def caller(obj):
        return getattr(obj, name)(*args, **kwargs)
    return caller

Correspondances entre opérateurs et fonctions

This table shows how abstract operations correspond to operator symbols in the Python syntax and the functions in the operator module.

Opération

Syntaxe

Fonction

Addition

a + b

add(a, b)

Concaténation

seq1 + seq2

concat(seq1, seq2)

Test d'inclusion

obj in seq

contains(seq, obj)

Division

a / b

truediv(a, b)

Division

a // b

floordiv(a, b)

Et bit à bit

a & b

and_(a, b)

Ou exclusif bit à bit

a ^ b

xor(a, b)

Inversion bit à bit

~ a

invert(a)

Ou bit à bit

a | b

or_(a, b)

Exponentiation

a ** b

pow(a, b)

Identité

a is b

is_(a, b)

Identité

a is not b

is_not(a, b)

Identité

a is None

is_none(a)

Identité

a is not None

is_not_none(a)

Affectation par index

obj[k] = v

setitem(obj, k, v)

Suppression par index

del obj[k]

delitem(obj, k)

Indexation

obj[k]

getitem(obj, k)

Décalage bit à bit gauche

a << b

lshift(a, b)

Modulo

a % b

mod(a, b)

Multiplication

a * b

mul(a, b)

Multiplication matricielle

a @ b

matmul(a, b)

Opposé

- a

neg(a)

Négation (logique)

not a

not_(a)

Valeur positive

+ a

pos(a)

Décalage bit à bit droite

a >> b

rshift(a, b)

Affectation par tranche

seq[i:j] = values

setitem(seq, slice(i, j), values)

Suppression par tranche

del seq[i:j]

delitem(seq, slice(i, j))

Tranche

seq[i:j]

getitem(seq, slice(i, j))

Formatage de chaînes de caractères

s % obj

mod(s, obj)

Soustraction

a - b

sub(a, b)

Test de véracité

obj

truth(obj)

Ordre

a < b

lt(a, b)

Ordre

a <= b

le(a, b)

Égalité

a == b

eq(a, b)

Inégalité

a != b

ne(a, b)

Ordre

a >= b

ge(a, b)

Ordre

a > b

gt(a, b)

Opérateurs en-place

Beaucoup d'opérations ont une version travaillant « en-place ». Les fonctions listées ci-dessous fournissent un accès plus direct aux opérateurs en-place que la syntaxe Python habituelle ; par exemple, l'expression statement x += y équivaut à x = operator.iadd(x, y). Autrement dit, l'expression z = operator.iadd(x, y) équivaut à l'expression composée z = x; z += y.

Dans ces exemples, notez que lorsqu'une méthode en-place est appelée, le calcul et l'affectation sont effectués en deux étapes distinctes. Les fonctions en-place de la liste ci-dessous ne font que la première, en appelant la méthode en-place. La seconde étape, l'affectation, n'est pas effectuée.

Pour des paramètres non-mutables comme les chaînes de caractères, les nombres et les n-uplets, la nouvelle valeur est calculée, mais pas affectée à la variable d'entrée :

>>> a = 'hello'
>>> iadd(a, ' world')
'hello world'
>>> a
'hello'

Pour des paramètres mutables comme les listes et les dictionnaires, la méthode en-place modifiera la valeur, aucune affectation ultérieure n'est nécessaire :

>>> s = ['h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o']
>>> iadd(s, [' ', 'w', 'o', 'r', 'l', 'd'])
['h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', ' ', 'w', 'o', 'r', 'l', 'd']
>>> s
['h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', ' ', 'w', 'o', 'r', 'l', 'd']

operator.iadd(a, b)

operator.__iadd__(a, b)

a = iadd(a, b) équivaut à a += b.

operator.iand(a, b)

operator.__iand__(a, b)

a = iand(a, b) équivaut à a &= b.

operator.iconcat(a, b)

operator.__iconcat__(a, b)

a = iconcat(a, b) équivaut à a += b où a et b sont des séquences.

operator.ifloordiv(a, b)

operator.__ifloordiv__(a, b)

a = ifloordiv(a, b) équivaut à a //= b.

operator.ilshift(a, b)

operator.__ilshift__(a, b)

a = ilshift(a, b) équivaut à a <<= b.

operator.imod(a, b)

operator.__imod__(a, b)

a = imod(a, b) équivaut à a %= b.

operator.imul(a, b)

operator.__imul__(a, b)

a = imul(a, b) équivaut à a *= b.

operator.imatmul(a, b)

operator.__imatmul__(a, b)

a = imatmul(a, b) équivaut à a @= b.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

operator.ior(a, b)

operator.__ior__(a, b)

a = ior(a, b) équivaut à a |= b.

operator.ipow(a, b)

operator.__ipow__(a, b)

a = ipow(a, b) équivaut à a **= b.

operator.irshift(a, b)

operator.__irshift__(a, b)

a = irshift(a, b) équivaut à a >>= b.

operator.isub(a, b)

operator.__isub__(a, b)

a = isub(a, b) équivaut à a -= b.

operator.itruediv(a, b)

operator.__itruediv__(a, b)

a = itruediv(a, b) équivaut à a /= b.

operator.ixor(a, b)

operator.__ixor__(a, b)

a = ixor(a, b) équivaut à a ^= b.

Accès aux Fichiers et aux Dossiers

Les modules décrits dans ce chapitre servent à accéder aux fichiers et aux dossiers. Des modules, par exemple, pour lire les propriétés des fichiers, manipuler des chemins de manière portable, et créer des fichiers temporaires. La liste exhaustive des modules de ce chapitre est :

pathlib — Chemins de système de fichiers orientés objet

Utilisation basique

Exceptions

Chemins purs

Propriétés générales

Opérateurs

Accéder aux parties individuelles

Méthodes et propriétés

Chemins concrets

Analyse et génération des URI

Expansion et résolution de chemins

Requête sur type et statut du fichier

Lecture et écriture de fichiers

Lecture des dossiers

Création de fichiers et de dossiers

Copying, moving and deleting

Permissions et propriété

Pattern language

Comparaison avec les outils du module glob

Comparaison aux modules os et os.path

Outils correspondants

Protocoles

os.path --- Common pathname manipulations

stat --- Interpreting stat() results

filecmp --- File and Directory Comparisons

La classe dircmp

tempfile --- Generate temporary files and directories

Exemples

Fonctions et variables obsolètes

glob --- Unix style pathname pattern expansion

Exemples

fnmatch --- Unix filename pattern matching

linecache --- Random access to text lines

shutil --- High-level file operations

Opérations sur les répertoires et les fichiers

Platform-dependent efficient copy operations

copytree example

rmtree example

Archiving operations

Archiving example

Archiving example with base_dir

Querying the size of the output terminal

Voir aussi

Module os

Interfaces du système d'exploitation, incluant des fonctions pour travailler avec des fichiers dans un niveau plus bas que les objets fichiers de Python.

Module io

Bibliothèque d'entrées/sorties native de Python, incluant des classes abstraites et concrètes tel que les I/O sur les fichiers.

Fonction native open()

Le moyen classique pour ouvrir des fichiers pour les lire ou y écrire avec Python.

pathlib — Chemins de système de fichiers orientés objet

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Code source : Lib/pathlib/ [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/pathlib/]

Ce module offre des classes représentant le système de fichiers avec la sémantique appropriée pour différents systèmes d'exploitation. Les classes de chemins sont divisées en chemins purs, qui fournissent uniquement des opérations de manipulation sans entrées-sorties, et chemins concrets, qui héritent des chemins purs et fournissent également les opérations d'entrées-sorties.

Si vous n'avez jamais utilisé ce module précédemment, ou si vous n'êtes pas sûr de quelle classe est faite pour votre tâche, Path est très certainement ce dont vous avez besoin. Elle instancie un chemin concret pour la plateforme sur laquelle s'exécute le code.

Les chemins purs sont utiles dans certains cas particuliers ; par exemple :

Si vous voulez manipuler des chemins Windows sur une machine Unix (ou vice versa). Vous ne pouvez pas instancier un WindowsPath quand vous êtes sous Unix, mais vous pouvez instancier PureWindowsPath.

Vous voulez être sûr que votre code manipule des chemins sans réellement accéder au système d'exploitation. Dans ce cas, instancier une de ces classes pures peut être utile puisqu'elle ne possède tout simplement aucune opération permettant d'accéder au système d'exploitation.

Voir aussi

PEP 428 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0428/] : le module pathlib – implémentation orientée-objet des chemins de systèmes de fichiers.

Voir aussi

Pour de la manipulation de chemins bas-niveau avec des chaînes de caractères, vous pouvez aussi utiliser le module os.path.

Utilisation basique

Importer la classe principale :

>>> from pathlib import Path

Lister les sous-dossiers :

>>> p = Path('.')
>>> [x for x in p.iterdir() if x.is_dir()]
[PosixPath('.hg'), PosixPath('docs'), PosixPath('dist'),
 PosixPath('__pycache__'), PosixPath('build')]

Lister les fichiers source Python dans cette arborescence de dossiers :

>>> list(p.glob('**/*.py'))
[PosixPath('test_pathlib.py'), PosixPath('setup.py'),
 PosixPath('pathlib.py'), PosixPath('docs/conf.py'),
 PosixPath('build/lib/pathlib.py')]

Naviguer à l'intérieur d'une arborescence de dossiers :

>>> p = Path('/etc')
>>> q = p / 'init.d' / 'reboot'
>>> q
PosixPath('/etc/init.d/reboot')
>>> q.resolve()
PosixPath('/etc/rc.d/init.d/halt')

Récupérer les propriétés de chemin :

>>> q.exists()
True
>>> q.is_dir()
False

Ouvrir un fichier :

>>> with q.open() as f: f.readline()
...
'#!/bin/bash\n'

Exceptions

exception pathlib.UnsupportedOperation

Une exception qui hérite de NotImplementedError levée quand une opération non prise en charge est appelée sur un objet path

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Chemins purs

Les objets chemins purs fournissent les opérations de gestion de chemin qui n'accèdent pas réellement au système de fichiers. Il y a trois façons d'accéder à ces classes que nous appelons aussi familles :

class pathlib.PurePath(*pathsegments)

Une classe générique qui représente la famille de chemin du système (l'instancier crée soit un PurePosixPath soit un PureWindowsPath) :

>>> PurePath('setup.py')      # Running on a Unix machine
PurePosixPath('setup.py')

Each element of pathsegments can be either a string representing a path segment, or an object implementing the os.PathLike interface where the __fspath__() method returns a string, such as another path object:

>>> PurePath('foo', 'some/path', 'bar')
PurePosixPath('foo/some/path/bar')
>>> PurePath(Path('foo'), Path('bar'))
PurePosixPath('foo/bar')

Quand pathsegments est vide, le dossier courant est utilisé :

>>> PurePath()
PurePosixPath('.')

Si un segment est un chemin absolu, tous les segments précédents sont ignorés (comme os.path.join()) :

>>> PurePath('/etc', '/usr', 'lib64')
PurePosixPath('/usr/lib64')
>>> PureWindowsPath('c:/Windows', 'd:bar')
PureWindowsPath('d:bar')

Sous Windows, le nom de lecteur est conservé quand un chemin relatif à la racine (par exemple r'\foo') est rencontré :

>>> PureWindowsPath('c:/Windows', '/Program Files')
PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files')

Les points et slashs superflus sont supprimés, mais les doubles points ('..') et les double slashes ('//') en début de segment ne le sont pas, puisque cela changerait la signification du chemin pour différentes raisons (par exemple pour des liens symboliques ou des chemins UNC) :

>>> PurePath('foo//bar')
PurePosixPath('foo/bar')
>>> PurePath('//foo/bar')
PurePosixPath('//foo/bar')
>>> PurePath('foo/./bar')
PurePosixPath('foo/bar')
>>> PurePath('foo/../bar')
PurePosixPath('foo/../bar')

(une analyse naïve considérerait PurePosixPath('foo/../bar') équivalent à PurePosixPath('bar'), ce qui est faux si foo est un lien symbolique vers un autre dossier)

Les objets chemins purs implémentent l'interface os.PathLike, leur permettant d'être utilisés n'importe où l'interface est acceptée.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: ajout de la gestion de l'interface os.PathLike.

class pathlib.PurePosixPath(*pathsegments)

Sous-classe de PurePath, cette famille de chemin représente les chemins de systèmes de fichiers en dehors des chemins Windows :

>>> PurePosixPath('/etc/hosts')
PurePosixPath('/etc/hosts')

pathsegments est spécifié de manière similaire à PurePath.

class pathlib.PureWindowsPath(*pathsegments)

Sous-classe de PurePath, cette famille de chemin représente les chemins de systèmes de fichiers Windows, y compris les chemins UNC (voir UNC paths [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Path_(computing)#UNC]) :

>>> PureWindowsPath('c:/', 'Users', 'Ximénez')
PureWindowsPath('c:/Users/Ximénez')
>>> PureWindowsPath('//server/share/file')
PureWindowsPath('//server/share/file')

pathsegments est spécifié de manière similaire à PurePath.

Sans tenir compte du système sur lequel vous êtes, vous pouvez instancier toutes ces classes, puisqu'elles ne fournissent aucune opération qui appelle le système d'exploitation.

Propriétés générales

Paths are immutable and hashable. Paths of a same flavour are comparable and orderable. These properties respect the flavour's case-folding semantics:

>>> PurePosixPath('foo') == PurePosixPath('FOO')
False
>>> PureWindowsPath('foo') == PureWindowsPath('FOO')
True
>>> PureWindowsPath('FOO') in { PureWindowsPath('foo') }
True
>>> PureWindowsPath('C:') < PureWindowsPath('d:')
True

Les chemins de différentes familles ne sont pas égaux et ne peuvent être ordonnés :

>>> PureWindowsPath('foo') == PurePosixPath('foo')
False
>>> PureWindowsPath('foo') < PurePosixPath('foo')
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: '<' not supported between instances of 'PureWindowsPath' and 'PurePosixPath'

Opérateurs

L'opérateur slash aide à créer les chemins enfants, de manière similaire à os.path.join(). Si l'argument est un chemin absolu, le chemin précédent est ignoré. Sous Windows, le lecteur n'est pas effacé quand l'argument est un chemin relatif enraciné (par exemple r'\foo') :

>>> p = PurePath('/etc')
>>> p
PurePosixPath('/etc')
>>> p / 'init.d' / 'apache2'
PurePosixPath('/etc/init.d/apache2')
>>> q = PurePath('bin')
>>> '/usr' / q
PurePosixPath('/usr/bin')
>>> p / '/an_absolute_path'
PurePosixPath('/an_absolute_path')
>>> PureWindowsPath('c:/Windows', '/Program Files')
PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files')

Un objet chemin peut être utilisé n'importe où un objet implémentant os.PathLike est accepté :

>>> import os
>>> p = PurePath('/etc')
>>> os.fspath(p)
'/etc'

La représentation d'un chemin en chaîne de caractères est celle du chemin brut du système de fichiers lui-même (dans sa forme native, c.-à-d. avec des antislashs sous Windows), telle que vous pouvez la passer à n'importe quelle fonction prenant un chemin en tant que chaîne de caractères :

>>> p = PurePath('/etc')
>>> str(p)
'/etc'
>>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files')
>>> str(p)
'c:\\Program Files'

De manière similaire, appeler bytes sur un chemin donne le chemin brut du système de fichiers en tant que bytes, tel qu'encodé par os.fsencode() :

>>> bytes(p)
b'/etc'

Note

Appeler bytes est seulement recommandé sous Unix. Sous Windows, la forme Unicode est la représentation canonique des chemins du système de fichiers.

Accéder aux parties individuelles

Pour accéder aux parties individuelles (composantes) d'un chemin, utilisez les propriétés suivantes :

PurePath.parts

Un tuple donnant accès aux différentes composantes du chemin :

>>> p = PurePath('/usr/bin/python3')
>>> p.parts
('/', 'usr', 'bin', 'python3')

>>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files/PSF')
>>> p.parts
('c:\\', 'Program Files', 'PSF')

(notez comme le lecteur et la racine locale sont regroupés en une seule partie)

Méthodes et propriétés

Les chemins purs fournissent les méthodes et propriétés suivantes :

PurePath.parser

The implementation of the os.path module used for low-level path parsing and joining: either posixpath or ntpath.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

PurePath.drive

Une chaîne représentant la lettre du lecteur ou le nom, s'il y en a un :

>>> PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files/').drive
'c:'
>>> PureWindowsPath('/Program Files/').drive
''
>>> PurePosixPath('/etc').drive
''

Les partages UNC sont aussi considérés comme des lecteurs :

>>> PureWindowsPath('//host/share/foo.txt').drive
'\\\\host\\share'

PurePath.root

Une chaîne de caractères représentant la racine (locale ou globale), s'il y en a une :

>>> PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files/').root
'\\'
>>> PureWindowsPath('c:Program Files/').root
''
>>> PurePosixPath('/etc').root
'/'

Les partages UNC ont toujours une racine :

>>> PureWindowsPath('//host/share').root
'\\'

Si le chemin commence par plus de deux slashes successifs, PurePosixPath n'en conserve qu'un :

>>> PurePosixPath('//etc').root
'//'
>>> PurePosixPath('///etc').root
'/'
>>> PurePosixPath('////etc').root
'/'

Note

Ce comportement se conforme au paragraphe 4.11 Pathname Resolution [https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/009695399/basedefs/xbd_chap04.html#tag_04_11] des Open Group Base Specifications version 6 :

"A pathname that begins with two successive slashes may be interpreted in an implementation-defined manner, although more than two leading slashes shall be treated as a single slash."

PurePath.anchor

La concaténation du lecteur et de la racine :

>>> PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files/').anchor
'c:\\'
>>> PureWindowsPath('c:Program Files/').anchor
'c:'
>>> PurePosixPath('/etc').anchor
'/'
>>> PureWindowsPath('//host/share').anchor
'\\\\host\\share\\'

PurePath.parents

Une séquence immuable fournissant accès aux ancêtres logiques du chemin :

>>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/foo/bar/setup.py')
>>> p.parents[0]
PureWindowsPath('c:/foo/bar')
>>> p.parents[1]
PureWindowsPath('c:/foo')
>>> p.parents[2]
PureWindowsPath('c:/')

Modifié dans la version 3.10: La séquence de parents prend désormais en charge les tranches et les valeurs d’index négatives.

PurePath.parent

Le parent logique du chemin :

>>> p = PurePosixPath('/a/b/c/d')
>>> p.parent
PurePosixPath('/a/b/c')

Vous ne pouvez pas aller au-delà d'une ancre, ou d'un chemin vide :

>>> p = PurePosixPath('/')
>>> p.parent
PurePosixPath('/')
>>> p = PurePosixPath('.')
>>> p.parent
PurePosixPath('.')

Note

C'est une opération purement lexicale, d'où le comportement suivant :

>>> p = PurePosixPath('foo/..')
>>> p.parent
PurePosixPath('foo')

Si vous voulez remonter un chemin arbitraire du système de fichiers, il est recommandé d'appeler d'abord Path.resolve() de manière à résoudre les liens symboliques et éliminer les composantes "..".

PurePath.name

Une chaîne représentant la composante finale du chemin, en excluant le lecteur et la racine, si présent :

>>> PurePosixPath('my/library/setup.py').name
'setup.py'

Les noms de lecteur UNC ne sont pas pris en compte :

>>> PureWindowsPath('//some/share/setup.py').name
'setup.py'
>>> PureWindowsPath('//some/share').name
''

PurePath.suffix

The last dot-separated portion of the final component, if any:

>>> PurePosixPath('my/library/setup.py').suffix
'.py'
>>> PurePosixPath('my/library.tar.gz').suffix
'.gz'
>>> PurePosixPath('my/library').suffix
''

Ceci est communément appelé une extension de fichier.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: A single dot (".") is considered a valid suffix.

PurePath.suffixes

Une liste de suffixes du chemin concerné, souvent appelées extensions de fichier :

>>> PurePosixPath('my/library.tar.gar').suffixes
['.tar', '.gar']
>>> PurePosixPath('my/library.tar.gz').suffixes
['.tar', '.gz']
>>> PurePosixPath('my/library').suffixes
[]

Modifié dans la version 3.14: A single dot (".") is considered a valid suffix.

PurePath.stem

La composante finale du chemin, sans son suffixe :

>>> PurePosixPath('my/library.tar.gz').stem
'library.tar'
>>> PurePosixPath('my/library.tar').stem
'library'
>>> PurePosixPath('my/library').stem
'library'

Modifié dans la version 3.14: A single dot (".") is considered a valid suffix.

PurePath.as_posix()

Renvoie une représentation en chaîne de caractères du chemin avec des slashs (/) :

>>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:\\windows')
>>> str(p)
'c:\\windows'
>>> p.as_posix()
'c:/windows'

PurePath.is_absolute()

Renvoie si le chemin est absolu ou non. Un chemin est considéré absolu s'il a une racine et un lecteur (si la famille le permet) :

>>> PurePosixPath('/a/b').is_absolute()
True
>>> PurePosixPath('a/b').is_absolute()
False

>>> PureWindowsPath('c:/a/b').is_absolute()
True
>>> PureWindowsPath('/a/b').is_absolute()
False
>>> PureWindowsPath('c:').is_absolute()
False
>>> PureWindowsPath('//some/share').is_absolute()
True

PurePath.is_relative_to(other)

Renvoie si ce chemin est relatif ou non au chemin other.

>>> p = PurePath('/etc/passwd')
>>> p.is_relative_to('/etc')
True
>>> p.is_relative_to('/usr')
False

This method is string-based; it neither accesses the filesystem nor treats ".." segments specially. The following code is equivalent:

>>> u = PurePath('/usr')
>>> u == p or u in p.parents
False

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

Deprecated since version 3.12, removed in version 3.14: Passing additional arguments is deprecated; if supplied, they are joined with other.

PurePath.is_reserved()

Avec PureWindowsPath, renvoie True si le chemin est considéré réservé sous Windows, False sinon. Avec PurePosixPath, False est systématiquement renvoyé.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Windows path names that contain a colon, or end with a dot or a space, are considered reserved. UNC paths may be reserved.

Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: This method is deprecated; use os.path.isreserved() to detect reserved paths on Windows.

PurePath.joinpath(*pathsegments)

Calling this method is equivalent to combining the path with each of the given pathsegments in turn:

>>> PurePosixPath('/etc').joinpath('passwd')
PurePosixPath('/etc/passwd')
>>> PurePosixPath('/etc').joinpath(PurePosixPath('passwd'))
PurePosixPath('/etc/passwd')
>>> PurePosixPath('/etc').joinpath('init.d', 'apache2')
PurePosixPath('/etc/init.d/apache2')
>>> PureWindowsPath('c:').joinpath('/Program Files')
PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files')

PurePath.full_match(pattern, *, case_sensitive=None)

Match this path against the provided glob-style pattern. Return True if matching is successful, False otherwise. For example:

>>> PurePath('a/b.py').full_match('a/*.py')
True
>>> PurePath('a/b.py').full_match('*.py')
False
>>> PurePath('/a/b/c.py').full_match('/a/**')
True
>>> PurePath('/a/b/c.py').full_match('**/*.py')
True

Voir aussi

documentation Pattern language.

Comme pour les autres méthodes, la sensibilité à la casse est la sensibilité par défaut de la plate-forme :

>>> PurePosixPath('b.py').full_match('*.PY')
False
>>> PureWindowsPath('b.py').full_match('*.PY')
True

La sensibilité à la casse peut être choisie en passant True ou False à l'argument case_sensitive.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

PurePath.match(pattern, *, case_sensitive=None)

Match this path against the provided non-recursive glob-style pattern. Return True if matching is successful, False otherwise.

This method is similar to full_match(), but empty patterns aren't allowed (ValueError is raised), the recursive wildcard "**" isn't supported (it acts like non-recursive "*"), and if a relative pattern is provided, then matching is done from the right:

>>> PurePath('a/b.py').match('*.py')
True
>>> PurePath('/a/b/c.py').match('b/*.py')
True
>>> PurePath('/a/b/c.py').match('a/*.py')
False

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Le paramètre pattern accepte un path-like object.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: ajout du paramètre case_sensitive

PurePath.relative_to(other, walk_up=False)

Compute a version of this path relative to the path represented by other. If it's impossible, ValueError is raised:

>>> p = PurePosixPath('/etc/passwd')
>>> p.relative_to('/')
PurePosixPath('etc/passwd')
>>> p.relative_to('/etc')
PurePosixPath('passwd')
>>> p.relative_to('/usr')
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
  File "pathlib.py", line 941, in relative_to
    raise ValueError(error_message.format(str(self), str(formatted)))
ValueError: '/etc/passwd' is not in the subpath of '/usr' OR one path is relative and the other is absolute.

When walk_up is false (the default), the path must start with other. When the argument is true, .. entries may be added to form the relative path. In all other cases, such as the paths referencing different drives, ValueError is raised.:

>>> p.relative_to('/usr', walk_up=True)
PurePosixPath('../etc/passwd')
>>> p.relative_to('foo', walk_up=True)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
  File "pathlib.py", line 941, in relative_to
    raise ValueError(error_message.format(str(self), str(formatted)))
ValueError: '/etc/passwd' is not on the same drive as 'foo' OR one path is relative and the other is absolute.

Avertissement

This function is part of PurePath and works with strings. It does not check or access the underlying file structure. This can impact the walk_up option as it assumes that no symlinks are present in the path; call resolve() first if necessary to resolve symlinks.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: The walk_up parameter was added (old behavior is the same as walk_up=False).

Deprecated since version 3.12, removed in version 3.14: Passing additional positional arguments is deprecated; if supplied, they are joined with other.

PurePath.with_name(name)

Renvoie un nouveau chemin avec name changé. Si le chemin original n'a pas de nom, une ValueError est levée :

>>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/pathlib.tar.gz')
>>> p.with_name('setup.py')
PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/setup.py')
>>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/')
>>> p.with_name('setup.py')
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
  File "/home/antoine/cpython/default/Lib/pathlib.py", line 751, in with_name
    raise ValueError("%r has an empty name" % (self,))
ValueError: PureWindowsPath('c:/') has an empty name

PurePath.with_stem(stem)

Renvoie un nouveau chemin avec stem changé. Si le chemin original n'a pas de nom, ValueError est levée :

>>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/draft.txt')
>>> p.with_stem('final')
PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/final.txt')
>>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/pathlib.tar.gz')
>>> p.with_stem('lib')
PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/lib.gz')
>>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/')
>>> p.with_stem('')
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
  File "/home/antoine/cpython/default/Lib/pathlib.py", line 861, in with_stem
    return self.with_name(stem + self.suffix)
  File "/home/antoine/cpython/default/Lib/pathlib.py", line 851, in with_name
    raise ValueError("%r has an empty name" % (self,))
ValueError: PureWindowsPath('c:/') has an empty name

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

PurePath.with_suffix(suffix)

Renvoie un nouveau chemin avec suffix changé. Si le chemin original n'a pas de suffixe, le nouveau suffix est alors ajouté. Si suffix est une chaîne vide, le suffixe d'origine est retiré :

>>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/pathlib.tar.gz')
>>> p.with_suffix('.bz2')
PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/pathlib.tar.bz2')
>>> p = PureWindowsPath('README')
>>> p.with_suffix('.txt')
PureWindowsPath('README.txt')
>>> p = PureWindowsPath('README.txt')
>>> p.with_suffix('')
PureWindowsPath('README')

Modifié dans la version 3.14: A single dot (".") is considered a valid suffix. In previous versions, ValueError is raised if a single dot is supplied.

PurePath.with_segments(*pathsegments)

Create a new path object of the same type by combining the given pathsegments. This method is called whenever a derivative path is created, such as from parent and relative_to(). Subclasses may override this method to pass information to derivative paths, for example:

from pathlib import PurePosixPath

class MyPath(PurePosixPath):
    def __init__(self, *pathsegments, session_id):
        super().__init__(*pathsegments)
        self.session_id = session_id

    def with_segments(self, *pathsegments):
        return type(self)(*pathsegments, session_id=self.session_id)

etc = MyPath('/etc', session_id=42)
hosts = etc / 'hosts'
print(hosts.session_id)  # 42

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Chemins concrets

Les chemins concrets sont des sous-classes des chemins purs. En plus des opérations fournies par ces derniers, ils fournissent aussi des méthodes pour faire appel au système sur des objets chemin. Il y a trois façons d'instancier des chemins concrets :

class pathlib.Path(*pathsegments)

Une sous-classe de PurePath, cette classe représente les chemins concrets d'une famille de chemins de système de fichiers (l'instancier créé soit un PosixPath, soit un WindowsPath) :

>>> Path('setup.py')
PosixPath('setup.py')

pathsegments est spécifié de manière similaire à PurePath.

class pathlib.PosixPath(*pathsegments)

Une sous-classe de Path et PurePosixPath, cette classe représente les chemins concrets de systèmes de fichiers non Windows :

>>> PosixPath('/etc/hosts')
PosixPath('/etc/hosts')

pathsegments est spécifié de manière similaire à PurePath.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Raises UnsupportedOperation on Windows. In previous versions, NotImplementedError was raised instead.

class pathlib.WindowsPath(*pathsegments)

Une sous-classe de Path et PureWindowsPath, cette classe représente les chemins concrets de systèmes de fichiers Windows :

>>> WindowsPath('c:/', 'Users', 'Ximénez')
WindowsPath('c:/Users/Ximénez')

pathsegments est spécifié de manière similaire à PurePath.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Raises UnsupportedOperation on non-Windows platforms. In previous versions, NotImplementedError was raised instead.

Vous pouvez seulement instancier la classe de la famille qui correspond à votre système (permettre des appels au système pour des familles de chemins non compatibles pourrait mener à des bogues ou à des pannes de votre application) :

>>> import os
>>> os.name
'posix'
>>> Path('setup.py')
PosixPath('setup.py')
>>> PosixPath('setup.py')
PosixPath('setup.py')
>>> WindowsPath('setup.py')
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
  File "pathlib.py", line 798, in __new__
    % (cls.__name__,))
UnsupportedOperation: cannot instantiate 'WindowsPath' on your system

Some concrete path methods can raise an OSError if a system call fails (for example because the path doesn't exist).

Analyse et génération des URI

Concrete path objects can be created from, and represented as, 'file' URIs conforming to RFC 8089 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc8089.html].

Note

File URIs are not portable across machines with different filesystem encodings.

classmethod Path.from_uri(uri)

Return a new path object from parsing a 'file' URI. For example:

>>> p = Path.from_uri('file:///etc/hosts')
PosixPath('/etc/hosts')

On Windows, DOS device and UNC paths may be parsed from URIs:

>>> p = Path.from_uri('file:///c:/windows')
WindowsPath('c:/windows')
>>> p = Path.from_uri('file://server/share')
WindowsPath('//server/share')

Plusieurs variants du formulaire sont pris en charge :

>>> p = Path.from_uri('file:////server/share')
WindowsPath('//server/share')
>>> p = Path.from_uri('file://///server/share')
WindowsPath('//server/share')
>>> p = Path.from_uri('file:c:/windows')
WindowsPath('c:/windows')
>>> p = Path.from_uri('file:/c|/windows')
WindowsPath('c:/windows')

ValueError is raised if the URI does not start with file:, or the parsed path isn't absolute.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: The URL authority is discarded if it matches the local hostname. Otherwise, if the authority isn't empty or localhost, then on Windows a UNC path is returned (as before), and on other platforms a ValueError is raised.

Path.as_uri()

Represent the path as a 'file' URI. ValueError is raised if the path isn't absolute.

>>> p = PosixPath('/etc/passwd')
>>> p.as_uri()
'file:///etc/passwd'
>>> p = WindowsPath('c:/Windows')
>>> p.as_uri()
'file:///c:/Windows'

Deprecated since version 3.14, will be removed in version 3.19: Calling this method from PurePath rather than Path is possible but deprecated. The method's use of os.fsencode() makes it strictly impure.

Expansion et résolution de chemins

classmethod Path.home()

Renvoie un nouveau chemin représentant le dossier d’accueil de l'utilisateur (comme renvoyé par os.path.expanduser() avec la construction ~). Si le dossier d’accueil de l'utilisateur ne peut être résolu, RuntimeError est levée.

>>> Path.home()
PosixPath('/home/antoine')

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Path.expanduser()

Renvoie un nouveau chemin avec les résolutions des constructions ~ et ~user, comme renvoyé par os.path.expanduser(). Si le dossier d’accueil de l'utilisateur ne peut être résolu, RuntimeError est levée.

>>> p = PosixPath('~/films/Monty Python')
>>> p.expanduser()
PosixPath('/home/eric/films/Monty Python')

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

classmethod Path.cwd()

Renvoie un nouveau chemin représentant le dossier courant (comme renvoyé par os.getcwd()) :

>>> Path.cwd()
PosixPath('/home/antoine/pathlib')

Path.absolute()

Rend le chemin absolu, sans normaliser ou résoudre les liens symboliques. Renvoie un nouveau :

>>> p = Path('tests')
>>> p
PosixPath('tests')
>>> p.absolute()
PosixPath('/home/antoine/pathlib/tests')

Path.resolve(strict=False)

Rend le chemin absolu, résolvant les liens symboliques. Un nouveau chemin est renvoyé :

>>> p = Path()
>>> p
PosixPath('.')
>>> p.resolve()
PosixPath('/home/antoine/pathlib')

Les composantes ".." sont aussi éliminées (c'est la seule méthode pour le faire) :

>>> p = Path('docs/../setup.py')
>>> p.resolve()
PosixPath('/home/antoine/pathlib/setup.py')

If a path doesn't exist or a symlink loop is encountered, and strict is True, OSError is raised. If strict is False, the path is resolved as far as possible and any remainder is appended without checking whether it exists.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: The strict parameter was added (pre-3.6 behavior is strict).

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Symlink loops are treated like other errors: OSError is raised in strict mode, and no exception is raised in non-strict mode. In previous versions, RuntimeError is raised no matter the value of strict.

Path.readlink()

Renvoie le chemin vers lequel le lien symbolique pointe (tel que renvoyé par os.readlink()) :

>>> p = Path('mylink')
>>> p.symlink_to('setup.py')
>>> p.readlink()
PosixPath('setup.py')

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Raises UnsupportedOperation if os.readlink() is not available. In previous versions, NotImplementedError was raised.

Requête sur type et statut du fichier

Modifié dans la version 3.8: exists(), is_dir(), is_file(), is_mount(), is_symlink(), is_block_device(), is_char_device(), is_fifo(), is_socket() now return False instead of raising an exception for paths that contain characters unrepresentable at the OS level.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: The methods given above now return False instead of raising any OSError exception from the operating system. In previous versions, some kinds of OSError exception are raised, and others suppressed. The new behaviour is consistent with os.path.exists(), os.path.isdir(), etc. Use stat() to retrieve the file status without suppressing exceptions.

Path.stat(*, follow_symlinks=True)

Return an os.stat_result object containing information about this path, like os.stat(). The result is looked up at each call to this method.

Cette méthode suit normalement les liens symboliques ; pour appeler stat sur un lien symbolique lui-même, ajoutez l’argument follow_symlinks=False, ou utilisez lstat().

>>> p = Path('setup.py')
>>> p.stat().st_size
956
>>> p.stat().st_mtime
1327883547.852554

Modifié dans la version 3.10: ajout du paramètre follow_symlinks.

Path.lstat()

Comme Path.stat(), mais, si le chemin pointe vers un lien symbolique, renvoie les informations du lien symbolique plutôt que celui de sa cible.

Path.exists(*, follow_symlinks=True)

Return True if the path points to an existing file or directory. False will be returned if the path is invalid, inaccessible or missing. Use Path.stat() to distinguish between these cases.

This method normally follows symlinks; to check if a symlink exists, add the argument follow_symlinks=False.

>>> Path('.').exists()
True
>>> Path('setup.py').exists()
True
>>> Path('/etc').exists()
True
>>> Path('nonexistentfile').exists()
False

Modifié dans la version 3.12: ajout du paramètre follow_symlinks.

Path.is_file(*, follow_symlinks=True)

Return True if the path points to a regular file. False will be returned if the path is invalid, inaccessible or missing, or if it points to something other than a regular file. Use Path.stat() to distinguish between these cases.

This method normally follows symlinks; to exclude symlinks, add the argument follow_symlinks=False.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: ajout du paramètre follow_symlinks.

Path.is_dir(*, follow_symlinks=True)

Return True if the path points to a directory. False will be returned if the path is invalid, inaccessible or missing, or if it points to something other than a directory. Use Path.stat() to distinguish between these cases.

This method normally follows symlinks; to exclude symlinks to directories, add the argument follow_symlinks=False.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: ajout du paramètre follow_symlinks.

Path.is_symlink()

Return True if the path points to a symbolic link, even if that symlink is broken. False will be returned if the path is invalid, inaccessible or missing, or if it points to something other than a symbolic link. Use Path.stat() to distinguish between these cases.

Path.is_junction()

Return True if the path points to a junction, and False for any other type of file. Currently only Windows supports junctions.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Path.is_mount()

Return True if the path is a mount point: a point in a file system where a different file system has been mounted. On POSIX, the function checks whether path's parent, path/.., is on a different device than path, or whether path/.. and path point to the same i-node on the same device --- this should detect mount points for all Unix and POSIX variants. On Windows, a mount point is considered to be a drive letter root (e.g. c:\), a UNC share (e.g. \\server\share), or a mounted filesystem directory.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Ajout de la gestion de Windows.

Path.is_socket()

Return True if the path points to a Unix socket. False will be returned if the path is invalid, inaccessible or missing, or if it points to something other than a Unix socket. Use Path.stat() to distinguish between these cases.

Path.is_fifo()

Return True if the path points to a FIFO. False will be returned if the path is invalid, inaccessible or missing, or if it points to something other than a FIFO. Use Path.stat() to distinguish between these cases.

Path.is_block_device()

Return True if the path points to a block device. False will be returned if the path is invalid, inaccessible or missing, or if it points to something other than a block device. Use Path.stat() to distinguish between these cases.

Path.is_char_device()

Return True if the path points to a character device. False will be returned if the path is invalid, inaccessible or missing, or if it points to something other than a character device. Use Path.stat() to distinguish between these cases.

Path.samefile(other_path)

Renvoie si ce chemin pointe vers le même fichier que other_path, qui peut être soit un chemin, soit une chaîne de caractères. La sémantique est similaire à os.path.samefile() et os.path.samestat().

OSError peut être levée si l'un des fichiers ne peut être accédé pour quelque raison.

>>> p = Path('spam')
>>> q = Path('eggs')
>>> p.samefile(q)
False
>>> p.samefile('spam')
True

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Path.info

A PathInfo object that supports querying file type information. The object exposes methods that cache their results, which can help reduce the number of system calls needed when switching on file type. For example:

>>> p = Path('src')
>>> if p.info.is_symlink():
...     print('symlink')
... elif p.info.is_dir():
...     print('directory')
... elif p.info.exists():
...     print('something else')
... else:
...     print('not found')
...
directory

If the path was generated from Path.iterdir() then this attribute is initialized with some information about the file type gleaned from scanning the parent directory. Merely accessing Path.info does not perform any filesystem queries.

To fetch up-to-date information, it's best to call Path.is_dir(), is_file() and is_symlink() rather than methods of this attribute. There is no way to reset the cache; instead you can create a new path object with an empty info cache via p = Path(p).

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Lecture et écriture de fichiers

Path.open(mode='r', buffering=-1, encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None)

Ouvre le fichier pointé par le chemin, comme la fonction native open() le fait :

>>> p = Path('setup.py')
>>> with p.open() as f:
...     f.readline()
...
'#!/usr/bin/env python3\n'

Path.read_text(encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None)

Renvoie le contenu décodé du fichier pointé en tant que chaîne de caractères :

>>> p = Path('my_text_file')
>>> p.write_text('Text file contents')
18
>>> p.read_text()
'Text file contents'

Le fichier est ouvert, puis fermé. Les paramètres optionnels ont la même signification que dans open().

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: ajout du paramètre newline.

Path.read_bytes()

Renvoie le contenu binaire du fichier pointé en tant que chaîne d’octets :

>>> p = Path('my_binary_file')
>>> p.write_bytes(b'Binary file contents')
20
>>> p.read_bytes()
b'Binary file contents'

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Path.write_text(data, encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None)

Ouvre le fichier pointé en mode texte, écrit data dedans, et ferme le fichier :

>>> p = Path('my_text_file')
>>> p.write_text('Text file contents')
18
>>> p.read_text()
'Text file contents'

Le fichier du même nom, s'il existe, est écrasé. Les paramètres optionnels ont la même signification que dans open().

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: ajout du paramètre newline.

Path.write_bytes(data)

Ouvre le fichier pointé en mode binaire, écrit data dedans, et ferme le fichier :

>>> p = Path('my_binary_file')
>>> p.write_bytes(b'Binary file contents')
20
>>> p.read_bytes()
b'Binary file contents'

Le fichier du même nom, s'il existe, est écrasé.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Lecture des dossiers

Path.iterdir()

Quand le chemin pointe vers un dossier, donne par séquences les objets chemin du contenu du dossier :

>>> p = Path('docs')
>>> for child in p.iterdir(): child
...
PosixPath('docs/conf.py')
PosixPath('docs/_templates')
PosixPath('docs/make.bat')
PosixPath('docs/index.rst')
PosixPath('docs/_build')
PosixPath('docs/_static')
PosixPath('docs/Makefile')

The children are yielded in arbitrary order, and the special entries '.' and '..' are not included. If a file is removed from or added to the directory after creating the iterator, it is unspecified whether a path object for that file is included.

Si le chemin n'est pas un dossier ou n'est pas accessible, OSError est levée.

Path.glob(pattern, *, case_sensitive=None, recurse_symlinks=False)

Glob de manière relative suivant le motif pattern fourni dans le dossier représenté par ce chemin, donnant tous les fichiers correspondants (de n'importe quelle sorte) :

>>> sorted(Path('.').glob('*.py'))
[PosixPath('pathlib.py'), PosixPath('setup.py'), PosixPath('test_pathlib.py')]
>>> sorted(Path('.').glob('*/*.py'))
[PosixPath('docs/conf.py')]
>>> sorted(Path('.').glob('**/*.py'))
[PosixPath('build/lib/pathlib.py'),
 PosixPath('docs/conf.py'),
 PosixPath('pathlib.py'),
 PosixPath('setup.py'),
 PosixPath('test_pathlib.py')]

Note

The paths are returned in no particular order. If you need a specific order, sort the results.

Voir aussi

documentation Pattern language.

By default, or when the case_sensitive keyword-only argument is set to None, this method matches paths using platform-specific casing rules: typically, case-sensitive on POSIX, and case-insensitive on Windows. Set case_sensitive to True or False to override this behaviour.

By default, or when the recurse_symlinks keyword-only argument is set to False, this method follows symlinks except when expanding "**" wildcards. Set recurse_symlinks to True to always follow symlinks.

Lève un évènement d’audit pathlib.Path.glob avec comme arguments self et pattern.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: ajout du paramètre case_sensitive

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Ajout du paramètre recurse_symlinks.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Le paramètre pattern accepte un path-like object.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Any OSError exceptions raised from scanning the filesystem are suppressed. In previous versions, such exceptions are suppressed in many cases, but not all.

Path.rglob(pattern, *, case_sensitive=None, recurse_symlinks=False)

Glob the given relative pattern recursively. This is like calling Path.glob() with "**/" added in front of the pattern.

Note

The paths are returned in no particular order. If you need a specific order, sort the results.

Voir aussi

Documentation pour Pattern language et Path.glob() .

Lève un évènement d’audit pathlib.Path.glob avec comme arguments self et pattern.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: ajout du paramètre case_sensitive

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Ajout du paramètre recurse_symlinks.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Le paramètre pattern accepte un path-like object.

Path.walk(top_down=True, on_error=None, follow_symlinks=False)

Generate the file names in a directory tree by walking the tree either top-down or bottom-up.

For each directory in the directory tree rooted at self (including self but excluding '.' and '..'), the method yields a 3-tuple of (dirpath, dirnames, filenames).

dirpath is a Path to the directory currently being walked, dirnames is a list of strings for the names of subdirectories in dirpath (excluding '.' and '..'), and filenames is a list of strings for the names of the non-directory files in dirpath. To get a full path (which begins with self) to a file or directory in dirpath, do dirpath / name. Whether or not the lists are sorted is file system-dependent.

If the optional argument top_down is true (which is the default), the triple for a directory is generated before the triples for any of its subdirectories (directories are walked top-down). If top_down is false, the triple for a directory is generated after the triples for all of its subdirectories (directories are walked bottom-up). No matter the value of top_down, the list of subdirectories is retrieved before the triples for the directory and its subdirectories are walked.

When top_down is true, the caller can modify the dirnames list in-place (for example, using del or slice assignment), and Path.walk() will only recurse into the subdirectories whose names remain in dirnames. This can be used to prune the search, or to impose a specific order of visiting, or even to inform Path.walk() about directories the caller creates or renames before it resumes Path.walk() again. Modifying dirnames when top_down is false has no effect on the behavior of Path.walk() since the directories in dirnames have already been generated by the time dirnames is yielded to the caller.

By default, errors from os.scandir() are ignored. If the optional argument on_error is specified, it should be a callable; it will be called with one argument, an OSError instance. The callable can handle the error to continue the walk or re-raise it to stop the walk. Note that the filename is available as the filename attribute of the exception object.

By default, Path.walk() does not follow symbolic links, and instead adds them to the filenames list. Set follow_symlinks to true to resolve symlinks and place them in dirnames and filenames as appropriate for their targets, and consequently visit directories pointed to by symlinks (where supported).

Note

Be aware that setting follow_symlinks to true can lead to infinite recursion if a link points to a parent directory of itself. Path.walk() does not keep track of the directories it has already visited.

Note

Path.walk() assumes the directories it walks are not modified during execution. For example, if a directory from dirnames has been replaced with a symlink and follow_symlinks is false, Path.walk() will still try to descend into it. To prevent such behavior, remove directories from dirnames as appropriate.

Note

Unlike os.walk(), Path.walk() lists symlinks to directories in filenames if follow_symlinks is false.

This example displays the number of bytes used by all files in each directory, while ignoring __pycache__ directories:

from pathlib import Path
for root, dirs, files in Path("cpython/Lib/concurrent").walk(on_error=print):
  print(
      root,
      "consumes",
      sum((root / file).stat().st_size for file in files),
      "bytes in",
      len(files),
      "non-directory files"
  )
  if '__pycache__' in dirs:
        dirs.remove('__pycache__')

This next example is a simple implementation of shutil.rmtree(). Walking the tree bottom-up is essential as rmdir() doesn't allow deleting a directory before it is empty:

# Delete everything reachable from the directory "top".
# CAUTION:  This is dangerous! For example, if top == Path('/'),
# it could delete all of your files.
for root, dirs, files in top.walk(top_down=False):
    for name in files:
        (root / name).unlink()
    for name in dirs:
        (root / name).rmdir()

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Création de fichiers et de dossiers

Path.touch(mode=0o666, exist_ok=True)

Create a file at this given path. If mode is given, it is combined with the process's umask value to determine the file mode and access flags. If the file already exists, the function succeeds when exist_ok is true (and its modification time is updated to the current time), otherwise FileExistsError is raised.

Voir aussi

The open(), write_text() and write_bytes() methods are often used to create files.

Path.mkdir(mode=0o777, parents=False, exist_ok=False)

Create a new directory at this given path. If mode is given, it is combined with the process's umask value to determine the file mode and access flags. If the path already exists, FileExistsError is raised.

Si parents est vrai, chaque parent de ce chemin est créé si besoin ; ils sont créés avec les permissions par défaut sans prendre en compte mode (reproduisant la commande POSIX mkdir -p).

Si parents est faux (valeur par défaut), un parent manquant lève FileNotFoundError.

Si exist_ok est faux (valeur par défaut), FileExistsError est levé si le dossier cible existe déjà.

If exist_ok is true, FileExistsError will not be raised unless the given path already exists in the file system and is not a directory (same behavior as the POSIX mkdir -p command).

Modifié dans la version 3.5: ajout du paramètre exist_ok.

Path.symlink_to(target, target_is_directory=False)

Make this path a symbolic link pointing to target.

On Windows, a symlink represents either a file or a directory, and does not morph to the target dynamically. If the target is present, the type of the symlink will be created to match. Otherwise, the symlink will be created as a directory if target_is_directory is true or a file symlink (the default) otherwise. On non-Windows platforms, target_is_directory is ignored.

>>> p = Path('mylink')
>>> p.symlink_to('setup.py')
>>> p.resolve()
PosixPath('/home/antoine/pathlib/setup.py')
>>> p.stat().st_size
956
>>> p.lstat().st_size
8

Note

L'ordre des arguments (lien, cible) est l'opposé de ceux de os.symlink().

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Raises UnsupportedOperation if os.symlink() is not available. In previous versions, NotImplementedError was raised.

Path.hardlink_to(target)

Crée un lien physique pointant sur le même fichier que target.

Note

L'ordre des arguments (lien, cible) est l'opposé de celui de os.link().

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Raises UnsupportedOperation if os.link() is not available. In previous versions, NotImplementedError was raised.

Copying, moving and deleting

Path.copy(target, *, follow_symlinks=True, preserve_metadata=False)

Copy this file or directory tree to the given target, and return a new Path instance pointing to target.

If the source is a file, the target will be replaced if it is an existing file. If the source is a symlink and follow_symlinks is true (the default), the symlink's target is copied. Otherwise, the symlink is recreated at the destination.

If preserve_metadata is false (the default), only directory structures and file data are guaranteed to be copied. Set preserve_metadata to true to ensure that file and directory permissions, flags, last access and modification times, and extended attributes are copied where supported. This argument has no effect when copying files on Windows (where metadata is always preserved).

Note

Where supported by the operating system and file system, this method performs a lightweight copy, where data blocks are only copied when modified. This is known as copy-on-write.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Path.copy_into(target_dir, *, follow_symlinks=True, preserve_metadata=False)

Copy this file or directory tree into the given target_dir, which should be an existing directory. Other arguments are handled identically to Path.copy(). Returns a new Path instance pointing to the copy.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Path.rename(target)

Rename this file or directory to the given target, and return a new Path instance pointing to target. On Unix, if target exists and is a file, it will be replaced silently if the user has permission. On Windows, if target exists, FileExistsError will be raised. target can be either a string or another path object:

>>> p = Path('foo')
>>> p.open('w').write('some text')
9
>>> target = Path('bar')
>>> p.rename(target)
PosixPath('bar')
>>> target.open().read()
'some text'

The target path may be absolute or relative. Relative paths are interpreted relative to the current working directory, not the directory of the Path object.

Cette méthode est implémentée d'après os.rename() et fournit les mêmes garanties.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added return value, return the new Path instance.

Path.replace(target)

Rename this file or directory to the given target, and return a new Path instance pointing to target. If target points to an existing file or empty directory, it will be unconditionally replaced.

The target path may be absolute or relative. Relative paths are interpreted relative to the current working directory, not the directory of the Path object.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added return value, return the new Path instance.

Path.move(target)

Move this file or directory tree to the given target, and return a new Path instance pointing to target.

If the target doesn't exist it will be created. If both this path and the target are existing files, then the target is overwritten. If both paths point to the same file or directory, or the target is a non-empty directory, then OSError is raised.

If both paths are on the same filesystem, the move is performed with os.replace(). Otherwise, this path is copied (preserving metadata and symlinks) and then deleted.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Path.move_into(target_dir)

Move this file or directory tree into the given target_dir, which should be an existing directory. Returns a new Path instance pointing to the moved path.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Path.unlink(missing_ok=False)

Supprime ce fichier ou lien symbolique. Si le chemin pointe vers un dossier, utilisez Path.rmdir() à la place.

Si missing_ok est faux (valeur par défaut), une FileNotFoundError est levée si le chemin n'existe pas.

Si missing_ok est vrai, les exceptions FileNotFoundError sont ignorées (même comportement que la commande POSIX rm -f).

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Ajout du paramètre missing_ok.

Path.rmdir()

Supprime ce dossier. Le dossier doit être vide.

Permissions et propriété

Path.owner(*, follow_symlinks=True)

Return the name of the user owning the file. KeyError is raised if the file's user identifier (UID) isn't found in the system database.

This method normally follows symlinks; to get the owner of the symlink, add the argument follow_symlinks=False.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Raises UnsupportedOperation if the pwd module is not available. In earlier versions, NotImplementedError was raised.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: ajout du paramètre follow_symlinks.

Path.group(*, follow_symlinks=True)

Return the name of the group owning the file. KeyError is raised if the file's group identifier (GID) isn't found in the system database.

This method normally follows symlinks; to get the group of the symlink, add the argument follow_symlinks=False.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Raises UnsupportedOperation if the grp module is not available. In earlier versions, NotImplementedError was raised.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: ajout du paramètre follow_symlinks.

Path.chmod(mode, *, follow_symlinks=True)

Change le mode et les permissions du fichier, comme os.chmod().

Cette méthode suit normalement les liens symboliques. Certaines versions d’Unix prennent en charge la modification des permissions sur le lien symbolique lui-même ; sur ces plateformes, vous pouvez ajouter l’argument follow_symlinks=False, ou utiliser lchmod().

>>> p = Path('setup.py')
>>> p.stat().st_mode
33277
>>> p.chmod(0o444)
>>> p.stat().st_mode
33060

Modifié dans la version 3.10: ajout du paramètre follow_symlinks.

Path.lchmod(mode)

Comme Path.chmod(), mais, si le chemin pointe vers un lien symbolique, le mode du lien symbolique est changé plutôt que celui de sa cible.

Pattern language

The following wildcards are supported in patterns for full_match(), glob() and rglob():

** (tout le segment)

Matche un nombre quelconque de segments de fichiers ou dossiers, zéro inclus

* (tout le segment)

Correspondance d'un segment de fichier ou de dossier

* (partie du segment)

Matches any number of non-separator characters, including zero.

?

Matches one non-separator character.

[seq]

Matches one character in seq, where seq is a sequence of characters. Range expressions are supported; for example, [a-z] matches any lowercase ASCII letter. Multiple ranges can be combined: [a-zA-Z0-9_] matches any ASCII letter, digit, or underscore.

[!seq]

Matches one character not in seq, where seq follows the same rules as above.

For a literal match, wrap the meta-characters in brackets. For example, "[?]" matches the character "?".

The "**" wildcard enables recursive globbing. A few examples:

Motif

Signification

"**/*"

N'importe quel chemin avec au moins un segment

"**/*.py"

Any path with a final segment ending ".py".

"assets/**"

Any path starting with "assets/".

"assets/**/*"

Any path starting with "assets/", excluding "assets/" itself.

Note

Globbing with the "**" wildcard visits every directory in the tree. Large directory trees may take a long time to search.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Globbing with a pattern that ends with "**" returns both files and directories. In previous versions, only directories were returned.

In Path.glob() and rglob(), a trailing slash may be added to the pattern to match only directories.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Globbing with a pattern that ends with a pathname components separator (sep or altsep) returns only directories.

Comparaison avec les outils du module glob

The patterns accepted and results generated by Path.glob() and Path.rglob() differ slightly from those by the glob module:

Files beginning with a dot are not special in pathlib. This is like passing include_hidden=True to glob.glob().

"**" pattern components are always recursive in pathlib. This is like passing recursive=True to glob.glob().

"**" pattern components do not follow symlinks by default in pathlib. This behaviour has no equivalent in glob.glob(), but you can pass recurse_symlinks=True to Path.glob() for compatible behaviour.

Like all PurePath and Path objects, the values returned from Path.glob() and Path.rglob() don't include trailing slashes.

The values returned from pathlib's path.glob() and path.rglob() include the path as a prefix, unlike the results of glob.glob(root_dir=path).

The values returned from pathlib's path.glob() and path.rglob() may include path itself, for example when globbing "**", whereas the results of glob.glob(root_dir=path) never include an empty string that would correspond to path.

Comparaison aux modules os et os.path

pathlib implements path operations using PurePath and Path objects, and so it's said to be object-oriented. On the other hand, the os and os.path modules supply functions that work with low-level str and bytes objects, which is a more procedural approach. Some users consider the object-oriented style to be more readable.

Many functions in os and os.path support bytes paths and paths relative to directory descriptors. These features aren't available in pathlib.

Python's str and bytes types, and portions of the os and os.path modules, are written in C and are very speedy. pathlib is written in pure Python and is often slower, but rarely slow enough to matter.

pathlib's path normalization is slightly more opinionated and consistent than os.path. For example, whereas os.path.abspath() eliminates ".." segments from a path, which may change its meaning if symlinks are involved, Path.absolute() preserves these segments for greater safety.

pathlib's path normalization may render it unsuitable for some applications:

pathlib normalizes Path("my_folder/") to Path("my_folder"), which changes a path's meaning when supplied to various operating system APIs and command-line utilities. Specifically, the absence of a trailing separator may allow the path to be resolved as either a file or directory, rather than a directory only.

pathlib normalizes Path("./my_program") to Path("my_program"), which changes a path's meaning when used as an executable search path, such as in a shell or when spawning a child process. Specifically, the absence of a separator in the path may force it to be looked up in PATH rather than the current directory.

As a consequence of these differences, pathlib is not a drop-in replacement for os.path.

Outils correspondants

Ci-dessous se trouve un tableau associant diverses fonctions os à leur équivalent PurePath / Path correspondant.

os et os.path

pathlib

os.path.dirname()

PurePath.parent

os.path.basename()

PurePath.name

os.path.splitext()

PurePath.stem, PurePath.suffix

os.path.join()

PurePath.joinpath()

os.path.isabs()

PurePath.is_absolute()

os.path.relpath()

PurePath.relative_to() [1]

os.path.expanduser()

Path.expanduser() [2]

os.path.realpath()

Path.resolve()

os.path.abspath()

Path.absolute() [3]

os.path.exists()

Path.exists()

os.path.isfile()

Path.is_file()

os.path.isdir()

Path.is_dir()

os.path.islink()

Path.is_symlink()

os.path.isjunction()

Path.is_junction()

os.path.ismount()

Path.is_mount()

os.path.samefile()

Path.samefile()

os.getcwd()

Path.cwd()

os.stat()

Path.stat()

os.lstat()

Path.lstat()

os.listdir()

Path.iterdir()

os.walk()

Path.walk() [4]

os.mkdir(), os.makedirs()

Path.mkdir()

os.link()

Path.hardlink_to()

os.symlink()

Path.symlink_to()

os.readlink()

Path.readlink()

os.rename()

Path.rename()

os.replace()

Path.replace()

os.remove(), os.unlink()

Path.unlink()

os.rmdir()

Path.rmdir()

os.chmod()

Path.chmod()

os.lchmod()

Path.lchmod()

Notes

[1]

os.path.relpath() calls abspath() to make paths absolute and remove ".." parts, whereas PurePath.relative_to() is a lexical operation that raises ValueError when its inputs' anchors differ (e.g. if one path is absolute and the other relative.)

[2]

os.path.expanduser() returns the path unchanged if the home directory can't be resolved, whereas Path.expanduser() raises RuntimeError.

[3]

os.path.abspath() removes ".." components without resolving symlinks, which may change the meaning of the path, whereas Path.absolute() leaves any ".." components in the path.

[4]

os.walk() always follows symlinks when categorizing paths into dirnames and filenames, whereas Path.walk() categorizes all symlinks into filenames when follow_symlinks is false (the default.)

Protocoles

The pathlib.types module provides types for static type checking.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

class pathlib.types.PathInfo

A typing.Protocol describing the Path.info attribute. Implementations may return cached results from their methods.

exists(*, follow_symlinks=True)

Return True if the path is an existing file or directory, or any other kind of file; return False if the path doesn't exist.

If follow_symlinks is False, return True for symlinks without checking if their targets exist.

is_dir(*, follow_symlinks=True)

Return True if the path is a directory, or a symbolic link pointing to a directory; return False if the path is (or points to) any other kind of file, or if it doesn't exist.

If follow_symlinks is False, return True only if the path is a directory (without following symlinks); return False if the path is any other kind of file, or if it doesn't exist.

is_file(*, follow_symlinks=True)

Return True if the path is a file, or a symbolic link pointing to a file; return False if the path is (or points to) a directory or other non-file, or if it doesn't exist.

If follow_symlinks is False, return True only if the path is a file (without following symlinks); return False if the path is a directory or other non-file, or if it doesn't exist.

is_symlink()

Return True if the path is a symbolic link (even if broken); return False if the path is a directory or any kind of file, or if it doesn't exist.

os.path --- Common pathname manipulations

Source code: Lib/genericpath.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/genericpath.py], Lib/posixpath.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/posixpath.py] (for POSIX) and Lib/ntpath.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/ntpath.py] (for Windows).

This module implements some useful functions on pathnames. To read or write files see open(), and for accessing the filesystem see the os module. The path parameters can be passed as strings, or bytes, or any object implementing the os.PathLike protocol.

Unlike a Unix shell, Python does not do any automatic path expansions. Functions such as expanduser() and expandvars() can be invoked explicitly when an application desires shell-like path expansion. (See also the glob module.)

Voir aussi

Le module pathlib offre une représentation objet de haut niveau des chemins.

Note

Toutes ces fonctions n'acceptent que des chaînes d'octets ou des chaînes de caractères en tant que paramètres. Le résultat est un objet du même type si un chemin ou un nom de fichier est renvoyé.

Note

Since different operating systems have different path name conventions, there are several versions of this module in the standard library. The os.path module is always the path module suitable for the operating system Python is running on, and therefore usable for local paths. However, you can also import and use the individual modules if you want to manipulate a path that is always in one of the different formats. They all have the same interface:

posixpath for UNIX-style paths

ntpath for Windows paths

Modifié dans la version 3.8: exists(), lexists(), isdir(), isfile(), islink(), and ismount() now return False instead of raising an exception for paths that contain characters or bytes unrepresentable at the OS level.

os.path.abspath(path)

Return a normalized absolutized version of the pathname path. On most platforms, this is equivalent to calling normpath(join(os.getcwd(), path)).

Voir aussi

os.path.join() and os.path.normpath().

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

os.path.basename(path, /)

Renvoie le nom de base du chemin d'accès path. C'est le second élément de la paire renvoyée en passant path à la fonction split(). Notez que le résultat de cette fonction est différent de celui du programme Unix basename ; là où basename pour '/foo/bar/' renvoie 'bar', la fonction basename() renvoie une chaîne vide ('').

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

os.path.commonpath(paths)

Return the longest common sub-path of each pathname in the iterable paths. Raise ValueError if paths contain both absolute and relative pathnames, if paths are on different drives, or if paths is empty. Unlike commonprefix(), this returns a valid path.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepts a sequence of path-like objects.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Any iterable can now be passed, rather than just sequences.

os.path.commonprefix(list, /)

Return the longest string prefix (taken character-by-character) that is a prefix of all strings in list. If list is empty, return the empty string ('').

Avertissement

This function may return invalid paths because it works a character at a time. If you need a common path prefix, then the algorithm implemented in this function is not secure. Use commonpath() for finding a common path prefix.

>>> os.path.commonprefix(['/usr/lib', '/usr/local/lib'])
'/usr/l'

>>> os.path.commonpath(['/usr/lib', '/usr/local/lib'])
'/usr'

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

os.path.dirname(path, /)

Return the directory name of pathname path. This is the first element of the pair returned by passing path to the function split().

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

os.path.exists(path)

Return True if path refers to an existing path or an open file descriptor. Returns False for broken symbolic links. On some platforms, this function may return False if permission is not granted to execute os.stat() on the requested file, even if the path physically exists.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: path can now be an integer: True is returned if it is an open file descriptor, False otherwise.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

os.path.lexists(path)

Return True if path refers to an existing path, including broken symbolic links. Equivalent to exists() on platforms lacking os.lstat().

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

os.path.expanduser(path)

On Unix and Windows, return the argument with an initial component of ~ or ~user replaced by that user's home directory.

On Unix, an initial ~ is replaced by the environment variable HOME if it is set; otherwise the current user's home directory is looked up in the password directory through the built-in module pwd. An initial ~user is looked up directly in the password directory.

On Windows, USERPROFILE will be used if set, otherwise a combination of HOMEPATH and HOMEDRIVE will be used. An initial ~user is handled by checking that the last directory component of the current user's home directory matches USERNAME, and replacing it if so.

If the expansion fails or if the path does not begin with a tilde, the path is returned unchanged.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: No longer uses HOME on Windows.

os.path.expandvars(path)

Return the argument with environment variables expanded. Substrings of the form $name or ${name} are replaced by the value of environment variable name. Malformed variable names and references to non-existing variables are left unchanged.

On Windows, %name% expansions are supported in addition to $name and ${name}.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

os.path.getatime(path, /)

Return the time of last access of path. The return value is a floating-point number giving the number of seconds since the epoch (see the time module). Raise OSError if the file does not exist or is inaccessible.

os.path.getmtime(path, /)

Return the time of last modification of path. The return value is a floating-point number giving the number of seconds since the epoch (see the time module). Raise OSError if the file does not exist or is inaccessible.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

os.path.getctime(path, /)

Return the system's ctime which, on some systems (like Unix) is the time of the last metadata change, and, on others (like Windows), is the creation time for path. The return value is a number giving the number of seconds since the epoch (see the time module). Raise OSError if the file does not exist or is inaccessible.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

os.path.getsize(path, /)

Return the size, in bytes, of path. Raise OSError if the file does not exist or is inaccessible.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

os.path.isabs(path, /)

Return True if path is an absolute pathname. On Unix, that means it begins with a slash, on Windows that it begins with two (back)slashes, or a drive letter, colon, and (back)slash together.

Voir aussi

abspath()

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: On Windows, returns False if the given path starts with exactly one (back)slash.

os.path.isfile(path)

Return True if path is an existing regular file. This follows symbolic links, so both islink() and isfile() can be true for the same path.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

os.path.isdir(path, /)

Return True if path is an existing directory. This follows symbolic links, so both islink() and isdir() can be true for the same path.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

os.path.isjunction(path)

Return True if path refers to an existing directory entry that is a junction. Always return False if junctions are not supported on the current platform.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

os.path.islink(path)

Return True if path refers to an existing directory entry that is a symbolic link. Always False if symbolic links are not supported by the Python runtime.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

os.path.ismount(path)

Return True if pathname path is a mount point: a point in a file system where a different file system has been mounted. On POSIX, the function checks whether path's parent, path/.., is on a different device than path, or whether path/.. and path point to the same i-node on the same device --- this should detect mount points for all Unix and POSIX variants. It is not able to reliably detect bind mounts on the same filesystem. On Linux systems, it will always return True for btrfs subvolumes, even if they aren't mount points. On Windows, a drive letter root and a share UNC are always mount points, and for any other path GetVolumePathName is called to see if it is different from the input path.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Added support for detecting non-root mount points on Windows.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

os.path.isdevdrive(path)

Return True if pathname path is located on a Windows Dev Drive. A Dev Drive is optimized for developer scenarios, and offers faster performance for reading and writing files. It is recommended for use for source code, temporary build directories, package caches, and other IO-intensive operations.

May raise an error for an invalid path, for example, one without a recognizable drive, but returns False on platforms that do not support Dev Drives. See the Windows documentation [https://learn.microsoft.com/windows/dev-drive/] for information on enabling and creating Dev Drives.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: The function is now available on all platforms, and will always return False on those that have no support for Dev Drives

os.path.isreserved(path)

Return True if path is a reserved pathname on the current system.

On Windows, reserved filenames include those that end with a space or dot; those that contain colons (i.e. file streams such as "name:stream"), wildcard characters (i.e. '*?"<>'), pipe, or ASCII control characters; as well as DOS device names such as "NUL", "CON", "CONIN$", "CONOUT$", "AUX", "PRN", "COM1", and "LPT1".

Note

This function approximates rules for reserved paths on most Windows systems. These rules change over time in various Windows releases. This function may be updated in future Python releases as changes to the rules become broadly available.

Disponibilité: Windows.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

os.path.join(path, /, *paths)

Join one or more path segments intelligently. The return value is the concatenation of path and all members of *paths, with exactly one directory separator following each non-empty part, except the last. That is, the result will only end in a separator if the last part is either empty or ends in a separator.

If a segment is an absolute path (which on Windows requires both a drive and a root), then all previous segments are ignored and joining continues from the absolute path segment. On Linux, for example:

>>> os.path.join('/home/foo', 'bar')
'/home/foo/bar'
>>> os.path.join('/home/foo', '/home/bar')
'/home/bar'

On Windows, the drive is not reset when a rooted path segment (e.g., r'\foo') is encountered. If a segment is on a different drive or is an absolute path, all previous segments are ignored and the drive is reset. For example:

>>> os.path.join('c:\\', 'foo')
'c:\\foo'
>>> os.path.join('c:\\foo', 'd:\\bar')
'd:\\bar'

Note that since there is a current directory for each drive, os.path.join("c:", "foo") represents a path relative to the current directory on drive C: (c:foo), not c:\foo.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepts a path-like object for path and paths.

os.path.normcase(path, /)

Normalize the case of a pathname. On Windows, convert all characters in the pathname to lowercase, and also convert forward slashes to backward slashes. On other operating systems, return the path unchanged.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

os.path.normpath(path)

Normalize a pathname by collapsing redundant separators and up-level references so that A//B, A/B/, A/./B and A/foo/../B all become A/B. This string manipulation may change the meaning of a path that contains symbolic links. On Windows, it converts forward slashes to backward slashes. To normalize case, use normcase().

Note

On POSIX systems, in accordance with IEEE Std 1003.1 2013 Edition; 4.13 Pathname Resolution [https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/9699919799/basedefs/V1_chap04.html#tag_04_13], if a pathname begins with exactly two slashes, the first component following the leading characters may be interpreted in an implementation-defined manner, although more than two leading characters shall be treated as a single character.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

os.path.realpath(path, /, *, strict=False)

Return the canonical path of the specified filename, eliminating any symbolic links encountered in the path (if they are supported by the operating system). On Windows, this function will also resolve MS-DOS (also called 8.3) style names such as C:\\PROGRA~1 to C:\\Program Files.

By default, the path is evaluated up to the first component that does not exist, is a symlink loop, or whose evaluation raises OSError. All such components are appended unchanged to the existing part of the path.

Some errors that are handled this way include "access denied", "not a directory", or "bad argument to internal function". Thus, the resulting path may be missing or inaccessible, may still contain links or loops, and may traverse non-directories.

This behavior can be modified by keyword arguments:

If strict is True, the first error encountered when evaluating the path is re-raised. In particular, FileNotFoundError is raised if path does not exist, or another OSError if it is otherwise inaccessible.

If strict is os.path.ALLOW_MISSING, errors other than FileNotFoundError are re-raised (as with strict=True). Thus, the returned path will not contain any symbolic links, but the named file and some of its parent directories may be missing.

Note

This function emulates the operating system's procedure for making a path canonical, which differs slightly between Windows and UNIX with respect to how links and subsequent path components interact.

Operating system APIs make paths canonical as needed, so it's not normally necessary to call this function.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Symbolic links and junctions are now resolved on Windows.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: The strict parameter was added.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: The ALLOW_MISSING value for the strict parameter was added.

os.path.ALLOW_MISSING

Special value used for the strict argument in realpath().

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

os.path.relpath(path, start=os.curdir)

Return a relative filepath to path either from the current directory or from an optional start directory. This is a path computation: the filesystem is not accessed to confirm the existence or nature of path or start. On Windows, ValueError is raised when path and start are on different drives.

start defaults to os.curdir.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

os.path.samefile(path1, path2, /)

Return True if both pathname arguments refer to the same file or directory. This is determined by the device number and i-node number and raises an exception if an os.stat() call on either pathname fails.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Prise en charge de Windows.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Windows now uses the same implementation as all other platforms.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

os.path.sameopenfile(fp1, fp2)

Return True if the file descriptors fp1 and fp2 refer to the same file.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Prise en charge de Windows.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

os.path.samestat(stat1, stat2, /)

Return True if the stat tuples stat1 and stat2 refer to the same file. These structures may have been returned by os.fstat(), os.lstat(), or os.stat(). This function implements the underlying comparison used by samefile() and sameopenfile().

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Prise en charge de Windows.

os.path.split(path, /)

Split the pathname path into a pair, (head, tail) where tail is the last pathname component and head is everything leading up to that. The tail part will never contain a slash; if path ends in a slash, tail will be empty. If there is no slash in path, head will be empty. If path is empty, both head and tail are empty. Trailing slashes are stripped from head unless it is the root (one or more slashes only). In all cases, join(head, tail) returns a path to the same location as path (but the strings may differ). Also see the functions join(), dirname() and basename().

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

os.path.splitdrive(path, /)

Split the pathname path into a pair (drive, tail) where drive is either a mount point or the empty string. On systems which do not use drive specifications, drive will always be the empty string. In all cases, drive + tail will be the same as path.

On Windows, splits a pathname into drive/UNC sharepoint and relative path.

If the path contains a drive letter, drive will contain everything up to and including the colon:

>>> splitdrive("c:/dir")
("c:", "/dir")

If the path contains a UNC path, drive will contain the host name and share:

>>> splitdrive("//host/computer/dir")
("//host/computer", "/dir")

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

os.path.splitroot(path, /)

Split the pathname path into a 3-item tuple (drive, root, tail) where drive is a device name or mount point, root is a string of separators after the drive, and tail is everything after the root. Any of these items may be the empty string. In all cases, drive + root + tail will be the same as path.

On POSIX systems, drive is always empty. The root may be empty (if path is relative), a single forward slash (if path is absolute), or two forward slashes (implementation-defined per IEEE Std 1003.1-2017; 4.13 Pathname Resolution [https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/9699919799/basedefs/V1_chap04.html#tag_04_13].) For example:

>>> splitroot('/home/sam')
('', '/', 'home/sam')
>>> splitroot('//home/sam')
('', '//', 'home/sam')
>>> splitroot('///home/sam')
('', '/', '//home/sam')

On Windows, drive may be empty, a drive-letter name, a UNC share, or a device name. The root may be empty, a forward slash, or a backward slash. For example:

>>> splitroot('C:/Users/Sam')
('C:', '/', 'Users/Sam')
>>> splitroot('//Server/Share/Users/Sam')
('//Server/Share', '/', 'Users/Sam')

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

os.path.splitext(path, /)

Split the pathname path into a pair (root, ext) such that root + ext == path, and the extension, ext, is empty or begins with a period and contains at most one period.

If the path contains no extension, ext will be '':

>>> splitext('bar')
('bar', '')

If the path contains an extension, then ext will be set to this extension, including the leading period. Note that previous periods will be ignored:

>>> splitext('foo.bar.exe')
('foo.bar', '.exe')
>>> splitext('/foo/bar.exe')
('/foo/bar', '.exe')

Leading periods of the last component of the path are considered to be part of the root:

>>> splitext('.cshrc')
('.cshrc', '')
>>> splitext('/foo/....jpg')
('/foo/....jpg', '')

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

os.path.supports_unicode_filenames

True if arbitrary Unicode strings can be used as file names (within limitations imposed by the file system).

stat --- Interpreting stat() results

Code source : Lib/stat.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/stat.py]

The stat module defines constants and functions for interpreting the results of os.stat(), os.fstat() and os.lstat() (if they exist). For complete details about the stat(), fstat() and lstat() calls, consult the documentation for your system.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Le module stat est implémenté en C.

The stat module defines the following functions to test for specific file types:

stat.S_ISDIR(mode)

Renvoie une valeur différente de zéro si c'est un mode d'un répertoire.

stat.S_ISCHR(mode)

Renvoie une valeur différente de zéro si c'est le mode d'un fichier spécial caractère de périphérique.

stat.S_ISBLK(mode)

Renvoie une valeur différente de zéro si c'est le mode d'un fichier spécial bloc.

stat.S_ISREG(mode)

Renvoie une valeur différente de zéro si c'est le mode d'un fichier normal.

stat.S_ISFIFO(mode)

Renvoie une valeur différente de zéro si c'est le mode d'une FIFO (tube nommé)

stat.S_ISLNK(mode)

Renvoie une valeur différente de zéro si c'est le mode d'un lien symbolique.

stat.S_ISSOCK(mode)

Renvoie une valeur différente de zéro si c'est le mode d'un socket.

stat.S_ISDOOR(mode)

Return non-zero if the mode is from a door.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

stat.S_ISPORT(mode)

Return non-zero if the mode is from an event port.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

stat.S_ISWHT(mode)

Return non-zero if the mode is from a whiteout.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Deux autres fonctions sont définies pour permettre plus de manipulation du mode du fichier :

stat.S_IMODE(mode)

Return the portion of the file's mode that can be set by os.chmod()---that is, the file's permission bits, plus the sticky bit, set-group-id, and set-user-id bits (on systems that support them).

stat.S_IFMT(mode)

Return the portion of the file's mode that describes the file type (used by the S_IS*() functions above).

Normally, you would use the os.path.is*() functions for testing the type of a file; the functions here are useful when you are doing multiple tests of the same file and wish to avoid the overhead of the stat() system call for each test. These are also useful when checking for information about a file that isn't handled by os.path, like the tests for block and character devices.

Exemple :

import os, sys
from stat import *

def walktree(top, callback):
    '''recursively descend the directory tree rooted at top,
       calling the callback function for each regular file'''

    for f in os.listdir(top):
        pathname = os.path.join(top, f)
        mode = os.lstat(pathname).st_mode
        if S_ISDIR(mode):
            # It's a directory, recurse into it
            walktree(pathname, callback)
        elif S_ISREG(mode):
            # It's a file, call the callback function
            callback(pathname)
        else:
            # Unknown file type, print a message
            print('Skipping %s' % pathname)

def visitfile(file):
    print('visiting', file)

if __name__ == '__main__':
    walktree(sys.argv[1], visitfile)

An additional utility function is provided to convert a file's mode in a human readable string:

stat.filemode(mode)

Convert a file's mode to a string of the form '-rwxrwxrwx'.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: The function supports S_IFDOOR, S_IFPORT and S_IFWHT.

All the variables below are simply symbolic indexes into the 10-tuple returned by os.stat(), os.fstat() or os.lstat().

stat.ST_MODE

Mode de protection de l'inode.

stat.ST_INO

Numéro d'inode.

stat.ST_DEV

Device inode resides on.

stat.ST_NLINK

Nombre de liens vers l'inode.

stat.ST_UID

Identifiant utilisateur du propriétaire.

stat.ST_GID

Identifiant de groupe du propriétaire.

stat.ST_SIZE

Size in bytes of a plain file; amount of data waiting on some special files.

stat.ST_ATIME

L'heure du dernier accès.

stat.ST_MTIME

L'heure de la dernière modification.

stat.ST_CTIME

The "ctime" as reported by the operating system. On some systems (like Unix) is the time of the last metadata change, and, on others (like Windows), is the creation time (see platform documentation for details).

The interpretation of "file size" changes according to the file type. For plain files this is the size of the file in bytes. For FIFOs and sockets under most flavors of Unix (including Linux in particular), the "size" is the number of bytes waiting to be read at the time of the call to os.stat(), os.fstat(), or os.lstat(); this can sometimes be useful, especially for polling one of these special files after a non-blocking open. The meaning of the size field for other character and block devices varies more, depending on the implementation of the underlying system call.

The variables below define the flags used in the ST_MODE field.

Use of the functions above is more portable than use of the first set of flags:

stat.S_IFSOCK

Socket.

stat.S_IFLNK

Lien symbolique.

stat.S_IFREG

Fichier normal.

stat.S_IFBLK

Périphérique en mode bloc.

stat.S_IFDIR

Dossier.

stat.S_IFCHR

Périphérique en mode caractère.

stat.S_IFIFO

FIFO.

stat.S_IFDOOR

Door.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

stat.S_IFPORT

Event port.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

stat.S_IFWHT

Whiteout.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Note

S_IFDOOR, S_IFPORT or S_IFWHT sont définies à 0 si la plateforme ne prend pas en charge les types de fichiers.

Les drapeaux suivant peuvent aussi être utilisé dans l'argument mode de os.chmod() :

stat.S_ISUID

Définit le bit UID.

stat.S_ISGID

Set-group-ID bit. This bit has several special uses. For a directory it indicates that BSD semantics is to be used for that directory: files created there inherit their group ID from the directory, not from the effective group ID of the creating process, and directories created there will also get the S_ISGID bit set. For a file that does not have the group execution bit (S_IXGRP) set, the set-group-ID bit indicates mandatory file/record locking (see also S_ENFMT).

stat.S_ISVTX

Sticky bit. When this bit is set on a directory it means that a file in that directory can be renamed or deleted only by the owner of the file, by the owner of the directory, or by a privileged process.

stat.S_IRWXU

Mask for file owner permissions.

stat.S_IRUSR

Le propriétaire possède le droit de lecture.

stat.S_IWUSR

Le propriétaire possède le droit d'écriture.

stat.S_IXUSR

Le propriétaire possède le droit d'exécution.

stat.S_IRWXG

Masque pour extraire les permissions du groupe.

stat.S_IRGRP

Le groupe possède le droit de lecture.

stat.S_IWGRP

Le groupe possède le droit d'écriture.

stat.S_IXGRP

Le groupe possède le droit d'exécution.

stat.S_IRWXO

Mask for permissions for others (not in group).

stat.S_IROTH

Others have read permission.

stat.S_IWOTH

Others have write permission.

stat.S_IXOTH

Others have execute permission.

stat.S_ENFMT

System V file locking enforcement. This flag is shared with S_ISGID: file/record locking is enforced on files that do not have the group execution bit (S_IXGRP) set.

stat.S_IREAD

Unix V7 synonym for S_IRUSR.

stat.S_IWRITE

Unix V7 synonym for S_IWUSR.

stat.S_IEXEC

Unix V7 synonym for S_IXUSR.

The following flags can be used in the flags argument of os.chflags():

stat.UF_SETTABLE

All user settable flags.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

stat.UF_NODUMP

Do not dump the file.

stat.UF_IMMUTABLE

Le fichier ne peut pas être modifié.

stat.UF_APPEND

The file may only be appended to.

stat.UF_OPAQUE

The directory is opaque when viewed through a union stack.

stat.UF_NOUNLINK

Le fichier ne peut pas être renommé ou supprimé.

stat.UF_COMPRESSED

The file is stored compressed (macOS 10.6+).

stat.UF_TRACKED

Used for handling document IDs (macOS)

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

stat.UF_DATAVAULT

The file needs an entitlement for reading or writing (macOS 10.13+)

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

stat.UF_HIDDEN

Le fichier ne peut pas être affiché dans une GUI (macOS 10.5+).

stat.SF_SETTABLE

All super-user changeable flags

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

stat.SF_SUPPORTED

All super-user supported flags

Disponibilité: macOS

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

stat.SF_SYNTHETIC

All super-user read-only synthetic flags

Disponibilité: macOS

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

stat.SF_ARCHIVED

Le fichier peut être archivé.

stat.SF_IMMUTABLE

Le fichier ne peut pas être modifié.

stat.SF_APPEND

The file may only be appended to.

stat.SF_RESTRICTED

The file needs an entitlement to write to (macOS 10.13+)

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

stat.SF_NOUNLINK

Le fichier ne peut pas être renommé ou supprimé.

stat.SF_SNAPSHOT

The file is a snapshot file.

stat.SF_FIRMLINK

The file is a firmlink (macOS 10.15+)

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

stat.SF_DATALESS

The file is a dataless object (macOS 10.15+)

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

See the *BSD or macOS systems man page chflags(2) [https://manpages.debian.org/chflags(2)] for more information.

On Windows, the following file attribute constants are available for use when testing bits in the st_file_attributes member returned by os.stat(). See the Windows API documentation [https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/gg258117.aspx] for more detail on the meaning of these constants.

stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ARCHIVE

stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_COMPRESSED

stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DEVICE

stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DIRECTORY

stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ENCRYPTED

stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_HIDDEN

stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_INTEGRITY_STREAM

stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NORMAL

stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NOT_CONTENT_INDEXED

stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NO_SCRUB_DATA

stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_OFFLINE

stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_READONLY

stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_REPARSE_POINT

stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SPARSE_FILE

stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SYSTEM

stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_TEMPORARY

stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_VIRTUAL

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

On Windows, the following constants are available for comparing against the st_reparse_tag member returned by os.lstat(). These are well-known constants, but are not an exhaustive list.

stat.IO_REPARSE_TAG_SYMLINK

stat.IO_REPARSE_TAG_MOUNT_POINT

stat.IO_REPARSE_TAG_APPEXECLINK

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

filecmp --- File and Directory Comparisons

Code source : Lib/filecmp.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/filecmp.py]

The filecmp module defines functions to compare files and directories, with various optional time/correctness trade-offs. For comparing files, see also the difflib module.

The filecmp module defines the following functions:

filecmp.cmp(f1, f2, shallow=True)

Compare les fichiers nommés f1 et f2 , renvoie True s’ils semblent égaux, False sinon.

If shallow is true and the os.stat() signatures (file type, size, and modification time) of both files are identical, the files are taken to be equal.

Otherwise, the files are treated as different if their sizes or contents differ.

Notez qu'aucun programme externe n'est appelé à partir de cette fonction, ce qui lui confère des qualités de portabilité et d'efficacité.

Cette fonction utilise un cache pour les comparaisons antérieures et les résultats, les entrées du cache étant invalidées si les informations os.stat() du fichier sont modifiées. La totalité du cache peut être effacée avec clear_cache().

filecmp.cmpfiles(dir1, dir2, common, shallow=True)

Compare les fichiers des deux répertoires dir1 et dir2 dont les noms sont donnés par common.

Renvoie trois listes de noms de fichiers : match , mismatch, errors. match contient la liste des fichiers qui correspondent, mismatch contient les noms de ceux qui ne correspondent pas et errors répertorie les noms des fichiers qui n'ont pas pu être comparés. Les fichiers sont répertoriés dans errors s'ils n'existent pas dans l'un des répertoires, si l'utilisateur ne dispose pas de l'autorisation nécessaire pour les lire ou si la comparaison n'a pas pu être effectuée pour une autre raison.

Le paramètre shallow a la même signification et la même valeur par défaut que pour filecmp.cmp().

Par exemple, cmpfiles('a', 'b', ['c', 'd/e']) compare a/c et b/c et a/d/e avec b/d/e. 'c' et 'd/e' seront chacun dans l'une des trois listes renvoyées.

filecmp.clear_cache()

Efface le cache filecmp. Cela peut être utile si un fichier est comparé juste après avoir été modifié (dans un délai inférieur à la résolution mtime du système de fichiers sous-jacent).

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

La classe dircmp

class filecmp.dircmp(a, b, ignore=None, hide=None, *, shallow=True)

Construct a new directory comparison object, to compare the directories a and b. ignore is a list of names to ignore, and defaults to filecmp.DEFAULT_IGNORES. hide is a list of names to hide, and defaults to [os.curdir, os.pardir].

The dircmp class compares files by doing shallow comparisons as described for filecmp.cmp() by default using the shallow parameter.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the shallow parameter.

La classe dircmp fournit les méthodes suivantes :

report()

Affiche (sur sys.stdout) une comparaison entre a et b.

report_partial_closure()

Affiche une comparaison entre a et b et les sous-répertoires immédiats communs.

report_full_closure()

Affiche une comparaison entre a et b et les sous-répertoires communs (récursivement).

La classe dircmp offre un certain nombre d'attributs intéressants qui peuvent être utilisés pour obtenir diverses informations sur les arborescences de répertoires comparées.

Note that via __getattr__() hooks, all attributes are computed lazily, so there is no speed penalty if only those attributes which are lightweight to compute are used.

left

Le répertoire a.

right

Le répertoire b.

left_list

Fichiers et sous-répertoires dans a , filtrés par hide et ignore.

right_list

Fichiers et sous-répertoires dans b , filtrés par hide et ignore.

common

Fichiers et sous-répertoires à la fois dans a et b.

left_only

Fichiers et sous-répertoires uniquement dans a.

right_only

Fichiers et sous-répertoires uniquement dans b.

common_dirs

Sous-répertoires à la fois dans a et b.

common_files

Fichiers à la fois dans a et b.

common_funny

Noms dans a et b , tels que le type diffère entre les répertoires, ou noms pour lesquels os.stat() signale une erreur.

same_files

Fichiers identiques dans a et b, en utilisant l'opérateur de comparaison de fichiers de la classe.

diff_files

Fichiers figurant à la fois dans a et dans b , dont le contenu diffère en fonction de l'opérateur de comparaison de fichiers de la classe.

funny_files

Fichiers à la fois dans a et dans b , mais ne pouvant pas être comparés.

subdirs

A dictionary mapping names in common_dirs to dircmp instances (or MyDirCmp instances if this instance is of type MyDirCmp, a subclass of dircmp).

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Previously entries were always dircmp instances. Now entries are the same type as self, if self is a subclass of dircmp.

filecmp.DEFAULT_IGNORES

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Liste des répertoires ignorés par défaut par dircmp.

Voici un exemple simplifié d'utilisation de l'attribut subdirs pour effectuer une recherche récursive dans deux répertoires afin d'afficher des fichiers communs différents :

>>> from filecmp import dircmp
>>> def print_diff_files(dcmp):
...     for name in dcmp.diff_files:
...         print("diff_file %s found in %s and %s" % (name, dcmp.left,
...               dcmp.right))
...     for sub_dcmp in dcmp.subdirs.values():
...         print_diff_files(sub_dcmp)
...
>>> dcmp = dircmp('dir1', 'dir2')
>>> print_diff_files(dcmp)

tempfile --- Generate temporary files and directories

Code source : Lib/tempfile.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/tempfile.py]

This module creates temporary files and directories. It works on all supported platforms. TemporaryFile, NamedTemporaryFile, TemporaryDirectory, and SpooledTemporaryFile are high-level interfaces which provide automatic cleanup and can be used as context managers. mkstemp() and mkdtemp() are lower-level functions which require manual cleanup.

Toutes les fonctions et constructeurs appelables par l'utilisateur ont des arguments additionnels qui permettent de contrôler directement le chemin et le nom des répertoires et fichiers. Les noms de fichiers utilisés par ce module incluent une chaîne de caractères aléatoires qui leur permet d'être créés de manière sécurisée dans des répertoires temporaires partagés. Afin de maintenir la compatibilité descendante, l'ordre des arguments est quelque peu étrange ; pour des questions de clarté, il est recommandé d'utiliser les arguments nommés.

Le module définit les éléments suivants pouvant être appelés par l'utilisateur :

tempfile.TemporaryFile(mode='w+b', buffering=-1, encoding=None, newline=None, suffix=None, prefix=None, dir=None, *, errors=None)

Renvoie un objet fichier qui peut être utilisé comme une zone de stockage temporaire. Le fichier est créé de manière sécurisée, utilisant les mêmes règles que mkstemp(). Il sera détruit dès qu'il sera fermé (y compris lorsque le fichier est implicitement fermé quand il est collecté par le ramasse-miettes). Sous Unix, soit l'entrée du répertoire n'est pas du tout créée, soit elle est supprimée immédiatement après la création du fichier. Les autres plateformes ne gèrent pas cela, votre code ne doit pas compter sur un fichier temporaire créé en utilisant cette fonction ayant ou non un nom visible sur le système de fichiers.

The resulting object can be used as a context manager (see Exemples). On completion of the context or destruction of the file object the temporary file will be removed from the filesystem.

Le paramètre mode vaut par défaut 'w+b' afin que le fichier créé puisse être lu et écrit sans être fermé. Le mode binaire est utilisé afin que le comportement soit le même sur toutes les plateformes quelle que soit la donnée qui est stockée. buffering, encoding, errors et newline sont interprétés de la même façon que pour open().

Les paramètres dir, prefix et suffix ont la même signification et les mêmes valeurs par défaut que dans mkstemp().

L'objet renvoyé est un véritable fichier sur les plateformes POSIX. Sur les autres plateformes, c'est un objet fichier-compatible, dont l'attribut file donne le véritable fichier.

The os.O_TMPFILE flag is used if it is available and works (Linux-specific, requires Linux kernel 3.11 or later).

Sur les plateformes qui ne sont pas POSIX ni Cygwin, TemporaryFile est un alias de NamedTemporaryFile.

Lève un évènement d'audit tempfile.mkstemp avec comme argument fullpath.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: The os.O_TMPFILE flag is now used if available.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Le paramètre errors a été ajouté.

tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile(mode='w+b', buffering=-1, encoding=None, newline=None, suffix=None, prefix=None, dir=None, delete=True, *, errors=None, delete_on_close=True)

This function operates exactly as TemporaryFile() does, except the following differences:

This function returns a file that is guaranteed to have a visible name in the file system.

To manage the named file, it extends the parameters of TemporaryFile() with delete and delete_on_close parameters that determine whether and how the named file should be automatically deleted.

The returned object is always a file-like object whose file attribute is the underlying true file object. This file-like object can be used in a with statement, just like a normal file. The name of the temporary file can be retrieved from the name attribute of the returned file-like object. On Unix, unlike with the TemporaryFile(), the directory entry does not get unlinked immediately after the file creation.

If delete is true (the default) and delete_on_close is true (the default), the file is deleted as soon as it is closed. If delete is true and delete_on_close is false, the file is deleted on context manager exit only, or else when the file-like object is finalized. Deletion is not always guaranteed in this case (see object.__del__()). If delete is false, the value of delete_on_close is ignored.

Therefore to use the name of the temporary file to reopen the file after closing it, either make sure not to delete the file upon closure (set the delete parameter to be false) or, in case the temporary file is created in a with statement, set the delete_on_close parameter to be false. The latter approach is recommended as it provides assistance in automatic cleaning of the temporary file upon the context manager exit.

Opening the temporary file again by its name while it is still open works as follows:

On POSIX the file can always be opened again.

On Windows, make sure that at least one of the following conditions are fulfilled:

delete is false

additional open shares delete access (e.g. by calling os.open() with the flag O_TEMPORARY)

delete is true but delete_on_close is false. Note, that in this case the additional opens that do not share delete access (e.g. created via builtin open()) must be closed before exiting the context manager, else the os.unlink() call on context manager exit will fail with a PermissionError.

On Windows, if delete_on_close is false, and the file is created in a directory for which the user lacks delete access, then the os.unlink() call on exit of the context manager will fail with a PermissionError. This cannot happen when delete_on_close is true because delete access is requested by the open, which fails immediately if the requested access is not granted.

On POSIX (only), a process that is terminated abruptly with SIGKILL cannot automatically delete any NamedTemporaryFiles it created.

Lève un évènement d'audit tempfile.mkstemp avec comme argument fullpath.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Le paramètre errors a été ajouté.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added delete_on_close parameter.

class tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile(max_size=0, mode='w+b', buffering=-1, encoding=None, newline=None, suffix=None, prefix=None, dir=None, *, errors=None)

This class operates exactly as TemporaryFile() does, except that data is spooled in memory until the file size exceeds max_size, or until the file's fileno() method is called, at which point the contents are written to disk and operation proceeds as with TemporaryFile().

rollover()

The resulting file has one additional method, rollover(), which causes the file to roll over to an on-disk file regardless of its size.

The returned object is a file-like object whose _file attribute is either an io.BytesIO or io.TextIOWrapper object (depending on whether binary or text mode was specified) or a true file object, depending on whether rollover() has been called. This file-like object can be used in a with statement, just like a normal file.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: the truncate method now accepts a size argument.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Le paramètre errors a été ajouté.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Fully implements the io.BufferedIOBase and io.TextIOBase abstract base classes (depending on whether binary or text mode was specified).

class tempfile.TemporaryDirectory(suffix=None, prefix=None, dir=None, ignore_cleanup_errors=False, *, delete=True)

This class securely creates a temporary directory using the same rules as mkdtemp(). The resulting object can be used as a context manager (see Exemples). On completion of the context or destruction of the temporary directory object, the newly created temporary directory and all its contents are removed from the filesystem.

name

The directory name can be retrieved from the name attribute of the returned object. When the returned object is used as a context manager, the name will be assigned to the target of the as clause in the with statement, if there is one.

cleanup()

The directory can be explicitly cleaned up by calling the cleanup() method. If ignore_cleanup_errors is true, any unhandled exceptions during explicit or implicit cleanup (such as a PermissionError removing open files on Windows) will be ignored, and the remaining removable items deleted on a "best-effort" basis. Otherwise, errors will be raised in whatever context cleanup occurs (the cleanup() call, exiting the context manager, when the object is garbage-collected or during interpreter shutdown).

The delete parameter can be used to disable cleanup of the directory tree upon exiting the context. While it may seem unusual for a context manager to disable the action taken when exiting the context, it can be useful during debugging or when you need your cleanup behavior to be conditional based on other logic.

Lève un évènement d'audit tempfile.mkdtemp avec comme argument fullpath.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: ajout du paramètre ignore_cleanup_errors.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added the delete parameter.

tempfile.mkstemp(suffix=None, prefix=None, dir=None, text=False)

Creates a temporary file in the most secure manner possible. There are no race conditions in the file's creation, assuming that the platform properly implements the os.O_EXCL flag for os.open(). The file is readable and writable only by the creating user ID. If the platform uses permission bits to indicate whether a file is executable, the file is executable by no one.

The file descriptor is not inherited by child processes.

À la différence de TemporaryFile(), l'utilisateur de mkstemp() est responsable de la suppression du fichier temporaire quand il n'en a plus besoin.

Si suffix ne vaut pas None, le nom de fichier se terminera avec ce suffixe, sinon il n'y aura pas de suffixe. mkstemp() ne met pas de point entre le nom du fichier et le suffixe. Si vous en avez besoin, mettez le point au début de suffix.

Si prefix ne vaut pas None, le nom de fichier commencera avec ce préfixe, sinon un préfixe par défaut est utilisé. La valeur par défaut est la valeur retournée par gettempprefix() ou gettempprefixb().

Si dir ne vaut pas None, le fichier sera créé dans ce répertoire, autrement, un répertoire par défaut sera utilisé. Le répertoire par défaut est choisi depuis une liste dépendante de la plateforme, mais l'utilisateur de l'application peut contrôler l'emplacement du répertoire en spécifiant les variables d'environnement TMPDIR, TEMP ou TMP. Il n'y a pas de garantie que le nom de fichier généré aura de bonnes propriétés telles que ne pas avoir besoin de le mettre entre guillemets lorsque celui-ci est passé à des commandes externes via os.popen().

Si l'un des paramètres suffix, prefix et dir n'est pas None, ils doivent être du même type. S'ils sont de type bytes, le nom renvoyé est de type bytes plutôt que de type str. Si vous voulez forcer la valeur renvoyée en bytes, passez suffix=b''.

Le fichier est ouvert en mode binaire, sauf si text est mis à vrai, auquel cas il est ouvert en mode textuel.

mkstemp() renvoie une paire contenant un descripteur (handle en anglais) au niveau du système d'exploitation vers un fichier ouvert (le même que renvoie os.open()) et le chemin d'accès absolu de ce fichier, dans cet ordre.

Lève un évènement d'audit tempfile.mkstemp avec comme argument fullpath.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: suffix, prefix, et dir peuvent maintenant être spécifiés en bytes pour obtenir un résultat en bytes. Avant cela, le type str était le seul autorisé. suffix et prefix acceptent maintenant la valeur par défaut None pour que la valeur par défaut appropriée soit utilisée.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Le paramètre dir accepte un objet fichier-compatible.

tempfile.mkdtemp(suffix=None, prefix=None, dir=None)

Crée un répertoire temporaire de la manière la plus sécurisée qu'il soit. Il n'y a pas de problème d'accès concurrent (race condition en anglais) au moment de la création du répertoire. Le répertoire est accessible en lecture, en écriture, et son contenu lisible uniquement pour l'ID de l'utilisateur créateur.

L'utilisateur de mkdtemp() est responsable de la suppression du répertoire temporaire et de son contenu lorsqu'il n'en a plus besoin.

Les arguments prefix, suffix, et dir sont les mêmes que pour mkstemp().

mkdtemp() renvoie le chemin absolu du nouveau répertoire.

Lève un évènement d'audit tempfile.mkdtemp avec comme argument fullpath.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: suffix, prefix, et dir peuvent maintenant être spécifiés en bytes pour obtenir un résultat en bytes. Avant cela, le type str était le seul autorisé. suffix et prefix acceptent maintenant la valeur par défaut None pour que la valeur par défaut appropriée soit utilisée.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Le paramètre dir accepte un objet fichier-compatible.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: mkdtemp() now always returns an absolute path, even if dir is relative.

tempfile.gettempdir()

Renvoie le nom du répertoire utilisé pour les fichiers temporaires. C'est la valeur par défaut pour l'argument dir de toutes les fonctions de ce module.

Python cherche un répertoire parmi une liste standard de répertoires dans lequel l'utilisateur final peut créer des fichiers. La liste est :

Le répertoire correspondant à la variable d'environnement TMPDIR.

Le répertoire correspondant à la variable d'environnement TEMP.

Le répertoire correspondant à la variable d'environnement TMP.

Un emplacement dépendant de la plateforme :

Sur Windows, les répertoires C:\TEMP, C:\TMP, \TEMP, et \TMP, dans cet ordre.

Sur toutes les autres plate-formes, les répertoires /tmp, /var/tmp, et /usr/tmp, dans cet ordre.

En dernier ressort, le répertoire de travail courant.

Le résultat de cette recherche est mis en cache, voir la description de tempdir dessous.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Cette fonction renvoie désormais systématiquement une chaîne de caractères. Auparavant, elle pouvait renvoyer la valeur de tempdir quel que soit son type tant que ce n'était pas None.

tempfile.gettempdirb()

Similaire à gettempdir() mais la valeur retournée est en bytes.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

tempfile.gettempprefix()

Renvoie le préfixe de nom de fichier utilisé pour créer les fichiers temporaires. Cela ne contient pas le nom du répertoire.

tempfile.gettempprefixb()

Similaire à gettempprefix() mais la valeur retournée est en bytes.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Le module utilise une variable globale pour stocker le nom du répertoire utilisé pour les fichiers temporaires renvoyés par gettempdir(). Vous pouvez directement utiliser la variable globale pour surcharger le processus de sélection, mais ceci est déconseillé. Toutes les fonctions de ce module prennent un argument dir qui peut être utilisé pour spécifier le répertoire. Il s'agit de la méthode recommandée car elle n'interfère pas avec le code extérieur en modifiant le comportement global du module.

tempfile.tempdir

Quand une valeur autre que None est spécifiée, cette variable définit la valeur par défaut pour l'argument dir des fonctions définies dans ce module, et en particulier son type (bytes ou str). Les objets fichier-compatibles ne sont pas acceptés.

Si tempdir vaut None (par défaut) pour n'importe laquelle des fonctions ci-dessus, sauf gettempprefix(), la variable est initialisée suivant l'algorithme décrit dans gettempdir().

Note

Attention, le fait de mettre tempdir à une valeur de type bytes a l'effet pervers de changer globalement en bytes le type de retour de mkstemp() et mkdtemp() lorsqu'elles sont appelées sans qu'aucun des paramètres prefix, suffix et dir ne soit de type str. Ce comportement par défaut surprenant est préservé par souci de compatibilité avec l'implémentation historique du module. Il est fortement recommandé de ne pas s'y fier.

Exemples

Here are some examples of typical usage of the tempfile module:

>>> import tempfile

# create a temporary file and write some data to it
>>> fp = tempfile.TemporaryFile()
>>> fp.write(b'Hello world!')
# read data from file
>>> fp.seek(0)
>>> fp.read()
b'Hello world!'
# close the file, it will be removed
>>> fp.close()

# create a temporary file using a context manager
>>> with tempfile.TemporaryFile() as fp:
...     fp.write(b'Hello world!')
...     fp.seek(0)
...     fp.read()
b'Hello world!'
>>>
# file is now closed and removed

# create a temporary file using a context manager
# close the file, use the name to open the file again
>>> with tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile(delete_on_close=False) as fp:
...     fp.write(b'Hello world!')
...     fp.close()
... # the file is closed, but not removed
... # open the file again by using its name
...     with open(fp.name, mode='rb') as f:
...         f.read()
b'Hello world!'
>>>
# file is now removed

# create a temporary directory using the context manager
>>> with tempfile.TemporaryDirectory() as tmpdirname:
...     print('created temporary directory', tmpdirname)
>>>
# directory and contents have been removed

Fonctions et variables obsolètes

Historiquement, la méthode pour créer des fichiers temporaires consistait à générer un nom de fichier avec la fonction mktemp() puis créer un fichier en utilisant ce nom. Malheureusement, cette méthode n'est pas fiable car un autre processus peut créer un fichier avec ce nom entre l'appel à la fonction mktemp() et la tentative de création de fichier par le premier processus en cours. La solution est de combiner les deux étapes et de créer le fichier immédiatement. Cette approche est utilisée par mkstemp() et les autres fonctions décrites plus haut.

tempfile.mktemp(suffix='', prefix='tmp', dir=None)

Obsolète depuis la version 2.3: Utilisez mkstemp() à la place.

Renvoie le chemin absolu d'un fichier qui n'existe pas lorsque l'appel est fait. Les arguments prefix, suffix, et dir sont similaires à ceux de mkstemp() mais les noms de fichiers en bytes, sufix=None et prefix=None ne sont pas implémentées.

Avertissement

Utiliser cette fonction peut introduire une faille de sécurité dans votre programme. Avant que vous n'ayez le temps de faire quoi que ce soit avec le nom de fichier renvoyé, quelqu'un peut l'utiliser. L'utilisation de mktemp() peut être remplacée facilement avec NamedTemporaryFile() en y passant le paramètre delete=False :

>>> f = NamedTemporaryFile(delete=False)
>>> f.name
'/tmp/tmptjujjt'
>>> f.write(b"Hello World!\n")
13
>>> f.close()
>>> os.unlink(f.name)
>>> os.path.exists(f.name)
False

glob --- Unix style pathname pattern expansion

Code source : Lib/glob.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/glob.py]

The glob module finds pathnames using pattern matching rules similar to the Unix shell. No tilde expansion is done, but *, ?, and character ranges expressed with [] will be correctly matched. This is done by using the os.scandir() and fnmatch.fnmatch() functions in concert, and not by actually invoking a subshell.

Note

The pathnames are returned in no particular order. If you need a specific order, sort the results.

Files beginning with a dot (.) can only be matched by patterns that also start with a dot, unlike fnmatch.fnmatch() or pathlib.Path.glob(). For tilde and shell variable expansion, use os.path.expanduser() and os.path.expandvars().

Pour une correspondance littérale, il faut entourer le métacaractère par des crochets. Par exemple, '[?]' reconnaît le caractère '?'.

The glob module defines the following functions:

glob.glob(pathname, *, root_dir=None, dir_fd=None, recursive=False, include_hidden=False)

Return a possibly empty list of path names that match pathname, which must be a string containing a path specification. pathname can be either absolute (like /usr/src/Python-1.5/Makefile) or relative (like ../../Tools/*/*.gif), and can contain shell-style wildcards. Broken symlinks are included in the results (as in the shell). Whether or not the results are sorted depends on the file system. If a file that satisfies conditions is removed or added during the call of this function, whether a path name for that file will be included is unspecified.

If root_dir is not None, it should be a path-like object specifying the root directory for searching. It has the same effect on glob() as changing the current directory before calling it. If pathname is relative, the result will contain paths relative to root_dir.

Cette fonction prend en charge les chemins relatifs aux descripteurs de dossier avec le paramètre dir_fd.

Si recursive est vrai, le motif "**" reconnaît tous les fichiers, aucun ou plusieurs répertoires, sous-répertoires et liens symboliques aux répertoires. Si le motif est suivi par os.sep ou os.altsep alors les fichiers ne sont pas inclus dans le résultat.

If include_hidden is true, "**" pattern will match hidden directories.

Lève un évènement d'audit glob.glob avec les arguments pathname, recursive.

Lève un évènement d'audit glob.glob/2 avec les arguments pathname, recursive, root_dir, dir_fd.

Note

Utiliser le motif "**" dans de grandes arborescences de dossier peut consommer une quantité de temps démesurée.

Note

This function may return duplicate path names if pathname contains multiple "**" patterns and recursive is true.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Prise en charge des chemins récursifs utilisant le motif "**".

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Paramètres root_dir et dir_fd ajoutés.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added the include_hidden parameter.

glob.iglob(pathname, *, root_dir=None, dir_fd=None, recursive=False, include_hidden=False)

Renvoie un itérateur qui produit les mêmes valeurs que glob(), sans toutes les charger en mémoire simultanément.

Lève un évènement d'audit glob.glob avec les arguments pathname, recursive.

Lève un évènement d'audit glob.glob/2 avec les arguments pathname, recursive, root_dir, dir_fd.

Note

This function may return duplicate path names if pathname contains multiple "**" patterns and recursive is true.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Prise en charge des chemins récursifs utilisant le motif "**".

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Paramètres root_dir et dir_fd ajoutés.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added the include_hidden parameter.

glob.escape(pathname)

Échappe tous les caractères spéciaux ('?', '*' et '['). Cela est utile pour reconnaître une chaîne de caractère littérale arbitraire qui contiendrait ce type de caractères. Les caractères spéciaux dans les disques et répertoires partagés (chemins UNC) ne sont pas échappés, e.g. sous Windows escape('//?/c:/Quo vadis?.txt') renvoie '//?/c:/Quo vadis[?].txt'.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

glob.translate(pathname, *, recursive=False, include_hidden=False, seps=None)

Convert the given path specification to a regular expression for use with re.match(). The path specification can contain shell-style wildcards.

Par exemple :

>>> import glob, re
>>>
>>> regex = glob.translate('**/*.txt', recursive=True, include_hidden=True)
>>> regex
'(?s:(?:.+/)?[^/]*\\.txt)\\z'
>>> reobj = re.compile(regex)
>>> reobj.match('foo/bar/baz.txt')
<re.Match object; span=(0, 15), match='foo/bar/baz.txt'>

Path separators and segments are meaningful to this function, unlike fnmatch.translate(). By default wildcards do not match path separators, and * pattern segments match precisely one path segment.

If recursive is true, the pattern segment "**" will match any number of path segments.

If include_hidden is true, wildcards can match path segments that start with a dot (.).

A sequence of path separators may be supplied to the seps argument. If not given, os.sep and altsep (if available) are used.

Voir aussi

pathlib.PurePath.full_match() and pathlib.Path.glob() methods, which call this function to implement pattern matching and globbing.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Exemples

Consider a directory containing the following files: 1.gif, 2.txt, card.gif and a subdirectory sub which contains only the file 3.txt. glob() will produce the following results. Notice how any leading components of the path are preserved.

>>> import glob
>>> glob.glob('./[0-9].*')
['./1.gif', './2.txt']
>>> glob.glob('*.gif')
['1.gif', 'card.gif']
>>> glob.glob('?.gif')
['1.gif']
>>> glob.glob('**/*.txt', recursive=True)
['2.txt', 'sub/3.txt']
>>> glob.glob('./**/', recursive=True)
['./', './sub/']

Si le répertoire contient des fichiers commençant par ., ils ne sont pas reconnus par défaut. Par exemple, considérons un répertoire contenant card.gif et .card.gif :

>>> import glob
>>> glob.glob('*.gif')
['card.gif']
>>> glob.glob('.c*')
['.card.gif']

Voir aussi

The fnmatch module offers shell-style filename (not path) expansion.

Voir aussi

Le module pathlib offre une représentation objet de haut niveau des chemins.

fnmatch --- Unix filename pattern matching

Code source : Lib/fnmatch.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/fnmatch.py]

Ce module fournit la gestion des caractères de remplacement de style shell Unix, qui ne sont pas identiques à ceux utilisés dans les expressions régulières (documentés dans le module re). Les caractères spéciaux utilisés comme caractères de remplacement de style shell sont :

Motif

Signification

*

reconnaît n'importe quoi

?

reconnaît n'importe quel caractère unique

[seq]

reconnaît n'importe quel caractère dans seq

[!seq]

reconnaît n'importe quel caractère qui n'est pas dans seq

Pour une correspondance littérale, il faut entourer le métacaractère par des crochets. Par exemple, '[?]' reconnaît le caractère '?'.

Notons que le séparateur de nom de fichiers ('/' sous Unix) n'est pas traité de manière spéciale par ce module. Voir le module glob pour la recherche de chemins (glob utilise filter() pour reconnaître les composants d'un chemin). De la même manière, les noms de fichiers commençant par un point ne sont pas traités de manière spéciale par ce module, et sont reconnus par les motifs * et ?.

Unless stated otherwise, "filename string" and "pattern string" either refer to str or ISO-8859-1 encoded bytes objects. Note that the functions documented below do not allow to mix a bytes pattern with a str filename, and vice-versa.

Finally, note that functools.lru_cache() with a maxsize of 32768 is used to cache the (typed) compiled regex patterns in the following functions: fnmatch(), fnmatchcase(), filter(), filterfalse().

fnmatch.fnmatch(name, pat)

Test whether the filename string name matches the pattern string pat, returning True or False. Both parameters are case-normalized using os.path.normcase(). fnmatchcase() can be used to perform a case-sensitive comparison, regardless of whether that's standard for the operating system.

Cet exemple affiche tous les noms de fichiers du répertoire courant ayant pour extension .txt :

import fnmatch
import os

for file in os.listdir('.'):
    if fnmatch.fnmatch(file, '*.txt'):
        print(file)

fnmatch.fnmatchcase(name, pat)

Test whether the filename string name matches the pattern string pat, returning True or False; the comparison is case-sensitive and does not apply os.path.normcase().

fnmatch.filter(names, pat)

Construct a list from those elements of the iterable of filename strings names that match the pattern string pat. It is the same as [n for n in names if fnmatch(n, pat)], but implemented more efficiently.

fnmatch.filterfalse(names, pat)

Construct a list from those elements of the iterable of filename strings names that do not match the pattern string pat. It is the same as [n for n in names if not fnmatch(n, pat)], but implemented more efficiently.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

fnmatch.translate(pat)

Return the shell-style pattern pat converted to a regular expression for using with re.match(). The pattern is expected to be a str.

Exemple :

>>> import fnmatch, re
>>>
>>> regex = fnmatch.translate('*.txt')
>>> regex
'(?s:.*\\.txt)\\z'
>>> reobj = re.compile(regex)
>>> reobj.match('foobar.txt')
<re.Match object; span=(0, 10), match='foobar.txt'>

Voir aussi

Module glob

Recherche de chemins de style shell Unix.

linecache --- Random access to text lines

Code source : Lib/linecache.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/linecache.py]

The linecache module allows one to get any line from a Python source file, while attempting to optimize internally, using a cache, the common case where many lines are read from a single file. This is used by the traceback module to retrieve source lines for inclusion in the formatted traceback.

Les fichiers sont ouverts par la fonction tokenize.open(). Cette fonction utilise tokenize.detect_encoding() pour obtenir l'encodage du fichier. En l'absence d'un BOM et d'un cookie d'encodage, c'est l'encodage UTF-8 qui sera utilisé.

The linecache module defines the following functions:

linecache.getline(filename, lineno, module_globals=None)

Récupère la ligne lineno du fichier filename. Cette fonction ne lèvera jamais d'exception, elle préfèrera renvoyer '' en cas d'erreur (le caractère de retour à la ligne sera inclus pour les lignes existantes).

If filename indicates a frozen module (starting with '<frozen '), the function will attempt to get the real file name from module_globals['__file__'] if module_globals is not None.

Si le fichier filename n'existe pas, cette fonction vérifie d'abord la présence d'un chargeur __loader__ dans module_globals, comme le prescrit la PEP 302 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/]. Si un chargeur est trouvé avec une méthode get_source, c'est cette méthode qui détermine les lignes sources (si get_source() renvoie None, cette valeur est remplacée par la chaîne vide ''). Sinon, si le nom de fichier filename est relatif, il est recherché dans les dossiers du chemin de recherche des modules, sys.path.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Support filename of frozen modules.

linecache.clearcache()

Nettoie le cache. Utilisez cette fonction si vous n'avez plus besoin des lignes des fichiers précédemment lus via getline().

linecache.checkcache(filename=None)

Vérifie la validité du cache. Utilisez cette fonction si les fichiers du cache pourraient avoir changé sur le disque, et que vous en voudriez une version à jour. Sans filename, toutes les entrées du cache seront vérifiées.

linecache.lazycache(filename, module_globals)

Récupère suffisamment d'informations sur un module situé hors du système de fichiers pour récupérer ses lignes plus tard via getline(), même si module_globals devient None. Cela évite de lire le fichier avant d'avoir besoin d'une ligne, tout en évitant de conserver les globales du module indéfiniment.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Exemple :

>>> import linecache
>>> linecache.getline(linecache.__file__, 8)
'import sys\n'

shutil --- High-level file operations

Code source : Lib/shutil.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/shutil.py]

The shutil module offers a number of high-level operations on files and collections of files. In particular, functions are provided which support file copying and removal. For operations on individual files, see also the os module.

Avertissement

Même les fonctions de copie haut niveau (shutil.copy(), shutil.copy2()) ne peuvent copier toutes les métadonnées des fichiers.

Sur les plateformes POSIX, cela signifie que le propriétaire et le groupe du fichier sont perdus, ainsi que les ACLs. Sur Mac OS, le clonage de ressource et autres métadonnées ne sont pas utilisés. Cela signifie que les ressources seront perdues et que le type de fichier et les codes créateur ne seront pas corrects. Sur Windows, les propriétaires des fichiers, ACLs et flux de données alternatifs ne sont pas copiés.

Opérations sur les répertoires et les fichiers

shutil.copyfileobj(fsrc, fdst[, length])

Copy the contents of the file-like object fsrc to the file-like object fdst. The integer length, if given, is the buffer size. In particular, a negative length value means to copy the data without looping over the source data in chunks; by default the data is read in chunks to avoid uncontrolled memory consumption. Note that if the current file position of the fsrc object is not 0, only the contents from the current file position to the end of the file will be copied.

copyfileobj() will not guarantee that the destination stream has been flushed on completion of the copy. If you want to read from the destination at the completion of the copy operation (for example, reading the contents of a temporary file that has been copied from a HTTP stream), you must ensure that you have called flush() or close() on the file-like object before attempting to read the destination file.

shutil.copyfile(src, dst, *, follow_symlinks=True)

Copy the contents (no metadata) of the file named src to a file named dst and return dst in the most efficient way possible. src and dst are path-like objects or path names given as strings.

dst doit être le nom complet du fichier cible ; consultez copy() pour une fonction de copie qui accepte un chemin de répertoire cible. Si src et dst spécifient le même fichier, lève SameFileError.

La cible doit être accessible en écriture, sinon l'exception OSError est levée. Si dst existe déjà, il est remplacé. Les fichiers spéciaux comme les périphériques caractères ou bloc ainsi que les tubes (pipes) ne peuvent pas être copiés avec cette fonction.

Si follow_symlinks est faux et src est un lien symbolique, un nouveau lien symbolique est créé au lieu de copier le fichier pointé par src.

Lève un événement d’audit shutil.copyfile avec les arguments src, dst.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: IOError était levée au lieu de OSError. Ajout de l'argument follow_symlinks. Maintenant renvoie dst.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Lève SameFileError au lieu de Error. Puisque la première est une sous-classe de la seconde, le changement assure la rétrocompatibilité.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Les appels système de copie rapide spécifiques à la plate-forme peuvent être utilisés en interne afin de copier le fichier plus efficacement. Voir la section Platform-dependent efficient copy operations.

exception shutil.SpecialFileError

This exception is raised when copyfile() or copytree() attempt to copy a named pipe.

Ajouté dans la version 2.7.

exception shutil.SameFileError

Cette exception est levée si la source et la destination dans copyfile() sont le même fichier.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

shutil.copymode(src, dst, *, follow_symlinks=True)

Copy the permission bits from src to dst. The file contents, owner, and group are unaffected. src and dst are path-like objects or path names given as strings. If follow_symlinks is false, and both src and dst are symbolic links, copymode() will attempt to modify the mode of dst itself (rather than the file it points to). This functionality is not available on every platform; please see copystat() for more information. If copymode() cannot modify symbolic links on the local platform, and it is asked to do so, it will do nothing and return.

Lève un événement d’audit shutil.copymode avec les arguments src, dst.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: L'argument follow_symlinks a été ajouté.

shutil.copystat(src, dst, *, follow_symlinks=True)

Copy the permission bits, last access time, last modification time, and flags from src to dst. On Linux, copystat() also copies the "extended attributes" where possible. The file contents, owner, and group are unaffected. src and dst are path-like objects or path names given as strings.

Si follow_symlinks est faux et src et dst représentent des liens symboliques, copystat() agit sur les liens symboliques au lieu des fichiers cibles — elle lit les informations du lien symbolique de src et les écrit vers la destination pointée par dst.

Note

Toutes les plateformes n'offrent pas la possibilité d'examiner et modifier les liens symboliques. Python peut vous informer des fonctionnalités effectivement disponibles.

Si os.chmod in os.supports_follow_symlinks est True, copystat() peut modifier les octets de droits d'accès du lien symbolique.

If os.utime in os.supports_follow_symlinks is True, copystat() can modify the last access and modification times of a symbolic link.

If os.chflags in os.supports_follow_symlinks is True, copystat() can modify the flags of a symbolic link. (os.chflags is not available on all platforms.)

On platforms where some or all of this functionality is unavailable, when asked to modify a symbolic link, copystat() will copy everything it can. copystat() never returns failure.

Please see os.supports_follow_symlinks for more information.

Raises an auditing event shutil.copystat with arguments src, dst.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Added follow_symlinks argument and support for Linux extended attributes.

shutil.copy(src, dst, *, follow_symlinks=True)

Copies the file src to the file or directory dst. src and dst should be path-like objects or strings. If dst specifies a directory, the file will be copied into dst using the base filename from src. If dst specifies a file that already exists, it will be replaced. Returns the path to the newly created file.

If follow_symlinks is false, and src is a symbolic link, dst will be created as a symbolic link. If follow_symlinks is true and src is a symbolic link, dst will be a copy of the file src refers to.

copy() copies the file data and the file's permission mode (see os.chmod()). Other metadata, like the file's creation and modification times, is not preserved. To preserve all file metadata from the original, use copy2() instead.

Lève un événement d’audit shutil.copyfile avec les arguments src, dst.

Lève un événement d’audit shutil.copymode avec les arguments src, dst.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Added follow_symlinks argument. Now returns path to the newly created file.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Les appels système de copie rapide spécifiques à la plate-forme peuvent être utilisés en interne afin de copier le fichier plus efficacement. Voir la section Platform-dependent efficient copy operations.

shutil.copy2(src, dst, *, follow_symlinks=True)

Identical to copy() except that copy2() also attempts to preserve file metadata.

When follow_symlinks is false, and src is a symbolic link, copy2() attempts to copy all metadata from the src symbolic link to the newly created dst symbolic link. However, this functionality is not available on all platforms. On platforms where some or all of this functionality is unavailable, copy2() will preserve all the metadata it can; copy2() never raises an exception because it cannot preserve file metadata.

copy2() uses copystat() to copy the file metadata. Please see copystat() for more information about platform support for modifying symbolic link metadata.

Lève un événement d’audit shutil.copyfile avec les arguments src, dst.

Raises an auditing event shutil.copystat with arguments src, dst.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Added follow_symlinks argument, try to copy extended file system attributes too (currently Linux only). Now returns path to the newly created file.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Les appels système de copie rapide spécifiques à la plate-forme peuvent être utilisés en interne afin de copier le fichier plus efficacement. Voir la section Platform-dependent efficient copy operations.

shutil.ignore_patterns(*patterns)

This factory function creates a function that can be used as a callable for copytree()'s ignore argument, ignoring files and directories that match one of the glob-style patterns provided. See the example below.

shutil.copytree(src, dst, symlinks=False, ignore=None, copy_function=copy2, ignore_dangling_symlinks=False, dirs_exist_ok=False)

Recursively copy an entire directory tree rooted at src to a directory named dst and return the destination directory. All intermediate directories needed to contain dst will also be created by default.

Permissions and times of directories are copied with copystat(), individual files are copied using copy2().

If symlinks is true, symbolic links in the source tree are represented as symbolic links in the new tree and the metadata of the original links will be copied as far as the platform allows; if false or omitted, the contents and metadata of the linked files are copied to the new tree.

When symlinks is false, if the file pointed to by the symlink doesn't exist, an exception will be added in the list of errors raised in an Error exception at the end of the copy process. You can set the optional ignore_dangling_symlinks flag to true if you want to silence this exception. Notice that this option has no effect on platforms that don't support os.symlink().

If ignore is given, it must be a callable that will receive as its arguments the directory being visited by copytree(), and a list of its contents, as returned by os.listdir(). Since copytree() is called recursively, the ignore callable will be called once for each directory that is copied. The callable must return a sequence of directory and file names relative to the current directory (i.e. a subset of the items in its second argument); these names will then be ignored in the copy process. ignore_patterns() can be used to create such a callable that ignores names based on glob-style patterns.

If exception(s) occur, an Error is raised with a list of reasons.

If copy_function is given, it must be a callable that will be used to copy each file. It will be called with the source path and the destination path as arguments. By default, copy2() is used, but any function that supports the same signature (like copy()) can be used.

If dirs_exist_ok is false (the default) and dst already exists, a FileExistsError is raised. If dirs_exist_ok is true, the copying operation will continue if it encounters existing directories, and files within the dst tree will be overwritten by corresponding files from the src tree.

Raises an auditing event shutil.copytree with arguments src, dst.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Added the copy_function argument to be able to provide a custom copy function. Added the ignore_dangling_symlinks argument to silence dangling symlinks errors when symlinks is false.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Copy metadata when symlinks is false. Now returns dst.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Les appels système de copie rapide spécifiques à la plate-forme peuvent être utilisés en interne afin de copier le fichier plus efficacement. Voir la section Platform-dependent efficient copy operations.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added the dirs_exist_ok parameter.

shutil.rmtree(path, ignore_errors=False, onerror=None, *, onexc=None, dir_fd=None)

Delete an entire directory tree; path must point to a directory (but not a symbolic link to a directory). If ignore_errors is true, errors resulting from failed removals will be ignored; if false or omitted, such errors are handled by calling a handler specified by onexc or onerror or, if both are omitted, exceptions are propagated to the caller.

Cette fonction prend en charge des chemins relatifs à des descripteurs de répertories.

Note

On platforms that support the necessary fd-based functions a symlink attack resistant version of rmtree() is used by default. On other platforms, the rmtree() implementation is susceptible to a symlink attack: given proper timing and circumstances, attackers can manipulate symlinks on the filesystem to delete files they wouldn't be able to access otherwise. Applications can use the rmtree.avoids_symlink_attacks function attribute to determine which case applies.

If onexc is provided, it must be a callable that accepts three parameters: function, path, and excinfo.

The first parameter, function, is the function which raised the exception; it depends on the platform and implementation. The second parameter, path, will be the path name passed to function. The third parameter, excinfo, is the exception that was raised. Exceptions raised by onexc will not be caught.

The deprecated onerror is similar to onexc, except that the third parameter it receives is the tuple returned from sys.exc_info().

Voir aussi

rmtree example for an example of handling the removal of a directory tree that contains read-only files.

Raises an auditing event shutil.rmtree with arguments path, dir_fd.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Added a symlink attack resistant version that is used automatically if platform supports fd-based functions.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: On Windows, will no longer delete the contents of a directory junction before removing the junction.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added the dir_fd parameter.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added the onexc parameter, deprecated onerror.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: rmtree() now ignores FileNotFoundError exceptions for all but the top-level path. Exceptions other than OSError and subclasses of OSError are now always propagated to the caller.

rmtree.avoids_symlink_attacks

Indicates whether the current platform and implementation provides a symlink attack resistant version of rmtree(). Currently this is only true for platforms supporting fd-based directory access functions.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

shutil.move(src, dst, copy_function=copy2)

Recursively move a file or directory (src) to another location and return the destination.

If dst is an existing directory or a symlink to a directory, then src is moved inside that directory. The destination path in that directory must not already exist.

If dst already exists but is not a directory, it may be overwritten depending on os.rename() semantics.

If the destination is on the current filesystem, then os.rename() is used. Otherwise, src is copied to the destination using copy_function and then removed. In case of symlinks, a new symlink pointing to the target of src will be created as the destination and src will be removed.

If copy_function is given, it must be a callable that takes two arguments, src and the destination, and will be used to copy src to the destination if os.rename() cannot be used. If the source is a directory, copytree() is called, passing it the copy_function. The default copy_function is copy2(). Using copy() as the copy_function allows the move to succeed when it is not possible to also copy the metadata, at the expense of not copying any of the metadata.

Raises an auditing event shutil.move with arguments src, dst.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Added explicit symlink handling for foreign filesystems, thus adapting it to the behavior of GNU's mv. Now returns dst.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Added the copy_function keyword argument.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Les appels système de copie rapide spécifiques à la plate-forme peuvent être utilisés en interne afin de copier le fichier plus efficacement. Voir la section Platform-dependent efficient copy operations.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Accepts a path-like object for both src and dst.

shutil.disk_usage(path)

Return disk usage statistics about the given path as a named tuple with the attributes total, used and free, which are the amount of total, used and free space, in bytes. path may be a file or a directory.

Note

On Unix filesystems, path must point to a path within a mounted filesystem partition. On those platforms, CPython doesn't attempt to retrieve disk usage information from non-mounted filesystems.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: On Windows, path can now be a file or directory.

Disponibilité: Unix, Windows.

shutil.chown(path, user=None, group=None, *, dir_fd=None, follow_symlinks=True)

Change owner user and/or group of the given path.

user can be a system user name or a uid; the same applies to group. At least one argument is required.

See also os.chown(), the underlying function.

Raises an auditing event shutil.chown with arguments path, user, group.

Disponibilité: Unix.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added dir_fd and follow_symlinks parameters.

shutil.which(cmd, mode=os.F_OK | os.X_OK, path=None)

Return the path to an executable which would be run if the given cmd was called. If no cmd would be called, return None.

mode is a permission mask passed to os.access(), by default determining if the file exists and is executable.

path is a "PATH string" specifying the directories to look in, delimited by os.pathsep. When no path is specified, the PATH environment variable is read from os.environ, falling back to os.defpath if it is not set.

If cmd contains a directory component, which() only checks the specified path directly and does not search the directories listed in path or in the system's PATH environment variable.

On Windows, the current directory is prepended to the path if mode does not include os.X_OK. When the mode does include os.X_OK, the Windows API NeedCurrentDirectoryForExePathW will be consulted to determine if the current directory should be prepended to path. To avoid consulting the current working directory for executables: set the environment variable NoDefaultCurrentDirectoryInExePath.

Also on Windows, the PATHEXT environment variable is used to resolve commands that may not already include an extension. For example, if you call shutil.which("python"), which() will search PATHEXT to know that it should look for python.exe within the path directories. For example, on Windows:

>>> shutil.which("python")
'C:\\Python33\\python.EXE'

This is also applied when cmd is a path that contains a directory component:

>>> shutil.which("C:\\Python33\\python")
'C:\\Python33\\python.EXE'

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: The bytes type is now accepted. If cmd type is bytes, the result type is also bytes.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: On Windows, the current directory is no longer prepended to the search path if mode includes os.X_OK and WinAPI NeedCurrentDirectoryForExePathW(cmd) is false, else the current directory is prepended even if it is already in the search path; PATHEXT is used now even when cmd includes a directory component or ends with an extension that is in PATHEXT; and filenames that have no extension can now be found.

exception shutil.Error

This exception collects exceptions that are raised during a multi-file operation. For copytree(), the exception argument is a list of 3-tuples (srcname, dstname, exception).

Platform-dependent efficient copy operations

Starting from Python 3.8, all functions involving a file copy (copyfile(), copy(), copy2(), copytree(), and move()) may use platform-specific "fast-copy" syscalls in order to copy the file more efficiently (see bpo-33671 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33671]). "fast-copy" means that the copying operation occurs within the kernel, avoiding the use of userspace buffers in Python as in "outfd.write(infd.read())".

On macOS fcopyfile [http://www.manpagez.com/man/3/copyfile/] is used to copy the file content (not metadata).

On Linux os.copy_file_range() or os.sendfile() is used.

On Solaris os.sendfile() is used.

On Windows shutil.copyfile() uses a bigger default buffer size (1 MiB instead of 64 KiB) and a memoryview()-based variant of shutil.copyfileobj() is used.

If the fast-copy operation fails and no data was written in the destination file then shutil will silently fall back to less efficient copyfileobj() function internally.

Modifié dans la version 3.8.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Solaris now uses os.sendfile().

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Copy-on-write or server-side copy may be used internally via os.copy_file_range() on supported Linux filesystems.

copytree example

An example that uses the ignore_patterns() helper:

from shutil import copytree, ignore_patterns

copytree(source, destination, ignore=ignore_patterns('*.pyc', 'tmp*'))

This will copy everything except .pyc files and files or directories whose name starts with tmp.

Another example that uses the ignore argument to add a logging call:

from shutil import copytree
import logging

def _logpath(path, names):
    logging.info('Working in %s', path)
    return []   # nothing will be ignored

copytree(source, destination, ignore=_logpath)

rmtree example

This example shows how to remove a directory tree on Windows where some of the files have their read-only bit set. It uses the onexc callback to clear the readonly bit and reattempt the remove. Any subsequent failure will propagate.

import os, stat
import shutil

def remove_readonly(func, path, _):
    "Clear the readonly bit and reattempt the removal"
    os.chmod(path, stat.S_IWRITE)
    func(path)

shutil.rmtree(directory, onexc=remove_readonly)

Archiving operations

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Added support for the xztar format.

High-level utilities to create and read compressed and archived files are also provided. They rely on the zipfile and tarfile modules.

shutil.make_archive(base_name, format[, root_dir[, base_dir[, verbose[, dry_run[, owner[, group[, logger]]]]]]])

Create an archive file (such as zip or tar) and return its name.

base_name is the name of the file to create, including the path, minus any format-specific extension.

format is the archive format: one of "zip" (if the zlib module is available), "tar", "gztar" (if the zlib module is available), "bztar" (if the bz2 module is available), "xztar" (if the lzma module is available), or "zstdtar" (if the compression.zstd module is available).

root_dir is a directory that will be the root directory of the archive, all paths in the archive will be relative to it; for example, we typically chdir into root_dir before creating the archive.

base_dir is the directory where we start archiving from; i.e. base_dir will be the common prefix of all files and directories in the archive. base_dir must be given relative to root_dir. See Archiving example with base_dir for how to use base_dir and root_dir together.

root_dir and base_dir both default to the current directory.

If dry_run is true, no archive is created, but the operations that would be executed are logged to logger.

owner and group are used when creating a tar archive. By default, uses the current owner and group.

logger must be an object compatible with PEP 282 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0282/], usually an instance of logging.Logger.

The verbose argument is unused and deprecated.

Raises an auditing event shutil.make_archive with arguments base_name, format, root_dir, base_dir.

Note

This function is not thread-safe when custom archivers registered with register_archive_format() do not support the root_dir argument. In this case it temporarily changes the current working directory of the process to root_dir to perform archiving.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: The modern pax (POSIX.1-2001) format is now used instead of the legacy GNU format for archives created with format="tar".

Modifié dans la version 3.10.6: This function is now made thread-safe during creation of standard .zip and tar archives.

shutil.get_archive_formats()

Return a list of supported formats for archiving. Each element of the returned sequence is a tuple (name, description).

By default shutil provides these formats:

zip: ZIP file (if the zlib module is available).

tar: Uncompressed tar file. Uses POSIX.1-2001 pax format for new archives.

gztar: gzip'ed tar-file (if the zlib module is available).

bztar: bzip2'ed tar-file (if the bz2 module is available).

xztar: xz'ed tar-file (if the lzma module is available).

zstdtar: Zstandard compressed tar-file (if the compression.zstd module is available).

You can register new formats or provide your own archiver for any existing formats, by using register_archive_format().

shutil.register_archive_format(name, function[, extra_args[, description]])

Register an archiver for the format name.

function is the callable that will be used to unpack archives. The callable will receive the base_name of the file to create, followed by the base_dir (which defaults to os.curdir) to start archiving from. Further arguments are passed as keyword arguments: owner, group, dry_run and logger (as passed in make_archive()).

If function has the custom attribute function.supports_root_dir set to True, the root_dir argument is passed as a keyword argument. Otherwise the current working directory of the process is temporarily changed to root_dir before calling function. In this case make_archive() is not thread-safe.

If given, extra_args is a sequence of (name, value) pairs that will be used as extra keywords arguments when the archiver callable is used.

description is used by get_archive_formats() which returns the list of archivers. Defaults to an empty string.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added support for functions supporting the root_dir argument.

shutil.unregister_archive_format(name)

Remove the archive format name from the list of supported formats.

shutil.unpack_archive(filename[, extract_dir[, format[, filter]]])

Unpack an archive. filename is the full path of the archive.

extract_dir is the name of the target directory where the archive is unpacked. If not provided, the current working directory is used.

format is the archive format: one of "zip", "tar", "gztar", "bztar", "xztar", or "zstdtar". Or any other format registered with register_unpack_format(). If not provided, unpack_archive() will use the archive file name extension and see if an unpacker was registered for that extension. In case none is found, a ValueError is raised.

The keyword-only filter argument is passed to the underlying unpacking function. For zip files, filter is not accepted. For tar files, it is recommended to use 'data' (default since Python 3.14), unless using features specific to tar and UNIX-like filesystems. (See Extraction filters for details.)

Raises an auditing event shutil.unpack_archive with arguments filename, extract_dir, format.

Avertissement

Never extract archives from untrusted sources without prior inspection. It is possible that files are created outside of the path specified in the extract_dir argument, e.g. members that have absolute filenames starting with "/" or filenames with two dots "..".

Since Python 3.14, the defaults for both built-in formats (zip and tar files) will prevent the most dangerous of such security issues, but will not prevent all unintended behavior. Read the Hints for further verification section for tar-specific details.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Accepts a path-like object for filename and extract_dir.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added the filter argument.

shutil.register_unpack_format(name, extensions, function[, extra_args[, description]])

Registers an unpack format. name is the name of the format and extensions is a list of extensions corresponding to the format, like .zip for Zip files.

function is the callable that will be used to unpack archives. The callable will receive:

the path of the archive, as a positional argument;

the directory the archive must be extracted to, as a positional argument;

possibly a filter keyword argument, if it was given to unpack_archive();

additional keyword arguments, specified by extra_args as a sequence of (name, value) tuples.

description can be provided to describe the format, and will be returned by the get_unpack_formats() function.

shutil.unregister_unpack_format(name)

Unregister an unpack format. name is the name of the format.

shutil.get_unpack_formats()

Return a list of all registered formats for unpacking. Each element of the returned sequence is a tuple (name, extensions, description).

By default shutil provides these formats:

zip: ZIP file (unpacking compressed files works only if the corresponding module is available).

tar: uncompressed tar file.

gztar: gzip'ed tar-file (if the zlib module is available).

bztar: bzip2'ed tar-file (if the bz2 module is available).

xztar: xz'ed tar-file (if the lzma module is available).

zstdtar: Zstandard compressed tar-file (if the compression.zstd module is available).

You can register new formats or provide your own unpacker for any existing formats, by using register_unpack_format().

Archiving example

In this example, we create a gzip'ed tar-file archive containing all files found in the .ssh directory of the user:

>>> from shutil import make_archive
>>> import os
>>> archive_name = os.path.expanduser(os.path.join('~', 'myarchive'))
>>> root_dir = os.path.expanduser(os.path.join('~', '.ssh'))
>>> make_archive(archive_name, 'gztar', root_dir)
'/Users/tarek/myarchive.tar.gz'

The resulting archive contains:

$ tar -tzvf /Users/tarek/myarchive.tar.gz
drwx------ tarek/staff       0 2010-02-01 16:23:40 ./
-rw-r--r-- tarek/staff     609 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./authorized_keys
-rwxr-xr-x tarek/staff      65 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./config
-rwx------ tarek/staff     668 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./id_dsa
-rwxr-xr-x tarek/staff     609 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./id_dsa.pub
-rw------- tarek/staff    1675 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./id_rsa
-rw-r--r-- tarek/staff     397 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./id_rsa.pub
-rw-r--r-- tarek/staff   37192 2010-02-06 18:23:10 ./known_hosts

Archiving example with base_dir

In this example, similar to the one above, we show how to use make_archive(), but this time with the usage of base_dir. We now have the following directory structure:

$ tree tmp
tmp
└── root
    └── structure
        ├── content
            └── please_add.txt
        └── do_not_add.txt

In the final archive, please_add.txt should be included, but do_not_add.txt should not. Therefore we use the following:

>>> from shutil import make_archive
>>> import os
>>> archive_name = os.path.expanduser(os.path.join('~', 'myarchive'))
>>> make_archive(
...     archive_name,
...     'tar',
...     root_dir='tmp/root',
...     base_dir='structure/content',
... )
'/Users/tarek/myarchive.tar'

Listing the files in the resulting archive gives us:

$ python -m tarfile -l /Users/tarek/myarchive.tar
structure/content/
structure/content/please_add.txt

Querying the size of the output terminal

shutil.get_terminal_size(fallback=(columns, lines))

Get the size of the terminal window.

For each of the two dimensions, the environment variable, COLUMNS and LINES respectively, is checked. If the variable is defined and the value is a positive integer, it is used.

When COLUMNS or LINES is not defined, which is the common case, the terminal connected to sys.__stdout__ is queried by invoking os.get_terminal_size().

If the terminal size cannot be successfully queried, either because the system doesn't support querying, or because we are not connected to a terminal, the value given in fallback parameter is used. fallback defaults to (80, 24) which is the default size used by many terminal emulators.

The value returned is a named tuple of type os.terminal_size.

See also: The Single UNIX Specification, Version 2, Other Environment Variables [https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/7908799/xbd/envvar.html#tag_002_003].

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: The fallback values are also used if os.get_terminal_size() returns zeroes.

Persistance des données

Les modules décrits dans ce chapitre permettent de stocker des données Python de manière persistante typiquement sur disque. Les modules pickle et marshal peuvent transformer n'importe quel type Python en une séquence d'octets, puis recréer les objets depuis ces octets. Les différents modules du paquet dbm gèrent une catégorie de formats de fichier basée sur des hach, stockant des correspondances entre chaînes de caractères.

La liste des modules documentés dans ce chapitre est :

pickle --- Python object serialization

Relations aux autres modules Python

Comparaison avec marshal

Comparaison avec json

Format du flux de données

Interface du module

Quels objets sont sérialisables ?

Sérialisation des instances d'une classe

Persistance d'objets externes

Tables de distribution

Traitement des objets à état

Réduction personnalisée pour les types, fonctions et autres objets

Tampons hors-bande

API des producteurs

API des consommateurs

Exemple

Restriction des noms dans l'espace de nommage global

Performances

Exemples

Command-line interface

copyreg --- Register pickle support functions

Exemple

shelve --- Python object persistence

Limites

Exemple

marshal --- Internal Python object serialization

dbm --- Interfaces to Unix "databases"

dbm.sqlite3 --- SQLite backend for dbm

dbm.gnu --- GNU database manager

dbm.ndbm --- New Database Manager

dbm.dumb --- Portable DBM implementation

sqlite3 — Interface DB-API 2.0 pour bases de données SQLite

Tutoriel

Références

Fonctions du module

Fonctions et constantes du module

Connection objects

Cursor objects

Row objects

Blob objects

PrepareProtocol objects

Exceptions

SQLite and Python types

Default adapters and converters (deprecated)

Command-line interface

How-to guides

How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries

How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values

How to write adaptable objects

How to register adapter callables

How to convert SQLite values to custom Python types

Adapter and converter recipes

How to use connection shortcut methods

How to use the connection context manager

How to work with SQLite URIs

How to create and use row factories

How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings

Explanation

Transaction control

Transaction control via the autocommit attribute

Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute

pickle --- Python object serialization

Code source : Lib/pickle.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/pickle.py]

The pickle module implements binary protocols for serializing and de-serializing a Python object structure. "Pickling" is the process whereby a Python object hierarchy is converted into a byte stream, and "unpickling" is the inverse operation, whereby a byte stream (from a binary file or bytes-like object) is converted back into an object hierarchy. Pickling (and unpickling) is alternatively known as "serialization", "marshalling," [1] or "flattening"; however, to avoid confusion, the terms used here are "pickling" and "unpickling".

Avertissement

Le module pickle n'est pas sécurisé. Ne désérialisez des objets qu'à partir de sources fiables.

Il est possible de produire des données binaires qui exécutent du code arbitraire lors de leur désérialisation. Ne désérialisez jamais des données provenant d'une source non fiable, ou qui pourraient avoir été modifiées.

Pensez au module hmac pour signer des données afin de s'assurer qu'elles n'ont pas été modifiées.

Des formats de sérialisation plus sûrs, comme json, peuvent se révéler plus adaptés si vous travaillez sur des données qui ne sont pas fiables. Voir Comparaison avec json.

Relations aux autres modules Python

Comparaison avec marshal

Python has a more primitive serialization module called marshal, but in general pickle should always be the preferred way to serialize Python objects. marshal exists primarily to support Python's .pyc files.

The pickle module differs from marshal in several significant ways:

marshal cannot be used to serialize user-defined classes and their instances. pickle can save and restore class instances transparently, however the class definition must be importable and live in the same module as when the object was stored.

The marshal serialization format is not guaranteed to be portable across Python versions. Because its primary job in life is to support .pyc files, the Python implementers reserve the right to change the serialization format in non-backwards compatible ways should the need arise. The pickle serialization format is guaranteed to be backwards compatible across Python releases provided a compatible pickle protocol is chosen and pickling and unpickling code deals with Python 2 to Python 3 type differences if your data is crossing that unique breaking change language boundary.

Comparaison avec json

There are fundamental differences between the pickle protocols and JSON (JavaScript Object Notation) [https://json.org]:

pickle est un format binaire, tandis que JSON est un format textuel (constitué de caractères Unicode et généralement encodé en UTF-8) ;

JSON peut être lu par une personne, contrairement à pickle ;

JSON offre l'interopérabilité avec de nombreux outils en dehors de l'écosystème Python, alors que pickle est propre à Python ;

Par défaut, JSON n'est capable de sérialiser qu'un nombre limité de types natifs Python, et ne prend pas en charge les classes définies par l'utilisateur. Le format pickle peut représenter une multitude de types d'objets, dont beaucoup automatiquement, grâce à une utilisation fine des possibilités d'introspection de Python ; on peut traiter les cas les plus complexes en implémentant des méthodes de sérialisation propres à une classe ;

Contrairement à pickle, la désérialisation de données JSON n'ouvre pas en soi une vulnérabilité à l'exécution de code arbitraire.

Voir aussi

Le module json de la bibliothèque standard permet la sérialisation et désérialisation au format JSON.

Format du flux de données

The data format used by pickle is Python-specific. This has the advantage that there are no restrictions imposed by external standards such as JSON (which can't represent pointer sharing); however it means that non-Python programs may not be able to reconstruct pickled Python objects.

By default, the pickle data format uses a relatively compact binary representation. If you need optimal size characteristics, you can efficiently compress pickled data.

The module pickletools contains tools for analyzing data streams generated by pickle. pickletools source code has extensive comments about opcodes used by pickle protocols.

Il existe actuellement 6 protocoles différents pour la sérialisation. Les protocoles portant les numéros les plus grands sont les derniers ajoutés, et nécessitent en conséquence des versions de Python plus récentes.

Le protocole 0 est le format originel, humainement lisible. Il est rétrocompatible avec les versions les plus anciennes de Python.

Le protocole 1 est un ancien format binaire, aussi compatible avec les versions anciennes.

Protocol version 2 was introduced in Python 2.3. It provides much more efficient pickling of new-style classes. Refer to PEP 307 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0307/] for information about improvements brought by protocol 2.

Le protocole 3 a été introduit en Python 3.0. Il gère les objets bytes, et ne permet pas la désérialisation par Python 2.x. Il fut le protocole par défaut de Python 3.0 à Python 3.7.

Protocol version 4 was added in Python 3.4. It adds support for very large objects, pickling more kinds of objects, and some data format optimizations. This was the default protocol in Python 3.8--3.13. Refer to PEP 3154 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3154/] for information about improvements brought by protocol 4.

Protocol version 5 was added in Python 3.8. It adds support for out-of-band data and speedup for in-band data. It is the default protocol starting with Python 3.14. Refer to PEP 574 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0574/] for information about improvements brought by protocol 5.

Note

Serialization is a more primitive notion than persistence; although pickle reads and writes file objects, it does not handle the issue of naming persistent objects, nor the (even more complicated) issue of concurrent access to persistent objects. The pickle module can transform a complex object into a byte stream and it can transform the byte stream into an object with the same internal structure. Perhaps the most obvious thing to do with these byte streams is to write them onto a file, but it is also conceivable to send them across a network or store them in a database. The shelve module provides a simple interface to pickle and unpickle objects on DBM-style database files.

Interface du module

Pour sérialiser un objet, contenant éventuellement d'autres objets, appelez tout simplement la fonction dumps(). La fonction loads(), quant à elle, désérialise un flux de données. Pour un contrôle plus fin des opérations de sérialisation ou désérialisation, créez un objet Pickler ou Unpickler.

The pickle module provides the following constants:

pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL

Entier qui donne la version du protocole le plus récent qui soit disponible. Ce nombre peut être passé comme paramètre protocol aux fonctions dump() et dumps() ainsi qu'au constructeur de la classe Pickler.

pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL

An integer, the default protocol version used for pickling. May be less than HIGHEST_PROTOCOL. Currently the default protocol is 5, introduced in Python 3.8 and incompatible with previous versions. This version introduces support for out-of-band buffers, where PEP 3118 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/]-compatible data can be transmitted separately from the main pickle stream.

Modifié dans la version 3.0: Le protocole par défaut est devenu le protocole 3.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Le protocole par défaut est devenu le protocole 4.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: The default protocol is 5.

The pickle module provides the following functions to make the pickling process more convenient:

pickle.dump(obj, file, protocol=None, *, fix_imports=True, buffer_callback=None)

Écrit la représentation sérialisée de l'objet obj dans l'objet fichier-compatible file, qui doit être ouvert. Ceci est l'équivalent de Pickle(file, protocol).dump(obj).

Les arguments file, protocol, fix_imports et buffer_callback sont identiques à ceux du constructeur de la classe Pickler.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: ajout de l'argument buffer_callback.

pickle.dumps(obj, protocol=None, *, fix_imports=True, buffer_callback=None)

Renvoie la représentation sérialisée de obj sous forme de bytes, au lieu de l'écrire dans un fichier.

Les arguments protocol, fix_imports et buffer_callback sont identiques à ceux du constructeur de la classe Pickler.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: ajout de l'argument buffer_callback.

pickle.load(file, *, fix_imports=True, encoding='ASCII', errors='strict', buffers=None)

Charge la représentation sérialisée d'un objet depuis l'objet fichier-compatible ouvert file, et renvoie l'objet reconstitué obtenu. Ceci est l'équivalent de Unpickler(file).load().

La version du protocole utilisée pour la sérialisation est détectée automatiquement, d'où l'absence d'un argument. Les octets situés après la représentation sérialisée de l'objet sont ignorés.

Les arguments file, fix_imports, encoding, errors, strict et buffers sont identiques à ceux du constructeur de la classe Unpickler.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Ajout de l'argument buffers.

pickle.loads(data, /, *, fix_imports=True, encoding='ASCII', errors='strict', buffers=None)

Renvoie l'objet reconstitué à partir de la représentation sérialisée data, qui doit être fournie sous la forme d'un bytes-like object.

La version du protocole utilisée pour la sérialisation est détectée automatiquement, d'où l'absence d'un argument. Les octets situés après la représentation sérialisée de l'objet sont ignorés.

Arguments fix_imports, encoding, errors, strict and buffers have the same meaning as in the Unpickler constructor.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Ajout de l'argument buffers.

The pickle module defines three exceptions:

exception pickle.PickleError

Common base class for the other pickling exceptions. It inherits from Exception.

exception pickle.PicklingError

Error raised when an unpicklable object is encountered by Pickler. It inherits from PickleError.

Lisez Quels objets sont sérialisables ? pour en savoir plus sur les types d'objets qui peuvent être sérialisés.

exception pickle.UnpicklingError

Error raised when there is a problem unpickling an object, such as a data corruption or a security violation. It inherits from PickleError.

Veuillez noter que d'autres exceptions peuvent être levées durant la désérialisation, comme AttributeError, EOFError, ImportError et IndexError (liste non-exhaustive).

The pickle module exports three classes, Pickler, Unpickler and PickleBuffer:

class pickle.Pickler(file, protocol=None, *, fix_imports=True, buffer_callback=None)

Classe d'objets qui implémentent la sérialisation vers un flux binaire.

L'argument optionnel protocol détermine la version du protocole de sérialisation à employer, entre 0 et HIGHEST_PROTOCOL. La valeur par défaut est celle de DEFAULT_PROTOCOL. Avec un nombre strictement négatif, c'est HIGHEST_PROTOCOL qui est utilisé.

L'argument file peut être un fichier sur disque ouvert en mode binaire pour l'écriture, une instance de la classe io.BytesIO, ou plus généralement un objet quelconque qui possède une méthode write() acceptant d'être appelée sur un argument unique de type bytes.

Si fix_imports est vrai et protocol est inférieur ou égal à 2, les noms des modules sont reliés par pickle aux anciens noms qui avaient cours en Python 2, afin que le flux sérialisé soit lisible aussi bien par Python 2 que Python 3.

If buffer_callback is None (the default), buffer views are serialized into file as part of the pickle stream.

If buffer_callback is not None, then it can be called any number of times with a buffer view. If the callback returns a false value (such as None), the given buffer is out-of-band; otherwise the buffer is serialized in-band, i.e. inside the pickle stream.

It is an error if buffer_callback is not None and protocol is None or smaller than 5.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: ajout de l'argument buffer_callback.

dump(obj)

Écrit la représentation sérialisée de l'objet obj dans le fichier ouvert passé au constructeur.

persistent_id(obj)

Ne fait rien par défaut. Cette méthode est destinée à être implémentée par une classe fille.

Si persistent_id() renvoie None, obj est sérialisé normalement. Toute autre valeur est reprise par le Pickler comme ID persistant pour obj. Le sens de cet ID persistant doit être défini par Unpickler.persistent_load(). Veuillez noter que la valeur renvoyée par persistent_id() ne peut pas porter elle-même d'ID persistant.

La section Persistance d'objets externes donne des détails et exemples.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Add the default implementation of this method in the C implementation of Pickler.

dispatch_table

A pickler object's dispatch table is a registry of reduction functions of the kind which can be declared using copyreg.pickle(). It is a mapping whose keys are classes and whose values are reduction functions. A reduction function takes a single argument of the associated class and should conform to the same interface as a __reduce__() method.

Lorsqu'un sérialiseur ne possède pas l'attribut dispatch_table, comme c'est le cas par défaut, il utilise le tableau global du module copyreg. Afin de personnaliser l'opération de sérialisation pour un sérialiseur particulier, on peut affecter à son attribut dispatch_table un objet compatible avec les dictionnaires. Une autre possibilité est de définir l'attribut dispatch_table dans une classe fille de Pickler. Sa valeur sera alors utilisée pour toutes les instances de cette classe fille.

Voir Tables de distribution pour des exemples d'utilisation.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

reducer_override(obj)

Special reducer that can be defined in Pickler subclasses. This method has priority over any reducer in the dispatch_table. It should conform to the same interface as a __reduce__() method, and can optionally return NotImplemented to fallback on dispatch_table-registered reducers to pickle obj.

Voir Réduction personnalisée pour les types, fonctions et autres objets pour un exemple détaillé.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

fast

Cet attribut est obsolète. Une valeur vraie (« mode rapide ») désactive la mémorisation des objets au fur et à mesure de leur sérialisation, qui permet habituellement de représenter les doublons par une unique référence. Cette option accélère la sérialisation en évitant des opcodes PUT superflus. Elle ne doit pas être utilisée sur un objet contenant une référence à lui-même, car le Pickler entre alors dans une récursion infinie.

Utilisez plutôt pickletools.optimize() pour obtenir des données sérialisées plus compactes.

clear_memo()

Clears the pickler's "memo".

The memo is the data structure that remembers which objects the pickler has already seen, so that shared or recursive objects are pickled by reference and not by value. This method is useful when re-using picklers.

class pickle.Unpickler(file, *, fix_imports=True, encoding='ASCII', errors='strict', buffers=None)

Les objets de cette classe sont des désérialiseurs, qui lisent un flux de données pour le convertir en objet.

Il n'y a nul besoin d'argument protocol. La version du protocole avec lequel sont encodées les données est déterminée automatiquement.

L'argument file doit posséder trois méthodes qui proviennent de l'interface de io.BufferedIOBase. Ce sont : read(), prenant un entier, readinto(), prenant un tampon, et readline(), sans arguments. file peut donc être aussi bien un fichier sur disque ouvert en mode lecture binaire qu'un objet io.BytesIO, ou un objet quelconque vérifiant ces critères.

Les paramètres facultatifs fix_imports, encoding et errors sont dédiés à la compatibilité de la désérialisation avec les flux binaires générés par Python 2. Si fix_imports est vrai, pickle tente de modifier les anciens noms des modules que l'on trouve en Python 2, pour les remplacer par ceux en usage en Python 3. Les paramètres encoding et errors contrôlent la façon de décoder les chaînes de caractères 8 bits. Leurs valeurs par défaut respectives sont 'ASCII' et 'strict'. encoding peut être mis à 'bytes' pour lire des chaînes d'octets en tant que bytes. Il doit être mis à 'latin1' pour désérialiser des tableaux NumPy ou des instances de datetime, date et time sérialisées par Python 2.

If buffers is None (the default), then all data necessary for deserialization must be contained in the pickle stream. This means that the buffer_callback argument was None when a Pickler was instantiated (or when dump() or dumps() was called).

If buffers is not None, it should be an iterable of buffer-enabled objects that is consumed each time the pickle stream references an out-of-band buffer view. Such buffers have been given in order to the buffer_callback of a Pickler object.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Ajout de l'argument buffers.

load()

Lit la représentation sérialisée d'un objet depuis le fichier ouvert passé au constructeur, et reconstitue l'objet qui y est stocké, avec tous les objets qu'il contient. Les octets situés au-delà de la fin de la représentation binaire sont ignorés.

persistent_load(pid)

Par défaut, cette méthode lève une exception UnpicklingError.

Si elle est définie autrement dans une sous-classe, persistent_load() doit renvoyer l'objet correspondant à l'ID persistant pid. Si celui-ci est invalide, elle doit lever une exception UnpicklingError.

La section Persistance d'objets externes donne des détails et exemples.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Add the default implementation of this method in the C implementation of Unpickler.

find_class(module, name)

Importe module si besoin, et renvoie l'objet du nom name qu'il contient. module et name sont des chaînes de caractères (classe str). Contrairement à ce que son nom laisse penser, find_class() est également appelée pour trouver les fonctions.

Les classes filles peuvent redéfinir cette méthode pour restreindre la désérialisation à certains types d'objets ou à d'autres conditions, notamment en vue de réduire les risques de sécurité. Voir Restriction des noms dans l'espace de nommage global pour plus de détails.

Lève un événement d'audit pickle.find_class avec les arguments module et name.

class pickle.PickleBuffer(buffer)

Encapsule un objet tampon contenant des données sérialisables. buffer doit être un objet prenant en charge le protocole tampon, comme un objet octet-compatible ou un tableau n-dimensionnel.

Les objets PickleBuffer savent gérer le protocole tampon. Il est donc possible de les passer à d'autres API qui attendent un tampon, comme memoryview.

Les objets PickleBuffer ne peuvent être sérialisés qu'avec le protocole 5 ou supérieur. Ils sont susceptibles d'être sérialisés hors-bande.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

raw()

Renvoie une memoryview de l'espace mémoire sous-jacent à ce tampon. La memoryview renvoyée est unidimensionnelle et C-contiguë. Elle a le format B (octets sans signe). BufferError est levée si le tampon n'est ni C-contigu, ni Fortran-contigu.

release()

Release the underlying buffer exposed by the PickleBuffer object.

Quels objets sont sérialisables ?

Les objets des types suivants peuvent être sérialisés :

built-in constants (None, True, False, Ellipsis, and NotImplemented);

integers, floating-point numbers, complex numbers;

strings, bytes, bytearrays;

tuples, lists, sets, and dictionaries containing only picklable objects;

functions (built-in and user-defined) accessible from the top level of a module (using def, not lambda);

classes accessible from the top level of a module;

instances of such classes for which the result of calling __getstate__() is picklable (see section Sérialisation des instances d'une classe for details).

Si vous essayez de sérialiser un objet qui ne peut pas l'être, une exception de type PicklingError est levée. Lorsque cela se produit, il est possible qu'un certain nombre d'octets aient déjà été écrits dans le fichier ou flux. La sérialisation d'une structure de donnée avec de nombreux niveaux d'imbrication peut lever une exception RecursionError. Pour augmenter la limite (avec précaution), voir sys.setrecursionlimit().

Note that functions (built-in and user-defined) are pickled by fully qualified name, not by value. [2] This means that only the function name is pickled, along with the name of the containing module and classes. Neither the function's code, nor any of its function attributes are pickled. Thus the defining module must be importable in the unpickling environment, and the module must contain the named object, otherwise an exception will be raised. [3]

Similarly, classes are pickled by fully qualified name, so the same restrictions in the unpickling environment apply. Note that none of the class's code or data is pickled, so in the following example the class attribute attr is not restored in the unpickling environment:

class Foo:
    attr = 'A class attribute'

picklestring = pickle.dumps(Foo)

These restrictions are why picklable functions and classes must be defined at the top level of a module.

Similarly, when class instances are pickled, their class's code and data are not pickled along with them. Only the instance data are pickled. This is done on purpose, so you can fix bugs in a class or add methods to the class and still load objects that were created with an earlier version of the class. If you plan to have long-lived objects that will see many versions of a class, it may be worthwhile to put a version number in the objects so that suitable conversions can be made by the class's __setstate__() method.

Sérialisation des instances d'une classe

Dans cette section sont décrits les mécanismes généraux qui s'offrent à vous pour définir, personnaliser et contrôler la manière dont les instances d'une classe sont sérialisées et désérialisées.

In most cases, no additional code is needed to make instances picklable. By default, pickle will retrieve the class and the attributes of an instance via introspection. When a class instance is unpickled, its __init__() method is usually not invoked. The default behaviour first creates an uninitialized instance and then restores the saved attributes. The following code shows an implementation of this behaviour:

def save(obj):
    return (obj.__class__, obj.__dict__)

def restore(cls, attributes):
    obj = cls.__new__(cls)
    obj.__dict__.update(attributes)
    return obj

Les classes peuvent personnaliser le comportement par défaut en définissant des méthodes spéciales :

object.__getnewargs_ex__()

In protocols 2 and newer, classes that implement the __getnewargs_ex__() method can dictate the values passed to the __new__() method upon unpickling. The method must return a pair (args, kwargs) where args is a tuple of positional arguments and kwargs a dictionary of named arguments for constructing the object. Those will be passed to the __new__() method upon unpickling.

Définissez cette méthode seulement si la méthode __new__() de votre classe demande des arguments nommés. Dans le cas contraire, mieux vaut définir __getnewargs__() pour préserver la compatibilité avec les protocoles anciens.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: __getnewargs_ex__() est désormais appelée dans les protocoles 2 et 3.

object.__getnewargs__()

Comme __getnewargs_ex__(), mais ne permet que les arguments positionnels. Cette méthode doit renvoyer le n-uplet args des arguments passés à __new__() lors de la désérialisation : l'appel sera classe.__new__(*args).

Si __getnewargs_ex__() est définie, elle prend la priorité et __getnewargs__() n'est jamais appelée.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Auparavant, __getnewargs__() était appelée au lieu de __getnewargs_ex__() dans les protocoles 2 et 3.

object.__getstate__()

Classes can further influence how their instances are pickled by overriding the method __getstate__(). It is called and the returned object is pickled as the contents for the instance, instead of a default state. There are several cases:

For a class that has no instance __dict__ and no __slots__, the default state is None.

For a class that has an instance __dict__ and no __slots__, the default state is self.__dict__.

For a class that has an instance __dict__ and __slots__, the default state is a tuple consisting of two dictionaries: self.__dict__, and a dictionary mapping slot names to slot values. Only slots that have a value are included in the latter.

For a class that has __slots__ and no instance __dict__, the default state is a tuple whose first item is None and whose second item is a dictionary mapping slot names to slot values described in the previous bullet.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added the default implementation of the __getstate__() method in the object class.

object.__setstate__(state)

Lors de la désérialisation, l'état de l'instance est passé à la méthode __setstate__(), si elle est définie (l'objet state n'a pas besoin d'être un dictionnaire). Si elle ne l'est pas, les attributs de l'objet sont tirés de l'état, qui dans ce cas doit être obligatoirement un dictionnaire.

Note

If __reduce__() returns a state with value None at pickling, the __setstate__() method will not be called upon unpickling.

Refer to the section Traitement des objets à état for more information about how to use the methods __getstate__() and __setstate__().

Note

At unpickling time, some methods like __getattr__(), __getattribute__(), or __setattr__() may be called upon the instance. In case those methods rely on some internal invariant being true, the type should implement __new__() to establish such an invariant, as __init__() is not called when unpickling an instance.

As we shall see, pickle does not use directly the methods described above. In fact, these methods are part of the copy protocol which implements the __reduce__() special method. The copy protocol provides a unified interface for retrieving the data necessary for pickling and copying objects. [4]

Although powerful, implementing __reduce__() directly in your classes is error prone. For this reason, class designers should use the high-level interface (i.e., __getnewargs_ex__(), __getstate__() and __setstate__()) whenever possible. We will show, however, cases where using __reduce__() is the only option or leads to more efficient pickling or both.

object.__reduce__()

Voici l'interface de la méthode __reduce__(). Elle ne prend aucun argument et renvoie soit une chaîne de caractères, soit (c'est conseillé) un n-uplet. On appelle souvent l'objet renvoyé « valeur de réduction ».

If a string is returned, the string should be interpreted as the name of a global variable. It should be the object's local name relative to its module; the pickle module searches the module namespace to determine the object's module. This behaviour is typically useful for singletons.

Si c'est un n-uplet qui est renvoyé, ses éléments sont interprétés dans l'ordre comme suit. Les deux premiers éléments sont obligatoires, les quatre suivants sont facultatifs et peuvent être simplement omis, ou bien mis à None. Les éléments sont, dans l'ordre :

Un objet appelable qui sera appelé pour créer l'objet initial.

Un n-uplet d'arguments passés à cet objet appelable. Donnez un n-uplet vide si l'objet appelable n'accepte pas d'arguments.

L'état de l'objet, qui sera passé à la méthode __setstate__() comme vu précédemment. Si la méthode n'existe pas, cet élément doit être un dictionnaire, et ses éléments compléteront l'attribut __dict__.

Optionally, an iterator (and not a sequence) yielding successive items. These items will be appended to the object either using obj.append(item) or, in batch, using obj.extend(list_of_items). This is primarily used for list subclasses, but may be used by other classes as long as they have append() and extend() methods with the appropriate signature. (Whether append() or extend() is used depends on which pickle protocol version is used as well as the number of items to append, so both must be supported.)

Un itérateur (non pas une séquence). Les éléments qu'il fournit doivent être des couples (clé, valeur). Ils sont ajoutés dans l'objet par affectation aux clés : objet[clé] = valeur. Ceci est principalement utile aux classes héritant de dict, mais peut servir à d'autres classes à la seule condition qu'elles implémentent la méthode __setitem__().

Un objet appelable qui puisse recevoir en arguments l'objet et son état. Ceci permet de redéfinir le processus de reconstruction des attributs pour un objet en particulier, outrepassant la méthode __setstate__(). Si cet objet appelable est fourni, __setstate__() n'est pas appelée.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8: ajout du sixième élément.

object.__reduce_ex__(protocol)

Il est également possible de définir une méthode __reduce_ex__(). La seule différence est qu'elle prend la version du protocole en argument. Si elle est définie, elle prend le pas sur __reduce__(). De plus, __reduce__() devient automatiquement un alias pour sa version étendue. Cette méthode est principalement destinée à renvoyer des valeurs de réduction compatibles avec les versions anciennes de Python.

Persistance d'objets externes

For the benefit of object persistence, the pickle module supports the notion of a reference to an object outside the pickled data stream. Such objects are referenced by a persistent ID, which should be either a string of alphanumeric characters (for protocol 0) [5] or just an arbitrary object (for any newer protocol).

The resolution of such persistent IDs is not defined by the pickle module; it will delegate this resolution to the user-defined methods on the pickler and unpickler, persistent_id() and persistent_load() respectively.

Pour affecter à des objets leurs ID persistants provenant d'une source externe, le sérialiseur doit posséder une méthode persistent_id() qui prend un objet et renvoie soit None, soit son ID. Si cette méthode renvoie None, l'objet est sérialisé de la manière habituelle. Si un ID est renvoyé, sous forme de chaîne de caractères, c'est cette chaîne qui est sérialisée et elle est marquée de manière spéciale pour être reconnue comme un ID persistant.

Pour désérialiser des objets identifiés par un ID externe, un désérialiseur doit posséder une méthode persistent_load() qui prend un ID et renvoie l'objet qu'il désigne.

Voici un exemple complet qui montre comment sérialiser des objets externes en leur affectant des ID persistants.

# Simple example presenting how persistent ID can be used to pickle
# external objects by reference.

import pickle
import sqlite3
from collections import namedtuple

# Simple class representing a record in our database.
MemoRecord = namedtuple("MemoRecord", "key, task")

class DBPickler(pickle.Pickler):

    def persistent_id(self, obj):
        # Instead of pickling MemoRecord as a regular class instance, we emit a
        # persistent ID.
        if isinstance(obj, MemoRecord):
            # Here, our persistent ID is simply a tuple, containing a tag and a
            # key, which refers to a specific record in the database.
            return ("MemoRecord", obj.key)
        else:
            # If obj does not have a persistent ID, return None. This means obj
            # needs to be pickled as usual.
            return None

class DBUnpickler(pickle.Unpickler):

    def __init__(self, file, connection):
        super().__init__(file)
        self.connection = connection

    def persistent_load(self, pid):
        # This method is invoked whenever a persistent ID is encountered.
        # Here, pid is the tuple returned by DBPickler.
        cursor = self.connection.cursor()
        type_tag, key_id = pid
        if type_tag == "MemoRecord":
            # Fetch the referenced record from the database and return it.
            cursor.execute("SELECT * FROM memos WHERE key=?", (str(key_id),))
            key, task = cursor.fetchone()
            return MemoRecord(key, task)
        else:
            # Always raises an error if you cannot return the correct object.
            # Otherwise, the unpickler will think None is the object referenced
            # by the persistent ID.
            raise pickle.UnpicklingError("unsupported persistent object")

def main():
    import io
    import pprint

    # Initialize and populate our database.
    conn = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
    cursor = conn.cursor()
    cursor.execute("CREATE TABLE memos(key INTEGER PRIMARY KEY, task TEXT)")
    tasks = (
        'give food to fish',
        'prepare group meeting',
        'fight with a zebra',
        )
    for task in tasks:
        cursor.execute("INSERT INTO memos VALUES(NULL, ?)", (task,))

    # Fetch the records to be pickled.
    cursor.execute("SELECT * FROM memos")
    memos = [MemoRecord(key, task) for key, task in cursor]
    # Save the records using our custom DBPickler.
    file = io.BytesIO()
    DBPickler(file).dump(memos)

    print("Pickled records:")
    pprint.pprint(memos)

    # Update a record, just for good measure.
    cursor.execute("UPDATE memos SET task='learn italian' WHERE key=1")

    # Load the records from the pickle data stream.
    file.seek(0)
    memos = DBUnpickler(file, conn).load()

    print("Unpickled records:")
    pprint.pprint(memos)

if __name__ == '__main__':
    main()

Tables de distribution

Pour personnaliser la sérialisation d'une classe à un endroit particulier sans affecter le reste du code, on peut créer un sérialiseur avec une table de distribution spécifique.

The global dispatch table managed by the copyreg module is available as copyreg.dispatch_table. Therefore, one may choose to use a modified copy of copyreg.dispatch_table as a private dispatch table.

Par exemple, le code

f = io.BytesIO()
p = pickle.Pickler(f)
p.dispatch_table = copyreg.dispatch_table.copy()
p.dispatch_table[SomeClass] = reduce_SomeClass

crée une instance de la classe pickle.Pickler avec une table de distribution propre qui traite la classe SomeClass de manière spécifique. Le code

class MyPickler(pickle.Pickler):
    dispatch_table = copyreg.dispatch_table.copy()
    dispatch_table[SomeClass] = reduce_SomeClass
f = io.BytesIO()
p = MyPickler(f)

does the same but all instances of MyPickler will by default share the private dispatch table. On the other hand, the code

copyreg.pickle(SomeClass, reduce_SomeClass)
f = io.BytesIO()
p = pickle.Pickler(f)

modifies the global dispatch table shared by all users of the copyreg module.

Traitement des objets à état

Here's an example that shows how to modify pickling behavior for a class. The TextReader class below opens a text file, and returns the line number and line contents each time its readline() method is called. If a TextReader instance is pickled, all attributes except the file object member are saved. When the instance is unpickled, the file is reopened, and reading resumes from the last location. The __setstate__() and __getstate__() methods are used to implement this behavior.

class TextReader:
    """Print and number lines in a text file."""

    def __init__(self, filename):
        self.filename = filename
        self.file = open(filename)
        self.lineno = 0

    def readline(self):
        self.lineno += 1
        line = self.file.readline()
        if not line:
            return None
        if line.endswith('\n'):
            line = line[:-1]
        return "%i: %s" % (self.lineno, line)

    def __getstate__(self):
        # Copy the object's state from self.__dict__ which contains
        # all our instance attributes. Always use the dict.copy()
        # method to avoid modifying the original state.
        state = self.__dict__.copy()
        # Remove the unpicklable entries.
        del state['file']
        return state

    def __setstate__(self, state):
        # Restore instance attributes (i.e., filename and lineno).
        self.__dict__.update(state)
        # Restore the previously opened file's state. To do so, we need to
        # reopen it and read from it until the line count is restored.
        file = open(self.filename)
        for _ in range(self.lineno):
            file.readline()
        # Finally, save the file.
        self.file = file

Voici un exemple d'utilisation :

>>> reader = TextReader("hello.txt")
>>> reader.readline()
'1: Hello world!'
>>> reader.readline()
'2: I am line number two.'
>>> new_reader = pickle.loads(pickle.dumps(reader))
>>> new_reader.readline()
'3: Goodbye!'

Réduction personnalisée pour les types, fonctions et autres objets

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

Parfois, la simple utilisation de dispatch_table n'offre pas assez de flexibilité. On peut vouloir changer la méthode de sérialisation selon d'autres critères que le type de l'objet, ou bien personnaliser la sérialisation des fonctions et des classes.

For those cases, it is possible to subclass from the Pickler class and implement a reducer_override() method. This method can return an arbitrary reduction tuple (see __reduce__()). It can alternatively return NotImplemented to fallback to the traditional behavior.

Si dispatch_table et reducer_override() sont tous les deux définis, reducer_override() a la priorité.

Note

Pour des raisons de performance, la méthode reducer_override() n'est jamais appelée sur None, True, False, ainsi que les instances exactes (pas dérivées) de int, float, bytes, str, dict, set, frozenset, list et tuple.

Voici un exemple simple qui implémente la sérialisation d'une classe :

import io
import pickle

class MyClass:
    my_attribute = 1

class MyPickler(pickle.Pickler):
    def reducer_override(self, obj):
        """Custom reducer for MyClass."""
        if getattr(obj, "__name__", None) == "MyClass":
            return type, (obj.__name__, obj.__bases__,
                          {'my_attribute': obj.my_attribute})
        else:
            # For any other object, fallback to usual reduction
            return NotImplemented

f = io.BytesIO()
p = MyPickler(f)
p.dump(MyClass)

del MyClass

unpickled_class = pickle.loads(f.getvalue())

assert isinstance(unpickled_class, type)
assert unpickled_class.__name__ == "MyClass"
assert unpickled_class.my_attribute == 1

Tampons hors-bande

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

In some contexts, the pickle module is used to transfer massive amounts of data. Therefore, it can be important to minimize the number of memory copies, to preserve performance and resource consumption. However, normal operation of the pickle module, as it transforms a graph-like structure of objects into a sequential stream of bytes, intrinsically involves copying data to and from the pickle stream.

Cette contrainte peut être levée si le producteur (qui implémente les types d'objets à transférer) et le consommateur (qui implémente le système de communication) emploient les possibilités de transfert hors-bande offertes par les protocoles 5 et suivants.

API des producteurs

The large data objects to be pickled must implement a __reduce_ex__() method specialized for protocol 5 and higher, which returns a PickleBuffer instance (instead of e.g. a bytes object) for any large data.

A PickleBuffer object signals that the underlying buffer is eligible for out-of-band data transfer. Those objects remain compatible with normal usage of the pickle module. However, consumers can also opt-in to tell pickle that they will handle those buffers by themselves.

API des consommateurs

Un système de communication peut gérer de manière spécifique les objets PickleBuffer générés lors de la sérialisation d'un réseau d'objets.

Du côté de l'expéditeur, il faut passer le paramètre buffer_callback à Pickler (ou à dump() ou dumps()). Le buffer_callback sera appelé avec chaque PickleBuffer généré lors de la sérialisation du réseau d'objets. Les tampons accumulés par le buffer_callback ne verront pas leurs données copiées dans le flux sérialisé. Il leur sera substitué un marqueur léger.

Du côté du receveur, il faut passer l'argument buffers à Unpickler (ou load() ou bien loads()). buffers est un itérable des tampons passés à buffer_callback. Il doit fournir les tampons dans le même ordre que celui dans lequel ils ont été passés à buffer_callback. Les tampons fournis constituent la source des données qu'attendent les reconstructeurs des objets dont la sérialisation a abouti aux objets PickleBuffer.

Entre expéditeur et receveur, le système de communication peut implémenter son propre mécanisme de transfert pour les tampons hors-bande. Parmi les optimisations possibles se trouvent l'utilisation de mémoire partagée et la compression spécifique au type de données.

Exemple

Voici un exemple trivial où est implémentée une classe fille de bytearray capable de sérialisation hors-bande :

class ZeroCopyByteArray(bytearray):

    def __reduce_ex__(self, protocol):
        if protocol >= 5:
            return type(self)._reconstruct, (PickleBuffer(self),), None
        else:
            # PickleBuffer is forbidden with pickle protocols <= 4.
            return type(self)._reconstruct, (bytearray(self),)

    @classmethod
    def _reconstruct(cls, obj):
        with memoryview(obj) as m:
            # Get a handle over the original buffer object
            obj = m.obj
            if type(obj) is cls:
                # Original buffer object is a ZeroCopyByteArray, return it
                # as-is.
                return obj
            else:
                return cls(obj)

Lorsqu'il rencontre le bon type, le reconstructeur (la méthode de classe _reconstruct) renvoie directement le tampon original. Il s'agit d'une manière simple de simuler l'absence de copie dans cet exemple simpliste.

En tant que consommateur des objets, on peut les sérialiser de la manière classique. La désérialisation conduit alors à une copie :

b = ZeroCopyByteArray(b"abc")
data = pickle.dumps(b, protocol=5)
new_b = pickle.loads(data)
print(b == new_b)  # True
print(b is new_b)  # False: a copy was made

Mais en passant un buffer_callback et en donnant les tampons accumulés au désérialiseur, il n'y a plus de copie :

b = ZeroCopyByteArray(b"abc")
buffers = []
data = pickle.dumps(b, protocol=5, buffer_callback=buffers.append)
new_b = pickle.loads(data, buffers=buffers)
print(b == new_b)  # True
print(b is new_b)  # True: no copy was made

Cet exemple est limité par le fait que bytearray effectue sa propre allocation de mémoire. Il n'est pas possible de créer un bytearray sur la mémoire d'un autre objet. Cependant, certains types de données que l'on trouve dans des bibliothèques externes, comme les tableaux NumPy, n'ont pas cette limitation. Le passage hors-bande permet alors de n'effectuer aucune copie (ou bien de minimiser le nombre de copies) lors du transfert de données d'un système à l'autre ou d'un processus à l'autre.

Voir aussi

PEP 574 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0574/] — Protocole pickle 5 avec données hors-bande

Restriction des noms dans l'espace de nommage global

Par défaut, la désérialisation importe toutes les classes ou fonctions que demande le flux de données. Dans bien des cas, ce comportement est inacceptable, puisqu'il permet de faire exécuter du code arbitraire dans l'environnement de désérialisation. Observez le résultat de ce flux de données fait-main lorsqu'il est lu :

>>> import pickle
>>> pickle.loads(b"cos\nsystem\n(S'echo hello world'\ntR.")
hello world
0

Dans cet exemple, le désérialiseur importe la fonction os.system() et l'applique à la chaîne de caractères "echo hello world". C'est inoffensif, mais il n'est pas difficile d'imaginer des variantes qui endommageraient le système.

C'est pour cette raison qu'il s'avère parfois nécessaire de contrôler ce qui peut être désérialisé. Cela est possible en redéfinissant la méthode Unpickler.find_class(). Contrairement à ce que son nom laisse penser, Unpickler.find_class() est appelée pour tous les noms à chercher dans l'espace de nommage global, ce qui inclut les classes mais aussi les fonctions. Par ce biais, il est possible d'interdire complètement la résolution des noms globaux ou de la restreindre à un sous-ensemble que l'on considère sûr.

Voici un exemple de désérialiseur qui permet seulement la désérialisation d'un petit nombre de classes sûres du module builtins :

import builtins
import io
import pickle

safe_builtins = {
    'range',
    'complex',
    'set',
    'frozenset',
    'slice',
}

class RestrictedUnpickler(pickle.Unpickler):

    def find_class(self, module, name):
        # Only allow safe classes from builtins.
        if module == "builtins" and name in safe_builtins:
            return getattr(builtins, name)
        # Forbid everything else.
        raise pickle.UnpicklingError("global '%s.%s' is forbidden" %
                                     (module, name))

def restricted_loads(s):
    """Helper function analogous to pickle.loads()."""
    return RestrictedUnpickler(io.BytesIO(s)).load()

A sample usage of our unpickler working as intended:

>>> restricted_loads(pickle.dumps([1, 2, range(15)]))
[1, 2, range(0, 15)]
>>> restricted_loads(b"cos\nsystem\n(S'echo hello world'\ntR.")
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
pickle.UnpicklingError: global 'os.system' is forbidden
>>> restricted_loads(b'cbuiltins\neval\n'
...                  b'(S\'getattr(__import__("os"), "system")'
...                  b'("echo hello world")\'\ntR.')
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
pickle.UnpicklingError: global 'builtins.eval' is forbidden

Comme le montre l'exemple, il faut faire attention aux objets que l'on autorise à être désérialisés. Si la sécurité est une priorité, il peut être sage de se tourner vers des alternatives comme l'API du module xmlrpc.client, ou des bibliothèques tierces.

Performances

Recent versions of the pickle protocol (from protocol 2 and upwards) feature efficient binary encodings for several common features and built-in types. Also, the pickle module has a transparent optimizer written in C.

Exemples

Dans les cas les plus simples, utilisez les fonctions dump() et load().

import pickle

# An arbitrary collection of objects supported by pickle.
data = {
    'a': [1, 2.0, 3+4j],
    'b': ("character string", b"byte string"),
    'c': {None, True, False}
}

with open('data.pickle', 'wb') as f:
    # Pickle the 'data' dictionary using the highest protocol available.
    pickle.dump(data, f, pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL)

Le code suivant lit les données qui viennent d'être sérialisées

import pickle

with open('data.pickle', 'rb') as f:
    # The protocol version used is detected automatically, so we do not
    # have to specify it.
    data = pickle.load(f)

Command-line interface

The pickle module can be invoked as a script from the command line, it will display contents of the pickle files. However, when the pickle file that you want to examine comes from an untrusted source, -m pickletools is a safer option because it does not execute pickle bytecode, see pickletools CLI usage.

python -m pickle pickle_file [pickle_file ...]

The following option is accepted:

pickle_file

A pickle file to read, or - to indicate reading from standard input.

Voir aussi

Module copyreg

Enregistre les fonctions de sérialisation pour les types définis par l'utilisateur.

Module pickletools

Outils pour travailler sur les données sérialisées et les analyser.

Module shelve

Indexed databases of objects; uses pickle.

Module copy

Copie superficielle ou récursive d'objets.

Module marshal

Sérialisation haute-performance des types natifs.

Notes

[1]

À ne pas confondre avec ce que fait le module marshal.

[2]

C'est la raison pour laquelle les fonctions lambda ne peuvent pas être sérialisées : elles partagent toutes le même nom, à savoir <lambda>.

[3]

L'exception levée est généralement de type ImportError ou AttributeError, mais ce n'est pas systématique.

[4]

Le module copy fait appel à ce protocole pour les opérations de copie superficielle comme récursive.

[5]

The limitation on alphanumeric characters is due to the fact that persistent IDs in protocol 0 are delimited by the newline character. Therefore if any kind of newline characters occurs in persistent IDs, the resulting pickled data will become unreadable.

copyreg --- Register pickle support functions

Code source : Lib/copyreg.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/copyreg.py]

The copyreg module offers a way to define functions used while pickling specific objects. The pickle and copy modules use those functions when pickling/copying those objects. The module provides configuration information about object constructors which are not classes. Such constructors may be factory functions or class instances.

copyreg.constructor(object)

Déclare object comme étant un constructeur valide. Si object n'est pas appelable (et n'est donc pas un constructeur valide), l'erreur TypeError est levée.

copyreg.pickle(type, function, constructor_ob=None)

Declares that function should be used as a "reduction" function for objects of type type. function must return either a string or a tuple containing between two and six elements. See the dispatch_table for more details on the interface of function.

The constructor_ob parameter is a legacy feature and is now ignored, but if passed it must be a callable.

Note that the dispatch_table attribute of a pickler object or subclass of pickle.Pickler can also be used for declaring reduction functions.

Exemple

L'exemple si-dessous essaye de démontrer comment enregistrer une fonction pickle et comment elle sera utilisée :

>>> import copyreg, copy, pickle
>>> class C:
...     def __init__(self, a):
...         self.a = a
...
>>> def pickle_c(c):
...     print("pickling a C instance...")
...     return C, (c.a,)
...
>>> copyreg.pickle(C, pickle_c)
>>> c = C(1)
>>> d = copy.copy(c)
pickling a C instance...
>>> p = pickle.dumps(c)
pickling a C instance...

shelve --- Python object persistence

Code source : Lib/shelve.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/shelve.py]

Une étagère (shelf en anglais) est un objet persistant similaire à un dictionnaire. La différence avec les bases de données dbm est que les valeurs (pas les clés !) dans une étagère peuvent être des objets Python arbitraires — n'importe quoi que le module pickle peut gérer. Cela inclut la plupart des instances de classe, des types de données récursives, et les objets contenant beaucoup de sous-objets partagés. Les clés sont des chaînes de caractères ordinaires.

shelve.open(filename, flag='c', protocol=None, writeback=False)

Ouvre un dictionnaire persistant. Le nom de fichier spécifié est le nom de fichier sans (son) extension pour la base de données sous-jacente. Comme effet de bord, une extension peut être ajoutée au nom de fichier et plus d'un fichier peut être créé. Par défaut, le fichier de base de données sous-jacente est ouvert en lecture et en écriture. Le paramètre optionnel flag possède la même interprétation que le paramètre flag de dbm.open().

By default, pickles created with pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL are used to serialize values. The version of the pickle protocol can be specified with the protocol parameter.

À cause de la sémantique de Python, une étagère ne peut pas savoir lorsqu'une entrée mutable de dictionnaire persistant est modifiée. Par défaut les objets modifiés sont écrits seulement lorsqu'ils sont assignés à une étagère (voir Exemple). Si le paramètre optionnel writeback est mis à True, toutes les entrées déjà accédées sont aussi mises en cache en mémoire, et ré-écrites sur sync() et close() ; cela peut faciliter la modification des entrées modifiables dans le dictionnaire persistant, mais, si vous accédez à beaucoup d'entrées, cela peut consommer beaucoup de mémoire cache, et cela peut rendre l'opération de fermeture très lente puisque toutes les entrées déjà accédées sont ré-écrites (il n'y a aucun moyen de savoir quelles entrées déjà accédées sont mutables, ni lesquelles ont été vraiment modifiées).

Modifié dans la version 3.10: pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL is now used as the default pickle protocol.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Accepts path-like object for filename.

Note

Ne pas se fier à la fermeture automatique de l’étagère ; appelez toujours close() explicitement quand vous n'en avez plus besoin, ou utilisez shelve.open() comme un gestionnaire de contexte :

with shelve.open('spam') as db:
    db['eggs'] = 'eggs'

Avertissement

Because the shelve module is backed by pickle, it is insecure to load a shelf from an untrusted source. Like with pickle, loading a shelf can execute arbitrary code.

Shelf objects support most of the methods and operations supported by dictionaries (except copying, constructors and operators | and |=). This eases the transition from dictionary based scripts to those requiring persistent storage.

Deux méthodes supplémentaires sont autorisées :

Shelf.sync()

Réécrit toutes les entrées dans le cache si l’étagère a été ouverte avec writeback passé à True. Vide le cache et synchronise le dictionnaire persistant sur le disque, si faisable. Elle est appelée automatiquement quand l’étagère est fermée avec close().

Shelf.close()

Synchronise et ferme l'objet dict persistant. Les opérations sur une étagère fermée échouent avec une ValueError.

Voir aussi

Persistent dictionary recipe [https://code.activestate.com/recipes/576642-persistent-dict-with-multiple-standard-file-format/] with widely supported storage formats and having the speed of native dictionaries.

Limites

Le choix du paquet de base de données à utiliser (comme dbm.ndbm ou dbm.gnu) dépend de l'interface disponible. Donc c'est risqué d'ouvrir la base de données directement en utilisant dbm. La base de données est également (malheureusement) sujette à des limitations de dbm, si c'est utilisé — cela signifie que (la représentation sérialisée de) l'objet stocké dans la base de données doit être assez petit et, dans de rares cas, des collisions de clés peuvent entraîner le refus de mises à jour de la base de données.

The shelve module does not support concurrent read/write access to shelved objects. (Multiple simultaneous read accesses are safe.) When a program has a shelf open for writing, no other program should have it open for reading or writing. Unix file locking can be used to solve this, but this differs across Unix versions and requires knowledge about the database implementation used.

On macOS dbm.ndbm can silently corrupt the database file on updates, which can cause hard crashes when trying to read from the database.

class shelve.Shelf(dict, protocol=None, writeback=False, keyencoding='utf-8')

Sous-classe de collections.abc.MutableMapping qui stocke les valeurs sérialisées dans l'objet dict.

By default, pickles created with pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL are used to serialize values. The version of the pickle protocol can be specified with the protocol parameter. See the pickle documentation for a discussion of the pickle protocols.

Si le paramètre writeback est True, l'objet garde en cache toutes les entrées accédées et les écrit dans le dict aux moments de synchronisation et de fermeture. Cela permet des opérations naturelles sur les entrées mutables, mais peut consommer beaucoup plus de mémoire et rendre les temps de synchronisation et de fermeture très longs.

Le paramètre keyencoding est l'encodage utilisé pour encoder les clés avant qu'elles soient utilisées avec le dictionnaire sous-jacent.

Un objet Shelf peut également être utilisé comme un gestionnaire de contexte ; il est automatiquement fermé lorsque le bloc with se termine.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Ajout du paramètre keyencoding ; précédemment, les clés étaient toujours encodées en UTF-8.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Ajout de la gestion des gestionnaires de contexte.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL is now used as the default pickle protocol.

class shelve.BsdDbShelf(dict, protocol=None, writeback=False, keyencoding='utf-8')

A subclass of Shelf which exposes first(), next(), previous(), last() and set_location() methods. These are available in the third-party bsddb module from pybsddb [https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm] but not in other database modules. The dict object passed to the constructor must support those methods. This is generally accomplished by calling one of bsddb.hashopen(), bsddb.btopen() or bsddb.rnopen(). The optional protocol, writeback, and keyencoding parameters have the same interpretation as for the Shelf class.

class shelve.DbfilenameShelf(filename, flag='c', protocol=None, writeback=False)

Sous-classe de Shelf qui accepte un filename au lieu d'un objet dictionnaire-compatible. Le fichier sous-jacent est ouvert avec dbm.open(). Par défaut le fichier est créé en lecture et en écriture. Le paramètre optionnel flag peut être interprété de la même manière que pour la fonction open(). Les paramètres optionnels protocol et writeback s'interprètent de la même manière que pour la classe Shelf.

Exemple

Pour résumer l'interface (key est une chaîne de caractère, data est un objet arbitraire) :

import shelve

d = shelve.open(filename)  # open -- file may get suffix added by low-level
                           # library

d[key] = data              # store data at key (overwrites old data if
                           # using an existing key)
data = d[key]              # retrieve a COPY of data at key (raise KeyError
                           # if no such key)
del d[key]                 # delete data stored at key (raises KeyError
                           # if no such key)

flag = key in d            # true if the key exists
klist = list(d.keys())     # a list of all existing keys (slow!)

# as d was opened WITHOUT writeback=True, beware:
d['xx'] = [0, 1, 2]        # this works as expected, but...
d['xx'].append(3)          # *this doesn't!* -- d['xx'] is STILL [0, 1, 2]!

# having opened d without writeback=True, you need to code carefully:
temp = d['xx']             # extracts the copy
temp.append(5)             # mutates the copy
d['xx'] = temp             # stores the copy right back, to persist it

# or, d=shelve.open(filename,writeback=True) would let you just code
# d['xx'].append(5) and have it work as expected, BUT it would also
# consume more memory and make the d.close() operation slower.

d.close()                  # close it

Voir aussi

Module dbm

Interface générique de base de données dans le style de dbm.

Module pickle

Object serialization used by shelve.

marshal --- Internal Python object serialization

This module contains functions that can read and write Python values in a binary format. The format is specific to Python, but independent of machine architecture issues (e.g., you can write a Python value to a file on a PC, transport the file to a Mac, and read it back there). Details of the format are undocumented on purpose; it may change between Python versions (although it rarely does). [1]

This is not a general "persistence" module. For general persistence and transfer of Python objects through RPC calls, see the modules pickle and shelve. The marshal module exists mainly to support reading and writing the "pseudo-compiled" code for Python modules of .pyc files. Therefore, the Python maintainers reserve the right to modify the marshal format in backward incompatible ways should the need arise. The format of code objects is not compatible between Python versions, even if the version of the format is the same. De-serializing a code object in the incorrect Python version has undefined behavior. If you're serializing and de-serializing Python objects, use the pickle module instead -- the performance is comparable, version independence is guaranteed, and pickle supports a substantially wider range of objects than marshal.

Avertissement

The marshal module is not intended to be secure against erroneous or maliciously constructed data. Never unmarshal data received from an untrusted or unauthenticated source.

Il existe des fonctions de lecture-écriture de fichiers ainsi que des fonctions opérant sur des objets octet.

Not all Python object types are supported; in general, only objects whose value is independent from a particular invocation of Python can be written and read by this module. The following types are supported:

Numeric types: int, bool, float, complex.

Strings (str) and bytes. Bytes-like objects like bytearray are marshalled as bytes.

Containers: tuple, list, set, frozenset, and (since version 5), slice. It should be understood that these are supported only if the values contained therein are themselves supported. Recursive containers are supported since version 3.

The singletons None, Ellipsis and StopIteration.

code objects, if allow_code is true. See note above about version dependence.

Modifié dans la version 3.4:

Added format version 3, which supports marshalling recursive lists, sets and dictionaries.

Added format version 4, which supports efficient representations of short strings.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Added format version 5, which allows marshalling slices.

Le module définit ces fonctions :

marshal.dump(value, file, version=version, /, *, allow_code=True)

Écrit la valeur sur le fichier ouvert. La valeur doit être un type pris en charge. Le fichier doit être un fichier binaire ouvert en écriture.

If the value has (or contains an object that has) an unsupported type, a ValueError exception is raised --- but garbage data will also be written to the file. The object will not be properly read back by load(). Code objects are only supported if allow_code is true.

L'argument version indique le format de données que le dump doit utiliser (voir ci-dessous).

Raises an auditing event marshal.dumps with arguments value, version.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the allow_code parameter.

marshal.load(file, /, *, allow_code=True)

Read one value from the open file and return it. If no valid value is read (e.g. because the data has a different Python version's incompatible marshal format), raise EOFError, ValueError or TypeError. Code objects are only supported if allow_code is true. The file must be a readable binary file.

Raises an auditing event marshal.load with no arguments.

Note

Si un objet contenant un type non pris en charge a été dé-compilé avec dump(), load() remplacera le type non « dé-compilable » par None.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: This call used to raise a code.__new__ audit event for each code object. Now it raises a single marshal.load event for the entire load operation.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the allow_code parameter.

marshal.dumps(value, version=version, /, *, allow_code=True)

Return the bytes object that would be written to a file by dump(value, file). The value must be a supported type. Raise a ValueError exception if value has (or contains an object that has) an unsupported type. Code objects are only supported if allow_code is true.

L'argument version indique le format de données que dumps doivent utiliser (voir ci-dessous).

Raises an auditing event marshal.dumps with arguments value, version.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the allow_code parameter.

marshal.loads(bytes, /, *, allow_code=True)

Convert the bytes-like object to a value. If no valid value is found, raise EOFError, ValueError or TypeError. Code objects are only supported if allow_code is true. Extra bytes in the input are ignored.

Raises an auditing event marshal.loads with argument bytes.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: This call used to raise a code.__new__ audit event for each code object. Now it raises a single marshal.loads event for the entire load operation.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the allow_code parameter.

De plus, les constantes suivantes sont définies :

marshal.version

Indicates the format that the module uses. Version 0 is the historical first version; subsequent versions add new features. Generally, a new version becomes the default when it is introduced.

Version

Available since

New features

1

Python 2.4

Sharing interned strings

2

Python 2.5

Binary representation of floats

3

Python 3.4

Support for object instancing and recursion

4

Python 3.4

Efficient representation of short strings

5

Python 3.14

Support for slice objects

Notes

[1]

Le nom de ce module provient d'un peu de terminologie utilisée par les concepteurs de Modula-3 (entre autres), qui utilisent le terme marshalling pour l'envoi de données sous une forme autonome. À proprement parler, to marshal signifie convertir certaines données d'une forme interne à une forme externe (dans une mémoire tampon RPC par exemple) et unmarshalling désigne le processus inverse.

dbm --- Interfaces to Unix "databases"

Source code: Lib/dbm/__init__.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/dbm/__init__.py]

dbm is a generic interface to variants of the DBM database:

dbm.sqlite3

dbm.gnu

dbm.ndbm

If none of these modules are installed, the slow-but-simple implementation in module dbm.dumb will be used. There is a third party interface [https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm] to the Oracle Berkeley DB.

exception dbm.error

A tuple containing the exceptions that can be raised by each of the supported modules, with a unique exception also named dbm.error as the first item --- the latter is used when dbm.error is raised.

dbm.whichdb(filename)

This function attempts to guess which of the several simple database modules available --- dbm.sqlite3, dbm.gnu, dbm.ndbm, or dbm.dumb --- should be used to open a given file.

Return one of the following values:

None if the file can't be opened because it's unreadable or doesn't exist

the empty string ('') if the file's format can't be guessed

a string containing the required module name, such as 'dbm.ndbm' or 'dbm.gnu'

Modifié dans la version 3.11: filename accepts a path-like object.

dbm.open(file, flag='r', mode=0o666)

Open a database and return the corresponding database object.

Paramètres:

file (path-like object) --

The database file to open.

If the database file already exists, the whichdb() function is used to determine its type and the appropriate module is used; if it does not exist, the first submodule listed above that can be imported is used.

flag (str) --

'r' (default): Open existing database for reading only.

'w': Open existing database for reading and writing.

'c': Open database for reading and writing, creating it if it doesn't exist.

'n': Always create a new, empty database, open for reading and writing.

mode (int) -- The Unix file access mode of the file (default: octal 0o666), used only when the database has to be created.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: file accepts a path-like object.

The object returned by open() supports the basic functionality of mutable mappings; keys and their corresponding values can be stored, retrieved, and deleted, and iteration, the in operator and methods keys(), get(), setdefault() and clear() are available. The keys() method returns a list instead of a view object. The setdefault() method requires two arguments.

Key and values are always stored as bytes. This means that when strings are used they are implicitly converted to the default encoding before being stored.

These objects also support being used in a with statement, which will automatically close them when done.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: get() and setdefault() methods are now available for all dbm backends.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Added native support for the context management protocol to the objects returned by open().

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Deleting a key from a read-only database raises a database module specific exception instead of KeyError.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: clear() methods are now available for all dbm backends.

The following example records some hostnames and a corresponding title, and then prints out the contents of the database:

import dbm

# Open database, creating it if necessary.
with dbm.open('cache', 'c') as db:

    # Record some values
    db[b'hello'] = b'there'
    db['www.python.org'] = 'Python Website'
    db['www.cnn.com'] = 'Cable News Network'

    # Note that the keys are considered bytes now.
    assert db[b'www.python.org'] == b'Python Website'
    # Notice how the value is now in bytes.
    assert db['www.cnn.com'] == b'Cable News Network'

    # Often-used methods of the dict interface work too.
    print(db.get('python.org', b'not present'))

    # Storing a non-string key or value will raise an exception (most
    # likely a TypeError).
    db['www.yahoo.com'] = 4

# db is automatically closed when leaving the with statement.

Voir aussi

Module shelve

Persistence module which stores non-string data.

The individual submodules are described in the following sections.

dbm.sqlite3 --- SQLite backend for dbm

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Source code: Lib/dbm/sqlite3.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/dbm/sqlite3.py]

This module uses the standard library sqlite3 module to provide an SQLite backend for the dbm module. The files created by dbm.sqlite3 can thus be opened by sqlite3, or any other SQLite browser, including the SQLite CLI.

Disponibilité: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly. See Plateformes WebAssembly for more information.

dbm.sqlite3.open(filename, /, flag='r', mode=0o666)

Open an SQLite database.

Paramètres:

filename (path-like object) -- The path to the database to be opened.

flag (str) --

'r' (default): Open existing database for reading only.

'w': Open existing database for reading and writing.

'c': Open database for reading and writing, creating it if it doesn't exist.

'n': Always create a new, empty database, open for reading and writing.

mode -- The Unix file access mode of the file (default: octal 0o666), used only when the database has to be created.

The returned database object behaves similar to a mutable mapping, but the keys() method returns a list, and the setdefault() method requires two arguments. It also supports a "closing" context manager via the with keyword.

The following method is also provided:

sqlite3.close()

Close the SQLite database.

dbm.gnu --- GNU database manager

Source code: Lib/dbm/gnu.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/dbm/gnu.py]

The dbm.gnu module provides an interface to the GDBM library, similar to the dbm.ndbm module, but with additional functionality like crash tolerance.

Note

The file formats created by dbm.gnu and dbm.ndbm are incompatible and can not be used interchangeably.

Disponibilité: not Android, not iOS, not WASI.

This module is not supported on mobile platforms or WebAssembly platforms.

Disponibilité: Unix.

exception dbm.gnu.error

Raised on dbm.gnu-specific errors, such as I/O errors. KeyError is raised for general mapping errors like specifying an incorrect key.

dbm.gnu.open_flags

A string of characters the flag parameter of open() supports.

dbm.gnu.open(filename, flag='r', mode=0o666, /)

Open a GDBM database and return a gdbm object.

Paramètres:

filename (path-like object) -- The database file to open.

flag (str) --

'r' (default): Open existing database for reading only.

'w': Open existing database for reading and writing.

'c': Open database for reading and writing, creating it if it doesn't exist.

'n': Always create a new, empty database, open for reading and writing.

The following additional characters may be appended to control how the database is opened:

'f': Open the database in fast mode. Writes to the database will not be synchronized.

's': Synchronized mode. Changes to the database will be written immediately to the file.

'u': Do not lock database.

Not all flags are valid for all versions of GDBM. See the open_flags member for a list of supported flag characters.

mode (int) -- The Unix file access mode of the file (default: octal 0o666), used only when the database has to be created.

Lève:

error -- If an invalid flag argument is passed.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: filename accepts a path-like object.

gdbm objects behave similar to mutable mappings, but methods items(), values(), pop(), popitem(), and update() are not supported, the keys() method returns a list, and the setdefault() method requires two arguments. It also supports a "closing" context manager via the with keyword.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Added the get() and setdefault() methods.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the clear() method.

The following methods are also provided:

gdbm.close()

Close the GDBM database.

gdbm.firstkey()

It's possible to loop over every key in the database using this method and the nextkey() method. The traversal is ordered by GDBM's internal hash values, and won't be sorted by the key values. This method returns the starting key.

gdbm.nextkey(key)

Returns the key that follows key in the traversal. The following code prints every key in the database db, without having to create a list in memory that contains them all:

k = db.firstkey()
while k is not None:
    print(k)
    k = db.nextkey(k)

gdbm.reorganize()

If you have carried out a lot of deletions and would like to shrink the space used by the GDBM file, this routine will reorganize the database. gdbm objects will not shorten the length of a database file except by using this reorganization; otherwise, deleted file space will be kept and reused as new (key, value) pairs are added.

gdbm.sync()

When the database has been opened in fast mode, this method forces any unwritten data to be written to the disk.

dbm.ndbm --- New Database Manager

Source code: Lib/dbm/ndbm.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/dbm/ndbm.py]

The dbm.ndbm module provides an interface to the NDBM library. This module can be used with the "classic" NDBM interface or the GDBM compatibility interface.

Note

The file formats created by dbm.gnu and dbm.ndbm are incompatible and can not be used interchangeably.

Avertissement

The NDBM library shipped as part of macOS has an undocumented limitation on the size of values, which can result in corrupted database files when storing values larger than this limit. Reading such corrupted files can result in a hard crash (segmentation fault).

Disponibilité: not Android, not iOS, not WASI.

This module is not supported on mobile platforms or WebAssembly platforms.

Disponibilité: Unix.

exception dbm.ndbm.error

Raised on dbm.ndbm-specific errors, such as I/O errors. KeyError is raised for general mapping errors like specifying an incorrect key.

dbm.ndbm.library

Name of the NDBM implementation library used.

dbm.ndbm.open(filename, flag='r', mode=0o666, /)

Open an NDBM database and return an ndbm object.

Paramètres:

filename (path-like object) -- The basename of the database file (without the .dir or .pag extensions).

flag (str) --

'r' (default): Open existing database for reading only.

'w': Open existing database for reading and writing.

'c': Open database for reading and writing, creating it if it doesn't exist.

'n': Always create a new, empty database, open for reading and writing.

mode (int) -- The Unix file access mode of the file (default: octal 0o666), used only when the database has to be created.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Accepts path-like object for filename.

ndbm objects behave similar to mutable mappings, but methods items(), values(), pop(), popitem(), and update() are not supported, the keys() method returns a list, and the setdefault() method requires two arguments. It also supports a "closing" context manager via the with keyword.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Added the get() and setdefault() methods.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the clear() method.

The following method is also provided:

ndbm.close()

Close the NDBM database.

dbm.dumb --- Portable DBM implementation

Source code: Lib/dbm/dumb.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/dbm/dumb.py]

Note

The dbm.dumb module is intended as a last resort fallback for the dbm module when a more robust module is not available. The dbm.dumb module is not written for speed and is not nearly as heavily used as the other database modules.

The dbm.dumb module provides a persistent dict-like interface which is written entirely in Python. Unlike other dbm backends, such as dbm.gnu, no external library is required.

The dbm.dumb module defines the following:

exception dbm.dumb.error

Raised on dbm.dumb-specific errors, such as I/O errors. KeyError is raised for general mapping errors like specifying an incorrect key.

dbm.dumb.open(filename, flag='c', mode=0o666)

Open a dbm.dumb database.

Paramètres:

filename --

The basename of the database file (without extensions). A new database creates the following files:

filename.dat

filename.dir

flag (str) --

'r': Open existing database for reading only.

'w': Open existing database for reading and writing.

'c' (default): Open database for reading and writing, creating it if it doesn't exist.

'n': Always create a new, empty database, open for reading and writing.

mode (int) -- The Unix file access mode of the file (default: octal 0o666), used only when the database has to be created.

Avertissement

It is possible to crash the Python interpreter when loading a database with a sufficiently large/complex entry due to stack depth limitations in Python's AST compiler.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: open() always creates a new database when flag is 'n'.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: A database opened read-only if flag is 'r'. A database is not created if it does not exist if flag is 'r' or 'w'.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: filename accepts a path-like object.

The returned database object behaves similar to a mutable mapping, but the keys() and items() methods return lists, and the setdefault() method requires two arguments. It also supports a "closing" context manager via the with keyword.

The following methods are also provided:

dumbdbm.close()

Close the database.

dumbdbm.sync()

Synchronize the on-disk directory and data files. This method is called by the shelve.Shelf.sync() method.

sqlite3 — Interface DB-API 2.0 pour bases de données SQLite

Code source : Lib/sqlite3/ [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/sqlite3/]

SQLite est une bibliothèque C qui fournit une base de données légère sur disque ne nécessitant pas de processus serveur et qui utilise une variante (non standard) du langage de requête SQL pour accéder aux données. Certaines applications peuvent utiliser SQLite pour le stockage de données internes. Il est également possible de créer une application prototype utilisant SQLite, puis de modifier le code pour utiliser une base de données plus robuste telle que PostgreSQL ou Oracle.

The sqlite3 module was written by Gerhard Häring. It provides an SQL interface compliant with the DB-API 2.0 specification described by PEP 249 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/], and requires the third-party SQLite [https://sqlite.org/] library.

This is an optional module. If it is missing from your copy of CPython, look for documentation from your distributor (that is, whoever provided Python to you). If you are the distributor, see Requirements for optional modules.

Ce document inclus 4 sections principales :

tutoriel sqlite3 explique comment utiliser le module sqlite3.

référence sqlite3 décrit les classes et les fonctions que ce module définit.

guide sqlite3 détaille comment gérer des tâches spécifiques.

explications sqlite3 propose un contexte détaillé du contrôle de transaction.

Voir aussi

https://www.sqlite.org

Dans la page Web de SQLite, la documentation décrit la syntaxe et les types de données disponibles qui sont pris en charge par cette variante SQL.

https://www.w3schools.com/sql/

Tutoriel, référence et exemples pour apprendre la syntaxe SQL.

PEP 249 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/] — Spécifications de l'API 2.0 pour la base de données

PEP écrite par Marc-André Lemburg.

Tutoriel

Dans ce tutoriel, vous allez créer une base de données des films des Monty Python en utilisant les fonctionnalités de base de sqlite3. Cela nécessite une compréhension élémentaire des concepts des bases de données, notamment les curseurs [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cursor_(databases)] et les transactions [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_transaction].

Tout d’abord, nous devons créer une nouvelle base de données et ouvrir une connexion à la base de données pour permettre à sqlite3 de travailler avec elle. Appelez sqlite3.connect() pour créer une connexion à la base de données tutorial.db dans le répertoire de travail actuel, en la créant implicitement si elle n’existe pas :

import sqlite3
con = sqlite3.connect("tutorial.db")

L’objet Connection renvoyé — con — représente la connexion à la base de données sur disque.

Afin d’exécuter les instructions SQL et de récupérer les résultats des requêtes SQL, nous devrons utiliser un curseur de base de données. Appelez con.cursor() pour créer la Cursor :

cur = con.cursor()

Maintenant que nous avons une connexion à la base de données et un curseur, nous pouvons créer une table movie avec des colonnes pour le titre, l’année de sortie et la note de la critique. Pour plus de simplicité, nous pouvons simplement utiliser les noms des colonnes dans la déclaration de la table — grâce à la fonctionnalité de typage flexible [https://www.sqlite.org/flextypegood.html] de SQLite, spécifier les types de données est facultatif. Exécutez l’instruction CREATE TABLE en appelant cur.execute(…) :

cur.execute("CREATE TABLE movie(title, year, score)")

Nous pouvons vérifier que la nouvelle table a été créée en interrogeant la table sqlite_master intégrée à SQLite, qui devrait maintenant contenir une entrée pour la définition de la table movie (voir le schéma Table [https://www.sqlite.org/schematab.html] pour plus de détails). Exécutez cette requête en appelant cur.execute(…), affectez le résultat à res, et appelez res.fetchone() pour récupérer la ligne résultante :

>>> res = cur.execute("SELECT name FROM sqlite_master")
>>> res.fetchone()
('movie',)

Nous pouvons voir que la table a été créée, puisque la requête renvoie un tuple contenant le nom de la table. Si nous interrogeons sqlite_master pour une table spam inexistante, res.fetchone() renvoie None :

>>> res = cur.execute("SELECT name FROM sqlite_master WHERE name='spam'")
>>> res.fetchone() is None
True

Maintenant, ajoutez deux lignes de données en tant que littéraux SQL en exécutant une instruction INSERT, une fois encore en appelant cur.execute(…) :

cur.execute("""
    INSERT INTO movie VALUES
        ('Monty Python and the Holy Grail', 1975, 8.2),
        ('And Now for Something Completely Different', 1971, 7.5)
""")

L’instruction INSERT ouvre implicitement une transaction, qui doit être validée avant que les modifications ne soient enregistrées dans la base de données (voir contrôle des transactions SQL pour plus de détails). Appelez con.commit() sur l’objet de connexion pour valider la transaction :

con.commit()

Nous pouvons vérifier que les données ont été insérées correctement en exécutant une requête SELECT. Utilisez la désormais familière cur.execute(…) pour affecter le résultat à res, et appelez res.fetchall() pour retourner toutes les lignes résultantes :

>>> res = cur.execute("SELECT score FROM movie")
>>> res.fetchall()
[(8.2,), (7.5,)]

Le résultat est une liste de deux tuples, une par ligne, chacun contenant la valeur score de cette ligne.

Maintenant, insérez trois lignes supplémentaires en appelant cur.executemany(…) :

data = [
    ("Monty Python Live at the Hollywood Bowl", 1982, 7.9),
    ("Monty Python's The Meaning of Life", 1983, 7.5),
    ("Monty Python's Life of Brian", 1979, 8.0),
]
cur.executemany("INSERT INTO movie VALUES(?, ?, ?)", data)
con.commit()  # Remember to commit the transaction after executing INSERT.

Remarquez que les marqueurs ? sont utilisés pour lier les data à la requête. Utilisez toujours les marqueurs au lieu d’expressions formatées pour lier les valeurs Python aux instructions SQL, afin d’éviter les injections SQL [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL_injection] (voir placeholder SQL pour plus de détails).

Nous pouvons vérifier que les nouvelles lignes ont été insérées en exécutant une requête SELECT, cette fois-ci en itérant sur les résultats de la requête :

>>> for row in cur.execute("SELECT year, title FROM movie ORDER BY year"):
...     print(row)
(1971, 'And Now for Something Completely Different')
(1975, 'Monty Python and the Holy Grail')
(1979, "Monty Python's Life of Brian")
(1982, 'Monty Python Live at the Hollywood Bowl')
(1983, "Monty Python's The Meaning of Life")

Chaque ligne est un tuple de deux éléments (année, titre), correspondant aux colonnes sélectionnées dans la requête.

Enfin, vérifiez que la base de données a été écrite sur le disque en appelant con.close() pour fermer la connexion existante, en ouvrir une nouvelle, créer un nouveau curseur, puis interroger la base de données :

>>> con.close()
>>> new_con = sqlite3.connect("tutorial.db")
>>> new_cur = new_con.cursor()
>>> res = new_cur.execute("SELECT title, year FROM movie ORDER BY score DESC")
>>> title, year = res.fetchone()
>>> print(f'The highest scoring Monty Python movie is {title!r}, released in {year}')
The highest scoring Monty Python movie is 'Monty Python and the Holy Grail', released in 1975
>>> new_con.close()

Vous avez maintenant créé une base de données SQLite à l’aide du module sqlite3, inséré des données et récupéré des valeurs de plusieurs façons.

Voir aussi

guide sqlite3 pour une lecture plus poussée :

placeholders sqlite3

adaptateurs sqlite3

convertisseurs sqlite3

gestionnaire de contexte de connexion sqlite3

guide de fabrique de ligne sqlite3

explications sqlite3 pour un contexte détaillé du contrôle de transaction.

Références

Fonctions du module

sqlite3.connect(database, timeout=5.0, detect_types=0, isolation_level='DEFERRED', check_same_thread=True, factory=sqlite3.Connection, cached_statements=128, uri=False, *, autocommit=sqlite3.LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL)

Ouvrez une connexion à une base de données SQLite.

Paramètres:

database (path-like object) -- Le chemin d’accès au fichier de la base de données à ouvrir. Passez ":memory :" pour créer une base de données SQLite existant uniquement en mémoire [https://sqlite.org/inmemorydb.html], et ouvrir une connexion à celle-ci.

timeout (float) -- Le temps (en secondes) que la connexion doit attendre avant de lever une OperationalError, si la table est verrouillée. Si une autre connexion ouvre une transaction pour modifier la table, celle-ci sera verrouillée jusqu’à ce que cette transaction soit validée. Par défaut, cinq secondes.

detect_types (int) -- Control whether and how data types not natively supported by SQLite are looked up to be converted to Python types, using the converters registered with register_converter(). Set it to any combination (using |, bitwise or) of PARSE_DECLTYPES and PARSE_COLNAMES to enable this. Column names take precedence over declared types if both flags are set. By default (0), type detection is disabled.

isolation_level (str | None) -- Contrôle le comportement historique de la gestion des transactions.Voir Connection.isolation_level et Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute pour plus d'informations. Peut être "DEFERRED" (par défaut), "EXCLUSIVE" ou "IMMEDIATE" ; ou None pour désactiver l’ouverture implicite des transactions. N'a aucun effet à moins que Connection.autocommit soit défini à LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL (le défaut).

check_same_thread (bool) -- Si True (par défaut), ProgrammingError sera levée si la connexion à la base de données est utilisée par un thread autre que celui qui l’a créée. Si False, la connexion peut être utilisée par plusieurs threads ; les opérations d’écriture devront peut-être être sérialisées par l’utilisateur pour éviter la corruption des données. Voir sécurité des threads pour plus d’informations.

factory (Connection) -- Une sous-classe personnalisée de Connection pour créer la connexion, si ce n’est pas la classe par défaut Connection.

cached_statements (int) -- Le nombre d’instructions que sqlite3 doit mettre en cache en interne pour cette connexion, afin d’éviter les surcharges d’analyse. Par défaut, 128 instructions.

uri (bool) -- Si elle a pour valeur True, la base de données est interprétée comme un URI avec un chemin d’accès au fichier et une chaîne de requête facultative. La partie schéma doit être "file:", et le chemin peut être relatif ou absolu. La chaîne d’interrogation permet de passer des paramètres à SQLite, ce qui permet d’activer diverses astuces d’URI sqlite3.

autocommit (bool) -- Control PEP 249 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/] transaction handling behaviour. See Connection.autocommit and Transaction control via the autocommit attribute for more information. autocommit currently defaults to LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL. The default will change to False in a future Python release.

Type renvoyé:

Connection

Raises an auditing event sqlite3.connect with argument database.

Raises an auditing event sqlite3.connect/handle with argument connection_handle.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: ajout du paramètre uri.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: database peut maintenant aussi être un objet de type chemin, et pas seulement une chaîne de caractères.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Added the sqlite3.connect/handle auditing event.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added the autocommit parameter.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Positional use of the parameters timeout, detect_types, isolation_level, check_same_thread, factory, cached_statements, and uri is deprecated. They will become keyword-only parameters in Python 3.15.

sqlite3.complete_statement(statement)

Renvoie True si la déclaration de la chaîne semble contenir une ou plusieurs déclarations SQL complètes. Aucune vérification syntaxique ou analyse syntaxique d’aucune sorte n’est effectuée, si ce n’est la vérification qu’il n’y a pas de chaîne littérale non fermée et que l’instruction se termine par un point-virgule.

Exemple :

>>> sqlite3.complete_statement("SELECT foo FROM bar;")
True
>>> sqlite3.complete_statement("SELECT foo")
False

Cette fonction peut être utile pendant la saisie en ligne de commande pour déterminer si le texte saisi semble former une instruction SQL complète, ou si une saisie supplémentaire est nécessaire avant d’appeler execute().

See runsource() in Lib/sqlite3/__main__.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/sqlite3/__main__.py] for real-world use.

sqlite3.enable_callback_tracebacks(flag, /)

Activer ou désactiver les traces des fonctions de rappel. Par défaut, vous n’obtiendrez pas de traces de pile d’appels dans les fonctions définies par l’utilisateur, les agrégats, les convertisseurs, les fonctions de rappel des mécanismes d’autorisation, etc. Si vous voulez les déboguer, vous pouvez appeler cette fonction avec flag à True. Ensuite, vous obtiendrez les traces des fonctions de rappel sur sys.stderr. Utilisez False pour désactiver à nouveau cette fonctionnalité.

Note

Errors in user-defined function callbacks are logged as unraisable exceptions. Use an unraisable hook handler for introspection of the failed callback.

sqlite3.register_adapter(type, adapter, /)

Enregistre un adaptateur callable pour adapter le type Python type en un type SQLite. L'adaptateur est appelé avec un objet Python de type type comme seul argument, et doit retourner une valeur d'un type que SQLite comprend nativement.

sqlite3.register_converter(typename, converter, /)

Enregistrer le convertisseur callable pour convertir les objets SQLite de type typename en un objet Python d'un type spécifique. Le convertisseur est invoqué pour toutes les valeurs SQLite de type typename ; on lui passe un objet bytes et il doit retourner un objet du type Python désiré. Consultez le paramètre detect_types de connect() pour plus d'informations sur le fonctionnement de la détection de type.

Remarque : typename et le nom du type dans votre requête sont comparés sans tenir compte de la casse.

Fonctions et constantes du module

sqlite3.LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL

Set autocommit to this constant to select old style (pre-Python 3.12) transaction control behaviour. See Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute for more information.

sqlite3.PARSE_DECLTYPES

Pass this flag value to the detect_types parameter of connect() to look up a converter function using the declared types for each column. The types are declared when the database table is created. sqlite3 will look up a converter function using the first word of the declared type as the converter dictionary key. For example:

CREATE TABLE test(
   i integer primary key,  ! will look up a converter named "integer"
   p point,                ! will look up a converter named "point"
   n number(10)            ! will look up a converter named "number"
 )

This flag may be combined with PARSE_COLNAMES using the | (bitwise or) operator.

Note

Generated fields (for example MAX(p)) are returned as str. Use PARSE_COLNAMES to enforce types for such queries.

sqlite3.PARSE_COLNAMES

Pass this flag value to the detect_types parameter of connect() to look up a converter function by using the type name, parsed from the query column name, as the converter dictionary key. The query column name must be wrapped in double quotes (") and the type name must be wrapped in square brackets ([]).

SELECT MAX(p) as "p [point]" FROM test;  ! will look up converter "point"

This flag may be combined with PARSE_DECLTYPES using the | (bitwise or) operator.

sqlite3.SQLITE_OK

sqlite3.SQLITE_DENY

sqlite3.SQLITE_IGNORE

Flags that should be returned by the authorizer_callback callable passed to Connection.set_authorizer(), to indicate whether:

Access is allowed (SQLITE_OK),

The SQL statement should be aborted with an error (SQLITE_DENY)

The column should be treated as a NULL value (SQLITE_IGNORE)

sqlite3.apilevel

String constant stating the supported DB-API level. Required by the DB-API. Hard-coded to "2.0".

sqlite3.paramstyle

String constant stating the type of parameter marker formatting expected by the sqlite3 module. Required by the DB-API. Hard-coded to "qmark".

Note

The named DB-API parameter style is also supported.

sqlite3.sqlite_version

Version number of the runtime SQLite library as a string.

sqlite3.sqlite_version_info

Version number of the runtime SQLite library as a tuple of integers.

sqlite3.threadsafety

Integer constant required by the DB-API 2.0, stating the level of thread safety the sqlite3 module supports. This attribute is set based on the default threading mode [https://sqlite.org/threadsafe.html] the underlying SQLite library is compiled with. The SQLite threading modes are:

Single-thread: In this mode, all mutexes are disabled and SQLite is unsafe to use in more than a single thread at once.

Multi-thread: In this mode, SQLite can be safely used by multiple threads provided that no single database connection is used simultaneously in two or more threads.

Serialized: In serialized mode, SQLite can be safely used by multiple threads with no restriction.

The mappings from SQLite threading modes to DB-API 2.0 threadsafety levels are as follows:

SQLite threading mode

threadsafety [https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/#threadsafety]

SQLITE_THREADSAFE [https://sqlite.org/compile.html#threadsafe]

DB-API 2.0 meaning

single-thread

0

0

Threads may not share the module

multi-thread

1

2

Threads may share the module, but not connections

serialized

3

1

Threads may share the module, connections and cursors

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Set threadsafety dynamically instead of hard-coding it to 1.

sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_DEFENSIVE

sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_DQS_DDL

sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_DQS_DML

sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_FKEY

sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_FTS3_TOKENIZER

sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_LOAD_EXTENSION

sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_QPSG

sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_TRIGGER

sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_VIEW

sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_LEGACY_ALTER_TABLE

sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_LEGACY_FILE_FORMAT

sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_NO_CKPT_ON_CLOSE

sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_RESET_DATABASE

sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_TRIGGER_EQP

sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_TRUSTED_SCHEMA

sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_WRITABLE_SCHEMA

These constants are used for the Connection.setconfig() and getconfig() methods.

The availability of these constants varies depending on the version of SQLite Python was compiled with.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Voir aussi

https://www.sqlite.org/c3ref/c_dbconfig_defensive.html

SQLite docs: Database Connection Configuration Options

Deprecated since version 3.12, removed in version 3.14: The version and version_info constants.

Connection objects

class sqlite3.Connection

Each open SQLite database is represented by a Connection object, which is created using sqlite3.connect(). Their main purpose is creating Cursor objects, and Transaction control.

Voir aussi

How to use connection shortcut methods

gestionnaire de contexte de connexion sqlite3

Modifié dans la version 3.13: A ResourceWarning is emitted if close() is not called before a Connection object is deleted.

An SQLite database connection has the following attributes and methods:

cursor(factory=Cursor)

Create and return a Cursor object. The cursor method accepts a single optional parameter factory. If supplied, this must be a callable returning an instance of Cursor or its subclasses.

blobopen(table, column, rowid, /, *, readonly=False, name='main')

Open a Blob handle to an existing BLOB.

Paramètres:

table (str) -- The name of the table where the blob is located.

column (str) -- The name of the column where the blob is located.

rowid (int) -- The row id where the blob is located.

readonly (bool) -- Set to True if the blob should be opened without write permissions. Defaults to False.

name (str) -- The name of the database where the blob is located. Defaults to "main".

Lève:

OperationalError -- When trying to open a blob in a WITHOUT ROWID table.

Type renvoyé:

Blob

Note

The blob size cannot be changed using the Blob class. Use the SQL function zeroblob to create a blob with a fixed size.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

commit()

Commit any pending transaction to the database. If autocommit is True, or there is no open transaction, this method does nothing. If autocommit is False, a new transaction is implicitly opened if a pending transaction was committed by this method.

rollback()

Roll back to the start of any pending transaction. If autocommit is True, or there is no open transaction, this method does nothing. If autocommit is False, a new transaction is implicitly opened if a pending transaction was rolled back by this method.

close()

Close the database connection. If autocommit is False, any pending transaction is implicitly rolled back. If autocommit is True or LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL, no implicit transaction control is executed. Make sure to commit() before closing to avoid losing pending changes.

execute(sql, parameters=(), /)

Create a new Cursor object and call execute() on it with the given sql and parameters. Return the new cursor object.

executemany(sql, parameters, /)

Create a new Cursor object and call executemany() on it with the given sql and parameters. Return the new cursor object.

executescript(sql_script, /)

Create a new Cursor object and call executescript() on it with the given sql_script. Return the new cursor object.

create_function(name, narg, func, *, deterministic=False)

Create or remove a user-defined SQL function.

Paramètres:

name (str) -- The name of the SQL function.

narg (int) -- The number of arguments the SQL function can accept. If -1, it may take any number of arguments.

func (callback | None) -- A callable that is called when the SQL function is invoked. The callable must return a type natively supported by SQLite. Set to None to remove an existing SQL function.

deterministic (bool) -- If True, the created SQL function is marked as deterministic [https://sqlite.org/deterministic.html], which allows SQLite to perform additional optimizations.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added the deterministic parameter.

Exemple :

>>> import hashlib
>>> def md5sum(t):
...     return hashlib.md5(t).hexdigest()
>>> con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
>>> con.create_function("md5", 1, md5sum)
>>> for row in con.execute("SELECT md5(?)", (b"foo",)):
...     print(row)
('acbd18db4cc2f85cedef654fccc4a4d8',)
>>> con.close()

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Passing name, narg, and func as keyword arguments is deprecated. These parameters will become positional-only in Python 3.15.

create_aggregate(name, n_arg, aggregate_class)

Create or remove a user-defined SQL aggregate function.

Paramètres:

name (str) -- The name of the SQL aggregate function.

n_arg (int) -- The number of arguments the SQL aggregate function can accept. If -1, it may take any number of arguments.

aggregate_class (class | None) --

A class must implement the following methods:

step(): Add a row to the aggregate.

finalize(): Return the final result of the aggregate as a type natively supported by SQLite.

The number of arguments that the step() method must accept is controlled by n_arg.

Set to None to remove an existing SQL aggregate function.

Exemple :

class MySum:
    def __init__(self):
        self.count = 0

    def step(self, value):
        self.count += value

    def finalize(self):
        return self.count

con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
con.create_aggregate("mysum", 1, MySum)
cur = con.execute("CREATE TABLE test(i)")
cur.execute("INSERT INTO test(i) VALUES(1)")
cur.execute("INSERT INTO test(i) VALUES(2)")
cur.execute("SELECT mysum(i) FROM test")
print(cur.fetchone()[0])

con.close()

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Passing name, n_arg, and aggregate_class as keyword arguments is deprecated. These parameters will become positional-only in Python 3.15.

create_window_function(name, num_params, aggregate_class, /)

Create or remove a user-defined aggregate window function.

Paramètres:

name (str) -- The name of the SQL aggregate window function to create or remove.

num_params (int) -- The number of arguments the SQL aggregate window function can accept. If -1, it may take any number of arguments.

aggregate_class (class | None) --

A class that must implement the following methods:

step(): Add a row to the current window.

value(): Return the current value of the aggregate.

inverse(): Remove a row from the current window.

finalize(): Return the final result of the aggregate as a type natively supported by SQLite.

The number of arguments that the step() and value() methods must accept is controlled by num_params.

Set to None to remove an existing SQL aggregate window function.

Lève:

NotSupportedError -- If used with a version of SQLite older than 3.25.0, which does not support aggregate window functions.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

Exemple :

# Example taken from https://www.sqlite.org/windowfunctions.html#udfwinfunc
class WindowSumInt:
    def __init__(self):
        self.count = 0

    def step(self, value):
        """Add a row to the current window."""
        self.count += value

    def value(self):
        """Return the current value of the aggregate."""
        return self.count

    def inverse(self, value):
        """Remove a row from the current window."""
        self.count -= value

    def finalize(self):
        """Return the final value of the aggregate.

        Any clean-up actions should be placed here.
        """
        return self.count

con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
cur = con.execute("CREATE TABLE test(x, y)")
values = [
    ("a", 4),
    ("b", 5),
    ("c", 3),
    ("d", 8),
    ("e", 1),
]
cur.executemany("INSERT INTO test VALUES(?, ?)", values)
con.create_window_function("sumint", 1, WindowSumInt)
cur.execute("""
    SELECT x, sumint(y) OVER (
        ORDER BY x ROWS BETWEEN 1 PRECEDING AND 1 FOLLOWING
    ) AS sum_y
    FROM test ORDER BY x
""")
print(cur.fetchall())
con.close()

create_collation(name, callable, /)

Create a collation named name using the collating function callable. callable is passed two string arguments, and it should return an integer:

1 if the first is ordered higher than the second

-1 if the first is ordered lower than the second

0 if they are ordered equal

The following example shows a reverse sorting collation:

def collate_reverse(string1, string2):
    if string1 == string2:
        return 0
    elif string1 < string2:
        return 1
    else:
        return -1

con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
con.create_collation("reverse", collate_reverse)

cur = con.execute("CREATE TABLE test(x)")
cur.executemany("INSERT INTO test(x) VALUES(?)", [("a",), ("b",)])
cur.execute("SELECT x FROM test ORDER BY x COLLATE reverse")
for row in cur:
    print(row)
con.close()

Remove a collation function by setting callable to None.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: The collation name can contain any Unicode character. Earlier, only ASCII characters were allowed.

interrupt()

Call this method from a different thread to abort any queries that might be executing on the connection. Aborted queries will raise an OperationalError.

set_authorizer(authorizer_callback)

Register callable authorizer_callback to be invoked for each attempt to access a column of a table in the database. The callback should return one of SQLITE_OK, SQLITE_DENY, or SQLITE_IGNORE to signal how access to the column should be handled by the underlying SQLite library.

The first argument to the callback signifies what kind of operation is to be authorized. The second and third argument will be arguments or None depending on the first argument. The 4th argument is the name of the database ("main", "temp", etc.) if applicable. The 5th argument is the name of the inner-most trigger or view that is responsible for the access attempt or None if this access attempt is directly from input SQL code.

Please consult the SQLite documentation about the possible values for the first argument and the meaning of the second and third argument depending on the first one. All necessary constants are available in the sqlite3 module.

Passing None as authorizer_callback will disable the authorizer.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added support for disabling the authorizer using None.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Passing authorizer_callback as a keyword argument is deprecated. The parameter will become positional-only in Python 3.15.

set_progress_handler(progress_handler, n)

Register callable progress_handler to be invoked for every n instructions of the SQLite virtual machine. This is useful if you want to get called from SQLite during long-running operations, for example to update a GUI.

If you want to clear any previously installed progress handler, call the method with None for progress_handler.

Returning a non-zero value from the handler function will terminate the currently executing query and cause it to raise a DatabaseError exception.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Passing progress_handler as a keyword argument is deprecated. The parameter will become positional-only in Python 3.15.

set_trace_callback(trace_callback)

Register callable trace_callback to be invoked for each SQL statement that is actually executed by the SQLite backend.

The only argument passed to the callback is the statement (as str) that is being executed. The return value of the callback is ignored. Note that the backend does not only run statements passed to the Cursor.execute() methods. Other sources include the transaction management of the sqlite3 module and the execution of triggers defined in the current database.

Passing None as trace_callback will disable the trace callback.

Note

Exceptions raised in the trace callback are not propagated. As a development and debugging aid, use enable_callback_tracebacks() to enable printing tracebacks from exceptions raised in the trace callback.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Passing trace_callback as a keyword argument is deprecated. The parameter will become positional-only in Python 3.15.

enable_load_extension(enabled, /)

Enable the SQLite engine to load SQLite extensions from shared libraries if enabled is True; else, disallow loading SQLite extensions. SQLite extensions can define new functions, aggregates or whole new virtual table implementations. One well-known extension is the fulltext-search extension distributed with SQLite.

Note

The sqlite3 module is not built with loadable extension support by default, because some platforms (notably macOS) have SQLite libraries which are compiled without this feature. To get loadable extension support, you must pass the --enable-loadable-sqlite-extensions option to configure.

Raises an auditing event sqlite3.enable_load_extension with arguments connection, enabled.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Added the sqlite3.enable_load_extension auditing event.

con.enable_load_extension(True)

# Load the fulltext search extension
con.execute("select load_extension('./fts3.so')")

# alternatively you can load the extension using an API call:
# con.load_extension("./fts3.so")

# disable extension loading again
con.enable_load_extension(False)

# example from SQLite wiki
con.execute("CREATE VIRTUAL TABLE recipe USING fts3(name, ingredients)")
con.executescript("""
    INSERT INTO recipe (name, ingredients) VALUES('broccoli stew', 'broccoli peppers cheese tomatoes');
    INSERT INTO recipe (name, ingredients) VALUES('pumpkin stew', 'pumpkin onions garlic celery');
    INSERT INTO recipe (name, ingredients) VALUES('broccoli pie', 'broccoli cheese onions flour');
    INSERT INTO recipe (name, ingredients) VALUES('pumpkin pie', 'pumpkin sugar flour butter');
    """)
for row in con.execute("SELECT rowid, name, ingredients FROM recipe WHERE name MATCH 'pie'"):
    print(row)

load_extension(path, /, *, entrypoint=None)

Load an SQLite extension from a shared library. Enable extension loading with enable_load_extension() before calling this method.

Paramètres:

path (str) -- The path to the SQLite extension.

entrypoint (str | None) -- Entry point name. If None (the default), SQLite will come up with an entry point name of its own; see the SQLite docs Loading an Extension [https://www.sqlite.org/loadext.html#loading_an_extension] for details.

Raises an auditing event sqlite3.load_extension with arguments connection, path.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Added the sqlite3.load_extension auditing event.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added the entrypoint parameter.

iterdump(*, filter=None)

Return an iterator to dump the database as SQL source code. Useful when saving an in-memory database for later restoration. Similar to the .dump command in the sqlite3 shell.

Paramètres:

filter (str | None) -- An optional LIKE pattern for database objects to dump, e.g. prefix_%. If None (the default), all database objects will be included.

Exemple :

# Convert file example.db to SQL dump file dump.sql
con = sqlite3.connect('example.db')
with open('dump.sql', 'w') as f:
    for line in con.iterdump():
        f.write('%s\n' % line)
con.close()

Voir aussi

How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Ajout du paramètre filter.

backup(target, *, pages=-1, progress=None, name='main', sleep=0.250)

Create a backup of an SQLite database.

Works even if the database is being accessed by other clients or concurrently by the same connection.

Paramètres:

target (Connection) -- The database connection to save the backup to.

pages (int) -- The number of pages to copy at a time. If equal to or less than 0, the entire database is copied in a single step. Defaults to -1.

progress (callback | None) -- If set to a callable, it is invoked with three integer arguments for every backup iteration: the status of the last iteration, the remaining number of pages still to be copied, and the total number of pages. Defaults to None.

name (str) -- The name of the database to back up. Either "main" (the default) for the main database, "temp" for the temporary database, or the name of a custom database as attached using the ATTACH DATABASE SQL statement.

sleep (float) -- The number of seconds to sleep between successive attempts to back up remaining pages.

Example 1, copy an existing database into another:

def progress(status, remaining, total):
    print(f'Copied {total-remaining} of {total} pages...')

src = sqlite3.connect('example.db')
dst = sqlite3.connect('backup.db')
with dst:
    src.backup(dst, pages=1, progress=progress)
dst.close()
src.close()

Example 2, copy an existing database into a transient copy:

src = sqlite3.connect('example.db')
dst = sqlite3.connect(':memory:')
src.backup(dst)
dst.close()
src.close()

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Voir aussi

How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings

getlimit(category, /)

Get a connection runtime limit.

Paramètres:

category (int) -- The SQLite limit category [https://www.sqlite.org/c3ref/c_limit_attached.html] to be queried.

Type renvoyé:

int

Lève:

ProgrammingError -- If category is not recognised by the underlying SQLite library.

Example, query the maximum length of an SQL statement for Connection con (the default is 1000000000):

>>> con.getlimit(sqlite3.SQLITE_LIMIT_SQL_LENGTH)
1000000000

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

setlimit(category, limit, /)

Set a connection runtime limit. Attempts to increase a limit above its hard upper bound are silently truncated to the hard upper bound. Regardless of whether or not the limit was changed, the prior value of the limit is returned.

Paramètres:

category (int) -- The SQLite limit category [https://www.sqlite.org/c3ref/c_limit_attached.html] to be set.

limit (int) -- The value of the new limit. If negative, the current limit is unchanged.

Type renvoyé:

int

Lève:

ProgrammingError -- If category is not recognised by the underlying SQLite library.

Example, limit the number of attached databases to 1 for Connection con (the default limit is 10):

>>> con.setlimit(sqlite3.SQLITE_LIMIT_ATTACHED, 1)
10
>>> con.getlimit(sqlite3.SQLITE_LIMIT_ATTACHED)
1

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

getconfig(op, /)

Query a boolean connection configuration option.

Paramètres:

op (int) -- A SQLITE_DBCONFIG code.

Type renvoyé:

bool

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

setconfig(op, enable=True, /)

Set a boolean connection configuration option.

Paramètres:

op (int) -- A SQLITE_DBCONFIG code.

enable (bool) -- True if the configuration option should be enabled (default); False if it should be disabled.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

serialize(*, name='main')

Serialize a database into a bytes object. For an ordinary on-disk database file, the serialization is just a copy of the disk file. For an in-memory database or a "temp" database, the serialization is the same sequence of bytes which would be written to disk if that database were backed up to disk.

Paramètres:

name (str) -- The database name to be serialized. Defaults to "main".

Type renvoyé:

bytes

Note

This method is only available if the underlying SQLite library has the serialize API.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

deserialize(data, /, *, name='main')

Deserialize a serialized database into a Connection. This method causes the database connection to disconnect from database name, and reopen name as an in-memory database based on the serialization contained in data.

Paramètres:

data (bytes) -- A serialized database.

name (str) -- The database name to deserialize into. Defaults to "main".

Lève:

OperationalError -- If the database connection is currently involved in a read transaction or a backup operation.

DatabaseError -- If data does not contain a valid SQLite database.

OverflowError -- If len(data) is larger than 2**63 - 1.

Note

This method is only available if the underlying SQLite library has the deserialize API.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

autocommit

This attribute controls PEP 249 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/]-compliant transaction behaviour. autocommit has three allowed values:

False: Select PEP 249 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/]-compliant transaction behaviour, implying that sqlite3 ensures a transaction is always open. Use commit() and rollback() to close transactions.

This is the recommended value of autocommit.

True: Use SQLite's autocommit mode [https://www.sqlite.org/lang_transaction.html#implicit_versus_explicit_transactions]. commit() and rollback() have no effect in this mode.

LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL: Pre-Python 3.12 (non-PEP 249 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/]-compliant) transaction control. See isolation_level for more details.

This is currently the default value of autocommit.

Changing autocommit to False will open a new transaction, and changing it to True will commit any pending transaction.

See Transaction control via the autocommit attribute for more details.

Note

The isolation_level attribute has no effect unless autocommit is LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

in_transaction

This read-only attribute corresponds to the low-level SQLite autocommit mode [https://www.sqlite.org/lang_transaction.html#implicit_versus_explicit_transactions].

True if a transaction is active (there are uncommitted changes), False otherwise.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

isolation_level

Controls the legacy transaction handling mode of sqlite3. If set to None, transactions are never implicitly opened. If set to one of "DEFERRED", "IMMEDIATE", or "EXCLUSIVE", corresponding to the underlying SQLite transaction behaviour [https://www.sqlite.org/lang_transaction.html#deferred_immediate_and_exclusive_transactions], implicit transaction management is performed.

If not overridden by the isolation_level parameter of connect(), the default is "", which is an alias for "DEFERRED".

Note

Using autocommit to control transaction handling is recommended over using isolation_level. isolation_level has no effect unless autocommit is set to LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL (the default).

row_factory

The initial row_factory for Cursor objects created from this connection. Assigning to this attribute does not affect the row_factory of existing cursors belonging to this connection, only new ones. Is None by default, meaning each row is returned as a tuple.

See How to create and use row factories for more details.

text_factory

A callable that accepts a bytes parameter and returns a text representation of it. The callable is invoked for SQLite values with the TEXT data type. By default, this attribute is set to str.

See How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings for more details.

total_changes

Return the total number of database rows that have been modified, inserted, or deleted since the database connection was opened.

Cursor objects

A Cursor object represents a database cursor [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cursor_(databases)] which is used to execute SQL statements, and manage the context of a fetch operation. Cursors are created using Connection.cursor(), or by using any of the connection shortcut methods.

Cursor objects are iterators, meaning that if you execute() a SELECT query, you can simply iterate over the cursor to fetch the resulting rows:

for row in cur.execute("SELECT t FROM data"):
    print(row)

class sqlite3.Cursor

A Cursor instance has the following attributes and methods.

execute(sql, parameters=(), /)

Execute a single SQL statement, optionally binding Python values using placeholders.

Paramètres:

sql (str) -- A single SQL statement.

parameters (dict | sequence) -- Python values to bind to placeholders in sql. A dict if named placeholders are used. A sequence if unnamed placeholders are used. See How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries.

Lève:

ProgrammingError -- When sql contains more than one SQL statement. When named placeholders are used and parameters is a sequence instead of a dict.

If autocommit is LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL, isolation_level is not None, sql is an INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, or REPLACE statement, and there is no open transaction, a transaction is implicitly opened before executing sql.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: ProgrammingError is emitted if named placeholders are used and parameters is a sequence instead of a dict.

Use executescript() to execute multiple SQL statements.

executemany(sql, parameters, /)

For every item in parameters, repeatedly execute the parameterized DML SQL statement sql.

Uses the same implicit transaction handling as execute().

Paramètres:

sql (str) -- A single SQL DML statement.

parameters (iterable) -- An iterable of parameters to bind with the placeholders in sql. See How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries.

Lève:

ProgrammingError -- When sql contains more than one SQL statement or is not a DML statement, When named placeholders are used and the items in parameters are sequences instead of dicts.

Exemple :

rows = [
    ("row1",),
    ("row2",),
]
# cur is an sqlite3.Cursor object
cur.executemany("INSERT INTO data VALUES(?)", rows)

Note

Any resulting rows are discarded, including DML statements with RETURNING clauses [https://www.sqlite.org/lang_returning.html].

Modifié dans la version 3.14: ProgrammingError is emitted if named placeholders are used and the items in parameters are sequences instead of dicts.

executescript(sql_script, /)

Execute the SQL statements in sql_script. If the autocommit is LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL and there is a pending transaction, an implicit COMMIT statement is executed first. No other implicit transaction control is performed; any transaction control must be added to sql_script.

sql_script must be a string.

Exemple :

# cur is an sqlite3.Cursor object
cur.executescript("""
    BEGIN;
    CREATE TABLE person(firstname, lastname, age);
    CREATE TABLE book(title, author, published);
    CREATE TABLE publisher(name, address);
    COMMIT;
""")

fetchone()

If row_factory is None, return the next row query result set as a tuple. Else, pass it to the row factory and return its result. Return None if no more data is available.

fetchmany(size=cursor.arraysize)

Return the next set of rows of a query result as a list. Return an empty list if no more rows are available.

The number of rows to fetch per call is specified by the size parameter. If size is not given, arraysize determines the number of rows to be fetched. If fewer than size rows are available, as many rows as are available are returned.

Note there are performance considerations involved with the size parameter. For optimal performance, it is usually best to use the arraysize attribute. If the size parameter is used, then it is best for it to retain the same value from one fetchmany() call to the next.

Modifié dans la version 3.14.1: Negative size values are rejected by raising ValueError.

fetchall()

Return all (remaining) rows of a query result as a list. Return an empty list if no rows are available. Note that the arraysize attribute can affect the performance of this operation.

close()

Close the cursor now (rather than whenever __del__ is called).

The cursor will be unusable from this point forward; a ProgrammingError exception will be raised if any operation is attempted with the cursor.

setinputsizes(sizes, /)

Required by the DB-API. Does nothing in sqlite3.

setoutputsize(size, column=None, /)

Required by the DB-API. Does nothing in sqlite3.

arraysize

Read/write attribute that controls the number of rows returned by fetchmany(). The default value is 1 which means a single row would be fetched per call.

Modifié dans la version 3.14.1: Negative values are rejected by raising ValueError.

connection

Read-only attribute that provides the SQLite database Connection belonging to the cursor. A Cursor object created by calling con.cursor() will have a connection attribute that refers to con:

>>> con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
>>> cur = con.cursor()
>>> cur.connection == con
True
>>> con.close()

description

Read-only attribute that provides the column names of the last query. To remain compatible with the Python DB API, it returns a 7-tuple for each column where the last six items of each tuple are None.

It is set for SELECT statements without any matching rows as well.

lastrowid

Read-only attribute that provides the row id of the last inserted row. It is only updated after successful INSERT or REPLACE statements using the execute() method. For other statements, after executemany() or executescript(), or if the insertion failed, the value of lastrowid is left unchanged. The initial value of lastrowid is None.

Note

Inserts into WITHOUT ROWID tables are not recorded.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Added support for the REPLACE statement.

rowcount

Read-only attribute that provides the number of modified rows for INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, and REPLACE statements; is -1 for other statements, including CTE queries. It is only updated by the execute() and executemany() methods, after the statement has run to completion. This means that any resulting rows must be fetched in order for rowcount to be updated.

row_factory

Control how a row fetched from this Cursor is represented. If None, a row is represented as a tuple. Can be set to the included sqlite3.Row; or a callable that accepts two arguments, a Cursor object and the tuple of row values, and returns a custom object representing an SQLite row.

Defaults to what Connection.row_factory was set to when the Cursor was created. Assigning to this attribute does not affect Connection.row_factory of the parent connection.

See How to create and use row factories for more details.

Row objects

class sqlite3.Row

A Row instance serves as a highly optimized row_factory for Connection objects. It supports iteration, equality testing, len(), and mapping access by column name and index.

Two Row objects compare equal if they have identical column names and values.

See How to create and use row factories for more details.

keys()

Return a list of column names as strings. Immediately after a query, it is the first member of each tuple in Cursor.description.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Added support of slicing.

Blob objects

class sqlite3.Blob

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

A Blob instance is a file-like object that can read and write data in an SQLite BLOB. Call len(blob) to get the size (number of bytes) of the blob. Use indices and slices for direct access to the blob data.

Use the Blob as a context manager to ensure that the blob handle is closed after use.

con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
con.execute("CREATE TABLE test(blob_col blob)")
con.execute("INSERT INTO test(blob_col) VALUES(zeroblob(13))")

# Write to our blob, using two write operations:
with con.blobopen("test", "blob_col", 1) as blob:
    blob.write(b"hello, ")
    blob.write(b"world.")
    # Modify the first and last bytes of our blob
    blob[0] = ord("H")
    blob[-1] = ord("!")

# Read the contents of our blob
with con.blobopen("test", "blob_col", 1) as blob:
    greeting = blob.read()

print(greeting)  # outputs "b'Hello, world!'"
con.close()

close()

Close the blob.

The blob will be unusable from this point onward. An Error (or subclass) exception will be raised if any further operation is attempted with the blob.

read(length=-1, /)

Read length bytes of data from the blob at the current offset position. If the end of the blob is reached, the data up to EOF will be returned. When length is not specified, or is negative, read() will read until the end of the blob.

write(data, /)

Write data to the blob at the current offset. This function cannot change the blob length. Writing beyond the end of the blob will raise ValueError.

tell()

Return the current access position of the blob.

seek(offset, origin=os.SEEK_SET, /)

Set the current access position of the blob to offset. The origin argument defaults to os.SEEK_SET (absolute blob positioning). Other values for origin are os.SEEK_CUR (seek relative to the current position) and os.SEEK_END (seek relative to the blob’s end).

PrepareProtocol objects

class sqlite3.PrepareProtocol

The PrepareProtocol type's single purpose is to act as a PEP 246 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0246/] style adaption protocol for objects that can adapt themselves to native SQLite types.

Exceptions

The exception hierarchy is defined by the DB-API 2.0 (PEP 249 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/]).

exception sqlite3.Warning

This exception is not currently raised by the sqlite3 module, but may be raised by applications using sqlite3, for example if a user-defined function truncates data while inserting. Warning is a subclass of Exception.

exception sqlite3.Error

The base class of the other exceptions in this module. Use this to catch all errors with one single except statement. Error is a subclass of Exception.

If the exception originated from within the SQLite library, the following two attributes are added to the exception:

sqlite_errorcode

The numeric error code from the SQLite API [https://sqlite.org/rescode.html]

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

sqlite_errorname

The symbolic name of the numeric error code from the SQLite API [https://sqlite.org/rescode.html]

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

exception sqlite3.InterfaceError

Exception raised for misuse of the low-level SQLite C API. In other words, if this exception is raised, it probably indicates a bug in the sqlite3 module. InterfaceError is a subclass of Error.

exception sqlite3.DatabaseError

Exception raised for errors that are related to the database. This serves as the base exception for several types of database errors. It is only raised implicitly through the specialised subclasses. DatabaseError is a subclass of Error.

exception sqlite3.DataError

Exception raised for errors caused by problems with the processed data, like numeric values out of range, and strings which are too long. DataError is a subclass of DatabaseError.

exception sqlite3.OperationalError

Exception raised for errors that are related to the database's operation, and not necessarily under the control of the programmer. For example, the database path is not found, or a transaction could not be processed. OperationalError is a subclass of DatabaseError.

exception sqlite3.IntegrityError

Exception raised when the relational integrity of the database is affected, e.g. a foreign key check fails. It is a subclass of DatabaseError.

exception sqlite3.InternalError

Exception raised when SQLite encounters an internal error. If this is raised, it may indicate that there is a problem with the runtime SQLite library. InternalError is a subclass of DatabaseError.

exception sqlite3.ProgrammingError

Exception raised for sqlite3 API programming errors, for example supplying the wrong number of bindings to a query, or trying to operate on a closed Connection. ProgrammingError is a subclass of DatabaseError.

exception sqlite3.NotSupportedError

Exception raised in case a method or database API is not supported by the underlying SQLite library. For example, setting deterministic to True in create_function(), if the underlying SQLite library does not support deterministic functions. NotSupportedError is a subclass of DatabaseError.

SQLite and Python types

SQLite natively supports the following types: NULL, INTEGER, REAL, TEXT, BLOB.

The following Python types can thus be sent to SQLite without any problem:

Type Python

SQLite type

None

NULL

int

INTEGER

float

REAL

str

TEXT

bytes

BLOB

This is how SQLite types are converted to Python types by default:

SQLite type

Type Python

NULL

None

INTEGER

int

REAL

float

TEXT

depends on text_factory, str by default

BLOB

bytes

The type system of the sqlite3 module is extensible in two ways: you can store additional Python types in an SQLite database via object adapters, and you can let the sqlite3 module convert SQLite types to Python types via converters.

Default adapters and converters (deprecated)

Note

The default adapters and converters are deprecated as of Python 3.12. Instead, use the Adapter and converter recipes and tailor them to your needs.

The deprecated default adapters and converters consist of:

An adapter for datetime.date objects to strings in ISO 8601 [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_8601] format.

An adapter for datetime.datetime objects to strings in ISO 8601 format.

A converter for declared "date" types to datetime.date objects.

A converter for declared "timestamp" types to datetime.datetime objects. Fractional parts will be truncated to 6 digits (microsecond precision).

Note

The default "timestamp" converter ignores UTC offsets in the database and always returns a naive datetime.datetime object. To preserve UTC offsets in timestamps, either leave converters disabled, or register an offset-aware converter with register_converter().

Obsolète depuis la version 3.12.

Command-line interface

The sqlite3 module can be invoked as a script, using the interpreter's -m switch, in order to provide a simple SQLite shell. The argument signature is as follows:

python -m sqlite3 [-h] [-v] [filename] [sql]

Type .quit or CTRL-D to exit the shell.

-h, --help

Print CLI help.

-v, --version

Print underlying SQLite library version.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

How-to guides

How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries

SQL operations usually need to use values from Python variables. However, beware of using Python's string operations to assemble queries, as they are vulnerable to SQL injection attacks [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL_injection]. For example, an attacker can simply close the single quote and inject OR TRUE to select all rows:

>>> # Never do this -- insecure!
>>> symbol = input()
' OR TRUE; --
>>> sql = "SELECT * FROM stocks WHERE symbol = '%s'" % symbol
>>> print(sql)
SELECT * FROM stocks WHERE symbol = '' OR TRUE; --'
>>> cur.execute(sql)

Instead, use the DB-API's parameter substitution. To insert a variable into a query string, use a placeholder in the string, and substitute the actual values into the query by providing them as a tuple of values to the second argument of the cursor's execute() method.

An SQL statement may use one of two kinds of placeholders: question marks (qmark style) or named placeholders (named style). For the qmark style, parameters must be a sequence whose length must match the number of placeholders, or a ProgrammingError is raised. For the named style, parameters must be an instance of a dict (or a subclass), which must contain keys for all named parameters; any extra items are ignored. Here's an example of both styles:

con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
cur = con.execute("CREATE TABLE lang(name, first_appeared)")

# This is the named style used with executemany():
data = (
    {"name": "C", "year": 1972},
    {"name": "Fortran", "year": 1957},
    {"name": "Python", "year": 1991},
    {"name": "Go", "year": 2009},
)
cur.executemany("INSERT INTO lang VALUES(:name, :year)", data)

# This is the qmark style used in a SELECT query:
params = (1972,)
cur.execute("SELECT * FROM lang WHERE first_appeared = ?", params)
print(cur.fetchall())
con.close()

Note

PEP 249 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/] numeric placeholders are not supported. If used, they will be interpreted as named placeholders.

How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values

SQLite supports only a limited set of data types natively. To store custom Python types in SQLite databases, adapt them to one of the Python types SQLite natively understands.

There are two ways to adapt Python objects to SQLite types: letting your object adapt itself, or using an adapter callable. The latter will take precedence above the former. For a library that exports a custom type, it may make sense to enable that type to adapt itself. As an application developer, it may make more sense to take direct control by registering custom adapter functions.

How to write adaptable objects

Suppose we have a Point class that represents a pair of coordinates, x and y, in a Cartesian coordinate system. The coordinate pair will be stored as a text string in the database, using a semicolon to separate the coordinates. This can be implemented by adding a __conform__(self, protocol) method which returns the adapted value. The object passed to protocol will be of type PrepareProtocol.

class Point:
    def __init__(self, x, y):
        self.x, self.y = x, y

    def __conform__(self, protocol):
        if protocol is sqlite3.PrepareProtocol:
            return f"{self.x};{self.y}"

con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
cur = con.cursor()

cur.execute("SELECT ?", (Point(4.0, -3.2),))
print(cur.fetchone()[0])
con.close()

How to register adapter callables

The other possibility is to create a function that converts the Python object to an SQLite-compatible type. This function can then be registered using register_adapter().

class Point:
    def __init__(self, x, y):
        self.x, self.y = x, y

def adapt_point(point):
    return f"{point.x};{point.y}"

sqlite3.register_adapter(Point, adapt_point)

con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
cur = con.cursor()

cur.execute("SELECT ?", (Point(1.0, 2.5),))
print(cur.fetchone()[0])
con.close()

How to convert SQLite values to custom Python types

Writing an adapter lets you convert from custom Python types to SQLite values. To be able to convert from SQLite values to custom Python types, we use converters.

Let's go back to the Point class. We stored the x and y coordinates separated via semicolons as strings in SQLite.

First, we'll define a converter function that accepts the string as a parameter and constructs a Point object from it.

Note

Converter functions are always passed a bytes object, no matter the underlying SQLite data type.

def convert_point(s):
    x, y = map(float, s.split(b";"))
    return Point(x, y)

We now need to tell sqlite3 when it should convert a given SQLite value. This is done when connecting to a database, using the detect_types parameter of connect(). There are three options:

Implicit: set detect_types to PARSE_DECLTYPES

Explicit: set detect_types to PARSE_COLNAMES

Both: set detect_types to sqlite3.PARSE_DECLTYPES | sqlite3.PARSE_COLNAMES. Column names take precedence over declared types.

The following example illustrates the implicit and explicit approaches:

class Point:
    def __init__(self, x, y):
        self.x, self.y = x, y

    def __repr__(self):
        return f"Point({self.x}, {self.y})"

def adapt_point(point):
    return f"{point.x};{point.y}"

def convert_point(s):
    x, y = list(map(float, s.split(b";")))
    return Point(x, y)

# Register the adapter and converter
sqlite3.register_adapter(Point, adapt_point)
sqlite3.register_converter("point", convert_point)

# 1) Parse using declared types
p = Point(4.0, -3.2)
con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:", detect_types=sqlite3.PARSE_DECLTYPES)
cur = con.execute("CREATE TABLE test(p point)")

cur.execute("INSERT INTO test(p) VALUES(?)", (p,))
cur.execute("SELECT p FROM test")
print("with declared types:", cur.fetchone()[0])
cur.close()
con.close()

# 2) Parse using column names
con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:", detect_types=sqlite3.PARSE_COLNAMES)
cur = con.execute("CREATE TABLE test(p)")

cur.execute("INSERT INTO test(p) VALUES(?)", (p,))
cur.execute('SELECT p AS "p [point]" FROM test')
print("with column names:", cur.fetchone()[0])
cur.close()
con.close()

Adapter and converter recipes

This section shows recipes for common adapters and converters.

import datetime as dt
import sqlite3

def adapt_date_iso(val):
    """Adapt datetime.date to ISO 8601 date."""
    return val.isoformat()

def adapt_datetime_iso(val):
    """Adapt datetime.datetime to timezone-naive ISO 8601 date."""
    return val.replace(tzinfo=None).isoformat()

def adapt_datetime_epoch(val):
    """Adapt datetime.datetime to Unix timestamp."""
    return int(val.timestamp())

sqlite3.register_adapter(dt.date, adapt_date_iso)
sqlite3.register_adapter(dt.datetime, adapt_datetime_iso)
sqlite3.register_adapter(dt.datetime, adapt_datetime_epoch)

def convert_date(val):
    """Convert ISO 8601 date to datetime.date object."""
    return dt.date.fromisoformat(val.decode())

def convert_datetime(val):
    """Convert ISO 8601 datetime to datetime.datetime object."""
    return dt.datetime.fromisoformat(val.decode())

def convert_timestamp(val):
    """Convert Unix epoch timestamp to datetime.datetime object."""
    return dt.datetime.fromtimestamp(int(val))

sqlite3.register_converter("date", convert_date)
sqlite3.register_converter("datetime", convert_datetime)
sqlite3.register_converter("timestamp", convert_timestamp)

How to use connection shortcut methods

Using the execute(), executemany(), and executescript() methods of the Connection class, your code can be written more concisely because you don't have to create the (often superfluous) Cursor objects explicitly. Instead, the Cursor objects are created implicitly and these shortcut methods return the cursor objects. This way, you can execute a SELECT statement and iterate over it directly using only a single call on the Connection object.

# Create and fill the table.
con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
con.execute("CREATE TABLE lang(name, first_appeared)")
data = [
    ("C++", 1985),
    ("Objective-C", 1984),
]
con.executemany("INSERT INTO lang(name, first_appeared) VALUES(?, ?)", data)

# Print the table contents
for row in con.execute("SELECT name, first_appeared FROM lang"):
    print(row)

print("I just deleted", con.execute("DELETE FROM lang").rowcount, "rows")

# close() is not a shortcut method and it's not called automatically;
# the connection object should be closed manually
con.close()

How to use the connection context manager

A Connection object can be used as a context manager that automatically commits or rolls back open transactions when leaving the body of the context manager. If the body of the with statement finishes without exceptions, the transaction is committed. If this commit fails, or if the body of the with statement raises an uncaught exception, the transaction is rolled back. If autocommit is False, a new transaction is implicitly opened after committing or rolling back.

If there is no open transaction upon leaving the body of the with statement, or if autocommit is True, the context manager does nothing.

Note

The context manager neither implicitly opens a new transaction nor closes the connection. If you need a closing context manager, consider using contextlib.closing().

con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
con.execute("CREATE TABLE lang(id INTEGER PRIMARY KEY, name VARCHAR UNIQUE)")

# Successful, con.commit() is called automatically afterwards
with con:
    con.execute("INSERT INTO lang(name) VALUES(?)", ("Python",))

# con.rollback() is called after the with block finishes with an exception,
# the exception is still raised and must be caught
try:
    with con:
        con.execute("INSERT INTO lang(name) VALUES(?)", ("Python",))
except sqlite3.IntegrityError:
    print("couldn't add Python twice")

# Connection object used as context manager only commits or rollbacks transactions,
# so the connection object should be closed manually
con.close()

How to work with SQLite URIs

Some useful URI tricks include:

Open a database in read-only mode:

>>> con = sqlite3.connect("file:tutorial.db?mode=ro", uri=True)
>>> con.execute("CREATE TABLE readonly(data)")
Traceback (most recent call last):
OperationalError: attempt to write a readonly database
>>> con.close()

Do not implicitly create a new database file if it does not already exist; will raise OperationalError if unable to create a new file:

>>> con = sqlite3.connect("file:nosuchdb.db?mode=rw", uri=True)
Traceback (most recent call last):
OperationalError: unable to open database file

Create a shared named in-memory database:

db = "file:mem1?mode=memory&cache=shared"
con1 = sqlite3.connect(db, uri=True)
con2 = sqlite3.connect(db, uri=True)
with con1:
    con1.execute("CREATE TABLE shared(data)")
    con1.execute("INSERT INTO shared VALUES(28)")
res = con2.execute("SELECT data FROM shared")
assert res.fetchone() == (28,)

con1.close()
con2.close()

More information about this feature, including a list of parameters, can be found in the SQLite URI documentation [https://www.sqlite.org/uri.html].

How to create and use row factories

By default, sqlite3 represents each row as a tuple. If a tuple does not suit your needs, you can use the sqlite3.Row class or a custom row_factory.

While row_factory exists as an attribute both on the Cursor and the Connection, it is recommended to set Connection.row_factory, so all cursors created from the connection will use the same row factory.

Row provides indexed and case-insensitive named access to columns, with minimal memory overhead and performance impact over a tuple. To use Row as a row factory, assign it to the row_factory attribute:

>>> con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
>>> con.row_factory = sqlite3.Row

Queries now return Row objects:

>>> res = con.execute("SELECT 'Earth' AS name, 6378 AS radius")
>>> row = res.fetchone()
>>> row.keys()
['name', 'radius']
>>> row[0]         # Access by index.
'Earth'
>>> row["name"]    # Access by name.
'Earth'
>>> row["RADIUS"]  # Column names are case-insensitive.
6378
>>> con.close()

Note

The FROM clause can be omitted in the SELECT statement, as in the above example. In such cases, SQLite returns a single row with columns defined by expressions, e.g. literals, with the given aliases expr AS alias.

You can create a custom row_factory that returns each row as a dict, with column names mapped to values:

def dict_factory(cursor, row):
    fields = [column[0] for column in cursor.description]
    return {key: value for key, value in zip(fields, row)}

Using it, queries now return a dict instead of a tuple:

>>> con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
>>> con.row_factory = dict_factory
>>> for row in con.execute("SELECT 1 AS a, 2 AS b"):
...     print(row)
{'a': 1, 'b': 2}
>>> con.close()

The following row factory returns a named tuple:

from collections import namedtuple

def namedtuple_factory(cursor, row):
    fields = [column[0] for column in cursor.description]
    cls = namedtuple("Row", fields)
    return cls._make(row)

namedtuple_factory() can be used as follows:

>>> con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
>>> con.row_factory = namedtuple_factory
>>> cur = con.execute("SELECT 1 AS a, 2 AS b")
>>> row = cur.fetchone()
>>> row
Row(a=1, b=2)
>>> row[0]  # Indexed access.
1
>>> row.b   # Attribute access.
2
>>> con.close()

With some adjustments, the above recipe can be adapted to use a dataclass, or any other custom class, instead of a namedtuple.

How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings

By default, sqlite3 uses str to adapt SQLite values with the TEXT data type. This works well for UTF-8 encoded text, but it might fail for other encodings and invalid UTF-8. You can use a custom text_factory to handle such cases.

Because of SQLite's flexible typing [https://www.sqlite.org/flextypegood.html], it is not uncommon to encounter table columns with the TEXT data type containing non-UTF-8 encodings, or even arbitrary data. To demonstrate, let's assume we have a database with ISO-8859-2 (Latin-2) encoded text, for example a table of Czech-English dictionary entries. Assuming we now have a Connection instance con connected to this database, we can decode the Latin-2 encoded text using this text_factory:

con.text_factory = lambda data: str(data, encoding="latin2")

For invalid UTF-8 or arbitrary data in stored in TEXT table columns, you can use the following technique, borrowed from the Guide Unicode:

con.text_factory = lambda data: str(data, errors="surrogateescape")

Note

The sqlite3 module API does not support strings containing surrogates.

Voir aussi

Guide Unicode

Explanation

Transaction control

sqlite3 offers multiple methods of controlling whether, when and how database transactions are opened and closed. Transaction control via the autocommit attribute is recommended, while Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute retains the pre-Python 3.12 behaviour.

Transaction control via the autocommit attribute

The recommended way of controlling transaction behaviour is through the Connection.autocommit attribute, which should preferably be set using the autocommit parameter of connect().

It is suggested to set autocommit to False, which implies PEP 249 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/]-compliant transaction control. This means:

sqlite3 ensures that a transaction is always open, so connect(), Connection.commit(), and Connection.rollback() will implicitly open a new transaction (immediately after closing the pending one, for the latter two). sqlite3 uses BEGIN DEFERRED statements when opening transactions.

Transactions should be committed explicitly using commit().

Transactions should be rolled back explicitly using rollback().

An implicit rollback is performed if the database is close()-ed with pending changes.

Set autocommit to True to enable SQLite's autocommit mode [https://www.sqlite.org/lang_transaction.html#implicit_versus_explicit_transactions]. In this mode, Connection.commit() and Connection.rollback() have no effect. Note that SQLite's autocommit mode is distinct from the PEP 249 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/]-compliant Connection.autocommit attribute; use Connection.in_transaction to query the low-level SQLite autocommit mode.

Set autocommit to LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL to leave transaction control behaviour to the Connection.isolation_level attribute. See Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute for more information.

Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute

Note

The recommended way of controlling transactions is via the autocommit attribute. See Transaction control via the autocommit attribute.

If Connection.autocommit is set to LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL (the default), transaction behaviour is controlled using the Connection.isolation_level attribute. Otherwise, isolation_level has no effect.

If the connection attribute isolation_level is not None, new transactions are implicitly opened before execute() and executemany() executes INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, or REPLACE statements; for other statements, no implicit transaction handling is performed. Use the commit() and rollback() methods to respectively commit and roll back pending transactions. You can choose the underlying SQLite transaction behaviour [https://www.sqlite.org/lang_transaction.html#deferred_immediate_and_exclusive_transactions] — that is, whether and what type of BEGIN statements sqlite3 implicitly executes – via the isolation_level attribute.

If isolation_level is set to None, no transactions are implicitly opened at all. This leaves the underlying SQLite library in autocommit mode [https://www.sqlite.org/lang_transaction.html#implicit_versus_explicit_transactions], but also allows the user to perform their own transaction handling using explicit SQL statements. The underlying SQLite library autocommit mode can be queried using the in_transaction attribute.

The executescript() method implicitly commits any pending transaction before execution of the given SQL script, regardless of the value of isolation_level.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: sqlite3 used to implicitly commit an open transaction before DDL statements. This is no longer the case.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: The recommended way of controlling transactions is now via the autocommit attribute.

Compression de donnée et archivage

The modules described in this chapter support data compression with the zlib, gzip, bzip2, lzma, and zstd algorithms, and the creation of ZIP- and tar-format archives. See also Archiving operations provided by the shutil module.

The compression package

compression.zstd --- Compression compatible with the Zstandard format

Exceptions

Lire et écrire des fichiers compressés

Compresser et décompresser une donnée en mémoire

Zstandard dictionaries

Advanced parameter control

Divers

Exemples

zlib --- Compression compatible with gzip

gzip --- Support for gzip files

Exemples d'utilisation

Command-line interface

Command-line options

bz2 --- Support for bzip2 compression

(Dé)compression de fichiers

(Dé)compression incrémentielle

(Dé)compression en une fois

Exemples d'utilisation

lzma --- Compression using the LZMA algorithm

Lire et écrire des fichiers compressés

Compresser et décompresser une donnée en mémoire

Divers

Préciser des chaînes de filtre personnalisées

Exemples

zipfile --- Work with ZIP archives

ZipFile objects

Path objects

PyZipFile objects

ZipInfo objects

Command-line interface

Options de la ligne de commande

Problèmes de décompression

À cause du fichier lui-même

File system limitations

Ressources limitées

Interruption

Comportements par défaut de l'extraction

tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files

Les objets TarFile

Les objets TarInfo

Extraction filters

Default named filters

Filter errors

Hints for further verification

Supporting older Python versions

Stateful extraction filter example

Interface en ligne de commande

Options de la ligne de commande

Exemples

Reading examples

Writing examples

Formats tar pris en charge

Problèmes unicode

The compression package

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

The compression package contains the canonical compression modules containing interfaces to several different compression algorithms. Some of these modules have historically been available as separate modules; those will continue to be available under their original names for compatibility reasons, and will not be removed without a deprecation cycle. The use of modules in compression is encouraged where practical.

compression.bz2 -- Re-exports bz2

compression.gzip -- Re-exports gzip

compression.lzma -- Re-exports lzma

compression.zlib -- Re-exports zlib

compression.zstd -- Wrapper for the Zstandard compression library

compression.zstd --- Compression compatible with the Zstandard format

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Source code: Lib/compression/zstd/__init__.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/compression/zstd/__init__.py]

This module provides classes and functions for compressing and decompressing data using the Zstandard (or zstd) compression algorithm. The zstd manual [https://facebook.github.io/zstd/doc/api_manual_latest.html] describes Zstandard as "a fast lossless compression algorithm, targeting real-time compression scenarios at zlib-level and better compression ratios." Also included is a file interface that supports reading and writing the contents of .zst files created by the zstd utility, as well as raw zstd compressed streams.

The compression.zstd module contains:

The open() function and ZstdFile class for reading and writing compressed files.

The ZstdCompressor and ZstdDecompressor classes for incremental (de)compression.

Les fonctions compress() et decompress() pour la (dé)compression en une seule fois.

The train_dict() and finalize_dict() functions and the ZstdDict class to train and manage Zstandard dictionaries.

The CompressionParameter, DecompressionParameter, and Strategy classes for setting advanced (de)compression parameters.

This is an optional module. If it is missing from your copy of CPython, look for documentation from your distributor (that is, whoever provided Python to you). If you are the distributor, see Requirements for optional modules.

Exceptions

exception compression.zstd.ZstdError

This exception is raised when an error occurs during compression or decompression, or while initializing the (de)compressor state.

Lire et écrire des fichiers compressés

compression.zstd.open(file, /, mode='rb', *, level=None, options=None, zstd_dict=None, encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None)

Open a Zstandard-compressed file in binary or text mode, returning a file object.

The file argument can be either a file name (given as a str, bytes or path-like object), in which case the named file is opened, or it can be an existing file object to read from or write to.

The mode argument can be either 'rb' for reading (default), 'wb' for overwriting, 'ab' for appending, or 'xb' for exclusive creation. These can equivalently be given as 'r', 'w', 'a', and 'x' respectively. You may also open in text mode with 'rt', 'wt', 'at', and 'xt' respectively.

When reading, the options argument can be a dictionary providing advanced decompression parameters; see DecompressionParameter for detailed information about supported parameters. The zstd_dict argument is a ZstdDict instance to be used during decompression. When reading, if the level argument is not None, a TypeError will be raised.

When writing, the options argument can be a dictionary providing advanced compression parameters; see CompressionParameter for detailed information about supported parameters. The level argument is the compression level to use when writing compressed data. Only one of level or options may be non-None. The zstd_dict argument is a ZstdDict instance to be used during compression.

In binary mode, this function is equivalent to the ZstdFile constructor: ZstdFile(file, mode, ...). In this case, the encoding, errors, and newline parameters must not be provided.

In text mode, a ZstdFile object is created, and wrapped in an io.TextIOWrapper instance with the specified encoding, error handling behavior, and line endings.

class compression.zstd.ZstdFile(file, /, mode='rb', *, level=None, options=None, zstd_dict=None)

Open a Zstandard-compressed file in binary mode.

A ZstdFile can wrap an already-open file object, or operate directly on a named file. The file argument specifies either the file object to wrap, or the name of the file to open (as a str, bytes or path-like object). If wrapping an existing file object, the wrapped file will not be closed when the ZstdFile is closed.

The mode argument can be either 'rb' for reading (default), 'wb' for overwriting, 'xb' for exclusive creation, or 'ab' for appending. These can equivalently be given as 'r', 'w', 'x' and 'a' respectively.

If file is a file object (rather than an actual file name), a mode of 'w' does not truncate the file, and is instead equivalent to 'a'.

When reading, the options argument can be a dictionary providing advanced decompression parameters; see DecompressionParameter for detailed information about supported parameters. The zstd_dict argument is a ZstdDict instance to be used during decompression. When reading, if the level argument is not None, a TypeError will be raised.

When writing, the options argument can be a dictionary providing advanced compression parameters; see CompressionParameter for detailed information about supported parameters. The level argument is the compression level to use when writing compressed data. Only one of level or options may be passed. The zstd_dict argument is a ZstdDict instance to be used during compression.

ZstdFile supports all the members specified by io.BufferedIOBase, except for detach() and truncate(). Iteration and the with statement are supported.

The following method and attributes are also provided:

peek(size=-1)

Renvoie la donnée en mémoire-tampon sans progression de la position du fichier. Au moins un octet de donnée sera renvoyé, jusqu'à ce que l'EOF soit atteinte. Le nombre exact d'octets renvoyés demeure indéterminé (l'argument taille est ignoré).

Note

While calling peek() does not change the file position of the ZstdFile, it may change the position of the underlying file object (for example, if the ZstdFile was constructed by passing a file object for file).

mode

'rb' for reading and 'wb' for writing.

name

The name of the Zstandard file. Equivalent to the name attribute of the underlying file object.

Compresser et décompresser une donnée en mémoire

compression.zstd.compress(data, level=None, options=None, zstd_dict=None)

Compress data (a bytes-like object), returning the compressed data as a bytes object.

The level argument is an integer controlling the level of compression. level is an alternative to setting CompressionParameter.compression_level in options. Use bounds() on compression_level to get the values that can be passed for level. If advanced compression options are needed, the level argument must be omitted and in the options dictionary the CompressionParameter.compression_level parameter should be set.

The options argument is a Python dictionary containing advanced compression parameters. The valid keys and values for compression parameters are documented as part of the CompressionParameter documentation.

The zstd_dict argument is an instance of ZstdDict containing trained data to improve compression efficiency. The function train_dict() can be used to generate a Zstandard dictionary.

compression.zstd.decompress(data, zstd_dict=None, options=None)

Decompress data (a bytes-like object), returning the uncompressed data as a bytes object.

The options argument is a Python dictionary containing advanced decompression parameters. The valid keys and values for compression parameters are documented as part of the DecompressionParameter documentation.

The zstd_dict argument is an instance of ZstdDict containing trained data used during compression. This must be the same Zstandard dictionary used during compression.

If data is the concatenation of multiple distinct compressed frames, decompress all of these frames, and return the concatenation of the results.

class compression.zstd.ZstdCompressor(level=None, options=None, zstd_dict=None)

Créé un objet compresseur, qui peut être utilisé pour compresser incrémentalement une donnée.

For a more convenient way of compressing a single chunk of data, see the module-level function compress().

The level argument is an integer controlling the level of compression. level is an alternative to setting CompressionParameter.compression_level in options. Use bounds() on compression_level to get the values that can be passed for level. If advanced compression options are needed, the level argument must be omitted and in the options dictionary the CompressionParameter.compression_level parameter should be set.

The options argument is a Python dictionary containing advanced compression parameters. The valid keys and values for compression parameters are documented as part of the CompressionParameter documentation.

The zstd_dict argument is an optional instance of ZstdDict containing trained data to improve compression efficiency. The function train_dict() can be used to generate a Zstandard dictionary.

compress(data, mode=ZstdCompressor.CONTINUE)

Compress data (a bytes-like object), returning a bytes object with compressed data if possible, or otherwise an empty bytes object. Some of data may be buffered internally, for use in later calls to compress() and flush(). The returned data should be concatenated with the output of any previous calls to compress().

The mode argument is a ZstdCompressor attribute, either CONTINUE, FLUSH_BLOCK, or FLUSH_FRAME.

When all data has been provided to the compressor, call the flush() method to finish the compression process. If compress() is called with mode set to FLUSH_FRAME, flush() should not be called, as it would write out a new empty frame.

flush(mode=ZstdCompressor.FLUSH_FRAME)

Conclut l'opération de compression, en renvoyant l'objet bytes constitué de toutes les données stockées dans les tampons interne du compresseur.

The mode argument is a ZstdCompressor attribute, either FLUSH_BLOCK, or FLUSH_FRAME.

set_pledged_input_size(size)

Specify the amount of uncompressed data size that will be provided for the next frame. size will be written into the frame header of the next frame unless CompressionParameter.content_size_flag is False or 0. A size of 0 means that the frame is empty. If size is None, the frame header will omit the frame size. Frames that include the uncompressed data size require less memory to decompress, especially at higher compression levels.

If last_mode is not FLUSH_FRAME, a ValueError is raised as the compressor is not at the start of a frame. If the pledged size does not match the actual size of data provided to compress(), future calls to compress() or flush() may raise ZstdError and the last chunk of data may be lost.

After flush() or compress() are called with mode FLUSH_FRAME, the next frame will not include the frame size into the header unless set_pledged_input_size() is called again.

CONTINUE

Collect more data for compression, which may or may not generate output immediately. This mode optimizes the compression ratio by maximizing the amount of data per block and frame.

FLUSH_BLOCK

Complete and write a block to the data stream. The data returned so far can be immediately decompressed. Past data can still be referenced in future blocks generated by calls to compress(), improving compression.

FLUSH_FRAME

Complete and write out a frame. Future data provided to compress() will be written into a new frame and cannot reference past data.

last_mode

The last mode passed to either compress() or flush(). The value can be one of CONTINUE, FLUSH_BLOCK, or FLUSH_FRAME. The initial value is FLUSH_FRAME, signifying that the compressor is at the start of a new frame.

class compression.zstd.ZstdDecompressor(zstd_dict=None, options=None)

Créé un objet de décompression, pour décompresser de façon incrémentale une donnée.

For a more convenient way of decompressing an entire compressed stream at once, see the module-level function decompress().

The options argument is a Python dictionary containing advanced decompression parameters. The valid keys and values for compression parameters are documented as part of the DecompressionParameter documentation.

The zstd_dict argument is an instance of ZstdDict containing trained data used during compression. This must be the same Zstandard dictionary used during compression.

Note

This class does not transparently handle inputs containing multiple compressed frames, unlike the decompress() function and ZstdFile class. To decompress a multi-frame input, you should use decompress(), ZstdFile if working with a file object, or multiple ZstdDecompressor instances.

decompress(data, max_length=-1)

Decompress data (a bytes-like object), returning uncompressed data as bytes. Some of data may be buffered internally, for use in later calls to decompress(). The returned data should be concatenated with the output of any previous calls to decompress().

If max_length is non-negative, the method returns at most max_length bytes of decompressed data. If this limit is reached and further output can be produced, the needs_input attribute will be set to False. In this case, the next call to decompress() may provide data as b'' to obtain more of the output.

Si toutes les données entrées ont été décompressées et renvoyées (soit parce qu'il y avait moins de max_length octets, ou parce que max_length était négatif), l'attribut needs_input sera configuré sur True.

Attempting to decompress data after the end of a frame will raise a ZstdError. Any data found after the end of the frame is ignored and saved in the unused_data attribute.

eof

True si le marqueur de fin de flux a été atteint.

unused_data

Donnée trouvée après la fin du flux compressé.

Before the end of the stream is reached, this will be b''.

needs_input

False if the decompress() method can provide more decompressed data before requiring new compressed input.

Zstandard dictionaries

compression.zstd.train_dict(samples, dict_size)

Train a Zstandard dictionary, returning a ZstdDict instance. Zstandard dictionaries enable more efficient compression of smaller sizes of data, which is traditionally difficult to compress due to less repetition. If you are compressing multiple similar groups of data (such as similar files), Zstandard dictionaries can improve compression ratios and speed significantly.

The samples argument (an iterable of bytes objects), is the population of samples used to train the Zstandard dictionary.

The dict_size argument, an integer, is the maximum size (in bytes) the Zstandard dictionary should be. The Zstandard documentation suggests an absolute maximum of no more than 100 KB, but the maximum can often be smaller depending on the data. Larger dictionaries generally slow down compression, but improve compression ratios. Smaller dictionaries lead to faster compression, but reduce the compression ratio.

compression.zstd.finalize_dict(zstd_dict, /, samples, dict_size, level)

An advanced function for converting a "raw content" Zstandard dictionary into a regular Zstandard dictionary. "Raw content" dictionaries are a sequence of bytes that do not need to follow the structure of a normal Zstandard dictionary.

The zstd_dict argument is a ZstdDict instance with the dict_content containing the raw dictionary contents.

The samples argument (an iterable of bytes objects), contains sample data for generating the Zstandard dictionary.

The dict_size argument, an integer, is the maximum size (in bytes) the Zstandard dictionary should be. See train_dict() for suggestions on the maximum dictionary size.

The level argument (an integer) is the compression level expected to be passed to the compressors using this dictionary. The dictionary information varies for each compression level, so tuning for the proper compression level can make compression more efficient.

class compression.zstd.ZstdDict(dict_content, /, *, is_raw=False)

A wrapper around Zstandard dictionaries. Dictionaries can be used to improve the compression of many small chunks of data. Use train_dict() if you need to train a new dictionary from sample data.

The dict_content argument (a bytes-like object), is the already trained dictionary information.

The is_raw argument, a boolean, is an advanced parameter controlling the meaning of dict_content. True means dict_content is a "raw content" dictionary, without any format restrictions. False means dict_content is an ordinary Zstandard dictionary, created from Zstandard functions, for example, train_dict() or the external zstd CLI.

When passing a ZstdDict to a function, the as_digested_dict and as_undigested_dict attributes can control how the dictionary is loaded by passing them as the zstd_dict argument, for example, compress(data, zstd_dict=zd.as_digested_dict). Digesting a dictionary is a costly operation that occurs when loading a Zstandard dictionary. When making multiple calls to compression or decompression, passing a digested dictionary will reduce the overhead of loading the dictionary.

Difference for compression

Digested dictionary

Undigested dictionary

Advanced parameters of the compressor which may be overridden by the dictionary's parameters

window_log, hash_log, chain_log, search_log, min_match, target_length, strategy, enable_long_distance_matching, ldm_hash_log, ldm_min_match, ldm_bucket_size_log, ldm_hash_rate_log, and some non-public parameters.

None

ZstdDict internally caches the dictionary

Yes. It's faster when loading a digested dictionary again with the same compression level.

No. If you wish to load an undigested dictionary multiple times, consider reusing a compressor object.

If passing a ZstdDict without any attribute, an undigested dictionary is passed by default when compressing and a digested dictionary is generated if necessary and passed by default when decompressing.

dict_content

The content of the Zstandard dictionary, a bytes object. It's the same as the dict_content argument in the __init__ method. It can be used with other programs, such as the zstd CLI program.

dict_id

Identifier of the Zstandard dictionary, a non-negative int value.

Non-zero means the dictionary is ordinary, created by Zstandard functions and following the Zstandard format.

0 means a "raw content" dictionary, free of any format restriction, used for advanced users.

Note

The meaning of 0 for ZstdDict.dict_id is different from the dictionary_id attribute to the get_frame_info() function.

as_digested_dict

Load as a digested dictionary.

as_undigested_dict

Load as an undigested dictionary.

Advanced parameter control

class compression.zstd.CompressionParameter

An IntEnum containing the advanced compression parameter keys that can be used when compressing data.

The bounds() method can be used on any attribute to get the valid values for that parameter.

Parameters are optional; any omitted parameter will have it's value selected automatically.

Example getting the lower and upper bound of compression_level:

lower, upper = CompressionParameter.compression_level.bounds()

Example setting the window_log to the maximum size:

_lower, upper = CompressionParameter.window_log.bounds()
options = {CompressionParameter.window_log: upper}
compress(b'venezuelan beaver cheese', options=options)

bounds()

Return the tuple of int bounds, (lower, upper), of a compression parameter. This method should be called on the attribute you wish to retrieve the bounds of. For example, to get the valid values for compression_level, one may check the result of CompressionParameter.compression_level.bounds().

Both the lower and upper bounds are inclusive.

compression_level

A high-level means of setting other compression parameters that affect the speed and ratio of compressing data.

Regular compression levels are greater than 0. Values greater than 20 are considered "ultra" compression and require more memory than other levels. Negative values can be used to trade off faster compression for worse compression ratios.

Setting the level to zero uses COMPRESSION_LEVEL_DEFAULT.

window_log

Maximum allowed back-reference distance the compressor can use when compressing data, expressed as power of two, 1 << window_log bytes. This parameter greatly influences the memory usage of compression. Higher values require more memory but gain better compression values.

A value of zero causes the value to be selected automatically.

hash_log

Size of the initial probe table, as a power of two. The resulting memory usage is 1 << (hash_log+2) bytes. Larger tables improve compression ratio of strategies <= dfast, and improve compression speed of strategies > dfast.

A value of zero causes the value to be selected automatically.

chain_log

Size of the multi-probe search table, as a power of two. The resulting memory usage is 1 << (chain_log+2) bytes. Larger tables result in better and slower compression. This parameter has no effect for the fast strategy. It's still useful when using dfast strategy, in which case it defines a secondary probe table.

A value of zero causes the value to be selected automatically.

search_log

Number of search attempts, as a power of two. More attempts result in better and slower compression. This parameter is useless for fast and dfast strategies.

A value of zero causes the value to be selected automatically.

min_match

Minimum size of searched matches. Larger values increase compression and decompression speed, but decrease ratio. Note that Zstandard can still find matches of smaller size, it just tweaks its search algorithm to look for this size and larger. For all strategies < btopt, the effective minimum is 4; for all strategies > fast, the effective maximum is 6.

A value of zero causes the value to be selected automatically.

target_length

The impact of this field depends on the selected Strategy.

For strategies btopt, btultra and btultra2, the value is the length of a match considered "good enough" to stop searching. Larger values make compression ratios better, but compresses slower.

For strategy fast, it is the distance between match sampling. Larger values make compression faster, but with a worse compression ratio.

A value of zero causes the value to be selected automatically.

strategy

The higher the value of selected strategy, the more complex the compression technique used by zstd, resulting in higher compression ratios but slower compression.

Voir aussi

Strategy

enable_long_distance_matching

Long distance matching can be used to improve compression for large inputs by finding large matches at greater distances. It increases memory usage and window size.

True or 1 enable long distance matching while False or 0 disable it.

Enabling this parameter increases default window_log to 128 MiB except when expressly set to a different value. This setting is enabled by default if window_log >= 128 MiB and the compression strategy >= btopt (compression level 16+).

ldm_hash_log

Size of the table for long distance matching, as a power of two. Larger values increase memory usage and compression ratio, but decrease compression speed.

A value of zero causes the value to be selected automatically.

ldm_min_match

Minimum match size for long distance matcher. Larger or too small values can often decrease the compression ratio.

A value of zero causes the value to be selected automatically.

ldm_bucket_size_log

Log size of each bucket in the long distance matcher hash table for collision resolution. Larger values improve collision resolution but decrease compression speed.

A value of zero causes the value to be selected automatically.

ldm_hash_rate_log

Frequency of inserting/looking up entries into the long distance matcher hash table. Larger values improve compression speed. Deviating far from the default value will likely result in a compression ratio decrease.

A value of zero causes the value to be selected automatically.

content_size_flag

Write the size of the data to be compressed into the Zstandard frame header when known prior to compressing.

This flag only takes effect under the following scenarios:

Calling compress() for one-shot compression

Providing all of the data to be compressed in the frame in a single ZstdCompressor.compress() call, with the ZstdCompressor.FLUSH_FRAME mode.

Calling ZstdCompressor.set_pledged_input_size() with the exact amount of data that will be provided to the compressor prior to any calls to ZstdCompressor.compress() for the current frame. ZstdCompressor.set_pledged_input_size() must be called for each new frame.

All other compression calls may not write the size information into the frame header.

True or 1 enable the content size flag while False or 0 disable it.

checksum_flag

A four-byte checksum using XXHash64 of the uncompressed content is written at the end of each frame. Zstandard's decompression code verifies the checksum. If there is a mismatch a ZstdError exception is raised.

True or 1 enable checksum generation while False or 0 disable it.

dict_id_flag

When compressing with a ZstdDict, the dictionary's ID is written into the frame header.

True or 1 enable storing the dictionary ID while False or 0 disable it.

nb_workers

Select how many threads will be spawned to compress in parallel. When nb_workers > 0, enables multi-threaded compression, a value of 1 means "one-thread multi-threaded mode". More workers improve speed, but also increase memory usage and slightly reduce compression ratio.

A value of zero disables multi-threading.

job_size

Size of a compression job, in bytes. This value is enforced only when nb_workers >= 1. Each compression job is completed in parallel, so this value can indirectly impact the number of active threads.

A value of zero causes the value to be selected automatically.

overlap_log

Sets how much data is reloaded from previous jobs (threads) for new jobs to be used by the look behind window during compression. This value is only used when nb_workers >= 1. Acceptable values vary from 0 to 9.

0 means dynamically set the overlap amount

1 means no overlap

9 means use a full window size from the previous job

Each increment halves/doubles the overlap size. "8" means an overlap of window_size/2, "7" means an overlap of window_size/4, etc.

class compression.zstd.DecompressionParameter

An IntEnum containing the advanced decompression parameter keys that can be used when decompressing data. Parameters are optional; any omitted parameter will have it's value selected automatically.

The bounds() method can be used on any attribute to get the valid values for that parameter.

Example setting the window_log_max to the maximum size:

data = compress(b'Some very long buffer of bytes...')

_lower, upper = DecompressionParameter.window_log_max.bounds()

options = {DecompressionParameter.window_log_max: upper}
decompress(data, options=options)

bounds()

Return the tuple of int bounds, (lower, upper), of a decompression parameter. This method should be called on the attribute you wish to retrieve the bounds of.

Both the lower and upper bounds are inclusive.

window_log_max

The base-two logarithm of the maximum size of the window used during decompression. This can be useful to limit the amount of memory used when decompressing data. A larger maximum window size leads to faster decompression.

A value of zero causes the value to be selected automatically.

class compression.zstd.Strategy

An IntEnum containing strategies for compression. Higher-numbered strategies correspond to more complex and slower compression.

Note

The values of attributes of Strategy are not necessarily stable across zstd versions. Only the ordering of the attributes may be relied upon. The attributes are listed below in order.

The following strategies are available:

fast

dfast

greedy

lazy

lazy2

btlazy2

btopt

btultra

btultra2

Divers

compression.zstd.get_frame_info(frame_buffer)

Retrieve a FrameInfo object containing metadata about a Zstandard frame. Frames contain metadata related to the compressed data they hold.

class compression.zstd.FrameInfo

Metadata related to a Zstandard frame.

decompressed_size

The size of the decompressed contents of the frame.

dictionary_id

An integer representing the Zstandard dictionary ID needed for decompressing the frame. 0 means the dictionary ID was not recorded in the frame header. This may mean that a Zstandard dictionary is not needed, or that the ID of a required dictionary was not recorded.

compression.zstd.COMPRESSION_LEVEL_DEFAULT

The default compression level for Zstandard: 3.

compression.zstd.zstd_version_info

Version number of the runtime zstd library as a tuple of integers (major, minor, release).

Exemples

Reading in a compressed file:

from compression import zstd

with zstd.open("file.zst") as f:
    file_content = f.read()

Creating a compressed file:

from compression import zstd

data = b"Insert Data Here"
with zstd.open("file.zst", "w") as f:
    f.write(data)

Compressing data in memory:

from compression import zstd

data_in = b"Insert Data Here"
data_out = zstd.compress(data_in)

Incremental compression:

from compression import zstd

comp = zstd.ZstdCompressor()
out1 = comp.compress(b"Some data\n")
out2 = comp.compress(b"Another piece of data\n")
out3 = comp.compress(b"Even more data\n")
out4 = comp.flush()
# Concatenate all the partial results:
result = b"".join([out1, out2, out3, out4])

Writing compressed data to an already-open file:

from compression import zstd

with open("myfile", "wb") as f:
    f.write(b"This data will not be compressed\n")
    with zstd.open(f, "w") as zstf:
        zstf.write(b"This *will* be compressed\n")
    f.write(b"Not compressed\n")

Creating a compressed file using compression parameters:

from compression import zstd

options = {
   zstd.CompressionParameter.checksum_flag: 1
}
with zstd.open("file.zst", "w", options=options) as f:
    f.write(b"Mind if I squeeze in?")

zlib --- Compression compatible with gzip

For applications that require data compression, the functions in this module allow compression and decompression, using the zlib library [https://www.zlib.net].

This is an optional module. If it is missing from your copy of CPython, look for documentation from your distributor (that is, whoever provided Python to you). If you are the distributor, see Requirements for optional modules.

zlib's functions have many options and often need to be used in a particular order. This documentation doesn't attempt to cover all of the permutations; consult the zlib manual [https://www.zlib.net/manual.html] for authoritative information.

Pour lire ou écrire des fichiers .gz veuillez consulter le module gzip.

Les exceptions et fonctions disponibles dans ce module sont :

exception zlib.error

Exception levée lors d'erreurs de compression et de décompression.

zlib.adler32(data[, value])

Calcule une somme de contrôle Adler-32 de data (une somme de contrôle Adler-32 est aussi fiable qu'un CRC32 mais peut être calculée bien plus rapidement). Le résultat produit est un entier non signé de 32-bit. Si value est défini, il devient la valeur initiale de la somme de contrôle ; sinon une valeur par défaut de 1 est utilisée. Définir value permet de calculer une somme de contrôle continue pendant la concaténation de plusieurs entrées. Cet algorithme n'a aucune garantie cryptographique puissante, et ne doit pas être utilisé ni pour l'authentification, ni pour des signatures numériques. Conçu comme un algorithme de somme de contrôle, il n'est pas adapté pour une utilisation sous forme de clé de hachage générique.

Modifié dans la version 3.0: Renvoie une valeur non-signée.

zlib.compress(data, /, level=Z_DEFAULT_COMPRESSION, wbits=MAX_WBITS)

Compresses the bytes in data, returning a bytes object containing compressed data. level is an integer from 0 to 9 or -1 controlling the level of compression; See Z_BEST_SPEED (1), Z_BEST_COMPRESSION (9), Z_NO_COMPRESSION (0), and the default, Z_DEFAULT_COMPRESSION (-1) for more information about these values.

The wbits argument controls the size of the history buffer (or the "window size") used when compressing data, and whether a header and trailer is included in the output. It can take several ranges of values, defaulting to 15 (MAX_WBITS):

De +9 à +15 : le logarithme binaire de la taille du tampon, par conséquent compris entre 512 et 32 768. Des valeurs plus grandes produisent de meilleures compressions aux dépens d'une utilisation mémoire plus grande. Le résultat final inclus des en-têtes et des blocs spécifiques à zlib.

De -9 à -15 : utilise la valeur absolue de wbits comme logarithme binaire de la taille du tampon, et ne produit pas d'entêtes ni de bloc final.

De +25 à +31 = 16 + (9 à 15) : utilise les 4 bits de poids faible comme logarithme binaire de la taille du tampon, tout en incluant un entête gzip et une somme de contrôle finale.

Raises the error exception if any error occurs.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: level peut maintenant être passé par son nom.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: The wbits parameter is now available to set window bits and compression type.

zlib.compressobj(level=Z_DEFAULT_COMPRESSION, method=DEFLATED, wbits=MAX_WBITS, memLevel=DEF_MEM_LEVEL, strategy=Z_DEFAULT_STRATEGY[, zdict])

Renvoie un objet "compresseur", à utiliser pour compresser des flux de données qui ne peuvent pas être stockés entièrement en mémoire.

level is the compression level -- an integer from 0 to 9 or -1. See Z_BEST_SPEED (1), Z_BEST_COMPRESSION (9), Z_NO_COMPRESSION (0), and the default, Z_DEFAULT_COMPRESSION (-1) for more information about these values.

method définit l'algorithme de compression. Pour le moment, la seule valeur acceptée est DEFLATED.

The wbits parameter controls the size of the history buffer (or the "window size"), and what header and trailer format will be used. It has the same meaning as described for compress().

L'argument memLevel permet d'ajuster la quantité de mémoire utilisée pour stocker l'état interne de la compression. Les valeurs valides sont comprises entre 1 et 9. Des valeurs plus élevées occupent davantage de mémoire, mais sont plus rapides et produisent des sorties plus compressées.

strategy is used to tune the compression algorithm. Possible values are Z_DEFAULT_STRATEGY, Z_FILTERED, Z_HUFFMAN_ONLY, Z_RLE and Z_FIXED.

zdict est un dictionnaire de compression prédéfini. C'est une séquence d'octets (tel qu'un objet bytes) contenant des sous-séquences attendues régulièrement dans les données à compresser. Les sous-séquences les plus fréquentes sont à placer à la fin du dictionnaire.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Ajout du paramètre zdict.

zlib.crc32(data[, value])

Calcule la somme de contrôle CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check en anglais) de l'argument data. Il renvoie un entier non signé de 32 bits. Si l'argument value est présent, il permet de définir la valeur de départ de la somme de contrôle. Sinon, la valeur par défaut est 0. L'argument value permet de calculer la somme de contrôle glissante d'une concaténation de données. L'algorithme n'est pas fort d'un point de vue cryptographique, et ne doit pas être utilisé pour l'authentification ou des signatures numériques. Cet algorithme a été conçu pour être exploité comme un algorithme de somme de contrôle, ce n'est pas un algorithme de hachage générique.

Modifié dans la version 3.0: Renvoie une valeur non-signée.

zlib.decompress(data, /, wbits=MAX_WBITS, bufsize=DEF_BUF_SIZE)

Décompresse les octets de data, renvoyant un objet bytes contenant les données décompressées. Le paramètre wbits dépend du format des données compressées, et est abordé plus loin. Si l'argument bufsize est défini, il est utilisé comme taille initiale du tampon de sortie. En cas d'erreur, l'exception error est levée.

L'argument wbits contrôle la taille du tampon d'historique ("window size") utilisé lors de la compression, et si un en-tête et un bloc final sont attendus. Similaire au paramètre de compressobj(), mais accepte une gamme plus large de valeurs :

De +8 à +15 : logarithme binaire pour la taille du tampon. L'entrée doit contenir un en-tête et un bloc zlib.

0 : détermine automatiquement la taille du tampon à partir de l'en-tête zlib. Géré uniquement depuis zlib 1.2.3.5.

De -8 à -15 : utilise la valeur absolue de wbits comme logarithme binaire pour la taille du tampon. L'entrée doit être un flux brut, sans en-tête ni bloc final.

De +24 à +31 = 16 + (8 à 15) : utilise les 4 de poids faible comme logarithme binaire pour la taille du tampon. L'entrée doit contenir un en-tête gzip et son bloc final.

De +40 à +47 = 32 + (8 à 15) : utilise les 4 bits de poids faible comme logarithme binaire pour la taille du tampon, et accepte automatiquement les formats zlib ou gzip.

Lors de la décompression d'un flux, la taille du tampon ne doit pas être inférieure à la taille initialement utilisée pour compresser le flux. L'utilisation d'une valeur trop petite peut déclencher une exception error. La valeur par défaut wbits correspond à une taille élevée du tampon et nécessite d'y adjoindre un en-tête zlib et son bloc final.

L'argument bufsize correspond à la taille initiale du tampon utilisé pour contenir les données décompressées. Si plus d'espace est nécessaire, la taille du tampon sera augmentée au besoin, donc vous n'avez pas besoin de deviner la valeur exacte. Un réglage précis n'économisera que quelques appels à malloc().

Modifié dans la version 3.6: wbits et bufsize peuvent être utilisés comme arguments nommés.

zlib.decompressobj(wbits=MAX_WBITS[, zdict])

Renvoie un objet "décompresseur", à utiliser pour décompresser des flux de données qui ne rentrent pas entièrement en mémoire.

Le paramètre wbits contrôle la taille du tampon, et détermine quel format d'en-tête et de bloc sont prévus. Il a la même signification que décrit pour decompress().

Le paramètre zdict définit un dictionnaire de compression prédéfini. S'il est fourni, il doit être identique au dictionnaire utilisé par le compresseur, à l'origine des données à décompresser.

Note

Si zdict est un objet modifiable (tel qu'un bytearray, par exemple), vous ne devez pas modifier son contenu entre l'appel à la fonction decompressobj() et le premier appel à la méthode decompress() du décompresseur.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Ajout du paramètre zdict.

Les objets de compression gèrent les méthodes suivantes :

Compress.compress(data)

Compresse data et renvoie au moins une partie des données compressées sous forme d'objet bytes. Ces données doivent être concaténées à la suite des appels précédant à compress(). Certaines entrées peuvent être conservées dans des tampons internes pour un traitement ultérieur.

Compress.flush([mode])

All pending input is processed, and a bytes object containing the remaining compressed output is returned. mode can be selected from the constants Z_NO_FLUSH, Z_PARTIAL_FLUSH, Z_SYNC_FLUSH, Z_FULL_FLUSH, Z_BLOCK, or Z_FINISH, defaulting to Z_FINISH. Except Z_FINISH, all constants allow compressing further bytestrings of data, while Z_FINISH finishes the compressed stream and prevents compressing any more data. After calling flush() with mode set to Z_FINISH, the compress() method cannot be called again; the only realistic action is to delete the object.

Compress.copy()

Renvoie une copie de l'objet "compresseur". Utile pour compresser efficacement un ensemble de données qui partagent un préfixe initial commun.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Les objets compresseurs gère maintenant copy.copy() et copy.deepcopy().

Les objets décompresseurs prennent en charge les méthodes et attributs suivants :

Decompress.unused_data

Un objet bytes contenant tous les octets restants après les données compressées. Il vaut donc b"" tant que des données compressées sont disponibles. Si toute la chaîne d'octets ne contient que des données compressées, il vaut toujours b"", un objet bytes vide.

Decompress.unconsumed_tail

Un objet bytes contenant toutes les données non-traitées par le dernier appel à la méthode decompress(), à cause d'un dépassement de la limite du tampon de données décompressées. Ces données n'ont pas encore été traitées par la bibliothèque zlib, vous devez donc les envoyer (potentiellement en y concaténant encore des données) par un appel à la méthode decompress() pour obtenir une sortie correcte.

Decompress.eof

Booléen qui signale si la fin du flux compressé est atteint.

This makes it possible to distinguish between a properly formed compressed stream, and an incomplete or truncated one.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Decompress.decompress(data, max_length=0)

Décompresse data, renvoie un objet bytes, contenant au moins une partie des données décompressées. Ce résultat doit être concaténé aux résultats des appels précédents à decompress(). Des données d'entrée peuvent être conservées dans les tampons internes pour un traitement ultérieur.

Si le paramètre optionnel max_length est différent de zéro alors la valeur renvoyée n'est pas plus grande que max_length. Cela peut amener à une décompression partielle. Les données non-encore décompressées sont stockées dans l'attribut unconsumed_tail. Cette chaîne d'octets doit être transmise à un appel ultérieur à decompress(). Si max_length vaut zéro, la totalité de l'entrée est décompressée, et l'attribut unconsumed_tail reste vide.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: max_length peut être utilisé comme un argument nommé.

Decompress.flush([length])

Toutes les entrées en attente sont traitées, et un objet bytes est renvoyé, contenant le reste des données à décompresser. Après l'appel à flush(), la méthode decompress() ne peut pas être rappelée. Il ne reste qu'à détruire l'objet.

Le paramètre optionnel length définit la taille initiale du tampon de sortie.

Decompress.copy()

Renvoie une copie du décompresseur. Vous pouvez l'utiliser pour sauvegarder l'état de la décompression en cours, afin de pouvoir revenir rapidement à cet endroit plus tard.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Ajout de copy.copy() et de copy.deepcopy() au support de décompression d'objets.

The following constants are available to configure compression and decompression behavior:

zlib.DEFLATED

The deflate compression method.

zlib.MAX_WBITS

The maximum window size, expressed as a power of 2. For example, if MAX_WBITS is 15 it results in a window size of 32 KiB.

zlib.DEF_MEM_LEVEL

The default memory level for compression objects.

zlib.DEF_BUF_SIZE

The default buffer size for decompression operations.

zlib.Z_NO_COMPRESSION

Compression level 0; no compression.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

zlib.Z_BEST_SPEED

Compression level 1; fastest and produces the least compression.

zlib.Z_BEST_COMPRESSION

Compression level 9; slowest and produces the most compression.

zlib.Z_DEFAULT_COMPRESSION

Default compression level (-1); a compromise between speed and compression. Currently equivalent to compression level 6.

zlib.Z_DEFAULT_STRATEGY

Default compression strategy, for normal data.

zlib.Z_FILTERED

Compression strategy for data produced by a filter (or predictor).

zlib.Z_HUFFMAN_ONLY

Compression strategy that forces Huffman coding only.

zlib.Z_RLE

Compression strategy that limits match distances to one (run-length encoding).

This constant is only available if Python was compiled with zlib 1.2.0.1 or greater.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

zlib.Z_FIXED

Compression strategy that prevents the use of dynamic Huffman codes.

This constant is only available if Python was compiled with zlib 1.2.2.2 or greater.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

zlib.Z_NO_FLUSH

Flush mode 0. No special flushing behavior.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

zlib.Z_PARTIAL_FLUSH

Flush mode 1. Flush as much output as possible.

zlib.Z_SYNC_FLUSH

Flush mode 2. All output is flushed and the output is aligned to a byte boundary.

zlib.Z_FULL_FLUSH

Flush mode 3. All output is flushed and the compression state is reset.

zlib.Z_FINISH

Flush mode 4. All pending input is processed, no more input is expected.

zlib.Z_BLOCK

Flush mode 5. A deflate block is completed and emitted.

This constant is only available if Python was compiled with zlib 1.2.2.2 or greater.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

zlib.Z_TREES

Flush mode 6, for inflate operations. Instructs inflate to return when it gets to the next deflate block boundary.

This constant is only available if Python was compiled with zlib 1.2.3.4 or greater.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

Des informations relatives à la version de la bibliothèque zlib utilisée sont disponibles via les constantes suivantes :

zlib.ZLIB_VERSION

Version de la bibliothèque zlib utilisée lors de la compilation du module. Elle peut être différente de la bibliothèque zlib actuellement utilisée par le système, qui est consultable par ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION.

zlib.ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION

Chaîne contenant la version de la bibliothèque zlib actuellement utilisée par l'interpréteur.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

zlib.ZLIBNG_VERSION

The version string of the zlib-ng library that was used for building the module if zlib-ng was used. When present, the ZLIB_VERSION and ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION constants reflect the version of the zlib API provided by zlib-ng.

If zlib-ng was not used to build the module, this constant will be absent.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Voir aussi

Module gzip

Lire et écrire des fichiers au format gzip.

https://www.zlib.net

Page officielle de la bibliothèque zlib.

https://www.zlib.net/manual.html

La documentation de zlib explique le sens et l'utilisation des nombreuses fonctions fournies par la bibliothèque.

In case gzip (de)compression is a bottleneck, the python-isal [https://github.com/pycompression/python-isal] package speeds up (de)compression with a mostly compatible API.

gzip --- Support for gzip files

Code source : Lib/gzip.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/gzip.py]

Ce module fournit une interface simple pour compresser et décompresser des fichiers tout comme le font les programmes GNU gzip et gunzip.

This is an optional module. If it is missing from your copy of CPython, look for documentation from your distributor (that is, whoever provided Python to you). If you are the distributor, see Requirements for optional modules.

La compression de données est fournie par le module zlib.

The gzip module provides the GzipFile class, as well as the open(), compress() and decompress() convenience functions. The GzipFile class reads and writes gzip-format files, automatically compressing or decompressing the data so that it looks like an ordinary file object.

Notez que les formats de fichier supplémentaires qui peuvent être décompressés par les programmes gzip et gunzip, comme ceux produits par le programmes compress et pack, ne sont pas gérés par ce module.

Le module définit les éléments suivants :

gzip.open(filename, mode='rb', compresslevel=9, encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None)

Ouvre un fichier compressé en gzip en mode binaire ou texte, renvoie un objet file object.

L'argument filename peut être un nom de fichier (un objet str ou bytes) ou un objet fichier existant que l'on peut lire, ou où l'on peut écrire.

L'argument mode peut-être 'r', 'rb', 'a', 'ab', 'w', 'wb', 'x' ou 'xb' pour le mode binaire ou 'rt', 'at', 'wt', ou 'xt' pour le mode texte. Le mode par défaut est 'rb'.

L'argument compresslevel est un entier de 0 à 9, comme pour le constructeur de la classe GzipFile.

En mode binaire, cette fonction est équivalente au constructeur de la classe GzipFile : GzipFile(filename, mode, compresslevel). Dans ce cas, les arguments encoding, errors et newline ne doivent pas être fournis.

En mode texte, un objet GzipFile est créé et empaqueté dans une instance de io.TextIOWrapper avec l'encodage, la gestion d'erreur et les fins de ligne spécifiés.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Ajout de la prise en charge de filename en tant qu'objet file, du mode texte et des arguments encoding, errors et newline.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Ajout de la prise en charge des modes 'x', 'xb' et 'xt'.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

exception gzip.BadGzipFile

An exception raised for invalid gzip files. It inherits from OSError. EOFError and zlib.error can also be raised for invalid gzip files.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

class gzip.GzipFile(filename=None, mode=None, compresslevel=9, fileobj=None, mtime=None)

Constructor for the GzipFile class, which simulates most of the methods of a file object, with the exception of the truncate() method. At least one of fileobj and filename must be given a non-trivial value.

La nouvelle instance de classe est basée sur fileobj qui peut être un fichier usuel, un objet io.BytesIO ou tout autre objet qui simule un fichier. fileobj est par défaut à None, dans ce cas filename est ouvert afin de fournir un objet fichier.

Quand fileobj n'est pas à None, l'argument filename est uniquement utilisé pour être inclus dans l'entête du fichier gzip, qui peut inclure le nom original du fichier décompressé. Il est par défaut défini avec le nom de fichier de fileobj s'il est discernable, sinon il est par défaut défini à une chaîne de caractères vide et dans ce cas le nom du fichier orignal n'est pas inclus dans l'entête.

The mode argument can be any of 'r', 'rb', 'a', 'ab', 'w', 'wb', 'x', or 'xb', depending on whether the file will be read or written. The default is the mode of fileobj if discernible; otherwise, the default is 'rb'. In future Python releases the mode of fileobj will not be used. It is better to always specify mode for writing.

Notez que le fichier est toujours ouvert en mode binaire. Pour ouvrir un fichier compressé en mode texte, utilisez la fonction open() (ou empaquetez votre classe GzipFile avec un io.TextIOWrapper).

L'argument compresslevel est un entier de 0 à 9 contrôlant le niveau de compression, 1 est le plus rapide et produit la compression la plus faible et 9 est le plus rapide et produit la compression la plus élevée. 0 désactive la compression. Par défaut à 9.

The optional mtime argument is the timestamp requested by gzip. The time is in Unix format, i.e., seconds since 00:00:00 UTC, January 1, 1970. If mtime is omitted or None, the current time is used. Use mtime = 0 to generate a compressed stream that does not depend on creation time.

See below for the mtime attribute that is set when decompressing.

Calling a GzipFile object's close() method does not close fileobj, since you might wish to append more material after the compressed data. This also allows you to pass an io.BytesIO object opened for writing as fileobj, and retrieve the resulting memory buffer using the io.BytesIO object's getvalue() method.

GzipFile supports the io.BufferedIOBase interface, including iteration and the with statement. Only the truncate() method isn't implemented.

La classe GzipFile fournit aussi la méthode et l'attribut suivant :

peek(n)

Read n uncompressed bytes without advancing the file position. The number of bytes returned may be more or less than requested.

Note

Bien que l'appel à peek() ne change pas la position dans le fichier de l'objet GzipFile, il peut changer la position de l'objet de fichier sous-jacent (par exemple, si l'instance de GzipFile a été construite avec le paramètre fileobj).

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

mode

'rb' for reading and 'wb' for writing.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: In previous versions it was an integer 1 or 2.

mtime

When decompressing, this attribute is set to the last timestamp in the most recently read header. It is an integer, holding the number of seconds since the Unix epoch (00:00:00 UTC, January 1, 1970). The initial value before reading any headers is None.

name

The path to the gzip file on disk, as a str or bytes. Equivalent to the output of os.fspath() on the original input path, with no other normalization, resolution or expansion.

Modifié dans la version 3.1: Ajout de la prise en charge du mot-clef with, ainsi que de l'argument mtime du constructeur et de l'attribut mtime.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Ajout de la prise en charge des fichiers non navigables ou commençant par des octets nuls.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: La méthode io.BufferedIOBase.read1() est désormais implémentée.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Ajout de la prise en charge des modes 'x' et 'xb'.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Ajout de la prise en charge de l'écriture d'objets bytes-like objects arbitraires. La méthode read() accepte désormais un argument de valeur None.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: Opening GzipFile for writing without specifying the mode argument is deprecated.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Remove the filename attribute, use the name attribute instead.

gzip.compress(data, compresslevel=9, *, mtime=0)

Compress the data, returning a bytes object containing the compressed data. compresslevel and mtime have the same meaning as in the GzipFile constructor above, but mtime defaults to 0 for reproducible output.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added the mtime parameter for reproducible output.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Speed is improved by compressing all data at once instead of in a streamed fashion. Calls with mtime set to 0 are delegated to zlib.compress() for better speed. In this situation the output may contain a gzip header "OS" byte value other than 255 "unknown" as supplied by the underlying zlib implementation.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: The gzip header OS byte is guaranteed to be set to 255 when this function is used as was the case in 3.10 and earlier.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: The mtime parameter now defaults to 0 for reproducible output. For the previous behaviour of using the current time, pass None to mtime.

gzip.decompress(data)

Decompress the data, returning a bytes object containing the uncompressed data. This function is capable of decompressing multi-member gzip data (multiple gzip blocks concatenated together). When the data is certain to contain only one member the zlib.decompress() function with wbits set to 31 is faster.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Speed is improved by decompressing members at once in memory instead of in a streamed fashion.

Exemples d'utilisation

Exemple montrant comment lire un fichier compressé :

import gzip
with gzip.open('/home/joe/file.txt.gz', 'rb') as f:
    file_content = f.read()

Exemple montrant comment créer un fichier GZIP :

import gzip
content = b"Lots of content here"
with gzip.open('/home/joe/file.txt.gz', 'wb') as f:
    f.write(content)

Exemple montrant comment compresser dans un GZIP un fichier existant :

import gzip
import shutil
with open('/home/joe/file.txt', 'rb') as f_in:
    with gzip.open('/home/joe/file.txt.gz', 'wb') as f_out:
        shutil.copyfileobj(f_in, f_out)

Exemple montrant comment compresser dans un GZIP un binaire dans une chaîne :

import gzip
s_in = b"Lots of content here"
s_out = gzip.compress(s_in)

Voir aussi

Module zlib

Le module de compression de données de base nécessaire pour gérer le format de fichier gzip.

In case gzip (de)compression is a bottleneck, the python-isal [https://github.com/pycompression/python-isal] package speeds up (de)compression with a mostly compatible API.

Command-line interface

The gzip module provides a simple command line interface to compress or decompress files.

Once executed the gzip module keeps the input file(s).

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Add a new command line interface with a usage. By default, when you will execute the CLI, the default compression level is 6.

Command-line options

file

If file is not specified, read from sys.stdin.

--fast

Indicates the fastest compression method (less compression).

--best

Indicates the slowest compression method (best compression).

-d, --decompress

Decompress the given file.

-h, --help

Affiche le message d'aide.

bz2 --- Support for bzip2 compression

Code Source : Lib/bz2.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/bz2.py]

Ce module fournit une interface complète pour compresser et décompresser les données en utilisant l'algorithme de compression bzip2.

The bz2 module contains:

La fonction open() et la classe BZ2File pour lire et écrire des fichiers compressés.

Les classes BZ2Compressor et BZ2Decompressor pour la (dé)compression incrémentielle.

Les fonctions compress() et decompress() pour la (dé)compression en une seule fois.

This is an optional module. If it is missing from your copy of CPython, look for documentation from your distributor (that is, whoever provided Python to you). If you are the distributor, see Requirements for optional modules.

(Dé)compression de fichiers

bz2.open(filename, mode='rb', compresslevel=9, encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None)

Ouvre un fichier compressé par bzip2 en mode binaire ou texte, le renvoyant en file object.

Tout comme avec le constructeur pour la classe BZ2File, l'argument filename peut être un nom de fichier réel (un objet str ou bytes), ou un objet fichier existant à lire ou à écrire.

L'argument mode peut valoir 'r', 'rb', 'w', 'wb', 'x', 'xb', 'a' ou 'ab' pour le mode binaire, ou 'rt', 'wt', 'xt' ou 'at' pour le mode texte. Il vaut par défaut 'rb'.

L'argument compresslevel est un entier de 1 à 9, comme pour le constructeur BZ2File.

Pour le mode binaire, cette fonction est équivalente au constructeur BZ2File : BZ2File(filename, mode, compresslevel=compresslevel). Dans ce cas, les arguments encoding, errors et newline arguments ne doivent pas être fournis.

Pour le mode texte, un objet BZ2File est créé et encapsulé dans une instance io.TextIOWrapper avec l'encodage spécifié, le comportement de gestion des erreurs et les fins de ligne.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Le mode 'x' (création exclusive) est ajouté.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

class bz2.BZ2File(filename, mode='r', *, compresslevel=9)

Ouvre un fichier bzip2 en mode binaire.

Si filename est un objet str ou bytes, ouvre le nom de fichier directement. Autrement, filename doit être un file object, qui est utilisé pour lire ou écrire les données compressées.

L'argument mode peut être soit 'r' pour lire (par défaut), 'w' pour écraser, 'x' pour créer exclusivement, ou 'a' pour ajouter. Ils peuvent également être écrits respectivement comme 'rb', 'wb', 'xb' et 'ab'.

Si filename est un objet fichier (plutôt que le nom de fichier réel), le mode 'w' ne tronque pas le fichier, mais équivaut à 'a'.

Si mode est 'w' ou 'a', compresslevel peut être un entier entre 1 et 9 spécifiant le niveau de compression : 1 utilise la compression la moins forte, et 9 (par défaut) la compression la plus forte.

Si mode est 'r', le fichier d'entrée peut être la concaténation de plusieurs flux compressés.

BZ2File provides all of the members specified by the io.BufferedIOBase, except for detach() and truncate(). Iteration and the with statement are supported.

BZ2File also provides the following methods and attributes:

peek([n])

Renvoie des données en mémoire tampon sans avancer la position du fichier. Au moins un octet de donnée (sauf l'EOF) est renvoyé. Le nombre exact d'octets renvoyés n'est pas spécifié.

Note

Bien que l'appel à la méthode peek() ne change pas la position du fichier de la classe BZ2File, il peut changer la position de l'objet fichier sous-jacent (e.g. si la classe BZ2File a été construite en passant un objet fichier à filename).

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

fileno()

Return the file descriptor for the underlying file.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

readable()

Return whether the file was opened for reading.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

seekable()

Return whether the file supports seeking.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

writable()

Return whether the file was opened for writing.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

read1(size=-1)

Read up to size uncompressed bytes, while trying to avoid making multiple reads from the underlying stream. Reads up to a buffer's worth of data if size is negative.

Returns b'' if the file is at EOF.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

readinto(b)

Read bytes into b.

Returns the number of bytes read (0 for EOF).

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

mode

'rb' for reading and 'wb' for writing.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

name

The bzip2 file name. Equivalent to the name attribute of the underlying file object.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Modifié dans la version 3.1: La prise en charge de l'instruction with a été ajoutée.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: La gestion de filename comme file object au lieu d'un nom de fichier réel a été ajoutée.

Le mode 'a' (ajout) a été ajouté, avec la prise en charge de la lecture des fichiers multiflux.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Le mode 'x' (création exclusive) est ajouté.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: La méthode read() accepte maintenant un argument None.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Le paramètre buffering a été supprimé. Il était ignoré et obsolète depuis Python 3.0. Passez un objet fichier déjà ouvert si vous voulez contrôler la façon dont le fichier est ouvert.

Le paramètre compresslevel est devenu un paramètre exclusivement nommé.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Cette classe n'est plus protégée d'un accès concurrent malheureux par plusieurs lecteurs ou compresseurs. C'était déjà le cas depuis toujours des classes analogues dans les modules gzip et lzma.

(Dé)compression incrémentielle

class bz2.BZ2Compressor(compresslevel=9)

Crée un nouvel objet compresseur. Cet objet peut être utilisé pour compresser les données de manière incrémentielle. Pour une compression en une seule fois, utilisez à la place la fonction compress().

compresslevel, s'il est fourni, doit être un entier entre 1 et 9. Sa valeur par défaut est 9.

compress(data)

Fournit la donnée à l'objet compresseur. Renvoie un bloc de données compressées si possible, ou autrement une chaîne d'octet vide.

Quand vous avez fini de fournir des données au compresseur, appelez la méthode flush() pour finir le processus de compression.

flush()

Finit le processus de compression. Renvoie la donnée compressée restante dans les tampons internes.

L'objet compresseur ne peut pas être utilisé après que cette méthode a été appelée.

class bz2.BZ2Decompressor

Crée un nouvel objet décompresseur. Cet objet peut être utilisé pour décompresser les données de manière incrémentielle. Pour une compression en une seule fois, utilisez à la place la fonction decompress().

Note

Cette classe ne gère pas de manière transparente les entrées contenant plusieurs flux compressés, à la différence de decompress() et BZ2File. Si vous avez besoin de décompresser une entrée multiflux avec la classe BZ2Decompressor, vous devez utiliser un nouveau décompresseur pour chaque flux.

decompress(data, max_length=-1)

Décompresse data (un bytes-like object), renvoyant une donnée non compressée en tant que chaîne d'octets. Certaines de ces data peuvent être mises en interne en tampon, pour un usage lors d'appels ultérieurs par la méthode decompress(). La donnée renvoyée doit être concaténée avec la sortie des appels précédents à la méthode decompress().

Si max_length est positif, renvoie au plus max_length octets de données compressées. Si la limite est atteinte et que d'autres sorties peuvent être produites, l'attribut needs_input est positionné sur False. Dans ce cas, lors de l'appel suivant à la méthode decompress(), vous pouvez fournir b'' dans data afin d'obtenir la suite de la sortie.

Si toutes les données entrées ont été décompressées et renvoyées (soit parce qu'il y avait moins de max_length octets, ou parce que max_length était négatif), l'attribut needs_input sera configuré sur True.

Attempting to decompress data after the end of stream is reached raises an EOFError. Any data found after the end of the stream is ignored and saved in the unused_data attribute.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Ajout du paramètre max_length.

eof

True si le marqueur de fin de flux a été atteint.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

unused_data

Donnée trouvée après la fin du flux compressé.

Si l'attribut est accédé avant que la fin du flux ait été atteint, sa valeur sera b''.

needs_input

False si la méthode decompress() peut fournir plus de données décompressées avant l'acquisition d'une nouvelle entrée non compressée.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

(Dé)compression en une fois

bz2.compress(data, compresslevel=9)

Compresse data, un bytes-like object.

compresslevel, s'il est fourni, doit être un entier entre 1 et 9. Sa valeur par défaut est 9.

Pour la compression incrémentielle, utilisez à la place la classe BZ2Compressor.

bz2.decompress(data)

Décompresse data, un bytes-like object.

Si data est la concaténation de multiples flux compressés, décompresse tous les flux.

Pour une décompression incrémentielle, utilisez à la place la classe BZ2Decompressor.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Prise en charge des entrées multiflux.

Exemples d'utilisation

Below are some examples of typical usage of the bz2 module.

Utilise les fonctions compress() et decompress() pour démontrer une compression aller-retour :

>>> import bz2
>>> data = b"""\
... Donec rhoncus quis sapien sit amet molestie. Fusce scelerisque vel augue
... nec ullamcorper. Nam rutrum pretium placerat. Aliquam vel tristique lorem,
... sit amet cursus ante. In interdum laoreet mi, sit amet ultrices purus
... pulvinar a. Nam gravida euismod magna, non varius justo tincidunt feugiat.
... Aliquam pharetra lacus non risus vehicula rutrum. Maecenas aliquam leo
... felis. Pellentesque semper nunc sit amet nibh ullamcorper, ac elementum
... dolor luctus. Curabitur lacinia mi ornare consectetur vestibulum."""
>>> c = bz2.compress(data)
>>> len(data) / len(c)  # Data compression ratio
1.513595166163142
>>> d = bz2.decompress(c)
>>> data == d  # Check equality to original object after round-trip
True

Utilise la classe BZ2Compressor pour une compression incrémentielle :

>>> import bz2
>>> def gen_data(chunks=10, chunksize=1000):
...     """Yield incremental blocks of chunksize bytes."""
...     for _ in range(chunks):
...         yield b"z" * chunksize
...
>>> comp = bz2.BZ2Compressor()
>>> out = b""
>>> for chunk in gen_data():
...     # Provide data to the compressor object
...     out = out + comp.compress(chunk)
...
>>> # Finish the compression process.  Call this once you have
>>> # finished providing data to the compressor.
>>> out = out + comp.flush()

The example above uses a very "nonrandom" stream of data (a stream of b"z" chunks). Random data tends to compress poorly, while ordered, repetitive data usually yields a high compression ratio.

Écriture et lecture en mode binaire d'un fichier compressé avec bzip2 :

>>> import bz2
>>> data = b"""\
... Donec rhoncus quis sapien sit amet molestie. Fusce scelerisque vel augue
... nec ullamcorper. Nam rutrum pretium placerat. Aliquam vel tristique lorem,
... sit amet cursus ante. In interdum laoreet mi, sit amet ultrices purus
... pulvinar a. Nam gravida euismod magna, non varius justo tincidunt feugiat.
... Aliquam pharetra lacus non risus vehicula rutrum. Maecenas aliquam leo
... felis. Pellentesque semper nunc sit amet nibh ullamcorper, ac elementum
... dolor luctus. Curabitur lacinia mi ornare consectetur vestibulum."""
>>> with bz2.open("myfile.bz2", "wb") as f:
...     # Write compressed data to file
...     unused = f.write(data)
...
>>> with bz2.open("myfile.bz2", "rb") as f:
...     # Decompress data from file
...     content = f.read()
...
>>> content == data  # Check equality to original object after round-trip
True

lzma --- Compression using the LZMA algorithm

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Code source : Lib/lzma.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/lzma.py]

Ce module fournit des classes et des fonctions utiles pour compresser et décompresser des données en utilisant l'algorithme de compression LZMA. Ce module inclut aussi aussi une interface prenant en charge les fichiers .xz et son format originel .lzma utilisés par l'utilitaire xz, ainsi que les flux bruts compressés.

The interface provided by this module is very similar to that of the bz2 module. Note that LZMAFile and bz2.BZ2File are not thread-safe, so if you need to use a single LZMAFile instance from multiple threads, it is necessary to protect it with a lock.

This is an optional module. If it is missing from your copy of CPython, look for documentation from your distributor (that is, whoever provided Python to you). If you are the distributor, see Requirements for optional modules.

exception lzma.LZMAError

Cette exception est levée dès lors qu'une erreur survient pendant la compression ou la décompression, ou pendant l'initialisation de l'état de la compression/décompression.

Lire et écrire des fichiers compressés

lzma.open(filename, mode='rb', *, format=None, check=-1, preset=None, filters=None, encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None)

Open an LZMA-compressed file in binary or text mode, returning a file object.

L'argument nom de fichier peut être soit le nom d'un fichier à créer (donné pour str, bytes ou un objet path-like), dont le fichier nommé reste ouvert, ou soit un objet fichier existant à lire ou à écrire.

L'argument mode peut être n'importe quel argument suivant : "r", "rb", "w", "wb", "x", "xb", "a" ou "ab" pour le mode binaire, ou "rt", "wt", "xt", ou "at" pour le mode texte. La valeur par défaut est "rb".

Quand un fichier est ouvert pour le lire, les arguments format et filters ont les mêmes significations que pour la LZMADecompressor. Par conséquent, les arguments check et preset ne devront pas être sollicités.

Dès ouverture d'un fichier pour l'écriture, les arguments format, check, preset et filters ont le même sens que dans la LZMACompressor.

Pour le mode binaire, cette fonction équivaut au constructeur de la LZMAFile : LZMAFile(filename, mode, ...). Dans ce cas précis, les arguments encoding, errors et newline ne sont pas accessibles.

For text mode, a LZMAFile object is created, and wrapped in an io.TextIOWrapper instance with the specified encoding, error handling behavior, and line ending(s).

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Support ajouté pour les modes "x", "xb" et "xt".

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

class lzma.LZMAFile(filename=None, mode='r', *, format=None, check=-1, preset=None, filters=None)

Ouvre un fichier LZMA compressé en mode binaire.

An LZMAFile can wrap an already-open file object, or operate directly on a named file. The filename argument specifies either the file object to wrap, or the name of the file to open (as a str, bytes or path-like object). When wrapping an existing file object, the wrapped file will not be closed when the LZMAFile is closed.

L'argument mode peut être soit "r" pour la lecture (défaut), "w" pour la ré-écriture, "x" pour la création exclusive, ou "a" pour l'insertion. Elles peuvent aussi être écrites de la façon suivante : "rb", "wb", "xb" et "ab" respectivement.

If filename is a file object (rather than an actual file name), a mode of "w" does not truncate the file, and is instead equivalent to "a".

Dès l'ouverture d'un fichier pour être lu, le fichier d'entrée peut être le résultat d'une concaténation de plusieurs flux distincts et compressés. Ceux-ci sont décodés de manière transparente en un seul flux logique.

Quand un fichier est ouvert pour le lire, les arguments format et filters ont les mêmes significations que pour la LZMADecompressor. Par conséquent, les arguments check et preset ne devront pas être sollicités.

Dès ouverture d'un fichier pour l'écriture, les arguments format, check, preset et filters ont le même sens que dans la LZMACompressor.

LZMAFile supports all the members specified by io.BufferedIOBase, except for detach() and truncate(). Iteration and the with statement are supported.

The following method and attributes are also provided:

peek(size=-1)

Renvoie la donnée en mémoire-tampon sans progression de la position du fichier. Au moins un octet de donnée sera renvoyé, jusqu'à ce que l'EOF soit atteinte. Le nombre exact d'octets renvoyés demeure indéterminé (l'argument taille est ignoré).

Note

While calling peek() does not change the file position of the LZMAFile, it may change the position of the underlying file object (e.g. if the LZMAFile was constructed by passing a file object for filename).

mode

'rb' for reading and 'wb' for writing.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

name

The lzma file name. Equivalent to the name attribute of the underlying file object.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Added support for the "x" and "xb" modes.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: La méthode read() accepte maintenant un argument None.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

Compresser et décompresser une donnée en mémoire

class lzma.LZMACompressor(format=FORMAT_XZ, check=-1, preset=None, filters=None)

Créé un objet compresseur, qui peut être utilisé pour compresser incrémentalement une donnée.

Pour une façon plus adaptée de compresser un seul extrait de donnée, voir compress().

L'argument format définit quel format de conteneur sera mis en œuvre. Les valeurs possibles sont :

FORMAT_XZ: Le format du conteneur .xz.

C'est le format par défaut.

FORMAT_ALONE: L'ancien format du conteneur .lzma.

Ce format est davantage limité que .xz --il ne supporte pas les vérifications d'intégrité ou les filtres multiples.

FORMAT_RAW: Un flux de données brut, n'utilisant aucun format de conteneur.

Ce format spécifique ne prend pas en charge les vérifications d'intégrité et exige systématiquement la définition d'une chaîne de filtrage personnalisée (à la fois pour la compression et la décompression). Par ailleurs, les données compressées par ce biais ne peuvent pas être décompressées par l'usage de FORMAT_AUTO (voir : LZMADecompressor).

L'argument check détermine le type de vérification d'intégrité à exploiter avec la donnée compressée. Cette vérification est déclenchée lors de la décompression, pour garantir que la donnée n'a pas été corrompue. Les valeurs possibles sont :

CHECK_NONE: Pas de vérification d'intégrité. C'est la valeur par défaut (et la seule valeur acceptable) pour FORMAT_ALONE et FORMAT_RAW.

CHECK_CRC32: Vérification par Redondance Cyclique 32-bit (Cyclic Redundancy Check).

CHECK_CRC64: Vérification par Redondance Cyclique 64-bit (Cyclic Redundancy Check). Valeur par défaut pour FORMAT_XZ.

CHECK_SHA256: Algorithme de Hachage Sécurisé 256-bit (Secure Hash Algorithm).

Si le type de vérification n'est pas supporté par le système, une erreur de type LZMAError est levée.

Les réglages de compression peuvent être définis soit comme un pré-réglage de niveau de compression (avec l'argument preset) ; soit de façon détaillée comme une chaîne particulière de filtres (avec l'argument filters).

L'argument preset (s'il est fourni) doit être un entier compris entre 0 et 9 (inclus), éventuellement relié à OR avec la constante PRESET_EXTREME. Si aucun preset ni filters ne ont définis, le comportement par défaut consiste à utiliser la PRESET_DEFAULT (niveau par défaut : 6). Des pré-réglages plus élevés entraîne une sortie plus petite, mais rend le processus de compression plus lent.

Note

En plus d'être plus gourmande en CPU, la compression avec des préréglages plus élevés nécessite beaucoup plus de mémoire (et produit des résultats qui nécessitent plus de mémoire pour décompresser). Par exemple, avec le préréglage 9, l'objet d'une LZMACompressor peut dépasser largement les 800 Mo. Pour cette raison, il est généralement préférable de respecter le préréglage par défaut.

L'argument filters (s'il est défini) doit être un critère de la chaîne de filtrage. Voir Préciser des chaînes de filtre personnalisées pour plus de précisions.

compress(data)

Une data compressée (un objet bytes), renvoie un objet bytes contenant une donnée compressée pour au moins une partie de l'entrée. Certaine data peuvent être mise en tampon, pour être utiliser lors de prochains appels par compress() et flush(). La donnée renvoyée pourra être concaténée avec la sortie d'appels précédents vers la méthode compress().

flush()

Conclut l'opération de compression, en renvoyant l'objet bytes constitué de toutes les données stockées dans les tampons interne du compresseur.

The compressor cannot be used after this method has been called.

class lzma.LZMADecompressor(format=FORMAT_AUTO, memlimit=None, filters=None)

Créé un objet de décompression, pour décompresser de façon incrémentale une donnée.

Pour un moyen plus pratique de décompresser un flux compressé complet en une seule fois, voir decompress().

L'argument format spécifie le format du conteneur à utiliser. La valeur par défaut est FORMAT_AUTO pouvant à la fois décompresser les fichiers .xz et .lzma. D'autres valeurs sont possibles comme FORMAT_XZ, FORMAT_ALONE, et FORMAT_RAW.

L'argument memlimit spécifie une limite (en octets) sur la quantité de mémoire que le décompresseur peut utiliser. Lorsque cet argument est utilisé, la décompression échouera avec une LZMAError s'il n'est pas possible de décompresser l'entrée dans la limite mémoire disponible.

L'argument filters spécifie la chaîne de filtrage utilisée pour créer le flux décompressé. Cet argument est requis si format est FORMAT_RAW, mais ne doit pas être utilisé pour d'autres formats. Voir Préciser des chaînes de filtre personnalisées pour plus d'informations sur les chaînes de filtrage.

Note

Cette classe ne gère pas de manière transparente les entrées contenant plusieurs flux compressés, contrairement à decompress() et LZMAFile. Pour décompresser une entrée multi-flux avec LZMADecompressor, vous devez créer un nouveau décompresseur à chaque flux.

decompress(data, max_length=-1)

Décompresse data (un bytes-like object), renvoyant une donnée non compressée en tant que chaîne d'octets. Certaines de ces data peuvent être mises en interne en tampon, pour un usage lors d'appels ultérieurs par la méthode decompress(). La donnée renvoyée doit être concaténée avec la sortie des appels précédents à la méthode decompress().

Si max_length est positif, renvoie au plus max_length octets de données compressées. Si la limite est atteinte et que d'autres sorties peuvent être produites, l'attribut needs_input est positionné sur False. Dans ce cas, lors de l'appel suivant à la méthode decompress(), vous pouvez fournir b'' dans data afin d'obtenir la suite de la sortie.

Si toutes les données entrées ont été décompressées et renvoyées (soit parce qu'il y avait moins de max_length octets, ou parce que max_length était négatif), l'attribut needs_input sera configuré sur True.

Attempting to decompress data after the end of stream is reached raises an EOFError. Any data found after the end of the stream is ignored and saved in the unused_data attribute.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Ajout du paramètre max_length.

check

L'ID de la vérification d'intégrité exploité par le flux entrant. Il s'agit de CHECK_UNKNOWN tant que ce flux a été décodé pour déterminer quel type de vérification d'intégrité à été utilisé.

eof

True si le marqueur de fin de flux a été atteint.

unused_data

Donnée trouvée après la fin du flux compressé.

Avant d'atteindre la fin du flux, ce sera b"".

needs_input

False si la méthode decompress() peut fournir plus de données décompressées avant l'acquisition d'une nouvelle entrée non compressée.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

lzma.compress(data, format=FORMAT_XZ, check=-1, preset=None, filters=None)

data compressée (un objet bytes), renvoyant une donnée compressée comme un objet bytes.

Voir LZMACompressor ci-dessus pour une description des arguments format, check, preset et filters.

lzma.decompress(data, format=FORMAT_AUTO, memlimit=None, filters=None)

Décompresse data (un objet bytes ), et retourne la donnée décompressée sous la forme d'un objet bytes.

Si data est le résultat de la concaténation de plusieurs flux compressés et distincts , il les décompresse tous, et retourne les résultats concaténés.

Voir LZMADecompressor ci-dessus pour une description des arguments format, memlimit et filters.

Divers

lzma.is_check_supported(check)

Return True if the given integrity check is supported on this system.

CHECK_NONE et CHECK_CRC32 sont toujours pris en charge. CHECK_CRC64 et CHECK_SHA256 peuvent être indisponibles si vous utilisez une version de liblzma compilée avec des possibilités restreintes.

Préciser des chaînes de filtre personnalisées

Une chaîne de filtres est une séquence de dictionnaires, où chaque dictionnaire contient l'ID et les options pour chaque filtre. Le moindre dictionnaire contient la clé "id" et peut aussi contenir d'autres clés pour préciser chaque options relative au filtre déclaré. Les ID valides des filtres sont définies comme suit :

Filtres de compression :

FILTER_LZMA1 (à utiliser avec FORMAT_ALONE)

FILTER_LZMA2 (à utiliser avec FORMAT_XZ et FORMAT_RAW)

Filtre Delta :

FILTER_DELTA

Filtres Branch-Call-Jump (BCJ) :

FILTER_X86

FILTER_IA64

FILTER_ARM

FILTER_ARMTHUMB

FILTER_POWERPC

FILTER_SPARC

Une chaîne de filtres peut contenir jusqu'à 4 filtres, et ne peut pas être vide. Le dernier filtre de cette chaîne devra être un filtre de compression, et tous les autres doivent être des filtres delta ou BCJ.

Les filtres de compression contiennent les options suivantes (définies comme entrées additionnelles dans le dictionnaire qui représente le filtre) :

preset: Un pré-réglage à exploiter comme une source de valeurs par défaut pour les options qui ne sont pas explicitement définies.

dict_size: La taille du dictionnaire en octets. Comprise entre 4 Ko et 1.5 Go (inclus).

lc: Nombre de bits dans le contexte littéral.

lp: Nombre de bits dans la position littérale. La somme lc + lp devra être au moins 4.

pb: Nombre de bits à cette position ; au moins 4.

mode: MODE_FAST ou MODE_NORMAL.

nice_len: Ce qui devra être pris en compte comme "longueur appréciable" pour une recherche. Il devra être 273 ou moins.

mf: Quel type d'index de recherche à utiliser -- MF_HC3, MF_HC4, MF_BT2, MF_BT3, ou MF_BT4.

depth: Profondeur maximum de la recherche, utilisée par l'index de recherche. 0 (défaut) signifie une sélection automatique basée sur des options de filtres différents.

Le filtre delta stocke les différences entre octets, induisant davantage d'entrées répétitives pour le compresseur, selon les circonstances. Il support une option, dist. Ce paramètre définit la distance entre les octets à soustraire. Par défaut : 1, soit la différence entre des octets adjacents.

Les filtres BCJ sont conçus pour être appliqués sur du langage machine. Ils convertissent les branches relatives, les appels et les sauts dans le code à des fins d'adressage strict, dans le but d'augmenter la redondance mise en jeu par le compresseur. Ils ne supportent qu'une seule option : start_offset, pour définir l'adresse où sera déclenché le début de la donnée d'entrée. Par défaut : 0.

Exemples

Lire un fichier compressé :

import lzma
with lzma.open("file.xz") as f:
    file_content = f.read()

Créer un fichier compressé :

import lzma
data = b"Insert Data Here"
with lzma.open("file.xz", "w") as f:
    f.write(data)

Compresser des données en mémoire :

import lzma
data_in = b"Insert Data Here"
data_out = lzma.compress(data_in)

Compression incrémentale :

import lzma
lzc = lzma.LZMACompressor()
out1 = lzc.compress(b"Some data\n")
out2 = lzc.compress(b"Another piece of data\n")
out3 = lzc.compress(b"Even more data\n")
out4 = lzc.flush()
# Concatenate all the partial results:
result = b"".join([out1, out2, out3, out4])

Écrire des données compressées dans un fichier préalablement ouvert :

import lzma
with open("file.xz", "wb") as f:
    f.write(b"This data will not be compressed\n")
    with lzma.open(f, "w") as lzf:
        lzf.write(b"This *will* be compressed\n")
    f.write(b"Not compressed\n")

Créer un fichier compressé en utilisant une chaîne de filtre personnalisée :

import lzma
my_filters = [
    {"id": lzma.FILTER_DELTA, "dist": 5},
    {"id": lzma.FILTER_LZMA2, "preset": 7 | lzma.PRESET_EXTREME},
]
with lzma.open("file.xz", "w", filters=my_filters) as f:
    f.write(b"blah blah blah")

zipfile --- Work with ZIP archives

Source code: Lib/zipfile/ [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/zipfile/]

Le format de fichier ZIP est une archive et un standard de compression couramment utilisés. Ce module fournit des outils pour créer, écrire, ajouter des données à et lister un fichier ZIP. L'utilisation avancée de ce module requiert une certaine compréhension du format, comme défini dans PKZIP Application Note [https://pkware.cachefly.net/webdocs/casestudies/APPNOTE.TXT].

This module does not handle multipart ZIP files. It can handle ZIP files that use the ZIP64 extensions (that is ZIP files that are more than 4 GiB in size). It supports decryption of encrypted files in ZIP archives, but it cannot create an encrypted file. Decryption is extremely slow as it is implemented in native Python rather than C.

Handling compressed archives requires optional modules such as zlib, bz2, lzma, and compression.zstd. If any of them are missing from your copy of CPython, look for documentation from your distributor (that is, whoever provided Python to you). If you are the distributor, see Requirements for optional modules.

Le module définit les éléments suivants :

exception zipfile.BadZipFile

Erreur levée en cas de fichier ZIP non valide.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

exception zipfile.BadZipfile

Alias de BadZipFile, pour la compatibilité avec les versions de Python précédentes.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.2.

exception zipfile.LargeZipFile

Erreur levée quand un fichier ZIP nécessite la fonctionnalité ZIP64 mais qu'elle n'a pas été activée.

class zipfile.ZipFile

Classe pour lire et écrire des fichiers ZIP. Voir la section ZipFile objects pour les détails du constructeur.

class zipfile.Path

Class that implements a subset of the interface provided by pathlib.Path, including the full importlib.resources.abc.Traversable interface.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

class zipfile.PyZipFile

Classe pour créer des archives ZIP contenant des bibliothèques Python.

class zipfile.ZipInfo(filename='NoName', date_time=(1980, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0))

Class used to represent information about a member of an archive. Instances of this class are returned by the getinfo() and infolist() methods of ZipFile objects. Most users of the zipfile module will not need to create these, but only use those created by this module. filename should be the full name of the archive member, and date_time should be a tuple containing six fields which describe the time of the last modification to the file; the fields are described in section ZipInfo objects.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: A public compress_level attribute has been added to expose the formerly protected _compresslevel. The older protected name continues to work as a property for backwards compatibility.

_for_archive(archive)

Resolve the date_time, compression attributes, and external attributes to suitable defaults as used by ZipFile.writestr().

Returns self for chaining.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

zipfile.is_zipfile(filename)

Retourne True si filename est un fichier ZIP valide basé sur son nombre magique, sinon retourne False. filename peut aussi être un fichier ou un objet fichier-compatible.

Modifié dans la version 3.1: Gestion des objets fichier et fichier-compatibles.

zipfile.ZIP_STORED

Constante numérique pour un membre d'une archive décompressée.

zipfile.ZIP_DEFLATED

Constante numérique pour la méthode habituelle de compression de ZIP. Nécessite le module zlib.

zipfile.ZIP_BZIP2

Constante numérique pour la méthode de compressions BZIP2. Nécessite le module bz2.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

zipfile.ZIP_LZMA

Constante numérique pour la méthode de compressions LZMA. Nécessite le module lzma.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

zipfile.ZIP_ZSTANDARD

The numeric constant for Zstandard compression. This requires the compression.zstd module.

Note

In APPNOTE 6.3.7, the method ID 20 was assigned to Zstandard compression. This was changed in APPNOTE 6.3.8 to method ID 93 to avoid conflicts, with method ID 20 being deprecated. For compatibility, the zipfile module reads both method IDs but will only write data with method ID 93.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Note

The ZIP file format specification has included support for bzip2 compression since 2001, for LZMA compression since 2006, and Zstandard compression since 2020. However, some tools (including older Python releases) do not support these compression methods, and may either refuse to process the ZIP file altogether, or fail to extract individual files.

Voir aussi

PKZIP Application Note [https://pkware.cachefly.net/webdocs/casestudies/APPNOTE.TXT]

Documentation sur le format de fichier ZIP par Phil Katz, créateur du format et des algorithmes utilisés.

Info-ZIP Home Page [https://infozip.sourceforge.net/]

Informations sur les programmes et les bibliothèques de développement d'archivage ZIP du projet Info-ZIP.

ZipFile objects

class zipfile.ZipFile(file, mode='r', compression=ZIP_STORED, allowZip64=True, compresslevel=None, *, strict_timestamps=True, metadata_encoding=None)

Ouvre un fichier ZIP, où file peut être un chemin vers un fichier (une chaîne de caractères), un objet fichier-compatible ou un objet chemin-compatible path-like object.

Le paramètre mode doit être r pour lire un fichier existant, w pour tronquer et écrire un nouveau fichier, a pour ajouter des données à la fin d'un fichier existant ou x pour créer et écrire exclusivement un nouveau fichier. Si mode est à x et file fait référence à un fichier existant, une exception FileExistsError est levée. Si mode est à a et file fait référence à un fichier ZIP existant, alors des fichiers supplémentaires y seront ajoutés. Si file ne fait pas référence à un fichier ZIP, alors une nouvelle archive ZIP est ajoutée au fichier, afin de prévoir le cas d'ajouter une archive ZIP à un autre fichier (comme par exemple python.exe). Si mode est à r ou a, le fichier doit être navigable.

compression is the ZIP compression method to use when writing the archive, and should be ZIP_STORED, ZIP_DEFLATED, ZIP_BZIP2, ZIP_LZMA, or ZIP_ZSTANDARD; unrecognized values will cause NotImplementedError to be raised. If ZIP_DEFLATED, ZIP_BZIP2, ZIP_LZMA, or ZIP_ZSTANDARD is specified but the corresponding module (zlib, bz2, lzma, or compression.zstd) is not available, RuntimeError is raised. The default is ZIP_STORED.

If allowZip64 is True (the default) zipfile will create ZIP files that use the ZIP64 extensions when the zipfile is larger than 4 GiB. If it is false zipfile will raise an exception when the ZIP file would require ZIP64 extensions.

The compresslevel parameter controls the compression level to use when writing files to the archive. When using ZIP_STORED or ZIP_LZMA it has no effect. When using ZIP_DEFLATED integers 0 through 9 are accepted (see zlib for more information). When using ZIP_BZIP2 integers 1 through 9 are accepted (see bz2 for more information). When using ZIP_ZSTANDARD integers -131072 through 22 are commonly accepted (see CompressionParameter.compression_level for more on retrieving valid values and their meaning).

Les fichiers ZIP plus anciens que le 1er janvier 1980 sont autorisés lorsque l'argument strict_timestamps vaut False, moyennant de les voir datés du 1er janvier 1980. De même pour les fichiers datés d'après le 31 décembre 2107 qui voient leur horodatage fixé au 31 décembre 2107.

When mode is 'r', metadata_encoding may be set to the name of a codec, which will be used to decode metadata such as the names of members and ZIP comments.

Si le fichier est créé avec le mode 'w', 'x' ou 'a' et ensuite fermé sans ajouter de fichiers à l'archive, la structure appropriée pour un fichier archive ZIP vide sera écrite dans le fichier.

ZipFile est aussi un gestionnaire de contexte et gère ainsi la déclaration with. Dans l'exemple, myzip est fermé à la fin de la déclaration with --- même si une exception est levée :

with ZipFile('spam.zip', 'w') as myzip:
    myzip.write('eggs.txt')

Note

metadata_encoding is an instance-wide setting for the ZipFile. It is not possible to set this on a per-member basis.

This attribute is a workaround for legacy implementations which produce archives with names in the current locale encoding or code page (mostly on Windows). According to the .ZIP standard, the encoding of metadata may be specified to be either IBM code page (default) or UTF-8 by a flag in the archive header. That flag takes precedence over metadata_encoding, which is a Python-specific extension.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Ajout de la possibilité d'utiliser ZipFile comme un gestionnaire de contexte.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Ajout de la gestion de la compression bzip2 et lzma.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Les extensions ZIP64 sont activées par défaut.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Ajout de la gestion de l'écriture dans des flux non navigables. Ajout de la gestion du mode x.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Auparavant, une simple exception RuntimeError était levée pour des valeurs de compression non reconnues.

Modifié dans la version 3.6.2: Le paramètre file accepte un objet fichier-compatible path-like object.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Ajout du paramètre compresslevel.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: The strict_timestamps keyword-only parameter.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added support for specifying member name encoding for reading metadata in the zipfile's directory and file headers.

ZipFile.close()

Ferme l'archive. Vous devez appeler close() avant de terminer votre programme ou des informations essentielles n'y seront pas enregistrées.

ZipFile.getinfo(name)

Retourne un objet ZipInfo avec les informations du membre name de l'archive. Appeler getinfo() pour un nom non contenu dans l'archive lève une exception KeyError.

ZipFile.infolist()

Retourne une liste contenant un objet ZipInfo pour chaque membre de l'archive. Les objets ont le même ordre que leurs entrées dans le fichier ZIP présent sur disque s'il s'agissait d'une archive préexistante.

ZipFile.namelist()

Retourne une liste des membres de l'archive indexés par leur nom.

ZipFile.open(name, mode='r', pwd=None, *, force_zip64=False)

Access a member of the archive as a binary file-like object. name can be either the name of a file within the archive or a ZipInfo object. The mode parameter, if included, must be 'r' (the default) or 'w'. pwd is the password used to decrypt encrypted ZIP files as a bytes object.

open() est aussi un gestionnaire de contexte et gère ainsi la déclaration with :

with ZipFile('spam.zip') as myzip:
    with myzip.open('eggs.txt') as myfile:
        print(myfile.read())

With mode 'r' the file-like object (ZipExtFile) is read-only and provides the following methods: read(), readline(), readlines(), seek(), tell(), __iter__(), __next__(). These objects can operate independently of the ZipFile.

Avec mode='w' un descripteur de fichier en écriture est retourné, gérant la méthode write(). Quand le descripteur d'un fichier inscriptible est ouvert, tenter de lire ou écrire d'autres fichiers dans le fichier ZIP lève une exception ValueError.

In both cases the file-like object has also attributes name, which is equivalent to the name of a file within the archive, and mode, which is 'rb' or 'wb' depending on the input mode.

Lors de l'écriture d'un fichier, si la taille du fichier n'est pas connue mais peut être supérieure à 2 GiO, spécifiez force_zip64=True afin de vous assurer que le format d'en-tête est capable de supporter des fichiers volumineux. Si la taille du fichier est connue à l'avance, instanciez un objet ZipInfo avec l'attribut file_size défini et utilisez-le en tant que paramètre name.

Note

Les méthodes open(), read() et extract() peuvent prendre un nom de fichier ou un objet ZipInfo. Cela est appréciable lorsqu'on essaie de lire un fichier ZIP qui contient des membres avec des noms en double.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Suppression de la gestion de mode='U'. Utilisez io.TextIOWrapper pour lire des fichiers texte compressés en mode universal newlines.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: ZipFile.open() can now be used to write files into the archive with the mode='w' option.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Appeler open() sur un fichier ZipFile fermé lève une erreur ValueError. Précédemment, une erreur RuntimeError était levée.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added attributes name and mode for the writeable file-like object. The value of the mode attribute for the readable file-like object was changed from 'r' to 'rb'.

ZipFile.extract(member, path=None, pwd=None)

Extract a member from the archive to the current working directory; member must be its full name or a ZipInfo object. Its file information is extracted as accurately as possible. path specifies a different directory to extract to. member can be a filename or a ZipInfo object. pwd is the password used for encrypted files as a bytes object.

Retourne le chemin normalisé créé (un dossier ou un nouveau fichier).

Note

Si le nom de fichier d'un membre est un chemin absolu, le disque/partage UNC et les (anti)slashes de départ seront supprimés, par exemple ///foo/bar devient foo/bar sous Unix et C:\foo\bar devient foo\bar sous Windows. Et tous les composants ".." dans le nom de fichier d'un membre seront supprimés, par exemple ../../foo../../ba..r devient foo../ba..r. Sous Windows les caractères illégaux (:, <, >, |, ", ? et *) sont remplacés par un underscore (_).

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Appeler extract() sur un fichier ZipFile fermé lève une erreur ValueError. Précédemment, une erreur RuntimeError était levée.

Modifié dans la version 3.6.2: Le paramètre path accepte un objet chemin-compatible path-like object.

ZipFile.extractall(path=None, members=None, pwd=None)

Extract all members from the archive to the current working directory. path specifies a different directory to extract to. members is optional and must be a subset of the list returned by namelist(). pwd is the password used for encrypted files as a bytes object.

Avertissement

N'extrayez jamais d'archives depuis des sources non fiables sans inspection préalable. Il est possible que des fichiers soient créés en dehors de path, par exemple des membres qui ont des chemins de fichier absolus commençant par "/" ou des noms de fichier avec deux points "..". Ce module essaie de prévenir ceci. Voir la note de extract().

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Appeler extractall() sur un fichier ZipFile fermé lève une erreur ValueError. Précédemment, une erreur RuntimeError était levée.

Modifié dans la version 3.6.2: Le paramètre path accepte un objet chemin-compatible path-like object.

ZipFile.printdir()

Affiche la liste des contenus de l'archive sur sys.stdout.

ZipFile.setpassword(pwd)

Set pwd (a bytes object) as default password to extract encrypted files.

ZipFile.read(name, pwd=None)

Return the bytes of the file name in the archive. name is the name of the file in the archive, or a ZipInfo object. The archive must be open for read or append. pwd is the password used for encrypted files as a bytes object and, if specified, overrides the default password set with setpassword(). Calling read() on a ZipFile that uses a compression method other than ZIP_STORED, ZIP_DEFLATED, ZIP_BZIP2, ZIP_LZMA, or ZIP_ZSTANDARD will raise a NotImplementedError. An error will also be raised if the corresponding compression module is not available.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Appeler read() sur un fichier ZipFile fermé lève une erreur ValueError. Précédemment, une erreur RuntimeError était levée.

ZipFile.testzip()

Lit tous les fichiers de l'archive et vérifie leurs sommes CRC et leurs en-têtes. Retourne le nom du premier fichier mauvais ou retourne None sinon.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Appeler testzip() sur un fichier ZipFile fermé lève une erreur ValueError. Précédemment, une erreur RuntimeError était levée.

ZipFile.write(filename, arcname=None, compress_type=None, compresslevel=None)

Écrit le fichier nommé filename dans l'archive, lui donnant arcname comme nom dans l'archive (par défaut, arcname prend la même valeur que filename mais sans lettre de disque et séparateur de chemin en première position). Si donné, compress_type écrase la valeur donnée pour le paramètre compression au constructeur pour la nouvelle entrée. De la même manière, compression écrase le constructeur si donné. L'archive doit être ouverte avec le mode 'w', 'x' ou 'a'.

Note

The ZIP file standard historically did not specify a metadata encoding, but strongly recommended CP437 (the original IBM PC encoding) for interoperability. Recent versions allow use of UTF-8 (only). In this module, UTF-8 will automatically be used to write the member names if they contain any non-ASCII characters. It is not possible to write member names in any encoding other than ASCII or UTF-8.

Note

Les noms d'archive doivent être relatifs à la racine de l'archive, c'est-à-dire qu'ils ne doivent pas commencer par un séparateur de chemin.

Note

Si arcname (ou filename si arcname n'est pas donné) contient un octet nul, le nom du fichier dans l'archive sera tronqué à l'octet nul.

Note

A leading slash in the filename may lead to the archive being impossible to open in some zip programs on Windows systems.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Appeler write() sur un fichier ZipFile fermé lève une erreur ValueError. Précédemment, une erreur RuntimeError était levée.

ZipFile.writestr(zinfo_or_arcname, data, compress_type=None, compresslevel=None)

Écrit un fichier dans l'archive. Le contenu est data, qui peut être soit une instance de str ou une instance de bytes ; s'il s'agit d'une str, il est encodé en UTF-8 au préalable. zinfo_or_arcname est soit le nom de fichier qu'il sera donné dans l'archive, soit une instance de ZipInfo. Si c'est une instance, au moins le nom de fichier, la date et l'heure doivent être donnés. S'il s'agit d'un nom, la date et l'heure sont définies sur la date et l'heure actuelles. L'archive doit être ouverte avec le mode 'w', 'x' ou 'a'.

Si donné, compress_type écrase la valeur donnée pour le paramètre compression au constructeur de la nouvelle entrée ou dans le paramètre zinfo_or_arcname (si c'est une instance de ZipInfo). De la même manière, compresslevel le constructeur si donné.

Note

Lorsque l'on passe une instance de ZipInfo dans le paramètre zinfo_or_arcname, la méthode de compression utilisée sera celle spécifiée dans le membre compress_type de l'instance ZipInfo donnée. Par défaut, le constructeur de la classe ZipInfo définit ce membre à ZIP_STORED.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: L'argument compress_type.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Appeler writestr() sur un fichier ZipFile fermé lève une erreur ValueError. Précédemment, une erreur RuntimeError était levée.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Now respects the SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH environment variable. If set, it uses this value as the modification timestamp for the file written into the ZIP archive, instead of using the current time.

ZipFile.mkdir(zinfo_or_directory, mode=511)

Create a directory inside the archive. If zinfo_or_directory is a string, a directory is created inside the archive with the mode that is specified in the mode argument. If, however, zinfo_or_directory is a ZipInfo instance then the mode argument is ignored.

The archive must be opened with mode 'w', 'x' or 'a'.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

Les attributs suivants sont aussi disponibles :

ZipFile.filename

Nom du fichier ZIP.

ZipFile.debug

Le niveau d'affichage de debug à utiliser. Peut être défini de 0 (par défaut, pas d'affichage) à 3 (affichage le plus bavard). Les informations de débogage sont affichées sur sys.stdout.

ZipFile.comment

Le commentaire associé au fichier ZIP en tant qu'objet bytes. Si vous affectez un commentaire à une instance de ZipFile créée avec le mode 'w', 'x' ou 'a', il ne doit pas dépasser 65535 octets. Les commentaires plus longs que cette taille seront tronqués.

Path objects

class zipfile.Path(root, at='')

Construit un objet Path depuis le fichier ZIP root (qui peut être une instance de ZipFile ou tout ce qui sera accepté par le paramètre file du constructeur de ZipFile).

at indique la position de ce Path dans l'archive ZIP, par exemple "dir/file.txt", "dir/", ou "". Par défaut c'est une chaine vide, indiquant la racine de l'archive.

Note

The Path class does not sanitize filenames within the ZIP archive. Unlike the ZipFile.extract() and ZipFile.extractall() methods, it is the caller's responsibility to validate or sanitize filenames to prevent path traversal vulnerabilities (e.g., filenames containing ".." or absolute paths). When handling untrusted archives, consider resolving filenames using os.path.abspath() and checking against the target directory with os.path.commonpath().

Les objets Path de zipfile exposent les fonctionnalités suivantes des objets de pathlib.Path :

Path objects are traversable using the / operator or joinpath.

Path.name

Le dernier segment du chemin.

Path.open(mode='r', *, pwd, **)

Appelle ZipFile.open() sur ce chemin. Il est possible d'ouvrir en lecture ou en écriture, au format texte ou binaire, via les modes 'r', 'w', 'rb' et 'wb'. Les arguments positionnels et nommés sont passés à la classe io.TextIOWrapper lors d'une ouverture au format texte, ils sont ignorés autrement. pwd est le paramètre pwd de ZipFile.open().

Modifié dans la version 3.9: prise en charge des modes texte et binaire pour open. Le mode texte est maintenant le mode par défaut.

Modifié dans la version 3.11.2: The encoding parameter can be supplied as a positional argument without causing a TypeError. As it could in 3.9. Code needing to be compatible with unpatched 3.10 and 3.11 versions must pass all io.TextIOWrapper arguments, encoding included, as keywords.

Path.iterdir()

Énumère le contenu du dossier actuel.

Path.is_dir()

Renvoie True si ce chemin pointe sur un dossier.

Path.is_file()

Renvoie True si ce chemin pointe sur un fichier.

Path.is_symlink()

Return True if the current context references a symbolic link.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Previously, is_symlink would unconditionally return False.

Path.exists()

Renvoie True si le chemin pointe sur un fichier ou un dossier de l'archive ZIP

Path.suffix

The last dot-separated portion of the final component, if any. This is commonly called the file extension.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11: Added Path.suffix property.

Path.stem

The final path component, without its suffix.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11: Added Path.stem property.

Path.suffixes

A list of the path’s suffixes, commonly called file extensions.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11: Added Path.suffixes property.

Path.read_text(*, **)

Lit le fichier au format texte. Les arguments positionnels et nommés sont passés à io.TextIOWrapper (sauf buffer, qui est imposé par le contexte)

Modifié dans la version 3.11.2: The encoding parameter can be supplied as a positional argument without causing a TypeError. As it could in 3.9. Code needing to be compatible with unpatched 3.10 and 3.11 versions must pass all io.TextIOWrapper arguments, encoding included, as keywords.

Path.read_bytes()

Lit le fichier en mode binaire, renvoyant un objet bytes.

Path.joinpath(*other)

Return a new Path object with each of the other arguments joined. The following are equivalent:

>>> Path(...).joinpath('child').joinpath('grandchild')
>>> Path(...).joinpath('child', 'grandchild')
>>> Path(...) / 'child' / 'grandchild'

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Prior to 3.10, joinpath was undocumented and accepted exactly one parameter.

The zipp [https://pypi.org/project/zipp/] project provides backports of the latest path object functionality to older Pythons. Use zipp.Path in place of zipfile.Path for early access to changes.

PyZipFile objects

Le constructeur de PyZipFile prend les mêmes paramètres que le constructeur de ZipFile avec un paramètre additionnel optimize.

class zipfile.PyZipFile(file, mode='r', compression=ZIP_STORED, allowZip64=True, optimize=-1)

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Added the optimize parameter.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Les extensions ZIP64 sont activées par défaut.

Les instances ont une méthode supplémentaire par rapport aux objets ZipFile :

writepy(pathname, basename='', filterfunc=None)

Cherche les fichiers *.py et ajoute le fichier correspondant à l'archive.

Si le paramètre optimize du constructeur de PyZipFile n'a pas été donné ou est à -1, le fichier correspondant est un fichier *.pyc, à compiler si nécessaire.

Si le paramètre optimize du constructeur de PyZipFile est à 0, 1 ou 2, ne sont ajoutés dans l'archive que les fichiers avec ce niveau d'optimisation (voir compile()), à compiler si nécessaire.

Si pathname est un fichier, le chemin de fichier doit terminer par .py et uniquement le fichier (*.pyc correspondant) est ajouté au niveau le plus haut (sans information de chemin). Si pathname est un fichier ne terminant pas par .py, une exception RuntimeError est levée. Si c'est un répertoire et que le répertoire n'est pas un répertoire de paquet, alors tous les fichiers *.pyc sont ajoutés à la racine. Si le répertoire est un répertoire de paquet, alors tous les *.pyc sont ajoutés sous le nom du paquet en tant que chemin, et s'il y a des sous-répertoires qui sont des répertoires de paquet, ils sont tous ajoutés récursivement dans un ordre trié.

basename n'est sensé être utilisé qu'en interne.

filterfunc, si donné, doit être une fonction prenant une seule chaîne de caractères en argument. Il lui sera passé chaque chemin (incluant chaque chemin de fichier complet individuel) avant d'être ajouté à l'archive. Si filterfunc retourne une valeur fausse, le chemin n'est pas ajouté et si c'est un répertoire son contenu est ignoré. Par exemple, si nos fichiers de test sont tous soit dans des répertoires test ou commencent par test_, nous pouvons utiliser une fonction filterfunc pour les exclure :

>>> zf = PyZipFile('myprog.zip')
>>> def notests(s):
...     fn = os.path.basename(s)
...     return (not (fn == 'test' or fn.startswith('test_')))
...
>>> zf.writepy('myprog', filterfunc=notests)

La méthode writepy() crée des archives avec des noms de fichier comme suit :

string.pyc                   # Top level name
test/__init__.pyc            # Package directory
test/testall.pyc             # Module test.testall
test/bogus/__init__.pyc      # Subpackage directory
test/bogus/myfile.pyc        # Submodule test.bogus.myfile

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Added the filterfunc parameter.

Modifié dans la version 3.6.2: Le paramètre pathname accepte un objet chemin-compatible path-like object.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: La récursion trie les entrées de dossier.

ZipInfo objects

Des instances de la classe ZipInfo sont retournées par les méthodes getinfo() et infolist() des objets ZipFile. Chaque objet stocke des informations sur un seul membre de l'archive ZIP.

Il y a une méthode de classe pour créer une instance de ZipInfo pour un fichier du système de fichiers :

classmethod ZipInfo.from_file(filename, arcname=None, *, strict_timestamps=True)

Construit une instance de ZipInfo pour le fichier du système de fichiers, en préparation de l'ajouter à un fichier ZIP.

filename doit être un chemin vers un fichier ou un répertoire dans le système de fichiers.

Si arcname est spécifié, il est utilisé en tant que nom dans l'archive. Si arcname n'est pas spécifié, le nom sera le même que filename mais sans lettre de disque et sans séparateur de chemin en première position.

Les fichiers ZIP plus anciens que le 1er janvier 1980 sont autorisés lorsque l'argument strict_timestamps vaut False, moyennant de les voir datés du 1er janvier 1980. De même pour les fichiers datés d'après le 31 décembre 2107 qui voient leur horodatage fixé au 31 décembre 2107.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

Modifié dans la version 3.6.2: Le paramètre filename accepte un objet chemin-compatible path-like object.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added the strict_timestamps keyword-only parameter.

Les instances ont les méthodes et attributs suivants :

ZipInfo.is_dir()

Retourne True si le membre d'archive est un répertoire.

Utilise le nom de l'entrée : les répertoires doivent toujours se terminer par /.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

ZipInfo.filename

Nom du fichier dans l'archive.

ZipInfo.date_time

The time and date of the last modification to the archive member. This is a tuple of six values representing the "last [modified] file time" and "last [modified] file date" fields from the ZIP file's central directory.

The tuple contains:

Index

Valeur

0

Année (>= 1980)

1

Mois (indexé à partir de 1)

2

Jour du mois (indexé à partir de 1)

3

Heures (indexées à partir de 0)

4

Minutes (indexées à partir de 0)

5

Secondes (indexées à partir de 0)

Note

The ZIP format supports multiple timestamp fields in different locations (central directory, extra fields for NTFS/UNIX systems, etc.). This attribute specifically returns the timestamp from the central directory. The central directory timestamp format in ZIP files does not support timestamps before 1980. While some extra field formats (such as UNIX timestamps) can represent earlier dates, this attribute only returns the central directory timestamp.

The central directory timestamp is interpreted as representing local time, rather than UTC time, to match the behavior of other zip tools.

ZipInfo.compress_type

Type de compression du membre d'archive.

ZipInfo.comment

Commentaire pour le membre d'archive individuel en tant qu'objet bytes.

ZipInfo.extra

Données du champ d'extension. La documentation PKZIP Application Note [https://pkware.cachefly.net/webdocs/casestudies/APPNOTE.TXT] contient quelques commentaires sur la structure interne des données contenues dans cet objet bytes.

ZipInfo.create_system

Système ayant créé l'archive ZIP.

ZipInfo.create_version

Version de PKZIP ayant créé l'archive ZIP.

ZipInfo.extract_version

Version de PKZIP nécessaire à l'extraction de l'archive ZIP.

ZipInfo.reserved

Doit être à zéro.

ZipInfo.flag_bits

Bits d'options ZIP.

ZipInfo.volume

Numéro de volume de l'entête du fichier.

ZipInfo.internal_attr

Attributs internes.

ZipInfo.external_attr

Attributs de fichier externes.

ZipInfo.header_offset

Longueur de l'entête du fichier en octets.

ZipInfo.CRC

CRC-32 du fichier décompressé.

ZipInfo.compress_size

Taille des données décompressées.

ZipInfo.file_size

Taille du fichier décompressé.

Command-line interface

The zipfile module provides a simple command-line interface to interact with ZIP archives.

Si vous voulez créer une nouvelle archive ZIP, spécifiez son nom après l'option -c et listez ensuite le(s) nom(s) de fichier à inclure :

$ python -m zipfile -c monty.zip spam.txt eggs.txt

Passer un répertoire est aussi possible :

$ python -m zipfile -c monty.zip life-of-brian_1979/

Si vous voulez extraire une archive ZIP dans un répertoire donné, utilisez l'option -e :

$ python -m zipfile -e monty.zip target-dir/

Pour une liste des fichiers dans une archive ZIP, utilisez l'option -l :

$ python -m zipfile -l monty.zip

Options de la ligne de commande

-l <zipfile>

--list <zipfile>

Liste les fichiers dans un fichier ZIP zipfile.

-c <zipfile> <source1> ... <sourceN>

--create <zipfile> <source1> ... <sourceN>

Crée un fichier ZIP zipfile à partir des fichiers source.

-e <zipfile> <output_dir>

--extract <zipfile> <output_dir>

Extrait le fichier ZIP zipfile vers le répertoire cible output_dir.

-t <zipfile>

--test <zipfile>

Teste si le fichier zip est valide.

--metadata-encoding <encoding>

Specify encoding of member names for -l, -e and -t.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

Problèmes de décompression

L'extraction d'une archive ZIP par le module zipfile peut échouer pour les raisons listées ci-dessous.

À cause du fichier lui-même

La décompression peut échouer à cause d'un mot de passe ou d'une somme de contrôle CRC incorrectes. Elle peut aussi échouer si le format, la méthode de compression, ou de chiffrement n'est pas implémenté.

File system limitations

Dépasser les limites du système de fichiers peut faire échouer la décompression. Ces limites peuvent concerner les caractères licites pour un nom de fichier, la longueur du nom du fichier ou du chemin, la taille d'un fichier, le nombre de fichiers, etc.

Ressources limitées

Le manque de mémoire ou d'espace disque peut mener à un échec de décompression. Par exemple, une bombe de décompression (ZIP bomb [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zip_bomb]), décompressés avec zifile peut remplir l'espace disque.

Interruption

Une interruption durant la décompression, en utilisant control-C ou en tuant le processus, peut mener à une décompression partielle de l'archive.

Comportements par défaut de l'extraction

Ne pas connaître le comportement d'extraction par défaut peut causer des résultats inattendus. Par exemple, lors de l'extraction d'une même archive deux fois, les fichiers sont écrasés sans prévenir.

tarfile --- Read and write tar archive files

Code source : Lib/tarfile.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/tarfile.py]

The tarfile module makes it possible to read and write tar archives, including those using gzip, bz2 and lzma compression. Use the zipfile module to read or write .zip files, or the higher-level functions in shutil.

Quelques faits et chiffres :

reads and writes gzip, bz2, compression.zstd, and lzma compressed archives if the respective modules are available.

If any of these optional modules are missing from your copy of CPython, look for documentation from your distributor (that is, whoever provided Python to you). If you are the distributor, see Requirements for optional modules.

prise en charge de la lecture/écriture pour le format POSIX.1-1988 (ustar).

prise en charge de la lecture/écriture pour le format GNU tar incluant les extensions longname et longlink, prise en charge de la lecture seule de toutes les variantes de l'extension sparse incluant la restauration des fichiers discontinus.

prise en charge de la lecture/écriture pour le format POSIX.1-2001 (pax).

gère les répertoires, les fichiers normaux, les liens directs (hard links en anglais), les liens symboliques, les tubes nommés (FIFO en anglais), les périphériques de caractère et les périphériques de bloc et est en mesure d'acquérir et de restaurer les informations du fichier comme l'horodatage, les autorisations d'accès et le propriétaire.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: prise en charge de la compression lzma.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Archives are extracted using a filter, which makes it possible to either limit surprising/dangerous features, or to acknowledge that they are expected and the archive is fully trusted.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Set the default extraction filter to data, which disallows some dangerous features such as links to absolute paths or paths outside of the destination. Previously, the filter strategy was equivalent to fully_trusted.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Added support for Zstandard compression using compression.zstd.

tarfile.open(name=None, mode='r', fileobj=None, bufsize=10240, **kwargs)

Renvoie un objet TarFile pour le nom de chemin name. Pour plus d'informations sur les objets TarFile et les mot-clefs arguments permis, voir Les objets TarFile.

Le mode doit être une chaîne de caractères de la forme 'filemode[:compression]', par défaut à 'r'. Voici une liste complète des combinaisons de mode :

mode

action

'r' or 'r:*'

Ouvre en lecture avec compression transparente (recommandé).

'r:'

Ouvre en lecture, sans compression.

'r:gz'

Ouvre en lecture avec la compression gzip.

'r:bz2'

Ouvre en lecture avec la compression bzip2.

'r:xz'

Ouvre en lecture avec la compression lzma.

'r:zst'

Open for reading with Zstandard compression.

'x' ou 'x:'

Create a tarfile exclusively without compression. Raise a FileExistsError exception if it already exists.

'x:gz'

Create a tarfile with gzip compression. Raise a FileExistsError exception if it already exists.

'x:bz2'

Create a tarfile with bzip2 compression. Raise a FileExistsError exception if it already exists.

'x:xz'

Create a tarfile with lzma compression. Raise a FileExistsError exception if it already exists.

'x:zst'

Create a tarfile with Zstandard compression. Raise a FileExistsError exception if it already exists.

'a' or 'a:'

Ouvre pour ajouter à la fin, sans compression. Le fichier est créé s'il n'existe pas.

'w' or 'w:'

Ouvre en écriture, sans compression.

'w:gz'

Ouvre en écriture avec compression gzip.

'w:bz2'

Ouvre en écriture avec compression bzip2.

'w:xz'

Ouvre en écriture avec la compression lzma.

'w:zst'

Open for Zstandard compressed writing.

Notez que les combinaisons 'a:gz', 'a:bz2' ou 'a:xz' ne sont pas possibles. Si le mode n'est pas adapté pour ouvrir un certain fichier (compressé) pour la lecture, une exception ReadError est levée. Utilisez le mode 'r' pour éviter cela. Si une méthode de compression n'est pas prise en charge, CompressionError est levée.

Si fileobj est spécifié, il est utilisé comme une alternative au file object ouvert en mode binaire pour name. Il est censé être à la position 0.

For modes 'w:gz', 'x:gz', 'w|gz', 'w:bz2', 'x:bz2', 'w|bz2', tarfile.open() accepts the keyword argument compresslevel (default 9) to specify the compression level of the file.

For modes 'w:xz', 'x:xz' and 'w|xz', tarfile.open() accepts the keyword argument preset to specify the compression level of the file.

For modes 'w:zst', 'x:zst' and 'w|zst', tarfile.open() accepts the keyword argument level to specify the compression level of the file. The keyword argument options may also be passed, providing advanced Zstandard compression parameters described by CompressionParameter. The keyword argument zstd_dict can be passed to provide a ZstdDict, a Zstandard dictionary used to improve compression of smaller amounts of data.

For special purposes, there is a second format for mode: 'filemode|[compression]'. tarfile.open() will return a TarFile object that processes its data as a stream of blocks. No random seeking will be done on the file. If given, fileobj may be any object that has a read() or write() method (depending on the mode) that works with bytes. bufsize specifies the blocksize and defaults to 20 * 512 bytes. Use this variant in combination with e.g. sys.stdin.buffer, a socket file object or a tape device. However, such a TarFile object is limited in that it does not allow random access, see Exemples. The currently possible modes:

Mode

Action

'r|*'

Ouvre un flux des blocs de tar en lecture avec une compression transparente.

'r|'

Ouvre un flux de blocs tar non compressés en lecture.

'r|gz'

Ouvre un flux compressé avec gzip en lecture.

'r|bz2'

Ouvre un flux compressé avec bzip2 en lecture.

'r|xz'

Ouvre un flux compressé avec lzma en lecture.

'r|zst'

Open a Zstandard compressed stream for reading.

'w|'

Ouvre un flux non compressé en écriture.

'w|gz'

Ouvre un flux compressé avec gzip en écriture.

'w|bz2'

Ouvre un flux compressé avec bzip2 en écriture.

'w|xz'

Ouvre un flux compressé avec lzma en écriture.

'w|zst'

Open a Zstandard compressed stream for writing.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: le mode 'x' (création exclusive) a été ajouté.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: le paramètre name accepte un path-like object.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: The compresslevel keyword argument also works for streams.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: The preset keyword argument also works for streams.

class tarfile.TarFile

Classe pour la lecture et l'écriture d'archives tar. N'utilisez pas cette classe directement, préférez tarfile.open(). Voir Les objets TarFile.

tarfile.is_tarfile(name)

Return True if name is a tar archive file, that the tarfile module can read. name may be a str, file, or file-like object.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Prise en charge des fichiers et des objets fichier-compatibles.

The tarfile module defines the following exceptions:

exception tarfile.TarError

Base class for all tarfile exceptions.

exception tarfile.ReadError

Is raised when a tar archive is opened, that either cannot be handled by the tarfile module or is somehow invalid.

exception tarfile.CompressionError

Est levée lorsqu'une méthode de compression n'est pas prise en charge ou lorsque les données ne peuvent pas être décodées correctement.

exception tarfile.StreamError

Est levée pour les limitations typiques des objets de type flux TarFile.

exception tarfile.ExtractError

Est levée pour des erreurs non-fatales lors de l'utilisation de TarFile.extract(), mais uniquement si TarFile.errorlevel== 2.

exception tarfile.HeaderError

Est levée par TarInfo.frombuf() si le tampon qu'il obtient n'est pas valide.

exception tarfile.FilterError

Base class for members refused by filters.

tarinfo

Information about the member that the filter refused to extract, as TarInfo.

exception tarfile.AbsolutePathError

Raised to refuse extracting a member with an absolute path.

exception tarfile.OutsideDestinationError

Raised to refuse extracting a member outside the destination directory.

exception tarfile.SpecialFileError

Raised to refuse extracting a special file (e.g. a device or pipe).

exception tarfile.AbsoluteLinkError

Raised to refuse extracting a symbolic link with an absolute path.

exception tarfile.LinkOutsideDestinationError

Raised to refuse extracting a symbolic link pointing outside the destination directory.

exception tarfile.LinkFallbackError

Raised to refuse emulating a link (hard or symbolic) by extracting another archive member, when that member would be rejected by the filter location. The exception that was raised to reject the replacement member is available as BaseException.__context__.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Les constantes suivantes sont disponibles au niveau du module :

tarfile.ENCODING

L'encodage des caractères par défaut est 'utf-8' sous Windows, sinon la valeur renvoyée par sys.getfilesystemencoding().

tarfile.REGTYPE

tarfile.AREGTYPE

A regular file type.

tarfile.LNKTYPE

A link (inside tarfile) type.

tarfile.SYMTYPE

A symbolic link type.

tarfile.CHRTYPE

A character special device type.

tarfile.BLKTYPE

A block special device type.

tarfile.DIRTYPE

A directory type.

tarfile.FIFOTYPE

A FIFO special device type.

tarfile.CONTTYPE

A contiguous file type.

tarfile.GNUTYPE_LONGNAME

A GNU tar longname type.

tarfile.GNUTYPE_LONGLINK

A GNU tar longlink type.

tarfile.GNUTYPE_SPARSE

A GNU tar sparse file type.

Each of the following constants defines a tar archive format that the tarfile module is able to create. See section Formats tar pris en charge for details.

tarfile.USTAR_FORMAT

Le format POSIX.1-1988 (ustar).

tarfile.GNU_FORMAT

Le format GNU tar.

tarfile.PAX_FORMAT

Le format POSIX.1-2001 (pax).

tarfile.DEFAULT_FORMAT

Format par défaut pour la création d'archives. C'est actuellement PAX_FORMAT.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Le format par défaut des nouvelles archives a été changé de GNU_FORMAT en PAX_FORMAT.

Voir aussi

Module zipfile

Documentation du module standard zipfile.

Archiving operations

Documentation des outils d'archivage de haut niveau fournis par le module standard shutil.

Manuel GNU *tar*, format *tar* basique (en anglais) [https://www.gnu.org/software/tar/manual/html_node/Standard.html]

Documentation pour les fichiers d'archive tar, y compris les extensions tar GNU.

Les objets TarFile

L'objet TarFile fournit une interface vers une archive tar. Une archive tar est une séquence de blocs. Un membre d'archive (un fichier stocké) est composé d'un bloc d'en-tête suivi des blocs de données. Il est possible de stocker plusieurs fois un fichier dans une archive tar. Chaque membre d'archive est représenté par un objet TarInfo, voir Les objets TarInfo pour plus de détails.

Un objet TarFile peut être utilisé comme gestionnaire de contexte dans une instruction with. Il sera automatiquement fermé une fois le bloc terminé. Veuillez noter qu'en cas d'exception, une archive ouverte en écriture ne sera pas finalisée ; seul l'objet fichier utilisé en interne sera fermé. Voir la section Exemples pour un cas d'utilisation.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2: Ajout de la prise en charge du protocole de gestion de contexte.

class tarfile.TarFile(name=None, mode='r', fileobj=None, format=DEFAULT_FORMAT, tarinfo=TarInfo, dereference=False, ignore_zeros=False, encoding=ENCODING, errors='surrogateescape', pax_headers=None, debug=0, errorlevel=1, stream=False)

Tous les arguments suivants sont facultatifs et sont également accessibles en tant qu'instance d'attributs.

name is the pathname of the archive. name may be a path-like object. It can be omitted if fileobj is given. In this case, the file object's name attribute is used if it exists.

Le mode est soit 'r' pour lire à partir d'une archive existante, 'a' pour ajouter des données à un fichier existant, 'w' pour créer un nouveau fichier en écrasant un existant, ou 'x' pour créer un nouveau fichier uniquement s'il n'existe pas déjà.

Si fileobj est fourni, il est utilisé pour lire ou écrire des données. S'il peut être déterminé, le mode est remplacé par le mode de fileobj. fileobj sera utilisé à partir de la position 0.

Note

fileobj n'est pas fermé, lorsque TarFile est fermé.

Le format contrôle le format d'archive en écriture. Il doit s'agir de l'une des constantes USTAR_FORMAT, GNU_FORMAT ou PAX_FORMAT définies au niveau du module. Lors de la lecture, le format sera automatiquement détecté, même si différents formats sont présents dans une même archive.

L'argument tarinfo peut être utilisé pour remplacer la classe par défaut TarInfo par une autre.

Si dereference est False, ajoute des liens symboliques et physiques à l'archive. Si c'est True, ajoute le contenu des fichiers cibles à l'archive. Cela n'a aucun effet sur les systèmes qui ne prennent pas en charge les liens symboliques.

Si ignore_zeros est False, traite un bloc vide comme la fin de l'archive. Si c'est le cas True, saute les blocs vides (et invalides) et essaye d'obtenir autant de membres que possible. Ceci n'est utile que pour lire des archives concaténées ou endommagées.

debug peut être défini de 0 (aucun message de débogage) à 3 (tous les messages de débogage). Les messages sont écrits dans sys.stderr.

errorlevel controls how extraction errors are handled, see the corresponding attribute.

Les arguments encoding et errors définissent l'encodage de caractères à utiliser pour lire ou écrire l'archive et comment les erreurs de conversion vont être traitées. Les paramètres par défaut fonctionneront pour la plupart des utilisateurs. Voir la section Problèmes unicode pour des informations détaillées.

L'argument pax_headers est un dictionnaire facultatif de chaînes de caractères qui sera ajouté en tant qu'en-tête global pax si le format est PAX_FORMAT.

If stream is set to True then while reading the archive info about files in the archive are not cached, saving memory.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Utilise 'surrogateescape' comme valeur par défaut pour l'argument errors.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: le mode 'x' (création exclusive) a été ajouté.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: le paramètre name accepte un path-like object.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Add the stream parameter.

classmethod TarFile.open(...)

Constructeur alternatif. La fonction tarfile.open() est en fait un raccourci vers cette méthode de classe.

TarFile.getmember(name)

Renvoie un objet TarInfo pour le membre name. Si name est introuvable dans l'archive, KeyError est levée.

Note

Si un membre apparaît plus d'une fois dans l'archive, sa dernière occurrence est supposée être la version la plus récente.

TarFile.getmembers()

Renvoie les membres de l'archive sous la forme d'une liste d'objets TarInfo. La liste a le même ordre que les membres de l'archive.

TarFile.getnames()

Renvoie les membres comme une liste de leurs noms. Il a le même ordre que la liste renvoyée par getmembers().

TarFile.list(verbose=True, *, members=None)

Imprime une table des matières dans sys.stdout. Si verbose est False, seuls les noms des membres sont imprimés. Si c'est True, une sortie similaire à celle de ls -l est produite. Si des membres facultatifs sont fournis, il doit s'agir d'un sous-ensemble de la liste renvoyée par getmembers().

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Ajout du paramètre members.

TarFile.next()

Renvoie le membre suivant de l'archive en tant qu'objet TarInfo, lorsque la classe TarFile est ouverte en lecture. Renvoie None s'il n'y a pas.

TarFile.extractall(path='.', members=None, *, numeric_owner=False, filter=None)

Extrait tous les membres de l'archive vers le répertoire de travail actuel ou le répertoire chemin. Si des membres facultatifs sont fournis, il doit s'agir d'un sous-ensemble de la liste renvoyée par getmembers(). Les informations d'annuaire telles que le propriétaire, l'heure de modification et les autorisations sont définies une fois tous les membres extraits. Cela est fait pour contourner deux problèmes : l'heure de modification d'un répertoire est réinitialisée chaque fois qu'un fichier y est créé. Et, si les autorisations d'un répertoire ne permettent pas l'écriture, l'extraction de fichiers échoue.

Si numeric_owner est True, les numéros uid et gid du fichier tar sont utilisés pour définir le propriétaire et le groupe des fichiers extraits. Sinon, les valeurs nommées du fichier tar sont utilisées.

The filter argument specifies how members are modified or rejected before extraction. See Extraction filters for details. It is recommended to set this explicitly only if specific tar features are required, or as filter='data' to support Python versions with a less secure default (3.13 and lower).

Avertissement

Never extract archives from untrusted sources without prior inspection.

Since Python 3.14, the default (data) will prevent the most dangerous security issues. However, it will not prevent all unintended or insecure behavior. Read the Extraction filters section for details.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Ajout du paramètre numeric_owner.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Le paramètre path accepte un path-like object.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Ajout du paramètre filter.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: The filter parameter now defaults to 'data'.

TarFile.extract(member, path='', set_attrs=True, *, numeric_owner=False, filter=None)

Extrait un membre de l'archive vers le répertoire de travail actuel, en utilisant son nom complet. Les informations de son fichier sont extraites aussi précisément que possible. Le membre peut être un nom de fichier ou un objet TarInfo. Vous pouvez spécifier un répertoire différent en utilisant path. path peut être un path-like object. Les attributs de fichier (propriétaire, mtime, mode) sont définis sauf si set_attrs est faux.

The numeric_owner and filter arguments are the same as for extractall().

Note

La méthode extract() ne prend pas en charge plusieurs problèmes d'extraction. Dans la plupart des cas, vous devriez envisager d'utiliser la méthode extractall().

Avertissement

Never extract archives from untrusted sources without prior inspection. See the warning for extractall() for details.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Ajout du paramètre set_attrs.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Ajout du paramètre numeric_owner.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Le paramètre path accepte un path-like object.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Ajout du paramètre filter.

TarFile.extractfile(member)

Extrait un membre de l'archive en tant qu'objet fichier. member peut être un nom de fichier ou un objet TarInfo. Si member est un fichier normal ou un lien, un objet io.BufferedReader est renvoyé. Sinon, None est renvoyé. Lève une exception KeyError si member n'est pas présent dans l'archive.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Renvoie un objet io.BufferedReader.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: The returned io.BufferedReader object has the mode attribute which is always equal to 'rb'.

TarFile.errorlevel: int

If errorlevel is 0, errors are ignored when using TarFile.extract() and TarFile.extractall(). Nevertheless, they appear as error messages in the debug output when debug is greater than 0. If 1 (the default), all fatal errors are raised as OSError or FilterError exceptions. If 2, all non-fatal errors are raised as TarError exceptions as well.

Some exceptions, e.g. ones caused by wrong argument types or data corruption, are always raised.

Custom extraction filters should raise FilterError for fatal errors and ExtractError for non-fatal ones.

Note that when an exception is raised, the archive may be partially extracted. It is the user’s responsibility to clean up.

TarFile.extraction_filter

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

The extraction filter used as a default for the filter argument of extract() and extractall().

The attribute may be None or a callable. String names are not allowed for this attribute, unlike the filter argument to extract().

If extraction_filter is None (the default), extraction methods will use the data filter by default.

The attribute may be set on instances or overridden in subclasses. It also is possible to set it on the TarFile class itself to set a global default, although, since it affects all uses of tarfile, it is best practice to only do so in top-level applications or site configuration. To set a global default this way, a filter function needs to be wrapped in staticmethod() to prevent injection of a self argument.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: The default filter is set to data, which disallows some dangerous features such as links to absolute paths or paths outside of the destination. Previously, the default was equivalent to fully_trusted.

TarFile.add(name, arcname=None, recursive=True, *, filter=None)

Ajoute le fichier name à l'archive. name peut être n'importe quel type de fichier (répertoire, fifo, lien symbolique, etc.). S'il est donné, arcname spécifie un autre nom pour le fichier dans l'archive. Les répertoires sont ajoutés récursivement par défaut. Cela peut être évité en définissant recursive sur False. La récursivité ajoute des entrées dans l'ordre trié. Si filter est donné, il convient que ce soit une fonction qui prend un argument d'objet TarInfo et renvoie l'objet changé TarInfo. S'il renvoie à la place None, l'objet TarInfo sera exclu de l'archive. Voir Exemples pour un exemple.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Ajout du paramètre filter.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: La récursivité ajoute les entrées dans un ordre trié.

TarFile.addfile(tarinfo, fileobj=None)

Add the TarInfo object tarinfo to the archive. If tarinfo represents a non zero-size regular file, the fileobj argument should be a binary file, and tarinfo.size bytes are read from it and added to the archive. You can create TarInfo objects directly, or by using gettarinfo().

Modifié dans la version 3.13: fileobj must be given for non-zero-sized regular files.

TarFile.gettarinfo(name=None, arcname=None, fileobj=None)

Crée un objet TarInfo à partir du résultat de os.stat() ou équivalent sur un fichier existant. Le fichier est soit nommé par name, soit spécifié comme file object fileobj avec un descripteur de fichier. name peut être un objet semblable à un chemin. S'il est donné, arcname spécifie un autre nom pour le fichier dans l'archive, sinon, le nom est tiré de l'attribut fileobj name, ou de l'argument name. Le nom doit être une chaîne de texte.

Vous pouvez modifier certains des attributs de TarInfo avant de les ajouter en utilisant addfile(). Si l'objet fichier n'est pas un objet fichier ordinaire positionné au début du fichier, des attributs tels que size peuvent nécessiter une modification. C'est le cas pour des objets tels que GzipFile. Le name peut également être modifié, auquel cas arcname pourrait être une chaîne factice.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: le paramètre name accepte un path-like object.

TarFile.close()

Ferme le TarFile. En mode écriture, deux blocs de finition à zéro sont ajoutés à l'archive.

TarFile.pax_headers: dict

Un dictionnaire contenant des paires clé-valeur d'en-têtes globaux pax.

Les objets TarInfo

Un objet TarInfo représente un membre dans un TarFile. En plus de stocker tous les attributs requis d'un fichier (comme le type de fichier, la taille, l'heure, les autorisations, le propriétaire, etc.), il fournit quelques méthodes utiles pour déterminer son type. Il ne contient pas les données du fichier lui-même.

TarInfo objects are returned by TarFile's methods getmember(), getmembers() and gettarinfo().

Modifying the objects returned by getmember() or getmembers() will affect all subsequent operations on the archive. For cases where this is unwanted, you can use copy.copy() or call the replace() method to create a modified copy in one step.

Several attributes can be set to None to indicate that a piece of metadata is unused or unknown. Different TarInfo methods handle None differently:

The extract() or extractall() methods will ignore the corresponding metadata, leaving it set to a default.

addfile() will fail.

list() will print a placeholder string.

class tarfile.TarInfo(name='')

Crée un objet TarInfo.

classmethod TarInfo.frombuf(buf, encoding, errors)

Crée et renvoie un objet TarInfo à partir de la chaîne tampon buf.

Lève HeaderError si le tampon n'est pas valide.

classmethod TarInfo.fromtarfile(tarfile)

Lit le membre suivant dans l'objet TarFile tarfile et le renvoie comme un objet TarInfo.

TarInfo.tobuf(format=DEFAULT_FORMAT, encoding=ENCODING, errors='surrogateescape')

Crée un tampon de chaîne de caractères à partir d'un objet TarInfo. Pour plus d'informations sur les arguments, voir le constructeur de la classe TarFile.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Utilise 'surrogateescape' comme valeur par défaut pour l'argument errors.

Un objet TarInfo a les attributs de données publics suivants :

TarInfo.name: str

Nom du membre de l'archive.

TarInfo.size: int

La taille en octets.

TarInfo.mtime: int | float

Time of last modification in seconds since the epoch, as in os.stat_result.st_mtime.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Can be set to None for extract() and extractall(), causing extraction to skip applying this attribute.

TarInfo.mode: int

Permission bits, as for os.chmod().

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Can be set to None for extract() and extractall(), causing extraction to skip applying this attribute.

TarInfo.type

Type de fichier. type est généralement l'une des constantes suivantes : REGTYPE, AREGTYPE, LNKTYPE, SYMTYPE, DIRTYPE, FIFOTYPE, CONTTYPE, CHRTYPE, BLKTYPE, GNUTYPE_SPARSE. Pour déterminer plus facilement le type d'un objet TarInfo, utilisez les méthodes is*() ci-dessous.

TarInfo.linkname: str

Nom du fichier cible, qui n'est présent que dans les objets TarInfo de type LNKTYPE et SYMTYPE.

For symbolic links (SYMTYPE), the linkname is relative to the directory that contains the link. For hard links (LNKTYPE), the linkname is relative to the root of the archive.

TarInfo.uid: int

ID de l'utilisateur qui a initialement stocké ce membre.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Can be set to None for extract() and extractall(), causing extraction to skip applying this attribute.

TarInfo.gid: int

ID de groupe de l'utilisateur qui a initialement stocké ce membre.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Can be set to None for extract() and extractall(), causing extraction to skip applying this attribute.

TarInfo.uname: str

Nom d'utilisateur.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Can be set to None for extract() and extractall(), causing extraction to skip applying this attribute.

TarInfo.gname: str

Nom de groupe.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Can be set to None for extract() and extractall(), causing extraction to skip applying this attribute.

TarInfo.chksum: int

Header checksum.

TarInfo.devmajor: int

Device major number.

TarInfo.devminor: int

Device minor number.

TarInfo.offset: int

The tar header starts here.

TarInfo.offset_data: int

The file's data starts here.

TarInfo.sparse

Sparse member information.

TarInfo.pax_headers: dict

Un dictionnaire contenant des paires clé-valeur d'un en-tête étendu pax associé.

TarInfo.replace(name=..., mtime=..., mode=..., linkname=..., uid=..., gid=..., uname=..., gname=..., deep=True)

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Return a new copy of the TarInfo object with the given attributes changed. For example, to return a TarInfo with the group name set to 'staff', use:

new_tarinfo = old_tarinfo.replace(gname='staff')

By default, a deep copy is made. If deep is false, the copy is shallow, i.e. pax_headers and any custom attributes are shared with the original TarInfo object.

Un objet TarInfo fournit également des méthodes de requête pratiques :

TarInfo.isfile()

Return True if the TarInfo object is a regular file.

TarInfo.isreg()

Identique à isfile().

TarInfo.isdir()

Renvoie True si c'est un dossier.

TarInfo.issym()

Renvoie True s'il s'agit d'un lien symbolique.

TarInfo.islnk()

Renvoie True s'il s'agit d'un lien physique.

TarInfo.ischr()

Renvoie True s'il s'agit d'un périphérique de caractères.

TarInfo.isblk()

Renvoie True s'il s'agit d'un périphérique de bloc.

TarInfo.isfifo()

Renvoie True s'il s'agit d'un tube nommé (FIFO).

TarInfo.isdev()

Renvoie True s'il s'agit d'un périphérique de caractères, d'un périphérique de bloc ou d'un tube nommé.

Extraction filters

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

The tar format is designed to capture all details of a UNIX-like filesystem, which makes it very powerful. Unfortunately, the features make it easy to create tar files that have unintended -- and possibly malicious -- effects when extracted. For example, extracting a tar file can overwrite arbitrary files in various ways (e.g. by using absolute paths, .. path components, or symlinks that affect later members).

In most cases, the full functionality is not needed. Therefore, tarfile supports extraction filters: a mechanism to limit functionality, and thus mitigate some of the security issues.

Avertissement

None of the available filters blocks all dangerous archive features. Never extract archives from untrusted sources without prior inspection. See also Hints for further verification.

Voir aussi

PEP 706 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0706/]

Contains further motivation and rationale behind the design.

The filter argument to TarFile.extract() or extractall() can be:

the string 'fully_trusted': Honor all metadata as specified in the archive. Should be used if the user trusts the archive completely, or implements their own complex verification.

the string 'tar': Honor most tar-specific features (i.e. features of UNIX-like filesystems), but block features that are very likely to be surprising or malicious. See tar_filter() for details.

the string 'data': Ignore or block most features specific to UNIX-like filesystems. Intended for extracting cross-platform data archives. See data_filter() for details.

None (default): Use TarFile.extraction_filter.

If that is also None (the default), the 'data' filter will be used.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: The default filter is set to data. Previously, the default was equivalent to fully_trusted.

A callable which will be called for each extracted member with a TarInfo describing the member and the destination path to where the archive is extracted (i.e. the same path is used for all members):

filter(member: TarInfo, path: str, /) -> TarInfo | None

The callable is called just before each member is extracted, so it can take the current state of the disk into account. It can:

return a TarInfo object which will be used instead of the metadata in the archive, or

return None, in which case the member will be skipped, or

raise an exception to abort the operation or skip the member, depending on errorlevel. Note that when extraction is aborted, extractall() may leave the archive partially extracted. It does not attempt to clean up.

Default named filters

The pre-defined, named filters are available as functions, so they can be reused in custom filters:

tarfile.fully_trusted_filter(member, path)

Return member unchanged.

This implements the 'fully_trusted' filter.

tarfile.tar_filter(member, path)

Implements the 'tar' filter.

Strip leading slashes (/ and os.sep) from filenames.

Refuse to extract files with absolute paths (in case the name is absolute even after stripping slashes, e.g. C:/foo on Windows). This raises AbsolutePathError.

Refuse to extract files whose absolute path (after following symlinks) would end up outside the destination. This raises OutsideDestinationError.

Clear high mode bits (setuid, setgid, sticky) and group/other write bits (S_IWGRP | S_IWOTH).

Return the modified TarInfo member.

tarfile.data_filter(member, path)

Implements the 'data' filter. In addition to what tar_filter does:

Normalize link targets (TarInfo.linkname) using os.path.normpath(). Note that this removes internal .. components, which may change the meaning of the link if the path in TarInfo.linkname traverses symbolic links.

Refuse to extract links (hard or soft) that link to absolute paths, or ones that link outside the destination.

This raises AbsoluteLinkError or LinkOutsideDestinationError.

Note that such files are refused even on platforms that do not support symbolic links.

Refuse to extract device files (including pipes). This raises SpecialFileError.

For regular files, including hard links:

Set the owner read and write permissions (S_IRUSR | S_IWUSR).

Remove the group & other executable permission (S_IXGRP | S_IXOTH) if the owner doesn’t have it (S_IXUSR).

For other files (directories), set mode to None, so that extraction methods skip applying permission bits.

Set user and group info (uid, gid, uname, gname) to None, so that extraction methods skip setting it.

Return the modified TarInfo member.

Note that this filter does not block all dangerous archive features. See Hints for further verification for details.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Link targets are now normalized.

Filter errors

When a filter refuses to extract a file, it will raise an appropriate exception, a subclass of FilterError. This will abort the extraction if TarFile.errorlevel is 1 or more. With errorlevel=0 the error will be logged and the member will be skipped, but extraction will continue.

Hints for further verification

Even with filter='data', tarfile is not suited for extracting untrusted files without prior inspection. Among other issues, the pre-defined filters do not prevent denial-of-service attacks. Users should do additional checks.

Here is an incomplete list of things to consider:

Extract to a new temporary directory to prevent e.g. exploiting pre-existing links, and to make it easier to clean up after a failed extraction.

Disallow symbolic links if you do not need the functionality.

When working with untrusted data, use external (e.g. OS-level) limits on disk, memory and CPU usage.

Check filenames against an allow-list of characters (to filter out control characters, confusables, foreign path separators, and so on).

Check that filenames have expected extensions (discouraging files that execute when you “click on them”, or extension-less files like Windows special device names).

Limit the number of extracted files, total size of extracted data, filename length (including symlink length), and size of individual files.

Check for files that would be shadowed on case-insensitive filesystems.

Also note that:

Tar files may contain multiple versions of the same file. Later ones are expected to overwrite any earlier ones. This feature is crucial to allow updating tape archives, but can be abused maliciously.

tarfile does not protect against issues with “live” data, e.g. an attacker tinkering with the destination (or source) directory while extraction (or archiving) is in progress.

Supporting older Python versions

Extraction filters were added to Python 3.12, but may be backported to older versions as security updates. To check whether the feature is available, use e.g. hasattr(tarfile, 'data_filter') rather than checking the Python version.

The following examples show how to support Python versions with and without the feature. Note that setting extraction_filter will affect any subsequent operations.

Fully trusted archive:

my_tarfile.extraction_filter = (lambda member, path: member)
my_tarfile.extractall()

Use the 'data' filter if available, but revert to Python 3.11 behavior ('fully_trusted') if this feature is not available:

my_tarfile.extraction_filter = getattr(tarfile, 'data_filter',
                                       (lambda member, path: member))
my_tarfile.extractall()

Use the 'data' filter; fail if it is not available:

my_tarfile.extractall(filter=tarfile.data_filter)

ou :

my_tarfile.extraction_filter = tarfile.data_filter
my_tarfile.extractall()

Use the 'data' filter; warn if it is not available:

if hasattr(tarfile, 'data_filter'):
    my_tarfile.extractall(filter='data')
else:
    # remove this when no longer needed
    warn_the_user('Extracting may be unsafe; consider updating Python')
    my_tarfile.extractall()

Stateful extraction filter example

While tarfile's extraction methods take a simple filter callable, custom filters may be more complex objects with an internal state. It may be useful to write these as context managers, to be used like this:

with StatefulFilter() as filter_func:
    tar.extractall(path, filter=filter_func)

Such a filter can be written as, for example:

class StatefulFilter:
    def __init__(self):
        self.file_count = 0

    def __enter__(self):
        return self

    def __call__(self, member, path):
        self.file_count += 1
        return member

    def __exit__(self, *exc_info):
        print(f'{self.file_count} files extracted')

Interface en ligne de commande

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

The tarfile module provides a simple command-line interface to interact with tar archives.

Si vous souhaitez créer une nouvelle archive tar, spécifiez son nom après l'option -c, puis répertorie-le ou les noms de fichiers à inclure :

$ python -m tarfile -c monty.tar  spam.txt eggs.txt

Passer un répertoire est aussi possible :

$ python -m tarfile -c monty.tar life-of-brian_1979/

Si vous souhaitez extraire une archive tar dans le répertoire courant, utilisez l'option -e :

$ python -m tarfile -e monty.tar

Vous pouvez également extraire une archive tar dans un autre répertoire en passant le nom du répertoire :

$ python -m tarfile -e monty.tar  other-dir/

Pour une liste des fichiers dans une archive tar, utilisez l'option -l :

$ python -m tarfile -l monty.tar

Options de la ligne de commande

-l <tarfile>

--list <tarfile>

Liste les fichiers dans une archive tar.

-c <tarfile> <source1> ... <sourceN>

--create <tarfile> <source1> ... <sourceN>

Crée une archive tar à partir des fichiers sources.

-e <tarfile> [<output_dir>]

--extract <tarfile> [<output_dir>]

Extrait l'archive tar dans le répertoire courant si output_dir n'est pas spécifié.

-t <tarfile>

--test <tarfile>

Teste si l'archive tar est valide ou non.

-v, --verbose

Sortie verbeuse.

--filter <filtername>

Specifies the filter for --extract. See Extraction filters for details. Only string names are accepted (that is, fully_trusted, tar, and data).

Exemples

Reading examples

Comment extraire une archive tar dans le dossier de travail courant :

import tarfile
tar = tarfile.open("sample.tar.gz")
tar.extractall(filter='data')
tar.close()

Comment extraire un sous-ensemble d'une archive tar avec TarFile.extractall() en utilisant une fonction de générateur au lieu d'une liste :

import os
import tarfile

def py_files(members):
    for tarinfo in members:
        if os.path.splitext(tarinfo.name)[1] == ".py":
            yield tarinfo

tar = tarfile.open("sample.tar.gz")
tar.extractall(members=py_files(tar))
tar.close()

Comment lire une archive tar compressée avec gzip et afficher des informations des membres :

import tarfile
tar = tarfile.open("sample.tar.gz", "r:gz")
for tarinfo in tar:
    print(tarinfo.name, "is", tarinfo.size, "bytes in size and is ", end="")
    if tarinfo.isreg():
        print("a regular file.")
    elif tarinfo.isdir():
        print("a directory.")
    else:
        print("something else.")
tar.close()

Writing examples

Comment créer une archive tar non compressée à partir d'une liste de noms de fichiers :

import tarfile
tar = tarfile.open("sample.tar", "w")
for name in ["foo", "bar", "quux"]:
    tar.add(name)
tar.close()

Le même exemple en utilisant l'instruction with :

import tarfile
with tarfile.open("sample.tar", "w") as tar:
    for name in ["foo", "bar", "quux"]:
        tar.add(name)

How to create and write an archive to stdout using sys.stdout.buffer in the fileobj parameter in TarFile.add():

import sys
import tarfile
with tarfile.open("sample.tar.gz", "w|gz", fileobj=sys.stdout.buffer) as tar:
    for name in ["foo", "bar", "quux"]:
        tar.add(name)

Comment créer une archive et réinitialiser les informations de l'utilisateur en utilisant le paramètre filter dans TarFile.add() :

import tarfile
def reset(tarinfo):
    tarinfo.uid = tarinfo.gid = 0
    tarinfo.uname = tarinfo.gname = "root"
    return tarinfo
tar = tarfile.open("sample.tar.gz", "w:gz")
tar.add("foo", filter=reset)
tar.close()

Formats tar pris en charge

There are three tar formats that can be created with the tarfile module:

Le format POSIX.1-1988 ustar (ustar_FORMAT). Il prend en charge les noms de fichiers jusqu'à une longueur maximale de 256 caractères et les noms de liens jusqu'à 100 caractères. La taille maximale du fichier est de 8 Go. Il s'agit d'un format ancien et limité mais largement pris en charge.

The GNU tar format (GNU_FORMAT). It supports long filenames and linknames, files bigger than 8 GiB and sparse files. It is the de facto standard on GNU/Linux systems. tarfile fully supports the GNU tar extensions for long names, sparse file support is read-only.

The POSIX.1-2001 pax format (PAX_FORMAT). It is the most flexible format with virtually no limits. It supports long filenames and linknames, large files and stores pathnames in a portable way. Modern tar implementations, including GNU tar, bsdtar/libarchive and star, fully support extended pax features; some old or unmaintained libraries may not, but should treat pax archives as if they were in the universally supported ustar format. It is the current default format for new archives.

Il étend le format ustar existant avec des en-têtes supplémentaires pour les informations qui ne peuvent pas être stockées autrement. Il existe deux types d'en-têtes pax : les en-têtes étendus n'affectent que l'en-tête de fichier suivant, les en-têtes globaux sont valides pour l'archive complète et affectent tous les fichiers suivants. Toutes les données d'un en-tête pax sont encodées en UTF-8 pour des raisons de portabilité.

Il existe d'autres variantes du format tar qui peuvent être lues, mais pas créées :

L'ancien format V7. Il s'agit du premier format tar d'Unix Seventh Edition, ne stockant que des fichiers et répertoires normaux. Les noms ne doivent pas dépasser 100 caractères, il n'y a aucune information de nom d'utilisateur / groupe. Certaines archives ont des sommes de contrôle d'en-tête mal calculées dans le cas de champs avec des caractères non ASCII.

Format étendu SunOS tar. Ce format est une variante du format POSIX.1-2001 pax, mais n'est pas compatible.

Problèmes unicode

Le format tar a été initialement conçu pour effectuer des sauvegardes sur des lecteurs de bande en mettant principalement l'accent sur la préservation des informations du système de fichiers. De nos jours, les archives tar sont couramment utilisées pour la distribution de fichiers et l'échange d'archives sur des réseaux. Un problème du format d'origine (qui est la base de tous les autres formats) est qu'il n'existe aucun concept de prise en charge d'encodages de caractères différents. Par exemple, une archive tar ordinaire créée sur un système UTF-8 ne peut pas être lue correctement sur un système Latin-1 si elle contient des caractères non ASCII. Les métadonnées textuelles (comme les noms de fichiers, les noms de liens, les noms d'utilisateurs / de groupes) sembleront endommagées. Malheureusement, il n'y a aucun moyen de détecter automatiquement l'encodage d'une archive. Le format pax a été conçu pour résoudre ce problème. Il stocke les métadonnées non ASCII en utilisant l'encodage universel des caractères UTF-8.

The details of character conversion in tarfile are controlled by the encoding and errors keyword arguments of the TarFile class.

encoding définit l'encodage de caractères à utiliser pour les métadonnées de l'archive. La valeur par défaut est sys.getfilesystemencoding() ou 'ascii' comme solution de rechange. Selon que l'archive est lue ou écrite, les métadonnées doivent être décodées ou encodées. Si l'encodage n'est pas défini correctement, cette conversion peut échouer.

L'argument errors définit le traitement des caractères qui ne peuvent pas être convertis. Les valeurs possibles sont répertoriées dans la section Gestionnaires d'erreurs. Le schéma par défaut est 'surrogateescape' que Python utilise également pour ses appels de système de fichiers, voir Noms de fichiers, arguments en ligne de commande, et variables d'environnement.

Pour les archives PAX_FORMAT (par défaut), l'encodage n'est généralement pas nécessaire car toutes les métadonnées sont stockées à l'aide de UTF-8. L'encodage n'est utilisé que dans les rares cas où les en-têtes pax binaires sont décodés ou lorsque les chaînes avec des caractères de substitution sont stockées.

Formats de fichiers

Les modules décrits dans ce chapitre lisent divers formats de fichier qui ne sont ni des langages balisés ni relatifs aux e-mails.

csv --- CSV File Reading and Writing

Contenu du module

Dialectes et paramètres de formatage

Objets lecteurs

Objets transcripteurs

Exemples

configparser --- Configuration file parser

Premiers pas

Types de données prises en charge

Valeurs de substitution

Structure des fichiers INI prise en change

Unnamed Sections

Interpolation des valeurs

Protocole d'accès associatif

Personnalisation du comportement de l'analyseur

Legacy API Examples

ConfigParser Objects

RawConfigParser Objects

Exceptions

tomllib --- Parse TOML files

Exemples

Conversion Table

netrc --- netrc file processing

Objets netrc

plistlib --- Generate and parse Apple .plist files

Exemples

csv --- CSV File Reading and Writing

Code source : Lib/csv.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/csv.py]

Le format CSV (Comma Separated Values, valeurs séparées par des virgules) est le format le plus commun dans l'importation et l'exportation de feuilles de calculs et de bases de données. Le format fut utilisé pendant des années avant qu'aient lieu des tentatives de standardisation avec la RFC 4180 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4180.html]. L'absence de format bien défini signifie que des différences subtiles existent dans la production et la consommation de données par différentes applications. Ces différences peuvent gêner lors du traitement de fichiers CSV depuis des sources multiples. Cependant, bien que les séparateurs et délimiteurs varient, le format global est suffisamment similaire pour qu'un module unique puisse manipuler efficacement ces données, masquant au programmeur les détails de lecture/écriture des données.

The csv module implements classes to read and write tabular data in CSV format. It allows programmers to say, "write this data in the format preferred by Excel," or "read data from this file which was generated by Excel," without knowing the precise details of the CSV format used by Excel. Programmers can also describe the CSV formats understood by other applications or define their own special-purpose CSV formats.

The csv module's reader and writer objects read and write sequences. Programmers can also read and write data in dictionary form using the DictReader and DictWriter classes.

Voir aussi

PEP 305 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0305/] — Interface des fichiers CSV

La proposition d'amélioration de Python (PEP) qui a proposé cet ajout au langage.

Contenu du module

The csv module defines the following functions:

csv.reader(csvfile, /, dialect='excel', **fmtparams)

Return a reader object that will process lines from the given csvfile. A csvfile must be an iterable of strings, each in the reader's defined csv format. A csvfile is most commonly a file-like object or list. If csvfile is a file object, it should be opened with newline=''. [1] An optional dialect parameter can be given which is used to define a set of parameters specific to a particular CSV dialect. It may be an instance of a subclass of the Dialect class or one of the strings returned by the list_dialects() function. The other optional fmtparams keyword arguments can be given to override individual formatting parameters in the current dialect. For full details about the dialect and formatting parameters, see section Dialectes et paramètres de formatage.

Each row read from the csv file is returned as a list of strings. No automatic data type conversion is performed unless the QUOTE_NONNUMERIC format option is specified (in which case unquoted fields are transformed into floats).

Un court exemple d'utilisation :

>>> import csv
>>> with open('eggs.csv', newline='') as csvfile:
...     spamreader = csv.reader(csvfile, delimiter=' ', quotechar='|')
...     for row in spamreader:
...         print(', '.join(row))
Spam, Spam, Spam, Spam, Spam, Baked Beans
Spam, Lovely Spam, Wonderful Spam

csv.writer(csvfile, /, dialect='excel', **fmtparams)

Return a writer object responsible for converting the user's data into delimited strings on the given file-like object. csvfile can be any object with a write() method. If csvfile is a file object, it should be opened with newline='' [1]. An optional dialect parameter can be given which is used to define a set of parameters specific to a particular CSV dialect. It may be an instance of a subclass of the Dialect class or one of the strings returned by the list_dialects() function. The other optional fmtparams keyword arguments can be given to override individual formatting parameters in the current dialect. For full details about dialects and formatting parameters, see the Dialectes et paramètres de formatage section. To make it as easy as possible to interface with modules which implement the DB API, the value None is written as the empty string. While this isn't a reversible transformation, it makes it easier to dump SQL NULL data values to CSV files without preprocessing the data returned from a cursor.fetch* call. All other non-string data are stringified with str() before being written.

Un court exemple d'utilisation :

import csv
with open('eggs.csv', 'w', newline='') as csvfile:
    spamwriter = csv.writer(csvfile, delimiter=' ',
                            quotechar='|', quoting=csv.QUOTE_MINIMAL)
    spamwriter.writerow(['Spam'] * 5 + ['Baked Beans'])
    spamwriter.writerow(['Spam', 'Lovely Spam', 'Wonderful Spam'])

csv.register_dialect(name, /, dialect='excel', **fmtparams)

Associe dialect avec name. name doit être une chaîne de caractères. Le dialecte peut être spécifié en passant une instance d'une sous-classe de Dialect, des arguments nommés fmtparams, ou les deux, avec les arguments nommés redéfinissant les paramètres du dialecte. Pour tous les détails sur les dialectes et paramètres de formatage, voir la section Dialectes et paramètres de formatage.

csv.unregister_dialect(name)

Supprime le dialecte associé à name depuis le registre des dialectes. Une Error est levée si name n'est pas un nom de dialecte enregistré.

csv.get_dialect(name)

Renvoie le dialecte associé à name. Une Error est levée si name n'est pas un nom de dialecte enregistré. Cette fonction renvoie un objet Dialect immuable.

csv.list_dialects()

Renvoie les noms de tous les dialectes enregistrés.

csv.field_size_limit()

csv.field_size_limit(new_limit)

Renvoie la taille de champ maximale actuelle autorisée par l'analyseur. Si new_limit est donnée, elle devient la nouvelle limite.

The csv module defines the following classes:

class csv.DictReader(f, fieldnames=None, restkey=None, restval=None, dialect='excel', *args, **kwds)

Crée un objet qui opère comme un lecteur ordinaire mais assemble les informations de chaque ligne dans un dict dont les clés sont données par le paramètre optionnel fieldnames.

The fieldnames parameter is a sequence. If fieldnames is omitted, the values in the first row of file f will be used as the fieldnames and will be omitted from the results. If fieldnames is provided, they will be used and the first row will be included in the results. Regardless of how the fieldnames are determined, the dictionary preserves their original ordering.

Si une ligne a plus de champs que fieldnames, les données excédentaires sont mises dans une liste stockée dans le champ spécifié par restkey (None par défaut). Si une ligne non-vide a moins de champs que fieldnames, les valeurs manquantes sont remplacées par la valeur de restval (None par défaut).

Tous les autres arguments optionnels ou nommés sont passés à l'instance reader sous-jacente.

If the argument passed to fieldnames is an iterator, it will be coerced to a list.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Les lignes renvoyées sont maintenant de type OrderedDict.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Les lignes renvoyées sont maintenant de type dict.

Un court exemple d'utilisation :

>>> import csv
>>> with open('names.csv', newline='') as csvfile:
...     reader = csv.DictReader(csvfile)
...     for row in reader:
...         print(row['first_name'], row['last_name'])
...
Eric Idle
John Cleese

>>> print(row)
{'first_name': 'John', 'last_name': 'Cleese'}

class csv.DictWriter(f, fieldnames, restval='', extrasaction='raise', dialect='excel', *args, **kwds)

Create an object which operates like a regular writer but maps dictionaries onto output rows. The fieldnames parameter is a sequence of keys that identify the order in which values in the dictionary passed to the writerow() method are written to file f. The optional restval parameter specifies the value to be written if the dictionary is missing a key in fieldnames. If the dictionary passed to the writerow() method contains a key not found in fieldnames, the optional extrasaction parameter indicates what action to take. If it is set to 'raise', the default value, a ValueError is raised. If it is set to 'ignore', extra values in the dictionary are ignored. Any other optional or keyword arguments are passed to the underlying writer instance.

Notez que contrairement à la classe DictReader, le paramètre fieldnames de DictWriter n'est pas optionnel.

If the argument passed to fieldnames is an iterator, it will be coerced to a list.

Un court exemple d'utilisation :

import csv

with open('names.csv', 'w', newline='') as csvfile:
    fieldnames = ['first_name', 'last_name']
    writer = csv.DictWriter(csvfile, fieldnames=fieldnames)

    writer.writeheader()
    writer.writerow({'first_name': 'Baked', 'last_name': 'Beans'})
    writer.writerow({'first_name': 'Lovely', 'last_name': 'Spam'})
    writer.writerow({'first_name': 'Wonderful', 'last_name': 'Spam'})

class csv.Dialect

La classe Dialect est une classe dont les attributs contiennent des informations sur la façon de gérer les guillemets, les espaces, les délimiteurs, etc. En raison de l’absence d’une spécification CSV stricte, différentes applications produisent des données CSV subtilement différentes. Les instances Dialect définissent le comportement des instances reader et writer.

Tous les noms disponibles de Dialect sont renvoyés par list_dialects(), et ils peuvent être enregistrés avec des classes reader et writer spécifiques en passant par leur fonction d’initialisation (__init__) comme ici :

import csv

with open('students.csv', 'w', newline='') as csvfile:
    writer = csv.writer(csvfile, dialect='unix')

class csv.excel

La classe excel définit les propriétés usuelles d'un fichier CSV généré par Excel. Elle est enregistrée avec le nom de dialecte 'excel'.

class csv.excel_tab

La classe excel_tab définit les propriétés usuelles d'un fichier CSV généré par Excel avec des tabulations comme séparateurs. Elle est enregistrée avec le nom de dialecte 'excel-tab'.

class csv.unix_dialect

La classe unix_dialect définit les propriétés usuelles d'un fichier CSV généré sur un système Unix, c'est-à-dire utilisant '\n' comme marqueur de fin de ligne et délimitant tous les champs par des guillemets. Elle est enregistrée avec le nom de dialecte 'unix'.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

class csv.Sniffer

La classe Sniffer est utilisée pour déduire le format d'un fichier CSV.

La classe Sniffer fournit deux méthodes :

sniff(sample, delimiters=None)

Analyse l'extrait donné (sample) et renvoie une sous-classe Dialect reflétant les paramètres trouvés. Si le paramètre optionnel delimiters est donné, il est interprété comme une chaîne contenant tous les caractères valides de séparation possibles.

has_header(sample)

Analyse l'extrait de texte (présumé être au format CSV) et renvoie True si la première ligne semble être une série d'en-têtes de colonnes. En inspectant chaque colonne, l’un des deux critères clés sera pris en compte pour estimer si l’échantillon contient un en-tête :

les deuxième à n-ième lignes contiennent des valeurs numériques

les deuxième à n-ième lignes contiennent des chaînes dont la longueur d’au moins une valeur diffère de celle de l’en-tête putatif de cette colonne.

Twenty-one rows after the header are sampled; if more than half of the columns + rows meet the criteria, True is returned.

Note

Cette méthode est une heuristique discutable et peut produire tant des faux-positifs que des faux-négatifs.

Un exemple d'utilisation de Sniffer :

with open('example.csv', newline='') as csvfile:
    dialect = csv.Sniffer().sniff(csvfile.read(1024))
    csvfile.seek(0)
    reader = csv.reader(csvfile, dialect)
    # ... process CSV file contents here ...

The csv module defines the following constants:

csv.QUOTE_ALL

Indique aux objets writer de délimiter tous les champs par des guillemets.

csv.QUOTE_MINIMAL

Instructs writer objects to only quote those fields which contain special characters such as delimiter, quotechar, '\r', '\n' or any of the characters in lineterminator.

csv.QUOTE_NONNUMERIC

Indique aux objets writer de délimiter ainsi tous les champs non-numériques.

Instructs reader objects to convert all non-quoted fields to type float.

Note

Some numeric types, such as bool, Fraction, or IntEnum, have a string representation that cannot be converted to float. They cannot be read in the QUOTE_NONNUMERIC and QUOTE_STRINGS modes.

csv.QUOTE_NONE

Instructs writer objects to never quote fields. When the current delimiter, quotechar, escapechar, '\r', '\n' or any of the characters in lineterminator occurs in output data it is preceded by the current escapechar character. If escapechar is not set, the writer will raise Error if any characters that require escaping are encountered. Set quotechar to None to prevent its escaping.

Instructs reader objects to perform no special processing of quote characters.

csv.QUOTE_NOTNULL

Instructs writer objects to quote all fields which are not None. This is similar to QUOTE_ALL, except that if a field value is None an empty (unquoted) string is written.

Instructs reader objects to interpret an empty (unquoted) field as None and to otherwise behave as QUOTE_ALL.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

csv.QUOTE_STRINGS

Instructs writer objects to always place quotes around fields which are strings. This is similar to QUOTE_NONNUMERIC, except that if a field value is None an empty (unquoted) string is written.

Instructs reader objects to interpret an empty (unquoted) string as None and to otherwise behave as QUOTE_NONNUMERIC.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

The csv module defines the following exception:

exception csv.Error

Levée par les fonctions du module quand une erreur détectée.

Dialectes et paramètres de formatage

To make it easier to specify the format of input and output records, specific formatting parameters are grouped together into dialects. A dialect is a subclass of the Dialect class containing various attributes describing the format of the CSV file. When creating reader or writer objects, the programmer can specify a string or a subclass of the Dialect class as the dialect parameter. In addition to, or instead of, the dialect parameter, the programmer can also specify individual formatting parameters, which have the same names as the attributes defined below for the Dialect class.

Les dialectes supportent les attributs suivants :

Dialect.delimiter

Une chaîne d'un seul caractère utilisée pour séparer les champs. Elle vaut ',' par défaut.

Dialect.doublequote

Contrôle comment les caractères quotechar dans le champ doivent être retranscrits. Quand ce paramètre vaut True, le caractère est doublé. Quand il vaut False, le caractère escapechar est utilisé comme préfixe à quotechar. Il vaut True par défaut.

En écriture, si doublequote vaut False et qu'aucun escapechar n'est précisé, une Error est levée si un quotechar est trouvé dans le champ.

Dialect.escapechar

A one-character string used by the writer to escape characters that require escaping:

the delimiter, the quotechar, '\r', '\n' and any of the characters in lineterminator are escaped if quoting is set to QUOTE_NONE;

the quotechar is escaped if doublequote is False;

the escapechar itself.

On reading, the escapechar removes any special meaning from the following character. It defaults to None, which disables escaping.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Un escapechar vide n'est pas autorisé.

Dialect.lineterminator

La chaîne utilisée pour terminer les lignes produites par un writer. Elle vaut par défaut '\r\n'.

Note

La classe reader est codée en dur pour reconnaître '\r' et '\n' comme marqueurs de fin de ligne, et ignorer lineterminator. Ce comportement pourrait changer dans le futur.

Dialect.quotechar

A one-character string used to quote fields containing special characters, such as the delimiter or the quotechar, or which contain new-line characters ('\r', '\n' or any of the characters in lineterminator). It defaults to '"'. Can be set to None to prevent escaping '"' if quoting is set to QUOTE_NONE.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Un quotechar vide n'est pas autorisé.

Dialect.quoting

Controls when quotes should be generated by the writer and recognised by the reader. It can take on any of the QUOTE_* constants and defaults to QUOTE_MINIMAL if quotechar is not None, and QUOTE_NONE otherwise.

Dialect.skipinitialspace

When True, spaces immediately following the delimiter are ignored. The default is False. When combining delimiter=' ' with skipinitialspace=True, unquoted empty fields are not allowed.

Dialect.strict

Quand il vaut True, une exception Error est levée lors de mauvaises entrées CSV. Il vaut False par défaut.

Objets lecteurs

Les objets lecteurs (instances de DictReader ou objets renvoyés par la fonction reader()) ont les méthodes publiques suivantes :

csvreader.__next__()

Renvoie la ligne suivante de l'objet itérable du lecteur en tant que liste (si l'objet est renvoyé depuis reader()) ou dictionnaire (si l'objet est un DictReader), analysé suivant la classe Dialect utilisée. Généralement, vous devez appeler la méthode à l'aide de next(reader).

Les objets lecteurs ont les attributs publics suivants :

csvreader.dialect

Une description en lecture seule du dialecte utilisé par l'analyseur.

csvreader.line_num

Le nombre de lignes lues depuis l'itérateur source. Ce n'est pas équivalent au nombre d'enregistrements renvoyés, puisque certains enregistrements peuvent s'étendre sur plusieurs lignes.

Les objets DictReader ont les attributs publics suivants :

DictReader.fieldnames

S'il n'est pas passé comme paramètre à la création de l'objet, cet attribut est initialisé lors du premier accès ou quand le premier enregistrement est lu depuis le fichier.

Objets transcripteurs

writer objects (DictWriter instances and objects returned by the writer() function) have the following public methods. A row must be an iterable of strings or numbers for writer objects and a dictionary mapping fieldnames to strings or numbers (by passing them through str() first) for DictWriter objects. Note that complex numbers are written out surrounded by parens. This may cause some problems for other programs which read CSV files (assuming they support complex numbers at all).

csvwriter.writerow(row, /)

Écrit le paramètre row vers l’objet fichier du transcripteur, formaté selon la classe Dialect utilisée. Renvoie la valeur de retour de l'appel à la méthode write de l'objet fichier sous-jacent.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Ajout du support d'itérables arbitraires.

csvwriter.writerows(rows, /)

Écrit tous les éléments de rows (itérable d'objets row comme décrits précédemment) vers le fichier associé au transcripteur, formatés selon le dialecte utilisé.

Les objets transcripteurs ont l’attribut public suivant :

csvwriter.dialect

Une description en lecture seule du dialecte utilisé par le transcripteur.

Les objets DictWriter ont la méthode publique suivante :

DictWriter.writeheader()

Écrit une ligne avec le nom des en-têtes (comme définies dans le constructeur) dans l'objet fichier associé au transcripteur, formatée selon le dialecte utilisé. Renvoie la valeur de retour de l'appel csvwriter.writerow() utilisé en interne.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: writeheader() renvoie maintenant aussi la valeur renvoyée par la méthode csvwriter.writerow() qu'il utilise en interne.

Exemples

Le plus simple exemple de lecture d'un fichier CSV :

import csv
with open('some.csv', newline='') as f:
    reader = csv.reader(f)
    for row in reader:
        print(row)

Lire un fichier avec un format alternatif :

import csv
with open('passwd', newline='') as f:
    reader = csv.reader(f, delimiter=':', quoting=csv.QUOTE_NONE)
    for row in reader:
        print(row)

Le plus simple exemple d'écriture correspondant est :

import csv
with open('some.csv', 'w', newline='') as f:
    writer = csv.writer(f)
    writer.writerows(someiterable)

Puisque open() est utilisée pour ouvrir un fichier CSV en lecture, le fichier sera par défaut décodé vers Unicode en utilisant l'encodage par défaut (voir locale.getencoding()). Pour décoder un fichier utilisant un encodage différent, utilisez l'argument encoding de open :

import csv
with open('some.csv', newline='', encoding='utf-8') as f:
    reader = csv.reader(f)
    for row in reader:
        print(row)

Cela s’applique également lors de l'écriture dans un autre encodage que celui par défaut du système : spécifiez l'encodage en argument lors de l'ouverture du fichier de sortie.

Enregistrer un nouveau dialecte :

import csv
csv.register_dialect('unixpwd', delimiter=':', quoting=csv.QUOTE_NONE)
with open('passwd', newline='') as f:
    reader = csv.reader(f, 'unixpwd')

Un exemple d'utilisation un peu plus avancé du lecteur, attrapant et notifiant les erreurs :

import csv, sys
filename = 'some.csv'
with open(filename, newline='') as f:
    reader = csv.reader(f)
    try:
        for row in reader:
            print(row)
    except csv.Error as e:
        sys.exit(f'file {filename}, line {reader.line_num}: {e}')

Et bien que le module ne permette pas d'analyser directement des chaînes, cela peut être fait facilement :

import csv
for row in csv.reader(['one,two,three']):
    print(row)

Notes

[1] (1,2)

If newline='' is not specified, newlines embedded inside quoted fields will not be interpreted correctly, and on platforms that use \r\n line endings on write an extra \r will be added. It should always be safe to specify newline='', since the csv module does its own (universal) newline handling.

configparser --- Configuration file parser

Code source : Lib/configparser.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/configparser.py]

Ce module fournit la classe ConfigParser. Cette classe implémente un langage de configuration basique, proche de ce que l'on peut trouver dans les fichiers INI de Microsoft Windows. Vous pouvez utiliser ce module pour écrire des programmes Python qui sont facilement configurables par l'utilisateur final.

Note

Ce module n'implémente pas la version étendue de la syntaxe INI qui permet de lire ou d'écrire des valeurs dans la base de registre Windows en utilisant divers préfixes.

Voir aussi

Module tomlib

TOML est un format bien spécifié pour les fichiers de configuration d'application. Il est spécifiquement conçu pour être une version améliorée d'INI.

Module shlex

Support for creating Unix shell-like mini-languages which can also be used for application configuration files.

Module json

The json module implements a subset of JavaScript syntax which is sometimes used for configuration, but does not support comments.

Premiers pas

Prenons pour exemple un fichier de configuration très simple ressemblant à ceci :

[DEFAULT]
ServerAliveInterval = 45
Compression = yes
CompressionLevel = 9
ForwardX11 = yes

[forge.example]
User = hg

[topsecret.server.example]
Port = 50022
ForwardX11 = no

The structure of INI files is described in the following section. Essentially, the file consists of sections, each of which contains keys with values. configparser classes can read and write such files. Let's start by creating the above configuration file programmatically.

>>> import configparser
>>> config = configparser.ConfigParser()
>>> config['DEFAULT'] = {'ServerAliveInterval': '45',
...                      'Compression': 'yes',
...                      'CompressionLevel': '9'}
>>> config['forge.example'] = {}
>>> config['forge.example']['User'] = 'hg'
>>> config['topsecret.server.example'] = {}
>>> topsecret = config['topsecret.server.example']
>>> topsecret['Port'] = '50022'     # mutates the parser
>>> topsecret['ForwardX11'] = 'no'  # same here
>>> config['DEFAULT']['ForwardX11'] = 'yes'
>>> with open('example.ini', 'w') as configfile:
...   config.write(configfile)
...

Comme vous pouvez le voir, nous pouvons manipuler l'instance renvoyée par l'analyse du fichier de configuration comme s'il s'agissait d'un dictionnaire. Il y a des différences, comme explicité ci-dessous, mais le comportement de l'instance est très proche de ce que vous pourriez attendre d'un dictionnaire.

Nous venons de créer et sauvegarder un fichier de configuration. Voyons maintenant comment nous pouvons le lire et accéder aux données qu'il contient.

>>> config = configparser.ConfigParser()
>>> config.sections()
[]
>>> config.read('example.ini')
['example.ini']
>>> config.sections()
['forge.example', 'topsecret.server.example']
>>> 'forge.example' in config
True
>>> 'python.org' in config
False
>>> config['forge.example']['User']
'hg'
>>> config['DEFAULT']['Compression']
'yes'
>>> topsecret = config['topsecret.server.example']
>>> topsecret['ForwardX11']
'no'
>>> topsecret['Port']
'50022'
>>> for key in config['forge.example']:
...     print(key)
user
compressionlevel
serveraliveinterval
compression
forwardx11
>>> config['forge.example']['ForwardX11']
'yes'

Comme vous le voyez, l'API est assez simple à utiliser. La seule partie un peu magique concerne la section DEFAULT, qui fournit les valeurs par défaut pour toutes les autres sections [1]. Notez également que les clés à l’intérieur des sections ne sont pas sensibles à la casse et qu'elles sont stockées en minuscules. [1].

Il est possible de lire plusieurs configurations dans un seul objet ConfigParser, où la configuration ajoutée la plus récemment a la priorité la plus élevée. Toutes les clés en conflit sont prises de la configuration la plus récente tandis que les anciennes clés déjà existantes sont mises de côté. L'exemple suivant lit un fichier override.ini qui prendra le dessus sur toutes les clés en conflit avec le fichier exemple.ini.

[DEFAULT]
ServerAliveInterval = -1

>>> config_override = configparser.ConfigParser()
>>> config_override['DEFAULT'] = {'ServerAliveInterval': '-1'}
>>> with open('override.ini', 'w') as configfile:
...     config_override.write(configfile)
...
>>> config_override = configparser.ConfigParser()
>>> config_override.read(['example.ini', 'override.ini'])
['example.ini', 'override.ini']
>>> print(config_override.get('DEFAULT', 'ServerAliveInterval'))
-1

Ce comportement est équivalent à un appel à ConfigParser.read() avec plusieurs fichiers passés dans le paramètre filenames.

Types de données prises en charge

Les lecteurs de configuration n'essayent jamais de deviner le type des valeurs présentes dans les fichiers de configuration, et elles sont toujours stockées en tant que chaînes de caractères. Ainsi, si vous avez besoin d'un type différent, vous devez effectuer la conversion vous-même :

>>> int(topsecret['Port'])
50022
>>> float(topsecret['CompressionLevel'])
9.0

Puisque que cette tâche doit être fréquemment accomplie, les lecteurs de configurations fournissent un ensemble d'accesseurs permettant de gérer les entiers, les flottants et les booléens plus facilement. Le cas des booléens est le plus pertinent. En effet, vous ne pouvez pas vous contenter d'utiliser la fonction bool() directement puisque bool('False') renvoie True. C'est pourquoi les lecteurs fournissent également la méthode getboolean(). Cette méthode n'est pas sensible à la casse et interprète correctement les valeurs booléennes associées aux chaînes de caractères comme 'yes'-'no', 'on'-'off', 'true'-'false' et '1'-'0' [1]. Par exemple :

>>> topsecret.getboolean('ForwardX11')
False
>>> config['forge.example'].getboolean('ForwardX11')
True
>>> config.getboolean('forge.example', 'Compression')
True

En plus de getboolean(), les lecteurs de configurations fournissent également des méthodes similaires comme getint() et getfloat(). Vous pouvez enregistrer vos propres convertisseurs et personnaliser ceux déjà fournis. [1]

Valeurs de substitution

As with a dictionary, you can use a section's get() method to provide fallback values:

>>> topsecret.get('Port')
'50022'
>>> topsecret.get('CompressionLevel')
'9'
>>> topsecret.get('Cipher')
>>> topsecret.get('Cipher', '3des-cbc')
'3des-cbc'

Please note that default values have precedence over fallback values. For instance, in our example the 'CompressionLevel' key was specified only in the 'DEFAULT' section. If we try to get it from the section 'topsecret.server.example', we will always get the default, even if we specify a fallback:

>>> topsecret.get('CompressionLevel', '3')
'9'

One more thing to be aware of is that the parser-level get() method provides a custom, more complex interface, maintained for backwards compatibility. When using this method, a fallback value can be provided via the fallback keyword-only argument:

>>> config.get('forge.example', 'monster',
...            fallback='No such things as monsters')
'No such things as monsters'

L'argument fallback peut être utilisé de la même façon avec les méthodes getint(), getfloat() et getboolean(). Par exemple :

>>> 'BatchMode' in topsecret
False
>>> topsecret.getboolean('BatchMode', fallback=True)
True
>>> config['DEFAULT']['BatchMode'] = 'no'
>>> topsecret.getboolean('BatchMode', fallback=True)
False

Structure des fichiers INI prise en change

A configuration file consists of sections, each led by a [section] header, followed by key/value entries separated by a specific string (= or : by default [1]). By default, section names are case sensitive but keys are not [1]. Leading and trailing whitespace is removed from keys and values. Values can be omitted if the parser is configured to allow it [1], in which case the key/value delimiter may also be left out. Values can also span multiple lines, as long as they are indented deeper than the first line of the value. Depending on the parser's mode, blank lines may be treated as parts of multiline values or ignored.

Par défaut, un nom de section valide peut-être n'importe quelle chaîne de caractères ne contenant pas le caractère '\\n'. Pour modifier cela, voir ConfigParser.SECTCRE.

The first section name may be omitted if the parser is configured to allow an unnamed top level section with allow_unnamed_section=True. In this case, the keys/values may be retrieved by UNNAMED_SECTION as in config[UNNAMED_SECTION].

Les fichiers de configuration peuvent contenir des commentaires, préfixés par des caractères spécifiques (# et ; par défaut [1]). Les commentaires peuvent apparaître à l'emplacement d'une ligne vide, et peuvent aussi être indentés. [1]

Par exemple :

[Simple Values]
key=value
spaces in keys=allowed
spaces in values=allowed as well
spaces around the delimiter = obviously
you can also use : to delimit keys from values

[All Values Are Strings]
values like this: 1000000
or this: 3.14159265359
are they treated as numbers? : no
integers, floats and booleans are held as: strings
can use the API to get converted values directly: true

[Multiline Values]
chorus: I'm a lumberjack, and I'm okay
    I sleep all night and I work all day

[No Values]
key_without_value
empty string value here =

[You can use comments]
# like this
; or this

# By default only in an empty line.
# Inline comments can be harmful because they prevent users
# from using the delimiting characters as parts of values.
# That being said, this can be customized.

    [Sections Can Be Indented]
        can_values_be_as_well = True
        does_that_mean_anything_special = False
        purpose = formatting for readability
        multiline_values = are
            handled just fine as
            long as they are indented
            deeper than the first line
            of a value
        # Did I mention we can indent comments, too?

Unnamed Sections

The name of the first section (or unique) may be omitted and values retrieved by the UNNAMED_SECTION attribute.

>>> config = """
... option = value
...
... [  Section 2  ]
... another = val
... """
>>> unnamed = configparser.ConfigParser(allow_unnamed_section=True)
>>> unnamed.read_string(config)
>>> unnamed.get(configparser.UNNAMED_SECTION, 'option')
'value'

Interpolation des valeurs

La classe ConfigParser prend en charge l’interpolation, en plus des fonctionnalités de base. Cela signifie que les valeurs peuvent être traitées avant d'être renvoyées par les appels aux méthodes get().

class configparser.BasicInterpolation

Implémentation par défaut utilisée par la classe ConfigParser. Celle-ci permet aux valeurs de contenir des chaînes de formatage se référant à d'autres valeurs dans la même section, ou bien à des valeurs dans la section spéciale par défaut [1]. D'autres valeurs par défaut peuvent être fournies au moment de l'initialisation de cette classe.

Par exemple :

[Paths]
home_dir: /Users
my_dir: %(home_dir)s/lumberjack
my_pictures: %(my_dir)s/Pictures

[Escape]
# use a %% to escape the % sign (% is the only character that needs to be escaped):
gain: 80%%

Dans l'exemple ci-dessus, une classe Configparser dont l'attribut interpolation vaut BasicInterpolation() interprète la chaîne de caractères %(home_dir)s en utilisant la valeur de la clé home_dir (/Users dans ce cas). %(my_dir)s est interprétée comme /Users/lumberjack. Les interpolations sont effectuées à la volée. Ainsi, les clés utilisées comme référence à l’intérieur des chaînes de formatage peuvent être définies dans le fichier de configuration dans n'importe quel ordre.

Si l'attribut interpolation vaut None, le lecteur renvoie %(my_dir)s/Pictures comme valeur pour my_pictures et %(home_dir)s/lumberjack comme valeur pour my_dir.

class configparser.ExtendedInterpolation

Autre façon de gérer l'interpolation en utilisant une syntaxe plus avancée, utilisée par exemple par zc.buildout. Cette syntaxe étendue utilise la chaîne de formatage {section:option}} pour désigner une valeur appartenant à une autre section. L'interpolation peut s'étendre sur plusieurs niveaux. Par commodité, si la partie {section} est absente, l'interpolation utilise la section courante par défaut (et, le cas échéant, les valeurs de la section par défaut spéciale).

Voici comment transformer la configuration ci-dessus avec la syntaxe d'interpolation étendue :

[Paths]
home_dir: /Users
my_dir: ${home_dir}/lumberjack
my_pictures: ${my_dir}/Pictures

[Escape]
# use a $$ to escape the $ sign ($ is the only character that needs to be escaped):
cost: $$80

Vous pouvez également récupérer des valeurs appartenant aux autres sections :

[Common]
home_dir: /Users
library_dir: /Library
system_dir: /System
macports_dir: /opt/local

[Frameworks]
Python: 3.2
path: ${Common:system_dir}/Library/Frameworks/

[Arthur]
nickname: Two Sheds
last_name: Jackson
my_dir: ${Common:home_dir}/twosheds
my_pictures: ${my_dir}/Pictures
python_dir: ${Frameworks:path}/Python/Versions/${Frameworks:Python}

Protocole d'accès associatif

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Mapping protocol access is a generic name for functionality that enables using custom objects as if they were dictionaries. In case of configparser, the mapping interface implementation is using the parser['section']['option'] notation.

En particulier, parser['section'] renvoie un mandataire vers les données de la section correspondantes dans l'analyseur. Cela signifie que les valeurs ne sont pas copiées, mais prélevées depuis l'analyseur initial à la demande. Plus important encore, lorsque les valeurs sont changées dans un mandataire pour une section, elles sont en réalité changées dans l'analyseur initial.

configparser objects behave as close to actual dictionaries as possible. The mapping interface is complete and adheres to the MutableMapping ABC. However, there are a few differences that should be taken into account:

Par défaut, toutes les clés des sections sont accessibles sans respect de la casse [1]. Par exemple, for option in parser["section"] renvoie uniquement les clés telles que transformées par la méthode optionxform, c'est-à-dire des clés transformées en minuscules. De même, pour une section contenant la clé a, les deux expressions suivantes renvoient True :

"a" in parser["section"]
"A" in parser["section"]

Toutes les sections incluent en plus les valeurs de la section DEFAULTSECT. Cela signifie qu'appeler clear() sur une section ne la fera pas forcément apparaître vide. En effet, les valeurs par défaut ne peuvent pas être supprimées de la section (car, techniquement, elles n'y sont pas présentes). Si vous détruisez une valeur par défaut qui a été écrasée dans une section, alors la valeur par défaut sera de nouveau visible. Essayer de détruire une valeur par défaut lève l'exception KeyError.

La section DEFAULTSECT ne peut pas être supprimée :

l'exception ValueError est levée si on essaye de la supprimer ;

appeler parser.clear() la laisse intacte ;

appeler parser.popitem() ne la renvoie jamais.

Le deuxième argument de parser.get(section, option, **kwargs) n'est pas une valeur de substitution. Notez cependant que les méthodes get() fournies par les sections sont compatibles à la fois avec le protocole associatif et avec l'API classique de configparser.

La méthode parser.items() est compatible avec le protocole d'accès associatif et renvoie une liste de paires section_name, section_proxy, en incluant la section DEFAULTSECT. Cependant, cette méthode peut aussi être appelée avec des arguments : parser.items(section, raw, vars). Dans ce cas, la méthode renvoie une liste de paires option, value pour la section spécifiée, en interprétant les interpolations (à moins d'utiliser raw=True).

Le protocole d'accès est implémenté au-dessus de l'ancienne API. Ainsi, les sous-classes qui écrasent des méthodes de l'interface originale se comportent correctement du point de vue du protocole d'accès.

Personnalisation du comportement de l'analyseur

There are nearly as many INI format variants as there are applications using it. configparser goes a long way to provide support for the largest sensible set of INI styles available. The default functionality is mainly dictated by historical background and it's very likely that you will want to customize some of the features.

The most common way to change the way a specific config parser works is to use the __init__() options:

defaults, valeur par défaut : None

Cette option accepte un dictionnaire de paires clé—valeurs qui seront placées dans la section DEFAULT initialement. Ceci est une façon élégante de prendre en charge des fichiers de configuration qui n'ont pas besoin de spécifier de valeurs lorsque celles-ci sont identiques aux valeurs par défaut documentées.

Hint: if you want to specify default values for a specific section, use read_dict() before you read the actual file.

dict_type, valeur par défaut : dict

Cette option influe de manière importante sur la façon dont le protocole d'accès associatif se comporte et ce à quoi ressemblent les fichiers de configuration une fois écrits. Avec un dictionnaire standard, les sections sont stockées dans l'ordre où elles ont été ajoutées à l'analyseur. Ceci est également vrai pour les options à l'intérieur des sections.

Si vous souhaitez classer les sections et les options lors de l'écriture par exemple, vous pouvez utiliser un type de dictionnaire différent.

À noter : il est possible d'ajouter un ensemble de paires clés—valeurs en une seule opération. L'ordre des clés est préservé si vous utilisez un dictionnaire standard pour cela. Par exemple :

>>> parser = configparser.ConfigParser()
>>> parser.read_dict({'section1': {'key1': 'value1',
...                                'key2': 'value2',
...                                'key3': 'value3'},
...                   'section2': {'keyA': 'valueA',
...                                'keyB': 'valueB',
...                                'keyC': 'valueC'},
...                   'section3': {'foo': 'x',
...                                'bar': 'y',
...                                'baz': 'z'}
... })
>>> parser.sections()
['section1', 'section2', 'section3']
>>> [option for option in parser['section3']]
['foo', 'bar', 'baz']

allow_no_value, valeur par défaut : False

Some configuration files are known to include settings without values, but which otherwise conform to the syntax supported by configparser. The allow_no_value parameter to the constructor can be used to indicate that such values should be accepted:

>>> import configparser

>>> sample_config = """
... [mysqld]
...   user = mysql
...   pid-file = /var/run/mysqld/mysqld.pid
...   skip-external-locking
...   old_passwords = 1
...   skip-bdb
...   # we don't need ACID today
...   skip-innodb
... """
>>> config = configparser.ConfigParser(allow_no_value=True)
>>> config.read_string(sample_config)

>>> # Settings with values are treated as before:
>>> config["mysqld"]["user"]
'mysql'

>>> # Settings without values provide None:
>>> config["mysqld"]["skip-bdb"]

>>> # Settings which aren't specified still raise an error:
>>> config["mysqld"]["does-not-exist"]
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
KeyError: 'does-not-exist'

delimiters, valeur par défaut : ('=', ':')

Chaînes de caractères qui séparent les clés des valeurs à l'intérieur d'une section. La première occurrence d'une telle chaîne à l'intérieur d'une ligne est considérée comme un délimiteur. Cela signifie que les valeurs peuvent contenir certains des délimiteurs (mais pas les clés).

Voir aussi l'argument space_around_delimiters de la méthode ConfigParser.write().

comment_prefixes (préfixes de commentaire) — valeur par défaut : ('#', ';')

inline_comment_prefixes (préfixes de commentaire en ligne) — valeur par défaut : ('#', ';')

Les préfixes de commentaire indiquent le début d'un commentaire valide au sein d'un fichier de configuration. Ils ne peuvent être utilisés qu'à l'emplacement d'une ligne vide (potentiellement indentée). En revanche, les préfixes de commentaires en ligne peuvent être utilisés après n'importe quelle valeur valide (comme les noms des sections, les options et les lignes vides). Par défaut, les commentaires en ligne sont désactivés et les préfixes utilisés pour les commentaires à l'emplacement d'une ligne vide sont '#' et ';'.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: In previous versions of configparser behaviour matched comment_prefixes=('#',';') and inline_comment_prefixes=(';',).

Notez que les analyseurs ne prennent pas en charge l'échappement des préfixes de commentaires. Ainsi, l'utilisation de inline_comment_prefixes peut empêcher les utilisateurs de spécifier des valeurs qui contiennent des caractères utilisés comme préfixe de commentaire. Dans le doute, il est recommandé de ne pas utiliser inline_comment_prefixes. Dans tous les cas, la seule façon de stocker des préfixes de commentaires au début d'une valeur multi lignes est d'interpoler ceux-ci, par exemple :

>>> from configparser import ConfigParser, ExtendedInterpolation
>>> parser = ConfigParser(interpolation=ExtendedInterpolation())
>>> # the default BasicInterpolation could be used as well
>>> parser.read_string("""
... [DEFAULT]
... hash = #
...
... [hashes]
... shebang =
...   ${hash}!/usr/bin/env python
...   ${hash} -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
...
... extensions =
...   enabled_extension
...   another_extension
...   #disabled_by_comment
...   yet_another_extension
...
... interpolation not necessary = if # is not at line start
... even in multiline values = line #1
...   line #2
...   line #3
... """)
>>> print(parser['hashes']['shebang'])

#!/usr/bin/env python
# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
>>> print(parser['hashes']['extensions'])

enabled_extension
another_extension
yet_another_extension
>>> print(parser['hashes']['interpolation not necessary'])
if # is not at line start
>>> print(parser['hashes']['even in multiline values'])
line #1
line #2
line #3

scrict, valeur par défaut : True

When set to True, the parser will not allow for any section or option duplicates while reading from a single source (using read_file(), read_string() or read_dict()). It is recommended to use strict parsers in new applications.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: In previous versions of configparser behaviour matched strict=False.

empty_lines_in_values, valeur par défaut : True

Du point de vue des analyseurs, les valeurs peuvent s'étendre sur plusieurs lignes à partir du moment où elles sont plus indentées que la clé qui les contient. Par défaut les analyseurs autorisent les lignes vides à faire partie de telles valeurs. Dans le même temps, les clés elles-mêmes peuvent être indentées de façon à rendre le fichier plus lisible. En conséquence, il est probable que l'utilisateur perde de vue la structure du fichier lorsque celui-ci devient long et complexe. Prenez par exemple :

[Section]
key = multiline
  value with a gotcha

 this = is still a part of the multiline value of 'key'

Ceci est particulièrement problématique si l'utilisateur a configuré son éditeur pour utiliser une police à chasse variable. C'est pourquoi il est conseillé de ne pas prendre en charge les valeurs avec des lignes vides, à moins que votre application en ait besoin. Dans ce cas, les lignes vides sont toujours interprétées comme séparant des clés. Dans l'exemple ci-dessus, cela produit deux clés : key et this.

default_section, valeur par défaut : configparser.DEFAULTSECT (autrement dit : "DEFAULT")

La convention permettant d’autoriser une section spéciale de valeurs par défaut pour d’autres sections ou à des fins d’interpolation est un concept puissant de cette bibliothèque, permettant aux utilisateurs de créer des configurations déclaratives complexes. Cette section est normalement appelée "DEFAULT", mais elle peut être personnalisée pour pointer vers n’importe quel autre nom de section valide. Certaines autres valeurs typiques incluent : "general" ou "common". Le nom fourni est utilisé pour reconnaître les sections par défaut lors de la lecture à partir de n’importe quelle source, et est utilisée lors de la réécriture de la configuration dans un fichier. Sa valeur actuelle peut être récupérée à l’aide de l’attribut parser_instance.default_section, et peut être modifiée au moment de l’exécution (c’est-à-dire pour convertir des fichiers d’un format à un autre).

interpolation, valeur par défaut : configparser.BasicInterpolation

Le comportement d'interpolation peut être personnalisé en fournissant un gestionnaire personnalisé via l'argument interpolation. None peut être utilisé pour désactiver complètement l'interpolation. ExtendedInterpolation() fournit une variante plus avancée inspirée de zc.buildout. Plus d'informations sur le sujet dans la section dédiée de la documentation. RowConfigParser vaut None par défaut.

converters, valeur par défaut : non défini

Les analyseurs de configuration fournissent des fonctions de récupération de valeurs qui effectuent la conversion par type. Par défaut, getint(), getfloat() et getboolean() sont implémentées. Si vous désirez d’autres fonctions de récupération de valeurs, vous pouvez les définir dans une sous-classe ou transmettre un dictionnaire où chaque clé est le nom du convertisseur et chaque valeur est une fonction implémentant ladite conversion. Par exemple, passer {'decimal':decimal.Decimal} ajouterait getdecimal() à la fois sur l’analyseur et sur tous les proxys de section. En d’autres termes, il sera possible d’écrire à la fois parser_instance.getdecimal('section', 'key', fallback=0) et parser_instance['section'].getdecimal('key', 0).

Si le convertisseur doit accéder à l'état de l'analyseur, il peut être implémenté en tant que méthode sur une sous-classe d'analyseur de configuration. Si le nom de cette méthode commence par get, elle sera disponible sur tous les proxys de section, sous la forme compatible avec un dictionnaire (voir l'exemple getdecimal() ci-dessus).

Une personnalisation plus avancée peut être obtenue en remplaçant les valeurs par défaut de ces attributs de l'analyseur. Les valeurs par défaut sont définies sur les classes, elles peuvent donc être remplacées par des sous-classes ou par des attributs d'instance.

ConfigParser.BOOLEAN_STATES

Par défaut, la méthode getboolean() considère les valeurs suivantes comme vraies : '1', 'yes', 'true', 'on', et les valeurs suivantes comme fausses : '0', 'no', 'false', 'off'. Vous pouvez changer ce comportement en spécifiant votre propre dictionnaire associant des chaînes de caractères à des valeurs booléennes. Par exemple :

>>> custom = configparser.ConfigParser()
>>> custom['section1'] = {'funky': 'nope'}
>>> custom['section1'].getboolean('funky')
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
ValueError: Not a boolean: nope
>>> custom.BOOLEAN_STATES = {'sure': True, 'nope': False}
>>> custom['section1'].getboolean('funky')
False

Other typical Boolean pairs include accept/reject or enabled/disabled.

ConfigParser.optionxform(option)

This method transforms option names on every read, get, or set operation. The default converts the name to lowercase. This also means that when a configuration file gets written, all keys will be lowercase. Override this method if that's unsuitable. For example:

>>> config = """
... [Section1]
... Key = Value
...
... [Section2]
... AnotherKey = Value
... """
>>> typical = configparser.ConfigParser()
>>> typical.read_string(config)
>>> list(typical['Section1'].keys())
['key']
>>> list(typical['Section2'].keys())
['anotherkey']
>>> custom = configparser.RawConfigParser()
>>> custom.optionxform = lambda option: option
>>> custom.read_string(config)
>>> list(custom['Section1'].keys())
['Key']
>>> list(custom['Section2'].keys())
['AnotherKey']

Note

The optionxform function transforms option names to a canonical form. This should be an idempotent function: if the name is already in canonical form, it should be returned unchanged.

ConfigParser.SECTCRE

A compiled regular expression used to parse section headers. The default matches [section] to the name "section". Whitespace is considered part of the section name, thus [  larch  ] will be read as a section of name "  larch  ". Override this attribute if that's unsuitable. For example:

>>> import re
>>> config = """
... [Section 1]
... option = value
...
... [  Section 2  ]
... another = val
... """
>>> typical = configparser.ConfigParser()
>>> typical.read_string(config)
>>> typical.sections()
['Section 1', '  Section 2  ']
>>> custom = configparser.ConfigParser()
>>> custom.SECTCRE = re.compile(r"\[ *(?P<header>[^]]+?) *\]")
>>> custom.read_string(config)
>>> custom.sections()
['Section 1', 'Section 2']

Note

While ConfigParser objects also use an OPTCRE attribute for recognizing option lines, it's not recommended to override it because that would interfere with constructor options allow_no_value and delimiters.

Legacy API Examples

Mainly because of backwards compatibility concerns, configparser provides also a legacy API with explicit get/set methods. While there are valid use cases for the methods outlined below, mapping protocol access is preferred for new projects. The legacy API is at times more advanced, low-level and downright counterintuitive.

An example of writing to a configuration file:

import configparser

config = configparser.RawConfigParser()

# Please note that using RawConfigParser's set functions, you can assign
# non-string values to keys internally, but will receive an error when
# attempting to write to a file or when you get it in non-raw mode. Setting
# values using the mapping protocol or ConfigParser's set() does not allow
# such assignments to take place.
config.add_section('Section1')
config.set('Section1', 'an_int', '15')
config.set('Section1', 'a_bool', 'true')
config.set('Section1', 'a_float', '3.1415')
config.set('Section1', 'baz', 'fun')
config.set('Section1', 'bar', 'Python')
config.set('Section1', 'foo', '%(bar)s is %(baz)s!')

# Writing our configuration file to 'example.cfg'
with open('example.cfg', 'w') as configfile:
    config.write(configfile)

An example of reading the configuration file again:

import configparser

config = configparser.RawConfigParser()
config.read('example.cfg')

# getfloat() raises an exception if the value is not a float
# getint() and getboolean() also do this for their respective types
a_float = config.getfloat('Section1', 'a_float')
an_int = config.getint('Section1', 'an_int')
print(a_float + an_int)

# Notice that the next output does not interpolate '%(bar)s' or '%(baz)s'.
# This is because we are using a RawConfigParser().
if config.getboolean('Section1', 'a_bool'):
    print(config.get('Section1', 'foo'))

To get interpolation, use ConfigParser:

import configparser

cfg = configparser.ConfigParser()
cfg.read('example.cfg')

# Set the optional *raw* argument of get() to True if you wish to disable
# interpolation in a single get operation.
print(cfg.get('Section1', 'foo', raw=False))  # -> "Python is fun!"
print(cfg.get('Section1', 'foo', raw=True))   # -> "%(bar)s is %(baz)s!"

# The optional *vars* argument is a dict with members that will take
# precedence in interpolation.
print(cfg.get('Section1', 'foo', vars={'bar': 'Documentation',
                                       'baz': 'evil'}))

# The optional *fallback* argument can be used to provide a fallback value
print(cfg.get('Section1', 'foo'))
      # -> "Python is fun!"

print(cfg.get('Section1', 'foo', fallback='Monty is not.'))
      # -> "Python is fun!"

print(cfg.get('Section1', 'monster', fallback='No such things as monsters.'))
      # -> "No such things as monsters."

# A bare print(cfg.get('Section1', 'monster')) would raise NoOptionError
# but we can also use:

print(cfg.get('Section1', 'monster', fallback=None))
      # -> None

Default values are available in both types of ConfigParsers. They are used in interpolation if an option used is not defined elsewhere.

import configparser

# New instance with 'bar' and 'baz' defaulting to 'Life' and 'hard' each
config = configparser.ConfigParser({'bar': 'Life', 'baz': 'hard'})
config.read('example.cfg')

print(config.get('Section1', 'foo'))     # -> "Python is fun!"
config.remove_option('Section1', 'bar')
config.remove_option('Section1', 'baz')
print(config.get('Section1', 'foo'))     # -> "Life is hard!"

ConfigParser Objects

class configparser.ConfigParser(defaults=None, dict_type=dict, allow_no_value=False, *, delimiters=('=', ':'), comment_prefixes=('#', ';'), inline_comment_prefixes=None, strict=True, empty_lines_in_values=True, default_section=configparser.DEFAULTSECT, interpolation=BasicInterpolation(), converters={}, allow_unnamed_section=False)

The main configuration parser. When defaults is given, it is initialized into the dictionary of intrinsic defaults. When dict_type is given, it will be used to create the dictionary objects for the list of sections, for the options within a section, and for the default values.

When delimiters is given, it is used as the set of substrings that divide keys from values. When comment_prefixes is given, it will be used as the set of substrings that prefix comments in otherwise empty lines. Comments can be indented. When inline_comment_prefixes is given, it will be used as the set of substrings that prefix comments in non-empty lines.

When strict is True (the default), the parser won't allow for any section or option duplicates while reading from a single source (file, string or dictionary), raising DuplicateSectionError or DuplicateOptionError. When empty_lines_in_values is False (default: True), each empty line marks the end of an option. Otherwise, internal empty lines of a multiline option are kept as part of the value. When allow_no_value is True (default: False), options without values are accepted; the value held for these is None and they are serialized without the trailing delimiter.

When default_section is given, it specifies the name for the special section holding default values for other sections and interpolation purposes (normally named "DEFAULT"). This value can be retrieved and changed at runtime using the default_section instance attribute. This won't re-evaluate an already parsed config file, but will be used when writing parsed settings to a new config file.

Interpolation behaviour may be customized by providing a custom handler through the interpolation argument. None can be used to turn off interpolation completely, ExtendedInterpolation() provides a more advanced variant inspired by zc.buildout. More on the subject in the dedicated documentation section.

All option names used in interpolation will be passed through the optionxform() method just like any other option name reference. For example, using the default implementation of optionxform() (which converts option names to lower case), the values foo %(bar)s and foo %(BAR)s are equivalent.

When converters is given, it should be a dictionary where each key represents the name of a type converter and each value is a callable implementing the conversion from string to the desired datatype. Every converter gets its own corresponding get*() method on the parser object and section proxies.

When allow_unnamed_section is True (default: False), the first section name can be omitted. See the "Unnamed Sections" section.

Il est possible de lire plusieurs configurations dans un seul objet ConfigParser, où la configuration ajoutée la plus récemment a la priorité la plus élevée. Toutes les clés en conflit sont prises de la configuration la plus récente tandis que les anciennes clés déjà existantes sont mises de côté. L'exemple suivant lit un fichier override.ini qui prendra le dessus sur toutes les clés en conflit avec le fichier exemple.ini.

[DEFAULT]
ServerAliveInterval = -1

>>> config_override = configparser.ConfigParser()
>>> config_override['DEFAULT'] = {'ServerAliveInterval': '-1'}
>>> with open('override.ini', 'w') as configfile:
...     config_override.write(configfile)
...
>>> config_override = configparser.ConfigParser()
>>> config_override.read(['example.ini', 'override.ini'])
['example.ini', 'override.ini']
>>> print(config_override.get('DEFAULT', 'ServerAliveInterval'))
-1

Modifié dans la version 3.1: The default dict_type is collections.OrderedDict.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: allow_no_value, delimiters, comment_prefixes, strict, empty_lines_in_values, default_section and interpolation were added.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: The converters argument was added.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: The defaults argument is read with read_dict(), providing consistent behavior across the parser: non-string keys and values are implicitly converted to strings.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: The default dict_type is dict, since it now preserves insertion order.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Raise a MultilineContinuationError when allow_no_value is True, and a key without a value is continued with an indented line.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: The allow_unnamed_section argument was added.

defaults()

Return a dictionary containing the instance-wide defaults.

sections()

Return a list of the sections available; the default section is not included in the list.

add_section(section)

Add a section named section to the instance. If a section by the given name already exists, DuplicateSectionError is raised. If the default section name is passed, ValueError is raised. The name of the section must be a string; if not, TypeError is raised.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Non-string section names raise TypeError.

has_section(section)

Indicates whether the named section is present in the configuration. The default section is not acknowledged.

options(section)

Return a list of options available in the specified section.

has_option(section, option)

If the given section exists, and contains the given option, return True; otherwise return False. If the specified section is None or an empty string, DEFAULT is assumed.

read(filenames, encoding=None)

Attempt to read and parse an iterable of filenames, returning a list of filenames which were successfully parsed.

If filenames is a string, a bytes object or a path-like object, it is treated as a single filename. If a file named in filenames cannot be opened, that file will be ignored. This is designed so that you can specify an iterable of potential configuration file locations (for example, the current directory, the user's home directory, and some system-wide directory), and all existing configuration files in the iterable will be read.

If none of the named files exist, the ConfigParser instance will contain an empty dataset. An application which requires initial values to be loaded from a file should load the required file or files using read_file() before calling read() for any optional files:

import configparser, os

config = configparser.ConfigParser()
config.read_file(open('defaults.cfg'))
config.read(['site.cfg', os.path.expanduser('~/.myapp.cfg')],
            encoding='cp1250')

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Added the encoding parameter. Previously, all files were read using the default encoding for open().

Modifié dans la version 3.6.1: The filenames parameter accepts a path-like object.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: The filenames parameter accepts a bytes object.

read_file(f, source=None)

Read and parse configuration data from f which must be an iterable yielding Unicode strings (for example files opened in text mode).

Optional argument source specifies the name of the file being read. If not given and f has a name attribute, that is used for source; the default is '<???>'.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2: Replaces readfp().

read_string(string, source='<string>')

Parse configuration data from a string.

Optional argument source specifies a context-specific name of the string passed. If not given, '<string>' is used. This should commonly be a filesystem path or a URL.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

read_dict(dictionary, source='<dict>')

Load configuration from any object that provides a dict-like items() method. Keys are section names, values are dictionaries with keys and values that should be present in the section. If the used dictionary type preserves order, sections and their keys will be added in order. Values are automatically converted to strings.

Optional argument source specifies a context-specific name of the dictionary passed. If not given, <dict> is used.

This method can be used to copy state between parsers.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

get(section, option, *, raw=False, vars=None[, fallback])

Get an option value for the named section. If vars is provided, it must be a dictionary. The option is looked up in vars (if provided), section, and in DEFAULTSECT in that order. If the key is not found and fallback is provided, it is used as a fallback value. None can be provided as a fallback value.

All the '%' interpolations are expanded in the return values, unless the raw argument is true. Values for interpolation keys are looked up in the same manner as the option.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Arguments raw, vars and fallback are keyword only to protect users from trying to use the third argument as the fallback fallback (especially when using the mapping protocol).

getint(section, option, *, raw=False, vars=None[, fallback])

A convenience method which coerces the option in the specified section to an integer. See get() for explanation of raw, vars and fallback.

getfloat(section, option, *, raw=False, vars=None[, fallback])

A convenience method which coerces the option in the specified section to a floating-point number. See get() for explanation of raw, vars and fallback.

getboolean(section, option, *, raw=False, vars=None[, fallback])

A convenience method which coerces the option in the specified section to a Boolean value. Note that the accepted values for the option are '1', 'yes', 'true', and 'on', which cause this method to return True, and '0', 'no', 'false', and 'off', which cause it to return False. These string values are checked in a case-insensitive manner. Any other value will cause it to raise ValueError. See get() for explanation of raw, vars and fallback.

items(raw=False, vars=None)

items(section, raw=False, vars=None)

When section is not given, return a list of section_name, section_proxy pairs, including DEFAULTSECT.

Otherwise, return a list of name, value pairs for the options in the given section. Optional arguments have the same meaning as for the get() method.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Items present in vars no longer appear in the result. The previous behaviour mixed actual parser options with variables provided for interpolation.

set(section, option, value)

If the given section exists, set the given option to the specified value; otherwise raise NoSectionError. option and value must be strings; if not, TypeError is raised.

write(fileobject, space_around_delimiters=True)

Write a representation of the configuration to the specified file object, which must be opened in text mode (accepting strings). This representation can be parsed by a future read() call. If space_around_delimiters is true, delimiters between keys and values are surrounded by spaces.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Raises InvalidWriteError if this would write a representation which cannot be accurately parsed by a future read() call from this parser.

Note

Comments in the original configuration file are not preserved when writing the configuration back. What is considered a comment, depends on the given values for comment_prefix and inline_comment_prefix.

remove_option(section, option)

Remove the specified option from the specified section. If the section does not exist, raise NoSectionError. If the option existed to be removed, return True; otherwise return False.

remove_section(section)

Remove the specified section from the configuration. If the section in fact existed, return True. Otherwise return False.

optionxform(option)

Transforms the option name option as found in an input file or as passed in by client code to the form that should be used in the internal structures. The default implementation returns a lower-case version of option; subclasses may override this or client code can set an attribute of this name on instances to affect this behavior.

You don't need to subclass the parser to use this method, you can also set it on an instance, to a function that takes a string argument and returns a string. Setting it to str, for example, would make option names case sensitive:

cfgparser = ConfigParser()
cfgparser.optionxform = str

Note that when reading configuration files, whitespace around the option names is stripped before optionxform() is called.

configparser.UNNAMED_SECTION

A special object representing a section name used to reference the unnamed section (see Unnamed Sections).

configparser.MAX_INTERPOLATION_DEPTH

The maximum depth for recursive interpolation for get() when the raw parameter is false. This is relevant only when the default interpolation is used.

RawConfigParser Objects

class configparser.RawConfigParser(defaults=None, dict_type=dict, allow_no_value=False, *, delimiters=('=', ':'), comment_prefixes=('#', ';'), inline_comment_prefixes=None, strict=True, empty_lines_in_values=True, default_section=configparser.DEFAULTSECT, interpolation=BasicInterpolation(), converters={}, allow_unnamed_section=False)

Legacy variant of the ConfigParser. It has interpolation disabled by default and allows for non-string section names, option names, and values via its unsafe add_section and set methods, as well as the legacy defaults= keyword argument handling.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: allow_no_value, delimiters, comment_prefixes, strict, empty_lines_in_values, default_section and interpolation were added.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: The converters argument was added.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: The default dict_type is dict, since it now preserves insertion order.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: The allow_unnamed_section argument was added.

Note

Consider using ConfigParser instead which checks types of the values to be stored internally. If you don't want interpolation, you can use ConfigParser(interpolation=None).

add_section(section)

Add a section named section or UNNAMED_SECTION to the instance.

If the given section already exists, DuplicateSectionError is raised. If the default section name is passed, ValueError is raised. If UNNAMED_SECTION is passed and support is disabled, UnnamedSectionDisabledError is raised.

Type of section is not checked which lets users create non-string named sections. This behaviour is unsupported and may cause internal errors.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Added support for UNNAMED_SECTION.

set(section, option, value)

If the given section exists, set the given option to the specified value; otherwise raise NoSectionError. While it is possible to use RawConfigParser (or ConfigParser with raw parameters set to true) for internal storage of non-string values, full functionality (including interpolation and output to files) can only be achieved using string values.

This method lets users assign non-string values to keys internally. This behaviour is unsupported and will cause errors when attempting to write to a file or get it in non-raw mode. Use the mapping protocol API which does not allow such assignments to take place.

Exceptions

exception configparser.Error

Base class for all other configparser exceptions.

exception configparser.NoSectionError

Exception raised when a specified section is not found.

exception configparser.DuplicateSectionError

Exception raised if add_section() is called with the name of a section that is already present or in strict parsers when a section if found more than once in a single input file, string or dictionary.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Added the optional source and lineno attributes and parameters to __init__().

exception configparser.DuplicateOptionError

Exception raised by strict parsers if a single option appears twice during reading from a single file, string or dictionary. This catches misspellings and case sensitivity-related errors, e.g. a dictionary may have two keys representing the same case-insensitive configuration key.

exception configparser.NoOptionError

Exception raised when a specified option is not found in the specified section.

exception configparser.InterpolationError

Base class for exceptions raised when problems occur performing string interpolation.

exception configparser.InterpolationDepthError

Exception raised when string interpolation cannot be completed because the number of iterations exceeds MAX_INTERPOLATION_DEPTH. Subclass of InterpolationError.

exception configparser.InterpolationMissingOptionError

Exception raised when an option referenced from a value does not exist. Subclass of InterpolationError.

exception configparser.InterpolationSyntaxError

Exception raised when the source text into which substitutions are made does not conform to the required syntax. Subclass of InterpolationError.

exception configparser.MissingSectionHeaderError

Exception raised when attempting to parse a file which has no section headers.

exception configparser.ParsingError

Exception raised when errors occur attempting to parse a file.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: The filename attribute and __init__() constructor argument were removed. They have been available using the name source since 3.2.

exception configparser.MultilineContinuationError

Exception raised when a key without a corresponding value is continued with an indented line.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

exception configparser.UnnamedSectionDisabledError

Exception raised when attempting to use the UNNAMED_SECTION without enabling it.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

exception configparser.InvalidWriteError

Exception raised when an attempted ConfigParser.write() would not be parsed accurately with a future ConfigParser.read() call.

Ex: Writing a key beginning with the ConfigParser.SECTCRE pattern would parse as a section header when read. Attempting to write this will raise this exception.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Notes

[1] (1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11)

Config parsers allow for heavy customization. If you are interested in changing the behaviour outlined by the footnote reference, consult the Customizing Parser Behaviour section.

tomllib --- Parse TOML files

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

Source code: Lib/tomllib [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/tomllib]

This module provides an interface for parsing TOML 1.0.0 (Tom's Obvious Minimal Language, https://toml.io [https://toml.io/en/]). This module does not support writing TOML.

Voir aussi

The Tomli-W package [https://pypi.org/project/tomli-w/] is a TOML writer that can be used in conjunction with this module, providing a write API familiar to users of the standard library marshal and pickle modules.

Voir aussi

The TOML Kit package [https://pypi.org/project/tomlkit/] is a style-preserving TOML library with both read and write capability. It is a recommended replacement for this module for editing already existing TOML files.

Ce module définit les fonctions suivantes :

tomllib.load(fp, /, *, parse_float=float)

Read a TOML file. The first argument should be a readable and binary file object. Return a dict. Convert TOML types to Python using this conversion table.

parse_float will be called with the string of every TOML float to be decoded. By default, this is equivalent to float(num_str). This can be used to use another datatype or parser for TOML floats (e.g. decimal.Decimal). The callable must not return a dict or a list, else a ValueError is raised.

A TOMLDecodeError will be raised on an invalid TOML document.

tomllib.loads(s, /, *, parse_float=float)

Load TOML from a str object. Return a dict. Convert TOML types to Python using this conversion table. The parse_float argument has the same meaning as in load().

A TOMLDecodeError will be raised on an invalid TOML document.

The following exceptions are available:

exception tomllib.TOMLDecodeError(msg, doc, pos)

Sous-classe de ValueError avec les attributs additionnels suivants :

msg

Le message d'erreur non formaté.

doc

The TOML document being parsed.

pos

The index of doc where parsing failed.

lineno

La ligne correspondant à pos.

colno

La colonne correspondant à pos.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Added the msg, doc and pos parameters. Added the msg, doc, pos, lineno and colno attributes.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.14: Passing free-form positional arguments is deprecated.

Exemples

Parsing a TOML file:

import tomllib

with open("pyproject.toml", "rb") as f:
    data = tomllib.load(f)

Parsing a TOML string:

import tomllib

toml_str = """
python-version = "3.11.0"
python-implementation = "CPython"
"""

data = tomllib.loads(toml_str)

Conversion Table

TOML

Python

TOML document

dict

string

str

int (entier)

int

float (nombre à virgule flottante)

float (configurable with parse_float)

boolean

bool (booléen)

offset date-time

datetime.datetime (tzinfo attribute set to an instance of datetime.timezone)

local date-time

datetime.datetime (tzinfo attribute set to None)

local date

datetime.date

local time

datetime.time

array

liste

table

dict

inline table

dict

array of tables

list of dicts

netrc --- netrc file processing

Code source : Lib/netrc.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/netrc.py]

La classe netrc analyse et encapsule le format de fichier netrc utilisé par le programme Unix ftp et d'autres clients FTP.

class netrc.netrc([file])

A netrc instance or subclass instance encapsulates data from a netrc file. The initialization argument, if present, specifies the file to parse. If no argument is given, the file .netrc in the user's home directory -- as determined by os.path.expanduser() -- will be read. Otherwise, a FileNotFoundError exception will be raised. Parse errors will raise NetrcParseError with diagnostic information including the file name, line number, and terminating token.

If no argument is specified on a POSIX system, the presence of passwords in the .netrc file will raise a NetrcParseError if the file ownership or permissions are insecure (owned by a user other than the user running the process, or accessible for read or write by any other user). This implements security behavior equivalent to that of ftp and other programs that use .netrc. Such security checks are not available on platforms that do not support os.getuid().

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Ajout de la vérification d'autorisations POSIX.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: os.path.expanduser() est utilisée pour trouver l'emplacement du fichier netrc lorsque file n'est pas passé en tant qu'argument.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: netrc try UTF-8 encoding before using locale specific encoding. The entry in the netrc file no longer needs to contain all tokens. The missing tokens' value default to an empty string. All the tokens and their values now can contain arbitrary characters, like whitespace and non-ASCII characters. If the login name is anonymous, it won't trigger the security check.

exception netrc.NetrcParseError

Exception raised by the netrc class when syntactical errors are encountered in source text. Instances of this exception provide three interesting attributes:

msg

Textual explanation of the error.

filename

The name of the source file.

lineno

The line number on which the error was found.

Objets netrc

Une instance netrc a les méthodes suivantes :

netrc.authenticators(host)

Renvoie un triplet (login, account, password) pour s'authentifier auprès de l'hôte host. Si le fichier netrc ne contient pas d'entrée pour l'hôte donné, renvoie le triplet associé à l'entrée par défaut. Si aucun hôte correspondant ni aucune entrée par défaut n'est disponible, renvoie None.

netrc.__repr__()

Déverse les données de la classe sous forme de chaîne dans le format d'un fichier netrc. (Ceci ignore les commentaires et peut réorganiser les entrées).

Les instances de netrc ont des variables d'instance publiques :

netrc.hosts

Dictionnaire faisant correspondre les noms d'hôtes dans des triplets (login, account, password). L'entrée par défaut, le cas échéant, est représentée en tant que pseudo-hôte par ce nom.

netrc.macros

Dictionnaire faisant correspondre les noms de macro en listes de chaînes.

plistlib --- Generate and parse Apple .plist files

Code source : Lib/plistlib.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/plistlib.py]

This module provides an interface for reading and writing the "property list" files used by Apple, primarily on macOS and iOS. This module supports both binary and XML plist files.

The property list (.plist) file format is a simple serialization supporting basic object types, like dictionaries, lists, numbers and strings. Usually the top level object is a dictionary.

To write out and to parse a plist file, use the dump() and load() functions.

To work with plist data in bytes or string objects, use dumps() and loads().

Values can be strings, integers, floats, booleans, tuples, lists, dictionaries (but only with string keys), bytes, bytearray or datetime.datetime objects.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: New API, old API deprecated. Support for binary format plists added.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Support added for reading and writing UID tokens in binary plists as used by NSKeyedArchiver and NSKeyedUnarchiver.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Old API removed.

Voir aussi

PList manual page [https://developer.apple.com/library/archive/documentation/Cocoa/Conceptual/PropertyLists/]

Apple's documentation of the file format.

Ce module définit les fonctions suivantes :

plistlib.load(fp, *, fmt=None, dict_type=dict, aware_datetime=False)

Read a plist file. fp should be a readable and binary file object. Return the unpacked root object (which usually is a dictionary).

The fmt is the format of the file and the following values are valid:

None: Autodetect the file format

FMT_XML: XML file format

FMT_BINARY: Binary plist format

The dict_type is the type used for dictionaries that are read from the plist file.

When aware_datetime is true, fields with type datetime.datetime will be created as aware object, with tzinfo as datetime.UTC.

XML data for the FMT_XML format is parsed using the Expat parser from xml.parsers.expat -- see its documentation for possible exceptions on ill-formed XML. Unknown elements will simply be ignored by the plist parser.

The parser raises InvalidFileException when the file cannot be parsed.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: The keyword-only parameter aware_datetime has been added.

plistlib.loads(data, *, fmt=None, dict_type=dict, aware_datetime=False)

Load a plist from a bytes or string object. See load() for an explanation of the keyword arguments.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: data can be a string when fmt equals FMT_XML.

plistlib.dump(value, fp, *, fmt=FMT_XML, sort_keys=True, skipkeys=False, aware_datetime=False)

Write value to a plist file. fp should be a writable, binary file object.

The fmt argument specifies the format of the plist file and can be one of the following values:

FMT_XML: XML formatted plist file

FMT_BINARY: Binary formatted plist file

When sort_keys is true (the default) the keys for dictionaries will be written to the plist in sorted order, otherwise they will be written in the iteration order of the dictionary.

When skipkeys is false (the default) the function raises TypeError when a key of a dictionary is not a string, otherwise such keys are skipped.

When aware_datetime is true and any field with type datetime.datetime is set as an aware object, it will convert to UTC timezone before writing it.

A TypeError will be raised if the object is of an unsupported type or a container that contains objects of unsupported types.

An OverflowError will be raised for integer values that cannot be represented in (binary) plist files.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: The keyword-only parameter aware_datetime has been added.

plistlib.dumps(value, *, fmt=FMT_XML, sort_keys=True, skipkeys=False, aware_datetime=False)

Return value as a plist-formatted bytes object. See the documentation for dump() for an explanation of the keyword arguments of this function.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

The following classes are available:

class plistlib.UID(data)

Wraps an int. This is used when reading or writing NSKeyedArchiver encoded data, which contains UID (see PList manual).

data

Int value of the UID. It must be in the range 0 <= data < 2**64.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

The following constants are available:

plistlib.FMT_XML

The XML format for plist files.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

plistlib.FMT_BINARY

The binary format for plist files

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

The module defines the following exceptions:

exception plistlib.InvalidFileException

Raised when a file cannot be parsed.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Exemples

Generating a plist:

import datetime as dt
import plistlib

pl = dict(
    aString = "Doodah",
    aList = ["A", "B", 12, 32.1, [1, 2, 3]],
    aFloat = 0.1,
    anInt = 728,
    aDict = dict(
        anotherString = "<hello & hi there!>",
        aThirdString = "M\xe4ssig, Ma\xdf",
        aTrueValue = True,
        aFalseValue = False,
    ),
    someData = b"<binary gunk>",
    someMoreData = b"<lots of binary gunk>" * 10,
    aDate = dt.datetime.now()
)
print(plistlib.dumps(pl).decode())

Parsing a plist:

import plistlib

plist = b"""<plist version="1.0">
<dict>
    <key>foo</key>
    <string>bar</string>
</dict>
</plist>"""
pl = plistlib.loads(plist)
print(pl["foo"])

Service de cryptographie

The modules described in this chapter implement various algorithms of a cryptographic nature. They are available at the discretion of the installation. Here's an overview:

hashlib — Algorithmes de hachage sécurisés et synthèse de messages

Algorithmes de hachage

Utilisation

Constructeurs

Attributes

Objets de calcul d'empreinte

Empreintes de messages de taille variable SHAKE

Calcul d'empreinte (ou hachage) de fichiers

Dérivation de clé

BLAKE2

Création d'objets de calcul d'empreinte

Constantes

Exemples

Hachage simple

Production de tailles d'empreintes différentes

Hachage avec clé – Code d'authentification de message

Hachage randomisé

Personnalisation

Mode Arbre

Crédits

hmac --- Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication

secrets --- Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets

Nombres aléatoires

Génération de jetons

Combien d'octets mon jeton doit-il comporter ?

Autres fonctions

Recettes et bonnes pratiques

hashlib — Algorithmes de hachage sécurisés et synthèse de messages

Code source : Lib/hashlib.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/hashlib.py]

This module implements a common interface to many different hash algorithms. Included are the FIPS secure hash algorithms SHA224, SHA256, SHA384, SHA512, (defined in the FIPS 180-4 standard [https://csrc.nist.gov/pubs/fips/180-4/upd1/final]), the SHA-3 series (defined in the FIPS 202 standard [https://csrc.nist.gov/pubs/fips/202/final]) as well as the legacy algorithms SHA1 (formerly part of FIPS [https://csrc.nist.gov/news/2023/decision-to-revise-fips-180-4]) and the MD5 algorithm (defined in internet RFC 1321 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1321.html]).

Note

Si vous préférez utiliser les fonctions de hachage adler32 ou crc32, elles sont disponibles dans le module zlib.

Algorithmes de hachage

Il y a un constructeur nommé selon chaque type de calcul d'empreinte (hash). Tous renvoient un objet haché avec la même interface. Par exemple : utilisez sha256() pour créer un objet de calcul d'empreinte avec l'algorithme SHA-256. Vous pouvez maintenant utiliser cet objet avec des objets octets-compatibles (normalement des bytes) en utilisant la méthode update. À tout moment vous pouvez demander l'empreinte (aussi appelée le digest ou le condensat) de la concaténation des données fournies en utilisant les méthodes digest() ou hexdigest().

pour de meilleures performances avec de multiples fils d'exécution, le GIL Python est relâché pour des données dont la taille est supérieure à 2047 octets lors de leur création ou leur mise à jour (méthode .update.).

Les constructeurs pour les algorithmes de hachage qui sont toujours présents dans ce module sont sha1(), sha224(), sha256(), sha384(), sha512(), sha3_224(), sha3_256(), sha3_384(), sha3_512(), shake_128(), shake_256(), blake2b(), et blake2s(). md5() est normalement disponible aussi, mais il peut être manquant ou bloqué si vous utilisez une forme rare de Python « conforme FIPS ». Cette liste correspond au résultat de la fonction algorithms_guaranteed.

Additional algorithms may also be available if your Python distribution's hashlib was linked against a build of OpenSSL that provides others. Others are not guaranteed available on all installations and will only be accessible by name via new(). See algorithms_available.

Avertissement

Certains algorithmes ont des faiblesses connues relatives à la collision (MD5 et SHA1 inclus). Se référer à Fonction de hachage cryptographique [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptographic_hash_function#Attacks_on_cryptographic_hash_algorithms] et à la section Voir aussi à la fin du document.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6: les constructeurs SHA3 (Keccak) et SHAKE sha3_224(), sha3_256(), sha3_384(), sha3_512(), shake_128(), shake_256() ont été ajoutés. blake2b() et blake2s() ont été ajoutés.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: tous les constructeurs de hashlib prennent un argument mot-clé uniquement usedforsecurity avec la valeur par défaut True. Une valeur fausse permet l'utilisation d'algorithmes de hachage non sécurisés et bloqués dans des environnements restreints. False indique que l'algorithme de hachage ne sera pas utilisé dans un contexte de sécurité, par exemple en tant que fonction de compression à sens unique non cryptographique.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Hashlib utilise désormais SHA3 et SHAKE d'OpenSSL s'il les fournit.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: For any of the MD5, SHA1, SHA2, or SHA3 algorithms that the linked OpenSSL does not provide we fall back to a verified implementation from the HACL* project [https://github.com/hacl-star/hacl-star].

Utilisation

To obtain the digest of the byte string b"Nobody inspects the spammish repetition":

>>> import hashlib
>>> m = hashlib.sha256()
>>> m.update(b"Nobody inspects")
>>> m.update(b" the spammish repetition")
>>> m.digest()
b'\x03\x1e\xdd}Ae\x15\x93\xc5\xfe\\\x00o\xa5u+7\xfd\xdf\xf7\xbcN\x84:\xa6\xaf\x0c\x95\x0fK\x94\x06'
>>> m.hexdigest()
'031edd7d41651593c5fe5c006fa5752b37fddff7bc4e843aa6af0c950f4b9406'

En plus condensé :

>>> hashlib.sha256(b"Nobody inspects the spammish repetition").hexdigest()
'031edd7d41651593c5fe5c006fa5752b37fddff7bc4e843aa6af0c950f4b9406'

Constructeurs

hashlib.new(name, [data, ]*, usedforsecurity=True)

Is a generic constructor that takes the string name of the desired algorithm as its first parameter. It also exists to allow access to the above listed hashes as well as any other algorithms that your OpenSSL library may offer.

Using new() with an algorithm name:

>>> h = hashlib.new('sha256')
>>> h.update(b"Nobody inspects the spammish repetition")
>>> h.hexdigest()
'031edd7d41651593c5fe5c006fa5752b37fddff7bc4e843aa6af0c950f4b9406'

hashlib.md5([data, ]*, usedforsecurity=True)

hashlib.sha1([data, ]*, usedforsecurity=True)

hashlib.sha224([data, ]*, usedforsecurity=True)

hashlib.sha256([data, ]*, usedforsecurity=True)

hashlib.sha384([data, ]*, usedforsecurity=True)

hashlib.sha512([data, ]*, usedforsecurity=True)

hashlib.sha3_224([data, ]*, usedforsecurity=True)

hashlib.sha3_256([data, ]*, usedforsecurity=True)

hashlib.sha3_384([data, ]*, usedforsecurity=True)

hashlib.sha3_512([data, ]*, usedforsecurity=True)

Named constructors such as these are faster than passing an algorithm name to new().

Attributes

Hashlib fournit les constantes de module suivantes :

hashlib.algorithms_guaranteed

Ensemble contenant les noms des algorithmes de hachage garantis d'être implémentés par ce module sur toutes les plate-formes. Notez que md5 est dans cette liste bien que certains éditeurs diffusent une implémentation Python dont la bibliothèque « compatible FIPS » le bloque.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

hashlib.algorithms_available

Ensemble contenant les noms des algorithmes de hachage disponibles dans l'interpréteur Python. Ces noms sont reconnus lorsqu'ils sont passés à la fonction new(). algorithms_guaranteed est toujours un sous-ensemble. Le même algorithme peut apparaître plusieurs fois dans cet ensemble sous un nom différent (grâce à OpenSSL).

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Objets de calcul d'empreinte

Les valeurs suivantes sont fournies en tant qu'attributs constants des objets de calcul d'empreintes renvoyés par les constructeurs :

hash.digest_size

La taille du hash résultant en octets.

hash.block_size

La taille interne d'un bloc de l'algorithme de hachage en octets.

L'objet de hachage possède les attributs suivants :

hash.name

Le nom canonique de cette fonction de hachage, toujours en minuscule et que vous pouvez toujours transmettre à la fonction new() pour créer un autre objet de calcul d'empreinte de ce type.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: l'attribut name est présent dans CPython depuis sa création, mais n'était pas spécifié formellement jusqu'à Python 3.4, il peut ne pas exister sur certaines plate-formes.

L'objet de calcul d'empreinte possède les méthodes suivantes :

hash.update(data)

Met à jour l'objet de hachage avec bytes-like object. Les appels répétés sont équivalents à un simple appel avec la concaténation de tous les arguments : m.update(a); m.update(b) est équivalent à m.update(a+b).

hash.digest()

Renvoie l'empreinte (le hash) des données passées à la méthode update(). C'est un objet de type bytes de taille digest_size qui contient des octets dans l'intervalle 0 à 255.

hash.hexdigest()

Comme la méthode digest() sauf que l'empreinte renvoyée est une chaîne de caractères dont la longueur est double, contenant seulement des chiffres hexadécimaux. Elle peut être utilisée pour échanger sans risque des valeurs dans les e-mails ou dans les environnements non binaires.

hash.copy()

Renvoie une copie ("clone") de l'objet de calcul de hachage. Cela peut être utilisé pour calculer efficacement des empreintes de données qui commencent par la même sous-chaine.

Empreintes de messages de taille variable SHAKE

hashlib.shake_128([data, ]*, usedforsecurity=True)

hashlib.shake_256([data, ]*, usedforsecurity=True)

Les algorithmes shake_128() et shake_256() produisent des empreintes (ou condensats) de longueur variable avec des longueurs_en_bits // 2 jusqu'à 128 ou 256 bits. Leurs méthodes de calcul d'empreinte requièrent une longueur. Les longueurs maximales ne sont pas limitées par l'algorithme SHAKE.

shake.digest(length)

Renvoie l'empreinte des données passées à la méthode update(). C'est un objet de type bytes de taille length qui contient des octets dans l'intervalle 0 à 255.

shake.hexdigest(length)

Comme la méthode digest() sauf que l'empreinte renvoyée est une chaîne de caractères dont la longueur est double, contenant seulement des chiffres hexadécimaux. Elle peut être utilisée pour échanger sans risque des valeurs dans les e-mails ou dans les environnements non binaires.

Exemple :

>>> h = hashlib.shake_256(b'Nobody inspects the spammish repetition')
>>> h.hexdigest(20)
'44709d6fcb83d92a76dcb0b668c98e1b1d3dafe7'

Calcul d'empreinte (ou hachage) de fichiers

Le module hashlib fournit une fonction utilitaire pour calculer efficacement l'empreinte (aussi appelée condensat) d'un fichier ou d'un objet fichier-compatible.

hashlib.file_digest(fileobj, digest, /)

Renvoie un objet de calcul d'empreinte qui a été mis à jour avec le contenu de fileobj.

fileobj must be a file-like object opened for reading in binary mode. It accepts file objects from builtin open(), BytesIO instances, SocketIO objects from socket.socket.makefile(), and similar. fileobj must be opened in blocking mode, otherwise a BlockingIOError may be raised.

The function may bypass Python's I/O and use the file descriptor from fileno() directly. fileobj must be assumed to be in an unknown state after this function returns or raises. It is up to the caller to close fileobj.

digest doit être un nom d'algorithme de hachage fourni en tant que str, un constructeur de hachage ou un appelable qui renvoie un objet de hachage.

Exemple :

>>> import io, hashlib, hmac
>>> with open("library/hashlib.rst", "rb") as f:
...     digest = hashlib.file_digest(f, "sha256")
...
>>> digest.hexdigest()
'...'

>>> buf = io.BytesIO(b"somedata")
>>> mac1 = hmac.HMAC(b"key", digestmod=hashlib.sha512)
>>> digest = hashlib.file_digest(buf, lambda: mac1)

>>> digest is mac1
True
>>> mac2 = hmac.HMAC(b"key", b"somedata", digestmod=hashlib.sha512)
>>> mac1.digest() == mac2.digest()
True

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Now raises a BlockingIOError if the file is opened in non-blocking mode. Previously, spurious null bytes were added to the digest.

Dérivation de clé

Les algorithmes de dérivation de clés et d'étirement de clés sont conçus pour le hachage sécurisé de mots de passe. Des algorithmes naïfs comme sha1(password) ne sont pas résistants aux attaques par force brute. Une bonne fonction de hachage doit être paramétrable, lente et inclure un salage [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salage_(cryptographie)].

hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac(hash_name, password, salt, iterations, dklen=None)

La fonction fournit une fonction de dérivation conforme à PKCS#5 (Public Key Cryptographic Standards #5 v2.0). Elle utilise HMAC comme fonction de génération d'un pseudo-aléa.

La chaîne de caractères hash_name est le nom de l'algorithme de hachage désiré pour le HMAC, par exemple "sha1" ou "sha256". password et salt sont interprétés comme des tampons d'octets. Les applications et bibliothèques doivent limiter password à une longueur raisonnable (comme 1024). salt doit être de 16 octets ou plus et provenir d'une source correcte, e.g. os.urandom().

Le nombre d'itérations doit être choisi en fonction de l'algorithme de hachage et de la puissance de calcul. À partir de 2022, des centaines de milliers d'itérations de SHA-256 sont suggérées. Pour savoir pourquoi et comment choisir ce qui convient le mieux à votre application, lisez l'annexe A.2.2 du NIST-SP-800-132 [https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy/SP/nistspecialpublication800-132.pdf] (ressource en anglais). Les réponses contenues dans la question sur le site stackexchange nombre d'itérations recommandées lorsqu'on utilise pbkdf2 [https://security.stackexchange.com/questions/3959/recommended-of-iterations-when-using-pbkdf2-sha256/] (page en anglais) expliquent tout en détail.

dklen est la longueur de la clé dérivée. Si dklen vaut None alors Python utilise la taille du condensat produit par l'algorithme de hachage hash_name, par exemple 64 pour SHA-512.

>>> from hashlib import pbkdf2_hmac
>>> our_app_iters = 500_000  # Application specific, read above.
>>> dk = pbkdf2_hmac('sha256', b'password', b'bad salt' * 2, our_app_iters)
>>> dk.hex()
'15530bba69924174860db778f2c6f8104d3aaf9d26241840c8c4a641c8d000a9'

Function only available when Python is compiled with OpenSSL.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Function now only available when Python is built with OpenSSL. The slow pure Python implementation has been removed.

hashlib.scrypt(password, *, salt, n, r, p, maxmem=0, dklen=64)

La fonction fournit la fonction de dérivation de clé scrypt comme définie dans la RFC 7914 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7914.html].

password et salt doivent être des objets octets-compatibles. Les applications et bibliothèques doivent limiter password à une longueur raisonnable (par ex. 1024). salt doit être de 16 octets ou plus et provenir d'une source correcte, par ex. os.urandom().

n est le facteur de coût CPU/Mémoire, r la taille de bloc, p le facteur de parallélisation et maxmem limite l'utilisation de la mémoire (OpenSSL 1.1.0 limite à 32 Mio par défaut). dklen est la longueur de la clé dérivée en octets.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

BLAKE2

BLAKE2 [https://www.blake2.net] est une fonction de hachage cryptographique définie dans la RFC 7693 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7693.html] et disponible en deux versions :

BLAKE2b, optimisée pour les plates-formes 64 bits et produisant des condensats de toutes tailles entre 1 et 64 octets,

BLAKE2s, optimisée pour les plates-formes de 8 à 32 bits et produisant des empreintes de toutes tailles entre 1 et 32 octets.

BLAKE2 gère diverses fonctionnalités comme le keyed mode (plus rapide et plus simple que HMAC [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hash-based_message_authentication_code]), salted hashing, personalization et le tree hashing.

Hash objects from this module follow the API of standard library's hashlib objects.

Création d'objets de calcul d'empreinte

Les nouveaux objets de calcul d'empreinte sont créés en appelant les constructeurs :

hashlib.blake2b(data=b'', *, digest_size=64, key=b'', salt=b'', person=b'', fanout=1, depth=1, leaf_size=0, node_offset=0, node_depth=0, inner_size=0, last_node=False, usedforsecurity=True)

hashlib.blake2s(data=b'', *, digest_size=32, key=b'', salt=b'', person=b'', fanout=1, depth=1, leaf_size=0, node_offset=0, node_depth=0, inner_size=0, last_node=False, usedforsecurity=True)

Ces fonctions produisent l'objet de calcul d'empreinte correspondant aux algorithmes BLAKE2b ou BLAKE2s. Elles prennent ces paramètres optionnels :

data : morceau initial de données à hacher, qui doit être un objet octets-compatible. Il ne peut être passé que comme argument positionnel.

digest_size : taille en octets de l'empreinte produite.

key : clé pour les codes d'authentification de message keyed hashing (jusqu'à 64 octets pour BLAKE2b, jusqu'à 32 octets pour BLAKE2s).

salt : sel pour le hachage randomisé randomized hashing (jusqu'à 16 octets pour BLAKE2b, jusqu'à 8 octets pour BLAKE2s).

person : chaîne de personnalisation (jusqu'à 16 octets pour BLAKE2b, jusqu'à 8 octets pour BLAKE2s).

Le tableau suivant présente les limites des paramètres généraux (en octets) :

Hash

digest_size

len(key)

len(salt)

len(person)

BLAKE2b

64

64

16

16

BLAKE2s

32

32

8

8

Note

les spécifications de BLAKE2 définissent des longueurs constantes pour les sel et chaînes de personnalisation. Toutefois, par commodité, cette implémentation accepte des chaînes d'octets de n'importe quelle taille jusqu'à la longueur spécifiée. Si la longueur du paramètre est moindre par rapport à celle spécifiée, il est complété par des zéros. Ainsi, par exemple, b'salt' et b'salt\x00' sont la même valeur (ce n'est pas le cas pour key).

Ces tailles sont disponibles en tant que constantes du module et décrites ci-dessous.

Les fonctions constructeurs acceptent aussi les paramètres suivants pour le calcul d'empreintes en mode arbre :

fanout : étalement (0 à 255, 0 si illimité, 1 correspond au mode séquentiel).

depth : profondeur maximale de l'arbre (1 à 255, 255 si illimité, 1 correspond au mode séquentiel).

leaf_size : taille maximale en octets d'une feuille (0 à 2**32-1, 0 si illimité ou en mode séquentiel).

node_offset : décalage du nœud (0 à 2**64-1 pour BLAKE2b, 0 à 2**48-1 pour BLAKE2s, 0 pour la première feuille la plus à gauche, ou en mode séquentiel).

node_depth : profondeur du nœud (0 à 255, 0 pour les feuilles, ou en mode séquentiel).

inner_size : taille de l'empreinte interne (0 à 64 pour BLAKE2b, 0 à 32 pour BLAKE2s, 0 en mode séquentiel).

last_node : booléen indiquant si le nœud traité est le dernier (False pour le mode séquentiel).

Voir la section 2.10 dans BLAKE2 specification [https://blake2.net/blake2_20130129.pdf] pour une approche globale du hachage en mode arbre.

Constantes

blake2b.SALT_SIZE

blake2s.SALT_SIZE

Longueur du sel (longueur maximale acceptée par les constructeurs).

blake2b.PERSON_SIZE

blake2s.PERSON_SIZE

Longueur de la chaîne de personnalisation (longueur maximale acceptée par les constructeurs).

blake2b.MAX_KEY_SIZE

blake2s.MAX_KEY_SIZE

Taille maximale de clé.

blake2b.MAX_DIGEST_SIZE

blake2s.MAX_DIGEST_SIZE

Taille maximale du message que peut fournir la fonction de hachage.

Exemples

Hachage simple

Pour calculer l'empreinte (ou hash) d'une quantité de données, vous devez d'abord construire un objet de calcul d'empreinte en appelant la fonction constructeur appropriée (blake2b() or blake2s()), ensuite le mettre à jour avec les données en appelant la méthode update() sur l'objet, et, pour finir, récupérer l'empreinte du message en appelant la méthode digest() (ou hexdigest() pour les chaînes hexadécimales).

>>> from hashlib import blake2b
>>> h = blake2b()
>>> h.update(b'Hello world')
>>> h.hexdigest()
'6ff843ba685842aa82031d3f53c48b66326df7639a63d128974c5c14f31a0f33343a8c65551134ed1ae0f2b0dd2bb495dc81039e3eeb0aa1bb0388bbeac29183'

En plus court, vous pouvez passer directement au constructeur, comme argument positionnel, le premier morceau du message pour le mettre directement à jour :

>>> from hashlib import blake2b
>>> blake2b(b'Hello world').hexdigest()
'6ff843ba685842aa82031d3f53c48b66326df7639a63d128974c5c14f31a0f33343a8c65551134ed1ae0f2b0dd2bb495dc81039e3eeb0aa1bb0388bbeac29183'

Vous pouvez appeler la méthode hash.update() autant de fois que nécessaire pour mettre à jour l'empreinte de manière itérative :

>>> from hashlib import blake2b
>>> items = [b'Hello', b' ', b'world']
>>> h = blake2b()
>>> for item in items:
...     h.update(item)
...
>>> h.hexdigest()
'6ff843ba685842aa82031d3f53c48b66326df7639a63d128974c5c14f31a0f33343a8c65551134ed1ae0f2b0dd2bb495dc81039e3eeb0aa1bb0388bbeac29183'

Production de tailles d'empreintes différentes

BLAKE2 permet de configurer la taille des empreintes jusqu'à 64 octets pour BLAKE2b et jusqu'à 32 octets pour BLAKE2s. Par exemple, pour remplacer SHA-1 par BLAKE2b sans changer la taille de la sortie, nous pouvons dire à BLAKE2b de produire une empreinte de 20 octets :

>>> from hashlib import blake2b
>>> h = blake2b(digest_size=20)
>>> h.update(b'Replacing SHA1 with the more secure function')
>>> h.hexdigest()
'd24f26cf8de66472d58d4e1b1774b4c9158b1f4c'
>>> h.digest_size
20
>>> len(h.digest())
20

Les objets de calcul d'empreinte initialisés avec des tailles d'empreintes différentes ont des sorties complètement différentes (les condensats courts ne sont pas des préfixes de condensats plus longs) ; BLAKE2b et BLAKE2s produisent des sorties différentes même si les longueurs de sortie sont les mêmes :

>>> from hashlib import blake2b, blake2s
>>> blake2b(digest_size=10).hexdigest()
'6fa1d8fcfd719046d762'
>>> blake2b(digest_size=11).hexdigest()
'eb6ec15daf9546254f0809'
>>> blake2s(digest_size=10).hexdigest()
'1bf21a98c78a1c376ae9'
>>> blake2s(digest_size=11).hexdigest()
'567004bf96e4a25773ebf4'

Hachage avec clé – Code d'authentification de message

Le hachage avec clé (keyed hashing en anglais) est une alternative plus simple et plus rapide à un code d’authentification de message de hachage à clé [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keyed-hash_message_authentication_code] (HMAC). BLAKE2 peut être utilisé de manière sécurisée dans le mode préfixe MAC grâce à la propriété d'indifférentiabilité héritée de BLAKE.

Cet exemple montre comment obtenir un code d'authentification de message de 128 bits (en hexadécimal) pour un message b'message data' avec la clé b'pseudorandom key' :

>>> from hashlib import blake2b
>>> h = blake2b(key=b'pseudorandom key', digest_size=16)
>>> h.update(b'message data')
>>> h.hexdigest()
'3d363ff7401e02026f4a4687d4863ced'

Comme exemple pratique, une application web peut chiffrer symétriquement les cookies envoyés aux utilisateurs et les vérifier plus tard pour être certaine qu'ils n'ont pas été altérés :

>>> from hashlib import blake2b
>>> from hmac import compare_digest
>>>
>>> SECRET_KEY = b'pseudorandomly generated server secret key'
>>> AUTH_SIZE = 16
>>>
>>> def sign(cookie):
...     h = blake2b(digest_size=AUTH_SIZE, key=SECRET_KEY)
...     h.update(cookie)
...     return h.hexdigest().encode('utf-8')
>>>
>>> def verify(cookie, sig):
...     good_sig = sign(cookie)
...     return compare_digest(good_sig, sig)
>>>
>>> cookie = b'user-alice'
>>> sig = sign(cookie)
>>> print("{0},{1}".format(cookie.decode('utf-8'), sig))
user-alice,b'43b3c982cf697e0c5ab22172d1ca7421'
>>> verify(cookie, sig)
True
>>> verify(b'user-bob', sig)
False
>>> verify(cookie, b'0102030405060708090a0b0c0d0e0f00')
False

Même s'il possède en natif la création de code d'authentification de message (MAC), BLAKE2 peut, bien sûr, être utilisé pour construire un HMAC en combinaison avec le module hmac :

>>> import hmac, hashlib
>>> m = hmac.new(b'secret key', digestmod=hashlib.blake2s)
>>> m.update(b'message')
>>> m.hexdigest()
'e3c8102868d28b5ff85fc35dda07329970d1a01e273c37481326fe0c861c8142'

Hachage randomisé

En définissant le paramètre salt les utilisateurs peuvent introduire de l'aléatoire dans la fonction de hachage. Le hachage randomisé est utile pour se protéger des attaques par collisions sur les fonctions de hachage utilisées dans les signatures numériques.

Le hachage aléatoire est conçu pour les situations où une partie, le préparateur du message, génère tout ou partie d'un message à signer par une seconde partie, le signataire du message. Si le préparateur du message est capable de trouver des collisions sur la fonction cryptographique de hachage (c.-à-d. deux messages produisant la même valeur une fois hachés), alors il peut préparer plusieurs versions du message, ayant un sens, qui produiront les mêmes empreintes et même signature mais avec des résultats différents (par exemple transférer 1 000 000 $ sur un compte plutôt que 10 $). Les fonctions cryptographiques de hachage ont été conçues avec comme but premier de résister aux collisions, mais la concentration actuelle d'attaques sur les fonctions de hachage peut avoir pour conséquence qu'une fonction de hachage donnée soit moins résistante qu'attendu. Le hachage aléatoire offre au signataire une protection supplémentaire en réduisant la probabilité que le préparateur puisse générer deux messages ou plus qui renverront la même empreinte lors du processus de génération de la signature — même s'il existe un moyen pratique de trouver des collisions sur la fonction de hachage. Toutefois, l'utilisation du hachage aléatoire peut réduire le niveau de sécurité fourni par une signature numérique si tous les morceaux du message sont préparés par le signataire.

(NIST SP-800-106 "Randomized Hashing for Digital Signatures" [https://csrc.nist.gov/pubs/sp/800/106/final], article en anglais)

Dans BLAKE2, le sel est passé une seule fois lors de l'initialisation de la fonction de hachage, plutôt qu'à chaque appel de la fonction de hachage.

Avertissement

Salted hashing (ou un hachage simple) avec BLAKE2 ou toute autre fonction de hachage générique, comme SHA-256, ne convient pas pour obscurcir des mots de passe. Voir la FAQ BLAKE2 [https://blake2.net/#qa] (page en anglais) pour plus d'informations.

>>> import os
>>> from hashlib import blake2b
>>> msg = b'some message'
>>> # Calculate the first hash with a random salt.
>>> salt1 = os.urandom(blake2b.SALT_SIZE)
>>> h1 = blake2b(salt=salt1)
>>> h1.update(msg)
>>> # Calculate the second hash with a different random salt.
>>> salt2 = os.urandom(blake2b.SALT_SIZE)
>>> h2 = blake2b(salt=salt2)
>>> h2.update(msg)
>>> # The digests are different.
>>> h1.digest() != h2.digest()
True

Personnalisation

Parfois il est utile de forcer une fonction de hachage à produire différentes empreintes de message d'une même entrée pour différentes utilisations. Pour citer les auteurs de la fonction de hachage Skein :

Nous recommandons que tous les développeurs d'application considèrent sérieusement de faire cela ; nous avons vu de nombreux protocoles où une empreinte était calculée à un endroit du protocole pour être utilisée à un autre endroit car deux calculs d'empreintes étaient réalisés sur des données similaires ou liées, et qu'un attaquant peut forcer une application à prendre en entrée la même empreinte. Personnaliser chaque fonction de hachage utilisée dans le protocole stoppe immédiatement ce genre d'attaque.

(The Skein Hash Function Family [https://www.schneier.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/skein.pdf], p. 21, article en anglais)

BLAKE2 peut être personnalisé en passant des bytes à l'argument person :

>>> from hashlib import blake2b
>>> FILES_HASH_PERSON = b'MyApp Files Hash'
>>> BLOCK_HASH_PERSON = b'MyApp Block Hash'
>>> h = blake2b(digest_size=32, person=FILES_HASH_PERSON)
>>> h.update(b'the same content')
>>> h.hexdigest()
'20d9cd024d4fb086aae819a1432dd2466de12947831b75c5a30cf2676095d3b4'
>>> h = blake2b(digest_size=32, person=BLOCK_HASH_PERSON)
>>> h.update(b'the same content')
>>> h.hexdigest()
'cf68fb5761b9c44e7878bfb2c4c9aea52264a80b75005e65619778de59f383a3'

La personnalisation et le keyed mode peuvent être utilisés ensemble pour dériver différentes clés à partir d'une seule.

>>> from hashlib import blake2s
>>> from base64 import b64decode, b64encode
>>> orig_key = b64decode(b'Rm5EPJai72qcK3RGBpW3vPNfZy5OZothY+kHY6h21KM=')
>>> enc_key = blake2s(key=orig_key, person=b'kEncrypt').digest()
>>> mac_key = blake2s(key=orig_key, person=b'kMAC').digest()
>>> print(b64encode(enc_key).decode('utf-8'))
rbPb15S/Z9t+agffno5wuhB77VbRi6F9Iv2qIxU7WHw=
>>> print(b64encode(mac_key).decode('utf-8'))
G9GtHFE1YluXY1zWPlYk1e/nWfu0WSEb0KRcjhDeP/o=

Mode Arbre

L'exemple ci-dessous présente comment hacher un arbre minimal avec deux nœuds terminaux :

  10
 /  \
00  01

Cet exemple utilise en interne des empreintes de 64 octets, et produit finalement des empreintes 32 octets :

>>> from hashlib import blake2b
>>>
>>> FANOUT = 2
>>> DEPTH = 2
>>> LEAF_SIZE = 4096
>>> INNER_SIZE = 64
>>>
>>> buf = bytearray(6000)
>>>
>>> # Left leaf
... h00 = blake2b(buf[0:LEAF_SIZE], fanout=FANOUT, depth=DEPTH,
...               leaf_size=LEAF_SIZE, inner_size=INNER_SIZE,
...               node_offset=0, node_depth=0, last_node=False)
>>> # Right leaf
... h01 = blake2b(buf[LEAF_SIZE:], fanout=FANOUT, depth=DEPTH,
...               leaf_size=LEAF_SIZE, inner_size=INNER_SIZE,
...               node_offset=1, node_depth=0, last_node=True)
>>> # Root node
... h10 = blake2b(digest_size=32, fanout=FANOUT, depth=DEPTH,
...               leaf_size=LEAF_SIZE, inner_size=INNER_SIZE,
...               node_offset=0, node_depth=1, last_node=True)
>>> h10.update(h00.digest())
>>> h10.update(h01.digest())
>>> h10.hexdigest()
'3ad2a9b37c6070e374c7a8c508fe20ca86b6ed54e286e93a0318e95e881db5aa'

Crédits

BLAKE2 [https://www.blake2.net] a été conçu par Jean-Philippe Aumasson, Samuel Neves, Zooko Wilcox-O'Hearn, et Christian Winnerlein. Il est basé la version BLAKE [https://web.archive.org/web/20200918190133/https://131002.net/blake/] qui a participé à la finale de la compétition du NIST SHA-3 [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secure_Hash_Algorithms] créée par Jean-Philippe Aumasson, Luca Henzen, Willi Meier, et Raphael C.-W. Phan.

Il utilise le cœur de l'algorithme de chiffrement de ChaCha [https://cr.yp.to/chacha.html] conçu par Daniel J. Bernstein.

L'implémentation dans la bibliothèque standard est basée sur le module pyblake2 [https://pythonhosted.org/pyblake2/]. Elle a été écrite par Dmitry Chestnykh et est basée sur l'implémentation C écrite par Samuel Neves. La documentation a été copiée depuis pyblake2 [https://pythonhosted.org/pyblake2/] et écrite par Dmitry Chestnykh.

Le code C a été partiellement réécrit pour Python par Christian Heimes.

Le transfert dans le domaine public s'applique pour l'implémentation C de la fonction de hachage, ses extensions et cette documentation :

Tout en restant dans les limites de la loi, le(s) auteur(s) a (ont) donné tous les droits d’auteur et droits connexes et voisins de ce logiciel au domaine public dans le monde entier. Ce logiciel est distribué sans aucune garantie.

Vous devriez recevoir avec ce logiciel une copie de la licence CC0 Public Domain Dedication. Sinon, voir https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/.

Les personnes suivantes ont aidé au développement ou contribué aux modifications du projet et au domaine public selon la licence Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication 1.0 Universal :

Alexandr Sokolovskiy

Voir aussi

Module hmac

Un module pour générer des codes d'authentification utilisant des hash.

Module base64

Un autre moyen d'encoder des hash binaires dans des environnements non binaires.

https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/fips/nist.fips.180-4.pdf

La publication FIPS 180-4 sur les algorithmes de hachage sécurisés.

https://csrc.nist.gov/pubs/fips/202/final

La publication FIPS 202 sur le standard SHA-3.

https://www.blake2.net/

Site officiel de BLAKE2.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptographic_hash_function

Article Wikipedia contenant les informations relatives aux algorithmes ayant des problèmes et leur interprétation au regard de leur utilisation.

https://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc8018.txt

PKCS #5 : Password-Based Cryptography Specification Version 2.1

https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy/SP/nistspecialpublication800-132.pdf

Recommandations du NIST pour la dérivation de clé à partir de mot de passe (ressource en anglais).

hmac --- Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication

Code source : Lib/hmac.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/hmac.py]

This module implements the HMAC algorithm as described by RFC 2104 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2104.html]. The interface allows to use any hash function with a fixed digest size. In particular, extendable output functions such as SHAKE-128 or SHAKE-256 cannot be used with HMAC.

hmac.new(key, msg=None, digestmod)

Renvoie un nouvel objet HMAC. key est un objet byte ou bytearray représentant la clé secrète. Si msg est présent, un appel à update(msg) est effectué. digestmod permet de choisir l’algorithme à utiliser par l’objet HMAC, il accepte un nom de fonction de hachage (peut être tout ce qui convient à hashlib.new()), un constructeur de fonction de hachage ou un module implémentant la PEP 247. Bien qu’il soit après msg, digestmod est un paramètre obligatoire.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Le paramètre key peut être un byte ou un objet bytearray. Le paramètre msg peut être de n'importe quel type pris en charge par hashlib. Le paramètre digestmod peut être le nom d'un algorithme de hachage.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: The digestmod argument is now required. Pass it as a keyword argument to avoid awkwardness when you do not have an initial msg.

hmac.digest(key, msg, digest)

Renvoie le code d'authentification de msg, pour la clé secrète key et à l'algorithme digest donné. La fonction est équivalente à HMAC(key, msg, digest).digest(), mais elle utilise une implémentation optimisée en C ou inline, qui est plus rapide pour les messages dont la taille leur permet de tenir en mémoire vive. Les paramètres key, msg et digest ont la même signification que pour new().

Détail d'implémentation CPython, l'implémentation C optimisée n'est utilisée que lorsque le digest est une chaîne de caractères et le nom d'un algorithme de hachage implémenté dans OpenSSL.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

class hmac.HMAC

Un objet HMAC a les méthodes suivantes :

HMAC.update(msg)

Met à jour l'objet HMAC avec msg. Des appels répétés sont équivalents à un seul appel avec la concaténation de tous les arguments : m.update(a); m.update(b) est équivalent à m.update(a + b).

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Le paramètre msg peut être de n'importe quel type géré par hashlib.

HMAC.digest()

Renvoie le condensat des octets passés à la méthode update() jusque là. L'objet bytes renvoyé sera de la même longueur que la digest_size de la fonction de hachage donnée au constructeur. Il peut contenir des octets qui ne sont pas dans la table ASCII, y compris des octets NUL.

Avertissement

When comparing the output of digest() to an externally supplied digest during a verification routine, it is recommended to use the compare_digest() function instead of the == operator to reduce the vulnerability to timing attacks.

HMAC.hexdigest()

Comme digest() sauf que ce condensat est renvoyé en tant que chaîne de caractères de taille doublée contenant seulement des chiffres hexadécimaux. Cela permet d’échanger le résultat sans problèmes par e-mail ou dans d'autres environnements ne gérant pas les données binaires.

Avertissement

When comparing the output of hexdigest() to an externally supplied digest during a verification routine, it is recommended to use the compare_digest() function instead of the == operator to reduce the vulnerability to timing attacks.

HMAC.copy()

Renvoie une copie (un clone) de l'objet HMAC. C'est utile pour calculer de manière efficace les empreintes cryptographiques de chaînes de caractères qui ont en commun une sous-chaîne initiale.

Un objet code d'authentification de message (HMAC) possède les attributs suivants :

HMAC.digest_size

La taille du code d'authentification (c.-à-d. de l'empreinte cryptographique) en octets.

HMAC.block_size

La taille interne d'un bloc de l'algorithme de hachage en octets.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

HMAC.name

Le nom canonique de ce HMAC, toujours en lettres minuscules, par exemple hmac-md5.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Removed the undocumented attributes HMAC.digest_cons, HMAC.inner, and HMAC.outer.

Ce module fournit également la fonction utilitaire suivante :

hmac.compare_digest(a, b)

Renvoie a == b. Cette fonction a été conçue pour prévenir les attaques temporelles en évitant l'implémentation de courts-circuits basés sur le contenu, ce qui la rend appropriée pour de la cryptographie. a et b doivent être du même type : soit str (caractères ASCII seulement, comme retourné par HMAC.hexdigest() par exemple), ou bytes-like object.

Note

Si a et b sont de longueurs différentes ou si une erreur se produit, une attaque temporelle pourrait en théorie obtenir des informations sur les types et longueurs de a et de b, mais pas sur leurs valeurs.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Cette fonction utilise la fonction CRYPTO_memcmp() de OpenSSL quand celle-ci est disponible.

Voir aussi

Module hashlib

Le module Python fournissant des fonctions de hachage sécurisé.

secrets --- Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

Code source : Lib/secrets.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/secrets.py]

The secrets module is used for generating cryptographically strong random numbers suitable for managing data such as passwords, account authentication, security tokens, and related secrets.

In particular, secrets should be used in preference to the default pseudo-random number generator in the random module, which is designed for modelling and simulation, not security or cryptography.

Voir aussi

PEP 506 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0506/]

Nombres aléatoires

The secrets module provides access to the most secure source of randomness that your operating system provides.

class secrets.SystemRandom

Classe permettant de générer des nombres aléatoires à partir des sources d'aléa les plus sûres fournies par le système d'exploitation. Se référer à random.SystemRandom pour plus de détails.

secrets.choice(seq)

Return a randomly chosen element from a non-empty sequence.

secrets.randbelow(exclusive_upper_bound)

Return a random int in the range [0, exclusive_upper_bound).

secrets.randbits(k)

Return a non-negative int with k random bits.

Génération de jetons

The secrets module provides functions for generating secure tokens, suitable for applications such as password resets, hard-to-guess URLs, and similar.

secrets.token_bytes(nbytes=None)

Return a random byte string containing nbytes number of bytes.

If nbytes is not specified or None, DEFAULT_ENTROPY is used instead.

>>> token_bytes(16)
b'\xebr\x17D*t\xae\xd4\xe3S\xb6\xe2\xebP1\x8b'

secrets.token_hex(nbytes=None)

Return a random text string, in hexadecimal. The string has nbytes random bytes, each byte converted to two hex digits.

If nbytes is not specified or None, DEFAULT_ENTROPY is used instead.

>>> token_hex(16)
'f9bf78b9a18ce6d46a0cd2b0b86df9da'

secrets.token_urlsafe(nbytes=None)

Return a random URL-safe text string, containing nbytes random bytes. The text is Base64 encoded, so on average each byte results in approximately 1.3 characters.

If nbytes is not specified or None, DEFAULT_ENTROPY is used instead.

>>> token_urlsafe(16)
'Drmhze6EPcv0fN_81Bj-nA'

Combien d'octets mon jeton doit-il comporter ?

To be secure against brute-force attacks [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brute-force_attack], tokens need to have sufficient randomness. Unfortunately, what is considered sufficient will necessarily increase as computers get more powerful and able to make more guesses in a shorter period. As of 2015, it is believed that 32 bytes (256 bits) of randomness is sufficient for the typical use-case expected for the secrets module.

Si vous souhaitez gérer la longueur des jetons par vous-même, vous pouvez spécifier la quantité d'aléa à introduire dans les jetons en passant un argument int aux différentes fonctions token_*. Cet argument indique alors le nombre d'octets aléatoires utilisés pour la création du jeton.

Otherwise, if no argument is provided, or if the argument is None, the token_* functions use DEFAULT_ENTROPY instead.

secrets.DEFAULT_ENTROPY

Default number of bytes of randomness used by the token_* functions.

The exact value is subject to change at any time, including during maintenance releases.

Autres fonctions

secrets.compare_digest(a, b)

Return True if strings or bytes-like objects a and b are equal, otherwise False, using a "constant-time compare" to reduce the risk of timing attacks [https://codahale.com/a-lesson-in-timing-attacks/]. See hmac.compare_digest() for additional details.

Recettes et bonnes pratiques

This section shows recipes and best practices for using secrets to manage a basic level of security.

Générer un mot de passe à huit caractères alphanumériques :

import string
import secrets
alphabet = string.ascii_letters + string.digits
password = ''.join(secrets.choice(alphabet) for i in range(8))

Note

Applications should not store passwords in a recoverable format [https://cwe.mitre.org/data/definitions/257.html], whether plain text or encrypted. They should be salted and hashed using a cryptographically strong one-way (irreversible) hash function.

Générer un mot de passe alphanumérique à dix caractères contenant au moins un caractère en minuscule, au moins un caractère en majuscule et au moins trois chiffres :

import string
import secrets
alphabet = string.ascii_letters + string.digits
while True:
    password = ''.join(secrets.choice(alphabet) for i in range(10))
    if (any(c.islower() for c in password)
            and any(c.isupper() for c in password)
            and sum(c.isdigit() for c in password) >= 3):
        break

Générer une phrase de passe dans le style xkcd [https://xkcd.com/936/] :

import secrets
# On standard Linux systems, use a convenient dictionary file.
# Other platforms may need to provide their own word-list.
with open('/usr/share/dict/words') as f:
    words = [word.strip() for word in f]
    password = ' '.join(secrets.choice(words) for i in range(4))

Générer une URL temporaire difficile à deviner contenant un jeton de sécurité adapté à réinitialisation d'un mot de passe :

import secrets
url = 'https://example.com/reset=' + secrets.token_urlsafe()

Services génériques du système d'exploitation

Les modules documentés dans ce chapitre fournissent des interfaces vers des fonctionnalités communes à la grande majorité des systèmes d'exploitation, telles que les fichiers et l'horloge. Bien que ces interfaces soient classiquement calquées sur les interfaces Unix ou C, elles sont aussi disponibles sur la plupart des autres systèmes. En voici un aperçu :

os --- Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

Noms de fichiers, arguments en ligne de commande, et variables d'environnement

Le mode UTF-8 de Python

Paramètres de processus

Création de fichiers objets

Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers

Demander la taille d'un terminal

Héritage de descripteurs de fichiers

Fichiers et répertoires

Timer File Descriptors

Attributs étendus pour Linux

Gestion des processus

Interface pour l'ordonnanceur

Diverses informations sur le système

Nombres aléatoires

io --- Core tools for working with streams

Aperçu

Entrée/sortie de texte

Binary I/O

Raw I/O

Encodage de texte

Opt-in EncodingWarning

Interface de haut niveau du module

Class hierarchy

I/O Base Classes

Raw File I/O

Buffered Streams

Entrée/sortie de texte

Static Typing

Performances

Binary I/O

Entrée/sortie de texte

Fils d'exécution

Réentrance

time --- Time access and conversions

Fonctions

Constantes d’identification d’horloge

Constantes de fuseau horaire

logging --- Logging facility for Python

Enregistreurs

Niveaux de journalisation

Gestionnaires

Formateurs

Filtres

Objets LogRecord

LogRecord attributes

LoggerAdapter Objects

Thread Safety

Fonctions de niveau module

Module-Level Attributes

Integration with the warnings module

logging.config --- Logging configuration

Configuration functions

Security considerations

Configuration dictionary schema

Dictionary Schema Details

Incremental Configuration

Object connections

User-defined objects

Handler configuration order

Access to external objects

Access to internal objects

Import resolution and custom importers

Configuring QueueHandler and QueueListener

Configuration file format

logging.handlers --- Logging handlers

Gestionnaire à flux — StreamHandler

Gestionnaire à fichier — FileHandler

Gestionnaire à puits sans fond — NullHandler

Gestionnaire à fichier avec surveillance — WatchedFileHandler

Base des gestionnaires à roulement — BaseRotatingHandler

Gestionnaire à roulement de fichiers — RotatingFileHandler

Gestionnaire à roulement de fichiers périodique — TimedRotatingFileHandler

Gestionnaire à connecteur — SocketHandler

DatagramHandler

SysLogHandler

NTEventLogHandler

SMTPHandler

MemoryHandler

HTTPHandler

QueueHandler

QueueListener

platform --- Access to underlying platform's identifying data

Cross platform

Java platform

Windows platform

macOS platform

iOS platform

Unix platforms

Linux platforms

Android platform

Command-line usage

errno --- Standard errno system symbols

ctypes --- A foreign function library for Python

Didacticiel de ctypes

Chargement des DLL

Accès aux fonctions des DLL chargées

Appel de fonctions

Types de données de base

Appel de fonctions, suite

Calling variadic functions

Appel de fonctions avec des types de données personnalisés

Définition du type des arguments nécessaires (prototypes de fonction)

Types de sortie

Passage de pointeurs (passage de paramètres par référence)

Structures et unions

Structure/union layout, alignment and byte order

Champs de bits dans les structures et les unions

Tableaux

Pointeurs

Thread safety without the GIL

Conversions de type

Types incomplets

Fonctions de rappel

Accès aux variables exportées depuis une DLL

Pièges

Types de données à taille flottante

Référence du module

Recherche de bibliothèques partagées

Listing loaded shared libraries

Chargement des bibliothèques partagées

Fonctions externes

Prototypes de fonction

Fonctions utilitaires

Types de données

Types de données de base

Types de données dérivés de Structure

Tableaux et pointeurs

Exceptions

os --- Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

Code source: Lib/os.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/os.py]

Ce module fournit une façon portable d'utiliser les fonctionnalités dépendantes du système d'exploitation. Si vous voulez simplement lire ou écrire un fichier, voir open(), si vous voulez manipuler les chemins de fichiers, voir le module os.path, et si vous voulez lire toutes les lignes de tous les fichiers de la ligne de commande, voir le module fileinput. Pour la création de fichiers et de répertoires temporaires, voir le module tempfile, et pour la manipulation de fichiers et de répertoires de haut niveau, voir le module shutil.

Notes sur la disponibilité de ces fonctions :

La conception des modules natifs Python dépendants du système d'exploitation est qu'une même fonctionnalité utilise une même interface. Par exemple, la fonction os.stat(path) renvoie des informations sur les statistiques de path dans le même format (qui est originaire de l'interface POSIX).

Extensions peculiar to a particular operating system are also available through the os module, but using them is of course a threat to portability.

Toutes les fonctions acceptant les chemins ou noms de fichiers acceptent aussi bien des bytes que des string, et si un chemin ou un nom de fichier est renvoyé, il sera du même type.

On VxWorks, os.popen, os.fork, os.execv and os.spawn*p* are not supported.

On WebAssembly platforms, Android and iOS, large parts of the os module are not available or behave differently. APIs related to processes (e.g. fork(), execve()) and resources (e.g. nice()) are not available. Others like getuid() and getpid() are emulated or stubs. WebAssembly platforms also lack support for signals (e.g. kill(), wait()).

Note

Toutes les fonctions de ce module lèvent une OSError (ou une de ses sous-classes) dans le cas d'un chemin ou nom de fichier invalide ou inaccessible, ou si d'autres arguments sont de type correct mais non géré par le système d'exploitation.

exception os.error

Un alias pour les exceptions natives OSError.

os.name

Le nom du module importé dépendant du système d'exploitation. Les noms suivants ont actuellement été enregistrés : 'posix', 'nt', 'java'.

Voir aussi

sys.platform has a finer granularity. os.uname() gives system-dependent version information.

Le module platform fournit des vérifications détaillées pour l'identité du système.

Noms de fichiers, arguments en ligne de commande, et variables d'environnement

In Python, file names, command line arguments, and environment variables are represented using the string type. On some systems, decoding these strings to and from bytes is necessary before passing them to the operating system. Python uses the filesystem encoding and error handler to perform this conversion (see sys.getfilesystemencoding()).

L'encodage du système de fichiers et gestionnaire d'erreurs associé sont configurés au démarrage de Python par la fonction PyConfig_Read() : regardez filesystem_encoding et filesystem_errors dans les membres de PyConfig.

Modifié dans la version 3.1: On some systems, conversion using the file system encoding may fail. In this case, Python uses the surrogateescape encoding error handler, which means that undecodable bytes are replaced by a Unicode character U+DCxx on decoding, and these are again translated to the original byte on encoding.

The file system encoding must guarantee to successfully decode all bytes below 128. If the file system encoding fails to provide this guarantee, API functions can raise UnicodeError.

Voir aussi encodage régional.

Le mode UTF-8 de Python

Ajouté dans la version 3.7: Voir la PEP 540 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0540/] pour plus d'informations.

Le mode UTF-8 de Python ignore l'encodage régional et rend obligatoire l'utilisation de l'encodage UTF-8:

Utiliser UTF-8 pour l'encodage du système de fichiers.

sys.getfilesystemencoding() returns 'utf-8'.

locale.getpreferredencoding() returns 'utf-8' (the do_setlocale argument has no effect).

sys.stdin, sys.stdout et sys.stderr utilisent tous l'UTF-8 pour l'encodage du texte, avec le gestionnaire d'erreurs surrogateescape activé pour sys.stdin et sys.stdout (sys.stderr continue d'utiliser backslashreplace comme pour le mode par défaut où il prend en compte la configuration régionale).

Sur Unix, os.device_encoding() renvoie 'utf-8' au lieu de l'encodage du périphérique.

Notez que la configuration des flux standards en mode UTF-8 peut être surchargée par PYTHONIOENCODING (de la même manière qu'elles peuvent l'être dans le mode par défaut qui est configuré pour la région locale).

En raison des changements apportés à ces API de bas-niveau, les API de haut-niveau ont un comportement par défaut différent :

Les arguments en ligne de commande, les variables d'environnement et les noms de fichiers sont décodés en texte en utilisant l'UTF-8.

os.fsdecode() and os.fsencode() use the UTF-8 encoding.

open(), io.open(), and codecs.open() use the UTF-8 encoding by default. However, they still use the strict error handler by default so that attempting to open a binary file in text mode is likely to raise an exception rather than producing nonsense data.

The Python UTF-8 Mode is enabled if the LC_CTYPE locale is C or POSIX at Python startup (see the PyConfig_Read() function).

It can be enabled or disabled using the -X utf8 command line option and the PYTHONUTF8 environment variable.

If the PYTHONUTF8 environment variable is not set at all, then the interpreter defaults to using the current locale settings, unless the current locale is identified as a legacy ASCII-based locale (as described for PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE), and locale coercion is either disabled or fails. In such legacy locales, the interpreter will default to enabling UTF-8 mode unless explicitly instructed not to do so.

The Python UTF-8 Mode can only be enabled at the Python startup. Its value can be read from sys.flags.utf8_mode.

See also the UTF-8 mode on Windows and the filesystem encoding and error handler.

Voir aussi

PEP 686 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0686/]

Le mode UTF-8 de Python sera par mis par défaut sur Python 3.15.

Paramètres de processus

Ces fonctions et valeurs fournissent des informations et agissent sur le processus actuel et sur l'utilisateur.

os.ctermid()

Renvoie l'identifiant de fichier correspondant au terminal contrôlant le processus.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

os.environ

A mapping object where keys and values are strings that represent the process environment. For example, environ['HOME'] is the pathname of your home directory (on some platforms), and is equivalent to getenv("HOME") in C.

This mapping is captured the first time the os module is imported, typically during Python startup as part of processing site.py. Changes to the environment made after this time are not reflected in os.environ, except for changes made by modifying os.environ directly.

This mapping may be used to modify the environment as well as query the environment. putenv() will be called automatically when the mapping is modified.

Sur Unix, les clefs et les valeurs utilisent sys.getfilesystemencoding() et le gestionnaire d'erreurs surrogateescape. Utilisez environb si vous désirez utiliser un encodage différent.

On Windows, the keys are converted to uppercase. This also applies when getting, setting, or deleting an item. For example, environ['monty'] = 'python' maps the key 'MONTY' to the value 'python'.

Note

Calling putenv() directly does not change os.environ, so it's better to modify os.environ.

Note

On some platforms, including FreeBSD and macOS, setting environ may cause memory leaks. Refer to the system documentation for putenv().

You can delete items in this mapping to unset environment variables. unsetenv() will be called automatically when an item is deleted from os.environ, and when one of the pop() or clear() methods is called.

Voir aussi

The os.reload_environ() function.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Mis à jour pour gérer les opérateurs merge (|) et update (|=) de PEP 584 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/].

os.environb

Bytes version of environ: a mapping object where both keys and values are bytes objects representing the process environment. environ and environb are synchronized (modifying environb updates environ, and vice versa).

environb is only available if supports_bytes_environ is True.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Mis à jour pour gérer les opérateurs merge (|) et update (|=) de PEP 584 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/].

os.reload_environ()

The os.environ and os.environb mappings are a cache of environment variables at the time that Python started. As such, changes to the current process environment are not reflected if made outside Python, or by os.putenv() or os.unsetenv(). Use os.reload_environ() to update os.environ and os.environb with any such changes to the current process environment.

Avertissement

This function is not thread-safe. Calling it while the environment is being modified in another thread is an undefined behavior. Reading from os.environ or os.environb, or calling os.getenv() while reloading, may return an empty result.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

os.chdir(path)

os.fchdir(fd)

os.getcwd()

Ces fonctions sont décrites dans le chapitre Fichiers et répertoires.

os.fsencode(filename)

Encode path-like filename to the filesystem encoding and error handler; return bytes unchanged.

fsdecode() est la fonction inverse.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Ajout de la prise en charge des objets implémentant l'interface os.PathLike.

os.fsdecode(filename)

Decode the path-like filename from the filesystem encoding and error handler; return str unchanged.

fsencode() est la fonction inverse.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Ajout de la prise en charge des objets implémentant l'interface os.PathLike.

os.fspath(path)

Renvoie une représentation du chemin utilisable par le système de fichiers.

Si un objet str ou bytes est passé, il est renvoyé inchangé. Autrement, __fspath__() est appelée et sa valeur renvoyée tant qu'elle est un objet str ou bytes. Dans tous les autres cas, une TypeError est levée.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

class os.PathLike

Classe mère abstraite pour les objets représentant un chemin du système de fichiers, comme pathlib.PurePath.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

abstractmethod __fspath__()

Renvoie une représentation de l'objet utilisable par le système de fichiers.

La méthode ne devrait renvoyer que des objets str ou bytes, avec une préférence pour les str.

os.getenv(key, default=None)

Return the value of the environment variable key as a string if it exists, or default if it doesn't. key is a string. Note that since getenv() uses os.environ, the mapping of getenv() is similarly also captured on import, and the function may not reflect future environment changes.

Sur Unix, les clefs et les valeurs sont décodées avec sys.getfilesystemencoding() et le gestionnaire d'erreurs surrogateescape. Utilisez os.getenvb() si vous voulez utiliser un encodage différent.

Disponibilité: Unix, Windows.

os.getenvb(key, default=None)

Return the value of the environment variable key as bytes if it exists, or default if it doesn't. key must be bytes. Note that since getenvb() uses os.environb, the mapping of getenvb() is similarly also captured on import, and the function may not reflect future environment changes.

getenvb() is only available if supports_bytes_environ is True.

Disponibilité: Unix.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

os.get_exec_path(env=None)

Renvoie la liste des dossiers qui seront parcourus pour trouver un exécutable, similaire à un shell lorsque il lance un processus. env, quand spécifié, doit être un dictionnaire de variable d'environnement afin d'y rechercher le PATH. Par défaut quand env est None, environ est utilisé.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

os.getegid()

Renvoie l'identifiant du groupe effectif du processus actuel. Ça correspond au bit "set id" du fichier qui s'exécute dans le processus actuel.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

os.geteuid()

Renvoie l'identifiant de l'utilisateur effectif du processus actuel.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

os.getgid()

Renvoie l'identifiant de groupe réel du processus actuel.

Disponibilité: Unix.

The function is a stub on WASI, see Plateformes WebAssembly for more information.

os.getgrouplist(user, group, /)

Return list of group ids that user belongs to. If group is not in the list, it is included; typically, group is specified as the group ID field from the password record for user, because that group ID will otherwise be potentially omitted.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

os.getgroups()

Renvoie une liste d'identifiants de groupes additionnels associés au processus actuel.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

Note

On macOS, getgroups() behavior differs somewhat from other Unix platforms. If the Python interpreter was built with a deployment target of 10.5 or earlier, getgroups() returns the list of effective group ids associated with the current user process; this list is limited to a system-defined number of entries, typically 16, and may be modified by calls to setgroups() if suitably privileged. If built with a deployment target greater than 10.5, getgroups() returns the current group access list for the user associated with the effective user id of the process; the group access list may change over the lifetime of the process, it is not affected by calls to setgroups(), and its length is not limited to 16. The deployment target value, MACOSX_DEPLOYMENT_TARGET, can be obtained with sysconfig.get_config_var().

os.getlogin()

Renvoie le nom de l'utilisateur connecté sur le terminal contrôlant le processus. Dans la plupart des cas, il est plus utile d'utiliser getpass.getuser() puisque cette fonction consulte les variables d'environnement LOGNAME et USERNAME pour savoir qui est l'utilisateur, et se replie finalement sur pwd.getpwduid(os.getuid())[0] pour avoir le nom lié à l'identifiant de l'utilisateur courant.

Disponibilité: Unix, Windows, not WASI.

os.getpgid(pid)

Renvoie l'identifiant de groupe de processus du processus de PID pid. Si pid vaut 0, l'identifiant de groupe de processus du processus actuel est renvoyé.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

os.getpgrp()

Renvoie l'identifiant du groupe de processus actuel.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

os.getpid()

Renvoie l'identifiant du processus actuel.

The function is a stub on WASI, see Plateformes WebAssembly for more information.

os.getppid()

Renvoie l'identifiant du processus parent. Quand le processus parent est terminé, sur Unix, l'identifiant renvoyé est 1 pour le processus init, sur Windows, c'est toujours le même id, qui peut déjà avoir été réutilisé par un autre processus.

Disponibilité: Unix, Windows, not WASI.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Prise en charge sur Windows.

os.getpriority(which, who)

Récupère la priorité d'ordonnancement des programmes. La valeur which est une des constantes suivantes : PRIO_PROCESS, PRIO_PGRP, ou PRIO_USER, et la valeur who est interprétée par rapport à which (un id de processus pour PRIO_PROCESS, un id de groupe de processus pour PRIO_PGRP, et un id d'utilisateur pour PRIO_USER). Une valeur nulle pour who dénote (respectivement) le processus appelant, le groupe de processus du processus appelant, ou l'identifiant d'utilisateur réel du processus appelant.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

os.PRIO_PROCESS

os.PRIO_PGRP

os.PRIO_USER

Paramètres pour les fonctions getpriority() et setpriority().

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

os.PRIO_DARWIN_THREAD

os.PRIO_DARWIN_PROCESS

os.PRIO_DARWIN_BG

os.PRIO_DARWIN_NONUI

Paramètres pour les fonctions getpriority() et setpriority().

Disponibilité: macOS

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

os.getresuid()

Renvoie un triplet (ruid, euid, suid) dénotant les identifiants de l'utilisateur réel, effectif et sauvé du processus actuel.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

os.getresgid()

Renvoie un triplet (rgid, egid, sgid) dénotant les identifiants des groupes de processus réel effectif, et sauvé du processus actuel.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

os.getuid()

Renvoie l'identifiant réel du processus actuel.

Disponibilité: Unix.

The function is a stub on WASI, see Plateformes WebAssembly for more information.

os.initgroups(username, gid, /)

Call the system initgroups() to initialize the group access list with all of the groups of which the specified username is a member, plus the specified group id.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI, not Android.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

os.putenv(key, value, /)

Assigne la chaîne de caractères value à la variable d'environnement key. De tels changements à l'environnement affectent les sous-processus lancés par os.system(), popen() ou fork() et execv().

Assignments to items in os.environ are automatically translated into corresponding calls to putenv(); however, calls to putenv() don't update os.environ, so it is actually preferable to assign to items of os.environ. This also applies to getenv() and getenvb(), which respectively use os.environ and os.environb in their implementations.

See also the os.reload_environ() function.

Note

On some platforms, including FreeBSD and macOS, setting environ may cause memory leaks. Refer to the system documentation for putenv().

Lève un événement d'audit os.putenv avec les arguments key, value.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: The function is now always available.

os.setegid(egid, /)

Définit l'identifiant du groupe de processus effectif du processus actuel.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI, not Android.

os.seteuid(euid, /)

Définit l'identifiant de l'utilisateur effectif du processus actuel.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI, not Android.

os.setgid(gid, /)

Définit l'identifiant du groupe de processus actuel.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI, not Android.

os.setgroups(groups, /)

Place groups dans la liste d'identifiants de groupes additionnels associée. groups doit être une séquence, et chaque élément doit être un nombre entier identifiant un groupe. Cette opération est typiquement disponible uniquement pour le super utilisateur.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

Note

On macOS, the length of groups may not exceed the system-defined maximum number of effective group ids, typically 16. See the documentation for getgroups() for cases where it may not return the same group list set by calling setgroups().

os.setns(fd, nstype=0)

Reassociate the current thread with a Linux namespace. See the setns(2) [https://manpages.debian.org/setns(2)] and namespaces(7) [https://manpages.debian.org/namespaces(7)] man pages for more details.

If fd refers to a /proc/pid/ns/ link, setns() reassociates the calling thread with the namespace associated with that link, and nstype may be set to one of the CLONE_NEW* constants to impose constraints on the operation (0 means no constraints).

Since Linux 5.8, fd may refer to a PID file descriptor obtained from pidfd_open(). In this case, setns() reassociates the calling thread into one or more of the same namespaces as the thread referred to by fd. This is subject to any constraints imposed by nstype, which is a bit mask combining one or more of the CLONE_NEW* constants, e.g. setns(fd, os.CLONE_NEWUTS | os.CLONE_NEWPID). The caller's memberships in unspecified namespaces are left unchanged.

fd can be any object with a fileno() method, or a raw file descriptor.

This example reassociates the thread with the init process's network namespace:

fd = os.open("/proc/1/ns/net", os.O_RDONLY)
os.setns(fd, os.CLONE_NEWNET)
os.close(fd)

Disponibilité: Linux >= 3.0 with glibc >= 2.14.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Voir aussi

The unshare() function.

os.setpgrp()

Call the system call setpgrp() or setpgrp(0, 0) depending on which version is implemented (if any). See the Unix manual for the semantics.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

os.setpgid(pid, pgrp, /)

Call the system call setpgid() to set the process group id of the process with id pid to the process group with id pgrp. See the Unix manual for the semantics.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

os.setpriority(which, who, priority)

Définit la priorité d'ordonnancement des programmes. La valeur which est une des constantes suivantes : PRIO_PROCESS, PRIO_PGRP, ou PRIO_USER, et who est interprété en fonction de which (un PID pour PRIO_PROCESS, un identifiant de groupe de processus pour PRIO_PGRP, et un identifiant d'utilisateur pour PRIO_USER). Une valeur nulle pour who dénote (respectivement) le processus appelant, le groupe de processus du processus appelant, ou l'identifiant de l'utilisateur réel du processus appelant. priority est une valeur comprise entre -20 et 19. La priorité par défaut est 0 ; les priorités plus faibles amènent à un ordonnancement plus favorable.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

os.setregid(rgid, egid, /)

Définit l'identifiant des groupes réel et effectif du processus actuel.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI, not Android.

os.setresgid(rgid, egid, sgid, /)

Définit l'identifiant des groupes réel, effectif et sauvé du processus actuel.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI, not Android.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

os.setresuid(ruid, euid, suid, /)

Définit l'identifiant des utilisateurs réel, effectif et sauvé du processus actuel.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI, not Android.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

os.setreuid(ruid, euid, /)

Définit l'identifiant des utilisateurs réel et effectif du processus actuel.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI, not Android.

os.getsid(pid, /)

Call the system call getsid(). See the Unix manual for the semantics.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

os.setsid()

Call the system call setsid(). See the Unix manual for the semantics.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

os.setuid(uid, /)

Définit l'identifiant de l'utilisateur du processus actuel.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI, not Android.

os.strerror(code, /)

Return the error message corresponding to the error code in code. On platforms where strerror() returns NULL when given an unknown error number, ValueError is raised.

os.supports_bytes_environ

True si le type natif de l'environnement du système d'exploitation est bytes (par exemple : False sur Windows).

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

os.umask(mask, /)

Définit le umask actuel et renvoie la valeur précédente.

The function is a stub on WASI, see Plateformes WebAssembly for more information.

os.uname()

Renvoie des informations identifiant le système d'exploitation actuel. La valeur de retour est un objet à cinq attributs :

sysname — nom du système d'exploitation

nodename — nom de la machine sur le réseau (dépendant de l'implémentation)

release — release du système d'exploitation

version — version du système d'exploitation

machine — identifiant du matériel

Pour la rétrocompatibilité, cet objet est également itérable, se comportant comme un quintuplet contenant sysname, nodename, release, version, et machine dans cet ordre.

Certains systèmes tronquent nodename à 8 caractères ou à la composante dominante. Un meilleur moyen de récupérer le nom de l'hôte est socket.gethostname() ou encore socket.gethostbyaddr(socket.gethostname()).

On macOS, iOS and Android, this returns the kernel name and version (i.e., 'Darwin' on macOS and iOS; 'Linux' on Android). platform.uname() can be used to get the user-facing operating system name and version on iOS and Android.

Disponibilité: Unix.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Type de retour changé d'un quintuplet en un objet compatible avec le type n-uplet, avec des attributs nommés.

os.unsetenv(key, /)

Supprime la variable d'environnement appelée key. De tels changements à l'environnement affectent les sous-processus lancés avec os.system(), popen() ou fork() et execv().

Deletion of items in os.environ is automatically translated into a corresponding call to unsetenv(); however, calls to unsetenv() don't update os.environ, so it is actually preferable to delete items of os.environ.

See also the os.reload_environ() function.

Lève un événement d'audit os.unsetenv avec l’argument key.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: The function is now always available and is also available on Windows.

os.unshare(flags)

Disassociate parts of the process execution context, and move them into a newly created namespace. See the unshare(2) [https://manpages.debian.org/unshare(2)] man page for more details. The flags argument is a bit mask, combining zero or more of the CLONE_* constants, that specifies which parts of the execution context should be unshared from their existing associations and moved to a new namespace. If the flags argument is 0, no changes are made to the calling process's execution context.

Disponibilité: Linux >= 2.6.16.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Voir aussi

The setns() function.

Flags to the unshare() function, if the implementation supports them. See unshare(2) [https://manpages.debian.org/unshare(2)] in the Linux manual for their exact effect and availability.

os.CLONE_FILES

os.CLONE_FS

os.CLONE_NEWCGROUP

os.CLONE_NEWIPC

os.CLONE_NEWNET

os.CLONE_NEWNS

os.CLONE_NEWPID

os.CLONE_NEWTIME

os.CLONE_NEWUSER

os.CLONE_NEWUTS

os.CLONE_SIGHAND

os.CLONE_SYSVSEM

os.CLONE_THREAD

os.CLONE_VM

Création de fichiers objets

These functions create new file objects. (See also open() for opening file descriptors.)

os.fdopen(fd, *args, **kwargs)

Renvoie un fichier objet ouvert connecté au descripteur de fichier fd. C'est un alias de la primitive open() et accepte les mêmes arguments. La seule différence est que le premier argument de fdopen() doit toujours être un entier.

Opérations sur les descripteurs de fichiers

Ces fonctions opèrent sur des flux d'entrées/sorties référencés par des descripteurs de fichiers.

Les descripteurs de fichiers sont de petits entiers correspondant à un fichier qui a été ouvert par le processus courant. Par exemple, l'entrée standard est habituellement le descripteur de fichier 0, la sortie standard est 1, et le flux standard d'erreur est 2. Les autres fichiers ouverts par un processus vont se voir assigner 3, 4, 5, etc. Le nom « descripteur de fichier » est légèrement trompeur : sur les plate-formes Unix, les connecteurs (socket en anglais) et les tubes (pipe en anglais) sont également référencés par des descripteurs.

La méthode fileno() peut être utilisée pour obtenir le descripteur de fichier associé à un file object quand nécessaire. Notez qu'utiliser le descripteur directement outrepasse les méthodes du fichier objet, ignorant donc des aspects tels que la mise en tampon interne des données.

os.close(fd)

Ferme le descripteur de fichier fd.

Note

Cette fonction est destinée aux opérations d'entrées/sorties de bas niveau et doit être appliquée à un descripteur de fichier comme ceux donnés par os.open() ou pipe(). Pour fermer un « fichier objet » renvoyé par la primitive open(), popen() ou fdopen(), il faut utiliser sa méthode close().

os.closerange(fd_low, fd_high, /)

Ferme tous les descripteurs de fichiers entre fd_low (inclus) jusque fd_high (exclus), en ignorant les erreurs. Équivalent (mais beaucoup plus rapide) à :

for fd in range(fd_low, fd_high):
    try:
        os.close(fd)
    except OSError:
        pass

os.copy_file_range(src, dst, count, offset_src=None, offset_dst=None)

Copy count bytes from file descriptor src, starting from offset offset_src, to file descriptor dst, starting from offset offset_dst. If offset_src is None, then src is read from the current position; respectively for offset_dst.

In Linux kernel older than 5.3, the files pointed to by src and dst must reside in the same filesystem, otherwise an OSError is raised with errno set to errno.EXDEV.

This copy is done without the additional cost of transferring data from the kernel to user space and then back into the kernel. Additionally, some filesystems could implement extra optimizations, such as the use of reflinks (i.e., two or more inodes that share pointers to the same copy-on-write disk blocks; supported file systems include btrfs and XFS) and server-side copy (in the case of NFS).

The function copies bytes between two file descriptors. Text options, like the encoding and the line ending, are ignored.

La valeur de retour est le nombre d'octets copiés. Cela peut être moins que le nombre demandé.

Note

On Linux, os.copy_file_range() should not be used for copying a range of a pseudo file from a special filesystem like procfs and sysfs. It will always copy no bytes and return 0 as if the file was empty because of a known Linux kernel issue.

Disponibilité: Linux >= 4.5 with glibc >= 2.27.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

os.device_encoding(fd)

Renvoie une chaîne de caractères décrivant l'encodage du périphérique associé à fd s'il est connecté à un terminal, sinon renvoie None.

On Unix, if the Python UTF-8 Mode is enabled, return 'UTF-8' rather than the device encoding.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: On Unix, the function now implements the Python UTF-8 Mode.

os.dup(fd, /)

Renvoie une copie du descripteur de fichier fd. Le nouveau descripteur de fichier est non-héritable.

Sur Windows, quand un flux standard est dupliqué (0 : stdin, 1 : stdout, 2 : stderr), le nouveau descripteur de fichier est héritable.

Disponibilité: not WASI.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Le nouveau descripteur de fichier est maintenant non-héritable.

os.dup2(fd, fd2, inheritable=True)

Copie le descripteur de fichier fd dans fd2, en fermant le second d'abord si nécessaire. Renvoie fd2. Le nouveau descripteur de fichier est héritable par défaut, ou non-héritable si inheritable vaut False.

Disponibilité: not WASI.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Ajout du paramètre optionnel inheritable.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Renvoie fd2 en cas de succès. Auparavant, None était toujours renvoyé.

os.fchmod(fd, mode)

Change le mode du fichier donné par fd en la valeur numérique mode. Voir la documentation de chmod() pour les valeurs possibles de mode. Depuis Python 3.3, c'est équivalent à os.chmod(fd, mode).

Lève un événement d'audit os.chmod avec les arguments path, mode, dir_fd.

Disponibilité: Unix, Windows.

The function is limited on WASI, see Plateformes WebAssembly for more information.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added support on Windows.

os.fchown(fd, uid, gid)

Change le propriétaire et l'identifiant de groupe du fichier donné par fd en les valeurs numériques uid et gid. Pour laisser l'un des identifiants inchangés, mettez-le à -1. Voir chown(). Depuis Python 3.3, c'est équivalent à os.chown(fd, uid, gid).

Lève un événement d'audit os.chown avec les arguments path, uid, gid, dir_fd.

Disponibilité: Unix.

The function is limited on WASI, see Plateformes WebAssembly for more information.

os.fdatasync(fd)

Force l'écriture du fichier ayant le descripteur fd sur le disque. Ne force pas la mise à jour des méta-données.

Disponibilité: Unix.

Note

Cette fonction n'est pas disponible sur MacOS.

os.fpathconf(fd, name, /)

Renvoie les informations de la configuration du système pour un fichier ouvert. name spécifie la valeur de la configuration à récupérer, ça peut être une chaîne de caractères avec le nom d'une valeur système définie ; ces valeurs sont spécifiées dans certains standards (POSIX.1, Unix 95, Unix 98, et d'autres). Certaines plate-formes définissent des noms additionnels également. Les noms connus par le système d'exploitation sont donnés dans le dictionnaire pathconf_names. Pour les variables de configuration qui ne sont pas inclues dans ce mapping, passer un entier pour name est également accepté.

Si name est une chaîne de caractères et n'est pas connu, une ValueError est levée. Si une valeur spécifique de name n'est pas gérée par le système hôte, même si elle est incluse dans pathconf_names, une OSError est levée avec errno.EINVAL pour code d'erreur.

Depuis Python 3.3, c'est équivalent à os.pathconf(fd, name).

Disponibilité: Unix.

os.fstat(fd)

Récupère le statut du descripteur de fichier fd. Renvoie un objet stat_result.

Depuis Python 3.3, c'est équivalent à os.stat(fd).

Voir aussi

La fonction stat().

os.fstatvfs(fd, /)

Renvoie des informations sur le système de fichier contenant le fichier associé au descripteur fd, comme statvfs(). Depuis Python 3.3, c'est équivalent à os.statvfs(fd).

Disponibilité: Unix.

os.fsync(fd)

Force write of file with filedescriptor fd to disk. On Unix, this calls the native fsync() function; on Windows, the MS _commit() function.

Si vous débutez avec un file object Python mis en tampon f, commencez par faire f.flush() et seulement ensuite os.fsync(f.fileno()) pour être sûr que tous les tampons internes associés à f soient écrits sur le disque.

Disponibilité: Unix, Windows.

os.ftruncate(fd, length, /)

Tronque le fichier correspondant au descripteur fd pour qu'il soit maximum long de length bytes. Depuis Python 3.3, c'est équivalent à os.truncate(fd, length).

Lève un événement d'audit os.truncate avec les arguments fd, length.

Disponibilité: Unix, Windows.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Prise en charge de Windows

os.get_blocking(fd, /)

Récupère le mode bloquant du descripteur de fichier : False si l'indicateur O_NONBLOCK est mis, et True si l'indicateur est effacé.

Voir également set_blocking() et socket.socket.setblocking().

Disponibilité: Unix, Windows.

The function is limited on WASI, see Plateformes WebAssembly for more information.

On Windows, this function is limited to pipes.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added support for pipes on Windows.

os.grantpt(fd, /)

Grant access to the slave pseudo-terminal device associated with the master pseudo-terminal device to which the file descriptor fd refers. The file descriptor fd is not closed upon failure.

Calls the C standard library function grantpt().

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

os.isatty(fd, /)

Renvoie True si le descripteur de fichier fd est ouvert et connecté à un périphérique TTY (ou compatible), sinon False.

os.lockf(fd, cmd, len, /)

Applique, teste, ou retire un verrou POSIX sur un descripteur de fichier ouvert. fd est un descripteur de fichier ouvert. cmd spécifie la commande à utiliser (une des valeurs suivantes : F_LOCK, F_TLOCK, F_ULOCK, ou F_TEST). len spécifie la section du fichier à verrouiller.

Lève un événement d'audit os.lockf avec les arguments fd, cmd, len.

Disponibilité: Unix.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

os.F_LOCK

os.F_TLOCK

os.F_ULOCK

os.F_TEST

Indicateurs spécifiant quelle action lockf() va prendre.

Disponibilité: Unix.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

os.login_tty(fd, /)

Prepare the tty of which fd is a file descriptor for a new login session. Make the calling process a session leader; make the tty the controlling tty, the stdin, the stdout, and the stderr of the calling process; close fd.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

os.lseek(fd, pos, whence, /)

Set the current position of file descriptor fd to position pos, modified by whence, and return the new position in bytes relative to the start of the file. Valid values for whence are:

SEEK_SET or 0 -- set pos relative to the beginning of the file

SEEK_CUR or 1 -- set pos relative to the current file position

SEEK_END or 2 -- set pos relative to the end of the file

SEEK_HOLE -- set pos to the next data location, relative to pos

SEEK_DATA -- set pos to the next data hole, relative to pos

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Add support for SEEK_HOLE and SEEK_DATA.

os.SEEK_SET

os.SEEK_CUR

os.SEEK_END

Parameters to the lseek() function and the seek() method on file-like objects, for whence to adjust the file position indicator.

SEEK_SET

Adjust the file position relative to the beginning of the file.

SEEK_CUR

Adjust the file position relative to the current file position.

SEEK_END

Adjust the file position relative to the end of the file.

Their values are 0, 1, and 2, respectively.

os.SEEK_HOLE

os.SEEK_DATA

Parameters to the lseek() function and the seek() method on file-like objects, for seeking file data and holes on sparsely allocated files.

SEEK_DATA

Adjust the file offset to the next location containing data, relative to the seek position.

SEEK_HOLE

Adjust the file offset to the next location containing a hole, relative to the seek position. A hole is defined as a sequence of zeros.

Note

These operations only make sense for filesystems that support them.

Disponibilité: Linux >= 3.1, macOS, Unix

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

os.open(path, flags, mode=0o777, *, dir_fd=None)

Ouvre le fichier path et met certains indicateurs selon flags et éventuellement son mode selon mode. Lors de l'évaluation de code, ce umask actuel est d'abord masquée. Renvoie le descripteur de fichier du fichier nouvellement ouvert. Le nouveau descripteur de fichier est non-héritable.

For a description of the flag and mode values, see the C run-time documentation; flag constants (like O_RDONLY and O_WRONLY) are defined in the os module. In particular, on Windows adding O_BINARY is needed to open files in binary mode.

Cette fonction prend en charge des chemins relatifs à des descripteurs de répertoires avec le paramètre dir_fd.

Lève un événement d'audit open avec les arguments path, mode, flags.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Le nouveau descripteur de fichier est maintenant non-héritable.

Note

This function is intended for low-level I/O. For normal usage, use the built-in function open(), which returns a file object with read() and write() methods. To wrap a file descriptor in a file object, use fdopen().

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Paramètre dir_fd ajouté.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Si l'appel système est interrompu et que le gestionnaire de signal ne lève aucune exception, la fonction réessaye l'appel système au lieu de lever une InterruptedError (voir la PEP 475 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/] à propos du raisonnement).

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

Les constantes suivantes sont optionnelles pour le paramètre flag à la fonction open(). Elles peuvent être combinées en utilisant l'opérateur bit-à-bit OR |. certains ne sont pas disponibles sur toutes les plate-formes. Pour une description sur leur disponibilité et leur usage, consultez la page de manuel Unix open(2) [https://manpages.debian.org/open(2)] ou la MSDN [https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/z0kc8e3z.aspx] sur Windows.

os.O_RDONLY

os.O_WRONLY

os.O_RDWR

os.O_APPEND

os.O_CREAT

os.O_EXCL

os.O_TRUNC

Les constantes ci-dessus sont disponibles sur Unix et Windows.

os.O_DSYNC

os.O_RSYNC

os.O_SYNC

os.O_NDELAY

os.O_NONBLOCK

os.O_NOCTTY

os.O_CLOEXEC

Les constantes ci-dessus sont uniquement disponibles sur Unix.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Ajout de la constante O_CLOCEXEC.

os.O_BINARY

os.O_NOINHERIT

os.O_SHORT_LIVED

os.O_TEMPORARY

os.O_RANDOM

os.O_SEQUENTIAL

os.O_TEXT

Les constantes ci-dessus sont uniquement disponibles sur Windows.

os.O_EVTONLY

os.O_FSYNC

os.O_SYMLINK

os.O_NOFOLLOW_ANY

The above constants are only available on macOS.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Add O_EVTONLY, O_FSYNC, O_SYMLINK and O_NOFOLLOW_ANY constants.

os.O_ASYNC

os.O_DIRECT

os.O_DIRECTORY

os.O_NOFOLLOW

os.O_NOATIME

os.O_PATH

os.O_TMPFILE

os.O_SHLOCK

os.O_EXLOCK

Les constantes ci-dessus sont des extensions et ne sont pas présentes si elles ne sont pas définies par la bibliothèque C.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Ajout de O_PATH sur les systèmes qui le gèrent. Ajout de O_TMPFILE, uniquement disponible sur Linux Kernel 3.11 ou plus récent.

os.openpty()

Ouvre une nouvelle paire pseudo-terminal. Renvoie une paire de descripteurs de fichiers (master, slave) pour le PTY et le TTY respectivement. Les nouveaux descripteurs de fichiers sont non-héritables. Pour une approche (légèrement) plus portable, utilisez le module pty.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Les nouveaux descripteurs de fichiers sont maintenant non-héritables.

os.pipe()

Crée un pipe (un tube). Renvoie une paire de descripteurs de fichiers (r, w) utilisables respectivement pour lire et pour écrire. Les nouveaux descripteurs de fichiers sont non-héritables.

Disponibilité: Unix, Windows.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Les nouveaux descripteurs de fichiers sont maintenant non-héritables.

os.pipe2(flags, /)

Crée un pipe avec flags mis atomiquement. flags peut être construit en appliquant l'opérateur | (OU) sur une ou plus de ces valeurs : O_NONBLOCK, O_CLOEXEC. Renvoie une paire de descripteurs de fichiers (r, w) utilisables respectivement pour lire et pour écrire.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

os.posix_fallocate(fd, offset, len, /)

Assure que suffisamment d'espace sur le disque est alloué pour le fichier spécifié par fd partant de offset et continuant sur len bytes.

Disponibilité: Unix.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

os.posix_fadvise(fd, offset, len, advice, /)

Annonce une intention d'accéder à des données selon un motif spécifique, et donc permettant au noyau de faire des optimisations. Le conseil advice s'applique à la région spécifiée par fd, démarrant à offset et continuant sur len bytes. advice est une des valeurs suivantes : POSIX_FADV_NORMAL, POSIX_FADV_SEQUENTIAL, POSIX_FADV_RANDOM, POSIX_FADV_NOREUSE, POSIX_FADV_WILLNEED, ou POSIX_FADV_DONTNEED.

Disponibilité: Unix.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

os.POSIX_FADV_NORMAL

os.POSIX_FADV_SEQUENTIAL

os.POSIX_FADV_RANDOM

os.POSIX_FADV_NOREUSE

os.POSIX_FADV_WILLNEED

os.POSIX_FADV_DONTNEED

Indicateurs qui peuvent être utilisés dans advice dans la fonction posix_fadvise() et qui spécifient le motif d'accès qui est censé être utilisé.

Disponibilité: Unix.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

os.pread(fd, n, offset, /)

Lit au maximum n octets depuis le descripteur de fichier fd à la position offset sans modifier cette position.

Renvoie une chaîne d'octets contenant les octets lus, ou une chaîne d'octets vide si la fin du fichier pointé par fd est atteinte.

Disponibilité: Unix.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

os.posix_openpt(oflag, /)

Open and return a file descriptor for a master pseudo-terminal device.

Calls the C standard library function posix_openpt(). The oflag argument is used to set file status flags and file access modes as specified in the manual page of posix_openpt() of your system.

The returned file descriptor is non-inheritable. If the value O_CLOEXEC is available on the system, it is added to oflag.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

os.preadv(fd, buffers, offset, flags=0, /)

Lit depuis un descripteur de fichier fd, à la position offset dans des objets bytes-compatibles mutables buffers, sans modifier la position dans le fichier. Les données sont transférées dans chaque tampon, jusqu'à ce qu'il soit plein, tour à tour.

L'argument flags contient un OU logique bit-à-bit de zéro ou plusieurs des indicateurs suivants :

RWF_HIPRI

RWF_NOWAIT

Renvoie le nombre total d'octets réellement lus, qui peut être inférieur à la capacité totale de tous les objets.

Le système d'exploitation peut définir une limite (valeur sysconf() 'SC_IOV_MAX') sur le nombre de mémoires tampons pouvant être utilisées.

Combine les fonctionnalités de os.readv() et os.pread().

Disponibilité: Linux >= 2.6.30, FreeBSD >= 6.0, OpenBSD >= 2.7, AIX >= 7.1.

Using flags requires Linux >= 4.6.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

os.RWF_NOWAIT

Ne pas attendre pour des données qui ne sont pas immédiatement disponibles. Si cette option est spécifiée, l'appel système retourne instantanément s'il doit lire les données du stockage sous-jacent ou attendre un verrou.

If some data was successfully read, it will return the number of bytes read. If no bytes were read, it will return -1 and set errno to errno.EAGAIN.

Disponibilité: Linux >= 4.14.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

os.RWF_HIPRI

Lecture/écriture haute priorité. Permet aux systèmes de fichiers de type bloc d'utiliser le polling du périphérique, qui fournit une latence inférieure, mais peut utiliser des ressources supplémentaires.

Actuellement, sous Linux, cette fonctionnalité est utilisable uniquement sur un descripteur de fichier ouvert à l'aide de l'option O_DIRECT.

Disponibilité: Linux >= 4.6.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

os.ptsname(fd, /)

Return the name of the slave pseudo-terminal device associated with the master pseudo-terminal device to which the file descriptor fd refers. The file descriptor fd is not closed upon failure.

Calls the reentrant C standard library function ptsname_r() if it is available; otherwise, the C standard library function ptsname(), which is not guaranteed to be thread-safe, is called.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

os.pwrite(fd, str, offset, /)

Écrit la chaîne d'octets de str dans le descripteur de fichier fd à la position offset en laissant la position dans le fichier inchangée.

Renvoie le nombre d'octets effectivement écrits.

Disponibilité: Unix.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

os.pwritev(fd, buffers, offset, flags=0, /)

Write the buffers contents to file descriptor fd at an offset offset, leaving the file offset unchanged. buffers must be a sequence of bytes-like objects. Buffers are processed in array order. Entire contents of the first buffer is written before proceeding to the second, and so on.

L'argument flags contient un OU logique bit-à-bit de zéro ou plusieurs des indicateurs suivants :

RWF_DSYNC

RWF_SYNC

RWF_APPEND

Renvoie le nombre total d'octets effectivement écrits.

Le système d'exploitation peut définir une limite (valeur sysconf() 'SC_IOV_MAX') sur le nombre de mémoires tampons pouvant être utilisées.

Combine les fonctionnalités de os. writev() et os. pwrite().

Disponibilité: Linux >= 2.6.30, FreeBSD >= 6.0, OpenBSD >= 2.7, AIX >= 7.1.

Using flags requires Linux >= 4.6.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

os.RWF_DSYNC

Provide a per-write equivalent of the O_DSYNC os.open() flag. This flag effect applies only to the data range written by the system call.

Disponibilité: Linux >= 4.7.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

os.RWF_SYNC

Provide a per-write equivalent of the O_SYNC os.open() flag. This flag effect applies only to the data range written by the system call.

Disponibilité: Linux >= 4.7.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

os.RWF_APPEND

Provide a per-write equivalent of the O_APPEND os.open() flag. This flag is meaningful only for os.pwritev(), and its effect applies only to the data range written by the system call. The offset argument does not affect the write operation; the data is always appended to the end of the file. However, if the offset argument is -1, the current file offset is updated.

Disponibilité: Linux >= 4.16.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

os.read(fd, n, /)

Lit au maximum n octets du descripteur de fichier fd.

Renvoie une chaîne d'octets contenant les octets lus, ou une chaîne d'octets vide si la fin du fichier pointé par fd est atteinte.

Note

This function is intended for low-level I/O and must be applied to a file descriptor as returned by os.open() or pipe(). To read a "file object" returned by the built-in function open() or by popen() or fdopen(), or sys.stdin, use its read() or readline() methods.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Si l'appel système est interrompu et que le gestionnaire de signal ne lève aucune exception, la fonction réessaye l'appel système au lieu de lever une InterruptedError (voir la PEP 475 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/] à propos du raisonnement).

os.readinto(fd, buffer, /)

Read from a file descriptor fd into a mutable buffer object buffer.

The buffer should be mutable and bytes-like. On success, returns the number of bytes read. Less bytes may be read than the size of the buffer. The underlying system call will be retried when interrupted by a signal, unless the signal handler raises an exception. Other errors will not be retried and an error will be raised.

Returns 0 if fd is at end of file or if the provided buffer has length 0 (which can be used to check for errors without reading data). Never returns negative.

Note

This function is intended for low-level I/O and must be applied to a file descriptor as returned by os.open() or os.pipe(). To read a "file object" returned by the built-in function open(), or sys.stdin, use its member functions, for example io.BufferedIOBase.readinto(), io.BufferedIOBase.read(), or io.TextIOBase.read()

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

os.sendfile(out_fd, in_fd, offset, count)

os.sendfile(out_fd, in_fd, offset, count, headers=(), trailers=(), flags=0)

Copy count bytes from file descriptor in_fd to file descriptor out_fd starting at offset. Return the number of bytes sent. When EOF is reached return 0.

La première notation de fonction est prise en charge par toutes les plate-formes qui définissent sendfile().

On Linux, if offset is given as None, the bytes are read from the current position of in_fd and the position of in_fd is updated.

The second case may be used on macOS and FreeBSD where headers and trailers are arbitrary sequences of buffers that are written before and after the data from in_fd is written. It returns the same as the first case.

On macOS and FreeBSD, a value of 0 for count specifies to send until the end of in_fd is reached.

All platforms support sockets as out_fd file descriptor, and some platforms allow other types (e.g. regular file, pipe) as well.

Les applications multiplateformes ne devraient pas utiliser les arguments headers, trailers, et flags.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

Note

Pour une interface de plus haut niveau de sendfile(), voir socket.socket.setfile().

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Les paramètres out et in ont été renommés out_fd et in_fd.

os.SF_NODISKIO

os.SF_MNOWAIT

os.SF_SYNC

Paramètres de la fonction sendfile(), si l'implémentation les gère.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

os.SF_NOCACHE

Parameter to the sendfile() function, if the implementation supports it. The data won't be cached in the virtual memory and will be freed afterwards.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

os.set_blocking(fd, blocking, /)

Définit le mode bloquant d'un descripteur de fichier spécifié. Assigne l'indicateur O_NONBLOCK si blocking vaut False, efface l'indicateur sinon.

Voir aussi get_blocking() et socket;socket.setblocking().

Disponibilité: Unix, Windows.

The function is limited on WASI, see Plateformes WebAssembly for more information.

On Windows, this function is limited to pipes.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added support for pipes on Windows.

os.splice(src, dst, count, offset_src=None, offset_dst=None, flags=0)

Transfer count bytes from file descriptor src, starting from offset offset_src, to file descriptor dst, starting from offset offset_dst.

The splicing behaviour can be modified by specifying a flags value. Any of the following variables may used, combined using bitwise OR (the | operator):

If SPLICE_F_MOVE is specified, the kernel is asked to move pages instead of copying, but pages may still be copied if the kernel cannot move the pages from the pipe.

If SPLICE_F_NONBLOCK is specified, the kernel is asked to not block on I/O. This makes the splice pipe operations nonblocking, but splice may nevertheless block because the spliced file descriptors may block.

If SPLICE_F_MORE is specified, it hints to the kernel that more data will be coming in a subsequent splice.

At least one of the file descriptors must refer to a pipe. If offset_src is None, then src is read from the current position; respectively for offset_dst. The offset associated to the file descriptor that refers to a pipe must be None. The files pointed to by src and dst must reside in the same filesystem, otherwise an OSError is raised with errno set to errno.EXDEV.

Cette copie est faite sans le coût additionnel de transférer les données depuis le noyau vers l'espace utilisateur puis dans le sens inverse vers le noyau. En outre, certains systèmes de fichiers peuvent implémenter des optimisations supplémentaires. Cette copie est faite comme si les deux fichiers étaient ouverts en mode binaire.

Upon successful completion, returns the number of bytes spliced to or from the pipe. A return value of 0 means end of input. If src refers to a pipe, then this means that there was no data to transfer, and it would not make sense to block because there are no writers connected to the write end of the pipe.

Voir aussi

The splice(2) [https://manpages.debian.org/splice(2)] man page.

Disponibilité: Linux >= 2.6.17 with glibc >= 2.5

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

os.SPLICE_F_MOVE

os.SPLICE_F_NONBLOCK

os.SPLICE_F_MORE

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

os.readv(fd, buffers, /)

Lit depuis un descripteur de fichier fd dans une séquence d'objets bytes-compatibles mutables : buffers. Les données sont transférées dans chaque tampon, jusqu'à ce qu'il soit plein, tour à tour.

Renvoie le nombre total d'octets réellement lus, qui peut être inférieur à la capacité totale de tous les objets.

Le système d'exploitation peut définir une limite (valeur sysconf() 'SC_IOV_MAX') sur le nombre de mémoires tampons pouvant être utilisées.

Disponibilité: Unix.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

os.tcgetpgrp(fd, /)

Renvoie le groupe de processus associé au terminal donné par fd (un descripteur de fichier ouvert comme renvoyé par os.open()).

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

os.tcsetpgrp(fd, pg, /)

Place pg dans le groupe de processus associé au terminal donné par fd (un descripteur de fichier ouvert comme renvoyé par os.open()).

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

os.ttyname(fd, /)

Renvoie une chaîne de caractères spécifiant le périphérique terminal associé au descripteur de fichier fd. Si fd n'est pas associé à un périphérique terminal, une exception est levée.

Disponibilité: Unix.

os.unlockpt(fd, /)

Unlock the slave pseudo-terminal device associated with the master pseudo-terminal device to which the file descriptor fd refers. The file descriptor fd is not closed upon failure.

Calls the C standard library function unlockpt().

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

os.write(fd, str, /)

Écrit la chaîne d'octets de str vers le descripteur de fichier fd.

Renvoie le nombre d'octets effectivement écrits.

Note

This function is intended for low-level I/O and must be applied to a file descriptor as returned by os.open() or pipe(). To write a "file object" returned by the built-in function open() or by popen() or fdopen(), or sys.stdout or sys.stderr, use its write() method.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Si l'appel système est interrompu et que le gestionnaire de signal ne lève aucune exception, la fonction réessaye l'appel système au lieu de lever une InterruptedError (voir la PEP 475 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/] à propos du raisonnement).

os.writev(fd, buffers, /)

Écrit le contenu de buffers vers le descripteur de fichier fd. buffers doit être une séquence d'objets bytes-compatibles. Les tampons sont traités dans l'ordre du tableau. Le contenu entier du premier tampon est écrit avant le traitement du second, etc.

Renvoie le nombre total d'octets effectivement écrits.

Le système d'exploitation peut définir une limite (valeur sysconf() 'SC_IOV_MAX') sur le nombre de mémoires tampons pouvant être utilisées.

Disponibilité: Unix.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Demander la taille d'un terminal

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

os.get_terminal_size(fd=STDOUT_FILENO, /)

Renvoie la taille du terminal comme un couple (columns, lines) de type terminal_size.

L'argument optionnel fd (par défaut : STDOUT_FILENO, ou la sortie standard) spécifie le descripteur de fichier auquel la requête doit être envoyée.

Si le descripteur de fichier n'est pas connecté à un terminal, une OSError est levée.

shutil.get_terminal_size() est la fonction haut-niveau qui devrait normalement être utilisée, os.get_terminal_size en est l'implémentation bas-niveau.

Disponibilité: Unix, Windows.

class os.terminal_size

Une sous-classe de tuple, contenant (columns, lines), la taille du terminal.

columns

Longueur du terminal en caractères.

lines

Hauteur du terminal en caractères.

Héritage de descripteurs de fichiers

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Un descripteur de fichier a un indicateur indiquant s'il peut être hérité par les processus-fils. Depuis Python 3.4, les descripteurs de fichiers créés par Python ne sont pas héritable par défaut.

On UNIX, non-inheritable file descriptors are closed in child processes at the execution of a new program, other file descriptors are inherited. Note that non-inheritable file descriptors are still inherited by child processes on os.fork().

Sur Windows, les fichiers et identificateurs non-héritables sont fermés dans les processus-fils, à part les flux standards (descripteurs 0, 1, et 2 : stdin, stdout et stderr) qui sont toujours hérités. En utilisant les fonctions spawn*, tous les identificateurs héritables et les descripteurs de fichiers héritables sont hérités. En utilisant le module subprocess, tous les descripteurs de fichiers (à part les flux standards) sont fermés, et les identificateurs héritables sont hérités seulement si le paramètre close_fds vaut False.

On WebAssembly platforms, the file descriptor cannot be modified.

os.get_inheritable(fd, /)

Récupère le marqueur « héritable » (booléen) du descripteur de fichier spécifié.

os.set_inheritable(fd, inheritable, /)

Définit le marqueur « héritable » du descripteur de fichier spécifié.

os.get_handle_inheritable(handle, /)

Récupère le marqueur « héritable » (booléen) de l'identificateur spécifié.

Disponibilité: Windows.

os.set_handle_inheritable(handle, inheritable, /)

Définit le marqueur « héritable » de l'identificateur spécifié.

Disponibilité: Windows.

Fichiers et répertoires

Sur certaines plate-formes Unix, beaucoup de ces fonctions gèrent une ou plusieurs des fonctionnalités suivantes :

specifying a file descriptor: Normally the path argument provided to functions in the os module must be a string specifying a file path. However, some functions now alternatively accept an open file descriptor for their path argument. The function will then operate on the file referred to by the descriptor. For POSIX systems, Python will call the variant of the function prefixed with f (e.g. call fchdir instead of chdir).

You can check whether or not path can be specified as a file descriptor for a particular function on your platform using os.supports_fd. If this functionality is unavailable, using it will raise a NotImplementedError.

If the function also supports dir_fd or follow_symlinks arguments, it's an error to specify one of those when supplying path as a file descriptor.

paths relative to directory descriptors: If dir_fd is not None, it should be a file descriptor referring to a directory, and the path to operate on should be relative; path will then be relative to that directory. If the path is absolute, dir_fd is ignored. For POSIX systems, Python will call the variant of the function with an at suffix and possibly prefixed with f (e.g. call faccessat instead of access).

You can check whether or not dir_fd is supported for a particular function on your platform using os.supports_dir_fd. If it's unavailable, using it will raise a NotImplementedError.

not following symlinks: If follow_symlinks is False, and the last element of the path to operate on is a symbolic link, the function will operate on the symbolic link itself rather than the file pointed to by the link. For POSIX systems, Python will call the l... variant of the function.

You can check whether or not follow_symlinks is supported for a particular function on your platform using os.supports_follow_symlinks. If it's unavailable, using it will raise a NotImplementedError.

os.access(path, mode, *, dir_fd=None, effective_ids=False, follow_symlinks=True)

Utilise l'uid/gid réel pour tester l'accès à path. Notez que la plupart des opérations utiliseront l'uid/gid effectif, dès lors cette méthode peut être utilisée dans un environnement suid/sgid pour tester si l'utilisateur invoquant a les droits d'accès pour accéder à path. mode devrait être F_OK pour tester l'existence de path, ou il peut être le OR (OU inclusif) d'une ou plusieurs des constantes suivantes : R_OK, W_OK, et X_OK pour tester les permissions. Renvoie True si l'accès est permis, et False s'il ne l'est pas. Voir la page de manuel Unix access(2) [https://manpages.debian.org/access(2)] pour plus d'informations.

Cette fonction peut gérer la spécification de chemins relatifs vers des descripteurs de fichiers et le suivi des liens symboliques.

Si effective_id vaut True, access() effectuera ses vérifications d'accès en utilisant l'uid/gid effectif à la place de l'uid/gid réel. effective_ids peut ne pas être géré sur votre plate-forme, vous pouvez vérifier s'il est disponible en utilisant os.supports_effective_ids. S'il est indisponible, l'utiliser lèvera une NotImplementedError.

Note

Utiliser access() pour vérifier si un utilisateur est autorisé (par exemple) à ouvrir un fichier avant d'effectivement le faire en utilisant open() crée une faille de sécurité : l'utilisateur peut exploiter le court intervalle de temps entre la vérification et l'ouverture du fichier pour le manipuler. Il est préférable d'utiliser les techniques EAFP. Par exemple :

if os.access("myfile", os.R_OK):
    with open("myfile") as fp:
        return fp.read()
return "some default data"

est mieux écrit comme suit :

try:
    fp = open("myfile")
except PermissionError:
    return "some default data"
else:
    with fp:
        return fp.read()

Note

Les opérations d'entrées/sorties peuvent échouer même quand access() indique qu'elles devraient réussir, particulièrement pour les opérations sur les systèmes de fichiers réseaux qui peuvent avoir une sémantique de permissions au-delà du modèle de bits de permission usuel POSIX.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Paramètres dir_fd, effective_ids, et follow_symlinks ajoutés.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

os.F_OK

os.R_OK

os.W_OK

os.X_OK

Valeurs à passer au paramètre mode de access() pour tester respectivement l'existence, les droits de lecture, d'écriture et d'exécution.

os.chdir(path)

Change le répertoire de travail actuel par path.

Cette fonction prend en charge la spécification d'un descripteur de fichier. Le descripteur doit référencer un répertoire ouvert, pas un fichier ouvert.

Cette fonction peut lever OSError et des sous-classes telles que FileNotFoundError, PermissionError et NotADirectoryError.

Lève un événement d'audit os.chdir avec l'argument path.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Prise en charge de la spécification de path par un descripteur de fichier sur certaines plate-formes.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

os.chflags(path, flags, *, follow_symlinks=True)

Définit les marqueurs de path par la valeur numérique flags. flags peut prendre une combinaison (OU bit-à-bit) des valeurs suivantes (comme défini dans le module stat) :

stat.UF_NODUMP

stat.UF_IMMUTABLE

stat.UF_APPEND

stat.UF_OPAQUE

stat.UF_NOUNLINK

stat.UF_COMPRESSED

stat.UF_HIDDEN

stat.SF_ARCHIVED

stat.SF_IMMUTABLE

stat.SF_APPEND

stat.SF_NOUNLINK

stat.SF_SNAPSHOT

Cette fonction prend en charge le suivi des liens symboliques.

Lève un événement d'audit os.chflags avec les arguments path, flags.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Added the follow_symlinks parameter.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

os.chmod(path, mode, *, dir_fd=None, follow_symlinks=True)

Change le mode de path par la valeur numérique mode. mode peut prendre une des valeurs suivantes (comme défini dans le module stat) ou une combinaison (OU bit-à-bit) de ces valeurs :

stat.S_ISUID

stat.S_ISGID

stat.S_ENFMT

stat.S_ISVTX

stat.S_IREAD

stat.S_IWRITE

stat.S_IEXEC

stat.S_IRWXU

stat.S_IRUSR

stat.S_IWUSR

stat.S_IXUSR

stat.S_IRWXG

stat.S_IRGRP

stat.S_IWGRP

stat.S_IXGRP

stat.S_IRWXO

stat.S_IROTH

stat.S_IWOTH

stat.S_IXOTH

Cette fonction prend en charge la spécification d'un descripteur de fichier, les chemins relatifs à des descripteurs de répertoires, et le non-suivi des liens symboliques.

Note

Although Windows supports chmod(), you can only set the file's read-only flag with it (via the stat.S_IWRITE and stat.S_IREAD constants or a corresponding integer value). All other bits are ignored. The default value of follow_symlinks is False on Windows.

The function is limited on WASI, see Plateformes WebAssembly for more information.

Lève un événement d'audit os.chmod avec les arguments path, mode, dir_fd.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Prise en charge de la spécification de path par un répertoire ouvert et des arguments dir_fd et follow_symlinks ajoutés.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added support for a file descriptor and the follow_symlinks argument on Windows.

os.chown(path, uid, gid, *, dir_fd=None, follow_symlinks=True)

Change l'identifiant du propriétaire et du groupe de path par les valeurs numériques uid et gid. Pour laisser l'un de ces identifiants inchangé, le définir à -1.

Cette fonction prend en charge la spécification d'un descripteur de fichier, les chemins relatifs à des descripteurs de répertoires, et le non-suivi des liens symboliques.

Voir shutil.chown() pour une fonction de plus haut-niveau qui accepte des noms en plus des identifiants numériques.

Lève un événement d'audit os.chown avec les arguments path, uid, gid, dir_fd.

Disponibilité: Unix.

The function is limited on WASI, see Plateformes WebAssembly for more information.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Prise en charge de la spécification de path par un répertoire ouvert et des arguments dir_fd et follow_symlinks ajoutés.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

os.chroot(path)

Change le répertoire racine du processus actuel par path.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI, not Android.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

os.fchdir(fd)

Change le répertoire de travail actuel par le répertoire représenté par le descripteur de fichier fd. Le descripteur doit référencer un répertoire ouvert, pas un fichier ouvert. Depuis Python 3.3, c'est équivalent à os.chdir(fd).

Lève un événement d'audit os.chdir avec l'argument path.

Disponibilité: Unix.

os.getcwd()

Renvoie une chaîne de caractères représentant le répertoire de travail actuel.

os.getcwdb()

Renvoie une chaîne de bytes représentant le répertoire de travail actuel.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: La fonction utilise maintenant l'encodage UTF-8 sur Windows, plutôt que la page de code ANSI : la PEP 529 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/] explique la raison. Cette fonction n'est plus obsolète sur Windows.

os.lchflags(path, flags)

Définit les marqueurs de path par la valeur numérique flags, comme chflags(), mais ne suit pas les liens symboliques. Depuis Python 3.3, c'est équivalent à os.chflags(path, flags, follow_symlinks=False).

Lève un événement d'audit os.chflags avec les arguments path, flags.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

os.lchmod(path, mode)

Change le mode de path par la valeur numérique mode. Si path est un lien symbolique, ça affecte le lien symbolique à la place de la cible. Voir la documentation pour les valeurs possibles de mode pour chmod(). Depuis Python 3.3, c'est équivalent à os.chmod(path, mode, follow_symlinks=False).

lchmod() is not part of POSIX, but Unix implementations may have it if changing the mode of symbolic links is supported.

Lève un événement d'audit os.chmod avec les arguments path, mode, dir_fd.

Disponibilité: Unix, Windows, not Linux, FreeBSD >= 1.3, NetBSD >= 1.3, not OpenBSD

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added support on Windows.

os.lchown(path, uid, gid)

Change les identifiants du propriétaire et du groupe de path par uid et gid. Cette fonction ne suivra pas les liens symboliques. Depuis Python 3.3, c'est équivalent à os.chown(path, uid, gid, follow_symlinks=False).

Lève un événement d'audit os.chown avec les arguments path, uid, gid, dir_fd.

Disponibilité: Unix.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

os.link(src, dst, *, src_dir_fd=None, dst_dir_fd=None, follow_symlinks=True)

Crée un lien matériel appelé dst pointant sur src.

This function can support specifying src_dir_fd and/or dst_dir_fd to supply paths relative to directory descriptors, and not following symlinks. The default value of follow_symlinks is False on Windows.

Lève un événement d'audit os.link avec les arguments src, dst, src_dir_ds, dst_dir_fd.

Disponibilité: Unix, Windows.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Prise en charge de Windows.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Added the src_dir_fd, dst_dir_fd, and follow_symlinks parameters.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object pour src et dst.

os.listdir(path='.')

Return a list containing the names of the entries in the directory given by path. The list is in arbitrary order, and does not include the special entries '.' and '..' even if they are present in the directory. If a file is removed from or added to the directory during the call of this function, whether a name for that file be included is unspecified.

path peut être un path-like object. Si path est de type bytes (directement ou indirectement à travers une interface PathLike), les noms de fichiers renvoyés seront aussi de type bytes ; dans toutes les autres circonstances, ils seront de type str.

Cette fonction peut également gérer la spécification de descripteurs de fichiers. Le descripteur doit référencer un répertoire.

Lève un événement d'audit os.listdir avec l'argument path.

Note

Pour encoder des noms de fichiers de type str en bytes, utilisez la fonction encode().

Voir aussi

La fonction scandir() renvoie les entrées du répertoire ainsi que leurs attributs , offrant une meilleure performance pour beaucoup de cas utilisés fréquemment.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Le paramètre path est devenu optionnel.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Ajout de la possibilité de spécifier path comme descripteur de fichier ouvert.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

os.listdrives()

Return a list containing the names of drives on a Windows system.

A drive name typically looks like 'C:\\'. Not every drive name will be associated with a volume, and some may be inaccessible for a variety of reasons, including permissions, network connectivity or missing media. This function does not test for access.

May raise OSError if an error occurs collecting the drive names.

Raises an auditing event os.listdrives with no arguments.

Disponibilité: Windows

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

os.listmounts(volume)

Return a list containing the mount points for a volume on a Windows system.

volume must be represented as a GUID path, like those returned by os.listvolumes(). Volumes may be mounted in multiple locations or not at all. In the latter case, the list will be empty. Mount points that are not associated with a volume will not be returned by this function.

The mount points return by this function will be absolute paths, and may be longer than the drive name.

Raises OSError if the volume is not recognized or if an error occurs collecting the paths.

Raises an auditing event os.listmounts with argument volume.

Disponibilité: Windows

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

os.listvolumes()

Return a list containing the volumes in the system.

Volumes are typically represented as a GUID path that looks like \\?\Volume{xxxxxxxx-xxxx-xxxx-xxxx-xxxxxxxxxxxx}\. Files can usually be accessed through a GUID path, permissions allowing. However, users are generally not familiar with them, and so the recommended use of this function is to retrieve mount points using os.listmounts().

May raise OSError if an error occurs collecting the volumes.

Raises an auditing event os.listvolumes with no arguments.

Disponibilité: Windows

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

os.lstat(path, *, dir_fd=None)

Perform the equivalent of an lstat() system call on the given path. Similar to stat(), but does not follow symbolic links. Return a stat_result object.

Sur les plate-formes qui ne gérant pas les liens symboliques, c'est un alias pour stat().

Depuis Python 3.3, c'est équivalent à os.stat(path, dir_fd=dir_fd, follow_symlinks=False).

Cette fonction peut également gérer des chemins relatifs à des descripteurs de répertoires.

Voir aussi

La fonction stat().

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Prise en charge des les liens symboliques sur Windows 6.0 (Vista).

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Paramètre dir_fd ajouté.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: On Windows, now opens reparse points that represent another path (name surrogates), including symbolic links and directory junctions. Other kinds of reparse points are resolved by the operating system as for stat().

os.mkdir(path, mode=0o777, *, dir_fd=None)

Crée un répertoire appelé path avec pour mode, la valeur numérique mode.

If the directory already exists, FileExistsError is raised. If a parent directory in the path does not exist, FileNotFoundError is raised.

Sous certains systèmes, mode est ignoré. Quand il est utilisé, il lui est premièrement appliqué le masque courant umask. Si des bits autres que les 9 derniers sont activés (c.-à-d. les 3 derniers chiffres de la représentation octale de mode), leur signification sera dépendante de la plate-forme. Sous certaines plate-formes, ils seront ignorés et vous devrez appeler explicitement chmod() pour les modifier.

On Windows, a mode of 0o700 is specifically handled to apply access control to the new directory such that only the current user and administrators have access. Other values of mode are ignored.

Cette fonction peut également gérer des chemins relatifs à des descripteurs de répertoires.

Il est également possible de créer des répertoires temporaires, voir la fonction tempfile.mkdtemp() du module tempfile.

Lève un événement d'audit os.mkdir avec les arguments path, mode, dir_fd.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Paramètre dir_fd ajouté.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Windows now handles a mode of 0o700.

os.makedirs(name, mode=0o777, exist_ok=False)

Fonction de création récursive de répertoires. Comme mkdir() mais crée tous les répertoires de niveau intermédiaire nécessaires pour contenir le répertoire « feuille ».

The mode parameter is passed to mkdir() for creating the leaf directory; see the mkdir() description for how it is interpreted. To set the file permission bits of any newly created parent directories you can set the umask before invoking makedirs(). The file permission bits of existing parent directories are not changed.

If exist_ok is False (the default), a FileExistsError is raised if the target directory already exists.

Note

Un appel à makedirs() est confus si les éléments du chemin à créer contiennent pardir (par exemple, ".." sur les systèmes UNIX).

Cette fonction gère les chemins UNC correctement.

Lève un événement d'audit os.mkdir avec les arguments path, mode, dir_fd.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Added the exist_ok parameter.

Modifié dans la version 3.4.1: Avant Python 3.4.1, si exist_ok valait True et le répertoire à créer existait, makedirs() aurait levé une erreur si mode n'était pas équivalent au mode du répertoire existant. Puisque ce comportement n'était pas possible ) implémenter de manière sécurisée, il a été retiré pour Python 3.4.1. Voir bpo-21082 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21082].

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: The mode argument no longer affects the file permission bits of newly created intermediate-level directories.

os.mkfifo(path, mode=0o666, *, dir_fd=None)

Crée un FIFO (First In, First Out, ou un tube (pipe en anglais) nommé) appelé path avec le mode numérique mode. La valeur actuelle de umask est d'abord masquée du mode.

Cette fonction peut également gérer des chemins relatifs à des descripteurs de répertoires.

Les FIFOs sont des tubes qui peuvent être accédés comme des fichiers normaux. Les FIFOs existent jusqu'à ce qu'ils soient retirés (par exemple, à l'aide de os.unlink()). Généralement, les FIFOs sont utilisé comme communication entre des processus de type « client » et « serveur » : le serveur ouvre le FIFO pour le lire, et le client l'ouvre pour écrire dedans. Notez que mkfifo() n'ouvre pas le FIFO — il crée juste un point de rendez-vous.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Paramètre dir_fd ajouté.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

os.mknod(path, mode=0o600, device=0, *, dir_fd=None)

Crée un nœud du système de fichiers (fichier, périphérique, fichier spécial, ou tuyau nommé) appelée path. mode spécifie à la fois les permissions à utiliser et le type de nœud à créer, en étant combiné (OR bit-à-bit) avec l'une des valeurs suivantes : stat.S_IFREG, stat.S_IFCHR, stat.S_IFBLK, et stat.S_IFIFO (ces constantes sont disponibles dans le module stat). Pour stat.S_IFCHR et stat.S_IFBLK, device définit le fichier spécial de périphérique tout juste créé (probablement en utilisant os.makedev()), sinon, cet argument est ignoré.

Cette fonction peut également gérer des chemins relatifs à des descripteurs de répertoires.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Paramètre dir_fd ajouté.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

os.major(device, /)

Extract the device major number from a raw device number (usually the st_dev or st_rdev field from stat).

os.minor(device, /)

Extract the device minor number from a raw device number (usually the st_dev or st_rdev field from stat).

os.makedev(major, minor, /)

Compose un nombre de périphérique brut à partir des nombres de périphérique mineur et majeur.

os.pathconf(path, name)

Renvoie des informations sur la configurations relatives à un fichier déterminé. name spécifie la valeur de configuration à récupérer ; ce peut être une chaîne de caractères qui est le nom d'une valeur système particulière. Ces noms sont spécifiés dans certains standards (POSIX.1, Unix 95, Unix 98, etc). Certaines plate-formes définissent des noms supplémentaires également. Les noms connus du système d'exploitation hôte sont donnés dans le dictionnaire pathconf_names. Pour les variables de configuration non incluses dans ce mapping, passer un entier pour name est également accepté.

Si name est une chaîne de caractères et n'est pas connu, une ValueError est levée. Si une valeur spécifique de name n'est pas gérée par le système hôte, même si elle est incluse dans pathconf_names, une OSError est levée avec errno.EINVAL pour code d'erreur.

Cette fonction prend en charge la spécification d'un descripteur de fichier.

Disponibilité: Unix.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

os.pathconf_names

Dictionnaire liant les noms acceptés par les fonctions pathconf() et fpathconf() aux valeurs entières définies pour ces noms par le système d'exploitation hôte. Cette variable peut être utilisée pour déterminer l'ensemble des noms connus du système d'exploitation.

Disponibilité: Unix.

os.readlink(path, *, dir_fd=None)

Renvoie une chaîne de caractères représentant le chemin vers lequel le lien symbolique pointe. Le résultat peut être soit un chemin relatif, soit un chemin absolu. S'il est relatif, il peut être converti en chemin absolu en utilisant os.path.join(os.path.dirname(path), result).

Si path est une chaîne de caractères (directement ou indirectement à travers une interface PathLike), le résultat sera aussi une chaîne de caractères, et l'appel pourra lever une UnicodeDecodeError. Si path est une chaîne d'octets (directement ou indirectement), le résultat sera une chaîne d'octets.

Cette fonction peut également gérer des chemins relatifs à des descripteurs de répertoires.

Lorsque vous essayez de résoudre un chemin qui peut contenir des liens, utilisez realpath() pour gérer correctement la récursion et les différences de plate-forme.

Disponibilité: Unix, Windows.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Prise en charge des les liens symboliques sur Windows 6.0 (Vista).

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Paramètre dir_fd ajouté.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object sur Unix.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Accepte un path-like object et une chaine d’octets sous Windows.

Added support for directory junctions, and changed to return the substitution path (which typically includes \\?\ prefix) rather than the optional "print name" field that was previously returned.

os.remove(path, *, dir_fd=None)

Remove (delete) the file path. If path is a directory, an OSError is raised. Use rmdir() to remove directories. If the file does not exist, a FileNotFoundError is raised.

Cette fonction prend en charge des chemins relatifs à des descripteurs de répertories.

Sur Windows, tenter de retirer un fichier en cours d'utilisation cause la levée d'une exception, sur Unix, l'entrée du répertoire est supprimé mais l'espace de stockage alloué au fichier ne sera pas disponible avant que le fichier original ne soit plus utilisé.

La fonction est sémantiquement identique à unlink().

Lève un événement d'audit os.remove avec les arguments path, dir_fd.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Paramètre dir_fd ajouté.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

os.removedirs(name)

Supprime des répertoires récursivement. Fonctionne comme rmdir() si ce n'est que si le répertoire feuille est retiré avec succès, removedirs() essaye de supprimer successivement chaque répertoire parent mentionné dans path jusqu'à ce qu'un erreur ne soit levée (ce qui est ignoré car la signification générale en est qu'un répertoire parent n'est pas vide). Par exemple, os.removedirs('foo/bar/baz') supprimera d'abord le répertoire 'foo/bar/baz', et ensuite supprimera 'foo/bar' et puis 'foo' s'ils sont vides. Lève une OSError si le répertoire feuille n'a pas pu être supprimé avec succès.

Lève un événement d'audit os.remove avec les arguments path, dir_fd.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

os.rename(src, dst, *, src_dir_fd=None, dst_dir_fd=None)

Renomme le fichier ou le répertoire src en dst. Si dst existe, l'opération échoue avec une sous-classe OSError dans un certain nombre de cas :

On Windows, if dst exists a FileExistsError is always raised. The operation may fail if src and dst are on different filesystems. Use shutil.move() to support moves to a different filesystem.

On Unix, if src is a file and dst is a directory or vice-versa, an IsADirectoryError or a NotADirectoryError will be raised respectively. If both are directories and dst is empty, dst will be silently replaced. If dst is a non-empty directory, an OSError is raised. If both are files, dst will be replaced silently if the user has permission. The operation may fail on some Unix flavors if src and dst are on different filesystems. If successful, the renaming will be an atomic operation (this is a POSIX requirement).

Cette fonction prend en charge les spécifications src_dir_fd et/ou dst_dir_fd pour fournir des chemins relatifs à des descripteurs de fichiers.

Si vous désirez un écrasement multiplateformes de la destination, utilisez la fonction replace().

Lève un événement d'audit os.rename avec les arguments src, dst, src_dir_ds, dst_dir_fd.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Added the src_dir_fd and dst_dir_fd parameters.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object pour src et dst.

os.renames(old, new)

Fonction récursive de renommage de fichiers ou répertoires. Fonctionne comme rename(), si ce n'est que la création d'un répertoire intermédiaire nécessaire pour rendre le nouveau chemin correct est essayé en premier. Après le renommage, les répertoires correspondant aux segments de chemin les plus à droite de l'ancien nom seront élagués en utilisant removedirs().

Note

Cette fonction peut échouer avec la nouvelle structure de dictionnaire définie si vous n'avez pas les permissions nécessaires pour supprimer le répertoire ou fichier feuille.

Lève un événement d'audit os.rename avec les arguments src, dst, src_dir_ds, dst_dir_fd.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object pour old et new.

os.replace(src, dst, *, src_dir_fd=None, dst_dir_fd=None)

Rename the file or directory src to dst. If dst is a non-empty directory, OSError will be raised. If dst exists and is a file, it will be replaced silently if the user has permission. The operation may fail if src and dst are on different filesystems. If successful, the renaming will be an atomic operation (this is a POSIX requirement).

Cette fonction prend en charge les spécifications src_dir_fd et/ou dst_dir_fd pour fournir des chemins relatifs à des descripteurs de fichiers.

Lève un événement d'audit os.rename avec les arguments src, dst, src_dir_ds, dst_dir_fd.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object pour src et dst.

os.rmdir(path, *, dir_fd=None)

Remove (delete) the directory path. If the directory does not exist or is not empty, a FileNotFoundError or an OSError is raised respectively. In order to remove whole directory trees, shutil.rmtree() can be used.

Cette fonction prend en charge des chemins relatifs à des descripteurs de répertories.

Lève un événement d'audit os.rmdir avec les arguments path, dir_fd.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Paramètre dir_fd ajouté.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

os.scandir(path='.')

Return an iterator of os.DirEntry objects corresponding to the entries in the directory given by path. The entries are yielded in arbitrary order, and the special entries '.' and '..' are not included. If a file is removed from or added to the directory after creating the iterator, whether an entry for that file be included is unspecified.

Utiliser scandir() plutôt que listdir() peut significativement améliorer les performances des codes qui nécessitent aussi l'accès aux types des fichiers ou à leurs attributs, puisque les objets os.DirEntry exposent ces informations si le système d'exploitation les fournit en scannant le répertoire. Toutes les méthodes de os.DirEntry peuvent réaliser un appel système, mais is_dir() et is_file() n'en requièrent normalement un que pour les liens symboliques ; os.DirEntry.stat() nécessite toujours un appel système sous Unix, mais seulement pour les liens symboliques sous Windows.

path peut être un path-like object. Si path est de type bytes (directement ou indirectement à travers une interface PathLike), le type des attributs name et path de chaque os.DirEntry sera bytes ; dans toutes les autres circonstances, ils seront de type str.

Cette fonction peut également gérer la spécification de descripteurs de fichiers. Le descripteur doit référencer un répertoire.

Lève un événement d'audit os.scandir avec l'argument path.

L'itérateur scandir() gère le protocole context manager et possède la méthode suivante :

scandir.close()

Ferme l'itérateur et libère les ressources acquises.

Elle est appelée automatiquement quand l'itérateur est entièrement consommé ou collecté par le ramasse-miettes, ou quand une erreur survient durant l'itération. Il est cependant conseillé de l'appeler explicitement ou d'utiliser l'instruction with.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

L'exemple suivant montre une utilisation simple de scandir() pour afficher tous les fichiers (à part les répertoires) dans le chemin donné par path et ne débutant pas par '.'. L'appel entry.is_file() ne va généralement pas faire d'appel système supplémentaire :

with os.scandir(path) as it:
    for entry in it:
        if not entry.name.startswith('.') and entry.is_file():
            print(entry.name)

Note

On Unix-based systems, scandir() uses the system's opendir() [https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/009695399/functions/opendir.html] and readdir() [https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/009695399/functions/readdir_r.html] functions. On Windows, it uses the Win32 FindFirstFileW [https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa364418(v=vs.85).aspx] and FindNextFileW [https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa364428(v=vs.85).aspx] functions.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Added support for the context manager protocol and the close() method. If a scandir() iterator is neither exhausted nor explicitly closed a ResourceWarning will be emitted in its destructor.

La fonction accepte un path-like object.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Ajout de la gestion des descripteurs de fichiers sur Unix.

class os.DirEntry

Objet donné par scandir() pour exposer le chemin du fichier et d'autres attributs de fichier d'une entrée du répertoire.

scandir() fournira autant d'informations que possible sans faire d'appels système additionnels. Quand un appel système stat() ou lstat() est réalisé, l'objet os.DirEntry mettra le résultat en cache.

Les instances os.DirEntry ne sont pas censées être stockées dans des structures de données à longue durée de vie ; si vous savez que les métadonnées du fichier ont changé ou si un certain temps s'est écoulé depuis l'appel à scandir(), appelez os.stat(entry.path) pour mettre à jour ces informations.

Puisque les méthodes de os.DirEntry peuvent réaliser des appels système, elles peuvent aussi lever des OSError. Si vous avez besoin d'un contrôle fin des erreurs, vous pouvez attraper les OSError en appelant les méthodes de os.DirEntry et les traiter comme il vous semble.

Pour être directement utilisable comme un path-like object, os.DirEntry implémente l'interface PathLike.

Les attributs et méthodes des instances de os.DirEntry sont les suivants :

name

Le nom de fichier de base de l'entrée, relatif à l'argument path de scandir().

L'attribut name sera de type bytes si l'argument path de scandir() est de type bytes, sinon il sera de type str. Utilisez fsdecode() pour décoder des noms de fichiers de types byte.

path

Le nom entier de l'entrée : équivalent à os.path.join(scandir_path, entry.name) où scandir_path est l'argument path de scandir(). Le chemin est absolu uniquement si l'argument path de scandir() était absolu. Si l'argument path à la fonction scandir() est un descripteur de fichier l'attribut path sera égal à l'attribut name.

L'attribut path sera de type bytes si l'argument path de la fonction scandir() est de type bytes, sinon il sera de type str. Utilisez fsdecode() pour décoder des noms de fichiers de type bytes.

inode()

Renvoie le numéro d'inode de l'entrée.

Le résultat est mis en cache dans l'objet os.DirEntry. Utilisez os.stat(entry.path, follow_symlinks=False).st_ino pour obtenir l'information à jour.

Au premier appel non mis en cache, un appel système est requis sur Windows, mais pas sur Unix.

is_dir(*, follow_symlinks=True)

Renvoie True si cette entrée est un répertoire ou un lien symbolique pointant vers un répertoire ; renvoie False si l'entrée est (ou pointe vers) un autre type de fichier, ou s'il n'existe plus.

Si follow_symlinks vaut False, renvoie True uniquement si l'entrée est un répertoire (sans suivre les liens symboliques) ; renvoie False si l'entrée est n'importe quel autre type de fichier ou s'il n'existe plus.

Le résultat est mis en cache dans l'objet os.DirEntry, avec un cache séparé pour les valeurs True ou False de follow_symlinks. Appelez os.stat() avec stat.S_ISDIR() pour obtenir l'information à jour.

Au premier appel non mis en cache, aucun appel système n'est requis dans la plupart du temps. Spécifiquement, sans les liens symboliques, ni Windows, ni Unix ne requiert l'appel système, sauf sur certains systèmes de fichiers sur Unix, comme les système de fichiers de réseau qui renvoient dirent.d_type == DT_UNKNOWN. Si l'entrée est un lien symbolique, un appel système sera requis pour suivre le lien symbolique, à moins que follow_symlinks vaille False.

Cette méthode peut lever une OSError tout comme une PermissionError, mais FileNotFoundError est interceptée et pas levée.

is_file(*, follow_symlinks=True)

Renvoie True si l'entrée est un fichier ou un lien symbolique pointant vers un fichier, renvoie False si l'entrée pointe est (ou pointe sur) sur un dossier ou sur un répertoire ou autre entrée non-fichier, ou s'il n'existe plus.

Si follow_symlinks vaut False, renvoie True uniquement si cette entrée est un fichier (sans suivre les liens symboliques). Renvoie False si l'entrée est un répertoire ou une autre entrée non-fichier, ou s'il n'existe plus.

Le résultat est mis en cache dans l'objet os.DirEntry. La mise en cache, les appels système réalisés, et les exceptions levées sont les mêmes que pour is_dir().

is_symlink()

Renvoie True si l'entrée est un lien symbolique (même cassé). Renvoie False si l'entrée pinte vers un répertoire ou tout autre type de fichier, ou s'il n'existe plus.

Le résultat est mis en cache dans l'objet os.DirEntry. Appelez os.path.islink() pour obtenir l'information à jour.

Au premier appel non mis en cache, aucun appel système n'est requis. Spécifiquement, ni Windows ni Unix ne requiert d'appel système, excepté sur certains systèmes de fichiers Unix qui renvoient dirent.d_type == DT_UNKNOWN.

Cette méthode peut lever une OSError tout comme une PermissionError, mais FileNotFoundError est interceptée et pas levée.

is_junction()

Return True if this entry is a junction (even if broken); return False if the entry points to a regular directory, any kind of file, a symlink, or if it doesn't exist anymore.

The result is cached on the os.DirEntry object. Call os.path.isjunction() to fetch up-to-date information.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

stat(*, follow_symlinks=True)

Renvoie un objet de type stat.result pour cette entrée. Cette méthode suit les liens symboliques par défaut. Pour avoir les statistiques sur un lien symbolique, ajouter l'argument follow_symlinks=False.

On Unix, this method always requires a system call. On Windows, it only requires a system call if follow_symlinks is True and the entry is a reparse point (for example, a symbolic link or directory junction).

Sur Windows, les attributs st_ino, st_dev et st_nlink de la classe stat_result sont toujours définis à 0. Appelez la fonction os.stat() pour avoir ces attributs.

Le résultat est mis en cache dans l'objet os.DirEntry, avec un cache séparé pour les valeurs True ou False de follow_symlinks. Appelez os.stat() pour obtenir l'information à jour.

Note that there is a nice correspondence between several attributes and methods of os.DirEntry and of pathlib.Path. In particular, the name attribute has the same meaning, as do the is_dir(), is_file(), is_symlink(), is_junction(), and stat() methods.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Prise en charge de l'interface PathLike. Ajout du support des chemins bytes sous Windows.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: The st_ctime attribute of a stat result is deprecated on Windows. The file creation time is properly available as st_birthtime, and in the future st_ctime may be changed to return zero or the metadata change time, if available.

os.stat(path, *, dir_fd=None, follow_symlinks=True)

Récupère le statut d'un fichier ou d'un descripteur de fichier. Réalise l'équivalent d'un appel système stat() sur le chemin donné. path peut être exprimé comme une chaîne de caractères ou d'octets -- directement ou indirectement à travers une interface PathLike -- ou comme un descripteur de fichier ouvert. Renvoie un objet stat_result.

Cette fonction suit normalement les liens symboliques. Pour récupérer les informations d'un lien symbolique, ajoutez l'argument follow_symlinks=False ou utilisez la fonction lstat().

Cette fonction peut supporter la spécification d'un descripteur de fichier et le non-suivi des liens symboliques.

On Windows, passing follow_symlinks=False will disable following all name-surrogate reparse points, which includes symlinks and directory junctions. Other types of reparse points that do not resemble links or that the operating system is unable to follow will be opened directly. When following a chain of multiple links, this may result in the original link being returned instead of the non-link that prevented full traversal. To obtain stat results for the final path in this case, use the os.path.realpath() function to resolve the path name as far as possible and call lstat() on the result. This does not apply to dangling symlinks or junction points, which will raise the usual exceptions.

Exemple :

>>> import os
>>> statinfo = os.stat('somefile.txt')
>>> statinfo
os.stat_result(st_mode=33188, st_ino=7876932, st_dev=234881026,
st_nlink=1, st_uid=501, st_gid=501, st_size=264, st_atime=1297230295,
st_mtime=1297230027, st_ctime=1297230027)
>>> statinfo.st_size
264

Voir aussi

les fonctions fstat() et lstat().

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Added the dir_fd and follow_symlinks parameters, specifying a file descriptor instead of a path.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: On Windows, all reparse points that can be resolved by the operating system are now followed, and passing follow_symlinks=False disables following all name surrogate reparse points. If the operating system reaches a reparse point that it is not able to follow, stat now returns the information for the original path as if follow_symlinks=False had been specified instead of raising an error.

class os.stat_result

Object whose attributes correspond roughly to the members of the stat structure. It is used for the result of os.stat(), os.fstat() and os.lstat().

Attributs :

st_mode

Mode du fichier : type du fichier et bits de mode du fichier (permissions).

st_ino

Dépendant de la plateforme, mais lorsqu'il ne vaut pas zéro il identifie de manière unique le fichier pour une certaine valeur de st_dev. Typiquement :

le numéro d'inode sur Unix,

l’index de fichier [https://msdn.microsoft.com/fr-fr/library/aa363788] sur Windows

st_dev

Identifiant du périphérique sur lequel ce fichier se trouve.

st_nlink

Nombre de liens matériels.

st_uid

Identifiant d'utilisateur du propriétaire du fichier.

st_gid

Identifiant de groupe du propriétaire du fichier.

st_size

Taille du fichier en bytes si c'est un fichier normal ou un lien symbolique. La taille d'un lien symbolique est la longueur du nom de chemin qu'il contient sans le byte nul final.

Horodatages :

st_atime

Moment de l'accès le plus récent, exprimé en secondes.

st_mtime

Moment de la modification de contenu la plus récente, exprimé en secondes.

st_ctime

Time of most recent metadata change expressed in seconds.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: st_ctime is deprecated on Windows. Use st_birthtime for the file creation time. In the future, st_ctime will contain the time of the most recent metadata change, as for other platforms.

st_atime_ns

Moment de l'accès le plus récent, exprimé en nanosecondes, par un entier.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

st_mtime_ns

Moment de la modification de contenu la plus récente, exprimé en nanosecondes, par un entier.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

st_ctime_ns

Time of most recent metadata change expressed in nanoseconds as an integer.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: st_ctime_ns is deprecated on Windows. Use st_birthtime_ns for the file creation time. In the future, st_ctime will contain the time of the most recent metadata change, as for other platforms.

st_birthtime

Time of file creation expressed in seconds. This attribute is not always available, and may raise AttributeError.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: st_birthtime is now available on Windows.

st_birthtime_ns

Time of file creation expressed in nanoseconds as an integer. This attribute is not always available, and may raise AttributeError.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Note

The exact meaning and resolution of the st_atime, st_mtime, st_ctime and st_birthtime attributes depend on the operating system and the file system. For example, on Windows systems using the FAT32 file systems, st_mtime has 2-second resolution, and st_atime has only 1-day resolution. See your operating system documentation for details.

Similarly, although st_atime_ns, st_mtime_ns, st_ctime_ns and st_birthtime_ns are always expressed in nanoseconds, many systems do not provide nanosecond precision. On systems that do provide nanosecond precision, the floating-point object used to store st_atime, st_mtime, st_ctime and st_birthtime cannot preserve all of it, and as such will be slightly inexact. If you need the exact timestamps you should always use st_atime_ns, st_mtime_ns, st_ctime_ns and st_birthtime_ns.

Sur certains systèmes Unix (tels que Linux), les attributs suivants peuvent également être disponibles :

st_blocks

Nombre de blocs de 512 bytes alloués pour le fichier. Cette valeur peut être inférieure à st_size/512 quand le fichier a des trous.

st_blksize

Taille de bloc « préférée » pour des entrées-sorties efficaces avec le système de fichiers. Écrire dans un fichier avec des blocs plus petits peut causer des modifications (lecture-écriture-réécriture) inefficaces.

st_rdev

Type de périphérique si l'inode représente un périphérique.

st_flags

Marqueurs définis par l'utilisateur pour le fichier.

Sur d'autres systèmes Unix (tels que FreeBSD), les attributs suivants peuvent être disponibles (mais peuvent être complétés uniquement lorsque le super-utilisateur root tente de les utiliser) :

st_gen

Nombre de génération de fichier.

Sur les systèmes Solaris et dérivés, les attributs suivants peuvent également être disponibles :

st_fstype

Chaîne qui identifie de manière unique le type du système de fichiers qui contient le fichier.

On macOS systems, the following attributes may also be available:

st_rsize

Taillé réelle du fichier.

st_creator

Créateur du fichier.

st_type

Type du fichier.

On Windows systems, the following attributes are also available:

st_file_attributes

Windows file attributes: dwFileAttributes member of the BY_HANDLE_FILE_INFORMATION structure returned by GetFileInformationByHandle(). See the FILE_ATTRIBUTE_* <stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ARCHIVE> constants in the stat module.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

st_reparse_tag

When st_file_attributes has the FILE_ATTRIBUTE_REPARSE_POINT set, this field contains the tag identifying the type of reparse point. See the IO_REPARSE_TAG_* constants in the stat module.

The standard module stat defines functions and constants that are useful for extracting information from a stat structure. (On Windows, some items are filled with dummy values.)

For backward compatibility, a stat_result instance is also accessible as a tuple of at least 10 integers giving the most important (and portable) members of the stat structure, in the order st_mode, st_ino, st_dev, st_nlink, st_uid, st_gid, st_size, st_atime, st_mtime, st_ctime. More items may be added at the end by some implementations. For compatibility with older Python versions, accessing stat_result as a tuple always returns integers.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Windows renvoie maintenant l'index du fichier dans l'attribut st_ino, lorsqu'il est disponible.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Ajout de l'attribut st_fstype sur Solaris et dérivés.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added the st_reparse_tag member on Windows.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: On Windows, the st_mode member now identifies special files as S_IFCHR, S_IFIFO or S_IFBLK as appropriate.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: On Windows, st_ctime is deprecated. Eventually, it will contain the last metadata change time, for consistency with other platforms, but for now still contains creation time. Use st_birthtime for the creation time.

On Windows, st_ino may now be up to 128 bits, depending on the file system. Previously it would not be above 64 bits, and larger file identifiers would be arbitrarily packed.

On Windows, st_rdev no longer returns a value. Previously it would contain the same as st_dev, which was incorrect.

Added the st_birthtime member on Windows.

os.statvfs(path)

Perform a statvfs() system call on the given path. The return value is an object whose attributes describe the filesystem on the given path, and correspond to the members of the statvfs structure, namely: f_bsize, f_frsize, f_blocks, f_bfree, f_bavail, f_files, f_ffree, f_favail, f_flag, f_namemax, f_fsid.

Deux constantes de module sont définies pour le champ-de-bits de l'attribut f_flag : si SR_RDONLY est activé, le système de fichiers est monté en lecture-seule, et si ST_NOSUID est activé, la sémantique des bits de setuid / getuid est désactivée ou non gérée.

Des constantes de module supplémentaires sont définies pour les systèmes basés sur GNU/glibc. Ces constantes sont ST_NODEV (interdit l'accès aux fichiers spéciaux du périphérique), ST_NOEXEC (interdit l'exécution de programmes), ST_SYNCHRONOUS (les écritures sont synchronisées en une fois), ST_MANDLOCK (permet les verrous impératifs sur un système de fichiers), ST_WRITE (écrit sur les fichiers/répertoires/liens symboliques), ST_APPEND (fichiers en ajout-seul), ST_IMMUTABLE (fichiers immuables), ST_NOATIME (ne met pas à jour les moments d'accès), ST_NODIRATIME (ne met pas à jour les moments d'accès aux répertoires), ST_REALTIME (Met atime à jour relativement à mtime / ctime).

Cette fonction prend en charge la spécification d'un descripteur de fichier.

Disponibilité: Unix.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Ajout des constantes ST_RDONLY et ST_NOSUID.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Ajout de la possibilité de spécifier path comme descripteur de fichier ouvert.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Ajout des constantes ST_NODEV, ST_NOEXEC, ST_SYNCHRONOUS, ST_MANDLOCK, ST_WRITE, ST_APPEND, ST_IMMUTABLE, ST_NOATIME, ST_NODIRATIME, et ST_RELATIME.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Added the f_fsid attribute.

os.supports_dir_fd

A set object indicating which functions in the os module accept an open file descriptor for their dir_fd parameter. Different platforms provide different features, and the underlying functionality Python uses to implement the dir_fd parameter is not available on all platforms Python supports. For consistency's sake, functions that may support dir_fd always allow specifying the parameter, but will throw an exception if the functionality is used when it's not locally available. (Specifying None for dir_fd is always supported on all platforms.)

To check whether a particular function accepts an open file descriptor for its dir_fd parameter, use the in operator on supports_dir_fd. As an example, this expression evaluates to True if os.stat() accepts open file descriptors for dir_fd on the local platform:

os.stat in os.supports_dir_fd

Actuellement, le paramètre dir_fd ne fonctionne que sur les plate-formes Unix. Il ne fonctionne jamais sur Windows.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

os.supports_effective_ids

A set object indicating whether os.access() permits specifying True for its effective_ids parameter on the local platform. (Specifying False for effective_ids is always supported on all platforms.) If the local platform supports it, the collection will contain os.access(); otherwise it will be empty.

This expression evaluates to True if os.access() supports effective_ids=True on the local platform:

os.access in os.supports_effective_ids

Currently effective_ids is only supported on Unix platforms; it does not work on Windows.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

os.supports_fd

A set object indicating which functions in the os module permit specifying their path parameter as an open file descriptor on the local platform. Different platforms provide different features, and the underlying functionality Python uses to accept open file descriptors as path arguments is not available on all platforms Python supports.

To determine whether a particular function permits specifying an open file descriptor for its path parameter, use the in operator on supports_fd. As an example, this expression evaluates to True if os.chdir() accepts open file descriptors for path on your local platform:

os.chdir in os.supports_fd

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

os.supports_follow_symlinks

A set object indicating which functions in the os module accept False for their follow_symlinks parameter on the local platform. Different platforms provide different features, and the underlying functionality Python uses to implement follow_symlinks is not available on all platforms Python supports. For consistency's sake, functions that may support follow_symlinks always allow specifying the parameter, but will throw an exception if the functionality is used when it's not locally available. (Specifying True for follow_symlinks is always supported on all platforms.)

To check whether a particular function accepts False for its follow_symlinks parameter, use the in operator on supports_follow_symlinks. As an example, this expression evaluates to True if you may specify follow_symlinks=False when calling os.stat() on the local platform:

os.stat in os.supports_follow_symlinks

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

os.symlink(src, dst, target_is_directory=False, *, dir_fd=None)

Crée un lien symbolique pointant vers src et appelé dst.

The src parameter refers to the target of the link (the file or directory being linked to), and dst is the name of the link being created.

Sur Windows, un lien symbolique représente soit lien vers un fichier, soit lien vers un répertoire mais ne s'adapte pas dynamiquement au type de la cible. Si la cible existe le lien sera crée du même type que sa cible. Dans le cas où cible n'existe pas, si target_is_directory vaut True le lien symbolique sera créé comme un répertoire, sinon comme un fichier (par défaut). Sur les autres plateformes, target_id_directory est ignoré.

Cette fonction prend en charge des chemins relatifs à des descripteurs de répertories.

Note

On newer versions of Windows 10, unprivileged accounts can create symlinks if Developer Mode is enabled. When Developer Mode is not available/enabled, the SeCreateSymbolicLinkPrivilege privilege is required, or the process must be run as an administrator.

OSError est levée quand la fonction est appelée par un utilisateur sans privilèges.

Lève un événement d'audit os.symlink avec les arguments src, dst, dir_fd.

Disponibilité: Unix, Windows.

The function is limited on WASI, see Plateformes WebAssembly for more information.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Prise en charge des les liens symboliques sur Windows 6.0 (Vista).

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Added the dir_fd parameter, and now allow target_is_directory on non-Windows platforms.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object pour src et dst.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added support for unelevated symlinks on Windows with Developer Mode.

os.sync()

Force l'écriture de tout sur le disque.

Disponibilité: Unix.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

os.truncate(path, length)

Tronque le fichier correspondant à path, afin qu'il soit au maximum long de length bytes.

Cette fonction prend en charge la spécification d'un descripteur de fichier.

Lève un événement d'audit os.truncate avec les arguments path, length.

Disponibilité: Unix, Windows.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Prise en charge de Windows

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

os.unlink(path, *, dir_fd=None)

Supprime (retire) le fichier path. Cette fonction est sémantiquement identique à remove(). Le nom unlink est un nom Unix traditionnel. Veuillez voir la documentation de remove() pour plus d'informations.

Lève un événement d'audit os.remove avec les arguments path, dir_fd.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Paramètre dir_fd ajouté.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

os.utime(path, times=None, *, [ns, ]dir_fd=None, follow_symlinks=True)

Définit les derniers moments d'accès et de modification du fichier spécifiés par path.

La fonction utime() prend deux paramètres optionnels, times et ns. Ils spécifient le temps mis pour path et est utilisé comme suit :

Si ns est spécifié, ce doit être un couple de la forme (atime_ns, mtime_ns) où chaque membre est un entier qui exprime des nanosecondes.

Si times ne vaut pas None, ce doit être un couple de la forme (atime, mtime) où chaque membre est un entier ou une expression à virgule flottante.

Si times vaut None, et ns est non-spécifié. C'est équivalent à spécifier ns = (atime_ns, mtime_ns) où les deux moments sont le moment actuel.

Il est erroné de spécifier des n-uplets pour times et ns à la fois.

Note that the exact times you set here may not be returned by a subsequent stat() call, depending on the resolution with which your operating system records access and modification times; see stat(). The best way to preserve exact times is to use the st_atime_ns and st_mtime_ns fields from the os.stat() result object with the ns parameter to utime().

Cette fonction prend en charge la spécification d'un descripteur de fichier, les chemins relatifs à des descripteurs de répertoires, et le non-suivi des liens symboliques.

Lève un événement d'audit os.utime avec les arguments path, times, ns, dir_fd.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Ajoute la prise en charge d'un descripteur de fichier pour path et des paramètres dir_fd, follow_symlinks et ns.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

os.walk(top, topdown=True, onerror=None, followlinks=False)

Génère les noms de fichier dans un arbre de répertoire en parcourant l'arbre soit de bas-en-haut, soit de haut-en-bas. Pour chaque répertoire dans l'arbre enraciné en le répertoire rop (incluant ledit répertoire top), fournit un triplet (dirpath, dirnames, filenames).

dirpath is a string, the path to the directory. dirnames is a list of the names of the subdirectories in dirpath (including symlinks to directories, and excluding '.' and '..'). filenames is a list of the names of the non-directory files in dirpath. Note that the names in the lists contain no path components. To get a full path (which begins with top) to a file or directory in dirpath, do os.path.join(dirpath, name). Whether or not the lists are sorted depends on the file system. If a file is removed from or added to the dirpath directory during generating the lists, whether a name for that file be included is unspecified.

Si l'argument optionnel topdown vaut True ou n'est pas spécifié, le triplet pour un répertoire est généré avant les triplets de tous ses sous-répertoires (les répertoires sont générés de haut-en-bas). Si topdown vaut False, le triplet pour un répertoire est généré après les triplets de tous ses sous-répertoires (les répertoires sont générés de bas-en-haut). Peu importe la valeur de topdown, la liste des sous-répertoires est récupérée avant que les n-uplets pour le répertoires et ses sous-répertoires ne soient générés.

Quand topdown vaut True, l'appelant peut modifier la liste dirnames en place (par exemple en utilisant del ou l'assignation par slicing (par tranches)) et walk() ne fera sa récursion que dans les sous-répertoires dont le nom reste dans dirnames ; cela peut être utilisé pour élaguer la recherche, imposer un ordre particulier de visite, ou encore pour informer walk() des répertoires créés par l'appelant ou renommés avant qu'il quitte walk() à nouveau. Modifier dirnames quand topdown vaut False n'a aucun effet dur le comportement du parcours parce qu'en mode bas-en-haut, les répertoires dans dirnames sont générés avant que dirpath ne soit lui-même généré.

Par défaut, les erreurs d'un appel à scandir() sont ignorées. Si l'argument optionnel onerror est spécifié, il doit être une fonction qui sera appelée avec un seul argument, une instance de OSError. Elle peut rapporter l'erreur et continuer le parcours, ou lever l'exception pour avorter le parcours. Notez que le nom de fichier est disponible dans l'attribut filename de l'objet exception.

Par défaut, walk() ne parcourra pas les liens symboliques qui mènent à un répertoire. Définissez followlinks avec True pour visiter les répertoires pointés par des liens symboliques sur les systèmes qui le gère.

Note

Soyez au courant que définir followlinks avec True peut mener à une récursion infinie si un lien pointe vers un répertoire parent de lui-même. walk() ne garde pas de trace des répertoires qu'il a déjà visité.

Note

Si vous passez un chemin relatif, ne changer pas le répertoire de travail actuel entre deux exécutions de walk(). walk() ne change jamais le répertoire actuel, et suppose que l'appelant ne le fait pas non plus.

This example displays the number of bytes taken by non-directory files in each directory under the starting directory, except that it doesn't look under any __pycache__ subdirectory:

import os
from os.path import join, getsize
for root, dirs, files in os.walk('python/Lib/xml'):
    print(root, "consumes", end=" ")
    print(sum(getsize(join(root, name)) for name in files), end=" ")
    print("bytes in", len(files), "non-directory files")
    if '__pycache__' in dirs:
        dirs.remove('__pycache__')  # don't visit __pycache__ directories

Dans l'exemple suivant (simple implémentation d'un shutil.rmtree()), parcourir l'arbre de bas-en-haut est essentiel : rmdir() ne permet pas de supprimer un répertoire avant qu'un ne soit vide :

# Delete everything reachable from the directory named in "top",
# assuming there are no symbolic links.
# CAUTION:  This is dangerous!  For example, if top == '/', it
# could delete all your disk files.
import os
for root, dirs, files in os.walk(top, topdown=False):
    for name in files:
        os.remove(os.path.join(root, name))
    for name in dirs:
        os.rmdir(os.path.join(root, name))
os.rmdir(top)

Lève un événement d'audit os.walk avec les arguments top, topdown, onerror, followlinks.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Cette fonction appelle maintenant os.scandir() au lieu de os.listdir(), ce qui la rend plus rapide en réduisant le nombre d'appels à os.stat().

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

os.fwalk(top='.', topdown=True, onerror=None, *, follow_symlinks=False, dir_fd=None)

Se comporte exactement comme walk(), si ce n'est qu'il fournit un quadruplet (dirpath, dirnames, filenames, dirfd), et gère dir_fd.

dirpath, dirnames et filenames sont identiques à la sortie de walk() et dirfd est un descripteur de fichier faisant référence au répertoire dirpath.

Cette fonction prend toujours en charge les chemins relatifs à des descripteurs de fichiers et le non-suivi des liens symboliques. Notez cependant qu'à l'inverse des autres fonctions, la valeur par défaut de follow_symlinks pour walk() est False.

Note

Puisque fwalk() fournit des descripteurs de fichiers, ils ne sont valides que jusque la prochaine itération. Donc vous devriez les dupliquer (par exemple avec dup()) si vous désirez les garder plus longtemps.

This example displays the number of bytes taken by non-directory files in each directory under the starting directory, except that it doesn't look under any __pycache__ subdirectory:

import os
for root, dirs, files, rootfd in os.fwalk('python/Lib/xml'):
    print(root, "consumes", end=" ")
    print(sum([os.stat(name, dir_fd=rootfd).st_size for name in files]),
          end=" ")
    print("bytes in", len(files), "non-directory files")
    if '__pycache__' in dirs:
        dirs.remove('__pycache__')  # don't visit __pycache__ directories

Dans le prochain exemple, parcourir l'arbre de bas-en-haut est essentiel : rmdir() ne permet pas de supprimer un répertoire avant qu'il ne soit vide :

# Delete everything reachable from the directory named in "top",
# assuming there are no symbolic links.
# CAUTION:  This is dangerous!  For example, if top == '/', it
# could delete all your disk files.
import os
for root, dirs, files, rootfd in os.fwalk(top, topdown=False):
    for name in files:
        os.unlink(name, dir_fd=rootfd)
    for name in dirs:
        os.rmdir(name, dir_fd=rootfd)

Lève un événement d'audit os.fwalk avec les arguments top, topdown, onerror, follow_symlinks, dir_fd.

Disponibilité: Unix.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Ajout de la gestion des chemins de type bytes.

os.memfd_create(name[, flags=os.MFD_CLOEXEC])

Create an anonymous file and return a file descriptor that refers to it. flags must be one of the os.MFD_* constants available on the system (or a bitwise ORed combination of them). By default, the new file descriptor is non-inheritable.

The name supplied in name is used as a filename and will be displayed as the target of the corresponding symbolic link in the directory /proc/self/fd/. The displayed name is always prefixed with memfd: and serves only for debugging purposes. Names do not affect the behavior of the file descriptor, and as such multiple files can have the same name without any side effects.

Disponibilité: Linux >= 3.17 with glibc >= 2.27.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

os.MFD_CLOEXEC

os.MFD_ALLOW_SEALING

os.MFD_HUGETLB

os.MFD_HUGE_SHIFT

os.MFD_HUGE_MASK

os.MFD_HUGE_64KB

os.MFD_HUGE_512KB

os.MFD_HUGE_1MB

os.MFD_HUGE_2MB

os.MFD_HUGE_8MB

os.MFD_HUGE_16MB

os.MFD_HUGE_32MB

os.MFD_HUGE_256MB

os.MFD_HUGE_512MB

os.MFD_HUGE_1GB

os.MFD_HUGE_2GB

os.MFD_HUGE_16GB

These flags can be passed to memfd_create().

Disponibilité: Linux >= 3.17 with glibc >= 2.27

The MFD_HUGE* flags are only available since Linux 4.14.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

os.eventfd(initval[, flags=os.EFD_CLOEXEC])

Create and return an event file descriptor. The file descriptors supports raw read() and write() with a buffer size of 8, select(), poll() and similar. See man page eventfd(2) [https://manpages.debian.org/eventfd(2)] for more information. By default, the new file descriptor is non-inheritable.

initval is the initial value of the event counter. The initial value must be a 32 bit unsigned integer. Please note that the initial value is limited to a 32 bit unsigned int although the event counter is an unsigned 64 bit integer with a maximum value of 2⁶⁴-2.

flags can be constructed from EFD_CLOEXEC, EFD_NONBLOCK, and EFD_SEMAPHORE.

If EFD_SEMAPHORE is specified and the event counter is non-zero, eventfd_read() returns 1 and decrements the counter by one.

If EFD_SEMAPHORE is not specified and the event counter is non-zero, eventfd_read() returns the current event counter value and resets the counter to zero.

If the event counter is zero and EFD_NONBLOCK is not specified, eventfd_read() blocks.

eventfd_write() increments the event counter. Write blocks if the write operation would increment the counter to a value larger than 2⁶⁴-2.

Exemple :

import os

# semaphore with start value '1'
fd = os.eventfd(1, os.EFD_SEMAPHORE | os.EFD_CLOEXEC)
try:
    # acquire semaphore
    v = os.eventfd_read(fd)
    try:
        do_work()
    finally:
        # release semaphore
        os.eventfd_write(fd, v)
finally:
    os.close(fd)

Disponibilité: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

os.eventfd_read(fd)

Read value from an eventfd() file descriptor and return a 64 bit unsigned int. The function does not verify that fd is an eventfd().

Disponibilité: Linux >= 2.6.27

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

os.eventfd_write(fd, value)

Add value to an eventfd() file descriptor. value must be a 64 bit unsigned int. The function does not verify that fd is an eventfd().

Disponibilité: Linux >= 2.6.27

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

os.EFD_CLOEXEC

Set close-on-exec flag for new eventfd() file descriptor.

Disponibilité: Linux >= 2.6.27

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

os.EFD_NONBLOCK

Set O_NONBLOCK status flag for new eventfd() file descriptor.

Disponibilité: Linux >= 2.6.27

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

os.EFD_SEMAPHORE

Provide semaphore-like semantics for reads from an eventfd() file descriptor. On read the internal counter is decremented by one.

Disponibilité: Linux >= 2.6.30

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

Timer File Descriptors

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

These functions provide support for Linux's timer file descriptor API. Naturally, they are all only available on Linux.

os.timerfd_create(clockid, /, *, flags=0)

Create and return a timer file descriptor (timerfd).

The file descriptor returned by timerfd_create() supports:

read()

select()

poll()

The file descriptor's read() method can be called with a buffer size of 8. If the timer has already expired one or more times, read() returns the number of expirations with the host's endianness, which may be converted to an int by int.from_bytes(x, byteorder=sys.byteorder).

select() and poll() can be used to wait until timer expires and the file descriptor is readable.

clockid must be a valid clock ID, as defined in the time module:

time.CLOCK_REALTIME

time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC

time.CLOCK_BOOTTIME (Since Linux 3.15 for timerfd_create)

If clockid is time.CLOCK_REALTIME, a settable system-wide real-time clock is used. If system clock is changed, timer setting need to be updated. To cancel timer when system clock is changed, see TFD_TIMER_CANCEL_ON_SET.

If clockid is time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC, a non-settable monotonically increasing clock is used. Even if the system clock is changed, the timer setting will not be affected.

If clockid is time.CLOCK_BOOTTIME, same as time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC except it includes any time that the system is suspended.

The file descriptor's behaviour can be modified by specifying a flags value. Any of the following variables may be used, combined using bitwise OR (the | operator):

TFD_NONBLOCK

TFD_CLOEXEC

If TFD_NONBLOCK is not set as a flag, read() blocks until the timer expires. If it is set as a flag, read() doesn't block, but If there hasn't been an expiration since the last call to read, read() raises OSError with errno is set to errno.EAGAIN.

TFD_CLOEXEC is always set by Python automatically.

The file descriptor must be closed with os.close() when it is no longer needed, or else the file descriptor will be leaked.

Voir aussi

The timerfd_create(2) [https://manpages.debian.org/timerfd_create(2)] man page.

Disponibilité: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

os.timerfd_settime(fd, /, *, flags=flags, initial=0.0, interval=0.0)

Alter a timer file descriptor's internal timer. This function operates the same interval timer as timerfd_settime_ns().

fd must be a valid timer file descriptor.

The timer's behaviour can be modified by specifying a flags value. Any of the following variables may be used, combined using bitwise OR (the | operator):

TFD_TIMER_ABSTIME

TFD_TIMER_CANCEL_ON_SET

The timer is disabled by setting initial to zero (0). If initial is equal to or greater than zero, the timer is enabled. If initial is less than zero, it raises an OSError exception with errno set to errno.EINVAL

By default the timer will fire when initial seconds have elapsed. (If initial is zero, timer will fire immediately.)

However, if the TFD_TIMER_ABSTIME flag is set, the timer will fire when the timer's clock (set by clockid in timerfd_create()) reaches initial seconds.

The timer's interval is set by the interval float. If interval is zero, the timer only fires once, on the initial expiration. If interval is greater than zero, the timer fires every time interval seconds have elapsed since the previous expiration. If interval is less than zero, it raises OSError with errno set to errno.EINVAL

If the TFD_TIMER_CANCEL_ON_SET flag is set along with TFD_TIMER_ABSTIME and the clock for this timer is time.CLOCK_REALTIME, the timer is marked as cancelable if the real-time clock is changed discontinuously. Reading the descriptor is aborted with the error ECANCELED.

Linux manages system clock as UTC. A daylight-savings time transition is done by changing time offset only and doesn't cause discontinuous system clock change.

Discontinuous system clock change will be caused by the following events:

settimeofday

clock_settime

set the system date and time by date command

Return a two-item tuple of (next_expiration, interval) from the previous timer state, before this function executed.

Voir aussi

timerfd_create(2) [https://manpages.debian.org/timerfd_create(2)], timerfd_settime(2) [https://manpages.debian.org/timerfd_settime(2)], settimeofday(2) [https://manpages.debian.org/settimeofday(2)], clock_settime(2) [https://manpages.debian.org/clock_settime(2)], and date(1) [https://manpages.debian.org/date(1)].

Disponibilité: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

os.timerfd_settime_ns(fd, /, *, flags=0, initial=0, interval=0)

Similar to timerfd_settime(), but use time as nanoseconds. This function operates the same interval timer as timerfd_settime().

Disponibilité: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

os.timerfd_gettime(fd, /)

Return a two-item tuple of floats (next_expiration, interval).

next_expiration denotes the relative time until the timer next fires, regardless of if the TFD_TIMER_ABSTIME flag is set.

interval denotes the timer's interval. If zero, the timer will only fire once, after next_expiration seconds have elapsed.

Voir aussi

timerfd_gettime(2) [https://manpages.debian.org/timerfd_gettime(2)]

Disponibilité: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

os.timerfd_gettime_ns(fd, /)

Similar to timerfd_gettime(), but return time as nanoseconds.

Disponibilité: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

os.TFD_NONBLOCK

A flag for the timerfd_create() function, which sets the O_NONBLOCK status flag for the new timer file descriptor. If TFD_NONBLOCK is not set as a flag, read() blocks.

Disponibilité: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

os.TFD_CLOEXEC

A flag for the timerfd_create() function, If TFD_CLOEXEC is set as a flag, set close-on-exec flag for new file descriptor.

Disponibilité: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

os.TFD_TIMER_ABSTIME

A flag for the timerfd_settime() and timerfd_settime_ns() functions. If this flag is set, initial is interpreted as an absolute value on the timer's clock (in UTC seconds or nanoseconds since the Unix Epoch).

Disponibilité: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

os.TFD_TIMER_CANCEL_ON_SET

A flag for the timerfd_settime() and timerfd_settime_ns() functions along with TFD_TIMER_ABSTIME. The timer is cancelled when the time of the underlying clock changes discontinuously.

Disponibilité: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Attributs étendus pour Linux

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Toutes ces fonctions ne sont disponibles que sur Linux.

os.getxattr(path, attribute, *, follow_symlinks=True)

Renvoie la valeur de l'attribut étendu attribute du système de fichiers pour le chemin path. attribute peut être une chaîne de caractères ou d'octets (directement ou indirectement à travers une interface PathLike). Si c'est une chaîne de caractères, elle est encodée avec l'encodage du système de fichiers.

Cette fonction peut supporter la spécification d'un descripteur de fichier et le non-suivi des liens symboliques.

Lève un événement d'audit os.getxattr avec les arguments path, attribute.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object pour path et attribute.

os.listxattr(path=None, *, follow_symlinks=True)

Renvoie une liste d'attributs du système de fichiers étendu pour path. Les attributs dans le liste sont représentés par des chaînes de caractères et sont décodés avec l'encodage du système de fichier. Si path vaut None, listxattr() examinera le répertoire actuel.

Cette fonction peut supporter la spécification d'un descripteur de fichier et le non-suivi des liens symboliques.

Lève un événement d'audit os.listxattr avec l'argument path.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

os.removexattr(path, attribute, *, follow_symlinks=True)

Removes the extended filesystem attribute attribute from path. attribute should be bytes or str (directly or indirectly through the PathLike interface). If it is a string, it is encoded with the filesystem encoding and error handler.

Cette fonction peut supporter la spécification d'un descripteur de fichier et le non-suivi des liens symboliques.

Lève un événement d'audit os.removexattr avec les arguments path, attribute.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object pour path et attribute.

os.setxattr(path, attribute, value, flags=0, *, follow_symlinks=True)

Set the extended filesystem attribute attribute on path to value. attribute must be a bytes or str with no embedded NULs (directly or indirectly through the PathLike interface). If it is a str, it is encoded with the filesystem encoding and error handler. flags may be XATTR_REPLACE or XATTR_CREATE. If XATTR_REPLACE is given and the attribute does not exist, ENODATA will be raised. If XATTR_CREATE is given and the attribute already exists, the attribute will not be created and EEXISTS will be raised.

Cette fonction peut supporter la spécification d'un descripteur de fichier et le non-suivi des liens symboliques.

Note

Un bogue des versions inférieures à 2.6.39 du noyau Linux faisait que les marqueurs de flags étaient ignorés sur certains systèmes.

Lève un événement d'audit os.setxattr avec les arguments path, attribute, value, flags.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object pour path et attribute.

os.XATTR_SIZE_MAX

La taille maximum que peut faire la valeur d'un attribut étendu. Actuellement, c'est 64 KiB sur Lniux.

os.XATTR_CREATE

C'est une valeur possible pour l'argument flags de setxattr(). Elle indique que l'opération doit créer un attribut.

os.XATTR_REPLACE

C'est une valeur possible pour l'argument flags de setxattr().Elle indique que l'opération doit remplacer un attribut existant.

Gestion des processus

Ces fonctions peuvent être utilisées pour créer et gérer des processus.

Les variantes des fonctions exec* prennent une liste d'arguments pour le nouveau programme chargé dans le processus. Dans tous les cas, le premier de ces arguments est passé au nouveau programme comme son propre nom plutôt que comme un argument qu'un utilisateur peut avoir tapé en ligne de commande. Pour les développeurs C, c'est l'argument argv[0] qui est passé à la fonction main() du programme. Par exemple, os.execv('/bin/echo/', ['foo', 'bar']) affichera uniquement bar sur la sortie standard ; foo semblera être ignoré.

os.abort()

Génère un signal SIGABRT au processus actuel. Sur Linux, le comportement par défaut est de produire un vidage système (Core Dump) ; sur Windows, le processus renvoie immédiatement un code d'erreur 3. Attention : appeler cette fonction n'appellera pas le gestionnaire de signal Python enregistré par SIGABRT à l'aide de signal.signal().

os.add_dll_directory(path)

Ajoute un chemin aux chemins de recherche de DLL.

This search path is used when resolving dependencies for imported extension modules (the module itself is resolved through sys.path), and also by ctypes.

Remove the directory by calling close() on the returned object or using it in a with statement.

See the Microsoft documentation [https://msdn.microsoft.com/44228cf2-6306-466c-8f16-f513cd3ba8b5] for more information about how DLLs are loaded.

Lève un événement d'audit os.add_dll_directory avec l'argument path.

Disponibilité: Windows.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8: Previous versions of CPython would resolve DLLs using the default behavior for the current process. This led to inconsistencies, such as only sometimes searching PATH or the current working directory, and OS functions such as AddDllDirectory having no effect.

In 3.8, the two primary ways DLLs are loaded now explicitly override the process-wide behavior to ensure consistency. See the porting notes for information on updating libraries.

os.execl(path, arg0, arg1, ...)

os.execle(path, arg0, arg1, ..., env)

os.execlp(file, arg0, arg1, ...)

os.execlpe(file, arg0, arg1, ..., env)

os.execv(path, args)

os.execve(path, args, env)

os.execvp(file, args)

os.execvpe(file, args, env)

Ces fonctions exécutent toutes un nouveau programme, remplaçant le processus actuel, elles ne renvoient pas. Sur Unix, le nouvel exécutable est chargé dans le processus actuel, et aura le même identifiant de processus (PID) que l'appelant. Les erreurs seront reportées par des exceptions OSError.

The current process is replaced immediately. Open file objects and descriptors are not flushed, so if there may be data buffered on these open files, you should flush them using flush() or os.fsync() before calling an exec* function.

The "l" and "v" variants of the exec* functions differ in how command-line arguments are passed. The "l" variants are perhaps the easiest to work with if the number of parameters is fixed when the code is written; the individual parameters simply become additional parameters to the execl*() functions. The "v" variants are good when the number of parameters is variable, with the arguments being passed in a list or tuple as the args parameter. In either case, the arguments to the child process should start with the name of the command being run, but this is not enforced.

The variants which include a "p" near the end (execlp(), execlpe(), execvp(), and execvpe()) will use the PATH environment variable to locate the program file. When the environment is being replaced (using one of the exec*e variants, discussed in the next paragraph), the new environment is used as the source of the PATH variable. The other variants, execl(), execle(), execv(), and execve(), will not use the PATH variable to locate the executable; path must contain an appropriate absolute or relative path. Relative paths must include at least one slash, even on Windows, as plain names will not be resolved.

Pour les fonctions execle(), execlpe(), execve(), et execvpe() (notez qu'elle finissent toutes par « e »), le paramètre env doit être un mapping qui est utilisé pour définir les variables d'environnement du nouveau processus (celles-ci sont utilisées à la place de l'environnement du nouveau processus). Les fonctions execl(), execlp(), execv(), et execvp() causent toutes un héritage de l'environnement du processus actuel par le processus fils.

Pour execve(), sur certaines plate-formes, path peut également être spécifié par un descripteur de fichier ouvert. Cette fonctionnalité peut ne pas être gérée sur votre plate-forme. Vous pouvez vérifier si c'est disponible en utilisant os._supports_fd. Si c'est indisponible, l'utiliser lèvera une NotImplementedError.

Lève un événement d'audit os.exec avec les arguments path, args, env.

Disponibilité: Unix, Windows, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Added support for specifying path as an open file descriptor for execve().

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

os._exit(n)

Quitte le processus avec le statut n, sans appeler les gestionnaires de nettoyage, sans purger les tampons des fichiers, etc.

Note

The standard way to exit is sys.exit(n). _exit() should normally only be used in the child process after a fork().

Les codes de sortie suivants sont définis et peuvent être utilisés avec _exit(), mais ils ne sont pas nécessaires. Ils sont typiquement utilisés pour les programmes systèmes écrits en Python, comme un programme de gestion de l'exécution des commandes d'un serveur de mails.

Note

Certaines de ces valeurs peuvent ne pas être disponibles sur toutes les plate-formes Unix étant donné qu'il en existe des variations. Ces constantes sont définies là où elles sont définies par la plate-forme sous-jacente.

os.EX_OK

Exit code that means no error occurred. May be taken from the defined value of EXIT_SUCCESS on some platforms. Generally has a value of zero.

Disponibilité: Unix, Windows.

os.EX_USAGE

Code de sortie signifiant que les commandes n'ont pas été utilisées correctement, comme quand le mauvais nombre d'arguments a été donné.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

os.EX_DATAERR

Code de sortie signifiant que les données en entrées étaient incorrectes.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

os.EX_NOINPUT

Code de sortie signifiant qu'un des fichiers d'entrée n'existe pas ou n'est pas lisible.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

os.EX_NOUSER

Code de sortie signifiant qu'un utilisateur spécifié n'existe pas.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

os.EX_NOHOST

Code de sortie signifiant qu'un hôte spécifié n'existe pas.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

os.EX_UNAVAILABLE

Code de sortie signifiant qu'un service requis n'est pas disponible.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

os.EX_SOFTWARE

Code de sortie signifiant qu'une erreur interne d'un programme a été détectée.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

os.EX_OSERR

Code de sortie signifiant qu'une erreur du système d'exploitation a été détectée, comme l'incapacité à réaliser un fork ou à créer un tuyau (pipe).

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

os.EX_OSFILE

Code de sortie signifiant qu'un fichier n'existe pas, n'a pas pu être ouvert, ou avait une autre erreur.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

os.EX_CANTCREAT

Code de sortie signifiant qu'un fichier spécifié par l'utilisateur n'a pas pu être créé.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

os.EX_IOERR

Code de sortie signifiant qu'une erreur est apparue pendant une E/S sur un fichier.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

os.EX_TEMPFAIL

Code de sortie signifiant qu'un échec temporaire est apparu. Cela indique quelque chose qui pourrait ne pas être une erreur, comme une connexion au réseau qui n'a pas pu être établie pendant une opération réessayable.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

os.EX_PROTOCOL

Code de sortie signifiant qu'un protocole d'échange est illégal, invalide, ou non-compris.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

os.EX_NOPERM

Code de sortie signifiant qu'il manque certaines permissions pour réaliser une opération (mais n'est pas destiné au problèmes de système de fichiers).

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

os.EX_CONFIG

Code de sortie signifiant qu'une erreur de configuration est apparue.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

os.EX_NOTFOUND

Code de sortie signifiant quelque chose comme « une entrée n'a pas été trouvée ».

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

os.fork()

Fork un processus fils. Renvoie 0 dans le processus fils et le PID du processus fils dans le processus père. Si une erreur apparaît, une OSError est levée.

Note that some platforms including FreeBSD <= 6.3 and Cygwin have known issues when using fork() from a thread.

Lève un évènement d'audit sys.fork sans argument.

Avertissement

If you use TLS sockets in an application calling fork(), see the warning in the ssl documentation.

Avertissement

On macOS the use of this function is unsafe when mixed with using higher-level system APIs, and that includes using urllib.request.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Calling fork() in a subinterpreter is no longer supported (RuntimeError is raised).

Modifié dans la version 3.12: If Python is able to detect that your process has multiple threads, os.fork() now raises a DeprecationWarning.

We chose to surface this as a warning, when detectable, to better inform developers of a design problem that the POSIX platform specifically notes as not supported. Even in code that appears to work, it has never been safe to mix threading with os.fork() on POSIX platforms. The CPython runtime itself has always made API calls that are not safe for use in the child process when threads existed in the parent (such as malloc and free).

Users of macOS or users of libc or malloc implementations other than those typically found in glibc to date are among those already more likely to experience deadlocks running such code.

See this discussion on fork being incompatible with threads [https://discuss.python.org/t/33555] for technical details of why we're surfacing this longstanding platform compatibility problem to developers.

Disponibilité: POSIX, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

os.forkpty()

Fork un processus fils, en utilisant un nouveau pseudo-terminal comme terminal contrôlant le fils. Renvoie une paire (pid, fd) où pid vaut 0 dans le fils et le PID du processus fils dans le parent, et fd est le descripteur de fichier de la partie maître du pseudo-terminal. Pour une approche plus portable, utilisez le module pty. Si une erreur apparaît, une OSError est levée.

Lève un évènement d'audit sys.forkpty sans argument.

Avertissement

On macOS the use of this function is unsafe when mixed with using higher-level system APIs, and that includes using urllib.request.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Calling forkpty() in a subinterpreter is no longer supported (RuntimeError is raised).

Modifié dans la version 3.12: If Python is able to detect that your process has multiple threads, this now raises a DeprecationWarning. See the longer explanation on os.fork().

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

os.kill(pid, sig, /)

Envoie le signal sig au processus pid. Les constantes pour les signaux spécifiques à la plate-forme hôte sont définies dans le module signal.

Windows: The signal.CTRL_C_EVENT and signal.CTRL_BREAK_EVENT signals are special signals which can only be sent to console processes which share a common console window, e.g., some subprocesses. Any other value for sig will cause the process to be unconditionally killed by the TerminateProcess API, and the exit code will be set to sig.

Voir également signal.pthread_kill().

Lève un événement d'audit os.kill avec les arguments pid, sig.

Disponibilité: Unix, Windows, not WASI, not iOS.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Prise en charge de Windows.

os.killpg(pgid, sig, /)

Envoie le signal sig au groupe de processus pgid.

Lève un événement d'audit os.killpg avec les arguments pgid, sig.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI, not iOS.

os.nice(increment, /)

Ajoute increment à la priorité du processus. Renvoie la nouvelle priorité.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

os.pidfd_open(pid, flags=0)

Return a file descriptor referring to the process pid with flags set. This descriptor can be used to perform process management without races and signals.

See the pidfd_open(2) [https://manpages.debian.org/pidfd_open(2)] man page for more details.

Disponibilité: Linux >= 5.3, Android >= build-time API level 31

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

os.PIDFD_NONBLOCK

This flag indicates that the file descriptor will be non-blocking. If the process referred to by the file descriptor has not yet terminated, then an attempt to wait on the file descriptor using waitid(2) [https://manpages.debian.org/waitid(2)] will immediately return the error EAGAIN rather than blocking.

Disponibilité: Linux >= 5.10

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

os.plock(op, /)

Verrouille les segments du programme en mémoire. La valeur de op (définie dans <sys/lock.h>) détermine quels segments sont verrouillés.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI, not iOS.

os.popen(cmd, mode='r', buffering=-1)

Open a pipe to or from command cmd. The return value is an open file object connected to the pipe, which can be read or written depending on whether mode is 'r' (default) or 'w'. The buffering argument have the same meaning as the corresponding argument to the built-in open() function. The returned file object reads or writes text strings rather than bytes.

La méthode close renvoie None si le sous-processus s'est terminé avec succès, ou le code de retour du sous-processus s'il y a eu une erreur. Sur les systèmes POSIX, si le code de retour est positif, il représente la valeur de retour du processus décalée d'un byte sur la gauche. Si le code de retour est négatif, le processus le processus s'est terminé avec le signal donné par la négation de la valeur de retour. (Par exemple, la valeur de retour pourrait être -signal.SIGKILL si le sous-processus a été tué). Sur les systèmes Windows, la valeur de retour contient le code de retour du processus fils dans un entier signé .

On Unix, waitstatus_to_exitcode() can be used to convert the close method result (exit status) into an exit code if it is not None. On Windows, the close method result is directly the exit code (or None).

Ceci est implémenté en utilisant subprocess.Popen. Lisez la documentation de cette classe pour des méthodes plus puissantes pour gérer et communiquer avec des sous-processus.

Disponibilité: not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

Note

The Python UTF-8 Mode affects encodings used for cmd and pipe contents.

popen() is a simple wrapper around subprocess.Popen. Use subprocess.Popen or subprocess.run() to control options like encodings.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.14: The function is soft deprecated and should no longer be used to write new code. The subprocess module is recommended instead.

os.posix_spawn(path, argv, env, *, file_actions=None, setpgroup=None, resetids=False, setsid=False, setsigmask=(), setsigdef=(), scheduler=None)

Wraps the posix_spawn() C library API for use from Python.

Most users should use subprocess.run() instead of posix_spawn().

The positional-only arguments path, args, and env are similar to execve(). env is allowed to be None, in which case current process' environment is used.

The path parameter is the path to the executable file. The path should contain a directory. Use posix_spawnp() to pass an executable file without directory.

The file_actions argument may be a sequence of tuples describing actions to take on specific file descriptors in the child process between the C library implementation's fork() and exec() steps. The first item in each tuple must be one of the three type indicator listed below describing the remaining tuple elements:

os.POSIX_SPAWN_OPEN

(os.POSIX_SPAWN_OPEN, fd, path, flags, mode)

Performs os.dup2(os.open(path, flags, mode), fd).

os.POSIX_SPAWN_CLOSE

(os.POSIX_SPAWN_CLOSE, fd)

Performs os.close(fd).

os.POSIX_SPAWN_DUP2

(os.POSIX_SPAWN_DUP2, fd, new_fd)

Performs os.dup2(fd, new_fd).

os.POSIX_SPAWN_CLOSEFROM

(os.POSIX_SPAWN_CLOSEFROM, fd)

Performs os.closerange(fd, INF).

These tuples correspond to the C library posix_spawn_file_actions_addopen(), posix_spawn_file_actions_addclose(), posix_spawn_file_actions_adddup2(), and posix_spawn_file_actions_addclosefrom_np() API calls used to prepare for the posix_spawn() call itself.

The setpgroup argument will set the process group of the child to the value specified. If the value specified is 0, the child's process group ID will be made the same as its process ID. If the value of setpgroup is not set, the child will inherit the parent's process group ID. This argument corresponds to the C library POSIX_SPAWN_SETPGROUP flag.

If the resetids argument is True it will reset the effective UID and GID of the child to the real UID and GID of the parent process. If the argument is False, then the child retains the effective UID and GID of the parent. In either case, if the set-user-ID and set-group-ID permission bits are enabled on the executable file, their effect will override the setting of the effective UID and GID. This argument corresponds to the C library POSIX_SPAWN_RESETIDS flag.

If the setsid argument is True, it will create a new session ID for posix_spawn. setsid requires POSIX_SPAWN_SETSID or POSIX_SPAWN_SETSID_NP flag. Otherwise, NotImplementedError is raised.

The setsigmask argument will set the signal mask to the signal set specified. If the parameter is not used, then the child inherits the parent's signal mask. This argument corresponds to the C library POSIX_SPAWN_SETSIGMASK flag.

The sigdef argument will reset the disposition of all signals in the set specified. This argument corresponds to the C library POSIX_SPAWN_SETSIGDEF flag.

The scheduler argument must be a tuple containing the (optional) scheduler policy and an instance of sched_param with the scheduler parameters. A value of None in the place of the scheduler policy indicates that is not being provided. This argument is a combination of the C library POSIX_SPAWN_SETSCHEDPARAM and POSIX_SPAWN_SETSCHEDULER flags.

Lève un événement d'audit os.posix_spawn avec les arguments path, argv, env.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: env parameter accepts None. os.POSIX_SPAWN_CLOSEFROM is available on platforms where posix_spawn_file_actions_addclosefrom_np() exists.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

os.posix_spawnp(path, argv, env, *, file_actions=None, setpgroup=None, resetids=False, setsid=False, setsigmask=(), setsigdef=(), scheduler=None)

Wraps the posix_spawnp() C library API for use from Python.

Similar to posix_spawn() except that the system searches for the executable file in the list of directories specified by the PATH environment variable (in the same way as for execvp(3)).

Lève un événement d'audit os.posix_spawn avec les arguments path, argv, env.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

Disponibilité: POSIX, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

See posix_spawn() documentation.

os.register_at_fork(*, before=None, after_in_parent=None, after_in_child=None)

Enregistre des appelables (callables) à exécuter quand un nouveau processus enfant est crée avec os.fork() ou des APIs similaires de clonage de processus. Les paramètres sont optionnels et par mots-clé uniquement. Chacun spécifie un point d'appel différent.

before est une fonction appelée avant de forker un processus enfant.

after_in_parent est une fonction appelée depuis le processus parent après avoir forké un processus enfant.

after_in_child est une fonction appelée depuis le processus enfant.

Ces appels ne sont effectués que si le contrôle est censé retourner à l'interpréteur Python. Un lancement de subprocess typique ne les déclenchera pas, car l'enfant ne ré-entre pas dans l'interpréteur.

Les fonctions enregistrées pour l'exécution avant le fork sont appelées dans l'ordre inverse à leur enregistrement. Les fonctions enregistrées pour l'exécution après le fork (soit dans le parent ou dans l'enfant) sont appelées dans l'ordre de leur enregistrement.

Notez que les appels à fork() faits par du code C de modules tiers peuvent ne pas appeler ces fonctions, à moins que ce code appelle explicitement PyOS_BeforeFork(), PyOS_AfterFork_Parent() et PyOS_AfterFork_Child().

Il n'y a aucun moyen d'annuler l'enregistrement d'une fonction.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

os.spawnl(mode, path, ...)

os.spawnle(mode, path, ..., env)

os.spawnlp(mode, file, ...)

os.spawnlpe(mode, file, ..., env)

os.spawnv(mode, path, args)

os.spawnve(mode, path, args, env)

os.spawnvp(mode, file, args)

os.spawnvpe(mode, file, args, env)

Exécute le programme path dans un nouveau processus.

(Notez que le module subprocess fournit des outils plus puissants pour générer de nouveaux processus et récupérer leur valeur de retour. Il est préférable d'utiliser ce module que ces fonctions. Voyez surtout la section Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module.)

Si mode vaut P_NOWAIT, cette fonction renvoie le PID du nouveau processus, et si mode vaut P_WAIT, la fonction renvoie le code de sortie du processus s'il se termine normalement, ou -signal où signal est le signal qui a tué le processus. Sur Windows, le PID du processus sera en fait l'identificateur du processus (process handle) et peut donc être utilisé avec la fonction waitpid().

Note on VxWorks, this function doesn't return -signal when the new process is killed. Instead it raises OSError exception.

The "l" and "v" variants of the spawn* functions differ in how command-line arguments are passed. The "l" variants are perhaps the easiest to work with if the number of parameters is fixed when the code is written; the individual parameters simply become additional parameters to the spawnl*() functions. The "v" variants are good when the number of parameters is variable, with the arguments being passed in a list or tuple as the args parameter. In either case, the arguments to the child process must start with the name of the command being run.

Les variantes qui incluent un « p » vers la fin (spawnlp(), spawnlpe(), spawnvp(), et spawnvpe()) utiliseront la variable d'environnement PATH pour localiser le programme file. Quand l'environnement est remplacé (en utilisant une des variantes spawn*e, discutées dans le paragraphe suivant), le nouvel environnement est utilisé comme source de la variable d'environnement PATH. Les autres variantes spawnl(), spawnle(), spawnv(), et spawnve() n'utiliseront pas la variable d'environnement PATH pour localiser l'exécutable. path doit contenir un chemin absolue ou relatif approprié.

Pour les fonctions spawnle(), spawnlpe(), spawnve(), et spawnvpe() (notez qu'elles finissent toutes par « e »), le paramètre env doit être un mapping qui est utilisé pour définir les variables d'environnement du nouveau processus (celles-ci sont utilisées à la place de l'environnement du nouveau processus). Les fonctions spawnl(), spawnlp(), spawnv(), et spawnvp() causent toutes un héritage de l'environnement du processus actuel par le processus fils. Notez que les clefs et les valeurs du dictionnaire env doivent être des chaînes de caractères. Des valeurs invalides pour les clefs ou les valeurs met la fonction en échec et renvoie 127.

Par exemple, les appels suivants à spawnlp() et spawnvpe() sont équivalents :

import os
os.spawnlp(os.P_WAIT, 'cp', 'cp', 'index.html', '/dev/null')

L = ['cp', 'index.html', '/dev/null']
os.spawnvpe(os.P_WAIT, 'cp', L, os.environ)

Lève un événement d'audit os.spawn avec les arguments mode, path, args, env.

Disponibilité: Unix, Windows, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

spawnlp(), spawnlpe(), spawnvp(), et spawnvpe() ne sont pas disponibles sur Windows. spawnle() et spawnve() ne sont pas sécurisés pour les appels concurrents (thread-safe) sur Windows, il est conseillé d'utiliser le module subprocess à la place.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.14: These functions are soft deprecated and should no longer be used to write new code. The subprocess module is recommended instead.

os.P_NOWAIT

os.P_NOWAITO

Possible values for the mode parameter to the spawn* family of functions. If either of these values is given, the spawn* functions will return as soon as the new process has been created, with the process id as the return value.

Disponibilité: Unix, Windows.

os.P_WAIT

Possible value for the mode parameter to the spawn* family of functions. If this is given as mode, the spawn* functions will not return until the new process has run to completion and will return the exit code of the process the run is successful, or -signal if a signal kills the process.

Disponibilité: Unix, Windows.

os.P_DETACH

os.P_OVERLAY

Valeurs possibles pour le paramètre mode de la famille de fonctions spawn*. Ces valeurs sont moins portables que celles listées plus haut. P_DETACH est similaire à P_NOWAIT, mais le nouveau processus est détaché de la console du processus appelant. Si P_OVERLAY est utilisé, le processus actuel sera remplacé. La fonction spawn* ne sort jamais.

Disponibilité: Windows.

os.startfile(path[, operation][, arguments][, cwd][, show_cmd])

Lance un fichier avec son application associée.

When operation is not specified, this acts like double-clicking the file in Windows Explorer, or giving the file name as an argument to the start command from the interactive command shell: the file is opened with whatever application (if any) its extension is associated.

When another operation is given, it must be a "command verb" that specifies what should be done with the file. Common verbs documented by Microsoft are 'open', 'print' and 'edit' (to be used on files) as well as 'explore' and 'find' (to be used on directories).

When launching an application, specify arguments to be passed as a single string. This argument may have no effect when using this function to launch a document.

The default working directory is inherited, but may be overridden by the cwd argument. This should be an absolute path. A relative path will be resolved against this argument.

Use show_cmd to override the default window style. Whether this has any effect will depend on the application being launched. Values are integers as supported by the Win32 ShellExecute() function.

startfile() returns as soon as the associated application is launched. There is no option to wait for the application to close, and no way to retrieve the application's exit status. The path parameter is relative to the current directory or cwd. If you want to use an absolute path, make sure the first character is not a slash ('/') Use pathlib or the os.path.normpath() function to ensure that paths are properly encoded for Win32.

To reduce interpreter startup overhead, the Win32 ShellExecute() function is not resolved until this function is first called. If the function cannot be resolved, NotImplementedError will be raised.

Lève un événement d'audit os.startfile avec les arguments path, operation.

Raises an auditing event os.startfile/2 with arguments path, operation, arguments, cwd, show_cmd.

Disponibilité: Windows.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Added the arguments, cwd and show_cmd arguments, and the os.startfile/2 audit event.

os.system(command)

Execute the command (a string) in a subshell. This is implemented by calling the Standard C function system(), and has the same limitations. Changes to sys.stdin, etc. are not reflected in the environment of the executed command. If command generates any output, it will be sent to the interpreter standard output stream. The C standard does not specify the meaning of the return value of the C function, so the return value of the Python function is system-dependent.

On Unix, the return value is the exit status of the process encoded in the format specified for wait().

Sur Windows, la valeur de retour est celle renvoyée par l'invite de commande système après avoir lancé command. L'invite de commande est donné par la variable d'environnement Windows COMSPEC. Elle vaut habituellement cmd.exe, qui renvoie l'état de sortie de la commande lancée. Sur les systèmes qui utilisent un invite de commande non-natif, consultez la documentation propre à l'invite.

The subprocess module provides more powerful facilities for spawning new processes and retrieving their results; using that module is recommended to using this function. See the Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module section in the subprocess documentation for some helpful recipes.

On Unix, waitstatus_to_exitcode() can be used to convert the result (exit status) into an exit code. On Windows, the result is directly the exit code.

Lève un évènement d'audit os.system avec comme argument command.

Disponibilité: Unix, Windows, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

os.times()

Renvoie les temps globaux actuels d'exécution du processus. La valeur de retour est un objet avec cinq attributs :

user - user time

system - system time

children_user - user time of all child processes

children_system - system time of all child processes

elapsed - elapsed real time since a fixed point in the past

For backwards compatibility, this object also behaves like a five-tuple containing user, system, children_user, children_system, and elapsed in that order.

See the Unix manual page times(2) [https://manpages.debian.org/times(2)] and times(3) [https://man.freebsd.org/cgi/man.cgi?time(3)] manual page on Unix or the GetProcessTimes MSDN [https://docs.microsoft.com/windows/win32/api/processthreadsapi/nf-processthreadsapi-getprocesstimes] on Windows. On Windows, only user and system are known; the other attributes are zero.

Disponibilité: Unix, Windows.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Type de retour changé d'un quintuplet en un objet compatible avec le type n-uplet, avec des attributs nommés.

os.wait()

Attend qu'un processus fils soit complété, et renvoie une paire contenant son PID et son état de sortie : un nombre de 16 bits dont le byte de poids faible est le nombre correspondant au signal qui a tué le processus, et dont le byte de poids fort est le statut de sortie (si la signal vaut 0). Le bit de poids fort du byte de poids faible est mis à 1 si un (fichier système) core file a été produit.

If there are no children that could be waited for, ChildProcessError is raised.

waitstatus_to_exitcode() can be used to convert the exit status into an exit code.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

Voir aussi

The other wait*() functions documented below can be used to wait for the completion of a specific child process and have more options. waitpid() is the only one also available on Windows.

os.waitid(idtype, id, options, /)

Wait for the completion of a child process.

idtype can be P_PID, P_PGID, P_ALL, or (on Linux) P_PIDFD. The interpretation of id depends on it; see their individual descriptions.

options is an OR combination of flags. At least one of WEXITED, WSTOPPED or WCONTINUED is required; WNOHANG and WNOWAIT are additional optional flags.

The return value is an object representing the data contained in the siginfo_t structure with the following attributes:

si_pid (process ID)

si_uid (real user ID of the child)

si_signo (always SIGCHLD)

si_status (the exit status or signal number, depending on si_code)

si_code (see CLD_EXITED for possible values)

If WNOHANG is specified and there are no matching children in the requested state, None is returned. Otherwise, if there are no matching children that could be waited for, ChildProcessError is raised.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: This function is now available on macOS as well.

os.waitpid(pid, options, /)

Les détails de cette fonction diffèrent sur Unix et Windows.

Sur Unix : attend qu'un processus fils donné par son id de processus pid soit terminé, et renvoie une paire contenant son PID et son statut de sortie (encodé comme pour wait()). La sémantique de cet appel est affecté par la valeur de l'argument entier options, qui devrait valoir 0 pour les opérations normales.

Si pid est plus grand que 0, waitpid() introduit une requête pour des informations sur le statut du processus spécifié. Si pid vaut 0, la requête est pour le statut de tous les fils dans le groupe de processus du processus actuel. Si pid vaut -1, la requête concerne tous les processus fils du processus actuel. Si pid est inférieur à -1, une requête est faite pour le statut de chaque processus du groupe de processus donné par -pid (la valeur absolue de pid).

options is an OR combination of flags. If it contains WNOHANG and there are no matching children in the requested state, (0, 0) is returned. Otherwise, if there are no matching children that could be waited for, ChildProcessError is raised. Other options that can be used are WUNTRACED and WCONTINUED.

Sur Windows : attend que qu'un processus donné par l'identificateur de processus (process handle) pid soit complété, et renvoie une paire contenant pid et son statut de sortie décalé de 8 bits vers la gauche (le décalage rend l'utilisation multiplateformes plus facile). Un pid inférieur ou égal à 0 n'a aucune signification particulière en Windows, et lève une exception. L'argument entier options n'a aucun effet. pid peut faire référence à tout processus dont l'identifiant est connu et pas nécessairement à un processus fils. Les fonctions spawn* appelées avec P_NOWAIT renvoient des identificateurs de processus appropriés.

waitstatus_to_exitcode() can be used to convert the exit status into an exit code.

Disponibilité: Unix, Windows, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Si l'appel système est interrompu et que le gestionnaire de signal ne lève aucune exception, la fonction réessaye l'appel système au lieu de lever une InterruptedError (voir la PEP 475 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/] à propos du raisonnement).

os.wait3(options)

Similar to waitpid(), except no process id argument is given and a 3-element tuple containing the child's process id, exit status indication, and resource usage information is returned. Refer to resource.getrusage() for details on resource usage information. The options argument is the same as that provided to waitpid() and wait4().

waitstatus_to_exitcode() can be used to convert the exit status into an exitcode.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

os.wait4(pid, options)

Similar to waitpid(), except a 3-element tuple, containing the child's process id, exit status indication, and resource usage information is returned. Refer to resource.getrusage() for details on resource usage information. The arguments to wait4() are the same as those provided to waitpid().

waitstatus_to_exitcode() can be used to convert the exit status into an exitcode.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

os.P_PID

os.P_PGID

os.P_ALL

os.P_PIDFD

These are the possible values for idtype in waitid(). They affect how id is interpreted:

P_PID - wait for the child whose PID is id.

P_PGID - wait for any child whose progress group ID is id.

P_ALL - wait for any child; id is ignored.

P_PIDFD - wait for the child identified by the file descriptor id (a process file descriptor created with pidfd_open()).

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

Note

P_PIDFD is only available on Linux >= 5.4.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9: The P_PIDFD constant.

os.WCONTINUED

This options flag for waitpid(), wait3(), wait4(), and waitid() causes child processes to be reported if they have been continued from a job control stop since they were last reported.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

os.WEXITED

This options flag for waitid() causes child processes that have terminated to be reported.

The other wait* functions always report children that have terminated, so this option is not available for them.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

os.WSTOPPED

This options flag for waitid() causes child processes that have been stopped by the delivery of a signal to be reported.

This option is not available for the other wait* functions.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

os.WUNTRACED

This options flag for waitpid(), wait3(), and wait4() causes child processes to also be reported if they have been stopped but their current state has not been reported since they were stopped.

This option is not available for waitid().

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

os.WNOHANG

This options flag causes waitpid(), wait3(), wait4(), and waitid() to return right away if no child process status is available immediately.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

os.WNOWAIT

This options flag causes waitid() to leave the child in a waitable state, so that a later wait*() call can be used to retrieve the child status information again.

This option is not available for the other wait* functions.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

os.CLD_EXITED

os.CLD_KILLED

os.CLD_DUMPED

os.CLD_TRAPPED

os.CLD_STOPPED

os.CLD_CONTINUED

These are the possible values for si_code in the result returned by waitid().

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Added CLD_KILLED and CLD_STOPPED values.

os.waitstatus_to_exitcode(status)

Convert a wait status to an exit code.

On Unix:

If the process exited normally (if WIFEXITED(status) is true), return the process exit status (return WEXITSTATUS(status)): result greater than or equal to 0.

If the process was terminated by a signal (if WIFSIGNALED(status) is true), return -signum where signum is the number of the signal that caused the process to terminate (return -WTERMSIG(status)): result less than 0.

Otherwise, raise a ValueError.

On Windows, return status shifted right by 8 bits.

On Unix, if the process is being traced or if waitpid() was called with WUNTRACED option, the caller must first check if WIFSTOPPED(status) is true. This function must not be called if WIFSTOPPED(status) is true.

Voir aussi

WIFEXITED(), WEXITSTATUS(), WIFSIGNALED(), WTERMSIG(), WIFSTOPPED(), WSTOPSIG() functions.

Disponibilité: Unix, Windows, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

Les fonctions suivantes prennent un code de statu tel que renvoyé par system(), wait(), ou waitpid() en paramètre. Ils peuvent être utilisés pour déterminer la disposition d'un processus.

os.WCOREDUMP(status, /)

Renvoie True si un vidage système (core dump) a été généré pour le processus, sinon, renvoie False.

This function should be employed only if WIFSIGNALED() is true.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

os.WIFCONTINUED(status)

Return True if a stopped child has been resumed by delivery of SIGCONT (if the process has been continued from a job control stop), otherwise return False.

See WCONTINUED option.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

os.WIFSTOPPED(status)

Return True if the process was stopped by delivery of a signal, otherwise return False.

WIFSTOPPED() only returns True if the waitpid() call was done using WUNTRACED option or when the process is being traced (see ptrace(2) [https://manpages.debian.org/ptrace(2)]).

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

os.WIFSIGNALED(status)

Return True if the process was terminated by a signal, otherwise return False.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

os.WIFEXITED(status)

Return True if the process exited terminated normally, that is, by calling exit() or _exit(), or by returning from main(); otherwise return False.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

os.WEXITSTATUS(status)

Return the process exit status.

This function should be employed only if WIFEXITED() is true.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

os.WSTOPSIG(status)

Renvoie le signal qui a causé l'arrêt du processus.

This function should be employed only if WIFSTOPPED() is true.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

os.WTERMSIG(status)

Return the number of the signal that caused the process to terminate.

This function should be employed only if WIFSIGNALED() is true.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

Interface pour l'ordonnanceur

Ces fonctions contrôlent un processus se voit allouer du temps de processus par le système d'exploitation. Elles ne sont disponibles que sur certaines plate-formes Unix. Pour des informations plus détaillées, consultez les pages de manuels Unix.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Les polices d'ordonnancement suivantes sont exposées si elles sont gérées par le système d'exploitation.

os.SCHED_OTHER

La police d'ordonnancement par défaut.

os.SCHED_BATCH

Police d'ordonnancement pour les processus intensifs en utilisation du processeur. Cette police essaye de préserver l'interactivité pour le reste de l'ordinateur.

os.SCHED_DEADLINE

Scheduling policy for tasks with deadline constraints.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

os.SCHED_IDLE

Police d'ordonnancement pour les tâches de fond avec une priorité extrêmement faible.

os.SCHED_NORMAL

Alias for SCHED_OTHER.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

os.SCHED_SPORADIC

Police d'ordonnancement pour des programmes serveurs sporadiques.

os.SCHED_FIFO

Une police d'ordonnancement FIFO (dernier arrivé, premier servi).

os.SCHED_RR

Une police d'ordonnancement round-robin (tourniquet).

os.SCHED_RESET_ON_FORK

Cette option peut combiner différentes politiques d'ordonnancement avec un OU bit-à-bit. Quand un processus avec cette option se dédouble, la politique d'ordonnancement et la priorité du processus fils sont remises aux valeurs par défaut.

class os.sched_param(sched_priority)

Cette classe représente des paramètres d'ordonnancement réglables utilisés pour sched_setparam(), sched_setscheduler(), et sched_getparam(). Un objet de ce type est immuable.

Pour le moment, il n'y a qu'un seul paramètre possible :

sched_priority

La priorité d'ordonnancement pour une police d'ordonnancement.

os.sched_get_priority_min(policy)

Récupère la valeur minimum pour une priorité pour la police policy. policy est une des constantes de police définies ci-dessus.

os.sched_get_priority_max(policy)

Récupère la valeur maximum pour une priorité pour la police policy. policy est une des constantes de police définies ci-dessus.

os.sched_setscheduler(pid, policy, param, /)

Définit la police d'ordonnancement pour le processus de PID pid. Un pid de 0 signifie le processus appelant. policy est une des constantes de police définies ci-dessus. param est une instance de la classe sched_param.

os.sched_getscheduler(pid, /)

Renvoie la police d'ordonnancement pour le processus de PID pid. Un pid de 0 signifie le processus appelant. Le résultat est une des constantes de police définies ci-dessus.

os.sched_setparam(pid, param, /)

Set the scheduling parameters for the process with PID pid. A pid of 0 means the calling process. param is a sched_param instance.

os.sched_getparam(pid, /)

Renvoie les paramètres d'ordonnancement dans une de sched_param pour le processus de PID pid. Un pid de 0 signifie le processus appelant.

os.sched_rr_get_interval(pid, /)

Renvoie le quantum de temps du round-robin (en secondes) pour le processus de PID pid. Un pid de 0 signifie le processus appelant.

os.sched_yield()

Voluntarily relinquish the CPU. See sched_yield(2) [https://manpages.debian.org/sched_yield(2)] for details.

os.sched_setaffinity(pid, mask, /)

Restreint le processus de PID pid (ou le processus actuel si pid vaut 0) à un ensemble de CPUs. mask est un itérable d'entiers représentant l'ensemble de CPUs auquel le processus doit être restreint.

os.sched_getaffinity(pid, /)

Return the set of CPUs the process with PID pid is restricted to.

If pid is zero, return the set of CPUs the calling thread of the current process is restricted to.

See also the process_cpu_count() function.

Diverses informations sur le système

os.confstr(name, /)

Renvoie les valeurs de configuration en chaînes de caractères. name spécifie la valeur de configuration à récupérer. Ce peut être une chaîne de caractères représentant le nom d'une valeur système définie dans un nombre de standards (POSIX, Unix 95, Unix 98, et d'autres). Certaines plate-formes définissent des noms supplémentaires également. Les noms connus par le système d'exploitation hôte sont données dans les clefs du dictionnaire confstr_names. Pour les variables de configuration qui ne sont pas incluses dans ce mapping, passer un entier pour name est également accepté.

Si la valeur de configuration spécifiée par name n'est pas définie, None est renvoyé.

Si name est une chaîne de caractères et n'est pas connue, une ValueError est levée. Si une valeur spécifique pour name n'est pas gérée par le système hôte, même si elle est incluse dans confstr_names, une OSError est levée avec errno.EINVAL pour numéro d'erreur.

Disponibilité: Unix.

os.confstr_names

Dictionnaire liant les noms acceptés par confstr() aux valeurs entières définies pour ces noms par le système d'exploitation hôte. Cela peut être utilisé pour déterminer l'ensemble des noms connus du système.

Disponibilité: Unix.

os.cpu_count()

Return the number of logical CPUs in the system. Returns None if undetermined.

The process_cpu_count() function can be used to get the number of logical CPUs usable by the calling thread of the current process.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: If -X cpu_count is given or PYTHON_CPU_COUNT is set, cpu_count() returns the override value n.

os.getloadavg()

Renvoie le nombre de processus dans la file d'exécution du système en moyenne dans les dernières 1, 5, et 15 minutes, ou lève une OSError si la charge moyenne est impossible à récupérer.

Disponibilité: Unix.

os.process_cpu_count()

Get the number of logical CPUs usable by the calling thread of the current process. Returns None if undetermined. It can be less than cpu_count() depending on the CPU affinity.

The cpu_count() function can be used to get the number of logical CPUs in the system.

If -X cpu_count is given or PYTHON_CPU_COUNT is set, process_cpu_count() returns the override value n.

See also the sched_getaffinity() function.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

os.sysconf(name, /)

Renvoie les valeurs de configuration en nombres entiers. Si la valeur de configuration définie par name n'est pas spécifiée, -1 est renvoyé. Les commentaires concernant le paramètre name de confstr() s'appliquent également ici, le dictionnaire qui fournit les informations sur les noms connus est donné par sysconf_names.

Disponibilité: Unix.

os.sysconf_names

Dictionnaire liant les noms acceptés par sysconf() aux valeurs entières définies pour ces noms par le système d'exploitation hôte. Cela peut être utilisé pour déterminer l'ensemble des noms connus du système.

Disponibilité: Unix.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Add 'SC_MINSIGSTKSZ' name.

Les valeurs suivantes sont utilisées pour gérer les opérations de manipulations de chemins. Elles sont définies pour toutes les plate-formes.

Des opérations de plus haut niveau sur les chemins sont définies dans le module os.path.

os.curdir

La chaîne de caractère constante utilisée par le système d'exploitation pour référencer le répertoire actuel. Ça vaut '.' pour Windows et POSIX. Également disponible par os.path.

os.pardir

La chaîne de caractère constante utilisée par le système d'exploitation pour référencer le répertoire parent. Ça vaut '..' pour Windows et POSIX. Également disponible par os.path.

os.sep

Le caractère utilisé par le système d'exploitation pour séparer les composantes des chemins. C'est '/' pour POSIX, et '\\' pour Windows. Notez que ce n'est pas suffisant pour pouvoir analyser ou concaténer correctement des chemins (utilisez alors os.path.split() et os.path.join()), mais ça peut s'avérer utile occasionnellement. Également disponible par os.path.

os.altsep

Un caractère alternatif utilisé par le système d'exploitation pour séparer les composantes des chemins, ou None si un seul séparateur existe. Ça vaut '/' sur Windows où sep est un antislash '\'. Également disponible par os.path.

os.extsep

Le caractère qui sépare la base du nom d'un fichier et son extension. Par exemple, le '.' de os.py. Également disponible par os.path.

os.pathsep

Le caractère conventionnellement utilisé par le système d'exploitation pour séparer la recherche des composantes de chemin (comme dans la variable d'environnement PATH). Cela vaut ':' pour POSIX, ou ';' pour Windows. Également disponible par os.path.

os.defpath

Le chemin de recherche par défaut utilisé par exec* et spawn* si l'environnement n'a pas une clef 'PATH'. Également disponible par os.path.

os.linesep

La chaîne de caractères utilisée pour séparer (ou plutôt pour terminer) les lignes sur la plate-forme actuelle. Ce peut être un caractère unique (comme '\n' pour POSIX,) ou plusieurs caractères (comme '\r\n' pour Windows). N'utilisez pas os.linesep comme terminateur de ligne quand vous écrivez dans un fichier ouvert en mode texte (par défaut). Utilisez un unique '\n' à la place, sur toutes les plate-formes.

os.devnull

Le chemin de fichier du périphérique null. Par exemple : '/dev/null' pour POSIX, 'nul' pour Windows. Également disponible par os.path.

os.RTLD_LAZY

os.RTLD_NOW

os.RTLD_GLOBAL

os.RTLD_LOCAL

os.RTLD_NODELETE

os.RTLD_NOLOAD

os.RTLD_DEEPBIND

Marqueurs à utiliser avec les fonctions setdlopenflags() et getdlopenflags(). Voir les pages de manuel Unix dlopen(3) [https://manpages.debian.org/dlopen(3)] pour les différences de significations entre les marqueurs.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Nombres aléatoires

os.getrandom(size, flags=0)

Obtient size octets aléatoires. La fonction renvoie éventuellement moins d'octets que demandé.

Ces octets peuvent être utilisés pour initialiser un générateur de nombres aléatoires dans l'espace utilisateur ou pour des raisons cryptographiques.

getrandom() se base sur l'entropie rassemblée depuis les pilotes des périphériques et autres sources de bruits de l'environnement. La lecture de grosses quantités de données aura un impact négatif sur les autres utilisateurs des périphériques /dev/random et /dev/urandom.

The flags argument is a bit mask that can contain zero or more of the following values ORed together: os.GRND_RANDOM and GRND_NONBLOCK.

See also the Linux getrandom() manual page [https://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man2/getrandom.2.html].

Disponibilité: Linux >= 3.17.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

os.urandom(size, /)

Return a bytestring of size random bytes suitable for cryptographic use.

Cette fonction renvoie des octets aléatoires depuis un source spécifique à l'OS. Les données renvoyées sont censées être suffisamment imprévisibles pour les applications cryptographiques, bien que la qualité dépende de l'implémentation du système.

Sous Linux, si l'appel système getrandom() est disponible, il est utilisé en mode bloquant : il bloque jusqu'à ce que la réserve d'entropie d'urandom soit initialisée (128 bits d'entropie sont collectés par le noyau). Voir la PEP 524 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0524/] pour plus d'explications. Sous Linux, la fonction getrandom() peut être utilisée pour obtenir des octets aléatoires en mode non-bloquant (avec l'option GRND_NONBLOCK) ou attendre jusqu'à ce que la réserve d'entropie d'urandom soit initialisée.

Sur un système de type UNIX, les octets aléatoires sont lus depuis le périphérique /dev/urandom. Si le périphérique /dev/urandom n'est pas disponible ou n'est pas lisible, l'exception NotImplementedError est levée.

On Windows, it will use BCryptGenRandom().

Voir aussi

Le module secrets fournit des fonctions de plus haut niveau. Pour une interface facile à utiliser du générateur de nombres aléatoires fourni par votre plate-forme, veuillez regarder random.SystemRandom.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Sur Linux 3.17 et plus récent, l'appel système getrandom() est maintenant utilisé quand il est disponible. Sur OpenBSD 5.6 et plus récent, la fonction C getentropy() est utilisée. Ces fonctions évitent l'utilisation interne d'un descripteur de fichier.

Modifié dans la version 3.5.2: Sous Linux, si l'appel système getrandom() bloque (la réserve d'entropie d'urandom n'est pas encore initialisée), réalise à la place une lecture de /dev/urandom.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Sous Linux, getrandom() est maintenant utilisé en mode bloquant pour renforcer la sécurité.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: On Windows, BCryptGenRandom() is used instead of CryptGenRandom() which is deprecated.

os.GRND_NONBLOCK

Par défaut, quand elle lit depuis /dev/random, getrandom() bloque si aucun octet aléatoire n'est disponible, et quand elle lit depuis /dev/urandom, elle bloque si la réserve d'entropie n'a pas encore été initialisée.

Si l'option GRND_NONBLOCK est activée, getrandom() ne bloque pas dans ces cas, mais lève immédiatement une BlockingIOError.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

os.GRND_RANDOM

Si ce bit est activé, les octets aléatoires sont puisés depuis /dev/random plutôt que /dev/urandom.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

io --- Core tools for working with streams

Code source: Lib/io.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/io.py]

Aperçu

The io module provides Python's main facilities for dealing with various types of I/O. There are three main types of I/O: text I/O, binary I/O and raw I/O. These are generic categories, and various backing stores can be used for each of them. A concrete object belonging to any of these categories is called a file object. Other common terms are stream and file-like object.

Independent of its category, each concrete stream object will also have various capabilities: it can be read-only, write-only, or read-write. It can also allow arbitrary random access (seeking forwards or backwards to any location), or only sequential access (for example in the case of a socket or pipe).

All streams are careful about the type of data you give to them. For example giving a str object to the write() method of a binary stream will raise a TypeError. So will giving a bytes object to the write() method of a text stream.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Operations that used to raise IOError now raise OSError, since IOError is now an alias of OSError.

Entrée/sortie de texte

Text I/O expects and produces str objects. This means that whenever the backing store is natively made of bytes (such as in the case of a file), encoding and decoding of data is made transparently as well as optional translation of platform-specific newline characters.

The easiest way to create a text stream is with open(), optionally specifying an encoding:

f = open("myfile.txt", "r", encoding="utf-8")

Les flux de texte en mémoire sont également disponible sous forme d'objets StringIO :

f = io.StringIO("some initial text data")

Note

When working with a non-blocking stream, be aware that read operations on text I/O objects might raise a BlockingIOError if the stream cannot perform the operation immediately.

L'API de flux textuel est décrite en détail dans la documentation de la classe TextIOBase.

Binary I/O

Binary I/O (also called buffered I/O) expects bytes-like objects and produces bytes objects. No encoding, decoding, or newline translation is performed. This category of streams can be used for all kinds of non-text data, and also when manual control over the handling of text data is desired.

The easiest way to create a binary stream is with open() with 'b' in the mode string:

f = open("myfile.jpg", "rb")

Les flux de texte en mémoire sont également disponible sous forme d'objets BytesIO :

f = io.BytesIO(b"some initial binary data: \x00\x01")

L'API du flux binaire est décrite en détail dans la documentation de la classe BufferedIOBase.

D'autres bibliothèques peuvent fournir des moyens supplémentaires pour créer des flux de texte ou flux binaire. Voir la méthode socket.socket.makefile() par exemple.

Raw I/O

Raw I/O (also called unbuffered I/O) is generally used as a low-level building-block for binary and text streams; it is rarely useful to directly manipulate a raw stream from user code. Nevertheless, you can create a raw stream by opening a file in binary mode with buffering disabled:

f = open("myfile.jpg", "rb", buffering=0)

The raw stream API is described in detail in the docs of RawIOBase.

Encodage de texte

The default encoding of TextIOWrapper and open() is locale-specific (locale.getencoding()).

However, many developers forget to specify the encoding when opening text files encoded in UTF-8 (e.g. JSON, TOML, Markdown, etc...) since most Unix platforms use UTF-8 locale by default. This causes bugs because the locale encoding is not UTF-8 for most Windows users. For example:

# May not work on Windows when non-ASCII characters in the file.
with open("README.md") as f:
    long_description = f.read()

Accordingly, it is highly recommended that you specify the encoding explicitly when opening text files. If you want to use UTF-8, pass encoding="utf-8". To use the current locale encoding, encoding="locale" is supported since Python 3.10.

Voir aussi

Le mode UTF-8 de Python

Le mode UTF-8 de Python peut être utilisé pour changer l'encodage par défaut en UTF-8 à partir d'un encodage local spécifique.

PEP 686 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0686/]

Le mode UTF-8 de Python sera par mis par défaut sur Python 3.15.

Opt-in EncodingWarning

Ajouté dans la version 3.10: See PEP 597 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0597/] for more details.

To find where the default locale encoding is used, you can enable the -X warn_default_encoding command line option or set the PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING environment variable, which will emit an EncodingWarning when the default encoding is used.

If you are providing an API that uses open() or TextIOWrapper and passes encoding=None as a parameter, you can use text_encoding() so that callers of the API will emit an EncodingWarning if they don't pass an encoding. However, please consider using UTF-8 by default (i.e. encoding="utf-8") for new APIs.

Interface de haut niveau du module

io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE

An int containing the default buffer size used by the module's buffered I/O classes. open() uses the file's blksize (as obtained by os.stat()) if possible.

io.open(file, mode='r', buffering=-1, encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None, closefd=True, opener=None)

This is an alias for the builtin open() function.

This function raises an auditing event open with arguments path, mode and flags. The mode and flags arguments may have been modified or inferred from the original call.

io.open_code(path)

Opens the provided file with mode 'rb'. This function should be used when the intent is to treat the contents as executable code.

path should be a str and an absolute path.

The behavior of this function may be overridden by an earlier call to the PyFile_SetOpenCodeHook(). However, assuming that path is a str and an absolute path, open_code(path) should always behave the same as open(path, 'rb'). Overriding the behavior is intended for additional validation or preprocessing of the file.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

io.text_encoding(encoding, stacklevel=2, /)

This is a helper function for callables that use open() or TextIOWrapper and have an encoding=None parameter.

This function returns encoding if it is not None. Otherwise, it returns "locale" or "utf-8" depending on UTF-8 Mode.

This function emits an EncodingWarning if sys.flags.warn_default_encoding is true and encoding is None. stacklevel specifies where the warning is emitted. For example:

def read_text(path, encoding=None):
    encoding = io.text_encoding(encoding)  # stacklevel=2
    with open(path, encoding) as f:
        return f.read()

In this example, an EncodingWarning is emitted for the caller of read_text().

Voir Encodage de texte pour plus d'informations.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: text_encoding() returns "utf-8" when UTF-8 mode is enabled and encoding is None.

exception io.BlockingIOError

This is a compatibility alias for the builtin BlockingIOError exception.

exception io.UnsupportedOperation

An exception inheriting OSError and ValueError that is raised when an unsupported operation is called on a stream.

Voir aussi

sys

contains the standard IO streams: sys.stdin, sys.stdout, and sys.stderr.

Class hierarchy

The implementation of I/O streams is organized as a hierarchy of classes. First abstract base classes (ABCs), which are used to specify the various categories of streams, then concrete classes providing the standard stream implementations.

Note

The abstract base classes also provide default implementations of some methods in order to help implementation of concrete stream classes. For example, BufferedIOBase provides unoptimized implementations of readinto() and readline().

At the top of the I/O hierarchy is the abstract base class IOBase. It defines the basic interface to a stream. Note, however, that there is no separation between reading and writing to streams; implementations are allowed to raise UnsupportedOperation if they do not support a given operation.

The RawIOBase ABC extends IOBase. It deals with the reading and writing of bytes to a stream. FileIO subclasses RawIOBase to provide an interface to files in the machine's file system.

The BufferedIOBase ABC extends IOBase. It deals with buffering on a raw binary stream (RawIOBase). Its subclasses, BufferedWriter, BufferedReader, and BufferedRWPair buffer raw binary streams that are writable, readable, and both readable and writable, respectively. BufferedRandom provides a buffered interface to seekable streams. Another BufferedIOBase subclass, BytesIO, is a stream of in-memory bytes.

The TextIOBase ABC extends IOBase. It deals with streams whose bytes represent text, and handles encoding and decoding to and from strings. TextIOWrapper, which extends TextIOBase, is a buffered text interface to a buffered raw stream (BufferedIOBase). Finally, StringIO is an in-memory stream for text.

Argument names are not part of the specification, and only the arguments of open() are intended to be used as keyword arguments.

The following table summarizes the ABCs provided by the io module:

ABC

Inherits

Stub Methods

Méthodes et propriétés de Mixin

IOBase

fileno, seek, et truncate

close, closed, __enter__, __exit__, flush, isatty, __iter__, __next__, readable, readline, readlines, seekable, tell, writable, and writelines

RawIOBase

IOBase

readinto et write

Inherited IOBase methods, read, and readall

BufferedIOBase

IOBase

detach, read, read1, et write

Inherited IOBase methods, readinto, and readinto1

TextIOBase

IOBase

detach, read, readline, et write

Inherited IOBase methods, encoding, errors, and newlines

I/O Base Classes

class io.IOBase

The abstract base class for all I/O classes.

This class provides empty abstract implementations for many methods that derived classes can override selectively; the default implementations represent a file that cannot be read, written or seeked.

Even though IOBase does not declare read() or write() because their signatures will vary, implementations and clients should consider those methods part of the interface. Also, implementations may raise a ValueError (or UnsupportedOperation) when operations they do not support are called.

The basic type used for binary data read from or written to a file is bytes. Other bytes-like objects are accepted as method arguments too. Text I/O classes work with str data.

Note that calling any method (even inquiries) on a closed stream is undefined. Implementations may raise ValueError in this case.

IOBase (and its subclasses) supports the iterator protocol, meaning that an IOBase object can be iterated over yielding the lines in a stream. Lines are defined slightly differently depending on whether the stream is a binary stream (yielding bytes), or a text stream (yielding character strings). See readline() below.

IOBase is also a context manager and therefore supports the with statement. In this example, file is closed after the with statement's suite is finished---even if an exception occurs:

with open('spam.txt', 'w') as file:
    file.write('Spam and eggs!')

IOBase provides these data attributes and methods:

close()

Flush and close this stream. This method has no effect if the file is already closed. Once the file is closed, any operation on the file (e.g. reading or writing) will raise a ValueError.

As a convenience, it is allowed to call this method more than once; only the first call, however, will have an effect.

closed

True if the stream is closed.

fileno()

Return the underlying file descriptor (an integer) of the stream if it exists. An OSError is raised if the IO object does not use a file descriptor.

flush()

Flush the write buffers of the stream if applicable. This does nothing for read-only and non-blocking streams.

isatty()

Return True if the stream is interactive (i.e., connected to a terminal/tty device).

readable()

Return True if the stream can be read from. If False, read() will raise OSError.

readline(size=-1, /)

Read and return one line from the stream. If size is specified, at most size bytes will be read.

The line terminator is always b'\n' for binary files; for text files, the newline argument to open() can be used to select the line terminator(s) recognized.

readlines(hint=-1, /)

Read and return a list of lines from the stream. hint can be specified to control the number of lines read: no more lines will be read if the total size (in bytes/characters) of all lines so far exceeds hint.

hint values of 0 or less, as well as None, are treated as no hint.

Note that it's already possible to iterate on file objects using for line in file: ... without calling file.readlines().

seek(offset, whence=os.SEEK_SET, /)

Change the stream position to the given byte offset, interpreted relative to the position indicated by whence, and return the new absolute position. Values for whence are:

os.SEEK_SET or 0 -- start of the stream (the default); offset should be zero or positive

os.SEEK_CUR or 1 -- current stream position; offset may be negative

os.SEEK_END or 2 -- end of the stream; offset is usually negative

Ajouté dans la version 3.1: The SEEK_* constants.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3: Some operating systems could support additional values, like os.SEEK_HOLE or os.SEEK_DATA. The valid values for a file could depend on it being open in text or binary mode.

seekable()

Return True if the stream supports random access. If False, seek(), tell() and truncate() will raise OSError.

tell()

Return the current stream position.

truncate(size=None, /)

Resize the stream to the given size in bytes (or the current position if size is not specified). The current stream position isn't changed. This resizing can extend or reduce the current file size. In case of extension, the contents of the new file area depend on the platform (on most systems, additional bytes are zero-filled). The new file size is returned.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Windows will now zero-fill files when extending.

writable()

Return True if the stream supports writing. If False, write() and truncate() will raise OSError.

writelines(lines, /)

Write a list of lines to the stream. Line separators are not added, so it is usual for each of the lines provided to have a line separator at the end.

__del__()

Prepare for object destruction. IOBase provides a default implementation of this method that calls the instance's close() method.

class io.RawIOBase

Base class for raw binary streams. It inherits from IOBase.

Raw binary streams typically provide low-level access to an underlying OS device or API, and do not try to encapsulate it in high-level primitives (this functionality is done at a higher-level in buffered binary streams and text streams, described later in this page).

RawIOBase provides these methods in addition to those from IOBase:

read(size=-1, /)

Read up to size bytes from the object and return them. As a convenience, if size is unspecified or -1, all bytes until EOF are returned. Otherwise, only one system call is ever made. Fewer than size bytes may be returned if the operating system call returns fewer than size bytes.

If 0 bytes are returned, and size was not 0, this indicates end of file. If the object is in non-blocking mode and no bytes are available, None is returned.

The default implementation defers to readall() and readinto().

readall()

Read and return all the bytes from the stream until EOF, using multiple calls to the stream if necessary.

readinto(b, /)

Read bytes into a pre-allocated, writable bytes-like object b, and return the number of bytes read. For example, b might be a bytearray. If the object is in non-blocking mode and no bytes are available, None is returned.

write(b, /)

Write the given bytes-like object, b, to the underlying raw stream, and return the number of bytes written. This can be less than the length of b in bytes, depending on specifics of the underlying raw stream, and especially if it is in non-blocking mode. None is returned if the raw stream is set not to block and no single byte could be readily written to it. The caller may release or mutate b after this method returns, so the implementation should only access b during the method call.

class io.BufferedIOBase

Base class for binary streams that support some kind of buffering. It inherits from IOBase.

The main difference with RawIOBase is that methods read(), readinto() and write() will try (respectively) to read as much input as requested or to emit all provided data.

In addition, if the underlying raw stream is in non-blocking mode, when the system returns would block write() will raise BlockingIOError with BlockingIOError.characters_written and read() will return data read so far or None if no data is available.

Besides, the read() method does not have a default implementation that defers to readinto().

A typical BufferedIOBase implementation should not inherit from a RawIOBase implementation, but wrap one, like BufferedWriter and BufferedReader do.

BufferedIOBase provides or overrides these data attributes and methods in addition to those from IOBase:

raw

The underlying raw stream (a RawIOBase instance) that BufferedIOBase deals with. This is not part of the BufferedIOBase API and may not exist on some implementations.

detach()

Sépare le flux brut sous-jacent du tampon et le renvoie.

After the raw stream has been detached, the buffer is in an unusable state.

Some buffers, like BytesIO, do not have the concept of a single raw stream to return from this method. They raise UnsupportedOperation.

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

read(size=-1, /)

Read and return up to size bytes. If the argument is omitted, None, or negative read as much as possible.

Fewer bytes may be returned than requested. An empty bytes object is returned if the stream is already at EOF. More than one read may be made and calls may be retried if specific errors are encountered, see os.read() and PEP 475 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/] for more details. Less than size bytes being returned does not imply that EOF is imminent.

When reading as much as possible the default implementation will use raw.readall if available (which should implement RawIOBase.readall()), otherwise will read in a loop until read returns None, an empty bytes, or a non-retryable error. For most streams this is to EOF, but for non-blocking streams more data may become available.

Note

When the underlying raw stream is non-blocking, implementations may either raise BlockingIOError or return None if no data is available. io implementations return None.

read1(size=-1, /)

Read and return up to size bytes, calling readinto() which may retry if EINTR is encountered per PEP 475 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/]. If size is -1 or not provided, the implementation will choose an arbitrary value for size.

Note

When the underlying raw stream is non-blocking, implementations may either raise BlockingIOError or return None if no data is available. io implementations return None.

readinto(b, /)

Read bytes into a pre-allocated, writable bytes-like object b and return the number of bytes read. For example, b might be a bytearray.

Like read(), multiple reads may be issued to the underlying raw stream, unless the latter is interactive.

A BlockingIOError is raised if the underlying raw stream is in non blocking-mode, and has no data available at the moment.

readinto1(b, /)

Read bytes into a pre-allocated, writable bytes-like object b, using at most one call to the underlying raw stream's read() (or readinto()) method. Return the number of bytes read.

A BlockingIOError is raised if the underlying raw stream is in non blocking-mode, and has no data available at the moment.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

write(b, /)

Write the given bytes-like object, b, and return the number of bytes written (always equal to the length of b in bytes, since if the write fails an OSError will be raised). Depending on the actual implementation, these bytes may be readily written to the underlying stream, or held in a buffer for performance and latency reasons.

When in non-blocking mode, a BlockingIOError is raised if the data needed to be written to the raw stream but it couldn't accept all the data without blocking.

The caller may release or mutate b after this method returns, so the implementation should only access b during the method call.

Raw File I/O

class io.FileIO(name, mode='r', closefd=True, opener=None)

A raw binary stream representing an OS-level file containing bytes data. It inherits from RawIOBase.

The name can be one of two things:

a character string or bytes object representing the path to the file which will be opened. In this case closefd must be True (the default) otherwise an error will be raised.

an integer representing the number of an existing OS-level file descriptor to which the resulting FileIO object will give access. When the FileIO object is closed this fd will be closed as well, unless closefd is set to False.

The mode can be 'r', 'w', 'x' or 'a' for reading (default), writing, exclusive creation or appending. The file will be created if it doesn't exist when opened for writing or appending; it will be truncated when opened for writing. FileExistsError will be raised if it already exists when opened for creating. Opening a file for creating implies writing, so this mode behaves in a similar way to 'w'. Add a '+' to the mode to allow simultaneous reading and writing.

The read() (when called with a positive argument), readinto() and write() methods on this class will only make one system call.

Un opener personnalisé peut être utilisé en fournissant un appelable à opener. Le descripteur de fichier de cet objet fichier sera alors obtenu en appelant opener avec (file, flags). opener doit donner un descripteur de fichier ouvert (fournir os.open en temps qu'opener aura le même effet que donner None).

Il n'est pas possible d'hériter du fichier nouvellement créé.

See the open() built-in function for examples on using the opener parameter.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: The opener parameter was added. The 'x' mode was added.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Il n'est plus possible d'hériter de file.

FileIO provides these data attributes in addition to those from RawIOBase and IOBase:

mode

The mode as given in the constructor.

name

Le nom du fichier. C'est le descripteur du fichier lorsqu'aucun nom n'est donné dans le constructeur.

Buffered Streams

Buffered I/O streams provide a higher-level interface to an I/O device than raw I/O does.

class io.BytesIO(initial_bytes=b'')

A binary stream using an in-memory bytes buffer. It inherits from BufferedIOBase. The buffer is discarded when the close() method is called.

The optional argument initial_bytes is a bytes-like object that contains initial data.

BytesIO provides or overrides these methods in addition to those from BufferedIOBase and IOBase:

getbuffer()

Return a readable and writable view over the contents of the buffer without copying them. Also, mutating the view will transparently update the contents of the buffer:

>>> b = io.BytesIO(b"abcdef")
>>> view = b.getbuffer()
>>> view[2:4] = b"56"
>>> b.getvalue()
b'ab56ef'

Note

As long as the view exists, the BytesIO object cannot be resized or closed.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

getvalue()

Return bytes containing the entire contents of the buffer.

read1(size=-1, /)

In BytesIO, this is the same as read().

Modifié dans la version 3.7: The size argument is now optional.

readinto1(b, /)

In BytesIO, this is the same as readinto().

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

class io.BufferedReader(raw, buffer_size=DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE)

A buffered binary stream providing higher-level access to a readable, non seekable RawIOBase raw binary stream. It inherits from BufferedIOBase.

When reading data from this object, a larger amount of data may be requested from the underlying raw stream, and kept in an internal buffer. The buffered data can then be returned directly on subsequent reads.

The constructor creates a BufferedReader for the given readable raw stream and buffer_size. If buffer_size is omitted, DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE is used.

BufferedReader provides or overrides these methods in addition to those from BufferedIOBase and IOBase:

peek(size=0, /)

Return bytes from the stream without advancing the position. The number of bytes returned may be less or more than requested. If the underlying raw stream is non-blocking and the operation would block, returns empty bytes.

read(size=-1, /)

In BufferedReader this is the same as io.BufferedIOBase.read()

read1(size=-1, /)

In BufferedReader this is the same as io.BufferedIOBase.read1()

Modifié dans la version 3.7: The size argument is now optional.

class io.BufferedWriter(raw, buffer_size=DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE)

A buffered binary stream providing higher-level access to a writeable, non seekable RawIOBase raw binary stream. It inherits from BufferedIOBase.

When writing to this object, data is normally placed into an internal buffer. The buffer will be written out to the underlying RawIOBase object under various conditions, including:

when the buffer gets too small for all pending data;

when flush() is called;

when a seek() is requested (for BufferedRandom objects);

when the BufferedWriter object is closed or destroyed.

The constructor creates a BufferedWriter for the given writeable raw stream. If the buffer_size is not given, it defaults to DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE.

BufferedWriter provides or overrides these methods in addition to those from BufferedIOBase and IOBase:

flush()

Force bytes held in the buffer into the raw stream. A BlockingIOError should be raised if the raw stream blocks.

write(b, /)

Write the bytes-like object, b, and return the number of bytes written. When in non-blocking mode, a BlockingIOError with BlockingIOError.characters_written set is raised if the buffer needs to be written out but the raw stream blocks.

class io.BufferedRandom(raw, buffer_size=DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE)

A buffered binary stream providing higher-level access to a seekable RawIOBase raw binary stream. It inherits from BufferedReader and BufferedWriter.

The constructor creates a reader and writer for a seekable raw stream, given in the first argument. If the buffer_size is omitted it defaults to DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE.

BufferedRandom is capable of anything BufferedReader or BufferedWriter can do. In addition, seek() and tell() are guaranteed to be implemented.

class io.BufferedRWPair(reader, writer, buffer_size=DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE, /)

A buffered binary stream providing higher-level access to two non seekable RawIOBase raw binary streams---one readable, the other writeable. It inherits from BufferedIOBase.

reader and writer are RawIOBase objects that are readable and writeable respectively. If the buffer_size is omitted it defaults to DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE.

BufferedRWPair implements all of BufferedIOBase's methods except for detach(), which raises UnsupportedOperation.

Avertissement

BufferedRWPair does not attempt to synchronize accesses to its underlying raw streams. You should not pass it the same object as reader and writer; use BufferedRandom instead.

Entrée/sortie de texte

class io.TextIOBase

Base class for text streams. This class provides a character and line based interface to stream I/O. It inherits from IOBase.

TextIOBase provides or overrides these data attributes and methods in addition to those from IOBase:

encoding

The name of the encoding used to decode the stream's bytes into strings, and to encode strings into bytes.

errors

The error setting of the decoder or encoder.

newlines

A string, a tuple of strings, or None, indicating the newlines translated so far. Depending on the implementation and the initial constructor flags, this may not be available.

buffer

The underlying binary buffer (a BufferedIOBase or RawIOBase instance) that TextIOBase deals with. This is not part of the TextIOBase API and may not exist in some implementations.

detach()

Separate the underlying binary buffer from the TextIOBase and return it.

After the underlying buffer has been detached, the TextIOBase is in an unusable state.

Some TextIOBase implementations, like StringIO, may not have the concept of an underlying buffer and calling this method will raise UnsupportedOperation.

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

read(size=-1, /)

Read and return at most size characters from the stream as a single str. If size is negative or None, reads until EOF.

readline(size=-1, /)

Read until newline or EOF and return a single str. If the stream is already at EOF, an empty string is returned.

If size is specified, at most size characters will be read.

seek(offset, whence=SEEK_SET, /)

Change the stream position to the given offset. Behaviour depends on the whence parameter. The default value for whence is SEEK_SET.

SEEK_SET or 0: seek from the start of the stream (the default); offset must either be a number returned by TextIOBase.tell(), or zero. Any other offset value produces undefined behaviour.

SEEK_CUR or 1: "seek" to the current position; offset must be zero, which is a no-operation (all other values are unsupported).

SEEK_END or 2: seek to the end of the stream; offset must be zero (all other values are unsupported).

Return the new absolute position as an opaque number.

Ajouté dans la version 3.1: The SEEK_* constants.

tell()

Return the current stream position as an opaque number. The number does not usually represent a number of bytes in the underlying binary storage.

write(s, /)

Write the string s to the stream and return the number of characters written.

class io.TextIOWrapper(buffer, encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None, line_buffering=False, write_through=False)

A buffered text stream providing higher-level access to a BufferedIOBase buffered binary stream. It inherits from TextIOBase.

encoding gives the name of the encoding that the stream will be decoded or encoded with. In UTF-8 Mode, this defaults to UTF-8. Otherwise, it defaults to locale.getencoding(). encoding="locale" can be used to specify the current locale's encoding explicitly. See Encodage de texte for more information.

errors is an optional string that specifies how encoding and decoding errors are to be handled. Pass 'strict' to raise a ValueError exception if there is an encoding error (the default of None has the same effect), or pass 'ignore' to ignore errors. (Note that ignoring encoding errors can lead to data loss.) 'replace' causes a replacement marker (such as '?') to be inserted where there is malformed data. 'backslashreplace' causes malformed data to be replaced by a backslashed escape sequence. When writing, 'xmlcharrefreplace' (replace with the appropriate XML character reference) or 'namereplace' (replace with \N{...} escape sequences) can be used. Any other error handling name that has been registered with codecs.register_error() is also valid.

newline controls how line endings are handled. It can be None, '', '\n', '\r', and '\r\n'. It works as follows:

When reading input from the stream, if newline is None, universal newlines mode is enabled. Lines in the input can end in '\n', '\r', or '\r\n', and these are translated into '\n' before being returned to the caller. If newline is '', universal newlines mode is enabled, but line endings are returned to the caller untranslated. If newline has any of the other legal values, input lines are only terminated by the given string, and the line ending is returned to the caller untranslated.

Lors de l'écriture, si newline est None, chaque '\n' est remplacé par le séparateur de lignes par défaut du système os.linesep. Si newline est * ou '\n' aucun remplacent n'est effectué. Si newline est un autre caractère valide, chaque '\n' sera remplacé par la chaîne donnée.

If line_buffering is True, flush() is implied when a call to write contains a newline character or a carriage return.

If write_through is True, calls to write() are guaranteed not to be buffered: any data written on the TextIOWrapper object is immediately handled to its underlying binary buffer.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Le paramètre write_through a été ajouté.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: The default encoding is now locale.getpreferredencoding(False) instead of locale.getpreferredencoding(). Don't change temporary the locale encoding using locale.setlocale(), use the current locale encoding instead of the user preferred encoding.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: The encoding argument now supports the "locale" dummy encoding name.

Note

When the underlying raw stream is non-blocking, a BlockingIOError may be raised if a read operation cannot be completed immediately.

TextIOWrapper provides these data attributes and methods in addition to those from TextIOBase and IOBase:

line_buffering

Whether line buffering is enabled.

write_through

Whether writes are passed immediately to the underlying binary buffer.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

reconfigure(*, encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None, line_buffering=None, write_through=None)

Reconfigure this text stream using new settings for encoding, errors, newline, line_buffering and write_through.

Parameters not specified keep current settings, except errors='strict' is used when encoding is specified but errors is not specified.

Il n'est pas possible de modifier l'encodage ou une nouvelle ligne si des données ont déjà été lues à partir du flux. En revanche, il est possible de modifier l'encodage après l'écriture.

Cette méthode effectue un nettoyage implicite du flux avant de définir les nouveaux paramètres.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: La méthode prend en charge l'option encoding="locale".

seek(cookie, whence=os.SEEK_SET, /)

Set the stream position. Return the new stream position as an int.

Four operations are supported, given by the following argument combinations:

seek(0, SEEK_SET): Rewind to the start of the stream.

seek(cookie, SEEK_SET): Restore a previous position; cookie must be a number returned by tell().

seek(0, SEEK_END): Fast-forward to the end of the stream.

seek(0, SEEK_CUR): Leave the current stream position unchanged.

Any other argument combinations are invalid, and may raise exceptions.

Voir aussi

os.SEEK_SET, os.SEEK_CUR, and os.SEEK_END.

tell()

Return the stream position as an opaque number. The return value of tell() can be given as input to seek(), to restore a previous stream position.

class io.StringIO(initial_value='', newline='\n')

A text stream using an in-memory text buffer. It inherits from TextIOBase.

The text buffer is discarded when the close() method is called.

The initial value of the buffer can be set by providing initial_value. If newline translation is enabled, newlines will be encoded as if by write(). The stream is positioned at the start of the buffer which emulates opening an existing file in a w+ mode, making it ready for an immediate write from the beginning or for a write that would overwrite the initial value. To emulate opening a file in an a+ mode ready for appending, use f.seek(0, io.SEEK_END) to reposition the stream at the end of the buffer.

The newline argument works like that of TextIOWrapper, except that when writing output to the stream, if newline is None, newlines are written as \n on all platforms.

StringIO provides this method in addition to those from TextIOBase and IOBase:

getvalue()

Return a str containing the entire contents of the buffer. Newlines are decoded as if by read(), although the stream position is not changed.

Exemple d'utilisation :

import io

output = io.StringIO()
output.write('First line.\n')
print('Second line.', file=output)

# Retrieve file contents -- this will be
# 'First line.\nSecond line.\n'
contents = output.getvalue()

# Close object and discard memory buffer --
# .getvalue() will now raise an exception.
output.close()

class io.IncrementalNewlineDecoder

A helper codec that decodes newlines for universal newlines mode. It inherits from codecs.IncrementalDecoder.

Static Typing

The following protocols can be used for annotating function and method arguments for simple stream reading or writing operations. They are decorated with @typing.runtime_checkable.

class io.Reader[T]

Generic protocol for reading from a file or other input stream. T will usually be str or bytes, but can be any type that is read from the stream.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

read()

read(size, /)

Read data from the input stream and return it. If size is specified, it should be an integer, and at most size items (bytes/characters) will be read.

Par exemple :

def read_it(reader: Reader[str]):
    data = reader.read(11)
    assert isinstance(data, str)

class io.Writer[T]

Generic protocol for writing to a file or other output stream. T will usually be str or bytes, but can be any type that can be written to the stream.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

write(data, /)

Write data to the output stream and return the number of items (bytes/characters) written.

Par exemple :

def write_binary(writer: Writer[bytes]):
    writer.write(b"Hello world!\n")

See ABCs and Protocols for working with I/O for other I/O related protocols and classes that can be used for static type checking.

Performances

Cette section aborde les performances des implémentations concrètes d'Entrée/Sortie fournies.

Binary I/O

By reading and writing only large chunks of data even when the user asks for a single byte, buffered I/O hides any inefficiency in calling and executing the operating system's unbuffered I/O routines. The gain depends on the OS and the kind of I/O which is performed. For example, on some modern OSes such as Linux, unbuffered disk I/O can be as fast as buffered I/O. The bottom line, however, is that buffered I/O offers predictable performance regardless of the platform and the backing device. Therefore, it is almost always preferable to use buffered I/O rather than unbuffered I/O for binary data.

Entrée/sortie de texte

Text I/O over a binary storage (such as a file) is significantly slower than binary I/O over the same storage, because it requires conversions between unicode and binary data using a character codec. This can become noticeable handling huge amounts of text data like large log files. Also, tell() and seek() are both quite slow due to the reconstruction algorithm used.

StringIO, however, is a native in-memory unicode container and will exhibit similar speed to BytesIO.

Fils d'exécution

FileIO objects are thread-safe to the extent that the operating system calls (such as read(2) [https://manpages.debian.org/read(2)] under Unix) they wrap are thread-safe too.

Binary buffered objects (instances of BufferedReader, BufferedWriter, BufferedRandom and BufferedRWPair) protect their internal structures using a lock; it is therefore safe to call them from multiple threads at once.

les objets TextIOWrapper ne sont pas compatibles avec les programmes à fils d'exécutions multiples.

Réentrance

Binary buffered objects (instances of BufferedReader, BufferedWriter, BufferedRandom and BufferedRWPair) are not reentrant. While reentrant calls will not happen in normal situations, they can arise from doing I/O in a signal handler. If a thread tries to re-enter a buffered object which it is already accessing, a RuntimeError is raised. Note this doesn't prohibit a different thread from entering the buffered object.

The above implicitly extends to text files, since the open() function will wrap a buffered object inside a TextIOWrapper. This includes standard streams and therefore affects the built-in print() function as well.

time --- Time access and conversions

Ce module fournit différentes fonctions liées au temps. Pour les fonctionnalités associées, voir aussi les modules datetime et calendar.

Bien que ce module soit toujours disponible, toutes les fonctions ne sont pas disponibles sur toutes les plateformes. La plupart des fonctions définies dans ce module délèguent à des fonctions de même nom de la bibliothèque C. Il peut parfois être utile de consulter la documentation de la plate-forme, car la sémantique de ces fonctions peut varier.

Vous trouvez ci-dessous, mises en ordre, quelques explications relative à la terminologie et aux conventions.

L'epoch est le point de départ du temps, le résultat de time.gmtime(0) est le 1er janvier 1970 à 00:00:00 (UTC) pour toutes les plateformes.

Le terme secondes depuis *epoch* désigne le nombre total de secondes écoulées depuis epoch, souvent en excluant les secondes intercalaires (leap seconds [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leap_second]). Les secondes intercalaires sont exclues de ce total sur toutes les plates-formes conformes POSIX.

Les fonctions de ce module peuvent ne pas gérer les dates et heures antérieures à epoch ou dans un avenir lointain. Le seuil du futur est déterminé par la bibliothèque C ; pour les systèmes 32 bits, il s’agit généralement de 2038.

La fonction strptime() peut analyser des années à 2 chiffres lorsque le format %y est spécifié. Lorsque les années à deux chiffres sont analysées, elles sont converties conformément aux normes POSIX et ISO C : les valeurs 69—99 correspondent à 1969—1999 et les valeurs 0—68 à 2000—2068.

UTC is Coordinated Universal Time [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordinated_Universal_Time] and superseded Greenwich Mean Time [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenwich_Mean_Time] or GMT as the basis of international timekeeping. The acronym UTC is not a mistake but conforms to an earlier, language-agnostic naming scheme for time standards such as UT0, UT1, and UT2.

Le DST (Daylight Saving Time) correspond à l’heure d’été, un ajustement du fuseau horaire d’une heure (généralement) pendant une partie de l’année. Les règles de DST sont magiques (déterminées par la loi locale) et peuvent changer d’année en année. La bibliothèque C possède une table contenant les règles locales (souvent, elle est lue dans un fichier système par souci de souplesse) et constitue la seule source fiable.

La précision des diverses fonctions en temps réel peut être inférieure à celle suggérée par les unités dans lesquelles leur valeur ou leur argument est exprimé. Par exemple, sur la plupart des systèmes Unix, l’horloge ne « bat » que 50 ou 100 fois par seconde.

On the other hand, the precision of time() and sleep() is better than their Unix equivalents: times are expressed as floating-point numbers, time() returns the most accurate time available (using Unix gettimeofday() where available), and sleep() will accept a time with a nonzero fraction (Unix select() is used to implement this, where available).

La valeur temporelle renvoyée par gmtime(), localtime() et strptime(), et acceptée par asctime(), mktime() et strftime(), est une séquence de 9 nombres entiers. Les valeurs de retour de gmtime(), localtime() et strptime() proposent également des noms d’attributs pour des champs individuels.

Voir struct_time pour une description de ces objets.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: The struct_time type was extended to provide the tm_gmtoff and tm_zone attributes when platform supports corresponding struct tm members.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: The struct_time attributes tm_gmtoff and tm_zone are now available on all platforms.

Utilisez les fonctions suivantes pour convertir des représentations temporelles :

De

À

Utilisez

secondes depuis epoch

struct_time en UTC

gmtime()

secondes depuis epoch

struct_time en heure locale

localtime()

struct_time en UTC

secondes depuis epoch

calendar.timegm()

struct_time en heure locale

secondes depuis epoch

mktime()

Fonctions

time.asctime([t])

Convertit un n-uplet ou struct_time représentant une heure renvoyée par gmtime() ou localtime() en une chaîne de la forme suivante : 'Sun Jun 20 23:21:05 1993'. Le numéro du jour est un champ de deux caractères complété par une espace si celui-ci n'a qu'un seul chiffre, par exemple : 'Wed Jun  9 04:26:40 1993'.

Si t n’est pas fourni, l’heure actuelle renvoyée par localtime() est utilisée. Les informations sur les paramètres régionaux ne sont pas utilisées par asctime().

Note

Contrairement à la fonction C du même nom, asctime() n’ajoute pas de caractère de fin de ligne.

time.pthread_getcpuclockid(thread_id)

Renvoie le clk_id de l'horloge du temps CPU spécifique au fil d'exécution pour le thread_id spécifié.

Utilisez threading.get_ident() ou l'attribut ident de threading.Thread pour obtenir une valeur appropriée pour thread_id.

Avertissement

Passer un thread_id invalide ou arrivé à expiration peut entraîner un comportement indéfini, tel qu’une erreur de segmentation.

Disponibilité: Unix

Se reporter à la page de manuel pthread_getcpuclockid(3) [https://manpages.debian.org/pthread_getcpuclockid(3)] pour plus d’informations.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

time.clock_getres(clk_id)

Renvoie la résolution (précision) de l’horloge clk_id. Référez-vous à Constantes d’identification d’horloge pour une liste des valeurs acceptées pour clk_id.

Disponibilité: Unix.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

time.clock_gettime(clk_id) → float

Renvoie l’heure de l’horloge clk_id. Référez-vous à Constantes d’identification d’horloge pour une liste des valeurs acceptées pour clk_id.

Use clock_gettime_ns() to avoid the precision loss caused by the float type.

Disponibilité: Unix.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

time.clock_gettime_ns(clk_id) → int

Similaire à clock_gettime() mais le temps renvoyé est exprimé en nanosecondes.

Disponibilité: Unix.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

time.clock_settime(clk_id, time: float)

Définit l’heure de l’horloge clk_id. Actuellement, CLOCK_REALTIME est la seule valeur acceptée pour clk_id.

Use clock_settime_ns() to avoid the precision loss caused by the float type.

Disponibilité: Unix, not Android, not iOS.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

time.clock_settime_ns(clk_id, time: int)

Similaire à clock_settime() mais définit l’heure avec des nanosecondes.

Disponibilité: Unix, not Android, not iOS.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

time.ctime([secs])

Convertit une heure exprimée en secondes depuis epoch en une chaîne représentant l’heure locale sous la forme suivante : 'Sun Jun 20 23:21:05 1993'. Le numéro du jour est un champ de deux caractères complété par une espace si celui-ci n'a qu'un seul chiffre, par exemple : 'Wed Jun  9 04:26:40 1993'.

Si secs n’est pas fourni ou vaut None, l’heure actuelle renvoyée par time() est utilisée. ctime(secs) est équivalent à asctime(localtime(secs)). Les informations sur les paramètres régionaux ne sont pas utilisées par ctime().

time.get_clock_info(name)

Renvoie des informations sur l’horloge spécifiée en tant qu’objet d’espace de nom. Les noms d’horloge pris en charge et les fonctions correspondantes permettant de lire leur valeur sont les suivants :

'monotonic' : time.monotonic()

'perf_counter' : time.perf_counter()

'process_time' : time.process_time()

'thread_time' : time.thread_time()

'time' : time.time()

Le résultat a les attributs suivants :

adjustable: True if the clock can be set to jump forward or backward in time, False otherwise. Does not refer to gradual NTP rate adjustments.

implementation : nom de la fonction C sous-jacente utilisée pour obtenir la valeur d’horloge. Voir Constantes d’identification d’horloge pour les valeurs possibles.

monotonic : True si l’horloge ne peut pas revenir en arrière, False autrement

resolution : La résolution de l’horloge en secondes (float)

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

time.gmtime([secs])

Convertit un temps exprimé en secondes depuis epoch en un struct_time au format UTC dans lequel le drapeau dst est toujours égal à zéro. Si secs n’est pas fourni ou vaut None, l’heure actuelle renvoyée par time() est utilisée. Les fractions de seconde sont ignorées. Voir ci-dessus pour une description de l’objet struct_time. Voir calendar.timegm() pour l’inverse de cette fonction.

time.localtime([secs])

Comme gmtime() mais convertit le résultat en heure locale. Si secs n’est pas fourni ou vaut None, l’heure actuelle renvoyée par time() est utilisée. Le drapeau dst est mis à 1 lorsque l’heure d’été s’applique à l’heure indiquée.

localtime() may raise OverflowError, if the timestamp is outside the range of values supported by the platform C localtime() or gmtime() functions, and OSError on localtime() or gmtime() failure. It's common for this to be restricted to years between 1970 and 2038.

time.mktime(t)

This is the inverse function of localtime(). Its argument is the struct_time or full 9-tuple (since the dst flag is needed; use -1 as the dst flag if it is unknown) which expresses the time in local time, not UTC. It returns a floating-point number, for compatibility with time(). If the input value cannot be represented as a valid time, either OverflowError or ValueError will be raised (which depends on whether the invalid value is caught by Python or the underlying C libraries). The earliest date for which it can generate a time is platform-dependent.

time.monotonic() → float

Renvoie la valeur (en quelques fractions de secondes) d’une horloge monotone, c’est-à-dire une horloge qui ne peut pas revenir en arrière. L’horloge n’est pas affectée par les mises à jour de l’horloge système. Le point de référence de la valeur renvoyée n’est pas défini, de sorte que seule la différence entre les résultats d’appels consécutifs est valide.

Clock:

On Windows, call QueryPerformanceCounter() and QueryPerformanceFrequency().

On macOS, call mach_absolute_time() and mach_timebase_info().

On HP-UX, call gethrtime().

Call clock_gettime(CLOCK_HIGHRES) if available.

Otherwise, call clock_gettime(CLOCK_MONOTONIC).

Use monotonic_ns() to avoid the precision loss caused by the float type.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: The function is now always available and the clock is now the same for all processes.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: On macOS, the clock is now the same for all processes.

time.monotonic_ns() → int

Similaire à monotonique(), mais le temps de retour est exprimé en nanosecondes.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

time.perf_counter() → float

Return the value (in fractional seconds) of a performance counter, i.e. a clock with the highest available resolution to measure a short duration. It does include time elapsed during sleep. The clock is the same for all processes. The reference point of the returned value is undefined, so that only the difference between the results of two calls is valid.

Particularité de l'implémentation CPython : On CPython, use the same clock as time.monotonic() and is a monotonic clock, i.e. a clock that cannot go backwards.

Use perf_counter_ns() to avoid the precision loss caused by the float type.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: On Windows, the clock is now the same for all processes.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Use the same clock as time.monotonic().

time.perf_counter_ns() → int

Similaire à perf_counter(), mais renvoie le temps en nanosecondes.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

time.process_time() → float

Return the value (in fractional seconds) of the sum of the system and user CPU time of the current process. It does not include time elapsed during sleep. It is process-wide by definition. The reference point of the returned value is undefined, so that only the difference between the results of two calls is valid.

Use process_time_ns() to avoid the precision loss caused by the float type.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

time.process_time_ns() → int

Similaire à process_time() mais renvoie le temps en nanosecondes.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

time.sleep(secs)

Suspend execution of the calling thread for the given number of seconds. The argument may be a floating-point number to indicate a more precise sleep time.

If the sleep is interrupted by a signal and no exception is raised by the signal handler, the sleep is restarted with a recomputed timeout.

The suspension time may be longer than requested by an arbitrary amount, because of the scheduling of other activity in the system.

Windows implementation

On Windows, if secs is zero, the thread relinquishes the remainder of its time slice to any other thread that is ready to run. If there are no other threads ready to run, the function returns immediately, and the thread continues execution. On Windows 10 and newer the implementation uses a high-resolution timer [https://learn.microsoft.com/windows/win32/api/synchapi/nf-synchapi-createwaitabletimerexw] which provides resolution of 100 nanoseconds. If secs is zero, Sleep(0) is used.

Unix implementation

Use clock_nanosleep() if available (resolution: 1 nanosecond);

Or use nanosleep() if available (resolution: 1 nanosecond);

Or use select() (resolution: 1 microsecond).

Note

To emulate a "no-op", use pass instead of time.sleep(0).

To voluntarily relinquish the CPU, specify a real-time scheduling policy and use os.sched_yield() instead.

Raises an auditing event time.sleep with argument secs.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: La fonction dort maintenant au moins secondes même si le sommeil est interrompu par un signal, sauf si le gestionnaire de signaux lève une exception (voir PEP 475 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/] pour la justification).

Modifié dans la version 3.11: On Unix, the clock_nanosleep() and nanosleep() functions are now used if available. On Windows, a waitable timer is now used.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Raises an auditing event.

time.strftime(format[, t])

Convertit un n-uplet ou struct_time représentant une heure renvoyée par gmtime() ou localtime() en une chaîne spécifiée par l’argument format. Si t n’est pas fourni, l’heure actuelle renvoyée par localtime() est utilisée. format doit être une chaîne. Si l’un des champs de t se situe en dehors de la plage autorisée, une ValueError est levée .

0 est un argument légal pour toute position dans le n-uplet temporel ; s’il est normalement illégal, la valeur est forcée à une valeur correcte.

Les directives suivantes peuvent être incorporées dans la chaîne format. Ils sont affichés sans la spécification facultative de largeur de champ ni de précision, et sont remplacés par les caractères indiqués dans le résultat de strftime() :

Directive

Signification

Notes

%a

Nom abrégé du jour de la semaine selon les paramètres régionaux.

%A

Le nom de semaine complet de la région.

%b

Nom abrégé du mois de la région.

%B

Nom complet du mois de la région.

%c

Représentation appropriée de la date et de l’heure selon les paramètres régionaux.

%d

Jour du mois sous forme décimale [01,31].

%f

Microseconds as a decimal number

[000000,999999].

(1)

%H

Heure (horloge sur 24 heures) sous forme de nombre décimal [00,23].

%I

Heure (horloge sur 12 heures) sous forme de nombre décimal [01,12].

%j

Jour de l’année sous forme de nombre décimal [001,366].

%m

Mois sous forme décimale [01,12].

%M

Minutes sous forme décimale [00,59].

%p

L’équivalent local de AM ou PM.

(2)

%S

Secondes sous forme de nombre décimal [00,61].

(3)

%U

Numéro de semaine de l’année (dimanche en tant que premier jour de la semaine) sous forme décimale [00,53]. Tous les jours d’une nouvelle année précédant le premier dimanche sont considérés comme appartenant à la semaine 0.

(4)

%u

Day of the week (Monday is 1; Sunday is 7) as a decimal number [1, 7].

%w

Jour de la semaine sous forme de nombre décimal [0 (dimanche), 6].

%W

Numéro de semaine de l’année (lundi comme premier jour de la semaine) sous forme décimale [00,53]. Tous les jours d’une nouvelle année précédant le premier lundi sont considérés comme appartenant à la semaine 0.

(4)

%x

Représentation de la date appropriée par les paramètres régionaux.

%X

Représentation locale de l'heure.

%y

Année sans siècle comme un nombre décimal [00, 99].

%Y

Année complète sur quatre chiffres.

%z

Décalage de fuseau horaire indiquant une différence de temps positive ou négative par rapport à UTC / GMT de la forme +HHMM ou -HHMM, où H représente les chiffres des heures décimales et M, les chiffres des minutes décimales [-23:59, +23:59] [1]

%Z

Nom du fuseau horaire (pas de caractères s’il n’y a pas de fuseau horaire). Obsolète. [1]

%G

ISO 8601 year (similar to %Y but follows the rules for the ISO 8601 calendar year). The year starts with the week that contains the first Thursday of the calendar year.

%V

ISO 8601 week number (as a decimal number [01,53]). The first week of the year is the one that contains the first Thursday of the year. Weeks start on Monday.

%%

Un caractère '%' littéral.

Notes :

The %f format directive only applies to strptime(), not to strftime(). However, see also datetime.datetime.strptime() and datetime.datetime.strftime() where the %f format directive applies to microseconds.

Lorsqu’elle est utilisée avec la fonction strptime(), la directive %p n’affecte le champ d’heure en sortie que si la directive %I est utilisée pour analyser l’heure.

La plage est en réalité de 0 à 61 ; la valeur 60 est valide dans les timestamps représentant des secondes intercalaires (leap seconds [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leap_second]) et la valeur 61 est prise en charge pour des raisons historiques.

Lorsqu’elles sont utilisées avec la fonction strptime(), %U et %W ne sont utilisées que dans les calculs lorsque le jour de la semaine et l’année sont spécifiés.

Here is an example, a format for dates compatible with that specified in the RFC 5322 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html] Internet email standard. [1]

>>> from time import gmtime, strftime
>>> strftime("%a, %d %b %Y %H:%M:%S +0000", gmtime())
'Thu, 28 Jun 2001 14:17:15 +0000'

Des directives supplémentaires peuvent être prises en charge sur certaines plates-formes, mais seules celles énumérées ici ont une signification normalisée par ANSI C. Pour voir la liste complète des codes de format pris en charge sur votre plate-forme, consultez la documentation strftime(3) [https://manpages.debian.org/strftime(3)].

Sur certaines plates-formes, une spécification facultative de largeur et de précision de champ peut suivre immédiatement le '%' initial d’une directive dans l’ordre suivant ; ce n’est pas non plus portable. La largeur du champ est normalement 2 sauf pour %j où il est 3.

time.strptime(string[, format])

Analyse une chaîne représentant une heure selon un format. La valeur renvoyée est une struct_time tel que renvoyé par gmtime() ou localtime().

Le paramètre format utilise les mêmes directives que celles utilisées par strftime() ; la valeur par défaut est "%a %b %d %H:%M:%S %Y" qui correspond à la mise en forme renvoyée par ctime(). Si string ne peut pas être analysé selon format, ou s’il contient trop de données après l’analyse, une exception ValueError est levée. Les valeurs par défaut utilisées pour renseigner les données manquantes lorsque des valeurs plus précises ne peuvent pas être inférées sont (1900, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, -1). string et format doivent être des chaînes.

Par exemple :

>>> import time
>>> time.strptime("30 Nov 00", "%d %b %y")
time.struct_time(tm_year=2000, tm_mon=11, tm_mday=30, tm_hour=0, tm_min=0,
                 tm_sec=0, tm_wday=3, tm_yday=335, tm_isdst=-1)

La prise en charge de la directive %Z est basée sur les valeurs contenues dans tzname et sur le fait de savoir si daylight est vrai. Pour cette raison, il est spécifique à la plate-forme, à l’exception de la reconnaissance des heures UTC et GMT, qui sont toujours connues (et considérées comme des fuseaux horaires ne respectant pas l’heure d’été).

Seules les directives spécifiées dans la documentation sont prises en charge. Parce que strftime() peut être implémenté différemment sur chaque plate-forme, il peut parfois offrir plus de directives que celles listées. Mais strptime() est indépendant de toute plate-forme et ne supporte donc pas nécessairement toutes les directives disponibles qui ne sont pas documentées comme gérées.

class time.struct_time

Le type de la séquence de valeur temporelle renvoyé par gmtime(), localtime() et strptime(). Semblable à un named tuple : ses valeurs sont accessibles par index et par nom d’attribut. Les valeurs suivantes sont présentes :

Index

Attribut

Valeurs

0

tm_year

(par exemple, 1993)

1

tm_mon

plage [1, 12]

2

tm_mday

plage [1, 31]

3

tm_hour

plage [0, 23]

4

tm_min

plage [0, 59]

5

tm_sec

range [0, 61]; see Note (2) in strftime()

6

tm_wday

range [0, 6]; Monday is 0

7

tm_yday

plage [1, 366]

8

tm_isdst

0, 1 or -1 ; voir en bas

N/A

tm_zone

abréviation du nom du fuseau horaire

N/A

tm_gmtoff

décalage à l’est de UTC en secondes

Notez que contrairement à la structure C, la valeur du mois est une plage de [1, 12], pas de [0, 11].

Dans les appels à mktime(), tm_isdst peut être défini sur 1 lorsque l’heure d'été est en vigueur et sur 0 lorsque ce n’est pas le cas. Une valeur de -1 indique que cela n’est pas connu et entraînera généralement le remplissage de l’état correct.

Lorsqu’un n-uplet de longueur incorrecte est passé à une fonction acceptant une struct_time, ou comportant des éléments de type incorrect, une exception TypeError est levé.

time.time() → float

Return the time in seconds since the epoch as a floating-point number. The handling of leap seconds [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leap_second] is platform dependent. On Windows and most Unix systems, the leap seconds are not counted towards the time in seconds since the epoch. This is commonly referred to as Unix time [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix_time].

Note that even though the time is always returned as a floating-point number, not all systems provide time with a better precision than 1 second. While this function normally returns non-decreasing values, it can return a lower value than a previous call if the system clock has been set back between the two calls.

Le nombre renvoyé par time() peut être converti en un format d’heure plus courant (année, mois, jour, heure, etc.) en UTC en le transmettant à la fonction gmtime() ou dans heure locale en le transmettant à la fonction localtime(). Dans les deux cas, un objet struct_time est renvoyé, à partir duquel les composants de la date du calendrier peuvent être consultés en tant qu’attributs.

Clock:

On Windows, call GetSystemTimePreciseAsFileTime().

Call clock_gettime(CLOCK_REALTIME) if available.

Otherwise, call gettimeofday().

Use time_ns() to avoid the precision loss caused by the float type.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: On Windows, calls GetSystemTimePreciseAsFileTime() instead of GetSystemTimeAsFileTime().

time.time_ns() → int

Similaire à time() mais renvoie le nombre de nanosecondes depuis epoch sous la forme d'un entier.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

time.thread_time() → float

Renvoie la valeur (en quelques fractions de secondes) de la somme des temps processeur système et utilisateur du fil d'exécution en cours. Il ne comprend pas le temps écoulé pendant le sommeil. Il est spécifique au fil d'exécution par définition. Le point de référence de la valeur renvoyée est indéfini, de sorte que seule la différence entre les résultats d’appels consécutifs dans le même fil d'exécution est valide.

Use thread_time_ns() to avoid the precision loss caused by the float type.

Disponibilité: Linux, Unix, Windows.

Systèmes prenant en charge CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

time.thread_time_ns() → int

Similaire à thread_time() mais renvoie le temps en nanosecondes.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

time.tzset()

Réinitialise les règles de conversion de temps utilisées par les routines de la bibliothèque. La variable d’environnement TZ spécifie comment cela est effectué. La fonction définira également les variables tzname (à partir de la variable d’environnement TZ), timezone (secondes non DST à l’ouest de l’UTC), altzone (secondes DST à l’ouest de UTC) et daylight (à 0 si ce fuseau horaire ne comporte aucune règle d’heure d’été, ou non nul s’il existe une heure, passée, présente ou future lorsque l’heure d’été est appliquée).

Disponibilité: Unix.

Note

Bien que dans de nombreux cas, la modification de la variable d’environnement TZ puisse affecter la sortie de fonctions telles que localtime() sans appeler tzset(), ce comportement n'est pas garanti.

La variable d’environnement TZ ne doit contenir aucun espace.

Le format standard de la variable d’environnement TZ est (espaces ajoutés pour plus de clarté) :

std offset [dst [offset [,start[/time], end[/time]]]]

Où les composants sont :

std et dst

Trois alphanumériques ou plus donnant les abréviations du fuseau horaire. Ceux-ci seront propagés dans time.tzname

offset

Le décalage a la forme suivante : ± hh[:mm[:ss]]. Cela indique la valeur ajoutée à l’heure locale pour arriver à UTC. S'il est précédé d’un '-', le fuseau horaire est à l’est du Premier Méridien ; sinon, c’est l’ouest. Si aucun décalage ne suit dst, l’heure d’été est supposée être en avance d’une heure sur l’heure standard.

start[/time], end[/time]

Indique quand passer à DST et en revenir. Le format des dates de début et de fin est l’un des suivants :

Jn

Le jour Julien n (1 <= n <= 365). Les jours bissextiles ne sont pas comptabilisés. Par conséquent, le 28 février est le 59e jour et le 1er mars est le 60e jour de toutes les années.

n

Le jour Julien de base zéro (0 <= n <= 365). Les jours bissextiles sont comptés et il est possible de se référer au 29 février.

Mm.n.d

Le d jour (0 <= d <= 6) de la semaine n du mois m de l’année (1 <= n <= 5, 1 <= m <= 12, où semaine 5 signifie “le dernier jour du mois m” pouvant se produire au cours de la quatrième ou de la cinquième semaine). La semaine 1 est la première semaine au cours de laquelle le jour se produit. Le jour zéro est un dimanche.

time a le même format que offset sauf qu’aucun signe de direction ('-' ou '+') n’est autorisé. La valeur par défaut, si l’heure n’est pas spécifiée, est 02:00:00.

>>> os.environ['TZ'] = 'EST+05EDT,M4.1.0,M10.5.0'
>>> time.tzset()
>>> time.strftime('%X %x %Z')
'02:07:36 05/08/03 EDT'
>>> os.environ['TZ'] = 'AEST-10AEDT-11,M10.5.0,M3.5.0'
>>> time.tzset()
>>> time.strftime('%X %x %Z')
'16:08:12 05/08/03 AEST'

Sur de nombreux systèmes Unix (y compris *BSD, Linux, Solaris et Darwin), il est plus pratique d’utiliser la base de données zoneinfo (tzfile (5) [https://manpages.debian.org/tzfile (5)]) du système pour spécifier les règles de fuseau horaire. Pour ce faire, définissez la variable d’environnement TZ sur le chemin du fichier de fuseau horaire requis, par rapport à la racine de la base de données du système zoneinfo, généralement situé à /usr/share/zoneinfo. Par exemple, 'US/Eastern', 'Australia/Melbourne', 'Egypt' ou 'Europe/Amsterdam'.

>>> os.environ['TZ'] = 'US/Eastern'
>>> time.tzset()
>>> time.tzname
('EST', 'EDT')
>>> os.environ['TZ'] = 'Egypt'
>>> time.tzset()
>>> time.tzname
('EET', 'EEST')

Constantes d’identification d’horloge

Ces constantes sont utilisées comme paramètres pour clock_getres() et clock_gettime().

time.CLOCK_BOOTTIME

Identique à CLOCK_MONOTONIC, sauf qu'elle inclut également toute suspension du système.

Cela permet aux applications d’obtenir une horloge monotone tenant compte de la suspension sans avoir à gérer les complications de CLOCK_REALTIME, qui peuvent présenter des discontinuités si l’heure est modifiée à l’aide de settimeofday() ou similaire.

Disponibilité: Linux >= 2.6.39.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

time.CLOCK_HIGHRES

Le système d’exploitation Solaris dispose d’une horloge CLOCK_HIGHRES qui tente d’utiliser une source matérielle optimale et peut donner une résolution proche de la nanoseconde. CLOCK_HIGHRES est l’horloge haute résolution non ajustable.

Disponibilité: Solaris.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC

Horloge qui ne peut pas être réglée et représente l’heure monotone depuis un point de départ non spécifié.

Disponibilité: Unix.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC_RAW

Similaire à CLOCK_MONOTONIC, mais donne accès à une heure matérielle brute qui n’est pas soumise aux ajustements NTP.

Disponibilité: Linux >= 2.6.28, macOS >= 10.12.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC_RAW_APPROX

Similar to CLOCK_MONOTONIC_RAW, but reads a value cached by the system at context switch and hence has less accuracy.

Disponibilité: macOS >= 10.12.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

time.CLOCK_PROCESS_CPUTIME_ID

Minuterie haute résolution par processus du CPU.

Disponibilité: Unix.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

time.CLOCK_PROF

Minuterie haute résolution par processus du CPU.

Disponibilité: FreeBSD, NetBSD >= 7, OpenBSD.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

time.CLOCK_TAI

International Atomic Time [https://www.nist.gov/pml/time-and-frequency-division/how-utcnist-related-coordinated-universal-time-utc-international]

Le système doit avoir un tableau des secondes intercalaires pour pouvoir donner une réponse correcte. Les logiciels PTP ou NTP savent gérer un tableau des secondes intercalaires.

Disponibilité: Linux.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

time.CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID

Horloge de temps CPU spécifique au fil d'exécution.

Disponibilité: Unix.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

time.CLOCK_UPTIME

Heure dont la valeur absolue correspond à l’heure à laquelle le système a été exécuté et non suspendu, fournissant une mesure précise du temps de disponibilité, à la fois absolue et à intervalle.

Disponibilité: FreeBSD, OpenBSD >= 5.5.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

time.CLOCK_UPTIME_RAW

Horloge qui s'incrémente de manière monotone, en suivant le temps écoulé depuis un point arbitraire, n'est pas affectée par les ajustements de fréquence ou de temps et n'est pas incrémentée lorsque le système est en veille.

Disponibilité: macOS >= 10.12.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

time.CLOCK_UPTIME_RAW_APPROX

Like CLOCK_UPTIME_RAW, but the value is cached by the system at context switches and therefore has less accuracy.

Disponibilité: macOS >= 10.12.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

La constante suivante est le seul paramètre pouvant être envoyé à clock_settime().

time.CLOCK_REALTIME

Real-time clock. Setting this clock requires appropriate privileges. The clock is the same for all processes.

Disponibilité: Unix.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Constantes de fuseau horaire

time.altzone

Décalage du fuseau horaire DST local, en secondes à l’ouest de UTC, s’il en est défini un. Cela est négatif si le fuseau horaire DST local est à l’est de UTC (comme en Europe occidentale, y compris le Royaume-Uni). Utilisez ceci uniquement si daylight est différent de zéro. Voir note ci-dessous.

time.daylight

Non nul si un fuseau horaire DST est défini. Voir note ci-dessous.

time.timezone

Décalage du fuseau horaire local (hors heure d’été), en secondes à l’ouest de l’UTC (négatif dans la plupart des pays d’Europe occidentale, positif aux États-Unis, nul au Royaume-Uni). Voir note ci-dessous.

time.tzname

Une paire de chaînes : la première est le nom du fuseau horaire local autre que DST, la seconde est le nom du fuseau horaire DST local. Si aucun fuseau horaire DST n’est défini, la deuxième chaîne ne doit pas être utilisée. Voir note ci-dessous.

Note

For the above Timezone constants (altzone, daylight, timezone, and tzname), the value is determined by the timezone rules in effect at module load time or the last time tzset() is called and may be incorrect for times in the past. It is recommended to use the tm_gmtoff and tm_zone results from localtime() to obtain timezone information.

Voir aussi

Module datetime

Interface plus orientée objet vers les dates et les heures.

Module locale

Services d’internationalisation. Les paramètres régionaux affectent l’interprétation de nombreux spécificateurs de format dans strftime() et strptime().

Module calendar

Fonctions générales liées au calendrier. timegm() est l’inverse de gmtime() à partir de ce module.

Notes

[1] (1,2,3)

The use of %Z is now deprecated, but the %z escape that expands to the preferred hour/minute offset is not supported by all ANSI C libraries. Also, a strict reading of the original 1982 RFC 822 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html] standard calls for a two-digit year (%y rather than %Y), but practice moved to 4-digit years long before the year 2000. After that, RFC 822 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html] became obsolete and the 4-digit year has been first recommended by RFC 1123 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1123.html] and then mandated by RFC 2822 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html], with RFC 5322 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html] continuing this requirement.

logging --- Logging facility for Python

Code source : Lib/logging/__init__.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/logging/__init__.py]

Important

Cette page contient les informations de référence de l’API. Pour des tutoriels et des discussions sur des sujets plus avancés, voir

Tutoriel de découverte

Tutoriel avancé

Recettes pour la journalisation

Ce module définit les fonctions et les classes qui mettent en œuvre un système flexible d’enregistrement des événements pour les applications et les bibliothèques.

L'intérêt principal d'utiliser une API de journalisation fournie par un module de bibliothèque standard réside dans le fait que tous les modules Python peuvent participer à la journalisation, de sorte que le journal de votre application peut inclure vos propres messages et ceux de modules tiers.

Here's a simple example of idiomatic usage:

# myapp.py
import logging
import mylib
logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

def main():
    logging.basicConfig(filename='myapp.log', level=logging.INFO)
    logger.info('Started')
    mylib.do_something()
    logger.info('Finished')

if __name__ == '__main__':
    main()

# mylib.py
import logging
logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

def do_something():
    logger.info('Doing something')

Si vous exécutez myapp.py, vous verrez ceci dans myapp.log :

INFO:__main__:Started
INFO:mylib:Doing something
INFO:__main__:Finished

The key feature of this idiomatic usage is that the majority of code is simply creating a module level logger with getLogger(__name__), and using that logger to do any needed logging. This is concise, while allowing downstream code fine-grained control if needed. Logged messages to the module-level logger get forwarded to handlers of loggers in higher-level modules, all the way up to the highest-level logger known as the root logger; this approach is known as hierarchical logging.

For logging to be useful, it needs to be configured: setting the levels and destinations for each logger, potentially changing how specific modules log, often based on command-line arguments or application configuration. In most cases, like the one above, only the root logger needs to be so configured, since all the lower level loggers at module level eventually forward their messages to its handlers. basicConfig() provides a quick way to configure the root logger that handles many use cases.

Ce module offre de nombreuses fonctionnalités et une grande flexibilité. Si vous n'êtes pas familier avec la journalisation, la meilleure façon de l’appréhender est de consulter les tutoriels (voir les liens ci-dessus et à droite).

The basic classes defined by the module, together with their attributes and methods, are listed in the sections below.

les enregistreurs (loggers en anglais) exposent l'interface que le code de l'application utilise directement ;

les gestionnaires (handlers) envoient les entrées de journal (créées par les loggers) vers les destinations voulues ;

les filtres (filters) fournissent un moyen de choisir plus finement quelles entrées de journal doivent être sorties ;

les formateurs (formatters) définissent la structure de l'entrée de journal dans la sortie finale.

Enregistreurs

Les enregistreurs ont les attributs et les méthodes suivants. Notez que les enregistreurs ne doivent JAMAIS être instanciés directement, mais toujours par la fonction au niveau du module logging.getLogger(nom). Les appels à getLogger() avec le même nom renvoient toujours une référence au même objet enregistreur.

The name is potentially a period-separated hierarchical value, like foo.bar.baz (though it could also be just plain foo, for example). Loggers that are further down in the hierarchical list are children of loggers higher up in the list. For example, given a logger with a name of foo, loggers with names of foo.bar, foo.bar.baz, and foo.bam are all descendants of foo. In addition, all loggers are descendants of the root logger. The logger name hierarchy is analogous to the Python package hierarchy, and identical to it if you organise your loggers on a per-module basis using the recommended construction logging.getLogger(__name__). That's because in a module, __name__ is the module's name in the Python package namespace.

class logging.Logger

name

This is the logger's name, and is the value that was passed to getLogger() to obtain the logger.

Note

This attribute should be treated as read-only.

level

The threshold of this logger, as set by the setLevel() method.

Note

Do not set this attribute directly - always use setLevel(), which has checks for the level passed to it.

parent

The parent logger of this logger. It may change based on later instantiation of loggers which are higher up in the namespace hierarchy.

Note

This value should be treated as read-only.

propagate

Si cet attribut est évalué comme vrai, les événements enregistrés dans cet enregistreur seront transmis aux gestionnaires des enregistreurs de niveau supérieur (parents), en plus des gestionnaires attachés à l'enregistreur. Les messages sont transmis directement aux gestionnaires des enregistreurs parents — ni le niveau ni les filtres des enregistreurs parentaux en question ne sont pris en compte.

S’il s’évalue comme faux, les messages de journalisation ne sont pas transmis aux gestionnaires des enregistreurs parents.

Spelling it out with an example: If the propagate attribute of the logger named A.B.C evaluates to true, any event logged to A.B.C via a method call such as logging.getLogger('A.B.C').error(...) will [subject to passing that logger's level and filter settings] be passed in turn to any handlers attached to loggers named A.B, A and the root logger, after first being passed to any handlers attached to A.B.C. If any logger in the chain A.B.C, A.B, A has its propagate attribute set to false, then that is the last logger whose handlers are offered the event to handle, and propagation stops at that point.

Le constructeur fixe cet attribut à True.

Note

si vous associez un gestionnaire à un enregistreur et à un ou plusieurs de ses parents, il peut émettre le même enregistrement plusieurs fois. En général, il est rare d'avoir besoin d'attacher un gestionnaire à plus d'un enregistreur — si vous l'attachez simplement à l'enregistreur approprié le plus haut possible dans la hiérarchie des enregistreurs, alors il voit tous les événements enregistrés par tous les enregistreurs descendants, à condition que leur paramètre de propagation soit laissé à True. La pratique la plus courante est de n'attacher les gestionnaires qu'à l'enregistreur racine et à laisser la propagation s'occuper du reste.

handlers

The list of handlers directly attached to this logger instance.

Note

This attribute should be treated as read-only; it is normally changed via the addHandler() and removeHandler() methods, which use locks to ensure thread-safe operation.

disabled

This attribute disables handling of any events. It is set to False in the initializer, and only changed by logging configuration code.

Note

This attribute should be treated as read-only.

setLevel(level)

Fixe le seuil de l'enregistreur au niveau level. Les messages de journalisation qui sont moins graves que level sont ignorés ; les messages qui ont une gravité égale à level ou plus élevée sont traités par le ou les gestionnaires de l'enregistreur, à moins que le niveau d'un gestionnaire n'ait été fixé à un niveau de gravité plus élevé que level.

Lorsqu'un enregistreur est créé, son niveau est fixé à NOTSET (ce qui entraîne le traitement de tous les messages lorsque l'enregistreur est l'enregistreur racine, ou la délégation au parent lorsque l'enregistreur est un enregistreur non racine). Notez que l'enregistreur racine est créé avec le niveau WARNING.

Le terme « délégation au parent » signifie que si un enregistreur a un niveau de NOTSET, sa chaîne d’enregistreurs parents est parcourue jusqu'à ce qu'un parent ayant un niveau autre que NOTSET soit trouvé, ou que la racine soit atteinte.

Si un parent est trouvé avec un niveau autre que NOTSET, alors le niveau de ce parent est utilisé comme le niveau effectif de l'enregistreur d'où la recherche du parent a commencé. Ce niveau est utilisé pour déterminer comment un événement d'enregistrement est traité.

Si la racine est atteinte, et qu'elle a un niveau de NOTSET, alors tous les messages sont traités. Sinon, le niveau de la racine est utilisé comme niveau effectif.

Voir Niveaux de journalisation pour la liste des niveaux.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: le paramètre level peut désormais être une chaîne de caractères représentant le niveau de gravité (comme 'INFO') en plus des constantes entières (comme INFO). Notez cependant que les niveaux sont stockés en interne sous forme d'entiers, et que des méthodes telles que getEffectiveLevel() et isEnabledFor() renvoient et s'attendent à recevoir des entiers.

isEnabledFor(level)

Indique si un message de gravité level est traitable par cet enregistreur. Cette méthode vérifie d'abord le niveau de gravité du module défini par logging.disable(level) et ensuite le niveau effectif de l'enregistreur, déterminé par getEffectiveLevel().

getEffectiveLevel()

Indique le niveau effectif de l'enregistreur. Si une valeur autre que NOTSET a été définie en utilisant setLevel(), elle est renvoyée. Sinon, la hiérarchie est parcourue vers la racine jusqu'à ce qu'une valeur autre que NOTSET soit trouvée, et cette valeur est renvoyée. La valeur renvoyée est un entier, par exemple logging.DEBUG, logging.INFO, etc.

getChild(suffix)

Renvoie un enregistreur enfant de l'enregistreur, déterminé par suffix. Ainsi, logging.getLogger('abc').getChild('def.ghi') renvoie le même enregistreur que logging.getLogger('abc.def.ghi'). C'est une méthode destinée à simplifier la vie du développeur. Elle est très utile quand l’enregistreur parent est nommé en utilisant, par exemple, __name__ plutôt qu'une chaîne de caractères littérale.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

getChildren()

Returns a set of loggers which are immediate children of this logger. So for example logging.getLogger().getChildren() might return a set containing loggers named foo and bar, but a logger named foo.bar wouldn't be included in the set. Likewise, logging.getLogger('foo').getChildren() might return a set including a logger named foo.bar, but it wouldn't include one named foo.bar.baz.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

debug(msg, *args, **kwargs)

Enregistre un message de niveau DEBUG dans cet enregistreur. msg est la chaîne du message qui sera formatée avec args en utilisant l'opérateur de formatage. Cela signifie qu'il est possible de mettre des mots-clé dans la chaîne et de passer un dictionnaire en argument. Si args n'est pas fourni, aucun formatage « à la % » n'est appliqué.

Quatre mots-clés de kwargs sont analysés : exc_info, stack_info, stacklevel et extra.

Si la valeur booléenne de exc_info est vraie, les informations des exceptions sont ajoutées au message. Si exc_info est un n-uplet d'exception (au format identique aux valeurs renvoyées par sys.exc_info()) ou une instance d'exception, sa valeur est utilisée. Dans le cas contraire, les informations sur l'exception sont déterminées par un appel à sys.exc_info().

Le deuxième argument par mot-clé optionnel est stack_info, valant False par défaut. S'il est vrai, les informations de la pile d'appels sont ajoutées à l'entrée de journal, en incluant aussi l'appel à la fonction de journalisation. Ce ne sont pas les mêmes informations que celles affichées en définissant exc_info : les premières représentent les appels de fonctions successifs, du bas de la pile jusqu'à l'appel de la fonction de journalisation dans le fil d'exécution actuel, alors que les secondes portent des informations sur les appels successifs déclenchés par la levée d'une exception et la recherche de gestionnaires pour cette exception.

Il est possible de définir stack_info indépendamment de exc_info, p. ex. pour s'assurer que l'exécution a atteint un certain point dans le code, même si aucune exception n'a été levée. La pile d'appels est alors affichée après la ligne d'en-tête suivante :

Stack (most recent call last):

Elle imite la ligne Traceback (most recent call last): affichée avec la pile d'appels d'une exception.

Le troisième argument par mot-clé optionnel est stacklevel, valant 1 par défaut. S'il est supérieur à 1, il correspond au nombre d'entrées dans la pile qui sont ignorées en déterminant le numéro de ligne et le nom de la fonction dans la classe LogRecord créée pour l'évènement de journalisation. C'est utile pour les utilitaires de journalisation car cela permet d'ignorer les informations (nom de fonction, fichier source et ligne) de l'utilitaire et de ne traiter que celles de l'appelant. Le nom de ce paramètre est le même que son équivalent dans le module warnings.

The fourth keyword argument is extra which can be used to pass a dictionary which is used to populate the __dict__ of the LogRecord created for the logging event with user-defined attributes. These custom attributes can then be used as you like. For example, they could be incorporated into logged messages. For example:

FORMAT = '%(asctime)s %(clientip)-15s %(user)-8s %(message)s'
logging.basicConfig(format=FORMAT)
d = {'clientip': '192.168.0.1', 'user': 'fbloggs'}
logger = logging.getLogger('tcpserver')
logger.warning('Protocol problem: %s', 'connection reset', extra=d)

affiche

2006-02-08 22:20:02,165 192.168.0.1 fbloggs  Protocol problem: connection reset

Les clés du dictionnaire passé dans extra ne doivent pas être les mêmes que les clés utilisées par le système de journalisation. Voir la documentation de la classe Formatter pour plus de précisions sur les clés utilisées par le système de journalisation.

Si vous choisissez d'utiliser des attributs dans les messages à journaliser, il faut être prudent. Ainsi, dans l'exemple précédent, le Formatter a été configuré avec une chaîne qui attend clientip et user dans le dictionnaire d'attributs du LogRecord. S'ils sont manquants, le message n'est pas enregistré car une exception de formatage de chaîne est levée. Il faut alors toujours passer un dictionnaire extra avec ces clés.

Même si elle peut sembler gênante, cette fonctionnalité est nécessaire dans certains cas, comme sur des serveurs à fils d'exécution multiples, où le même code s'exécute dans des contextes différents et où les évènements significatifs dépendent du contexte (comme l'adresse IP du client et le nom d'utilisateur dans l'exemple précédent). Dans ces circonstances, il est clair que les classes Formatters spécialisées doivent être utilisées avec des Handlers particuliers.

If no handler is attached to this logger (or any of its ancestors, taking into account the relevant Logger.propagate attributes), the message will be sent to the handler set on lastResort.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: ajout du paramètre stack_info.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: le paramètre exc_info peut être une instance d'exception.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: ajout du paramètre stacklevel.

info(msg, *args, **kwargs)

Enregistre un message avec le niveau de gravité INFO. Les arguments ont la même signification que pour debug().

warning(msg, *args, **kwargs)

Enregistre un message avec le niveau de gravité WARNING. Les arguments ont la même signification que pour debug().

Note

Il existe une méthode obsolète warn qui est identique à warning. warn n'est plus maintenue, prière de ne plus l'utiliser et de la remplacer par warning.

error(msg, *args, **kwargs)

Enregistre un message avec le niveau de gravité ERROR. Les arguments ont la même signification que pour debug().

critical(msg, *args, **kwargs)

Enregistre un message avec le niveau de gravité CRITICAL. Les arguments ont la même signification que pour debug().

log(level, msg, *args, **kwargs)

Enregistre un message avec le niveau de gravité level. Les arguments ont la même signification que pour debug().

exception(msg, *args, **kwargs)

Enregistre un message avec le niveau de gravité ERROR. Les arguments ont la même signification que pour debug(). Des informations sur l'exception sont ajoutées au message. Cette méthode doit être appelée depuis un gestionnaire d'exceptions.

addFilter(filter)

Ajoute le filtre filter à l'enregistreur.

removeFilter(filter)

Retire le filtre filter de cet enregistreur.

filter(record)

Applique les filtres associés à l'enregistreur et renvoie True si l'entrée doit être traitée. Les filtres sont appliqués les uns après les autres, jusqu'à ce que l'un renvoie faux. Si ce n'est pas le cas, le traitement de l'entrée se poursuit (elle est alors passée aux gestionnaires). Si l'un d'entre eux renvoie faux, le traitement de l'entrée s'arrête.

addHandler(hdlr)

Ajoute le gestionnaire hdlr à l'enregistreur.

removeHandler(hdlr)

Retire le gestionnaire hdlr de l'enregistreur.

findCaller(stack_info=False, stacklevel=1)

Détermine le fichier source et la ligne de l'appelant. Renvoie un quadruplet contenant le nom du fichier source, le numéro de ligne, le nom de la fonction et la pile d'appels. La pile vaut None si stack_info n'est pas True.

Le paramètre stacklevel est passé par le code appelant debug() (entre autres). S'il est supérieur à 1, n-1 entrées de la pile sont supprimées avant de renvoyer la pile. C'est pratique quand on appelle des APIs de journalisation à travers du code d'encapsulation car cela permet de retirer les informations sur ce code de l'entrée, tout en conservant celles sur le code au-dessus du code d'encapsulation.

handle(record)

Traite une entrée en la passant à tous les gestionnaires de l'enregistreur et à tous ses parents (jusqu'à ce qu'un propagate soit faux). C'est pratique pour désérialiser les entrées reçues d'un connecteur et celles créées localement. Du filtrage au niveau de l'enregistreur est appliqué en appelant filter().

makeRecord(name, level, fn, lno, msg, args, exc_info, func=None, extra=None, sinfo=None)

Fabrique qui peut être redéfinie pour créer des instances de LogRecord.

hasHandlers()

Vérifie si l'enregistreur a des gestionnaires associés. Elle recherche les gestionnaires de l'enregistreur et ceux de ses parents. Renvoie True si au moins un gestionnaire a été trouvé et False sinon. Cette méthode arrête de remonter la hiérarchie dès qu'un enregistreur avec l'attribut propagate à faux est rencontré — cet enregistreur est alors le dernier dans lequel la méthode cherche des gestionnaires.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: les enregistreurs peuvent être sérialisés et désérialisés.

Niveaux de journalisation

Les valeurs numériques des niveaux de journalisation sont données dans le tableau suivant. Celles-ci n'ont d'intérêt que si vous voulez définir vos propres niveaux, avec des valeurs spécifiques par rapport aux niveaux prédéfinis. Si vous définissez un niveau avec la même valeur numérique, il écrase la valeur prédéfinie ; le nom prédéfini est perdu.

Niveau

Valeur numérique

What it means / When to use it

logging.NOTSET

0

When set on a logger, indicates that ancestor loggers are to be consulted to determine the effective level. If that still resolves to NOTSET, then all events are logged. When set on a handler, all events are handled.

logging.DEBUG

10

Detailed information, typically only of interest to a developer trying to diagnose a problem.

logging.INFO

20

Confirmation que tout fonctionne comme prévu.

logging.WARNING

30

An indication that something unexpected happened, or that a problem might occur in the near future (e.g. 'disk space low'). The software is still working as expected.

logging.ERROR

40

Du fait d'un problème plus sérieux, le logiciel n'a pas été capable de réaliser une tâche.

logging.CRITICAL

50

Une erreur sérieuse, indiquant que le programme lui-même pourrait être incapable de continuer à fonctionner.

Gestionnaires

Handlers have the following attributes and methods. Note that Handler is never instantiated directly; this class acts as a base for more useful subclasses. However, the __init__() method in subclasses needs to call Handler.__init__().

class logging.Handler

__init__(level=NOTSET)

Initialise l'objet Handler en définissant le niveau de gravité, en initialisant la liste des filtres avec une liste vide et en créant un verrou (avec createLock()) pour sérialiser l'accès au mécanisme d'E-S.

createLock()

Instancie un verrou qui peut être utilisé pour sérialiser l'accès au système d'E-S sous-jacent (qui peut ne pas être à fil d'exécution sécurisé).

acquire()

Acquiert le verrou créé par createLock().

release()

Relâche le verrou acquis par acquire().

setLevel(level)

Ajuste le seuil déclenchement du gestionnaire au niveau level. Les messages de gravité moindre que level sont alors ignorés. Ce seuil est fixé à NOTSET lors de la création d'un gestionnaire (ce qui signifie que tous les messages seront traités).

Voir Niveaux de journalisation pour la liste des niveaux.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: le paramètre level peut être une chaîne de caractères, comme 'INFO', en plus d'une constante entière comme INFO.

setFormatter(fmt)

Sets the formatter for this handler to fmt. The fmt argument must be a Formatter instance or None.

addFilter(filter)

Ajoute le filtre filter au gestionnaire.

removeFilter(filter)

Retire le filtre filter du gestionnaire.

filter(record)

Applique les filtres du gestionnaire à record et renvoie True si l'entrée doit être traitée. Les filtres sont appliqués l'un après l'autre, jusqu'à ce que l'un renvoie faux. Si aucun d'entre eux ne renvoie faux, l'entrée est enregistrée, sinon le gestionnaire ne traitera pas l'entrée.

flush()

Oblige toutes les entrées à être traitées. Cette fonction ne fait rien de spécial et doit être redéfinie par les sous-classes.

close()

Tidy up any resources used by the handler. This version does no output but removes the handler from an internal map of handlers, which is used for handler lookup by name.

Subclasses should ensure that this gets called from overridden close() methods.

handle(record)

Traite ou non record selon les filtres ajoutés au gestionnaire. Un verrou sur l'E-S. est mis en place durant l'écriture effective.

handleError(record)

This method should be called from handlers when an exception is encountered during an emit() call. If the module-level attribute raiseExceptions is False, exceptions get silently ignored. This is what is mostly wanted for a logging system - most users will not care about errors in the logging system, they are more interested in application errors. You could, however, replace this with a custom handler if you wish. The specified record is the one which was being processed when the exception occurred. (The default value of raiseExceptions is True, as that is more useful during development).

format(record)

Formate record avec le formateur défini. S'il n'y en a pas, le formateur par défaut du module est utilisé.

emit(record)

Journalise record « pour de bon ». Cette version doit être redéfinie par les sous-classes et lève donc une NotImplementedError.

Avertissement

This method is called after a handler-level lock is acquired, which is released after this method returns. When you override this method, note that you should be careful when calling anything that invokes other parts of the logging API which might do locking, because that might result in a deadlock. Specifically:

Logging configuration APIs acquire the module-level lock, and then individual handler-level locks as those handlers are configured.

Many logging APIs lock the module-level lock. If such an API is called from this method, it could cause a deadlock if a configuration call is made on another thread, because that thread will try to acquire the module-level lock before the handler-level lock, whereas this thread tries to acquire the module-level lock after the handler-level lock (because in this method, the handler-level lock has already been acquired).

Les gestionnaires de la bibliothèque standard sont répertoriés dans logging.handlers.

Formateurs

class logging.Formatter(fmt=None, datefmt=None, style='%', validate=True, *, defaults=None)

Responsible for converting a LogRecord to an output string to be interpreted by a human or external system.

Paramètres:

fmt (str) -- A format string in the given style for the logged output as a whole. The possible mapping keys are drawn from the LogRecord object's LogRecord attributes. If not specified, '%(message)s' is used, which is just the logged message.

datefmt (str) -- A format string for the date/time portion of the logged output. If not specified, the default described in formatTime() is used.

style (str) -- Can be one of '%', '{' or '$' and determines how the format string will be merged with its data: using one of Formatage de chaines à la printf (%), str.format() ({) or string.Template ($). This only applies to fmt (e.g. '%(message)s' versus '{message}'), not to the actual log messages passed to the logging methods. However, there are other ways to use {- and $-formatting for log messages.

validate (bool) -- If True (the default), incorrect or mismatched fmt and style will raise a ValueError; for example, logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s - %(message)s', style='{').

defaults (dict[str, Any]) -- A dictionary with default values to use in custom fields. For example, logging.Formatter('%(ip)s %(message)s', defaults={"ip": None})

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Added the style parameter.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added the validate parameter.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Added the defaults parameter.

format(record)

The record's attribute dictionary is used as the operand to a string formatting operation. Returns the resulting string. Before formatting the dictionary, a couple of preparatory steps are carried out. The message attribute of the record is computed using msg % args. If the formatting string contains '(asctime)', formatTime() is called to format the event time. If there is exception information, it is formatted using formatException() and appended to the message. Note that the formatted exception information is cached in attribute exc_text. This is useful because the exception information can be pickled and sent across the wire, but you should be careful if you have more than one Formatter subclass which customizes the formatting of exception information. In this case, you will have to clear the cached value (by setting the exc_text attribute to None) after a formatter has done its formatting, so that the next formatter to handle the event doesn't use the cached value, but recalculates it afresh.

If stack information is available, it's appended after the exception information, using formatStack() to transform it if necessary.

formatTime(record, datefmt=None)

This method should be called from format() by a formatter which wants to make use of a formatted time. This method can be overridden in formatters to provide for any specific requirement, but the basic behavior is as follows: if datefmt (a string) is specified, it is used with time.strftime() to format the creation time of the record. Otherwise, the format '%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S,uuu' is used, where the uuu part is a millisecond value and the other letters are as per the time.strftime() documentation. An example time in this format is 2003-01-23 00:29:50,411. The resulting string is returned.

This function uses a user-configurable function to convert the creation time to a tuple. By default, time.localtime() is used; to change this for a particular formatter instance, set the converter attribute to a function with the same signature as time.localtime() or time.gmtime(). To change it for all formatters, for example if you want all logging times to be shown in GMT, set the converter attribute in the Formatter class.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Previously, the default format was hard-coded as in this example: 2010-09-06 22:38:15,292 where the part before the comma is handled by a strptime format string ('%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S'), and the part after the comma is a millisecond value. Because strptime does not have a format placeholder for milliseconds, the millisecond value is appended using another format string, '%s,%03d' --- and both of these format strings have been hardcoded into this method. With the change, these strings are defined as class-level attributes which can be overridden at the instance level when desired. The names of the attributes are default_time_format (for the strptime format string) and default_msec_format (for appending the millisecond value).

Modifié dans la version 3.9: The default_msec_format can be None.

formatException(exc_info)

Formats the specified exception information (a standard exception tuple as returned by sys.exc_info()) as a string. This default implementation just uses traceback.print_exception(). The resulting string is returned.

formatStack(stack_info)

Formats the specified stack information (a string as returned by traceback.print_stack(), but with the last newline removed) as a string. This default implementation just returns the input value.

class logging.BufferingFormatter(linefmt=None)

A base formatter class suitable for subclassing when you want to format a number of records. You can pass a Formatter instance which you want to use to format each line (that corresponds to a single record). If not specified, the default formatter (which just outputs the event message) is used as the line formatter.

formatHeader(records)

Return a header for a list of records. The base implementation just returns the empty string. You will need to override this method if you want specific behaviour, e.g. to show the count of records, a title or a separator line.

formatFooter(records)

Return a footer for a list of records. The base implementation just returns the empty string. You will need to override this method if you want specific behaviour, e.g. to show the count of records or a separator line.

format(records)

Return formatted text for a list of records. The base implementation just returns the empty string if there are no records; otherwise, it returns the concatenation of the header, each record formatted with the line formatter, and the footer.

Filtres

Filters can be used by Handlers and Loggers for more sophisticated filtering than is provided by levels. The base filter class only allows events which are below a certain point in the logger hierarchy. For example, a filter initialized with 'A.B' will allow events logged by loggers 'A.B', 'A.B.C', 'A.B.C.D', 'A.B.D' etc. but not 'A.BB', 'B.A.B' etc. If initialized with the empty string, all events are passed.

class logging.Filter(name='')

Returns an instance of the Filter class. If name is specified, it names a logger which, together with its children, will have its events allowed through the filter. If name is the empty string, allows every event.

filter(record)

Is the specified record to be logged? Returns false for no, true for yes. Filters can either modify log records in-place or return a completely different record instance which will replace the original log record in any future processing of the event.

Note that filters attached to handlers are consulted before an event is emitted by the handler, whereas filters attached to loggers are consulted whenever an event is logged (using debug(), info(), etc.), before sending an event to handlers. This means that events which have been generated by descendant loggers will not be filtered by a logger's filter setting, unless the filter has also been applied to those descendant loggers.

You don't actually need to subclass Filter: you can pass any instance which has a filter method with the same semantics.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: You don't need to create specialized Filter classes, or use other classes with a filter method: you can use a function (or other callable) as a filter. The filtering logic will check to see if the filter object has a filter attribute: if it does, it's assumed to be a Filter and its filter() method is called. Otherwise, it's assumed to be a callable and called with the record as the single parameter. The returned value should conform to that returned by filter().

Modifié dans la version 3.12: You can now return a LogRecord instance from filters to replace the log record rather than modifying it in place. This allows filters attached to a Handler to modify the log record before it is emitted, without having side effects on other handlers.

Although filters are used primarily to filter records based on more sophisticated criteria than levels, they get to see every record which is processed by the handler or logger they're attached to: this can be useful if you want to do things like counting how many records were processed by a particular logger or handler, or adding, changing or removing attributes in the LogRecord being processed. Obviously changing the LogRecord needs to be done with some care, but it does allow the injection of contextual information into logs (see Utilisation de filtres pour transmettre des informations contextuelles).

Objets LogRecord

LogRecord instances are created automatically by the Logger every time something is logged, and can be created manually via makeLogRecord() (for example, from a pickled event received over the wire).

class logging.LogRecord(name, level, pathname, lineno, msg, args, exc_info, func=None, sinfo=None)

Contains all the information pertinent to the event being logged.

The primary information is passed in msg and args, which are combined using msg % args to create the message attribute of the record.

Paramètres:

name (str) -- The name of the logger used to log the event represented by this LogRecord. Note that the logger name in the LogRecord will always have this value, even though it may be emitted by a handler attached to a different (ancestor) logger.

level (int) -- The numeric level of the logging event (such as 10 for DEBUG, 20 for INFO, etc). Note that this is converted to two attributes of the LogRecord: levelno for the numeric value and levelname for the corresponding level name.

pathname (str) -- The full string path of the source file where the logging call was made.

lineno (int) -- The line number in the source file where the logging call was made.

msg (Any) -- The event description message, which can be a %-format string with placeholders for variable data, or an arbitrary object (see Utilisation d'objets arbitraires comme messages).

args (tuple | dict[str, Any]) -- Variable data to merge into the msg argument to obtain the event description.

exc_info (tuple[type[BaseException], BaseException, types.TracebackType] | None) -- An exception tuple with the current exception information, as returned by sys.exc_info(), or None if no exception information is available.

func (str | None) -- The name of the function or method from which the logging call was invoked.

sinfo (str | None) -- A text string representing stack information from the base of the stack in the current thread, up to the logging call.

getMessage()

Returns the message for this LogRecord instance after merging any user-supplied arguments with the message. If the user-supplied message argument to the logging call is not a string, str() is called on it to convert it to a string. This allows use of user-defined classes as messages, whose __str__ method can return the actual format string to be used.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: The creation of a LogRecord has been made more configurable by providing a factory which is used to create the record. The factory can be set using getLogRecordFactory() and setLogRecordFactory() (see this for the factory's signature).

This functionality can be used to inject your own values into a LogRecord at creation time. You can use the following pattern:

old_factory = logging.getLogRecordFactory()

def record_factory(*args, **kwargs):
    record = old_factory(*args, **kwargs)
    record.custom_attribute = 0xdecafbad
    return record

logging.setLogRecordFactory(record_factory)

With this pattern, multiple factories could be chained, and as long as they don't overwrite each other's attributes or unintentionally overwrite the standard attributes listed above, there should be no surprises.

LogRecord attributes

The LogRecord has a number of attributes, most of which are derived from the parameters to the constructor. (Note that the names do not always correspond exactly between the LogRecord constructor parameters and the LogRecord attributes.) These attributes can be used to merge data from the record into the format string. The following table lists (in alphabetical order) the attribute names, their meanings and the corresponding placeholder in a %-style format string.

If you are using {}-formatting (str.format()), you can use {attrname} as the placeholder in the format string. If you are using $-formatting (string.Template), use the form ${attrname}. In both cases, of course, replace attrname with the actual attribute name you want to use.

In the case of {}-formatting, you can specify formatting flags by placing them after the attribute name, separated from it with a colon. For example: a placeholder of {msecs:03.0f} would format a millisecond value of 4 as 004. Refer to the str.format() documentation for full details on the options available to you.

Attribute name

Format

Description

args

You shouldn't need to format this yourself.

The tuple of arguments merged into msg to produce message, or a dict whose values are used for the merge (when there is only one argument, and it is a dictionary).

asctime

%(asctime)s

Human-readable time when the LogRecord was created. By default this is of the form '2003-07-08 16:49:45,896' (the numbers after the comma are millisecond portion of the time).

created

%(created)f

Time when the LogRecord was created (as returned by time.time_ns() / 1e9).

exc_info

You shouldn't need to format this yourself.

Exception tuple (à la sys.exc_info) or, if no exception has occurred, None.

exc_text

You shouldn't need to format this yourself.

Exception information formatted as a string. This is set when Formatter.format() is invoked, or None if no exception has occurred.

filename

%(filename)s

Filename portion of pathname.

funcName

%(funcName)s

Name of function containing the logging call.

levelname

%(levelname)s

Text logging level for the message ('DEBUG', 'INFO', 'WARNING', 'ERROR', 'CRITICAL').

levelno

%(levelno)s

Numeric logging level for the message (DEBUG, INFO, WARNING, ERROR, CRITICAL).

lineno

%(lineno)d

Source line number where the logging call was issued (if available).

message

%(message)s

The logged message, computed as msg % args. This is set when Formatter.format() is invoked.

module

%(module)s

Module (name portion of filename).

msecs

%(msecs)d

Millisecond portion of the time when the LogRecord was created.

msg

You shouldn't need to format this yourself.

The format string passed in the original logging call. Merged with args to produce message, or an arbitrary object (see Utilisation d'objets arbitraires comme messages).

nom

%(name)s

Name of the logger used to log the call.

pathname

%(pathname)s

Full pathname of the source file where the logging call was issued (if available).

process

%(process)d

Process ID (if available).

processName

%(processName)s

Process name (if available).

relativeCreated

%(relativeCreated)d

Time in milliseconds when the LogRecord was created, relative to the time the logging module was loaded.

stack_info

You shouldn't need to format this yourself.

Stack frame information (where available) from the bottom of the stack in the current thread, up to and including the stack frame of the logging call which resulted in the creation of this record.

thread

%(thread)d

Thread ID (if available).

threadName

%(threadName)s

Thread name (if available).

taskName

%(taskName)s

asyncio.Task name (if available).

Modifié dans la version 3.1: processName was added.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: taskName was added.

LoggerAdapter Objects

LoggerAdapter instances are used to conveniently pass contextual information into logging calls. For a usage example, see the section on adding contextual information to your logging output.

class logging.LoggerAdapter(logger, extra=None, merge_extra=False)

Returns an instance of LoggerAdapter initialized with an underlying Logger instance, an optional dict-like object (extra), and an optional boolean (merge_extra) indicating whether or not the extra argument of individual log calls should be merged with the LoggerAdapter extra. The default behavior is to ignore the extra argument of individual log calls and only use the one of the LoggerAdapter instance

process(msg, kwargs)

Modifies the message and/or keyword arguments passed to a logging call in order to insert contextual information. This implementation takes the object passed as extra to the constructor and adds it to kwargs using key 'extra'. The return value is a (msg, kwargs) tuple which has the (possibly modified) versions of the arguments passed in.

manager

Delegates to the underlying manager on logger.

_log

Delegates to the underlying _log() method on logger.

In addition to the above, LoggerAdapter supports the following methods of Logger: debug(), info(), warning(), error(), exception(), critical(), log(), isEnabledFor(), getEffectiveLevel(), setLevel() and hasHandlers(). These methods have the same signatures as their counterparts in Logger, so you can use the two types of instances interchangeably.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: The isEnabledFor(), getEffectiveLevel(), setLevel() and hasHandlers() methods were added to LoggerAdapter. These methods delegate to the underlying logger.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Attribute manager and method _log() were added, which delegate to the underlying logger and allow adapters to be nested.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: The extra argument is now optional.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: The merge_extra parameter was added.

Thread Safety

The logging module is intended to be thread-safe without any special work needing to be done by its clients. It achieves this through using threading locks; there is one lock to serialize access to the module's shared data, and each handler also creates a lock to serialize access to its underlying I/O.

If you are implementing asynchronous signal handlers using the signal module, you may not be able to use logging from within such handlers. This is because lock implementations in the threading module are not always re-entrant, and so cannot be invoked from such signal handlers.

Fonctions de niveau module

In addition to the classes described above, there are a number of module-level functions.

logging.getLogger(name=None)

Return a logger with the specified name or, if name is None, return the root logger of the hierarchy. If specified, the name is typically a dot-separated hierarchical name like 'a', 'a.b' or 'a.b.c.d'. Choice of these names is entirely up to the developer who is using logging, though it is recommended that __name__ be used unless you have a specific reason for not doing that, as mentioned in Enregistreurs.

All calls to this function with a given name return the same logger instance. This means that logger instances never need to be passed between different parts of an application.

logging.getLoggerClass()

Return either the standard Logger class, or the last class passed to setLoggerClass(). This function may be called from within a new class definition, to ensure that installing a customized Logger class will not undo customizations already applied by other code. For example:

class MyLogger(logging.getLoggerClass()):
    # ... override behaviour here

logging.getLogRecordFactory()

Return a callable which is used to create a LogRecord.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2: This function has been provided, along with setLogRecordFactory(), to allow developers more control over how the LogRecord representing a logging event is constructed.

See setLogRecordFactory() for more information about the how the factory is called.

logging.debug(msg, *args, **kwargs)

This is a convenience function that calls Logger.debug(), on the root logger. The handling of the arguments is in every way identical to what is described in that method.

The only difference is that if the root logger has no handlers, then basicConfig() is called, prior to calling debug on the root logger.

For very short scripts or quick demonstrations of logging facilities, debug and the other module-level functions may be convenient. However, most programs will want to carefully and explicitly control the logging configuration, and should therefore prefer creating a module-level logger and calling Logger.debug() (or other level-specific methods) on it, as described at the beginning of this documentation.

logging.info(msg, *args, **kwargs)

Logs a message with level INFO on the root logger. The arguments and behavior are otherwise the same as for debug().

logging.warning(msg, *args, **kwargs)

Logs a message with level WARNING on the root logger. The arguments and behavior are otherwise the same as for debug().

Note

There is an obsolete function warn which is functionally identical to warning. As warn is deprecated, please do not use it - use warning instead.

logging.error(msg, *args, **kwargs)

Logs a message with level ERROR on the root logger. The arguments and behavior are otherwise the same as for debug().

logging.critical(msg, *args, **kwargs)

Logs a message with level CRITICAL on the root logger. The arguments and behavior are otherwise the same as for debug().

logging.exception(msg, *args, **kwargs)

Logs a message with level ERROR on the root logger. The arguments and behavior are otherwise the same as for debug(). Exception info is added to the logging message. This function should only be called from an exception handler.

logging.log(level, msg, *args, **kwargs)

Logs a message with level level on the root logger. The arguments and behavior are otherwise the same as for debug().

logging.disable(level=CRITICAL)

Provides an overriding level level for all loggers which takes precedence over the logger's own level. When the need arises to temporarily throttle logging output down across the whole application, this function can be useful. Its effect is to disable all logging calls of severity level and below, so that if you call it with a value of INFO, then all INFO and DEBUG events would be discarded, whereas those of severity WARNING and above would be processed according to the logger's effective level. If logging.disable(logging.NOTSET) is called, it effectively removes this overriding level, so that logging output again depends on the effective levels of individual loggers.

Note that if you have defined any custom logging level higher than CRITICAL (this is not recommended), you won't be able to rely on the default value for the level parameter, but will have to explicitly supply a suitable value.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: The level parameter was defaulted to level CRITICAL. See bpo-28524 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28524] for more information about this change.

logging.addLevelName(level, levelName)

Associates level level with text levelName in an internal dictionary, which is used to map numeric levels to a textual representation, for example when a Formatter formats a message. This function can also be used to define your own levels. The only constraints are that all levels used must be registered using this function, levels should be positive integers and they should increase in increasing order of severity.

Note

If you are thinking of defining your own levels, please see the section on Niveaux personnalisés.

logging.getLevelNamesMapping()

Returns a mapping from level names to their corresponding logging levels. For example, the string "CRITICAL" maps to CRITICAL. The returned mapping is copied from an internal mapping on each call to this function.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

logging.getLevelName(level)

Returns the textual or numeric representation of logging level level.

If level is one of the predefined levels CRITICAL, ERROR, WARNING, INFO or DEBUG then you get the corresponding string. If you have associated levels with names using addLevelName() then the name you have associated with level is returned. If a numeric value corresponding to one of the defined levels is passed in, the corresponding string representation is returned.

The level parameter also accepts a string representation of the level such as 'INFO'. In such cases, this functions returns the corresponding numeric value of the level.

If no matching numeric or string value is passed in, the string 'Level %s' % level is returned.

Note

Levels are internally integers (as they need to be compared in the logging logic). This function is used to convert between an integer level and the level name displayed in the formatted log output by means of the %(levelname)s format specifier (see LogRecord attributes), and vice versa.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: In Python versions earlier than 3.4, this function could also be passed a text level, and would return the corresponding numeric value of the level. This undocumented behaviour was considered a mistake, and was removed in Python 3.4, but reinstated in 3.4.2 due to retain backward compatibility.

logging.getHandlerByName(name)

Returns a handler with the specified name, or None if there is no handler with that name.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

logging.getHandlerNames()

Returns an immutable set of all known handler names.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

logging.makeLogRecord(attrdict)

Creates and returns a new LogRecord instance whose attributes are defined by attrdict. This function is useful for taking a pickled LogRecord attribute dictionary, sent over a socket, and reconstituting it as a LogRecord instance at the receiving end.

logging.basicConfig(**kwargs)

Does basic configuration for the logging system by creating a StreamHandler with a default Formatter and adding it to the root logger. The functions debug(), info(), warning(), error() and critical() will call basicConfig() automatically if no handlers are defined for the root logger.

This function does nothing if the root logger already has handlers configured, unless the keyword argument force is set to True.

Note

This function should be called from the main thread before other threads are started. In versions of Python prior to 2.7.1 and 3.2, if this function is called from multiple threads, it is possible (in rare circumstances) that a handler will be added to the root logger more than once, leading to unexpected results such as messages being duplicated in the log.

The following keyword arguments are supported.

Format

Description

filename

Specifies that a FileHandler be created, using the specified filename, rather than a StreamHandler.

filemode

If filename is specified, open the file in this mode. Defaults to 'a'.

format

Use the specified format string for the handler. Defaults to attributes levelname, name and message separated by colons.

datefmt

Use the specified date/time format, as accepted by time.strftime().

style

If format is specified, use this style for the format string. One of '%', '{' or '$' for printf-style, str.format() or string.Template respectively. Defaults to '%'.

level

Set the root logger level to the specified level.

stream

Use the specified stream to initialize the StreamHandler. Note that this argument is incompatible with filename - if both are present, a ValueError is raised.

handlers

If specified, this should be an iterable of already created handlers to add to the root logger. Any handlers which don't already have a formatter set will be assigned the default formatter created in this function. Note that this argument is incompatible with filename or stream - if both are present, a ValueError is raised.

force

If this keyword argument is specified as true, any existing handlers attached to the root logger are removed and closed, before carrying out the configuration as specified by the other arguments.

encoding

If this keyword argument is specified along with filename, its value is used when the FileHandler is created, and thus used when opening the output file.

errors

If this keyword argument is specified along with filename, its value is used when the FileHandler is created, and thus used when opening the output file. If not specified, the value 'backslashreplace' is used. Note that if None is specified, it will be passed as such to open(), which means that it will be treated the same as passing 'errors'.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: The style argument was added.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: The handlers argument was added. Additional checks were added to catch situations where incompatible arguments are specified (e.g. handlers together with stream or filename, or stream together with filename).

Modifié dans la version 3.8: The force argument was added.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: The encoding and errors arguments were added.

logging.shutdown()

Informs the logging system to perform an orderly shutdown by flushing and closing all handlers. This should be called at application exit and no further use of the logging system should be made after this call.

When the logging module is imported, it registers this function as an exit handler (see atexit), so normally there's no need to do that manually.

logging.setLoggerClass(klass)

Tells the logging system to use the class klass when instantiating a logger. The class should define __init__() such that only a name argument is required, and the __init__() should call Logger.__init__(). This function is typically called before any loggers are instantiated by applications which need to use custom logger behavior. After this call, as at any other time, do not instantiate loggers directly using the subclass: continue to use the logging.getLogger() API to get your loggers.

logging.setLogRecordFactory(factory)

Set a callable which is used to create a LogRecord.

Paramètres:

factory -- The factory callable to be used to instantiate a log record.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2: This function has been provided, along with getLogRecordFactory(), to allow developers more control over how the LogRecord representing a logging event is constructed.

The factory has the following signature:

factory(name, level, fn, lno, msg, args, exc_info, func=None, sinfo=None, **kwargs)

nom:

The logger name.

level:

The logging level (numeric).

fn:

The full pathname of the file where the logging call was made.

lno:

The line number in the file where the logging call was made.

msg:

The logging message.

args:

The arguments for the logging message.

exc_info:

An exception tuple, or None.

func:

The name of the function or method which invoked the logging call.

sinfo:

A stack traceback such as is provided by traceback.print_stack(), showing the call hierarchy.

kwargs:

Additional keyword arguments.

Module-Level Attributes

logging.lastResort

A "handler of last resort" is available through this attribute. This is a StreamHandler writing to sys.stderr with a level of WARNING, and is used to handle logging events in the absence of any logging configuration. The end result is to just print the message to sys.stderr. This replaces the earlier error message saying that "no handlers could be found for logger XYZ". If you need the earlier behaviour for some reason, lastResort can be set to None.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

logging.raiseExceptions

Used to see if exceptions during handling should be propagated.

Default: True.

If raiseExceptions is False, exceptions get silently ignored. This is what is mostly wanted for a logging system - most users will not care about errors in the logging system, they are more interested in application errors.

Integration with the warnings module

The captureWarnings() function can be used to integrate logging with the warnings module.

logging.captureWarnings(capture)

This function is used to turn the capture of warnings by logging on and off.

If capture is True, warnings issued by the warnings module will be redirected to the logging system. Specifically, a warning will be formatted using warnings.formatwarning() and the resulting string logged to a logger named 'py.warnings' with a severity of WARNING.

If capture is False, the redirection of warnings to the logging system will stop, and warnings will be redirected to their original destinations (i.e. those in effect before captureWarnings(True) was called).

Voir aussi

Module logging.config

API de configuration pour le module de journalisation.

Module logging.handlers

Gestionnaires utiles inclus avec le module de journalisation.

PEP 282 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0282/] - A Logging System

The proposal which described this feature for inclusion in the Python standard library.

Original Python logging package [https://old.red-dove.com/python_logging.html]

This is the original source for the logging package. The version of the package available from this site is suitable for use with Python 1.5.2, 2.1.x and 2.2.x, which do not include the logging package in the standard library.

logging.config --- Logging configuration

Source code: Lib/logging/config.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/logging/config.py]

Important

Cette page contient uniquement des informations de référence. Pour des tutoriels, veuillez consulter

Tutoriel basique

Tutoriel avancé

Recettes pour la journalisation

This section describes the API for configuring the logging module.

Configuration functions

The following functions configure the logging module. They are located in the logging.config module. Their use is optional --- you can configure the logging module using these functions or by making calls to the main API (defined in logging itself) and defining handlers which are declared either in logging or logging.handlers.

logging.config.dictConfig(config)

Takes the logging configuration from a dictionary. The contents of this dictionary are described in Configuration dictionary schema below.

If an error is encountered during configuration, this function will raise a ValueError, TypeError, AttributeError or ImportError with a suitably descriptive message. The following is a (possibly incomplete) list of conditions which will raise an error:

A level which is not a string or which is a string not corresponding to an actual logging level.

A propagate value which is not a boolean.

An id which does not have a corresponding destination.

A non-existent handler id found during an incremental call.

An invalid logger name.

Inability to resolve to an internal or external object.

Parsing is performed by the DictConfigurator class, whose constructor is passed the dictionary used for configuration, and has a configure() method. The logging.config module has a callable attribute dictConfigClass which is initially set to DictConfigurator. You can replace the value of dictConfigClass with a suitable implementation of your own.

dictConfig() calls dictConfigClass passing the specified dictionary, and then calls the configure() method on the returned object to put the configuration into effect:

def dictConfig(config):
    dictConfigClass(config).configure()

For example, a subclass of DictConfigurator could call DictConfigurator.__init__() in its own __init__(), then set up custom prefixes which would be usable in the subsequent configure() call. dictConfigClass would be bound to this new subclass, and then dictConfig() could be called exactly as in the default, uncustomized state.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

logging.config.fileConfig(fname, defaults=None, disable_existing_loggers=True, encoding=None)

Reads the logging configuration from a configparser-format file. The format of the file should be as described in Configuration file format. This function can be called several times from an application, allowing an end user to select from various pre-canned configurations (if the developer provides a mechanism to present the choices and load the chosen configuration).

It will raise FileNotFoundError if the file doesn't exist and RuntimeError if the file is invalid or empty.

Paramètres:

fname -- A filename, or a file-like object, or an instance derived from RawConfigParser. If a RawConfigParser-derived instance is passed, it is used as is. Otherwise, a ConfigParser is instantiated, and the configuration read by it from the object passed in fname. If that has a readline() method, it is assumed to be a file-like object and read using read_file(); otherwise, it is assumed to be a filename and passed to read().

defaults -- Defaults to be passed to the ConfigParser can be specified in this argument.

disable_existing_loggers -- If specified as False, loggers which exist when this call is made are left enabled. The default is True because this enables old behaviour in a backward-compatible way. This behaviour is to disable any existing non-root loggers unless they or their ancestors are explicitly named in the logging configuration.

encoding -- The encoding used to open file when fname is filename.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: An instance of a subclass of RawConfigParser is now accepted as a value for fname. This facilitates:

Use of a configuration file where logging configuration is just part of the overall application configuration.

Use of a configuration read from a file, and then modified by the using application (e.g. based on command-line parameters or other aspects of the runtime environment) before being passed to fileConfig.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Added the encoding parameter.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: An exception will be thrown if the provided file doesn't exist or is invalid or empty.

logging.config.listen(port=DEFAULT_LOGGING_CONFIG_PORT, verify=None)

Starts up a socket server on the specified port, and listens for new configurations. If no port is specified, the module's default DEFAULT_LOGGING_CONFIG_PORT is used. Logging configurations will be sent as a file suitable for processing by dictConfig() or fileConfig(). Returns a Thread instance on which you can call start() to start the server, and which you can join() when appropriate. To stop the server, call stopListening().

The verify argument, if specified, should be a callable which should verify whether bytes received across the socket are valid and should be processed. This could be done by encrypting and/or signing what is sent across the socket, such that the verify callable can perform signature verification and/or decryption. The verify callable is called with a single argument - the bytes received across the socket - and should return the bytes to be processed, or None to indicate that the bytes should be discarded. The returned bytes could be the same as the passed in bytes (e.g. when only verification is done), or they could be completely different (perhaps if decryption were performed).

To send a configuration to the socket, read in the configuration file and send it to the socket as a sequence of bytes preceded by a four-byte length string packed in binary using struct.pack('>L', n).

Note

Because portions of the configuration are passed through eval(), use of this function may open its users to a security risk. While the function only binds to a socket on localhost, and so does not accept connections from remote machines, there are scenarios where untrusted code could be run under the account of the process which calls listen(). Specifically, if the process calling listen() runs on a multi-user machine where users cannot trust each other, then a malicious user could arrange to run essentially arbitrary code in a victim user's process, simply by connecting to the victim's listen() socket and sending a configuration which runs whatever code the attacker wants to have executed in the victim's process. This is especially easy to do if the default port is used, but not hard even if a different port is used. To avoid the risk of this happening, use the verify argument to listen() to prevent unrecognised configurations from being applied.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: The verify argument was added.

Note

If you want to send configurations to the listener which don't disable existing loggers, you will need to use a JSON format for the configuration, which will use dictConfig() for configuration. This method allows you to specify disable_existing_loggers as False in the configuration you send.

logging.config.stopListening()

Stops the listening server which was created with a call to listen(). This is typically called before calling join() on the return value from listen().

Security considerations

The logging configuration functionality tries to offer convenience, and in part this is done by offering the ability to convert text in configuration files into Python objects used in logging configuration - for example, as described in User-defined objects. However, these same mechanisms (importing callables from user-defined modules and calling them with parameters from the configuration) could be used to invoke any code you like, and for this reason you should treat configuration files from untrusted sources with extreme caution and satisfy yourself that nothing bad can happen if you load them, before actually loading them.

Configuration dictionary schema

Describing a logging configuration requires listing the various objects to create and the connections between them; for example, you may create a handler named 'console' and then say that the logger named 'startup' will send its messages to the 'console' handler. These objects aren't limited to those provided by the logging module because you might write your own formatter or handler class. The parameters to these classes may also need to include external objects such as sys.stderr. The syntax for describing these objects and connections is defined in Object connections below.

Dictionary Schema Details

The dictionary passed to dictConfig() must contain the following keys:

version - to be set to an integer value representing the schema version. The only valid value at present is 1, but having this key allows the schema to evolve while still preserving backwards compatibility.

All other keys are optional, but if present they will be interpreted as described below. In all cases below where a 'configuring dict' is mentioned, it will be checked for the special '()' key to see if a custom instantiation is required. If so, the mechanism described in User-defined objects below is used to create an instance; otherwise, the context is used to determine what to instantiate.

formatters - the corresponding value will be a dict in which each key is a formatter id and each value is a dict describing how to configure the corresponding Formatter instance.

The configuring dict is searched for the following optional keys which correspond to the arguments passed to create a Formatter object:

format

datefmt

style

validate (since version >=3.8)

defaults (since version >=3.12)

An optional class key indicates the name of the formatter's class (as a dotted module and class name). The instantiation arguments are as for Formatter, thus this key is most useful for instantiating a customised subclass of Formatter. For example, the alternative class might present exception tracebacks in an expanded or condensed format. If your formatter requires different or extra configuration keys, you should use User-defined objects.

filters - the corresponding value will be a dict in which each key is a filter id and each value is a dict describing how to configure the corresponding Filter instance.

The configuring dict is searched for the key name (defaulting to the empty string) and this is used to construct a logging.Filter instance.

handlers - the corresponding value will be a dict in which each key is a handler id and each value is a dict describing how to configure the corresponding Handler instance.

The configuring dict is searched for the following keys:

class (mandatory). This is the fully qualified name of the handler class.

level (optional). The level of the handler.

formatter (optional). The id of the formatter for this handler.

filters (optional). A list of ids of the filters for this handler.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: filters can take filter instances in addition to ids.

All other keys are passed through as keyword arguments to the handler's constructor. For example, given the snippet:

handlers:
  console:
    class : logging.StreamHandler
    formatter: brief
    level   : INFO
    filters: [allow_foo]
    stream  : ext://sys.stdout
  file:
    class : logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler
    formatter: precise
    filename: logconfig.log
    maxBytes: 1024
    backupCount: 3

the handler with id console is instantiated as a logging.StreamHandler, using sys.stdout as the underlying stream. The handler with id file is instantiated as a logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler with the keyword arguments filename='logconfig.log', maxBytes=1024, backupCount=3.

loggers - the corresponding value will be a dict in which each key is a logger name and each value is a dict describing how to configure the corresponding Logger instance.

The configuring dict is searched for the following keys:

level (optional). The level of the logger.

propagate (optional). The propagation setting of the logger.

filters (optional). A list of ids of the filters for this logger.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: filters can take filter instances in addition to ids.

handlers (optional). A list of ids of the handlers for this logger.

The specified loggers will be configured according to the level, propagation, filters and handlers specified.

root - this will be the configuration for the root logger. Processing of the configuration will be as for any logger, except that the propagate setting will not be applicable.

incremental - whether the configuration is to be interpreted as incremental to the existing configuration. This value defaults to False, which means that the specified configuration replaces the existing configuration with the same semantics as used by the existing fileConfig() API.

If the specified value is True, the configuration is processed as described in the section on Incremental Configuration.

disable_existing_loggers - whether any existing non-root loggers are to be disabled. This setting mirrors the parameter of the same name in fileConfig(). If absent, this parameter defaults to True. This value is ignored if incremental is True.

Incremental Configuration

It is difficult to provide complete flexibility for incremental configuration. For example, because objects such as filters and formatters are anonymous, once a configuration is set up, it is not possible to refer to such anonymous objects when augmenting a configuration.

Furthermore, there is not a compelling case for arbitrarily altering the object graph of loggers, handlers, filters, formatters at run-time, once a configuration is set up; the verbosity of loggers and handlers can be controlled just by setting levels (and, in the case of loggers, propagation flags). Changing the object graph arbitrarily in a safe way is problematic in a multi-threaded environment; while not impossible, the benefits are not worth the complexity it adds to the implementation.

Thus, when the incremental key of a configuration dict is present and is True, the system will completely ignore any formatters and filters entries, and process only the level settings in the handlers entries, and the level and propagate settings in the loggers and root entries.

Using a value in the configuration dict lets configurations to be sent over the wire as pickled dicts to a socket listener. Thus, the logging verbosity of a long-running application can be altered over time with no need to stop and restart the application.

Object connections

The schema describes a set of logging objects - loggers, handlers, formatters, filters - which are connected to each other in an object graph. Thus, the schema needs to represent connections between the objects. For example, say that, once configured, a particular logger has attached to it a particular handler. For the purposes of this discussion, we can say that the logger represents the source, and the handler the destination, of a connection between the two. Of course in the configured objects this is represented by the logger holding a reference to the handler. In the configuration dict, this is done by giving each destination object an id which identifies it unambiguously, and then using the id in the source object's configuration to indicate that a connection exists between the source and the destination object with that id.

So, for example, consider the following YAML snippet:

formatters:
  brief:
    # configuration for formatter with id 'brief' goes here
  precise:
    # configuration for formatter with id 'precise' goes here
handlers:
  h1: #This is an id
   # configuration of handler with id 'h1' goes here
   formatter: brief
  h2: #This is another id
   # configuration of handler with id 'h2' goes here
   formatter: precise
loggers:
  foo.bar.baz:
    # other configuration for logger 'foo.bar.baz'
    handlers: [h1, h2]

(Note: YAML used here because it's a little more readable than the equivalent Python source form for the dictionary.)

The ids for loggers are the logger names which would be used programmatically to obtain a reference to those loggers, e.g. foo.bar.baz. The ids for Formatters and Filters can be any string value (such as brief, precise above) and they are transient, in that they are only meaningful for processing the configuration dictionary and used to determine connections between objects, and are not persisted anywhere when the configuration call is complete.

The above snippet indicates that logger named foo.bar.baz should have two handlers attached to it, which are described by the handler ids h1 and h2. The formatter for h1 is that described by id brief, and the formatter for h2 is that described by id precise.

User-defined objects

The schema supports user-defined objects for handlers, filters and formatters. (Loggers do not need to have different types for different instances, so there is no support in this configuration schema for user-defined logger classes.)

Objects to be configured are described by dictionaries which detail their configuration. In some places, the logging system will be able to infer from the context how an object is to be instantiated, but when a user-defined object is to be instantiated, the system will not know how to do this. In order to provide complete flexibility for user-defined object instantiation, the user needs to provide a 'factory' - a callable which is called with a configuration dictionary and which returns the instantiated object. This is signalled by an absolute import path to the factory being made available under the special key '()'. Here's a concrete example:

formatters:
  brief:
    format: '%(message)s'
  default:
    format: '%(asctime)s %(levelname)-8s %(name)-15s %(message)s'
    datefmt: '%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S'
  custom:
      (): my.package.customFormatterFactory
      bar: baz
      spam: 99.9
      answer: 42

The above YAML snippet defines three formatters. The first, with id brief, is a standard logging.Formatter instance with the specified format string. The second, with id default, has a longer format and also defines the time format explicitly, and will result in a logging.Formatter initialized with those two format strings. Shown in Python source form, the brief and default formatters have configuration sub-dictionaries:

{
  'format' : '%(message)s'
}

et :

{
  'format' : '%(asctime)s %(levelname)-8s %(name)-15s %(message)s',
  'datefmt' : '%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S'
}

respectively, and as these dictionaries do not contain the special key '()', the instantiation is inferred from the context: as a result, standard logging.Formatter instances are created. The configuration sub-dictionary for the third formatter, with id custom, is:

{
  '()' : 'my.package.customFormatterFactory',
  'bar' : 'baz',
  'spam' : 99.9,
  'answer' : 42
}

and this contains the special key '()', which means that user-defined instantiation is wanted. In this case, the specified factory callable will be used. If it is an actual callable it will be used directly - otherwise, if you specify a string (as in the example) the actual callable will be located using normal import mechanisms. The callable will be called with the remaining items in the configuration sub-dictionary as keyword arguments. In the above example, the formatter with id custom will be assumed to be returned by the call:

my.package.customFormatterFactory(bar='baz', spam=99.9, answer=42)

Avertissement

The values for keys such as bar, spam and answer in the above example should not be configuration dictionaries or references such as cfg://foo or ext://bar, because they will not be processed by the configuration machinery, but passed to the callable as-is.

The key '()' has been used as the special key because it is not a valid keyword parameter name, and so will not clash with the names of the keyword arguments used in the call. The '()' also serves as a mnemonic that the corresponding value is a callable.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: The filters member of handlers and loggers can take filter instances in addition to ids.

You can also specify a special key '.' whose value is a mapping of attribute names to values. If found, the specified attributes will be set on the user-defined object before it is returned. Thus, with the following configuration:

{
  '()' : 'my.package.customFormatterFactory',
  'bar' : 'baz',
  'spam' : 99.9,
  'answer' : 42,
  '.' {
    'foo': 'bar',
    'baz': 'bozz'
  }
}

the returned formatter will have attribute foo set to 'bar' and attribute baz set to 'bozz'.

Avertissement

The values for attributes such as foo and baz in the above example should not be configuration dictionaries or references such as cfg://foo or ext://bar, because they will not be processed by the configuration machinery, but set as attribute values as-is.

Handler configuration order

Handlers are configured in alphabetical order of their keys, and a configured handler replaces the configuration dictionary in (a working copy of) the handlers dictionary in the schema. If you use a construct such as cfg://handlers.foo, then initially handlers['foo'] points to the configuration dictionary for the handler named foo, and later (once that handler has been configured) it points to the configured handler instance. Thus, cfg://handlers.foo could resolve to either a dictionary or a handler instance. In general, it is wise to name handlers in a way such that dependent handlers are configured after any handlers they depend on; that allows something like cfg://handlers.foo to be used in configuring a handler that depends on handler foo. If that dependent handler were named bar, problems would result, because the configuration of bar would be attempted before that of foo, and foo would not yet have been configured. However, if the dependent handler were named foobar, it would be configured after foo, with the result that cfg://handlers.foo would resolve to configured handler foo, and not its configuration dictionary.

Access to external objects

There are times where a configuration needs to refer to objects external to the configuration, for example sys.stderr. If the configuration dict is constructed using Python code, this is straightforward, but a problem arises when the configuration is provided via a text file (e.g. JSON, YAML). In a text file, there is no standard way to distinguish sys.stderr from the literal string 'sys.stderr'. To facilitate this distinction, the configuration system looks for certain special prefixes in string values and treat them specially. For example, if the literal string 'ext://sys.stderr' is provided as a value in the configuration, then the ext:// will be stripped off and the remainder of the value processed using normal import mechanisms.

The handling of such prefixes is done in a way analogous to protocol handling: there is a generic mechanism to look for prefixes which match the regular expression ^(?P<prefix>[a-z]+)://(?P<suffix>.*)$ whereby, if the prefix is recognised, the suffix is processed in a prefix-dependent manner and the result of the processing replaces the string value. If the prefix is not recognised, then the string value will be left as-is.

Access to internal objects

As well as external objects, there is sometimes also a need to refer to objects in the configuration. This will be done implicitly by the configuration system for things that it knows about. For example, the string value 'DEBUG' for a level in a logger or handler will automatically be converted to the value logging.DEBUG, and the handlers, filters and formatter entries will take an object id and resolve to the appropriate destination object.

However, a more generic mechanism is needed for user-defined objects which are not known to the logging module. For example, consider logging.handlers.MemoryHandler, which takes a target argument which is another handler to delegate to. Since the system already knows about this class, then in the configuration, the given target just needs to be the object id of the relevant target handler, and the system will resolve to the handler from the id. If, however, a user defines a my.package.MyHandler which has an alternate handler, the configuration system would not know that the alternate referred to a handler. To cater for this, a generic resolution system allows the user to specify:

handlers:
  file:
    # configuration of file handler goes here

  custom:
    (): my.package.MyHandler
    alternate: cfg://handlers.file

The literal string 'cfg://handlers.file' will be resolved in an analogous way to strings with the ext:// prefix, but looking in the configuration itself rather than the import namespace. The mechanism allows access by dot or by index, in a similar way to that provided by str.format. Thus, given the following snippet:

handlers:
  email:
    class: logging.handlers.SMTPHandler
    mailhost: localhost
    fromaddr: my_app@domain.tld
    toaddrs:
      - support_team@domain.tld
      - dev_team@domain.tld
    subject: Houston, we have a problem.

in the configuration, the string 'cfg://handlers' would resolve to the dict with key handlers, the string 'cfg://handlers.email would resolve to the dict with key email in the handlers dict, and so on. The string 'cfg://handlers.email.toaddrs[1] would resolve to 'dev_team@domain.tld' and the string 'cfg://handlers.email.toaddrs[0]' would resolve to the value 'support_team@domain.tld'. The subject value could be accessed using either 'cfg://handlers.email.subject' or, equivalently, 'cfg://handlers.email[subject]'. The latter form only needs to be used if the key contains spaces or non-alphanumeric characters. Please note that the characters [ and ] are not allowed in the keys. If an index value consists only of decimal digits, access will be attempted using the corresponding integer value, falling back to the string value if needed.

Given a string cfg://handlers.myhandler.mykey.123, this will resolve to config_dict['handlers']['myhandler']['mykey']['123']. If the string is specified as cfg://handlers.myhandler.mykey[123], the system will attempt to retrieve the value from config_dict['handlers']['myhandler']['mykey'][123], and fall back to config_dict['handlers']['myhandler']['mykey']['123'] if that fails.

Import resolution and custom importers

Import resolution, by default, uses the builtin __import__() function to do its importing. You may want to replace this with your own importing mechanism: if so, you can replace the importer attribute of the DictConfigurator or its superclass, the BaseConfigurator class. However, you need to be careful because of the way functions are accessed from classes via descriptors. If you are using a Python callable to do your imports, and you want to define it at class level rather than instance level, you need to wrap it with staticmethod(). For example:

from importlib import import_module
from logging.config import BaseConfigurator

BaseConfigurator.importer = staticmethod(import_module)

You don't need to wrap with staticmethod() if you're setting the import callable on a configurator instance.

Configuring QueueHandler and QueueListener

If you want to configure a QueueHandler, noting that this is normally used in conjunction with a QueueListener, you can configure both together. After the configuration, the QueueListener instance will be available as the listener attribute of the created handler, and that in turn will be available to you using getHandlerByName() and passing the name you have used for the QueueHandler in your configuration. The dictionary schema for configuring the pair is shown in the example YAML snippet below.

handlers:
  qhand:
    class: logging.handlers.QueueHandler
    queue: my.module.queue_factory
    listener: my.package.CustomListener
    handlers:
      - hand_name_1
      - hand_name_2
      ...

The queue and listener keys are optional.

If the queue key is present, the corresponding value can be one of the following:

An object implementing the Queue.put_nowait and Queue.get public API. For instance, this may be an actual instance of queue.Queue or a subclass thereof, or a proxy obtained by multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.Queue().

This is of course only possible if you are constructing or modifying the configuration dictionary in code.

A string that resolves to a callable which, when called with no arguments, returns the queue instance to use. That callable could be a queue.Queue subclass or a function which returns a suitable queue instance, such as my.module.queue_factory().

A dict with a '()' key which is constructed in the usual way as discussed in User-defined objects. The result of this construction should be a queue.Queue instance.

If the queue key is absent, a standard unbounded queue.Queue instance is created and used.

If the listener key is present, the corresponding value can be one of the following:

A subclass of logging.handlers.QueueListener. This is of course only possible if you are constructing or modifying the configuration dictionary in code.

A string which resolves to a class which is a subclass of QueueListener, such as 'my.package.CustomListener'.

A dict with a '()' key which is constructed in the usual way as discussed in User-defined objects. The result of this construction should be a callable with the same signature as the QueueListener initializer.

If the listener key is absent, logging.handlers.QueueListener is used.

The values under the handlers key are the names of other handlers in the configuration (not shown in the above snippet) which will be passed to the queue listener.

Any custom queue handler and listener classes will need to be defined with the same initialization signatures as QueueHandler and QueueListener.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Configuration file format

The configuration file format understood by fileConfig() is based on configparser functionality. The file must contain sections called [loggers], [handlers] and [formatters] which identify by name the entities of each type which are defined in the file. For each such entity, there is a separate section which identifies how that entity is configured. Thus, for a logger named log01 in the [loggers] section, the relevant configuration details are held in a section [logger_log01]. Similarly, a handler called hand01 in the [handlers] section will have its configuration held in a section called [handler_hand01], while a formatter called form01 in the [formatters] section will have its configuration specified in a section called [formatter_form01]. The root logger configuration must be specified in a section called [logger_root].

Note

The fileConfig() API is older than the dictConfig() API and does not provide functionality to cover certain aspects of logging. For example, you cannot configure Filter objects, which provide for filtering of messages beyond simple integer levels, using fileConfig(). If you need to have instances of Filter in your logging configuration, you will need to use dictConfig(). Note that future enhancements to configuration functionality will be added to dictConfig(), so it's worth considering transitioning to this newer API when it's convenient to do so.

Examples of these sections in the file are given below.

[loggers]
keys=root,log02,log03,log04,log05,log06,log07

[handlers]
keys=hand01,hand02,hand03,hand04,hand05,hand06,hand07,hand08,hand09

[formatters]
keys=form01,form02,form03,form04,form05,form06,form07,form08,form09

The root logger must specify a level and a list of handlers. An example of a root logger section is given below.

[logger_root]
level=NOTSET
handlers=hand01

The level entry can be one of DEBUG, INFO, WARNING, ERROR, CRITICAL or NOTSET. For the root logger only, NOTSET means that all messages will be logged. Level values are evaluated in the context of the logging package's namespace.

The handlers entry is a comma-separated list of handler names, which must appear in the [handlers] section. These names must appear in the [handlers] section and have corresponding sections in the configuration file.

For loggers other than the root logger, some additional information is required. This is illustrated by the following example.

[logger_parser]
level=DEBUG
handlers=hand01
propagate=1
qualname=compiler.parser

The level and handlers entries are interpreted as for the root logger, except that if a non-root logger's level is specified as NOTSET, the system consults loggers higher up the hierarchy to determine the effective level of the logger. The propagate entry is set to 1 to indicate that messages must propagate to handlers higher up the logger hierarchy from this logger, or 0 to indicate that messages are not propagated to handlers up the hierarchy. The qualname entry is the hierarchical channel name of the logger, that is to say the name used by the application to get the logger.

Sections which specify handler configuration are exemplified by the following.

[handler_hand01]
class=StreamHandler
level=NOTSET
formatter=form01
args=(sys.stdout,)

The class entry indicates the handler's class (as determined by eval() in the logging package's namespace). The level is interpreted as for loggers, and NOTSET is taken to mean 'log everything'.

The formatter entry indicates the key name of the formatter for this handler. If blank, a default formatter (logging._defaultFormatter) is used. If a name is specified, it must appear in the [formatters] section and have a corresponding section in the configuration file.

The args entry, when evaluated in the context of the logging package's namespace, is the list of arguments to the constructor for the handler class. Refer to the constructors for the relevant handlers, or to the examples below, to see how typical entries are constructed. If not provided, it defaults to ().

The optional kwargs entry, when evaluated in the context of the logging package's namespace, is the keyword argument dict to the constructor for the handler class. If not provided, it defaults to {}.

[handler_hand02]
class=FileHandler
level=DEBUG
formatter=form02
args=('python.log', 'w')

[handler_hand03]
class=handlers.SocketHandler
level=INFO
formatter=form03
args=('localhost', handlers.DEFAULT_TCP_LOGGING_PORT)

[handler_hand04]
class=handlers.DatagramHandler
level=WARN
formatter=form04
args=('localhost', handlers.DEFAULT_UDP_LOGGING_PORT)

[handler_hand05]
class=handlers.SysLogHandler
level=ERROR
formatter=form05
args=(('localhost', handlers.SYSLOG_UDP_PORT), handlers.SysLogHandler.LOG_USER)

[handler_hand06]
class=handlers.NTEventLogHandler
level=CRITICAL
formatter=form06
args=('Python Application', '', 'Application')

[handler_hand07]
class=handlers.SMTPHandler
level=WARN
formatter=form07
args=('localhost', 'from@abc', ['user1@abc', 'user2@xyz'], 'Logger Subject')
kwargs={'timeout': 10.0}

[handler_hand08]
class=handlers.MemoryHandler
level=NOTSET
formatter=form08
target=
args=(10, ERROR)

[handler_hand09]
class=handlers.HTTPHandler
level=NOTSET
formatter=form09
args=('localhost:9022', '/log', 'GET')
kwargs={'secure': True}

Sections which specify formatter configuration are typified by the following.

[formatter_form01]
format=F1 %(asctime)s %(levelname)s %(message)s %(customfield)s
datefmt=
style=%
validate=True
defaults={'customfield': 'defaultvalue'}
class=logging.Formatter

The arguments for the formatter configuration are the same as the keys in the dictionary schema formatters section.

The defaults entry, when evaluated in the context of the logging package's namespace, is a dictionary of default values for custom formatting fields. If not provided, it defaults to None.

Note

Due to the use of eval() as described above, there are potential security risks which result from using the listen() to send and receive configurations via sockets. The risks are limited to where multiple users with no mutual trust run code on the same machine; see the listen() documentation for more information.

Voir aussi

Module logging

Référence d'API pour le module de journalisation.

Module logging.handlers

Gestionnaires utiles inclus avec le module de journalisation.

logging.handlers --- Logging handlers

Code source : Lib/logging/handlers.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/logging/handlers.py]

Important

Cette page contient uniquement des informations de référence. Pour des tutoriels, veuillez consulter

Tutoriel basique

Tutoriel avancé

livre de recettes sur la journalisation

Les gestionnaires suivants, très utiles, sont fournis dans le paquet. Notez que trois des gestionnaires (StreamHandler, FileHandler et NullHandler) sont en réalité définis dans le module logging lui-même, mais qu’ils sont documentés ici avec les autres gestionnaires.

Gestionnaire à flux — StreamHandler

La classe StreamHandler, du paquet logging, envoie les sorties de journalisation dans des flux tels que sys.stdout, sys.stderr ou n’importe quel objet fichier-compatible (ou, plus précisément, tout objet qui gère les méthodes write() et flush()).

class logging.StreamHandler(stream=None)

Renvoie une nouvelle instance de la classe StreamHandler. Si stream est spécifié, l’instance l’utilise pour les sorties de journalisation ; autrement elle utilise sys.stderr.

emit(record)

Si un formateur est spécifié, il est utilisé pour formater l’enregistrement. L’enregistrement est ensuite écrit dans le flux, suivi par terminator. Si une information d’exception est présente, elle est formatée en utilisant traceback.print_exception() puis ajoutée aux flux.

flush()

Purge le flux en appelant sa méthode flush(). Notez que la méthode close() est héritée de Handler donc elle n'écrit rien. Par conséquent, un appel explicite à flush() peut parfois s'avérer nécessaire.

setStream(stream)

Définit le flux de l’instance à la valeur spécifiée, si elle est différente. L’ancien flux est purgé avant que le nouveau flux ne soit établi.

Paramètres:

stream -- le flux que le gestionnaire doit utiliser.

Renvoie:

the old stream, if the stream was changed, or None if it wasn't.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

terminator

Chaine de caractères utilisée comme marqueur de fin lors de l’écriture formatée d'un enregistrement dans un flux. La valeur par défaut est '\n'.

Si vous ne voulez pas marquer de fin de ligne, il faut définir l’attribut terminator à la chaîne de caractères vide.

Dans des versions antérieures, le marqueur de fin était codé en dur sous la forme '\n'.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Gestionnaire à fichier — FileHandler

La classe FileHandler, du paquet logging, envoie les sorties de journalisation dans un fichier. Elle hérite des fonctionnalités de sortie de StreamHandler.

class logging.FileHandler(filename, mode='a', encoding=None, delay=False, errors=None)

Returns a new instance of the FileHandler class. The specified file is opened and used as the stream for logging. If mode is not specified, 'a' is used. If encoding is not None, it is used to open the file with that encoding. If delay is true, then file opening is deferred until the first call to emit(). By default, the file grows indefinitely. If errors is specified, it's used to determine how encoding errors are handled.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: L'argument filename accepte les objets Path aussi bien que les chaînes de caractères.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: ajout du paramètre errors.

close()

Ferme le fichier.

emit(record)

Écrit l’enregistrement dans le fichier.

Note that if the file was closed due to logging shutdown at exit and the file mode is 'w', the record will not be emitted (see bpo-42378 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42378]).

Gestionnaire à puits sans fond — NullHandler

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

La classe NullHandler, située dans le paquet principal logging, ne produit aucun formatage ni sortie. C’est essentiellement un gestionnaire « fantôme » destiné aux développeurs de bibliothèques.

class logging.NullHandler

Renvoie une nouvelle instance de la classe NullHandler.

emit(record)

Cette méthode ne fait rien.

handle(record)

Cette méthode ne fait rien.

createLock()

Cette méthode renvoie None pour le verrou, étant donné qu’il n’y a aucun flux d'entrée-sortie sous-jacent dont l’accès doit être sérialisé.

Voir Configuration de la journalisation pour une bibliothèque pour plus d’information sur l'utilisation de NullHandler.

Gestionnaire à fichier avec surveillance — WatchedFileHandler

The WatchedFileHandler class, located in the logging.handlers module, is a FileHandler which watches the file it is logging to. If the file changes, it is closed and reopened using the file name.

Le fichier peut être modifié par des programmes tels que newsyslog ou logrotate qui assurent le roulement des fichiers de journalisation. Ce gestionnaire, destiné à une utilisation sous Unix-Linux, surveille le fichier pour voir s’il a changé depuis la dernière écriture (un fichier est considéré comme modifié si son nœud d’index ou le périphérique auquel il est rattaché a changé). Si le fichier a changé, l’ancien flux vers ce fichier est fermé, et le fichier est ouvert pour établir un nouveau flux.

Ce gestionnaire n’est pas approprié pour une utilisation sous Windows, car sous Windows les fichiers de journalisation ouverts ne peuvent être ni déplacés, ni renommés — la journalisation ouvre les fichiers avec des verrous exclusifs — de telle sorte qu’il n’y a pas besoin d’un tel gestionnaire. En outre, ST_INO n’est pas géré par Windows ; stat() renvoie toujours zéro pour cette valeur.

class logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler(filename, mode='a', encoding=None, delay=False, errors=None)

Returns a new instance of the WatchedFileHandler class. The specified file is opened and used as the stream for logging. If mode is not specified, 'a' is used. If encoding is not None, it is used to open the file with that encoding. If delay is true, then file opening is deferred until the first call to emit(). By default, the file grows indefinitely. If errors is provided, it determines how encoding errors are handled.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: L'argument filename accepte les objets Path aussi bien que les chaînes de caractères.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: ajout du paramètre errors.

reopenIfNeeded()

Vérifie si le fichier a changé. Si c’est le cas, le flux existant est purgé et fermé et le fichier est rouvert, généralement avant d'effectuer l’écriture de l'enregistrement dans le fichier.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

emit(record)

Écrit l’enregistrement dans le fichier, mais appelle d’abord reopenIfNeeded() pour rouvrir le fichier s’il a changé.

Base des gestionnaires à roulement — BaseRotatingHandler

The BaseRotatingHandler class, located in the logging.handlers module, is the base class for the rotating file handlers, RotatingFileHandler and TimedRotatingFileHandler. You should not need to instantiate this class, but it has attributes and methods you may need to override.

class logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler(filename, mode, encoding=None, delay=False, errors=None)

Les paramètres sont les mêmes que pour FileHandler. Les attributs sont :

namer

Si cet attribut est un qu’appelable, la méthode rotation_filename() délègue sa logique à cet appelable. Les paramètres passés à l’appelable sont ceux passés à rotation_filename().

Note

la fonction namer est appelée de nombreuses fois durant le roulement ; elle doit donc être aussi simple et rapide que possible. Elle doit aussi renvoyer toujours la même sortie pour une entrée donnée, autrement le comportement du roulement pourrait être différent de celui attendu.

It's also worth noting that care should be taken when using a namer to preserve certain attributes in the filename which are used during rotation. For example, RotatingFileHandler expects to have a set of log files whose names contain successive integers, so that rotation works as expected, and TimedRotatingFileHandler deletes old log files (based on the backupCount parameter passed to the handler's initializer) by determining the oldest files to delete. For this to happen, the filenames should be sortable using the date/time portion of the filename, and a namer needs to respect this. (If a namer is wanted that doesn't respect this scheme, it will need to be used in a subclass of TimedRotatingFileHandler which overrides the getFilesToDelete() method to fit in with the custom naming scheme.)

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

rotator

Si cet attribut est un appelable, il se substitue à la méthode rotate(). Les paramètres passés à l’appelable sont ceux passés à rotate().

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

rotation_filename(default_name)

Modifie le nom du fichier d’un fichier de journalisation lors du roulement.

Cette méthode sert à pouvoir produire un nom de fichier personnalisé.

L’implémentation par défaut appelle l’attribut namer du gestionnaire, si c’est un appelable, lui passant le nom par défaut. Si l’attribut n’est pas un appelable (le défaut est None), le nom est renvoyé tel quel.

Paramètres:

default_name -- le nom par défaut du fichier de journalisation.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

rotate(source, dest)

Lors du roulement, effectue le roulement du journal courant.

L’implémentation par défaut appelle l’attribut rotator du gestionnaire, si c’est un appelable, lui passant les arguments source et dest. Si l’attribut n’est pas un appelable (le défaut est None), le nom de la source est simplement renommé avec la destination.

Paramètres:

source -- le nom du fichier source. Il s’agit normalement du nom du fichier, par exemple "test.log".

dest -- le nom du fichier de destination. Il s’agit normalement du nom donné à la source après le roulement, par exemple "test.log.1".

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

La raison d’être de ces attributs est de vous épargner la création d’une sous-classe — vous pouvez utiliser les mêmes appels pour des instances de RotatingFileHandler et TimedRotatingFileHandler. Si l'appelable namer ou rotator lève une exception, elle est gérée de la même manière que n’importe quelle exception levée lors d'un appel à emit(), c'est-à-dire par la méthode handleError() du gestionnaire.

Si vous avez besoin de faire d’importantes modifications au processus de roulement, surchargez les méthodes.

Pour un exemple, voir Utilisation d’un rotateur et d’un nom pour personnaliser la rotation des journaux.

Gestionnaire à roulement de fichiers — RotatingFileHandler

The RotatingFileHandler class, located in the logging.handlers module, supports rotation of disk log files.

class logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler(filename, mode='a', maxBytes=0, backupCount=0, encoding=None, delay=False, errors=None)

Renvoie une nouvelle instance de la classe RotatingFileHandler. Le fichier spécifié est ouvert et utilisé comme flux de sortie pour la journalisation. Si mode n’est pas spécifié, 'a' est utilisé. Si encoding n’est pas à None, il est utilisé pour ouvrir le fichier avec cet encodage. Si delay est à true, alors l’ouverture du fichier est reportée au premier appel de emit(). Par défaut, le fichier croit indéfiniment. Si errors est spécifié, il détermine comment sont gérées les erreurs d’encodage.

Utilisez les valeurs maxBytes et backupCount pour autoriser le roulement du fichier (rollover) à une taille prédéterminée. Quand la taille limite est sur le point d’être dépassée, le fichier est fermé et un nouveau fichier est automatiquement ouvert pour le remplacer. Un roulement se produit dès que le fichier de journalisation actuel atteint une taille proche de maxBytes ; si maxBytes ou backupCount est à 0, le roulement ne se produit jamais, donc en temps normal il convient de définir backupCount à au moins 1, et avoir une valeur de maxBytes non nulle. Quand backupCount est non nul, le système sauvegarde les anciens fichiers de journalisation en ajoutant à leur nom les suffixes ".1", ".2" et ainsi de suite. Par exemple, avec un backupCount de 5 et app.log comme radical du fichier, on obtient app.log, app.log.1, app.log.2, jusqu’à app.log.5. Le fichier dans lequel on écrit est toujours app.log. Quand ce fichier est rempli, il est fermé et renommé en app.log.1, et si les fichiers app.log.1, app.log.2, etc. existent, alors ils sont renommés en app.log.2, app.log.3 etc. respectivement.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: L'argument filename accepte les objets Path aussi bien que les chaînes de caractères.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: ajout du paramètre errors.

doRollover()

Effectue un roulement, comme décrit ci-dessus.

emit(record)

Écrit l'enregistrement dans le fichier, effectuant un roulement au besoin comme décrit précédemment.

shouldRollover(record)

See if the supplied record would cause the file to exceed the configured size limit.

Gestionnaire à roulement de fichiers périodique — TimedRotatingFileHandler

The TimedRotatingFileHandler class, located in the logging.handlers module, supports rotation of disk log files at certain timed intervals.

class logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler(filename, when='h', interval=1, backupCount=0, encoding=None, delay=False, utc=False, atTime=None, errors=None)

Renvoie une nouvelle instance de la classe TimedRotatingFileHandler. Le fichier spécifié est ouvert et utilisé comme flux de sortie pour la journalisation. Au moment du roulement, elle met également à jour le suffixe du nom du fichier. L'intervalle entre les roulements est déterminé par les valeurs de when et interval.

Utilisez when pour spécifier le type de interval. Ses valeurs possibles sont décrites ci-dessous. Notez qu'elles ne sont pas sensibles à la casse.

Valeur

Type d’intervalle

Rôle de atTime

'S'

Secondes

Ignoré

'M'

Minutes

Ignoré

'H'

Heures

Ignoré

'D'

Jours

Ignoré

'W0'-'W6'

Jour de la semaine (0 = lundi)

Utilisé pour calculer le moment du roulement

'midnight'

Roulement du fichier à minuit, si atTime n’est pas spécifié, sinon à l’heure atTime

Utilisé pour calculer le moment du roulement

Pour un roulement selon les jours de la semaine, mettez la valeur W0 pour lundi, W1 pour mardi, et ainsi de suite jusqu’à W6 pour dimanche. Dans ce cas, la valeur indiquée pour interval n’est pas utilisée.

Le système sauvegarde les anciens fichiers de journalisation en ajoutant une extension au nom du fichier. Les extensions sont basées sur la date et l’heure, au format strftime %Y-%m-%d_%H-%M-%S ou le début de celui-ci, selon l’intervalle du roulement.

Le premier calcul de la date du prochain roulement (quand le gestionnaire est créé) dépend de la dernière date de modification d’un fichier de journalisation existant, ou à défaut de la date actuelle.

Si utc est vrai, les temps sont UTC, sinon l'heure locale est utilisée.

Si backupCount est non nul, au plus backupCount fichiers sont sauvegardés. Si des fichiers supplémentaires devaient être créés par le jeu du roulement, les plus vieux seraient supprimés. La logique de suppression détermine les fichiers à supprimer selon l'intervalle, donc changer cette valeur peut conduire à ce que certains fichiers anciens restent sur le disque.

Si delay est à true, alors l’ouverture du fichier est reportée au premier appel de emit().

Si le roulement doit se produire « à minuit » ou « à un jour fixe de la semaine » et si atTime n'est pas None, ce doit être une instance de datetime.time qui définit l'heure de la journée à laquelle le roulement se produit. Dans ce cas, la valeur de atTime ne sert qu'à déterminer la date du roulement initial, la date des roulements ultérieurs est déterminée par le calcul standard de l'intervalle.

Si errors est définit, il définit comment traiter les erreurs d'encodage.

Note

la date du premier roulement est déterminée lors de l'initialisation du gestionnaire. Ce n'est que lors d'un roulement que la date du roulement suivant n'est déterminée, et un roulement n'a lieu que si des entrées doivent être journalisées. Gardez bien cela à l'esprit pour ne pas avoir de surprises. Par exemple, un gestionnaire avec un intervalle « d'une minute » ne produira pas nécessairement des fichiers avec des dates (dans le nom desdits fichiers) séparées d'une minute. Si une application génère des journaux plus fréquemment que toutes les minutes au cours de son exécution, alors dans ce cas vous obtiendrez des fichiers avec des temps séparés d'une minute. Si la même application ne produit une entrée de journal que toutes les cinq minutes, il y aura des sauts dans les dates des fichiers produits qui correspondront aux moments où rien n'a été produit (et donc où aucun roulement n'a eu lieu).

Modifié dans la version 3.4: ajout du paramètre atTime.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: L'argument filename accepte les objets Path aussi bien que les chaînes de caractères.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: ajout du paramètre errors.

doRollover()

Effectue un roulement, comme décrit ci-dessus.

emit(record)

Écrit l'enregistrement dans le fichier, effectuant un roulement au besoin comme décrit précédemment.

getFilesToDelete()

Returns a list of filenames which should be deleted as part of rollover. These are the absolute paths of the oldest backup log files written by the handler.

shouldRollover(record)

See if enough time has passed for a rollover to occur and if it has, compute the next rollover time.

Gestionnaire à connecteur — SocketHandler

The SocketHandler class, located in the logging.handlers module, sends logging output to a network socket. The base class uses a TCP socket.

class logging.handlers.SocketHandler(host, port)

Returns a new instance of the SocketHandler class intended to communicate with a remote machine whose address is given by host and port.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: If port is specified as None, a Unix domain socket is created using the value in host - otherwise, a TCP socket is created.

close()

Closes the socket.

emit()

Pickles the record's attribute dictionary and writes it to the socket in binary format. If there is an error with the socket, silently drops the packet. If the connection was previously lost, re-establishes the connection. To unpickle the record at the receiving end into a LogRecord, use the makeLogRecord() function.

handleError()

Handles an error which has occurred during emit(). The most likely cause is a lost connection. Closes the socket so that we can retry on the next event.

makeSocket()

This is a factory method which allows subclasses to define the precise type of socket they want. The default implementation creates a TCP socket (socket.SOCK_STREAM).

makePickle(record)

Pickles the record's attribute dictionary in binary format with a length prefix, and returns it ready for transmission across the socket. The details of this operation are equivalent to:

data = pickle.dumps(record_attr_dict, 1)
datalen = struct.pack('>L', len(data))
return datalen + data

Note that pickles aren't completely secure. If you are concerned about security, you may want to override this method to implement a more secure mechanism. For example, you can sign pickles using HMAC and then verify them on the receiving end, or alternatively you can disable unpickling of global objects on the receiving end.

send(packet)

Send a pickled byte-string packet to the socket. The format of the sent byte-string is as described in the documentation for makePickle().

This function allows for partial sends, which can happen when the network is busy.

createSocket()

Tries to create a socket; on failure, uses an exponential back-off algorithm. On initial failure, the handler will drop the message it was trying to send. When subsequent messages are handled by the same instance, it will not try connecting until some time has passed. The default parameters are such that the initial delay is one second, and if after that delay the connection still can't be made, the handler will double the delay each time up to a maximum of 30 seconds.

This behaviour is controlled by the following handler attributes:

retryStart (initial delay, defaulting to 1.0 seconds).

retryFactor (multiplier, defaulting to 2.0).

retryMax (maximum delay, defaulting to 30.0 seconds).

This means that if the remote listener starts up after the handler has been used, you could lose messages (since the handler won't even attempt a connection until the delay has elapsed, but just silently drop messages during the delay period).

DatagramHandler

The DatagramHandler class, located in the logging.handlers module, inherits from SocketHandler to support sending logging messages over UDP sockets.

class logging.handlers.DatagramHandler(host, port)

Returns a new instance of the DatagramHandler class intended to communicate with a remote machine whose address is given by host and port.

Note

As UDP is not a streaming protocol, there is no persistent connection between an instance of this handler and host. For this reason, when using a network socket, a DNS lookup might have to be made each time an event is logged, which can introduce some latency into the system. If this affects you, you can do a lookup yourself and initialize this handler using the looked-up IP address rather than the hostname.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: If port is specified as None, a Unix domain socket is created using the value in host - otherwise, a UDP socket is created.

emit()

Pickles the record's attribute dictionary and writes it to the socket in binary format. If there is an error with the socket, silently drops the packet. To unpickle the record at the receiving end into a LogRecord, use the makeLogRecord() function.

makeSocket()

The factory method of SocketHandler is here overridden to create a UDP socket (socket.SOCK_DGRAM).

send(s)

Send a pickled byte-string to a socket. The format of the sent byte-string is as described in the documentation for SocketHandler.makePickle().

SysLogHandler

The SysLogHandler class, located in the logging.handlers module, supports sending logging messages to a remote or local Unix syslog.

class logging.handlers.SysLogHandler(address=('localhost', SYSLOG_UDP_PORT), facility=LOG_USER, socktype=socket.SOCK_DGRAM, timeout=None)

Returns a new instance of the SysLogHandler class intended to communicate with a remote Unix machine whose address is given by address in the form of a (host, port) tuple. If address is not specified, ('localhost', 514) is used. The address is used to open a socket. An alternative to providing a (host, port) tuple is providing an address as a string, for example '/dev/log'. In this case, a Unix domain socket is used to send the message to the syslog. If facility is not specified, LOG_USER is used. The type of socket opened depends on the socktype argument, which defaults to socket.SOCK_DGRAM and thus opens a UDP socket. To open a TCP socket (for use with the newer syslog daemons such as rsyslog), specify a value of socket.SOCK_STREAM. If timeout is specified, it sets a timeout (in seconds) for the socket operations. This can help prevent the program from hanging indefinitely if the syslog server is unreachable. By default, timeout is None, meaning no timeout is applied.

Note that if your server is not listening on UDP port 514, SysLogHandler may appear not to work. In that case, check what address you should be using for a domain socket - it's system dependent. For example, on Linux it's usually '/dev/log' but on OS/X it's '/var/run/syslog'. You'll need to check your platform and use the appropriate address (you may need to do this check at runtime if your application needs to run on several platforms). On Windows, you pretty much have to use the UDP option.

Note

On macOS 12.x (Monterey), Apple has changed the behaviour of their syslog daemon - it no longer listens on a domain socket. Therefore, you cannot expect SysLogHandler to work on this system.

See gh-91070 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91070] for more information.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: socktype was added.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: timeout was added.

close()

Closes the socket to the remote host.

createSocket()

Tries to create a socket and, if it's not a datagram socket, connect it to the other end. This method is called during handler initialization, but it's not regarded as an error if the other end isn't listening at this point - the method will be called again when emitting an event, if there is no socket at that point.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

emit(record)

The record is formatted, and then sent to the syslog server. If exception information is present, it is not sent to the server.

Modifié dans la version 3.2.1: (See: bpo-12168 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12168].) In earlier versions, the message sent to the syslog daemons was always terminated with a NUL byte, because early versions of these daemons expected a NUL terminated message - even though it's not in the relevant specification (RFC 5424 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5424.html]). More recent versions of these daemons don't expect the NUL byte but strip it off if it's there, and even more recent daemons (which adhere more closely to RFC 5424) pass the NUL byte on as part of the message.

To enable easier handling of syslog messages in the face of all these differing daemon behaviours, the appending of the NUL byte has been made configurable, through the use of a class-level attribute, append_nul. This defaults to True (preserving the existing behaviour) but can be set to False on a SysLogHandler instance in order for that instance to not append the NUL terminator.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: (See: bpo-12419 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12419].) In earlier versions, there was no facility for an "ident" or "tag" prefix to identify the source of the message. This can now be specified using a class-level attribute, defaulting to "" to preserve existing behaviour, but which can be overridden on a SysLogHandler instance in order for that instance to prepend the ident to every message handled. Note that the provided ident must be text, not bytes, and is prepended to the message exactly as is.

encodePriority(facility, priority)

Encodes the facility and priority into an integer. You can pass in strings or integers - if strings are passed, internal mapping dictionaries are used to convert them to integers.

The symbolic LOG_ values are defined in SysLogHandler and mirror the values defined in the sys/syslog.h header file.

Priorities

Name (string)

Symbolic value

alert

LOG_ALERT

crit ou critical

LOG_CRIT

debug

LOG_DEBUG

emerg ou panic

LOG_EMERG

err ou error

LOG_ERR

info

LOG_INFO

notice

LOG_NOTICE

warn ou warning

LOG_WARNING

Facilities

Name (string)

Symbolic value

auth

LOG_AUTH

authpriv

LOG_AUTHPRIV

cron

LOG_CRON

daemon

LOG_DAEMON

ftp

LOG_FTP

kern

LOG_KERN

lpr

LOG_LPR

mail

LOG_MAIL

news

LOG_NEWS

syslog

LOG_SYSLOG

user

LOG_USER

uucp

LOG_UUCP

local0

LOG_LOCAL0

local1

LOG_LOCAL1

local2

LOG_LOCAL2

local3

LOG_LOCAL3

local4

LOG_LOCAL4

local5

LOG_LOCAL5

local6

LOG_LOCAL6

local7

LOG_LOCAL7

mapPriority(levelname)

Maps a logging level name to a syslog priority name. You may need to override this if you are using custom levels, or if the default algorithm is not suitable for your needs. The default algorithm maps DEBUG, INFO, WARNING, ERROR and CRITICAL to the equivalent syslog names, and all other level names to 'warning'.

NTEventLogHandler

The NTEventLogHandler class, located in the logging.handlers module, supports sending logging messages to a local Windows NT, Windows 2000 or Windows XP event log. Before you can use it, you need Mark Hammond's Win32 extensions for Python installed.

class logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler(appname, dllname=None, logtype='Application')

Returns a new instance of the NTEventLogHandler class. The appname is used to define the application name as it appears in the event log. An appropriate registry entry is created using this name. The dllname should give the fully qualified pathname of a .dll or .exe which contains message definitions to hold in the log (if not specified, 'win32service.pyd' is used - this is installed with the Win32 extensions and contains some basic placeholder message definitions. Note that use of these placeholders will make your event logs big, as the entire message source is held in the log. If you want slimmer logs, you have to pass in the name of your own .dll or .exe which contains the message definitions you want to use in the event log). The logtype is one of 'Application', 'System' or 'Security', and defaults to 'Application'.

close()

At this point, you can remove the application name from the registry as a source of event log entries. However, if you do this, you will not be able to see the events as you intended in the Event Log Viewer - it needs to be able to access the registry to get the .dll name. The current version does not do this.

emit(record)

Determines the message ID, event category and event type, and then logs the message in the NT event log.

getEventCategory(record)

Returns the event category for the record. Override this if you want to specify your own categories. This version returns 0.

getEventType(record)

Returns the event type for the record. Override this if you want to specify your own types. This version does a mapping using the handler's typemap attribute, which is set up in __init__() to a dictionary which contains mappings for DEBUG, INFO, WARNING, ERROR and CRITICAL. If you are using your own levels, you will either need to override this method or place a suitable dictionary in the handler's typemap attribute.

getMessageID(record)

Returns the message ID for the record. If you are using your own messages, you could do this by having the msg passed to the logger being an ID rather than a format string. Then, in here, you could use a dictionary lookup to get the message ID. This version returns 1, which is the base message ID in win32service.pyd.

SMTPHandler

The SMTPHandler class, located in the logging.handlers module, supports sending logging messages to an email address via SMTP.

class logging.handlers.SMTPHandler(mailhost, fromaddr, toaddrs, subject, credentials=None, secure=None, timeout=1.0)

Returns a new instance of the SMTPHandler class. The instance is initialized with the from and to addresses and subject line of the email. The toaddrs should be a list of strings. To specify a non-standard SMTP port, use the (host, port) tuple format for the mailhost argument. If you use a string, the standard SMTP port is used. If your SMTP server requires authentication, you can specify a (username, password) tuple for the credentials argument.

To specify the use of a secure protocol (TLS), pass in a tuple to the secure argument. This will only be used when authentication credentials are supplied. The tuple should be either an empty tuple, or a single-value tuple with the name of a keyfile, or a 2-value tuple with the names of the keyfile and certificate file. (This tuple is passed to the smtplib.SMTP.starttls() method.)

A timeout can be specified for communication with the SMTP server using the timeout argument.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Added the timeout parameter.

emit(record)

Formats the record and sends it to the specified addressees.

getSubject(record)

If you want to specify a subject line which is record-dependent, override this method.

MemoryHandler

The MemoryHandler class, located in the logging.handlers module, supports buffering of logging records in memory, periodically flushing them to a target handler. Flushing occurs whenever the buffer is full, or when an event of a certain severity or greater is seen.

MemoryHandler is a subclass of the more general BufferingHandler, which is an abstract class. This buffers logging records in memory. Whenever each record is added to the buffer, a check is made by calling shouldFlush() to see if the buffer should be flushed. If it should, then flush() is expected to do the flushing.

class logging.handlers.BufferingHandler(capacity)

Initializes the handler with a buffer of the specified capacity. Here, capacity means the number of logging records buffered.

emit(record)

Append the record to the buffer. If shouldFlush() returns true, call flush() to process the buffer.

flush()

For a BufferingHandler instance, flushing means that it sets the buffer to an empty list. This method can be overwritten to implement more useful flushing behavior.

shouldFlush(record)

Return True if the buffer is up to capacity. This method can be overridden to implement custom flushing strategies.

class logging.handlers.MemoryHandler(capacity, flushLevel=ERROR, target=None, flushOnClose=True)

Returns a new instance of the MemoryHandler class. The instance is initialized with a buffer size of capacity (number of records buffered). If flushLevel is not specified, ERROR is used. If no target is specified, the target will need to be set using setTarget() before this handler does anything useful. If flushOnClose is specified as False, then the buffer is not flushed when the handler is closed. If not specified or specified as True, the previous behaviour of flushing the buffer will occur when the handler is closed.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: The flushOnClose parameter was added.

close()

Calls flush(), sets the target to None and clears the buffer.

flush()

For a MemoryHandler instance, flushing means just sending the buffered records to the target, if there is one. The buffer is also cleared when buffered records are sent to the target. Override if you want different behavior.

setTarget(target)

Sets the target handler for this handler.

shouldFlush(record)

Checks for buffer full or a record at the flushLevel or higher.

HTTPHandler

The HTTPHandler class, located in the logging.handlers module, supports sending logging messages to a web server, using either GET or POST semantics.

class logging.handlers.HTTPHandler(host, url, method='GET', secure=False, credentials=None, context=None)

Returns a new instance of the HTTPHandler class. The host can be of the form host:port, should you need to use a specific port number. If no method is specified, GET is used. If secure is true, a HTTPS connection will be used. The context parameter may be set to a ssl.SSLContext instance to configure the SSL settings used for the HTTPS connection. If credentials is specified, it should be a 2-tuple consisting of userid and password, which will be placed in a HTTP 'Authorization' header using Basic authentication. If you specify credentials, you should also specify secure=True so that your userid and password are not passed in cleartext across the wire.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: The context parameter was added.

mapLogRecord(record)

Provides a dictionary, based on record, which is to be URL-encoded and sent to the web server. The default implementation just returns record.__dict__. This method can be overridden if e.g. only a subset of LogRecord is to be sent to the web server, or if more specific customization of what's sent to the server is required.

emit(record)

Sends the record to the web server as a URL-encoded dictionary. The mapLogRecord() method is used to convert the record to the dictionary to be sent.

Note

Since preparing a record for sending it to a web server is not the same as a generic formatting operation, using setFormatter() to specify a Formatter for a HTTPHandler has no effect. Instead of calling format(), this handler calls mapLogRecord() and then urllib.parse.urlencode() to encode the dictionary in a form suitable for sending to a web server.

QueueHandler

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

The QueueHandler class, located in the logging.handlers module, supports sending logging messages to a queue, such as those implemented in the queue or multiprocessing modules.

Along with the QueueListener class, QueueHandler can be used to let handlers do their work on a separate thread from the one which does the logging. This is important in web applications and also other service applications where threads servicing clients need to respond as quickly as possible, while any potentially slow operations (such as sending an email via SMTPHandler) are done on a separate thread.

class logging.handlers.QueueHandler(queue)

Returns a new instance of the QueueHandler class. The instance is initialized with the queue to send messages to. The queue can be any queue-like object; it's used as-is by the enqueue() method, which needs to know how to send messages to it. The queue is not required to have the task tracking API, which means that you can use SimpleQueue instances for queue.

Note

If you are using multiprocessing, you should avoid using SimpleQueue and instead use multiprocessing.Queue.

Avertissement

The multiprocessing module uses an internal logger created and accessed via get_logger(). multiprocessing.Queue will log DEBUG level messages upon items being queued. If those log messages are processed by a QueueHandler using the same multiprocessing.Queue instance, it will cause a deadlock or infinite recursion.

emit(record)

Enqueues the result of preparing the LogRecord. Should an exception occur (e.g. because a bounded queue has filled up), the handleError() method is called to handle the error. This can result in the record silently being dropped (if logging.raiseExceptions is False) or a message printed to sys.stderr (if logging.raiseExceptions is True).

prepare(record)

Prepares a record for queuing. The object returned by this method is enqueued.

The base implementation formats the record to merge the message, arguments, exception and stack information, if present. It also removes unpickleable items from the record in-place. Specifically, it overwrites the record's msg and message attributes with the merged message (obtained by calling the handler's format() method), and sets the args, exc_info and exc_text attributes to None.

You might want to override this method if you want to convert the record to a dict or JSON string, or send a modified copy of the record while leaving the original intact.

Note

The base implementation formats the message with arguments, sets the message and msg attributes to the formatted message and sets the args and exc_text attributes to None to allow pickling and to prevent further attempts at formatting. This means that a handler on the QueueListener side won't have the information to do custom formatting, e.g. of exceptions. You may wish to subclass QueueHandler and override this method to e.g. avoid setting exc_text to None. Note that the message / msg / args changes are related to ensuring the record is pickleable, and you might or might not be able to avoid doing that depending on whether your args are pickleable. (Note that you may have to consider not only your own code but also code in any libraries that you use.)

enqueue(record)

Enqueues the record on the queue using put_nowait(); you may want to override this if you want to use blocking behaviour, or a timeout, or a customized queue implementation.

listener

When created via configuration using dictConfig(), this attribute will contain a QueueListener instance for use with this handler. Otherwise, it will be None.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

QueueListener

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

The QueueListener class, located in the logging.handlers module, supports receiving logging messages from a queue, such as those implemented in the queue or multiprocessing modules. The messages are received from a queue in an internal thread and passed, on the same thread, to one or more handlers for processing. While QueueListener is not itself a handler, it is documented here because it works hand-in-hand with QueueHandler.

Along with the QueueHandler class, QueueListener can be used to let handlers do their work on a separate thread from the one which does the logging. This is important in web applications and also other service applications where threads servicing clients need to respond as quickly as possible, while any potentially slow operations (such as sending an email via SMTPHandler) are done on a separate thread.

class logging.handlers.QueueListener(queue, *handlers, respect_handler_level=False)

Returns a new instance of the QueueListener class. The instance is initialized with the queue to send messages to and a list of handlers which will handle entries placed on the queue. The queue can be any queue-like object; it's passed as-is to the dequeue() method, which needs to know how to get messages from it. The queue is not required to have the task tracking API (though it's used if available), which means that you can use SimpleQueue instances for queue.

Note

If you are using multiprocessing, you should avoid using SimpleQueue and instead use multiprocessing.Queue.

If respect_handler_level is True, a handler's level is respected (compared with the level for the message) when deciding whether to pass messages to that handler; otherwise, the behaviour is as in previous Python versions - to always pass each message to each handler.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: The respect_handler_level argument was added.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: QueueListener can now be used as a context manager via with. When entering the context, the listener is started. When exiting the context, the listener is stopped. __enter__() returns the QueueListener object.

dequeue(block)

Dequeues a record and return it, optionally blocking.

The base implementation uses get(). You may want to override this method if you want to use timeouts or work with custom queue implementations.

prepare(record)

Prepare a record for handling.

This implementation just returns the passed-in record. You may want to override this method if you need to do any custom marshalling or manipulation of the record before passing it to the handlers.

handle(record)

Handle a record.

This just loops through the handlers offering them the record to handle. The actual object passed to the handlers is that which is returned from prepare().

start()

Starts the listener.

This starts up a background thread to monitor the queue for LogRecords to process.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Raises RuntimeError if called and the listener is already running.

stop()

Stops the listener.

This asks the thread to terminate, and then waits for it to do so. Note that if you don't call this before your application exits, there may be some records still left on the queue, which won't be processed.

enqueue_sentinel()

Writes a sentinel to the queue to tell the listener to quit. This implementation uses put_nowait(). You may want to override this method if you want to use timeouts or work with custom queue implementations.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Voir aussi

Module logging

Référence d'API pour le module de journalisation.

Module logging.config

API de configuration pour le module de journalisation.

platform --- Access to underlying platform's identifying data

Code source : Lib/platform.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/platform.py]

Note

Les spécificités des plateformes sont regroupées dans des sections triées par ordre alphabétique. Linux est inclus dans la section Unix.

Cross platform

platform.architecture(executable=sys.executable, bits='', linkage='')

Interroge l'exécutable fourni (par défaut l'interpréteur Python) sur les informations de l'architecture.

Renvoie un n-uplet de (bits, linkage) qui contient de l'information sur l'architecture binaire et le format de lien. Les deux valeurs sont des chaînes de caractères.

Lorsqu'une valeur ne peut être déterminée, la valeur passée en paramètre est utilisée. Si la valeur passée à bits est '', la valeur de sizeof(pointer) (ou sizeof(long) sur les versions Python antérieures à 1.5.2) est utilisée comme indicateur de la taille de pointeur prise en charge.

La fonction dépend de la commande file du système pour accomplir la tâche. file est disponible sur quasiment toutes les plateformes Unix ainsi que sur certaines plateformes hors de la famille Unix et l'exécutable doit pointer vers l'interpréteur Python. Des valeurs par défaut raisonnables sont utilisées lorsque les conditions précédentes ne sont pas atteintes.

Note

On macOS (and perhaps other platforms), executable files may be universal files containing multiple architectures.

To get at the "64-bitness" of the current interpreter, it is more reliable to query the sys.maxsize attribute:

is_64bits = sys.maxsize > 2**32

platform.machine()

Returns the machine type, e.g. 'AMD64'. An empty string is returned if the value cannot be determined.

The output is platform-dependent and may differ in casing and naming conventions.

platform.node()

Renvoie le nom de l'ordinateur sur le réseau (pas forcément pleinement qualifié). Une chaîne de caractères vide est renvoyée s'il ne peut pas être déterminé.

platform.platform(aliased=False, terse=False)

Renvoie une chaîne de caractère identifiant la plateforme avec le plus d'informations possible.

La valeur renvoyée est destinée à la lecture humaine plutôt que l'interprétation machine. Il est possible qu'elle soit différente selon la plateforme et c'est voulu.

Si aliased est vrai, la fonction utilisera des alias pour certaines plateformes qui utilisent des noms de système qui diffèrent de leurs noms communs. Par exemple, SunOS sera reconnu comme Solaris. La fonction system_alias() est utilisée pour l'implémentation.

Si terse est vrai, la fonction ne renverra que l'information nécessaire à l'identification de la plateforme.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Sur MacOS, la fonction essaie maintenant d'utiliser la fonction mac_ver() pour obtenir la version de MacOS plutôt que la version de Darwin : le résultat de mac_ver est utilisé si ce n'est pas une chaîne vide.

platform.processor()

Renvoie le (vrai) nom du processeur. Par exemple : 'amdk6'.

Une chaîne de caractères vide est renvoyée si la valeur ne peut être déterminée. Prenez note que plusieurs plateformes ne fournissent pas cette information ou renvoient la même valeur que la fonction machine(). NetBSD agit ainsi.

platform.python_build()

Renvoie une paire (buildno, builddate) de chaîne de caractères identifiant la version et la date de compilation de Python.

platform.python_compiler()

Renvoie une chaîne de caractères identifiant le compilateur utilisé pour compiler Python.

platform.python_branch()

Renvoie la chaîne de caractères identifiant la branche du gestionnaire de versions de l'implémentation Python.

platform.python_implementation()

Renvoie une chaîne de caractères identifiant l'implémentation de Python. Des valeurs possibles sont : CPython, IronPython, Jython, Pypy.

platform.python_revision()

Renvoie la chaîne de caractères identifiant la révision du gestionnaire de versions de l'implémentation Python.

platform.python_version()

Renvoie la version de Python comme une chaîne de caractères 'major.minor.patchlevel'.

Prenez note que la valeur renvoyée inclut toujours le patchlevel (valeur par défaut de 0) à la différence de sys.version.

platform.python_version_tuple()

Renvoie la version de Python comme un triplet de chaînes de caractères (major, minor, patchlevel).

Prenez note que la valeur renvoyée inclut toujours le patchlevel (valeur par défaut de '0') à la différence de sys.version.

platform.release()

Returns the system's release, e.g. '2.2.0' or 'NT'. An empty string is returned if the value cannot be determined.

platform.system()

Renvoie le nom du système d'exploitation, tel que 'Linux', 'Darwin', 'Java', 'Windows'. Une chaîne de caractères vide est renvoyée si le nom ne peut être déterminé.

On iOS and Android, this returns the user-facing OS name (i.e, 'iOS, 'iPadOS' or 'Android'). To obtain the kernel name ('Darwin' or 'Linux'), use os.uname().

platform.system_alias(system, release, version)

Renvoie (system, release, version) avec des alias pour les noms communs de certains systèmes. Modifie aussi l'ordre de l'information pour éviter la confusion.

platform.version()

Renvoie la version de déploiement du système. Par exemple, '#3 on degas'. Une chaîne de caractères vide est renvoyée si aucune valeur ne peut être déterminée.

On iOS and Android, this is the user-facing OS version. To obtain the Darwin or Linux kernel version, use os.uname().

platform.uname()

Interface de uname relativement portable. Renvoie un namedtuple() contenant six attributs : system, node, release, version, machine et processor.

processor is resolved late, on demand.

Note: the first two attribute names differ from the names presented by os.uname(), where they are named sysname and nodename.

Les entrées qui ne peuvent pas être identifiées ont la valeur ''.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Result changed from a tuple to a namedtuple().

Modifié dans la version 3.9: processor is resolved late instead of immediately.

platform.invalidate_caches()

Clear out the internal cache of information, such as the uname(). This is typically useful when the platform's node() is changed by an external process and one needs to retrieve the updated value.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Java platform

platform.java_ver(release='', vendor='', vminfo=('', '', ''), osinfo=('', '', ''))

Version de l'interface pour Jython.

Renvoie un n-uplet (release, vendor, vminfo, osinfo). vminfo est un triplet de valeur (vm_name, vm_release, vm_vendor) et osinfo est un triplet de valeur (os_name, os_version, os_arch). Les valeurs indéterminables ont la valeur des paramètres par défaut (valeur de '' par défaut).

Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: It was largely untested, had a confusing API, and was only useful for Jython support.

Windows platform

platform.win32_ver(release='', version='', csd='', ptype='')

Get additional version information from the Windows Registry and return a tuple (release, version, csd, ptype) referring to OS release, version number, CSD level (service pack) and OS type (multi/single processor). Values which cannot be determined are set to the defaults given as parameters (which all default to an empty string).

As a hint: ptype is 'Uniprocessor Free' on single processor NT machines and 'Multiprocessor Free' on multi processor machines. The 'Free' refers to the OS version being free of debugging code. It could also state 'Checked' which means the OS version uses debugging code, i.e. code that checks arguments, ranges, etc.

platform.win32_edition()

Returns a string representing the current Windows edition, or None if the value cannot be determined. Possible values include but are not limited to 'Enterprise', 'IoTUAP', 'ServerStandard', and 'nanoserver'.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

platform.win32_is_iot()

Renvoie True si l'édition de Windows renvoyée par la fonction win32_edition() est reconnue comme une édition IoT.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

macOS platform

platform.mac_ver(release='', versioninfo=('', '', ''), machine='')

Get macOS version information and return it as tuple (release, versioninfo, machine) with versioninfo being a tuple (version, dev_stage, non_release_version).

Les entrées qui ne peuvent pas être identifiées auront la valeur ''. Les membres du n-uplet sont tous des chaînes de caractères.

iOS platform

platform.ios_ver(system='', release='', model='', is_simulator=False)

Get iOS version information and return it as a namedtuple() with the following attributes:

system is the OS name; either 'iOS' or 'iPadOS'.

release is the iOS version number as a string (e.g., '17.2').

model is the device model identifier; this will be a string like 'iPhone13,2' for a physical device, or 'iPhone' on a simulator.

is_simulator is a boolean describing if the app is running on a simulator or a physical device.

Entries which cannot be determined are set to the defaults given as parameters.

Unix platforms

platform.libc_ver(executable=sys.executable, lib='', version='', chunksize=16384)

Tente d'identifier la version de la bibliothèque standard C à laquelle le fichier exécutable (par défaut l'interpréteur Python) est lié. Renvoie une paire de chaînes de caractères (lib, version). Les valeurs passées en paramètre seront retournées si la recherche échoue.

Prenez note que cette fonction a une connaissance profonde des méthodes utilisées par les versions de la bibliothèque standard C pour ajouter des symboles au fichier exécutable. Elle n'est probablement utilisable qu'avec des exécutables compilés avec gcc.

Le fichier est lu en blocs de chunksize octets.

Linux platforms

platform.freedesktop_os_release()

Get operating system identification from os-release file and return it as a dict. The os-release file is a freedesktop.org standard [https://www.freedesktop.org/software/systemd/man/os-release.html] and is available in most Linux distributions. A noticeable exception is Android and Android-based distributions.

Raises OSError or subclass when neither /etc/os-release nor /usr/lib/os-release can be read.

On success, the function returns a dictionary where keys and values are strings. Values have their special characters like " and $ unquoted. The fields NAME, ID, and PRETTY_NAME are always defined according to the standard. All other fields are optional. Vendors may include additional fields.

Note that fields like NAME, VERSION, and VARIANT are strings suitable for presentation to users. Programs should use fields like ID, ID_LIKE, VERSION_ID, or VARIANT_ID to identify Linux distributions.

Exemple :

def get_like_distro():
    info = platform.freedesktop_os_release()
    ids = [info["ID"]]
    if "ID_LIKE" in info:
        # ids are space separated and ordered by precedence
        ids.extend(info["ID_LIKE"].split())
    return ids

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

Android platform

platform.android_ver(release='', api_level=0, manufacturer='', model='', device='', is_emulator=False)

Get Android device information. Returns a namedtuple() with the following attributes. Values which cannot be determined are set to the defaults given as parameters.

release - Android version, as a string (e.g. "14").

api_level - API level of the running device, as an integer (e.g. 34 for Android 14). To get the API level which Python was built against, see sys.getandroidapilevel().

manufacturer - Manufacturer name [https://developer.android.com/reference/android/os/Build#MANUFACTURER].

model - Model name [https://developer.android.com/reference/android/os/Build#MODEL] – typically the marketing name or model number.

device - Device name [https://developer.android.com/reference/android/os/Build#DEVICE] – typically the model number or a codename.

is_emulator - True if the device is an emulator; False if it's a physical device.

Google maintains a list of known model and device names [https://storage.googleapis.com/play_public/supported_devices.html].

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Command-line usage

platform can also be invoked directly using the -m switch of the interpreter:

python -m platform [--terse] [--nonaliased] [{nonaliased,terse} ...]

Les options suivantes sont acceptées :

--terse

Print terse information about the platform. This is equivalent to calling platform.platform() with the terse argument set to True.

--nonaliased

Print platform information without system/OS name aliasing. This is equivalent to calling platform.platform() with the aliased argument set to True.

You can also pass one or more positional arguments (terse, nonaliased) to explicitly control the output format. These behave similarly to their corresponding options.

errno --- Standard errno system symbols

This module makes available standard errno system symbols. The value of each symbol is the corresponding integer value. The names and descriptions are borrowed from linux/include/errno.h, which should be all-inclusive.

errno.errorcode

Dictionnaire associant la valeur errno au nom de chaîne dans le système sous-jacent. Par exemple, errno.errorcode[errno.EPERM] correspond à 'EPERM'.

Pour traduire un code d'erreur en message d'erreur, utilisez os.strerror().

De la liste suivante, les symboles qui ne sont pas utilisés dans la plateforme actuelle ne sont pas définis par le module. La liste spécifique des symboles définis est disponible comme errno.errorcode.keys(). Les symboles disponibles font partie de cette liste :

errno.EPERM

Operation not permitted. This error is mapped to the exception PermissionError.

errno.ENOENT

No such file or directory. This error is mapped to the exception FileNotFoundError.

errno.ESRCH

No such process. This error is mapped to the exception ProcessLookupError.

errno.EINTR

Interrupted system call. This error is mapped to the exception InterruptedError.

errno.EIO

Erreur d'entrée-sortie

errno.ENXIO

Dispositif ou adresse inexistant

errno.E2BIG

Liste d'arguments trop longue

errno.ENOEXEC

Erreur de format d'exécution

errno.EBADF

Mauvais descripteur de fichier

errno.ECHILD

No child processes. This error is mapped to the exception ChildProcessError.

errno.EAGAIN

Try again. This error is mapped to the exception BlockingIOError.

errno.ENOMEM

Mémoire insuffisante

errno.EACCES

Permission denied. This error is mapped to the exception PermissionError.

errno.EFAULT

Mauvaise adresse

errno.ENOTBLK

Dispositif de bloc requis

errno.EBUSY

Dispositif ou ressource occupé

errno.EEXIST

File exists. This error is mapped to the exception FileExistsError.

errno.EXDEV

Lien inapproprié

errno.ENODEV

Dispositif inexistant

errno.ENOTDIR

Not a directory. This error is mapped to the exception NotADirectoryError.

errno.EISDIR

Is a directory. This error is mapped to the exception IsADirectoryError.

errno.EINVAL

Argument invalide

errno.ENFILE

Plus de descripteur de fichier disponible

errno.EMFILE

Trop de fichiers ouverts

errno.ENOTTY

Opération de contrôle d'entrée-sortie invalide

errno.ETXTBSY

Fichier texte occupé

errno.EFBIG

Fichier trop grand

errno.ENOSPC

Plus de place sur le dispositif

errno.ESPIPE

Recherche invalide

errno.EROFS

Système de fichiers en lecture seule

errno.EMLINK

Trop de liens symboliques

errno.EPIPE

Broken pipe. This error is mapped to the exception BrokenPipeError.

errno.EDOM

Argument mathématique hors du domaine de définition de la fonction

errno.ERANGE

Résultat mathématique non représentable

errno.EDEADLK

Un interblocage se produirait sur cette ressource

errno.ENAMETOOLONG

Nom de fichier trop long

errno.ENOLCK

Plus de verrou de fichier disponible

errno.ENOSYS

Fonction non implémentée

errno.ENOTEMPTY

Dossier non vide

errno.ELOOP

Trop de liens symboliques trouvés

errno.EWOULDBLOCK

Operation would block. This error is mapped to the exception BlockingIOError.

errno.ENOMSG

Pas de message du type voulu

errno.EIDRM

Identifiant supprimé

errno.ECHRNG

Le numéro de canal est hors des limites

errno.EL2NSYNC

Le niveau 2 n'est pas synchronisé

errno.EL3HLT

Niveau 3 stoppé

errno.EL3RST

Niveau 3 réinitialisé

errno.ELNRNG

Le numéro du lien est hors des limites

errno.EUNATCH

Le pilote de protocole n'est pas attaché

errno.ENOCSI

Pas de structure CSI disponible

errno.EL2HLT

Niveau 2 stoppé

errno.EBADE

Échange invalide

errno.EBADR

Descripteur de requête invalide

errno.EXFULL

Échange complet

errno.ENOANO

Pas de anode

errno.EBADRQC

Code de requête invalide

errno.EBADSLT

Slot invalide

errno.EDEADLOCK

Interblocage lors du verrouillage de fichier

errno.EBFONT

Mauvais format de fichier de police

errno.ENOSTR

Le périphérique n'est pas un flux

errno.ENODATA

Pas de donnée disponible

errno.ETIME

Délai maximal atteint

errno.ENOSR

Pas assez de ressources de type flux

errno.ENONET

Machine hors réseau

errno.ENOPKG

Paquet non installé

errno.EREMOTE

L'objet est distant

errno.ENOLINK

Lien coupé

errno.EADV

Erreur d'annonce

errno.ESRMNT

Erreur Srmount

errno.ECOMM

Erreur de communication lors de l'envoi

errno.EPROTO

Erreur de protocole

errno.EMULTIHOP

Transfert à sauts multiples essayé

errno.EDOTDOT

erreur spécifique RFS

errno.EBADMSG

Pas un message de données

errno.EOVERFLOW

Valeur trop grande pour être stockée dans ce type de donnée

errno.ENOTUNIQ

Nom non-unique dans le réseau

errno.EBADFD

Descripteur de fichier en mauvais état

errno.EREMCHG

Adresse distante changée

errno.ELIBACC

Accès impossible à une bibliothèque partagée nécessaire

errno.ELIBBAD

Accès à une bibliothèque partagée corrompue

errno.ELIBSCN

Section .lib de a.out corrompue

errno.ELIBMAX

Tentative de liaison entre trop de bibliothèques partagées

errno.ELIBEXEC

Impossible d'exécuter directement une bibliothèque partagée

errno.EILSEQ

Séquence de bytes illégale

errno.ERESTART

Appel système interrompu qui devrait être relancé

errno.ESTRPIPE

Erreur d’enchaînement de flux

errno.EUSERS

Trop d'utilisateurs

errno.ENOTSOCK

Opération d'interface de connexion alors que ce n'est pas une interface de connexion

errno.EDESTADDRREQ

Adresse de destination obligatoire

errno.EMSGSIZE

Message trop long

errno.EPROTOTYPE

Mauvais type de protocole pour ce connecteur

errno.ENOPROTOOPT

Protocole pas disponible

errno.EPROTONOSUPPORT

Protocole non géré

errno.ESOCKTNOSUPPORT

Type de connecteur non géré

errno.EOPNOTSUPP

Opération non gérée par cette fin de lien

errno.ENOTSUP

Operation not supported

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

errno.EPFNOSUPPORT

Famille de protocole non gérée

errno.EAFNOSUPPORT

Famille d'adresses non gérée par ce protocole

errno.EADDRINUSE

Adresse déjà utilisée

errno.EADDRNOTAVAIL

Impossible d'assigner l'adresse demandée

errno.ENETDOWN

Le réseau est désactivé

errno.ENETUNREACH

Réseau inaccessible

errno.ENETRESET

Connexion annulée par le réseau

errno.ECONNABORTED

Software caused connection abort. This error is mapped to the exception ConnectionAbortedError.

errno.ECONNRESET

Connection reset by peer. This error is mapped to the exception ConnectionResetError.

errno.ENOBUFS

Plus d'espace tampon disponible

errno.EISCONN

L'interface de connexion est déjà connectée

errno.ENOTCONN

L'interface de connexion n'est pas connectée

errno.ESHUTDOWN

Cannot send after transport endpoint shutdown. This error is mapped to the exception BrokenPipeError.

errno.ETOOMANYREFS

Trop de descripteurs : impossible d'effectuer la liaison

errno.ETIMEDOUT

Connection timed out. This error is mapped to the exception TimeoutError.

errno.ECONNREFUSED

Connection refused. This error is mapped to the exception ConnectionRefusedError.

errno.EHOSTDOWN

Hôte éteint

errno.EHOSTUNREACH

Pas de route vers l'hôte

errno.EHWPOISON

Memory page has hardware error.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

errno.EALREADY

Operation already in progress. This error is mapped to the exception BlockingIOError.

errno.EINPROGRESS

Operation now in progress. This error is mapped to the exception BlockingIOError.

errno.ESTALE

Descripteur de fichier NFS corrompu

errno.EUCLEAN

La structure a besoin d'être nettoyée

errno.ENOTNAM

N'est pas un fichier nommé du type XENIX

errno.ENAVAIL

Pas de sémaphore XENIX disponible

errno.EISNAM

Est un fichier nommé

errno.EREMOTEIO

Erreur d'entrées-sorties distante

errno.EDQUOT

Quota dépassé

errno.EQFULL

Interface output queue is full

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

errno.ENOMEDIUM

No medium found

errno.EMEDIUMTYPE

Wrong medium type

errno.ENOKEY

Required key not available

errno.EKEYEXPIRED

Key has expired

errno.EKEYREVOKED

Key has been revoked

errno.EKEYREJECTED

Key was rejected by service

errno.ERFKILL

Operation not possible due to RF-kill

errno.ELOCKUNMAPPED

Locked lock was unmapped

errno.ENOTACTIVE

Facility is not active

errno.EAUTH

Authentication error

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

errno.EBADARCH

Bad CPU type in executable

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

errno.EBADEXEC

Bad executable (or shared library)

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

errno.EBADMACHO

Malformed Mach-o file

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

errno.EDEVERR

Device error

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

errno.EFTYPE

Inappropriate file type or format

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

errno.ENEEDAUTH

Need authenticator

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

errno.ENOATTR

Attribute not found

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

errno.ENOPOLICY

Policy not found

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

errno.EPROCLIM

Too many processes

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

errno.EPROCUNAVAIL

Bad procedure for program

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

errno.EPROGMISMATCH

Program version wrong

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

errno.EPROGUNAVAIL

RPC prog. not avail

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

errno.EPWROFF

Device power is off

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

errno.EBADRPC

RPC struct is bad

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

errno.ERPCMISMATCH

RPC version wrong

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

errno.ESHLIBVERS

Shared library version mismatch

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

errno.ENOTCAPABLE

Capabilities insufficient. This error is mapped to the exception PermissionError.

Disponibilité: WASI, FreeBSD

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.1.

errno.ECANCELED

Operation canceled

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

errno.EOWNERDEAD

Owner died

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

errno.ENOTRECOVERABLE

State not recoverable

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

ctypes --- A foreign function library for Python

Source code: Lib/ctypes [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/ctypes]

ctypes is a foreign function library for Python. It provides C compatible data types, and allows calling functions in DLLs or shared libraries. It can be used to wrap these libraries in pure Python.

This is an optional module. If it is missing from your copy of CPython, look for documentation from your distributor (that is, whoever provided Python to you). If you are the distributor, see Requirements for optional modules.

Didacticiel de ctypes

Remarque : le type c_int du module apparaît dans certains de ces exemples. Sur les plates-formes où sizeof(long) == sizeof(int), ce type est un alias de c_long. Ne soyez donc pas surpris si c_long s'affiche là où vous vous attendiez à c_int — il s'agit bien du même type.

Chargement des DLL

ctypes exports the cdll, and on Windows windll and oledll objects, for loading dynamic link libraries.

You load libraries by accessing them as attributes of these objects. cdll loads libraries which export functions using the standard cdecl calling convention, while windll libraries call functions using the stdcall calling convention. oledll also uses the stdcall calling convention, and assumes the functions return a Windows HRESULT error code. The error code is used to automatically raise an OSError exception when the function call fails.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: En Windows, les erreurs levaient auparavant une WindowsError, qui est maintenant un alias de OSError.

Here are some examples for Windows. Note that msvcrt is the MS standard C library containing most standard C functions, and uses the cdecl calling convention:

>>> from ctypes import *
>>> print(windll.kernel32)
<WinDLL 'kernel32', handle ... at ...>
>>> print(cdll.msvcrt)
<CDLL 'msvcrt', handle ... at ...>
>>> libc = cdll.msvcrt
>>>

Windows ajoute le suffixe habituel .dll automatiquement.

Note

Accéder à la bibliothèque standard C par cdll.msvcrt utilise une version obsolète de la bibliothèque qui peut avoir des problèmes de compatibilité avec celle que Python utilise. Si possible, mieux vaut utiliser la fonctionnalité native de Python, ou bien importer et utiliser le module msvcrt.

Other systems require the filename including the extension to load a library, so attribute access can not be used to load libraries. Either the LoadLibrary() method of the dll loaders should be used, or you should load the library by creating an instance of CDLL by calling the constructor.

For example, on Linux:

>>> cdll.LoadLibrary("libc.so.6")
<CDLL 'libc.so.6', handle ... at ...>
>>> libc = CDLL("libc.so.6")
>>> libc
<CDLL 'libc.so.6', handle ... at ...>
>>>

On macOS:

>>> cdll.LoadLibrary("libc.dylib")
<CDLL 'libc.dylib', handle ... at ...>
>>> libc = CDLL("libc.dylib")
>>> libc
<CDLL 'libc.dylib', handle ... at ...>

Accès aux fonctions des DLL chargées

Les fonctions sont alors des attributs des objets DLL :

>>> libc.printf
<_FuncPtr object at 0x...>
>>> print(windll.kernel32.GetModuleHandleA)
<_FuncPtr object at 0x...>
>>> print(windll.kernel32.MyOwnFunction)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
  File "ctypes.py", line 239, in __getattr__
    func = _StdcallFuncPtr(name, self)
AttributeError: function 'MyOwnFunction' not found
>>>

Note that win32 system dlls like kernel32 and user32 often export ANSI as well as UNICODE versions of a function. The UNICODE version is exported with a W appended to the name, while the ANSI version is exported with an A appended to the name. The win32 GetModuleHandle function, which returns a module handle for a given module name, has the following C prototype, and a macro is used to expose one of them as GetModuleHandle depending on whether UNICODE is defined or not:

/* ANSI version */
HMODULE GetModuleHandleA(LPCSTR lpModuleName);
/* UNICODE version */
HMODULE GetModuleHandleW(LPCWSTR lpModuleName);

windll n'en choisit pas une par magie, il faut accéder à la bonne en écrivant explicitement GetModuleHandleA ou GetModuleHandleW et en les appelant ensuite avec des objets octets ou avec des chaînes de caractères, respectivement.

Les DLL exportent parfois des fonctions dont les noms ne sont pas des identifiants Python valides, comme "??2@YAPAXI@Z". Dans ce cas, il faut utiliser getattr() pour accéder à la fonction :

>>> getattr(cdll.msvcrt, "??2@YAPAXI@Z")
<_FuncPtr object at 0x...>
>>>

Sous Windows, certaines DLL exportent des fonctions à travers un indice plutôt qu'à travers un nom. On accède à une fonction en indiçant l'objet DLL avec son index :

>>> cdll.kernel32[1]
<_FuncPtr object at 0x...>
>>> cdll.kernel32[0]
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
  File "ctypes.py", line 310, in __getitem__
    func = _StdcallFuncPtr(name, self)
AttributeError: function ordinal 0 not found
>>>

Appel de fonctions

You can call these functions like any other Python callable. This example uses the rand() function, which takes no arguments and returns a pseudo-random integer:

>>> print(libc.rand())
1804289383

On Windows, you can call the GetModuleHandleA() function, which returns a win32 module handle (passing None as single argument to call it with a NULL pointer):

>>> print(hex(windll.kernel32.GetModuleHandleA(None)))
0x1d000000
>>>

Une ValueError est levée quand on appelle une fonction stdcall avec la convention d'appel cdecl et vice-versa :

>>> cdll.kernel32.GetModuleHandleA(None)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
ValueError: Procedure probably called with not enough arguments (4 bytes missing)
>>>

>>> windll.msvcrt.printf(b"spam")
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
ValueError: Procedure probably called with too many arguments (4 bytes in excess)
>>>

Pour déterminer la convention d'appel, il faut consulter l'en-tête C ou la documentation de la fonction à appeler.

On Windows, ctypes uses win32 structured exception handling to prevent crashes from general protection faults when functions are called with invalid argument values:

>>> windll.kernel32.GetModuleHandleA(32)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
OSError: exception: access violation reading 0x00000020
>>>

There are, however, enough ways to crash Python with ctypes, so you should be careful anyway. The faulthandler module can be helpful in debugging crashes (e.g. from segmentation faults produced by erroneous C library calls).

None, integers, bytes objects and (unicode) strings are the only native Python objects that can directly be used as parameters in these function calls. None is passed as a C NULL pointer, bytes objects and strings are passed as pointer to the memory block that contains their data (char* or wchar_t*). Python integers are passed as the platform's default C int type, their value is masked to fit into the C type.

Before we move on calling functions with other parameter types, we have to learn more about ctypes data types.

Types de données de base

ctypes defines a number of primitive C compatible data types:

Types de ctypes

Type C

Type Python

_type_

c_bool

_Bool

bool

'?'

c_char

char

1-character bytes

'c'

c_wchar

wchar_t

1-character str

'u'

c_byte

char

int

'b'

c_ubyte

unsigned char

int

'B'

c_short

short

int

'h'

c_ushort

unsigned short

int

'H'

c_int

int

int

'i' *

c_int8

int8_t

int

*

c_int16

int16_t

int

*

c_int32

int32_t

int

*

c_int64

int64_t

int

*

c_uint

unsigned int

int

'I' *

c_uint8

uint8_t

int

*

c_uint16

uint16_t

int

*

c_uint32

uint32_t

int

*

c_uint64

uint64_t

int

*

c_long

long

int

'l'

c_ulong

unsigned long

int

'L'

c_longlong

long long

int

'q' *

c_ulonglong

unsigned long long

int

'Q' *

c_size_t

size_t

int

*

c_ssize_t

Py_ssize_t

int

*

c_time_t

time_t

int

*

c_float

float

float

'f'

c_double

double

float

'd'

c_longdouble

long double

float

'g' *

c_char_p

char* (NUL terminated)

bytes or None

'z'

c_wchar_p

wchar_t* (NUL terminated)

str or None

'Z'

c_void_p

void*

int or None

'P'

py_object

PyObject*

object

'O'

VARIANT_BOOL

short int

bool

'v'

Additionally, if IEC 60559 compatible complex arithmetic (Annex G) is supported in both C and libffi, the following complex types are available:

Types de ctypes

Type C

Type Python

_type_

c_float_complex

float complex

complex

'F'

c_double_complex

double complex

complex

'D'

c_longdouble_complex

long double complex

complex

'G'

Il est possible de créer chacun de ces types en les appelant avec une valeur d'initialisation du bon type et avec une valeur cohérente :

>>> c_int()
c_long(0)
>>> c_wchar_p("Hello, World")
c_wchar_p(140018365411392)
>>> c_ushort(-3)
c_ushort(65533)
>>>

The constructors for numeric types will convert input using __bool__(), __index__() (for int), __float__() or __complex__(). This means c_bool accepts any object with a truth value:

>>> empty_list = []
>>> c_bool(empty_list)
c_bool(False)

Ces types étant des mutables, leur valeur peut aussi être modifiée après coup :

>>> i = c_int(42)
>>> print(i)
c_long(42)
>>> print(i.value)
42
>>> i.value = -99
>>> print(i.value)
-99
>>>

Assigning a new value to instances of the pointer types c_char_p, c_wchar_p, and c_void_p changes the memory location they point to, not the contents of the memory block (of course not, because Python string objects are immutable):

>>> s = "Hello, World"
>>> c_s = c_wchar_p(s)
>>> print(c_s)
c_wchar_p(139966785747344)
>>> print(c_s.value)
Hello World
>>> c_s.value = "Hi, there"
>>> print(c_s)              # the memory location has changed
c_wchar_p(139966783348904)
>>> print(c_s.value)
Hi, there
>>> print(s)                # first object is unchanged
Hello, World
>>>

Cependant, prenez garde à ne pas en passer à des fonctions qui prennent en paramètre des pointeurs sur de la mémoire modifiable. S'il vous faut de la mémoire modifiable, ctypes fournit la fonction create_string_buffer() qui en crée de plusieurs façons. L'attribut raw permet d'accéder à (ou de modifier) un bloc mémoire ; l'attribut value permet d'y accéder comme à une chaîne de caractères terminée par NUL :

>>> from ctypes import *
>>> p = create_string_buffer(3)            # create a 3 byte buffer, initialized to NUL bytes
>>> print(sizeof(p), repr(p.raw))
3 b'\x00\x00\x00'
>>> p = create_string_buffer(b"Hello")     # create a buffer containing a NUL terminated string
>>> print(sizeof(p), repr(p.raw))
6 b'Hello\x00'
>>> print(repr(p.value))
b'Hello'
>>> p = create_string_buffer(b"Hello", 10) # create a 10 byte buffer
>>> print(sizeof(p), repr(p.raw))
10 b'Hello\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
>>> p.value = b"Hi"
>>> print(sizeof(p), repr(p.raw))
10 b'Hi\x00lo\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
>>>

The create_string_buffer() function replaces the old c_buffer() function (which is still available as an alias). To create a mutable memory block containing unicode characters of the C type wchar_t, use the create_unicode_buffer() function.

Appel de fonctions, suite

printf utilise la vraie sortie standard, et non sys.stdout ; les exemples suivants ne fonctionnent donc que dans une invite de commande et non depuis IDLE or PythonWin :

>>> printf = libc.printf
>>> printf(b"Hello, %s\n", b"World!")
Hello, World!
14
>>> printf(b"Hello, %S\n", "World!")
Hello, World!
14
>>> printf(b"%d bottles of beer\n", 42)
42 bottles of beer
19
>>> printf(b"%f bottles of beer\n", 42.5)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
ctypes.ArgumentError: argument 2: TypeError: Don't know how to convert parameter 2
>>>

As has been mentioned before, all Python types except integers, strings, and bytes objects have to be wrapped in their corresponding ctypes type, so that they can be converted to the required C data type:

>>> printf(b"An int %d, a double %f\n", 1234, c_double(3.14))
An int 1234, a double 3.140000
31
>>>

Calling variadic functions

On a lot of platforms calling variadic functions through ctypes is exactly the same as calling functions with a fixed number of parameters. On some platforms, and in particular ARM64 for Apple Platforms, the calling convention for variadic functions is different than that for regular functions.

On those platforms it is required to specify the argtypes attribute for the regular, non-variadic, function arguments:

libc.printf.argtypes = [ctypes.c_char_p]

Because specifying the attribute does not inhibit portability it is advised to always specify argtypes for all variadic functions.

Appel de fonctions avec des types de données personnalisés

You can also customize ctypes argument conversion to allow instances of your own classes be used as function arguments. ctypes looks for an _as_parameter_ attribute and uses this as the function argument. The attribute must be an integer, string, bytes, a ctypes instance, or an object with an _as_parameter_ attribute:

>>> class Bottles:
...     def __init__(self, number):
...         self._as_parameter_ = number
...
>>> bottles = Bottles(42)
>>> printf(b"%d bottles of beer\n", bottles)
42 bottles of beer
19
>>>

If you don't want to store the instance's data in the _as_parameter_ instance variable, you could define a property which makes the attribute available on request.

Définition du type des arguments nécessaires (prototypes de fonction)

It is possible to specify the required argument types of functions exported from DLLs by setting the argtypes attribute.

argtypes must be a sequence of C data types (the printf() function is probably not a good example here, because it takes a variable number and different types of parameters depending on the format string, on the other hand this is quite handy to experiment with this feature):

>>> printf.argtypes = [c_char_p, c_char_p, c_int, c_double]
>>> printf(b"String '%s', Int %d, Double %f\n", b"Hi", 10, 2.2)
String 'Hi', Int 10, Double 2.200000
37
>>>

Définir un format empêche de passer des arguments de type incompatible (comme le fait le prototype d'une fonction C) et tente de convertir les arguments en des types valides :

>>> printf(b"%d %d %d", 1, 2, 3)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
ctypes.ArgumentError: argument 2: TypeError: 'int' object cannot be interpreted as ctypes.c_char_p
>>> printf(b"%s %d %f\n", b"X", 2, 3)
X 2 3.000000
13
>>>

If you have defined your own classes which you pass to function calls, you have to implement a from_param() class method for them to be able to use them in the argtypes sequence. The from_param() class method receives the Python object passed to the function call, it should do a typecheck or whatever is needed to make sure this object is acceptable, and then return the object itself, its _as_parameter_ attribute, or whatever you want to pass as the C function argument in this case. Again, the result should be an integer, string, bytes, a ctypes instance, or an object with an _as_parameter_ attribute.

Types de sortie

By default functions are assumed to return the C int type. Other return types can be specified by setting the restype attribute of the function object.

The C prototype of time() is time_t time(time_t *). Because time_t might be of a different type than the default return type int, you should specify the restype attribute:

>>> libc.time.restype = c_time_t

The argument types can be specified using argtypes:

>>> libc.time.argtypes = (POINTER(c_time_t),)

To call the function with a NULL pointer as first argument, use None:

>>> print(libc.time(None))
1150640792

Here is a more advanced example, it uses the strchr() function, which expects a string pointer and a char, and returns a pointer to a string:

>>> strchr = libc.strchr
>>> strchr(b"abcdef", ord("d"))
8059983
>>> strchr.restype = c_char_p    # c_char_p is a pointer to a string
>>> strchr(b"abcdef", ord("d"))
b'def'
>>> print(strchr(b"abcdef", ord("x")))
None
>>>

If you want to avoid the ord("x") calls above, you can set the argtypes attribute, and the second argument will be converted from a single character Python bytes object into a C char:

>>> strchr.restype = c_char_p
>>> strchr.argtypes = [c_char_p, c_char]
>>> strchr(b"abcdef", b"d")
b'def'
>>> strchr(b"abcdef", b"def")
Traceback (most recent call last):
ctypes.ArgumentError: argument 2: TypeError: one character bytes, bytearray or integer expected
>>> print(strchr(b"abcdef", b"x"))
None
>>> strchr(b"abcdef", b"d")
b'def'
>>>

You can also use a callable Python object (a function or a class for example) as the restype attribute, if the foreign function returns an integer. The callable will be called with the integer the C function returns, and the result of this call will be used as the result of your function call. This is useful to check for error return values and automatically raise an exception:

>>> GetModuleHandle = windll.kernel32.GetModuleHandleA
>>> def ValidHandle(value):
...     if value == 0:
...         raise WinError()
...     return value
...
>>>
>>> GetModuleHandle.restype = ValidHandle
>>> GetModuleHandle(None)
486539264
>>> GetModuleHandle("something silly")
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
  File "<stdin>", line 3, in ValidHandle
OSError: [Errno 126] The specified module could not be found.
>>>

WinError appelle l'API Windows FormatMessage() pour obtenir une représentation de la chaîne de caractères qui correspond au code d'erreur, et renvoie une exception. WinError prend en paramètre — optionnel — le code d'erreur. Si celui-ci n'est pas passé, elle appelle GetLastError() pour le récupérer.

Please note that a much more powerful error checking mechanism is available through the errcheck attribute; see the reference manual for details.

Passage de pointeurs (passage de paramètres par référence)

Il arrive qu'une fonction C du code à interfacer requière un pointeur vers un certain type de donnée en paramètre, typiquement pour écrire à l'endroit correspondant ou si la donnée est trop grande pour pouvoir être passée par valeur. Ce mécanisme est appelé passage de paramètres par référence.

ctypes exports the byref() function which is used to pass parameters by reference. The same effect can be achieved with the pointer() function, although pointer() does a lot more work since it constructs a real pointer object, so it is faster to use byref() if you don't need the pointer object in Python itself:

>>> i = c_int()
>>> f = c_float()
>>> s = create_string_buffer(b'\000' * 32)
>>> print(i.value, f.value, repr(s.value))
0 0.0 b''
>>> libc.sscanf(b"1 3.14 Hello", b"%d %f %s",
...             byref(i), byref(f), s)
3
>>> print(i.value, f.value, repr(s.value))
1 3.1400001049 b'Hello'
>>>

Structures et unions

Structures and unions must derive from the Structure and Union base classes which are defined in the ctypes module. Each subclass must define a _fields_ attribute. _fields_ must be a list of 2-tuples, containing a field name and a field type.

The field type must be a ctypes type like c_int, or any other derived ctypes type: structure, union, array, pointer.

Voici un exemple simple : une structure POINT qui contient deux entiers x et y et qui montre également comment instancier une structure avec le constructeur :

>>> from ctypes import *
>>> class POINT(Structure):
...     _fields_ = [("x", c_int),
...                 ("y", c_int)]
...
>>> point = POINT(10, 20)
>>> print(point.x, point.y)
10 20
>>> point = POINT(y=5)
>>> print(point.x, point.y)
0 5
>>> POINT(1, 2, 3)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: too many initializers
>>>

Il est bien entendu possible de créer des structures plus complexes. Une structure peut elle-même contenir d'autres structures en prenant une structure comme type de champ.

Voici une structure RECT qui contient deux POINTs upperleft et lowerright :

>>> class RECT(Structure):
...     _fields_ = [("upperleft", POINT),
...                 ("lowerright", POINT)]
...
>>> rc = RECT(point)
>>> print(rc.upperleft.x, rc.upperleft.y)
0 5
>>> print(rc.lowerright.x, rc.lowerright.y)
0 0
>>>

Une structure encapsulée peut être instanciée par un constructeur de plusieurs façons :

>>> r = RECT(POINT(1, 2), POINT(3, 4))
>>> r = RECT((1, 2), (3, 4))

Field descriptors can be retrieved from the class, they are useful for debugging because they can provide useful information. See CField:

>>> POINT.x
<ctypes.CField 'x' type=c_int, ofs=0, size=4>
>>> POINT.y
<ctypes.CField 'y' type=c_int, ofs=4, size=4>
>>>

Avertissement

ctypes does not support passing unions or structures with bit-fields to functions by value. While this may work on 32-bit x86, it's not guaranteed by the library to work in the general case. Unions and structures with bit-fields should always be passed to functions by pointer.

Structure/union layout, alignment and byte order

By default, Structure and Union fields are laid out in the same way the C compiler does it. It is possible to override this behavior entirely by specifying a _layout_ class attribute in the subclass definition; see the attribute documentation for details.

It is possible to specify the maximum alignment for the fields and/or for the structure itself by setting the class attributes _pack_ and/or _align_, respectively. See the attribute documentation for details.

ctypes uses the native byte order for Structures and Unions. To build structures with non-native byte order, you can use one of the BigEndianStructure, LittleEndianStructure, BigEndianUnion, and LittleEndianUnion base classes. These classes cannot contain pointer fields.

Champs de bits dans les structures et les unions

It is possible to create structures and unions containing bit fields. Bit fields are only possible for integer fields, the bit width is specified as the third item in the _fields_ tuples:

>>> class Int(Structure):
...     _fields_ = [("first_16", c_int, 16),
...                 ("second_16", c_int, 16)]
...
>>> print(Int.first_16)
<ctypes.CField 'first_16' type=c_int, ofs=0, bit_size=16, bit_offset=0>
>>> print(Int.second_16)
<ctypes.CField 'second_16' type=c_int, ofs=0, bit_size=16, bit_offset=16>

It is important to note that bit field allocation and layout in memory are not defined as a C standard; their implementation is compiler-specific. By default, Python will attempt to match the behavior of a "native" compiler for the current platform. See the _layout_ attribute for details on the default behavior and how to change it.

Tableaux

Les tableaux sont des séquences qui contiennent un nombre fixe d'instances du même type.

La meilleure façon de créer des tableaux consiste à multiplier le type de donnée par un entier positif :

TenPointsArrayType = POINT * 10

Voici un exemple — un peu artificiel — d'une structure contenant, entre autres, 4 POINTs :

>>> from ctypes import *
>>> class POINT(Structure):
...     _fields_ = ("x", c_int), ("y", c_int)
...
>>> class MyStruct(Structure):
...     _fields_ = [("a", c_int),
...                 ("b", c_float),
...                 ("point_array", POINT * 4)]
>>>
>>> print(len(MyStruct().point_array))
4
>>>

Comme d'habitude, on crée les instances en appelant la classe :

arr = TenPointsArrayType()
for pt in arr:
    print(pt.x, pt.y)

Le code précédent affiche une suite de 0 0 car le contenu du tableau est initialisé avec des zéros.

Des valeurs d'initialisation du bon type peuvent être passées :

>>> from ctypes import *
>>> TenIntegers = c_int * 10
>>> ii = TenIntegers(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10)
>>> print(ii)
<c_long_Array_10 object at 0x...>
>>> for i in ii: print(i, end=" ")
...
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
>>>

Pointeurs

Pointer instances are created by calling the pointer() function on a ctypes type:

>>> from ctypes import *
>>> i = c_int(42)
>>> pi = pointer(i)
>>>

Les instances de pointeurs ont un attribut contents qui renvoie l'objet pointé (l'objet i ci-dessus) :

>>> pi.contents
c_long(42)
>>>

Note that ctypes does not have OOR (original object return), it constructs a new, equivalent object each time you retrieve an attribute:

>>> pi.contents is i
False
>>> pi.contents is pi.contents
False
>>>

Affecter une autre instance de c_int à l'attribut contents du pointeur fait pointer le pointeur vers l'adresse mémoire de cette nouvelle instance :

>>> i = c_int(99)
>>> pi.contents = i
>>> pi.contents
c_long(99)
>>>

Il est possible d'indexer les pointeurs par des entiers :

>>> pi[0]
99
>>>

Affecter à travers un indice change la valeur pointée :

>>> print(i)
c_long(99)
>>> pi[0] = 22
>>> print(i)
c_long(22)
>>>

Si vous êtes sûr de vous, vous pouvez utiliser d'autres valeurs que 0, comme en C : il est ainsi possible de modifier une zone mémoire de votre choix. De manière générale cette fonctionnalité ne s'utilise que sur un pointeur renvoyé par une fonction C, pointeur que vous savez pointer vers un tableau et non sur un seul élément.

Behind the scenes, the pointer() function does more than simply create pointer instances, it has to create pointer types first. This is done with the POINTER() function, which accepts any ctypes type, and returns a new type:

>>> PI = POINTER(c_int)
>>> PI
<class 'ctypes.LP_c_long'>
>>> PI(42)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: expected c_long instead of int
>>> PI(c_int(42))
<ctypes.LP_c_long object at 0x...>
>>>

Appeler le pointeur sur type sans arguments crée un pointeur NULL. Les pointeurs NULL s'évaluent à False :

>>> null_ptr = POINTER(c_int)()
>>> print(bool(null_ptr))
False
>>>

ctypes checks for NULL when dereferencing pointers (but dereferencing invalid non-NULL pointers would crash Python):

>>> null_ptr[0]
Traceback (most recent call last):
    ....
ValueError: NULL pointer access
>>>

>>> null_ptr[0] = 1234
Traceback (most recent call last):
    ....
ValueError: NULL pointer access
>>>

Thread safety without the GIL

From Python 3.13 onward, the GIL can be disabled on the free-threaded build. In ctypes, reads and writes to a single object concurrently is safe, but not across multiple objects:

>>> number = c_int(42)
>>> pointer_a = pointer(number)
>>> pointer_b = pointer(number)

In the above, it's only safe for one object to read and write to the address at once if the GIL is disabled. So, pointer_a can be shared and written to across multiple threads, but only if pointer_b is not also attempting to do the same. If this is an issue, consider using a threading.Lock to synchronize access to memory:

>>> import threading
>>> lock = threading.Lock()
>>> # Thread 1
>>> with lock:
...    pointer_a.contents = 24
>>> # Thread 2
>>> with lock:
...    pointer_b.contents = 42

Conversions de type

Usually, ctypes does strict type checking. This means, if you have POINTER(c_int) in the argtypes list of a function or as the type of a member field in a structure definition, only instances of exactly the same type are accepted. There are some exceptions to this rule, where ctypes accepts other objects. For example, you can pass compatible array instances instead of pointer types. So, for POINTER(c_int), ctypes accepts an array of c_int:

>>> class Bar(Structure):
...     _fields_ = [("count", c_int), ("values", POINTER(c_int))]
...
>>> bar = Bar()
>>> bar.values = (c_int * 3)(1, 2, 3)
>>> bar.count = 3
>>> for i in range(bar.count):
...     print(bar.values[i])
...
1
2
3
>>>

In addition, if a function argument is explicitly declared to be a pointer type (such as POINTER(c_int)) in argtypes, an object of the pointed type (c_int in this case) can be passed to the function. ctypes will apply the required byref() conversion in this case automatically.

Pour mettre un champ de type POINTER à NULL, il faut lui affecter None :

>>> bar.values = None
>>>

Sometimes you have instances of incompatible types. In C, you can cast one type into another type. ctypes provides a cast() function which can be used in the same way. The Bar structure defined above accepts POINTER(c_int) pointers or c_int arrays for its values field, but not instances of other types:

>>> bar.values = (c_byte * 4)()
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: incompatible types, c_byte_Array_4 instance instead of LP_c_long instance
>>>

C'est là que la fonction cast() intervient.

La fonction cast() permet de convertir une instance de ctypes en un pointeur vers un type de données ctypes différent. cast() prend deux paramètres : un objet ctypes qui est, ou qui peut être converti en, un certain pointeur et un type pointeur de ctypes. Elle renvoie une instance du second argument, qui pointe sur le même bloc mémoire que le premier argument :

>>> a = (c_byte * 4)()
>>> cast(a, POINTER(c_int))
<ctypes.LP_c_long object at ...>
>>>

Ainsi, la fonction cast() permet de remplir le champ values de la structure Bar :

>>> bar = Bar()
>>> bar.values = cast((c_byte * 4)(), POINTER(c_int))
>>> print(bar.values[0])
0
>>>

Types incomplets

Un type incomplet est une structure, une union ou un tableau dont les membres ne sont pas encore définis. C'est l'équivalent d'une déclaration avancée en C, où la définition est fournie plus tard :

struct cell; /* forward declaration */

struct cell {
    char *name;
    struct cell *next;
};

Une traduction naïve, mais invalide, en code ctypes ressemblerait à ça :

>>> class cell(Structure):
...     _fields_ = [("name", c_char_p),
...                 ("next", POINTER(cell))]
...
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
  File "<stdin>", line 2, in cell
NameError: name 'cell' is not defined
>>>

because the new class cell is not available in the class statement itself. In ctypes, we can define the cell class and set the _fields_ attribute later, after the class statement:

>>> from ctypes import *
>>> class cell(Structure):
...     pass
...
>>> cell._fields_ = [("name", c_char_p),
...                  ("next", POINTER(cell))]
>>>

Essayons. Nous créons deux instances de cell, les faisons pointer l'une sur l'autre et enfin nous suivons quelques maillons de la chaîne de pointeurs :

>>> c1 = cell()
>>> c1.name = b"foo"
>>> c2 = cell()
>>> c2.name = b"bar"
>>> c1.next = pointer(c2)
>>> c2.next = pointer(c1)
>>> p = c1
>>> for i in range(8):
...     print(p.name, end=" ")
...     p = p.next[0]
...
foo bar foo bar foo bar foo bar
>>>

Fonctions de rappel

ctypes allows creating C callable function pointers from Python callables. These are sometimes called callback functions.

Tout d'abord, il faut créer une classe pour la fonction de rappel. La classe connaît la convention d'appel, le type de retour ainsi que le nombre et le type de paramètres que la fonction accepte.

La fabrique CFUNCTYPE() crée un type pour les fonctions de rappel qui suivent la convention d'appel cdecl. En Windows, c'est la fabrique WINFUNCTYPE() qui crée un type pour les fonctions de rappel qui suivent la convention d'appel stdcall.

Le premier paramètre de ces deux fonctions est le type de retour, et les suivants sont les types des arguments qu'attend la fonction de rappel.

I will present an example here which uses the standard C library's qsort() function, that is used to sort items with the help of a callback function. qsort() will be used to sort an array of integers:

>>> IntArray5 = c_int * 5
>>> ia = IntArray5(5, 1, 7, 33, 99)
>>> qsort = libc.qsort
>>> qsort.restype = None
>>>

qsort() must be called with a pointer to the data to sort, the number of items in the data array, the size of one item, and a pointer to the comparison function, the callback. The callback will then be called with two pointers to items, and it must return a negative integer if the first item is smaller than the second, a zero if they are equal, and a positive integer otherwise.

Ainsi notre fonction de rappel reçoit des pointeurs vers des entiers et doit renvoyer un entier. Créons d'abord le type pour la fonction de rappel :

>>> CMPFUNC = CFUNCTYPE(c_int, POINTER(c_int), POINTER(c_int))
>>>

Pour commencer, voici une fonction de rappel simple qui affiche les valeurs qu'on lui passe :

>>> def py_cmp_func(a, b):
...     print("py_cmp_func", a[0], b[0])
...     return 0
...
>>> cmp_func = CMPFUNC(py_cmp_func)
>>>

Résultat :

>>> qsort(ia, len(ia), sizeof(c_int), cmp_func)
py_cmp_func 5 1
py_cmp_func 33 99
py_cmp_func 7 33
py_cmp_func 5 7
py_cmp_func 1 7
>>>

À présent, comparons pour de vrai les deux entiers et renvoyons un résultat utile :

>>> def py_cmp_func(a, b):
...     print("py_cmp_func", a[0], b[0])
...     return a[0] - b[0]
...
>>>
>>> qsort(ia, len(ia), sizeof(c_int), CMPFUNC(py_cmp_func))
py_cmp_func 5 1
py_cmp_func 33 99
py_cmp_func 7 33
py_cmp_func 1 7
py_cmp_func 5 7
>>>

Et comme il est facile de le voir, notre tableau est désormais classé :

>>> for i in ia: print(i, end=" ")
...
1 5 7 33 99
>>>

Ces fonctions peuvent aussi être utilisées comme des décorateurs ; il est donc possible d'écrire :

>>> @CFUNCTYPE(c_int, POINTER(c_int), POINTER(c_int))
... def py_cmp_func(a, b):
...     print("py_cmp_func", a[0], b[0])
...     return a[0] - b[0]
...
>>> qsort(ia, len(ia), sizeof(c_int), py_cmp_func)
py_cmp_func 5 1
py_cmp_func 33 99
py_cmp_func 7 33
py_cmp_func 1 7
py_cmp_func 5 7
>>>

Note

Make sure you keep references to CFUNCTYPE() objects as long as they are used from C code. ctypes doesn't, and if you don't, they may be garbage collected, crashing your program when a callback is made.

Notez aussi que si la fonction de rappel est appelée dans un fil d'exécution créé hors de Python (p. ex. par du code externe qui appelle la fonction de rappel), ctypes crée un nouveau fil Python « creux » à chaque fois. Ce comportement est acceptable pour la plupart des cas d'utilisation, mais cela implique que les valeurs stockées avec threading.local ne seront pas persistantes d'un appel à l'autre, même si les appels proviennent du même fil d'exécution C.

Accès aux variables exportées depuis une DLL

Some shared libraries not only export functions, they also export variables. An example in the Python library itself is the Py_Version, Python runtime version number encoded in a single constant integer.

ctypes can access values like this with the in_dll() class methods of the type. pythonapi is a predefined symbol giving access to the Python C api:

>>> version = ctypes.c_int.in_dll(ctypes.pythonapi, "Py_Version")
>>> print(hex(version.value))
0x30c00a0

Le pointeur PyImport_FrozenModules exposé par Python est un autre exemple complet de l'utilisation de pointeurs.

Citons la documentation :

This pointer is initialized to point to an array of _frozen records, terminated by one whose members are all NULL or zero. When a frozen module is imported, it is searched in this table. Third-party code could play tricks with this to provide a dynamically created collection of frozen modules.

So manipulating this pointer could even prove useful. To restrict the example size, we show only how this table can be read with ctypes:

>>> from ctypes import *
>>>
>>> class struct_frozen(Structure):
...     _fields_ = [("name", c_char_p),
...                 ("code", POINTER(c_ubyte)),
...                 ("size", c_int),
...                 ("get_code", POINTER(c_ubyte)),  # Function pointer
...                ]
...
>>>

We have defined the _frozen data type, so we can get the pointer to the table:

>>> FrozenTable = POINTER(struct_frozen)
>>> table = FrozenTable.in_dll(pythonapi, "_PyImport_FrozenBootstrap")
>>>

Puisque table est un pointer vers un tableau d'entrées de struct_frozen, il est possible d'itérer dessus, mais il faut être certain que la boucle se termine, car les pointeurs n'ont pas de taille. Tôt ou tard, il planterait probablement avec une erreur de segmentation ou autre, donc mieux vaut sortir de la boucle quand on lit l'entrée NULL :

>>> for item in table:
...     if item.name is None:
...         break
...     print(item.name.decode("ascii"), item.size)
...
_frozen_importlib 31764
_frozen_importlib_external 41499
zipimport 12345
>>>

Le fait que le standard Python possède un module et un paquet figés (indiqués par la valeur négative du membre size) est peu connu, cela ne sert qu'aux tests. Essayez avec import __hello__ par exemple.

Pièges

There are some edges in ctypes where you might expect something other than what actually happens.

Examinons l'exemple suivant :

>>> from ctypes import *
>>> class POINT(Structure):
...     _fields_ = ("x", c_int), ("y", c_int)
...
>>> class RECT(Structure):
...     _fields_ = ("a", POINT), ("b", POINT)
...
>>> p1 = POINT(1, 2)
>>> p2 = POINT(3, 4)
>>> rc = RECT(p1, p2)
>>> print(rc.a.x, rc.a.y, rc.b.x, rc.b.y)
1 2 3 4
>>> # now swap the two points
>>> rc.a, rc.b = rc.b, rc.a
>>> print(rc.a.x, rc.a.y, rc.b.x, rc.b.y)
3 4 3 4
>>>

Diantre. On s'attendait certainement à ce que le dernier résultat affiche 3 4 1 2. Que s'est-il passé ? Les étapes de la ligne rc.a, rc.b = rc.b, rc.a ci-dessus sont les suivantes :

>>> temp0, temp1 = rc.b, rc.a
>>> rc.a = temp0
>>> rc.b = temp1
>>>

Les objets temp0 et temp1 utilisent encore le tampon interne de l'objet rc ci-dessus. Donc exécuter rc.a = temp0 copie le contenu du tampon de temp0 dans celui de rc. Ce qui, par ricochet, modifie le contenu de temp1. Et donc, la dernière affectation, rc.b = temp1, n'a pas l'effet escompté.

Gardez en tête qu'accéder au sous-objet depuis une Structure, une Union ou un Array ne copie pas le sous-objet, mais crée un objet interface qui accède au tampon sous-jacent de l'objet initial.

Un autre exemple de comportement a priori inattendu est le suivant :

>>> s = c_char_p()
>>> s.value = b"abc def ghi"
>>> s.value
b'abc def ghi'
>>> s.value is s.value
False
>>>

Note

La valeur d'une instance de c_char_p ne peut être initialisée qu'avec un octet ou un entier.

Pourquoi cela affiche-t'il False ? Les instances ctypes sont des objets qui contiennent un bloc mémoire et des descriptor qui donnent accès au contenu du ce bloc. Stocker un objet Python dans le bloc mémoire ne stocke pas l'objet même ; seuls ses contents le sont. Accéder au contents crée un nouvel objet Python à chaque fois !

Types de données à taille flottante

ctypes provides some support for variable-sized arrays and structures.

La fonction resize() permet de redimensionner la taille du tampon mémoire d'un objet ctypes existant. Cette fonction prend l'objet comme premier argument et la taille en octets désirée comme second. La taille du tampon mémoire ne peut pas être inférieure à celle occupée par un objet unitaire du type considéré. Une ValueError est levée si c'est le cas :

>>> short_array = (c_short * 4)()
>>> print(sizeof(short_array))
8
>>> resize(short_array, 4)
Traceback (most recent call last):
    ...
ValueError: minimum size is 8
>>> resize(short_array, 32)
>>> sizeof(short_array)
32
>>> sizeof(type(short_array))
8
>>>

Cela dit, comment accéder aux éléments supplémentaires contenus dans le tableau ? Vu que le type ne connaît que 4 éléments, on obtient une erreur si l'on accède aux suivants :

>>> short_array[:]
[0, 0, 0, 0]
>>> short_array[7]
Traceback (most recent call last):
    ...
IndexError: invalid index
>>>

Another way to use variable-sized data types with ctypes is to use the dynamic nature of Python, and (re-)define the data type after the required size is already known, on a case by case basis.

Référence du module

Recherche de bibliothèques partagées

Les langages compilés ont besoin d'accéder aux bibliothèques partagées au moment de la compilation, de l'édition de liens et pendant l'exécution du programme.

The purpose of the find_library() function is to locate a library in a way similar to what the compiler or runtime loader does (on platforms with several versions of a shared library the most recent should be loaded), while the ctypes library loaders act like when a program is run, and call the runtime loader directly.

The ctypes.util module provides a function which can help to determine the library to load.

ctypes.util.find_library(name)

Tente de trouver une bibliothèque et en renvoie le chemin. name est le nom de la bibliothèque sans préfixe — comme lib — ni suffixe — comme .so, .dylib ou un numéro de version (c.-à-d. la même forme que l'option POSIX de l'éditeur de lien -l). Si la fonction ne parvient pas à trouver de bibliothèque, elle renvoie None.

Le mode opératoire exact dépend du système.

On Linux, find_library() tries to run external programs (/sbin/ldconfig, gcc, objdump and ld) to find the library file. It returns the filename of the library file.

Note that if the output of these programs does not correspond to the dynamic linker used by Python, the result of this function may be misleading.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Sous Linux, si les autres moyens échouent, la fonction utilise la variable d'environnement LD_LIBRARY_PATH pour trouver la bibliothèque.

Voici quelques exemples :

>>> from ctypes.util import find_library
>>> find_library("m")
'libm.so.6'
>>> find_library("c")
'libc.so.6'
>>> find_library("bz2")
'libbz2.so.1.0'
>>>

On macOS and Android, find_library() uses the system's standard naming schemes and paths to locate the library, and returns a full pathname if successful:

>>> from ctypes.util import find_library
>>> find_library("c")
'/usr/lib/libc.dylib'
>>> find_library("m")
'/usr/lib/libm.dylib'
>>> find_library("bz2")
'/usr/lib/libbz2.dylib'
>>> find_library("AGL")
'/System/Library/Frameworks/AGL.framework/AGL'
>>>

On Windows, find_library() searches along the system search path, and returns the full pathname, but since there is no predefined naming scheme a call like find_library("c") will fail and return None.

If wrapping a shared library with ctypes, it may be better to determine the shared library name at development time, and hardcode that into the wrapper module instead of using find_library() to locate the library at runtime.

Listing loaded shared libraries

When writing code that relies on code loaded from shared libraries, it can be useful to know which shared libraries have already been loaded into the current process.

The ctypes.util module provides the dllist() function, which calls the different APIs provided by the various platforms to help determine which shared libraries have already been loaded into the current process.

The exact output of this function will be system dependent. On most platforms, the first entry of this list represents the current process itself, which may be an empty string. For example, on glibc-based Linux, the return may look like:

>>> from ctypes.util import dllist
>>> dllist()
['', 'linux-vdso.so.1', '/lib/x86_64-linux-gnu/libm.so.6', '/lib/x86_64-linux-gnu/libc.so.6', ... ]

Chargement des bibliothèques partagées

There are several ways to load shared libraries into the Python process. One way is to instantiate CDLL or one of its subclasses:

class ctypes.CDLL(name, mode=DEFAULT_MODE, handle=None, use_errno=False, use_last_error=False, winmode=None)

Represents a loaded shared library.

Functions in this library use the standard C calling convention, and are assumed to return int. The Python global interpreter lock is released before calling any function exported by these libraries, and reacquired afterwards. For different function behavior, use a subclass: OleDLL, WinDLL, or PyDLL.

If you have an existing handle to an already loaded shared library, it can be passed as the handle argument to wrap the opened library in a new CDLL object. In this case, name is only used to set the _name attribute, but it may be adjusted and/or validated.

If handle is None, the underlying platform's dlopen(3) [https://manpages.debian.org/dlopen(3)] or LoadLibrary() function is used to load the library into the process, and to get a handle to it.

name is the pathname of the shared library to open. If name does not contain a path separator, the library is found in a platform-specific way.

On non-Windows systems, name can be None. In this case, dlopen() is called with NULL, which opens the main program as a "library". (Some systems do the same is name is empty; None/NULL is more portable.)

CPython implementation detail

Since CPython is linked to libc, a None name is often used to access the C standard library:

>>> printf = ctypes.CDLL(None).printf
>>> printf.argtypes = [ctypes.c_char_p]
>>> printf(b"hello\n")
hello
6

To access the Python C API, prefer ctypes.pythonapi which works across platforms.

Le mode de chargement de la bibliothèque est défini par le paramètre mode. Pour plus de détails, référez-vous à l'entrée dlopen(3) [https://manpages.debian.org/dlopen(3)] du manuel. En Windows, mode est ignoré. Sur les systèmes POSIX, RTLD_NOW y est toujours ajouté. Ceci n'est pas configurable.

The use_errno parameter, when set to true, enables a ctypes mechanism that allows accessing the system errno error number in a safe way. ctypes maintains a thread-local copy of the system's errno variable; if you call foreign functions created with use_errno=True then the errno value before the function call is swapped with the ctypes private copy, the same happens immediately after the function call.

La fonction ctypes.get_errno() renvoie la valeur de la copie privée de ctypes. La fonction ctypes.set_errno() affecte une nouvelle valeur à la copie privée et renvoie l'ancienne valeur.

The use_last_error parameter, when set to true, enables the same mechanism for the Windows error code which is managed by the GetLastError() and SetLastError() Windows API functions; ctypes.get_last_error() and ctypes.set_last_error() are used to request and change the ctypes private copy of the windows error code.

The winmode parameter is used on Windows to specify how the library is loaded (since mode is ignored). It takes any value that is valid for the Win32 API LoadLibraryEx flags parameter. When omitted, the default is to use the flags that result in the most secure DLL load, which avoids issues such as DLL hijacking. Passing the full path to the DLL is the safest way to ensure the correct library and dependencies are loaded.

En Windows, créer une instance de CDLL peut échouer, même si une DLL du bon nom existe. Quand une des dépendances de la DLL à charger ne peut pas être trouvée, une OSError est levée avec le message "[WinError 126] The specified module could not be found". Ce message d'erreur ne contient pas le nom de la DLL manquante car l'API Windows ne fournit pas cette information. Cela rend l'erreur délicate à analyser ; pour la résoudre, il faut lister toutes les dépendances de la DLL et trouver celle qui manque en utilisant des outils de débogage et de traçage Windows.

Voir aussi

Microsoft DUMPBIN tool [https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/cpp/build/reference/dumpbin-reference?view=msvc-170] -- A tool to find DLL dependents.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Ajout du paramètre winmode.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: The name parameter can now be a path-like object.

Instances of this class have no public methods. Functions exported by the shared library can be accessed as attributes or by index. Please note that accessing the function through an attribute caches the result and therefore accessing it repeatedly returns the same object each time. On the other hand, accessing it through an index returns a new object each time:

>>> from ctypes import CDLL
>>> libc = CDLL("libc.so.6")  # On Linux
>>> libc.time == libc.time
True
>>> libc['time'] == libc['time']
False

The following public attributes are available. Their name starts with an underscore to not clash with exported function names:

_handle

Le lien système d'accès à la bibliothèque.

_name

Nom de la bibliothèque donné au constructeur.

class ctypes.OleDLL

See CDLL, the superclass, for common information.

Functions in this library use the stdcall calling convention, and are assumed to return the windows specific HRESULT code. HRESULT values contain information specifying whether the function call failed or succeeded, together with additional error code. If the return value signals a failure, an OSError is automatically raised.

Disponibilité: Windows

Modifié dans la version 3.3: WindowsError used to be raised, which is now an alias of OSError.

class ctypes.WinDLL

See CDLL, the superclass, for common information.

Functions in these libraries use the stdcall calling convention, and are assumed to return int by default.

Disponibilité: Windows

class ctypes.PyDLL

See CDLL, the superclass, for common information.

When functions in this library are called, the Python GIL is not released during the function call, and after the function execution the Python error flag is checked. If the error flag is set, a Python exception is raised.

Thus, this is only useful to call Python C API functions directly.

ctypes.RTLD_GLOBAL

Valeur possible pour le paramètre mode. Vaut zéro sur les plates-formes où ce drapeau n'est pas disponible.

ctypes.RTLD_LOCAL

Valeur possible pour le paramètre mode. Vaut RTLD_GLOBAL sur les plates-formes où ce drapeau n'est pas disponible.

ctypes.DEFAULT_MODE

Mode de chargement par défaut des bibliothèques partagées. Vaut RTLD_GLOBAL sur OSX 10.3 et RTLD_LOCAL sur les autres systèmes d'exploitation.

Shared libraries can also be loaded by using one of the prefabricated objects, which are instances of the LibraryLoader class, either by calling the LoadLibrary() method, or by retrieving the library as attribute of the loader instance.

class ctypes.LibraryLoader(dlltype)

Classe pour charger une bibliothèque partagée. dlltype doit être de type CDLL, PyDLL, WinDLL ou OleDLL.

__getattr__() has special behavior: It allows loading a shared library by accessing it as attribute of a library loader instance. The result is cached, so repeated attribute accesses return the same library each time.

LoadLibrary(name)

Charge une bibliothèque partagée dans le processus et la renvoie. Cette méthode renvoie toujours une nouvelle instance de la bibliothèque.

Plusieurs chargeurs sont fournis :

ctypes.cdll

Pour créer des instances de CDLL.

ctypes.windll

Creates WinDLL instances.

Disponibilité: Windows

ctypes.oledll

Creates OleDLL instances.

Disponibilité: Windows

ctypes.pydll

Pour créer des instances de PyDLL.

Il existe un moyen rapide d'accéder directement à l'API C Python :

ctypes.pythonapi

An instance of PyDLL that exposes Python C API functions as attributes. Note that all these functions are assumed to return C int, which is of course not always the truth, so you have to assign the correct restype attribute to use these functions.

Charger une bibliothèque à l'aide d'un de ces objets avec en argument name, le nom de la bibliothèque (une chaîne de caractères), lève un évènement d'audit ctypes.dlopen.

Accéder à une fonction d'une bibliothèque lève un évènement d'audit ctypes.dlsym avec library (l'objet bibliothèque) et name (le nom du symbole — une chaîne de caractères ou un entier) comme arguments.

Si seul le lien sur la bibliothèque, et non l'objet, est disponible, accéder à une fonction lève l'évènement d'audit ctypes.dlsym/handle avec handle (le lien vers la bibliothèque) et name comme arguments.

Fonctions externes

As explained in the previous section, foreign functions can be accessed as attributes of loaded shared libraries. The function objects created in this way by default accept any number of arguments, accept any ctypes data instances as arguments, and return the default result type specified by the library loader.

They are instances of a private local class _FuncPtr (not exposed in ctypes) which inherits from the private _CFuncPtr class:

>>> import ctypes
>>> lib = ctypes.CDLL(None)
>>> issubclass(lib._FuncPtr, ctypes._CFuncPtr)
True
>>> lib._FuncPtr is ctypes._CFuncPtr
False

class ctypes._CFuncPtr

Classe de base pour les fonctions externes C.

Une instance de fonction externe est également un type de donnée compatible avec le C ; elle représente un pointeur vers une fonction.

Son comportement peut-être personnalisé en réaffectant les attributs spécifiques de l'objet représentant la fonction externe.

restype

Assign a ctypes type to specify the result type of the foreign function. Use None for void, a function not returning anything.

It is possible to assign a callable Python object that is not a ctypes type, in this case the function is assumed to return a C int, and the callable will be called with this integer, allowing further processing or error checking. Using this is deprecated, for more flexible post processing or error checking use a ctypes data type as restype and assign a callable to the errcheck attribute.

argtypes

Fait correspondre le type des arguments que la fonction accepte avec un n-uplet de types ctypes. Les fonctions qui utilisent la convention d'appel stdcall ne peuvent être appelées qu'avec le même nombre d'arguments que la taille du n-uplet mais les fonctions qui utilisent la convention d'appel C acceptent aussi des arguments additionnels non-définis.

When a foreign function is called, each actual argument is passed to the from_param() class method of the items in the argtypes tuple, this method allows adapting the actual argument to an object that the foreign function accepts. For example, a c_char_p item in the argtypes tuple will convert a string passed as argument into a bytes object using ctypes conversion rules.

New: It is now possible to put items in argtypes which are not ctypes types, but each item must have a from_param() method which returns a value usable as argument (integer, string, ctypes instance). This allows defining adapters that can adapt custom objects as function parameters.

errcheck

Définit une fonction Python ou tout autre appelable qui sera appelé avec trois arguments ou plus :

callable(result, func, arguments)

result is what the foreign function returns, as specified by the restype attribute.

func est l'objet représentant la fonction externe elle-même. Cet accesseur permet de réutiliser le même appelable pour vérifier le résultat de plusieurs fonctions ou de faire des actions supplémentaires après leur exécution.

arguments est le n-uplet qui contient les paramètres initiaux passés à la fonction, ceci permet de spécialiser le comportement des arguments utilisés.

L'objet renvoyé par cette fonction est celui renvoyé par l'appel de la fonction externe, mais il peut aussi vérifier la valeur du résultat et lever une exception si l'appel a échoué.

On Windows, when a foreign function call raises a system exception (for example, due to an access violation), it will be captured and replaced with a suitable Python exception. Further, an auditing event ctypes.set_exception with argument code will be raised, allowing an audit hook to replace the exception with its own.

Some ways to invoke foreign function calls as well as some of the functions in this module may raise an auditing event ctypes.call_function with arguments function pointer and arguments.

Prototypes de fonction

Il est aussi possible de créer des fonctions externes en instanciant des prototypes de fonction. Les prototypes de fonction ressemblent beaucoup aux prototypes de fonctions en C ; ils décrivent une fonction (type de retour, type des arguments, convention d'appel) sans préciser son implémentation. Les fabriques de fonctions prennent en entrée le type de retour et le type des arguments de la fonction, et peuvent être utilisées comme des décorateurs-fabrique et ainsi s'appliquer à des fonctions avec la syntaxe @décorateur. Ceci est illustré dans la section Fonctions de rappel.

ctypes.CFUNCTYPE(restype, *argtypes, use_errno=False, use_last_error=False)

Renvoie un prototype de fonction qui crée des fonctions qui suivent la convention d'appel standard C. Les fonctions libèreront le GIL lors de leur exécution. Si use_errno est vrai, la copie privée ctypes de la variable système errno est échangée avec la vraie valeur de errno avant et après l'appel ; use_last_error a le même effet sous Windows.

ctypes.WINFUNCTYPE(restype, *argtypes, use_errno=False, use_last_error=False)

The returned function prototype creates functions that use the stdcall calling convention. The function will release the GIL during the call. use_errno and use_last_error have the same meaning as above.

Disponibilité: Windows

ctypes.PYFUNCTYPE(restype, *argtypes)

Renvoie un prototype de fonction qui crée des fonctions qui suivent la convention d'appel Python. Les fonctions ne libèreront pas le GIL lors de leur exécution.

Il y a plusieurs façons d'instancier les prototypes de fonction créés par ces fabriques, selon le type et le nombre de paramètres de l'appel :

prototype(address)

Renvoie une fonction externe sur l'adresse donnée sous la forme d'un entier.

prototype(callable)

Crée une fonction appelable depuis du code C (une fonction de rappel) d'un appelable Python donné en paramètre.

prototype(func_spec[, paramflags])

Renvoie une fonction externe exposée par une bibliothèque partagée. func_spec est un couple (nom_ou_indice, bibliothèque). Le premier élément est le nom de la fonction à passer comme une chaîne ou bien son indice (dans la table des symboles) à passer comme un entier. Le second élément est l'instance de la bibliothèque partagée.

prototype(vtbl_index, name[, paramflags[, iid]])

Renvoie une fonction qui appelle une méthode COM. vtbl_index est l'indice de la fonction dans la table virtuelle, un petit entier positif. name est le nom de la méthode COM. iid est un pointeur optionnel vers l'identificateur de plateforme, qui est utilisé dans la remontée d'erreurs étendue.

If iid is not specified, an OSError is raised if the COM method call fails. If iid is specified, a COMError is raised instead.

COM methods use a special calling convention: They require a pointer to the COM interface as first argument, in addition to those parameters that are specified in the argtypes tuple.

Disponibilité: Windows

Le paramètre optionnel paramflags crée une fabrique de fonction externes avec des fonctionnalités supplémentaires par rapport à celles décrites ci-dessus.

paramflags must be a tuple of the same length as argtypes.

Chaque élément de ce n-uplet contient des informations supplémentaires sur le paramètre correspondant. Ce doit être aussi un n-uplet, avec un, deux ou trois éléments.

Le premier élément est un entier qui contient une combinaison de drapeaux qui précisent le sens des paramètres (entrée ou sortie) :

1

Paramètre d'entrée.

2

Paramètre de sortie. La fonction externe va modifier cette valeur.

4

Paramètre d'entrée, valant 0 par défaut.

Le deuxième élément (optionnel) est une chaîne de caractères représentant le nom du paramètre. Si cet élément est donné, la fonction externe pourra être appelée avec des paramètres nommés.

Le troisième élément (optionnel) est la valeur par défaut du paramètre.

The following example demonstrates how to wrap the Windows MessageBoxW function so that it supports default parameters and named arguments. The C declaration from the windows header file is this:

WINUSERAPI int WINAPI
MessageBoxW(
    HWND hWnd,
    LPCWSTR lpText,
    LPCWSTR lpCaption,
    UINT uType);

Here is the wrapping with ctypes:

>>> from ctypes import c_int, WINFUNCTYPE, windll
>>> from ctypes.wintypes import HWND, LPCWSTR, UINT
>>> prototype = WINFUNCTYPE(c_int, HWND, LPCWSTR, LPCWSTR, UINT)
>>> paramflags = (1, "hwnd", 0), (1, "text", "Hi"), (1, "caption", "Hello from ctypes"), (1, "flags", 0)
>>> MessageBox = prototype(("MessageBoxW", windll.user32), paramflags)

La fonction MessageBox peut désormais être appelée des manières suivantes :

>>> MessageBox()
>>> MessageBox(text="Spam, spam, spam")
>>> MessageBox(flags=2, text="foo bar")

L'exemple qui suit traite des paramètres en sortie. La fonction win32 GetWindowRect donne les dimensions d'une fenêtre en les copiant dans une structure RECT que l'appelant doit fournir. Sa déclaration en C est :

WINUSERAPI BOOL WINAPI
GetWindowRect(
     HWND hWnd,
     LPRECT lpRect);

Here is the wrapping with ctypes:

>>> from ctypes import POINTER, WINFUNCTYPE, windll, WinError
>>> from ctypes.wintypes import BOOL, HWND, RECT
>>> prototype = WINFUNCTYPE(BOOL, HWND, POINTER(RECT))
>>> paramflags = (1, "hwnd"), (2, "lprect")
>>> GetWindowRect = prototype(("GetWindowRect", windll.user32), paramflags)
>>>

Les fonctions avec des paramètres en sortie renvoient automatiquement la valeur du paramètre de sortie s'il n'y en a qu'un seul, ou un n-uplet avec les valeurs de sortie de chaque paramètre s'il y en a plusieurs. Ici, la fonction GetWindowRect renvoie donc une instance de RECT quand elle est appelée.

Output parameters can be combined with the errcheck protocol to do further output processing and error checking. The win32 GetWindowRect api function returns a BOOL to signal success or failure, so this function could do the error checking, and raises an exception when the api call failed:

>>> def errcheck(result, func, args):
...     if not result:
...         raise WinError()
...     return args
...
>>> GetWindowRect.errcheck = errcheck
>>>

If the errcheck function returns the argument tuple it receives unchanged, ctypes continues the normal processing it does on the output parameters. If you want to return a tuple of window coordinates instead of a RECT instance, you can retrieve the fields in the function and return them instead, the normal processing will no longer take place:

>>> def errcheck(result, func, args):
...     if not result:
...         raise WinError()
...     rc = args[1]
...     return rc.left, rc.top, rc.bottom, rc.right
...
>>> GetWindowRect.errcheck = errcheck
>>>

Fonctions utilitaires

ctypes.addressof(obj)

Returns the address of the memory buffer as integer. obj must be an instance of a ctypes type.

Raises an auditing event ctypes.addressof with argument obj.

ctypes.alignment(obj_or_type)

Returns the alignment requirements of a ctypes type. obj_or_type must be a ctypes type or instance.

ctypes.byref(obj[, offset])

Returns a light-weight pointer to obj, which must be an instance of a ctypes type. offset defaults to zero, and must be an integer that will be added to the internal pointer value.

byref(obj, offset) corresponds to this C code:

(((char *)&obj) + offset)

The returned object can only be used as a foreign function call parameter. It behaves similar to pointer(obj), but the construction is a lot faster.

ctypes.CopyComPointer(src, dst)

Copies a COM pointer from src to dst and returns the Windows specific HRESULT value.

If src is not NULL, its AddRef method is called, incrementing the reference count.

In contrast, the reference count of dst will not be decremented before assigning the new value. Unless dst is NULL, the caller is responsible for decrementing the reference count by calling its Release method when necessary.

Disponibilité: Windows

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

ctypes.cast(obj, type)

This function is similar to the cast operator in C. It returns a new instance of type which points to the same memory block as obj. type must be a pointer type, and obj must be an object that can be interpreted as a pointer.

ctypes.create_string_buffer(init, size=None)

ctypes.create_string_buffer(size)

This function creates a mutable character buffer. The returned object is a ctypes array of c_char.

If size is given (and not None), it must be an int. It specifies the size of the returned array.

If the init argument is given, it must be bytes. It is used to initialize the array items. Bytes not initialized this way are set to zero (NUL).

If size is not given (or if it is None), the buffer is made one element larger than init, effectively adding a NUL terminator.

If both arguments are given, size must not be less than len(init).

Avertissement

If size is equal to len(init), a NUL terminator is not added. Do not treat such a buffer as a C string.

Par exemple :

>>> bytes(create_string_buffer(2))
b'\x00\x00'
>>> bytes(create_string_buffer(b'ab'))
b'ab\x00'
>>> bytes(create_string_buffer(b'ab', 2))
b'ab'
>>> bytes(create_string_buffer(b'ab', 4))
b'ab\x00\x00'
>>> bytes(create_string_buffer(b'abcdef', 2))
Traceback (most recent call last):
   ...
ValueError: byte string too long

Raises an auditing event ctypes.create_string_buffer with arguments init, size.

ctypes.create_unicode_buffer(init, size=None)

ctypes.create_unicode_buffer(size)

This function creates a mutable unicode character buffer. The returned object is a ctypes array of c_wchar.

The function takes the same arguments as create_string_buffer() except init must be a string and size counts c_wchar.

Raises an auditing event ctypes.create_unicode_buffer with arguments init, size.

ctypes.DllCanUnloadNow()

This function is a hook which allows implementing in-process COM servers with ctypes. It is called from the DllCanUnloadNow function that the _ctypes extension dll exports.

Disponibilité: Windows

ctypes.DllGetClassObject()

This function is a hook which allows implementing in-process COM servers with ctypes. It is called from the DllGetClassObject function that the _ctypes extension dll exports.

Disponibilité: Windows

ctypes.util.find_library(name)

Try to find a library and return a pathname. name is the library name without any prefix like lib, suffix like .so, .dylib or version number (this is the form used for the posix linker option -l). If no library can be found, returns None.

Le mode opératoire exact dépend du système.

See Recherche de bibliothèques partagées for complete documentation.

ctypes.util.find_msvcrt()

Returns the filename of the VC runtime library used by Python, and by the extension modules. If the name of the library cannot be determined, None is returned.

If you need to free memory, for example, allocated by an extension module with a call to the free(void *), it is important that you use the function in the same library that allocated the memory.

Disponibilité: Windows

ctypes.util.dllist()

Try to provide a list of paths of the shared libraries loaded into the current process. These paths are not normalized or processed in any way. The function can raise OSError if the underlying platform APIs fail. The exact functionality is system dependent.

On most platforms, the first element of the list represents the current executable file. It may be an empty string.

Disponibilité: Windows, macOS, iOS, glibc, BSD libc, musl

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

ctypes.FormatError([code])

Returns a textual description of the error code code. If no error code is specified, the last error code is used by calling the Windows API function GetLastError().

Disponibilité: Windows

ctypes.GetLastError()

Returns the last error code set by Windows in the calling thread. This function calls the Windows GetLastError() function directly, it does not return the ctypes-private copy of the error code.

Disponibilité: Windows

ctypes.get_errno()

Returns the current value of the ctypes-private copy of the system errno variable in the calling thread.

Raises an auditing event ctypes.get_errno with no arguments.

ctypes.get_last_error()

Returns the current value of the ctypes-private copy of the system LastError variable in the calling thread.

Disponibilité: Windows

Raises an auditing event ctypes.get_last_error with no arguments.

ctypes.memmove(dst, src, count)

Same as the standard C memmove library function: copies count bytes from src to dst. dst and src must be integers or ctypes instances that can be converted to pointers.

ctypes.memset(dst, c, count)

Same as the standard C memset library function: fills the memory block at address dst with count bytes of value c. dst must be an integer specifying an address, or a ctypes instance.

ctypes.POINTER(type, /)

Create or return a ctypes pointer type. Pointer types are cached and reused internally, so calling this function repeatedly is cheap. type must be a ctypes type.

Particularité de l'implémentation CPython : The resulting pointer type is cached in the __pointer_type__ attribute of type. It is possible to set this attribute before the first call to POINTER in order to set a custom pointer type. However, doing this is discouraged: manually creating a suitable pointer type is difficult without relying on implementation details that may change in future Python versions.

ctypes.pointer(obj, /)

Create a new pointer instance, pointing to obj. The returned object is of the type POINTER(type(obj)).

Note: If you just want to pass a pointer to an object to a foreign function call, you should use byref(obj) which is much faster.

ctypes.resize(obj, size)

This function resizes the internal memory buffer of obj, which must be an instance of a ctypes type. It is not possible to make the buffer smaller than the native size of the objects type, as given by sizeof(type(obj)), but it is possible to enlarge the buffer.

ctypes.set_errno(value)

Set the current value of the ctypes-private copy of the system errno variable in the calling thread to value and return the previous value.

Raises an auditing event ctypes.set_errno with argument errno.

ctypes.set_last_error(value)

Sets the current value of the ctypes-private copy of the system LastError variable in the calling thread to value and return the previous value.

Disponibilité: Windows

Raises an auditing event ctypes.set_last_error with argument error.

ctypes.sizeof(obj_or_type)

Returns the size in bytes of a ctypes type or instance memory buffer. Does the same as the C sizeof operator.

ctypes.string_at(ptr, size=-1)

Return the byte string at void *ptr. If size is specified, it is used as size, otherwise the string is assumed to be zero-terminated.

Raises an auditing event ctypes.string_at with arguments ptr, size.

ctypes.WinError(code=None, descr=None)

Creates an instance of OSError. If code is not specified, GetLastError() is called to determine the error code. If descr is not specified, FormatError() is called to get a textual description of the error.

Disponibilité: Windows

Modifié dans la version 3.3: An instance of WindowsError used to be created, which is now an alias of OSError.

ctypes.wstring_at(ptr, size=-1)

Return the wide-character string at void *ptr. If size is specified, it is used as the number of characters of the string, otherwise the string is assumed to be zero-terminated.

Raises an auditing event ctypes.wstring_at with arguments ptr, size.

ctypes.memoryview_at(ptr, size, readonly=False)

Return a memoryview object of length size that references memory starting at void *ptr.

If readonly is true, the returned memoryview object can not be used to modify the underlying memory. (Changes made by other means will still be reflected in the returned object.)

This function is similar to string_at() with the key difference of not making a copy of the specified memory. It is a semantically equivalent (but more efficient) alternative to memoryview((c_byte * size).from_address(ptr)). (While from_address() only takes integers, ptr can also be given as a ctypes.POINTER or a byref() object.)

Raises an auditing event ctypes.memoryview_at with arguments address, size, readonly.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Types de données

class ctypes._CData

This non-public class is the common base class of all ctypes data types. Among other things, all ctypes type instances contain a memory block that hold C compatible data; the address of the memory block is returned by the addressof() helper function. Another instance variable is exposed as _objects; this contains other Python objects that need to be kept alive in case the memory block contains pointers.

Common methods of ctypes data types, these are all class methods (to be exact, they are methods of the metaclass):

from_buffer(source[, offset])

This method returns a ctypes instance that shares the buffer of the source object. The source object must support the writeable buffer interface. The optional offset parameter specifies an offset into the source buffer in bytes; the default is zero. If the source buffer is not large enough a ValueError is raised.

Raises an auditing event ctypes.cdata/buffer with arguments pointer, size, offset.

from_buffer_copy(source[, offset])

This method creates a ctypes instance, copying the buffer from the source object buffer which must be readable. The optional offset parameter specifies an offset into the source buffer in bytes; the default is zero. If the source buffer is not large enough a ValueError is raised.

Raises an auditing event ctypes.cdata/buffer with arguments pointer, size, offset.

from_address(address)

This method returns a ctypes type instance using the memory specified by address which must be an integer.

This method, and others that indirectly call this method, raises an auditing event ctypes.cdata with argument address.

from_param(obj)

This method adapts obj to a ctypes type. It is called with the actual object used in a foreign function call when the type is present in the foreign function's argtypes tuple; it must return an object that can be used as a function call parameter.

All ctypes data types have a default implementation of this classmethod that normally returns obj if that is an instance of the type. Some types accept other objects as well.

in_dll(library, name)

This method returns a ctypes type instance exported by a shared library. name is the name of the symbol that exports the data, library is the loaded shared library.

Common class variables of ctypes data types:

__pointer_type__

The pointer type that was created by calling POINTER() for corresponding ctypes data type. If a pointer type was not yet created, the attribute is missing.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Common instance variables of ctypes data types:

_b_base_

Sometimes ctypes data instances do not own the memory block they contain, instead they share part of the memory block of a base object. The _b_base_ read-only member is the root ctypes object that owns the memory block.

_b_needsfree_

This read-only variable is true when the ctypes data instance has allocated the memory block itself, false otherwise.

_objects

This member is either None or a dictionary containing Python objects that need to be kept alive so that the memory block contents is kept valid. This object is only exposed for debugging; never modify the contents of this dictionary.

Types de données de base

class ctypes._SimpleCData

This non-public class is the base class of all fundamental ctypes data types. It is mentioned here because it contains the common attributes of the fundamental ctypes data types. _SimpleCData is a subclass of _CData, so it inherits their methods and attributes. ctypes data types that are not and do not contain pointers can now be pickled.

Instances have a single attribute:

value

This attribute contains the actual value of the instance. For integer and pointer types, it is an integer, for character types, it is a single character bytes object or string, for character pointer types it is a Python bytes object or string.

When the value attribute is retrieved from a ctypes instance, usually a new object is returned each time. ctypes does not implement original object return, always a new object is constructed. The same is true for all other ctypes object instances.

Each subclass has a class attribute:

_type_

Class attribute that contains an internal type code, as a single-character string. See Types de données de base for a summary.

Types marked * in the summary may be (or always are) aliases of a different _SimpleCData subclass, and will not necessarily use the listed type code. For example, if the platform's long, long long and time_t C types are the same, then c_long, c_longlong and c_time_t all refer to a single class, c_long, whose _type_ code is 'l'. The 'L' code will be unused.

Voir aussi

The array and struct modules, as well as third-party modules like numpy [https://numpy.org/doc/stable/reference/arrays.interface.html#object.__array_interface__], use similar -- but slightly different -- type codes.

Fundamental data types, when returned as foreign function call results, or, for example, by retrieving structure field members or array items, are transparently converted to native Python types. In other words, if a foreign function has a restype of c_char_p, you will always receive a Python bytes object, not a c_char_p instance.

Subclasses of fundamental data types do not inherit this behavior. So, if a foreign functions restype is a subclass of c_void_p, you will receive an instance of this subclass from the function call. Of course, you can get the value of the pointer by accessing the value attribute.

These are the fundamental ctypes data types:

class ctypes.c_byte

Represents the C signed char datatype, and interprets the value as small integer. The constructor accepts an optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.

class ctypes.c_char

Represents the C char datatype, and interprets the value as a single character. The constructor accepts an optional string initializer, the length of the string must be exactly one character.

class ctypes.c_char_p

Represents the C char* datatype when it points to a zero-terminated string. For a general character pointer that may also point to binary data, POINTER(c_char) must be used. The constructor accepts an integer address, or a bytes object.

class ctypes.c_double

Represents the C double datatype. The constructor accepts an optional float initializer.

class ctypes.c_longdouble

Represents the C long double datatype. The constructor accepts an optional float initializer. On platforms where sizeof(long double) == sizeof(double) it is an alias to c_double.

class ctypes.c_float

Represents the C float datatype. The constructor accepts an optional float initializer.

class ctypes.c_double_complex

Represents the C double complex datatype, if available. The constructor accepts an optional complex initializer.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

class ctypes.c_float_complex

Represents the C float complex datatype, if available. The constructor accepts an optional complex initializer.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

class ctypes.c_longdouble_complex

Represents the C long double complex datatype, if available. The constructor accepts an optional complex initializer.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

class ctypes.c_int

Represents the C signed int datatype. The constructor accepts an optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done. On platforms where sizeof(int) == sizeof(long) it is an alias to c_long.

class ctypes.c_int8

Represents the C 8-bit signed int datatype. It is an alias for c_byte.

class ctypes.c_int16

Represents the C 16-bit signed int datatype. Usually an alias for c_short.

class ctypes.c_int32

Represents the C 32-bit signed int datatype. Usually an alias for c_int.

class ctypes.c_int64

Represents the C 64-bit signed int datatype. Usually an alias for c_longlong.

class ctypes.c_long

Represents the C signed long datatype. The constructor accepts an optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.

class ctypes.c_longlong

Represents the C signed long long datatype. The constructor accepts an optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done. On platforms where sizeof(long long) == sizeof(long) it is an alias to c_long.

class ctypes.c_short

Represents the C signed short datatype. The constructor accepts an optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.

class ctypes.c_size_t

Represents the C size_t datatype. Usually an alias for another unsigned integer type.

class ctypes.c_ssize_t

Represents the Py_ssize_t datatype. This is a signed version of size_t; that is, the POSIX ssize_t type. Usually an alias for another integer type.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

class ctypes.c_time_t

Represents the C time_t datatype. Usually an alias for another integer type.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

class ctypes.c_ubyte

Represents the C unsigned char datatype, it interprets the value as small integer. The constructor accepts an optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.

class ctypes.c_uint

Represents the C unsigned int datatype. The constructor accepts an optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done. On platforms where sizeof(int) == sizeof(long) it is an alias for c_ulong.

class ctypes.c_uint8

Represents the C 8-bit unsigned int datatype. It is an alias for c_ubyte.

class ctypes.c_uint16

Represents the C 16-bit unsigned int datatype. Usually an alias for c_ushort.

class ctypes.c_uint32

Represents the C 32-bit unsigned int datatype. Usually an alias for c_uint.

class ctypes.c_uint64

Represents the C 64-bit unsigned int datatype. Usually an alias for c_ulonglong.

class ctypes.c_ulong

Represents the C unsigned long datatype. The constructor accepts an optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.

class ctypes.c_ulonglong

Represents the C unsigned long long datatype. The constructor accepts an optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done. On platforms where sizeof(long long) == sizeof(long) it is an alias to c_long.

class ctypes.c_ushort

Represents the C unsigned short datatype. The constructor accepts an optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.

class ctypes.c_void_p

Represents the C void* type. The value is represented as integer. The constructor accepts an optional integer initializer.

class ctypes.c_wchar

Represents the C wchar_t datatype, and interprets the value as a single character unicode string. The constructor accepts an optional string initializer, the length of the string must be exactly one character.

class ctypes.c_wchar_p

Represents the C wchar_t* datatype, which must be a pointer to a zero-terminated wide character string. The constructor accepts an integer address, or a string.

class ctypes.c_bool

Represent the C bool datatype (more accurately, _Bool from C99). Its value can be True or False, and the constructor accepts any object that has a truth value.

class ctypes.HRESULT

Represents a HRESULT value, which contains success or error information for a function or method call.

Disponibilité: Windows

class ctypes.py_object

Represents the C PyObject* datatype. Calling this without an argument creates a NULL PyObject* pointer.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: py_object is now a generic type.

The ctypes.wintypes module provides quite some other Windows specific data types, for example HWND, WPARAM, VARIANT_BOOL or DWORD. Some useful structures like MSG or RECT are also defined.

Types de données dérivés de Structure

class ctypes.Union(*args, **kw)

Abstract base class for unions in native byte order.

Unions share common attributes and behavior with structures; see Structure documentation for details.

class ctypes.BigEndianUnion(*args, **kw)

Abstract base class for unions in big endian byte order.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

class ctypes.LittleEndianUnion(*args, **kw)

Abstract base class for unions in little endian byte order.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

class ctypes.BigEndianStructure(*args, **kw)

Abstract base class for structures in big endian byte order.

class ctypes.LittleEndianStructure(*args, **kw)

Abstract base class for structures in little endian byte order.

Structures and unions with non-native byte order cannot contain pointer type fields, or any other data types containing pointer type fields.

class ctypes.Structure(*args, **kw)

Abstract base class for structures in native byte order.

Concrete structure and union types must be created by subclassing one of these types, and at least define a _fields_ class variable. ctypes will create descriptors which allow reading and writing the fields by direct attribute accesses. These are the

_fields_

A sequence defining the structure fields. The items must be 2-tuples or 3-tuples. The first item is the name of the field, the second item specifies the type of the field; it can be any ctypes data type.

For integer type fields like c_int, a third optional item can be given. It must be a small positive integer defining the bit width of the field.

Field names must be unique within one structure or union. This is not checked, only one field can be accessed when names are repeated.

It is possible to define the _fields_ class variable after the class statement that defines the Structure subclass, this allows creating data types that directly or indirectly reference themselves:

class List(Structure):
    pass
List._fields_ = [("pnext", POINTER(List)),
                 ...
                ]

The _fields_ class variable can only be set once. Later assignments will raise an AttributeError.

Additionally, the _fields_ class variable must be defined before the structure or union type is first used: an instance or subclass is created, sizeof() is called on it, and so on. Later assignments to _fields_ will raise an AttributeError. If _fields_ has not been set before such use, the structure or union will have no own fields, as if _fields_ was empty.

Sub-subclasses of structure types inherit the fields of the base class plus the _fields_ defined in the sub-subclass, if any.

_pack_

An optional small integer that allows overriding the alignment of structure fields in the instance.

This is only implemented for the MSVC-compatible memory layout (see _layout_).

Setting _pack_ to 0 is the same as not setting it at all. Otherwise, the value must be a positive power of two. The effect is equivalent to #pragma pack(N) in C, except ctypes may allow larger n than what the compiler accepts.

_pack_ must already be defined when _fields_ is assigned, otherwise it will have no effect.

Deprecated since version 3.14, will be removed in version 3.19: For historical reasons, if _pack_ is non-zero, the MSVC-compatible layout will be used by default. On non-Windows platforms, this default is deprecated and is slated to become an error in Python 3.19. If it is intended, set _layout_ to 'ms' explicitly.

_align_

An optional small integer that allows increasing the alignment of the structure when being packed or unpacked to/from memory.

The value must not be negative. The effect is equivalent to __attribute__((aligned(N))) on GCC or #pragma align(N) on MSVC, except ctypes may allow values that the compiler would reject.

_align_ can only increase a structure's alignment requirements. Setting it to 0 or 1 has no effect.

Using values that are not powers of two is discouraged and may lead to surprising behavior.

_align_ must already be defined when _fields_ is assigned, otherwise it will have no effect.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

_layout_

An optional string naming the struct/union layout. It can currently be set to:

"ms": the layout used by the Microsoft compiler (MSVC). On GCC and Clang, this layout can be selected with __attribute__((ms_struct)).

"gcc-sysv": the layout used by GCC with the System V or “SysV-like” data model, as used on Linux and macOS. With this layout, _pack_ must be unset or zero.

If not set explicitly, ctypes will use a default that matches the platform conventions. This default may change in future Python releases (for example, when a new platform gains official support, or when a difference between similar platforms is found). Currently the default will be:

On Windows: "ms"

When _pack_ is specified: "ms". (This is deprecated; see _pack_ documentation.)

Otherwise: "gcc-sysv"

_layout_ must already be defined when _fields_ is assigned, otherwise it will have no effect.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

_anonymous_

An optional sequence that lists the names of unnamed (anonymous) fields. _anonymous_ must be already defined when _fields_ is assigned, otherwise it will have no effect.

The fields listed in this variable must be structure or union type fields. ctypes will create descriptors in the structure type that allows accessing the nested fields directly, without the need to create the structure or union field.

Here is an example type (Windows):

class _U(Union):
    _fields_ = [("lptdesc", POINTER(TYPEDESC)),
                ("lpadesc", POINTER(ARRAYDESC)),
                ("hreftype", HREFTYPE)]

class TYPEDESC(Structure):
    _anonymous_ = ("u",)
    _fields_ = [("u", _U),
                ("vt", VARTYPE)]

The TYPEDESC structure describes a COM data type, the vt field specifies which one of the union fields is valid. Since the u field is defined as anonymous field, it is now possible to access the members directly off the TYPEDESC instance. td.lptdesc and td.u.lptdesc are equivalent, but the former is faster since it does not need to create a temporary union instance:

td = TYPEDESC()
td.vt = VT_PTR
td.lptdesc = POINTER(some_type)
td.u.lptdesc = POINTER(some_type)

It is possible to define sub-subclasses of structures, they inherit the fields of the base class. If the subclass definition has a separate _fields_ variable, the fields specified in this are appended to the fields of the base class.

Structure and union constructors accept both positional and keyword arguments. Positional arguments are used to initialize member fields in the same order as they are appear in _fields_. Keyword arguments in the constructor are interpreted as attribute assignments, so they will initialize _fields_ with the same name, or create new attributes for names not present in _fields_.

class ctypes.CField(*args, **kw)

Descriptor for fields of a Structure and Union. For example:

>>> class Color(Structure):
...     _fields_ = (
...         ('red', c_uint8),
...         ('green', c_uint8),
...         ('blue', c_uint8),
...         ('intense', c_bool, 1),
...         ('blinking', c_bool, 1),
...    )
...
>>> Color.red
<ctypes.CField 'red' type=c_ubyte, ofs=0, size=1>
>>> Color.green.type
<class 'ctypes.c_ubyte'>
>>> Color.blue.byte_offset
2
>>> Color.intense
<ctypes.CField 'intense' type=c_bool, ofs=3, bit_size=1, bit_offset=0>
>>> Color.blinking.bit_offset
1

All attributes are read-only.

CField objects are created via _fields_; do not instantiate the class directly.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14: Previously, descriptors only had offset and size attributes and a readable string representation; the CField class was not available directly.

name

Name of the field, as a string.

type

Type of the field, as a ctypes class.

offset

byte_offset

Offset of the field, in bytes.

For bitfields, this is the offset of the underlying byte-aligned storage unit; see bit_offset.

byte_size

Size of the field, in bytes.

For bitfields, this is the size of the underlying storage unit. Typically, it has the same size as the bitfield's type.

size

For non-bitfields, equivalent to byte_size.

For bitfields, this contains a backwards-compatible bit-packed value that combines bit_size and bit_offset. Prefer using the explicit attributes instead.

is_bitfield

True if this is a bitfield.

bit_offset

bit_size

The location of a bitfield within its storage unit, that is, within byte_size bytes of memory starting at byte_offset.

To get the field's value, read the storage unit as an integer, shift left by bit_offset and take the bit_size least significant bits.

For non-bitfields, bit_offset is zero and bit_size is equal to byte_size * 8.

is_anonymous

True if this field is anonymous, that is, it contains nested sub-fields that should be merged into a containing structure or union.

Tableaux et pointeurs

class ctypes.Array(*args)

Classe de base abstraite pour les arrays.

The recommended way to create concrete array types is by multiplying any ctypes data type with a non-negative integer. Alternatively, you can subclass this type and define _length_ and _type_ class variables. Array elements can be read and written using standard subscript and slice accesses; for slice reads, the resulting object is not itself an Array.

_length_

A positive integer specifying the number of elements in the array. Out-of-range subscripts result in an IndexError. Will be returned by len().

_type_

Spécifie le type de chaque élément de l'array.

Array subclass constructors accept positional arguments, used to initialize the elements in order.

ctypes.ARRAY(type, length)

Create an array. Equivalent to type * length, where type is a ctypes data type and length an integer.

This function is soft deprecated in favor of multiplication. There are no plans to remove it.

class ctypes._Pointer

Private, abstract base class for pointers.

Concrete pointer types are created by calling POINTER() with the type that will be pointed to; this is done automatically by pointer().

If a pointer points to an array, its elements can be read and written using standard subscript and slice accesses. Pointer objects have no size, so len() will raise TypeError. Negative subscripts will read from the memory before the pointer (as in C), and out-of-range subscripts will probably crash with an access violation (if you're lucky).

_type_

Specifies the type pointed to.

contents

Returns the object to which to pointer points. Assigning to this attribute changes the pointer to point to the assigned object.

Exceptions

exception ctypes.ArgumentError

Exception levée quand un appel à la fonction externe ne peut pas convertir un des arguments qu'elle a reçus.

exception ctypes.COMError(hresult, text, details)

This exception is raised when a COM method call failed.

hresult

The integer value representing the error code.

text

The error message.

details

The 5-tuple (descr, source, helpfile, helpcontext, progid).

descr is the textual description. source is the language-dependent ProgID for the class or application that raised the error. helpfile is the path of the help file. helpcontext is the help context identifier. progid is the ProgID of the interface that defined the error.

Disponibilité: Windows

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Command-line interface libraries

The modules described in this chapter assist with implementing command line and terminal interfaces for applications.

Here's an overview:

argparse --- Parser for command-line options, arguments and subcommands

optparse --- Parser for command line options

getpass --- Portable password input

fileinput --- Iterate over lines from multiple input streams

curses --- Terminal handling for character-cell displays

curses.textpad --- Text input widget for curses programs

curses.ascii — Utilitaires pour les caractères ASCII

curses.panel --- A panel stack extension for curses

cmd --- Support for line-oriented command interpreters

argparse --- Parser for command-line options, arguments and subcommands

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Code source: Lib/argparse.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/argparse.py]

Note

While argparse is the default recommended standard library module for implementing basic command line applications, authors with more exacting requirements for exactly how their command line applications behave may find it doesn't provide the necessary level of control. Refer to Choosing an argument parsing library for alternatives to consider when argparse doesn't support behaviors that the application requires (such as entirely disabling support for interspersed options and positional arguments, or accepting option parameter values that start with - even when they correspond to another defined option).

Tutoriel

Cette page est la référence de l'API. Pour une introduction plus en douceur à l'analyse des arguments de la ligne de commande, regardez le tutoriel argparse.

The argparse module makes it easy to write user-friendly command-line interfaces. The program defines what arguments it requires, and argparse will figure out how to parse those out of sys.argv. The argparse module also automatically generates help and usage messages. The module will also issue errors when users give the program invalid arguments.

The argparse module's support for command-line interfaces is built around an instance of argparse.ArgumentParser. It is a container for argument specifications and has options that apply to the parser as whole:

parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
                    prog='ProgramName',
                    description='What the program does',
                    epilog='Text at the bottom of help')

La méthode ArgumentParser.add_argument() permet de définir les arguments de l'analyseur. Ceux-ci peuvent être des arguments positionnels, des arguments optionnels ou des drapeaux (qui sont alors traduits en valeurs booléennes). Les arguments ont la possibilité d'être complétés par des valeurs :

parser.add_argument('filename')           # positional argument
parser.add_argument('-c', '--count')      # option that takes a value
parser.add_argument('-v', '--verbose',
                    action='store_true')  # on/off flag

La méthode ArgumentParser.parse_args() lance l'analyseur et stocke les résultats dans un objet argparse.Namespace :

args = parser.parse_args()
print(args.filename, args.count, args.verbose)

Note

If you're looking for a guide about how to upgrade optparse code to argparse, see Upgrading Optparse Code.

Objets ArgumentParser

class argparse.ArgumentParser(prog=None, usage=None, description=None, epilog=None, parents=[], formatter_class=argparse.HelpFormatter, prefix_chars='-', fromfile_prefix_chars=None, argument_default=None, conflict_handler='error', add_help=True, allow_abbrev=True, exit_on_error=True, *, suggest_on_error=False, color=True)

Crée un nouvel objet ArgumentParser. Tous les paramètres doivent être passés en arguments nommés. Chaque paramètre a sa propre description détaillée ci-dessous, mais en résumé ils sont :

prog - The name of the program (default: generated from the __main__ module attributes and sys.argv[0])

usage – Chaîne décrivant l'utilisation du programme (par défaut : générée à partir des arguments ajoutés à l'analyseur) ;

description – Texte à afficher au dessus de l'aide pour les arguments (vide par défaut) ;

epilog – Texte à afficher après l'aide des arguments (vide par défaut) ;

parents – Liste d'objets ArgumentParser contenant des arguments qui devraient aussi être inclus ;

formatter_class – Classe pour personnaliser la sortie du message d'aide ;

prefix_chars – Jeu de caractères qui précède les arguments optionnels (par défaut : '-') ;

fromfile_prefix_chars – Jeu de caractères qui précède les fichiers d'où des arguments additionnels doivent être lus (par défaut : None) ;

argument_default – Valeur globale par défaut pour les arguments (par défaut : None) ;

conflict_handler – Stratégie pour résoudre les conflits entre les arguments optionnels (non-nécessaire en général) ;

add_help – Ajoute une option d'aide -h/--help à l'analyseur (par défaut : True) ;

allow_abbrev - Allows long options to be abbreviated if the abbreviation is unambiguous (default: True)

exit_on_error - Determines whether or not ArgumentParser exits with error info when an error occurs. (default: True)

suggest_on_error - Enables suggestions for mistyped argument choices and subparser names (default: False)

color - Allow color output (default: True)

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Le paramètre allow_abbrev est ajouté.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Dans les versions précédentes, allow_abbrev désactivait aussi le regroupement de plusieurs options courtes telles que -vv pour signifier -v -v.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Le paramètre exit_on_error est ajouté.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: suggest_on_error and color parameters were added.

Les sections suivantes décrivent comment chacune de ces options sont utilisées.

Le paramètre prog

By default, ArgumentParser calculates the name of the program to display in help messages depending on the way the Python interpreter was run:

The base name of sys.argv[0] if a file was passed as argument.

The Python interpreter name followed by sys.argv[0] if a directory or a zipfile was passed as argument.

The Python interpreter name followed by -m followed by the module or package name if the -m option was used.

This default is almost always desirable because it will make the help messages match the string that was used to invoke the program on the command line. However, to change this default behavior, another value can be supplied using the prog= argument to ArgumentParser:

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='myprogram')
>>> parser.print_help()
usage: myprogram [-h]

options:
 -h, --help  show this help message and exit

Note that the program name, whether determined from sys.argv[0], from the __main__ module attributes or from the prog= argument, is available to help messages using the %(prog)s format specifier.

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='myprogram')
>>> parser.add_argument('--foo', help='foo of the %(prog)s program')
>>> parser.print_help()
usage: myprogram [-h] [--foo FOO]

options:
 -h, --help  show this help message and exit
 --foo FOO   foo of the myprogram program

Modifié dans la version 3.14: The default prog value now reflects how __main__ was actually executed, rather than always being os.path.basename(sys.argv[0]).

Le paramètre usage

By default, ArgumentParser calculates the usage message from the arguments it contains. The default message can be overridden with the usage= keyword argument:

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', usage='%(prog)s [options]')
>>> parser.add_argument('--foo', nargs='?', help='foo help')
>>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs='+', help='bar help')
>>> parser.print_help()
usage: PROG [options]

positional arguments:
 bar          bar help

options:
 -h, --help   show this help message and exit
 --foo [FOO]  foo help

Le spécificateur de formatage %(prog)s est disponible pour insérer le nom du programme dans vos messages d'utilisation.

When a custom usage message is specified for the main parser, you may also want to consider passing the prog argument to add_subparsers() or the prog and the usage arguments to add_parser(), to ensure consistent command prefixes and usage information across subparsers.

Le paramètre description

Most calls to the ArgumentParser constructor will use the description= keyword argument. This argument gives a brief description of what the program does and how it works. In help messages, the description is displayed between the command-line usage string and the help messages for the various arguments.

Par défaut, la description est sujette au retour à la ligne automatique pour se conformer à l'espace disponible. Pour changer ce comportement, voyez l'argument formatter_class.

Le paramètre epilog

Certains programmes aiment afficher un texte supplémentaire après la description des arguments. Un tel texte peut être spécifié grâce à l'argument epilog= du constructeur d'ArgumentParser :

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
...     description='A foo that bars',
...     epilog="And that's how you'd foo a bar")
>>> parser.print_help()
usage: argparse.py [-h]

A foo that bars

options:
 -h, --help  show this help message and exit

And that's how you'd foo a bar

De même que pour l'argument description, le texte passé à epilog= est sujet au retour à la ligne automatique. Ce comportement peut être ajusté grâce à l'argument formatter_class du constructeur d'ArgumentParser.

Le paramètre parents

Parfois, plusieurs analyseurs partagent un jeu commun d'arguments. Plutôt que de répéter les définitions de ces arguments, un analyseur commun qui contient tous les arguments partagés peut être utilisé, puis passé à l'argument parents= du constructeur d'ArgumentParser. L'argument parents= accepte une liste d'objets ArgumentParser, accumule toutes les actions positionnelles et optionnelles de ces objets, puis les ajoute à l'instance d'ArgumentParser en cours de création :

>>> parent_parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(add_help=False)
>>> parent_parser.add_argument('--parent', type=int)

>>> foo_parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(parents=[parent_parser])
>>> foo_parser.add_argument('foo')
>>> foo_parser.parse_args(['--parent', '2', 'XXX'])
Namespace(foo='XXX', parent=2)

>>> bar_parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(parents=[parent_parser])
>>> bar_parser.add_argument('--bar')
>>> bar_parser.parse_args(['--bar', 'YYY'])
Namespace(bar='YYY', parent=None)

Prenez note que la majorité des analyseurs parents doivent définir add_help=False. Autrement, le constructeur d'ArgumentParser va voir plus d'une option -h/--help (une pour le parent et une pour l'instance en cours de création) et va lever une erreur.

Note

Vous devez initialiser complètement les analyseurs avant de les passer à parents=. Si vous changez les analyseurs parents après la création de l'analyseur enfant, ces changements ne sont pas répercutés sur l'enfant.

Le paramètre formatter_class

Les objets ArgumentParser permettent la personnalisation de la mise en page des messages d'aide en spécifiant une classe de formatage alternative. Il y a actuellement quatre classes de formatage :

class argparse.RawDescriptionHelpFormatter

class argparse.RawTextHelpFormatter

class argparse.ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter

class argparse.MetavarTypeHelpFormatter

RawDescriptionHelpFormatter et RawTextHelpFormatter vous donnent plus de contrôle sur comment les descriptions textuelles sont affichées. Par défaut, les contenus de description et epilog des objets ArgumentParser font l'objet du retour à la ligne automatique dans les messages d'aide :

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
...     prog='PROG',
...     description='''this description
...         was indented weird
...             but that is okay''',
...     epilog='''
...             likewise for this epilog whose whitespace will
...         be cleaned up and whose words will be wrapped
...         across a couple lines''')
>>> parser.print_help()
usage: PROG [-h]

this description was indented weird but that is okay

options:
 -h, --help  show this help message and exit

likewise for this epilog whose whitespace will be cleaned up and whose words
will be wrapped across a couple lines

Passer RawDescriptionHelpFormatter à formatter_class= indique que les textes de description et d'epilog ont déjà été formatés correctement et qu'ils ne doivent pas faire l'objet d'un retour à la ligne automatique :

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
...     prog='PROG',
...     formatter_class=argparse.RawDescriptionHelpFormatter,
...     description=textwrap.dedent('''\
...         Please do not mess up this text!
...         --------------------------------
...             I have indented it
...             exactly the way
...             I want it
...         '''))
>>> parser.print_help()
usage: PROG [-h]

Please do not mess up this text!
--------------------------------
   I have indented it
   exactly the way
   I want it

options:
 -h, --help  show this help message and exit

RawTextHelpFormatter maintains whitespace for all sorts of help text, including argument descriptions. However, multiple newlines are replaced with one. If you wish to preserve multiple blank lines, add spaces between the newlines.

ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter ajoute automatiquement l'information sur les valeurs par défaut aux messages d'aide de tous les arguments :

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
...     prog='PROG',
...     formatter_class=argparse.ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter)
>>> parser.add_argument('--foo', type=int, default=42, help='FOO!')
>>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs='*', default=[1, 2, 3], help='BAR!')
>>> parser.print_help()
usage: PROG [-h] [--foo FOO] [bar ...]

positional arguments:
 bar         BAR! (default: [1, 2, 3])

options:
 -h, --help  show this help message and exit
 --foo FOO   FOO! (default: 42)

MetavarTypeHelpFormatter utilise le nom du type de l'argument pour chacun des arguments comme nom d'affichage pour leurs valeurs (contrairement au formateur standard qui utilise dest) :

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
...     prog='PROG',
...     formatter_class=argparse.MetavarTypeHelpFormatter)
>>> parser.add_argument('--foo', type=int)
>>> parser.add_argument('bar', type=float)
>>> parser.print_help()
usage: PROG [-h] [--foo int] float

positional arguments:
  float

options:
  -h, --help  show this help message and exit
  --foo int

Le paramètre prefix_chars

Most command-line options will use - as the prefix, e.g. -f/--foo. Parsers that need to support different or additional prefix characters, e.g. for options like +f or /foo, may specify them using the prefix_chars= argument to the ArgumentParser constructor:

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', prefix_chars='-+')
>>> parser.add_argument('+f')
>>> parser.add_argument('++bar')
>>> parser.parse_args('+f X ++bar Y'.split())
Namespace(bar='Y', f='X')

La valeur par défaut de prefix_chars= est '-'. Passer un jeu de caractères qui n'inclut pas - provoquera le refus des options comme -f/--foo.

Le paramètre fromfile_prefix_chars

Parfois, par exemple quand on traite une liste d'arguments particulièrement longue, il est logique de stocker la liste d'arguments dans un fichier plutôt que de la saisir sur la ligne de commande. Si un jeu de caractères est passé à l'argument fromfile_prefix_chars= du constructeur de ArgumentParser, alors les arguments qui commencent par l'un des caractères spécifiés sont traités comme des fichiers et sont remplacés par les arguments contenus dans ces fichiers. Par exemple :

>>> with open('args.txt', 'w', encoding=sys.getfilesystemencoding()) as fp:
...     fp.write('-f\nbar')
...
>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(fromfile_prefix_chars='@')
>>> parser.add_argument('-f')
>>> parser.parse_args(['-f', 'foo', '@args.txt'])
Namespace(f='bar')

Arguments read from a file must be one per line by default (but see also convert_arg_line_to_args()) and are treated as if they were in the same place as the original file referencing argument on the command line. So in the example above, the expression ['-f', 'foo', '@args.txt'] is considered equivalent to the expression ['-f', 'foo', '-f', 'bar'].

Note

Empty lines are treated as empty strings (''), which are allowed as values but not as arguments. Empty lines that are read as arguments will result in an "unrecognized arguments" error.

ArgumentParser uses filesystem encoding and error handler to read the file containing arguments.

Par défaut, l'argument fromfile_prefix_chars= est None, ce qui signifie que les arguments ne sont pas traités en tant que références à des fichiers.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: ArgumentParser changed encoding and errors to read arguments files from default (e.g. locale.getpreferredencoding(False) and "strict") to the filesystem encoding and error handler. Arguments file should be encoded in UTF-8 instead of ANSI Codepage on Windows.

Le paramètre argument_default

Généralement, les valeurs par défaut des arguments sont définies soit en passant la valeur désirée à add_argument() soit par un appel à la méthode set_defaults(). Cette méthode accepte un ensemble de paires nom-valeur. Il est parfois pertinent de configurer une valeur par défaut pour tous les arguments d'un analyseur. On peut activer ce comportement en passant la valeur désirée à l'argument nommé argument_default= du constructeur de ArgumentParser. Par exemple, pour supprimer globalement la création d'attributs pendant l'appel de parse_args(), on fournit argument_default=SUPPRESS :

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(argument_default=argparse.SUPPRESS)
>>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
>>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs='?')
>>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', '1', 'BAR'])
Namespace(bar='BAR', foo='1')
>>> parser.parse_args([])
Namespace()

Le paramètre allow_abbrev

En temps normal, lorsque vous passez une liste d'arguments à la méthode parse_args() d'ArgumentParser elle accepte les abréviations des options longues.

Cette fonctionnalité peut être désactivée en passant False à allow_abbrev :

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', allow_abbrev=False)
>>> parser.add_argument('--foobar', action='store_true')
>>> parser.add_argument('--foonley', action='store_false')
>>> parser.parse_args(['--foon'])
usage: PROG [-h] [--foobar] [--foonley]
PROG: error: unrecognized arguments: --foon

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Le paramètre conflict_handler

Les objets ArgumentParser ne peuvent pas avoir plus d'une option avec la même chaîne d'option. Par défaut, les objets ArgumentParser lèvent une exception si on essaie de créer un argument avec une chaîne d'option qui est déjà utilisée :

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
>>> parser.add_argument('-f', '--foo', help='old foo help')
>>> parser.add_argument('--foo', help='new foo help')
Traceback (most recent call last):
 ..
ArgumentError: argument --foo: conflicting option string(s): --foo

Parfois, par exemple si on utilise des analyseurs parents, il est souhaitable de surcharger les anciens arguments qui partagent la même chaîne d'option. Pour obtenir ce comportement, vous devez passer 'resolve' à l'argument conflict_handler= du constructeur d'ArgumentParser :

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', conflict_handler='resolve')
>>> parser.add_argument('-f', '--foo', help='old foo help')
>>> parser.add_argument('--foo', help='new foo help')
>>> parser.print_help()
usage: PROG [-h] [-f FOO] [--foo FOO]

options:
 -h, --help  show this help message and exit
 -f FOO      old foo help
 --foo FOO   new foo help

Prenez note que les objets ArgumentParser n'enlèvent une action que si toutes ses chaînes d'options sont surchargées. Ainsi dans l'exemple ci-dessus, l'action -f/--foo du parent est conservée comme l'action -f puisque --foo est la seule chaîne d'options qui a été surchargée.

Le paramètre add_help

By default, ArgumentParser objects add an option which simply displays the parser's help message. If -h or --help is supplied at the command line, the ArgumentParser help will be printed.

Il est parfois utile de désactiver l'ajout de cette option d'aide. Pour ce faire, vous devez passer False à l'argument add_help= du constructeur d'ArgumentParser :

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', add_help=False)
>>> parser.add_argument('--foo', help='foo help')
>>> parser.print_help()
usage: PROG [--foo FOO]

options:
 --foo FOO  foo help

En général, l'option d'aide est -h/--help. L'exception à cette règle est quand une valeur est passée à prefix_chars= et qu'elle n'inclue pas -, auquel cas, -h et --help ne sont pas des options valides. Dans ce cas, le premier caractère de prefix_chars est utilisé comme préfixe des options d'aide :

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', prefix_chars='+/')
>>> parser.print_help()
usage: PROG [+h]

options:
  +h, ++help  show this help message and exit

Le paramètre exit_on_error

Normally, when you pass an invalid argument list to the parse_args() method of an ArgumentParser, it will print a message to sys.stderr and exit with a status code of 2.

Si vous souhaitez intercepter les erreurs manuellement, la fonctionnalité peut être activée en assignant False à exit_on_error :

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(exit_on_error=False)
>>> parser.add_argument('--integers', type=int)
_StoreAction(option_strings=['--integers'], dest='integers', nargs=None, const=None, default=None, type=<class 'int'>, choices=None, help=None, metavar=None)
>>> try:
...     parser.parse_args('--integers a'.split())
... except argparse.ArgumentError:
...     print('Catching an argumentError')
...
Catching an argumentError

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

suggest_on_error

By default, when a user passes an invalid argument choice or subparser name, ArgumentParser will exit with error info and list the permissible argument choices (if specified) or subparser names as part of the error message.

If the user would like to enable suggestions for mistyped argument choices and subparser names, the feature can be enabled by setting suggest_on_error to True. Note that this only applies for arguments when the choices specified are strings:

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(suggest_on_error=True)
>>> parser.add_argument('--action', choices=['debug', 'dryrun'])
>>> parser.parse_args(['--action', 'debugg'])
usage: tester.py [-h] [--action {debug,dryrun}]
tester.py: error: argument --action: invalid choice: 'debugg', maybe you meant 'debug'? (choose from debug, dryrun)

If you're writing code that needs to be compatible with older Python versions and want to opportunistically use suggest_on_error when it's available, you can set it as an attribute after initializing the parser instead of using the keyword argument:

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(description='Process some integers.')
>>> parser.suggest_on_error = True

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

color

By default, the help message is printed in color using ANSI escape sequences [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ANSI_escape_code]. If you want plain text help messages, you can disable this in your local environment, or in the argument parser itself by setting color to False:

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(description='Process some integers.',
...                                  color=False)
>>> parser.add_argument('--action', choices=['sum', 'max'])
>>> parser.add_argument('integers', metavar='N', type=int, nargs='+',
...                     help='an integer for the accumulator')
>>> parser.parse_args(['--help'])

Note that when color=True, colored output depends on both environment variables and terminal capabilities. However, if color=False, colored output is always disabled, even if environment variables like FORCE_COLOR are set.

Note

Error messages will include color codes when redirecting stderr to a file. To avoid this, set the NO_COLOR [https://no-color.org/] or PYTHON_COLORS environment variable (for example, NO_COLOR=1 python script.py 2> errors.txt).

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

La méthode add_argument()

ArgumentParser.add_argument(name or flags..., *[, action][, nargs][, const][, default][, type][, choices][, required][, help][, metavar][, dest][, deprecated])

Définie comment une option de ligne de commande doit être analysée. Chacun des paramètres est décrit plus en détails ci-bas, mais en résumé ils sont :

name or flags - Either a name or a list of option strings, e.g. 'foo' or '-f', '--foo'.

action – Type élémentaire de l'action à entreprendre quand cet argument est reconnu sur la ligne de commande ;

nargs – Nombre d'arguments de la ligne de commande à capturer ;

const – Valeur constante requise par certains choix d'action et de nargs ;

default – Valeur produite si l'argument est absent de la ligne de commande et absent de l'objet namespace ;

type – Type vers lequel l'argument sur la ligne de commande doit être converti ;

choices – La séquence de valeurs autorisées pour cet argument ;

required – True si l'option sur la ligne de commande est obligatoire (ne s'applique qu'aux arguments optionnels) ;

help – Brève description de ce que fait l'argument ;

metavar – Nom de l'argument dans les messages d'utilisations ;

dest – Nom de l'attribut qui est ajouté à l'objet retourné par parse_args().

deprecated - Whether or not use of the argument is deprecated.

The method returns an Action object representing the argument.

Les sections suivantes décrivent comment chacune de ces options sont utilisées.

Le paramètre name_or_flags

La méthode add_argument() doit savoir s'il s'agit d'un argument optionnel (tel que -f ou --foo) ou d'un argument positionnel (tel qu'une liste de noms de fichiers) qui est attendu. Le premier argument passé à add_argument() doit donc être soit une série de drapeaux, soit le nom de l'argument.

Par exemple, un argument optionnel est créé comme suit :

>>> parser.add_argument('-f', '--foo')

alors qu'un argument positionnel est créé comme suit :

>>> parser.add_argument('bar')

Lors le l'appel de parse_args(), les arguments qui commencent par le préfixe - sont présumés optionnels et tous les autres sont présumés positionnels :

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
>>> parser.add_argument('-f', '--foo')
>>> parser.add_argument('bar')
>>> parser.parse_args(['BAR'])
Namespace(bar='BAR', foo=None)
>>> parser.parse_args(['BAR', '--foo', 'FOO'])
Namespace(bar='BAR', foo='FOO')
>>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', 'FOO'])
usage: PROG [-h] [-f FOO] bar
PROG: error: the following arguments are required: bar

By default, argparse automatically handles the internal naming and display names of arguments, simplifying the process without requiring additional configuration. As such, you do not need to specify the dest and metavar parameters. For optional arguments, the dest parameter defaults to the argument name, with underscores _ replacing hyphens -. The metavar parameter defaults to the upper-cased name. For example:

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
>>> parser.add_argument('--foo-bar')
>>> parser.parse_args(['--foo-bar', 'FOO-BAR'])
Namespace(foo_bar='FOO-BAR')
>>> parser.print_help()
usage:  [-h] [--foo-bar FOO-BAR]

optional arguments:
 -h, --help  show this help message and exit
 --foo-bar FOO-BAR

Le paramètre action

Les objets ArgumentParser associent les arguments de la ligne de commande avec des actions. Ces actions peuvent soumettre les arguments de la ligne de commande auxquels elles sont associées à un traitement arbitraire, mais la majorité des actions se contentent d'ajouter un attribut à l'objet renvoyé par parse_args(). L'argument nommé action indique comment l'argument de la ligne de commande est traité. Les actions natives sont :

'store' - This just stores the argument's value. This is the default action.

'store_const' – Stocke la valeur passée à l'argument nommé const. La valeur par défaut de const est None. L'action 'store_const' est généralement utilisée avec des arguments optionnels représentant un drapeau ou une condition similaire. Par exemple :

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
>>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action='store_const', const=42)
>>> parser.parse_args(['--foo'])
Namespace(foo=42)

'store_true' and 'store_false' - These are special cases of 'store_const' that respectively store the values True and False with default values of False and True:

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
>>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action='store_true')
>>> parser.add_argument('--bar', action='store_false')
>>> parser.add_argument('--baz', action='store_false')
>>> parser.parse_args('--foo --bar'.split())
Namespace(foo=True, bar=False, baz=True)

'append' - This appends each argument value to a list. It is useful for allowing an option to be specified multiple times. If the default value is a non-empty list, the parsed value will start with the default list's elements and any values from the command line will be appended after those default values. Example usage:

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
>>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action='append', default=['0'])
>>> parser.parse_args('--foo 1 --foo 2'.split())
Namespace(foo=['0', '1', '2'])

'append_const' - This appends the value specified by the const keyword argument to a list; note that the const keyword argument defaults to None. The 'append_const' action is typically useful when multiple arguments need to store constants to the same list. For example:

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
>>> parser.add_argument('--str', dest='types', action='append_const', const=str)
>>> parser.add_argument('--int', dest='types', action='append_const', const=int)
>>> parser.parse_args('--str --int'.split())
Namespace(types=[<class 'str'>, <class 'int'>])

'extend' - This appends each item from a multi-value argument to a list. The 'extend' action is typically used with the nargs keyword argument value '+' or '*'. Note that when nargs is None (the default) or '?', each character of the argument string will be appended to the list. Example usage:

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
>>> parser.add_argument("--foo", action="extend", nargs="+", type=str)
>>> parser.parse_args(["--foo", "f1", "--foo", "f2", "f3", "f4"])
Namespace(foo=['f1', 'f2', 'f3', 'f4'])

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

'count' - This counts the number of times an argument occurs. For example, this is useful for increasing verbosity levels:

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
>>> parser.add_argument('--verbose', '-v', action='count', default=0)
>>> parser.parse_args(['-vvv'])
Namespace(verbose=3)

Prenez note que la valeur de default est None à moins qu'elle soit explicitement définie à 0.

'help' – Affiche le message d'aide complet pour toutes les options de l'analyseur puis termine l'exécution. Une action help est automatiquement ajoutée à l'analyseur par défaut. Consultez ArgumentParser pour les détails de la création du contenu de l'aide.

'version' – Affiche la version du programme puis termine l'exécution. Cette action requiert l'argument nommé version= dans l'appel à add_argument() :

>>> import argparse
>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
>>> parser.add_argument('--version', action='version', version='%(prog)s 2.0')
>>> parser.parse_args(['--version'])
PROG 2.0

You may also specify an arbitrary action by passing an Action subclass (e.g. BooleanOptionalAction) or other object that implements the same interface. Only actions that consume command-line arguments (e.g. 'store', 'append', 'extend', or custom actions with non-zero nargs) can be used with positional arguments.

The recommended way to create a custom action is to extend Action, overriding the __call__() method and optionally the __init__() and format_usage() methods. You can also register custom actions using the register() method and reference them by their registered name.

Un exemple d'action personnalisée :

>>> class FooAction(argparse.Action):
...     def __init__(self, option_strings, dest, nargs=None, **kwargs):
...         if nargs is not None:
...             raise ValueError("nargs not allowed")
...         super().__init__(option_strings, dest, **kwargs)
...     def __call__(self, parser, namespace, values, option_string=None):
...         print('%r %r %r' % (namespace, values, option_string))
...         setattr(namespace, self.dest, values)
...
>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
>>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action=FooAction)
>>> parser.add_argument('bar', action=FooAction)
>>> args = parser.parse_args('1 --foo 2'.split())
Namespace(bar=None, foo=None) '1' None
Namespace(bar='1', foo=None) '2' '--foo'
>>> args
Namespace(bar='1', foo='2')

Pour plus d'information, voir Action.

Le paramètre nargs

ArgumentParser objects usually associate a single command-line argument with a single action to be taken. The nargs keyword argument associates a different number of command-line arguments with a single action. See also Specifying ambiguous arguments. The supported values are:

N (un entier). N arguments de la ligne de commande sont capturés ensemble et stockés dans une liste. Par exemple :

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
>>> parser.add_argument('--foo', nargs=2)
>>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs=1)
>>> parser.parse_args('c --foo a b'.split())
Namespace(bar=['c'], foo=['a', 'b'])

Prenez note que nargs=1 produit une liste avec un seul élément. Ceci est différent du comportement par défaut qui produit l'élément directement (comme un scalaire).

'?'. Un argument de la ligne de commande est capturé et produit directement. Si aucun argument n'est présent sur la ligne de commande, la valeur de default est produite. Prenez note que pour les arguments optionnels, il est aussi possible que la chaîne d'option soit présente mais qu'elle ne soit pas suivie d'un argument. Dans ce cas, la valeur de const est produite. Voici quelques exemples pour illustrer ceci :

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
>>> parser.add_argument('--foo', nargs='?', const='c', default='d')
>>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs='?', default='d')
>>> parser.parse_args(['XX', '--foo', 'YY'])
Namespace(bar='XX', foo='YY')
>>> parser.parse_args(['XX', '--foo'])
Namespace(bar='XX', foo='c')
>>> parser.parse_args([])
Namespace(bar='d', foo='d')

nargs='?' est fréquemment utilisé pour accepter des fichiers d'entrée et de sortie optionnels :

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
>>> parser.add_argument('infile', nargs='?')
>>> parser.add_argument('outfile', nargs='?')
>>> parser.parse_args(['input.txt', 'output.txt'])
Namespace(infile='input.txt', outfile='output.txt')
>>> parser.parse_args(['input.txt'])
Namespace(infile='input.txt', outfile=None)
>>> parser.parse_args([])
Namespace(infile=None, outfile=None)

'*'. Tous les arguments présents sur la ligne de commande sont capturés dans une liste. Prenez note qu'il n'est pas logique d'avoir plus d'un argument positionnel avec nargs='*', mais il est par contre possible d'avoir plusieurs arguments optionnels qui spécifient nargs='*'. Par exemple :

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
>>> parser.add_argument('--foo', nargs='*')
>>> parser.add_argument('--bar', nargs='*')
>>> parser.add_argument('baz', nargs='*')
>>> parser.parse_args('a b --foo x y --bar 1 2'.split())
Namespace(bar=['1', '2'], baz=['a', 'b'], foo=['x', 'y'])

'+'. Just like '*', all command-line arguments present are gathered into a list. Additionally, an error message will be generated if there wasn't at least one command-line argument present. For example:

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
>>> parser.add_argument('foo', nargs='+')
>>> parser.parse_args(['a', 'b'])
Namespace(foo=['a', 'b'])
>>> parser.parse_args([])
usage: PROG [-h] foo [foo ...]
PROG: error: the following arguments are required: foo

If the nargs keyword argument is not provided, the number of arguments consumed is determined by the action. Generally this means a single command-line argument will be consumed and a single item (not a list) will be produced. Actions that do not consume command-line arguments (e.g. 'store_const') set nargs=0.

Le paramètre const

L'argument const d'add_argument() est utilisé pour stocker une constante qui n'est pas lue depuis la ligne de commande mais qui est requise par certaines actions d'ArgumentParser. Les deux utilisations les plus communes sont :

quand add_argument() est appelée avec action='store_const' ou action='append_const', ces actions ajoutent la valeur de const à l'un des attributs de l'objet renvoyé par parse_args(). Consultez la description d'action pour voir quelques exemples. La valeur de const est None par défaut pour add_argument() ;

When add_argument() is called with option strings (like -f or --foo) and nargs='?'. This creates an optional argument that can be followed by zero or one command-line arguments. When parsing the command line, if the option string is encountered with no command-line argument following it, the value from const will be used. See the nargs description for examples.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: const=None par défaut, y compris avec action='append_const' ou action='store_const'.

Le paramètre default

Tous les arguments optionnels et certains arguments positionnels peuvent être omis à la ligne de commande. L'argument nommé default de la méthode add_argument() (qui vaut None par défaut), indique quelle valeur est utilisée si l'argument est absent de la ligne de commande. Pour les arguments optionnels, la valeur de default est utilisée si la chaîne d'option n'est pas présente sur la ligne de commande :

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
>>> parser.add_argument('--foo', default=42)
>>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', '2'])
Namespace(foo='2')
>>> parser.parse_args([])
Namespace(foo=42)

If the target namespace already has an attribute set, the action default will not overwrite it:

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
>>> parser.add_argument('--foo', default=42)
>>> parser.parse_args([], namespace=argparse.Namespace(foo=101))
Namespace(foo=101)

Si la valeur de default est une chaîne, l'analyseur analyse cette valeur comme si c'était un argument de la ligne de commande. En particulier, l'analyseur applique la conversion définie par l'argument type (si elle est fournie) avant d'affecter l'attribut à l'objet Namespace renvoyé. Autrement, l'analyseur utilise la valeur telle qu'elle :

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
>>> parser.add_argument('--length', default='10', type=int)
>>> parser.add_argument('--width', default=10.5, type=int)
>>> parser.parse_args()
Namespace(length=10, width=10.5)

Pour les arguments positionnels pour lesquels nargs est ? ou *, la valeur de default est utilisée quand l'argument est absent de la ligne de commande :

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
>>> parser.add_argument('foo', nargs='?', default=42)
>>> parser.parse_args(['a'])
Namespace(foo='a')
>>> parser.parse_args([])
Namespace(foo=42)

For required arguments, the default value is ignored. For example, this applies to positional arguments with nargs values other than ? or *, or optional arguments marked as required=True.

Si vous passez default=argparse.SUPPRESS, aucun attribut n'est ajouté à l'objet Namespace quand l'argument est absent de la ligne de commande :

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
>>> parser.add_argument('--foo', default=argparse.SUPPRESS)
>>> parser.parse_args([])
Namespace()
>>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', '1'])
Namespace(foo='1')

Le paramètre type

Par défaut, l'analyseur capture les arguments de la ligne de commande comme des chaînes. Très souvent par contre, on désire interpréter les chaînes de la ligne de commande comme un autre type, tel que float ou int. L'argument nommé type d'add_argument() nous permet de faire les vérifications et les conversions de type nécessaires.

Si l'argument nommé type est utilisé en conjonction avec l'argument nommé default, le convertisseur de type n'est appliqué que si la valeur par défaut est une chaîne.

The argument to type can be a callable that accepts a single string or the name of a registered type (see register()) If the function raises ArgumentTypeError, TypeError, or ValueError, the exception is caught and a nicely formatted error message is displayed. Other exception types are not handled.

Les types et les fonctions natives peuvent être utilisés comme convertisseurs de types :

import argparse
import pathlib

parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
parser.add_argument('count', type=int)
parser.add_argument('distance', type=float)
parser.add_argument('street', type=ascii)
parser.add_argument('code_point', type=ord)
parser.add_argument('datapath', type=pathlib.Path)

Des fonctions définies par l'utilisateur peuvent aussi être utilisées :

>>> def hyphenated(string):
...     return '-'.join([word[:4] for word in string.casefold().split()])
...
>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
>>> _ = parser.add_argument('short_title', type=hyphenated)
>>> parser.parse_args(['"The Tale of Two Cities"'])
Namespace(short_title='"the-tale-of-two-citi')

La fonction bool() est déconseillée comme convertisseur de type. Son comportement se limite à convertir les chaînes vides à False et les chaînes non-vides à True. Ce n'est généralement pas le résultat désiré.

En général, l'argument nommé type est un raccourci qui ne devrait être utilisé que pour les conversions simples qui ne peuvent lever qu'une des trois exceptions gérées. Les conversions qui demandent un traitement d'erreurs plus intéressant ou une gestion de ressources devraient être effectuées plus tard dans l’exécution suivant l'analyse des arguments.

Par exemple, les conversions de documents JSON ou YAML ont des cas d'erreurs complexes qui requièrent un meilleur signalement que ce qui est fourni par l'argument nommé type. Une exception JSONDecodeError ne serait pas adéquatement formatée et une exception FileNotFoundError ne serait pas du tout traitée.

Even FileType has its limitations for use with the type keyword. If one argument uses FileType and then a subsequent argument fails, an error is reported but the file is not automatically closed. In this case, it would be better to wait until after the parser has run and then use the with-statement to manage the files.

Pour les vérificateurs de types qui ne font que tester l'appartenance à un ensemble de valeurs, pensez plutôt à utiliser l'argument nommé choices.

Le paramètre choices

Certains arguments de la ligne de commande doivent être choisis parmi un ensemble prédéfini de valeurs. Celles-ci doivent être déclarées dans la séquence passée à l'argument choices de la méthode add_argument(). Un message d'erreur est alors affiché si l'utilisateur passe un argument qui n'est pas parmi les valeurs acceptables :

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='game.py')
>>> parser.add_argument('move', choices=['rock', 'paper', 'scissors'])
>>> parser.parse_args(['rock'])
Namespace(move='rock')
>>> parser.parse_args(['fire'])
usage: game.py [-h] {rock,paper,scissors}
game.py: error: argument move: invalid choice: 'fire' (choose from 'rock',
'paper', 'scissors')

N'importe quel séquence peut être utilisée comme valeur de choices, dont les objets de type list, set ou des conteneurs personnalisés.

L'utilisation d'enum.Enum est déconseillée, car il est difficile de contrôler son apparence dans les messages d'usage, d'aide et d'erreur.

Note that choices are checked after any type conversions have been performed, so objects in choices should match the type specified. This can make choices appear unfamiliar in usage, help, or error messages.

To keep choices user-friendly, consider a custom type wrapper that converts and formats values, or omit type and handle conversion in your application code.

Les choix formatés écrasent la valeur par défaut de metavar qui est normalement dérivée de dest. C'est en général le comportement recherché car l'utilisateur ne voit jamais le paramètre dest. Si cet affichage n'est pas souhaité (comme lorsque les choix sont trop nombreux) spécifiez simplement metavar de façon explicite.

Le paramètre required

In general, the argparse module assumes that flags like -f and --bar indicate optional arguments, which can always be omitted at the command line. To make an option required, True can be specified for the required= keyword argument to add_argument():

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
>>> parser.add_argument('--foo', required=True)
>>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', 'BAR'])
Namespace(foo='BAR')
>>> parser.parse_args([])
usage: [-h] --foo FOO
: error: the following arguments are required: --foo

Tel qu'illustré dans l'exemple, quand l'option est marquée comme required, parse_args() mentionne une erreur si l'option est absente de la ligne de commande.

Note

En général, les options obligatoires manifestent un style boiteux, car les utilisateurs s'attendent à ce que les options soient optionnelles. Elles devraient donc être évitées si possible.

Le paramètre help

The help value is a string containing a brief description of the argument. When a user requests help (usually by using -h or --help at the command line), these help descriptions will be displayed with each argument.

La chaîne help peut contenir des définitions de formatage permettant d'éviter la répétition de contenu tel que le nom du programme et la valeur par défaut de l'argument (voir default). Les définitions disponibles comprennent entre autres le nom du programme, %(prog)s, et la plupart des arguments nommés d'add_argument(), tels que %(default)s, %(type)s, etc :

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='frobble')
>>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs='?', type=int, default=42,
...                     help='the bar to %(prog)s (default: %(default)s)')
>>> parser.print_help()
usage: frobble [-h] [bar]

positional arguments:
 bar     the bar to frobble (default: 42)

options:
 -h, --help  show this help message and exit

Comme la chaîne d'aide utilise le caractère % pour le formatage, si vous désirez afficher un % littéral dans la chaîne d'aide, vous devez en faire l’échappement avec %%.

argparse supports silencing the help entry for certain options, by setting the help value to argparse.SUPPRESS:

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='frobble')
>>> parser.add_argument('--foo', help=argparse.SUPPRESS)
>>> parser.print_help()
usage: frobble [-h]

options:
  -h, --help  show this help message and exit

Le paramètre metavar

When ArgumentParser generates help messages, it needs some way to refer to each expected argument. By default, ArgumentParser objects use the dest value as the "name" of each object. By default, for positional argument actions, the dest value is used directly, and for optional argument actions, the dest value is uppercased. So, a single positional argument with dest='bar' will be referred to as bar. A single optional argument --foo that should be followed by a single command-line argument will be referred to as FOO. An example:

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
>>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
>>> parser.add_argument('bar')
>>> parser.parse_args('X --foo Y'.split())
Namespace(bar='X', foo='Y')
>>> parser.print_help()
usage:  [-h] [--foo FOO] bar

positional arguments:
 bar

options:
 -h, --help  show this help message and exit
 --foo FOO

Un nom alternatif peut être fourni à metavar :

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
>>> parser.add_argument('--foo', metavar='YYY')
>>> parser.add_argument('bar', metavar='XXX')
>>> parser.parse_args('X --foo Y'.split())
Namespace(bar='X', foo='Y')
>>> parser.print_help()
usage:  [-h] [--foo YYY] XXX

positional arguments:
 XXX

options:
 -h, --help  show this help message and exit
 --foo YYY

Prenez note que metavar ne change que le nom affiché. Le nom de l'attribut ajouté à l'objet renvoyé par parse_args() est toujours déterminé par la valeur de dest.

Certaines valeurs de nargs peuvent provoquer l'affichage de metavar plus d'une fois. Passer un n-uplet à metavar indique les différents noms à afficher pour chacun des arguments :

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
>>> parser.add_argument('-x', nargs=2)
>>> parser.add_argument('--foo', nargs=2, metavar=('bar', 'baz'))
>>> parser.print_help()
usage: PROG [-h] [-x X X] [--foo bar baz]

options:
 -h, --help     show this help message and exit
 -x X X
 --foo bar baz

Le paramètre dest

La plupart des actions d'ArgumentParser ajoutent une valeur dans un attribut de l'objet renvoyé par parse_args(). Le nom de l'attribut est déterminé par l'argument nommé dest d'add_argument(). Pour les arguments positionnels, dest est généralement le premier argument d'add_argument() :

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
>>> parser.add_argument('bar')
>>> parser.parse_args(['XXX'])
Namespace(bar='XXX')

Pour les actions d'arguments optionnels, la valeur de dest est généralement inférée des chaînes d'options. ArgumentParser génère la valeur de dest en retirant le préfixe -- de la première chaîne d'options longues. Si aucune n'est fournie, dest est alors dérivée de la première chaîne d'options courtes sans le préfixe -. Tous les - suivants sont convertis en _ pour s'assurer que la chaîne est un nom d'attribut valide. Les exemples suivants illustrent ce comportement :

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
>>> parser.add_argument('-f', '--foo-bar', '--foo')
>>> parser.add_argument('-x', '-y')
>>> parser.parse_args('-f 1 -x 2'.split())
Namespace(foo_bar='1', x='2')
>>> parser.parse_args('--foo 1 -y 2'.split())
Namespace(foo_bar='1', x='2')

dest vous permet de fournir un nom d'attribut personnalisé :

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
>>> parser.add_argument('--foo', dest='bar')
>>> parser.parse_args('--foo XXX'.split())
Namespace(bar='XXX')

deprecated

During a project's lifetime, some arguments may need to be removed from the command line. Before removing them, you should inform your users that the arguments are deprecated and will be removed. The deprecated keyword argument of add_argument(), which defaults to False, specifies if the argument is deprecated and will be removed in the future. For arguments, if deprecated is True, then a warning will be printed to sys.stderr when the argument is used:

>>> import argparse
>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='snake.py')
>>> parser.add_argument('--legs', default=0, type=int, deprecated=True)
>>> parser.parse_args([])
Namespace(legs=0)
>>> parser.parse_args(['--legs', '4'])
snake.py: warning: option '--legs' is deprecated
Namespace(legs=4)

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Classes Action

Action classes implement the Action API, a callable which returns a callable which processes arguments from the command-line. Any object which follows this API may be passed as the action parameter to add_argument().

class argparse.Action(option_strings, dest, nargs=None, const=None, default=None, type=None, choices=None, required=False, help=None, metavar=None)

Action objects are used by an ArgumentParser to represent the information needed to parse a single argument from one or more strings from the command line. The Action class must accept the two positional arguments plus any keyword arguments passed to ArgumentParser.add_argument() except for the action itself.

Instances of Action (or return value of any callable to the action parameter) should have attributes dest, option_strings, default, type, required, help, etc. defined. The easiest way to ensure these attributes are defined is to call Action.__init__().

__call__(parser, namespace, values, option_string=None)

Action instances should be callable, so subclasses must override the __call__() method, which should accept four parameters:

parser - The ArgumentParser object which contains this action.

namespace - The Namespace object that will be returned by parse_args(). Most actions add an attribute to this object using setattr().

values - The associated command-line arguments, with any type conversions applied. Type conversions are specified with the type keyword argument to add_argument().

option_string - The option string that was used to invoke this action. The option_string argument is optional, and will be absent if the action is associated with a positional argument.

The __call__() method may perform arbitrary actions, but will typically set attributes on the namespace based on dest and values.

format_usage()

Action subclasses can define a format_usage() method that takes no argument and return a string which will be used when printing the usage of the program. If such method is not provided, a sensible default will be used.

class argparse.BooleanOptionalAction

A subclass of Action for handling boolean flags with positive and negative options. Adding a single argument such as --foo automatically creates both --foo and --no-foo options, storing True and False respectively:

>>> import argparse
>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
>>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action=argparse.BooleanOptionalAction)
>>> parser.parse_args(['--no-foo'])
Namespace(foo=False)

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

La méthode parse_args()

ArgumentParser.parse_args(args=None, namespace=None)

Convertie les chaînes d'arguments en objets et les assigne comme attributs de l'espace de nommage namespace. Renvoie un objet namespace rempli.

Previous calls to add_argument() determine exactly what objects are created and how they are assigned. See the documentation for add_argument() for details.

args – Liste de chaînes à analyser. La valeur par défaut est récupérée dans sys.argv.

namespace – Un objet pour recevoir les attributs. Par défaut, une nouvelle instance (vide) de Namespace.

Syntaxe de la valeur des options

La méthode parse_args() offre plusieurs façons d'indiquer la valeur d'une option si elle en prend une. Dans le cas le plus simple, l'option et sa valeur sont passées en tant que deux arguments distincts :

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
>>> parser.add_argument('-x')
>>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
>>> parser.parse_args(['-x', 'X'])
Namespace(foo=None, x='X')
>>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', 'FOO'])
Namespace(foo='FOO', x=None)

Pour les options longues (les options qui ont un nom de plus d'un caractère), l'option et sa valeur peuvent être passées comme un seul argument de la ligne de commande en utilisant = comme séparateur :

>>> parser.parse_args(['--foo=FOO'])
Namespace(foo='FOO', x=None)

Pour les options courtes (un seul caractère), l'option et sa valeur peuvent être concaténées :

>>> parser.parse_args(['-xX'])
Namespace(foo=None, x='X')

Plusieurs options courtes peuvent être groupées ensemble après un seul préfixe - pour autant que seule la dernière, au maximum, ne nécessite une valeur :

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
>>> parser.add_argument('-x', action='store_true')
>>> parser.add_argument('-y', action='store_true')
>>> parser.add_argument('-z')
>>> parser.parse_args(['-xyzZ'])
Namespace(x=True, y=True, z='Z')

Arguments invalides

Quand elle fait l'analyse de la ligne de commande, la méthode parse_args() vérifie plusieurs erreurs possibles : entre autres, options ambigües, types invalides, options invalides, nombre incorrect d'arguments positionnels, etc. Quand une erreur est rencontrée, elle affiche l'erreur accompagnée du message d'aide puis termine l'exécution :

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
>>> parser.add_argument('--foo', type=int)
>>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs='?')

>>> # invalid type
>>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', 'spam'])
usage: PROG [-h] [--foo FOO] [bar]
PROG: error: argument --foo: invalid int value: 'spam'

>>> # invalid option
>>> parser.parse_args(['--bar'])
usage: PROG [-h] [--foo FOO] [bar]
PROG: error: no such option: --bar

>>> # wrong number of arguments
>>> parser.parse_args(['spam', 'badger'])
usage: PROG [-h] [--foo FOO] [bar]
PROG: error: extra arguments found: badger

Arguments contenant -

La méthode parse_args() tente de signaler une erreur quand l'utilisateur s'est clairement trompé. Par contre, certaines situations sont intrinsèquement ambigües. Par exemple, l'argument de la ligne de commande -1 peut aussi bien être une tentative de spécifier une option qu'une tentative de passer un argument positionnel. La méthode parse_args() est prudente : les arguments positionnels ne peuvent commencer par - que s'ils ont l'apparence d'un nombre négatif et que l'analyseur ne contient aucune option qui a l'apparence d'un nombre négatif :

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
>>> parser.add_argument('-x')
>>> parser.add_argument('foo', nargs='?')

>>> # no negative number options, so -1 is a positional argument
>>> parser.parse_args(['-x', '-1'])
Namespace(foo=None, x='-1')

>>> # no negative number options, so -1 and -5 are positional arguments
>>> parser.parse_args(['-x', '-1', '-5'])
Namespace(foo='-5', x='-1')

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
>>> parser.add_argument('-1', dest='one')
>>> parser.add_argument('foo', nargs='?')

>>> # negative number options present, so -1 is an option
>>> parser.parse_args(['-1', 'X'])
Namespace(foo=None, one='X')

>>> # negative number options present, so -2 is an option
>>> parser.parse_args(['-2'])
usage: PROG [-h] [-1 ONE] [foo]
PROG: error: no such option: -2

>>> # negative number options present, so both -1s are options
>>> parser.parse_args(['-1', '-1'])
usage: PROG [-h] [-1 ONE] [foo]
PROG: error: argument -1: expected one argument

Si l'utilisateur a des arguments positionnels qui commencent par - et qui n'ont pas l'apparence d'un nombre négatif, il peut insérer le pseudo-argument '--' qui indique à parse_args() de traiter tout ce qui suit comme un argument positionnel :

>>> parser.parse_args(['--', '-f'])
Namespace(foo='-f', one=None)

See also the argparse howto on ambiguous arguments for more details.

Arguments abrégés (par comparaison de leurs préfixes)

Par défaut, la méthode parse_args() accepte que les options longues soient abrégées par un préfixe pour autant que l’abréviation soit non-ambigüe, c'est-à-dire qu'elle ne corresponde à aucune autre option :

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
>>> parser.add_argument('-bacon')
>>> parser.add_argument('-badger')
>>> parser.parse_args('-bac MMM'.split())
Namespace(bacon='MMM', badger=None)
>>> parser.parse_args('-bad WOOD'.split())
Namespace(bacon=None, badger='WOOD')
>>> parser.parse_args('-ba BA'.split())
usage: PROG [-h] [-bacon BACON] [-badger BADGER]
PROG: error: ambiguous option: -ba could match -badger, -bacon

Une erreur est générée pour les arguments qui peuvent produire plus d'une option. Ce comportement peut être désactivé en passant False à Le paramètre allow_abbrev.

Au-delà de sys.argv

Sometimes it may be useful to have an ArgumentParser parse arguments other than those of sys.argv. This can be accomplished by passing a list of strings to parse_args(). This is useful for testing at the interactive prompt:

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
>>> parser.add_argument(
...     'integers', metavar='int', type=int, choices=range(10),
...     nargs='+', help='an integer in the range 0..9')
>>> parser.add_argument(
...     '--sum', dest='accumulate', action='store_const', const=sum,
...     default=max, help='sum the integers (default: find the max)')
>>> parser.parse_args(['1', '2', '3', '4'])
Namespace(accumulate=<built-in function max>, integers=[1, 2, 3, 4])
>>> parser.parse_args(['1', '2', '3', '4', '--sum'])
Namespace(accumulate=<built-in function sum>, integers=[1, 2, 3, 4])

L'objet Namespace

class argparse.Namespace

Classe rudimentaire utilisée par défaut par parse_args() pour créer un objet qui stocke les attributs. Cet objet est renvoyé par ArgumentParser.parse_args.

Cette classe est délibérément rudimentaire : une sous-classe d'object avec une représentation textuelle intelligible. Si vous préférez une vue dict-compatible, vous devez utiliser vars() (un idiome Python classique) :

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
>>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
>>> args = parser.parse_args(['--foo', 'BAR'])
>>> vars(args)
{'foo': 'BAR'}

Il est parfois utile de demander à ArgumentParser de faire l'affectation des attributs sur un objet existant plutôt que de faire la création d'un nouvel objet Namespace. Ceci peut être réalisé avec l'argument nommé namespace= :

>>> class C:
...     pass
...
>>> c = C()
>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
>>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
>>> parser.parse_args(args=['--foo', 'BAR'], namespace=c)
>>> c.foo
'BAR'

Autres outils

Subcommands

ArgumentParser.add_subparsers(*[, title][, description][, prog][, parser_class][, action][, dest][, required][, help][, metavar])

Many programs split up their functionality into a number of subcommands, for example, the svn program can invoke subcommands like svn checkout, svn update, and svn commit. Splitting up functionality this way can be a particularly good idea when a program performs several different functions which require different kinds of command-line arguments. ArgumentParser supports the creation of such subcommands with the add_subparsers() method. The add_subparsers() method is normally called with no arguments and returns a special action object. This object has a single method, add_parser(), which takes a command name and any ArgumentParser constructor arguments, and returns an ArgumentParser object that can be modified as usual.

Description des paramètres :

title - title for the sub-parser group in help output; by default "subcommands" if description is provided, otherwise uses title for positional arguments

description - description for the sub-parser group in help output, by default None

prog - usage information that will be displayed with subcommand help, by default the name of the program and any positional arguments before the subparser argument

parser_class - class which will be used to create sub-parser instances, by default the class of the current parser (e.g. ArgumentParser)

action – action à entreprendre quand cet argument est reconnu sur la ligne de commande ;

dest - name of the attribute under which subcommand name will be stored; by default None and no value is stored

required – True si la sous-commande est obligatoire ; par défaut : False (ajouté dans 3.7) ;

help – message d'aide pour le groupe du sous-analyseur dans la sortie d'aide ; par défaut : None ;

metavar - string presenting available subcommands in help; by default it is None and presents subcommands in form {cmd1, cmd2, ..}

Quelques exemples d'utilisation :

>>> # create the top-level parser
>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
>>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action='store_true', help='foo help')
>>> subparsers = parser.add_subparsers(help='subcommand help')
>>>
>>> # create the parser for the "a" command
>>> parser_a = subparsers.add_parser('a', help='a help')
>>> parser_a.add_argument('bar', type=int, help='bar help')
>>>
>>> # create the parser for the "b" command
>>> parser_b = subparsers.add_parser('b', help='b help')
>>> parser_b.add_argument('--baz', choices=('X', 'Y', 'Z'), help='baz help')
>>>
>>> # parse some argument lists
>>> parser.parse_args(['a', '12'])
Namespace(bar=12, foo=False)
>>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', 'b', '--baz', 'Z'])
Namespace(baz='Z', foo=True)

Prenez note que l'objet renvoyé par parse_args() ne contient que les attributs reconnus par l'analyseur principal et le sous-analyseur sélectionné par la ligne de commande. Les autres sous-analyseurs n'ont pas d'influence sur l'objet renvoyé. Ainsi dans l'exemple précédent, quand la commande a est donnée, seuls les attributs foo et bar sont présents alors que la commande b présente les attributs foo et baz.

Similarly, when a help message is requested from a subparser, only the help for that particular parser will be printed. The help message will not include parent parser or sibling parser messages. (A help message for each subparser command, however, can be given by supplying the help= argument to add_parser() as above.)

>>> parser.parse_args(['--help'])
usage: PROG [-h] [--foo] {a,b} ...

positional arguments:
  {a,b}   subcommand help
    a     a help
    b     b help

options:
  -h, --help  show this help message and exit
  --foo   foo help

>>> parser.parse_args(['a', '--help'])
usage: PROG a [-h] bar

positional arguments:
  bar     bar help

options:
  -h, --help  show this help message and exit

>>> parser.parse_args(['b', '--help'])
usage: PROG b [-h] [--baz {X,Y,Z}]

options:
  -h, --help     show this help message and exit
  --baz {X,Y,Z}  baz help

La méthode add_subparsers() accepte les arguments nommés title et description. Quand au moins l'un des deux est présent, les commandes du sous-analyseur sont affichées dans leur propre groupe dans la sortie d'aide. Par exemple :

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
>>> subparsers = parser.add_subparsers(title='subcommands',
...                                    description='valid subcommands',
...                                    help='additional help')
>>> subparsers.add_parser('foo')
>>> subparsers.add_parser('bar')
>>> parser.parse_args(['-h'])
usage:  [-h] {foo,bar} ...

options:
  -h, --help  show this help message and exit

subcommands:
  valid subcommands

  {foo,bar}   additional help

Furthermore, add_parser() supports an additional aliases argument, which allows multiple strings to refer to the same subparser. This example, like svn, aliases co as a shorthand for checkout:

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
>>> subparsers = parser.add_subparsers()
>>> checkout = subparsers.add_parser('checkout', aliases=['co'])
>>> checkout.add_argument('foo')
>>> parser.parse_args(['co', 'bar'])
Namespace(foo='bar')

add_parser() supports also an additional deprecated argument, which allows to deprecate the subparser.

>>> import argparse
>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='chicken.py')
>>> subparsers = parser.add_subparsers()
>>> run = subparsers.add_parser('run')
>>> fly = subparsers.add_parser('fly', deprecated=True)
>>> parser.parse_args(['fly'])
chicken.py: warning: command 'fly' is deprecated
Namespace()

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

One particularly effective way of handling subcommands is to combine the use of the add_subparsers() method with calls to set_defaults() so that each subparser knows which Python function it should execute. For example:

>>> # subcommand functions
>>> def foo(args):
...     print(args.x * args.y)
...
>>> def bar(args):
...     print('((%s))' % args.z)
...
>>> # create the top-level parser
>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
>>> subparsers = parser.add_subparsers(required=True)
>>>
>>> # create the parser for the "foo" command
>>> parser_foo = subparsers.add_parser('foo')
>>> parser_foo.add_argument('-x', type=int, default=1)
>>> parser_foo.add_argument('y', type=float)
>>> parser_foo.set_defaults(func=foo)
>>>
>>> # create the parser for the "bar" command
>>> parser_bar = subparsers.add_parser('bar')
>>> parser_bar.add_argument('z')
>>> parser_bar.set_defaults(func=bar)
>>>
>>> # parse the args and call whatever function was selected
>>> args = parser.parse_args('foo 1 -x 2'.split())
>>> args.func(args)
2.0
>>>
>>> # parse the args and call whatever function was selected
>>> args = parser.parse_args('bar XYZYX'.split())
>>> args.func(args)
((XYZYX))

Ainsi, vous pouvez laisser à parse_args() la responsabilité de faire appel à la bonne fonction après avoir analysé les arguments. Associer fonctions et actions est en général la façon la plus facile de gérer des actions différentes pour chacun de vos sous-analyseurs. Par contre, si vous avez besoin de consulter le nom du sous-analyseur qui a été invoqué, vous pouvez utiliser l'argument nommé dest d'add_subparsers() :

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
>>> subparsers = parser.add_subparsers(dest='subparser_name')
>>> subparser1 = subparsers.add_parser('1')
>>> subparser1.add_argument('-x')
>>> subparser2 = subparsers.add_parser('2')
>>> subparser2.add_argument('y')
>>> parser.parse_args(['2', 'frobble'])
Namespace(subparser_name='2', y='frobble')

Modifié dans la version 3.7: New required keyword-only parameter.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Subparser's prog is no longer affected by a custom usage message in the main parser.

Objets FileType

class argparse.FileType(mode='r', bufsize=-1, encoding=None, errors=None)

Le type fabrique FileType crée des objets qui peuvent être passés à l'argument type d'ArgumentParser.add_argument(). Les arguments qui ont comme type un objet FileType ouvrent les arguments de la ligne de commande en tant que fichiers avec les options spécifiées : mode, taille du tampon, encodage et gestion des erreurs (voir la fonction open() pour plus de détails) :

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
>>> parser.add_argument('--raw', type=argparse.FileType('wb', 0))
>>> parser.add_argument('out', type=argparse.FileType('w', encoding='UTF-8'))
>>> parser.parse_args(['--raw', 'raw.dat', 'file.txt'])
Namespace(out=<_io.TextIOWrapper name='file.txt' mode='w' encoding='UTF-8'>, raw=<_io.FileIO name='raw.dat' mode='wb'>)

Les objets FileType reconnaissent le pseudo-argument '-' et le convertissent automatiquement vers sys.stdin pour les objets FileType ouverts en lecture, et vers sys.stdout pour les objets FileType ouverts en écriture :

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
>>> parser.add_argument('infile', type=argparse.FileType('r'))
>>> parser.parse_args(['-'])
Namespace(infile=<_io.TextIOWrapper name='<stdin>' encoding='UTF-8'>)

Note

If one argument uses FileType and then a subsequent argument fails, an error is reported but the file is not automatically closed. This can also clobber the output files. In this case, it would be better to wait until after the parser has run and then use the with-statement to manage the files.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Added the encodings and errors parameters.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.14.

Groupes d'arguments

ArgumentParser.add_argument_group(title=None, description=None, *[, argument_default][, conflict_handler])

By default, ArgumentParser groups command-line arguments into "positional arguments" and "options" when displaying help messages. When there is a better conceptual grouping of arguments than this default one, appropriate groups can be created using the add_argument_group() method:

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', add_help=False)
>>> group = parser.add_argument_group('group')
>>> group.add_argument('--foo', help='foo help')
>>> group.add_argument('bar', help='bar help')
>>> parser.print_help()
usage: PROG [--foo FOO] bar

group:
  bar    bar help
  --foo FOO  foo help

The add_argument_group() method returns an argument group object which has an add_argument() method just like a regular ArgumentParser. When an argument is added to the group, the parser treats it just like a normal argument, but displays the argument in a separate group for help messages. The add_argument_group() method accepts title and description arguments which can be used to customize this display:

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', add_help=False)
>>> group1 = parser.add_argument_group('group1', 'group1 description')
>>> group1.add_argument('foo', help='foo help')
>>> group2 = parser.add_argument_group('group2', 'group2 description')
>>> group2.add_argument('--bar', help='bar help')
>>> parser.print_help()
usage: PROG [--bar BAR] foo

group1:
  group1 description

  foo    foo help

group2:
  group2 description

  --bar BAR  bar help

The optional, keyword-only parameters argument_default and conflict_handler allow for finer-grained control of the behavior of the argument group. These parameters have the same meaning as in the ArgumentParser constructor, but apply specifically to the argument group rather than the entire parser.

Prenez note que tout argument qui n'est pas dans l'un de vos groupes est affiché dans l'une des sections usuelles positional arguments et optional arguments.

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.14: Calling add_argument_group() on an argument group now raises an exception. This nesting was never supported, often failed to work correctly, and was unintentionally exposed through inheritance.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.14: Passing prefix_chars to add_argument_group() is now deprecated.

Exclusion mutuelle

ArgumentParser.add_mutually_exclusive_group(required=False)

Create a mutually exclusive group. argparse will make sure that only one of the arguments in the mutually exclusive group was present on the command line:

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
>>> group = parser.add_mutually_exclusive_group()
>>> group.add_argument('--foo', action='store_true')
>>> group.add_argument('--bar', action='store_false')
>>> parser.parse_args(['--foo'])
Namespace(bar=True, foo=True)
>>> parser.parse_args(['--bar'])
Namespace(bar=False, foo=False)
>>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', '--bar'])
usage: PROG [-h] [--foo | --bar]
PROG: error: argument --bar: not allowed with argument --foo

La méthode add_mutually_exclusive_group() accepte aussi l'argument required pour indiquer qu'au moins un des arguments mutuellement exclusifs est nécessaire :

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
>>> group = parser.add_mutually_exclusive_group(required=True)
>>> group.add_argument('--foo', action='store_true')
>>> group.add_argument('--bar', action='store_false')
>>> parser.parse_args([])
usage: PROG [-h] (--foo | --bar)
PROG: error: one of the arguments --foo --bar is required

Note that currently mutually exclusive argument groups do not support the title and description arguments of add_argument_group(). However, a mutually exclusive group can be added to an argument group that has a title and description. For example:

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
>>> group = parser.add_argument_group('Group title', 'Group description')
>>> exclusive_group = group.add_mutually_exclusive_group(required=True)
>>> exclusive_group.add_argument('--foo', help='foo help')
>>> exclusive_group.add_argument('--bar', help='bar help')
>>> parser.print_help()
usage: PROG [-h] (--foo FOO | --bar BAR)

options:
  -h, --help  show this help message and exit

Group title:
  Group description

  --foo FOO   foo help
  --bar BAR   bar help

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.14: Calling add_argument_group() or add_mutually_exclusive_group() on a mutually exclusive group now raises an exception. This nesting was never supported, often failed to work correctly, and was unintentionally exposed through inheritance.

Valeurs par défaut de l'analyseur

ArgumentParser.set_defaults(**kwargs)

Dans la majorité des cas, les attributs de l'objet renvoyé par parse_args() sont entièrement définis par l'inspection des arguments de la ligne de commande et par les actions des arguments. La méthode set_defaults() permet l'ajout d'attributs additionnels qui sont définis sans nécessiter l'inspection de la ligne de commande :

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
>>> parser.add_argument('foo', type=int)
>>> parser.set_defaults(bar=42, baz='badger')
>>> parser.parse_args(['736'])
Namespace(bar=42, baz='badger', foo=736)

Note that defaults can be set at both the parser level using set_defaults() and at the argument level using add_argument(). If both are called for the same argument, the last default set for an argument is used:

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
>>> parser.add_argument('--foo', default='bar')
>>> parser.set_defaults(foo='spam')
>>> parser.parse_args([])
Namespace(foo='spam')

Les valeurs par défaut au niveau de l'analyseur sont particulièrement utiles quand on travaille avec plusieurs analyseurs. Voir la méthode add_subparsers() pour un exemple de cette utilisation.

ArgumentParser.get_default(dest)

Renvoie la valeur par défaut d'un attribut de l'objet Namespace tel qu'il a été défini soit par add_argument() ou par set_defaults() :

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
>>> parser.add_argument('--foo', default='badger')
>>> parser.get_default('foo')
'badger'

Afficher l'aide

Pour la majorité des applications, parse_args() se charge du formatage et de l'affichage des messages d'erreur et d'utilisation. Plusieurs méthodes de formatage sont toutefois disponibles :

ArgumentParser.print_usage(file=None)

Affiche une brève description sur la façon d'invoquer l'ArgumentParser depuis la ligne de commande. Si file est None, utilise sys.stdout.

ArgumentParser.print_help(file=None)

Affiche un message d'aide qui inclut l'utilisation du programme et l'information sur les arguments répertoriés dans l'ArgumentParser. Si file est None, utilise sys.stdout.

Des variantes de ces méthodes sont fournies pour renvoyer la chaîne plutôt que de l'afficher :

ArgumentParser.format_usage()

Renvoie une chaîne contenant une brève description sur la façon d'invoquer l'ArgumentParser depuis la ligne de commande.

ArgumentParser.format_help()

Renvoie une chaîne représentant un message d'aide qui inclut des informations sur l'utilisation du programme et sur les arguments définis dans l'ArgumentParser.

Analyse partielle

ArgumentParser.parse_known_args(args=None, namespace=None)

Sometimes a script only needs to handle a specific set of command-line arguments, leaving any unrecognized arguments for another script or program. In these cases, the parse_known_args() method can be useful.

This method works similarly to parse_args(), but it does not raise an error for extra, unrecognized arguments. Instead, it parses the known arguments and returns a two item tuple that contains the populated namespace and the list of any unrecognized arguments.

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
>>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action='store_true')
>>> parser.add_argument('bar')
>>> parser.parse_known_args(['--foo', '--badger', 'BAR', 'spam'])
(Namespace(bar='BAR', foo=True), ['--badger', 'spam'])

Avertissement

Les règles d'acceptation des abréviations sont applicables à parse_known_args(). L'analyseur peut ainsi capturer une option même si elle n'est que le préfixe d'une option reconnue plutôt que de la laisser dans la liste des arguments non-traités.

Personnaliser le parsing de fichiers

ArgumentParser.convert_arg_line_to_args(arg_line)

Les arguments qui proviennent d'un fichier sont lus un par ligne. La méthode convert_arg_line_to_args() peut être surchargée pour accomplir un traitement plus élaboré. Voir aussi l'argument nommé fromfile_prefix_chars du constructeur d'ArgumentParser.

La méthode convert_arg_line_to_args accepte un seul argument, arg_line, qui est une chaîne lue dans le fichier d'arguments. Elle renvoie une liste d'arguments analysés dans cette chaîne. La méthode est appelée une fois pour chaque ligne lue du fichier d'arguments. L'ordre est préservé.

Une surcharge utile de cette méthode est de permettre à chaque mot délimité par des espaces d'être traité comme un argument. L'exemple suivant illustre comment réaliser ceci :

class MyArgumentParser(argparse.ArgumentParser):
    def convert_arg_line_to_args(self, arg_line):
        return arg_line.split()

Méthodes d'interruptions

ArgumentParser.exit(status=0, message=None)

This method terminates the program, exiting with the specified status and, if given, it prints a message to sys.stderr before that. The user can override this method to handle these steps differently:

class ErrorCatchingArgumentParser(argparse.ArgumentParser):
    def exit(self, status=0, message=None):
        if status:
            raise Exception(f'Exiting because of an error: {message}')
        exit(status)

ArgumentParser.error(message)

This method prints a usage message, including the message, to sys.stderr and terminates the program with a status code of 2.

Analyse entremêlée

ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args(args=None, namespace=None)

ArgumentParser.parse_known_intermixed_args(args=None, namespace=None)

De nombreuses commandes Unix permettent à l'utilisateur d'entremêler les arguments optionnels et les arguments positionnels. Les méthodes parse_intermixed_args() et parse_known_intermixed_args() permettent ce style d'analyse.

These parsers do not support all the argparse features, and will raise exceptions if unsupported features are used. In particular, subparsers, and mutually exclusive groups that include both optionals and positionals are not supported.

L'exemple suivant illustre la différence entre parse_known_args() et parse_intermixed_args() : le premier renvoie ['2', '3'] comme arguments non-traités alors que le second capture tous les arguments positionnels dans rest

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
>>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
>>> parser.add_argument('cmd')
>>> parser.add_argument('rest', nargs='*', type=int)
>>> parser.parse_known_args('doit 1 --foo bar 2 3'.split())
(Namespace(cmd='doit', foo='bar', rest=[1]), ['2', '3'])
>>> parser.parse_intermixed_args('doit 1 --foo bar 2 3'.split())
Namespace(cmd='doit', foo='bar', rest=[1, 2, 3])

parse_known_intermixed_args() renvoie une paire de valeurs : l'objet Namespace rempli et une liste de chaînes d'arguments non-traités. parse_intermixed_args() lève une erreur s'il reste des chaînes d'arguments non-traités.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Registering custom types or actions

ArgumentParser.register(registry_name, value, object)

Sometimes it's desirable to use a custom string in error messages to provide more user-friendly output. In these cases, register() can be used to register custom actions or types with a parser and allow you to reference the type by their registered name instead of their callable name.

The register() method accepts three arguments - a registry_name, specifying the internal registry where the object will be stored (e.g., action, type), value, which is the key under which the object will be registered, and object, the callable to be registered.

The following example shows how to register a custom type with a parser:

>>> import argparse
>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
>>> parser.register('type', 'hexadecimal integer', lambda s: int(s, 16))
>>> parser.add_argument('--foo', type='hexadecimal integer')
_StoreAction(option_strings=['--foo'], dest='foo', nargs=None, const=None, default=None, type='hexadecimal integer', choices=None, required=False, help=None, metavar=None, deprecated=False)
>>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', '0xFA'])
Namespace(foo=250)
>>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', '1.2'])
usage: PROG [-h] [--foo FOO]
PROG: error: argument --foo: invalid 'hexadecimal integer' value: '1.2'

Exceptions

exception argparse.ArgumentError

An error from creating or using an argument (optional or positional).

The string value of this exception is the message, augmented with information about the argument that caused it.

exception argparse.ArgumentTypeError

Raised when something goes wrong converting a command line string to a type.

Guides et tutoriels

Tutoriel argparse

Migrating optparse code to argparse

Tutoriel argparse

auteur:

Tshepang Mbambo

Ce tutoriel est destiné à être une introduction en douceur à argparse, le module d'analyse de ligne de commande recommandé dans la bibliothèque standard de Python.

Note

The standard library includes two other libraries directly related to command-line parameter processing: the lower level optparse module (which may require more code to configure for a given application, but also allows an application to request behaviors that argparse doesn't support), and the very low level getopt (which specifically serves as an equivalent to the getopt() family of functions available to C programmers). While neither of those modules is covered directly in this guide, many of the core concepts in argparse first originated in optparse, so some aspects of this tutorial will also be relevant to optparse users.

Concepts

Commençons par l'utilisation de la commande ls pour voir le type de fonctionnalité que nous allons étudier dans ce tutoriel d'introduction :

$ ls
cpython  devguide  prog.py  pypy  rm-unused-function.patch
$ ls pypy
ctypes_configure  demo  dotviewer  include  lib_pypy  lib-python ...
$ ls -l
total 20
drwxr-xr-x 19 wena wena 4096 Feb 18 18:51 cpython
drwxr-xr-x  4 wena wena 4096 Feb  8 12:04 devguide
-rwxr-xr-x  1 wena wena  535 Feb 19 00:05 prog.py
drwxr-xr-x 14 wena wena 4096 Feb  7 00:59 pypy
-rw-r--r--  1 wena wena  741 Feb 18 01:01 rm-unused-function.patch
$ ls --help
Usage: ls [OPTION]... [FILE]...
List information about the FILEs (the current directory by default).
Sort entries alphabetically if none of -cftuvSUX nor --sort is specified.
...

Quelques concepts que l'on peut apprendre avec les quatre commandes :

La commande ls est utile quand elle est exécutée sans aucun paramètre. Elle affiche par défaut le contenu du dossier courant.

Si l'on veut plus que ce qui est proposé par défaut, il faut l'indiquer. Dans le cas présent, on veut afficher un dossier différent : pypy. Ce que l'on a fait c'est spécifier un argument positionnel. C'est appelé ainsi car cela permet au programme de savoir quoi faire avec la valeur en se basant seulement sur sa position dans la ligne de commande. Ce concept est plus pertinent pour une commande comme cp dont l'usage de base est cp SRC DEST. Le premier argument est ce que vous voulez copier et le second est où vous voulez le copier.

Maintenant, supposons que l'on veuille changer la façon dont le programme agit. Dans notre exemple, on affiche plus d'information pour chaque ficher que simplement leur nom. Dans ce cas, -l est un argument facultatif.

C'est un fragment du texte d'aide. Cela peut être très utile quand on tombe sur un programme que l'on à jamais utilisé auparavant car on peut comprendre son fonctionnement simplement en lisant l'aide associée.

Les bases

Commençons par un exemple très simple qui ne fait (quasiment) rien :

import argparse
parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
parser.parse_args()

Ce qui suit est le résultat de l'exécution du code :

$ python prog.py
$ python prog.py --help
usage: prog.py [-h]

options:
  -h, --help  show this help message and exit
$ python prog.py --verbose
usage: prog.py [-h]
prog.py: error: unrecognized arguments: --verbose
$ python prog.py foo
usage: prog.py [-h]
prog.py: error: unrecognized arguments: foo

Voilà ce qu'il se passe :

Exécuter le script sans aucun paramètre a pour effet de ne rien afficher sur la sortie d'erreur. Ce n'est pas très utile.

Le deuxième commence à montrer l'intérêt du module argparse. On n'a quasiment rien fait mais on a déjà un beau message d'aide.

L'option --help, que l'on peut aussi raccourcir en -h, est la seule option que l'on a gratuitement (pas besoin de la préciser). Préciser quoi que ce soit d'autre entraîne une erreur. Mais même dans ce cas, on reçoit aussi un message utile, toujours gratuitement.

Introduction aux arguments positionnels

Un exemple :

import argparse
parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
parser.add_argument("echo")
args = parser.parse_args()
print(args.echo)

On exécute le code :

$ python prog.py
usage: prog.py [-h] echo
prog.py: error: the following arguments are required: echo
$ python prog.py --help
usage: prog.py [-h] echo

positional arguments:
  echo

options:
  -h, --help  show this help message and exit
$ python prog.py foo
foo

Voilà ce qu'il se passe :

We've added the add_argument() method, which is what we use to specify which command-line options the program is willing to accept. In this case, I've named it echo so that it's in line with its function.

Utiliser le programme nécessite maintenant que l'on précise un paramètre.

The parse_args() method actually returns some data from the options specified, in this case, echo.

La variable est comme une forme de 'magie' que argparse effectue gratuitement (c.-à-d. pas besoin de préciser dans quelle variable la valeur est stockée). Vous aurez aussi remarqué que le nom est le même que l'argument en chaîne de caractères donné à la méthode : echo.

Notez cependant que, même si l'affichage d'aide paraît bien , il n'est pas aussi utile qu'il pourrait l'être. Par exemple, on peut lire que echo est un argument positionnel mais on ne peut pas savoir ce que cela fait autrement qu'en le devinant ou en lisant le code source. Donc, rendons-le un peu plus utile :

import argparse
parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
parser.add_argument("echo", help="echo the string you use here")
args = parser.parse_args()
print(args.echo)

Et on obtient :

$ python prog.py -h
usage: prog.py [-h] echo

positional arguments:
  echo        echo the string you use here

options:
  -h, --help  show this help message and exit

À présent, que diriez-vous de faire quelque chose d'encore plus utile :

import argparse
parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
parser.add_argument("square", help="display a square of a given number")
args = parser.parse_args()
print(args.square**2)

Ce qui suit est le résultat de l'exécution du code :

$ python prog.py 4
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "prog.py", line 5, in <module>
    print(args.square**2)
TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for ** or pow(): 'str' and 'int'

Cela n'a pas très bien fonctionné. C'est parce que argparse traite les paramètres que l'on donne comme des chaînes de caractères à moins qu'on ne lui indique de faire autrement. Donc, disons à argparse de traiter cette entrée comme un entier :

import argparse
parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
parser.add_argument("square", help="display a square of a given number",
                    type=int)
args = parser.parse_args()
print(args.square**2)

Ce qui suit est le résultat de l'exécution du code :

$ python prog.py 4
16
$ python prog.py four
usage: prog.py [-h] square
prog.py: error: argument square: invalid int value: 'four'

Cela a bien fonctionné. Maintenant le programme va même s'arrêter si l'entrée n'est pas légale avant de procéder à l'exécution.

Introduction aux arguments optionnels

Jusqu'à maintenant, on a joué avec les arguments positionnels. Regardons comment ajouter des paramètres optionnels :

import argparse
parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
parser.add_argument("--verbosity", help="increase output verbosity")
args = parser.parse_args()
if args.verbosity:
    print("verbosity turned on")

Et le résultat :

$ python prog.py --verbosity 1
verbosity turned on
$ python prog.py
$ python prog.py --help
usage: prog.py [-h] [--verbosity VERBOSITY]

options:
  -h, --help            show this help message and exit
  --verbosity VERBOSITY
                        increase output verbosity
$ python prog.py --verbosity
usage: prog.py [-h] [--verbosity VERBOSITY]
prog.py: error: argument --verbosity: expected one argument

Voilà ce qu'il se passe :

Le programme est écrit de sorte qu'il n'affiche rien sauf si l'option --verbosity est précisée.

To show that the option is actually optional, there is no error when running the program without it. Note that by default, if an optional argument isn't used, the relevant variable, in this case args.verbosity, is given None as a value, which is the reason it fails the truth test of the if statement.

Le message d'aide est quelque peu différent.

Quand on utilise l'option --verbosity on doit aussi préciser une valeur, n'importe laquelle.

L'exemple ci-dessus accepte des valeurs entières arbitraires pour --verbosity mais pour notre programme simple seule deux valeurs sont réellement utiles : True et False. Modifions le code en accord avec cela :

import argparse
parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
parser.add_argument("--verbose", help="increase output verbosity",
                    action="store_true")
args = parser.parse_args()
if args.verbose:
    print("verbosity turned on")

Et le résultat :

$ python prog.py --verbose
verbosity turned on
$ python prog.py --verbose 1
usage: prog.py [-h] [--verbose]
prog.py: error: unrecognized arguments: 1
$ python prog.py --help
usage: prog.py [-h] [--verbose]

options:
  -h, --help  show this help message and exit
  --verbose   increase output verbosity

Voilà ce qu'il se passe :

The option is now more of a flag than something that requires a value. We even changed the name of the option to match that idea. Note that we now specify a new keyword, action, and give it the value "store_true". This means that, if the option is specified, assign the value True to args.verbose. Not specifying it implies False.

Dans l'esprit de ce que sont vraiment les options, pas des paramètres, il se plaint quand vous tentez de préciser une valeur.

Notez que l'aide est différente.

Les paramètres raccourcis

Si vous êtes familier avec l'utilisation de la ligne de commande, vous avez dû remarquer que je n'ai pour l'instant rien dit au sujet des versions raccourcies des paramètres. C'est très simple :

import argparse
parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbose", help="increase output verbosity",
                    action="store_true")
args = parser.parse_args()
if args.verbose:
    print("verbosity turned on")

Et voilà :

$ python prog.py -v
verbosity turned on
$ python prog.py --help
usage: prog.py [-h] [-v]

options:
  -h, --help     show this help message and exit
  -v, --verbose  increase output verbosity

Notez que la nouvelle option est aussi indiquée dans l'aide.

Combinaison d'arguments positionnels et optionnels

Notre programme continue de croître en complexité :

import argparse
parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
parser.add_argument("square", type=int,
                    help="display a square of a given number")
parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbose", action="store_true",
                    help="increase output verbosity")
args = parser.parse_args()
answer = args.square**2
if args.verbose:
    print(f"the square of {args.square} equals {answer}")
else:
    print(answer)

Et voilà le résultat :

$ python prog.py
usage: prog.py [-h] [-v] square
prog.py: error: the following arguments are required: square
$ python prog.py 4
16
$ python prog.py 4 --verbose
the square of 4 equals 16
$ python prog.py --verbose 4
the square of 4 equals 16

Nous avons ajouté un argument nommé, d'où le message d'erreur.

Notez que l'ordre importe peu.

Qu'en est-il si nous donnons à ce programme la possibilité d'avoir plusieurs niveaux de verbosité, et que celui-ci les prend en compte :

import argparse
parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
parser.add_argument("square", type=int,
                    help="display a square of a given number")
parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", type=int,
                    help="increase output verbosity")
args = parser.parse_args()
answer = args.square**2
if args.verbosity == 2:
    print(f"the square of {args.square} equals {answer}")
elif args.verbosity == 1:
    print(f"{args.square}^2 == {answer}")
else:
    print(answer)

Et le résultat :

$ python prog.py 4
16
$ python prog.py 4 -v
usage: prog.py [-h] [-v VERBOSITY] square
prog.py: error: argument -v/--verbosity: expected one argument
$ python prog.py 4 -v 1
4^2 == 16
$ python prog.py 4 -v 2
the square of 4 equals 16
$ python prog.py 4 -v 3
16

Tout semble bon sauf le dernier, qui montre que notre programme contient un bogue. Corrigeons cela en restreignant les valeurs que --verbosity accepte :

import argparse
parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
parser.add_argument("square", type=int,
                    help="display a square of a given number")
parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", type=int, choices=[0, 1, 2],
                    help="increase output verbosity")
args = parser.parse_args()
answer = args.square**2
if args.verbosity == 2:
    print(f"the square of {args.square} equals {answer}")
elif args.verbosity == 1:
    print(f"{args.square}^2 == {answer}")
else:
    print(answer)

Et le résultat :

$ python prog.py 4 -v 3
usage: prog.py [-h] [-v {0,1,2}] square
prog.py: error: argument -v/--verbosity: invalid choice: 3 (choose from 0, 1, 2)
$ python prog.py 4 -h
usage: prog.py [-h] [-v {0,1,2}] square

positional arguments:
  square                display a square of a given number

options:
  -h, --help            show this help message and exit
  -v, --verbosity {0,1,2}
                        increase output verbosity

Notez que ce changement est pris en compte à la fois dans le message d'erreur et dans le texte d'aide.

Essayons maintenant une approche différente pour jouer sur la verbosité, ce qui arrive fréquemment. Cela correspond également à comment le programme CPython gère ses propres paramètres de verbosité (jetez un œil sur la sortie de la commande python --help) :

import argparse
parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
parser.add_argument("square", type=int,
                    help="display the square of a given number")
parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", action="count",
                    help="increase output verbosity")
args = parser.parse_args()
answer = args.square**2
if args.verbosity == 2:
    print(f"the square of {args.square} equals {answer}")
elif args.verbosity == 1:
    print(f"{args.square}^2 == {answer}")
else:
    print(answer)

Nous avons introduit une autre action, "count", pour compter le nombre d’occurrences d'une option en particulier :

$ python prog.py 4
16
$ python prog.py 4 -v
4^2 == 16
$ python prog.py 4 -vv
the square of 4 equals 16
$ python prog.py 4 --verbosity --verbosity
the square of 4 equals 16
$ python prog.py 4 -v 1
usage: prog.py [-h] [-v] square
prog.py: error: unrecognized arguments: 1
$ python prog.py 4 -h
usage: prog.py [-h] [-v] square

positional arguments:
  square           display a square of a given number

options:
  -h, --help       show this help message and exit
  -v, --verbosity  increase output verbosity
$ python prog.py 4 -vvv
16

Oui, c'est maintenant d'avantage une option (similaire à action="store_true") de la version précédente de notre script. Cela devrait expliquer le message d'erreur.

Cela se comporte de la même manière que l'action "store_true".

Maintenant voici une démonstration de ce que l'action "count" fait. Vous avez sûrement vu ce genre d'utilisation auparavant.

Et si vous ne spécifiez pas l'option -v, cette option prendra la valeur None.

Comme on s'y attend, en spécifiant l'option dans sa forme longue, on devrait obtenir la même sortie.

Malheureusement, notre sortie d'aide n'est pas très informative à propos des nouvelles possibilités de notre programme, mais cela peut toujours être corrigé en améliorant sa documentation (en utilisant l'argument help).

La dernière sortie du programme montre que celui-ci contient un bogue.

Corrigeons :

import argparse
parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
parser.add_argument("square", type=int,
                    help="display a square of a given number")
parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", action="count",
                    help="increase output verbosity")
args = parser.parse_args()
answer = args.square**2

# bugfix: replace == with >=
if args.verbosity >= 2:
    print(f"the square of {args.square} equals {answer}")
elif args.verbosity >= 1:
    print(f"{args.square}^2 == {answer}")
else:
    print(answer)

Et c'est ce que ça donne :

$ python prog.py 4 -vvv
the square of 4 equals 16
$ python prog.py 4 -vvvv
the square of 4 equals 16
$ python prog.py 4
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "prog.py", line 11, in <module>
    if args.verbosity >= 2:
TypeError: '>=' not supported between instances of 'NoneType' and 'int'

Les premières exécutions du programme sont correctes, et le bogue que nous avons eu est corrigé. Cela dit, nous voulons que n'importe quelle valeur >= 2 rende le programme aussi verbeux que possible.

La troisième sortie de programme n'est pas si bien que ça.

Corrigeons ce bogue :

import argparse
parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
parser.add_argument("square", type=int,
                    help="display a square of a given number")
parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", action="count", default=0,
                    help="increase output verbosity")
args = parser.parse_args()
answer = args.square**2
if args.verbosity >= 2:
    print(f"the square of {args.square} equals {answer}")
elif args.verbosity >= 1:
    print(f"{args.square}^2 == {answer}")
else:
    print(answer)

Nous venons juste d'introduire un nouveau mot clef, default. Nous l'avons définit à 0 pour le rendre comparable aux autres valeurs. Rappelez-vous que par défaut, si un argument optionnel n'est pas spécifié, il sera définit à None, et ne pourra pas être comparé à une valeur de type entier (une erreur TypeError serait alors levée).

Et :

$ python prog.py 4
16

Vous pouvez aller assez loin seulement avec ce que nous avons appris jusqu'à maintenant, et nous n'avons qu’aperçu la surface. Le module argparse est très puissant, et nous allons l'explorer un peu plus avant la fin de ce tutoriel.

Aller un peu plus loin

Qu'en est-il si nous souhaitons étendre notre mini programme pour le rendre capable de calculer d'autres puissances, et pas seulement des carrés :

import argparse
parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
parser.add_argument("x", type=int, help="the base")
parser.add_argument("y", type=int, help="the exponent")
parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", action="count", default=0)
args = parser.parse_args()
answer = args.x**args.y
if args.verbosity >= 2:
    print(f"{args.x} to the power {args.y} equals {answer}")
elif args.verbosity >= 1:
    print(f"{args.x}^{args.y} == {answer}")
else:
    print(answer)

Sortie :

$ python prog.py
usage: prog.py [-h] [-v] x y
prog.py: error: the following arguments are required: x, y
$ python prog.py -h
usage: prog.py [-h] [-v] x y

positional arguments:
  x                the base
  y                the exponent

options:
  -h, --help       show this help message and exit
  -v, --verbosity
$ python prog.py 4 2 -v
4^2 == 16

Il est à noter que jusqu'à présent nous avons utilisé le niveau de verbosité pour changer le texte qui est affiché. L'exemple suivant au contraire utilise le niveau de verbosité pour afficher plus de texte à la place :

import argparse
parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
parser.add_argument("x", type=int, help="the base")
parser.add_argument("y", type=int, help="the exponent")
parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", action="count", default=0)
args = parser.parse_args()
answer = args.x**args.y
if args.verbosity >= 2:
    print(f"Running '{__file__}'")
if args.verbosity >= 1:
    print(f"{args.x}^{args.y} == ", end="")
print(answer)

Sortie :

$ python prog.py 4 2
16
$ python prog.py 4 2 -v
4^2 == 16
$ python prog.py 4 2 -vv
Running 'prog.py'
4^2 == 16

Specifying ambiguous arguments

When there is ambiguity in deciding whether an argument is positional or for an argument, -- can be used to tell parse_args() that everything after that is a positional argument:

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
>>> parser.add_argument('-n', nargs='+')
>>> parser.add_argument('args', nargs='*')

>>> # ambiguous, so parse_args assumes it's an option
>>> parser.parse_args(['-f'])
usage: PROG [-h] [-n N [N ...]] [args ...]
PROG: error: unrecognized arguments: -f

>>> parser.parse_args(['--', '-f'])
Namespace(args=['-f'], n=None)

>>> # ambiguous, so the -n option greedily accepts arguments
>>> parser.parse_args(['-n', '1', '2', '3'])
Namespace(args=[], n=['1', '2', '3'])

>>> parser.parse_args(['-n', '1', '--', '2', '3'])
Namespace(args=['2', '3'], n=['1'])

Paramètres en conflit

So far, we have been working with two methods of an argparse.ArgumentParser instance. Let's introduce a third one, add_mutually_exclusive_group(). It allows for us to specify options that conflict with each other. Let's also change the rest of the program so that the new functionality makes more sense: we'll introduce the --quiet option, which will be the opposite of the --verbose one:

import argparse

parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
group = parser.add_mutually_exclusive_group()
group.add_argument("-v", "--verbose", action="store_true")
group.add_argument("-q", "--quiet", action="store_true")
parser.add_argument("x", type=int, help="the base")
parser.add_argument("y", type=int, help="the exponent")
args = parser.parse_args()
answer = args.x**args.y

if args.quiet:
    print(answer)
elif args.verbose:
    print(f"{args.x} to the power {args.y} equals {answer}")
else:
    print(f"{args.x}^{args.y} == {answer}")

Notre programme est maintenant plus simple, et nous avons perdu des fonctionnalités pour faire cette démonstration. Peu importe, voici la sortie du programme :

$ python prog.py 4 2
4^2 == 16
$ python prog.py 4 2 -q
16
$ python prog.py 4 2 -v
4 to the power 2 equals 16
$ python prog.py 4 2 -vq
usage: prog.py [-h] [-v | -q] x y
prog.py: error: argument -q/--quiet: not allowed with argument -v/--verbose
$ python prog.py 4 2 -v --quiet
usage: prog.py [-h] [-v | -q] x y
prog.py: error: argument -q/--quiet: not allowed with argument -v/--verbose

Cela devrait être facile à suivre. J'ai ajouté cette dernière sortie pour que vous puissiez voir le genre de flexibilité que vous pouvez avoir, par exemple pour faire un mélange entre des paramètres courts et longs.

Avant d'en finir, vous voudrez certainement dire à vos utilisateurs quel est le but principal de votre programme, juste dans le cas ou ils ne le sauraient pas :

import argparse

parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(description="calculate X to the power of Y")
group = parser.add_mutually_exclusive_group()
group.add_argument("-v", "--verbose", action="store_true")
group.add_argument("-q", "--quiet", action="store_true")
parser.add_argument("x", type=int, help="the base")
parser.add_argument("y", type=int, help="the exponent")
args = parser.parse_args()
answer = args.x**args.y

if args.quiet:
    print(answer)
elif args.verbose:
    print(f"{args.x} to the power {args.y} equals {answer}")
else:
    print(f"{args.x}^{args.y} == {answer}")

Notez cette nuance dans le texte d'utilisation. Les options [-v | -q] nous disent que nous pouvons utiliser au choix -v ou -q, mais pas les deux ensemble :

$ python prog.py --help
usage: prog.py [-h] [-v | -q] x y

calculate X to the power of Y

positional arguments:
  x              the base
  y              the exponent

options:
  -h, --help     show this help message and exit
  -v, --verbose
  -q, --quiet

How to translate the argparse output

The output of the argparse module such as its help text and error messages are all made translatable using the gettext module. This allows applications to easily localize messages produced by argparse. See also Internationaliser vos programmes et modules.

For instance, in this argparse output:

$ python prog.py --help
usage: prog.py [-h] [-v | -q] x y

calculate X to the power of Y

positional arguments:
  x              the base
  y              the exponent

options:
  -h, --help     show this help message and exit
  -v, --verbose
  -q, --quiet

The strings usage:, positional arguments:, options: and show this help message and exit are all translatable.

In order to translate these strings, they must first be extracted into a .po file. For example, using Babel [https://babel.pocoo.org/], run this command:

$ pybabel extract -o messages.po /usr/lib/python3.12/argparse.py

This command will extract all translatable strings from the argparse module and output them into a file named messages.po. This command assumes that your Python installation is in /usr/lib.

You can find out the location of the argparse module on your system using this script:

import argparse
print(argparse.__file__)

Once the messages in the .po file are translated and the translations are installed using gettext, argparse will be able to display the translated messages.

To translate your own strings in the argparse output, use gettext.

Custom type converters

The argparse module allows you to specify custom type converters for your command-line arguments. This allows you to modify user input before it's stored in the argparse.Namespace. This can be useful when you need to pre-process the input before it is used in your program.

When using a custom type converter, you can use any callable that takes a single string argument (the argument value) and returns the converted value. However, if you need to handle more complex scenarios, you can use a custom action class with the action parameter instead.

For example, let's say you want to handle arguments with different prefixes and process them accordingly:

import argparse

parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prefix_chars='-+')

parser.add_argument('-a', metavar='<value>', action='append',
                    type=lambda x: ('-', x))
parser.add_argument('+a', metavar='<value>', action='append',
                    type=lambda x: ('+', x))

args = parser.parse_args()
print(args)

Sortie :

$ python prog.py -a value1 +a value2
Namespace(a=[('-', 'value1'), ('+', 'value2')])

In this example, we:

Created a parser with custom prefix characters using the prefix_chars parameter.

Defined two arguments, -a and +a, which used the type parameter to create custom type converters to store the value in a tuple with the prefix.

Without the custom type converters, the arguments would have treated the -a and +a as the same argument, which would have been undesirable. By using custom type converters, we were able to differentiate between the two arguments.

Conclusion

Le module argparse offre bien plus que ce qui est montré ici. Sa documentation est assez détaillée, complète et pleine d'exemples. En ayant accompli ce tutoriel, vous pourrez facilement comprendre cette documentation sans vous sentir dépassé.

Migrating optparse code to argparse

The argparse module offers several higher level features not natively provided by the optparse module, including:

gère les arguments positionnels ;

Supporting subcommands.

permet d'utiliser les alternatives + ou / comme préfixes d'option ;

prend en charge la répétition de valeurs (zéro ou plus, un ou plus) ;

fournit des messages d'aide plus complets ;

fournit une interface plus simple pour les types et les actions personnalisés.

Originally, the argparse module attempted to maintain compatibility with optparse. However, the fundamental design differences between supporting declarative command line option processing (while leaving positional argument processing to application code), and supporting both named options and positional arguments in the declarative interface mean that the API has diverged from that of optparse over time.

As described in Choosing an argument parsing library, applications that are currently using optparse and are happy with the way it works can just continue to use optparse.

Application developers that are considering migrating should also review the list of intrinsic behavioural differences described in that section before deciding whether or not migration is desirable.

For applications that do choose to migrate from optparse to argparse, the following suggestions should be helpful:

remplacer tous les appels à optparse.OptionParser.add_option() par des appels à ArgumentParser.add_argument() ;

remplacer (options, args) = parser.parse_args() par args = parser.parse_args() et ajouter des appels à ArgumentParser.add_argument() pour les arguments positionnels. Prenez note que les valeurs précédemment appelées options sont appelées args dans le contexte d'argparse ;

remplacer optparse.OptionParser.disable_interspersed_args() en appelant parse_intermixed_args() plutôt que parse_args() ;

remplacer les actions de rappel (callback actions en anglais) et les arguments nommés callback_* par des arguments type et actions ;

remplacer les chaînes représentant le nom des types pour l'argument nommé type par les objets types correspondants (par exemple : int, float, complex, etc) ;

remplacer optparse.Values par Namespace ; et optparse.OptionError et optparse.OptionValueError par ArgumentError ;

remplacer les chaînes avec des arguments de formatage implicite (tels que %default ou %prog) par la syntaxe standard de Python pour l'interpolation d'un dictionnaire dans les chaînes de formatage (c'est-à-dire %(default)s et %(prog)s) ;

remplacer l'argument version du constructeur d'OptionParser par un appel à parser.add_argument('--version', action='version', version='<la version>').

optparse --- Parser for command line options

Code source : Lib/optparse.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/optparse.py]

Choosing an argument parsing library

The standard library includes three argument parsing libraries:

getopt: a module that closely mirrors the procedural C getopt API. Included in the standard library since before the initial Python 1.0 release.

optparse: a declarative replacement for getopt that provides equivalent functionality without requiring each application to implement its own procedural option parsing logic. Included in the standard library since the Python 2.3 release.

argparse: a more opinionated alternative to optparse that provides more functionality by default, at the expense of reduced application flexibility in controlling exactly how arguments are processed. Included in the standard library since the Python 2.7 and Python 3.2 releases.

In the absence of more specific argument parsing design constraints, argparse is the recommended choice for implementing command line applications, as it offers the highest level of baseline functionality with the least application level code.

getopt is retained almost entirely for backwards compatibility reasons. However, it also serves a niche use case as a tool for prototyping and testing command line argument handling in getopt-based C applications.

optparse should be considered as an alternative to argparse in the following cases:

an application is already using optparse and doesn't want to risk the subtle behavioural changes that may arise when migrating to argparse

the application requires additional control over the way options and positional parameters are interleaved on the command line (including the ability to disable the interleaving feature completely)

the application requires additional control over the incremental parsing of command line elements (while argparse does support this, the exact way it works in practice is undesirable for some use cases)

the application requires additional control over the handling of options which accept parameter values that may start with - (such as delegated options to be passed to invoked subprocesses)

the application requires some other command line parameter processing behavior which argparse does not support, but which can be implemented in terms of the lower level interface offered by optparse

These considerations also mean that optparse is likely to provide a better foundation for library authors writing third party command line argument processing libraries.

As a concrete example, consider the following two command line argument parsing configurations, the first using optparse, and the second using argparse:

import optparse

if __name__ == '__main__':
    parser = optparse.OptionParser()
    parser.add_option('-o', '--output')
    parser.add_option('-v', dest='verbose', action='store_true')
    opts, args = parser.parse_args()
    process(args, output=opts.output, verbose=opts.verbose)

import argparse

if __name__ == '__main__':
    parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
    parser.add_argument('-o', '--output')
    parser.add_argument('-v', dest='verbose', action='store_true')
    parser.add_argument('rest', nargs='*')
    args = parser.parse_args()
    process(args.rest, output=args.output, verbose=args.verbose)

The most obvious difference is that in the optparse version, the non-option arguments are processed separately by the application after the option processing is complete. In the argparse version, positional arguments are declared and processed in the same way as the named options.

However, the argparse version will also handle some parameter combination differently from the way the optparse version would handle them. For example (amongst other differences):

supplying -o -v gives output="-v" and verbose=False when using optparse, but a usage error with argparse (complaining that no value has been supplied for -o/--output, since -v is interpreted as meaning the verbosity flag)

similarly, supplying -o -- gives output="--" and args=() when using optparse, but a usage error with argparse (also complaining that no value has been supplied for -o/--output, since -- is interpreted as terminating the option processing and treating all remaining values as positional arguments)

supplying -o=foo gives output="=foo" when using optparse, but gives output="foo" with argparse (since = is special cased as an alternative separator for option parameter values)

Whether these differing behaviors in the argparse version are considered desirable or a problem will depend on the specific command line application use case.

Voir aussi

click [https://pypi.org/project/click/] is a third party argument processing library (originally based on optparse), which allows command line applications to be developed as a set of decorated command implementation functions.

Other third party libraries, such as typer [https://pypi.org/project/typer/] or msgspec-click [https://pypi.org/project/msgspec-click/], allow command line interfaces to be specified in ways that more effectively integrate with static checking of Python type annotations.

Introduction

optparse is a more convenient, flexible, and powerful library for parsing command-line options than the minimalist getopt module. optparse uses a more declarative style of command-line parsing: you create an instance of OptionParser, populate it with options, and parse the command line. optparse allows users to specify options in the conventional GNU/POSIX syntax, and additionally generates usage and help messages for you.

Here's an example of using optparse in a simple script:

from optparse import OptionParser
...
parser = OptionParser()
parser.add_option("-f", "--file", dest="filename",
                  help="write report to FILE", metavar="FILE")
parser.add_option("-q", "--quiet",
                  action="store_false", dest="verbose", default=True,
                  help="don't print status messages to stdout")

(options, args) = parser.parse_args()

With these few lines of code, users of your script can now do the "usual thing" on the command-line, for example:

<yourscript> --file=outfile -q

As it parses the command line, optparse sets attributes of the options object returned by parse_args() based on user-supplied command-line values. When parse_args() returns from parsing this command line, options.filename will be "outfile" and options.verbose will be False. optparse supports both long and short options, allows short options to be merged together, and allows options to be associated with their arguments in a variety of ways. Thus, the following command lines are all equivalent to the above example:

<yourscript> -f outfile --quiet
<yourscript> --quiet --file outfile
<yourscript> -q -foutfile
<yourscript> -qfoutfile

Additionally, users can run one of the following

<yourscript> -h
<yourscript> --help

and optparse will print out a brief summary of your script's options:

Usage: <yourscript> [options]

Options:
  -h, --help            show this help message and exit
  -f FILE, --file=FILE  write report to FILE
  -q, --quiet           don't print status messages to stdout

where the value of yourscript is determined at runtime (normally from sys.argv[0]).

Background

optparse was explicitly designed to encourage the creation of programs with straightforward command-line interfaces that follow the conventions established by the getopt() family of functions available to C developers. To that end, it supports only the most common command-line syntax and semantics conventionally used under Unix. If you are unfamiliar with these conventions, reading this section will allow you to acquaint yourself with them.

Terminology

argument

a string entered on the command-line, and passed by the shell to execl() or execv(). In Python, arguments are elements of sys.argv[1:] (sys.argv[0] is the name of the program being executed). Unix shells also use the term "word".

It is occasionally desirable to substitute an argument list other than sys.argv[1:], so you should read "argument" as "an element of sys.argv[1:], or of some other list provided as a substitute for sys.argv[1:]".

option

an argument used to supply extra information to guide or customize the execution of a program. There are many different syntaxes for options; the traditional Unix syntax is a hyphen ("-") followed by a single letter, e.g. -x or -F. Also, traditional Unix syntax allows multiple options to be merged into a single argument, e.g. -x -F is equivalent to -xF. The GNU project introduced -- followed by a series of hyphen-separated words, e.g. --file or --dry-run. These are the only two option syntaxes provided by optparse.

Some other option syntaxes that the world has seen include:

a hyphen followed by a few letters, e.g. -pf (this is not the same as multiple options merged into a single argument)

a hyphen followed by a whole word, e.g. -file (this is technically equivalent to the previous syntax, but they aren't usually seen in the same program)

a plus sign followed by a single letter, or a few letters, or a word, e.g. +f, +rgb

a slash followed by a letter, or a few letters, or a word, e.g. /f, /file

These option syntaxes are not supported by optparse, and they never will be. This is deliberate: the first three are non-standard on any environment, and the last only makes sense if you're exclusively targeting Windows or certain legacy platforms (e.g. VMS, MS-DOS).

option argument

an argument that follows an option, is closely associated with that option, and is consumed from the argument list when that option is. With optparse, option arguments may either be in a separate argument from their option:

-f foo
--file foo

or included in the same argument:

-ffoo
--file=foo

Typically, a given option either takes an argument or it doesn't. Lots of people want an "optional option arguments" feature, meaning that some options will take an argument if they see it, and won't if they don't. This is somewhat controversial, because it makes parsing ambiguous: if -a takes an optional argument and -b is another option entirely, how do we interpret -ab? Because of this ambiguity, optparse does not support this feature.

argument positionnel

something leftover in the argument list after options have been parsed, i.e. after options and their arguments have been parsed and removed from the argument list.

required option

an option that must be supplied on the command-line; note that the phrase "required option" is self-contradictory in English. optparse doesn't prevent you from implementing required options, but doesn't give you much help at it either.

For example, consider this hypothetical command-line:

prog -v --report report.txt foo bar

-v and --report are both options. Assuming that --report takes one argument, report.txt is an option argument. foo and bar are positional arguments.

What are options for?

Options are used to provide extra information to tune or customize the execution of a program. In case it wasn't clear, options are usually optional. A program should be able to run just fine with no options whatsoever. (Pick a random program from the Unix or GNU toolsets. Can it run without any options at all and still make sense? The main exceptions are find, tar, and dd---all of which are mutant oddballs that have been rightly criticized for their non-standard syntax and confusing interfaces.)

Lots of people want their programs to have "required options". Think about it. If it's required, then it's not optional! If there is a piece of information that your program absolutely requires in order to run successfully, that's what positional arguments are for.

As an example of good command-line interface design, consider the humble cp utility, for copying files. It doesn't make much sense to try to copy files without supplying a destination and at least one source. Hence, cp fails if you run it with no arguments. However, it has a flexible, useful syntax that does not require any options at all:

cp SOURCE DEST
cp SOURCE ... DEST-DIR

You can get pretty far with just that. Most cp implementations provide a bunch of options to tweak exactly how the files are copied: you can preserve mode and modification time, avoid following symlinks, ask before clobbering existing files, etc. But none of this distracts from the core mission of cp, which is to copy either one file to another, or several files to another directory.

What are positional arguments for?

Positional arguments are for those pieces of information that your program absolutely, positively requires to run.

A good user interface should have as few absolute requirements as possible. If your program requires 17 distinct pieces of information in order to run successfully, it doesn't much matter how you get that information from the user---most people will give up and walk away before they successfully run the program. This applies whether the user interface is a command-line, a configuration file, or a GUI: if you make that many demands on your users, most of them will simply give up.

In short, try to minimize the amount of information that users are absolutely required to supply---use sensible defaults whenever possible. Of course, you also want to make your programs reasonably flexible. That's what options are for. Again, it doesn't matter if they are entries in a config file, widgets in the "Preferences" dialog of a GUI, or command-line options---the more options you implement, the more flexible your program is, and the more complicated its implementation becomes. Too much flexibility has drawbacks as well, of course; too many options can overwhelm users and make your code much harder to maintain.

Tutoriel

While optparse is quite flexible and powerful, it's also straightforward to use in most cases. This section covers the code patterns that are common to any optparse-based program.

First, you need to import the OptionParser class; then, early in the main program, create an OptionParser instance:

from optparse import OptionParser
...
parser = OptionParser()

Then you can start defining options. The basic syntax is:

parser.add_option(opt_str, ...,
                  attr=value, ...)

Each option has one or more option strings, such as -f or --file, and several option attributes that tell optparse what to expect and what to do when it encounters that option on the command line.

Typically, each option will have one short option string and one long option string, e.g.:

parser.add_option("-f", "--file", ...)

You're free to define as many short option strings and as many long option strings as you like (including zero), as long as there is at least one option string overall.

The option strings passed to OptionParser.add_option() are effectively labels for the option defined by that call. For brevity, we will frequently refer to encountering an option on the command line; in reality, optparse encounters option strings and looks up options from them.

Once all of your options are defined, instruct optparse to parse your program's command line:

(options, args) = parser.parse_args()

(If you like, you can pass a custom argument list to parse_args(), but that's rarely necessary: by default it uses sys.argv[1:].)

parse_args() returns two values:

options, an object containing values for all of your options---e.g. if --file takes a single string argument, then options.file will be the filename supplied by the user, or None if the user did not supply that option

args, the list of positional arguments leftover after parsing options

This tutorial section only covers the four most important option attributes: action, type, dest (destination), and help. Of these, action is the most fundamental.

Understanding option actions

Actions tell optparse what to do when it encounters an option on the command line. There is a fixed set of actions hard-coded into optparse; adding new actions is an advanced topic covered in section Extending optparse. Most actions tell optparse to store a value in some variable---for example, take a string from the command line and store it in an attribute of options.

If you don't specify an option action, optparse defaults to store.

The store action

The most common option action is store, which tells optparse to take the next argument (or the remainder of the current argument), ensure that it is of the correct type, and store it to your chosen destination.

Par exemple :

parser.add_option("-f", "--file",
                  action="store", type="string", dest="filename")

Now let's make up a fake command line and ask optparse to parse it:

args = ["-f", "foo.txt"]
(options, args) = parser.parse_args(args)

When optparse sees the option string -f, it consumes the next argument, foo.txt, and stores it in options.filename. So, after this call to parse_args(), options.filename is "foo.txt".

Some other option types supported by optparse are int and float. Here's an option that expects an integer argument:

parser.add_option("-n", type="int", dest="num")

Note that this option has no long option string, which is perfectly acceptable. Also, there's no explicit action, since the default is store.

Let's parse another fake command-line. This time, we'll jam the option argument right up against the option: since -n42 (one argument) is equivalent to -n 42 (two arguments), the code

(options, args) = parser.parse_args(["-n42"])
print(options.num)

affichera 42.

If you don't specify a type, optparse assumes string. Combined with the fact that the default action is store, that means our first example can be a lot shorter:

parser.add_option("-f", "--file", dest="filename")

If you don't supply a destination, optparse figures out a sensible default from the option strings: if the first long option string is --foo-bar, then the default destination is foo_bar. If there are no long option strings, optparse looks at the first short option string: the default destination for -f is f.

optparse also includes the built-in complex type. Adding types is covered in section Extending optparse.

Handling boolean (flag) options

Flag options---set a variable to true or false when a particular option is seen---are quite common. optparse supports them with two separate actions, store_true and store_false. For example, you might have a verbose flag that is turned on with -v and off with -q:

parser.add_option("-v", action="store_true", dest="verbose")
parser.add_option("-q", action="store_false", dest="verbose")

Here we have two different options with the same destination, which is perfectly OK. (It just means you have to be a bit careful when setting default values---see below.)

When optparse encounters -v on the command line, it sets options.verbose to True; when it encounters -q, options.verbose is set to False.

Other actions

Some other actions supported by optparse are:

"store_const"

store a constant value, pre-set via Option.const

"append"

append this option's argument to a list

"count"

increment a counter by one

"callback"

call a specified function

These are covered in section Reference Guide, and section Option Callbacks.

Valeurs par défaut

All of the above examples involve setting some variable (the "destination") when certain command-line options are seen. What happens if those options are never seen? Since we didn't supply any defaults, they are all set to None. This is usually fine, but sometimes you want more control. optparse lets you supply a default value for each destination, which is assigned before the command line is parsed.

First, consider the verbose/quiet example. If we want optparse to set verbose to True unless -q is seen, then we can do this:

parser.add_option("-v", action="store_true", dest="verbose", default=True)
parser.add_option("-q", action="store_false", dest="verbose")

Since default values apply to the destination rather than to any particular option, and these two options happen to have the same destination, this is exactly equivalent:

parser.add_option("-v", action="store_true", dest="verbose")
parser.add_option("-q", action="store_false", dest="verbose", default=True)

Consider this:

parser.add_option("-v", action="store_true", dest="verbose", default=False)
parser.add_option("-q", action="store_false", dest="verbose", default=True)

Again, the default value for verbose will be True: the last default value supplied for any particular destination is the one that counts.

A clearer way to specify default values is the set_defaults() method of OptionParser, which you can call at any time before calling parse_args():

parser.set_defaults(verbose=True)
parser.add_option(...)
(options, args) = parser.parse_args()

As before, the last value specified for a given option destination is the one that counts. For clarity, try to use one method or the other of setting default values, not both.

Generating help

optparse's ability to generate help and usage text automatically is useful for creating user-friendly command-line interfaces. All you have to do is supply a help value for each option, and optionally a short usage message for your whole program. Here's an OptionParser populated with user-friendly (documented) options:

usage = "usage: %prog [options] arg1 arg2"
parser = OptionParser(usage=usage)
parser.add_option("-v", "--verbose",
                  action="store_true", dest="verbose", default=True,
                  help="make lots of noise [default]")
parser.add_option("-q", "--quiet",
                  action="store_false", dest="verbose",
                  help="be vewwy quiet (I'm hunting wabbits)")
parser.add_option("-f", "--filename",
                  metavar="FILE", help="write output to FILE")
parser.add_option("-m", "--mode",
                  default="intermediate",
                  help="interaction mode: novice, intermediate, "
                       "or expert [default: %default]")

If optparse encounters either -h or --help on the command-line, or if you just call parser.print_help(), it prints the following to standard output:

Usage: <yourscript> [options] arg1 arg2

Options:
  -h, --help            show this help message and exit
  -v, --verbose         make lots of noise [default]
  -q, --quiet           be vewwy quiet (I'm hunting wabbits)
  -f FILE, --filename=FILE
                        write output to FILE
  -m MODE, --mode=MODE  interaction mode: novice, intermediate, or
                        expert [default: intermediate]

(If the help output is triggered by a help option, optparse exits after printing the help text.)

There's a lot going on here to help optparse generate the best possible help message:

the script defines its own usage message:

usage = "usage: %prog [options] arg1 arg2"

optparse expands %prog in the usage string to the name of the current program, i.e. os.path.basename(sys.argv[0]). The expanded string is then printed before the detailed option help.

If you don't supply a usage string, optparse uses a bland but sensible default: "Usage: %prog [options]", which is fine if your script doesn't take any positional arguments.

every option defines a help string, and doesn't worry about line-wrapping---optparse takes care of wrapping lines and making the help output look good.

options that take a value indicate this fact in their automatically generated help message, e.g. for the "mode" option:

-m MODE, --mode=MODE

Here, "MODE" is called the meta-variable: it stands for the argument that the user is expected to supply to -m/--mode. By default, optparse converts the destination variable name to uppercase and uses that for the meta-variable. Sometimes, that's not what you want---for example, the --filename option explicitly sets metavar="FILE", resulting in this automatically generated option description:

-f FILE, --filename=FILE

This is important for more than just saving space, though: the manually written help text uses the meta-variable FILE to clue the user in that there's a connection between the semi-formal syntax -f FILE and the informal semantic description "write output to FILE". This is a simple but effective way to make your help text a lot clearer and more useful for end users.

options that have a default value can include %default in the help string---optparse will replace it with str() of the option's default value. If an option has no default value (or the default value is None), %default expands to none.

Grouping Options

When dealing with many options, it is convenient to group these options for better help output. An OptionParser can contain several option groups, each of which can contain several options.

An option group is obtained using the class OptionGroup:

class optparse.OptionGroup(parser, title, description=None)

where

parser is the OptionParser instance the group will be inserted in to

title is the group title

description, optional, is a long description of the group

OptionGroup inherits from OptionContainer (like OptionParser) and so the add_option() method can be used to add an option to the group.

Once all the options are declared, using the OptionParser method add_option_group() the group is added to the previously defined parser.

Continuing with the parser defined in the previous section, adding an OptionGroup to a parser is easy:

group = OptionGroup(parser, "Dangerous Options",
                    "Caution: use these options at your own risk.  "
                    "It is believed that some of them bite.")
group.add_option("-g", action="store_true", help="Group option.")
parser.add_option_group(group)

This would result in the following help output:

Usage: <yourscript> [options] arg1 arg2

Options:
  -h, --help            show this help message and exit
  -v, --verbose         make lots of noise [default]
  -q, --quiet           be vewwy quiet (I'm hunting wabbits)
  -f FILE, --filename=FILE
                        write output to FILE
  -m MODE, --mode=MODE  interaction mode: novice, intermediate, or
                        expert [default: intermediate]

  Dangerous Options:
    Caution: use these options at your own risk.  It is believed that some
    of them bite.

    -g                  Group option.

A bit more complete example might involve using more than one group: still extending the previous example:

group = OptionGroup(parser, "Dangerous Options",
                    "Caution: use these options at your own risk.  "
                    "It is believed that some of them bite.")
group.add_option("-g", action="store_true", help="Group option.")
parser.add_option_group(group)

group = OptionGroup(parser, "Debug Options")
group.add_option("-d", "--debug", action="store_true",
                 help="Print debug information")
group.add_option("-s", "--sql", action="store_true",
                 help="Print all SQL statements executed")
group.add_option("-e", action="store_true", help="Print every action done")
parser.add_option_group(group)

that results in the following output:

Usage: <yourscript> [options] arg1 arg2

Options:
  -h, --help            show this help message and exit
  -v, --verbose         make lots of noise [default]
  -q, --quiet           be vewwy quiet (I'm hunting wabbits)
  -f FILE, --filename=FILE
                        write output to FILE
  -m MODE, --mode=MODE  interaction mode: novice, intermediate, or expert
                        [default: intermediate]

  Dangerous Options:
    Caution: use these options at your own risk.  It is believed that some
    of them bite.

    -g                  Group option.

  Debug Options:
    -d, --debug         Print debug information
    -s, --sql           Print all SQL statements executed
    -e                  Print every action done

Another interesting method, in particular when working programmatically with option groups is:

OptionParser.get_option_group(opt_str)

Return the OptionGroup to which the short or long option string opt_str (e.g. '-o' or '--option') belongs. If there's no such OptionGroup, return None.

Printing a version string

Similar to the brief usage string, optparse can also print a version string for your program. You have to supply the string as the version argument to OptionParser:

parser = OptionParser(usage="%prog [-f] [-q]", version="%prog 1.0")

%prog is expanded just like it is in usage. Apart from that, version can contain anything you like. When you supply it, optparse automatically adds a --version option to your parser. If it encounters this option on the command line, it expands your version string (by replacing %prog), prints it to stdout, and exits.

For example, if your script is called /usr/bin/foo:

$ /usr/bin/foo --version
foo 1.0

The following two methods can be used to print and get the version string:

OptionParser.print_version(file=None)

Print the version message for the current program (self.version) to file (default stdout). As with print_usage(), any occurrence of %prog in self.version is replaced with the name of the current program. Does nothing if self.version is empty or undefined.

OptionParser.get_version()

Same as print_version() but returns the version string instead of printing it.

How optparse handles errors

There are two broad classes of errors that optparse has to worry about: programmer errors and user errors. Programmer errors are usually erroneous calls to OptionParser.add_option(), e.g. invalid option strings, unknown option attributes, missing option attributes, etc. These are dealt with in the usual way: raise an exception (either optparse.OptionError or TypeError) and let the program crash.

Handling user errors is much more important, since they are guaranteed to happen no matter how stable your code is. optparse can automatically detect some user errors, such as bad option arguments (passing -n 4x where -n takes an integer argument), missing arguments (-n at the end of the command line, where -n takes an argument of any type). Also, you can call OptionParser.error() to signal an application-defined error condition:

(options, args) = parser.parse_args()
...
if options.a and options.b:
    parser.error("options -a and -b are mutually exclusive")

In either case, optparse handles the error the same way: it prints the program's usage message and an error message to standard error and exits with error status 2.

Consider the first example above, where the user passes 4x to an option that takes an integer:

$ /usr/bin/foo -n 4x
Usage: foo [options]

foo: error: option -n: invalid integer value: '4x'

Or, where the user fails to pass a value at all:

$ /usr/bin/foo -n
Usage: foo [options]

foo: error: -n option requires an argument

optparse-generated error messages take care always to mention the option involved in the error; be sure to do the same when calling OptionParser.error() from your application code.

If optparse's default error-handling behaviour does not suit your needs, you'll need to subclass OptionParser and override its exit() and/or error() methods.

Putting it all together

Here's what optparse-based scripts usually look like:

from optparse import OptionParser
...
def main():
    usage = "usage: %prog [options] arg"
    parser = OptionParser(usage)
    parser.add_option("-f", "--file", dest="filename",
                      help="read data from FILENAME")
    parser.add_option("-v", "--verbose",
                      action="store_true", dest="verbose")
    parser.add_option("-q", "--quiet",
                      action="store_false", dest="verbose")
    ...
    (options, args) = parser.parse_args()
    if len(args) != 1:
        parser.error("incorrect number of arguments")
    if options.verbose:
        print("reading %s..." % options.filename)
    ...

if __name__ == "__main__":
    main()

Reference Guide

Creating the parser

The first step in using optparse is to create an OptionParser instance.

class optparse.OptionParser(...)

The OptionParser constructor has no required arguments, but a number of optional keyword arguments. You should always pass them as keyword arguments, i.e. do not rely on the order in which the arguments are declared.

usage (default: "%prog [options]")

The usage summary to print when your program is run incorrectly or with a help option. When optparse prints the usage string, it expands %prog to os.path.basename(sys.argv[0]) (or to prog if you passed that keyword argument). To suppress a usage message, pass the special value optparse.SUPPRESS_USAGE.

option_list (default: [])

A list of Option objects to populate the parser with. The options in option_list are added after any options in standard_option_list (a class attribute that may be set by OptionParser subclasses), but before any version or help options. Deprecated; use add_option() after creating the parser instead.

option_class (default: optparse.Option)

Class to use when adding options to the parser in add_option().

version (default: None)

A version string to print when the user supplies a version option. If you supply a true value for version, optparse automatically adds a version option with the single option string --version. The substring %prog is expanded the same as for usage.

conflict_handler (default: "error")

Specifies what to do when options with conflicting option strings are added to the parser; see section Conflicts between options.

description (default: None)

A paragraph of text giving a brief overview of your program. optparse reformats this paragraph to fit the current terminal width and prints it when the user requests help (after usage, but before the list of options).

formatter (default: a new IndentedHelpFormatter)

An instance of optparse.HelpFormatter that will be used for printing help text. optparse provides two concrete classes for this purpose: IndentedHelpFormatter and TitledHelpFormatter.

add_help_option (default: True)

If true, optparse will add a help option (with option strings -h and --help) to the parser.

prog

The string to use when expanding %prog in usage and version instead of os.path.basename(sys.argv[0]).

epilog (default: None)

A paragraph of help text to print after the option help.

Populating the parser

There are several ways to populate the parser with options. The preferred way is by using OptionParser.add_option(), as shown in section Tutoriel. add_option() can be called in one of two ways:

pass it an Option instance (as returned by make_option())

pass it any combination of positional and keyword arguments that are acceptable to make_option() (i.e., to the Option constructor), and it will create the Option instance for you

The other alternative is to pass a list of pre-constructed Option instances to the OptionParser constructor, as in:

option_list = [
    make_option("-f", "--filename",
                action="store", type="string", dest="filename"),
    make_option("-q", "--quiet",
                action="store_false", dest="verbose"),
    ]
parser = OptionParser(option_list=option_list)

(make_option() is a factory function for creating Option instances; currently it is an alias for the Option constructor. A future version of optparse may split Option into several classes, and make_option() will pick the right class to instantiate. Do not instantiate Option directly.)

Defining options

Each Option instance represents a set of synonymous command-line option strings, e.g. -f and --file. You can specify any number of short or long option strings, but you must specify at least one overall option string.

The canonical way to create an Option instance is with the add_option() method of OptionParser.

OptionParser.add_option(option)

OptionParser.add_option(*opt_str, attr=value, ...)

To define an option with only a short option string:

parser.add_option("-f", attr=value, ...)

And to define an option with only a long option string:

parser.add_option("--foo", attr=value, ...)

The keyword arguments define attributes of the new Option object. The most important option attribute is action, and it largely determines which other attributes are relevant or required. If you pass irrelevant option attributes, or fail to pass required ones, optparse raises an OptionError exception explaining your mistake.

An option's action determines what optparse does when it encounters this option on the command-line. The standard option actions hard-coded into optparse are:

"store"

store this option's argument (default)

"store_const"

store a constant value, pre-set via Option.const

"store_true"

store True

"store_false"

store False

"append"

append this option's argument to a list

"append_const"

append a constant value to a list, pre-set via Option.const

"count"

increment a counter by one

"callback"

call a specified function

"help"

print a usage message including all options and the documentation for them

(If you don't supply an action, the default is "store". For this action, you may also supply type and dest option attributes; see Standard option actions.)

As you can see, most actions involve storing or updating a value somewhere. optparse always creates a special object for this, conventionally called options, which is an instance of optparse.Values.

class optparse.Values

An object holding parsed argument names and values as attributes. Normally created by calling when calling OptionParser.parse_args(), and can be overridden by a custom subclass passed to the values argument of OptionParser.parse_args() (as described in Analyse des arguments).

Option arguments (and various other values) are stored as attributes of this object, according to the dest (destination) option attribute.

For example, when you call

parser.parse_args()

one of the first things optparse does is create the options object:

options = Values()

If one of the options in this parser is defined with

parser.add_option("-f", "--file", action="store", type="string", dest="filename")

and the command-line being parsed includes any of the following:

-ffoo
-f foo
--file=foo
--file foo

then optparse, on seeing this option, will do the equivalent of

options.filename = "foo"

The type and dest option attributes are almost as important as action, but action is the only one that makes sense for all options.

Option attributes

class optparse.Option

A single command line argument, with various attributes passed by keyword to the constructor. Normally created with OptionParser.add_option() rather than directly, and can be overridden by a custom class via the option_class argument to OptionParser.

The following option attributes may be passed as keyword arguments to OptionParser.add_option(). If you pass an option attribute that is not relevant to a particular option, or fail to pass a required option attribute, optparse raises OptionError.

Option.action

(default: "store")

Determines optparse's behaviour when this option is seen on the command line; the available options are documented here.

Option.type

(default: "string")

The argument type expected by this option (e.g., "string" or "int"); the available option types are documented here.

Option.dest

(default: derived from option strings)

If the option's action implies writing or modifying a value somewhere, this tells optparse where to write it: dest names an attribute of the options object that optparse builds as it parses the command line.

Option.default

The value to use for this option's destination if the option is not seen on the command line. See also OptionParser.set_defaults().

Option.nargs

(default: 1)

How many arguments of type type should be consumed when this option is seen. If > 1, optparse will store a tuple of values to dest.

Option.const

For actions that store a constant value, the constant value to store.

Option.choices

For options of type "choice", the list of strings the user may choose from.

Option.callback

For options with action "callback", the callable to call when this option is seen. See section Option Callbacks for detail on the arguments passed to the callable.

Option.callback_args

Option.callback_kwargs

Additional positional and keyword arguments to pass to callback after the four standard callback arguments.

Option.help

Help text to print for this option when listing all available options after the user supplies a help option (such as --help). If no help text is supplied, the option will be listed without help text. To hide this option, use the special value optparse.SUPPRESS_HELP.

Option.metavar

(default: derived from option strings)

Stand-in for the option argument(s) to use when printing help text. See section Tutoriel for an example.

Standard option actions

The various option actions all have slightly different requirements and effects. Most actions have several relevant option attributes which you may specify to guide optparse's behaviour; a few have required attributes, which you must specify for any option using that action.

"store" [relevant: type, dest, nargs, choices]

The option must be followed by an argument, which is converted to a value according to type and stored in dest. If nargs > 1, multiple arguments will be consumed from the command line; all will be converted according to type and stored to dest as a tuple. See the Standard option types section.

If choices is supplied (a list or tuple of strings), the type defaults to "choice".

If type is not supplied, it defaults to "string".

If dest is not supplied, optparse derives a destination from the first long option string (e.g., --foo-bar implies foo_bar). If there are no long option strings, optparse derives a destination from the first short option string (e.g., -f implies f).

Exemple :

parser.add_option("-f")
parser.add_option("-p", type="float", nargs=3, dest="point")

As it parses the command line

-f foo.txt -p 1 -3.5 4 -fbar.txt

optparse will set

options.f = "foo.txt"
options.point = (1.0, -3.5, 4.0)
options.f = "bar.txt"

"store_const" [required: const; relevant: dest]

The value const is stored in dest.

Exemple :

parser.add_option("-q", "--quiet",
                  action="store_const", const=0, dest="verbose")
parser.add_option("-v", "--verbose",
                  action="store_const", const=1, dest="verbose")
parser.add_option("--noisy",
                  action="store_const", const=2, dest="verbose")

If --noisy is seen, optparse will set

options.verbose = 2

"store_true" [relevant: dest]

A special case of "store_const" that stores True to dest.

"store_false" [relevant: dest]

Like "store_true", but stores False.

Exemple :

parser.add_option("--clobber", action="store_true", dest="clobber")
parser.add_option("--no-clobber", action="store_false", dest="clobber")

"append" [relevant: type, dest, nargs, choices]

The option must be followed by an argument, which is appended to the list in dest. If no default value for dest is supplied, an empty list is automatically created when optparse first encounters this option on the command-line. If nargs > 1, multiple arguments are consumed, and a tuple of length nargs is appended to dest.

The defaults for type and dest are the same as for the "store" action.

Exemple :

parser.add_option("-t", "--tracks", action="append", type="int")

If -t3 is seen on the command-line, optparse does the equivalent of:

options.tracks = []
options.tracks.append(int("3"))

If, a little later on, --tracks=4 is seen, it does:

options.tracks.append(int("4"))

The append action calls the append method on the current value of the option. This means that any default value specified must have an append method. It also means that if the default value is non-empty, the default elements will be present in the parsed value for the option, with any values from the command line appended after those default values:

>>> parser.add_option("--files", action="append", default=['~/.mypkg/defaults'])
>>> opts, args = parser.parse_args(['--files', 'overrides.mypkg'])
>>> opts.files
['~/.mypkg/defaults', 'overrides.mypkg']

"append_const" [required: const; relevant: dest]

Like "store_const", but the value const is appended to dest; as with "append", dest defaults to None, and an empty list is automatically created the first time the option is encountered.

"count" [relevant: dest]

Increment the integer stored at dest. If no default value is supplied, dest is set to zero before being incremented the first time.

Exemple :

parser.add_option("-v", action="count", dest="verbosity")

The first time -v is seen on the command line, optparse does the equivalent of:

options.verbosity = 0
options.verbosity += 1

Every subsequent occurrence of -v results in

options.verbosity += 1

"callback" [required: callback; relevant: type, nargs, callback_args, callback_kwargs]

Call the function specified by callback, which is called as

func(option, opt_str, value, parser, *args, **kwargs)

See section Option Callbacks for more detail.

"help"

Prints a complete help message for all the options in the current option parser. The help message is constructed from the usage string passed to OptionParser's constructor and the help string passed to every option.

If no help string is supplied for an option, it will still be listed in the help message. To omit an option entirely, use the special value optparse.SUPPRESS_HELP.

optparse automatically adds a help option to all OptionParsers, so you do not normally need to create one.

Exemple :

from optparse import OptionParser, SUPPRESS_HELP

# usually, a help option is added automatically, but that can
# be suppressed using the add_help_option argument
parser = OptionParser(add_help_option=False)

parser.add_option("-h", "--help", action="help")
parser.add_option("-v", action="store_true", dest="verbose",
                  help="Be moderately verbose")
parser.add_option("--file", dest="filename",
                  help="Input file to read data from")
parser.add_option("--secret", help=SUPPRESS_HELP)

If optparse sees either -h or --help on the command line, it will print something like the following help message to stdout (assuming sys.argv[0] is "foo.py"):

Usage: foo.py [options]

Options:
  -h, --help        Show this help message and exit
  -v                Be moderately verbose
  --file=FILENAME   Input file to read data from

After printing the help message, optparse terminates your process with sys.exit(0).

"version"

Prints the version number supplied to the OptionParser to stdout and exits. The version number is actually formatted and printed by the print_version() method of OptionParser. Generally only relevant if the version argument is supplied to the OptionParser constructor. As with help options, you will rarely create version options, since optparse automatically adds them when needed.

Standard option types

optparse has five built-in option types: "string", "int", "choice", "float" and "complex". If you need to add new option types, see section Extending optparse.

Arguments to string options are not checked or converted in any way: the text on the command line is stored in the destination (or passed to the callback) as-is.

Integer arguments (type "int") are parsed as follows:

if the number starts with 0x, it is parsed as a hexadecimal number

if the number starts with 0, it is parsed as an octal number

if the number starts with 0b, it is parsed as a binary number

otherwise, the number is parsed as a decimal number

The conversion is done by calling int() with the appropriate base (2, 8, 10, or 16). If this fails, so will optparse, although with a more useful error message.

"float" and "complex" option arguments are converted directly with float() and complex(), with similar error-handling.

"choice" options are a subtype of "string" options. The choices option attribute (a sequence of strings) defines the set of allowed option arguments. optparse.check_choice() compares user-supplied option arguments against this master list and raises OptionValueError if an invalid string is given.

Analyse des arguments

The whole point of creating and populating an OptionParser is to call its parse_args() method.

OptionParser.parse_args(args=None, values=None)

Parse the command-line options found in args.

The input parameters are

args

the list of arguments to process (default: sys.argv[1:])

values

a Values object to store option arguments in (default: a new instance of Values) -- if you give an existing object, the option defaults will not be initialized on it

and the return value is a pair (options, args) where

options

the same object that was passed in as values, or the optparse.Values instance created by optparse

args

the leftover positional arguments after all options have been processed

The most common usage is to supply neither keyword argument. If you supply values, it will be modified with repeated setattr() calls (roughly one for every option argument stored to an option destination) and returned by parse_args().

If parse_args() encounters any errors in the argument list, it calls the OptionParser's error() method with an appropriate end-user error message. This ultimately terminates your process with an exit status of 2 (the traditional Unix exit status for command-line errors).

Querying and manipulating your option parser

The default behavior of the option parser can be customized slightly, and you can also poke around your option parser and see what's there. OptionParser provides several methods to help you out:

OptionParser.disable_interspersed_args()

Set parsing to stop on the first non-option. For example, if -a and -b are both simple options that take no arguments, optparse normally accepts this syntax:

prog -a arg1 -b arg2

and treats it as equivalent to

prog -a -b arg1 arg2

To disable this feature, call disable_interspersed_args(). This restores traditional Unix syntax, where option parsing stops with the first non-option argument.

Use this if you have a command processor which runs another command which has options of its own and you want to make sure these options don't get confused. For example, each command might have a different set of options.

OptionParser.enable_interspersed_args()

Set parsing to not stop on the first non-option, allowing interspersing switches with command arguments. This is the default behavior.

OptionParser.get_option(opt_str)

Returns the Option instance with the option string opt_str, or None if no options have that option string.

OptionParser.has_option(opt_str)

Return True if the OptionParser has an option with option string opt_str (e.g., -q or --verbose).

OptionParser.remove_option(opt_str)

If the OptionParser has an option corresponding to opt_str, that option is removed. If that option provided any other option strings, all of those option strings become invalid. If opt_str does not occur in any option belonging to this OptionParser, raises ValueError.

Conflicts between options

If you're not careful, it's easy to define options with conflicting option strings:

parser.add_option("-n", "--dry-run", ...)
...
parser.add_option("-n", "--noisy", ...)

(This is particularly true if you've defined your own OptionParser subclass with some standard options.)

Every time you add an option, optparse checks for conflicts with existing options. If it finds any, it invokes the current conflict-handling mechanism. You can set the conflict-handling mechanism either in the constructor:

parser = OptionParser(..., conflict_handler=handler)

or with a separate call:

parser.set_conflict_handler(handler)

The available conflict handlers are:

"error" (default)

assume option conflicts are a programming error and raise OptionConflictError

"resolve"

resolve option conflicts intelligently (see below)

As an example, let's define an OptionParser that resolves conflicts intelligently and add conflicting options to it:

parser = OptionParser(conflict_handler="resolve")
parser.add_option("-n", "--dry-run", ..., help="do no harm")
parser.add_option("-n", "--noisy", ..., help="be noisy")

At this point, optparse detects that a previously added option is already using the -n option string. Since conflict_handler is "resolve", it resolves the situation by removing -n from the earlier option's list of option strings. Now --dry-run is the only way for the user to activate that option. If the user asks for help, the help message will reflect that:

Options:
  --dry-run     do no harm
  ...
  -n, --noisy   be noisy

It's possible to whittle away the option strings for a previously added option until there are none left, and the user has no way of invoking that option from the command-line. In that case, optparse removes that option completely, so it doesn't show up in help text or anywhere else. Carrying on with our existing OptionParser:

parser.add_option("--dry-run", ..., help="new dry-run option")

At this point, the original -n/--dry-run option is no longer accessible, so optparse removes it, leaving this help text:

Options:
  ...
  -n, --noisy   be noisy
  --dry-run     new dry-run option

Nettoyage

OptionParser instances have several cyclic references. This should not be a problem for Python's garbage collector, but you may wish to break the cyclic references explicitly by calling destroy() on your OptionParser once you are done with it. This is particularly useful in long-running applications where large object graphs are reachable from your OptionParser.

Other methods

OptionParser supports several other public methods:

OptionParser.set_usage(usage)

Set the usage string according to the rules described above for the usage constructor keyword argument. Passing None sets the default usage string; use optparse.SUPPRESS_USAGE to suppress a usage message.

OptionParser.print_usage(file=None)

Print the usage message for the current program (self.usage) to file (default stdout). Any occurrence of the string %prog in self.usage is replaced with the name of the current program. Does nothing if self.usage is empty or not defined.

OptionParser.get_usage()

Same as print_usage() but returns the usage string instead of printing it.

OptionParser.set_defaults(dest=value, ...)

Set default values for several option destinations at once. Using set_defaults() is the preferred way to set default values for options, since multiple options can share the same destination. For example, if several "mode" options all set the same destination, any one of them can set the default, and the last one wins:

parser.add_option("--advanced", action="store_const",
                  dest="mode", const="advanced",
                  default="novice")    # overridden below
parser.add_option("--novice", action="store_const",
                  dest="mode", const="novice",
                  default="advanced")  # overrides above setting

To avoid this confusion, use set_defaults():

parser.set_defaults(mode="advanced")
parser.add_option("--advanced", action="store_const",
                  dest="mode", const="advanced")
parser.add_option("--novice", action="store_const",
                  dest="mode", const="novice")

Option Callbacks

When optparse's built-in actions and types aren't quite enough for your needs, you have two choices: extend optparse or define a callback option. Extending optparse is more general, but overkill for a lot of simple cases. Quite often a simple callback is all you need.

There are two steps to defining a callback option:

define the option itself using the "callback" action

write the callback; this is a function (or method) that takes at least four arguments, as described below

Defining a callback option

As always, the easiest way to define a callback option is by using the OptionParser.add_option() method. Apart from action, the only option attribute you must specify is callback, the function to call:

parser.add_option("-c", action="callback", callback=my_callback)

callback is a function (or other callable object), so you must have already defined my_callback() when you create this callback option. In this simple case, optparse doesn't even know if -c takes any arguments, which usually means that the option takes no arguments---the mere presence of -c on the command-line is all it needs to know. In some circumstances, though, you might want your callback to consume an arbitrary number of command-line arguments. This is where writing callbacks gets tricky; it's covered later in this section.

optparse always passes four particular arguments to your callback, and it will only pass additional arguments if you specify them via callback_args and callback_kwargs. Thus, the minimal callback function signature is:

def my_callback(option, opt, value, parser):

The four arguments to a callback are described below.

There are several other option attributes that you can supply when you define a callback option:

type

has its usual meaning: as with the "store" or "append" actions, it instructs optparse to consume one argument and convert it to type. Rather than storing the converted value(s) anywhere, though, optparse passes it to your callback function.

nargs

also has its usual meaning: if it is supplied and > 1, optparse will consume nargs arguments, each of which must be convertible to type. It then passes a tuple of converted values to your callback.

callback_args

a tuple of extra positional arguments to pass to the callback

callback_kwargs

a dictionary of extra keyword arguments to pass to the callback

How callbacks are called

All callbacks are called as follows:

func(option, opt_str, value, parser, *args, **kwargs)

where

option

is the Option instance that's calling the callback

opt_str

is the option string seen on the command-line that's triggering the callback. (If an abbreviated long option was used, opt_str will be the full, canonical option string---e.g. if the user puts --foo on the command-line as an abbreviation for --foobar, then opt_str will be "--foobar".)

value

is the argument to this option seen on the command-line. optparse will only expect an argument if type is set; the type of value will be the type implied by the option's type. If type for this option is None (no argument expected), then value will be None. If nargs > 1, value will be a tuple of values of the appropriate type.

parser

is the OptionParser instance driving the whole thing, mainly useful because you can access some other interesting data through its instance attributes:

parser.largs

the current list of leftover arguments, ie. arguments that have been consumed but are neither options nor option arguments. Feel free to modify parser.largs, e.g. by adding more arguments to it. (This list will become args, the second return value of parse_args().)

parser.rargs

the current list of remaining arguments, ie. with opt_str and value (if applicable) removed, and only the arguments following them still there. Feel free to modify parser.rargs, e.g. by consuming more arguments.

parser.values

the object where option values are by default stored (an instance of optparse.OptionValues). This lets callbacks use the same mechanism as the rest of optparse for storing option values; you don't need to mess around with globals or closures. You can also access or modify the value(s) of any options already encountered on the command-line.

args

is a tuple of arbitrary positional arguments supplied via the callback_args option attribute.

kwargs

is a dictionary of arbitrary keyword arguments supplied via callback_kwargs.

Raising errors in a callback

The callback function should raise OptionValueError if there are any problems with the option or its argument(s). optparse catches this and terminates the program, printing the error message you supply to stderr. Your message should be clear, concise, accurate, and mention the option at fault. Otherwise, the user will have a hard time figuring out what they did wrong.

Callback example 1: trivial callback

Here's an example of a callback option that takes no arguments, and simply records that the option was seen:

def record_foo_seen(option, opt_str, value, parser):
    parser.values.saw_foo = True

parser.add_option("--foo", action="callback", callback=record_foo_seen)

Of course, you could do that with the "store_true" action.

Callback example 2: check option order

Here's a slightly more interesting example: record the fact that -a is seen, but blow up if it comes after -b in the command-line.

def check_order(option, opt_str, value, parser):
    if parser.values.b:
        raise OptionValueError("can't use -a after -b")
    parser.values.a = 1
...
parser.add_option("-a", action="callback", callback=check_order)
parser.add_option("-b", action="store_true", dest="b")

Callback example 3: check option order (generalized)

If you want to reuse this callback for several similar options (set a flag, but blow up if -b has already been seen), it needs a bit of work: the error message and the flag that it sets must be generalized.

def check_order(option, opt_str, value, parser):
    if parser.values.b:
        raise OptionValueError("can't use %s after -b" % opt_str)
    setattr(parser.values, option.dest, 1)
...
parser.add_option("-a", action="callback", callback=check_order, dest='a')
parser.add_option("-b", action="store_true", dest="b")
parser.add_option("-c", action="callback", callback=check_order, dest='c')

Callback example 4: check arbitrary condition

Of course, you could put any condition in there---you're not limited to checking the values of already-defined options. For example, if you have options that should not be called when the moon is full, all you have to do is this:

def check_moon(option, opt_str, value, parser):
    if is_moon_full():
        raise OptionValueError("%s option invalid when moon is full"
                               % opt_str)
    setattr(parser.values, option.dest, 1)
...
parser.add_option("--foo",
                  action="callback", callback=check_moon, dest="foo")

(The definition of is_moon_full() is left as an exercise for the reader.)

Callback example 5: fixed arguments

Things get slightly more interesting when you define callback options that take a fixed number of arguments. Specifying that a callback option takes arguments is similar to defining a "store" or "append" option: if you define type, then the option takes one argument that must be convertible to that type; if you further define nargs, then the option takes nargs arguments.

Here's an example that just emulates the standard "store" action:

def store_value(option, opt_str, value, parser):
    setattr(parser.values, option.dest, value)
...
parser.add_option("--foo",
                  action="callback", callback=store_value,
                  type="int", nargs=3, dest="foo")

Note that optparse takes care of consuming 3 arguments and converting them to integers for you; all you have to do is store them. (Or whatever; obviously you don't need a callback for this example.)

Callback example 6: variable arguments

Things get hairy when you want an option to take a variable number of arguments. For this case, you must write a callback, as optparse doesn't provide any built-in capabilities for it. And you have to deal with certain intricacies of conventional Unix command-line parsing that optparse normally handles for you. In particular, callbacks should implement the conventional rules for bare -- and - arguments:

either -- or - can be option arguments

bare -- (if not the argument to some option): halt command-line processing and discard the --

bare - (if not the argument to some option): halt command-line processing but keep the - (append it to parser.largs)

If you want an option that takes a variable number of arguments, there are several subtle, tricky issues to worry about. The exact implementation you choose will be based on which trade-offs you're willing to make for your application (which is why optparse doesn't support this sort of thing directly).

Nevertheless, here's a stab at a callback for an option with variable arguments:

def vararg_callback(option, opt_str, value, parser):
    assert value is None
    value = []

    def floatable(str):
        try:
            float(str)
            return True
        except ValueError:
            return False

    for arg in parser.rargs:
        # stop on --foo like options
        if arg[:2] == "--" and len(arg) > 2:
            break
        # stop on -a, but not on -3 or -3.0
        if arg[:1] == "-" and len(arg) > 1 and not floatable(arg):
            break
        value.append(arg)

    del parser.rargs[:len(value)]
    setattr(parser.values, option.dest, value)

...
parser.add_option("-c", "--callback", dest="vararg_attr",
                  action="callback", callback=vararg_callback)

Extending optparse

Since the two major controlling factors in how optparse interprets command-line options are the action and type of each option, the most likely direction of extension is to add new actions and new types.

Adding new types

To add new types, you need to define your own subclass of optparse's Option class. This class has a couple of attributes that define optparse's types: TYPES and TYPE_CHECKER.

Option.TYPES

A tuple of type names; in your subclass, simply define a new tuple TYPES that builds on the standard one.

Option.TYPE_CHECKER

A dictionary mapping type names to type-checking functions. A type-checking function has the following signature:

def check_mytype(option, opt, value)

where option is an Option instance, opt is an option string (e.g., -f), and value is the string from the command line that must be checked and converted to your desired type. check_mytype() should return an object of the hypothetical type mytype. The value returned by a type-checking function will wind up in the OptionValues instance returned by OptionParser.parse_args(), or be passed to a callback as the value parameter.

Your type-checking function should raise OptionValueError if it encounters any problems. OptionValueError takes a single string argument, which is passed as-is to OptionParser's error() method, which in turn prepends the program name and the string "error:" and prints everything to stderr before terminating the process.

Here's a silly example that demonstrates adding a "complex" option type to parse Python-style complex numbers on the command line. (This is even sillier than it used to be, because optparse 1.3 added built-in support for complex numbers, but never mind.)

First, the necessary imports:

from copy import copy
from optparse import Option, OptionValueError

You need to define your type-checker first, since it's referred to later (in the TYPE_CHECKER class attribute of your Option subclass):

def check_complex(option, opt, value):
    try:
        return complex(value)
    except ValueError:
        raise OptionValueError(
            "option %s: invalid complex value: %r" % (opt, value))

Finally, the Option subclass:

class MyOption (Option):
    TYPES = Option.TYPES + ("complex",)
    TYPE_CHECKER = copy(Option.TYPE_CHECKER)
    TYPE_CHECKER["complex"] = check_complex

(If we didn't make a copy() of Option.TYPE_CHECKER, we would end up modifying the TYPE_CHECKER attribute of optparse's Option class. This being Python, nothing stops you from doing that except good manners and common sense.)

That's it! Now you can write a script that uses the new option type just like any other optparse-based script, except you have to instruct your OptionParser to use MyOption instead of Option:

parser = OptionParser(option_class=MyOption)
parser.add_option("-c", type="complex")

Alternately, you can build your own option list and pass it to OptionParser; if you don't use add_option() in the above way, you don't need to tell OptionParser which option class to use:

option_list = [MyOption("-c", action="store", type="complex", dest="c")]
parser = OptionParser(option_list=option_list)

Adding new actions

Adding new actions is a bit trickier, because you have to understand that optparse has a couple of classifications for actions:

"store" actions

actions that result in optparse storing a value to an attribute of the current OptionValues instance; these options require a dest attribute to be supplied to the Option constructor.

"typed" actions

actions that take a value from the command line and expect it to be of a certain type; or rather, a string that can be converted to a certain type. These options require a type attribute to the Option constructor.

These are overlapping sets: some default "store" actions are "store", "store_const", "append", and "count", while the default "typed" actions are "store", "append", and "callback".

When you add an action, you need to categorize it by listing it in at least one of the following class attributes of Option (all are lists of strings):

Option.ACTIONS

All actions must be listed in ACTIONS.

Option.STORE_ACTIONS

"store" actions are additionally listed here.

Option.TYPED_ACTIONS

"typed" actions are additionally listed here.

Option.ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS

Actions that always take a type (i.e. whose options always take a value) are additionally listed here. The only effect of this is that optparse assigns the default type, "string", to options with no explicit type whose action is listed in ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS.

In order to actually implement your new action, you must override Option's take_action() method and add a case that recognizes your action.

For example, let's add an "extend" action. This is similar to the standard "append" action, but instead of taking a single value from the command-line and appending it to an existing list, "extend" will take multiple values in a single comma-delimited string, and extend an existing list with them. That is, if --names is an "extend" option of type "string", the command line

--names=foo,bar --names blah --names ding,dong

would result in a list

["foo", "bar", "blah", "ding", "dong"]

Again we define a subclass of Option:

class MyOption(Option):

    ACTIONS = Option.ACTIONS + ("extend",)
    STORE_ACTIONS = Option.STORE_ACTIONS + ("extend",)
    TYPED_ACTIONS = Option.TYPED_ACTIONS + ("extend",)
    ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS = Option.ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS + ("extend",)

    def take_action(self, action, dest, opt, value, values, parser):
        if action == "extend":
            lvalue = value.split(",")
            values.ensure_value(dest, []).extend(lvalue)
        else:
            Option.take_action(
                self, action, dest, opt, value, values, parser)

Features of note:

"extend" both expects a value on the command-line and stores that value somewhere, so it goes in both STORE_ACTIONS and TYPED_ACTIONS.

to ensure that optparse assigns the default type of "string" to "extend" actions, we put the "extend" action in ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS as well.

MyOption.take_action() implements just this one new action, and passes control back to Option.take_action() for the standard optparse actions.

values is an instance of the optparse_parser.Values class, which provides the very useful ensure_value() method. ensure_value() is essentially getattr() with a safety valve; it is called as

values.ensure_value(attr, value)

If the attr attribute of values doesn't exist or is None, then ensure_value() first sets it to value, and then returns value. This is very handy for actions like "extend", "append", and "count", all of which accumulate data in a variable and expect that variable to be of a certain type (a list for the first two, an integer for the latter). Using ensure_value() means that scripts using your action don't have to worry about setting a default value for the option destinations in question; they can just leave the default as None and ensure_value() will take care of getting it right when it's needed.

Exceptions

exception optparse.OptionError

Raised if an Option instance is created with invalid or inconsistent arguments.

exception optparse.OptionConflictError

Raised if conflicting options are added to an OptionParser.

exception optparse.OptionValueError

Raised if an invalid option value is encountered on the command line.

exception optparse.BadOptionError

Raised if an invalid option is passed on the command line.

exception optparse.AmbiguousOptionError

Raised if an ambiguous option is passed on the command line.

getpass --- Portable password input

Source code: Lib/getpass.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/getpass.py]

Disponibilité: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly. See Plateformes WebAssembly for more information.

The getpass module provides two functions:

getpass.getpass(prompt='Password: ', stream=None, *, echo_char=None)

Affiche une demande de mot de passe sans renvoyer d'écho. L'utilisateur est invité en utilisant la string prompt, avec en valeur par défaut 'Password: '. Avec Unix, l'invite est écrite dans l'objet fichier stream en utilisant si besoin le replace error handler. stream sera par défaut le terminal de contrôle (/dev/tty), ou si celui ci n'est pas disponible ce sera sys.stderr (cet argument sera ignoré sur Windows).

The echo_char argument controls how user input is displayed while typing. If echo_char is None (default), input remains hidden. Otherwise, echo_char must be a single printable ASCII character and each typed character is replaced by it. For example, echo_char='*' will display asterisks instead of the actual input.

Si aucune saisie en mode sans affichage n'est disponible, getpass() se résoudra à afficher un message d'avertissement vers stream, puis lire l'entrée depuis sys.stdin, en levant une GetPassWarning.

Note

Si vous appelez getpass depuis IDLE, la saisie peut être faite dans le terminal depuis lequel IDLE a été lancé, plutôt que dans la fenêtre d'IDLE.

Note

On Unix systems, when echo_char is set, the terminal will be configured to operate in noncanonical mode [https://manpages.debian.org/termios(3)#Canonical_and_noncanonical_mode]. In particular, this means that line editing shortcuts such as Ctrl+U will not work and may insert unexpected characters into the input.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Added the echo_char parameter for keyboard feedback.

exception getpass.GetPassWarning

Une sous classe d'exception UserWarning est levée quand le mot de passe saisi pourrait être affiché.

getpass.getuser()

Renvoie le login name de l'utilisateur.

This function checks the environment variables LOGNAME, USER, LNAME and USERNAME, in order, and returns the value of the first one which is set to a non-empty string. If none are set, the login name from the password database is returned on systems which support the pwd module, otherwise, an OSError is raised.

In general, this function should be preferred over os.getlogin().

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Previously, various exceptions beyond just OSError were raised.

fileinput --- Iterate over lines from multiple input streams

Code source : Lib/fileinput.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/fileinput.py]

Ce module offre une classe auxiliaire et des fonctions pour lire facilement l'entrée standard ou bien les fichiers d'une liste. Si vous n'avez besoin de lire ou écrire qu'un seul fichier, il suffit de open().

Ce module s'utilise le plus couramment comme ceci :

import fileinput
for line in fileinput.input(encoding="utf-8"):
    process(line)

Ce code traite une à une les lignes des fichiers de sys.argv[1:]. Si cette liste est vide (pas d'argument en ligne de commande), il lit l'entrée standard. Le nom de fichier '-' est équivalent à l'entrée standard (les arguments facultatifs mode et openhook sont ignorés dans ce cas). On peut aussi passer la liste des fichiers comme argument à input(), voire un nom de fichier unique.

Par défaut, tous les fichiers sont ouverts en mode texte. On peut changer ce comportement à l'aide du paramètre mode de la fonction input() ou du constructeur de FileInput. Si une erreur d'entrée-sortie se produit durant l'ouverture ou la lecture d'un fichier, l'exception OSError est levée.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: IOError était levée auparavant, elle est devenue un alias de OSError.

Si sys.stdin apparaît plus d'une fois dans la liste, toutes les lignes sont consommées dès la première fois, sauf éventuellement en cas d'usage interactif ou si le flux d'entrée standard a été modifié dans l'intervalle (par exemple avec sys.stdin.seek(0)).

Les fichiers vides sont ouverts et refermés immédiatement. Ils ne sont pas détectables dans la liste des fichiers, sauf éventuellement dans le cas où le dernier fichier est vide.

Les caractères de saut de ligne sont préservés, donc toutes les lignes se terminent par un saut de ligne, sauf éventuellement la dernière ligne d'un fichier.

You can control how files are opened by providing an opening hook via the openhook parameter to fileinput.input() or FileInput(). The hook must be a function that takes two arguments, filename and mode, and returns an accordingly opened file-like object. If encoding and/or errors are specified, they will be passed to the hook as additional keyword arguments. This module provides a hook_compressed() to support compressed files.

La fonction suivante constitue l'interface principale du module :

fileinput.input(files=None, inplace=False, backup='', *, mode='r', openhook=None, encoding=None, errors=None)

Crée une instance de FileInput, qui devient l'état global pour toutes les fonctions du module. Elle est également renvoyée afin que l'utilisateur puisse la parcourir comme un objet itérable. Tous les paramètres de cette fonction sont transmis au constructeur de FileInput.

Les instances de FileInput peuvent s'utiliser comme gestionnaires de contexte, avec l'instruction with. Dans le code suivant, input est fermé lorsque le bloc with se termine, y compris si une exception l'a interrompu :

with fileinput.input(files=('spam.txt', 'eggs.txt'), encoding="utf-8") as f:
    for line in f:
        process(line)

Modifié dans la version 3.2: prise en charge du protocole de gestionnaire de contexte.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: les paramètres mode et openhook doivent être nommés.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: The keyword-only parameter encoding and errors are added.

Toutes les fonctions suivantes font appel à l'état global du module mis en place par fileinput.input(). L'absence de cet état déclenche l'exception RuntimeError.

fileinput.filename()

Renvoie le nom du fichier en train d'être lu, ou None avant la lecture de la toute première ligne.

fileinput.fileno()

Renvoie le descripteur de fichier (sous forme d'entier) utilisé pour lire le fichier courant. Si aucun fichier n'est ouvert (avant la première ligne et entre les fichiers), le résultat est -1.

fileinput.lineno()

Renvoie le numéro de la ligne qui vient d'être lue, en commençant par la première ligne du premier fichier. Avant cette toute première ligne, renvoie 0. Après la dernière ligne du dernier fichier, renvoie le numéro de cette ligne.

fileinput.filelineno()

Renvoie le numéro de ligne relatif au fichier courant. Avant la toute première ligne, renvoie 0. Après la toute dernière ligne, renvoie le numéro de cette ligne par rapport à son fichier source.

fileinput.isfirstline()

Renvoie True ou False selon que la ligne qui vient d'être lue est la première du fichier.

fileinput.isstdin()

True ou False selon que la dernière ligne lue provenait de sys.stdin ou non.

fileinput.nextfile()

Ferme le fichier courant et laisse la lecture se poursuivre au début du suivant (ou se terminer si c'était le dernier fichier ; dans ce cas cette fonction ne fait rien). Les lignes court-circuitées ne comptent pas dans les numéros des lignes des fichiers suivants. Le nom du fichier courant n'est pas modifié immédiatement, mais seulement après que la première ligne du fichier suivant a été lue. Cette fonction n'a pas d'effet avant la lecture de la première ligne (elle ne peut pas sauter le premier fichier).

fileinput.close()

Ferme le fichier courant et termine la lecture en sautant les fichiers suivants.

La classe qui implémente ce comportement du module est publique. On peut en créer des classes filles :

class fileinput.FileInput(files=None, inplace=False, backup='', *, mode='r', openhook=None, encoding=None, errors=None)

Class FileInput is the implementation; its methods filename(), fileno(), lineno(), filelineno(), isfirstline(), isstdin(), nextfile() and close() correspond to the functions of the same name in the module. In addition it is iterable and has a readline() method which returns the next input line. The sequence must be accessed in strictly sequential order; random access and readline() cannot be mixed.

With mode you can specify which file mode will be passed to open(). It must be one of 'r' and 'rb'.

S'il est fourni, l'argument openhook est une fonction. Elle est appelée avec les paramètres filename et mode, et renvoie un objet fichier-compatible ouvert selon mode. Notez que openhook et inplace sont mutuellement exclusifs.

You can specify encoding and errors that is passed to open() or openhook.

Les objets FileInput peuvent aussi fonctionner comme gestionnaires de contexte dans un bloc with. Dans l'exemple suivant, input est fermé à la fin du bloc with, même arrêté par une exception :

with FileInput(files=('spam.txt', 'eggs.txt')) as input:
    process(input)

Modifié dans la version 3.2: prise en charge du protocole de gestionnaire de contexte.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: les paramètres mode et openhook doivent impérativement être nommés.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: The keyword-only parameter encoding and errors are added.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: The 'rU' and 'U' modes and the __getitem__() method have been removed.

Filtrage sur place optionnel : si inplace=True est passé à fileinput.input() ou au constructeur de FileInput, chaque fichier d'entrée est déplacé vers une sauvegarde et la sortie standard est redirigée vers le fichier lui-même, ce qui permet d'écrire des filtres qui modifient directement les fichiers existants. Si le paramètre backup est fourni, il donne l'extension des fichiers de sauvegarde. Dans ce cas, la sauvegarde est conservée après l'opération. Par défaut, les fichiers de sauvegarde ont l'extension '.bak' et sont supprimés dès que le fichier de sortie est fermé. Si un fichier existe avec le même nom que la sauvegarde, il est écrasé. Le filtrage sur place ne fait rien pour l'entrée standard.

Les deux fonctions suivantes fournissent des valeurs prédéfinies pour openhook :

fileinput.hook_compressed(filename, mode, *, encoding=None, errors=None)

Ouvre de façon transparente les fichiers compressés avec gzip ou bzip2, à l'aide des modules gzip et bz2. Les fichiers compressés sont reconnus aux extensions '.gz' et '.bz2'. Tous les fichiers qui n'ont pas l'une de ces deux extensions sont ouverts normalement (avec open(), sans décompression).

The encoding and errors values are passed to io.TextIOWrapper for compressed files and open for normal files.

Usage example: fi = fileinput.FileInput(openhook=fileinput.hook_compressed, encoding="utf-8")

Modifié dans la version 3.10: The keyword-only parameter encoding and errors are added.

fileinput.hook_encoded(encoding, errors=None)

Renvoie une fonction qui ouvre les fichiers en passant à open() les arguments encoding et errors. Le résultat peut être exploité à travers le point d'entrée automatique openhook.

Exemple d'utilisation : fi = fileinput.FileInput(openhook=fileinput.hook_encoded("utf-8", "surrogateescape")).

Modifié dans la version 3.6: ajout du paramètre facultatif errors.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.10: This function is deprecated since fileinput.input() and FileInput now have encoding and errors parameters.

curses --- Terminal handling for character-cell displays

Source code: Lib/curses [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/curses]

The curses module provides an interface to the curses library, the de-facto standard for portable advanced terminal handling.

While curses is most widely used in the Unix environment, versions are available for Windows, DOS, and possibly other systems as well. This extension module is designed to match the API of ncurses, an open-source curses library hosted on Linux and the BSD variants of Unix.

Disponibilité: not Android, not iOS, not WASI.

This module is not supported on mobile platforms or WebAssembly platforms.

This is an optional module. If it is missing from your copy of CPython, look for documentation from your distributor (that is, whoever provided Python to you). If you are the distributor, see Requirements for optional modules.

Disponibilité: Unix.

Note

Whenever the documentation mentions a character it can be specified as an integer, a one-character Unicode string or a one-byte byte string.

Whenever the documentation mentions a character string it can be specified as a Unicode string or a byte string.

Voir aussi

Module curses.ascii

Utilities for working with ASCII characters, regardless of your locale settings.

Module curses.panel

A panel stack extension that adds depth to curses windows.

Module curses.textpad

Editable text widget for curses supporting Emacs-like bindings.

Programmation Curses avec Python

Tutorial material on using curses with Python, by Andrew Kuchling and Eric Raymond.

Fonctions

The module curses defines the following exception:

exception curses.error

Exception raised when a curses library function returns an error.

Note

Whenever x or y arguments to a function or a method are optional, they default to the current cursor location. Whenever attr is optional, it defaults to A_NORMAL.

The module curses defines the following functions:

curses.assume_default_colors(fg, bg, /)

Allow use of default values for colors on terminals supporting this feature. Use this to support transparency in your application.

Assign terminal default foreground/background colors to color number -1. So init_pair(x, COLOR_RED, -1) will initialize pair x as red on default background and init_pair(x, -1, COLOR_BLUE) will initialize pair x as default foreground on blue.

Change the definition of the color-pair 0 to (fg, bg).

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

curses.baudrate()

Return the output speed of the terminal in bits per second. On software terminal emulators it will have a fixed high value. Included for historical reasons; in former times, it was used to write output loops for time delays and occasionally to change interfaces depending on the line speed.

curses.beep()

Emit a short attention sound.

curses.can_change_color()

Return True or False, depending on whether the programmer can change the colors displayed by the terminal.

curses.cbreak()

Enter cbreak mode. In cbreak mode (sometimes called "rare" mode) normal tty line buffering is turned off and characters are available to be read one by one. However, unlike raw mode, special characters (interrupt, quit, suspend, and flow control) retain their effects on the tty driver and calling program. Calling first raw() then cbreak() leaves the terminal in cbreak mode.

curses.color_content(color_number)

Return the intensity of the red, green, and blue (RGB) components in the color color_number, which must be between 0 and COLORS - 1. Return a 3-tuple, containing the R,G,B values for the given color, which will be between 0 (no component) and 1000 (maximum amount of component).

curses.color_pair(pair_number)

Return the attribute value for displaying text in the specified color pair. Only the first 256 color pairs are supported. This attribute value can be combined with A_STANDOUT, A_REVERSE, and the other A_* attributes. pair_number() is the counterpart to this function.

curses.curs_set(visibility)

Set the cursor state. visibility can be set to 0, 1, or 2, for invisible, normal, or very visible. If the terminal supports the visibility requested, return the previous cursor state; otherwise raise an exception. On many terminals, the "visible" mode is an underline cursor and the "very visible" mode is a block cursor.

curses.def_prog_mode()

Save the current terminal mode as the "program" mode, the mode when the running program is using curses. (Its counterpart is the "shell" mode, for when the program is not in curses.) Subsequent calls to reset_prog_mode() will restore this mode.

curses.def_shell_mode()

Save the current terminal mode as the "shell" mode, the mode when the running program is not using curses. (Its counterpart is the "program" mode, when the program is using curses capabilities.) Subsequent calls to reset_shell_mode() will restore this mode.

curses.delay_output(ms)

Insert an ms millisecond pause in output.

curses.doupdate()

Update the physical screen. The curses library keeps two data structures, one representing the current physical screen contents and a virtual screen representing the desired next state. The doupdate() ground updates the physical screen to match the virtual screen.

The virtual screen may be updated by a noutrefresh() call after write operations such as addstr() have been performed on a window. The normal refresh() call is simply noutrefresh() followed by doupdate(); if you have to update multiple windows, you can speed performance and perhaps reduce screen flicker by issuing noutrefresh() calls on all windows, followed by a single doupdate().

curses.echo()

Enter echo mode. In echo mode, each character input is echoed to the screen as it is entered.

curses.endwin()

De-initialize the library, and return terminal to normal status.

curses.erasechar()

Return the user's current erase character as a one-byte bytes object. Under Unix operating systems this is a property of the controlling tty of the curses program, and is not set by the curses library itself.

curses.filter()

The filter() routine, if used, must be called before initscr() is called. The effect is that, during those calls, LINES is set to 1; the capabilities clear, cup, cud, cud1, cuu1, cuu, vpa are disabled; and the home string is set to the value of cr. The effect is that the cursor is confined to the current line, and so are screen updates. This may be used for enabling character-at-a-time line editing without touching the rest of the screen.

curses.flash()

Flash the screen. That is, change it to reverse-video and then change it back in a short interval. Some people prefer such as 'visible bell' to the audible attention signal produced by beep().

curses.flushinp()

Flush all input buffers. This throws away any typeahead that has been typed by the user and has not yet been processed by the program.

curses.getmouse()

After getch() returns KEY_MOUSE to signal a mouse event, this method should be called to retrieve the queued mouse event, represented as a 5-tuple (id, x, y, z, bstate). id is an ID value used to distinguish multiple devices, and x, y, z are the event's coordinates. (z is currently unused.) bstate is an integer value whose bits will be set to indicate the type of event, and will be the bitwise OR of one or more of the following constants, where n is the button number from 1 to 5: BUTTONn_PRESSED, BUTTONn_RELEASED, BUTTONn_CLICKED, BUTTONn_DOUBLE_CLICKED, BUTTONn_TRIPLE_CLICKED, BUTTON_SHIFT, BUTTON_CTRL, BUTTON_ALT.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: The BUTTON5_* constants are now exposed if they are provided by the underlying curses library.

curses.getsyx()

Return the current coordinates of the virtual screen cursor as a tuple (y, x). If leaveok is currently True, then return (-1, -1).

curses.getwin(file)

Read window related data stored in the file by an earlier window.putwin() call. The routine then creates and initializes a new window using that data, returning the new window object.

curses.has_colors()

Return True if the terminal can display colors; otherwise, return False.

curses.has_extended_color_support()

Return True if the module supports extended colors; otherwise, return False. Extended color support allows more than 256 color pairs for terminals that support more than 16 colors (e.g. xterm-256color).

Extended color support requires ncurses version 6.1 or later.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

curses.has_ic()

Return True if the terminal has insert- and delete-character capabilities. This function is included for historical reasons only, as all modern software terminal emulators have such capabilities.

curses.has_il()

Return True if the terminal has insert- and delete-line capabilities, or can simulate them using scrolling regions. This function is included for historical reasons only, as all modern software terminal emulators have such capabilities.

curses.has_key(ch)

Take a key value ch, and return True if the current terminal type recognizes a key with that value.

curses.halfdelay(tenths)

Used for half-delay mode, which is similar to cbreak mode in that characters typed by the user are immediately available to the program. However, after blocking for tenths tenths of seconds, raise an exception if nothing has been typed. The value of tenths must be a number between 1 and 255. Use nocbreak() to leave half-delay mode.

curses.init_color(color_number, r, g, b)

Change the definition of a color, taking the number of the color to be changed followed by three RGB values (for the amounts of red, green, and blue components). The value of color_number must be between 0 and COLORS - 1. Each of r, g, b, must be a value between 0 and 1000. When init_color() is used, all occurrences of that color on the screen immediately change to the new definition. This function is a no-op on most terminals; it is active only if can_change_color() returns True.

curses.init_pair(pair_number, fg, bg)

Change the definition of a color-pair. It takes three arguments: the number of the color-pair to be changed, the foreground color number, and the background color number. The value of pair_number must be between 1 and COLOR_PAIRS - 1 (the 0 color pair can only be changed by use_default_colors() and assume_default_colors()). The value of fg and bg arguments must be between 0 and COLORS - 1, or, after calling use_default_colors() or assume_default_colors(), -1. If the color-pair was previously initialized, the screen is refreshed and all occurrences of that color-pair are changed to the new definition.

curses.initscr()

Initialize the library. Return a window object which represents the whole screen.

Note

If there is an error opening the terminal, the underlying curses library may cause the interpreter to exit.

curses.is_term_resized(nlines, ncols)

Return True if resize_term() would modify the window structure, False otherwise.

curses.isendwin()

Return True if endwin() has been called (that is, the curses library has been deinitialized).

curses.keyname(k)

Return the name of the key numbered k as a bytes object. The name of a key generating printable ASCII character is the key's character. The name of a control-key combination is a two-byte bytes object consisting of a caret (b'^') followed by the corresponding printable ASCII character. The name of an alt-key combination (128--255) is a bytes object consisting of the prefix b'M-' followed by the name of the corresponding ASCII character.

curses.killchar()

Return the user's current line kill character as a one-byte bytes object. Under Unix operating systems this is a property of the controlling tty of the curses program, and is not set by the curses library itself.

curses.longname()

Return a bytes object containing the terminfo long name field describing the current terminal. The maximum length of a verbose description is 128 characters. It is defined only after the call to initscr().

curses.meta(flag)

If flag is True, allow 8-bit characters to be input. If flag is False, allow only 7-bit chars.

curses.mouseinterval(interval)

Set the maximum time in milliseconds that can elapse between press and release events in order for them to be recognized as a click, and return the previous interval value. The default value is 200 milliseconds, or one fifth of a second.

curses.mousemask(mousemask)

Set the mouse events to be reported, and return a tuple (availmask, oldmask). availmask indicates which of the specified mouse events can be reported; on complete failure it returns 0. oldmask is the previous value of the given window's mouse event mask. If this function is never called, no mouse events are ever reported.

curses.napms(ms)

Sleep for ms milliseconds.

curses.newpad(nlines, ncols)

Create and return a pointer to a new pad data structure with the given number of lines and columns. Return a pad as a window object.

A pad is like a window, except that it is not restricted by the screen size, and is not necessarily associated with a particular part of the screen. Pads can be used when a large window is needed, and only a part of the window will be on the screen at one time. Automatic refreshes of pads (such as from scrolling or echoing of input) do not occur. The refresh() and noutrefresh() methods of a pad require 6 arguments to specify the part of the pad to be displayed and the location on the screen to be used for the display. The arguments are pminrow, pmincol, sminrow, smincol, smaxrow, smaxcol; the p arguments refer to the upper left corner of the pad region to be displayed and the s arguments define a clipping box on the screen within which the pad region is to be displayed.

curses.newwin(nlines, ncols)

curses.newwin(nlines, ncols, begin_y, begin_x)

Return a new window, whose left-upper corner is at (begin_y, begin_x), and whose height/width is nlines/ncols.

By default, the window will extend from the specified position to the lower right corner of the screen.

curses.nl()

Enter newline mode. This mode translates the return key into newline on input, and translates newline into return and line-feed on output. Newline mode is initially on.

curses.nocbreak()

Leave cbreak mode. Return to normal "cooked" mode with line buffering.

curses.noecho()

Leave echo mode. Echoing of input characters is turned off.

curses.nonl()

Leave newline mode. Disable translation of return into newline on input, and disable low-level translation of newline into newline/return on output (but this does not change the behavior of addch('\n'), which always does the equivalent of return and line feed on the virtual screen). With translation off, curses can sometimes speed up vertical motion a little; also, it will be able to detect the return key on input.

curses.noqiflush()

When the noqiflush() routine is used, normal flush of input and output queues associated with the INTR, QUIT and SUSP characters will not be done. You may want to call noqiflush() in a signal handler if you want output to continue as though the interrupt had not occurred, after the handler exits.

curses.noraw()

Leave raw mode. Return to normal "cooked" mode with line buffering.

curses.pair_content(pair_number)

Return a tuple (fg, bg) containing the colors for the requested color pair. The value of pair_number must be between 0 and COLOR_PAIRS - 1.

curses.pair_number(attr)

Return the number of the color-pair set by the attribute value attr. color_pair() is the counterpart to this function.

curses.putp(str)

Equivalent to tputs(str, 1, putchar); emit the value of a specified terminfo capability for the current terminal. Note that the output of putp() always goes to standard output.

curses.qiflush([flag])

If flag is False, the effect is the same as calling noqiflush(). If flag is True, or no argument is provided, the queues will be flushed when these control characters are read.

curses.raw()

Enter raw mode. In raw mode, normal line buffering and processing of interrupt, quit, suspend, and flow control keys are turned off; characters are presented to curses input functions one by one.

curses.reset_prog_mode()

Restore the terminal to "program" mode, as previously saved by def_prog_mode().

curses.reset_shell_mode()

Restore the terminal to "shell" mode, as previously saved by def_shell_mode().

curses.resetty()

Restore the state of the terminal modes to what it was at the last call to savetty().

curses.resize_term(nlines, ncols)

Backend function used by resizeterm(), performing most of the work; when resizing the windows, resize_term() blank-fills the areas that are extended. The calling application should fill in these areas with appropriate data. The resize_term() function attempts to resize all windows. However, due to the calling convention of pads, it is not possible to resize these without additional interaction with the application.

curses.resizeterm(nlines, ncols)

Resize the standard and current windows to the specified dimensions, and adjusts other bookkeeping data used by the curses library that record the window dimensions (in particular the SIGWINCH handler).

curses.savetty()

Save the current state of the terminal modes in a buffer, usable by resetty().

curses.get_escdelay()

Retrieves the value set by set_escdelay().

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

curses.set_escdelay(ms)

Sets the number of milliseconds to wait after reading an escape character, to distinguish between an individual escape character entered on the keyboard from escape sequences sent by cursor and function keys.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

curses.get_tabsize()

Retrieves the value set by set_tabsize().

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

curses.set_tabsize(size)

Sets the number of columns used by the curses library when converting a tab character to spaces as it adds the tab to a window.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

curses.setsyx(y, x)

Set the virtual screen cursor to y, x. If y and x are both -1, then leaveok is set True.

curses.setupterm(term=None, fd=-1)

Initialize the terminal. term is a string giving the terminal name, or None; if omitted or None, the value of the TERM environment variable will be used. fd is the file descriptor to which any initialization sequences will be sent; if not supplied or -1, the file descriptor for sys.stdout will be used.

curses.start_color()

Must be called if the programmer wants to use colors, and before any other color manipulation routine is called. It is good practice to call this routine right after initscr().

start_color() initializes eight basic colors (black, red, green, yellow, blue, magenta, cyan, and white), and two global variables in the curses module, COLORS and COLOR_PAIRS, containing the maximum number of colors and color-pairs the terminal can support. It also restores the colors on the terminal to the values they had when the terminal was just turned on.

curses.termattrs()

Return a logical OR of all video attributes supported by the terminal. This information is useful when a curses program needs complete control over the appearance of the screen.

curses.termname()

Return the value of the environment variable TERM, as a bytes object, truncated to 14 characters.

curses.tigetflag(capname)

Return the value of the Boolean capability corresponding to the terminfo capability name capname as an integer. Return the value -1 if capname is not a Boolean capability, or 0 if it is canceled or absent from the terminal description.

curses.tigetnum(capname)

Return the value of the numeric capability corresponding to the terminfo capability name capname as an integer. Return the value -2 if capname is not a numeric capability, or -1 if it is canceled or absent from the terminal description.

curses.tigetstr(capname)

Return the value of the string capability corresponding to the terminfo capability name capname as a bytes object. Return None if capname is not a terminfo "string capability", or is canceled or absent from the terminal description.

curses.tparm(str[, ...])

Instantiate the bytes object str with the supplied parameters, where str should be a parameterized string obtained from the terminfo database. E.g. tparm(tigetstr("cup"), 5, 3) could result in b'\033[6;4H', the exact result depending on terminal type.

curses.typeahead(fd)

Specify that the file descriptor fd be used for typeahead checking. If fd is -1, then no typeahead checking is done.

The curses library does "line-breakout optimization" by looking for typeahead periodically while updating the screen. If input is found, and it is coming from a tty, the current update is postponed until refresh or doupdate is called again, allowing faster response to commands typed in advance. This function allows specifying a different file descriptor for typeahead checking.

curses.unctrl(ch)

Return a bytes object which is a printable representation of the character ch. Control characters are represented as a caret followed by the character, for example as b'^C'. Printing characters are left as they are.

curses.ungetch(ch)

Push ch so the next getch() will return it.

Note

Only one ch can be pushed before getch() is called.

curses.update_lines_cols()

Update the LINES and COLS module variables. Useful for detecting manual screen resize.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

curses.unget_wch(ch)

Push ch so the next get_wch() will return it.

Note

Only one ch can be pushed before get_wch() is called.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

curses.ungetmouse(id, x, y, z, bstate)

Push a KEY_MOUSE event onto the input queue, associating the given state data with it.

curses.use_env(flag)

If used, this function should be called before initscr() or newterm are called. When flag is False, the values of lines and columns specified in the terminfo database will be used, even if environment variables LINES and COLUMNS (used by default) are set, or if curses is running in a window (in which case default behavior would be to use the window size if LINES and COLUMNS are not set).

curses.use_default_colors()

Equivalent to assume_default_colors(-1, -1).

curses.wrapper(func, /, *args, **kwargs)

Initialize curses and call another callable object, func, which should be the rest of your curses-using application. If the application raises an exception, this function will restore the terminal to a sane state before re-raising the exception and generating a traceback. The callable object func is then passed the main window 'stdscr' as its first argument, followed by any other arguments passed to wrapper(). Before calling func, wrapper() turns on cbreak mode, turns off echo, enables the terminal keypad, and initializes colors if the terminal has color support. On exit (whether normally or by exception) it restores cooked mode, turns on echo, and disables the terminal keypad.

Window Objects

class curses.window

Window objects, as returned by initscr() and newwin() above, have the following methods and attributes:

window.addch(ch[, attr])

window.addch(y, x, ch[, attr])

Paint character ch at (y, x) with attributes attr, overwriting any character previously painted at that location. By default, the character position and attributes are the current settings for the window object.

Note

Writing outside the window, subwindow, or pad raises a curses.error. Attempting to write to the lower right corner of a window, subwindow, or pad will cause an exception to be raised after the character is printed.

window.addnstr(str, n[, attr])

window.addnstr(y, x, str, n[, attr])

Paint at most n characters of the character string str at (y, x) with attributes attr, overwriting anything previously on the display.

window.addstr(str[, attr])

window.addstr(y, x, str[, attr])

Paint the character string str at (y, x) with attributes attr, overwriting anything previously on the display.

Note

Writing outside the window, subwindow, or pad raises curses.error. Attempting to write to the lower right corner of a window, subwindow, or pad will cause an exception to be raised after the string is printed.

A bug in ncurses [https://bugs.python.org/issue35924], the backend for this Python module, can cause SegFaults when resizing windows. This is fixed in ncurses-6.1-20190511. If you are stuck with an earlier ncurses, you can avoid triggering this if you do not call addstr() with a str that has embedded newlines. Instead, call addstr() separately for each line.

window.attroff(attr)

Remove attribute attr from the "background" set applied to all writes to the current window.

window.attron(attr)

Add attribute attr to the "background" set applied to all writes to the current window.

window.attrset(attr)

Set the "background" set of attributes to attr. This set is initially 0 (no attributes).

window.bkgd(ch[, attr])

Set the background property of the window to the character ch, with attributes attr. The change is then applied to every character position in that window:

The attribute of every character in the window is changed to the new background attribute.

Wherever the former background character appears, it is changed to the new background character.

window.bkgdset(ch[, attr])

Set the window's background. A window's background consists of a character and any combination of attributes. The attribute part of the background is combined (OR'ed) with all non-blank characters that are written into the window. Both the character and attribute parts of the background are combined with the blank characters. The background becomes a property of the character and moves with the character through any scrolling and insert/delete line/character operations.

window.border([ls[, rs[, ts[, bs[, tl[, tr[, bl[, br]]]]]]]])

Draw a border around the edges of the window. Each parameter specifies the character to use for a specific part of the border; see the table below for more details.

Note

A 0 value for any parameter will cause the default character to be used for that parameter. Keyword parameters can not be used. The defaults are listed in this table:

Paramètre

Description

Valeur par défaut

ls

Left side

ACS_VLINE

rs

Right side

ACS_VLINE

ts

Top

ACS_HLINE

bs

Bottom

ACS_HLINE

tl

Upper-left corner

ACS_ULCORNER

tr

Upper-right corner

ACS_URCORNER

bl

Bottom-left corner

ACS_LLCORNER

br

Bottom-right corner

ACS_LRCORNER

window.box([vertch, horch])

Similar to border(), but both ls and rs are vertch and both ts and bs are horch. The default corner characters are always used by this function.

window.chgat(attr)

window.chgat(num, attr)

window.chgat(y, x, attr)

window.chgat(y, x, num, attr)

Set the attributes of num characters at the current cursor position, or at position (y, x) if supplied. If num is not given or is -1, the attribute will be set on all the characters to the end of the line. This function moves cursor to position (y, x) if supplied. The changed line will be touched using the touchline() method so that the contents will be redisplayed by the next window refresh.

window.clear()

Like erase(), but also cause the whole window to be repainted upon next call to refresh().

window.clearok(flag)

If flag is True, the next call to refresh() will clear the window completely.

window.clrtobot()

Erase from cursor to the end of the window: all lines below the cursor are deleted, and then the equivalent of clrtoeol() is performed.

window.clrtoeol()

Erase from cursor to the end of the line.

window.cursyncup()

Update the current cursor position of all the ancestors of the window to reflect the current cursor position of the window.

window.delch([y, x])

Delete any character at (y, x).

window.deleteln()

Delete the line under the cursor. All following lines are moved up by one line.

window.derwin(begin_y, begin_x)

window.derwin(nlines, ncols, begin_y, begin_x)

An abbreviation for "derive window", derwin() is the same as calling subwin(), except that begin_y and begin_x are relative to the origin of the window, rather than relative to the entire screen. Return a window object for the derived window.

window.echochar(ch[, attr])

Add character ch with attribute attr, and immediately call refresh() on the window.

window.enclose(y, x)

Test whether the given pair of screen-relative character-cell coordinates are enclosed by the given window, returning True or False. It is useful for determining what subset of the screen windows enclose the location of a mouse event.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Previously it returned 1 or 0 instead of True or False.

window.encoding

Encoding used to encode method arguments (Unicode strings and characters). The encoding attribute is inherited from the parent window when a subwindow is created, for example with window.subwin(). By default, current locale encoding is used (see locale.getencoding()).

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

window.erase()

Clear the window.

window.getbegyx()

Return a tuple (y, x) of coordinates of upper-left corner.

window.getbkgd()

Return the given window's current background character/attribute pair.

window.getch([y, x])

Get a character. Note that the integer returned does not have to be in ASCII range: function keys, keypad keys and so on are represented by numbers higher than 255. In no-delay mode, return -1 if there is no input, otherwise wait until a key is pressed.

window.get_wch([y, x])

Get a wide character. Return a character for most keys, or an integer for function keys, keypad keys, and other special keys. In no-delay mode, raise an exception if there is no input.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

window.getkey([y, x])

Get a character, returning a string instead of an integer, as getch() does. Function keys, keypad keys and other special keys return a multibyte string containing the key name. In no-delay mode, raise an exception if there is no input.

window.getmaxyx()

Return a tuple (y, x) of the height and width of the window.

window.getparyx()

Return the beginning coordinates of this window relative to its parent window as a tuple (y, x). Return (-1, -1) if this window has no parent.

window.getstr()

window.getstr(n)

window.getstr(y, x)

window.getstr(y, x, n)

Read a bytes object from the user, with primitive line editing capacity. The maximum value for n is 2047.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: The maximum value for n was increased from 1023 to 2047.

window.getyx()

Return a tuple (y, x) of current cursor position relative to the window's upper-left corner.

window.hline(ch, n)

window.hline(y, x, ch, n)

Display a horizontal line starting at (y, x) with length n consisting of the character ch.

window.idcok(flag)

If flag is False, curses no longer considers using the hardware insert/delete character feature of the terminal; if flag is True, use of character insertion and deletion is enabled. When curses is first initialized, use of character insert/delete is enabled by default.

window.idlok(flag)

If flag is True, curses will try and use hardware line editing facilities. Otherwise, line insertion/deletion are disabled.

window.immedok(flag)

If flag is True, any change in the window image automatically causes the window to be refreshed; you no longer have to call refresh() yourself. However, it may degrade performance considerably, due to repeated calls to wrefresh. This option is disabled by default.

window.inch([y, x])

Return the character at the given position in the window. The bottom 8 bits are the character proper, and upper bits are the attributes.

window.insch(ch[, attr])

window.insch(y, x, ch[, attr])

Paint character ch at (y, x) with attributes attr, moving the line from position x right by one character.

window.insdelln(nlines)

Insert nlines lines into the specified window above the current line. The nlines bottom lines are lost. For negative nlines, delete nlines lines starting with the one under the cursor, and move the remaining lines up. The bottom nlines lines are cleared. The current cursor position remains the same.

window.insertln()

Insert a blank line under the cursor. All following lines are moved down by one line.

window.insnstr(str, n[, attr])

window.insnstr(y, x, str, n[, attr])

Insert a character string (as many characters as will fit on the line) before the character under the cursor, up to n characters. If n is zero or negative, the entire string is inserted. All characters to the right of the cursor are shifted right, with the rightmost characters on the line being lost. The cursor position does not change (after moving to y, x, if specified).

window.insstr(str[, attr])

window.insstr(y, x, str[, attr])

Insert a character string (as many characters as will fit on the line) before the character under the cursor. All characters to the right of the cursor are shifted right, with the rightmost characters on the line being lost. The cursor position does not change (after moving to y, x, if specified).

window.instr([n])

window.instr(y, x[, n])

Return a bytes object of characters, extracted from the window starting at the current cursor position, or at y, x if specified. Attributes are stripped from the characters. If n is specified, instr() returns a string at most n characters long (exclusive of the trailing NUL). The maximum value for n is 2047.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: The maximum value for n was increased from 1023 to 2047.

window.is_linetouched(line)

Return True if the specified line was modified since the last call to refresh(); otherwise return False. Raise a curses.error exception if line is not valid for the given window.

window.is_wintouched()

Return True if the specified window was modified since the last call to refresh(); otherwise return False.

window.keypad(flag)

If flag is True, escape sequences generated by some keys (keypad, function keys) will be interpreted by curses. If flag is False, escape sequences will be left as is in the input stream.

window.leaveok(flag)

If flag is True, cursor is left where it is on update, instead of being at "cursor position." This reduces cursor movement where possible. If possible the cursor will be made invisible.

If flag is False, cursor will always be at "cursor position" after an update.

window.move(new_y, new_x)

Move cursor to (new_y, new_x).

window.mvderwin(y, x)

Move the window inside its parent window. The screen-relative parameters of the window are not changed. This routine is used to display different parts of the parent window at the same physical position on the screen.

window.mvwin(new_y, new_x)

Move the window so its upper-left corner is at (new_y, new_x).

window.nodelay(flag)

If flag is True, getch() will be non-blocking.

window.notimeout(flag)

If flag is True, escape sequences will not be timed out.

If flag is False, after a few milliseconds, an escape sequence will not be interpreted, and will be left in the input stream as is.

window.noutrefresh()

Mark for refresh but wait. This function updates the data structure representing the desired state of the window, but does not force an update of the physical screen. To accomplish that, call doupdate().

window.overlay(destwin[, sminrow, smincol, dminrow, dmincol, dmaxrow, dmaxcol])

Overlay the window on top of destwin. The windows need not be the same size, only the overlapping region is copied. This copy is non-destructive, which means that the current background character does not overwrite the old contents of destwin.

To get fine-grained control over the copied region, the second form of overlay() can be used. sminrow and smincol are the upper-left coordinates of the source window, and the other variables mark a rectangle in the destination window.

window.overwrite(destwin[, sminrow, smincol, dminrow, dmincol, dmaxrow, dmaxcol])

Overwrite the window on top of destwin. The windows need not be the same size, in which case only the overlapping region is copied. This copy is destructive, which means that the current background character overwrites the old contents of destwin.

To get fine-grained control over the copied region, the second form of overwrite() can be used. sminrow and smincol are the upper-left coordinates of the source window, the other variables mark a rectangle in the destination window.

window.putwin(file)

Write all data associated with the window into the provided file object. This information can be later retrieved using the getwin() function.

window.redrawln(beg, num)

Indicate that the num screen lines, starting at line beg, are corrupted and should be completely redrawn on the next refresh() call.

window.redrawwin()

Touch the entire window, causing it to be completely redrawn on the next refresh() call.

window.refresh([pminrow, pmincol, sminrow, smincol, smaxrow, smaxcol])

Update the display immediately (sync actual screen with previous drawing/deleting methods).

The 6 optional arguments can only be specified when the window is a pad created with newpad(). The additional parameters are needed to indicate what part of the pad and screen are involved. pminrow and pmincol specify the upper left-hand corner of the rectangle to be displayed in the pad. sminrow, smincol, smaxrow, and smaxcol specify the edges of the rectangle to be displayed on the screen. The lower right-hand corner of the rectangle to be displayed in the pad is calculated from the screen coordinates, since the rectangles must be the same size. Both rectangles must be entirely contained within their respective structures. Negative values of pminrow, pmincol, sminrow, or smincol are treated as if they were zero.

window.resize(nlines, ncols)

Reallocate storage for a curses window to adjust its dimensions to the specified values. If either dimension is larger than the current values, the window's data is filled with blanks that have the current background rendition (as set by bkgdset()) merged into them.

window.scroll([lines=1])

Scroll the screen or scrolling region upward by lines lines.

window.scrollok(flag)

Control what happens when the cursor of a window is moved off the edge of the window or scrolling region, either as a result of a newline action on the bottom line, or typing the last character of the last line. If flag is False, the cursor is left on the bottom line. If flag is True, the window is scrolled up one line. Note that in order to get the physical scrolling effect on the terminal, it is also necessary to call idlok().

window.setscrreg(top, bottom)

Set the scrolling region from line top to line bottom. All scrolling actions will take place in this region.

window.standend()

Turn off the standout attribute. On some terminals this has the side effect of turning off all attributes.

window.standout()

Turn on attribute A_STANDOUT.

window.subpad(begin_y, begin_x)

window.subpad(nlines, ncols, begin_y, begin_x)

Return a sub-window, whose upper-left corner is at (begin_y, begin_x), and whose width/height is ncols/nlines.

window.subwin(begin_y, begin_x)

window.subwin(nlines, ncols, begin_y, begin_x)

Return a sub-window, whose upper-left corner is at (begin_y, begin_x), and whose width/height is ncols/nlines.

By default, the sub-window will extend from the specified position to the lower right corner of the window.

window.syncdown()

Touch each location in the window that has been touched in any of its ancestor windows. This routine is called by refresh(), so it should almost never be necessary to call it manually.

window.syncok(flag)

If flag is True, then syncup() is called automatically whenever there is a change in the window.

window.syncup()

Touch all locations in ancestors of the window that have been changed in the window.

window.timeout(delay)

Set blocking or non-blocking read behavior for the window. If delay is negative, blocking read is used (which will wait indefinitely for input). If delay is zero, then non-blocking read is used, and getch() will return -1 if no input is waiting. If delay is positive, then getch() will block for delay milliseconds, and return -1 if there is still no input at the end of that time.

window.touchline(start, count[, changed])

Pretend count lines have been changed, starting with line start. If changed is supplied, it specifies whether the affected lines are marked as having been changed (changed=True) or unchanged (changed=False).

window.touchwin()

Pretend the whole window has been changed, for purposes of drawing optimizations.

window.untouchwin()

Mark all lines in the window as unchanged since the last call to refresh().

window.vline(ch, n[, attr])

window.vline(y, x, ch, n[, attr])

Display a vertical line starting at (y, x) with length n consisting of the character ch with attributes attr.

Constantes

The curses module defines the following data members:

curses.ERR

Some curses routines that return an integer, such as getch(), return ERR upon failure.

curses.OK

Some curses routines that return an integer, such as napms(), return OK upon success.

curses.version

A bytes object representing the current version of the module.

curses.ncurses_version

A named tuple containing the three components of the ncurses library version: major, minor, and patch. All values are integers. The components can also be accessed by name, so curses.ncurses_version[0] is equivalent to curses.ncurses_version.major and so on.

Availability: if the ncurses library is used.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

curses.COLORS

The maximum number of colors the terminal can support. It is defined only after the call to start_color().

curses.COLOR_PAIRS

The maximum number of color pairs the terminal can support. It is defined only after the call to start_color().

curses.COLS

The width of the screen, i.e., the number of columns. It is defined only after the call to initscr(). Updated by update_lines_cols(), resizeterm() and resize_term().

curses.LINES

The height of the screen, i.e., the number of lines. It is defined only after the call to initscr(). Updated by update_lines_cols(), resizeterm() and resize_term().

Some constants are available to specify character cell attributes. The exact constants available are system dependent.

Attribut

Signification

curses.A_ALTCHARSET

Alternate character set mode

curses.A_BLINK

Blink mode

curses.A_BOLD

Bold mode

curses.A_DIM

Dim mode

curses.A_INVIS

Invisible or blank mode

curses.A_ITALIC

Italic mode

curses.A_NORMAL

Attribut normal

curses.A_PROTECT

Protected mode

curses.A_REVERSE

Reverse background and foreground colors

curses.A_STANDOUT

Standout mode

curses.A_UNDERLINE

Underline mode

curses.A_HORIZONTAL

Horizontal highlight

curses.A_LEFT

Left highlight

curses.A_LOW

Low highlight

curses.A_RIGHT

Right highlight

curses.A_TOP

Top highlight

curses.A_VERTICAL

Vertical highlight

Ajouté dans la version 3.7: A_ITALIC was added.

Several constants are available to extract corresponding attributes returned by some methods.

Bit-mask

Signification

curses.A_ATTRIBUTES

Bit-mask to extract attributes

curses.A_CHARTEXT

Bit-mask to extract a character

curses.A_COLOR

Bit-mask to extract color-pair field information

Keys are referred to by integer constants with names starting with KEY_. The exact keycaps available are system dependent.

Key constant

Clé

curses.KEY_MIN

Minimum key value

curses.KEY_BREAK

Break key (unreliable)

curses.KEY_DOWN

Down-arrow

curses.KEY_UP

Up-arrow

curses.KEY_LEFT

Left-arrow

curses.KEY_RIGHT

Right-arrow

curses.KEY_HOME

Home key (upward+left arrow)

curses.KEY_BACKSPACE

Backspace (unreliable)

curses.KEY_F0

Function keys. Up to 64 function keys are supported.

curses.KEY_Fn

Value of function key n

curses.KEY_DL

Delete line

curses.KEY_IL

Insert line

curses.KEY_DC

Delete character

curses.KEY_IC

Insert char or enter insert mode

curses.KEY_EIC

Exit insert char mode

curses.KEY_CLEAR

Clear screen

curses.KEY_EOS

Clear to end of screen

curses.KEY_EOL

Clear to end of line

curses.KEY_SF

Scroll 1 line forward

curses.KEY_SR

Scroll 1 line backward (reverse)

curses.KEY_NPAGE

Next page

curses.KEY_PPAGE

Previous page

curses.KEY_STAB

Set tab

curses.KEY_CTAB

Clear tab

curses.KEY_CATAB

Clear all tabs

curses.KEY_ENTER

Enter or send (unreliable)

curses.KEY_SRESET

Soft (partial) reset (unreliable)

curses.KEY_RESET

Reset or hard reset (unreliable)

curses.KEY_PRINT

Print

curses.KEY_LL

Home down or bottom (lower left)

curses.KEY_A1

Upper left of keypad

curses.KEY_A3

Upper right of keypad

curses.KEY_B2

Center of keypad

curses.KEY_C1

Lower left of keypad

curses.KEY_C3

Lower right of keypad

curses.KEY_BTAB

Back tab

curses.KEY_BEG

Beg (beginning)

curses.KEY_CANCEL

Cancel

curses.KEY_CLOSE

Close

curses.KEY_COMMAND

Cmd (command)

curses.KEY_COPY

Copy

curses.KEY_CREATE

Create

curses.KEY_END

End

curses.KEY_EXIT

Exit

curses.KEY_FIND

Find

curses.KEY_HELP

Help

curses.KEY_MARK

Mark

curses.KEY_MESSAGE

Message

curses.KEY_MOVE

Move

curses.KEY_NEXT

Next

curses.KEY_OPEN

Open

curses.KEY_OPTIONS

Options

curses.KEY_PREVIOUS

Prev (previous)

curses.KEY_REDO

Redo

curses.KEY_REFERENCE

Ref (reference)

curses.KEY_REFRESH

Refresh

curses.KEY_REPLACE

Replace

curses.KEY_RESTART

Restart

curses.KEY_RESUME

Resume

curses.KEY_SAVE

Save

curses.KEY_SBEG

Shifted Beg (beginning)

curses.KEY_SCANCEL

Shifted Cancel

curses.KEY_SCOMMAND

Shifted Command

curses.KEY_SCOPY

Shifted Copy

curses.KEY_SCREATE

Shifted Create

curses.KEY_SDC

Shifted Delete char

curses.KEY_SDL

Shifted Delete line

curses.KEY_SELECT

Select

curses.KEY_SEND

Shifted End

curses.KEY_SEOL

Shifted Clear line

curses.KEY_SEXIT

Shifted Exit

curses.KEY_SFIND

Shifted Find

curses.KEY_SHELP

Shifted Help

curses.KEY_SHOME

Shifted Home

curses.KEY_SIC

Shifted Input

curses.KEY_SLEFT

Shifted Left arrow

curses.KEY_SMESSAGE

Shifted Message

curses.KEY_SMOVE

Shifted Move

curses.KEY_SNEXT

Shifted Next

curses.KEY_SOPTIONS

Shifted Options

curses.KEY_SPREVIOUS

Shifted Prev

curses.KEY_SPRINT

Shifted Print

curses.KEY_SREDO

Shifted Redo

curses.KEY_SREPLACE

Shifted Replace

curses.KEY_SRIGHT

Shifted Right arrow

curses.KEY_SRSUME

Shifted Resume

curses.KEY_SSAVE

Shifted Save

curses.KEY_SSUSPEND

Shifted Suspend

curses.KEY_SUNDO

Shifted Undo

curses.KEY_SUSPEND

Suspend

curses.KEY_UNDO

Undo

curses.KEY_MOUSE

Mouse event has occurred

curses.KEY_RESIZE

Terminal resize event

curses.KEY_MAX

Maximum key value

On VT100s and their software emulations, such as X terminal emulators, there are normally at least four function keys (KEY_F1, KEY_F2, KEY_F3, KEY_F4) available, and the arrow keys mapped to KEY_UP, KEY_DOWN, KEY_LEFT and KEY_RIGHT in the obvious way. If your machine has a PC keyboard, it is safe to expect arrow keys and twelve function keys (older PC keyboards may have only ten function keys); also, the following keypad mappings are standard:

Keycap

Constante

Insert

KEY_IC

Delete

KEY_DC

Home

KEY_HOME

End

KEY_END

Page Up

KEY_PPAGE

Page Down

KEY_NPAGE

The following table lists characters from the alternate character set. These are inherited from the VT100 terminal, and will generally be available on software emulations such as X terminals. When there is no graphic available, curses falls back on a crude printable ASCII approximation.

Note

These are available only after initscr() has been called.

ACS code

Signification

curses.ACS_BBSS

alternate name for upper right corner

curses.ACS_BLOCK

solid square block

curses.ACS_BOARD

board of squares

curses.ACS_BSBS

alternate name for horizontal line

curses.ACS_BSSB

alternate name for upper left corner

curses.ACS_BSSS

alternate name for top tee

curses.ACS_BTEE

bottom tee

curses.ACS_BULLET

bullet

curses.ACS_CKBOARD

checker board (stipple)

curses.ACS_DARROW

arrow pointing down

curses.ACS_DEGREE

degree symbol

curses.ACS_DIAMOND

diamond

curses.ACS_GEQUAL

greater-than-or-equal-to

curses.ACS_HLINE

horizontal line

curses.ACS_LANTERN

lantern symbol

curses.ACS_LARROW

left arrow

curses.ACS_LEQUAL

less-than-or-equal-to

curses.ACS_LLCORNER

lower left-hand corner

curses.ACS_LRCORNER

lower right-hand corner

curses.ACS_LTEE

left tee

curses.ACS_NEQUAL

not-equal sign

curses.ACS_PI

letter pi

curses.ACS_PLMINUS

plus-or-minus sign

curses.ACS_PLUS

big plus sign

curses.ACS_RARROW

right arrow

curses.ACS_RTEE

right tee

curses.ACS_S1

scan line 1

curses.ACS_S3

scan line 3

curses.ACS_S7

scan line 7

curses.ACS_S9

scan line 9

curses.ACS_SBBS

alternate name for lower right corner

curses.ACS_SBSB

alternate name for vertical line

curses.ACS_SBSS

alternate name for right tee

curses.ACS_SSBB

alternate name for lower left corner

curses.ACS_SSBS

alternate name for bottom tee

curses.ACS_SSSB

alternate name for left tee

curses.ACS_SSSS

alternate name for crossover or big plus

curses.ACS_STERLING

pound sterling

curses.ACS_TTEE

top tee

curses.ACS_UARROW

up arrow

curses.ACS_ULCORNER

upper left corner

curses.ACS_URCORNER

upper right corner

curses.ACS_VLINE

vertical line

The following table lists mouse button constants used by getmouse():

Mouse button constant

Signification

curses.BUTTONn_PRESSED

Mouse button n pressed

curses.BUTTONn_RELEASED

Mouse button n released

curses.BUTTONn_CLICKED

Mouse button n clicked

curses.BUTTONn_DOUBLE_CLICKED

Mouse button n double clicked

curses.BUTTONn_TRIPLE_CLICKED

Mouse button n triple clicked

curses.BUTTON_SHIFT

Shift was down during button state change

curses.BUTTON_CTRL

Control was down during button state change

curses.BUTTON_ALT

Control was down during button state change

Modifié dans la version 3.10: The BUTTON5_* constants are now exposed if they are provided by the underlying curses library.

The following table lists the predefined colors:

Constante

Color

curses.COLOR_BLACK

Black

curses.COLOR_BLUE

Blue

curses.COLOR_CYAN

Cyan (light greenish blue)

curses.COLOR_GREEN

Green

curses.COLOR_MAGENTA

Magenta (purplish red)

curses.COLOR_RED

Red

curses.COLOR_WHITE

White

curses.COLOR_YELLOW

Yellow

curses.textpad --- Text input widget for curses programs

The curses.textpad module provides a Textbox class that handles elementary text editing in a curses window, supporting a set of keybindings resembling those of Emacs (thus, also of Netscape Navigator, BBedit 6.x, FrameMaker, and many other programs). The module also provides a rectangle-drawing function useful for framing text boxes or for other purposes.

The module curses.textpad defines the following function:

curses.textpad.rectangle(win, uly, ulx, lry, lrx)

Draw a rectangle. The first argument must be a window object; the remaining arguments are coordinates relative to that window. The second and third arguments are the y and x coordinates of the upper left hand corner of the rectangle to be drawn; the fourth and fifth arguments are the y and x coordinates of the lower right hand corner. The rectangle will be drawn using VT100/IBM PC forms characters on terminals that make this possible (including xterm and most other software terminal emulators). Otherwise it will be drawn with ASCII dashes, vertical bars, and plus signs.

Textbox objects

You can instantiate a Textbox object as follows:

class curses.textpad.Textbox(win)

Return a textbox widget object. The win argument should be a curses window object in which the textbox is to be contained. The edit cursor of the textbox is initially located at the upper left hand corner of the containing window, with coordinates (0, 0). The instance's stripspaces flag is initially on.

Textbox objects have the following methods:

edit([validator])

This is the entry point you will normally use. It accepts editing keystrokes until one of the termination keystrokes is entered. If validator is supplied, it must be a function. It will be called for each keystroke entered with the keystroke as a parameter; command dispatch is done on the result. This method returns the window contents as a string; whether blanks in the window are included is affected by the stripspaces attribute.

do_command(ch)

Process a single command keystroke. Here are the supported special keystrokes:

Keystroke

Action

Control-A

Go to left edge of window.

Control-B

Cursor left, wrapping to previous line if appropriate.

Control-D

Delete character under cursor.

Control-E

Go to right edge (stripspaces off) or end of line (stripspaces on).

Control-F

Cursor right, wrapping to next line when appropriate.

Control-G

Terminate, returning the window contents.

Control-H

Delete character backward.

Control-J

Terminate if the window is 1 line, otherwise insert newline.

Control-K

If line is blank, delete it, otherwise clear to end of line.

Control-L

Refresh screen.

Control-N

Cursor down; move down one line.

Control-O

Insert a blank line at cursor location.

Control-P

Cursor up; move up one line.

Move operations do nothing if the cursor is at an edge where the movement is not possible. The following synonyms are supported where possible:

Constante

Keystroke

KEY_LEFT

Control-B

KEY_RIGHT

Control-F

KEY_UP

Control-P

KEY_DOWN

Control-N

KEY_BACKSPACE

Control-h

All other keystrokes are treated as a command to insert the given character and move right (with line wrapping).

gather()

Return the window contents as a string; whether blanks in the window are included is affected by the stripspaces member.

stripspaces

This attribute is a flag which controls the interpretation of blanks in the window. When it is on, trailing blanks on each line are ignored; any cursor motion that would land the cursor on a trailing blank goes to the end of that line instead, and trailing blanks are stripped when the window contents are gathered.

curses.ascii — Utilitaires pour les caractères ASCII

Code source : Lib/curses/ascii.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/curses/ascii.py]

The curses.ascii module supplies name constants for ASCII characters and functions to test membership in various ASCII character classes. The constants supplied are names for control characters as follows:

Nom

Signification

curses.ascii.NUL

curses.ascii.SOH

Début d'en-tête, interruption de console

curses.ascii.STX

Début du texte

curses.ascii.ETX

Fin du texte

curses.ascii.EOT

Fin de transmission

curses.ascii.ENQ

Enquête, va avec le contrôle de flux ACK

curses.ascii.ACK

Accusé de réception

curses.ascii.BEL

Caractère d'appel

curses.ascii.BS

Retour arrière

curses.ascii.TAB

Tabulation

curses.ascii.HT

Alias pour TAB: « Tabulation horizontale »

curses.ascii.LF

Saut de ligne

curses.ascii.NL

Alias pour LF: « Nouvelle ligne »

curses.ascii.VT

Tabulation verticale

curses.ascii.FF

Saut de page

curses.ascii.CR

Retour chariot

curses.ascii.SO

Bascule vers l’ensemble de caractères alternatif

curses.ascii.SI

Reprise de l'ensemble de caractères par défaut

curses.ascii.DLE

Échappement de liaison de données

curses.ascii.DC1

XON, pour le contrôle de flux

curses.ascii.DC2

Contrôle de périphérique 2, contrôle de flux en mode bloc

curses.ascii.DC3

XOFF, pour le contrôle de flux

curses.ascii.DC4

Contrôle de périphérique 4

curses.ascii.NAK

Accusé de réception négatif

curses.ascii.SYN

Inactif synchrone

curses.ascii.ETB

Fin du bloc de transmission

curses.ascii.CAN

Annuler

curses.ascii.EM

Fin du médium

curses.ascii.SUB

Substitut

curses.ascii.ESC

Échappement

curses.ascii.FS

Séparateur de fichiers

curses.ascii.GS

Séparateur de groupe

curses.ascii.RS

Séparateur d'enregistrement, terminateur en mode bloc

curses.ascii.US

Séparateur d'unités

curses.ascii.SP

Espace

curses.ascii.DEL

Caractère d'effacement

Notez que beaucoup d'entre elles ont peu de signification pratique dans l'utilisation moderne. Les mnémoniques proviennent de conventions de téléscripteur qui préexistent aux ordinateurs numériques.

Le module fournit les fonctions suivantes, basées sur celles de la bibliothèque C standard :

curses.ascii.isalnum(c)

Vérifie si un caractère ASCII est alphanumérique ; il est équivalent à isalpha(c) or isdigit(c).

curses.ascii.isalpha(c)

Vérifie si un caractère ASCII est alphanumérique ; il est équivalent à isupper(c) or islower(c).

curses.ascii.isascii(c)

Vérifie si une valeur de caractère appartient à l'ensemble ASCII 7 bits.

curses.ascii.isblank(c)

Vérifie si un caractère ASCII est caractère d'espacement, spécifiquement : espace ou tabulation horizontale.

curses.ascii.iscntrl(c)

Vérifie si un caractère ASCII est un caractère de contrôle (dans la plage de 0x00 à 0x1f ou 0x7f).

curses.ascii.isdigit(c)

Vérifie si un caractère ASCII est un chiffre décimal, de '0' à '9'. C'est équivalent à c in string.digits.

curses.ascii.isgraph(c)

Vérifie si un caractère ASCII est n'importe quel caractère imprimable à l'exception de l'espace.

curses.ascii.islower(c)

Vérifie si un caractère ASCII est une lettre minuscule.

curses.ascii.isprint(c)

Vérifie si un caractère ASCII est n'importe quel caractère imprimable, y compris l'espace.

curses.ascii.ispunct(c)

Vérifie si un caractère ASCII imprimable n'est ni une espace ni un caractère alphanumérique.

curses.ascii.isspace(c)

Vérifie si un caractère ASCII est un caractère d'espacement, spécifiquement : espace, saut de ligne, retour chariot, saut de page, tabulation horizontale, ou tabulation verticale.

curses.ascii.isupper(c)

Vérifie si un caractère ASCII est une lettre majuscule.

curses.ascii.isxdigit(c)

Vérifie si un caractère ASCII est un chiffre hexadécimal. C'est équivalent à c in string.hexdigits.

curses.ascii.isctrl(c)

Vérifie si un caractère ASCII est un caractère de contrôle (valeurs ordinales de 0 à 31).

curses.ascii.ismeta(c)

Vérifie si un caractère n'est pas ASCII (valeurs ordinales de 0x80 et plus).

Ces fonctions acceptent soit des entiers soit des chaînes de caractères d'un seul caractère ; lorsque l'argument est une chaîne, il est d'abord converti en utilisant la fonction intégrée ord().

Notez que toutes ces fonctions vérifient les valeurs de bits ordinales dérivées du caractère de la chaîne que vous fournissez ; elles ne connaissent rien de l'encodage de caractères de la machine hôte.

Les deux fonctions suivantes acceptent soit une chaîne de caractères d'un seul caractère soit une valeur d'octet sous forme d'entier ; elles renvoient une valeur du même type.

curses.ascii.ascii(c)

Renvoie la valeur ASCII correspondant aux 7 bits les moins significatifs de c.

curses.ascii.ctrl(c)

Renvoie le caractère de contrôle correspondant au caractère donné (une opération ET bit-à-bit avec 0x1F est appliqué à la valeur du caractère).

curses.ascii.alt(c)

Renvoie le caractère de contrôle correspondant au caractère donné (une opération OU bit-à-bit avec 0x80 est appliqué à la valeur du caractère).

La fonction suivante accepte soit une chaîne de caractères d'un seul caractère soit une valeur entière ; elle renvoie une chaîne de caractères.

curses.ascii.unctrl(c)

Renvoie une représentation du caractère ASCII c sous forme d’une chaîne. Si c est imprimable, cette chaîne est le caractère lui-même. Si le caractère est un caractère de contrôle (0x00 – 0x1f), la chaîne se compose d'un accent circonflexe ('^') suivi de la lettre majuscule correspondante. Si le caractère est un caractère de suppression ASCII (0x7f), la chaîne est '^?'. Si le bit meta du caractère est défini (0x80), le bit meta est supprimé, les règles précédentes appliquées, et '!' est ajouté au début du résultat.

curses.ascii.controlnames

Tableau de chaînes de 33 éléments qui contient les mnémoniques ASCII pour les trente-deux caractères de contrôle ASCII de 0 (NUL) à 0x1f (US), dans l'ordre, ainsi que le mnémonique SP pour le caractère d'espace.

curses.panel --- A panel stack extension for curses

Panels are windows with the added feature of depth, so they can be stacked on top of each other, and only the visible portions of each window will be displayed. Panels can be added, moved up or down in the stack, and removed.

Fonctions

The module curses.panel defines the following functions:

curses.panel.bottom_panel()

Returns the bottom panel in the panel stack.

curses.panel.new_panel(win)

Returns a panel object, associating it with the given window win. Be aware that you need to keep the returned panel object referenced explicitly. If you don't, the panel object is garbage collected and removed from the panel stack.

curses.panel.top_panel()

Returns the top panel in the panel stack.

curses.panel.update_panels()

Updates the virtual screen after changes in the panel stack. This does not call curses.doupdate(), so you'll have to do this yourself.

Panel Objects

Panel objects, as returned by new_panel() above, are windows with a stacking order. There's always a window associated with a panel which determines the content, while the panel methods are responsible for the window's depth in the panel stack.

Panel objects have the following methods:

Panel.above()

Returns the panel above the current panel.

Panel.below()

Returns the panel below the current panel.

Panel.bottom()

Push the panel to the bottom of the stack.

Panel.hidden()

Returns True if the panel is hidden (not visible), False otherwise.

Panel.hide()

Hide the panel. This does not delete the object, it just makes the window on screen invisible.

Panel.move(y, x)

Move the panel to the screen coordinates (y, x).

Panel.replace(win)

Change the window associated with the panel to the window win.

Panel.set_userptr(obj)

Set the panel's user pointer to obj. This is used to associate an arbitrary piece of data with the panel, and can be any Python object.

Panel.show()

Display the panel (which might have been hidden).

Panel.top()

Push panel to the top of the stack.

Panel.userptr()

Returns the user pointer for the panel. This might be any Python object.

Panel.window()

Returns the window object associated with the panel.

cmd --- Support for line-oriented command interpreters

Code source: Lib/cmd.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/cmd.py]

La Cmd fournit une base simple permettant d'écrire des interpréteurs en ligne de commande. Ceux-ci sont souvent utiles pour piloter des tests, pour des outils administratifs, et pour des prototypes destinés à être intégrés à une interface plus sophistiquée.

class cmd.Cmd(completekey='tab', stdin=None, stdout=None)

Une instance de Cmd ou d'une classe en héritant est un framework orienté ligne de commande. Il n'y a pas de bonne raison d'instancier Cmd directement. Elle est plutôt utile en tant que classe mère d'une classe-interprète que vous définirez afin d'hériter des méthodes de Cmd et d'encapsuler les opérations.

L'argument facultatif completekey est le nom readline d'une touche de complétion. Si completekey ne vaut pas None et que readline est disponible, la complétion de commandes est faite automatiquement.

The default, 'tab', is treated specially, so that it refers to the Tab key on every readline.backend. Specifically, if readline.backend is editline, Cmd will use '^I' instead of 'tab'. Note that other values are not treated this way, and might only work with a specific backend.

Les arguments facultatifs stdin et stdout spécifient les objets-fichiers de lecture et d'écriture que l'instance de Cmd ou d'une classe fille utilisera comme entrée et sortie. Si ces arguments ne sont pas spécifiés, ils prendront comme valeur par défaut sys.stdin et sys.stdout.

Si vous souhaitez qu'un stdin donné soit utilisé, assurez-vous que l'attribut use_rawinput de l'instance vaille False, faute de quoi stdin sera ignoré.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: completekey='tab' is replaced by '^I' for editline.

Objets Cmd

Une instance de Cmd possède les méthodes suivantes :

Cmd.cmdloop(intro=None)

Affiche une invite de commande de manière répétée, accepte une entrée, soustrait un préfixe initial de l'entrée reçue et envoie aux méthodes d'opération la partie restante de l'entrée reçue.

L'argument facultatif est une bannière ou chaîne de caractères d'introduction à afficher avant la première invite de commande (il redéfinit l'attribut de classe intro).

Si le module readline est chargé, l'entrée héritera automatiquement d'une édition d'historique similaire à bash (Par exemple, Control-P reviendra à la dernière commande, Control-N avancera à la suivante, Control-F déplace le curseur vers la droite, Control-B déplace le curseur vers la gauche, etc...).

Une caractère de fin de fichier est transmis via la chaîne de caractères 'EOF'.

An interpreter instance will recognize a command name foo if and only if it has a method do_foo(). As a special case, a line beginning with the character '?' is dispatched to the method do_help(). As another special case, a line beginning with the character '!' is dispatched to the method do_shell() (if such a method is defined).

This method will return when the postcmd() method returns a true value. The stop argument to postcmd() is the return value from the command's corresponding do_*() method.

If completion is enabled, completing commands will be done automatically, and completing of commands args is done by calling complete_foo() with arguments text, line, begidx, and endidx. text is the string prefix we are attempting to match: all returned matches must begin with it. line is the current input line with leading whitespace removed, begidx and endidx are the beginning and ending indexes of the prefix text, which could be used to provide different completion depending upon which position the argument is in.

Cmd.do_help(arg)

All subclasses of Cmd inherit a predefined do_help(). This method, called with an argument 'bar', invokes the corresponding method help_bar(), and if that is not present, prints the docstring of do_bar(), if available. With no argument, do_help() lists all available help topics (that is, all commands with corresponding help_*() methods or commands that have docstrings), and also lists any undocumented commands.

Cmd.onecmd(str)

Interpret the argument as though it had been typed in response to the prompt. This may be overridden, but should not normally need to be; see the precmd() and postcmd() methods for useful execution hooks. The return value is a flag indicating whether interpretation of commands by the interpreter should stop. If there is a do_*() method for the command str, the return value of that method is returned, otherwise the return value from the default() method is returned.

Cmd.emptyline()

Méthode appelée quand une ligne vide est entrée en réponse à l'invite de commande. Si cette méthode n'est pas surchargée, elle répète la dernière commande non-vide entrée.

Cmd.default(line)

Méthode appelée lorsque le préfixe de commande d'une ligne entrée n'est pas reconnu. Si cette méthode n'est pas surchargée, elle affiche un message d'erreur et s'arrête.

Cmd.completedefault(text, line, begidx, endidx)

Method called to complete an input line when no command-specific complete_*() method is available. By default, it returns an empty list.

Cmd.columnize(list, displaywidth=80)

Méthode appelée pour afficher une liste de chaînes de caractères sous la forme d'un ensemble compact de colonnes. Chaque colonne est de largeur minimale. Les colonnes sont séparées par deux espaces pour faciliter la lecture.

Cmd.precmd(line)

Méthode de rappel exécutée juste avant que la ligne de commande line ne soit interprétée, mais après que l'invite de commande ait été généré et affiché. Cette méthode existe afin d'être surchargée par des classes filles de Cmd. La valeur de retour est utilisée comme la commande qui sera exécutée par la méthode onecmd(). L'implémentation de precmd() peut réécrire la commande ou simplement renvoyer line sans modification.

Cmd.postcmd(stop, line)

Méthode de rappel exécutée juste après qu'une commande ait été exécutée. Cette méthode existe afin d'être surchargée par des classes filles de Cmd. line est la ligne de commande ayant été exécutée et stop est un flag indiquant si l'exécution sera terminée après un appel à postcmd(). stop sera la valeur de retour de onecmd(). La valeur de retour de cette méthode sera utilisée comme nouvelle valeur pour le flag interne correspondant à stop. Renvoyer False permettra à l'interprétation de continuer.

Cmd.preloop()

Méthode de rappel exécutée une fois lorsque cmdloop() est appelée. Cette méthode existe afin d'être surchargée par des classes filles de Cmd.

Cmd.postloop()

Méthode de rappel exécutée une fois lorsque cmdloop() va s'arrêter. Cette méthode existe afin d'être surchargée par des classes filles de Cmd.

Les instances de classes filles de Cmd possèdent des variables d'instance publiques :

Cmd.prompt

L'invite de commande affiché pour solliciter une entrée.

Cmd.identchars

La chaîne de caractères acceptée en tant que préfixe de commande.

Cmd.lastcmd

Le dernier préfixe de commande non-vide vu.

Cmd.cmdqueue

Une liste de lignes entrées en file. La liste cmdqueue est vérifiée dans cmdloop() lorsqu'une nouvelle entrée est nécessitée; si elle n'est pas vide, ses éléments seront traités dans l'ordre, comme si ils avaient entrés dans l'invite de commande.

Cmd.intro

Une chaîne de caractères à afficher en introduction ou bannière. Peut être surchargée en passant un argument à la méthode cmdloop().

Cmd.doc_header

L'en-tête à afficher si la sortie de l'aide possède une section pour les commandes documentées.

Cmd.misc_header

The header to issue if the help output has a section for miscellaneous help topics (that is, there are help_*() methods without corresponding do_*() methods).

Cmd.undoc_header

The header to issue if the help output has a section for undocumented commands (that is, there are do_*() methods without corresponding help_*() methods).

Cmd.ruler

Le caractère utilisé pour afficher des lignes de séparation sous les en-têtes de messages d'aide. Si il est vide, aucune ligne de séparation n'est affichée. Par défaut, ce caractère vaut '='.

Cmd.use_rawinput

A flag, defaulting to true. If true, cmdloop() uses input() to display a prompt and read the next command; if false, sys.stdout.write() and sys.stdin.readline() are used. (This means that by importing readline, on systems that support it, the interpreter will automatically support Emacs-like line editing and command-history keystrokes.)

Exemple

The cmd module is mainly useful for building custom shells that let a user work with a program interactively.

Cette section présente un exemple simple de comment produire une invite de commande autour de quelques commandes du module turtle.

Basic turtle commands such as forward() are added to a Cmd subclass with method named do_forward(). The argument is converted to a number and dispatched to the turtle module. The docstring is used in the help utility provided by the shell.

The example also includes a basic record and playback facility implemented with the precmd() method which is responsible for converting the input to lowercase and writing the commands to a file. The do_playback() method reads the file and adds the recorded commands to the cmdqueue for immediate playback:

import cmd, sys
from turtle import *

class TurtleShell(cmd.Cmd):
    intro = 'Welcome to the turtle shell.   Type help or ? to list commands.\n'
    prompt = '(turtle) '
    file = None

    # ----- basic turtle commands -----
    def do_forward(self, arg):
        'Move the turtle forward by the specified distance:  FORWARD 10'
        forward(*parse(arg))
    def do_right(self, arg):
        'Turn turtle right by given number of degrees:  RIGHT 20'
        right(*parse(arg))
    def do_left(self, arg):
        'Turn turtle left by given number of degrees:  LEFT 90'
        left(*parse(arg))
    def do_goto(self, arg):
        'Move turtle to an absolute position with changing orientation.  GOTO 100 200'
        goto(*parse(arg))
    def do_home(self, arg):
        'Return turtle to the home position:  HOME'
        home()
    def do_circle(self, arg):
        'Draw circle with given radius an options extent and steps:  CIRCLE 50'
        circle(*parse(arg))
    def do_position(self, arg):
        'Print the current turtle position:  POSITION'
        print('Current position is %d %d\n' % position())
    def do_heading(self, arg):
        'Print the current turtle heading in degrees:  HEADING'
        print('Current heading is %d\n' % (heading(),))
    def do_color(self, arg):
        'Set the color:  COLOR BLUE'
        color(arg.lower())
    def do_undo(self, arg):
        'Undo (repeatedly) the last turtle action(s):  UNDO'
    def do_reset(self, arg):
        'Clear the screen and return turtle to center:  RESET'
        reset()
    def do_bye(self, arg):
        'Stop recording, close the turtle window, and exit:  BYE'
        print('Thank you for using Turtle')
        self.close()
        bye()
        return True

    # ----- record and playback -----
    def do_record(self, arg):
        'Save future commands to filename:  RECORD rose.cmd'
        self.file = open(arg, 'w')
    def do_playback(self, arg):
        'Playback commands from a file:  PLAYBACK rose.cmd'
        self.close()
        with open(arg) as f:
            self.cmdqueue.extend(f.read().splitlines())
    def precmd(self, line):
        line = line.lower()
        if self.file and 'playback' not in line:
            print(line, file=self.file)
        return line
    def close(self):
        if self.file:
            self.file.close()
            self.file = None

def parse(arg):
    'Convert a series of zero or more numbers to an argument tuple'
    return tuple(map(int, arg.split()))

if __name__ == '__main__':
    TurtleShell().cmdloop()

Voici une session d'exemple avec l'invite de commande turtle. Elle montre les fonctions d'aide, utilise les lignes vides pour répéter des commandes et montre l'utilitaire de playback :

Welcome to the turtle shell.   Type help or ? to list commands.

(turtle) ?

Documented commands (type help <topic>):
========================================
bye     color    goto     home  playback  record  right
circle  forward  heading  left  position  reset   undo

(turtle) help forward
Move the turtle forward by the specified distance:  FORWARD 10
(turtle) record spiral.cmd
(turtle) position
Current position is 0 0

(turtle) heading
Current heading is 0

(turtle) reset
(turtle) circle 20
(turtle) right 30
(turtle) circle 40
(turtle) right 30
(turtle) circle 60
(turtle) right 30
(turtle) circle 80
(turtle) right 30
(turtle) circle 100
(turtle) right 30
(turtle) circle 120
(turtle) right 30
(turtle) circle 120
(turtle) heading
Current heading is 180

(turtle) forward 100
(turtle)
(turtle) right 90
(turtle) forward 100
(turtle)
(turtle) right 90
(turtle) forward 400
(turtle) right 90
(turtle) forward 500
(turtle) right 90
(turtle) forward 400
(turtle) right 90
(turtle) forward 300
(turtle) playback spiral.cmd
Current position is 0 0

Current heading is 0

Current heading is 180

(turtle) bye
Thank you for using Turtle

Exécution concourante

Les modules documentés dans ce chapitre fournissent des outils d'exécution concourante de code. Le choix de l'outil approprié dépend de la tâche à exécuter (limitée par le CPU (CPU bound), ou limitée la vitesse des entrées-sorties (IO bound)) et du style de développement désiré (coopération gérée par des évènements ou multitâche préemptif). En voici un survol :

threading --- Thread-based parallelism

Introduction

GIL and performance considerations

Référence

Thread-local data

Thread objects

Lock objects

RLock objects

Condition objects

Semaphore objects

Semaphore example

Event objects

Timer objects

Barrier objects

Using locks, conditions, and semaphores in the with statement

multiprocessing --- Process-based parallelism

Introduction

La classe Process

Contextes et méthodes de démarrage

Échange d'objets entre les processus

Synchronisation entre processus

Partager un état entre les processus

Utiliser un pool de workers

Référence

Global start method

Process et exceptions

Tubes (pipes) et files (queues)

Divers

Objets de connexions

Primitives de synchronisation

Objets ctypes partagés

The multiprocessing.sharedctypes module

Gestionnaires

Gestionnaires personnalisés

Utiliser un gestionnaire distant

Objets mandataires

Nettoyage

Pools de processus

Auditeurs et Clients

Formats d'adresses

Clés d'authentification

Journalisation

The multiprocessing.dummy module

Lignes directrices de programmation

Toutes les méthodes de démarrage

Les méthodes de démarrage spawn et forkserver

Exemples

multiprocessing.shared_memory --- Shared memory for direct access across processes

The concurrent package

concurrent.futures --- Launching parallel tasks

Executor Objects

ThreadPoolExecutor

ThreadPoolExecutor Example

InterpreterPoolExecutor

ProcessPoolExecutor

ProcessPoolExecutor Example

Future Objects

Module Functions

Exception classes

concurrent.interpreters --- Multiple interpreters in the same process

Key details

Introduction

Multiple Interpreters and Isolation

Running in an Interpreter

Concurrency and Parallelism

Communication Between Interpreters

"Sharing" Objects

Référence

Interpreter objects

Exceptions

Communicating Between Interpreters

Utilisation de base

subprocess --- Subprocess management

Using the subprocess Module

Arguments fréquemment utilisés

Constructeur de Popen

Exceptions

Considérations de sécurité

Objets Popen

Utilitaires Popen pour Windows

Constantes Windows

Ancienne interface (API) haut-niveau

Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module

Remplacement de la substitution de commandes de terminal /bin/sh

Remplacer les pipes du shell

Remplacer os.system()

Remplacer les fonctions de la famille os.spawn

Replacing os.popen()

Remplacement des fonctions originales d'invocation du shell

Notes

Timeout Behavior

Convertir une séquence d'arguments vers une chaîne de caractères sous Windows

Disable use of posix_spawn()

sched --- Event scheduler

Scheduler Objects

queue --- A synchronized queue class

Objets Queue

Waiting for task completion

Terminating queues

Objets SimpleQueue

contextvars --- Context Variables

Variables de contexte

Gestion de contexte manuelle

Gestion avec asyncio

Les modules suivants servent de fondation pour certains services cités ci-dessus :

_thread --- Low-level threading API

threading --- Thread-based parallelism

Code source : Lib/threading.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/threading.py]

This module constructs higher-level threading interfaces on top of the lower level _thread module.

Disponibilité: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly. See Plateformes WebAssembly for more information.

Introduction

The threading module provides a way to run multiple threads [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thread_(computing)] (smaller units of a process) concurrently within a single process. It allows for the creation and management of threads, making it possible to execute tasks in parallel, sharing memory space. Threads are particularly useful when tasks are I/O bound, such as file operations or making network requests, where much of the time is spent waiting for external resources.

A typical use case for threading includes managing a pool of worker threads that can process multiple tasks concurrently. Here's a basic example of creating and starting threads using Thread:

import threading
import time

def crawl(link, delay=3):
    print(f"crawl started for {link}")
    time.sleep(delay)  # Blocking I/O (simulating a network request)
    print(f"crawl ended for {link}")

links = [
    "https://python.org",
    "https://docs.python.org",
    "https://peps.python.org",
]

# Start threads for each link
threads = []
for link in links:
    # Using `args` to pass positional arguments and `kwargs` for keyword arguments
    t = threading.Thread(target=crawl, args=(link,), kwargs={"delay": 2})
    threads.append(t)

# Start each thread
for t in threads:
    t.start()

# Wait for all threads to finish
for t in threads:
    t.join()

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Ce module était auparavant optionnel, il est maintenant toujours disponible.

Voir aussi

concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor offers a higher level interface to push tasks to a background thread without blocking execution of the calling thread, while still being able to retrieve their results when needed.

queue provides a thread-safe interface for exchanging data between running threads.

asyncio offers an alternative approach to achieving task level concurrency without requiring the use of multiple operating system threads.

Note

In the Python 2.x series, this module contained camelCase names for some methods and functions. These are deprecated as of Python 3.10, but they are still supported for compatibility with Python 2.5 and lower.

Particularité de l'implémentation CPython : In CPython, due to the Global Interpreter Lock, only one thread can execute Python code at once (even though certain performance-oriented libraries might overcome this limitation). If you want your application to make better use of the computational resources of multi-core machines, you are advised to use multiprocessing or concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor. However, threading is still an appropriate model if you want to run multiple I/O-bound tasks simultaneously.

GIL and performance considerations

Unlike the multiprocessing module, which uses separate processes to bypass the global interpreter lock (GIL), the threading module operates within a single process, meaning that all threads share the same memory space. However, the GIL limits the performance gains of threading when it comes to CPU-bound tasks, as only one thread can execute Python bytecode at a time. Despite this, threads remain a useful tool for achieving concurrency in many scenarios.

As of Python 3.13, free-threaded builds can disable the GIL, enabling true parallel execution of threads, but this feature is not available by default (see PEP 703 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/]).

Référence

Ce module définit les fonctions suivantes :

threading.active_count()

Renvoie le nombre d'objets Thread actuellement vivants. Le compte renvoyé est égal à la longueur de la liste renvoyée par enumerate().

The function activeCount is a deprecated alias for this function.

threading.current_thread()

Return the current Thread object, corresponding to the caller's thread of control. If the caller's thread of control was not created through the threading module, a dummy thread object with limited functionality is returned.

The function currentThread is a deprecated alias for this function.

threading.excepthook(args, /)

Gère les exceptions non-attrapées levées par Thread.run().

L'argument arg a les attributs suivants :

exc_type : le type de l'exception ;

exc_value: la valeur de l'exception, peut être None ;

exc_traceback : la pile d'appels pour cette exception, peut être None ;

thread: le fil d'exécution ayant levé l'exception, peut être None.

Si exc_type est SystemExit, l'exception est ignorée silencieusement. Toutes les autres sont affichées sur sys.stderr.

Si cette fonction lève une exception, sys.excepthook() est appelée pour la gérer.

La fonction threading.excepthook() peut être surchargée afin de contrôler comment les exceptions non-attrapées levées par Thread.run() sont gérées.

Stocker exc_value en utilisant une fonction de rappel personnalisée peut créer un cycle de références. exc_value doit être nettoyée explicitement pour casser ce cycle lorsque l'exception n'est plus nécessaire.

Stocker thread en utilisant une fonction de rappel personnalisée peut le ressusciter, si c'est un objet en cours de finalisation. Évitez de stocker thread après la fin de la fonction de rappel, pour éviter de ressusciter des objets.

Voir aussi

sys.excepthook() gère les exceptions qui n'ont pas été attrapées.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

threading.__excepthook__

Holds the original value of threading.excepthook(). It is saved so that the original value can be restored in case they happen to get replaced with broken or alternative objects.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

threading.get_ident()

Renvoie l'« identifiant de fil » du fil d'exécution courant. C'est un entier non nul. Sa valeur n'a pas de signification directe ; il est destiné à être utilisé comme valeur magique opaque, par exemple comme clef de dictionnaire de données pour chaque fil. Les identificateurs de fils peuvent être recyclés lorsqu'un fil se termine et qu'un autre fil est créé.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

threading.get_native_id()

Renvoie l'identifiant natif complet assigné par le noyau du fil d'exécution actuel. C'est un entier non négatif. Sa valeur peut uniquement être utilisée pour identifier ce fil d'exécution à l'échelle du système (jusqu'à ce que le fil d'exécution se termine, après quoi la valeur peut être recyclée par le système d'exploitation).

Disponibilité: Windows, FreeBSD, Linux, macOS, OpenBSD, NetBSD, AIX, DragonFlyBSD, GNU/kFreeBSD.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added support for GNU/kFreeBSD.

threading.enumerate()

Return a list of all Thread objects currently active. The list includes daemonic threads and dummy thread objects created by current_thread(). It excludes terminated threads and threads that have not yet been started. However, the main thread is always part of the result, even when terminated.

threading.main_thread()

Renvoie l'objet fil d'exécution Thread principal. Dans des conditions normales, le fil principal est le fil à partir duquel l'interpréteur Python a été lancé.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

threading.settrace(func)

Set a trace function for all threads started from the threading module. The func will be passed to sys.settrace() for each thread, before its run() method is called.

threading.settrace_all_threads(func)

Set a trace function for all threads started from the threading module and all Python threads that are currently executing.

The func will be passed to sys.settrace() for each thread, before its run() method is called.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

threading.gettrace()

Renvoie la fonction de traçage tel que définie par settrace().

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

threading.setprofile(func)

Set a profile function for all threads started from the threading module. The func will be passed to sys.setprofile() for each thread, before its run() method is called.

threading.setprofile_all_threads(func)

Set a profile function for all threads started from the threading module and all Python threads that are currently executing.

The func will be passed to sys.setprofile() for each thread, before its run() method is called.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

threading.getprofile()

Renvoie la fonction de profilage tel que défini par setprofile().

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

threading.stack_size([size])

Renvoie la taille de la pile d'exécution utilisée lors de la création de nouveaux fils d'exécution. L'argument optionnel size spécifie la taille de pile à utiliser pour les fils créés ultérieurement, et doit être 0 (pour utiliser la taille de la plate-forme ou la valeur configurée par défaut) ou un entier positif supérieur ou égal à 32 768 (32 Kio). Si size n'est pas spécifié, 0 est utilisé. Si la modification de la taille de la pile de fils n'est pas prise en charge, une RuntimeError est levée. Si la taille de pile spécifiée n'est pas valide, une ValueError est levée et la taille de pile n'est pas modifiée. 32 Kio est actuellement la valeur minimale de taille de pile prise en charge pour garantir un espace de pile suffisant pour l'interpréteur lui-même. Notez que certaines plates-formes peuvent avoir des restrictions particulières sur les valeurs de taille de la pile, telles que l'exigence d'une taille de pile minimale > 32 Kio ou d'une allocation en multiples de la taille de page de la mémoire du système – la documentation de la plate-forme devrait être consultée pour plus d'informations (4 Kio sont courantes ; en l'absence de renseignements plus spécifiques, l'approche proposée est l'utilisation de multiples de 4 096 pour la taille de la pile).

Disponibilité: Windows, pthreads.

Unix platforms with POSIX threads support.

Ce module définit également la constante suivante :

threading.TIMEOUT_MAX

La valeur maximale autorisée pour le paramètre timeout des fonctions bloquantes (Lock.acquire(), RLock.acquire(), Condition.wait(), etc.). Spécifier un délai d'attente supérieur à cette valeur lève une OverflowError.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Ce module définit un certain nombre de classes, qui sont détaillées dans les sections ci-dessous.

La conception de ce module est librement basée sur le modèle des fils d'exécution de Java. Cependant, là où Java fait des verrous et des variables de condition le comportement de base de chaque objet, ils sont des objets séparés en Python. La classe Python Thread prend en charge un sous-ensemble du comportement de la classe Thread de Java ; actuellement, il n'y a aucune priorité, aucun groupe de fils d'exécution, et les fils ne peuvent être détruits, arrêtés, suspendus, repris ni interrompus. Les méthodes statiques de la classe Thread de Java, lorsqu'elles sont implémentées, correspondent à des fonctions au niveau du module.

Toutes les méthodes décrites ci-dessous sont exécutées de manière atomique.

Thread-local data

Thread-local data is data whose values are thread specific. If you have data that you want to be local to a thread, create a local object and use its attributes:

>>> mydata = local()
>>> mydata.number = 42
>>> mydata.number
42

You can also access the local-object's dictionary:

>>> mydata.__dict__
{'number': 42}
>>> mydata.__dict__.setdefault('widgets', [])
[]
>>> mydata.widgets
[]

If we access the data in a different thread:

>>> log = []
>>> def f():
...     items = sorted(mydata.__dict__.items())
...     log.append(items)
...     mydata.number = 11
...     log.append(mydata.number)

>>> import threading
>>> thread = threading.Thread(target=f)
>>> thread.start()
>>> thread.join()
>>> log
[[], 11]

we get different data. Furthermore, changes made in the other thread don't affect data seen in this thread:

>>> mydata.number
42

Of course, values you get from a local object, including their __dict__ attribute, are for whatever thread was current at the time the attribute was read. For that reason, you generally don't want to save these values across threads, as they apply only to the thread they came from.

You can create custom local objects by subclassing the local class:

>>> class MyLocal(local):
...     number = 2
...     def __init__(self, /, **kw):
...         self.__dict__.update(kw)
...     def squared(self):
...         return self.number ** 2

This can be useful to support default values, methods and initialization. Note that if you define an __init__() method, it will be called each time the local object is used in a separate thread. This is necessary to initialize each thread's dictionary.

Now if we create a local object:

>>> mydata = MyLocal(color='red')

we have a default number:

>>> mydata.number
2

an initial color:

>>> mydata.color
'red'
>>> del mydata.color

And a method that operates on the data:

>>> mydata.squared()
4

As before, we can access the data in a separate thread:

>>> log = []
>>> thread = threading.Thread(target=f)
>>> thread.start()
>>> thread.join()
>>> log
[[('color', 'red')], 11]

without affecting this thread's data:

>>> mydata.number
2
>>> mydata.color
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
AttributeError: 'MyLocal' object has no attribute 'color'

Note that subclasses can define __slots__, but they are not thread local. They are shared across threads:

>>> class MyLocal(local):
...     __slots__ = 'number'

>>> mydata = MyLocal()
>>> mydata.number = 42
>>> mydata.color = 'red'

So, the separate thread:

>>> thread = threading.Thread(target=f)
>>> thread.start()
>>> thread.join()

affects what we see:

>>> mydata.number
11

class threading.local

Classe qui représente les données locales au fil d'exécution.

Thread objects

The Thread class represents an activity that is run in a separate thread of control. There are two ways to specify the activity: by passing a callable object to the constructor, or by overriding the run() method in a subclass. No other methods (except for the constructor) should be overridden in a subclass. In other words, only override the __init__() and run() methods of this class.

Une fois qu'un objet fil d'exécution est créé, son activité doit être lancée en appelant la méthode start() du fil. Ceci invoque la méthode run() dans un fil d'exécution séparé.

Une fois que l'activité du fil d'exécution est lancée, le fil est considéré comme « vivant ». Il cesse d'être vivant lorsque sa méthode run() se termine – soit normalement, soit en levant une exception non gérée. La méthode is_alive() teste si le fil est vivant.

D'autres fils d'exécution peuvent appeler la méthode join() d'un fil. Ceci bloque le fil appelant jusqu'à ce que le fil dont la méthode join() est appelée soit terminé.

Un fil d'exécution a un nom. Le nom peut être passé au constructeur, et lu ou modifié via l'attribut name.

Si la méthode run() lève une exception, threading.excepthook() est appelée pour s'en occuper. Par défaut, threading.excepthook() ignore silencieusement SystemExit.

Un fil d'exécution peut être marqué comme « fil démon ». Un programme Python se termine quand il ne reste plus que des fils démons. La valeur initiale est héritée du fil d'exécution qui l'a créé. Cette option peut être définie par la propriété daemon ou par l'argument daemon du constructeur.

Note

Les fils d'exécution démons sont brusquement terminés à l'arrêt du programme Python. Leurs ressources (fichiers ouverts, transactions de base de données, etc.) peuvent ne pas être libérées correctement. Si vous voulez que vos fils s'arrêtent proprement, faites en sorte qu'ils ne soient pas démoniques et utilisez un mécanisme de signalisation approprié tel qu'un objet évènement Event.

Il y a un objet "fil principal", qui correspond au fil de contrôle initial dans le programme Python. Ce n'est pas un fil démon.

There is the possibility that "dummy thread objects" are created. These are thread objects corresponding to "alien threads", which are threads of control started outside the threading module, such as directly from C code. Dummy thread objects have limited functionality; they are always considered alive and daemonic, and cannot be joined. They are never deleted, since it is impossible to detect the termination of alien threads.

class threading.Thread(group=None, target=None, name=None, args=(), kwargs={}, *, daemon=None, context=None)

Ce constructeur doit toujours être appelé avec des arguments nommés. Les arguments sont :

group should be None; reserved for future extension when a ThreadGroup class is implemented.

target est l'objet appelable qui doit être invoqué par la méthode run(). La valeur par défaut est None, ce qui signifie que rien n'est appelé.

name is the thread name. By default, a unique name is constructed of the form "Thread-N" where N is a small decimal number, or "Thread-N (target)" where "target" is target.__name__ if the target argument is specified.

args is a list or tuple of arguments for the target invocation. Defaults to ().

kwargs est un dictionnaire d'arguments nommés pour l'invocation de l'objet appelable. La valeur par défaut est {}.

S'il ne vaut pas None, daemon définit explicitement si le fil d'exécution est démonique ou pas. S'il vaut None (par défaut), la valeur est héritée du fil courant.

context is the Context value to use when starting the thread. The default value is None which indicates that the sys.flags.thread_inherit_context flag controls the behaviour. If the flag is true, threads will start with a copy of the context of the caller of start(). If false, they will start with an empty context. To explicitly start with an empty context, pass a new instance of Context(). To explicitly start with a copy of the current context, pass the value from copy_context(). The flag defaults true on free-threaded builds and false otherwise.

Si la sous-classe réimplémente le constructeur, elle doit s'assurer d'appeler le constructeur de la classe de base (Thread.__init__()) avant de faire autre chose au fil d'exécution.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Added the daemon parameter.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Use the target name if name argument is omitted.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Added the context parameter.

start()

Lance l'activité du fil d'exécution.

Elle ne doit être appelée qu'une fois par objet de fil. Elle fait en sorte que la méthode run() de l'objet soit invoquée dans un fil d'exécution.

Cette méthode lève une RuntimeError si elle est appelée plus d'une fois sur le même objet fil d'exécution.

If supported, set the operating system thread name to threading.Thread.name. The name can be truncated depending on the operating system thread name limits.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Set the operating system thread name.

run()

Méthode représentant l'activité du fil d'exécution.

Vous pouvez remplacer cette méthode dans une sous-classe. La méthode standard run() invoque l'objet appelable passé au constructeur de l'objet en tant qu'argument target, le cas échéant, avec des arguments positionnels et des arguments nommés tirés respectivement des arguments args et kwargs.

Using list or tuple as the args argument which passed to the Thread could achieve the same effect.

Example:

>>> from threading import Thread
>>> t = Thread(target=print, args=[1])
>>> t.run()
1
>>> t = Thread(target=print, args=(1,))
>>> t.run()
1

join(timeout=None)

Attend que le fil d'exécution se termine. Ceci bloque le fil appelant jusqu'à ce que le fil dont la méthode join() est appelée se termine – soit normalement, soit par une exception non gérée – ou jusqu'à ce que le délai optionnel timeout soit atteint.

When the timeout argument is present and not None, it should be a floating-point number specifying a timeout for the operation in seconds (or fractions thereof). As join() always returns None, you must call is_alive() after join() to decide whether a timeout happened -- if the thread is still alive, the join() call timed out.

Lorsque l'argument timeout n'est pas présent ou vaut None, l'opération se bloque jusqu'à ce que le fil d'exécution se termine.

A thread can be joined many times.

join() lève une RuntimeError si une tentative est faite pour attendre le fil d'exécution courant car cela conduirait à un interblocage (deadlock en anglais). Attendre via join() un fil d'exécution avant son lancement est aussi une erreur et, si vous tentez de le faire, lève la même exception.

If an attempt is made to join a running daemonic thread in late stages of Python finalization join() raises a PythonFinalizationError.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: May raise PythonFinalizationError.

name

Une chaîne de caractères utilisée à des fins d'identification seulement. Elle n'a pas de sémantique. Plusieurs fils d'exécution peuvent porter le même nom. Le nom initial est défini par le constructeur.

On some platforms, the thread name is set at the operating system level when the thread starts, so that it is visible in task managers. This name may be truncated to fit in a system-specific limit (for example, 15 bytes on Linux or 63 bytes on macOS).

Changes to name are only reflected at the OS level when the currently running thread is renamed. (Setting the name attribute of a different thread only updates the Python Thread object.)

getName()

setName()

Deprecated getter/setter API for name; use it directly as a property instead.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.10.

ident

« L'identificateur de fil d'exécution » de ce fil ou None si le fil n'a pas été lancé. C'est un entier non nul. Voyez également la fonction get_ident(). Les identificateurs de fils peuvent être recyclés lorsqu'un fil se termine et qu'un autre fil est créé. L'identifiant est disponible même après que le fil ait terminé.

native_id

The Thread ID (TID) of this thread, as assigned by the OS (kernel). This is a non-negative integer, or None if the thread has not been started. See the get_native_id() function. This value may be used to uniquely identify this particular thread system-wide (until the thread terminates, after which the value may be recycled by the OS).

Note

Tout comme pour les Process IDs, les Thread IDs ne sont valides (garantis uniques sur le système) uniquement du démarrage du fil à sa fin.

Disponibilité: Windows, FreeBSD, Linux, macOS, OpenBSD, NetBSD, AIX, DragonFlyBSD.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

is_alive()

Renvoie si le fil d'exécution est vivant ou pas.

Cette méthode renvoie True depuis juste avant le démarrage de la méthode run() et jusqu'à juste après la terminaison de la méthode run(). La fonction enumerate() du module renvoie une liste de tous les fils d'exécution vivants.

daemon

A boolean value indicating whether this thread is a daemon thread (True) or not (False). This must be set before start() is called, otherwise RuntimeError is raised. Its initial value is inherited from the creating thread; the main thread is not a daemon thread and therefore all threads created in the main thread default to daemon = False.

Le programme Python se termine lorsqu'il ne reste plus de fils d'exécution non-démons vivants.

isDaemon()

setDaemon()

Deprecated getter/setter API for daemon; use it directly as a property instead.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.10.

Lock objects

Un verrou primitif n'appartient pas à un fil d'exécution lorsqu'il est verrouillé. En Python, c'est actuellement la méthode de synchronisation la plus bas-niveau qui soit disponible, implémentée directement par le module d'extension _thread.

Un verrou primitif est soit « verrouillé » soit « déverrouillé ». Il est créé dans un état déverrouillé. Il a deux méthodes, acquire() et release(). Lorsque l'état est déverrouillé, acquire() verrouille et se termine immédiatement. Lorsque l'état est verrouillé, acquire() bloque jusqu'à ce qu'un appel à release() provenant d'un autre fil d'exécution le déverrouille. À ce moment acquire() le verrouille à nouveau et rend la main. La méthode release() ne doit être appelée que si le verrou est verrouillé, elle le déverrouille alors et se termine immédiatement. Déverrouiller un verrou qui n'est pas verrouillé provoque une RuntimeError.

Locks also support the context management protocol.

When more than one thread is blocked in acquire() waiting for the state to turn to unlocked, only one thread proceeds when a release() call resets the state to unlocked; which one of the waiting threads proceeds is not defined, and may vary across implementations.

All methods are executed atomically.

class threading.Lock

The class implementing primitive lock objects. Once a thread has acquired a lock, subsequent attempts to acquire it block, until it is released; any thread may release it.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Lock is now a class. In earlier Pythons, Lock was a factory function which returned an instance of the underlying private lock type.

acquire(blocking=True, timeout=-1)

Acquiert un verrou, bloquant ou non bloquant.

When invoked with the blocking argument set to True (the default), block until the lock is unlocked, then set it to locked and return True.

When invoked with the blocking argument set to False, do not block. If a call with blocking set to True would block, return False immediately; otherwise, set the lock to locked and return True.

When invoked with the floating-point timeout argument set to a positive value, block for at most the number of seconds specified by timeout and as long as the lock cannot be acquired. A timeout argument of -1 specifies an unbounded wait. It is forbidden to specify a timeout when blocking is False.

The return value is True if the lock is acquired successfully, False if not (for example if the timeout expired).

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Le paramètre timeout est nouveau.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Lock acquisition can now be interrupted by signals on POSIX if the underlying threading implementation supports it.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Lock acquisition can now be interrupted by signals on Windows.

release()

Release a lock. This can be called from any thread, not only the thread which has acquired the lock.

When the lock is locked, reset it to unlocked, and return. If any other threads are blocked waiting for the lock to become unlocked, allow exactly one of them to proceed.

Lorsqu'elle est invoquée sur un verrou déverrouillé, une RuntimeError est levée.

Il n'y a pas de valeur de retour.

locked()

Return True if the lock is acquired.

RLock objects

A reentrant lock is a synchronization primitive that may be acquired multiple times by the same thread. Internally, it uses the concepts of "owning thread" and "recursion level" in addition to the locked/unlocked state used by primitive locks. In the locked state, some thread owns the lock; in the unlocked state, no thread owns it.

Threads call a lock's acquire() method to lock it, and its release() method to unlock it.

Note

Reentrant locks support the context management protocol, so it is recommended to use with instead of manually calling acquire() and release() to handle acquiring and releasing the lock for a block of code.

RLock's acquire()/release() call pairs may be nested, unlike Lock's acquire()/release(). Only the final release() (the release() of the outermost pair) resets the lock to an unlocked state and allows another thread blocked in acquire() to proceed.

acquire()/release() must be used in pairs: each acquire must have a release in the thread that has acquired the lock. Failing to call release as many times the lock has been acquired can lead to deadlock.

class threading.RLock

This class implements reentrant lock objects. A reentrant lock must be released by the thread that acquired it. Once a thread has acquired a reentrant lock, the same thread may acquire it again without blocking; the thread must release it once for each time it has acquired it.

Note that RLock is actually a factory function which returns an instance of the most efficient version of the concrete RLock class that is supported by the platform.

acquire(blocking=True, timeout=-1)

Acquiert un verrou, bloquant ou non bloquant.

Voir aussi

Using RLock as a context manager

Recommended over manual acquire() and release() calls whenever practical.

When invoked with the blocking argument set to True (the default):

If no thread owns the lock, acquire the lock and return immediately.

If another thread owns the lock, block until we are able to acquire lock, or timeout, if set to a positive float value.

If the same thread owns the lock, acquire the lock again, and return immediately. This is the difference between Lock and RLock; Lock handles this case the same as the previous, blocking until the lock can be acquired.

When invoked with the blocking argument set to False:

If no thread owns the lock, acquire the lock and return immediately.

If another thread owns the lock, return immediately.

If the same thread owns the lock, acquire the lock again and return immediately.

In all cases, if the thread was able to acquire the lock, return True. If the thread was unable to acquire the lock (i.e. if not blocking or the timeout was reached) return False.

If called multiple times, failing to call release() as many times may lead to deadlock. Consider using RLock as a context manager rather than calling acquire/release directly.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Le paramètre timeout est nouveau.

release()

Release a lock, decrementing the recursion level. If after the decrement it is zero, reset the lock to unlocked (not owned by any thread), and if any other threads are blocked waiting for the lock to become unlocked, allow exactly one of them to proceed. If after the decrement the recursion level is still nonzero, the lock remains locked and owned by the calling thread.

Only call this method when the calling thread owns the lock. A RuntimeError is raised if this method is called when the lock is not acquired.

Il n'y a pas de valeur de retour.

locked()

Return a boolean indicating whether this object is locked right now.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Condition objects

A condition variable is always associated with some kind of lock; this can be passed in or one will be created by default. Passing one in is useful when several condition variables must share the same lock. The lock is part of the condition object: you don't have to track it separately.

A condition variable obeys the context management protocol: using the with statement acquires the associated lock for the duration of the enclosed block. The acquire() and release() methods also call the corresponding methods of the associated lock.

Other methods must be called with the associated lock held. The wait() method releases the lock, and then blocks until another thread awakens it by calling notify() or notify_all(). Once awakened, wait() re-acquires the lock and returns. It is also possible to specify a timeout.

The notify() method wakes up one of the threads waiting for the condition variable, if any are waiting. The notify_all() method wakes up all threads waiting for the condition variable.

Note: the notify() and notify_all() methods don't release the lock; this means that the thread or threads awakened will not return from their wait() call immediately, but only when the thread that called notify() or notify_all() finally relinquishes ownership of the lock.

The typical programming style using condition variables uses the lock to synchronize access to some shared state; threads that are interested in a particular change of state call wait() repeatedly until they see the desired state, while threads that modify the state call notify() or notify_all() when they change the state in such a way that it could possibly be a desired state for one of the waiters. For example, the following code is a generic producer-consumer situation with unlimited buffer capacity:

# Consume one item
with cv:
    while not an_item_is_available():
        cv.wait()
    get_an_available_item()

# Produce one item
with cv:
    make_an_item_available()
    cv.notify()

The while loop checking for the application's condition is necessary because wait() can return after an arbitrary long time, and the condition which prompted the notify() call may no longer hold true. This is inherent to multi-threaded programming. The wait_for() method can be used to automate the condition checking, and eases the computation of timeouts:

# Consume an item
with cv:
    cv.wait_for(an_item_is_available)
    get_an_available_item()

To choose between notify() and notify_all(), consider whether one state change can be interesting for only one or several waiting threads. E.g. in a typical producer-consumer situation, adding one item to the buffer only needs to wake up one consumer thread.

class threading.Condition(lock=None)

This class implements condition variable objects. A condition variable allows one or more threads to wait until they are notified by another thread.

If the lock argument is given and not None, it must be a Lock or RLock object, and it is used as the underlying lock. Otherwise, a new RLock object is created and used as the underlying lock.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: changed from a factory function to a class.

acquire(*args)

Acquire the underlying lock. This method calls the corresponding method on the underlying lock; the return value is whatever that method returns.

release()

Release the underlying lock. This method calls the corresponding method on the underlying lock; there is no return value.

locked()

Return a boolean indicating whether this object is locked right now.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

wait(timeout=None)

Wait until notified or until a timeout occurs. If the calling thread has not acquired the lock when this method is called, a RuntimeError is raised.

This method releases the underlying lock, and then blocks until it is awakened by a notify() or notify_all() call for the same condition variable in another thread, or until the optional timeout occurs. Once awakened or timed out, it re-acquires the lock and returns.

When the timeout argument is present and not None, it should be a floating-point number specifying a timeout for the operation in seconds (or fractions thereof).

When the underlying lock is an RLock, it is not released using its release() method, since this may not actually unlock the lock when it was acquired multiple times recursively. Instead, an internal interface of the RLock class is used, which really unlocks it even when it has been recursively acquired several times. Another internal interface is then used to restore the recursion level when the lock is reacquired.

The return value is True unless a given timeout expired, in which case it is False.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Previously, the method always returned None.

wait_for(predicate, timeout=None)

Wait until a condition evaluates to true. predicate should be a callable which result will be interpreted as a boolean value. A timeout may be provided giving the maximum time to wait.

This utility method may call wait() repeatedly until the predicate is satisfied, or until a timeout occurs. The return value is the last return value of the predicate and will evaluate to False if the method timed out.

Ignoring the timeout feature, calling this method is roughly equivalent to writing:

while not predicate():
    cv.wait()

Therefore, the same rules apply as with wait(): The lock must be held when called and is re-acquired on return. The predicate is evaluated with the lock held.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

notify(n=1)

By default, wake up one thread waiting on this condition, if any. If the calling thread has not acquired the lock when this method is called, a RuntimeError is raised.

This method wakes up at most n of the threads waiting for the condition variable; it is a no-op if no threads are waiting.

The current implementation wakes up exactly n threads, if at least n threads are waiting. However, it's not safe to rely on this behavior. A future, optimized implementation may occasionally wake up more than n threads.

Note: an awakened thread does not actually return from its wait() call until it can reacquire the lock. Since notify() does not release the lock, its caller should.

notify_all()

Wake up all threads waiting on this condition. This method acts like notify(), but wakes up all waiting threads instead of one. If the calling thread has not acquired the lock when this method is called, a RuntimeError is raised.

The method notifyAll is a deprecated alias for this method.

Semaphore objects

This is one of the oldest synchronization primitives in the history of computer science, invented by the early Dutch computer scientist Edsger W. Dijkstra (he used the names P() and V() instead of acquire() and release()).

A semaphore manages an internal counter which is decremented by each acquire() call and incremented by each release() call. The counter can never go below zero; when acquire() finds that it is zero, it blocks, waiting until some other thread calls release().

Semaphores also support the context management protocol.

class threading.Semaphore(value=1)

This class implements semaphore objects. A semaphore manages an atomic counter representing the number of release() calls minus the number of acquire() calls, plus an initial value. The acquire() method blocks if necessary until it can return without making the counter negative. If not given, value defaults to 1.

The optional argument gives the initial value for the internal counter; it defaults to 1. If the value given is less than 0, ValueError is raised.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: changed from a factory function to a class.

acquire(blocking=True, timeout=None)

Acquiert un sémaphore.

When invoked without arguments:

If the internal counter is larger than zero on entry, decrement it by one and return True immediately.

If the internal counter is zero on entry, block until awoken by a call to release(). Once awoken (and the counter is greater than 0), decrement the counter by 1 and return True. Exactly one thread will be awoken by each call to release(). The order in which threads are awoken should not be relied on.

When invoked with blocking set to False, do not block. If a call without an argument would block, return False immediately; otherwise, do the same thing as when called without arguments, and return True.

When invoked with a timeout other than None, it will block for at most timeout seconds. If acquire does not complete successfully in that interval, return False. Return True otherwise.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Le paramètre timeout est nouveau.

release(n=1)

Release a semaphore, incrementing the internal counter by n. When it was zero on entry and other threads are waiting for it to become larger than zero again, wake up n of those threads.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Added the n parameter to release multiple waiting threads at once.

class threading.BoundedSemaphore(value=1)

Class implementing bounded semaphore objects. A bounded semaphore checks to make sure its current value doesn't exceed its initial value. If it does, ValueError is raised. In most situations semaphores are used to guard resources with limited capacity. If the semaphore is released too many times it's a sign of a bug. If not given, value defaults to 1.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: changed from a factory function to a class.

Semaphore example

Semaphores are often used to guard resources with limited capacity, for example, a database server. In any situation where the size of the resource is fixed, you should use a bounded semaphore. Before spawning any worker threads, your main thread would initialize the semaphore:

maxconnections = 5
# ...
pool_sema = BoundedSemaphore(value=maxconnections)

Once spawned, worker threads call the semaphore's acquire and release methods when they need to connect to the server:

with pool_sema:
    conn = connectdb()
    try:
        # ... use connection ...
    finally:
        conn.close()

The use of a bounded semaphore reduces the chance that a programming error which causes the semaphore to be released more than it's acquired will go undetected.

Event objects

This is one of the simplest mechanisms for communication between threads: one thread signals an event and other threads wait for it.

An event object manages an internal flag that can be set to true with the set() method and reset to false with the clear() method. The wait() method blocks until the flag is true.

class threading.Event

Class implementing event objects. An event manages a flag that can be set to true with the set() method and reset to false with the clear() method. The wait() method blocks until the flag is true. The flag is initially false.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: changed from a factory function to a class.

is_set()

Return True if and only if the internal flag is true.

The method isSet is a deprecated alias for this method.

set()

Set the internal flag to true. All threads waiting for it to become true are awakened. Threads that call wait() once the flag is true will not block at all.

clear()

Reset the internal flag to false. Subsequently, threads calling wait() will block until set() is called to set the internal flag to true again.

wait(timeout=None)

Block as long as the internal flag is false and the timeout, if given, has not expired. The return value represents the reason that this blocking method returned; True if returning because the internal flag is set to true, or False if a timeout is given and the internal flag did not become true within the given wait time.

When the timeout argument is present and not None, it should be a floating-point number specifying a timeout for the operation in seconds, or fractions thereof.

Modifié dans la version 3.1: Previously, the method always returned None.

Timer objects

This class represents an action that should be run only after a certain amount of time has passed --- a timer. Timer is a subclass of Thread and as such also functions as an example of creating custom threads.

Timers are started, as with threads, by calling their Timer.start method. The timer can be stopped (before its action has begun) by calling the cancel() method. The interval the timer will wait before executing its action may not be exactly the same as the interval specified by the user.

Par exemple :

def hello():
    print("hello, world")

t = Timer(30.0, hello)
t.start()  # after 30 seconds, "hello, world" will be printed

class threading.Timer(interval, function, args=None, kwargs=None)

Create a timer that will run function with arguments args and keyword arguments kwargs, after interval seconds have passed. If args is None (the default) then an empty list will be used. If kwargs is None (the default) then an empty dict will be used.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: changed from a factory function to a class.

cancel()

Stop the timer, and cancel the execution of the timer's action. This will only work if the timer is still in its waiting stage.

Barrier objects

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

This class provides a simple synchronization primitive for use by a fixed number of threads that need to wait for each other. Each of the threads tries to pass the barrier by calling the wait() method and will block until all of the threads have made their wait() calls. At this point, the threads are released simultaneously.

The barrier can be reused any number of times for the same number of threads.

As an example, here is a simple way to synchronize a client and server thread:

b = Barrier(2, timeout=5)

def server():
    start_server()
    b.wait()
    while True:
        connection = accept_connection()
        process_server_connection(connection)

def client():
    b.wait()
    while True:
        connection = make_connection()
        process_client_connection(connection)

class threading.Barrier(parties, action=None, timeout=None)

Create a barrier object for parties number of threads. An action, when provided, is a callable to be called by one of the threads when they are released. timeout is the default timeout value if none is specified for the wait() method.

wait(timeout=None)

Pass the barrier. When all the threads party to the barrier have called this function, they are all released simultaneously. If a timeout is provided, it is used in preference to any that was supplied to the class constructor.

The return value is an integer in the range 0 to parties -- 1, different for each thread. This can be used to select a thread to do some special housekeeping, e.g.:

i = barrier.wait()
if i == 0:
    # Only one thread needs to print this
    print("passed the barrier")

If an action was provided to the constructor, one of the threads will have called it prior to being released. Should this call raise an error, the barrier is put into the broken state.

If the call times out, the barrier is put into the broken state.

This method may raise a BrokenBarrierError exception if the barrier is broken or reset while a thread is waiting.

reset()

Return the barrier to the default, empty state. Any threads waiting on it will receive the BrokenBarrierError exception.

Note that using this function may require some external synchronization if there are other threads whose state is unknown. If a barrier is broken it may be better to just leave it and create a new one.

abort()

Put the barrier into a broken state. This causes any active or future calls to wait() to fail with the BrokenBarrierError. Use this for example if one of the threads needs to abort, to avoid deadlocking the application.

It may be preferable to simply create the barrier with a sensible timeout value to automatically guard against one of the threads going awry.

parties

The number of threads required to pass the barrier.

n_waiting

The number of threads currently waiting in the barrier.

broken

Booléen qui vaut True si la barrière est rompue.

exception threading.BrokenBarrierError

Cette exception, une sous-classe de RuntimeError, est déclenchée lorsque l'objet Barrier est réinitialisé ou cassé.

Using locks, conditions, and semaphores in the with statement

All of the objects provided by this module that have acquire and release methods can be used as context managers for a with statement. The acquire method will be called when the block is entered, and release will be called when the block is exited. Hence, the following snippet:

with some_lock:
    # do something...

est équivalente à :

some_lock.acquire()
try:
    # do something...
finally:
    some_lock.release()

Currently, Lock, RLock, Condition, Semaphore, and BoundedSemaphore objects may be used as with statement context managers.

multiprocessing --- Process-based parallelism

Code source : Lib/multiprocessing/ [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/multiprocessing/]

Disponibilité: not Android, not iOS, not WASI.

This module is not supported on mobile platforms or WebAssembly platforms.

Introduction

multiprocessing is a package that supports spawning processes using an API similar to the threading module. The multiprocessing package offers both local and remote concurrency, effectively side-stepping the Global Interpreter Lock by using subprocesses instead of threads. Due to this, the multiprocessing module allows the programmer to fully leverage multiple processors on a given machine. It runs on both POSIX and Windows.

The multiprocessing module also introduces the Pool object which offers a convenient means of parallelizing the execution of a function across multiple input values, distributing the input data across processes (data parallelism). The following example demonstrates the common practice of defining such functions in a module so that child processes can successfully import that module. This basic example of data parallelism using Pool,

from multiprocessing import Pool

def f(x):
    return x*x

if __name__ == '__main__':
    with Pool(5) as p:
        print(p.map(f, [1, 2, 3]))

affiche sur la sortie standard

[1, 4, 9]

The multiprocessing module also introduces APIs which do not have analogs in the threading module, like the ability to terminate, interrupt or kill a running process.

Voir aussi

concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor offers a higher level interface to push tasks to a background process without blocking execution of the calling process. Compared to using the Pool interface directly, the concurrent.futures API more readily allows the submission of work to the underlying process pool to be separated from waiting for the results.

La classe Process

In multiprocessing, processes are spawned by creating a Process object and then calling its start() method. Process follows the API of threading.Thread. A trivial example of a multiprocess program is

from multiprocessing import Process

def f(name):
    print('hello', name)

if __name__ == '__main__':
    p = Process(target=f, args=('bob',))
    p.start()
    p.join()

Voici un exemple plus étoffé qui affiche les identifiants des processus créés :

from multiprocessing import Process
import os

def info(title):
    print(title)
    print('module name:', __name__)
    print('parent process:', os.getppid())
    print('process id:', os.getpid())

def f(name):
    info('function f')
    print('hello', name)

if __name__ == '__main__':
    info('main line')
    p = Process(target=f, args=('bob',))
    p.start()
    p.join()

La nécessité de la ligne if __name__ == '__main__' est expliquée dans la section Lignes directrices de programmation.

The arguments to Process usually need to be unpickleable from within the child process. If you tried typing the above example directly into a REPL it could lead to an AttributeError in the child process trying to locate the f function in the __main__ module.

Contextes et méthodes de démarrage

Depending on the platform, multiprocessing supports three ways to start a process. These start methods are

spawn

The parent process starts a fresh Python interpreter process. The child process will only inherit those resources necessary to run the process object's run() method. In particular, unnecessary file descriptors and handles from the parent process will not be inherited. Starting a process using this method is rather slow compared to using fork or forkserver.

Available on POSIX and Windows platforms. The default on Windows and macOS.

fork

Le processus parent utilise os.fork() pour forker l'interpréteur Python. Le processus fils, quand il démarre, est effectivement identique au processus parent. Toutes les ressources du parent sont héritées par le fils. Notez qu'il est problématique de forker sans danger un processus multi-threadé.

Available on POSIX systems.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: This is no longer the default start method on any platform. Code that requires fork must explicitly specify that via get_context() or set_start_method().

Modifié dans la version 3.12: If Python is able to detect that your process has multiple threads, the os.fork() function that this start method calls internally will raise a DeprecationWarning. Use a different start method. See the os.fork() documentation for further explanation.

forkserver

When the program starts and selects the forkserver start method, a server process is spawned. From then on, whenever a new process is needed, the parent process connects to the server and requests that it fork a new process. The fork server process is single threaded unless system libraries or preloaded imports spawn threads as a side-effect so it is generally safe for it to use os.fork(). No unnecessary resources are inherited.

Available on POSIX platforms which support passing file descriptors over Unix pipes such as Linux. The default on those.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: This became the default start method on POSIX platforms.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: spawn added on all POSIX platforms, and forkserver added for some POSIX platforms. Child processes no longer inherit all of the parents inheritable handles on Windows.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: On macOS, the spawn start method is now the default. The fork start method should be considered unsafe as it can lead to crashes of the subprocess as macOS system libraries may start threads. See bpo-33725 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33725].

Modifié dans la version 3.14: On POSIX platforms the default start method was changed from fork to forkserver to retain the performance but avoid common multithreaded process incompatibilities. See gh-84559 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84559].

On POSIX using the spawn or forkserver start methods will also start a resource tracker process which tracks the unlinked named system resources (such as named semaphores or SharedMemory objects) created by processes of the program. When all processes have exited the resource tracker unlinks any remaining tracked object. Usually there should be none, but if a process was killed by a signal there may be some "leaked" resources. (Neither leaked semaphores nor shared memory segments will be automatically unlinked until the next reboot. This is problematic for both objects because the system allows only a limited number of named semaphores, and shared memory segments occupy some space in the main memory.)

Pour sélectionner une méthode de démarrage, utilisez la fonction set_start_method() dans la clause if __name__ == '__main__' du module principal. Par exemple :

import multiprocessing as mp

def foo(q):
    q.put('hello')

if __name__ == '__main__':
    mp.set_start_method('spawn')
    q = mp.Queue()
    p = mp.Process(target=foo, args=(q,))
    p.start()
    print(q.get())
    p.join()

set_start_method() ne doit pas être utilisée plus d'une fois dans le programme.

Alternativement, vous pouvez utiliser get_context() pour obtenir un contexte. Les contextes ont la même API que le module multiprocessing, et permettent l'utilisation de plusieurs méthodes de démarrage dans un même programme.

import multiprocessing as mp

def foo(q):
    q.put('hello')

if __name__ == '__main__':
    ctx = mp.get_context('spawn')
    q = ctx.Queue()
    p = ctx.Process(target=foo, args=(q,))
    p.start()
    print(q.get())
    p.join()

Notez que les objets relatifs à un contexte ne sont pas forcément compatibles avec les processus d'un contexte différent. En particulier, les verrous créés avec le contexte fork ne peuvent pas être passés aux processus lancés avec les méthodes spawn ou forkserver.

Libraries using multiprocessing or ProcessPoolExecutor should be designed to allow their users to provide their own multiprocessing context. Using a specific context of your own within a library can lead to incompatibilities with the rest of the library user's application. Always document if your library requires a specific start method.

Avertissement

The 'spawn' and 'forkserver' start methods generally cannot be used with "frozen" executables (i.e., binaries produced by packages like PyInstaller and cx_Freeze) on POSIX systems. The 'fork' start method may work if code does not use threads.

Échange d'objets entre les processus

multiprocessing supports two types of communication channel between processes:

Files (queues)

La classe Queue est un clone assez proche de queue.Queue. Par exemple :

from multiprocessing import Process, Queue

def f(q):
    q.put([42, None, 'hello'])

if __name__ == '__main__':
    q = Queue()
    p = Process(target=f, args=(q,))
    p.start()
    print(q.get())    # prints "[42, None, 'hello']"
    p.join()

Queues are thread and process safe. Any object put into a multiprocessing queue will be serialized.

Tubes (pipes)

La fonction Pipe() renvoie une paire d'objets de connexion connectés à un tube qui est par défaut duplex (à double sens). Par exemple :

from multiprocessing import Process, Pipe

def f(conn):
    conn.send([42, None, 'hello'])
    conn.close()

if __name__ == '__main__':
    parent_conn, child_conn = Pipe()
    p = Process(target=f, args=(child_conn,))
    p.start()
    print(parent_conn.recv())   # prints "[42, None, 'hello']"
    p.join()

Les deux objets de connexion renvoyés par Pipe() représentent les deux extrémités d'un tube. Chaque objet de connexion possède (entre autres) des méthodes send() et recv(). Notez que les données d'un tube peuvent être corrompues si deux processus (ou fils d'exécution) essaient de lire ou d'écrire sur la même extrémité du tube en même temps. Bien évidemment, deux processus peuvent utiliser les deux extrémités différentes en même temps sans risque de corruption.

The send() method serializes the object and recv() re-creates the object.

Synchronisation entre processus

multiprocessing contains equivalents of all the synchronization primitives from threading. For instance one can use a lock to ensure that only one process prints to standard output at a time:

from multiprocessing import Process, Lock

def f(l, i):
    l.acquire()
    try:
        print('hello world', i)
    finally:
        l.release()

if __name__ == '__main__':
    lock = Lock()

    for num in range(10):
        Process(target=f, args=(lock, num)).start()

Sans le verrou, les sorties des différents processus risquent d'être mélangées.

Partager un état entre les processus

Comme mentionné plus haut, il est généralement préférable d'éviter autant que possible d'utiliser des états partagés en programmation concurrente. C'est particulièrement vrai quand plusieurs processus sont utilisés.

However, if you really do need to use some shared data then multiprocessing provides a couple of ways of doing so.

Mémoire partagée

Les données peuvent être stockées dans une mémoire partagée en utilisant des Value ou des Array. Par exemple, le code suivant

from multiprocessing import Process, Value, Array

def f(n, a):
    n.value = 3.1415927
    for i in range(len(a)):
        a[i] = -a[i]

if __name__ == '__main__':
    num = Value('d', 0.0)
    arr = Array('i', range(10))

    p = Process(target=f, args=(num, arr))
    p.start()
    p.join()

    print(num.value)
    print(arr[:])

affiche

3.1415927
[0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9]

Les arguments 'd' et 'i' utilisés à la création des num et arr sont des codes de types identiques à ceux du module array : 'd' indique un flottant double-précision et 'i' indique un entier signé. Ces objets peuvent être partagés sans problème entre processus ou fils d’exécution.

Pour plus de flexibilité dans l'utilisation de mémoire partagée, vous pouvez utiliser le module multiprocessing.sharedctypes qui permet la création d'objets arbitraires ctypes alloués depuis la mémoire partagée.

Processus serveur

Un objet gestionnaire renvoyé par Manager() contrôle un processus serveur qui détient les objets Python et autorise les autres processus à les manipuler à l'aide de mandataires.

A manager returned by Manager() will support types list, dict, set, Namespace, Lock, RLock, Semaphore, BoundedSemaphore, Condition, Event, Barrier, Queue, Value and Array. For example,

from multiprocessing import Process, Manager

def f(d, l, s):
    d[1] = '1'
    d['2'] = 2
    d[0.25] = None
    l.reverse()
    s.add('a')
    s.add('b')

if __name__ == '__main__':
    with Manager() as manager:
        d = manager.dict()
        l = manager.list(range(10))
        s = manager.set()

        p = Process(target=f, args=(d, l, s))
        p.start()
        p.join()

        print(d)
        print(l)
        print(s)

affiche

{0.25: None, 1: '1', '2': 2}
[9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0]
{'a', 'b'}

Les processus serveurs de gestionnaires sont plus flexibles que les mémoires partagées parce qu'ils peuvent gérer des types d'objets arbitraires. Aussi, un gestionnaire unique peut être partagé par les processus sur différentes machines à travers le réseau. Cependant, ils sont plus lents que les mémoires partagées.

Utiliser un pool de workers

La classe Pool représente un pool de processus de travail. Elle possède des méthodes qui permettent aux tâches d'être déchargées vers les processus de travail de différentes manières.

Par exemple :

from multiprocessing import Pool, TimeoutError
import time
import os

def f(x):
    return x*x

if __name__ == '__main__':
    # start 4 worker processes
    with Pool(processes=4) as pool:

        # print "[0, 1, 4,..., 81]"
        print(pool.map(f, range(10)))

        # print same numbers in arbitrary order
        for i in pool.imap_unordered(f, range(10)):
            print(i)

        # evaluate "f(20)" asynchronously
        res = pool.apply_async(f, (20,))      # runs in *only* one process
        print(res.get(timeout=1))             # prints "400"

        # evaluate "os.getpid()" asynchronously
        res = pool.apply_async(os.getpid, ()) # runs in *only* one process
        print(res.get(timeout=1))             # prints the PID of that process

        # launching multiple evaluations asynchronously *may* use more processes
        multiple_results = [pool.apply_async(os.getpid, ()) for i in range(4)]
        print([res.get(timeout=1) for res in multiple_results])

        # make a single worker sleep for 10 seconds
        res = pool.apply_async(time.sleep, (10,))
        try:
            print(res.get(timeout=1))
        except TimeoutError:
            print("We lacked patience and got a multiprocessing.TimeoutError")

        print("For the moment, the pool remains available for more work")

    # exiting the 'with'-block has stopped the pool
    print("Now the pool is closed and no longer available")

Notez que les méthodes d'un pool ne doivent être utilisées que par le processus qui l'a créée.

Note

Functionality within this package requires that the __main__ module be importable by the children. This is covered in Lignes directrices de programmation however it is worth pointing out here. This means that some examples, such as the multiprocessing.pool.Pool examples will not work in the interactive interpreter. For example:

>>> from multiprocessing import Pool
>>> p = Pool(5)
>>> def f(x):
...     return x*x
...
>>> with p:
...     p.map(f, [1,2,3])
Process PoolWorker-1:
Process PoolWorker-2:
Process PoolWorker-3:
Traceback (most recent call last):
Traceback (most recent call last):
Traceback (most recent call last):
AttributeError: Can't get attribute 'f' on <module '__main__' (<class '_frozen_importlib.BuiltinImporter'>)>
AttributeError: Can't get attribute 'f' on <module '__main__' (<class '_frozen_importlib.BuiltinImporter'>)>
AttributeError: Can't get attribute 'f' on <module '__main__' (<class '_frozen_importlib.BuiltinImporter'>)>

Si vous essayez ce code, il affichera trois traces d'appels complètes entrelacées de manière semi-aléatoire, et vous devrez vous débrouiller pour arrêter le processus maître.

Référence

The multiprocessing package mostly replicates the API of the threading module.

Global start method

Python supports several ways to create and initialize a process. The global start method sets the default mechanism for creating a process.

Several multiprocessing functions and methods that may also instantiate certain objects will implicitly set the global start method to the system's default, if it hasn’t been set already. The global start method can only be set once. If you need to change the start method from the system default, you must proactively set the global start method before calling functions or methods, or creating these objects.

Process et exceptions

class multiprocessing.Process(group=None, target=None, name=None, args=(), kwargs={}, *, daemon=None)

Les objets process représentent une activité exécutée dans un processus séparé. La classe Process a des équivalents à toutes les méthodes de threading.Thread.

The constructor should always be called with keyword arguments. group should always be None; it exists solely for compatibility with threading.Thread. target is the callable object to be invoked by the run() method. It defaults to None, meaning nothing is called. name is the process name (see name for more details). args is the argument tuple for the target invocation. kwargs is a dictionary of keyword arguments for the target invocation. If provided, the keyword-only daemon argument sets the process daemon flag to True or False. If None (the default), this flag will be inherited from the creating process.

By default, no arguments are passed to target. The args argument, which defaults to (), can be used to specify a list or tuple of the arguments to pass to target.

If a subclass overrides the constructor, it must make sure it invokes the base class constructor (super().__init__()) before doing anything else to the process.

Note

In general, all arguments to Process must be picklable. This is frequently observed when trying to create a Process or use a concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor from a REPL with a locally defined target function.

Passing a callable object defined in the current REPL session causes the child process to die via an uncaught AttributeError exception when starting as target must have been defined within an importable module in order to be loaded during unpickling.

Example of this uncatchable error from the child:

>>> import multiprocessing as mp
>>> def knigit():
...     print("Ni!")
...
>>> process = mp.Process(target=knigit)
>>> process.start()
>>> Traceback (most recent call last):
  File ".../multiprocessing/spawn.py", line ..., in spawn_main
  File ".../multiprocessing/spawn.py", line ..., in _main
AttributeError: module '__main__' has no attribute 'knigit'
>>> process
<SpawnProcess name='SpawnProcess-1' pid=379473 parent=378707 stopped exitcode=1>

See Les méthodes de démarrage spawn et forkserver. While this restriction is not true if using the "fork" start method, as of Python 3.14 that is no longer the default on any platform. See Contextes et méthodes de démarrage. See also gh-132898 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132898].

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Added the daemon parameter.

run()

Méthode représentant l'activité du processus.

Vous pouvez redéfinir cette méthode dans une sous-classe. La méthode standard run() invoque l'objet appelable passé au constructeur comme argument target, si fourni, avec les arguments séquentiels et nommés respectivement pris depuis les paramètres args et kwargs.

Using a list or tuple as the args argument passed to Process achieves the same effect.

Example:

>>> from multiprocessing import Process
>>> p = Process(target=print, args=[1])
>>> p.run()
1
>>> p = Process(target=print, args=(1,))
>>> p.run()
1

start()

Démarre l'activité du processus.

Elle doit être appelée au plus une fois par objet processus. Elle s'arrange pour que la méthode run() de l'objet soit invoquée dans un processus séparé.

join([timeout])

Si l'argument optionnel timeout est None (par défaut), la méthode bloque jusqu'à ce que le processus dont la méthode join() a été appelée se termine. Si timeout est un nombre positif, elle bloque au maximum pendant timeout secondes. Notez que la méthode renvoie None si le processus se termine ou si le temps d'exécution expire. Vérifiez l'attribut exitcode du processus pour déterminer s'il s'est terminé.

join peut être appelée plusieurs fois sur un même processus.

Un processus ne peut pas s'attendre lui-même car cela causerait un interblocage. C'est une erreur d'essayer d'attendre un processus avant qu'il ne soit démarré.

name

Le nom du processus. Le nom est une chaîne de caractères utilisée uniquement pour l'identification du processus. Il n'a pas de sémantique. Plusieurs processus peuvent avoir le même nom.

Le nom initial est déterminé par le constructeur. Si aucun nom explicite n'est fourni au constructeur, un nom de la forme « Process-N₁:N₂:...:Nk » est construit, où chaque Nk est le Ne fils de son parent.

is_alive()

Renvoie vrai si le processus est en vie, faux sinon.

Grossièrement, un objet processus est en vie depuis le moment où la méthode start() finit de s'exécuter jusqu'à ce que le processus fils se termine.

daemon

L'option daemon du processus, une valeur booléenne. L'option doit être réglée avant que la méthode start() ne soit appelée.

La valeur initiale est héritée par le processus créateur.

Quand un processus se ferme, il tente de terminer tous ses processus fils daemon.

Notez qu'un processus daemon n'est pas autorisé à créer des processus fils. Sinon un processus daemon laisserait ses fils orphelins lorsqu'il se termine par la fermeture de son parent. De plus, ce ne sont pas des daemons ou services Unix, ce sont des processus normaux qui seront terminés (et non attendus) si un processus non daemon se ferme.

En plus de l'API threading.Thread, les objets Process supportent aussi les attributs et méthodes suivants :

pid

Renvoie l'ID du processus. Avant que le processus ne soit lancé, la valeur est None.

exitcode

The child's exit code. This will be None if the process has not yet terminated.

If the child's run() method returned normally, the exit code will be 0. If it terminated via sys.exit() with an integer argument N, the exit code will be N.

If the child terminated due to an exception not caught within run(), the exit code will be 1. If it was terminated by signal N, the exit code will be the negative value -N.

authkey

La clé d'authentification du processus (une chaîne d'octets).

When multiprocessing is initialized the main process is assigned a random string using os.urandom().

Quand un objet Process est créé, il hérité de la clé d'authentification de son parent, bien que cela puisse être changé à l'aide du paramètre authkey pour une autre chaîne d'octets.

Voir Clés d'authentification.

sentinel

Un identifiant numérique de l'objet système qui devient « prêt » quand le processus se termine.

You can use this value if you want to wait on several events at once using multiprocessing.connection.wait(). Otherwise calling join() is simpler.

On Windows, this is an OS handle usable with the WaitForSingleObject and WaitForMultipleObjects family of API calls. On POSIX, this is a file descriptor usable with primitives from the select module.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

interrupt()

Terminate the process. Works on POSIX using the SIGINT signal. Behavior on Windows is undefined.

By default, this terminates the child process by raising KeyboardInterrupt. This behavior can be altered by setting the respective signal handler in the child process signal.signal() for SIGINT.

Note: if the child process catches and discards KeyboardInterrupt, the process will not be terminated.

Note: the default behavior will also set exitcode to 1 as if an uncaught exception was raised in the child process. To have a different exitcode you may simply catch KeyboardInterrupt and call exit(your_code).

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

terminate()

Terminate the process. On POSIX this is done using the SIGTERM signal; on Windows TerminateProcess() is used. Note that exit handlers and finally clauses, etc., will not be executed.

Notez que les descendants du processus ne sont pas terminés – ils deviendront simplement orphelins.

Avertissement

Si cette méthode est utilisée quand le processus associé utilise un tube ou une file, alors le tube ou la file sont susceptibles d'être corrompus et peuvent devenir inutilisables par les autres processus. De façon similaire, si le processus a acquis un verrou, un sémaphore ou autre, alors le terminer est susceptible de provoquer des blocages dans les autres processus.

kill()

Same as terminate() but using the SIGKILL signal on POSIX.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

close()

Ferme l'objet Process, libérant toutes les ressources qui lui sont associées. Une ValueError est levée si le processus sous-jacent tourne toujours. Une fois que close() se termine avec succès, la plupart des autres méthodes et attributs des objets Process lèveront une ValueError.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Notez que les méthodes start(), join(), is_alive(), terminate() et exitcode ne doivent être appelées que par le processus ayant créé l'objet process.

Exemple d'utilisation de quelques méthodes de Process :

>>> import multiprocessing, time, signal
>>> mp_context = multiprocessing.get_context('spawn')
>>> p = mp_context.Process(target=time.sleep, args=(1000,))
>>> print(p, p.is_alive())
<...Process ... initial> False
>>> p.start()
>>> print(p, p.is_alive())
<...Process ... started> True
>>> p.terminate()
>>> time.sleep(0.1)
>>> print(p, p.is_alive())
<...Process ... stopped exitcode=-SIGTERM> False
>>> p.exitcode == -signal.SIGTERM
True

exception multiprocessing.ProcessError

The base class of all multiprocessing exceptions.

exception multiprocessing.BufferTooShort

Exception raised by Connection.recv_bytes_into() when the supplied buffer object is too small for the message read.

Si e est une instance de BufferTooShort alors e.args[0] donnera un message sous forme d'une chaîne d'octets.

exception multiprocessing.AuthenticationError

Levée quand il y a une erreur d'authentification.

exception multiprocessing.TimeoutError

Levée par les méthodes avec temps d'exécution limité, quand ce temps expire.

Tubes (pipes) et files (queues)

Quand plusieurs processus travaillent ensemble, il est souvent nécessaire de les faire communiquer entre eux pour éviter d'avoir à utiliser des primitives de synchronisation comme les verrous.

Pour échanger des messages vous pouvez utiliser un Pipe() (pour une connexion entre deux processus) ou une file (qui autorise de plusieurs producteurs et consommateurs).

Les types Queue, SimpleQueue et JoinableQueue sont des files FIFO multi-producteurs et multi-consommateurs modelées sur la classe queue.Queue de la bibliothèque standard. Elles diffèrent par l'absence dans Queue des méthodes task_done() et join() introduites dans la classe queue.Queue par Python 2.5.

Si vous utilisez JoinableQueue alors vous devez appeler JoinableQueue.task_done() pour chaque tâche retirée de la file, sans quoi le sémaphore utilisé pour compter le nombre de tâches non accomplies pourra éventuellement déborder, levant une exception.

One difference from other Python queue implementations, is that multiprocessing queues serializes all objects that are put into them using pickle. The object returned by the get method is a re-created object that does not share memory with the original object.

Notez que vous pouvez aussi créer une file partagée en utilisant un objet gestionnaire – voir Gestionnaires.

Note

multiprocessing uses the usual queue.Empty and queue.Full exceptions to signal a timeout. They are not available in the multiprocessing namespace so you need to import them from queue.

Note

Quand un objet est placé dans une file, l'objet est sérialisé par pickle et un fil d'exécution en arrière-plan transmettra ensuite les données sérialisées sur un tube sous-jacent. Cela a certaines conséquences qui peuvent être un peu surprenantes, mais ne devrait causer aucune difficulté pratique — si elles vous embêtent vraiment, alors vous pouvez à la place utiliser une file créée avec un manager.

Après avoir placé un objet dans une file vide il peut y avoir un délai infinitésimal avant que la méthode empty() de la file renvoie False et que get_nowait() renvoie une valeur sans lever de queue.Empty.

Si plusieurs processus placent des objets dans la file, il est possible pour les objets d'être reçus de l'autre côté dans le désordre. Cependant, les objets placés par un même processus seront toujours récupérés dans l'ordre d'insertion.

Avertissement

Si un processus est tué à l'aide de Process.terminate() ou os.kill() pendant qu'il tente d'utiliser une Queue, alors les données de la file peuvent être corrompues. Cela peut par la suite causer des levées d'exceptions dans les autres processus quand ils tenteront d'utiliser la file.

Avertissement

Comme mentionné plus haut, si un processus fils a placé des éléments dans la file (et qu'il n'a pas utilisé JoinableQueue.cancel_join_thread), alors le processus ne se terminera pas tant que les éléments placés dans le tampon n'auront pas été transmis au tube.

Cela signifie que si vous essayez d'attendre ce processus vous pouvez obtenir un interblocage, à moins que vous ne soyez sûr que tous les éléments placés dans la file ont été consommés. De même, si le processus fils n'est pas un daemon alors le processus parent pourrait bloquer à la fermeture quand il tentera d'attendre tous ses fils non daemons.

Notez que la file créée à l'aide d'un gestionnaire n'a pas ce problème. Voir Lignes directrices de programmation.

Pour un exemple d'utilisation de files pour de la communication entre les processus, voir Exemples.

multiprocessing.Pipe(duplex=True)

Renvoie une paire (conn1, conn2) d'objets Connection représentant les extrémités d'un tube.

Si duplex vaut True (par défaut), alors le tube est bidirectionnel. Si duplex vaut False il est unidirectionnel : conn1 ne peut être utilisé que pour recevoir des messages et conn2 que pour en envoyer.

The send() method serializes the object using pickle and the recv() re-creates the object.

class multiprocessing.Queue([maxsize])

Renvoie une file partagée entre les processus utilisant un tube et quelques verrous / sémaphores. Quand un processus place initialement un élément sur la file, un fil d'exécution chargeur est démarré pour transférer les objets du tampon vers le tube.

Instantiating this class may set the global start method. See Global start method for more details.

Les exceptions habituelles queue.Empty et queue.Full du module queue de la bibliothèque standard sont levées pour signaler les timeouts.

Queue implémente toutes les méthodes de queue.Queue à l'exception de task_done() et join().

qsize()

Renvoie la taille approximative de la file. Ce nombre n'est pas fiable en raison des problématiques de multithreading et multiprocessing.

Note that this may raise NotImplementedError on platforms like macOS where sem_getvalue() is not implemented.

empty()

Renvoie True si la file est vide, False sinon. Cette valeur n'est pas fiable en raison des problématiques de multithreading et multiprocessing.

May raise an OSError on closed queues. (not guaranteed)

full()

Renvoie True si la file est pleine, False sinon. Cette valeur n'est pas fiable en raison des problématiques de multithreading et multiprocessing.

put(obj[, block[, timeout]])

Place obj dans la file. Si l'argument optionnel block vaut True (par défaut) est que timeout est None (par défaut), bloque jusqu'à ce qu'une place libre soit disponible. Si timeout est un nombre positif, la méthode bloquera au maximum timeout secondes et lève une exception queue.Full si aucune place libre n'a été trouvée dans le temps imparti. Autrement (block vaut False), place un élément dans la file si une place libre est immédiatement disponible, ou lève une exception queue.Full dans le cas contraire (timeout est ignoré dans ce cas).

Modifié dans la version 3.8: si la file a été marquée comme fermée, une ValueError est levée. Auparavant, une AssertionError était levée.

put_nowait(obj)

Équivalent à put(obj, False).

get([block[, timeout]])

Retire et renvoie un élément de la file. Si l'argument optionnel block vaut True (par défaut) et que timeout est None (par défaut), bloque jusqu'à ce qu'un élément soit disponible. Si timeout (le délai maximal autorisé) est un nombre positif, la méthode bloque au maximum timeout secondes et lève une exception queue.Empty si aucun élément n'est disponible dans le temps imparti. Autrement (block vaut False), renvoie un élément s'il est immédiatement disponible, ou lève une exception queue.Empty dans le cas contraire (timeout est ignoré dans ce cas).

Modifié dans la version 3.8: si la file a été marquée comme terminée, une ValueError est levée. Auparavant, une OSError. était levée.

get_nowait()

Équivalent à get(False).

multiprocessing.Queue possède quelques méthodes additionnelles non présentes dans queue.Queue. Ces méthodes ne sont habituellement pas nécessaires pour la plupart des codes :

close()

Ferme la file : libère les ressources internes.

A queue must not be used anymore after it is closed. For example, get(), put() and empty() methods must no longer be called.

The background thread will quit once it has flushed all buffered data to the pipe. This is called automatically when the queue is garbage collected.

join_thread()

Attend le fil d'exécution d'arrière-plan. Elle peut seulement être utilisée une fois que close() a été appelée. Elle bloque jusqu'à ce que le fil d'arrière-plan se termine, assurant que toutes les données du tampon ont été transmises au tube.

Par défaut si un processus n'est pas le créateur de la file alors à la fermeture elle essaie d'attendre le fil d'exécution d'arrière-plan de la file. Le processus peut appeler cancel_join_thread() pour que join_thread() ne fasse rien.

cancel_join_thread()

Empêche join_thread() de bloquer. En particulier, cela empêche le fil d'arrière-plan d'être attendu automatiquement quand le processus se ferme – voir join_thread().

Un meilleur nom pour cette méthode pourrait être allow_exit_without_flush(). Cela peut provoquer des pertes de données placées dans la file, et il est très rare d'avoir besoin de l'utiliser. Elle n'est là que si vous souhaitez terminer immédiatement le processus sans transférer les données du tampon, et que vous êtes prêt à perdre des données.

Note

Le fonctionnement de cette classe requiert une implémentation de sémaphore partagé sur le système d'exploitation hôte. Sans cela, la fonctionnalité est désactivée et la tentative d'instancier une Queue lève une ImportError. Voir bpo-3770 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3770] pour plus d'informations. Cette remarque reste valable pour les autres types de files spécialisées définies par la suite.

class multiprocessing.SimpleQueue

Un type de Queue simplifié, très proche d'un Pipe avec verrou.

Instantiating this class may set the global start method. See Global start method for more details.

close()

Ferme la file : libère les ressources internes.

Une file ne doit plus être utilisée après sa fermeture. Par exemple, les méthodes get(), put() et empty() ne doivent plus être appelées.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

empty()

Renvoie True si la file est vide, False sinon.

Always raises an OSError if the SimpleQueue is closed.

get()

Supprime et renvoie un élément de la file.

put(item)

Place item dans la file.

class multiprocessing.JoinableQueue([maxsize])

JoinableQueue, une sous-classe de Queue, est une file qui ajoute des méthodes task_done() et join().

Instantiating this class may set the global start method. See Global start method for more details.

task_done()

Indique qu'une tâche précédemment placée dans la file est achevée. Utilisée par les consommateurs de la file. Pour chaque get() utilisée pour récupérer une tâche, un appel ultérieur à task_done() indique à la file que le traitement de la tâche est terminé.

Si un join() est actuellement bloquant, il se débloquera quand tous les éléments auront été traités (signifiant qu'un appel à task_done() a été reçu pour chaque élément ayant été placé via put() dans la file).

Lève une exception ValueError si appelée plus de fois qu'il y avait d'éléments dans la file.

join()

Bloque jusqu'à ce que tous les éléments de la file aient été récupérés et traités.

Le compteur des tâches non accomplies augmente chaque fois qu'un élément est ajouté à la file. Le compteur redescend chaque fois qu'un consommateur appelle task_done() pour indiquer qu'un élément a été récupéré et que tout le travail qui le concerne est complété. Quand le compteur des tâches non accomplies atteint zéro, join() est débloquée.

Divers

multiprocessing.active_children()

Renvoie la liste de tous les fils vivants du processus courant.

Appeler cette méthode provoque l'effet de bord d'attendre tout processus qui n'a pas encore terminé.

multiprocessing.cpu_count()

Renvoie le nombre de CPUs sur le système.

This number is not equivalent to the number of CPUs the current process can use. The number of usable CPUs can be obtained with os.process_cpu_count() (or len(os.sched_getaffinity(0))).

Une NotImplementedError est levée quand il est impossible de déterminer ce nombre.

Voir aussi

os.cpu_count() os.process_cpu_count()

Modifié dans la version 3.13: The return value can also be overridden using the -X cpu_count flag or PYTHON_CPU_COUNT as this is merely a wrapper around the os cpu count APIs.

multiprocessing.current_process()

Renvoie l'objet Process correspondant au processus courant.

Un analogue à threading.current_thread().

multiprocessing.parent_process()

Renvoie l'objet Process correspondant au processus père de current_process(). Pour le processus maître, parent_process vaut None.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

multiprocessing.freeze_support()

Add support for when a program which uses multiprocessing has been frozen to produce an executable. (Has been tested with py2exe, PyInstaller and cx_Freeze.)

Cette fonction doit être appelée juste après la ligne if __name__ == '__main__' du module principal. Par exemple :

from multiprocessing import Process, freeze_support

def f():
    print('hello world!')

if __name__ == '__main__':
    freeze_support()
    Process(target=f).start()

Si la ligne freeze_support() est omise, alors tenter de lancer l'exécutable figé lève une RuntimeError.

Calling freeze_support() has no effect when the start method is not spawn. In addition, if the module is being run normally by the Python interpreter (the program has not been frozen), then freeze_support() has no effect.

multiprocessing.get_all_start_methods()

Returns a list of the supported start methods, the first of which is the default. The possible start methods are 'fork', 'spawn' and 'forkserver'. Not all platforms support all methods. See Contextes et méthodes de démarrage.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

multiprocessing.get_context(method=None)

Return a context object which has the same attributes as the multiprocessing module.

If method is None then the default context is returned. Note that if the global start method has not been set, this will set it to the system default See Global start method for more details. Otherwise method should be 'fork', 'spawn', 'forkserver'. ValueError is raised if the specified start method is not available. See Contextes et méthodes de démarrage.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

multiprocessing.get_start_method(allow_none=False)

Renvoie le nom de la méthode de démarrage utilisée pour démarrer le processus.

If the global start method is not set and allow_none is False, the global start method is set to the default, and its name is returned. See Global start method for more details.

The return value can be 'fork', 'spawn', 'forkserver' or None. See Contextes et méthodes de démarrage.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: sur macOS, la méthode de démarrage spawn est maintenant la méthode par défaut. La méthode de démarrage fork doit être considérée comme dangereuse car elle peut entraîner des plantages du sous-processus. Voir bpo-33725 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33725].

multiprocessing.set_executable(executable)

Set the path of the Python interpreter to use when starting a child process. (By default sys.executable is used). Embedders will probably need to do something like

set_executable(os.path.join(sys.exec_prefix, 'pythonw.exe'))

avant de pouvoir créer des processus fils.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Now supported on POSIX when the 'spawn' start method is used.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Accepte un path-like object.

multiprocessing.set_forkserver_preload(module_names)

Set a list of module names for the forkserver main process to attempt to import so that their already imported state is inherited by forked processes. Any ImportError when doing so is silently ignored. This can be used as a performance enhancement to avoid repeated work in every process.

For this to work, it must be called before the forkserver process has been launched (before creating a Pool or starting a Process).

Only meaningful when using the 'forkserver' start method. See Contextes et méthodes de démarrage.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

multiprocessing.set_start_method(method, force=False)

Set the method which should be used to start child processes. The method argument can be 'fork', 'spawn' or 'forkserver'. Raises RuntimeError if the start method has already been set and force is not True. If method is None and force is True then the start method is set to None. If method is None and force is False then the context is set to the default context.

Notez que cette fonction ne devrait être appelée qu'une fois au plus, et l'appel devrait être protégé à l'intérieur d'une clause if __name__ == '__main__' dans le module principal.

See Contextes et méthodes de démarrage.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Note

multiprocessing contains no analogues of threading.active_count(), threading.enumerate(), threading.settrace(), threading.setprofile(), threading.Timer, or threading.local.

Objets de connexions

Les objets de connexion autorisent l'envoi et la réception d'objets sérialisables ou de chaînes de caractères. Ils peuvent être vus comme des interfaces de connexion (sockets) connectées orientées messages.

Les objets de connexion sont habituellement créés via Pipe – voir aussi Auditeurs et Clients.

class multiprocessing.connection.Connection

send(obj)

Envoie un objet sur l'autre extrémité de la connexion, qui devra être lu avec recv().

L'objet doit être sérialisable. Les pickles très larges (approximativement 32 Mo+, bien que cela dépende de l'OS) pourront lever une exception ValueError.

recv()

Renvoie un objet envoyé depuis l'autre extrémité de la connexion en utilisant send(). Bloque jusqu'à ce que quelque chose soit reçu. Lève une EOFError s'il n'y a plus rien à recevoir et que l'autre extrémité a été fermée.

fileno()

Renvoie le descripteur de fichier ou identifiant utilisé par la connexion.

close()

Ferme la connexion.

Elle est appelée automatiquement quand la connexion est collectée par le ramasse-miettes.

poll([timeout])

Renvoie vrai ou faux selon si des données sont disponibles à la lecture.

Si timeout n'est pas spécifié la méthode renverra immédiatement. Si timeout est un nombre alors il spécifie le temps maximum de blocage en secondes. Si timeout est None, un temps d'attente infini est utilisé.

Notez que plusieurs objets de connexions peuvent être attendus en même temps à l'aide de multiprocessing.connection.wait().

send_bytes(buffer[, offset[, size]])

Envoie des données binaires depuis un bytes-like object comme un message complet.

Si offset est fourni, les données sont lues depuis cette position dans le tampon buffer. Si size est fourni, il indique le nombre d'octets qui seront lus depuis buffer. Les tampons très larges (approximativement 32 MiB+, bien que cela dépende de l'OS) pourront lever une exception ValueError.

recv_bytes([maxlength])

Renvoie un message complet de données binaires envoyées depuis l'autre extrémité de la connexion comme une chaîne de caractères. Bloque jusqu'à ce qu'il y ait quelque chose à recevoir. Lève une EOFError s'il ne reste rien à recevoir et que l'autre côté de la connexion a été fermé.

Si maxlength est précisé que que le message est plus long que maxlength alors une OSError est levée et la connexion n'est plus lisible.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Cette fonction levait auparavant une IOError, qui est maintenant un alias pour OSError.

recv_bytes_into(buffer[, offset])

Lit et stocke dans buffer un message complet de données binaires envoyées depuis l'autre extrémité de la connexion et renvoie le nombre d'octets du message. Bloque jusqu'à ce qu'il y ait quelque chose à recevoir. Lève une EOFError s'il ne reste rien à recevoir et que l'autre côté de la connexion a été fermé.

buffer doit être un bytes-like object accessible en écriture. Si offset est donné, le message sera écrit dans le tampon à partir de cette position. offset doit être un entier positif, inférieur à la taille de buffer (en octets).

Si le tampon est trop petit une exception BufferTooShort est levée et le message complet est accessible via e.args[0] où e est l'instance de l'exception.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Les objets de connexions eux-mêmes peuvent maintenant être transférés entre les processus en utilisant Connection.send() et Connection.recv().

Connection objects also now support the context management protocol -- see Le type gestionnaire de contexte. __enter__() returns the connection object, and __exit__() calls close().

Par exemple :

>>> from multiprocessing import Pipe
>>> a, b = Pipe()
>>> a.send([1, 'hello', None])
>>> b.recv()
[1, 'hello', None]
>>> b.send_bytes(b'thank you')
>>> a.recv_bytes()
b'thank you'
>>> import array
>>> arr1 = array.array('i', range(5))
>>> arr2 = array.array('i', [0] * 10)
>>> a.send_bytes(arr1)
>>> count = b.recv_bytes_into(arr2)
>>> assert count == len(arr1) * arr1.itemsize
>>> arr2
array('i', [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0])

Avertissement

La méthode Connection.recv() désérialise automatiquement les données qu'elle reçoit, ce qui peut être un risque de sécurité à moins que vous ne fassiez réellement confiance au processus émetteur du message.

Par conséquent, à moins que l'objet de connexion soit instancié par Pipe(), vous ne devriez uniquement utiliser les méthodes recv() et send() après avoir effectué une quelconque forme d'authentification. Voir Clés d'authentification.

Avertissement

Si un processus est tué pendant qu'il essaye de lire ou écrire sur le tube, alors les données du tube ont des chances d'être corrompues, parce qu'il devient impossible d'être sûr d'où se trouvent les bornes du message.

Primitives de synchronisation

Généralement les primitives de synchronisation ne sont pas nécessaire dans un programme multi-processus comme elles le sont dans un programme multi-fils d'exécution. Voir la documentation du module threading.

Notez que vous pouvez aussi créer des primitives de synchronisation en utilisant un objet gestionnaire – voir Gestionnaires.

class multiprocessing.Barrier(parties[, action[, timeout]])

Un objet barrière : un clone de threading.Barrier.

Instantiating this class may set the global start method. See Global start method for more details.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

class multiprocessing.BoundedSemaphore([value])

Un objet sémaphore lié : un analogue proche de threading.BoundedSemaphore.

Instantiating this class may set the global start method. See Global start method for more details.

Une seule différence existe avec son proche analogue : le premier argument de sa méthode acquire est appelé block, pour la cohérence avec Lock.acquire().

locked()

Return a boolean indicating whether this object is locked right now.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Note

Sur macOS, elle n'est pas distinguable de la classe Semaphore parce que sem_getvalue() n'est pas implémentée sur cette plateforme.

class multiprocessing.Condition([lock])

Une variable conditionnelle : un alias pour threading.Condition.

If lock is specified then it should be a Lock or RLock object from multiprocessing.

Instantiating this class may set the global start method. See Global start method for more details.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: La méthode wait_for() a été ajoutée.

class multiprocessing.Event

Un clone de threading.Event.

Instantiating this class may set the global start method. See Global start method for more details.

class multiprocessing.Lock

Un verrou non récursif : un analogue proche de threading.Lock. Une fois que le processus ou le fil d'exécution a acquis un verrou, les tentatives suivantes d'acquisition depuis n'importe quel processus ou fil d'exécution bloqueront jusqu'à ce qu'il soit libéré ; n'importe quel processus ou fil peut le libérer. Les concepts et comportements de threading.Lock qui s'appliquent aux fils d'exécution sont répliqués ici dans multiprocessing.Lock et s'appliquent aux processus et aux fils d'exécution, à l'exception de ce qui est indiqué.

Notez que Lock est en fait une fonction factory qui renvoie une instance de multiprocessing.synchronize.Lock initialisée avec un contexte par défaut.

Instantiating this class may set the global start method. See Global start method for more details.

Lock supporte le protocole context manager et peut ainsi être utilisé avec une instruction with.

acquire(block=True, timeout=None)

Acquiert un verrou, bloquant ou non bloquant.

Avec l'argument block à True (par défaut), l'appel de méthode bloquera jusqu'à ce que le verrou soit dans déverrouillé, puis le verrouillera avant de renvoyer True. Notez que le nom de ce premier argument diffère de celui de threading.Lock.acquire().

Avec l'argument block à False, l'appel de méthode ne bloque pas. Si le verrou est actuellement verrouillé, renvoie False ; autrement verrouille le verrou et renvoie True.

Quand invoqué avec un nombre flottant positif comme timeout, bloque au maximum pendant ce nombre spécifié de secondes, tant que le verrou ne peut être acquis. Les invocations avec une valeur de timeout négatives sont équivalents à zéro. Les invocations avec un timeout à None (par défaut) correspondent à un délai d'attente infini. Notez que le traitement des valeurs de timeout négatives et None diffère du comportement implémenté dans threading.Lock.acquire(). L'argument timeout n'a pas d'implication pratique si l'argument block est mis ) False et est alors ignoré. Renvoie True si le verrou a été acquis et False si le temps de timeout a expiré.

release()

Libère un verrou. Elle peut être appelée depuis n'importe quel processus ou fil d'exécution, pas uniquement le processus ou le fil qui a acquis le verrou à l'origine.

Le comportement est le même que threading.Lock.release() excepté que lorsque la méthode est appelée sur un verrou déverrouillé, une ValueError est levée.

locked()

Return a boolean indicating whether this object is locked right now.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

class multiprocessing.RLock

Un objet verrou récursif : un analogue proche de threading.RLock. Un verrou récursif doit être libéré par le processus ou le fil d'exécution qui l'a acquis. Quand un processus ou un fil acquiert un verrou récursif, le même processus/fil peut l'acquérir à nouveau sans bloquer ; le processus/fil doit le libérer autant de fois qu'il l'acquiert.

Notez que RLock est en fait une fonction factory qui renvoie une instance de multiprocessing.synchronize.RLock initialisée avec un contexte par défaut.

Instantiating this class may set the global start method. See Global start method for more details.

RLock supporte le protocole context manager et peut ainsi être utilisée avec une instruction with.

acquire(block=True, timeout=None)

Acquiert un verrou, bloquant ou non bloquant.

Quand invoqué avec l'argument block à True, bloque jusqu'à ce que le verrou soit déverrouillé (n'appartenant à aucun processus ou fil d'exécution) sauf s'il appartient déjà au processus ou fil d'exécution courant. Le processus ou fil d'exécution courant prend la possession du verrou (s'il ne l'a pas déjà) et incrémente d'un le niveau de récursion du verrou, renvoyant ainsi True. Notez qu'il y a plusieurs différences dans le comportement de ce premier argument comparé à l'implémentation de threading.RLock.acquire(), à commencer par le nom de l'argument lui-même.

Quand invoqué avec l'argument block à False, ne bloque pas. Si le verrou est déjà acquis (et possédé) par un autre processus ou fil d'exécution, le processus/fil courant n'en prend pas la possession et le niveau de récursion n'est pas incrémenté, résultant en une valeur de retour à False. Si le verrou est déverrouillé, le processus/fil courant en prend possession et incrémente son niveau de récursion, renvoyant True.

L'usage et les comportements de l'argument timeout sont les mêmes que pour Lock.acquire(). Notez que certains de ces comportements diffèrent par rapport à ceux implémentés par threading.RLock.acquire().

release()

Libère un verrou, décrémentant son niveau de récursion. Si après la décrémentation le niveau de récursion est zéro, réinitialise le verrou à un état déverrouillé (n'appartenant à aucun processus ou fil d'exécution) et si des processus/fils attendent que le verrou se déverrouillé, autorise un seul d'entre-eux à continuer. Si après cette décrémentation le niveau de récursion est toujours strictement positif, le verrou reste verrouillé et propriété du processus/fil appelant.

N'appelez cette méthode que si le processus ou fil d'exécution appelant est propriétaire du verrou. Une AssertionError est levée si cette méthode est appelée par un processus/fil autre que le propriétaire ou si le verrou n'est pas verrouillé (possédé). Notez que le type d'exception levé dans cette situation diffère du comportement de threading.RLock.release().

locked()

Return a boolean indicating whether this object is locked right now.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

class multiprocessing.Semaphore([value])

Un objet sémaphore, proche analogue de threading.Semaphore.

Instantiating this class may set the global start method. See Global start method for more details.

Une seule différence existe avec son proche analogue : le premier argument de sa méthode acquire est appelé block, pour la cohérence avec Lock.acquire().

get_value()

Return the current value of semaphore.

Note that this may raise NotImplementedError on platforms like macOS where sem_getvalue() is not implemented.

locked()

Return a boolean indicating whether this object is locked right now.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Note

Sous macOS, sem_timedwait n'est pas pris en charge, donc appeler acquire() avec un temps d'exécution limité émule le comportement de cette fonction en utilisant une boucle d'attente.

Note

Certaines des fonctionnalités de ce paquet requièrent une implémentation fonctionnelle de sémaphores partagés sur le système hôte. Sans cela, le module multiprocessing.synchronize sera désactivé, et les tentatives de l'importer lèveront une ImportError. Voir bpo-3770 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3770] pour plus d'informations.

Objets ctypes partagés

Il est possible de créer des objets partagés utilisant une mémoire partagée pouvant être héritée par les processus fils.

multiprocessing.Value(typecode_or_type, *args, lock=True)

Renvoie un objet ctypes alloué depuis la mémoire partagée. Par défaut la valeur de retour est en fait un wrapper synchronisé autour de l'objet. L'objet en lui-même est accessible par l'attribut value de l'une Value.

typecode_or_type détermine le type de l'objet renvoyé : il s'agit soit d'un type ctype soit d'un caractère typecode tel qu'utilisé par le module array. *args est passé au constructeur de ce type.

Si lock vaut True (par défaut), alors un nouveau verrou récursif est créé pour synchroniser l'accès à la valeur. Si lock est un objet Lock ou RLock alors il sera utilisé pour synchroniser l'accès à la valeur. Si lock vaut False, l'accès à l'objet renvoyé ne sera pas automatiquement protégé par un verrou, donc il ne sera pas forcément « process-safe ».

Les opérations telles que += qui impliquent une lecture et une écriture ne sont pas atomiques. Ainsi si vous souhaitez par exemple réaliser une incrémentation atomique sur une valeur partagée, vous ne pouvez pas simplement faire

counter.value += 1

En supposant que le verrou associé est récursif (ce qui est le cas par défaut), vous pouvez à la place faire

with counter.get_lock():
    counter.value += 1

Notez que lock est un argument keyword-only.

multiprocessing.Array(typecode_or_type, size_or_initializer, *, lock=True)

Renvoie un tableau ctypes alloué depuis la mémoire partagée. Par défaut la valeur de retour est en fait un wrapper synchronisé autour du tableau.

typecode_or_type determines the type of the elements of the returned array: it is either a ctypes type or a one character typecode of the kind used by the array module with the exception of 'w', which is not supported. In addition, the 'c' typecode is an alias for ctypes.c_char. If size_or_initializer is an integer, then it determines the length of the array, and the array will be initially zeroed. Otherwise, size_or_initializer is a sequence which is used to initialize the array and whose length determines the length of the array.

Si lock vaut True (par défaut), alors un nouveau verrou est créé pour synchroniser l'accès à la valeur. Si lock est un objet Lock ou RLock alors il sera utilisé pour synchroniser l'accès à la valeur. Si lock vaut False, l'accès à l'objet renvoyé ne sera pas automatiquement protégé par un verrou, donc il ne sera pas forcément « process-safe ».

Notez que lock est un argument keyword-only.

Notez qu'un tableau de ctypes.c_char a ses attributs value et raw qui permettent de l'utiliser pour stocker et récupérer des chaînes de caractères.

The multiprocessing.sharedctypes module

The multiprocessing.sharedctypes module provides functions for allocating ctypes objects from shared memory which can be inherited by child processes.

Note

Bien qu'il soit possible de stocker un pointeur en mémoire partagée, rappelez-vous qu'un pointer référence un emplacement dans l'espace d'adressage d'un processus particulier. Ainsi, ce pointeur a de fortes chances d'être invalide dans le contexte d'un autre processus et déréférencer le pointeur depuis ce second processus peut causer un plantage.

multiprocessing.sharedctypes.RawArray(typecode_or_type, size_or_initializer)

Renvoie un tableau ctypes alloué depuis la mémoire partagée.

typecode_or_type détermine le type des éléments du tableau renvoyé : il s'agit soit d'un type ctype soit d'un caractère codant le type des éléments du tableau (typecode) tel qu'utilisé par le module array. Si size_or_initialize est un entier, alors il détermine la taille du tableau, et le tableau sera initialisé avec des zéros. Autrement, size_or_initializer est une séquence qui sera utilisée pour initialiser le tableau et dont la taille détermine celle du tableau.

Notez que définir ou récupérer un élément est potentiellement non atomique – utilisez plutôt Array() pour vous assurer de synchroniser automatiquement avec un verrou.

multiprocessing.sharedctypes.RawValue(typecode_or_type, *args)

Renvoie un objet ctypes alloué depuis la mémoire partagée.

typecode_or_type détermine le type de l'objet renvoyé : il s'agit soit d'un type ctype soit d'un caractère typecode tel qu'utilisé par le module array. *args est passé au constructeur de ce type.

Notez que définir ou récupérer un élément est potentiellement non atomique – utilisez plutôt Value() pour vous assurer de synchroniser automatiquement avec un verrou.

Notez qu'un tableau de ctypes.c_char a ses attributs value et raw qui permettent de l'utiliser pour stocker et récupérer des chaînes de caractères – voir la documentation de ctypes.

multiprocessing.sharedctypes.Array(typecode_or_type, size_or_initializer, *, lock=True, ctx=None)

Identique à RawArray() à l'exception que suivant la valeur de lock un wrapper de synchronisation process-safe pourra être renvoyé à la place d'un tableau ctypes brut.

Si lock vaut True (par défaut), alors un nouveau verrou est créé pour synchroniser l'accès à la valeur. Si lock est un objet Lock ou RLock alors il sera utilisé pour synchroniser l'accès à la valeur. Si lock vaut False, l'accès à l'objet renvoyé ne sera pas automatiquement protégé par un verrou, donc il ne sera pas forcément « process-safe ».

ctx is a context object, or None (use the current context). If None, calling this may set the global start method. See Global start method for more details.

Note that lock and ctx are keyword-only parameters.

multiprocessing.sharedctypes.Value(typecode_or_type, *args, lock=True, ctx=None)

Identique à RawValue() à l'exception que suivant la valeur de lock un wrapper de synchronisation process-safe pourra être renvoyé à la place d'un objet ctypes brut.

Si lock vaut True (par défaut), alors un nouveau verrou est créé pour synchroniser l'accès à la valeur. Si lock est un objet Lock ou RLock alors il sera utilisé pour synchroniser l'accès à la valeur. Si lock vaut False, l'accès à l'objet renvoyé ne sera pas automatiquement protégé par un verrou, donc il ne sera pas forcément « process-safe ».

ctx is a context object, or None (use the current context). If None, calling this may set the global start method. See Global start method for more details.

Note that lock and ctx are keyword-only parameters.

multiprocessing.sharedctypes.copy(obj)

Renvoie un objet ctypes alloué depuis la mémoire partagée, qui est une copie de l'objet ctypes obj.

multiprocessing.sharedctypes.synchronized(obj, lock=None, ctx=None)

Renvoie un wrapper process-safe autour de l'objet ctypes qui utilise lock pour synchroniser l'accès. Si lock est None (par défaut), un objet multiprocessing.RLock est créé automatiquement.

ctx is a context object, or None (use the current context). If None, calling this may set the global start method. See Global start method for more details.

Un wrapper synchronisé aura deux méthodes en plus de celles de l'objet qu'il enveloppe : get_obj() renvoie l'objet wrappé et get_lock() renvoie le verrou utilisé pour la synchronisation.

Notez qu'accéder à l'objet ctypes à travers le wrapper peut s'avérer beaucoup plus lent qu'accéder directement à l'objet ctypes brut.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Les objets synchronisés supportent le protocole context manager.

Le tableau ci-dessous compare la syntaxe de création des objets ctypes partagés depuis une mémoire partagée avec la syntaxe normale ctypes. (Dans le tableau, MyStruct est une sous-classe quelconque de ctypes.Structure.)

ctypes

sharedctypes utilisant un type

sharedctypes utilisant un typecode

c_double(2.4)

RawValue(c_double, 2.4)

RawValue('d', 2.4)

MyStruct(4, 6)

RawValue(MyStruct, 4, 6)

(c_short * 7)()

RawArray(c_short, 7)

RawArray('h', 7)

(c_int * 3)(9, 2, 8)

RawArray(c_int, (9, 2, 8))

RawArray('i', (9, 2, 8))

Ci-dessous un exemple où des objets ctypes sont modifiés par un processus fils :

from multiprocessing import Process, Lock
from multiprocessing.sharedctypes import Value, Array
from ctypes import Structure, c_double

class Point(Structure):
    _fields_ = [('x', c_double), ('y', c_double)]

def modify(n, x, s, A):
    n.value **= 2
    x.value **= 2
    s.value = s.value.upper()
    for a in A:
        a.x **= 2
        a.y **= 2

if __name__ == '__main__':
    lock = Lock()

    n = Value('i', 7)
    x = Value(c_double, 1.0/3.0, lock=False)
    s = Array('c', b'hello world', lock=lock)
    A = Array(Point, [(1.875,-6.25), (-5.75,2.0), (2.375,9.5)], lock=lock)

    p = Process(target=modify, args=(n, x, s, A))
    p.start()
    p.join()

    print(n.value)
    print(x.value)
    print(s.value)
    print([(a.x, a.y) for a in A])

Les résultats affichés sont

49
0.1111111111111111
HELLO WORLD
[(3.515625, 39.0625), (33.0625, 4.0), (5.640625, 90.25)]

Gestionnaires

Les gestionnaires fournissent un moyen de créer des données qui peuvent être partagées entre les différents processus, incluant le partage à travers le réseau entre des processus tournant sur des machines différentes. Un objet gestionnaire contrôle un processus serveur qui gère les shared objects. Les autres processus peuvent accéder aux objets partagés à l'aide de mandataires.

multiprocessing.Manager()

Renvoie un objet SyncManager démarré qui peut être utilisé pour partager des objets entre les processus. L'objet gestionnaire renvoyé correspond à un processus fils instancié et possède des méthodes pour créer des objets partagés et renvoyer les mandataires correspondants.

Les processus gestionnaires seront arrêtés dès qu'ils seront collectés par le ramasse-miettes ou que leur processus parent se terminera. Les classes gestionnaires sont définies dans le module multiprocessing.managers :

class multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager(address=None, authkey=None, serializer='pickle', ctx=None, *, shutdown_timeout=1.0)

Crée un objet BaseManager.

Une fois créé il faut appeler start() ou get_server().serve_forever() pour assurer que l'objet gestionnaire référence un processus gestionnaire démarré.

address est l'adresse sur laquelle le processus gestionnaire écoute pour de nouvelles connexions. Si address est None, une adresse arbitraire est choisie.

authkey est la clé d'authentification qui sera utilisée pour vérifier la validité des connexions entrantes sur le processus serveur. Si authkey est None alors current_process().authkey est utilisée. Autrement authkey est utilisée et doit être une chaîne d'octets.

serializer must be 'pickle' (use pickle serialization) or 'xmlrpclib' (use xmlrpc.client serialization).

ctx is a context object, or None (use the current context). If None, calling this may set the global start method. See Global start method for more details.

shutdown_timeout is a timeout in seconds used to wait until the process used by the manager completes in the shutdown() method. If the shutdown times out, the process is terminated. If terminating the process also times out, the process is killed.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added the shutdown_timeout parameter.

start([initializer[, initargs]])

Démarre un sous-processus pour démarrer le gestionnaire. Si initializer n'est pas None alors le sous-processus appellera initializer(*initargs) quand il démarrera.

get_server()

Renvoie un objet Server qui représente le serveur sous le contrôle du gestionnaire. L'objet Server supporte la méthode serve_forever() :

>>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager
>>> manager = BaseManager(address=('', 50000), authkey=b'abc')
>>> server = manager.get_server()
>>> server.serve_forever()

Server possède en plus un attribut address.

connect()

Connecte un objet gestionnaire local au processus gestionnaire distant :

>>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager
>>> m = BaseManager(address=('127.0.0.1', 50000), authkey=b'abc')
>>> m.connect()

shutdown()

Stoppe le processus utilisé par le gestionnaire. Cela est disponible uniquement si start() a été utilisée pour démarrer le processus serveur.

Cette méthode peut être appelée plusieurs fois.

register(typeid[, callable[, proxytype[, exposed[, method_to_typeid[, create_method]]]]])

Une méthode de classe qui peut être utilisée pour enregistrer un type ou un appelable avec la classe gestionnaire.

typeif est un « type identifier » qui est utilisé pour identifier un type particulier d'objet partagé. Cela doit être une chaîne de caractères.

callable est un objet appelable utilisé pour créer les objets avec cet identifiant de type. Si une instance de gestionnaire prévoit de se connecter au serveur en utilisant sa méthode connect() ou si l'argument create_method vaut False alors cet argument peut être laissé à None.

proxytype est une sous-classe de BaseProxy utilisée pour créer des mandataires autour des objets partagés avec ce typeid. S'il est None, une classe mandataire sera créée automatiquement.

exposed est utilisé pour préciser une séquence de noms de méthodes dont les mandataires pour ce typeid doivent être autorisés à accéder via BaseProxy._callmethod(). (Si exposed est None alors proxytype._exposed_ est utilisé à la place s'il existe.) Dans le cas où aucune liste exposed n'est précisée, toutes les « méthodes publiques » de l'objet partagé seront accessibles. (Ici une « méthode publique » signifie n'importe quel attribut qui possède une méthode __call__() et dont le nom ne commence pas par un '_'.)

method_to_typeid est un tableau associatif utilisé pour préciser le type de retour de ces méthodes exposées qui doivent renvoyer un mandataire. Il associé un nom de méthode à une chaîne de caractères typeid. (Si method_to_typeid est None, proxytype._method_to_typeid_ est utilisé à la place s'il existe). Si le nom d'une méthode n'est pas une clé de ce tableau associatif ou si la valeur associée est None, l'objet renvoyé par la méthode sera une copie de la valeur.

create_method détermine si une méthode devrait être créée avec le nom typeid, qui peut être utilisée pour indiquer au processus serveur de créer un nouvel objet partagé et d'en renvoyer un mandataire. a valeur par défaut est True.

Les instances de BaseManager ont aussi une propriété en lecture seule :

address

L'adresse utilisée par le gestionnaire.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Les objets gestionnaires supportent le protocole des gestionnaires de contexte – voir Le type gestionnaire de contexte. __enter__() démarre le processus serveur (s'il n'a pas déjà été démarré) et renvoie l'objet gestionnaire. __exit__() appelle shutdown().

Dans les versions précédentes __enter__() ne démarrait pas le processus serveur du gestionnaire s'il n'était pas déjà démarré.

class multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager

Une sous-classe de BaseManager qui peut être utilisée pour la synchronisation entre processus. Des objets de ce type sont renvoyés par multiprocessing.Manager().

Ces méthodes créent et renvoient des Objets mandataires pour un certain nombre de types de données communément utilisés pour être synchronisés entre les processus. Elles incluent notamment des listes et dictionnaires partagés.

Barrier(parties[, action[, timeout]])

Crée un objet threading.Barrier partagé et renvoie un mandataire pour cet objet.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

BoundedSemaphore([value])

Crée un objet threading.BoundedSemaphore partagé et renvoie un mandataire pour cet objet.

Condition([lock])

Crée un objet threading.Condition partagé et renvoie un mandataire pour cet objet.

Si lock est fourni alors il doit être un mandataire pour un objet threading.Lock ou threading.RLock.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: La méthode wait_for() a été ajoutée.

Event()

Crée un objet threading.Event partagé et renvoie un mandataire pour cet objet.

Lock()

Crée un objet threading.Lock partagé et renvoie un mandataire pour cet objet.

Namespace()

Crée un objet Namespace partagé et renvoie un mandataire pour cet objet.

Queue([maxsize])

Crée un objet queue.Queue partagé et renvoie un mandataire pour cet objet.

RLock()

Crée un objet threading.RLock partagé et renvoie un mandataire pour cet objet.

Semaphore([value])

Crée un objet threading.Semaphore partagé et renvoie un mandataire pour cet objet.

Array(typecode, sequence)

Crée un tableau et renvoie un mandataire pour cet objet.

Value(typecode, value)

Crée un objet avec un attribut value accessible en écriture et renvoie un mandataire pour cet objet.

dict()

dict(mapping)

dict(sequence)

Crée un objet dict partagé et renvoie un mandataire pour cet objet.

list()

list(sequence)

Crée un objet list partagé et renvoie un mandataire pour cet objet.

set()

set(sequence)

set(mapping)

Create a shared set object and return a proxy for it.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14: set support was added.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Les objets partagés peuvent être imbriqués. Par exemple, un conteneur partagé tel qu'une liste partagée peu contenir d'autres objets partagés qui seront aussi gérés et synchronisés par le SyncManager.

class multiprocessing.managers.Namespace

Un type qui peut être enregistré avec SyncManager.

Un espace de nommage n'a pas de méthodes publiques, mais possède des attributs accessibles en écriture. Sa représentation montre les valeurs de ses attributs.

Cependant, en utilisant un mandataire pour un espace de nommage, un attribut débutant par '_' est un attribut du mandataire et non de l'objet cible :

>>> mp_context = multiprocessing.get_context('spawn')
>>> manager = mp_context.Manager()
>>> Global = manager.Namespace()
>>> Global.x = 10
>>> Global.y = 'hello'
>>> Global._z = 12.3    # this is an attribute of the proxy
>>> print(Global)
Namespace(x=10, y='hello')

Gestionnaires personnalisés

Pour créer son propre gestionnaire, il faut créer une sous-classe de BaseManager et utiliser la méthode de classe register() pour enregistrer de nouveaux types ou callables au gestionnaire. Par exemple :

from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager

class MathsClass:
    def add(self, x, y):
        return x + y
    def mul(self, x, y):
        return x * y

class MyManager(BaseManager):
    pass

MyManager.register('Maths', MathsClass)

if __name__ == '__main__':
    with MyManager() as manager:
        maths = manager.Maths()
        print(maths.add(4, 3))         # prints 7
        print(maths.mul(7, 8))         # prints 56

Utiliser un gestionnaire distant

Il est possible de lancer un serveur gestionnaire sur une machine et d'avoir des clients l'utilisant sur d'autres machines (en supposant que les pare-feus impliqués l'autorisent).

Exécuter les commandes suivantes crée un serveur pour une file simple partagée à laquelle des clients distants peuvent accéder :

>>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager
>>> from queue import Queue
>>> queue = Queue()
>>> class QueueManager(BaseManager): pass
>>> QueueManager.register('get_queue', callable=lambda:queue)
>>> m = QueueManager(address=('', 50000), authkey=b'abracadabra')
>>> s = m.get_server()
>>> s.serve_forever()

Un client peut accéder au serveur comme suit :

>>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager
>>> class QueueManager(BaseManager): pass
>>> QueueManager.register('get_queue')
>>> m = QueueManager(address=('foo.bar.org', 50000), authkey=b'abracadabra')
>>> m.connect()
>>> queue = m.get_queue()
>>> queue.put('hello')

Un autre client peut aussi l'utiliser :

>>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager
>>> class QueueManager(BaseManager): pass
>>> QueueManager.register('get_queue')
>>> m = QueueManager(address=('foo.bar.org', 50000), authkey=b'abracadabra')
>>> m.connect()
>>> queue = m.get_queue()
>>> queue.get()
'hello'

Les processus locaux peuvent aussi accéder à cette file, utilisant le code précédent sur le client pour y accéder à distance :

>>> from multiprocessing import Process, Queue
>>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager
>>> class Worker(Process):
...     def __init__(self, q):
...         self.q = q
...         super().__init__()
...     def run(self):
...         self.q.put('local hello')
...
>>> queue = Queue()
>>> w = Worker(queue)
>>> w.start()
>>> class QueueManager(BaseManager): pass
...
>>> QueueManager.register('get_queue', callable=lambda: queue)
>>> m = QueueManager(address=('', 50000), authkey=b'abracadabra')
>>> s = m.get_server()
>>> s.serve_forever()

Objets mandataires

Un mandataire est un objet qui référence un objet partagé appartenant (supposément) à un processus différent. L'objet partagé est appelé le référent du mandataire. Plusieurs mandataires peuvent avoir un même référent.

Un mandataire possède des méthodes qui appellent les méthodes correspondantes du référent (bien que toutes les méthodes du référent ne soient pas nécessairement accessibles à travers le mandataire). De cette manière, un mandataire peut être utilisé comme le serait sont référent :

>>> mp_context = multiprocessing.get_context('spawn')
>>> manager = mp_context.Manager()
>>> l = manager.list([i*i for i in range(10)])
>>> print(l)
[0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81]
>>> print(repr(l))
<ListProxy object, typeid 'list' at 0x...>
>>> l[4]
16
>>> l[2:5]
[4, 9, 16]

Notez qu'appliquer str() à un mandataire renvoie la représentation du référent, alors que repr() renvoie celle du mandataire.

Une fonctionnalité importantes des objets mandataires est qu'ils sont sérialisables et peuvent donc être échangés entre les processus. Ainsi, un référent peut contenir des Objets mandataires. Cela permet d'imbriquer des listes et dictionnaires gérés ainsi que d'autres Objets mandataires :

>>> a = manager.list()
>>> b = manager.list()
>>> a.append(b)         # referent of a now contains referent of b
>>> print(a, b)
[<ListProxy object, typeid 'list' at ...>] []
>>> b.append('hello')
>>> print(a[0], b)
['hello'] ['hello']

De même, les mandataires de listes et dictionnaires peuvent être imbriqués dans d'autres :

>>> l_outer = manager.list([ manager.dict() for i in range(2) ])
>>> d_first_inner = l_outer[0]
>>> d_first_inner['a'] = 1
>>> d_first_inner['b'] = 2
>>> l_outer[1]['c'] = 3
>>> l_outer[1]['z'] = 26
>>> print(l_outer[0])
{'a': 1, 'b': 2}
>>> print(l_outer[1])
{'c': 3, 'z': 26}

Si des objets standards (non proxyfiés) list ou dict sont contenus dans un référent, les modifications sur ces valeurs mutables ne seront pas propagées à travers le gestionnaire parce que le mandataire n'a aucun moyen de savoir quand les valeurs contenues sont modifiées. Cependant, stocker une valeur dans un conteneur mandataire (qui déclenche un appel à __setitem__ sur le mandataire) propage bien la modification à travers le gestionnaire et modifie effectivement l'élément, il est ainsi possible de réassigner la valeur modifiée au conteneur mandataire :

# create a list proxy and append a mutable object (a dictionary)
lproxy = manager.list()
lproxy.append({})
# now mutate the dictionary
d = lproxy[0]
d['a'] = 1
d['b'] = 2
# at this point, the changes to d are not yet synced, but by
# updating the dictionary, the proxy is notified of the change
lproxy[0] = d

Cette approche est peut-être moins pratique que d'utiliser des Objets mandataires imbriqués pour la majorité des cas d'utilisation, mais démontre aussi un certain niveau de contrôle sur la synchronisation.

Note

The proxy types in multiprocessing do nothing to support comparisons by value. So, for instance, we have:

>>> manager.list([1,2,3]) == [1,2,3]
False

Il faut à la place simplement utiliser une copie du référent pour faire les comparaisons.

class multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy

Les objets mandataires sont des instances de sous-classes de BaseProxy.

_callmethod(methodname[, args[, kwds]])

Appelle et renvoie le résultat d'une méthode du référent du mandataire.

Si proxy est un mandataire sont le référent est obj, alors l'expression

proxy._callmethod(methodname, args, kwds)

s'évalue comme

getattr(obj, methodname)(*args, **kwds)

dans le processus du gestionnaire.

La valeur renvoyée sera une copie du résultat de l'appel ou un mandataire sur un nouvel objet partagé – voir l'a documentation de l'argument method_to_typeid de BaseManager.register().

Si une exception est levée par l'appel, elle est relayée par _callmethod(). Si une autre exception est levée par le processus du gestionnaire, elle est convertie en une RemoteError et est levée par _callmethod().

Notez en particulier qu'une exception est levée si methodname n'est pas exposée.

Un exemple d'utilisation de _callmethod() :

>>> l = manager.list(range(10))
>>> l._callmethod('__len__')
10
>>> l._callmethod('__getitem__', (slice(2, 7),)) # equivalent to l[2:7]
[2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
>>> l._callmethod('__getitem__', (20,))          # equivalent to l[20]
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
IndexError: list index out of range

_getvalue()

Renvoie une copie du référent.

Si le référent n'est pas sérialisable, une exception est levée.

__repr__()

Renvoie la représentation de l'objet mandataire.

__str__()

Renvoie la représentation du référent.

Nettoyage

Un mandataire utilise un callback sous une référence faible de façon à ce que quand il est collecté par le ramasse-miettes, il se désenregistre auprès du gestionnaire qui possède le référent.

Un objet partagé est supprimé par le processus gestionnaire quand plus aucun mandataire ne le référence.

Pools de processus

On peut créer un pool de processus qui exécuteront les tâches qui lui seront soumises avec la classe Pool.

class multiprocessing.pool.Pool([processes[, initializer[, initargs[, maxtasksperchild[, context]]]]])

Un objet process pool qui contrôle un pool de processus workers auquel sont soumises des tâches. Il supporte les résultats asynchrones avec des timeouts et des callbacks et possède une implémentation parallèle de map.

processes is the number of worker processes to use. If processes is None then the number returned by os.process_cpu_count() is used.

Si initializer n'est pas None, chaque processus worker appellera initializer(*initargs) en démarrant.

maxtasksperchild est le nombre de tâches qu'un processus worker peut accomplir avant de se fermer et d'être remplacé par un worker frais, pour permettre aux ressources inutilisées d'être libérées. Par défaut maxtasksperchild est None, ce qui signifie que le worker vit aussi longtemps que le pool.

context can be used to specify the context used for starting the worker processes. Usually a pool is created using the function multiprocessing.Pool() or the Pool() method of a context object. In both cases context is set appropriately. If None, calling this function will have the side effect of setting the current global start method if it has not been set already. See the get_context() function.

Notez que les méthodes de l'objet pool ne doivent être appelées que par le processus qui l'a créé.

Avertissement

Les objets multiprocessing.pool ont des ressources internes qui doivent être correctement gérées (comme toute autre ressource) en utilisant le pool comme gestionnaire de contexte ou en appelant close() et terminate() manuellement. Si cela n'est pas fait, le processus peut être bloqué à la finalisation.

Notez qu'il n'est pas correct de compter sur le ramasse-miette pour détruire le pool car CPython ne garantit pas que le finalizer du pool est appelé (voir object.__del__() pour plus d'informations).

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Added the maxtasksperchild parameter.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Added the context parameter.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: processes uses os.process_cpu_count() by default, instead of os.cpu_count().

Note

Worker processes within a Pool typically live for the complete duration of the Pool's work queue. A frequent pattern found in other systems (such as Apache, mod_wsgi, etc) to free resources held by workers is to allow a worker within a pool to complete only a set amount of work before exiting, being cleaned up and a new process spawned to replace the old one. The maxtasksperchild argument to the Pool exposes this ability to the end user.

apply(func[, args[, kwds]])

Appelle func avec les arguments args et les arguments nommés kwds. Bloque jusqu'à ce que que le résultat soit prêt. En raison de ce blocage, apply_async() est préférable pour exécuter du travail en parallèle. De plus, func est exécutée sur un seul des workers du pool.

apply_async(func[, args[, kwds[, callback[, error_callback]]]])

Une variante de la méthode apply() qui renvoie un objet AsyncResult.

Si callback est précisé alors ce doit être un objet appelable qui accepte un seul argument. Quand le résultat est prêt, callback est appelé avec ce résultat, si l'appel n'échoue pas auquel cas error_callback est appelé à la place.

Si error_callback est précisé alors ce doit être un objet appelable qui accepte un seul argument. Si la fonction cible échoue, alors error_callback est appelé avec l'instance de l'exception.

Les callbacks doivent se terminer immédiatement, autrement le fil d'exécution qui gère les résultats se retrouverait bloqué.

map(func, iterable[, chunksize])

Un équivalent parallèle de la fonction native map() (qui ne prend qu'un seul argument itérable ; pour en passer plusieurs, référez-vous à starmap()). Elle bloque jusqu'à ce que le résultat soit prêt.

La méthode découpe l'itérable en un nombre de morceaux qu'elle envoie au pool de processus comme des tâches séparées. La taille (approximative) de ces morceaux peut être précisée en passant à chunksize un entier positif.

Notez que cela peut entraîner une grosse consommation de mémoire pour les itérables très longs. Envisagez d'utiliser imap() ou imap_unordered() avec l'option chunksize explicite pour une meilleure efficacité.

map_async(func, iterable[, chunksize[, callback[, error_callback]]])

Une variante de la méthode map() qui renvoie un objet AsyncResult.

Si callback est précisé alors ce doit être un objet appelable qui accepte un seul argument. Quand le résultat est prêt, callback est appelé avec ce résultat, si l'appel n'échoue pas auquel cas error_callback est appelé à la place.

Si error_callback est précisé alors ce doit être un objet appelable qui accepte un seul argument. Si la fonction cible échoue, alors error_callback est appelé avec l'instance de l'exception.

Les callbacks doivent se terminer immédiatement, autrement le fil d'exécution qui gère les résultats se retrouverait bloqué.

imap(func, iterable[, chunksize])

Une version paresseuse de map().

L'argument chunksize est le même que celui utilisé par la méthode map(). Pour de très longs itérables, utiliser une grande valeur pour chunksize peut faire s'exécuter la tâche beaucoup plus rapidement qu'en utilisant la valeur par défaut de 1.

Aussi, si chucksize vaut 1 alors la méthode next() de l'itérateur renvoyé par imap() prend un paramètre optionnel timeout : next(timeout) lève une multiprocessing.TimeoutError si le résultat ne peut pas être renvoyé avant timeout secondes.

imap_unordered(func, iterable[, chunksize])

Identique à imap() si ce n'est que l'ordre des résultats de l'itérateur renvoyé doit être considéré comme arbitraire. (L'ordre n'est garanti que quand il n'y a qu'un worker.)

starmap(func, iterable[, chunksize])

Like map() except that the elements of the iterable are expected to be iterables that are unpacked as arguments.

Par conséquent un iterable [(1,2), (3, 4)] donnera pour résultat [func(1,2), func(3,4)].

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

starmap_async(func, iterable[, chunksize[, callback[, error_callback]]])

Une combinaison de starmap() et map_async() qui itère sur iterable (composé d'itérables) et appelle func pour chaque itérable dépaqueté. Renvoie l'objet résultat.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

close()

Empêche de nouvelles tâches d'être envoyées à la pool. Les processus workers se terminent une fois que toutes les tâches ont été complétées.

terminate()

Stoppe immédiatement les processus workers sans finaliser les travaux courants. Quand l'objet pool est collecté par le ramasse-miettes, sa méthode terminate() est appelée immédiatement.

join()

Attend que les processus workers se terminent. Il est nécessaire d'appeler close() ou terminate() avant d'utiliser join().

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Les pools de workers supportent maintenant le protocole des gestionnaires de contexte – voir Le type gestionnaire de contexte. __enter__() renvoie l'objet pool et __exit__() appelle terminate().

class multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult

La classe des résultats renvoyés par Pool.apply_async() et Pool.map_async().

get([timeout])

Renvoie le résultat quand il arrive. Si timeout n'est pas None et que le résultat n'arrive pas avant timeout secondes, une multiprocessing.TimeoutError est levée. Si l'appel distance lève une exception, alors elle est relayée par get().

wait([timeout])

Attend que le résultat soit disponible ou que timeout secondes s'écoulent.

ready()

Renvoie True ou False suivant si la tâche est accomplie.

successful()

Renvoie True ou False suivant si la tâche est accomplie sans lever d'exception. Lève une ValueError si le résultat n'est pas prêt.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Si le résultat n'est pas prêt, une ValueError est levée au lieu d'une AssertionError auparavant.

Les exemples suivants présentent l'utilisation d'un pool de workers :

from multiprocessing import Pool
import time

def f(x):
    return x*x

if __name__ == '__main__':
    with Pool(processes=4) as pool:         # start 4 worker processes
        result = pool.apply_async(f, (10,)) # evaluate "f(10)" asynchronously in a single process
        print(result.get(timeout=1))        # prints "100" unless your computer is *very* slow

        print(pool.map(f, range(10)))       # prints "[0, 1, 4,..., 81]"

        it = pool.imap(f, range(10))
        print(next(it))                     # prints "0"
        print(next(it))                     # prints "1"
        print(it.next(timeout=1))           # prints "4" unless your computer is *very* slow

        result = pool.apply_async(time.sleep, (10,))
        print(result.get(timeout=1))        # raises multiprocessing.TimeoutError

Auditeurs et Clients

Habituellement l'échange de messages entre processus est réalisé en utilisant des files ou des objets Connection renvoyés par Pipe().

However, the multiprocessing.connection module allows some extra flexibility. It basically gives a high level message oriented API for dealing with sockets or Windows named pipes. It also has support for digest authentication using the hmac module, and for polling multiple connections at the same time.

multiprocessing.connection.deliver_challenge(connection, authkey)

Envoie un message généré aléatoirement à l'autre extrémité de la connexion et attend une réponse.

Si la réponse correspond au condensat du message avec la clé authkey, alors un message de bienvenue est envoyé à l'autre extrémité de la connexion. Autrement, une AuthenticationError est levée.

multiprocessing.connection.answer_challenge(connection, authkey)

Reçoit un message, calcule le condensat du message en utilisant la clé authkey, et envoie le condensat en réponse.

Si un message de bienvenue n'est pas reçu, une AuthenticationError est levée.

multiprocessing.connection.Client(address[, family[, authkey]])

Essaie d'établir une connexion avec l'auditeur qui utilise l'adresse address, renvoie une Connection.

Le type de la connexion est déterminé par l'argument family, mais il peut généralement être omis puisqu'il peut être inféré depuis le format d'address. (Voir Formats d'adresses)

If authkey is given and not None, it should be a byte string and will be used as the secret key for an HMAC-based authentication challenge. No authentication is done if authkey is None. AuthenticationError is raised if authentication fails. See Clés d'authentification.

class multiprocessing.connection.Listener([address[, family[, backlog[, authkey]]]])

Une enveloppe autour d'un connecteur lié ou un tube nommé sous Windows qui écoute pour des connexions.

address est l'adresse à utiliser par le connecteur lié ou le tube nommé de l'objet auditeur.

Note

Si une adresse '0.0.0.0' est utilisée, l'adresse ne sera pas un point d'accès connectable sous Windows. Si vous avez besoin d'un point d'accès connectable, utilisez '127.0.0.1'.

family est le type de connecteur (ou tube nommé) à utiliser. Cela peut être l'une des chaînes 'AF_INET' (pour un connecteur TCP), 'AF_UNIX' (pour un connecteur Unix) ou 'AF_PIPE' (pour un tube nommé sous Windows). Seulement le premier d'entre eux est garanti d'être disponible. Si family est None, la famille est inférée depuis le format d'address. Si address est aussi None, la famille par défaut est utilisée. La famille par défaut est supposée être la plus rapide disponible. Voir Formats d'adresses. Notez que si la family est 'AF_UNIX' et qu'address est None, le connecteur est créé dans un répertoire temporaire privé créé avec tempfile.mkstemp().

Si l'objet auditeur utilise un connecteur alors backlog (1 par défaut) est passé à la méthode listen() du connecteur une fois qu'il a été lié.

If authkey is given and not None, it should be a byte string and will be used as the secret key for an HMAC-based authentication challenge. No authentication is done if authkey is None. AuthenticationError is raised if authentication fails. See Clés d'authentification.

accept()

Accepte une connexion sur le connecteur lié ou le tube nommé de l'objet auditeur et renvoie un objet Connection. Si la tentative d'authentification échoue, une AuthenticationError est levée.

close()

Ferme le connecteur lié ou le tube nommé de l'objet auditeur. La méthode est appelée automatiquement quand l'auditeur est collecté par le ramasse-miettes. Il est cependant conseillé de l'appeler explicitement.

Les objets auditeurs ont aussi les propriétés en lecture seule suivantes :

address

L'adresse utilisée par l'objet auditeur.

last_accepted

L'adresse depuis laquelle a été établie la dernière connexion. None si aucune n'est disponible.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Les objets auditeurs supportent maintenant le protocole des gestionnaires de contexte – voir Le type gestionnaire de contexte. __enter__() renvoie l'objet auditeur, et __exit__() appelle close().

multiprocessing.connection.wait(object_list, timeout=None)

Attend qu'un objet d'object_list soit prêt. Renvoie la liste de ces objets d'object_list qui sont prêts. Si timeout est un nombre flottant, l'appel bloquera au maximum ce nombre de secondes. Si timeout est None, l'appelle bloquera pour une durée non limitée. Un timeout négatif est équivalent à un timeout nul.

For both POSIX and Windows, an object can appear in object_list if it is

un objet Connection accessible en lecture ;

un objet socket.socket connecté et accessible en lecture ; ou

l'attribut sentinel d'un objet Process.

Une connexion (socket en anglais) est prête quand il y a des données disponibles en lecture dessus, ou que l'autre extrémité a été fermée.

POSIX: wait(object_list, timeout) almost equivalent select.select(object_list, [], [], timeout). The difference is that, if select.select() is interrupted by a signal, it can raise OSError with an error number of EINTR, whereas wait() will not.

Windows: An item in object_list must either be an integer handle which is waitable (according to the definition used by the documentation of the Win32 function WaitForMultipleObjects()) or it can be an object with a fileno() method which returns a socket handle or pipe handle. (Note that pipe handles and socket handles are not waitable handles.)

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Exemples

Le code serveur suivant crée un auditeur qui utilise 'secret password' comme clé d'authentification. Il attend ensuite une connexion et envoie les données au client :

from multiprocessing.connection import Listener
from array import array

address = ('localhost', 6000)     # family is deduced to be 'AF_INET'

with Listener(address, authkey=b'secret password') as listener:
    with listener.accept() as conn:
        print('connection accepted from', listener.last_accepted)

        conn.send([2.25, None, 'junk', float])

        conn.send_bytes(b'hello')

        conn.send_bytes(array('i', [42, 1729]))

Le code suivant se connecte au serveur et en reçoit des données :

from multiprocessing.connection import Client
from array import array

address = ('localhost', 6000)

with Client(address, authkey=b'secret password') as conn:
    print(conn.recv())                  # => [2.25, None, 'junk', float]

    print(conn.recv_bytes())            # => 'hello'

    arr = array('i', [0, 0, 0, 0, 0])
    print(conn.recv_bytes_into(arr))    # => 8
    print(arr)                          # => array('i', [42, 1729, 0, 0, 0])

Le code suivant utilise wait() pour attendre des messages depuis plusieurs processus à la fois :

from multiprocessing import Process, Pipe, current_process
from multiprocessing.connection import wait

def foo(w):
    for i in range(10):
        w.send((i, current_process().name))
    w.close()

if __name__ == '__main__':
    readers = []

    for i in range(4):
        r, w = Pipe(duplex=False)
        readers.append(r)
        p = Process(target=foo, args=(w,))
        p.start()
        # We close the writable end of the pipe now to be sure that
        # p is the only process which owns a handle for it.  This
        # ensures that when p closes its handle for the writable end,
        # wait() will promptly report the readable end as being ready.
        w.close()

    while readers:
        for r in wait(readers):
            try:
                msg = r.recv()
            except EOFError:
                readers.remove(r)
            else:
                print(msg)

Formats d'adresses

une adresse 'AF_INET' est une paire de la forme (hostname, port) où hostname est une chaîne et port un entier ;

une adresse 'AF_UNIX' est une chaîne représentant un nom de fichier sur le système de fichiers ;

An 'AF_PIPE' address is a string of the form r'\\.\pipe\PipeName'. To use Client() to connect to a named pipe on a remote computer called ServerName one should use an address of the form r'\\ServerName\pipe\PipeName' instead.

Notez que toute chaîne commençant par deux antislashs est considérée par défaut comme l'adresse d'un 'AF_PIPE' plutôt qu'une adresse 'AF_UNIX'.

Clés d'authentification

Quand Connection.recv est utilisée, les données reçues sont automatiquement désérialisées par pickle. Malheureusement désérialiser des données depuis une source non sûre constitue un risque de sécurité. Par conséquent Listener et Client() utilisent le module hmac pour fournir une authentification par condensat.

Une clé d'authentification est une chaîne d'octets qui peut être vue comme un mot de passe : quand une connexion est établie, les deux interlocuteurs vont demander à l'autre une preuve qu'il connaît la clé d'authentification. (Démontrer que les deux utilisent la même clé n'implique pas d'échanger la clé sur la connexion.)

Si l'authentification est requise et qu'aucune clé n'est spécifiée alors la valeur de retour de current_process().authkey est utilisée (voir Process). Celle valeur est automatiquement héritée par tout objet Process créé par le processus courant. Cela signifie que (par défaut) tous les processus d'un programme multi-processus partageront une clé d'authentification unique qui peut être utilisée pour mettre en place des connexions entre-eux.

Des clés d'authentification adaptées peuvent aussi être générées par os.urandom().

Journalisation

Un certain support de la journalisation est disponible. Notez cependant que le le paquet logging n'utilise pas de verrous partagés entre les processus et il est donc possible (dépendant du type de gestionnaire) que les messages de différents processus soient mélangés.

multiprocessing.get_logger()

Returns the logger used by multiprocessing. If necessary, a new one will be created.

When first created the logger has level logging.NOTSET and no default handler. Messages sent to this logger will not by default propagate to the root logger.

Notez que sous Windows les processus fils n'hériteront que du niveau du journaliseur du processus parent – toute autre personnalisation du journaliseur ne sera pas héritée.

multiprocessing.log_to_stderr(level=None)

This function performs a call to get_logger() but in addition to returning the logger created by get_logger, it adds a handler which sends output to sys.stderr using format '[%(levelname)s/%(processName)s] %(message)s'. You can modify levelname of the logger by passing a level argument.

L'exemple ci-dessous présente une session avec la journalisation activée :

>>> import multiprocessing, logging
>>> logger = multiprocessing.log_to_stderr()
>>> logger.setLevel(logging.INFO)
>>> logger.warning('doomed')
[WARNING/MainProcess] doomed
>>> m = multiprocessing.Manager()
[INFO/SyncManager-...] child process calling self.run()
[INFO/SyncManager-...] created temp directory /.../pymp-...
[INFO/SyncManager-...] manager serving at '/.../listener-...'
>>> del m
[INFO/MainProcess] sending shutdown message to manager
[INFO/SyncManager-...] manager exiting with exitcode 0

Pour un tableau complet des niveaux de journalisation, voir le module logging.

The multiprocessing.dummy module

multiprocessing.dummy replicates the API of multiprocessing but is no more than a wrapper around the threading module.

In particular, the Pool function provided by multiprocessing.dummy returns an instance of ThreadPool, which is a subclass of Pool that supports all the same method calls but uses a pool of worker threads rather than worker processes.

class multiprocessing.pool.ThreadPool([processes[, initializer[, initargs]]])

Un objet qui contrôle un pool de fils d'exécution auquel des tâches peuvent être envoyées. L'interface des instances de ThreadPool est entièrement compatible avec celle des instances de Pool, et leur ressources doivent être aussi correctement gérées, soit en utilisant le pool avec un contexte, soit en appelant explicitement close() et terminate().

processes is the number of worker threads to use. If processes is None then the number returned by os.process_cpu_count() is used.

Si initializer n'est pas None, chaque processus worker appellera initializer(*initargs) en démarrant.

À la différence de Pool, maxtasksperchild et context ne peuvent pas être passés en arguments.

Note

La classe ThreadPool a la même interface que la classe Pool, dont l'implémentation repose sur un pool de processus, et a été introduite avant le module concurrent.futures. Par conséquent elle implémente des opérations qui n'ont pas vraiment de sens pour un pool implémenté avec des fils d'exécution et possède son propre type pour représenter le statut de tâches asynchrones, AsyncResult, qui n'est pas géré par les autres modules.

Il est souvent plus judicieux d'utiliser concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor qui a une interface plus simple, qui a été pensée dès l'origine pour les fils d'exécution et qui renvoie des instances de concurrent.futures.Future qui sont compatibles avec de nombreux modules, dont asyncio.

Lignes directrices de programmation

There are certain guidelines and idioms which should be adhered to when using multiprocessing.

Toutes les méthodes de démarrage

Les règles suivantes s'appliquent aux méthodes de démarrage.

Éviter les états partagés

Autant que possible, il faut éviter de transférer de gros volumes de données entre les processus.

Il est souvent plus judicieux de se borner à utiliser des files et des tubes pour gérer la communication entre processus plutôt que d'utiliser des primitives de synchronisation plus bas-niveau.

Sérialisation

Assurez-vous que les arguments passés aux méthodes des mandataires soient sérialisables (pickables).

Sûreté des mandataires à travers les fils d'exécution

N'utilisez pas d'objet mandataire depuis plus d'un fil d'exécution à moins que vous ne le protégiez avec un verrou.

Il n'y a jamais de problème à avoir plusieurs processus qui utilisent un même mandataire.

Attendre les processus zombies

On POSIX when a process finishes but has not been joined it becomes a zombie. There should never be very many because each time a new process starts (or active_children() is called) all completed processes which have not yet been joined will be joined. Also calling a finished process's Process.is_alive will join the process. Even so it is probably good practice to explicitly join all the processes that you start.

Mieux vaut hériter que sérialiser - désérialiser

When using the spawn or forkserver start methods many types from multiprocessing need to be picklable so that child processes can use them. However, one should generally avoid sending shared objects to other processes using pipes or queues. Instead you should arrange the program so that a process which needs access to a shared resource created elsewhere can inherit it from an ancestor process.

Éviter de terminer les processus

Utiliser la méthode Process.terminate pour stopper un processus risque de casser ou de rendre indisponible aux autres processus des ressources partagées (comme des verrous, sémaphores, tubes et files) actuellement utilisées par le processus.

Il est donc préférable de n'utiliser Process.terminate que sur les processus qui n'utilisent jamais de ressources partagées.

Attendre les processus qui utilisent des files

Gardez à l'esprit qu'un processus qui a placé des éléments dans une file attend que tous les éléments mis en tampon soient consommés par le fil d'exécution « chargeur » du tube sous-jacent avant de se terminer (le processus fils peut appeler la méthode Queue.cancel_join_thread de la queue pour éviter ce comportement).

Cela signifie que chaque fois que vous utilisez une file, vous devez vous assurer que tous les éléments qui y ont été placés ont été effectivement supprimés avant que le processus ne soit attendu. Autrement vous ne pouvez pas être sûr que les processus qui ont placé des éléments dans la file se termineront. Souvenez-vous aussi que tous les processus non daemons sont attendus automatiquement.

L'exemple suivant provoque un interblocage :

from multiprocessing import Process, Queue

def f(q):
    q.put('X' * 1000000)

if __name__ == '__main__':
    queue = Queue()
    p = Process(target=f, args=(queue,))
    p.start()
    p.join()                    # this deadlocks
    obj = queue.get()

Une solution ici consiste à intervertir les deux dernières lignes (ou simplement à supprimer la ligne p.join()).

Passer explicitement les ressources aux processus fils

On POSIX using the fork start method, a child process can make use of a shared resource created in a parent process using a global resource. However, it is better to pass the object as an argument to the constructor for the child process.

En plus de rendre le code (potentiellement) compatible avec Windows et les autres méthodes de démarrage, cela assure aussi que tant que le processus fils est en vie, l'objet ne sera pas collecté par le ramasse-miettes du processus parent. Cela peut être important si certaines ressources sont libérées quand l'objet est collecté par le ramasse-miettes du processus parent.

Donc par exemple

from multiprocessing import Process, Lock

def f():
    ... do something using "lock" ...

if __name__ == '__main__':
    lock = Lock()
    for i in range(10):
        Process(target=f).start()

devrait être réécrit comme

from multiprocessing import Process, Lock

def f(l):
    ... do something using "l" ...

if __name__ == '__main__':
    lock = Lock()
    for i in range(10):
        Process(target=f, args=(lock,)).start()

Faire attention à remplacer sys.stdin par un objet simili-fichier

multiprocessing originally unconditionally called:

os.close(sys.stdin.fileno())

dans la méthode multiprocessing.Process._bootstrap() — cela provoquait des problèmes avec les processus imbriqués. Cela peut être changé en :

sys.stdin.close()
sys.stdin = open(os.open(os.devnull, os.O_RDONLY), closefd=False)

Which solves the fundamental issue of processes colliding with each other resulting in a bad file descriptor error, but introduces a potential danger to applications which replace sys.stdin() with a "file-like object" with output buffering. This danger is that if multiple processes call close() on this file-like object, it could result in the same data being flushed to the object multiple times, resulting in corruption.

Si vous écrivez un objet simili-fichier et implémentez votre propre cache, vous pouvez le rendre sûr pour les forks en stockant le pid chaque fois que vous ajoutez des données au cache, et annulez le cache quand le pid change. Par exemple :

@property
def cache(self):
    pid = os.getpid()
    if pid != self._pid:
        self._pid = pid
        self._cache = []
    return self._cache

Pour plus d'informations, voir bpo-5155 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5155], bpo-5313 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5313] et bpo-5331 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5331]

Les méthodes de démarrage spawn et forkserver

There are a few extra restrictions which don't apply to the fork start method.

Contraintes supplémentaires sur la sérialisation

Ensure that all arguments to Process are picklable. Also, if you subclass Process.__init__, you must make sure that instances will be picklable when the Process.start method is called.

Variables globales

Gardez en tête que si le code exécuté dans un processus fils essaie d'accéder à une variable globale, alors la valeur qu'il voit (s'il y en a une) pourrait ne pas être la même que la valeur du processus parent au moment même où Process.start est appelée.

Cependant, les variables globales qui sont juste des constantes de modules ne posent pas de problèmes.

Importation sécurisée du module principal

Make sure that the main module can be safely imported by a new Python interpreter without causing unintended side effects (such as starting a new process).

Par exemple, utiliser la méthode de démarrage spawn ou forkserver pour lancer le module suivant échouerait avec une RuntimeError :

from multiprocessing import Process

def foo():
    print('hello')

p = Process(target=foo)
p.start()

Vous devriez plutôt protéger le « point d'entrée » du programme en utilisant if __name__ == '__main__': comme suit :

from multiprocessing import Process, freeze_support, set_start_method

def foo():
    print('hello')

if __name__ == '__main__':
    freeze_support()
    set_start_method('spawn')
    p = Process(target=foo)
    p.start()

(La ligne freeze_support() peut être omise si le programme est uniquement lancé normalement et pas figé.)

Cela permet aux interpréteurs Python fraîchement instanciés d'importer en toute sécurité le module et d'exécution ensuite la fonction foo().

Des restrictions similaires s'appliquent si un pool ou un gestionnaire est créé dans le module principal.

Exemples

Démonstration de comment créer et utiliser des gestionnaires et mandataires personnalisés :

from multiprocessing import freeze_support
from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager, BaseProxy
import operator

##

class Foo:
    def f(self):
        print('you called Foo.f()')
    def g(self):
        print('you called Foo.g()')
    def _h(self):
        print('you called Foo._h()')

# A simple generator function
def baz():
    for i in range(10):
        yield i*i

# Proxy type for generator objects
class GeneratorProxy(BaseProxy):
    _exposed_ = ['__next__']
    def __iter__(self):
        return self
    def __next__(self):
        return self._callmethod('__next__')

# Function to return the operator module
def get_operator_module():
    return operator

##

class MyManager(BaseManager):
    pass

# register the Foo class; make `f()` and `g()` accessible via proxy
MyManager.register('Foo1', Foo)

# register the Foo class; make `g()` and `_h()` accessible via proxy
MyManager.register('Foo2', Foo, exposed=('g', '_h'))

# register the generator function baz; use `GeneratorProxy` to make proxies
MyManager.register('baz', baz, proxytype=GeneratorProxy)

# register get_operator_module(); make public functions accessible via proxy
MyManager.register('operator', get_operator_module)

##

def test():
    manager = MyManager()
    manager.start()

    print('-' * 20)

    f1 = manager.Foo1()
    f1.f()
    f1.g()
    assert not hasattr(f1, '_h')
    assert sorted(f1._exposed_) == sorted(['f', 'g'])

    print('-' * 20)

    f2 = manager.Foo2()
    f2.g()
    f2._h()
    assert not hasattr(f2, 'f')
    assert sorted(f2._exposed_) == sorted(['g', '_h'])

    print('-' * 20)

    it = manager.baz()
    for i in it:
        print('<%d>' % i, end=' ')
    print()

    print('-' * 20)

    op = manager.operator()
    print('op.add(23, 45) =', op.add(23, 45))
    print('op.pow(2, 94) =', op.pow(2, 94))
    print('op._exposed_ =', op._exposed_)

##

if __name__ == '__main__':
    freeze_support()
    test()

En utilisant Pool :

import multiprocessing
import time
import random
import sys

#
# Functions used by test code
#

def calculate(func, args):
    result = func(*args)
    return '%s says that %s%s = %s' % (
        multiprocessing.current_process().name,
        func.__name__, args, result
        )

def calculatestar(args):
    return calculate(*args)

def mul(a, b):
    time.sleep(0.5 * random.random())
    return a * b

def plus(a, b):
    time.sleep(0.5 * random.random())
    return a + b

def f(x):
    return 1.0 / (x - 5.0)

def pow3(x):
    return x ** 3

def noop(x):
    pass

#
# Test code
#

def test():
    PROCESSES = 4
    print('Creating pool with %d processes\n' % PROCESSES)

    with multiprocessing.Pool(PROCESSES) as pool:
        #
        # Tests
        #

        TASKS = [(mul, (i, 7)) for i in range(10)] + \
                [(plus, (i, 8)) for i in range(10)]

        results = [pool.apply_async(calculate, t) for t in TASKS]
        imap_it = pool.imap(calculatestar, TASKS)
        imap_unordered_it = pool.imap_unordered(calculatestar, TASKS)

        print('Ordered results using pool.apply_async():')
        for r in results:
            print('\t', r.get())
        print()

        print('Ordered results using pool.imap():')
        for x in imap_it:
            print('\t', x)
        print()

        print('Unordered results using pool.imap_unordered():')
        for x in imap_unordered_it:
            print('\t', x)
        print()

        print('Ordered results using pool.map() --- will block till complete:')
        for x in pool.map(calculatestar, TASKS):
            print('\t', x)
        print()

        #
        # Test error handling
        #

        print('Testing error handling:')

        try:
            print(pool.apply(f, (5,)))
        except ZeroDivisionError:
            print('\tGot ZeroDivisionError as expected from pool.apply()')
        else:
            raise AssertionError('expected ZeroDivisionError')

        try:
            print(pool.map(f, list(range(10))))
        except ZeroDivisionError:
            print('\tGot ZeroDivisionError as expected from pool.map()')
        else:
            raise AssertionError('expected ZeroDivisionError')

        try:
            print(list(pool.imap(f, list(range(10)))))
        except ZeroDivisionError:
            print('\tGot ZeroDivisionError as expected from list(pool.imap())')
        else:
            raise AssertionError('expected ZeroDivisionError')

        it = pool.imap(f, list(range(10)))
        for i in range(10):
            try:
                x = next(it)
            except ZeroDivisionError:
                if i == 5:
                    pass
            except StopIteration:
                break
            else:
                if i == 5:
                    raise AssertionError('expected ZeroDivisionError')

        assert i == 9
        print('\tGot ZeroDivisionError as expected from IMapIterator.next()')
        print()

        #
        # Testing timeouts
        #

        print('Testing ApplyResult.get() with timeout:', end=' ')
        res = pool.apply_async(calculate, TASKS[0])
        while 1:
            sys.stdout.flush()
            try:
                sys.stdout.write('\n\t%s' % res.get(0.02))
                break
            except multiprocessing.TimeoutError:
                sys.stdout.write('.')
        print()
        print()

        print('Testing IMapIterator.next() with timeout:', end=' ')
        it = pool.imap(calculatestar, TASKS)
        while 1:
            sys.stdout.flush()
            try:
                sys.stdout.write('\n\t%s' % it.next(0.02))
            except StopIteration:
                break
            except multiprocessing.TimeoutError:
                sys.stdout.write('.')
        print()
        print()

if __name__ == '__main__':
    multiprocessing.freeze_support()
    test()

Un exemple montrant comment utiliser des files pour alimenter en tâches une collection de processus workers et collecter les résultats :

import time
import random

from multiprocessing import Process, Queue, current_process, freeze_support

#
# Function run by worker processes
#

def worker(input, output):
    for func, args in iter(input.get, 'STOP'):
        result = calculate(func, args)
        output.put(result)

#
# Function used to calculate result
#

def calculate(func, args):
    result = func(*args)
    return '%s says that %s%s = %s' % \
        (current_process().name, func.__name__, args, result)

#
# Functions referenced by tasks
#

def mul(a, b):
    time.sleep(0.5*random.random())
    return a * b

def plus(a, b):
    time.sleep(0.5*random.random())
    return a + b

#
#
#

def test():
    NUMBER_OF_PROCESSES = 4
    TASKS1 = [(mul, (i, 7)) for i in range(20)]
    TASKS2 = [(plus, (i, 8)) for i in range(10)]

    # Create queues
    task_queue = Queue()
    done_queue = Queue()

    # Submit tasks
    for task in TASKS1:
        task_queue.put(task)

    # Start worker processes
    for i in range(NUMBER_OF_PROCESSES):
        Process(target=worker, args=(task_queue, done_queue)).start()

    # Get and print results
    print('Unordered results:')
    for i in range(len(TASKS1)):
        print('\t', done_queue.get())

    # Add more tasks using `put()`
    for task in TASKS2:
        task_queue.put(task)

    # Get and print some more results
    for i in range(len(TASKS2)):
        print('\t', done_queue.get())

    # Tell child processes to stop
    for i in range(NUMBER_OF_PROCESSES):
        task_queue.put('STOP')

if __name__ == '__main__':
    freeze_support()
    test()

multiprocessing.shared_memory --- Shared memory for direct access across processes

Code source : Lib/multiprocessing/shared_memory.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/multiprocessing/shared_memory.py]

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

This module provides a class, SharedMemory, for the allocation and management of shared memory to be accessed by one or more processes on a multicore or symmetric multiprocessor (SMP) machine. To assist with the life-cycle management of shared memory especially across distinct processes, a BaseManager subclass, SharedMemoryManager, is also provided in the multiprocessing.managers module.

In this module, shared memory refers to "POSIX style" shared memory blocks (though is not necessarily implemented explicitly as such) and does not refer to "distributed shared memory". This style of shared memory permits distinct processes to potentially read and write to a common (or shared) region of volatile memory. Processes are conventionally limited to only have access to their own process memory space but shared memory permits the sharing of data between processes, avoiding the need to instead send messages between processes containing that data. Sharing data directly via memory can provide significant performance benefits compared to sharing data via disk or socket or other communications requiring the serialization/deserialization and copying of data.

class multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory(name=None, create=False, size=0, *, track=True)

Create an instance of the SharedMemory class for either creating a new shared memory block or attaching to an existing shared memory block. Each shared memory block is assigned a unique name. In this way, one process can create a shared memory block with a particular name and a different process can attach to that same shared memory block using that same name.

As a resource for sharing data across processes, shared memory blocks may outlive the original process that created them. When one process no longer needs access to a shared memory block that might still be needed by other processes, the close() method should be called. When a shared memory block is no longer needed by any process, the unlink() method should be called to ensure proper cleanup.

Paramètres:

name (str | None) -- The unique name for the requested shared memory, specified as a string. When creating a new shared memory block, if None (the default) is supplied for the name, a novel name will be generated.

create (bool) -- Control whether a new shared memory block is created (True) or an existing shared memory block is attached (False).

size (int) -- The requested number of bytes when creating a new shared memory block. Because some platforms choose to allocate chunks of memory based upon that platform's memory page size, the exact size of the shared memory block may be larger or equal to the size requested. When attaching to an existing shared memory block, the size parameter is ignored.

track (bool) -- When True, register the shared memory block with a resource tracker process on platforms where the OS does not do this automatically. The resource tracker ensures proper cleanup of the shared memory even if all other processes with access to the memory exit without doing so. Python processes created from a common ancestor using multiprocessing facilities share a single resource tracker process, and the lifetime of shared memory segments is handled automatically among these processes. Python processes created in any other way will receive their own resource tracker when accessing shared memory with track enabled. This will cause the shared memory to be deleted by the resource tracker of the first process that terminates. To avoid this issue, users of subprocess or standalone Python processes should set track to False when there is already another process in place that does the bookkeeping. track is ignored on Windows, which has its own tracking and automatically deletes shared memory when all handles to it have been closed.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the track parameter.

close()

Close the file descriptor/handle to the shared memory from this instance. close() should be called once access to the shared memory block from this instance is no longer needed. Depending on operating system, the underlying memory may or may not be freed even if all handles to it have been closed. To ensure proper cleanup, use the unlink() method.

unlink()

Delete the underlying shared memory block. This should be called only once per shared memory block regardless of the number of handles to it, even in other processes. unlink() and close() can be called in any order, but trying to access data inside a shared memory block after unlink() may result in memory access errors, depending on platform.

This method has no effect on Windows, where the only way to delete a shared memory block is to close all handles.

buf

Une memoryview du contenu du bloc de mémoire partagée.

name

Nom unique du bloc de mémoire partagée (lecture seule).

size

Taille en octets du bloc de mémoire partagée (lecture seule).

L'exemple qui suit montre un exemple d'utilisation bas niveau d'instances de SharedMemory :

>>> from multiprocessing import shared_memory
>>> shm_a = shared_memory.SharedMemory(create=True, size=10)
>>> type(shm_a.buf)
<class 'memoryview'>
>>> buffer = shm_a.buf
>>> len(buffer)
10
>>> buffer[:4] = bytearray([22, 33, 44, 55])  # Modify multiple at once
>>> buffer[4] = 100                           # Modify single byte at a time
>>> # Attach to an existing shared memory block
>>> shm_b = shared_memory.SharedMemory(shm_a.name)
>>> import array
>>> array.array('b', shm_b.buf[:5])  # Copy the data into a new array.array
array('b', [22, 33, 44, 55, 100])
>>> shm_b.buf[:5] = b'howdy'  # Modify via shm_b using bytes
>>> bytes(shm_a.buf[:5])      # Access via shm_a
b'howdy'
>>> shm_b.close()   # Close each SharedMemory instance
>>> shm_a.close()
>>> shm_a.unlink()  # Call unlink only once to release the shared memory

The following example demonstrates a practical use of the SharedMemory class with NumPy arrays [https://numpy.org/], accessing the same numpy.ndarray from two distinct Python shells:

>>> # In the first Python interactive shell
>>> import numpy as np
>>> a = np.array([1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8])  # Start with an existing NumPy array
>>> from multiprocessing import shared_memory
>>> shm = shared_memory.SharedMemory(create=True, size=a.nbytes)
>>> # Now create a NumPy array backed by shared memory
>>> b = np.ndarray(a.shape, dtype=a.dtype, buffer=shm.buf)
>>> b[:] = a[:]  # Copy the original data into shared memory
>>> b
array([1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8])
>>> type(b)
<class 'numpy.ndarray'>
>>> type(a)
<class 'numpy.ndarray'>
>>> shm.name  # We did not specify a name so one was chosen for us
'psm_21467_46075'

>>> # In either the same shell or a new Python shell on the same machine
>>> import numpy as np
>>> from multiprocessing import shared_memory
>>> # Attach to the existing shared memory block
>>> existing_shm = shared_memory.SharedMemory(name='psm_21467_46075')
>>> # Note that a.shape is (6,) and a.dtype is np.int64 in this example
>>> c = np.ndarray((6,), dtype=np.int64, buffer=existing_shm.buf)
>>> c
array([1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8])
>>> c[-1] = 888
>>> c
array([  1,   1,   2,   3,   5, 888])

>>> # Back in the first Python interactive shell, b reflects this change
>>> b
array([  1,   1,   2,   3,   5, 888])

>>> # Clean up from within the second Python shell
>>> del c  # Unnecessary; merely emphasizing the array is no longer used
>>> existing_shm.close()

>>> # Clean up from within the first Python shell
>>> del b  # Unnecessary; merely emphasizing the array is no longer used
>>> shm.close()
>>> shm.unlink()  # Free and release the shared memory block at the very end

class multiprocessing.managers.SharedMemoryManager([address[, authkey]])

A subclass of multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager which can be used for the management of shared memory blocks across processes.

A call to start() on a SharedMemoryManager instance causes a new process to be started. This new process's sole purpose is to manage the life cycle of all shared memory blocks created through it. To trigger the release of all shared memory blocks managed by that process, call shutdown() on the instance. This triggers a unlink() call on all of the SharedMemory objects managed by that process and then stops the process itself. By creating SharedMemory instances through a SharedMemoryManager, we avoid the need to manually track and trigger the freeing of shared memory resources.

Cette classe fournit des méthodes pour créer et renvoyer des instances de SharedMemory et pour créer des objets compatibles liste (ShareableList) basés sur la mémoire partagée.

Refer to BaseManager for a description of the inherited address and authkey optional input arguments and how they may be used to connect to an existing SharedMemoryManager service from other processes.

SharedMemory(size)

Create and return a new SharedMemory object with the specified size in bytes.

ShareableList(sequence)

Create and return a new ShareableList object, initialized by the values from the input sequence.

The following example demonstrates the basic mechanisms of a SharedMemoryManager:

>>> from multiprocessing.managers import SharedMemoryManager
>>> smm = SharedMemoryManager()
>>> smm.start()  # Start the process that manages the shared memory blocks
>>> sl = smm.ShareableList(range(4))
>>> sl
ShareableList([0, 1, 2, 3], name='psm_6572_7512')
>>> raw_shm = smm.SharedMemory(size=128)
>>> another_sl = smm.ShareableList('alpha')
>>> another_sl
ShareableList(['a', 'l', 'p', 'h', 'a'], name='psm_6572_12221')
>>> smm.shutdown()  # Calls unlink() on sl, raw_shm, and another_sl

The following example depicts a potentially more convenient pattern for using SharedMemoryManager objects via the with statement to ensure that all shared memory blocks are released after they are no longer needed:

>>> with SharedMemoryManager() as smm:
...     sl = smm.ShareableList(range(2000))
...     # Divide the work among two processes, storing partial results in sl
...     p1 = Process(target=do_work, args=(sl, 0, 1000))
...     p2 = Process(target=do_work, args=(sl, 1000, 2000))
...     p1.start()
...     p2.start()  # A multiprocessing.Pool might be more efficient
...     p1.join()
...     p2.join()   # Wait for all work to complete in both processes
...     total_result = sum(sl)  # Consolidate the partial results now in sl

When using a SharedMemoryManager in a with statement, the shared memory blocks created using that manager are all released when the with statement's code block finishes execution.

class multiprocessing.shared_memory.ShareableList(sequence=None, *, name=None)

Provide a mutable list-like object where all values stored within are stored in a shared memory block. This constrains storable values to the following built-in data types:

int (signed 64-bit)

float

bool

str (less than 10M bytes each when encoded as UTF-8)

bytes (less than 10M bytes each)

None

It also notably differs from the built-in list type in that these lists can not change their overall length (i.e. no append(), insert(), etc.) and do not support the dynamic creation of new ShareableList instances via slicing.

sequence is used in populating a new ShareableList full of values. Set to None to instead attach to an already existing ShareableList by its unique shared memory name.

name is the unique name for the requested shared memory, as described in the definition for SharedMemory. When attaching to an existing ShareableList, specify its shared memory block's unique name while leaving sequence set to None.

Note

A known issue exists for bytes and str values. If they end with \x00 nul bytes or characters, those may be silently stripped when fetching them by index from the ShareableList. This .rstrip(b'\x00') behavior is considered a bug and may go away in the future. See gh-106939 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106939].

For applications where rstripping of trailing nulls is a problem, work around it by always unconditionally appending an extra non-0 byte to the end of such values when storing and unconditionally removing it when fetching:

>>> from multiprocessing import shared_memory
>>> nul_bug_demo = shared_memory.ShareableList(['?\x00', b'\x03\x02\x01\x00\x00\x00'])
>>> nul_bug_demo[0]
'?'
>>> nul_bug_demo[1]
b'\x03\x02\x01'
>>> nul_bug_demo.shm.unlink()
>>> padded = shared_memory.ShareableList(['?\x00\x07', b'\x03\x02\x01\x00\x00\x00\x07'])
>>> padded[0][:-1]
'?\x00'
>>> padded[1][:-1]
b'\x03\x02\x01\x00\x00\x00'
>>> padded.shm.unlink()

count(value)

Return the number of occurrences of value.

index(value)

Return first index position of value. Raise ValueError if value is not present.

format

Attribut en lecture seule contenant le format d’agrégation struct utilisé par les valeurs déjà stockées.

shm

Instance de SharedMemory dans laquelle les valeurs sont stockées.

L'exemple qui suit illustre un cas d'usage de base d'une instance de ShareableList :

>>> from multiprocessing import shared_memory
>>> a = shared_memory.ShareableList(['howdy', b'HoWdY', -273.154, 100, None, True, 42])
>>> [ type(entry) for entry in a ]
[<class 'str'>, <class 'bytes'>, <class 'float'>, <class 'int'>, <class 'NoneType'>, <class 'bool'>, <class 'int'>]
>>> a[2]
-273.154
>>> a[2] = -78.5
>>> a[2]
-78.5
>>> a[2] = 'dry ice'  # Changing data types is supported as well
>>> a[2]
'dry ice'
>>> a[2] = 'larger than previously allocated storage space'
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
ValueError: exceeds available storage for existing str
>>> a[2]
'dry ice'
>>> len(a)
7
>>> a.index(42)
6
>>> a.count(b'howdy')
0
>>> a.count(b'HoWdY')
1
>>> a.shm.close()
>>> a.shm.unlink()
>>> del a  # Use of a ShareableList after call to unlink() is unsupported

L'exemple ci-dessous montre comment un, deux ou un grand nombre de processus peuvent accéder à une ShareableList commune à partir du nom du bloc mémoire partagé sous-jacent :

>>> b = shared_memory.ShareableList(range(5))         # In a first process
>>> c = shared_memory.ShareableList(name=b.shm.name)  # In a second process
>>> c
ShareableList([0, 1, 2, 3, 4], name='...')
>>> c[-1] = -999
>>> b[-1]
-999
>>> b.shm.close()
>>> c.shm.close()
>>> c.shm.unlink()

The following examples demonstrates that ShareableList (and underlying SharedMemory) objects can be pickled and unpickled if needed. Note, that it will still be the same shared object. This happens, because the deserialized object has the same unique name and is just attached to an existing object with the same name (if the object is still alive):

>>> import pickle
>>> from multiprocessing import shared_memory
>>> sl = shared_memory.ShareableList(range(10))
>>> list(sl)
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

>>> deserialized_sl = pickle.loads(pickle.dumps(sl))
>>> list(deserialized_sl)
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

>>> sl[0] = -1
>>> deserialized_sl[1] = -2
>>> list(sl)
[-1, -2, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
>>> list(deserialized_sl)
[-1, -2, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

>>> sl.shm.close()
>>> sl.shm.unlink()

The concurrent package

This package contains the following modules:

concurrent.futures -- Lancer des tâches en parallèle

concurrent.interpreters -- Multiple interpreters in the same process

concurrent.futures --- Launching parallel tasks

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Source code: Lib/concurrent/futures/thread.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/concurrent/futures/thread.py], Lib/concurrent/futures/process.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/concurrent/futures/process.py], and Lib/concurrent/futures/interpreter.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/concurrent/futures/interpreter.py]

The concurrent.futures module provides a high-level interface for asynchronously executing callables.

The asynchronous execution can be performed with threads, using ThreadPoolExecutor or InterpreterPoolExecutor, or separate processes, using ProcessPoolExecutor. Each implements the same interface, which is defined by the abstract Executor class.

concurrent.futures.Future must not be confused with asyncio.Future, which is designed for use with asyncio tasks and coroutines. See the asyncio's Future documentation for a detailed comparison of the two.

Disponibilité: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly. See Plateformes WebAssembly for more information.

Executor Objects

class concurrent.futures.Executor

An abstract class that provides methods to execute calls asynchronously. It should not be used directly, but through its concrete subclasses.

submit(fn, /, *args, **kwargs)

Schedules the callable, fn, to be executed as fn(*args, **kwargs) and returns a Future object representing the execution of the callable.

with ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=1) as executor:
    future = executor.submit(pow, 323, 1235)
    print(future.result())

map(fn, *iterables, timeout=None, chunksize=1, buffersize=None)

Similar to map(fn, *iterables) except:

The iterables are collected immediately rather than lazily, unless a buffersize is specified to limit the number of submitted tasks whose results have not yet been yielded. If the buffer is full, iteration over the iterables pauses until a result is yielded from the buffer.

fn is executed asynchronously and several calls to fn may be made concurrently.

The returned iterator raises a TimeoutError if __next__() is called and the result isn't available after timeout seconds from the original call to Executor.map(). timeout can be an int or a float. If timeout is not specified or None, there is no limit to the wait time.

If a fn call raises an exception, then that exception will be raised when its value is retrieved from the iterator.

When using ProcessPoolExecutor, this method chops iterables into a number of chunks which it submits to the pool as separate tasks. The (approximate) size of these chunks can be specified by setting chunksize to a positive integer. For very long iterables, using a large value for chunksize can significantly improve performance compared to the default size of 1. With ThreadPoolExecutor and InterpreterPoolExecutor, chunksize has no effect.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Added the chunksize parameter.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Added the buffersize parameter.

shutdown(wait=True, *, cancel_futures=False)

Signal the executor that it should free any resources that it is using when the currently pending futures are done executing. Calls to Executor.submit() and Executor.map() made after shutdown will raise RuntimeError.

If wait is True then this method will not return until all the pending futures are done executing and the resources associated with the executor have been freed. If wait is False then this method will return immediately and the resources associated with the executor will be freed when all pending futures are done executing. Regardless of the value of wait, the entire Python program will not exit until all pending futures are done executing.

If cancel_futures is True, this method will cancel all pending futures that the executor has not started running. Any futures that are completed or running won't be cancelled, regardless of the value of cancel_futures.

If both cancel_futures and wait are True, all futures that the executor has started running will be completed prior to this method returning. The remaining futures are cancelled.

You can avoid having to call this method explicitly if you use the executor as a context manager via the with statement, which will shutdown the Executor (waiting as if Executor.shutdown() were called with wait set to True):

import shutil
with ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=4) as e:
    e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src1.txt', 'dest1.txt')
    e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src2.txt', 'dest2.txt')
    e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src3.txt', 'dest3.txt')
    e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src4.txt', 'dest4.txt')

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Added cancel_futures.

ThreadPoolExecutor

ThreadPoolExecutor is an Executor subclass that uses a pool of threads to execute calls asynchronously.

Deadlocks can occur when the callable associated with a Future waits on the results of another Future. For example:

import time
def wait_on_b():
    time.sleep(5)
    print(b.result())  # b will never complete because it is waiting on a.
    return 5

def wait_on_a():
    time.sleep(5)
    print(a.result())  # a will never complete because it is waiting on b.
    return 6

executor = ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=2)
a = executor.submit(wait_on_b)
b = executor.submit(wait_on_a)

Et :

def wait_on_future():
    f = executor.submit(pow, 5, 2)
    # This will never complete because there is only one worker thread and
    # it is executing this function.
    print(f.result())

executor = ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=1)
future = executor.submit(wait_on_future)
# Note: calling future.result() would also cause a deadlock because
# the single worker thread is already waiting for wait_on_future().

class concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=None, thread_name_prefix='', initializer=None, initargs=())

An Executor subclass that uses a pool of at most max_workers threads to execute calls asynchronously.

All threads enqueued to ThreadPoolExecutor will be joined before the interpreter can exit. Note that the exit handler which does this is executed before any exit handlers added using atexit. This means exceptions in the main thread must be caught and handled in order to signal threads to exit gracefully. For this reason, it is recommended that ThreadPoolExecutor not be used for long-running tasks.

initializer is an optional callable that is called at the start of each worker thread; initargs is a tuple of arguments passed to the initializer. Should initializer raise an exception, all currently pending jobs will raise a BrokenThreadPool, as well as any attempt to submit more jobs to the pool.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: If max_workers is None or not given, it will default to the number of processors on the machine, multiplied by 5, assuming that ThreadPoolExecutor is often used to overlap I/O instead of CPU work and the number of workers should be higher than the number of workers for ProcessPoolExecutor.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Added the thread_name_prefix parameter to allow users to control the threading.Thread names for worker threads created by the pool for easier debugging.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Added the initializer and initargs arguments.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Default value of max_workers is changed to min(32, os.cpu_count() + 4). This default value preserves at least 5 workers for I/O bound tasks. It utilizes at most 32 CPU cores for CPU bound tasks which release the GIL. And it avoids using very large resources implicitly on many-core machines.

ThreadPoolExecutor now reuses idle worker threads before starting max_workers worker threads too.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Default value of max_workers is changed to min(32, (os.process_cpu_count() or 1) + 4).

ThreadPoolExecutor Example

import concurrent.futures
import urllib.request

URLS = ['http://www.foxnews.com/',
        'http://www.cnn.com/',
        'http://europe.wsj.com/',
        'http://www.bbc.co.uk/',
        'http://nonexistent-subdomain.python.org/']

# Retrieve a single page and report the URL and contents
def load_url(url, timeout):
    with urllib.request.urlopen(url, timeout=timeout) as conn:
        return conn.read()

# We can use a with statement to ensure threads are cleaned up promptly
with concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=5) as executor:
    # Start the load operations and mark each future with its URL
    future_to_url = {executor.submit(load_url, url, 60): url for url in URLS}
    for future in concurrent.futures.as_completed(future_to_url):
        url = future_to_url[future]
        try:
            data = future.result()
        except Exception as exc:
            print('%r generated an exception: %s' % (url, exc))
        else:
            print('%r page is %d bytes' % (url, len(data)))

InterpreterPoolExecutor

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

The InterpreterPoolExecutor class uses a pool of interpreters to execute calls asynchronously. It is a ThreadPoolExecutor subclass, which means each worker is running in its own thread. The difference here is that each worker has its own interpreter, and runs each task using that interpreter.

The biggest benefit to using interpreters instead of only threads is true multi-core parallelism. Each interpreter has its own Global Interpreter Lock, so code running in one interpreter can run on one CPU core, while code in another interpreter runs unblocked on a different core.

The tradeoff is that writing concurrent code for use with multiple interpreters can take extra effort. However, this is because it forces you to be deliberate about how and when interpreters interact, and to be explicit about what data is shared between interpreters. This results in several benefits that help balance the extra effort, including true multi-core parallelism, For example, code written this way can make it easier to reason about concurrency. Another major benefit is that you don't have to deal with several of the big pain points of using threads, like race conditions.

Each worker's interpreter is isolated from all the other interpreters. "Isolated" means each interpreter has its own runtime state and operates completely independently. For example, if you redirect sys.stdout in one interpreter, it will not be automatically redirected to any other interpreter. If you import a module in one interpreter, it is not automatically imported in any other. You would need to import the module separately in interpreter where you need it. In fact, each module imported in an interpreter is a completely separate object from the same module in a different interpreter, including sys, builtins, and even __main__.

Isolation means a mutable object, or other data, cannot be used by more than one interpreter at the same time. That effectively means interpreters cannot actually share such objects or data. Instead, each interpreter must have its own copy, and you will have to synchronize any changes between the copies manually. Immutable objects and data, like the builtin singletons, strings, and tuples of immutable objects, don't have these limitations.

Communicating and synchronizing between interpreters is most effectively done using dedicated tools, like those proposed in PEP 734 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0734/]. One less efficient alternative is to serialize with pickle and then send the bytes over a shared socket or pipe.

class concurrent.futures.InterpreterPoolExecutor(max_workers=None, thread_name_prefix='', initializer=None, initargs=())

A ThreadPoolExecutor subclass that executes calls asynchronously using a pool of at most max_workers threads. Each thread runs tasks in its own interpreter. The worker interpreters are isolated from each other, which means each has its own runtime state and that they can't share any mutable objects or other data. Each interpreter has its own Global Interpreter Lock, which means code run with this executor has true multi-core parallelism.

The optional initializer and initargs arguments have the same meaning as for ThreadPoolExecutor: the initializer is run when each worker is created, though in this case it is run in the worker's interpreter. The executor serializes the initializer and initargs using pickle when sending them to the worker's interpreter.

Note

The executor may replace uncaught exceptions from initializer with ExecutionFailed.

Other caveats from parent ThreadPoolExecutor apply here.

submit() and map() work like normal, except the worker serializes the callable and arguments using pickle when sending them to its interpreter. The worker likewise serializes the return value when sending it back.

When a worker's current task raises an uncaught exception, the worker always tries to preserve the exception as-is. If that is successful then it also sets the __cause__ to a corresponding ExecutionFailed instance, which contains a summary of the original exception. In the uncommon case that the worker is not able to preserve the original as-is then it directly preserves the corresponding ExecutionFailed instance instead.

ProcessPoolExecutor

The ProcessPoolExecutor class is an Executor subclass that uses a pool of processes to execute calls asynchronously. ProcessPoolExecutor uses the multiprocessing module, which allows it to side-step the Global Interpreter Lock but also means that only picklable objects can be executed and returned.

The __main__ module must be importable by worker subprocesses. This means that ProcessPoolExecutor will not work in the interactive interpreter.

Calling Executor or Future methods from a callable submitted to a ProcessPoolExecutor will result in deadlock.

Note that the restrictions on functions and arguments needing to picklable as per multiprocessing.Process apply when using submit() and map() on a ProcessPoolExecutor. A function defined in a REPL or a lambda should not be expected to work.

class concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor(max_workers=None, mp_context=None, initializer=None, initargs=(), max_tasks_per_child=None)

An Executor subclass that executes calls asynchronously using a pool of at most max_workers processes. If max_workers is None or not given, it will default to os.process_cpu_count(). If max_workers is less than or equal to 0, then a ValueError will be raised. On Windows, max_workers must be less than or equal to 61. If it is not then ValueError will be raised. If max_workers is None, then the default chosen will be at most 61, even if more processors are available. mp_context can be a multiprocessing context or None. It will be used to launch the workers. If mp_context is None or not given, the default multiprocessing context is used. See Contextes et méthodes de démarrage.

initializer is an optional callable that is called at the start of each worker process; initargs is a tuple of arguments passed to the initializer. Should initializer raise an exception, all currently pending jobs will raise a BrokenProcessPool, as well as any attempt to submit more jobs to the pool.

max_tasks_per_child is an optional argument that specifies the maximum number of tasks a single process can execute before it will exit and be replaced with a fresh worker process. By default max_tasks_per_child is None which means worker processes will live as long as the pool. When a max is specified, the "spawn" multiprocessing start method will be used by default in absence of a mp_context parameter. This feature is incompatible with the "fork" start method.

Note

Bugs have been reported when using the max_tasks_per_child feature that can result in the ProcessPoolExecutor hanging in some circumstances. Follow its eventual resolution in gh-115634 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115634].

Modifié dans la version 3.3: When one of the worker processes terminates abruptly, a BrokenProcessPool error is now raised. Previously, behaviour was undefined but operations on the executor or its futures would often freeze or deadlock.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: The mp_context argument was added to allow users to control the start_method for worker processes created by the pool.

Added the initializer and initargs arguments.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: The max_tasks_per_child argument was added to allow users to control the lifetime of workers in the pool.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: On POSIX systems, if your application has multiple threads and the multiprocessing context uses the "fork" start method: The os.fork() function called internally to spawn workers may raise a DeprecationWarning. Pass a mp_context configured to use a different start method. See the os.fork() documentation for further explanation.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: max_workers uses os.process_cpu_count() by default, instead of os.cpu_count().

Modifié dans la version 3.14: The default process start method (see Contextes et méthodes de démarrage) changed away from fork. If you require the fork start method for ProcessPoolExecutor you must explicitly pass mp_context=multiprocessing.get_context("fork").

terminate_workers()

Attempt to terminate all living worker processes immediately by calling Process.terminate on each of them. Internally, it will also call Executor.shutdown() to ensure that all other resources associated with the executor are freed.

After calling this method the caller should no longer submit tasks to the executor.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

kill_workers()

Attempt to kill all living worker processes immediately by calling Process.kill on each of them. Internally, it will also call Executor.shutdown() to ensure that all other resources associated with the executor are freed.

After calling this method the caller should no longer submit tasks to the executor.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

ProcessPoolExecutor Example

import concurrent.futures
import math

PRIMES = [
    112272535095293,
    112582705942171,
    112272535095293,
    115280095190773,
    115797848077099,
    1099726899285419]

def is_prime(n):
    if n < 2:
        return False
    if n == 2:
        return True
    if n % 2 == 0:
        return False

    sqrt_n = int(math.floor(math.sqrt(n)))
    for i in range(3, sqrt_n + 1, 2):
        if n % i == 0:
            return False
    return True

def main():
    with concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor() as executor:
        for number, prime in zip(PRIMES, executor.map(is_prime, PRIMES)):
            print('%d is prime: %s' % (number, prime))

if __name__ == '__main__':
    main()

Future Objects

The Future class encapsulates the asynchronous execution of a callable. Future instances are created by Executor.submit().

class concurrent.futures.Future

Encapsulates the asynchronous execution of a callable. Future instances are created by Executor.submit() and should not be created directly except for testing.

cancel()

Attempt to cancel the call. If the call is currently being executed or finished running and cannot be cancelled then the method will return False, otherwise the call will be cancelled and the method will return True.

cancelled()

Return True if the call was successfully cancelled.

running()

Return True if the call is currently being executed and cannot be cancelled.

done()

Return True if the call was successfully cancelled or finished running.

result(timeout=None)

Return the value returned by the call. If the call hasn't yet completed then this method will wait up to timeout seconds. If the call hasn't completed in timeout seconds, then a TimeoutError will be raised. timeout can be an int or float. If timeout is not specified or None, there is no limit to the wait time.

If the future is cancelled before completing then CancelledError will be raised.

If the call raised an exception, this method will raise the same exception.

exception(timeout=None)

Return the exception raised by the call. If the call hasn't yet completed then this method will wait up to timeout seconds. If the call hasn't completed in timeout seconds, then a TimeoutError will be raised. timeout can be an int or float. If timeout is not specified or None, there is no limit to the wait time.

If the future is cancelled before completing then CancelledError will be raised.

If the call completed without raising, None is returned.

add_done_callback(fn)

Attaches the callable fn to the future. fn will be called, with the future as its only argument, when the future is cancelled or finishes running.

Added callables are called in the order that they were added and are always called in a thread belonging to the process that added them. If the callable raises an Exception subclass, it will be logged and ignored. If the callable raises a BaseException subclass, the behavior is undefined.

If the future has already completed or been cancelled, fn will be called immediately.

The following Future methods are meant for use in unit tests and Executor implementations.

set_running_or_notify_cancel()

This method should only be called by Executor implementations before executing the work associated with the Future and by unit tests.

If the method returns False then the Future was cancelled, i.e. Future.cancel() was called and returned True. Any threads waiting on the Future completing (i.e. through as_completed() or wait()) will be woken up.

If the method returns True then the Future was not cancelled and has been put in the running state, i.e. calls to Future.running() will return True.

This method can only be called once and cannot be called after Future.set_result() or Future.set_exception() have been called.

set_result(result)

Sets the result of the work associated with the Future to result.

This method should only be used by Executor implementations and unit tests.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: This method raises concurrent.futures.InvalidStateError if the Future is already done.

set_exception(exception)

Sets the result of the work associated with the Future to the Exception exception.

This method should only be used by Executor implementations and unit tests.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: This method raises concurrent.futures.InvalidStateError if the Future is already done.

Module Functions

concurrent.futures.wait(fs, timeout=None, return_when=ALL_COMPLETED)

Wait for the Future instances (possibly created by different Executor instances) given by fs to complete. Duplicate futures given to fs are removed and will be returned only once. Returns a named 2-tuple of sets. The first set, named done, contains the futures that completed (finished or cancelled futures) before the wait completed. The second set, named not_done, contains the futures that did not complete (pending or running futures).

timeout can be used to control the maximum number of seconds to wait before returning. timeout can be an int or float. If timeout is not specified or None, there is no limit to the wait time.

return_when indique quand la fonction doit se terminer. Il peut prendre les valeurs suivantes :

Constante

Description

concurrent.futures.FIRST_COMPLETED

La fonction se termine lorsque n'importe quel futur se termine ou est annulé.

concurrent.futures.FIRST_EXCEPTION

The function will return when any future finishes by raising an exception. If no future raises an exception then it is equivalent to ALL_COMPLETED.

concurrent.futures.ALL_COMPLETED

La fonction se termine lorsque les futurs sont tous finis ou annulés.

concurrent.futures.as_completed(fs, timeout=None)

Returns an iterator over the Future instances (possibly created by different Executor instances) given by fs that yields futures as they complete (finished or cancelled futures). Any futures given by fs that are duplicated will be returned once. Any futures that completed before as_completed() is called will be yielded first. The returned iterator raises a TimeoutError if __next__() is called and the result isn't available after timeout seconds from the original call to as_completed(). timeout can be an int or float. If timeout is not specified or None, there is no limit to the wait time.

Voir aussi

PEP 3148 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3148/] -- futures - execute computations asynchronously

The proposal which described this feature for inclusion in the Python standard library.

Exception classes

exception concurrent.futures.CancelledError

Raised when a future is cancelled.

exception concurrent.futures.TimeoutError

A deprecated alias of TimeoutError, raised when a future operation exceeds the given timeout.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: cette classe est devenue un alias de TimeoutError.

exception concurrent.futures.BrokenExecutor

Derived from RuntimeError, this exception class is raised when an executor is broken for some reason, and cannot be used to submit or execute new tasks.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

exception concurrent.futures.InvalidStateError

Raised when an operation is performed on a future that is not allowed in the current state.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

exception concurrent.futures.thread.BrokenThreadPool

Derived from BrokenExecutor, this exception class is raised when one of the workers of a ThreadPoolExecutor has failed initializing.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

exception concurrent.futures.interpreter.BrokenInterpreterPool

Derived from BrokenThreadPool, this exception class is raised when one of the workers of a InterpreterPoolExecutor has failed initializing.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

exception concurrent.futures.process.BrokenProcessPool

Derived from BrokenExecutor (formerly RuntimeError), this exception class is raised when one of the workers of a ProcessPoolExecutor has terminated in a non-clean fashion (for example, if it was killed from the outside).

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

concurrent.interpreters --- Multiple interpreters in the same process

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Source code: Lib/concurrent/interpreters [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/concurrent/interpreters]

The concurrent.interpreters module constructs higher-level interfaces on top of the lower level _interpreters module.

The module is primarily meant to provide a basic API for managing interpreters (AKA "subinterpreters") and running things in them. Running mostly involves switching to an interpreter (in the current thread) and calling a function in that execution context.

For concurrency, interpreters themselves (and this module) don't provide much more than isolation, which on its own isn't useful. Actual concurrency is available separately through threads See below

Voir aussi

InterpreterPoolExecutor

Combines threads with interpreters in a familiar interface.

Isolating Extension Modules

How to update an extension module to support multiple interpreters.

PEP 554 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0554/]

PEP 734 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0734/]

PEP 684 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0684/]

Disponibilité: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly. See Plateformes WebAssembly for more information.

Key details

Before we dive in further, there are a small number of details to keep in mind about using multiple interpreters:

isolated, by default

no implicit threads

not all PyPI packages support use in multiple interpreters yet

Introduction

An "interpreter" is effectively the execution context of the Python runtime. It contains all of the state the runtime needs to execute a program. This includes things like the import state and builtins. (Each thread, even if there's only the main thread, has some extra runtime state, in addition to the current interpreter, related to the current exception and the bytecode eval loop.)

The concept and functionality of the interpreter have been a part of Python since version 2.2, but the feature was only available through the C-API and not well known, and the isolation was relatively incomplete until version 3.12.

Multiple Interpreters and Isolation

A Python implementation may support using multiple interpreters in the same process. CPython has this support. Each interpreter is effectively isolated from the others (with a limited number of carefully managed process-global exceptions to the rule).

That isolation is primarily useful as a strong separation between distinct logical components of a program, where you want to have careful control of how those components interact.

Note

Interpreters in the same process can technically never be strictly isolated from one another since there are few restrictions on memory access within the same process. The Python runtime makes a best effort at isolation but extension modules may easily violate that. Therefore, do not use multiple interpreters in security-sensitive situations, where they shouldn't have access to each other's data.

Running in an Interpreter

Running in a different interpreter involves switching to it in the current thread and then calling some function. The runtime will execute the function using the current interpreter's state. The concurrent.interpreters module provides a basic API for creating and managing interpreters, as well as the switch-and-call operation.

No other threads are automatically started for the operation. There is a helper for that though. There is another dedicated helper for calling the builtin exec() in an interpreter.

When exec() (or eval()) are called in an interpreter, they run using the interpreter's __main__ module as the "globals" namespace. The same is true for functions that aren't associated with any module. This is the same as how scripts invoked from the command-line run in the __main__ module.

Concurrency and Parallelism

As noted earlier, interpreters do not provide any concurrency on their own. They strictly represent the isolated execution context the runtime will use in the current thread. That isolation makes them similar to processes, but they still enjoy in-process efficiency, like threads.

All that said, interpreters do naturally support certain flavors of concurrency. There's a powerful side effect of that isolation. It enables a different approach to concurrency than you can take with async or threads. It's a similar concurrency model to CSP or the actor model, a model which is relatively easy to reason about.

You can take advantage of that concurrency model in a single thread, switching back and forth between interpreters, Stackless-style. However, this model is more useful when you combine interpreters with multiple threads. This mostly involves starting a new thread, where you switch to another interpreter and run what you want there.

Each actual thread in Python, even if you're only running in the main thread, has its own current execution context. Multiple threads can use the same interpreter or different ones.

At a high level, you can think of the combination of threads and interpreters as threads with opt-in sharing.

As a significant bonus, interpreters are sufficiently isolated that they do not share the GIL, which means combining threads with multiple interpreters enables full multi-core parallelism. (This has been the case since Python 3.12.)

Communication Between Interpreters

In practice, multiple interpreters are useful only if we have a way to communicate between them. This usually involves some form of message passing, but can even mean sharing data in some carefully managed way.

With this in mind, the concurrent.interpreters module provides a queue.Queue implementation, available through create_queue().

"Sharing" Objects

Any data actually shared between interpreters loses the thread-safety provided by the GIL. There are various options for dealing with this in extension modules. However, from Python code the lack of thread-safety means objects can't actually be shared, with a few exceptions. Instead, a copy must be created, which means mutable objects won't stay in sync.

By default, most objects are copied with pickle when they are passed to another interpreter. Nearly all of the immutable builtin objects are either directly shared or copied efficiently. For example:

None

bool (True and False)

bytes

str

int

float

tuple (of similarly supported objects)

There is a small number of Python types that actually share mutable data between interpreters:

memoryview

Queue

Référence

Ce module définit les fonctions suivantes :

concurrent.interpreters.list_all()

Return a list of Interpreter objects, one for each existing interpreter.

concurrent.interpreters.get_current()

Return an Interpreter object for the currently running interpreter.

concurrent.interpreters.get_main()

Return an Interpreter object for the main interpreter. This is the interpreter the runtime created to run the REPL or the script given at the command-line. It is usually the only one.

concurrent.interpreters.create()

Initialize a new (idle) Python interpreter and return a Interpreter object for it.

concurrent.interpreters.create_queue()

Initialize a new cross-interpreter queue and return a Queue object for it.

Interpreter objects

class concurrent.interpreters.Interpreter(id)

A single interpreter in the current process.

Generally, Interpreter shouldn't be called directly. Instead, use create() or one of the other module functions.

id

(read-only)

The underlying interpreter's ID.

whence

(read-only)

A string describing where the interpreter came from.

is_running()

Return True if the interpreter is currently executing code in its __main__ module and False otherwise.

close()

Finalize and destroy the interpreter.

prepare_main(ns=None, **kwargs)

Bind objects in the interpreter's __main__ module.

Some objects are actually shared and some are copied efficiently, but most are copied via pickle. See "Sharing" Objects.

exec(code, /, dedent=True)

Run the given source code in the interpreter (in the current thread).

call(callable, /, *args, **kwargs)

Return the result of calling running the given function in the interpreter (in the current thread).

call_in_thread(callable, /, *args, **kwargs)

Run the given function in the interpreter (in a new thread).

Exceptions

exception concurrent.interpreters.InterpreterError

This exception, a subclass of Exception, is raised when an interpreter-related error happens.

exception concurrent.interpreters.InterpreterNotFoundError

This exception, a subclass of InterpreterError, is raised when the targeted interpreter no longer exists.

exception concurrent.interpreters.ExecutionFailed

This exception, a subclass of InterpreterError, is raised when the running code raised an uncaught exception.

excinfo

A basic snapshot of the exception raised in the other interpreter.

exception concurrent.interpreters.NotShareableError

This exception, a subclass of TypeError, is raised when an object cannot be sent to another interpreter.

Communicating Between Interpreters

class concurrent.interpreters.Queue(id)

A wrapper around a low-level, cross-interpreter queue, which implements the queue.Queue interface. The underlying queue can only be created through create_queue().

Some objects are actually shared and some are copied efficiently, but most are copied via pickle. See "Sharing" Objects.

id

(read-only)

The queue's ID.

exception concurrent.interpreters.QueueEmptyError

This exception, a subclass of queue.Empty, is raised from Queue.get() and Queue.get_nowait() when the queue is empty.

exception concurrent.interpreters.QueueFullError

This exception, a subclass of queue.Full, is raised from Queue.put() and Queue.put_nowait() when the queue is full.

Utilisation de base

Creating an interpreter and running code in it:

from concurrent import interpreters

interp = interpreters.create()

# Run in the current OS thread.

interp.exec('print("spam!")')

interp.exec("""if True:
    print('spam!')
    """)

from textwrap import dedent
interp.exec(dedent("""
    print('spam!')
    """))

def run(arg):
    return arg

res = interp.call(run, 'spam!')
print(res)

def run():
    print('spam!')

interp.call(run)

# Run in new OS thread.

t = interp.call_in_thread(run)
t.join()

subprocess --- Subprocess management

Code source : Lib/subprocess.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/subprocess.py]

The subprocess module allows you to spawn new processes, connect to their input/output/error pipes, and obtain their return codes. This module intends to replace several older modules and functions:

os.system
os.spawn*

Information about how the subprocess module can be used to replace these modules and functions can be found in the following sections.

Voir aussi

PEP 324 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0324/] -- PEP proposant le module subprocess

Disponibilité: not Android, not iOS, not WASI.

This module is not supported on mobile platforms or WebAssembly platforms.

Using the subprocess Module

L'approche recommandée pour invoquer un sous-processus est d'utiliser la fonction run() pour tous les cas d'utilisation qu'elle gère. Pour les cas d'utilisation plus avancés, l'interface inhérente Popen peut être utilisée directement.

subprocess.run(args, *, stdin=None, input=None, stdout=None, stderr=None, capture_output=False, shell=False, cwd=None, timeout=None, check=False, encoding=None, errors=None, text=None, env=None, universal_newlines=None, **other_popen_kwargs)

Lance la commande décrite par args. Attend que la commande se termine, puis renvoie une instance CompletedProcess.

Les arguments présentés ci-dessus sont simplement les plus utilisés, décrits ci-dessous dans la section Arguments fréquemment utilisés (d'où l'utilisation de la notation keyword-only dans la signature abrégée). La signature complète de la fonction est sensiblement la même que celle du constructeur de Popen, à l'exception de timeout, input, check et capture_output, tous les arguments donnés à cette fonction passent à travers cette interface.

If capture_output is true, stdout and stderr will be captured. When used, the internal Popen object is automatically created with stdout and stderr both set to PIPE. The stdout and stderr arguments may not be supplied at the same time as capture_output. If you wish to capture and combine both streams into one, set stdout to PIPE and stderr to STDOUT, instead of using capture_output.

A timeout may be specified in seconds, it is internally passed on to Popen.communicate(). If the timeout expires, the child process will be killed and waited for. The TimeoutExpired exception will be re-raised after the child process has terminated. The initial process creation itself cannot be interrupted on many platform APIs so you are not guaranteed to see a timeout exception until at least after however long process creation takes.

The input argument is passed to Popen.communicate() and thus to the subprocess's stdin. If used it must be a byte sequence, or a string if encoding or errors is specified or text is true. When used, the internal Popen object is automatically created with stdin set to PIPE, and the stdin argument may not be used as well.

Si check est vrai, et que le processus s'arrête avec un code de statut non nul, une exception CalledProcessError est levée. Les attributs de cette exception contiennent les arguments, le code de statut, et les sorties standard et d'erreur si elles ont été capturées.

Si encoding ou errors sont spécifiés, ou text est vrai, les fichiers pour les entrées et sorties sont ouverts en mode texte en utilisant les paramètres encoding et errors spécifiés, ou les valeurs par défaut de io.TextIOWrapper. L'argument universal_newlines est équivalent à text et est fourni pour la rétrocompatibilité. Par défaut, les fichiers sont ouverts en mode binaire.

If env is not None, it must be a mapping that defines the environment variables for the new process; these are used instead of the default behavior of inheriting the current process' environment. It is passed directly to Popen. This mapping can be str to str on any platform or bytes to bytes on POSIX platforms much like os.environ or os.environb.

Exemples :

>>> subprocess.run(["ls", "-l"])  # doesn't capture output
CompletedProcess(args=['ls', '-l'], returncode=0)

>>> subprocess.run("exit 1", shell=True, check=True)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
subprocess.CalledProcessError: Command 'exit 1' returned non-zero exit status 1

>>> subprocess.run(["ls", "-l", "/dev/null"], capture_output=True)
CompletedProcess(args=['ls', '-l', '/dev/null'], returncode=0,
stdout=b'crw-rw-rw- 1 root root 1, 3 Jan 23 16:23 /dev/null\n', stderr=b'')

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Ajout des paramètres encoding et errors

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Ajout du paramètre text, qui agit comme un alias plus compréhensible de universal_newlines. Ajout du paramètre capture_output.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Changed Windows shell search order for shell=True. The current directory and %PATH% are replaced with %COMSPEC% and %SystemRoot%\System32\cmd.exe. As a result, dropping a malicious program named cmd.exe into a current directory no longer works.

class subprocess.CompletedProcess

La valeur de retour de run(), représentant un processus qui s'est terminé.

args

Les arguments utilisés pour lancer le processus. Cela peut être une liste ou une chaîne de caractères.

returncode

Le code de statut du processus fils. Typiquement, un code de statut de 0 indique qu'il s'est exécuté avec succès.

Une valeur négative -N indique que le processus enfant a été terminé par un signal N (seulement sur les systèmes POSIX).

stdout

La sortie standard capturée du processus enfant. Une séquence de bytes, ou une chaîne de caractères si run() a été appelée avec encoding, errors ou text=True. Vaut None si la sortie standard n'était pas capturée.

Si vous avez lancé le processus avec stderr=subprocess.STDOUT, les sorties standard et d'erreur seront combinées dans cet attribut, et stderr sera mis à None.

stderr

La sortie d'erreur capturée du processus enfant. Une séquence de bytes, ou une chaîne de caractères si run() a été appelée avec encoding, errors ou text=True. Vaut None si la sortie d'erreur n'était pas capturée.

check_returncode()

Si returncode n'est pas nul, lève une CalledProcessError.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

subprocess.DEVNULL

Valeur spéciale qui peut être utilisée pour les arguments stdin, stdout ou stderr de Popen et qui indique que le fichier spécial os.devnull sera utilisé.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

subprocess.PIPE

Valeur spéciale qui peut être utilisée pour les arguments stdin, stdout ou stderr de Popen et qui indique qu'un tube vers le flux standard doit être ouvert. Surtout utile avec Popen.communicate().

subprocess.STDOUT

Valeur spéciale qui peut être utilisée pour l'argument stderr de Popen et qui indique que la sortie d'erreur doit être redirigée vers le même descripteur que la sortie standard.

exception subprocess.SubprocessError

Classe de base à toutes les autres exceptions du module.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

exception subprocess.TimeoutExpired

Sous-classe de SubprocessError, levée quand un timeout expire pendant l'attente d'un processus enfant.

cmd

La commande utilisée pour instancier le processus fils.

timeout

Le timeout en secondes.

output

Sortie du processus enfant si elle a été récupérée par run() ou check_output(). Sinon, None. La sortie est toujours de type bytes quand elle est récupérée, que le paramètre text soit mis à True ou non. Si la sortie est vide, cette dernière peut être None au lieu de b''.

stdout

Alias pour output, afin d'avoir une symétrie avec stderr.

stderr

Stderr output of the child process if it was captured by run(). Otherwise, None. This is always bytes when stderr output was captured regardless of the text=True setting. It may remain None instead of b'' when no stderr output was observed.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Ajout des attributs stdout et stderr

exception subprocess.CalledProcessError

Subclass of SubprocessError, raised when a process run by check_call(), check_output(), or run() (with check=True) returns a non-zero exit status.

returncode

Code de statut du processus fils. Si le processus a été arrêté par un signal, le code sera négatif et correspondra à l'opposé du numéro de signal.

cmd

La commande utilisée pour instancier le processus fils.

output

La sortie du processus fils, si capturée par run() ou check_output(). Autrement, None.

stdout

Alias pour output, afin d'avoir une symétrie avec stderr.

stderr

La sortie d'erreur du processus fils, si capturée par run(). Autrement, None.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Ajout des attributs stdout et stderr

Arguments fréquemment utilisés

Pour gérer un large ensemble de cas, le constructeur de Popen (et les fonctions de convenance) acceptent de nombreux arguments optionnels. Pour les cas d'utilisation les plus typiques, beaucoup de ces arguments peuvent sans problème être laissés à leurs valeurs par défaut. Les arguments les plus communément nécessaires sont :

args est requis pour tous les appels et doit être une chaîne de caractères ou une séquence d'arguments du programme. Il est généralement préférable de fournir une séquence d'arguments, puisque cela permet au module de s'occuper des potentiels échappements ou guillemets autour des arguments (p. ex. pour permettre des espaces dans des noms de fichiers). Si l'argument est passé comme une simple chaîne, soit shell doit valoir True (voir ci-dessous) soit la chaîne doit simplement contenir le nom du programme à exécuter sans spécifier d'arguments supplémentaires.

stdin, stdout and stderr specify the executed program's standard input, standard output and standard error file handles, respectively. Valid values are None, PIPE, DEVNULL, an existing file descriptor (a positive integer), and an existing file object with a valid file descriptor. With the default settings of None, no redirection will occur. PIPE indicates that a new pipe to the child should be created. DEVNULL indicates that the special file os.devnull will be used. Additionally, stderr can be STDOUT, which indicates that the stderr data from the child process should be captured into the same file handle as for stdout.

Si encoding ou errors sont spécifiés, ou si text (aussi appelé universal_newlines) est vrai, les fichiers stdin, stdout et stderr seront ouverts en mode texte en utilisant les encoding et errors spécifiés à l'appel, ou les valeurs par défaut de io.TextIOWrapper.

Pour stdin, les caractères de fin de ligne '\n' de l'entrée seront convertis vers des séparateurs de ligne par défaut os.linesep. Pour stdout et stderr, toutes les fins de lignes des sorties seront converties vers '\n'. Pour plus d'informations, voir la documentation de la classe io.TextIOWrapper quand l'argument newline du constructeur est None.

Si le mode texte n'est pas utilisé, stdin, stdout et stderr seront ouverts comme des flux binaires. Aucune conversion d'encodage ou de fins de ligne ne sera réalisée.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Added the encoding and errors parameters.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Ajout du paramètre text comme alias de universal_newlines.

Note

L'attribut newlines des objets Popen.stdin, Popen.stdout et Popen.stderr ne sont pas mis à jour par la méthode Popen.communicate().

Si shell vaut True, la commande spécifiée sera exécutée à travers un shell. Cela peut être utile si vous utilisez Python pour le contrôle de flot qu'il propose par rapport à beaucoup de shells système et voulez tout de même profiter des autres fonctionnalités des shells telles que les tubes (pipes), les motifs de fichiers, l'expansion des variables d'environnement, et l'expansion du ~ vers le répertoire d’accueil de l'utilisateur. Cependant, notez que Python lui-même propose l'implémentation de beaucoup de ces fonctionnalités (en particulier glob, fnmatch, os.walk(), os.path.expandvars(), os.path.expanduser() et shutil).

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Quand universal_newlines vaut True, la classe utilise l'encodage locale.getpreferredencoding(False) plutôt que locale.getpreferredencoding(). Voir la classe io.TextIOWrapper pour plus d'informations sur ce changement.

Note

Lire la section Security Considerations avant d'utiliser shell=True.

Ces options, ainsi que toutes les autres, sont décrites plus en détails dans la documentation du constructeur de Popen.

Constructeur de Popen

La création et la gestion sous-jacentes des processus est gérée par la classe Popen. Elle offre beaucoup de flexibilité de façon à ce que les développeurs soient capables de gérer les cas d'utilisation les moins communs, non couverts par les fonctions de convenance.

class subprocess.Popen(args, bufsize=-1, executable=None, stdin=None, stdout=None, stderr=None, preexec_fn=None, close_fds=True, shell=False, cwd=None, env=None, universal_newlines=None, startupinfo=None, creationflags=0, restore_signals=True, start_new_session=False, pass_fds=(), *, group=None, extra_groups=None, user=None, umask=-1, encoding=None, errors=None, text=None, pipesize=-1, process_group=None)

Execute a child program in a new process. On POSIX, the class uses os.execvpe()-like behavior to execute the child program. On Windows, the class uses the Windows CreateProcess() function. The arguments to Popen are as follows.

args peut être une séquence d'arguments du programme, une chaîne seule ou un objet chemin. Par défaut, le programme à exécuter est le premier élément de args si args est une séquence. Si args est une chaîne de caractères, l'interprétation dépend de la plateforme et est décrite plus bas. Voir les arguments shell et executable pour d'autres différences avec le comportement par défaut. Sans autre indication, il est recommandé de passer args comme une séquence.

Avertissement

For maximum reliability, use a fully qualified path for the executable. To search for an unqualified name on PATH, use shutil.which(). On all platforms, passing sys.executable is the recommended way to launch the current Python interpreter again, and use the -m command-line format to launch an installed module.

Resolving the path of executable (or the first item of args) is platform dependent. For POSIX, see os.execvpe(), and note that when resolving or searching for the executable path, cwd overrides the current working directory and env can override the PATH environment variable. For Windows, see the documentation of the lpApplicationName and lpCommandLine parameters of WinAPI CreateProcess, and note that when resolving or searching for the executable path with shell=False, cwd does not override the current working directory and env cannot override the PATH environment variable. Using a full path avoids all of these variations.

Exemple de passage d'arguments, sous forme de séquence, à un autre programme:

Popen(["/usr/bin/git", "commit", "-m", "Fixes a bug."])

Sur les systèmes POSIX, si args est une chaîne, elle est interprétée comme le nom ou le chemin du programme à exécuter. Cependant, cela ne peut être fait que si le programme est passé sans arguments.

Note

Transformer une commande shell en une séquence de commandes peut ne pas être évident. shlex.split() permet d'illustrer comment séquencer une commande correctement pour args:

>>> import shlex, subprocess
>>> command_line = input()
/bin/vikings -input eggs.txt -output "spam spam.txt" -cmd "echo '$MONEY'"
>>> args = shlex.split(command_line)
>>> print(args)
['/bin/vikings', '-input', 'eggs.txt', '-output', 'spam spam.txt', '-cmd', "echo '$MONEY'"]
>>> p = subprocess.Popen(args) # Success!

Notez en particulier que les options (comme -input) et arguments (comme eggs.txt) qui sont séparés par des espaces dans le shell iront dans des éléments séparés de la liste, alors que les arguments qui nécessitent des guillemets et échappements quand utilisés dans le shell (comme les noms de fichiers contenant des espaces ou la commande echo montrée plus haut) forment des éléments uniques.

Sous Windows, si args est une séquence, elle sera convertie vers une chaîne de caractères de la manière décrite dans Convertir une séquence d'arguments vers une chaîne de caractères sous Windows. Cela fonctionne ainsi parce que la fonction CreateProcess() opère sur des chaînes.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Le paramètre args accepte un objet chemin si shell vaut False et une séquence contenant des objets fichier sur POSIX.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Le paramètre args accepte un objet chemin si shell vaut False et une séquence contenant des chaines d'octets et des objets chemins sur Windows.

L'argument shell (qui vaut False par défaut) spécifie s'il faut utiliser un shell comme programme à exécuter. Si shell vaut True, il est recommandé de passer args comme une chaîne de caractères plutôt qu'une séquence.

Sur les systèmes POSIX avec shell=True, le shell par défaut est /bin/sh. Si args est une chaîne de caractères, la chaîne spécifie la commande à exécuter à travers le shell. Cela signifie que la chaîne doit être formatée exactement comme elle le serait si elle était tapée dans l'invite de commandes du shell. Cela inclut, par exemple, les guillemets ou les backslashs échappant les noms de fichiers contenant des espaces. Si args est une séquence, le premier élément spécifie la commande, et les éléments supplémentaires seront traités comme des arguments additionnels à passer au shell lui-même. Pour ainsi dire, Popen réalise l'équivalent de :

Popen(['/bin/sh', '-c', args[0], args[1], ...])

Sous Windows avec shell=True, la variable d'environnement COMSPEC spécifie le shell par défaut. La seule raison pour laquelle vous devriez spécifier shell=True sous Windows est quand la commande que vous souhaitez exécuter est une built-in du shell (p. ex. dir ou copy). Vous n'avez pas besoin de shell=True pour lancer un fichier batch ou un exécutable console.

Note

Lire la section Security Considerations avant d'utiliser shell=True.

bufsize sera fourni comme l'argument correspondant à la fonction open(), lors de la création des objets de fichiers pour les tubes stdin/stdout/stderr :

0 means unbuffered (read and write are one system call and can return short)

1 means line buffered (only usable if text=True or universal_newlines=True)

toutes les autres valeurs positives indiquent d'utiliser un tampon d'approximativement cette taille ;

un bufsize négatif (par défaut) indique au système d'utiliser la valeur par défaut io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE.

Modifié dans la version 3.3.1: bufsize now defaults to -1 to enable buffering by default to match the behavior that most code expects. In versions prior to Python 3.2.4 and 3.3.1 it incorrectly defaulted to 0 which was unbuffered and allowed short reads. This was unintentional and did not match the behavior of Python 2 as most code expected.

L'argument executable spécifie un programme de remplacement à exécuter. Il est très rarement nécessaire. Quand shell=False, executable remplace le programme à exécuter spécifié par args. Cependant, les arguments originels d'args sont toujours passés au programme. La plupart des programmes traitent le programme spécifié par args comme le nom de la commande, qui peut être différent du programme réellement exécuté. Sur les systèmes POSIX, le nom tiré d'args devient le nom affiché pour l'exécutable dans des utilitaires tels que ps. Si shell=True, sur les systèmes POSIX, l'argument executable précise le shell à utiliser plutôt que /bin/sh par défaut.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: le paramètre executable accepte un objet chemin sur les systèmes POSIX.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: le paramètre executable accepte un objet bytes ou un objet chemin sur Windows.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Changed Windows shell search order for shell=True. The current directory and %PATH% are replaced with %COMSPEC% and %SystemRoot%\System32\cmd.exe. As a result, dropping a malicious program named cmd.exe into a current directory no longer works.

stdin, stdout and stderr specify the executed program's standard input, standard output and standard error file handles, respectively. Valid values are None, PIPE, DEVNULL, an existing file descriptor (a positive integer), and an existing file object with a valid file descriptor. With the default settings of None, no redirection will occur. PIPE indicates that a new pipe to the child should be created. DEVNULL indicates that the special file os.devnull will be used. Additionally, stderr can be STDOUT, which indicates that the stderr data from the applications should be captured into the same file handle as for stdout.

Si un objet appelable est passé à preexec_fn, cet objet sera appelé dans le processus enfant juste avant d'exécuter le programme. (POSIX seulement)

Avertissement

The preexec_fn parameter is NOT SAFE to use in the presence of threads in your application. The child process could deadlock before exec is called.

Note

If you need to modify the environment for the child use the env parameter rather than doing it in a preexec_fn. The start_new_session and process_group parameters should take the place of code using preexec_fn to call os.setsid() or os.setpgid() in the child.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Le paramètre preexec_fn n'est plus pris en charge dans les sous-interpréteurs. L'utilisation de ce paramètre lève RuntimeError. Cette nouvelle restriction peut affecter les applications déployées avec mod_wsgi, uWSGI et d'autres environnements qui peuvent embarquer Python.

If close_fds is true, all file descriptors except 0, 1 and 2 will be closed before the child process is executed. Otherwise when close_fds is false, file descriptors obey their inheritable flag as described in Héritage de descripteurs de fichiers.

Sur Windows, si close_fds est vrai, alors aucun descripteur n'est hérité par le processus enfant à moins d'être explicitement passé dans l'élément handle_list de STARTUPINFO.lpAttributeList, ou par redirection des descripteurs standards.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: La valeur par défaut de close_fds n'est plus False, comme décrit ci-dessus.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Sur Windows, la valeur par défaut de close_fds a été changée de False à True lors d'une redirection des descripteurs standards. Il est maintenant possible de donner la valeur True à close_fds lors d'une redirection de descripteurs standards.

pass_fds est une séquence optionnelle de descripteurs de fichiers à garder ouverts entre le parent et l'enfant. Fournir pass_fds force close_fds à valoir True. (POSIX seulement)

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Ajout du paramètre pass_fds.

If cwd is not None, the function changes the working directory to cwd before executing the child. cwd can be a string, bytes or path-like object. On POSIX, the function looks for executable (or for the first item in args) relative to cwd if the executable path is a relative path.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: le paramètre cwd accepte un objet chemin sur les systèmes POSIX.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: le paramètre cwd accepte un objet chemin sur Windows.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: le paramètre cwd accepte une séquence d'octets sur Windows

Si restore_signals est vrai (par défaut), tous les signaux que Python a mis à SIG_IGN sont restaurés à SIG_DFL dans le processus fils avant l'appel à exec. Actuellement, cela inclut les signaux SIGPIPE, SIGXFZ et SIGXFSZ. (POSIX seulement)

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Ajout de restore_signals.

If start_new_session is true the setsid() system call will be made in the child process prior to the execution of the subprocess.

Disponibilité: POSIX

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Ajout de start_new_session.

If process_group is a non-negative integer, the setpgid(0, value) system call will be made in the child process prior to the execution of the subprocess.

Disponibilité: POSIX

Modifié dans la version 3.11: process_group was added.

If group is not None, the setregid() system call will be made in the child process prior to the execution of the subprocess. If the provided value is a string, it will be looked up via grp.getgrnam() and the value in gr_gid will be used. If the value is an integer, it will be passed verbatim. (POSIX only)

Disponibilité: POSIX

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

If extra_groups is not None, the setgroups() system call will be made in the child process prior to the execution of the subprocess. Strings provided in extra_groups will be looked up via grp.getgrnam() and the values in gr_gid will be used. Integer values will be passed verbatim. (POSIX only)

Disponibilité: POSIX

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

If user is not None, the setreuid() system call will be made in the child process prior to the execution of the subprocess. If the provided value is a string, it will be looked up via pwd.getpwnam() and the value in pw_uid will be used. If the value is an integer, it will be passed verbatim. (POSIX only)

Disponibilité: POSIX

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

If umask is not negative, the umask() system call will be made in the child process prior to the execution of the subprocess.

Disponibilité: POSIX

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

If env is not None, it must be a mapping that defines the environment variables for the new process; these are used instead of the default behavior of inheriting the current process' environment. This mapping can be str to str on any platform or bytes to bytes on POSIX platforms much like os.environ or os.environb.

Note

If specified, env must provide any variables required for the program to execute. On Windows, in order to run a side-by-side assembly [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Side-by-Side_Assembly] the specified env must include a valid %SystemRoot%.

If encoding or errors are specified, or text is true, the file objects stdin, stdout and stderr are opened in text mode with the specified encoding and errors, as described above in Arguments fréquemment utilisés. The universal_newlines argument is equivalent to text and is provided for backwards compatibility. By default, file objects are opened in binary mode.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6: Ajout d'encoding et errors.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7: text a été ajouté comme un alias plus lisible de universal_newlines.

If given, startupinfo will be a STARTUPINFO object, which is passed to the underlying CreateProcess function.

If given, creationflags, can be one or more of the following flags:

CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE

CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP

ABOVE_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS

BELOW_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS

HIGH_PRIORITY_CLASS

IDLE_PRIORITY_CLASS

NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS

REALTIME_PRIORITY_CLASS

CREATE_NO_WINDOW

DETACHED_PROCESS

CREATE_DEFAULT_ERROR_MODE

CREATE_BREAKAWAY_FROM_JOB

pipesize can be used to change the size of the pipe when PIPE is used for stdin, stdout or stderr. The size of the pipe is only changed on platforms that support this (only Linux at this time of writing). Other platforms will ignore this parameter.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Added the pipesize parameter.

Les objets Popen sont gérés comme gestionnaires de contexte avec l'instruction with : à la sortie, les descripteurs de fichiers standards sont fermés, et le processus est attendu

with Popen(["ifconfig"], stdout=PIPE) as proc:
    log.write(proc.stdout.read())

Popen et les autres fonctions dans ce module qui l'utilisent lèvent un évènement d'audit subprocess.Popen avec comme arguments executable, args, cwd et env. La valeur pour args peut être une simple chaîne de caractères ou une liste de chaînes, en fonction de la plateforme.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Ajout de la gestion des gestionnaires de contexte.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Le destructeur de Popen émet maintenant un avertissement ResourceWarning si le processus fils est toujours en cours d'exécution.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Popen peut utiliser os.posix_spawn() dans certains cas pour de meilleures performances. Sur le sous-système Linux de Windows et sur QEMU en mode utilisateur, le constructeur de Popen utilisant os.posix_spawn() ne lève plus d'exception sur les erreurs comme programme manquant, mais le processus enfant échoue avec un returncode différent de zéro.

Exceptions

Les exceptions levées dans le processus fils, avant que le nouveau programme ait commencé à s'exécuter, seront ré-levées dans le parent.

The most common exception raised is OSError. This occurs, for example, when trying to execute a non-existent file. Applications should prepare for OSError exceptions. Note that, when shell=True, OSError will be raised by the child only if the selected shell itself was not found. To determine if the shell failed to find the requested application, it is necessary to check the return code or output from the subprocess.

Une ValueError sera levée si Popen est appelé avec des arguments invalides.

check_call() et check_output() lèveront une CalledProcessError si le processus appelé renvoie un code de retour non nul.

All of the functions and methods that accept a timeout parameter, such as run() and Popen.communicate() will raise TimeoutExpired if the timeout expires before the process exits.

Toutes les exceptions définies dans ce module héritent de SubprocessError.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3: Ajout de la classe de base SubprocessError.

Considérations de sécurité

Unlike some other popen functions, this library will not implicitly choose to call a system shell. This means that all characters, including shell metacharacters, can safely be passed to child processes. If the shell is invoked explicitly, via shell=True, it is the application's responsibility to ensure that all whitespace and metacharacters are quoted appropriately to avoid shell injection [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_injection#Shell_injection] vulnerabilities. On some platforms, it is possible to use shlex.quote() for this escaping.

On Windows, batch files (*.bat or *.cmd) may be launched by the operating system in a system shell regardless of the arguments passed to this library. This could result in arguments being parsed according to shell rules, but without any escaping added by Python. If you are intentionally launching a batch file with arguments from untrusted sources, consider passing shell=True to allow Python to escape special characters. See gh-114539 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114539] for additional discussion.

Objets Popen

Les instances de la classe Popen possèdent les méthodes suivantes :

Popen.poll()

Vérifie que le processus enfant s'est terminé. Modifie et renvoie l'attribut returncode, sinon, renvoie None.

Popen.wait(timeout=None)

Attend qu'un processus enfant se termine. Modifie l'attribut returncode et le renvoie.

Si le processus ne se termine pas après le nombre de secondes spécifié par timeout, une exception TimeoutExpired est levée. Cela ne pose aucun problème d'attraper cette exception et de réessayer d'attendre.

Note

Cela provoquera un blocage (deadlock) lors de l'utilisation de stdout=PIPE ou stderr=PIPE si le processus fils génère tellement de données sur le tube qu'il le bloque, en attente que le système d'exploitation permette au tampon du tube d'accepter plus de données. Utilisez Popen.communicate() pour éviter ce problème lors de l'utilisation de tubes.

Note

When the timeout parameter is not None, then (on POSIX) the function is implemented using a busy loop (non-blocking call and short sleeps). Use the asyncio module for an asynchronous wait: see asyncio.create_subprocess_exec.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Ajout de timeout.

Popen.communicate(input=None, timeout=None)

Interact with process: Send data to stdin. Read data from stdout and stderr, until end-of-file is reached. Wait for process to terminate and set the returncode attribute. The optional input argument should be data to be sent to the child process, or None, if no data should be sent to the child. If streams were opened in text mode, input must be a string. Otherwise, it must be bytes.

communicate() renvoie une paire (stdout_data, stderr_data). Les données seront des chaînes de caractères si les flux sont ouverts en mode texte, et des objets bytes dans le cas contraire.

Notez que si vous souhaitez envoyer des données sur l'entrée standard du processus, vous devez créer l'objet Popen avec stdin=PIPE. Similairement, pour obtenir autre chose que None dans le n-uplet résultant, vous devez aussi préciser stdout=PIPE et/ou stderr=PIPE.

If the process does not terminate after timeout seconds, a TimeoutExpired exception will be raised. Catching this exception and retrying communication will not lose any output. Supplying input to a subsequent post-timeout communicate() call is in undefined behavior and may become an error in the future.

Le processus enfant n'est pas tué si le timeout expire, donc afin de nettoyer proprement le tout, une application polie devrait tuer le processus fils et terminer la communication :

proc = subprocess.Popen(...)
try:
    outs, errs = proc.communicate(timeout=15)
except TimeoutExpired:
    proc.kill()
    outs, errs = proc.communicate()

After a call to communicate() raises TimeoutExpired, do not call wait(). Use an additional communicate() call to finish handling pipes and populate the returncode attribute.

Note

Les données lues sont mises en cache en mémoire, donc n'utilisez pas cette méthode si la taille des données est importante voire illimitée.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Ajout de timeout.

Popen.send_signal(signal)

Envoie le signal signal au fils.

Do nothing if the process completed.

Note

On Windows, SIGTERM is an alias for terminate(). CTRL_C_EVENT and CTRL_BREAK_EVENT can be sent to processes started with a creationflags parameter which includes CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP.

Popen.terminate()

Stop the child. On POSIX OSs the method sends SIGTERM to the child. On Windows the Win32 API function TerminateProcess() is called to stop the child.

Popen.kill()

Tue le processus fils. Sur les systèmes POSIX, la fonction envoie un signal SIGKILL au fils. Sous Windows, kill() est un alias pour terminate().

The following attributes are also set by the class for you to access. Reassigning them to new values is unsupported:

Popen.args

L'argument args tel que passé à Popen -- une séquence d'arguments du programme ou une simple chaîne de caractères.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Popen.stdin

If the stdin argument was PIPE, this attribute is a writeable stream object as returned by open(). If the encoding or errors arguments were specified or the text or universal_newlines argument was True, the stream is a text stream, otherwise it is a byte stream. If the stdin argument was not PIPE, this attribute is None.

Popen.stdout

If the stdout argument was PIPE, this attribute is a readable stream object as returned by open(). Reading from the stream provides output from the child process. If the encoding or errors arguments were specified or the text or universal_newlines argument was True, the stream is a text stream, otherwise it is a byte stream. If the stdout argument was not PIPE, this attribute is None.

Popen.stderr

If the stderr argument was PIPE, this attribute is a readable stream object as returned by open(). Reading from the stream provides error output from the child process. If the encoding or errors arguments were specified or the text or universal_newlines argument was True, the stream is a text stream, otherwise it is a byte stream. If the stderr argument was not PIPE, this attribute is None.

Avertissement

Utilisez communicate() plutôt que .stdin.write, .stdout.read ou .stderr.read pour empêcher les deadlocks dus au remplissage des tampons des tubes de l'OS et bloquant le processus enfant.

Popen.pid

L'identifiant de processus du processus enfant.

Notez que si vous passez l'argument shell à True, il s'agit alors de l'identifiant du shell instancié.

Popen.returncode

The child return code. Initially None, returncode is set by a call to the poll(), wait(), or communicate() methods if they detect that the process has terminated.

A None value indicates that the process hadn't yet terminated at the time of the last method call.

Une valeur négative -N indique que le processus enfant a été terminé par un signal N (seulement sur les systèmes POSIX).

When shell=True, the return code reflects the exit status of the shell itself (e.g. /bin/sh), which may map signals to codes such as 128+N. See the documentation of the shell (for example, the Bash manual's Exit Status) for details.

Utilitaires Popen pour Windows

La classe STARTUPINFO et les constantes suivantes sont seulement disponibles sous Windows.

class subprocess.STARTUPINFO(*, dwFlags=0, hStdInput=None, hStdOutput=None, hStdError=None, wShowWindow=0, lpAttributeList=None)

Une gestion partielle de la structure STARTUPINFO [https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms686331(v=vs.85).aspx] est utilisée lors de la création d'un objet Popen. Les attributs ci-dessous peuvent être passés en tant que paramètres keyword-only.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Ajout de la gestion des paramètres keyword-only.

dwFlags

Un champ de bits déterminant si certains attributs STARTUPINFO sont utilisés quand le processus crée une fenêtre

si = subprocess.STARTUPINFO()
si.dwFlags = subprocess.STARTF_USESTDHANDLES | subprocess.STARTF_USESHOWWINDOW

hStdInput

Si dwFlags spécifie STARTF_USESTDHANDLES, cet attribut est le descripteur d'entrée standard du processus. Si STARTF_USESTDHANDLES n'est pas spécifié, l'entrée standard par défaut est le tampon du clavier.

hStdOutput

Si dwFlags spécifie STARTF_USESTDHANDLES, cet attribut est le descripteur de sortie standard du processus. Autrement, l'attribut est ignoré et la sortie standard par défaut est le tampon de la console.

hStdError

Si dwFlags spécifie STARTF_USESTDHANDLES, cet attribut est le descripteur de sortie d'erreur du processus. Autrement, l'attribut est ignoré et la sortie d'erreur par défaut est le tampon de la console.

wShowWindow

Si dwFlags spécifie STARTF_USESHOWWINDOW, cet attribut peut-être n'importe quel attribut valide pour le paramètre nCmdShow de la fonction ShowWindow [https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms633548(v=vs.85).aspx], à l'exception de SW_SHOWDEFAULT. Autrement, cet attribut est ignoré.

SW_HIDE est fourni pour cet attribut. Il est utilisé quand Popen est appelée avec shell=True.

lpAttributeList

Dictionnaire des attributs supplémentaires pour la création d'un processus comme donnés dans STARTUPINFOEX, lisez UpdateProcThreadAttribute [https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/ms686880(v=vs.85).aspx] (ressource en anglais).

Attributs gérés :

handle_list

Séquence des descripteurs qui hérités du parent. close_fds doit être vrai si la séquence n'est pas vide.

Les descripteurs doivent être temporairement héritables par os.set_handle_inheritable() quand ils sont passés au constructeur Popen, sinon OSError est levée avec l'erreur Windows ERROR_INVALID_PARAMETER (87).

Avertissement

Dans un processus avec plusieurs fils d'exécution, faites très attention à éviter la fuite de descripteurs qui sont marqués comme héritables quand vous combinez ceci avec des appels concurrents vers des fonctions de création d'autres processus qui héritent de tous les descripteurs (telle que os.system()).

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Constantes Windows

The subprocess module exposes the following constants.

subprocess.STD_INPUT_HANDLE

Le périphérique d'entrée standard. Initialement, il s'agit du tampon de la console d'entrée, CONIN$.

subprocess.STD_OUTPUT_HANDLE

Le périphérique de sortie standard. Initialement, il s'agit du tampon de l'écran de console actif, CONOUT$.

subprocess.STD_ERROR_HANDLE

Le périphérique de sortie d'erreur. Initialement, il s'agit du tampon de l'écran de console actif, CONOUT$.

subprocess.SW_HIDE

Cache la fenêtre. Une autre fenêtre sera activée.

subprocess.STARTF_USESTDHANDLES

Spécifie que les attributs STARTUPINFO.hStdInput, STARTUPINFO.hStdOutput et STARTUPINFO.hStdError contiennent des informations additionnelles.

subprocess.STARTF_USESHOWWINDOW

Spécifie que l'attribut STARTUPINFO.wShowWindow contient des informations additionnelles.

subprocess.STARTF_FORCEONFEEDBACK

A STARTUPINFO.dwFlags parameter to specify that the Working in Background mouse cursor will be displayed while a process is launching. This is the default behavior for GUI processes.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

subprocess.STARTF_FORCEOFFFEEDBACK

A STARTUPINFO.dwFlags parameter to specify that the mouse cursor will not be changed when launching a process.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

subprocess.CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE

Le nouveau processus instancie une nouvelle console, plutôt que d'hériter de celle de son père (par défaut).

subprocess.CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP

Paramètre creationflags de Popen pour spécifier si un nouveau groupe de processus doit être créé. Cette option est nécessaire pour utiliser os.kill() sur le sous-processus.

L'option est ignorée si CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE est spécifié.

subprocess.ABOVE_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS

Paramètre creationflags de Popen pour spécifier qu'un processus aura une priorité au-dessus de la moyenne.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

subprocess.BELOW_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS

Paramètre creationflags de Popen pour spécifier qu'un processus aura une priorité au-dessous de la moyenne.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

subprocess.HIGH_PRIORITY_CLASS

Paramètre creationflags de Popen pour spécifier qu'un processus aura une priorité haute.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

subprocess.IDLE_PRIORITY_CLASS

Paramètre creationflags de Popen pour spécifier qu'un processus aura la priorité la plus basse (inactif ou idle).

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

subprocess.NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS

A Popen creationflags parameter to specify that a new process will have a normal priority. (default)

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

subprocess.REALTIME_PRIORITY_CLASS

Paramètre creationflags de Popen pour spécifier qu’un nouveau processus aura une priorité en temps réel. Vous ne devriez presque JAMAIS utiliser REALTIME_PRIORITY_CLASS, car cela interrompt les fils d’exécution système qui gèrent les entrées de la souris, du clavier et flush le cache de disque en arrière-plan. Cette classe peut convenir aux applications qui « parlent » directement au matériel ou qui effectuent de brèves tâches nécessitant des interruptions limitées.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

subprocess.CREATE_NO_WINDOW

Paramètre creationflags de Popen pour spécifier qu'un processus ne créera pas une nouvelle fenêtre.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

subprocess.DETACHED_PROCESS

Paramètre creationflags de Popen pour spécifier qu'un nouveau processus n'héritera pas de la console du processus parent. Cette valeur ne peut pas être utilisée avec CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

subprocess.CREATE_DEFAULT_ERROR_MODE

Paramètre creationflags de Popen pour spécifier qu'un nouveau processus n'hérite pas du mode de gestion des erreurs du processus appelant. À la place, le nouveau processus acquiert le mode d'erreur par défaut. Cette fonctionnalité est particulièrement utile pour les applications shell avec de multiples fils d'exécution qui s'exécutent avec les erreurs irréversibles désactivées.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

subprocess.CREATE_BREAKAWAY_FROM_JOB

Paramètre creationflags de Popen pour spécifier qu'un processus n'est pas associé au job.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Ancienne interface (API) haut-niveau

Avant Python 3.5, ces trois fonctions représentaient l'API haut-niveau de subprocess. Vous pouvez maintenant utiliser run() dans de nombreux cas, mais beaucoup de codes existant font appel à ces trois fonctions.

subprocess.call(args, *, stdin=None, stdout=None, stderr=None, shell=False, cwd=None, timeout=None, **other_popen_kwargs)

Lance la commande décrite par args, attend qu'elle se termine, et renvoie son attribut returncode.

Le code ayant besoin de capturer stdout ou stderr doit plutôt utiliser :run() :

run(...).returncode

Pour supprimer stdout ou stderr, passez la valeur DEVNULL.

Les arguments montrés plus haut sont sûrement les plus communs. La signature complète de la fonction est en grande partie la même que le constructeur de Popen : cette fonction passe tous les arguments fournis autre que timeout directement à travers cette interface.

Note

N'utilisez pas stdout=PIPE ou stderr=PIPE avec cette fonction. Le processus enfant bloquera s'il génère assez de données pour remplir le tampon du tube de l'OS, puisque les tubes ne seront jamais lus.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Ajout de timeout.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Changed Windows shell search order for shell=True. The current directory and %PATH% are replaced with %COMSPEC% and %SystemRoot%\System32\cmd.exe. As a result, dropping a malicious program named cmd.exe into a current directory no longer works.

subprocess.check_call(args, *, stdin=None, stdout=None, stderr=None, shell=False, cwd=None, timeout=None, **other_popen_kwargs)

Run command with arguments. Wait for command to complete. If the return code was zero then return, otherwise raise CalledProcessError. The CalledProcessError object will have the return code in the returncode attribute. If check_call() was unable to start the process it will propagate the exception that was raised.

Le code ayant besoin de capturer stdout ou stderr doit plutôt utiliser :run() :

run(..., check=True)

Pour supprimer stdout ou stderr, passez la valeur DEVNULL.

Les arguments montrés plus haut sont sûrement les plus communs. La signature complète de la fonction est en grande partie la même que le constructeur de Popen : cette fonction passe tous les arguments fournis autre que timeout directement à travers cette interface.

Note

N'utilisez pas stdout=PIPE ou stderr=PIPE avec cette fonction. Le processus enfant bloquera s'il génère assez de données pour remplir le tampon du tube de l'OS, puisque les tubes ne seront jamais lus.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Ajout de timeout.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Changed Windows shell search order for shell=True. The current directory and %PATH% are replaced with %COMSPEC% and %SystemRoot%\System32\cmd.exe. As a result, dropping a malicious program named cmd.exe into a current directory no longer works.

subprocess.check_output(args, *, stdin=None, stderr=None, shell=False, cwd=None, encoding=None, errors=None, universal_newlines=None, timeout=None, text=None, **other_popen_kwargs)

Lance la commande avec les arguments et renvoie sa sortie.

Si le code de retour est non-nul, la fonction lève une CalledProcessError. L'objet CalledProcessError contiendra le code de retour dans son attribut returncode, et la sortie du programme dans son attribut output.

C’est équivalent à :

run(..., check=True, stdout=PIPE).stdout

The arguments shown above are merely some common ones. The full function signature is largely the same as that of run() - most arguments are passed directly through to that interface. One API deviation from run() behavior exists: passing input=None will behave the same as input=b'' (or input='', depending on other arguments) rather than using the parent's standard input file handle.

Par défaut, cette fonction renvoie les données encodées sous forme de bytes. Le réel encodage des données de sortie peut dépendre de la commande invoquée, donc le décodage du texte devra souvent être géré au niveau de l'application.

Ce comportement peut être redéfini en mettant text, encoding, errors, ou universal_newlines à True comme décrit dans Arguments fréquemment utilisés et run().

Pour capturer aussi la sortie d'erreur dans le résultat, utilisez stderr=subprocess.STDOUT :

>>> subprocess.check_output(
...     "ls non_existent_file; exit 0",
...     stderr=subprocess.STDOUT,
...     shell=True)
'ls: non_existent_file: No such file or directory\n'

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Ajout de timeout.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Ajout de la gestion de l'argument nommé input.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Ajout d'encoding et errors. Consultez run() pour plus d'informations.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7: text a été ajouté comme un alias plus lisible de universal_newlines.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Changed Windows shell search order for shell=True. The current directory and %PATH% are replaced with %COMSPEC% and %SystemRoot%\System32\cmd.exe. As a result, dropping a malicious program named cmd.exe into a current directory no longer works.

Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module

Dans cette section, « a devient b » signifie que b peut être utilisée en remplacement de a.

Note

Toutes les fonctions « a » dans cette section échouent (plus ou moins) silencieusement si le programme à exécuter ne peut être trouvé ; les fonctions « b » de remplacement lèvent à la place une OSError.

De plus, les remplacements utilisant check_output() échoueront avec une CalledProcessError si l'opération requise produit un code de retour non-nul. La sortie est toujours disponible par l'attribut output de l'exception levée.

In the following examples, we assume that the relevant functions have already been imported from the subprocess module.

Remplacement de la substitution de commandes de terminal /bin/sh

output=$(mycmd myarg)

devient :

output = check_output(["mycmd", "myarg"])

Remplacer les pipes du shell

output=$(dmesg | grep hda)

devient :

p1 = Popen(["dmesg"], stdout=PIPE)
p2 = Popen(["grep", "hda"], stdin=p1.stdout, stdout=PIPE)
p1.stdout.close()  # Allow p1 to receive a SIGPIPE if p2 exits.
output = p2.communicate()[0]

L'appel à p1.stdout.close() après le démarrage de p2 est important pour que p1 reçoive un SIGPIPE si p2 se termine avant lui.

Alternativement, pour des entrées fiables, la gestion des tubes du shell peut directement être utilisé :

output=$(dmesg | grep hda)

devient :

output = check_output("dmesg | grep hda", shell=True)

Remplacer os.system()

sts = os.system("mycmd" + " myarg")
# becomes
retcode = call("mycmd" + " myarg", shell=True)

Notes :

Appeler le programme à travers un shell n'est habituellement pas requis.

The call() return value is encoded differently to that of os.system().

The os.system() function ignores SIGINT and SIGQUIT signals while the command is running, but the caller must do this separately when using the subprocess module.

Un exemple plus réaliste ressemblerait à cela :

try:
    retcode = call("mycmd" + " myarg", shell=True)
    if retcode < 0:
        print("Child was terminated by signal", -retcode, file=sys.stderr)
    else:
        print("Child returned", retcode, file=sys.stderr)
except OSError as e:
    print("Execution failed:", e, file=sys.stderr)

Remplacer les fonctions de la famille os.spawn

Exemple avec P_NOWAIT :

pid = os.spawnlp(os.P_NOWAIT, "/bin/mycmd", "mycmd", "myarg")
==>
pid = Popen(["/bin/mycmd", "myarg"]).pid

Exemple avec P_WAIT :

retcode = os.spawnlp(os.P_WAIT, "/bin/mycmd", "mycmd", "myarg")
==>
retcode = call(["/bin/mycmd", "myarg"])

Exemple avec un tableau :

os.spawnvp(os.P_NOWAIT, path, args)
==>
Popen([path] + args[1:])

Exemple en passant un environnement :

os.spawnlpe(os.P_NOWAIT, "/bin/mycmd", "mycmd", "myarg", env)
==>
Popen(["/bin/mycmd", "myarg"], env={"PATH": "/usr/bin"})

Replacing os.popen()

La gestion du code de retour se traduit comme suit :

pipe = os.popen(cmd, 'w')
...
rc = pipe.close()
if rc is not None and rc >> 8:
    print("There were some errors")
==>
process = Popen(cmd, stdin=PIPE)
...
process.stdin.close()
if process.wait() != 0:
    print("There were some errors")

Remplacement des fonctions originales d'invocation du shell

Ce module fournit aussi les fonctions suivantes héritées du module commands de Python 2.x. Ces opérations invoquent implicitement le shell du système et n'apportent aucune des garanties décrites ci-dessus par rapport à la sécurité ou la cohérence de la gestion des exceptions.

subprocess.getstatusoutput(cmd, *, encoding=None, errors=None)

Renvoie les valeurs (exitcode, output) de l'exécution de cmd dans un shell.

Execute the string cmd in a shell with check_output() and return a 2-tuple (exitcode, output). encoding and errors are used to decode output; see the notes on Arguments fréquemment utilisés for more details.

Si la sortie se termine par un caractère de fin de ligne, ce dernier est supprimé. Le code de statut de la commande peut être interprété comme le code de retour de subprocess. Par exemple :

>>> subprocess.getstatusoutput('ls /bin/ls')
(0, '/bin/ls')
>>> subprocess.getstatusoutput('cat /bin/junk')
(1, 'cat: /bin/junk: No such file or directory')
>>> subprocess.getstatusoutput('/bin/junk')
(127, 'sh: /bin/junk: not found')
>>> subprocess.getstatusoutput('/bin/kill $$')
(-15, '')

Disponibilité: Unix, Windows.

Modifié dans la version 3.3.4: Ajout de la gestion de Windows.

La fonction renvoie maintenant (exitcode, output) plutôt que (status, output) comme dans les versions de Python 3.3.3 ou antérieures. exitcode vaut la même valeur que returncode.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added the encoding and errors parameters.

subprocess.getoutput(cmd, *, encoding=None, errors=None)

Renvoie la sortie (standard et d'erreur) de l'exécution de cmd dans un shell.

Comme getstatusoutput(), à l'exception que le code de statut est ignoré et que la valeur de retour est une chaîne contenant la sortie de la commande. Exemple :

>>> subprocess.getoutput('ls /bin/ls')
'/bin/ls'

Disponibilité: Unix, Windows.

Modifié dans la version 3.3.4: Ajout de la gestion de Windows

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added the encoding and errors parameters.

Notes

Timeout Behavior

When using the timeout parameter in functions like run(), Popen.wait(), or Popen.communicate(), users should be aware of the following behaviors:

Process Creation Delay: The initial process creation itself cannot be interrupted on many platform APIs. This means that even when specifying a timeout, you are not guaranteed to see a timeout exception until at least after however long process creation takes.

Extremely Small Timeout Values: Setting very small timeout values (such as a few milliseconds) may result in almost immediate TimeoutExpired exceptions because process creation and system scheduling inherently require time.

Convertir une séquence d'arguments vers une chaîne de caractères sous Windows

Sous Windows, une séquence args est convertie vers une chaîne qui peut être analysée avec les règles suivantes (qui correspondent aux règles utilisées par l'environnement MS C) :

Les arguments sont délimités par des espacements, qui peuvent être des espaces ou des tabulations.

Une chaîne entourée de double guillemets est interprétée comme un argument seul, qu'elle contienne ou non des espacements. Une chaîne entre guillemets peut être intégrée dans un argument.

Un guillemet double précédé d'un backslash est interprété comme un guillemet double littéral.

Les backslashs sont interprétés littéralement, à moins qu'ils précèdent immédiatement un guillemet double.

Si des backslashs précèdent directement un guillemet double, toute paire de backslashs est interprétée comme un backslash littéral. Si le nombre de backslashs est impair, le dernier backslash échappe le prochain guillemet double comme décrit en règle 3.

Voir aussi

shlex

Module qui fournit des fonctions pour analyser et échapper les lignes de commandes.

Disable use of posix_spawn()

On Linux, subprocess defaults to using the vfork() system call internally when it is safe to do so rather than fork(). This greatly improves performance.

subprocess._USE_POSIX_SPAWN = False  # See CPython issue gh-NNNNNN.

It is safe to set this to false on any Python version. It will have no effect on older or newer versions where unsupported. Do not assume the attribute is available to read. Despite the name, a true value does not indicate the corresponding function will be used, only that it may be.

Please file issues any time you have to use these private knobs with a way to reproduce the issue you were seeing. Link to that issue from a comment in your code.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8: _USE_POSIX_SPAWN

sched --- Event scheduler

Code source : Lib/sched.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/sched.py]

The sched module defines a class which implements a general purpose event scheduler:

class sched.scheduler(timefunc=time.monotonic, delayfunc=time.sleep)

The scheduler class defines a generic interface to scheduling events. It needs two functions to actually deal with the "outside world" --- timefunc should be callable without arguments, and return a number (the "time", in any units whatsoever). The delayfunc function should be callable with one argument, compatible with the output of timefunc, and should delay that many time units. delayfunc will also be called with the argument 0 after each event is run to allow other threads an opportunity to run in multi-threaded applications.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: timefunc and delayfunc parameters are optional.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: scheduler class can be safely used in multi-threaded environments.

Exemple :

>>> import sched, time
>>> s = sched.scheduler(time.time, time.sleep)
>>> def print_time(a='default'):
...     print("From print_time", time.time(), a)
...
>>> def print_some_times():
...     print(time.time())
...     s.enter(10, 1, print_time)
...     s.enter(5, 2, print_time, argument=('positional',))
...     # despite having higher priority, 'keyword' runs after 'positional' as enter() is relative
...     s.enter(5, 1, print_time, kwargs={'a': 'keyword'})
...     s.enterabs(1_650_000_000, 10, print_time, argument=("first enterabs",))
...     s.enterabs(1_650_000_000, 5, print_time, argument=("second enterabs",))
...     s.run()
...     print(time.time())
...
>>> print_some_times()
1652342830.3640375
From print_time 1652342830.3642538 second enterabs
From print_time 1652342830.3643398 first enterabs
From print_time 1652342835.3694863 positional
From print_time 1652342835.3696074 keyword
From print_time 1652342840.369612 default
1652342840.3697174

Scheduler Objects

scheduler instances have the following methods and attributes:

scheduler.enterabs(time, priority, action, argument=(), kwargs={})

Schedule a new event. The time argument should be a numeric type compatible with the return value of the timefunc function passed to the constructor. Events scheduled for the same time will be executed in the order of their priority. A lower number represents a higher priority.

Executing the event means executing action(*argument, **kwargs). argument is a sequence holding the positional arguments for action. kwargs is a dictionary holding the keyword arguments for action.

Return value is an event which may be used for later cancellation of the event (see cancel()).

Modifié dans la version 3.3: argument parameter is optional.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: kwargs parameter was added.

scheduler.enter(delay, priority, action, argument=(), kwargs={})

Schedule an event for delay more time units. Other than the relative time, the other arguments, the effect and the return value are the same as those for enterabs().

Modifié dans la version 3.3: argument parameter is optional.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: kwargs parameter was added.

scheduler.cancel(event)

Remove the event from the queue. If event is not an event currently in the queue, this method will raise a ValueError.

scheduler.empty()

Return True if the event queue is empty.

scheduler.run(blocking=True)

Run all scheduled events. This method will wait (using the delayfunc function passed to the constructor) for the next event, then execute it and so on until there are no more scheduled events.

If blocking is false executes the scheduled events due to expire soonest (if any) and then return the deadline of the next scheduled call in the scheduler (if any).

Either action or delayfunc can raise an exception. In either case, the scheduler will maintain a consistent state and propagate the exception. If an exception is raised by action, the event will not be attempted in future calls to run().

If a sequence of events takes longer to run than the time available before the next event, the scheduler will simply fall behind. No events will be dropped; the calling code is responsible for canceling events which are no longer pertinent.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: blocking parameter was added.

scheduler.queue

Read-only attribute returning a list of upcoming events in the order they will be run. Each event is shown as a named tuple with the following fields: time, priority, action, argument, kwargs.

queue --- A synchronized queue class

Code source : Lib/queue.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/queue.py]

The queue module implements multi-producer, multi-consumer queues. It is especially useful in threaded programming when information must be exchanged safely between multiple threads. The Queue class in this module implements all the required locking semantics.

The module implements three types of queue, which differ only in the order in which the entries are retrieved. In a FIFO queue, the first tasks added are the first retrieved. In a LIFO queue, the most recently added entry is the first retrieved (operating like a stack). With a priority queue, the entries are kept sorted (using the heapq module) and the lowest valued entry is retrieved first.

En interne, ces trois types de files utilisent des verrous pour bloquer temporairement des fils d'exécution concurrents. Cependant, ils n'ont pas été conçus pour être réentrants au sein d'un fil d'exécution.

Le module implémente aussi une FIFO basique, SimpleQueue, dont l’implémentation spécialisée fournit plus de garanties au détriment des fonctionnalités.

The queue module defines the following classes and exceptions:

class queue.Queue(maxsize=0)

Constructeur pour une file FIFO. maxsize est un entier définissant le nombre maximal d'éléments pouvant être mis dans la file. L'insertion sera bloquée lorsque cette borne supérieure sera atteinte, jusqu'à ce que des éléments de la file soient consommés. Si maxsize est inférieur ou égal à 0, la taille de la file sera infinie.

class queue.LifoQueue(maxsize=0)

Constructeur pour une file LIFO. maxsize est un entier définissant le nombre maximal d'éléments pouvant être mis dans la file. L'insertion sera bloquée lorsque cette borne supérieure sera atteinte, jusqu'à ce que des éléments de la file soient consommés. Si maxsize est inférieur ou égal à 0, la taille de la file sera infinie.

class queue.PriorityQueue(maxsize=0)

Constructeur pour une file de priorité. maxsize est un entier définissant le nombre maximal d'éléments pouvant être mis dans la file. L'insertion sera bloquée lorsque cette borne supérieure sera atteinte, jusqu'à ce que des éléments soient consommés. Si maxsize est inférieur ou égal à 0, la taille de la file sera infinie.

The lowest valued entries are retrieved first (the lowest valued entry is the one that would be returned by min(entries)). A typical pattern for entries is a tuple in the form: (priority_number, data).

Si les éléments de data ne sont pas comparables, les données peuvent être enveloppées dans une classe qui ignore l'élément de données et ne compare que l'ordre de priorité :

from dataclasses import dataclass, field
from typing import Any

@dataclass(order=True)
class PrioritizedItem:
    priority: int
    item: Any=field(compare=False)

class queue.SimpleQueue

Constructeur d'une file illimitée FIFO. Les simples files d'attente ne possèdent pas de fonctionnalités avancées telles que le suivi des tâches.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

exception queue.Empty

Exception levée lorsque la méthode non bloquante get() (ou get_nowait()) est appelée sur l'objet Queue vide.

exception queue.Full

Exception levée lorsque la méthode non bloquante put() (ou put_nowait()) est appelée sur un objet Queue plein.

exception queue.ShutDown

Exception raised when put() or get() is called on a Queue object which has been shut down.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Objets Queue

Les objets Queue (Queue, LifoQueue ou PriorityQueue) fournissent les méthodes publiques décrites ci-dessous.

Queue.qsize()

Renvoie la taille approximative de la file. Notez que qsize() > 0 ne garantit pas qu'un get() ultérieur ne sera pas bloquant et que qsize() < maxsize ne garantit pas non plus qu'un put() ne sera pas bloquant.

Queue.empty()

Renvoie True si la file est vide, False sinon. Si empty() renvoie True, cela ne garantit pas qu'un appel ultérieur à put() ne sera pas bloquant. Similairement, si empty() renvoie False, cela ne garantit pas qu'un appel ultérieur à get() ne sera pas bloquant.

Queue.full()

Renvoie True si la file est pleine, False sinon. Si full() renvoie True, cela ne garantit pas qu'un appel ultérieur à get() ne sera pas bloquant. Similairement, si full() retourne False, cela ne garantit pas qu'un appel ultérieur à put() ne sera pas bloquant.

Queue.put(item, block=True, timeout=None)

Put item into the queue. If optional args block is true and timeout is None (the default), block if necessary until a free slot is available. If timeout is a positive number, it blocks at most timeout seconds and raises the Full exception if no free slot was available within that time. Otherwise (block is false), put an item on the queue if a free slot is immediately available, else raise the Full exception (timeout is ignored in that case).

Raises ShutDown if the queue has been shut down.

Queue.put_nowait(item)

Equivalent to put(item, block=False).

Queue.get(block=True, timeout=None)

Retire et renvoie un élément de la file. Si les arguments optionnels block et timeout valent respectivement True et None (les valeurs par défaut), la méthode bloque si nécessaire jusqu'à ce qu'un élément soit disponible. Si timeout est un entier positif, elle bloque au plus timeout secondes et lève l'exception Empty s'il n'y avait pas d'élément disponible pendant cette période de temps. Sinon (block vaut False), elle renvoie un élément s'il y en a un immédiatement disponible. Si ce n'est pas le cas, elle lève l'exception Empty (timeout est ignoré dans ce cas).

Prior to 3.0 on POSIX systems, and for all versions on Windows, if block is true and timeout is None, this operation goes into an uninterruptible wait on an underlying lock. This means that no exceptions can occur, and in particular a SIGINT will not trigger a KeyboardInterrupt.

Raises ShutDown if the queue has been shut down and is empty, or if the queue has been shut down immediately.

Queue.get_nowait()

Équivalent à get(False).

Deux méthodes sont proposées afin de savoir si les tâches mises dans la file ont été entièrement traitées par les fils d'exécution consommateurs du démon.

Queue.task_done()

Indique qu'une tâche précédemment mise dans la file est terminée. Utilisé par les fils d'exécution consommateurs de la file. Pour chaque appel à get() effectué afin de récupérer une tâche, un appel ultérieur à task_done() informe la file que le traitement de la tâche est terminé.

Si un join() est actuellement bloquant, on reprendra lorsque tous les éléments auront été traités (ce qui signifie qu'un appel à task_done() a été effectué pour chaque élément qui a été put() dans la file).

Lève une exception ValueError si appelée plus de fois qu'il y avait d'éléments dans la file.

Queue.join()

Bloque jusqu'à ce que tous les éléments de la file aient été obtenus et traités.

The count of unfinished tasks goes up whenever an item is added to the queue. The count goes down whenever a consumer thread calls task_done() to indicate that the item was retrieved and all work on it is complete. When the count of unfinished tasks drops to zero, join() unblocks.

Waiting for task completion

Exemple montrant comment attendre que les tâches mises dans la file soient terminées :

import threading
import queue

q = queue.Queue()

def worker():
    while True:
        item = q.get()
        print(f'Working on {item}')
        print(f'Finished {item}')
        q.task_done()

# Turn-on the worker thread.
threading.Thread(target=worker, daemon=True).start()

# Send thirty task requests to the worker.
for item in range(30):
    q.put(item)

# Block until all tasks are done.
q.join()
print('All work completed')

Terminating queues

When no longer needed, Queue objects can be wound down until empty or terminated immediately with a hard shutdown.

Queue.shutdown(immediate=False)

Put a Queue instance into a shutdown mode.

The queue can no longer grow. Future calls to put() raise ShutDown. Currently blocked callers of put() will be unblocked and will raise ShutDown in the formerly blocked thread.

If immediate is false (the default), the queue can be wound down normally with get() calls to extract tasks that have already been loaded.

And if task_done() is called for each remaining task, a pending join() will be unblocked normally.

Once the queue is empty, future calls to get() will raise ShutDown.

If immediate is true, the queue is terminated immediately. The queue is drained to be completely empty and the count of unfinished tasks is reduced by the number of tasks drained. If unfinished tasks is zero, callers of join() are unblocked. Also, blocked callers of get() are unblocked and will raise ShutDown because the queue is empty.

Use caution when using join() with immediate set to true. This unblocks the join even when no work has been done on the tasks, violating the usual invariant for joining a queue.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Objets SimpleQueue

Les objets SimpleQueue fournissent les méthodes publiques décrites ci-dessous.

SimpleQueue.qsize()

Renvoie la taille approximative de la file. Notez que qsize() > 0 ne garantit pas qu'un get() ultérieur ne soit pas bloquant.

SimpleQueue.empty()

Return True if the queue is empty, False otherwise. If empty() returns False it doesn't guarantee that a subsequent call to get() will not block.

SimpleQueue.put(item, block=True, timeout=None)

Met item dans la file. La méthode ne bloque jamais et aboutit toujours (sauf en cas de potentielles erreurs de bas niveau, telles qu'un échec d'allocation de mémoire). Les arguments optionnels block et timeout sont ignorés et fournis uniquement pour la compatibilité avec Queue.put().

Particularité de l'implémentation CPython : This method has a C implementation which is reentrant. That is, a put() or get() call can be interrupted by another put() call in the same thread without deadlocking or corrupting internal state inside the queue. This makes it appropriate for use in destructors such as __del__ methods or weakref callbacks.

SimpleQueue.put_nowait(item)

Equivalent to put(item, block=False), provided for compatibility with Queue.put_nowait().

SimpleQueue.get(block=True, timeout=None)

Retire et renvoie un élément de la file. Si les arguments optionnels block et timeout valent respectivement True et None (les valeurs par défaut), la méthode bloque si nécessaire jusqu'à ce qu'un élément soit disponible. Si timeout est un entier positif, elle bloque au plus timeout secondes et lève l'exception Empty s'il n'y avait pas d'élément disponible pendant cette période de temps. Sinon (block vaut False), elle renvoie un élément s'il y en a un immédiatement disponible. Si ce n'est pas le cas, elle lève l'exception Empty (timeout est ignoré dans ce cas).

SimpleQueue.get_nowait()

Équivalent à get(False).

Voir aussi

Classe multiprocessing.Queue

Une file à utiliser dans un contexte multi-processus (plutôt que multi-thread).

collections.deque est une implémentation alternative de file non bornée avec des méthodes append() et popleft() rapides et atomiques ne nécessitant pas de verrouillage et prenant également en charge l'indexation.

contextvars --- Context Variables

Ce module fournit des API pour gérer, stocker et accéder à l'état local de contexte. La classe ContextVar est utilisée pour déclarer et travailler avec les Variables de contexte. La fonction copy_context() et la classe Context doivent être utilisées pour la gestion du contexte actuel dans les cadriciels asynchrones.

Context managers that have state should use Context Variables instead of threading.local() to prevent their state from bleeding to other code unexpectedly, when used in concurrent code.

Voir aussi PEP 567 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/] pour plus de détails.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Variables de contexte

class contextvars.ContextVar(name[, *, default])

Cette classe est utilisée pour déclarer une nouvelle variable de contexte, p. ex :

var: ContextVar[int] = ContextVar('var', default=42)

Le paramètre requis name est utilisé à des fins d'introspection et de débogage.

Le paramètre nommé default est renvoyé par ContextVar.get() quand aucune valeur n'est trouvée dans le contexte actuel pour la variable.

Important : les variables de contexte doivent être créées au plus haut niveau du module et jamais dans des fermetures (closures). Les objets Context maintiennent des références fortes aux variables de contexte ce qui empêche que les variables de contexte soient correctement nettoyées par le ramasse-miette.

name

Nom de la variable. Cette propriété est en lecture seule.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.1.

get([default])

Renvoie la valeur de la variable de contexte pour le contexte actuel.

S'il n'y a pas de valeur pour la variable dans le contexte actuel, la méthode :

renvoie la valeur de l'argument default passé à la méthode, s'il a été fourni ;

ou renvoie la valeur par défaut de la variable de contexte, si elle a été créée avec une valeur par défaut ;

ou lève une erreur LookupError.

set(value)

Assigne une nouvelle valeur à la variable de contexte dans le contexte actuel.

L'argument requis value est la nouvelle valeur pour la variable de contexte.

Renvoie un objet Token qui peut être utilisé pour rétablir la variable à sa valeur précédente par la méthode ContextVar.reset().

For convenience, the token object can be used as a context manager to avoid calling ContextVar.reset() manually:

var = ContextVar('var', default='default value')

with var.set('new value'):
    assert var.get() == 'new value'

assert var.get() == 'default value'

It is a shorthand for:

var = ContextVar('var', default='default value')

token = var.set('new value')
try:
    assert var.get() == 'new value'
finally:
    var.reset(token)

assert var.get() == 'default value'

Ajouté dans la version 3.14: Added support for using tokens as context managers.

reset(token)

Réinitialise la variable de contexte à la valeur qu'elle avait avant l'appel de ContextVar.set() qui a créé le token.

Par exemple :

var = ContextVar('var')

token = var.set('new value')
# code that uses 'var'; var.get() returns 'new value'.
var.reset(token)

# After the reset call the var has no value again, so
# var.get() would raise a LookupError.

The same token cannot be used twice.

class contextvars.Token

Token objects are returned by the ContextVar.set() method. They can be passed to the ContextVar.reset() method to revert the value of the variable to what it was before the corresponding set. A single token cannot reset a context variable more than once.

Tokens support the context manager protocol to automatically reset context variables. See ContextVar.set().

Ajouté dans la version 3.14: Added support for usage as a context manager.

var

Propriété en lecture seule. Pointe vers l'objet ContextVar qui a créé le token.

old_value

A read-only property. Set to the value the variable had before the ContextVar.set() method call that created the token. It points to Token.MISSING if the variable was not set before the call.

MISSING

Objet marqueur utilisé par Token.old_value.

Gestion de contexte manuelle

contextvars.copy_context()

Renvoie une copie de l'objet Context actuel.

Le fragment de code qui suit obtient une copie du contexte actuel et affiche toutes les variables avec leurs valeurs définies dans ce contexte :

ctx: Context = copy_context()
print(list(ctx.items()))

The function has an O(1) complexity, i.e. works equally fast for contexts with a few context variables and for contexts that have a lot of them.

class contextvars.Context

Tableau associatif entre ContextVars et leurs valeurs.

Context() crée un contexte vide ne contenant aucune valeur. Pour obtenir une copie du contexte actuel, utilisez la fonction copy_context().

Each thread has its own effective stack of Context objects. The current context is the Context object at the top of the current thread's stack. All Context objects in the stacks are considered to be entered.

Entering a context, which can be done by calling its run() method, makes the context the current context by pushing it onto the top of the current thread's context stack.

Exiting from the current context, which can be done by returning from the callback passed to the run() method, restores the current context to what it was before the context was entered by popping the context off the top of the context stack.

Since each thread has its own context stack, ContextVar objects behave in a similar fashion to threading.local() when values are assigned in different threads.

Attempting to enter an already entered context, including contexts entered in other threads, raises a RuntimeError.

After exiting a context, it can later be re-entered (from any thread).

Any changes to ContextVar values via the ContextVar.set() method are recorded in the current context. The ContextVar.get() method returns the value associated with the current context. Exiting a context effectively reverts any changes made to context variables while the context was entered (if needed, the values can be restored by re-entering the context).

Context implémente l'interface collections.abc.Mapping.

run(callable, *args, **kwargs)

Enters the Context, executes callable(*args, **kwargs), then exits the Context. Returns callable's return value, or propagates an exception if one occurred.

Example:

import contextvars

var = contextvars.ContextVar('var')
var.set('spam')
print(var.get())  # 'spam'

ctx = contextvars.copy_context()

def main():
    # 'var' was set to 'spam' before
    # calling 'copy_context()' and 'ctx.run(main)', so:
    print(var.get())  # 'spam'
    print(ctx[var])  # 'spam'

    var.set('ham')

    # Now, after setting 'var' to 'ham':
    print(var.get())  # 'ham'
    print(ctx[var])  # 'ham'

# Any changes that the 'main' function makes to 'var'
# will be contained in 'ctx'.
ctx.run(main)

# The 'main()' function was run in the 'ctx' context,
# so changes to 'var' are contained in it:
print(ctx[var])  # 'ham'

# However, outside of 'ctx', 'var' is still set to 'spam':
print(var.get())  # 'spam'

copy()

Renvoie une copie superficielle de l'objet de contexte.

var in context

Renvoie True si le context a une valeur pour var ; sinon renvoie False.

context[var]

Renvoie la valeur de la variable ContextVar var. Si la variable n'est pas définie dans l'objet de contexte, une KeyError est levée.

get(var[, default])

Renvoie la valeur de var si var possède une valeur dans l'objet de contexte. Renvoie default sinon (ou None si default n'est pas donné).

iter(context)

Renvoie un itérateur sur les variables stockées dans l'objet de contexte.

len(proxy)

Renvoie le nombre de variables définies dans l'objet de contexte.

keys()

Renvoie une liste de toutes les variables dans l'objet de contexte.

values()

Renvoie une liste de toutes les valeurs des variables dans l'objet de contexte.

items()

Renvoie une liste de paires contenant toutes les variables et leurs valeurs dans l'objet de contexte.

Gestion avec asyncio

asyncio gère nativement les variables de contexte et elles sont prêtes à être utilisées sans configuration supplémentaire. Par exemple, voici un serveur echo simple qui utilise une variable de contexte pour que l’adresse d'un client distant soit disponible dans le Task qui gère ce client :

import asyncio
import contextvars

client_addr_var = contextvars.ContextVar('client_addr')

def render_goodbye():
    # The address of the currently handled client can be accessed
    # without passing it explicitly to this function.

    client_addr = client_addr_var.get()
    return f'Good bye, client @ {client_addr}\r\n'.encode()

async def handle_request(reader, writer):
    addr = writer.transport.get_extra_info('socket').getpeername()
    client_addr_var.set(addr)

    # In any code that we call is now possible to get
    # client's address by calling 'client_addr_var.get()'.

    while True:
        line = await reader.readline()
        print(line)
        if not line.strip():
            break

    writer.write(b'HTTP/1.1 200 OK\r\n')  # status line
    writer.write(b'\r\n')  # headers
    writer.write(render_goodbye())  # body
    writer.close()

async def main():
    srv = await asyncio.start_server(
        handle_request, '127.0.0.1', 8081)

    async with srv:
        await srv.serve_forever()

asyncio.run(main())

# To test it you can use telnet or curl:
#     telnet 127.0.0.1 8081
#     curl 127.0.0.1:8081

_thread --- Low-level threading API

Ce module fournit les primitives de bas niveau pour travailler avec de multiples fils d'exécution (aussi appelés light-weight processes ou tasks) — plusieurs fils d'exécution de contrôle partagent leur espace de données global. Pour la synchronisation, de simples verrous (aussi appelés des mutexes ou des binary semaphores) sont fournis. Le module threading fournit une API de fils d'exécution de haut niveau, plus facile à utiliser et construite à partir de ce module.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Ce module était optionnel, il est maintenant toujours disponible.

Ce module définit les constantes et les fonctions suivantes :

exception _thread.error

Levée lors d'erreurs spécifiques aux fils d'exécution.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Ceci est à présent un synonyme de l'exception native RuntimeError.

_thread.LockType

C'est le type d'objets verrous.

_thread.start_new_thread(function, args[, kwargs])

Démarre un nouveau fils d'exécution et renvoie son identifiant. Ce fil d'exécution exécute la fonction function avec la liste d'arguments args (qui doit être un n-uplet). L'argument optionnel kwargs spécifie un dictionnaire d'arguments nommés.

Au renvoi de la fonction, le fil d'exécution quitte silencieusement.

Lorsque la fonction se termine avec une exception non gérée, sys.unraisablehook() est appelée pour gérer cette dernière. L'attribut object de l'argument hook est function. Par défaut, la trace d'appels est affichée puis le fil d'exécution se termine (mais les autres fils d'exécution continuent de s'exécuter).

Lorsque la fonction lève l'exception SystemExit, elle est ignorée silencieusement.

Raises an auditing event _thread.start_new_thread with arguments function, args, kwargs.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: sys.unraisablehook() est maintenant utilisée pour s'occuper des exceptions non gérées.

_thread.interrupt_main(signum=signal.SIGINT, /)

Simule l'effet d'un signal arrivant au fil d'exécution principal. Un fil d'exécution peut utiliser cette fonction pour interrompre le fil d'exécution principal, bien qu'une interruption immédiate ne soit pas garantie.

If given, signum is the number of the signal to simulate. If signum is not given, signal.SIGINT is simulated.

If the given signal isn't handled by Python (it was set to signal.SIG_DFL or signal.SIG_IGN), this function does nothing.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Ajout du paramètre signum pour modifier le numéro du signal.

Note

Cette fonction n'émet pas vraiment le signal, mais programme un appel du gestionnaire associé (à condition qu'il existe). Pour émettre réellement le signal, utilisez signal.raise_signal().

_thread.exit()

Lève une exception SystemExit. Quand elle n'est pas interceptée, le fil d'exécution se terminera silencieusement.

_thread.allocate_lock()

Renvoie un nouveau verrou. Les méthodes des verrous sont décrites ci-dessous. Le verrou est initialement déverrouillé.

_thread.get_ident()

Renvoie l'« identifiant de fil » du fil d'exécution courant. C'est un entier non nul. Sa valeur n'a pas de signification directe ; il est destiné à être utilisé comme cookie magique, par exemple pour indexer un dictionnaire de données pour chaque fil. Les identifiants de fils peuvent être recyclés lorsqu'un fil d'exécution se termine et qu'un autre fil est créé.

_thread.get_native_id()

Renvoie l'identifiant natif complet assigné par le noyau du fil d'exécution actuel. C'est un entier non négatif. Sa valeur peut uniquement être utilisée pour identifier ce fil d'exécution à l'échelle du système (jusqu'à ce que le fil d'exécution se termine, après quoi la valeur peut être recyclée par le système d'exploitation).

Disponibilité: Windows, FreeBSD, Linux, macOS, OpenBSD, NetBSD, AIX, DragonFlyBSD, GNU/kFreeBSD.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added support for GNU/kFreeBSD.

_thread.stack_size([size])

Renvoie la taille de la pile d'exécution utilisée lors de la création de nouveaux fils d'exécution. L'argument optionnel size spécifie la taille de pile à utiliser pour les fils créés ultérieurement, et doit être à 0 (pour utiliser la taille de la plate-forme ou la valeur configurée par défaut) ou un entier positif supérieur ou égal à 32 768 (32 Kio). Si size n'est pas spécifié, 0 est utilisé. Si la modification de la taille de la pile de fils n'est pas prise en charge, une exception RuntimeError est levée. Si la taille de la pile spécifiée n'est pas valide, une exception ValueError est levée et la taille de la pile n'est pas modifiée. 32 Kio est actuellement la valeur minimale de taille de la pile prise en charge pour garantir un espace de pile suffisant pour l'interpréteur lui-même. Notez que certaines plates-formes peuvent avoir des restrictions particulières sur les valeurs de taille de la pile, telles que l'exigence d'une taille de pile minimale > 32 Kio ou d'une allocation en multiples de la taille de page de la mémoire du système – la documentation de la plate-forme devrait être consultée pour plus d'informations (4 Kio sont courants ; en l'absence de renseignements plus spécifiques, l'approche suggérée est l'utilisation de multiples de 4 096 octets pour la taille de la pile).

Disponibilité: Windows, pthreads.

Unix platforms with POSIX threads support.

_thread.TIMEOUT_MAX

The maximum value allowed for the timeout parameter of Lock.acquire. Specifying a timeout greater than this value will raise an OverflowError.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Les verrous ont les méthodes suivantes :

lock.acquire(blocking=True, timeout=-1)

Sans aucun argument optionnel, cette méthode acquiert le verrou inconditionnellement, et si nécessaire attend jusqu'à ce qu'il soit relâché par un autre fil d'exécution (un seul fil d'exécution à la fois peut acquérir le verrou — c'est leur raison d'être).

If the blocking argument is present, the action depends on its value: if it is false, the lock is only acquired if it can be acquired immediately without waiting, while if it is true, the lock is acquired unconditionally as above.

If the floating-point timeout argument is present and positive, it specifies the maximum wait time in seconds before returning. A negative timeout argument specifies an unbounded wait. You cannot specify a timeout if blocking is false.

La valeur renvoyée est True si le verrou est acquis avec succès, sinon False.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Le paramètre timeout est nouveau.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Le verrou acquis peut maintenant être interrompu par des signaux sur POSIX.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Lock acquires can now be interrupted by signals on Windows.

lock.release()

Relâche le verrou. Le verrou doit avoir été acquis plus tôt, mais pas nécessairement par le même fil d'exécution.

lock.locked()

Renvoie le statut du verrou : True s'il a été acquis par certains fils d'exécution, sinon False.

En plus de ces méthodes, les objets verrous peuvent aussi être utilisés via l'instruction with, e.g :

import _thread

a_lock = _thread.allocate_lock()

with a_lock:
    print("a_lock is locked while this executes")

Avertissements :

Interrupts always go to the main thread (the KeyboardInterrupt exception will be received by that thread.)

Appeler la fonction sys.exit() ou lever l'exception SystemExit est équivalent à appeler la fonction _thread.exit().

Quand le fil d'exécution principal s'arrête, il est défini par le système si les autres fils d'exécution survivent. Sur beaucoup de systèmes, ils sont tués sans l'exécution des clauses try… finally ou l'exécution des destructeurs d'objets.

Réseau et communication entre processus

Les modules décrits dans ce chapitre fournissent différents mécanismes de mise en réseau et de communication entre processus.

Certains de ces modules ne fonctionnent que pour deux processus sur une seule machine, comme les modules signal et mmap. D'autres gèrent des protocoles réseaux que deux processus, ou plus, peuvent utiliser pour communiquer entre différentes machines.

La liste des modules documentés dans ce chapitre est :

asyncio --- Asynchronous I/O

socket --- Low-level networking interface

ssl --- TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

select --- Waiting for I/O completion

selectors --- High-level I/O multiplexing

signal --- Set handlers for asynchronous events

mmap --- Memory-mapped file support

asyncio --- Asynchronous I/O

Hello World !

import asyncio

async def main():
    print('Hello ...')
    await asyncio.sleep(1)
    print('... World!')

asyncio.run(main())

asyncio est une bibliothèque permettant de faire de la programmation asynchrone en utilisant la syntaxe async/await.

asyncio constitue la base de nombreux cadriciels (frameworks) Python asynchrones qui fournissent des utilitaires réseau et des serveurs web performants, des bibliothèques de connexion à des bases de données, des files d'exécution distribuées, etc.

asyncio est souvent le bon choix pour écrire du code réseau de haut-niveau et tributaire des entrées-sorties (IO-bound).

Voir aussi

A Conceptual Overview of asyncio

Explanation of the fundamentals of asyncio.

asyncio fournit des interfaces de programmation haut-niveau pour :

exécuter des coroutines Python de manière concurrente et d'avoir le contrôle total sur leur exécution ;

effectuer des entrées/sorties réseau et de la communication inter-processus ;

contrôler des sous-processus ;

distribuer des tâches avec des queues ;

synchroniser du code s'exécutant de manière concurrente ;

En plus, il existe des bibliothèques de bas-niveau pour que les développeurs de bibliothèques et de frameworks puissent :

create and manage event loops, which provide asynchronous APIs for networking, running subprocesses, handling OS signals, etc;

implémenter des protocoles efficaces à l'aide de transports ;

lier des bibliothèques basées sur les fonctions de rappel et développer avec la syntaxe async/await.

Disponibilité: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly. See Plateformes WebAssembly for more information.

asyncio REPL

You can experiment with an asyncio concurrent context in the REPL:

$ python -m asyncio
asyncio REPL ...
Use "await" directly instead of "asyncio.run()".
Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
>>> import asyncio
>>> await asyncio.sleep(10, result='hello')
'hello'

This REPL provides limited compatibility with PYTHON_BASIC_REPL. It is recommended that the default REPL is used for full functionality and the latest features.

Lève un évènement d'audit cpython.run_stdin sans argument.

Modifié dans la version 3.12.5: (also 3.11.10, 3.10.15, 3.9.20, and 3.8.20) Emits audit events.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Uses PyREPL if possible, in which case PYTHONSTARTUP is also executed. Emits audit events.

Sommaire

Bibliothèques de haut-niveau

Exécuteurs (runners)

Coroutines and tasks

Flux (streams)

Primitives de synchronisation

Sous-processus

Files d'attente (queues)

Exceptions

Call Graph Introspection

Bibliothèques de bas-niveau

Event loop

Futures

Transports et Protocoles

Politiques

Prise en charge de la plate-forme

Extension

Guides et tutoriels

Index de l'API de haut niveau

Index de l'API de bas niveau

Programmer avec asyncio

Note

Le code source d'asyncio est disponible dans Lib/asyncio/ [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/asyncio/].

Exécuteurs (runners)

Code source : Lib/asyncio/runners.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/asyncio/runners.py]

Cette section décrit les primitives asyncio de haut niveau pour exécuter du code asynchrone.

Elles sont construites au-dessus d'une boucle d'événements dans le but de simplifier l'utilisation du code asynchrone pour les scénarios les plus courants.

Exécution d'un programme asynchrone

Gestionnaire de contexte de l'exécuteur

Gestion de l'interruption par le clavier

Exécution d'un programme asynchrone

asyncio.run(coro, *, debug=None, loop_factory=None)

Execute coro in an asyncio event loop and return the result.

The argument can be any awaitable object.

This function runs the awaitable, taking care of managing the asyncio event loop, finalizing asynchronous generators, and closing the executor.

Cette fonction ne peut pas être appelée lorsqu'une autre boucle d'événement asynchrone est en cours d'exécution dans le même fil d'exécution.

Si debug vaut True, la boucle d'événements est exécutée en mode débogage. False désactive explicitement le mode débogage. None est utilisée pour respecter les paramètres globaux définis par Mode débogage.

If loop_factory is not None, it is used to create a new event loop; otherwise asyncio.new_event_loop() is used. The loop is closed at the end. This function should be used as a main entry point for asyncio programs, and should ideally only be called once. It is recommended to use loop_factory to configure the event loop instead of policies. Passing asyncio.EventLoop allows running asyncio without the policy system.

The executor is given a timeout duration of 5 minutes to shutdown. If the executor hasn't finished within that duration, a warning is emitted and the executor is closed.

Exemple :

async def main():
    await asyncio.sleep(1)
    print('hello')

asyncio.run(main())

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: mise à jour pour utiliser loop.shutdown_default_executor().

Modifié dans la version 3.10: debug vaut None par défaut pour respecter les paramètres du mode de débogage global.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added loop_factory parameter.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: coro can be any awaitable object.

Note

The asyncio policy system is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.16; from there on, an explicit loop_factory is needed to configure the event loop.

Gestionnaire de contexte de l'exécuteur

class asyncio.Runner(*, debug=None, loop_factory=None)

Gestionnaire de contexte englobant plusieurs appels de fonctions asynchrones dans le même contexte.

Parfois, plusieurs fonctions asynchrones de niveau supérieur doivent être appelées dans la même boucle d'événements et le même contextvars.Context.

Si debug vaut True, la boucle d'événements est exécutée en mode débogage. False désactive explicitement le mode débogage. None est utilisée pour respecter les paramètres globaux définis par Mode débogage.

loop_factory peut être utilisée pour remplacer la création de la boucle. loop_factory a la responsabilité de définir la boucle créée comme boucle courante. Par défaut asyncio.new_event_loop() est utilisée et définie comme boucle d'événements actuelle avec asyncio.set_event_loop() si loop_factory vaut None.

Basically, asyncio.run() example can be rewritten with the runner usage:

async def main():
    await asyncio.sleep(1)
    print('hello')

with asyncio.Runner() as runner:
    runner.run(main())

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

run(coro, *, context=None)

Execute coro in the embedded event loop.

The argument can be any awaitable object.

If the argument is a coroutine, it is wrapped in a Task.

An optional keyword-only context argument allows specifying a custom contextvars.Context for the code to run in. The runner's default context is used if context is None.

Returns the awaitable's result or raises an exception.

Cette fonction ne peut pas être appelée lorsqu'une autre boucle d'événement asynchrone est en cours d'exécution dans le même fil d'exécution.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: coro can be any awaitable object.

close()

Termine l'exécuteur.

Finalise les générateurs asynchrones, arrête l'exécuteur par défaut, ferme la boucle d'événements et libère le contextvars.Context en cours.

get_loop()

Renvoie la boucle d'événements associée à l'instance de l'exécuteur.

Note

Runner utilise la stratégie d'initialisation paresseuse, son constructeur n'initialise pas les structures de bas niveau sous-jacentes.

La boucle d'événements loop et le context intégrés sont créés à l'entrée du corps de with ou au premier appel de run() ou get_loop().

Gestion de l'interruption par le clavier

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

Lorsque signal.SIGINT est déclenché par Ctrl-C, l'exception KeyboardInterrupt est levée par défaut dans le fils d'exécution principal. Cependant, cela ne fonctionne pas avec asyncio car cela peut interrompre le fonctionnement interne de asyncio et empêcher le programme de se terminer.

Pour contrer ce problème, asyncio gère signal.SIGINT comme suit :

asyncio.Runner.run() installe un gestionnaire signal.SIGINT personnalisé avant l'exécution de tout code utilisateur et le supprime à la sortie de la fonction.

Le Runner crée la tâche principale pour la coroutine transmise pour son exécution.

Lorsque signal.SIGINT est déclenché par Ctrl-C, le gestionnaire de signal personnalisé annule la tâche principale en appelant asyncio.Task.cancel() qui lève asyncio.CancelledError à l'intérieur de la tâche principale. Cela entraîne la remontée dans la pile Python, les blocs try/except et try/finally peuvent être utilisés pour le nettoyage des ressources. Une fois la tâche principale annulée, asyncio.Runner.run() lève KeyboardInterrupt.

Un utilisateur peut écrire une boucle tellement petite qu'elle ne peut pas être interrompue par asyncio.Task.cancel() ; dans ce cas la seconde suivante Ctrl-C lève immédiatement le KeyboardInterrupt sans annuler la tâche principale.

Coroutines and tasks

Cette section donne un aperçu des API de haut-niveau du module asyncio pour utiliser les coroutines et les tâches.

Coroutines

Attendables

Creating tasks

Task cancellation

Task groups

Attente

Running tasks concurrently

Eager task factory

Shielding from cancellation

Délais d'attente

Waiting primitives

Running in threads

Scheduling from other threads

Introspection

Task object

Coroutines

Code source : Lib/asyncio/coroutines.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/asyncio/coroutines.py]

Les coroutines déclarées avec la syntaxe async/await sont la manière privilégiée d’écrire des applications asynchrones. Par exemple, l’extrait de code suivant affiche « hello », attend une seconde et affiche ensuite « world » :

>>> import asyncio

>>> async def main():
...     print('hello')
...     await asyncio.sleep(1)
...     print('world')

>>> asyncio.run(main())
hello
world

Remarquez que simplement appeler une coroutine ne la planifie pas pour exécution :

>>> main()
<coroutine object main at 0x1053bb7c8>

Pour réellement exécuter une coroutine, asyncio fournit les mécanismes suivants :

La fonction asyncio.run() pour exécuter la fonction « main() », le point d'entrée de haut-niveau (voir l'exemple ci-dessus).

Attendre une coroutine. Le morceau de code suivant attend une seconde, affiche « hello », attend 2 secondes supplémentaires, puis affiche enfin « world » :

import asyncio
import time

async def say_after(delay, what):
    await asyncio.sleep(delay)
    print(what)

async def main():
    print(f"started at {time.strftime('%X')}")

    await say_after(1, 'hello')
    await say_after(2, 'world')

    print(f"finished at {time.strftime('%X')}")

asyncio.run(main())

Sortie attendue :

started at 17:13:52
hello
world
finished at 17:13:55

La fonction asyncio.create_task() pour exécuter de manière concurrente des coroutines en tant que tâches asyncio.

Modifions l'exemple ci-dessus et lançons deux coroutines say_after de manière concurrente :

async def main():
    task1 = asyncio.create_task(
        say_after(1, 'hello'))

    task2 = asyncio.create_task(
        say_after(2, 'world'))

    print(f"started at {time.strftime('%X')}")

    # Wait until both tasks are completed (should take
    # around 2 seconds.)
    await task1
    await task2

    print(f"finished at {time.strftime('%X')}")

La sortie attendue montre à présent que ce code s'exécute une seconde plus rapidement que le précédent :

started at 17:14:32
hello
world
finished at 17:14:34

La classe asyncio.TaskGroup fournit une alternative plus moderne à create_task(). En utilisant cette API, le dernier exemple devient :

async def main():
    async with asyncio.TaskGroup() as tg:
        task1 = tg.create_task(
            say_after(1, 'hello'))

        task2 = tg.create_task(
            say_after(2, 'world'))

        print(f"started at {time.strftime('%X')}")

    # The await is implicit when the context manager exits.

    print(f"finished at {time.strftime('%X')}")

Le temps d'exécution et la sortie doivent être les mêmes que pour la version précédente.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11: asyncio.TaskGroup.

Attendables

Un objet est dit attendable (awaitable en anglais, c.-à-d. qui peut être attendu) s'il peut être utilisé dans une expression await. Beaucoup d'API d'asyncio sont conçues pour accepter des attendables.

Il existe trois types principaux d'attendables : les coroutines, les tâches et les futurs.

Coroutines

Les coroutines sont des awaitables et peuvent donc être attendues par d'autres coroutines :

import asyncio

async def nested():
    return 42

async def main():
    # Nothing happens if we just call "nested()".
    # A coroutine object is created but not awaited,
    # so it *won't run at all*.
    nested()  # will raise a "RuntimeWarning".

    # Let's do it differently now and await it:
    print(await nested())  # will print "42".

asyncio.run(main())

Important

dans cette documentation, le terme « coroutine » est utilisé pour désigner deux concepts voisins :

une fonction coroutine : une fonction async def ;

un objet coroutine : un objet renvoyé par une fonction coroutine.

Tâches

Les tâches servent à planifier des coroutines de façon à ce qu'elles s'exécutent de manière concurrente.

Lorsqu'une coroutine est encapsulée dans une tâche à l'aide de fonctions comme asyncio.create_task(), la coroutine est automatiquement planifiée pour s'exécuter prochainement :

import asyncio

async def nested():
    return 42

async def main():
    # Schedule nested() to run soon concurrently
    # with "main()".
    task = asyncio.create_task(nested())

    # "task" can now be used to cancel "nested()", or
    # can simply be awaited to wait until it is complete:
    await task

asyncio.run(main())

Futurs

Un Future est un objet attendable spécial de bas-niveau, qui représente le résultat final d'une opération asynchrone.

Quand un objet Future est attendu, cela signifie que la coroutine attendra que ce futur soit résolu à un autre endroit.

Les objets Future d'asyncio sont nécessaires pour permettre l'exécution de code basé sur les fonctions de rappel avec la syntaxe async / await.

Il est normalement inutile de créer des objets Future dans la couche applicative du code.

Les objets Future, parfois exposés par des bibliothèques et quelques API d'asyncio, peuvent être attendus :

async def main():
    await function_that_returns_a_future_object()

    # this is also valid:
    await asyncio.gather(
        function_that_returns_a_future_object(),
        some_python_coroutine()
    )

loop.run_in_executor() est l'exemple typique d'une fonction bas-niveau renvoyant un objet Future.

Creating tasks

Code source : Lib/asyncio/tasks.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/asyncio/tasks.py]

asyncio.create_task(coro, *, name=None, context=None, eager_start=None, **kwargs)

Encapsule la coroutine coro dans une tâche et la planifie pour exécution. Renvoie l'objet Task.

The full function signature is largely the same as that of the Task constructor (or factory) - all of the keyword arguments to this function are passed through to that interface.

L'argument (uniquement nommé) facultatif context permet de spécifier un contextvars.Context personnalisé pour la coroutine à exécuter. La copie de contexte actuelle est créée lorsqu'aucun context n'est fourni.

An optional keyword-only eager_start argument allows specifying if the task should execute eagerly during the call to create_task, or be scheduled later. If eager_start is not passed the mode set by loop.set_task_factory() will be used.

La tâche est exécutée dans la boucle renvoyée par get_running_loop() ; RuntimeError est levée s'il n'y a pas de boucle en cours d'exécution dans le fil actuel.

Note

asyncio.TaskGroup.create_task() is a new alternative leveraging structural concurrency; it allows for waiting for a group of related tasks with strong safety guarantees.

Important

gardez une référence au résultat de cette fonction, pour éviter qu'une tâche ne disparaisse en cours d'exécution. La boucle d'événements ne conserve que les références faibles aux tâches. Une tâche qui n'est pas référencée ailleurs peut être supprimée par le ramasse-miettes à tout moment, même avant qu'elle ne soit terminée. Pour créer des tâches d'arrière-plan fiables de type « lance et oublie », rassemblez-les dans une collection :

background_tasks = set()

for i in range(10):
    task = asyncio.create_task(some_coro(param=i))

    # Add task to the set. This creates a strong reference.
    background_tasks.add(task)

    # To prevent keeping references to finished tasks forever,
    # make each task remove its own reference from the set after
    # completion:
    task.add_done_callback(background_tasks.discard)

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: ajout du paramètre name.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: ajout du paramètre context.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Added the eager_start parameter by passing on all kwargs.

Task cancellation

Les tâches peuvent être annulées facilement et en toute sécurité. Lorsqu'une tâche est annulée, asyncio.CancelledError est levée dans la tâche à la première occasion.

Il est recommandé que les coroutines utilisent des blocs try/finally pour exécuter de manière robuste la logique de nettoyage. Dans le cas où asyncio.CancelledError est explicitement interceptée, elle devrait généralement être propagée lorsque le nettoyage est terminé. asyncio.CancelledError sous-classe directement BaseException donc la plupart du code n'a pas besoin d'en être conscient.

Les composants asyncio qui permettent la concurrence structurée, comme asyncio.TaskGroup et asyncio.timeout(), sont implémentés en utilisant l'annulation en interne et peuvent mal se comporter si une coroutine ne propage pas asyncio.CancelledError. De même, le code utilisateur ne doit généralement pas appeler uncancel. Cependant, dans les cas où la suppression de asyncio.CancelledError est vraiment souhaitée, il est également nécessaire d'appeler uncancel() pour supprimer complètement l'état d'annulation.

Task groups

Les groupes de tâches combinent une API de création de tâches avec un moyen pratique et fiable d'attendre la fin de toutes les tâches du groupe.

class asyncio.TaskGroup

Gestionnaire de contexte asynchrone responsable d’un groupe de tâches. Des tâches peuvent être ajoutées au groupe en utilisant create_task(). Toutes les tâches sont attendues à la sortie du gestionnaire de contexte.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

create_task(coro, *, name=None, context=None, eager_start=None, **kwargs)

Create a task in this task group. The signature matches that of asyncio.create_task(). If the task group is inactive (e.g. not yet entered, already finished, or in the process of shutting down), we will close the given coro.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Close the given coroutine if the task group is not active.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Passes on all kwargs to loop.create_task()

Exemple :

async def main():
    async with asyncio.TaskGroup() as tg:
        task1 = tg.create_task(some_coro(...))
        task2 = tg.create_task(another_coro(...))
    print(f"Both tasks have completed now: {task1.result()}, {task2.result()}")

L'instruction async with attend la fin de toutes les tâches du groupe. Lors de l'attente, de nouvelles tâches peuvent encore être ajoutées au groupe (par exemple, en passant tg dans l'une des coroutines et en appelant tg.create_task() dans cette coroutine). Une fois que la dernière tâche est terminée et que le bloc async with est quitté, aucune nouvelle tâche ne peut être ajoutée au groupe.

La première fois que l'une des tâches appartenant au groupe échoue avec une exception autre que asyncio.CancelledError, les tâches restantes du groupe sont annulées. Aucune autre tâche ne peut alors être ajoutée au groupe. À ce stade, si le corps de l'instruction async with est toujours actif (par exemple, __aexit__() n'a pas encore été appelé), la tâche contenant directement l'instruction async with est également annulée. Le résultat asyncio.CancelledError interrompt un await, mais il ne sort pas de l'instruction async with englobante.

Une fois toutes les tâches terminées, si des tâches ont échoué avec une exception autre que asyncio.CancelledError, ces exceptions sont combinées dans un ExceptionGroup ou BaseExceptionGroup (selon le cas ; voir leur documentation) qui est ensuite levé.

Deux exceptions de base sont traitées spécialement : si une tâche échoue avec KeyboardInterrupt ou SystemExit, le groupe de tâches annule toujours les tâches restantes et les attend, mais alors la KeyboardInterrupt ou la SystemExit initiale est levée à nouveau au lieu de ExceptionGroup ou BaseExceptionGroup.

Si le corps de l'instruction async with se termine avec une exception (donc __aexit__() est appelé avec un ensemble d'exceptions), cela est traité de la même manière que si l'une des tâches échouait : les tâches restantes sont annulées puis attendues, et les exceptions de non-annulation sont regroupées dans un groupe d'exceptions et levées. L'exception transmise à __aexit__(), à moins qu'il ne s'agisse de asyncio.CancelledError, est également incluse dans le groupe d'exceptions. Le même cas spécial concerne KeyboardInterrupt et SystemExit comme dans le paragraphe précédent.

Task groups are careful not to mix up the internal cancellation used to "wake up" their __aexit__() with cancellation requests for the task in which they are running made by other parties. In particular, when one task group is syntactically nested in another, and both experience an exception in one of their child tasks simultaneously, the inner task group will process its exceptions, and then the outer task group will receive another cancellation and process its own exceptions.

In the case where a task group is cancelled externally and also must raise an ExceptionGroup, it will call the parent task's cancel() method. This ensures that a asyncio.CancelledError will be raised at the next await, so the cancellation is not lost.

Task groups preserve the cancellation count reported by asyncio.Task.cancelling().

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Improved handling of simultaneous internal and external cancellations and correct preservation of cancellation counts.

Terminating a task group

While terminating a task group is not natively supported by the standard library, termination can be achieved by adding an exception-raising task to the task group and ignoring the raised exception:

import asyncio
from asyncio import TaskGroup

class TerminateTaskGroup(Exception):
    """Exception raised to terminate a task group."""

async def force_terminate_task_group():
    """Used to force termination of a task group."""
    raise TerminateTaskGroup()

async def job(task_id, sleep_time):
    print(f'Task {task_id}: start')
    await asyncio.sleep(sleep_time)
    print(f'Task {task_id}: done')

async def main():
    try:
        async with TaskGroup() as group:
            # spawn some tasks
            group.create_task(job(1, 0.5))
            group.create_task(job(2, 1.5))
            # sleep for 1 second
            await asyncio.sleep(1)
            # add an exception-raising task to force the group to terminate
            group.create_task(force_terminate_task_group())
    except* TerminateTaskGroup:
        pass

asyncio.run(main())

Expected output:

Task 1: start
Task 2: start
Task 1: done

Attente

async asyncio.sleep(delay, result=None)

Attend pendant delay secondes.

Si result est spécifié, il est renvoyé à l'appelant quand la coroutine se termine.

sleep() suspend systématiquement la tâche courante, ce qui permet aux autres tâches de s'exécuter.

Définir le délai sur 0 fournit un chemin optimisé pour permettre à d'autres tâches de s'exécuter. Cela peut être utilisé par les fonctions de longue durée pour éviter de bloquer la boucle d'événements pendant toute la durée de l'appel de fonction.

Exemple d'une coroutine affichant la date toutes les secondes pendant 5 secondes :

import asyncio
import datetime as dt

async def display_date():
    loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()
    end_time = loop.time() + 5.0
    while True:
        print(dt.datetime.now())
        if (loop.time() + 1.0) >= end_time:
            break
        await asyncio.sleep(1)

asyncio.run(display_date())

Modifié dans la version 3.10: le paramètre loop a été enlevé.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Raises ValueError if delay is nan.

Running tasks concurrently

awaitable asyncio.gather(*aws, return_exceptions=False)

Exécute les objets awaitable de la séquence aws, de manière concurrente.

Si un attendable de aws est une coroutine, celui-ci est automatiquement planifié comme une tâche Task.

Si tous les awaitables s'achèvent avec succès, le résultat est la liste des valeurs renvoyées. L'ordre de cette liste correspond à l'ordre des awaitables dans aws.

Si return_exceptions vaut False (valeur par défaut), la première exception levée est immédiatement propagée vers la tâche en attente dans le gather(). Les autres attendables dans la séquence aws ne sont pas annulés et poursuivent leur exécution.

Si return_exceptions vaut True, les exceptions sont traitées de la même manière que les exécutions normales, et incluses dans la liste des résultats.

Si gather() est annulé, tous les awaitables en cours (ceux qui n'ont pas encore fini de s'exécuter) sont également annulés.

Si n'importe quel Task ou Future de la séquence aws est annulé, il est traité comme s'il avait levé CancelledError — l'appel à gather() n'est alors pas annulé. Ceci permet d'empêcher que l'annulation d'une tâche ou d'un futur entraîne l'annulation des autres tâches ou futurs.

Note

A new alternative to create and run tasks concurrently and wait for their completion is asyncio.TaskGroup. TaskGroup provides stronger safety guarantees than gather for scheduling a nesting of subtasks: if a task (or a subtask, a task scheduled by a task) raises an exception, TaskGroup will, while gather will not, cancel the remaining scheduled tasks.

Exemple :

import asyncio

async def factorial(name, number):
    f = 1
    for i in range(2, number + 1):
        print(f"Task {name}: Compute factorial({number}), currently i={i}...")
        await asyncio.sleep(1)
        f *= i
    print(f"Task {name}: factorial({number}) = {f}")
    return f

async def main():
    # Schedule three calls *concurrently*:
    L = await asyncio.gather(
        factorial("A", 2),
        factorial("B", 3),
        factorial("C", 4),
    )
    print(L)

asyncio.run(main())

# Expected output:
#
#     Task A: Compute factorial(2), currently i=2...
#     Task B: Compute factorial(3), currently i=2...
#     Task C: Compute factorial(4), currently i=2...
#     Task A: factorial(2) = 2
#     Task B: Compute factorial(3), currently i=3...
#     Task C: Compute factorial(4), currently i=3...
#     Task B: factorial(3) = 6
#     Task C: Compute factorial(4), currently i=4...
#     Task C: factorial(4) = 24
#     [2, 6, 24]

Note

If return_exceptions is false, cancelling gather() after it has been marked done won't cancel any submitted awaitables. For instance, gather can be marked done after propagating an exception to the caller, therefore, calling gather.cancel() after catching an exception (raised by one of the awaitables) from gather won't cancel any other awaitables.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Si gather est lui-même annulé, l'annulation est propagée indépendamment de return_exceptions.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: le paramètre loop a été enlevé.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.10: Un avertissement d'obsolescence est émis si aucun argument positionnel n'est fourni ou si tous les arguments positionnels ne sont pas des objets de type Future et qu'il n'y a pas de boucle d'événements en cours d'exécution.

Eager task factory

asyncio.eager_task_factory(loop, coro, *, name=None, context=None)

A task factory for eager task execution.

When using this factory (via loop.set_task_factory(asyncio.eager_task_factory)), coroutines begin execution synchronously during Task construction. Tasks are only scheduled on the event loop if they block. This can be a performance improvement as the overhead of loop scheduling is avoided for coroutines that complete synchronously.

A common example where this is beneficial is coroutines which employ caching or memoization to avoid actual I/O when possible.

Note

Immediate execution of the coroutine is a semantic change. If the coroutine returns or raises, the task is never scheduled to the event loop. If the coroutine execution blocks, the task is scheduled to the event loop. This change may introduce behavior changes to existing applications. For example, the application's task execution order is likely to change.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

asyncio.create_eager_task_factory(custom_task_constructor)

Create an eager task factory, similar to eager_task_factory(), using the provided custom_task_constructor when creating a new task instead of the default Task.

custom_task_constructor must be a callable with the signature matching the signature of Task.__init__. The callable must return a asyncio.Task-compatible object.

This function returns a callable intended to be used as a task factory of an event loop via loop.set_task_factory(factory)).

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Shielding from cancellation

awaitable asyncio.shield(aw)

Empêche qu'un objet awaitable puisse être annulé.

Si aw est une coroutine, elle est planifiée automatiquement comme une tâche.

L'instruction :

task = asyncio.create_task(something())
res = await shield(task)

est équivalente à :

res = await something()

à la différence près que, si la coroutine qui la contient est annulée, la tâche s'exécutant dans something() n'est pas annulée. Du point de vue de something(), il n'y a pas eu d'annulation. Cependant, son appelant est bien annulé, donc l'expression await lève bien une CancelledError.

Si something() est annulée d'une autre façon (c.-à-d. depuis elle-même) ceci annule également shield().

Pour ignorer complètement l'annulation (déconseillé), la fonction shield() peut être combinée à une clause try / except, comme dans le code ci-dessous :

task = asyncio.create_task(something())
try:
    res = await shield(task)
except CancelledError:
    res = None

Important

sauvegardez une référence aux tâches passées à cette fonction, pour éviter qu'une tâche ne disparaisse en cours d'exécution. La boucle d'événements ne conserve que les références faibles aux tâches. Une tâche qui n'est pas référencée ailleurs peut faire l'objet d'une suppression par le ramasse-miettes à tout moment, même avant qu'elle ne soit terminée.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: le paramètre loop a été enlevé.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.10: un avertissement d'obsolescence est émis si aw n'est pas un objet de type future et qu'il n'y a pas de boucle d'événement en cours d'exécution.

Délais d'attente

asyncio.timeout(delay)

Return an asynchronous context manager that can be used to limit the amount of time spent waiting on something.

delay peut-être soit None, soit le nombre de secondes (entier ou décimal) d'attente. Si delay vaut None, aucune limite n'est appliquée ; cela peut être utile lorsque le délai d'attente est inconnu au moment de la création du gestionnaire de contexte.

Dans les deux cas, le gestionnaire de contexte peut être redéfini après sa création en utilisant Timeout.reschedule().

Exemple :

async def main():
    async with asyncio.timeout(10):
        await long_running_task()

If long_running_task takes more than 10 seconds to complete, the context manager will cancel the current task and handle the resulting asyncio.CancelledError internally, transforming it into a TimeoutError which can be caught and handled.

Note

The asyncio.timeout() context manager is what transforms the asyncio.CancelledError into a TimeoutError, which means the TimeoutError can only be caught outside of the context manager.

Example of catching TimeoutError:

async def main():
    try:
        async with asyncio.timeout(10):
            await long_running_task()
    except TimeoutError:
        print("The long operation timed out, but we've handled it.")

    print("This statement will run regardless.")

Le gestionnaire de contexte produit par asyncio.timeout() peut être reprogrammé à une échéance différente et inspecté.

class asyncio.Timeout(when)

Gestionnaire de contexte asynchrone pour annuler les coroutines en retard.

Prefer using asyncio.timeout() or asyncio.timeout_at() rather than instantiating Timeout directly.

when doit être un temps absolu au bout duquel le contexte doit expirer, tel que mesuré par l'horloge de la boucle d'événements :

Si when vaut None, le délai maximal ne se déclenche jamais.

Si when < loop.time(), le délai maximal se déclenche à la prochaine itération de la boucle d'événement.

when() → float | None

Renvoie la limite de temps d'exécution définie actuellement, ou None s'il n'y en a pas.

reschedule(when: float | None)

Reprogramme le délai d'attente.

expired() → bool

Renvoie si le gestionnaire de contexte a dépassé son délai (c.-à-d. s'il a expiré).

Exemple :

async def main():
    try:
        # We do not know the timeout when starting, so we pass ``None``.
        async with asyncio.timeout(None) as cm:
            # We know the timeout now, so we reschedule it.
            new_deadline = get_running_loop().time() + 10
            cm.reschedule(new_deadline)

            await long_running_task()
    except TimeoutError:
        pass

    if cm.expired():
        print("Looks like we haven't finished on time.")

Les gestionnaires de contexte de délai maximal peuvent être imbriqués en toute sécurité.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

asyncio.timeout_at(when)

Semblable à asyncio.timeout(), sauf que when est le temps absolu pour arrêter d'attendre, ou None.

Exemple :

async def main():
    loop = get_running_loop()
    deadline = loop.time() + 20
    try:
        async with asyncio.timeout_at(deadline):
            await long_running_task()
    except TimeoutError:
        print("The long operation timed out, but we've handled it.")

    print("This statement will run regardless.")

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

async asyncio.wait_for(aw, timeout)

Attend la fin de l'awaitable aw avec délai d'attente.

Si aw est une coroutine, elle est planifiée automatiquement comme une tâche.

timeout peut-être soit None, soit le nombre de secondes (entier ou décimal) d'attente. Si timeout vaut None, la fonction s'interrompt jusqu'à ce que le futur s'achève.

Si le délai d'attente maximal est dépassé, la tâche est annulée et l'exception TimeoutError est levée.

Pour empêcher l'annulation de la tâche, il est nécessaire de l'encapsuler dans une fonction shield().

Cette fonction attend que le futur soit réellement annulé, donc le temps d'attente total peut être supérieur à timeout. Si une exception se produit lors de l'annulation, elle est propagée.

Si l'attente est annulée, le futur aw est également annulé.

Exemple :

async def eternity():
    # Sleep for one hour
    await asyncio.sleep(3600)
    print('yay!')

async def main():
    # Wait for at most 1 second
    try:
        await asyncio.wait_for(eternity(), timeout=1.0)
    except TimeoutError:
        print('timeout!')

asyncio.run(main())

# Expected output:
#
#     timeout!

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Si le dépassement du délai d'attente maximal provoque l'annulation de aw, wait_for attend que aw soit annulée. Auparavant, l'exception TimeoutError était immédiatement levée.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: le paramètre loop a été enlevé.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Raises TimeoutError instead of asyncio.TimeoutError.

Waiting primitives

async asyncio.wait(aws, *, timeout=None, return_when=ALL_COMPLETED)

Exécute les instances Future et Task de l'itérable aws de manière concurrente, et s'interrompt jusqu'à ce que la condition décrite dans return_when soit vraie.

The aws iterable must not be empty.

Renvoie deux ensembles de Tasks / Futures : (done, pending).

Utilisation :

done, pending = await asyncio.wait(aws)

timeout (entier ou décimal), si précisé, peut-être utilisé pour contrôler le nombre maximal de secondes d'attente avant de se terminer.

Cette fonction ne lève pas TimeoutError. Les futurs et les tâches qui ne sont pas finis quand le délai d'attente maximal est dépassé sont tout simplement renvoyés dans le second ensemble.

return_when indique quand la fonction doit se terminer. Il peut prendre les valeurs suivantes :

Constante

Description

asyncio.FIRST_COMPLETED

La fonction se termine lorsque n'importe quel futur se termine ou est annulé.

asyncio.FIRST_EXCEPTION

The function will return when any future finishes by raising an exception. If no future raises an exception then it is equivalent to ALL_COMPLETED.

asyncio.ALL_COMPLETED

La fonction se termine lorsque les futurs sont tous finis ou annulés.

À la différence de wait_for(), wait() n'annule pas les futurs quand le délai d'attente est dépassé.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: le paramètre loop a été enlevé.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Passer directement des objets coroutines à wait() est interdit.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added support for generators yielding tasks.

asyncio.as_completed(aws, *, timeout=None)

Run awaitable objects in the aws iterable concurrently. The returned object can be iterated to obtain the results of the awaitables as they finish.

The object returned by as_completed() can be iterated as an asynchronous iterator or a plain iterator. When asynchronous iteration is used, the originally-supplied awaitables are yielded if they are tasks or futures. This makes it easy to correlate previously-scheduled tasks with their results. Example:

ipv4_connect = create_task(open_connection("127.0.0.1", 80))
ipv6_connect = create_task(open_connection("::1", 80))
tasks = [ipv4_connect, ipv6_connect]

async for earliest_connect in as_completed(tasks):
    # earliest_connect is done. The result can be obtained by
    # awaiting it or calling earliest_connect.result()
    reader, writer = await earliest_connect

    if earliest_connect is ipv6_connect:
        print("IPv6 connection established.")
    else:
        print("IPv4 connection established.")

During asynchronous iteration, implicitly-created tasks will be yielded for supplied awaitables that aren't tasks or futures.

When used as a plain iterator, each iteration yields a new coroutine that returns the result or raises the exception of the next completed awaitable. This pattern is compatible with Python versions older than 3.13:

ipv4_connect = create_task(open_connection("127.0.0.1", 80))
ipv6_connect = create_task(open_connection("::1", 80))
tasks = [ipv4_connect, ipv6_connect]

for next_connect in as_completed(tasks):
    # next_connect is not one of the original task objects. It must be
    # awaited to obtain the result value or raise the exception of the
    # awaitable that finishes next.
    reader, writer = await next_connect

A TimeoutError is raised if the timeout occurs before all awaitables are done. This is raised by the async for loop during asynchronous iteration or by the coroutines yielded during plain iteration.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: le paramètre loop a été enlevé.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.10: Un avertissement d'obsolescence est émis si tous les objets en attente dans l'itérable aws ne sont pas des objets de type Future et qu'il n'y a pas de boucle d'événement en cours d'exécution.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added support for generators yielding tasks.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: The result can now be used as either an asynchronous iterator or as a plain iterator (previously it was only a plain iterator).

Running in threads

async asyncio.to_thread(func, /, *args, **kwargs)

Exécute la fonction func de manière asynchrone dans un fil d'exécution séparé.

Tous les *args et **kwargs fournis à cette fonction sont directement passés à func. De plus, le contextvars.Context actuel est propagé, ce qui permet d'accéder aux variables de contexte du fil de boucle d'événements dans le fil séparé.

Renvoie une coroutine qui peut être attendue pour obtenir le résultat éventuel de func.

Cette fonction coroutine est principalement destinée à être utilisée pour exécuter des fonctions/méthodes faisant beaucoup d'entrées-sorties et qui bloqueraient autrement la boucle d'événements si elles étaient exécutées dans le fil d'exécution principal. Par exemple :

def blocking_io():
    print(f"start blocking_io at {time.strftime('%X')}")
    # Note that time.sleep() can be replaced with any blocking
    # IO-bound operation, such as file operations.
    time.sleep(1)
    print(f"blocking_io complete at {time.strftime('%X')}")

async def main():
    print(f"started main at {time.strftime('%X')}")

    await asyncio.gather(
        asyncio.to_thread(blocking_io),
        asyncio.sleep(1))

    print(f"finished main at {time.strftime('%X')}")

asyncio.run(main())

# Expected output:
#
# started main at 19:50:53
# start blocking_io at 19:50:53
# blocking_io complete at 19:50:54
# finished main at 19:50:54

Appeler directement blocking_io() dans n'importe quelle coroutine bloquerait la boucle d'événements pendant sa durée, ce qui entraînerait une seconde supplémentaire de temps d'exécution. Au lieu de cela, en utilisant asyncio.to_thread(), nous pouvons l'exécuter dans un fil d'exécution séparé sans bloquer la boucle d'événements.

Note

en raison du GIL, asyncio.to_thread() ne peut généralement être utilisée que pour rendre les fonctions faisant beaucoup d'entrées-sorties non bloquantes. Cependant, pour les modules d'extension qui relâchent le GIL ou les implémentations Python alternatives qui n'en ont pas, asyncio.to_thread() peut également être utilisée pour les fonctions qui sollicitent beaucoup le processeur.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

Scheduling from other threads

asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe(coro, loop)

Enregistre une coroutine dans la boucle d'exécution actuelle. Cette opération est compatible avec les programmes à multiples fils d'exécution (thread-safe).

Renvoie un concurrent.futures.Future pour attendre le résultat d'un autre fil d'exécution du système d'exploitation.

Cette fonction est faite pour être appelée par un fil d'exécution distinct de celui dans laquelle la boucle d'événement s'exécute. Exemple :

def in_thread(loop: asyncio.AbstractEventLoop) -> None:
    # Run some blocking IO
    pathlib.Path("example.txt").write_text("hello world", encoding="utf8")

    # Create a coroutine
    coro = asyncio.sleep(1, result=3)

    # Submit the coroutine to a given loop
    future = asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe(coro, loop)

    # Wait for the result with an optional timeout argument
    assert future.result(timeout=2) == 3

async def amain() -> None:
    # Get the running loop
    loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

    # Run something in a thread
    await asyncio.to_thread(in_thread, loop)

It's also possible to run the other way around. Example:

@contextlib.contextmanager
def loop_in_thread() -> Generator[asyncio.AbstractEventLoop]:
    loop_fut = concurrent.futures.Future[asyncio.AbstractEventLoop]()
    stop_event = asyncio.Event()

    async def main() -> None:
        loop_fut.set_result(asyncio.get_running_loop())
        await stop_event.wait()

    with concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor(1) as tpe:
        complete_fut = tpe.submit(asyncio.run, main())
        for fut in concurrent.futures.as_completed((loop_fut, complete_fut)):
            if fut is loop_fut:
                loop = loop_fut.result()
                try:
                    yield loop
                finally:
                    loop.call_soon_threadsafe(stop_event.set)
            else:
                fut.result()

# Create a loop in another thread
with loop_in_thread() as loop:
    # Create a coroutine
    coro = asyncio.sleep(1, result=3)

    # Submit the coroutine to a given loop
    future = asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe(coro, loop)

    # Wait for the result with an optional timeout argument
    assert future.result(timeout=2) == 3

Si une exception est levée dans une coroutine, le futur renvoyé en sera averti. Elle peut également être utilisée pour annuler la tâche de la boucle d'événement :

try:
    result = future.result(timeout)
except TimeoutError:
    print('The coroutine took too long, cancelling the task...')
    future.cancel()
except Exception as exc:
    print(f'The coroutine raised an exception: {exc!r}')
else:
    print(f'The coroutine returned: {result!r}')

Voir la section exécution concurrente et multi-fils d'exécution de la documentation.

À la différence des autres fonctions d'asyncio, cette fonction requiert que loop soit passé de manière explicite.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.1.

Introspection

asyncio.current_task(loop=None)

Renvoie l'instance de la Task en cours d'exécution, ou None s'il n'y a pas de tâche en cours.

Si loop vaut None, get_running_loop() est appelée pour récupérer la boucle en cours d'exécution.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

asyncio.all_tasks(loop=None)

Renvoie l'ensemble des Task non terminés en cours d'exécution dans la boucle.

Si loop vaut None, get_running_loop() est appelée pour récupérer la boucle en cours d'exécution.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

asyncio.iscoroutine(obj)

Renvoie True si obj est un objet coroutine.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Task object

class asyncio.Task(coro, *, loop=None, name=None, context=None, eager_start=False)

Objet compatible avec Future qui exécute une coroutine Python. Cet objet n'est pas utilisable dans des programmes à fils d'exécution multiples.

Les tâches servent à exécuter des coroutines dans des boucles d'événements. Si une coroutine attend un futur, la tâche interrompt son exécution et attend la fin de ce futur. Quand celui-ci est terminé, l'exécution de la coroutine encapsulée reprend.

Les boucles d'événement fonctionnent de manière coopérative : une boucle d'événement exécute une tâche à la fois. Quand une tâche attend la fin d'un futur, la boucle d'événement exécute d'autres tâches, des fonctions de rappel, ou effectue des opérations d'entrées-sorties.

La fonction de haut niveau asyncio.create_task() et les fonctions de bas-niveau loop.create_task() ou ensure_future() permettent de créer des tâches. Il est déconseillé d'instancier manuellement des objets Task.

La méthode cancel() d'une tâche en cours d'exécution permet d'annuler celle-ci. L'appel de cette méthode force la tâche à lever l'exception CancelledError dans la coroutine encapsulée. Si la coroutine attendait un futur au moment de l'annulation, celui-ci est annulé.

La méthode cancelled() permet de vérifier si la tâche a été annulée. Elle renvoie True si la coroutine encapsulée n'a pas ignoré l'exception CancelledError et a bien été annulée.

asyncio.Task hérite de Future, de toute son API, à l'exception de Future.set_result() et de Future.set_exception().

An optional keyword-only context argument allows specifying a custom contextvars.Context for the coro to run in. If no context is provided, the Task copies the current context and later runs its coroutine in the copied context.

An optional keyword-only eager_start argument allows eagerly starting the execution of the asyncio.Task at task creation time. If set to True and the event loop is running, the task will start executing the coroutine immediately, until the first time the coroutine blocks. If the coroutine returns or raises without blocking, the task will be finished eagerly and will skip scheduling to the event loop.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: ajout du support du module contextvars.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: ajout du paramètre name.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.10: un avertissement d'obsolescence est émis si loop n'est pas spécifié et qu'il n'y a pas de boucle d'événement en cours d'exécution.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: ajout du paramètre context.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added the eager_start parameter.

done()

Renvoie True si la tâche est achevée.

Une tâche est dite achevée quand la coroutine encapsulée a soit renvoyé une valeur, soit levé une exception, ou que la tâche a été annulée.

result()

Renvoie le résultat de la tâche.

Si la tâche est achevée, le résultat de la coroutine encapsulée est renvoyé (sinon, dans le cas où la coroutine a levé une exception, cette exception est de nouveau levée).

Si la tâche a été annulée, cette méthode lève une exception CancelledError.

If the Task's result isn't yet available, this method raises an InvalidStateError exception.

exception()

Renvoie l'exception de la tâche.

Si la coroutine encapsulée lève une exception, cette exception est renvoyée. Si la coroutine s'est exécutée normalement, cette méthode renvoie None.

Si la tâche a été annulée, cette méthode lève une exception CancelledError.

Si la tâche n'est pas encore achevée, cette méthode lève une exception InvalidStateError.

add_done_callback(callback, *, context=None)

Ajoute une fonction de rappel qui sera exécutée quand la tâche sera achevée.

Cette méthode ne doit être utilisée que dans du code basé sur les fonctions de rappel de bas-niveau.

Se référer à la documentation de Future.add_done_callback() pour plus de détails.

remove_done_callback(callback)

Retire callback de la liste de fonctions de rappel.

Cette méthode ne doit être utilisée que dans du code basé sur les fonctions de rappel de bas-niveau.

Se référer à la documentation de Future.remove_done_callback() pour plus de détails.

get_stack(*, limit=None)

Renvoie une liste représentant la pile d'appels de la tâche.

Si la coroutine encapsulée n'est pas terminée, cette fonction renvoie la pile d'appels à partir de l'endroit où celle-ci est interrompue. Si la coroutine s'est terminée normalement ou a été annulée, cette fonction renvoie une liste vide. Si la coroutine a été terminée par une exception, ceci renvoie la pile d'erreurs.

La pile est toujours affichée de l'appelant à l'appelé.

Une seule ligne est renvoyée si la coroutine est suspendue.

L'argument facultatif limit définit le nombre maximal d'appels à renvoyer ; par défaut, tous sont renvoyés. L'ordre de la liste diffère selon la nature de celle-ci : les appels les plus récents d'une pile d'appels sont renvoyés, si la pile est une pile d'erreurs, ce sont les appels les plus anciens qui le sont (dans un souci de cohérence avec le module traceback).

print_stack(*, limit=None, file=None)

Affiche la pile d'appels ou d'erreurs de la tâche.

Le format de sortie des appels produits par get_stack() est similaire à celui du module traceback.

Le paramètre limit est directement passé à get_stack().

Le paramètre file est un flux d'entrées-sorties sur lequel le résultat est écrit ; par défaut, sys.stdout.

get_coro()

Renvoie l’objet coroutine encapsulé par la Task.

Note

This will return None for Tasks which have already completed eagerly. See the Eager Task Factory.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Newly added eager task execution means result may be None.

get_context()

Return the contextvars.Context object associated with the task.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

get_name()

Renvoie le nom de la tâche.

Si aucun nom n’a été explicitement assigné à la tâche, l’implémentation par défaut d’une Task asyncio génère un nom par défaut durant l’instanciation.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

set_name(value)

Définit le nom de la tâche.

L’argument value peut être n’importe quel objet qui sera ensuite converti en chaine de caractères.

Dans l’implémentation par défaut de Task, le nom sera visible dans le résultat de repr() d’un objet Task.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

cancel(msg=None)

Demande l'annulation d'une tâche.

If the Task is already done or cancelled, return False, otherwise, return True.

The method arranges for a CancelledError exception to be thrown into the wrapped coroutine on the next cycle of the event loop.

La coroutine peut alors faire le ménage ou même ignorer la requête en supprimant l'exception à l'aide d'un bloc try … … except CancelledError … finally. Par conséquent, contrairement à Future.cancel(), Task.cancel() ne garantit pas que la tâche sera annulée, bien qu'ignorer totalement une annulation ne soit ni une pratique courante, ni encouragé. Si la coroutine décide néanmoins de supprimer l'annulation, elle doit appeler Task.uncancel() en plus d'intercepter l'exception.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: ajout du paramètre msg.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: le paramètre msg est propagé de la tâche annulée vers celle qui l'attend.

L'exemple ci-dessous illustre comment une coroutine peut intercepter une requête d'annulation :

async def cancel_me():
    print('cancel_me(): before sleep')

    try:
        # Wait for 1 hour
        await asyncio.sleep(3600)
    except asyncio.CancelledError:
        print('cancel_me(): cancel sleep')
        raise
    finally:
        print('cancel_me(): after sleep')

async def main():
    # Create a "cancel_me" Task
    task = asyncio.create_task(cancel_me())

    # Wait for 1 second
    await asyncio.sleep(1)

    task.cancel()
    try:
        await task
    except asyncio.CancelledError:
        print("main(): cancel_me is cancelled now")

asyncio.run(main())

# Expected output:
#
#     cancel_me(): before sleep
#     cancel_me(): cancel sleep
#     cancel_me(): after sleep
#     main(): cancel_me is cancelled now

cancelled()

Renvoie True si la tâche est annulée.

La tâche est annulée quand l'annulation a été demandée avec cancel() et la coroutine encapsulée a propagé l'exception CancelledError qui a été levée en son sein.

uncancel()

Décrémente le nombre de demandes d'annulation pour cette tâche.

Renvoie le nombre restant de demandes d'annulation.

Notez qu'une fois l'exécution d'une tâche annulée terminée, les appels ultérieurs à uncancel() ne font rien.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

Cette méthode est utilisée par les composants internes d'asyncio et elle ne devrait pas être utilisée par le code de l'utilisateur final. En particulier, si une tâche est annulée avec succès, cela permet aux structures permettant le multi-fils tels que Task groups et asyncio.timeout() de continuer à s'exécuter, isolant l'annulation au bloc concerné. Par exemple :

async def make_request_with_timeout():
    try:
        async with asyncio.timeout(1):
            # Structured block affected by the timeout:
            await make_request()
            await make_another_request()
    except TimeoutError:
        log("There was a timeout")
    # Outer code not affected by the timeout:
    await unrelated_code()

Alors que le bloc avec make_request() et make_another_request() peut être annulé en raison du délai d'attente, unrelated_code() devrait continuer à s'exécuter même en cas d'atteinte du délai maximal. Ceci est implémenté avec uncancel(). Les gestionnaires de contexte TaskGroup utilisent uncancel() de la même manière.

If end-user code is, for some reason, suppressing cancellation by catching CancelledError, it needs to call this method to remove the cancellation state.

When this method decrements the cancellation count to zero, the method checks if a previous cancel() call had arranged for CancelledError to be thrown into the task. If it hasn't been thrown yet, that arrangement will be rescinded (by resetting the internal _must_cancel flag).

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Changed to rescind pending cancellation requests upon reaching zero.

cancelling()

Renvoie le nombre de demandes d'annulation en attente à cette tâche, c'est-à-dire le nombre d'appels à cancel() moins le nombre d'appels à uncancel().

Notez que si ce nombre est supérieur à zéro mais que la tâche est toujours en cours d'exécution, cancelled() renvoie toujours False. En effet, ce nombre peut être réduit en appelant uncancel(), ce qui peut empêcher en fin de compte la tâche d'être annulée si les demandes d'annulation tombent à zéro.

Cette méthode est utilisée par les composants internes d'asyncio et ne devrait pas être utilisée par le code de l'utilisateur final. Voir uncancel() pour plus de détails.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

Flux (streams)

Code source : Lib/asyncore.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/asyncore.py]

Les flux sont des primitives de haut niveau compatibles avec async/await pour utiliser les connexions réseau. Les flux permettent d'envoyer et de recevoir des données sans utiliser de fonctions de rappel ou des protocoles de bas niveau.

Voici un exemple de client « écho TCP » écrit en utilisant les flux asyncio :

import asyncio

async def tcp_echo_client(message):
    reader, writer = await asyncio.open_connection(
        '127.0.0.1', 8888)

    print(f'Send: {message!r}')
    writer.write(message.encode())
    await writer.drain()

    data = await reader.read(100)
    print(f'Received: {data.decode()!r}')

    print('Close the connection')
    writer.close()
    await writer.wait_closed()

asyncio.run(tcp_echo_client('Hello World!'))

Voir également la section Exemples ci-dessous.

Fonctions de flux

Les fonctions asyncio de haut niveau suivantes peuvent être utilisées pour créer et utiliser des flux :

async asyncio.open_connection(host=None, port=None, *, limit=None, ssl=None, family=0, proto=0, flags=0, sock=None, local_addr=None, server_hostname=None, ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None, happy_eyeballs_delay=None, interleave=None)

Établit une connexion réseau et renvoie une paire d'objets (lecteur, écrivain).

Les objets lecteur et écrivain renvoyés sont des instances des classes StreamReader et StreamWriter.

limit détermine la limite de taille de tampon utilisée par l'instance StreamReader renvoyée. Par défaut, limit est fixée à 64 Kio.

Le reste des arguments est passé directement à loop.create_connection().

Note

l'argument sock transfère la propriété du connecteur réseau au StreamWriter créé. Pour fermer le connecteur, appelez sa méthode close().

Modifié dans la version 3.7: ajout du paramètre ssl_handshake_timeout.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added the happy_eyeballs_delay and interleave parameters.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: suppression du paramètre loop.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: ajout du paramètre ssl_shutdown_timeout.

async asyncio.start_server(client_connected_cb, host=None, port=None, *, limit=None, family=socket.AF_UNSPEC, flags=socket.AI_PASSIVE, sock=None, backlog=100, ssl=None, reuse_address=None, reuse_port=None, keep_alive=None, ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None, start_serving=True)

Démarre un serveur de connexions

La fonction de rappel client_connected_cb est appelée chaque fois qu'une nouvelle connexion client est établie. Elle reçoit une paire d'arguments (lecteur, écrivain), instances des classes StreamReader et StreamWriter.

client_connected_cb peut être un simple appelable ou une fonction coroutine ; s'il s'agit d'une fonction coroutine, elle sera automatiquement planifiée en tant que Task.

limit détermine la limite de taille de tampon utilisée par l'instance StreamReader renvoyée. Par défaut, limit est fixée à 64 Kio.

Le reste des arguments est passé directement à loop.create_server().

Note

l'argument sock transfère la propriété du connecteur au serveur créé. Pour fermer le connecteur, appelez la méthode close() du serveur.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: ajout des paramètres ssl_handshake_timeout et start_serving.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: suppression du paramètre loop.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: ajout du paramètre ssl_shutdown_timeout.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the keep_alive parameter.

Connecteurs Unix (sockets)

async asyncio.open_unix_connection(path=None, *, limit=None, ssl=None, sock=None, server_hostname=None, ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None)

Ouvre un connecteur Unix et renvoie une paire de (lecteur, écrivain).

Similaire à open_connection() mais fonctionne sur les connecteurs Unix.

Voir aussi la documentation de loop.create_unix_connection().

Note

l'argument sock transfère la propriété du connecteur réseau au StreamWriter créé. Pour fermer le connecteur, appelez sa méthode close().

Disponibilité: Unix.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: ajout du paramètre ssl_handshake_timeout. Le paramètre path peut désormais être un objet simili-chemin

Modifié dans la version 3.10: suppression du paramètre loop.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: ajout du paramètre ssl_shutdown_timeout.

async asyncio.start_unix_server(client_connected_cb, path=None, *, limit=None, sock=None, backlog=100, ssl=None, ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None, start_serving=True, cleanup_socket=True)

Démarre un connecteur Unix en mode serveur.

Similaire à start_server() mais fonctionne avec les connecteurs Unix.

If cleanup_socket is true then the Unix socket will automatically be removed from the filesystem when the server is closed, unless the socket has been replaced after the server has been created.

Voir aussi la documentation de loop.create_unix_server().

Note

l'argument sock transfère la propriété du connecteur au serveur créé. Pour fermer le connecteur, appelez la méthode close() du serveur.

Disponibilité: Unix.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: ajout des paramètres ssl_handshake_timeout et start_serving. Le paramètre chemin peut désormais être un simili-chemin.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: suppression du paramètre loop.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: ajout du paramètre ssl_shutdown_timeout.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the cleanup_socket parameter.

Flux lecteurs (StreamReader)

class asyncio.StreamReader

Représente un objet lecteur qui fournit des API pour lire les données du flux d'entrée-sortie. En tant que itérable asynchrone, l'objet prend en charge l'instruction async for.

Il n'est pas recommandé d'instancier directement les objets StreamReader ; utilisez open_connection() et start_server() à la place.

feed_eof()

Acknowledge the EOF.

async read(n=-1)

Lit jusqu'à n octets du flux.

Si n n'est pas fourni ou défini à -1, lit jusqu'à EOF, puis renvoie tous les bytes lus. Si EOF a été reçu et que le tampon interne est vide, renvoie un objet bytes vide.

Si n vaut 0, renvoie immédiatement un objet bytes vide.

Si n est positif, renvoie au plus n bytes disponibles dès qu'au moins 1 octet est disponible dans le tampon interne. Si EOF est reçu avant qu'aucun octet ne soit lu, renvoie un objet bytes vide.

async readline()

Lit une ligne, où une « ligne » est une séquence d'octets se terminant par \n.

Si EOF est reçu et \n n'a pas été trouvé, la méthode renvoie des données partiellement lues.

Si EOF est reçu et que le tampon interne est vide, renvoie un objet bytes vide.

async readexactly(n)

Lit exactement n octets.

Lève une IncompleteReadError si EOF est atteint avant que n octets ne puissent être lus. Utilisez l'attribut IncompleteReadError.partial pour obtenir les données partiellement lues.

async readuntil(separator=b'\n')

Lit les données du flux jusqu'à ce que le separator soit trouvé.

En cas de succès, les données et le séparateur sont supprimés du tampon interne (consommés). Les données renvoyées incluent le séparateur à la fin.

Si la quantité de données lues dépasse la limite de flux configurée, une exception LimitOverrunError est levée et les données sont laissées dans le tampon interne et peuvent être lues à nouveau.

Si EOF est atteint avant que le séparateur complet ne soit trouvé, une exception IncompleteReadError est levée et le tampon interne est réinitialisé. L'attribut IncompleteReadError.partial peut contenir une partie du séparateur.

The separator may also be a tuple of separators. In this case the return value will be the shortest possible that has any separator as the suffix. For the purposes of LimitOverrunError, the shortest possible separator is considered to be the one that matched.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: The separator parameter may now be a tuple of separators.

at_eof()

Renvoie True si le tampon est vide et que feed_eof() a été appelée.

Flux écrivains (StreamWriter)

class asyncio.StreamWriter

Représente un objet écrivain qui fournit des API pour écrire des données dans le flux d'entrée-sortie.

Il n'est pas recommandé d'instancier directement les objets StreamWriter ; utilisez open_connection() et start_server() à la place.

write(data)

La méthode tente d'écrire immédiatement les data dans le connecteur sous-jacent. Si cela échoue, les données sont mises en file d'attente dans un tampon d'écriture interne jusqu'à ce qu'elles puissent être envoyées.

The data buffer should be a bytes, bytearray, or C-contiguous one-dimensional memoryview object.

La méthode doit être utilisée avec la méthode drain() :

stream.write(data)
await stream.drain()

writelines(data)

La méthode écrit immédiatement une liste (ou tout itérable) d'octets dans le connecteur sous-jacent. Si cela échoue, les données sont mises en file d'attente dans un tampon d'écriture interne jusqu'à ce qu'elles puissent être envoyées.

La méthode doit être utilisée avec la méthode drain() :

stream.writelines(lines)
await stream.drain()

close()

La méthode ferme le flux et le connecteur sous-jacent.

La méthode doit être utilisée, bien que ce ne soit pas obligatoire, avec la méthode wait_closed() :

stream.close()
await stream.wait_closed()

can_write_eof()

Renvoie True si le transport sous-jacent gère la méthode write_eof(), False sinon.

write_eof()

Ferme le flux en écriture après le vidage des données d'écriture en mémoire tampon.

transport

Renvoie le transport asynchrone sous-jacent.

get_extra_info(name, default=None)

Donne accès aux informations de transport facultatives ; voir BaseTransport.get_extra_info() pour plus de détails.

async drain()

Attend qu'il soit approprié de reprendre l'écriture dans le flux. Par exemple :

writer.write(data)
await writer.drain()

Il s'agit d'une méthode de contrôle de flux qui interagit avec le tampon d'écriture entrée-sortie sous-jacent. Lorsque la taille du tampon atteint la limite haute, drain() bloque jusqu'à ce que la taille du tampon soit drainée jusqu'à la limite basse et que l'écriture puisse reprendre. Lorsqu'il n'y a rien à attendre, drain() termine immédiatement.

async start_tls(sslcontext, *, server_hostname=None, ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None)

Bascule la connexion basée sur le flux existant vers TLS.

Paramètres :

sslcontext : une instance configurée de SSLContext.

server_hostname : définit ou remplace le nom d'hôte auquel le certificat du serveur cible sera comparé.

ssl_handshake_timeout est le temps en secondes à attendre pour que la poignée de main TLS se termine avant d'abandonner la connexion. 60.0 secondes si None (par défaut).

ssl_shutdown_timeout is the time in seconds to wait for the SSL shutdown to complete before aborting the connection. 30.0 seconds if None (default).

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: ajout du paramètre ssl_shutdown_timeout.

is_closing()

Renvoie True si le flux est fermé ou en cours de fermeture.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

async wait_closed()

Attend que le flux soit fermé.

Doit être appelée après close() pour attendre que la connexion sous-jacente soit fermée, en s'assurant que toutes les données ont été vidées avant, par exemple, de quitter le programme.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Exemples

Client d'écho TCP utilisant des flux

Client d'écho TCP utilisant la fonction asyncio.open_connection() :

import asyncio

async def tcp_echo_client(message):
    reader, writer = await asyncio.open_connection(
        '127.0.0.1', 8888)

    print(f'Send: {message!r}')
    writer.write(message.encode())
    await writer.drain()

    data = await reader.read(100)
    print(f'Received: {data.decode()!r}')

    print('Close the connection')
    writer.close()
    await writer.wait_closed()

asyncio.run(tcp_echo_client('Hello World!'))

Voir aussi

L'exemple Client écho en TCP utilise la méthode de bas niveau loop.create_connection().

Serveur d'écho TCP utilisant des flux

Serveur d'écho TCP utilisant la fonction asyncio.start_server() :

import asyncio

async def handle_echo(reader, writer):
    data = await reader.read(100)
    message = data.decode()
    addr = writer.get_extra_info('peername')

    print(f"Received {message!r} from {addr!r}")

    print(f"Send: {message!r}")
    writer.write(data)
    await writer.drain()

    print("Close the connection")
    writer.close()
    await writer.wait_closed()

async def main():
    server = await asyncio.start_server(
        handle_echo, '127.0.0.1', 8888)

    addrs = ', '.join(str(sock.getsockname()) for sock in server.sockets)
    print(f'Serving on {addrs}')

    async with server:
        await server.serve_forever()

asyncio.run(main())

Voir aussi

L'exemple de Serveur écho en TCP utilise la méthode loop.create_server().

Récupération des en-têtes HTTP

Exemple simple d'interrogation des en-têtes HTTP de l'URL transmise sur la ligne de commande :

import asyncio
import urllib.parse
import sys

async def print_http_headers(url):
    url = urllib.parse.urlsplit(url)
    if url.scheme == 'https':
        reader, writer = await asyncio.open_connection(
            url.hostname, 443, ssl=True)
    else:
        reader, writer = await asyncio.open_connection(
            url.hostname, 80)

    query = (
        f"HEAD {url.path or '/'} HTTP/1.0\r\n"
        f"Host: {url.hostname}\r\n"
        f"\r\n"
    )

    writer.write(query.encode('latin-1'))
    while True:
        line = await reader.readline()
        if not line:
            break

        line = line.decode('latin1').rstrip()
        if line:
            print(f'HTTP header> {line}')

    # Ignore the body, close the socket
    writer.close()
    await writer.wait_closed()

url = sys.argv[1]
asyncio.run(print_http_headers(url))

Utilisation :

python example.py http://example.com/path/page.html

ou avec HTTPS :

python example.py https://example.com/path/page.html

Ouverture d'un connecteur pour attendre les données à l'aide de flux

Coroutine attendant qu'un connecteur reçoive des données en utilisant la fonction open_connection() :

import asyncio
import socket

async def wait_for_data():
    # Get a reference to the current event loop because
    # we want to access low-level APIs.
    loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

    # Create a pair of connected sockets.
    rsock, wsock = socket.socketpair()

    # Register the open socket to wait for data.
    reader, writer = await asyncio.open_connection(sock=rsock)

    # Simulate the reception of data from the network
    loop.call_soon(wsock.send, 'abc'.encode())

    # Wait for data
    data = await reader.read(100)

    # Got data, we are done: close the socket
    print("Received:", data.decode())
    writer.close()
    await writer.wait_closed()

    # Close the second socket
    wsock.close()

asyncio.run(wait_for_data())

Voir aussi

L'exemple Connexion de connecteurs existants utilise un protocole de bas niveau et la méthode loop.create_connection().

L'exemple Surveillance des événements de lecture pour un descripteur de fichier utilise la méthode de bas niveau loop.add_reader() pour surveiller un descripteur de fichier.

Primitives de synchronisation

Code source : Lib/asyncio/locks.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/asyncio/locks.py]

Les primitives de synchronisation asyncio sont conçues pour être similaires à celles du module threading avec deux mises en garde importantes :

les primitives asyncio ne sont pas thread-safe, elles ne doivent donc pas être utilisées pour la synchronisation des fils d'exécution du système d'exploitation (utilisez threading pour cela) ;

les méthodes de ces primitives de synchronisation n'acceptent pas l'argument timeout ; utilisez la fonction asyncio.wait_for() pour effectuer des opérations avec des délais d'attente.

asyncio possède les primitives de synchronisation de base suivantes :

Lock

Event

Condition

Semaphore

BoundedSemaphore

Barrier

Verrou (lock)

class asyncio.Lock

Implémente un verrou exclusif (mutex) pour les tâches asynchrones. Ce n'est pas compatible avec les programmes à fils d'exécution multiples.

Un verrou asyncio peut être utilisé pour garantir un accès exclusif à une ressource partagée.

La meilleure façon d'utiliser un verrou est une instruction async with

lock = asyncio.Lock()

# ... later
async with lock:
    # access shared state

ce qui équivaut à :

lock = asyncio.Lock()

# ... later
await lock.acquire()
try:
    # access shared state
finally:
    lock.release()

Modifié dans la version 3.10: suppression du paramètre loop.

async acquire()

Verrouille (ou acquiert) le verrou.

Cette méthode attend que le verrou soit déverrouillé (unlocked), le verrouille (positionné sur locked) et renvoie True.

Lorsque plus d'une coroutine est bloquée dans acquire() en attendant que le verrou soit déverrouillé, seule une coroutine continue finalement.

L'acquisition d'un verrou est équitable : la coroutine qui acquiert le verrou est celle qui était la première à attendre le verrou.

release()

Libère le verrou.

Lorsque le verrou est verrouillé, le déverrouille et termine.

Si le verrou est déjà déverrouillé, une RuntimeError est levée.

locked()

Renvoie True si le verrou est verrouillé.

Événement (Event)

class asyncio.Event

Objet événement. Non compatible avec les programmes à plusieurs fils d'exécution.

Un événement asynchrone peut être utilisé pour notifier plusieurs tâches asynchrones qu'un événement s'est produit.

Un objet Event gère un drapeau interne qui peut être activé (ou mis à vrai) avec la méthode set() et désactivé (ou mis à faux) avec la méthode clear(). La méthode wait() se bloque jusqu'à ce que l'indicateur soit activé. L'indicateur est initialement désactivé.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: suppression du paramètre loop.

Exemple :

async def waiter(event):
    print('waiting for it ...')
    await event.wait()
    print('... got it!')

async def main():
    # Create an Event object.
    event = asyncio.Event()

    # Spawn a Task to wait until 'event' is set.
    waiter_task = asyncio.create_task(waiter(event))

    # Sleep for 1 second and set the event.
    await asyncio.sleep(1)
    event.set()

    # Wait until the waiter task is finished.
    await waiter_task

asyncio.run(main())

async wait()

Attend que l'évènement soit activé.

Si l'événement est activé (vrai), renvoie True immédiatement. Sinon bloque jusqu'à ce qu'une autre tâche appelle set().

set()

Active l'événement.

Toutes les tâches en attente de l'événement sont immédiatement réveillées.

clear()

Efface (désactive) l'événement.

Subsequent tasks awaiting on wait() will now block until the set() method is called again.

is_set()

Renvoie True si l'évènement est actif.

Condition

class asyncio.Condition(lock=None)

Objet Condition. Non compatible avec les programmes à plusieurs fils d'exécution.

Une primitive de condition asynchrone peut être utilisée par une tâche pour attendre qu'un événement se produise, puis obtenir un accès exclusif à une ressource partagée.

Essentiellement, un objet Condition combine les fonctionnalités d'un Event et d'un Lock. Il est possible que plusieurs objets Condition partagent un seul verrou, ce qui permet de coordonner l'accès exclusif à une ressource partagée entre différentes tâches intéressées par des états particuliers de cette ressource partagée.

L'argument optionnel lock doit être un objet Lock ou None. Dans ce dernier cas, un nouvel objet Lock est créé automatiquement.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: suppression du paramètre loop.

La meilleure façon d'utiliser une Condition est une instruction async with

cond = asyncio.Condition()

# ... later
async with cond:
    await cond.wait()

ce qui équivaut à :

cond = asyncio.Condition()

# ... later
await cond.acquire()
try:
    await cond.wait()
finally:
    cond.release()

async acquire()

Verrouille le verrou sous-jacent.

Cette méthode attend que le verrou sous-jacent soit déverrouillé, le verrouille et renvoie True.

notify(n=1)

Wake up n tasks (1 by default) waiting on this condition. If fewer than n tasks are waiting they are all awakened.

Le verrou doit être verrouillé avant que cette méthode ne soit appelée et libéré peu de temps après. S'il est appelé avec un verrou déverrouillé, une erreur RuntimeError est levée.

locked()

Renvoie True si le verrou sous-jacent est verrouillé.

notify_all()

Réveille toutes les tâches en attente sur cette condition.

Cette méthode agit comme notify(), mais réveille toutes les tâches en attente.

Le verrou doit être verrouillé avant que cette méthode ne soit appelée et libéré peu de temps après. S'il est appelé avec un verrou déverrouillé, une erreur RuntimeError est levée.

release()

Libère le verrou sous-jacent.

Lorsqu'elle est invoquée sur un verrou déverrouillé, une RuntimeError est levée.

async wait()

Attend d'être notifié.

Si la tâche appelante n'a pas verrouillé le verrou lorsque cette méthode est appelée, une RuntimeError est levée.

Cette méthode libère le verrou sous-jacent, puis se bloque jusqu'à ce qu'elle soit réveillée par un appel notify() ou notify_all(). Une fois réveillée, la Condition verrouille à nouveau son verrou et cette méthode renvoie True.

Note that a task may return from this call spuriously, which is why the caller should always re-check the state and be prepared to wait() again. For this reason, you may prefer to use wait_for() instead.

async wait_for(predicate)

Attend jusqu'à ce qu'un prédicat devienne vrai.

The predicate must be a callable which result will be interpreted as a boolean value. The method will repeatedly wait() until the predicate evaluates to true. The final value is the return value.

Sémaphore

class asyncio.Semaphore(value=1)

Objet Sémaphore. Non compatible avec les programmes à plusieurs fils d'exécution.

Un sémaphore gère un compteur interne qui est décrémenté à chaque appel acquire() et incrémenté à chaque appel release(). Le compteur ne peut jamais descendre en dessous de zéro ; quand acquire() trouve qu'il est égal à zéro, il se bloque, en attendant qu'une tâche appelle release().

L'argument optionnel value donne la valeur initiale du compteur interne (1 par défaut). Si la valeur donnée est inférieure à 0 une ValueError est levée.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: suppression du paramètre loop.

La meilleure façon d'utiliser un sémaphore est une instruction async with

sem = asyncio.Semaphore(10)

# ... later
async with sem:
    # work with shared resource

ce qui équivaut à :

sem = asyncio.Semaphore(10)

# ... later
await sem.acquire()
try:
    # work with shared resource
finally:
    sem.release()

async acquire()

Acquiert un sémaphore.

Si le compteur interne est supérieur à zéro, le décrémente d'une unité et renvoie True immédiatement. Si c'est zéro, attend que release() soit appelée et renvoie True.

locked()

Renvoie True si le sémaphore ne peut pas être acquis immédiatement.

release()

Relâche un sémaphore, incrémentant le compteur interne d'une unité. Peut réveiller une tâche en attente d'acquisition du sémaphore.

Contrairement à BoundedSemaphore, Semaphore permet de faire plus d'appels release() que d'appels acquire().

Sémaphore capé (BoundedSemaphore)

class asyncio.BoundedSemaphore(value=1)

Objet sémaphore capé. Non compatible avec les programmes à plusieurs fils d'exécution.

Bounded Semaphore est une version de Semaphore qui lève une ValueError dans release() s'il augmente le compteur interne au-dessus de la value initiale.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: suppression du paramètre loop.

Barrière (Barrier)

class asyncio.Barrier(parties)

Objet barrière. Non compatible avec les programmes à plusieurs fils d'exécution.

Une barrière est une simple primitive de synchronisation qui permet de bloquer jusqu'à ce que parties tâches l'attendent. Les tâches attendent sur la méthode wait() et sont bloquées jusqu'à ce que le nombre spécifié de tâches attendent sur wait(). À ce stade, toutes les tâches en attente se débloquent simultanément.

async with peut être utilisé comme alternative à l'attente sur wait().

La barrière peut être réutilisée un nombre illimité de fois.

Exemple :

async def example_barrier():
   # barrier with 3 parties
   b = asyncio.Barrier(3)

   # create 2 new waiting tasks
   asyncio.create_task(b.wait())
   asyncio.create_task(b.wait())

   await asyncio.sleep(0)
   print(b)

   # The third .wait() call passes the barrier
   await b.wait()
   print(b)
   print("barrier passed")

   await asyncio.sleep(0)
   print(b)

asyncio.run(example_barrier())

Le résultat de cet exemple est :

<asyncio.locks.Barrier object at 0x... [filling, waiters:2/3]>
<asyncio.locks.Barrier object at 0x... [draining, waiters:0/3]>
barrier passed
<asyncio.locks.Barrier object at 0x... [filling, waiters:0/3]>

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

async wait()

Passe la barrière. Lorsque toutes les tâches bloquées à la barrière ont appelé cette fonction, elles sont toutes débloquées simultanément.

Lorsqu'une tâche en attente ou bloquée à la barrière est annulée, cette tâche sort de la barrière qui reste dans le même état. Si la barrière est en cours de « remplissage », le nombre de tâche en attente diminue de 1.

La valeur de retour est un entier compris entre 0 et parties-1, différent pour chaque tâche. Cela peut être utilisé pour sélectionner une tâche qui fera du ménage, par exemple :

...
async with barrier as position:
   if position == 0:
      # Only one task prints this
      print('End of *draining phase*')

Cette méthode peut lever une exception BrokenBarrierError si la barrière est brisée ou réinitialisée alors qu'une tâche est en attente. Cela peut lever une CancelledError si une tâche est annulée.

async reset()

Ramène la barrière à l'état vide par défaut. Toutes les tâches en attente reçoivent l'exception BrokenBarrierError.

Si une barrière est brisée, il peut être préférable de la quitter et d'en créer une nouvelle.

async abort()

Put the barrier into a broken state. This causes any active or future calls to wait() to fail with the BrokenBarrierError. Use this for example if one of the tasks needs to abort, to avoid infinite waiting tasks.

parties

Le nombre de tâches nécessaires pour franchir la barrière.

n_waiting

Le nombre de tâches actuellement en attente à la barrière pendant le remplissage.

broken

Booléen qui vaut True si la barrière est rompue.

exception asyncio.BrokenBarrierError

Cette exception, une sous-classe de RuntimeError, est déclenchée lorsque l'objet Barrier est réinitialisé ou cassé.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: l'acquisition d'un verrou en utilisant wait lock ou yield from lock ou with (with await lock, with (yield from lock)) a été supprimée. Utilisez async with lock à la place.

Sous-processus

Code source : Lib/asyncio/subprocess.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/asyncio/subprocess.py], Lib/asyncio/base_subprocess.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/asyncio/base_subprocess.py]

Cette section décrit des API de haut niveau de asyncio pour créer et gérer des sous-processus via async/await.

Voici un exemple de comment asyncio peut lancer une commande shell et obtenir son résultat :

import asyncio

async def run(cmd):
    proc = await asyncio.create_subprocess_shell(
        cmd,
        stdout=asyncio.subprocess.PIPE,
        stderr=asyncio.subprocess.PIPE)

    stdout, stderr = await proc.communicate()

    print(f'[{cmd!r} exited with {proc.returncode}]')
    if stdout:
        print(f'[stdout]\n{stdout.decode()}')
    if stderr:
        print(f'[stderr]\n{stderr.decode()}')

asyncio.run(run('ls /zzz'))

affiche :

['ls /zzz' exited with 1]
[stderr]
ls: /zzz: No such file or directory

Puisque toutes les fonctions à sous-processus d'asyncio sont synchrones et qu'asyncio fournit de nombreux outils pour travailler avec de telles fonctions, il est facile d'exécuter et de surveiller de nombreux processus en parallèle. Il est en effet trivial de modifier l'exemple ci-dessus pour exécuter plusieurs commandes simultanément :

async def main():
    await asyncio.gather(
        run('ls /zzz'),
        run('sleep 1; echo "hello"'))

asyncio.run(main())

Voir également la section Exemples.

Créer des sous-processus

async asyncio.create_subprocess_exec(program, *args, stdin=None, stdout=None, stderr=None, limit=None, **kwds)

Crée un sous-processus.

The limit argument sets the buffer limit for StreamReader wrappers for stdout and stderr (if subprocess.PIPE is passed to stdout and stderr arguments).

Renvoie une instance de Process.

Voir la documentation de loop.subprocess_exec() pour d'autres paramètres.

If the process object is garbage collected while the process is still running, the child process will be killed.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: suppression du paramètre loop.

async asyncio.create_subprocess_shell(cmd, stdin=None, stdout=None, stderr=None, limit=None, **kwds)

Exécute la commande cmd dans un shell.

The limit argument sets the buffer limit for StreamReader wrappers for stdout and stderr (if subprocess.PIPE is passed to stdout and stderr arguments).

Renvoie une instance de Process.

Voir la documentation de loop.subprocess_shell() pour d'autres paramètres.

If the process object is garbage collected while the process is still running, the child process will be killed.

Important

Il est de la responsabilité de l'application de s'assurer que tous les espaces et les caractères spéciaux sont correctement mis entre guillemets pour éviter les vulnérabilités de type injection de code [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_injection#Shell_injection]. La fonction shlex.quote() peut être utilisée pour l’échappement des espaces et caractères spéciaux dans les chaînes utilisées pour construire des commandes shell.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: suppression du paramètre loop.

Note

les sous-processus sont disponibles pour Windows si un ProactorEventLoop est utilisé. Voir Support des sous-processus sous Windows pour plus de précisions.

Voir aussi

asyncio propose aussi les API de « bas niveau » suivantes pour travailler avec les sous-processus : loop.subprocess_exec(), loop.subprocess_shell(), loop.connect_read_pipe(), loop.connect_write_pipe(), ainsi que les Transports entre sous-processus et Protocoles liés aux sous-processus.

Constantes

asyncio.subprocess.PIPE

Peut être passé aux paramètres stdin, stdout ou stderr.

If PIPE is passed to stdin argument, the Process.stdin attribute will point to a StreamWriter instance.

If PIPE is passed to stdout or stderr arguments, the Process.stdout and Process.stderr attributes will point to StreamReader instances.

asyncio.subprocess.STDOUT

Une valeur spéciale qui peut être passée au paramètre stderr et qui indique que la sortie d'erreur doit être redirigée vers la sortie standard.

asyncio.subprocess.DEVNULL

Une valeur spéciale qui peut être passée à l'argument stdin, stdout ou stderr des fonctions créant des processus. Elle implique l'utilisation du fichier os.devnull pour le flux correspondant du processus.

Interagir avec les sous-processus

Les fonctions create_subprocess_exec() et create_subprocess_shell() renvoient des instances de la classe Process. Process est une enveloppe de haut niveau qui permet de communiquer avec les sous-processus et de surveiller leur achèvement.

class asyncio.subprocess.Process

An object that wraps OS processes created by the create_subprocess_exec() and create_subprocess_shell() functions.

Cette classe est conçue pour avoir une API similaire à la classe subprocess.Popen, mais il existe quelques différences notables :

contrairement à Popen, les instances Process n'ont pas d'équivalent à la méthode poll() ;

les méthodes communicate() et wait() n'ont pas de paramètre timeout : utilisez la fonction wait_for() ;

asyncio.subprocess.Process.wait() est asynchrone, tandis que la méthode subprocess.Popen.wait() est implémentée comme une boucle bloquante ;

le paramètre universal_newlines n'est pas pris en charge.

Cette classe n'est pas conçue pour un contexte multi-fils.

Voir aussi la section sous-processus et fils d'exécution.

async wait()

Attend que le sous processus s'arrête.

Définit et renvoie l'attribut returncode.

Note

cette méthode peut générer un interblocage quand stdout=PIPE ou stderr=PIPE est utilisé et que le sous-processus génère tellement de sorties qu'il se bloque, dans l'attente que le tampon du tube côté OS accepte des données supplémentaires. Pour éviter cette situation, choisissez la méthode communicate() quand vous utilisez des tubes.

async communicate(input=None)

Interagit avec le processus :

envoie des données sur le stdin (si input n'est pas None) ;

closes stdin;

lit les données sur stdout et stderr, jusqu'à ce que le EOF soit atteint ;

attend que le processus s'arrête.

Le paramètre optionnel input (objet de type bytes) représente les données transmises au sous-processus.

Renvoie un n-uplet (stdout_data, stderr_data).

Si l'une des exceptions BrokenPipeError ou ConnectionResetError est levée lors de l'écriture de input dans stdin, l'exception est ignorée. Cette condition se produit lorsque le processus se termine avant que toutes les données ne soient écrites dans stdin.

Si vous souhaitez envoyer des données au processus stdin, le processus doit être créé avec stdin=PIPE. De même, pour obtenir autre chose que None dans le n-uplet résultat, le processus doit être créé avec les arguments stdout=PIPE et/ou stderr=PIPE.

Notez que les données lues sont mises en cache en mémoire, donc n'utilisez pas cette méthode si la taille des données est importante voire illimitée.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: stdin gets closed when input=None too.

send_signal(signal)

Envoie le signal signal au sous-processus.

Note

On Windows, SIGTERM is an alias for terminate(). CTRL_C_EVENT and CTRL_BREAK_EVENT can be sent to processes started with a creationflags parameter which includes CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP.

terminate()

Arrête le sous-processus.

On POSIX systems this method sends SIGTERM to the child process.

On Windows the Win32 API function TerminateProcess() is called to stop the child process.

kill()

Arrête le sous-processus.

On POSIX systems this method sends SIGKILL to the child process.

Sous Windows, cette méthode est un alias pour terminate().

stdin

Standard input stream (StreamWriter) or None if the process was created with stdin=None.

stdout

Standard output stream (StreamReader) or None if the process was created with stdout=None.

stderr

Standard error stream (StreamReader) or None if the process was created with stderr=None.

Avertissement

utilisez la méthode communicate() plutôt que process.stdin.write(), wait process.stdout.read() ou wait process.stderr.read(). Cela évite les interblocages dus aux flux qui interrompent la lecture ou l'écriture et bloquent le processus enfant.

pid

Numéro d'identification du processus (PID, pour Process Identification Number en anglais).

Note that for processes created by the create_subprocess_shell() function, this attribute is the PID of the spawned shell.

returncode

Code de retour du processus quand il se termine.

Une valeur None indique que le processus n'est pas encore terminé.

For processes created with create_subprocess_exec(), a negative value -N indicates that the child was terminated by signal N (POSIX only).

For processes created with create_subprocess_shell(), the return code reflects the exit status of the shell itself (e.g. /bin/sh), which may map signals to codes such as 128+N. See the documentation of the shell (for example, the Bash manual's Exit Status) for details.

Sous-processus et fils d'exécution

La boucle d'événement asynchrone standard prend en charge l'exécution de sous-processus à partir de différents fils d'exécution par défaut.

Sous Windows, les sous-processus sont fournis par ProactorEventLoop uniquement (par défaut), SelectorEventLoop ne prend pas en charge les sous-processus.

Notez que ces implémentations alternatives de la boucle d'événements peuvent comporter leurs propres limitations. Veuillez vous référer à leur documentation.

Voir aussi

la section Exécution concurrente et multi-fils d'exécution.

Exemples

Un exemple utilisant la classe Process pour contrôler un sous-processus et la classe StreamReader pour lire sa sortie standard.

Le sous-processus est créé par la fonction create_subprocess_exec() :

import asyncio
import sys

async def get_date():
    code = 'import datetime as dt; print(dt.datetime.now())'

    # Create the subprocess; redirect the standard output
    # into a pipe.
    proc = await asyncio.create_subprocess_exec(
        sys.executable, '-c', code,
        stdout=asyncio.subprocess.PIPE)

    # Read one line of output.
    data = await proc.stdout.readline()
    line = data.decode('ascii').rstrip()

    # Wait for the subprocess exit.
    await proc.wait()
    return line

date = asyncio.run(get_date())
print(f"Current date: {date}")

Voir également le même exemple, écrit en utilisant des API de bas niveau.

Files d'attente (queues)

Code source : Lib/asyncore.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/asyncore.py]

Les files d'attente asyncio sont conçues pour être similaires aux classes du module queue. Bien que les files d'attente asyncio ne soient pas compatibles avec les programmes à multiples fils d'exécution, elles sont conçues pour être utilisées spécifiquement dans le code async/await.

Notez que les méthodes des files d'attente asyncio n'ont pas de paramètre timeout ; utilisez la fonction asyncio.wait_for() pour effectuer des opérations de file d'attente avec un délai d'attente.

Voir également la section Exemples ci-dessous.

File d'attente (queue)

class asyncio.Queue(maxsize=0)

File d'attente premier entré, premier sorti (FIFO pour fist in, first out).

Si maxsize est inférieur ou égal à zéro, la taille de la file d'attente est infinie. Si c'est un entier supérieur à 0, alors await put() se bloque lorsque la file d'attente atteint maxsize jusqu'à ce qu'un élément soit supprimé par get().

Contrairement à la bibliothèque standard multi-fils queue, la taille de la file d'attente est toujours connue et peut être renvoyée en appelant la méthode qsize().

Modifié dans la version 3.10: suppression du paramètre loop.

Cette classe n'est pas compatible avec les fils d'exécution multiples.

maxsize

Nombre d'éléments autorisés dans la file d'attente.

empty()

Renvoie True si la file d'attente est vide, False sinon.

full()

Renvoie True s'il y a maxsize éléments dans la file d'attente.

If the queue was initialized with maxsize=0 (the default), then full() never returns True.

async get()

Supprime et renvoie un élément de la file d'attente. Si la file d'attente est vide, attend qu'un élément soit disponible.

Raises QueueShutDown if the queue has been shut down and is empty, or if the queue has been shut down immediately.

get_nowait()

Renvoie un élément s'il y en a un immédiatement disponible, sinon lève QueueEmpty.

async join()

Bloque jusqu'à ce que tous les éléments de la file d'attente aient été récupérés et traités.

Le nombre de tâches inachevées augmente chaque fois qu'un élément est ajouté à la file. Ce nombre diminue chaque fois qu'un fil d'exécution consommateur appelle task_done() pour indiquer que l'élément a été extrait et que tout le travail à effectuer dessus est terminé. Lorsque le nombre de tâches non terminées devient nul, join() débloque.

async put(item)

Met un élément dans la file d'attente. Si la file d'attente est pleine, attend qu'un emplacement libre soit disponible avant d'ajouter l'élément.

Raises QueueShutDown if the queue has been shut down.

put_nowait(item)

Ajoute un élément dans la file d'attente sans bloquer.

Si aucun emplacement libre n'est immédiatement disponible, lève QueueFull.

qsize()

Renvoie le nombre d'éléments dans la file d'attente.

shutdown(immediate=False)

Put a Queue instance into a shutdown mode.

The queue can no longer grow. Future calls to put() raise QueueShutDown. Currently blocked callers of put() will be unblocked and will raise QueueShutDown in the formerly awaiting task.

If immediate is false (the default), the queue can be wound down normally with get() calls to extract tasks that have already been loaded.

And if task_done() is called for each remaining task, a pending join() will be unblocked normally.

Once the queue is empty, future calls to get() will raise QueueShutDown.

If immediate is true, the queue is terminated immediately. The queue is drained to be completely empty and the count of unfinished tasks is reduced by the number of tasks drained. If unfinished tasks is zero, callers of join() are unblocked. Also, blocked callers of get() are unblocked and will raise QueueShutDown because the queue is empty.

Use caution when using join() with immediate set to true. This unblocks the join even when no work has been done on the tasks, violating the usual invariant for joining a queue.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

task_done()

Indicate that a formerly enqueued work item is complete.

Used by queue consumers. For each get() used to fetch a work item, a subsequent call to task_done() tells the queue that the processing on the work item is complete.

Si un join() est actuellement bloquant, on reprendra lorsque tous les éléments auront été traités (ce qui signifie qu'un appel à task_done() a été effectué pour chaque élément qui a été put() dans la file).

Lève une exception ValueError si elle est appelée plus de fois qu'il n'y avait d'éléments dans la file.

File avec priorité

class asyncio.PriorityQueue

Une variante de Queue ; récupère les entrées par ordre de priorité (la plus basse en premier).

Les entrées sont généralement des n-uplets de la forme (priority_number, data).

Pile (LIFO)

class asyncio.LifoQueue

Une variante de Queue qui récupère en premier les entrées les plus récemment ajoutées (dernier entré, premier sorti).

Exceptions

exception asyncio.QueueEmpty

Cette exception est levée lorsque la méthode get_nowait() est appelée sur une file d'attente vide.

exception asyncio.QueueFull

Exception levée lorsque la méthode put_nowait() est appelée sur une file d'attente qui a atteint sa maxsize.

exception asyncio.QueueShutDown

Exception raised when put() or get() is called on a queue which has been shut down.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Exemples

Les files d'attente peuvent être utilisées pour répartir la charge de travail entre plusieurs tâches simultanées :

import asyncio
import random
import time

async def worker(name, queue):
    while True:
        # Get a "work item" out of the queue.
        sleep_for = await queue.get()

        # Sleep for the "sleep_for" seconds.
        await asyncio.sleep(sleep_for)

        # Notify the queue that the "work item" has been processed.
        queue.task_done()

        print(f'{name} has slept for {sleep_for:.2f} seconds')

async def main():
    # Create a queue that we will use to store our "workload".
    queue = asyncio.Queue()

    # Generate random timings and put them into the queue.
    total_sleep_time = 0
    for _ in range(20):
        sleep_for = random.uniform(0.05, 1.0)
        total_sleep_time += sleep_for
        queue.put_nowait(sleep_for)

    # Create three worker tasks to process the queue concurrently.
    tasks = []
    for i in range(3):
        task = asyncio.create_task(worker(f'worker-{i}', queue))
        tasks.append(task)

    # Wait until the queue is fully processed.
    started_at = time.monotonic()
    await queue.join()
    total_slept_for = time.monotonic() - started_at

    # Cancel our worker tasks.
    for task in tasks:
        task.cancel()
    # Wait until all worker tasks are cancelled.
    await asyncio.gather(*tasks, return_exceptions=True)

    print('====')
    print(f'3 workers slept in parallel for {total_slept_for:.2f} seconds')
    print(f'total expected sleep time: {total_sleep_time:.2f} seconds')

asyncio.run(main())

Exceptions

Code source : Lib/asyncio/exceptions.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/asyncio/exceptions.py]

exception asyncio.TimeoutError

Alias obsolète de TimeoutError, levée lorsque l'opération a dépassé le délai donné.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: cette classe est devenue un alias de TimeoutError.

exception asyncio.CancelledError

L'opération a été annulée.

Cette exception peut être interceptée pour effectuer des opérations personnalisées lorsque des tâches asynchrones sont annulées. Dans presque toutes les situations, l'exception doit être relancée.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: CancelledError is now a subclass of BaseException rather than Exception.

exception asyncio.InvalidStateError

État interne non valide de Task ou Future.

Peut être levée dans des situations telles que la définition d'une valeur de résultat pour un objet Future qui a déjà une valeur de résultat définie.

exception asyncio.SendfileNotAvailableError

L'appel système sendfile n'est pas disponible pour le connecteur ou le type de fichier donné.

Sous-classe de RuntimeError.

exception asyncio.IncompleteReadError

L'opération de lecture demandée s'est terminée avant d'être complète.

Levée par les API de flux asyncio.

Cette exception est une sous-classe de EOFError.

expected

Nombre total (int) d'octets attendus.

partial

Chaîne de bytes lue avant que la fin du flux ne soit atteinte.

exception asyncio.LimitOverrunError

La limite de taille de tampon a été atteinte lors de la recherche d'un séparateur.

Levée par les API flux asyncio.

consumed

Nombre total d'octets à consommer.

Call Graph Introspection

Source code: Lib/asyncio/graph.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/asyncio/graph.py]

asyncio has powerful runtime call graph introspection utilities to trace the entire call graph of a running coroutine or task, or a suspended future. These utilities and the underlying machinery can be used from within a Python program or by external profilers and debuggers.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

asyncio.print_call_graph(future=None, /, *, file=None, depth=1, limit=None)

Print the async call graph for the current task or the provided Task or Future.

This function prints entries starting from the top frame and going down towards the invocation point.

The function receives an optional future argument. If not passed, the current running task will be used.

If the function is called on the current task, the optional keyword-only depth argument can be used to skip the specified number of frames from top of the stack.

If the optional keyword-only limit argument is provided, each call stack in the resulting graph is truncated to include at most abs(limit) entries. If limit is positive, the entries left are the closest to the invocation point. If limit is negative, the topmost entries are left. If limit is omitted or None, all entries are present. If limit is 0, the call stack is not printed at all, only "awaited by" information is printed.

If file is omitted or None, the function will print to sys.stdout.

Example:

The following Python code:

import asyncio

async def test():
    asyncio.print_call_graph()

async def main():
    async with asyncio.TaskGroup() as g:
        g.create_task(test(), name='test')

asyncio.run(main())

affiche :

* Task(name='test', id=0x1039f0fe0)
+ Call stack:
|   File 't2.py', line 4, in async test()
+ Awaited by:
   * Task(name='Task-1', id=0x103a5e060)
      + Call stack:
      |   File 'taskgroups.py', line 107, in async TaskGroup.__aexit__()
      |   File 't2.py', line 7, in async main()

asyncio.format_call_graph(future=None, /, *, depth=1, limit=None)

Like print_call_graph(), but returns a string. If future is None and there's no current task, the function returns an empty string.

asyncio.capture_call_graph(future=None, /, *, depth=1, limit=None)

Capture the async call graph for the current task or the provided Task or Future.

The function receives an optional future argument. If not passed, the current running task will be used. If there's no current task, the function returns None.

If the function is called on the current task, the optional keyword-only depth argument can be used to skip the specified number of frames from top of the stack.

Returns a FutureCallGraph data class object:

FutureCallGraph(future, call_stack, awaited_by)

Where future is a reference to a Future or a Task (or their subclasses.)

call_stack is a tuple of FrameCallGraphEntry objects.

awaited_by is a tuple of FutureCallGraph objects.

FrameCallGraphEntry(frame)

Where frame is a frame object of a regular Python function in the call stack.

Low level utility functions

To introspect an async call graph asyncio requires cooperation from control flow structures, such as shield() or TaskGroup. Any time an intermediate Future object with low-level APIs like Future.add_done_callback() is involved, the following two functions should be used to inform asyncio about how exactly such intermediate future objects are connected with the tasks they wrap or control.

asyncio.future_add_to_awaited_by(future, waiter, /)

Record that future is awaited on by waiter.

Both future and waiter must be instances of Future or Task or their subclasses, otherwise the call would have no effect.

A call to future_add_to_awaited_by() must be followed by an eventual call to the future_discard_from_awaited_by() function with the same arguments.

asyncio.future_discard_from_awaited_by(future, waiter, /)

Record that future is no longer awaited on by waiter.

Both future and waiter must be instances of Future or Task or their subclasses, otherwise the call would have no effect.

Event loop

Code source : Lib/asyncio/events.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/asyncio/events.py], Lib/asyncio/base_events.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/asyncio/base_events.py]

Préface

La boucle d'événements est au cœur de chaque application asyncio. Les boucles d'événements exécutent des tâches et des rappels asynchrones, effectuent des opérations d'entrée-sorite réseau et exécutent des sous-processus.

Les développeurs d'applications doivent généralement utiliser les fonctions asyncio de haut niveau, telles que asyncio.run(), et ne doivent que rarement référencer l'objet boucle ou appeler ses méthodes. Cette section est principalement destinée aux auteurs de code, de bibliothèques et de cadriciels de bas niveau, qui ont besoin d'un contrôle plus précis sur le comportement de la boucle d'événements.

Obtention d'une boucle d'évènements

Les fonctions de bas niveau suivantes peuvent être utilisées pour obtenir, définir ou créer une boucle d'événements :

asyncio.get_running_loop()

Renvoie la boucle d'événements en cours d'exécution dans le fil actuel du système d'exploitation.

Lève une RuntimeError s'il n'y a pas de boucle d'événements en cours d'exécution.

Cette fonction ne peut être appelée qu'à partir d'une coroutine ou d'une fonction de rappel.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

asyncio.get_event_loop()

Arrête l'exécution de la boucle d'évènements.

Lorsqu'elle est appelée depuis une coroutine ou une fonction de rappel (par exemple planifiée avec call_soon ou une API similaire), cette fonction renvoie toujours la boucle d'événement en cours.

S'il n'y a pas de boucle d'événement en cours d'exécution, la fonction renvoie le résultat de l'appel get_event_loop_policy().get_event_loop().

Étant donné que cette fonction a un comportement plutôt complexe (en particulier lorsque des politiques de boucle d'événements personnalisées sont utilisées), l'utilisation de la fonction get_running_loop() est préférable à get_event_loop() dans les coroutines et les fonctions de rappel.

Comme indiqué ci-dessus, envisagez d'utiliser la fonction de haut niveau asyncio.run(), au lieu d'utiliser ces fonctions de bas niveau pour créer et fermer manuellement une boucle d'événements.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Raises a RuntimeError if there is no current event loop.

Note

The asyncio policy system is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.16; from there on, this function will return the current running event loop if present else it will return the loop set by set_event_loop().

asyncio.set_event_loop(loop)

Définit loop comme boucle d'événements actuelle pour le fil d'exécution actuel du système d'exploitation.

asyncio.new_event_loop()

Crée et renvoie un nouvel objet de boucle d'événements.

Notez que le comportement des fonctions get_event_loop(), set_event_loop() et new_event_loop() peut être modifié en définissant une politique de boucle d'événement personnalisée.

Sommaire

Cette page de documentation contient les sections suivantes :

la section Event Loop Methods est la documentation de référence des API de boucle d'événements ;

la section Callback Handles documente les instances Handle et TimerHandle qui sont renvoyées par les méthodes de planification telles que loop.call_soon() et loop.call_later() ;

la section Server Objects documente les types renvoyés par les méthodes de boucle d'événements comme loop.create_server() ;

la section Event Loop Implementations documente les classes SelectorEventLoop et ProactorEventLoop ;

la section Exemples montre comment travailler avec certaines API de boucle d'événements.

Event loop methods

Les boucles d'événements ont des API de bas niveau pour les éléments suivants :

Démarrer et arrêter une boucle d'évènements

Planification des fonctions de rappel

Planification des rappels différés

Creating futures and tasks

Création de connexions

Création de serveurs

Transfert de fichiers

TLS upgrade

Surveillance de descripteur de fichier

Travail direct avec des objets socket

DNS

Travail avec des tubes (pipes)

Signaux Unix

Exécution de code dans des pools de threads ou de processus

Error handling API

Activation du mode débogage

Running subprocesses

Démarrer et arrêter une boucle d'évènements

loop.run_until_complete(future)

Lance la boucle jusqu'à ce que future (une instance de Future) soit terminée.

Si l'argument est un objet coroutine, il est implicitement programmé pour s'exécuter en tant que asyncio.Task.

Renvoie le résultat du Future ou lève son exception.

loop.run_forever()

Exécute la boucle d'événement jusqu'à ce que stop() soit appelée.

If stop() is called before run_forever() is called, the loop will poll the I/O selector once with a timeout of zero, run all callbacks scheduled in response to I/O events (and those that were already scheduled), and then exit.

Si stop() est appelée pendant que run_forever() est en cours d'exécution, la boucle exécute le lot actuel de rappels puis se termine. Notez que les nouveaux rappels programmés par fonctions de rappel ne s'exécuteront pas dans ce cas ; à la place, ils s'exécuteront la prochaine fois que run_forever() ou run_until_complete() sera appelée.

loop.stop()

Arrête l'exécution de la boucle d'évènements.

loop.is_running()

Renvoie True si la boucle d'évènements est démarrée.

loop.is_closed()

Renvoie True si la boucle d'évènements est arrêtée.

loop.close()

Arrête la boucle d'évènements.

La boucle ne doit pas être en cours d'exécution lorsque cette fonction est appelée. Tous les rappels en attente seront ignorés.

Cette méthode efface toutes les files d'attente et arrête l'exécuteur, mais n'attend pas que l'exécuteur se termine.

Cette méthode est idempotente et irréversible. Aucune autre méthode ne doit être appelée après la fermeture de la boucle d'événements.

async loop.shutdown_asyncgens()

Schedule all currently open asynchronous generator objects to close with an aclose() call. After calling this method, the event loop will issue a warning if a new asynchronous generator is iterated. This should be used to reliably finalize all scheduled asynchronous generators.

Notez qu'il n'est pas nécessaire d'appeler cette fonction lorsque asyncio.run() est utilisée.

Exemple :

try:
    loop.run_forever()
finally:
    loop.run_until_complete(loop.shutdown_asyncgens())
    loop.close()

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

async loop.shutdown_default_executor(timeout=None)

Planifie la fermeture de l'exécuteur par défaut et attend que tous les fils se rejoignent dans le ThreadPoolExecutor. Une fois cette méthode appelée, l'utilisation de l'exécuteur par défaut avec loop.run_in_executor() lève une RuntimeError.

The timeout parameter specifies the amount of time (in float seconds) the executor will be given to finish joining. With the default, None, the executor is allowed an unlimited amount of time.

If the timeout is reached, a RuntimeWarning is emitted and the default executor is terminated without waiting for its threads to finish joining.

Note

n'appelez pas cette méthode lorsque vous utilisez asyncio.run(), car cette dernière gère automatiquement l'arrêt de l'exécuteur par défaut.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added the timeout parameter.

Planification des fonctions de rappel

loop.call_soon(callback, *args, context=None)

Définit la fonction de rappel callback à appeler avec les arguments args à la prochaine itération de la boucle d'événements.

Renvoie une instance de asyncio.Handle, qui pourra être utilisée ultérieurement pour annuler le rappel.

Les fonctions de rappels sont appelées dans l'ordre dans lequel elles sont enregistrées. Chaque fonction de rappel sera appelée exactement une fois.

L'argument facultatif nommé uniquement context spécifie un contextvars.Context personnalisé pour le callback à exécuter. Les rappels utilisent le contexte actuel lorsqu'aucun context n'est fourni.

Contrairement à call_soon_threadsafe(), cette méthode n'est pas compatible avec les programmes à fils d'exécution multiples.

loop.call_soon_threadsafe(callback, *args, context=None)

Une variante compatible avec les programmes à fils d'exécution multiples de call_soon(). Lors de la planification de rappels à partir d'un autre fil d'exécution, cette fonction doit être utilisée, puisque call_soon() n'est pas thread-safe.

This function is safe to be called from a reentrant context or signal handler, however, it is not safe or fruitful to use the returned handle in such contexts.

Lève RuntimeError si elle est appelée sur une boucle qui a été fermée. Cela peut se produire sur un fil secondaire lorsque l'application principale se ferme.

Voir la section exécution concurrente et multi-fils d'exécution de la documentation.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: le paramètre nommé uniquement context a été ajouté. Voir PEP 567 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/] pour plus de détails.

Note

la plupart des fonctions d'ordonnancement asyncio n'autorisent pas le passage d'arguments nommés. Pour le faire, utilisez functools.partial()

# will schedule "print("Hello", flush=True)"
loop.call_soon(
    functools.partial(print, "Hello", flush=True))

L'utilisation d'objets partiels est généralement plus pratique que l'utilisation de lambdas, car asyncio peut mieux rendre les objets partiels dans les messages de débogage et d'erreur.

Planification des rappels différés

La boucle d'événements fournit des mécanismes pour programmer les fonctions de rappel à appeler à un moment donné dans le futur. La boucle d'événements utilise des horloges monotones pour suivre le temps.

loop.call_later(delay, callback, *args, context=None)

Planifie le rappel callback à appeler après delay secondes (peut être un entier ou un flottant).

Une instance de asyncio.TimerHandle est renvoyée et peut être utilisée pour annuler le rappel.

callback sera appelé exactement une fois. Si deux rappels sont programmés exactement à la même heure, l'ordre dans lequel ils sont appelés n'est pas défini.

The optional positional args will be passed to the callback when it is called. Use functools.partial() to pass keyword arguments to callback.

Un argument facultatif context nommé uniquement permet de spécifier un contextvars.Context personnalisé pour le callback à exécuter. Le contexte actuel est utilisé lorsqu'aucun context n'est fourni.

Note

For performance, callbacks scheduled with loop.call_later() may run up to one clock-resolution early (see time.get_clock_info('monotonic').resolution).

Modifié dans la version 3.7: le paramètre nommé uniquement context a été ajouté. Voir PEP 567 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/] pour plus de détails.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: dans Python 3.7 et versions antérieures avec l'implémentation de la boucle d'événements par défaut, le delay ne pouvait pas dépasser un jour. Cela a été corrigé dans Python 3.8.

loop.call_at(when, callback, *args, context=None)

Planifie l'appel de callback à l'horodatage absolu donné when (un int ou un float), en utilisant la même référence de temps que loop.time().

Le comportement de cette méthode est le même que call_later().

Une instance de asyncio.TimerHandle est renvoyée et peut être utilisée pour annuler le rappel.

Note

For performance, callbacks scheduled with loop.call_at() may run up to one clock-resolution early (see time.get_clock_info('monotonic').resolution).

Modifié dans la version 3.7: le paramètre nommé uniquement context a été ajouté. Voir PEP 567 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/] pour plus de détails.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: dans Python 3.7 et versions antérieures avec l'implémentation de la boucle d'événements par défaut, la différence entre when et l'heure actuelle ne pouvait pas dépasser un jour. Cela a été corrigé dans Python 3.8.

loop.time()

Renvoie l'heure actuelle, sous la forme d'une valeur float, selon l'horloge monotone interne de la boucle d'événements.

Note

Modifié dans la version 3.8: dans Python 3.7 et les versions antérieures, les délais d'expiration (relatif delay ou absolu when) ne doivent pas dépasser un jour. Cela a été corrigé dans Python 3.8.

Voir aussi

la fonction asyncio.sleep().

Creating futures and tasks

loop.create_future()

Crée un objet asyncio.Future attaché à la boucle d'événements.

C'est la méthode préférée pour créer des Futures avec asyncio. Cela permet aux boucles d'événements tierces de fournir des implémentations alternatives de l'objet Future (avec de meilleures performances ou instrumentation).

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.2.

loop.create_task(coro, *, name=None, context=None, eager_start=None, **kwargs)

Planifie l'exécution de coroutine coro. Renvoie un objet Task.

Les boucles d'événements tierces peuvent utiliser leur propre sous-classe de Task pour l'interopérabilité. Dans ce cas, le type de résultat est une sous-classe de Task.

The full function signature is largely the same as that of the Task constructor (or factory) - all of the keyword arguments to this function are passed through to that interface.

Si l'argument name est fourni et non None, il est défini comme le nom de la tâche en utilisant Task.set_name().

Argument facultatif context nommé uniquement qui permet de spécifier un contextvars.Context personnalisé pour la coro à exécuter. La copie de contexte actuel est créée lorsqu'aucun context n'est fourni.

An optional keyword-only eager_start argument allows specifying if the task should execute eagerly during the call to create_task, or be scheduled later. If eager_start is not passed the mode set by loop.set_task_factory() will be used.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: ajout du paramètre name.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: ajout du paramètre context.

Modifié dans la version 3.13.3: Added kwargs which passes on arbitrary extra parameters, including name and context.

Modifié dans la version 3.13.4: Rolled back the change that passes on name and context (if it is None), while still passing on other arbitrary keyword arguments (to avoid breaking backwards compatibility with 3.13.3).

Modifié dans la version 3.14: All kwargs are now passed on. The eager_start parameter works with eager task factories.

loop.set_task_factory(factory)

Définit une fabrique de tâches qui sera utilisée par loop.create_task().

If factory is None the default task factory will be set. Otherwise, factory must be a callable with the signature matching (loop, coro, **kwargs), where loop is a reference to the active event loop, and coro is a coroutine object. The callable must pass on all kwargs, and return a asyncio.Task-compatible object.

Modifié dans la version 3.13.3: Required that all kwargs are passed on to asyncio.Task.

Modifié dans la version 3.13.4: name is no longer passed to task factories. context is no longer passed to task factories if it is None.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: name and context are now unconditionally passed on to task factories again.

loop.get_task_factory()

Renvoie une fabrique de tâches ou None si celle par défaut est utilisée.

Création de connexions

async loop.create_connection(protocol_factory, host=None, port=None, *, ssl=None, family=0, proto=0, flags=0, sock=None, local_addr=None, server_hostname=None, ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None, happy_eyeballs_delay=None, interleave=None, all_errors=False)

Ouvre un flux de transport connecté à l'adresse spécifiée par host et port.

The socket family can be either AF_INET or AF_INET6 depending on host (or the family argument, if provided).

The socket type will be SOCK_STREAM.

protocol_factory doit être un appelable renvoyant un protocole gérant le protocole asyncio.

Cette méthode tente d'établir la connexion en arrière-plan. En cas de succès, elle renvoie une paire (transport, protocol).

Le synopsis chronologique de l'opération sous-jacente est le suivant :

La connexion est établie et un transport asyncio est créé pour cela.

protocol_factory est appelée sans arguments et doit renvoyer une instance de protocol asyncio.

L'instance de protocole est couplée au transport en appelant sa méthode connection_made().

Un n-uplet (transport, protocol) est renvoyé en cas de succès.

Le transport créé est un flux bidirectionnel dépendant de l'implémentation.

Autres arguments :

ssl : s'il est donné et non faux, un transport SSL/TLS est créé (par défaut un transport TCP simple est créé). Si ssl est un objet ssl.SSLContext, ce contexte est utilisé pour créer le transport ; si ssl est True, un contexte par défaut renvoyé par ssl.create_default_context() est utilisé.

Voir aussi

Considérations sur la sécurité SSL/TLS

server_hostname définit ou remplace le nom d'hôte auquel le certificat du serveur cible sera comparé. Ne doit être passé que si ssl n'est pas None. Par défaut, la valeur de l'argument host est utilisée. Si host est vide, il n'y a pas de valeur par défaut et vous devez transmettre une valeur pour server_hostname. Si server_hostname est une chaîne vide, la correspondance du nom d'hôte est désactivée (ce qui constitue un risque de sécurité sérieux, permettant des attaques potentielles de type « homme du milieu »).

family, proto, flags sont facultatifs et sont la famille d'adresse, le protocole et les drapeaux à transmettre à getaddrinfo() pour la résolution de host. S'ils sont fournis, ils doivent tous être des entiers provenant des constantes du module socket.

happy_eyeballs_delay, s'il est fourni, active Happy Eyeballs pour cette connexion. Il doit s'agir d'un nombre à virgule flottante représentant le temps d'attente en secondes pour qu'une tentative de connexion se termine, avant de démarrer la prochaine tentative en parallèle. Il s'agit du « délai de tentative de connexion » tel que défini dans la RFC 8305 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc8305.html]. Une valeur par défaut raisonnable recommandée par la RFC est 0.25 (250 millisecondes).

interleave contrôle la réorganisation des adresses lorsqu'un nom d'hôte se résout en plusieurs adresses IP. S'il vaut 0 ou n'est pas spécifié, aucune réorganisation n'est effectuée et les adresses sont essayées dans l'ordre renvoyé par getaddrinfo(). Si un entier positif est spécifié, les adresses sont entrelacées par famille d'adresses et l'entier donné est interprété comme "First Address Family Count" tel que défini dans la RFC 8305 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc8305.html]. La valeur par défaut est 0 si happy_eyeballs_delay n'est pas spécifié, et 1 si c'est le cas.

sock, s'il est fourni, doit être un objet socket.socket existant et déjà connecté à utiliser par le transport. Si sock est donné, aucun des host, port, family, proto, flags, happy_eyeballs_delay, interleave et local_addr ne doit être spécifié.

Note

l'argument sock transfère la propriété du connecteur au transport créé. Pour fermer le connecteur, appelez la méthode close() du transport.

local_addr, s'il est fourni, est un n-uplet (local_host, local_port) utilisé pour lier le connecteur localement. local_host et local_port sont recherchés en utilisant getaddrinfo(), de la même manière que host et port.

ssl_handshake_timeout est (pour une connexion TLS) le temps en secondes à attendre que la poignée de main TLS se termine avant d'abandonner la connexion. 60.0 secondes si None (par défaut).

ssl_shutdown_timeout est le temps en secondes à attendre que l'arrêt SSL se termine avant d'abandonner la connexion. 30.0 secondes si None (par défaut).

all_errors determines what exceptions are raised when a connection cannot be created. By default, only a single Exception is raised: the first exception if there is only one or all errors have same message, or a single OSError with the error messages combined. When all_errors is True, an ExceptionGroup will be raised containing all exceptions (even if there is only one).

Modifié dans la version 3.5: ajout de la prise en charge de SSL/TLS dans ProactorEventLoop.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: The socket option socket.TCP_NODELAY is set by default for all TCP connections.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: ajout du paramètre ssl handshake timeout

Modifié dans la version 3.8: ajout des paramètres happy_eyeballs_delay et interleave.

Algorithme Happy Eyeballs : « succès avec les hôtes à double pile ». Lorsque le chemin et le protocole IPv4 d'un serveur fonctionnent, mais que le chemin et le protocole IPv6 du serveur ne fonctionnent pas, une application cliente à double pile subit un retard de connexion important par rapport à un client IPv4 uniquement. Ceci n'est pas souhaitable car cela entraîne une moins bonne expérience utilisateur pour le client à double pile. Ce document spécifie les exigences pour les algorithmes qui réduisent ce délai visible par l'utilisateur et fournit un algorithme correspondant.

For more information: https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6555

Modifié dans la version 3.11: ajout du paramètre ssl shutdown timeout

Modifié dans la version 3.12: all_errors was added.

Voir aussi

la fonction open_connection() est une API alternative de haut niveau. Elle renvoie une paire de (StreamReader, StreamWriter) qui peut être utilisée directement dans le code async/wait.

async loop.create_datagram_endpoint(protocol_factory, local_addr=None, remote_addr=None, *, family=0, proto=0, flags=0, reuse_port=None, allow_broadcast=None, sock=None)

Création d'une connexion par datagramme

The socket family can be either AF_INET, AF_INET6, or AF_UNIX, depending on host (or the family argument, if provided).

The socket type will be SOCK_DGRAM.

protocol_factory doit être un appelable gérant le protocole asyncio.

Un n-uplet (transport, protocol) est renvoyé en cas de succès.

Autres arguments :

local_addr, s'il est fourni, est un n-uplet (local_host, local_port) utilisé pour lier le connecteur localement. Le local_host et le local_port sont recherchés en utilisant getaddrinfo().

Note

On Windows, when using the proactor event loop with local_addr=None, an OSError with errno.WSAEINVAL will be raised when running it.

remote_addr, s'il est fourni, est un n-uplet (remote_host, remote_port) utilisé pour se connecter à une adresse distante. Le remote_host et le remote_port sont recherchés en utilisant getaddrinfo().

family, proto, flags sont facultatifs et représentent la famille d'adresse, le protocole et les drapeaux à transmettre à getaddrinfo() pour la résolution host. S'ils sont fournis, ils doivent tous être des entiers provenant des constantes du module socket.

reuse_port tells the kernel to allow this endpoint to be bound to the same port as other existing endpoints are bound to, so long as they all set this flag when being created. This option is not supported on Windows and some Unixes. If the socket.SO_REUSEPORT constant is not defined then this capability is unsupported.

allow_broadcast indique au noyau d'autoriser ce point de terminaison à envoyer des messages à l'adresse de broadcast.

sock peut éventuellement être spécifié afin d'utiliser un objet socket.socket préexistant, déjà connecté, à utiliser par le transport. Si spécifié, local_addr et remote_addr doivent être omis (doit être None).

Note

l'argument sock transfère la propriété du connecteur au transport créé. Pour fermer le connecteur, appelez la méthode close() du transport.

Voir les exemples Client écho en UDP et Serveur écho en UDP.

Modifié dans la version 3.4.4: les paramètres family, proto, flags, reuse_address, reuse_port, allow_broadcast et sock ont été ajoutés.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: prise en charge sur Windows.

Modifié dans la version 3.8.1: The reuse_address parameter is no longer supported, as using socket.SO_REUSEADDR poses a significant security concern for UDP. Explicitly passing reuse_address=True will raise an exception.

Lorsque plusieurs processus avec des UID différents attribuent des connecteurs à une adresse de connecteur UDP identique avec SO_REUSEADDR, les paquets entrants peuvent être distribués de manière aléatoire entre les connecteurs.

For supported platforms, reuse_port can be used as a replacement for similar functionality. With reuse_port, socket.SO_REUSEPORT is used instead, which specifically prevents processes with differing UIDs from assigning sockets to the same socket address.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: The reuse_address parameter, disabled since Python 3.8.1, 3.7.6 and 3.6.10, has been entirely removed.

async loop.create_unix_connection(protocol_factory, path=None, *, ssl=None, sock=None, server_hostname=None, ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None)

Crée une connexion Unix

The socket family will be AF_UNIX; socket type will be SOCK_STREAM.

Un n-uplet (transport, protocol) est renvoyé en cas de succès.

path est le nom d'un connecteur de domaine Unix et est obligatoire, sauf si un paramètre sock est spécifié. Les connecteurs Unix abstraits, les chemins str, bytes et Path sont pris en charge.

Voir la documentation de la méthode loop.create_connection() pour plus d'informations sur les arguments de cette méthode.

Disponibilité: Unix.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: ajout du paramètre ssl_handshake_timeout. Le paramètre chemin peut désormais être un objet simili-chemin.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: ajout du paramètre ssl shutdown timeout

Création de serveurs

async loop.create_server(protocol_factory, host=None, port=None, *, family=socket.AF_UNSPEC, flags=socket.AI_PASSIVE, sock=None, backlog=100, ssl=None, reuse_address=None, reuse_port=None, keep_alive=None, ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None, start_serving=True)

Create a TCP server (socket type SOCK_STREAM) listening on port of the host address.

Renvoie un objet Server.

Arguments :

protocol_factory doit être un appelable gérant le protocole asyncio.

Le paramètre host peut être défini sur plusieurs types qui déterminent où le serveur écoute :

Si host est une chaîne, le serveur TCP est lié à une seule interface réseau spécifiée par host.

Si host est une séquence de chaînes, le serveur TCP est lié à toutes les interfaces réseau spécifiées par la séquence.

Si host est une chaîne vide ou None, toutes les interfaces sont prises en compte et une liste de plusieurs connecteurs est renvoyée (probablement une pour IPv4 et une autre pour IPv6).

Le paramètre port peut être défini pour spécifier sur quel port le serveur doit écouter. Si 0 ou None (la valeur par défaut), un port inutilisé aléatoire est sélectionné (notez que si host se résout en plusieurs interfaces réseau, un port aléatoire différent est sélectionné pour chaque interface).

family can be set to either socket.AF_INET or AF_INET6 to force the socket to use IPv4 or IPv6. If not set, the family will be determined from host name (defaults to AF_UNSPEC).

flags est un masque de bits pour getaddrinfo().

sock peut éventuellement être spécifié afin d'utiliser un objet connecteur préexistant. S'il est spécifié, host et port ne doivent pas être spécifiés.

Note

l'argument sock transfère la propriété du connecteur au serveur créé. Pour fermer le connecteur, appelez la méthode close() du serveur.

backlog est le nombre maximum de connexions en file d'attente passées à listen() (par défaut à 100).

ssl peut être défini sur une instance SSLContext pour activer TLS sur les connexions acceptées.

reuse_address indique au noyau de réutiliser un connecteur local dans l'état TIME_WAIT, sans attendre l'expiration de son délai d'attente naturel. S'il n'est pas spécifié, il est automatiquement défini sur True sous Unix.

reuse_port indique au noyau d'autoriser ce point de terminaison à être lié au même port que les autres points de terminaison existants, tant qu'ils définissent tous cet indicateur lors de leur création. Cette option n'est pas prise en charge sous Windows.

keep_alive set to True keeps connections active by enabling the periodic transmission of messages.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the keep_alive parameter.

ssl_handshake_timeout est (pour un serveur TLS) le temps en secondes à attendre que la poignée de main TLS se termine avant d'abandonner la connexion. 60.0 secondes si None (par défaut).

ssl_shutdown_timeout est le temps en secondes à attendre que l'arrêt SSL se termine avant d'abandonner la connexion. 30.0 secondes si None (par défaut).

start_serving défini à True (valeur par défaut) fait que le serveur créé commence immédiatement à accepter les connexions. Lorsqu'il est défini sur False, l'utilisateur doit attendre sur Server.start_serving() ou Server.serve_forever() pour que le serveur commence à accepter les connexions.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: ajout de la prise en charge de SSL/TLS dans ProactorEventLoop.

Modifié dans la version 3.5.1: le paramètre host peut être une séquence de chaînes.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Added ssl_handshake_timeout and start_serving parameters. The socket option socket.TCP_NODELAY is set by default for all TCP connections.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: ajout du paramètre ssl shutdown timeout

Voir aussi

la fonction start_server() est une API alternative de niveau supérieur qui renvoie une paire de StreamReader et StreamWriter qui peut être utilisée dans un code async/wait.

async loop.create_unix_server(protocol_factory, path=None, *, sock=None, backlog=100, ssl=None, ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None, start_serving=True, cleanup_socket=True)

Similar to loop.create_server() but works with the AF_UNIX socket family.

path est le nom d'un connecteur de domaine Unix et est obligatoire, sauf si un argument sock est fourni. Les connecteurs Unix abstraits, les chemins str, bytes et Path sont pris en charge.

If cleanup_socket is true then the Unix socket will automatically be removed from the filesystem when the server is closed, unless the socket has been replaced after the server has been created.

Voir la documentation de la méthode loop.create_server() pour plus d'informations sur les arguments de cette méthode.

Disponibilité: Unix.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: ajout des paramètres ssl_handshake_timeout et start_serving. Le paramètre path peut maintenant être un objet Path.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: ajout du paramètre ssl shutdown timeout

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the cleanup_socket parameter.

async loop.connect_accepted_socket(protocol_factory, sock, *, ssl=None, ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None)

Enveloppe une connexion déjà acceptée dans une paire transport/protocole.

Cette méthode peut être utilisée par les serveurs qui acceptent les connexions en dehors d'asyncio mais qui utilisent asyncio pour les gérer.

Paramètres :

protocol_factory doit être un appelable gérant le protocole asyncio.

sock est un objet connecteur préexistant renvoyé par socket.accept.

Note

l'argument sock transfère la propriété du connecteur au transport créé. Pour fermer le connecteur, appelez la méthode close() du transport.

ssl peut être défini sur une SSLContext pour activer SSL sur les connexions acceptées.

ssl_handshake_timeout est (pour une connexion SSL) le temps en secondes à attendre que la poignée de main SSL se termine avant d'abandonner la connexion. 60.0 secondes si None (par défaut).

ssl_shutdown_timeout est le temps en secondes à attendre que l'arrêt SSL se termine avant d'abandonner la connexion. 30.0 secondes si None (par défaut).

Renvoie une paire (transport, protocole).

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: ajout du paramètre ssl handshake timeout

Modifié dans la version 3.11: ajout du paramètre ssl shutdown timeout

Transfert de fichiers

async loop.sendfile(transport, file, offset=0, count=None, *, fallback=True)

Envoie file via transport. Renvoie le nombre total d'octets envoyés.

La méthode utilise os.sendfile() (hautes performances) si elle est disponible.

file doit être un objet fichier normal ouvert en mode binaire.

offset indique où commencer la lecture du fichier. Si spécifié, count est le nombre total d'octets à transmettre, par opposition à l'envoi du fichier jusqu'à ce que EOF soit atteint. La position du fichier est toujours mise à jour, même lorsque cette méthode génère une erreur. file.tell() peut être utilisée pour obtenir le nombre d'octets réellement envoyés.

fallback défini sur True permet à asyncio de lire et d'envoyer manuellement le fichier lorsque la plateforme ne prend pas en charge l'appel système sendfile (par exemple, Windows ou connecteur SSL sous Unix).

Lève SendfileNotAvailableError si le système ne prend pas en charge l'appel système sendfile et que fallback est False.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

TLS upgrade

async loop.start_tls(transport, protocol, sslcontext, *, server_side=False, server_hostname=None, ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None)

Convertit une connexion existante en connexion TLS.

Crée une instance de codeur-décodeur TLS et l'insère entre le transport et le protocol. Le codeur-décodeur implémente à la fois le protocole vers le transport et le transport vers le protocol.

Renvoie l'instance à deux interfaces créée. Après await, le protocol doit cesser d'utiliser le transport d'origine et communiquer avec l'objet renvoyé uniquement parce que le codeur met en cache les données côté protocol et échange sporadiquement des paquets de session TLS supplémentaires avec transport.

In some situations (e.g. when the passed transport is already closing) this may return None.

Paramètres :

transport et protocol que des méthodes comme create_server() et create_connection() renvoient.

sslcontext : une instance configurée de SSLContext.

server_side passe à True lorsqu'une connexion côté serveur est mise à jour (comme celle créée par create_server()).

server_hostname : définit ou remplace le nom d'hôte auquel le certificat du serveur cible est comparé.

ssl_handshake_timeout est (pour une connexion TLS) le temps en secondes à attendre que la poignée de main TLS se termine avant d'abandonner la connexion. 60.0 secondes si None (par défaut).

ssl_shutdown_timeout est le temps en secondes à attendre que l'arrêt SSL se termine avant d'abandonner la connexion. 30.0 secondes si None (par défaut).

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: ajout du paramètre ssl shutdown timeout

Surveillance de descripteur de fichier

loop.add_reader(fd, callback, *args)

Commence à surveiller la disponibilité en lecture du descripteur de fichier fd et appelle callback avec les arguments spécifiés une fois que fd est disponible en lecture.

Any preexisting callback registered for fd is cancelled and replaced by callback.

loop.remove_reader(fd)

Arrête de surveiller le descripteur de fichier fd pour la disponibilité en lecture. Renvoie True si fd était précédemment surveillé pour les lectures.

loop.add_writer(fd, callback, *args)

Start monitoring the fd file descriptor for write availability and invoke callback with the specified arguments args once fd is available for writing.

Any preexisting callback registered for fd is cancelled and replaced by callback.

Utilisez functools.partial() pour passer des arguments nommés à callback.

loop.remove_writer(fd)

Arrête de surveiller le descripteur de fichier fd pour la disponibilité en écriture. Renvoie True si fd était précédemment surveillé pour les écritures.

Voir aussi la section Prise en charge de la plate-forme pour certaines limitations de ces méthodes.

Travail direct avec des objets socket

En général, les implémentations de protocole qui utilisent des API basées sur le transport telles que loop.create_connection() et loop.create_server() sont plus rapides que les implémentations qui fonctionnent directement avec les sockets. Cependant, il existe des cas d'utilisation où les performances ne sont pas critiques, et travailler directement avec les objets socket est plus pratique.

async loop.sock_recv(sock, nbytes)

Reçoit jusqu'à nbytes de sock. Version asynchrone de socket.recv().

Renvoie les données reçues sous la forme d'un objet bytes.

Le connecteur sock ne doit pas être bloquant.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: même si cette méthode a toujours été documentée en tant que méthode coroutine, les versions antérieures à Python 3.7 renvoyaient un Future. Depuis Python 3.7, il s'agit d'une méthode async def.

async loop.sock_recv_into(sock, buf)

Reçoit les données de sock dans le tampon buf. Basée sur le modèle de la méthode bloquante socket.recv_into().

Renvoie le nombre d'octets écrits dans le tampon.

Le connecteur sock ne doit pas être bloquant.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

async loop.sock_recvfrom(sock, bufsize)

Reçoit un datagramme jusqu'à bufsize de sock. Version asynchrone de socket.recvfrom().

Renvoie un n-uplet (données reçues, adresse distante).

Le connecteur sock ne doit pas être bloquant.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

async loop.sock_recvfrom_into(sock, buf, nbytes=0)

Reçoit un datagramme jusqu'à nbytes de sock vers buf. Version asynchrone de socket.recvfrom_into().

Renvoie un n-uplet (nombre d'octets reçus, adresse distante).

Le connecteur sock ne doit pas être bloquant.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

async loop.sock_sendall(sock, data)

Envoie les données data au connecteur sock. Version asynchrone de socket.sendall().

Cette méthode continue d'envoyer des données au connecteur jusqu'à ce que toutes les data aient été envoyées ou qu'une erreur se produise. None est renvoyé en cas de succès. En cas d'erreur, une exception est levée. De plus, il n'existe aucun moyen de déterminer la quantité de données, le cas échéant, qui a été traitée avec succès par l'extrémité réceptrice de la connexion.

Le connecteur sock ne doit pas être bloquant.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: même si la méthode a toujours été documentée en tant que méthode coroutine, avant Python 3.7, elle renvoyait un Future. Depuis Python 3.7, il s'agit d'une méthode async def.

async loop.sock_sendto(sock, data, address)

Envoie un datagramme de sock à address. Version asynchrone de socket.sendto().

Renvoie le nombre d'octets envoyés.

Le connecteur sock ne doit pas être bloquant.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

async loop.sock_connect(sock, address)

Connecte sock à un connecteur distant situé à address.

Version asynchrone de socket.connect().

Le connecteur sock ne doit pas être bloquant.

Modifié dans la version 3.5.2: address n'a plus besoin d'être résolu. sock_connect essaie de vérifier si address est déjà résolue en appelant socket.inet_pton(). Sinon, loop.getaddrinfo() est utilisé pour résoudre address.

Voir aussi

loop.create_connection() et asyncio.open_connection().

async loop.sock_accept(sock)

Accepte une connexion. Basée sur le modèle de la méthode bloquante socket.accept().

Le connecteur doit être lié à une adresse et écouter les connexions. La valeur de retour est une paire (conn, adresse) où conn est un nouvel objet socket utilisable pour envoyer et recevoir des données sur la connexion, et adresse est l'adresse liée au connecteur de l'autre côté de la connexion.

Le connecteur sock ne doit pas être bloquant.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: même si la méthode a toujours été documentée en tant que méthode coroutine, avant Python 3.7, elle renvoyait un Future. Depuis Python 3.7, il s'agit d'une méthode async def.

Voir aussi

loop.create_server() et start_server().

async loop.sock_sendfile(sock, file, offset=0, count=None, *, fallback=True)

Envoie le fichier en utilisant os.sendfile (haute performance) si possible. Renvoie le nombre total d'octets envoyés.

Version asynchrone de socket.sendfile().

sock doit être un socket.SOCK_STREAM socket non bloquant.

file doit être un objet fichier normal ouvert en mode binaire.

offset indique où commencer la lecture du fichier. Si spécifié, count est le nombre total d'octets à transmettre, par opposition à l'envoi du fichier jusqu'à ce que EOF soit atteint. La position du fichier est toujours mise à jour, même lorsque cette méthode génère une erreur. file.tell() peut être utilisée pour obtenir le nombre d'octets réellement envoyés.

fallback, lorsqu'il est défini à True, permet à asyncio de lire et d'envoyer manuellement le fichier lorsque la plateforme ne prend pas en charge l'appel système sendfile (par exemple, Windows ou connecteur SSL sous Unix).

Lève une SendfileNotAvailableError si le système ne prend pas en charge l'appel système sendfile et que fallback est False.

Le connecteur sock ne doit pas être bloquant.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

DNS

async loop.getaddrinfo(host, port, *, family=0, type=0, proto=0, flags=0)

Version asynchrone de socket.getaddrinfo().

async loop.getnameinfo(sockaddr, flags=0)

Version asynchrone de socket.getnameinfo().

Note

Both getaddrinfo and getnameinfo internally utilize their synchronous versions through the loop's default thread pool executor. When this executor is saturated, these methods may experience delays, which higher-level networking libraries may report as increased timeouts. To mitigate this, consider using a custom executor for other user tasks, or setting a default executor with a larger number of workers.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: les méthodes getaddrinfo et getnameinfo ont toujours été documentées pour renvoyer une coroutine, mais avant Python 3.7, elles renvoyaient en fait des objets asyncio.Future. À partir de Python 3.7, les deux méthodes sont des coroutines.

Travail avec des tubes (pipes)

async loop.connect_read_pipe(protocol_factory, pipe)

Branche l'extrémité en lecture du tube pipe à la boucle d'évènements.

protocol_factory doit être un appelable renvoyant un protocole gérant le protocole asyncio.

pipe est un simili-fichier.

Renvoie la paire (transport, protocol), où transport prend en charge l'interface ReadTransport et protocol est un objet instancié par protocol_factory.

Avec la boucle d'événements SelectorEventLoop, le pipe est mis en mode non bloquant.

async loop.connect_write_pipe(protocol_factory, pipe)

Branche l'extrémité en écriture de pipe à la boucle d'évènements.

protocol_factory doit être un appelable renvoyant un protocole gérant le protocole asyncio.

pipe est un simili-fichier.

Renvoie la paire (transport, protocol), où transport prend en charge l'interface WriteTransport et protocol est un objet instancié par protocol_factory.

Avec la boucle d'événements SelectorEventLoop, le pipe est mis en mode non bloquant.

Note

SelectorEventLoop ne prend pas en charge les méthodes ci-dessus sous Windows. Utilisez ProactorEventLoop à la place pour Windows.

Voir aussi

les méthodes loop.subprocess_exec() et loop.subprocess_shell().

Signaux Unix

loop.add_signal_handler(signum, callback, *args)

Set callback as the handler for the signum signal, passing args as positional arguments.

La fonction de rappel sera appelée par loop, avec d'autres rappels en file d'attente et des coroutines exécutables de cette boucle d'événements. Contrairement aux gestionnaires de signaux enregistrés à l'aide de signal.signal(), un rappel enregistré avec cette fonction est autorisé à interagir avec la boucle d'événements.

Lève une ValueError si le numéro de signal est invalide ou non attrapable. Lève une RuntimeError s'il y a un problème lors de la configuration du gestionnaire.

Utilisez functools.partial() pour passer des arguments nommés à callback.

Comme signal.signal(), cette fonction doit être invoquée dans le fil d'exécution principal.

loop.remove_signal_handler(sig)

Supprime le gestionnaire du signal sig.

Renvoie True si le gestionnaire de signal a été supprimé, ou False si aucun gestionnaire n'a été défini pour le signal donné.

Disponibilité: Unix.

Voir aussi

le module signal.

Exécution de code dans des pools de threads ou de processus

awaitable loop.run_in_executor(executor, func, *args)

Arrange for func to be called in the specified executor passing args as positional arguments.

The executor argument should be an concurrent.futures.Executor instance. The default executor is used if executor is None. The default executor can be set by loop.set_default_executor(), otherwise, a concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor will be lazy-initialized and used by run_in_executor() if needed.

Exemple :

import asyncio
import concurrent.futures

def blocking_io():
    # File operations (such as logging) can block the
    # event loop: run them in a thread pool.
    with open('/dev/urandom', 'rb') as f:
        return f.read(100)

def cpu_bound():
    # CPU-bound operations will block the event loop:
    # in general it is preferable to run them in a
    # process pool.
    return sum(i * i for i in range(10 ** 7))

async def main():
    loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

    ## Options:

    # 1. Run in the default loop's executor:
    result = await loop.run_in_executor(
        None, blocking_io)
    print('default thread pool', result)

    # 2. Run in a custom thread pool:
    with concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor() as pool:
        result = await loop.run_in_executor(
            pool, blocking_io)
        print('custom thread pool', result)

    # 3. Run in a custom process pool:
    with concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor() as pool:
        result = await loop.run_in_executor(
            pool, cpu_bound)
        print('custom process pool', result)

    # 4. Run in a custom interpreter pool:
    with concurrent.futures.InterpreterPoolExecutor() as pool:
        result = await loop.run_in_executor(
            pool, cpu_bound)
        print('custom interpreter pool', result)

if __name__ == '__main__':
    asyncio.run(main())

Notez que la garde du point d'entrée (if __name__ == '__main__') est requis pour l'option 3 en raison des particularités de multiprocessing, qui est utilisé par ProcessPoolExecutor. Voir Importation sécurisée du module principal.

Cette méthode renvoie un objet asyncio.Future.

Utilisez functools.partial() pour passer des arguments nommés à func.

Modifié dans la version 3.5.3: loop.run_in_executor() ne configure plus le max_workers de l'exécuteur de pool de threads qu'il crée, laissant à la place à l'exécuteur de pool de threads (ThreadPoolExecutor) le soin de définir le défaut.

loop.set_default_executor(executor)

Set executor as the default executor used by run_in_executor(). executor must be an instance of ThreadPoolExecutor, which includes InterpreterPoolExecutor.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: executor doit être une instance de ThreadPoolExecutor.

Error handling API

Permet de personnaliser la façon dont les exceptions sont gérées dans la boucle d'événements.

loop.set_exception_handler(handler)

Définit handler comme nouveau gestionnaire d'exceptions de boucle d'événements.

Si handler est None, le gestionnaire d'exceptions par défaut est activé. Sinon, handler doit être un appelable avec la signature correspondant à (loop, context), où loop est une référence à la boucle d'événements active et context est un dict contenant les détails de l'exception (voir la documentation call_exception_handler() pour plus de détails sur le contexte).

If the handler is called on behalf of a Task or Handle, it is run in the contextvars.Context of that task or callback handle.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: The handler may be called in the Context of the task or handle where the exception originated.

loop.get_exception_handler()

Renvoie le gestionnaire d'exceptions actuel ou None si aucun gestionnaire d'exceptions personnalisé n'a été défini.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.2.

loop.default_exception_handler(context)

Gestionnaire d'exception par défaut.

Appelée lorsqu'une exception se produit et qu'aucun gestionnaire d'exception n'est défini. Elle peut être appelée par un gestionnaire d'exceptions personnalisé qui souhaite s'en remettre au comportement du gestionnaire par défaut.

Le paramètre context a la même signification que dans call_exception_handler().

loop.call_exception_handler(context)

Appelle le gestionnaire d'exception de la boucle d'évènements actuelle.

context est un objet dict contenant les clés suivantes (de nouvelles clés pourront être introduites dans les futures versions de Python) :

'message' : message d'erreur ;

'exception' (facultatif) : objet exception ;

'future' (facultatif) : instance de asyncio.Future ;

'task' (facultatif) : instance de asyncio.Task ;

'handle' (facultatif) : instance de asyncio.Handle ;

'protocol' (facultatif) : instance de protocole asyncio ;

'transport' (facultatif) : instance de transport asyncio ;

'socket' (facultatif) : instance de socket.socket ;

'source_traceback' (optional): Traceback of the source;

'handle_traceback' (optional): Traceback of the handle;

'asyncgen' (facultatif) : générateur asynchrone qui a causé

l'exception

Note

This method should not be overloaded in subclassed event loops. For custom exception handling, use the set_exception_handler() method.

Activation du mode débogage

loop.get_debug()

Obtient le mode de débogage (bool) de la boucle d'événements.

La valeur par défaut est True si la variable d'environnement PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG est définie sur une chaîne non vide, False sinon.

loop.set_debug(enabled: bool)

Active le mode débogage pour la boucle d'évènements.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: le nouveau mode de développement Python peut désormais également être utilisé pour activer le mode de débogage.

loop.slow_callback_duration

This attribute can be used to set the minimum execution duration in seconds that is considered "slow". When debug mode is enabled, "slow" callbacks are logged.

Default value is 100 milliseconds.

Voir aussi

le mode debogage d'asyncio.

Running subprocesses

Les méthodes décrites dans ces sous-sections sont de bas niveau. Dans le code async/await normal, pensez à utiliser les fonctions de commodité de haut niveau asyncio.create_subprocess_shell() et asyncio.create_subprocess_exec() à la place.

Note

sous Windows, la boucle d'événements par défaut ProactorEventLoop prend en charge les sous-processus, contrairement à SelectorEventLoop. Voir Prise en charge des sous-processus sous Windows pour plus de détails.

async loop.subprocess_exec(protocol_factory, *args, stdin=subprocess.PIPE, stdout=subprocess.PIPE, stderr=subprocess.PIPE, **kwargs)

Crée un sous-processus à partir d'un ou plusieurs arguments de chaîne spécifiés par args.

args doit être une liste de chaînes représentée par :

str ;

ou bytes, encodés selon l'encodage du système de fichiers.

La première chaîne spécifie l'exécutable du programme et les chaînes restantes spécifient les arguments. Ensemble, les arguments de chaîne forment le argv du programme.

C'est similaire à la classe standard de la bibliothèque subprocess.Popen appelée avec shell=False et la liste des chaînes passées en premier argument ; cependant, où Popen prend un seul argument qui est une liste de chaînes, subprocess_exec prend plusieurs arguments de chaînes.

Le protocol_factory doit être un appelable renvoyant une sous-classe de la classe asyncio.SubprocessProtocol.

Autres paramètres :

stdin peut être l'un de ces éléments :

a file-like object

an existing file descriptor (a positive integer), for example those created with os.pipe()

la constante subprocess.PIPE (par défaut) qui va créer un nouveau tube et le connecter,

la valeur None qui fera que le sous-processus héritera du descripteur de fichier de ce processus,

la constante subprocess.DEVNULL qui indique que le fichier spécial os.devnull sera utilisé.

stdout peut être l'un de ces éléments :

a file-like object

la constante subprocess.PIPE (par défaut) qui va créer un nouveau tube et le connecter,

la valeur None qui fera que le sous-processus héritera du descripteur de fichier de ce processus,

la constante subprocess.DEVNULL qui indique que le fichier spécial os.devnull sera utilisé.

stderr peut être l'un de ces éléments :

a file-like object

la constante subprocess.PIPE (par défaut) qui va créer un nouveau tube et le connecter,

la valeur None qui fera que le sous-processus héritera du descripteur de fichier de ce processus,

la constante subprocess.DEVNULL qui indique que le fichier spécial os.devnull sera utilisé.

la constante subprocess.STDOUT qui connectera le flux d'erreur standard au flux de sortie standard du processus.

Tous les autres arguments nommés sont passés à subprocess.Popen sans interprétation, à l'exception de bufsize, universal_newlines, shell, text, encoding et errors, qui ne doivent pas être spécifiés du tout.

L'API de sous-processus asyncio ne prend pas en charge le décodage des flux sous forme de texte. bytes.decode() peut être utilisée pour convertir les octets renvoyés par le flux en texte.

If a file-like object passed as stdin, stdout or stderr represents a pipe, then the other side of this pipe should be registered with connect_write_pipe() or connect_read_pipe() for use with the event loop.

Voir le constructeur de la classe subprocess.Popen pour la documentation sur les autres arguments.

Renvoie une paire (transport, protocol), où transport est conforme à la classe de base asyncio.SubprocessTransport et protocol est un objet instancié par protocol_factory.

If the transport is closed or is garbage collected, the child process is killed if it is still running.

async loop.subprocess_shell(protocol_factory, cmd, *, stdin=subprocess.PIPE, stdout=subprocess.PIPE, stderr=subprocess.PIPE, **kwargs)

Crée un sous-processus à partir de cmd, qui peut être une chaîne str ou une chaîne bytes encodée avec l'encodage du système de fichiers, en utilisant la syntaxe "shell" de la plate-forme.

C'est similaire à la classe standard de la bibliothèque subprocess.Popen appelée avec shell=True.

Le protocol_factory doit être un appelable renvoyant une sous-classe de la classe SubprocessProtocol.

Voir subprocess_exec() pour plus de détails sur les arguments restants.

Renvoie une paire (transport, protocol), où transport est conforme à la classe de base SubprocessTransport et protocol est un objet instancié par protocol_factory.

If the transport is closed or is garbage collected, the child process is killed if it is still running.

Note

il est de la responsabilité de l'application de s'assurer que tous les espaces blancs et les caractères spéciaux sont correctement échappés pour éviter les vulnérabilités d'injection de shell [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_injection#Shell_injection]. La fonction shlex.quote() peut être utilisée pour échapper correctement les espaces blancs et les caractères spéciaux dans les chaînes qui seront utilisées pour construire des commandes shell.

Callback handles

class asyncio.Handle

Objet encapsulant une fonction de rappel renvoyé par loop.call_soon(), loop.call_soon_threadsafe().

get_context()

Return the contextvars.Context object associated with the handle.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

cancel()

Annule le rappel. Si le rappel a déjà été annulé ou exécuté, cette méthode n'a aucun effet.

cancelled()

Renvoie True si la fonction de rappel a été annulée.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

class asyncio.TimerHandle

Objet encapsulant la fonction de rappel renvoyé par loop.call_later() et loop.call_at().

Cette classe est une sous-classe de Handle.

when()

Renvoie une heure de rappel planifiée sous forme de float secondes.

L'heure est un horodatage absolu, utilisant la même référence de temps que loop.time().

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Server objects

Les objets serveur sont créés par les fonctions loop.create_server(), loop.create_unix_server(), start_server() et start_unix_server().

Do not instantiate the Server class directly.

class asyncio.Server

Les objets Server sont des gestionnaires de contexte asynchrones. Lorsqu'il est utilisé dans une instruction async with, il est garanti que l'objet Serveur est fermé et n'accepte pas de nouvelle connexion lorsque l'instruction async with est terminée :

srv = await loop.create_server(...)

async with srv:
    # some code

# At this point, srv is closed and no longer accepts new connections.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: l'objet serveur est un gestionnaire de contexte asynchrone depuis Python 3.7.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: This class was exposed publicly as asyncio.Server in Python 3.9.11, 3.10.3 and 3.11.

close()

Arrête le serveur : ferme les connecteurs d'écoute et définit l'attribut sockets à None.

Les connecteurs qui représentent les connexions client entrantes existantes restent ouvertes.

The server is closed asynchronously; use the wait_closed() coroutine to wait until the server is closed (and no more connections are active).

close_clients()

Close all existing incoming client connections.

Calls close() on all associated transports.

close() should be called before close_clients() when closing the server to avoid races with new clients connecting.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

abort_clients()

Close all existing incoming client connections immediately, without waiting for pending operations to complete.

Calls abort() on all associated transports.

close() should be called before abort_clients() when closing the server to avoid races with new clients connecting.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

get_loop()

Renvoie la boucle d'événement associée à l'objet serveur.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

async start_serving()

Commence à accepter les connexions.

Cette méthode est idempotente, elle peut donc être appelée lorsque le serveur est déjà en service.

Le paramètre nommé start_serving de loop.create_server() et asyncio.start_server() permet de créer un objet Server qui n'accepte pas les connexions initialement. Dans ce cas, Server.start_serving() ou Server.serve_forever() peut être utilisée pour que le serveur commence à accepter les connexions.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

async serve_forever()

Commence à accepter les connexions jusqu'à ce que la coroutine soit annulée. L'annulation de la tâche serve_forever provoque la fermeture du serveur.

Cette méthode peut être appelée si le serveur accepte déjà les connexions. Une seule tâche serve_forever peut exister par objet Server.

Exemple :

async def client_connected(reader, writer):
    # Communicate with the client with
    # reader/writer streams.  For example:
    await reader.readline()

async def main(host, port):
    srv = await asyncio.start_server(
        client_connected, host, port)
    await srv.serve_forever()

asyncio.run(main('127.0.0.1', 0))

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

is_serving()

Renvoie True si le serveur accepte de nouvelles connexions.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

async wait_closed()

Wait until the close() method completes and all active connections have finished.

sockets

List of socket-like objects, asyncio.trsock.TransportSocket, which the server is listening on.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: avant Python 3.7, Server.sockets renvoyait directement une liste interne de sockets de serveur. En 3.7, une copie de cette liste est renvoyée.

Event loop implementations

asyncio est livré avec deux implémentations de boucles d'événements différentes : SelectorEventLoop et ProactorEventLoop.

By default asyncio is configured to use EventLoop.

class asyncio.SelectorEventLoop

A subclass of AbstractEventLoop based on the selectors module.

Utilise le sélecteur le plus efficace disponible pour la plate-forme donnée. Il est également possible de configurer manuellement l'implémentation exacte du sélecteur à utiliser :

import asyncio
import selectors

async def main():
   ...

loop_factory = lambda: asyncio.SelectorEventLoop(selectors.SelectSelector())
asyncio.run(main(), loop_factory=loop_factory)

Disponibilité: Unix, Windows.

class asyncio.ProactorEventLoop

A subclass of AbstractEventLoop for Windows that uses "I/O Completion Ports" (IOCP).

Disponibilité: Windows.

Voir aussi

MSDN documentation on I/O Completion Ports [https://learn.microsoft.com/windows/win32/fileio/i-o-completion-ports].

class asyncio.EventLoop

An alias to the most efficient available subclass of AbstractEventLoop for the given platform.

It is an alias to SelectorEventLoop on Unix and ProactorEventLoop on Windows.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

class asyncio.AbstractEventLoop

Classe mère abstraite pour les boucles d'événements conforme à asyncio.

La section Event loop methods liste toutes les méthodes qu'une implémentation alternative de AbstractEventLoop doit définir.

Exemples

Notez que tous les exemples de cette section montrent à dessein comment utiliser les API de boucle d'événement de bas niveau, telles que loop.run_forever() et loop.call_soon(). Les applications asyncio modernes ont rarement besoin d'être écrites de cette façon ; pensez à utiliser les fonctions de haut niveau comme asyncio.run().

"Hello World" avec call_soon()

Un exemple utilisant la méthode loop.call_soon() pour programmer un rappel. Le rappel affiche "Hello World" puis arrête la boucle d'événements :

import asyncio

def hello_world(loop):
    """A callback to print 'Hello World' and stop the event loop"""
    print('Hello World')
    loop.stop()

loop = asyncio.new_event_loop()

# Schedule a call to hello_world()
loop.call_soon(hello_world, loop)

# Blocking call interrupted by loop.stop()
try:
    loop.run_forever()
finally:
    loop.close()

Voir aussi

un exemple similaire de Hello World créé avec une coroutine et la fonction run().

Affichage de la date actuelle avec call_later()

Un exemple de rappel affichant la date actuelle toutes les secondes. Le rappel utilise la méthode loop.call_later() pour se re-planifier après 5 secondes, puis arrête la boucle d'événements :

import asyncio
import datetime as dt

def display_date(end_time, loop):
    print(dt.datetime.now())
    if (loop.time() + 1.0) < end_time:
        loop.call_later(1, display_date, end_time, loop)
    else:
        loop.stop()

loop = asyncio.new_event_loop()

# Schedule the first call to display_date()
end_time = loop.time() + 5.0
loop.call_soon(display_date, end_time, loop)

# Blocking call interrupted by loop.stop()
try:
    loop.run_forever()
finally:
    loop.close()

Voir aussi

un exemple similaire de date actuelle créé avec une coroutine et la fonction run().

Surveillance des événements de lecture pour un descripteur de fichier

Attend qu'un descripteur de fichier reçoive des données en utilisant la méthode loop.add_reader() puis ferme la boucle d'événements :

import asyncio
from socket import socketpair

# Create a pair of connected file descriptors
rsock, wsock = socketpair()

loop = asyncio.new_event_loop()

def reader():
    data = rsock.recv(100)
    print("Received:", data.decode())

    # We are done: unregister the file descriptor
    loop.remove_reader(rsock)

    # Stop the event loop
    loop.stop()

# Register the file descriptor for read event
loop.add_reader(rsock, reader)

# Simulate the reception of data from the network
loop.call_soon(wsock.send, 'abc'.encode())

try:
    # Run the event loop
    loop.run_forever()
finally:
    # We are done. Close sockets and the event loop.
    rsock.close()
    wsock.close()
    loop.close()

Voir aussi

un exemple similaire utilisant les transports, les protocoles et la méthode loop.create_connection(),

un autre exemple utilisant la fonction et les flux de haut niveau asyncio.open_connection().

Gestion des signaux SIGINT et SIGTERM

(Cet exemple ne fonctionne que sur Unix.)

Register handlers for signals SIGINT and SIGTERM using the loop.add_signal_handler() method:

import asyncio
import functools
import os
import signal

def ask_exit(signame, loop):
    print("got signal %s: exit" % signame)
    loop.stop()

async def main():
    loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

    for signame in {'SIGINT', 'SIGTERM'}:
        loop.add_signal_handler(
            getattr(signal, signame),
            functools.partial(ask_exit, signame, loop))

    await asyncio.sleep(3600)

print("Event loop running for 1 hour, press Ctrl+C to interrupt.")
print(f"pid {os.getpid()}: send SIGINT or SIGTERM to exit.")

asyncio.run(main())

Futures

Code source : Lib/asyncio/futures.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/asyncio/futures.py], Lib/asyncio/base_futures.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/asyncio/base_futures.py]

Les objets Future sont utilisés comme passerelles entre du code bas niveau basé sur des fonctions de rappel et du code haut niveau utilisant async et await.

Fonctions pour Future

asyncio.isfuture(obj)

Renvoie True si obj est soit :

une instance de asyncio.Future ;

une instance de asyncio.Task ;

un objet se comportant comme Future et possédant un attribut _asyncio_future_blocking.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

asyncio.ensure_future(obj, *, loop=None)

Renvoie :

l'objet obj tel quel si c'est un objet Future, Task ou se comportant comme un Future. isfuture() est utilisée pour le test ;

un objet Task encapsulant obj si ce dernier est une coroutine (iscoroutine() est utilisée pour le test). Dans ce cas, l’exécution de la coroutine sera planifiée par ensure_future() ;

un objet Task qui attendra (await) obj si ce dernier peut être attendu (awaitable). iscoroutine() est utilisée pour le test.

Si obj ne correspond à aucun des critères ci-dessus, une exception TypeError est levée.

Important

Gardez une référence au résultat de cette fonction pour éviter de voir une tâche disparaitre au milieu de son exécution.

See also the create_task() function which is the preferred way for creating new tasks or use asyncio.TaskGroup which keeps reference to the task internally.

Modifié dans la version 3.5.1: La fonction accepte n'importe quel objet awaitable.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.10: Un DeprecationWarning est levé si obj n'est pas un objet se comportant comme un Future, si loop n'est pas spécifié et s'il n'y a pas de boucle d'évènements en cours d'exécution.

asyncio.wrap_future(future, *, loop=None)

Encapsule un objet concurrent.futures.Future dans un objet asyncio.Future.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.10: Un DeprecationWarning est levé si future n'est pas un objet se comportant comme un Future, si loop n'est pas spécifié et s'il n'y a pas de boucle d'évènements en cours d'exécution.

Objet Future

class asyncio.Future(*, loop=None)

Un Future représente le résultat final d'une opération asynchrone. Il n'est pas conçu pour pouvoir être utilisé par plusieurs fils d'exécution.

Future est un objet qui peut être attendu (awaitable). Les coroutines peuvent attendre les objets Future jusqu'à ce qu'ils renvoient un résultat, ils lèvent une exception ou qu'ils soient annulés. Un Future peut être attendu plusieurs fois et le résultat est le même.

Les Futures sont habituellement utilisés pour permettre à du code bas niveau basé sur des fonctions de rappel (par exemple : les protocoles utilisant asyncio transports) d'interagir avec du code haut niveau utilisant async et await.

Une bonne règle empirique est de ne jamais exposer des objets Future dans des API destinées à l'utilisateur. La façon privilégiée de créer des objets Future est d'appeler la méthode loop.create_future(). Cela permet aux implémentations alternatives de la boucle d'évènements d'utiliser leur propre implémentation de l'objet Future.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Ajout du support du module contextvars.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.10: Un DeprecationWarning est levé si loop n'est pas spécifié et s'il n'y a pas de boucle d'évènements en cours d'exécution.

result()

Renvoie le résultat du Future.

Si le Future est « terminé » et a un résultat défini par la méthode set_result(), ce résultat est renvoyé.

Si le Future est « terminé » et a une exception définie par la méthode set_exception(), cette méthode lève l'exception.

Si le Future a été annulé, cette méthode lève une exception CancelledError.

If the Future's result isn't yet available, this method raises an InvalidStateError exception.

set_result(result)

Marque le Future comme « terminé » et définit son résultat.

Raises an InvalidStateError error if the Future is already done.

set_exception(exception)

Marque le Future comme « terminé » et définit une exception.

Raises an InvalidStateError error if the Future is already done.

done()

Renvoie True si le Future est « terminé ».

Un Future est « terminé » s'il a été « annulé » ou si un résultat ou une exception a été définie par les méthodes set_result() ou set_exception().

cancelled()

Renvoie True si le Future a été « annulé ».

Cette méthode est habituellement utilisée pour vérifier qu'un Future n'est pas « annulé » avant de définir un résultat ou une exception pour celui-ci :

if not fut.cancelled():
    fut.set_result(42)

add_done_callback(callback, *, context=None)

Ajoute une fonction de rappel à exécuter lorsque le Future est « terminé ».

L'argument callback est appelé avec l'objet Future comme seul argument.

Si le Future est déjà « terminé » lorsque la méthode est appelée, l'exécution de la fonction de rappel est planifiée avec loop.call_soon().

L'argument nommé optionnel context permet de spécifier une classe contextvars.Context personnalisée dans laquelle la fonction de rappel s’exécutera. Le contexte actuel est utilisé si context n'est pas fourni.

functools.partial() peut être utilisée pour passer des paramètres à la fonction de rappel :

# Call 'print("Future:", fut)' when "fut" is done.
fut.add_done_callback(
    functools.partial(print, "Future:"))

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Ajout de l'argument nommé context. Voir PEP 567 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/] pour plus de détails.

remove_done_callback(callback)

Retire callback de la liste de fonctions de rappel.

Renvoie le nombre de fonctions de rappel retiré. La méthode renvoie généralement 1, à moins que la fonction ait été ajoutée plus d'une fois.

cancel(msg=None)

Annule le Future et planifie l'exécution des fonctions de rappel.

Si le Future est déjà « terminé » ou « annulé », renvoie False. Autrement, change l'état du Future à « annulé », planifie l'exécution des fonctions de rappel et renvoie True.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Ajout du paramètre msg.

exception()

Renvoie l'exception définie pour ce Future.

L'exception, ou None si aucune exception n'a été définie, est renvoyé seulement si le Future est « terminé ».

Si le Future a été annulé, cette méthode lève une exception CancelledError.

Si le Future n'est pas encore « terminé », cette méthode lève une exception InvalidStateError.

get_loop()

Renvoie la boucle d'évènements à laquelle le Future est attaché.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Cet exemple crée un objet Future, puis crée et planifie l’exécution d'une tâche asynchrone qui définira le résultat du Future et attend jusqu'à ce que le Future ait un résultat :

async def set_after(fut, delay, value):
    # Sleep for *delay* seconds.
    await asyncio.sleep(delay)

    # Set *value* as a result of *fut* Future.
    fut.set_result(value)

async def main():
    # Get the current event loop.
    loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

    # Create a new Future object.
    fut = loop.create_future()

    # Run "set_after()" coroutine in a parallel Task.
    # We are using the low-level "loop.create_task()" API here because
    # we already have a reference to the event loop at hand.
    # Otherwise we could have just used "asyncio.create_task()".
    loop.create_task(
        set_after(fut, 1, '... world'))

    print('hello ...')

    # Wait until *fut* has a result (1 second) and print it.
    print(await fut)

asyncio.run(main())

Important

L'objet Future est conçu pour imiter la classe concurrent.futures.Future. Les principales différences sont :

contrairement au Future asyncio, les instances de concurrent.futures.Future ne peuvent pas être attendues ;

asyncio.Future.result() et asyncio.Future.exception() n'acceptent pas d'argument timeout ;

asyncio.Future.result() et asyncio.Future.exception() lèvent une exception InvalidStateError lorsque le Future n'est pas « terminé » ;

les fonctions de rappel enregistrées à l'aide de asyncio.Future.add_done_callback() ne sont pas exécutées immédiatement mais planifiées avec loop.call_soon() ;

les Future asyncio ne sont pas compatibles avec les fonctions concurrent.futures.wait() et concurrent.futures.as_completed() ;

asyncio.Future.cancel() accepts an optional msg argument, but concurrent.futures.Future.cancel() does not.

Transports et Protocoles

Préface

Les transports et les protocoles sont utilisés par les API de boucle d'événements de bas niveau telles que loop.create_connection(). Ils utilisent un style de programmation basé sur les fonctions de rappel et permettent des implémentations hautes performances de protocoles réseau (par exemple, HTTP) ou de communication inter-processus (IPC).

Avant tout, les transports et les protocoles ne doivent être utilisés que dans des bibliothèques et des cadriciels et jamais dans des applications asynchrones de haut niveau.

Cette page de documentation couvre à la fois Transports et Protocoles.

Introduction

Au plus haut niveau, le transport concerne comment les octets sont transmis, tandis que le protocole détermine quels octets transmettre (et dans une certaine mesure quand).

Pour l'écrire autrement : un transport est une abstraction pour un connecteur (socket ou tout autre point de terminaison d'entrée-sortie) tandis qu'un protocole est une abstraction pour une application, du point de vue du transport.

Encore une autre vue est que les interfaces de transport et de protocole définissent ensemble une interface abstraite pour utiliser les entrées-sorties réseau et les entrées-sorties inter-processus.

Il existe toujours une relation 1:1 entre les objets de transport et de protocole : le protocole appelle les méthodes de transport pour envoyer des données, tandis que le transport appelle les méthodes de protocole pour lui transmettre les données reçues.

La plupart des méthodes de boucles d'événements orientées connexion (telles que loop.create_connection()) acceptent généralement un argument protocol_factory utilisé pour créer un objet Protocol pour une connexion acceptée, représentée par un objet Transport. De telles méthodes renvoient généralement un n-uplet (transport, protocol).

Sommaire

Cette page de documentation contient les sections suivantes :

La section Transports documente les classes asyncio BaseTransport, ReadTransport, WriteTransport, Transport, DatagramTransport et SubprocessTransport.

La section Protocols documente les classes asyncio BaseProtocol, Protocol, BufferedProtocol, DatagramProtocol et SubprocessProtocol.

La section Examples montre comment utiliser les transports, les protocoles et les API de boucle d'événements de bas niveau.

Transports

Code source : Lib/asyncio/transports.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/asyncio/transports.py]

Les transports sont des classes fournies par asyncio afin d'abstraire différents types de canaux de communication.

Les objets de transport sont toujours instanciés par une boucle d'événements asyncio.

asyncio implémente les transports pour TCP, UDP, SSL et les tubes de sous-processus. Les méthodes disponibles sur un transport dépendent du type de transport.

Les classes de transport ne sont pas compatibles avec les fils d'exécution multiples.

Hiérarchie des transports

class asyncio.BaseTransport

Classe de base pour tous les transports. Contient des méthodes partagées par tous les transports asyncio.

class asyncio.WriteTransport(BaseTransport)

Transport de base pour les connexions en écriture seule.

Les instances de la classe WriteTransport sont renvoyées par la méthode de boucle d'événements loop.connect_write_pipe() et sont également utilisées par les méthodes liées aux sous-processus comme loop.subprocess_exec().

class asyncio.ReadTransport(BaseTransport)

Transport de base pour les connexions en lecture seule.

Les instances de la classe ReadTransport sont renvoyées par la méthode de boucle d'événements loop.connect_read_pipe() et sont également utilisées par les méthodes liées aux sous-processus comme loop.subprocess_exec().

class asyncio.Transport(WriteTransport, ReadTransport)

Interface représentant un transport bidirectionnel, comme une connexion TCP.

L'utilisateur n'instancie pas un transport directement ; il appelle une fonction utilitaire, lui transmettant une fabrique de protocoles et d'autres informations nécessaires pour créer le transport et le protocole.

Les instances de la classe Transport sont renvoyées ou utilisées par des méthodes de boucle d'événements comme loop.create_connection(), loop.create_unix_connection(), loop.create_server(), loop.sendfile(), etc.

class asyncio.DatagramTransport(BaseTransport)

Transport pour les connexions par datagrammes (UDP).

Les instances de la classe DatagramTransport sont renvoyées par la méthode de boucle d'événements loop.create_datagram_endpoint().

class asyncio.SubprocessTransport(BaseTransport)

Abstraction pour représenter une connexion entre un parent et son processus enfant au niveau du système d'exploitation.

Les instances de la classe SubprocessTransport sont renvoyées par les méthodes de boucle d'événements loop.subprocess_shell() et loop.subprocess_exec().

Classe de base des Transports

BaseTransport.close()

Ferme le transport.

Si le transport a une mémoire tampon pour les données sortantes, les données mises en mémoire tampon seront vidées de manière asynchrone. Aucune autre donnée ne sera reçue. Une fois que toutes les données mises en mémoire tampon ont été vidées, la méthode protocol.connection_lost() sera appelée avec None comme argument. Le transport ne doit pas être utilisé une fois qu'il est fermé.

BaseTransport.is_closing()

Renvoie True si le transport se ferme ou est fermé.

BaseTransport.get_extra_info(name, default=None)

Renvoie des informations sur le transport ou les ressources sous-jacentes qu'il utilise.

name est une chaîne représentant l'information spécifique au transport à obtenir.

default est la valeur à renvoyer si les informations ne sont pas disponibles ou si le transport ne prend pas en charge l'implémentation de boucle d'événements tierce donnée ou la plateforme actuelle.

Par exemple, le code suivant tente d'obtenir l'objet socket sous-jacent du transport :

sock = transport.get_extra_info('socket')
if sock is not None:
    print(sock.getsockopt(...))

Catégories d'informations pouvant être interrogées sur certains transports :

socket :

'peername' : l'adresse distante à laquelle le socket est connecté, résultat de socket.socket.getpeername() (None en cas d'erreur)

'socket' : Instance de socket.socket

'sockname' : la propre adresse du connecteur, résultat de socket.socket.getsockname()

Connecteur (socket) SSL :

'compression' : l'algorithme de compression utilisé (chaîne de caractères), ou None si la connexion n'est pas compressée ; résultat de ssl.SSLSocket.compression()

'cipher' : un n-uplet à trois valeurs contenant le nom du chiffrement utilisé, la version du protocole SSL qui définit son utilisation et le nombre de bits secrets utilisés ; résultat de ssl.SSLSocket.cipher()

'peercert' : certificat du pair ; résultat de ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert()

sslcontext' : instance de ssl.SSLContext

'ssl_object' : instance de ssl.SSLObject ou de ssl.SSLSocket

tube :

'pipe' : objet pipe

sous-processus :

'sous-processus' : instance de subprocess.Popen

BaseTransport.set_protocol(protocol)

Change le protocole.

La commutation de protocole ne doit être effectuée que lorsque les deux protocoles sont documentés pour prendre en charge la commutation.

BaseTransport.get_protocol()

Renvoie le protocole courant.

Transports en lecture seule

ReadTransport.is_reading()

Renvoie True si le transport reçoit de nouvelles données.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

ReadTransport.pause_reading()

Met en pause l'extrémité de réception du transport. Aucune donnée ne sera transmise à la méthode protocol.data_received() du protocole jusqu'à ce que resume_reading() soit appelée.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: la méthode est idempotente, c'est-à-dire qu'elle peut être appelée lorsque le transport est déjà en pause ou fermé.

ReadTransport.resume_reading()

Reprend la réception. La méthode protocol.data_received() du protocole sera appelée à nouveau si certaines données sont disponibles pour la lecture.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: la méthode est idempotente, c'est-à-dire qu'elle peut être appelée alors que le transport est déjà en train de lire.

Transports en lecture-écriture

WriteTransport.abort()

Ferme le transport immédiatement, sans attendre la fin des opérations en attente. Les données mises en mémoire tampon sont perdues. Aucune autre donnée ne sera reçue. La méthode protocol.connection_lost() du protocole sera éventuellement appelée avec None comme argument.

WriteTransport.can_write_eof()

Renvoie True si le transport gère write_eof(), False sinon.

WriteTransport.get_write_buffer_size()

Renvoie la taille actuelle du tampon de sortie utilisé par le transport.

WriteTransport.get_write_buffer_limits()

Obtient les seuils high et low pour le contrôle du flux d'écriture. Renvoie un n-uplet (low, high) où low et high sont des nombres positifs d'octets.

Utilisez set_write_buffer_limits() pour définir les limites.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.2.

WriteTransport.set_write_buffer_limits(high=None, low=None)

Définit les seuils high et low pour le contrôle du flux d'écriture.

Ces deux valeurs (mesurées en nombre d'octets) contrôlent quand les méthodes protocol.pause_writing() et protocol.resume_writing() du protocole sont appelées. S'il est spécifié, le seuil bas doit être inférieur ou égal au seuil haut. Ni high ni low ne peuvent être négatifs.

pause_writing() est appelée lorsque la taille du tampon devient supérieure ou égale à la valeur high. Si l'écriture a été interrompue, resume_writing() est appelée lorsque la taille du tampon devient inférieure ou égale à la valeur low.

Les valeurs par défaut sont spécifiques à l'implémentation. Si seul le seuil supérieur est donné, le seuil bas prend par défaut une valeur spécifique à l'implémentation inférieure ou égale au seuil supérieur. Définir high sur zéro force également low sur zéro et provoque l'appel de pause_writing() chaque fois que le tampon devient non vide. Définir low sur zéro entraîne l'appel de resume_writing() uniquement une fois que le tampon est vide. L'utilisation de zéro pour l'un ou l'autre seuil est généralement sous-optimal car cela réduit les possibilités d'effectuer des entrées-sorties et des calculs simultanément.

Utilisez get_write_buffer_limits() pour obtenir les limites.

WriteTransport.write(data)

Écrit des octets de data sur le transport.

Cette méthode ne bloque pas ; elle met les données en mémoire tampon et s'arrange pour qu'elles soient envoyées de manière asynchrone.

WriteTransport.writelines(list_of_data)

Écrit une liste (ou tout itérable) d'octets de données dans le transport. Ceci est fonctionnellement équivalent à appeler write() sur chaque élément produit par l'itérable, mais peut être implémentée plus efficacement.

WriteTransport.write_eof()

Ferme l'extrémité d'écriture du transport après avoir vidé toutes les données mises en mémoire tampon. Des données peuvent encore être reçues.

Cette méthode peut lever NotImplementedError si le transport (par exemple SSL) ne prend pas en charge les connexions semi-fermées.

Transports par datagrammes

DatagramTransport.sendto(data, addr=None)

Envoie les octets data au pair distant indiqué par addr (une adresse cible dépendante du transport). Si addr est None, les données sont envoyées à l'adresse cible indiquée lors de la création du transport.

Cette méthode ne bloque pas ; elle met les données en mémoire tampon et s'arrange pour qu'elles soient envoyées de manière asynchrone.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: This method can be called with an empty bytes object to send a zero-length datagram. The buffer size calculation used for flow control is also updated to account for the datagram header.

DatagramTransport.abort()

Ferme le transport immédiatement, sans attendre la fin des opérations en attente. Les données mises en mémoire tampon sont perdues. Aucune autre donnée ne sera reçue. La méthode protocol.connection_lost() du protocole sera éventuellement appelée avec None comme argument.

Transports entre sous-processus

SubprocessTransport.get_pid()

Renvoie l'identifiant du sous processus sous la forme d'un nombre entier.

SubprocessTransport.get_pipe_transport(fd)

Renvoie le transport pour le canal de communication correspondant au descripteur de fichier fd donné sous forme d'un entier :

0: writable streaming transport of the standard input (stdin), or None if the subprocess was not created with stdin=PIPE

1: readable streaming transport of the standard output (stdout), or None if the subprocess was not created with stdout=PIPE

2: readable streaming transport of the standard error (stderr), or None if the subprocess was not created with stderr=PIPE

autre fd : None

SubprocessTransport.get_returncode()

Renvoie le code de retour du sous-processus sous la forme d'un entier ou None s'il n'a pas été renvoyé, ce qui est similaire à l'attribut subprocess.Popen.returncode.

SubprocessTransport.kill()

Tue le sous-processus.

Sur les systèmes POSIX, la fonction envoie SIGKILL au sous-processus. Sous Windows, cette méthode est un alias pour terminate().

Voir aussi subprocess.Popen.kill().

SubprocessTransport.send_signal(signal)

Envoie le numéro de signal au sous-processus, comme dans subprocess.Popen.send_signal().

SubprocessTransport.terminate()

Termine le sous-processus.

On POSIX systems, this method sends SIGTERM to the subprocess. On Windows, the Windows API function TerminateProcess() is called to stop the subprocess.

Voir aussi subprocess.Popen.terminate().

SubprocessTransport.close()

Tue le sous-processus en appelant la méthode kill().

Si le sous-processus n'est pas encore terminé, ferme les transports des tubes stdin, stdout et stderr.

Protocoles

Code source : Lib/asyncio/protocols.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/asyncio/protocols.py]

asyncio fournit un ensemble de classes mères abstraites qui doivent être utilisées pour implémenter des protocoles réseau. Ces classes sont destinées à être utilisées avec les transports.

Les sous-classes des classes mères abstraites de protocole peuvent implémenter certaines ou toutes les méthodes. Toutes ces méthodes sont des rappels : elles sont appelées par des transports sur certains événements, par exemple lors de la réception de certaines données. Une méthode de protocole de base doit être appelée par le transport correspondant.

Protocoles de base

class asyncio.BaseProtocol

Protocole de base avec des méthodes partagées par tous les protocoles.

class asyncio.Protocol(BaseProtocol)

Classe mère pour l'implémentation des protocoles de streaming (TCP, sockets Unix, etc.).

class asyncio.BufferedProtocol(BaseProtocol)

Classe mère pour implémenter des protocoles de streaming avec contrôle manuel du tampon de réception.

class asyncio.DatagramProtocol(BaseProtocol)

Classe mère pour l'implémentation des protocoles par datagrammes (UDP).

class asyncio.SubprocessProtocol(BaseProtocol)

Classe mère pour implémenter des protocoles communiquant avec des processus enfants (canaux unidirectionnels).

Protocoles de base

Tous les protocoles asynchrones peuvent implémenter des rappels pour les protocoles de base.

Rappels pour les connexions

Les méthodes de rappel pour les connexions concernent tous les protocoles, exactement une fois par connexion réussie. Tous les autres rappels de protocole ne peuvent être appelés qu'entre ces deux méthodes.

BaseProtocol.connection_made(transport)

Appelée lorsqu'une connexion est établie.

L'argument transport est le transport représentant la connexion. Le protocole est chargé de stocker la référence à son transport.

BaseProtocol.connection_lost(exc)

Appelée lorsqu'une connexion est perdue ou fermée.

L'argument est soit un objet exception soit None. Ce dernier signifie qu'un EOF régulier est reçu, ou que la connexion a été interrompue ou fermée par ce côté de la connexion.

Rappels pour le contrôle de flux

Les méthodes de rappel pour le contrôle de flux concernent les transports et sont utilisés pour suspendre ou reprendre l'écriture effectuée par le protocole.

Voir la documentation de la méthode set_write_buffer_limits() pour plus de détails.

BaseProtocol.pause_writing()

Appelée lorsque la mémoire tampon du transport dépasse la limite supérieure.

BaseProtocol.resume_writing()

Appelée lorsque la mémoire tampon du transport passe sous le seuil bas.

Si la taille du tampon est égale au seuil haut, pause_writing() n'est pas appelée : la taille du tampon doit être strictement supérieure.

Inversement, resume_writing() est appelée lorsque la taille du tampon est égale ou inférieure au seuil bas. Ces conditions de fin sont importantes pour s'assurer que les choses se déroulent comme prévu lorsque l'un ou l'autre seuil est à zéro.

Protocoles connectés

Les méthodes d'événement, telles que loop.create_server(), loop.create_unix_server(), loop.create_connection(), loop.create_unix_connection(), loop.connect_accepted_socket(), loop.connect_read_pipe() et loop.connect_write_pipe() acceptent les fabriques qui renvoient des protocoles connectés.

Protocol.data_received(data)

Appelée lorsque certaines données sont reçues. data est un objet bytes non vide contenant les données entrantes.

Le fait que les données soient mises en mémoire tampon, fragmentées ou réassemblées dépend du transport. En général, vous ne devez pas vous fier à une sémantique spécifique et plutôt rendre votre analyse générique et flexible. Cependant, les données sont toujours reçues dans le bon ordre.

La méthode peut être appelée un nombre arbitraire de fois lorsqu'une connexion est ouverte.

Cependant, protocol.eof_received() est appelée au plus une fois. Une fois que eof_received() est appelée, data_received() n'est plus appelée.

Protocol.eof_received()

Appelée lorsque l'autre extrémité signale qu'il n'enverra plus de données (par exemple en appelant transport.write_eof(), si l'autre extrémité utilise également asyncio).

Cette méthode peut renvoyer une valeur évaluée à faux (y compris None), auquel cas le transport se ferme de lui-même. À l'inverse, si cette méthode renvoie une valeur évaluée à vrai, le protocole utilisé détermine s'il faut fermer le transport. Puisque l'implémentation par défaut renvoie None, elle ferme implicitement la connexion.

Certains transports, y compris SSL, ne prennent pas en charge les connexions semi-fermées, auquel cas renvoyer True à partir de cette méthode entraîne la fermeture de la connexion.

Machine à états :

start -> connection_made
    [-> data_received]*
    [-> eof_received]?
-> connection_lost -> end

Protocoles connectés avec tampon

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Les protocoles avec mise en mémoire tampon peuvent être utilisés avec n'importe quelle méthode de boucle d'événements prenant en charge les protocoles connectés.

Les implémentations de BufferedProtocol permettent une allocation et un contrôle manuels explicites du tampon de réception. Les boucles d'événements peuvent alors utiliser le tampon fourni par le protocole pour éviter les copies de données inutiles. Cela peut entraîner une amélioration notable des performances pour les protocoles qui reçoivent de grandes quantités de données. Des implémentations de protocole sophistiquées peuvent réduire considérablement le nombre d'allocations de mémoire tampon.

Les méthodes de rappel suivantes sont appelées sur les instances BufferedProtocol :

BufferedProtocol.get_buffer(sizehint)

Appelée pour allouer un nouveau tampon de réception.

sizehint est la taille minimale recommandée pour le tampon renvoyé. Il est acceptable de renvoyer des tampons plus petits ou plus grands que ce que suggère sizehint. Lorsqu'il est défini à −1, la taille du tampon peut être arbitraire. C'est une erreur de renvoyer un tampon de taille nulle.

get_buffer() doit renvoyer un objet implémentant le protocole tampon.

BufferedProtocol.buffer_updated(nbytes)

Appelée lorsque le tampon a été mis à jour avec les données reçues.

nbytes est le nombre total d'octets qui ont été écrits dans la mémoire tampon.

BufferedProtocol.eof_received()

Voir la documentation de la méthode protocol.eof_received().

get_buffer() peut être appelée un nombre arbitraire de fois pendant une connexion. Cependant, protocol.eof_received() est appelée au plus une fois et, si elle est appelée, get_buffer() et buffer_updated() ne seront pas appelées après.

Machine à états :

start -> connection_made
    [-> get_buffer
        [-> buffer_updated]?
    ]*
    [-> eof_received]?
-> connection_lost -> end

Protocoles par datagrammes (non connectés)

Les instances du protocole par datagrammes doivent être construites par des fabriques de protocole transmises à la méthode loop.create_datagram_endpoint().

DatagramProtocol.datagram_received(data, addr)

Appelée lorsqu'un datagramme est reçu. data est un objet bytes contenant les données entrantes. addr est l'adresse du pair qui envoie les données ; le format exact dépend du transport.

DatagramProtocol.error_received(exc)

Appelée lorsqu'une opération d'envoi ou de réception précédente lève une OSError. exc est l'instance OSError.

Cette méthode est appelée dans de rares cas, lorsque le transport (par exemple UDP) détecte qu'un datagramme n'a pas pu être livré à son destinataire. Cependant, il est courant que les datagrammes qui ne peuvent être acheminés soient supprimés silencieusement.

Note

Sur les systèmes BSD (macOS, FreeBSD, etc.), le contrôle de flux n'est pas pris en charge pour les protocoles par datagrammes, car il n'existe aucun moyen fiable de détecter les échecs d'envoi causés par l'écriture d'un trop grand nombre de paquets.

Le connecteur apparaît toujours « prêt » et les paquets en excès sont supprimés. Une OSError avec errno définie sur errno.ENOBUFS peut être levée ou non ; si elle est levée, c'est communiqué à DatagramProtocol.error_received() et ignoré dans le cas contraire.

Protocoles liés aux sous-processus

Les instances de protocole de sous-processus doivent être construites par des fabriques de protocole transmises aux méthodes loop.subprocess_exec() et loop.subprocess_shell().

SubprocessProtocol.pipe_data_received(fd, data)

Appelée lorsqu'un processus enfant écrit sur sa sortie d'erreur ou sa sortie standard.

fd est l'entier représentant le descripteur de fichier du tube.

data est un objet bytes non vide contenant les données reçues.

SubprocessProtocol.pipe_connection_lost(fd, exc)

Appelé lorsqu'un des tubes de communication avec un sous-processus est fermé.

fd est l'entier représentant le descripteur de fichier qui a été fermé.

SubprocessProtocol.process_exited()

Appelée lorsqu'un processus enfant se termine.

It can be called before pipe_data_received() and pipe_connection_lost() methods.

Exemples

Serveur écho en TCP

Crée un serveur d'écho TCP en utilisant la méthode loop.create_server(), renvoie les données reçues et ferme la connexion :

import asyncio

class EchoServerProtocol(asyncio.Protocol):
    def connection_made(self, transport):
        peername = transport.get_extra_info('peername')
        print('Connection from {}'.format(peername))
        self.transport = transport

    def data_received(self, data):
        message = data.decode()
        print('Data received: {!r}'.format(message))

        print('Send: {!r}'.format(message))
        self.transport.write(data)

        print('Close the client socket')
        self.transport.close()

async def main():
    # Get a reference to the event loop as we plan to use
    # low-level APIs.
    loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

    server = await loop.create_server(
        EchoServerProtocol,
        '127.0.0.1', 8888)

    async with server:
        await server.serve_forever()

asyncio.run(main())

Voir aussi

L'exemple Serveur d'écho TCP utilisant des flux utilise la fonction de haut niveau asyncio.start_server().

Client écho en TCP

Client d'écho TCP utilisant la méthode loop.create_connection() envoie des données et attend que la connexion soit fermée :

import asyncio

class EchoClientProtocol(asyncio.Protocol):
    def __init__(self, message, on_con_lost):
        self.message = message
        self.on_con_lost = on_con_lost

    def connection_made(self, transport):
        transport.write(self.message.encode())
        print('Data sent: {!r}'.format(self.message))

    def data_received(self, data):
        print('Data received: {!r}'.format(data.decode()))

    def connection_lost(self, exc):
        print('The server closed the connection')
        self.on_con_lost.set_result(True)

async def main():
    # Get a reference to the event loop as we plan to use
    # low-level APIs.
    loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

    on_con_lost = loop.create_future()
    message = 'Hello World!'

    transport, protocol = await loop.create_connection(
        lambda: EchoClientProtocol(message, on_con_lost),
        '127.0.0.1', 8888)

    # Wait until the protocol signals that the connection
    # is lost and close the transport.
    try:
        await on_con_lost
    finally:
        transport.close()

asyncio.run(main())

Voir aussi

L'exemple Client d'écho TCP utilisant des flux utilise la fonction de haut niveau asyncio.open_connection().

Serveur écho en UDP

Serveur d'écho UDP, utilisant la méthode loop.create_datagram_endpoint(), qui renvoie les données reçues :

import asyncio

class EchoServerProtocol:
    def connection_made(self, transport):
        self.transport = transport

    def datagram_received(self, data, addr):
        message = data.decode()
        print('Received %r from %s' % (message, addr))
        print('Send %r to %s' % (message, addr))
        self.transport.sendto(data, addr)

async def main():
    print("Starting UDP server")

    # Get a reference to the event loop as we plan to use
    # low-level APIs.
    loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

    # One protocol instance will be created to serve all
    # client requests.
    transport, protocol = await loop.create_datagram_endpoint(
        EchoServerProtocol,
        local_addr=('127.0.0.1', 9999))

    try:
        await asyncio.sleep(3600)  # Serve for 1 hour.
    finally:
        transport.close()

asyncio.run(main())

Client écho en UDP

Client d'écho UDP, utilisant la méthode loop.create_datagram_endpoint(), qui envoie des données et ferme le transport lorsqu'il reçoit la réponse :

import asyncio

class EchoClientProtocol:
    def __init__(self, message, on_con_lost):
        self.message = message
        self.on_con_lost = on_con_lost
        self.transport = None

    def connection_made(self, transport):
        self.transport = transport
        print('Send:', self.message)
        self.transport.sendto(self.message.encode())

    def datagram_received(self, data, addr):
        print("Received:", data.decode())

        print("Close the socket")
        self.transport.close()

    def error_received(self, exc):
        print('Error received:', exc)

    def connection_lost(self, exc):
        print("Connection closed")
        self.on_con_lost.set_result(True)

async def main():
    # Get a reference to the event loop as we plan to use
    # low-level APIs.
    loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

    on_con_lost = loop.create_future()
    message = "Hello World!"

    transport, protocol = await loop.create_datagram_endpoint(
        lambda: EchoClientProtocol(message, on_con_lost),
        remote_addr=('127.0.0.1', 9999))

    try:
        await on_con_lost
    finally:
        transport.close()

asyncio.run(main())

Connexion de connecteurs existants

Attend qu'un connecteur reçoive des données en utilisant la méthode loop.create_connection() avec un protocole :

import asyncio
import socket

class MyProtocol(asyncio.Protocol):

    def __init__(self, on_con_lost):
        self.transport = None
        self.on_con_lost = on_con_lost

    def connection_made(self, transport):
        self.transport = transport

    def data_received(self, data):
        print("Received:", data.decode())

        # We are done: close the transport;
        # connection_lost() will be called automatically.
        self.transport.close()

    def connection_lost(self, exc):
        # The socket has been closed
        self.on_con_lost.set_result(True)

async def main():
    # Get a reference to the event loop as we plan to use
    # low-level APIs.
    loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()
    on_con_lost = loop.create_future()

    # Create a pair of connected sockets
    rsock, wsock = socket.socketpair()

    # Register the socket to wait for data.
    transport, protocol = await loop.create_connection(
        lambda: MyProtocol(on_con_lost), sock=rsock)

    # Simulate the reception of data from the network.
    loop.call_soon(wsock.send, 'abc'.encode())

    try:
        await protocol.on_con_lost
    finally:
        transport.close()
        wsock.close()

asyncio.run(main())

Voir aussi

L'exemple Surveillance des événements de lecture pour un descripteur de fichier utilise la méthode de bas niveau loop.add_reader() pour enregistrer un descripteur de fichier.

L'exemple Ouverture d'un connecteur pour attendre les données à l'aide de flux utilise des flux de haut niveau créés par la fonction open_connection() dans une coroutine.

loop.subprocess_exec() et SubprocessProtocol

Un exemple de protocole de sous-processus utilisé pour obtenir la sortie d'un sous-processus et attendre la sortie du sous-processus.

Le sous-processus est créé par la méthode loop.subprocess_exec() :

import asyncio
import sys

class DateProtocol(asyncio.SubprocessProtocol):
    def __init__(self, exit_future):
        self.exit_future = exit_future
        self.output = bytearray()
        self.pipe_closed = False
        self.exited = False

    def pipe_connection_lost(self, fd, exc):
        self.pipe_closed = True
        self.check_for_exit()

    def pipe_data_received(self, fd, data):
        self.output.extend(data)

    def process_exited(self):
        self.exited = True
        # process_exited() method can be called before
        # pipe_connection_lost() method: wait until both methods are
        # called.
        self.check_for_exit()

    def check_for_exit(self):
        if self.pipe_closed and self.exited:
            self.exit_future.set_result(True)

async def get_date():
    # Get a reference to the event loop as we plan to use
    # low-level APIs.
    loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

    code = 'import datetime as dt; print(dt.datetime.now())'
    exit_future = asyncio.Future(loop=loop)

    # Create the subprocess controlled by DateProtocol;
    # redirect the standard output into a pipe.
    transport, protocol = await loop.subprocess_exec(
        lambda: DateProtocol(exit_future),
        sys.executable, '-c', code,
        stdin=None, stderr=None)

    # Wait for the subprocess exit using the process_exited()
    # method of the protocol.
    await exit_future

    # Close the stdout pipe.
    transport.close()

    # Read the output which was collected by the
    # pipe_data_received() method of the protocol.
    data = bytes(protocol.output)
    return data.decode('ascii').rstrip()

date = asyncio.run(get_date())
print(f"Current date: {date}")

Voir aussi le même exemple écrit à l'aide d'API de haut niveau.

Politiques

Avertissement

Policies are deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.16. Users are encouraged to use the asyncio.run() function or the asyncio.Runner with loop_factory to use the desired loop implementation.

Une politique de boucle d'événements est un objet global utilisé pour obtenir et définir la boucle d'événements actuelle, ainsi que créer de nouvelles boucles d'événements. La politique par défaut peut être remplacée par des alternatives intégrées afin d'utiliser d'autres implémentations de boucles d'événements, ou remplacée par une politique personnalisée qui peut remplacer ces comportements.

Un objet politique définit la notion de contexte et gère une boucle d'événement distincte par contexte. Ceci est valable fil par fil d'exécution par défaut, bien que les politiques personnalisées puissent définir le contexte différemment.

En utilisant une politique de boucle d'événement personnalisée, le comportement des fonctions get_event_loop(), set_event_loop() et new_event_loop() peut être personnalisé.

Les objets politiques doivent implémenter les API définies dans la classe mère abstraite AbstractEventLoopPolicy.

Obtenir et définir la politique

Les fonctions suivantes peuvent être utilisées pour obtenir et définir la politique du processus en cours :

asyncio.get_event_loop_policy()

Renvoie la politique actuelle à l'échelle du processus.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.14: The get_event_loop_policy() function is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.16.

asyncio.set_event_loop_policy(policy)

Définit la politique actuelle sur l'ensemble du processus sur policy.

Si policy est définie sur None, la politique par défaut est restaurée.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.14: The set_event_loop_policy() function is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.16.

Objets politiques

La classe mère abstraite de la politique de boucle d'événements est définie comme suit :

class asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy

Une classe de base abstraite pour les politiques asyncio.

get_event_loop()

Récupère la boucle d'évènements pour le contexte actuel.

Renvoie un objet de boucle d'événements en implémentant l'interface AbstractEventLoop.

Cette méthode ne devrait jamais renvoyer None.

Modifié dans la version 3.6.

set_event_loop(loop)

Définit la boucle d'événements du contexte actuel sur loop.

new_event_loop()

Crée et renvoie un nouvel objet de boucle d'événements.

Cette méthode ne devrait jamais renvoyer None.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.14: The AbstractEventLoopPolicy class is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.16.

asyncio est livré avec les politiques intégrées suivantes :

class asyncio.DefaultEventLoopPolicy

La politique asyncio par défaut. Utilise SelectorEventLoop sur les plates-formes Unix et ProactorEventLoop sur Windows.

Il n'est pas nécessaire d'installer la politique par défaut manuellement. asyncio est configuré pour utiliser automatiquement la politique par défaut.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Sous Windows, ProactorEventLoop est désormais utilisée par défaut.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: The get_event_loop() method of the default asyncio policy now raises a RuntimeError if there is no set event loop.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.14: The DefaultEventLoopPolicy class is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.16.

class asyncio.WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy

Politique de boucle d'événements alternative utilisant l'implémentation de la boucle d'événements ProactorEventLoop.

Disponibilité: Windows.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.14: The WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy class is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.16.

class asyncio.WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy

Politique de boucle d'événements alternative utilisant l'implémentation de la boucle d'événements ProactorEventLoop.

Disponibilité: Windows.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.14: The WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy class is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.16.

Politiques personnalisées

Pour implémenter une nouvelle politique de boucle d’événements, il est recommandé de sous-classer DefaultEventLoopPolicy et de réimplémenter les méthodes pour lesquelles un comportement personnalisé est souhaité, par exemple :

class MyEventLoopPolicy(asyncio.DefaultEventLoopPolicy):

    def get_event_loop(self):
        """Get the event loop.

        This may be None or an instance of EventLoop.
        """
        loop = super().get_event_loop()
        # Do something with loop ...
        return loop

asyncio.set_event_loop_policy(MyEventLoopPolicy())

Prise en charge de la plate-forme

Le module asyncio est conçu pour être portable, mais certaines plates-formes présentent des différences et des limitations subtiles en raison de l'architecture et des capacités sous-jacentes des plates-formes.

Toutes plateformes

loop.add_reader() et loop.add_writer() ne peuvent pas être utilisées pour surveiller les entrées-sorties de fichiers.

Windows

Code source : Lib/asyncio/proactor_events.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/asyncio/proactor_events.py], Lib/asyncio/windows_events.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/asyncio/windows_events.py], Lib/asyncio/windows_utils.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/asyncio/windows_utils.py]

Modifié dans la version 3.8: sous Windows, ProactorEventLoop est désormais la boucle d'événements par défaut.

Aucune boucle d'événements sous Windows ne prend en charge les méthodes suivantes :

loop.create_unix_connection() and loop.create_unix_server() are not supported. The socket.AF_UNIX socket family is specific to Unix.

loop.add_signal_handler() et loop.remove_signal_handler() ne sont pas prises en charge.

SelectorEventLoop a les limitations suivantes :

SelectSelector est utilisée pour attendre les événements de connecteur (sockets) : elle prend en charge les connecteurs et est limitée à 512 connecteurs.

loop.add_reader() et loop.add_writer() n'acceptent que les descripteurs de connecteur (par exemple, les descripteurs de tube fichier ne sont pas pris en charge).

Les tubes ne sont pas pris en charge, donc les méthodes loop.connect_read_pipe() et loop.connect_write_pipe() ne sont pas implémentées.

Les sous-processus ne sont pas pris en charge, c'est-à-dire que les méthodes loop.subprocess_exec() et loop.subprocess_shell() ne sont pas implémentées.

ProactorEventLoop a les limitations suivantes :

Les méthodes loop.add_reader() et loop.add_writer() ne sont pas prises en charge.

La résolution de l'horloge monotone sous Windows est généralement d'environ 15,6 millisecondes. La meilleure résolution est de 0,5 milliseconde. La résolution dépend du matériel (disponibilité de HPET [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Precision_Event_Timer]) et de la configuration de Windows.

Prise en charge des sous-processus sous Windows

Sous Windows, la boucle d'événements par défaut ProactorEventLoop prend en charge les sous-processus, contrairement à SelectorEventLoop.

macOS

Les versions modernes de macOS sont entièrement prises en charge.

macOS ≤ 10.8

Sur macOS 10.6, 10.7 et 10.8, la boucle d'événements par défaut utilise selectors.KqueueSelector, qui ne prend pas en charge les périphériques de caractères sur ces versions. La SelectorEventLoop peut être configurée manuellement pour utiliser SelectSelector ou PollSelector pour prendre en charge les périphériques de caractères sur ces anciennes versions de macOS. Par exemple :

import asyncio
import selectors

selector = selectors.SelectSelector()
loop = asyncio.SelectorEventLoop(selector)
asyncio.set_event_loop(loop)

Extension

La direction principale pour l'extension d'asyncio est l'écriture de classes event loop personnalisées. Asyncio a des assistants qui peuvent être utilisés pour simplifier cette tâche.

Note

la réutilisation du code asynchrone existant doit se faire avec prudence, une nouvelle version de Python est libre de rompre la compatibilité descendante dans la partie interne de l'API.

Écriture d'une boucle d'événements personnalisée

asyncio.AbstractEventLoop déclare de très nombreuses méthodes. Les mettre en œuvre à partir de zéro est un travail fastidieux.

Une boucle d'événements peut obtenir gratuitement l'implémentation de nombreuses méthodes courantes en héritant de asyncio.BaseEventLoop.

Le successeur doit, pour ce qui le concerne, implémenter un ensemble de méthodes privées déclarées mais non implémentées dans asyncio.BaseEventLoop.

Par exemple, loop.create_connection() vérifie les arguments, résout les adresses DNS et appelle loop._make_socket_transport() qui doit être implémentée par la classe héritée. La méthode _make_socket_transport() n'est pas documentée et est considérée comme une API interne.

Constructeurs privés Future et Task

asyncio.Future et asyncio.Task ne doivent jamais être créées directement, veuillez utiliser les correspondances loop.create_future() et loop.create_task(), ou les fabriques asyncio.create_task() à la place.

Cependant, les boucles d'événements tierces peuvent réutiliser les implémentations de Future et de Task intégrées dans le but d'obtenir gratuitement un code complexe et hautement optimisé.

À cette fin, les constructeurs privés suivants sont répertoriés :

Future.__init__(*, loop=None)

Crée une instance de la future native.

loop est une instance de boucle d'événements facultative.

Task.__init__(coro, *, loop=None, name=None, context=None)

Crée une instance de la Task native.

loop est une instance de boucle d'événements facultative. Le reste des arguments est décrit dans la description de loop.create_task().

Modifié dans la version 3.11: l'argument contexte a été ajouté.

Prise en charge de la durée de vie des tâches

A third party task implementation should call the following functions to keep a task visible by asyncio.all_tasks() and asyncio.current_task():

asyncio._register_task(task)

Enregistre une nouvelle tâche comme gérée par asyncio.

Appelez la fonction à partir d'un constructeur de tâche.

asyncio._unregister_task(task)

Désinscrit une tâche des structures internes asyncio.

La fonction doit être appelée lorsqu'une tâche est sur le point de se terminer.

asyncio._enter_task(loop, task)

Bascule la tâche en cours vers l'argument task.

Appelez la fonction juste avant d'exécuter une partie de la coroutine intégrée (coroutine.send() ou coroutine.throw()).

asyncio._leave_task(loop, task)

Rebascule la tâche en cours de task à None.

Appelez la fonction juste après l'exécution de coroutine.send() ou coroutine.throw().

Index de l'API de haut niveau

Cette page répertorie toutes les API async/await de haut niveau disponibles dans l'API asyncio.

Tâches

Utilitaires pour exécuter des programmes asynchrones, créer des tâches et attendre plusieurs choses avec des délais maximaux d'attente.

run()

Crée une boucle d'événements, exécute une coroutine, ferme la boucle.

Runner

Gestionnaire de contexte qui simplifie plusieurs appels de fonction asynchrones.

Task

Objet de tâche.

TaskGroup

Gestionnaire de contexte pour un groupe de tâches. Fournit un moyen pratique et fiable d'attendre la fin de toutes les tâches du groupe.

create_task()

Démarre une tâche asynchrone, puis la renvoie.

current_task()

Renvoie la tâche actuelle.

all_tasks()

Renvoie toutes les tâches qui ne sont pas encore terminées pour une boucle d'événements.

await sleep()

Dort quelques secondes.

await gather()

Planifie et attend des choses concurrentes.

await wait_for()

Exécute avec un délai d'attente.

await shield()

Empêche l'annulation.

await wait()

Surveille l'achèvement.

timeout()

Exécute avec un délai d'attente. Utile dans les cas où wait_for ne convient pas.

to_thread()

Exécute de manière asynchrone une fonction dans un fil d'exécution séparé.

run_coroutine_threadsafe()

Planifie une coroutine à partir d'un autre fil d'exécution.

for in as_completed()

Surveille l'achèvement avec une boucle for.

Exemples

Utilisation d'asyncio.gather() pour exécuter des choses en parallèle.

Utilisation d'asyncio.wait_for() pour appliquer un délai d'attente.

Annulation.

Utilisation d'asyncio.sleep().

Voir aussi la page de documentation de Tasks.

Files d'attente

Les files d'attente doivent être utilisées pour répartir le travail entre plusieurs tâches asynchrones, implémenter des pools de connexions et des modèles pub/sub.

Queue

File d'attente FIFO (premier entré, premier sorti).

PriorityQueue

File d'attente avec gestion des priorités.

LifoQueue

Pile LIFO (dernier entré, premier sorti).

Exemples

Utilisation d'asyncio.Queue pour répartir la charge de travail entre plusieurs tâches.

Voir aussi la page de documentation des Queues.

Sous-processus

Utilitaires pour générer des sous-processus et exécuter des commandes shell.

await create_subprocess_exec()

Crée un sous-processus.

await create_subprocess_shell()

Exécute une commande shell.

Exemples

Exécution d'une commande shell.

Voir aussi la documentation des API subprocess.

Flux (streams)

API de haut niveau pour travailler avec les entrées-sorties réseau.

await open_connection()

Établit une connexion TCP.

await open_unix_connection()

Établit une connexion sur un connecteur Unix.

await start_server()

Démarre un serveur TCP.

await start_unix_server()

Démarre un serveur de socket Unix.

StreamReader

Objet async/await de haut niveau pour recevoir des données réseau.

StreamWriter

Objet async/await de haut niveau pour envoyer des données réseau.

Exemples

Exemple de client TCP.

Voir aussi la documentation des API streams.

Synchronisation

Primitives de synchronisation de type thread qui peuvent être utilisées dans les tâches.

Lock

Verrou mutex.

Event

Objet événement.

Condition

Objet condition.

Semaphore

Sémaphore.

BoundedSemaphore

Sémaphore avec des bornes.

Barrier

Objet barrière.

Exemples

Utilisation d'asyncio.Event.

Utilisation d'asyncio.Barrier.

Voir aussi la documentation des primitives asyncio de synchronisation.

Exceptions

asyncio.CancelledError

Levée lorsqu'une tâche est annulée. Voir aussi Task.cancel().

asyncio.BrokenBarrierError

Levée lorsqu'une barrière est brisée. Voir aussi Barrier.wait().

Exemples

Utilisation de CancelledError pour exécuter le code sur la demande d'annulation.

Voir aussi la liste complète des exceptions spécifiques asyncio.

Index de l'API de bas niveau

Cette page répertorie toutes les API asynchrones de bas niveau.

Obtenir une boucle d'évènements

asyncio.get_running_loop()

La fonction préférée pour obtenir la boucle d'événements en cours d'exécution.

asyncio.get_event_loop()

Renvoie une instance de boucle d'événements (en cours d'exécution ou actuelle via la politique actuelle).

asyncio.set_event_loop()

Définit la boucle d'événements comme actuelle via la politique actuelle.

asyncio.new_event_loop()

Crée une nouvelle boucle d'événements.

Exemples

Utilisation d'asyncio.get_running_loop().

Méthodes de la boucle d'évènements

Voir aussi la section principale de la documentation sur les Event loop methods.

Cycle de vie

loop.run_until_complete()

Exécute un Future/Task/awaitable jusqu'à ce qu'il soit terminé.

loop.run_forever()

Exécute la boucle d'événements pour toujours.

loop.stop()

Arrête l'exécution de la boucle d'évènements.

loop.close()

Arrête la boucle d'évènements.

loop.is_running()

Renvoie True si la boucle d'événements est en cours d'exécution.

loop.is_closed()

Renvoie True si la boucle d'évènements est arrêtée.

await loop.shutdown_asyncgens()

Ferme les générateurs asynchrones.

Débogage

loop.set_debug()

Active ou désactive le mode débogage.

loop.get_debug()

Renvoie le mode de débogage actuel.

Planification des rappels

loop.call_soon()

Invoque un rappel bientôt.

loop.call_soon_threadsafe()

Une variante compatible avec les programmes à fils d'exécution multiples de loop.call_soon().

loop.call_later()

Invoque un rappel après le temps imparti.

loop.call_at()

Invoque un rappel à l'heure indiquée.

Thread/Interpreter/Process Pool

await loop.run_in_executor()

Exécute une fonction utilisant beaucoup de CPU ou une autre fonction bloquante dans un exécuteur concurrent.futures.

loop.set_default_executor()

Définit l'exécuteur par défaut pour loop.run_in_executor().

Tâches et Futures

loop.create_future()

Crée un objet Future.

loop.create_task()

Planifie la coroutine en tant que Task.

loop.set_task_factory()

Définit une fabrique utilisée par loop.create_task() pour créer des Tasks.

loop.get_task_factory()

Récupère la fabrique que loop.create_task() utilise pour créer des Tasks.

DNS

await loop.getaddrinfo()

Version asynchrone de socket.getaddrinfo().

await loop.getnameinfo()

Version asynchrone de socket.getnameinfo().

Réseau et communication inter-processus

await loop.create_connection()

Ouvre une connexion TCP.

await loop.create_server()

Crée un serveur TCP.

await loop.create_unix_connection()

Ouvre une connexion socket Unix.

await loop.create_unix_server()

Crée un serveur de socket Unix.

await loop.connect_accepted_socket()

Enveloppe une socket dans une paire (transport, protocol).

await loop.create_datagram_endpoint()

Ouvre une connexion par datagramme (UDP).

await loop.sendfile()

Envoie un fichier via un transport.

await loop.start_tls()

Bascule une connexion existante vers TLS.

await loop.connect_read_pipe()

Enveloppe une extrémité de lecture d'un tube dans une paire (transport, protocol).

await loop.connect_write_pipe()

Enveloppe une extrémité d'écriture d'un tube dans une paire (transport, protocol).

Interfaces de connexion (sockets)

await loop.sock_recv()

Reçoit les données de socket.

await loop.sock_recv_into()

Reçoit les données de socket dans un tampon.

await loop.sock_recvfrom()

Reçoit un datagramme de socket.

await loop.sock_recvfrom_into()

Reçoit un datagramme de socket dans un tampon.

await loop.sock_sendall()

Envoie des données à socket.

await loop.sock_sendto()

Envoie un datagramme via socket à l'adresse indiquée.

await loop.sock_connect()

Connecte la socket.

await loop.sock_accept()

Accepte une connexion socket.

await loop.sock_sendfile()

Envoie un fichier via socket.

loop.add_reader()

Commence à observer un descripteur de fichier pour la disponibilité en lecture.

loop.remove_reader()

Arrête d'observer un descripteur de fichier pour la disponibilité en lecture.

loop.add_writer()

Commence à observer un descripteur de fichier pour la disponibilité en écriture.

loop.remove_writer()

Arrête d'observer un descripteur de fichier pour la disponibilité en écriture.

Signaux Unix

loop.add_signal_handler()

Ajoute un gestionnaire pour le signal.

loop.remove_signal_handler()

Supprime un gestionnaire pour le signal.

Sous-processus

loop.subprocess_exec()

Crée un sous-processus.

loop.subprocess_shell()

Crée un sous-processus à partir d'une commande shell.

Gestion des erreurs

loop.call_exception_handler()

Appelle le gestionnaire d'exceptions.

loop.set_exception_handler()

Définit un nouveau gestionnaire d'exceptions.

loop.get_exception_handler()

Renvoie le gestionnaire d'exceptions actuel.

loop.default_exception_handler()

Implémentation du gestionnaire d'exceptions par défaut.

Exemples

Utilisation d'asyncio.new_event_loop() et de loop.run_forever().

Utilisation de loop.call_later().

Utilisation de loop.create_connection() pour implémenter un client écho.

Utilisation de loop.create_connection() pour connecter un socket.

Utilisation de add_reader() pour surveiller un descripteur de fichier pour les événements de lecture.

Utilisation de loop.add_signal_handler().

Utilisation de loop.subprocess_exec().

Transports

Tous les transports mettent en œuvre les méthodes suivantes :

transport.close()

Ferme le transport.

transport.is_closing()

Renvoie True si le transport se ferme ou est fermé.

transport.get_extra_info()

Demande d'informations sur le transport.

transport.set_protocol()

Change le protocole.

transport.get_protocol()

Renvoie le protocole courant.

Transports pouvant recevoir des données (connexions TCP et Unix, pipes, etc.). Renvoyé par des méthodes telles que loop.create_connection(), loop.create_unix_connection(), loop.connect_read_pipe(), etc :

Transports en lecture

transport.is_reading()

Renvoie True si le transport est en cours de réception.

transport.pause_reading()

Suspend la réception.

transport.resume_reading()

Reprend la réception.

Transports pouvant envoyer des données (connexions TCP et Unix, pipes, etc.). Renvoyé par des méthodes telles que loop.create_connection(), loop.create_unix_connection(), loop.connect_write_pipe(), etc :

Transports en écriture

transport.write()

Écrit des données dans le transport.

transport.writelines()

Écrit des tampons dans le transport.

transport.can_write_eof()

Renvoie True si le transport prend en charge l'envoi d'EOF.

transport.write_eof()

Ferme et envoie EOF après avoir vidé les données mises en mémoire tampon.

transport.abort()

Ferme immédiatement le transport.

transport.get_write_buffer_size()

Return the current size of the output buffer.

transport.get_write_buffer_limits()

Renvoie les seuils haut et bas pour le contrôle du flux d'écriture.

transport.set_write_buffer_limits()

Définit de nouvelles bornes hautes et basses pour le contrôle du flux d'écriture.

Transports renvoyés par loop.create_datagram_endpoint() :

Transports par datagrammes

transport.sendto()

Envoie des données au pair distant.

transport.abort()

Ferme immédiatement le transport.

Abstraction de transport de bas niveau sur les sous-processus. Renvoyé par loop.subprocess_exec() et loop.subprocess_shell() :

Transports vers des sous-processus

transport.get_pid()

Renvoie l'ID de processus du sous-processus.

transport.get_pipe_transport()

Renvoie le transport pour le tube de communication demandé (stdin, stdout ou stderr).

transport.get_returncode()

Renvoie le code de retour du sous-processus.

transport.kill()

Tue le sous-processus.

transport.send_signal()

Envoie un signal au sous-processus.

transport.terminate()

Termine le sous-processus.

transport.close()

Tue le sous-processus et ferme tous les tubes.

Protocoles

Les classes de protocole peuvent implémenter les méthodes de rappel suivantes :

callback connection_made()

Appelée lorsqu'une connexion est établie.

callback connection_lost()

Appelé lorsqu'une connexion est perdue ou fermée.

callback pause_writing()

Appelée lorsque la mémoire tampon du transport dépasse le seuil haut.

callback resume_writing()

Appelée lorsque la mémoire tampon du transport passe sous le seuil bas.

Protocoles de flux (TCP, Unix Sockets, Pipes)

callback data_received()

Appelée lorsque certaines données sont reçues.

callback eof_received()

Appelée lorsqu'un EOF est reçu.

Protocoles de flux tamponnés

callback get_buffer()

Appelée pour allouer un nouveau tampon de réception.

callback buffer_updated()

Appelée lorsque le tampon a été mis à jour avec les données reçues.

callback eof_received()

Appelée lorsqu'un EOF est reçu.

Protocoles par datagrammes (non-connectés)

callback datagram_received()

Appelée lorsqu'un datagramme est reçu.

callback error_received()

Appelée lorsqu'une opération d'envoi ou de réception précédente lève une OSError.

Protocoles liés aux sous-processus

callback pipe_data_received()

Appelée lorsqu'un processus enfant écrit sur sa sortie d'erreur ou sa sortie standard.

callback pipe_connection_lost()

Appelée lorsqu'un tube de communication avec un sous-processus est fermée.

callback process_exited()

Called when the child process has exited. It can be called before pipe_data_received() and pipe_connection_lost() methods.

Politiques de boucle d'événements

Les politiques sont un mécanisme de bas niveau pour modifier le comportement de fonctions telles que asyncio.get_event_loop(). Voir aussi la section principale Politiques pour plus de détails.

Accès aux politiques

asyncio.get_event_loop_policy()

Renvoie la politique actuelle à l'échelle du processus.

asyncio.set_event_loop_policy()

Définit une nouvelle politique à l'échelle du processus.

AbstractEventLoopPolicy

Classe mère pour les objets de politique.

Programmer avec asyncio

La programmation asynchrone est différente de la programmation « séquentielle » classique.

Cette page liste les pièges et erreurs communs que le développeur pourrait rencontrer et décrit comment les éviter.

Mode débogage

Par défaut, asyncio s'exécute en mode production. Pour faciliter le développement, asyncio possède un « mode débogage ».

Il existe plusieurs façons d'activer le mode débogage de asyncio :

en réglant la variable d’environnement PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG à 1 ;

en utilisant le mode développement de Python (Python Development Mode) ;

en passant debug=True à la fonction asyncio.run() ;

en appelant la méthode loop.set_debug().

En plus d'activer le mode débogage, vous pouvez également :

setting the log level of the asyncio logger to logging.DEBUG, for example the following snippet of code can be run at startup of the application:

logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG)

configurer le module warnings afin d'afficher les avertissements de type ResourceWarning ; vous pouvez faire cela en utilisant l'option -W default sur la ligne de commande.

Lorsque le mode débogage est activé :

beaucoup d'API asyncio ne prenant pas en charge les fils d'exécution multiples (comme les méthodes loop.call_soon() et loop.call_at()) lèvent une exception si elles sont appelées par le mauvais fil d’exécution ;

le temps d'exécution du sélecteur d'entrée-sortie est journalisé si une opération prend trop de temps à s'effectuer ;

les fonctions de rappel prenant plus de 100 ms sont journalisées ; l'attribut loop.slow_callback_duration peut être utilisé pour changer la limite (en secondes) après laquelle une fonction de rappel est considérée comme « lente ».

Programmation concurrente et multi-fils

Une boucle d'évènements s'exécute dans un fil d’exécution (typiquement dans le fil principal) et traite toutes les fonctions de rappel (callbacks) ainsi que toutes les tâches dans ce même fil. Lorsqu'une tâche est en cours d'exécution dans la boucle d'évènements, aucune autre tâche ne peut s'exécuter dans ce fil. Quand une tâche traite une expression await, elle se suspend et laisse la boucle d’évènements traiter la tâche suivante.

Pour planifier un rappel depuis un autre fil d'exécution système, utilisez la méthode loop.call_soon_threadsafe(). Par exemple :

loop.call_soon_threadsafe(callback, *args)

La plupart des objets asyncio ne sont pas conçus pour être exécutés dans un contexte multi-fils (thread-safe) mais cela n'est en général pas un problème à moins que l'objet ne fasse appel à du code se trouvant en dehors d'une tâche ou d'une fonction de rappel. Dans ce dernier cas, si le code appelle les API bas niveau de asyncio, utilisez la méthode loop.call_soon_threadsafe(). Par exemple :

loop.call_soon_threadsafe(fut.cancel)

Pour planifier un objet concurrent depuis un autre fil d'exécution système, utilisez run_coroutine_threadsafe(). Cette fonction renvoie un objet concurrent.futures.Future pour accéder au résultat :

async def coro_func():
     return await asyncio.sleep(1, 42)

# Later in another OS thread:

future = asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe(coro_func(), loop)
# Wait for the result:
result = future.result()

To handle signals the event loop must be run in the main thread.

The loop.run_in_executor() method can be used with a concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor or InterpreterPoolExecutor to execute blocking code in a different OS thread without blocking the OS thread that the event loop runs in.

Il n'y a actuellement aucune façon de planifier des coroutines ou des rappels directement depuis un autre processus (comme, par exemple, un processus démarré avec multiprocessing). La section Méthodes de la boucle d'évènements liste les API pouvant lire les tubes (pipes) et surveiller les descripteurs de fichiers sans bloquer la boucle d'évènements. De plus, les API Subprocess d'asyncio fournissent un moyen de démarrer un processus et de communiquer avec lui depuis la boucle d'évènements. Enfin, la méthode loop.run_in_executor() susmentionnée peut également être utilisée avec concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor pour exécuter du code dans un processus différent.

Exécution de code bloquant

Du code bloquant sur des opérations de calcul (CPU-bound) ne devrait pas être appelé directement. Par exemple, si une fonction effectue des calculs utilisant le CPU intensivement pendant une seconde, toutes les tâches asyncio concurrentes et les opérations d'entrées-sorties seront bloquées pour une seconde.

An executor can be used to run a task in a different thread, including in a different interpreter, or even in a different process to avoid blocking the OS thread with the event loop. See the loop.run_in_executor() method for more details.

Journalisation

Asyncio utilise le module logging. Toutes les opérations de journalisation sont effectuées via l'enregistreur (logger) "asyncio".

The default log level is logging.INFO, which can be easily adjusted:

logging.getLogger("asyncio").setLevel(logging.WARNING)

La journalisation réseau peut bloquer la boucle d'événements. Il est recommandé d'utiliser un fil d'exécution séparé pour gérer les journaux ou d'utiliser des entrées-sorties non bloquantes. Par exemple, voir Utilisation de gestionnaires bloquants.

Détection des coroutines jamais attendues

Lorsqu'une fonction coroutine est appelée mais qu'elle n'est pas attendue (p. ex. coro() au lieu de await coro()) ou si la coroutine n'est pas planifiée avec asyncio.create_task(), asyncio émet un RuntimeWarning :

import asyncio

async def test():
    print("never scheduled")

async def main():
    test()

asyncio.run(main())

Sortie :

test.py:7: RuntimeWarning: coroutine 'test' was never awaited
  test()

Affichage en mode débogage :

test.py:7: RuntimeWarning: coroutine 'test' was never awaited
Coroutine created at (most recent call last)
  File "../t.py", line 9, in <module>
    asyncio.run(main(), debug=True)

  < .. >

  File "../t.py", line 7, in main
    test()
  test()

La façon habituelle de régler ce problème est d'attendre (await) la coroutine ou bien d'appeler la fonction asyncio.create_task() :

async def main():
    await test()

Détection des exceptions jamais récupérées

Si la méthode Future.set_exception() est appelée mais que l'objet Future n'est pas attendu, l'exception n'est pas propagée au code utilisateur. Dans ce cas, asyncio écrit un message dans le journal lorsque l'objet Future est récupéré par le ramasse-miette.

Exemple d'une exception non-gérée :

import asyncio

async def bug():
    raise Exception("not consumed")

async def main():
    asyncio.create_task(bug())

asyncio.run(main())

Sortie :

Task exception was never retrieved
future: <Task finished coro=<bug() done, defined at test.py:3>
  exception=Exception('not consumed')>

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "test.py", line 4, in bug
    raise Exception("not consumed")
Exception: not consumed

Activez le mode débogage pour récupérer la trace d'appels indiquant où la tâche a été créée :

asyncio.run(main(), debug=True)

Affichage en mode débogage :

Task exception was never retrieved
future: <Task finished coro=<bug() done, defined at test.py:3>
    exception=Exception('not consumed') created at asyncio/tasks.py:321>

source_traceback: Object created at (most recent call last):
  File "../t.py", line 9, in <module>
    asyncio.run(main(), debug=True)

< .. >

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "../t.py", line 4, in bug
    raise Exception("not consumed")
Exception: not consumed

Asynchronous generators best practices

Writing correct and efficient asyncio code requires awareness of certain pitfalls. This section outlines essential best practices that can save you hours of debugging.

Close asynchronous generators explicitly

It is recommended to manually close the asynchronous generator. If a generator exits early - for example, due to an exception raised in the body of an async for loop - its asynchronous cleanup code may run in an unexpected context. This can occur after the tasks it depends on have completed, or during the event loop shutdown when the async-generator's garbage collection hook is called.

To avoid this, explicitly close the generator by calling its aclose() method, or use the contextlib.aclosing() context manager:

import asyncio
import contextlib

async def gen():
  yield 1
  yield 2

async def func():
  async with contextlib.aclosing(gen()) as g:
    async for x in g:
      break  # Don't iterate until the end

asyncio.run(func())

As noted above, the cleanup code for these asynchronous generators is deferred. The following example demonstrates that the finalization of an asynchronous generator can occur in an unexpected order:

import asyncio
work_done = False

async def cursor():
    try:
        yield 1
    finally:
        assert work_done

async def rows():
    global work_done
    try:
        yield 2
    finally:
        await asyncio.sleep(0.1) # immitate some async work
        work_done = True

async def main():
    async for c in cursor():
        async for r in rows():
            break
        break

asyncio.run(main())

For this example, we get the following output:

unhandled exception during asyncio.run() shutdown
task: <Task finished name='Task-3' coro=<<async_generator_athrow without __name__>()> exception=AssertionError()>
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "example.py", line 6, in cursor
    yield 1
asyncio.exceptions.CancelledError

During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred:

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "example.py", line 8, in cursor
    assert work_done
           ^^^^^^^^^
AssertionError

The cursor() asynchronous generator was finalized before the rows generator - an unexpected behavior.

The example can be fixed by explicitly closing the cursor and rows async-generators:

async def main():
    async with contextlib.aclosing(cursor()) as cursor_gen:
        async for c in cursor_gen:
            async with contextlib.aclosing(rows()) as rows_gen:
                async for r in rows_gen:
                    break
            break

Create asynchronous generators only when the event loop is running

It is recommended to create asynchronous generators only after the event loop has been created.

To ensure that asynchronous generators close reliably, the event loop uses the sys.set_asyncgen_hooks() function to register callback functions. These callbacks update the list of running asynchronous generators to keep it in a consistent state.

When the loop.shutdown_asyncgens() function is called, the running generators are stopped gracefully and the list is cleared.

The asynchronous generator invokes the corresponding system hook during its first iteration. At the same time, the generator records that the hook has been called and does not call it again.

Therefore, if iteration begins before the event loop is created, the event loop will not be able to add the generator to its list of active generators because the hooks are set after the generator attempts to call them. Consequently, the event loop will not be able to terminate the generator if necessary.

Consider the following example:

import asyncio

async def agenfn():
    try:
        yield 10
    finally:
        await asyncio.sleep(0)

with asyncio.Runner() as runner:
    agen = agenfn()
    print(runner.run(anext(agen)))
    del agen

Sortie :

10
Exception ignored while closing generator <async_generator object agenfn at 0x000002F71CD10D70>:
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "example.py", line 13, in <module>
    del agen
        ^^^^
RuntimeError: async generator ignored GeneratorExit

This example can be fixed as follows:

import asyncio

async def agenfn():
    try:
        yield 10
    finally:
        await asyncio.sleep(0)

async def main():
    agen = agenfn()
    print(await anext(agen))
    del agen

asyncio.run(main())

Avoid concurrent iteration and closure of the same generator

Async generators may be reentered while another __anext__() / athrow() / aclose() call is in progress. This may lead to an inconsistent state of the async generator and can cause errors.

Let's consider the following example:

import asyncio

async def consumer():
    for idx in range(100):
        await asyncio.sleep(0)
        message = yield idx
        print('received', message)

async def amain():
    agenerator = consumer()
    await agenerator.asend(None)

    fa = asyncio.create_task(agenerator.asend('A'))
    fb = asyncio.create_task(agenerator.asend('B'))
    await fa
    await fb

asyncio.run(amain())

Sortie :

received A
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "test.py", line 38, in <module>
    asyncio.run(amain())
    ~~~~~~~~~~~^^^^^^^^^
  File "Lib/asyncio/runners.py", line 204, in run
    return runner.run(main)
           ~~~~~~~~~~^^^^^^
  File "Lib/asyncio/runners.py", line 127, in run
    return self._loop.run_until_complete(task)
           ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^^^^^
  File "Lib/asyncio/base_events.py", line 719, in run_until_complete
    return future.result()
           ~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^
  File "test.py", line 36, in amain
    await fb
RuntimeError: anext(): asynchronous generator is already running

Therefore, it is recommended to avoid using asynchronous generators in parallel tasks or across multiple event loops.

socket --- Low-level networking interface

Code source : Lib/secrets.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/secrets.py]

This module provides access to the BSD socket interface. It is available on all modern Unix systems, Windows, MacOS, and probably additional platforms.

Note

Some behavior may be platform dependent, since calls are made to the operating system socket APIs.

Disponibilité: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly. See Plateformes WebAssembly for more information.

The Python interface is a straightforward transliteration of the Unix system call and library interface for sockets to Python's object-oriented style: the socket() function returns a socket object whose methods implement the various socket system calls. Parameter types are somewhat higher-level than in the C interface: as with read() and write() operations on Python files, buffer allocation on receive operations is automatic, and buffer length is implicit on send operations.

Voir aussi

Module socketserver

Classes that simplify writing network servers.

Module ssl

A TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects.

Socket families

Depending on the system and the build options, various socket families are supported by this module.

The address format required by a particular socket object is automatically selected based on the address family specified when the socket object was created. Socket addresses are represented as follows:

The address of an AF_UNIX socket bound to a file system node is represented as a string, using the file system encoding and the 'surrogateescape' error handler (see PEP 383 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0383/]). An address in Linux's abstract namespace is returned as a bytes-like object with an initial null byte; note that sockets in this namespace can communicate with normal file system sockets, so programs intended to run on Linux may need to deal with both types of address. A string or bytes-like object can be used for either type of address when passing it as an argument.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Previously, AF_UNIX socket paths were assumed to use UTF-8 encoding.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: N'importe quel bytes-like object est maintenant accepté.

A pair (host, port) is used for the AF_INET address family, where host is a string representing either a hostname in internet domain notation like 'daring.cwi.nl' or an IPv4 address like '100.50.200.5', and port is an integer.

For IPv4 addresses, two special forms are accepted instead of a host address: '' represents INADDR_ANY, which is used to bind to all interfaces, and the string '<broadcast>' represents INADDR_BROADCAST. This behavior is not compatible with IPv6, therefore, you may want to avoid these if you intend to support IPv6 with your Python programs.

For AF_INET6 address family, a four-tuple (host, port, flowinfo, scope_id) is used, where flowinfo and scope_id represent the sin6_flowinfo and sin6_scope_id members in struct sockaddr_in6 in C. For socket module methods, flowinfo and scope_id can be omitted just for backward compatibility. Note, however, omission of scope_id can cause problems in manipulating scoped IPv6 addresses.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: For multicast addresses (with scope_id meaningful) address may not contain %scope_id (or zone id) part. This information is superfluous and may be safely omitted (recommended).

AF_NETLINK sockets are represented as pairs (pid, groups).

Linux-only support for TIPC is available using the AF_TIPC address family. TIPC is an open, non-IP based networked protocol designed for use in clustered computer environments. Addresses are represented by a tuple, and the fields depend on the address type. The general tuple form is (addr_type, v1, v2, v3 [, scope]), where:

addr_type is one of TIPC_ADDR_NAMESEQ, TIPC_ADDR_NAME, or TIPC_ADDR_ID.

scope is one of TIPC_ZONE_SCOPE, TIPC_CLUSTER_SCOPE, and TIPC_NODE_SCOPE.

If addr_type is TIPC_ADDR_NAME, then v1 is the server type, v2 is the port identifier, and v3 should be 0.

If addr_type is TIPC_ADDR_NAMESEQ, then v1 is the server type, v2 is the lower port number, and v3 is the upper port number.

If addr_type is TIPC_ADDR_ID, then v1 is the node, v2 is the reference, and v3 should be set to 0.

A tuple (interface, ) is used for the AF_CAN address family, where interface is a string representing a network interface name like 'can0'. The network interface name '' can be used to receive packets from all network interfaces of this family.

CAN_ISOTP protocol requires a tuple (interface, rx_addr, tx_addr) where both additional parameters are unsigned long integer that represent a CAN identifier (standard or extended).

CAN_J1939 protocol requires a tuple (interface, name, pgn, addr) where additional parameters are 64-bit unsigned integer representing the ECU name, a 32-bit unsigned integer representing the Parameter Group Number (PGN), and an 8-bit integer representing the address.

A string or a tuple (id, unit) is used for the SYSPROTO_CONTROL protocol of the PF_SYSTEM family. The string is the name of a kernel control using a dynamically assigned ID. The tuple can be used if ID and unit number of the kernel control are known or if a registered ID is used.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

AF_BLUETOOTH supports the following protocols and address formats:

BTPROTO_L2CAP accepts a tuple (bdaddr, psm[, cid[, bdaddr_type]]) where:

bdaddr is a string specifying the Bluetooth address.

psm is an integer specifying the Protocol/Service Multiplexer.

cid is an optional integer specifying the Channel Identifier. If not given, defaults to zero.

bdaddr_type is an optional integer specifying the address type; one of BDADDR_BREDR (default), BDADDR_LE_PUBLIC, BDADDR_LE_RANDOM.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Added cid and bdaddr_type fields.

BTPROTO_RFCOMM accepts (bdaddr, channel) where bdaddr is the Bluetooth address as a string and channel is an integer.

BTPROTO_HCI accepts a format that depends on your OS.

On Linux it accepts an integer device_id or a tuple (device_id, [channel]) where device_id specifies the number of the Bluetooth device, and channel is an optional integer specifying the HCI channel (HCI_CHANNEL_RAW by default).

On FreeBSD, NetBSD and DragonFly BSD it accepts bdaddr where bdaddr is the Bluetooth address as a string.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: NetBSD and DragonFlyBSD support added.

Modifié dans la version 3.13.3: FreeBSD support added.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Added channel field. device_id not packed in a tuple is now accepted.

BTPROTO_SCO accepts bdaddr where bdaddr is the Bluetooth address as a string or a bytes object. (ex. '12:23:34:45:56:67' or b'12:23:34:45:56:67')

Modifié dans la version 3.14: FreeBSD support added.

AF_ALG is a Linux-only socket based interface to Kernel cryptography. An algorithm socket is configured with a tuple of two to four elements (type, name [, feat [, mask]]), where:

type is the algorithm type as string, e.g. aead, hash, skcipher or rng.

name is the algorithm name and operation mode as string, e.g. sha256, hmac(sha256), cbc(aes) or drbg_nopr_ctr_aes256.

feat and mask are unsigned 32bit integers.

Disponibilité: Linux >= 2.6.38.

Some algorithm types require more recent Kernels.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

AF_VSOCK allows communication between virtual machines and their hosts. The sockets are represented as a (CID, port) tuple where the context ID or CID and port are integers.

Disponibilité: Linux >= 3.9

See vsock(7) [https://manpages.debian.org/vsock(7)]

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

AF_PACKET is a low-level interface directly to network devices. The addresses are represented by the tuple (ifname, proto[, pkttype[, hatype[, addr]]]) where:

ifname - String specifying the device name.

proto - The Ethernet protocol number. May be ETH_P_ALL to capture all protocols, one of the ETHERTYPE_* constants or any other Ethernet protocol number.

pkttype - Optional integer specifying the packet type:

PACKET_HOST (the default) - Packet addressed to the local host.

PACKET_BROADCAST - Physical-layer broadcast packet.

PACKET_MULTICAST - Packet sent to a physical-layer multicast address.

PACKET_OTHERHOST - Packet to some other host that has been caught by a device driver in promiscuous mode.

PACKET_OUTGOING - Packet originating from the local host that is looped back to a packet socket.

hatype - Optional integer specifying the ARP hardware address type.

addr - Optional bytes-like object specifying the hardware physical address, whose interpretation depends on the device.

Disponibilité: Linux >= 2.2.

AF_QIPCRTR is a Linux-only socket based interface for communicating with services running on co-processors in Qualcomm platforms. The address family is represented as a (node, port) tuple where the node and port are non-negative integers.

Disponibilité: Linux >= 4.7.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

IPPROTO_UDPLITE is a variant of UDP which allows you to specify what portion of a packet is covered with the checksum. It adds two socket options that you can change. self.setsockopt(IPPROTO_UDPLITE, UDPLITE_SEND_CSCOV, length) will change what portion of outgoing packets are covered by the checksum and self.setsockopt(IPPROTO_UDPLITE, UDPLITE_RECV_CSCOV, length) will filter out packets which cover too little of their data. In both cases length should be in range(8, 2**16, 8).

Such a socket should be constructed with socket(AF_INET, SOCK_DGRAM, IPPROTO_UDPLITE) for IPv4 or socket(AF_INET6, SOCK_DGRAM, IPPROTO_UDPLITE) for IPv6.

Disponibilité: Linux >= 2.6.20, FreeBSD >= 10.1

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

AF_HYPERV is a Windows-only socket based interface for communicating with Hyper-V hosts and guests. The address family is represented as a (vm_id, service_id) tuple where the vm_id and service_id are UUID strings.

The vm_id is the virtual machine identifier or a set of known VMID values if the target is not a specific virtual machine. Known VMID constants defined on socket are:

HV_GUID_ZERO

HV_GUID_BROADCAST

HV_GUID_WILDCARD - Used to bind on itself and accept connections from all partitions.

HV_GUID_CHILDREN - Used to bind on itself and accept connection from child partitions.

HV_GUID_LOOPBACK - Used as a target to itself.

HV_GUID_PARENT - When used as a bind accepts connection from the parent partition. When used as an address target it will connect to the parent partition.

The service_id is the service identifier of the registered service.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

If you use a hostname in the host portion of IPv4/v6 socket address, the program may show a nondeterministic behavior, as Python uses the first address returned from the DNS resolution. The socket address will be resolved differently into an actual IPv4/v6 address, depending on the results from DNS resolution and/or the host configuration. For deterministic behavior use a numeric address in host portion.

All errors raise exceptions. The normal exceptions for invalid argument types and out-of-memory conditions can be raised. Errors related to socket or address semantics raise OSError or one of its subclasses.

Non-blocking mode is supported through setblocking(). A generalization of this based on timeouts is supported through settimeout().

Module contents

The module socket exports the following elements.

Exceptions

exception socket.error

A deprecated alias of OSError.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Following PEP 3151 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3151/], this class was made an alias of OSError.

exception socket.herror

A subclass of OSError, this exception is raised for address-related errors, i.e. for functions that use h_errno in the POSIX C API, including gethostbyname_ex() and gethostbyaddr(). The accompanying value is a pair (h_errno, string) representing an error returned by a library call. h_errno is a numeric value, while string represents the description of h_errno, as returned by the hstrerror() C function.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: This class was made a subclass of OSError.

exception socket.gaierror

A subclass of OSError, this exception is raised for address-related errors by getaddrinfo() and getnameinfo(). The accompanying value is a pair (error, string) representing an error returned by a library call. string represents the description of error, as returned by the gai_strerror() C function. The numeric error value will match one of the EAI_* constants defined in this module.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: This class was made a subclass of OSError.

exception socket.timeout

A deprecated alias of TimeoutError.

A subclass of OSError, this exception is raised when a timeout occurs on a socket which has had timeouts enabled via a prior call to settimeout() (or implicitly through setdefaulttimeout()). The accompanying value is a string whose value is currently always "timed out".

Modifié dans la version 3.3: This class was made a subclass of OSError.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: cette classe est devenue un alias de TimeoutError.

Constantes

The AF_* and SOCK_* constants are now AddressFamily and SocketKind IntEnum collections.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

socket.AF_UNIX

socket.AF_INET

socket.AF_INET6

These constants represent the address (and protocol) families, used for the first argument to socket(). If the AF_UNIX constant is not defined then this protocol is unsupported. More constants may be available depending on the system.

socket.AF_UNSPEC

AF_UNSPEC means that getaddrinfo() should return socket addresses for any address family (either IPv4, IPv6, or any other) that can be used.

socket.SOCK_STREAM

socket.SOCK_DGRAM

socket.SOCK_RAW

socket.SOCK_RDM

socket.SOCK_SEQPACKET

These constants represent the socket types, used for the second argument to socket(). More constants may be available depending on the system. (Only SOCK_STREAM and SOCK_DGRAM appear to be generally useful.)

socket.SOCK_CLOEXEC

socket.SOCK_NONBLOCK

These two constants, if defined, can be combined with the socket types and allow you to set some flags atomically (thus avoiding possible race conditions and the need for separate calls).

Voir aussi

Secure File Descriptor Handling [https://udrepper.livejournal.com/20407.html] for a more thorough explanation.

Disponibilité: Linux >= 2.6.27.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

SO_*

socket.SOMAXCONN

MSG_*

SOL_*

SCM_*

IPPROTO_*

IPPORT_*

INADDR_*

IP_*

IPV6_*

EAI_*

AI_*

NI_*

TCP_*

Many constants of these forms, documented in the Unix documentation on sockets and/or the IP protocol, are also defined in the socket module. They are generally used in arguments to the setsockopt() and getsockopt() methods of socket objects. In most cases, only those symbols that are defined in the Unix header files are defined; for a few symbols, default values are provided.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: SO_DOMAIN, SO_PROTOCOL, SO_PEERSEC, SO_PASSSEC, TCP_USER_TIMEOUT, TCP_CONGESTION were added.

Modifié dans la version 3.6.5: Added support for TCP_FASTOPEN, TCP_KEEPCNT on Windows platforms when available.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: TCP_NOTSENT_LOWAT was added.

Added support for TCP_KEEPIDLE, TCP_KEEPINTVL on Windows platforms when available.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: IP_RECVTOS was added. Added TCP_KEEPALIVE. On MacOS this constant can be used in the same way that TCP_KEEPIDLE is used on Linux.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added TCP_CONNECTION_INFO. On MacOS this constant can be used in the same way that TCP_INFO is used on Linux and BSD.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added SO_RTABLE and SO_USER_COOKIE. On OpenBSD and FreeBSD respectively those constants can be used in the same way that SO_MARK is used on Linux. Also added missing TCP socket options from Linux: TCP_MD5SIG, TCP_THIN_LINEAR_TIMEOUTS, TCP_THIN_DUPACK, TCP_REPAIR, TCP_REPAIR_QUEUE, TCP_QUEUE_SEQ, TCP_REPAIR_OPTIONS, TCP_TIMESTAMP, TCP_CC_INFO, TCP_SAVE_SYN, TCP_SAVED_SYN, TCP_REPAIR_WINDOW, TCP_FASTOPEN_CONNECT, TCP_ULP, TCP_MD5SIG_EXT, TCP_FASTOPEN_KEY, TCP_FASTOPEN_NO_COOKIE, TCP_ZEROCOPY_RECEIVE, TCP_INQ, TCP_TX_DELAY. Added IP_PKTINFO, IP_UNBLOCK_SOURCE, IP_BLOCK_SOURCE, IP_ADD_SOURCE_MEMBERSHIP, IP_DROP_SOURCE_MEMBERSHIP.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added SO_BINDTOIFINDEX. On Linux this constant can be used in the same way that SO_BINDTODEVICE is used, but with the index of a network interface instead of its name.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Added missing IP_FREEBIND, IP_RECVERR, IPV6_RECVERR, IP_RECVTTL, and IP_RECVORIGDSTADDR on Linux.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Added support for TCP_QUICKACK on Windows platforms when available.

socket.AF_CAN

socket.PF_CAN

SOL_CAN_*

CAN_*

Many constants of these forms, documented in the Linux documentation, are also defined in the socket module.

Disponibilité: Linux >= 2.6.25, NetBSD >= 8.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: NetBSD support was added.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Restored missing CAN_RAW_ERR_FILTER on Linux.

socket.CAN_BCM

CAN_BCM_*

CAN_BCM, in the CAN protocol family, is the broadcast manager (BCM) protocol. Broadcast manager constants, documented in the Linux documentation, are also defined in the socket module.

Disponibilité: Linux >= 2.6.25.

Note

The CAN_BCM_CAN_FD_FRAME flag is only available on Linux >= 4.8.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

socket.CAN_RAW_FD_FRAMES

Enables CAN FD support in a CAN_RAW socket. This is disabled by default. This allows your application to send both CAN and CAN FD frames; however, you must accept both CAN and CAN FD frames when reading from the socket.

This constant is documented in the Linux documentation.

Disponibilité: Linux >= 3.6.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

socket.CAN_RAW_JOIN_FILTERS

Joins the applied CAN filters such that only CAN frames that match all given CAN filters are passed to user space.

This constant is documented in the Linux documentation.

Disponibilité: Linux >= 4.1.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

socket.CAN_ISOTP

CAN_ISOTP, in the CAN protocol family, is the ISO-TP (ISO 15765-2) protocol. ISO-TP constants, documented in the Linux documentation.

Disponibilité: Linux >= 2.6.25.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

socket.CAN_J1939

CAN_J1939, in the CAN protocol family, is the SAE J1939 protocol. J1939 constants, documented in the Linux documentation.

Disponibilité: Linux >= 5.4.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

socket.AF_DIVERT

socket.PF_DIVERT

These two constants, documented in the FreeBSD divert(4) manual page, are also defined in the socket module.

Disponibilité: FreeBSD >= 14.0.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

socket.AF_PACKET

socket.PF_PACKET

PACKET_*

Many constants of these forms, documented in the Linux documentation, are also defined in the socket module.

Disponibilité: Linux >= 2.2.

socket.ETH_P_ALL

ETH_P_ALL can be used in the socket constructor as proto for the AF_PACKET family in order to capture every packet, regardless of protocol.

For more information, see the packet(7) [https://manpages.debian.org/packet(7)] manpage.

Disponibilité: Linux.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

socket.AF_RDS

socket.PF_RDS

socket.SOL_RDS

RDS_*

Many constants of these forms, documented in the Linux documentation, are also defined in the socket module.

Disponibilité: Linux >= 2.6.30.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

socket.SIO_RCVALL

socket.SIO_KEEPALIVE_VALS

socket.SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH

RCVALL_*

Constants for Windows' WSAIoctl(). The constants are used as arguments to the ioctl() method of socket objects.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH was added.

TIPC_*

TIPC related constants, matching the ones exported by the C socket API. See the TIPC documentation for more information.

socket.AF_ALG

socket.SOL_ALG

ALG_*

Constants for Linux Kernel cryptography.

Disponibilité: Linux >= 2.6.38.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

socket.AF_VSOCK

socket.IOCTL_VM_SOCKETS_GET_LOCAL_CID

VMADDR*

SO_VM*

Constants for Linux host/guest communication.

Disponibilité: Linux >= 4.8.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

socket.AF_LINK

Disponibilité: BSD, macOS.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

socket.has_ipv6

This constant contains a boolean value which indicates if IPv6 is supported on this platform.

socket.AF_BLUETOOTH

socket.BTPROTO_L2CAP

socket.BTPROTO_RFCOMM

socket.BTPROTO_HCI

socket.BTPROTO_SCO

Integer constants for use with Bluetooth addresses.

socket.BDADDR_ANY

socket.BDADDR_LOCAL

These are string constants containing Bluetooth addresses with special meanings. For example, BDADDR_ANY can be used to indicate any address when specifying the binding socket with BTPROTO_RFCOMM.

socket.BDADDR_BREDR

socket.BDADDR_LE_PUBLIC

socket.BDADDR_LE_RANDOM

These constants describe the Bluetooth address type when binding or connecting a BTPROTO_L2CAP socket.

Disponibilité: Linux, FreeBSD

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

socket.SOL_RFCOMM

socket.SOL_L2CAP

socket.SOL_HCI

socket.SOL_SCO

socket.SOL_BLUETOOTH

Used in the level argument to the setsockopt() and getsockopt() methods of Bluetooth socket objects.

SOL_BLUETOOTH is only available on Linux. Other constants are available if the corresponding protocol is supported.

SO_L2CAP_*

socket.L2CAP_LM

L2CAP_LM_*

SO_RFCOMM_*

RFCOMM_LM_*

SO_SCO_*

SO_BTH_*

BT_*

Used in the option name and value argument to the setsockopt() and getsockopt() methods of Bluetooth socket objects.

BT_* and L2CAP_LM are only available on Linux. SO_BTH_* are only available on Windows. Other constants may be available on Linux and various BSD platforms.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

socket.HCI_FILTER

socket.HCI_TIME_STAMP

socket.HCI_DATA_DIR

socket.SO_HCI_EVT_FILTER

socket.SO_HCI_PKT_FILTER

Option names for use with BTPROTO_HCI. Availability and format of the option values depend on platform.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Added SO_HCI_EVT_FILTER and SO_HCI_PKT_FILTER on NetBSD and DragonFly BSD. Added HCI_DATA_DIR on FreeBSD, NetBSD and DragonFly BSD.

socket.HCI_DEV_NONE

The device_id value used to create an HCI socket that isn't specific to a single Bluetooth adapter.

Disponibilité: Linux

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

socket.HCI_CHANNEL_RAW

socket.HCI_CHANNEL_USER

socket.HCI_CHANNEL_MONITOR

socket.HCI_CHANNEL_CONTROL

socket.HCI_CHANNEL_LOGGING

Possible values for channel field in the BTPROTO_HCI address.

Disponibilité: Linux

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

socket.AF_QIPCRTR

Constant for Qualcomm's IPC router protocol, used to communicate with service providing remote processors.

Disponibilité: Linux >= 4.7.

socket.SCM_CREDS2

socket.LOCAL_CREDS

socket.LOCAL_CREDS_PERSISTENT

LOCAL_CREDS and LOCAL_CREDS_PERSISTENT can be used with SOCK_DGRAM, SOCK_STREAM sockets, equivalent to Linux/DragonFlyBSD SO_PASSCRED, while LOCAL_CREDS sends the credentials at first read, LOCAL_CREDS_PERSISTENT sends for each read, SCM_CREDS2 must be then used for the latter for the message type.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

Disponibilité: FreeBSD.

socket.SO_INCOMING_CPU

Constant to optimize CPU locality, to be used in conjunction with SO_REUSEPORT.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

Disponibilité: Linux >= 3.9

socket.SO_REUSEPORT_LB

Constant to enable duplicate address and port bindings with load balancing.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Disponibilité: FreeBSD >= 12.0

socket.AF_HYPERV

socket.HV_PROTOCOL_RAW

socket.HVSOCKET_CONNECT_TIMEOUT

socket.HVSOCKET_CONNECT_TIMEOUT_MAX

socket.HVSOCKET_CONNECTED_SUSPEND

socket.HVSOCKET_ADDRESS_FLAG_PASSTHRU

socket.HV_GUID_ZERO

socket.HV_GUID_WILDCARD

socket.HV_GUID_BROADCAST

socket.HV_GUID_CHILDREN

socket.HV_GUID_LOOPBACK

socket.HV_GUID_PARENT

Constants for Windows Hyper-V sockets for host/guest communications.

Disponibilité: Windows.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

socket.ETHERTYPE_ARP

socket.ETHERTYPE_IP

socket.ETHERTYPE_IPV6

socket.ETHERTYPE_VLAN

IEEE 802.3 protocol number [https://www.iana.org/assignments/ieee-802-numbers/ieee-802-numbers.txt]. constants.

Disponibilité: Linux, FreeBSD, macOS.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

socket.SHUT_RD

socket.SHUT_WR

socket.SHUT_RDWR

These constants are used by the shutdown() method of socket objects.

Disponibilité: not WASI.

Fonctions

Creating sockets

The following functions all create socket objects.

class socket.socket(family=AF_INET, type=SOCK_STREAM, proto=0, fileno=None)

Create a new socket using the given address family, socket type and protocol number. The address family should be AF_INET (the default), AF_INET6, AF_UNIX, AF_CAN, AF_PACKET, or AF_RDS. The socket type should be SOCK_STREAM (the default), SOCK_DGRAM, SOCK_RAW or perhaps one of the other SOCK_ constants. The protocol number is usually zero and may be omitted or in the case where the address family is AF_CAN the protocol should be one of CAN_RAW, CAN_BCM, CAN_ISOTP or CAN_J1939.

If fileno is specified, the values for family, type, and proto are auto-detected from the specified file descriptor. Auto-detection can be overruled by calling the function with explicit family, type, or proto arguments. This only affects how Python represents e.g. the return value of socket.getpeername() but not the actual OS resource. Unlike socket.fromfd(), fileno will return the same socket and not a duplicate. This may help close a detached socket using socket.close().

Il n'est pas possible d'hériter du connecteur nouvellement créé.

Raises an auditing event socket.__new__ with arguments self, family, type, protocol.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: The AF_CAN family was added. The AF_RDS family was added.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: The CAN_BCM protocol was added.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: The returned socket is now non-inheritable.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: The CAN_ISOTP protocol was added.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: When SOCK_NONBLOCK or SOCK_CLOEXEC bit flags are applied to type they are cleared, and socket.type will not reflect them. They are still passed to the underlying system socket() call. Therefore,

sock = socket.socket(
    socket.AF_INET,
    socket.SOCK_STREAM | socket.SOCK_NONBLOCK)

will still create a non-blocking socket on OSes that support SOCK_NONBLOCK, but sock.type will be set to socket.SOCK_STREAM.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: The CAN_J1939 protocol was added.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: The IPPROTO_MPTCP protocol was added.

socket.socketpair([family[, type[, proto]]])

Build a pair of connected socket objects using the given address family, socket type, and protocol number. Address family, socket type, and protocol number are as for the socket() function. The default family is AF_UNIX if defined on the platform; otherwise, the default is AF_INET.

The newly created sockets are non-inheritable.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: The returned socket objects now support the whole socket API, rather than a subset.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: The returned sockets are now non-inheritable.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Windows support added.

socket.create_connection(address, timeout=GLOBAL_DEFAULT, source_address=None, *, all_errors=False)

Connect to a TCP service listening on the internet address (a 2-tuple (host, port)), and return the socket object. This is a higher-level function than socket.connect(): if host is a non-numeric hostname, it will try to resolve it for both AF_INET and AF_INET6, and then try to connect to all possible addresses in turn until a connection succeeds. This makes it easy to write clients that are compatible to both IPv4 and IPv6.

Passing the optional timeout parameter will set the timeout on the socket instance before attempting to connect. If no timeout is supplied, the global default timeout setting returned by getdefaulttimeout() is used.

If supplied, source_address must be a 2-tuple (host, port) for the socket to bind to as its source address before connecting. If host or port are '' or 0 respectively the OS default behavior will be used.

When a connection cannot be created, an exception is raised. By default, it is the exception from the last address in the list. If all_errors is True, it is an ExceptionGroup containing the errors of all attempts.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Le paramètre source_address a été ajouté.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: all_errors was added.

socket.create_server(address, *, family=AF_INET, backlog=None, reuse_port=False, dualstack_ipv6=False)

Convenience function which creates a TCP socket bound to address (a 2-tuple (host, port)) and returns the socket object.

family should be either AF_INET or AF_INET6. backlog is the queue size passed to socket.listen(); if not specified , a default reasonable value is chosen. reuse_port dictates whether to set the SO_REUSEPORT socket option.

If dualstack_ipv6 is true, family is AF_INET6 and the platform supports it the socket will be able to accept both IPv4 and IPv6 connections, else it will raise ValueError. Most POSIX platforms and Windows are supposed to support this functionality. When this functionality is enabled the address returned by socket.getpeername() when an IPv4 connection occurs will be an IPv6 address represented as an IPv4-mapped IPv6 address. If dualstack_ipv6 is false it will explicitly disable this functionality on platforms that enable it by default (e.g. Linux). This parameter can be used in conjunction with has_dualstack_ipv6():

import socket

addr = ("", 8080)  # all interfaces, port 8080
if socket.has_dualstack_ipv6():
    s = socket.create_server(addr, family=socket.AF_INET6, dualstack_ipv6=True)
else:
    s = socket.create_server(addr)

Note

On POSIX platforms the SO_REUSEADDR socket option is set in order to immediately reuse previous sockets which were bound on the same address and remained in TIME_WAIT state.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

socket.has_dualstack_ipv6()

Return True if the platform supports creating a TCP socket which can handle both IPv4 and IPv6 connections.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

socket.fromfd(fd, family, type, proto=0)

Duplicate the file descriptor fd (an integer as returned by a file object's fileno() method) and build a socket object from the result. Address family, socket type and protocol number are as for the socket() function. The file descriptor should refer to a socket, but this is not checked --- subsequent operations on the object may fail if the file descriptor is invalid. This function is rarely needed, but can be used to get or set socket options on a socket passed to a program as standard input or output (such as a server started by the Unix inet daemon). The socket is assumed to be in blocking mode.

Il n'est pas possible d'hériter du connecteur nouvellement créé.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: The returned socket is now non-inheritable.

socket.fromshare(data)

Instantiate a socket from data obtained from the socket.share() method. The socket is assumed to be in blocking mode.

Disponibilité: Windows.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

socket.SocketType

This is a Python type object that represents the socket object type. It is the same as type(socket(...)).

Autres fonctions

The socket module also offers various network-related services:

socket.close(fd)

Close a socket file descriptor. This is like os.close(), but for sockets. On some platforms (most notably Windows) os.close() does not work for socket file descriptors.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

socket.getaddrinfo(host, port, family=AF_UNSPEC, type=0, proto=0, flags=0)

This function wraps the C function getaddrinfo of the underlying system.

Translate the host/port argument into a sequence of 5-tuples that contain all the necessary arguments for creating a socket connected to that service. host is a domain name, a string representation of an IPv4/v6 address or None. port is a string service name such as 'http', a numeric port number or None. By passing None as the value of host and port, you can pass NULL to the underlying C API.

The family, type and proto arguments can be optionally specified in order to provide options and limit the list of addresses returned. Pass their default values (AF_UNSPEC, 0, and 0, respectively) to not limit the results. See the note below for details.

The flags argument can be one or several of the AI_* constants, and will influence how results are computed and returned. For example, AI_NUMERICHOST will disable domain name resolution and will raise an error if host is a domain name.

The function returns a list of 5-tuples with the following structure:

(family, type, proto, canonname, sockaddr)

In these tuples, family, type, proto are all integers and are meant to be passed to the socket() function. canonname will be a string representing the canonical name of the host if AI_CANONNAME is part of the flags argument; else canonname will be empty. sockaddr is a tuple describing a socket address, whose format depends on the returned family (a (address, port) 2-tuple for AF_INET, a (address, port, flowinfo, scope_id) 4-tuple for AF_INET6), and is meant to be passed to the socket.connect() method.

Note

If you intend to use results from getaddrinfo() to create a socket (rather than, for example, retrieve canonname), consider limiting the results by type (e.g. SOCK_STREAM or SOCK_DGRAM) and/or proto (e.g. IPPROTO_TCP or IPPROTO_UDP) that your application can handle.

The behavior with default values of family, type, proto and flags is system-specific.

Many systems (for example, most Linux configurations) will return a sorted list of all matching addresses. These addresses should generally be tried in order until a connection succeeds (possibly tried in parallel, for example, using a Happy Eyeballs [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Happy_Eyeballs] algorithm). In these cases, limiting the type and/or proto can help eliminate unsuccessful or unusable connection attempts.

Some systems will, however, only return a single address. (For example, this was reported on Solaris and AIX configurations.) On these systems, limiting the type and/or proto helps ensure that this address is usable.

Raises an auditing event socket.getaddrinfo with arguments host, port, family, type, protocol.

The following example fetches address information for a hypothetical TCP connection to example.org on port 80 (results may differ on your system if IPv6 isn't enabled):

>>> socket.getaddrinfo("example.org", 80, proto=socket.IPPROTO_TCP)
[(socket.AF_INET6, socket.SOCK_STREAM,
 6, '', ('2606:2800:220:1:248:1893:25c8:1946', 80, 0, 0)),
 (socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM,
 6, '', ('93.184.216.34', 80))]

Modifié dans la version 3.2: parameters can now be passed using keyword arguments.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: for IPv6 multicast addresses, string representing an address will not contain %scope_id part.

socket.getfqdn([name])

Return a fully qualified domain name for name. If name is omitted or empty, it is interpreted as the local host. To find the fully qualified name, the hostname returned by gethostbyaddr() is checked, followed by aliases for the host, if available. The first name which includes a period is selected. In case no fully qualified domain name is available and name was provided, it is returned unchanged. If name was empty or equal to '0.0.0.0', the hostname from gethostname() is returned.

socket.gethostbyname(hostname)

Translate a host name to IPv4 address format. The IPv4 address is returned as a string, such as '100.50.200.5'. If the host name is an IPv4 address itself it is returned unchanged. See gethostbyname_ex() for a more complete interface. gethostbyname() does not support IPv6 name resolution, and getaddrinfo() should be used instead for IPv4/v6 dual stack support.

Raises an auditing event socket.gethostbyname with argument hostname.

Disponibilité: not WASI.

socket.gethostbyname_ex(hostname)

Translate a host name to IPv4 address format, extended interface. Return a 3-tuple (hostname, aliaslist, ipaddrlist) where hostname is the host's primary host name, aliaslist is a (possibly empty) list of alternative host names for the same address, and ipaddrlist is a list of IPv4 addresses for the same interface on the same host (often but not always a single address). gethostbyname_ex() does not support IPv6 name resolution, and getaddrinfo() should be used instead for IPv4/v6 dual stack support.

Raises an auditing event socket.gethostbyname with argument hostname.

Disponibilité: not WASI.

socket.gethostname()

Return a string containing the hostname of the machine where the Python interpreter is currently executing.

Raises an auditing event socket.gethostname with no arguments.

Note: gethostname() doesn't always return the fully qualified domain name; use getfqdn() for that.

Disponibilité: not WASI.

socket.gethostbyaddr(ip_address)

Return a 3-tuple (hostname, aliaslist, ipaddrlist) where hostname is the primary host name responding to the given ip_address, aliaslist is a (possibly empty) list of alternative host names for the same address, and ipaddrlist is a list of IPv4/v6 addresses for the same interface on the same host (most likely containing only a single address). To find the fully qualified domain name, use the function getfqdn(). gethostbyaddr() supports both IPv4 and IPv6.

Raises an auditing event socket.gethostbyaddr with argument ip_address.

Disponibilité: not WASI.

socket.getnameinfo(sockaddr, flags)

Translate a socket address sockaddr into a 2-tuple (host, port). Depending on the settings of flags, the result can contain a fully qualified domain name or numeric address representation in host. Similarly, port can contain a string port name or a numeric port number.

For IPv6 addresses, %scope_id is appended to the host part if sockaddr contains meaningful scope_id. Usually this happens for multicast addresses.

For more information about flags you can consult getnameinfo(3) [https://manpages.debian.org/getnameinfo(3)].

Raises an auditing event socket.getnameinfo with argument sockaddr.

Disponibilité: not WASI.

socket.getprotobyname(protocolname)

Translate an internet protocol name (for example, 'icmp') to a constant suitable for passing as the (optional) third argument to the socket() function. This is usually only needed for sockets opened in "raw" mode (SOCK_RAW); for the normal socket modes, the correct protocol is chosen automatically if the protocol is omitted or zero.

Disponibilité: not WASI.

socket.getservbyname(servicename[, protocolname])

Translate an internet service name and protocol name to a port number for that service. The optional protocol name, if given, should be 'tcp' or 'udp', otherwise any protocol will match.

Raises an auditing event socket.getservbyname with arguments servicename, protocolname.

Disponibilité: not WASI.

socket.getservbyport(port[, protocolname])

Translate an internet port number and protocol name to a service name for that service. The optional protocol name, if given, should be 'tcp' or 'udp', otherwise any protocol will match.

Raises an auditing event socket.getservbyport with arguments port, protocolname.

Disponibilité: not WASI.

socket.ntohl(x)

Convert 32-bit positive integers from network to host byte order. On machines where the host byte order is the same as network byte order, this is a no-op; otherwise, it performs a 4-byte swap operation.

socket.ntohs(x)

Convert 16-bit positive integers from network to host byte order. On machines where the host byte order is the same as network byte order, this is a no-op; otherwise, it performs a 2-byte swap operation.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Raises OverflowError if x does not fit in a 16-bit unsigned integer.

socket.htonl(x)

Convert 32-bit positive integers from host to network byte order. On machines where the host byte order is the same as network byte order, this is a no-op; otherwise, it performs a 4-byte swap operation.

socket.htons(x)

Convert 16-bit positive integers from host to network byte order. On machines where the host byte order is the same as network byte order, this is a no-op; otherwise, it performs a 2-byte swap operation.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Raises OverflowError if x does not fit in a 16-bit unsigned integer.

socket.inet_aton(ip_string)

Convert an IPv4 address from dotted-quad string format (for example, '123.45.67.89') to 32-bit packed binary format, as a bytes object four characters in length. This is useful when conversing with a program that uses the standard C library and needs objects of type in_addr, which is the C type for the 32-bit packed binary this function returns.

inet_aton() also accepts strings with less than three dots; see the Unix manual page inet(3) [https://manpages.debian.org/inet(3)] for details.

If the IPv4 address string passed to this function is invalid, OSError will be raised. Note that exactly what is valid depends on the underlying C implementation of inet_aton().

inet_aton() does not support IPv6, and inet_pton() should be used instead for IPv4/v6 dual stack support.

socket.inet_ntoa(packed_ip)

Convert a 32-bit packed IPv4 address (a bytes-like object four bytes in length) to its standard dotted-quad string representation (for example, '123.45.67.89'). This is useful when conversing with a program that uses the standard C library and needs objects of type in_addr, which is the C type for the 32-bit packed binary data this function takes as an argument.

If the byte sequence passed to this function is not exactly 4 bytes in length, OSError will be raised. inet_ntoa() does not support IPv6, and inet_ntop() should be used instead for IPv4/v6 dual stack support.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: N'importe quel bytes-like object est maintenant accepté.

socket.inet_pton(address_family, ip_string)

Convert an IP address from its family-specific string format to a packed, binary format. inet_pton() is useful when a library or network protocol calls for an object of type in_addr (similar to inet_aton()) or in6_addr.

Supported values for address_family are currently AF_INET and AF_INET6. If the IP address string ip_string is invalid, OSError will be raised. Note that exactly what is valid depends on both the value of address_family and the underlying implementation of inet_pton().

Disponibilité: Unix, Windows.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Ajout de la gestion de Windows.

socket.inet_ntop(address_family, packed_ip)

Convert a packed IP address (a bytes-like object of some number of bytes) to its standard, family-specific string representation (for example, '7.10.0.5' or '5aef:2b::8'). inet_ntop() is useful when a library or network protocol returns an object of type in_addr (similar to inet_ntoa()) or in6_addr.

Supported values for address_family are currently AF_INET and AF_INET6. If the bytes object packed_ip is not the correct length for the specified address family, ValueError will be raised. OSError is raised for errors from the call to inet_ntop().

Disponibilité: Unix, Windows.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Ajout de la gestion de Windows.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: N'importe quel bytes-like object est maintenant accepté.

socket.CMSG_LEN(length)

Return the total length, without trailing padding, of an ancillary data item with associated data of the given length. This value can often be used as the buffer size for recvmsg() to receive a single item of ancillary data, but RFC 3542 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3542.html] requires portable applications to use CMSG_SPACE() and thus include space for padding, even when the item will be the last in the buffer. Raises OverflowError if length is outside the permissible range of values.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

Most Unix platforms.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

socket.CMSG_SPACE(length)

Return the buffer size needed for recvmsg() to receive an ancillary data item with associated data of the given length, along with any trailing padding. The buffer space needed to receive multiple items is the sum of the CMSG_SPACE() values for their associated data lengths. Raises OverflowError if length is outside the permissible range of values.

Note that some systems might support ancillary data without providing this function. Also note that setting the buffer size using the results of this function may not precisely limit the amount of ancillary data that can be received, since additional data may be able to fit into the padding area.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

most Unix platforms.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

socket.getdefaulttimeout()

Return the default timeout in seconds (float) for new socket objects. A value of None indicates that new socket objects have no timeout. When the socket module is first imported, the default is None.

socket.setdefaulttimeout(timeout)

Set the default timeout in seconds (float) for new socket objects. When the socket module is first imported, the default is None. See settimeout() for possible values and their respective meanings.

socket.sethostname(name)

Set the machine's hostname to name. This will raise an OSError if you don't have enough rights.

Raises an auditing event socket.sethostname with argument name.

Disponibilité: Unix, not Android.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

socket.if_nameindex()

Return a list of network interface information (index int, name string) tuples. OSError if the system call fails.

Disponibilité: Unix, Windows, not WASI.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Windows support was added.

Note

On Windows network interfaces have different names in different contexts (all names are examples):

UUID: {FB605B73-AAC2-49A6-9A2F-25416AEA0573}

name: ethernet_32770

friendly name: vEthernet (nat)

description: Hyper-V Virtual Ethernet Adapter

This function returns names of the second form from the list, ethernet_32770 in this example case.

socket.if_nametoindex(if_name)

Return a network interface index number corresponding to an interface name. OSError if no interface with the given name exists.

Disponibilité: Unix, Windows, not WASI.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Windows support was added.

Voir aussi

"Interface name" is a name as documented in if_nameindex().

socket.if_indextoname(if_index)

Return a network interface name corresponding to an interface index number. OSError if no interface with the given index exists.

Disponibilité: Unix, Windows, not WASI.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Windows support was added.

Voir aussi

"Interface name" is a name as documented in if_nameindex().

socket.send_fds(sock, buffers, fds[, flags[, address]])

Send the list of file descriptors fds over an AF_UNIX socket sock. The fds parameter is a sequence of file descriptors. Consult sendmsg() for the documentation of these parameters.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

Unix platforms supporting sendmsg() and SCM_RIGHTS mechanism.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

socket.recv_fds(sock, bufsize, maxfds[, flags])

Receive up to maxfds file descriptors from an AF_UNIX socket sock. Return (msg, list(fds), flags, addr). Consult recvmsg() for the documentation of these parameters.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

Unix platforms supporting recvmsg() and SCM_RIGHTS mechanism.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

Note

Any truncated integers at the end of the list of file descriptors.

Socket Objects

Socket objects have the following methods. Except for makefile(), these correspond to Unix system calls applicable to sockets.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Support for the context manager protocol was added. Exiting the context manager is equivalent to calling close().

socket.accept()

Accept a connection. The socket must be bound to an address and listening for connections. The return value is a pair (conn, address) where conn is a new socket object usable to send and receive data on the connection, and address is the address bound to the socket on the other end of the connection.

Il n'est pas possible d'hériter du connecteur nouvellement créé.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: The socket is now non-inheritable.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Si l'appel système est interrompu et que le gestionnaire de signal ne lève aucune exception, la fonction réessaye l'appel système au lieu de lever une InterruptedError (voir la PEP 475 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/] à propos du raisonnement).

socket.bind(address)

Bind the socket to address. The socket must not already be bound. The format of address depends on the address family --- see Socket families.

Raises an auditing event socket.bind with arguments self, address.

Disponibilité: not WASI.

socket.close()

Mark the socket closed. The underlying system resource (e.g. a file descriptor) is also closed when all file objects from makefile() are closed. Once that happens, all future operations on the socket object will fail. The remote end will receive no more data (after queued data is flushed).

Sockets are automatically closed when they are garbage-collected, but it is recommended to close() them explicitly, or to use a with statement around them.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: OSError is now raised if an error occurs when the underlying close() call is made.

Note

close() releases the resource associated with a connection but does not necessarily close the connection immediately. If you want to close the connection in a timely fashion, call shutdown() before close().

socket.connect(address)

Connect to a remote socket at address. The format of address depends on the address family --- see Socket families.

If the connection is interrupted by a signal, the method waits until the connection completes, or raises a TimeoutError on timeout, if the signal handler doesn't raise an exception and the socket is blocking or has a timeout. For non-blocking sockets, the method raises an InterruptedError exception if the connection is interrupted by a signal (or the exception raised by the signal handler).

Raises an auditing event socket.connect with arguments self, address.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: The method now waits until the connection completes instead of raising an InterruptedError exception if the connection is interrupted by a signal, the signal handler doesn't raise an exception and the socket is blocking or has a timeout (see the PEP 475 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/] for the rationale).

Disponibilité: not WASI.

socket.connect_ex(address)

Like connect(address), but return an error indicator instead of raising an exception for errors returned by the C-level connect() call (other problems, such as "host not found," can still raise exceptions). The error indicator is 0 if the operation succeeded, otherwise the value of the errno variable. This is useful to support, for example, asynchronous connects.

Raises an auditing event socket.connect with arguments self, address.

Disponibilité: not WASI.

socket.detach()

Put the socket object into closed state without actually closing the underlying file descriptor. The file descriptor is returned, and can be reused for other purposes.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

socket.dup()

Duplicate the socket.

Il n'est pas possible d'hériter du connecteur nouvellement créé.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: The socket is now non-inheritable.

Disponibilité: not WASI.

socket.fileno()

Return the socket's file descriptor (a small integer), or -1 on failure. This is useful with select.select().

Under Windows the small integer returned by this method cannot be used where a file descriptor can be used (such as os.fdopen()). Unix does not have this limitation.

socket.get_inheritable()

Get the inheritable flag of the socket's file descriptor or socket's handle: True if the socket can be inherited in child processes, False if it cannot.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

socket.getpeername()

Return the remote address to which the socket is connected. This is useful to find out the port number of a remote IPv4/v6 socket, for instance. The format of the address returned depends on the address family --- see Socket families. On some systems this function is not supported.

socket.getsockname()

Return the socket's own address. This is useful to find out the port number of an IPv4/v6 socket, for instance. The format of the address returned depends on the address family --- see Socket families.

socket.getsockopt(level, optname[, buflen])

Return the value of the given socket option (see the Unix man page getsockopt(2) [https://manpages.debian.org/getsockopt(2)]). The needed symbolic constants (SO_* etc.) are defined in this module. If buflen is absent, an integer option is assumed and its integer value is returned by the function. If buflen is present, it specifies the maximum length of the buffer used to receive the option in, and this buffer is returned as a bytes object. It is up to the caller to decode the contents of the buffer (see the optional built-in module struct for a way to decode C structures encoded as byte strings).

Disponibilité: not WASI.

socket.getblocking()

Return True if socket is in blocking mode, False if in non-blocking.

This is equivalent to checking socket.gettimeout() != 0.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

socket.gettimeout()

Return the timeout in seconds (float) associated with socket operations, or None if no timeout is set. This reflects the last call to setblocking() or settimeout().

socket.ioctl(control, option)

The ioctl() method is a limited interface to the WSAIoctl system interface. Please refer to the Win32 documentation [https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms741621%28VS.85%29.aspx] for more information.

On other platforms, the generic fcntl.fcntl() and fcntl.ioctl() functions may be used; they accept a socket object as their first argument.

Currently only the following control codes are supported: SIO_RCVALL, SIO_KEEPALIVE_VALS, and SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH.

Disponibilité: Windows

Modifié dans la version 3.6: SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH was added.

socket.listen([backlog])

Enable a server to accept connections. If backlog is specified, it must be at least 0 (if it is lower, it is set to 0); it specifies the number of unaccepted connections that the system will allow before refusing new connections. If not specified, a default reasonable value is chosen.

Disponibilité: not WASI.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: The backlog parameter is now optional.

socket.makefile(mode='r', buffering=None, *, encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None)

Return a file object associated with the socket. The exact returned type depends on the arguments given to makefile(). These arguments are interpreted the same way as by the built-in open() function, except the only supported mode values are 'r' (default), 'w', 'b', or a combination of those.

The socket must be in blocking mode; it can have a timeout, but the file object's internal buffer may end up in an inconsistent state if a timeout occurs.

Closing the file object returned by makefile() won't close the original socket unless all other file objects have been closed and socket.close() has been called on the socket object.

Note

On Windows, the file-like object created by makefile() cannot be used where a file object with a file descriptor is expected, such as the stream arguments of subprocess.Popen().

socket.recv(bufsize[, flags])

Receive data from the socket. The return value is a bytes object representing the data received. The maximum amount of data to be received at once is specified by bufsize. A returned empty bytes object indicates that the client has disconnected. See the Unix manual page recv(2) [https://manpages.debian.org/recv(2)] for the meaning of the optional argument flags; it defaults to zero.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Si l'appel système est interrompu et que le gestionnaire de signal ne lève aucune exception, la fonction réessaye l'appel système au lieu de lever une InterruptedError (voir la PEP 475 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/] à propos du raisonnement).

socket.recvfrom(bufsize[, flags])

Receive data from the socket. The return value is a pair (bytes, address) where bytes is a bytes object representing the data received and address is the address of the socket sending the data. See the Unix manual page recv(2) [https://manpages.debian.org/recv(2)] for the meaning of the optional argument flags; it defaults to zero. The format of address depends on the address family --- see Socket families.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Si l'appel système est interrompu et que le gestionnaire de signal ne lève aucune exception, la fonction réessaye l'appel système au lieu de lever une InterruptedError (voir la PEP 475 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/] à propos du raisonnement).

Modifié dans la version 3.7: For multicast IPv6 address, first item of address does not contain %scope_id part anymore. In order to get full IPv6 address use getnameinfo().

socket.recvmsg(bufsize[, ancbufsize[, flags]])

Receive normal data (up to bufsize bytes) and ancillary data from the socket. The ancbufsize argument sets the size in bytes of the internal buffer used to receive the ancillary data; it defaults to 0, meaning that no ancillary data will be received. Appropriate buffer sizes for ancillary data can be calculated using CMSG_SPACE() or CMSG_LEN(), and items which do not fit into the buffer might be truncated or discarded. The flags argument defaults to 0 and has the same meaning as for recv().

The return value is a 4-tuple: (data, ancdata, msg_flags, address). The data item is a bytes object holding the non-ancillary data received. The ancdata item is a list of zero or more tuples (cmsg_level, cmsg_type, cmsg_data) representing the ancillary data (control messages) received: cmsg_level and cmsg_type are integers specifying the protocol level and protocol-specific type respectively, and cmsg_data is a bytes object holding the associated data. The msg_flags item is the bitwise OR of various flags indicating conditions on the received message; see your system documentation for details. If the receiving socket is unconnected, address is the address of the sending socket, if available; otherwise, its value is unspecified.

On some systems, sendmsg() and recvmsg() can be used to pass file descriptors between processes over an AF_UNIX socket. When this facility is used (it is often restricted to SOCK_STREAM sockets), recvmsg() will return, in its ancillary data, items of the form (socket.SOL_SOCKET, socket.SCM_RIGHTS, fds), where fds is a bytes object representing the new file descriptors as a binary array of the native C int type. If recvmsg() raises an exception after the system call returns, it will first attempt to close any file descriptors received via this mechanism.

Some systems do not indicate the truncated length of ancillary data items which have been only partially received. If an item appears to extend beyond the end of the buffer, recvmsg() will issue a RuntimeWarning, and will return the part of it which is inside the buffer provided it has not been truncated before the start of its associated data.

On systems which support the SCM_RIGHTS mechanism, the following function will receive up to maxfds file descriptors, returning the message data and a list containing the descriptors (while ignoring unexpected conditions such as unrelated control messages being received). See also sendmsg().

import socket, array

def recv_fds(sock, msglen, maxfds):
    fds = array.array("i")   # Array of ints
    msg, ancdata, flags, addr = sock.recvmsg(msglen, socket.CMSG_LEN(maxfds * fds.itemsize))
    for cmsg_level, cmsg_type, cmsg_data in ancdata:
        if cmsg_level == socket.SOL_SOCKET and cmsg_type == socket.SCM_RIGHTS:
            # Append data, ignoring any truncated integers at the end.
            fds.frombytes(cmsg_data[:len(cmsg_data) - (len(cmsg_data) % fds.itemsize)])
    return msg, list(fds)

Disponibilité: Unix.

Most Unix platforms.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Si l'appel système est interrompu et que le gestionnaire de signal ne lève aucune exception, la fonction réessaye l'appel système au lieu de lever une InterruptedError (voir la PEP 475 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/] à propos du raisonnement).

socket.recvmsg_into(buffers[, ancbufsize[, flags]])

Receive normal data and ancillary data from the socket, behaving as recvmsg() would, but scatter the non-ancillary data into a series of buffers instead of returning a new bytes object. The buffers argument must be an iterable of objects that export writable buffers (e.g. bytearray objects); these will be filled with successive chunks of the non-ancillary data until it has all been written or there are no more buffers. The operating system may set a limit (sysconf() value SC_IOV_MAX) on the number of buffers that can be used. The ancbufsize and flags arguments have the same meaning as for recvmsg().

The return value is a 4-tuple: (nbytes, ancdata, msg_flags, address), where nbytes is the total number of bytes of non-ancillary data written into the buffers, and ancdata, msg_flags and address are the same as for recvmsg().

Exemple :

>>> import socket
>>> s1, s2 = socket.socketpair()
>>> b1 = bytearray(b'----')
>>> b2 = bytearray(b'0123456789')
>>> b3 = bytearray(b'--------------')
>>> s1.send(b'Mary had a little lamb')
22
>>> s2.recvmsg_into([b1, memoryview(b2)[2:9], b3])
(22, [], 0, None)
>>> [b1, b2, b3]
[bytearray(b'Mary'), bytearray(b'01 had a 9'), bytearray(b'little lamb---')]

Disponibilité: Unix.

Most Unix platforms.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

socket.recvfrom_into(buffer[, nbytes[, flags]])

Receive data from the socket, writing it into buffer instead of creating a new bytestring. The return value is a pair (nbytes, address) where nbytes is the number of bytes received and address is the address of the socket sending the data. See the Unix manual page recv(2) [https://manpages.debian.org/recv(2)] for the meaning of the optional argument flags; it defaults to zero. The format of address depends on the address family --- see Socket families.

socket.recv_into(buffer[, nbytes[, flags]])

Receive up to nbytes bytes from the socket, storing the data into a buffer rather than creating a new bytestring. If nbytes is not specified (or 0), receive up to the size available in the given buffer. Returns the number of bytes received. See the Unix manual page recv(2) [https://manpages.debian.org/recv(2)] for the meaning of the optional argument flags; it defaults to zero.

socket.send(bytes[, flags])

Send data to the socket. The socket must be connected to a remote socket. The optional flags argument has the same meaning as for recv(). Returns the number of bytes sent. Applications are responsible for checking that all data has been sent; if only some of the data was transmitted, the application needs to attempt delivery of the remaining data. For further information on this topic, consult the Guide pratique : programmation avec les sockets.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Si l'appel système est interrompu et que le gestionnaire de signal ne lève aucune exception, la fonction réessaye l'appel système au lieu de lever une InterruptedError (voir la PEP 475 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/] à propos du raisonnement).

socket.sendall(bytes[, flags])

Send data to the socket. The socket must be connected to a remote socket. The optional flags argument has the same meaning as for recv(). Unlike send(), this method continues to send data from bytes until either all data has been sent or an error occurs. None is returned on success. On error, an exception is raised, and there is no way to determine how much data, if any, was successfully sent.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: The socket timeout is no longer reset each time data is sent successfully. The socket timeout is now the maximum total duration to send all data.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Si l'appel système est interrompu et que le gestionnaire de signal ne lève aucune exception, la fonction réessaye l'appel système au lieu de lever une InterruptedError (voir la PEP 475 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/] à propos du raisonnement).

socket.sendto(bytes, address)

socket.sendto(bytes, flags, address)

Send data to the socket. The socket should not be connected to a remote socket, since the destination socket is specified by address. The optional flags argument has the same meaning as for recv(). Return the number of bytes sent. The format of address depends on the address family --- see Socket families.

Raises an auditing event socket.sendto with arguments self, address.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Si l'appel système est interrompu et que le gestionnaire de signal ne lève aucune exception, la fonction réessaye l'appel système au lieu de lever une InterruptedError (voir la PEP 475 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/] à propos du raisonnement).

socket.sendmsg(buffers[, ancdata[, flags[, address]]])

Send normal and ancillary data to the socket, gathering the non-ancillary data from a series of buffers and concatenating it into a single message. The buffers argument specifies the non-ancillary data as an iterable of bytes-like objects (e.g. bytes objects); the operating system may set a limit (sysconf() value SC_IOV_MAX) on the number of buffers that can be used. The ancdata argument specifies the ancillary data (control messages) as an iterable of zero or more tuples (cmsg_level, cmsg_type, cmsg_data), where cmsg_level and cmsg_type are integers specifying the protocol level and protocol-specific type respectively, and cmsg_data is a bytes-like object holding the associated data. Note that some systems (in particular, systems without CMSG_SPACE()) might support sending only one control message per call. The flags argument defaults to 0 and has the same meaning as for send(). If address is supplied and not None, it sets a destination address for the message. The return value is the number of bytes of non-ancillary data sent.

The following function sends the list of file descriptors fds over an AF_UNIX socket, on systems which support the SCM_RIGHTS mechanism. See also recvmsg().

import socket, array

def send_fds(sock, msg, fds):
    return sock.sendmsg([msg], [(socket.SOL_SOCKET, socket.SCM_RIGHTS, array.array("i", fds))])

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

Most Unix platforms.

Raises an auditing event socket.sendmsg with arguments self, address.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Si l'appel système est interrompu et que le gestionnaire de signal ne lève aucune exception, la fonction réessaye l'appel système au lieu de lever une InterruptedError (voir la PEP 475 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/] à propos du raisonnement).

socket.sendmsg_afalg([msg, ]*, op[, iv[, assoclen[, flags]]])

Specialized version of sendmsg() for AF_ALG socket. Set mode, IV, AEAD associated data length and flags for AF_ALG socket.

Disponibilité: Linux >= 2.6.38.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

socket.sendfile(file, offset=0, count=None)

Send a file until EOF is reached by using high-performance os.sendfile and return the total number of bytes which were sent. file must be a regular file object opened in binary mode. If os.sendfile is not available (e.g. Windows) or file is not a regular file send() will be used instead. offset tells from where to start reading the file. If specified, count is the total number of bytes to transmit as opposed to sending the file until EOF is reached. File position is updated on return or also in case of error in which case file.tell() can be used to figure out the number of bytes which were sent. The socket must be of SOCK_STREAM type. Non-blocking sockets are not supported.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

socket.set_inheritable(inheritable)

Set the inheritable flag of the socket's file descriptor or socket's handle.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

socket.setblocking(flag)

Set blocking or non-blocking mode of the socket: if flag is false, the socket is set to non-blocking, else to blocking mode.

This method is a shorthand for certain settimeout() calls:

sock.setblocking(True) is equivalent to sock.settimeout(None)

sock.setblocking(False) is equivalent to sock.settimeout(0.0)

Modifié dans la version 3.7: The method no longer applies SOCK_NONBLOCK flag on socket.type.

socket.settimeout(value)

Set a timeout on blocking socket operations. The value argument can be a nonnegative floating-point number expressing seconds, or None. If a non-zero value is given, subsequent socket operations will raise a timeout exception if the timeout period value has elapsed before the operation has completed. If zero is given, the socket is put in non-blocking mode. If None is given, the socket is put in blocking mode.

For further information, please consult the notes on socket timeouts.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: The method no longer toggles SOCK_NONBLOCK flag on socket.type.

socket.setsockopt(level, optname, value: int | Buffer)

socket.setsockopt(level, optname, None, optlen: int)

Set the value of the given socket option (see the Unix manual page setsockopt(2) [https://manpages.debian.org/setsockopt(2)]). The needed symbolic constants are defined in this module (SO_* etc. <socket-unix-constants>). The value can be an integer, None or a bytes-like object representing a buffer. In the latter case it is up to the caller to ensure that the bytestring contains the proper bits (see the optional built-in module struct for a way to encode C structures as bytestrings). When value is set to None, optlen argument is required. It's equivalent to calling setsockopt() C function with optval=NULL and optlen=optlen.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: N'importe quel bytes-like object est maintenant accepté.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: setsockopt(level, optname, None, optlen: int) form added.

Disponibilité: not WASI.

socket.shutdown(how)

Shut down one or both halves of the connection. If how is SHUT_RD, further receives are disallowed. If how is SHUT_WR, further sends are disallowed. If how is SHUT_RDWR, further sends and receives are disallowed.

Disponibilité: not WASI.

socket.share(process_id)

Duplicate a socket and prepare it for sharing with a target process. The target process must be provided with process_id. The resulting bytes object can then be passed to the target process using some form of interprocess communication and the socket can be recreated there using fromshare(). Once this method has been called, it is safe to close the socket since the operating system has already duplicated it for the target process.

Disponibilité: Windows.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Note that there are no methods read() or write(); use recv() and send() without flags argument instead.

Socket objects also have these (read-only) attributes that correspond to the values given to the socket constructor.

socket.family

The socket family.

socket.type

The socket type.

socket.proto

The socket protocol.

Notes on socket timeouts

A socket object can be in one of three modes: blocking, non-blocking, or timeout. Sockets are by default always created in blocking mode, but this can be changed by calling setdefaulttimeout().

In blocking mode, operations block until complete or the system returns an error (such as connection timed out).

In non-blocking mode, operations fail (with an error that is unfortunately system-dependent) if they cannot be completed immediately: functions from the select module can be used to know when and whether a socket is available for reading or writing.

In timeout mode, operations fail if they cannot be completed within the timeout specified for the socket (they raise a timeout exception) or if the system returns an error.

Note

At the operating system level, sockets in timeout mode are internally set in non-blocking mode. Also, the blocking and timeout modes are shared between file descriptors and socket objects that refer to the same network endpoint. This implementation detail can have visible consequences if e.g. you decide to use the fileno() of a socket.

Timeouts and the connect method

The connect() operation is also subject to the timeout setting, and in general it is recommended to call settimeout() before calling connect() or pass a timeout parameter to create_connection(). However, the system network stack may also return a connection timeout error of its own regardless of any Python socket timeout setting.

Timeouts and the accept method

If getdefaulttimeout() is not None, sockets returned by the accept() method inherit that timeout. Otherwise, the behaviour depends on settings of the listening socket:

if the listening socket is in blocking mode or in timeout mode, the socket returned by accept() is in blocking mode;

if the listening socket is in non-blocking mode, whether the socket returned by accept() is in blocking or non-blocking mode is operating system-dependent. If you want to ensure cross-platform behaviour, it is recommended you manually override this setting.

Exemple

Here are four minimal example programs using the TCP/IP protocol: a server that echoes all data that it receives back (servicing only one client), and a client using it. Note that a server must perform the sequence socket(), bind(), listen(), accept() (possibly repeating the accept() to service more than one client), while a client only needs the sequence socket(), connect(). Also note that the server does not sendall()/recv() on the socket it is listening on but on the new socket returned by accept().

The first two examples support IPv4 only.

# Echo server program
import socket

HOST = ''                 # Symbolic name meaning all available interfaces
PORT = 50007              # Arbitrary non-privileged port
with socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM) as s:
    s.bind((HOST, PORT))
    s.listen(1)
    conn, addr = s.accept()
    with conn:
        print('Connected by', addr)
        while True:
            data = conn.recv(1024)
            if not data: break
            conn.sendall(data)

# Echo client program
import socket

HOST = 'daring.cwi.nl'    # The remote host
PORT = 50007              # The same port as used by the server
with socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM) as s:
    s.connect((HOST, PORT))
    s.sendall(b'Hello, world')
    data = s.recv(1024)
print('Received', repr(data))

The next two examples are identical to the above two, but support both IPv4 and IPv6. The server side will listen to the first address family available (it should listen to both instead). On most of IPv6-ready systems, IPv6 will take precedence and the server may not accept IPv4 traffic. The client side will try to connect to all the addresses returned as a result of the name resolution, and sends traffic to the first one connected successfully.

# Echo server program
import socket
import sys

HOST = None               # Symbolic name meaning all available interfaces
PORT = 50007              # Arbitrary non-privileged port
s = None
for res in socket.getaddrinfo(HOST, PORT, socket.AF_UNSPEC,
                              socket.SOCK_STREAM, 0, socket.AI_PASSIVE):
    af, socktype, proto, canonname, sa = res
    try:
        s = socket.socket(af, socktype, proto)
    except OSError as msg:
        s = None
        continue
    try:
        s.bind(sa)
        s.listen(1)
    except OSError as msg:
        s.close()
        s = None
        continue
    break
if s is None:
    print('could not open socket')
    sys.exit(1)
conn, addr = s.accept()
with conn:
    print('Connected by', addr)
    while True:
        data = conn.recv(1024)
        if not data: break
        conn.send(data)

# Echo client program
import socket
import sys

HOST = 'daring.cwi.nl'    # The remote host
PORT = 50007              # The same port as used by the server
s = None
for res in socket.getaddrinfo(HOST, PORT, socket.AF_UNSPEC, socket.SOCK_STREAM):
    af, socktype, proto, canonname, sa = res
    try:
        s = socket.socket(af, socktype, proto)
    except OSError as msg:
        s = None
        continue
    try:
        s.connect(sa)
    except OSError as msg:
        s.close()
        s = None
        continue
    break
if s is None:
    print('could not open socket')
    sys.exit(1)
with s:
    s.sendall(b'Hello, world')
    data = s.recv(1024)
print('Received', repr(data))

The next example shows how to write a very simple network sniffer with raw sockets on Windows. The example requires administrator privileges to modify the interface:

import socket

# the public network interface
HOST = socket.gethostbyname(socket.gethostname())

# create a raw socket and bind it to the public interface
s = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_RAW, socket.IPPROTO_IP)
s.bind((HOST, 0))

# Include IP headers
s.setsockopt(socket.IPPROTO_IP, socket.IP_HDRINCL, 1)

# receive all packets
s.ioctl(socket.SIO_RCVALL, socket.RCVALL_ON)

# receive a packet
print(s.recvfrom(65565))

# disabled promiscuous mode
s.ioctl(socket.SIO_RCVALL, socket.RCVALL_OFF)

The next example shows how to use the socket interface to communicate to a CAN network using the raw socket protocol. To use CAN with the broadcast manager protocol instead, open a socket with:

socket.socket(socket.AF_CAN, socket.SOCK_DGRAM, socket.CAN_BCM)

After binding (CAN_RAW) or connecting (CAN_BCM) the socket, you can use the socket.send() and socket.recv() operations (and their counterparts) on the socket object as usual.

This last example might require special privileges:

import socket
import struct

# CAN frame packing/unpacking (see 'struct can_frame' in <linux/can.h>)

can_frame_fmt = "=IB3x8s"
can_frame_size = struct.calcsize(can_frame_fmt)

def build_can_frame(can_id, data):
    can_dlc = len(data)
    data = data.ljust(8, b'\x00')
    return struct.pack(can_frame_fmt, can_id, can_dlc, data)

def dissect_can_frame(frame):
    can_id, can_dlc, data = struct.unpack(can_frame_fmt, frame)
    return (can_id, can_dlc, data[:can_dlc])

# create a raw socket and bind it to the 'vcan0' interface
s = socket.socket(socket.AF_CAN, socket.SOCK_RAW, socket.CAN_RAW)
s.bind(('vcan0',))

while True:
    cf, addr = s.recvfrom(can_frame_size)

    print('Received: can_id=%x, can_dlc=%x, data=%s' % dissect_can_frame(cf))

    try:
        s.send(cf)
    except OSError:
        print('Error sending CAN frame')

    try:
        s.send(build_can_frame(0x01, b'\x01\x02\x03'))
    except OSError:
        print('Error sending CAN frame')

Running an example several times with too small delay between executions, could lead to this error:

OSError: [Errno 98] Address already in use

This is because the previous execution has left the socket in a TIME_WAIT state, and can't be immediately reused.

There is a socket flag to set, in order to prevent this, socket.SO_REUSEADDR:

s = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
s.setsockopt(socket.SOL_SOCKET, socket.SO_REUSEADDR, 1)
s.bind((HOST, PORT))

the SO_REUSEADDR flag tells the kernel to reuse a local socket in TIME_WAIT state, without waiting for its natural timeout to expire.

Voir aussi

For an introduction to socket programming (in C), see the following papers:

An Introductory 4.3BSD Interprocess Communication Tutorial, by Stuart Sechrest

An Advanced 4.3BSD Interprocess Communication Tutorial, by Samuel J. Leffler et al,

both in the UNIX Programmer's Manual, Supplementary Documents 1 (sections PS1:7 and PS1:8). The platform-specific reference material for the various socket-related system calls are also a valuable source of information on the details of socket semantics. For Unix, refer to the manual pages; for Windows, see the WinSock (or Winsock 2) specification. For IPv6-ready APIs, readers may want to refer to RFC 3493 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3493.html] titled Basic Socket Interface Extensions for IPv6.

ssl --- TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

Code source : Lib/ssl.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/ssl.py]

This module provides access to Transport Layer Security (often known as "Secure Sockets Layer") encryption and peer authentication facilities for network sockets, both client-side and server-side. This module uses the OpenSSL library.

This is an optional module. If it is missing from your copy of CPython, look for documentation from your distributor (that is, whoever provided Python to you). If you are the distributor, see Requirements for optional modules.

Note

Some behavior may be platform dependent, since calls are made to the operating system socket APIs. The installed version of OpenSSL may also cause variations in behavior. For example, TLSv1.3 comes with OpenSSL version 1.1.1.

Avertissement

N’utilisez pas ce module sans lire Security considerations. Cela pourrait créer un faux sentiment de sécurité, car les paramètres par défaut du module ssl ne sont pas nécessairement appropriés pour votre application.

Disponibilité: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly. See Plateformes WebAssembly for more information.

Cette section documente les objets et les fonctions du module ssl. Pour des informations plus générales sur TLS, SSL et les certificats, le lecteur est prié de se référer aux documents de la section « Voir Aussi » au bas de cette page.

This module provides a class, ssl.SSLSocket, which is derived from the socket.socket type, and provides a socket-like wrapper that also encrypts and decrypts the data going over the socket with SSL. It supports additional methods such as getpeercert(), which retrieves the certificate of the other side of the connection, cipher(), which retrieves the cipher being used for the secure connection or get_verified_chain(), get_unverified_chain() which retrieves certificate chain.

Pour les applications plus sophistiquées, la classe ssl.SSLContext facilite la gestion des paramètres et des certificats, qui peuvent ensuite être hérités par les connecteurs SSL créés via la méthode SSLContext.wrap_socket().

Modifié dans la version 3.5.3: Mise à jour pour prendre en charge la liaison avec OpenSSL 1.1.0

Modifié dans la version 3.6: OpenSSL 0.9.8, 1.0.0 et 1.0.1 sont obsolètes et ne sont plus prises en charge. Dans l'avenir, le module ssl nécessitera au minimum OpenSSL 1.0.2 ou 1.1.0.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: PEP 644 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/] has been implemented. The ssl module requires OpenSSL 1.1.1 or newer.

Use of deprecated constants and functions result in deprecation warnings.

Functions, constants, and exceptions

Création de connecteurs

Instances of SSLSocket must be created using the SSLContext.wrap_socket() method. The helper function create_default_context() returns a new context with secure default settings.

Exemple de connecteur client avec contexte par défaut et double pile IPv4/IPv6 :

import socket
import ssl

hostname = 'www.python.org'
context = ssl.create_default_context()

with socket.create_connection((hostname, 443)) as sock:
    with context.wrap_socket(sock, server_hostname=hostname) as ssock:
        print(ssock.version())

Exemple de connecteur client avec contexte personnalisé et IPv4 :

hostname = 'www.python.org'
# PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT requires valid cert chain and hostname
context = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT)
context.load_verify_locations('path/to/cabundle.pem')

with socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM, 0) as sock:
    with context.wrap_socket(sock, server_hostname=hostname) as ssock:
        print(ssock.version())

Exemple de connecteur serveur à l'écoute sur IPv4 localhost :

context = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER)
context.load_cert_chain('/path/to/certchain.pem', '/path/to/private.key')

with socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM, 0) as sock:
    sock.bind(('127.0.0.1', 8443))
    sock.listen(5)
    with context.wrap_socket(sock, server_side=True) as ssock:
        conn, addr = ssock.accept()
        ...

Création de contexte

Une fonction utilitaire permettant de créer facilement des objets SSLContext pour des usages classiques.

ssl.create_default_context(purpose=Purpose.SERVER_AUTH, *, cafile=None, capath=None, cadata=None)

Return a new SSLContext object with default settings for the given purpose. The settings are chosen by the ssl module, and usually represent a higher security level than when calling the SSLContext constructor directly.

cafile, capath, cadata représentent des certificats d'autorité de certification facultatifs approuvés pour la vérification de certificats, comme dans SSLContext.load_verify_locations(). Si les trois sont à None, cette fonction peut choisir de faire confiance aux certificats d'autorité de certification par défaut du système.

The settings are: PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT or PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER, OP_NO_SSLv2, and OP_NO_SSLv3 with high encryption cipher suites without RC4 and without unauthenticated cipher suites. Passing SERVER_AUTH as purpose sets verify_mode to CERT_REQUIRED and either loads CA certificates (when at least one of cafile, capath or cadata is given) or uses SSLContext.load_default_certs() to load default CA certificates.

Lorsque keylog_filename est pris en charge et que la variable d'environnement SSLKEYLOGFILE est définie, create_default_context() active la journalisation des clés.

The default settings for this context include VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN and VERIFY_X509_STRICT. These make the underlying OpenSSL implementation behave more like a conforming implementation of RFC 5280 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5280.html], in exchange for a small amount of incompatibility with older X.509 certificates.

Note

Le protocole, les options, l'algorithme de chiffrement et d'autres paramètres peuvent changer pour des valeurs plus restrictives à tout moment sans avertissement préalable. Les valeurs représentent un juste équilibre entre compatibilité et sécurité.

Si votre application nécessite des paramètres spécifiques, vous devez créer une classe SSLContext et appliquer les paramètres vous-même.

Note

Si vous constatez que, lorsque certains clients ou serveurs plus anciens tentent de se connecter avec une classe SSLContext créée par cette fonction, une erreur indiquant « Protocol or cipher suite mismatch » (« Non concordance de protocole ou d'algorithme de chiffrement ») est détectée, il se peut qu'ils ne prennent en charge que SSL 3.0 que cette fonction exclut en utilisant OP_NO_SSLv3. SSL3.0 est notoirement considéré comme totalement déficient [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/POODLE]. Si vous souhaitez toujours continuer à utiliser cette fonction tout en autorisant les connexions SSL 3.0, vous pouvez les réactiver à l'aide de :

ctx = ssl.create_default_context(Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH)
ctx.options &= ~ssl.OP_NO_SSLv3

Note

This context enables VERIFY_X509_STRICT by default, which may reject pre-RFC 5280 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5280.html] or malformed certificates that the underlying OpenSSL implementation otherwise would accept. While disabling this is not recommended, you can do so using:

ctx = ssl.create_default_context()
ctx.verify_flags &= ~ssl.VERIFY_X509_STRICT

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Modifié dans la version 3.4.4: RC4 a été supprimé de la liste des algorithmes de chiffrement par défaut.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: ChaCha20/Poly1305 a été ajouté à la liste des algorithmes de chiffrement par défaut.

3DES a été supprimé de la liste des algorithmes de chiffrement par défaut.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: La prise en charge de la journalisation des clés dans SSLKEYLOGFILE a été ajoutée.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: The context now uses PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT or PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER protocol instead of generic PROTOCOL_TLS.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: The context now uses VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN and VERIFY_X509_STRICT in its default verify flags.

Exceptions

exception ssl.SSLError

Levée pour signaler une erreur de l'implémentation SSL sous-jacente (actuellement fournie par la bibliothèque OpenSSL). Cela signifie qu'un problème est apparu dans la couche d'authentification et de chiffrement de niveau supérieur qui s'appuie sur la connexion réseau sous-jacente. Cette erreur est un sous-type de OSError. Le code d'erreur et le message des instances de SSLError sont fournis par la bibliothèque OpenSSL.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: SSLError était un sous-type de socket.error.

library

Une chaîne de caractères mnémonique désignant le sous-module OpenSSL dans lequel l'erreur s'est produite, telle que SSL, PEM ou X509. L'étendue des valeurs possibles dépend de la version d'OpenSSL.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

reason

A string mnemonic designating the reason this error occurred, for example CERTIFICATE_VERIFY_FAILED. The range of possible values depends on the OpenSSL version.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

exception ssl.SSLZeroReturnError

A subclass of SSLError raised when trying to read or write and the SSL connection has been closed cleanly. Note that this doesn't mean that the underlying transport (read TCP) has been closed.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

exception ssl.SSLWantReadError

Sous-classe de SSLError levée par un connecteur SSL non bloquant lors d'une tentative de lecture ou d'écriture de données, alors que davantage de données doivent être reçues sur la couche TCP sous-jacente avant que la demande puisse être satisfaite.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

exception ssl.SSLWantWriteError

A subclass of SSLError raised by a non-blocking SSL socket when trying to read or write data, but more data needs to be sent on the underlying TCP transport before the request can be fulfilled.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

exception ssl.SSLSyscallError

A subclass of SSLError raised when a system error was encountered while trying to fulfill an operation on a SSL socket. Unfortunately, there is no easy way to inspect the original errno number.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

exception ssl.SSLEOFError

A subclass of SSLError raised when the SSL connection has been terminated abruptly. Generally, you shouldn't try to reuse the underlying transport when this error is encountered.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

exception ssl.SSLCertVerificationError

A subclass of SSLError raised when certificate validation has failed.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

verify_code

A numeric error number that denotes the verification error.

verify_message

A human readable string of the verification error.

exception ssl.CertificateError

An alias for SSLCertVerificationError.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: The exception is now an alias for SSLCertVerificationError.

Random generation

ssl.RAND_bytes(num, /)

Return num cryptographically strong pseudo-random bytes. Raises an SSLError if the PRNG has not been seeded with enough data or if the operation is not supported by the current RAND method. RAND_status() can be used to check the status of the PRNG and RAND_add() can be used to seed the PRNG.

For almost all applications os.urandom() is preferable.

Read the Wikipedia article, Cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator (CSPRNG) [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptographically_secure_pseudorandom_number_generator], to get the requirements of a cryptographically strong generator.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

ssl.RAND_status()

Return True if the SSL pseudo-random number generator has been seeded with 'enough' randomness, and False otherwise. You can use ssl.RAND_egd() and ssl.RAND_add() to increase the randomness of the pseudo-random number generator.

ssl.RAND_add(bytes, entropy, /)

Mix the given bytes into the SSL pseudo-random number generator. The parameter entropy (a float) is a lower bound on the entropy contained in string (so you can always use 0.0). See RFC 1750 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1750.html] for more information on sources of entropy.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: N'importe quel bytes-like object est maintenant accepté.

Certificate handling

ssl.cert_time_to_seconds(cert_time)

Return the time in seconds since the epoch, given the cert_time string representing the "notBefore" or "notAfter" date from a certificate in "%b %d %H:%M:%S %Y %Z" strptime format (C locale).

Here's an example:

>>> import ssl
>>> import datetime as dt
>>> timestamp = ssl.cert_time_to_seconds("Jan  5 09:34:43 2018 GMT")
>>> timestamp
1515144883
>>> print(dt.datetime.fromtimestamp(timestamp, dt.UTC))
2018-01-05 09:34:43+00:00

"notBefore" or "notAfter" dates must use GMT (RFC 5280 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5280.html]).

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Interpret the input time as a time in UTC as specified by 'GMT' timezone in the input string. Local timezone was used previously. Return an integer (no fractions of a second in the input format)

ssl.get_server_certificate(addr, ssl_version=PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT, ca_certs=None[, timeout])

Given the address addr of an SSL-protected server, as a (hostname, port-number) pair, fetches the server's certificate, and returns it as a PEM-encoded string. If ssl_version is specified, uses that version of the SSL protocol to attempt to connect to the server. If ca_certs is specified, it should be a file containing a list of root certificates, the same format as used for the cafile parameter in SSLContext.load_verify_locations(). The call will attempt to validate the server certificate against that set of root certificates, and will fail if the validation attempt fails. A timeout can be specified with the timeout parameter.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: This function is now IPv6-compatible.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: The default ssl_version is changed from PROTOCOL_SSLv3 to PROTOCOL_TLS for maximum compatibility with modern servers.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: The timeout parameter was added.

ssl.DER_cert_to_PEM_cert(der_cert_bytes)

Given a certificate as a DER-encoded blob of bytes, returns a PEM-encoded string version of the same certificate.

ssl.PEM_cert_to_DER_cert(pem_cert_string)

Given a certificate as an ASCII PEM string, returns a DER-encoded sequence of bytes for that same certificate.

ssl.get_default_verify_paths()

Returns a named tuple with paths to OpenSSL's default cafile and capath. The paths are the same as used by SSLContext.set_default_verify_paths(). The return value is a named tuple DefaultVerifyPaths:

cafile - resolved path to cafile or None if the file doesn't exist,

capath - resolved path to capath or None if the directory doesn't exist,

openssl_cafile_env - OpenSSL's environment key that points to a cafile,

openssl_cafile - hard coded path to a cafile,

openssl_capath_env - OpenSSL's environment key that points to a capath,

openssl_capath - hard coded path to a capath directory

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

ssl.enum_certificates(store_name)

Retrieve certificates from Windows' system cert store. store_name may be one of CA, ROOT or MY. Windows may provide additional cert stores, too.

The function returns a list of (cert_bytes, encoding_type, trust) tuples. The encoding_type specifies the encoding of cert_bytes. It is either x509_asn for X.509 ASN.1 data or pkcs_7_asn for PKCS#7 ASN.1 data. Trust specifies the purpose of the certificate as a set of OIDS or exactly True if the certificate is trustworthy for all purposes.

Exemple :

>>> ssl.enum_certificates("CA")
[(b'data...', 'x509_asn', {'1.3.6.1.5.5.7.3.1', '1.3.6.1.5.5.7.3.2'}),
 (b'data...', 'x509_asn', True)]

Disponibilité: Windows.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

ssl.enum_crls(store_name)

Retrieve CRLs from Windows' system cert store. store_name may be one of CA, ROOT or MY. Windows may provide additional cert stores, too.

The function returns a list of (cert_bytes, encoding_type, trust) tuples. The encoding_type specifies the encoding of cert_bytes. It is either x509_asn for X.509 ASN.1 data or pkcs_7_asn for PKCS#7 ASN.1 data.

Disponibilité: Windows.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Constantes

All constants are now enum.IntEnum or enum.IntFlag collections.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

ssl.CERT_NONE

Possible value for SSLContext.verify_mode. Except for PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT, it is the default mode. With client-side sockets, just about any cert is accepted. Validation errors, such as untrusted or expired cert, are ignored and do not abort the TLS/SSL handshake.

In server mode, no certificate is requested from the client, so the client does not send any for client cert authentication.

See the discussion of Security considerations below.

ssl.CERT_OPTIONAL

Possible value for SSLContext.verify_mode. In client mode, CERT_OPTIONAL has the same meaning as CERT_REQUIRED. It is recommended to use CERT_REQUIRED for client-side sockets instead.

In server mode, a client certificate request is sent to the client. The client may either ignore the request or send a certificate in order perform TLS client cert authentication. If the client chooses to send a certificate, it is verified. Any verification error immediately aborts the TLS handshake.

Use of this setting requires a valid set of CA certificates to be passed to SSLContext.load_verify_locations().

ssl.CERT_REQUIRED

Possible value for SSLContext.verify_mode. In this mode, certificates are required from the other side of the socket connection; an SSLError will be raised if no certificate is provided, or if its validation fails. This mode is not sufficient to verify a certificate in client mode as it does not match hostnames. check_hostname must be enabled as well to verify the authenticity of a cert. PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT uses CERT_REQUIRED and enables check_hostname by default.

With server socket, this mode provides mandatory TLS client cert authentication. A client certificate request is sent to the client and the client must provide a valid and trusted certificate.

Use of this setting requires a valid set of CA certificates to be passed to SSLContext.load_verify_locations().

class ssl.VerifyMode

enum.IntEnum collection of CERT_* constants.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

ssl.VERIFY_DEFAULT

Possible value for SSLContext.verify_flags. In this mode, certificate revocation lists (CRLs) are not checked. By default OpenSSL does neither require nor verify CRLs.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

ssl.VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_LEAF

Possible value for SSLContext.verify_flags. In this mode, only the peer cert is checked but none of the intermediate CA certificates. The mode requires a valid CRL that is signed by the peer cert's issuer (its direct ancestor CA). If no proper CRL has been loaded with SSLContext.load_verify_locations, validation will fail.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

ssl.VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_CHAIN

Possible value for SSLContext.verify_flags. In this mode, CRLs of all certificates in the peer cert chain are checked.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

ssl.VERIFY_X509_STRICT

Possible value for SSLContext.verify_flags to disable workarounds for broken X.509 certificates.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

ssl.VERIFY_ALLOW_PROXY_CERTS

Possible value for SSLContext.verify_flags to enables proxy certificate verification.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

ssl.VERIFY_X509_TRUSTED_FIRST

Possible value for SSLContext.verify_flags. It instructs OpenSSL to prefer trusted certificates when building the trust chain to validate a certificate. This flag is enabled by default.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.4.

ssl.VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN

Possible value for SSLContext.verify_flags. It instructs OpenSSL to accept intermediate CAs in the trust store to be treated as trust-anchors, in the same way as the self-signed root CA certificates. This makes it possible to trust certificates issued by an intermediate CA without having to trust its ancestor root CA.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

class ssl.VerifyFlags

enum.IntFlag collection of VERIFY_* constants.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS

Selects the highest protocol version that both the client and server support. Despite the name, this option can select both "SSL" and "TLS" protocols.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.10: TLS clients and servers require different default settings for secure communication. The generic TLS protocol constant is deprecated in favor of PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT and PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER.

ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT

Auto-negotiate the highest protocol version that both the client and server support, and configure the context client-side connections. The protocol enables CERT_REQUIRED and check_hostname by default.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER

Auto-negotiate the highest protocol version that both the client and server support, and configure the context server-side connections.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv23

Alias for PROTOCOL_TLS.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.6: Use PROTOCOL_TLS instead.

ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv3

Selects SSL version 3 as the channel encryption protocol.

This protocol is not available if OpenSSL is compiled with the no-ssl3 option.

Avertissement

SSL version 3 is insecure. Its use is highly discouraged.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.6: OpenSSL has deprecated all version specific protocols. Use the default protocol PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER or PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT with SSLContext.minimum_version and SSLContext.maximum_version instead.

ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1

Selects TLS version 1.0 as the channel encryption protocol.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.6: OpenSSL has deprecated all version specific protocols.

ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1

Selects TLS version 1.1 as the channel encryption protocol. Available only with openssl version 1.0.1+.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.6: OpenSSL has deprecated all version specific protocols.

ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2

Selects TLS version 1.2 as the channel encryption protocol. Available only with openssl version 1.0.1+.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.6: OpenSSL has deprecated all version specific protocols.

ssl.OP_ALL

Enables workarounds for various bugs present in other SSL implementations. This option is set by default. It does not necessarily set the same flags as OpenSSL's SSL_OP_ALL constant.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

ssl.OP_NO_SSLv2

Prevents an SSLv2 connection. This option is only applicable in conjunction with PROTOCOL_TLS. It prevents the peers from choosing SSLv2 as the protocol version.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.6: SSLv2 is deprecated

ssl.OP_NO_SSLv3

Prevents an SSLv3 connection. This option is only applicable in conjunction with PROTOCOL_TLS. It prevents the peers from choosing SSLv3 as the protocol version.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.6: SSLv3 is deprecated

ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1

Prevents a TLSv1 connection. This option is only applicable in conjunction with PROTOCOL_TLS. It prevents the peers from choosing TLSv1 as the protocol version.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.7: The option is deprecated since OpenSSL 1.1.0, use the new SSLContext.minimum_version and SSLContext.maximum_version instead.

ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1_1

Prevents a TLSv1.1 connection. This option is only applicable in conjunction with PROTOCOL_TLS. It prevents the peers from choosing TLSv1.1 as the protocol version. Available only with openssl version 1.0.1+.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.7: The option is deprecated since OpenSSL 1.1.0.

ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1_2

Prevents a TLSv1.2 connection. This option is only applicable in conjunction with PROTOCOL_TLS. It prevents the peers from choosing TLSv1.2 as the protocol version. Available only with openssl version 1.0.1+.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.7: The option is deprecated since OpenSSL 1.1.0.

ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1_3

Prevents a TLSv1.3 connection. This option is only applicable in conjunction with PROTOCOL_TLS. It prevents the peers from choosing TLSv1.3 as the protocol version. TLS 1.3 is available with OpenSSL 1.1.1 or later. When Python has been compiled against an older version of OpenSSL, the flag defaults to 0.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.3.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.7: The option is deprecated since OpenSSL 1.1.0. It was added to 2.7.15 and 3.6.3 for backwards compatibility with OpenSSL 1.0.2.

ssl.OP_NO_RENEGOTIATION

Disable all renegotiation in TLSv1.2 and earlier. Do not send HelloRequest messages, and ignore renegotiation requests via ClientHello.

This option is only available with OpenSSL 1.1.0h and later.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

ssl.OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE

Use the server's cipher ordering preference, rather than the client's. This option has no effect on client sockets and SSLv2 server sockets.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

ssl.OP_SINGLE_DH_USE

Prevents reuse of the same DH key for distinct SSL sessions. This improves forward secrecy but requires more computational resources. This option only applies to server sockets.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

ssl.OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE

Prevents reuse of the same ECDH key for distinct SSL sessions. This improves forward secrecy but requires more computational resources. This option only applies to server sockets.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

ssl.OP_ENABLE_MIDDLEBOX_COMPAT

Send dummy Change Cipher Spec (CCS) messages in TLS 1.3 handshake to make a TLS 1.3 connection look more like a TLS 1.2 connection.

This option is only available with OpenSSL 1.1.1 and later.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

ssl.OP_NO_COMPRESSION

Disable compression on the SSL channel. This is useful if the application protocol supports its own compression scheme.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

class ssl.Options

enum.IntFlag collection of OP_* constants.

ssl.OP_NO_TICKET

Prevent client side from requesting a session ticket.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

ssl.OP_IGNORE_UNEXPECTED_EOF

Ignore unexpected shutdown of TLS connections.

This option is only available with OpenSSL 3.0.0 and later.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

ssl.OP_ENABLE_KTLS

Enable the use of the kernel TLS. To benefit from the feature, OpenSSL must have been compiled with support for it, and the negotiated cipher suites and extensions must be supported by it (a list of supported ones may vary by platform and kernel version).

Note that with enabled kernel TLS some cryptographic operations are performed by the kernel directly and not via any available OpenSSL Providers. This might be undesirable if, for example, the application requires all cryptographic operations to be performed by the FIPS provider.

This option is only available with OpenSSL 3.0.0 and later.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

ssl.OP_LEGACY_SERVER_CONNECT

Allow legacy insecure renegotiation between OpenSSL and unpatched servers only.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

ssl.HAS_ALPN

Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation TLS extension as described in RFC 7301 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7301.html].

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

ssl.HAS_NEVER_CHECK_COMMON_NAME

Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support not checking subject common name and SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name is writeable.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

ssl.HAS_ECDH

Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the Elliptic Curve-based Diffie-Hellman key exchange. This should be true unless the feature was explicitly disabled by the distributor.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

ssl.HAS_SNI

Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the Server Name Indication extension (as defined in RFC 6066 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6066.html]).

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

ssl.HAS_NPN

Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the Next Protocol Negotiation as described in the Application Layer Protocol Negotiation [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application-Layer_Protocol_Negotiation]. When true, you can use the SSLContext.set_npn_protocols() method to advertise which protocols you want to support.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

ssl.HAS_SSLv2

Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the SSL 2.0 protocol.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

ssl.HAS_SSLv3

Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the SSL 3.0 protocol.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

ssl.HAS_TLSv1

Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the TLS 1.0 protocol.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

ssl.HAS_TLSv1_1

Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the TLS 1.1 protocol.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

ssl.HAS_TLSv1_2

Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the TLS 1.2 protocol.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

ssl.HAS_TLSv1_3

Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the TLS 1.3 protocol.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

ssl.HAS_PSK

Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for TLS-PSK.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

ssl.HAS_PHA

Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for TLS-PHA.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

ssl.CHANNEL_BINDING_TYPES

List of supported TLS channel binding types. Strings in this list can be used as arguments to SSLSocket.get_channel_binding().

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION

The version string of the OpenSSL library loaded by the interpreter:

>>> ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION
'OpenSSL 1.0.2k  26 Jan 2017'

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO

A tuple of five integers representing version information about the OpenSSL library:

>>> ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO
(1, 0, 2, 11, 15)

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER

The raw version number of the OpenSSL library, as a single integer:

>>> ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER
268443839
>>> hex(ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER)
'0x100020bf'

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

ssl.ALERT_DESCRIPTION_HANDSHAKE_FAILURE

ssl.ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR

ALERT_DESCRIPTION_*

Alert Descriptions from RFC 5246 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5246.html] and others. The IANA TLS Alert Registry [https://www.iana.org/assignments/tls-parameters/tls-parameters.xml#tls-parameters-6] contains this list and references to the RFCs where their meaning is defined.

Used as the return value of the callback function in SSLContext.set_servername_callback().

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

class ssl.AlertDescription

enum.IntEnum collection of ALERT_DESCRIPTION_* constants.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

Purpose.SERVER_AUTH

Option for create_default_context() and SSLContext.load_default_certs(). This value indicates that the context may be used to authenticate web servers (therefore, it will be used to create client-side sockets).

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH

Option for create_default_context() and SSLContext.load_default_certs(). This value indicates that the context may be used to authenticate web clients (therefore, it will be used to create server-side sockets).

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

class ssl.SSLErrorNumber

enum.IntEnum collection of SSL_ERROR_* constants.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

class ssl.TLSVersion

enum.IntEnum collection of SSL and TLS versions for SSLContext.maximum_version and SSLContext.minimum_version.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

TLSVersion.MINIMUM_SUPPORTED

TLSVersion.MAXIMUM_SUPPORTED

The minimum or maximum supported SSL or TLS version. These are magic constants. Their values don't reflect the lowest and highest available TLS/SSL versions.

TLSVersion.SSLv3

TLSVersion.TLSv1

TLSVersion.TLSv1_1

TLSVersion.TLSv1_2

TLSVersion.TLSv1_3

SSL 3.0 to TLS 1.3.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.10: All TLSVersion members except TLSVersion.TLSv1_2 and TLSVersion.TLSv1_3 are deprecated.

SSL sockets

class ssl.SSLSocket(socket.socket)

SSL sockets provide the following methods of Socket Objects:

accept()

bind()

close()

connect()

detach()

fileno()

getpeername(), getsockname()

getsockopt(), setsockopt()

gettimeout(), settimeout(), setblocking()

listen()

makefile()

recv(), recv_into() (but passing a non-zero flags argument is not allowed)

send(), sendall() (with the same limitation)

sendfile() (but os.sendfile will be used for plain-text sockets only, else send() will be used)

shutdown()

However, since the SSL (and TLS) protocol has its own framing atop of TCP, the SSL sockets abstraction can, in certain respects, diverge from the specification of normal, OS-level sockets. See especially the notes on non-blocking sockets.

Instances of SSLSocket must be created using the SSLContext.wrap_socket() method.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: The sendfile() method was added.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: The shutdown() does not reset the socket timeout each time bytes are received or sent. The socket timeout is now the maximum total duration of the shutdown.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.6: It is deprecated to create a SSLSocket instance directly, use SSLContext.wrap_socket() to wrap a socket.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: SSLSocket instances must to created with wrap_socket(). In earlier versions, it was possible to create instances directly. This was never documented or officially supported.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Python now uses SSL_read_ex and SSL_write_ex internally. The functions support reading and writing of data larger than 2 GB. Writing zero-length data no longer fails with a protocol violation error.

SSL sockets also have the following additional methods and attributes:

SSLSocket.read(len=1024, buffer=None)

Read up to len bytes of data from the SSL socket and return the result as a bytes instance. If buffer is specified, then read into the buffer instead, and return the number of bytes read.

Raise SSLWantReadError or SSLWantWriteError if the socket is non-blocking and the read would block.

As at any time a re-negotiation is possible, a call to read() can also cause write operations.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: The socket timeout is no longer reset each time bytes are received or sent. The socket timeout is now the maximum total duration to read up to len bytes.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.6: Use recv() instead of read().

SSLSocket.write(data)

Write data to the SSL socket and return the number of bytes written. The data argument must be an object supporting the buffer interface.

Raise SSLWantReadError or SSLWantWriteError if the socket is non-blocking and the write would block.

As at any time a re-negotiation is possible, a call to write() can also cause read operations.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: The socket timeout is no longer reset each time bytes are received or sent. The socket timeout is now the maximum total duration to write data.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.6: Use send() instead of write().

Note

The read() and write() methods are the low-level methods that read and write unencrypted, application-level data and decrypt/encrypt it to encrypted, wire-level data. These methods require an active SSL connection, i.e. the handshake was completed and SSLSocket.unwrap() was not called.

Normally you should use the socket API methods like recv() and send() instead of these methods.

SSLSocket.do_handshake(block=False)

Perform the SSL setup handshake.

If block is true and the timeout obtained by gettimeout() is zero, the socket is set in blocking mode until the handshake is performed.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: The handshake method also performs match_hostname() when the check_hostname attribute of the socket's context is true.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: The socket timeout is no longer reset each time bytes are received or sent. The socket timeout is now the maximum total duration of the handshake.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Hostname or IP address is matched by OpenSSL during handshake. The function match_hostname() is no longer used. In case OpenSSL refuses a hostname or IP address, the handshake is aborted early and a TLS alert message is sent to the peer.

SSLSocket.getpeercert(binary_form=False)

If there is no certificate for the peer on the other end of the connection, return None. If the SSL handshake hasn't been done yet, raise ValueError.

If the binary_form parameter is False, and a certificate was received from the peer, this method returns a dict instance. If the certificate was not validated, the dict is empty. If the certificate was validated, it returns a dict with several keys, amongst them subject (the principal for which the certificate was issued) and issuer (the principal issuing the certificate). If a certificate contains an instance of the Subject Alternative Name extension (see RFC 3280 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3280.html]), there will also be a subjectAltName key in the dictionary.

The subject and issuer fields are tuples containing the sequence of relative distinguished names (RDNs) given in the certificate's data structure for the respective fields, and each RDN is a sequence of name-value pairs. Here is a real-world example:

{'issuer': ((('countryName', 'IL'),),
            (('organizationName', 'StartCom Ltd.'),),
            (('organizationalUnitName',
              'Secure Digital Certificate Signing'),),
            (('commonName',
              'StartCom Class 2 Primary Intermediate Server CA'),)),
 'notAfter': 'Nov 22 08:15:19 2013 GMT',
 'notBefore': 'Nov 21 03:09:52 2011 GMT',
 'serialNumber': '95F0',
 'subject': ((('description', '571208-SLe257oHY9fVQ07Z'),),
             (('countryName', 'US'),),
             (('stateOrProvinceName', 'California'),),
             (('localityName', 'San Francisco'),),
             (('organizationName', 'Electronic Frontier Foundation, Inc.'),),
             (('commonName', '*.eff.org'),),
             (('emailAddress', 'hostmaster@eff.org'),)),
 'subjectAltName': (('DNS', '*.eff.org'), ('DNS', 'eff.org')),
 'version': 3}

If the binary_form parameter is True, and a certificate was provided, this method returns the DER-encoded form of the entire certificate as a sequence of bytes, or None if the peer did not provide a certificate. Whether the peer provides a certificate depends on the SSL socket's role:

for a client SSL socket, the server will always provide a certificate, regardless of whether validation was required;

for a server SSL socket, the client will only provide a certificate when requested by the server; therefore getpeercert() will return None if you used CERT_NONE (rather than CERT_OPTIONAL or CERT_REQUIRED).

See also SSLContext.check_hostname.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: The returned dictionary includes additional items such as issuer and notBefore.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: ValueError is raised when the handshake isn't done. The returned dictionary includes additional X509v3 extension items such as crlDistributionPoints, caIssuers and OCSP URIs.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: IPv6 address strings no longer have a trailing new line.

SSLSocket.get_verified_chain()

Returns verified certificate chain provided by the other end of the SSL channel as a list of DER-encoded bytes. If certificate verification was disabled method acts the same as get_unverified_chain().

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

SSLSocket.get_unverified_chain()

Returns raw certificate chain provided by the other end of the SSL channel as a list of DER-encoded bytes.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

SSLSocket.cipher()

Returns a three-value tuple containing the name of the cipher being used, the version of the SSL protocol that defines its use, and the number of secret bits being used. If no connection has been established, returns None.

SSLSocket.shared_ciphers()

Return the list of ciphers available in both the client and server. Each entry of the returned list is a three-value tuple containing the name of the cipher, the version of the SSL protocol that defines its use, and the number of secret bits the cipher uses. shared_ciphers() returns None if no connection has been established or the socket is a client socket.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

SSLSocket.compression()

Return the compression algorithm being used as a string, or None if the connection isn't compressed.

If the higher-level protocol supports its own compression mechanism, you can use OP_NO_COMPRESSION to disable SSL-level compression.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

SSLSocket.get_channel_binding(cb_type='tls-unique')

Get channel binding data for current connection, as a bytes object. Returns None if not connected or the handshake has not been completed.

The cb_type parameter allow selection of the desired channel binding type. Valid channel binding types are listed in the CHANNEL_BINDING_TYPES list. Currently only the 'tls-unique' channel binding, defined by RFC 5929 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5929.html], is supported. ValueError will be raised if an unsupported channel binding type is requested.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol()

Return the protocol that was selected during the TLS handshake. If SSLContext.set_alpn_protocols() was not called, if the other party does not support ALPN, if this socket does not support any of the client's proposed protocols, or if the handshake has not happened yet, None is returned.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

SSLSocket.selected_npn_protocol()

Return the higher-level protocol that was selected during the TLS/SSL handshake. If SSLContext.set_npn_protocols() was not called, or if the other party does not support NPN, or if the handshake has not yet happened, this will return None.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.10: NPN has been superseded by ALPN

SSLSocket.unwrap()

Performs the SSL shutdown handshake, which removes the TLS layer from the underlying socket, and returns the underlying socket object. This can be used to go from encrypted operation over a connection to unencrypted. The returned socket should always be used for further communication with the other side of the connection, rather than the original socket.

SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake()

Requests post-handshake authentication (PHA) from a TLS 1.3 client. PHA can only be initiated for a TLS 1.3 connection from a server-side socket, after the initial TLS handshake and with PHA enabled on both sides, see SSLContext.post_handshake_auth.

The method does not perform a cert exchange immediately. The server-side sends a CertificateRequest during the next write event and expects the client to respond with a certificate on the next read event.

If any precondition isn't met (e.g. not TLS 1.3, PHA not enabled), an SSLError is raised.

Note

Only available with OpenSSL 1.1.1 and TLS 1.3 enabled. Without TLS 1.3 support, the method raises NotImplementedError.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

SSLSocket.version()

Return the actual SSL protocol version negotiated by the connection as a string, or None if no secure connection is established. As of this writing, possible return values include "SSLv2", "SSLv3", "TLSv1", "TLSv1.1" and "TLSv1.2". Recent OpenSSL versions may define more return values.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

SSLSocket.pending()

Returns the number of already decrypted bytes available for read, pending on the connection.

SSLSocket.context

The SSLContext object this SSL socket is tied to.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

SSLSocket.server_side

A boolean which is True for server-side sockets and False for client-side sockets.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

SSLSocket.server_hostname

Hostname of the server: str type, or None for server-side socket or if the hostname was not specified in the constructor.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: The attribute is now always ASCII text. When server_hostname is an internationalized domain name (IDN), this attribute now stores the A-label form ("xn--pythn-mua.org"), rather than the U-label form ("pythön.org").

SSLSocket.session

The SSLSession for this SSL connection. The session is available for client and server side sockets after the TLS handshake has been performed. For client sockets the session can be set before do_handshake() has been called to reuse a session.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

SSLSocket.session_reused

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

SSL contexts

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

An SSL context holds various data longer-lived than single SSL connections, such as SSL configuration options, certificate(s) and private key(s). It also manages a cache of SSL sessions for server-side sockets, in order to speed up repeated connections from the same clients.

class ssl.SSLContext(protocol=None)

Create a new SSL context. You may pass protocol which must be one of the PROTOCOL_* constants defined in this module. The parameter specifies which version of the SSL protocol to use. Typically, the server chooses a particular protocol version, and the client must adapt to the server's choice. Most of the versions are not interoperable with the other versions. If not specified, the default is PROTOCOL_TLS; it provides the most compatibility with other versions.

Here's a table showing which versions in a client (down the side) can connect to which versions in a server (along the top):

client / server

SSLv2

SSLv3

TLS [3]

TLSv1

TLSv1.1

TLSv1.2

SSLv2

oui

non

no [1]

non

non

non

SSLv3

non

oui

no [2]

non

non

non

TLS (SSLv23) [3]

no [1]

no [2]

oui

oui

oui

oui

TLSv1

non

non

oui

oui

non

non

TLSv1.1

non

non

oui

non

oui

non

TLSv1.2

non

non

oui

non

non

oui

Notes

[1] (1,2)

SSLContext disables SSLv2 with OP_NO_SSLv2 by default.

[2] (1,2)

SSLContext disables SSLv3 with OP_NO_SSLv3 by default.

[3] (1,2)

TLS 1.3 protocol will be available with PROTOCOL_TLS in OpenSSL >= 1.1.1. There is no dedicated PROTOCOL constant for just TLS 1.3.

Voir aussi

create_default_context() lets the ssl module choose security settings for a given purpose.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: The context is created with secure default values. The options OP_NO_COMPRESSION, OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE, OP_SINGLE_DH_USE, OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE, OP_NO_SSLv2, and OP_NO_SSLv3 (except for PROTOCOL_SSLv3) are set by default. The initial cipher suite list contains only HIGH ciphers, no NULL ciphers and no MD5 ciphers.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.10: SSLContext without protocol argument is deprecated. The context class will either require PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT or PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER protocol in the future.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: The default cipher suites now include only secure AES and ChaCha20 ciphers with forward secrecy and security level 2. RSA and DH keys with less than 2048 bits and ECC keys with less than 224 bits are prohibited. PROTOCOL_TLS, PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT, and PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER use TLS 1.2 as minimum TLS version.

Note

SSLContext only supports limited mutation once it has been used by a connection. Adding new certificates to the internal trust store is allowed, but changing ciphers, verification settings, or mTLS certificates may result in surprising behavior.

Note

SSLContext is designed to be shared and used by multiple connections. Thus, it is thread-safe as long as it is not reconfigured after being used by a connection.

SSLContext objects have the following methods and attributes:

SSLContext.cert_store_stats()

Get statistics about quantities of loaded X.509 certificates, count of X.509 certificates flagged as CA certificates and certificate revocation lists as dictionary.

Example for a context with one CA cert and one other cert:

>>> context.cert_store_stats()
{'crl': 0, 'x509_ca': 1, 'x509': 2}

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

SSLContext.load_cert_chain(certfile, keyfile=None, password=None)

Load a private key and the corresponding certificate. The certfile string must be the path to a single file in PEM format containing the certificate as well as any number of CA certificates needed to establish the certificate's authenticity. The keyfile string, if present, must point to a file containing the private key. Otherwise the private key will be taken from certfile as well. See the discussion of Certificates for more information on how the certificate is stored in the certfile.

The password argument may be a function to call to get the password for decrypting the private key. It will only be called if the private key is encrypted and a password is necessary. It will be called with no arguments, and it should return a string, bytes, or bytearray. If the return value is a string it will be encoded as UTF-8 before using it to decrypt the key. Alternatively a string, bytes, or bytearray value may be supplied directly as the password argument. It will be ignored if the private key is not encrypted and no password is needed.

If the password argument is not specified and a password is required, OpenSSL's built-in password prompting mechanism will be used to interactively prompt the user for a password.

An SSLError is raised if the private key doesn't match with the certificate.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: New optional argument password.

SSLContext.load_default_certs(purpose=Purpose.SERVER_AUTH)

Load a set of default "certification authority" (CA) certificates from default locations. On Windows it loads CA certs from the CA and ROOT system stores. On all systems it calls SSLContext.set_default_verify_paths(). In the future the method may load CA certificates from other locations, too.

The purpose flag specifies what kind of CA certificates are loaded. The default settings Purpose.SERVER_AUTH loads certificates, that are flagged and trusted for TLS web server authentication (client side sockets). Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH loads CA certificates for client certificate verification on the server side.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

SSLContext.load_verify_locations(cafile=None, capath=None, cadata=None)

Load a set of "certification authority" (CA) certificates used to validate other peers' certificates when verify_mode is other than CERT_NONE. At least one of cafile or capath must be specified.

This method can also load certification revocation lists (CRLs) in PEM or DER format. In order to make use of CRLs, SSLContext.verify_flags must be configured properly.

The cafile string, if present, is the path to a file of concatenated CA certificates in PEM format. See the discussion of Certificates for more information about how to arrange the certificates in this file.

The capath string, if present, is the path to a directory containing several CA certificates in PEM format, following an OpenSSL specific layout [https://docs.openssl.org/master/man3/SSL_CTX_load_verify_locations/].

The cadata object, if present, is either an ASCII string of one or more PEM-encoded certificates or a bytes-like object of DER-encoded certificates. Like with capath extra lines around PEM-encoded certificates are ignored but at least one certificate must be present.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: New optional argument cadata

SSLContext.get_ca_certs(binary_form=False)

Get a list of loaded "certification authority" (CA) certificates. If the binary_form parameter is False each list entry is a dict like the output of SSLSocket.getpeercert(). Otherwise the method returns a list of DER-encoded certificates. The returned list does not contain certificates from capath unless a certificate was requested and loaded by a SSL connection.

Note

Certificates in a capath directory aren't loaded unless they have been used at least once.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

SSLContext.get_ciphers()

Get a list of enabled ciphers. The list is in order of cipher priority. See SSLContext.set_ciphers().

Exemple :

>>> ctx = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv23)
>>> ctx.set_ciphers('ECDHE+AESGCM:!ECDSA')
>>> ctx.get_ciphers()
[{'aead': True,
  'alg_bits': 256,
  'auth': 'auth-rsa',
  'description': 'ECDHE-RSA-AES256-GCM-SHA384 TLSv1.2 Kx=ECDH     Au=RSA  '
                 'Enc=AESGCM(256) Mac=AEAD',
  'digest': None,
  'id': 50380848,
  'kea': 'kx-ecdhe',
  'name': 'ECDHE-RSA-AES256-GCM-SHA384',
  'protocol': 'TLSv1.2',
  'strength_bits': 256,
  'symmetric': 'aes-256-gcm'},
 {'aead': True,
  'alg_bits': 128,
  'auth': 'auth-rsa',
  'description': 'ECDHE-RSA-AES128-GCM-SHA256 TLSv1.2 Kx=ECDH     Au=RSA  '
                 'Enc=AESGCM(128) Mac=AEAD',
  'digest': None,
  'id': 50380847,
  'kea': 'kx-ecdhe',
  'name': 'ECDHE-RSA-AES128-GCM-SHA256',
  'protocol': 'TLSv1.2',
  'strength_bits': 128,
  'symmetric': 'aes-128-gcm'}]

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

SSLContext.set_default_verify_paths()

Load a set of default "certification authority" (CA) certificates from a filesystem path defined when building the OpenSSL library. Unfortunately, there's no easy way to know whether this method succeeds: no error is returned if no certificates are to be found. When the OpenSSL library is provided as part of the operating system, though, it is likely to be configured properly.

SSLContext.set_ciphers(ciphers, /)

Set the available ciphers for sockets created with this context. It should be a string in the OpenSSL cipher list format [https://docs.openssl.org/master/man1/ciphers/]. If no cipher can be selected (because compile-time options or other configuration forbids use of all the specified ciphers), an SSLError will be raised.

Note

when connected, the SSLSocket.cipher() method of SSL sockets will give the currently selected cipher.

TLS 1.3 cipher suites cannot be disabled with set_ciphers().

SSLContext.set_alpn_protocols(alpn_protocols)

Specify which protocols the socket should advertise during the SSL/TLS handshake. It should be a list of ASCII strings, like ['http/1.1', 'spdy/2'], ordered by preference. The selection of a protocol will happen during the handshake, and will play out according to RFC 7301 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7301.html]. After a successful handshake, the SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol() method will return the agreed-upon protocol.

This method will raise NotImplementedError if HAS_ALPN is False.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

SSLContext.set_npn_protocols(npn_protocols)

Specify which protocols the socket should advertise during the SSL/TLS handshake. It should be a list of strings, like ['http/1.1', 'spdy/2'], ordered by preference. The selection of a protocol will happen during the handshake, and will play out according to the Application Layer Protocol Negotiation [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application-Layer_Protocol_Negotiation]. After a successful handshake, the SSLSocket.selected_npn_protocol() method will return the agreed-upon protocol.

This method will raise NotImplementedError if HAS_NPN is False.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.10: NPN has been superseded by ALPN

SSLContext.sni_callback

Register a callback function that will be called after the TLS Client Hello handshake message has been received by the SSL/TLS server when the TLS client specifies a server name indication. The server name indication mechanism is specified in RFC 6066 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6066.html] section 3 - Server Name Indication.

Only one callback can be set per SSLContext. If sni_callback is set to None then the callback is disabled. Calling this function a subsequent time will disable the previously registered callback.

The callback function will be called with three arguments; the first being the ssl.SSLSocket, the second is a string that represents the server name that the client is intending to communicate (or None if the TLS Client Hello does not contain a server name) and the third argument is the original SSLContext. The server name argument is text. For internationalized domain name, the server name is an IDN A-label ("xn--pythn-mua.org").

A typical use of this callback is to change the ssl.SSLSocket's SSLSocket.context attribute to a new object of type SSLContext representing a certificate chain that matches the server name.

Due to the early negotiation phase of the TLS connection, only limited methods and attributes are usable like SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol() and SSLSocket.context. The SSLSocket.getpeercert(), SSLSocket.get_verified_chain(), SSLSocket.get_unverified_chain() SSLSocket.cipher() and SSLSocket.compression() methods require that the TLS connection has progressed beyond the TLS Client Hello and therefore will not return meaningful values nor can they be called safely.

The sni_callback function must return None to allow the TLS negotiation to continue. If a TLS failure is required, a constant ALERT_DESCRIPTION_* can be returned. Other return values will result in a TLS fatal error with ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR.

If an exception is raised from the sni_callback function the TLS connection will terminate with a fatal TLS alert message ALERT_DESCRIPTION_HANDSHAKE_FAILURE.

This method will raise NotImplementedError if the OpenSSL library had OPENSSL_NO_TLSEXT defined when it was built.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

SSLContext.set_servername_callback(server_name_callback)

This is a legacy API retained for backwards compatibility. When possible, you should use sni_callback instead. The given server_name_callback is similar to sni_callback, except that when the server hostname is an IDN-encoded internationalized domain name, the server_name_callback receives a decoded U-label ("pythön.org").

If there is a decoding error on the server name, the TLS connection will terminate with an ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR fatal TLS alert message to the client.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

SSLContext.load_dh_params(dhfile, /)

Load the key generation parameters for Diffie-Hellman (DH) key exchange. Using DH key exchange improves forward secrecy at the expense of computational resources (both on the server and on the client). The dhfile parameter should be the path to a file containing DH parameters in PEM format.

This setting doesn't apply to client sockets. You can also use the OP_SINGLE_DH_USE option to further improve security.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

SSLContext.set_ecdh_curve(curve_name, /)

Set the curve name for Elliptic Curve-based Diffie-Hellman (ECDH) key exchange. ECDH is significantly faster than regular DH while arguably as secure. The curve_name parameter should be a string describing a well-known elliptic curve, for example prime256v1 for a widely supported curve.

This setting doesn't apply to client sockets. You can also use the OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE option to further improve security.

This method is not available if HAS_ECDH is False.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Voir aussi

SSL/TLS & Perfect Forward Secrecy [https://vincent.bernat.ch/en/blog/2011-ssl-perfect-forward-secrecy]

Vincent Bernat.

SSLContext.wrap_socket(sock, server_side=False, do_handshake_on_connect=True, suppress_ragged_eofs=True, server_hostname=None, session=None)

Wrap an existing Python socket sock and return an instance of SSLContext.sslsocket_class (default SSLSocket). The returned SSL socket is tied to the context, its settings and certificates. sock must be a SOCK_STREAM socket; other socket types are unsupported.

The parameter server_side is a boolean which identifies whether server-side or client-side behavior is desired from this socket.

For client-side sockets, the context construction is lazy; if the underlying socket isn't connected yet, the context construction will be performed after connect() is called on the socket. For server-side sockets, if the socket has no remote peer, it is assumed to be a listening socket, and the server-side SSL wrapping is automatically performed on client connections accepted via the accept() method. The method may raise SSLError.

On client connections, the optional parameter server_hostname specifies the hostname of the service which we are connecting to. This allows a single server to host multiple SSL-based services with distinct certificates, quite similarly to HTTP virtual hosts. Specifying server_hostname will raise a ValueError if server_side is true.

The parameter do_handshake_on_connect specifies whether to do the SSL handshake automatically after doing a socket.connect(), or whether the application program will call it explicitly, by invoking the SSLSocket.do_handshake() method. Calling SSLSocket.do_handshake() explicitly gives the program control over the blocking behavior of the socket I/O involved in the handshake.

The parameter suppress_ragged_eofs specifies how the SSLSocket.recv() method should signal unexpected EOF from the other end of the connection. If specified as True (the default), it returns a normal EOF (an empty bytes object) in response to unexpected EOF errors raised from the underlying socket; if False, it will raise the exceptions back to the caller.

session, see session.

To wrap an SSLSocket in another SSLSocket, use SSLContext.wrap_bio().

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Always allow a server_hostname to be passed, even if OpenSSL does not have SNI.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: session argument was added.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: The method returns an instance of SSLContext.sslsocket_class instead of hard-coded SSLSocket.

SSLContext.sslsocket_class

The return type of SSLContext.wrap_socket(), defaults to SSLSocket. The attribute can be assigned to on instances of SSLContext in order to return a custom subclass of SSLSocket.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

SSLContext.wrap_bio(incoming, outgoing, server_side=False, server_hostname=None, session=None)

Wrap the BIO objects incoming and outgoing and return an instance of SSLContext.sslobject_class (default SSLObject). The SSL routines will read input data from the incoming BIO and write data to the outgoing BIO.

The server_side, server_hostname and session parameters have the same meaning as in SSLContext.wrap_socket().

Modifié dans la version 3.6: session argument was added.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: The method returns an instance of SSLContext.sslobject_class instead of hard-coded SSLObject.

SSLContext.sslobject_class

The return type of SSLContext.wrap_bio(), defaults to SSLObject. The attribute can be overridden on instance of class in order to return a custom subclass of SSLObject.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

SSLContext.session_stats()

Get statistics about the SSL sessions created or managed by this context. A dictionary is returned which maps the names of each piece of information [https://docs.openssl.org/1.1.1/man3/SSL_CTX_sess_number/] to their numeric values. For example, here is the total number of hits and misses in the session cache since the context was created:

>>> stats = context.session_stats()
>>> stats['hits'], stats['misses']
(0, 0)

SSLContext.check_hostname

Whether to match the peer cert's hostname in SSLSocket.do_handshake(). The context's verify_mode must be set to CERT_OPTIONAL or CERT_REQUIRED, and you must pass server_hostname to wrap_socket() in order to match the hostname. Enabling hostname checking automatically sets verify_mode from CERT_NONE to CERT_REQUIRED. It cannot be set back to CERT_NONE as long as hostname checking is enabled. The PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT protocol enables hostname checking by default. With other protocols, hostname checking must be enabled explicitly.

Exemple :

import socket, ssl

context = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2)
context.verify_mode = ssl.CERT_REQUIRED
context.check_hostname = True
context.load_default_certs()

s = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
ssl_sock = context.wrap_socket(s, server_hostname='www.verisign.com')
ssl_sock.connect(('www.verisign.com', 443))

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: verify_mode is now automatically changed to CERT_REQUIRED when hostname checking is enabled and verify_mode is CERT_NONE. Previously the same operation would have failed with a ValueError.

SSLContext.keylog_filename

Write TLS keys to a keylog file, whenever key material is generated or received. The keylog file is designed for debugging purposes only. The file format is specified by NSS and used by many traffic analyzers such as Wireshark. The log file is opened in append-only mode. Writes are synchronized between threads, but not between processes.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

SSLContext.maximum_version

A TLSVersion enum member representing the highest supported TLS version. The value defaults to TLSVersion.MAXIMUM_SUPPORTED. The attribute is read-only for protocols other than PROTOCOL_TLS, PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT, and PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER.

The attributes maximum_version, minimum_version and SSLContext.options all affect the supported SSL and TLS versions of the context. The implementation does not prevent invalid combination. For example a context with OP_NO_TLSv1_2 in options and maximum_version set to TLSVersion.TLSv1_2 will not be able to establish a TLS 1.2 connection.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

SSLContext.minimum_version

Like SSLContext.maximum_version except it is the lowest supported version or TLSVersion.MINIMUM_SUPPORTED.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

SSLContext.num_tickets

Control the number of TLS 1.3 session tickets of a PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER context. The setting has no impact on TLS 1.0 to 1.2 connections.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

SSLContext.options

An integer representing the set of SSL options enabled on this context. The default value is OP_ALL, but you can specify other options such as OP_NO_SSLv2 by ORing them together.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: SSLContext.options returns Options flags:

>>> ssl.create_default_context().options
<Options.OP_ALL|OP_NO_SSLv3|OP_NO_SSLv2|OP_NO_COMPRESSION: 2197947391>

Obsolète depuis la version 3.7: All OP_NO_SSL* and OP_NO_TLS* options have been deprecated since Python 3.7. Use SSLContext.minimum_version and SSLContext.maximum_version instead.

SSLContext.post_handshake_auth

Enable TLS 1.3 post-handshake client authentication. Post-handshake auth is disabled by default and a server can only request a TLS client certificate during the initial handshake. When enabled, a server may request a TLS client certificate at any time after the handshake.

When enabled on client-side sockets, the client signals the server that it supports post-handshake authentication.

When enabled on server-side sockets, SSLContext.verify_mode must be set to CERT_OPTIONAL or CERT_REQUIRED, too. The actual client cert exchange is delayed until SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake() is called and some I/O is performed.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

SSLContext.protocol

The protocol version chosen when constructing the context. This attribute is read-only.

SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name

Whether check_hostname falls back to verify the cert's subject common name in the absence of a subject alternative name extension (default: true).

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: The flag had no effect with OpenSSL before version 1.1.1l. Python 3.8.9, 3.9.3, and 3.10 include workarounds for previous versions.

SSLContext.security_level

An integer representing the security level [https://docs.openssl.org/master/man3/SSL_CTX_get_security_level/] for the context. This attribute is read-only.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

SSLContext.verify_flags

The flags for certificate verification operations. You can set flags like VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_LEAF by ORing them together. By default OpenSSL does neither require nor verify certificate revocation lists (CRLs).

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: SSLContext.verify_flags returns VerifyFlags flags:

>>> ssl.create_default_context().verify_flags
<VerifyFlags.VERIFY_X509_TRUSTED_FIRST: 32768>

SSLContext.verify_mode

Whether to try to verify other peers' certificates and how to behave if verification fails. This attribute must be one of CERT_NONE, CERT_OPTIONAL or CERT_REQUIRED.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: SSLContext.verify_mode returns VerifyMode enum:

>>> ssl.create_default_context().verify_mode
<VerifyMode.CERT_REQUIRED: 2>

SSLContext.set_psk_client_callback(callback)

Enables TLS-PSK (pre-shared key) authentication on a client-side connection.

In general, certificate based authentication should be preferred over this method.

The parameter callback is a callable object with the signature: def callback(hint: str | None) -> tuple[str | None, bytes]. The hint parameter is an optional identity hint sent by the server. The return value is a tuple in the form (client-identity, psk). Client-identity is an optional string which may be used by the server to select a corresponding PSK for the client. The string must be less than or equal to 256 octets when UTF-8 encoded. PSK is a bytes-like object representing the pre-shared key. Return a zero length PSK to reject the connection.

Setting callback to None removes any existing callback.

Note

When using TLS 1.3:

the hint parameter is always None.

client-identity must be a non-empty string.

Example usage:

context = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT)
context.check_hostname = False
context.verify_mode = ssl.CERT_NONE
context.maximum_version = ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_2
context.set_ciphers('PSK')

# A simple lambda:
psk = bytes.fromhex('c0ffee')
context.set_psk_client_callback(lambda hint: (None, psk))

# A table using the hint from the server:
psk_table = { 'ServerId_1': bytes.fromhex('c0ffee'),
              'ServerId_2': bytes.fromhex('facade')
}
def callback(hint):
    return 'ClientId_1', psk_table.get(hint, b'')
context.set_psk_client_callback(callback)

This method will raise NotImplementedError if HAS_PSK is False.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

SSLContext.set_psk_server_callback(callback, identity_hint=None)

Enables TLS-PSK (pre-shared key) authentication on a server-side connection.

In general, certificate based authentication should be preferred over this method.

The parameter callback is a callable object with the signature: def callback(identity: str | None) -> bytes. The identity parameter is an optional identity sent by the client which can be used to select a corresponding PSK. The return value is a bytes-like object representing the pre-shared key. Return a zero length PSK to reject the connection.

Setting callback to None removes any existing callback.

The parameter identity_hint is an optional identity hint string sent to the client. The string must be less than or equal to 256 octets when UTF-8 encoded.

Note

When using TLS 1.3 the identity_hint parameter is not sent to the client.

Example usage:

context = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER)
context.maximum_version = ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_2
context.set_ciphers('PSK')

# A simple lambda:
psk = bytes.fromhex('c0ffee')
context.set_psk_server_callback(lambda identity: psk)

# A table using the identity of the client:
psk_table = { 'ClientId_1': bytes.fromhex('c0ffee'),
              'ClientId_2': bytes.fromhex('facade')
}
def callback(identity):
    return psk_table.get(identity, b'')
context.set_psk_server_callback(callback, 'ServerId_1')

This method will raise NotImplementedError if HAS_PSK is False.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Certificates

Certificates in general are part of a public-key / private-key system. In this system, each principal, (which may be a machine, or a person, or an organization) is assigned a unique two-part encryption key. One part of the key is public, and is called the public key; the other part is kept secret, and is called the private key. The two parts are related, in that if you encrypt a message with one of the parts, you can decrypt it with the other part, and only with the other part.

A certificate contains information about two principals. It contains the name of a subject, and the subject's public key. It also contains a statement by a second principal, the issuer, that the subject is who they claim to be, and that this is indeed the subject's public key. The issuer's statement is signed with the issuer's private key, which only the issuer knows. However, anyone can verify the issuer's statement by finding the issuer's public key, decrypting the statement with it, and comparing it to the other information in the certificate. The certificate also contains information about the time period over which it is valid. This is expressed as two fields, called "notBefore" and "notAfter".

In the Python use of certificates, a client or server can use a certificate to prove who they are. The other side of a network connection can also be required to produce a certificate, and that certificate can be validated to the satisfaction of the client or server that requires such validation. The connection attempt can be set to raise an exception if the validation fails. Validation is done automatically, by the underlying OpenSSL framework; the application need not concern itself with its mechanics. But the application does usually need to provide sets of certificates to allow this process to take place.

Python uses files to contain certificates. They should be formatted as "PEM" (see RFC 1422 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1422.html]), which is a base-64 encoded form wrapped with a header line and a footer line:

-----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
... (certificate in base64 PEM encoding) ...
-----END CERTIFICATE-----

Certificate chains

The Python files which contain certificates can contain a sequence of certificates, sometimes called a certificate chain. This chain should start with the specific certificate for the principal who "is" the client or server, and then the certificate for the issuer of that certificate, and then the certificate for the issuer of that certificate, and so on up the chain till you get to a certificate which is self-signed, that is, a certificate which has the same subject and issuer, sometimes called a root certificate. The certificates should just be concatenated together in the certificate file. For example, suppose we had a three certificate chain, from our server certificate to the certificate of the certification authority that signed our server certificate, to the root certificate of the agency which issued the certification authority's certificate:

-----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
... (certificate for your server)...
-----END CERTIFICATE-----
-----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
... (the certificate for the CA)...
-----END CERTIFICATE-----
-----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
... (the root certificate for the CA's issuer)...
-----END CERTIFICATE-----

CA certificates

If you are going to require validation of the other side of the connection's certificate, you need to provide a "CA certs" file, filled with the certificate chains for each issuer you are willing to trust. Again, this file just contains these chains concatenated together. For validation, Python will use the first chain it finds in the file which matches. The platform's certificates file can be used by calling SSLContext.load_default_certs(), this is done automatically with create_default_context().

Combined key and certificate

Often the private key is stored in the same file as the certificate; in this case, only the certfile parameter to SSLContext.load_cert_chain() needs to be passed. If the private key is stored with the certificate, it should come before the first certificate in the certificate chain:

-----BEGIN RSA PRIVATE KEY-----
... (private key in base64 encoding) ...
-----END RSA PRIVATE KEY-----
-----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
... (certificate in base64 PEM encoding) ...
-----END CERTIFICATE-----

Self-signed certificates

If you are going to create a server that provides SSL-encrypted connection services, you will need to acquire a certificate for that service. There are many ways of acquiring appropriate certificates, such as buying one from a certification authority. Another common practice is to generate a self-signed certificate. The simplest way to do this is with the OpenSSL package, using something like the following:

% openssl req -new -x509 -days 365 -nodes -out cert.pem -keyout cert.pem
Generating a 1024 bit RSA private key
.......++++++
.............................++++++
writing new private key to 'cert.pem'
-----
You are about to be asked to enter information that will be incorporated
into your certificate request.
What you are about to enter is what is called a Distinguished Name or a DN.
There are quite a few fields but you can leave some blank
For some fields there will be a default value,
If you enter '.', the field will be left blank.
-----
Country Name (2 letter code) [AU]:US
State or Province Name (full name) [Some-State]:MyState
Locality Name (eg, city) []:Some City
Organization Name (eg, company) [Internet Widgits Pty Ltd]:My Organization, Inc.
Organizational Unit Name (eg, section) []:My Group
Common Name (eg, YOUR name) []:myserver.mygroup.myorganization.com
Email Address []:ops@myserver.mygroup.myorganization.com
%

The disadvantage of a self-signed certificate is that it is its own root certificate, and no one else will have it in their cache of known (and trusted) root certificates.

Exemples

Testing for SSL support

To test for the presence of SSL support in a Python installation, user code should use the following idiom:

try:
    import ssl
except ImportError:
    pass
else:
    ...  # do something that requires SSL support

Client-side operation

This example creates a SSL context with the recommended security settings for client sockets, including automatic certificate verification:

>>> context = ssl.create_default_context()

If you prefer to tune security settings yourself, you might create a context from scratch (but beware that you might not get the settings right):

>>> context = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT)
>>> context.load_verify_locations("/etc/ssl/certs/ca-bundle.crt")

(this snippet assumes your operating system places a bundle of all CA certificates in /etc/ssl/certs/ca-bundle.crt; if not, you'll get an error and have to adjust the location)

The PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT protocol configures the context for cert validation and hostname verification. verify_mode is set to CERT_REQUIRED and check_hostname is set to True. All other protocols create SSL contexts with insecure defaults.

When you use the context to connect to a server, CERT_REQUIRED and check_hostname validate the server certificate: it ensures that the server certificate was signed with one of the CA certificates, checks the signature for correctness, and verifies other properties like validity and identity of the hostname:

>>> conn = context.wrap_socket(socket.socket(socket.AF_INET),
...                            server_hostname="www.python.org")
>>> conn.connect(("www.python.org", 443))

You may then fetch the certificate:

>>> cert = conn.getpeercert()

Visual inspection shows that the certificate does identify the desired service (that is, the HTTPS host www.python.org):

>>> pprint.pprint(cert)
{'OCSP': ('http://ocsp.digicert.com',),
 'caIssuers': ('http://cacerts.digicert.com/DigiCertSHA2ExtendedValidationServerCA.crt',),
 'crlDistributionPoints': ('http://crl3.digicert.com/sha2-ev-server-g1.crl',
                           'http://crl4.digicert.com/sha2-ev-server-g1.crl'),
 'issuer': ((('countryName', 'US'),),
            (('organizationName', 'DigiCert Inc'),),
            (('organizationalUnitName', 'www.digicert.com'),),
            (('commonName', 'DigiCert SHA2 Extended Validation Server CA'),)),
 'notAfter': 'Sep  9 12:00:00 2016 GMT',
 'notBefore': 'Sep  5 00:00:00 2014 GMT',
 'serialNumber': '01BB6F00122B177F36CAB49CEA8B6B26',
 'subject': ((('businessCategory', 'Private Organization'),),
             (('1.3.6.1.4.1.311.60.2.1.3', 'US'),),
             (('1.3.6.1.4.1.311.60.2.1.2', 'Delaware'),),
             (('serialNumber', '3359300'),),
             (('streetAddress', '16 Allen Rd'),),
             (('postalCode', '03894-4801'),),
             (('countryName', 'US'),),
             (('stateOrProvinceName', 'NH'),),
             (('localityName', 'Wolfeboro'),),
             (('organizationName', 'Python Software Foundation'),),
             (('commonName', 'www.python.org'),)),
 'subjectAltName': (('DNS', 'www.python.org'),
                    ('DNS', 'python.org'),
                    ('DNS', 'pypi.org'),
                    ('DNS', 'docs.python.org'),
                    ('DNS', 'testpypi.org'),
                    ('DNS', 'bugs.python.org'),
                    ('DNS', 'wiki.python.org'),
                    ('DNS', 'hg.python.org'),
                    ('DNS', 'mail.python.org'),
                    ('DNS', 'packaging.python.org'),
                    ('DNS', 'pythonhosted.org'),
                    ('DNS', 'www.pythonhosted.org'),
                    ('DNS', 'test.pythonhosted.org'),
                    ('DNS', 'us.pycon.org'),
                    ('DNS', 'id.python.org')),
 'version': 3}

Now the SSL channel is established and the certificate verified, you can proceed to talk with the server:

>>> conn.sendall(b"HEAD / HTTP/1.0\r\nHost: linuxfr.org\r\n\r\n")
>>> pprint.pprint(conn.recv(1024).split(b"\r\n"))
[b'HTTP/1.1 200 OK',
 b'Date: Sat, 18 Oct 2014 18:27:20 GMT',
 b'Server: nginx',
 b'Content-Type: text/html; charset=utf-8',
 b'X-Frame-Options: SAMEORIGIN',
 b'Content-Length: 45679',
 b'Accept-Ranges: bytes',
 b'Via: 1.1 varnish',
 b'Age: 2188',
 b'X-Served-By: cache-lcy1134-LCY',
 b'X-Cache: HIT',
 b'X-Cache-Hits: 11',
 b'Vary: Cookie',
 b'Strict-Transport-Security: max-age=63072000; includeSubDomains',
 b'Connection: close',
 b'',
 b'']

See the discussion of Security considerations below.

Server-side operation

For server operation, typically you'll need to have a server certificate, and private key, each in a file. You'll first create a context holding the key and the certificate, so that clients can check your authenticity. Then you'll open a socket, bind it to a port, call listen() on it, and start waiting for clients to connect:

import socket, ssl

context = ssl.create_default_context(ssl.Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH)
context.load_cert_chain(certfile="mycertfile", keyfile="mykeyfile")

bindsocket = socket.socket()
bindsocket.bind(('myaddr.example.com', 10023))
bindsocket.listen(5)

When a client connects, you'll call accept() on the socket to get the new socket from the other end, and use the context's SSLContext.wrap_socket() method to create a server-side SSL socket for the connection:

while True:
    newsocket, fromaddr = bindsocket.accept()
    connstream = context.wrap_socket(newsocket, server_side=True)
    try:
        deal_with_client(connstream)
    finally:
        connstream.shutdown(socket.SHUT_RDWR)
        connstream.close()

Then you'll read data from the connstream and do something with it till you are finished with the client (or the client is finished with you):

def deal_with_client(connstream):
    data = connstream.recv(1024)
    # empty data means the client is finished with us
    while data:
        if not do_something(connstream, data):
            # we'll assume do_something returns False
            # when we're finished with client
            break
        data = connstream.recv(1024)
    # finished with client

And go back to listening for new client connections (of course, a real server would probably handle each client connection in a separate thread, or put the sockets in non-blocking mode and use an event loop).

Notes on non-blocking sockets

SSL sockets behave slightly different than regular sockets in non-blocking mode. When working with non-blocking sockets, there are thus several things you need to be aware of:

Most SSLSocket methods will raise either SSLWantWriteError or SSLWantReadError instead of BlockingIOError if an I/O operation would block. SSLWantReadError will be raised if a read operation on the underlying socket is necessary, and SSLWantWriteError for a write operation on the underlying socket. Note that attempts to write to an SSL socket may require reading from the underlying socket first, and attempts to read from the SSL socket may require a prior write to the underlying socket.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: In earlier Python versions, the SSLSocket.send() method returned zero instead of raising SSLWantWriteError or SSLWantReadError.

Calling select() tells you that the OS-level socket can be read from (or written to), but it does not imply that there is sufficient data at the upper SSL layer. For example, only part of an SSL frame might have arrived. Therefore, you must be ready to handle SSLSocket.recv() and SSLSocket.send() failures, and retry after another call to select().

Conversely, since the SSL layer has its own framing, a SSL socket may still have data available for reading without select() being aware of it. Therefore, you should first call SSLSocket.recv() to drain any potentially available data, and then only block on a select() call if still necessary.

(of course, similar provisions apply when using other primitives such as poll(), or those in the selectors module)

The SSL handshake itself will be non-blocking: the SSLSocket.do_handshake() method has to be retried until it returns successfully. Here is a synopsis using select() to wait for the socket's readiness:

while True:
    try:
        sock.do_handshake()
        break
    except ssl.SSLWantReadError:
        select.select([sock], [], [])
    except ssl.SSLWantWriteError:
        select.select([], [sock], [])

Voir aussi

The asyncio module supports non-blocking SSL sockets and provides a higher level Streams API. It polls for events using the selectors module and handles SSLWantWriteError, SSLWantReadError and BlockingIOError exceptions. It runs the SSL handshake asynchronously as well.

Memory BIO support

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Ever since the SSL module was introduced in Python 2.6, the SSLSocket class has provided two related but distinct areas of functionality:

SSL protocol handling

Network IO

The network IO API is identical to that provided by socket.socket, from which SSLSocket also inherits. This allows an SSL socket to be used as a drop-in replacement for a regular socket, making it very easy to add SSL support to an existing application.

Combining SSL protocol handling and network IO usually works well, but there are some cases where it doesn't. An example is async IO frameworks that want to use a different IO multiplexing model than the "select/poll on a file descriptor" (readiness based) model that is assumed by socket.socket and by the internal OpenSSL socket IO routines. This is mostly relevant for platforms like Windows where this model is not efficient. For this purpose, a reduced scope variant of SSLSocket called SSLObject is provided.

class ssl.SSLObject

A reduced-scope variant of SSLSocket representing an SSL protocol instance that does not contain any network IO methods. This class is typically used by framework authors that want to implement asynchronous IO for SSL through memory buffers.

This class implements an interface on top of a low-level SSL object as implemented by OpenSSL. This object captures the state of an SSL connection but does not provide any network IO itself. IO needs to be performed through separate "BIO" objects which are OpenSSL's IO abstraction layer.

This class has no public constructor. An SSLObject instance must be created using the wrap_bio() method. This method will create the SSLObject instance and bind it to a pair of BIOs. The incoming BIO is used to pass data from Python to the SSL protocol instance, while the outgoing BIO is used to pass data the other way around.

The following methods are available:

context

server_side

server_hostname

session

session_reused

read()

write()

getpeercert()

get_verified_chain()

get_unverified_chain()

selected_alpn_protocol()

selected_npn_protocol()

cipher()

shared_ciphers()

compression()

pending()

do_handshake()

verify_client_post_handshake()

unwrap()

get_channel_binding()

version()

When compared to SSLSocket, this object lacks the following features:

Any form of network IO; recv() and send() read and write only to the underlying MemoryBIO buffers.

There is no do_handshake_on_connect machinery. You must always manually call do_handshake() to start the handshake.

There is no handling of suppress_ragged_eofs. All end-of-file conditions that are in violation of the protocol are reported via the SSLEOFError exception.

The method unwrap() call does not return anything, unlike for an SSL socket where it returns the underlying socket.

The server_name_callback callback passed to SSLContext.set_servername_callback() will get an SSLObject instance instead of a SSLSocket instance as its first parameter.

Some notes related to the use of SSLObject:

All IO on an SSLObject is non-blocking. This means that for example read() will raise an SSLWantReadError if it needs more data than the incoming BIO has available.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: SSLObject instances must be created with wrap_bio(). In earlier versions, it was possible to create instances directly. This was never documented or officially supported.

An SSLObject communicates with the outside world using memory buffers. The class MemoryBIO provides a memory buffer that can be used for this purpose. It wraps an OpenSSL memory BIO (Basic IO) object:

class ssl.MemoryBIO

A memory buffer that can be used to pass data between Python and an SSL protocol instance.

pending

Return the number of bytes currently in the memory buffer.

eof

A boolean indicating whether the memory BIO is current at the end-of-file position.

read(n=-1, /)

Read up to n bytes from the memory buffer. If n is not specified or negative, all bytes are returned.

write(buf, /)

Write the bytes from buf to the memory BIO. The buf argument must be an object supporting the buffer protocol.

The return value is the number of bytes written, which is always equal to the length of buf.

write_eof()

Write an EOF marker to the memory BIO. After this method has been called, it is illegal to call write(). The attribute eof will become true after all data currently in the buffer has been read.

SSL session

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

class ssl.SSLSession

Session object used by session.

id

time

timeout

ticket_lifetime_hint

has_ticket

Security considerations

Best defaults

For client use, if you don't have any special requirements for your security policy, it is highly recommended that you use the create_default_context() function to create your SSL context. It will load the system's trusted CA certificates, enable certificate validation and hostname checking, and try to choose reasonably secure protocol and cipher settings.

For example, here is how you would use the smtplib.SMTP class to create a trusted, secure connection to a SMTP server:

>>> import ssl, smtplib
>>> smtp = smtplib.SMTP("mail.python.org", port=587)
>>> context = ssl.create_default_context()
>>> smtp.starttls(context=context)
(220, b'2.0.0 Ready to start TLS')

If a client certificate is needed for the connection, it can be added with SSLContext.load_cert_chain().

By contrast, if you create the SSL context by calling the SSLContext constructor yourself, it will not have certificate validation nor hostname checking enabled by default. If you do so, please read the paragraphs below to achieve a good security level.

Manual settings

Verifying certificates

When calling the SSLContext constructor directly, CERT_NONE is the default. Since it does not authenticate the other peer, it can be insecure, especially in client mode where most of the time you would like to ensure the authenticity of the server you're talking to. Therefore, when in client mode, it is highly recommended to use CERT_REQUIRED. However, it is in itself not sufficient; you also have to check that the server certificate, which can be obtained by calling SSLSocket.getpeercert(), matches the desired service. For many protocols and applications, the service can be identified by the hostname. This common check is automatically performed when SSLContext.check_hostname is enabled.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Hostname matchings is now performed by OpenSSL. Python no longer uses match_hostname().

In server mode, if you want to authenticate your clients using the SSL layer (rather than using a higher-level authentication mechanism), you'll also have to specify CERT_REQUIRED and similarly check the client certificate.

Protocol versions

SSL versions 2 and 3 are considered insecure and are therefore dangerous to use. If you want maximum compatibility between clients and servers, it is recommended to use PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT or PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER as the protocol version. SSLv2 and SSLv3 are disabled by default.

>>> client_context = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT)
>>> client_context.minimum_version = ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_3
>>> client_context.maximum_version = ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_3

The SSL context created above will only allow TLSv1.3 and later (if supported by your system) connections to a server. PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT implies certificate validation and hostname checks by default. You have to load certificates into the context.

Cipher selection

If you have advanced security requirements, fine-tuning of the ciphers enabled when negotiating a SSL session is possible through the SSLContext.set_ciphers() method. Starting from Python 3.2.3, the ssl module disables certain weak ciphers by default, but you may want to further restrict the cipher choice. Be sure to read OpenSSL's documentation about the cipher list format [https://docs.openssl.org/1.1.1/man1/ciphers/#cipher-list-format]. If you want to check which ciphers are enabled by a given cipher list, use SSLContext.get_ciphers() or the openssl ciphers command on your system.

Multi-processing

If using this module as part of a multi-processed application (using, for example the multiprocessing or concurrent.futures modules), be aware that OpenSSL's internal random number generator does not properly handle forked processes. Applications must change the PRNG state of the parent process if they use any SSL feature with os.fork(). Any successful call of RAND_add() or RAND_bytes() is sufficient.

TLS 1.3

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

The TLS 1.3 protocol behaves slightly differently than previous version of TLS/SSL. Some new TLS 1.3 features are not yet available.

TLS 1.3 uses a disjunct set of cipher suites. All AES-GCM and ChaCha20 cipher suites are enabled by default. The method SSLContext.set_ciphers() cannot enable or disable any TLS 1.3 ciphers yet, but SSLContext.get_ciphers() returns them.

Session tickets are no longer sent as part of the initial handshake and are handled differently. SSLSocket.session and SSLSession are not compatible with TLS 1.3.

Client-side certificates are also no longer verified during the initial handshake. A server can request a certificate at any time. Clients process certificate requests while they send or receive application data from the server.

TLS 1.3 features like early data, deferred TLS client cert request, signature algorithm configuration, and rekeying are not supported yet.

Voir aussi

Class socket.socket

Documentation of underlying socket class

SSL/TLS Strong Encryption: An Introduction [https://httpd.apache.org/docs/trunk/en/ssl/ssl_intro.html]

Intro from the Apache HTTP Server documentation

RFC 1422: Privacy Enhancement for Internet Electronic Mail: Part II: Certificate-Based Key Management [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1422.html]

Steve Kent

RFC 4086: Randomness Requirements for Security [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4086.html]

Donald E. Eastlake, Jeffrey I. Schiller, Steve Crocker

RFC 5280: Internet X.509 Public Key Infrastructure Certificate and Certificate Revocation List (CRL) Profile [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5280.html]

David Cooper et al.

RFC 5246: The Transport Layer Security (TLS) Protocol Version 1.2 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5246.html]

Tim Dierks and Eric Rescorla.

RFC 6066: Transport Layer Security (TLS) Extensions [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6066.html]

Donald E. Eastlake

IANA TLS: Transport Layer Security (TLS) Parameters [https://www.iana.org/assignments/tls-parameters/tls-parameters.xml]

IANA

RFC 7525: Recommendations for Secure Use of Transport Layer Security (TLS) and Datagram Transport Layer Security (DTLS) [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7525.html]

IETF

Mozilla's Server Side TLS recommendations [https://wiki.mozilla.org/Security/Server_Side_TLS]

Mozilla

select --- Waiting for I/O completion

This module provides access to the select() and poll() functions available in most operating systems, devpoll() available on Solaris and derivatives, epoll() available on Linux 2.5+ and kqueue() available on most BSD. Note that on Windows, it only works for sockets; on other operating systems, it also works for other file types (in particular, on Unix, it works on pipes). It cannot be used on regular files to determine whether a file has grown since it was last read.

Note

The selectors module allows high-level and efficient I/O multiplexing, built upon the select module primitives. Users are encouraged to use the selectors module instead, unless they want precise control over the OS-level primitives used.

Disponibilité: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly. See Plateformes WebAssembly for more information.

Le module définit :

exception select.error

A deprecated alias of OSError.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Following PEP 3151 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3151/], this class was made an alias of OSError.

select.devpoll()

(Only supported on Solaris and derivatives.) Returns a /dev/poll polling object; see section /dev/poll Polling Objects below for the methods supported by devpoll objects.

devpoll() objects are linked to the number of file descriptors allowed at the time of instantiation. If your program reduces this value, devpoll() will fail. If your program increases this value, devpoll() may return an incomplete list of active file descriptors.

The new file descriptor is non-inheritable.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Le nouveau descripteur de fichier est maintenant non-héritable.

select.epoll(sizehint=-1, flags=0)

(Only supported on Linux 2.5.44 and newer.) Return an edge polling object, which can be used as Edge or Level Triggered interface for I/O events.

sizehint informs epoll about the expected number of events to be registered. It must be positive, or -1 to use the default. It is only used on older systems where epoll_create1() is not available; otherwise it has no effect (though its value is still checked).

flags is deprecated and completely ignored. However, when supplied, its value must be 0 or select.EPOLL_CLOEXEC, otherwise OSError is raised.

See the Edge and Level Trigger Polling (epoll) Objects section below for the methods supported by epolling objects.

epoll objects support the context management protocol: when used in a with statement, the new file descriptor is automatically closed at the end of the block.

The new file descriptor is non-inheritable.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Added the flags parameter.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Support for the with statement was added. The new file descriptor is now non-inheritable.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.4: The flags parameter. select.EPOLL_CLOEXEC is used by default now. Use os.set_inheritable() to make the file descriptor inheritable.

select.poll()

(Not supported by all operating systems.) Returns a polling object, which supports registering and unregistering file descriptors, and then polling them for I/O events; see section Polling Objects below for the methods supported by polling objects.

select.kqueue()

(Only supported on BSD.) Returns a kernel queue object; see section Kqueue Objects below for the methods supported by kqueue objects.

The new file descriptor is non-inheritable.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Le nouveau descripteur de fichier est maintenant non-héritable.

select.kevent(ident, filter=KQ_FILTER_READ, flags=KQ_EV_ADD, fflags=0, data=0, udata=0)

(Only supported on BSD.) Returns a kernel event object; see section Kevent Objects below for the methods supported by kevent objects.

select.select(rlist, wlist, xlist, timeout=None)

This is a straightforward interface to the Unix select() system call. The first three arguments are iterables of 'waitable objects': either integers representing file descriptors or objects with a parameterless method named fileno() returning such an integer:

rlist: wait until ready for reading

wlist: wait until ready for writing

xlist: wait for an "exceptional condition" (see the manual page for what your system considers such a condition)

Empty iterables are allowed, but acceptance of three empty iterables is platform-dependent. (It is known to work on Unix but not on Windows.) The optional timeout argument specifies a time-out as a floating-point number in seconds. When the timeout argument is omitted or None, the function blocks until at least one file descriptor is ready. A time-out value of zero specifies a poll and never blocks.

The return value is a triple of lists of objects that are ready: subsets of the first three arguments. When the time-out is reached without a file descriptor becoming ready, three empty lists are returned.

Among the acceptable object types in the iterables are Python file objects (e.g. sys.stdin, or objects returned by open() or os.popen()), socket objects returned by socket.socket(). You may also define a wrapper class yourself, as long as it has an appropriate fileno() method (that really returns a file descriptor, not just a random integer).

Note

File objects on Windows are not acceptable, but sockets are. On Windows, the underlying select() function is provided by the WinSock library, and does not handle file descriptors that don't originate from WinSock.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: The function is now retried with a recomputed timeout when interrupted by a signal, except if the signal handler raises an exception (see PEP 475 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/] for the rationale), instead of raising InterruptedError.

select.PIPE_BUF

The minimum number of bytes which can be written without blocking to a pipe when the pipe has been reported as ready for writing by select(), poll() or another interface in this module. This doesn't apply to other kinds of file-like objects such as sockets.

This value is guaranteed by POSIX to be at least 512.

Disponibilité: Unix

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

/dev/poll Polling Objects

Solaris and derivatives have /dev/poll. While select() is O(highest file descriptor) and poll() is O(number of file descriptors), /dev/poll is O(active file descriptors).

/dev/poll behaviour is very close to the standard poll() object.

devpoll.close()

Close the file descriptor of the polling object.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

devpoll.closed

True if the polling object is closed.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

devpoll.fileno()

Return the file descriptor number of the polling object.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

devpoll.register(fd[, eventmask])

Register a file descriptor with the polling object. Future calls to the poll() method will then check whether the file descriptor has any pending I/O events. fd can be either an integer, or an object with a fileno() method that returns an integer. File objects implement fileno(), so they can also be used as the argument.

eventmask is an optional bitmask describing the type of events you want to check for. The constants are the same as with poll() object. The default value is a combination of the constants POLLIN, POLLPRI, and POLLOUT.

Avertissement

Registering a file descriptor that's already registered is not an error, but the result is undefined. The appropriate action is to unregister or modify it first. This is an important difference compared with poll().

devpoll.modify(fd[, eventmask])

This method does an unregister() followed by a register(). It is (a bit) more efficient than doing the same explicitly.

devpoll.unregister(fd)

Remove a file descriptor being tracked by a polling object. Just like the register() method, fd can be an integer or an object with a fileno() method that returns an integer.

Attempting to remove a file descriptor that was never registered is safely ignored.

devpoll.poll([timeout])

Polls the set of registered file descriptors, and returns a possibly empty list containing (fd, event) 2-tuples for the descriptors that have events or errors to report. fd is the file descriptor, and event is a bitmask with bits set for the reported events for that descriptor --- POLLIN for waiting input, POLLOUT to indicate that the descriptor can be written to, and so forth. An empty list indicates that the call timed out and no file descriptors had any events to report. If timeout is given, it specifies the length of time in milliseconds which the system will wait for events before returning. If timeout is omitted, -1, or None, the call will block until there is an event for this poll object.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: The function is now retried with a recomputed timeout when interrupted by a signal, except if the signal handler raises an exception (see PEP 475 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/] for the rationale), instead of raising InterruptedError.

Edge and Level Trigger Polling (epoll) Objects

https://linux.die.net/man/4/epoll

eventmask

Constante

Signification

EPOLLIN

Available for read

EPOLLOUT

Available for write

EPOLLPRI

Urgent data for read

EPOLLERR

Error condition happened on the assoc. fd

EPOLLHUP

Hang up happened on the assoc. fd

EPOLLET

Set Edge Trigger behavior, the default is Level Trigger behavior

EPOLLONESHOT

Set one-shot behavior. After one event is pulled out, the fd is internally disabled

EPOLLEXCLUSIVE

Wake only one epoll object when the associated fd has an event. The default (if this flag is not set) is to wake all epoll objects polling on a fd.

EPOLLRDHUP

Stream socket peer closed connection or shut down writing half of connection.

EPOLLRDNORM

Equivalent to EPOLLIN

EPOLLRDBAND

Priority data band can be read.

EPOLLWRNORM

Equivalent to EPOLLOUT

EPOLLWRBAND

Priority data may be written.

EPOLLMSG

Ignored.

EPOLLWAKEUP

Prevents sleep during event waiting.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6: EPOLLEXCLUSIVE was added. It's only supported by Linux Kernel 4.5 or later.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14: EPOLLWAKEUP was added. It's only supported by Linux Kernel 3.5 or later.

epoll.close()

Close the control file descriptor of the epoll object.

epoll.closed

True if the epoll object is closed.

epoll.fileno()

Return the file descriptor number of the control fd.

epoll.fromfd(fd)

Create an epoll object from a given file descriptor.

epoll.register(fd[, eventmask])

Register a fd descriptor with the epoll object.

epoll.modify(fd, eventmask)

Modify a registered file descriptor.

epoll.unregister(fd)

Remove a registered file descriptor from the epoll object.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: The method no longer ignores the EBADF error.

epoll.poll(timeout=None, maxevents=-1)

Wait for events. timeout in seconds (float)

Modifié dans la version 3.5: The function is now retried with a recomputed timeout when interrupted by a signal, except if the signal handler raises an exception (see PEP 475 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/] for the rationale), instead of raising InterruptedError.

Polling Objects

The poll() system call, supported on most Unix systems, provides better scalability for network servers that service many, many clients at the same time. poll() scales better because the system call only requires listing the file descriptors of interest, while select() builds a bitmap, turns on bits for the fds of interest, and then afterward the whole bitmap has to be linearly scanned again. select() is O(highest file descriptor), while poll() is O(number of file descriptors).

poll.register(fd[, eventmask])

Register a file descriptor with the polling object. Future calls to the poll() method will then check whether the file descriptor has any pending I/O events. fd can be either an integer, or an object with a fileno() method that returns an integer. File objects implement fileno(), so they can also be used as the argument.

eventmask is an optional bitmask describing the type of events you want to check for, and can be a combination of the constants POLLIN, POLLPRI, and POLLOUT, described in the table below. If not specified, the default value used will check for all 3 types of events.

Constante

Signification

POLLIN

There is data to read

POLLPRI

There is urgent data to read

POLLOUT

Ready for output: writing will not block

POLLERR

Error condition of some sort

POLLHUP

Hung up

POLLRDHUP

Stream socket peer closed connection, or shut down writing half of connection

POLLNVAL

Invalid request: descriptor not open

Registering a file descriptor that's already registered is not an error, and has the same effect as registering the descriptor exactly once.

poll.modify(fd, eventmask)

Modifies an already registered fd. This has the same effect as register(fd, eventmask). Attempting to modify a file descriptor that was never registered causes an OSError exception with errno ENOENT to be raised.

poll.unregister(fd)

Remove a file descriptor being tracked by a polling object. Just like the register() method, fd can be an integer or an object with a fileno() method that returns an integer.

Attempting to remove a file descriptor that was never registered causes a KeyError exception to be raised.

poll.poll([timeout])

Polls the set of registered file descriptors, and returns a possibly empty list containing (fd, event) 2-tuples for the descriptors that have events or errors to report. fd is the file descriptor, and event is a bitmask with bits set for the reported events for that descriptor --- POLLIN for waiting input, POLLOUT to indicate that the descriptor can be written to, and so forth. An empty list indicates that the call timed out and no file descriptors had any events to report. If timeout is given, it specifies the length of time in milliseconds which the system will wait for events before returning. If timeout is omitted, negative, or None, the call will block until there is an event for this poll object.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: The function is now retried with a recomputed timeout when interrupted by a signal, except if the signal handler raises an exception (see PEP 475 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/] for the rationale), instead of raising InterruptedError.

Kqueue Objects

kqueue.close()

Close the control file descriptor of the kqueue object.

kqueue.closed

True if the kqueue object is closed.

kqueue.fileno()

Return the file descriptor number of the control fd.

kqueue.fromfd(fd)

Create a kqueue object from a given file descriptor.

kqueue.control(changelist, max_events[, timeout]) → eventlist

Low level interface to kevent

changelist must be an iterable of kevent objects or None

max_events must be 0 or a positive integer

timeout in seconds (floats possible); the default is None, to wait forever

Modifié dans la version 3.5: The function is now retried with a recomputed timeout when interrupted by a signal, except if the signal handler raises an exception (see PEP 475 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/] for the rationale), instead of raising InterruptedError.

Kevent Objects

https://man.freebsd.org/cgi/man.cgi?query=kqueue&sektion=2

kevent.ident

Value used to identify the event. The interpretation depends on the filter but it's usually the file descriptor. In the constructor ident can either be an int or an object with a fileno() method. kevent stores the integer internally.

kevent.filter

Name of the kernel filter.

Constante

Signification

KQ_FILTER_READ

Takes a descriptor and returns whenever there is data available to read

KQ_FILTER_WRITE

Takes a descriptor and returns whenever there is data available to write

KQ_FILTER_AIO

AIO requests

KQ_FILTER_VNODE

Returns when one or more of the requested events watched in fflag occurs

KQ_FILTER_PROC

Watch for events on a process id

KQ_FILTER_NETDEV

Watch for events on a network device [not available on macOS]

KQ_FILTER_SIGNAL

Returns whenever the watched signal is delivered to the process

KQ_FILTER_TIMER

Establishes an arbitrary timer

kevent.flags

Filter action.

Constante

Signification

KQ_EV_ADD

Adds or modifies an event

KQ_EV_DELETE

Removes an event from the queue

KQ_EV_ENABLE

Permits control() to return the event

KQ_EV_DISABLE

Disables event

KQ_EV_ONESHOT

Removes event after first occurrence

KQ_EV_CLEAR

Reset the state after an event is retrieved

KQ_EV_SYSFLAGS

internal event

KQ_EV_FLAG1

internal event

KQ_EV_EOF

Filter specific EOF condition

KQ_EV_ERROR

See return values

kevent.fflags

Filter specific flags.

KQ_FILTER_READ and KQ_FILTER_WRITE filter flags:

Constante

Signification

KQ_NOTE_LOWAT

low water mark of a socket buffer

KQ_FILTER_VNODE filter flags:

Constante

Signification

KQ_NOTE_DELETE

unlink() was called

KQ_NOTE_WRITE

a write occurred

KQ_NOTE_EXTEND

the file was extended

KQ_NOTE_ATTRIB

an attribute was changed

KQ_NOTE_LINK

the link count has changed

KQ_NOTE_RENAME

the file was renamed

KQ_NOTE_REVOKE

access to the file was revoked

KQ_FILTER_PROC filter flags:

Constante

Signification

KQ_NOTE_EXIT

the process has exited

KQ_NOTE_FORK

the process has called fork()

KQ_NOTE_EXEC

the process has executed a new process

KQ_NOTE_PCTRLMASK

internal filter flag

KQ_NOTE_PDATAMASK

internal filter flag

KQ_NOTE_TRACK

follow a process across fork()

KQ_NOTE_CHILD

returned on the child process for NOTE_TRACK

KQ_NOTE_TRACKERR

unable to attach to a child

KQ_FILTER_NETDEV filter flags (not available on macOS):

Constante

Signification

KQ_NOTE_LINKUP

link is up

KQ_NOTE_LINKDOWN

link is down

KQ_NOTE_LINKINV

link state is invalid

kevent.data

Filter specific data.

kevent.udata

User defined value.

selectors --- High-level I/O multiplexing

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Source code: Lib/selectors.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/selectors.py]

Introduction

This module allows high-level and efficient I/O multiplexing, built upon the select module primitives. Users are encouraged to use this module instead, unless they want precise control over the OS-level primitives used.

It defines a BaseSelector abstract base class, along with several concrete implementations (KqueueSelector, EpollSelector...), that can be used to wait for I/O readiness notification on multiple file objects. In the following, "file object" refers to any object with a fileno() method, or a raw file descriptor. See file object.

DefaultSelector is an alias to the most efficient implementation available on the current platform: this should be the default choice for most users.

Note

The type of file objects supported depends on the platform: on Windows, sockets are supported, but not pipes, whereas on Unix, both are supported (some other types may be supported as well, such as fifos or special file devices).

Voir aussi

select

Low-level I/O multiplexing module.

Disponibilité: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly. See Plateformes WebAssembly for more information.

Classes

Classes hierarchy:

BaseSelector
+-- SelectSelector
+-- PollSelector
+-- EpollSelector
+-- DevpollSelector
+-- KqueueSelector

In the following, events is a bitwise mask indicating which I/O events should be waited for on a given file object. It can be a combination of the module's constants below:

Constante

Signification

selectors.EVENT_READ

Available for read

selectors.EVENT_WRITE

Available for write

class selectors.SelectorKey

A SelectorKey is a namedtuple used to associate a file object to its underlying file descriptor, selected event mask and attached data. It is returned by several BaseSelector methods.

fileobj

File object registered.

fd

Underlying file descriptor.

events

Events that must be waited for on this file object.

data

Optional opaque data associated to this file object: for example, this could be used to store a per-client session ID.

class selectors.BaseSelector

A BaseSelector is used to wait for I/O event readiness on multiple file objects. It supports file stream registration, unregistration, and a method to wait for I/O events on those streams, with an optional timeout. It's an abstract base class, so cannot be instantiated. Use DefaultSelector instead, or one of SelectSelector, KqueueSelector etc. if you want to specifically use an implementation, and your platform supports it. BaseSelector and its concrete implementations support the context manager protocol.

abstractmethod register(fileobj, events, data=None)

Register a file object for selection, monitoring it for I/O events.

fileobj is the file object to monitor. It may either be an integer file descriptor or an object with a fileno() method. events is a bitwise mask of events to monitor. data is an opaque object.

This returns a new SelectorKey instance, or raises a ValueError in case of invalid event mask or file descriptor, or KeyError if the file object is already registered.

abstractmethod unregister(fileobj)

Unregister a file object from selection, removing it from monitoring. A file object shall be unregistered prior to being closed.

fileobj must be a file object previously registered.

This returns the associated SelectorKey instance, or raises a KeyError if fileobj is not registered. It will raise ValueError if fileobj is invalid (e.g. it has no fileno() method or its fileno() method has an invalid return value).

modify(fileobj, events, data=None)

Change a registered file object's monitored events or attached data.

This is equivalent to BaseSelector.unregister(fileobj) followed by BaseSelector.register(fileobj, events, data), except that it can be implemented more efficiently.

This returns a new SelectorKey instance, or raises a ValueError in case of invalid event mask or file descriptor, or KeyError if the file object is not registered.

abstractmethod select(timeout=None)

Wait until some registered file objects become ready, or the timeout expires.

If timeout > 0, this specifies the maximum wait time, in seconds. If timeout <= 0, the call won't block, and will report the currently ready file objects. If timeout is None, the call will block until a monitored file object becomes ready.

This returns a list of (key, events) tuples, one for each ready file object.

key is the SelectorKey instance corresponding to a ready file object. events is a bitmask of events ready on this file object.

Note

This method can return before any file object becomes ready or the timeout has elapsed if the current process receives a signal: in this case, an empty list will be returned.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: The selector is now retried with a recomputed timeout when interrupted by a signal if the signal handler did not raise an exception (see PEP 475 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/] for the rationale), instead of returning an empty list of events before the timeout.

close()

Close the selector.

This must be called to make sure that any underlying resource is freed. The selector shall not be used once it has been closed.

get_key(fileobj)

Return the key associated with a registered file object.

This returns the SelectorKey instance associated to this file object, or raises KeyError if the file object is not registered.

abstractmethod get_map()

Return a mapping of file objects to selector keys.

This returns a Mapping instance mapping registered file objects to their associated SelectorKey instance.

class selectors.DefaultSelector

The default selector class, using the most efficient implementation available on the current platform. This should be the default choice for most users.

class selectors.SelectSelector

select.select()-based selector.

class selectors.PollSelector

select.poll()-based selector.

class selectors.EpollSelector

select.epoll()-based selector.

fileno()

This returns the file descriptor used by the underlying select.epoll() object.

class selectors.DevpollSelector

select.devpoll()-based selector.

fileno()

This returns the file descriptor used by the underlying select.devpoll() object.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

class selectors.KqueueSelector

select.kqueue()-based selector.

fileno()

This returns the file descriptor used by the underlying select.kqueue() object.

Exemples

Here is a simple echo server implementation:

import selectors
import socket

sel = selectors.DefaultSelector()

def accept(sock, mask):
    conn, addr = sock.accept()  # Should be ready
    print('accepted', conn, 'from', addr)
    conn.setblocking(False)
    sel.register(conn, selectors.EVENT_READ, read)

def read(conn, mask):
    data = conn.recv(1000)  # Should be ready
    if data:
        print('echoing', repr(data), 'to', conn)
        conn.send(data)  # Hope it won't block
    else:
        print('closing', conn)
        sel.unregister(conn)
        conn.close()

sock = socket.socket()
sock.bind(('localhost', 1234))
sock.listen(100)
sock.setblocking(False)
sel.register(sock, selectors.EVENT_READ, accept)

while True:
    events = sel.select()
    for key, mask in events:
        callback = key.data
        callback(key.fileobj, mask)

signal --- Set handlers for asynchronous events

Source code: Lib/signal.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/signal.py]

This module provides mechanisms to use signal handlers in Python.

General rules

The signal.signal() function allows defining custom handlers to be executed when a signal is received. A small number of default handlers are installed: SIGPIPE is ignored (so write errors on pipes and sockets can be reported as ordinary Python exceptions) and SIGINT is translated into a KeyboardInterrupt exception if the parent process has not changed it.

A handler for a particular signal, once set, remains installed until it is explicitly reset (Python emulates the BSD style interface regardless of the underlying implementation), with the exception of the handler for SIGCHLD, which follows the underlying implementation.

On WebAssembly platforms, signals are emulated and therefore behave differently. Several functions and signals are not available on these platforms.

Execution of Python signal handlers

A Python signal handler does not get executed inside the low-level (C) signal handler. Instead, the low-level signal handler sets a flag which tells the virtual machine to execute the corresponding Python signal handler at a later point (for example, at the next bytecode instruction). This has consequences:

It makes little sense to catch synchronous errors like SIGFPE or SIGSEGV that are caused by an invalid operation in C code. Python will return from the signal handler to the C code, which is likely to raise the same signal again, causing Python to apparently hang. From Python 3.3 onwards, you can use the faulthandler module to report on synchronous errors.

A long-running calculation implemented purely in C (such as regular expression matching on a large body of text) may run uninterrupted for an arbitrary amount of time, regardless of any signals received. The Python signal handlers will be called when the calculation finishes.

If the handler raises an exception, it will be raised "out of thin air" in the main thread. See the note below for a discussion.

Signals and threads

Python signal handlers are always executed in the main Python thread of the main interpreter, even if the signal was received in another thread. This means that signals can't be used as a means of inter-thread communication. You can use the synchronization primitives from the threading module instead.

Besides, only the main thread of the main interpreter is allowed to set a new signal handler.

Avertissement

Synchronization primitives such as threading.Lock should not be used within signal handlers. Doing so can lead to unexpected deadlocks.

Module contents

Modifié dans la version 3.5: signal (SIG*), handler (SIG_DFL, SIG_IGN) and sigmask (SIG_BLOCK, SIG_UNBLOCK, SIG_SETMASK) related constants listed below were turned into enums (Signals, Handlers and Sigmasks respectively). getsignal(), pthread_sigmask(), sigpending() and sigwait() functions return human-readable enums as Signals objects.

The signal module defines three enums:

class signal.Signals

enum.IntEnum collection of SIG* constants and the CTRL_* constants.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

class signal.Handlers

enum.IntEnum collection of the constants SIG_DFL and SIG_IGN.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

class signal.Sigmasks

enum.IntEnum collection of the constants SIG_BLOCK, SIG_UNBLOCK and SIG_SETMASK.

Disponibilité: Unix.

See the man page sigprocmask(2) [https://manpages.debian.org/sigprocmask(2)] and pthread_sigmask(3) [https://manpages.debian.org/pthread_sigmask(3)] for further information.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

The variables defined in the signal module are:

signal.SIG_DFL

This is one of two standard signal handling options; it will simply perform the default function for the signal. For example, on most systems the default action for SIGQUIT is to dump core and exit, while the default action for SIGCHLD is to simply ignore it.

signal.SIG_IGN

This is another standard signal handler, which will simply ignore the given signal.

signal.SIGABRT

Abort signal from abort(3) [https://manpages.debian.org/abort(3)].

signal.SIGALRM

Timer signal from alarm(2) [https://manpages.debian.org/alarm(2)].

Disponibilité: Unix.

signal.SIGBREAK

Interrupt from keyboard (CTRL + BREAK).

Disponibilité: Windows.

signal.SIGBUS

Bus error (bad memory access).

Disponibilité: Unix.

signal.SIGCHLD

Child process stopped or terminated.

Disponibilité: Unix.

signal.SIGCLD

Alias to SIGCHLD.

Disponibilité: not macOS.

signal.SIGCONT

Continue the process if it is currently stopped

Disponibilité: Unix.

signal.SIGFPE

Floating-point exception. For example, division by zero.

Voir aussi

ZeroDivisionError is raised when the second argument of a division or modulo operation is zero.

signal.SIGHUP

Hangup detected on controlling terminal or death of controlling process.

Disponibilité: Unix.

signal.SIGILL

Illegal instruction.

signal.SIGINT

Interrupt from keyboard (CTRL + C).

Default action is to raise KeyboardInterrupt.

signal.SIGKILL

Kill signal.

It cannot be caught, blocked, or ignored.

Disponibilité: Unix.

signal.SIGPIPE

Broken pipe: write to pipe with no readers.

Default action is to ignore the signal.

Disponibilité: Unix.

signal.SIGPROF

Profiling timer expired.

Disponibilité: Unix.

signal.SIGQUIT

Terminal quit signal.

Disponibilité: Unix.

signal.SIGSEGV

Segmentation fault: invalid memory reference.

signal.SIGSTOP

Stop executing (cannot be caught or ignored).

Disponibilité: Unix.

signal.SIGSTKFLT

Stack fault on coprocessor. The Linux kernel does not raise this signal: it can only be raised in user space.

Disponibilité: Linux.

On architectures where the signal is available. See the man page signal(7) [https://manpages.debian.org/signal(7)] for further information.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

signal.SIGTERM

Termination signal.

signal.SIGUSR1

User-defined signal 1.

Disponibilité: Unix.

signal.SIGUSR2

User-defined signal 2.

Disponibilité: Unix.

signal.SIGVTALRM

Virtual timer expired.

Disponibilité: Unix.

signal.SIGWINCH

Window resize signal.

Disponibilité: Unix.

signal.SIGXCPU

CPU time limit exceeded.

Disponibilité: Unix.

SIG*

All the signal numbers are defined symbolically. For example, the hangup signal is defined as signal.SIGHUP; the variable names are identical to the names used in C programs, as found in <signal.h>. The Unix man page for 'signal' lists the existing signals (on some systems this is signal(2) [https://manpages.debian.org/signal(2)], on others the list is in signal(7) [https://manpages.debian.org/signal(7)]). Note that not all systems define the same set of signal names; only those names defined by the system are defined by this module.

signal.CTRL_C_EVENT

The signal corresponding to the Ctrl+C keystroke event. This signal can only be used with os.kill().

Disponibilité: Windows.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

signal.CTRL_BREAK_EVENT

The signal corresponding to the Ctrl+Break keystroke event. This signal can only be used with os.kill().

Disponibilité: Windows.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

signal.NSIG

One more than the number of the highest signal number. Use valid_signals() to get valid signal numbers.

signal.ITIMER_REAL

Decrements interval timer in real time, and delivers SIGALRM upon expiration.

signal.ITIMER_VIRTUAL

Decrements interval timer only when the process is executing, and delivers SIGVTALRM upon expiration.

signal.ITIMER_PROF

Decrements interval timer both when the process executes and when the system is executing on behalf of the process. Coupled with ITIMER_VIRTUAL, this timer is usually used to profile the time spent by the application in user and kernel space. SIGPROF is delivered upon expiration.

signal.SIG_BLOCK

A possible value for the how parameter to pthread_sigmask() indicating that signals are to be blocked.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

signal.SIG_UNBLOCK

A possible value for the how parameter to pthread_sigmask() indicating that signals are to be unblocked.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

signal.SIG_SETMASK

A possible value for the how parameter to pthread_sigmask() indicating that the signal mask is to be replaced.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

The signal module defines one exception:

exception signal.ItimerError

Raised to signal an error from the underlying setitimer() or getitimer() implementation. Expect this error if an invalid interval timer or a negative time is passed to setitimer(). This error is a subtype of OSError.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3: This error used to be a subtype of IOError, which is now an alias of OSError.

The signal module defines the following functions:

signal.alarm(time)

If time is non-zero, this function requests that a SIGALRM signal be sent to the process in time seconds. Any previously scheduled alarm is canceled (only one alarm can be scheduled at any time). The returned value is then the number of seconds before any previously set alarm was to have been delivered. If time is zero, no alarm is scheduled, and any scheduled alarm is canceled. If the return value is zero, no alarm is currently scheduled.

Disponibilité: Unix.

See the man page alarm(2) [https://manpages.debian.org/alarm(2)] for further information.

signal.getsignal(signalnum)

Return the current signal handler for the signal signalnum. The returned value may be a callable Python object, or one of the special values signal.SIG_IGN, signal.SIG_DFL or None. Here, signal.SIG_IGN means that the signal was previously ignored, signal.SIG_DFL means that the default way of handling the signal was previously in use, and None means that the previous signal handler was not installed from Python.

signal.strsignal(signalnum)

Returns the description of signal signalnum, such as "Interrupt" for SIGINT. Returns None if signalnum has no description. Raises ValueError if signalnum is invalid.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

signal.valid_signals()

Return the set of valid signal numbers on this platform. This can be less than range(1, NSIG) if some signals are reserved by the system for internal use.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

signal.pause()

Cause the process to sleep until a signal is received; the appropriate handler will then be called. Returns nothing.

Disponibilité: Unix.

See the man page signal(2) [https://manpages.debian.org/signal(2)] for further information.

See also sigwait(), sigwaitinfo(), sigtimedwait() and sigpending().

signal.raise_signal(signum)

Sends a signal to the calling process. Returns nothing.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

signal.pidfd_send_signal(pidfd, sig, siginfo=None, flags=0)

Send signal sig to the process referred to by file descriptor pidfd. Python does not currently support the siginfo parameter; it must be None. The flags argument is provided for future extensions; no flag values are currently defined.

See the pidfd_send_signal(2) [https://manpages.debian.org/pidfd_send_signal(2)] man page for more information.

Disponibilité: Linux >= 5.1, Android >= build-time API level 31

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

signal.pthread_kill(thread_id, signalnum)

Send the signal signalnum to the thread thread_id, another thread in the same process as the caller. The target thread can be executing any code (Python or not). However, if the target thread is executing the Python interpreter, the Python signal handlers will be executed by the main thread of the main interpreter. Therefore, the only point of sending a signal to a particular Python thread would be to force a running system call to fail with InterruptedError.

Use threading.get_ident() or the ident attribute of threading.Thread objects to get a suitable value for thread_id.

If signalnum is 0, then no signal is sent, but error checking is still performed; this can be used to check if the target thread is still running.

Raises an auditing event signal.pthread_kill with arguments thread_id, signalnum.

Disponibilité: Unix.

See the man page pthread_kill(3) [https://manpages.debian.org/pthread_kill(3)] for further information.

See also os.kill().

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

signal.pthread_sigmask(how, mask)

Fetch and/or change the signal mask of the calling thread. The signal mask is the set of signals whose delivery is currently blocked for the caller. Return the old signal mask as a set of signals.

The behavior of the call is dependent on the value of how, as follows.

SIG_BLOCK: The set of blocked signals is the union of the current set and the mask argument.

SIG_UNBLOCK: The signals in mask are removed from the current set of blocked signals. It is permissible to attempt to unblock a signal which is not blocked.

SIG_SETMASK: The set of blocked signals is set to the mask argument.

mask is a set of signal numbers (e.g. {signal.SIGINT, signal.SIGTERM}). Use valid_signals() for a full mask including all signals.

For example, signal.pthread_sigmask(signal.SIG_BLOCK, []) reads the signal mask of the calling thread.

SIGKILL and SIGSTOP cannot be blocked.

Disponibilité: Unix.

See the man page sigprocmask(2) [https://manpages.debian.org/sigprocmask(2)] and pthread_sigmask(3) [https://manpages.debian.org/pthread_sigmask(3)] for further information.

See also pause(), sigpending() and sigwait().

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

signal.setitimer(which, seconds, interval=0.0)

Sets given interval timer (one of signal.ITIMER_REAL, signal.ITIMER_VIRTUAL or signal.ITIMER_PROF) specified by which to fire after seconds (float is accepted, different from alarm()) and after that every interval seconds (if interval is non-zero). The interval timer specified by which can be cleared by setting seconds to zero.

When an interval timer fires, a signal is sent to the process. The signal sent is dependent on the timer being used; signal.ITIMER_REAL will deliver SIGALRM, signal.ITIMER_VIRTUAL sends SIGVTALRM, and signal.ITIMER_PROF will deliver SIGPROF.

The old values are returned as a tuple: (delay, interval).

Attempting to pass an invalid interval timer will cause an ItimerError.

Disponibilité: Unix.

signal.getitimer(which)

Returns current value of a given interval timer specified by which.

Disponibilité: Unix.

signal.set_wakeup_fd(fd, *, warn_on_full_buffer=True)

Set the wakeup file descriptor to fd. When a signal your program has registered a signal handler for is received, the signal number is written as a single byte into the fd. If you haven't registered a signal handler for the signals you care about, then nothing will be written to the wakeup fd. This can be used by a library to wakeup a poll or select call, allowing the signal to be fully processed.

The old wakeup fd is returned (or -1 if file descriptor wakeup was not enabled). If fd is -1, file descriptor wakeup is disabled. If not -1, fd must be non-blocking. It is up to the library to remove any bytes from fd before calling poll or select again.

When threads are enabled, this function can only be called from the main thread of the main interpreter; attempting to call it from other threads will cause a ValueError exception to be raised.

There are two common ways to use this function. In both approaches, you use the fd to wake up when a signal arrives, but then they differ in how they determine which signal or signals have arrived.

In the first approach, we read the data out of the fd's buffer, and the byte values give you the signal numbers. This is simple, but in rare cases it can run into a problem: generally the fd will have a limited amount of buffer space, and if too many signals arrive too quickly, then the buffer may become full, and some signals may be lost. If you use this approach, then you should set warn_on_full_buffer=True, which will at least cause a warning to be printed to stderr when signals are lost.

In the second approach, we use the wakeup fd only for wakeups, and ignore the actual byte values. In this case, all we care about is whether the fd's buffer is empty or non-empty; a full buffer doesn't indicate a problem at all. If you use this approach, then you should set warn_on_full_buffer=False, so that your users are not confused by spurious warning messages.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: On Windows, the function now also supports socket handles.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Added warn_on_full_buffer parameter.

signal.siginterrupt(signalnum, flag)

Change system call restart behaviour: if flag is False, system calls will be restarted when interrupted by signal signalnum, otherwise system calls will be interrupted. Returns nothing.

Disponibilité: Unix.

See the man page siginterrupt(3) [https://manpages.debian.org/siginterrupt(3)] for further information.

Note that installing a signal handler with signal() will reset the restart behaviour to interruptible by implicitly calling siginterrupt() with a true flag value for the given signal.

signal.signal(signalnum, handler)

Set the handler for signal signalnum to the function handler. handler can be a callable Python object taking two arguments (see below), or one of the special values signal.SIG_IGN or signal.SIG_DFL. The previous signal handler will be returned (see the description of getsignal() above). (See the Unix man page signal(2) [https://manpages.debian.org/signal(2)] for further information.)

When threads are enabled, this function can only be called from the main thread of the main interpreter; attempting to call it from other threads will cause a ValueError exception to be raised.

The handler is called with two arguments: the signal number and the current stack frame (None or a frame object; for a description of frame objects, see the description in the type hierarchy or see the attribute descriptions in the inspect module).

On Windows, signal() can only be called with SIGABRT, SIGFPE, SIGILL, SIGINT, SIGSEGV, SIGTERM, or SIGBREAK. A ValueError will be raised in any other case. Note that not all systems define the same set of signal names; an AttributeError will be raised if a signal name is not defined as SIG* module level constant.

signal.sigpending()

Examine the set of signals that are pending for delivery to the calling thread (i.e., the signals which have been raised while blocked). Return the set of the pending signals.

Disponibilité: Unix.

See the man page sigpending(2) [https://manpages.debian.org/sigpending(2)] for further information.

See also pause(), pthread_sigmask() and sigwait().

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

signal.sigwait(sigset)

Suspend execution of the calling thread until the delivery of one of the signals specified in the signal set sigset. The function accepts the signal (removes it from the pending list of signals), and returns the signal number.

Disponibilité: Unix.

See the man page sigwait(3) [https://manpages.debian.org/sigwait(3)] for further information.

See also pause(), pthread_sigmask(), sigpending(), sigwaitinfo() and sigtimedwait().

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

signal.sigwaitinfo(sigset)

Suspend execution of the calling thread until the delivery of one of the signals specified in the signal set sigset. The function accepts the signal and removes it from the pending list of signals. If one of the signals in sigset is already pending for the calling thread, the function will return immediately with information about that signal. The signal handler is not called for the delivered signal. The function raises an InterruptedError if it is interrupted by a signal that is not in sigset.

The return value is an object representing the data contained in the siginfo_t structure, namely: si_signo, si_code, si_errno, si_pid, si_uid, si_status, si_band.

Disponibilité: Unix.

See the man page sigwaitinfo(2) [https://manpages.debian.org/sigwaitinfo(2)] for further information.

See also pause(), sigwait() and sigtimedwait().

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: The function is now retried if interrupted by a signal not in sigset and the signal handler does not raise an exception (see PEP 475 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/] for the rationale).

signal.sigtimedwait(sigset, timeout)

Like sigwaitinfo(), but takes an additional timeout argument specifying a timeout. If timeout is specified as 0, a poll is performed. Returns None if a timeout occurs.

Disponibilité: Unix.

See the man page sigtimedwait(2) [https://manpages.debian.org/sigtimedwait(2)] for further information.

See also pause(), sigwait() and sigwaitinfo().

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: The function is now retried with the recomputed timeout if interrupted by a signal not in sigset and the signal handler does not raise an exception (see PEP 475 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/] for the rationale).

Examples

Here is a minimal example program. It uses the alarm() function to limit the time spent waiting to open a file; this is useful if the file is for a serial device that may not be turned on, which would normally cause the os.open() to hang indefinitely. The solution is to set a 5-second alarm before opening the file; if the operation takes too long, the alarm signal will be sent, and the handler raises an exception.

import signal, os

def handler(signum, frame):
    signame = signal.Signals(signum).name
    print(f'Signal handler called with signal {signame} ({signum})')
    raise OSError("Couldn't open device!")

# Set the signal handler and a 5-second alarm
signal.signal(signal.SIGALRM, handler)
signal.alarm(5)

# This open() may hang indefinitely
fd = os.open('/dev/ttyS0', os.O_RDWR)

signal.alarm(0)          # Disable the alarm

Note on SIGPIPE

Piping output of your program to tools like head(1) [https://manpages.debian.org/head(1)] will cause a SIGPIPE signal to be sent to your process when the receiver of its standard output closes early. This results in an exception like BrokenPipeError: [Errno 32] Broken pipe. To handle this case, wrap your entry point to catch this exception as follows:

import os
import sys

def main():
    try:
        # simulate large output (your code replaces this loop)
        for x in range(10000):
            print("y")
        # flush output here to force SIGPIPE to be triggered
        # while inside this try block.
        sys.stdout.flush()
    except BrokenPipeError:
        # Python flushes standard streams on exit; redirect remaining output
        # to devnull to avoid another BrokenPipeError at shutdown
        devnull = os.open(os.devnull, os.O_WRONLY)
        os.dup2(devnull, sys.stdout.fileno())
        sys.exit(1)  # Python exits with error code 1 on EPIPE

if __name__ == '__main__':
    main()

Do not set SIGPIPE's disposition to SIG_DFL in order to avoid BrokenPipeError. Doing that would cause your program to exit unexpectedly whenever any socket connection is interrupted while your program is still writing to it.

Note on Signal Handlers and Exceptions

If a signal handler raises an exception, the exception will be propagated to the main thread and may be raised after any bytecode instruction. Most notably, a KeyboardInterrupt may appear at any point during execution. Most Python code, including the standard library, cannot be made robust against this, and so a KeyboardInterrupt (or any other exception resulting from a signal handler) may on rare occasions put the program in an unexpected state.

To illustrate this issue, consider the following code:

class SpamContext:
    def __init__(self):
        self.lock = threading.Lock()

    def __enter__(self):
        # If KeyboardInterrupt occurs here, everything is fine
        self.lock.acquire()
        # If KeyboardInterrupt occurs here, __exit__ will not be called
        ...
        # KeyboardInterrupt could occur just before the function returns

    def __exit__(self, exc_type, exc_val, exc_tb):
        ...
        self.lock.release()

For many programs, especially those that merely want to exit on KeyboardInterrupt, this is not a problem, but applications that are complex or require high reliability should avoid raising exceptions from signal handlers. They should also avoid catching KeyboardInterrupt as a means of gracefully shutting down. Instead, they should install their own SIGINT handler. Below is an example of an HTTP server that avoids KeyboardInterrupt:

import signal
import socket
from selectors import DefaultSelector, EVENT_READ
from http.server import HTTPServer, SimpleHTTPRequestHandler

interrupt_read, interrupt_write = socket.socketpair()

def handler(signum, frame):
    print('Signal handler called with signal', signum)
    interrupt_write.send(b'\0')
signal.signal(signal.SIGINT, handler)

def serve_forever(httpd):
    sel = DefaultSelector()
    sel.register(interrupt_read, EVENT_READ)
    sel.register(httpd, EVENT_READ)

    while True:
        for key, _ in sel.select():
            if key.fileobj == interrupt_read:
                interrupt_read.recv(1)
                return
            if key.fileobj == httpd:
                httpd.handle_request()

print("Serving on port 8000")
httpd = HTTPServer(('', 8000), SimpleHTTPRequestHandler)
serve_forever(httpd)
print("Shutdown...")

mmap --- Memory-mapped file support

Disponibilité: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly. See Plateformes WebAssembly for more information.

Memory-mapped file objects behave like both bytearray and like file objects. You can use mmap objects in most places where bytearray are expected; for example, you can use the re module to search through a memory-mapped file. You can also change a single byte by doing obj[index] = 97, or change a subsequence by assigning to a slice: obj[i1:i2] = b'...'. You can also read and write data starting at the current file position, and seek() through the file to different positions.

A memory-mapped file is created by the mmap constructor, which is different on Unix and on Windows. In either case you must provide a file descriptor for a file opened for update. If you wish to map an existing Python file object, use its fileno() method to obtain the correct value for the fileno parameter. Otherwise, you can open the file using the os.open() function, which returns a file descriptor directly (the file still needs to be closed when done).

Note

If you want to create a memory-mapping for a writable, buffered file, you should flush() the file first. This is necessary to ensure that local modifications to the buffers are actually available to the mapping.

For both the Unix and Windows versions of the constructor, access may be specified as an optional keyword parameter. access accepts one of four values: ACCESS_READ, ACCESS_WRITE, or ACCESS_COPY to specify read-only, write-through or copy-on-write memory respectively, or ACCESS_DEFAULT to defer to prot. access can be used on both Unix and Windows. If access is not specified, Windows mmap returns a write-through mapping. The initial memory values for all three access types are taken from the specified file. Assignment to an ACCESS_READ memory map raises a TypeError exception. Assignment to an ACCESS_WRITE memory map affects both memory and the underlying file. Assignment to an ACCESS_COPY memory map affects memory but does not update the underlying file.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Added ACCESS_DEFAULT constant.

To map anonymous memory, -1 should be passed as the fileno along with the length.

class mmap.mmap(fileno, length, tagname=None, access=ACCESS_DEFAULT, offset=0)

(Windows version) Maps length bytes from the file specified by the file handle fileno, and creates a mmap object. If length is larger than the current size of the file, the file is extended to contain length bytes. If length is 0, the maximum length of the map is the current size of the file, except that if the file is empty Windows raises an exception (you cannot create an empty mapping on Windows).

tagname, if specified and not None, is a string giving a tag name for the mapping. Windows allows you to have many different mappings against the same file. If you specify the name of an existing tag, that tag is opened, otherwise a new tag of this name is created. If this parameter is omitted or None, the mapping is created without a name. Avoiding the use of the tagname parameter will assist in keeping your code portable between Unix and Windows.

offset may be specified as a non-negative integer offset. mmap references will be relative to the offset from the beginning of the file. offset defaults to 0. offset must be a multiple of the ALLOCATIONGRANULARITY.

Raises an auditing event mmap.__new__ with arguments fileno, length, access, offset.

class mmap.mmap(fileno, length, flags=MAP_SHARED, prot=PROT_WRITE | PROT_READ, access=ACCESS_DEFAULT, offset=0, *, trackfd=True)

(Unix version) Maps length bytes from the file specified by the file descriptor fileno, and returns a mmap object. If length is 0, the maximum length of the map will be the current size of the file when mmap is called.

flags specifies the nature of the mapping. MAP_PRIVATE creates a private copy-on-write mapping, so changes to the contents of the mmap object will be private to this process, and MAP_SHARED creates a mapping that's shared with all other processes mapping the same areas of the file. The default value is MAP_SHARED. Some systems have additional possible flags with the full list specified in MAP_* constants.

prot, if specified, gives the desired memory protection; the two most useful values are PROT_READ and PROT_WRITE, to specify that the pages may be read or written. prot defaults to PROT_READ | PROT_WRITE.

access may be specified in lieu of flags and prot as an optional keyword parameter. It is an error to specify both flags, prot and access. See the description of access above for information on how to use this parameter.

offset may be specified as a non-negative integer offset. mmap references will be relative to the offset from the beginning of the file. offset defaults to 0. offset must be a multiple of ALLOCATIONGRANULARITY which is equal to PAGESIZE on Unix systems.

If trackfd is False, the file descriptor specified by fileno will not be duplicated, and the resulting mmap object will not be associated with the map's underlying file. This means that the size() and resize() methods will fail. This mode is useful to limit the number of open file descriptors.

To ensure validity of the created memory mapping the file specified by the descriptor fileno is internally automatically synchronized with the physical backing store on macOS.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: The trackfd parameter was added.

This example shows a simple way of using mmap:

import mmap

# write a simple example file
with open("hello.txt", "wb") as f:
    f.write(b"Hello Python!\n")

with open("hello.txt", "r+b") as f:
    # memory-map the file, size 0 means whole file
    mm = mmap.mmap(f.fileno(), 0)
    # read content via standard file methods
    print(mm.readline())  # prints b"Hello Python!\n"
    # read content via slice notation
    print(mm[:5])  # prints b"Hello"
    # update content using slice notation;
    # note that new content must have same size
    mm[6:] = b" world!\n"
    # ... and read again using standard file methods
    mm.seek(0)
    print(mm.readline())  # prints b"Hello  world!\n"
    # close the map
    mm.close()

mmap can also be used as a context manager in a with statement:

import mmap

with mmap.mmap(-1, 13) as mm:
    mm.write(b"Hello world!")

Ajouté dans la version 3.2: Context manager support.

The next example demonstrates how to create an anonymous map and exchange data between the parent and child processes:

import mmap
import os

mm = mmap.mmap(-1, 13)
mm.write(b"Hello world!")

pid = os.fork()

if pid == 0:  # In a child process
    mm.seek(0)
    print(mm.readline())

    mm.close()

Raises an auditing event mmap.__new__ with arguments fileno, length, access, offset.

Memory-mapped file objects support the following methods:

close()

Closes the mmap. Subsequent calls to other methods of the object will result in a ValueError exception being raised. This will not close the open file.

closed

True if the file is closed.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

find(sub[, start[, end]])

Returns the lowest index in the object where the subsequence sub is found, such that sub is contained in the range [start, end]. Optional arguments start and end are interpreted as in slice notation. Returns -1 on failure.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: N'importe quel bytes-like object est maintenant accepté.

flush()

flush(offset, size, /)

Flushes changes made to the in-memory copy of a file back to disk. Without use of this call there is no guarantee that changes are written back before the object is destroyed. If offset and size are specified, only changes to the given range of bytes will be flushed to disk; otherwise, the whole extent of the mapping is flushed. offset must be a multiple of the PAGESIZE or ALLOCATIONGRANULARITY.

None is returned to indicate success. An exception is raised when the call failed.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Previously, a nonzero value was returned on success; zero was returned on error under Windows. A zero value was returned on success; an exception was raised on error under Unix.

madvise(option[, start[, length]])

Send advice option to the kernel about the memory region beginning at start and extending length bytes. option must be one of the MADV_* constants available on the system. If start and length are omitted, the entire mapping is spanned. On some systems (including Linux), start must be a multiple of the PAGESIZE.

Availability: Systems with the madvise() system call.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

move(dest, src, count)

Copy the count bytes starting at offset src to the destination index dest. If the mmap was created with ACCESS_READ, then calls to move will raise a TypeError exception.

read([n])

Return a bytes containing up to n bytes starting from the current file position. If the argument is omitted, None or negative, return all bytes from the current file position to the end of the mapping. The file position is updated to point after the bytes that were returned.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Argument can be omitted or None.

read_byte()

Returns a byte at the current file position as an integer, and advances the file position by 1.

readline()

Returns a single line, starting at the current file position and up to the next newline. The file position is updated to point after the bytes that were returned.

resize(newsize)

Resizes the map and the underlying file, if any.

Resizing a map created with access of ACCESS_READ or ACCESS_COPY, will raise a TypeError exception. Resizing a map created with trackfd set to False, will raise a ValueError exception.

On Windows: Resizing the map will raise an OSError if there are other maps against the same named file. Resizing an anonymous map (ie against the pagefile) will silently create a new map with the original data copied over up to the length of the new size.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Correctly fails if attempting to resize when another map is held Allows resize against an anonymous map on Windows

rfind(sub[, start[, end]])

Returns the highest index in the object where the subsequence sub is found, such that sub is contained in the range [start, end]. Optional arguments start and end are interpreted as in slice notation. Returns -1 on failure.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: N'importe quel bytes-like object est maintenant accepté.

seek(pos[, whence])

Set the file's current position. whence argument is optional and defaults to os.SEEK_SET or 0 (absolute file positioning); other values are os.SEEK_CUR or 1 (seek relative to the current position) and os.SEEK_END or 2 (seek relative to the file's end).

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Return the new absolute position instead of None.

seekable()

Return whether the file supports seeking, and the return value is always True.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

size()

Return the length of the file, which can be larger than the size of the memory-mapped area.

tell()

Returns the current position of the file pointer.

write(bytes)

Write the bytes in bytes into memory at the current position of the file pointer and return the number of bytes written (never less than len(bytes), since if the write fails, a ValueError will be raised). The file position is updated to point after the bytes that were written. If the mmap was created with ACCESS_READ, then writing to it will raise a TypeError exception.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: N'importe quel bytes-like object est maintenant accepté.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: The number of bytes written is now returned.

write_byte(byte)

Write the integer byte into memory at the current position of the file pointer; the file position is advanced by 1. If the mmap was created with ACCESS_READ, then writing to it will raise a TypeError exception.

MADV_* Constants

mmap.MADV_NORMAL

mmap.MADV_RANDOM

mmap.MADV_SEQUENTIAL

mmap.MADV_WILLNEED

mmap.MADV_DONTNEED

mmap.MADV_REMOVE

mmap.MADV_DONTFORK

mmap.MADV_DOFORK

mmap.MADV_HWPOISON

mmap.MADV_MERGEABLE

mmap.MADV_UNMERGEABLE

mmap.MADV_SOFT_OFFLINE

mmap.MADV_HUGEPAGE

mmap.MADV_NOHUGEPAGE

mmap.MADV_DONTDUMP

mmap.MADV_DODUMP

mmap.MADV_FREE

mmap.MADV_NOSYNC

mmap.MADV_AUTOSYNC

mmap.MADV_NOCORE

mmap.MADV_CORE

mmap.MADV_PROTECT

mmap.MADV_FREE_REUSABLE

mmap.MADV_FREE_REUSE

These options can be passed to mmap.madvise(). Not every option will be present on every system.

Availability: Systems with the madvise() system call.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

MAP_* Constants

mmap.MAP_SHARED

mmap.MAP_PRIVATE

mmap.MAP_32BIT

mmap.MAP_ALIGNED_SUPER

mmap.MAP_ANON

mmap.MAP_ANONYMOUS

mmap.MAP_CONCEAL

mmap.MAP_DENYWRITE

mmap.MAP_EXECUTABLE

mmap.MAP_HASSEMAPHORE

mmap.MAP_JIT

mmap.MAP_NOCACHE

mmap.MAP_NOEXTEND

mmap.MAP_NORESERVE

mmap.MAP_POPULATE

mmap.MAP_RESILIENT_CODESIGN

mmap.MAP_RESILIENT_MEDIA

mmap.MAP_STACK

mmap.MAP_TPRO

mmap.MAP_TRANSLATED_ALLOW_EXECUTE

mmap.MAP_UNIX03

These are the various flags that can be passed to mmap.mmap(). MAP_ALIGNED_SUPER is only available at FreeBSD and MAP_CONCEAL is only available at OpenBSD. Note that some options might not be present on some systems.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Added MAP_POPULATE constant.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11: Added MAP_STACK constant.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12: Added MAP_ALIGNED_SUPER and MAP_CONCEAL constants.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13: Added MAP_32BIT, MAP_HASSEMAPHORE, MAP_JIT, MAP_NOCACHE, MAP_NOEXTEND, MAP_NORESERVE, MAP_RESILIENT_CODESIGN, MAP_RESILIENT_MEDIA, MAP_TPRO, MAP_TRANSLATED_ALLOW_EXECUTE, and MAP_UNIX03 constants.

Traitement des données provenant d'Internet

This chapter describes modules which support handling data formats commonly used on the internet.

email --- An email and MIME handling package

email.message: Representing an email message

email.parser: Parsing email messages

API FeedParser

API de Parser

Notes complémentaires

email.generator: Generating MIME documents

email.policy: Policy Objects

email.errors: Exception and Defect classes

email.headerregistry: Custom Header Objects

email.contentmanager: Managing MIME Content

Instances de gestionnaires de contenus

email: Exemples

email.message.Message : représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32

email.mime: Creating email and MIME objects from scratch

email.header: Internationalized headers

email.charset: Representing character sets

email.encoders: Encoders

email.utils: Miscellaneous utilities

email.iterators: Iterators

json --- JSON encoder and decoder

Utilisation de base

Encodeurs et décodeurs

Exceptions

Conformité au standard et Interopérabilité

Encodage des caractères

Valeurs numériques infinies et NaN

Noms répétés au sein d'un objet

Valeurs de plus haut niveau (hors objets ou tableaux)

Limitations de l'implémentation

Command-line interface

Command-line options

mailbox --- Manipulate mailboxes in various formats

Objets Mailbox

Objets Maildir

Objets mbox

Objets MH

Objets Babyl

Objets MMDF

Objets Message

MaildirMessage objects

mboxMessage objects

MHMessage objects

BabylMessage objects

MMDFMessage objects

Exceptions

Exemples

mimetypes --- Map filenames to MIME types

MimeTypes objects

Command-line usage

Command-line example

base64 --- Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 Data Encodings

RFC 4648 Encodings

Base85 Encodings

Legacy Interface

Considérations de sécurité

binascii --- Convert between binary and ASCII

quopri --- Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data

email --- An email and MIME handling package

Code source: Lib/email/__init__.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/email/__init__.py]

The email package is a library for managing email messages. It is specifically not designed to do any sending of email messages to SMTP (RFC 2821 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2821.html]), NNTP, or other servers; those are functions of modules such as smtplib. The email package attempts to be as RFC-compliant as possible, supporting RFC 5322 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html] and RFC 6532 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6532.html], as well as such MIME-related RFCs as RFC 2045 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html], RFC 2046 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2046.html], RFC 2047 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html], RFC 2183 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2183.html], and RFC 2231 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html].

Ce paquet peut être divisé entre trois composants majeurs, et un quatrième composant qui contrôle le comportement des trois autres.

Le composant central du paquet est un "modèle d'objet" qui représente les messages. Une application interagit avec le paquet, dans un premier temps, à travers l'interface de modèle d'objet définie dans le sous-module message. L'application peut utiliser cette API pour poser des questions à propos d'un mail existant, pour créer un nouvel e-mail, ou ajouter ou retirer des sous-composants d'e-mail qui utilisent la même interface de modèle d'objet. Suivant la nature des messages et leurs sous-composants MIME, le modèle d'objet d'e-mail est une structure arborescente d'objets qui fournit tout à l'API de EmailMessage.

Les deux autres composants majeurs de ce paquet sont l'analyseur (parser) et le générateur (generator). L'analyseur prend la version sérialisée d'un e-mail (un flux d'octets) et le convertit en une arborescence d'objets EmailMessage. Le générateur prend un objet EmailMessage et le retransforme en un flux d'octets sérialisé (l'analyseur et le générateur gèrent aussi des suites de caractères textuels, mais cette utilisation est déconseillée car il est très facile de finir avec des messages invalides d'une manière ou d'une autre).

Le composant de contrôle est le module policy. Chaque EmailMessage, chaque generator et chaque parser possède un objet associé policy qui contrôle son comportement. Habituellement une application n'a besoin de spécifier la politique que quand un EmailMessage est créé, soit en instanciant directement un EmailMessage pour créer un nouvel e-mail, soit lors de l'analyse d'un flux entrant en utilisant un parser. Mais la politique peut être changée quand le message est sérialisé en utilisant un generator. Cela permet, par exemple, d'analyser un message e-mail générique du disque, puis de le sérialiser en utilisant une configuration SMTP standard quand on l'envoie vers un serveur d'e-mail.

Le paquet email fait son maximum pour cacher les détails des différentes RFCs de référence à l'application. Conceptuellement, l'application doit être capable de traiter l'e-mail comme une arborescence structurée de texte Unicode et de pièces jointes binaires, sans avoir à se préoccuper de leur représentation sérialisée. Dans la pratique, cependant, il est souvent nécessaire d'être conscient d'au moins quelques règles relatives aux messages MIME et à leur structure, en particulier les noms et natures des "types de contenus" et comment ils identifient les documents à plusieurs parties. Pour la plupart, cette connaissance devrait seulement être nécessaire pour des applications plus complexes, et même là, il devrait être question des structures de haut niveau et non des détails sur la manière dont elles sont représentées. Comme les types de contenus MIME sont couramment utilisés dans les logiciels internet modernes (et non uniquement les e-mails), les développeurs sont généralement familiers de ce concept.

The following sections describe the functionality of the email package. We start with the message object model, which is the primary interface an application will use, and follow that with the parser and generator components. Then we cover the policy controls, which completes the treatment of the main components of the library.

Les trois prochaines sections couvrent les exceptions que le paquet peut rencontrer et les imperfections (non-respect des RFCs) que le module parser peut détecter. Ensuite nous couvrons les sous-composants headerregistry et contentmanager, qui fournissent des outils pour faire des manipulations plus détaillées des en-têtes et du contenu, respectivement. Les deux composants contiennent des fonctionnalités adaptées pour traiter et produire des messages qui sortent de l'ordinaire, et elles documentent aussi leurs API pour pouvoir les étendre, ce qui ne manquera pas d'intéresser les applications avancées.

Ci-dessous se trouve un ensemble d'exemples d'utilisations des éléments fondamentaux des API couvertes dans les sections précédentes.

Ce que nous venons d'aborder constitue l'API moderne (compatible Unicode) du paquet email. Les sections restantes, commençant par la classe Message, couvrent l'API héritée compat32 qui traite beaucoup plus directement des détails sur la manière dont les e-mails sont représentés. L'API compat32 ne cache pas les détails des RFCs à l'application, mais pour les applications qui requièrent d'opérer à ce niveau, elle peut être un outil pratique. Cette documentation est aussi pertinente pour les applications qui utilisent toujours l'API compat32 pour des raisons de rétrocompatibilité.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Documents réorganisés et réécrits pour promouvoir la nouvelle API EmailMessage/EmailPolicy.

Contents of the email package documentation:

email.message: Representing an email message

email.parser: Parsing email messages

API FeedParser

API de Parser

Notes complémentaires

email.generator: Generating MIME documents

email.policy: Policy Objects

email.errors: Exception and Defect classes

email.headerregistry: Custom Header Objects

email.contentmanager: Managing MIME Content

Instances de gestionnaires de contenus

email: Exemples

API héritée :

email.message.Message : représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32

email.mime: Creating email and MIME objects from scratch

email.header: Internationalized headers

email.charset: Representing character sets

email.encoders: Encoders

email.utils: Miscellaneous utilities

email.iterators: Iterators

Voir aussi

Module smtplib

Client SMTP (Simple Mail Transport Protocol)

Module poplib

Client POP (Post Office Protocol)

Module imaplib

Client IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol)

Module mailbox

Outils pour créer, lire et gérer des messages regroupés sur disque en utilisant des formats standards variés.

email.message: Representing an email message

Code source : Lib/email/message.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/email/message.py]

Ajouté dans la version 3.6: [1]

The central class in the email package is the EmailMessage class, imported from the email.message module. It is the base class for the email object model. EmailMessage provides the core functionality for setting and querying header fields, for accessing message bodies, and for creating or modifying structured messages.

Un message électronique se compose d'en-têtes (headers) et d'une charge utile (payload en anglais, également appelée contenu – content en anglais). Les en-têtes sont des noms et valeurs de champ de style RFC 5322 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html] ou RFC 6532 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6532.html], où le nom et la valeur du champ sont séparés par deux points. Les deux-points ne font partie ni du nom du champ ni de la valeur du champ. La charge utile peut être un simple message texte, un objet binaire ou une séquence structurée de sous-messages chacun avec son propre ensemble d'en-têtes et sa propre charge utile. Ce dernier type de charge utile est indiqué par le message ayant un type MIME tel que multipart/* ou message/rfc822.

Le modèle conceptuel fourni par un objet EmailMessage est celui d'un dictionnaire ordonné d'en-têtes couplé à une charge utile qui représente le corps RFC 5322 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html] du message, qui peut être une liste de sous-objets EmailMessage. En plus des méthodes de dictionnaire normales pour accéder aux noms et valeurs d'en-têtes, il existe des méthodes pour accéder à des informations spécialisées à partir des en-têtes (par exemple le type de contenu MIME), pour agir sur la charge utile, pour générer une version sérialisée du message et pour parcourir récursivement l'arborescence d'objets.

The EmailMessage dictionary-like interface is indexed by the header names, which must be ASCII values. The values of the dictionary are strings with some extra methods. Headers are stored and returned in case-preserving form, but field names are matched case-insensitively. The keys are ordered, but unlike a real dict, there can be duplicates. Additional methods are provided for working with headers that have duplicate keys.

La charge utile est soit une chaîne ou un objet d'octets, dans le cas d'objets de message simples, soit une liste d'objets EmailMessage pour les documents de conteneur MIME tels que multipart/* et les objets messages message/rfc822.

class email.message.EmailMessage(policy=default)

If policy is specified use the rules it specifies to update and serialize the representation of the message. If policy is not set, use the default policy, which follows the rules of the email RFCs except for line endings (instead of the RFC mandated \r\n, it uses the Python standard \n line endings). For more information see the policy documentation. [2]

as_string(unixfrom=False, maxheaderlen=None, policy=None)

Return the entire message flattened as a string. When optional unixfrom is true, the envelope header is included in the returned string. unixfrom defaults to False. For backward compatibility with the base Message class maxheaderlen is accepted, but defaults to None, which means that by default the line length is controlled by the max_line_length of the policy. The policy argument may be used to override the default policy obtained from the message instance. This can be used to control some of the formatting produced by the method, since the specified policy will be passed to the Generator.

L'aplatissement du message peut déclencher des changements dans EmailMessage si les valeurs par défaut doivent être renseignées pour terminer la transformation en chaîne (par exemple, les limites MIME peuvent être générées ou modifiées).

Notez que cette méthode est fournie à titre de commodité et n'est peut-être pas la méthode la plus utile pour sérialiser les messages dans votre application, en particulier si vous traitez plusieurs messages. Voir email.generator.Generator pour une API plus flexible pour la sérialisation des messages. Notez également que cette méthode est limitée à la production de messages sérialisés en « 7 bits propres » lorsque utf8 est False, qui est la valeur par défaut.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: le comportement par défaut lorsque maxheaderlen n'est pas spécifié est passé de la valeur par défaut à 0 à la valeur par défaut de max_line_length de la politique.

__str__()

Équivalent à as_string(policy=self.policy.clone(utf8=True)). Permet à str(msg) de produire une chaîne contenant le message sérialisé dans un format lisible.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: la méthode a été modifiée pour utiliser utf8=True, produisant ainsi une représentation de message semblable à RFC 6531 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6531.html], au lieu d'être un alias direct pour as_string().

as_bytes(unixfrom=False, policy=None)

Renvoie le message entier aplati en tant qu'objet bytes. Lorsque l'option unixfrom est vraie, l'en-tête de l'enveloppe est inclus dans la chaîne renvoyée. unixfrom par défaut est False. L'argument policy peut être utilisé pour remplacer la politique par défaut obtenue à partir de l'instance de message. Cela peut être utilisé pour contrôler une partie du formatage produit par la méthode, puisque la policy spécifiée sera transmise à BytesGenerator.

L'aplatissement du message peut déclencher des changements dans EmailMessage si les valeurs par défaut doivent être renseignées pour terminer la transformation en chaîne (par exemple, les limites MIME peuvent être générées ou modifiées).

Notez que cette méthode est fournie à titre de commodité et n'est peut-être pas la méthode la plus utile pour sérialiser les messages dans votre application, en particulier si vous traitez plusieurs messages. Voir email.generator.BytesGenerator pour une API plus flexible pour la sérialisation des messages.

__bytes__()

Equivalent to as_bytes(). Allows bytes(msg) to produce a bytes object containing the serialized message.

is_multipart()

Renvoie True si la charge utile du message est une liste d'objets EmailMessage, sinon renvoie False. Lorsque is_multipart() renvoie False, la charge utile doit être un objet chaîne (qui peut être une charge utile binaire encodée CTE). Notez que is_multipart() renvoyant True ne signifie pas nécessairement que msg.get_content_maintype() == 'multipart' renvoie True. Par exemple, is_multipart renvoie True lorsque le EmailMessage est de type message/rfc822.

set_unixfrom(unixfrom)

Définit l'en-tête de l'enveloppe du message sur unixfrom, qui doit être une chaîne (voir mboxMessage pour une brève description de cet en-tête).

get_unixfrom()

Renvoie l'en-tête de l'enveloppe du message. La valeur par défaut est None si l'en-tête de l'enveloppe n'a jamais été défini.

Les méthodes suivantes implémentent l'interface de type correspondance pour accéder aux en-têtes du message. Notez qu'il existe des différences sémantiques entre ces méthodes et une interface de correspondance normale (c'est-à-dire un dictionnaire). Par exemple, dans un dictionnaire, il n'y a pas de clés en double, mais ici, il peut y avoir des en-têtes de message en double. De plus, dans les dictionnaires, il n'y a pas d'ordre garanti pour les clés renvoyées par keys(), mais dans un objet EmailMessage, les en-têtes sont toujours renvoyés dans l'ordre dans lequel ils sont apparus dans le message d'origine, ou dans lequel ils ont été ajoutés au message plus tard. Tout en-tête supprimé puis rajouté est toujours ajouté à la fin de la liste des en-têtes.

Ces différences sémantiques sont intentionnelles et privilégient la commodité dans les cas d'utilisation les plus courants.

Notez que dans tous les cas, tout en-tête d'enveloppe présent dans le message n'est pas inclus dans l'interface de correspondance.

__len__()

Renvoie le nombre total d'en-têtes, y compris les doublons.

__contains__(name)

Renvoie True si l'objet message a un champ nommé name. La correspondance est effectuée sans tenir compte de la casse et name n'inclut pas les deux-points de fin. Utilisé pour l'opérateur in. Par exemple :

if 'message-id' in myMessage:
   print('Message-ID:', myMessage['message-id'])

__getitem__(name)

Renvoie la valeur du champ d'en-tête nommé. name n'inclut pas le séparateur de champ deux-points. Si l'en-tête est manquant, None est renvoyée ; KeyError n'est jamais levée.

Notez que si le champ nommé apparaît plus d'une fois dans les en-têtes du message, il n'est pas défini la valeur de quel champ est renvoyée. Utilisez la méthode get_all() pour obtenir les valeurs de tous les en-têtes existants nommés name.

En utilisant les politiques standard (non-compat32), la valeur renvoyée est une instance d'une sous-classe de email.headerregistry.BaseHeader.

__setitem__(name, val)

Ajoute un en-tête au message avec le nom de champ name et la valeur val. Le champ est ajouté à la fin des en-têtes existants du message.

Notez que cela n'écrase pas ou ne supprime aucun en-tête existant portant le même nom. Si vous voulez vous assurer que le nouvel en-tête est le seul présent dans le message avec le nom de champ name, supprimez d'abord le champ, par exemple :

del msg['subject']
msg['subject'] = 'Python roolz!'

If the policy defines certain headers to be unique (as the standard policies do), this method may raise a ValueError when an attempt is made to assign a value to such a header when one already exists. This behavior is intentional for consistency's sake, but do not depend on it as we may choose to make such assignments do an automatic deletion of the existing header in the future.

__delitem__(name)

Supprime toutes les occurrences du champ portant le nom name des en-têtes du message. Aucune exception n'est levée si le champ nommé n'est pas présent dans les en-têtes.

keys()

Renvoie une liste de tous les noms de champs d'en-tête du message.

values()

Renvoie une liste de toutes les valeurs de champ du message.

items()

Renvoie une liste de couples contenant tous les en-têtes et valeurs de champ du message.

get(name, failobj=None)

Return the value of the named header field. This is identical to __getitem__() except that optional failobj is returned if the named header is missing (failobj defaults to None).

Voici quelques méthodes supplémentaires utiles liées aux en-têtes :

get_all(name, failobj=None)

Renvoie la liste de toutes les valeurs du champ nommé name. S'il n'y a pas d'en-têtes nommés de ce type dans le message, failobj est renvoyé (la valeur par défaut est None).

add_header(_name, _value, **_params)

Étend les en-têtes. Cette méthode est similaire à __setitem__() sauf que des paramètres d'en-tête supplémentaires peuvent être fournis en tant qu'arguments nommés. _name est le champ d'en-tête à ajouter et _value est la valeur primaire de l'en-tête.

Pour chaque élément du dictionnaire d'arguments nommés _params, la clé est prise comme nom de paramètre, avec des traits de soulignement convertis en tirets (puisque les tirets sont illégaux dans les identifiants Python). Normalement, le paramètre est ajouté en tant que key="value" sauf si la valeur est None, auquel cas seule la clé est ajoutée.

Si la valeur contient des caractères non-ASCII, le jeu de caractères et la langue peuvent être explicitement contrôlés en spécifiant la valeur sous la forme d'un triplet au format (CHARSET, LANGUAGE, VALUE), où CHARSET est une chaîne nommant le jeu de caractères à utiliser pour encoder la valeur, LANGUAGE peut généralement être défini sur None ou sur la chaîne vide (voir RFC 2231 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html] pour d'autres possibilités) et VALUE est la chaîne contenant les valeurs des points de code non-ASCII. Si un triplet n'est pas passé et que la valeur contient des caractères non-ASCII, elle est automatiquement encodée au format RFC 2231 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html] en utilisant utf-8 comme CHARSET et None comme LANGUAGE.

Voici un exemple :

msg.add_header('Content-Disposition', 'attachment', filename='bud.gif')

Cela ajoute un en-tête qui ressemble à :

Content-Disposition: attachment; filename="bud.gif"

Un exemple d'interface étendue avec des caractères non-ASCII :

msg.add_header('Content-Disposition', 'attachment',
               filename=('iso-8859-1', '', 'Fußballer.ppt'))

replace_header(_name, _value)

Remplace un en-tête. Remplace le premier en-tête trouvé dans le message qui correspond à _name, en conservant l'ordre des en-têtes et la casse du nom de champ de l'en-tête d'origine. Si aucun en-tête correspondant n'est trouvé, lève une KeyError.

get_content_type()

Renvoie le type de contenu du message, contraint en minuscules de la forme maintype/subtype. S'il n'y a pas d'en-tête Content-Type dans le message, renvoie la valeur renvoyée par get_default_type(). Si l'en-tête Content-Type n'est pas valide, renvoie text/plain.

(Selon la RFC 2045 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html], les messages ont toujours un type par défaut, get_content_type() renvoie toujours une valeur. La RFC 2045 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html] définit le type par défaut d'un message comme étant text/plain à moins qu'il n'apparaisse dans un conteneur multipart/digest, auquel cas ce serait message/rfc822. Si l'en-tête Content-Type a une spécification de type invalide, la RFC 2045 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html] exige que le type par défaut soit text/plain.)

get_content_maintype()

Renvoie le type de contenu principal du message. C'est la partie maintype de la chaîne renvoyée par get_content_type().

get_content_subtype()

Renvoie le type de sous-contenu du message. C'est la partie subtype de la chaîne renvoyée par get_content_type().

get_default_type()

Renvoie le type de contenu par défaut. La plupart des messages ont un type de contenu text/plain par défaut, à l'exception des messages qui sont des sous-parties des conteneurs multipart/digest. Ces sous-parties ont un type de contenu par défaut de message/rfc822.

set_default_type(ctype)

Définit le type de contenu par défaut. ctype doit être text/plain ou message/rfc822, bien que cela ne soit pas imposé. Le type de contenu par défaut n'est pas stocké dans l'en-tête Content-Type, il n'affecte donc que la valeur de retour des méthodes get_content_type lorsqu'aucun en-tête Content-Type n'est présent dans le message .

set_param(param, value, header='Content-Type', requote=True, charset=None, language='', replace=False)

Définit un paramètre dans l'en-tête Content-Type. Si le paramètre existe déjà dans l'en-tête, remplace sa valeur par value. Lorsque header est Content-Type (la valeur par défaut) et que l'en-tête n'existe pas encore dans le message, l'ajoute, définit sa valeur sur text/plain et ajoute la nouvelle valeur du paramètre. header facultatif spécifie un en-tête alternatif à Content-Type.

Si la valeur contient des caractères non ASCII, le jeu de caractères et la langue peuvent être explicitement spécifiés à l'aide des paramètres facultatifs charset et language. L'option language spécifie la langue RFC 2231 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html], par défaut la chaîne vide. charset et language doivent être des chaînes. La valeur par défaut est utf8 pour charset et None pour language.

Si replace est False (valeur par défaut), l'en-tête est déplacé à la fin de la liste des en-têtes. Si replace est True, l'en-tête est mis à jour sur place.

L'utilisation du paramètre requote avec les objets EmailMessage est obsolète.

Note that existing parameter values of headers may be accessed through the params attribute of the header value (for example, msg['Content-Type'].params['charset']).

Modifié dans la version 3.4: le paramètre nommé replace a été ajouté.

del_param(param, header='content-type', requote=True)

Supprime complètement le paramètre donné de l'en-tête Content-Type. L'en-tête est réécrit en place sans le paramètre ou sa valeur. L'option header spécifie une alternative à Content-Type.

L'utilisation du paramètre requote avec les objets EmailMessage est obsolète.

get_filename(failobj=None)

Renvoie la valeur du paramètre filename de l'en-tête Content-Disposition du message. Si l'en-tête n'a pas de paramètre filename, cette méthode revient à rechercher le paramètre name dans l'en-tête Content-Type. Si aucun n'est trouvé, ou si l'en-tête est manquant, alors failobj est renvoyé. La chaîne renvoyée est toujours sans guillemets selon email.utils.unquote().

get_boundary(failobj=None)

Renvoie la valeur du paramètre boundary de l'en-tête Content-Type du message, ou failobj si l'en-tête est manquant ou n'a pas de paramètre boundary. La chaîne renvoyée est toujours sans guillemets selon email.utils.unquote().

set_boundary(boundary)

Définit le paramètre boundary de l'en-tête Content-Type sur boundary. set_boundary() entoure boundary de guillemets si nécessaire. Une HeaderParseError est levée si l'objet message n'a pas d'en-tête Content-Type.

Notez que l'utilisation de cette méthode est légèrement différente de la suppression de l'ancien en-tête Content-Type et de l'ajout d'un nouveau avec la nouvelle délimitation via add_header(), car set_boundary() préserve l'ordre des en-têtes Content-Type dans la liste des en-têtes.

get_content_charset(failobj=None)

Renvoie le paramètre charset de l'en-tête Content-Type, contraint en minuscules. S'il n'y a pas d'en-tête Content-Type, ou si cet en-tête n'a pas de paramètre charset, failobj est renvoyé.

get_charsets(failobj=None)

Renvoie la liste des noms des jeux de caractères dans le message. Si le message est un multipart, alors la liste contient un élément pour chaque sous-partie dans la charge utile, sinon c'est une liste de longueur 1.

Chaque élément de la liste est une chaîne qui est la valeur du paramètre charset dans l'en-tête Content-Type pour la sous-partie représentée. Si la sous-partie n'a pas d'en-tête Content-Type, pas de paramètre charset ou n'est pas du type MIME principal text, alors cet élément est failobj dans la liste renvoyée.

is_attachment()

Renvoie True s'il y a un en-tête Content-Disposition et que sa valeur (insensible à la casse) est attachment, False sinon.

Modifié dans la version 3.4.2: is_attachment est maintenant une méthode au lieu d'une propriété, par souci de cohérence avec is_multipart().

get_content_disposition()

Renvoie la valeur en minuscules (sans paramètres) de l'en-tête Content-Disposition du message s'il en a un, ou None. Les valeurs possibles pour cette méthode sont inline, attachment ou None si le message respecte la RFC 2183 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2183.html].

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Les méthodes suivantes concernent l'interrogation et la manipulation du contenu (charge utile) du message.

walk()

La méthode walk() est un générateur polyvalent qui peut être utilisé pour itérer sur toutes les parties et sous-parties d'un arbre d'objets de message, dans l'ordre de parcours en profondeur d'abord. L'utilisation classique est d'itérer avec walk() dans une boucle for ; chaque itération renvoie la sous-partie suivante.

Voici un exemple qui imprime le type MIME de chaque partie d'une structure de message en plusieurs parties :

>>> for part in msg.walk():
...     print(part.get_content_type())
multipart/report
text/plain
message/delivery-status
text/plain
text/plain
message/rfc822
text/plain

walk itère sur les sous-parties de toute partie où is_multipart() renvoie True, même si msg.get_content_maintype() == 'multipart' peut renvoyer False. Nous pouvons le voir dans notre exemple en utilisant la fonction d'aide au débogage _structure :

>>> from email.iterators import _structure
>>> for part in msg.walk():
...     print(part.get_content_maintype() == 'multipart',
...           part.is_multipart())
True True
False False
False True
False False
False False
False True
False False
>>> _structure(msg)
multipart/report
    text/plain
    message/delivery-status
        text/plain
        text/plain
    message/rfc822
        text/plain

Ici, les parties message ne sont pas des multiparts, mais elles contiennent des sous-parties. is_multipart() renvoie True et walk descend dans les sous-parties.

get_body(preferencelist=('related', 'html', 'plain'))

Renvoie la partie MIME qui est la meilleure candidate pour être le corps du message.

preferencelist doit être une séquence de chaînes de l'ensemble related, html et plain, et indique l'ordre de préférence pour le type de contenu de la partie renvoyée.

Elle commence par rechercher des correspondances candidates avec l'objet sur lequel la méthode get_body est appelée.

Si related n'est pas inclus dans preferencelist, elle considère la partie racine (ou sous-partie de la partie racine) de tout lien rencontré comme candidat si la (sous-)partie correspond à une préférence.

Lorsqu'elle rencontre un multipart/related, elle vérifie le paramètre start et si une partie avec un Content-ID correspondant est trouvée, elle la considère uniquement lors de la recherche de correspondances candidates. Sinon, elle ne considère que la première partie (racine par défaut) de multipart/related.

Si une partie a un en-tête Content-Disposition, elle ne considère la partie comme une correspondance candidate que si la valeur de l'en-tête est inline.

Si aucun des candidats ne correspond à aucune des préférences dans preferencelist, elle renvoie None.

Remarques : (1) Pour la plupart des applications, les seules combinaisons preferencelist qui ont vraiment un sens sont ('plain',), ('html', 'plain') et la valeur par défaut ( 'related', 'html', 'plain'). (2) Parce que la correspondance commence avec l'objet sur lequel get_body est appelée, appeler get_body sur un multipart/related renvoie l'objet lui-même à moins que preferencelist n'ait une valeur autre que celle par défaut. (3) Les messages (ou parties de message) qui ne spécifient pas un Content-Type ou dont l'en-tête Content-Type est invalide sont traités comme s'ils étaient de type text/plain, ce qui peut occasionnellement amener get_body à renvoyer des résultats inattendus.

iter_attachments()

Renvoie un itérateur sur toutes les sous-parties immédiates du message qui ne sont pas des parties de « corps » candidates. Autrement dit, elle ignore la première occurrence de chacun des éléments suivants : text/plain, text/html, multipart/related ou multipart/alternative (sauf s'ils sont explicitement marqués comme pièces jointes via Content-Disposition: attachment), et renvoie toutes les parties restantes. Lorsqu'elle est appliquée directement à un multipart/related, renvoie un itérateur sur toutes les parties liées sauf la partie racine (c'est-à-dire la partie pointée par le paramètre start, ou la première partie s'il n'y a pas de paramètre start ou si le paramètre start ne correspond pas au Content-ID de l'une des parties). Lorsqu'elle est appliquée directement à un multipart/alternative ou à un non-multipart, elle renvoie un itérateur vide.

iter_parts()

Renvoie un itérateur sur toutes les sous-parties immédiates du message, qui seront vides pour une non-multipart (voir aussi walk()).

get_content(*args, content_manager=None, **kw)

Appelle la méthode get_content() du content_manager, en passant self comme objet message et en passant tout autre argument ou mot-clé comme argument supplémentaire. Si content_manager n'est pas spécifié, utilise le content_manager spécifié par la policy actuelle.

set_content(*args, content_manager=None, **kw)

Appelle la méthode set_content() du content_manager, en passant self comme objet message et en passant tout autre argument ou mot-clé comme argument supplémentaire. Si content_manager n'est pas spécifié, utilise le content_manager spécifié par la policy actuelle.

make_related(boundary=None)

Convertit un message non-multipart en un message multipart/related, en déplaçant tous les en-têtes Content- existants et la charge utile dans une (nouvelle) première partie du multipart. Si boundary est spécifié, elle l'utilise comme chaîne de délimitation dans le multipart, sinon elle laisse la délimitation être créée automatiquement lorsque cela est nécessaire (par exemple, lorsque le message est sérialisé).

make_alternative(boundary=None)

Convertit un non-multipart ou un multipart/related en un multipart/alternative, en déplaçant tous les en-têtes Content- existants et la charge utile dans une (nouvelle) première partie du multipart. Si boundary est spécifiée, l'utilise comme chaîne de délimitation dans le multipart, sinon laisse la délimitation être créée automatiquement lorsque cela est nécessaire (par exemple, lorsque le message est sérialisé).

make_mixed(boundary=None)

Convertit un non-multipart, un multipart/related ou un multipart-alternative en un multipart/mixed, en déplaçant tous les en-têtes Content- existants et charge utile dans une (nouvelle) première partie du multipart. Si boundary est spécifiée, l'utilise comme chaîne de délimitation dans le multipart, sinon elle laisse la délimitation être créée automatiquement lorsque cela est nécessaire (par exemple, lorsque le message est sérialisé).

add_related(*args, content_manager=None, **kw)

Si le message est un multipart/related, crée un nouvel objet message, passe tous les arguments à sa méthode set_content() et le joint avec attach() au multipart. Si le message n'est pas en multipart, appelle make_related() puis procède comme ci-dessus. Si le message est un autre type de multipart, lève une TypeError. Si content_manager n'est pas spécifié, utilise le content_manager spécifié par la policy actuelle. Si la partie ajoutée n'a pas d'en-tête Content-Disposition, en ajoute un avec la valeur inline.

add_alternative(*args, content_manager=None, **kw)

Si le message est un multipart/alternative, crée un nouvel objet message, transmet tous les arguments à sa méthode set_content() et le joint avec attach() au multipart. Si le message est non-multipart ou multipart/related, appelle make_alternative() puis procède comme ci-dessus. Si le message est un autre type de multipart, lève une TypeError. Si content_manager n'est pas spécifié, utilise le content_manager spécifié par la policy actuelle.

add_attachment(*args, content_manager=None, **kw)

Si le message est un multipart/mixed, crée un nouvel objet message, passe tous les arguments à sa méthode set_content() et le joint avec attach() au multipart. Si le message n'est pas en multipart, multipart/related ou multipart/alternative, appelle make_mixed() puis procède comme ci-dessus. Si content_manager n'est pas spécifié, utilise le content_manager spécifié par la policy actuelle. Si la partie ajoutée n'a pas d'en-tête Content-Disposition, en ajoute un avec la valeur attachment. Cette méthode peut être utilisée à la fois pour les pièces jointes explicites (Content-Disposition:attachment) et les pièces jointes inline (Content-Disposition:inline), en passant les options appropriées au content_manager.

clear()

Supprime la charge utile et tous les en-têtes.

clear_content()

Remove the payload and all of the !Content- headers, leaving all other headers intact and in their original order.

Les objets EmailMessage ont les attributs d'instance suivants :

preamble

Le format d'un document MIME permet d'insérer du texte entre la ligne vide suivant les en-têtes et la première chaîne de délimitation en plusieurs parties. Normalement, ce texte n'est jamais visible dans un lecteur de courrier compatible MIME car il ne fait pas partie de l'attirail MIME standard. Toutefois, lors de l'affichage du texte brut du message ou lors de l'affichage du message dans un lecteur non compatible MIME, ce texte peut devenir visible.

L'attribut preamble contient ce texte hors cadre de tête pour les documents MIME. Lorsque Parser découvre du texte après les en-têtes mais avant la première chaîne de délimitation, il attribue ce texte à l'attribut preamble du message. Lorsque Generator écrit la représentation en texte brut d'un message MIME, et qu'il trouve que le message a un attribut preamble, il écrit ce texte dans la zone entre les en-têtes et la première limite. Voir email.parser et email.generator pour plus de détails.

Notez que si l'objet message n'a pas de préambule, l'attribut preamble est None.

epilogue

L'attribut epilogue agit de la même manière que l'attribut preamble, sauf qu'il contient du texte qui apparaît entre la dernière limite et la fin du message. Comme avec preamble, s'il n'y a pas de texte d'épilogue, cet attribut est None.

defects

L'attribut defects contient une liste de tous les problèmes rencontrés lors de l'analyse de ce message. Voir email.errors pour une description détaillée des défauts d'analyse possibles.

class email.message.MIMEPart(policy=default)

Cette classe représente une sous-partie d'un message MIME. Elle est identique à EmailMessage, sauf qu'aucun en-tête MIME-Version n'est ajouté lorsque set_content() est appelée, car les sous-parties n'ont pas besoin de leurs propres en-têtes MIME-Version.

Notes

[1]

Ajouté à l'origine dans 3.4 en tant que module provisoire. Les documents pour la classe de message héritée ont été déplacés dans email.message.Message : représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32.

[2]

The EmailMessage class requires a policy that provides a content_manager attribute for content management methods like set_content() and get_content() to work. The legacy compat32 policy does not support these methods and should not be used with EmailMessage.

email.parser: Parsing email messages

Code source : Lib/email/parser.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/email/parser.py]

Les instances de messages peuvent être créées de deux façons : elles peuvent être créées de toutes pièces en créant un objet EmailMessage, en ajoutant des en-têtes en utilisant l'interface de dictionnaire, et en ajoutant un ou plusieurs corps de message en utilisant set_content() et les méthodes associées, ou elles peuvent être créées en analysant une représentation sérialisée de l'e-mail.

Le paquet email fournit un analyseur standard qui comprend la plupart des structures de documents de courrier électronique, y compris les documents MIME. Vous pouvez passer à l'analyseur un objet bytes, chaîne ou fichier, et l'analyseur vous renverra l'instance racine EmailMessage de la structure de l'objet. Pour les messages simples non MIME, la charge utile de cet objet racine sera probablement une chaîne contenant le texte du message. Pour les messages MIME, la méthode is_multipart() de l'objet racine renvoie True, et les sous-parties sont accessibles via les méthodes de manipulation de la charge utile, telles que get_body(), iter_parts() et walk().

Il existe en fait deux interfaces d'analyseur disponibles, l'API Parser et l'API incrémentale FeedParser. L'API Parser est plus utile si vous avez le texte entier du message en mémoire ou si le message entier réside dans un fichier sur le système de fichiers. FeedParser est plus appropriée lorsque vous lisez le message à partir d'un flux qui peut bloquer en attente d'une entrée supplémentaire (comme la lecture d'un message électronique à partir d'un connecteur réseau). FeedParser peut consommer et analyser le message de manière incrémentielle et ne renvoie l'objet racine que lorsque vous fermez l'analyseur.

Note that the parser can be extended in limited ways, and of course you can implement your own parser completely from scratch. All of the logic that connects the email package's bundled parser and the EmailMessage class is embodied in the Policy class, so a custom parser can create message object trees any way it finds necessary by implementing custom versions of the appropriate Policy methods.

API FeedParser

BytesFeedParser, importée du module email.feedparser, fournit une API propice à l'analyse incrémentielle des messages électroniques, adaptée à la lecture du texte d'un message électronique à partir d'une source qui peut bloquer (comme un connecteur). BytesFeedParser peut bien sûr être utilisée pour analyser un message électronique entièrement contenu dans un objet octets-compatible, une chaîne ou un fichier, mais l'API BytesParser peut être plus pratique dans ces utilisations. La sémantique et les résultats des deux API d'analyseurs sont identiques.

L'API de BytesFeedParser est simple ; vous créez une instance, l'alimentez d'une suite d'octets jusqu'à ce qu'il n'y en ait plus pour l'alimenter, puis fermez l'analyseur pour récupérer l'objet message racine. BytesFeedParser est extrêmement précise lors de l'analyse des messages conformes aux normes, et elle fait un très bon travail d'analyse des messages non conformes, fournissant des informations sur ce qu'elle considère comme non approprié dans un message. Elle remplit l'attribut defects d'un objet message avec une liste de tous les problèmes trouvés dans un message. Voir le module email.errors pour la liste des défauts qu'elle peut trouver.

Voici l’API de BytesFeedParser :

class email.parser.BytesFeedParser(_factory=None, *, policy=policy.compat32)

Crée une instance BytesFeedParser. _factory est un appelable facultatif sans argument ; s'il n'est pas spécifié, elle utilise la message_factory de la policy. Elle appelle _factory chaque fois qu'un nouvel objet de message est nécessaire.

Si policy est spécifiée, elle utilise les règles spécifiées pour mettre à jour la représentation du message. Si policy n'est pas définie, elle utilise la stratégie compat32, qui maintient la rétrocompatibilité avec la version Python 3.2 du paquet de messagerie et fournit Message comme usine par défaut. Toutes les autres stratégies fournissent EmailMessage comme _factory par défaut. Pour plus d'informations sur ce que policy régit, consultez la documentation policy.

Remarque : Le paramètre nommé « policy » doit toujours être spécifié ; La valeur par défaut deviendra email.policy.default dans une future version de Python.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: ajout du paramètre nommé policy.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: _factory utilise par défaut la politique message_factory.

feed(data)

Alimente l'analyseur avec plus de données. data doit être un objet octets-compatible contenant une ou plusieurs lignes. Les lignes peuvent être partielles et l'analyseur assemble correctement ces lignes partielles. Les lignes peuvent avoir l'une des trois fins de ligne courantes : retour chariot, nouvelle ligne ou retour chariot et nouvelle ligne (elles peuvent même être mélangées).

close()

Termine l'analyse de toutes les données précédemment alimentées et renvoie l'objet message racine. Ce qui se passe si feed() est appelée après l'appel de cette méthode n'est pas défini.

class email.parser.FeedParser(_factory=None, *, policy=policy.compat32)

Works like BytesFeedParser except that the input to the feed() method must be a string. This is of limited utility, since the only way for such a message to be valid is for it to contain only ASCII text or, if utf8 is True, no binary attachments.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: ajout du paramètre nommé policy.

API de Parser

The BytesParser class, imported from the email.parser module, provides an API that can be used to parse a message when the complete contents of the message are available in a bytes-like object or file. The email.parser module also provides Parser for parsing strings, and header-only parsers, BytesHeaderParser and HeaderParser, which can be used if you're only interested in the headers of the message. BytesHeaderParser and HeaderParser can be much faster in these situations, since they do not attempt to parse the message body, instead setting the payload to the raw body.

class email.parser.BytesParser(_class=None, *, policy=policy.compat32)

Crée une instance BytesParser. Les arguments _class et policy ont la même signification et la même sémantique que les arguments _factory et policy de BytesFeedParser.

Remarque : Le paramètre nommé « policy » doit toujours être spécifié ; La valeur par défaut deviendra email.policy.default dans une future version de Python.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: suppression de l'argument strict qui était obsolète dans 2.4. Ajout du paramètre nommé policy.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: _class utilise par défaut la politique message_factory.

parse(fp, headersonly=False)

Read all the data from the binary file-like object fp, parse the resulting bytes, and return the message object. fp must support both the readline() and the read() methods.

The bytes contained in fp must be formatted as a block of RFC 5322 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html] (or, if utf8 is True, RFC 6532 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6532.html]) style headers and header continuation lines, optionally preceded by an envelope header. The header block is terminated either by the end of the data or by a blank line. Following the header block is the body of the message (which may contain MIME-encoded subparts, including subparts with a Content-Transfer-Encoding of 8bit).

headersonly est un indicateur facultatif spécifiant s'il faut arrêter l'analyse après avoir lu les en-têtes ou non. La valeur par défaut est False, ce qui signifie qu'il analyse tout le contenu du fichier.

parsebytes(bytes, headersonly=False)

Semblable à la méthode parse(), sauf qu'elle prend un objet octets-compatible au lieu d'un objet de type fichier. Appeler cette méthode sur un objet octets-compatible équivaut à envelopper bytes dans une instance BytesIO d'abord et à appeler parse().

L'utilisation de l'option headersonly est identique à son utilisation dans la méthode parse().

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

class email.parser.BytesHeaderParser(_class=None, *, policy=policy.compat32)

Exactement comme BytesParser, sauf que headersonly par défaut est True.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

class email.parser.Parser(_class=None, *, policy=policy.compat32)

Cette classe est semblable à BytesParser, mais elle accepte une chaîne en entrée.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: suppression de l'argument strict. Ajout de l'argument nommé policy.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: _class utilise par défaut la politique message_factory.

parse(fp, headersonly=False)

Lit toutes les données de l'objet de type fichier en mode texte fp, analyse le texte résultant et renvoie l'objet message racine. fp doit prendre en charge les méthodes readline() et read() sur les objets de type fichier.

Outre l'exigence du mode texte, cette méthode fonctionne comme BytesParser.parse().

parsestr(text, headersonly=False)

Similaire à la méthode parse(), sauf qu'elle prend un objet chaîne au lieu d'un objet de type fichier. Appeler cette méthode sur une chaîne équivaut à envelopper text dans une instance StringIO d'abord et à appeler parse().

L'utilisation de l'option headersonly est identique à son utilisation dans la méthode parse().

class email.parser.HeaderParser(_class=None, *, policy=policy.compat32)

Exactement comme Parser, sauf que headersonly par défaut est True.

Étant donné que la création d'une structure d'objet message à partir d'une chaîne ou d'un objet fichier est une tâche très courante, quatre fonctions sont fournies par commodité. Elles sont disponibles dans l'espace de noms de paquet de niveau supérieur email.

email.message_from_bytes(s, _class=None, *, policy=policy.compat32)

Renvoie une structure d'objet message à partir d'un objet octets-compatible. C'est équivalent à BytesParser().parsebytes(s). _class et policy (facultatifs) sont interprétés comme pour le constructeur de classe BytesParser.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: suppression de l'argument strict. Ajout de l'argument nommé policy.

email.message_from_binary_file(fp, _class=None, *, policy=policy.compat32)

Renvoie une arborescence d'objets message à partir d'un objet fichier binaire ouvert. C'est équivalent à BytesParser().parse(fp). _class et policy sont interprétés comme pour le constructeur de classe BytesParser.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: suppression de l'argument strict. Ajout de l'argument nommé policy.

email.message_from_string(s, _class=None, *, policy=policy.compat32)

Renvoie une structure d'objet message à partir d'une chaîne. C'est équivalent à Parser().parsestr(s). _class et policy sont interprétés comme avec le constructeur de classe Parser.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: suppression de l'argument strict. Ajout de l'argument nommé policy.

email.message_from_file(fp, _class=None, *, policy=policy.compat32)

Renvoie une arborescence de structures d'objets messages à partir d'un objet fichier ouvert. C'est équivalent à Parser().parse(fp). _class et policy sont interprétés comme avec le constructeur de classe Parser.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: suppression de l'argument strict. Ajout de l'argument nommé policy.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: _class utilise par défaut la politique message_factory.

Voici un exemple d'utilisation message_from_bytes() dans une invite Python interactive :

>>> import email
>>> msg = email.message_from_bytes(myBytes)

Notes complémentaires

Voici des remarques sur la sémantique d'analyse :

La plupart des messages de type non-multipart sont analysés comme un seul objet de message avec une charge utile de type chaîne. Ces objets renvoient False pour is_multipart() et iter_parts() donne une liste vide.

Tous les messages de type multipart sont analysés comme un objet de message conteneur avec une liste d'objets de sous-messages pour leur charge utile. Le message du conteneur externe renvoie True pour is_multipart() et iter_parts() donne une liste de sous-parties.

La plupart des messages avec un type de contenu de message/* (tels que message/delivery-status et message/rfc822) sont également analysés en tant qu'objet conteneur contenant une charge utile de type « liste de longueur 1 ». Leur méthode is_multipart() renvoie True. L'élément unique généré par iter_parts() est un objet sous-message.

Certains messages non conformes aux normes peuvent ne pas être cohérents en interne quant à multipart. De tels messages peuvent avoir un en-tête Content-Type de type multipart, mais leur méthode is_multipart() peut renvoyer False. Si de tels messages ont été analysés avec la FeedParser, ils auront une instance de la classe MultipartInvariantViolationDefect dans leur liste d'attributs defects. Voir email.errors pour plus de détails.

email.generator: Generating MIME documents

Code source : Lib/email/igenerator.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/email/igenerator.py]

One of the most common tasks is to generate the flat (serialized) version of the email message represented by a message object structure. You will need to do this if you want to send your message via smtplib.SMTP.sendmail(), or print the message on the console. Taking a message object structure and producing a serialized representation is the job of the generator classes.

Comme avec le module email.parser, vous n'êtes pas limité aux fonctionnalités du générateur fourni ; vous pourriez en écrire un à partir de zéro vous-même. Cependant, le générateur fourni sait comment générer la plupart des e-mails d'une manière conforme aux normes, est conçu pour gérer correctement les e-mails MIME et non MIME, et pour que les opérations (sur des suites d'octets) d'analyse et de génération soient inverses, en supposant que la même policy est utilisée pour les deux. Autrement dit, l'analyse du flux d'octets sérialisé via la classe BytesParser puis la régénération du flux d'octets sérialisé à l'aide de BytesGenerator devrait produire une sortie identique à l'entrée [1] (d'un autre côté, l'utilisation du générateur sur un EmailMessage construit par programme peut entraîner des modifications de l'objet EmailMessage car les valeurs par défaut sont renseignées).

La classe Generator peut être utilisée pour aplatir un message dans une représentation sérialisée textuelle (par opposition à binaire), mais comme Unicode ne peut pas représenter directement des données binaires, le message est nécessairement transformé en quelque chose qui ne contient que des caractères ASCII, en utilisant les techniques standard de codage de transfert de contenu RFC pour le codage des messages électroniques pour le transport sur des canaux qui ne sont pas « complétement 8 bits ».

Pour s'adapter au traitement reproductible des messages signés SMIME Generator ne raccourcit pas les en-têtes pour les parties de message de type multipart/signed et toutes les sous-parties.

class email.generator.BytesGenerator(outfp, mangle_from_=None, maxheaderlen=None, *, policy=None)

Renvoie un objet BytesGenerator qui écrit tout message fourni à la méthode flatten(), ou tout texte encodé par surrogateescape fourni à la méthode write(), dans le objet simili-fichier outfp. outfp doit disposer d'une méthode write qui accepte les données binaires.

Si l'option mangle_from_ est True, place un caractère > devant toute ligne du corps commençant par la chaîne exacte "From ", c'est-à-dire une ligne commençant par From suivi par une espace. mangle_from_ prend par défaut la valeur du paramètre mangle_from_ de la policy (qui est True pour la politique compat32 et False pour tous les autres). mangle_from_ est destiné à être utilisé lorsque les messages sont stockés au format Unix mbox (voir mailbox et WHY THE CONTENT-LENGTH FORMAT IS BAD [https://www.jwz.org/doc/content-length.html]).

Si maxheaderlen n'est pas None, raccourcit toutes les lignes d'en-tête qui sont plus longues que maxheaderlen, ou si 0, ne raccourcit aucun en-tête. Si manheaderlen est None (valeur par défaut), formate les en-têtes et autres lignes de message en fonction des paramètres de policy.

Si policy est spécifiée, utilise cette politique pour contrôler la génération des messages. Si policy est None (par défaut), utilise la politique associée à l'objet Message ou EmailMessage passée à flatten pour contrôler la génération des messages. Voir email.policy pour plus de détails sur ce que policy contrôle.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: ajout du mot-clé policy.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: le comportement par défaut des paramètres mangle_from_ et maxheaderlen est de suivre la politique.

flatten(msg, unixfrom=False, linesep=None)

Affiche la représentation textuelle de la structure de l'objet message dont la racine est msg dans le fichier de sortie spécifié lors de la création de l'instance BytesGenerator.

Si l'option cte_type de policy est 8bit (valeur par défaut), copie tous les en-têtes du message analysé d'origine qui n'ont pas été modifiés en sortie avec tous les octets dont le bit de poids fort identique à l'original, et conserve le Content-Transfer-Encoding non-ASCII de toutes les parties du corps qui en ont. Si cte_type est 7bit, convertit les octets avec le bit de poids fort défini selon les besoins en utilisant un Content-Transfer-Encoding compatible ASCII. Autrement dit, transforme les parties non ASCII Content-Transfer-Encoding (Content-Transfer-Encoding: 8bit) en un Content-Transfer-Encoding compatible ASCII, et encode les octets non ASCII non valides de la RFC dans les en-têtes utilisant le jeu de caractères MIME unknown-8bit, les rendant ainsi conformes à la RFC.

Si unixfrom est True, affiche le délimiteur d'en-tête d'enveloppe utilisé par le format de boîte aux lettres Unix (voir mailbox) avant le premier des en-têtes RFC 5322 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html] de l'objet message racine. Si l'objet racine n'a pas d'en-tête d'enveloppe, en crée un standard. La valeur par défaut est False. Notez que pour les sous-parties, aucun en-tête d'enveloppe n'est jamais imprimé.

Si linesep n'est pas None, l'utilise comme caractère de séparation entre toutes les lignes du message aplati. Si linesep est None (valeur par défaut), utilise la valeur spécifiée dans la policy.

clone(fp)

Renvoie un clone indépendant de cette instance BytesGenerator avec exactement les mêmes paramètres d'option, et fp comme nouveau outfp.

write(s)

Encode s en utilisant le codec ASCII et le gestionnaire d'erreurs surrogateescape, et le passe à la méthode write du outfp passé au constructeur de BytesGenerator.

Par commodité, EmailMessage fournit les méthodes as_bytes() et bytes(aMessage) (alias __bytes__()), qui simplifient la génération d'une représentation binaire sérialisée d'un objet message. Pour plus de détails, voir email.message.

Comme les chaînes ne peuvent pas représenter des données binaires, la classe Generator doit convertir toutes les données binaires de tout message qu'elle aplatit en un format compatible ASCII, en les convertissant en un Content-Transfer_Encoding compatible ASCII. En utilisant la terminologie des RFC des e-mails, vous pouvez considérer cela comme un Generator sérialisant vers un flux d'entrées-sorties qui n'est pas « complètement 8 bits ». En d'autres termes, la plupart des applications voudront utiliser BytesGenerator et pas Generator.

class email.generator.Generator(outfp, mangle_from_=None, maxheaderlen=None, *, policy=None)

Renvoie un objet Generator qui écrit tout message fourni à la méthode flatten(), ou tout texte fourni à la méthode write(), dans l'objet simili-fichier outfp. outfp doit prendre en charge une méthode write qui accepte les données de type chaîne.

Si l'option mangle_from_ est True, place un caractère > devant toute ligne du corps commençant par la chaîne exacte "From ", c'est-à-dire une ligne commençant par From suivi par une espace. mangle_from_ prend par défaut la valeur du paramètre mangle_from_ de la policy (qui est True pour la politique compat32 et False pour tous les autres). mangle_from_ est destiné à être utilisé lorsque les messages sont stockés au format Unix mbox (voir mailbox et WHY THE CONTENT-LENGTH FORMAT IS BAD [https://www.jwz.org/doc/content-length.html]).

Si maxheaderlen n'est pas None, raccourcit toutes les lignes d'en-tête qui sont plus longues que maxheaderlen, ou si 0, ne raccourcit aucun en-tête. Si manheaderlen est None (valeur par défaut), formate les en-têtes et autres lignes de message en fonction des paramètres de policy.

Si policy est spécifiée, utilise cette politique pour contrôler la génération des messages. Si policy est None (par défaut), utilise la politique associée à l'objet Message ou EmailMessage passée à flatten pour contrôler la génération des messages. Voir email.policy pour plus de détails sur ce que policy contrôle.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: ajout du mot-clé policy.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: le comportement par défaut des paramètres mangle_from_ et maxheaderlen est de suivre la politique.

flatten(msg, unixfrom=False, linesep=None)

Affiche la représentation textuelle de la structure de l'objet message dont la racine est msg dans le fichier de sortie spécifié lors de la création de l'instance Generator.

Si l'option policy cte_type est 8bit, génère le message comme si l'option était définie sur 7bit (c'est nécessaire car les chaînes ne peuvent pas représenter des octets non ASCII). Convertit tous les octets avec le bit de poids fort défini selon les besoins à l'aide d'un Content-Transfer-Encoding compatible ASCII. Autrement dit, transforme les parties non ASCII Content-Transfer-Encoding (Content-Transfer-Encoding: 8bit) en un Content-Transfer-Encoding compatible ASCII, et encode les octets non ASCII non valides RFC dans les en-têtes utilisant le jeu de caractères MIME unknown-8bit, les rendant ainsi conformes à la RFC.

Si unixfrom est True, affiche le délimiteur d'en-tête d'enveloppe utilisé par le format de boîte aux lettres Unix (voir mailbox) avant le premier des en-têtes RFC 5322 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html] de l'objet message racine. Si l'objet racine n'a pas d'en-tête d'enveloppe, en crée un standard. La valeur par défaut est False. Notez que pour les sous-parties, aucun en-tête d'enveloppe n'est jamais imprimé.

Si linesep n'est pas None, l'utilise comme caractère de séparation entre toutes les lignes du message aplati. Si linesep est None (valeur par défaut), utilise la valeur spécifiée dans la policy.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: ajout de la prise en charge du ré-encodage des corps de message 8bit et de l'argument linesep.

clone(fp)

Renvoie un clone indépendant de cette instance Generator avec exactement les mêmes options, et avec fp comme nouveau outfp.

write(s)

Écrit s dans la méthode write de outfp passé au constructeur de Generator. Cela fournit une API ressemblant suffisamment au type fichier pour les instances de Generator utilisées dans la fonction print().

Par commodité, EmailMessage fournit les méthodes as_string() et str(aMessage) (alias __str__()), qui simplifient la génération d'une représentation sous forme de chaîne formatée d'un objet message. Pour plus de détails, voir email.message.

The email.generator module also provides a derived class, DecodedGenerator, which is like the Generator base class, except that non-text parts are not serialized, but are instead represented in the output stream by a string derived from a template filled in with information about the part.

class email.generator.DecodedGenerator(outfp, mangle_from_=None, maxheaderlen=None, fmt=None, *, policy=None)

Agit comme Generator, sauf que pour toute sous-partie du message transmise à Generator.flatten(), si la sous-partie est de type principal text, affiche la charge utile décodée de la sous-partie, et si le type principal n'est pas text, au lieu de l'afficher, remplit la chaîne fmt en utilisant les informations de la partie et affiche la chaîne remplie résultante.

Pour remplir fmt, exécute fmt % part_info, où part_info est un dictionnaire composé des clés et valeurs suivantes :

type – Type MIME complet de la partie non-text

maintype – Type MIME principal de la partie non-text

subtype – Sous-type MIME de la partie non-text

filename – Nom de fichier de la partie non-text

description – Description associée à la partie non-text

encoding – Encodage du contenu de la partie non-text

Si fmt est None, utilise le fmt par défaut suivant :

"[Non-text (%(type)s) part of message omitted, filename %(filename)s]"

_mangle_from_ et maxheaderlen sont optionnels et fonctionnent comme avec la classe mère Generator.

Notes

[1]

This statement assumes that you use the appropriate setting for unixfrom, and that there are no email.policy settings calling for automatic adjustments (for example, refold_source must be none, which is not the default). It is also not 100% true, since if the message does not conform to the RFC standards occasionally information about the exact original text is lost during parsing error recovery. It is a goal to fix these latter edge cases when possible.

email.policy: Policy Objects

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Code source : Lib/email/policy.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/email/policy.py]

Le principal objectif du paquet email est la gestion des messages électroniques comme décrit par les diverses RFC de messagerie et MIME. Cependant, le format général des messages électroniques (un bloc de champs d'en-tête composés chacun d'un nom suivi de deux-points suivi d'une valeur, le bloc entier suivi d'une ligne vide et d'un « corps » arbitraire), est un format qui a trouvé son utilité en dehors du domaine du courrier électronique. Certaines de ces utilisations sont assez conformes aux principales RFC de messagerie, d'autres non. Même lorsque vous travaillez avec des e-mails, il est parfois souhaitable de ne pas respecter strictement les RFC, par exemple en générant des e-mails qui interagissent avec des serveurs de messagerie qui ne respectent pas eux-mêmes les normes ou qui implémentent des extensions que vous souhaitez utiliser d'une manière qui enfreint les normes.

Les objets de définition de politique donnent au paquet de messagerie la flexibilité nécessaire pour gérer tous ces cas d'utilisation disparates.

Un objet Policy encapsule un ensemble d'attributs et de méthodes qui contrôlent le comportement de divers composants du paquet de messagerie lors de son utilisation. Les instances Policy peuvent être transmises à diverses classes et méthodes dans le paquet de courrier électronique pour modifier le comportement par défaut. Les valeurs réglables et leurs valeurs par défaut sont décrites ci-dessous.

Il existe une politique par défaut utilisée par toutes les classes dans le paquet de messagerie. Pour toutes les classes parser et les fonctions pratiques associées, et pour la classe Message, il s'agit de la politique Compat32, via son instance correspondante prédéfinie compat32. Cette politique fournit une rétrocompatibilité complète (dans certains cas, y compris la compatibilité des bogues) avec la version pré-Python3.3 du paquet de messagerie.

Cette valeur par défaut pour le paramètre nommé policy de EmailMessage est la politique EmailPolicy, via son instance prédéfinie default.

Lorsqu'un objet Message ou EmailMessage est créé, il acquiert une politique. Si le message est créé par un parser, la politique transmise à l'analyseur est la politique utilisée par le message qu'il crée. Si le message est créé par le programme, la stratégie peut être spécifiée lors de sa création. Lorsqu'un message est passé à un generator, le générateur utilise la politique du message par défaut, mais vous pouvez également passer une politique spécifique au générateur qui remplace celle stockée sur l'objet message.

La valeur par défaut du paramètre nommé policy pour les classes email.parser et les fonctions pratiques de l'analyseur va changer dans une future version de Python. Par conséquent, vous devez toujours spécifier explicitement la stratégie que vous souhaitez utiliser lors de l'appel de l'une des classes et fonctions décrites dans le module parser.

La première partie de cette documentation couvre les fonctionnalités de Policy, une classe mère abstraite qui définit les fonctionnalités communes à tous les objets de stratégie, y compris compat32. Cela inclut certaines méthodes automatiques (hooks en anglais) appelées en interne par le paquet de messagerie, qu'une stratégie personnalisée peut remplacer pour obtenir un comportement différent. La deuxième partie décrit les classes concrètes EmailPolicy et Compat32, qui implémentent les points d'entrée automatiques qui fournissent respectivement le comportement standard et le comportement et les fonctionnalités rétrocompatibles.

Les instances Policy sont immuables, mais elles peuvent être clonées, en acceptant les mêmes arguments nommés que le constructeur de classe et en renvoyant une nouvelle instance Policy qui est une copie de l'original mais avec les valeurs d'attributs spécifiées modifiées.

Par exemple, le code suivant peut être utilisé pour lire un message électronique à partir d'un fichier sur le disque et le transmettre au programme système sendmail sur un système Unix :

>>> from email import message_from_binary_file
>>> from email.generator import BytesGenerator
>>> from email import policy
>>> from subprocess import Popen, PIPE
>>> with open('mymsg.txt', 'rb') as f:
...     msg = message_from_binary_file(f, policy=policy.default)
...
>>> p = Popen(['sendmail', msg['To'].addresses[0]], stdin=PIPE)
>>> g = BytesGenerator(p.stdin, policy=msg.policy.clone(linesep='\r\n'))
>>> g.flatten(msg)
>>> p.stdin.close()
>>> rc = p.wait()

Ici, nous disons à BytesGenerator d'utiliser les caractères de séparation de ligne corrects de la RFC lors de la création de la chaîne binaire à fournir à stdin de sendmail, où la politique par défaut utiliserait \n comme séparateur de ligne.

Certaines méthodes du paquet de messagerie acceptent un argument nommé policy, permettant à la politique d'être remplacée pour cette méthode. Par exemple, le code suivant utilise la méthode as_bytes() de l'objet msg de l'exemple précédent et écrit le message dans un fichier en utilisant les séparateurs de ligne natifs de la plate-forme sur laquelle il est en cours d'exécution :

>>> import os
>>> with open('converted.txt', 'wb') as f:
...     f.write(msg.as_bytes(policy=msg.policy.clone(linesep=os.linesep)))
17

Les objets de stratégie peuvent également être combinés à l'aide de l'opérateur d'addition, produisant un objet de stratégie dont les paramètres sont une combinaison des objets additionnées (en ne prenant en compte que les paramètres données explicitement) :

>>> compat_SMTP = policy.compat32.clone(linesep='\r\n')
>>> compat_strict = policy.compat32.clone(raise_on_defect=True)
>>> compat_strict_SMTP = compat_SMTP + compat_strict

Cette opération n'est pas commutative ; c'est-à-dire que l'ordre dans lequel les objets sont ajoutés est important. Pour illustrer :

>>> policy100 = policy.compat32.clone(max_line_length=100)
>>> policy80 = policy.compat32.clone(max_line_length=80)
>>> apolicy = policy100 + policy80
>>> apolicy.max_line_length
80
>>> apolicy = policy80 + policy100
>>> apolicy.max_line_length
100

class email.policy.Policy(**kw)

C'est la classe mère abstraite pour toutes les classes de définition de politique. Elle fournit des implémentations par défaut pour quelques méthodes triviales, ainsi que l'implémentation de la propriété d'immutabilité, la méthode clone() et la sémantique du constructeur.

Le constructeur d'une classe de définition de politique peut recevoir divers arguments nommés. Les arguments qui peuvent être spécifiés sont toutes les propriétés qui ne sont pas des méthodes sur cette classe, plus toutes les propriétés qui ne sont pas des méthodes supplémentaires sur la classe concrète. Une valeur spécifiée dans le constructeur remplace la valeur par défaut de l'attribut correspondant.

Cette classe définit les propriétés suivantes, et ainsi les valeurs des éléments suivants peuvent être passées dans le constructeur de n'importe quelle classe de définition de politique :

max_line_length

La longueur maximale de toute ligne dans la sortie sérialisée, sans compter le(s) caractère(s) de fin de ligne. La valeur par défaut est 78, selon la RFC 5322 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html]. Une valeur de 0 ou None indique qu'aucun retour à la ligne ne doit être fait.

linesep

La chaîne à utiliser pour terminer les lignes dans la sortie sérialisée. La valeur par défaut est \n car c'est la définition interne de fin de ligne utilisée par Python, bien que \r\n soit requis par les RFC.

cte_type

Contrôle le type d'encodage de contenu qui peut ou doit être utilisé. Les valeurs possibles sont :

7bit

toutes les données doivent être « complétement 7 bits » (ASCII uniquement). Cela signifie que si nécessaire, les données seront encodées à l'aide de l'encodage quoted-printable ou base64.

8bit

les données ne sont pas contraintes d'être uniquement sur 7 bits. Les données dans les en-têtes doivent toujours être en ASCII uniquement et seront donc encodées (voir fold_binary() et utf8 ci-dessous pour les exceptions), mais les parties du corps peuvent utiliser le 8bit CTE.

Une valeur cte_type de 8bit ne fonctionne qu'avec BytesGenerator, et pas avec Generator car les chaînes ne peuvent pas contenir de données binaires. Si un Generator fonctionne sous une politique qui spécifie cte_type=8bit, il agit comme si cte_type était 7bit.

raise_on_defect

Si True, tous les défauts rencontrés sont signalés comme des erreurs. Si False (la valeur par défaut), les défauts sont passés à la méthode register_defect().

mangle_from_

Si True, les lignes commençant par "From " dans le corps sont échappées en mettant un > devant elles. Ce paramètre est utilisé lorsque le message est sérialisé par un générateur. Par défaut, vaut False.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

message_factory

Une fonction de fabrique pour construire un nouvel objet de message vide. Utilisé par l'analyseur lors de la construction des messages. La valeur par défaut est None, Message est alors utilisé.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

verify_generated_headers

If True (the default), the generator will raise HeaderWriteError instead of writing a header that is improperly folded or delimited, such that it would be parsed as multiple headers or joined with adjacent data. Such headers can be generated by custom header classes or bugs in the email module.

As it's a security feature, this defaults to True even in the Compat32 policy. For backwards compatible, but unsafe, behavior, it must be set to False explicitly.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

La méthode Policy suivante est destinée à être appelée par le code à l'aide de la bibliothèque de messagerie pour créer des instances de stratégie avec des paramètres personnalisés :

clone(**kw)

Renvoie une nouvelle instance de Policy dont les attributs ont les mêmes valeurs que l'instance actuelle, sauf si ces attributs reçoivent de nouvelles valeurs par les arguments nommés.

Les méthodes Policy restantes sont appelées par le code du paquet de messagerie et ne sont pas destinées à être appelées par une application utilisant le paquet de messagerie. Une stratégie personnalisée doit implémenter toutes ces méthodes.

handle_defect(obj, defect)

Handle a defect found on obj. When the email package calls this method, defect will always be a subclass of MessageDefect.

L'implémentation par défaut vérifie le drapeau raise_on_defect. Si c'est True, defect est levé comme une exception. Si c'est False (par défaut), obj et defect sont passés à register_defect().

register_defect(obj, defect)

Register a defect on obj. In the email package, defect will always be a subclass of MessageDefect.

L'implémentation par défaut appelle la méthode append de l'attribut defects de obj. Lorsque le paquet de courrier électronique appelle handle_defect, obj a normalement un attribut defects qui a une méthode append. Les types d'objets personnalisés utilisés avec le paquet de messagerie (par exemple, les objets Message personnalisés) doivent également fournir un tel attribut, sinon les défauts dans les messages analysés généreront des erreurs inattendues.

header_max_count(name)

Renvoie le nombre maximal autorisé d'en-têtes nommés name.

Appelé lorsqu'un en-tête est ajouté à un objet EmailMessage ou Message. Si la valeur renvoyée n'est pas 0 ou None, et qu'il y a déjà un certain nombre d'en-têtes avec le nom name supérieur ou égal à la valeur renvoyée, une ValueError est levée.

Parce que le comportement par défaut de Message.__setitem__ est d'ajouter la valeur à la liste des en-têtes, il est facile de créer des en-têtes en double sans s'en rendre compte. Cette méthode permet à certains en-têtes d'être limités dans le nombre d'instances de cet en-tête qui peuvent être ajoutées à un Message par programme (la limite n'est pas respectée par l'analyseur, qui produit fidèlement autant d'en-têtes qu'il en existe dans le message analysé).

L'implémentation par défaut renvoie None pour tous les noms d'en-tête.

header_source_parse(sourcelines)

Le paquet de courrier électronique appelle cette méthode avec une liste de chaînes, chaque chaîne se terminant par les caractères de séparation de ligne trouvés dans la source analysée. La première ligne comprend le nom de l'en-tête de champ et le séparateur. Tous les espaces blancs dans la source sont préservés. La méthode doit renvoyer le couple (name, value) qui doit être stocké dans le Message pour représenter l'en-tête analysé.

Si une implémentation souhaite conserver la compatibilité avec les politiques de paquet de messagerie existantes, name doit être le nom préservé de la casse (tous les caractères jusqu'au séparateur :), tandis que value doit être la valeur dépliée (c.-à-d. tous les caractères de séparation de ligne supprimés, mais les espaces blancs conservés intacts), dépouillés des espaces blancs de tête.

sourcelines peut contenir des données binaires échappées de substitution.

Il n'y a pas d'implémentation par défaut

header_store_parse(name, value)

Le paquet de courrier électronique appelle cette méthode avec le nom et la valeur fournis par le programme d'application lorsque le programme d'application modifie un Message par programme (par opposition à un Message créé par un analyseur). La méthode doit renvoyer le couple (name, value) qui doit être stocké dans le Message pour représenter l'en-tête.

Si une implémentation souhaite conserver la compatibilité avec les politiques existantes du paquet de messagerie, le name et la value doivent être des chaînes ou des sous-classes de chaînes qui ne modifient pas le contenu des arguments transmis.

Il n'y a pas d'implémentation par défaut

header_fetch_parse(name, value)

Le paquet de courrier électronique appelle cette méthode avec le name et la value actuellement stockés dans le Message lorsque cet en-tête est demandé par le programme d'application, et tout ce que la méthode renvoie est ce qui est renvoyé à l'application comme valeur de l'en-tête récupéré. Notez qu'il peut y avoir plus d'un en-tête avec le même nom stocké dans le Message ; la méthode reçoit le nom et la valeur spécifiques de l'en-tête destiné à être renvoyé à l'application.

value peut contenir des données binaires de substitution échappées. Il ne doit pas y avoir de données binaires échappées de substitution dans la valeur renvoyée par la méthode.

Il n'y a pas d'implémentation par défaut

fold(name, value)

Le paquet de courrier électronique appelle cette méthode avec le name et la value actuellement stockés dans le Message pour un en-tête donné. La méthode doit renvoyer une chaîne qui représente correctement cet en-tête « plié » (selon les paramètres de la politique) en mettant en forme le couple name - value et en insérant les caractères linesep aux endroits appropriés. Voir RFC 5322 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html] pour une discussion sur les règles de mise en forme (« pliage » ou folding en anglais) des en-têtes de courrier électronique.

value peut contenir des données binaires de substitution échappées. Il ne doit pas y avoir de données binaires échappées de substitution dans la chaîne renvoyée par la méthode.

fold_binary(name, value)

Identique à fold(), sauf que la valeur renvoyée doit être un objet bytes plutôt qu'une chaîne.

value peut contenir des données binaires de substitution échappées. Celles-ci pourraient être reconverties en données binaires dans l'objet bytes renvoyé.

class email.policy.EmailPolicy(**kw)

Cette Policy concrète fournit un comportement destiné à être entièrement conforme aux RFC de messagerie actuelles. Ce qui inclut (mais n'est pas limité à) la RFC 5322 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html], la RFC 2047 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html] et les RFC MIME actuelles.

Cette politique ajoute de nouveaux algorithmes d'analyse d'en-tête et de mise en forme (« pliage »). Au lieu de simples chaînes, les en-têtes sont des sous-classes str avec des attributs qui dépendent du type du champ. L'algorithme d'analyse et de pliage implémente entièrement la RFC 2047 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html] et la RFC 5322 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html].

La valeur par défaut de l'attribut message_factory est EmailMessage.

Outre les attributs définissables répertoriés ci-dessus qui s'appliquent à toutes les règles, cette règle ajoute les attributs supplémentaires suivants :

Ajouté dans la version 3.6: [1]

utf8

Si c'est False, suit la RFC 5322 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html], en prenant en charge les caractères non-ASCII dans les en-têtes en les encodant comme des « mots encodés ». Si c'est True, suit la RFC 6532 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6532.html] et utilise l'encodage utf-8 pour les en-têtes. Les messages formatés de cette manière peuvent être transmis aux serveurs SMTP qui gèrent l'extension SMTPUTF8 (RFC 6531 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6531.html]).

refold_source

Si la valeur d'un en-tête dans l'objet Message provient d'un parser (au lieu d'être définie par un programme), cet attribut indique si un générateur doit ou non remettre en forme cette valeur lorsqu'il retransforme le message sous forme sérialisée. Les valeurs possibles sont :

none

toutes les valeurs sources utilisent la mise en forme (folding en anglais) d'origine

long

les valeurs sources dont une ligne est plus longue que max_line_length sont remises en forme

all

toutes les valeurs sont remises en forme.

La valeur par défaut est long.

header_factory

Appelable qui prend deux arguments, name et value, où name est un nom de champ d'en-tête et value est une valeur de champ d'en-tête dépliée (c-à-d. sans retours à la ligne de mise en forme), et renvoie une sous-classe de chaîne qui représente cet en-tête. Un header_factory par défaut (voir headerregistry) est fourni qui prend en charge l'analyse personnalisée pour les divers types de champs d'en-tête d'adresse et de date RFC 5322 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html], et les principaux types de champs d'en-tête MIME. La prise en charge d'une analyse personnalisée supplémentaire sera ajoutée à l'avenir.

content_manager

Objet avec au moins deux méthodes : get_content et set_content. Lorsque la méthode get_content() ou set_content() d'un objet EmailMessage est appelée, elle appelle la méthode correspondante de cet objet, en lui transmettant l'objet message comme premier argument, et tous les arguments positionnels ou nommés qui lui ont été transmis comme arguments supplémentaires. Par défaut, content_manager est défini sur raw_data_manager.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

La classe fournit les implémentations concrètes suivantes des méthodes abstraites de Policy :

header_max_count(name)

Renvoie la valeur de l'attribut max_count de la classe spécialisée utilisée pour représenter l'en-tête avec le nom donné.

header_source_parse(sourcelines)

Le nom est analysé comme le reste jusqu'au : et renvoyé sans modification. La valeur est déterminée en supprimant les espaces blancs de début du reste de la première ligne, en joignant toutes les lignes suivantes et en supprimant tous les caractères de retour chariot ou de saut de ligne de fin.

header_store_parse(name, value)

Le nom est renvoyé tel quel. Si la valeur d'entrée a un attribut name et qu'elle correspond à name sans tenir compte de la casse, la valeur est renvoyée inchangée. Sinon, le name et la value sont passés à header_factory, et l'objet d'en-tête résultant est renvoyé comme valeur. Dans ce cas, une ValueError est levée si la valeur d'entrée contient des caractères CR ou LF.

header_fetch_parse(name, value)

Si la valeur a un attribut name, elle est renvoyée sans modification. Sinon, le name et la value sans les caractères CR ou LF sont passés à header_factory, et l'objet d'en-tête résultant est renvoyé. Tous les octets échappés de substitution sont transformés en glyphe Unicode de caractère inconnu.

fold(name, value)

La mise en forme d'en-tête est contrôlée par le paramètre de politique refold_source. Une valeur est considérée comme une « valeur source » si et seulement si elle n'a pas d'attribut name (avoir un attribut name signifie qu'il s'agit d'un objet d'en-tête quelconque). Si une valeur source doit être mise en forme conformément à la politique, elle est convertie en un objet d'en-tête en passant le name et la value avec tous les caractères CR et LF supprimés à header_factory. La mise en forme multi-lignes d'un objet d'en-tête (« pliage » ou folding en anglais) se fait en appelant sa méthode fold avec la politique actuelle.

Les valeurs sources sont divisées en lignes en utilisant splitlines(). Si la valeur ne doit pas être remise en forme, les lignes sont jointes en utilisant le caractère linesep de la politique et renvoyées. L'exception concerne les lignes contenant des données binaires non ASCII. Dans ce cas, la valeur est remise en forme quel que soit le paramètre refold_source, ce qui entraîne le codage CTE des données binaires à l'aide du jeu de caractères unknown-8bit.

fold_binary(name, value)

Identique à fold() si cte_type vaut 7bit, sauf que la valeur renvoyée est de type bytes.

Si cte_type est 8bit, les données binaires non-ASCII sont reconverties en octets. Les en-têtes contenant des données binaires ne sont pas remises en forme, quel que soit le paramètre refold_header, puisqu'il n'y a aucun moyen de savoir si les données binaires sont constituées de caractères à un seul octet ou de caractères à plusieurs octets.

Les instances suivantes de EmailPolicy fournissent des valeurs par défaut adaptées à des domaines d'application spécifiques. Notez qu'à l'avenir, le comportement de ces instances (en particulier l'instance HTTP) pourra être ajusté pour se conformer encore plus étroitement aux RFC relatives à leurs domaines.

email.policy.default

Une instance de EmailPolicy avec toutes les valeurs par défaut inchangées. Cette politique utilise les fins de ligne standard Python \n plutôt que le \r\n conforme à la RFC.

email.policy.SMTP

Convient pour la sérialisation des messages conformément aux RFC des e-mails. Comme default, mais avec linesep défini sur \r\n, ce qui est conforme à la RFC.

email.policy.SMTPUTF8

Identique à SMTP sauf que utf8 vaut True. Utile pour sérialiser des messages dans une banque de messages sans utiliser de mots encodés dans les en-têtes. Ne doit être utilisée pour la transmission SMTP que si les adresses de l'expéditeur ou du destinataire contiennent des caractères non ASCII (la méthode smtplib.SMTP.send_message() gère cela automatiquement).

email.policy.HTTP

Convient pour la sérialisation des en-têtes à utiliser dans le trafic HTTP. Comme SMTP sauf que max_line_length est défini sur None (illimité).

email.policy.strict

Exemple de commodité. Identique à default sauf que raise_on_defect est défini sur True. Cela permet de rendre stricte toute politique en écrivant :

somepolicy + policy.strict

Avec toutes ces EmailPolicies, l'API effective du paquet de messagerie est modifiée par rapport à l'API Python 3.2 de la manière suivante :

Définir un en-tête sur un Message entraîne l'analyse de cet en-tête et la création d'un objet d'en-tête.

La récupération d'une valeur d'en-tête à partir d'un Message entraîne l'analyse de cet en-tête ainsi que la création et le renvoi d'un objet d'en-tête.

Tout objet d'en-tête, ou tout en-tête qui est remis en forme en raison des paramètres de politique, est mis en forme à l'aide d'un algorithme qui implémente entièrement les algorithmes de pliage de la RFC, notamment en sachant où les mots encodés sont requis et autorisés.

Du point de vue de l'application, cela signifie que tout en-tête obtenu via EmailMessage est un objet d'en-tête avec des attributs supplémentaires, dont la valeur de chaîne est la valeur Unicode entièrement décodée de l'en-tête. De même, un en-tête peut se voir attribuer une nouvelle valeur, ou un nouvel en-tête créé, à l'aide d'une chaîne Unicode, et la politique se chargera de convertir la chaîne Unicode dans la forme encodée RFC correcte.

Les objets d'en-tête et leurs attributs sont décrits dans headerregistry.

class email.policy.Compat32(**kw)

This concrete Policy is the backward compatibility policy. It replicates the behavior of the email package in Python 3.2. The policy module also defines an instance of this class, compat32, that is used as the default policy. Thus the default behavior of the email package is to maintain compatibility with Python 3.2.

Les attributs suivants ont des valeurs différentes de la valeur par défaut de Policy :

mangle_from_

La valeur par défaut est True.

La classe fournit les implémentations concrètes suivantes des méthodes abstraites de Policy :

header_source_parse(sourcelines)

Le nom est analysé comme le reste jusqu'au : et renvoyé sans modification. La valeur est déterminée en supprimant les espaces blancs de début du reste de la première ligne, en joignant toutes les lignes suivantes et en supprimant tous les caractères de retour chariot ou de saut de ligne de fin.

header_store_parse(name, value)

Le nom et la valeur sont renvoyés sans modification.

header_fetch_parse(name, value)

Si la valeur contient des données binaires, elle est convertie en un objet Header en utilisant le jeu de caractères unknown-8bit. Sinon, elle est renvoyée sans modification.

fold(name, value)

Les en-têtes sont mis en forme à l'aide de l'algorithme de pliage Header, qui préserve les sauts de ligne existants dans la valeur et encapsule chaque ligne résultante dans la max_line_length. Les données binaires non-ASCII sont codées en CTE à l'aide du jeu de caractères unknown-8bit.

fold_binary(name, value)

Les en-têtes sont mis en forme à l'aide de l'algorithme de pliage Header, qui préserve les sauts de ligne existants dans la valeur et encapsule chaque ligne résultante dans la max_line_length. Si cte_type est 7bit, les données binaires non-ASCII sont encodées en CTE en utilisant le jeu de caractères unknown-8bit. Sinon, l'en-tête source d'origine est utilisé, avec ses sauts de ligne existants et toutes les données binaires (non conformes à la RFC) qu'il peut contenir.

email.policy.compat32

Instance de Compat32, offrant une rétrocompatibilité avec le comportement du paquet de messagerie dans Python 3.2.

Note

The compat32 policy should not be used as a policy for EmailMessage objects, and should only be used to serialize messages that were created using the compat32 policy.

Notes

[1]

Initialement ajouté dans 3.3 en tant que paquet provisoire.

email.errors: Exception and Defect classes

Code source : Lib/email/errors.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/email/errors.py]

The following exception classes are defined in the email.errors module:

exception email.errors.MessageError

Exception de base, dont héritent toutes les exceptions du paquet email. Cette classe hérite de la classe native Exception et ne définit aucune méthode additionnelle.

exception email.errors.MessageParseError

Exception de base pour les exceptions levées par la classe Parser. Elle hérite de MessageError. Cette classe est aussi utilisée en interne par l'analyseur de headerregistry.

exception email.errors.HeaderParseError

Cette exception, dérivée de MessageParseError, est levée sous différentes conditions lors de l'analyse des en-têtes RFC 5322 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html] du message. Lorsque la méthode set_boundary() est invoquée, elle lève cette erreur si le type du contenu est inconnu. La classe Header lève cette exception pour certains types d'erreurs provenant du décodage base64. Elle la lève aussi quand un en-tête est créé et qu'il semble contenir un en-tête imbriqué, c'est-à-dire que la ligne qui suit ressemble à un en-tête et ne commence pas par des caractères d'espacement.

exception email.errors.BoundaryError

Obsolète, n'est plus utilisé.

exception email.errors.MultipartConversionError

Raised if the attach() method is called on an instance of a class derived from MIMENonMultipart (e.g. MIMEImage). MultipartConversionError multiply inherits from MessageError and the built-in TypeError.

exception email.errors.HeaderWriteError

Raised when an error occurs when the generator outputs headers.

exception email.errors.MessageDefect

This is the base class for all defects found when parsing email messages. It is derived from ValueError.

exception email.errors.HeaderDefect

This is the base class for all defects found when parsing email headers. It is derived from MessageDefect.

Voici la liste des anomalies que peut identifier FeedParser pendant l'analyse des messages. Notez que les anomalies sont signalées à l'endroit où elles sont détectées : par exemple, dans le cas d'une malformation de l'en-tête d'un message imbriqué dans un message de type multipart/alternative, l'anomalie est signalée sur le message imbriqué seulement.

Toutes les anomalies sont des sous-classes de email.errors.MessageDefect.

exception email.errors.NoBoundaryInMultipartDefect

A message claimed to be a multipart, but had no boundary parameter.

exception email.errors.StartBoundaryNotFoundDefect

The start boundary claimed in the Content-Type header was never found.

exception email.errors.CloseBoundaryNotFoundDefect

A start boundary was found, but no corresponding close boundary was ever found.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

exception email.errors.FirstHeaderLineIsContinuationDefect

The message had a continuation line as its first header line.

exception email.errors.MisplacedEnvelopeHeaderDefect

A "Unix From" header was found in the middle of a header block.

exception email.errors.MissingHeaderBodySeparatorDefect

A line was found while parsing headers that had no leading white space but contained no ':'. Parsing continues assuming that the line represents the first line of the body.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

exception email.errors.MalformedHeaderDefect

A header was found that was missing a colon, or was otherwise malformed.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.3: Cette anomalie est obsolète depuis plusieurs versions de Python.

exception email.errors.MultipartInvariantViolationDefect

A message claimed to be a multipart, but no subparts were found. Note that when a message has this defect, its is_multipart() method may return False even though its content type claims to be multipart.

exception email.errors.InvalidBase64PaddingDefect

When decoding a block of base64 encoded bytes, the padding was not correct. Enough padding is added to perform the decode, but the resulting decoded bytes may be invalid.

exception email.errors.InvalidBase64CharactersDefect

When decoding a block of base64 encoded bytes, characters outside the base64 alphabet were encountered. The characters are ignored, but the resulting decoded bytes may be invalid.

exception email.errors.InvalidBase64LengthDefect

When decoding a block of base64 encoded bytes, the number of non-padding base64 characters was invalid (1 more than a multiple of 4). The encoded block was kept as-is.

exception email.errors.InvalidDateDefect

When decoding an invalid or unparsable date field. The original value is kept as-is.

email.headerregistry: Custom Header Objects

Code source : Lib/email/headerregistry.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/email/headerregistry.py]

Ajouté dans la version 3.6: [1]

Les en-têtes sont représentés par des sous-classes personnalisées de str. La classe particulière utilisée pour représenter un en-tête donné est déterminée par header_factory de la policy en vigueur lorsque les en-têtes sont créés. Cette section documente la header_factory particulière implémentée par le paquet de messagerie pour la gestion des messages électroniques conformes à la RFC 5322 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html], qui fournit non seulement des objets d'en-tête personnalisés pour différents types d'en-tête, mais fournit également un mécanisme d'extension permettant aux applications d'ajouter leurs propres types d'en-tête personnalisés.

Lors de l'utilisation de l'un des objets de définition de politique dérivés de EmailPolicy, tous les en-têtes sont produits par HeaderRegistry et ont BaseHeader comme dernière classe mère. Chaque classe d'en-tête a une classe mère supplémentaire qui est déterminée par le type de l'en-tête. Par exemple, de nombreux en-têtes ont la classe UnstructuredHeader comme autre classe mère. La deuxième classe spécialisée pour un en-tête est déterminée par le nom de l'en-tête, en utilisant un tableau de recherche stocké dans HeaderRegistry. Tout cela est géré de manière transparente pour le programme d'application typique, mais des interfaces sont fournies pour modifier le comportement par défaut pour une utilisation par des applications plus complexes.

Les sections ci-dessous documentent d'abord les classes mères d'en-tête et leurs attributs, suivies de l'API pour modifier le comportement de HeaderRegistry, et enfin les classes de gestion utilisées pour représenter les données analysées à partir d'en-têtes structurés.

class email.headerregistry.BaseHeader(name, value)

name et value sont passés à BaseHeader à partir de l'appel header_factory. La valeur de chaîne de tout objet d'en-tête est la value entièrement décodée en Unicode.

Cette classe mère définit les propriétés en lecture seule suivantes :

name

Nom de l'en-tête (la partie du champ avant le :). C'est exactement la valeur passée dans l'appel header_factory pour name ; c'est-à-dire que la casse est préservée.

defects

n-uplet d'instances HeaderDefect signalant tout problème de conformité avec les RFC détecté lors de l'analyse. Le paquet d'e-mails tente d'être complet en ce qui concerne la détection des problèmes de conformité. Voir le module errors pour une discussion sur les types de défauts qui peuvent être signalés.

max_count

Nombre maximum d'en-têtes de ce type pouvant avoir le même name. Une valeur de None signifie illimité. La valeur BaseHeader pour cet attribut est None ; les classes d'en-tête spécialisées sont censées remplacer cette valeur si nécessaire.

BaseHeader fournit également la méthode suivante, qui est appelée par le code de la bibliothèque de messagerie et ne doit généralement pas être appelée par les programmes d'application :

fold(*, policy)

Renvoie une chaîne contenant les caractères linesep nécessaires pour remettre en forme correctement l'en-tête conformément à policy. Un cte_type de 8bit est traité comme s'il s'agissait de 7bit, car les en-têtes ne peuvent pas contenir de données binaires arbitraires. Si utf8 est False, les données non-ASCII seront encodées selon la RFC 2047 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html].

BaseHeader seule ne peut pas être utilisée pour créer un objet d'en-tête. Elle définit un protocole avec lequel chaque en-tête spécialisé coopère afin de produire l'objet d'en-tête. Plus précisément, BaseHeader nécessite que la classe spécialisée fournisse une classmethod() nommée parse. Cette méthode s'appelle comme suit :

parse(string, kwds)

kwds est un dictionnaire contenant une clé pré-initialisée : defects. defects est une liste vide. La méthode d'analyse doit ajouter tous les défauts détectés à cette liste. Au retour, le dictionnaire kwds doit contenir des valeurs pour au moins les clés decoded et defects. decoded doit être la valeur de la chaîne pour l'en-tête (c'est-à-dire la valeur de l'en-tête entièrement décodée en Unicode). La méthode d'analyse doit supposer que string peut contenir des parties codées par transfert de contenu, mais doit également gérer correctement tous les caractères Unicode valides afin de pouvoir analyser les valeurs d'en-tête non codées.

__new__ de BaseHeader crée ensuite l'instance d'en-tête et appelle sa méthode init. La classe spécialisée n'a besoin de fournir une méthode init que si elle souhaite définir des attributs supplémentaires au-delà de ceux fournis par BaseHeader lui-même. Une telle méthode init devrait ressembler à ceci :

def init(self, /, *args, **kw):
    self._myattr = kw.pop('myattr')
    super().init(*args, **kw)

Autrement dit, tout ce que la classe spécialisée ajoute au dictionnaire kwds doit être supprimé et géré, et le contenu restant de kw (et args) est passé à la méthode init de BaseHeader.

class email.headerregistry.UnstructuredHeader

Un en-tête « non structuré » est le type d'en-tête par défaut dans la RFC 5322 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html]. Tout en-tête qui n'a pas de syntaxe spécifiée est traité comme non structuré. L'exemple classique d'en-tête non structuré est l'en-tête Subject.

Dans la RFC 5322 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html], un en-tête non structuré est une séquence de texte arbitraire dans le jeu de caractères ASCII. RFC 2047 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html], cependant, possède un mécanisme compatible RFC 5322 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html] pour encoder du texte non-ASCII en tant que caractères ASCII dans une valeur d'en-tête. Lorsqu'une value contenant des mots encodés est passée au constructeur, l'analyseur UnstructuredHeader convertit ces mots encodés en Unicode, en suivant les règles de la RFC 2047 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html] pour le texte non structuré. L'analyseur utilise des heuristiques pour tenter de décoder certains mots codés non conformes. Des défauts sont enregistrés dans de tels cas, ainsi que des défauts pour des problèmes tels que des caractères non valides dans les mots codés ou le texte non codé.

Ce type d'en-tête ne fournit aucun attribut supplémentaire.

class email.headerregistry.DateHeader

La RFC 5322 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html] spécifie un format très spécifique pour les dates dans les en-têtes de courrier électronique. L'analyseur DateHeader reconnaît ce format de date, ainsi qu'un certain nombre de formes variantes que l'on trouve parfois « dans la nature ».

Ce type d'en-tête fournit les attributs supplémentaires suivants :

datetime

Si la valeur d'en-tête peut être reconnue comme une date valide d'une forme ou d'une autre, cet attribut contient une instance datetime représentant cette date. Si le fuseau horaire de la date d'entrée est spécifié comme -0000 (indiquant qu'il est en UTC mais ne contient aucune information sur le fuseau horaire source), alors datetime est une datetime naïve. Si un décalage de fuseau horaire spécifique est trouvé (y compris +0000), alors datetime contient un datetime avisé qui utilise datetime.timezone pour enregistrer le décalage lié au fuseau horaire.

La valeur decoded de l'en-tête est déterminée en formatant le datetime selon les règles de la RFC 5322 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html] ; c'est-à-dire qu'elle est définie sur :

email.utils.format_datetime(self.datetime)

Lors de la création d'un DateHeader, value peut être une instance de datetime. Cela signifie, par exemple, que le code suivant est valide et fait ce à quoi on pourrait s'attendre :

msg['Date'] = datetime(2011, 7, 15, 21)

Comme il s'agit d'un datetime naïf, il est interprété comme un horodatage UTC et la valeur résultante a un fuseau horaire de -0000. Il est beaucoup plus utile d'utiliser la fonction localtime() du module utils :

msg['Date'] = utils.localtime()

Cet exemple définit l'en-tête de date sur l'heure et la date actuelles à l'aide du décalage horaire actuel.

class email.headerregistry.AddressHeader

Les en-têtes d'adresse sont l'un des types d'en-têtes structurés les plus complexes. La classe AddressHeader fournit une interface générique à n'importe quel en-tête d'adresse.

Ce type d'en-tête fournit les attributs supplémentaires suivants :

groups

n-uplet d'objets Group encodant les adresses et les groupes trouvés dans la valeur d'en-tête. Les adresses qui ne font pas partie d'un groupe sont représentées dans cette liste comme des Groups à adresse unique dont display_name est None.

addresses

n-uplet d'objets Address encodant toutes les adresses individuelles à partir de la valeur d'en-tête. Si la valeur d'en-tête contient des groupes, les adresses individuelles du groupe sont incluses dans la liste au point où le groupe apparaît dans la valeur (c'est-à-dire que la liste d'adresses est « aplatie » en une liste unidimensionnelle).

La valeur decoded de l'en-tête a tous les mots codés décodés en Unicode. Les noms de domaine encodés en idna sont également décodés en Unicode. La valeur decoded est définie en joignant la valeur str des éléments de l'attribut groups avec ', '.

Une liste d'objets Address et Group dans n'importe quelle combinaison peut être utilisée pour définir la valeur d'un en-tête d'adresse. Les objets Group dont le display_name est None sont interprétés comme des adresses uniques, ce qui permet de copier une liste d'adresses avec des groupes intacts en utilisant la liste obtenue à partir de l'attribut groups de l'en-tête source.

class email.headerregistry.SingleAddressHeader

Sous-classe de AddressHeader qui ajoute un attribut supplémentaire :

address

Adresse unique codée par la valeur d'en-tête. Si la valeur d'en-tête contient en fait plus d'une adresse (ce qui serait une violation de la RFC sous la valeur par défaut policy), l'accès à cet attribut lève une ValueError.

La plupart des classes ci-dessus ont également une variante Unique (par exemple, UniqueUnstructuredHeader). La seule différence est que dans la variante Unique, max_count est définie sur 1.

class email.headerregistry.MIMEVersionHeader

Il n'y a vraiment qu'une seule valeur valide pour l'en-tête MIME-Version, et c'est 1.0. Au cas où, cette classe d'en-tête prend en charge d'autres numéros de version valides. Si un numéro de version a une valeur valide selon la RFC 2045 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html], alors l'objet d'en-tête a des valeurs autres que None pour les attributs suivants :

version

Numéro de version sous forme de chaîne, sans espaces ni commentaires.

major

Numéro de version majeure sous forme d'entier

minor

Numéro de version mineure sous forme d'entier

class email.headerregistry.ParameterizedMIMEHeader

Les en-têtes MIME commencent tous par le préfixe 'Content-'. Chaque en-tête spécifique a une certaine valeur, décrite par la classe de cet en-tête. Certains peuvent également prendre une liste de paramètres supplémentaires, qui ont un format commun. Cette classe sert de base à tous les en-têtes MIME qui prennent des paramètres.

params

Dictionnaire de correspondance entre les noms de paramètres et leurs valeurs.

class email.headerregistry.ContentTypeHeader

Classe ParameterizedMIMEHeader qui gère l'en-tête Content-Type.

content_type

Chaîne de type de contenu, sous la forme maintype/subtype.

maintype

subtype

class email.headerregistry.ContentDispositionHeader

Classe ParameterizedMIMEHeader qui gère l'en-tête Content-Disposition.

content_disposition

inline et attachment sont les seules valeurs valides couramment utilisées.

class email.headerregistry.ContentTransferEncodingHeader

Gère l'en-tête Content-Transfer-Encoding.

cte

Les valeurs valides sont 7bit, 8bit, base64 et quoted-printable. Voir la RFC 2045 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html] pour plus d'informations.

class email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry(base_class=BaseHeader, default_class=UnstructuredHeader, use_default_map=True)

This is the factory used by EmailPolicy by default. HeaderRegistry builds the class used to create a header instance dynamically, using base_class and a specialized class retrieved from a registry that it holds. When a given header name does not appear in the registry, the class specified by default_class is used as the specialized class. When use_default_map is True (the default), the standard mapping of header names to classes is copied in to the registry during initialization. base_class is always the last class in the generated class's __bases__ list.

Les correspondances par défaut sont :

subject:

UniqueUnstructuredHeader

date:

UniqueDateHeader

resent-date:

DateHeader

orig-date:

UniqueDateHeader

sender:

UniqueSingleAddressHeader

resent-sender:

SingleAddressHeader

to:

UniqueAddressHeader

resent-to:

AddressHeader

cc:

UniqueAddressHeader

resent-cc:

AddressHeader

bcc:

UniqueAddressHeader

resent-bcc:

AddressHeader

from:

UniqueAddressHeader

resent-from:

AddressHeader

reply-to:

UniqueAddressHeader

mime-version:

MIMEVersionHeader

content-type:

ContentTypeHeader

content-disposition:

ContentDispositionHeader

content-transfer-encoding:

ContentTransferEncodingHeader

message-id:

MessageIDHeader

HeaderRegistry a les méthodes suivantes :

map_to_type(self, name, cls)

name est le nom de l'en-tête à faire correspondre. Il est converti en minuscules dans le registre. cls est la classe spécialisée à utiliser, avec base_class, pour créer la classe utilisée pour instancier les en-têtes qui correspondent à name.

__getitem__(name)

Construit et renvoie une classe pour gérer la création d'un en-tête name.

__call__(name, value)

Récupère l'en-tête spécialisé associé à name du registre (en utilisant default_class si name n'apparaît pas dans le registre) et le compose avec base_class pour produire une classe, appelle le constructeur de la classe construite, en lui passant la même liste d'arguments, et renvoie enfin l'instance de classe ainsi créée.

Les classes suivantes sont les classes utilisées pour représenter les données analysées à partir d'en-têtes structurés et peuvent, en général, être utilisées par un programme d'application pour construire des valeurs structurées à affecter à des en-têtes spécifiques.

class email.headerregistry.Address(display_name='', username='', domain='', addr_spec=None)

Classe utilisée pour représenter une adresse e-mail. La forme générale d'une adresse est :

[display_name] <username@domain>

ou :

username@domain

où chaque partie doit se conformer à des règles de syntaxe spécifiques énoncées dans la RFC 5322 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html].

Pour plus de commodité, addr_spec peut être spécifié à la place de username et domain, username et domain sont alors analysés à partir de addr_spec. Une addr_spec doit être une chaîne correctement entre guillemets RFC ; si ce n'est pas le cas, Address lève une erreur. Les caractères Unicode sont autorisés et sont encodés proprement lors de la sérialisation. Cependant, selon les RFC, l’Unicode n'est pas autorisé dans la partie nom d'utilisateur de l'adresse.

display_name

Partie du nom d'affichage de l'adresse, le cas échéant, avec toutes les citations supprimées. Si l'adresse n'a pas de nom d'affichage, cet attribut est une chaîne vide.

username

Partie username de l'adresse, sans guillemets.

domain

Partie domain de l'adresse.

addr_spec

Partie username@domain de l'adresse, correctement citée pour une utilisation en tant qu'adresse nue (la deuxième forme illustrée ci-dessus). Cet attribut n'est pas modifiable.

__str__()

La valeur str de l'objet est l'adresse entre guillemets selon les règles de la RFC 5322 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html], mais sans encodage de contenu pour les caractères non-ASCII.

Pour prendre en charge SMTP (RFC 5321 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5321.html]), Address gère un cas particulier : si username et domain sont tous deux la chaîne vide (ou None), alors la valeur de chaîne de Address est <>.

class email.headerregistry.Group(display_name=None, addresses=None)

Classe utilisée pour représenter un groupe d'adresses. La forme générale d'un groupe d'adresses est :

display_name: [address-list];

Pour faciliter le traitement des listes d'adresses composées d'un mélange de groupes et d'adresses uniques, un Group peut également être utilisé pour représenter des adresses uniques qui ne font pas partie d'un groupe en définissant display_name sur None et en fournissant une liste de l'adresse unique sous la forme adresses.

display_name

display_name du groupe. Si c'est None et qu'il y a exactement une Adress dans adresses, alors le Group représente une seule adresse qui n'est pas dans un groupe.

addresses

n-uplet éventuellement vide d'objets Address représentant les adresses du groupe.

__str__()

La valeur str d'un Group est formatée selon la RFC 5322 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html], mais sans encodage de contenu pour les caractères non-ASCII. Si display_name est None et qu'il y a une seule Address dans la liste addresses, la valeur str est la même que la str de cette seule Adress.

Notes

[1]

Ajouté à l'origine dans 3.3 en tant que paquet provisoire

email.contentmanager: Managing MIME Content

Code source : Lib/email/contentmanager.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/email/contentmanager.py]

Ajouté dans la version 3.6: [1]

class email.contentmanager.ContentManager

Classe mère pour les gestionnaires de contenu. Fournit les mécanismes de registre standard pour enregistrer les convertisseurs entre le contenu MIME et d'autres représentations, ainsi que les méthodes de répartition get_content et set_content.

get_content(msg, *args, **kw)

Recherche une fonction de gestion en se basant sur le mimetype de msg (voir le paragraphe suivant), l'appelle en lui passant tous les arguments et renvoie le résultat de l'appel. Le gestionnaire doit extraire la charge utile de msg et renvoyer un objet qui encode les informations relatives aux données extraites.

Pour trouver le gestionnaire, recherche les clés suivantes dans le registre, en s'arrêtant à la première trouvée :

une chaîne représentant le type MIME complet (maintype/subtype) ;

une chaîne représentant le maintype ;

une chaîne vide.

Si aucune de ces clés ne produit de gestionnaire, lève une KeyError pour le type MIME complet.

set_content(msg, obj, *args, **kw)

Si le maintype est multipart, lève une TypeError ; sinon recherche une fonction de gestion en se basant sur le type de obj (voir le paragraphe suivant), appelle clear_content() sur le msg et appelle la fonction de gestion en lui passant tous les arguments. Le gestionnaire doit transformer et stocker obj en msg, apportant éventuellement d'autres modifications à msg également, comme l'ajout de divers en-têtes MIME pour coder les informations nécessaires à l'interprétation des données stockées.

Pour trouver le gestionnaire, récupère le type de obj (typ = type(obj)) et recherche les clés suivantes dans le registre, en s'arrêtant à la première trouvée :

le type lui-même (typ) ;

le nom complet du type (typ.__module__ + '.' + typ.__qualname__) ;

the type's qualname (typ.__qualname__)

the type's name (typ.__name__).

If none of the above match, repeat all of the checks above for each of the types in the MRO (typ.__mro__). Finally, if no other key yields a handler, check for a handler for the key None. If there is no handler for None, raise a KeyError for the fully qualified name of the type.

Ajoute également un en-tête MIME-Version s'il n'y en a pas (voir aussi MIMEPart).

add_get_handler(key, handler)

Enregistre la fonction handler comme gestionnaire pour key. Pour les valeurs possibles de key, voir get_content().

add_set_handler(typekey, handler)

Enregistre handler comme fonction à appeler lorsqu'un objet d'un type correspondant à typekey est passé à set_content(). Pour les valeurs possibles de typekey, voir set_content().

Instances de gestionnaires de contenus

Actuellement, le paquet email ne fournit qu'un seul gestionnaire de contenu concret, raw_data_manager, bien que d'autres puissent être ajoutés à l'avenir. raw_data_manager est le content_manager fourni par EmailPolicy et ses dérivés.

email.contentmanager.raw_data_manager

Ce gestionnaire de contenu ne fournit qu'une interface minimale au-delà de celle fournie par Message lui-même : il prend seulement en charge le texte, les chaînes d'octets brutes et les objets Message. Néanmoins, il offre des avantages significatifs par rapport à l'API de base : get_content sur une partie de texte renvoie une chaîne Unicode sans que l'application ait besoin de la décoder manuellement, set_content fournit de nombreuses options pour contrôler les en-têtes ajoutés à une partie et l'encodage du transfert de contenu, et il permet l'utilisation des différentes méthodes add_, ce qui simplifie la création de messages en plusieurs parties.

email.contentmanager.get_content(msg, errors='replace')

Renvoie la charge utile de la partie sous la forme d'une chaîne (pour les parties text), d'un objet EmailMessage (pour les parties message/rfc822) ou d'un objet bytes (pour tous les autres types à l'exception de multipart). Lève une KeyError si cette méthode est appelée sur un multipart. S'il s'agit d'une partie text et que errors est spécifié, ce paramètre est utilisé comme gestionnaire d'erreurs lors du décodage de la charge utile en Unicode. Le gestionnaire d'erreurs par défaut est replace.

email.contentmanager.set_content(msg, <'str'>, subtype="plain", charset='utf-8', cte=None, disposition=None, filename=None, cid=None, params=None, headers=None)

email.contentmanager.set_content(msg, <'bytes'>, maintype, subtype, cte="base64", disposition=None, filename=None, cid=None, params=None, headers=None)

email.contentmanager.set_content(msg, <'EmailMessage'>, cte=None, disposition=None, filename=None, cid=None, params=None, headers=None)

Ajoute des en-têtes et une charge utile à msg :

Ajoute un en-tête Content-Type avec une valeur maintype/subtype.

Pour str, définit le maintype MIME à text et définit le sous-type à subtype s'il est spécifié, ou à plain s'il ne l'est pas.

Pour bytes, utilise les maintype et subtype spécifiés, ou lève une TypeError s'ils ne sont pas spécifiés.

Pour les objets EmailMessage, définit le type principal (maintype) à message et définit le sous-type à subtype s'il est spécifié ou à rfc822 s'il ne l'est pas. Si subtype est partial, lève une erreur (les objets bytes doivent être utilisés pour construire les parties message/partial).

Si charset est fourni (qui n'est valide que pour str), encode la chaîne en octets en utilisant le jeu de caractères spécifié. La valeur par défaut est utf-8. Si le charset spécifié est un alias connu pour un nom de jeu de caractères MIME standard, utilise plutôt le jeu de caractères standard.

Si cte est défini, encode la charge utile à l'aide de l'encodage de transfert de contenu spécifié et définit l'en-tête Content-Transfer-Encoding à cette valeur. Les valeurs possibles pour cte sont quoted-printable, base64, 7bit, 8bit et binary. Si l'entrée ne peut pas être encodée dans l'encodage spécifié (par exemple, en spécifiant un cte de 7bit pour une entrée qui contient des valeurs non-ASCII), lève une ValueError.

For str objects, if cte is not set use heuristics to determine the most compact encoding. Prior to encoding, str.splitlines() is used to normalize all line boundaries, ensuring that each line of the payload is terminated by the current policy's linesep property (even if the original string did not end with one).

For bytes objects, cte is taken to be base64 if not set, and the aforementioned newline translation is not performed.

Pour EmailMessage, selon la RFC 2046 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2046.html], pour le subtype rfc822, lève une erreur pour un cte valant quoted-printable ou base64. Pour le subtype external-body, lève une erreur pour tout cte autre que 7bit. Pour message/rfc822, la valeur par défaut de cte est 8bit. Pour toutes les autres valeurs de sous-type, la valeur par défaut de cte est 7bit.

Note

la valeur binary pour cte ne fonctionne pas encore correctement. L'objet EmailMessage tel que modifié par set_content est correct, mais BytesGenerator ne le sérialise pas correctement.

Si disposition est spécifié, utilise cette valeur pour l'en-tête Content-Disposition. S'il n'est pas spécifié et que filename est spécifié, utilise la valeur attachment pour l'en-tête. Si ni disposition ni filename ne sont spécifiés, n'ajoute pas cet en-tête. Les seules valeurs valides pour disposition sont attachment et inline.

Si filename est spécifié, utilise cette valeur pour le paramètre filename de l'en-tête Content-Disposition.

Si cid est spécifié, ajoute un en-tête Content-ID avec cette valeur.

Si params est spécifié, itère sur sa méthode items et utilise les paires (clé, valeur) résultantes pour définir des paramètres supplémentaires dans l'en-tête Content-Type.

Si headers est spécifié et est une liste de chaînes de la forme headername: headervalue ou une liste d'objets header (distingués des chaînes par l'attribut name), ajoute ces en-têtes à msg.

Notes

[1]

Initialement ajouté dans 3.4 en tant que paquet provisoire.

email: Exemples

Cette page contient quelques exemples de l'utilisation du package email pour lire, écrire, et envoyer de simples messages mail, ainsi que des messages MIME plus complexes.

Premièrement, regardons comment créer et envoyer un message avec simplement du texte (le contenu textuel et les adresses peuvent tous deux contenir des caractères Unicodes) :

# Import smtplib for the actual sending function
import smtplib

# Import the email modules we'll need
from email.message import EmailMessage

# Open the plain text file whose name is in textfile for reading.
with open(textfile) as fp:
    # Create a text/plain message
    msg = EmailMessage()
    msg.set_content(fp.read())

# me == the sender's email address
# you == the recipient's email address
msg['Subject'] = f'The contents of {textfile}'
msg['From'] = me
msg['To'] = you

# Send the message via our own SMTP server.
s = smtplib.SMTP('localhost')
s.send_message(msg)
s.quit()

Analyser des entêtes RFC 822 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html] peut être aisément réalisé en utilisant les classes du module parser :

# Import the email modules we'll need
#from email.parser import BytesParser
from email.parser import Parser
from email.policy import default

# If the e-mail headers are in a file, uncomment these two lines:
# with open(messagefile, 'rb') as fp:
#     headers = BytesParser(policy=default).parse(fp)

#  Or for parsing headers in a string (this is an uncommon operation), use:
headers = Parser(policy=default).parsestr(
        'From: Foo Bar <user@example.com>\n'
        'To: <someone_else@example.com>\n'
        'Subject: Test message\n'
        '\n'
        'Body would go here\n')

#  Now the header items can be accessed as a dictionary:
print('To: {}'.format(headers['to']))
print('From: {}'.format(headers['from']))
print('Subject: {}'.format(headers['subject']))

# You can also access the parts of the addresses:
print('Recipient username: {}'.format(headers['to'].addresses[0].username))
print('Sender name: {}'.format(headers['from'].addresses[0].display_name))

Voici un exemple de l'envoi d'un message MIME contenant une série de photos de famille qui sont stockés ensemble dans un dossier :

# Import smtplib for the actual sending function.
import smtplib

# Here are the email package modules we'll need.
from email.message import EmailMessage

# Create the container email message.
msg = EmailMessage()
msg['Subject'] = 'Our family reunion'
# me == the sender's email address
# family = the list of all recipients' email addresses
msg['From'] = me
msg['To'] = ', '.join(family)
msg.preamble = 'You will not see this in a MIME-aware mail reader.\n'

# Open the files in binary mode.  You can also omit the subtype
# if you want MIMEImage to guess it.
for file in pngfiles:
    with open(file, 'rb') as fp:
        img_data = fp.read()
    msg.add_attachment(img_data, maintype='image',
                                 subtype='png')

# Send the email via our own SMTP server.
with smtplib.SMTP('localhost') as s:
    s.send_message(msg)

Voici un exemple d'envoi du contenu d'un dossier entier en tant que message mail : [1]

#!/usr/bin/env python3

"""Send the contents of a directory as a MIME message."""

import os
import smtplib
# For guessing MIME type based on file name extension
import mimetypes

from argparse import ArgumentParser

from email.message import EmailMessage
from email.policy import SMTP

def main():
    parser = ArgumentParser(description="""\
Send the contents of a directory as a MIME message.
Unless the -o option is given, the email is sent by forwarding to your local
SMTP server, which then does the normal delivery process.  Your local machine
must be running an SMTP server.
""")
    parser.add_argument('-d', '--directory',
                        help="""Mail the contents of the specified directory,
                        otherwise use the current directory.  Only the regular
                        files in the directory are sent, and we don't recurse to
                        subdirectories.""")
    parser.add_argument('-o', '--output',
                        metavar='FILE',
                        help="""Print the composed message to FILE instead of
                        sending the message to the SMTP server.""")
    parser.add_argument('-s', '--sender', required=True,
                        help='The value of the From: header (required)')
    parser.add_argument('-r', '--recipient', required=True,
                        action='append', metavar='RECIPIENT',
                        default=[], dest='recipients',
                        help='A To: header value (at least one required)')
    args = parser.parse_args()
    directory = args.directory
    if not directory:
        directory = '.'
    # Create the message
    msg = EmailMessage()
    msg['Subject'] = f'Contents of directory {os.path.abspath(directory)}'
    msg['To'] = ', '.join(args.recipients)
    msg['From'] = args.sender
    msg.preamble = 'You will not see this in a MIME-aware mail reader.\n'

    for filename in os.listdir(directory):
        path = os.path.join(directory, filename)
        if not os.path.isfile(path):
            continue
        # Guess the content type based on the file's extension.  Encoding
        # will be ignored, although we should check for simple things like
        # gzip'd or compressed files.
        ctype, encoding = mimetypes.guess_file_type(path)
        if ctype is None or encoding is not None:
            # No guess could be made, or the file is encoded (compressed), so
            # use a generic bag-of-bits type.
            ctype = 'application/octet-stream'
        maintype, subtype = ctype.split('/', 1)
        with open(path, 'rb') as fp:
            msg.add_attachment(fp.read(),
                               maintype=maintype,
                               subtype=subtype,
                               filename=filename)
    # Now send or store the message
    if args.output:
        with open(args.output, 'wb') as fp:
            fp.write(msg.as_bytes(policy=SMTP))
    else:
        with smtplib.SMTP('localhost') as s:
            s.send_message(msg)

if __name__ == '__main__':
    main()

Voici un exemple de comment décomposer un message MIME comme celui ci-dessus en tant que fichiers dans un dossier :

#!/usr/bin/env python3

"""Unpack a MIME message into a directory of files."""

import os
import email
import mimetypes

from email.policy import default

from argparse import ArgumentParser

def main():
    parser = ArgumentParser(description="""\
Unpack a MIME message into a directory of files.
""")
    parser.add_argument('-d', '--directory', required=True,
                        help="""Unpack the MIME message into the named
                        directory, which will be created if it doesn't already
                        exist.""")
    parser.add_argument('msgfile')
    args = parser.parse_args()

    with open(args.msgfile, 'rb') as fp:
        msg = email.message_from_binary_file(fp, policy=default)

    try:
        os.mkdir(args.directory)
    except FileExistsError:
        pass

    counter = 1
    for part in msg.walk():
        # multipart/* are just containers
        if part.get_content_maintype() == 'multipart':
            continue
        # Applications should really sanitize the given filename so that an
        # email message can't be used to overwrite important files
        filename = part.get_filename()
        if not filename:
            ext = mimetypes.guess_extension(part.get_content_type())
            if not ext:
                # Use a generic bag-of-bits extension
                ext = '.bin'
            filename = f'part-{counter:03d}{ext}'
        counter += 1
        with open(os.path.join(args.directory, filename), 'wb') as fp:
            fp.write(part.get_payload(decode=True))

if __name__ == '__main__':
    main()

Voici un exemple de création d'un message HTML avec une version en texte comme alternative. Pour rendre les choses un peu plus intéressantes, nous incluons aussi une image dans la partie HTML, nous sauvons une copie du message sur le disque, et nous l'envoyons.

#!/usr/bin/env python3

import smtplib

from email.message import EmailMessage
from email.headerregistry import Address
from email.utils import make_msgid

# Create the base text message.
msg = EmailMessage()
msg['Subject'] = "Pourquoi pas des asperges pour ce midi ?"
msg['From'] = Address("Pepé Le Pew", "pepe", "example.com")
msg['To'] = (Address("Penelope Pussycat", "penelope", "example.com"),
             Address("Fabrette Pussycat", "fabrette", "example.com"))
msg.set_content("""\
Salut!

Cette recette [1] sera sûrement un très bon repas.

[1] http://www.yummly.com/recipe/Roasted-Asparagus-Epicurious-203718

--Pepé
""")

# Add the html version.  This converts the message into a multipart/alternative
# container, with the original text message as the first part and the new html
# message as the second part.
asparagus_cid = make_msgid()
msg.add_alternative("""\
<html>
  <head></head>
  <body>
    <p>Salut!</p>
    <p>Cette
        <a href="http://www.yummly.com/recipe/Roasted-Asparagus-Epicurious-203718">
            recette
        </a> sera sûrement un très bon repas.
    </p>
    <img src="cid:{asparagus_cid}">
  </body>
</html>
""".format(asparagus_cid=asparagus_cid[1:-1]), subtype='html')
# note that we needed to peel the <> off the msgid for use in the html.

# Now add the related image to the html part.
with open("roasted-asparagus.jpg", 'rb') as img:
    msg.get_payload()[1].add_related(img.read(), 'image', 'jpeg',
                                     cid=asparagus_cid)

# Make a local copy of what we are going to send.
with open('outgoing.msg', 'wb') as f:
    f.write(bytes(msg))

# Send the message via local SMTP server.
with smtplib.SMTP('localhost') as s:
    s.send_message(msg)

Si on nous avait envoyé le message de l'exemple précédent, voici la manière avec laquelle nous pourrions le traiter :

import os
import sys
import tempfile
import mimetypes
import webbrowser

# Import the email modules we'll need
from email import policy
from email.parser import BytesParser

def magic_html_parser(html_text, partfiles):
    """Return safety-sanitized html linked to partfiles.

    Rewrite the href="cid:...." attributes to point to the filenames in partfiles.
    Though not trivial, this should be possible using html.parser.
    """
    raise NotImplementedError("Add the magic needed")

# In a real program you'd get the filename from the arguments.
with open('outgoing.msg', 'rb') as fp:
    msg = BytesParser(policy=policy.default).parse(fp)

# Now the header items can be accessed as a dictionary, and any non-ASCII will
# be converted to unicode:
print('To:', msg['to'])
print('From:', msg['from'])
print('Subject:', msg['subject'])

# If we want to print a preview of the message content, we can extract whatever
# the least formatted payload is and print the first three lines.  Of course,
# if the message has no plain text part printing the first three lines of html
# is probably useless, but this is just a conceptual example.
simplest = msg.get_body(preferencelist=('plain', 'html'))
print()
print(''.join(simplest.get_content().splitlines(keepends=True)[:3]))

ans = input("View full message?")
if ans.lower()[0] == 'n':
    sys.exit()

# We can extract the richest alternative in order to display it:
richest = msg.get_body()
partfiles = {}
if richest['content-type'].maintype == 'text':
    if richest['content-type'].subtype == 'plain':
        for line in richest.get_content().splitlines():
            print(line)
        sys.exit()
    elif richest['content-type'].subtype == 'html':
        body = richest
    else:
        print("Don't know how to display {}".format(richest.get_content_type()))
        sys.exit()
elif richest['content-type'].content_type == 'multipart/related':
    body = richest.get_body(preferencelist=('html'))
    for part in richest.iter_attachments():
        fn = part.get_filename()
        if fn:
            extension = os.path.splitext(part.get_filename())[1]
        else:
            extension = mimetypes.guess_extension(part.get_content_type())
        with tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile(suffix=extension, delete=False) as f:
            f.write(part.get_content())
            # again strip the <> to go from email form of cid to html form.
            partfiles[part['content-id'][1:-1]] = f.name
else:
    print("Don't know how to display {}".format(richest.get_content_type()))
    sys.exit()
with tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile(mode='w', delete=False) as f:
    f.write(magic_html_parser(body.get_content(), partfiles))
webbrowser.open(f.name)
os.remove(f.name)
for fn in partfiles.values():
    os.remove(fn)

# Of course, there are lots of email messages that could break this simple
# minded program, but it will handle the most common ones.

La sortie textuelle du code ci dessus est :

To: Penelope Pussycat <penelope@example.com>, Fabrette Pussycat <fabrette@example.com>
From: Pepé Le Pew <pepe@example.com>
Subject: Pourquoi pas des asperges pour ce midi ?

Salut!

Cette recette [1] sera sûrement un très bon repas.

Notes

[1]

Merci à Matthew Dixon Cowles pour l'inspiration originale et les exemples.

email.message.Message : représentation d'un message électronique à l'aide de l'API compat32

La classe Message est très similaire à la classe EmailMessage, sans les méthodes ajoutées par cette classe et avec le comportement par défaut légèrement différent pour certaines autres méthodes. Nous documentons également ici certaines méthodes qui, bien que prises en charge par la classe EmailMessage, ne sont pas recommandées, sauf si vous avez affaire à du code hérité.

La philosophie et la structure des deux classes sont par ailleurs les mêmes.

Ce document décrit le comportement avec les règles par défaut (pour Message) Compat32. Si vous envisagez d'utiliser d'autres règles, vous devriez plutôt utiliser la classe EmailMessage.

Un message électronique se compose d'en-têtes et d'une charge utile. Les en-têtes doivent être des noms et des valeurs de style RFC 5322 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html], où le nom et la valeur du champ sont séparés par deux-points. Les deux-points ne font partie ni du nom du champ ni de la valeur du champ. La charge utile peut être un simple message texte, ou un objet binaire, ou une séquence structurée de sous-messages chacun avec son propre ensemble d'en-têtes et sa propre charge utile. Ce dernier type de charge utile est indiqué par le message ayant un type MIME tel que multipart/* ou message/rfc822.

Le modèle conceptuel fourni par un objet Message est celui d'un dictionnaire ordonné d'en-têtes avec des méthodes supplémentaires pour accéder à la fois aux informations spécialisées des en-têtes, pour accéder à la charge utile, pour générer une version sérialisée du message et pour parcourir récursivement l'arbre d'objets. Notez que les en-têtes en double sont pris en charge mais que des méthodes spéciales doivent être utilisées pour y accéder.

Le pseudo-dictionnaire Message est indicé par les noms d'en-tête, qui doivent être des valeurs ASCII. Les valeurs du dictionnaire sont des chaînes censées contenir uniquement des caractères ASCII ; il existe une gestion spéciale pour les entrées non ASCII, mais cela ne produit pas toujours les résultats corrects. Les en-têtes sont stockés et renvoyés sous une forme respectant la casse, mais les noms de champ sont mis en correspondance sans tenir compte de la casse. Il peut également y avoir un seul en-tête d'enveloppe, également appelé en-tête Unix-From ou en-tête From_. La charge utile est soit une chaîne ou des octets, dans le cas d'objets message simples, soit une liste d'objets Message, pour les documents conteneurs MIME (par exemple multipart/* et message/rfc822).

Voici les méthodes de la classe Message :

class email.message.Message(policy=compat32)

Si policy est spécifié (il doit s'agir d'une instance d'une classe policy), utilise les règles spécifiées pour mettre à jour et sérialiser la représentation du message. Si policy n'est pas défini, utilise les règles compat32, qui maintient la rétrocompatibilité avec la version Python 3.2 du paquet de messagerie. Pour plus d'informations, consultez la documentation policy.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: l'argument nommé policy a été ajouté.

as_string(unixfrom=False, maxheaderlen=0, policy=None)

Renvoie le message entier aplati sous forme de chaîne. Lorsque l'option unixfrom est vraie, l'en-tête de l'enveloppe est inclus dans la chaîne renvoyée. unixfrom par défaut est False. Pour des raisons de compatibilité descendante, maxheaderlen est par défaut à 0, donc si vous voulez une valeur différente, vous devez la remplacer explicitement (la valeur spécifiée pour max_line_length dans la politique sera ignorée par cette méthode). L'argument policy peut être utilisé pour remplacer les règles par défaut obtenues à partir de l'instance de message. Cela peut être utilisé pour contrôler une partie du formatage produit par la méthode, puisque la policy spécifiée est transmise au Generator.

L'aplatissement du message peut déclencher des changements dans Message si les valeurs par défaut doivent être renseignées pour terminer la transformation en chaîne (par exemple, les limites MIME peuvent être générées ou modifiées).

Notez que cette méthode est fournie à titre de commodité et peut ne pas toujours formater le message comme vous le souhaitez. Par exemple, par défaut, elle ne reformate pas les lignes qui commencent par From qui est requis par le format mbox Unix. Pour plus de flexibilité, instanciez une instance Generator et utilisez sa méthode flatten() directement. Par exemple :

from io import StringIO
from email.generator import Generator
fp = StringIO()
g = Generator(fp, mangle_from_=True, maxheaderlen=60)
g.flatten(msg)
text = fp.getvalue()

Si l'objet message contient des données binaires qui ne sont pas encodées selon les normes RFC, les données non conformes seront remplacées par des points de code Unicode « caractère inconnu » (voir aussi as_bytes() et BytesGenerator).

Modifié dans la version 3.4: l'argument nommé policy a été ajouté.

__str__()

Equivalent to as_string(). Allows str(msg) to produce a string containing the formatted message.

as_bytes(unixfrom=False, policy=None)

Renvoie le message entier aplati en tant qu'objet bytes. Lorsque l'option unixfrom est vraie, l'en-tête de l'enveloppe est inclus dans la chaîne renvoyée. unixfrom par défaut est False. L'argument policy peut être utilisé pour remplacer les règles par défaut obtenues à partir de l'instance de message. Cela peut être utilisé pour contrôler une partie du formatage produit par la méthode, puisque la policy spécifiée est passée au BytesGenerator.

L'aplatissement du message peut déclencher des changements dans Message si les valeurs par défaut doivent être renseignées pour terminer la transformation en chaîne (par exemple, les limites MIME peuvent être générées ou modifiées).

Notez que cette méthode est fournie à titre de commodité et peut ne pas toujours formater le message comme vous le souhaitez. Par exemple, par défaut, elle ne reformate pas les lignes qui commencent par From qui est requis par le format mbox Unix. Pour plus de flexibilité, instanciez une instance BytesGenerator et utilisez sa méthode flatten() directement. Par exemple :

from io import BytesIO
from email.generator import BytesGenerator
fp = BytesIO()
g = BytesGenerator(fp, mangle_from_=True, maxheaderlen=60)
g.flatten(msg)
text = fp.getvalue()

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

__bytes__()

Equivalent to as_bytes(). Allows bytes(msg) to produce a bytes object containing the formatted message.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

is_multipart()

Renvoie True si la charge utile du message est une liste d'objets sous-Message, sinon renvoie False. Lorsque is_multipart() renvoie False, la charge utile doit être un objet chaîne (qui peut être une charge utile binaire encodée CTE). (Notez que is_multipart() renvoyant True ne signifie pas nécessairement que msg.get_content_maintype() == 'multipart' renvoie True. Par exemple, is_multipart renvoie True lorsque le Message est de type message/rfc822.)

set_unixfrom(unixfrom)

Définit l'en-tête de l'enveloppe du message sur unixfrom, qui doit être une chaîne.

get_unixfrom()

Renvoie l'en-tête de l'enveloppe du message. La valeur par défaut est None si l'en-tête de l'enveloppe n'a jamais été défini.

attach(payload)

Ajoute le payload donné à la charge utile actuelle, qui doit être None ou une liste d'objets Message avant l'appel. Après l'appel, la charge utile sera toujours une liste d'objets Message. Si vous souhaitez définir la charge utile sur un objet scalaire (par exemple, une chaîne), utilisez set_payload() à la place.

This is a legacy method. On the EmailMessage class its functionality is replaced by set_content() and the related make and add methods.

get_payload(i=None, decode=False)

Renvoie la charge utile actuelle, qui est une liste d'objets Message lorsque is_multipart() est True, ou une chaîne lorsque is_multipart() est False. Si la charge utile est une liste et que vous modifiez l'objet liste, vous modifiez la charge utile du message « sur place ».

Avec l'argument optionnel i, get_payload() renvoie le ième élément de la charge utile, en partant de zéro, si is_multipart() vaut True. Une IndexError est levée si i est inférieur à 0 ou supérieur ou égal au nombre d'éléments dans la charge utile. Si la charge utile est une chaîne (c'est-à-dire que is_multipart() est False) et que i est donné, une TypeError est levée.

decode est un indicateur facultatif indiquant si la charge utile doit être décodée ou non, selon l'en-tête Content-Transfer-Encoding. Lorsqu'il vaut True et que le message n'est pas en plusieurs parties, la charge utile est décodée si la valeur de cet en-tête est quoted-printable ou base64. Si un autre encodage est utilisé, ou si l'en-tête Content-Transfer-Encoding est manquant, la charge utile est renvoyée telle quelle (non décodée). Dans tous les cas, la valeur renvoyée est une donnée binaire. Si le message est en plusieurs parties et que l'indicateur decode est True, alors None est renvoyé. Si la charge utile est en base64 et qu'elle n'a pas été parfaitement formée (remplissage manquant, caractères en dehors de l'alphabet base64), alors un défaut approprié est ajouté à la propriété de défaut du message (InvalidBase64PaddingDefect ou InvalidBase64CharactersDefect, respectivement).

Lorsque decode est False (valeur par défaut), le corps est renvoyé sous forme de chaîne sans décoder le Content-Transfer-Encoding. Cependant, pour un Content-Transfer-Encoding de 8 bits, une tentative est faite pour décoder les octets d'origine en utilisant le charset spécifié par l'en-tête Content-Type, en utilisant le gestionnaire d'erreurs replace. Si aucun charset n'est spécifié, ou si le charset donné n'est pas reconnu par le paquet de messagerie, le corps est décodé en utilisant le jeu de caractères ASCII par défaut.

This is a legacy method. On the EmailMessage class its functionality is replaced by get_content() and iter_parts().

set_payload(payload, charset=None)

Définit la charge utile de l'objet message entier à payload. Il est de la responsabilité du client de s'assurer des invariants de la charge utile. Le charset facultatif définit le jeu de caractères par défaut du message ; voir set_charset() pour plus de détails.

This is a legacy method. On the EmailMessage class its functionality is replaced by set_content().

set_charset(charset)

Définit le jeu de caractères de la charge utile à charset, qui peut être soit une instance de Charset (voir email.charset), une chaîne nommant un jeu de caractères ou None. S'il s'agit d'une chaîne, elle est convertie en une instance Charset. Si charset est None, le paramètre charset est supprimé de l'en-tête Content-Type (le message n'est pas modifié autrement). Tout le reste lève une TypeError.

S'il n'y a pas d'en-tête MIME-Version existant, un en-tête est ajouté. S'il n'y a pas d'en-tête Content-Type, un en-tête est ajouté avec une valeur de text/plain. Que l'en-tête Content-Type existe déjà ou non, son paramètre charset est défini sur charset.output_charset. Si charset.input_charset et charset.output_charset diffèrent, la charge utile est ré-encodée dans le output_charset. S'il n'y a pas d'en-tête Content-Transfer-Encoding existant, alors la charge utile est encodée par transfert, si nécessaire, en utilisant le Charset spécifié et un en-tête avec cette valeur est ajouté. Si un en-tête Content-Transfer-Encoding existe déjà, la charge utile est supposée être déjà correctement encodée à l'aide de cet en-tête Content-Transfer-Encoding et n'est pas modifiée.

This is a legacy method. On the EmailMessage class its functionality is replaced by the charset parameter of the email.message.EmailMessage.set_content() method.

get_charset()

Renvoie l'instance Charset associée à la charge utile du message.

This is a legacy method. On the EmailMessage class it always returns None.

Les méthodes suivantes implémentent une interface de type correspondance pour accéder aux en-têtes RFC 2822 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html] du message. Notez qu'il existe des différences sémantiques entre ces méthodes et une interface de correspondance normale (c'est-à-dire un dictionnaire). Par exemple, dans un dictionnaire, il n'y a pas de clés en double, mais ici, il peut y avoir des en-têtes de message en double. De plus, dans les dictionnaires, il n'y a pas d'ordre garanti pour les clés renvoyées par keys(), mais dans un objet Message, les en-têtes sont toujours renvoyés dans l'ordre dans lequel ils sont apparus dans le message d'origine, ou ont été ajoutés au message plus tard. Tout en-tête supprimé puis rajouté est toujours ajouté à la fin de la liste des en-têtes.

Ces différences sémantiques sont intentionnelles et visent une commodité maximale.

Notez que dans tous les cas, tout en-tête d'enveloppe présent dans le message n'est pas inclus dans l'interface de correspondance.

Dans un modèle généré à partir d'octets, toutes les valeurs d'en-tête qui (en violation des RFC) contiennent des octets non-ASCII sont, lorsqu'elles sont récupérées via cette interface, représentées comme des objets Header avec un charset à unknown-8bit.

__len__()

Renvoie le nombre total d'en-têtes, y compris les doublons.

__contains__(name)

Renvoie True si l'objet message a un champ nommé name. La correspondance est insensible à la casse et name ne doit pas inclure les deux-points à la fin. Utilisé pour l'opérateur in, par exemple :

if 'message-id' in myMessage:
   print('Message-ID:', myMessage['message-id'])

__getitem__(name)

Renvoie la valeur du champ d'en-tête désigné. name ne doit pas inclure le séparateur de champ deux-points. Si l'en-tête est manquant, None est renvoyé ; KeyError n'est jamais levée.

Notez que si le champ désigné apparaît plus d'une fois dans les en-têtes du message, la valeur exacte renvoyée n'est pas définie. Utilisez la méthode get_all() pour obtenir les valeurs de tous les en-têtes existants.

__setitem__(name, val)

Ajoute un en-tête au message avec le nom de champ name et la valeur val. Le champ est ajouté à la fin des champs existants du message.

Notez que cela n'écrase pas ou ne supprime aucun en-tête existant portant le même nom. Si vous voulez vous assurer que le nouvel en-tête est le seul présent dans le message avec le nom de champ name, supprimez d'abord le champ, par exemple :

del msg['subject']
msg['subject'] = 'Python roolz!'

__delitem__(name)

Supprime toutes les occurrences du champ portant le nom name des en-têtes du message. Aucune exception n'est levée si le champ désigné n'est pas présent dans les en-têtes.

keys()

Renvoie une liste de tous les noms de champs d'en-tête du message.

values()

Renvoie une liste de toutes les valeurs de champ du message.

items()

Renvoie une liste de couples contenant tous les en-têtes et valeurs de champs associées du message.

get(name, failobj=None)

Return the value of the named header field. This is identical to __getitem__() except that optional failobj is returned if the named header is missing (defaults to None).

Voici quelques méthodes supplémentaires utiles :

get_all(name, failobj=None)

Renvoie la liste de toutes les valeurs du champ nommé name. S'il n'y a pas d'en-têtes de ce nom dans le message, failobj est renvoyé (la valeur par défaut est None).

add_header(_name, _value, **_params)

Définition de paramètres d'en-têtes étendus. Cette méthode est similaire à __setitem__() sauf que des paramètres d'en-tête supplémentaires peuvent être fournis en tant qu'arguments nommés. _name est le champ d'en-tête à ajouter et _value est la valeur primaire de l'en-tête.

Pour chaque élément du dictionnaire d'arguments nommés _params, la clé est prise comme nom de paramètre, avec des traits de soulignement convertis en tirets (puisque les tirets sont illégaux dans les identifiants Python). Normalement, le paramètre est ajouté en tant que key="value" sauf si la valeur est None, auquel cas seule la clé est ajoutée. Si la valeur contient des caractères non-ASCII, elle peut être spécifiée sous la forme d'un triplet au format (CHARSET, LANGUAGE, VALUE), où CHARSET est une chaîne nommant le jeu de caractères à utiliser pour coder la valeur, LANGUAGE peut généralement être défini sur None ou la chaîne vide (voir la RFC 2231 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html] pour d'autres possibilités), et VALUE est la valeur de chaîne contenant des points de code non-ASCII. Si un triplet n'est pas passé et que la valeur contient des caractères non-ASCII, elle est automatiquement encodée au format RFC 2231 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html] en utilisant un CHARSET à utf-8 et un LANGUAGE à None.

Voici un exemple :

msg.add_header('Content-Disposition', 'attachment', filename='bud.gif')

Cela ajoute un en-tête qui ressemble à :

Content-Disposition: attachment; filename="bud.gif"

Un exemple avec des caractères non-ASCII :

msg.add_header('Content-Disposition', 'attachment',
               filename=('iso-8859-1', '', 'Fußballer.ppt'))

qui produit :

Content-Disposition: attachment; filename*="iso-8859-1''Fu%DFballer.ppt"

replace_header(_name, _value)

Remplace un en-tête. Remplace le premier en-tête trouvé dans le message qui correspond à _name, en conservant l'ordre des en-têtes et la casse des noms de champs. Si aucun en-tête correspondant n'a été trouvé, une KeyError est levée.

get_content_type()

Renvoie le type de contenu du message. La chaîne renvoyée est convertie en minuscules sous la forme maintype/subtype. S'il n'y avait pas d'en-tête Content-Type dans le message, le type par défaut tel qu'indiqué par get_default_type() est renvoyé. Puisque selon la RFC 2045 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html], les messages ont toujours un type par défaut, get_content_type() renvoie toujours une valeur.

La RFC 2045 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html] définit le type par défaut d'un message comme étant text/plain sauf s'il apparaît dans un conteneur multipart/digest, auquel cas ce serait message/rfc822. Si l'en-tête Content-Type a une spécification de type invalide, la RFC 2045 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html] exige que le type par défaut soit text/plain.

get_content_maintype()

Renvoie le type de contenu principal du message. C'est la partie maintype de la chaîne renvoyée par get_content_type().

get_content_subtype()

Renvoie le type de sous-contenu du message. C'est la partie subtype de la chaîne renvoyée par get_content_type().

get_default_type()

Renvoie le type de contenu par défaut. La plupart des messages ont un type de contenu par défaut de text/plain, à l'exception des messages qui sont des sous-parties des conteneurs multipart/digest. Ces sous-parties ont un type de contenu par défaut de message/rfc822.

set_default_type(ctype)

Définit le type de contenu par défaut. ctype doit être text/plain ou message/rfc822, bien que cela ne soit pas appliqué. Le type de contenu par défaut n'est pas stocké dans l'en-tête Content-Type.

get_params(failobj=None, header='content-type', unquote=True)

Renvoie les paramètres Content-Type du message, sous forme de liste. Les éléments de la liste renvoyée sont des couples clé-valeur, ayant été séparés sur le signe '='. Le côté gauche du '=' est la clé, tandis que le côté droit est la valeur. S'il n'y a pas de signe '=' dans le paramètre, la valeur est la chaîne vide, sinon la valeur est telle que décrite dans get_param() et n'est pas entre guillemets si l'option unquote est True (la valeur par défaut).

failobj (facultatif) est l'objet à renvoyer s'il n'y a pas d'en-tête Content-Type. header (facultatif) est l'en-tête à rechercher au lieu de Content-Type.

This is a legacy method. On the EmailMessage class its functionality is replaced by the params property of the individual header objects returned by the header access methods.

get_param(param, failobj=None, header='content-type', unquote=True)

Renvoie la valeur du paramètre param de l'en-tête Content-Type sous forme de chaîne. Si le message n'a pas d'en-tête Content-Type ou s'il n'y a pas un tel paramètre, alors failobj est renvoyé (par défaut à None).

header s'il est fourni, spécifie l'en-tête de message à utiliser à la place de Content-Type.

Les clés en paramètre sont toujours comparées sans tenir compte de la casse. La valeur de retour peut être soit une chaîne, soit un triplet si le paramètre a été encodé selon la RFC 2231 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html]. Lorsqu'il s'agit d'un triplet, les éléments de la valeur sont de la forme (CHARSET, LANGUAGE, VALUE). Notez que CHARSET et LANGUAGE peuvent être None, vous devriez alors considérer que VALUE est encodé dans le jeu de caractères us-ascii. Vous pouvez généralement ignorer LANGUAGE.

Si votre application ne se soucie pas de savoir si le paramètre a été encodé conformément à la RFC 2231 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html], vous pouvez réduire la valeur du paramètre en appelant email.utils.collapse_rfc2231_value(), en transmettant la valeur de retour de get_param(). Cela renverra une chaîne Unicode convenablement décodée lorsque la valeur est un n-uplet, ou la chaîne d'origine sans guillemets si ce n'est pas le cas. Par exemple :

rawparam = msg.get_param('foo')
param = email.utils.collapse_rfc2231_value(rawparam)

Dans tous les cas, la valeur du paramètre (soit la chaîne renvoyée, soit l'élément VALUE dans le triplet) est toujours sans guillemets, sauf si unquote est défini sur False.

This is a legacy method. On the EmailMessage class its functionality is replaced by the params property of the individual header objects returned by the header access methods.

set_param(param, value, header='Content-Type', requote=True, charset=None, language='', replace=False)

Définit un paramètre dans l'en-tête Content-Type. Si le paramètre existe déjà dans l'en-tête, sa valeur est remplacée par value. Si l'en-tête Content-Type n'a pas encore été défini pour ce message, il est défini à text/plain et la nouvelle valeur du paramètre est ajoutée conformément à la RFC 2045 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html].

L'option header spécifie un en-tête alternatif à Content-Type, et tous les paramètres seront entre guillemets si nécessaire sauf si l'option requote est False (la valeur par défaut est True).

Si charset est spécifié, le paramètre est encodé selon la RFC 2231 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html]. language (facultatif) spécifie la langue RFC 2231, par défaut c'est la chaîne vide. charset et language doivent être des chaînes.

Si replace est False (valeur par défaut), l'en-tête est déplacé à la fin de la liste des en-têtes. Si replace est True, l'en-tête est mis à jour « sur place ».

Modifié dans la version 3.4: l'argument nommé replace a été ajouté.

del_param(param, header='content-type', requote=True)

Supprime complètement le paramètre donné de l'en-tête Content-Type. L'en-tête est réécrit « sur place » sans le paramètre ou sa valeur. Toutes les valeurs seront entre guillemets si nécessaire sauf si requote est False (la valeur par défaut est True). L'option header spécifie une alternative à Content-Type.

set_type(type, header='Content-Type', requote=True)

Définit le type principal et le sous-type de l'en-tête Content-Type. type doit être une chaîne sous la forme maintype/subtype, sinon une ValueError est levée.

Cette méthode remplace l'en-tête Content-Type, en gardant tous les paramètres en place. Si requote est False, cela laisse les guillemets de l'en-tête existant tels quels, sinon les paramètres sont mis entre guillemets (par défaut).

Un en-tête alternatif peut être spécifié dans l'argument header. Lorsque l'en-tête Content-Type est défini, un en-tête MIME-Version est également ajouté.

This is a legacy method. On the EmailMessage class its functionality is replaced by the make_ and add_ methods.

get_filename(failobj=None)

Renvoie la valeur du paramètre filename de l'en-tête Content-Disposition du message. Si l'en-tête n'a pas de paramètre filename, cette méthode revient à rechercher le paramètre name dans l'en-tête Content-Type. Si aucun n'est trouvé, ou si l'en-tête est manquant, alors failobj est renvoyé. La chaîne renvoyée est toujours sans guillemets comme indiqué par email.utils.unquote().

get_boundary(failobj=None)

Renvoie la valeur du paramètre boundary de l'en-tête Content-Type du message, ou failobj si l'en-tête est manquant ou n'a pas de paramètre boundary. La chaîne renvoyée est toujours sans guillemets comme indiqué par email.utils.unquote().

set_boundary(boundary)

Définit le paramètre boundary de l'en-tête Content-Type sur boundary. set_boundary() met toujours boundary entre guillemets si nécessaire. Une HeaderParseError est levée si l'objet message n'a pas d'en-tête Content-Type.

Notez que l'utilisation de cette méthode est légèrement différente de la suppression de l'ancien en-tête Content-Type et de l'ajout d'un nouveau avec la nouvelle limite via add_header(), car set_boundary() préserve l'ordre des en-têtes Content-Type dans la liste des en-têtes. Cependant, elle ne conserve pas les lignes de continuation qui auraient pu être présentes dans l'en-tête original Content-Type.

get_content_charset(failobj=None)

Renvoie le paramètre charset de l'en-tête Content-Type, mis en minuscules. S'il n'y a pas d'en-tête Content-Type, ou si cet en-tête n'a pas de paramètre charset, failobj est renvoyé.

Notez que cette méthode diffère de get_charset() qui renvoie l'instance Charset avec l'encodage par défaut du corps du message.

get_charsets(failobj=None)

Renvoie une liste contenant les noms des jeux de caractères dans le message. Si le message est un multipart, alors la liste contient un élément pour chaque sous-partie dans la charge utile, sinon, c'est une liste de longueur 1.

Chaque élément de la liste est une chaîne qui est la valeur du paramètre charset dans l'en-tête Content-Type pour la sous-partie représentée. Cependant, si la sous-partie n'a pas d'en-tête Content-Type, pas de paramètre charset, ou n'est pas du type MIME principal text, alors cet élément dans la liste renvoyée est failobj.

get_content_disposition()

Renvoie la valeur en minuscules (sans paramètres) de l'en-tête Content-Disposition du message s'il en a un, ou None. Les valeurs possibles pour cette méthode sont inline, attachment ou None si le message suit la RFC 2183 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2183.html].

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

walk()

La méthode walk() est un générateur polyvalent qui peut être utilisé pour itérer sur toutes les parties et sous-parties d'une arborescence d'objets de message, dans l'ordre de parcours en profondeur d'abord. Vous utiliserez généralement walk() comme itérateur dans une boucle for ; chaque itération renvoie la sous-partie suivante.

Voici un exemple qui imprime le type MIME de chaque partie d'une structure de message en plusieurs parties :

>>> for part in msg.walk():
...     print(part.get_content_type())
multipart/report
text/plain
message/delivery-status
text/plain
text/plain
message/rfc822
text/plain

walk itère sur les sous-parties de toute partie où is_multipart() renvoie True, même si msg.get_content_maintype() == 'multipart' peut renvoyer False. Nous pouvons le voir dans notre exemple en utilisant la fonction d'aide au débogage _structure :

>>> for part in msg.walk():
...     print(part.get_content_maintype() == 'multipart',
...           part.is_multipart())
True True
False False
False True
False False
False False
False True
False False
>>> _structure(msg)
multipart/report
    text/plain
    message/delivery-status
        text/plain
        text/plain
    message/rfc822
        text/plain

Ici, les parties message ne sont pas des multiparts, mais elles contiennent des sous-parties. is_multipart() renvoie True et walk descend dans les sous-parties.

Les objets Message peuvent aussi éventuellement contenir deux attributs d'instance, qui peuvent être utilisés lors de la génération du texte brut d'un message MIME.

preamble

Le format d'un document MIME permet d'insérer du texte entre la ligne vide suivant les en-têtes et la première chaîne de délimitation en plusieurs parties. Normalement, ce texte n'est jamais visible dans un lecteur de courrier compatible MIME car il ne fait pas partie du cadre MIME standard. Toutefois, lors de l'affichage du texte brut du message ou lors de l'affichage du message dans un lecteur non compatible MIME, ce texte peut devenir visible.

L'attribut preamble contient ce texte hors-cadre de tête pour les documents MIME. Lorsque Parser découvre du texte après les en-têtes mais avant la première chaîne de délimitation, il attribue ce texte à l'attribut preamble du message. Lorsque Generator écrit la représentation en texte brut d'un message MIME, et qu'il trouve que le message a un attribut preamble, il écrit ce texte dans la zone entre les en-têtes et la première frontière. Voir email.parser et email.generator pour plus de détails.

Notez que si l'objet message n'a pas de préambule, l'attribut preamble est None.

epilogue

L'attribut epilogue agit de la même manière que l'attribut preamble, sauf qu'il contient du texte qui apparaît entre la dernière limite et la fin du message.

Vous n'avez pas besoin de définir l'épilogue sur la chaîne vide pour que Generator imprime une nouvelle ligne à la fin du fichier.

defects

L'attribut defects contient une liste de tous les problèmes rencontrés lors de l'analyse de ce message. Voir email.errors pour une description détaillée des défauts d'analyse possibles.

email.mime: Creating email and MIME objects from scratch

Code source : Lib/email/mime/ [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/email/mime/]

Ce module fait partie de l'ancienne API de messagerie (Compat32). Sa fonctionnalité est partiellement remplacée par le contentmanager dans la nouvelle API mais, dans certaines applications, ces classes peuvent toujours être utiles, même dans du code pas si ancien.

Habituellement, vous obtenez une structure d'objet message en passant un fichier ou du texte à un analyseur, qui analyse le texte et renvoie l'objet message racine. Cependant, vous pouvez également créer une structure de message complète à partir de zéro, ou même des objets individuels Message à la main. En fait, vous pouvez également prendre une structure existante et ajouter de nouveaux objets Message, les déplacer, etc. Cela crée une interface très pratique pour découper et manipuler chaque morceau de messages MIME.

Vous pouvez créer une nouvelle structure d'objet en créant des instances Message, en ajoutant manuellement les pièces jointes et tous les en-têtes appropriés. Pour les messages MIME cependant, le paquet email fournit quelques sous-classes pratiques pour faciliter les choses.

Voici les classes :

class email.mime.base.MIMEBase(_maintype, _subtype, *, policy=compat32, **_params)

Module : email.mime.base

C'est la classe mère pour toutes les sous-classes spécifiques à MIME de Message. Normalement, vous ne créerez pas d'instances spécifiques de MIMEBase, bien que cela soit possible. MIMEBase est fourni principalement comme une classe mère pratique pour des sous-classes plus spécifiques compatibles MIME.

_maintype est le type majeur du Content-Type (par exemple text ou image) et _subtype est le type mineur du Content-Type (par exemple, plain ou gif). _params est un paramètre dictionnaire clé-valeur et est transmis directement à Message.add_header.

Si policy est spécifiée, (par défaut la politique compat32) elle est passée à Message.

La classe MIMEBase ajoute toujours un en-tête Content-Type (basé sur _maintype, _subtype et _params) et un en-tête MIME-Version (toujours défini à 1.0).

Modifié dans la version 3.6: ajout du paramètre nommé policy.

class email.mime.nonmultipart.MIMENonMultipart

Module : email.mime.nonmultipart

Sous-classe de MIMEBase, c'est une classe mère intermédiaire pour les messages MIME qui ne sont pas multipart. Le but principal de cette classe est d'empêcher l'utilisation de la méthode attach(), qui n'a de sens que pour les messages multipart. Si attach() est appelée, une exception MultipartConversionError est levée.

class email.mime.multipart.MIMEMultipart(_subtype='mixed', boundary=None, _subparts=None, *, policy=compat32, **_params)

Module : email.mime.multipart

Sous-classe de MIMEBase, c'est une classe mère intermédiaire pour les messages MIME qui sont multipart. _subtype (facultatif) est par défaut mixed, mais peut être utilisé pour spécifier le sous-type du message. Un en-tête Content-Type de multipart/_subtype sera ajouté à l'objet message. Un en-tête MIME-Version sera également ajouté.

boundary (facultatif) est la chaîne de délimitation en plusieurs parties. Si elle vaut None (la valeur par défaut), la délimitation est calculée au besoin (par exemple, lorsque le message est sérialisé).

_subparts est une séquence de sous-parties initiales pour la charge utile. Il doit être possible de convertir cette séquence en une liste. Vous pouvez toujours joindre de nouvelles sous-parties au message en utilisant la méthode Message.attach.

L'argument facultatif policy est par défaut compat32.

Des paramètres supplémentaires pour l'en-tête Content-Type sont extraits des arguments nommés ou passés à l'argument _params, qui est un dictionnaire de mots-clés.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: ajout du paramètre nommé policy.

class email.mime.application.MIMEApplication(_data, _subtype='octet-stream', _encoder=email.encoders.encode_base64, *, policy=compat32, **_params)

Module : email.mime.application

Sous-classe de MIMENonMultipart, la classe MIMEApplication est utilisée pour représenter les objets de message MIME de type principal application. _data contient les octets pour les données d'application brutes. L'option _subtype spécifie le sous-type MIME et la valeur par défaut est octet-stream.

_encoder (facultatif) est un appelable (c'est-à-dire une fonction) qui effectue le codage réel des données pour le transport. Cet appelable prend un argument, qui est l'instance MIMEApplication. Il doit utiliser get_payload() et set_payload() pour modifier la charge utile sous forme codée. Il doit également ajouter n'importe quel Content-Transfer-Encoding ou d'autres en-têtes à l'objet message si nécessaire. L'encodage par défaut est base64. Voir le module email.encoders pour une liste des encodeurs intégrés.

L'argument facultatif policy est par défaut compat32.

Les _params sont transmis directement au constructeur de la classe mère.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: ajout du paramètre nommé policy.

class email.mime.audio.MIMEAudio(_audiodata, _subtype=None, _encoder=email.encoders.encode_base64, *, policy=compat32, **_params)

Module : email.mime.audio

Sous-classe de MIMENonMultipart, la classe MIMEAudio est utilisée pour créer des objets de message MIME de type majeur audio. _audiodata contient les octets pour les données audio brutes. Si ces données peuvent être décodées au format au, wav, aiff ou aifc, alors le sous-type est automatiquement inclus dans l'en-tête Content-Type. Sinon, vous pouvez spécifier explicitement le sous-type audio via l'argument _subtype. Si le type mineur n'a pas pu être deviné et que _subtype n'a pas été donné, alors une TypeError est levée.

_encoder (facultatif) est un appelable (c'est-à-dire une fonction) qui effectue le codage réel des données audio pour le transport. Cet appelable prend un argument, qui est l'instance MIMEAudio. Il doit utiliser get_payload() et set_payload() pour modifier la charge utile sous forme codée. Il doit également ajouter n'importe quel Content-Transfer-Encoding ou d'autres en-têtes à l'objet message si nécessaire. L'encodage par défaut est base64. Voir le module email.encoders pour une liste des encodeurs intégrés.

L'argument facultatif policy est par défaut compat32.

Les _params sont transmis directement au constructeur de la classe mère.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: ajout du paramètre nommé policy.

class email.mime.image.MIMEImage(_imagedata, _subtype=None, _encoder=email.encoders.encode_base64, *, policy=compat32, **_params)

Module : email.mime.image

Sous-classe de MIMENonMultipart, la classe MIMEImage est utilisée pour créer des objets de message MIME de type principal image. _imagedata contient les octets pour les données d'image brutes. Si ce type de données peut être détecté (jpeg, png, gif, tiff, rgb, pbm, pgm, ppm, rast, xbm, bmp, webp et exr sont essayés), alors le sous-type est automatiquement inclus dans l'en-tête Content-Type. Sinon, vous pouvez spécifier explicitement le sous-type d'image via l'argument _subtype. Si le type mineur n'a pas pu être deviné et que _subtype n'a pas été donné, alors une TypeError est levée.

_encoder (facultatif) est un appelable (c'est-à-dire une fonction) qui effectue le codage réel des données d'image pour le transport. Cet appelable prend un argument, qui est l'instance MIMEImage. Il doit utiliser get_payload() et set_payload() pour modifier la charge utile sous forme codée. Il doit également ajouter n'importe quel Content-Transfer-Encoding ou d'autres en-têtes à l'objet message si nécessaire. L'encodage par défaut est base64. Voir le module email.encoders pour une liste des encodeurs intégrés.

L'argument facultatif policy est par défaut compat32.

Les _params sont transmis directement au constructeur MIMEBase.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: ajout du paramètre nommé policy.

class email.mime.message.MIMEMessage(_msg, _subtype='rfc822', *, policy=compat32)

Module : email.mime.message

Sous-classe de MIMENonMultipart, la classe MIMEMessage est utilisée pour créer des objets MIME de type principal message. _msg est utilisé comme charge utile et doit être une instance de la classe Message (ou une sous-classe de celle-ci), sinon une TypeError est levée.

L'option _subtype définit le sous-type du message ; par défaut c'est rfc822.

L'argument facultatif policy est par défaut compat32.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: ajout du paramètre nommé policy.

class email.mime.text.MIMEText(_text, _subtype='plain', _charset=None, *, policy=compat32)

Module : email.mime.text

Sous-classe de MIMENonMultipart, la classe MIMEText est utilisée pour créer des objets MIME de type principal text. _text est la chaîne de la charge utile. _subtype est le type mineur et par défaut est plain. _charset est le jeu de caractères du texte et est passé en argument au constructeur MIMENonMultipart ; sa valeur par défaut est us-ascii si la chaîne ne contient que des points de code ascii, et utf-8 sinon. Le paramètre _charset accepte soit une chaîne soit une instance Charset.

À moins que l'argument _charset ne soit explicitement défini sur None, l'objet MIMEText créé possède à la fois un en-tête Content-Type avec un paramètre charset et un en-tête Content-Transfer-Encoding. Cela signifie qu'un appel ultérieur à set_payload n'entraîne pas l'encodage de la charge utile, même si un jeu de caractères est passé dans la commande set_payload. Vous pouvez « réinitialiser » ce comportement en supprimant l'en-tête Content-Transfer-Encoding, après quoi un appel set_payload encodera automatiquement la nouvelle charge utile (et ajoutera un nouvel en-tête Content-Transfer-Encoding).

L'argument facultatif policy est par défaut compat32.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: _charset accepte également les instances Charset.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: ajout du paramètre nommé policy.

email.header: Internationalized headers

Code source : Lib/email/headers.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/email/headers.py]

Ce module fait partie de l'ancienne API de messagerie (Compat32). Dans l'API actuelle, l'encodage et le décodage des en-têtes sont gérés de manière transparente par l'API de type dictionnaire de la classe EmailMessage. En plus des utilisations dans de l'ancien code, ce module peut être utile dans les applications qui doivent contrôler complètement les jeux de caractères utilisés lors de l'encodage des en-têtes.

Le texte restant de cette section est la documentation originale de ce module.

La RFC 2822 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html] est la norme de base qui décrit le format des messages électroniques. Elle dérive de l'ancienne norme RFC 822 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html] qui s'est généralisée à une époque où la plupart des e-mails étaient composés uniquement de caractères ASCII. La RFC 2822 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html] est une spécification écrite en supposant que le courrier électronique ne contient que des caractères ASCII 7 bits.

Of course, as email has been deployed worldwide, it has become internationalized, such that language specific character sets can now be used in email messages. The base standard still requires email messages to be transferred using only 7-bit ASCII characters, so a slew of RFCs have been written describing how to encode email containing non-ASCII characters into RFC 2822 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html]-compliant format. These RFCs include RFC 2045 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html], RFC 2046 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2046.html], RFC 2047 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html], and RFC 2231 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html]. The email package supports these standards in its email.header and email.charset modules.

If you want to include non-ASCII characters in your email headers, say in the Subject or To fields, you should use the Header class and assign the field in the Message object to an instance of Header instead of using a string for the header value. Import the Header class from the email.header module. For example:

>>> from email.message import Message
>>> from email.header import Header
>>> msg = Message()
>>> h = Header('p\xf6stal', 'iso-8859-1')
>>> msg['Subject'] = h
>>> msg.as_string()
'Subject: =?iso-8859-1?q?p=F6stal?=\n\n'

Remarquez ici comment nous voulions que le champ Subject contienne un caractère non-ASCII : nous avons créé une instance Header et transmis le jeu de caractères dans lequel la chaîne d'octets était encodée. Lorsque l'instance suivante Message a été aplatie, le champ Subject était correctement encodé selon la RFC 2047 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html]. Les lecteurs de courrier compatibles MIME afficheraient cet en-tête en utilisant le caractère ISO-8859-1 intégré.

Voici la description de la classe Header :

class email.header.Header(s=None, charset=None, maxlinelen=None, header_name=None, continuation_ws=' ', errors='strict')

Crée un en-tête compatible MIME pouvant contenir des chaînes dans différents jeux de caractères.

s (facultatif) est la valeur d'en-tête initiale. S'il vaut None (valeur par défaut), la valeur d'en-tête initiale n'est pas définie. Vous pouvez ensuite ajouter des choses à l'en-tête avec des appels de méthode append(). s peut être une instance de bytes ou str, mais consultez la documentation append() pour la sémantique.

L'option charset sert à deux fins : elle a la même signification que l'argument charset de la méthode append(). Elle définit également le jeu de caractères par défaut pour tous les appels suivants append() qui omettent l'argument charset. Si charset n'est pas fourni dans le constructeur (par défaut), le jeu de caractères us-ascii est utilisé à la fois comme jeu de caractères initial de s et comme jeu par défaut pour les appels suivants à append().

The maximum line length can be specified explicitly via maxlinelen. For splitting the first line to a shorter value (to account for the field header which isn't included in s, e.g. Subject) pass in the name of the field in header_name. The default maxlinelen is 78, and the default value for header_name is None, meaning it is not taken into account for the first line of a long, split header.

continuation_ws (facultatif) doit être conforme aux caractères de reformatage RFC 2822 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html] ; c'est généralement soit une espace, soit un caractère de tabulation fixe. Ce caractère est ajouté aux lignes de continuation. continuation_ws utilise par défaut une seule espace.

errors (facultatif) est transmis directement à la méthode append().

append(s, charset=None, errors='strict')

Ajoute la chaîne s à l'en-tête MIME.

Le charset facultatif, s'il est fourni, doit être une instance de Charset (voir email.charset) ou le nom d'un jeu de caractères, qui est converti en une instance Charset. Une valeur None (la valeur par défaut) signifie que le charset donné dans le constructeur est utilisé.

s peut être une instance de bytes ou str. S'il s'agit d'une instance de bytes, alors charset est l'encodage de cette chaîne d'octets et une UnicodeError est levée si la chaîne ne peut pas être décodée avec ce jeu de caractères.

Si s est une instance de str, alors charset est une indication spécifiant le jeu de caractères des caractères de la chaîne.

Dans les deux cas, lors de la production d'un en-tête conforme à la RFC 2822 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html] à l'aide des règles RFC 2047 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html], la chaîne est encodée à l'aide du codec de sortie du jeu de caractères. Si la chaîne ne peut pas être encodée à l'aide du codec de sortie, une erreur UnicodeError est levée.

L'option errors est transmise comme argument d'erreurs à l'appel de décodage si s est une chaîne d'octets.

encode(splitchars=';, \t', maxlinelen=None, linesep='\n')

Encode un en-tête de message dans un format conforme à la RFC, en reformatant éventuellement de longues lignes et en encapsulant des parties non ASCII dans des encodages base64 ou dits quoted-printable (c.-à-d. que, par exemple, les caractères non ASCII sont représentés par un signe égal, suivi de son numéro, exprimé en hexadécimal).

splitchars (facultatif) est une chaîne contenant des caractères auxquels l'algorithme de fractionnement doit donner un poids supplémentaire lors du reformatage normal de l'en-tête. Il s'agit d'une prise en charge très approximative des « ruptures syntaxiques de niveau supérieur » de la RFC 2822 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html] : les points de séparation précédés d'un caractère de séparation sont préférés lors de la séparation des lignes, les caractères étant préférés dans l'ordre dans lequel ils apparaissent dans la chaîne. Une espace et une tabulation peuvent être incluses dans la chaîne pour indiquer si la préférence doit être donnée à l'une plutôt qu'à l'autre comme point de partage lorsque d'autres caractères fractionnés n'apparaissent pas dans la ligne fractionnée. splitchars n'affecte pas les lignes encodées selon la RFC 2047 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html].

maxlinelen, s'il est fourni, remplace la valeur de l'instance pour la longueur de ligne maximale.

linesep spécifie les caractères utilisés pour séparer les lignes de l'en-tête plié. Il prend par défaut la valeur la plus utile pour le code d'application Python (\n), mais \r\n peut être spécifié afin de produire des en-têtes avec des séparateurs de ligne conformes à la RFC.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: ajout de l'argument linesep.

La classe Header fournit également un certain nombre de méthodes pour prendre en charge les opérateurs standard et les fonctions intégrées.

__str__()

Renvoie une approximation de Header sous forme de chaîne, en utilisant une longueur de ligne illimitée. Toutes les parties sont converties en Unicode en utilisant l'encodage spécifié et réunies de manière appropriée. Tous les morceaux avec un charset à 'unknown-8bit' sont décodés en ASCII en utilisant le gestionnaire d'erreurs 'replace'.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: ajout de la gestion du jeu de caractères 'unknown-8bit'.

__eq__(other)

Cette méthode vous permet de tester l'égalité de deux instances de Header.

__ne__(other)

Cette méthode vous permet de tester l'inégalité de deux instances de Header.

The email.header module also provides the following convenient functions.

email.header.decode_header(header)

Décode une valeur d'en-tête de message sans convertir le jeu de caractères. La valeur de l'en-tête est dans header.

For historical reasons, this function may return either:

A list of pairs containing each of the decoded parts of the header, (decoded_bytes, charset), where decoded_bytes is always an instance of bytes, and charset is either:

A lower case string containing the name of the character set specified.

None for non-encoded parts of the header.

A list of length 1 containing a pair (string, None), where string is always an instance of str.

An email.errors.HeaderParseError may be raised when certain decoding errors occur (e.g. a base64 decoding exception).

Here are examples:

>>> from email.header import decode_header
>>> decode_header('=?iso-8859-1?q?p=F6stal?=')
[(b'p\xf6stal', 'iso-8859-1')]
>>> decode_header('unencoded_string')
[('unencoded_string', None)]
>>> decode_header('bar =?utf-8?B?ZsOzbw==?=')
[(b'bar ', None), (b'f\xc3\xb3o', 'utf-8')]

Note

This function exists for backwards compatibility only. For new code, we recommend using email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry.

email.header.make_header(decoded_seq, maxlinelen=None, header_name=None, continuation_ws=' ')

Crée une instance Header à partir d'une séquence de paires renvoyées par decode_header().

decode_header() prend une chaîne de valeur d'en-tête et renvoie une séquence de paires au format (decoded_string, charset) où charset est le nom du jeu de caractères.

Cette fonction prend l'une de ces séquences de paires et renvoie une instance Header. maxlinelen, header_name et continuation_ws (facultatifs) s'utilisent comme dans le constructeur Header.

Note

This function exists for backwards compatibility only, and is not recommended for use in new code.

email.charset: Representing character sets

Code source : Lib/email/charset.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/email/charset.py]

Ce module fait partie de l'ancienne API de messagerie (Compat32). Dans la nouvelle API, seule la table des alias est utilisée.

Le texte restant de cette section est la documentation originale de ce module.

Ce module fournit une classe Charset pour représenter les jeux de caractères et les conversions de jeux de caractères dans les messages électroniques, ainsi qu'un registre de jeux de caractères et plusieurs méthodes pratiques pour manipuler ce registre. Les instances de Charset sont utilisées dans plusieurs autres modules du paquet email.

Import this class from the email.charset module.

class email.charset.Charset(input_charset=DEFAULT_CHARSET)

Associe les jeux de caractères à leurs propriétés d'e-mail.

Cette classe fournit des informations sur les exigences imposées aux e-mails pour un jeu de caractères spécifique. Elle fournit également des routines pratiques pour la conversion entre les jeux de caractères, compte tenu de la disponibilité des codecs applicables. Étant donné un jeu de caractères, elle fait de son mieux pour fournir des informations sur la façon d'utiliser ce jeu de caractères dans un message électronique d'une manière conforme à la RFC.

Certains jeux de caractères doivent être encodés avec quoted-printable ou en base64 lorsqu'ils sont utilisés dans les en-têtes ou les corps des e-mails. Certains jeux de caractères doivent être convertis directement et ne sont pas autorisés dans les e-mails.

Le input_charset facultatif est tel que décrit ci-dessous ; il est toujours contraint en minuscules. Après avoir été normalisé par alias, il est également utilisé comme recherche dans le registre des jeux de caractères pour trouver le codage d'en-tête, le codage de corps et le codec de conversion de sortie à utiliser pour le jeu de caractères. Par exemple, si input_charset vaut iso-8859-1, alors les en-têtes et les corps seront encodés en utilisant quoted-printable et aucun codec de conversion de sortie n'est nécessaire. Si input_charset vaut euc-jp, alors les en-têtes seront encodés en base64, les corps ne seront pas encodés, mais le texte de sortie sera converti du jeu de caractères euc-jp vers le jeu de caractères iso-2022-jp.

Les instances de Charset ont les attributs de données suivants :

input_charset

Jeu de caractères initial spécifié. Les alias communs sont convertis en leurs noms de messagerie officiels (par exemple, latin_1 est converti en iso-8859-1). Par défaut, us-ascii 7 bits.

header_encoding

If the character set must be encoded before it can be used in an email header, this attribute will be set to charset.QP (for quoted-printable), charset.BASE64 (for base64 encoding), or charset.SHORTEST for the shortest of QP or BASE64 encoding. Otherwise, it will be None.

body_encoding

Same as header_encoding, but describes the encoding for the mail message's body, which indeed may be different than the header encoding. charset.SHORTEST is not allowed for body_encoding.

output_charset

Certains jeux de caractères doivent être convertis avant de pouvoir être utilisés dans les en-têtes ou le corps des e-mails. Si le input_charset est un jeu de ce type, alors cet attribut contient le nom du jeu de caractères vers lequel la sortie sera convertie. Sinon, il vaut None.

input_codec

Nom du codec Python utilisé pour convertir le input_charset en Unicode. Si aucun codec de conversion n'est nécessaire, cet attribut vaut None.

output_codec

Nom du codec Python utilisé pour convertir Unicode en output_charset. Si aucun codec de conversion n'est nécessaire, cet attribut a la même valeur que le input_codec.

Les instances de Charset ont également les méthodes suivantes :

get_body_encoding()

Renvoie l'encodage de transfert de contenu utilisé pour l'encodage du corps.

Il s'agit soit de la chaîne quoted-printable ou base64 selon l'encodage utilisé, soit d'une fonction, vous devez alors appeler la fonction avec un seul argument, l'objet Message étant encodé. La fonction doit ensuite définir l'en-tête Content-Transfer-Encoding à la valeur appropriée.

Renvoie la chaîne quoted-printable si body_encoding est QP, renvoie la chaîne base64 si body_encoding est BASE64 et renvoie la chaîne 7bit sinon.

get_output_charset()

Renvoie le jeu de caractères de sortie.

C'est l'attribut output_charset si ce n'est pas None, sinon c'est input_charset.

header_encode(string)

Encode la chaîne string pour un en-tête.

Le type d'encodage (base64 ou quoted-printable) est basé sur l'attribut header_encoding.

header_encode_lines(string, maxlengths)

Encode string en la convertissant d'abord en octets, pour un en-tête.

C'est similaire à header_encode() sauf que la chaîne est adaptée aux longueurs de ligne maximales indiquées par l'argument maxlengths, qui doit être un itérateur : chaque élément renvoyé par cet itérateur fournit la prochaine longueur de ligne maximale.

body_encode(string)

Encode la chaîne string pour un usage en corps de message.

Le type d'encodage (base64 ou quoted-printable) est basé sur l'attribut body_encoding.

La classe Charset fournit également un certain nombre de méthodes pour prendre en charge les opérations standard et les fonctions intégrées.

__str__()

Returns input_charset as a string coerced to lower case. __repr__() is an alias for __str__().

__eq__(other)

Cette méthode vous permet de tester l'égalité de deux instances de Charset.

__ne__(other)

Cette méthode vous permet de tester l'inégalité de deux instances de Charset.

The email.charset module also provides the following functions for adding new entries to the global character set, alias, and codec registries:

email.charset.add_charset(charset, header_enc=None, body_enc=None, output_charset=None)

Ajoute des propriétés relatives d'un jeu de caractères dans le registre global.

charset est le jeu de caractères d'entrée et doit être le nom canonique d'un jeu de caractères.

Optional header_enc and body_enc is either charset.QP for quoted-printable, charset.BASE64 for base64 encoding, charset.SHORTEST for the shortest of quoted-printable or base64 encoding, or None for no encoding. SHORTEST is only valid for header_enc. The default is None for no encoding.

output_charset (facultatif) est le jeu de caractères dans lequel doit être la sortie. Les conversions se poursuivent du jeu de caractères d'entrée, vers Unicode, vers le jeu de caractères de sortie lorsque la méthode Charset.convert() est appelée. La valeur par défaut est de sortir dans le même jeu de caractères que l'entrée.

input_charset et output_charset doivent avoir des entrées de codec Unicode dans la table de correspondances du jeu de caractères au codec du module ; utilisez add_codec() pour ajouter des codecs que le module ne connaît pas. Voir la documentation du module codecs pour plus d'informations.

Le registre de jeux de caractères global est conservé dans le dictionnaire global du module CHARSETS.

email.charset.add_alias(alias, canonical)

Ajoute un alias de jeu de caractères. alias est le nom d'alias, par ex. latin-1. canonical est le nom canonique du jeu de caractères, par ex. iso-8859-1.

Le registre global des alias du jeu de caractères est conservé dans le dictionnaire global du module ALIASES.

email.charset.add_codec(charset, codecname)

Ajoute un codec qui fait correspondre les caractères du jeu de caractères donné vers et depuis Unicode.

charset est le nom canonique d'un jeu de caractères. codecname est le nom d'un codec Python (c.-à-d. une valeur valable comme second argument de la méthode encode() de str).

email.encoders: Encoders

Code source : Lib/email/encoders.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/email/encoders.py]

Ce module fait partie du code patrimonial (Compat32) de l'API mail. Dans la nouvelle API la fonctionnalité est fournie par le paramètre cte de la méthode set_content().

Ce module est obsolète en Python 3. Il n'est pas de besoin d'appeler explicitement les fonctions définies ici puisque la classe MIMEText ajuste le type de contenu et l'entête CTE à l'aide des paramètres _subtype et _charset de son constructeur.

Le texte restant de cette section est la documentation originale de ce module.

Au moment de la création d'objets Message à la main, il est souvent nécessaire d'encoder les charges utiles pour le transport à travers des serveurs mail conformes. C'est particulièrement vrai pour les messages de type image/* et text/* contenant des données binaires.

The email package provides some convenient encoders in its encoders module. These encoders are actually used by the MIMEAudio and MIMEImage class constructors to provide default encodings. All encoder functions take exactly one argument, the message object to encode. They usually extract the payload, encode it, and reset the payload to this newly encoded value. They should also set the Content-Transfer-Encoding header as appropriate.

À noter que ces fonctions n'ont pas de sens dans le cadre d'un message en plusieurs parties. Elles doivent à la place être appliquées aux sous-parties individuelles, et lèvent TypeError si on leur passe un message en plusieurs parties.

Voici les fonctions d'encodages fournies :

email.encoders.encode_quopri(msg)

Encode la charge utile au format Quoted-Printable, et assigne quoted-printable [1] à l'en-tête Content-Transfer-Encoding. C'est un bon encodage à utiliser quand la majorité de la charge utile contient essentiellement des données imprimables, à l'exceptions de quelques caractères.

email.encoders.encode_base64(msg)

Encode la charge utile au format base64, et assigne base64 à l'en-tête Content-Transfer-Encoding. C'est un bon encodage à utiliser quand la majorité de la charge utile est non imprimable puisque c'est une forme plus compacte que quoted-printable.

email.encoders.encode_7or8bit(msg)

Ceci ne modifie pas effectivement la charge utile du message, mais va bien en revanche assigner la valeur 7bit ou 8bit à l'en-tête Content-Transfer-Encoding selon la nature de la charge utile.

email.encoders.encode_noop(msg)

Ceci ne fait rien; et ne va même pas changer la valeur de l'en-tête Content-Transfer-Encoding.

Notes

[1]

À noter que l'encodage avec encode_quopri() encode également tous les caractères tabulation et espace.

email.utils: Miscellaneous utilities

Code source : Lib/email/utils.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/email/utils.py]

There are a couple of useful utilities provided in the email.utils module:

email.utils.localtime(dt=None)

Return local time as an aware datetime object. If called without arguments, return current time. Otherwise dt argument should be a datetime instance, and it is converted to the local time zone according to the system time zone database. If dt is naive (that is, dt.tzinfo is None), it is assumed to be in local time.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Deprecated since version 3.12, removed in version 3.14: The isdst parameter.

email.utils.make_msgid(idstring=None, domain=None)

Renvoie une chaîne adaptée à un en-tête Message-ID compatible RFC 2822 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html]. idstring, s'il est fourni, est une chaîne utilisée pour renforcer l'unicité de l'identifiant du message. Le domain facultatif, s'il est fourni, fournit la partie du msgid après le '@'. La valeur par défaut est le nom d'hôte local. Il n'est normalement pas nécessaire de remplacer cette valeur par défaut, mais cela peut être utile dans certains cas, comme la construction d'un système distribué qui utilise un nom de domaine cohérent sur plusieurs hôtes.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: ajout du mot-clé domaine.

Les fonctions restantes font partie de l'ancienne API de messagerie (Compat32). Il n'est pas nécessaire de les utiliser directement avec la nouvelle API, car l'analyse et le formatage qu'elles fournissent sont effectués automatiquement par le mécanisme d'analyse d'en-tête de la nouvelle API.

email.utils.quote(str)

Renvoie une nouvelle chaîne avec les barres obliques inverses (backslash) dans str remplacées par deux barres obliques inverses et les guillemets doubles remplacés par des guillemets doubles échappés par une barre oblique inverse.

email.utils.unquote(str)

Renvoie une nouvelle chaîne qui est une version sans guillemets de str. Si str se termine et commence par des guillemets doubles, ils sont supprimés. De même, si str est encadrée par des chevrons mathématiques, ils sont supprimés.

email.utils.parseaddr(address, *, strict=True)

Analyse l'adresse – qui devrait être la valeur d'un champ contenant une adresse tel que To ou Cc – dans ses parties constituantes realname et email address. Renvoie un n-uplet de cette information, sauf si l'analyse échoue, alors un couple ('', '') est renvoyé.

If strict is true, use a strict parser which rejects malformed inputs.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Add strict optional parameter and reject malformed inputs by default.

email.utils.formataddr(pair, charset='utf-8')

L'inverse de parseaddr(), elle prend un couple de la forme (realname, email_address) et renvoie la valeur de chaîne appropriée pour un en-tête To ou Cc. Si le premier élément de pair s'évalue à faux, alors le deuxième élément est renvoyé sans modification.

Le charset optionnel est le jeu de caractères qui est utilisé dans l'encodage RFC 2047 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html] du realname si le realname contient des caractères non-ASCII. Cela peut être une instance de str ou un Charset. La valeur par défaut est utf-8.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: ajout de l'option charset.

email.utils.getaddresses(fieldvalues, *, strict=True)

This method returns a list of 2-tuples of the form returned by parseaddr(). fieldvalues is a sequence of header field values as might be returned by Message.get_all.

If strict is true, use a strict parser which rejects malformed inputs.

Here's a simple example that gets all the recipients of a message:

from email.utils import getaddresses

tos = msg.get_all('to', [])
ccs = msg.get_all('cc', [])
resent_tos = msg.get_all('resent-to', [])
resent_ccs = msg.get_all('resent-cc', [])
all_recipients = getaddresses(tos + ccs + resent_tos + resent_ccs)

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Add strict optional parameter and reject malformed inputs by default.

email.utils.parsedate(date)

Tente d'analyser une date selon les règles de la RFC 2822 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html]. Cependant, certains expéditeurs ne suivent pas ce format comme spécifié, donc parsedate() fait son possible dans de tels cas. date est une chaîne contenant une date RFC 2822 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html], telle que "Mon, 20 Nov 1995 19:12:08 -0500". Si elle réussit à analyser la date, parsedate() renvoie un 9-uplet qui peut être passé directement à time.mktime() ; sinon None est renvoyé. Notez que les indices 6, 7 et 8 du n-uplet résultat ne sont pas utilisables.

email.utils.parsedate_tz(date)

Effectue la même fonction que parsedate(), mais renvoie soit None ou un 10-uplet ; les 9 premiers éléments constituent un n-uplet qui peut être passé directement à time.mktime(), et le dixième est le décalage du fuseau horaire de la date par rapport à UTC (qui est le terme officiel pour Greenwich Mean Time) [1]. Si la chaîne d'entrée n'a pas de fuseau horaire, le dernier élément du n-uplet renvoyé est 0, qui représente l'UTC. Notez que les indices 6, 7 et 8 du n-uplet résultat ne sont pas utilisables.

email.utils.parsedate_to_datetime(date)

L'inverse de format_datetime(). Effectue la même fonction que parsedate() mais, en cas de succès, renvoie un datetime ; sinon une ValueError est levée si date contient une valeur invalide telle qu'une heure supérieure à 23 ou un décalage de fuseau horaire non compris entre −24 et 24 heures. Si la date d'entrée a un fuseau horaire de -0000, le datetime sera un datetime naïf, et si la date est conforme aux RFC, elle représentera une heure en UTC mais sans indication du fuseau horaire source réel du message d'où provient la date. Si la date d'entrée a un autre décalage de fuseau horaire valide, le datetime sera un datetime avisé avec le timezone tzinfo adéquat.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

email.utils.mktime_tz(tuple)

Transforme un 10-uplet renvoyé par parsedate_tz() en un horodatage UTC (en secondes depuis Epoch). Si l'élément de fuseau horaire dans le n-uplet est None, elle considère que l'heure est locale.

email.utils.formatdate(timeval=None, localtime=False, usegmt=False)

Renvoie une chaîne de date conforme à la RFC 2822 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html], par exemple :

Fri, 09 Nov 2001 01:08:47 -0000

Optional timeval if given is a floating-point time value as accepted by time.gmtime() and time.localtime(), otherwise the current time is used.

L'option localtime est un indicateur qui, lorsqu'il est True, interprète timeval et renvoie une date relative au fuseau horaire local au lieu de UTC, en tenant correctement compte de l'heure d'été. La valeur par défaut est False, ce qui signifie que l'UTC est utilisée.

L'option usegmt est un indicateur qui, lorsqu'il est True, affiche une chaîne de date avec le fuseau horaire sous la forme de la chaîne ASCII GMT, plutôt qu'un -0000 numérique. C'est nécessaire pour certains protocoles (tels que HTTP). Cela ne s'applique que lorsque localtime est False. La valeur par défaut est False.

email.utils.format_datetime(dt, usegmt=False)

Comme formatdate, mais l'entrée est une instance datetime. S'il s'agit d'un groupe date-heure naïf, il est considéré être « UTC sans information sur le fuseau horaire source », et le -0000 conventionnel est utilisé pour le fuseau horaire. S'il s'agit d'un datetime avisé, alors le décalage numérique du fuseau horaire est utilisé. S'il s'agit d'un groupe date-heure avisé avec un décalage de fuseau horaire de zéro, alors usegmt peut être défini sur True, la chaîne GMT est alors utilisée à la place du décalage numérique du fuseau horaire. Cela fournit un moyen de générer des en-têtes de date HTTP conformes aux normes.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

email.utils.decode_rfc2231(s)

Décode la chaîne s selon la RFC 2231 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html].

email.utils.encode_rfc2231(s, charset=None, language=None)

Encode la chaîne s selon la RFC 2231 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html]. charset et language, s'ils sont fournis, indiquent le jeu de caractères et le nom de la langue à utiliser. Si aucun n'est donné, s est renvoyé telle quelle. Si charset est donné mais que language ne l'est pas, la chaîne est encodée en utilisant la chaîne vide pour language.

email.utils.collapse_rfc2231_value(value, errors='replace', fallback_charset='us-ascii')

Lorsqu'un paramètre d'en-tête est encodé au format RFC 2231 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html], Message.get_param peut renvoyer un triplet contenant le jeu de caractères, la langue et la valeur. collapse_rfc2231_value() transforme cela en une chaîne Unicode. errors (facultatif) est passé à l'argument errors de la méthode encode() de str ; sa valeur par défaut est 'replace'. fallback_charset (facultatif) spécifie le jeu de caractères à utiliser si celui de l'en-tête RFC 2231 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html] n'est pas connu de Python ; sa valeur par défaut est 'us-ascii'.

Pour plus de commodité, si la valeur transmise à collapse_rfc2231_value() n'est pas un n-uplet, ce doit être une chaîne et elle est renvoyée sans guillemets.

email.utils.decode_params(params)

Décode la liste des paramètres selon la RFC 2231 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html]. params est une séquence de couples contenant des éléments de la forme (content-type, string-value).

Notes

[1]

Notez que le signe du décalage horaire est l'opposé du signe de la variable time.timezone pour le même fuseau horaire ; cette dernière variable suit la norme POSIX tandis que ce module suit la RFC 2822 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html].

email.iterators: Iterators

Code source : Lib/email/iterators.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/email/iterators.py]

Iterating over a message object tree is fairly easy with the Message.walk method. The email.iterators module provides some useful higher level iterations over message object trees.

email.iterators.body_line_iterator(msg, decode=False)

Cette fonction permet d'itérer sur tous les contenus de tous les éléments de msg, en retournant les contenus sous forme de chaînes de caractères ligne par ligne. Il saute les entêtes des sous éléments, et tous les sous éléments dont le contenu n'est pas une chaîne de caractères Python. C'est en quelque sorte équivalent à une lecture plate d'une représentation textuelle du message à partir d'un fichier en utilisant readline(), et en sautant toutes les entêtes intermédiaires.

Le paramètre optionnel decode est transmis à la méthode Message.get_payload.

email.iterators.typed_subpart_iterator(msg, maintype='text', subtype=None)

Cette fonction permet d'itérer sur tous les sous éléments de msg, en retournant seulement les sous éléments qui correspondent au type MIME spécifié par maintype et subtype.

Notez que le paramètre subtype est optionnel ; s'il n'est pas présent, alors le type MIME du sous élément est seulement composé du type principal. maintype est également optionnel ; sa valeur par défaut est text.

En conséquence, par défaut, typed_subpart_iterator() retourne chaque sous élément qui a un type MIME de type text/*.

La fonction suivante a été ajouté en tant qu'un outil de débogage. Elle ne devrait pas être considérée comme une interface publique supportée pour ce paquet.

email.iterators._structure(msg, fp=None, level=0, include_default=False)

Affiche une représentation indentée des types de contenu de la structure de l'objet message. Par exemple :

>>> msg = email.message_from_file(somefile)
>>> _structure(msg)
multipart/mixed
    text/plain
    text/plain
    multipart/digest
        message/rfc822
            text/plain
        message/rfc822
            text/plain
        message/rfc822
            text/plain
        message/rfc822
            text/plain
        message/rfc822
            text/plain
    text/plain

Le paramètre optionnel fp est un objet fichier-compatible dans lequel on peut écrire le flux de sortie. Il doit être approprié pour la fonction de Python print(). level est utilisé en interne. include_default, si vrai, affiche aussi le type par défaut.

json --- JSON encoder and decoder

Code source : Lib/json/__init__.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/json/__init__.py]

JSON (JavaScript Object Notation) [https://json.org], specified by RFC 7159 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7159.html] (which obsoletes RFC 4627 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4627.html]) and by ECMA-404 [https://ecma-international.org/publications-and-standards/standards/ecma-404/], is a lightweight data interchange format inspired by JavaScript [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JavaScript] object literal syntax (although it is not a strict subset of JavaScript [1] ).

Note

The term "object" in the context of JSON processing in Python can be ambiguous. All values in Python are objects. In JSON, an object refers to any data wrapped in curly braces, similar to a Python dictionary.

Avertissement

Be cautious when parsing JSON data from untrusted sources. A malicious JSON string may cause the decoder to consume considerable CPU and memory resources. Limiting the size of data to be parsed is recommended.

This module exposes an API familiar to users of the standard library marshal and pickle modules.

Encodage de quelques objets de base Python :

>>> import json
>>> json.dumps(['foo', {'bar': ('baz', None, 1.0, 2)}])
'["foo", {"bar": ["baz", null, 1.0, 2]}]'
>>> print(json.dumps("\"foo\bar"))
"\"foo\bar"
>>> print(json.dumps('\u1234'))
"\u1234"
>>> print(json.dumps('\\'))
"\\"
>>> print(json.dumps({"c": 0, "b": 0, "a": 0}, sort_keys=True))
{"a": 0, "b": 0, "c": 0}
>>> from io import StringIO
>>> io = StringIO()
>>> json.dump(['streaming API'], io)
>>> io.getvalue()
'["streaming API"]'

Encodage compact :

>>> import json
>>> json.dumps([1, 2, 3, {'4': 5, '6': 7}], separators=(',', ':'))
'[1,2,3,{"4":5,"6":7}]'

Affichage plus lisible :

>>> import json
>>> print(json.dumps({'6': 7, '4': 5}, sort_keys=True, indent=4))
{
    "4": 5,
    "6": 7
}

Customizing JSON object encoding:

>>> import json
>>> def custom_json(obj):
...     if isinstance(obj, complex):
...         return {'__complex__': True, 'real': obj.real, 'imag': obj.imag}
...     raise TypeError(f'Cannot serialize object of {type(obj)}')
...
>>> json.dumps(1 + 2j, default=custom_json)
'{"__complex__": true, "real": 1.0, "imag": 2.0}'

Décodage JSON :

>>> import json
>>> json.loads('["foo", {"bar":["baz", null, 1.0, 2]}]')
['foo', {'bar': ['baz', None, 1.0, 2]}]
>>> json.loads('"\\"foo\\bar"')
'"foo\x08ar'
>>> from io import StringIO
>>> io = StringIO('["streaming API"]')
>>> json.load(io)
['streaming API']

Customizing JSON object decoding:

>>> import json
>>> def as_complex(dct):
...     if '__complex__' in dct:
...         return complex(dct['real'], dct['imag'])
...     return dct
...
>>> json.loads('{"__complex__": true, "real": 1, "imag": 2}',
...     object_hook=as_complex)
(1+2j)
>>> import decimal
>>> json.loads('1.1', parse_float=decimal.Decimal)
Decimal('1.1')

Extension de la classe JSONEncoder :

>>> import json
>>> class ComplexEncoder(json.JSONEncoder):
...     def default(self, obj):
...         if isinstance(obj, complex):
...             return [obj.real, obj.imag]
...         # Let the base class default method raise the TypeError
...         return super().default(obj)
...
>>> json.dumps(2 + 1j, cls=ComplexEncoder)
'[2.0, 1.0]'
>>> ComplexEncoder().encode(2 + 1j)
'[2.0, 1.0]'
>>> list(ComplexEncoder().iterencode(2 + 1j))
['[2.0', ', 1.0', ']']

Using json from the shell to validate and pretty-print:

$ echo '{"json":"obj"}' | python -m json
{
    "json": "obj"
}
$ echo '{1.2:3.4}' | python -m json
Expecting property name enclosed in double quotes: line 1 column 2 (char 1)

Voir Command-line interface pour une documentation détaillée.

Note

JSON is a subset of YAML [https://yaml.org/] 1.2. The JSON produced by this module's default settings (in particular, the default separators value) is also a subset of YAML 1.0 and 1.1. This module can thus also be used as a YAML serializer.

Note

Les encodeurs et décodeurs de ce module conservent l'ordre d'entrée et de sortie par défaut. L'ordre n'est perdu que si les conteneurs sous-jacents ne sont pas ordonnés.

Utilisation de base

json.dump(obj, fp, *, skipkeys=False, ensure_ascii=True, check_circular=True, allow_nan=True, cls=None, indent=None, separators=None, default=None, sort_keys=False, **kw)

Serialize obj as a JSON formatted stream to fp (a .write()-supporting file-like object) using this Python-to-JSON conversion table.

Note

À l'inverse de pickle et marshal, JSON n'est pas un protocole par trames, donc essayer de sérialiser plusieurs objets par des appels répétés à dump() en utilisant le même fp résulte en un fichier JSON invalide.

Paramètres:

obj (object) -- The Python object to be serialized.

fp (file-like object) -- The file-like object obj will be serialized to. The json module always produces str objects, not bytes objects, therefore fp.write() must support str input.

skipkeys (bool) -- If True, keys that are not of a basic type (str, int, float, bool, None) will be skipped instead of raising a TypeError. Default False.

ensure_ascii (bool) -- If True (the default), the output is guaranteed to have all incoming non-ASCII and non-printable characters escaped. If False, all characters will be outputted as-is, except for the characters that must be escaped: quotation mark, reverse solidus, and the control characters U+0000 through U+001F.

check_circular (bool) -- If False, the circular reference check for container types is skipped and a circular reference will result in a RecursionError (or worse). Default True.

allow_nan (bool) -- If False, serialization of out-of-range float values (nan, inf, -inf) will result in a ValueError, in strict compliance with the JSON specification. If True (the default), their JavaScript equivalents (NaN, Infinity, -Infinity) are used.

cls (a JSONEncoder subclass) -- If set, a custom JSON encoder with the default() method overridden, for serializing into custom datatypes. If None (the default), JSONEncoder is used.

indent (int | str | None) -- If a positive integer or string, JSON array elements and object members will be pretty-printed with that indent level. A positive integer indents that many spaces per level; a string (such as "\t") is used to indent each level. If zero, negative, or "" (the empty string), only newlines are inserted. If None (the default), the most compact representation is used.

separators (tuple | None) -- A two-tuple: (item_separator, key_separator). If None (the default), separators defaults to (', ', ': ') if indent is None, and (',', ': ') otherwise. For the most compact JSON, specify (',', ':') to eliminate whitespace.

default (callable | None) -- A function that is called for objects that can't otherwise be serialized. It should return a JSON encodable version of the object or raise a TypeError. If None (the default), TypeError is raised.

sort_keys (bool) -- If True, dictionaries will be outputted sorted by key. Default False.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Autorise les chaînes en plus des nombres entiers pour indent.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Utilise (',', ': ') par défaut si indent n'est pas None.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: tous les paramètres optionnels sont maintenant des keyword-only.

json.dumps(obj, *, skipkeys=False, ensure_ascii=True, check_circular=True, allow_nan=True, cls=None, indent=None, separators=None, default=None, sort_keys=False, **kw)

Sérialise obj en une str formatée en JSON, en utilisant cette table de conversion. Les arguments ont la même signification que ceux de dump().

Note

Les clés dans les couples JSON clé-valeur sont toujours de type str. Quand un dictionnaire est converti en JSON, toutes les clés du dictionnaire sont transformées en chaînes de caractères. Ce qui fait que si un dictionnaire est converti en JSON et reconverti en dictionnaire, le résultat peut ne pas être égal à l'original. Ainsi, loads(dumps(x)) != x si x contient des clés qui ne sont pas des chaînes.

json.load(fp, *, cls=None, object_hook=None, parse_float=None, parse_int=None, parse_constant=None, object_pairs_hook=None, **kw)

Deserialize fp to a Python object using the JSON-to-Python conversion table.

Paramètres:

fp (file-like object) -- A .read()-supporting text file or binary file containing the JSON document to be deserialized.

cls (a JSONDecoder subclass) -- If set, a custom JSON decoder. Additional keyword arguments to load() will be passed to the constructor of cls. If None (the default), JSONDecoder is used.

object_hook (callable | None) -- If set, a function that is called with the result of any JSON object literal decoded (a dict). The return value of this function will be used instead of the dict. This feature can be used to implement custom decoders, for example JSON-RPC [https://www.jsonrpc.org] class hinting. Default None.

object_pairs_hook (callable | None) -- If set, a function that is called with the result of any JSON object literal decoded with an ordered list of pairs. The return value of this function will be used instead of the dict. This feature can be used to implement custom decoders. If object_hook is also set, object_pairs_hook takes priority. Default None.

parse_float (callable | None) -- If set, a function that is called with the string of every JSON float to be decoded. If None (the default), it is equivalent to float(num_str). This can be used to parse JSON floats into custom datatypes, for example decimal.Decimal.

parse_int (callable | None) -- If set, a function that is called with the string of every JSON int to be decoded. If None (the default), it is equivalent to int(num_str). This can be used to parse JSON integers into custom datatypes, for example float.

parse_constant (callable | None) -- If set, a function that is called with one of the following strings: '-Infinity', 'Infinity', or 'NaN'. This can be used to raise an exception if invalid JSON numbers are encountered. Default None.

Lève:

JSONDecodeError -- When the data being deserialized is not a valid JSON document.

UnicodeDecodeError -- When the data being deserialized does not contain UTF-8, UTF-16 or UTF-32 encoded data.

Modifié dans la version 3.1:

Added the optional object_pairs_hook parameter.

parse_constant n'est plus appelée pour null, true ou false.

Modifié dans la version 3.6:

tous les paramètres optionnels sont maintenant des keyword-only.

fp peut maintenant être un binary file. Son encodage doit être UTF-8, UTF-16 ou UTF-32.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: The default parse_int of int() now limits the maximum length of the integer string via the interpreter's integer string conversion length limitation to help avoid denial of service attacks.

json.loads(s, *, cls=None, object_hook=None, parse_float=None, parse_int=None, parse_constant=None, object_pairs_hook=None, **kw)

Identical to load(), but instead of a file-like object, deserialize s (a str, bytes or bytearray instance containing a JSON document) to a Python object using this conversion table.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: s peut maintenant être de type bytes ou bytearray. L'encodage d'entrée doit être UTF-8, UTF-16 ou UTF-32.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: suppression de l’argument nommé encoding.

Encodeurs et décodeurs

class json.JSONDecoder(*, object_hook=None, parse_float=None, parse_int=None, parse_constant=None, strict=True, object_pairs_hook=None)

Décodeur simple JSON.

Applique par défaut les conversions suivantes en décodant :

JSON

Python

objet

dict

array

list

string

str

number (nombre entier)

int

number (nombre réel)

float

true

True

false

False

null

None

Les valeurs NaN, Infinity et -Infinity sont aussi comprises comme leurs valeurs float correspondantes, bien que ne faisant pas partie de la spécification JSON.

object_hook is an optional function that will be called with the result of every JSON object decoded and its return value will be used in place of the given dict. This can be used to provide custom deserializations (e.g. to support JSON-RPC [https://www.jsonrpc.org] class hinting).

object_pairs_hook is an optional function that will be called with the result of every JSON object decoded with an ordered list of pairs. The return value of object_pairs_hook will be used instead of the dict. This feature can be used to implement custom decoders. If object_hook is also defined, the object_pairs_hook takes priority.

Modifié dans la version 3.1: ajout du support de object_pairs_hook.

parse_float is an optional function that will be called with the string of every JSON float to be decoded. By default, this is equivalent to float(num_str). This can be used to use another datatype or parser for JSON floats (e.g. decimal.Decimal).

parse_int is an optional function that will be called with the string of every JSON int to be decoded. By default, this is equivalent to int(num_str). This can be used to use another datatype or parser for JSON integers (e.g. float).

parse_constant is an optional function that will be called with one of the following strings: '-Infinity', 'Infinity', 'NaN'. This can be used to raise an exception if invalid JSON numbers are encountered.

Si strict vaut False (True par défaut), alors les caractères de contrôle sont autorisés à l'intérieur des chaînes. Les caractères de contrôle dans ce contexte sont ceux dont les codes sont dans l'intervalle 0--31, incluant '\t' (tabulation), '\n', '\r' et '\0'.

Si les données à désérialiser ne sont pas un document JSON valide, une JSONDecodeError est levée.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Tous les paramètres sont maintenant des keyword-only.

decode(s)

Renvoie la représentation Python de s (une instance str contenant un document JSON).

Une JSONDecodeError est levée si le document JSON donné n'est pas valide.

raw_decode(s)

Décode en document JSON depuis s (une instance str débutant par un document JSON) et renvoie un n-uplet de 2 éléments contenant la représentation Python de l'objet et l'index dans s où le document se terminait.

Elle peut être utilisée pour décoder un document JSON depuis une chaîne qui peut contenir des données supplémentaires à la fin.

class json.JSONEncoder(*, skipkeys=False, ensure_ascii=True, check_circular=True, allow_nan=True, sort_keys=False, indent=None, separators=None, default=None)

Encodeur JSON extensible pour les structures de données Python.

Prend en charge par défaut les objets et types suivants :

Python

JSON

dict

objet

list, tuple

array

str

string

int, float, et Enums dérivées d'int ou de float

number

True

true

False

false

None

null

Modifié dans la version 3.4: ajout de la prise en charge des classes Enum dérivées d'int ou de float.

To extend this to recognize other objects, subclass and implement a default() method with another method that returns a serializable object for o if possible, otherwise it should call the superclass implementation (to raise TypeError).

If skipkeys is false (the default), a TypeError will be raised when trying to encode keys that are not str, int, float, bool or None. If skipkeys is true, such items are simply skipped.

If ensure_ascii is true (the default), the output is guaranteed to have all incoming non-ASCII and non-printable characters escaped. If ensure_ascii is false, all characters will be output as-is, except for the characters that must be escaped: quotation mark, reverse solidus, and the control characters U+0000 through U+001F.

Si check_circular vaut True (valeur par défaut), une vérification a lieu sur les listes, dictionnaires et objets personnalisés, afin de détecter les références circulaires et éviter les récursions infinies (qui causeraient une RecursionError). Autrement, la vérification n'a pas lieu.

Si allow_nan vaut True (valeur par défaut), alors NaN, Infinity et -Infinity sont encodés comme tels. Ce comportement ne respecte pas la spécification JSON, mais est cohérent avec le majorité des encodeurs-décodeurs JavaScript. Autrement, une ValueError est levée pour de telles valeurs.

Si sort_keys vaut True (False par défaut), alors les dictionnaires sont triés par clés en sortie ; cela est utile lors de tests de régression pour pouvoir comparer les sérialisations JSON au jour le jour.

Si indent est un nombre entier positif ou une chaîne de caractères, les éléments de tableaux et les membres d'objets JSON sont affichés élégamment avec ce niveau d'indentation. Un niveau d'indentation de 0, négatif, ou "" n'insère que des retours à la ligne. None (la valeur par défaut) choisit la représentation la plus compacte. Utiliser un entier positif pour indent indente d'autant d'espaces par niveau. Si indent est une chaîne (telle que "\t"), cette chaîne est utilisée pour indenter à chaque niveau.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Autorise les chaînes en plus des nombres entiers pour indent.

Si spécifié, separators doit être un n-uplet (item_separator, key_separator). Sa valeur par défaut est (', ', ': ') si indent est None, et (',', ': ') autrement. Pour obtenir la représentation JSON la plus compacte possible, passez (',', ':') pour éliminer les espaces.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Utilise (',', ': ') par défaut si indent n'est pas None.

Si spécifié, default doit être une fonction qui sera appelée pour les objets qui ne peuvent être sérialisés autrement. Elle doit renvoyer une représentation composée d'objets Python sérialisable en JSON ou lever une TypeError. Si non spécifié, une TypeError est levée.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Tous les paramètres sont maintenant des keyword-only.

default(o)

Implémentez cette méthode dans une sous-classe afin qu'elle renvoie un objet sérialisable pour o, ou appelle l'implémentation de base (qui lèvera une TypeError).

For example, to support arbitrary iterators, you could implement default() like this:

def default(self, o):
   try:
       iterable = iter(o)
   except TypeError:
       pass
   else:
       return list(iterable)
   # Let the base class default method raise the TypeError
   return super().default(o)

encode(o)

Renvoie une chaîne JSON représentant la structure de données Python o. Par exemple :

>>> json.JSONEncoder().encode({"foo": ["bar", "baz"]})
'{"foo": ["bar", "baz"]}'

iterencode(o)

Encode l'objet o donné, et produit chaque chaîne représentant l'objet selon disponibilité. Par exemple :

for chunk in json.JSONEncoder().iterencode(bigobject):
    mysocket.write(chunk)

Exceptions

exception json.JSONDecodeError(msg, doc, pos)

Sous-classe de ValueError avec les attributs additionnels suivants :

msg

Le message d'erreur non formaté.

doc

Le document JSON en cours de traitement.

pos

L'index de doc à partir duquel l'analyse a échoué.

lineno

La ligne correspondant à pos.

colno

La colonne correspondant à pos.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Conformité au standard et Interopérabilité

The JSON format is specified by RFC 7159 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7159.html] and by ECMA-404 [https://ecma-international.org/publications-and-standards/standards/ecma-404/]. This section details this module's level of compliance with the RFC. For simplicity, JSONEncoder and JSONDecoder subclasses, and parameters other than those explicitly mentioned, are not considered.

Ce module ne se conforme pas strictement à la RFC, implémentant quelques extensions qui sont valides en JavaScript mais pas en JSON. En particulier :

Les nombres infinis et NaN sont acceptés et retranscrits ;

Les noms répétés au sein d'un objet sont acceptés, seule la valeur du dernier couple nom-valeur est utilisée.

Comme la RFC permet aux analyseurs conformes d'accepter en entrée des textes non conformes, le désérialiseur de ce module avec ses paramètres par défaut est techniquement conforme à la RFC.

Encodage des caractères

La RFC requiert que le JSON soit représenté en utilisant l'encodage UTF-8, UTF-16 ou UTF-32, avec UTF-8 recommandé par défaut pour une interopérabilité maximale.

As permitted, though not required, by the RFC, this module's serializer sets ensure_ascii=True by default, thus escaping the output so that the resulting strings only contain printable ASCII characters.

Outre le paramètre ensure_ascii, les conversions entre objets Python et chaînes Unicode de ce module sont strictement définies, et ne résolvent donc pas directement le problème de l'encodage des caractères.

La RFC interdit d'ajouter un octet marqueur d'ordre (byte mark order ou BOM) au début du texte JSON, et le sérialiseur de ce module n'ajoute pas de tel BOM. La RFC permet, mais ne requiert pas, que les désérialiseurs JSON ignorent ces BOM. Le désérialiseur de ce module lève une ValueError quand un BOM est présent au début du fichier.

La RFC n'interdit pas explicitement les chaînes JSON contenant des séquences d'octets ne correspondant à aucun caractère Unicode valide (p. ex. les surrogates UTF-16 sans correspondance), mais précise que cela peut causer des problèmes d'interopérabilité. Par défaut, ce module accepte et retranscrit (quand présents dans la str originale) les code points de telles séquences.

Valeurs numériques infinies et NaN

La RFC ne permet pas la représentation des nombres infinis ou des NaN. Néanmoins, par défaut, ce module accepte et retranscrit Infinity, -Infinity et NaN comme s'ils étaient des valeurs numériques littérales JSON valides :

>>> # Neither of these calls raises an exception, but the results are not valid JSON
>>> json.dumps(float('-inf'))
'-Infinity'
>>> json.dumps(float('nan'))
'NaN'
>>> # Same when deserializing
>>> json.loads('-Infinity')
-inf
>>> json.loads('NaN')
nan

Dans le sérialiseur, le paramètre allow_nan peut être utilisé pour altérer ce comportement. Dans le désérialiseur, le paramètre parse_constant peut être utilisé pour changer ce comportement.

Noms répétés au sein d'un objet

La RFC précise que les noms au sein d'un objet JSON doivent être uniques, mais ne décrit pas comment les noms répétés doivent être gérés. Par défaut, ce module ne lève pas d'exception ; à la place, il ignore tous les couples nom-valeur sauf le dernier pour un nom donné :

>>> weird_json = '{"x": 1, "x": 2, "x": 3}'
>>> json.loads(weird_json)
{'x': 3}

Le paramètre object_pairs_hook peut être utilisé pour modifier ce comportement.

Valeurs de plus haut niveau (hors objets ou tableaux)

L'ancienne version de JSON définie par l'obsolète RFC 4627 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4627.html] demandait à ce que la valeur de plus haut niveau du texte JSON soit un objet ou un tableau JSON (dict ou list Python), et ne soit pas null, un nombre, ou une chaîne de caractères. La RFC 7159 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7159.html] a supprimé cette restriction, jamais implémentée par ce module, que ce soit dans le sérialiseur ou le désérialiseur.

Cependant, pour une interopérabilité maximale, vous pourriez volontairement souhaiter adhérer à cette restriction.

Limitations de l'implémentation

Certaines implémentations de désérialiseurs JSON peuvent avoir des limites sur :

la taille des textes JSON acceptés ;

le niveau maximum d'objets et tableaux JSON imbriqués ;

l'intervalle et la précision des nombres JSON ;

le contenu et la longueur maximale des chaînes JSON.

Ce module n'impose pas de telles limites si ce n'est celles inhérentes aux types de données Python ou à l'interpréteur.

Lors d'une sérialisation JSON, faites attention à ces limitations dans les applications qui utilisent votre JSON. En particulier, il est courant pour les nombres JSON d'être désérialisés vers des nombres IEEE 754 à précision double, et donc sujets à l'intervalle et aux limitations sur la précision de cette représentation. Cela est d'autant plus important lors de la sérialisation de grands int Python, ou d'instances de types numériques « exotiques » comme decimal.Decimal.

Command-line interface

Code source : Lib/json/tool.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/json/tool.py]

The json module can be invoked as a script via python -m json to validate and pretty-print JSON objects. The json.tool submodule implements this interface.

If the optional infile and outfile arguments are not specified, sys.stdin and sys.stdout will be used respectively:

$ echo '{"json": "obj"}' | python -m json
{
    "json": "obj"
}
$ echo '{1.2:3.4}' | python -m json
Expecting property name enclosed in double quotes: line 1 column 2 (char 1)

Modifié dans la version 3.5: La sortie conserve maintenant l'ordre des données de l'entrée. Utilisez l'option --sort-keys pour sortir des dictionnaires triés alphabétiquement par clés.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: The json module may now be directly executed as python -m json. For backwards compatibility, invoking the CLI as python -m json.tool remains supported.

Command-line options

infile

Le fichier JSON à valider ou réécrire élégamment :

$ python -m json mp_films.json
[
    {
        "title": "And Now for Something Completely Different",
        "year": 1971
    },
    {
        "title": "Monty Python and the Holy Grail",
        "year": 1975
    }
]

If infile is not specified, read from sys.stdin.

outfile

Write the output of the infile to the given outfile. Otherwise, write it to sys.stdout.

--sort-keys

Trie alphabétiquement les dictionnaires par clés.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

--no-ensure-ascii

Désactive l’échappement des caractères non ASCII, voir json.dumps() pour plus d'informations.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

--json-lines

Transforme chaque ligne d'entrée en un objet JSON individuel.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

--indent, --tab, --no-indent, --compact

Options mutuellement exclusives de contrôle des espaces.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

-h, --help

Affiche le message d'aide.

Notes

[1]

Comme noté dans l'errata de la RFC 7159 [https://www.rfc-editor.org/errata_search.php?rfc=7159], JSON autorise les caractères littéraux U+2028 (LINE SEPARATOR) et U+2029 (PARAGRAPH SEPARATOR) dans les chaînes de caractères, alors que Javascript (selon le standard ECMAScript édition 5.1) ne le permet pas.

mailbox --- Manipulate mailboxes in various formats

Code source : Lib/mailbox.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/mailbox.py]

This module defines two classes, Mailbox and Message, for accessing and manipulating on-disk mailboxes and the messages they contain. Mailbox offers a dictionary-like mapping from keys to messages. Message extends the email.message module's Message class with format-specific state and behavior. Supported mailbox formats are Maildir, mbox, MH, Babyl, and MMDF.

Voir aussi

Module email

Représente et manipule des messages.

Objets Mailbox

class mailbox.Mailbox

Une boîte mail, qui peut être inspectée et modifiée.

La classe Mailbox définit une interface et n'est pas destinée à être instanciée. Les sous-classes de format spécifique doivent plutôt hériter de Mailbox et votre code doit instancier une sous-classe particulière.

The Mailbox interface is dictionary-like, with small keys corresponding to messages. Keys are issued by the Mailbox instance with which they will be used and are only meaningful to that Mailbox instance. A key continues to identify a message even if the corresponding message is modified, such as by replacing it with another message.

Messages may be added to a Mailbox instance using the set-like method add() and removed using a del statement or the set-like methods remove() and discard().

Mailbox interface semantics differ from dictionary semantics in some noteworthy ways. Each time a message is requested, a new representation (typically a Message instance) is generated based upon the current state of the mailbox. Similarly, when a message is added to a Mailbox instance, the provided message representation's contents are copied. In neither case is a reference to the message representation kept by the Mailbox instance.

The default Mailbox iterator iterates over message representations, not keys as the default dictionary iterator does. Moreover, modification of a mailbox during iteration is safe and well-defined. Messages added to the mailbox after an iterator is created will not be seen by the iterator. Messages removed from the mailbox before the iterator yields them will be silently skipped, though using a key from an iterator may result in a KeyError exception if the corresponding message is subsequently removed.

Avertissement

Be very cautious when modifying mailboxes that might be simultaneously changed by some other process. The safest mailbox format to use for such tasks is Maildir; try to avoid using single-file formats such as mbox for concurrent writing. If you're modifying a mailbox, you must lock it by calling the lock() and unlock() methods before reading any messages in the file or making any changes by adding or deleting a message. Failing to lock the mailbox runs the risk of losing messages or corrupting the entire mailbox.

Les instances Mailbox contiennent les méthodes suivantes :

add(message)

Ajoute message à la boîte mail et renvoie la clé qui lui a été assigné.

Le paramètre message peut être une instance Message, une instance email.message.Message, une chaîne de caractères, une séquence d'octets ou un objet fichier-compatible (qui doit être ouvert en mode binaire). Si message est une instance de la sous-classe Message au format correspondant (par exemple s'il s'agit d'une instance mboxMessage et d'une instance mbox), les informations spécifiques à son format sont utilisées. Sinon, des valeurs par défaut raisonnables pour son format sont utilisées.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Ajout de la gestion des messages binaires.

remove(key)

__delitem__(key)

discard(key)

Supprime le message correspondant à key dans la boîte mail.

Si ce message n'existe pas, une exception KeyError est levée si la méthode a été appelée en tant que remove() ou __delitem__() ; mais aucune exception n'est levée si la méthode a été appelée en tant que discard(). Vous préférerez sûrement le comportement de discard() si le format de boîte mail sous-jacent accepte la modification concurrente par les autres processus.

__setitem__(key, message)

Remplace le message correspondant à key par message. Lève une exception KeyError s'il n'y a pas déjà de message correspondant à key.

Comme pour add(), le paramètre message peut être une instance Message, une instance email.message.Message, une chaîne de caractères, une chaîne d'octets ou un objet fichier-compatible (qui doit être ouvert en mode binaire). Si message est une instance de la sous-classe Message au format correspondant (par exemple s'il s'agit d'une instance mboxMessage et d'une instance mbox), les informations spécifiques à son format sont utilisées. Sinon, les informations spécifiques au format du message qui correspond à key ne sont modifiées.

iterkeys()

Return an iterator over all keys

keys()

The same as iterkeys(), except that a list is returned rather than an iterator

itervalues()

__iter__()

Return an iterator over representations of all messages. The messages are represented as instances of the appropriate format-specific Message subclass unless a custom message factory was specified when the Mailbox instance was initialized.

Note

Le comportement de __iter__() diffère de celui d'un dictionnaire, pour lequel l'itération se fait sur ses clés.

values()

The same as itervalues(), except that a list is returned rather than an iterator

iteritems()

Return an iterator over (key, message) pairs, where key is a key and message is a message representation. The messages are represented as instances of the appropriate format-specific Message subclass unless a custom message factory was specified when the Mailbox instance was initialized.

items()

The same as iteritems(), except that a list of pairs is returned rather than an iterator of pairs.

get(key, default=None)

__getitem__(key)

Return a representation of the message corresponding to key. If no such message exists, default is returned if the method was called as get() and a KeyError exception is raised if the method was called as __getitem__(). The message is represented as an instance of the appropriate format-specific Message subclass unless a custom message factory was specified when the Mailbox instance was initialized.

get_message(key)

Return a representation of the message corresponding to key as an instance of the appropriate format-specific Message subclass, or raise a KeyError exception if no such message exists.

get_bytes(key)

Return a byte representation of the message corresponding to key, or raise a KeyError exception if no such message exists.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

get_string(key)

Return a string representation of the message corresponding to key, or raise a KeyError exception if no such message exists. The message is processed through email.message.Message to convert it to a 7bit clean representation.

get_file(key)

Return a file-like representation of the message corresponding to key, or raise a KeyError exception if no such message exists. The file-like object behaves as if open in binary mode. This file should be closed once it is no longer needed.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: The file object really is a binary file; previously it was incorrectly returned in text mode. Also, the file-like object now supports the context manager protocol: you can use a with statement to automatically close it.

Note

Unlike other representations of messages, file-like representations are not necessarily independent of the Mailbox instance that created them or of the underlying mailbox. More specific documentation is provided by each subclass.

__contains__(key)

Return True if key corresponds to a message, False otherwise.

__len__()

Return a count of messages in the mailbox.

clear()

Supprime tous les messages de la boîte de courriel.

pop(key, default=None)

Return a representation of the message corresponding to key and delete the message. If no such message exists, return default. The message is represented as an instance of the appropriate format-specific Message subclass unless a custom message factory was specified when the Mailbox instance was initialized.

popitem()

Return an arbitrary (key, message) pair, where key is a key and message is a message representation, and delete the corresponding message. If the mailbox is empty, raise a KeyError exception. The message is represented as an instance of the appropriate format-specific Message subclass unless a custom message factory was specified when the Mailbox instance was initialized.

update(arg)

Parameter arg should be a key-to-message mapping or an iterable of (key, message) pairs. Updates the mailbox so that, for each given key and message, the message corresponding to key is set to message as if by using __setitem__(). As with __setitem__(), each key must already correspond to a message in the mailbox or else a KeyError exception will be raised, so in general it is incorrect for arg to be a Mailbox instance.

Note

Unlike with dictionaries, keyword arguments are not supported.

flush()

Write any pending changes to the filesystem. For some Mailbox subclasses, changes are always written immediately and flush() does nothing, but you should still make a habit of calling this method.

lock()

Acquire an exclusive advisory lock on the mailbox so that other processes know not to modify it. An ExternalClashError is raised if the lock is not available. The particular locking mechanisms used depend upon the mailbox format. You should always lock the mailbox before making any modifications to its contents.

unlock()

Release the lock on the mailbox, if any.

close()

Flush the mailbox, unlock it if necessary, and close any open files. For some Mailbox subclasses, this method does nothing.

Objets Maildir

class mailbox.Maildir(dirname, factory=None, create=True)

A subclass of Mailbox for mailboxes in Maildir format. Parameter factory is a callable object that accepts a file-like message representation (which behaves as if opened in binary mode) and returns a custom representation. If factory is None, MaildirMessage is used as the default message representation. If create is True, the mailbox is created if it does not exist.

If create is True and the dirname path exists, it will be treated as an existing maildir without attempting to verify its directory layout.

It is for historical reasons that dirname is named as such rather than path.

Maildir is a directory-based mailbox format invented for the qmail mail transfer agent and now widely supported by other programs. Messages in a Maildir mailbox are stored in separate files within a common directory structure. This design allows Maildir mailboxes to be accessed and modified by multiple unrelated programs without data corruption, so file locking is unnecessary.

Maildir mailboxes contain three subdirectories, namely: tmp, new, and cur. Messages are created momentarily in the tmp subdirectory and then moved to the new subdirectory to finalize delivery. A mail user agent may subsequently move the message to the cur subdirectory and store information about the state of the message in a special "info" section appended to its file name.

Folders of the style introduced by the Courier mail transfer agent are also supported. Any subdirectory of the main mailbox is considered a folder if '.' is the first character in its name. Folder names are represented by Maildir without the leading '.'. Each folder is itself a Maildir mailbox but should not contain other folders. Instead, a logical nesting is indicated using '.' to delimit levels, e.g., "Archived.2005.07".

colon

The Maildir specification requires the use of a colon (':') in certain message file names. However, some operating systems do not permit this character in file names, If you wish to use a Maildir-like format on such an operating system, you should specify another character to use instead. The exclamation point ('!') is a popular choice. For example:

import mailbox
mailbox.Maildir.colon = '!'

The colon attribute may also be set on a per-instance basis.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Maildir now ignores files with a leading dot.

Maildir instances have all of the methods of Mailbox in addition to the following:

list_folders()

Return a list of the names of all folders.

get_folder(folder)

Return a Maildir instance representing the folder whose name is folder. A NoSuchMailboxError exception is raised if the folder does not exist.

add_folder(folder)

Create a folder whose name is folder and return a Maildir instance representing it.

remove_folder(folder)

Delete the folder whose name is folder. If the folder contains any messages, a NotEmptyError exception will be raised and the folder will not be deleted.

clean()

Delete temporary files from the mailbox that have not been accessed in the last 36 hours. The Maildir specification says that mail-reading programs should do this occasionally.

get_flags(key)

Return as a string the flags that are set on the message corresponding to key. This is the same as get_message(key).get_flags() but much faster, because it does not open the message file. Use this method when iterating over the keys to determine which messages are interesting to get.

If you do have a MaildirMessage object, use its get_flags() method instead, because changes made by the message's set_flags(), add_flag() and remove_flag() methods are not reflected here until the mailbox's __setitem__() method is called.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

set_flags(key, flags)

On the message corresponding to key, set the flags specified by flags and unset all others. Calling some_mailbox.set_flags(key, flags) is similar to

one_message = some_mailbox.get_message(key)
one_message.set_flags(flags)
some_mailbox[key] = one_message

but faster, because it does not open the message file.

If you do have a MaildirMessage object, use its set_flags() method instead, because changes made with this mailbox method will not be visible to the message object's method, get_flags().

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

add_flag(key, flag)

On the message corresponding to key, set the flags specified by flag without changing other flags. To add more than one flag at a time, flag may be a string of more than one character.

Considerations for using this method versus the message object's add_flag() method are similar to those for set_flags(); see the discussion there.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

remove_flag(key, flag)

On the message corresponding to key, unset the flags specified by flag without changing other flags. To remove more than one flag at a time, flag may be a string of more than one character.

Considerations for using this method versus the message object's remove_flag() method are similar to those for set_flags(); see the discussion there.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

get_info(key)

Return a string containing the info for the message corresponding to key. This is the same as get_message(key).get_info() but much faster, because it does not open the message file. Use this method when iterating over the keys to determine which messages are interesting to get.

If you do have a MaildirMessage object, use its get_info() method instead, because changes made by the message's set_info() method are not reflected here until the mailbox's __setitem__() method is called.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

set_info(key, info)

Set the info of the message corresponding to key to info. Calling some_mailbox.set_info(key, flags) is similar to

one_message = some_mailbox.get_message(key)
one_message.set_info(info)
some_mailbox[key] = one_message

but faster, because it does not open the message file.

If you do have a MaildirMessage object, use its set_info() method instead, because changes made with this mailbox method will not be visible to the message object's method, get_info().

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Some Mailbox methods implemented by Maildir deserve special remarks:

add(message)

__setitem__(key, message)

update(arg)

Avertissement

These methods generate unique file names based upon the current process ID. When using multiple threads, undetected name clashes may occur and cause corruption of the mailbox unless threads are coordinated to avoid using these methods to manipulate the same mailbox simultaneously.

flush()

All changes to Maildir mailboxes are immediately applied, so this method does nothing.

lock()

unlock()

Maildir mailboxes do not support (or require) locking, so these methods do nothing.

close()

Maildir instances do not keep any open files and the underlying mailboxes do not support locking, so this method does nothing.

get_file(key)

Depending upon the host platform, it may not be possible to modify or remove the underlying message while the returned file remains open.

Voir aussi

maildir man page from Courier [https://www.courier-mta.org/maildir.html]

A specification of the format. Describes a common extension for supporting folders.

Using maildir format [https://cr.yp.to/proto/maildir.html]

Notes on Maildir by its inventor. Includes an updated name-creation scheme and details on "info" semantics.

Objets mbox

class mailbox.mbox(path, factory=None, create=True)

A subclass of Mailbox for mailboxes in mbox format. Parameter factory is a callable object that accepts a file-like message representation (which behaves as if opened in binary mode) and returns a custom representation. If factory is None, mboxMessage is used as the default message representation. If create is True, the mailbox is created if it does not exist.

The mbox format is the classic format for storing mail on Unix systems. All messages in an mbox mailbox are stored in a single file with the beginning of each message indicated by a line whose first five characters are "From ".

Several variations of the mbox format exist to address perceived shortcomings in the original. In the interest of compatibility, mbox implements the original format, which is sometimes referred to as mboxo. This means that the Content-Length header, if present, is ignored and that any occurrences of "From " at the beginning of a line in a message body are transformed to ">From " when storing the message, although occurrences of ">From " are not transformed to "From " when reading the message.

Some Mailbox methods implemented by mbox deserve special remarks:

get_bytes(key, from_=False)

Note: This method has an extra parameter (from_) compared with other classes. The first line of an mbox file entry is the Unix "From " line. If from_ is False, the first line of the file is dropped.

get_file(key, from_=False)

Using the file after calling flush() or close() on the mbox instance may yield unpredictable results or raise an exception.

Note: This method has an extra parameter (from_) compared with other classes. The first line of an mbox file entry is the Unix "From " line. If from_ is False, the first line of the file is dropped.

get_string(key, from_=False)

Note: This method has an extra parameter (from_) compared with other classes. The first line of an mbox file entry is the Unix "From " line. If from_ is False, the first line of the file is dropped.

lock()

unlock()

Three locking mechanisms are used---dot locking and, if available, the flock() and lockf() system calls.

Voir aussi

mbox man page from tin [http://www.tin.org/bin/man.cgi?section=5&topic=mbox]

A specification of the format, with details on locking.

Configuring Netscape Mail on Unix: Why The Content-Length Format is Bad [https://www.jwz.org/doc/content-length.html]

An argument for using the original mbox format rather than a variation.

"mbox" is a family of several mutually incompatible mailbox formats [https://www.loc.gov/preservation/digital/formats/fdd/fdd000383.shtml]

A history of mbox variations.

Objets MH

class mailbox.MH(path, factory=None, create=True)

A subclass of Mailbox for mailboxes in MH format. Parameter factory is a callable object that accepts a file-like message representation (which behaves as if opened in binary mode) and returns a custom representation. If factory is None, MHMessage is used as the default message representation. If create is True, the mailbox is created if it does not exist.

MH is a directory-based mailbox format invented for the MH Message Handling System, a mail user agent. Each message in an MH mailbox resides in its own file. An MH mailbox may contain other MH mailboxes (called folders) in addition to messages. Folders may be nested indefinitely. MH mailboxes also support sequences, which are named lists used to logically group messages without moving them to sub-folders. Sequences are defined in a file called .mh_sequences in each folder.

The MH class manipulates MH mailboxes, but it does not attempt to emulate all of mh's behaviors. In particular, it does not modify and is not affected by the context or .mh_profile files that are used by mh to store its state and configuration.

MH instances have all of the methods of Mailbox in addition to the following:

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Supported folders that don't contain a .mh_sequences file.

list_folders()

Return a list of the names of all folders.

get_folder(folder)

Return an MH instance representing the folder whose name is folder. A NoSuchMailboxError exception is raised if the folder does not exist.

add_folder(folder)

Create a folder whose name is folder and return an MH instance representing it.

remove_folder(folder)

Delete the folder whose name is folder. If the folder contains any messages, a NotEmptyError exception will be raised and the folder will not be deleted.

get_sequences()

Return a dictionary of sequence names mapped to key lists. If there are no sequences, the empty dictionary is returned.

set_sequences(sequences)

Re-define the sequences that exist in the mailbox based upon sequences, a dictionary of names mapped to key lists, like returned by get_sequences().

pack()

Rename messages in the mailbox as necessary to eliminate gaps in numbering. Entries in the sequences list are updated correspondingly.

Note

Already-issued keys are invalidated by this operation and should not be subsequently used.

Some Mailbox methods implemented by MH deserve special remarks:

remove(key)

__delitem__(key)

discard(key)

These methods immediately delete the message. The MH convention of marking a message for deletion by prepending a comma to its name is not used.

lock()

unlock()

Three locking mechanisms are used---dot locking and, if available, the flock() and lockf() system calls. For MH mailboxes, locking the mailbox means locking the .mh_sequences file and, only for the duration of any operations that affect them, locking individual message files.

get_file(key)

Depending upon the host platform, it may not be possible to remove the underlying message while the returned file remains open.

flush()

All changes to MH mailboxes are immediately applied, so this method does nothing.

close()

MH instances do not keep any open files, so this method is equivalent to unlock().

Voir aussi

nmh - Message Handling System [https://www.nongnu.org/nmh/]

Home page of nmh, an updated version of the original mh.

MH & nmh: Email for Users & Programmers [https://rand-mh.sourceforge.io/book/]

A GPL-licensed book on mh and nmh, with some information on the mailbox format.

Objets Babyl

class mailbox.Babyl(path, factory=None, create=True)

A subclass of Mailbox for mailboxes in Babyl format. Parameter factory is a callable object that accepts a file-like message representation (which behaves as if opened in binary mode) and returns a custom representation. If factory is None, BabylMessage is used as the default message representation. If create is True, the mailbox is created if it does not exist.

Babyl is a single-file mailbox format used by the Rmail mail user agent included with Emacs. The beginning of a message is indicated by a line containing the two characters Control-Underscore ('\037') and Control-L ('\014'). The end of a message is indicated by the start of the next message or, in the case of the last message, a line containing a Control-Underscore ('\037') character.

Messages in a Babyl mailbox have two sets of headers, original headers and so-called visible headers. Visible headers are typically a subset of the original headers that have been reformatted or abridged to be more attractive. Each message in a Babyl mailbox also has an accompanying list of labels, or short strings that record extra information about the message, and a list of all user-defined labels found in the mailbox is kept in the Babyl options section.

Babyl instances have all of the methods of Mailbox in addition to the following:

get_labels()

Return a list of the names of all user-defined labels used in the mailbox.

Note

The actual messages are inspected to determine which labels exist in the mailbox rather than consulting the list of labels in the Babyl options section, but the Babyl section is updated whenever the mailbox is modified.

Some Mailbox methods implemented by Babyl deserve special remarks:

get_file(key)

In Babyl mailboxes, the headers of a message are not stored contiguously with the body of the message. To generate a file-like representation, the headers and body are copied together into an io.BytesIO instance, which has an API identical to that of a file. As a result, the file-like object is truly independent of the underlying mailbox but does not save memory compared to a string representation.

lock()

unlock()

Three locking mechanisms are used---dot locking and, if available, the flock() and lockf() system calls.

Voir aussi

Format of Version 5 Babyl Files [https://quimby.gnus.org/notes/BABYL]

A specification of the Babyl format.

Reading Mail with Rmail [https://www.gnu.org/software/emacs/manual/html_node/emacs/Rmail.html]

The Rmail manual, with some information on Babyl semantics.

Objets MMDF

class mailbox.MMDF(path, factory=None, create=True)

A subclass of Mailbox for mailboxes in MMDF format. Parameter factory is a callable object that accepts a file-like message representation (which behaves as if opened in binary mode) and returns a custom representation. If factory is None, MMDFMessage is used as the default message representation. If create is True, the mailbox is created if it does not exist.

MMDF is a single-file mailbox format invented for the Multichannel Memorandum Distribution Facility, a mail transfer agent. Each message is in the same form as an mbox message but is bracketed before and after by lines containing four Control-A ('\001') characters. As with the mbox format, the beginning of each message is indicated by a line whose first five characters are "From ", but additional occurrences of "From " are not transformed to ">From " when storing messages because the extra message separator lines prevent mistaking such occurrences for the starts of subsequent messages.

Some Mailbox methods implemented by MMDF deserve special remarks:

get_bytes(key, from_=False)

Note: This method has an extra parameter (from_) compared with other classes. The first line of an mbox file entry is the Unix "From " line. If from_ is False, the first line of the file is dropped.

get_file(key, from_=False)

Using the file after calling flush() or close() on the MMDF instance may yield unpredictable results or raise an exception.

Note: This method has an extra parameter (from_) compared with other classes. The first line of an mbox file entry is the Unix "From " line. If from_ is False, the first line of the file is dropped.

lock()

unlock()

Three locking mechanisms are used---dot locking and, if available, the flock() and lockf() system calls.

Voir aussi

mmdf man page from tin [http://www.tin.org/bin/man.cgi?section=5&topic=mmdf]

A specification of MMDF format from the documentation of tin, a newsreader.

MMDF [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MMDF]

A Wikipedia article describing the Multichannel Memorandum Distribution Facility.

Objets Message

class mailbox.Message(message=None)

A subclass of the email.message module's Message. Subclasses of mailbox.Message add mailbox-format-specific state and behavior.

If message is omitted, the new instance is created in a default, empty state. If message is an email.message.Message instance, its contents are copied; furthermore, any format-specific information is converted insofar as possible if message is a Message instance. If message is a string, a byte string, or a file, it should contain an RFC 5322 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html]-compliant message, which is read and parsed. Files should be open in binary mode, but text mode files are accepted for backward compatibility.

The format-specific state and behaviors offered by subclasses vary, but in general it is only the properties that are not specific to a particular mailbox that are supported (although presumably the properties are specific to a particular mailbox format). For example, file offsets for single-file mailbox formats and file names for directory-based mailbox formats are not retained, because they are only applicable to the original mailbox. But state such as whether a message has been read by the user or marked as important is retained, because it applies to the message itself.

There is no requirement that Message instances be used to represent messages retrieved using Mailbox instances. In some situations, the time and memory required to generate Message representations might not be acceptable. For such situations, Mailbox instances also offer string and file-like representations, and a custom message factory may be specified when a Mailbox instance is initialized.

MaildirMessage objects

class mailbox.MaildirMessage(message=None)

A message with Maildir-specific behaviors. Parameter message has the same meaning as with the Message constructor.

Typically, a mail user agent application moves all of the messages in the new subdirectory to the cur subdirectory after the first time the user opens and closes the mailbox, recording that the messages are old whether or not they've actually been read. Each message in cur has an "info" section added to its file name to store information about its state. (Some mail readers may also add an "info" section to messages in new.) The "info" section may take one of two forms: it may contain "2," followed by a list of standardized flags (e.g., "2,FR") or it may contain "1," followed by so-called experimental information. Standard flags for Maildir messages are as follows:

Option

Signification

Explication

D

Draft

Under composition

F

Flagged

Marked as important

P

Passed

Forwarded, resent, or bounced

R

Replied

Replied to

S

Seen

Read

T

Trashed

Marked for subsequent deletion

MaildirMessage instances offer the following methods:

get_subdir()

Return either "new" (if the message should be stored in the new subdirectory) or "cur" (if the message should be stored in the cur subdirectory).

Note

A message is typically moved from new to cur after its mailbox has been accessed, whether or not the message has been read. A message msg has been read if "S" in msg.get_flags() is True.

set_subdir(subdir)

Set the subdirectory the message should be stored in. Parameter subdir must be either "new" or "cur".

get_flags()

Return a string specifying the flags that are currently set. If the message complies with the standard Maildir format, the result is the concatenation in alphabetical order of zero or one occurrence of each of 'D', 'F', 'P', 'R', 'S', and 'T'. The empty string is returned if no flags are set or if "info" contains experimental semantics.

set_flags(flags)

Set the flags specified by flags and unset all others.

add_flag(flag)

Set the flag(s) specified by flag without changing other flags. To add more than one flag at a time, flag may be a string of more than one character. The current "info" is overwritten whether or not it contains experimental information rather than flags.

remove_flag(flag)

Unset the flag(s) specified by flag without changing other flags. To remove more than one flag at a time, flag may be a string of more than one character. If "info" contains experimental information rather than flags, the current "info" is not modified.

get_date()

Return the delivery date of the message as a floating-point number representing seconds since the epoch.

set_date(date)

Set the delivery date of the message to date, a floating-point number representing seconds since the epoch.

get_info()

Return a string containing the "info" for a message. This is useful for accessing and modifying "info" that is experimental (i.e., not a list of flags).

set_info(info)

Set "info" to info, which should be a string.

When a MaildirMessage instance is created based upon an mboxMessage or MMDFMessage instance, the Status and X-Status headers are omitted and the following conversions take place:

Resulting state

mboxMessage or MMDFMessage state

"cur" subdirectory

O flag

F flag

F flag

R flag

A flag

S flag

R flag

T flag

D flag

When a MaildirMessage instance is created based upon an MHMessage instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state

MHMessage state

"cur" subdirectory

"unseen" sequence

"cur" subdirectory and S flag

no "unseen" sequence

F flag

"flagged" sequence

R flag

"replied" sequence

When a MaildirMessage instance is created based upon a BabylMessage instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state

BabylMessage state

"cur" subdirectory

"unseen" label

"cur" subdirectory and S flag

no "unseen" label

P flag

"forwarded" or "resent" label

R flag

"answered" label

T flag

"deleted" label

mboxMessage objects

class mailbox.mboxMessage(message=None)

A message with mbox-specific behaviors. Parameter message has the same meaning as with the Message constructor.

Messages in an mbox mailbox are stored together in a single file. The sender's envelope address and the time of delivery are typically stored in a line beginning with "From " that is used to indicate the start of a message, though there is considerable variation in the exact format of this data among mbox implementations. Flags that indicate the state of the message, such as whether it has been read or marked as important, are typically stored in Status and X-Status headers.

Conventional flags for mbox messages are as follows:

Option

Signification

Explication

R

Read

Read

O

Old

Previously detected by MUA

D

Deleted

Marked for subsequent deletion

F

Flagged

Marked as important

A

Answered

Replied to

The "R" and "O" flags are stored in the Status header, and the "D", "F", and "A" flags are stored in the X-Status header. The flags and headers typically appear in the order mentioned.

mboxMessage instances offer the following methods:

get_from()

Return a string representing the "From " line that marks the start of the message in an mbox mailbox. The leading "From " and the trailing newline are excluded.

set_from(from_, time_=None)

Set the "From " line to from_, which should be specified without a leading "From " or trailing newline. For convenience, time_ may be specified and will be formatted appropriately and appended to from_. If time_ is specified, it should be a time.struct_time instance, a tuple suitable for passing to time.strftime(), or True (to use time.gmtime()).

get_flags()

Return a string specifying the flags that are currently set. If the message complies with the conventional format, the result is the concatenation in the following order of zero or one occurrence of each of 'R', 'O', 'D', 'F', and 'A'.

set_flags(flags)

Set the flags specified by flags and unset all others. Parameter flags should be the concatenation in any order of zero or more occurrences of each of 'R', 'O', 'D', 'F', and 'A'.

add_flag(flag)

Set the flag(s) specified by flag without changing other flags. To add more than one flag at a time, flag may be a string of more than one character.

remove_flag(flag)

Unset the flag(s) specified by flag without changing other flags. To remove more than one flag at a time, flag may be a string of more than one character.

When an mboxMessage instance is created based upon a MaildirMessage instance, a "From " line is generated based upon the MaildirMessage instance's delivery date, and the following conversions take place:

Resulting state

MaildirMessage state

R flag

S flag

O flag

"cur" subdirectory

D flag

T flag

F flag

F flag

A flag

R flag

When an mboxMessage instance is created based upon an MHMessage instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state

MHMessage state

R flag and O flag

no "unseen" sequence

O flag

"unseen" sequence

F flag

"flagged" sequence

A flag

"replied" sequence

When an mboxMessage instance is created based upon a BabylMessage instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state

BabylMessage state

R flag and O flag

no "unseen" label

O flag

"unseen" label

D flag

"deleted" label

A flag

"answered" label

When a mboxMessage instance is created based upon an MMDFMessage instance, the "From " line is copied and all flags directly correspond:

Resulting state

MMDFMessage state

R flag

R flag

O flag

O flag

D flag

D flag

F flag

F flag

A flag

A flag

MHMessage objects

class mailbox.MHMessage(message=None)

A message with MH-specific behaviors. Parameter message has the same meaning as with the Message constructor.

MH messages do not support marks or flags in the traditional sense, but they do support sequences, which are logical groupings of arbitrary messages. Some mail reading programs (although not the standard mh and nmh) use sequences in much the same way flags are used with other formats, as follows:

Séquence

Explication

unseen

Not read, but previously detected by MUA

replied

Replied to

flagged

Marked as important

MHMessage instances offer the following methods:

get_sequences()

Return a list of the names of sequences that include this message.

set_sequences(sequences)

Set the list of sequences that include this message.

add_sequence(sequence)

Add sequence to the list of sequences that include this message.

remove_sequence(sequence)

Remove sequence from the list of sequences that include this message.

When an MHMessage instance is created based upon a MaildirMessage instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state

MaildirMessage state

"unseen" sequence

no S flag

"replied" sequence

R flag

"flagged" sequence

F flag

When an MHMessage instance is created based upon an mboxMessage or MMDFMessage instance, the Status and X-Status headers are omitted and the following conversions take place:

Resulting state

mboxMessage or MMDFMessage state

"unseen" sequence

no R flag

"replied" sequence

A flag

"flagged" sequence

F flag

When an MHMessage instance is created based upon a BabylMessage instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state

BabylMessage state

"unseen" sequence

"unseen" label

"replied" sequence

"answered" label

BabylMessage objects

class mailbox.BabylMessage(message=None)

A message with Babyl-specific behaviors. Parameter message has the same meaning as with the Message constructor.

Certain message labels, called attributes, are defined by convention to have special meanings. The attributes are as follows:

Label

Explication

unseen

Not read, but previously detected by MUA

deleted

Marked for subsequent deletion

filed

Copied to another file or mailbox

answered

Replied to

forwarded

Forwarded

edited

Modified by the user

resent

Resent

By default, Rmail displays only visible headers. The BabylMessage class, though, uses the original headers because they are more complete. Visible headers may be accessed explicitly if desired.

BabylMessage instances offer the following methods:

get_labels()

Return a list of labels on the message.

set_labels(labels)

Set the list of labels on the message to labels.

add_label(label)

Add label to the list of labels on the message.

remove_label(label)

Remove label from the list of labels on the message.

get_visible()

Return a Message instance whose headers are the message's visible headers and whose body is empty.

set_visible(visible)

Set the message's visible headers to be the same as the headers in message. Parameter visible should be a Message instance, an email.message.Message instance, a string, or a file-like object (which should be open in text mode).

update_visible()

When a BabylMessage instance's original headers are modified, the visible headers are not automatically modified to correspond. This method updates the visible headers as follows: each visible header with a corresponding original header is set to the value of the original header, each visible header without a corresponding original header is removed, and any of Date, From, Reply-To, To, CC, and Subject that are present in the original headers but not the visible headers are added to the visible headers.

When a BabylMessage instance is created based upon a MaildirMessage instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state

MaildirMessage state

"unseen" label

no S flag

"deleted" label

T flag

"answered" label

R flag

"forwarded" label

P flag

When a BabylMessage instance is created based upon an mboxMessage or MMDFMessage instance, the Status and X-Status headers are omitted and the following conversions take place:

Resulting state

mboxMessage or MMDFMessage state

"unseen" label

no R flag

"deleted" label

D flag

"answered" label

A flag

When a BabylMessage instance is created based upon an MHMessage instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state

MHMessage state

"unseen" label

"unseen" sequence

"answered" label

"replied" sequence

MMDFMessage objects

class mailbox.MMDFMessage(message=None)

Un message avec des comportements spécifiques à MMDF. Le paramètre message a le même sens que pour le constructeur de Message.

Comme pour le message d'une boîte de courriel mbox, les messages MMDF sont stockés avec l'adresse de l'expéditeur et la date d'expédition dans la ligne initiale commençant avec « From ». De même, les options indiquant l'état du message sont stockées dans les en-têtes Status et X-Status.

Les options conventionnelles des messages MMDF sont identiques à celles de message mbox et sont les suivantes :

Option

Signification

Explication

R

Read

Read

O

Old

Previously detected by MUA

D

Deleted

Marked for subsequent deletion

F

Flagged

Marked as important

A

Answered

Replied to

The "R" and "O" flags are stored in the Status header, and the "D", "F", and "A" flags are stored in the X-Status header. The flags and headers typically appear in the order mentioned.

MMDFMessage instances offer the following methods, which are identical to those offered by mboxMessage:

get_from()

Return a string representing the "From " line that marks the start of the message in an mbox mailbox. The leading "From " and the trailing newline are excluded.

set_from(from_, time_=None)

Set the "From " line to from_, which should be specified without a leading "From " or trailing newline. For convenience, time_ may be specified and will be formatted appropriately and appended to from_. If time_ is specified, it should be a time.struct_time instance, a tuple suitable for passing to time.strftime(), or True (to use time.gmtime()).

get_flags()

Return a string specifying the flags that are currently set. If the message complies with the conventional format, the result is the concatenation in the following order of zero or one occurrence of each of 'R', 'O', 'D', 'F', and 'A'.

set_flags(flags)

Set the flags specified by flags and unset all others. Parameter flags should be the concatenation in any order of zero or more occurrences of each of 'R', 'O', 'D', 'F', and 'A'.

add_flag(flag)

Set the flag(s) specified by flag without changing other flags. To add more than one flag at a time, flag may be a string of more than one character.

remove_flag(flag)

Unset the flag(s) specified by flag without changing other flags. To remove more than one flag at a time, flag may be a string of more than one character.

When an MMDFMessage instance is created based upon a MaildirMessage instance, a "From " line is generated based upon the MaildirMessage instance's delivery date, and the following conversions take place:

Resulting state

MaildirMessage state

R flag

S flag

O flag

"cur" subdirectory

D flag

T flag

F flag

F flag

A flag

R flag

When an MMDFMessage instance is created based upon an MHMessage instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state

MHMessage state

R flag and O flag

no "unseen" sequence

O flag

"unseen" sequence

F flag

"flagged" sequence

A flag

"replied" sequence

When an MMDFMessage instance is created based upon a BabylMessage instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state

BabylMessage state

R flag and O flag

no "unseen" label

O flag

"unseen" label

D flag

"deleted" label

A flag

"answered" label

When an MMDFMessage instance is created based upon an mboxMessage instance, the "From " line is copied and all flags directly correspond:

Resulting state

état de mboxMessage

R flag

R flag

O flag

O flag

D flag

D flag

F flag

F flag

A flag

A flag

Exceptions

The following exception classes are defined in the mailbox module:

exception mailbox.Error

The base class for all other module-specific exceptions.

exception mailbox.NoSuchMailboxError

Levée lorsqu'une boîte de courriel est attendue mais introuvable, comme quand on instancie une sous-classe Mailbox avec un chemin qui n'existe pas (et avec le paramètre create fixé à False), ou quand on ouvre un répertoire qui n'existe pas.

exception mailbox.NotEmptyError

Levée lorsqu'une boîte de courriel n'est pas vide mais devrait l'être, comme lorsqu'on supprime un répertoire contenant des messages.

exception mailbox.ExternalClashError

Raised when some mailbox-related condition beyond the control of the program causes it to be unable to proceed, such as when failing to acquire a lock that another program already holds, or when a uniquely generated file name already exists.

exception mailbox.FormatError

Levée lorsque la donnée dans le fichier ne peut être analysée, comme lorsque l'instance de MH tente de lire un fichier .mh_sequences corrompu.

Exemples

Un exemple simple d'affichage de l'objet, qui semble pertinent, de tous les messages d'une boîte de courriel :

import mailbox
for message in mailbox.mbox('~/mbox'):
    subject = message['subject']       # Could possibly be None.
    if subject and 'python' in subject.lower():
        print(subject)

Cet exemple copie tout le courriel d'une boite de courriel au format Babyl vers une boite de courriel au format MH, convertissant toute l'information qu'il est possible de convertir du premier format vers le second :

import mailbox
destination = mailbox.MH('~/Mail')
destination.lock()
for message in mailbox.Babyl('~/RMAIL'):
    destination.add(mailbox.MHMessage(message))
destination.flush()
destination.unlock()

Cet exemple trie le courriel en provenance de plusieurs listes de diffusion vers différentes boîtes de courriel, tout en évitant une corruption à cause de modifications concurrentielles par d'autres programmes, une perte due à une interruption du programme ou un arrêt prématuré causé par des messages mal structurés :

import mailbox
import email.errors

list_names = ('python-list', 'python-dev', 'python-bugs')

boxes = {name: mailbox.mbox('~/email/%s' % name) for name in list_names}
inbox = mailbox.Maildir('~/Maildir', factory=None)

for key in inbox.iterkeys():
    try:
        message = inbox[key]
    except email.errors.MessageParseError:
        continue                # The message is malformed. Just leave it.

    for name in list_names:
        list_id = message['list-id']
        if list_id and name in list_id:
            # Get mailbox to use
            box = boxes[name]

            # Write copy to disk before removing original.
            # If there's a crash, you might duplicate a message, but
            # that's better than losing a message completely.
            box.lock()
            box.add(message)
            box.flush()
            box.unlock()

            # Remove original message
            inbox.lock()
            inbox.discard(key)
            inbox.flush()
            inbox.unlock()
            break               # Found destination, so stop looking.

for box in boxes.itervalues():
    box.close()

mimetypes --- Map filenames to MIME types

Source code: Lib/mimetypes.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/mimetypes.py]

The mimetypes module converts between a filename or URL and the MIME type associated with the filename extension. Conversions are provided from filename to MIME type and from MIME type to filename extension; encodings are not supported for the latter conversion.

The module provides one class and a number of convenience functions. The functions are the normal interface to this module, but some applications may be interested in the class as well.

The functions described below provide the primary interface for this module. If the module has not been initialized, they will call init() if they rely on the information init() sets up.

mimetypes.guess_type(url, strict=True)

Guess the type of a file based on its filename, path or URL, given by url. URL can be a string or a path-like object.

The return value is a tuple (type, encoding) where type is None if the type can't be guessed (missing or unknown suffix) or a string of the form 'type/subtype', usable for a MIME content-type header.

encoding is None for no encoding or the name of the program used to encode (e.g. compress or gzip). The encoding is suitable for use as a Content-Encoding header, not as a Content-Transfer-Encoding header. The mappings are table driven. Encoding suffixes are case sensitive; type suffixes are first tried case sensitively, then case insensitively.

The optional strict argument is a flag specifying whether the list of known MIME types is limited to only the official types registered with IANA [https://www.iana.org/assignments/media-types/media-types.xhtml]. However, the behavior of this module also depends on the underlying operating system. Only file types recognized by the OS or explicitly registered with Python's internal database can be identified. When strict is True (the default), only the IANA types are supported; when strict is False, some additional non-standard but commonly used MIME types are also recognized.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added support for url being a path-like object.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.13: Passing a file path instead of URL is soft deprecated. Use guess_file_type() for this.

mimetypes.guess_file_type(path, *, strict=True)

Guess the type of a file based on its path, given by path. Similar to the guess_type() function, but accepts a path instead of URL. Path can be a string, a bytes object or a path-like object.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

mimetypes.guess_all_extensions(type, strict=True)

Guess the extensions for a file based on its MIME type, given by type. The return value is a list of strings giving all possible filename extensions, including the leading dot ('.'). The extensions are not guaranteed to have been associated with any particular data stream, but would be mapped to the MIME type type by guess_type() and guess_file_type().

The optional strict argument has the same meaning as with the guess_type() function.

mimetypes.guess_extension(type, strict=True)

Guess the extension for a file based on its MIME type, given by type. The return value is a string giving a filename extension, including the leading dot ('.'). The extension is not guaranteed to have been associated with any particular data stream, but would be mapped to the MIME type type by guess_type() and guess_file_type(). If no extension can be guessed for type, None is returned.

The optional strict argument has the same meaning as with the guess_type() function.

Some additional functions and data items are available for controlling the behavior of the module.

mimetypes.init(files=None)

Initialize the internal data structures. If given, files must be a sequence of file names which should be used to augment the default type map. If omitted, the file names to use are taken from knownfiles; on Windows, the current registry settings are loaded. Each file named in files or knownfiles takes precedence over those named before it. Calling init() repeatedly is allowed.

Specifying an empty list for files will prevent the system defaults from being applied: only the well-known values will be present from a built-in list.

If files is None the internal data structure is completely rebuilt to its initial default value. This is a stable operation and will produce the same results when called multiple times.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Previously, Windows registry settings were ignored.

mimetypes.read_mime_types(filename)

Load the type map given in the file filename, if it exists. The type map is returned as a dictionary mapping filename extensions, including the leading dot ('.'), to strings of the form 'type/subtype'. If the file filename does not exist or cannot be read, None is returned.

mimetypes.add_type(type, ext, strict=True)

Add a mapping from the MIME type type to the extension ext. When the extension is already known, the new type will replace the old one. When the type is already known the extension will be added to the list of known extensions.

When strict is True (the default), the mapping will be added to the official MIME types, otherwise to the non-standard ones.

mimetypes.inited

Flag indicating whether or not the global data structures have been initialized. This is set to True by init().

mimetypes.knownfiles

List of type map file names commonly installed. These files are typically named mime.types and are installed in different locations by different packages.

mimetypes.suffix_map

Dictionary mapping suffixes to suffixes. This is used to allow recognition of encoded files for which the encoding and the type are indicated by the same extension. For example, the .tgz extension is mapped to .tar.gz to allow the encoding and type to be recognized separately.

mimetypes.encodings_map

Dictionary mapping filename extensions to encoding types.

mimetypes.types_map

Dictionary mapping filename extensions to MIME types.

mimetypes.common_types

Dictionary mapping filename extensions to non-standard, but commonly found MIME types.

Un exemple d'utilisation du module :

>>> import mimetypes
>>> mimetypes.init()
>>> mimetypes.knownfiles
['/etc/mime.types', '/etc/httpd/mime.types', ... ]
>>> mimetypes.suffix_map['.tgz']
'.tar.gz'
>>> mimetypes.encodings_map['.gz']
'gzip'
>>> mimetypes.types_map['.tgz']
'application/x-tar-gz'

MimeTypes objects

The MimeTypes class may be useful for applications which may want more than one MIME-type database; it provides an interface similar to the one of the mimetypes module.

class mimetypes.MimeTypes(filenames=(), strict=True)

This class represents a MIME-types database. By default, it provides access to the same database as the rest of this module. The initial database is a copy of that provided by the module, and may be extended by loading additional mime.types-style files into the database using the read() or readfp() methods. The mapping dictionaries may also be cleared before loading additional data if the default data is not desired.

The optional filenames parameter can be used to cause additional files to be loaded "on top" of the default database.

suffix_map

Dictionary mapping suffixes to suffixes. This is used to allow recognition of encoded files for which the encoding and the type are indicated by the same extension. For example, the .tgz extension is mapped to .tar.gz to allow the encoding and type to be recognized separately. This is initially a copy of the global suffix_map defined in the module.

encodings_map

Dictionary mapping filename extensions to encoding types. This is initially a copy of the global encodings_map defined in the module.

types_map

Tuple containing two dictionaries, mapping filename extensions to MIME types: the first dictionary is for the non-standards types and the second one is for the standard types. They are initialized by common_types and types_map.

types_map_inv

Tuple containing two dictionaries, mapping MIME types to a list of filename extensions: the first dictionary is for the non-standards types and the second one is for the standard types. They are initialized by common_types and types_map.

guess_extension(type, strict=True)

Similar to the guess_extension() function, using the tables stored as part of the object.

guess_type(url, strict=True)

Similar to the guess_type() function, using the tables stored as part of the object.

guess_file_type(path, *, strict=True)

Similar to the guess_file_type() function, using the tables stored as part of the object.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

guess_all_extensions(type, strict=True)

Similar to the guess_all_extensions() function, using the tables stored as part of the object.

read(filename, strict=True)

Load MIME information from a file named filename. This uses readfp() to parse the file.

If strict is True, information will be added to list of standard types, else to the list of non-standard types.

readfp(fp, strict=True)

Load MIME type information from an open file fp. The file must have the format of the standard mime.types files.

If strict is True, information will be added to the list of standard types, else to the list of non-standard types.

read_windows_registry(strict=True)

Load MIME type information from the Windows registry.

Disponibilité: Windows.

If strict is True, information will be added to the list of standard types, else to the list of non-standard types.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

add_type(type, ext, strict=True)

Add a mapping from the MIME type type to the extension ext. Valid extensions start with a '.' or are empty. When the extension is already known, the new type will replace the old one. When the type is already known the extension will be added to the list of known extensions.

When strict is True (the default), the mapping will be added to the official MIME types, otherwise to the non-standard ones.

Deprecated since version 3.14, will be removed in version 3.16: Invalid, undotted extensions will raise a ValueError in Python 3.16.

Command-line usage

The mimetypes module can be executed as a script from the command line.

python -m mimetypes [-h] [-e] [-l] type [type ...]

Les options suivantes sont acceptées :

-h

--help

Affiche un message d'aide et quitte.

-e

--extension

Guess extension instead of type.

-l

--lenient

Additionally search for some common, but non-standard types.

By default the script converts MIME types to file extensions. However, if --extension is specified, it converts file extensions to MIME types.

For each type entry, the script writes a line into the standard output stream. If an unknown type occurs, it writes an error message into the standard error stream and exits with the return code 1.

Command-line example

Here are some examples of typical usage of the mimetypes command-line interface:

$ # get a MIME type by a file name
$ python -m mimetypes filename.png
type: image/png encoding: None

$ # get a MIME type by a URL
$ python -m mimetypes https://example.com/filename.txt
type: text/plain encoding: None

$ # get a complex MIME type
$ python -m mimetypes filename.tar.gz
type: application/x-tar encoding: gzip

$ # get a MIME type for a rare file extension
$ python -m mimetypes filename.pict
error: unknown extension of filename.pict

$ # now look in the extended database built into Python
$ python -m mimetypes --lenient filename.pict
type: image/pict encoding: None

$ # get a file extension by a MIME type
$ python -m mimetypes --extension text/javascript
.js

$ # get a file extension by a rare MIME type
$ python -m mimetypes --extension text/xul
error: unknown type text/xul

$ # now look in the extended database again
$ python -m mimetypes --extension --lenient text/xul
.xul

$ # try to feed an unknown file extension
$ python -m mimetypes filename.sh filename.nc filename.xxx filename.txt
type: application/x-sh encoding: None
type: application/x-netcdf encoding: None
error: unknown extension of filename.xxx

$ # try to feed an unknown MIME type
$ python -m mimetypes --extension audio/aac audio/opus audio/future audio/x-wav
.aac
.opus
error: unknown type audio/future

base64 --- Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 Data Encodings

Code source : Lib/base64.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/base64.py]

This module provides functions for encoding binary data to printable ASCII characters and decoding such encodings back to binary data. This includes the encodings specified in RFC 4648 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html] (Base64, Base32 and Base16) and the non-standard Base85 encodings.

There are two interfaces provided by this module. The modern interface supports encoding bytes-like objects to ASCII bytes, and decoding bytes-like objects or strings containing ASCII to bytes. Both base-64 alphabets defined in RFC 4648 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html] (normal, and URL- and filesystem-safe) are supported.

The legacy interface does not support decoding from strings, but it does provide functions for encoding and decoding to and from file objects. It only supports the Base64 standard alphabet, and it adds newlines every 76 characters as per RFC 2045 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html]. Note that if you are looking for RFC 2045 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html] support you probably want to be looking at the email package instead.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Les chaînes de caractères Unicode contenant uniquement des caractères ASCII sont désormais acceptées par les fonctions de décodage de l'interface moderne.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Tous les objets octet-compatibles sont désormais acceptés par l'ensemble des fonctions d'encodage et de décodage de ce module. La gestion de Ascii85/base85 a été ajoutée.

RFC 4648 Encodings

The RFC 4648 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html] encodings are suitable for encoding binary data so that it can be safely sent by email, used as parts of URLs, or included as part of an HTTP POST request.

base64.b64encode(s, altchars=None)

Encode un objet octet-compatible s en utilisant l'algorithme base64 et renvoie les bytes encodés.

Optional altchars must be a bytes-like object of length 2 which specifies an alternative alphabet for the + and / characters. This allows an application to e.g. generate URL or filesystem safe Base64 strings. The default is None, for which the standard Base64 alphabet is used.

May assert or raise a ValueError if the length of altchars is not 2. Raises a TypeError if altchars is not a bytes-like object.

base64.b64decode(s, altchars=None, validate=False)

Décode un objet octet-compatible ou une chaîne de caractères ASCII s encodée en base64 et renvoie les bytes décodés.

Optional altchars must be a bytes-like object or ASCII string of length 2 which specifies the alternative alphabet used instead of the + and / characters.

Une exception binascii.Error est levée si s n'est pas remplie à une longueur attendue.

Si validate est False (par défaut), les caractères qui ne sont ni dans l'alphabet base64 normal, ni dans l'alphabet alternatif, sont ignorés avant la vérification de la longueur du remplissage. Si validate est True, les caractères hors de l'alphabet de l'entrée produisent une binascii.Error.

For more information about the strict base64 check, see binascii.a2b_base64()

May assert or raise a ValueError if the length of altchars is not 2.

base64.standard_b64encode(s)

Encode un objet octet-compatible s en utilisant l'alphabet standard base64 et renvoie les bytes encodés.

base64.standard_b64decode(s)

Décode un objet octet-compatible ou une chaîne de caractères ASCII s utilisant l'alphabet base64 standard et renvoie les bytes décodés.

base64.urlsafe_b64encode(s)

Encode un objet byte-compatible s en utilisant un alphabet sûr pour les URL et systèmes de fichiers qui substitue - et _ à + et / dans l'alphabet standard base64 et renvoie les bytes encodés.

base64.urlsafe_b64decode(s)

Décode un objet octet-compatible ou une chaîne de caractères ASCII s utilisant un alphabet sûr pour les URL et systèmes de fichiers qui substitue - et _ à + et / dans l'alphabet standard base64 et renvoie les bytes décodés.

base64.b32encode(s)

Encode un objet byte-compatible s en utilisant l'algorithme base32 et renvoie les bytes encodés.

base64.b32decode(s, casefold=False, map01=None)

Décode un objet octet-compatible ou une chaîne de caractères ASCII s encodé en base32 et renvoie les bytes décodés.

L'option casefold est un drapeau spécifiant si l'utilisation d'un alphabet en minuscules est acceptable comme entrée. Pour des raisons de sécurité, cette option est à False par défaut.

RFC 4648 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html] allows for optional mapping of the digit 0 (zero) to the letter O (oh), and for optional mapping of the digit 1 (one) to either the letter I (eye) or letter L (el). The optional argument map01 when not None, specifies which letter the digit 1 should be mapped to (when map01 is not None, the digit 0 is always mapped to the letter O). For security purposes the default is None, so that 0 and 1 are not allowed in the input.

Une exception binascii.Error est levée si s n'est pas remplie à une longueur attendue ou si elle contient des caractères hors de l'alphabet.

base64.b32hexencode(s)

Similar to b32encode() but uses the Extended Hex Alphabet, as defined in RFC 4648 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html].

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

base64.b32hexdecode(s, casefold=False)

Similar to b32decode() but uses the Extended Hex Alphabet, as defined in RFC 4648 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html].

This version does not allow the digit 0 (zero) to the letter O (oh) and digit 1 (one) to either the letter I (eye) or letter L (el) mappings, all these characters are included in the Extended Hex Alphabet and are not interchangeable.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

base64.b16encode(s)

Encode un objet byte-compatible s en utilisant l'algorithme base16 et renvoie les bytes encodés.

base64.b16decode(s, casefold=False)

Décode un objet octet-compatible ou une chaîne de caractères ASCII s encodé en base16 et renvoie les bytes décodés.

L'option casefold est un drapeau spécifiant si l'utilisation d'un alphabet en minuscules est acceptable comme entrée. Pour des raisons de sécurité, cette option est à False par défaut.

Une exception binascii.Error est levée si s n'est pas remplie à une longueur attendue ou si elle contient des caractères hors de l'alphabet.

Base85 Encodings

Base85 encoding is not formally specified but rather a de facto standard, thus different systems perform the encoding differently.

The a85encode() and b85encode() functions in this module are two implementations of the de facto standard. You should call the function with the Base85 implementation used by the software you intend to work with.

The two functions present in this module differ in how they handle the following:

Whether to include enclosing <~ and ~> markers

Whether to include newline characters

The set of ASCII characters used for encoding

Handling of null bytes

Refer to the documentation of the individual functions for more information.

base64.a85encode(b, *, foldspaces=False, wrapcol=0, pad=False, adobe=False)

Encode un objet byte-compatible s en utilisant l'algorithme Ascii85 et renvoie les bytes encodés.

L'option foldspaces permet d'utiliser la séquence spéciale 'y' à la place de quatre espaces consécutives (ASCII 0x20) comme pris en charge par btoa. Cette fonctionnalité n'est pas gérée par l'encodage « standard » Ascii85.

wrapcol controls whether the output should have newline (b'\n') characters added to it. If this is non-zero, each output line will be at most this many characters long, excluding the trailing newline.

pad spécifie l'ajout de caractères de remplissage (padding en anglais) à l'entrée jusqu'à ce que sa longueur soit un multiple de 4 avant encodage. Notez que l'implémentation btoa effectue systématiquement ce remplissage.

adobe contrôle si oui ou non la séquence encodée d'octets est encadrée par <~ et ~> comme utilisé dans l'implémentation Adobe.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

base64.a85decode(b, *, foldspaces=False, adobe=False, ignorechars=b' \t\n\r\x0b')

Décode un objet octet-compatible ou une chaîne de caractères ASCII s encodé en Ascii85 et renvoie les bytes décodés.

L'option foldspaces permet d'utiliser la séquence spéciale 'y' à la place de quatre espaces consécutives (ASCII 0x20) comme pris en charge par btoa. Cette fonctionnalité n'est pas gérée par l'encodage « standard » Ascii85.

adobe indique si la séquence d'entrée utilise le format Adobe Ascii85 (c'est-à-dire utilise l'encadrement par <~ et ~>).

ignorechars should be a byte string containing characters to ignore from the input. This should only contain whitespace characters, and by default contains all whitespace characters in ASCII.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

base64.b85encode(b, pad=False)

Encode un objet byte-compatible s en utilisant l'algorithme base85 (tel qu'utilisé par exemple par le programme git-diff sur des données binaires) et renvoie les bytes encodés.

Si pad est vrai, des caractères de remplissage b'\0' (padding en anglais) sont ajoutés à l'entrée jusqu'à ce que sa longueur soit un multiple de 4 octets avant encodage.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

base64.b85decode(b)

Décode un objet octet-compatible ou une chaîne de caractères ASCII b encodé en base85 et renvoie les bytes décodés. Les caractères de remplissage sont implicitement retirés si nécessaire.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

base64.z85encode(s)

Encode the bytes-like object s using Z85 (as used in ZeroMQ) and return the encoded bytes. See Z85 specification [https://rfc.zeromq.org/spec/32/] for more information.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

base64.z85decode(s)

Decode the Z85-encoded bytes-like object or ASCII string s and return the decoded bytes. See Z85 specification [https://rfc.zeromq.org/spec/32/] for more information.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Legacy Interface

base64.decode(input, output)

Décode le contenu d'un fichier binaire input et écrit les données binaires résultantes dans le fichier output. input et output doivent être des objets fichiers. input est lu jusqu'à ce que input.readline() renvoie un objet bytes vide.

base64.decodebytes(s)

Décode un objet octet-compatible s devant contenir une ou plusieurs lignes de données encodées en base64 et renvoie les bytes décodés.

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

base64.encode(input, output)

Encode le contenu du fichier binaire input et écrit les données encodées en base64 résultantes dans le fichier output. *input et output doivent être des objets fichiers. input est lu jusqu'à ce que input.readline() renvoie un objet bytes vide. encode() insère un caractère de saut de ligne (b'\n') tous les 76 octets de sortie et assure que celle-ci se termine par une nouvelle ligne, comme spécifié par la RFC 2045 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html] (MIME).

base64.encodebytes(s)

Encode un objet octet-compatible s pouvant contenir des données binaires arbitraires et renvoie les bytes contenant les données encodées en base64. Un caractère de saut de ligne (b'\n') est inséré tous les 76 octets de sortie et celle-ci se termine par une nouvelle ligne, comme spécifié par la RFC 2045 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html] (MIME).

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

Un exemple d'utilisation du module :

>>> import base64
>>> encoded = base64.b64encode(b'data to be encoded')
>>> encoded
b'ZGF0YSB0byBiZSBlbmNvZGVk'
>>> data = base64.b64decode(encoded)
>>> data
b'data to be encoded'

Considérations de sécurité

A new security considerations section was added to RFC 4648 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html] (section 12); it's recommended to review the security section for any code deployed to production.

Voir aussi

Module binascii

Module secondaire contenant les conversions ASCII vers binaire et binaire vers ASCII.

RFC 1521 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1521.html] — MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) Part One: Mechanisms for Specifying and Describing the Format of Internet Message Bodies

La Section 5.2, "Base64 Content-Transfer-Encoding", donne la définition de l'encodage base64.

binascii --- Convert between binary and ASCII

The binascii module contains a number of methods to convert between binary and various ASCII-encoded binary representations. Normally, you will not use these functions directly but use wrapper modules like base64 instead. The binascii module contains low-level functions written in C for greater speed that are used by the higher-level modules.

Note

La fonction a2b_* accepte des chaînes de caractères contenant seulement des caractères ASCII. D’autres fonctions acceptent seulement des objets bytes et similaire (tel que bytes, bytearray et autres objets qui supportent le protocole tampon).

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Les chaines de caractères unicode seulement composées de caractères ASCII sont désormais acceptées par les fonctions a2b_*.

The binascii module defines the following functions:

binascii.a2b_uu(string)

Convertit une seule ligne de donnée uuencoded en binaire et renvoie la donnée binaire. Les lignes contiennent normalement 45 octets (binaire), sauf pour la dernière ligne. Il se peut que la ligne de donnée soit suivie d’un espace blanc.

binascii.b2a_uu(data, *, backtick=False)

Convertit les données binaires en une ligne de caractères ASCII, la valeur renvoyée est la ligne convertie incluant un caractère de nouvelle ligne. La longueur de data doit être au maximum de 45. Si backtick est vraie, les zéros sont représentés par '`' plutôt que par des espaces.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Ajout du paramètre backtick.

binascii.a2b_base64(string, /, *, strict_mode=False)

Convertit un bloc de donnée en base64 en binaire et renvoie la donnée binaire. Plus d’une ligne peut être passé à la fois.

If strict_mode is true, only valid base64 data will be converted. Invalid base64 data will raise binascii.Error.

Valid base64:

Conforms to RFC 3548 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3548.html].

Contains only characters from the base64 alphabet.

Contains no excess data after padding (including excess padding, newlines, etc.).

Does not start with a padding.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added the strict_mode parameter.

binascii.b2a_base64(data, *, newline=True)

Convertit les données binaires en une ligne de caractères ASCII en codage base 64. La valeur de renvoyée et la ligne convertie, incluant un caractère de nouvelle ligne si newline est vraie. La sortie de cette fonction se conforme à RFC 3548 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3548.html].

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Ajout du paramètre newline.

binascii.a2b_qp(data, header=False)

Convertit un bloc de données quoted-printable en binaire et renvoie les données binaires. Plus d’une ligne peut être passée à la fois. Si l’argument optionnel header est présent et vrai, les traits soulignés seront décodés en espaces.

binascii.b2a_qp(data, quotetabs=False, istext=True, header=False)

Convertit les données binaires en ligne(s) de caractères ASCII en codage imprimable entre guillemets. La valeur de retour est lales lignes(s) convertie(s). Si l’argument optionnel quotetabs est présent et vrai, toutes les tabulations et espaces seront encodés. Si l’argument optionnel istext est présent et faux, les nouvelles lignes ne sont pas encodées mais les espaces de fin de ligne le seront. Si l’argument optionnel header est présent et vrai, les espaces vont être encodés comme de traits soulignés selon RFC 1522 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1522.html]. Si l’argument optionnel header est présent et faux, les caractères de nouvelle ligne seront également encodés ; sinon la conversion de saut de ligne pourrait corrompre le flux de données binaire.

binascii.crc_hqx(data, value)

Calcule une valeur en CRC 16-bit de data, commençant par value comme CRC initial et renvoie le résultat. Ceci utilise le CRC-CCITT polynomial x¹⁶ + x¹² + x⁵ + 1, souvent représenté comme 0x1021. Ce CRC est utilisé dans le format binhex4.

binascii.crc32(data[, value])

Compute CRC-32, the unsigned 32-bit checksum of data, starting with an initial CRC of value. The default initial CRC is zero. The algorithm is consistent with the ZIP file checksum. Since the algorithm is designed for use as a checksum algorithm, it is not suitable for use as a general hash algorithm. Use as follows:

print(binascii.crc32(b"hello world"))
# Or, in two pieces:
crc = binascii.crc32(b"hello")
crc = binascii.crc32(b" world", crc)
print('crc32 = {:#010x}'.format(crc))

Modifié dans la version 3.0: Renvoie une valeur non-signée.

binascii.b2a_hex(data[, sep[, bytes_per_sep=1]])

binascii.hexlify(data[, sep[, bytes_per_sep=1]])

Renvoie la représentation hexadécimale du binaire data. Chaque octet de data est converti en la représentation 2 chiffres correspondante. L’objet octets renvoyé est donc deux fois plus long que la longueur de data.

Fonctionnalité similaire est également commodément accessible en utilisant la méthode bytes.hex().

Si sep est spécifié, il doit s'agir d'une chaîne de caractères ou d'un objet byte. Il sera inséré dans la sortie tous les bytes_per_sep octets. Par défaut, l'emplacement du séparateur est compté à partir de l'extrémité droite de la sortie. Si vous souhaitez compter à partir de la gauche, indiquez une valeur bytes_per_sep négative.

>>> import binascii
>>> binascii.b2a_hex(b'\xb9\x01\xef')
b'b901ef'
>>> binascii.hexlify(b'\xb9\x01\xef', '-')
b'b9-01-ef'
>>> binascii.b2a_hex(b'\xb9\x01\xef', b'_', 2)
b'b9_01ef'
>>> binascii.b2a_hex(b'\xb9\x01\xef', b' ', -2)
b'b901 ef'

Modifié dans la version 3.8: ajout des paramètres sep et bytes_per_sep.

binascii.a2b_hex(hexstr)

binascii.unhexlify(hexstr)

Renvoie la donnée binaire représentée par la chaîne de caractères hexadécimale hexstr. Cette fonction est l’inverse de b2a_hex(). hexstr doit contenir un nombre pair de chiffres hexadécimaux (qui peuvent être en majuscule ou minuscule), sinon une exception Error est levée.

Une fonctionnalité similaire (n’acceptant que les arguments de chaîne de texte, mais plus libérale vis-à-vis des espaces blancs) est également accessible en utilisant la méthode de classe bytes.fromhex().

exception binascii.Error

Exception levée en cas d'erreurs. Ce sont typiquement des erreurs de programmation.

exception binascii.Incomplete

Exception levée par des données incomplète. Il ne s’agit généralement pas d’erreurs de programmation, mais elles peuvent être traitées en lisant un peu plus de données et en réessayant.

Voir aussi

Module base64

Support de l’encodage base64-style conforme RFC en base 16, 32, 64 et 85.

Module quopri

Support de l’encodage quote-printable utilisé par les messages email MIME.

quopri --- Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data

Code source : Lib/quopri.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/quopri.py]

Ce module effectue des encodages et décodages de transport quoted-printable, tel que définis dans la RFC 1521 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1521.html] : "MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) Part One Mechanisms for Specifying and Describing the Format of Internet Message Bodies". L'encodage quoted-printable est adapté aux données dans lesquelles peu de données ne sont pas affichables. L'encodage base64 disponible dans le module base64 est plus compact dans les cas où ces caractères sont nombreux, typiquement pour encoder des images.

quopri.decode(input, output, header=False)

Décode le contenu du fichier input et écrit le résultat décodé, binaire, dans le fichier output. input et output doivent être des objets fichiers binaires. Si l'argument facultatif header est fourni et vrai, les underscore seront décodés en espaces. C'est utilisé pour décoder des entêtes encodées "Q" décrits dans la RFC RFC 1522 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1522.html] : "MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) Part Two: Message Header Extensions for Non-ASCII Text".

quopri.encode(input, output, quotetabs, header=False)

Encode le contenu du fichier input et écrit le résultat dans le fichier output. input et output doivent être des objets fichiers binaires. quotetabs (paramètre obligatoire) permet de choisir le style d'encodage des espaces et des tabulations, si vrai les espaces seront encodées, sinon elles seront laissées inchangées. Notez que les espaces et tabulations en fin de ligne sont toujours encodées, tel que spécifié par la RFC 1521 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1521.html]. header est une option permettant d'encoder les espace en underscores, tel que spécifié par la RFC 1522 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1522.html].

quopri.decodestring(s, header=False)

Fonctionne comme decode(), sauf qu'elle accepte des bytes comme source, et renvoie les bytes décodés correspondants.

quopri.encodestring(s, quotetabs=False, header=False)

Fonctionne comme encode(), sauf qu'elle accepte des bytes comme source et renvoie les bytes encodés correspondants. Par défaut, False est donné au paramètre quotetabs de la fonction encode().

Voir aussi

Module base64

Encode et décode des données MIME en base64

Outils de traitement de balises structurées

Python intègre une variété de modules pour fonctionner avec différentes formes de données structurées et balisées, comme le SGML (Standard Generalized Markup Language), le HTML (Hypert Markup Language), et quelques interfaces pour travailler avec du XML (eXtensible Markup Language).

html --- HyperText Markup Language support

html.parser --- Simple HTML and XHTML parser

Exemple d'application de l'analyseur HTML

Méthodes de la classe HTMLParser

Exemples

html.entities --- Definitions of HTML general entities

Modules de traitement XML

XML security

xml.etree.ElementTree --- The ElementTree XML API

Tutoriel

Arborescence et éléments XML

Analyse XML

API à flux tiré

Atteinte d'éléments d'intérêt

Modification d'un fichier XML

Création de documents XML

Analyse d'un XML avec des espaces de noms

Prise en charge de XPath

Exemple

Prise en charge de la syntaxe XPath

Référence

Fonctions

Prise en charge de XInclude

Exemple

Référence

Fonctions

Objets Element

Objets ElementTree

Objets QName

Objets TreeBuilder

Objets XMLParser

Objets XMLPullParser

Exceptions

xml.dom --- The Document Object Model API

Contenu du module

Objets dans le DOM

Objets DOMImplementation

Objets nœuds

Objet NodeList

Objets DocumnentType

Objets Document

Objets Elements

Objets Attr

Objets NameNodeMap

Objets Comment

Objets Text et CDATASection

Objets ProcessingInstruction

Exceptions

Conformité

Correspondance des types

Méthodes d'accès

xml.dom.minidom --- Minimal DOM implementation

Objets DOM

Exemple DOM

minidom et le standard DOM

xml.dom.pulldom --- Support for building partial DOM trees

Objets DOMEventStream

xml.sax --- Support for SAX2 parsers

Les objets SAXException

xml.sax.handler --- Base classes for SAX handlers

Objets ContentHandler

Objets DTDHandler

Objets EntityResolver

Objets ErrorHandler

Objets LexicalHandler

xml.sax.saxutils --- SAX Utilities

xml.sax.xmlreader — Interface pour les parseurs XML

Objets XMLReader

Objets IncrementalParser

Objets de localisation

Objets InputSource

L'interface Attributes

L'interface AttributesNS

xml.parsers.expat — Analyse XML rapide utilisant Expat

Objets XMLParser

Exceptions ExpatError

Exemple

Descriptions des modèles de contenu

Constantes d’erreur Expat

html --- HyperText Markup Language support

Source code: Lib/html/__init__.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/html/__init__.py]

Ce module définit des outils permettant la manipulation d'HTML.

html.escape(s, quote=True)

Convert the characters &, < and > in string s to HTML-safe sequences. Use this if you need to display text that might contain such characters in HTML. If the optional flag quote is true (the default), the characters (") and (') are also translated; this helps for inclusion in an HTML attribute value delimited by quotes, as in <a href="...">. If quote is set to false, the characters (") and (') are not translated.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

html.unescape(s)

Convertit toutes les références de caractères nommés et numériques (e.g. &gt;, &#62;, &#x3e;) dans la chaîne de caractères s par les caractères Unicode correspondants. Cette fonction utilise les règles définies par le standard HTML 5 à la fois pour les caractères valides et les caractères invalides, et la liste des références des caractères nommés en HTML 5.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Les sous-modules dans le paquet html sont :

html.parser -- Parseur HTML/XHTML avec un mode de parsing tolérant

html.entities -- Définitions d'entités HTML

html.parser --- Simple HTML and XHTML parser

Code source : Lib/html/parser.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/html/parser.py]

Ce module définit une classe HTMLParser qui sert de base pour l'analyse syntaxique de fichiers texte formatés HTML (HyperText Mark-up Language, le « langage de balisage hypertexte ») et XHTML (EXtensible HyperText Markup Language, le « langage extensible de balisage hypertexte »).

class html.parser.HTMLParser(*, convert_charrefs=True, scripting=False)

Crée une instance d'analyseur capable de traiter tout balisage, même invalide.

If convert_charrefs is true (the default), all character references (except the ones in elements like script and style) are automatically converted to the corresponding Unicode characters.

If scripting is false (the default), the content of the noscript element is parsed normally; if it's true, it's returned as is without being parsed.

Une instance de HTMLParser est alimentée par des données HTML. Elle fait appel à des méthodes offrant un traitement spécifique quand est rencontré un élément de balisage : balise ouvrante ou fermante, textes, commentaires… Pour implémenter le comportement désiré, l'utilisateur crée une sous-classe de HTMLParser en surchargeant ses méthodes.

Cet analyseur ne vérifie ni que les balises fermantes correspondent aux balises ouvrantes, ni n'invoque le gestionnaire de balises fermantes pour les éléments implicitement fermés par un élément extérieur.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: L'argument convert_charrefs a été ajouté.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: La valeur par défaut de l'argument convert_charrefs est désormais True.

Modifié dans la version 3.14.1: Added the scripting parameter.

Exemple d'application de l'analyseur HTML

As a basic example, below is a simple HTML parser that uses the HTMLParser class to print out start tags, end tags, and data as they are encountered:

from html.parser import HTMLParser

class MyHTMLParser(HTMLParser):
    def handle_starttag(self, tag, attrs):
        print("Encountered a start tag:", tag)

    def handle_endtag(self, tag):
        print("Encountered an end tag :", tag)

    def handle_data(self, data):
        print("Encountered some data  :", data)

parser = MyHTMLParser()
parser.feed('<html><head><title>Test</title></head>'
            '<body><h1>Parse me!</h1></body></html>')

La sortie est alors :

Encountered a start tag: html
Encountered a start tag: head
Encountered a start tag: title
Encountered some data  : Test
Encountered an end tag : title
Encountered an end tag : head
Encountered a start tag: body
Encountered a start tag: h1
Encountered some data  : Parse me!
Encountered an end tag : h1
Encountered an end tag : body
Encountered an end tag : html

Méthodes de la classe HTMLParser

Les instances de HTMLParser disposent des méthodes suivantes :

HTMLParser.feed(data)

Alimente l'analyseur avec du texte. Ce texte est traité dans la mesure où il constitue des éléments complets ; les données incomplètes sont mises dans un tampon jusqu'à ce que d'autres données soient fournies ou que la méthode close() soit appelée. L'argument data doit être de classe str.

HTMLParser.close()

Force le traitement de toutes les données du tampon comme si elles étaient suivies par un caractère fin de fichier. Cette méthode peut-être redéfinie par une classe dérivée pour ajouter des traitements supplémentaires à la fin de l'entrée, mais la version redéfinie devra impérativement appeler la méthode close() de la classe de base HTMLParser.

HTMLParser.reset()

Réinitialise l'instance. Toutes les données non traitées sont perdues. Cette méthode est appelée implicitement lors de l'instanciation.

HTMLParser.getpos()

Renvoie le numéro de ligne et le numéro du caractère dans la ligne où le curseur est positionné.

HTMLParser.get_starttag_text()

Return the text of the most recently opened start tag. This should not normally be needed for structured processing, but may be useful in dealing with HTML "as deployed" or for re-generating input with minimal changes (whitespace between attributes can be preserved, etc.).

Les méthodes suivantes sont appelées lors de la rencontre de données ou d'éléments de balisage ; elles sont destinées à être surchargées par la sous-classe. L'implémentation de la classe de base ne fait rien (sauf pour ce qui est de handle_startendtag()) :

HTMLParser.handle_starttag(tag, attrs)

Cette méthode est appelée pour traiter une balise ouvrante (p. ex. <div id="main">).

L'argument tag contient le nom de la balise en minuscules. L'argument attrs contient une liste de n-uplets (name, value) regroupant les attributs présents entre les symboles < et > de la balise. Le paramètre name est converti en minuscule ; les guillemets sont supprimés du paramètre value et toute entité de référence ou de caractère est remplacée.

Par exemple, pour la balise <A HREF="https://www.cwi.nl/">, cette méthode est appelée par handle_starttag('a', [('href', 'https://www.cwi.nl/')]).

Toute référence d'entité présente dans html.entities est remplacée dans la valeur des attributs.

HTMLParser.handle_endtag(tag)

Cette méthode est appelée pour traiter les balises fermantes (p. ex. </div>).

L'argument tag est le nom de la balise en minuscules.

HTMLParser.handle_startendtag(tag, attrs)

Traitée de façon similaire à handle_starttag(), mais appelée quand l'analyseur rencontre une balise vide de type XHTML (p. ex. <img ... />). Cette méthode peut-être surchargée par les sous-classes demandant cette information lexicale ; l'implémentation par défaut appelle simplement handle_starttag() et handle_endtag().

HTMLParser.handle_data(data)

This method is called to process arbitrary data (e.g. text nodes and the content of elements like script and style).

HTMLParser.handle_entityref(name)

This method is called to process a named character reference of the form &name; (e.g. &gt;), where name is a general entity reference (e.g. 'gt'). This method is only called if convert_charrefs is false.

HTMLParser.handle_charref(name)

This method is called to process decimal and hexadecimal numeric character references of the form &#NNN; and &#xNNN;. For example, the decimal equivalent for &gt; is &#62;, whereas the hexadecimal is &#x3E;; in this case the method will receive '62' or 'x3E'. This method is only called if convert_charrefs is false.

HTMLParser.handle_comment(data)

Cette méthode est appelée quand un commentaire (p. ex. <!--commentaire-->) est rencontré.

Par exemple, le commentaire <!-- commentaire --> provoque l'appel de cette méthode avec l'argument ' commentaire '.

Le contenu des commentaires conditionnels d'Internet Explorer (condcoms) ne sont pas traités de manière particulière par l'analyseur. Ils sont passés à cette méthode comme tous les autres commentaires. Ainsi, pour <!--[if IE 9]>Contenu spécifique à IE9<![endif]-->, cette méthode sera appelée avec '[if IE 9]>Contenu spécifique à IE9<![endif]'.

HTMLParser.handle_decl(decl)

Cette méthode est appelée pour traiter la déclaration doctype de HTML (p. ex. <!DOCTYPE html>).

Le paramètre decl contient la totalité de la déclaration contenue dans le balisage <!...> (p. ex. 'DOCTYPE html').

HTMLParser.handle_pi(data)

Méthode appelée quand une instruction de traitement est rencontrée. Le paramètre data contient la totalité de l'instruction de traitement. Par exemple, pour l'instruction de traitement <?proc color='rouge'>, cette méthode est appelée par handle_pi("proc color='rouge'"). Elle est destinée à être surchargée dans une classe dérivée ; la classe de base ne réalise aucun traitement.

Note

La classe HTMLParser utilise les règles syntaxiques de SGML pour traiter les instructions de traitement. Une instruction de traitement XHTML utilisant une terminaison en '?' se traduit par l'inclusion de ce '?' dans data.

HTMLParser.unknown_decl(data)

Cette méthode est appelée quand une déclaration non reconnue est lue par l'analyseur.

Le paramètre data contient toute la déclaration enchâssée dans le balisage <![...]>. Il est parfois utile de le surcharger dans une classe dérivée. L'implémentation de la classe de base ne réalise aucune opération.

Exemples

The following class implements a parser that will be used to illustrate more examples:

from html.parser import HTMLParser
from html.entities import name2codepoint

class MyHTMLParser(HTMLParser):
    def handle_starttag(self, tag, attrs):
        print("Start tag:", tag)
        for attr in attrs:
            print("     attr:", attr)

    def handle_endtag(self, tag):
        print("End tag  :", tag)

    def handle_data(self, data):
        print("Data     :", data)

    def handle_comment(self, data):
        print("Comment  :", data)

    def handle_entityref(self, name):
        c = chr(name2codepoint[name])
        print("Named ent:", c)

    def handle_charref(self, name):
        if name.startswith('x'):
            c = chr(int(name[1:], 16))
        else:
            c = chr(int(name))
        print("Num ent  :", c)

    def handle_decl(self, data):
        print("Decl     :", data)

parser = MyHTMLParser()

Parsing a doctype:

>>> parser.feed('<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN" '
...             '"http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd">')
Decl     : DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd"

Parsing an element with a few attributes and a title:

>>> parser.feed('<img src="python-logo.png" alt="The Python logo">')
Start tag: img
     attr: ('src', 'python-logo.png')
     attr: ('alt', 'The Python logo')
>>>
>>> parser.feed('<h1>Python</h1>')
Start tag: h1
Data     : Python
End tag  : h1

The content of elements like script and style is returned as is, without further parsing:

>>> parser.feed('<style type="text/css">#python { color: green }</style>')
Start tag: style
     attr: ('type', 'text/css')
Data     : #python { color: green }
End tag  : style

>>> parser.feed('<script type="text/javascript">'
...             'alert("<strong>hello! &#9786;</strong>");</script>')
Start tag: script
     attr: ('type', 'text/javascript')
Data     : alert("<strong>hello! &#9786;</strong>");
End tag  : script

Parsing comments:

>>> parser.feed('<!--a comment-->'
...             '<!--[if IE 9]>IE-specific content<![endif]-->')
Comment  : a comment
Comment  : [if IE 9]>IE-specific content<![endif]

Parsing named and numeric character references and converting them to the correct char (note: these 3 references are all equivalent to '>'):

>>> parser = MyHTMLParser()
>>> parser.feed('&gt;&#62;&#x3E;')
Data     : >>>

>>> parser = MyHTMLParser(convert_charrefs=False)
>>> parser.feed('&gt;&#62;&#x3E;')
Named ent: >
Num ent  : >
Num ent  : >

Feeding incomplete chunks to feed() works, but handle_data() might be called more than once if convert_charrefs is false:

>>> for chunk in ['<sp', 'an>buff', 'ered', ' text</s', 'pan>']:
...     parser.feed(chunk)
...
Start tag: span
Data     : buff
Data     : ered
Data     :  text
End tag  : span

Parsing invalid HTML (e.g. unquoted attributes) also works:

>>> parser.feed('<p><a class=link href=#main>tag soup</p ></a>')
Start tag: p
Start tag: a
     attr: ('class', 'link')
     attr: ('href', '#main')
Data     : tag soup
End tag  : p
End tag  : a

html.entities --- Definitions of HTML general entities

Source code: Lib/html/entities.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/html/entities.py]

Ce module définit quatre dictionnaires, html5, name2codepoint, codepoint2name, et entitydefs.

html.entities.html5

Un dictionnaire qui fait correspondre les références de caractères nommés HTML5 [1] aux caractères Unicode équivalents, e.g. html5['gt;'] == '>'. À noter que le point-virgule en fin de chaîne est inclus dans le nom (e.g. 'gt;'), toutefois certains noms sont acceptés par le standard même sans le point-virgule: dans ce cas, le nom est présent à la fois avec et sans le ;. Voir aussi html.unescape().

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

html.entities.entitydefs

Un dictionnaire qui fait correspondre les définitions d'entités XHTML 1.0 avec leur remplacement en ISO Latin-1.

html.entities.name2codepoint

A dictionary that maps HTML4 entity names to the Unicode code points.

html.entities.codepoint2name

A dictionary that maps Unicode code points to HTML4 entity names.

Notes

[1]

See https://html.spec.whatwg.org/multipage/named-characters.html#named-character-references

Modules de traitement XML

Code source: Lib/xml/ [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/xml/]

Les interfaces de Python de traitement de XML sont regroupées dans le paquet xml.

Note

If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data, see XML security.

It is important to note that modules in the xml package require that there be at least one SAX-compliant XML parser available. The Expat parser is included with Python, so the xml.parsers.expat module will always be available.

La documentation des interfaces vers DOM et SAX se trouve dans xml.dom et xml.sax.

Les sous-modules de traitement XML sont :

xml.etree.ElementTree : l'API ElementTree, un processeur simple et léger

xml.dom : la définition de l'API DOM

xml.dom.minidom : une implémentation minimale de DOM

xml.dom.pulldom : gestion de la construction partielle des arbres DOM

xml.sax : classes mères SAX2 et fonctions utilitaires

xml.parsers.expat : l'interface de l'analyseur Expat

XML security

An attacker can abuse XML features to carry out denial of service attacks, access local files, generate network connections to other machines, or circumvent firewalls when attacker-controlled XML is being parsed, in Python or elsewhere.

The built-in XML parsers of Python rely on the library libexpat [https://github.com/libexpat/libexpat], commonly called Expat, for parsing XML.

By default, Expat itself does not access local files or create network connections.

Expat versions lower than 2.7.2 may be vulnerable to the "billion laughs", "quadratic blowup" and "large tokens" vulnerabilities, or to disproportional use of dynamic memory. Python bundles a copy of Expat, and whether Python uses the bundled or a system-wide Expat, depends on how the Python interpreter has been configured in your environment. Python may be vulnerable if it uses such older versions of Expat. Check pyexpat.EXPAT_VERSION.

xmlrpc is vulnerable to the "decompression bomb" attack.

billion laughs / exponential entity expansion

L'attaque Billion Laughs [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billion_laughs] – aussi connue comme exponential entity expansion – utilise de multiples niveaux d'entités imbriquées. Chaque entité se réfère à une autre entité de multiple fois. L'entité finale contient une chaîne courte. Le résultat de l'expansion exponentielle génère plusieurs gigaoctets de texte et consomme beaucoup de mémoire et de temps processeur.

quadratic blowup entity expansion

Une attaque quadratic blowup est similaire à l'attaque Billion Laughs [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billion_laughs] ; il s'agit également d'un abus d'extension d'entités. Au lieu d'utiliser des entités imbriquées, cette attaque répète encore et encore une seule entité de plusieurs milliers de caractères. Cette attaque n'est pas aussi efficace que la version exponentielle mais contourne les contre-mesures de l'analyseur qui interdit les entités imbriquées de multiples fois.

decompression bomb

Des bombes de décompression (ou ZIP bomb [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zip_bomb]) sont valables pour toutes les bibliothèques XML qui peuvent analyser des flux XML compressés comme des flux HTTP gzip ou des fichiers compressés LZMA. Pour L'attaquant, cela permet de réduire d'une magnitude d'ordre 3 ou plus la quantité de données transmises.

large tokens

Expat needs to re-parse unfinished tokens; without the protection introduced in Expat 2.6.0, this can lead to quadratic runtime that can be used to cause denial of service in the application parsing XML. The issue is known as CVE 2023-52425 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-52425].

xml.etree.ElementTree --- The ElementTree XML API

Code Source: Lib/xml/etree/ElementTree.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/xml/etree/ElementTree.py]

The xml.etree.ElementTree module implements a simple and efficient API for parsing and creating XML data.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: ce module utilise une implémentation rapide chaque fois que c'est possible.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.3: The xml.etree.cElementTree module is deprecated.

Note

If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data, see XML security.

Tutoriel

This is a short tutorial for using xml.etree.ElementTree (ET in short). The goal is to demonstrate some of the building blocks and basic concepts of the module.

Arborescence et éléments XML

XML est un format de données fondamentalement hiérarchique et la façon la plus naturelle de le représenter est avec un arbre. ET a deux classes pour ce but : ElementTree représente l'ensemble du document XML comme un arbre et Element représente un simple nœud dans cet arbre. Les interactions (lire et écrire vers et depuis des fichiers) sur le document sont habituellement effectuées au niveau de ElementTree. Les interactions sur un seul élément XML et ses sous-éléments sont effectuées au niveau de Element.

Analyse XML

We'll be using the fictive country_data.xml XML document as the sample data for this section:

<?xml version="1.0"?>
<data>
    <country name="Liechtenstein">
        <rank>1</rank>
        <year>2008</year>
        <gdppc>141100</gdppc>
        <neighbor name="Austria" direction="E"/>
        <neighbor name="Switzerland" direction="W"/>
    </country>
    <country name="Singapore">
        <rank>4</rank>
        <year>2011</year>
        <gdppc>59900</gdppc>
        <neighbor name="Malaysia" direction="N"/>
    </country>
    <country name="Panama">
        <rank>68</rank>
        <year>2011</year>
        <gdppc>13600</gdppc>
        <neighbor name="Costa Rica" direction="W"/>
        <neighbor name="Colombia" direction="E"/>
    </country>
</data>

Nous pouvons importer ces données en lisant un fichier :

import xml.etree.ElementTree as ET
tree = ET.parse('country_data.xml')
root = tree.getroot()

Ou depuis une chaîne de caractères :

root = ET.fromstring(country_data_as_string)

fromstring() analyse les données XML depuis une chaîne de caractères et produit un Element, qui est l'élément racine de l'arbre analysé. D'autres fonctions d'analyse peuvent créer un ElementTree. Vérifiez la documentation pour en être sûr.

En tant qu'Element, root a une balise (tag) et un dictionnaire d'attributs :

>>> root.tag
'data'
>>> root.attrib
{}

Il contient aussi des nœuds enfants sur lesquels nous pouvons itérer :

>>> for child in root:
...     print(child.tag, child.attrib)
...
country {'name': 'Liechtenstein'}
country {'name': 'Singapore'}
country {'name': 'Panama'}

Les enfants sont imbriqués et nous pouvons accéder aux nœuds enfants spécifiques via un indice :

>>> root[0][1].text
'2008'

Note

les éléments du XML d'entrée ne sont pas tous considérés comme des éléments de l'arborescence. Actuellement, le module ignore les commentaires XML, les instructions de traitements et la déclaration du type de document dans l'entrée. Néanmoins, les arborescences construites en utilisant l'API du module plutôt que par l'analyse du texte XML peuvent contenir des commentaires et des instructions de traitement ; ils seront inclus lors de la génération du XML de sortie. La DTD du document est accessible en passant une instance de TreeBuilder au constructeur de XMLParser.

API à flux tiré

La plupart des fonctions d'analyse fournies par ce module nécessitent que le document entier soit lu en même temps avant de renvoyer un résultat. Il est possible d'utiliser un XMLParser et d'y introduire des données de manière incrémentielle, mais il s'agit d'une API à flux poussé qui appelle des méthodes par rappel automatique, ce qui est de trop bas niveau et peu pratique pour la plupart des besoins. Parfois, ce que l'utilisateur souhaite réellement, c'est pouvoir analyser du XML de manière incrémentielle, sans bloquer les opérations, tout en bénéficiant de la commodité des objets Element entièrement construits.

L'outil le plus puissant pour ce faire est XMLPullParser. Il ne nécessite pas de lecture bloquante pour obtenir les données XML et est plutôt alimenté en données de manière incrémentielle avec des appels à XMLPullParser.feed(). Pour obtenir les éléments XML analysés, appelez XMLPullParser.read_events(). Voici un exemple :

>>> parser = ET.XMLPullParser(['start', 'end'])
>>> parser.feed('<mytag>sometext')
>>> list(parser.read_events())
[('start', <Element 'mytag' at 0x7fa66db2be58>)]
>>> parser.feed(' more text</mytag>')
>>> for event, elem in parser.read_events():
...     print(event)
...     print(elem.tag, 'text=', elem.text)
...
end
mytag text= sometext more text

Le cas d'utilisation évident concerne les applications qui fonctionnent de manière non bloquante dans lesquelles les données XML sont reçues à partir d'un connecteur réseau ou lues de manière incrémentielle à partir d'un périphérique de stockage. Dans de tels cas, le blocage des lectures est inacceptable.

Parce qu'il est très flexible, XMLPullParser peut être peu pratique à utiliser pour des cas d'utilisation plus simples. Si cela ne vous dérange pas que votre application se bloque pendant la lecture de données XML mais que vous souhaitez tout de même disposer de capacités d'analyse incrémentielle, jetez un œil à iterparse(). Cela peut être utile lorsque vous lisez un document XML volumineux et que vous ne souhaitez pas le conserver entièrement en mémoire.

Where immediate feedback through events is wanted, calling method XMLPullParser.flush() can help reduce delay; please make sure to study the related security notes.

Atteinte d'éléments d'intérêt

Element a quelques méthodes très utiles qui aident à parcourir récursivement tous les sous-arbres (ses enfants, leurs enfants et ainsi de suite). Par exemple, Element.iter() :

>>> for neighbor in root.iter('neighbor'):
...     print(neighbor.attrib)
...
{'name': 'Austria', 'direction': 'E'}
{'name': 'Switzerland', 'direction': 'W'}
{'name': 'Malaysia', 'direction': 'N'}
{'name': 'Costa Rica', 'direction': 'W'}
{'name': 'Colombia', 'direction': 'E'}

Element.findall() récupère seulement les éléments avec une balise qui sont les descendants directs de l'élément courant. Element.find() récupère le premier élément avec une balise particulière et Element.text accède au contenu textuel de l'élément. Element.get() accède aux attributs de l'élément :

>>> for country in root.findall('country'):
...     rank = country.find('rank').text
...     name = country.get('name')
...     print(name, rank)
...
Liechtenstein 1
Singapore 4
Panama 68

Une caractérisation plus sophistiquée des éléments à rechercher est possible en utilisant XPath.

Modification d'un fichier XML

ElementTree fournit un moyen simple de créer des documents XML et de les écrire dans des fichiers. La méthode ElementTree.write() sert à cet effet.

Une fois créé, un objet Element peut être manipulé en changeant directement ses champs (tels que Element.text), en ajoutant et en modifiant des attributs (méthode Element.set()), ou en ajoutant de nouveaux enfants (par exemple avec Element.append()).

Disons que nous voulons en ajouter un au classement de chaque pays, et ajouter un attribut updated (« mis à jour ») à l'élément de classement :

>>> for rank in root.iter('rank'):
...     new_rank = int(rank.text) + 1
...     rank.text = str(new_rank)
...     rank.set('updated', 'yes')
...
>>> tree.write('output.xml')

Maintenant, notre XML ressemble à ceci :

<?xml version="1.0"?>
<data>
    <country name="Liechtenstein">
        <rank updated="yes">2</rank>
        <year>2008</year>
        <gdppc>141100</gdppc>
        <neighbor name="Austria" direction="E"/>
        <neighbor name="Switzerland" direction="W"/>
    </country>
    <country name="Singapore">
        <rank updated="yes">5</rank>
        <year>2011</year>
        <gdppc>59900</gdppc>
        <neighbor name="Malaysia" direction="N"/>
    </country>
    <country name="Panama">
        <rank updated="yes">69</rank>
        <year>2011</year>
        <gdppc>13600</gdppc>
        <neighbor name="Costa Rica" direction="W"/>
        <neighbor name="Colombia" direction="E"/>
    </country>
</data>

Nous pouvons supprimer des éléments en utilisant Element.remove(). Supposons que nous souhaitions supprimer tous les pays dont le classement est supérieur à 50 :

>>> for country in root.findall('country'):
...     # using root.findall() to avoid removal during traversal
...     rank = int(country.find('rank').text)
...     if rank > 50:
...         root.remove(country)
...
>>> tree.write('output.xml')

Notez que les modifications simultanées lors de l'itération peuvent entraîner des problèmes, tout comme lors de l'itération et de la modification de listes ou de dictionnaires Python. Par conséquent, l'exemple collecte d'abord tous les éléments correspondants avec root.findall(), et après seulement parcourt la liste des correspondances.

Maintenant, notre XML ressemble à ceci :

<?xml version="1.0"?>
<data>
    <country name="Liechtenstein">
        <rank updated="yes">2</rank>
        <year>2008</year>
        <gdppc>141100</gdppc>
        <neighbor name="Austria" direction="E"/>
        <neighbor name="Switzerland" direction="W"/>
    </country>
    <country name="Singapore">
        <rank updated="yes">5</rank>
        <year>2011</year>
        <gdppc>59900</gdppc>
        <neighbor name="Malaysia" direction="N"/>
    </country>
</data>

Création de documents XML

La fonction SubElement() fournit également un moyen pratique de créer de nouveaux sous-éléments pour un élément donné :

>>> a = ET.Element('a')
>>> b = ET.SubElement(a, 'b')
>>> c = ET.SubElement(a, 'c')
>>> d = ET.SubElement(c, 'd')
>>> ET.dump(a)
<a><b /><c><d /></c></a>

Analyse d'un XML avec des espaces de noms

Si l'entrée XML a des espaces de noms [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espace_de_noms_XML], les balises et les attributs avec des préfixes sous la forme préfixe:unebalise sont étendus à {uri}unebalise où le préfixe est remplacé par l'URI complet. De plus, s'il existe un espace de noms par défaut [https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-names/#defaulting], cet URI complet est ajouté au début de toutes les balises non préfixées.

Voici un exemple XML qui intègre deux espaces de noms, l'un avec le préfixe fictional et l'autre servant d'espace de noms par défaut :

<?xml version="1.0"?>
<actors xmlns:fictional="http://characters.example.com"
        xmlns="http://people.example.com">
    <actor>
        <name>John Cleese</name>
        <fictional:character>Lancelot</fictional:character>
        <fictional:character>Archie Leach</fictional:character>
    </actor>
    <actor>
        <name>Eric Idle</name>
        <fictional:character>Sir Robin</fictional:character>
        <fictional:character>Gunther</fictional:character>
        <fictional:character>Commander Clement</fictional:character>
    </actor>
</actors>

Une façon de rechercher et d'explorer cet exemple XML consiste à ajouter manuellement l'URI à chaque balise ou attribut dans le xpath d'une recherche find() ou findall() :

root = fromstring(xml_text)
for actor in root.findall('{http://people.example.com}actor'):
    name = actor.find('{http://people.example.com}name')
    print(name.text)
    for char in actor.findall('{http://characters.example.com}character'):
        print(' |-->', char.text)

Une meilleure façon de rechercher dans l'exemple XML avec espace de noms consiste à créer un dictionnaire avec vos propres préfixes et à les utiliser dans les fonctions de recherche :

ns = {'real_person': 'http://people.example.com',
      'role': 'http://characters.example.com'}

for actor in root.findall('real_person:actor', ns):
    name = actor.find('real_person:name', ns)
    print(name.text)
    for char in actor.findall('role:character', ns):
        print(' |-->', char.text)

Ces deux approches donnent le même résultat :

John Cleese
 |--> Lancelot
 |--> Archie Leach
Eric Idle
 |--> Sir Robin
 |--> Gunther
 |--> Commander Clement

Prise en charge de XPath

Ce module fournit une prise en charge limitée des expressions XPath [https://www.w3.org/TR/xpath] pour localiser des éléments dans une arborescence. L'objectif est de prendre en charge un petit sous-ensemble de la syntaxe abrégée ; un moteur XPath complet sort du cadre du module.

Exemple

Voici un exemple qui démontre certaines des fonctionnalités XPath du module. Nous utilisons le document XML countrydata de la section Parsing XML :

import xml.etree.ElementTree as ET

root = ET.fromstring(countrydata)

# Top-level elements
root.findall(".")

# All 'neighbor' grand-children of 'country' children of the top-level
# elements
root.findall("./country/neighbor")

# Nodes with name='Singapore' that have a 'year' child
root.findall(".//year/..[@name='Singapore']")

# 'year' nodes that are children of nodes with name='Singapore'
root.findall(".//*[@name='Singapore']/year")

# All 'neighbor' nodes that are the second child of their parent
root.findall(".//neighbor[2]")

Pour du XML avec des espaces de noms, utilisez la notation qualifiée habituelle {namespace}tag :

# All dublin-core "title" tags in the document
root.findall(".//{http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/}title")

Prise en charge de la syntaxe XPath

Syntaxe

Signification

tag

Sélectionne tous les éléments enfants avec une balise donnée. Par exemple, spam sélectionne tous les éléments enfants nommés spam et spam/egg sélectionne tous les petits-enfants nommés egg dans les enfants nommés spam. {namespace}* sélectionne toutes les balises dans l'espace de noms donné, {*}spam sélectionne les balises nommées spam dans n'importe quel (ou aucun) espace de noms et {}* sélectionne seulement les balises qui ne sont pas dans un espace de noms.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: la prise en charge des caractères génériques étoiles a été ajoutée.

*

Sélectionne tous les éléments enfants, y compris les commentaires et les instructions de traitement. Par exemple, */egg sélectionne tous les petits-enfants nommés egg.

.

Sélectionne le nœud actuel. C'est surtout utile au début du chemin, pour indiquer qu'il s'agit d'un chemin relatif.

//

Sélectionne tous les sous-éléments, à tous les niveaux situés sous l'élément actuel. Par exemple, .//egg sélectionne tous les éléments egg dans l'arborescence entière.

..

Sélectionne l'élément parent. Renvoie None si le chemin tente d'atteindre les ancêtres de l'élément de départ (l'élément sur lequel find a été appelé).

[@attrib]

Sélectionne tous les éléments qui ont l'attribut donné.

[@attrib='value']

Sélectionne tous les éléments pour lesquels l'attribut donné a la valeur donnée. La valeur ne peut pas contenir de guillemet simple (').

[@attrib!='value']

Sélectionne tous les éléments pour lesquels l'attribut donné n'a pas la valeur donnée. La valeur ne peut pas contenir de guillemet simple (').

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

[tag]

Sélectionne tous les éléments qui ont un enfant nommé tag. Seuls les enfants immédiats sont pris en charge.

[.='text']

Sélectionne tous les éléments dont le contenu textuel complet, y compris les descendants, est égal au text donné.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

[.!='text']

Sélectionne tous les éléments dont le contenu textuel complet, y compris les descendants, n'est pas égal au text donné.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

[tag='text']

Sélectionne tous les éléments qui ont un enfant nommé tag dont le contenu textuel complet, y compris les descendants, est égal au text donné.

[tag!='text']

Sélectionne tous les éléments qui ont un enfant nommé tag dont le contenu textuel complet, y compris les descendants, n'est pas égal au text donné.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

[position]

Sélectionne tous les éléments situés à la position donnée. La position peut être soit un entier (1 est la première position), l'expression last() (pour la dernière position), ou une position relative à la dernière position (par exemple last()-1).

Les prédicats (expressions entre crochets) doivent être précédés d'un nom de balise, d'un astérisque ou d'un autre prédicat. Les prédicats position doivent être précédés d'un nom de balise.

Référence

Fonctions

xml.etree.ElementTree.canonicalize(xml_data=None, *, out=None, from_file=None, **options)

Fonction de transformation C14N 2.0 [https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-c14n2/].

Canonicalization is a way to normalise XML output in a way that allows byte-by-byte comparisons and digital signatures. It reduces the freedom that XML serializers have and instead generates a more constrained XML representation. The main restrictions regard the placement of namespace declarations, the ordering of attributes, and ignorable whitespace.

Cette fonction prend une chaîne de données XML (xml_data) ou un chemin de fichier ou un objet de type fichier (from_file) en entrée, la convertit sous la forme canonique et l'écrit à l'aide de l'objet simili-fichier out, s'il est fourni, ou le renvoie sous forme de chaîne de texte sinon. Le fichier de sortie reçoit du texte, pas des octets. Il doit donc être ouvert en mode texte avec l'encodage utf-8.

Utilisation typique :

xml_data = "<root>...</root>"
print(canonicalize(xml_data))

with open("c14n_output.xml", mode='w', encoding='utf-8') as out_file:
    canonicalize(xml_data, out=out_file)

with open("c14n_output.xml", mode='w', encoding='utf-8') as out_file:
    canonicalize(from_file="inputfile.xml", out=out_file)

Les options de configuration sont les suivantes :

with_comments : définissez cet attribut à vrai pour inclure les commentaires (par défaut : faux)

strip_text : définissez à vrai pour supprimer les espaces avant et après le contenu du texte

(par défaut : faux)

rewrite_prefixes : définissez à vrai pour remplacer les préfixes d'espace de noms par « n{nombre} »

(par défaut : faux)

qname_aware_tags : ensemble de noms de balises prenant en charge les noms qualifiés dans lesquels les préfixes

doivent être remplacés dans le contenu du texte (par défaut : vide)

qname_aware_attrs : ensemble de noms d'attributs prenant en charge les noms qualifiés dans lesquels les préfixes

doivent être remplacés dans le contenu du texte (par défaut : vide)

exclude_attrs : ensemble de noms d'attributs qui ne doivent pas être sérialisés

exclude_tags : ensemble de noms de balises qui ne doivent pas être sérialisés

Dans la liste d'options ci-dessus, un « ensemble » fait référence à toute collection ou itérable de chaînes, aucun ordre n'est attendu.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

xml.etree.ElementTree.Comment(text=None)

Fabrique d’éléments de commentaire. Cette fonction crée un élément spécial qui sera sérialisé sous forme de commentaire XML par le sérialiseur standard. La chaîne de commentaire peut être une chaîne d'octets ou une chaîne Unicode. text est une chaîne contenant la chaîne de commentaire. Renvoie une instance d'élément représentant un commentaire.

Notez que XMLParser ignore les commentaires dans l'entrée au lieu de créer des objets de commentaire pour eux. Un ElementTree ne contiendra que des nœuds de commentaires qui ont été insérés dans l'arborescence à l'aide de l'une des méthodes d'Element.

xml.etree.ElementTree.dump(elem)

Écrit une arborescence d'éléments ou une structure d'éléments dans sys.stdout. Cette fonction doit être utilisée uniquement pour le débogage.

Le format de sortie exact dépend de l’implémentation. Dans cette version, il est écrit sous la forme d'un fichier XML ordinaire.

elem est un élément de l'arborescence ou un élément individuel.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: la fonction dump() préserve désormais l'ordre des attributs spécifié par l'utilisateur.

xml.etree.ElementTree.fromstring(text, parser=None)

Analyse une section XML à partir d'une constante de chaîne. Identique à XML(). text est une chaîne contenant des données XML. parser est une instance d'analyseur facultative. S'il n'est pas fourni, l'analyseur standard XMLParser est utilisé. Renvoie une instance d'Element.

xml.etree.ElementTree.fromstringlist(sequence, parser=None)

Analyse un document XML à partir d'une séquence de fragments de chaîne. séquence est une liste ou une autre séquence contenant des fragments de données XML. parser est une instance d'analyseur facultative. S'il n'est pas fourni, l'analyseur standard XMLParser est utilisé. Renvoie une instance d'Element.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

xml.etree.ElementTree.indent(tree, space='  ', level=0)

Ajoute des espaces au sous-arbre pour indenter visuellement l'arborescence. Cela peut être utilisé pour générer une sortie XML avec une mise en forme agréable. tree peut être un élément ou un ElementTree. espace est la chaîne d'espaces qui est insérée pour chaque niveau d'indentation, deux caractères d'espace par défaut. Pour indenter des sous-arbres partiels à l'intérieur d'un arbre déjà indenté, transmettez le niveau d'indentation initial dans level.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

xml.etree.ElementTree.iselement(element)

Vérifie si un objet semble être un objet élément valide. element est une instance d'élément. Renvoie True s'il s'agit d'un objet élément.

xml.etree.ElementTree.iterparse(source, events=None, parser=None)

Parses an XML section into an element tree incrementally, and reports what's going on to the user. source is a filename or file object containing XML data. events is a sequence of events to report back. The supported events are the strings "start", "end", "comment", "pi", "start-ns" and "end-ns" (the "ns" events are used to get detailed namespace information). If events is omitted, only "end" events are reported. parser is an optional parser instance. If not given, the standard XMLParser parser is used. parser must be a subclass of XMLParser and can only use the default TreeBuilder as a target. Returns an iterator providing (event, elem) pairs; it has a root attribute that references the root element of the resulting XML tree once source is fully read. The iterator has the close() method that closes the internal file object if source is a filename.

Notez que même si iterparse() construit l'arborescence de manière incrémentielle, il bloque pendant les lectures sur source. En tant que tel, il ne convient pas aux applications dans lesquelles le blocage pendant les lectures ne peut pas être effectué. Pour une analyse entièrement non bloquante, voir XMLPullParser.

Note

iterparse() garantit uniquement qu'il a vu le caractère ">" d'une balise de début lorsqu'il émet un événement "start", donc les attributs sont définis mais le contenu des attributs text et tail n'est pas défini à ce stade. La même chose s'applique aux nœuds enfants de l'élément ; ils peuvent être présents ou non.

Si vous avez besoin d'un élément entièrement rempli, recherchez plutôt les événements "end".

Obsolète depuis la version 3.4: l'argument parser.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: les évènements comment et pi ont été ajoutés.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the close() method.

xml.etree.ElementTree.parse(source, parser=None)

Analyse une section XML dans une arborescence d'éléments. source est un nom de fichier ou un objet fichier contenant des données XML. parser (facultatif) est une instance d'analyseur. S'il n'est pas fourni, l'analyseur standard XMLParser est utilisé. Renvoie une instance d'ElementTree.

xml.etree.ElementTree.ProcessingInstruction(target, text=None)

Fabrique d’éléments Processing Instruction (PI). Cette fonction crée un élément spécial qui sera sérialisé en tant qu'instruction de traitement XML. target est une chaîne contenant la cible PI. text est une chaîne contenant le contenu de l'instruction de traitement (ou PI), s'il est fourni. Renvoie une instance d'élément, représentant l'instruction de traitement.

Note that XMLParser skips over processing instructions in the input instead of creating PI objects for them. An ElementTree will only contain processing instruction nodes if they have been inserted into to the tree using one of the Element methods.

xml.etree.ElementTree.register_namespace(prefix, uri)

Enregistre un préfixe d'espace de noms. Le registre est global et toute correspondance existante pour le préfixe donné ainsi que l'URI de l'espace de noms sera supprimé. prefix est un préfixe d'espace de noms. uri est un URI d'espace de noms. Les balises et les attributs de cet espace de noms seront sérialisés avec le préfixe donné, si possible.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

xml.etree.ElementTree.SubElement(parent, tag, attrib={}, **extra)

Fabrique de sous-élément. Cette fonction crée une instance d'élément et l'ajoute à un élément existant.

Le nom de l'élément, les noms d'attributs et les valeurs d'attributs peuvent être des chaînes d'octets ou des chaînes Unicode. parent est l'élément parent. tag est le nom du sous-élément. attrib est un dictionnaire facultatif contenant les attributs de l'élément. extra contient des attributs supplémentaires, donnés sous forme d'arguments nommés. Renvoie une instance d'élément.

xml.etree.ElementTree.tostring(element, encoding='us-ascii', method='xml', *, xml_declaration=None, default_namespace=None, short_empty_elements=True)

Génère une représentation sous forme de chaîne d'un élément XML, y compris tous les sous-éléments. element est une instance de Element. encoding [1] est l'encodage de sortie (la valeur par défaut est US-ASCII). Utilisez encoding="unicode" pour générer une chaîne Unicode (sinon, une chaîne d'octets est générée). method vaut "xml", "html" ou "text" (la valeur par défaut est "xml"). xml_declaration, default_namespace et short_empty_elements ont la même signification que dans ElementTree.write(). Renvoie une chaîne codée (éventuellement) contenant les données XML.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Added the short_empty_elements parameter.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added the xml_declaration and default_namespace parameters.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: la fonction tostring() préserve désormais l'ordre des attributs spécifié par l'utilisateur.

xml.etree.ElementTree.tostringlist(element, encoding='us-ascii', method='xml', *, xml_declaration=None, default_namespace=None, short_empty_elements=True)

Génère une représentation sous forme de chaîne d'un élément XML, y compris tous les sous-éléments. element est une instance de Element. encoding [1] est l'encodage de sortie (la valeur par défaut est US-ASCII). Utilisez encoding="unicode" pour générer une chaîne Unicode (sinon, une chaîne d'octets est générée). method vaut "xml", "html" ou "text" (la valeur par défaut est "xml"). xml_declaration, default_namespace et short_empty_elements ont la même signification que dans ElementTree.write(). Renvoie une liste de chaînes codées (éventuellement) contenant les données XML. Elle ne garantit aucune séquence spécifique, seulement b"".join(tostringlist(element)) == tostring(element).

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Added the short_empty_elements parameter.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added the xml_declaration and default_namespace parameters.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: la fonction tostringlist() préserve désormais l'ordre des attributs spécifié par l'utilisateur.

xml.etree.ElementTree.XML(text, parser=None)

Analyse une section XML à partir d'une constante de chaîne. Cette fonction peut être utilisée pour intégrer des « littéraux XML » dans du code Python. text est une chaîne contenant des données XML. parser, facultatif, est une instance d'analyseur. S'il n'est pas fourni, l'analyseur standard XMLParser est utilisé. Renvoie une instance d'Element.

xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLID(text, parser=None)

Analyse une section XML à partir d'une constante de chaîne et renvoie également un dictionnaire qui fait correspondre les identifiants d'éléments aux éléments. text est une chaîne contenant des données XML. parser, facultatif, est une instance d'analyseur. S'il n'est pas fourni, l'analyseur standard XMLParser est utilisé. Renvoie un n-uplet contenant une instance d'Element et un dictionnaire.

Prise en charge de XInclude

Ce module fournit une prise en charge limitée des directives XInclude [https://www.w3.org/TR/xinclude/], via le module d'assistance xml.etree.ElementInclude. Ce module peut être utilisé pour insérer des sous-arbres et des chaînes de texte dans des arborescences d'éléments, en fonction des informations contenues dans l'arborescence.

Exemple

Voici un exemple qui montre l'utilisation du module XInclude. Pour inclure un document XML dans le document actuel, utilisez l'élément {http://www.w3.org/2001/XInclude}include, définissez l'attribut parse sur "xml" et utilisez l'attribut href pour spécifier le document à inclure.

<?xml version="1.0"?>
<document xmlns:xi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XInclude">
  <xi:include href="source.xml" parse="xml" />
</document>

Par défaut, l'attribut href est traité comme un nom de fichier. Vous pouvez utiliser des chargeurs personnalisés pour remplacer ce comportement. Notez également que l'assistant standard ne prend pas en charge la syntaxe XPointer.

To process this file, load it as usual, and pass the root element to the xml.etree.ElementTree module:

from xml.etree import ElementTree, ElementInclude

tree = ElementTree.parse("document.xml")
root = tree.getroot()

ElementInclude.include(root)

Le module ElementInclude remplace l'élément {http://www.w3.org/2001/XInclude}include par l'élément racine du document source.xml. Le résultat pourrait ressembler à ceci :

<document xmlns:xi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XInclude">
  <para>This is a paragraph.</para>
</document>

Si l'attribut parse est omis, sa valeur par défaut est "xml". L'attribut href est obligatoire.

Pour inclure un document texte, utilisez l'élément {http://www.w3.org/2001/XInclude}include et définissez l'attribut parse sur "text" :

<?xml version="1.0"?>
<document xmlns:xi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XInclude">
  Copyright (c) <xi:include href="year.txt" parse="text" />.
</document>

Le résultat pourrait ressembler à ceci :

<document xmlns:xi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XInclude">
  Copyright (c) 2003.
</document>

Référence

Fonctions

xml.etree.ElementInclude.default_loader(href, parse, encoding=None)

Default loader. This default loader reads an included resource from disk. href is a URL. parse is for parse mode either "xml" or "text". encoding is an optional text encoding. If not given, encoding is utf-8. Returns the expanded resource. If the parse mode is "xml", this is an Element instance. If the parse mode is "text", this is a string. If the loader fails, it can return None or raise an exception.

xml.etree.ElementInclude.include(elem, loader=None, base_url=None, max_depth=6)

This function expands XInclude directives in-place in tree pointed by elem. elem is either the root Element or an ElementTree instance to find such element. loader is an optional resource loader. If omitted, it defaults to default_loader(). If given, it should be a callable that implements the same interface as default_loader(). base_url is base URL of the original file, to resolve relative include file references. max_depth is the maximum number of recursive inclusions. Limited to reduce the risk of malicious content explosion. Pass None to disable the limitation.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Added the base_url and max_depth parameters.

Objets Element

class xml.etree.ElementTree.Element(tag, attrib={}, **extra)

Classe Element. Cette classe définit l'interface Element et fournit une implémentation de référence de cette interface.

Le nom de l'élément, les noms d'attributs et les valeurs d'attributs peuvent être des chaînes d'octets ou des chaînes Unicode. tag est le nom de l'élément. attrib est un dictionnaire facultatif contenant les attributs des éléments. extra contient des attributs supplémentaires, donnés sous forme d'arguments nommés.

tag

Chaîne identifiant le type de données que cet élément représente (en d'autres termes, le type d'élément).

text

tail

Ces attributs peuvent être utilisés pour contenir des données supplémentaires associées à l'élément. Leurs valeurs sont généralement des chaînes mais peuvent être n'importe quel objet spécifique à une application. Si l'élément est créé à partir d'un fichier XML, l'attribut text contient soit le texte entre la balise de début de l'élément et sa première balise enfant ou de fin, soit None ; l'attribut tail contient soit le texte entre la balise de fin de l'élément et la balise suivante, soit None. Pour les données XML

<a><b>1<c>2<d/>3</c></b>4</a>

les attributs text et tail de l'élément a valent None, l'attribut text de l'élément b vaut "1" et tail vaut "4", l'attribut text de l'élément c vaut "2" et tail vaut None, et l'attribut text de l'élément d vaut None et tail vaut "3".

Pour récupérer le texte interne d'un élément, voir itertext(), par exemple "".join(element.itertext()).

Les applications peuvent stocker des objets arbitraires dans ces attributs.

attrib

Dictionnaire contenant les attributs de l'élément. Notez que même si la valeur attrib est toujours un véritable dictionnaire Python mutable, une implémentation d'ElementTree peut choisir d'utiliser une autre représentation interne et de créer le dictionnaire uniquement si quelqu'un le demande. Pour profiter de telles implémentations, utilisez les méthodes de dictionnaire ci-dessous autant que possible.

Les méthodes dictionnaire-compatibles suivantes traitent les attributs de l'élément.

clear()

Réinitialise un élément. Cette fonction supprime tous les sous-éléments, efface tous les attributs et définit les attributs text et tail sur None.

get(key, default=None)

Accède à l'attribut de l'élément nommé key.

Renvoie la valeur de l'attribut ou default si l'attribut n'a pas été trouvé.

items()

Renvoie les attributs de l'élément comme une séquence de paire (nom, valeur). Les attributs sont renvoyés dans un ordre arbitraire.

keys()

Renvoie les noms d'attributs des éléments sous forme de liste. Les noms sont renvoyés dans un ordre arbitraire.

set(key, value)

Change l'attribut key à l'élément value.

Les méthodes suivantes traitent les éléments enfants (sous-éléments).

append(subelement)

Ajoute l'élément subelement à la fin de la liste interne des sous-éléments de cet élément. Lève une TypeError si subelement n'est pas un Element.

extend(subelements)

Appends subelements from an iterable of elements. Raises TypeError if a subelement is not an Element.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

find(match, namespaces=None)

Recherche le premier sous-élément correspondant à match. match peut être un nom de balise ou un path. Renvoie une instance d'élément ou None. namespaces est un tableau de correspondances facultatif de préfixes d'espaces de noms vers des noms complets. Passez '' comme préfixe pour déplacer tous les noms de balises sans préfixe dans l'expression dans l'espace de noms donné.

findall(match, namespaces=None)

Recherche tous les sous-éléments correspondants, par nom de balise ou path. Renvoie une liste contenant tous les éléments correspondants dans l'ordre du document. namespaces est un tableau de correspondances facultatif de préfixes d'espaces de noms vers des noms complets. Passez '' comme préfixe pour déplacer tous les noms de balises sans préfixe dans l'expression dans l'espace de noms donné.

findtext(match, default=None, namespaces=None)

Recherche le texte du premier sous-élément correspondant à match. match peut être un nom de balise ou un path. Renvoie le contenu textuel du premier élément correspondant, ou default si aucun élément n'a été trouvé. Notez que si l'élément correspondant n'a pas de contenu textuel, une chaîne vide est renvoyée. namespaces est un tableau de correspondances facultatif de préfixes d'espaces de noms vers des noms complets. Passez '' comme préfixe pour déplacer tous les noms de balises sans préfixe dans l'expression dans l'espace de noms donné.

insert(index, subelement)

Insère le subelement à la position donnée dans cet élément. Lève une TypeError si subelement n'est pas un Element.

iter(tag=None)

Crée un itérateur sur l'arbre avec l'élément actuel comme racine. L'itérateur parcourt cet élément et tous les éléments situés en dessous, dans l'ordre du document (profondeur en premier). Si tag n'est pas None ou '*', seuls les éléments dont la balise est égale à tag sont renvoyés par l'itérateur. Si l'arborescence est modifiée au cours de l'itération, le résultat est indéfini.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

iterfind(match, namespaces=None)

Recherche tous les sous-éléments correspondants, par nom de balise ou path. Renvoie un itérable donnant tous les éléments correspondants dans l'ordre du document. namespaces est un tableau de correspondances facultatif de préfixes d'espaces de noms vers des noms complets.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

itertext()

Crée un itérateur de texte. L'itérateur parcourt cet élément et tous les sous-éléments, dans l'ordre du document, et renvoie tout le texte interne.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

makeelement(tag, attrib)

Crée un nouvel objet élément du même type que cet élément. N'appelez pas cette méthode, utilisez plutôt la fonction de fabrique SubElement().

remove(subelement)

Supprime le subelement de l'élément. Contrairement aux méthodes find*, cette méthode compare les éléments en fonction de l'identité de l'instance, et non de la valeur ou du contenu de la balise.

Les objets Element prennent également en charge les méthodes de type séquence suivantes pour travailler avec des sous éléments : __delitem__(), __getitem__(), __setitem__(), __len__().

Caution: Elements with no subelements will test as False. In a future release of Python, all elements will test as True regardless of whether subelements exist. Instead, prefer explicit len(elem) or elem is not None tests.:

element = root.find('foo')

if not element:  # careful!
    print("element not found, or element has no subelements")

if element is None:
    print("element not found")

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Testing the truth value of an Element emits DeprecationWarning.

Avant Python 3.8, l'ordre de sérialisation des attributs XML des éléments était artificiellement rendu prévisible en classant les attributs par leur nom. Sur la base de l'ordre désormais garanti des dictionnaires, cette réorganisation arbitraire a été supprimée dans Python 3.8 pour préserver l'ordre dans lequel les attributs ont été initialement analysés ou créés par le code utilisateur.

En général, le code utilisateur doit essayer de ne pas dépendre d'un ordre spécifique des attributs, étant donné que la documentation de référence XML [https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-infoset/] exclut explicitement que l'ordre des attributs soit porteur d'information. Le code doit être prêt à gérer tout ordre en entrée. Dans les cas où une sortie XML déterministe est requise, par exemple pour la signature cryptographique ou les ensembles de données de test, la sérialisation canonique est disponible avec la fonction canonicalize().

Dans les cas où la sortie canonique n'est pas applicable mais où un ordre d'attributs spécifique est quand même souhaitable en sortie, le code doit viser à créer les attributs directement dans l'ordre souhaité, afin d'éviter des inadéquations de perception pour les lecteurs du code. Dans les cas où cela est difficile à réaliser, une recette comme ci-dessous peut être appliquée avant la sérialisation pour appliquer un ordre indépendant de la création de l'élément :

def reorder_attributes(root):
    for el in root.iter():
        attrib = el.attrib
        if len(attrib) > 1:
            # adjust attribute order, e.g. by sorting
            attribs = sorted(attrib.items())
            attrib.clear()
            attrib.update(attribs)

Objets ElementTree

class xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree(element=None, file=None)

Classe enveloppant ElementTree. Cette classe représente une hiérarchie d'éléments entière et ajoute une prise en charge supplémentaire pour la sérialisation vers et depuis le XML standard.

element est l'élément racine. L'arborescence est initialisée avec le contenu du fichier XML file s'il est fourni.

_setroot(element)

Remplace l'élément racine de cette arborescence. Cela supprime le contenu actuel de l'arborescence et le remplace par l'élément donné. À utiliser avec précaution. element est une instance d'élément.

find(match, namespaces=None)

Comme Element.find(), commence à la racine de l'arbre.

findall(match, namespaces=None)

Identique à Element.findall(), en commençant à la racine de l'arborescence.

findtext(match, default=None, namespaces=None)

Identique à Element.findtext(), en commençant à la racine de l'arborescence.

getroot()

Renvoie l'élément racine de l'arbre.

iter(tag=None)

Crée et renvoie un itérateur d'arborescence pour l'élément racine. L'itérateur parcourt tous les éléments de cette arborescence, dans l'ordre des sections. tag est la balise à rechercher (la valeur par défaut est de renvoyer tous les éléments).

iterfind(match, namespaces=None)

Identique à Element.iterfind(), en commençant à la racine de l'arborescence.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

parse(source, parser=None)

Charge une section XML externe dans cette arborescence d'éléments. source est un nom de fichier ou un objet fichier. parser, facultatif, est une instance d'analyseur. S'il n'est pas fourni, l'analyseur standard XMLParser est utilisé. Renvoie l'élément racine de la section.

write(file, encoding='us-ascii', xml_declaration=None, default_namespace=None, method='xml', *, short_empty_elements=True)

Écrit l'arborescence des éléments dans un fichier, au format XML. file est un nom de fichier ou un objet fichier ouvert en écriture. encoding [1] est l'encodage de sortie (la valeur par défaut est US-ASCII). xml_declaration contrôle si une déclaration XML doit être ajoutée au fichier. Utilisez False pour jamais, True pour toujours, None pour seulement si ce n'est pas de l'US-ASCII ou de l'UTF-8 ou de l'Unicode (la valeur par défaut est None). default_namespace définit l'espace de noms XML par défaut (pour "xmlns"). method vaut "xml", "html" ou "text" (la valeur par défaut est "xml"). Le paramètre nommé (uniquement) short_empty_elements contrôle le formatage des éléments qui ne contiennent aucun contenu. Si c'est True (valeur par défaut), ils sont écrits sous la forme d'une seule balise auto-fermée, sinon ils sont écrits sous la forme d'une paire de balises de début-fin.

La sortie est une chaîne (str) ou du binaire (bytes). C'est contrôlé par l'argument encoding. Si encoding est "unicode", la sortie est une chaîne ; sinon, c'est binaire. Notez que cela peut entrer en conflit avec le type de fichier s'il s'agit d'un objet fichier déjà ouvert ; assurez-vous de ne pas essayer d'écrire une chaîne dans un flux binaire et vice versa.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Added the short_empty_elements parameter.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: la méthode write() préserve désormais l'ordre des attributs spécifié par l'utilisateur.

Voici le fichier XML à manipuler :

<html>
    <head>
        <title>Example page</title>
    </head>
    <body>
        <p>Moved to <a href="http://example.org/">example.org</a>
        or <a href="http://example.com/">example.com</a>.</p>
    </body>
</html>

Exemple de modification de l'attribut target de chaque lien dans le premier paragraphe :

>>> from xml.etree.ElementTree import ElementTree
>>> tree = ElementTree()
>>> tree.parse("index.xhtml")
<Element 'html' at 0xb77e6fac>
>>> p = tree.find("body/p")     # Finds first occurrence of tag p in body
>>> p
<Element 'p' at 0xb77ec26c>
>>> links = list(p.iter("a"))   # Returns list of all links
>>> links
[<Element 'a' at 0xb77ec2ac>, <Element 'a' at 0xb77ec1cc>]
>>> for i in links:             # Iterates through all found links
...     i.attrib["target"] = "blank"
...
>>> tree.write("output.xhtml")

Objets QName

class xml.etree.ElementTree.QName(text_or_uri, tag=None)

Surcouche à QName. Cela peut être utilisé pour envelopper une valeur d'attribut QName, afin d'obtenir une gestion appropriée de l'espace de noms en sortie. text_or_uri est une chaîne contenant la valeur QName, sous la forme {uri}local ou, si l'argument tag est donné, la partie URI d'un QName. Si tag est donné, le premier argument est interprété comme un URI et cet argument est interprété comme un nom local. Les instances QName sont opaques.

Objets TreeBuilder

class xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder(element_factory=None, *, comment_factory=None, pi_factory=None, insert_comments=False, insert_pis=False)

Générateur de structure d'éléments générique. Ce constructeur convertit une séquence d'appels de méthode start, data, end, comment et pi en une structure d'éléments bien formée. Vous pouvez utiliser cette classe pour créer une structure d'éléments à l'aide d'un analyseur XML personnalisé ou d'un analyseur pour un autre type de format XML.

element_factory, lorsqu'il est donné, doit être un appelable acceptant deux arguments positionnels : une balise et un dictionnaire d'attributs. Elle est censée renvoyer une nouvelle instance d'élément.

Les fonctions comment_factory et pi_factory, lorsqu'elles sont données, doivent se comporter comme les fonctions Comment() et ProcessingInstruction() pour créer des commentaires et des instructions de traitement. Lorsqu’elles ne sont pas fournies, les fabriques par défaut sont utilisées. Lorsque insert_comments ou insert_pis sont vraies, les commentaires et instructions de traitement sont insérés dans l'arborescence s'ils apparaissent dans l'élément racine (mais pas à l'extérieur de celui-ci).

close()

Vide les tampons du générateur et renvoie l'élément de document de niveau supérieur. Renvoie une instance d'Element.

data(data)

Ajoute du texte à l'élément courant. data est une chaîne de caractères. Cela peut être une chaîne d'octets ou une chaîne Unicode.

end(tag)

Ferme l'élément courant. tag est le nom de l'élément. Renvoie l'élément fermé.

start(tag, attrs)

Ouvre un nouvel élément. tag est le nom de l'élément. attrs est un dictionnaire contenant les attributs de l'élément. Renvoie l'élément ouvert.

comment(text)

Crée un commentaire avec le text donné. Si insert_comments est vrai, cela l'ajoute également à l'arborescence.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

pi(target, text)

Creates a process instruction with the given target name and text. If insert_pis is true, this will also add it to the tree.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

De plus, un objet TreeBuilder personnalisé peut fournir les méthodes suivantes :

doctype(name, pubid, system)

Gère une déclaration doctype. name est le nom du type de document. pubid est l'identifiant public. system est l'identifiant du système. Cette méthode n'existe pas sur la classe par défaut TreeBuilder.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

start_ns(prefix, uri)

Est appelée chaque fois que l'analyseur rencontre une nouvelle déclaration d'espace de noms, avant le rappel start() pour l'élément d'ouverture qui le définit. prefix est '' pour l'espace de noms par défaut et le nom du préfixe d'espace de noms déclaré dans le cas contraire. uri est l'URI de l'espace de noms.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

end_ns(prefix)

Est appelée après le rappel end() d'un élément qui a déclaré une correspondance de préfixe d'espace de noms, avec le nom du prefix qui passe hors de portée.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

class xml.etree.ElementTree.C14NWriterTarget(write, *, with_comments=False, strip_text=False, rewrite_prefixes=False, qname_aware_tags=None, qname_aware_attrs=None, exclude_attrs=None, exclude_tags=None)

Écrivain C14N 2.0 [https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-c14n2/]. Les arguments sont les mêmes que pour la fonction canonicalize(). Cette classe ne construit pas d'arborescence mais traduit les événements de rappel directement sous une forme sérialisée à l'aide de la fonction write.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

Objets XMLParser

class xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser(*, target=None, encoding=None)

Cette classe est l’élément de base du module. Elle utilise xml.parsers.expat pour une analyse efficace du XML et fonctionne à base d'événements. Elle peut être alimentée en données XML de manière incrémentielle avec la méthode feed(), et les événements d'analyse sont traduits en une API à flux poussé – en appelant les méthodes de rappel de l'objet target. Si target est omis, le TreeBuilder standard est utilisé. Si encoding [1] est donné, la valeur remplace l'encodage spécifié dans le fichier XML.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Parameters are now keyword-only. The html argument is no longer supported.

close()

Termine l'envoi des données à l'analyseur. Renvoie le résultat de l'appel de la méthode close() de la target passée lors de la construction ; par défaut, il s'agit de l'élément de plus haut niveau du document.

feed(data)

Fournit des données à l’analyseur. data est une donnée encodée.

flush()

Triggers parsing of any previously fed unparsed data, which can be used to ensure more immediate feedback, in particular with Expat >=2.6.0. The implementation of flush() temporarily disables reparse deferral with Expat (if currently enabled) and triggers a reparse. Disabling reparse deferral has security consequences; please see xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.SetReparseDeferralEnabled() for details.

Note that flush() has been backported to some prior releases of CPython as a security fix. Check for availability of flush() using hasattr() if used in code running across a variety of Python versions.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

XMLParser.feed() appelle la méthode start(tag, attrs_dict) de target pour chaque balise d'ouverture, sa méthode end(tag) pour chaque balise de fermeture, et les données sont traitées par la méthode data(data). Pour d'autres méthodes de rappel prises en charge, consultez la classe TreeBuilder. XMLParser.close() appelle la méthode close() de target. XMLParser peut être utilisée pour autre chose que seulement construire une structure arborescente. Voici un exemple de comptage de la profondeur maximale d'un fichier XML :

>>> from xml.etree.ElementTree import XMLParser
>>> class MaxDepth:                     # The target object of the parser
...     maxDepth = 0
...     depth = 0
...     def start(self, tag, attrib):   # Called for each opening tag.
...         self.depth += 1
...         if self.depth > self.maxDepth:
...             self.maxDepth = self.depth
...     def end(self, tag):             # Called for each closing tag.
...         self.depth -= 1
...     def data(self, data):
...         pass            # We do not need to do anything with data.
...     def close(self):    # Called when all data has been parsed.
...         return self.maxDepth
...
>>> target = MaxDepth()
>>> parser = XMLParser(target=target)
>>> exampleXml = """
... <a>
...   <b>
...   </b>
...   <b>
...     <c>
...       <d>
...       </d>
...     </c>
...   </b>
... </a>"""
>>> parser.feed(exampleXml)
>>> parser.close()
4

Objets XMLPullParser

class xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser(events=None)

Analyseur à flux tiré adapté aux applications non bloquantes. Son API côté entrée est similaire à celle de XMLParser, mais au lieu de pousser les appels vers une cible de rappel, XMLPullParser collecte une liste interne d'événements d'analyse et permet à l'utilisateur de la lire. events est une séquence d'événements à signaler. Les événements pris en charge sont les chaînes "start", "end", "comment", "pi", "start-ns" et "end-ns" (les événements "ns" sont utilisés pour obtenir des informations détaillées sur les espaces de noms). Si events est omis, seuls les événements "end" sont rapportés.

feed(data)

Transmet les données d’octets à l’analyseur.

flush()

Triggers parsing of any previously fed unparsed data, which can be used to ensure more immediate feedback, in particular with Expat >=2.6.0. The implementation of flush() temporarily disables reparse deferral with Expat (if currently enabled) and triggers a reparse. Disabling reparse deferral has security consequences; please see xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.SetReparseDeferralEnabled() for details.

Note that flush() has been backported to some prior releases of CPython as a security fix. Check for availability of flush() using hasattr() if used in code running across a variety of Python versions.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

close()

Signale à l'analyseur que le flux de données est terminé. Contrairement à XMLParser.close(), cette méthode renvoie toujours None. Tous les événements non encore récupérés lorsque l'analyseur est fermé peuvent toujours être lus avec read_events().

read_events()

Renvoie un itérateur sur les événements qui ont été rencontrés dans les données fournies à l'analyseur. L'itérateur génère des paires (event, elem), où event est une chaîne représentant le type d'événement (par exemple "end") et elem est l'objet Element rencontré, ou une autre valeur de contexte comme suit.

start, end : l'élément actuel.

comment, pi : le commentaire ou l'instruction de traitement actuel

start-ns : couple (prefix, uri) nommant la correspondance d'espace de noms déclarée.

end-ns : None (cela peut changer dans une version future)

Les événements fournis lors d'un appel précédent à read_events() ne seront plus renvoyés. Les événements sont consommés à partir de la file d'attente interne uniquement lorsqu'ils sont récupérés de l'itérateur, donc plusieurs lecteurs itérant en parallèle sur les itérateurs obtenus à partir de read_events() auront des résultats imprévisibles.

Note

XMLPullParser garantit uniquement qu'il a vu le caractère ">" d'une balise de début lorsqu'il émet un événement "start", donc les attributs sont définis, mais le contenu des attributs text et tail n'est pas défini à ce stade. La même chose s'applique aux nœuds enfants de l'élément ; ils peuvent être présents ou non.

Si vous avez besoin d'un élément entièrement rempli, recherchez plutôt les événements "end".

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: les évènements comment et pi ont été ajoutés.

Exceptions

class xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError

Erreur d'analyse XML, générée par les différentes méthodes d'analyse de ce module lorsque l'analyse échoue. La représentation sous forme de chaîne d'une instance de cette exception contient un message d'erreur convivial. De plus, elle possède les attributs suivants :

code

Code d'erreur numérique de l'analyseur expat. Voir la documentation de xml.parsers.expat pour la liste des codes d'erreur et leur signification.

position

Un n-uplet de numéros de ligne et colonne indiquant le lieu d'apparition de l'erreur.

Notes

[1] (1,2,3,4)

La chaîne de caractères encodée inclue dans la sortie XML doit être conforme aux standards. Par exemple, "UTF-8" est valide, mais pas "UTF8". Voir https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl et https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml.

xml.dom --- The Document Object Model API

Code source: Lib/xml/dom/__init__.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/xml/dom/__init__.py]

Le Document Object Model, ou "DOM," est une API inter-langage du World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) pour accéder et modifier les documents XML. Une implémentation DOM présente le document XML comme un arbre ou autorise le code client à construire une telle structure depuis zéro. Il permet alors d'accéder à la structure à l'aide d'un ensemble d'objet qui fournissent des interfaces bien connues.

Le DOM est extrêmement utile pour les applications à accès aléatoire. SAX ne vous permet de visualiser qu'un seul morceau du document à la fois. Si vous regardez un élément SAX, vous n'avez pas accès à un autre. Si vous regardez un nœud de texte, vous n'avez pas accès à un élément parent. Lorsque vous écrivez une application SAX, vous devez suivre la position de votre programme dans le document quelque part dans votre propre code. SAX ne le fait pas pour vous. De plus, si vous devez examiner un nœud plus lus loin dans le document XML, vous n'avez pas de chance.

Il est tout simplement impossible d'implémenter certains algorithmes avec un modèle évènementiel, sans un accès à un arbre. Bien sûr, vous pourriez construire vous même un arbre à partir des événements SAX mais DOM vous permet d'éviter d'écrire ce code. Le DOM est représentation standard en arbre pour des données XML.

Le DOM (Document Object Model) est défini par le W3C en étapes ou "levels" (niveaux) selon leur terminologie. Le couplage de l'API de Python est essentiellement basée sur la recommandation DOM Level 2.

Typiquement, les applications DOM commencent par analyser du XML dans du DOM. Comment cela doit être exposé n'est absolument pas décrit par DOM Level 1 et Level 2 ne fournit que des améliorations limités. Il existe une classe DOMImplementation qui fournit un accès à des méthodes de création de Document mais il n'y a pas de moyen d'accéder à un lecteur/analyseur/constructeur de document de façon indépendante de l'implémentation. Il n'est pas également très bien définis comment accéder à ces méthodes sans un objet Document. En Python, chaque implémentation fournira une fonction getDOMImplementation() . DOM Level 3 ajoute une spécification Load/Store (charge/stocke) qui définie une interface pour le lecteur mais qui n'est pas disponible dans la bibliothèque standard de Python.

Une fois que vous avez un objet document DOM, vous pouvez accéder aux parties de votre document XML à travers ses méthodes et propriétés. Ces propriétés sont définis dans les spécifications DOM ; cette portion du manuel de références décrit l'interprétation des ces spécifications en Python.

Les spécifications fournies par le W3C définissent les API DOM pour Java, ECMAScript, et OMG IDL. Les correspondances de Python définies ici sont basées pour une grande part sur la version IDL de la spécification mais une conformité stricte n'est pas requise (bien que ces implémentations soient libre d'implémenter le support strict des correspondances de IDL). Voir la section Conformité pour une discussion détaillée des pré-requis des correspondances.

Voir aussi

Document Object Model (DOM) Level 2 Specification [https://www.w3.org/TR/2000/REC-DOM-Level-2-Core-20001113/]

La recommandation W3C sur laquelle l'API DOM de Python est basée.

Spécification Level 1 Document Object Model (DOM) [https://www.w3.org/TR/REC-DOM-Level-1/]

La recommandation du W3C pour le DOM supporté par xml.dom.minidom.

Python Language Mapping Specification [https://www.omg.org/spec/PYTH/1.2/PDF]

Ceci spécifies les correspondances depuis OMG IDL vers Python.

Contenu du module

The xml.dom contains the following functions:

xml.dom.registerDOMImplementation(name, factory)

Enregistre la fonction factory avec le nom name. La fonction factory doit renvoyer un objet qui implémente l'interface de DOMImplementation. La fonction factory peut renvoyer le même objet à chaque fois ou un nouveau à chaque appel en accord avec les spécificités de l'implémentation (Par exemple si l'implémentation supporte certaines personnalisations).

xml.dom.getDOMImplementation(name=None, features=())

Renvoie une implémentation DOM appropriée. Le name est soit connu, soit le nom du module d'une implémentation DOM, soit None. Si ce n'est pas None, le module correspondant est importé et retourne un objet DOMImplementation si l'importation réussit. Si Aucun name n'est donné et que la variable d'environnement PYTHON_DOM est positionnée, cette variable est utilisée pour trouver l'implémentation.

Si name n'est pas donné, la fonction examine les implémentations disponibles pour en trouver une avec l'ensemble des fonctionnalités requises. Si aucune implémentation n'est trouvée, une ImportError est levée. La liste de fonctionnalité doit être une séquence de paires (feature, version) qui est passée à la méthode hasFeature() disponible dans les objets DOMImplementation.

Quelques constantes pratiques sont également fournies :

xml.dom.EMPTY_NAMESPACE

La valeur utilisée pour indiquer qu'aucun espace de noms n'est associé à un nœud dans le DOM. Typiquement, ceci est trouvé comme namespaceURI dans un nœud ou utilisé comme le paramètre namespaceURI dans une méthode spécifique aux espaces de noms.

xml.dom.XML_NAMESPACE

L'URI de l'espace de noms associé avec le préfixe réservé xml comme défini par Namespaces in XML [https://www.w3.org/TR/REC-xml-names/] (section 4).

xml.dom.XMLNS_NAMESPACE

L'URI de l'espace de noms pour la déclaration des espaces de noms, tel que défini par Document Object Model (DOM) Level 2 Core Specification [https://www.w3.org/TR/DOM-Level-2-Core/core.html] (section 1.1.8).

xml.dom.XHTML_NAMESPACE

L'URI de l'espace de noms XHTML tel que défini par XHTML 1.0: The Extensible HyperText Markup Language [https://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/] (section 3.1.1).

In addition, xml.dom contains a base Node class and the DOM exception classes. The Node class provided by this module does not implement any of the methods or attributes defined by the DOM specification; concrete DOM implementations must provide those. The Node class provided as part of this module does provide the constants used for the nodeType attribute on concrete Node objects; they are located within the class rather than at the module level to conform with the DOM specifications.

Objets dans le DOM

La documentation finale pour le DOM est la spécification DOM du W3C.

Notez que les attributs DOM peuvent également être manipulés comme des nœuds au lieu de simples chaînes. Il est relativement rare que vous ayez besoin de faire cela, cependant, cet usage n'est pas encore documenté.

Interface

Section

Objectif

DOMImplementation

Objets DOMImplementation

Interface de l'implémentation sous-jacente.

Node

Objets nœuds

Interface de base pour la majorité des objets dans un document.

NodeList

Objet NodeList

Interface pour une séquence de nœuds.

DocumentType

Objets DocumnentType

Informations sur les déclarations nécessaires au traitement d'un document.

Document

Objets Document

Objet représentant un document entier.

Element

Objets Elements

Nœuds éléments dans la hiérarchie d'un document.

Attr

Objets Attr

Valeur des nœuds attributs sur dans des nœuds éléments.

Comment

Objets Comment

Représentation des commentaires dans le fichier source du document.

Text

Objets Text et CDATASection

Nœud contenant un contenu texte du document.

ProcessingInstruction

Objets ProcessingInstruction

Représentation des Processing Instructions.

Une Section additionnelle décrit les exceptions définis pour travailler avec le DOM en Python.

Objets DOMImplementation

L'interface DOMImplementation fournit un moyen pour les applications de déterminer la disponibilité de fonctionnalités particulières dans le DOM qu'elles utilisent. DOM Level 2 ajoute la capacité de créer des nouveaux objets Document et DocumentType utilisant également DOMImplementation.

DOMImplementation.hasFeature(feature, version)

Renvoie True si la fonctionnalité identifiée par le couple de chaînes feature et version est implémentée.

DOMImplementation.createDocument(namespaceUri, qualifiedName, doctype)

Renvoie un nouvel objet Document (la racine du DOM), avec un objet fils Element ayant les namespaceUri et qualifiedName passés en paramètre. Le doctype doit être un objet DocumentType créé par createDocumentType() ou None. Dans l'API DOM de Python, les deux premiers arguments peuvent également être à None de manière à indiquer qu'aucun enfant Element ne soit crée.

DOMImplementation.createDocumentType(qualifiedName, publicId, systemId)

Renvoie un nouvel objet DocumentType qui encapsule les chaînes qualifiedName, publicId, et systemId passées en paramètre représentant les informations contenues dans dans la déclaration du document XML.

Objets nœuds

Tous les composants d'un document XML sont des sous-classes de Node.

Node.nodeType

Un entier représentant le type de nœud. Pour l'objet Node, les constantes symboliques pour les types sont ELEMENT_NODE, ATTRIBUTE_NODE, TEXT_NODE, CDATA_SECTION_NODE, ENTITY_NODE, PROCESSING_INSTRUCTION_NODE, COMMENT_NODE, DOCUMENT_NODE, DOCUMENT_TYPE_NODE, NOTATION_NODE. Ceci est un attribut en lecture seule.

Node.parentNode

Le parent du nœud courant ou None dans le cas du nœud document. La valeur est toujours un objet Node ou None. Pour les nœuds Element, ce sera le parent de l'élément sauf si l'élément est la racine, dans ce cas ce sera l'objet Document. Pour les nœuds Attr, cela sera toujours None. Ceci est un attribut en lecture seule.

Node.attributes

Un objet NamedNodeMap d'objet attributs. Seulement les éléments ayant des valeurs seront listés, les autres renverront None pour cet attribut. Cet attribut est en lecture seule.

Node.previousSibling

Le nœud avec le même parent qui précède immédiatement le nœud courant. Par exemple, l'élément avec la balise fermente qui est juste avant la balise ouvrante de l'élément self. Naturellement, les documents XML sont fait de plus que juste des éléments ; donc le previous sibling peut être du texte, un commentaire ou autre chose. Si le nœud courant est le premier fils du parent, cet attribut vaudra None. Cet attribut est en lecture seule.

Node.nextSibling

Le nœud qui suit immédiatement le nœud courant dans le même parent. Voir également previousSibling. Si ce nœud est le dernier de son parent, alors l'attribut sera None. Cet attribut est en lecture seule.

Node.childNodes

Une liste de nœuds contenu dans le nœud courant. Cet attribut est en lecture seule.

Node.firstChild

S'il y a des fils, premier fils du nœud courant, sinon None. Cet attribut est en lecture seule.

Node.lastChild

S'il y a des fils, le dernier nœud fils du nœud courant. Sinon None. Cet attribut est en lecture seule.

Node.localName

S'il y a un :, contient la partie suivante de tagName ce : sinon la valeur complète de tagName. Cette valeur est une chaîne.

Node.prefix

La partie de tagName précédent le : s'il y en a un. sinon une chaîne vide. La valeur est une chaîne ou None.

Node.namespaceURI

L'espace de noms associé (namespace en anglais) au nom de l'élément. Cette valeur est une chaîne ou None. Cet attribut est en lecture seule.

Node.nodeName

L'attribut a un sens différent pour chaque type de nœud ; se reporter à la spécification DOM pour les détails. Vous obtiendrez toujours l'information que vous obtiendrez à l'aide d'une autre propriété comme tagName pour les éléments ou name pour les attributs. Pour tous les types de nœuds, la valeur sera soit une chaîne soit None. Cet attribut est en lecture seule.

Node.nodeValue

L'attribut a un sens différent pour chaque type de nœud ; se reporter à la spécification DOM pour les détails. La situation est similaire à nodeName. La valeur est une chaîne ou None.

Node.hasAttributes()

Renvoie True si le nœud a des attributs.

Node.hasChildNodes()

Renvoie True si le nœud a des nœuds fils.

Node.isSameNode(other)

Renvoie True si other fait référence au même nœud que le nœud courant. Ceci est particulièrement pratique pour une implémentation de DOM qui utilise un ou des mandataires dans son architecture (car plus d'un objet peut se référer au même nœud).

Note

Ceci est basé sur l'API proposé par * DOM Level 3* qui est toujours à l'étape "working draft" mais cette interface particulière ne parait pas controversée. Les changement du W3C n'affecteront pas nécessairement cette méthode dans l'interface DOM de Python. (bien que toute nouvelle API W3C à cet effet soit également supportée).

Node.appendChild(newChild)

Ajoute un nouveau nœud fils à ce nœud à la fin de la liste des fils renvoyant newChild. Si ce nœud est déjà dans l'arbre, il sera d'abord retiré.

Node.insertBefore(newChild, refChild)

Insère un nouveau nœud fils avant un fils existant. Il est impératif que refChild soit un fils du nœud, sinon ValueError sera levée. newChild est renvoyé. Si refChild est None, newChild est inséré à la fin de la liste des fils.

Node.removeChild(oldChild)

Retire un nœud fils. oldChild doit être un fils de ce nœud ; sinon ValueError sera levée. En cas de succès, oldChild est renvoyé. Si oldChild n'est plus utilisé, sa méthode unlink() doit être appelée.

Node.replaceChild(newChild, oldChild)

Remplace un nœud existant avec un nouveau. oldChild doit être un fils de ce nœud ; sinon ValueError sera levée.

Node.normalize()

Jointe les nœuds texte adjacents de manière à ce que tous les segments de texte soient stockés dans une seule instance de Text. Ceci simplifie le traitement du texte d'un arbre DOM pour de nombreuses applications.

Node.cloneNode(deep)

Clone ce nœud. Positionner deep signifie que tous les nœuds fils seront également clonés. La méthode renvoi le clone.

Objet NodeList

NodeList représente une séquence de nœuds. Ces objets sont utilisés de deux manières dans la recommandation Dom Core : un objet Element fournit en fournis liste des nœud fils et les méthodes getElementsByTagName() et getElementsByTagNameNS() de Node renvoient des objet avec cette interface pour représenter les résultats des requêtes.

La recommandation DOM Level 2 définit un attribut et une méthode pour ces objets :

NodeList.item(i)

Renvoie le ie élément de la séquence s'il existe ou None. L'index i ne peut pas être inférieur à 0 ou supérieur ou égale à la longueur de la séquence.

NodeList.length

Le nombre d'éléments dans la séquence.

En plus, l'interface DOM de Python requiert quelques ajouts supplémentaires pour permettre que les objet NodeList puissent être utilisés comme des séquences Python. Toutes les implémentations de NodeList doivent inclure le support de __len__() et de __getitem__() ; ceci permet l'itération sur NodeList avec l'instruction for et un support de la fonction native len().

Si une implémentation de DOM support les modifications du document, l'implémentation de NodeList doit également supporter les méthodes __setitem__() et __delitem__() .

Objets DocumnentType

Les objets de type DocumentType fournissent des informations sur les notations et les entités déclarées par un document (incluant les données externes si l'analyseur les utilise et peut les fournir). Le DocumentType d'un Document est accessible via l'attribut doctype. Si le document ne déclare pas de DOCTYPE, l'attribut doctype vaudra None plutôt qu'une instance de cette interface.

DocumentType est une spécialisation de Node et ajoute les attributs suivants :

DocumentType.publicId

L'identifiant publique pour un sous ensemble de la définition type de document (DTD). Cela sera une chaîne ou None.

DocumentType.systemId

L'identifiant système pour un sous ensemble du document de définition type (DTD). Cela sera une URI sous la forme d'une chaîne ou None.

DocumentType.internalSubset

Un chaîne donnant le sous ensemble complet du document. Ceci n'inclut pas les chevrons qui englobe le sous ensemble. Si le document n'a pas de sous ensemble, cela devrait être None.

DocumentType.name

Le nom de l'élément racine donné dans la déclaration DOCTYPE si présente.

DocumentType.entities

Ceci est un NamedNodeMap donnant les définitions des entités externes. Pour les entités définies plusieurs fois seule la première définition est fournie (les suivantes sont ignorées comme requis par la recommandation XML). Ceci peut retourner None si l'information n'est pas fournie à l'analyseur ou si aucune entités n'est définis.

DocumentType.notations

Ceci est un NamedNodeMap donnant la définition des notations. Pour les notations définies plus d'une fois, seule la première est fournie (les suivante sont ignorées comme requis par la recommandation XML). Ceci peut retourner None si l'information n'est pas fournie à l'analyseur ou si aucune entités n'est définis.

Objets Document

Un Document représente un document XML en son entier, incluant les éléments qui le constitue, les attributs, les processing instructions, commentaires, etc. Rappelez vous qu'il hérite des propriété de Node.

Document.documentElement

Le seul et unique élément racine du document.

Document.createElement(tagName)

Créé et renvoi un nouveau nœud élément. Ce n'est pas inséré dans le document quand il est créé. Vous avez besoin de l'insérer explicitement avec l'une des autres méthodes comme insertBefore() ou appendChild().

Document.createElementNS(namespaceURI, tagName)

Créé et renvoi un nouvel élément avec un namespace. Le tagName peut avoir un préfixe. L'élément ne sera pas insérer dans le document quand il est créé. Vous avez besoin de l'insérer explicitement avec l'une des autres méthodes comme insertBefore() ou appendChild().

Document.createTextNode(data)

Créé et renvoi un nœud texte contenant les data passées en paramètre. Comme pour les autres méthodes de création, la méthode n'insère pas le nœud dans l'arbre.

Document.createComment(data)

Créé et renvoi un nœud commentaire contenant les data passé en commentaire. Comme pour les autres méthodes de création, la méthode n'insère pas le nœud dans l'arbre.

Document.createProcessingInstruction(target, data)

Créé et retourne un nœud processing instruction contenant les target et data passés en paramètres. Comme pour les autres méthodes de création, la méthode n'insère pas le nœud dans l'arbre.

Document.createAttribute(name)

Créé et renvoi un nœud attribut. Cette méthode n'associe le nœud attribut aucun nœud en particulier. Vous devez utiliser la méthode setAttributeNode() sur un objet Element approprié pour utiliser une instance d'attribut nouvellement créé.

Document.createAttributeNS(namespaceURI, qualifiedName)

Créé et renvoi un nœud attribut avec un namespace. Le tagName peut avoir un préfixe. Cette méthode n'associe le nœud attribut à aucun nœud en particulier. Vous devez utiliser la méthode setAttributeNode() sur un objet Element approprié pour utiliser une instance d'attribut nouvellement créé.

Document.getElementsByTagName(tagName)

Cherche tout les descendants (fils directs, fils de fils, etc.) avec un nom de balise particulier.

Document.getElementsByTagNameNS(namespaceURI, localName)

Cherche tous les descendants (fils directs, fils de fils, etc.) avec un namespace URI particulier et un localName. Le localName fait parti du namespace après le préfixe.

Objets Elements

Element est une une sous classe de Node et donc hérite de tout les éléments de cette classe.

Element.tagName

Le nom de l'élément type. Dans un document utilisant des namespace, il pourrait y avoir des : dedans. La valeur est une chaîne.

Element.getElementsByTagName(tagName)

Identique à la méthode équivalente de la classe Document.

Element.getElementsByTagNameNS(namespaceURI, localName)

Identique à la méthode équivalente de la classe Document.

Element.hasAttribute(name)

Renvoie True si l'élément a un attribut nommé name.

Element.hasAttributeNS(namespaceURI, localName)

Renvoie True si l'élément a un attribut nommé localName dans l'espace de noms namespaceURI.

Element.getAttribute(name)

Retourne la valeur de l'attribut nommé par name comme une chaîne. Si un tel attribue n'existe pas, une chaîne vide est retournée comme si l'attribut n'avait aucune valeur.

Element.getAttributeNode(attrname)

Retourne le nœud Attr pour l'attribut nommé par attrname.

Element.getAttributeNS(namespaceURI, localName)

Renvoi la valeur de l'attribut nommé par namespaceURI et localName comme une chaîne. Si un tel attribue n'existe pas, une chaîne vide est retournée comme si l'attribut n'avait aucune valeur.

Element.getAttributeNodeNS(namespaceURI, localName)

Renvoi la valeur de l'attribue comme un nœud étant donné namespaceURI et localName.

Element.removeAttribute(name)

Retire un attribut nommé name. S'il n'y a aucun attribut correspondant une NotFoundErr est levée.

Element.removeAttributeNode(oldAttr)

Supprime et renvoi oldAttr de la liste des attributs si présent. Si oldAttr n'est pas présent, NotFoundErr est levée.

Element.removeAttributeNS(namespaceURI, localName)

Retire un attribut selon son nom. Notez qu'il utilise un localName et nom un qname. Aucune exception n'est levée s'il n'y a pas d'attribut correspondant.

Element.setAttribute(name, value)

Assigne la valeur à un attribut pour la chaîne.

Element.setAttributeNode(newAttr)

Ajoute un nouveau nœud attribut à l'élément, remplaçant un attribut existant si nécessaire si name corresponds à un attribut. Si l'attribut en remplace un précédent, l'ancien attribut sera retourné. Si newAttr est déjà utilisé, InuseAttributeErr sera levée.

Element.setAttributeNodeNS(newAttr)

Ajoute un nouveau nœud attribut, remplaçant un attribut existant si namespaceURI et localName corresponds à un attribut. S'il y a remplacement, l'ancien nœud sera renvoyé. Si newAttr est déjà utilisé, InuseAttributeErr sera levée.

Element.setAttributeNS(namespaceURI, qname, value)

Assigne la valeur d'un attribut depuis une chaîne étant donnée un namespaceURI et un qname. Notez que qname est le nom de l'attribut en entier. Ceci est différent d'au dessus.

Objets Attr

Attr hérite Node et donc hérite de tout ces attributs.

Attr.name

Le nom de l'attribut. Dans un document utilisant des namespaces, il pourra inclure un :.

Attr.localName

La partie du nom suivant le : s'il y en a un ou le nom entier sinon. Ceci est un attribut en lecture seule.

Attr.prefix

La partie du nom précédent le : s'il y en a un ou une chaîne vide.

Attr.value

La valeur texte de l'attribut. C'est un synonyme de l'attribut nodeValue.

Objets NameNodeMap

NamedNodeMap n'hérite pas de Node.

NamedNodeMap.length

La longueur de la liste d'attributs.

NamedNodeMap.item(index)

Renvoi un attribut à un index particulier. L'ordre des attribut est arbitraire mais sera constant durant toute la vie du DOM. Chacun des item sera un nœud attribut. Obtenez sa valeur avec value de l'attribut.

There are also experimental methods that give this class more mapping behavior. You can use them or you can use the standardized getAttribute*() family of methods on the Element objects.

Objets Comment

Comment représente un commentaire dans le document XML. C'est une sous classe Node mais n'a aucune nœuds fils.

Comment.data

Le contenu du commentaire comme une chaîne. L'attribut contient tous les caractères entre <!-- et --> mais ne les inclues pas.

Objets Text et CDATASection

L'interface Text représente le texte dans un document XML. Si l'analyseur et l'implémentation DOM supporte les extensions XML du DOM, les portion de texte encapsulées dans des section marquées CDATA seront stockées dans des objets CDATASection. Ces deux interfaces sont identiques mais fournissent des valeurs différentes pour l'attribut nodeType.

Ces interfaces étendent l'interface Node. Elles ne peuvent pas avoir de nœuds fils.

Text.data

Le contenu du nœud texte comme une chaîne.

Note

L'utilisation d'un nœud CDATASection n'indique pas que le nœud représente une section complète marquée CDATA, seulement que le contenu du nœud est le contenu d'une section CDATA. Une seule section CDATA peut représenter plus d'un nœud dans l'arbre du document. Il n'y a aucun moyen de déterminer si deux nœuds CDATASection adjacents représentent différentes sections CDATA.

Objets ProcessingInstruction

Représente une processing instruction dans un document XML. Hérite de l'interface Node et ne peut avoir aucun nœud fils.

ProcessingInstruction.target

Le contenu de la processing instruction jusqu'au premier caractère blanc. Cet attribut est en lecture seule.

ProcessingInstruction.data

Le contenu de la processing instruction après le premier caractère blanc.

Exceptions

La recommandation DOM Level 2 définie une seule exception DOMException et un nombre de constantes qui permettent aux applications à déterminer quelle type d'erreur s'est produit. Les instances de DOMException ont un attribut code qui fourni une valeur approprié pour une exception spécifique.

L'interface DOM de Python fournit des constant mais également étends un ensemble d'exception pour qu'il existe une exception spécifique pour chaque code d'exception défini par le DOM. L'implémentation doit lever l'exception spécifique appropriée. Chacune ayant la valeur appropriée pour l'attribut code.

exception xml.dom.DOMException

Exception de base utilisée pour toutes les exceptions spécifiques du DOM. Cette classe ne peut pas être instanciée directement.

exception xml.dom.DomstringSizeErr

Levée quand un intervalle spécifique de texte ne rentre pas dans une chaîne. Cette exception n'est pas réputée être utilisée par les implémentations DOM de Python mais elle peur être levée par des implémentations de DOM qui ne sont pas écrite en Python.

exception xml.dom.HierarchyRequestErr

Levée quand l'insertion d'un nœud est tentée dans un type de nœud incompatible.

exception xml.dom.IndexSizeErr

Levée quand un index ou la taille d'un paramètre d'une méthode est négatif ou excède les valeurs autorisées.

exception xml.dom.InuseAttributeErr

Levée quand l'insertion d'un nœud Attr est tenté alors que ce nœud est déjà présent ailleurs dans le document.

exception xml.dom.InvalidAccessErr

Levée si un paramètre ou une opération n'est pas supporté par l'objet sous-jacent.

exception xml.dom.InvalidCharacterErr

Cette exception est levée quand un paramètre chaîne contient un caractère qui n'est pas autorisé dans le contexte utilisé par la recommandation XML 1.0. Par exemple, lors la tentative de création d'un nœud Element avec un espace dans le nom de l'élément.

exception xml.dom.InvalidModificationErr

Levée lors de la tentative de modifier le type de nœud.

exception xml.dom.InvalidStateErr

Levée quand une tentative est faite d'utiliser un objet non défini ou qui ne sont plus utilisables.

exception xml.dom.NamespaceErr

Si une tentative est faite de changer un objet d'une manière qui n'est pas autorisée selon la recommandation Namespaces in XML [https://www.w3.org/TR/REC-xml-names/] , cette exception est levée.

exception xml.dom.NotFoundErr

Exception quand un nœud n'existe pas dans le contexte référencé. Par exemple, NamedNodeMap.removeNamedItem() lèvera cette exception si le nœud passé n'appartient pas à la séquence.

exception xml.dom.NotSupportedErr

Levée si l'implémentation ne supporte pas le type d'objet requis ou l'opération.

exception xml.dom.NoDataAllowedErr

Levée si la donnée spécifiée pour un nœud n'est pas supportée.

exception xml.dom.NoModificationAllowedErr

Levée lors de la tentative de modification sur objet où les modifications ne sont pas autorisées (tels que les nœuds en lecture seule).

exception xml.dom.SyntaxErr

Levée quand une chaîne invalide ou illégale est spécifiée.

exception xml.dom.WrongDocumentErr

Levée quand un nœud est inséré dans un document différent de celui auquel il appartient et que l'implémentation ne supporte pas la migration d'un document à un autre.

Les codes d'exceptions définis par la recommandation DOM avec leurs correspondances décrites si dessous selon ce tableau :

Constante

Exception

DOMSTRING_SIZE_ERR

DomstringSizeErr

HIERARCHY_REQUEST_ERR

HierarchyRequestErr

INDEX_SIZE_ERR

IndexSizeErr

INUSE_ATTRIBUTE_ERR

InuseAttributeErr

INVALID_ACCESS_ERR

InvalidAccessErr

INVALID_CHARACTER_ERR

InvalidCharacterErr

INVALID_MODIFICATION_ERR

InvalidModificationErr

INVALID_STATE_ERR

InvalidStateErr

NAMESPACE_ERR

NamespaceErr

NOT_FOUND_ERR

NotFoundErr

NOT_SUPPORTED_ERR

NotSupportedErr

NO_DATA_ALLOWED_ERR

NoDataAllowedErr

NO_MODIFICATION_ALLOWED_ERR

NoModificationAllowedErr

SYNTAX_ERR

SyntaxErr

WRONG_DOCUMENT_ERR

WrongDocumentErr

Conformité

Cette section décrit la conformité des pré requis et des relations entre l'API DOM de Python, les recommandations W3C DOM et les correspondances OMG IDL pour Python.

Correspondance des types

Les types IDL utilisés dans la spécification DOM correspondent aux types Python selon le tableau suivant.

Type IDL

Type Python

boolean

bool ou int

int

int

long int

int

unsigned int

int

DOMString

str or bytes

null

None

Méthodes d'accès

Les correspondance de OMG IDL vers Python définissent des fonction d'accès pour les déclarations attribut d'IDL à la manière dont Java le fait. Correspondance des déclarations IDL

readonly attribute string someValue;
         attribute string anotherValue;

donne trois fonctions d'accès : une méthode get pour someValue (_get_someValue()) et des méthodes get et set pour anotherValue (_get_anotherValue() et _set_anotherValue()). Le mapping, en particulier, ne requiert pas que les attributs IDL soient accessible comme des attributs Python normaux : object.someValue n'est pas requis de fonctionner et peut lever une AttributeError.

Cependant, l'API DOM de Python impose que les accès par attributs classiques fonctionnent. Par conséquent, les substituts générés par le compilateur IDL de Python ne fonctionneront probablement pas, et des objets façade pourraient être nécessaires côté client si les objets DOM sont manipulés via CORBA. Bien qu'utiliser un client DOM CORBA nécessite une bonne réflexion, les développeurs habitués et expérimentés à l'utilisation de CORBA ne considèrent pas que c'est un problème. Les attributs déclarés readonly pourraient ne pas voir leur accès en écriture restreint dans toutes les implémentations du DOM.

Dans l'API DOM de Python, les fonctions d'accès ne sont pas requises. Si elles sont fournies, elles doivent prendre la forme définie par le mapping de Python IDL, mais ces méthodes sont considérées inutiles car les attributs sont directement accessible depuis Python. Les fonctions d'accès "Set" ne devraient jamais être fournies pour les attributs readonly (en lecture seule).

Les définitions IDL n'embarquent pas entièrement les pré-requis de l'API de DOM API telle que la notion de objets ou que la valeur de retour de getElementsByTagName() est dynamique. L'API DOM de Python ne requiert pas des implémentations d'avoir de tel pré-requis.

xml.dom.minidom --- Minimal DOM implementation

Code source: Lib/xml/dom/minidom.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/xml/dom/minidom.py]

xml.dom.minidom is a minimal implementation of the Document Object Model interface, with an API similar to that in other languages. It is intended to be simpler than the full DOM and also significantly smaller. Users who are not already proficient with the DOM should consider using the xml.etree.ElementTree module for their XML processing instead.

Note

If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data, see XML security.

DOM applications typically start by parsing some XML into a DOM. With xml.dom.minidom, this is done through the parse functions:

from xml.dom.minidom import parse, parseString

dom1 = parse('c:\\temp\\mydata.xml')  # parse an XML file by name

datasource = open('c:\\temp\\mydata.xml')
dom2 = parse(datasource)  # parse an open file

dom3 = parseString('<myxml>Some data<empty/> some more data</myxml>')

La fonction parse() peut prendre soit un nom de fichier, soit un objet fichier ouvert.

xml.dom.minidom.parse(filename_or_file, parser=None, bufsize=None)

Renvoie un Document à partir de l'entrée donnée. filename_or_file peut être soit un nom de fichier, soit un objet simili-fichier. parser, s'il est donné, doit être un objet analyseur SAX2. Cette fonction modifie le pointeur vers le document de l'analyseur et active la prise en charge des espaces de noms ; les autres configurations de l'analyseur (comme la définition d'un résolveur d'entité) doivent avoir été effectuées à l'avance.

Si votre XML se trouve dans une chaîne, vous pouvez utiliser la fonction parseString() à la place :

xml.dom.minidom.parseString(string, parser=None)

Renvoie un Document qui représente string. Cette méthode crée un objet io.StringIO pour la chaîne et le transmet à parse().

Les deux fonctions renvoient un objet Document représentant le contenu du document.

What the parse() and parseString() functions do is connect an XML parser with a "DOM builder" that can accept parse events from any SAX parser and convert them into a DOM tree. The names of the functions are perhaps misleading, but are easy to grasp when learning the interfaces. The parsing of the document will be completed before these functions return; it's simply that these functions do not provide a parser implementation themselves.

You can also create a Document by calling a method on a "DOM Implementation" object. You can get this object either by calling the getDOMImplementation() function in the xml.dom package or the xml.dom.minidom module. Once you have a Document, you can add child nodes to it to populate the DOM:

from xml.dom.minidom import getDOMImplementation

impl = getDOMImplementation()

newdoc = impl.createDocument(None, "some_tag", None)
top_element = newdoc.documentElement
text = newdoc.createTextNode('Some textual content.')
top_element.appendChild(text)

Une fois que vous disposez d'un objet document DOM, vous pouvez accéder aux parties de votre document XML via ses propriétés et méthodes. Ces propriétés sont définies dans la spécification DOM. La propriété principale de l'objet document est la propriété documentElement. Il vous donne l'élément principal du document XML : celui qui contient tous les autres. Voici un exemple de programme :

dom3 = parseString("<myxml>Some data</myxml>")
assert dom3.documentElement.tagName == "myxml"

When you are finished with a DOM tree, you may optionally call the unlink() method to encourage early cleanup of the now-unneeded objects. unlink() is an xml.dom.minidom-specific extension to the DOM API that renders the node and its descendants essentially useless. Otherwise, Python's garbage collector will eventually take care of the objects in the tree.

Voir aussi

Spécification Level 1 Document Object Model (DOM) [https://www.w3.org/TR/REC-DOM-Level-1/]

The W3C recommendation for the DOM supported by xml.dom.minidom.

Objets DOM

The definition of the DOM API for Python is given as part of the xml.dom module documentation. This section lists the differences between the API and xml.dom.minidom.

Node.unlink()

Casse les références internes dans le DOM afin qu'elles soient récupérées sur les versions de Python sans ramasse-miettes cyclique. Même lorsque le ramasse-miettes cyclique est disponible, son utilisation peut libérer de grandes quantités de mémoire disponibles plus tôt, donc l'appeler sur les objets DOM dès qu'ils ne sont plus nécessaires est une bonne pratique. Il est suffisant de l'appeler sur l'objet Document, mais peut être appelée sur les nœuds enfants pour éliminer les enfants de ce nœud.

Vous pouvez éviter d'appeler cette méthode explicitement en utilisant l'instruction with. Le code suivant dissocie automatiquement dom lorsque le bloc with est quitté :

with xml.dom.minidom.parse(datasource) as dom:
    ... # Work with dom.

Node.writexml(writer, indent='', addindent='', newl='', encoding=None, standalone=None)

Écrit du XML dans l'objet writer. Cet objet reçoit du texte mais pas des octets en entrée, il doit avoir une méthode write() qui correspond à celle de l'interface objet fichier. Le paramètre indent est l'indentation du nœud actuel. Le paramètre addindent est l'indentation incrémentielle à utiliser pour les sous-nœuds du nœud actuel. Le paramètre newl spécifie la chaîne à utiliser pour terminer les nouvelles lignes.

Pour le nœud Document, un argument nommé supplémentaire encoding peut être utilisé pour spécifier le champ d'encodage de l'en-tête XML.

De même, l'indication explicite de l'argument standalone entraîne l'ajout des déclarations de document autonome au prologue du document XML. Si la valeur est définie sur True, standalone="yes" est ajoutée, sinon elle est définie sur "no". Par défaut la déclaration n'est pas écrite dans le document.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: la méthode writexml() préserve désormais l'ordre des attributs spécifié par l'utilisateur.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: le paramètre standalone a été ajouté.

Node.toxml(encoding=None, standalone=None)

Renvoie une chaîne ou une chaîne d'octets contenant le XML représenté par le nœud DOM.

Avec un argument explicite encoding [1], le résultat est une chaîne d'octets dans l'encodage spécifié. Sans argument encoding, le résultat est une chaîne Unicode et la déclaration XML dans la chaîne résultante ne spécifie pas d'encodage. Encoder cette chaîne dans un codage autre que UTF-8 est probablement incorrect, puisque UTF-8 est l'encodage par défaut de XML.

L'argument standalone se comporte exactement comme dans writexml().

Modifié dans la version 3.8: la méthode toxml() préserve désormais l'ordre des attributs spécifié par l'utilisateur.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: le paramètre standalone a été ajouté.

Node.toprettyxml(indent='\t', newl='\n', encoding=None, standalone=None)

Renvoie une version du document agréablement mise en forme. indent spécifie la chaîne d'indentation et est par défaut une tabulation ; newl spécifie la chaîne émise à la fin de chaque ligne et la valeur par défaut est \n.

L'argument encoding se comporte comme l'argument correspondant de toxml().

L'argument standalone se comporte exactement comme dans writexml().

Modifié dans la version 3.8: la méthode toprettyxml() préserve désormais l'ordre des attributs spécifié par l'utilisateur.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: le paramètre standalone a été ajouté.

Exemple DOM

Cet exemple de programme est un exemple assez réaliste de programme simple. Dans ce cas particulier, nous ne profitons pas beaucoup de la flexibilité du DOM.

import xml.dom.minidom

document = """\
<slideshow>
<title>Demo slideshow</title>
<slide><title>Slide title</title>
<point>This is a demo</point>
<point>Of a program for processing slides</point>
</slide>

<slide><title>Another demo slide</title>
<point>It is important</point>
<point>To have more than</point>
<point>one slide</point>
</slide>
</slideshow>
"""

dom = xml.dom.minidom.parseString(document)

def getText(nodelist):
    rc = []
    for node in nodelist:
        if node.nodeType == node.TEXT_NODE:
            rc.append(node.data)
    return ''.join(rc)

def handleSlideshow(slideshow):
    print("<html>")
    handleSlideshowTitle(slideshow.getElementsByTagName("title")[0])
    slides = slideshow.getElementsByTagName("slide")
    handleToc(slides)
    handleSlides(slides)
    print("</html>")

def handleSlides(slides):
    for slide in slides:
        handleSlide(slide)

def handleSlide(slide):
    handleSlideTitle(slide.getElementsByTagName("title")[0])
    handlePoints(slide.getElementsByTagName("point"))

def handleSlideshowTitle(title):
    print(f"<title>{getText(title.childNodes)}</title>")

def handleSlideTitle(title):
    print(f"<h2>{getText(title.childNodes)}</h2>")

def handlePoints(points):
    print("<ul>")
    for point in points:
        handlePoint(point)
    print("</ul>")

def handlePoint(point):
    print(f"<li>{getText(point.childNodes)}</li>")

def handleToc(slides):
    for slide in slides:
        title = slide.getElementsByTagName("title")[0]
        print(f"<p>{getText(title.childNodes)}</p>")

handleSlideshow(dom)

minidom et le standard DOM

The xml.dom.minidom module is essentially a DOM 1.0-compatible DOM with some DOM 2 features (primarily namespace features).

L'utilisation de l'interface DOM en Python est simple. Les règles de correspondances suivantes s'appliquent :

Les interfaces sont accessibles via des objets d'instance. Les applications ne doivent pas instancier les classes elles-mêmes ; elles doivent utiliser les fonctions de création disponibles sur l'objet Document. Les interfaces dérivées prennent en charge toutes les opérations (et attributs) des interfaces de base, ainsi que toutes les nouvelles opérations.

Les opérations sont utilisées comme méthodes. Puisque le DOM utilise uniquement les paramètres in, les arguments sont passés dans l'ordre normal (de gauche à droite). Il n'y a pas d'argument facultatif. Les opérations void renvoient None.

Les attributs IDL (Interface Description Language) correspondent aux attributs d'instance. Pour des raisons de compatibilité avec la correspondance OMG (Object Management Group) du langage IDL pour Python, un attribut foo est également accessible via les méthodes d'accès _get_foo() et _set_foo(). Les attributs readonly ne doivent pas être modifiés ; ce n'est pas vérifié au moment de l'exécution.

Les types short int, unsigned int, unsigned long long et boolean correspondent tous à des objets entiers Python.

The type DOMString maps to Python strings. xml.dom.minidom supports either bytes or strings, but will normally produce strings. Values of type DOMString may also be None where allowed to have the IDL null value by the DOM specification from the W3C.

Les déclarations const correspondent aux variables dans leur portée respective (par exemple xml.dom.minidom.Node.PROCESSING_INSTRUCTION_NODE) ; elles ne doivent pas être modifiées.

DOMException is currently not supported in xml.dom.minidom. Instead, xml.dom.minidom uses standard Python exceptions such as TypeError and AttributeError.

Les objets NodeList sont implémentés à l'aide du type de liste natif de Python. Ces objets fournissent l'interface définie dans la spécification DOM, mais avec les versions antérieures de Python, ils ne prennent pas en charge l'API officielle. C'est cependant bien plus « Pythonique » que l’interface définie dans les recommandations du W3C.

The following interfaces have no implementation in xml.dom.minidom:

DOMTimeStamp

EntityReference

La plupart d'entre elles reflètent des informations contenues dans le document XML qui ne sont pas d'utilité générale pour la plupart des utilisateurs du DOM.

Notes

[1]

Le nom de codage inclus dans la sortie XML doit être conforme aux normes appropriées. Par exemple, "UTF-8" est valide, mais "UTF8" ne l'est pas dans la déclaration d'un document XML, même si Python l'accepte comme nom de codage. Voir https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl et https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml.

xml.dom.pulldom --- Support for building partial DOM trees

Code source : Lib/xml/dom/pulldom.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/xml/dom/pulldom.py]

The xml.dom.pulldom module provides a "pull parser" which can also be asked to produce DOM-accessible fragments of the document where necessary. The basic concept involves pulling "events" from a stream of incoming XML and processing them. In contrast to SAX which also employs an event-driven processing model together with callbacks, the user of a pull parser is responsible for explicitly pulling events from the stream, looping over those events until either processing is finished or an error condition occurs.

Note

If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data, see XML security.

Modifié dans la version 3.7.1: l'analyseur SAX ne traite plus les entités externes générales par défaut pour augmenter la sécurité par défaut. Pour activer le traitement des entités externes, transmettez une instance d'analyseur personnalisée à :

from xml.dom.pulldom import parse
from xml.sax import make_parser
from xml.sax.handler import feature_external_ges

parser = make_parser()
parser.setFeature(feature_external_ges, True)
parse(filename, parser=parser)

Exemple :

from xml.dom import pulldom

doc = pulldom.parse('sales_items.xml')
for event, node in doc:
    if event == pulldom.START_ELEMENT and node.tagName == 'item':
        if int(node.getAttribute('price')) > 50:
            doc.expandNode(node)
            print(node.toxml())

event est une constante parmi les éléments suivants :

START_ELEMENT

END_ELEMENT

COMMENT

START_DOCUMENT

END_DOCUMENT

CHARACTERS

PROCESSING_INSTRUCTION

IGNORABLE_WHITESPACE

node est un objet de type xml.dom.minidom.Document, xml.dom.minidom.Element ou xml.dom.minidom.Text.

Puisque le document est traité comme un flux « plat » d’événements, « l’arborescence » du document est implicitement parcourue et les éléments souhaités sont trouvés quelle que soit leur profondeur dans l’arborescence. En d'autres termes, il n'est pas nécessaire de prendre en compte les problèmes hiérarchiques tels que la recherche récursive des nœuds du document, même dans le cas où le contexte des éléments est important, et où il faudrait soit maintenir un état lié au contexte (c'est-à-dire se souvenir où l'on se trouve dans le document à un moment donné), soit utiliser la méthode DOMEventStream.expandNode() et passer au traitement lié du DOM.

class xml.dom.pulldom.PullDOM(documentFactory=None)

Sous-classe de xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.

class xml.dom.pulldom.SAX2DOM(documentFactory=None)

Sous-classe de xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler.

xml.dom.pulldom.parse(stream_or_string, parser=None, bufsize=None)

Renvoie un DOMEventStream à partir de l'entrée donnée. stream_or_string peut être soit un nom de fichier, soit un objet simili-fichier. parser, s'il est donné, doit être un objet XMLReader. Cette fonction modifie le gestionnaire de documents de l'analyseur et active la prise en charge des espaces de noms ; les autres configurations de l'analyseur (comme la définition d'un résolveur d'entité) doivent avoir été effectuées à l'avance.

Si vous avez du XML dans une chaîne, vous pouvez utiliser la fonction parseString() à la place :

xml.dom.pulldom.parseString(string, parser=None)

Renvoie un DOMEventStream qui représente string (Unicode).

xml.dom.pulldom.default_bufsize

Valeur par défaut du paramètre bufsize de parse().

La valeur de cette variable peut être modifiée avant d'appeler parse() et la nouvelle valeur prendra effet.

Objets DOMEventStream

class xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream(stream, parser, bufsize)

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Support for __getitem__() method has been removed.

getEvent()

Renvoie un n-uplet contenant event et le node actuel sous la forme d'un xml.dom.minidom.Document si l'événement est égal à START_DOCUMENT, un xml.dom.minidom.Element si l'événement est égal à START_ELEMENT ou END_ELEMENT, ou un xml.dom.minidom.Text si l'événement est égal à CHARACTERS. Le nœud actuel ne contient pas d'informations sur ses enfants, sauf si expandNode() est appelé.

expandNode(node)

Développe tous les enfants de node dans node. Par exemple :

from xml.dom import pulldom

xml = '<html><title>Foo</title> <p>Some text <div>and more</div></p> </html>'
doc = pulldom.parseString(xml)
for event, node in doc:
    if event == pulldom.START_ELEMENT and node.tagName == 'p':
        # Following statement only prints '<p/>'
        print(node.toxml())
        doc.expandNode(node)
        # Following statement prints node with all its children '<p>Some text <div>and more</div></p>'
        print(node.toxml())

reset()

xml.sax --- Support for SAX2 parsers

Code source : Lib/xml/sax/__init__.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/xml/sax/__init__.py]

The xml.sax package provides a number of modules which implement the Simple API for XML (SAX) interface for Python. The package itself provides the SAX exceptions and the convenience functions which will be most used by users of the SAX API.

Note

If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data, see XML security.

Modifié dans la version 3.7.1: l'analyseur SAX ne traite plus les entités externes générales par défaut pour augmenter la sécurité. Auparavant, l'analyseur créait des connexions réseau pour extraire des fichiers distants ou des fichiers locaux chargés à partir du système de fichiers pour les DTD et les entités. La fonctionnalité peut être activée à nouveau avec la méthode setFeature() sur l'objet analyseur et l'argument feature_external_ges.

Les fonctions les plus utiles sont :

xml.sax.make_parser(parser_list=[])

Crée et renvoie un objet XMLReader SAX. Le premier analyseur trouvé est utilisé. Si parser_list est fourni, il doit être un itérable de chaînes de caractères qui nomme des modules qui ont une fonction nommée create_parser(). Les modules listés dans parser_list sont utilisés avant les modules dans la liste par défaut des analyseurs.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: l'argument parser_list peut être n'importe quel itérable, pas seulement une liste.

xml.sax.parse(filename_or_stream, handler, error_handler=handler.ErrorHandler())

Crée un analyseur SAX et l'utilise pour analyser un document. Le document transmis comme filename_or_stream, peut être un nom de fichier ou un objet fichier. Le paramètre handler doit être une instance ContentHandler SAX. Si un error_handler est donné, il doit être un ErrorHandler SAX ; s'il est omis, une SAXParseException est levée sur toutes les erreurs. Il n'y a pas de valeur de retour, tout le travail doit être fait par le handler transmis.

xml.sax.parseString(string, handler, error_handler=handler.ErrorHandler())

Similaire à parse(), mais analyse à partir d'un espace mémoire string reçu en tant que paramètre. string doit être une instance str ou un objet octet-compatible.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: ajout de la gestion des instances str.

Une application SAX typique utilise trois types d'objets : les readers, les handlers et les sources d'entrée. Reader dans ce contexte est un autre terme pour « analyseur », c'est-à-dire un morceau de code qui lit les octets ou les caractères de la source d'entrée et qui produit une séquence d'événements. Les événements sont ensuite distribués aux objets du handler, c'est-à-dire que le lecteur appelle une méthode sur le handler. L'application doit donc obtenir un objet reader, créer ou ouvrir les sources d'entrée, créer les handlers et connecter ces objets tous ensemble. La dernière étape de la préparation, le reader est appelé à analyser l'entrée. Pendant l'analyse, les méthodes sur les objets du handler sont appelées en fonction d'événements structurels et syntaxiques à partir des données d'entrée.

For these objects, only the interfaces are relevant; they are normally not instantiated by the application itself. Since Python does not have an explicit notion of interface, they are formally introduced as classes, but applications may use implementations which do not inherit from the provided classes. The InputSource, Locator, Attributes, AttributesNS, and XMLReader interfaces are defined in the module xml.sax.xmlreader. The handler interfaces are defined in xml.sax.handler. For convenience, InputSource (which is often instantiated directly) and the handler classes are also available from xml.sax. These interfaces are described below.

In addition to these classes, xml.sax provides the following exception classes.

exception xml.sax.SAXException(msg, exception=None)

Encapsule une erreur ou un avertissement XML. Cette classe peut contenir une erreur de base ou une information d'avertissement soit de l'analyseur XML ou de l'application : elle peut être sous-classée pour fournir des fonctionnalités supplémentaires ou pour ajouter une localisation. Noter que même si les handlers définis dans l'interface ErrorHandler reçoivent des instances de cette exception, ce n'est pas nécessaire de lever l'exception, elle est également utile en tant que conteneur pour l'information.

Quand elle est instanciée, msg doit être une description intelligible de l'erreur. Le paramètre optionnel exception, s'il est donné, doit être None ou une exception qui a été interceptée par le code d'analyse et qui est transmise comme information.

Ceci est la classe de base pour les autres classes d'exception SAX.

exception xml.sax.SAXParseException(msg, exception, locator)

Sous-classe de SAXException élevée sur les erreurs d'analyse. Les instances de cette classe sont passées aux méthodes de l'interface ErrorHandler SAX pour fournir des informations sur l'erreur d'analyse. Cette classe prend aussi en charge l'interface SAX Locator comme l'interface SAXException.

exception xml.sax.SAXNotRecognizedException(msg, exception=None)

Sous-classe de SAXException levée quand un XMLReader SAX est confronté à une caractéristique ou à une propriété non reconnue. Les applications et les extensions SAX peuvent utiliser cette classe à des fins similaires.

exception xml.sax.SAXNotSupportedException(msg, exception=None)

Sous-classe de SAXException levée quand un XMLReader SAX est demandé pour activer une fonctionnalité qui n'est pas prise en charge, ou pour définir une propriété à une valeur que l'implémentation ne prend pas en charge. Les applications et les extensions SAX peuvent utiliser cette classe à des fins similaires.

Voir aussi

SAX : l'API simple pour XML [http://www.saxproject.org/]

Ce site est le point focal pour la définition de l'API SAX. Il offre une implémentation Java et une documentation en ligne. Des liens pour l'implémentation et des informations historiques sont également disponibles.

Module xml.sax.handler

Définitions des interfaces pour les objets fournis par l'application.

Module xml.sax.saxutils

Fonctions pratiques pour une utilisation dans les applications SAX.

Module xml.sax.xmlreader

Définitions des interfaces pour les objets fournis par l'analyseur.

Les objets SAXException

La classe d'exception SAXException gère les méthodes suivantes :

SAXException.getMessage()

Renvoie un message intelligible décrivant la condition d'erreur.

SAXException.getException()

Renvoie un objet d'exception encapsulé ou None.

xml.sax.handler --- Base classes for SAX handlers

Code source : Lib/xml/sax/handler.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/xml/sax/handler.py]

The SAX API defines five kinds of handlers: content handlers, DTD handlers, error handlers, entity resolvers and lexical handlers. Applications normally only need to implement those interfaces whose events they are interested in; they can implement the interfaces in a single object or in multiple objects. Handler implementations should inherit from the base classes provided in the module xml.sax.handler, so that all methods get default implementations.

class xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler

Il s'agit de l'interface de rappel principale de SAX et de la plus importante pour les applications. L'ordre des événements dans cette interface reflète l'ordre des informations dans le document.

class xml.sax.handler.DTDHandler

Gestionnaires d'évènements DTD

Cette interface concerne uniquement les événements DTD requis pour une analyse basique (entités et attributs non analysés).

class xml.sax.handler.EntityResolver

Interface de base pour résoudre les entités. Si vous créez un objet implémentant cette interface, puis enregistrez l'objet auprès de votre analyseur, l'analyseur appellera la méthode de votre objet pour résoudre toutes les entités externes.

class xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler

Interface utilisée par l'analyseur pour présenter des messages d'erreur et d'avertissement à l'application. Les méthodes de cet objet permettent de choisir si les erreurs doivent être immédiatement converties en exceptions ou si elles doivent être traitées d'une autre manière.

class xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler

Interface utilisée par l'analyseur pour représenter des événements rares qui n'intéressent que peu d'applications.

In addition to these classes, xml.sax.handler provides symbolic constants for the feature and property names.

xml.sax.handler.feature_namespaces

valeur : "http://xml.org/sax/features/namespaces"

vrai : effectue le traitement de l'espace de noms.

faux : n'effectue pas le traitement des espaces de noms (implique namespace-prefixes ; valeur par défaut).

accès : (lors de l'analyse) en lecture seule ; (hors de l'analyse) lecture-écriture

xml.sax.handler.feature_namespace_prefixes

valeur : "http://xml.org/sax/features/namespace-prefixes"

vrai : renvoie les noms et attributs avec les préfixes originaux utilisés dans les déclarations d'espaces de noms.

faux : ne renvoie pas les attributs utilisés pour les déclarations d'espaces de noms et, éventuellement, ne signale pas les noms avec les préfixes originaux (par défaut).

accès : (lors de l'analyse) en lecture seule ; (hors de l'analyse) lecture-écriture

xml.sax.handler.feature_string_interning

valeur : "http://xml.org/sax/features/string-interning"

vrai : tous les noms d'éléments, préfixes, noms d'attributs, URI d'espace de noms et noms locaux sont rendus internes à l'aide de la fonction native correspondante.

faux : les noms ne sont pas nécessairement rendus internes, bien qu'ils puissent l'être (par défaut).

accès : (lors de l'analyse) en lecture seule ; (hors de l'analyse) lecture-écriture

xml.sax.handler.feature_validation

valeur : "http://xml.org/sax/features/validation"

vrai : signale toutes les erreurs de validation (implique external-general-entities et external-parameter-entities).

faux : ne signale pas les erreurs de validation.

accès : (lors de l'analyse) en lecture seule ; (hors de l'analyse) lecture-écriture

xml.sax.handler.feature_external_ges

Avertissement

Enabling opens a vulnerability to external entity attacks [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML_external_entity_attack] if the parser is used with user-provided XML content. Please reflect on your threat model [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threat_model] before enabling this feature.

valeur : "http://xml.org/sax/features/external-general-entities"

vrai : Inclut toutes les entités générales (texte) externes.

faux : n'inclut pas les entités générales externes.

accès : (lors de l'analyse) en lecture seule ; (hors de l'analyse) lecture-écriture

xml.sax.handler.feature_external_pes

valeur : "http://xml.org/sax/features/external-parameter-entities"

vrai : Inclut toutes les entités de paramètres externes, y compris les sous-ensembles DTD externes.

faux : n'inclue aucune entité de paramètre externe, même les sous-ensembles DTD externes.

accès : (lors de l'analyse) en lecture seule ; (hors de l'analyse) lecture-écriture

xml.sax.handler.all_features

Liste de toutes les fonctionnalités.

xml.sax.handler.property_lexical_handler

valeur : "http://xml.org/sax/properties/lexical-handler"

type de données : xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler (non pris en charge dans Python 2)

description : gestionnaire d'extension facultatif pour les événements lexicaux tels que les commentaires.

accès : lecture-écriture

xml.sax.handler.property_declaration_handler

valeur : "http://xml.org/sax/properties/declaration-handler"

type de données : xml.sax.sax2lib.DeclHandler (non pris en charge dans Python 2)

description : gestionnaire d'extension facultatif pour les événements liés à la DTD autres que les notations et les entités non analysées.

accès : lecture-écriture

xml.sax.handler.property_dom_node

valeur : "http://xml.org/sax/properties/dom-node"

type de données : org.w3c.dom.Node (non pris en charge dans Python 2)

description : lors de l'analyse, le nœud DOM actuel visité s'il s'agit d'un itérateur DOM ; hors de l'analyse, le nœud racine du DOM pour l'itération.

accès : (lors de l'analyse) en lecture seule ; (hors de l'analyse) lecture-écriture

xml.sax.handler.property_xml_string

valeur : "http://xml.org/sax/properties/xml-string"

type de données : octets

description : chaîne littérale de caractères qui était la source de l'événement en cours.

accès : lecture seule

xml.sax.handler.all_properties

Liste de tous les noms de propriétés connus.

Objets ContentHandler

Les utilisateurs doivent sous-classer ContentHandler dans leur application. Les méthodes suivantes sont appelées par l'analyseur pour notifier les événements appropriés dans le document d'entrée :

ContentHandler.setDocumentLocator(locator)

Appelé par l'analyseur pour donner à l'application un localisateur permettant de localiser l'origine des événements du document.

Les analyseurs SAX sont fortement encouragés (bien que ce ne soit pas absolument obligatoire) à fournir un localisateur : s'ils le font, ils doivent fournir le localisateur à l'application en appelant cette méthode avant d'invoquer l'une des autres méthodes de l'interface DocumentHandler.

Le localisateur permet à l'application de déterminer la position finale de tout événement lié au document, même si l'analyseur ne signale pas d'erreur. En règle générale, l'application utilise ces informations pour signaler ses propres erreurs (telles que le contenu d'un champ texte qui ne correspond pas aux règles métier d'une application). Les informations renvoyées par le localisateur ne sont probablement pas suffisantes pour être utilisées avec un moteur de recherche.

Notez que le localisateur renvoie des informations correctes pendant la durée de l'invocation des événements dans cette interface. L'application ne doit pas tenter de l'utiliser à un autre moment.

ContentHandler.startDocument()

Reçoit la notification correspondant au début du document.

L'analyseur SAX invoque cette méthode une seule fois, avant toute autre méthode dans cette interface ou dans DTDHandler (sauf pour setDocumentLocator()).

ContentHandler.endDocument()

Reçoit la notification correspondant à la fin du document.

L'analyseur SAX n'invoque cette méthode qu'une seule fois et c'est la dernière méthode invoquée lors de l'analyse. L'analyseur ne doit pas invoquer cette méthode tant qu'il n'a pas abandonné l'analyse (en raison d'une erreur irrécupérable) ou atteint la fin de l'entrée.

ContentHandler.startPrefixMapping(prefix, uri)

Commence la portée d’une correspondance d’espace de noms préfixe-URI.

Les informations de cet événement ne sont pas nécessaires au traitement normal des espaces de noms : le lecteur XML SAX remplace automatiquement les préfixes des noms d'éléments et d'attributs lorsque la fonctionnalité feature_namespaces est activée (la valeur par défaut).

Il existe cependant des cas où les applications doivent utiliser des préfixes dans des champs textes ou dans les valeurs d'attribut, où ils ne peuvent pas être développés automatiquement en toute sécurité ; les événements startPrefixMapping() et endPrefixMapping() fournissent les informations à l'application pour développer elle-même les préfixes dans ces contextes, si nécessaire.

Notez qu'il n'est pas garanti que les événements startPrefixMapping() et endPrefixMapping() soient correctement imbriqués les uns par rapport aux autres : tout événement startPrefixMapping() se produit avant l'événement startElement() correspondant, et tout événement endPrefixMapping() se produit après l'événement endElement() correspondant, mais leur ordre n'est pas garanti.

ContentHandler.endPrefixMapping(prefix)

Termine la portée d’une correspondance préfixe-URI.

Voir startPrefixMapping() pour plus de détails. Cet événement se produit toujours après l'événement endElement() correspondant, mais l'ordre des événements endPrefixMapping() n'est pas garanti entre eux.

ContentHandler.startElement(name, attrs)

Signale le début d’un élément en mode sans espaces de noms.

The name parameter contains the raw XML 1.0 name of the element type as a string and the attrs parameter holds an object of the Attributes interface containing the attributes of the element. The object passed as attrs may be re-used by the parser; holding on to a reference to it is not a reliable way to keep a copy of the attributes. To keep a copy of the attributes, use the copy() method of the attrs object.

ContentHandler.endElement(name)

Signale la fin d'un élément en mode sans espaces de noms.

Le paramètre name contient le nom du type d'élément, tout comme pour l'événement startElement().

ContentHandler.startElementNS(name, qname, attrs)

Signale le début d’un élément en mode avec espaces de noms.

The name parameter contains the name of the element type as a (uri, localname) tuple, the qname parameter contains the raw XML 1.0 name used in the source document, and the attrs parameter holds an instance of the AttributesNS interface containing the attributes of the element. If no namespace is associated with the element, the uri component of name will be None. The object passed as attrs may be re-used by the parser; holding on to a reference to it is not a reliable way to keep a copy of the attributes. To keep a copy of the attributes, use the copy() method of the attrs object.

Les analyseurs peuvent définir le paramètre qname à None, à moins que la fonctionnalité feature_namespace_prefixes ne soit activée.

ContentHandler.endElementNS(name, qname)

Signale la fin d'un élément en mode avec espaces de noms.

Le paramètre name contient le nom du type d'élément, tout comme avec la méthode startElementNS(), de même que le paramètre qname.

ContentHandler.characters(content)

Reçoit une notification correspondant à des données de type caractère.

L'analyseur appelle cette méthode pour signaler chaque morceau de données de caractères. Les analyseurs SAX peuvent renvoyer toutes les données de caractères contiguës en un seul morceau ou ils peuvent les diviser en plusieurs morceaux ; cependant, tous les caractères d'un événement doivent provenir de la même entité externe afin que le localisateur fournisse des informations utiles.

content peut être une instance de chaîne ou d'octets ; le module lecteur expat produit toujours des chaînes.

Note

l'interface SAX 1 précédente fournie par Python XML utilisait une interface plus proche de Java pour cette méthode. Étant donné que la plupart des analyseurs utilisés à partir de Python ne tiraient pas parti de l’ancienne interface, la signature la plus simple a été choisie pour la remplacer. Pour convertir l'ancien code vers la nouvelle interface, utilisez content au lieu de découper le contenu avec les anciens paramètres offset et length.

ContentHandler.ignorableWhitespace(whitespace)

Reçoit une notification en cas d'espaces pouvant être ignorées dans le contenu de l'élément.

Les analyseurs validateurs doivent utiliser cette méthode pour signaler chaque morceau d'espaces pouvant être ignorées (voir la recommandation W3C XML 1.0, section 2.10) : les analyseurs non validateurs peuvent également utiliser cette méthode s'ils sont capables d'analyser et d'utiliser des modèles de contenu.

Les analyseurs SAX peuvent renvoyer tous les espaces contigües en un seul morceau ou ils peuvent le diviser en plusieurs morceaux ; cependant, tous les caractères d'un événement doivent provenir de la même entité externe, afin que le localisateur fournisse des informations utiles.

ContentHandler.processingInstruction(target, data)

Reçoit une notification correspondant à une instruction de traitement.

L'analyseur invoque cette méthode une fois pour chaque instruction de traitement trouvée : notez que les instructions de traitement peuvent survenir avant ou après l'élément principal du document.

Un analyseur SAX ne doit jamais rapporter une déclaration XML (XML 1.0, section 2.8) ou une déclaration texte (XML 1.0, section 4.3.1) en utilisant cette méthode.

ContentHandler.skippedEntity(name)

Reçoit une notification correspondant à une entité ignorée.

L'analyseur invoque cette méthode une fois pour chaque entité ignorée. Les processeurs non validateurs peuvent ignorer les entités s'ils n'ont pas vu les déclarations (parce que, par exemple, l'entité a été déclarée dans un sous-ensemble DTD externe). Tous les processeurs peuvent ignorer les entités externes, en fonction des valeurs des propriétés feature_external_ges et feature_external_pes.

Objets DTDHandler

Les instances DTDHandler fournissent les méthodes suivantes :

DTDHandler.notationDecl(name, publicId, systemId)

Gère un événement de déclaration de notation.

DTDHandler.unparsedEntityDecl(name, publicId, systemId, ndata)

Gère un événement de déclaration d'entité non analysé.

Objets EntityResolver

EntityResolver.resolveEntity(publicId, systemId)

Résout l'identifiant système d'une entité et renvoie soit l'identifiant système à partir duquel lire sous forme de chaîne, soit un InputSource à partir duquel lire. L'implémentation par défaut renvoie systemId.

Objets ErrorHandler

Objects with this interface are used to receive error and warning information from the XMLReader. If you create an object that implements this interface, then register the object with your XMLReader, the parser will call the methods in your object to report all warnings and errors. There are three levels of errors available: warnings, (possibly) recoverable errors, and unrecoverable errors. All methods take a SAXParseException as the only parameter. Errors and warnings may be converted to an exception by raising the passed-in exception object.

ErrorHandler.error(exception)

Appelée lorsque l'analyseur rencontre une erreur récupérable. Si cette méthode ne génère pas d'exception, l'analyse peut continuer, mais l'application ne doit pas attendre d'autres informations concernant le document. Autoriser l'analyseur à continuer peut permettre de découvrir des erreurs supplémentaires dans le document d'entrée.

ErrorHandler.fatalError(exception)

Appelée lorsque l'analyseur rencontre une erreur irrécupérable ; l'analyse devrait se terminer au retour de cette méthode.

ErrorHandler.warning(exception)

Appelée lorsque l'analyseur présente des informations d'avertissement mineures à l'application. L'analyse devrait se poursuivre lorsque cette méthode termine et les informations du document continueront d'être transmises à l'application. La levée d’une exception dans cette méthode entraîne la fin de l’analyse.

Objets LexicalHandler

Gestionnaire SAX2 facultatif pour les événements lexicaux.

Ce gestionnaire est utilisé pour obtenir des informations lexicales relatives à un document XML. Les informations lexicales incluent des informations décrivant le codage du document utilisé et les commentaires XML intégrés dans le document, ainsi que les limites des sections pour la DTD et pour toutes les sections CDATA. Les gestionnaires lexicaux sont utilisés de la même manière que les gestionnaires de contenu.

Définissez le LexicalHandler d'un XMLReader en utilisant la méthode setProperty avec l'identifiant de propriété 'http://xml.org/sax/properties/lexical-handler'.

LexicalHandler.comment(content)

Signale un commentaire n'importe où dans le document (y compris la DTD et en dehors de l'élément de document).

LexicalHandler.startDTD(name, public_id, system_id)

Signale le début des déclarations DTD si le document a une DTD associée.

LexicalHandler.endDTD()

Signale la fin de la déclaration de la DTD.

LexicalHandler.startCDATA()

Signale le début d’une section marquée CDATA.

Le contenu de la section marquée CDATA est signalé via le gestionnaire de données de type caractère.

LexicalHandler.endCDATA()

Signale la fin d’une section marquée CDATA.

xml.sax.saxutils --- SAX Utilities

Code source : Lib/xml/sax/saxutils.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/xml/sax/saxutils.py]

The module xml.sax.saxutils contains a number of classes and functions that are commonly useful when creating SAX applications, either in direct use, or as base classes.

xml.sax.saxutils.escape(data, entities={})

Échappe '&', '<', et '>' dans une chaine de caractères de données.

Vous pouvez échapper d'autres chaines de caractères de données en passant un dictionnaire au paramètre optionnel entities. Les clés et valeurs doivent toutes être des chaines de caractères ; chaque clé sera remplacée par sa valeur correspondante. Les caractères '&', '<' et '>' sont toujours échappés même si entities est donné en paramètre.

Note

This function should only be used to escape characters that can't be used directly in XML. Do not use this function as a general string translation function.

xml.sax.saxutils.unescape(data, entities={})

Parse '&amp;', '&lt;', et '&gt;' dans une chaine de caractères de données.

You can unescape other strings of data by passing a dictionary as the optional entities parameter. The keys and values must all be strings; each key will be replaced with its corresponding value. '&amp;', '&lt;', and '&gt;' are always unescaped, even if entities is provided.

xml.sax.saxutils.quoteattr(data, entities={})

Similaire à escape(), mais prépare aussi data pour être utilisé comme une valeur d'attribut. La valeur renvoyée est une version entre guillemets de data avec tous les remplacements supplémentaires nécessaires. quoteattr() va sélectionner un caractère guillemet basé sur le contenu de data, en essayant d’éviter d'encoder tous les caractères guillemets dans la chaine de caractères. Si les caractères guillemet simple et guillemets sont déjà dans data, les caractères guillemets simples seront encodés et data sera entouré de guillemets. La chaine de caractères résultante pourra être utilisée en tant que valeur d'attribut :

>>> print("<element attr=%s>" % quoteattr("ab ' cd \" ef"))
<element attr="ab ' cd &quot; ef">

Cette fonction est utile quand vous générez des valeurs d'attributs pour du HTML ou n'importe quel SGML en utilisant la syntaxe concrète de référence.

class xml.sax.saxutils.XMLGenerator(out=None, encoding='iso-8859-1', short_empty_elements=False)

Cette classe implémente l'interface ContentHandler en écrivant les événements SAX dans un document XML. En d'autres termes, utiliser un XMLGenerator en tant que gestionnaire de contenu reproduira le document original qui était analysé. out devrait être un objet de type fichier qui est par défaut sys.stdout. encoding est l'encodage du flux de sortie qui est par défaut 'iso-8859-1'. short_empty_elements contrôle le formatage des éléments qui ne contiennent rien : si False (par défaut), ils sont émis comme une paire de balises (début, fin). Si la valeur est True, ils sont émis comme une balise seule auto-fermante.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Added the short_empty_elements parameter.

class xml.sax.saxutils.XMLFilterBase(base)

Cette classe est faite pour être entre XMLReader et le gestionnaire des événements de l'application client. Par défaut, elle ne fait rien mais passe les requêtes au lecteur et les événements au gestionnaire sans les modifier, mais des sous-classes peuvent surcharger des méthodes spécifiques pour modifier le flux d’événements ou la configuration des requêtes à leur passage.

xml.sax.saxutils.prepare_input_source(source, base='')

This function takes an input source and an optional base URL and returns a fully resolved InputSource object ready for reading. The input source can be given as a string, a file-like object, or an InputSource object; parsers will use this function to implement the polymorphic source argument to their parse() method.

xml.sax.xmlreader — Interface pour les parseurs XML

Code source : Lib/xml/sax/xmlreader.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/xml/sax/xmlreader.py]

Les analyseurs SAX implémentent l'interface XMLReader. Ils sont implémentés dans un module Python qui doit fournir une fonction create_parser(). Cette fonction est invoquée par xml.sax.make_parser() sans aucun argument pour créer un nouvel objet analyseur.

class xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader

Classe mère qui peut être héritée par les analyseurs SAX.

class xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser

Dans certains cas, il est souhaitable de ne pas analyser une source d'un coup, mais d'alimenter l'analyseur à partir de morceaux du document dès qu'ils sont disponibles. Notez que le lecteur ne lira normalement pas le fichier en entier, mais le lira également par morceaux ; quoi qu'il en soit parse() ne termine pas tant que l'intégralité du document n'est pas traitée. Ces interfaces doivent donc être utilisées si le comportement bloquant de parse() n’est pas souhaitable.

Lorsque l'analyseur est instancié, il est immédiatement prêt à accepter les données via sa méthode feed. Une fois l'analyse terminée avec un appel à close, la méthode reset doit être appelée pour que l'analyseur soit prêt à accepter de nouvelles données, soit à l'aide de la méthode feed, soit à l'aide de la méthode parse.

Notez que ces méthodes ne doivent pas être appelées pendant l'analyse, c'est-à-dire entre l'appel de la fonction parse et sa sortie.

Par défaut, la classe implémente également la méthode parse de l'interface XMLReader en utilisant les méthodes feed, close et reset de l'interface IncrementalParser pour faciliter la tâche des rédacteurs de pilotes SAX 2.0.

class xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator

Interface permettant d'associer un événement SAX à un emplacement de document. Un objet localisateur renvoie des résultats valides uniquement lors des appels aux méthodes du DocumentHandler ; à tout autre moment, les résultats sont imprévisibles. Si les informations ne sont pas disponibles, les méthodes peuvent renvoyer None.

class xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource(system_id=None)

Encapsulation des informations nécessaires au XMLReader pour lire les entités.

Cette classe peut inclure des informations sur l'identifiant public, l'identifiant système, le flux d'octets (éventuellement avec des informations d'encodage de caractères) et/ou le flux de caractères d'une entité.

Les applications créeront des objets de cette classe pour les utiliser dans la méthode XMLReader.parse() et en retour de EntityResolver.resolveEntity.

L'InputSource appartient à l'application, le XMLReader n'est pas autorisé à modifier les objets InputSource qui lui sont transmis depuis l'application, cependant il puisse en faire des copies et les modifier.

class xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesImpl(attrs)

Il s'agit d'une implémentation de l'interface Attributes (voir section L'interface Attributes). Il s'agit d'un objet de type dictionnaire qui représente les attributs de l'élément dans un appel startElement(). En plus des opérations de dictionnaire les plus utiles, il prend en charge un certain nombre d'autres méthodes décrites par l'interface. Les objets de cette classe doivent être instanciés par les lecteurs ; attrs doit être un objet de type dictionnaire contenant une correspondance entre des noms d'attributs et des valeurs d'attributs.

class xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNSImpl(attrs, qnames)

Variante de AttributesImpl prenant en charge les espaces de noms, qui est transmise à startElementNS(). Elle est dérivée de AttributesImpl, mais sait gérer les noms d'attributs comme les paires de namespaceURI et localname. De plus, elle fournit un certain nombre de méthodes qui attendent les noms qualifiés tels qu'ils apparaissent dans le document original. Cette classe implémente l'interface AttributesNS (voir section L'interface AttributesNS).

Objets XMLReader

L'interface XMLReader prend en charge les méthodes suivantes :

XMLReader.parse(source)

Traite une source d'entrée, produisant des événements SAX. L'objet source peut être un identifiant système (une chaîne identifiant la source d'entrée – généralement un nom de fichier ou une URL), un chemin, un simili-chemin, ou un objet InputSource. À la sortie de parse(), l'entrée est complètement traitée et l'objet analyseur peut être supprimé ou réinitialisé.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: ajout de la prise en charge des flux de caractères.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: ajout de la prise en charge des objets simili-chemin.

XMLReader.getContentHandler()

Renvoie le ContentHandler actuel.

XMLReader.setContentHandler(handler)

Définit le ContentHandler actuel. Si aucun ContentHandler n'est défini, les événements de contenu sont ignorés.

XMLReader.getDTDHandler()

Renvoie le DTDHandler actuel.

XMLReader.setDTDHandler(handler)

Définit le DTDHandler actuel. Si aucun DTDHandler n'est défini, les événements DTD sont ignorés.

XMLReader.getEntityResolver()

Renvoie le EntityResolver actuel.

XMLReader.setEntityResolver(handler)

Définit le EntityResolver actuel. Si aucun EntityResolver n'est défini, les tentatives de résolution d'une entité externe entraînent l'ouverture de l'identifiant système de l'entité et échouent s'il n'est pas disponible.

XMLReader.getErrorHandler()

Renvoie le ErrorHandler actuel.

XMLReader.setErrorHandler(handler)

Définit le gestionnaire d'erreurs actuel. Si aucun ErrorHandler n'est défini, les erreurs sont générées comme exceptions et des avertissements sont affichés.

XMLReader.setLocale(locale)

Permet à l'application de définir les paramètres régionaux pour les erreurs et les avertissements.

Les analyseurs SAX ne sont pas tenus de gérer les paramètre régionaux pour les erreurs et les avertissements ; s'ils ne peuvent pas prendre en charge les paramètres régionaux demandés, ils doivent déclencher une exception SAX. Les applications peuvent demander un changement de paramètres régionaux au milieu d'une analyse.

XMLReader.getFeature(featurename)

Renvoie le paramètre actuel pour la fonctionnalité featurename. Si la fonctionnalité n'est pas reconnue, une SAXNotRecognizedException est levée. Les noms de fonctionnalités bien connues sont répertoriés dans le module xml.sax.handler.

XMLReader.setFeature(featurename, value)

Définit featurename à value. Si la fonctionnalité n'est pas reconnue, une SAXNotRecognizedException est levée. Si la fonctionnalité ou son paramètre n'est pas pris en charge par l'analyseur, une SAXNotSupportedException est levée.

XMLReader.getProperty(propertyname)

Renvoie la valeur actuelle de la propriété propertyname. Si la propriété n'est pas reconnue, une SAXNotRecognizedException est levée. Les noms de propriétés bien connues sont répertoriés dans le module xml.sax.handler.

XMLReader.setProperty(propertyname, value)

Définit propertyname à value. Si la propriété n'est pas reconnue, une SAXNotRecognizedException est levée. Si la propriété ou son paramètre n'est pas pris en charge par l'analyseur, une SAXNotSupportedException est levée.

Objets IncrementalParser

Les instances de IncrementalParser offrent les méthodes supplémentaires suivantes :

IncrementalParser.feed(data)

Traite un morceau de data.

IncrementalParser.close()

Considérer que l'on est arrivé à la fin du document. Cela vérifie les conditions de bonne formation qui ne peuvent être vérifiées qu'à la fin, invoque des fonctions de rappel et peut nettoyer les ressources allouées lors de l'analyse.

IncrementalParser.reset()

Cette méthode est appelée après l'appel de close pour réinitialiser l'analyseur afin qu'il soit prêt à analyser de nouveaux documents. Les résultats de l'appel de parse ou feed après la fermeture sans appeler reset ne sont pas définis.

Objets de localisation

Les instances de Locator fournissent ces méthodes :

Locator.getColumnNumber()

Renvoie le numéro de colonne où commence l'événement en cours.

Locator.getLineNumber()

Renvoie le numéro de ligne où commence l'événement en cours.

Locator.getPublicId()

Renvoie l'identifiant public de l'événement en cours.

Locator.getSystemId()

Renvoie l'identifiant système de l'événement en cours.

Objets InputSource

InputSource.setPublicId(id)

Définit l'identifiant public de cet InputSource.

InputSource.getPublicId()

Renvoie l'identifiant public de cet InputSource.

InputSource.setSystemId(id)

Définit l'identifiant système de cet InputSource.

InputSource.getSystemId()

Renvoie l'identifiant système de cet InputSource.

InputSource.setEncoding(encoding)

Définit l'encodage des caractères de cet InputSource.

L'encodage doit être une chaîne acceptable pour une déclaration d'encodage XML (voir section 4.3.3 de la recommandation XML).

L'attribut d'encodage de InputSource est ignoré si le InputSource contient également un flux de caractères.

InputSource.getEncoding()

Récupère l'encodage des caractères de cet InputSource.

InputSource.setByteStream(bytefile)

Définit le flux d'octets (un fichier binaire) pour cette source d'entrée.

L'analyseur SAX ignore cela si un flux de caractères est également spécifié, il préfère utiliser un flux d'octets à l'ouverture d'une connexion URI.

Si l'application connaît l'encodage des caractères du flux d'octets, elle doit le définir avec la méthode setEncoding.

InputSource.getByteStream()

Récupère le flux d'octets pour cette source d'entrée.

La méthode getEncoding renvoie l'encodage des caractères pour ce flux d'octets, ou None s'il est inconnu.

InputSource.setCharacterStream(charfile)

Définit le flux de caractères (un fichier texte) pour cette source d'entrée.

Si un flux de caractères est spécifié, l'analyseur SAX ignore tout flux d'octets et ne tente pas d'ouvrir une connexion URI à l'identifiant système.

InputSource.getCharacterStream()

Récupère le flux de caractères pour cette source d'entrée.

L'interface Attributes

Les objets Attributes implémentent une partie du protocole de tableau de correspondances, y compris les méthodes copy(), get(), __contains__(), items(), keys() et values(). Les méthodes suivantes sont également fournies :

Attributes.getLength()

Renvoie le nombre d'attributs.

Attributes.getNames()

Renvoie les noms des attributs.

Attributes.getType(name)

Renvoie le type de l'attribut name, qui est normalement 'CDATA'.

Attributes.getValue(name)

Renvoie la valeur de l'attribut name.

L'interface AttributesNS

Cette interface est un sous-type de l'interface Attributes (voir section L'interface Attributes). Toutes les méthodes prises en charge par cette interface sont également disponibles sur les objets AttributesNS.

Les méthodes suivantes sont également disponibles :

AttributesNS.getValueByQName(name)

Renvoie la valeur d'un nom qualifié.

AttributesNS.getNameByQName(name)

Renvoie la paire (namespace, localname) pour le nom name qualifié.

AttributesNS.getQNameByName(name)

Renvoie le nom qualifié pour une paire (namespace, localname).

AttributesNS.getQNames()

Renvoie les noms qualifiés de tous les attributs.

xml.parsers.expat — Analyse XML rapide utilisant Expat

Note

Si vous avez besoin d’analyser des données non sécurisées ou non authentifiées, consultez XML security.

The xml.parsers.expat module is a Python interface to the Expat non-validating XML parser. The module provides a single extension type, xmlparser, that represents the current state of an XML parser. After an xmlparser object has been created, various attributes of the object can be set to handler functions. When an XML document is then fed to the parser, the handler functions are called for the character data and markup in the XML document.

Ce module utilise le module pyexpat pour donner accès à l’analyseur Expat. L’utilisation directe du module pyexpat est obsolète.

Ce module fournit une exception et un type :

exception xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError

Exception levée lorsqu’Expat signale une erreur. Voir la section Exceptions ExpatError pour plus d’informations sur l’interprétation des erreurs Expat.

exception xml.parsers.expat.error

Alias pour ExpatError.

xml.parsers.expat.XMLParserType

Type des valeurs renvoyées par la fonction ParserCreate().

The xml.parsers.expat module contains two functions:

xml.parsers.expat.ErrorString(errno)

Renvoie une chaîne explicative pour le numéro d’erreur errno.

xml.parsers.expat.ParserCreate(encoding=None, namespace_separator=None)

Crée et renvoie un nouvel objet xmlparser. S’il est spécifié, l’argument encoding doit être une chaîne nommant l’encodage utilisé par les données XML. Expat ne prend pas en charge autant d’encodages que Python et il n’est pas possible d’en ajouter ; Expat prend en charge UTF-8, UTF-16, ISO-8859-1 (Latin1) et ASCII. Si encoding [1] est donné, il remplace l’encodage implicite ou explicite du document.

Parsers created through ParserCreate() are called "root" parsers, in the sense that they do not have any parent parser attached. Non-root parsers are created by parser.ExternalEntityParserCreate.

Si vous fournissez une valeur au paramètre namespace_separator Expat gère des espaces de noms XML pour vous. La valeur doit être une chaîne d’un caractère ; une ValueError est levée si la chaîne a une longueur illégale (None est considéré comme une omission). Lorsque la gestion des espaces de noms est activée, les noms de types d’éléments et les noms d’attributs appartenant à un espace de noms sont développés. Le nom de l’élément transmis aux fonctions de rappel StartElementHandler et EndElementHandler est la concaténation de l’URI de l’espace de noms, du caractère séparateur de l’espace de noms et de la partie locale du nom. Si le séparateur d’espace de noms est un octet de valeur zéro (chr(0)), alors l’URI de l’espace de noms et la partie locale sont concaténés sans aucun séparateur.

Par exemple, si namespace_separator est une espace (' ') et que le document suivant est analysé :

<?xml version="1.0"?>
<root xmlns    = "http://default-namespace.org/"
      xmlns:py = "http://www.python.org/ns/">
  <py:elem1 />
  <elem2 xmlns="" />
</root>

StartElementHandler recevra les chaînes suivantes pour chaque élément :

http://default-namespace.org/ root
http://www.python.org/ns/ elem1
elem2

En raison des limitations de la bibliothèque Expat utilisée par pyexpat, l’instance xmlparser renvoyée ne peut être utilisée que pour analyser un seul document XML. Appelez ParserCreate pour chaque document afin de fournir des instances d’analyseur uniques.

Voir aussi

L’analyseur XML Expat [http://www.libexpat.org/]

Page d’accueil du projet Expat.

Objets XMLParser

Les objets xmlparser ont les méthodes suivantes :

xmlparser.Parse(data[, isfinal])

Analyse le contenu de la chaîne data, en appelant les fonctions de rappel appropriées pour traiter les données analysées. isfinal doit être vrai lors du dernier appel à cette méthode ; elle permet l’analyse d’un seul fichier en fragments mais pas le traitement de plusieurs fichiers. data peut être une chaîne vide à tout moment.

xmlparser.ParseFile(file)

Analyse les données XML lues à partir de l’objet file. file n’a besoin de fournir que la méthode read(nbytes) renvoyant une chaîne vide lorsqu’il n’y a plus de données.

xmlparser.SetBase(base)

Définit la base à utiliser pour résoudre les URI relatifs des identifiants système dans les déclarations. La résolution des identifiants relatifs est laissée à l’application : cette valeur est transmise comme argument base aux fonctions ExternalEntityRefHandler(), NotationDeclHandler() et UnparsedEntityDeclHandler().

xmlparser.GetBase()

Renvoie une chaîne contenant la base définie par un appel précédent à SetBase(), ou None si SetBase() n’a pas été appelée.

xmlparser.GetInputContext()

Renvoie les données d’entrée qui ont généré l’événement en cours sous forme de chaîne. Les données sont dans l’encodage de l’entité qui contient le texte. Lorsqu’elle est appelée alors qu’aucune fonction de rappel n’est active, la valeur renvoyée est None.

xmlparser.ExternalEntityParserCreate(context[, encoding])

Crée un analyseur « enfant » qui peut être utilisé pour analyser une entité externe référencée par le contenu analysé par l’analyseur parent. Le paramètre context doit être la chaîne transmise à la fonction de rappel ExternalEntityRefHandler(), décrite ci-dessous. Les attributs ordered_attributes et specified_attributes sont copiés dans l’analyseur enfant.

xmlparser.SetParamEntityParsing(flag)

Contrôle l’analyse des entités de paramètres (y compris le sous-ensemble DTD externe). Les valeurs possibles pour flag sont XML_PARAM_ENTITY_PARSING_NEVER, XML_PARAM_ENTITY_PARSING_UNLESS_STANDALONE et XML_PARAM_ENTITY_PARSING_ALWAYS. Renvoie True si la définition de l’indicateur a réussi.

xmlparser.UseForeignDTD([flag])

Appeler cette fonction avec une valeur vraie pour flag (la valeur par défaut) amènera Expat à appeler le ExternalEntityRefHandler avec None pour tous les arguments afin de permettre le chargement d’une DTD alternative. Si le document ne contient pas de définition de type de document, ExternalEntityRefHandler sera quand même appelée, mais les fonctions StartDoctypeDeclHandler et EndDoctypeDeclHandler ne le seront pas.

Appeler cette fonction avec une valeur fausse pour flag annule un appel précédent qui a transmis une valeur vraie, et n’a aucun autre effet.

Cette méthode ne peut être appelée qu’avant l’appel de Parse() ou de ParseFile() ; l’appeler après que l’un ou l’autre ait été appelé provoque la levée de ExpatError avec l’attribut code valant errors.codes[errors.XML_ERROR_CANT_CHANGE_FEATURE_ONCE_PARSING].

xmlparser.SetReparseDeferralEnabled(enabled)

Avertissement

Les implications en termes de sécurité causées par un appel à SetReparseDeferralEnabled(False) sont détaillées plus bas. Soyez certains de comprendre les conséquences avant d’utiliser la méthode SetReparseDeferralEnabled.

Expat 2.6.0 a introduit un mécanisme de sécurité appelé reparse deferral (réanalyse reportée) permettant d’éviter un déni de service causé par une explosion quadratique du temps d’exécution lors de l’analyse de grands lexèmes, la réanalyse des lexèmes non entièrement analysés est maintenant par défaut reportée jusqu’à ce qu’une quantité suffisante de donnée soit présente en entrée. À cause de ce report les fonctions de rappel peuvent ne pas être appelées immédiatement après avoir envoyé de la donnée à l'analyseur syntaxique (en fonction de la taille des morceaux de données fournis à Expat). Lorsque qu’il est souhaitable d’avoir un retour immédiat, et si vous pouvez prendre la responsabilité de protéger vous-même l'analyseur syntaxique contre cette attaque, vous pouvez appeler SetReparseDeferralEnabled(False) qui désactive le report de réanalyse pour l’instance courante, temporairement ou définitivement. Appeler SetReparseDeferralEnabled(True) active à nouveau le report de réanalyse.

Notez que SetReparseDeferralEnabled() a été rétro-portée à certaines versions de CPython en tant que correctif de sécurité. Il est possible de tester la présence de SetReparseDeferralEnabled() en utilisant hasattr().

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

xmlparser.GetReparseDeferralEnabled()

Indique si la réanalyse reportée est activée pour l'analyseur syntaxique Expact actuel.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

xmlparser objects have the following methods to mitigate some common XML vulnerabilities.

xmlparser.SetAllocTrackerActivationThreshold(threshold, /)

Sets the number of allocated bytes of dynamic memory needed to activate protection against disproportionate use of RAM.

By default, parser objects have an allocation activation threshold of 64 MiB, or equivalently 67,108,864 bytes.

An ExpatError is raised if this method is called on a non-root parser. The corresponding lineno and offset should not be used as they may have no special meaning.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.1.

xmlparser.SetAllocTrackerMaximumAmplification(max_factor, /)

Sets the maximum amplification factor between direct input and bytes of dynamic memory allocated.

The amplification factor is calculated as allocated / direct while parsing, where direct is the number of bytes read from the primary document in parsing and allocated is the number of bytes of dynamic memory allocated in the parser hierarchy.

The max_factor value must be a non-NaN float value greater than or equal to 1.0. Amplification factors greater than 100.0 can be observed near the start of parsing even with benign files in practice. In particular, the activation threshold should be carefully chosen to avoid false positives.

By default, parser objects have a maximum amplification factor of 100.0.

An ExpatError is raised if this method is called on a non-root parser or if max_factor is outside the valid range. The corresponding lineno and offset should not be used as they may have no special meaning.

Note

The maximum amplification factor is only considered if the threshold that can be adjusted by SetAllocTrackerActivationThreshold() is exceeded.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.1.

Les objets xmlparser ont les attributs suivants :

xmlparser.buffer_size

Taille du tampon utilisé lorsque buffer_text est vrai. La taille du tampon peut être modifiée en attribuant une nouvelle valeur entière à cet attribut. Le tampon est vidé lorsque la taille est modifiée.

xmlparser.buffer_text

Lorsque buffer_text est vrai, xmlparser stocke le contenu textuel reçu d’Expat dans une mémoire tampon pour éviter les appels successifs à CharacterDataHandler() lorsque c’est possible. Cela peut améliorer les performances, Expat découpant les données textuelles ligne par ligne. Cet attribut est faux par défaut, et peut être changé à tout moment. Notez que lorsque cet attribut est faux, les données qui ne contiennent pas de retour à la ligne peuvent aussi être découpées.

xmlparser.buffer_used

Si buffer_text est activé, buffer_used donne le nombre d’octets stockés dans le tampon. Ces octets représentent du texte encodé en UTF-8. Cet attribut n’a aucune signification lorsque buffer_text est faux.

xmlparser.ordered_attributes

Lorsque ordered_attributes est un entier supérieur à zéro les attributs sont présentés sous forme de liste (plutôt que de dictionnaire) dans l’ordre indiqué dans le texte du document. Pour chaque attribut, deux entrées de liste sont présentées : le nom de l’attribut et la valeur de l’attribut (les anciennes versions de ce module utilisaient également ce format). Par défaut, cet attribut est faux ; il peut être modifié à tout moment.

xmlparser.specified_attributes

Si la valeur de specified_attributes est différente de zéro, l’analyseur ne présente que les attributs spécifiés dans l’instance du document et non ceux dérivés des déclarations d’attributs. Les applications qui définissent cela doivent être particulièrement prudentes et utiliser les informations supplémentaires disponibles dans les déclarations, selon les besoins, pour se conformer aux normes relatives au comportement des processeurs XML. Par défaut, cet attribut est faux ; il peut être modifié à tout moment.

Les attributs suivants contiennent des valeurs relatives à l’erreur la plus récente rencontrée par un objet xmlparser, et n’ont des valeurs correctes qu’une fois qu’un appel à Parse() ou ParseFile() a déclenché une exception xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError.

xmlparser.ErrorByteIndex

Indice de l’octet où une erreur s’est produite.

xmlparser.ErrorCode

Code numérique précisant le problème. Cette valeur peut être passée à la fonction ErrorString() ou comparée à une des constantes définies dans l’objet errors.

xmlparser.ErrorColumnNumber

Numéro de la colonne où une erreur s’est produite.

xmlparser.ErrorLineNumber

Numéro de la ligne sur laquelle une erreur s’est produite.

Les attributs suivants contiennent des valeurs relatives à l’emplacement d’analyse actuel dans un objet xmlparser. Lors d’un rappel signalant un événement d’analyse, ils indiquent l’emplacement du premier caractère de la séquence qui a généré l’événement. En dehors d’un rappel, la position indiquée est juste après le dernier événement d’analyse (qu’il y ait ou non un rappel associé).

xmlparser.CurrentByteIndex

Indice de l’octet actuel dans l’entrée de l’analyseur.

xmlparser.CurrentColumnNumber

Numéro de colonne actuel dans l’entrée de l’analyseur.

xmlparser.CurrentLineNumber

Numéro de ligne actuel dans l’entrée de l’analyseur.

Voici la liste des fonctions de rappel pouvant être définies. Pour définir une fonction de rappel sur un objet xmlparser o, utilisez o.handlername = func. handlername doit être extrait de la liste suivante et func doit être un objet appelable acceptant le nombre correct d’arguments. Les arguments sont tous des chaînes, sauf indication contraire.

xmlparser.XmlDeclHandler(version, encoding, standalone)

Appelée lorsque la déclaration XML est analysée. La déclaration XML est la déclaration (facultative) de la version applicable de la recommandation XML, l’encodage du texte du document et une déclaration standalone facultative. version et encoding sont des chaînes, et standalone vaut 1 si le document est déclaré autonome, 0 s’il est déclaré non autonome, ou -1 si la clause autonome a été omise. Ceci n’est disponible qu’avec la version Expat 1.95.0 ou plus récente.

xmlparser.StartDoctypeDeclHandler(doctypeName, systemId, publicId, has_internal_subset)

Called when Expat begins parsing the document type declaration (<!DOCTYPE ...). The doctypeName is provided exactly as presented. The systemId and publicId parameters give the system and public identifiers if specified, or None if omitted. has_internal_subset will be true if the document contains an internal document declaration subset. This requires Expat version 1.2 or newer.

xmlparser.EndDoctypeDeclHandler()

Appelée lorsque Expat a fini d’analyser la déclaration de type de document. Cela nécessite Expat version 1.2 ou plus récente.

xmlparser.ElementDeclHandler(name, model)

Appelée une fois pour chaque déclaration de type d’élément. name est le nom du type d’élément et model est une représentation du modèle de contenu.

xmlparser.AttlistDeclHandler(elname, attname, type, default, required)

Appelée pour chaque attribut déclaré pour un type d’élément. Si une déclaration de liste d’attributs déclare trois attributs, cette fonction de rappel est appelée trois fois, une fois pour chaque attribut. elname est le nom de l’élément auquel la déclaration s’applique et attname est le nom de l’attribut déclaré. Le type d’attribut est une chaîne passée à type ; les valeurs possibles sont 'CDATA', 'ID', 'IDREF' … default donne la valeur par défaut de l’attribut utilisé lorsque l’attribut n’est pas spécifié par l’instance de document, ou None s’il n’y a pas de valeur par défaut (valeurs #IMPLIED). Si l’attribut doit être donné dans l’instance du document, required sera vrai. Cela nécessite Expat version 1.95.0 ou plus récente.

xmlparser.StartElementHandler(name, attributes)

Appelée pour le début de chaque élément. name est une chaîne contenant le nom de l’élément et attributes sont les attributs de l’élément. Si ordered_attributes est vrai, il s’agit d’une liste (voir ordered_attributes pour une description complète). Sinon, c’est un dictionnaire faisant correspondre les noms aux valeurs.

xmlparser.EndElementHandler(name)

Appelée à la fin de chaque élément.

xmlparser.ProcessingInstructionHandler(target, data)

Appelée pour chaque instruction de traitement.

xmlparser.CharacterDataHandler(data)

Appelée pour des données textuelles. Elle sera appelée pour des données textuelles normales, du contenu CDATA, et des blancs ignorables. Les programmes qui doivent distinguer ces cas peuvent utiliser les fonctions de rappel StartCdataSectionHandler, EndCdataSectionHandler, et ElementDeclHandler pour collecter les informations requises. Notez que les données peuvent être découpées, même si elles sont courtes, ainsi votre application peut recevoir plusieurs appels à CharacterDataHandler(). Utilisez l’attribut buffer_text pour éviter ça.

xmlparser.UnparsedEntityDeclHandler(entityName, base, systemId, publicId, notationName)

Appelée pour les déclarations d’entité non analysées (NDATA). Ceci n’est présent que pour la version 1.2 de la bibliothèque Expat ; pour les versions plus récentes, utilisez plutôt EntityDeclHandler (la fonction sous-jacente de la bibliothèque Expat a été déclarée obsolète).

xmlparser.EntityDeclHandler(entityName, is_parameter_entity, value, base, systemId, publicId, notationName)

Appelée pour toutes les déclarations d’entité. Pour les paramètres et les entités internes, value est une chaîne donnant le contenu déclaré de l’entité ; c’est None pour les entités externes. Le paramètre notationName est None pour les entités analysées, et le nom de la notation pour les entités non analysées. is_parameter_entity est vrai si l’entité est une entité paramètre ou faux pour les entités générales (la plupart des applications ne doivent se soucier que des entités générales). Ceci n’est disponible qu’à partir de la version 1.95.0 de la bibliothèque Expat.

xmlparser.NotationDeclHandler(notationName, base, systemId, publicId)

Appelée pour les déclarations de notation. notationName, base, systemId et publicId sont des chaînes si elles sont données. Si l’identifiant public est omis, publicId est None.

xmlparser.StartNamespaceDeclHandler(prefix, uri)

Appelée lorsqu’un élément contient une déclaration d’espace de noms. Les déclarations d’espace de noms sont traitées avant que StartElementHandler soit appelée pour l’élément sur lequel les déclarations sont placées.

xmlparser.EndNamespaceDeclHandler(prefix)

Appelée lorsque la balise de fermeture est atteinte pour un élément contenant une déclaration d’espace de noms. Elle est appelée une fois pour chaque déclaration d’espace de noms sur l’élément dans l’ordre inverse de l’ordre pour lequel StartNamespaceDeclHandler a été appelé pour indiquer le début de la portée de chaque déclaration d’espace de noms. Les appels à cette fonction sont effectués après le EndElementHandler correspondant pour la fin de l’élément.

xmlparser.CommentHandler(data)

Appelée lorsqu'un commentaire est trouvé. data est le texte du commentaire, à l’exclusion de son marqueur de début '<!--' et de son marqueur de fin '-->'.

xmlparser.StartCdataSectionHandler()

Appelée au début d’une section CDATA. Elle et EndCdataSectionHandler sont nécessaires pour pouvoir identifier le début et la fin syntaxique des sections CDATA.

xmlparser.EndCdataSectionHandler()

Appelée à la fin d’une section CDATA.

xmlparser.DefaultHandler(data)

Appelée pour tous les caractères du document XML pour lesquels aucune fonction de rappel applicable n’a été spécifiée. Cela signifie des caractères qui font partie d’une construction qui pourrait être signalée, mais pour laquelle aucune fonction de rappel n’a été fournie.

xmlparser.DefaultHandlerExpand(data)

C’est la même chose que DefaultHandler(), mais n’empêche pas l’expansion des entités internes. La référence d’entité n’est pas transmise à la fonction de rappel par défaut.

xmlparser.NotStandaloneHandler()

Appelée si le document XML n’a pas été déclaré comme étant un document autonome. Cela se produit lorsqu’il existe un sous-ensemble externe ou une référence à une entité paramètre, mais que la déclaration XML ne définit pas standalone sur yes dans une déclaration XML. Si cette fonction de rappel renvoie 0, alors l’analyseur génère une erreur XML_ERROR_NOT_STANDALONE. Si cette fonction de rappel n’est pas définie, aucune exception n’est levée par l’analyseur pour cette condition.

xmlparser.ExternalEntityRefHandler(context, base, systemId, publicId)

Avertissement

Implementing a handler that accesses local files and/or the network may create a vulnerability to external entity attacks [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML_external_entity_attack] if xmlparser is used with user-provided XML content. Please reflect on your threat model [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threat_model] before implementing this handler.

Appelée pour des références à des entités externes. base est la base actuelle, telle que définie par un appel précédent à SetBase(). Les identifiants publics et système, systemId et publicId, sont des chaînes s’ils sont fournis ; si l’identifiant public n’est pas donné, publicId est None. La valeur context est opaque et ne doit être utilisée que comme décrit ci-dessous.

Pour que les entités externes soient analysées, cette fonction de rappel doit être implémentée. Elle est responsable de la création du sous-analyseur en utilisant ExternalEntityParserCreate(context), de son initialisation avec les fonctions de rappels appropriées et de l’analyse de l’entité. Cette fonction de rappel doit renvoyer un entier ; si elle renvoie 0, l’analyseur génère une erreur XML_ERROR_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_HANDLING, sinon l’analyse continue.

Si cette fonction de rappel n’est pas fournie, les entités externes sont signalées à la fonction DefaultHandler (si elle est fournie).

Exceptions ExpatError

Les exceptions ExpatError ont un certain nombre d’attributs intéressants :

ExpatError.code

Numéro d’erreur interne d’Expat pour l’erreur spécifique. Le dictionnaire errors.messages fait correspondre ces numéros d’erreur aux messages d’erreur d’Expat. Par exemple :

from xml.parsers.expat import ParserCreate, ExpatError, errors

p = ParserCreate()
try:
    p.Parse(some_xml_document)
except ExpatError as err:
    print("Error:", errors.messages[err.code])

Le module errors fournit également des constantes de message d’erreur et un dictionnaire codes faisant correspondre ces messages aux codes d’erreur, voir ci-dessous.

ExpatError.lineno

Numéro de ligne sur laquelle l’erreur a été détectée. La première ligne est numérotée 1.

ExpatError.offset

Colonne du caractère dans la ligne où l’erreur s’est produite. La première colonne est numérotée 0.

Exemple

Le programme suivant définit trois fonctions de rappel qui affichent simplement leurs arguments.

import xml.parsers.expat

# 3 handler functions
def start_element(name, attrs):
    print('Start element:', name, attrs)
def end_element(name):
    print('End element:', name)
def char_data(data):
    print('Character data:', repr(data))

p = xml.parsers.expat.ParserCreate()

p.StartElementHandler = start_element
p.EndElementHandler = end_element
p.CharacterDataHandler = char_data

p.Parse("""<?xml version="1.0"?>
<parent id="top"><child1 name="paul">Text goes here</child1>
<child2 name="fred">More text</child2>
</parent>""", 1)

Le résultat de ce programme est :

Start element: parent {'id': 'top'}
Start element: child1 {'name': 'paul'}
Character data: 'Text goes here'
End element: child1
Character data: '\n'
Start element: child2 {'name': 'fred'}
Character data: 'More text'
End element: child2
Character data: '\n'
End element: parent

Descriptions des modèles de contenu

Les modèles de contenu sont décrits à l’aide de quadruplets imbriqués. Chaque quadruplet contient : le type, le quantificateur, le nom et un n-uplet d’enfants. Les enfants sont simplement des descriptions de modèles de contenu supplémentaires.

The values of the first two fields are constants defined in the xml.parsers.expat.model module. These constants can be collected in two groups: the model type group and the quantifier group.

Les constantes du groupe de types de modèle sont :

xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CTYPE_ANY

L’élément nommé par le nom du modèle a été déclaré comme ayant un modèle de contenu de ANY.

xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CTYPE_CHOICE

L’élément nommé permet un choix parmi un certain nombre d’options ; ceci est utilisé pour les modèles de contenu tels que (A | B | C).

xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CTYPE_EMPTY

Les éléments déclarés EMPTY ont ce type de modèle.

xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CTYPE_MIXED

xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CTYPE_NAME

xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CTYPE_SEQ

Les modèles qui représentent une série de modèles qui se succèdent sont signalés par ce type de modèle. C’est utilisé pour des modèles tels que (A, B, C).

Les constantes du groupe des quantificateurs sont :

xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CQUANT_NONE

Aucun modificateur n’est donné, il ne doit apparaître qu’une fois et une seule, comme pour A.

xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CQUANT_OPT

Le modèle est facultatif : il peut apparaître une fois ou pas du tout, comme pour A?.

xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CQUANT_PLUS

Le modèle doit apparaître une ou plusieurs fois (comme A+).

xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CQUANT_REP

Le modèle doit apparaître zéro ou plusieurs fois, comme pour A*.

Constantes d’erreur Expat

The following constants are provided in the xml.parsers.expat.errors module. These constants are useful in interpreting some of the attributes of the ExpatError exception objects raised when an error has occurred. Since for backwards compatibility reasons, the constants' value is the error message and not the numeric error code, you do this by comparing its code attribute with errors.codes[errors.XML_ERROR_CONSTANT_NAME].

Le module erreurs a les attributs suivants :

xml.parsers.expat.errors.codes

Dictionnaire faisant correspondre les descriptions de chaînes à leurs codes d’erreur.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

xml.parsers.expat.errors.messages

Dictionnaire faisant correspondre les codes d’erreur numériques à leurs descriptions de chaîne.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_ASYNC_ENTITY

xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_ATTRIBUTE_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_REF

Une référence d’entité dans une valeur d’attribut fait référence à une entité externe au lieu d’une entité interne.

xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_BAD_CHAR_REF

Une référence de caractère fait référence à un caractère illégal en XML (par exemple, le caractère 0 ou &#0;).

xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_BINARY_ENTITY_REF

Une référence d’entité fait référence à une entité qui a été déclarée avec une notation et ne peut donc pas être analysée.

xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_DUPLICATE_ATTRIBUTE

Un attribut a été utilisé plusieurs fois dans une balise de début.

xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_INCORRECT_ENCODING

xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_INVALID_TOKEN

Levée lorsqu’un octet d’entrée n’a pas pu être correctement attribué à un caractère ; par exemple, un octet NUL (valeur 0) dans un flux d’entrée UTF-8.

xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_JUNK_AFTER_DOC_ELEMENT

Quelque chose d’autre qu’une espace est apparu après l’élément de document.

xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_MISPLACED_XML_PI

Une déclaration XML a été trouvée ailleurs qu’au début des données d’entrée.

xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NO_ELEMENTS

Le document ne contient aucun élément (XML exige que tous les documents contiennent exactement un élément de niveau supérieur).

xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NO_MEMORY

Expat n’a pas pu allouer de la mémoire en interne.

xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_PARAM_ENTITY_REF

Une référence d’entité de paramètre a été trouvée là où elle n’était pas autorisée.

xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_PARTIAL_CHAR

Un caractère incomplet a été trouvé dans l’entrée.

xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_RECURSIVE_ENTITY_REF

Une référence d’entité contenait une autre référence à la même entité ; éventuellement via un nom différent, et éventuellement indirectement.

xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_SYNTAX

Une erreur de syntaxe non spécifiée a été rencontrée.

xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_TAG_MISMATCH

Une balise fermante ne correspond pas à la balise attendue.

xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_TOKEN

Certains lexèmes (tels qu’une balise de début) n’ont pas été fermés avant la fin du flux ou le lexème suivant a été rencontré.

xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNDEFINED_ENTITY

Une référence a été faite à une entité qui n’a pas été définie.

xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNKNOWN_ENCODING

L’encodage du document n’est pas pris en charge par Expat.

xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_CDATA_SECTION

Une section marquée CDATA n’a pas été fermée.

xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_HANDLING

xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NOT_STANDALONE

L’analyseur a déterminé que le document n’était pas « autonome » bien qu’il se soit déclaré tel dans la déclaration XML, et le NotStandaloneHandler a été défini et a renvoyé 0.

xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNEXPECTED_STATE

xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_ENTITY_DECLARED_IN_PE

xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_FEATURE_REQUIRES_XML_DTD

An operation was requested that requires DTD support to be compiled in, but Expat was configured without DTD support. This should never be reported by a standard build of the xml.parsers.expat module.

xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_CANT_CHANGE_FEATURE_ONCE_PARSING

Un changement de comportement ne pouvant être modifié qu’avant le début de l’analyse a été demandé après le début de l’analyse. Ceci n’est (actuellement) levé que par UseForeignDTD().

xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNBOUND_PREFIX

Un préfixe non déclaré a été trouvé lorsque le traitement de l’espace de noms a été activé.

xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNDECLARING_PREFIX

Le document a tenté de supprimer la déclaration d’espace de noms associée à un préfixe.

xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_INCOMPLETE_PE

Une entité paramètre contenait un balisage incomplet.

xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_XML_DECL

Le document ne contenait aucun élément.

xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_TEXT_DECL

Une erreur s’est produite lors de l’analyse d’une déclaration de texte dans une entité externe.

xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_PUBLICID

Des caractères non autorisés ont été trouvés dans l’identifiant public.

xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_SUSPENDED

L’opération demandée a été effectuée sur un analyseur suspendu, alors qu’elle n’est pas applicable sur un analyseur suspendu. Cela inclut les tentatives visant à fournir des entrées supplémentaires ou à arrêter l’analyseur.

xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NOT_SUSPENDED

Une tentative de reprise de l’analyseur a été effectuée alors que l’analyseur n’avait pas été suspendu.

xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_ABORTED

Cela ne doit pas être signalé aux applications Python.

xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_FINISHED

L’opération demandée a été effectuée sur un analyseur qui a fini d’analyser l’entrée, mais n’est pas autorisée. Cela inclut les tentatives visant à fournir des entrées supplémentaires ou à arrêter l’analyseur.

xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_SUSPEND_PE

xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_RESERVED_PREFIX_XML

Tentative d’annuler la déclaration du préfixe d’espace de noms réservé xml ou de le lier à un autre URI d’espace de noms.

xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_RESERVED_PREFIX_XMLNS

Tentative de déclarer ou annuler la déclaration du préfixe d’espace de noms réservé xmlns.

xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_RESERVED_NAMESPACE_URI

Tentative de lier l’URI de l’un des préfixes d’espace de noms réservés xml et xmlns à un autre préfixe d’espace de noms.

xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_INVALID_ARGUMENT

Cela ne doit pas être signalé aux applications Python.

xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NO_BUFFER

Cela ne doit pas être signalé aux applications Python.

xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_AMPLIFICATION_LIMIT_BREACH

La limite du facteur d’amplification d’entrée (de la DTD et des entités) a été dépassée.

xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NOT_STARTED

L’analyseur a été stoppé ou suspendu avant d’être démarré.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Notes

[1]

La chaîne indiquant l’encodage dans la sortie XML doit être conforme aux normes appropriées. Par exemple, "UTF-8" est valide, mais "UTF8" ne l’est pas. Voir https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl et https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml.

Gestion des protocoles internet

Les modules documentés dans ce chapitre implémentent des protocoles relatifs à Internet et à ses technologies relatives. Ils sont tous implémentés en Python. La majorité de ces modules nécessitent la présence du module socket lui même dépendant du système, mais fourni sur la plupart des plateformes populaires. Voici une vue d'ensemble :

webbrowser --- Convenient web-browser controller

Command-line interface

Browser controller objects

wsgiref --- WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation

wsgiref.util -- WSGI environment utilities

wsgiref.headers -- WSGI response header tools

wsgiref.simple_server -- a simple WSGI HTTP server

wsgiref.validate --- WSGI conformance checker

wsgiref.handlers -- server/gateway base classes

wsgiref.types -- WSGI types for static type checking

Exemples

urllib --- URL handling modules

urllib.request --- Extensible library for opening URLs

Request Objects

OpenerDirector Objects

BaseHandler Objects

HTTPRedirectHandler Objects

HTTPCookieProcessor Objects

ProxyHandler Objects

HTTPPasswordMgr Objects

HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects

AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects

HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects

ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects

AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects

HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects

ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects

HTTPHandler Objects

HTTPSHandler Objects

FileHandler Objects

DataHandler Objects

FTPHandler Objects

CacheFTPHandler Objects

UnknownHandler Objects

HTTPErrorProcessor Objects

Exemples

Legacy interface

urllib.request Restrictions

urllib.response --- Response classes used by urllib

urllib.parse --- Parse URLs into components

URL Parsing

URL parsing security

Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes

Structured Parse Results

URL Quoting

urllib.error --- Exception classes raised by urllib.request

urllib.robotparser --- Parser for robots.txt

http --- HTTP modules

Codes d'état HTTP

HTTP status category

HTTP methods

http.client --- HTTP protocol client

Les objets HTTPConnection

Les objets HTTPResponse

Exemples

Les objets HTTPMessage

ftplib --- FTP protocol client

Référence

FTP objects

FTP_TLS objects

Module variables

poplib --- POP3 protocol client

POP3 Objects

POP3 Example

imaplib --- IMAP4 protocol client

IMAP4 Objects

IMAP4 Example

smtplib --- SMTP protocol client

SMTP Objects

SMTP Example

uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 9562

Utilisation en ligne de commande.

Exemple

Command-Line Example

socketserver --- A framework for network servers

Notes sur la création de serveurs

Objets serveur

Objets gestionnaire de requêtes

Exemples

Exemple pour socketserver.TCPServer

Exemple pour socketserver.UDPServer

Classes de mélange asynchrone

http.server --- HTTP servers

Command-line interface

Security considerations

http.cookies --- HTTP state management

Objets Cookie

Objets Morsel

Exemple

http.cookiejar --- Cookie handling for HTTP clients

CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects

FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers

CookiePolicy Objects

DefaultCookiePolicy Objects

Objets Cookie

Exemples

xmlrpc --- XMLRPC server and client modules

xmlrpc.client — Client XML-RPC

Objets ServerProxy

Objets DateTime

Objets binaires

Objets Fault

Objets ProtocolError

Objets MultiCall

Fonctions utilitaires

Exemple d'utilisation du client

Exemple d'utilisation du client et du serveur

xmlrpc.server — Serveurs XML-RPC de base

SimpleXMLRPCServer objects

SimpleXMLRPCServer example

CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler

Documentation du serveur XMLRPC

DocXMLRPCServer objects

DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler

ipaddress --- IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library

Fonctions fabriques pratiques

Adresses IP

Objets adresse

Conversion vers les chaînes et les entiers

Opérateurs

Opérateurs de comparaison

Opérateurs arithmétiques

Définitions de réseaux IP

Préfixe, masque réseau et masque de l'hôte

Objets réseau

Opérateurs

Opérateurs logiques

Itération

Réseaux en tant que conteneurs d'adresses

Objets interface

Opérateurs

Opérateurs logiques

Autres fonctions au niveau de module

Exceptions personnalisées

webbrowser --- Convenient web-browser controller

Source code: Lib/webbrowser.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/webbrowser.py]

The webbrowser module provides a high-level interface to allow displaying web-based documents to users. Under most circumstances, simply calling the open() function from this module will do the right thing.

Under Unix, graphical browsers are preferred under X11, but text-mode browsers will be used if graphical browsers are not available or an X11 display isn't available. If text-mode browsers are used, the calling process will block until the user exits the browser.

If the environment variable BROWSER exists, it is interpreted as the os.pathsep-separated list of browsers to try ahead of the platform defaults. When the value of a list part contains the string %s, then it is interpreted as a literal browser command line to be used with the argument URL substituted for %s; if the value is a single word that refers to one of the already registered browsers this browser is added to the front of the search list; if the part does not contain %s, it is simply interpreted as the name of the browser to launch. [1]

Modifié dans la version 3.14: The BROWSER variable can now also be used to reorder the list of platform defaults. This is particularly useful on macOS where the platform defaults do not refer to command-line tools on PATH.

For non-Unix platforms, or when a remote browser is available on Unix, the controlling process will not wait for the user to finish with the browser, but allow the remote browser to maintain its own windows on the display. If remote browsers are not available on Unix, the controlling process will launch a new browser and wait.

On iOS, the BROWSER environment variable, as well as any arguments controlling autoraise, browser preference, and new tab/window creation will be ignored. Web pages will always be opened in the user's preferred browser, in a new tab, with the browser being brought to the foreground. The use of the webbrowser module on iOS requires the ctypes module. If ctypes isn't available, calls to open() will fail.

Command-line interface

The script webbrowser can be used as a command-line interface for the module. It accepts a URL as the argument. It accepts the following optional parameters:

-n, --new-window

Opens the URL in a new browser window, if possible.

-t, --new-tab

Opens the URL in a new browser tab.

The options are, naturally, mutually exclusive. Usage example:

python -m webbrowser -t "https://www.python.org"

Disponibilité: not WASI, not Android.

L'exception suivante est définie :

exception webbrowser.Error

Exception raised when a browser control error occurs.

Les fonctions suivantes sont définies :

webbrowser.open(url, new=0, autoraise=True)

Display url using the default browser. If new is 0, the url is opened in the same browser window if possible. If new is 1, a new browser window is opened if possible. If new is 2, a new browser page ("tab") is opened if possible. If autoraise is True, the window is raised if possible (note that under many window managers this will occur regardless of the setting of this variable).

Returns True if a browser was successfully launched, False otherwise.

Note that on some platforms, trying to open a filename using this function, may work and start the operating system's associated program. However, this is neither supported nor portable.

Raises an auditing event webbrowser.open with argument url.

webbrowser.open_new(url)

Open url in a new window of the default browser, if possible, otherwise, open url in the only browser window.

Returns True if a browser was successfully launched, False otherwise.

webbrowser.open_new_tab(url)

Open url in a new page ("tab") of the default browser, if possible, otherwise equivalent to open_new().

Returns True if a browser was successfully launched, False otherwise.

webbrowser.get(using=None)

Return a controller object for the browser type using. If using is None, return a controller for a default browser appropriate to the caller's environment.

webbrowser.register(name, constructor, instance=None, *, preferred=False)

Register the browser type name. Once a browser type is registered, the get() function can return a controller for that browser type. If instance is not provided, or is None, constructor will be called without parameters to create an instance when needed. If instance is provided, constructor will never be called, and may be None.

Setting preferred to True makes this browser a preferred result for a get() call with no argument. Otherwise, this entry point is only useful if you plan to either set the BROWSER variable or call get() with a nonempty argument matching the name of a handler you declare.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: preferred keyword-only parameter was added.

A number of browser types are predefined. This table gives the type names that may be passed to the get() function and the corresponding instantiations for the controller classes, all defined in this module.

Type Name

Class Name

Notes

'mozilla'

Mozilla('mozilla')

'firefox'

Mozilla('mozilla')

'epiphany'

Epiphany('epiphany')

'kfmclient'

Konqueror()

(1)

'konqueror'

Konqueror()

(1)

'kfm'

Konqueror()

(1)

'opera'

Opera()

'links'

GenericBrowser('links')

'elinks'

Elinks('elinks')

'lynx'

GenericBrowser('lynx')

'w3m'

GenericBrowser('w3m')

'windows-default'

WindowsDefault

(2)

'macosx'

MacOSXOSAScript('default')

(3)

'safari'

MacOSXOSAScript('safari')

(3)

'google-chrome'

Chrome('google-chrome')

'chrome'

Chrome('chrome')

'chromium'

Chromium('chromium')

'chromium-browser'

Chromium('chromium-browser')

'iosbrowser'

IOSBrowser

(4)

Notes :

"Konqueror" is the file manager for the KDE desktop environment for Unix, and only makes sense to use if KDE is running. Some way of reliably detecting KDE would be nice; the KDEDIR variable is not sufficient. Note also that the name "kfm" is used even when using the konqueror command with KDE 2 --- the implementation selects the best strategy for running Konqueror.

Only on Windows platforms.

Only on macOS.

Only on iOS.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2: A new MacOSXOSAScript class has been added and is used on Mac instead of the previous MacOSX class. This adds support for opening browsers not currently set as the OS default.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3: Support for Chrome/Chromium has been added.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Support for several obsolete browsers has been removed. Removed browsers include Grail, Mosaic, Netscape, Galeon, Skipstone, Iceape, and Firefox versions 35 and below.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Support for iOS has been added.

Here are some simple examples:

url = 'https://docs.python.org/'

# Open URL in a new tab, if a browser window is already open.
webbrowser.open_new_tab(url)

# Open URL in new window, raising the window if possible.
webbrowser.open_new(url)

Browser controller objects

Browser controllers provide the name attribute, and the following three methods which parallel module-level convenience functions:

controller.name

System-dependent name for the browser.

controller.open(url, new=0, autoraise=True)

Display url using the browser handled by this controller. If new is 1, a new browser window is opened if possible. If new is 2, a new browser page ("tab") is opened if possible.

controller.open_new(url)

Open url in a new window of the browser handled by this controller, if possible, otherwise, open url in the only browser window. Alias open_new().

controller.open_new_tab(url)

Open url in a new page ("tab") of the browser handled by this controller, if possible, otherwise equivalent to open_new().

Notes

[1]

Executables named here without a full path will be searched in the directories given in the PATH environment variable.

wsgiref --- WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation

Source code: Lib/wsgiref [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/wsgiref]

Avertissement

wsgiref is a reference implementation and is not recommended for production. The module only implements basic security checks.

WSGI (Web Server Gateway Interface) est une interface standard entre le serveur web et une application web écrite en Python. Avoir une interface standardisée permet de faciliter l'usage de ces applications avec un certain nombre de serveurs web différents.

Seules les personnes programmant des serveurs web et des cadriciels ont besoin de connaître les détails d'implémentation et les cas particuliers de l'architecture de WSGI. En tant qu'utilisateur WSGI vous avez uniquement besoin d'installer WSGI ou d'utiliser un cadriciel existant.

wsgiref is a reference implementation of the WSGI specification that can be used to add WSGI support to a web server or framework. It provides utilities for manipulating WSGI environment variables and response headers, base classes for implementing WSGI servers, a demo HTTP server that serves WSGI applications, types for static type checking, and a validation tool that checks WSGI servers and applications for conformance to the WSGI specification (PEP 3333 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/]).

Voir wsgi.readthedocs.io [https://wsgi.readthedocs.io/] pour plus d'informations à propos de WSGI ainsi que des liens vers des tutoriels et d'autres ressources.

wsgiref.util -- WSGI environment utilities

This module provides a variety of utility functions for working with WSGI environments. A WSGI environment is a dictionary containing HTTP request variables as described in PEP 3333 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/]. All of the functions taking an environ parameter expect a WSGI-compliant dictionary to be supplied; please see PEP 3333 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/] for a detailed specification and WSGIEnvironment for a type alias that can be used in type annotations.

wsgiref.util.guess_scheme(environ)

Tente de déterminer s'il faut assigner "http" ou "https" à wsgi.url_sheme, en vérifiant si une variable d'environnement HTTPS est dans le dictionnaire environ. La valeur renvoyée est une chaîne de caractères.

This function is useful when creating a gateway that wraps CGI or a CGI-like protocol such as FastCGI. Typically, servers providing such protocols will include a HTTPS variable with a value of "1", "yes", or "on" when a request is received via SSL. So, this function returns "https" if such a value is found, and "http" otherwise.

wsgiref.util.request_uri(environ, include_query=True)

Return the full request URI, optionally including the query string, using the algorithm found in the "URL Reconstruction" section of PEP 3333 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/]. If include_query is false, the query string is not included in the resulting URI.

wsgiref.util.application_uri(environ)

Similar to request_uri(), except that the PATH_INFO and QUERY_STRING variables are ignored. The result is the base URI of the application object addressed by the request.

wsgiref.util.shift_path_info(environ)

Shift a single name from PATH_INFO to SCRIPT_NAME and return the name. The environ dictionary is modified in-place; use a copy if you need to keep the original PATH_INFO or SCRIPT_NAME intact.

If there are no remaining path segments in PATH_INFO, None is returned.

Typically, this routine is used to process each portion of a request URI path, for example to treat the path as a series of dictionary keys. This routine modifies the passed-in environment to make it suitable for invoking another WSGI application that is located at the target URI. For example, if there is a WSGI application at /foo, and the request URI path is /foo/bar/baz, and the WSGI application at /foo calls shift_path_info(), it will receive the string "bar", and the environment will be updated to be suitable for passing to a WSGI application at /foo/bar. That is, SCRIPT_NAME will change from /foo to /foo/bar, and PATH_INFO will change from /bar/baz to /baz.

When PATH_INFO is just a "/", this routine returns an empty string and appends a trailing slash to SCRIPT_NAME, even though empty path segments are normally ignored, and SCRIPT_NAME doesn't normally end in a slash. This is intentional behavior, to ensure that an application can tell the difference between URIs ending in /x from ones ending in /x/ when using this routine to do object traversal.

wsgiref.util.setup_testing_defaults(environ)

Met à jour environ avec des valeurs par défaut pour des cas de tests.

Cette fonction ajoute des paramètres requis pour WSGI, en particulier HTTP_HOST, SERVER_NAME, SERVER_PORT, REQUEST_METHOD, SCRIPT_NAME, PATH_INFO et toutes les autres variables WSGI définies dans la PEP 3333 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/]. Elle ne fournit que des valeurs par défaut sans toucher aux valeurs déjà définies de ces variables.

Cette fonction a pour but de faciliter les tests unitaires des serveurs et des applications WSGI dans des environnements factices. Elle ne devrait pas être utilisée dans une application ou un serveur WSGI, étant donné que les données sont factices !

Example usage (see also demo_app() for another example):

from wsgiref.util import setup_testing_defaults
from wsgiref.simple_server import make_server

# A relatively simple WSGI application. It's going to print out the
# environment dictionary after being updated by setup_testing_defaults
def simple_app(environ, start_response):
    setup_testing_defaults(environ)

    status = '200 OK'
    headers = [('Content-type', 'text/plain; charset=utf-8')]

    start_response(status, headers)

    ret = [("%s: %s\n" % (key, value)).encode("utf-8")
           for key, value in environ.items()]
    return ret

with make_server('', 8000, simple_app) as httpd:
    print("Serving on port 8000...")
    httpd.serve_forever()

In addition to the environment functions above, the wsgiref.util module also provides these miscellaneous utilities:

wsgiref.util.is_hop_by_hop(header_name)

Return True if 'header_name' is an HTTP/1.1 "Hop-by-Hop" header, as defined by RFC 2616 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html].

class wsgiref.util.FileWrapper(filelike, blksize=8192)

A concrete implementation of the wsgiref.types.FileWrapper protocol used to convert a file-like object to an iterator. The resulting objects are iterables. As the object is iterated over, the optional blksize parameter will be repeatedly passed to the filelike object's read() method to obtain bytestrings to yield. When read() returns an empty bytestring, iteration is ended and is not resumable.

If filelike has a close() method, the returned object will also have a close() method, and it will invoke the filelike object's close() method when called.

Exemple d'utilisation :

from io import StringIO
from wsgiref.util import FileWrapper

# We're using a StringIO-buffer for as the file-like object
filelike = StringIO("This is an example file-like object"*10)
wrapper = FileWrapper(filelike, blksize=5)

for chunk in wrapper:
    print(chunk)

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Support for __getitem__() method has been removed.

wsgiref.headers -- WSGI response header tools

This module provides a single class, Headers, for convenient manipulation of WSGI response headers using a mapping-like interface.

class wsgiref.headers.Headers([headers])

Create a mapping-like object wrapping headers, which must be a list of header name/value tuples as described in PEP 3333 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/]. The default value of headers is an empty list.

Headers objects support typical mapping operations including __getitem__(), get(), __setitem__(), setdefault(), __delitem__() and __contains__(). For each of these methods, the key is the header name (treated case-insensitively), and the value is the first value associated with that header name. Setting a header deletes any existing values for that header, then adds a new value at the end of the wrapped header list. Headers' existing order is generally maintained, with new headers added to the end of the wrapped list.

Unlike a dictionary, Headers objects do not raise an error when you try to get or delete a key that isn't in the wrapped header list. Getting a nonexistent header just returns None, and deleting a nonexistent header does nothing.

Headers objects also support keys(), values(), and items() methods. The lists returned by keys() and items() can include the same key more than once if there is a multi-valued header. The len() of a Headers object is the same as the length of its items(), which is the same as the length of the wrapped header list. In fact, the items() method just returns a copy of the wrapped header list.

Calling bytes() on a Headers object returns a formatted bytestring suitable for transmission as HTTP response headers. Each header is placed on a line with its value, separated by a colon and a space. Each line is terminated by a carriage return and line feed, and the bytestring is terminated with a blank line.

In addition to their mapping interface and formatting features, Headers objects also have the following methods for querying and adding multi-valued headers, and for adding headers with MIME parameters:

get_all(name)

Renvoie une liste de toutes les valeurs pour l'en-tête name.

The returned list will be sorted in the order they appeared in the original header list or were added to this instance, and may contain duplicates. Any fields deleted and re-inserted are always appended to the header list. If no fields exist with the given name, returns an empty list.

add_header(name, value, **_params)

Add a (possibly multi-valued) header, with optional MIME parameters specified via keyword arguments.

name is the header field to add. Keyword arguments can be used to set MIME parameters for the header field. Each parameter must be a string or None. Underscores in parameter names are converted to dashes, since dashes are illegal in Python identifiers, but many MIME parameter names include dashes. If the parameter value is a string, it is added to the header value parameters in the form name="value". If it is None, only the parameter name is added. (This is used for MIME parameters without a value.) Example usage:

h.add_header('content-disposition', 'attachment', filename='bud.gif')

Le code ci-dessus ajoute un en-tête qui ressemble à ceci :

Content-Disposition: attachment; filename="bud.gif"

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Le paramètre headers est optionnel.

wsgiref.simple_server -- a simple WSGI HTTP server

This module implements a simple HTTP server (based on http.server) that serves WSGI applications. Each server instance serves a single WSGI application on a given host and port. If you want to serve multiple applications on a single host and port, you should create a WSGI application that parses PATH_INFO to select which application to invoke for each request. (E.g., using the shift_path_info() function from wsgiref.util.)

wsgiref.simple_server.make_server(host, port, app, server_class=WSGIServer, handler_class=WSGIRequestHandler)

Create a new WSGI server listening on host and port, accepting connections for app. The return value is an instance of the supplied server_class, and will process requests using the specified handler_class. app must be a WSGI application object, as defined by PEP 3333 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/].

Exemple d'utilisation :

from wsgiref.simple_server import make_server, demo_app

with make_server('', 8000, demo_app) as httpd:
    print("Serving HTTP on port 8000...")

    # Respond to requests until process is killed
    httpd.serve_forever()

    # Alternative: serve one request, then exit
    httpd.handle_request()

wsgiref.simple_server.demo_app(environ, start_response)

This function is a small but complete WSGI application that returns a text page containing the message "Hello world!" and a list of the key/value pairs provided in the environ parameter. It's useful for verifying that a WSGI server (such as wsgiref.simple_server) is able to run a simple WSGI application correctly.

The start_response callable should follow the StartResponse protocol.

class wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer(server_address, RequestHandlerClass)

Create a WSGIServer instance. server_address should be a (host,port) tuple, and RequestHandlerClass should be the subclass of http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler that will be used to process requests.

You do not normally need to call this constructor, as the make_server() function can handle all the details for you.

WSGIServer is a subclass of http.server.HTTPServer, so all of its methods (such as serve_forever() and handle_request()) are available. WSGIServer also provides these WSGI-specific methods:

set_app(application)

Sets the callable application as the WSGI application that will receive requests.

get_app()

Returns the currently set application callable.

Normally, however, you do not need to use these additional methods, as set_app() is normally called by make_server(), and the get_app() exists mainly for the benefit of request handler instances.

class wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler(request, client_address, server)

Create an HTTP handler for the given request (i.e. a socket), client_address (a (host,port) tuple), and server (WSGIServer instance).

You do not need to create instances of this class directly; they are automatically created as needed by WSGIServer objects. You can, however, subclass this class and supply it as a handler_class to the make_server() function. Some possibly relevant methods for overriding in subclasses:

get_environ()

Return a WSGIEnvironment dictionary for a request. The default implementation copies the contents of the WSGIServer object's base_environ dictionary attribute and then adds various headers derived from the HTTP request. Each call to this method should return a new dictionary containing all of the relevant CGI environment variables as specified in PEP 3333 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/].

get_stderr()

Return the object that should be used as the wsgi.errors stream. The default implementation just returns sys.stderr.

handle()

Process the HTTP request. The default implementation creates a handler instance using a wsgiref.handlers class to implement the actual WSGI application interface.

wsgiref.validate --- WSGI conformance checker

When creating new WSGI application objects, frameworks, servers, or middleware, it can be useful to validate the new code's conformance using wsgiref.validate. This module provides a function that creates WSGI application objects that validate communications between a WSGI server or gateway and a WSGI application object, to check both sides for protocol conformance.

Note that this utility does not guarantee complete PEP 3333 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/] compliance; an absence of errors from this module does not necessarily mean that errors do not exist. However, if this module does produce an error, then it is virtually certain that either the server or application is not 100% compliant.

This module is based on the paste.lint module from Ian Bicking's "Python Paste" library.

wsgiref.validate.validator(application)

Wrap application and return a new WSGI application object. The returned application will forward all requests to the original application, and will check that both the application and the server invoking it are conforming to the WSGI specification and to RFC 2616 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html].

Any detected nonconformance results in an AssertionError being raised; note, however, that how these errors are handled is server-dependent. For example, wsgiref.simple_server and other servers based on wsgiref.handlers (that don't override the error handling methods to do something else) will simply output a message that an error has occurred, and dump the traceback to sys.stderr or some other error stream.

This wrapper may also generate output using the warnings module to indicate behaviors that are questionable but which may not actually be prohibited by PEP 3333 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/]. Unless they are suppressed using Python command-line options or the warnings API, any such warnings will be written to sys.stderr (not wsgi.errors, unless they happen to be the same object).

Exemple d'utilisation :

from wsgiref.validate import validator
from wsgiref.simple_server import make_server

# Our callable object which is intentionally not compliant to the
# standard, so the validator is going to break
def simple_app(environ, start_response):
    status = '200 OK'  # HTTP Status
    headers = [('Content-type', 'text/plain')]  # HTTP Headers
    start_response(status, headers)

    # This is going to break because we need to return a list, and
    # the validator is going to inform us
    return b"Hello World"

# This is the application wrapped in a validator
validator_app = validator(simple_app)

with make_server('', 8000, validator_app) as httpd:
    print("Listening on port 8000....")
    httpd.serve_forever()

wsgiref.handlers -- server/gateway base classes

This module provides base handler classes for implementing WSGI servers and gateways. These base classes handle most of the work of communicating with a WSGI application, as long as they are given a CGI-like environment, along with input, output, and error streams.

class wsgiref.handlers.CGIHandler

CGI-based invocation via sys.stdin, sys.stdout, sys.stderr and os.environ. This is useful when you have a WSGI application and want to run it as a CGI script. Simply invoke CGIHandler().run(app), where app is the WSGI application object you wish to invoke.

This class is a subclass of BaseCGIHandler that sets wsgi.run_once to true, wsgi.multithread to false, and wsgi.multiprocess to true, and always uses sys and os to obtain the necessary CGI streams and environment.

class wsgiref.handlers.IISCGIHandler

A specialized alternative to CGIHandler, for use when deploying on Microsoft's IIS web server, without having set the config allowPathInfo option (IIS>=7) or metabase allowPathInfoForScriptMappings (IIS<7).

By default, IIS gives a PATH_INFO that duplicates the SCRIPT_NAME at the front, causing problems for WSGI applications that wish to implement routing. This handler strips any such duplicated path.

IIS can be configured to pass the correct PATH_INFO, but this causes another bug where PATH_TRANSLATED is wrong. Luckily this variable is rarely used and is not guaranteed by WSGI. On IIS<7, though, the setting can only be made on a vhost level, affecting all other script mappings, many of which break when exposed to the PATH_TRANSLATED bug. For this reason IIS<7 is almost never deployed with the fix (Even IIS7 rarely uses it because there is still no UI for it.).

There is no way for CGI code to tell whether the option was set, so a separate handler class is provided. It is used in the same way as CGIHandler, i.e., by calling IISCGIHandler().run(app), where app is the WSGI application object you wish to invoke.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

class wsgiref.handlers.BaseCGIHandler(stdin, stdout, stderr, environ, multithread=True, multiprocess=False)

Similar to CGIHandler, but instead of using the sys and os modules, the CGI environment and I/O streams are specified explicitly. The multithread and multiprocess values are used to set the wsgi.multithread and wsgi.multiprocess flags for any applications run by the handler instance.

This class is a subclass of SimpleHandler intended for use with software other than HTTP "origin servers". If you are writing a gateway protocol implementation (such as CGI, FastCGI, SCGI, etc.) that uses a Status: header to send an HTTP status, you probably want to subclass this instead of SimpleHandler.

class wsgiref.handlers.SimpleHandler(stdin, stdout, stderr, environ, multithread=True, multiprocess=False)

Similar to BaseCGIHandler, but designed for use with HTTP origin servers. If you are writing an HTTP server implementation, you will probably want to subclass this instead of BaseCGIHandler.

This class is a subclass of BaseHandler. It overrides the __init__(), get_stdin(), get_stderr(), add_cgi_vars(), _write(), and _flush() methods to support explicitly setting the environment and streams via the constructor. The supplied environment and streams are stored in the stdin, stdout, stderr, and environ attributes.

The write() method of stdout should write each chunk in full, like io.BufferedIOBase.

class wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler

This is an abstract base class for running WSGI applications. Each instance will handle a single HTTP request, although in principle you could create a subclass that was reusable for multiple requests.

BaseHandler instances have only one method intended for external use:

run(app)

Run the specified WSGI application, app.

All of the other BaseHandler methods are invoked by this method in the process of running the application, and thus exist primarily to allow customizing the process.

The following methods MUST be overridden in a subclass:

_write(data)

Buffer the bytes data for transmission to the client. It's okay if this method actually transmits the data; BaseHandler just separates write and flush operations for greater efficiency when the underlying system actually has such a distinction.

_flush()

Force buffered data to be transmitted to the client. It's okay if this method is a no-op (i.e., if _write() actually sends the data).

get_stdin()

Return an object compatible with InputStream suitable for use as the wsgi.input of the request currently being processed.

get_stderr()

Return an object compatible with ErrorStream suitable for use as the wsgi.errors of the request currently being processed.

add_cgi_vars()

Insert CGI variables for the current request into the environ attribute.

Here are some other methods and attributes you may wish to override. This list is only a summary, however, and does not include every method that can be overridden. You should consult the docstrings and source code for additional information before attempting to create a customized BaseHandler subclass.

Attributes and methods for customizing the WSGI environment:

wsgi_multithread

The value to be used for the wsgi.multithread environment variable. It defaults to true in BaseHandler, but may have a different default (or be set by the constructor) in the other subclasses.

wsgi_multiprocess

The value to be used for the wsgi.multiprocess environment variable. It defaults to true in BaseHandler, but may have a different default (or be set by the constructor) in the other subclasses.

wsgi_run_once

The value to be used for the wsgi.run_once environment variable. It defaults to false in BaseHandler, but CGIHandler sets it to true by default.

os_environ

The default environment variables to be included in every request's WSGI environment. By default, this is a copy of os.environ at the time that wsgiref.handlers was imported, but subclasses can either create their own at the class or instance level. Note that the dictionary should be considered read-only, since the default value is shared between multiple classes and instances.

server_software

If the origin_server attribute is set, this attribute's value is used to set the default SERVER_SOFTWARE WSGI environment variable, and also to set a default Server: header in HTTP responses. It is ignored for handlers (such as BaseCGIHandler and CGIHandler) that are not HTTP origin servers.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: The term "Python" is replaced with implementation specific term like "CPython", "Jython" etc.

get_scheme()

Return the URL scheme being used for the current request. The default implementation uses the guess_scheme() function from wsgiref.util to guess whether the scheme should be "http" or "https", based on the current request's environ variables.

setup_environ()

Set the environ attribute to a fully populated WSGI environment. The default implementation uses all of the above methods and attributes, plus the get_stdin(), get_stderr(), and add_cgi_vars() methods and the wsgi_file_wrapper attribute. It also inserts a SERVER_SOFTWARE key if not present, as long as the origin_server attribute is a true value and the server_software attribute is set.

Methods and attributes for customizing exception handling:

log_exception(exc_info)

Log the exc_info tuple in the server log. exc_info is a (type, value, traceback) tuple. The default implementation simply writes the traceback to the request's wsgi.errors stream and flushes it. Subclasses can override this method to change the format or retarget the output, mail the traceback to an administrator, or whatever other action may be deemed suitable.

traceback_limit

The maximum number of frames to include in tracebacks output by the default log_exception() method. If None, all frames are included.

error_output(environ, start_response)

This method is a WSGI application to generate an error page for the user. It is only invoked if an error occurs before headers are sent to the client.

This method can access the current error using sys.exception(), and should pass that information to start_response when calling it (as described in the "Error Handling" section of PEP 3333 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/]). In particular, the start_response callable should follow the StartResponse protocol.

The default implementation just uses the error_status, error_headers, and error_body attributes to generate an output page. Subclasses can override this to produce more dynamic error output.

Note, however, that it's not recommended from a security perspective to spit out diagnostics to any old user; ideally, you should have to do something special to enable diagnostic output, which is why the default implementation doesn't include any.

error_status

The HTTP status used for error responses. This should be a status string as defined in PEP 3333 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/]; it defaults to a 500 code and message.

error_headers

The HTTP headers used for error responses. This should be a list of WSGI response headers ((name, value) tuples), as described in PEP 3333 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/]. The default list just sets the content type to text/plain.

error_body

The error response body. This should be an HTTP response body bytestring. It defaults to the plain text, "A server error occurred. Please contact the administrator."

Methods and attributes for PEP 3333 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/]'s "Optional Platform-Specific File Handling" feature:

wsgi_file_wrapper

A wsgi.file_wrapper factory, compatible with wsgiref.types.FileWrapper, or None. The default value of this attribute is the wsgiref.util.FileWrapper class.

sendfile()

Override to implement platform-specific file transmission. This method is called only if the application's return value is an instance of the class specified by the wsgi_file_wrapper attribute. It should return a true value if it was able to successfully transmit the file, so that the default transmission code will not be executed. The default implementation of this method just returns a false value.

Miscellaneous methods and attributes:

origin_server

This attribute should be set to a true value if the handler's _write() and _flush() are being used to communicate directly to the client, rather than via a CGI-like gateway protocol that wants the HTTP status in a special Status: header.

This attribute's default value is true in BaseHandler, but false in BaseCGIHandler and CGIHandler.

http_version

If origin_server is true, this string attribute is used to set the HTTP version of the response set to the client. It defaults to "1.0".

wsgiref.handlers.read_environ()

Transcode CGI variables from os.environ to PEP 3333 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/] "bytes in unicode" strings, returning a new dictionary. This function is used by CGIHandler and IISCGIHandler in place of directly using os.environ, which is not necessarily WSGI-compliant on all platforms and web servers using Python 3 -- specifically, ones where the OS's actual environment is Unicode (i.e. Windows), or ones where the environment is bytes, but the system encoding used by Python to decode it is anything other than ISO-8859-1 (e.g. Unix systems using UTF-8).

If you are implementing a CGI-based handler of your own, you probably want to use this routine instead of just copying values out of os.environ directly.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

wsgiref.types -- WSGI types for static type checking

This module provides various types for static type checking as described in PEP 3333 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/].

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

class wsgiref.types.StartResponse

A typing.Protocol describing start_response() [https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/#the-start-response-callable] callables (PEP 3333 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/]).

wsgiref.types.WSGIEnvironment

A type alias describing a WSGI environment dictionary.

wsgiref.types.WSGIApplication

A type alias describing a WSGI application callable.

class wsgiref.types.InputStream

A typing.Protocol describing a WSGI Input Stream [https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/#input-and-error-streams].

class wsgiref.types.ErrorStream

A typing.Protocol describing a WSGI Error Stream [https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/#input-and-error-streams].

class wsgiref.types.FileWrapper

A typing.Protocol describing a file wrapper [https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/#optional-platform-specific-file-handling]. See wsgiref.util.FileWrapper for a concrete implementation of this protocol.

Exemples

This is a working "Hello World" WSGI application, where the start_response callable should follow the StartResponse protocol:

"""
Every WSGI application must have an application object - a callable
object that accepts two arguments. For that purpose, we're going to
use a function (note that you're not limited to a function, you can
use a class for example). The first argument passed to the function
is a dictionary containing CGI-style environment variables and the
second variable is the callable object.
"""
from wsgiref.simple_server import make_server

def hello_world_app(environ, start_response):
    status = "200 OK"  # HTTP Status
    headers = [("Content-type", "text/plain; charset=utf-8")]  # HTTP Headers
    start_response(status, headers)

    # The returned object is going to be printed
    return [b"Hello World"]

with make_server("", 8000, hello_world_app) as httpd:
    print("Serving on port 8000...")

    # Serve until process is killed
    httpd.serve_forever()

Example of a WSGI application serving the current directory, accept optional directory and port number (default: 8000) on the command line:

"""
Small wsgiref based web server. Takes a path to serve from and an
optional port number (defaults to 8000), then tries to serve files.
MIME types are guessed from the file names, 404 errors are raised
if the file is not found.
"""
import mimetypes
import os
import sys
from wsgiref import simple_server, util

def app(environ, respond):
    # Get the file name and MIME type
    fn = os.path.join(path, environ["PATH_INFO"][1:])
    if "." not in fn.split(os.path.sep)[-1]:
        fn = os.path.join(fn, "index.html")
    mime_type = mimetypes.guess_file_type(fn)[0]

    # Return 200 OK if file exists, otherwise 404 Not Found
    if os.path.exists(fn):
        respond("200 OK", [("Content-Type", mime_type)])
        return util.FileWrapper(open(fn, "rb"))
    else:
        respond("404 Not Found", [("Content-Type", "text/plain")])
        return [b"not found"]

if __name__ == "__main__":
    # Get the path and port from command-line arguments
    path = sys.argv[1] if len(sys.argv) > 1 else os.getcwd()
    port = int(sys.argv[2]) if len(sys.argv) > 2 else 8000

    # Make and start the server until control-c
    httpd = simple_server.make_server("", port, app)
    print(f"Serving {path} on port {port}, control-C to stop")
    try:
        httpd.serve_forever()
    except KeyboardInterrupt:
        print("Shutting down.")
        httpd.server_close()

urllib --- URL handling modules

Code source : Lib/urllib/ [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/urllib/]

urllib est un paquet qui collecte plusieurs modules travaillant avec les URLs :

urllib.request pour ouvrir et lire des URLs ;

urllib.error contenant les exceptions levées par urllib.request ;

urllib.parse pour analyser les URLs ;

urllib.robotparser pour analyser les fichiers robots.txt.

urllib.request --- Extensible library for opening URLs

Source code: Lib/urllib/request.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/urllib/request.py]

The urllib.request module defines functions and classes which help in opening URLs (mostly HTTP) in a complex world --- basic and digest authentication, redirections, cookies and more.

Voir aussi

The Requests package [https://requests.readthedocs.io/en/master/] is recommended for a higher-level HTTP client interface.

Avertissement

On macOS it is unsafe to use this module in programs using os.fork() because the getproxies() implementation for macOS uses a higher-level system API. Set the environment variable no_proxy to * to avoid this problem (e.g. os.environ["no_proxy"] = "*").

Disponibilité: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly. See Plateformes WebAssembly for more information.

The urllib.request module defines the following functions:

urllib.request.urlopen(url, data=None, [timeout, ]*, context=None)

Open url, which can be either a string containing a valid, properly encoded URL, or a Request object.

data must be an object specifying additional data to be sent to the server, or None if no such data is needed. See Request for details.

urllib.request module uses HTTP/1.1 and includes Connection:close header in its HTTP requests.

The optional timeout parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for blocking operations like the connection attempt (if not specified, the global default timeout setting will be used). This actually only works for HTTP, HTTPS and FTP connections.

If context is specified, it must be a ssl.SSLContext instance describing the various SSL options. See HTTPSConnection for more details.

This function always returns an object which can work as a context manager and has the properties url, headers, and status. See urllib.response.addinfourl for more detail on these properties.

For HTTP and HTTPS URLs, this function returns a http.client.HTTPResponse object slightly modified. In addition to the three new methods above, the msg attribute contains the same information as the reason attribute --- the reason phrase returned by server --- instead of the response headers as it is specified in the documentation for HTTPResponse.

For FTP, file, and data URLs, this function returns a urllib.response.addinfourl object.

Raises URLError on protocol errors.

Note that None may be returned if no handler handles the request (though the default installed global OpenerDirector uses UnknownHandler to ensure this never happens).

In addition, if proxy settings are detected (for example, when a *_proxy environment variable like http_proxy is set), ProxyHandler is default installed and makes sure the requests are handled through the proxy.

The legacy urllib.urlopen function from Python 2.6 and earlier has been discontinued; urllib.request.urlopen() corresponds to the old urllib2.urlopen. Proxy handling, which was done by passing a dictionary parameter to urllib.urlopen, can be obtained by using ProxyHandler objects.

The default opener raises an auditing event urllib.Request with arguments fullurl, data, headers, method taken from the request object.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: cafile and capath were added.

HTTPS virtual hosts are now supported if possible (that is, if ssl.HAS_SNI is true).

data can be an iterable object.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: cadefault was added.

Modifié dans la version 3.4.3: context was added.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: HTTPS connection now send an ALPN extension with protocol indicator http/1.1 when no context is given. Custom context should set ALPN protocols with set_alpn_protocols().

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Remove cafile, capath and cadefault parameters: use the context parameter instead.

urllib.request.install_opener(opener)

Install an OpenerDirector instance as the default global opener. Installing an opener is only necessary if you want urlopen to use that opener; otherwise, simply call OpenerDirector.open() instead of urlopen(). The code does not check for a real OpenerDirector, and any class with the appropriate interface will work.

urllib.request.build_opener([handler, ...])

Return an OpenerDirector instance, which chains the handlers in the order given. handlers can be either instances of BaseHandler, or subclasses of BaseHandler (in which case it must be possible to call the constructor without any parameters). Instances of the following classes will be in front of the handlers, unless the handlers contain them, instances of them or subclasses of them: ProxyHandler (if proxy settings are detected), UnknownHandler, HTTPHandler, HTTPDefaultErrorHandler, HTTPRedirectHandler, FTPHandler, FileHandler, HTTPErrorProcessor.

If the Python installation has SSL support (i.e., if the ssl module can be imported), HTTPSHandler will also be added.

A BaseHandler subclass may also change its handler_order attribute to modify its position in the handlers list.

urllib.request.pathname2url(path, *, add_scheme=False)

Convert the given local path to a file: URL. This function uses quote() function to encode the path.

If add_scheme is false (the default), the return value omits the file: scheme prefix. Set add_scheme to true to return a complete URL.

This example shows the function being used on Windows:

>>> from urllib.request import pathname2url
>>> path = 'C:\\Program Files'
>>> pathname2url(path, add_scheme=True)
'file:///C:/Program%20Files'

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Windows drive letters are no longer converted to uppercase, and : characters not following a drive letter no longer cause an OSError exception to be raised on Windows.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Paths beginning with a slash are converted to URLs with authority sections. For example, the path /etc/hosts is converted to the URL ///etc/hosts.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: The add_scheme parameter was added.

urllib.request.url2pathname(url, *, require_scheme=False, resolve_host=False)

Convert the given file: URL to a local path. This function uses unquote() to decode the URL.

If require_scheme is false (the default), the given value should omit a file: scheme prefix. If require_scheme is set to true, the given value should include the prefix; a URLError is raised if it doesn't.

The URL authority is discarded if it is empty, localhost, or the local hostname. Otherwise, if resolve_host is set to true, the authority is resolved using socket.gethostbyname() and discarded if it matches a local IP address (as per RFC 8089 §3 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc8089.html#section-3]). If the authority is still unhandled, then on Windows a UNC path is returned, and on other platforms a URLError is raised.

This example shows the function being used on Windows:

>>> from urllib.request import url2pathname
>>> url = 'file:///C:/Program%20Files'
>>> url2pathname(url, require_scheme=True)
'C:\\Program Files'

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Windows drive letters are no longer converted to uppercase, and : characters not following a drive letter no longer cause an OSError exception to be raised on Windows.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: The URL authority is discarded if it matches the local hostname. Otherwise, if the authority isn't empty or localhost, then on Windows a UNC path is returned (as before), and on other platforms a URLError is raised.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: The URL query and fragment components are discarded if present.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: The require_scheme and resolve_host parameters were added.

urllib.request.getproxies()

This helper function returns a dictionary of scheme to proxy server URL mappings. It scans the environment for variables named <scheme>_proxy, in a case insensitive approach, for all operating systems first, and when it cannot find it, looks for proxy information from System Configuration for macOS and Windows Systems Registry for Windows. If both lowercase and uppercase environment variables exist (and disagree), lowercase is preferred.

Note

If the environment variable REQUEST_METHOD is set, which usually indicates your script is running in a CGI environment, the environment variable HTTP_PROXY (uppercase _PROXY) will be ignored. This is because that variable can be injected by a client using the "Proxy:" HTTP header. If you need to use an HTTP proxy in a CGI environment, either use ProxyHandler explicitly, or make sure the variable name is in lowercase (or at least the _proxy suffix).

The following classes are provided:

class urllib.request.Request(url, data=None, headers={}, origin_req_host=None, unverifiable=False, method=None)

This class is an abstraction of a URL request.

url should be a string containing a valid, properly encoded URL.

data must be an object specifying additional data to send to the server, or None if no such data is needed. Currently HTTP requests are the only ones that use data. The supported object types include bytes, file-like objects, and iterables of bytes-like objects. If no Content-Length nor Transfer-Encoding header field has been provided, HTTPHandler will set these headers according to the type of data. Content-Length will be used to send bytes objects, while Transfer-Encoding: chunked as specified in RFC 7230 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7230.html], Section 3.3.1 will be used to send files and other iterables.

For an HTTP POST request method, data should be a buffer in the standard application/x-www-form-urlencoded format. The urllib.parse.urlencode() function takes a mapping or sequence of 2-tuples and returns an ASCII string in this format. It should be encoded to bytes before being used as the data parameter.

headers should be a dictionary, and will be treated as if add_header() was called with each key and value as arguments. This is often used to "spoof" the User-Agent header value, which is used by a browser to identify itself -- some HTTP servers only allow requests coming from common browsers as opposed to scripts. For example, Mozilla Firefox may identify itself as "Mozilla/5.0 (X11; U; Linux i686) Gecko/20071127 Firefox/2.0.0.11", while urllib's default user agent string is "Python-urllib/2.6" (on Python 2.6). All header keys are sent in camel case.

An appropriate Content-Type header should be included if the data argument is present. If this header has not been provided and data is not None, Content-Type: application/x-www-form-urlencoded will be added as a default.

The next two arguments are only of interest for correct handling of third-party HTTP cookies:

origin_req_host should be the request-host of the origin transaction, as defined by RFC 2965 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html]. It defaults to http.cookiejar.request_host(self). This is the host name or IP address of the original request that was initiated by the user. For example, if the request is for an image in an HTML document, this should be the request-host of the request for the page containing the image.

unverifiable should indicate whether the request is unverifiable, as defined by RFC 2965 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html]. It defaults to False. An unverifiable request is one whose URL the user did not have the option to approve. For example, if the request is for an image in an HTML document, and the user had no option to approve the automatic fetching of the image, this should be true.

method should be a string that indicates the HTTP request method that will be used (e.g. 'HEAD'). If provided, its value is stored in the method attribute and is used by get_method(). The default is 'GET' if data is None or 'POST' otherwise. Subclasses may indicate a different default method by setting the method attribute in the class itself.

Note

The request will not work as expected if the data object is unable to deliver its content more than once (e.g. a file or an iterable that can produce the content only once) and the request is retried for HTTP redirects or authentication. The data is sent to the HTTP server right away after the headers. There is no support for a 100-continue expectation in the library.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Request.method argument is added to the Request class.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Default Request.method may be indicated at the class level.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Do not raise an error if the Content-Length has not been provided and data is neither None nor a bytes object. Fall back to use chunked transfer encoding instead.

class urllib.request.OpenerDirector

The OpenerDirector class opens URLs via BaseHandlers chained together. It manages the chaining of handlers, and recovery from errors.

class urllib.request.BaseHandler

This is the base class for all registered handlers --- and handles only the simple mechanics of registration.

class urllib.request.HTTPDefaultErrorHandler

A class which defines a default handler for HTTP error responses; all responses are turned into HTTPError exceptions.

class urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler

A class to handle redirections.

class urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor(cookiejar=None)

A class to handle HTTP Cookies.

class urllib.request.ProxyHandler(proxies=None)

Cause requests to go through a proxy. If proxies is given, it must be a dictionary mapping protocol names to URLs of proxies. The default is to read the list of proxies from the environment variables <protocol>_proxy. If no proxy environment variables are set, then in a Windows environment proxy settings are obtained from the registry's Internet Settings section, and in a macOS environment proxy information is retrieved from the System Configuration Framework.

To disable autodetected proxy pass an empty dictionary.

The no_proxy environment variable can be used to specify hosts which shouldn't be reached via proxy; if set, it should be a comma-separated list of hostname suffixes, optionally with :port appended, for example cern.ch,ncsa.uiuc.edu,some.host:8080.

Note

HTTP_PROXY will be ignored if a variable REQUEST_METHOD is set; see the documentation on getproxies().

class urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr

Keep a database of (realm, uri) -> (user, password) mappings.

class urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm

Keep a database of (realm, uri) -> (user, password) mappings. A realm of None is considered a catch-all realm, which is searched if no other realm fits.

class urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth

A variant of HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm that also has a database of uri -> is_authenticated mappings. Can be used by a BasicAuth handler to determine when to send authentication credentials immediately instead of waiting for a 401 response first.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

class urllib.request.AbstractBasicAuthHandler(password_mgr=None)

This is a mixin class that helps with HTTP authentication, both to the remote host and to a proxy. password_mgr, if given, should be something that is compatible with HTTPPasswordMgr; refer to section HTTPPasswordMgr Objects for information on the interface that must be supported. If passwd_mgr also provides is_authenticated and update_authenticated methods (see HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects), then the handler will use the is_authenticated result for a given URI to determine whether or not to send authentication credentials with the request. If is_authenticated returns True for the URI, credentials are sent. If is_authenticated is False, credentials are not sent, and then if a 401 response is received the request is re-sent with the authentication credentials. If authentication succeeds, update_authenticated is called to set is_authenticated True for the URI, so that subsequent requests to the URI or any of its super-URIs will automatically include the authentication credentials.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5: Added is_authenticated support.

class urllib.request.HTTPBasicAuthHandler(password_mgr=None)

Handle authentication with the remote host. password_mgr, if given, should be something that is compatible with HTTPPasswordMgr; refer to section HTTPPasswordMgr Objects for information on the interface that must be supported. HTTPBasicAuthHandler will raise a ValueError when presented with a wrong Authentication scheme.

class urllib.request.ProxyBasicAuthHandler(password_mgr=None)

Handle authentication with the proxy. password_mgr, if given, should be something that is compatible with HTTPPasswordMgr; refer to section HTTPPasswordMgr Objects for information on the interface that must be supported.

class urllib.request.AbstractDigestAuthHandler(password_mgr=None)

This is a mixin class that helps with HTTP authentication, both to the remote host and to a proxy. password_mgr, if given, should be something that is compatible with HTTPPasswordMgr; refer to section HTTPPasswordMgr Objects for information on the interface that must be supported.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Added support for HTTP digest authentication algorithm SHA-256.

class urllib.request.HTTPDigestAuthHandler(password_mgr=None)

Handle authentication with the remote host. password_mgr, if given, should be something that is compatible with HTTPPasswordMgr; refer to section HTTPPasswordMgr Objects for information on the interface that must be supported. When both Digest Authentication Handler and Basic Authentication Handler are both added, Digest Authentication is always tried first. If the Digest Authentication returns a 40x response again, it is sent to Basic Authentication handler to Handle. This Handler method will raise a ValueError when presented with an authentication scheme other than Digest or Basic.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Raise ValueError on unsupported Authentication Scheme.

class urllib.request.ProxyDigestAuthHandler(password_mgr=None)

Handle authentication with the proxy. password_mgr, if given, should be something that is compatible with HTTPPasswordMgr; refer to section HTTPPasswordMgr Objects for information on the interface that must be supported.

class urllib.request.HTTPHandler

A class to handle opening of HTTP URLs.

class urllib.request.HTTPSHandler(debuglevel=0, context=None, check_hostname=None)

A class to handle opening of HTTPS URLs. context and check_hostname have the same meaning as in http.client.HTTPSConnection.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: context and check_hostname were added.

class urllib.request.FileHandler

Open local files.

class urllib.request.DataHandler

Open data URLs.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

class urllib.request.FTPHandler

Open FTP URLs.

class urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler

Open FTP URLs, keeping a cache of open FTP connections to minimize delays.

class urllib.request.UnknownHandler

A catch-all class to handle unknown URLs.

class urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor

Process HTTP error responses.

Request Objects

The following methods describe Request's public interface, and so all may be overridden in subclasses. It also defines several public attributes that can be used by clients to inspect the parsed request.

Request.full_url

The original URL passed to the constructor.

Modifié dans la version 3.4.

Request.full_url is a property with setter, getter and a deleter. Getting full_url returns the original request URL with the fragment, if it was present.

Request.type

The URI scheme.

Request.host

The URI authority, typically a host, but may also contain a port separated by a colon.

Request.origin_req_host

The original host for the request, without port.

Request.selector

The URI path. If the Request uses a proxy, then selector will be the full URL that is passed to the proxy.

Request.data

The entity body for the request, or None if not specified.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Changing value of Request.data now deletes "Content-Length" header if it was previously set or calculated.

Request.unverifiable

boolean, indicates whether the request is unverifiable as defined by RFC 2965 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html].

Request.method

The HTTP request method to use. By default its value is None, which means that get_method() will do its normal computation of the method to be used. Its value can be set (thus overriding the default computation in get_method()) either by providing a default value by setting it at the class level in a Request subclass, or by passing a value in to the Request constructor via the method argument.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: A default value can now be set in subclasses; previously it could only be set via the constructor argument.

Request.get_method()

Return a string indicating the HTTP request method. If Request.method is not None, return its value, otherwise return 'GET' if Request.data is None, or 'POST' if it's not. This is only meaningful for HTTP requests.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: get_method now looks at the value of Request.method.

Request.add_header(key, val)

Add another header to the request. Headers are currently ignored by all handlers except HTTP handlers, where they are added to the list of headers sent to the server. Note that there cannot be more than one header with the same name, and later calls will overwrite previous calls in case the key collides. Currently, this is no loss of HTTP functionality, since all headers which have meaning when used more than once have a (header-specific) way of gaining the same functionality using only one header. Note that headers added using this method are also added to redirected requests.

Request.add_unredirected_header(key, header)

Add a header that will not be added to a redirected request.

Request.has_header(header)

Return whether the instance has the named header (checks both regular and unredirected).

Request.remove_header(header)

Remove named header from the request instance (both from regular and unredirected headers).

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Request.get_full_url()

Return the URL given in the constructor.

Modifié dans la version 3.4.

Returns Request.full_url

Request.set_proxy(host, type)

Prepare the request by connecting to a proxy server. The host and type will replace those of the instance, and the instance's selector will be the original URL given in the constructor.

Request.get_header(header_name, default=None)

Return the value of the given header. If the header is not present, return the default value.

Request.header_items()

Return a list of tuples (header_name, header_value) of the Request headers.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: The request methods add_data, has_data, get_data, get_type, get_host, get_selector, get_origin_req_host and is_unverifiable that were deprecated since 3.3 have been removed.

OpenerDirector Objects

OpenerDirector instances have the following methods:

OpenerDirector.add_handler(handler)

handler should be an instance of BaseHandler. The following methods are searched, and added to the possible chains (note that HTTP errors are a special case). Note that, in the following, protocol should be replaced with the actual protocol to handle, for example http_response() would be the HTTP protocol response handler. Also type should be replaced with the actual HTTP code, for example http_error_404() would handle HTTP 404 errors.

<protocol>_open() --- signal that the handler knows how to open protocol URLs.

See BaseHandler.<protocol>_open() for more information.

http_error_<type>() --- signal that the handler knows how to handle HTTP errors with HTTP error code type.

See BaseHandler.http_error_<nnn>() for more information.

<protocol>_error() --- signal that the handler knows how to handle errors from (non-http) protocol.

<protocol>_request() --- signal that the handler knows how to pre-process protocol requests.

See BaseHandler.<protocol>_request() for more information.

<protocol>_response() --- signal that the handler knows how to post-process protocol responses.

See BaseHandler.<protocol>_response() for more information.

OpenerDirector.open(url, data=None[, timeout])

Open the given url (which can be a request object or a string), optionally passing the given data. Arguments, return values and exceptions raised are the same as those of urlopen() (which simply calls the open() method on the currently installed global OpenerDirector). The optional timeout parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for blocking operations like the connection attempt (if not specified, the global default timeout setting will be used). The timeout feature actually works only for HTTP, HTTPS and FTP connections.

OpenerDirector.error(proto, *args)

Handle an error of the given protocol. This will call the registered error handlers for the given protocol with the given arguments (which are protocol specific). The HTTP protocol is a special case which uses the HTTP response code to determine the specific error handler; refer to the http_error_<type>() methods of the handler classes.

Return values and exceptions raised are the same as those of urlopen().

OpenerDirector objects open URLs in three stages:

The order in which these methods are called within each stage is determined by sorting the handler instances.

Every handler with a method named like <protocol>_request() has that method called to pre-process the request.

Handlers with a method named like <protocol>_open() are called to handle the request. This stage ends when a handler either returns a non-None value (ie. a response), or raises an exception (usually URLError). Exceptions are allowed to propagate.

In fact, the above algorithm is first tried for methods named default_open(). If all such methods return None, the algorithm is repeated for methods named like <protocol>_open(). If all such methods return None, the algorithm is repeated for methods named unknown_open().

Note that the implementation of these methods may involve calls of the parent OpenerDirector instance's open() and error() methods.

Every handler with a method named like <protocol>_response() has that method called to post-process the response.

BaseHandler Objects

BaseHandler objects provide a couple of methods that are directly useful, and others that are meant to be used by derived classes. These are intended for direct use:

BaseHandler.add_parent(director)

Add a director as parent.

BaseHandler.close()

Remove any parents.

The following attribute and methods should only be used by classes derived from BaseHandler.

Note

The convention has been adopted that subclasses defining <protocol>_request() or <protocol>_response() methods are named *Processor; all others are named *Handler.

BaseHandler.parent

A valid OpenerDirector, which can be used to open using a different protocol, or handle errors.

BaseHandler.default_open(req)

This method is not defined in BaseHandler, but subclasses should define it if they want to catch all URLs.

This method, if implemented, will be called by the parent OpenerDirector. It should return a file-like object as described in the return value of the open() method of OpenerDirector, or None. It should raise URLError, unless a truly exceptional thing happens (for example, MemoryError should not be mapped to URLError).

This method will be called before any protocol-specific open method.

BaseHandler.<protocol>_open(req)

This method is not defined in BaseHandler, but subclasses should define it if they want to handle URLs with the given protocol.

This method, if defined, will be called by the parent OpenerDirector. Return values should be the same as for default_open().

BaseHandler.unknown_open(req)

This method is not defined in BaseHandler, but subclasses should define it if they want to catch all URLs with no specific registered handler to open it.

This method, if implemented, will be called by the parent OpenerDirector. Return values should be the same as for default_open().

BaseHandler.http_error_default(req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)

This method is not defined in BaseHandler, but subclasses should override it if they intend to provide a catch-all for otherwise unhandled HTTP errors. It will be called automatically by the OpenerDirector getting the error, and should not normally be called in other circumstances.

OpenerDirector will call this method with five positional arguments:

a Request object,

a file-like object with the HTTP error body,

the three-digit code of the error, as a string,

the user-visible explanation of the code, as a string, and

the headers of the error, as a mapping object.

Return values and exceptions raised should be the same as those of urlopen().

BaseHandler.http_error_<nnn>(req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)

nnn should be a three-digit HTTP error code. This method is also not defined in BaseHandler, but will be called, if it exists, on an instance of a subclass, when an HTTP error with code nnn occurs.

Subclasses should override this method to handle specific HTTP errors.

Arguments, return values and exceptions raised should be the same as for http_error_default().

BaseHandler.<protocol>_request(req)

This method is not defined in BaseHandler, but subclasses should define it if they want to pre-process requests of the given protocol.

This method, if defined, will be called by the parent OpenerDirector. req will be a Request object. The return value should be a Request object.

BaseHandler.<protocol>_response(req, response)

This method is not defined in BaseHandler, but subclasses should define it if they want to post-process responses of the given protocol.

This method, if defined, will be called by the parent OpenerDirector. req will be a Request object. response will be an object implementing the same interface as the return value of urlopen(). The return value should implement the same interface as the return value of urlopen().

HTTPRedirectHandler Objects

Note

Some HTTP redirections require action from this module's client code. If this is the case, HTTPError is raised. See RFC 2616 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html] for details of the precise meanings of the various redirection codes.

An HTTPError exception raised as a security consideration if the HTTPRedirectHandler is presented with a redirected URL which is not an HTTP, HTTPS or FTP URL.

HTTPRedirectHandler.redirect_request(req, fp, code, msg, hdrs, newurl)

Return a Request or None in response to a redirect. This is called by the default implementations of the http_error_30*() methods when a redirection is received from the server. If a redirection should take place, return a new Request to allow http_error_30*() to perform the redirect to newurl. Otherwise, raise HTTPError if no other handler should try to handle this URL, or return None if you can't but another handler might.

Note

The default implementation of this method does not strictly follow RFC 2616 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html], which says that 301 and 302 responses to POST requests must not be automatically redirected without confirmation by the user. In reality, browsers do allow automatic redirection of these responses, changing the POST to a GET, and the default implementation reproduces this behavior.

HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_301(req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)

Redirect to the Location: or URI: URL. This method is called by the parent OpenerDirector when getting an HTTP 'moved permanently' response.

HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_302(req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)

The same as http_error_301(), but called for the 'found' response.

HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_303(req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)

The same as http_error_301(), but called for the 'see other' response.

HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_307(req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)

The same as http_error_301(), but called for the 'temporary redirect' response. It does not allow changing the request method from POST to GET.

HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_308(req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)

The same as http_error_301(), but called for the 'permanent redirect' response. It does not allow changing the request method from POST to GET.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

HTTPCookieProcessor Objects

HTTPCookieProcessor instances have one attribute:

HTTPCookieProcessor.cookiejar

The http.cookiejar.CookieJar in which cookies are stored.

ProxyHandler Objects

ProxyHandler.<protocol>_open(request)

The ProxyHandler will have a method <protocol>_open() for every protocol which has a proxy in the proxies dictionary given in the constructor. The method will modify requests to go through the proxy, by calling request.set_proxy(), and call the next handler in the chain to actually execute the protocol.

HTTPPasswordMgr Objects

These methods are available on HTTPPasswordMgr and HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm objects.

HTTPPasswordMgr.add_password(realm, uri, user, passwd)

uri can be either a single URI, or a sequence of URIs. realm, user and passwd must be strings. This causes (user, passwd) to be used as authentication tokens when authentication for realm and a super-URI of any of the given URIs is given.

HTTPPasswordMgr.find_user_password(realm, authuri)

Get user/password for given realm and URI, if any. This method will return (None, None) if there is no matching user/password.

For HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm objects, the realm None will be searched if the given realm has no matching user/password.

HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects

This password manager extends HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm to support tracking URIs for which authentication credentials should always be sent.

HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.add_password(realm, uri, user, passwd, is_authenticated=False)

realm, uri, user, passwd are as for HTTPPasswordMgr.add_password(). is_authenticated sets the initial value of the is_authenticated flag for the given URI or list of URIs. If is_authenticated is specified as True, realm is ignored.

HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.find_user_password(realm, authuri)

Same as for HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm objects

HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.update_authenticated(self, uri, is_authenticated=False)

Update the is_authenticated flag for the given uri or list of URIs.

HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.is_authenticated(self, authuri)

Returns the current state of the is_authenticated flag for the given URI.

AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects

AbstractBasicAuthHandler.http_error_auth_reqed(authreq, host, req, headers)

Handle an authentication request by getting a user/password pair, and re-trying the request. authreq should be the name of the header where the information about the realm is included in the request, host specifies the URL and path to authenticate for, req should be the (failed) Request object, and headers should be the error headers.

host is either an authority (e.g. "python.org") or a URL containing an authority component (e.g. "http://python.org/"). In either case, the authority must not contain a userinfo component (so, "python.org" and "python.org:80" are fine, "joe:password@python.org" is not).

HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects

HTTPBasicAuthHandler.http_error_401(req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)

Retry the request with authentication information, if available.

ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects

ProxyBasicAuthHandler.http_error_407(req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)

Retry the request with authentication information, if available.

AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects

AbstractDigestAuthHandler.http_error_auth_reqed(authreq, host, req, headers)

authreq should be the name of the header where the information about the realm is included in the request, host should be the host to authenticate to, req should be the (failed) Request object, and headers should be the error headers.

HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects

HTTPDigestAuthHandler.http_error_401(req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)

Retry the request with authentication information, if available.

ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects

ProxyDigestAuthHandler.http_error_407(req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)

Retry the request with authentication information, if available.

HTTPHandler Objects

HTTPHandler.http_open(req)

Send an HTTP request, which can be either GET or POST, depending on req.data.

HTTPSHandler Objects

HTTPSHandler.https_open(req)

Send an HTTPS request, which can be either GET or POST, depending on req.data.

FileHandler Objects

FileHandler.file_open(req)

Open the file locally, if there is no host name, or the host name is 'localhost'.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: This method is applicable only for local hostnames. When a remote hostname is given, a URLError is raised.

DataHandler Objects

DataHandler.data_open(req)

Read a data URL. This kind of URL contains the content encoded in the URL itself. The data URL syntax is specified in RFC 2397 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2397.html]. This implementation ignores white spaces in base64 encoded data URLs so the URL may be wrapped in whatever source file it comes from. But even though some browsers don't mind about a missing padding at the end of a base64 encoded data URL, this implementation will raise a ValueError in that case.

FTPHandler Objects

FTPHandler.ftp_open(req)

Open the FTP file indicated by req. The login is always done with empty username and password.

CacheFTPHandler Objects

CacheFTPHandler objects are FTPHandler objects with the following additional methods:

CacheFTPHandler.setTimeout(t)

Set timeout of connections to t seconds.

CacheFTPHandler.setMaxConns(m)

Set maximum number of cached connections to m.

UnknownHandler Objects

UnknownHandler.unknown_open()

Raise a URLError exception.

HTTPErrorProcessor Objects

HTTPErrorProcessor.http_response(request, response)

Process HTTP error responses.

For 200 error codes, the response object is returned immediately.

For non-200 error codes, this simply passes the job on to the http_error_<type>() handler methods, via OpenerDirector.error(). Eventually, HTTPDefaultErrorHandler will raise an HTTPError if no other handler handles the error.

HTTPErrorProcessor.https_response(request, response)

Process HTTPS error responses.

The behavior is same as http_response().

Exemples

In addition to the examples below, more examples are given in Guide pratique : récupérer des ressources web en utilisant le module urllib.

This example gets the python.org main page and displays the first 300 bytes of it:

>>> import urllib.request
>>> with urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.python.org/') as f:
...     print(f.read(300))
...
b'<!doctype html>\n<!--[if lt IE 7]>   <html class="no-js ie6 lt-ie7 lt-ie8 lt-ie9">   <![endif]-->\n<!--[if IE 7]>      <html class="no-js ie7 lt-ie8 lt-ie9">          <![endif]-->\n<!--[if IE 8]>      <html class="no-js ie8 lt-ie9">

Note that urlopen returns a bytes object. This is because there is no way for urlopen to automatically determine the encoding of the byte stream it receives from the HTTP server. In general, a program will decode the returned bytes object to string once it determines or guesses the appropriate encoding.

The following HTML spec document, https://html.spec.whatwg.org/#charset, lists the various ways in which an HTML or an XML document could have specified its encoding information.

For additional information, see the W3C document: https://www.w3.org/International/questions/qa-html-encoding-declarations.

As the python.org website uses utf-8 encoding as specified in its meta tag, we will use the same for decoding the bytes object:

>>> with urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.python.org/') as f:
...     print(f.read(100).decode('utf-8'))
...
<!doctype html>
<!--[if lt IE 7]>   <html class="no-js ie6 lt-ie7 lt-ie8 lt-ie9">   <![endif]-->
<!-

It is also possible to achieve the same result without using the context manager approach:

>>> import urllib.request
>>> f = urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.python.org/')
>>> try:
...     print(f.read(100).decode('utf-8'))
... finally:
...     f.close()
...
<!doctype html>
<!--[if lt IE 7]>   <html class="no-js ie6 lt-ie7 lt-ie8 lt-ie9">   <![endif]-->
<!--

In the following example, we are sending a data-stream to the stdin of a CGI and reading the data it returns to us. Note that this example will only work when the Python installation supports SSL.

>>> import urllib.request
>>> req = urllib.request.Request(url='https://localhost/cgi-bin/test.cgi',
...                       data=b'This data is passed to stdin of the CGI')
>>> with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as f:
...     print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))
...
Got Data: "This data is passed to stdin of the CGI"

The code for the sample CGI used in the above example is:

#!/usr/bin/env python
import sys
data = sys.stdin.read()
print('Content-type: text/plain\n\nGot Data: "%s"' % data)

Here is an example of doing a PUT request using Request:

import urllib.request
DATA = b'some data'
req = urllib.request.Request(url='http://localhost:8080', data=DATA, method='PUT')
with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as f:
    pass
print(f.status)
print(f.reason)

Use of Basic HTTP Authentication:

import urllib.request
# Create an OpenerDirector with support for Basic HTTP Authentication...
auth_handler = urllib.request.HTTPBasicAuthHandler()
auth_handler.add_password(realm='PDQ Application',
                          uri='https://mahler:8092/site-updates.py',
                          user='klem',
                          passwd='kadidd!ehopper')
opener = urllib.request.build_opener(auth_handler)
# ...and install it globally so it can be used with urlopen.
urllib.request.install_opener(opener)
with urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.example.com/login.html') as f:
    print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))

build_opener() provides many handlers by default, including a ProxyHandler. By default, ProxyHandler uses the environment variables named <scheme>_proxy, where <scheme> is the URL scheme involved. For example, the http_proxy environment variable is read to obtain the HTTP proxy's URL.

This example replaces the default ProxyHandler with one that uses programmatically supplied proxy URLs, and adds proxy authorization support with ProxyBasicAuthHandler.

proxy_handler = urllib.request.ProxyHandler({'http': 'http://www.example.com:3128/'})
proxy_auth_handler = urllib.request.ProxyBasicAuthHandler()
proxy_auth_handler.add_password('realm', 'host', 'username', 'password')

opener = urllib.request.build_opener(proxy_handler, proxy_auth_handler)
# This time, rather than install the OpenerDirector, we use it directly:
with opener.open('http://www.example.com/login.html') as f:
   print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))

Adding HTTP headers:

Use the headers argument to the Request constructor, or:

import urllib.request
req = urllib.request.Request('http://www.example.com/')
req.add_header('Referer', 'http://www.python.org/')
# Customize the default User-Agent header value:
req.add_header('User-Agent', 'urllib-example/0.1 (Contact: . . .)')
with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as f:
    print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))

OpenerDirector automatically adds a User-Agent header to every Request. To change this:

import urllib.request
opener = urllib.request.build_opener()
opener.addheaders = [('User-agent', 'Mozilla/5.0')]
with opener.open('http://www.example.com/') as f:
   print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))

Also, remember that a few standard headers (Content-Length, Content-Type and Host) are added when the Request is passed to urlopen() (or OpenerDirector.open()).

Here is an example session that uses the GET method to retrieve a URL containing parameters:

>>> import urllib.request
>>> import urllib.parse
>>> params = urllib.parse.urlencode({'spam': 1, 'eggs': 2, 'bacon': 0})
>>> url = "http://www.musi-cal.com/cgi-bin/query?%s" % params
>>> with urllib.request.urlopen(url) as f:
...     print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))
...

The following example uses the POST method instead. Note that params output from urlencode is encoded to bytes before it is sent to urlopen as data:

>>> import urllib.request
>>> import urllib.parse
>>> data = urllib.parse.urlencode({'spam': 1, 'eggs': 2, 'bacon': 0})
>>> data = data.encode('ascii')
>>> with urllib.request.urlopen("http://requestb.in/xrbl82xr", data) as f:
...     print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))
...

The following example uses an explicitly specified HTTP proxy, overriding environment settings:

>>> import urllib.request
>>> proxies = {'http': 'http://proxy.example.com:8080/'}
>>> opener = urllib.request.build_opener(urllib.request.ProxyHandler(proxies))
>>> with opener.open("http://www.python.org") as f:
...     f.read().decode('utf-8')
...

The following example uses no proxies at all, overriding environment settings:

>>> import urllib.request
>>> opener = urllib.request.build_opener(urllib.request.ProxyHandler({}}))
>>> with opener.open("http://www.python.org/") as f:
...     f.read().decode('utf-8')
...

Legacy interface

The following functions and classes are ported from the Python 2 module urllib (as opposed to urllib2). They might become deprecated at some point in the future.

urllib.request.urlretrieve(url, filename=None, reporthook=None, data=None)

Copy a network object denoted by a URL to a local file. If the URL points to a local file, the object will not be copied unless filename is supplied. Return a tuple (filename, headers) where filename is the local file name under which the object can be found, and headers is whatever the info() method of the object returned by urlopen() returned (for a remote object). Exceptions are the same as for urlopen().

The second argument, if present, specifies the file location to copy to (if absent, the location will be a tempfile with a generated name). The third argument, if present, is a callable that will be called once on establishment of the network connection and once after each block read thereafter. The callable will be passed three arguments; a count of blocks transferred so far, a block size in bytes, and the total size of the file. The third argument may be -1 on older FTP servers which do not return a file size in response to a retrieval request.

The following example illustrates the most common usage scenario:

>>> import urllib.request
>>> local_filename, headers = urllib.request.urlretrieve('http://python.org/')
>>> html = open(local_filename)
>>> html.close()

If the url uses the http: scheme identifier, the optional data argument may be given to specify a POST request (normally the request type is GET). The data argument must be a bytes object in standard application/x-www-form-urlencoded format; see the urllib.parse.urlencode() function.

urlretrieve() will raise ContentTooShortError when it detects that the amount of data available was less than the expected amount (which is the size reported by a Content-Length header). This can occur, for example, when the download is interrupted.

The Content-Length is treated as a lower bound: if there's more data to read, urlretrieve reads more data, but if less data is available, it raises the exception.

You can still retrieve the downloaded data in this case, it is stored in the content attribute of the exception instance.

If no Content-Length header was supplied, urlretrieve can not check the size of the data it has downloaded, and just returns it. In this case you just have to assume that the download was successful.

urllib.request.urlcleanup()

Cleans up temporary files that may have been left behind by previous calls to urlretrieve().

urllib.request Restrictions

Currently, only the following protocols are supported: HTTP (versions 0.9 and 1.0), FTP, local files, and data URLs.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Added support for data URLs.

The caching feature of urlretrieve() has been disabled until someone finds the time to hack proper processing of Expiration time headers.

There should be a function to query whether a particular URL is in the cache.

For backward compatibility, if a URL appears to point to a local file but the file can't be opened, the URL is re-interpreted using the FTP protocol. This can sometimes cause confusing error messages.

The urlopen() and urlretrieve() functions can cause arbitrarily long delays while waiting for a network connection to be set up. This means that it is difficult to build an interactive web client using these functions without using threads.

The data returned by urlopen() or urlretrieve() is the raw data returned by the server. This may be binary data (such as an image), plain text or (for example) HTML. The HTTP protocol provides type information in the reply header, which can be inspected by looking at the Content-Type header. If the returned data is HTML, you can use the module html.parser to parse it.

The code handling the FTP protocol cannot differentiate between a file and a directory. This can lead to unexpected behavior when attempting to read a URL that points to a file that is not accessible. If the URL ends in a /, it is assumed to refer to a directory and will be handled accordingly. But if an attempt to read a file leads to a 550 error (meaning the URL cannot be found or is not accessible, often for permission reasons), then the path is treated as a directory in order to handle the case when a directory is specified by a URL but the trailing / has been left off. This can cause misleading results when you try to fetch a file whose read permissions make it inaccessible; the FTP code will try to read it, fail with a 550 error, and then perform a directory listing for the unreadable file. If fine-grained control is needed, consider using the ftplib module.

urllib.response --- Response classes used by urllib

The urllib.response module defines functions and classes which define a minimal file-like interface, including read() and readline(). Functions defined by this module are used internally by the urllib.request module. The typical response object is a urllib.response.addinfourl instance:

class urllib.response.addinfourl

url

L'URL de la ressource récupérée, utilisée habituellement pour déterminer si une redirection a été suivie.

headers

Returns the headers of the response in the form of an EmailMessage instance.

status

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

Code d'état renvoyé par le serveur.

geturl()

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: Deprecated in favor of url.

info()

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: Deprecated in favor of headers.

code

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: Deprecated in favor of status.

getcode()

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: Deprecated in favor of status.

urllib.parse --- Parse URLs into components

Code source : Lib/urllib/parse.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/urllib/parse.py]

This module defines a standard interface to break Uniform Resource Locator (URL) strings up in components (addressing scheme, network location, path etc.), to combine the components back into a URL string, and to convert a "relative URL" to an absolute URL given a "base URL."

The module has been designed to match the internet RFC on Relative Uniform Resource Locators. It supports the following URL schemes: file, ftp, gopher, hdl, http, https, imap, itms-services, mailto, mms, news, nntp, prospero, rsync, rtsp, rtsps, rtspu, sftp, shttp, sip, sips, snews, svn, svn+ssh, telnet, wais, ws, wss.

Particularité de l'implémentation CPython : The inclusion of the itms-services URL scheme can prevent an app from passing Apple's App Store review process for the macOS and iOS App Stores. Handling for the itms-services scheme is always removed on iOS; on macOS, it may be removed if CPython has been built with the --with-app-store-compliance option.

The urllib.parse module defines functions that fall into two broad categories: URL parsing and URL quoting. These are covered in detail in the following sections.

This module's functions use the deprecated term netloc (or net_loc), which was introduced in RFC 1808 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1808.html]. However, this term has been obsoleted by RFC 3986 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html], which introduced the term authority as its replacement. The use of netloc is continued for backward compatibility.

URL Parsing

The URL parsing functions focus on splitting a URL string into its components, or on combining URL components into a URL string.

urllib.parse.urlsplit(urlstring, scheme=None, allow_fragments=True)

Parse a URL into five components, returning a 5-item named tuple SplitResult or SplitResultBytes. This corresponds to the general structure of a URL: scheme://netloc/path?query#fragment. Each tuple item is a string, possibly empty. The components are not broken up into smaller parts (for example, the network location is a single string), and % escapes are not expanded. The delimiters as shown above are not part of the result, except for a leading slash in the path component, which is retained if present. For example:

>>> from urllib.parse import urlsplit
>>> urlsplit("scheme://netloc/path?query#fragment")
SplitResult(scheme='scheme', netloc='netloc', path='/path',
            query='query', fragment='fragment')
>>> o = urlsplit("http://docs.python.org:80/3/library/urllib.parse.html?"
...              "highlight=params#url-parsing")
>>> o
SplitResult(scheme='http', netloc='docs.python.org:80',
            path='/3/library/urllib.parse.html',
            query='highlight=params', fragment='url-parsing')
>>> o.scheme
'http'
>>> o.netloc
'docs.python.org:80'
>>> o.hostname
'docs.python.org'
>>> o.port
80
>>> o._replace(fragment="").geturl()
'http://docs.python.org:80/3/library/urllib.parse.html?highlight=params'

Following the syntax specifications in RFC 1808 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1808.html], urlsplit() recognizes a netloc only if it is properly introduced by '//'. Otherwise the input is presumed to be a relative URL and thus to start with a path component.

>>> from urllib.parse import urlsplit
>>> urlsplit('//www.cwi.nl:80/%7Eguido/Python.html')
SplitResult(scheme='', netloc='www.cwi.nl:80', path='/%7Eguido/Python.html',
            query='', fragment='')
>>> urlsplit('www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/Python.html')
SplitResult(scheme='', netloc='', path='www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/Python.html',
            query='', fragment='')
>>> urlsplit('help/Python.html')
SplitResult(scheme='', netloc='', path='help/Python.html',
            query='', fragment='')

The scheme argument gives the default addressing scheme, to be used only if the URL does not specify one. It should be the same type (text or bytes) as urlstring, except that the default value '' is always allowed, and is automatically converted to b'' if appropriate.

If the allow_fragments argument is false, fragment identifiers are not recognized. Instead, they are parsed as part of the path, parameters or query component, and fragment is set to the empty string in the return value.

The return value is a named tuple, which means that its items can be accessed by index or as named attributes, which are:

Attribut

Index

Valeur

Value if not present

scheme

0

URL scheme specifier

scheme parameter

netloc

1

Network location part

empty string

path

2

Hierarchical path

empty string

query

3

Query component

empty string

fragment

4

Fragment identifier

empty string

username

User name

None

password

Password

None

hostname

Host name (lower case)

None

port

Port number as integer, if present

None

Reading the port attribute will raise a ValueError if an invalid port is specified in the URL. See section Structured Parse Results for more information on the result object.

Unmatched square brackets in the netloc attribute will raise a ValueError.

Characters in the netloc attribute that decompose under NFKC normalization (as used by the IDNA encoding) into any of /, ?, #, @, or : will raise a ValueError. If the URL is decomposed before parsing, no error will be raised.

Following some of the WHATWG spec [https://url.spec.whatwg.org/#concept-basic-url-parser] that updates RFC 3986 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html], leading C0 control and space characters are stripped from the URL. \n, \r and tab \t characters are removed from the URL at any position.

As is the case with all named tuples, the subclass has a few additional methods and attributes that are particularly useful. One such method is _replace(). The _replace() method will return a new SplitResult object replacing specified fields with new values.

>>> from urllib.parse import urlsplit
>>> u = urlsplit('//www.cwi.nl:80/%7Eguido/Python.html')
>>> u
SplitResult(scheme='', netloc='www.cwi.nl:80', path='/%7Eguido/Python.html',
            query='', fragment='')
>>> u._replace(scheme='http')
SplitResult(scheme='http', netloc='www.cwi.nl:80', path='/%7Eguido/Python.html',
            query='', fragment='')

Avertissement

urlsplit() does not perform validation. See URL parsing security for details.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Added IPv6 URL parsing capabilities.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: The fragment is now parsed for all URL schemes (unless allow_fragments is false), in accordance with RFC 3986 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html]. Previously, an allowlist of schemes that support fragments existed.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Out-of-range port numbers now raise ValueError, instead of returning None.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Characters that affect netloc parsing under NFKC normalization will now raise ValueError.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: ASCII newline and tab characters are stripped from the URL.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Leading WHATWG C0 control and space characters are stripped from the URL.

urllib.parse.parse_qs(qs, keep_blank_values=False, strict_parsing=False, encoding='utf-8', errors='replace', max_num_fields=None, separator='&')

Parse a query string given as a string argument (data of type application/x-www-form-urlencoded). Data are returned as a dictionary. The dictionary keys are the unique query variable names and the values are lists of values for each name.

The optional argument keep_blank_values is a flag indicating whether blank values in percent-encoded queries should be treated as blank strings. A true value indicates that blanks should be retained as blank strings. The default false value indicates that blank values are to be ignored and treated as if they were not included.

The optional argument strict_parsing is a flag indicating what to do with parsing errors. If false (the default), errors are silently ignored. If true, errors raise a ValueError exception.

The optional encoding and errors parameters specify how to decode percent-encoded sequences into Unicode characters, as accepted by the bytes.decode() method.

The optional argument max_num_fields is the maximum number of fields to read. If set, then throws a ValueError if there are more than max_num_fields fields read.

The optional argument separator is the symbol to use for separating the query arguments. It defaults to &.

Use the urllib.parse.urlencode() function (with the doseq parameter set to True) to convert such dictionaries into query strings.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Add encoding and errors parameters.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added max_num_fields parameter.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Added separator parameter with the default value of &. Python versions earlier than Python 3.10 allowed using both ; and & as query parameter separator. This has been changed to allow only a single separator key, with & as the default separator.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.14: Accepting objects with false values (like 0 and []) except empty strings and byte-like objects and None is now deprecated.

urllib.parse.parse_qsl(qs, keep_blank_values=False, strict_parsing=False, encoding='utf-8', errors='replace', max_num_fields=None, separator='&')

Parse a query string given as a string argument (data of type application/x-www-form-urlencoded). Data are returned as a list of name, value pairs.

The optional argument keep_blank_values is a flag indicating whether blank values in percent-encoded queries should be treated as blank strings. A true value indicates that blanks should be retained as blank strings. The default false value indicates that blank values are to be ignored and treated as if they were not included.

The optional argument strict_parsing is a flag indicating what to do with parsing errors. If false (the default), errors are silently ignored. If true, errors raise a ValueError exception.

The optional encoding and errors parameters specify how to decode percent-encoded sequences into Unicode characters, as accepted by the bytes.decode() method.

The optional argument max_num_fields is the maximum number of fields to read. If set, then throws a ValueError if there are more than max_num_fields fields read.

The optional argument separator is the symbol to use for separating the query arguments. It defaults to &.

Use the urllib.parse.urlencode() function to convert such lists of pairs into query strings.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Add encoding and errors parameters.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added max_num_fields parameter.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Added separator parameter with the default value of &. Python versions earlier than Python 3.10 allowed using both ; and & as query parameter separator. This has been changed to allow only a single separator key, with & as the default separator.

urllib.parse.urlunsplit(parts)

Construct a URL from a tuple as returned by urlsplit(). The parts argument can be any five-item iterable. This may result in a slightly different, but equivalent URL, if the URL that was parsed originally had unnecessary delimiters (for example, a ? with an empty query; the RFC states that these are equivalent).

urllib.parse.urlparse(urlstring, scheme=None, allow_fragments=True)

This is similar to urlsplit(), but additionally splits the path component on path and params. This function returns a 6-item named tuple ParseResult or ParseResultBytes. Its items are the same as for the urlsplit() result, except that params is inserted at index 3, between path and query.

This function is based on obsoleted RFC 1738 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1738.html] and RFC 1808 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1808.html], which listed params as the main URL component. The more recent URL syntax allows parameters to be applied to each segment of the path portion of the URL (see RFC 3986 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html]). urlsplit() should generally be used instead of urlparse(). A separate function is needed to separate the path segments and parameters.

urllib.parse.urlunparse(parts)

Combine the elements of a tuple as returned by urlparse() into a complete URL as a string. The parts argument can be any six-item iterable. This may result in a slightly different, but equivalent URL, if the URL that was parsed originally had unnecessary delimiters (for example, a ? with an empty query; the RFC states that these are equivalent).

urllib.parse.urljoin(base, url, allow_fragments=True)

Construct a full ("absolute") URL by combining a "base URL" (base) with another URL (url). Informally, this uses components of the base URL, in particular the addressing scheme, the network location and (part of) the path, to provide missing components in the relative URL. For example:

>>> from urllib.parse import urljoin
>>> urljoin('http://www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/Python.html', 'FAQ.html')
'http://www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/FAQ.html'

The allow_fragments argument has the same meaning and default as for urlsplit().

Note

If url is an absolute URL (that is, it starts with // or scheme://), the url's hostname and/or scheme will be present in the result. For example:

>>> urljoin('http://www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/Python.html',
...         '//www.python.org/%7Eguido')
'http://www.python.org/%7Eguido'

If you do not want that behavior, preprocess the url with urlsplit() and urlunsplit(), removing possible scheme and netloc parts.

Avertissement

Because an absolute URL may be passed as the url parameter, it is generally not secure to use urljoin with an attacker-controlled url. For example in, urljoin("https://website.com/users/", username), if username can contain an absolute URL, the result of urljoin will be the absolute URL.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Behavior updated to match the semantics defined in RFC 3986 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html].

urllib.parse.urldefrag(url)

If url contains a fragment identifier, return a modified version of url with no fragment identifier, and the fragment identifier as a separate string. If there is no fragment identifier in url, return url unmodified and an empty string.

The return value is a named tuple, its items can be accessed by index or as named attributes:

Attribut

Index

Valeur

Value if not present

url

0

URL with no fragment

empty string

fragment

1

Fragment identifier

empty string

See section Structured Parse Results for more information on the result object.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Result is a structured object rather than a simple 2-tuple.

urllib.parse.unwrap(url)

Extract the url from a wrapped URL (that is, a string formatted as <URL:scheme://host/path>, <scheme://host/path>, URL:scheme://host/path or scheme://host/path). If url is not a wrapped URL, it is returned without changes.

URL parsing security

The urlsplit() and urlparse() APIs do not perform validation of inputs. They may not raise errors on inputs that other applications consider invalid. They may also succeed on some inputs that might not be considered URLs elsewhere. Their purpose is for practical functionality rather than purity.

Instead of raising an exception on unusual input, they may instead return some component parts as empty strings. Or components may contain more than perhaps they should.

We recommend that users of these APIs where the values may be used anywhere with security implications code defensively. Do some verification within your code before trusting a returned component part. Does that scheme make sense? Is that a sensible path? Is there anything strange about that hostname? etc.

What constitutes a URL is not universally well defined. Different applications have different needs and desired constraints. For instance the living WHATWG spec [https://url.spec.whatwg.org/#concept-basic-url-parser] describes what user facing web clients such as a web browser require. While RFC 3986 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html] is more general. These functions incorporate some aspects of both, but cannot be claimed compliant with either. The APIs and existing user code with expectations on specific behaviors predate both standards leading us to be very cautious about making API behavior changes.

Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes

The URL parsing functions were originally designed to operate on character strings only. In practice, it is useful to be able to manipulate properly quoted and encoded URLs as sequences of ASCII bytes. Accordingly, the URL parsing functions in this module all operate on bytes and bytearray objects in addition to str objects.

If str data is passed in, the result will also contain only str data. If bytes or bytearray data is passed in, the result will contain only bytes data.

Attempting to mix str data with bytes or bytearray in a single function call will result in a TypeError being raised, while attempting to pass in non-ASCII byte values will trigger UnicodeDecodeError.

To support easier conversion of result objects between str and bytes, all return values from URL parsing functions provide either an encode() method (when the result contains str data) or a decode() method (when the result contains bytes data). The signatures of these methods match those of the corresponding str and bytes methods (except that the default encoding is 'ascii' rather than 'utf-8'). Each produces a value of a corresponding type that contains either bytes data (for encode() methods) or str data (for decode() methods).

Applications that need to operate on potentially improperly quoted URLs that may contain non-ASCII data will need to do their own decoding from bytes to characters before invoking the URL parsing methods.

The behaviour described in this section applies only to the URL parsing functions. The URL quoting functions use their own rules when producing or consuming byte sequences as detailed in the documentation of the individual URL quoting functions.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: URL parsing functions now accept ASCII encoded byte sequences

Structured Parse Results

The result objects from the urlsplit(), urlparse() and urldefrag() functions are subclasses of the tuple type. These subclasses add the attributes listed in the documentation for those functions, the encoding and decoding support described in the previous section, as well as an additional method:

urllib.parse.SplitResult.geturl()

Return the re-combined version of the original URL as a string. This may differ from the original URL in that the scheme may be normalized to lower case and empty components may be dropped. Specifically, empty parameters, queries, and fragment identifiers will be removed.

For urldefrag() results, only empty fragment identifiers will be removed. For urlsplit() and urlparse() results, all noted changes will be made to the URL returned by this method.

The result of this method remains unchanged if passed back through the original parsing function:

>>> from urllib.parse import urlsplit
>>> url = 'HTTP://www.Python.org/doc/#'
>>> r1 = urlsplit(url)
>>> r1.geturl()
'http://www.Python.org/doc/'
>>> r2 = urlsplit(r1.geturl())
>>> r2.geturl()
'http://www.Python.org/doc/'

The following classes provide the implementations of the structured parse results when operating on str objects:

class urllib.parse.DefragResult(url, fragment)

Concrete class for urldefrag() results containing str data. The encode() method returns a DefragResultBytes instance.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

class urllib.parse.ParseResult(scheme, netloc, path, params, query, fragment)

Concrete class for urlparse() results containing str data. The encode() method returns a ParseResultBytes instance.

class urllib.parse.SplitResult(scheme, netloc, path, query, fragment)

Concrete class for urlsplit() results containing str data. The encode() method returns a SplitResultBytes instance.

The following classes provide the implementations of the parse results when operating on bytes or bytearray objects:

class urllib.parse.DefragResultBytes(url, fragment)

Concrete class for urldefrag() results containing bytes data. The decode() method returns a DefragResult instance.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

class urllib.parse.ParseResultBytes(scheme, netloc, path, params, query, fragment)

Concrete class for urlparse() results containing bytes data. The decode() method returns a ParseResult instance.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

class urllib.parse.SplitResultBytes(scheme, netloc, path, query, fragment)

Concrete class for urlsplit() results containing bytes data. The decode() method returns a SplitResult instance.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

URL Quoting

The URL quoting functions focus on taking program data and making it safe for use as URL components by quoting special characters and appropriately encoding non-ASCII text. They also support reversing these operations to recreate the original data from the contents of a URL component if that task isn't already covered by the URL parsing functions above.

urllib.parse.quote(string, safe='/', encoding=None, errors=None)

Replace special characters in string using the %xx escape. Letters, digits, and the characters '_.-~' are never quoted. By default, this function is intended for quoting the path section of a URL. The optional safe parameter specifies additional ASCII characters that should not be quoted --- its default value is '/'.

string may be either a str or a bytes object.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Moved from RFC 2396 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2396.html] to RFC 3986 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html] for quoting URL strings. "~" is now included in the set of unreserved characters.

The optional encoding and errors parameters specify how to deal with non-ASCII characters, as accepted by the str.encode() method. encoding defaults to 'utf-8'. errors defaults to 'strict', meaning unsupported characters raise a UnicodeEncodeError. encoding and errors must not be supplied if string is a bytes, or a TypeError is raised.

Note that quote(string, safe, encoding, errors) is equivalent to quote_from_bytes(string.encode(encoding, errors), safe).

Example: quote('/El Niño/') yields '/El%20Ni%C3%B1o/'.

urllib.parse.quote_plus(string, safe='', encoding=None, errors=None)

Like quote(), but also replace spaces with plus signs, as required for quoting HTML form values when building up a query string to go into a URL. Plus signs in the original string are escaped unless they are included in safe. It also does not have safe default to '/'.

Example: quote_plus('/El Niño/') yields '%2FEl+Ni%C3%B1o%2F'.

urllib.parse.quote_from_bytes(bytes, safe='/')

Like quote(), but accepts a bytes object rather than a str, and does not perform string-to-bytes encoding.

Example: quote_from_bytes(b'a&\xef') yields 'a%26%EF'.

urllib.parse.unquote(string, encoding='utf-8', errors='replace')

Replace %xx escapes with their single-character equivalent. The optional encoding and errors parameters specify how to decode percent-encoded sequences into Unicode characters, as accepted by the bytes.decode() method.

string may be either a str or a bytes object.

encoding defaults to 'utf-8'. errors defaults to 'replace', meaning invalid sequences are replaced by a placeholder character.

Example: unquote('/El%20Ni%C3%B1o/') yields '/El Niño/'.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: string parameter supports bytes and str objects (previously only str).

urllib.parse.unquote_plus(string, encoding='utf-8', errors='replace')

Like unquote(), but also replace plus signs with spaces, as required for unquoting HTML form values.

string must be a str.

Example: unquote_plus('/El+Ni%C3%B1o/') yields '/El Niño/'.

urllib.parse.unquote_to_bytes(string)

Replace %xx escapes with their single-octet equivalent, and return a bytes object.

string may be either a str or a bytes object.

If it is a str, unescaped non-ASCII characters in string are encoded into UTF-8 bytes.

Example: unquote_to_bytes('a%26%EF') yields b'a&\xef'.

urllib.parse.urlencode(query, doseq=False, safe='', encoding=None, errors=None, quote_via=quote_plus)

Convert a mapping object or a sequence of two-element tuples, which may contain str or bytes objects, to a percent-encoded ASCII text string. If the resultant string is to be used as a data for POST operation with the urlopen() function, then it should be encoded to bytes, otherwise it would result in a TypeError.

The resulting string is a series of key=value pairs separated by '&' characters, where both key and value are quoted using the quote_via function. By default, quote_plus() is used to quote the values, which means spaces are quoted as a '+' character and '/' characters are encoded as %2F, which follows the standard for GET requests (application/x-www-form-urlencoded). An alternate function that can be passed as quote_via is quote(), which will encode spaces as %20 and not encode '/' characters. For maximum control of what is quoted, use quote and specify a value for safe.

When a sequence of two-element tuples is used as the query argument, the first element of each tuple is a key and the second is a value. The value element in itself can be a sequence and in that case, if the optional parameter doseq evaluates to True, individual key=value pairs separated by '&' are generated for each element of the value sequence for the key. The order of parameters in the encoded string will match the order of parameter tuples in the sequence.

The safe, encoding, and errors parameters are passed down to quote_via (the encoding and errors parameters are only passed when a query element is a str).

To reverse this encoding process, parse_qs() and parse_qsl() are provided in this module to parse query strings into Python data structures.

Refer to urllib examples to find out how the urllib.parse.urlencode() method can be used for generating the query string of a URL or data for a POST request.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: query supports bytes and string objects.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Added the quote_via parameter.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.14: Accepting objects with false values (like 0 and []) except empty strings and byte-like objects and None is now deprecated.

Voir aussi

WHATWG [https://url.spec.whatwg.org/] - URL Living standard

Working Group for the URL Standard that defines URLs, domains, IP addresses, the application/x-www-form-urlencoded format, and their API.

RFC 3986 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html] - Uniform Resource Identifiers

This is the current standard (STD66). Any changes to urllib.parse module should conform to this. Certain deviations could be observed, which are mostly for backward compatibility purposes and for certain de-facto parsing requirements as commonly observed in major browsers.

RFC 2732 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2732.html] - Format for Literal IPv6 Addresses in URL's.

This specifies the parsing requirements of IPv6 URLs.

RFC 2396 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2396.html] - Uniform Resource Identifiers (URI): Generic Syntax

Document describing the generic syntactic requirements for both Uniform Resource Names (URNs) and Uniform Resource Locators (URLs).

RFC 2368 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2368.html] - The mailto URL scheme.

Parsing requirements for mailto URL schemes.

RFC 1808 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1808.html] - Relative Uniform Resource Locators

This Request For Comments includes the rules for joining an absolute and a relative URL, including a fair number of "Abnormal Examples" which govern the treatment of border cases.

RFC 1738 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1738.html] - Uniform Resource Locators (URL)

This specifies the formal syntax and semantics of absolute URLs.

urllib.error --- Exception classes raised by urllib.request

Code source : Lib/urllib/error.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/urllib/error.py]

The urllib.error module defines the exception classes for exceptions raised by urllib.request. The base exception class is URLError.

The following exceptions are raised by urllib.error as appropriate:

exception urllib.error.URLError

Les gestionnaires lèvent cette exception (ou des exceptions dérivées) quand ils rencontrent un problème. Elle est une sous-classe de OSError.

reason

La raison de cette erreur. Il peut s'agir d'un message textuel ou d'une autre instance d'exception.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: URLError used to be a subtype of IOError, which is now an alias of OSError.

exception urllib.error.HTTPError(url, code, msg, hdrs, fp)

Bien qu'étant une exception (une sous-classe de URLError), une HTTPError peut aussi fonctionner comme une valeur de retour normale et fichier-compatible (la même chose que renvoyé par urlopen()). Cela est utile pour gérer les erreurs HTTP exotiques, comme les requêtes d'authentification.

url

Contains the request URL. An alias for filename attribute.

code

Un statut HTTP comme défini dans la RFC 2616 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html]. Cette valeur numérique correspond à une valeur trouvée dans le dictionnaire des codes comme dans http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.responses.

reason

This is usually a string explaining the reason for this error. An alias for msg attribute.

headers

The HTTP response headers for the HTTP request that caused the HTTPError. An alias for hdrs attribute.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

fp

A file-like object where the HTTP error body can be read from.

exception urllib.error.ContentTooShortError(msg, content)

This exception is raised when the urlretrieve() function detects that the amount of the downloaded data is less than the expected amount (given by the Content-Length header).

content

The downloaded (and supposedly truncated) data.

urllib.robotparser --- Parser for robots.txt

Code source : Lib/urllib/robotparser.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/urllib/robotparser.py]

This module provides a single class, RobotFileParser, which answers questions about whether or not a particular user agent can fetch a URL on the website that published the robots.txt file. For more details on the structure of robots.txt files, see http://www.robotstxt.org/orig.html.

class urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser(url='')

Cette classe fournit des méthodes pour lire, analyser et répondre aux questions à propos du fichier robots.txt disponible à l'adresse url.

set_url(url)

Modifie l'URL référençant le fichier robots.txt.

read()

Lit le fichier robots.txt depuis son URL et envoie le contenu à l'analyseur.

parse(lines)

Analyse les lignes données en argument.

can_fetch(useragent, url)

Renvoie True si useragent est autorisé à accéder à url selon les règles contenues dans le fichier robots.txt analysé.

mtime()

Renvoie le temps auquel le fichier robots.txt a été téléchargé pour la dernière fois. Cela est utile pour des web spiders de longue durée qui doivent vérifier périodiquement si le fichier est mis à jour.

modified()

Indique que le fichier robots.txt a été téléchargé pour la dernière fois au temps courant.

crawl_delay(useragent)

Renvoie la valeur du paramètre Crawl-delay du robots.txt pour le useragent en question. S'il n'y a pas de tel paramètre ou qu'il ne s'applique pas au useragent spécifié ou si l'entrée du robots.txt pour ce paramètre a une syntaxe invalide, renvoie None.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

request_rate(useragent)

Renvoie le contenu du paramètre Request-rate du robots.txt sous la forme d'un named tuple RequestRate(requests, seconds). S'il n'y a pas de tel paramètre ou qu'il ne s'applique pas au useragent spécifié ou si l'entrée du robots.txt pour ce paramètre a une syntaxe invalide, None est renvoyé.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

site_maps()

Renvoie le contenu du paramètre de Sitemap depuis robots.txt dans la forme d'une list(). S'il n'y a pas de tel paramètre ou qu'il ne s'applique pas au useragent spécifié ou si l'entrée du robots.txt pour ce paramètre a une syntaxe invalide, renvoie None.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

L'exemple suivant présente une utilisation basique de la classe RobotFileParser :

>>> import urllib.robotparser
>>> rp = urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser()
>>> rp.set_url("http://www.pythontest.net/robots.txt")
>>> rp.read()
>>> rrate = rp.request_rate("*")
>>> rrate.requests
1
>>> rrate.seconds
1
>>> rp.crawl_delay("*")
6
>>> rp.can_fetch("*", "http://www.pythontest.net/")
True
>>> rp.can_fetch("*", "http://www.pythontest.net/no-robots-here/")
False

http --- HTTP modules

Code source : Lib/http/__init__.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/http/__init__.py]

http is a package that collects several modules for working with the HyperText Transfer Protocol:

Le module http.client est un client HTTP bas niveau. Pour accéder à des ressources web, utiliser le module haut niveau urllib.request

Le module http.server contient des classes serveur HTTP basiques basées sur socketserver

Le module http.cookies contient des utilitaires liés à la gestion d'état HTTP via les cookies

Le module http.cookiejar fournit un mécanisme de persistance des cookies

The http module also defines the following enums that help you work with http related code:

class http.HTTPStatus

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Sous-classe de enum.IntEnum qui définit un ensemble de codes d'état HTTP, messages explicatifs et descriptions complètes écrites en anglais.

Utilisation :

>>> from http import HTTPStatus
>>> HTTPStatus.OK
HTTPStatus.OK
>>> HTTPStatus.OK == 200
True
>>> HTTPStatus.OK.value
200
>>> HTTPStatus.OK.phrase
'OK'
>>> HTTPStatus.OK.description
'Request fulfilled, document follows'
>>> list(HTTPStatus)
[HTTPStatus.CONTINUE, HTTPStatus.SWITCHING_PROTOCOLS, ...]

Codes d'état HTTP

Supported, IANA-registered status codes [https://www.iana.org/assignments/http-status-codes/http-status-codes.xhtml] available in http.HTTPStatus are:

Code

Message

Détails

100

CONTINUE

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15.2.1

101

SWITCHING_PROTOCOLS

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15.2.2

102

PROCESSING

WebDAV RFC 2518 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2518.html], Section 10.1

103

EARLY_HINTS

An HTTP Status Code for Indicating Hints RFC 8297 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc8297.html]

200

OK

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15.3.1

201

CREATED

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15.3.2

202

ACCEPTED

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15.3.3

203

NON_AUTHORITATIVE_INFORMATION

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15.3.4

204

NO_CONTENT

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15.3.5

205

RESET_CONTENT

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15.3.6

206

PARTIAL_CONTENT

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15.3.7

207

MULTI_STATUS

WebDAV RFC 4918 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4918.html], Section 11.1

208

ALREADY_REPORTED

WebDAV Binding Extensions RFC 5842 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5842.html], Section 7.1 (Expérimental)

226

IM_USED

Delta Encoding in HTTP RFC 3229 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3229.html], Section 10.4.1

300

MULTIPLE_CHOICES

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15.4.1

301

MOVED_PERMANENTLY

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15.4.2

302

FOUND

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15.4.3

303

SEE_OTHER

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15.4.4

304

NOT_MODIFIED

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15.4.5

305

USE_PROXY

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15.4.6

307

TEMPORARY_REDIRECT

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15.4.8

308

PERMANENT_REDIRECT

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15.4.9

400

BAD_REQUEST

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15.5.1

401

UNAUTHORIZED

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15.5.2

402

PAYMENT_REQUIRED

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15.5.3

403

FORBIDDEN

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15.5.4

404

NOT_FOUND

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15.5.5

405

METHOD_NOT_ALLOWED

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15.5.6

406

NOT_ACCEPTABLE

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15.5.7

407

PROXY_AUTHENTICATION_REQUIRED

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15.5.8

408

REQUEST_TIMEOUT

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15.5.9

409

CONFLICT

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15.5.10

410

GONE

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15.5.11

411

LENGTH_REQUIRED

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15.5.12

412

PRECONDITION_FAILED

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15.5.13

413

CONTENT_TOO_LARGE

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15.5.14

414

URI_TOO_LONG

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15.5.15

415

UNSUPPORTED_MEDIA_TYPE

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15.5.16

416

RANGE_NOT_SATISFIABLE

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15.5.17

417

EXPECTATION_FAILED

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15.5.18

418

IM_A_TEAPOT

HTCPCP/1.0 RFC 2324 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2324.html], Section 2.3.2

421

MISDIRECTED_REQUEST

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15.5.20

422

UNPROCESSABLE_CONTENT

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15.5.21

423

LOCKED

WebDAV RFC 4918 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4918.html], Section 11.3

424

FAILED_DEPENDENCY

WebDAV RFC 4918 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4918.html], Section 11.4

425

TOO_EARLY

Using Early Data in HTTP RFC 8470 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc8470.html]

426

UPGRADE_REQUIRED

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15.5.22

428

PRECONDITION_REQUIRED

Additional HTTP Status Codes RFC 6585 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6585.html]

429

TOO_MANY_REQUESTS

Additional HTTP Status Codes RFC 6585 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6585.html]

431

REQUEST_HEADER_FIELDS_TOO_LARGE

Additional HTTP Status Codes RFC 6585 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6585.html]

451

UNAVAILABLE_FOR_LEGAL_REASONS

An HTTP Status Code to Report Legal Obstacles RFC 7725 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7725.html]

500

INTERNAL_SERVER_ERROR

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15.6.1

501

NOT_IMPLEMENTED

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15.6.2

502

BAD_GATEWAY

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15.6.3

503

SERVICE_UNAVAILABLE

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15.6.4

504

GATEWAY_TIMEOUT

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15.6.5

505

HTTP_VERSION_NOT_SUPPORTED

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15.6.6

506

VARIANT_ALSO_NEGOTIATES

Transparent Content Negotiation in HTTP RFC 2295 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2295.html], Section 8.1 (Expérimental)

507

INSUFFICIENT_STORAGE

WebDAV RFC 4918 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4918.html], Section 11.5

508

LOOP_DETECTED

WebDAV Binding Extensions RFC 5842 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5842.html], Section 7.2 (Expérimental)

510

NOT_EXTENDED

An HTTP Extension Framework RFC 2774 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2774.html], Section 7 (Expérimental)

511

NETWORK_AUTHENTICATION_REQUIRED

Codes d'état HTTP supplémentaires RFC 6585 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6585.html], Section 6

Dans le but de préserver la compatibilité descendante, les valeurs d'énumération sont aussi présentes dans le module http.client sous forme de constantes. Les noms de valeurs de l'énumération sont accessibles de deux manières : par exemple, le code HTTP 200 est accessible sous les noms http.HTTPStatus.OK et http.client.OK.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Ajouté le code d'état 421 MISDIRECTED_REQUEST.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8: Added 451 UNAVAILABLE_FOR_LEGAL_REASONS status code.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9: Added 103 EARLY_HINTS, 418 IM_A_TEAPOT and 425 TOO_EARLY status codes.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Implemented RFC9110 naming for status constants. Old constant names are preserved for backwards compatibility: 413 REQUEST_ENTITY_TOO_LARGE, 414 REQUEST_URI_TOO_LONG, 416 REQUESTED_RANGE_NOT_SATISFIABLE and 422 UNPROCESSABLE_ENTITY.

HTTP status category

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

The enum values have several properties to indicate the HTTP status category:

Property

Indicates that

Détails

is_informational

100 <= status <= 199

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15

is_success

200 <= status <= 299

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15

is_redirection

300 <= status <= 399

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15

is_client_error

400 <= status <= 499

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15

is_server_error

500 <= status <= 599

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 15

Utilisation :

>>> from http import HTTPStatus
>>> HTTPStatus.OK.is_success
True
>>> HTTPStatus.OK.is_client_error
False

class http.HTTPMethod

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

A subclass of enum.StrEnum that defines a set of HTTP methods and descriptions written in English.

Utilisation :

>>> from http import HTTPMethod
>>>
>>> HTTPMethod.GET
<HTTPMethod.GET>
>>> HTTPMethod.GET == 'GET'
True
>>> HTTPMethod.GET.value
'GET'
>>> HTTPMethod.GET.description
'Retrieve the target.'
>>> list(HTTPMethod)
[<HTTPMethod.CONNECT>,
 <HTTPMethod.DELETE>,
 <HTTPMethod.GET>,
 <HTTPMethod.HEAD>,
 <HTTPMethod.OPTIONS>,
 <HTTPMethod.PATCH>,
 <HTTPMethod.POST>,
 <HTTPMethod.PUT>,
 <HTTPMethod.TRACE>]

HTTP methods

Supported, IANA-registered methods [https://www.iana.org/assignments/http-methods/http-methods.xhtml] available in http.HTTPMethod are:

Méthode

Message

Détails

GET

GET

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 9.3.1

HEAD

HEAD

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 9.3.2

POST

POST

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 9.3.3

PUT

PUT

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 9.3.4

DELETE

DELETE

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 9.3.5

CONNECT

CONNECT

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 9.3.6

OPTIONS

OPTIONS

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 9.3.7

TRACE

TRACE

HTTP Semantics RFC 9110 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html], Section 9.3.8

PATCH

PATCH

HTTP/1.1 RFC 5789 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5789.html]

http.client --- HTTP protocol client

Code source : Lib/http/client.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/http/client.py]

This module defines classes that implement the client side of the HTTP and HTTPS protocols. It is normally not used directly --- the module urllib.request uses it to handle URLs that use HTTP and HTTPS.

Voir aussi

The Requests package [https://requests.readthedocs.io/en/latest/] is recommended for a higher-level HTTP client interface.

Note

L'implémentation d'HTTPS n'est disponible que si Python a été compilé avec la prise en charge de SSL (au moyen du module ssl).

Disponibilité: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly. See Plateformes WebAssembly for more information.

Le module fournit les classes suivantes :

class http.client.HTTPConnection(host, port=None, [timeout, ]source_address=None, blocksize=8192)

An HTTPConnection instance represents one transaction with an HTTP server. It should be instantiated by passing it a host and optional port number. If no port number is passed, the port is extracted from the host string if it has the form host:port, else the default HTTP port (80) is used. If the optional timeout parameter is given, blocking operations (like connection attempts) will timeout after that many seconds (if it is not given, the global default timeout setting is used). The optional source_address parameter may be a tuple of a (host, port) to use as the source address the HTTP connection is made from. The optional blocksize parameter sets the buffer size in bytes for sending a file-like message body.

Par exemple, tous les appels suivants créent des instances qui se connectent à un serveur sur le même hôte et le même port :

>>> h1 = http.client.HTTPConnection('www.python.org')
>>> h2 = http.client.HTTPConnection('www.python.org:80')
>>> h3 = http.client.HTTPConnection('www.python.org', 80)
>>> h4 = http.client.HTTPConnection('www.python.org', 80, timeout=10)

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Le paramètre source_address a été ajouté.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: The strict parameter was removed. HTTP 0.9-style "Simple Responses" are no longer supported.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Le paramètre blocksize a été ajouté.

class http.client.HTTPSConnection(host, port=None, *, [timeout, ]source_address=None, context=None, blocksize=8192)

Cette sous-classe de HTTPConnection utilise SSL pour communiquer avec des serveurs sécurisés. Le port par défaut est 443. Si le paramètre context est fourni, ce doit être une instance de ssl.SSLContext décrivant les diverses options SSL.

Il est conseillé de lire Security considerations pour plus d'informations sur les bonnes pratiques.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Les paramètres source_address, context et check_hostname ont été ajoutés.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: This class now supports HTTPS virtual hosts if possible (that is, if ssl.HAS_SNI is true).

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Le paramètre strict a été supprimé. Les « réponses simples » de HTTP 0.9 ne sont plus prises en charge.

Modifié dans la version 3.4.3: This class now performs all the necessary certificate and hostname checks by default. To revert to the previous, unverified, behavior ssl._create_unverified_context() can be passed to the context parameter.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Cette classe sélectionne désormais TLS 1.3 pour ssl.SSLContext.post_handshake_auth dans le context par défaut ou quand cert_file est fourni avec une valeur de context personnalisée.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: This class now sends an ALPN extension with protocol indicator http/1.1 when no context is given. Custom context should set ALPN protocols with set_alpn_protocols().

Modifié dans la version 3.12: The deprecated key_file, cert_file and check_hostname parameters have been removed.

class http.client.HTTPResponse(sock, debuglevel=0, method=None, url=None)

Classe dont les instances sont renvoyées dès qu'une connexion est établie. Cette classe n'est jamais instanciée directement par l'utilisateur.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Le paramètre strict a été supprimé. Les « réponses simples » de HTTP 0.9 ne sont plus prises en charge.

Ce module fournit les fonctions suivantes :

http.client.parse_headers(fp)

Parse the headers from a file pointer fp representing a HTTP request/response. The file has to be a BufferedIOBase reader (i.e. not text) and must provide a valid RFC 5322 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html] style header.

Cette fonction renvoie une instance de http.client.HTTPMessage qui contient les champs d'en-tête, mais pas la charge utile (de même que HTTPResponse.msg et http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.headers). Après le retour, le pointeur de fichier fp est prêt à lire le corps HTTP.

Note

La méthode parse_headers() n'analyse pas la ligne initiale d'un message HTTP ; elle n'analyse que les lignes Name: value. Le fichier doit être prêt à lire ces lignes de champs, aussi la première ligne doit déjà avoir été consommée avant l'appel de la fonction.

Les exceptions suivantes sont levées selon les cas :

exception http.client.HTTPException

La classe de base des autres exceptions de ce module. C'est une sous-classe de Exception.

exception http.client.NotConnected

Sous-classe de HTTPException.

exception http.client.InvalidURL

Sous-classe de HTTPException, levée si le port donné n'est pas numérique ou est vide.

exception http.client.UnknownProtocol

Sous-classe de HTTPException.

exception http.client.UnknownTransferEncoding

Sous-classe de HTTPException.

exception http.client.UnimplementedFileMode

Sous-classe de HTTPException.

exception http.client.IncompleteRead

Sous-classe de HTTPException.

exception http.client.ImproperConnectionState

Sous-classe de HTTPException.

exception http.client.CannotSendRequest

Sous-classe de ImproperConnectionState.

exception http.client.CannotSendHeader

Sous-classe de ImproperConnectionState.

exception http.client.ResponseNotReady

Sous-classe de ImproperConnectionState.

exception http.client.BadStatusLine

Sous-classe de HTTPException. Levée si un serveur répond avec un code d'état HTTP qui n'est pas compris.

exception http.client.LineTooLong

Sous-classe de HTTPException. Levée si une ligne du protocole HTTP est excessivement longue dans ce qui provient du serveur.

exception http.client.RemoteDisconnected

Sous-classe de ConnectionResetError et BadStatusLine. Levée par la méthode HTTPConnection.getresponse() quand la tentative de lire la réponse n'aboutit à aucune donnée provenant de la connexion, indiquant ainsi que la partie distante a fermé celle-ci.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5: Antérieurement, BadStatusLine('') était levée.

Les constantes définies dans ce module sont :

http.client.HTTP_PORT

Le port par défaut du protocole HTTP (toujours 80).

http.client.HTTPS_PORT

Le port par défaut du protocole HTTPS (toujours 443).

http.client.responses

Ce dictionnaire associe les codes d'états HTTP 1.1 à leurs noms tels que définis par le W3C.

Par exemple : http.client.responses[http.client.NOT_FOUND] est 'Not Found'.

Voir Codes d'état HTTP pour une liste des codes d'état HTTP qui sont disponibles comme constantes dans ce module.

Les objets HTTPConnection

Les instances de la classe HTTPConnection possèdent les méthodes suivantes :

HTTPConnection.request(method, url, body=None, headers={}, *, encode_chunked=False)

This will send a request to the server using the HTTP request method method and the request URI url. The provided url must be an absolute path to conform with RFC 2616 §5.1.2 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html#section-5.1.2] (unless connecting to an HTTP proxy server or using the OPTIONS or CONNECT methods).

Si body est passé en paramètre, les données transmises sont envoyées à la suite des en-têtes. Ce paramètre peut-être une str, un objet octet-comptatible, un objet fichier préalablement ouvert, ou un itérable de classe bytes. Si body est une chaîne, elle est encodée en ISO-8859-1, valeur par défaut pour HTTP. Si c'est un objet octet-compatible, les octets sont envoyés tels quels. Si c'est un objet fichier, le contenu du fichier est envoyé ; cet objet fichier doit implémenter au moins la méthode read(). Si l'objet fichier est une instance de io.TextIOBase, les données renvoyées par la méthode read() sont encodées en ISO-8859-1, sinon les données renvoyées par read() sont envoyées telles quelles. Si body est un itérable, les éléments de cet itérable sont envoyés jusqu'à ce que l'itérable soit vide.

The headers argument should be a mapping of extra HTTP headers to send with the request. A Host header [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html#section-14.23] must be provided to conform with RFC 2616 §5.1.2 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html#section-5.1.2] (unless connecting to an HTTP proxy server or using the OPTIONS or CONNECT methods).

Si headers ne contient ni Content-Length: ni Transfer-Encoding:, mais qu'un corps de requête est fourni, un de ces en-têtes est ajouté automatiquement. Si body est None, l'en-tête Content-Length: est paramétré à 0 pour les méthodes qui attendent un corps (PUT, POST, et PATCH). Si body est une chaîne ou un objet de type octets qui n'est pas un (objet fichier), l'en-tête Content-Length est paramétré à sa longueur. Un body de tout autre type (fichiers ou itérables en général) est encodé par morceaux et l'en-tête Transfer-Encoding est automatiquement paramétré à la place de Content-Length.

L'argument encode_chunked n'est pertinent que si l'en-tête Transfer-Encoding: est présent. Si encode_chunked est False, l'objet HTTPConnection suppose que l'encodage est géré par le code d'appel. S'il vaut True, le corps est encodé par morceaux.

For example, to perform a GET request to https://docs.python.org/3/:

>>> import http.client
>>> host = "docs.python.org"
>>> conn = http.client.HTTPSConnection(host)
>>> conn.request("GET", "/3/", headers={"Host": host})
>>> response = conn.getresponse()
>>> print(response.status, response.reason)
200 OK

Note

L'encodage pour les transferts par morceaux a été ajouté à la version 1.1 du protocole HTTP. À moins que le serveur HTTP sache gérer HTTP 1.1, l'appelant doit soit spécifier l'en-tête Content-Length:, soit passer la représentation du corps de message dans un objet de classe str ou un objet octet-compatible qui ne soit pas un fichier.

Note

Note that you must have read the whole response or call close() if getresponse() raised an non-ConnectionError exception before you can send a new request to the server.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: body peut désormais être un itérable.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Si parmi les en-têtes ne figure ni Content-Length:, ni Transfer-Encoding:, les objets fichiers et itérables body sont désormais encodés par morceaux. L'argument encode_chunked a été ajouté. Aucune tentative n'est faite pour essayer de déterminer la valeur de l'en-tête Content-Length pour un objet fichier.

HTTPConnection.getresponse()

Doit être appelé après qu'une requête a été envoyée pour récupérer la réponse du serveur. Renvoie une instance de HTTPResponse.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Si une exception ConnectionError ou une de ses sous-classes est levée, l'objet de classe HTTPConnection sera prêt à se reconnecter quand une nouvelle requête sera envoyée.

Note that this does not apply to OSErrors raised by the underlying socket. Instead the caller is responsible to call close() on the existing connection.

HTTPConnection.set_debuglevel(level)

Règle le niveau de débogage. Le niveau de débogage par défaut est 0 (aucune sortie de débogage n'est affichée). Toute valeur plus grande que 0 provoque l'affichage sur sys.stdout de toutes les sorties de débogage actuellement définies. Le paramètre debuglevel est passé à tout nouvel objet de classe HTTPResponse qui est créé.

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

HTTPConnection.set_tunnel(host, port=None, headers=None)

Paramètre l'hôte et le port pour le tunnel de connexion HTTP. Il permet de réaliser la connexion au travers d'un serveur mandataire.

The host and port arguments specify the endpoint of the tunneled connection (i.e. the address included in the CONNECT request, not the address of the proxy server).

The headers argument should be a mapping of extra HTTP headers to send with the CONNECT request.

As HTTP/1.1 is used for HTTP CONNECT tunnelling request, as per the RFC [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231#section-4.3.6], a HTTP Host: header must be provided, matching the authority-form of the request target provided as the destination for the CONNECT request. If a HTTP Host: header is not provided via the headers argument, one is generated and transmitted automatically.

Par exemple, pour un tunnel traversant un serveur mandataire HTTPS accessible localement sur le port 8080, nous devons passer l'adresse du serveur mandataire au constructeur de la classe HTTPSConnection, en plus de l'éventuelle adresse de l'hôte que nous voulons atteindre, qui elle doit être passée à la méthode set_tunnel() :

>>> import http.client
>>> conn = http.client.HTTPSConnection("localhost", 8080)
>>> conn.set_tunnel("www.python.org")
>>> conn.request("HEAD","/index.html")

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: HTTP CONNECT tunnelling requests use protocol HTTP/1.1, upgraded from protocol HTTP/1.0. Host: HTTP headers are mandatory for HTTP/1.1, so one will be automatically generated and transmitted if not provided in the headers argument.

HTTPConnection.get_proxy_response_headers()

Returns a dictionary with the headers of the response received from the proxy server to the CONNECT request.

If the CONNECT request was not sent, the method returns None.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

HTTPConnection.connect()

Se connecte au serveur spécifié quand l'objet est créé. Par défaut, est appelée automatiquement lorsqu'une requête est faite alors que le client ne s'est pas connecté au préalable.

Lève un évènement d'audit http.client.connect contenant les arguments self, host, port.

HTTPConnection.close()

Ferme la connexion au serveur.

HTTPConnection.blocksize

Taille en octets du tampon utilisé pour transmettre un corps de message de type fichier.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

As an alternative to using the request() method described above, you can also send your request step by step, by using the four functions below.

HTTPConnection.putrequest(method, url, skip_host=False, skip_accept_encoding=False)

Ce doit être le premier appel une fois que la connexion au serveur a été réalisée. Est envoyée au serveur une ligne consistant en la chaîne method, la chaîne d'url, et la version du protocole HTTP (HTTP/1.1). Pour désactiver l'envoi automatique des en-têtes Host: ou Accept-Encoding: (par exemple pour accepter des encodages supplémentaires de contenus), il est nécessaire de passer les paramètres skip_host ou skip_accept_encoding avec des valeurs différentes de False.

HTTPConnection.putheader(header, argument[, ...])

Envoie un en-tête de style RFC 822 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html] au serveur. Elle envoie au serveur une ligne regroupant un en-tête, une espace, un :, une espace et le premier argument. Si plusieurs arguments sont donnés, des lignes de continuation sont envoyées, chacune d'elle étant constituée d'une espace suivie d'un argument.

HTTPConnection.endheaders(message_body=None, *, encode_chunked=False)

Envoie une ligne blanche au serveur, signalant la fin des en-têtes. L'argument optionnel message_body peut-être utilisé pour passer le corps du message associé à la requête.

Si encode_chunked est True, le résultat de chaque itération sur message_body est un morceau encodé selon la RFC 7230 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7230.html], section 3.3.1. La façon dont les données sont encodées dépend du type de message_body. Si message_body implémente l'interface tampon l'encodage donne un unique morceau. Si message_body est un itérable de classe collections.abc.Iterable, chaque itération sur message_body donne un morceau. Si message_body est un fichier objet, chaque appel à .read() renvoie un morceau. La méthode signale automatiquement la fin des données encodées par morceaux immédiatement après message_body.

Note

Selon la spécification de l'encodage des morceaux, les morceaux vides renvoyés par un itérateur associé au corps du message sont ignorés par l'encodeur de morceaux. Ce comportement est choisi pour éviter que la lecture de la requête par le serveur cible ne se termine prématurément pour cause d'encodage mal formé.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Added chunked encoding support and the encode_chunked parameter.

HTTPConnection.send(data)

Envoie les données au serveur. Elle ne peut être utilisée directement qu'une fois la méthode endheaders() a été appelée et avant que la méthode getresponse() ait été appelée.

Lève un évènement d'audit http.client.send avec comme arguments self, data.

Les objets HTTPResponse

Une instance de HTTPResponse encapsule la réponse HTTP du serveur. Elle fournit un accès aux en-têtes et au corps de la réponse. La réponse est un objet itérable pouvant être utilisé avec l'instruction with.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: L'interface de la classe io.BufferedIOBase est désormais implémentée et toutes ses opérations de lecture sont gérées.

HTTPResponse.read([amt])

Lit et renvoie soit tout le corps de la réponse soit une partie de celui-ci se limitant aux amt octets suivants.

HTTPResponse.readinto(b)

Lit les prochains len(b) octets du corps de la réponse et les place dans le tampon b. Renvoie le nombre d'octets lus.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

HTTPResponse.getheader(name, default=None)

Return the value of the header name, or default if there is no header matching name. If there is more than one header with the name name, return all of the values joined by ', '. If default is any iterable other than a single string, its elements are similarly returned joined by commas.

HTTPResponse.getheaders()

Renvoie une liste d'n-uplets (en-tête, valeur).

HTTPResponse.fileno()

Renvoie le fileno du connecteur réseau sous-jacent.

HTTPResponse.msg

Une instance de http.client.HTTPMessage contenant les en-têtes de la réponse. La classe http.client.HTTPMessage est une sous-classe de la classe email.message.Message.

HTTPResponse.version

La version du protocole HTTP utilisée par le serveur : 10 pour HTTP/1.0, 11 pour HTTP/1.1.

HTTPResponse.url

L'URL de la ressource récupérée, utilisée habituellement pour déterminer si une redirection a été suivie.

HTTPResponse.headers

Les en-têtes de la réponse sous la forme d'une instance de email.message.EmailMessage.

HTTPResponse.status

Code d'état renvoyé par le serveur.

HTTPResponse.reason

Phrase renvoyée par le serveur et indiquant la cause.

HTTPResponse.debuglevel

Un point d'entrée pour débogage. Si debuglevel est plus grand que zéro, les messages sont envoyés à sys.stdout pendant la lecture et l'analyse de la réponse.

HTTPResponse.closed

Vaut True si le flux est terminé.

HTTPResponse.geturl()

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: Rendu obsolète par url.

HTTPResponse.info()

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: Rendu obsolète par headers.

HTTPResponse.getcode()

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: Rendu obsolète par status.

Exemples

Voici un exemple de session utilisant la méthode GET :

>>> import http.client
>>> conn = http.client.HTTPSConnection("www.python.org")
>>> conn.request("GET", "/")
>>> r1 = conn.getresponse()
>>> print(r1.status, r1.reason)
200 OK
>>> data1 = r1.read()  # This will return entire content.
>>> # The following example demonstrates reading data in chunks.
>>> conn.request("GET", "/")
>>> r1 = conn.getresponse()
>>> while chunk := r1.read(200):
...     print(repr(chunk))
b'<!doctype html>\n<!--[if"...
...
>>> # Example of an invalid request
>>> conn = http.client.HTTPSConnection("docs.python.org")
>>> conn.request("GET", "/parrot.spam")
>>> r2 = conn.getresponse()
>>> print(r2.status, r2.reason)
404 Not Found
>>> data2 = r2.read()
>>> conn.close()

Voici un exemple de session utilisant la méthode HEAD. Notez que la méthode HEAD ne renvoie jamais de données.

>>> import http.client
>>> conn = http.client.HTTPSConnection("www.python.org")
>>> conn.request("HEAD", "/")
>>> res = conn.getresponse()
>>> print(res.status, res.reason)
200 OK
>>> data = res.read()
>>> print(len(data))
0
>>> data == b''
True

Here is an example session that uses the POST method:

>>> import http.client, urllib.parse
>>> params = urllib.parse.urlencode({'@number': 12524, '@type': 'issue', '@action': 'show'})
>>> headers = {"Content-type": "application/x-www-form-urlencoded",
...            "Accept": "text/plain"}
>>> conn = http.client.HTTPConnection("bugs.python.org")
>>> conn.request("POST", "", params, headers)
>>> response = conn.getresponse()
>>> print(response.status, response.reason)
302 Found
>>> data = response.read()
>>> data
b'Redirecting to <a href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12524">https://bugs.python.org/issue12524</a>'
>>> conn.close()

Client side HTTP PUT requests are very similar to POST requests. The difference lies only on the server side where HTTP servers will allow resources to be created via PUT requests. It should be noted that custom HTTP methods are also handled in urllib.request.Request by setting the appropriate method attribute. Here is an example session that uses the PUT method:

>>> # This creates an HTTP request
>>> # with the content of BODY as the enclosed representation
>>> # for the resource http://localhost:8080/file
...
>>> import http.client
>>> BODY = "***filecontents***"
>>> conn = http.client.HTTPConnection("localhost", 8080)
>>> conn.request("PUT", "/file", BODY)
>>> response = conn.getresponse()
>>> print(response.status, response.reason)
200, OK

Les objets HTTPMessage

class http.client.HTTPMessage(email.message.Message)

Une instance de classe http.client.HTTPMessage contient les en-têtes d'une réponse HTTP. Elle est implémentée en utilisant la classe email.message.Message.

ftplib --- FTP protocol client

Code source : Lib/ftplib.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/ftplib.py]

Ce module définit la classe FTP et quelques éléments associés. La classe FTP implémente le côté client du protocole FTP. Vous pouvez l'utiliser pour écrire des programmes Python qui effectuent diverses tâches automatisées telles que la synchronisation d'autres serveurs FTP. Il est aussi utilisé par le module urllib.request pour gérer les URL qui utilisent FTP. Pour plus d'informations sur FTP (File Transfer Protocol), voir la RFC 959 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc959.html].

L'encodage par défaut est UTF-8, voir la RFC 2640 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2640.html].

Disponibilité: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly. See Plateformes WebAssembly for more information.

Here's a sample session using the ftplib module:

>>> from ftplib import FTP
>>> ftp = FTP('ftp.us.debian.org')  # connect to host, default port
>>> ftp.login()                     # user anonymous, passwd anonymous@
'230 Login successful.'
>>> ftp.cwd('debian')               # change into "debian" directory
'250 Directory successfully changed.'
>>> ftp.retrlines('LIST')           # list directory contents
-rw-rw-r--    1 1176     1176         1063 Jun 15 10:18 README
...
drwxr-sr-x    5 1176     1176         4096 Dec 19  2000 pool
drwxr-sr-x    4 1176     1176         4096 Nov 17  2008 project
drwxr-xr-x    3 1176     1176         4096 Oct 10  2012 tools
'226 Directory send OK.'
>>> with open('README', 'wb') as fp:
>>>     ftp.retrbinary('RETR README', fp.write)
'226 Transfer complete.'
>>> ftp.quit()
'221 Goodbye.'

Référence

FTP objects

class ftplib.FTP(host='', user='', passwd='', acct='', timeout=None, source_address=None, *, encoding='utf-8')

Return a new instance of the FTP class.

Paramètres:

host (str) -- The hostname to connect to. If given, connect(host) is implicitly called by the constructor.

user (str) -- The username to log in with (default: 'anonymous'). If given, login(host, passwd, acct) is implicitly called by the constructor.

passwd (str) -- The password to use when logging in. If not given, and if passwd is the empty string or "-", a password will be automatically generated.

acct (str) -- Account information to be used for the ACCT FTP command. Few systems implement this. See RFC-959 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc959.html] for more details.

timeout (float | None) -- A timeout in seconds for blocking operations like connect() (default: the global default timeout setting).

source_address (tuple | None) -- A 2-tuple (host, port) for the socket to bind to as its source address before connecting.

encoding (str) -- The encoding for directories and filenames (default: 'utf-8').

La classe FTP peut s'utiliser avec l'instruction with, p. ex. :

>>> from ftplib import FTP
>>> with FTP("ftp1.at.proftpd.org") as ftp:
...     ftp.login()
...     ftp.dir()
...
'230 Anonymous login ok, restrictions apply.'
dr-xr-xr-x   9 ftp      ftp           154 May  6 10:43 .
dr-xr-xr-x   9 ftp      ftp           154 May  6 10:43 ..
dr-xr-xr-x   5 ftp      ftp          4096 May  6 10:43 CentOS
dr-xr-xr-x   3 ftp      ftp            18 Jul 10  2008 Fedora
>>>

Modifié dans la version 3.2: La prise en charge de l'instruction with a été ajoutée.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: source_address parameter was added.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: If the timeout parameter is set to be zero, it will raise a ValueError to prevent the creation of a non-blocking socket. The encoding parameter was added, and the default was changed from Latin-1 to UTF-8 to follow RFC 2640 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2640.html].

Several FTP methods are available in two flavors: one for handling text files and another for binary files. The methods are named for the command which is used followed by lines for the text version or binary for the binary version.

Les instances de la classe FTP possèdent les méthodes suivantes :

set_debuglevel(level)

Set the instance's debugging level as an int. This controls the amount of debugging output printed. The debug levels are:

0 (default): No debug output.

1: Produce a moderate amount of debug output, generally a single line per request.

2 or higher: Produce the maximum amount of debugging output, logging each line sent and received on the control connection.

connect(host='', port=0, timeout=None, source_address=None)

Connect to the given host and port. This function should be called only once for each instance; it should not be called if a host argument was given when the FTP instance was created. All other FTP methods can only be called after a connection has successfully been made.

Paramètres:

host (str) -- The host to connect to.

port (int) -- The TCP port to connect to (default: 21, as specified by the FTP protocol specification). It is rarely needed to specify a different port number.

timeout (float | None) -- A timeout in seconds for the connection attempt (default: the global default timeout setting).

source_address (tuple | None) -- A 2-tuple (host, port) for the socket to bind to as its source address before connecting.

Raises an auditing event ftplib.connect with arguments self, host, port.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: source_address parameter was added.

getwelcome()

Return the welcome message sent by the server in reply to the initial connection. (This message sometimes contains disclaimers or help information that may be relevant to the user.)

login(user='anonymous', passwd='', acct='')

Log on to the connected FTP server. This function should be called only once for each instance, after a connection has been established; it should not be called if the host and user arguments were given when the FTP instance was created. Most FTP commands are only allowed after the client has logged in.

Paramètres:

user (str) -- The username to log in with (default: 'anonymous').

passwd (str) -- The password to use when logging in. If not given, and if passwd is the empty string or "-", a password will be automatically generated.

acct (str) -- Account information to be used for the ACCT FTP command. Few systems implement this. See RFC-959 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc959.html] for more details.

abort()

Abort a file transfer that is in progress. Using this does not always work, but it's worth a try.

sendcmd(cmd)

Send a simple command string to the server and return the response string.

Raises an auditing event ftplib.sendcmd with arguments self, cmd.

voidcmd(cmd)

Send a simple command string to the server and handle the response. Return the response string if the response code corresponds to success (codes in the range 200--299). Raise error_reply otherwise.

Raises an auditing event ftplib.sendcmd with arguments self, cmd.

retrbinary(cmd, callback, blocksize=8192, rest=None)

Retrieve a file in binary transfer mode.

Paramètres:

cmd (str) -- An appropriate RETR command: "RETR filename".

callback (callable) -- A single parameter callable that is called for each block of data received, with its single argument being the data as bytes.

blocksize (int) -- The maximum chunk size to read on the low-level socket object created to do the actual transfer. This also corresponds to the largest size of data that will be passed to callback. Defaults to 8192.

rest (int) -- A REST command to be sent to the server. See the documentation for the rest parameter of the transfercmd() method.

retrlines(cmd, callback=None)

Retrieve a file or directory listing in the encoding specified by the encoding parameter at initialization. cmd should be an appropriate RETR command (see retrbinary()) or a command such as LIST or NLST (usually just the string 'LIST'). LIST retrieves a list of files and information about those files. NLST retrieves a list of file names. The callback function is called for each line with a string argument containing the line with the trailing CRLF stripped. The default callback prints the line to sys.stdout.

set_pasv(val)

Enable "passive" mode if val is true, otherwise disable passive mode. Passive mode is on by default.

storbinary(cmd, fp, blocksize=8192, callback=None, rest=None)

Store a file in binary transfer mode.

Paramètres:

cmd (str) -- An appropriate STOR command: "STOR filename".

fp (file object) -- A file object (opened in binary mode) which is read until EOF, using its read() method in blocks of size blocksize to provide the data to be stored.

blocksize (int) -- The read block size. Defaults to 8192.

callback (callable) -- A single parameter callable that is called for each block of data sent, with its single argument being the data as bytes.

rest (int) -- A REST command to be sent to the server. See the documentation for the rest parameter of the transfercmd() method.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: The rest parameter was added.

storlines(cmd, fp, callback=None)

Store a file in line mode. cmd should be an appropriate STOR command (see storbinary()). Lines are read until EOF from the file object fp (opened in binary mode) using its readline() method to provide the data to be stored. callback is an optional single parameter callable that is called on each line after it is sent.

transfercmd(cmd, rest=None)

Initiate a transfer over the data connection. If the transfer is active, send an EPRT or PORT command and the transfer command specified by cmd, and accept the connection. If the server is passive, send an EPSV or PASV command, connect to it, and start the transfer command. Either way, return the socket for the connection.

If optional rest is given, a REST command is sent to the server, passing rest as an argument. rest is usually a byte offset into the requested file, telling the server to restart sending the file's bytes at the requested offset, skipping over the initial bytes. Note however that the transfercmd() method converts rest to a string with the encoding parameter specified at initialization, but no check is performed on the string's contents. If the server does not recognize the REST command, an error_reply exception will be raised. If this happens, simply call transfercmd() without a rest argument.

ntransfercmd(cmd, rest=None)

Like transfercmd(), but returns a tuple of the data connection and the expected size of the data. If the expected size could not be computed, None will be returned as the expected size. cmd and rest means the same thing as in transfercmd().

mlsd(path='', facts=[])

List a directory in a standardized format by using MLSD command (RFC 3659 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3659.html]). If path is omitted the current directory is assumed. facts is a list of strings representing the type of information desired (e.g. ["type", "size", "perm"]). Return a generator object yielding a tuple of two elements for every file found in path. First element is the file name, the second one is a dictionary containing facts about the file name. Content of this dictionary might be limited by the facts argument but server is not guaranteed to return all requested facts.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

nlst(argument[, ...])

Renvoie une liste de noms de fichiers comme celle que renvoie la commande NLST. Le paramètre optionnel argument est une liste de dossiers (la valeur par défaut est le répertoire courant du serveur). Plusieurs paramètres peuvent être utilisés pour passer des paramètres non standards à la commande NLST.

Note

La commande mlsd() offre une meilleure API si votre serveur sait la gérer.

dir(argument[, ...])

Produce a directory listing as returned by the LIST command, printing it to standard output. The optional argument is a directory to list (default is the current server directory). Multiple arguments can be used to pass non-standard options to the LIST command. If the last argument is a function, it is used as a callback function as for retrlines(); the default prints to sys.stdout. This method returns None.

Note

La commande mlsd() offre une meilleure API si votre serveur sait la gérer.

rename(fromname, toname)

Renomme le fichier portant le nom fromname en toname sur le serveur.

delete(filename)

Remove the file named filename from the server. If successful, returns the text of the response, otherwise raises error_perm on permission errors or error_reply on other errors.

cwd(pathname)

Set the current directory on the server.

mkd(pathname)

Crée un nouveau dossier sur le serveur.

pwd()

Renvoie le chemin d'accès au répertoire courant sur le serveur.

rmd(dirname)

Supprime le dossier portant le nom dirname sur le serveur.

size(filename)

Request the size of the file named filename on the server. On success, the size of the file is returned as an integer, otherwise None is returned. Note that the SIZE command is not standardized, but is supported by many common server implementations.

quit()

Send a QUIT command to the server and close the connection. This is the "polite" way to close a connection, but it may raise an exception if the server responds with an error to the QUIT command. This implies a call to the close() method which renders the FTP instance useless for subsequent calls (see below).

close()

Close the connection unilaterally. This should not be applied to an already closed connection such as after a successful call to quit(). After this call the FTP instance should not be used any more (after a call to close() or quit() you cannot reopen the connection by issuing another login() method).

FTP_TLS objects

class ftplib.FTP_TLS(host='', user='', passwd='', acct='', *, context=None, timeout=None, source_address=None, encoding='utf-8')

An FTP subclass which adds TLS support to FTP as described in RFC 4217 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4217.html]. Connect to port 21 implicitly securing the FTP control connection before authenticating.

Note

The user must explicitly secure the data connection by calling the prot_p() method.

Paramètres:

host (str) -- The hostname to connect to. If given, connect(host) is implicitly called by the constructor.

user (str) -- The username to log in with (default: 'anonymous'). If given, login(host, passwd, acct) is implicitly called by the constructor.

passwd (str) -- The password to use when logging in. If not given, and if passwd is the empty string or "-", a password will be automatically generated.

acct (str) -- Account information to be used for the ACCT FTP command. Few systems implement this. See RFC-959 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc959.html] for more details.

context (ssl.SSLContext) -- An SSL context object which allows bundling SSL configuration options, certificates and private keys into a single, potentially long-lived, structure. Please read Security considerations for best practices.

timeout (float | None) -- A timeout in seconds for blocking operations like connect() (default: the global default timeout setting).

source_address (tuple | None) -- A 2-tuple (host, port) for the socket to bind to as its source address before connecting.

encoding (str) -- The encoding for directories and filenames (default: 'utf-8').

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Added the source_address parameter.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: The class now supports hostname check with ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname and Server Name Indication (see ssl.HAS_SNI).

Modifié dans la version 3.9: If the timeout parameter is set to be zero, it will raise a ValueError to prevent the creation of a non-blocking socket. The encoding parameter was added, and the default was changed from Latin-1 to UTF-8 to follow RFC 2640 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2640.html].

Modifié dans la version 3.12: The deprecated keyfile and certfile parameters have been removed.

Voici un exemple de session utilisant la classe FTP_TLS :

>>> ftps = FTP_TLS('ftp.pureftpd.org')
>>> ftps.login()
'230 Anonymous user logged in'
>>> ftps.prot_p()
'200 Data protection level set to "private"'
>>> ftps.nlst()
['6jack', 'OpenBSD', 'antilink', 'blogbench', 'bsdcam', 'clockspeed', 'djbdns-jedi', 'docs', 'eaccelerator-jedi', 'favicon.ico', 'francotone', 'fugu', 'ignore', 'libpuzzle', 'metalog', 'minidentd', 'misc', 'mysql-udf-global-user-variables', 'php-jenkins-hash', 'php-skein-hash', 'php-webdav', 'phpaudit', 'phpbench', 'pincaster', 'ping', 'posto', 'pub', 'public', 'public_keys', 'pure-ftpd', 'qscan', 'qtc', 'sharedance', 'skycache', 'sound', 'tmp', 'ucarp']

FTP_TLS class inherits from FTP, defining these additional methods and attributes:

ssl_version

The SSL version to use (defaults to ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv23).

auth()

Set up a secure control connection by using TLS or SSL, depending on what is specified in the ssl_version attribute.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: The method now supports hostname check with ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname and Server Name Indication (see ssl.HAS_SNI).

ccc()

Revert control channel back to plaintext. This can be useful to take advantage of firewalls that know how to handle NAT with non-secure FTP without opening fixed ports.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

prot_p()

Établit une connexion de données sécurisée.

prot_c()

Établit une connexion de données non sécurisées.

Module variables

exception ftplib.error_reply

Exception levée lorsqu'une réponse inattendue est reçue du serveur.

exception ftplib.error_temp

Exception levée lorsqu'un code d'erreur signifiant une erreur temporaire (code de réponse dans l'intervalle 400-499) est reçu.

exception ftplib.error_perm

Exception levée lorsqu'un code d'erreur signifiant une erreur permanente (code de réponse dans l'intervalle 500-599) est reçu.

exception ftplib.error_proto

Exception levée lorsqu'une réponse reçue du serveur ne correspond pas aux à la spécification de File Transfer Protocol, c.-à-d. qu'elle doit commencer par un chiffre dans l'intervalle 1-5.

ftplib.all_errors

The set of all exceptions (as a tuple) that methods of FTP instances may raise as a result of problems with the FTP connection (as opposed to programming errors made by the caller). This set includes the four exceptions listed above as well as OSError and EOFError.

Voir aussi

Module netrc

Parser for the .netrc file format. The file .netrc is typically used by FTP clients to load user authentication information before prompting the user.

poplib --- POP3 protocol client

Code source : Lib/poplib.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/poplib.py]

This module defines a class, POP3, which encapsulates a connection to a POP3 server and implements the protocol as defined in RFC 1939 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1939.html]. The POP3 class supports both the minimal and optional command sets from RFC 1939 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1939.html]. The POP3 class also supports the STLS command introduced in RFC 2595 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2595.html] to enable encrypted communication on an already established connection.

Additionally, this module provides a class POP3_SSL, which provides support for connecting to POP3 servers that use SSL as an underlying protocol layer.

Note that POP3, though widely supported, is obsolescent. The implementation quality of POP3 servers varies widely, and too many are quite poor. If your mailserver supports IMAP, you would be better off using the imaplib.IMAP4 class, as IMAP servers tend to be better implemented.

Disponibilité: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly. See Plateformes WebAssembly for more information.

The poplib module provides two classes:

class poplib.POP3(host, port=POP3_PORT[, timeout])

This class implements the actual POP3 protocol. The connection is created when the instance is initialized. If port is omitted, the standard POP3 port (110) is used. The optional timeout parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for the connection attempt (if not specified, the global default timeout setting will be used).

Raises an auditing event poplib.connect with arguments self, host, port.

All commands will raise an auditing event poplib.putline with arguments self and line, where line is the bytes about to be sent to the remote host.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: If the timeout parameter is set to be zero, it will raise a ValueError to prevent the creation of a non-blocking socket.

class poplib.POP3_SSL(host, port=POP3_SSL_PORT, *, timeout=None, context=None)

This is a subclass of POP3 that connects to the server over an SSL encrypted socket. If port is not specified, 995, the standard POP3-over-SSL port is used. timeout works as in the POP3 constructor. context is an optional ssl.SSLContext object which allows bundling SSL configuration options, certificates and private keys into a single (potentially long-lived) structure. Please read Security considerations for best practices.

Raises an auditing event poplib.connect with arguments self, host, port.

All commands will raise an auditing event poplib.putline with arguments self and line, where line is the bytes about to be sent to the remote host.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: context parameter added.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: The class now supports hostname check with ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname and Server Name Indication (see ssl.HAS_SNI).

Modifié dans la version 3.9: If the timeout parameter is set to be zero, it will raise a ValueError to prevent the creation of a non-blocking socket.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: The deprecated keyfile and certfile parameters have been removed.

One exception is defined as an attribute of the poplib module:

exception poplib.error_proto

Exception raised on any errors from this module (errors from socket module are not caught). The reason for the exception is passed to the constructor as a string.

Voir aussi

Module imaplib

The standard Python IMAP module.

Frequently Asked Questions About Fetchmail [http://www.catb.org/~esr/fetchmail/fetchmail-FAQ.html]

The FAQ for the fetchmail POP/IMAP client collects information on POP3 server variations and RFC noncompliance that may be useful if you need to write an application based on the POP protocol.

POP3 Objects

All POP3 commands are represented by methods of the same name, in lowercase; most return the response text sent by the server.

A POP3 instance has the following methods:

POP3.set_debuglevel(level)

Set the instance's debugging level. This controls the amount of debugging output printed. The default, 0, produces no debugging output. A value of 1 produces a moderate amount of debugging output, generally a single line per request. A value of 2 or higher produces the maximum amount of debugging output, logging each line sent and received on the control connection.

POP3.getwelcome()

Returns the greeting string sent by the POP3 server.

POP3.capa()

Query the server's capabilities as specified in RFC 2449 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2449.html]. Returns a dictionary in the form {'name': ['param'...]}.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

POP3.user(username)

Send user command, response should indicate that a password is required.

POP3.pass_(password)

Send password, response includes message count and mailbox size. Note: the mailbox on the server is locked until quit() is called.

POP3.apop(user, secret)

Use the more secure APOP authentication to log into the POP3 server.

POP3.rpop(user)

Use RPOP authentication (similar to UNIX r-commands) to log into POP3 server.

POP3.stat()

Get mailbox status. The result is a tuple of 2 integers: (message count, mailbox size).

POP3.list([which])

Request message list, result is in the form (response, ['mesg_num octets', ...], octets). If which is set, it is the message to list.

POP3.retr(which)

Retrieve whole message number which, and set its seen flag. Result is in form (response, ['line', ...], octets).

POP3.dele(which)

Flag message number which for deletion. On most servers deletions are not actually performed until QUIT (the major exception is Eudora QPOP, which deliberately violates the RFCs by doing pending deletes on any disconnect).

POP3.rset()

Remove any deletion marks for the mailbox.

POP3.noop()

Do nothing. Might be used as a keep-alive.

POP3.quit()

Signoff: commit changes, unlock mailbox, drop connection.

POP3.top(which, howmuch)

Retrieves the message header plus howmuch lines of the message after the header of message number which. Result is in form (response, ['line', ...], octets).

The POP3 TOP command this method uses, unlike the RETR command, doesn't set the message's seen flag; unfortunately, TOP is poorly specified in the RFCs and is frequently broken in off-brand servers. Test this method by hand against the POP3 servers you will use before trusting it.

POP3.uidl(which=None)

Return message digest (unique id) list. If which is specified, result contains the unique id for that message in the form 'response mesgnum uid, otherwise result is list (response, ['mesgnum uid', ...], octets).

POP3.utf8()

Try to switch to UTF-8 mode. Returns the server response if successful, raises error_proto if not. Specified in RFC 6856 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6856.html].

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

POP3.stls(context=None)

Start a TLS session on the active connection as specified in RFC 2595 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2595.html]. This is only allowed before user authentication

context parameter is a ssl.SSLContext object which allows bundling SSL configuration options, certificates and private keys into a single (potentially long-lived) structure. Please read Security considerations for best practices.

This method supports hostname checking via ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname and Server Name Indication (see ssl.HAS_SNI).

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Instances of POP3_SSL have no additional methods. The interface of this subclass is identical to its parent.

POP3 Example

Here is a minimal example (without error checking) that opens a mailbox and retrieves and prints all messages:

import getpass, poplib

M = poplib.POP3('localhost')
M.user(getpass.getuser())
M.pass_(getpass.getpass())
numMessages = len(M.list()[1])
for i in range(numMessages):
    for j in M.retr(i+1)[1]:
        print(j)

At the end of the module, there is a test section that contains a more extensive example of usage.

imaplib --- IMAP4 protocol client

Code source : Lib/imaplib.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/imaplib.py]

This module defines three classes, IMAP4, IMAP4_SSL and IMAP4_stream, which encapsulate a connection to an IMAP4 server and implement a large subset of the IMAP4rev1 client protocol as defined in RFC 2060 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2060.html]. It is backward compatible with IMAP4 (RFC 1730 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1730.html]) servers, but note that the STATUS command is not supported in IMAP4.

Disponibilité: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly. See Plateformes WebAssembly for more information.

Three classes are provided by the imaplib module, IMAP4 is the base class:

class imaplib.IMAP4(host='', port=IMAP4_PORT, timeout=None)

This class implements the actual IMAP4 protocol. The connection is created and protocol version (IMAP4 or IMAP4rev1) is determined when the instance is initialized. If host is not specified, '' (the local host) is used. If port is omitted, the standard IMAP4 port (143) is used. The optional timeout parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for the connection attempt. If timeout is not given or is None, the global default socket timeout is used.

The IMAP4 class supports the with statement. When used like this, the IMAP4 LOGOUT command is issued automatically when the with statement exits. E.g.:

>>> from imaplib import IMAP4
>>> with IMAP4("domain.org") as M:
...     M.noop()
...
('OK', [b'Nothing Accomplished. d25if65hy903weo.87'])

Modifié dans la version 3.5: La prise en charge de l'instruction with a été ajoutée.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: The optional timeout parameter was added.

Three exceptions are defined as attributes of the IMAP4 class:

exception IMAP4.error

Exception raised on any errors. The reason for the exception is passed to the constructor as a string.

exception IMAP4.abort

IMAP4 server errors cause this exception to be raised. This is a sub-class of IMAP4.error. Note that closing the instance and instantiating a new one will usually allow recovery from this exception.

exception IMAP4.readonly

This exception is raised when a writable mailbox has its status changed by the server. This is a sub-class of IMAP4.error. Some other client now has write permission, and the mailbox will need to be re-opened to re-obtain write permission.

There's also a subclass for secure connections:

class imaplib.IMAP4_SSL(host='', port=IMAP4_SSL_PORT, *, ssl_context=None, timeout=None)

This is a subclass derived from IMAP4 that connects over an SSL encrypted socket (to use this class you need a socket module that was compiled with SSL support). If host is not specified, '' (the local host) is used. If port is omitted, the standard IMAP4-over-SSL port (993) is used. ssl_context is a ssl.SSLContext object which allows bundling SSL configuration options, certificates and private keys into a single (potentially long-lived) structure. Please read Security considerations for best practices.

The optional timeout parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for the connection attempt. If timeout is not given or is None, the global default socket timeout is used.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: ssl_context parameter was added.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: The class now supports hostname check with ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname and Server Name Indication (see ssl.HAS_SNI).

Modifié dans la version 3.9: The optional timeout parameter was added.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: The deprecated keyfile and certfile parameters have been removed.

The second subclass allows for connections created by a child process:

class imaplib.IMAP4_stream(command)

This is a subclass derived from IMAP4 that connects to the stdin/stdout file descriptors created by passing command to subprocess.Popen().

The following utility functions are defined:

imaplib.Internaldate2tuple(datestr)

Parse an IMAP4 INTERNALDATE string and return corresponding local time. The return value is a time.struct_time tuple or None if the string has wrong format.

imaplib.Int2AP(num)

Converts an integer into a bytes representation using characters from the set [A .. P].

imaplib.ParseFlags(flagstr)

Converts an IMAP4 FLAGS response to a tuple of individual flags.

imaplib.Time2Internaldate(date_time)

Convert date_time to an IMAP4 INTERNALDATE representation. The return value is a string in the form: "DD-Mmm-YYYY HH:MM:SS +HHMM" (including double-quotes). The date_time argument can be a number (int or float) representing seconds since epoch (as returned by time.time()), a 9-tuple representing local time an instance of time.struct_time (as returned by time.localtime()), an aware instance of datetime.datetime, or a double-quoted string. In the last case, it is assumed to already be in the correct format.

Note that IMAP4 message numbers change as the mailbox changes; in particular, after an EXPUNGE command performs deletions the remaining messages are renumbered. So it is highly advisable to use UIDs instead, with the UID command.

At the end of the module, there is a test section that contains a more extensive example of usage.

Voir aussi

Documents describing the protocol, sources for servers implementing it, by the University of Washington's IMAP Information Center can all be found at (Source Code) https://github.com/uw-imap/imap (Not Maintained).

IMAP4 Objects

All IMAP4rev1 commands are represented by methods of the same name, either uppercase or lowercase.

All arguments to commands are converted to strings, except for AUTHENTICATE, and the last argument to APPEND which is passed as an IMAP4 literal. If necessary (the string contains IMAP4 protocol-sensitive characters and isn't enclosed with either parentheses or double quotes) each string is quoted. However, the password argument to the LOGIN command is always quoted. If you want to avoid having an argument string quoted (eg: the flags argument to STORE) then enclose the string in parentheses (eg: r'(\Deleted)').

Most commands return a tuple: (type, [data, ...]) where type is usually 'OK' or 'NO', and data is either the text from the command response, or mandated results from the command. Each data is either a bytes, or a tuple. If a tuple, then the first part is the header of the response, and the second part contains the data (ie: 'literal' value).

The message_set options to commands below is a string specifying one or more messages to be acted upon. It may be a simple message number ('1'), a range of message numbers ('2:4'), or a group of non-contiguous ranges separated by commas ('1:3,6:9'). A range can contain an asterisk to indicate an infinite upper bound ('3:*').

An IMAP4 instance has the following methods:

IMAP4.append(mailbox, flags, date_time, message)

Append message to named mailbox.

IMAP4.authenticate(mechanism, authobject)

Authenticate command --- requires response processing.

mechanism specifies which authentication mechanism is to be used - it should appear in the instance variable capabilities in the form AUTH=mechanism.

authobject must be a callable object:

data = authobject(response)

It will be called to process server continuation responses; the response argument it is passed will be bytes. It should return bytes data that will be base64 encoded and sent to the server. It should return None if the client abort response * should be sent instead.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: string usernames and passwords are now encoded to utf-8 instead of being limited to ASCII.

IMAP4.check()

Checkpoint mailbox on server.

IMAP4.close()

Close currently selected mailbox. Deleted messages are removed from writable mailbox. This is the recommended command before LOGOUT.

IMAP4.copy(message_set, new_mailbox)

Copy message_set messages onto end of new_mailbox.

IMAP4.create(mailbox)

Create new mailbox named mailbox.

IMAP4.delete(mailbox)

Delete old mailbox named mailbox.

IMAP4.deleteacl(mailbox, who)

Delete the ACLs (remove any rights) set for who on mailbox.

IMAP4.enable(capability)

Enable capability (see RFC 5161 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5161.html]). Most capabilities do not need to be enabled. Currently only the UTF8=ACCEPT capability is supported (see RFC 6855 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6855.html]).

Ajouté dans la version 3.5: The enable() method itself, and RFC 6855 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6855.html] support.

IMAP4.expunge()

Permanently remove deleted items from selected mailbox. Generates an EXPUNGE response for each deleted message. Returned data contains a list of EXPUNGE message numbers in order received.

IMAP4.fetch(message_set, message_parts)

Fetch (parts of) messages. message_parts should be a string of message part names enclosed within parentheses, eg: "(UID BODY[TEXT])". Returned data are tuples of message part envelope and data.

IMAP4.getacl(mailbox)

Get the ACLs for mailbox. The method is non-standard, but is supported by the Cyrus server.

IMAP4.getannotation(mailbox, entry, attribute)

Retrieve the specified ANNOTATIONs for mailbox. The method is non-standard, but is supported by the Cyrus server.

IMAP4.getquota(root)

Get the quota root's resource usage and limits. This method is part of the IMAP4 QUOTA extension defined in rfc2087.

IMAP4.getquotaroot(mailbox)

Get the list of quota roots for the named mailbox. This method is part of the IMAP4 QUOTA extension defined in rfc2087.

IMAP4.idle(duration=None)

Return an Idler: an iterable context manager implementing the IMAP4 IDLE command as defined in RFC 2177 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2177.html].

The returned object sends the IDLE command when activated by the with statement, produces IMAP untagged responses via the iterator protocol, and sends DONE upon context exit.

All untagged responses that arrive after sending the IDLE command (including any that arrive before the server acknowledges the command) will be available via iteration. Any leftover responses (those not iterated in the with context) can be retrieved in the usual way after IDLE ends, using IMAP4.response().

Responses are represented as (type, [data, ...]) tuples, as described in IMAP4 Objects.

The duration argument sets a maximum duration (in seconds) to keep idling, after which any ongoing iteration will stop. It can be an int or float, or None for no time limit. Callers wishing to avoid inactivity timeouts on servers that impose them should keep this at most 29 minutes (1740 seconds). Requires a socket connection; duration must be None on IMAP4_stream connections.

>>> with M.idle(duration=29 * 60) as idler:
...     for typ, data in idler:
...         print(typ, data)
...
EXISTS [b'1']
RECENT [b'1']

Idler.burst(interval=0.1)

Yield a burst of responses no more than interval seconds apart (expressed as an int or float).

This generator is an alternative to iterating one response at a time, intended to aid in efficient batch processing. It retrieves the next response along with any immediately available subsequent responses. (For example, a rapid series of EXPUNGE responses after a bulk delete.)

Requires a socket connection; does not work on IMAP4_stream connections.

>>> with M.idle() as idler:
...     # get a response and any others following by < 0.1 seconds
...     batch = list(idler.burst())
...     print(f'processing {len(batch)} responses...')
...     print(batch)
...
processing 3 responses...
[('EXPUNGE', [b'2']), ('EXPUNGE', [b'1']), ('RECENT', [b'0'])]

Astuce

The IDLE context's maximum duration, as passed to IMAP4.idle(), is respected when waiting for the first response in a burst. Therefore, an expired Idler will cause this generator to return immediately without producing anything. Callers should consider this if using it in a loop.

Note

The iterator returned by IMAP4.idle() is usable only within a with statement. Before or after that context, unsolicited responses are collected internally whenever a command finishes, and can be retrieved with IMAP4.response().

Note

The Idler class name and structure are internal interfaces, subject to change. Calling code can rely on its context management, iteration, and public method to remain stable, but should not subclass, instantiate, compare, or otherwise directly reference the class.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

IMAP4.list([directory[, pattern]])

List mailbox names in directory matching pattern. directory defaults to the top-level mail folder, and pattern defaults to match anything. Returned data contains a list of LIST responses.

IMAP4.login(user, password)

Identify the client using a plaintext password. The password will be quoted.

IMAP4.login_cram_md5(user, password)

Force use of CRAM-MD5 authentication when identifying the client to protect the password. Will only work if the server CAPABILITY response includes the phrase AUTH=CRAM-MD5.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: An IMAP4.error is raised if MD5 support is not available.

IMAP4.logout()

Shutdown connection to server. Returns server BYE response.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: The method no longer ignores silently arbitrary exceptions.

IMAP4.lsub(directory='""', pattern='*')

List subscribed mailbox names in directory matching pattern. directory defaults to the top level directory and pattern defaults to match any mailbox. Returned data are tuples of message part envelope and data.

IMAP4.myrights(mailbox)

Show my ACLs for a mailbox (i.e. the rights that I have on mailbox).

IMAP4.namespace()

Returns IMAP namespaces as defined in RFC 2342 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2342.html].

IMAP4.noop()

Send NOOP to server.

IMAP4.open(host, port, timeout=None)

Opens socket to port at host. The optional timeout parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for the connection attempt. If timeout is not given or is None, the global default socket timeout is used. Also note that if the timeout parameter is set to be zero, it will raise a ValueError to reject creating a non-blocking socket. This method is implicitly called by the IMAP4 constructor. The connection objects established by this method will be used in the IMAP4.read(), IMAP4.readline(), IMAP4.send(), and IMAP4.shutdown() methods. You may override this method.

Raises an auditing event imaplib.open with arguments self, host, port.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: The timeout parameter was added.

IMAP4.partial(message_num, message_part, start, length)

Fetch truncated part of a message. Returned data is a tuple of message part envelope and data.

IMAP4.proxyauth(user)

Assume authentication as user. Allows an authorised administrator to proxy into any user's mailbox.

IMAP4.read(size)

Reads size bytes from the remote server. You may override this method.

IMAP4.readline()

Reads one line from the remote server. You may override this method.

IMAP4.recent()

Prompt server for an update. Returned data is None if no new messages, else value of RECENT response.

IMAP4.rename(oldmailbox, newmailbox)

Rename mailbox named oldmailbox to newmailbox.

IMAP4.response(code)

Return data for response code if received, or None. Returns the given code, instead of the usual type.

IMAP4.search(charset, criterion[, ...])

Search mailbox for matching messages. charset may be None, in which case no CHARSET will be specified in the request to the server. The IMAP protocol requires that at least one criterion be specified; an exception will be raised when the server returns an error. charset must be None if the UTF8=ACCEPT capability was enabled using the enable() command.

Exemple :

# M is a connected IMAP4 instance...
typ, msgnums = M.search(None, 'FROM', '"LDJ"')

# or:
typ, msgnums = M.search(None, '(FROM "LDJ")')

IMAP4.select(mailbox='INBOX', readonly=False)

Select a mailbox. Returned data is the count of messages in mailbox (EXISTS response). The default mailbox is 'INBOX'. If the readonly flag is set, modifications to the mailbox are not allowed.

IMAP4.send(data)

Sends data to the remote server. You may override this method.

Raises an auditing event imaplib.send with arguments self, data.

IMAP4.setacl(mailbox, who, what)

Set an ACL for mailbox. The method is non-standard, but is supported by the Cyrus server.

IMAP4.setannotation(mailbox, entry, attribute[, ...])

Set ANNOTATIONs for mailbox. The method is non-standard, but is supported by the Cyrus server.

IMAP4.setquota(root, limits)

Set the quota root's resource limits. This method is part of the IMAP4 QUOTA extension defined in rfc2087.

IMAP4.shutdown()

Close connection established in open. This method is implicitly called by IMAP4.logout(). You may override this method.

IMAP4.socket()

Returns socket instance used to connect to server.

IMAP4.sort(sort_criteria, charset, search_criterion[, ...])

The sort command is a variant of search with sorting semantics for the results. Returned data contains a space separated list of matching message numbers.

Sort has two arguments before the search_criterion argument(s); a parenthesized list of sort_criteria, and the searching charset. Note that unlike search, the searching charset argument is mandatory. There is also a uid sort command which corresponds to sort the way that uid search corresponds to search. The sort command first searches the mailbox for messages that match the given searching criteria using the charset argument for the interpretation of strings in the searching criteria. It then returns the numbers of matching messages.

This is an IMAP4rev1 extension command.

IMAP4.starttls(ssl_context=None)

Send a STARTTLS command. The ssl_context argument is optional and should be a ssl.SSLContext object. This will enable encryption on the IMAP connection. Please read Security considerations for best practices.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: The method now supports hostname check with ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname and Server Name Indication (see ssl.HAS_SNI).

IMAP4.status(mailbox, names)

Request named status conditions for mailbox.

IMAP4.store(message_set, command, flag_list)

Alters flag dispositions for messages in mailbox. command is specified by section 6.4.6 of RFC 2060 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2060.html] as being one of "FLAGS", "+FLAGS", or "-FLAGS", optionally with a suffix of ".SILENT".

For example, to set the delete flag on all messages:

typ, data = M.search(None, 'ALL')
for num in data[0].split():
   M.store(num, '+FLAGS', '\\Deleted')
M.expunge()

Note

Creating flags containing ']' (for example: "[test]") violates RFC 3501 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3501.html] (the IMAP protocol). However, imaplib has historically allowed creation of such tags, and popular IMAP servers, such as Gmail, accept and produce such flags. There are non-Python programs which also create such tags. Although it is an RFC violation and IMAP clients and servers are supposed to be strict, imaplib still continues to allow such tags to be created for backward compatibility reasons, and as of Python 3.6, handles them if they are sent from the server, since this improves real-world compatibility.

IMAP4.subscribe(mailbox)

Subscribe to new mailbox.

IMAP4.thread(threading_algorithm, charset, search_criterion[, ...])

The thread command is a variant of search with threading semantics for the results. Returned data contains a space separated list of thread members.

Thread members consist of zero or more messages numbers, delimited by spaces, indicating successive parent and child.

Thread has two arguments before the search_criterion argument(s); a threading_algorithm, and the searching charset. Note that unlike search, the searching charset argument is mandatory. There is also a uid thread command which corresponds to thread the way that uid search corresponds to search. The thread command first searches the mailbox for messages that match the given searching criteria using the charset argument for the interpretation of strings in the searching criteria. It then returns the matching messages threaded according to the specified threading algorithm.

This is an IMAP4rev1 extension command.

IMAP4.uid(command, arg[, ...])

Execute command args with messages identified by UID, rather than message number. Returns response appropriate to command. At least one argument must be supplied; if none are provided, the server will return an error and an exception will be raised.

IMAP4.unsubscribe(mailbox)

Unsubscribe from old mailbox.

IMAP4.unselect()

imaplib.IMAP4.unselect() frees server's resources associated with the selected mailbox and returns the server to the authenticated state. This command performs the same actions as imaplib.IMAP4.close(), except that no messages are permanently removed from the currently selected mailbox.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

IMAP4.xatom(name[, ...])

Allow simple extension commands notified by server in CAPABILITY response.

The following attributes are defined on instances of IMAP4:

IMAP4.PROTOCOL_VERSION

The most recent supported protocol in the CAPABILITY response from the server.

IMAP4.debug

Integer value to control debugging output. The initialize value is taken from the module variable Debug. Values greater than three trace each command.

IMAP4.utf8_enabled

Boolean value that is normally False, but is set to True if an enable() command is successfully issued for the UTF8=ACCEPT capability.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

IMAP4 Example

Here is a minimal example (without error checking) that opens a mailbox and retrieves and prints all messages:

import getpass, imaplib

M = imaplib.IMAP4(host='example.org')
M.login(getpass.getuser(), getpass.getpass())
M.select()
typ, data = M.search(None, 'ALL')
for num in data[0].split():
    typ, data = M.fetch(num, '(RFC822)')
    print('Message %s\n%s\n' % (num, data[0][1]))
M.close()
M.logout()

smtplib --- SMTP protocol client

Code source : Lib/smtplib.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/smtplib.py]

The smtplib module defines an SMTP client session object that can be used to send mail to any internet machine with an SMTP or ESMTP listener daemon. For details of SMTP and ESMTP operation, consult RFC 821 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc821.html] (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) and RFC 1869 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1869.html] (SMTP Service Extensions).

Disponibilité: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly. See Plateformes WebAssembly for more information.

class smtplib.SMTP(host='', port=0, local_hostname=None, [timeout, ]source_address=None)

An SMTP instance encapsulates an SMTP connection. It has methods that support a full repertoire of SMTP and ESMTP operations. If the optional host and port parameters are given, the SMTP connect() method is called with those parameters during initialization. If specified, local_hostname is used as the FQDN of the local host in the HELO/EHLO command. Otherwise, the local hostname is found using socket.getfqdn(). If the connect() call returns anything other than a success code, an SMTPConnectError is raised. The optional timeout parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for blocking operations like the connection attempt (if not specified, the global default timeout setting will be used). If the timeout expires, TimeoutError is raised. The optional source_address parameter allows binding to some specific source address in a machine with multiple network interfaces, and/or to some specific source TCP port. It takes a 2-tuple (host, port), for the socket to bind to as its source address before connecting. If omitted (or if host or port are '' and/or 0 respectively) the OS default behavior will be used.

For normal use, you should only require the initialization/connect, sendmail(), and SMTP.quit() methods. An example is included below.

The SMTP class supports the with statement. When used like this, the SMTP QUIT command is issued automatically when the with statement exits. E.g.:

>>> from smtplib import SMTP
>>> with SMTP("domain.org") as smtp:
...     smtp.noop()
...
(250, b'Ok')
>>>

All commands will raise an auditing event smtplib.SMTP.send with arguments self and data, where data is the bytes about to be sent to the remote host.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: La prise en charge de l'instruction with a été ajoutée.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: source_address argument was added.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5: The SMTPUTF8 extension (RFC 6531 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6531.html]) is now supported.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: If the timeout parameter is set to be zero, it will raise a ValueError to prevent the creation of a non-blocking socket.

class smtplib.SMTP_SSL(host='', port=0, local_hostname=None, *, [timeout, ]context=None, source_address=None)

An SMTP_SSL instance behaves exactly the same as instances of SMTP. SMTP_SSL should be used for situations where SSL is required from the beginning of the connection and using starttls() is not appropriate. If host is not specified, the local host is used. If port is zero, the standard SMTP-over-SSL port (465) is used. The optional arguments local_hostname, timeout and source_address have the same meaning as they do in the SMTP class. context, also optional, can contain a SSLContext and allows configuring various aspects of the secure connection. Please read Security considerations for best practices.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: context was added.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: The source_address argument was added.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: The class now supports hostname check with ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname and Server Name Indication (see ssl.HAS_SNI).

Modifié dans la version 3.9: If the timeout parameter is set to be zero, it will raise a ValueError to prevent the creation of a non-blocking socket

Modifié dans la version 3.12: The deprecated keyfile and certfile parameters have been removed.

class smtplib.LMTP(host='', port=LMTP_PORT, local_hostname=None, source_address=None[, timeout])

The LMTP protocol, which is very similar to ESMTP, is heavily based on the standard SMTP client. It's common to use Unix sockets for LMTP, so our connect() method must support that as well as a regular host:port server. The optional arguments local_hostname and source_address have the same meaning as they do in the SMTP class. To specify a Unix socket, you must use an absolute path for host, starting with a '/'.

Authentication is supported, using the regular SMTP mechanism. When using a Unix socket, LMTP generally don't support or require any authentication, but your mileage might vary.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: The optional timeout parameter was added.

A nice selection of exceptions is defined as well:

exception smtplib.SMTPException

Subclass of OSError that is the base exception class for all the other exceptions provided by this module.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: SMTPException became subclass of OSError

exception smtplib.SMTPServerDisconnected

This exception is raised when the server unexpectedly disconnects, or when an attempt is made to use the SMTP instance before connecting it to a server.

exception smtplib.SMTPResponseException

Base class for all exceptions that include an SMTP error code. These exceptions are generated in some instances when the SMTP server returns an error code.

smtp_code

The error code.

smtp_error

The error message.

exception smtplib.SMTPSenderRefused

Sender address refused. In addition to the attributes set by on all SMTPResponseException exceptions, this sets 'sender' to the string that the SMTP server refused.

exception smtplib.SMTPRecipientsRefused

All recipient addresses refused.

recipients

A dictionary of exactly the same sort as returned by SMTP.sendmail() containing the errors for each recipient.

exception smtplib.SMTPDataError

The SMTP server refused to accept the message data.

exception smtplib.SMTPConnectError

Error occurred during establishment of a connection with the server.

exception smtplib.SMTPHeloError

The server refused our HELO message.

exception smtplib.SMTPNotSupportedError

The command or option attempted is not supported by the server.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

exception smtplib.SMTPAuthenticationError

SMTP authentication went wrong. Most probably the server didn't accept the username/password combination provided.

Voir aussi

RFC 821 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc821.html] - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

Protocol definition for SMTP. This document covers the model, operating procedure, and protocol details for SMTP.

RFC 1869 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1869.html] - SMTP Service Extensions

Definition of the ESMTP extensions for SMTP. This describes a framework for extending SMTP with new commands, supporting dynamic discovery of the commands provided by the server, and defines a few additional commands.

SMTP Objects

An SMTP instance has the following methods:

SMTP.set_debuglevel(level)

Set the debug output level. A value of 1 or True for level results in debug messages for connection and for all messages sent to and received from the server. A value of 2 for level results in these messages being timestamped.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Added debuglevel 2.

SMTP.docmd(cmd, args='')

Send a command cmd to the server. The optional argument args is simply concatenated to the command, separated by a space.

This returns a 2-tuple composed of a numeric response code and the actual response line (multiline responses are joined into one long line.)

In normal operation it should not be necessary to call this method explicitly. It is used to implement other methods and may be useful for testing private extensions.

If the connection to the server is lost while waiting for the reply, SMTPServerDisconnected will be raised.

SMTP.connect(host='localhost', port=0)

Connect to a host on a given port. The defaults are to connect to the local host at the standard SMTP port (25). If the hostname ends with a colon (':') followed by a number, that suffix will be stripped off and the number interpreted as the port number to use. This method is automatically invoked by the constructor if a host is specified during instantiation. Returns a 2-tuple of the response code and message sent by the server in its connection response.

Raises an auditing event smtplib.connect with arguments self, host, port.

SMTP.helo(name='')

Identify yourself to the SMTP server using HELO. The hostname argument defaults to the fully qualified domain name of the local host. The message returned by the server is stored as the helo_resp attribute of the object.

In normal operation it should not be necessary to call this method explicitly. It will be implicitly called by the sendmail() when necessary.

SMTP.ehlo(name='')

Identify yourself to an ESMTP server using EHLO. The hostname argument defaults to the fully qualified domain name of the local host. Examine the response for ESMTP option and store them for use by has_extn(). Also sets several informational attributes: the message returned by the server is stored as the ehlo_resp attribute, does_esmtp is set to True or False depending on whether the server supports ESMTP, and esmtp_features will be a dictionary containing the names of the SMTP service extensions this server supports, and their parameters (if any).

Unless you wish to use has_extn() before sending mail, it should not be necessary to call this method explicitly. It will be implicitly called by sendmail() when necessary.

SMTP.ehlo_or_helo_if_needed()

This method calls ehlo() and/or helo() if there has been no previous EHLO or HELO command this session. It tries ESMTP EHLO first.

SMTPHeloError

The server didn't reply properly to the HELO greeting.

SMTP.has_extn(name)

Return True if name is in the set of SMTP service extensions returned by the server, False otherwise. Case is ignored.

SMTP.verify(address)

Check the validity of an address on this server using SMTP VRFY. Returns a tuple consisting of code 250 and a full RFC 822 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html] address (including human name) if the user address is valid. Otherwise returns an SMTP error code of 400 or greater and an error string.

Note

Many sites disable SMTP VRFY in order to foil spammers.

SMTP.login(user, password, *, initial_response_ok=True)

Log in on an SMTP server that requires authentication. The arguments are the username and the password to authenticate with. If there has been no previous EHLO or HELO command this session, this method tries ESMTP EHLO first. This method will return normally if the authentication was successful, or may raise the following exceptions:

SMTPHeloError

The server didn't reply properly to the HELO greeting.

SMTPAuthenticationError

The server didn't accept the username/password combination.

SMTPNotSupportedError

The AUTH command is not supported by the server.

SMTPException

No suitable authentication method was found.

Each of the authentication methods supported by smtplib are tried in turn if they are advertised as supported by the server. See auth() for a list of supported authentication methods. initial_response_ok is passed through to auth().

Optional keyword argument initial_response_ok specifies whether, for authentication methods that support it, an "initial response" as specified in RFC 4954 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4954.html] can be sent along with the AUTH command, rather than requiring a challenge/response.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: SMTPNotSupportedError may be raised, and the initial_response_ok parameter was added.

SMTP.auth(mechanism, authobject, *, initial_response_ok=True)

Issue an SMTP AUTH command for the specified authentication mechanism, and handle the challenge response via authobject.

mechanism specifies which authentication mechanism is to be used as argument to the AUTH command; the valid values are those listed in the auth element of esmtp_features.

authobject must be a callable object taking an optional single argument:

data = authobject(challenge=None)

If optional keyword argument initial_response_ok is true, authobject() will be called first with no argument. It can return the RFC 4954 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4954.html] "initial response" ASCII str which will be encoded and sent with the AUTH command as below. If the authobject() does not support an initial response (e.g. because it requires a challenge), it should return None when called with challenge=None. If initial_response_ok is false, then authobject() will not be called first with None.

If the initial response check returns None, or if initial_response_ok is false, authobject() will be called to process the server's challenge response; the challenge argument it is passed will be a bytes. It should return ASCII str data that will be base64 encoded and sent to the server.

The SMTP class provides authobjects for the CRAM-MD5, PLAIN, and LOGIN mechanisms; they are named SMTP.auth_cram_md5, SMTP.auth_plain, and SMTP.auth_login respectively. They all require that the user and password properties of the SMTP instance are set to appropriate values.

User code does not normally need to call auth directly, but can instead call the login() method, which will try each of the above mechanisms in turn, in the order listed. auth is exposed to facilitate the implementation of authentication methods not (or not yet) supported directly by smtplib.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

SMTP.starttls(*, context=None)

Put the SMTP connection in TLS (Transport Layer Security) mode. All SMTP commands that follow will be encrypted. You should then call ehlo() again.

If keyfile and certfile are provided, they are used to create an ssl.SSLContext.

Optional context parameter is an ssl.SSLContext object; This is an alternative to using a keyfile and a certfile and if specified both keyfile and certfile should be None.

If there has been no previous EHLO or HELO command this session, this method tries ESMTP EHLO first.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: The deprecated keyfile and certfile parameters have been removed.

SMTPHeloError

The server didn't reply properly to the HELO greeting.

SMTPNotSupportedError

The server does not support the STARTTLS extension.

RuntimeError

SSL/TLS support is not available to your Python interpreter.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: context was added.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: The method now supports hostname check with ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname and Server Name Indicator (see HAS_SNI).

Modifié dans la version 3.5: The error raised for lack of STARTTLS support is now the SMTPNotSupportedError subclass instead of the base SMTPException.

SMTP.sendmail(from_addr, to_addrs, msg, mail_options=(), rcpt_options=())

Send mail. The required arguments are an RFC 822 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html] from-address string, a list of RFC 822 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html] to-address strings (a bare string will be treated as a list with 1 address), and a message string. The caller may pass a list of ESMTP options (such as "8bitmime") to be used in MAIL FROM commands as mail_options. ESMTP options (such as DSN commands) that should be used with all RCPT commands can be passed as rcpt_options. Each option should be passed as a string containing the full text of the option, including any potential key (for instance, "NOTIFY=SUCCESS,FAILURE"). (If you need to use different ESMTP options to different recipients you have to use the low-level methods such as mail(), rcpt() and data() to send the message.)

Note

The from_addr and to_addrs parameters are used to construct the message envelope used by the transport agents. sendmail does not modify the message headers in any way.

msg may be a string containing characters in the ASCII range, or a byte string. A string is encoded to bytes using the ascii codec, and lone \r and \n characters are converted to \r\n characters. A byte string is not modified.

If there has been no previous EHLO or HELO command this session, this method tries ESMTP EHLO first. If the server does ESMTP, message size and each of the specified options will be passed to it (if the option is in the feature set the server advertises). If EHLO fails, HELO will be tried and ESMTP options suppressed.

This method will return normally if the mail is accepted for at least one recipient. Otherwise it will raise an exception. That is, if this method does not raise an exception, then someone should get your mail. If this method does not raise an exception, it returns a dictionary, with one entry for each recipient that was refused. Each entry contains a tuple of the SMTP error code and the accompanying error message sent by the server.

If SMTPUTF8 is included in mail_options, and the server supports it, from_addr and to_addrs may contain non-ASCII characters.

This method may raise the following exceptions:

SMTPRecipientsRefused

All recipients were refused. Nobody got the mail.

SMTPHeloError

The server didn't reply properly to the HELO greeting.

SMTPSenderRefused

The server didn't accept the from_addr.

SMTPDataError

The server replied with an unexpected error code (other than a refusal of a recipient).

SMTPNotSupportedError

SMTPUTF8 was given in the mail_options but is not supported by the server.

Unless otherwise noted, the connection will be open even after an exception is raised.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: msg may be a byte string.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: SMTPUTF8 support added, and SMTPNotSupportedError may be raised if SMTPUTF8 is specified but the server does not support it.

SMTP.send_message(msg, from_addr=None, to_addrs=None, mail_options=(), rcpt_options=())

This is a convenience method for calling sendmail() with the message represented by an email.message.Message object. The arguments have the same meaning as for sendmail(), except that msg is a Message object.

If from_addr is None or to_addrs is None, send_message fills those arguments with addresses extracted from the headers of msg as specified in RFC 5322 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html]: from_addr is set to the Sender field if it is present, and otherwise to the From field. to_addrs combines the values (if any) of the To, Cc, and Bcc fields from msg. If exactly one set of Resent-* headers appear in the message, the regular headers are ignored and the Resent-* headers are used instead. If the message contains more than one set of Resent-* headers, a ValueError is raised, since there is no way to unambiguously detect the most recent set of Resent- headers.

send_message serializes msg using BytesGenerator with \r\n as the linesep, and calls sendmail() to transmit the resulting message. Regardless of the values of from_addr and to_addrs, send_message does not transmit any Bcc or Resent-Bcc headers that may appear in msg. If any of the addresses in from_addr and to_addrs contain non-ASCII characters and the server does not advertise SMTPUTF8 support, an SMTPNotSupportedError is raised. Otherwise the Message is serialized with a clone of its policy with the utf8 attribute set to True, and SMTPUTF8 and BODY=8BITMIME are added to mail_options.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5: Support for internationalized addresses (SMTPUTF8).

SMTP.quit()

Terminate the SMTP session and close the connection. Return the result of the SMTP QUIT command.

Low-level methods corresponding to the standard SMTP/ESMTP commands HELP, RSET, NOOP, MAIL, RCPT, and DATA are also supported. Normally these do not need to be called directly, so they are not documented here. For details, consult the module code.

Additionally, an SMTP instance has the following attributes:

SMTP.helo_resp

The response to the HELO command, see helo().

SMTP.ehlo_resp

The response to the EHLO command, see ehlo().

SMTP.does_esmtp

A boolean value indicating whether the server supports ESMTP, see ehlo().

SMTP.esmtp_features

A dictionary of the names of SMTP service extensions supported by the server, see ehlo().

SMTP Example

This example prompts the user for addresses needed in the message envelope ('To' and 'From' addresses), and the message to be delivered. Note that the headers to be included with the message must be included in the message as entered; this example doesn't do any processing of the RFC 822 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html] headers. In particular, the 'To' and 'From' addresses must be included in the message headers explicitly:

import smtplib

def prompt(title):
    return input(title).strip()

from_addr = prompt("From: ")
to_addrs  = prompt("To: ").split()
print("Enter message, end with ^D (Unix) or ^Z (Windows):")

# Add the From: and To: headers at the start!
lines = [f"From: {from_addr}", f"To: {', '.join(to_addrs)}", ""]
while True:
    try:
        line = input()
    except EOFError:
        break
    else:
        lines.append(line)

msg = "\r\n".join(lines)
print("Message length is", len(msg))

server = smtplib.SMTP("localhost")
server.set_debuglevel(1)
server.sendmail(from_addr, to_addrs, msg)
server.quit()

Note

In general, you will want to use the email package's features to construct an email message, which you can then send via send_message(); see email: Exemples.

uuid --- UUID objects according to RFC 9562 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9562.html]

Code source : Lib/uuid.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/uuid.py]

This module provides immutable UUID objects (the UUID class) and functions for generating UUIDs corresponding to a specific UUID version as specified in RFC 9562 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9562.html] (which supersedes RFC 4122 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4122.html]), for example, uuid1() for UUID version 1, uuid3() for UUID version 3, and so on. Note that UUID version 2 is deliberately omitted as it is outside the scope of the RFC.

Utilisez uuid1() ou uuid4() si votre but est de produire un identifiant unique. Notez que uuid1() peut dévoiler des informations personnelles car l'UUID produit contient l'adresse réseau de l'ordinateur. En revanche, uuid4() génère un UUID aléatoire.

Depending on support from the underlying platform, uuid1() may or may not return a "safe" UUID. A safe UUID is one which is generated using synchronization methods that ensure no two processes can obtain the same UUID. All instances of UUID have an is_safe attribute which relays any information about the UUID's safety, using this enumeration:

class uuid.SafeUUID

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

safe

L'UUID a été généré par la plateforme en utilisant une méthode sûre dans un contexte de parallélisme par processus.

unsafe

L'UUID n'a pas été généré par une méthode sûre dans un contexte de parallélisme par processus.

unknown

La plateforme ne précise pas si l'UUID a été généré de façon sûre ou non.

class uuid.UUID(hex=None, bytes=None, bytes_le=None, fields=None, int=None, version=None, *, is_safe=SafeUUID.unknown)

Produit un UUID à partir soit d'une chaîne de 32 chiffres hexadécimaux, soit une chaîne de 16 octets gros-boutiste (argument bytes), soit une chaîne de 16 octets petit-boutiste (argument bytes_le), soit un sextuplet d'entiers (32-bit time_low, 16-bit time_mid, 16-bit time_hi_version, 8-bit clock_seq_hi_variant, 8-bit clock_seq_low, 48-bit node) (argument fields), soit un unique entier sur 128 bits (argument int). Lorsque la fonction reçoit une chaîne de chiffres hexadécimaux, les accolades, les tirets et le préfixe URN sont facultatifs. Par exemple, toutes les expressions ci-dessous génèrent le même UUID :

UUID('{12345678-1234-5678-1234-567812345678}')
UUID('12345678123456781234567812345678')
UUID('urn:uuid:12345678-1234-5678-1234-567812345678')
UUID(bytes=b'\x12\x34\x56\x78'*4)
UUID(bytes_le=b'\x78\x56\x34\x12\x34\x12\x78\x56' +
              b'\x12\x34\x56\x78\x12\x34\x56\x78')
UUID(fields=(0x12345678, 0x1234, 0x5678, 0x12, 0x34, 0x567812345678))
UUID(int=0x12345678123456781234567812345678)

Exactly one of hex, bytes, bytes_le, fields, or int must be given. The version argument is optional; if given, the resulting UUID will have its variant and version number set according to RFC 9562 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9562.html], overriding bits in the given hex, bytes, bytes_le, fields, or int.

La comparaison de deux objets UUID se fait en comparant leurs attributs UUID.int. La comparaison avec un objet autre qu'un UUID lève une exception TypeError.

str(uuid) renvoie une chaîne de caractères de la forme 12345678-1234-5678-1234-567812345678 représentant l'UUID par une chaîne de 32 chiffres hexadécimaux.

Les instances de UUID possèdent les attributs suivants en lecture seule :

UUID.bytes

L'UUID représenté comme une chaîne de 16 octets (contenant les six champs entiers dans l'ordre gros-boutiste).

UUID.bytes_le

L'UUID représenté comme une chaîne de 16 octets (avec time_low, time_mid et time_hi_version dans l'ordre petit-boutiste).

UUID.fields

Un sextuplet contenant les champs entiers de l'UUID, également accessibles en tant que six attributs individuels et deux attributs dérivés :

Champ

Signification

UUID.time_low

The first 32 bits of the UUID. Only relevant to version 1.

UUID.time_mid

The next 16 bits of the UUID. Only relevant to version 1.

UUID.time_hi_version

The next 16 bits of the UUID. Only relevant to version 1.

UUID.clock_seq_hi_variant

The next 8 bits of the UUID. Only relevant to versions 1 and 6.

UUID.clock_seq_low

The next 8 bits of the UUID. Only relevant to versions 1 and 6.

UUID.node

The last 48 bits of the UUID. Only relevant to version 1.

UUID.time

The 60-bit timestamp as a count of 100-nanosecond intervals since Gregorian epoch (1582-10-15 00:00:00) for versions 1 and 6, or the 48-bit timestamp in milliseconds since Unix epoch (1970-01-01 00:00:00) for version 7.

UUID.clock_seq

The 14-bit sequence number. Only relevant to versions 1 and 6.

UUID.hex

The UUID as a 32-character lowercase hexadecimal string.

UUID.int

Représentation de l'UUId sous forme d'un entier de 128 bits.

UUID.urn

The UUID as a URN as specified in RFC 9562 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9562.html].

UUID.variant

Variante de l'UUID. Celle-ci détermine l'agencement interne de l'UUID. Les valeurs possibles sont les constantes suivantes : RESERVED_NCS, RFC_4122, RESERVED_MICROSOFT ou RESERVED_FUTURE.

UUID.version

The UUID version number (1 through 8, meaningful only when the variant is RFC_4122).

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Added UUID versions 6, 7 and 8.

UUID.is_safe

Valeur de l'énumération SafeUUID indiquant si la plateforme a généré l'UUID d'une façon sûre dans un contexte de parallélisme par processus.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

The uuid module defines the following functions:

uuid.getnode()

Renvoie l'adresse réseau matérielle sous forme d'un entier positif sur 48 bits. Cette fonction peut faire appel à un programme externe relativement lent lors de sa première exécution. Si toutes les tentatives d'obtenir l'adresse matérielle échouent, un nombre aléatoire sur 48 bit avec le bit de multicast (bit de poids faible du premier octet) à 1 est généré, comme recommandé par la RFC 4122 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4122.html]. Ici, « adresse matérielle » correspond à l'adresse MAC d'une interface réseau. Sur une machine avec plusieurs interfaces réseau, les adresses MAC de type UUA (universally administered address, pour lesquelles le second bit de poids faible est à zéro) sont prioritaires par rapport aux autres adresses MAC. Aucune autre garantie n'est donnée sur l'ordre dans lequel les interfaces sont choisies.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Les adresses MAC de type UUA sont préférées par rapport aux adresses locales car ces dernières ne sont pas nécessairement uniques.

uuid.uuid1(node=None, clock_seq=None)

Generate a UUID from a host ID, sequence number, and the current time according to RFC 9562, §5.1 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9562.html#section-5.1].

When node is not specified, getnode() is used to obtain the hardware address as a 48-bit positive integer. When a sequence number clock_seq is not specified, a pseudo-random 14-bit positive integer is generated.

If node or clock_seq exceed their expected bit count, only their least significant bits are kept.

uuid.uuid3(namespace, name)

Generate a UUID based on the MD5 hash of a namespace identifier (which is a UUID) and a name (which is a bytes object or a string that will be encoded using UTF-8) according to RFC 9562, §5.3 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9562.html#section-5.3].

uuid.uuid4()

Generate a random UUID in a cryptographically-secure method according to RFC 9562, §5.4 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9562.html#section-5.4].

uuid.uuid5(namespace, name)

Generate a UUID based on the SHA-1 hash of a namespace identifier (which is a UUID) and a name (which is a bytes object or a string that will be encoded using UTF-8) according to RFC 9562, §5.5 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9562.html#section-5.5].

uuid.uuid6(node=None, clock_seq=None)

Generate a UUID from a sequence number and the current time according to RFC 9562, §5.6 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9562.html#section-5.6].

This is an alternative to uuid1() to improve database locality.

When node is not specified, getnode() is used to obtain the hardware address as a 48-bit positive integer. When a sequence number clock_seq is not specified, a pseudo-random 14-bit positive integer is generated.

If node or clock_seq exceed their expected bit count, only their least significant bits are kept.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

uuid.uuid7()

Generate a time-based UUID according to RFC 9562, §5.7 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9562.html#section-5.7].

For portability across platforms lacking sub-millisecond precision, UUIDs produced by this function embed a 48-bit timestamp and use a 42-bit counter to guarantee monotonicity within a millisecond.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

uuid.uuid8(a=None, b=None, c=None)

Generate a pseudo-random UUID according to RFC 9562, §5.8 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9562.html#section-5.8].

When specified, the parameters a, b and c are expected to be positive integers of 48, 12 and 62 bits respectively. If they exceed their expected bit count, only their least significant bits are kept; non-specified arguments are substituted for a pseudo-random integer of appropriate size.

By default, a, b and c are not generated by a cryptographically secure pseudo-random number generator (CSPRNG). Use uuid4() when a UUID needs to be used in a security-sensitive context.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

The uuid module defines the following namespace identifiers for use with uuid3() or uuid5().

uuid.NAMESPACE_DNS

When this namespace is specified, the name string is a fully qualified domain name.

uuid.NAMESPACE_URL

Lorsque cet espace de nom est spécifié, la chaîne name doit être une URL.

uuid.NAMESPACE_OID

Lorsque cet espace de nom est spécifié, la chaîne name doit être un OID ISO.

uuid.NAMESPACE_X500

Lorsque cet espace de nom est spécifié, la chaîne name doit être un DN X.500 au format texte ou DER.

The uuid module defines the following constants for the possible values of the variant attribute:

uuid.RESERVED_NCS

Réservé pour la compatibilité NCS.

uuid.RFC_4122

Specifies the UUID layout given in RFC 4122 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4122.html]. This constant is kept for backward compatibility even though RFC 4122 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4122.html] has been superseded by RFC 9562 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9562.html].

uuid.RESERVED_MICROSOFT

Réservé pour la compatibilité Microsoft.

uuid.RESERVED_FUTURE

Réservé pour un usage futur.

The uuid module defines the special Nil and Max UUID values:

uuid.NIL

A special form of UUID that is specified to have all 128 bits set to zero according to RFC 9562, §5.9 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9562.html#section-5.9].

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

uuid.MAX

A special form of UUID that is specified to have all 128 bits set to one according to RFC 9562, §5.10 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9562.html#section-5.10].

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Voir aussi

RFC 9562 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9562.html] - A Universally Unique IDentifier (UUID) URN Namespace

Cette spécification (en anglais) définit un espace de noms Uniform Resource Name pour les UUID, leur format interne et les méthodes permettant de les générer.

Utilisation en ligne de commande.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

The uuid module can be executed as a script from the command line.

python -m uuid [-h] [-u {uuid1,uuid3,uuid4,uuid5,uuid6,uuid7,uuid8}] [-n NAMESPACE] [-N NAME]

Les options suivantes sont acceptées :

-h, --help

Affiche un message d'aide et quitte.

-u <uuid>

--uuid <uuid>

Specify the function name to use to generate the uuid. By default uuid4() is used.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Allow generating UUID versions 6, 7 and 8.

-n <namespace>

--namespace <namespace>

The namespace is a UUID, or @ns where ns is a well-known predefined UUID addressed by namespace name. Such as @dns, @url, @oid, and @x500. Only required for uuid3() / uuid5() functions.

-N <name>

--name <name>

The name used as part of generating the uuid. Only required for uuid3() / uuid5() functions.

-C <num>

--count <num>

Generate num fresh UUIDs.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Exemple

Here are some examples of typical usage of the uuid module:

>>> import uuid

>>> # make a UUID based on the host ID and current time
>>> uuid.uuid1()
UUID('a8098c1a-f86e-11da-bd1a-00112444be1e')

>>> # make a UUID using an MD5 hash of a namespace UUID and a name
>>> uuid.uuid3(uuid.NAMESPACE_DNS, 'python.org')
UUID('6fa459ea-ee8a-3ca4-894e-db77e160355e')

>>> # make a random UUID
>>> uuid.uuid4()
UUID('16fd2706-8baf-433b-82eb-8c7fada847da')

>>> # make a UUID using a SHA-1 hash of a namespace UUID and a name
>>> uuid.uuid5(uuid.NAMESPACE_DNS, 'python.org')
UUID('886313e1-3b8a-5372-9b90-0c9aee199e5d')

>>> # make a UUID from a string of hex digits (braces and hyphens ignored)
>>> x = uuid.UUID('{00010203-0405-0607-0809-0a0b0c0d0e0f}')

>>> # convert a UUID to a string of hex digits in standard form
>>> str(x)
'00010203-0405-0607-0809-0a0b0c0d0e0f'

>>> # get the raw 16 bytes of the UUID
>>> x.bytes
b'\x00\x01\x02\x03\x04\x05\x06\x07\x08\t\n\x0b\x0c\r\x0e\x0f'

>>> # make a UUID from a 16-byte string
>>> uuid.UUID(bytes=x.bytes)
UUID('00010203-0405-0607-0809-0a0b0c0d0e0f')

>>> # get the Nil UUID
>>> uuid.NIL
UUID('00000000-0000-0000-0000-000000000000')

>>> # get the Max UUID
>>> uuid.MAX
UUID('ffffffff-ffff-ffff-ffff-ffffffffffff')

>>> # same as UUIDv1 but with fields reordered to improve DB locality
>>> uuid.uuid6()
UUID('1f0799c0-98b9-62db-92c6-a0d365b91053')

>>> # get UUIDv7 creation (local) time as a timestamp in milliseconds
>>> u = uuid.uuid7()
>>> u.time
1743936859822

>>> # get UUIDv7 creation (local) time as a datetime object
>>> import datetime as dt
>>> dt.datetime.fromtimestamp(u.time / 1000)
datetime.datetime(...)

>>> # make a UUID with custom blocks
>>> uuid.uuid8(0x12345678, 0x9abcdef0, 0x11223344)
UUID('00001234-5678-8ef0-8000-000011223344')

Command-Line Example

Here are some examples of typical usage of the uuid command-line interface:

# generate a random UUID - by default uuid4() is used
$ python -m uuid

# generate a UUID using uuid1()
$ python -m uuid -u uuid1

# generate a UUID using uuid5
$ python -m uuid -u uuid5 -n @url -N example.com

# generate 42 random UUIDs
$ python -m uuid -C 42

socketserver --- A framework for network servers

Code source : Lib/socketserver.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/socketserver.py]

The socketserver module simplifies the task of writing network servers.

Disponibilité: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly. See Plateformes WebAssembly for more information.

Il existe quatre classes concrètes fondamentales :

class socketserver.TCPServer(server_address, RequestHandlerClass, bind_and_activate=True)

Cette classe permet de créer des flux continus de données entre un client et un serveur en utilisant le protocole internet TCP. Si bind_and_activate est vrai, le constructeur tente automatiquement d'invoquer server_bind() et server_activate(). Les autres paramètres sont passés à la classe de base BaseServer.

class socketserver.UDPServer(server_address, RequestHandlerClass, bind_and_activate=True)

Cette classe utilise des datagrammes, qui sont des paquets d'information pouvant arriver dans le désordre, voire être perdus, durant le transport. Les paramètres sont identiques à TCPServer.

class socketserver.UnixStreamServer(server_address, RequestHandlerClass, bind_and_activate=True)

class socketserver.UnixDatagramServer(server_address, RequestHandlerClass, bind_and_activate=True)

Ces classes, moins fréquemment utilisées, sont similaires aux classes pour TCP et UDP mais utilisent des connecteurs UNIX ; ces connecteurs ne sont disponibles que sur les plateformes UNIX. Les paramètres sont identiques à TCPServer.

Ces quatre classes traitent les requêtes de façon synchrone : chaque requête doit être terminée avant de pouvoir traiter la suivante. Cette méthode n'est pas adaptée si les requêtes prennent beaucoup de temps à être traitées. Cela peut arriver si les requêtes demandent beaucoup de calcul, ou si elles renvoient beaucoup de données que le client peine à traiter. Dans ce cas, la solution est de créer un processus ou un fil d’exécution séparé pour chaque requête ; les classes de mélange ForkingMixIn et ThreadingMixIn peuvent être utilisées pour réaliser ce comportement asynchrone.

La création d'un serveur requiert plusieurs étapes. Premièrement, vous devez créer une classe pour gérer les requêtes en héritant de BaseRequestHandler et surcharger sa méthode handle(), laquelle traitera les requêtes entrantes. Deuxièmement, vous devez instancier l'une des classes serveurs et lui passer l’adresse du serveur ainsi que la classe gérant les requêtes. Il est recommandé de faire ceci dans une instruction with. Ensuite, appelez la méthode handle_request() ou serve_forever() de l'objet serveur afin de traiter une ou plusieurs requêtes. Enfin, appelez la méthode server_close() pour fermer le connecteur (à moins que vous n'ayez utilisé une instruction with).

Lorsque vous héritez de ThreadingMixIn pour déléguer les connexions à différent fils d’exécution, vous devez déclarer explicitement comment les fils d’exécution doivent se comporter en cas d'arrêt abrupt. La classe ThreadingMixIn définit un attribut daemon_threads, indiquant si le serveur doit attendre la fin des fils d’exécution ou non. Vous pouvez utiliser cet attribut si vous souhaitez que les fils d’exécution soient autonomes. La valeur par défaut est False, indiquant que Python ne doit pas quitter avant que tous les fils d'exécution créés par ThreadingMixIn ne soient terminés.

Toutes les classes de serveurs exposent les mêmes méthodes et attributs, peu importe le protocole réseau utilisé.

Notes sur la création de serveurs

Il y a cinq classes dans la hiérarchie. Quatre d'entre elles représentent des serveurs synchrones de quatre types différents :

+------------+
| BaseServer |
+------------+
      |
      v
+-----------+        +------------------+
| TCPServer |------->| UnixStreamServer |
+-----------+        +------------------+
      |
      v
+-----------+        +--------------------+
| UDPServer |------->| UnixDatagramServer |
+-----------+        +--------------------+

Note that UnixDatagramServer derives from UDPServer, not from UnixStreamServer --- the only difference between an IP and a Unix server is the address family.

class socketserver.ForkingMixIn

class socketserver.ThreadingMixIn

Des versions utilisant des fils d’exécution ou des processus peuvent être créées pour chaque type de serveur, en utilisant ces classes de mélange. Par exemple, ThreadingUDPServer est créé comme suit :

class ThreadingUDPServer(ThreadingMixIn, UDPServer):
    pass

La classe de mélange est en premier car elle surcharge une méthode définie dans UDPServer. Configurer les différents attributs changera également le comportement du serveur.

La classe ForkingMixIn et les classes créant des processus mentionnées ci-dessous sont uniquement disponibles sur les plateformes POSIX prenant en charge fork().

block_on_close

ForkingMixIn.server_close waits until all child processes complete, except if block_on_close attribute is False.

ThreadingMixIn.server_close waits until all non-daemon threads complete, except if block_on_close attribute is False.

max_children

Specify how many child processes will exist to handle requests at a time for ForkingMixIn. If the limit is reached, new requests will wait until one child process has finished.

daemon_threads

For ThreadingMixIn use daemonic threads by setting ThreadingMixIn.daemon_threads to True to not wait until threads complete.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: ForkingMixIn.server_close and ThreadingMixIn.server_close now waits until all child processes and non-daemonic threads complete. Add a new ForkingMixIn.block_on_close class attribute to opt-in for the pre-3.7 behaviour.

class socketserver.ForkingTCPServer

class socketserver.ForkingUDPServer

class socketserver.ThreadingTCPServer

class socketserver.ThreadingUDPServer

class socketserver.ForkingUnixStreamServer

class socketserver.ForkingUnixDatagramServer

class socketserver.ThreadingUnixStreamServer

class socketserver.ThreadingUnixDatagramServer

Ces classes sont prédéfinies en utilisant les classes de mélange.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12: The ForkingUnixStreamServer and ForkingUnixDatagramServer classes were added.

Pour implémenter un service, vous devez créer une classe héritant de BaseRequestHandler et redéfinir sa méthode handle(). Ensuite, vous pourrez créer différentes versions de votre service en combinant les classes serveurs avec votre classe de gestion des requêtes. Cette classe de gestion des requêtes doit être différente pour les services utilisant des datagrammes ou des flux de données. Cette contrainte peut être dissimulée en utilisant les classes de gestion dérivées StreamRequestHandler ou DatagramRequestHandler.

Bien entendu, vous devrez toujours utiliser votre tête ! Par exemple, utiliser un serveur utilisant des processus clonés (forking) n'aurait aucun sens si le serveur garde en mémoire des états pouvant être modifiés par les requêtes reçues. En effet, un processus enfant traitant une requête n'aurait alors aucun moyen de propager le nouvel état à son parent. Dans ce cas, vous devez utiliser un serveur utilisant des fils d'exécution, mais cela demande probablement d'utiliser des verrous pour protéger l’intégrité des données partagées.

D'un autre côté, si vous développez un serveur HTTP qui a toutes ses données stockées hors de la mémoire (sur un système de fichiers par exemple), une classe synchrone rendrait le service sourd à toute nouvelle requête aussi longtemps qu'une précédente soit en cours de traitement. Cette situation pourrait perdurer pendant un long moment si le client prend du temps à recevoir toutes les données demandées. Dans ce cas, un serveur utilisant des processus ou des fils d'exécutions est approprié.

Dans certains cas, il peut être judicieux de commencer à traiter une requête de façon synchrone mais de pouvoir déléguer le reste du traitement à un processus enfant si besoin. Ce comportement peut être implémenté en utilisant un serveur synchrone et en laissant à la méthode handle(), de la classe gérant les requêtes, le soin de créer le processus enfant explicitement.

Another approach to handling multiple simultaneous requests in an environment that supports neither threads nor fork() (or where these are too expensive or inappropriate for the service) is to maintain an explicit table of partially finished requests and to use selectors to decide which request to work on next (or whether to handle a new incoming request). This is particularly important for stream services where each client can potentially be connected for a long time (if threads or subprocesses cannot be used).

Objets serveur

class socketserver.BaseServer(server_address, RequestHandlerClass)

Il s'agit de la classe parente de tous les objets serveur du module. Elle déclare l'interface, définie ci-dessous, mais laisse aux classes filles le soin d'implémenter la plupart des méthodes. Les deux paramètres sont stockés respectivement dans les attributs server_address et RequestHandlerClass.

fileno()

Renvoie un entier représentant le descripteur de fichier pour le connecteur que le serveur écoute. Cette fonction est, la plupart du temps, passée à selectors afin de pouvoir surveiller plusieurs serveurs dans le même processus.

handle_request()

Traite une seule requête. Cette fonction appelle, dans l'ordre, les méthodes get_request(), verify_request() et process_request(). Si la méthode handle() de la classe de gestion des requêtes lève une exception, alors la méthode handle_error() du serveur est appelée. Si aucune requête n'est reçue avant « timeout » secondes, handle_timeout() est appelée et handle_request() rend la main.

serve_forever(poll_interval=0.5)

Gère les requêtes indéfiniment jusqu'à ce que shutdown() soit appelée. Vérifie si une demande d’arrêt (shutdown) a été émise toutes les poll_interval secondes. Ignore l'attribut timeout. Appelle également service_actions(), qui peut être utilisée par une classe enfant ou une classe de mélange afin d'implémenter une action spécifique pour un service donné. Par exemple, la classe ForkingMixIn utilise service_actions() pour supprimer les processus enfants zombies.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: La méthode serve_forever appelle dorénavant service_actions.

service_actions()

Cette méthode est appelée dans la boucle de serve_forever(). Cette méthode peut être surchargée par une classe fille ou une classe de mélange afin d'effectuer une action spécifique à un service donné, comme une action de nettoyage.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

shutdown()

Demande l'arrêt de la boucle de serve_forever() et attend jusqu'à ce que ce soit fait. shutdown() doit être appelée dans un fil d’exécution différent de serve_forever() sous peine d'interblocage.

server_close()

Nettoie le serveur. Peut être surchargée.

address_family

The family of protocols to which the server's socket belongs. Common examples are socket.AF_INET, socket.AF_INET6, and socket.AF_UNIX. Subclass the TCP or UDP server classes in this module with class attribute address_family = AF_INET6 set if you want IPv6 server classes.

RequestHandlerClass

La classe de gestion des requêtes, fournie par l'utilisateur. Une instance de cette classe est créée pour chaque requête.

server_address

Renvoie l’adresse sur laquelle le serveur écoute. Le format de l’adresse dépend de la famille de protocoles utilisée ; pour plus de détails, voir la documentation du module socket. Pour les protocoles Internet, cette valeur est une paire formée d'une chaine de caractère pour l’adresse et d'un entier pour le port. Exemple : ('127.0.0.1', 80).

socket

L'objet connecteur utilisé par le serveur pour écouter les nouvelles requêtes.

Les classes serveurs prennent en charge les variables de classe suivantes :

allow_reuse_address

Indique si le serveur autorise la réutilisation d'une adresse. La valeur par défaut est False mais cela peut être changé dans les classes enfants.

request_queue_size

La taille de la file des requêtes. Lorsque traiter une requête prend du temps, toute nouvelle requête arrivant pendant que le serveur est occupé est placé dans une file jusqu'à atteindre « request_queue_size » requêtes. Si la queue est pleine, les nouvelles requêtes clientes se voient renvoyer une erreur Connection denied. La valeur par défaut est habituellement 5 mais peut être changée par les classes filles.

socket_type

Le type de connecteur utilisé par le serveur ; socket.SOCK_STREAM et socket.SOCK_DGRAM sont deux valeurs usuelles.

timeout

Délai d'attente en secondes, ou None si aucune limite n'est demandée. Si handle_request() ne reçoit aucune requête entrante pendant le délai d'attente, la méthode handle_timeout() est appelée.

Il existe plusieurs méthodes serveur pouvant être surchargées par des classes dérivant de classes de base comme TCPServer ; ces méthodes ne sont pas utiles aux utilisateurs externes de l'objet serveur.

finish_request(request, client_address)

Méthode en charge de traiter la requête en instanciant RequestHandlerClass et en appelant sa méthode handle().

get_request()

Accepte obligatoirement une requête depuis le connecteur et renvoie une paire contenant le nouvel objet connecteur utilisé pour communiquer avec le client et l'adresse du client.

handle_error(request, client_address)

Cette fonction est appelée si la méthode handle() de l'objet RequestHandlerClass lève une exception. Par défaut, la méthode imprime la trace d'appels sur la sortie d'erreur standard et continue de traiter les requêtes suivantes.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: N'est maintenant appelée que sur les exceptions dérivant de la classe Exception.

handle_timeout()

Cette fonction est appelée lorsque l'attribut timeout est réglé à autre chose que None et que le délai d'attente expire sans qu'aucune requête ne soit reçue. Par défaut, cette fonction récupère le statut de tous les processus enfants ayant terminé pour les serveurs utilisant des processus ou ne fait rien pour le cas des serveurs utilisant des fils d’exécution.

process_request(request, client_address)

Appelle finish_request() pour instancier RequestHandlerClass. Si désiré, cette fonction peut créer des processus fils ou des fils d’exécution pour traiter les requêtes ; les classes de mélange ForkingMixIn et ThreadingMixIn implémentent cela.

server_activate()

Appelée par le constructeur du serveur afin de l'activer. Le comportement par défaut pour un serveur TCP est de seulement invoquer listen() sur le connecteur du serveur. Peut être surchargée.

server_bind()

Appelée par le constructeur du serveur afin d'assigner (bind) l'adresse requise au connecteur du serveur. Peut être surchargée.

verify_request(request, client_address)

Doit renvoyer un booléen. Si la valeur est True, la requête sera traitée. Si la valeur est False, la requête sera refusée. Cette fonction peut être surchargée afin d'implémenter une stratégie de contrôle d'accès au serveur. L'implémentation par défaut renvoie toujours True.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: La gestion du protocole context manager a été ajoutée. Sortir du gestionnaire de contexte revient à appeler server_close().

Objets gestionnaire de requêtes

class socketserver.BaseRequestHandler

Classe de base de tous les objets gestionnaire de requêtes. Elle déclare l'interface, définie ci-dessous, pour tous les gestionnaires. Une implémentation concrète doit définir une nouvelle méthode handle() et peut surcharger n'importe quelle autre méthode. Cette classe concrète est instanciée pour chaque requête.

setup()

Appelée avant la méthode handle() afin d'effectuer toutes les opérations d'initialisation requises. L'implémentation par défaut ne fait rien.

handle()

This function must do all the work required to service a request. The default implementation does nothing. Several instance attributes are available to it; the request is available as request; the client address as client_address; and the server instance as server, in case it needs access to per-server information.

The type of request is different for datagram or stream services. For stream services, request is a socket object; for datagram services, request is a pair of string and socket.

finish()

Appelée après la méthode handle() pour effectuer les opérations de nettoyage requises. L'implémentation par défaut ne fait rien. Si setup() lève une exception, cette méthode n'est pas appelée.

request

The new socket.socket object to be used to communicate with the client.

client_address

Client address returned by BaseServer.get_request().

server

BaseServer object used for handling the request.

class socketserver.StreamRequestHandler

class socketserver.DatagramRequestHandler

These BaseRequestHandler subclasses override the setup() and finish() methods, and provide rfile and wfile attributes.

rfile

A file object from which receives the request is read. Support the io.BufferedIOBase readable interface.

wfile

A file object to which the reply is written. Support the io.BufferedIOBase writable interface

Modifié dans la version 3.6: wfile also supports the io.BufferedIOBase writable interface.

Exemples

Exemple pour socketserver.TCPServer

Implémentation côté serveur :

import socketserver

class MyTCPHandler(socketserver.BaseRequestHandler):
    """
    The request handler class for our server.

    It is instantiated once per connection to the server, and must
    override the handle() method to implement communication to the
    client.
    """

    def handle(self):
        # self.request is the TCP socket connected to the client
        pieces = [b'']
        total = 0
        while b'\n' not in pieces[-1] and total < 10_000:
            pieces.append(self.request.recv(2000))
            total += len(pieces[-1])
        self.data = b''.join(pieces)
        print(f"Received from {self.client_address[0]}:")
        print(self.data.decode("utf-8"))
        # just send back the same data, but upper-cased
        self.request.sendall(self.data.upper())
        # after we return, the socket will be closed.

if __name__ == "__main__":
    HOST, PORT = "localhost", 9999

    # Create the server, binding to localhost on port 9999
    with socketserver.TCPServer((HOST, PORT), MyTCPHandler) as server:
        # Activate the server; this will keep running until you
        # interrupt the program with Ctrl-C
        server.serve_forever()

Une implémentation alternative du gestionnaire de requêtes utilisant les flux de données (avec des objets fichier-compatibles simplifiant la communication en fournissant l'interface fichier standard) :

class MyTCPHandler(socketserver.StreamRequestHandler):

    def handle(self):
        # self.rfile is a file-like object created by the handler.
        # We can now use e.g. readline() instead of raw recv() calls.
        # We limit ourselves to 10000 bytes to avoid abuse by the sender.
        self.data = self.rfile.readline(10000).rstrip()
        print(f"{self.client_address[0]} wrote:")
        print(self.data.decode("utf-8"))
        # Likewise, self.wfile is a file-like object used to write back
        # to the client
        self.wfile.write(self.data.upper())

The difference is that the readline() call in the second handler will call recv() multiple times until it encounters a newline character, while the first handler had to use a recv() loop to accumulate data until a newline itself. If it had just used a single recv() without the loop it would just have returned what has been received so far from the client. TCP is stream based: data arrives in the order it was sent, but there is no correlation between client send() or sendall() calls and the number of recv() calls on the server required to receive it.

Implémentation côté client :

import socket
import sys

HOST, PORT = "localhost", 9999
data = " ".join(sys.argv[1:])

# Create a socket (SOCK_STREAM means a TCP socket)
with socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM) as sock:
    # Connect to server and send data
    sock.connect((HOST, PORT))
    sock.sendall(bytes(data, "utf-8"))
    sock.sendall(b"\n")

    # Receive data from the server and shut down
    received = str(sock.recv(1024), "utf-8")

print("Sent:    ", data)
print("Received:", received)

La sortie de cet exemple devrait ressembler à ça :

Serveur :

$ python TCPServer.py
127.0.0.1 wrote:
b'hello world with TCP'
127.0.0.1 wrote:
b'python is nice'

Client :

$ python TCPClient.py hello world with TCP
Sent:     hello world with TCP
Received: HELLO WORLD WITH TCP
$ python TCPClient.py python is nice
Sent:     python is nice
Received: PYTHON IS NICE

Exemple pour socketserver.UDPServer

Implémentation côté serveur :

import socketserver

class MyUDPHandler(socketserver.BaseRequestHandler):
    """
    This class works similar to the TCP handler class, except that
    self.request consists of a pair of data and client socket, and since
    there is no connection the client address must be given explicitly
    when sending data back via sendto().
    """

    def handle(self):
        data = self.request[0].strip()
        socket = self.request[1]
        print(f"{self.client_address[0]} wrote:")
        print(data)
        socket.sendto(data.upper(), self.client_address)

if __name__ == "__main__":
    HOST, PORT = "localhost", 9999
    with socketserver.UDPServer((HOST, PORT), MyUDPHandler) as server:
        server.serve_forever()

Implémentation côté client :

import socket
import sys

HOST, PORT = "localhost", 9999
data = " ".join(sys.argv[1:])

# SOCK_DGRAM is the socket type to use for UDP sockets
sock = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_DGRAM)

# As you can see, there is no connect() call; UDP has no connections.
# Instead, data is directly sent to the recipient via sendto().
sock.sendto(bytes(data + "\n", "utf-8"), (HOST, PORT))
received = str(sock.recv(1024), "utf-8")

print("Sent:    ", data)
print("Received:", received)

La sortie de cet exemple devrait ressembler exactement à la sortie de l'exemple pour le serveur TCP.

Classes de mélange asynchrone

Pour développer des gestionnaires asynchrones, utilisez les classes ThreadingMixIn et ForkingMixIn.

Exemple pour ThreadingMixIn :

import socket
import threading
import socketserver

class ThreadedTCPRequestHandler(socketserver.BaseRequestHandler):

    def handle(self):
        data = str(self.request.recv(1024), 'ascii')
        cur_thread = threading.current_thread()
        response = bytes("{}: {}".format(cur_thread.name, data), 'ascii')
        self.request.sendall(response)

class ThreadedTCPServer(socketserver.ThreadingMixIn, socketserver.TCPServer):
    pass

def client(ip, port, message):
    with socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM) as sock:
        sock.connect((ip, port))
        sock.sendall(bytes(message, 'ascii'))
        response = str(sock.recv(1024), 'ascii')
        print("Received: {}".format(response))

if __name__ == "__main__":
    # Port 0 means to select an arbitrary unused port
    HOST, PORT = "localhost", 0

    server = ThreadedTCPServer((HOST, PORT), ThreadedTCPRequestHandler)
    with server:
        ip, port = server.server_address

        # Start a thread with the server -- that thread will then start one
        # more thread for each request
        server_thread = threading.Thread(target=server.serve_forever)
        # Exit the server thread when the main thread terminates
        server_thread.daemon = True
        server_thread.start()
        print("Server loop running in thread:", server_thread.name)

        client(ip, port, "Hello World 1")
        client(ip, port, "Hello World 2")
        client(ip, port, "Hello World 3")

        server.shutdown()

La sortie de cet exemple devrait ressembler à ça :

$ python ThreadedTCPServer.py
Server loop running in thread: Thread-1
Received: Thread-2: Hello World 1
Received: Thread-3: Hello World 2
Received: Thread-4: Hello World 3

La classe ForkingMixIn est utilisable de la même façon à la différence près que le serveur crée un nouveau processus fils pour chaque requête. Disponible uniquement sur les plateformes POSIX prenant en charge fork().

http.server --- HTTP servers

Code source : Lib/http/server.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/http/server.py]

Ce module définit des classes implémentant des serveurs HTTP.

Avertissement

http.server is not recommended for production. It only implements basic security checks.

Disponibilité: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly. See Plateformes WebAssembly for more information.

Une des classes, HTTPServer, est une sous-classe de socketserver.TCPServer. Elle crée une interface de connexion (socket en anglais) avant de rester à l'écoute des messages reçus sur celle-ci, les répartissant à un gestionnaire d'évènements (handler en anglais). Le code pour créer et exécuter le serveur ressemble à ceci :

def run(server_class=HTTPServer, handler_class=BaseHTTPRequestHandler):
    server_address = ('', 8000)
    httpd = server_class(server_address, handler_class)
    httpd.serve_forever()

class http.server.HTTPServer(server_address, RequestHandlerClass)

Cette classe hérite de la classe TCPServer. Ses instances contiennent l'adresse du serveur dans les variables d'instance server_name et server_port.Le serveur est accessible par le gestionnaire d'évènements, habituellement par le biais de sa variable d'instance server.

class http.server.ThreadingHTTPServer(server_address, RequestHandlerClass)

Cette classe est identique à HTTPServer mais utilise des fils d'exécution afin de gérer les requêtes, et ce, par le biais de ThreadingMixIn. Ceci est utile afin de gérer les pré-ouvertures des interfaces de connexion des navigateurs web, sur lesquelles HTTPServer attendrait de façon perpétuelle.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

class http.server.HTTPSServer(server_address, RequestHandlerClass, bind_and_activate=True, *, certfile, keyfile=None, password=None, alpn_protocols=None)

Subclass of HTTPServer with a wrapped socket using the ssl module. If the ssl module is not available, instantiating a HTTPSServer object fails with a RuntimeError.

The certfile argument is the path to the SSL certificate chain file, and the keyfile is the path to file containing the private key.

A password can be specified for files protected and wrapped with PKCS#8, but beware that this could possibly expose hardcoded passwords in clear.

Voir aussi

See ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain() for additional information on the accepted values for certfile, keyfile and password.

When specified, the alpn_protocols argument must be a sequence of strings specifying the "Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation" (ALPN) protocols supported by the server. ALPN allows the server and the client to negotiate the application protocol during the TLS handshake.

By default, it is set to ["http/1.1"], meaning the server supports HTTP/1.1.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

class http.server.ThreadingHTTPSServer(server_address, RequestHandlerClass, bind_and_activate=True, *, certfile, keyfile=None, password=None, alpn_protocols=None)

This class is identical to HTTPSServer but uses threads to handle requests by inheriting from ThreadingMixIn. This is analogous to ThreadingHTTPServer only using HTTPSServer.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

The HTTPServer, ThreadingHTTPServer, HTTPSServer and ThreadingHTTPSServer must be given a RequestHandlerClass on instantiation, of which this module provides three different variants:

class http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler(request, client_address, server)

Cette classe est utilisée afin de gérer les requêtes HTTP arrivant au serveur. Elle ne peut pas répondre par elle-même à des requêtes HTTP ; cette méthode doit être surchargée dans les classes dérivées, par exemple GET ou POST. La classe BaseHTTPRequestHandler fournit plusieurs classes et variables d'instance, ainsi que des méthodes à utiliser par les sous-classes.

The handler will parse the request and the headers, then call a method specific to the request type. The method name is constructed from the request. For example, for the request method SPAM, the do_SPAM() method will be called with no arguments. All of the relevant information is stored in instance variables of the handler. Subclasses should not need to override or extend the __init__() method.

BaseHTTPRequestHandler a les variables d'instances suivantes :

client_address

Contient un n-uplet de la forme (host, port), faisant référence à l'adresse du client.

server

Contient l'instance du serveur.

close_connection

Booléen qui doit être défini avant que handle_one_request() ne termine son exécution, indiquant si on peut recevoir une autre requête ou si la connexion doit être fermée.

requestline

Contient la chaîne de caractères représentant la ligne de requête HTTP. La dénotation de fin de ligne CRLF est enlevée. Cet attribut doit être défini par handle_one_request(). Dans le cas où aucune ligne de requête valide n'a été traitée, il doit prendre la valeur de la chaîne de caractères vide.

command

Contient la commande (le type de requête). Par exemple, 'GET'.

path

Contient le chemin de la requête. Si la composante de requête de l'URL est présente, alors path contient la requête. Selon la terminologie de RFC 3986 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html], path inclut ici hier-part et la query.

request_version

Contient la version de la requête, en chaîne de caractères. Par exemple, 'HTTP/1.0'.

headers

Holds an instance of the class specified by the MessageClass class variable. This instance parses and manages the headers in the HTTP request. The parse_headers() function from http.client is used to parse the headers and it requires that the HTTP request provide a valid RFC 5322 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html] style header.

rfile

An io.BufferedIOBase input stream, ready to read from the start of the optional input data.

wfile

Contains the output stream for writing a response back to the client. Proper adherence to the HTTP protocol must be used when writing to this stream in order to achieve successful interoperation with HTTP clients.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: This is an io.BufferedIOBase stream.

BaseHTTPRequestHandler has the following attributes:

server_version

Précise la version du logiciel du serveur. Vous pouvez la modifier. Le format utilisé est constitué de plusieurs chaînes de caractères séparées par des caractères d'espacement, où chaque chaîne prend la forme nom[/version]. Par exemple, 'BaseHTTP/0.2'.

sys_version

Contient la version système de Python, dans une forme pouvant être utilisée par la méthode version_string ainsi que par la variable de classe server_version. Par exemple, 'Python/1.4'.

error_message_format

Définit une chaîne de caractères avec champs de formatage devant être utilisée par la méthode send_error() afin de construire une réponse d'erreur pour le client. Par défaut, la chaîne contient des variables provenant de l'attribut responses se basant sur le code de statut passé à send_error().

error_content_type

Définit l'en-tête HTTP Content-Type des réponses d'erreur envoyées au client. La valeur par défaut est 'text/html'.

protocol_version

Specifies the HTTP version to which the server is conformant. It is sent in responses to let the client know the server's communication capabilities for future requests. If set to 'HTTP/1.1', the server will permit HTTP persistent connections; however, your server must then include an accurate Content-Length header (using send_header()) in all of its responses to clients. For backwards compatibility, the setting defaults to 'HTTP/1.0'.

MessageClass

Définit une classe similaire à email.message.Message permettant l'analyse des en-têtes HTTP. Habituellement, cette valeur n'est pas modifiée, et prend par défaut la valeur de http.client.HTTPMessage.

responses

Cet attribut contient une table de correspondance entre des codes d'erreurs dénotés par des entiers et des n-uplets contenant un message court et un message long. Par exemple, {code: (shortmessage, longmessage)}. Habituellement, le message shortmessage correspond à la clé message d'une réponse d'erreur, alors que le message longmessage correspond à la clé explain de celle-ci. Il est utilisé par les méthodes send_response_only() et send_error().

Une instance de la classe BaseHTTPRequestHandler contient les méthodes suivantes :

handle()

Calls handle_one_request() once (or, if persistent connections are enabled, multiple times) to handle incoming HTTP requests. You should never need to override it; instead, implement appropriate do_*() methods.

handle_one_request()

This method will parse and dispatch the request to the appropriate do_*() method. You should never need to override it.

handle_expect_100()

When an HTTP/1.1 conformant server receives an Expect: 100-continue request header it responds back with a 100 Continue followed by 200 OK headers. This method can be overridden to raise an error if the server does not want the client to continue. For e.g. server can choose to send 417 Expectation Failed as a response header and return False.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

send_error(code, message=None, explain=None)

Sends and logs a complete error reply to the client. The numeric code specifies the HTTP error code, with message as an optional, short, human readable description of the error. The explain argument can be used to provide more detailed information about the error; it will be formatted using the error_message_format attribute and emitted, after a complete set of headers, as the response body. The responses attribute holds the default values for message and explain that will be used if no value is provided; for unknown codes the default value for both is the string ???. The body will be empty if the method is HEAD or the response code is one of the following: 1xx, 204 No Content, 205 Reset Content, 304 Not Modified.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: The error response includes a Content-Length header. Added the explain argument.

send_response(code, message=None)

Adds a response header to the headers buffer and logs the accepted request. The HTTP response line is written to the internal buffer, followed by Server and Date headers. The values for these two headers are picked up from the version_string() and date_time_string() methods, respectively. If the server does not intend to send any other headers using the send_header() method, then send_response() should be followed by an end_headers() call.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Headers are stored to an internal buffer and end_headers() needs to be called explicitly.

send_header(keyword, value)

Adds the HTTP header to an internal buffer which will be written to the output stream when either end_headers() or flush_headers() is invoked. keyword should specify the header keyword, with value specifying its value. Note that, after the send_header calls are done, end_headers() MUST BE called in order to complete the operation.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Headers are stored in an internal buffer.

send_response_only(code, message=None)

Sends the response header only, used for the purposes when 100 Continue response is sent by the server to the client. The headers not buffered and sent directly the output stream.If the message is not specified, the HTTP message corresponding the response code is sent.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

end_headers()

Adds a blank line (indicating the end of the HTTP headers in the response) to the headers buffer and calls flush_headers().

Modifié dans la version 3.2: The buffered headers are written to the output stream.

flush_headers()

Finally send the headers to the output stream and flush the internal headers buffer.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

log_request(code='-', size='-')

Logs an accepted (successful) request. code should specify the numeric HTTP code associated with the response. If a size of the response is available, then it should be passed as the size parameter.

log_error(...)

Logs an error when a request cannot be fulfilled. By default, it passes the message to log_message(), so it takes the same arguments (format and additional values).

log_message(format, ...)

Logs an arbitrary message to sys.stderr. This is typically overridden to create custom error logging mechanisms. The format argument is a standard printf-style format string, where the additional arguments to log_message() are applied as inputs to the formatting. The client ip address and current date and time are prefixed to every message logged.

version_string()

Returns the server software's version string. This is a combination of the server_version and sys_version attributes.

date_time_string(timestamp=None)

Returns the date and time given by timestamp (which must be None or in the format returned by time.time()), formatted for a message header. If timestamp is omitted, it uses the current date and time.

The result looks like 'Sun, 06 Nov 1994 08:49:37 GMT'.

log_date_time_string()

Returns the current date and time, formatted for logging.

address_string()

Returns the client address.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Previously, a name lookup was performed. To avoid name resolution delays, it now always returns the IP address.

class http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler(request, client_address, server, directory=None)

This class serves files from the directory directory and below, or the current directory if directory is not provided, directly mapping the directory structure to HTTP requests.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Added the directory parameter.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: The directory parameter accepts a path-like object.

A lot of the work, such as parsing the request, is done by the base class BaseHTTPRequestHandler. This class implements the do_GET() and do_HEAD() functions.

The following are defined as class-level attributes of SimpleHTTPRequestHandler:

server_version

This will be "SimpleHTTP/" + __version__, where __version__ is defined at the module level.

extensions_map

A dictionary mapping suffixes into MIME types, contains custom overrides for the default system mappings. The mapping is used case-insensitively, and so should contain only lower-cased keys.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: This dictionary is no longer filled with the default system mappings, but only contains overrides.

The SimpleHTTPRequestHandler class defines the following methods:

do_HEAD()

This method serves the 'HEAD' request type: it sends the headers it would send for the equivalent GET request. See the do_GET() method for a more complete explanation of the possible headers.

do_GET()

The request is mapped to a local file by interpreting the request as a path relative to the current working directory.

If the request was mapped to a directory, the directory is checked for a file named index.html or index.htm (in that order). If found, the file's contents are returned; otherwise a directory listing is generated by calling the list_directory() method. This method uses os.listdir() to scan the directory, and returns a 404 error response if the listdir() fails.

If the request was mapped to a file, it is opened. Any OSError exception in opening the requested file is mapped to a 404, 'File not found' error. If there was an 'If-Modified-Since' header in the request, and the file was not modified after this time, a 304, 'Not Modified' response is sent. Otherwise, the content type is guessed by calling the guess_type() method, which in turn uses the extensions_map variable, and the file contents are returned.

A 'Content-type:' header with the guessed content type is output, followed by a 'Content-Length:' header with the file's size and a 'Last-Modified:' header with the file's modification time.

Then follows a blank line signifying the end of the headers, and then the contents of the file are output.

For example usage, see the implementation of the test function in Lib/http/server.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/http/server.py].

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Support of the 'If-Modified-Since' header.

The SimpleHTTPRequestHandler class can be used in the following manner in order to create a very basic webserver serving files relative to the current directory:

import http.server
import socketserver

PORT = 8000

Handler = http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler

with socketserver.TCPServer(("", PORT), Handler) as httpd:
    print("serving at port", PORT)
    httpd.serve_forever()

SimpleHTTPRequestHandler can also be subclassed to enhance behavior, such as using different index file names by overriding the class attribute index_pages.

class http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler(request, client_address, server)

This class is used to serve either files or output of CGI scripts from the current directory and below. Note that mapping HTTP hierarchic structure to local directory structure is exactly as in SimpleHTTPRequestHandler.

Note

CGI scripts run by the CGIHTTPRequestHandler class cannot execute redirects (HTTP code 302), because code 200 (script output follows) is sent prior to execution of the CGI script. This pre-empts the status code.

The class will however, run the CGI script, instead of serving it as a file, if it guesses it to be a CGI script. Only directory-based CGI are used --- the other common server configuration is to treat special extensions as denoting CGI scripts.

The do_GET() and do_HEAD() functions are modified to run CGI scripts and serve the output, instead of serving files, if the request leads to somewhere below the cgi_directories path.

The CGIHTTPRequestHandler defines the following data member:

cgi_directories

This defaults to ['/cgi-bin', '/htbin'] and describes directories to treat as containing CGI scripts.

The CGIHTTPRequestHandler defines the following method:

do_POST()

This method serves the 'POST' request type, only allowed for CGI scripts. Error 501, "Can only POST to CGI scripts", is output when trying to POST to a non-CGI url.

Note that CGI scripts will be run with UID of user nobody, for security reasons. Problems with the CGI script will be translated to error 403.

Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: CGIHTTPRequestHandler is being removed in 3.15. CGI has not been considered a good way to do things for well over a decade. This code has been unmaintained for a while now and sees very little practical use. Retaining it could lead to further security considerations.

Command-line interface

http.server can also be invoked directly using the -m switch of the interpreter. The following example illustrates how to serve files relative to the current directory:

python -m http.server [OPTIONS] [port]

Les options suivantes sont acceptées :

port

The server listens to port 8000 by default. The default can be overridden by passing the desired port number as an argument:

python -m http.server 9000

-b, --bind <address>

Specifies a specific address to which it should bind. Both IPv4 and IPv6 addresses are supported. By default, the server binds itself to all interfaces. For example, the following command causes the server to bind to localhost only:

python -m http.server --bind 127.0.0.1

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Support IPv6 in the --bind option.

-d, --directory <dir>

Specifies a directory to which it should serve the files. By default, the server uses the current directory. For example, the following command uses a specific directory:

python -m http.server --directory /tmp/

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

-p, --protocol <version>

Specifies the HTTP version to which the server is conformant. By default, the server is conformant to HTTP/1.0. For example, the following command runs an HTTP/1.1 conformant server:

python -m http.server --protocol HTTP/1.1

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

--cgi

CGIHTTPRequestHandler can be enabled in the command line by passing the --cgi option:

python -m http.server --cgi

Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: http.server command line --cgi support is being removed because CGIHTTPRequestHandler is being removed.

Avertissement

CGIHTTPRequestHandler and the --cgi command-line option are not intended for use by untrusted clients and may be vulnerable to exploitation. Always use within a secure environment.

--tls-cert

Specifies a TLS certificate chain for HTTPS connections:

python -m http.server --tls-cert fullchain.pem

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

--tls-key

Specifies a private key file for HTTPS connections.

This option requires --tls-cert to be specified.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

--tls-password-file

Specifies the password file for password-protected private keys:

python -m http.server \
       --tls-cert cert.pem \
       --tls-key key.pem \
       --tls-password-file password.txt

This option requires --tls-cert` to be specified.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Security considerations

SimpleHTTPRequestHandler will follow symbolic links when handling requests, this makes it possible for files outside of the specified directory to be served.

Earlier versions of Python did not scrub control characters from the log messages emitted to stderr from python -m http.server or the default BaseHTTPRequestHandler .log_message implementation. This could allow remote clients connecting to your server to send nefarious control codes to your terminal.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Control characters are scrubbed in stderr logs.

http.cookies --- HTTP state management

Code source : Lib/http/cookies.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/http/cookies.py]

The http.cookies module defines classes for abstracting the concept of cookies, an HTTP state management mechanism. It supports both simple string-only cookies, and provides an abstraction for having any serializable data-type as cookie value.

The module formerly strictly applied the parsing rules described in the RFC 2109 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html] and RFC 2068 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2068.html] specifications. It has since been discovered that MSIE 3.0x didn't follow the character rules outlined in those specs; many current-day browsers and servers have also relaxed parsing rules when it comes to cookie handling. As a result, this module now uses parsing rules that are a bit less strict than they once were.

The character set, string.ascii_letters, string.digits and !#$%&'*+-.^_`|~: denote the set of valid characters allowed by this module in a cookie name (as key).

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Allowed ':' as a valid cookie name character.

Note

Quand un témoin invalide est rencontré, l'exception CookieError est levée. Si les données du témoin proviennent d'un navigateur il faut impérativement gérer les données invalides en attrapant CookieError.

exception http.cookies.CookieError

Exception levée pour cause d'incompatibilité avec la RFC 2109 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html]. Exemples : attributs incorrects, en-tête Set-Cookie incorrect, etc.

class http.cookies.BaseCookie([input])

Cette classe définit un dictionnaire dont les clés sont des chaines de caractères et dont les valeurs sont des instances de Morsel. Notez qu'à l'assignation d'une valeur à une clé, la valeur est transformée en Morsel contenant la clé et la valeur.

Si l'argument input est donné, il est passé à la méthode load().

class http.cookies.SimpleCookie([input])

This class derives from BaseCookie and overrides value_decode() and value_encode(). SimpleCookie supports strings as cookie values. When setting the value, SimpleCookie calls the builtin str() to convert the value to a string. Values received from HTTP are kept as strings.

Voir aussi

Module http.cookiejar

HTTP cookie handling for web clients. The http.cookiejar and http.cookies modules do not depend on each other.

RFC 2109 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html] - HTTP State Management Mechanism

Spécification de gestion d'états implantée par ce module.

Objets Cookie

BaseCookie.value_decode(val)

Renvoie une paire (real_value, coded_value) depuis une représentation de chaine. real_value peut être de n’importe quel type. Cette méthode ne décode rien dans BaseCookie – elle existe pour être surchargée.

BaseCookie.value_encode(val)

Renvoie une paire (real_value, coded_value). val peut être de n’importe quel type, mais coded_value est toujours converti en chaine de caractères. Cette méthode n’encode pas dans BaseCookie – elle existe pour être surchargée.

Généralement, les méthodes value_encode() et value_decode() doivent être inverses l'une de l'autre, c'est-à-dire qu'en envoyant la sortie de l'un dans l'entrée de l'autre la valeur finale doit être égale à la valeur initiale.

BaseCookie.output(attrs=None, header='Set-Cookie:', sep='\r\n')

Return a string representation suitable to be sent as HTTP headers. attrs and header are sent to each Morsel's output() method. sep is used to join the headers together, and is by default the combination '\r\n' (CRLF).

BaseCookie.js_output(attrs=None)

Renvoie un extrait de code JavaScript qui, lorsque exécuté par un navigateur qui supporte le JavaScript, va fonctionner de la même manière que si les en-têtes HTTP avaient été envoyés.

attrs a la même signification que dans la méthode output().

BaseCookie.load(rawdata)

Si rawdata est une chaine de caractères, l'analyser comme étant un HTTP_COOKIE et ajouter les valeurs trouvées en tant que Morsels. S'il s'agit d'un dictionnaire, cela est équivalent à :

for k, v in rawdata.items():
    cookie[k] = v

Objets Morsel

class http.cookies.Morsel

Abstraction de paire clé / valeur, accompagnée d'attributs provenant de la spécification RFC 2109 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html].

Morsels are dictionary-like objects, whose set of keys is constant --- the valid RFC 2109 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html] attributes, which are:

expires

path

comment

domain

max-age

secure

version

httponly

samesite

partitioned

L'attribut httponly spécifie que le témoin transféré dans les requêtes HTTP n'est pas accessible par le biais de JavaScript. Il s'agit d'une contre-mesure à certaines attaques de scripts inter-sites (XSS).

The attribute samesite controls when the browser sends the cookie with cross-site requests. This helps to mitigate CSRF attacks. Valid values are "Strict" (only sent with same-site requests), "Lax" (sent with same-site requests and top-level navigations), and "None" (sent with same-site and cross-site requests). When using "None", the "secure" attribute must also be set, as required by modern browsers.

The attribute partitioned indicates to user agents that these cross-site cookies should only be available in the same top-level context that the cookie was first set in. For this to be accepted by the user agent, you must also set Secure.

In addition, it is recommended to use the __Host prefix when setting partitioned cookies to make them bound to the hostname and not the registrable domain. Read CHIPS (Cookies Having Independent Partitioned State) [https://github.com/privacycg/CHIPS/blob/main/README.md] for full details and examples.

Les clés ne sont pas sensibles à la casse, leur valeur par défaut est ''.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: __eq__() now takes key and value into account.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: les attributs key, value et coded_value sont en lecture seule. Utilisez set() pour les assigner.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: ajout de la prise en charge de l'attribut samesite.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Added support for the partitioned attribute.

Morsel.value

La valeur du témoin.

Morsel.coded_value

La valeur codée du témoin. C'est celle qui doit être transférée.

Morsel.key

Le nom du témoin.

Morsel.set(key, value, coded_value)

Assigne les attributs key, value et coded_value.

Morsel.isReservedKey(K)

Renvoie si K est membre des clés d'un Morsel.

Morsel.output(attrs=None, header='Set-Cookie:')

Renvoie une représentation textuelle du Morsel compatible avec les en-têtes HTTP. Par défaut, tous les attributs sont inclus, à moins que attrs ne soit renseigné. Dans ce cas la valeur doit être une liste d'attributs à utiliser. Par défaut, header a la valeur "Set-Cookie:".

Morsel.js_output(attrs=None)

Renvoie un extrait de code JavaScript qui, lorsque exécuté par un navigateur qui supporte le JavaScript, va fonctionner de la même manière que si les en-têtes HTTP avaient été envoyés.

attrs a la même signification que dans la méthode output().

Morsel.OutputString(attrs=None)

Renvoie une chaine de caractères représentant le Morsel, nettoyé de son contexte HTTP ou JavaScript.

attrs a la même signification que dans la méthode output().

Morsel.update(values)

Met à jour les valeurs du dictionnaire du Morsel avec les valeurs provenant du dictionnaire values. Lève une erreur si une des clés n'est pas un attribut RFC 2109 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html] valide.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: une erreur est levée pour les clés invalides.

Morsel.copy(value)

Renvoie une copie superficielle de l'objet Morsel.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: renvoie un objet Morsel au lieu d'un dict.

Morsel.setdefault(key, value=None)

Lève une erreur si la clé n'est pas un attribut RFC 2109 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html] valide, sinon fonctionne de la même manière que dict.setdefault().

Exemple

The following example demonstrates how to use the http.cookies module.

>>> from http import cookies
>>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
>>> C["fig"] = "newton"
>>> C["sugar"] = "wafer"
>>> print(C) # generate HTTP headers
Set-Cookie: fig=newton
Set-Cookie: sugar=wafer
>>> print(C.output()) # same thing
Set-Cookie: fig=newton
Set-Cookie: sugar=wafer
>>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
>>> C["rocky"] = "road"
>>> C["rocky"]["path"] = "/cookie"
>>> print(C.output(header="Cookie:"))
Cookie: rocky=road; Path=/cookie
>>> print(C.output(attrs=[], header="Cookie:"))
Cookie: rocky=road
>>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
>>> C.load("chips=ahoy; vienna=finger") # load from a string (HTTP header)
>>> print(C)
Set-Cookie: chips=ahoy
Set-Cookie: vienna=finger
>>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
>>> C.load('keebler="E=everybody; L=\\"Loves\\"; fudge=;";')
>>> print(C)
Set-Cookie: keebler="E=everybody; L=\"Loves\"; fudge=;"
>>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
>>> C["oreo"] = "doublestuff"
>>> C["oreo"]["path"] = "/"
>>> print(C)
Set-Cookie: oreo=doublestuff; Path=/
>>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
>>> C["twix"] = "none for you"
>>> C["twix"].value
'none for you'
>>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
>>> C["number"] = 7 # equivalent to C["number"] = str(7)
>>> C["string"] = "seven"
>>> C["number"].value
'7'
>>> C["string"].value
'seven'
>>> print(C)
Set-Cookie: number=7
Set-Cookie: string=seven

http.cookiejar --- Cookie handling for HTTP clients

Source code: Lib/http/cookiejar.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/http/cookiejar.py]

The http.cookiejar module defines classes for automatic handling of HTTP cookies. It is useful for accessing websites that require small pieces of data -- cookies -- to be set on the client machine by an HTTP response from a web server, and then returned to the server in later HTTP requests.

Both the regular Netscape cookie protocol and the protocol defined by RFC 2965 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html] are handled. RFC 2965 handling is switched off by default. RFC 2109 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html] cookies are parsed as Netscape cookies and subsequently treated either as Netscape or RFC 2965 cookies according to the 'policy' in effect. Note that the great majority of cookies on the internet are Netscape cookies. http.cookiejar attempts to follow the de-facto Netscape cookie protocol (which differs substantially from that set out in the original Netscape specification), including taking note of the max-age and port cookie-attributes introduced with RFC 2965.

Note

The various named parameters found in Set-Cookie and Set-Cookie2 headers (eg. domain and expires) are conventionally referred to as attributes. To distinguish them from Python attributes, the documentation for this module uses the term cookie-attribute instead.

The module defines the following exception:

exception http.cookiejar.LoadError

Instances of FileCookieJar raise this exception on failure to load cookies from a file. LoadError is a subclass of OSError.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: LoadError used to be a subtype of IOError, which is now an alias of OSError.

The following classes are provided:

class http.cookiejar.CookieJar(policy=None)

policy is an object implementing the CookiePolicy interface.

The CookieJar class stores HTTP cookies. It extracts cookies from HTTP requests, and returns them in HTTP responses. CookieJar instances automatically expire contained cookies when necessary. Subclasses are also responsible for storing and retrieving cookies from a file or database.

class http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar(filename=None, delayload=None, policy=None)

policy is an object implementing the CookiePolicy interface. For the other arguments, see the documentation for the corresponding attributes.

A CookieJar which can load cookies from, and perhaps save cookies to, a file on disk. Cookies are NOT loaded from the named file until either the load() or revert() method is called. Subclasses of this class are documented in section FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers.

This should not be initialized directly – use its subclasses below instead.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: The filename parameter supports a path-like object.

class http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy

This class is responsible for deciding whether each cookie should be accepted from / returned to the server.

class http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy(blocked_domains=None, allowed_domains=None, netscape=True, rfc2965=False, rfc2109_as_netscape=None, hide_cookie2=False, strict_domain=False, strict_rfc2965_unverifiable=True, strict_ns_unverifiable=False, strict_ns_domain=DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainLiberal, strict_ns_set_initial_dollar=False, strict_ns_set_path=False, secure_protocols=('https', 'wss'))

Constructor arguments should be passed as keyword arguments only. blocked_domains is a sequence of domain names that we never accept cookies from, nor return cookies to. allowed_domains if not None, this is a sequence of the only domains for which we accept and return cookies. secure_protocols is a sequence of protocols for which secure cookies can be added to. By default https and wss (secure websocket) are considered secure protocols. For all other arguments, see the documentation for CookiePolicy and DefaultCookiePolicy objects.

DefaultCookiePolicy implements the standard accept / reject rules for Netscape and RFC 2965 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html] cookies. By default, RFC 2109 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html] cookies (ie. cookies received in a Set-Cookie header with a version cookie-attribute of 1) are treated according to the RFC 2965 rules. However, if RFC 2965 handling is turned off or rfc2109_as_netscape is True, RFC 2109 cookies are 'downgraded' by the CookieJar instance to Netscape cookies, by setting the version attribute of the Cookie instance to 0. DefaultCookiePolicy also provides some parameters to allow some fine-tuning of policy.

class http.cookiejar.Cookie

This class represents Netscape, RFC 2109 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html] and RFC 2965 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html] cookies. It is not expected that users of http.cookiejar construct their own Cookie instances. Instead, if necessary, call make_cookies() on a CookieJar instance.

Voir aussi

Module urllib.request

URL opening with automatic cookie handling.

Module http.cookies

HTTP cookie classes, principally useful for server-side code. The http.cookiejar and http.cookies modules do not depend on each other.

https://curl.se/rfc/cookie_spec.html

The specification of the original Netscape cookie protocol. Though this is still the dominant protocol, the 'Netscape cookie protocol' implemented by all the major browsers (and http.cookiejar) only bears a passing resemblance to the one sketched out in cookie_spec.html.

RFC 2109 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html] - HTTP State Management Mechanism

Obsoleted by RFC 2965 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html]. Uses Set-Cookie with version=1.

RFC 2965 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html] - HTTP State Management Mechanism

The Netscape protocol with the bugs fixed. Uses Set-Cookie2 in place of Set-Cookie. Not widely used.

https://kristol.org/cookie/errata.html

Unfinished errata to RFC 2965 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html].

RFC 2964 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2964.html] - Use of HTTP State Management

CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects

CookieJar objects support the iterator protocol for iterating over contained Cookie objects.

CookieJar has the following methods:

CookieJar.add_cookie_header(request)

Add correct Cookie header to request.

If policy allows (ie. the rfc2965 and hide_cookie2 attributes of the CookieJar's CookiePolicy instance are true and false respectively), the Cookie2 header is also added when appropriate.

The request object (usually a urllib.request.Request instance) must support the methods get_full_url(), has_header(), get_header(), header_items(), add_unredirected_header() and the attributes host, type, unverifiable and origin_req_host as documented by urllib.request.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: request object needs origin_req_host attribute. Dependency on a deprecated method get_origin_req_host() has been removed.

CookieJar.extract_cookies(response, request)

Extract cookies from HTTP response and store them in the CookieJar, where allowed by policy.

The CookieJar will look for allowable Set-Cookie and Set-Cookie2 headers in the response argument, and store cookies as appropriate (subject to the CookiePolicy.set_ok() method's approval).

The response object (usually the result of a call to urllib.request.urlopen(), or similar) should support an info() method, which returns an email.message.Message instance.

The request object (usually a urllib.request.Request instance) must support the method get_full_url() and the attributes host, unverifiable and origin_req_host, as documented by urllib.request. The request is used to set default values for cookie-attributes as well as for checking that the cookie is allowed to be set.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: request object needs origin_req_host attribute. Dependency on a deprecated method get_origin_req_host() has been removed.

CookieJar.set_policy(policy)

Set the CookiePolicy instance to be used.

CookieJar.make_cookies(response, request)

Return sequence of Cookie objects extracted from response object.

See the documentation for extract_cookies() for the interfaces required of the response and request arguments.

CookieJar.set_cookie_if_ok(cookie, request)

Set a Cookie if policy says it's OK to do so.

CookieJar.set_cookie(cookie)

Set a Cookie, without checking with policy to see whether or not it should be set.

CookieJar.clear([domain[, path[, name]]])

Clear some cookies.

If invoked without arguments, clear all cookies. If given a single argument, only cookies belonging to that domain will be removed. If given two arguments, cookies belonging to the specified domain and URL path are removed. If given three arguments, then the cookie with the specified domain, path and name is removed.

Raises KeyError if no matching cookie exists.

CookieJar.clear_session_cookies()

Discard all session cookies.

Discards all contained cookies that have a true discard attribute (usually because they had either no max-age or expires cookie-attribute, or an explicit discard cookie-attribute). For interactive browsers, the end of a session usually corresponds to closing the browser window.

Note that the save() method won't save session cookies anyway, unless you ask otherwise by passing a true ignore_discard argument.

FileCookieJar implements the following additional methods:

FileCookieJar.save(filename=None, ignore_discard=False, ignore_expires=False)

Save cookies to a file.

This base class raises NotImplementedError. Subclasses may leave this method unimplemented.

filename is the name of file in which to save cookies. If filename is not specified, self.filename is used (whose default is the value passed to the constructor, if any); if self.filename is None, ValueError is raised.

ignore_discard: save even cookies set to be discarded. ignore_expires: save even cookies that have expired

The file is overwritten if it already exists, thus wiping all the cookies it contains. Saved cookies can be restored later using the load() or revert() methods.

FileCookieJar.load(filename=None, ignore_discard=False, ignore_expires=False)

Load cookies from a file.

Old cookies are kept unless overwritten by newly loaded ones.

Arguments are as for save().

The named file must be in the format understood by the class, or LoadError will be raised. Also, OSError may be raised, for example if the file does not exist.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: IOError était normalement levée, elle est maintenant un alias de OSError.

FileCookieJar.revert(filename=None, ignore_discard=False, ignore_expires=False)

Clear all cookies and reload cookies from a saved file.

revert() can raise the same exceptions as load(). If there is a failure, the object's state will not be altered.

FileCookieJar instances have the following public attributes:

FileCookieJar.filename

Filename of default file in which to keep cookies. This attribute may be assigned to.

FileCookieJar.delayload

If true, load cookies lazily from disk. This attribute should not be assigned to. This is only a hint, since this only affects performance, not behaviour (unless the cookies on disk are changing). A CookieJar object may ignore it. None of the FileCookieJar classes included in the standard library lazily loads cookies.

FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers

The following CookieJar subclasses are provided for reading and writing.

class http.cookiejar.MozillaCookieJar(filename=None, delayload=None, policy=None)

A FileCookieJar that can load from and save cookies to disk in the Mozilla cookies.txt file format (which is also used by curl and the Lynx and Netscape browsers).

Note

This loses information about RFC 2965 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html] cookies, and also about newer or non-standard cookie-attributes such as port.

Avertissement

Back up your cookies before saving if you have cookies whose loss / corruption would be inconvenient (there are some subtleties which may lead to slight changes in the file over a load / save round-trip).

Also note that cookies saved while Mozilla is running will get clobbered by Mozilla.

class http.cookiejar.LWPCookieJar(filename=None, delayload=None, policy=None)

A FileCookieJar that can load from and save cookies to disk in format compatible with the libwww-perl library's Set-Cookie3 file format. This is convenient if you want to store cookies in a human-readable file.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: The filename parameter supports a path-like object.

CookiePolicy Objects

Objects implementing the CookiePolicy interface have the following methods:

CookiePolicy.set_ok(cookie, request)

Return boolean value indicating whether cookie should be accepted from server.

cookie is a Cookie instance. request is an object implementing the interface defined by the documentation for CookieJar.extract_cookies().

CookiePolicy.return_ok(cookie, request)

Return boolean value indicating whether cookie should be returned to server.

cookie is a Cookie instance. request is an object implementing the interface defined by the documentation for CookieJar.add_cookie_header().

CookiePolicy.domain_return_ok(domain, request)

Return False if cookies should not be returned, given cookie domain.

This method is an optimization. It removes the need for checking every cookie with a particular domain (which might involve reading many files). Returning true from domain_return_ok() and path_return_ok() leaves all the work to return_ok().

If domain_return_ok() returns true for the cookie domain, path_return_ok() is called for the cookie path. Otherwise, path_return_ok() and return_ok() are never called for that cookie domain. If path_return_ok() returns true, return_ok() is called with the Cookie object itself for a full check. Otherwise, return_ok() is never called for that cookie path.

Note that domain_return_ok() is called for every cookie domain, not just for the request domain. For example, the function might be called with both ".example.com" and "www.example.com" if the request domain is "www.example.com". The same goes for path_return_ok().

The request argument is as documented for return_ok().

CookiePolicy.path_return_ok(path, request)

Return False if cookies should not be returned, given cookie path.

See the documentation for domain_return_ok().

In addition to implementing the methods above, implementations of the CookiePolicy interface must also supply the following attributes, indicating which protocols should be used, and how. All of these attributes may be assigned to.

CookiePolicy.netscape

Implement Netscape protocol.

CookiePolicy.rfc2965

Implement RFC 2965 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html] protocol.

CookiePolicy.hide_cookie2

Don't add Cookie2 header to requests (the presence of this header indicates to the server that we understand RFC 2965 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html] cookies).

The most useful way to define a CookiePolicy class is by subclassing from DefaultCookiePolicy and overriding some or all of the methods above. CookiePolicy itself may be used as a 'null policy' to allow setting and receiving any and all cookies (this is unlikely to be useful).

DefaultCookiePolicy Objects

Implements the standard rules for accepting and returning cookies.

Both RFC 2965 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html] and Netscape cookies are covered. RFC 2965 handling is switched off by default.

The easiest way to provide your own policy is to override this class and call its methods in your overridden implementations before adding your own additional checks:

import http.cookiejar
class MyCookiePolicy(http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy):
    def set_ok(self, cookie, request):
        if not http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.set_ok(self, cookie, request):
            return False
        if i_dont_want_to_store_this_cookie(cookie):
            return False
        return True

In addition to the features required to implement the CookiePolicy interface, this class allows you to block and allow domains from setting and receiving cookies. There are also some strictness switches that allow you to tighten up the rather loose Netscape protocol rules a little bit (at the cost of blocking some benign cookies).

A domain blocklist and allowlist is provided (both off by default). Only domains not in the blocklist and present in the allowlist (if the allowlist is active) participate in cookie setting and returning. Use the blocked_domains constructor argument, and blocked_domains() and set_blocked_domains() methods (and the corresponding argument and methods for allowed_domains). If you set an allowlist, you can turn it off again by setting it to None.

Domains in block or allow lists that do not start with a dot must equal the cookie domain to be matched. For example, "example.com" matches a blocklist entry of "example.com", but "www.example.com" does not. Domains that do start with a dot are matched by more specific domains too. For example, both "www.example.com" and "www.coyote.example.com" match ".example.com" (but "example.com" itself does not). IP addresses are an exception, and must match exactly. For example, if blocked_domains contains "192.168.1.2" and ".168.1.2", 192.168.1.2 is blocked, but 193.168.1.2 is not.

DefaultCookiePolicy implements the following additional methods:

DefaultCookiePolicy.blocked_domains()

Return the sequence of blocked domains (as a tuple).

DefaultCookiePolicy.set_blocked_domains(blocked_domains)

Set the sequence of blocked domains.

DefaultCookiePolicy.is_blocked(domain)

Return True if domain is on the blocklist for setting or receiving cookies.

DefaultCookiePolicy.allowed_domains()

Return None, or the sequence of allowed domains (as a tuple).

DefaultCookiePolicy.set_allowed_domains(allowed_domains)

Set the sequence of allowed domains, or None.

DefaultCookiePolicy.is_not_allowed(domain)

Return True if domain is not on the allowlist for setting or receiving cookies.

DefaultCookiePolicy instances have the following attributes, which are all initialised from the constructor arguments of the same name, and which may all be assigned to.

DefaultCookiePolicy.rfc2109_as_netscape

If true, request that the CookieJar instance downgrade RFC 2109 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html] cookies (ie. cookies received in a Set-Cookie header with a version cookie-attribute of 1) to Netscape cookies by setting the version attribute of the Cookie instance to 0. The default value is None, in which case RFC 2109 cookies are downgraded if and only if RFC 2965 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html] handling is turned off. Therefore, RFC 2109 cookies are downgraded by default.

General strictness switches:

DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_domain

Don't allow sites to set two-component domains with country-code top-level domains like .co.uk, .gov.uk, .co.nz.etc. This is far from perfect and isn't guaranteed to work!

RFC 2965 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html] protocol strictness switches:

DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_rfc2965_unverifiable

Follow RFC 2965 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html] rules on unverifiable transactions (usually, an unverifiable transaction is one resulting from a redirect or a request for an image hosted on another site). If this is false, cookies are never blocked on the basis of verifiability

Netscape protocol strictness switches:

DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_unverifiable

Apply RFC 2965 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html] rules on unverifiable transactions even to Netscape cookies.

DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_domain

Flags indicating how strict to be with domain-matching rules for Netscape cookies. See below for acceptable values.

DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_set_initial_dollar

Ignore cookies in Set-Cookie: headers that have names starting with '$'.

DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_set_path

Don't allow setting cookies whose path doesn't path-match request URI.

strict_ns_domain is a collection of flags. Its value is constructed by or-ing together (for example, DomainStrictNoDots|DomainStrictNonDomain means both flags are set).

DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainStrictNoDots

When setting cookies, the 'host prefix' must not contain a dot (eg. www.foo.bar.com can't set a cookie for .bar.com, because www.foo contains a dot).

DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainStrictNonDomain

Cookies that did not explicitly specify a domain cookie-attribute can only be returned to a domain equal to the domain that set the cookie (eg. spam.example.com won't be returned cookies from example.com that had no domain cookie-attribute).

DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainRFC2965Match

When setting cookies, require a full RFC 2965 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html] domain-match.

The following attributes are provided for convenience, and are the most useful combinations of the above flags:

DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainLiberal

Equivalent to 0 (ie. all of the above Netscape domain strictness flags switched off).

DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainStrict

Equivalent to DomainStrictNoDots|DomainStrictNonDomain.

Objets Cookie

Cookie instances have Python attributes roughly corresponding to the standard cookie-attributes specified in the various cookie standards. The correspondence is not one-to-one, because there are complicated rules for assigning default values, because the max-age and expires cookie-attributes contain equivalent information, and because RFC 2109 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html] cookies may be 'downgraded' by http.cookiejar from version 1 to version 0 (Netscape) cookies.

Assignment to these attributes should not be necessary other than in rare circumstances in a CookiePolicy method. The class does not enforce internal consistency, so you should know what you're doing if you do that.

Cookie.version

Integer or None. Netscape cookies have version 0. RFC 2965 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html] and RFC 2109 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html] cookies have a version cookie-attribute of 1. However, note that http.cookiejar may 'downgrade' RFC 2109 cookies to Netscape cookies, in which case version is 0.

Cookie.name

Cookie name (a string).

Cookie.value

Cookie value (a string), or None.

Cookie.port

String representing a port or a set of ports (eg. '80', or '80,8080'), or None.

Cookie.domain

Cookie domain (a string).

Cookie.path

Cookie path (a string, eg. '/acme/rocket_launchers').

Cookie.secure

True if cookie should only be returned over a secure connection.

Cookie.expires

Integer expiry date in seconds since epoch, or None. See also the is_expired() method.

Cookie.discard

True if this is a session cookie.

Cookie.comment

String comment from the server explaining the function of this cookie, or None.

Cookie.comment_url

URL linking to a comment from the server explaining the function of this cookie, or None.

Cookie.rfc2109

True if this cookie was received as an RFC 2109 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html] cookie (ie. the cookie arrived in a Set-Cookie header, and the value of the Version cookie-attribute in that header was 1). This attribute is provided because http.cookiejar may 'downgrade' RFC 2109 cookies to Netscape cookies, in which case version is 0.

Cookie.port_specified

True if a port or set of ports was explicitly specified by the server (in the Set-Cookie / Set-Cookie2 header).

Cookie.domain_specified

True if a domain was explicitly specified by the server.

Cookie.domain_initial_dot

True if the domain explicitly specified by the server began with a dot ('.').

Cookies may have additional non-standard cookie-attributes. These may be accessed using the following methods:

Cookie.has_nonstandard_attr(name)

Return True if cookie has the named cookie-attribute.

Cookie.get_nonstandard_attr(name, default=None)

If cookie has the named cookie-attribute, return its value. Otherwise, return default.

Cookie.set_nonstandard_attr(name, value)

Set the value of the named cookie-attribute.

The Cookie class also defines the following method:

Cookie.is_expired(now=None)

True if cookie has passed the time at which the server requested it should expire. If now is given (in seconds since the epoch), return whether the cookie has expired at the specified time.

Exemples

The first example shows the most common usage of http.cookiejar:

import http.cookiejar, urllib.request
cj = http.cookiejar.CookieJar()
opener = urllib.request.build_opener(urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor(cj))
r = opener.open("http://example.com/")

This example illustrates how to open a URL using your Netscape, Mozilla, or Lynx cookies (assumes Unix/Netscape convention for location of the cookies file):

import os, http.cookiejar, urllib.request
cj = http.cookiejar.MozillaCookieJar()
cj.load(os.path.join(os.path.expanduser("~"), ".netscape", "cookies.txt"))
opener = urllib.request.build_opener(urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor(cj))
r = opener.open("http://example.com/")

The next example illustrates the use of DefaultCookiePolicy. Turn on RFC 2965 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html] cookies, be more strict about domains when setting and returning Netscape cookies, and block some domains from setting cookies or having them returned:

import urllib.request
from http.cookiejar import CookieJar, DefaultCookiePolicy
policy = DefaultCookiePolicy(
    rfc2965=True, strict_ns_domain=Policy.DomainStrict,
    blocked_domains=["ads.net", ".ads.net"])
cj = CookieJar(policy)
opener = urllib.request.build_opener(urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor(cj))
r = opener.open("http://example.com/")

xmlrpc --- XMLRPC server and client modules

XML-RPC est une méthode pour appeler des procédures distantes utilisant XML via HTTP. XML-RPC permet à un client d'appeler des fonctions avec leurs arguments sur un serveur distant (désigné par une URI), et recevoir en retour des données structurées.

xmlrpc est un paquet rassemblant un client et un serveur XML-RPC. Ces modules sont :

xmlrpc.client

xmlrpc.server

xmlrpc.client — Client XML-RPC

Source code: Lib/xmlrpc/client.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/xmlrpc/client.py]

XML-RPC est une méthode d'appel de procédure distante qui utilise du XML transmis via HTTP(S) comme transport. Un client peut ainsi appeler des méthodes avec des paramètres sur un serveur distant (le serveur est nommé par un URI) et récupérer des données structurées. Ce module prend en charge l'écriture de code client XML-RPC ; il gère la traduction entre les objets Python et le XML sur le réseau.

Avertissement

The xmlrpc.client module is not secure against maliciously constructed data. If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data, see XML security.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: For HTTPS URIs, xmlrpc.client now performs all the necessary certificate and hostname checks by default.

Disponibilité: not WASI.

Ce module ne fonctionne pas, ou n'est pas disponible en WebAssembly. Voir Plateformes WebAssembly pour plus d'informations.

class xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy(uri, transport=None, encoding=None, verbose=False, allow_none=False, use_datetime=False, use_builtin_types=False, *, headers=(), context=None)

Une instance ServerProxy est un objet qui gère la communication avec un serveur XML-RPC distant. Le premier argument, requis, est un URI (Uniform Resource Identifier, litt. identifiant uniforme de ressource), et est normalement l'URL du serveur. Le deuxième argument, facultatif, est une instance de fabrique de transport ; par défaut, il s'agit d'une instance de SafeTransport pour les URL HTTPS sinon d'une instance de Transport. Le troisième argument , facultatif, est un encodage, par défaut UTF-8. Le quatrième argument, facultatif, est un indicateur de débogage.

Les paramètres suivants régissent l'utilisation de l'instance de mandataire renvoyée. Si allow_none est vrai, la constante Python None est traduite en XML ; le comportement par défaut est que None lève une TypeError. Il s'agit d'une extension de la spécification XML-RPC couramment utilisée, mais elle n'est pas prise en charge par tous les clients et serveurs ; voir http://ontosys.com/xml-rpc/extensions.php [https://web.archive.org/web/20130120074804/http://ontosys.com/xml-rpc/extensions.php]. L'indicateur use_builtin_types peut être utilisé pour que les dates et heures soient présentées comme des objets datetime.datetime et que les données binaires soient présentées comme des objets bytes ; cet indicateur est faux par défaut. Les objets datetime.datetime, bytes et bytearray peuvent être transmis aux appels. Le paramètre headers est une séquence facultative d'en-têtes HTTP à envoyer avec chaque requête, exprimée sous la forme d'une séquence de paires représentant le nom et la valeur de l'en-tête (par exemple [('Header-Name', 'value')]). Si une l'URL utilise HTTPS, context peut-être fourni sous forme d'une ssl.SSLContext pour configurer les paramètres SSL de la connexion sous-jacente. L'indicateur obsolète use_datetime est similaire à use_builtin_types mais il s'applique uniquement aux valeurs de date et heure.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: l'indicateur use_builtin_types a été ajouté.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: le paramètre headers a été ajouté.

Les transports HTTP et HTTPS prennent en charge l'extension de syntaxe URL pour l'authentification HTTP basique : http://user:pass@host:port/path. La partie user:pass est codée en base64 en tant qu'en-tête HTTP « Authorization » et envoyée au serveur distant lors de l'appel d'une méthode XML-RPC. Vous ne devez l'utiliser que si le serveur distant nécessite un utilisateur et un mot de passe (Basic Authentication).

L'instance renvoyée est un objet mandataire avec des méthodes qui peuvent être utilisées pour effectuer les appels RPC correspondants sur le serveur distant. Si le serveur distant prend en charge l'API d'introspection, le mandataire peut également être utilisé pour interroger le serveur distant sur les méthodes qu'il prend en charge (découverte de services) et récupérer d'autres métadonnées associées au serveur.

Les types conformes (qui peuvent être sérialisés via XML) sont les éléments suivants (et, sauf indication contraire, sont du même type Python une fois désérialisés) :

Type XML-RPC

Type Python

boolean

bool

int, i1, i2, i4, i8 ou biginteger

int compris entre -2147483648 et 2147483647. Les valeurs sont marquées avec la balise <int>.

double ou float

float. Les valeurs reçoivent la balise <double>.

string

str

array

liste ou n-uplet contenant des éléments conformes. Les tableaux sont renvoyés sous forme de listes.

struct

dict. Les clés doivent être des chaînes, les valeurs peuvent être de n'importe quel type conforme. Des instances de classes définies par l'utilisateur peuvent être transmises ; seul leur attribut __dict__ est transmis.

dateTime.iso8601

DateTime ou datetime.datetime. Le type renvoyé dépend des valeurs des indicateurs use_builtin_types et use_datetime.

base64

Binary, bytes ou bytearray. Le type renvoyé dépend de la valeur de l'indicateur use_builtin_types.

nil

La constante None. Son utilisation n'est autorisée que si allow_none est vrai.

bigdecimal

decimal.Decimal. Type renvoyé uniquement.

Il s'agit de l'ensemble complet des types de données pris en charge par XML-RPC. Les appels de méthode peuvent également lever l'exception Fault, utilisée pour signaler les erreurs du serveur XML-RPC, ou l'exception ProtocolError utilisée pour signaler une erreur dans la couche de transport HTTP/HTTPS. Fault et ProtocolError dérivent d'une exception mère appelée Error. Notez que le module xmlrpc.client ne sérialise actuellement pas les instances de sous-classes de types natifs.

Lors de la sérialisation de chaînes, les caractères spéciaux à XML tels que <, > et & sont automatiquement échappés. Cependant, il est de la responsabilité de l'appelant de s'assurer que la chaîne ne contient pas de caractères non autorisés en XML, tels que les caractères de contrôle avec des valeurs ASCII comprises entre 0 et 31 (sauf, bien sûr, la tabulation, la nouvelle ligne et le retour chariot) ; si vous ne le faites pas, vous obtiendrez une requête XML-RPC qui n'est pas du XML valide. Si vous devez transmettre des octets arbitraires via XML-RPC, utilisez les classes bytes ou bytearray ou la classe de surcouche Binary décrite ci-dessous.

Server est conservé comme alias pour ServerProxy pour des raisons de compatibilité descendante. Le nouveau code doit utiliser ServerProxy.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: ajout de l'argument context.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: ajout du support des balises de type avec préfixes (par exemple ex:nil). Ajout de la prise en charge des types supplémentaires utilisés par l'implémentation Apache XML-RPC pour les valeurs numériques : i1, i2, i8, biginteger, float et bigdecimal. Voir https://ws.apache.org/xmlrpc/types.html pour une description.

Voir aussi

Guide pratique XML-RPC [https://tldp.org/HOWTO/XML-RPC-HOWTO/index.html]

Une bonne description du fonctionnement de XML-RPC et du logiciel client pour plusieurs langages. Contient à peu près tout ce qu'un développeur de client XML-RPC doit savoir.

Introspection de XML-RPC [https://xmlrpc-c.sourceforge.io/introspection.html]

Décrit l'extension du protocole XML-RPC pour l'introspection.

Spécification XML-RPC [http://xmlrpc.scripting.com/spec.html]

La spécification officielle.

Objets ServerProxy

Un ServerProxy possède une méthode correspondant à chaque procédure distante acceptée par le serveur XML-RPC. L'appel de la méthode effectue un appel distant (RPC) en fonction du nom et de la signature des arguments (le même nom de méthode pouvant être surchargé avec plusieurs signatures d'arguments). L'appel termine soit en renvoyant une valeur dans un type conforme, soit en levant une Fault ou une ProtocolError indiquant une erreur.

Les serveurs qui prennent en charge l'API d'introspection XML prennent en charge certaines méthodes courantes regroupées sous l'attribut réservé system :

ServerProxy.system.listMethods()

Cette méthode renvoie une liste de chaînes, une pour chaque méthode (non système) prise en charge par le serveur XML-RPC.

ServerProxy.system.methodSignature(name)

Cette méthode prend un paramètre, le nom d'une méthode implémentée par le serveur XML-RPC. Elle renvoie une liste de signatures possibles pour cette méthode. Une signature est une liste de types. Le premier de ces types est le type de retour de la méthode, les autres sont des paramètres.

Étant donné que plusieurs signatures (c'est-à-dire surcharges) sont autorisées, cette méthode renvoie une liste de signatures.

Les signatures elles-mêmes sont limitées aux paramètres de niveau supérieur attendus par une méthode. Par exemple, si une méthode attend un tableau de structures comme paramètre et qu'elle renvoie une chaîne, sa signature est simplement [str, list]. Si elle attend trois entiers et renvoie une chaîne, sa signature est [str, int, int, int].

Si aucune signature n'est définie pour la méthode, le type de la valeur renvoyée est autre chose qu'une liste.

ServerProxy.system.methodHelp(name)

Cette méthode prend un paramètre, le nom d'une méthode implémentée par le serveur XML-RPC. Elle renvoie une chaîne de documentation décrivant l'utilisation de cette méthode. Si aucune chaîne de ce type n'est disponible, une chaîne vide est renvoyée. La chaîne de documentation peut contenir un balisage HTML.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: les instances de ServerProxy prennent en charge le protocole context manager pour fermer le transport sous-jacent.

Voici un exemple concret. Le code du serveur :

from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer

def is_even(n):
    return n % 2 == 0

server = SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000))
print("Listening on port 8000...")
server.register_function(is_even, "is_even")
server.serve_forever()

Le code client correspondant au serveur précédent :

import xmlrpc.client

with xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000/") as proxy:
    print("3 is even: %s" % str(proxy.is_even(3)))
    print("100 is even: %s" % str(proxy.is_even(100)))

Objets DateTime

class xmlrpc.client.DateTime

Cette classe peut être initialisée avec les secondes écoulées depuis epoch, un n-uplet temporel (semblable à un time.struct_time), une chaîne au format ISO 8601 ou une instance de datetime.datetime. Elle dispose des méthodes suivantes, prises en charge principalement pour un usage interne par le code de sérialisation-désérialisation :

decode(string)

Accepte une chaîne comme nouvelle valeur temporelle de l'instance.

encode(out)

Sérialise ce DateTime au format attendu par XML-RPC et l'écrit dans l'objet de flux out.

Elle prend également en charge certains opérateurs natifs de Python via les méthodes de comparaison riches et __repr__().

Voici un exemple concret. Le code du serveur :

import datetime as dt
from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer
import xmlrpc.client

def today():
    today = dt.datetime.today()
    return xmlrpc.client.DateTime(today)

server = SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000))
print("Listening on port 8000...")
server.register_function(today, "today")
server.serve_forever()

Le code client correspondant au serveur précédent :

import xmlrpc.client
import datetime as dt

proxy = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000/")

today = proxy.today()
# convert the ISO 8601 string to a datetime object
converted = dt.datetime.strptime(today.value, "%Y%m%dT%H:%M:%S")
print(f"Today: {converted.strftime('%d.%m.%Y, %H:%M')}")

Objets binaires

class xmlrpc.client.Binary

Cette classe peut être initialisée à partir d'instances de bytes (qui peuvent inclure des NUL). L'accès principal au contenu d'un objet Binary est fourni par un attribut :

data

Données binaires encapsulées par l'instance Binary. Les données sont fournies sous forme d'objet bytes.

Les objets Binary ont les méthodes suivantes, prises en charge principalement pour un usage interne par le code de sérialisation-désérialisation :

decode(bytes)

Accepte un objet bytes encodant de la donnée en base64 et le décode comme les nouvelles données de l'instance.

encode(out)

Sérialise cette instance en base 64 tel qu'attendu par XML-RPC dans l'objet de flux out.

Les données encodées sont découpées en lignes de 76 caractères conformément à la RFC 2045 section 6.8 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html#section-6.8], qui était la spécification base64 standard de facto lorsque la spécification XML-RPC a été écrite.

Elle prend également en charge certains opérateurs natifs de Python via les méthodes __eq__() et __ne__().

Exemple d'utilisation des objets binaires. Nous allons transférer une image via XMLRPC :

from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer
import xmlrpc.client

def python_logo():
    with open("python_logo.jpg", "rb") as handle:
        return xmlrpc.client.Binary(handle.read())

server = SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000))
print("Listening on port 8000...")
server.register_function(python_logo, 'python_logo')

server.serve_forever()

Le client récupère l'image et l'enregistre dans un fichier :

import xmlrpc.client

proxy = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000/")
with open("fetched_python_logo.jpg", "wb") as handle:
    handle.write(proxy.python_logo().data)

Objets Fault

class xmlrpc.client.Fault

Un objet Fault encapsule le contenu d'une balise d'erreur XML-RPC. Les objets d'erreurs ont les attributs suivants :

faultCode

Entier indiquant le type d'erreur.

faultString

Chaîne contenant un message de diagnostic associé à l'erreur.

Dans l'exemple suivant, nous allons provoquer intentionnellement une Fault en renvoyant un objet de type complexe. Le code du serveur :

from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer

# A marshalling error is going to occur because we're returning a
# complex number
def add(x, y):
    return x+y+0j

server = SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000))
print("Listening on port 8000...")
server.register_function(add, 'add')

server.serve_forever()

Le code client correspondant au serveur précédent :

import xmlrpc.client

proxy = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000/")
try:
    proxy.add(2, 5)
except xmlrpc.client.Fault as err:
    print("A fault occurred")
    print("Fault code: %d" % err.faultCode)
    print("Fault string: %s" % err.faultString)

Objets ProtocolError

class xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError

Un objet ProtocolError décrit une erreur de protocole dans la couche de transport sous-jacente (telle qu'une erreur 404 « not found » si le serveur nommé par l'URI n'existe pas). Il possède les attributs suivants :

url

URI ou URL qui a déclenché l'erreur.

errcode

Code d'erreur.

errmsg

Message d'erreur ou chaîne de diagnostic.

headers

Dictionnaire contenant les en-têtes de la requête HTTP/HTTPS qui a déclenché l'erreur.

Dans l'exemple suivant, nous allons intentionnellement provoquer une ProtocolError en fournissant un URI non valide :

import xmlrpc.client

# create a ServerProxy with a URI that doesn't respond to XMLRPC requests
proxy = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://google.com/")

try:
    proxy.some_method()
except xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError as err:
    print("A protocol error occurred")
    print("URL: %s" % err.url)
    print("HTTP/HTTPS headers: %s" % err.headers)
    print("Error code: %d" % err.errcode)
    print("Error message: %s" % err.errmsg)

Objets MultiCall

L'objet MultiCall fournit un moyen d'encapsuler plusieurs appels vers un serveur distant dans une seule requête [1].

class xmlrpc.client.MultiCall(server)

Crée un objet utilisé pour regrouper plusieurs appels de méthode. server est la cible de l'appel. Appeler des méthodes sur une instance de MultiCall ne fait que stocker le nom de la méthode et ses arguments, l'appel renvoie immédiatement None . Appeler l'objet lui-même entraîne la transmission de tous les appels stockés sous la forme d'une seule requête system.multicall. Le résultat de cet appel est un générateur ; itérer sur ce générateur donne les résultats individuels.

Voici un exemple d'utilisation de cette classe. Le code du serveur :

from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer

def add(x, y):
    return x + y

def subtract(x, y):
    return x - y

def multiply(x, y):
    return x * y

def divide(x, y):
    return x // y

# A simple server with simple arithmetic functions
server = SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000))
print("Listening on port 8000...")
server.register_multicall_functions()
server.register_function(add, 'add')
server.register_function(subtract, 'subtract')
server.register_function(multiply, 'multiply')
server.register_function(divide, 'divide')
server.serve_forever()

Le code client correspondant au serveur précédent :

import xmlrpc.client

proxy = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000/")
multicall = xmlrpc.client.MultiCall(proxy)
multicall.add(7, 3)
multicall.subtract(7, 3)
multicall.multiply(7, 3)
multicall.divide(7, 3)
result = multicall()

print("7+3=%d, 7-3=%d, 7*3=%d, 7//3=%d" % tuple(result))

Fonctions utilitaires

xmlrpc.client.dumps(params, methodname=None, methodresponse=None, encoding=None, allow_none=False)

Convert params into an XML-RPC request, or into a response if methodresponse is true. params can be either a tuple of arguments or an instance of the Fault exception class. If methodresponse is true, only a single value can be returned, meaning that params must be of length 1. encoding, if supplied, is the encoding to use in the generated XML; the default is UTF-8. Python's None value cannot be used in standard XML-RPC; to allow using it via an extension, provide a true value for allow_none.

xmlrpc.client.loads(data, use_datetime=False, use_builtin_types=False)

Convertit une requête ou une réponse XML-RPC en une paire (params, methodname). params est un n-uplet d'arguments ; methodname est une chaîne, ou None si aucun nom de méthode n'est présent dans le paquet. Si le paquet XML-RPC représente une erreur, cette fonction lève une exception Fault. L'indicateur use_builtin_types peut être utilisé pour que les valeurs temporelles soient converties en objets datetime.datetime et que les données binaires soient présentées comme des objets bytes ; cet indicateur est faux par défaut.

L'indicateur obsolète use_datetime est similaire à use_builtin_types mais il s'applique uniquement aux valeurs temporelles.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: l'indicateur use_builtin_types a été ajouté.

Exemple d'utilisation du client

# simple test program (from the XML-RPC specification)
from xmlrpc.client import ServerProxy, Error

# server = ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000") # local server
with ServerProxy("http://betty.userland.com") as proxy:

    print(proxy)

    try:
        print(proxy.examples.getStateName(41))
    except Error as v:
        print("ERROR", v)

Pour accéder à un serveur XML-RPC via un mandataire HTTP, vous devez définir un transport personnalisé. L'exemple suivant montre comment faire :

import http.client
import xmlrpc.client

class ProxiedTransport(xmlrpc.client.Transport):

    def set_proxy(self, host, port=None, headers=None):
        self.proxy = host, port
        self.proxy_headers = headers

    def make_connection(self, host):
        connection = http.client.HTTPConnection(*self.proxy)
        connection.set_tunnel(host, headers=self.proxy_headers)
        self._connection = host, connection
        return connection

transport = ProxiedTransport()
transport.set_proxy('proxy-server', 8080)
server = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy('http://betty.userland.com', transport=transport)
print(server.examples.getStateName(41))

Exemple d'utilisation du client et du serveur

Voir SimpleXMLRPCServer example.

Notes

[1]

Cette approche a été présentée pour la première fois dans une discussion sur xmlrpc.com [https://web.archive.org/web/20060624230303/http://www.xmlrpc.com/discuss/msgReader$1208?mode=topic] .

xmlrpc.server — Serveurs XML-RPC de base

Code source : Lib/xmlrpc/server.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/xmlrpc/server.py]

The xmlrpc.server module provides a basic server framework for XML-RPC servers written in Python. Servers can either be free standing, using SimpleXMLRPCServer, or embedded in a CGI environment, using CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.

Avertissement

The xmlrpc.server module is not secure against maliciously constructed data. If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data, see XML security.

Disponibilité: not WASI.

Ce module ne fonctionne pas ou n'est pas disponible sur WebAssembly. Voir Plateformes WebAssembly pour plus d'informations.

class xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer(addr, requestHandler=SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler, logRequests=True, allow_none=False, encoding=None, bind_and_activate=True, use_builtin_types=False)

Crée une nouvelle instance de serveur. Cette classe fournit des méthodes d'enregistrement des fonctions pouvant être appelées par le protocole XML-RPC. Le paramètre requestHandler doit être une fabrique pour les instances de gestionnaire de requêtes ; sa valeur par défaut est SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler. Les paramètres addr et requestHandler sont passés au constructeur socketserver.TCPServer. Si logRequests est vrai (valeur par défaut), les requêtes sont enregistrées ; définir ce paramètre sur faux désactive la journalisation. Les paramètres allow_none et encoding sont transmis à xmlrpc.client et contrôlent les réponses XML-RPC qui sont renvoyées par le serveur. Le paramètre bind_and_activate contrôle si server_bind() et server_activate() sont appelés immédiatement par le constructeur ; la valeur par défaut est vraie. Le définir sur faux permet au code de manipuler la variable de classe allow_reuse_address avant que l'adresse ne soit liée. Le paramètre use_builtin_types est transmis à la fonction loads() et contrôle quels types sont traités lorsque des valeurs temporelles ou des données binaires sont reçues ; la valeur par défaut est faux.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: l'indicateur use_builtin_types a été ajouté.

class xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler(allow_none=False, encoding=None, use_builtin_types=False)

Crée une nouvelle instance pour gérer les requêtes XML-RPC dans un environnement CGI. Les paramètres allow_none et encoding sont transmis à xmlrpc.client et contrôlent les réponses XML-RPC qui sont renvoyées par le serveur. Le paramètre use_builtin_types est transmis à la fonction loads() et contrôle quels types sont traités lorsque des valeurs temporelles ou des données binaires sont reçues ; la valeur par défaut est faux.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: l'indicateur use_builtin_types a été ajouté.

class xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler

Crée une nouvelle instance de gestionnaire de requêtes. Ce gestionnaire de requêtes prend en charge les requêtes POST et modifie la journalisation afin que le paramètre logRequests du paramètre du constructeur SimpleXMLRPCServer soit honoré.

SimpleXMLRPCServer objects

La classe SimpleXMLRPCServer dérive de socketserver.TCPServer et fournit un moyen de créer des serveurs XML-RPC simples et autonomes.

SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_function(function=None, name=None)

Enregistre une fonction pouvant répondre aux requêtes XML-RPC. Si name est donné, c'est le nom de la méthode associée à function, sinon function.__name__ est utilisé. name est une chaîne et peut contenir des caractères non légaux dans les identifiants Python, y compris le point.

Cette méthode peut également être utilisée en tant que décorateur. Lorsqu'elle est utilisée comme décorateur, name ne peut être donné que comme argument nommé pour enregistrer function sous le nom name. Si name n'est pas donné, function.__name__ est utilisé.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: register_function() peut être utilisée comme décorateur.

SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_instance(instance, allow_dotted_names=False)

Enregistre un objet utilisé pour exposer des noms de méthodes qui n'ont pas été enregistrés à l'aide de register_function(). Si instance contient une méthode _dispatch(), elle est appelée avec le nom de la méthode demandée et les paramètres de la requête. Son prototype est def _dispatch(self, method, params) (notez que params ne représente pas une liste d'arguments variables). Si elle appelle une fonction sous-jacente pour effectuer sa tâche, cette fonction est appelée avec func(*params), dépaquetant ainsi la liste des paramètres. La valeur de retour de _dispatch() est renvoyée au client comme résultat. Si instance n'a pas de méthode _dispatch(), un attribut correspondant au nom de la méthode demandée est recherché.

Si l'argument facultatif allow_dotted_names est vrai et que l'instance n'a pas de méthode _dispatch(), alors si le nom de méthode demandé contient des points, chaque composant du nom de méthode est recherché individuellement, avec pour effet qu'une simple recherche hiérarchique est effectuée. La valeur trouvée lors de cette recherche est ensuite appelée avec les paramètres de la requête et la valeur de retour est renvoyée au client.

Avertissement

l'activation de l'option allow_dotted_names permet aux clients malveillants d'accéder aux variables globales de votre module et peut permettre aux clients malveillants d'exécuter du code arbitraire sur votre machine. Utilisez cette option uniquement sur un réseau sécurisé et fermé.

SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_introspection_functions()

Enregistre les fonctions d'introspection XML-RPC system.listMethods, system.methodHelp et system.methodSignature.

SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_multicall_functions()

Enregistre la fonction multi-appels XML-RPC system.multicall.

SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler.rpc_paths

La valeur de cet attribut doit être un n-uplet contenant les parties de chemin d'URL valides pour recevoir les requêtes XML-RPC. Les requêtes effectuées sur d’autres chemins entraînent une erreur HTTP 404 « No such page ». Si ce n-uplet est vide, tous les chemins sont considérés comme valides. La valeur par défaut est ('/', '/RPC2').

SimpleXMLRPCServer example

Code du serveur :

from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer
from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler

# Restrict to a particular path.
class RequestHandler(SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler):
    rpc_paths = ('/RPC2',)

# Create server
with SimpleXMLRPCServer(('localhost', 8000),
                        requestHandler=RequestHandler) as server:
    server.register_introspection_functions()

    # Register pow() function; this will use the value of
    # pow.__name__ as the name, which is just 'pow'.
    server.register_function(pow)

    # Register a function under a different name
    def adder_function(x, y):
        return x + y
    server.register_function(adder_function, 'add')

    # Register an instance; all the methods of the instance are
    # published as XML-RPC methods (in this case, just 'mul').
    class MyFuncs:
        def mul(self, x, y):
            return x * y

    server.register_instance(MyFuncs())

    # Run the server's main loop
    server.serve_forever()

Le code client suivant appelle les méthodes mises à disposition par le serveur précédent :

import xmlrpc.client

s = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy('http://localhost:8000')
print(s.pow(2,3))  # Returns 2**3 = 8
print(s.add(2,3))  # Returns 5
print(s.mul(5,2))  # Returns 5*2 = 10

# Print list of available methods
print(s.system.listMethods())

register_function() peut également être utilisée comme décorateur, voici l'équivalent du serveur précédent :

from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer
from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler

class RequestHandler(SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler):
    rpc_paths = ('/RPC2',)

with SimpleXMLRPCServer(('localhost', 8000),
                        requestHandler=RequestHandler) as server:
    server.register_introspection_functions()

    # Register pow() function; this will use the value of
    # pow.__name__ as the name, which is just 'pow'.
    server.register_function(pow)

    # Register a function under a different name, using
    # register_function as a decorator. *name* can only be given
    # as a keyword argument.
    @server.register_function(name='add')
    def adder_function(x, y):
        return x + y

    # Register a function under function.__name__.
    @server.register_function
    def mul(x, y):
        return x * y

    server.serve_forever()

L'exemple suivant inclus dans le module Lib/xmlrpc/server.py montre un serveur autorisant les noms pointés et enregistrant une fonction multicall.

Avertissement

Enabling the allow_dotted_names option allows intruders to access your module's global variables and may allow intruders to execute arbitrary code on your machine. Only use this example within a secure, closed network.

import datetime as dt

class ExampleService:
    def getData(self):
        return '42'

    class currentTime:
        @staticmethod
        def getCurrentTime():
            return dt.datetime.now()

with SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000)) as server:
    server.register_function(pow)
    server.register_function(lambda x,y: x+y, 'add')
    server.register_instance(ExampleService(), allow_dotted_names=True)
    server.register_multicall_functions()
    print('Serving XML-RPC on localhost port 8000')
    try:
        server.serve_forever()
    except KeyboardInterrupt:
        print("\nKeyboard interrupt received, exiting.")
        sys.exit(0)

Cette démonstration d'ExempleService peut être invoquée à partir de la ligne de commande suivante :

python -m xmlrpc.server

Le client qui interagit avec le serveur ci-dessus est inclus dans Lib/xmlrpc/client.py :

server = ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000")

try:
    print(server.currentTime.getCurrentTime())
except Error as v:
    print("ERROR", v)

multi = MultiCall(server)
multi.getData()
multi.pow(2,9)
multi.add(1,2)
try:
    for response in multi():
        print(response)
except Error as v:
    print("ERROR", v)

Ce client qui interagit avec le serveur de démonstration XMLRPC peut être appelé comme ci :

python -m xmlrpc.client

CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler

La classe CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler peut être utilisée pour gérer les requêtes XML-RPC envoyées aux scripts Python CGI.

CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_function(function=None, name=None)

Enregistre une fonction pouvant répondre aux requêtes XML-RPC. Si name est donné, c'est le nom de la méthode associée à function, sinon function.__name__ est utilisé. name est une chaîne et peut contenir des caractères non légaux dans les identifiants Python, y compris le point.

Cette méthode peut également être utilisée en tant que décorateur. Lorsqu'elle est utilisée comme décorateur, name ne peut être donné que comme argument nommé pour enregistrer function sous le nom name. Si name n'est pas donné, function.__name__ est utilisé.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: register_function() peut être utilisée comme décorateur.

CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_instance(instance)

Enregistre un objet utilisé pour exposer des noms de méthodes qui n'ont pas été enregistrées à l'aide de register_function(). Si l'instance contient une méthode _dispatch(), elle est appelée avec le nom de la méthode demandée et les paramètres de la requête ; la valeur de retour est renvoyée au client comme résultat. Si l'instance n'a pas de méthode _dispatch(), elle recherche un attribut correspondant au nom de la méthode demandée ; si le nom de méthode demandée contient des points, chaque composant du nom de méthode est recherché individuellement, avec pour effet qu'une simple recherche hiérarchique est effectuée. La valeur trouvée lors de cette recherche est ensuite appelée avec les paramètres de la requête et la valeur de retour est renvoyée au client.

CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_introspection_functions()

Enregistre les fonctions d'introspection XML-RPC system.listMethods, system.methodHelp et system.methodSignature.

CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_multicall_functions()

Enregistre la fonction multi-appels XML-RPC system.multicall.

CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.handle_request(request_text=None)

Gère une requête XML-RPC. Si request_text est donné, il doit s'agir des données POST fournies par le serveur HTTP, sinon le contenu de stdin est utilisé.

Exemple :

class MyFuncs:
    def mul(self, x, y):
        return x * y

handler = CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler()
handler.register_function(pow)
handler.register_function(lambda x,y: x+y, 'add')
handler.register_introspection_functions()
handler.register_instance(MyFuncs())
handler.handle_request()

Documentation du serveur XMLRPC

Ces classes étendent les classes ci-dessus pour servir la documentation HTML en réponse aux requêtes HTTP GET. Les serveurs peuvent être soit autonomes, en utilisant DocXMLRPCServer, soit intégrés dans un environnement CGI, en utilisant DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.

class xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer(addr, requestHandler=DocXMLRPCRequestHandler, logRequests=True, allow_none=False, encoding=None, bind_and_activate=True, use_builtin_types=True)

Crée une nouvelle instance de serveur. Tous les paramètres ont la même signification que pour SimpleXMLRPCServer ; requestHandler est par défaut DocXMLRPCRequestHandler.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: l'indicateur use_builtin_types a été ajouté.

class xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler

Crée une nouvelle instance pour gérer les requêtes XML-RPC dans un environnement CGI.

class xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCRequestHandler

Crée une nouvelle instance de gestionnaire de requêtes. Ce gestionnaire de requêtes prend en charge les requêtes XML-RPC POST, les requêtes GET de documentation et modifie la journalisation afin que le paramètre logRequests du paramètre de constructeur DocXMLRPCServer soit honoré.

DocXMLRPCServer objects

La classe DocXMLRPCServer dérive de SimpleXMLRPCServer et fournit un moyen de créer des serveurs XML-RPC autonomes et auto-documentés. Les requêtes HTTP POST sont traitées comme des appels de méthode XML-RPC. Les requêtes HTTP GET sont gérées en générant une documentation HTML de style pydoc. Cela permet à un serveur de fournir sa propre documentation Web.

DocXMLRPCServer.set_server_title(server_title)

Définit le titre utilisé dans la documentation HTML générée. Ce titre est utilisé à l'intérieur de l'élément HTML title.

DocXMLRPCServer.set_server_name(server_name)

Définit le nom utilisé dans la documentation HTML générée. Ce nom apparaît en haut de la documentation générée à l'intérieur d'un élément h1.

DocXMLRPCServer.set_server_documentation(server_documentation)

Définit la description utilisée dans la documentation HTML générée. Cette description apparaît sous forme de paragraphe, sous le nom du serveur, dans la documentation.

DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler

La classe DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler dérive de CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler et fournit un moyen de créer des scripts CGI XML-RPC auto-documentés. Les requêtes HTTP POST sont traitées comme des appels de méthode XML-RPC. Les requêtes HTTP GET sont gérées en générant une documentation HTML de style pydoc. Cela permet à un serveur de fournir sa propre documentation Web.

DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.set_server_title(server_title)

Définit le titre utilisé dans la documentation HTML générée. Ce titre est utilisé à l'intérieur de l'élément HTML title.

DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.set_server_name(server_name)

Définit le nom utilisé dans la documentation HTML générée. Ce nom apparaît en haut de la documentation générée à l'intérieur d'un élément h1.

DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.set_server_documentation(server_documentation)

Définit la description utilisée dans la documentation HTML générée. Cette description apparaît sous forme de paragraphe, sous le nom du serveur, dans la documentation.

ipaddress --- IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library

Code source : Lib/ipaddress.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/ipaddress.py]

ipaddress provides the capabilities to create, manipulate and operate on IPv4 and IPv6 addresses and networks.

Les fonctions et les classes dans ce module facilitent la gestion de différentes tâches reliée aux adresses IP, incluant vérifier si deux hôtes sont sur le même sous-réseau, itérer sur tous les hôtes d'un sous-réseau particulier, vérifier si une chaîne représente bien une adresse IP ou une définition de réseau valide, et ainsi de suite.

Ceci est la référence complète de l'API du module, pour un aperçu et introduction, voir Introduction au module ipaddress.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Fonctions fabriques pratiques

The ipaddress module provides factory functions to conveniently create IP addresses, networks and interfaces:

ipaddress.ip_address(address)

Return an IPv4Address or IPv6Address object depending on the IP address passed as argument. Either IPv4 or IPv6 addresses may be supplied; integers less than 2**32 will be considered to be IPv4 by default. A ValueError is raised if address does not represent a valid IPv4 or IPv6 address.

>>> ipaddress.ip_address('192.168.0.1')
IPv4Address('192.168.0.1')
>>> ipaddress.ip_address('2001:db8::')
IPv6Address('2001:db8::')

ipaddress.ip_network(address, strict=True)

Return an IPv4Network or IPv6Network object depending on the IP address passed as argument. address is a string or integer representing the IP network. Either IPv4 or IPv6 networks may be supplied; integers less than 2**32 will be considered to be IPv4 by default. strict is passed to IPv4Network or IPv6Network constructor. A ValueError is raised if address does not represent a valid IPv4 or IPv6 address, or if the network has host bits set.

>>> ipaddress.ip_network('192.168.0.0/28')
IPv4Network('192.168.0.0/28')

ipaddress.ip_interface(address)

Return an IPv4Interface or IPv6Interface object depending on the IP address passed as argument. address is a string or integer representing the IP address. Either IPv4 or IPv6 addresses may be supplied; integers less than 2**32 will be considered to be IPv4 by default. A ValueError is raised if address does not represent a valid IPv4 or IPv6 address.

Un inconvénient de ces fonctions pratiques est que le besoin de gérer à la fois IPv4 et IPv6 signifie que les messages d'erreur contiennent peu d'information sur l'erreur précise puisqu'elles ne peuvent pas deviner quel format entre IPv4 et IPv6 est voulu. Un compte-rendu d'erreur plus détaillé peut être obtenu en appelant directement le constructeur de classe pour la version voulue.

Adresses IP

Objets adresse

Les objets IPv4Address et IPv6Address ont beaucoup d'attributs en commun. Certains attributs qui n'ont du sens que pour des adresses IPv6 sont aussi implémentés par les objets IPv4Address pour faciliter l'écriture de code qui gère les 2 versions IP correctement. Les objets d'adresse sont hachables pour qu'ils puissent être utilisés comme des clés dans des dictionnaires.

class ipaddress.IPv4Address(address)

Construit une adresse IPv4. Une exception AddressValueError est levée si address n'est pas une adresse IPv4 valide.

Une adresse IPv4 valide est composée de :

Une chaîne en notation décimale par points, composée de quatre entiers décimaux dans la plage inclusive 0—255, séparés par des points (p. ex. 192.168.0.1). Chaque entier représente un octet dans l'adresse. Les zéros en tête ne sont pas tolérés pour éviter toute confusion avec la notation octale.

Un entier qui tient dans 32 bits.

Un entier tassé dans un objet bytes de taille 4 (gros-boutiste).

>>> ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.168.0.1')
IPv4Address('192.168.0.1')
>>> ipaddress.IPv4Address(3232235521)
IPv4Address('192.168.0.1')
>>> ipaddress.IPv4Address(b'\xC0\xA8\x00\x01')
IPv4Address('192.168.0.1')

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Les zéros en tête sont tolérés, même dans les cas ambigus qui ont l'apparence de notation octal.

Modifié dans la version 3.9.5: Les zéros en tête ne sont plus tolérés et seront traités comme une erreur. Les chaînes d'adresses IPv4 sont maintenant analysées aussi strictement que dans dans la fonction glibc inet_pton().

version

Numéro de version approprié : 4 pour IPv4, 6 pour IPv6.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Made available on the class.

max_prefixlen

Nombre total de bits dans la représentation d'adresse de cette version : 32 pour IPv4, 128 pour IPv6.

Le préfixe définit le nombre de bits en tête dans une adresse qui sont comparés pour déterminer si une adresse fait partie d'un réseau.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Made available on the class.

compressed

exploded

Une chaîne en notation décimale par points. Les zéros en tête ne sont jamais inclus dans la représentation.

Comme IPv4 ne définit pas une notation abrégée pour les adresses avec des octets définis à zéro, ces deux attributs sont toujours identiques à str(addr) pour les adresses IPv4. Exposer ces attributs rend plus simple l'écriture de code d'affichage qui peut gérer à la fois les adresses IPv4 et IPv6.

packed

La représentation binaire de cette adresse — un objet bytes avec une taille appropriée (gros-boutiste). La taille est de 4 octets pour IPv4 et 16 octets pour IPv6.

reverse_pointer

Nom de l'enregistrement DNS PTR inverse pour l'adresse IP, p. ex :

>>> ipaddress.ip_address("127.0.0.1").reverse_pointer
'1.0.0.127.in-addr.arpa'
>>> ipaddress.ip_address("2001:db8::1").reverse_pointer
'1.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.8.b.d.0.1.0.0.2.ip6.arpa'

C'est le nom utilisé pour effectuer une recherche inverse PTR et non le nom de l'hôte résolu lui-même.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

is_multicast

True si l'adresse est réservée pour utilisation multicast. Voir RFC 3171 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3171.html] (pour IPv4) or RFC 2373 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2373.html] (pour IPv6).

is_private

True if the address is defined as not globally reachable by iana-ipv4-special-registry [https://www.iana.org/assignments/iana-ipv4-special-registry/iana-ipv4-special-registry.xhtml] (for IPv4) or iana-ipv6-special-registry [https://www.iana.org/assignments/iana-ipv6-special-registry/iana-ipv6-special-registry.xhtml] (for IPv6) with the following exceptions:

is_private is False for the shared address space (100.64.0.0/10)

For IPv4-mapped IPv6-addresses the is_private value is determined by the semantics of the underlying IPv4 addresses and the following condition holds (see IPv6Address.ipv4_mapped):

address.is_private == address.ipv4_mapped.is_private

is_private has value opposite to is_global, except for the shared address space (100.64.0.0/10 range) where they are both False.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Fixed some false positives and false negatives.

192.0.0.0/24 is considered private with the exception of 192.0.0.9/32 and 192.0.0.10/32 (previously: only the 192.0.0.0/29 sub-range was considered private).

64:ff9b:1::/48 is considered private.

2002::/16 is considered private.

There are exceptions within 2001::/23 (otherwise considered private): 2001:1::1/128, 2001:1::2/128, 2001:3::/32, 2001:4:112::/48, 2001:20::/28, 2001:30::/28. The exceptions are not considered private.

is_global

True if the address is defined as globally reachable by iana-ipv4-special-registry [https://www.iana.org/assignments/iana-ipv4-special-registry/iana-ipv4-special-registry.xhtml] (for IPv4) or iana-ipv6-special-registry [https://www.iana.org/assignments/iana-ipv6-special-registry/iana-ipv6-special-registry.xhtml] (for IPv6) with the following exception:

For IPv4-mapped IPv6-addresses the is_private value is determined by the semantics of the underlying IPv4 addresses and the following condition holds (see IPv6Address.ipv4_mapped):

address.is_global == address.ipv4_mapped.is_global

is_global has value opposite to is_private, except for the shared address space (100.64.0.0/10 range) where they are both False.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Fixed some false positives and false negatives, see is_private for details.

is_unspecified

True si l'adresse est non-spécifiée. Voir RFC 5735 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5735.html] (pour IPv4) or RFC 2373 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2373.html] (pour IPv6).

is_reserved

True if the address is noted as reserved by the IETF. For IPv4, this is only 240.0.0.0/4, the Reserved address block. For IPv6, this is all addresses allocated [https://www.iana.org/assignments/ipv6-address-space/ipv6-address-space.xhtml] as Reserved by IETF for future use.

Note

For IPv4, is_reserved is not related to the address block value of the Reserved-by-Protocol column in iana-ipv4-special-registry [https://www.iana.org/assignments/iana-ipv4-special-registry/iana-ipv4-special-registry.xhtml].

Prudence

For IPv6, fec0::/10 a former Site-Local scoped address prefix is currently excluded from that list (see is_site_local & RFC 3879 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3879.html]).

is_loopback

True si c'est une adresse de rebouclage (loopback en anglais). Voir RFC 3330 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3330.html] (pour IPv4) or RFC 2373 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2373.html] (pour IPv6).

is_link_local

True si l'adresse est réservée pour les liaisons locales auto-configurées. Voir RFC 3927 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3927.html].

ipv6_mapped

IPv4Address object representing the IPv4-mapped IPv6 address. See RFC 4291 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4291.html].

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

IPv4Address.__format__(fmt)

Renvoie l'adresse IP sous forme d'une chaîne, contrôlée par une chaîne de formatage explicite. fmt peut être : 's', l'option par défaut, équivalent à str(), 'b' pour une chaîne binaire préfixée par des zéros, 'X' ou 'x' pour une représentation hexadécimale majuscule ou minuscule, ou 'n', équivalant à 'b' pour les adresses IPv4 et 'x' pour IPv6. Pour les représentations binaires et hexadécimales, le spécificateur de forme '#' et l'option de regroupement '_' sont disponibles. __format__ est utilisé par format, str.format et les f-strings.

>>> format(ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.168.0.1'))
'192.168.0.1'
>>> '{:#b}'.format(ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.168.0.1'))
'0b11000000101010000000000000000001'
>>> f'{ipaddress.IPv6Address("2001:db8::1000"):s}'
'2001:db8::1000'
>>> format(ipaddress.IPv6Address('2001:db8::1000'), '_X')
'2001_0DB8_0000_0000_0000_0000_0000_1000'
>>> '{:#_n}'.format(ipaddress.IPv6Address('2001:db8::1000'))
'0x2001_0db8_0000_0000_0000_0000_0000_1000'

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

class ipaddress.IPv6Address(address)

Construit une adresse IPv6. Une AddressValueError est levée si address n'est pas une adresse IPv6 valide.

Une adresse IPv6 valide est constituée de :

Une chaîne constituée de huit groupes de quatre chiffres hexadécimaux, chaque groupe représentant 16 bits. Les groupes sont séparés par des deux-points. Ceci décrit une notation éclatée (longue). La chaîne peut-être aussi abrégée (notation courte) par différents moyens. Voir RFC 4291 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4291.html] pour plus de détails. Par exemple, "0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0abc:0007:0def" peut s'écrire "::abc:7:def".

Optionnellement, la chaîne peut avoir un indice de zone de portée, exprimé avec un suffixe %scope_id. Si présent, l'indice de portée ne doit pas être vide et ne doit pas contenir %. Voir RFC 4007 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4007.html] pour plus de détails. Par exemple, fe80::1234%1 pourrait identifier fe80::1234 sur la première interface du nœud.

Un entier qui tient dans 128 bits.

Un entier tassé dans un objet bytes de taille 16, gros-boutiste.

>>> ipaddress.IPv6Address('2001:db8::1000')
IPv6Address('2001:db8::1000')
>>> ipaddress.IPv6Address('ff02::5678%1')
IPv6Address('ff02::5678%1')

compressed

Version courte de la représentation d'adresse, avec les groupes de zéros en tête omis et la séquence la plus longue de groupes constitués entièrement de zéros réduit à un seul groupe vide.

C'est aussi la valeur renvoyée par str(addr) pour les adresses IPv6.

exploded

Version longue de la représentation d'adresse, avec tous les zéros en tête et groupes composés entièrement de zéros inclus.

Pour les attributs et méthodes suivants, voir la documentation de la classe IPv4Address :

packed

reverse_pointer

version

max_prefixlen

is_multicast

is_private

is_global

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

is_unspecified

is_reserved

is_loopback

is_link_local

is_site_local

True si l'adresse est réservée pour usage sur réseau local. Notez que l'espace d'adressage sur réseau local a été rendu obsolète par RFC 3879 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3879.html]. Utilisez is_private pour tester si l'adresse est dans l'espace d'adresses locales et uniques défini par RFC 4193 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4193.html].

ipv4_mapped

Pour les adresses qui semblent être des adresses mappées IPv4 (commençant par ::FFFF/96), cette propriété rapporte l'adresse IPv4 imbriquée. Pour toute autre adresse, cette propriété sera None.

scope_id

Pour les adresses avec une portée spécifiée comme définies par RFC 4007 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4007.html], cette propriété identifie la zone précise de la portée d'adresse à laquelle cette adresse appartient, en tant que chaîne. Quand la zone de portée n'est pas spécifiée, cette propriété est None.

sixtofour

Pour les adresses qui semblent être des adresses 6to4 (commençant par 2002::/16) tel que défini par RFC 3056 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3056.html], cette propriété rapporte l'adresse IPv4 imbriquée. Pour toute autre adresse, cette propriété sera None.

teredo

Pour les adresses qui semblent être des adresses Teredo (commençant par 2001::/32) tel que défini par RFC 4380 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4380.html], cette propriété rapporte la paire (server, client) imbriquée. Pour toute autre adresse, cette propriété sera None.

IPv6Address.__format__(fmt)

Référez-vous à la documentation de la méthode correspondante dans IPv4Address.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

Conversion vers les chaînes et les entiers

Afin d'interagir avec les API de réseau tels que le module socket, les adresses doivent être converties en chaînes et en entiers. Ceci est géré en utilisant les fonctions natives str() et int() :

>>> str(ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.168.0.1'))
'192.168.0.1'
>>> int(ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.168.0.1'))
3232235521
>>> str(ipaddress.IPv6Address('::1'))
'::1'
>>> int(ipaddress.IPv6Address('::1'))
1

Note that IPv6 scoped addresses are converted to integers without scope zone ID.

Opérateurs

Address objects support some operators. Unless stated otherwise, operators can only be applied between compatible objects (i.e. IPv4 with IPv4, IPv6 with IPv6).

Opérateurs de comparaison

Address objects can be compared with the usual set of comparison operators. Same IPv6 addresses with different scope zone IDs are not equal. Some examples:

>>> IPv4Address('127.0.0.2') > IPv4Address('127.0.0.1')
True
>>> IPv4Address('127.0.0.2') == IPv4Address('127.0.0.1')
False
>>> IPv4Address('127.0.0.2') != IPv4Address('127.0.0.1')
True
>>> IPv6Address('fe80::1234') == IPv6Address('fe80::1234%1')
False
>>> IPv6Address('fe80::1234%1') != IPv6Address('fe80::1234%2')
True

Opérateurs arithmétiques

Les entiers peuvent être additionnés ou soustraits des objets d'adresse. Quelques exemples :

>>> IPv4Address('127.0.0.2') + 3
IPv4Address('127.0.0.5')
>>> IPv4Address('127.0.0.2') - 3
IPv4Address('126.255.255.255')
>>> IPv4Address('255.255.255.255') + 1
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
ipaddress.AddressValueError: 4294967296 (>= 2**32) is not permitted as an IPv4 address

Définitions de réseaux IP

The IPv4Network and IPv6Network objects provide a mechanism for defining and inspecting IP network definitions. A network definition consists of a mask and a network address, and as such defines a range of IP addresses that equal the network address when masked (binary AND) with the mask. For example, a network definition with the mask 255.255.255.0 and the network address 192.168.1.0 consists of IP addresses in the inclusive range 192.168.1.0 to 192.168.1.255.

Préfixe, masque réseau et masque de l'hôte

There are several equivalent ways to specify IP network masks. A prefix /<nbits> is a notation that denotes how many high-order bits are set in the network mask. A net mask is an IP address with some number of high-order bits set. Thus the prefix /24 is equivalent to the net mask 255.255.255.0 in IPv4, or ffff:ff00:: in IPv6. In addition, a host mask is the logical inverse of a net mask, and is sometimes used (for example in Cisco access control lists) to denote a network mask. The host mask equivalent to /24 in IPv4 is 0.0.0.255.

Objets réseau

All attributes implemented by address objects are implemented by network objects as well. In addition, network objects implement additional attributes. All of these are common between IPv4Network and IPv6Network, so to avoid duplication they are only documented for IPv4Network. Network objects are hashable, so they can be used as keys in dictionaries.

class ipaddress.IPv4Network(address, strict=True)

Construit une définition de réseau IPv4. address peut valoir :

A string consisting of an IP address and an optional mask, separated by a slash (/). The IP address is the network address, and the mask can be either a single number, which means it's a prefix, or a string representation of an IPv4 address. If it's the latter, the mask is interpreted as a net mask if it starts with a non-zero field, or as a host mask if it starts with a zero field, with the single exception of an all-zero mask which is treated as a net mask. If no mask is provided, it's considered to be /32.

For example, the following address specifications are equivalent: 192.168.1.0/24, 192.168.1.0/255.255.255.0 and 192.168.1.0/0.0.0.255.

An integer that fits into 32 bits. This is equivalent to a single-address network, with the network address being address and the mask being /32.

An integer packed into a bytes object of length 4, big-endian. The interpretation is similar to an integer address.

A two-tuple of an address description and a netmask, where the address description is either a string, a 32-bits integer, a 4-bytes packed integer, or an existing IPv4Address object; and the netmask is either an integer representing the prefix length (e.g. 24) or a string representing the prefix mask (e.g. 255.255.255.0).

An AddressValueError is raised if address is not a valid IPv4 address. A NetmaskValueError is raised if the mask is not valid for an IPv4 address.

If strict is True and host bits are set in the supplied address, then ValueError is raised. Otherwise, the host bits are masked out to determine the appropriate network address.

Unless stated otherwise, all network methods accepting other network/address objects will raise TypeError if the argument's IP version is incompatible to self.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Ajout de la forme paire pour le paramètre address du constructeur.

version

max_prefixlen

Référez-vous à la documentation de l'attribut correspondant dans IPv4Address.

is_multicast

is_private

is_unspecified

is_reserved

is_loopback

is_link_local

These attributes are true for the network as a whole if they are true for both the network address and the broadcast address.

network_address

The network address for the network. The network address and the prefix length together uniquely define a network.

broadcast_address

The broadcast address for the network. Packets sent to the broadcast address should be received by every host on the network.

hostmask

Le masque de l'hôte, en tant qu'objet IPv4Address.

netmask

Le masque réseau, en tant qu'objet IPv4Address.

with_prefixlen

compressed

exploded

Adresse IP du réseau sous forme d'une chaîne, avec le masque en notation CIDR.

with_prefixlen and compressed are always the same as str(network). exploded uses the exploded form the network address.

with_netmask

A string representation of the network, with the mask in net mask notation.

with_hostmask

A string representation of the network, with the mask in host mask notation.

num_addresses

Le nombre total d'adresses dans le réseau.

prefixlen

Length of the network prefix, in bits.

hosts()

Returns an iterator over the usable hosts in the network. The usable hosts are all the IP addresses that belong to the network, except the network address itself and the network broadcast address. For networks with a mask length of 31, the network address and network broadcast address are also included in the result. Networks with a mask of 32 will return a list containing the single host address.

>>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/29').hosts())
[IPv4Address('192.0.2.1'), IPv4Address('192.0.2.2'),
 IPv4Address('192.0.2.3'), IPv4Address('192.0.2.4'),
 IPv4Address('192.0.2.5'), IPv4Address('192.0.2.6')]
>>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/31').hosts())
[IPv4Address('192.0.2.0'), IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')]
>>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.1/32').hosts())
[IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')]

overlaps(other)

True si ce réseau est partiellement ou complètement contenu dans other ou other est complètement contenu dans ce réseau.

address_exclude(network)

Computes the network definitions resulting from removing the given network from this one. Returns an iterator of network objects. Raises ValueError if network is not completely contained in this network.

>>> n1 = ip_network('192.0.2.0/28')
>>> n2 = ip_network('192.0.2.1/32')
>>> list(n1.address_exclude(n2))
[IPv4Network('192.0.2.8/29'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.4/30'),
 IPv4Network('192.0.2.2/31'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/32')]

subnets(prefixlen_diff=1, new_prefix=None)

The subnets that join to make the current network definition, depending on the argument values. prefixlen_diff is the amount our prefix length should be increased by. new_prefix is the desired new prefix of the subnets; it must be larger than our prefix. One and only one of prefixlen_diff and new_prefix must be set. Returns an iterator of network objects.

>>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').subnets())
[IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/25'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/25')]
>>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').subnets(prefixlen_diff=2))
[IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/26'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.64/26'),
 IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/26'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.192/26')]
>>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').subnets(new_prefix=26))
[IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/26'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.64/26'),
 IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/26'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.192/26')]
>>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').subnets(new_prefix=23))
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
    raise ValueError('new prefix must be longer')
ValueError: new prefix must be longer
>>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').subnets(new_prefix=25))
[IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/25'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/25')]

supernet(prefixlen_diff=1, new_prefix=None)

The supernet containing this network definition, depending on the argument values. prefixlen_diff is the amount our prefix length should be decreased by. new_prefix is the desired new prefix of the supernet; it must be smaller than our prefix. One and only one of prefixlen_diff and new_prefix must be set. Returns a single network object.

>>> ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').supernet()
IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/23')
>>> ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').supernet(prefixlen_diff=2)
IPv4Network('192.0.0.0/22')
>>> ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').supernet(new_prefix=20)
IPv4Network('192.0.0.0/20')

subnet_of(other)

Renvoie True si ce réseau est un sous-réseau de other.

>>> a = ip_network('192.168.1.0/24')
>>> b = ip_network('192.168.1.128/30')
>>> b.subnet_of(a)
True

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

supernet_of(other)

Renvoie True si other est un sous-réseau de ce réseau.

>>> a = ip_network('192.168.1.0/24')
>>> b = ip_network('192.168.1.128/30')
>>> a.supernet_of(b)
True

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

compare_networks(other)

Compare this network to other. In this comparison only the network addresses are considered; host bits aren't. Returns either -1, 0 or 1.

>>> ip_network('192.0.2.1/32').compare_networks(ip_network('192.0.2.2/32'))
-1
>>> ip_network('192.0.2.1/32').compare_networks(ip_network('192.0.2.0/32'))
1
>>> ip_network('192.0.2.1/32').compare_networks(ip_network('192.0.2.1/32'))
0

Obsolète depuis la version 3.7: Utilise le même algorithme de relation d'ordre et de comparaison que <, ==, et >.

class ipaddress.IPv6Network(address, strict=True)

Construit une définition de réseau IPv6. address peut valoir :

A string consisting of an IP address and an optional prefix length, separated by a slash (/). The IP address is the network address, and the prefix length must be a single number, the prefix. If no prefix length is provided, it's considered to be /128.

Note that currently expanded netmasks are not supported. That means 2001:db00::0/24 is a valid argument while 2001:db00::0/ffff:ff00:: is not.

An integer that fits into 128 bits. This is equivalent to a single-address network, with the network address being address and the mask being /128.

An integer packed into a bytes object of length 16, big-endian. The interpretation is similar to an integer address.

A two-tuple of an address description and a netmask, where the address description is either a string, a 128-bits integer, a 16-bytes packed integer, or an existing IPv6Address object; and the netmask is an integer representing the prefix length.

An AddressValueError is raised if address is not a valid IPv6 address. A NetmaskValueError is raised if the mask is not valid for an IPv6 address.

If strict is True and host bits are set in the supplied address, then ValueError is raised. Otherwise, the host bits are masked out to determine the appropriate network address.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Ajout de la forme paire pour le paramètre address du constructeur.

version

max_prefixlen

is_multicast

is_private

is_unspecified

is_reserved

is_loopback

is_link_local

network_address

broadcast_address

hostmask

netmask

with_prefixlen

compressed

exploded

with_netmask

with_hostmask

num_addresses

prefixlen

hosts()

Returns an iterator over the usable hosts in the network. The usable hosts are all the IP addresses that belong to the network, except the Subnet-Router anycast address. For networks with a mask length of 127, the Subnet-Router anycast address is also included in the result. Networks with a mask of 128 will return a list containing the single host address.

overlaps(other)

address_exclude(network)

subnets(prefixlen_diff=1, new_prefix=None)

supernet(prefixlen_diff=1, new_prefix=None)

subnet_of(other)

supernet_of(other)

compare_networks(other)

Référez-vous à la documentation de l'attribut correspondant dans IPv4Network.

is_site_local

This attribute is true for the network as a whole if it is true for both the network address and the broadcast address.

Opérateurs

Network objects support some operators. Unless stated otherwise, operators can only be applied between compatible objects (i.e. IPv4 with IPv4, IPv6 with IPv6).

Opérateurs logiques

Network objects can be compared with the usual set of logical operators. Network objects are ordered first by network address, then by net mask.

Itération

Network objects can be iterated to list all the addresses belonging to the network. For iteration, all hosts are returned, including unusable hosts (for usable hosts, use the hosts() method). An example:

>>> for addr in IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/28'):
...     addr
...
IPv4Address('192.0.2.0')
IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')
IPv4Address('192.0.2.2')
IPv4Address('192.0.2.3')
IPv4Address('192.0.2.4')
IPv4Address('192.0.2.5')
IPv4Address('192.0.2.6')
IPv4Address('192.0.2.7')
IPv4Address('192.0.2.8')
IPv4Address('192.0.2.9')
IPv4Address('192.0.2.10')
IPv4Address('192.0.2.11')
IPv4Address('192.0.2.12')
IPv4Address('192.0.2.13')
IPv4Address('192.0.2.14')
IPv4Address('192.0.2.15')

Réseaux en tant que conteneurs d'adresses

Les objets réseau peuvent agir en tant que conteneurs d'adresses. Quelques exemples :

>>> IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/28')[0]
IPv4Address('192.0.2.0')
>>> IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/28')[15]
IPv4Address('192.0.2.15')
>>> IPv4Address('192.0.2.6') in IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/28')
True
>>> IPv4Address('192.0.3.6') in IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/28')
False

Objets interface

Les objets interface sont hachables, ce qui signifie qu'ils peuvent être utilisés comme clés de dictionnaire.

class ipaddress.IPv4Interface(address)

Construct an IPv4 interface. The meaning of address is as in the constructor of IPv4Network, except that arbitrary host addresses are always accepted.

IPv4Interface is a subclass of IPv4Address, so it inherits all the attributes from that class. In addition, the following attributes are available:

ip

L'adresse (IPv4Address) sans information de réseau.

>>> interface = IPv4Interface('192.0.2.5/24')
>>> interface.ip
IPv4Address('192.0.2.5')

network

Le réseau (IPv4Network) auquel cette interface appartient.

>>> interface = IPv4Interface('192.0.2.5/24')
>>> interface.network
IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24')

with_prefixlen

A string representation of the interface with the mask in prefix notation.

>>> interface = IPv4Interface('192.0.2.5/24')
>>> interface.with_prefixlen
'192.0.2.5/24'

with_netmask

A string representation of the interface with the network as a net mask.

>>> interface = IPv4Interface('192.0.2.5/24')
>>> interface.with_netmask
'192.0.2.5/255.255.255.0'

with_hostmask

A string representation of the interface with the network as a host mask.

>>> interface = IPv4Interface('192.0.2.5/24')
>>> interface.with_hostmask
'192.0.2.5/0.0.0.255'

class ipaddress.IPv6Interface(address)

Construct an IPv6 interface. The meaning of address is as in the constructor of IPv6Network, except that arbitrary host addresses are always accepted.

IPv6Interface is a subclass of IPv6Address, so it inherits all the attributes from that class. In addition, the following attributes are available:

ip

network

with_prefixlen

with_netmask

with_hostmask

Référez-vous à la documentation de l'attribut correspondant dans IPv4Interface.

Opérateurs

Interface objects support some operators. Unless stated otherwise, operators can only be applied between compatible objects (i.e. IPv4 with IPv4, IPv6 with IPv6).

Opérateurs logiques

Interface objects can be compared with the usual set of logical operators.

For equality comparison (== and !=), both the IP address and network must be the same for the objects to be equal. An interface will not compare equal to any address or network object.

For ordering (<, >, etc) the rules are different. Interface and address objects with the same IP version can be compared, and the address objects will always sort before the interface objects. Two interface objects are first compared by their networks and, if those are the same, then by their IP addresses.

Autres fonctions au niveau de module

Le module fournit aussi les fonctions suivantes :

ipaddress.v4_int_to_packed(address)

Represent an address as 4 packed bytes in network (big-endian) order. address is an integer representation of an IPv4 IP address. A ValueError is raised if the integer is negative or too large to be an IPv4 IP address.

>>> ipaddress.ip_address(3221225985)
IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')
>>> ipaddress.v4_int_to_packed(3221225985)
b'\xc0\x00\x02\x01'

ipaddress.v6_int_to_packed(address)

Represent an address as 16 packed bytes in network (big-endian) order. address is an integer representation of an IPv6 IP address. A ValueError is raised if the integer is negative or too large to be an IPv6 IP address.

ipaddress.summarize_address_range(first, last)

Return an iterator of the summarized network range given the first and last IP addresses. first is the first IPv4Address or IPv6Address in the range and last is the last IPv4Address or IPv6Address in the range. A TypeError is raised if first or last are not IP addresses or are not of the same version. A ValueError is raised if last is not greater than first or if first address version is not 4 or 6.

>>> [ipaddr for ipaddr in ipaddress.summarize_address_range(
...    ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.0.2.0'),
...    ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.0.2.130'))]
[IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/25'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/31'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.130/32')]

ipaddress.collapse_addresses(addresses)

Return an iterator of the collapsed IPv4Network or IPv6Network objects. addresses is an iterable of IPv4Network or IPv6Network objects. A TypeError is raised if addresses contains mixed version objects.

>>> [ipaddr for ipaddr in
... ipaddress.collapse_addresses([ipaddress.IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/25'),
... ipaddress.IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/25')])]
[IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24')]

ipaddress.get_mixed_type_key(obj)

Return a key suitable for sorting between networks and addresses. Address and Network objects are not sortable by default; they're fundamentally different, so the expression:

IPv4Address('192.0.2.0') <= IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24')

doesn't make sense. There are some times however, where you may wish to have ipaddress sort these anyway. If you need to do this, you can use this function as the key argument to sorted().

obj est un objet réseau ou adresse.

Exceptions personnalisées

To support more specific error reporting from class constructors, the module defines the following exceptions:

exception ipaddress.AddressValueError(ValueError)

Toute erreur de valeur liée à l'adresse.

exception ipaddress.NetmaskValueError(ValueError)

Toute erreur de valeur liée au masque réseau.

Services multimédia

Les modules documentés dans ce chapitre implémentent divers algorithmes ou interfaces principalement utiles pour les applications multimédia. Ils peuvent ne pas être disponibles sur votre installation. En voici un aperçu :

wave --- Read and write WAV files

Objets Wave_read

Objets Wave_write

colorsys --- Conversions between color systems

wave --- Read and write WAV files

Code source : Lib/wave.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/wave.py]

The wave module provides a convenient interface to the Waveform Audio "WAVE" (or "WAV") file format. Only uncompressed PCM encoded wave files are supported.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Support for WAVE_FORMAT_EXTENSIBLE headers was added, provided that the extended format is KSDATAFORMAT_SUBTYPE_PCM.

The wave module defines the following function and exception:

wave.open(file, mode=None)

Si file est une chaîne de caractères, ouvre le fichier sous ce nom, sinon, il est traité comme un objet de type fichier. mode peut être :

'rb'

Mode lecture seule.

'wb'

Mode écriture seule.

Notez que ce module ne permet pas de manipuler des fichiers WAV en lecture/écriture.

Un mode 'rb' renvoie un objet Wave_read, alors qu'un mode 'wb' renvoie un objet Wave_write. Si mode est omis et qu'un objet de type fichier est donné au paramètre file, file.mode est utilisé comme valeur par défaut pour mode.

If you pass in a file-like object, the wave object will not close it when its close() method is called; it is the caller's responsibility to close the file object.

The open() function may be used in a with statement. When the with block completes, the Wave_read.close() or Wave_write.close() method is called.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Ajout de la gestion des fichiers non navigables.

exception wave.Error

Une erreur est levée lorsque quelque chose est impossible car elle enfreint la spécification WAV ou rencontre un problème d'implémentation.

Objets Wave_read

class wave.Wave_read

Read a WAV file.

Les objets Wave_read, tels qu'ils sont renvoyés par open(), ont les méthodes suivantes :

close()

Close the stream if it was opened by wave, and make the instance unusable. This is called automatically on object collection.

getnchannels()

Renvoie le nombre de canaux audio (1 pour mono, 2 pour stéréo).

getsampwidth()

Renvoie la largeur de l'échantillon en octets.

getframerate()

Renvoie la fréquence d'échantillonnage.

getnframes()

Renvoie le nombre de trames audio.

getcomptype()

Renvoie le type de compression ('NONE' est le seul type géré).

getcompname()

Version compréhensible de getcomptype(). Généralement, 'not compressed' équivaut à 'NONE'.

getparams()

Returns a namedtuple() (nchannels, sampwidth, framerate, nframes, comptype, compname), equivalent to output of the get*() methods.

readframes(n)

Lit et renvoie au plus n trames audio, sous forme d'objet bytes.

rewind()

Remet le pointeur de fichier au début du flux audio.

The following two methods are defined for compatibility with the old aifc module, and don't do anything interesting.

getmarkers()

Renvoie None.

Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: The method only existed for compatibility with the aifc module which has been removed in Python 3.13.

getmark(id)

Lève une erreur.

Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: The method only existed for compatibility with the aifc module which has been removed in Python 3.13.

Les deux fonctions suivantes utilisent le vocabulaire "position". Ces positions sont compatible entre elles, la "position" de l'un est compatible avec la "position" de l'autre. Cette position est dépendante de l'implémentation.

setpos(pos)

Place le pointeur du fichier sur la position spécifiée.

tell()

Renvoie la position actuelle du pointeur du fichier.

Objets Wave_write

class wave.Wave_write

Write a WAV file.

Wave_write objects, as returned by open().

For seekable output streams, the wave header will automatically be updated to reflect the number of frames actually written. For unseekable streams, the nframes value must be accurate when the first frame data is written. An accurate nframes value can be achieved either by calling setnframes() or setparams() with the number of frames that will be written before close() is called and then using writeframesraw() to write the frame data, or by calling writeframes() with all of the frame data to be written. In the latter case writeframes() will calculate the number of frames in the data and set nframes accordingly before writing the frame data.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Ajout de la gestion des fichiers non navigables.

Wave_write objects have the following methods:

close()

Make sure nframes is correct, and close the file if it was opened by wave. This method is called upon object collection. It will raise an exception if the output stream is not seekable and nframes does not match the number of frames actually written.

setnchannels(n)

Définit le nombre de canaux.

getnchannels()

Return the number of channels.

setsampwidth(n)

Définit la largeur de l'échantillon à n octets.

getsampwidth()

Return the sample width in bytes.

setframerate(n)

Définit la fréquence des trames à n.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Un paramètre non-entier passé à cette méthode est arrondi à l'entier le plus proche.

getframerate()

Return the frame rate.

setnframes(n)

Définit le nombre de trames à n. Cela sera modifié ultérieurement si le nombre de trames réellement écrites est différent (la tentative de mise à jour générera une erreur si le flux de sortie n'est pas indexable).

getnframes()

Return the number of audio frames written so far.

setcomptype(type, name)

Définit le type de compression et la description. Pour le moment, seul le type de compression NONE est géré, c'est-à-dire aucune compression.

getcomptype()

Return the compression type ('NONE').

getcompname()

Return the human-readable compression type name.

setparams(tuple)

The tuple should be (nchannels, sampwidth, framerate, nframes, comptype, compname), with values valid for the set*() methods. Sets all parameters.

getparams()

Return a namedtuple() (nchannels, sampwidth, framerate, nframes, comptype, compname) containing the current output parameters.

tell()

Renvoie la position actuelle dans le fichier, avec les mêmes réserves que pour les méthodes Wave_read.tell() et Wave_read.setpos().

writeframesraw(data)

Écrit les trames audio sans corriger nframes.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: N'importe quel bytes-like object est maintenant accepté.

writeframes(data)

Écrit des trames audio et s'assure que nframes est correct. Une erreur est levée si le flux de sortie est non-navigable et si le nombre total de trames écrites après que data soit écrit ne correspond pas à la valeur précédemment définie pour nframes.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: N'importe quel bytes-like object est maintenant accepté.

Notez qu'il est impossible de définir des paramètres après avoir appelé writeframes() ou writeframesraw(), et toute tentative en ce sens lève une wave.Error.

colorsys --- Conversions between color systems

Code source : Lib/colorsys.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/colorsys.py]

The colorsys module defines bidirectional conversions of color values between colors expressed in the RGB (Red Green Blue) color space used in computer monitors and three other coordinate systems: YIQ, HLS (Hue Lightness Saturation) and HSV (Hue Saturation Value). Coordinates in all of these color spaces are floating-point values. In the YIQ space, the Y coordinate is between 0 and 1, but the I and Q coordinates can be positive or negative. In all other spaces, the coordinates are all between 0 and 1.

Voir aussi

Consultez https://poynton.ca/ColorFAQ.html et https://www.cambridgeincolour.com/tutorials/color-spaces.htm pour plus d'informations concernant les espaces colorimétriques.

The colorsys module defines the following functions:

colorsys.rgb_to_yiq(r, g, b)

Convertit la couleur des coordonnées RGB (RVB) vers les coordonnées YIQ.

colorsys.yiq_to_rgb(y, i, q)

Convertit la couleur des coordonnées YIQ vers les coordonnées RGB (RVB).

colorsys.rgb_to_hls(r, g, b)

Convertit la couleur des coordonnées RGB (RVB) vers les coordonnées HLS (TSV).

colorsys.hls_to_rgb(h, l, s)

Convertit la couleur des coordonnées HLS (TSV) vers les coordonnées RGB (RVB).

colorsys.rgb_to_hsv(r, g, b)

Convertit la couleur des coordonnées RGB (RVB) vers les coordonnées HSV (TSV).

colorsys.hsv_to_rgb(h, s, v)

Convertit la couleur des coordonnées HSV (TSV) vers les coordonnées RGB (RVB).

Exemple :

>>> import colorsys
>>> colorsys.rgb_to_hsv(0.2, 0.4, 0.4)
(0.5, 0.5, 0.4)
>>> colorsys.hsv_to_rgb(0.5, 0.5, 0.4)
(0.2, 0.4, 0.4)

Internationalisation

Les modules décrits dans ce chapitre vous aident à rédiger des programmes indépendants des langues et des cultures en fournissant des mécanismes pour sélectionner une langue à utiliser dans les messages, ou en adaptant la sortie aux conventions culturelles.

La liste des modules documentés dans ce chapitre est :

gettext --- Multilingual internationalization services

API GNU gettext

API basée sur les classes

La classe NullTranslations

La classe GNUTranslations

Support du catalogue de message de Solaris

Le constructeur Catalog

Internationaliser vos programmes et modules

Localiser votre module

Localiser votre application

Changer de langue à la volée

Traductions différées

Remerciements

locale --- Internationalization services

Contexte, détails, conseils, astuces et mises en garde

Locale names

Pour les auteurs d'extensions et les programmes qui intègrent Python

Accéder aux catalogues de messages

gettext --- Multilingual internationalization services

Code source : Lib/gettext.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/gettext.py]

The gettext module provides internationalization (I18N) and localization (L10N) services for your Python modules and applications. It supports both the GNU gettext message catalog API and a higher level, class-based API that may be more appropriate for Python files. The interface described below allows you to write your module and application messages in one natural language, and provide a catalog of translated messages for running under different natural languages.

Quelques astuces sur la localisation de vos modules et applications Python sont également données.

API GNU gettext

The gettext module defines the following API, which is very similar to the GNU gettext API. If you use this API you will affect the translation of your entire application globally. Often this is what you want if your application is monolingual, with the choice of language dependent on the locale of your user. If you are localizing a Python module, or if your application needs to switch languages on the fly, you probably want to use the class-based API instead.

gettext.bindtextdomain(domain, localedir=None)

Bind the domain to the locale directory localedir. More concretely, gettext will look for binary .mo files for the given domain using the path (on Unix): localedir/language/LC_MESSAGES/domain.mo, where language is searched for in the environment variables LANGUAGE, LC_ALL, LC_MESSAGES, and LANG respectively.

Si localedir n'est pas renseigné ou vaut None, alors le lien actuel de domain est renvoyé. [1]

gettext.textdomain(domain=None)

Change ou interroge le domaine global actuel. Si domain vaut None, alors le domaine global actuel est renvoyé. Sinon, le domaine global est positionné à domain, puis renvoyé.

gettext.gettext(message)

Return the localized translation of message, based on the current global domain, language, and locale directory. This function is usually aliased as _() in the local namespace (see examples below).

gettext.dgettext(domain, message)

Comme gettext(), mais cherche le message dans le domaine spécifié.

gettext.ngettext(singular, plural, n)

Comme gettext(), mais prend en compte les formes au pluriel. Si une traduction a été trouvée, utilise la formule pour trouver le pluriel à n et renvoie le message généré (quelques langues ont plus de deux formes au pluriel). Si aucune traduction n'a été trouvée, renvoie singular si n vaut 1, plural sinon.

La formule pour trouver le pluriel est récupérée dans l'entête du catalogue. C'est une expression en C ou en Python qui a une variable libre n et qui évalue l'index du pluriel dans le catalogue. Voir la documentation de GNU gettext [https://www.gnu.org/software/gettext/manual/gettext.html] pour la syntaxe précise à utiliser dans les fichiers .po et pour les formules dans différents langues.

gettext.dngettext(domain, singular, plural, n)

Comme ngettext(), mais cherche le message dans le domaine spécifié.

gettext.pgettext(context, message)

gettext.dpgettext(domain, context, message)

gettext.npgettext(context, singular, plural, n)

gettext.dnpgettext(domain, context, singular, plural, n)

Semblable aux fonctions correspondantes sans le p dans le préfixe (c'est-à-dire gettext(), dgettext(), ngettext() et dngettext()), mais la traduction est limitée au context du message donné.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

Note that GNU gettext also defines a dcgettext() method, but this was deemed not useful and so it is currently unimplemented.

Voici un exemple classique d'utilisation de cette API :

import gettext
gettext.bindtextdomain('myapplication', '/path/to/my/language/directory')
gettext.textdomain('myapplication')
_ = gettext.gettext
# ...
print(_('This is a translatable string.'))

API basée sur les classes

The class-based API of the gettext module gives you more flexibility and greater convenience than the GNU gettext API. It is the recommended way of localizing your Python applications and modules. gettext defines a GNUTranslations class which implements the parsing of GNU .mo format files, and has methods for returning strings. Instances of this class can also install themselves in the built-in namespace as the function _().

gettext.find(domain, localedir=None, languages=None, all=False)

Cette fonction implémente l'algorithme standard de recherche de fichier mo. Il prend en entrée un domain, tout comme la fonction textdomain(). Le paramètre optionnel localedir est le même que celui de bindtextdomain(). Le paramètre optionnel langages est une liste de chaînes de caractères correspondants au code d'une langue.

Si localedir n'est pas renseigné, alors le répertoire de la locale par défaut du système est utilisé. [2] Si languages n'est pas renseigné, alors les variables d'environnement suivantes sont utilisées : LANGUAGE, LC_ALL, LC_MESSAGES et LANG. La première à renvoyer une valeur non vide est alors utilisée pour languages. Ces variables d'environnement doivent contenir une liste de langues, séparées par des deux-points, qui sera utilisée pour générer la liste des codes de langues attendue.

Recherche avec find(), découvre et normalise les langues, puis itère sur la liste obtenue afin de trouver un fichier de traduction existant et correspondant :

localedir/language/LC_MESSAGES/domain.mo

Le premier nom de fichier trouvé est renvoyé par find(). Si aucun fichier n'a été trouvé, alors None est renvoyé. Si all est vrai, est renvoyée la liste de tous les noms de fichiers, dans l'ordre dans lequel ils apparaissent dans languages ou dans les variables d'environnement.

gettext.translation(domain, localedir=None, languages=None, class_=None, fallback=False)

Return a *Translations instance based on the domain, localedir, and languages, which are first passed to find() to get a list of the associated .mo file paths. Instances with identical .mo file names are cached. The actual class instantiated is class_ if provided, otherwise GNUTranslations. The class's constructor must take a single file object argument.

Si plusieurs fichiers ont été trouvés, les derniers sont utilisés comme substitut des premiers. Pour rendre possible cette substitution, copy.copy() est utilisé pour copier chaque objet traduit depuis le cache ; les vraies données de l'instance étant toujours recopiées dans le cache.

Si aucun fichier .mo n'a été trouvé, soit fallback vaut False (valeur par défaut) et une exception OSError est levée, soit fallback vaut True et une instance NullTranslations est renvoyée.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: IOError used to be raised, it is now an alias of OSError.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: codeset parameter is removed.

gettext.install(domain, localedir=None, *, names=None)

This installs the function _() in Python's builtins namespace, based on domain and localedir which are passed to the function translation().

Concernant le paramètre names, se référer à la description de la méthode install().

As seen below, you usually mark the strings in your application that are candidates for translation, by wrapping them in a call to the _() function, like this:

print(_('This string will be translated.'))

For convenience, you want the _() function to be installed in Python's builtins namespace, so it is easily accessible in all modules of your application.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: names est désormais un paramètre à mot-clé uniquement.

La classe NullTranslations

Les classes de traduction implémentent le fait de passer d'une chaîne de caractères du fichier original à traduire à la traduction de celle-ci. La classe de base utilisée est NullTranslations. C'est l'interface de base à utiliser lorsque vous souhaitez écrire vos propres classes spécifiques à la traduction. Voici les méthodes de NullTranslations :

class gettext.NullTranslations(fp=None)

Prend un paramètre optionnel un file object fp, qui est ignoré par la classe de base. Initialise les variables d'instance "protégées" _info et _chardet, définies par des classes dérivées, tout comme _fallback qui est définie au travers de add_fallback(). Puis appelle self._parse(fp) si fp ne vaut pas None.

_parse(fp)

Cette méthode, non exécutée dans la classe de base, prend en paramètre un objet fichier fp et lit les données de ce dernier. Si vous avez un catalogue de messages dont le format n'est pas pris en charge, vous devriez surcharger cette méthode pour analyser votre format.

add_fallback(fallback)

Ajoute fallback comme objet de substitution pour l'objet de traduction courant. Un objet de traduction devrait interroger cet objet de substitution s'il ne peut fournir une traduction pour un message donné.

gettext(message)

Si un objet de substitution a été défini, transmet gettext() à celui-ci. Sinon, renvoie message. Surchargé dans les classes dérivées.

ngettext(singular, plural, n)

Si un objet de substitution a été défini, transmet ngettext() à celui-ci. Sinon, renvoie singular si n vaut 1, plural sinon. Surchargé dans les classes dérivées.

pgettext(context, message)

Si un objet de substitution a été défini, transmet pgettext() à celui-ci. Sinon, renvoie le message traduit. Surchargé dans les classes dérivées.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

npgettext(context, singular, plural, n)

Si un objet de substitution a été défini, transmet npgettext() à celui-ci. Sinon, renvoie le message traduit. Surchargé dans les classes dérivées.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

info()

Return a dictionary containing the metadata found in the message catalog file.

charset()

Renvoie l'encodage du fichier du catalogue de messages.

install(names=None)

Cette méthode positionne gettext() dans l'espace de nommage natif, en le liant à _.

If the names parameter is given, it must be a sequence containing the names of functions you want to install in the builtins namespace in addition to _(). Supported names are 'gettext', 'ngettext', 'pgettext', and 'npgettext'.

Note that this is only one way, albeit the most convenient way, to make the _() function available to your application. Because it affects the entire application globally, and specifically the built-in namespace, localized modules should never install _(). Instead, they should use this code to make _() available to their module:

import gettext
t = gettext.translation('mymodule', ...)
_ = t.gettext

This puts _() only in the module's global namespace and so only affects calls within this module.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Ajout de 'pgettext' et 'npgettext'.

La classe GNUTranslations

The gettext module provides one additional class derived from NullTranslations: GNUTranslations. This class overrides _parse() to enable reading GNU gettext format .mo files in both big-endian and little-endian format.

GNUTranslations parses optional metadata out of the translation catalog. It is convention with GNU gettext to include metadata as the translation for the empty string. This metadata is in RFC 822 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html]-style key: value pairs, and should contain the Project-Id-Version key. If the key Content-Type is found, then the charset property is used to initialize the "protected" _charset instance variable, defaulting to None if not found. If the charset encoding is specified, then all message ids and message strings read from the catalog are converted to Unicode using this encoding, else ASCII is assumed.

Since message ids are read as Unicode strings too, all *gettext() methods will assume message ids as Unicode strings, not byte strings.

The entire set of key/value pairs are placed into a dictionary and set as the "protected" _info instance variable.

Si le nombre magique du fichier .mo est invalide, le numéro de la version majeure inattendu, ou si d'autres problèmes apparaissent durant la lecture du fichier, instancier une classe GNUTranslations peut lever une exception OSError.

class gettext.GNUTranslations

Les méthodes suivantes, provenant de l'implémentation de la classe de base, ont été surchargée :

gettext(message)

Recherche l'identifiant de message dans le catalogue et renvoie le message de la chaîne de caractères correspondante comme une chaîne Unicode. Si aucun identifiant n'a été trouvé pour message et qu'un substitut a été défini, la recherche est transmise à la méthode gettext() du substitut. Sinon, l'identifiant de message est renvoyé.

ngettext(singular, plural, n)

Effectue une recherche sur les formes plurielles de l'identifiant d'un message. singular est utilisé pour la recherche de l'identifiant dans le catalogue, alors que n permet de savoir quelle forme plurielle utiliser. La chaîne de caractère du message renvoyée est une chaîne Unicode.

Si l'identifiant du message n'est pas trouvé dans le catalogue et qu'un substitut a été spécifié, la requête est transmise à la méthode ngettext() du substitut. Sinon, est renvoyé singular lorsque n vaut 1, plural dans tous les autres cas.

Voici un exemple :

n = len(os.listdir('.'))
cat = GNUTranslations(somefile)
message = cat.ngettext(
    'There is %(num)d file in this directory',
    'There are %(num)d files in this directory',
    n) % {'num': n}

pgettext(context, message)

Recherche le contexte et l'identifiant de message dans le catalogue et renvoie le message de la chaîne de caractères correspondante comme une chaîne Unicode. Si aucun identifiant n'a été trouvé pour l'identifiant du message et du context et qu'un substitut a été défini, la recherche est transmise à la méthode pgettext() du substitut. Sinon, l'identifiant de message est renvoyé.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

npgettext(context, singular, plural, n)

Effectue une recherche sur les formes plurielles de l'identifiant d'un message. singular est utilisé pour la recherche de l'identifiant dans le catalogue, alors que n permet de savoir quelle forme plurielle utiliser.

Si l'identifiant du message pour le context n'est pas trouvé dans le catalogue et qu'un substitut a été spécifié, la requête est transmise à la méthode npgettext() du substitut. Sinon, est renvoyé singular lorsque n vaut 1, plural dans tous les autres cas.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

Support du catalogue de message de Solaris

Le système d'exploitation Solaris possède son propre format de fichier binaire .mo, mais pour l'heure, puisqu'on ne peut trouver de documentation sur ce format, il n'est pas géré.

Le constructeur Catalog

GNOME uses a version of the gettext module by James Henstridge, but this version has a slightly different API. Its documented usage was:

import gettext
cat = gettext.Catalog(domain, localedir)
_ = cat.gettext
print(_('hello world'))

For compatibility with this older module, the function Catalog() is an alias for the translation() function described above.

Une différence entre ce module et celui de Henstridge : les objets de son catalogue étaient accessibles depuis un schéma de l'API, mais cela semblait ne pas être utilisé et donc n'est pas pris en charge.

Internationaliser vos programmes et modules

L'internationalisation (I18N) consiste à permettre à un programme de recevoir des traductions dans plusieurs langues. La localisation (L10N) consiste à adapter un programme à la langue et aux habitudes culturelles locales, une fois celui-ci internationalisé. Afin de fournir du texte multilingue à votre programme Python, les étapes suivantes sont nécessaires :

préparer votre programme ou module en marquant spécifiquement les chaînes à traduire

lancer une suite d'outils sur les fichiers contenant des chaînes à traduire pour générer des catalogues de messages brut

créer les traductions spécifiques à une langue des catalogues de messages

use the gettext module so that message strings are properly translated

In order to prepare your code for I18N, you need to look at all the strings in your files. Any string that needs to be translated should be marked by wrapping it in _('...') --- that is, a call to the function _. For example:

filename = 'mylog.txt'
message = _('writing a log message')
with open(filename, 'w') as fp:
    fp.write(message)

Dans cet exemple, la chaîne 'writing a log message' est maquée comme traduite, contrairement aux chaînes 'mylog.txt' et 'w'.

There are a few tools to extract the strings meant for translation. The original GNU gettext only supported C or C++ source code but its extended version xgettext scans code written in a number of languages, including Python, to find strings marked as translatable. Babel [https://babel.pocoo.org/] is a Python internationalization library that includes a pybabel script to extract and compile message catalogs. François Pinard's program called xpot does a similar job and is available as part of his po-utils package [https://github.com/pinard/po-utils].

(Python inclut également des versions en Python de ces programmes, pygettext.py et msgfmt.py, que certaines distributions Python installeront pour vous. pygettext.py est similaire à xgettext, mais ne comprend que le code source écrit en Python et ne peut prendre en charge d'autres langages de programmation tels que le C ou C++. pygettext.py possède une interface en ligne de commande similaire à celle de xgettext. Pour plus de détails sur son utilisation, exécuter pygettext.py --help. msgfmt.py est compatible avec GNU msgfmt. Avec ces deux programmes, vous ne devriez pas avoir besoin du paquet GNU gettext pour internationaliser vos applications en Python.)

xgettext, pygettext et d'autres outils similaires génèrent des fichiers .po représentant les catalogues de messages. Il s'agit de fichiers structurés et lisibles par un être humain, qui contiennent toutes les chaînes du code source marquées comme traduisible, ainsi que leur traduction à utiliser.

Copies of these .po files are then handed over to the individual human translators who write translations for every supported natural language. They send back the completed language-specific versions as a <language-name>.po file that's compiled into a machine-readable .mo binary catalog file using the msgfmt program. The .mo files are used by the gettext module for the actual translation processing at run-time.

How you use the gettext module in your code depends on whether you are internationalizing a single module or your entire application. The next two sections will discuss each case.

Localiser votre module

Si vous localisez votre module, veillez à ne pas faire de changements globaux, e.g. dans l'espace de nommage natif. Vous ne devriez pas utiliser l’API GNU gettext mais plutôt celle basée sur les classes.

Disons que votre module s'appelle "spam" et que les fichiers .mo de traduction dans les différentes langues naturelles soient dans /usr/share/locale au format GNU gettext. Voici ce que vous pouvez alors mettre en haut de votre module :

import gettext
t = gettext.translation('spam', '/usr/share/locale')
_ = t.gettext

Localiser votre application

If you are localizing your application, you can install the _() function globally into the built-in namespace, usually in the main driver file of your application. This will let all your application-specific files just use _('...') without having to explicitly install it in each file.

Dans ce cas, vous n'aurez à ajouter que le bout de code suivant au fichier principal de votre application :

import gettext
gettext.install('myapplication')

Si vous avez besoin de définir le dossier des localisations, vous pouvez le mettre en argument de la fonction install() :

import gettext
gettext.install('myapplication', '/usr/share/locale')

Changer de langue à la volée

Si votre programme a besoin de prendre en charge plusieurs langues en même temps, vous pouvez créer plusieurs instances de traduction, puis basculer entre elles de façon explicite, comme ceci :

import gettext

lang1 = gettext.translation('myapplication', languages=['en'])
lang2 = gettext.translation('myapplication', languages=['fr'])
lang3 = gettext.translation('myapplication', languages=['de'])

# start by using language1
lang1.install()

# ... time goes by, user selects language 2
lang2.install()

# ... more time goes by, user selects language 3
lang3.install()

Traductions différées

Dans la plupart des cas, en programmation, les chaînes de caractères sont traduites à l'endroit où on les écrit. Cependant, il peut arriver que vous ayez besoin de traduire une chaîne de caractères un peu plus loin. Un exemple classique est :

animals = ['mollusk',
           'albatross',
           'rat',
           'penguin',
           'python', ]
# ...
for a in animals:
    print(a)

Ici, vous voulez marquer les chaînes de caractères de la liste animals comme étant traduisibles, mais ne les traduire qu'au moment de les afficher.

Voici un moyen de gérer ce cas :

def _(message): return message

animals = [_('mollusk'),
           _('albatross'),
           _('rat'),
           _('penguin'),
           _('python'), ]

del _

# ...
for a in animals:
    print(_(a))

This works because the dummy definition of _() simply returns the string unchanged. And this dummy definition will temporarily override any definition of _() in the built-in namespace (until the del command). Take care, though if you have a previous definition of _() in the local namespace.

Note that the second use of _() will not identify "a" as being translatable to the gettext program, because the parameter is not a string literal.

Voici une autre solution :

def N_(message): return message

animals = [N_('mollusk'),
           N_('albatross'),
           N_('rat'),
           N_('penguin'),
           N_('python'), ]

# ...
for a in animals:
    print(_(a))

In this case, you are marking translatable strings with the function N_(), which won't conflict with any definition of _(). However, you will need to teach your message extraction program to look for translatable strings marked with N_(). xgettext, pygettext, pybabel extract, and xpot all support this through the use of the -k command-line switch. The choice of N_() here is totally arbitrary; it could have just as easily been MarkThisStringForTranslation().

Remerciements

Les personnes suivantes ont contribué au code, ont fait des retours, ont participé aux suggestions de conception et aux implémentations précédentes, et ont partagé leur expérience précieuse pour la création de ce module :

Peter Funk

James Henstridge

Juan David Ibáñez Palomar

Marc-André Lemburg

Martin von Löwis

François Pinard

Barry Warsaw

Gustavo Niemeyer

Notes

[1]

The default locale directory is system dependent; for example, on Red Hat Linux it is /usr/share/locale, but on Solaris it is /usr/lib/locale. The gettext module does not try to support these system dependent defaults; instead its default is sys.base_prefix/share/locale (see sys.base_prefix). For this reason, it is always best to call bindtextdomain() with an explicit absolute path at the start of your application.

[2]

Voir la note de bindtextdomain() ci-dessus.

locale --- Internationalization services

Source code: Lib/locale.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/locale.py]

The locale module opens access to the POSIX locale database and functionality. The POSIX locale mechanism allows programmers to deal with certain cultural issues in an application, without requiring the programmer to know all the specifics of each country where the software is executed.

The locale module is implemented on top of the _locale module, which in turn uses an ANSI C locale implementation if available.

The locale module defines the following exception and functions:

exception locale.Error

Exception levée lorsque le paramètre régional passé en paramètre de setlocale() n'est pas reconnu.

locale.setlocale(category, locale=None)

If locale is given and not None, setlocale() modifies the locale setting for the category. The available categories are listed in the data description below. locale may be a string, or a pair, language code and encoding. An empty string specifies the user's default settings. If the modification of the locale fails, the exception Error is raised. If successful, the new locale setting is returned.

If locale is a pair, it is converted to a locale name using the locale aliasing engine. The language code has the same format as a locale name, but without encoding and @-modifier. The language code and encoding can be None.

Si locale est omis ou vaut None, le paramètre actuel de category est renvoyé.

Exemple :

>>> import locale
>>> loc = locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL)  # get current locale
# use German locale; name and availability varies with platform
>>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, 'de_DE.UTF-8')
>>> locale.strcoll('f\xe4n', 'foo')  # compare a string containing an umlaut
>>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, '')   # use user's preferred locale
>>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, 'C')  # use default (C) locale
>>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, loc)  # restore saved locale

setlocale() is not thread-safe on most systems. Applications typically start with a call of:

import locale
locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, '')

Cela définit les paramètres régionaux dans toutes les catégories sur ceux par défaut de l'utilisateur (habituellement spécifiés dans la variable d'environnement LANG). Si les paramètres régionaux ne sont pas modifiés par la suite, l'utilisation de fils d'exécution ne devrait pas poser de problèmes.

locale.localeconv()

Renvoie la base de données des conventions locales sous forme de dictionnaire. Ce dictionnaire a les chaînes de caractères suivantes comme clés :

Catégorie

Clé

Signification

LC_NUMERIC

'decimal_point'

Caractère du séparateur décimal (entre la partie entière et la partie décimale).

'grouping'

Séquence de nombres spécifiant les positions relatives attendues pour 'thousands_sep' (séparateur de milliers). Si la séquence se termine par CHAR_MAX, aucun autre regroupement n'est effectué. Si la séquence se termine par un 0, la dernière taille du groupe est utilisée à plusieurs reprises.

'thousands_sep'

Caractère utilisé entre les groupes (séparateur de milliers).

LC_MONETARY

'int_curr_symbol'

Symbole monétaire international.

'currency_symbol'

Symbole monétaire local.

'p_cs_precedes/n_cs_precedes'

Si le symbole monétaire précède ou non la valeur (pour les valeurs positives et négatives, respectivement).

'p_sep_by_space/n_sep_by_space'

Si le symbole monétaire est séparé de la valeur par une espace ou non (pour les valeurs positives et négatives, respectivement).

'mon_decimal_point'

Séparateur décimal (entre la partie entière et la partie décimale) utilisé pour les valeurs monétaires.

'frac_digits'

Nombre de décimales utilisées dans le format local des valeurs monétaires.

'int_frac_digits'

Nombre de décimales utilisées dans le format international des valeurs monétaires.

'mon_thousands_sep'

Séparateur de groupe utilisé pour les valeurs monétaires.

'mon_grouping'

Équivalent de 'grouping', utilisé pour les valeurs monétaires.

'positive_sign'

Symbole utilisé pour indiquer qu'une valeur monétaire est positive.

'negative_sign'

Symbole utilisé pour indiquer qu'une valeur monétaire est négative.

'p_sign_posn/n_sign_posn'

Position du signe (pour les valeurs positives et négatives, respectivement), voir ci-dessous.

Toutes les valeurs numériques peuvent être définies à CHAR_MAX pour indiquer qu'il n'y a pas de valeur spécifiée pour ces paramètres régionaux.

Les valeurs possibles pour 'p_sign_posn' et 'n_sign_posn' sont données ci-dessous.

Valeur

Explication

0

Le symbole monétaire et la valeur sont entourés de parenthèses.

1

Le signe doit précéder la valeur et le symbole monétaire.

2

Le signe doit suivre la valeur et le symbole monétaire.

3

Le signe doit précéder immédiatement la valeur.

4

Le signe doit suivre immédiatement la valeur.

CHAR_MAX

Rien n'est spécifié dans ces paramètres régionaux.

The function temporarily sets the LC_CTYPE locale to the LC_NUMERIC locale or the LC_MONETARY locale if locales are different and numeric or monetary strings are non-ASCII. This temporary change affects other threads.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: The function now temporarily sets the LC_CTYPE locale to the LC_NUMERIC locale in some cases.

locale.nl_langinfo(option)

Renvoie quelques informations spécifiques aux paramètres régionaux sous forme de chaîne. Cette fonction n'est pas disponible sur tous les systèmes et l'ensemble des options possibles peut également varier d'une plateforme à l'autre. Les valeurs possibles pour les arguments sont des nombres, pour lesquels des constantes symboliques sont disponibles dans le module locale.

La fonction nl_langinfo() accepte l'une des clés suivantes. La plupart des descriptions sont extraites des descriptions correspondantes dans la bibliothèque GNU C.

locale.CODESET

Récupère une chaîne avec le nom de l'encodage des caractères utilisé par le paramètre régional sélectionné.

locale.D_T_FMT

Récupère une chaîne qui peut être utilisée comme une chaîne de format par time.strftime() afin de représenter la date et l'heure pour un paramètre régional spécifique.

locale.D_FMT

Récupère une chaîne qui peut être utilisée comme une chaîne de format par time.strftime() afin de représenter une date pour un paramètre régional spécifique.

locale.T_FMT

Récupère une chaîne qui peut être utilisée comme une chaîne de format par time.strftime() afin de représenter une heure pour un paramètre régional spécifique.

locale.T_FMT_AMPM

Récupère une chaîne de format pour time.strftime() afin de représenter l'heure au format am / pm.

locale.DAY_1

locale.DAY_2

locale.DAY_3

locale.DAY_4

locale.DAY_5

locale.DAY_6

locale.DAY_7

Récupère le nom du n-ième jour de la semaine.

Note

Cela suit la convention américaine qui définit DAY_1 comme étant dimanche, et non la convention internationale (ISO 8601) où lundi est le premier jour de la semaine.

locale.ABDAY_1

locale.ABDAY_2

locale.ABDAY_3

locale.ABDAY_4

locale.ABDAY_5

locale.ABDAY_6

locale.ABDAY_7

Récupère l'abréviation du n-ième jour de la semaine.

locale.MON_1

locale.MON_2

locale.MON_3

locale.MON_4

locale.MON_5

locale.MON_6

locale.MON_7

locale.MON_8

locale.MON_9

locale.MON_10

locale.MON_11

locale.MON_12

Récupère le nom du n-ième mois.

locale.ABMON_1

locale.ABMON_2

locale.ABMON_3

locale.ABMON_4

locale.ABMON_5

locale.ABMON_6

locale.ABMON_7

locale.ABMON_8

locale.ABMON_9

locale.ABMON_10

locale.ABMON_11

locale.ABMON_12

Récupère l'abréviation du n-ième mois.

locale.RADIXCHAR

Récupère le caractère de séparation radix (point décimal, virgule décimale, etc.).

locale.THOUSEP

Récupère le caractère de séparation des milliers (groupes de 3 chiffres).

locale.YESEXPR

Récupère une expression régulière qui peut être utilisée par la fonction regex pour reconnaître une réponse positive à une question fermée (oui / non).

locale.NOEXPR

Get a regular expression that can be used with the regex(3) function to recognize a negative response to a yes/no question.

Note

The regular expressions for YESEXPR and NOEXPR use syntax suitable for the regex function from the C library, which might differ from the syntax used in re.

locale.CRNCYSTR

Récupère le symbole monétaire, précédé de « - » si le symbole doit apparaître avant la valeur, « + » s'il doit apparaître après la valeur, ou « . » s'il doit remplacer le caractère de séparation radix.

locale.ERA

Get a string which describes how years are counted and displayed for each era in a locale.

La plupart des paramètres régionaux ne définissent pas cette valeur. Un exemple de région qui définit bien cette valeur est le japonais. Au Japon, la représentation traditionnelle des dates comprend le nom de l'ère correspondant au règne de l'empereur de l'époque.

Normally it should not be necessary to use this value directly. Specifying the E modifier in their format strings causes the time.strftime() function to use this information. The format of the returned string is specified in The Open Group Base Specifications Issue 8, paragraph 7.3.5.2 LC_TIME C-Language Access [https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/9799919799/basedefs/V1_chap07.html#tag_07_03_05_02].

locale.ERA_D_T_FMT

Récupère la chaîne de format pour time.strftime() afin de représenter la date et l'heure pour un paramètre régional spécifique basée sur une ère.

locale.ERA_D_FMT

Récupère la chaîne de format pour time.strftime() afin de représenter une date pour un paramètre régional spécifique basée sur une ère.

locale.ERA_T_FMT

Récupère la chaîne de format pour time.strftime() afin de représenter une heure pour un paramètre régional spécifique basée sur une ère.

locale.ALT_DIGITS

Get a string consisting of up to 100 semicolon-separated symbols used to represent the values 0 to 99 in a locale-specific way. In most locales this is an empty string.

The function temporarily sets the LC_CTYPE locale to the locale of the category that determines the requested value (LC_TIME, LC_NUMERIC, LC_MONETARY or LC_MESSAGES) if locales are different and the resulting string is non-ASCII. This temporary change affects other threads.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: The function now temporarily sets the LC_CTYPE locale in some cases.

locale.getdefaultlocale([envvars])

Tente de déterminer les paramètres régionaux par défaut, puis les renvoie sous la forme d'un n-uplet (code de la langue, encodage).

D'après POSIX, un programme qui n'a pas appelé setlocale(LC_ALL, '') fonctionne en utilisant le paramètre régional portable 'C'. Appeler setlocale(LC_ALL, '') lui permet d'utiliser les paramètres régionaux par défaut définis par la variable LANG. Comme nous ne voulons pas interférer avec les paramètres régionaux actuels, nous émulons donc le comportement décrit ci-dessus.

Afin de maintenir la compatibilité avec d'autres plateformes, non seulement la variable LANG est testée, mais c'est aussi le cas pour toute une liste de variables passés en paramètre via envvars. La première variable à être définie sera utilisée. envvars utilise par défaut le chemin de recherche utilisé dans GNU gettext ; il doit toujours contenir le nom de variable 'LANG'. Le chemin de recherche de GNU gettext contient 'LC_ALL', 'LC_CTYPE', 'LANG' et 'LANGUAGE', dans cet ordre.

The language code has the same format as a locale name, but without encoding and @-modifier. The language code and encoding may be None if their values cannot be determined. The "C" locale is represented as (None, None).

Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.15.

locale.getlocale(category=LC_CTYPE)

Returns the current setting for the given locale category as a tuple containing the language code and encoding. category may be one of the LC_* values except LC_ALL. It defaults to LC_CTYPE.

The language code has the same format as a locale name, but without encoding and @-modifier. The language code and encoding may be None if their values cannot be determined. The "C" locale is represented as (None, None).

locale.getpreferredencoding(do_setlocale=True)

Return the locale encoding used for text data, according to user preferences. User preferences are expressed differently on different systems, and might not be available programmatically on some systems, so this function only returns a guess.

Sur certains systèmes, il est nécessaire d'invoquer setlocale() pour obtenir les préférences de l'utilisateur, cette fonction n'est donc pas utilisable sans protection dans les programmes à fils d'exécutions multiples. Si l'appel de setlocale n'est pas nécessaire ou souhaité, do_setlocale doit être réglé à False.

On Android or if the Python UTF-8 Mode is enabled, always return 'utf-8', the locale encoding and the do_setlocale argument are ignored.

The Python preinitialization configures the LC_CTYPE locale. See also the filesystem encoding and error handler.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: The function now always returns "utf-8" on Android or if the Python UTF-8 Mode is enabled.

locale.getencoding()

Get the current locale encoding:

On Android and VxWorks, return "utf-8".

On Unix, return the encoding of the current LC_CTYPE locale. Return "utf-8" if nl_langinfo(CODESET) returns an empty string: for example, if the current LC_CTYPE locale is not supported.

On Windows, return the ANSI code page.

The Python preinitialization configures the LC_CTYPE locale. See also the filesystem encoding and error handler.

This function is similar to getpreferredencoding(False) except this function ignores the Python UTF-8 Mode.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

locale.normalize(localename)

Renvoie un code normalisé pour le nom du paramètre régional fourni. Ce code renvoyé est structuré de façon à être utilisé avec setlocale(). Si la normalisation échoue, le nom d'origine est renvoyé inchangé.

Si l'encodage donné n'est pas connu, la fonction utilise l'encodage par défaut pour le code du paramètre régional, tout comme setlocale().

locale.strcoll(string1, string2)

Compare deux chaînes en se basant sur le paramètre LC_COLLATE actuel. Comme toute autre fonction de comparaison, renvoie une valeur négative, positive, ou 0, selon si string1 est lexicographiquement inférieure, supérieure, ou égale à string2.

locale.strxfrm(string)

Transforme une chaîne de caractères en une chaîne qui peut être utilisée dans les comparaisons sensibles aux paramètres régionaux. Par exemple, strxfrm(s1) < strxfrm(s2) est équivalent à strcoll(s1, s2) < 0. Cette fonction peut être utilisée lorsque la même chaîne est comparée de façon répétitive, par exemple lors de l'assemblage d'une séquence de chaînes.

locale.format_string(format, val, grouping=False, monetary=False)

Formats a number val according to the current LC_NUMERIC setting. The format follows the conventions of the % operator. For floating-point values, the decimal point is modified if appropriate. If grouping is True, also takes the grouping into account.

Si monetary est vrai, la conversion utilise un séparateur des milliers monétaire et des chaînes de regroupement.

Traite les marqueurs de structure en format % val, mais en prenant en compte les paramètres régionaux actuels.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: The monetary keyword parameter was added.

locale.currency(val, symbol=True, grouping=False, international=False)

Structure un nombre val en fonction du paramètre LC_MONETARY actuel.

The returned string includes the currency symbol if symbol is true, which is the default. If grouping is True (which is not the default), grouping is done with the value. If international is True (which is not the default), the international currency symbol is used.

Note

This function will not work with the 'C' locale, so you have to set a locale via setlocale() first.

locale.str(float)

Formats a floating-point number using the same format as the built-in function str(float), but takes the decimal point into account.

locale.delocalize(string)

Convertit une chaîne de caractères en une chaîne de nombres normalisés, en suivant les réglages LC_NUMERIC.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

locale.localize(string, grouping=False, monetary=False)

Converts a normalized number string into a formatted string following the LC_NUMERIC settings.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

locale.atof(string, func=float)

Converts a string to a number, following the LC_NUMERIC settings, by calling func on the result of calling delocalize() on string.

locale.atoi(string)

Convertit une chaîne de caractères en un entier, en suivant les réglages LC_NUMERIC.

locale.LC_CTYPE

Locale category for the character type functions. Most importantly, this category defines the text encoding, i.e. how bytes are interpreted as Unicode codepoints. See PEP 538 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/] and PEP 540 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0540/] for how this variable might be automatically coerced to C.UTF-8 to avoid issues created by invalid settings in containers or incompatible settings passed over remote SSH connections.

Python doesn't internally use locale-dependent character transformation functions from ctype.h. Instead, pyctype.h provides locale-independent equivalents like Py_TOLOWER.

locale.LC_COLLATE

Locale category for sorting strings. The functions strcoll() and strxfrm() of the locale module are affected.

locale.LC_TIME

Catégorie de paramètre régional pour la mise en forme de la date et de l'heure. La fonction time.strftime() suit ces conventions.

locale.LC_MONETARY

Catégorie de paramètre régional pour la mise en forme des valeurs monétaires. Les options disponibles sont accessibles à partir de la fonction localeconv().

locale.LC_MESSAGES

Catégorie de paramètre régional pour l'affichage de messages. Actuellement, Python ne gère pas les messages spécifiques aux applications qui sont sensibles aux paramètres régionaux. Les messages affichés par le système d'exploitation, comme ceux renvoyés par os.strerror() peuvent être affectés par cette catégorie.

This value may not be available on operating systems not conforming to the POSIX standard, most notably Windows.

locale.LC_NUMERIC

Locale category for formatting numbers. The functions format_string(), atoi(), atof() and str() of the locale module are affected by that category. All other numeric formatting operations are not affected.

locale.LC_ALL

Combinaison de tous les paramètres régionaux. Si cette option est utilisée lors du changement de paramètres régionaux, la définition de ces paramètres pour toutes les catégories est tentée. Si cela échoue pour n'importe quelle catégorie, aucune d'entre elles n'est modifiée. Lorsque les paramètres régionaux sont récupérés à l'aide de cette option, une chaîne de caractères indiquant le réglage pour toutes les catégories est renvoyée. Cette chaîne peut alors être utilisée plus tard pour restaurer les paramètres d'origine.

locale.CHAR_MAX

Ceci est une constante symbolique utilisée pour différentes valeurs renvoyées par localeconv().

Contexte, détails, conseils, astuces et mises en garde

The C standard defines the locale as a program-wide property that may be relatively expensive to change. On top of that, some implementations are broken in such a way that frequent locale changes may cause core dumps. This makes the locale somewhat painful to use correctly.

Initialement, lorsqu'un programme est démarré, les paramètres régionaux C sont utilisés, peu importe les réglages de l'utilisateur. Il y a toutefois une exception : la catégorie LC_CTYPE est modifiée au démarrage pour définir l'encodage des paramètres régionaux actuels comme celui défini par l'utilisateur. Le programme doit explicitement dire qu'il veut utiliser les réglages de l'utilisateur pour les autres catégories, en appelant setlocale(LC_ALL, '').

C'est généralement une mauvaise idée d'appeler setlocale() dans une routine de bibliothèque car cela a pour effet secondaire d'affecter le programme entier. Sauvegarder et restaurer les paramètres est presque aussi mauvais : c'est coûteux et cela affecte d'autres fils d'exécutions qui s'exécutent avant que les paramètres n'aient été restaurés.

Si, lors du développement d'un module à usage général, vous avez besoin d'une version indépendante des paramètres régionaux pour une opération y étant sensible (comme c'est le cas pour certains formats utilisés avec time.strftime()), vous devez trouver un moyen de le faire sans utiliser la routine de la bibliothèque standard. Le mieux est encore de se convaincre que l'usage des paramètres régionaux est une bonne chose. Ce n'est qu'en dernier recours que vous devez documenter que votre module n'est pas compatible avec les réglages du paramètre régional C.

The only way to perform numeric operations according to the locale is to use the special functions defined by this module: atof(), atoi(), format_string(), str().

Il n'y a aucun moyen d'effectuer des conversions de casse et des classifications de caractères en fonction des paramètres régionaux. Pour les chaînes de caractères (Unicode), celles-ci se font uniquement en fonction de la valeur du caractère, tandis que pour les chaînes d'octets, les conversions et les classifications se font en fonction de la valeur ASCII de l'octet, et les octets dont le bit de poids fort est à 1 (c'est-à-dire les octets non ASCII) ne sont jamais convertis ou considérés comme faisant partie d'une classe de caractères comme une lettre ou une espace.

Locale names

The format of the locale name is platform dependent, and the set of supported locales can depend on the system configuration.

On Posix platforms, it usually has the format [1]:

  language ["_" territory] ["." charset] ["@" modifier]

where language is a two- or three-letter language code from ISO 639 [https://www.iso.org/iso-639-language-code], territory is a two-letter country or region code from ISO 3166 [https://www.iso.org/iso-3166-country-codes.html], charset is a locale encoding, and modifier is a script name, a language subtag, a sort order identifier, or other locale modifier (for example, "latin", "valencia", "stroke" and "euro").

On Windows, several formats are supported. [2] [3] A subset of IETF BCP 47 [https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/bcp47] tags:

  language ["-" script] ["-" territory] ["." charset]
  language ["-" script] "-" territory "-" modifier

where language and territory have the same meaning as in Posix, script is a four-letter script code from ISO 15924 [https://www.unicode.org/iso15924/], and modifier is a language subtag, a sort order identifier or custom modifier (for example, "valencia", "stroke" or "x-python"). Both hyphen ('-') and underscore ('_') separators are supported. Only UTF-8 encoding is allowed for BCP 47 tags.

Windows also supports locale names in the format:

  language ["_" territory] ["." charset]

where language and territory are full names, such as "English" and "United States", and charset is either a code page number (for example, "1252") or UTF-8. Only the underscore separator is supported in this format.

The "C" locale is supported on all platforms.

[1]

IEEE Std 1003.1-2024; 8.2 Internationalization Variables [https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/9799919799/basedefs/V1_chap08.html#tag_08_02]

[2]

UCRT Locale names, Languages, and Country/Region strings [https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/cpp/c-runtime-library/locale-names-languages-and-country-region-strings]

[3]

Locale Names [https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/win32/intl/locale-names]

Pour les auteurs d'extensions et les programmes qui intègrent Python

Les modules d'extensions ne devraient jamais appeler setlocale(), sauf pour connaître le paramètre régional actuel. Mais comme la valeur renvoyée ne peut être utilisée que pour le restaurer, ce n'est pas très utile (sauf peut-être pour savoir si le paramètre régional est défini à C ou non).

When Python code uses the locale module to change the locale, this also affects the embedding application. If the embedding application doesn't want this to happen, it should remove the _locale extension module (which does all the work) from the table of built-in modules in the config.c file, and make sure that the _locale module is not accessible as a shared library.

Accéder aux catalogues de messages

locale.gettext(msg)

locale.dgettext(domain, msg)

locale.dcgettext(domain, msg, category)

locale.textdomain(domain)

locale.bindtextdomain(domain, dir)

locale.bind_textdomain_codeset(domain, codeset)

The locale module exposes the C library's gettext interface on systems that provide this interface. It consists of the functions gettext(), dgettext(), dcgettext(), textdomain(), bindtextdomain(), and bind_textdomain_codeset(). These are similar to the same functions in the gettext module, but use the C library's binary format for message catalogs, and the C library's search algorithms for locating message catalogs.

Python applications should normally find no need to invoke these functions, and should use gettext instead. A known exception to this rule are applications that link with additional C libraries which internally invoke C functions gettext or dcgettext. For these applications, it may be necessary to bind the text domain, so that the libraries can properly locate their message catalogs.

Graphical user interfaces with Tk

Tk/Tcl has long been an integral part of Python. It provides a robust and platform independent windowing toolkit, that is available to Python programmers using the tkinter package, and its extension, the tkinter.ttk module.

The tkinter package is a thin object-oriented layer on top of Tcl/Tk. To use tkinter, you don't need to write Tcl code, but you will need to consult the Tk documentation, and occasionally the Tcl documentation. tkinter is a set of wrappers that implement the Tk widgets as Python classes.

tkinter's chief virtues are that it is fast, and that it usually comes bundled with Python. Although its standard documentation is weak, good material is available, which includes: references, tutorials, a book and others. tkinter is also famous for having an outdated look and feel, which has been vastly improved in Tk 8.5. Nevertheless, there are many other GUI libraries that you could be interested in. The Python wiki lists several alternative GUI frameworks and tools [https://wiki.python.org/moin/GuiProgramming].

tkinter --- Python interface to Tcl/Tk

Architecture

Modules Tkinter

Guide de survie Tkinter

Un simple programme Hello World

Concepts importants de Tk

Comprendre comment Tkinter enveloppe Tcl/Tk

Comment puis-je… ? Quelle option… ?

Navigation dans le manuel de référence Tcl/Tk

Fils d'exécution multiples

Guide pratique

Définition des options

L'empaqueteur

Options de l'empaqueteur

Association des variables de l'objet graphique

Le gestionnaire de fenêtres

Types de données des options Tk

Liaisons et événements

Le paramètre index

Images

Gestionnaires de fichiers

tkinter.colorchooser --- Color choosing dialog

tkinter.font --- Tkinter font wrapper

Boîtes de dialogue Tkinter

tkinter.simpledialog --- Standard Tkinter input dialogs

tkinter.filedialog --- File selection dialogs

Boîtes de dialogue de chargement et sauvegarde natives

tkinter.commondialog --- Dialog window templates

tkinter.messagebox --- Tkinter message prompts

tkinter.scrolledtext --- Scrolled Text Widget

tkinter.dnd --- Drag and drop support

tkinter.ttk --- Tk themed widgets

Utilisation de Ttk

Widgets Ttk

Widget

Options standards

Options de widget avec barre de défilement

Options d'étiquette (label)

Options de compatibilité

États des widgets

ttk.Widget

Combobox

Options

Événements virtuels

ttk.Combobox

Spinbox

Options

Événements virtuels

ttk.Spinbox

Carnet de notes (notebook)

Options

Options d'onglet

Identifiants d'onglet

Événements virtuels

ttk.Notebook

Barre de progression

Options

ttk.Progressbar

Séparateur

Options

Poignée de redimensionnement

Notes spécifiques à une plateforme

Bogues

Arborescence

Options

Options d'éléments

Options de balise

Identifiants de colonnes

Événements virtuels

ttk.Treeview

Style Ttk

Dispositions de mise en page

IDLE --- Python editor and shell

Menus

Menu File (Console et Éditeur)

Menu Edit (console et éditeur)

Menu Format (fenêtre d'édition uniquement)

Menu Run (fenêtre d'édition uniquement)

Menu Shell (fenêtre de console uniquement)

Menu Debug (fenêtre de console uniquement)

Menu Options (console et éditeur)

Menu Windows (console et éditeur)

Menu Help (console et éditeur)

Context menus

Editing and Navigation

Fenêtre d'édition

Raccourcis clavier

Indentation automatique

Recherche et substitution

Complétions

Info-bulles

Format block

Contexte du code

Shell window

Coloration du texte

Startup and Code Execution

Command-line usage

Échec au démarrage

Exécuter le code de l'utilisateur

Sortie de l'utilisateur sur la console

Développer des applications tkinter

Exécution sans sous-processus

Help and Preferences

Sources d'aide

Modifier les préférences

IDLE sous macOS

Extensions

idlelib --- implementation of IDLE application

turtle --- Turtle graphics

Introduction

Get started

Tutoriel

Starting a turtle environment

Basic drawing

Réglage des stylos

The turtle's position

Making algorithmic patterns

How to...

Get started as quickly as possible

Automatically begin and end filling

Use the turtle module namespace

Use turtle graphics in a script

Use object-oriented turtle graphics

Turtle graphics reference

Les méthodes du module Turtle

Méthodes de TurtleScreen/Screen

Méthodes de RawTurtle/Turtle et leurs fonctions correspondantes

Les mouvements dans le module Turtle

Connaître l'état de la tortue

Paramètres de mesure

Réglage des stylos

État des stylos

Réglage des couleurs

Remplissage

Plus des réglages pour le dessin

État de la tortue

Visibilité

Apparence

Utilisation des événements

Méthodes spéciales de la tortue

Formes composées

Méthodes de TurtleScreen/Screen et leurs fonctions correspondantes

Réglage de la fenêtre

Réglage de l'animation

Utilisation des événements concernant l'écran

Méthodes de saisie

Paramétrages et méthodes spéciales

Méthodes spécifiques à Screen, non héritées de TurtleScreen

Classes publiques

Explication

Aide et configuration

Utilisation de l'aide

Traduction de chaînes de documents en différentes langues

Comment configurer Screen et Turtle

turtledemo --- Demo scripts

Modifications depuis Python 2.6

Modifications depuis Python 3.0

tkinter --- Python interface to Tcl/Tk

Code source : Lib/tkinter/__init__.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/tkinter/__init__.py]

The tkinter package ("Tk interface") is the standard Python interface to the Tcl/Tk GUI toolkit. Both Tk and tkinter are available on most Unix platforms, including macOS, as well as on Windows systems.

Running python -m tkinter from the command line should open a window demonstrating a simple Tk interface, letting you know that tkinter is properly installed on your system, and also showing what version of Tcl/Tk is installed, so you can read the Tcl/Tk documentation specific to that version.

Tkinter prend en charge une gamme de versions Tcl/Tk, construites avec ou sans prise en charge des fils d'exécution multiples. La version binaire officielle de Python utilise Tcl/Tk 8.6 gérant les fils d'exécution multiples. Voir le code source du module _tkinter pour plus d'informations sur les versions prises en charge.

Tkinter n'est pas une simple enveloppe, mais ajoute une bonne partie de sa propre logique pour rendre l'expérience plus pythonique. Cette documentation se concentre sur ces ajouts et modifications, et se réfère à la documentation officielle de Tcl/Tk pour les détails qui restent inchangés.

Note

Tcl/Tk 8.5 (2007) a introduit un ensemble moderne de composants d'interface utilisateur thématiques ainsi qu'une nouvelle API pour les utiliser. Les anciennes et les nouvelles API sont toujours disponibles. La plupart des documents que vous trouverez en ligne utilisent toujours l'ancienne API et peuvent être terriblement obsolètes.

This is an optional module. If it is missing from your copy of CPython, look for documentation from your distributor (that is, whoever provided Python to you). If you are the distributor, see Requirements for optional modules.

Voir aussi

TkDocs [https://www.tkdocs.com/]

Tutoriel complet sur la création d'interfaces utilisateur avec Tkinter. Explique les concepts clés et illustre les approches recommandées à l'aide de l'API moderne.

Référence *Tkinter* 8.5 : une interface graphique pour Python [https://www.tkdocs.com/shipman/]

Documentation de référence pour Tkinter 8.5 détaillant les classes, méthodes et options disponibles (ressource en anglais).

Ressources Tcl/Tk :

Commandes *Tk* [https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/contents.htm]

Référence complète de chacune des commandes Tcl/Tk sous-jacentes utilisées par Tkinter (ressource en anglais).

Page d'accueil de Tcl/Tk [https://www.tcl.tk]

Documentation supplémentaire et liens vers le développement principal de Tcl/Tk.

Livres :

Modern Tkinter for Busy Python Developers [https://tkdocs.com/book.html]

par Mark Roseman. (ISBN 978-1999149567)

Python GUI programming with Tkinter [https://www.packtpub.com/en-us/product/python-gui-programming-with-tkinter-9781788835886]

By Alan D. Moore. (ISBN 978-1788835886)

Programming Python [https://learning-python.com/about-pp4e.html]

livre de Mark Lutz, qui couvre excellemment bien Tkinter (ISBN 978-0596158101).

Tcl and the Tk Toolkit (2nd edition) [https://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/032133633X]

par John Ousterhout, inventeur de Tcl/Tk, et Ken Jones ; ne couvre pas Tkinter. (ISBN 978-0321336330)

Architecture

Tcl/Tk n'est pas une bibliothèque unique mais se compose plutôt de quelques modules distincts, chacun avec des fonctionnalités distinctes et sa propre documentation officielle. Les versions binaires de Python sont également livrées avec un module complémentaire.

Tcl

Tcl est un langage de programmation interprété dynamique, tout comme Python. Bien qu'il puisse être utilisé seul comme langage de programmation à usage général, il est le plus souvent intégré dans les applications C en tant que moteur de script ou interface avec la boîte à outils Tk. La bibliothèque Tcl a une interface C pour créer et gérer une ou plusieurs instances d'un interpréteur Tcl, exécuter des commandes et des scripts Tcl dans ces instances et ajouter des commandes personnalisées implémentées en Tcl ou C. Chaque interpréteur a une file d'attente d'événements et il y a facilités pour lui envoyer des événements et les traiter. Contrairement à Python, le modèle d'exécution de Tcl est conçu autour du multitâches coopératif, et Tkinter comble cette différence (voir Modèle de thread pour plus de détails).

Tk

Tk est un paquet *Tcl* [https://wiki.tcl-lang.org/37432] implémenté en C qui ajoute des commandes personnalisées pour créer et manipuler des widgets d'interface graphique. Chaque objet Tk embarque sa propre instance d'interpréteur Tcl avec Tk chargé dedans. Les widgets de Tk sont très personnalisables, mais au prix d'une apparence datée. Tk utilise la file d'attente d'événements de Tcl pour générer et traiter les événements de l'interface graphique.

Ttk

Themed Tk (Ttk) est une nouvelle famille de widgets Tk qui offrent une bien meilleure apparence sur différentes plates-formes que la plupart des widgets Tk classiques. Ttk est distribué dans le cadre de Tk, à partir de la version 8.5 de Tk. Les liaisons Python sont fournies dans un module séparé, tkinter.ttk.

En interne, Tk et Ttk utilisent les fonctionnalités du système d'exploitation sous-jacent, c'est-à-dire Xlib sur Unix/X11, Cocoa sur macOS, GDI sur Windows.

When your Python application uses a class in Tkinter, e.g., to create a widget, the tkinter module first assembles a Tcl/Tk command string. It passes that Tcl command string to an internal _tkinter binary module, which then calls the Tcl interpreter to evaluate it. The Tcl interpreter will then call into the Tk and/or Ttk packages, which will in turn make calls to Xlib, Cocoa, or GDI.

Modules Tkinter

Support for Tkinter is spread across several modules. Most applications will need the main tkinter module, as well as the tkinter.ttk module, which provides the modern themed widget set and API:

from tkinter import *
from tkinter import ttk

class tkinter.Tk(screenName=None, baseName=None, className='Tk', useTk=True, sync=False, use=None)

Construit un widget Tk de niveau supérieur, qui est généralement la fenêtre principale d'une application, et initialise un interpréteur Tcl pour ce widget. Chaque instance a son propre interpréteur Tcl associé.

La classe Tk est généralement instanciée en utilisant toutes les valeurs par défaut. Cependant, les arguments nommés suivants sont actuellement reconnus :

screenName

Lorsqu'il est donné (sous forme de chaîne), définit la variable d'environnement DISPLAY. (X11 uniquement)

baseName

Nom du fichier de profil. Par défaut, baseName est dérivé du nom du programme (sys.argv[0]).

className

Nom de la classe de widget. Utilisé comme fichier de profil et aussi comme nom avec lequel Tcl est invoqué (argv0 dans interp).

useTk

S'il vaut True, initialise le sous-système Tk. La fonction tkinter.*Tcl*() définit ceci sur False.

sync

Si True, exécute toutes les commandes du serveur X de manière synchrone, afin que les erreurs soient signalées immédiatement. Peut être utilisé pour le débogage. (X11 uniquement)

use

Spécifie l'id de la fenêtre dans laquelle intégrer l'application, au lieu de la créer en tant que fenêtre de niveau supérieur indépendante. id doit être spécifié de la même manière que la valeur de l'option -use pour les widgets de niveau supérieur (c'est-à-dire qu'il a une forme semblable à celle renvoyée par winfo_id()).

Notez que sur certaines plates-formes, cela ne fonctionne correctement que si id fait référence à un cadre Tk ou à un niveau supérieur dont l'option -container est activée.

Tk reads and interprets profile files, named .className.tcl and .baseName.tcl, into the Tcl interpreter and calls exec() on the contents of .className.py and .baseName.py. The path for the profile files is the HOME environment variable or, if that isn't defined, then os.curdir.

tk

L'objet d'application Tk créé en instanciant Tk. Cela donne accès à l'interpréteur Tcl. Chaque widget auquel est attachée la même instance de Tk a la même valeur pour son attribut tk.

master

The widget object that contains this widget. For Tk, the master is None because it is the main window. The terms master and parent are similar and sometimes used interchangeably as argument names; however, calling winfo_parent() returns a string of the widget name whereas master returns the object. parent/child reflects the tree-like relationship while master (or container)/content reflects the container structure.

children

Les descendants immédiats de ce widget en tant que dict avec les noms des widgets enfants comme clés et les objets d'instance enfants comme valeurs.

tkinter.Tcl(screenName=None, baseName=None, className='Tk', useTk=False)

La fonction Tcl() est une fonction fabrique qui crée un objet similaire à celui créé par la classe Tk, sauf qu'elle n'initialise pas le sous-système Tk. Ceci est le plus souvent utile lorsque vous pilotez l'interpréteur Tcl dans un environnement où vous ne voulez pas créer des fenêtres de haut niveau supplémentaires, ou alors si c'est impossible (comme les systèmes Unix/Linux sans un serveur X). Un objet créé par Tcl() peut avoir une fenêtre de haut niveau créée (et le sous-système Tk initialisé) en appelant sa méthode loadtk().

Parmi les modules qui savent gérer Tk, nous pouvons citer :

tkinter

Module Tkinter principal

tkinter.colorchooser

Boîte de dialogue permettant à l'utilisateur de choisir une couleur.

tkinter.commondialog

Classe de base pour les boîtes de dialogue définies dans les autres modules listés ici.

tkinter.filedialog

Boîtes de dialogue standard permettant à l'utilisateur de spécifier un fichier à ouvrir ou à enregistrer.

tkinter.font

Utilitaires pour gérer les polices de caractères.

tkinter.messagebox

Accès aux boîtes de dialogue Tk standard.

tkinter.scrolledtext

Outil d'affichage de texte avec une barre de défilement verticale intégrée.

tkinter.simpledialog

Boîtes de dialogue simples et fonctions utilitaires.

tkinter.ttk

Themed widget set introduced in Tk 8.5, providing modern alternatives for many of the classic widgets in the main tkinter module.

Modules supplémentaires :

_tkinter

A binary module that contains the low-level interface to Tcl/Tk. It is automatically imported by the main tkinter module, and should never be used directly by application programmers. It is usually a shared library (or DLL), but might in some cases be statically linked with the Python interpreter.

idlelib

Python's Integrated Development and Learning Environment (IDLE). Based on tkinter.

tkinter.constants

Symbolic constants that can be used in place of strings when passing various parameters to Tkinter calls. Automatically imported by the main tkinter module.

tkinter.dnd

(experimental) Drag-and-drop support for tkinter. This will become deprecated when it is replaced with the Tk DND.

turtle

Tortue graphique dans une fenêtre Tk.

Guide de survie Tkinter

Cette section n'est pas conçue pour être un tutoriel exhaustif sur Tk ou Tkinter. Pour cela, reportez-vous à l'une des ressources externes mentionnées précédemment. Cette section fournit plutôt un guide très rapide sur ce à quoi ressemble une application Tkinter, identifie les concepts fondamentaux de Tk et explique comment l'enveloppe Tkinter est structurée.

Le reste de cette section vous aidera à identifier les classes, méthodes et options dont vous aurez besoin dans votre application Tkinter, et où trouver une documentation plus détaillée à leur sujet, y compris dans le manuel de référence officiel Tcl/Tk.

Un simple programme Hello World

Nous commençons par disséquer une application Hello World dans Tkinter. Ce n'est pas le plus petit que nous puissions écrire, mais il en contient suffisamment pour illustrer certains concepts clés que vous devez connaître.

from tkinter import *
from tkinter import ttk
root = Tk()
frm = ttk.Frame(root, padding=10)
frm.grid()
ttk.Label(frm, text="Hello World!").grid(column=0, row=0)
ttk.Button(frm, text="Quit", command=root.destroy).grid(column=1, row=0)
root.mainloop()

Après les importations, la ligne suivante crée une instance de la classe Tk, qui initialise Tk et crée son interpréteur Tcl associé. Elle crée également une fenêtre de niveau supérieur, connue sous le nom de fenêtre racine, qui sert de fenêtre principale de l'application.

La ligne suivante crée un widget de cadre, qui dans ce cas contiendra une étiquette et un bouton que nous créerons ensuite. Le cadre est ajusté à l'intérieur de la fenêtre racine.

La ligne suivante crée un widget d'étiquette contenant une chaîne de texte statique. La méthode grid() est utilisée pour spécifier la disposition relative (position) de l'étiquette dans son widget cadre contenant, similaire au fonctionnement des tableaux en HTML.

Un widget de bouton est alors créé et placé à droite de l'étiquette. Lorsqu'il est pressé, il appelle la méthode destroy() de la fenêtre racine.

Enfin, la méthode mainloop() affiche tout sur l'écran et répond aux entrées de l'utilisateur jusqu'à ce que le programme se termine.

Concepts importants de Tk

Même ce programme simple illustre les concepts clés suivants de Tk :

widgets

Une interface utilisateur Tkinter est composée de widgets individuels. Chaque widget est représenté comme un objet Python, instancié à partir de classes comme ttk.Frame, ttk.Label et ttk.Button.

hiérarchie des widgets

Les widgets sont organisés dans une hiérarchie. L'étiquette et le bouton étaient contenus dans un cadre, qui à son tour était contenu dans la fenêtre racine. Lors de la création de chaque widget enfant, son widget parent est passé comme premier argument au constructeur du widget.

options de configuration

Les widgets ont des options de configuration, qui modifient leur apparence et leur comportement, comme le texte à afficher dans une étiquette ou un bouton. Différentes classes de widgets auront différents ensembles d'options.

gestion de la géométrie

Les widgets ne sont pas automatiquement ajoutés à l'interface utilisateur lorsqu'ils sont créés. Un gestionnaire de géométrie comme grid contrôle où ils sont placés dans l'interface utilisateur.

boucle d'événements

Tkinter réagit aux entrées de l'utilisateur, aux modifications de votre programme et même rafraîchit l'affichage uniquement lors de l'exécution active d'une boucle d'événements. Si votre programme n'exécute pas la boucle d'événements, votre interface utilisateur n'est pas mise à jour.

Comprendre comment Tkinter enveloppe Tcl/Tk

When your application uses Tkinter's classes and methods, internally Tkinter is assembling strings representing Tcl/Tk commands, and executing those commands in the Tcl interpreter attached to your application's Tk instance.

Qu'il s'agisse d'essayer de naviguer dans la documentation de référence, d'essayer de trouver la bonne méthode ou option, d'adapter du code existant ou de déboguer votre application Tkinter, il arrive qu'il soit utile de comprendre à quoi ressemblent ces commandes Tcl/Tk sous-jacentes.

Pour illustrer cette idée, voici l'équivalent Tcl/Tk de la partie principale du script Tkinter ci-dessus.

ttk::frame .frm -padding 10
grid .frm
grid [ttk::label .frm.lbl -text "Hello World!"] -column 0 -row 0
grid [ttk::button .frm.btn -text "Quit" -command "destroy ."] -column 1 -row 0

La syntaxe de Tcl est similaire à celle de nombreux langages shell, où le premier mot est la commande à exécuter, suivi des arguments de cette commande, séparés par des espaces. Sans entrer dans trop de détails, notez ce qui suit :

Les commandes utilisées pour créer des widgets (comme ttk::frame) correspondent aux classes de widgets dans Tkinter.

Les options du widget Tcl (comme -text) correspondent aux arguments de mots-clés dans Tkinter.

Les widgets sont référencés par un chemin en Tcl (comme .frm.btn), alors que Tkinter n'utilise pas de noms mais des références d'objets.

La place d'un widget dans la hiérarchie des widgets est encodée dans son nom de chemin (hiérarchique), qui utilise un . (point) comme séparateur de chemin. Le chemin d'accès à la fenêtre racine est simplement . (point). Dans Tkinter, la hiérarchie n'est pas définie par le nom de chemin mais en spécifiant le widget parent lors de la création de chaque widget enfant.

Operations which are implemented as separate commands in Tcl (like grid or destroy) are represented as methods on Tkinter widget objects. As you'll see shortly, at other times Tcl uses what appear to be method calls on widget objects, which more closely mirror what is used in Tkinter.

Comment puis-je… ? Quelle option… ?

Si vous ne savez pas comment faire quelque chose dans Tkinter et que vous ne le trouvez pas immédiatement dans le didacticiel ou la documentation de référence que vous utilisez, il existe quelques stratégies qui peuvent être utiles.

Tout d'abord, rappelez-vous que les détails du fonctionnement des widgets individuels peuvent varier selon les différentes versions de Tkinter et de Tcl/Tk. Si vous recherchez de la documentation, assurez-vous qu'elle correspond aux versions Python et Tcl/Tk installées sur votre système.

Lorsque vous recherchez comment utiliser une API, il est utile de connaître le nom exact de la classe, de l'option ou de la méthode que vous utilisez. L'introspection, soit dans un shell Python interactif, soit avec print(), peut vous aider à identifier ce dont vous avez besoin.

Pour savoir quelles options de configuration sont disponibles sur n'importe quel widget, appelez sa méthode configure(), qui renvoie un dictionnaire contenant une variété d'informations sur l'objet, y compris ses valeurs par défaut et actuelles. Utilisez keys() pour obtenir uniquement les noms de chaque option.

btn = ttk.Button(frm, ...)
print(btn.configure().keys())

Comme la plupart des widgets ont de nombreuses options de configuration en commun, il peut être utile de savoir lesquelles sont spécifiques à une classe de widget particulière. Comparer la liste des options à celle d'un widget plus simple, comme un cadre, est une façon de faire.

print(set(btn.configure().keys()) - set(frm.configure().keys()))

De même, vous pouvez trouver les méthodes disponibles pour un objet widget en utilisant la fonction standard dir(). Si vous l'essayez, vous verrez qu'il existe plus de 200 méthodes de widget courantes donc, encore une fois, identifier celles spécifiques à une classe de widget est utile.

print(dir(btn))
print(set(dir(btn)) - set(dir(frm)))

Navigation dans le manuel de référence Tcl/Tk

Comme indiqué, le manuel de référence officiel des commandes Tk [https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/contents.htm] (pages de manuel) est souvent la description la plus précise sur ce que font des opérations spécifiques sur les widgets. Même lorsque vous connaissez le nom de l'option ou de la méthode dont vous avez besoin, il se peut que vous ayez encore quelques endroits à chercher.

Alors que toutes les opérations dans Tkinter sont implémentées en tant qu'appels de méthode sur des objets widget, vous avez vu que de nombreuses opérations Tcl/Tk apparaissent sous forme de commandes qui prennent un chemin d'accès de widget comme premier paramètre, suivi de paramètres facultatifs, par exemple :

destroy .
grid .frm.btn -column 0 -row 0

D'autres, cependant, ressemblent plus à des méthodes appelées sur un objet widget (en fait, lorsque vous créez un widget en Tcl/Tk, il crée une commande Tcl avec le nom du chemin du widget, le premier paramètre de cette commande étant le nom d'une méthode à appeler).

.frm.btn invoke
.frm.lbl configure -text "Goodbye"

Dans la documentation de référence officielle Tcl/Tk, vous trouvez la plupart des opérations qui ressemblent à des appels de méthode dans la page de manuel d'un widget spécifique (par exemple, vous trouvez la méthode invoke() dans la page de manuel sur le ttk::button [https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/ttk_button.htm]), tandis que les fonctions qui prennent un widget comme paramètre ont souvent leur propre page de manuel (par exemple, grid [https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/grid.htm]).

Vous trouvez de nombreuses options et méthodes courantes dans les pages de manuel des options [https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/options.htm] ou ttk::widget [https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/ttk_widget.htm], tandis que d'autres se trouvent dans la page de manuel d'une classe de widget spécifique.

Vous constaterez également que de nombreuses méthodes Tkinter ont des noms composés, par exemple winfo_x(), winfo_height(), winfo_viewable(). Vous trouverez de la documentation pour tout cela dans la page de manuel winfo [https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/winfo.htm].

Note

de manière quelque peu déroutante, il existe également des méthodes sur tous les widgets Tkinter qui ne fonctionnent pas réellement sur le widget, mais fonctionnent à une portée globale, indépendamment de tout widget. Les méthodes d'accès au presse-papiers ou à la sonnerie du système en font partie (il se trouve qu'elles sont implémentées en tant que méthodes dans la classe de base Widget dont héritent tous les widgets Tkinter).

Fils d'exécution multiples

Python and Tcl/Tk have very different threading models, which tkinter tries to bridge. If you use threads, you may need to be aware of this.

Un interpréteur Python peut être associé à de nombreux fils d'exécution. En Tcl, plusieurs fils d'exécution peuvent être créés, mais chaque fil d'exécution est associé à une instance d'interpréteur Tcl distincte. Les fils d'exécution multiples peuvent également créer plusieurs instances d'interpréteur, bien que chaque instance d'interpréteur ne puisse être utilisée que par le seul fil d'exécution qui l'a créée.

Each Tk object created by tkinter contains a Tcl interpreter. It also keeps track of which thread created that interpreter. Calls to tkinter can be made from any Python thread. Internally, if a call comes from a thread other than the one that created the Tk object, an event is posted to the interpreter's event queue, and when executed, the result is returned to the calling Python thread.

Les applications Tcl/Tk sont normalement pilotées par les événements, ce qui signifie qu'après l'initialisation, l'interpréteur exécute une boucle d'événements (c'est-à-dire Tk.mainloop()) et répond aux événements. Comme il s'agit d'un seul fil d'exécution, les gestionnaires d'événements doivent répondre rapidement, sinon ils empêchent le traitement d'autres événements. Pour éviter cela, les calculs de longue durée ne doivent pas s'exécuter dans un gestionnaire d'événements, mais sont soit divisés en plus petits morceaux à l'aide de temporisateurs, soit exécutés dans un autre fil d'exécution. Ceci est différent de nombreux kits d'outils d'interface graphique où l'interface graphique s'exécute dans un fil d'exécution complètement séparé de tout le code d'application, y compris les gestionnaires d'événements.

If the Tcl interpreter is not running the event loop and processing events, any tkinter calls made from threads other than the one running the Tcl interpreter will fail.

Plusieurs cas particuliers existent :

Tcl/Tk libraries can be built so they are not thread-aware. In this case, tkinter calls the library from the originating Python thread, even if this is different than the thread that created the Tcl interpreter. A global lock ensures only one call occurs at a time.

While tkinter allows you to create more than one instance of a Tk object (with its own interpreter), all interpreters that are part of the same thread share a common event queue, which gets ugly fast. In practice, don't create more than one instance of Tk at a time. Otherwise, it's best to create them in separate threads and ensure you're running a thread-aware Tcl/Tk build.

Le blocage des gestionnaires d'événements n'est pas le seul moyen d'empêcher l'interpréteur Tcl de bien gérer la boucle d'événements. Il est même possible d'exécuter plusieurs boucles d'événements imbriquées ou d'abandonner complètement la boucle d'événements. Si vous faites quelque chose de délicat en ce qui concerne les événements ou les fils d'exécution, soyez conscient de ces possibilités.

There are a few select tkinter functions that presently work only when called from the thread that created the Tcl interpreter.

Guide pratique

Définition des options

Les options contrôlent des paramètres tels que la couleur et la largeur de la bordure d'un objet graphique. Les options peuvent être réglées de trois façons :

Lors de la création de l'objet, à l'aide d'arguments par mots-clés

fred = Button(self, fg="red", bg="blue")

Après la création de l'objet, en manipulant le nom de l'option comme une entrée de dictionnaire

fred["fg"] = "red"
fred["bg"] = "blue"

Utilisez la méthode config() pour mettre à jour plusieurs attributs après la création de l'objet

fred.config(fg="red", bg="blue")

Pour l'explication complète d'une option donnée et de son comportement, voir les pages de manuel Tk de l'objet graphique en question.

Notez que les pages de manuel listent « OPTIONS STANDARD » et « OPTIONS SPÉCIFIQUES D'OBJETS GRAPHIQUES » pour chaque objet graphique. La première est une liste d'options communes à de nombreux objets graphiques, la seconde est une liste d'options propres à cet objet graphique particulier. Les options standard sont documentées sur la page de manuel options(3) [https://manpages.debian.org/options(3)].

Aucune distinction n'est faite dans ce document entre les options standard et les options spécifiques à un objet graphique. Certaines options ne s'appliquent pas à certains types d'objets graphiques. La réaction d'un objet graphique donné à une option particulière dépend de la classe de l'objet graphique ; les boutons possèdent une option command, pas les étiquettes.

Les options gérées par un objet graphique donné sont listées dans la page de manuel de cet objet graphique, ou peuvent être interrogées à l'exécution en appelant la méthode config() sans argument, ou en appelant la méthode keys() sur cet objet graphique. La valeur de retour de ces appels est un dictionnaire dont la clé est le nom de l'option sous forme de chaîne (par exemple, 'relief') et dont les valeurs sont des 5-uplets.

Certaines options, comme bg, sont des synonymes d'options communes qui ont des noms longs (bg est une abréviation pour background « arrière-plan »). Passer le nom abrégé d'une option à la méthode config() renvoie un couple, pas un quintuplet. Le couple renvoyé contient le nom abrégé et le nom réel de l'option, par exemple ('bg','background').

Index

Signification

Exemple

0

nom des options

'relief'

1

nom de l'option pour la recherche dans la base de données

'relief'

2

classe de l'option pour la recherche dans la base de données

'Relief'

3

valeur par défaut

'raised'

4

valeur actuelle

'groove'

Exemple :

>>> print(fred.config())
{'relief': ('relief', 'relief', 'Relief', 'raised', 'groove')}

Bien sûr, le dictionnaire affiché contient toutes les options disponibles et leurs valeurs. Ceci n'est donné qu'à titre d'exemple.

L'empaqueteur

The packer is one of Tk's geometry-management mechanisms. Geometry managers are used to specify the relative positioning of widgets within their container. In contrast to the more cumbersome placer (which is used less commonly, and we do not cover here), the packer takes qualitative relationship specification - above, to the left of, filling, etc - and works everything out to determine the exact placement coordinates for you.

The size of any container widget is determined by the size of the "content widgets" inside. The packer is used to control where content widgets appear inside the container into which they are packed. You can pack widgets into frames, and frames into other frames, in order to achieve the kind of layout you desire. Additionally, the arrangement is dynamically adjusted to accommodate incremental changes to the configuration, once it is packed.

Notez que les objets graphiques n'apparaissent pas tant que leur disposition n'a pas été spécifiée avec un gestionnaire de géométrie. C'est une erreur de débutant courante de ne pas tenir compte de la spécification de la géométrie, puis d'être surpris lorsque l'objet graphique est créé mais que rien n'apparaît. Un objet graphique n'apparaît qu'après que, par exemple, la méthode pack() de l'empaqueteur lui ait été appliquée.

La méthode pack() peut être appelée avec des paires mot-clé-option/valeur qui contrôlent où l'objet graphique doit apparaître dans son conteneur et comment il doit se comporter lorsque la fenêtre principale de l'application est redimensionnée. En voici quelques exemples :

fred.pack()                     # defaults to side = "top"
fred.pack(side="left")
fred.pack(expand=1)

Options de l'empaqueteur

Pour de plus amples informations sur l'empaqueteur et les options qu'il peut prendre, voir les pages de manuel et la page 183 du livre de John Ousterhout.

anchor

Anchor type. Denotes where the packer is to place each content in its parcel.

expand

Booléen, 0 ou 1.

fill

Valeurs acceptées : 'x', 'y', 'both', 'none'.

ipadx et ipady

A distance - designating internal padding on each side of the content.

padx et pady

A distance - designating external padding on each side of the content.

side

Valeurs acceptées : 'left', 'right', 'top', 'bottom'.

Association des variables de l'objet graphique

L'assignation d'une valeur à certains objets graphiques (comme les objets graphique de saisie de texte) peut être liée directement aux variables de votre application à l'aide d'options spéciales. Ces options sont variable, textvariable, onvalue, offvalue et value. Ce lien fonctionne dans les deux sens : si la variable change pour une raison ou pour une autre, l'objet graphique auquel elle est connectée est mis à jour pour refléter la nouvelle valeur.

Unfortunately, in the current implementation of tkinter it is not possible to hand over an arbitrary Python variable to a widget through a variable or textvariable option. The only kinds of variables for which this works are variables that are subclassed from a class called Variable, defined in tkinter.

Il existe de nombreuses sous-classes utiles de Variable déjà définies : StringVar, IntVar, DoubleVar et BooleanVar. Pour lire la valeur courante d'une telle variable, appelez la méthode get() dessus et, pour changer sa valeur, appelez la méthode set(). Si vous suivez ce protocole, l'objet graphique suivra toujours la valeur de la variable, sans autre intervention de votre part.

Par exemple :

import tkinter as tk

class App(tk.Frame):
    def __init__(self, master):
        super().__init__(master)
        self.pack()

        self.entrythingy = tk.Entry()
        self.entrythingy.pack()

        # Create the application variable.
        self.contents = tk.StringVar()
        # Set it to some value.
        self.contents.set("this is a variable")
        # Tell the entry widget to watch this variable.
        self.entrythingy["textvariable"] = self.contents

        # Define a callback for when the user hits return.
        # It prints the current value of the variable.
        self.entrythingy.bind('<Key-Return>',
                             self.print_contents)

    def print_contents(self, event):
        print("Hi. The current entry content is:",
              self.contents.get())

root = tk.Tk()
myapp = App(root)
myapp.mainloop()

Le gestionnaire de fenêtres

In Tk, there is a utility command, wm, for interacting with the window manager. Options to the wm command allow you to control things like titles, placement, icon bitmaps, and the like. In tkinter, these commands have been implemented as methods on the Wm class. Toplevel widgets are subclassed from the Wm class, and so can call the Wm methods directly.

To get at the toplevel window that contains a given widget, you can often just refer to the widget's master. Of course if the widget has been packed inside of a frame, the master won't represent a toplevel window. To get at the toplevel window that contains an arbitrary widget, you can call the _root() method. This method begins with an underscore to denote the fact that this function is part of the implementation, and not an interface to Tk functionality.

Voici quelques exemples d'utilisation courante :

import tkinter as tk

class App(tk.Frame):
    def __init__(self, master=None):
        super().__init__(master)
        self.pack()

# create the application
myapp = App()

#
# here are method calls to the window manager class
#
myapp.master.title("My Do-Nothing Application")
myapp.master.maxsize(1000, 400)

# start the program
myapp.mainloop()

Types de données des options Tk

anchor

Les valeurs acceptées sont des points cardinaux : "n", "ne", "e", "se", "s", "sw", "w", "nw" et "center".

bitmap

Il y a huit bitmaps intégrés nommés : "error", "gray25", "gray50", "hourglass", "info", "questhead", "question", "warning". Pour spécifier un nom de fichier bitmap X, indiquez le chemin complet du fichier, précédé de @, comme dans "@/usr/contrib/bitmap/gumby.bit".

boolean

Vous pouvez lui donner les entiers 0 ou 1 ou les chaînes de caractères "yes" ou "no".

callback

N'importe quelle fonction Python qui ne prend pas d'argument. Par exemple :

def print_it():
    print("hi there")
fred["command"] = print_it

color

Les couleurs peuvent être données sous forme de noms de couleurs Xorg dans le fichier rgb.txt, ou sous forme de chaînes représentant les valeurs RVB en 4 bits : "#RGB", 8 bits : "#RRVVBB", 12 bits : "#RRRVVVBBB", ou 16 bits : "#RRRRVVVVBBBB", où R,V,B représente ici tout chiffre hexadécimal valide. Voir page 160 du livre d'Ousterhout pour plus de détails.

cursor

Les noms de curseurs Xorg standard que l'on trouve dans cursorfont.h peuvent être utilisés, sans le préfixe XC_. Par exemple pour obtenir un curseur en forme de main (XC_hand2), utilisez la chaîne "hand2". Vous pouvez également spécifier votre propre bitmap et fichier masque. Voir page 179 du livre d'Ousterhout.

distance

Les distances à l'écran peuvent être spécifiées en pixels ou en distances absolues. Les pixels sont donnés sous forme de nombres et les distances absolues sous forme de chaînes de caractères, le dernier caractère indiquant les unités : c pour les centimètres, i pour les pouces (inches en anglais), m pour les millimètres, p pour les points d'impression. Par exemple, 3,5 pouces est noté "3.5i".

font

Tk utilise un format de nom de police sous forme de liste, tel que {courier 10 bold}. Les tailles de polices avec des nombres positifs sont mesurées en points ; les tailles avec des nombres négatifs sont mesurées en pixels.

geometry

Il s'agit d'une chaîne de caractères de la forme largeurxhauteur, où la largeur et la hauteur sont mesurées en pixels pour la plupart des objets graphiques (en caractères pour les objets graphiques affichant du texte). Par exemple : fred["geometry"] = "200x100".

justify

Legal values are the strings: "left", "center", and "right".

region

c'est une chaîne de caractères avec quatre éléments séparés par des espaces, chacun d'eux étant une distance valide (voir ci-dessus). Par exemple : "2 3 4 5", " 3i 2i 4.5i 2i" et "3c 2c 4c 10.43c" sont toutes des régions valides.

relief

Détermine le style de bordure d'un objet graphique. Les valeurs valides sont : "raised", "sunken", "flat", "groove" et "ridge".

scrollcommand

C'est presque toujours la méthode set() d'un objet graphique de défilement, mais peut être n'importe quelle méthode d'objet graphique qui prend un seul argument.

wrap

Doit être "none", "char" ou "word".

Liaisons et événements

La méthode bind de la commande d'objet graphique vous permet de surveiller certains événements et d'avoir un déclencheur de fonction de rappel lorsque ce type d'événement se produit. La forme de la méthode de liaison est la suivante :

def bind(self, sequence, func, add=''):

où :

sequence

est une chaîne de caractères qui indique le type d'événement cible. (Voir la page du manuel de bind(3tk) [https://manpages.debian.org/bind(3tk)] et la page 201 du livre de John Ousterhout Tcl and the Tk Toolkit (2nd edition) pour plus de détails).

func

est une fonction Python, prenant un argument, à invoquer lorsque l'événement se produit. Une instance d’évènement sera passée en argument. (Les fonctions déployées de cette façon sont communément appelées callbacks ou « fonctions de rappel » en français).

add

est facultative, soit '' ou '+'. L'envoi d'une chaîne de caractères vide indique que cette liaison doit remplacer toute autre liaison à laquelle cet événement est associé. L'envoi de "+" signifie que cette fonction doit être ajoutée à la liste des fonctions liées à ce type d'événement.

Par exemple :

def turn_red(self, event):
    event.widget["activeforeground"] = "red"

self.button.bind("<Enter>", self.turn_red)

Remarquez comment on accède au champ objet graphique de l'événement dans la fonction de rappel turn_red(). Ce champ contient l'objet graphique qui a capturé l'événement Xorg. Le tableau suivant répertorie les autres champs d'événements auxquels vous pouvez accéder, et comment ils sont nommés dans Tk, ce qui peut être utile lorsque vous vous référez aux pages de manuel Tk.

Tk

Champ évènement de Tkinter

Tk

Champ évènement de Tkinter

%f

focus

%A

char

%h

hauteur

%E

send_event

%k

keycode

%K

keysym

%s

state

%N

keysym_num

%t

time

%T

type

%w

width

%W

widget

%x

x

%X

x_root

%y

y

%Y

y_root

Le paramètre index

Un certain nombre d'objets graphiques nécessitent le passage de paramètres « indicés ». Ils sont utilisés pour pointer vers un endroit spécifique dans un objet graphique de type Texte, ou vers des caractères particuliers dans un objet graphique de type Entrée, ou vers des éléments de menu particuliers dans un objet graphique de type Menu.

Index des objets graphique de type Entrée (index, view index, etc.)

Entry widgets have options that refer to character positions in the text being displayed. You can use these tkinter functions to access these special points in text widgets:

Index des objets graphiques texte

La notation de l'index des objets graphiques de type Texte est très riche et mieux décrite dans les pages du manuel Tk.

Index menu (menu.invoke(), menu.entryconfig(), etc.)

Certaines options et méthodes pour manipuler les menus nécessitent des éléments de spécifiques. Chaque fois qu'un index de menu est nécessaire pour une option ou un paramètre, vous pouvez utiliser :

un entier qui fait référence à la position numérique de l'entrée dans l'objet graphique, comptée à partir du haut, en commençant par 0 ;

la chaîne de caractères "active", qui fait référence à la position du menu qui se trouve actuellement sous le curseur ;

la chaîne de caractères "last" qui fait référence au dernier élément du menu ;

un entier précédé de @, comme dans @6, où l'entier est interprété comme une coordonnée y de pixels dans le système de coordonnées du menu ;

la chaîne de caractères "none", qui n'indique aucune entrée du menu, le plus souvent utilisée avec menu.activate() pour désactiver toutes les entrées, et enfin,

une chaîne de texte dont le motif correspond à l'étiquette de l'entrée de menu, telle qu'elle est balayée du haut vers le bas du menu. Notez que ce type d'index est considéré après tous les autres, ce qui signifie que les correspondances pour les éléments de menu étiquetés last, active ou none peuvent être interprétés comme les littéraux ci-dessus, plutôt.

Images

Des images de différents formats peuvent être créées à travers la sous-classe correspondante de tkinter.Image :

BitmapImage pour les images au format XBM.

PhotoImage pour les images aux formats PGM, PPM, GIF et PNG. Ce dernier est géré à partir de Tk 8.6.

L'un ou l'autre type d'image est créé par l'option file ou data (d'autres options sont également disponibles).

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the PhotoImage method copy_replace() to copy a region from one image to other image, possibly with pixel zooming and/or subsampling. Add from_coords parameter to PhotoImage methods copy(), zoom() and subsample(). Add zoom and subsample parameters to PhotoImage method copy().

L'objet image peut alors être utilisé partout où un objet graphique sait gérer une option image (par ex. étiquettes, boutons, menus). Dans ces cas, Tk ne conserve pas de référence à l'image. Lorsque la dernière référence Python à l'objet image est supprimée, les données de l'image sont également supprimées, et Tk affiche une boite vide à l'endroit où l'image était utilisée.

Voir aussi

Le paquet Pillow [https://python-pillow.org/] ajoute la prise en charge de formats tels que BMP, JPEG, TIFF et WebP, entre autres.

Gestionnaires de fichiers

Tk vous permet d'enregistrer et de désenregistrer une fonction de rappel qui est appelée depuis la boucle principale de Tk lorsque des entrées-sorties sont possibles sur un descripteur de fichier. Un seul gestionnaire peut être enregistré par descripteur de fichier. Exemple de code :

import tkinter
widget = tkinter.Tk()
mask = tkinter.READABLE | tkinter.WRITABLE
widget.tk.createfilehandler(file, mask, callback)
...
widget.tk.deletefilehandler(file)

Cette fonction n'est pas disponible sous Windows.

Dans la mesure où vous ne savez pas combien d'octets sont disponibles en lecture, il ne faut pas utiliser les méthodes BufferedIOBase ou TextIOBase read() ou readline(), car elles requièrent d'indiquer le nombre de bytes à lire. Pour les connecteurs, les méthodes recv() ou recvfrom() fonctionnent bien ; pour les autres fichiers, utilisez des lectures brutes ou os.read(file.fileno(), maxbytecount).

Widget.tk.createfilehandler(file, mask, func)

Enregistre la fonction de rappel du gestionnaire de fichiers func. L'argument file peut être soit un objet avec une méthode fileno() (comme un objet fichier ou connecteur), soit un descripteur de fichier de type entier. L'argument mask est une combinaison OU de l'une des trois constantes ci-dessous. La fonction de rappel s'utilise comme suit :

callback(file, mask)

Widget.tk.deletefilehandler(file)

Désenregistre un gestionnaire de fichiers.

_tkinter.READABLE

_tkinter.WRITABLE

_tkinter.EXCEPTION

Constantes utilisées dans les arguments mask.

tkinter.colorchooser --- Color choosing dialog

Code source : Lib/tkinter/colorchooser.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/tkinter/colorchooser.py]

The tkinter.colorchooser module provides the Chooser class as an interface to the native color picker dialog. Chooser implements a modal color choosing dialog window. The Chooser class inherits from the Dialog class.

class tkinter.colorchooser.Chooser(master=None, **options)

tkinter.colorchooser.askcolor(color=None, **options)

Crée une boîte de dialogue de choix de couleur. Un appel à cette méthode affiche la fenêtre, attend que l'utilisateur fasse une sélection et renvoie la couleur sélectionnée (ou None) à l'appelant.

Voir aussi

Module tkinter.commondialog

Module de dialogue standard Tkinter

tkinter.font --- Tkinter font wrapper

Code source : Lib/tkinter/font.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/tkinter/font.py]

The tkinter.font module provides the Font class for creating and using named fonts.

Les différentes épaisseurs et inclinaisons des polices sont :

tkinter.font.NORMAL

tkinter.font.BOLD

tkinter.font.ITALIC

tkinter.font.ROMAN

class tkinter.font.Font(root=None, font=None, name=None, exists=False, **options)

La classe Font représente une police nommée. Les instances Font reçoivent des noms uniques et peuvent être spécifiées par leur configuration de famille, de taille et de style. Les polices nommées sont la méthode de Tk pour créer et identifier les polices comme un seul objet, plutôt que de spécifier une police par ses attributs à chaque occurrence.

arguments :

font – n-uplet spécificateur de police (famille, taille, options)

name – nom de police unique

exists – s'il est vrai, self pointe vers la police nommée existante

options nommées supplémentaires (ignorées si font est spécifié) :

family – famille de polices, c'est-à-dire Courier, Times

size – taille de la police

Si size est positif, il est interprété comme une taille en points.

Si size est un nombre négatif sa valeur absolue est traitée

comme taille en pixels.

weight – accentuation de la police (NORMAL, BOLD pour gras)

slant – ROMAN pour romain, ITALIC pour italique

underline – soulignement de la police (0 – aucun, 1 – souligné)

overstrike – police barrée (0 – aucune, 1 – barré)

actual(option=None, displayof=None)

Renvoie les attributs de la police.

cget(option)

Récupère un attribut de la police.

config(**options)

Modifie les attributs de la police.

copy()

Renvoie une nouvelle instance de la police actuelle.

measure(text, displayof=None)

Renvoie la quantité d'espace que le texte occuperait sur l'affichage spécifié s'il était formaté dans la police actuelle. Si displayof n'est pas spécifié, tk suppose que c'est la fenêtre principale de l'application.

metrics(*options, **kw)

Renvoie des données spécifiques à la police. Les options incluent :

ascent – distance entre la ligne de base et le point le plus haut qu'un

caractère de la police peut occuper

descent – distance entre la ligne de base et le point le plus bas qu'un

caractère de la police peut occuper

linespace – séparation verticale minimale nécessaire entre deux

caractères de la police qui assure l'absence de chevauchement vertical entre les lignes.

fixed – 1 si la police est à largeur fixe sinon 0

tkinter.font.families(root=None, displayof=None)

Renvoie les différentes familles de polices.

tkinter.font.names(root=None)

Renvoie les noms des polices définies.

tkinter.font.nametofont(name, root=None)

Renvoie une représentation Font d'une police tk nommée.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: le paramètre root a été ajouté.

Boîtes de dialogue Tkinter

tkinter.simpledialog --- Standard Tkinter input dialogs

Code source : Lib/tkinter/simpledialog.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/tkinter/simpledialog.py]

The tkinter.simpledialog module contains convenience classes and functions for creating simple modal dialogs to get a value from the user.

tkinter.simpledialog.askfloat(title, prompt, **kw)

tkinter.simpledialog.askinteger(title, prompt, **kw)

tkinter.simpledialog.askstring(title, prompt, **kw)

Les trois fonctions ci-dessus fournissent des boîtes de dialogue qui invitent l'utilisateur à saisir une valeur du type souhaité.

class tkinter.simpledialog.Dialog(parent, title=None)

Classe mère pour les boîtes de dialogue personnalisées.

body(master)

À remplacer pour construire l'interface de la boîte de dialogue et renvoyer le widget qui doit avoir le focus initial.

buttonbox()

Le comportement par défaut ajoute les boutons OK et Annuler. À remplacer avoir une disposition de boutons personnalisée.

tkinter.filedialog --- File selection dialogs

Code source : Lib/tkinter/filedialog.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/tkinter/filedialog.py]

The tkinter.filedialog module provides classes and factory functions for creating file/directory selection windows.

Boîtes de dialogue de chargement et sauvegarde natives

Les classes et fonctions suivantes fournissent des fenêtres de dialogue de fichiers qui combinent une apparence native avec des options de configuration pour personnaliser le comportement. Les arguments nommés suivants s'appliquent aux classes et fonctions répertoriées ci-dessous :

parent – la fenêtre sur laquelle placer la boîte de dialogue

title – le titre de la fenêtre

initialdir – le répertoire dans lequel la boîte de dialogue démarre

initialfile – le fichier sélectionné à l'ouverture de la boîte de dialogue

filetypes – une séquence de n-uplets (étiquette, motif), le caractère générique '*' est autorisé

defaultextension – extension par défaut à ajouter au fichier (boîtes de dialogue de sauvegarde)

multiple – lorsque vrai, la sélection de plusieurs éléments est autorisée

Fonctions statiques de fabrique

Les fonctions ci-dessous, lorsqu'elles sont appelées, créent une boîte de dialogue d'apparence modale native, attendent la sélection de l'utilisateur, puis renvoient la ou les valeurs sélectionnées ou None à l'appelant.

tkinter.filedialog.askopenfile(mode='r', **options)

tkinter.filedialog.askopenfiles(mode='r', **options)

Les deux fonctions ci-dessus créent une boîte de dialogue Open et renvoient le(s) objet(s) fichier ouvert(s) en mode lecture seule.

tkinter.filedialog.asksaveasfile(mode='w', **options)

Crée une boîte de dialogue SaveAs et renvoie un objet fichier ouvert en mode écriture seule.

tkinter.filedialog.askopenfilename(**options)

tkinter.filedialog.askopenfilenames(**options)

Les deux fonctions ci-dessus créent une boîte de dialogue Open et renvoient le(s) nom(s) de fichier sélectionné(s) qui correspondent au(x) fichier(s) existant(s).

tkinter.filedialog.asksaveasfilename(**options)

Crée une boîte de dialogue SaveAs et renvoie le nom de fichier sélectionné.

tkinter.filedialog.askdirectory(**options)

Demande à l'utilisateur de sélectionner un répertoire.

Option nommée supplémentaire :

mustexist – détermine si la sélection doit être un répertoire existant.

class tkinter.filedialog.Open(master=None, **options)

class tkinter.filedialog.SaveAs(master=None, **options)

Les deux classes ci-dessus fournissent des fenêtres de dialogue natives pour enregistrer et charger des fichiers.

Classes de commodité

Les classes ci-dessous sont utilisées pour créer des fenêtres avec fichiers et répertoires à partir de zéro. Celles-ci n'imitent pas l'apparence native de la plateforme.

class tkinter.filedialog.Directory(master=None, **options)

Crée une boîte de dialogue invitant l'utilisateur à sélectionner un répertoire.

Note

la classe FileDialog doit être sous-classée pour un comportement et une gestion des événements personnalisés.

class tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog(master, title=None)

Crée une boîte de dialogue basique de sélection de fichiers.

cancel_command(event=None)

Déclenche la fermeture de la fenêtre de dialogue.

dirs_double_event(event)

Gestionnaire d'événements pour l'événement de double-clic sur le répertoire.

dirs_select_event(event)

Gestionnaire d'événements pour l'événement de clic sur le répertoire.

files_double_event(event)

Gestionnaire d'événements pour l'événement de double-clic sur le fichier.

files_select_event(event)

Gestionnaire d'événements pour un événement en un seul clic sur le fichier.

filter_command(event=None)

Filtre les fichiers par répertoire.

get_filter()

Récupère le filtre de fichiers actuellement utilisé.

get_selection()

Récupère l'élément actuellement sélectionné.

go(dir_or_file=os.curdir, pattern='*', default='', key=None)

Affiche la boîte de dialogue et lance la boucle d'événements.

ok_event(event)

Quitte la boîte de dialogue en renvoyant la sélection actuelle.

quit(how=None)

Sort de la boîte de dialogue en renvoyant le nom du fichier, le cas échéant.

set_filter(dir, pat)

Définit le filtre de fichiers.

set_selection(file)

Met à jour la sélection de fichiers actuelle vers file.

class tkinter.filedialog.LoadFileDialog(master, title=None)

Sous-classe de FileDialog qui crée une fenêtre de dialogue pour sélectionner un fichier existant.

ok_command()

Teste qu'un fichier est fourni et que la sélection indique un fichier déjà existant.

class tkinter.filedialog.SaveFileDialog(master, title=None)

Sous-classe de FileDialog qui crée une fenêtre de dialogue pour sélectionner un fichier de destination.

ok_command()

Teste si la sélection pointe vers un fichier valide qui n'est pas un répertoire. Une confirmation est requise si un fichier déjà existant est sélectionné.

tkinter.commondialog --- Dialog window templates

Code source : Lib/tkinter/commondialog.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/tkinter/commondialog.py]

The tkinter.commondialog module provides the Dialog class that is the base class for dialogs defined in other supporting modules.

class tkinter.commondialog.Dialog(master=None, **options)

show(**options)

Affiche la fenêtre de dialogue.

Voir aussi

Modules tkinter.messagebox, Lecture et écriture de fichiers

tkinter.messagebox --- Tkinter message prompts

Code source : Lib/tkinter/messagebox.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/tkinter/messagebox.py]

The tkinter.messagebox module provides a template base class as well as a variety of convenience methods for commonly used configurations. The message boxes are modal and will return a subset of (True, False, None, OK, CANCEL, YES, NO) based on the user's selection. Common message box styles and layouts include but are not limited to:

class tkinter.messagebox.Message(master=None, **options)

Create a message window with an application-specified message, an icon and a set of buttons. Each of the buttons in the message window is identified by a unique symbolic name (see the type options).

The following options are supported:

command

Specifies the function to invoke when the user closes the dialog. The name of the button clicked by the user to close the dialog is passed as argument. This is only available on macOS.

default

Gives the symbolic name of the default button for this message window (OK, CANCEL, and so on). If this option is not specified, the first button in the dialog will be made the default.

detail

Specifies an auxiliary message to the main message given by the message option. The message detail will be presented beneath the main message and, where supported by the OS, in a less emphasized font than the main message.

icon

Specifies an icon to display. If this option is not specified, then the INFO icon will be displayed.

message

Specifies the message to display in this message box. The default value is an empty string.

parent

Makes the specified window the logical parent of the message box. The message box is displayed on top of its parent window.

title

Specifies a string to display as the title of the message box. This option is ignored on macOS, where platform guidelines forbid the use of a title on this kind of dialog.

type

Arranges for a predefined set of buttons to be displayed.

show(**options)

Display a message window and wait for the user to select one of the buttons. Then return the symbolic name of the selected button. Keyword arguments can override options specified in the constructor.

Boîte de message d'information

tkinter.messagebox.showinfo(title=None, message=None, **options)

Creates and displays an information message box with the specified title and message.

Boîtes de message d'avertissement

tkinter.messagebox.showwarning(title=None, message=None, **options)

Creates and displays a warning message box with the specified title and message.

tkinter.messagebox.showerror(title=None, message=None, **options)

Creates and displays an error message box with the specified title and message.

Boîtes de message posant une question

tkinter.messagebox.askquestion(title=None, message=None, *, type=YESNO, **options)

Ask a question. By default shows buttons YES and NO. Returns the symbolic name of the selected button.

tkinter.messagebox.askokcancel(title=None, message=None, **options)

Ask if operation should proceed. Shows buttons OK and CANCEL. Returns True if the answer is ok and False otherwise.

tkinter.messagebox.askretrycancel(title=None, message=None, **options)

Ask if operation should be retried. Shows buttons RETRY and CANCEL. Return True if the answer is yes and False otherwise.

tkinter.messagebox.askyesno(title=None, message=None, **options)

Ask a question. Shows buttons YES and NO. Returns True if the answer is yes and False otherwise.

tkinter.messagebox.askyesnocancel(title=None, message=None, **options)

Ask a question. Shows buttons YES, NO and CANCEL. Return True if the answer is yes, None if cancelled, and False otherwise.

Symbolic names of buttons:

tkinter.messagebox.ABORT = 'abort'

tkinter.messagebox.RETRY = 'retry'

tkinter.messagebox.IGNORE = 'ignore'

tkinter.messagebox.OK = 'ok'

tkinter.messagebox.CANCEL = 'cancel'

tkinter.messagebox.YES = 'yes'

tkinter.messagebox.NO = 'no'

Predefined sets of buttons:

tkinter.messagebox.ABORTRETRYIGNORE = 'abortretryignore'

Displays three buttons whose symbolic names are ABORT, RETRY and IGNORE.

tkinter.messagebox.OK = 'ok'

Displays one button whose symbolic name is OK.

tkinter.messagebox.OKCANCEL = 'okcancel'

Displays two buttons whose symbolic names are OK and CANCEL.

tkinter.messagebox.RETRYCANCEL = 'retrycancel'

Displays two buttons whose symbolic names are RETRY and CANCEL.

tkinter.messagebox.YESNO = 'yesno'

Displays two buttons whose symbolic names are YES and NO.

tkinter.messagebox.YESNOCANCEL = 'yesnocancel'

Displays three buttons whose symbolic names are YES, NO and CANCEL.

Icon images:

tkinter.messagebox.ERROR = 'error'

tkinter.messagebox.INFO = 'info'

tkinter.messagebox.QUESTION = 'question'

tkinter.messagebox.WARNING = 'warning'

tkinter.scrolledtext --- Scrolled Text Widget

Code source : Lib/tkinter/scrolledtext.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/tkinter/scrolledtext.py]

The tkinter.scrolledtext module provides a class of the same name which implements a basic text widget which has a vertical scroll bar configured to do the "right thing." Using the ScrolledText class is a lot easier than setting up a text widget and scroll bar directly.

Le gadget texte et la barre de défilement sont regroupés dans une Frame, et les méthodes gestionnaires de géométrie Grid et Pack sont récupérées de l'objet Frame. L'objet ScrolledText a donc tous les attributs classiques pour la gestion de la géométrie.

Si un contrôle plus fin est nécessaire, les attributs suivants sont disponibles :

class tkinter.scrolledtext.ScrolledText(master=None, **kw)

frame

Le cadre (objet Frame) qui englobe le gadget texte et le gadget de la barre de défilement.

vbar

Le gadget de la barre de défilement.

tkinter.dnd --- Drag and drop support

Code source : Lib/tkinter/dnd.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/tkinter/dnd.py]

Note

Ceci est expérimental et devrait être obsolète lorsqu'il sera remplacé par le Tk DND.

The tkinter.dnd module provides drag-and-drop support for objects within a single application, within the same window or between windows. To enable an object to be dragged, you must create an event binding for it that starts the drag-and-drop process. Typically, you bind a ButtonPress event to a callback function that you write (see Liaisons et événements). The function should call dnd_start(), where 'source' is the object to be dragged, and 'event' is the event that invoked the call (the argument to your callback function).

La sélection d'un objet cible se produit comme suit :

Recherche descendante de la zone sous la souris pour le widget cible

Le widget cible doit avoir un attribut appelable dnd_accept

If dnd_accept is not present or returns None, search moves to parent widget

If no target widget is found, then the target object is None

Appel à <old_target>.dnd_leave(source, event)

Appel à <new_target>.dnd_enter(source, event)

Appel à <target>.dnd_commit(source, event) pour notifier le déposer.

Appel à <source>.dnd_end(target, event) pour signaler la fin du glisser-déposer

class tkinter.dnd.DndHandler(source, event)

La classe DndHandler gère les événements de glisser-déposer qui suivent les événements Motion et ButtonRelease à la racine du widget d'événement.

cancel(event=None)

Annule le processus de glisser-déposer.

finish(event, commit=0)

Exécute les fonctions de fin de glisser-déposer.

on_motion(event)

Inspecte la zone sous la souris pour les objets cibles pendant que le glissement est effectué.

on_release(event)

Signale la fin de la traînée lorsque le modèle de relâchement est déclenché.

tkinter.dnd.dnd_start(source, event)

Fonction de fabrique pour le processus de glisser-déposer.

Voir aussi

Liaisons et événements

tkinter.ttk --- Tk themed widgets

Code source : Lib/tkinter/ttk.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/tkinter/ttk.py]

The tkinter.ttk module provides access to the Tk themed widget set, introduced in Tk 8.5. It provides additional benefits including anti-aliased font rendering under X11 and window transparency (requiring a composition window manager on X11).

The basic idea for tkinter.ttk is to separate, to the extent possible, the code implementing a widget's behavior from the code implementing its appearance.

Voir aussi

Tk Widget Styling Support [https://core.tcl.tk/tips/doc/trunk/tip/48.md]

Document présentant la prise en charge des thèmes pour Tk

Utilisation de Ttk

Pour commencer à utiliser Ttk, importez son module :

from tkinter import ttk

Pour remplacer les widgets Tk de base, l'importation doit suivre l'importation Tk :

from tkinter import *
from tkinter.ttk import *

That code causes several tkinter.ttk widgets (Button, Checkbutton, Entry, Frame, Label, LabelFrame, Menubutton, PanedWindow, Radiobutton, Scale and Scrollbar) to automatically replace the Tk widgets.

L'avantage immédiat est d'utiliser les nouveaux widgets qui donnent une meilleure apparence sur toutes les plateformes ; cependant, les widgets de remplacement ne sont pas complètement compatibles. La principale différence est que les options de widget telles que "fg", "bg" et d'autres liées au style des widgets ne sont plus présentes dans les widgets Ttk. Utilisez plutôt la classe ttk.Style pour des effets de style améliorés.

Voir aussi

Converting existing applications to use Tile widgets [https://tktable.sourceforge.net/tile/doc/converting.txt]

Monographie (utilisant la terminologie Tcl) sur les différences généralement rencontrées lors de la modification d'applications pour utiliser les nouveaux widgets.

Widgets Ttk

Ttk est livré avec 18 widgets, dont douze existaient déjà dans tkinter : Button, Checkbutton, Entry, Frame, Label, LabelFrame, Menubutton, PanedWindow, Radiobutton, Scale, Scrollbar et Spinbox. Les six autres sont nouveaux : Combobox, Notebook, Progressbar, Separator, Sizegrip et Treeview. Et tous sont des sous-classes de Widget.

L'utilisation des widgets Ttk donne à l'application une apparence et une convivialité améliorées. Comme indiqué ci-dessus, il existe des différences dans la façon dont le style est codé.

Code Tk :

l1 = tkinter.Label(text="Test", fg="black", bg="white")
l2 = tkinter.Label(text="Test", fg="black", bg="white")

Code Ttk :

style = ttk.Style()
style.configure("BW.TLabel", foreground="black", background="white")

l1 = ttk.Label(text="Test", style="BW.TLabel")
l2 = ttk.Label(text="Test", style="BW.TLabel")

Pour plus d'informations sur TtkStyling, consultez la documentation de la classe Style.

Widget

ttk.Widget définit les options et méthodes standard prises en charge par les widgets à thème Tk et n'est pas censé être directement instancié.

Options standards

All the ttk Widgets accept the following options:

Option

Description

class

Spécifie la classe de fenêtre. La classe est utilisée lors de l'interrogation de la base de données d'options pour les autres options de la fenêtre, pour déterminer les balises de liaison par défaut pour la fenêtre et pour sélectionner la disposition et le style par défaut du widget. Cette option est en lecture seule et ne peut être spécifiée qu'à la création de la fenêtre.

cursor

Spécifie le curseur de la souris à utiliser pour le widget. S'il est défini sur la chaîne vide (valeur par défaut), le curseur est hérité du widget parent.

takefocus

Détermine si la fenêtre accepte le focus pendant le parcours du clavier. 0, 1 ou une chaîne vide est renvoyée. Si 0 est renvoyé, cela signifie que la fenêtre doit être entièrement ignorée lors du parcours au clavier. Si 1, cela signifie que la fenêtre doit recevoir le focus d'entrée tant qu'elle est visible. Et une chaîne vide signifie que les scripts de parcours prennent la décision de donner ou non le focus à la fenêtre.

style

Peut être utilisé pour spécifier un style de widget personnalisé.

Options de widget avec barre de défilement

Les options suivantes sont prises en charge par les widgets contrôlés par une barre de défilement.

Option

Description

xscrollcommand

Utilisé pour communiquer avec les barres de défilement horizontal.

Lorsque la vue dans la fenêtre du widget change, le widget génère une commande Tcl basée sur scrollcommand.

Habituellement, cette option consiste en la méthode Scrollbar.set() d'une barre de défilement. Cela entraîne la mise à jour de la barre de défilement chaque fois que la vue dans la fenêtre change.

yscrollcommand

Utilisé pour communiquer avec les barres de défilement vertical. Pour plus d'informations, voir ci-dessus.

Options d'étiquette (label)

Les options suivantes sont prises en charge par les étiquettes (labels), les boutons et autres widgets de type bouton.

Option

Description

text

Spécifie une chaîne de texte à afficher dans le widget.

textvariable

Spécifie un nom dont la valeur est utilisée à la place de la ressource d'option de texte.

underline

S'il est défini, spécifie l'indice (commençant à 0) d'un caractère à souligner dans la chaîne de texte. Le caractère de soulignement est utilisé pour l'activation mnémonique.

image

Spécifie une image à afficher. C'est une liste de un ou plusieurs éléments. Le premier élément est le nom de l'image par défaut. Le reste de la liste est une séquence de paires statespec-valeur telles que définies par Style.map(), spécifiant différentes images à utiliser lorsque le widget est dans un état particulier ou une combinaison d'états. Toutes les images de la liste doivent avoir la même taille.

compound

Spécifie comment afficher l'image par rapport au texte, dans le cas où les options de texte et d'images sont présentes. Les valeurs valides sont :

text : afficher uniquement le texte

image : afficher uniquement l'image

top, bottom, left, right : afficher l'image au-dessus, en dessous, à gauche ou à droite du texte, respectivement.

none : la valeur par défaut. Afficher l'image si présente, sinon le texte.

width

Si supérieur à zéro, spécifie la quantité d'espace, en largeurs de caractères, à allouer à l'étiquette de texte, si inférieur à zéro, spécifie une largeur minimale. Si zéro ou non spécifié, la largeur naturelle de l'étiquette de texte est utilisée.

Options de compatibilité

Option

Description

state

Peut être défini sur "normal" ou "disabled" pour contrôler le bit d'état d'activation. Il s'agit d'une option en écriture seule : sa définition modifie l'état du widget, mais la méthode Widget.state() n'affecte pas cette option.

États des widgets

L'état du widget est une combinaison d'indicateurs d'état indépendants.

Option

Description

active

Le curseur de la souris est sur le widget et appuyer sur un bouton de la souris provoquera une action

disabled

Le widget est désactivé sous le contrôle du programme

focus

Le widget a le focus du clavier

pressed

Le widget est en train d'être pressé

selected

"On", "true" ou "current" pour des choses comme les boutons de contrôle et les boutons radio

background

Windows et Mac ont une notion de fenêtre « active » ou de premier plan. L'état background est défini pour les widgets dans une fenêtre en arrière-plan et effacé pour ceux de la fenêtre au premier plan

readonly

Le widget ne doit pas permettre la modification par l'utilisateur

alternate

Un format d'affichage alternatif spécifique au widget

invalid

La valeur du widget est invalide

Une spécification d'état est une séquence de noms d'état, éventuellement précédée d'un point d'exclamation indiquant que le bit est désactivé.

ttk.Widget

Outre les méthodes décrites ci-dessous, la ttk.Widget prend en charge les méthodes tkinter.Widget.cget() et tkinter.Widget.configure().

class tkinter.ttk.Widget

identify(x, y)

Renvoie le nom de l'élément à la position x y, ou la chaîne vide si le point ne se trouve dans aucun élément.

x et y sont des coordonnées en pixels relatives au widget.

instate(statespec, callback=None, *args, **kw)

Teste l'état du widget. Si un rappel n'est pas spécifié, renvoie True si l'état du widget correspond à statespec et False sinon. Si le rappel est spécifié, il est appelé avec des arguments si l'état du widget correspond à statespec.

state(statespec=None)

Modifie ou demande l'état du widget. Si statespec est spécifié, définit l'état du widget en fonction de celui-ci et renvoie un nouveau statespec indiquant quels drapeaux ont été modifiés. Si statespec n'est pas spécifié, renvoie les indicateurs d'état actuellement activés.

statespec est généralement une liste ou un n-uplet.

Combobox

Le widget ttk.Combobox combine un champ de texte avec une liste déroulante de valeurs. Ce widget est une sous-classe de Entry.

En plus des méthodes héritées de Widget : Widget.cget(), Widget.configure(), Widget.identify(), Widget.instate() et Widget.state(), et les suivants hérités de Entry : Entry.bbox(), Entry.delete(), Entry.icursor(), Entry.index(), Entry.insert(), Entry.selection(), Entry.xview(), il a quelques autres méthodes, décrites dans ttk.Combobox.

Options

Ce widget accepte les options spécifiques suivantes :

Option

Description

exportationsselection

Valeur booléenne. Si elle est définie, la sélection du widget est liée à la sélection du gestionnaire de fenêtres (qui peut être renvoyée en appelant Misc.selection_get, par exemple).

justify

Spécifie comment le texte est aligné dans le widget. Les valeurs possibles sont "left", "center" ou "right".

height

Spécifie la hauteur de la liste déroulante, en lignes.

postcommand

Script (éventuellement enregistré avec Misc.register) qui est appelé immédiatement avant d'afficher les valeurs. Il peut spécifier les valeurs à afficher.

state

Les valeurs sont "normal", "readonly" ou "disabled". Dans l'état readonly, la valeur ne peut pas être modifiée directement et l'utilisateur ne peut que sélectionner les valeurs dans la liste déroulante. Dans l'état normal, le champ texte est directement éditable. Dans l'état disabled, aucune interaction n'est possible.

textvariable

Spécifie un nom dont la valeur est liée à la valeur du widget. Chaque fois que la valeur associée à ce nom change, la valeur du widget est mise à jour, et vice versa. Voir tkinter.StringVar.

values

Spécifie la liste de valeurs à afficher dans la liste déroulante.

width

Spécifie une valeur entière indiquant la largeur souhaitée de la fenêtre d'entrée, en caractères de taille moyenne de la police du widget.

Événements virtuels

Les widgets combobox génèrent un événement virtuel <<ComboboxSelected>> lorsque l'utilisateur sélectionne un élément dans la liste de valeurs.

ttk.Combobox

class tkinter.ttk.Combobox

current(newindex=None)

Si newindex est spécifié, définit la valeur de la combobox à la position de l'élément newindex. Sinon, renvoie l'indice de la valeur courante ou −1 si la valeur courante n'est pas dans la liste des valeurs.

get()

Renvoie la valeur actuelle de la combobox.

set(value)

Définit la valeur de la combobox sur value.

Spinbox

Le widget ttk.Spinbox est un ttk.Entry amélioré avec des flèches d'incrémentation et de décrémentation. Il peut être utilisé pour des nombres ou des listes de valeurs de chaîne. Ce widget est une sous-classe de Entry.

En plus des méthodes héritées de Widget : Widget.cget(), Widget.configure(), Widget.identify(), Widget.instate() et Widget.state(), et les suivantes héritées de Entry : Entry.bbox(), Entry.delete(), Entry.icursor(), Entry.index(), Entry.insert(), Entry.xview(), il a quelques autres méthodes, décrites dans ttk.Spinbox.

Options

Ce widget accepte les options spécifiques suivantes :

Option

Description

from

Valeur flottante. Si elle est définie, il s'agit de la valeur minimale à laquelle le bouton de décrémentation décrémentera. Doit être orthographié comme from_ lorsqu'il est utilisé comme argument, car from est un mot-clé Python.

to

Valeur flottante. Si elle est définie, il s'agit de la valeur maximale du bouton d'incrémentation.

increment

Valeur flottante. Spécifie la quantité dont les boutons d'incrémentation/décrémentation modifient la valeur. La valeur par défaut est 1.0.

values

Séquence de valeurs de chaîne ou flottantes. S'ils sont spécifiés, les boutons d'incrémentation/décrémentation font défiler les éléments dans cette séquence plutôt que d'incrémenter ou de décrémenter les nombres.

wrap

Valeur booléenne. Si True, les boutons d'incrémentation et de décrémentation passent de la valeur to à la valeur from ou de la valeur from à la valeur to, respectivement.

format

Valeur sous forme de chaîne. Cela spécifie le format des nombres définis par les boutons d'incrémentation/décrémentation. Il doit être sous la forme "%W.Pf", où W est la largeur de la valeur, P est la précision et '%' et 'f' sont littéraux.

command

appelable Python. Est appelé sans argument chaque fois que l'un des boutons d'incrémentation ou de décrémentation est enfoncé.

Événements virtuels

Le widget spinbox génère un événement virtuel <<Increment>> lorsque l'utilisateur appuie sur <Up>, et un événement virtuel <<Decrement>> lorsque l'utilisateur appuie sur <Down>.

ttk.Spinbox

class tkinter.ttk.Spinbox

get()

Renvoie la valeur actuelle du spinbox.

set(value)

Définit la valeur du spinbox sur value.

Carnet de notes (notebook)

Le widget Ttk Notebook gère une collection de fenêtres et n'en affiche qu'une seule à la fois. Chaque fenêtre enfant est associée à un onglet, que l'utilisateur peut sélectionner pour changer la fenêtre actuellement affichée.

Options

Ce widget accepte les options spécifiques suivantes :

Option

Description

height

S'il est présent et supérieur à zéro, spécifie la hauteur souhaitée de la zone du volet (sans compter l'ajustement interne ni les onglets). Sinon, la hauteur maximale de tous les volets est utilisée.

padding

Spécifie la quantité d'espace supplémentaire à ajouter autour de l'extérieur du bloc-notes. L'ajustement est défini par une liste jusqu'à quatre spécifications de longueur à gauche en haut à droite en bas. Si moins de quatre éléments sont spécifiés, bottom vaut par défaut top, right vaut par défaut left et top vaut par défaut left.

width

S'il est présent et supérieur à zéro, spécifiez la largeur souhaitée de la zone du volet (hors ajustement interne). Sinon, la largeur maximale de tous les volets est utilisée.

Options d'onglet

Il existe également des options spécifiques pour les onglets :

Option

Description

state

Soit "normal", "disabled" ou "hidden". Si disabled, l'onglet n'est pas sélectionnable. S'il est hidden, l'onglet n'est pas affiché.

sticky

Spécifie comment la fenêtre enfant est positionnée dans la zone du volet. La valeur est une chaîne contenant zéro ou plusieurs des caractères "n", "s", "e" ou "w". Chaque lettre fait référence à un côté (nord, sud, est ou ouest) auquel la fenêtre enfant colle, selon le gestionnaire de géométrie grid().

padding

Spécifie la quantité d'espace supplémentaire à ajouter entre le bloc-notes et ce volet. La syntaxe est la même que pour l'option d'ajustement utilisée par ce widget.

text

Spécifie un texte à afficher dans l'onglet.

image

Spécifie une image à afficher dans l'onglet. Voir l'option image décrite dans Widget.

compound

Spécifie comment afficher l'image par rapport au texte, dans le cas où les deux options texte et image sont présentes. Voir Label Options pour les valeurs autorisées.

underline

Spécifie l'indice (en commençant à 0) d'un caractère à souligner dans la chaîne de texte. Le caractère souligné est utilisé pour l'activation mnémonique si Notebook.enable_traversal() est appelé.

Identifiants d'onglet

Le tab_id présent dans plusieurs méthodes de ttk.Notebook peut prendre l'une des formes suivantes :

Un entier compris entre zéro et le nombre d'onglets

Le nom d'une fenêtre fille

Une spécification de position de la forme "@x,y", qui identifie l'onglet

La chaîne littérale "current", qui identifie l'onglet actuellement sélectionné

La chaîne littérale "end", qui renvoie le nombre d'onglets (valable uniquement pour Notebook.index())

Événements virtuels

Ce widget génère un événement virtuel <<NotebookTabChanged>> après la sélection d'un nouvel onglet.

ttk.Notebook

class tkinter.ttk.Notebook

add(child, **kw)

Ajoute un nouvel onglet au bloc-notes.

Si la fenêtre est actuellement gérée par le notebook mais masquée, elle est restaurée à sa position précédente.

Voir Options d'onglet pour la liste des options disponibles.

forget(tab_id)

Supprime l'onglet spécifié par tab_id, et ne gère plus la fenêtre associée.

hide(tab_id)

Masque l'onglet spécifié par tab_id.

L'onglet ne s'affiche pas, mais la fenêtre associée reste gérée par le notebook et sa configuration mémorisée. Les onglets cachés peuvent être restaurés avec la commande add().

identify(x, y)

Renvoie le nom de l'élément tab à la position x, y, ou la chaîne vide s'il n'y en a pas.

index(tab_id)

Renvoie l'indice de l'onglet spécifié par tab_id, ou le nombre total d'onglets si tab_id est la chaîne "end".

insert(pos, child, **kw)

Insère un volet à la position spécifiée.

pos est soit la chaîne "end", un indice entier ou le nom d'un enfant géré. Si child est déjà géré par le notebook, le déplace vers la position spécifiée.

Voir Options d'onglet pour la liste des options disponibles.

select(tab_id=None)

Sélectionne le tab_id spécifié.

La fenêtre enfant associée est affichée, et la fenêtre précédemment sélectionnée (si différente) est masquée. Si tab_id est omis, renvoie le nom du widget du volet actuellement sélectionné.

tab(tab_id, option=None, **kw)

Interroge ou modifie les options du tab_id spécifique.

Si kw n'est pas donné, renvoie un dictionnaire des valeurs des options de l'onglet. Si option est spécifié, renvoie la valeur de cette option. Sinon, définit les options sur les valeurs correspondantes.

tabs()

Renvoie une liste des fenêtres gérées par le notebook.

enable_traversal()

Active la traversée du clavier pour une fenêtre de niveau supérieur contenant ce bloc-notes.

Cela étend les liaisons pour la fenêtre de niveau supérieur contenant le bloc-notes comme suit :

Control-Tab : sélectionne l'onglet suivant celui actuellement sélectionné.

Shift-Control-Tab : sélectionne l'onglet précédant celui actuellement sélectionné.

Alt-K : où K est le caractère mnémonique (souligné) de n'importe quel onglet, sélectionne cet onglet.

Plusieurs blocs-notes dans un seul niveau supérieur peuvent être activés pour la traversée, y compris les blocs-notes imbriqués. Cependant, la traversée du bloc-notes ne fonctionne correctement que si tous les volets ont le bloc-notes dans lequel ils se trouvent en tant que maître.

Barre de progression

Le widget ttk.Progressbar affiche l'état d'une opération de longue durée. Il peut fonctionner en deux modes : 1) le mode déterminé qui indique la quantité achevée par rapport à la quantité totale de travail à effectuer et 2) le mode indéterminé qui fournit un affichage animé pour informer l'utilisateur que le travail progresse.

Options

Ce widget accepte les options spécifiques suivantes :

Option

Description

orient

"horizontal" ou "vertical". Spécifie l'orientation de la barre de progression.

length

Spécifie la longueur de l'axe long de la barre de progression (largeur si horizontale, hauteur si verticale).

mode

"determinate" ou "indeterminate".

maximum

Nombre spécifiant la valeur maximale. La valeur par défaut est 100.

value

La valeur actuelle de la barre de progression. En mode determinate, cela représente la quantité de travail accompli. En mode indeterminate, il est interprété comme modulo maximum ; c'est-à-dire que la barre de progression effectue un « cycle » lorsque sa valeur augmente de maximum.

variable

Nom lié à la valeur de l'option. Si spécifié, la valeur de la barre de progression est automatiquement fixée à la valeur de ce nom à chaque modification de ce dernier.

phase

Option en lecture seule. Le widget incrémente périodiquement la valeur de cette option chaque fois que sa valeur est supérieure à 0 et, en mode déterminate, inférieure au maximum. Cette option peut être utilisée par le thème actuel pour fournir des effets d'animation supplémentaires.

ttk.Progressbar

class tkinter.ttk.Progressbar

start(interval=None)

Commence le mode d'auto-incrémentation : planifie un événement de minuterie récurrent qui appelle Progressbar.step() toutes les interval millisecondes. S'il est omis, interval est par défaut de 50 millisecondes.

step(amount=None)

Incrémente la valeur de la barre de progression de amount.

amount est par défaut égal à 1.0 s'il est omis.

stop()

Arrête le mode d'auto-incrémentation : annule tout événement de minuterie récurrent initié par Progressbar.start() pour cette barre de progression.

Séparateur

Le widget ttk.Separator affiche une barre de séparation horizontale ou verticale.

Il n'a pas d'autres méthodes que celles héritées de ttk.Widget.

Options

Ce widget accepte l'option spécifique suivante :

Option

Description

orient

"horizontal" ou "vertical". Spécifie l'orientation du séparateur.

Poignée de redimensionnement

Le widget ttk.Sizegrip (également connu sous le nom de grow box) permet à l'utilisateur de redimensionner la fenêtre de niveau supérieur en appuyant et en faisant glisser la poignée.

Ce widget n'a ni options spécifiques ni méthodes spécifiques, à part celles héritées de ttk.Widget.

Notes spécifiques à une plateforme

Sur macOS, les fenêtres de niveau supérieur incluent automatiquement une poignée de redimensionnement intégrée par défaut. L'ajout d'un Sizegrip est sans danger, car la poignée intégrée masquera simplement le widget.

Bogues

Si la position du contenant de niveau supérieur a été spécifiée par rapport à la droite ou au bas de l'écran (par exemple…), le widget Sizegrip ne redimensionne pas la fenêtre.

Ce widget ne prend en charge que le redimensionnement "southeast".

Arborescence

Le widget ttk.Treeview affiche une collection hiérarchique d'éléments. Chaque élément possède une étiquette textuelle, une image facultative et une liste facultative de valeurs de données. Les valeurs des données sont affichées dans des colonnes successives après l'étiquette de l'arbre.

L'ordre dans lequel les valeurs de données sont affichées peut être contrôlé en définissant l'option de widget displaycolumns. Le widget d'arborescence peut également afficher les en-têtes de colonne. Les colonnes sont accessibles par des numéros ou des noms symboliques indiqués dans l'option columns du widget. Voir Identifiants de colonnes.

Chaque élément est identifié par un nom unique. Le widget génère des identifiants d'éléments s'ils ne sont pas fournis par l'appelant. Il existe un élément racine distinct, nommé {}. L'élément racine lui-même n'est pas affiché ; ses enfants apparaissent au niveau supérieur de la hiérarchie.

Chaque élément possède également une liste de balises, qui peuvent être utilisées pour associer des liaisons d'événements à des éléments individuels et contrôler l'apparence de l'élément.

Le widget Treeview prend en charge le défilement horizontal et vertical, selon les options décrites dans Scrollable Widget Options et les méthodes Treeview.xview() et Treeview.yview().

Options

Ce widget accepte les options spécifiques suivantes :

Option

Description

columns

Une liste d'identificateurs de colonne, spécifiant le nombre de colonnes et leurs noms.

displaycolumns

Une liste d'identificateurs de colonne (indices symboliques ou entiers) spécifiant quelles colonnes de données sont affichées et l'ordre dans lequel elles apparaissent, ou la chaîne "#all".

height

Spécifie le nombre de lignes qui doivent être visibles. Remarque : la largeur demandée est déterminée à partir de la somme des largeurs de colonne.

padding

Spécifie le remplissage interne du widget. L'ajustement est décrit par une liste jusqu'à quatre spécifications de longueur.

selectmode

Contrôle la façon dont les liaisons de classe intégrées gèrent la sélection. Les valeurs possibles sont "extended", "browse" ou "none". S'il est défini sur extended (valeur par défaut), plusieurs éléments peuvent être sélectionnés. Si c'est browse un seul élément ne peut être sélectionné à la fois. Si c'est none, la sélection ne peut pas être modifiée.

Notez que le code d'application et les liaisons de balises peuvent définir la sélection comme ils le souhaitent, quelle que soit la valeur de cette option.

show

Une liste contenant zéro ou plusieurs des valeurs suivantes, spécifiant les éléments de l'arborescence à afficher.

tree : affiche les étiquettes de l'arbre dans la colonne 0.

headings : affiche la ligne d'en-tête.

La valeur par défaut est "tree headings", c'est-à-dire afficher tous les éléments.

Remarque : la colonne 0 fait toujours référence à la colonne de l'arborescence, même si show="tree" n'est pas spécifié.

Options d'éléments

Les options d'éléments suivantes peuvent être spécifiées pour les éléments dans les commandes insert et les widgets de type élément.

Option

Description

text

Libellé textuel à afficher pour l'élément.

image

Image Tk, affichée à gauche de l'étiquette.

values

Liste des valeurs associées à l'élément.

Chaque élément doit avoir le même nombre de valeurs que les colonnes d'options du widget. S'il y a moins de valeurs que de colonnes, les valeurs restantes sont supposées vides. S'il y a plus de valeurs que de colonnes, les valeurs supplémentaires sont ignorées.

open

Valeur True ou False indiquant si les enfants de l'élément doivent être affichés ou masqués.

tags

Liste de balises associées à cet élément.

Options de balise

Les options suivantes peuvent être spécifiées sur les balises :

Option

Description

foreground

Spécifie la couleur de premier plan du texte.

background

Spécifie la couleur d'arrière-plan de la cellule ou de l'élément.

font

Spécifie la police à utiliser lors du dessin du texte.

image

Spécifie l'image de l'élément, au cas où l'option d'image de l'élément est vide.

Identifiants de colonnes

Les identifiants de colonnes prennent l'une des formes suivantes :

Un nom symbolique de l'option de liste de colonnes.

Un entier n, spécifiant la nième colonne de données.

Une chaîne de la forme #n, où n est un entier, spécifiant la nième colonne d'affichage.

Notes :

Les valeurs d'option de l'élément peuvent être affichées dans un ordre différent de celui dans lequel elles sont stockées.

La colonne #0 fait toujours référence à la colonne de l'arborescence, même si show="tree" n'est pas spécifié.

Un numéro de colonne de données est un indice dans la liste des valeurs d'option d'un élément ; un numéro de colonne d'affichage est le numéro de colonne dans l'arborescence où les valeurs sont affichées. Les étiquettes d'arbre sont affichées dans la colonne #0. Si l'option displaycolumns n'est pas définie, la colonne de données n s'affiche dans la colonne #n+1. Encore une fois, la colonne #0 fait toujours référence à la colonne de l'arborescence.

Événements virtuels

Le widget Treeview génère les événements virtuels suivants.

Événement

Description

<<TreeviewSelect>>

Généré chaque fois que la sélection change.

<<TreeviewOpen>>

Généré juste avant de définir l'élément de focus sur open=True.

<<TreeviewClose>>

Généré juste après avoir défini l'élément de focus sur open=False.

Les méthodes Treeview.focus() et Treeview.selection() peuvent être utilisées pour déterminer le ou les éléments concernés.

ttk.Treeview

class tkinter.ttk.Treeview

bbox(item, column=None)

Renvoie la boîte englobante (relative à la fenêtre du widget treeview) de l'item spécifié sous la forme (x, y, largeur, hauteur).

Si column est spécifié, renvoie la boîte englobante de cette cellule. Si item n'est pas visible (c'est-à-dire s'il est un descendant d'un élément fermé ou se trouve hors écran en raison du défilement), renvoie une chaîne vide.

get_children(item=None)

Renvoie la liste des enfants appartenant à item.

Si item n'est pas spécifié, renvoie les enfants racine.

set_children(item, *newchildren)

Remplace l'enfant de item par newchildren.

Les enfants présents dans item qui ne sont pas présents dans newchildren sont détachés de l'arbre. Aucun élément de newchildren ne peut être un ancêtre de item. Notez que ne pas spécifier newchildren entraîne le détachement des enfants de item.

column(column, option=None, **kw)

Interroge ou modifie les options pour la column spécifiée.

Si kw n'est pas donné, renvoie un dictionnaire des valeurs d'option de colonne. Si option est spécifié, la valeur de cette option est renvoyée. Sinon, définit les options sur les valeurs correspondantes.

Les options/valeurs valides sont :

id

Renvoie le nom de la colonne. Il s'agit d'une option en lecture seule.

anchor: One of the standard Tk anchor values.

Spécifie comment le texte de cette colonne doit être aligné par rapport à la cellule.

minwidth: width

La largeur minimale de la colonne en pixels. Le widget Treeview ne rend pas la colonne plus petite que celle spécifiée par cette option lorsque le widget est redimensionné ou que l'utilisateur fait glisser une colonne.

stretch: True/False

Spécifie si la largeur de la colonne doit être ajustée lorsque le widget est redimensionné.

width: width

La largeur de la colonne en pixels.

Pour configurer la colonne d'arborescence, appelez-la avec column = "#0"

delete(*items)

Supprime tous les items spécifiés et tous leurs descendants.

L'élément racine ne peut pas être supprimé.

detach(*items)

Dissocie tous les items spécifiés de l'arborescence.

Les éléments et tous leurs descendants sont toujours présents et peuvent être réinsérés à un autre point de l'arborescence, mais ne seront pas affichés.

L'élément racine ne peut pas être détaché.

exists(item)

Renvoie True si l'item spécifié est présent dans l'arborescence.

focus(item=None)

Si item est spécifié, définit l'élément de focus sur item. Sinon, renvoie l'élément de focus actuel, ou '' s'il n'y en a pas.

heading(column, option=None, **kw)

Interroge ou modifie les options d'en-tête pour la column spécifiée.

Si kw n'est pas donné, renvoie un dictionnaire des valeurs d'option d'en-tête. Si option est spécifié, la valeur de cette option est renvoyée. Sinon, définit les options sur les valeurs correspondantes.

Les options/valeurs valides sont :

text: text

Texte à afficher dans l'en-tête de colonne.

image: imageName

Spécifie une image à afficher à droite de l'en-tête de colonne.

anchor: anchor

Spécifie comment le texte du titre doit être aligné. Une des valeurs d'ancrage Tk standard.

command: callback

Un rappel à invoquer lorsque l'étiquette d'en-tête est pressée.

Pour configurer l'en-tête de colonne de l'arborescence, appelez-la avec column = "#0".

identify(component, x, y)

Renvoie une description du component spécifié sous le point donné par x et y, ou la chaîne vide si aucun component de ce type n'est présent à cette position.

identify_row(y)

Renvoie l'ID d'élément de l'élément à la position y.

identify_column(x)

Renvoie l'identificateur de colonne de données de la cellule à la position x.

La colonne arborescence possède l'ID #0.

identify_region(x, y)

Renvoie l'un des éléments suivants :

region

signification

heading

Zone d'en-tête de l'arbre.

separator

Espace entre deux en-têtes de colonnes.

tree (arbre)

Une zone de l'arbre.

cell

Une cellule de données.

Disponibilité : Tk 8.6.

identify_element(x, y)

Renvoie l'élément à la position x, y.

Disponibilité : Tk 8.6.

index(item)

Renvoie l'indice (entier) de item dans la liste des enfants de son parent.

insert(parent, index, iid=None, **kw)

Crée un nouvel élément et renvoie l'identifiant de l'élément nouvellement créé.

parent est l'ID d'élément de l'élément parent ou la chaîne vide pour créer un nouvel élément de niveau supérieur. index est un entier, ou la valeur "end", spécifiant où dans la liste des enfants du parent insérer le nouvel élément. Si index est inférieur ou égal à zéro, le nouveau nœud est inséré au début ; si index est supérieur ou égal au nombre actuel d'enfants, il est inséré à la fin. Si iid est spécifié, il est utilisé comme identifiant d'élément ; iid ne doit pas déjà exister dans l'arborescence. Sinon, un nouvel identifiant unique est généré.

See Item Options for the list of available options.

item(item, option=None, **kw)

Interroge ou modifie les options pour l'item spécifié.

Si aucune option n'est donnée, un dictionnaire avec des options/valeurs pour l'élément est renvoyé. Si option est spécifié, la valeur de cette option est renvoyée. Sinon, définit les options sur les valeurs correspondantes données par kw.

move(item, parent, index)

Déplace item vers la position index dans la liste des enfants de parent.

Il est interdit de déplacer un élément sous l'un de ses descendants. Si index est inférieur ou égal à zéro, item est déplacé au début ; s'il est supérieur ou égal au nombre d'enfants, il est déplacé à la fin. Si item a été détaché, il est rattaché.

next(item)

Renvoie l'identifiant du frère suivant de item, ou '' si item est le dernier enfant de son parent.

parent(item)

Renvoie l'identifiant du parent de item, ou '' si item est au niveau supérieur de la hiérarchie.

prev(item)

Renvoie l'identifiant du frère précédent de item, ou '' si item est le premier enfant de son parent.

reattach(item, parent, index)

Alias pour Treeview.move().

see(item)

Fait en sorte que item soit visible.

Définit l'option d'ouverture de tous les ancêtres de item sur True, et fait défiler le widget si nécessaire afin que item soit dans la partie visible de l'arborescence.

selection()

Renvoie un n-uplet d'éléments sélectionnés.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: selection() ne prend plus d'arguments. Pour modifier l'état de sélection, utilisez les méthodes de sélection suivantes.

selection_set(*items)

items devient la nouvelle sélection.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: items peut être passé en tant qu'arguments séparés, pas seulement en tant que n-uplet.

selection_add(*items)

Ajoute des items à la sélection.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: items peut être passé en tant qu'arguments séparés, pas seulement en tant que n-uplet.

selection_remove(*items)

Supprime les items de la sélection.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: items peut être passé en tant qu'arguments séparés, pas seulement en tant que n-uplet.

selection_toggle(*items)

Bascule l'état de sélection de chaque élément de items.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: items peut être passé en tant qu'arguments séparés, pas seulement en tant que n-uplet.

set(item, column=None, value=None)

Avec un argument, renvoie un dictionnaire de paires colonne/valeur pour l'item spécifié. Avec deux arguments, renvoie la valeur actuelle de la column spécifiée. Avec trois arguments, définit la valeur de la column donnée dans l'item donné à la value spécifiée.

tag_bind(tagname, sequence=None, callback=None)

Lie le rappel callback à l'événement donné sequence pour la balise tagname. Lorsqu'un événement est envoyé à un élément, les rappels pour chacune des options de balises de l'élément sont appelés.

tag_configure(tagname, option=None, **kw)

Interroge ou modifie les options pour le tagname spécifié.

Si kw n'est pas donné, renvoie un dictionnaire des paramètres d'option pour tagname. Si option est spécifié, renvoie la valeur de cette option pour le tagname spécifié. Sinon, définit les options sur les valeurs correspondantes pour le tagname donné.

tag_has(tagname, item=None)

Si item est spécifié, renvoie 1 ou 0 selon que item spécifié a le tagname donné. Sinon, renvoie une liste de tous les éléments qui ont la balise spécifiée.

Disponibilité : Tk 8.6

xview(*args)

Interroge ou modifie la position horizontale de l'arborescence.

yview(*args)

Interroge ou modifie la position verticale de l'arborescence.

Style Ttk

Chaque widget dans ttk se voit attribuer un style, qui spécifie l'ensemble d'éléments composant le widget et la façon dont ils sont disposés, ainsi que les paramètres dynamiques et par défaut pour les options d'élément. Par défaut, le nom du style est le même que le nom de la classe du widget, mais il peut être remplacé par l'option de style du widget. Si vous ne connaissez pas le nom de classe d'un widget, utilisez la méthode Misc.winfo_class() (somewidget.winfo_class()).

Voir aussi

Tcl'2004 conference presentation [https://tktable.sourceforge.net/tile/tile-tcl2004.pdf]

Ce document explique le fonctionnement du moteur de thème

class tkinter.ttk.Style

Cette classe est utilisée pour manipuler la base de données de style.

configure(style, query_opt=None, **kw)

Interroge ou définit la valeur par défaut des options spécifiées dans style.

Chaque clé dans kw est une option et chaque valeur est une chaîne identifiant la valeur de cette option.

Par exemple, pour changer chaque bouton par défaut en un bouton plat avec un ajustement et une couleur d'arrière-plan différente :

from tkinter import ttk
import tkinter

root = tkinter.Tk()

ttk.Style().configure("TButton", padding=6, relief="flat",
   background="#ccc")

btn = ttk.Button(text="Sample")
btn.pack()

root.mainloop()

map(style, query_opt=None, **kw)

Interroge ou définit les valeurs dynamiques des options spécifiées dans style.

Chaque clé dans kw est une option et chaque valeur doit être une liste ou un n-uplet (généralement) contenant des spécifications d'état regroupées dans des n-uplets, des listes ou une autre préférence. Un statespec est un composé d'un ou plusieurs états, puis d'une valeur.

Un exemple peut le rendre plus compréhensible :

import tkinter
from tkinter import ttk

root = tkinter.Tk()

style = ttk.Style()
style.map("C.TButton",
    foreground=[('pressed', 'red'), ('active', 'blue')],
    background=[('pressed', '!disabled', 'black'), ('active', 'white')]
    )

colored_btn = ttk.Button(text="Test", style="C.TButton").pack()

root.mainloop()

Notez que l'ordre des séquences (états, valeur) pour une option est important, si l'ordre est changé en [('active', 'blue'), ('pressed', 'red')] dans l'option de premier plan, par exemple, le résultat est un premier plan bleu lorsque le widget est dans les états actif ou pressé.

lookup(style, option, state=None, default=None)

Renvoie la valeur spécifiée pour option dans style.

Si state est spécifié, on s'attend à ce qu'il s'agisse d'une séquence d'un ou plusieurs états. Si l'argument default est défini, il est utilisé comme valeur de secours au cas où aucune spécification d'option n'est trouvée.

Pour vérifier quelle police un bouton utilise par défaut :

from tkinter import ttk

print(ttk.Style().lookup("TButton", "font"))

layout(style, layoutspec=None)

Définit la disposition du widget pour un style donné. Si layoutspec est omis, renvoie la spécification de mise en page pour le style donné.

layoutspec, si spécifié, doit être une liste ou un autre type de séquence (à l'exception des chaînes), où chaque élément doit être un n-uplet et le premier élément est le nom de la mise en page et le deuxième élément doit avoir le format décrit dans Layouts.

Pour comprendre le format, consultez l'exemple suivant (il n'est pas destiné à faire quoi que ce soit d'utile) :

from tkinter import ttk
import tkinter

root = tkinter.Tk()

style = ttk.Style()
style.layout("TMenubutton", [
   ("Menubutton.background", None),
   ("Menubutton.button", {"children":
       [("Menubutton.focus", {"children":
           [("Menubutton.padding", {"children":
               [("Menubutton.label", {"side": "left", "expand": 1})]
           })]
       })]
   }),
])

mbtn = ttk.Menubutton(text='Text')
mbtn.pack()
root.mainloop()

element_create(elementname, etype, *args, **kw)

Create a new element in the current theme, of the given etype which is expected to be either "image", "from" or "vsapi". The latter is only available in Tk 8.6 on Windows.

Si image est utilisé, args doit contenir le nom de l'image par défaut suivi de paires statespec / value (il s'agit de l'imagespec), et kw peut avoir les options suivantes :

border=remplissage

padding est une liste de quatre entiers maximum, spécifiant respectivement les bordures gauche, supérieure, droite et inférieure.

height=hauteur

Spécifie une hauteur minimale pour l'élément. Si elle est inférieure à zéro, la hauteur de l'image de base est utilisée par défaut.

padding= ajustement

Spécifie l'ajustement intérieur de l'élément. La valeur par défaut est la valeur de border si elle n'est pas spécifiée.

sticky= spec

Spécifie comment l'image est placée dans la partie de l'espace attribué finale. spec contient zéro ou plusieurs caractères "n", "s", "w" ou "e".

width=largeur

Spécifie une largeur minimale pour l'élément. Si inférieur à zéro, la largeur de l'image de base est utilisée par défaut.

Exemple :

img1 = tkinter.PhotoImage(master=root, file='button.png')
img1 = tkinter.PhotoImage(master=root, file='button-pressed.png')
img1 = tkinter.PhotoImage(master=root, file='button-active.png')
style = ttk.Style(root)
style.element_create('Button.button', 'image',
                     img1, ('pressed', img2), ('active', img3),
                     border=(2, 4), sticky='we')

Si from est utilisé comme valeur de etype, element_create() clone un élément existant. args doit contenir un nom de thème, à partir duquel l'élément est cloné, et éventuellement un élément à cloner. Si cet élément qu'il faut cloner n'est pas spécifié, un élément vide est utilisé. kw est ignoré.

Exemple :

style = ttk.Style(root)
style.element_create('plain.background', 'from', 'default')

If "vsapi" is used as the value of etype, element_create() will create a new element in the current theme whose visual appearance is drawn using the Microsoft Visual Styles API which is responsible for the themed styles on Windows XP and Vista. args is expected to contain the Visual Styles class and part as given in the Microsoft documentation followed by an optional sequence of tuples of ttk states and the corresponding Visual Styles API state value. kw may have the following options:

padding= ajustement

Specify the element's interior padding. padding is a list of up to four integers specifying the left, top, right and bottom padding quantities respectively. If fewer than four elements are specified, bottom defaults to top, right defaults to left, and top defaults to left. In other words, a list of three numbers specify the left, vertical, and right padding; a list of two numbers specify the horizontal and the vertical padding; a single number specifies the same padding all the way around the widget. This option may not be mixed with any other options.

margins=padding

Specifies the elements exterior padding. padding is a list of up to four integers specifying the left, top, right and bottom padding quantities respectively. This option may not be mixed with any other options.

width=largeur

Specifies the width for the element. If this option is set then the Visual Styles API will not be queried for the recommended size or the part. If this option is set then height should also be set. The width and height options cannot be mixed with the padding or margins options.

height=hauteur

Specifies the height of the element. See the comments for width.

Exemple :

style = ttk.Style(root)
style.element_create('pin', 'vsapi', 'EXPLORERBAR', 3, [
                     ('pressed', '!selected', 3),
                     ('active', '!selected', 2),
                     ('pressed', 'selected', 6),
                     ('active', 'selected', 5),
                     ('selected', 4),
                     ('', 1)])
style.layout('Explorer.Pin',
             [('Explorer.Pin.pin', {'sticky': 'news'})])
pin = ttk.Checkbutton(style='Explorer.Pin')
pin.pack(expand=True, fill='both')

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added support of the "vsapi" element factory.

element_names()

Renvoie la liste des éléments définis dans le thème courant.

element_options(elementname)

Renvoie la liste des options de elementname.

theme_create(themename, parent=None, settings=None)

Crée un nouveau thème.

C'est une erreur si themename existe déjà. Si parent est spécifié, le nouveau thème hérite des styles, des éléments et des mises en page du thème parent. Si settings est présent, il doit avoir la même syntaxe que celle utilisée pour theme_settings().

theme_settings(themename, settings)

Définit temporairement le thème actuel sur themename, applique les settings spécifiés, puis restaure le thème précédent.

Chaque clé dans settings est un style et chaque valeur peut contenir les clés 'configure', 'map', 'layout' et 'element create' et elles doivent avoir le même format que celui spécifié par les méthodes Style.configure(), Style.map(), Style.layout() et Style.element_create() respectivement.

À titre d'exemple, changeons un peu la Combobox pour le thème par défaut :

from tkinter import ttk
import tkinter

root = tkinter.Tk()

style = ttk.Style()
style.theme_settings("default", {
   "TCombobox": {
       "configure": {"padding": 5},
       "map": {
           "background": [("active", "green2"),
                          ("!disabled", "green4")],
           "fieldbackground": [("!disabled", "green3")],
           "foreground": [("focus", "OliveDrab1"),
                          ("!disabled", "OliveDrab2")]
       }
   }
})

combo = ttk.Combobox().pack()

root.mainloop()

theme_names()

Renvoie une liste de tous les thèmes connus.

theme_use(themename=None)

Si themename n'est pas donné, renvoie le thème utilisé. Sinon, définit le thème actuel sur themename, actualise tous les widgets et lève un événement <<ThemeChanged>>.

Dispositions de mise en page

A layout can be just None, if it takes no options, or a dict of options specifying how to arrange the element. The layout mechanism uses a simplified version of the pack geometry manager: given an initial cavity, each element is allocated a parcel.

Les options/valeurs valides sont :

side: whichside

Spécifie de quel côté de l'espace vide placer l'élément ; top (en haut), right (à droite), bottom (en bas) ou left (à gauche). S'il est omis, l'élément occupe toute l'espace.

sticky: nswe

Spécifie où l'élément est placé à l'intérieur de sa partie d'espace alloué.

unit: 0 or 1

Si défini sur 1, l'élément et tous ses descendants sont traités comme un seul élément aux fins de Widget.identify() et consœurs. Il est utilisé pour des choses comme la barre de défilement ou les agrandissements.

children: [sublayout... ]

Spécifie une liste d'éléments à placer à l'intérieur de l'élément. Chaque élément est un n-uplet (ou un autre type de séquence) où le premier élément est le nom de la mise en page et l'autre est un Layout.

IDLE --- Python editor and shell

Code source : Lib/idlelib/ [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/idlelib/]

IDLE est l'environnement de développement et d'apprentissage intégré de Python (Integrated Development and Learning Environment).

IDLE a les fonctionnalités suivantes :

multiplateformes : fonctionne de la même manière sous Windows, Unix et macOS

Console Python (interpréteur interactif) avec coloration du code entré, des sorties et des messages d'erreur

éditeur de texte multi-fenêtres avec annulations multiples, coloration Python, indentation automatique, aide pour les appels de fonction, autocomplétion, parmi d'autres fonctionnalités

recherche dans n'importe quelle fenêtre, remplacement dans une fenêtre d'édition et recherche dans des fichiers multiples (grep)

débogueur avec points d'arrêt persistants, pas-à-pas et visualisation des espaces de nommage locaux et globaux

configuration, navigateur et d'autres fenêtres de dialogue

The IDLE application is implemented in the idlelib package.

This is an optional module. If it is missing from your copy of CPython, look for documentation from your distributor (that is, whoever provided Python to you). If you are the distributor, see Requirements for optional modules.

Menus

IDLE a deux principaux types de fenêtre, la fenêtre de console et la fenêtre d'édition. Il est possible d'avoir de multiples fenêtres d'édition ouvertes simultanément. Sous Windows et Linux, chacune a son propre menu. Chaque menu documenté ci-dessous indique à quel type de fenêtre il est associé.

Les fenêtre d'affichage, comme celles qui sont utilisées pour Edit => Find in Files, sont un sous-type de fenêtre d'édition. Elles possèdent actuellement le même menu principal mais un titre par défaut et un menu contextuel différents.

Sous macOS, il y a un menu d'application. Il change dynamiquement en fonction de la fenêtre active. Il a un menu IDLE et certaines entrées décrites ci-dessous sont déplacées conformément aux directives d'Apple.

Menu File (Console et Éditeur)

New File

Crée une nouvelle fenêtre d'édition.

Open...

Ouvre un fichier existant avec une fenêtre de dialogue pour l'ouverture.

Open Module...

Ouvre un module existant (cherche dans sys.path).

Recent Files

Ouvre une liste des fichiers récents. Cliquez sur l'un d'eux pour l'ouvrir.

Module Browser

Montre les fonctions, classes et méthodes dans une arborescence pour le fichier en cours d'édition. Dans la console, ouvre d'abord un module.

Path Browser

Affiche les dossiers de sys.path, les modules, fonctions, classes et méthodes dans une arborescence.

Save

Enregistre la fenêtre active sous le fichier associé, s'il existe. Les fenêtres qui ont été modifiées depuis leur ouverture ou leur dernier enregistrement ont un * avant et après le titre de la fenêtre. S'il n'y a aucun fichier associé, exécute Save As à la place.

Save As...

Save the current window with a Save As dialog. The file saved becomes the new associated file for the window. (If your file manager is set to hide extensions, the current extension will be omitted in the file name box. If the new filename has no '.', '.py' and '.txt' will be added for Python and text files, except that on macOS Aqua,'.py' is added for all files.)

Save Copy As...

Save the current window to different file without changing the associated file. (See Save As note above about filename extensions.)

Print Window

Imprime la fenêtre active avec l'imprimante par défaut.

Close Window

Close the current window (if an unsaved editor, ask to save; if an unsaved Shell, ask to quit execution). Calling exit() or close() in the Shell window also closes Shell. If this is the only window, also exit IDLE.

Exit IDLE

Close all windows and quit IDLE (ask to save unsaved edit windows).

Menu Edit (console et éditeur)

Undo

Annule le dernier changement dans la fenêtre active. Un maximum de 1000 changements peut être annulé.

Redo

Ré-applique le dernier changement annulé dans la fenêtre active.

Select All

Sélectionne la totalité du contenu de la fenêtre active.

Cut

Copie la sélection dans le presse-papier global ; puis supprime la sélection.

Copy

Copie la sélection dans le presse-papier global.

Paste

Insère le contenu du presse-papier global dans la fenêtre active.

Les fonctions du presse-papier sont aussi disponibles dans les menus contextuels.

Find...

Ouvre une fenêtre de recherche avec de nombreuses options

Find Again

Répète la dernière recherche, s'il y en a une.

Find Selection

Cherche la chaîne sélectionnée, s'il y en a une.

Find in Files...

Ouvre une fenêtre de recherche de fichiers. Présente les résultats dans une nouvelle fenêtre d'affichage.

Replace...

Ouvre une fenêtre de recherche et remplacement.

Go to Line

Move the cursor to the beginning of the line requested and make that line visible. A request past the end of the file goes to the end. Clear any selection and update the line and column status.

Show Completions

Open a scrollable list allowing selection of existing names. See Completions in the Editing and Navigation section below.

Expand Word

Complète un préfixe que vous avez saisi pour correspondre à un mot complet de la même fenêtre ; recommencez pour obtenir un autre complément.

Show Call Tip

After an unclosed parenthesis for a function, open a small window with function parameter hints. See Calltips in the Editing and Navigation section below.

Show Surrounding Parens

Surligne les parenthèses encadrantes.

Menu Format (fenêtre d'édition uniquement)

Format Paragraph

Rewrap the text block containing the text insert cursor. Avoid code lines. See Format block in the Editing and Navigation section below.

Indent Region

Décale les lignes sélectionnées vers la droite d'un niveau d'indentation (4 espaces par défaut).

Dedent Region

Décale les lignes sélectionnées vers la gauche d'un niveau d'indentation (4 espaces par défaut).

Comment Out Region

Insère ## devant les lignes sélectionnées.

Uncomment Region

Enlève les # ou ## au début des lignes sélectionnées.

Tabify Region

Transforme les blocs d'espaces au début des lignes en tabulations. (Note : Nous recommandons d'utiliser des blocs de 4 espaces pour indenter du code Python.)

Untabify Region

Transforme toutes les tabulations en le bon nombre d'espaces.

Toggle Tabs

Ouvre une boîte de dialogue permettant de passer des espaces aux tabulations (et inversement) pour l'indentation.

New Indent Width

Ouvre une boîte de dialogue pour changer la taille de l'indentation. La valeur par défaut acceptée par la communauté Python est de 4 espaces.

Strip Trailing Whitespace

Remove trailing space and other whitespace characters after the last non-whitespace character of a line by applying str.rstrip() to each line, including lines within multiline strings. Except for Shell windows, remove extra newlines at the end of the file.

Menu Run (fenêtre d'édition uniquement)

Run Module

Applique Check Module (ci-dessus). S'il n'y a pas d'erreur, redémarre la console pour nettoyer l'environnement, puis exécute le module. Les sorties sont affichées dans la fenêtre de console. Notez qu'une sortie requiert l'utilisation de print ou write. Quand l'exécution est terminée, la console reste active et affiche une invite de commande. À ce moment, vous pouvez explorer interactivement le résultat de l'exécution. Ceci est similaire à l'exécution d'un fichier avec python -i fichier sur un terminal.

Run... Customized

Similaire à Run Module, mais lance le module avec des paramètres personnalisés. Les Command Line Arguments se rajoutent à sys.argv comme s'ils étaient passés par la ligne de commande. Le module peut être lancé dans le terminal sans avoir à le redémarrer.

Check Module

Vérifie la syntaxe du module actuellement ouvert dans la fenêtre d'édition. Si le module n'a pas été enregistré, IDLE va soit demander à enregistrer à l'utilisateur, soit enregistrer automatiquement, selon l'option sélectionnée dans l'onglet General de la fenêtre de configuration d'IDLE. S'il y a une erreur de syntaxe, l'emplacement approximatif est indiqué dans la fenêtre d'édition.

Console Python

Ouvre ou active la fenêtre de console Python.

Menu Shell (fenêtre de console uniquement)

View Last Restart

Fait défiler la fenêtre de console jusqu'au dernier redémarrage de la console.

Restart Shell

Restart the shell to clean the environment and reset display and exception handling.

Previous History

Parcours les commandes précédentes dans l'historique qui correspondent à l'entrée actuelle.

Next History

Parcours les commandes suivantes dans l'historique qui correspondent à l'entrée actuelle.

Interrupt Execution

Arrête un programme en cours d'exécution.

Menu Debug (fenêtre de console uniquement)

Go to File/Line

Cherche, sur la ligne active et la ligne en-dessous, un nom de fichier et un numéro de ligne. Le cas échéant, ouvre le fichier s'il n'est pas encore ouvert et montre la ligne. Utilisez ceci pour visualiser les lignes de code source référencées dans un traceback d'exception et les lignes trouvées par Find in Files. Également disponible dans le menu contextuel des fenêtres de console et d'affichage.

Debugger ([dés]activer)

Quand cette fonctionnalité est activée, le code saisi dans la console ou exécuté depuis un Éditeur s'exécutera avec le débogueur. Dans l'Éditeur, des points d'arrêt peuvent être placés avec le menu contextuel. Cette fonctionnalité est encore incomplète et plus ou moins expérimentale.

Stack Viewer

Montre l'état de la pile au moment de la dernière erreur dans une arborescence, avec accès aux variables locales et globales.

Auto-open Stack Viewer

Active ou désactive l'ouverture automatique de l'afficheur de pile après une erreur non gérée.

Menu Options (console et éditeur)

Configure IDLE

Ouvre une fenêtre de configuration et change les préférences pour les éléments suivants : police, indentation, raccourcis clavier, thème de coloration du texte, taille et nature de la fenêtre au lancement, sources d'aide additionnelles et extensions. Sous macOS, ouvrez la fenêtre de configuration en sélectionnant Preferences dans le menu de l'application. Pour plus de détails, référez-vous à Modifier les préférences dans Aide et paramètres.

La plupart des paramètres de configuration s'appliquent à toutes les fenêtres, ouvertes ou non. Les éléments d'option ci-dessous s'appliquent uniquement à la fenêtre active.

Show/Hide Code Context (fenêtres d'édition uniquement)

Fais passer la fenêtre de taille normale à maximale. La taille de départ par défaut est de 40 lignes par 80 caractères, sauf changement dans l'onglet General de la fenêtre de configuration d'IDLE. Consultez Code Context dans la section « Édition et navigation » ci-dessous.

Show/Hide Line Numbers (fenêtre de l'éditeur uniquement)

Ajoute une colonne à gauche de la fenêtre d'édition qui indique le numéro de chaque ligne de texte. Cette colonne est désactivée par défaut, ce qui peut être modifié dans les préférences (voir Modifier les préférences).

Zoom/Restore Height

Bascule la fenêtre entre la taille normale et la hauteur maximale. La taille initiale par défaut est de 40 lignes par 80 caractères, sauf si elle est modifiée dans l'onglet « General » de la boîte de dialogue « Configure IDLE ». La hauteur maximale d'un écran est déterminée en maximisant momentanément une fenêtre lors du premier zoom sur l'écran. La modification des paramètres d'écran peut invalider la hauteur enregistrée. Cette bascule n'a aucun effet lorsqu'une fenêtre est agrandie.

Menu Windows (console et éditeur)

Liste les noms de toutes les fenêtres ouvertes ; sélectionnez-en une pour l'amener au premier plan (en l'ouvrant si nécessaire).

Menu Help (console et éditeur)

About IDLE

Affiche la version, les copyrights, la licence, les crédits, entre autres.

IDLE Help

Affiche ce document IDLE, qui détaille les options des menus, les bases de l'édition et de la navigation ainsi que d'autres astuces.

Python Docs

Accède à la documentation Python locale, si installée, ou ouvre docs.python.org dans un navigateur pour afficher la documentation Python la plus récente.

Turtle Demo

Exécute le module turtledemo avec des exemples de code Python et de dessins turtle.

Des sources d'aide supplémentaires peuvent être ajoutées ici avec la fenêtre de configuration d'IDLE dans l'onglet General. Référez-vous à la sous-section Sources d'aide ci-dessous pour plus de détails sur les choix du menu d'aide.

Context menus

Vous pouvez ouvrir un menu contextuel par un clic droit dans une fenêtre (Contrôle-clic sous macOS). Les menus contextuels ont les fonctions de presse-papier standard, également disponibles dans le menu Edit.

Cut

Copie la sélection dans le presse-papier global ; puis supprime la sélection.

Copy

Copie la sélection dans le presse-papier global.

Paste

Insère le contenu du presse-papier global dans la fenêtre active.

Les fenêtres d'édition ont aussi des fonctions de points d'arrêt. Les lignes sur lesquelles est défini un point d'arrêt sont marquées de manière spéciale. Les points d'arrêt n'ont d'effet que lorsque l'exécution se déroule sous débogueur. Les points d'arrêt pour un fichier sont enregistrés dans le dossier .idlerc de l'utilisateur.

Set Breakpoint

Place un point d'arrêt sur la ligne active.

Clear Breakpoint

Enlève le point d'arrêt sur cette ligne.

Les fenêtres de console et d'affichage disposent en plus des éléments suivants.

Go to file/line

Même effet que dans le menu Debug.

Les fenêtres de console ont également une fonction de réduction des sorties détaillée dans la sous-section fenêtre de console de Python ci-dessous.

Squeeze

Si le curseur est sur une ligne d'affichage, compacte toute la sortie entre le code au-dessus et l'invite en-dessous en un bouton "Squeezed text".

Editing and Navigation

Fenêtre d'édition

IDLE peut ouvrir une fenêtre d'édition quand il démarre, selon les paramètres et la manière dont vous démarrez IDLE. Ensuite, utilisez le menu File. Il ne peut y avoir qu'une fenêtre d'édition pour un fichier donné.

La barre de titre contient le nom du fichier, le chemin absolu et la version de Python et d'IDLE s'exécutant dans la fenêtre. La barre de statut contient le numéro de ligne ("Ln") et le numéro de la colonne ("Col"). Les numéros de ligne commencent à 1 ; les numéros de colonne commencent à 0.

IDLE suppose que les fichiers avec une extension en .py* reconnue contiennent du code Python, mais pas les autres fichiers. Exécutez du code Python avec le menu Run.

Raccourcis clavier

The IDLE insertion cursor is a thin vertical bar between character positions. When characters are entered, the insertion cursor and everything to its right moves right one character and the new character is entered in the new space.

Several non-character keys move the cursor and possibly delete characters. Deletion does not puts text on the clipboard, but IDLE has an undo list. Wherever this doc discusses keys, 'C' refers to the Control key on Windows and Unix and the Command key on macOS. (And all such discussions assume that the keys have not been re-bound to something else.)

Arrow keys move the cursor one character or line.

C-LeftArrow and C-RightArrow moves left or right one word.

Home and End go to the beginning or end of the line.

Page Up and Page Down go up or down one screen.

C-Home and C-End go to beginning or end of the file.

Backspace and Del (or C-d) delete the previous or next character.

C-Backspace and C-Del delete one word left or right.

C-k deletes ('kills') everything to the right.

Les raccourcis clavier standards (comme C-c pour copier et C-v pour coller) peuvent fonctionner. Les raccourcis clavier sont sélectionnés dans la fenêtre de configuration d'IDLE.

Indentation automatique

Après une structure d'ouverture de bloc, la prochaine ligne est indentée de 4 espaces (dans la console Python d'une tabulation). Après certains mots-clefs (break, return etc) la ligne suivante est dédentée. Dans une indentation au début de la ligne, Retour arrière supprime jusqu'à 4 espaces s'il y en a. Tab insère des espaces (dans la console, une tabulation), en nombre dépendant de la configuration. Les tabulations sont actuellement restreintes à quatre espaces à cause de limitations de Tcl/Tk.

Cf. les commandes indent/dedent region dans le menu *Format*.

Recherche et substitution

Any selection becomes a search target. However, only selections within a line work because searches are only performed within lines with the terminal newline removed. If [x] Regular expression is checked, the target is interpreted according to the Python re module.

Complétions

Completions are supplied, when requested and available, for module names, attributes of classes or functions, or filenames. Each request method displays a completion box with existing names. (See tab completions below for an exception.) For any box, change the name being completed and the item highlighted in the box by typing and deleting characters; by hitting Up, Down, PageUp, PageDown, Home, and End keys; and by a single click within the box. Close the box with Escape, Enter, and double Tab keys or clicks outside the box. A double click within the box selects and closes.

One way to open a box is to type a key character and wait for a predefined interval. This defaults to 2 seconds; customize it in the settings dialog. (To prevent auto popups, set the delay to a large number of milliseconds, such as 100000000.) For imported module names or class or function attributes, type '.'. For filenames in the root directory, type os.sep or os.altsep immediately after an opening quote. (On Windows, one can specify a drive first.) Move into subdirectories by typing a directory name and a separator.

Instead of waiting, or after a box is closed, open a completion box immediately with Show Completions on the Edit menu. The default hot key is C-space. If one types a prefix for the desired name before opening the box, the first match or near miss is made visible. The result is the same as if one enters a prefix after the box is displayed. Show Completions after a quote completes filenames in the current directory instead of a root directory.

Hitting Tab after a prefix usually has the same effect as Show Completions. (With no prefix, it indents.) However, if there is only one match to the prefix, that match is immediately added to the editor text without opening a box.

Invoking 'Show Completions', or hitting Tab after a prefix, outside of a string and without a preceding '.' opens a box with keywords, builtin names, and available module-level names.

When editing code in an editor (as oppose to Shell), increase the available module-level names by running your code and not restarting the Shell thereafter. This is especially useful after adding imports at the top of a file. This also increases possible attribute completions.

Completion boxes initially exclude names beginning with '_' or, for modules, not included in '__all__'. The hidden names can be accessed by typing '_' after '.', either before or after the box is opened.

Info-bulles

A calltip is shown automatically when one types ( after the name of an accessible function. A function name expression may include dots and subscripts. A calltip remains until it is clicked, the cursor is moved out of the argument area, or ) is typed. Whenever the cursor is in the argument part of a definition, select Edit and "Show Call Tip" on the menu or enter its shortcut to display a calltip.

The calltip consists of the function's signature and docstring up to the latter's first blank line or the fifth non-blank line. (Some builtin functions lack an accessible signature.) A '/' or '*' in the signature indicates that the preceding or following arguments are passed by position or name (keyword) only. Details are subject to change.

In Shell, the accessible functions depends on what modules have been imported into the user process, including those imported by Idle itself, and which definitions have been run, all since the last restart.

For example, restart the Shell and enter itertools.count(. A calltip appears because Idle imports itertools into the user process for its own use. (This could change.) Enter turtle.write( and nothing appears. Idle does not itself import turtle. The menu entry and shortcut also do nothing. Enter import turtle. Thereafter, turtle.write( will display a calltip.

In an editor, import statements have no effect until one runs the file. One might want to run a file after writing import statements, after adding function definitions, or after opening an existing file.

Format block

Reformat Paragraph rewraps a block ('paragraph') of contiguous equally indented non-blank comments, a similar block of text within a multiline string, or a selected subset of either. If needed, add a blank line to separate string from code. Partial lines in a selection expand to complete lines. The resulting lines have the same indent as before but have maximum total length of N columns (characters). Change the default N of 72 on the Window tab of IDLE Settings.

Contexte du code

Dans une fenêtre d'édition contenant du code Python, le contexte du code peut être activé pour afficher ou cacher une zone en haut de la fenêtre. Quand elle est affichée, cette zone gèle les lignes ouvrant le bloc de code, comme celles qui commencent par les mots-clés class, def ou if, qui auraient autrement été cachées plus haut dans le fichier. La taille de cette zone varie automatiquement selon ce qui est nécessaire pour afficher tous les niveaux de contexte, jusqu'à un nombre maximal de lignes défini dans la fenêtre de configuration d'IDLE (valeur qui vaut 15 par défaut). S'il n'y a pas de lignes de contexte et que cette fonctionnalité est activée, une unique ligne vide est affichée. Un clic sur une ligne dans la zone de contexte déplace cette ligne en haut de l'éditeur.

Les couleurs de texte et du fond pour la zone de contexte peuvent être configurées dans l'onglet Highlights de la fenêtre de configuration d'IDLE.

Shell window

In IDLE's Shell, enter, edit, and recall complete statements. (Most consoles and terminals only work with a single physical line at a time).

Submit a single-line statement for execution by hitting Return with the cursor anywhere on the line. If a line is extended with Backslash (\), the cursor must be on the last physical line. Submit a multi-line compound statement by entering a blank line after the statement.

When one pastes code into Shell, it is not compiled and possibly executed until one hits Return, as specified above. One may edit pasted code first. If one pastes more than one statement into Shell, the result will be a SyntaxError when multiple statements are compiled as if they were one.

Lines containing RESTART mean that the user execution process has been re-started. This occurs when the user execution process has crashed, when one requests a restart on the Shell menu, or when one runs code in an editor window.

The editing features described in previous subsections work when entering code interactively. IDLE's Shell window also responds to the following:

C-c attempts to interrupt statement execution (but may fail).

C-d closes Shell if typed at a >>> prompt.

Alt-p and Alt-n (C-p and C-n on macOS) retrieve to the current prompt the previous or next previously entered statement that matches anything already typed.

Return while the cursor is on any previous statement appends the latter to anything already typed at the prompt.

Coloration du texte

IDLE affiche par défaut le texte en noir sur blanc mais colore le texte qui possède une signification spéciale. Pour la console, ceci concerne les sorties de la console et de l'utilisateur ainsi que les erreurs de l'utilisateur. Pour le code Python, dans l'invite de commande de la console ou sur un éditeur, ce sont les mots-clefs, noms de fonctions et de classes incluses par défaut, les noms suivant class et def, les chaînes de caractères et les commentaires. Pour n'importe quelle fenêtre de texte, ce sont le curseur (si présent), le texte trouvé (s'il y en a) et le texte sélectionné.

IDLE also highlights the soft keywords match, case, and _ in pattern-matching statements. However, this highlighting is not perfect and will be incorrect in some rare cases, including some _-s in case patterns.

La coloration du texte est faite en arrière-plan, donc du texte non coloré est parfois visible. Pour changer les couleurs, utilisez l'onglet Highlighting de la fenêtre de configuration d'IDLE. Le marquage des points d'arrêt du débogueur dans l'éditeur et du texte dans les dialogues n'est pas configurable.

Startup and Code Execution

Quand il est démarré avec l'option -s, IDLE exécutera le fichier référencé par la variable d'environnement IDLE*STARTUP ou PYTHONSTARTUP. IDLE cherche d'abord IDLESTARTUP ; si IDLESTARTUP est présent, le fichier référencé est exécuté. Si IDLESTARTUP n'est pas présent, alors IDLE cherche PYTHONSTARTUP. Les fichiers référencés par ces variables d'environnement sont de bons endroits pour stocker des fonctions qui sont utilisées fréquemment depuis la console d'IDLE ou pour exécuter des commandes d'importation des modules communs.

De plus, Tk charge lui aussi un fichier de démarrage s'il est présent. Notez que le fichier de Tk est chargé sans condition. Ce fichier additionnel est .Idle.py et est recherché dans le dossier personnel de l'utilisateur. Les commandes dans ce fichier sont exécutées dans l'espace de nommage de Tk, donc ce fichier n'est pas utile pour importer des fonctions à utiliser depuis la console Python d'IDLE.

Command-line usage

IDLE can be invoked from the command line with various options. The general syntax is:

python -m idlelib [options] [file ...]

The following options are available:

-c <command>

Run the specified Python command in the shell window. For example, pass -c "print('Hello, World!')". On Windows, the outer quotes must be double quotes as shown.

-d

Enable the debugger and open the shell window.

-e

Open an editor window.

-h

Print a help message with legal combinations of options and exit.

-i

Open a shell window.

-r <file>

Run the specified file in the shell window.

-s

Run the startup file (as defined by the environment variables IDLESTARTUP or PYTHONSTARTUP) before opening the shell window.

-t <title>

Set the title of the shell window.

-

Read and execute standard input in the shell window. This option must be the last one before any arguments.

If arguments are provided:

If -, -c, or -r is used, all arguments are placed in sys.argv[1:], and sys.argv[0] is set to '', '-c', or '-r' respectively. No editor window is opened, even if that is the default set in the Options dialog.

Otherwise, arguments are treated as files to be opened for editing, and sys.argv reflects the arguments passed to IDLE itself.

Échec au démarrage

IDLE uses a socket to communicate between the IDLE GUI process and the user code execution process. A connection must be established whenever the Shell starts or restarts. (The latter is indicated by a divider line that says 'RESTART'). If the user process fails to connect to the GUI process, it usually displays a Tk error box with a 'cannot connect' message that directs the user here. It then exits.

One specific connection failure on Unix systems results from misconfigured masquerading rules somewhere in a system's network setup. When IDLE is started from a terminal, one will see a message starting with ** Invalid host:. The valid value is 127.0.0.1 (idlelib.rpc.LOCALHOST). One can diagnose with tcpconnect -irv 127.0.0.1 6543 in one terminal window and tcplisten <same args> in another.

Une cause d'échec courant est un fichier écrit par l'utilisateur avec le même nom qu'un module de la bibliothèque standard, comme random.py et tkinter.py. Quand un fichier de ce genre est enregistré dans le même répertoire qu'un fichier à exécuter, IDLE ne peut pas importer le fichier standard. La solution actuelle consiste à renommer le fichier de l'utilisateur.

Même si c'est plus rare qu'avant, un antivirus ou un pare-feu peuvent interrompre la connexion. Si le programme ne peut pas être paramétré pour autoriser la connexion, alors il doit être éteint pour qu'IDLE puisse fonctionner. Cette connexion interne est sûre car aucune donnée n'est visible depuis un port extérieur. Un problème similaire est une mauvaise configuration du réseau qui bloque les connexions.

Des problèmes d'installation de Python stoppent parfois IDLE : il peut y avoir un conflit de versions ou bien l'installation peut nécessiter des privilèges administrateurs. Si on corrige le conflit , ou qu'on ne peut ou ne veut pas accorder de privilège, il peut être plus facile de désinstaller complètement Python et de recommencer.

A zombie pythonw.exe process could be a problem. On Windows, use Task Manager to check for one and stop it if there is. Sometimes a restart initiated by a program crash or Keyboard Interrupt (control-C) may fail to connect. Dismissing the error box or using Restart Shell on the Shell menu may fix a temporary problem.

When IDLE first starts, it attempts to read user configuration files in ~/.idlerc/ (~ is one's home directory). If there is a problem, an error message should be displayed. Leaving aside random disk glitches, this can be prevented by never editing the files by hand. Instead, use the configuration dialog, under Options. Once there is an error in a user configuration file, the best solution may be to delete it and start over with the settings dialog.

If IDLE quits with no message, and it was not started from a console, try starting it from a console or terminal (python -m idlelib) and see if this results in an error message.

On Unix-based systems with tcl/tk older than 8.6.11 (see About IDLE) certain characters of certain fonts can cause a tk failure with a message to the terminal. This can happen either if one starts IDLE to edit a file with such a character or later when entering such a character. If one cannot upgrade tcl/tk, then re-configure IDLE to use a font that works better.

Exécuter le code de l'utilisateur

With rare exceptions, the result of executing Python code with IDLE is intended to be the same as executing the same code by the default method, directly with Python in a text-mode system console or terminal window. However, the different interface and operation occasionally affect visible results. For instance, sys.modules starts with more entries, and threading.active_count() returns 2 instead of 1.

Par défaut, IDLE exécute le code de l'utilisateur dans un processus système séparé plutôt que dans le processus d'interface utilisateur qui exécute la console et l'éditeur. Dans le processus d'exécution, il remplace sys.stdin, sys.stdout et sys.stderr par des objets qui récupèrent les entrées et envoient les sorties à la fenêtre de console. Les valeurs originales stockées dans sys.__stdin__, sys.__stdout__ et sys.__stderr__ ne sont pas touchées, mais peuvent être None.

Sending print output from one process to a text widget in another is slower than printing to a system terminal in the same process. This has the most effect when printing multiple arguments, as the string for each argument, each separator, the newline are sent separately. For development, this is usually not a problem, but if one wants to print faster in IDLE, format and join together everything one wants displayed together and then print a single string. Both format strings and str.join() can help combine fields and lines.

IDLE's standard stream replacements are not inherited by subprocesses created in the execution process, whether directly by user code or by modules such as multiprocessing. If such subprocess use input from sys.stdin or print or write to sys.stdout or sys.stderr, IDLE should be started in a command line window. (On Windows, use python or py rather than pythonw or pyw.) The secondary subprocess will then be attached to that window for input and output.

Si sys est réinitialisé par le code de l'utilisateur, comme avec importlib.reload(sys), les changements d'IDLE seront perdus et l'entrée du clavier et la sortie à l'écran ne fonctionneront pas correctement.

Quand la console est au premier plan, elle contrôle le clavier et l'écran. Ceci est normalement transparent, mais les fonctions qui accèdent directement au clavier et à l'écran ne fonctionneront pas. Ceci inclut des fonctions spécifiques du système qui déterminent si une touche a été pressée et, le cas échéant, laquelle.

Le code IDLE tournant dans le processus d'exécution ajoute des appels de fonctions à la pile d'appels qui ne seraient pas là autrement. IDLE encapsule sys.getrecursionlimit et sys.setrecursionlimit pour réduire l'effet des piles de fonctions supplémentaires.

Lorsque l'utilisateur lève SystemExit directement ou en appelant sys.exit, IDLE revient au terminal IDLE au lieu de quitter.

Sortie de l'utilisateur sur la console

Quand un programme affiche du texte, le résultat est déterminé par le support d'affichage correspondant. Quand IDLE exécute du code de l'utilisateur, sys.stdout et sys.stderr sont connectées à la zone d'affichage de la console d'IDLE. Certaines de ces fonctionnalités sont héritées des widgets Tk sous-jacents. D'autres sont des additions programmées. Quand cela importe, la console est conçue pour le développement plutôt que l'exécution en production.

Par exemple, la console ne supprime jamais de sortie. Un programme qui écrit à l'infini dans la console finira par remplir la mémoire, ce qui entraînera un erreur mémoire. Par ailleurs, certains systèmes de fenêtres textuelles ne conservent que les n dernières lignes de sortie. Une console Windows, par exemple, conserve une quantité de lignes configurable entre 1 et 9999, avec une valeur par défaut de 300.

Un widget Text de Tk et donc la console d'IDLE, affiche des caractères (points de code) dans le sous-ensemble BMP (Basic Multilingual Plane) d'Unicode. Quels caractères sont affichés avec le bon glyphe et lesquels sont affichés avec un caractère de remplacement dépend du système d'exploitation et des polices installées. Les caractères de tabulation font que le texte suivant commencera après le prochain taquet de tabulation (ils sont placés tous les 8 "caractères"). Les caractères saut de ligne font apparaître le texte suivant sur une nouvelle ligne. Les autres caractères de contrôle sont ignorés ou affichés sous forme d'espace, de boîte, ou d'autre chose, selon le système d'exploitation et la police (déplacer le curseur de texte sur un affichage de ce genre peut provoquer un comportement surprenant du point de vue de l'espacement).

>>> s = 'a\tb\a<\x02><\r>\bc\nd'  # Enter 22 chars.
>>> len(s)
14
>>> s  # Display repr(s)
'a\tb\x07<\x02><\r>\x08c\nd'
>>> print(s, end='')  # Display s as is.
# Result varies by OS and font.  Try it.

La fonction repr est utilisée pour l'affichage interactif de la valeur des expressions. Elle renvoie une version modifiée de la chaîne en entrée dans laquelle les codes de contrôle, certains points de code BMP et tous les points de code non BMP sont remplacés par des caractères d'échappement. Comme montré ci-dessus, ceci permet d'identifier les caractères dans une chaîne, quelle que soit la façon dont elle est affichée.

Les sorties standard et d'erreur sont généralement séparées (sur des lignes séparées) de l'entrée de code et entre elles. Elles ont chacune une coloration différente.

Pour les traceback de SyntaxError, le "^" habituel marquant l'endroit où l'erreur a été détectée est remplacé par la coloration et le surlignage du texte avec une erreur. Quand du code exécuté depuis un fichier cause d'autres exceptions, un clic droit sur la ligne du traceback permet d'accéder à la ligne correspondante dans un éditeur IDLE. Le fichier est ouvert si nécessaire.

La console a une fonctionnalité spéciale pour réduire les lignes de sorties à une étiquette "Squeezed text". Ceci est fait automatiquement pour un sortie de plus de N lignes (N = 50 par défaut). N peut être changé dans la section PyShell de la page General de la fenêtre de configuration. Les sorties avec moins de lignes peuvent être réduites par un clic droit sur la sortie. Ceci peut être utile sur des lignes si longues qu'elles ralentissent la navigation.

Les sorties réduites sont étendues sur place en double-cliquant sur l'étiquette Elles peuvent aussi être envoyées au presse-papier ou sur un fenêtre séparée par un clic-droit sur l'étiquette.

Développer des applications tkinter

IDLE est intentionnellement différent de Python standard dans le but de faciliter le développement des programmes tkinter. Saisissez import *tkinter* as tk; root = tk.Tk() avec Python standard, rien n'apparaît. Saisissez la même chose dans IDLE et une fenêtre tk apparaît. En Python standard, il faut également saisir root.update() pour voir la fenêtre. IDLE fait un équivalent mais en arrière-plan, environ 20 fois par seconde, soit environ toutes les 50 millisecondes. Ensuite, saisissez b = tk.Button(root, text='button'); b.pack(). De la même manière, aucun changement n'est visible en Python standard jusqu'à la saisie de root.update().

La plupart des programmes tkinter exécutent root.mainloop(), qui d'habitude ne renvoie pas jusqu'à ce que l'application tk soit détruite. Si le programme est exécuté avec python -i ou depuis un éditeur IDLE, une invite de commande >>> n'apparaît pas tant que mainloop() ne termine pas, c'est-à-dire quand il ne reste plus rien avec lequel interagir.

Avec un programme tkinter exécuté depuis un éditeur IDLE, vous pouvez immédiatement commenter l'appel à mainloop. On a alors accès à une invite de commande et on peut interagir en direct avec l'application. Il faut juste se rappeler de réactiver l'appel à mainloop lors de l'exécution en Python standard.

Exécution sans sous-processus

By default, IDLE executes user code in a separate subprocess via a socket, which uses the internal loopback interface. This connection is not externally visible and no data is sent to or received from the internet. If firewall software complains anyway, you can ignore it.

Si la tentative de connexion par le socket échoue, IDLE vous le notifie. Ce genre d'échec est parfois temporaire, mais s'il persiste, le problème peut soit venir d'un pare-feu qui bloque la connexion ou d'une mauvaise configuration dans un système particulier. Jusqu'à ce que le problème soit résolu, vous pouvez exécuter IDLE avec l'option -n de la ligne de commande.

Si IDLE est démarré avec l'option -n de la ligne de commande, il s'exécute dans un seul processus et ne crée pas de sous-processus pour exécuter le serveur RPC d'exécution de Python. Ceci peut être utile si Python ne peut pas créer de sous-processus ou de connecteur RPC sur votre plateforme. Cependant, dans ce mode, le code de l'utilisateur n'est pas isolé de IDLE lui-même. De plus, l'environnement n'est pas réinitialisé quand Run/Run Module (F5) est sélectionné. Si votre code a été modifié, vous devez reload() les modules affectés et ré-importer tous les éléments spécifiques (e.g. from foo import baz) pour que les changements prennent effet. Pour toutes ces raisons, il est préférable d'exécuter IDLE avec le sous-processus par défaut si c'est possible.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.4.

Help and Preferences

Sources d'aide

L'entrée du menu d'aide "IDLE Help" affiche une version html formatée du chapitre sur IDLE de la Library Reference. Le résultat, dans une fenêtre de texte tkinter en lecture-seule, est proche de ce qu'on voit dans un navigateur. Naviguez dans le texte avec la molette de la souris, la barre de défilement ou avec les touches directionnelles du clavier enfoncées. Ou cliquez sur le bouton TOC (Table of Contents : sommaire) et sélectionnez un titre de section dans l'espace ouvert.

L'entrée du menu d'aide "Python Docs" ouvre les sources d'aide détaillées, incluant des tutoriels, disponibles sur https://docs.python.org/x.y, avec "x.y" la version de Python en cours d'exécution. Si votre système a une copie locale de la documentation (cela peut être une option d'installation), c'est elle qui est ouverte.

Les URL sélectionnées peuvent être ajoutées ou enlevées du menu d'aide à n'importe quel moment en utilisant l'onglet « General » de la fenêtre « Configure IDLE ».

Modifier les préférences

Les préférences de polices, surlignage, touches et les préférences générales peuvent être changées via « Configure IDLE » dans le menu « Options ». Les paramètres modifiés par l'utilisateur sont enregistrés dans un dossier .idlerc dans le dossier personnel de l'utilisateur. Les problèmes causés par des fichiers de configuration utilisateur corrompus sont résolus en modifiant ou en supprimant un ou plusieurs fichiers dans .idlerc.

Dans l'onglet Fonts, regardez les échantillons de texte pour voir l'effet de la police et de la taille sur de multiples caractères de multiples langues. Éditez les échantillons pour ajouter d'autres caractères qui vous intéressent. Utilisez les échantillons pour sélectionner les polices à largeur constante. Si certains caractères posent des difficultés dans la console ou l'éditeur, ajoutez-les en haut des échantillons et essayez de changer d'abord la taille, puis la fonte.

Dans les onglets Highlights et Keys, sélectionnez un ensemble de couleurs et de raccourcis pré-inclus ou personnalisé. Pour utiliser un ensemble de couleurs et de raccourcis récent avec une version d'IDLE plus ancienne, enregistrez-le en tant que nouveau thème ou ensemble de raccourcis personnalisé ; il sera alors accessible aux IDLE plus anciens.

IDLE sous macOS

Dans System Preferences: Dock, on peut mettre "Prefer tabs when opening documents" à la valeur "Always". Ce paramètre n'est pas compatible avec le cadriciel tk/tkinter utilisé par IDLE et il casse quelques fonctionnalités d'IDLE.

Extensions

IDLE inclut un outil d'extensions. Les préférences pour les extensions peuvent être changées avec l'onglet Extensions de la fenêtre de préférences. Lisez le début de config-extensions.def dans le dossier idlelib pour plus d'informations. La seule extension actuellement utilisée par défaut est zzdummy, un exemple également utilisé pour les tests.

idlelib --- implementation of IDLE application

Source code: Lib/idlelib [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/idlelib]

The Lib/idlelib package implements the IDLE application. See the rest of this page for how to use IDLE.

The files in idlelib are described in idlelib/README.txt. Access it either in idlelib or click Help => About IDLE on the IDLE menu. This file also maps IDLE menu items to the code that implements the item. Except for files listed under 'Startup', the idlelib code is 'private' in sense that feature changes can be backported (see PEP 434 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0434/]).

turtle --- Turtle graphics

Code Source : Lib/turtle.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/turtle.py]

Introduction

Turtle graphics is an implementation of the popular geometric drawing tools introduced in Logo [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turtle_(robot)], developed by Wally Feurzeig, Seymour Papert and Cynthia Solomon in 1967.

This is an optional module. If it is missing from your copy of CPython, look for documentation from your distributor (that is, whoever provided Python to you). If you are the distributor, see Requirements for optional modules.

Get started

Imaginez un robot sous forme de tortue partant au centre (0, 0) d'un plan cartésien x-y. Après un import turtle, exécutez la commande turtle.forward(15) et la tortue se déplace (sur l'écran) de 15 pixels en face d'elle, en dessinant une ligne.

Turtle star

La tortue permet de dessiner des formes complexes en utilisant un programme qui répète des actions élémentaires.

In Python, turtle graphics provides a representation of a physical "turtle" (a little robot with a pen) that draws on a sheet of paper on the floor.

It's an effective and well-proven way for learners to encounter programming concepts and interaction with software, as it provides instant, visible feedback. It also provides convenient access to graphical output in general.

Turtle drawing was originally created as an educational tool, to be used by teachers in the classroom. For the programmer who needs to produce some graphical output it can be a way to do that without the overhead of introducing more complex or external libraries into their work.

Tutoriel

New users should start here. In this tutorial we'll explore some of the basics of turtle drawing.

Starting a turtle environment

In a Python shell, import all the objects of the turtle module:

from turtle import *

If you run into a No module named '_tkinter' error, you'll have to install the Tk interface package on your system.

Basic drawing

Send the turtle forward 100 steps:

forward(100)

You should see (most likely, in a new window on your display) a line drawn by the turtle, heading East. Change the direction of the turtle, so that it turns 120 degrees left (anti-clockwise):

left(120)

Let's continue by drawing a triangle:

forward(100)
left(120)
forward(100)

Notice how the turtle, represented by an arrow, points in different directions as you steer it.

Experiment with those commands, and also with backward() and right().

Réglage des stylos

Try changing the color - for example, color('blue') - and width of the line - for example, width(3) - and then drawing again.

You can also move the turtle around without drawing, by lifting up the pen: up() before moving. To start drawing again, use down().

The turtle's position

Send your turtle back to its starting-point (useful if it has disappeared off-screen):

home()

The home position is at the center of the turtle's screen. If you ever need to know them, get the turtle's x-y coordinates with:

pos()

Home is at (0, 0).

And after a while, it will probably help to clear the window so we can start anew:

clearscreen()

Making algorithmic patterns

Using loops, it's possible to build up geometric patterns:

for steps in range(100):
    for c in ('blue', 'red', 'green'):
        color(c)
        forward(steps)
        right(30)

- which of course, are limited only by the imagination!

Let's draw the star shape at the top of this page. We want red lines, filled in with yellow:

color('red')
fillcolor('yellow')

Just as up() and down() determine whether lines will be drawn, filling can be turned on and off:

begin_fill()

Next we'll create a loop:

while True:
    forward(200)
    left(170)
    if abs(pos()) < 1:
        break

abs(pos()) < 1 is a good way to know when the turtle is back at its home position.

Finally, complete the filling:

end_fill()

(Note that filling only actually takes place when you give the end_fill() command.)

How to...

This section covers some typical turtle use-cases and approaches.

Get started as quickly as possible

One of the joys of turtle graphics is the immediate, visual feedback that's available from simple commands - it's an excellent way to introduce children to programming ideas, with a minimum of overhead (not just children, of course).

The turtle module makes this possible by exposing all its basic functionality as functions, available with from turtle import *. The turtle graphics tutorial covers this approach.

It's worth noting that many of the turtle commands also have even more terse equivalents, such as fd() for forward(). These are especially useful when working with learners for whom typing is not a skill.

You'll need to have the Tk interface package installed on your system for turtle graphics to work. Be warned that this is not always straightforward, so check this in advance if you're planning to use turtle graphics with a learner.

Automatically begin and end filling

Starting with Python 3.14, you can use the fill() context manager instead of begin_fill() and end_fill() to automatically begin and end fill. Here is an example:

with fill():
    for i in range(4):
        forward(100)
        right(90)

forward(200)

The code above is equivalent to:

begin_fill()
for i in range(4):
    forward(100)
    right(90)
end_fill()

forward(200)

Use the turtle module namespace

Using from turtle import * is convenient - but be warned that it imports a rather large collection of objects, and if you're doing anything but turtle graphics you run the risk of a name conflict (this becomes even more an issue if you're using turtle graphics in a script where other modules might be imported).

The solution is to use import turtle - fd() becomes turtle.fd(), width() becomes turtle.width() and so on. (If typing "turtle" over and over again becomes tedious, use for example import turtle as t instead.)

Use turtle graphics in a script

It's recommended to use the turtle module namespace as described immediately above, for example:

import turtle as t
from random import random

for i in range(100):
    steps = int(random() * 100)
    angle = int(random() * 360)
    t.right(angle)
    t.fd(steps)

Another step is also required though - as soon as the script ends, Python will also close the turtle's window. Add:

t.mainloop()

to the end of the script. The script will now wait to be dismissed and will not exit until it is terminated, for example by closing the turtle graphics window.

Use object-oriented turtle graphics

Voir aussi

Explanation of the object-oriented interface

Other than for very basic introductory purposes, or for trying things out as quickly as possible, it's more usual and much more powerful to use the object-oriented approach to turtle graphics. For example, this allows multiple turtles on screen at once.

In this approach, the various turtle commands are methods of objects (mostly of Turtle objects). You can use the object-oriented approach in the shell, but it would be more typical in a Python script.

The example above then becomes:

from turtle import Turtle
from random import random

t = Turtle()
for i in range(100):
    steps = int(random() * 100)
    angle = int(random() * 360)
    t.right(angle)
    t.fd(steps)

t.screen.mainloop()

Note the last line. t.screen is an instance of the Screen that a Turtle instance exists on; it's created automatically along with the turtle.

The turtle's screen can be customised, for example:

t.screen.title('Object-oriented turtle demo')
t.screen.bgcolor("orange")

Turtle graphics reference

Note

La liste des paramètres des fonctions est donnée dans cette documentation. Les méthodes ont, évidemment, le paramètre self comme premier argument, mais ce dernier n'est pas indiqué ici.

Les méthodes du module Turtle

Les mouvements dans le module Turtle

Bouger et dessiner

forward() | fd()

backward() | bk() | back()

right() | rt()

left() | lt()

goto() | setpos() | setposition()

teleport()

setx()

sety()

setheading() | seth()

home()

circle()

dot()

stamp()

clearstamp()

clearstamps()

undo()

speed()

Connaître l'état de la tortue

position() | pos()

towards()

xcor()

ycor()

heading()

distance()

Paramétrage et mesure

degrees()

radians()

Réglage des stylos

État des stylos

pendown() | pd() | down()

penup() | pu() | up()

pensize() | width()

pen()

isdown()

Réglage des couleurs

color()

pencolor()

fillcolor()

Remplissage

filling()

fill()

begin_fill()

end_fill()

Plus des réglages pour le dessin

reset()

clear()

write()

État de la tortue

Visibilité

showturtle() | st()

hideturtle() | ht()

isvisible()

Apparence

shape()

resizemode()

shapesize() | turtlesize()

shearfactor()

tiltangle()

tilt()

shapetransform()

get_shapepoly()

Utilisation des événements

onclick()

onrelease()

ondrag()

Méthodes spéciales de la tortue

poly()

begin_poly()

end_poly()

get_poly()

clone()

getturtle() | getpen()

getscreen()

setundobuffer()

undobufferentries()

Méthodes de TurtleScreen/Screen

Réglage de la fenêtre

bgcolor()

bgpic()

clearscreen()

resetscreen()

screensize()

setworldcoordinates()

Réglage de l'animation

no_animation()

delay()

tracer()

update()

Utilisation des événements concernant l'écran

listen()

onkey() | onkeyrelease()

onkeypress()

onclick() | onscreenclick()

ontimer()

mainloop() | done()

Paramétrages et méthodes spéciales

mode()

colormode()

getcanvas()

getshapes()

register_shape() | addshape()

turtles()

window_height()

window_width()

Méthodes de saisie

textinput()

numinput()

Méthodes spécifiques de Screen

bye()

exitonclick()

save()

setup()

title()

Méthodes de RawTurtle/Turtle et leurs fonctions correspondantes

La plupart des exemples de cette section se réfèrent à une instance de Turtle appelée turtle.

Les mouvements dans le module Turtle

turtle.forward(distance)

turtle.fd(distance)

Paramètres:

distance -- un nombre (entier ou flottant)

Avance la tortue de la distance spécifiée, dans la direction où elle se dirige.

>>> turtle.position()
(0.00,0.00)
>>> turtle.forward(25)
>>> turtle.position()
(25.00,0.00)
>>> turtle.forward(-75)
>>> turtle.position()
(-50.00,0.00)

turtle.back(distance)

turtle.bk(distance)

turtle.backward(distance)

Paramètres:

distance -- un nombre

Déplace la tortue de distance vers l'arrière (dans le sens opposé à celui vers lequel elle pointe). Ne change pas le cap de la tortue.

>>> turtle.position()
(0.00,0.00)
>>> turtle.backward(30)
>>> turtle.position()
(-30.00,0.00)

turtle.right(angle)

turtle.rt(angle)

Paramètres:

angle -- un nombre (entier ou flottant)

Tourne la tortue à droite de angle unités (les unités sont par défaut des degrés, mais peuvent être définies via les fonctions degrees() et radians()). L'orientation de l'angle dépend du mode de la tortue, voir mode().

>>> turtle.heading()
22.0
>>> turtle.right(45)
>>> turtle.heading()
337.0

turtle.left(angle)

turtle.lt(angle)

Paramètres:

angle -- un nombre (entier ou flottant)

Tourne la tortue à gauche d'une valeur de angle unités (les unités sont par défaut des degrés, mais peuvent être définies via les fonctions degrees() et radians()). L'orientation de l'angle dépend du mode de la tortue, voir mode().

>>> turtle.heading()
22.0
>>> turtle.left(45)
>>> turtle.heading()
67.0

turtle.goto(x, y=None)

turtle.setpos(x, y=None)

turtle.setposition(x, y=None)

Paramètres:

x -- un nombre ou une paire / un vecteur de nombres

y -- un nombre ou None

Si y est None, x doit être une paire de coordonnées, ou bien une instance de Vec2D (par exemple, tel que renvoyé par pos()).

Déplace la tortue vers une position absolue. Si le stylo est en bas, trace une ligne. Ne change pas l'orientation de la tortue.

>>> tp = turtle.pos()
>>> tp
(0.00,0.00)
>>> turtle.setpos(60,30)
>>> turtle.pos()
(60.00,30.00)
>>> turtle.setpos((20,80))
>>> turtle.pos()
(20.00,80.00)
>>> turtle.setpos(tp)
>>> turtle.pos()
(0.00,0.00)

turtle.teleport(x, y=None, *, fill_gap=False)

Paramètres:

x -- un nombre ou None

y -- un nombre ou None

fill_gap -- a boolean

Move turtle to an absolute position. Unlike goto(x, y), a line will not be drawn. The turtle's orientation does not change. If currently filling, the polygon(s) teleported from will be filled after leaving, and filling will begin again after teleporting. This can be disabled with fill_gap=True, which makes the imaginary line traveled during teleporting act as a fill barrier like in goto(x, y).

>>> tp = turtle.pos()
>>> tp
(0.00,0.00)
>>> turtle.teleport(60)
>>> turtle.pos()
(60.00,0.00)
>>> turtle.teleport(y=10)
>>> turtle.pos()
(60.00,10.00)
>>> turtle.teleport(20, 30)
>>> turtle.pos()
(20.00,30.00)

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

turtle.setx(x)

Paramètres:

x -- un nombre (entier ou flottant)

Définit la première coordonnée de la tortue à x, en laissant la deuxième coordonnée inchangée.

>>> turtle.position()
(0.00,240.00)
>>> turtle.setx(10)
>>> turtle.position()
(10.00,240.00)

turtle.sety(y)

Paramètres:

y -- un nombre (entier ou flottant)

Définit la deuxième coordonnée de la tortue à y, en laissant la première coordonnée inchangée.

>>> turtle.position()
(0.00,40.00)
>>> turtle.sety(-10)
>>> turtle.position()
(0.00,-10.00)

turtle.setheading(to_angle)

turtle.seth(to_angle)

Paramètres:

to_angle -- un nombre (entier ou flottant)

Règle l'orientation de la tortue à la valeur to_angle. Voici quelques orientations courantes en degrés :

mode standard

mode logo

0 – Est

0 – Nord

90 – Nord

90 – Est

180 – Ouest

180 – Sud

270 – Sud

270 – Ouest

>>> turtle.setheading(90)
>>> turtle.heading()
90.0

turtle.home()

Déplace la tortue à l'origine — coordonnées (0,0) — et l'oriente à son cap initial (qui dépend du mode, voir mode()).

>>> turtle.heading()
90.0
>>> turtle.position()
(0.00,-10.00)
>>> turtle.home()
>>> turtle.position()
(0.00,0.00)
>>> turtle.heading()
0.0

turtle.circle(radius, extent=None, steps=None)

Paramètres:

radius -- un nombre

extent -- un nombre (ou None)

steps -- un entier (ou None)

Dessine un cercle de rayon radius. Le centre se trouve à une distance de radius à gauche de la tortue ; l'angle extent détermine quelle partie du cercle est dessinée. Si extent n'est pas fourni, dessine le cercle en entier. Si extent ne correspond pas à un cercle entier, la position actuelle du stylo est donnée par l'un des points d'extrémité de l'arc de cercle. Si la valeur de radius est positive, dessine l'arc de cercle dans le sens inverse des aiguilles d'une montre, sinon le dessine dans le sens des aiguilles d'une montre. Enfin, la direction de la tortue peut être modifiée en réglant la valeur de extent.

Comme le cercle est approximé par un polygone régulier inscrit, steps détermine le nombre de pas à utiliser. Si cette valeur n'est pas donnée, elle sera calculée automatiquement. Elle peut être utilisée pour dessiner des polygones réguliers.

>>> turtle.home()
>>> turtle.position()
(0.00,0.00)
>>> turtle.heading()
0.0
>>> turtle.circle(50)
>>> turtle.position()
(-0.00,0.00)
>>> turtle.heading()
0.0
>>> turtle.circle(120, 180)  # draw a semicircle
>>> turtle.position()
(0.00,240.00)
>>> turtle.heading()
180.0

turtle.dot()

turtle.dot(size)

turtle.dot(color, /)

turtle.dot(size, color, /)

turtle.dot(size, r, g, b, /)

Paramètres:

size -- un entier supérieur ou égal à 1 (si fourni)

color -- une chaîne qui désigne une couleur ou un triplet de couleur numérique

Draw a circular dot with diameter size, using color. If size is not given, the maximum of pensize+4 and 2*pensize is used.

>>> turtle.home()
>>> turtle.dot()
>>> turtle.fd(50); turtle.dot(20, "blue"); turtle.fd(50)
>>> turtle.position()
(100.00,-0.00)
>>> turtle.heading()
0.0

turtle.stamp()

Tamponne une copie de la forme de la tortue sur le canevas à la position actuelle de la tortue. Renvoie un stamp_id pour ce tampon, qui peut être utilisé pour le supprimer en appelant clearstamp(stamp_id).

>>> turtle.color("blue")
>>> stamp_id = turtle.stamp()
>>> turtle.fd(50)

turtle.clearstamp(stampid)

Paramètres:

stampid -- un entier, doit être la valeur renvoyée par l'appel précédent de stamp()

Supprime le tampon dont le stampid est donné.

>>> turtle.position()
(150.00,-0.00)
>>> turtle.color("blue")
>>> astamp = turtle.stamp()
>>> turtle.fd(50)
>>> turtle.position()
(200.00,-0.00)
>>> turtle.clearstamp(astamp)
>>> turtle.position()
(200.00,-0.00)

turtle.clearstamps(n=None)

Paramètres:

n -- un entier (ou None)

Supprime tous, les n premiers ou les n derniers tampons de la tortue. Si n est None, supprime tous les tampons, si n > 0, supprime les n premiers tampons et si n < 0, supprime les n derniers tampons.

>>> for i in range(8):
...     unused_stamp_id = turtle.stamp()
...     turtle.fd(30)
>>> turtle.clearstamps(2)
>>> turtle.clearstamps(-2)
>>> turtle.clearstamps()

turtle.undo()

Annule la ou les dernières (si répété) actions de la tortue. Le nombre d'annulations disponible est déterminé par la taille de la mémoire tampon d'annulations.

>>> for i in range(4):
...     turtle.fd(50); turtle.lt(80)
...
>>> for i in range(8):
...     turtle.undo()

turtle.speed(speed=None)

Paramètres:

speed -- un nombre entier compris dans l’intervalle entre 0 et 10 inclus, ou une chaîne de vitesse (voir ci-dessous)

Règle la vitesse de la tortue à une valeur entière comprise entre 0 et 10 inclus. Si aucun argument n'est donné, renvoie la vitesse actuelle.

Si l'entrée est un nombre supérieur à 10 ou inférieur à 0,5, la vitesse est fixée à 0. Les chaînes de vitesse sont mises en correspondance avec les valeurs de vitesse comme suit :

"fastest" : 0

"fast" : 10

"normal" : 6

"slow" : 3

"slowest" : 1

Les vitesses de 1 à 10 permettent une animation de plus en plus rapide du trait du dessin et de la rotation des tortues.

Attention : speed = 0 signifie qu'il n'y a aucune animation. forward/back font sauter la tortue et, de même, left/right font tourner la tortue instantanément.

>>> turtle.speed()
3
>>> turtle.speed('normal')
>>> turtle.speed()
6
>>> turtle.speed(9)
>>> turtle.speed()
9

Connaître l'état de la tortue

turtle.position()

turtle.pos()

Renvoie la position actuelle de la tortue (x,y) (en tant qu'un vecteur Vec2d).

>>> turtle.pos()
(440.00,-0.00)

turtle.towards(x, y=None)

Paramètres:

x -- un nombre, ou une paire / un vecteur de nombres, ou une instance de tortue

y -- un nombre si x est un nombre, sinon None

Renvoie l'angle entre l'orientation d'origine et la ligne formée de la position de la tortue à la position spécifiée par (x,y), le vecteur ou l'autre tortue. L'orientation d'origine dépend du mode — "standard"/"world" ou "logo".

>>> turtle.goto(10, 10)
>>> turtle.towards(0,0)
225.0

turtle.xcor()

Renvoie la coordonnée x de la tortue.

>>> turtle.home()
>>> turtle.left(50)
>>> turtle.forward(100)
>>> turtle.pos()
(64.28,76.60)
>>> print(round(turtle.xcor(), 5))
64.27876

turtle.ycor()

Renvoie la coordonnée y de la tortue.

>>> turtle.home()
>>> turtle.left(60)
>>> turtle.forward(100)
>>> print(turtle.pos())
(50.00,86.60)
>>> print(round(turtle.ycor(), 5))
86.60254

turtle.heading()

Renvoie le cap de la tortue (la valeur dépend du mode de la tortue, voir mode()).

>>> turtle.home()
>>> turtle.left(67)
>>> turtle.heading()
67.0

turtle.distance(x, y=None)

Paramètres:

x -- un nombre, ou une paire / un vecteur de nombres, ou une instance de tortue

y -- un nombre si x est un nombre, sinon None

Renvoie la distance entre la tortue et (x,y), le vecteur donné ou l'autre tortue donnée. La valeur est exprimée en unités de pas de tortue.

>>> turtle.home()
>>> turtle.distance(30,40)
50.0
>>> turtle.distance((30,40))
50.0
>>> joe = Turtle()
>>> joe.forward(77)
>>> turtle.distance(joe)
77.0

Paramètres de mesure

turtle.degrees(fullcircle=360.0)

Paramètres:

fullcircle -- un nombre

Définit les unités de mesure des angles, c.-à-d. fixe le nombre de « degrés » pour un cercle complet. La valeur par défaut est de 360 degrés.

>>> turtle.home()
>>> turtle.left(90)
>>> turtle.heading()
90.0

>>> # Change angle measurement unit to grad (also known as gon,
>>> # grade, or gradian and equals 1/100-th of the right angle.)
>>> turtle.degrees(400.0)
>>> turtle.heading()
100.0
>>> turtle.degrees(360)
>>> turtle.heading()
90.0

turtle.radians()

Règle l'unité de mesure des angles sur radians. Équivalent à degrees(2*math.pi).

>>> turtle.home()
>>> turtle.left(90)
>>> turtle.heading()
90.0
>>> turtle.radians()
>>> turtle.heading()
1.5707963267948966

Réglage des stylos

État des stylos

turtle.pendown()

turtle.pd()

turtle.down()

Baisse la pointe du stylo — dessine quand il se déplace.

turtle.penup()

turtle.pu()

turtle.up()

Lève la pointe du stylo — pas de dessin quand il se déplace.

turtle.pensize(width=None)

turtle.width(width=None)

Paramètres:

width -- un nombre positif

Règle l'épaisseur de la ligne à width ou la renvoie. Si resizemode est défini à "auto" et que turtleshape (la forme de la tortue) est un polygone, le polygone est dessiné avec cette épaisseur. Si aucun argument n'est passé, la taille actuelle du stylo (pensize) est renvoyée.

>>> turtle.pensize()
1
>>> turtle.pensize(10)   # from here on lines of width 10 are drawn

turtle.pen(pen=None, **pendict)

Paramètres:

pen -- un dictionnaire avec certaines ou toutes les clés énumérées ci-dessous

pendict -- un ou plusieurs arguments par mots-clés avec les clés suivantes comme mots-clés

Renvoie ou définit les attributs du stylo dans un "pen-dictionary" avec les paires clés / valeurs suivantes :

"shown" : True / False

"pendown" : True / False

"pencolor" : chaîne de caractères ou triplet désignant la couleur du stylo

"fillcolor" : chaîne de caractères ou triplet pour la couleur de remplissage

"pensize" : nombre positif

"speed" : nombre compris dans intervalle 0 et 10

"resizemode" : "auto", "user" ou "noresize"

"stretchfactor" : (nombre positif, nombre positif)

"outline" : nombre positif

"tilt" : nombre

Ce dictionnaire peut être utilisé comme argument pour un appel ultérieur à pen() pour restaurer l'ancien état du stylo. En outre, un ou plus de ces attributs peuvent est passés en tant qu'arguments nommés. Cela peut être utilisé pour définir plusieurs attributs du stylo en une instruction.

>>> turtle.pen(fillcolor="black", pencolor="red", pensize=10)
>>> sorted(turtle.pen().items())
[('fillcolor', 'black'), ('outline', 1), ('pencolor', 'red'),
 ('pendown', True), ('pensize', 10), ('resizemode', 'noresize'),
 ('shearfactor', 0.0), ('shown', True), ('speed', 9),
 ('stretchfactor', (1.0, 1.0)), ('tilt', 0.0)]
>>> penstate=turtle.pen()
>>> turtle.color("yellow", "")
>>> turtle.penup()
>>> sorted(turtle.pen().items())[:3]
[('fillcolor', ''), ('outline', 1), ('pencolor', 'yellow')]
>>> turtle.pen(penstate, fillcolor="green")
>>> sorted(turtle.pen().items())[:3]
[('fillcolor', 'green'), ('outline', 1), ('pencolor', 'red')]

turtle.isdown()

Renvoie True si la pointe du stylo est en bas et False si elle est en haut.

>>> turtle.penup()
>>> turtle.isdown()
False
>>> turtle.pendown()
>>> turtle.isdown()
True

Réglage des couleurs

turtle.pencolor()

turtle.pencolor(color, /)

turtle.pencolor(r, g, b, /)

Renvoie ou règle la couleur du stylo.

Quatre formats d'entrée sont autorisés :

pencolor()

Return the current pencolor as color specification string or as a tuple (see example). May be used as input to another color/pencolor/fillcolor/bgcolor call.

pencolor(colorstring)

Définit la couleur du stylo à colorstring, qui est une chaîne de spécification de couleur Tk, telle que "red", "yellow", ou "#33cc8c".

pencolor((r, g, b))

Définit la couleur du stylo à la couleur RGB représentée par le n-uplet de r, g et b. Chacun des r, g et b doit être dans l'intervalle 0..colormode, où colormode est vaut 1.0 ou 255 (voir colormode()).

pencolor(r, g, b)

Définit la couleur du stylo à la couleur RGB représentée par r, g et b. Chacun des r, g et b doit être dans l'intervalle 0..colormode.

Si la forme de la tortue est un polygone, le contour de ce polygone est dessiné avec la nouvelle couleur du stylo.

>>> colormode()
1.0
>>> turtle.pencolor()
'red'
>>> turtle.pencolor("brown")
>>> turtle.pencolor()
'brown'
>>> tup = (0.2, 0.8, 0.55)
>>> turtle.pencolor(tup)
>>> turtle.pencolor()
(0.2, 0.8, 0.5490196078431373)
>>> colormode(255)
>>> turtle.pencolor()
(51.0, 204.0, 140.0)
>>> turtle.pencolor('#32c18f')
>>> turtle.pencolor()
(50.0, 193.0, 143.0)

turtle.fillcolor()

turtle.fillcolor(color, /)

turtle.fillcolor(r, g, b, /)

Renvoie ou règle la couleur de remplissage.

Quatre formats d'entrée sont autorisés :

fillcolor()

Return the current fillcolor as color specification string, possibly in tuple format (see example). May be used as input to another color/pencolor/fillcolor/bgcolor call.

fillcolor(colorstring)

Définit la couleur de remplissage (fillcolor) à colorstring, qui est une chaine de spécification de couleur Tk comme par exemple "red", "yellow" ou "#33cc8c".

fillcolor((r, g, b))

Définit la couleur du remplissage (fillcolor) à la couleur RGB représentée par le n-uplet r, g, b. Chacun des r, g et b doit être dans l'intervalle 0..colormode où colormode vaut 1.0 ou 255 (voir colormode()).

fillcolor(r, g, b)

Définit la couleur du remplissage(fillcolor) à la couleur RGB représentée par r, g et b. Chacun des r, g et b doit être dans l'intervalle 0..colormode.

Si la forme de la tortue est un polygone, l'intérieur de ce polygone sera dessiné avec la nouvelle couleur de remplissage.

>>> turtle.fillcolor("violet")
>>> turtle.fillcolor()
'violet'
>>> turtle.pencolor()
(50.0, 193.0, 143.0)
>>> turtle.fillcolor((50, 193, 143))  # Integers, not floats
>>> turtle.fillcolor()
(50.0, 193.0, 143.0)
>>> turtle.fillcolor('#ffffff')
>>> turtle.fillcolor()
(255.0, 255.0, 255.0)

turtle.color()

turtle.color(color, /)

turtle.color(r, g, b, /)

turtle.color(pencolor, fillcolor, /)

Renvoie ou règle la couleur du stylo et la couleur de remplissage.

Plusieurs formats d'entrée sont autorisés. Ils peuvent avoir de zéro jusqu'à trois arguments, employés comme suit :

color()

Renvoie la couleur du stylo actuelle et la couleur de remplissage actuelle sous forme de paire, soit de chaines de spécification de couleur, soit de n-uplets comme renvoyés par pencolor() et fillcolor().

color(colorstring), color((r,g,b)), color(r,g,b)

Les formats d'entrée sont comme dans pencolor(). Définit à la fois la couleur de remplissage et la couleur du stylo à la valeur passée.

color(colorstring1, colorstring2), color((r1,g1,b1), (r2,g2,b2))

Équivalent à pencolor(colorstring1) et fillcolor(colorstring2) et de manière analogue si un autre format d'entrée est utilisé.

Si la forme de la tortue est un polygone, le contour et l'intérieur de ce polygone sont dessinés avec les nouvelles couleurs.

>>> turtle.color("red", "green")
>>> turtle.color()
('red', 'green')
>>> color("#285078", "#a0c8f0")
>>> color()
((40.0, 80.0, 120.0), (160.0, 200.0, 240.0))

Voir aussi : la méthode colormode() de Screen.

Remplissage

turtle.filling()

Renvoie l'état de remplissage (True signifie en train de faire un remplissage, False sinon).

>>> turtle.begin_fill()
>>> if turtle.filling():
...    turtle.pensize(5)
... else:
...    turtle.pensize(3)

turtle.fill()

Fill the shape drawn in the with turtle.fill(): block.

>>> turtle.color("black", "red")
>>> with turtle.fill():
...     turtle.circle(80)

Using fill() is equivalent to adding the begin_fill() before the fill-block and end_fill() after the fill-block:

>>> turtle.color("black", "red")
>>> turtle.begin_fill()
>>> turtle.circle(80)
>>> turtle.end_fill()

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

turtle.begin_fill()

À appeler juste avant de dessiner une forme à remplir.

turtle.end_fill()

Remplit la forme dessinée après le dernier appel à begin_fill().

Le remplissage correct des formes complexes (polygones qui se recoupent, plusieurs formes) dépend des primitives graphiques du système d’exploitation, du type et du nombre des chevauchements. Par exemple, l'étoile (Turtle star en anglais) ci-dessus peut être entièrement jaune ou comporter quelques régions blanches.

>>> turtle.color("black", "red")
>>> turtle.begin_fill()
>>> turtle.circle(80)
>>> turtle.end_fill()

Plus des réglages pour le dessin

turtle.reset()

Supprime les dessins de la tortue de l'écran, recentre la tortue et assigne les variables aux valeurs par défaut.

>>> turtle.goto(0,-22)
>>> turtle.left(100)
>>> turtle.position()
(0.00,-22.00)
>>> turtle.heading()
100.0
>>> turtle.reset()
>>> turtle.position()
(0.00,0.00)
>>> turtle.heading()
0.0

turtle.clear()

Supprime les dessins de la tortue de l'écran. Ne déplace pas la tortue. L'état et la position de la tortue ainsi que les dessins des autres tortues ne sont pas affectés.

turtle.write(arg, move=False, align='left', font=('Arial', 8, 'normal'))

Paramètres:

arg -- objet à écrire sur le TurtleScreen

move -- True / False

align -- l'une des chaînes de caractères suivantes : "left", "center" ou "right"

font -- triplet (nom de police, taille de police, type de police)

Écrit du texte - La représentation de la chaîne arg - à la position actuelle de la tortue conformément à align ("left", "center" ou "right") et en police donnée. Si move est True, le stylo est déplacé vers le coin inférieur droit du texte. Par défaut, move est False.

>>> turtle.write("Home = ", True, align="center")
>>> turtle.write((0,0), True)

État de la tortue

Visibilité

turtle.hideturtle()

turtle.ht()

Rend la tortue invisible. C'est recommandé lorsque vous êtes en train de faire un dessin complexe, vous observerez alors une accélération notable.

>>> turtle.hideturtle()

turtle.showturtle()

turtle.st()

Rend la tortue visible.

>>> turtle.showturtle()

turtle.isvisible()

Renvoie True si la tortue est visible, et False si elle est cachée.

>>> turtle.hideturtle()
>>> turtle.isvisible()
False
>>> turtle.showturtle()
>>> turtle.isvisible()
True

Apparence

turtle.shape(name=None)

Paramètres:

name -- une chaîne de caractères qui correspond à un nom de forme valide

La tortue prend la forme name donnée, ou, si name n'est pas donné, renvoie le nom de la forme actuelle. Le nom name donné doit exister dans le dictionnaire de formes de TurtleScreen. Initialement, il y a les polygones suivants : "arrow", "turtle", "circle", "square", "triangle", "classic". Pour en apprendre plus sur comment gérer les formes, voir la méthode de Screen register_shape().

>>> turtle.shape()
'classic'
>>> turtle.shape("turtle")
>>> turtle.shape()
'turtle'

turtle.resizemode(rmode=None)

Paramètres:

rmode -- l'une des chaînes suivantes : "auto", "user", "noresize"

Définit resizemode à l'une des valeurs suivantes : "auto", "user", "noresize". Si "rmode" n'est pas donné, renvoie le resizemode actuel. Les différents resizemode ont les effets suivants :

"auto" : adapte l'apparence de la tortue en fonction de la largeur du stylo (value of pensize en anglais).

"user" : adapte l'apparence de la tortue en fonction des valeurs du paramètre d'étirement et de la largeur des contours, déterminés par shapesize().

"noresize" : il n'y a pas de modification de l'apparence de la tortue.

resizemode("user") est appelé par shapesize() quand utilisé sans arguments.

>>> turtle.resizemode()
'noresize'
>>> turtle.resizemode("auto")
>>> turtle.resizemode()
'auto'

turtle.shapesize(stretch_wid=None, stretch_len=None, outline=None)

turtle.turtlesize(stretch_wid=None, stretch_len=None, outline=None)

Paramètres:

stretch_wid -- nombre positif

stretch_len -- nombre positif

outline -- nombre positif

Return or set the pen's attributes x/y-stretchfactors and/or outline. Set resizemode to "user". If and only if resizemode is set to "user", the turtle will be displayed stretched according to its stretchfactors: stretch_wid is stretchfactor perpendicular to its orientation, stretch_len is stretchfactor in direction of its orientation, outline determines the width of the shape's outline.

>>> turtle.shapesize()
(1.0, 1.0, 1)
>>> turtle.resizemode("user")
>>> turtle.shapesize(5, 5, 12)
>>> turtle.shapesize()
(5, 5, 12)
>>> turtle.shapesize(outline=8)
>>> turtle.shapesize()
(5, 5, 8)

turtle.shearfactor(shear=None)

Paramètres:

shear -- un nombre (facultatif)

Définit ou renvoie le paramétrage de cisaillement actuel. Déforme la tortue en fonction du paramètre shear donné, qui est la tangente de l'angle de cisaillement. Ne change pas le sens de déplacement de la tortue. Si le paramètre shear n'est pas indiqué, renvoie la valeur actuelle du cisaillement, c.-à-d. la valeur de la tangente de l'angle de cisaillement, celui par rapport auquel les lignes parallèles à la direction de la tortue sont cisaillées.

>>> turtle.shape("circle")
>>> turtle.shapesize(5,2)
>>> turtle.shearfactor(0.5)
>>> turtle.shearfactor()
0.5

turtle.tilt(angle)

Paramètres:

angle -- un nombre

Tourne la forme de la tortue de angle depuis son angle d'inclinaison actuel, mais ne change pas le cap de la tortue (direction du mouvement).

>>> turtle.reset()
>>> turtle.shape("circle")
>>> turtle.shapesize(5,2)
>>> turtle.tilt(30)
>>> turtle.fd(50)
>>> turtle.tilt(30)
>>> turtle.fd(50)

turtle.tiltangle(angle=None)

Paramètres:

angle -- un nombre (facultatif)

Définit ou renvoie l'angle d'inclinaison actuel. Si l'angle est donné, la forme de la tortue est tournée pour pointer dans direction spécifiée par l'angle, indépendamment de son angle d'inclinaison actuel. Ne change pas le cap de la tortue (direction du mouvement). Si l'angle n'est pas donné, renvoie l'angle d'inclinaison actuel (L'angle entre l'orientation de la forme de la tortue et le cap de la tortue (sa direction de mouvement)).

>>> turtle.reset()
>>> turtle.shape("circle")
>>> turtle.shapesize(5,2)
>>> turtle.tilt(45)
>>> turtle.tiltangle()
45.0

turtle.shapetransform(t11=None, t12=None, t21=None, t22=None)

Paramètres:

t11 -- un nombre (facultatif)

t12 -- un nombre (facultatif)

t21 -- un nombre (facultatif)

t12 -- un nombre (facultatif)

Définit ou renvoie la matrice de transformation actuelle de la forme de la tortue.

Si aucun élément de la matrice n'est fourni, renvoie la matrice de transformation sous la forme d'un n-uplet à 4 éléments. Autrement, définit les éléments donnés et transforme la forme de la tortue conformément à la matrice dont la première ligne est t11, t12 et la deuxième ligne t21, t22. Le déterminant t11 * t22 - t12 * t21 ne doit pas être nul, sinon une erreur est levée. Cela modifie le facteur d'étirement, le facteur de cisaillement et l'angle d'inclinaison en fonction de la matrice donnée.

>>> turtle = Turtle()
>>> turtle.shape("square")
>>> turtle.shapesize(4,2)
>>> turtle.shearfactor(-0.5)
>>> turtle.shapetransform()
(4.0, -1.0, -0.0, 2.0)

turtle.get_shapepoly()

Renvoie la forme actuelle du polygone en n-uplet de paires de coordonnées. Vous pouvez l'utiliser afin de définir une nouvelle forme ou en tant que composant pour une forme plus complexe.

>>> turtle.shape("square")
>>> turtle.shapetransform(4, -1, 0, 2)
>>> turtle.get_shapepoly()
((50, -20), (30, 20), (-50, 20), (-30, -20))

Utilisation des événements

turtle.onclick(fun, btn=1, add=None)

Paramètres:

fun -- une fonction à deux arguments qui sera appelée avec les coordonnées du point cliqué sur le canevas

btn -- numéro du bouton de la souris, par défaut 1 (bouton de gauche)

add -- True ou False — si True, un nouveau lien est ajouté, sinon il remplace un ancien lien

Crée un lien vers fun pour les événements de clics de la souris sur cette tortue. Si fun est None, les liens existants sont supprimés. Exemple pour la tortue anonyme, c'est-à-dire la manière procédurale :

>>> def turn(x, y):
...     left(180)
...
>>> onclick(turn)  # Now clicking into the turtle will turn it.
>>> onclick(None)  # event-binding will be removed

turtle.onrelease(fun, btn=1, add=None)

Paramètres:

fun -- une fonction à deux arguments qui sera appelée avec les coordonnées du point cliqué sur le canevas

btn -- numéro du bouton de la souris, par défaut 1 (bouton de gauche)

add -- True ou False — si True, un nouveau lien est ajouté, sinon il remplace un ancien lien

Crée un lien vers fun pour les événements de relâchement d'un clic de la souris sur cette tortue. Si fun est None, les liens existants sont supprimés.

>>> class MyTurtle(Turtle):
...     def glow(self,x,y):
...         self.fillcolor("red")
...     def unglow(self,x,y):
...         self.fillcolor("")
...
>>> turtle = MyTurtle()
>>> turtle.onclick(turtle.glow)     # clicking on turtle turns fillcolor red,
>>> turtle.onrelease(turtle.unglow) # releasing turns it to transparent.

turtle.ondrag(fun, btn=1, add=None)

Paramètres:

fun -- une fonction à deux arguments qui sera appelée avec les coordonnées du point cliqué sur le canevas

btn -- numéro du bouton de la souris, par défaut 1 (bouton de gauche)

add -- True ou False — si True, un nouveau lien est ajouté, sinon il remplace un ancien lien

Crée un lien vers fun pour les événements de mouvement de la souris sur cette tortue. Si fun est None, les liens existants sont supprimés.

Remarque : toutes les séquences d'événements de mouvement de la souris sur une tortue sont précédées par un événement de clic de la souris sur cette tortue.

>>> turtle.ondrag(turtle.goto)

Par la suite, un cliquer-glisser sur la tortue la fait se déplacer au travers de l'écran, produisant ainsi des dessins « à la main » (si le stylo est posé).

Méthodes spéciales de la tortue

turtle.poly()

Record the vertices of a polygon drawn in the with turtle.poly(): block. The first and last vertices will be connected.

>>> with turtle.poly():
...     turtle.forward(100)
...     turtle.right(60)
...     turtle.forward(100)

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

turtle.begin_poly()

Démarre l'enregistrement des sommets d'un polygone. La position actuelle de la tortue est le premier sommet du polygone.

turtle.end_poly()

Arrête l'enregistrement des sommets d'un polygone. La position actuelle de la tortue sera le dernier sommet du polygone. Il sera connecté au premier sommet.

turtle.get_poly()

Renvoie le dernier polygone sauvegardé.

>>> turtle.home()
>>> turtle.begin_poly()
>>> turtle.fd(100)
>>> turtle.left(20)
>>> turtle.fd(30)
>>> turtle.left(60)
>>> turtle.fd(50)
>>> turtle.end_poly()
>>> p = turtle.get_poly()
>>> register_shape("myFavouriteShape", p)

turtle.clone()

Crée et renvoie un clone de la tortue avec les mêmes position, cap et propriétés.

>>> mick = Turtle()
>>> joe = mick.clone()

turtle.getturtle()

turtle.getpen()

Renvoie l'objet Turtle lui-même. Sa seule utilisation : comme fonction pour renvoyer la "tortue anonyme" :

>>> pet = getturtle()
>>> pet.fd(50)
>>> pet
<turtle.Turtle object at 0x...>

turtle.getscreen()

Renvoie l'objet TurtleScreen sur lequel la tortue dessine. Les méthodes de TurtleScreen peuvent être appelées pour cet objet.

>>> ts = turtle.getscreen()
>>> ts
<turtle._Screen object at 0x...>
>>> ts.bgcolor("pink")

turtle.setundobuffer(size)

Paramètres:

size -- un entier ou None

Définit ou désactive la mémoire d'annulation. Si size est un entier, une mémoire d'annulation de la taille donnée est installée. size donne le nombre maximum d'actions de la tortue qui peuvent être annulées par la fonction/méthode undo(). Si size est None, la mémoire d'annulation est désactivée.

>>> turtle.setundobuffer(42)

turtle.undobufferentries()

Renvoie le nombre d'entrées dans la mémoire d'annulation.

>>> while undobufferentries():
...     undo()

Formes composées

Pour utiliser des formes de tortues combinées, qui sont composées de polygones de différentes couleurs, vous devez utiliser la classe utilitaire Shape explicitement comme décrit ci-dessous :

Créez un objet Shape vide de type "compound".

Add as many components to this object as desired, using the addcomponent() method.

Par exemple :

>>> s = Shape("compound")
>>> poly1 = ((0,0),(10,-5),(0,10),(-10,-5))
>>> s.addcomponent(poly1, "red", "blue")
>>> poly2 = ((0,0),(10,-5),(-10,-5))
>>> s.addcomponent(poly2, "blue", "red")

Maintenant ajoutez la Shape à la liste des formes de Screen et utilisez la :

>>> register_shape("myshape", s)
>>> shape("myshape")

Note

La classe Shape est utilisée en interne par la méthode register_shape() de différentes façons. Le développeur n'interagit avec la classe Shape que lorsqu'il utilise des formes composées comme montré ci-dessus !

Méthodes de TurtleScreen/Screen et leurs fonctions correspondantes

La plupart des exemples dans cette section font référence à une instance de TurtleScreen appelée screen.

Réglage de la fenêtre

turtle.bgcolor()

turtle.bgcolor(color, /)

turtle.bgcolor(r, g, b, /)

Return or set the background color of the TurtleScreen.

Quatre formats d'entrée sont autorisés :

bgcolor()

Return the current background color as color specification string or as a tuple (see example). May be used as input to another color/pencolor/fillcolor/bgcolor call.

bgcolor(colorstring)

Set the background color to colorstring, which is a Tk color specification string, such as "red", "yellow", or "#33cc8c".

bgcolor((r, g, b))

Set the background color to the RGB color represented by the tuple of r, g, and b. Each of r, g, and b must be in the range 0..colormode, where colormode is either 1.0 or 255 (see colormode()).

bgcolor(r, g, b)

Set the background color to the RGB color represented by r, g, and b. Each of r, g, and b must be in the range 0..colormode.

>>> screen.bgcolor("orange")
>>> screen.bgcolor()
'orange'
>>> screen.bgcolor("#800080")
>>> screen.bgcolor()
(128.0, 0.0, 128.0)

turtle.bgpic(picname=None)

Paramètres:

picname -- a string, name of an image file (PNG, GIF, PGM, and PPM) or "nopic", or None

Définit l'image de fond ou renvoie l'image de fond actuelle. Si picname est un nom de fichier, cette image et mis en image de fond. Si picname est "nopic", l'image de fond sera supprimée si présente. SI picname est None, le nom du fichier de l'image de fond actuelle est renvoyé.

>>> screen.bgpic()
'nopic'
>>> screen.bgpic("landscape.gif")
>>> screen.bgpic()
"landscape.gif"

turtle.clear()

Note

Cette méthode TurtleScreen est disponible en tant que fonction globale seulement sous le nom clearscreen. La fonction globale clear est une fonction différente dérivée de la méthode Turtle clear.

turtle.clearscreen()

Supprime tous les dessins et toutes les tortues du TurtleScreen. Réinitialise le TurtleScreen maintenant vide à son état initial : fond blanc, pas d'image de fond, pas d'événement liés, et traçage activé.

turtle.reset()

Note

Cette méthode TurtleScreen est disponible en tant que fonction globale seulement sous le nom resetscreen. La fonction globale reset est une fonction différente dérivée de la méthode Turtle reset.

turtle.resetscreen()

Remet toutes les tortues à l'écran dans leur état initial.

turtle.screensize(canvwidth=None, canvheight=None, bg=None)

Paramètres:

canvwidth -- nombre entier positif, nouvelle largeur du canevas (zone sur laquelle se déplace la tortue), en pixels

canvheight -- nombre entier positif, nouvelle hauteur du canevas, en pixels

bg -- chaîne de caractères indiquant la couleur ou triplet de couleurs, nouvelle couleur de fond

Si aucun arguments ne sont passés, renvoie l'actuel (canvaswidth, canvasheight). Sinon, redimensionne le canevas sur lequel les tortues dessinent. Ne modifiez pas la fenêtre de dessin. Pour observer les parties cachées du canevas, utilisez les barres de défilement. Avec cette méthode, on peut rendre visible les parties d'un dessin qui étaient en dehors du canevas précédemment.

>>> screen.screensize()
(400, 300)
>>> screen.screensize(2000,1500)
>>> screen.screensize()
(2000, 1500)

par exemple, chercher une tortue échappée de manière erronée

turtle.setworldcoordinates(llx, lly, urx, ury)

Paramètres:

llx -- un nombre, coordonnée x du coin inférieur gauche du canevas

lly -- un nombre, la coordonnée y du coin inférieur gauche du canevas

urx -- un nombre, la coordonnée x du coin supérieur droit du canevas

ury -- un nombre, la coordonnée y du coin supérieur droit du canevas

Configure un système de coordonnées défini par l'utilisateur et bascule vers le mode "world" si nécessaire. Cela effectuera un screen.reset(). Si le mode "world" est déjà actif, tous les dessins sont re-déssinés par rapport aux nouveaux coordonnées.

ATTENTION : dans les systèmes de coordonnées définis par l'utilisateur, les angles peuvent apparaître déformés.

>>> screen.reset()
>>> screen.setworldcoordinates(-50,-7.5,50,7.5)
>>> for _ in range(72):
...     left(10)
...
>>> for _ in range(8):
...     left(45); fd(2)   # a regular octagon

Réglage de l'animation

turtle.no_animation()

Temporarily disable turtle animation. The code written inside the no_animation block will not be animated; once the code block is exited, the drawing will appear.

>>> with screen.no_animation():
...     for dist in range(2, 400, 2):
...         fd(dist)
...         rt(90)

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

turtle.delay(delay=None)

Paramètres:

delay -- entier positif

Définit ou renvoie le délai (delay) de dessin en millisecondes. (Cet approximativement le temps passé entre deux mises à jour du canevas.) Plus le délai est long, plus l'animation sera lente.

Argument facultatif :

>>> screen.delay()
10
>>> screen.delay(5)
>>> screen.delay()
5

turtle.tracer(n=None, delay=None)

Paramètres:

n -- entier non-négatif

delay -- entier non-négatif

Active/désactive les animations des tortues et définit le délai pour mettre à jour les dessins.Si n est passé, seulement les n-ièmes mises à jours régulières de l'écran seront vraiment effectuées. (Peut être utilisé pour accélérer le dessin de graphiques complexes.) Lorsqu'appelé sans arguments, renvoie la valeur actuelle de n. Le deuxième argument définit la valeur du délai (voir delay()).

>>> screen.tracer(8, 25)
>>> dist = 2
>>> for i in range(200):
...     fd(dist)
...     rt(90)
...     dist += 2

turtle.update()

Effectue une mise à jour de TurtleScreen. À utiliser lorsque le traceur est désactivé.

Voir aussi la méthode speed() de RawTurtle/Turtle.

Utilisation des événements concernant l'écran

turtle.listen(xdummy=None, ydummy=None)

Donne le focus à TurtleScreen (afin de collecter les événements clés). Des arguments factices sont fournis afin de pouvoir passer listen() à la méthode onclick.

turtle.onkey(fun, key)

turtle.onkeyrelease(fun, key)

Paramètres:

fun -- une fonction sans arguments ou None

key -- une chaîne : clé (par exemple "a") ou clé symbole (Par exemple "space")

Lie fun à l'événement d'un relâchement d'une touche. Si fun est None, les événements liés sont supprimés. Remarque : Pour pouvoir enregistrer les événements lié au touches, TurtleScreen doit avoir le focus (fenêtre en premier plan). (Voir la méthode listen().)

>>> def f():
...     fd(50)
...     lt(60)
...
>>> screen.onkey(f, "Up")
>>> screen.listen()

turtle.onkeypress(fun, key=None)

Paramètres:

fun -- une fonction sans arguments ou None

key -- une chaîne : clé (par exemple "a") ou clé symbole (Par exemple "space")

Lie fun à l'événement d'un pressement de touche si key (touche) est donné, ou n'importe quelle touche si aucune touche n'est passée. Remarque : Pour pouvoir enregistrer des événements liés au touches, TurtleScreen doit être en premier plan. (voir la méthode listen().)

>>> def f():
...     fd(50)
...
>>> screen.onkey(f, "Up")
>>> screen.listen()

turtle.onclick(fun, btn=1, add=None)

turtle.onscreenclick(fun, btn=1, add=None)

Paramètres:

fun -- une fonction à deux arguments qui sera appelée avec les coordonnées du point cliqué sur le canevas

btn -- numéro du bouton de la souris, par défaut 1 (bouton de gauche)

add -- True ou False — si True, un nouveau lien est ajouté, sinon il remplace un ancien lien

Crée un lien vers fun pour les événements de clique de la souris sur cet écran. Si fun est None, les liens existants sont supprimés.

Exemple pour une instance de TurtleScreen nommée screen et une instance Turtle nommée turtle :

>>> screen.onclick(turtle.goto) # Subsequently clicking into the TurtleScreen will
>>>                             # make the turtle move to the clicked point.
>>> screen.onclick(None)        # remove event binding again

Note

Cette méthode de TurtleScreen est disponible en tant que fonction globale seulement sous le nom de onscreenclick. La fonction globale onclick est une autre fonction dérivée de la méthode Turtle onclick.

turtle.ontimer(fun, t=0)

Paramètres:

fun -- une fonction sans arguments

t -- un nombre supérieur ou égal à 0

Installe un minuteur qui appelle fun après t millisecondes.

>>> running = True
>>> def f():
...     if running:
...         fd(50)
...         lt(60)
...         screen.ontimer(f, 250)
>>> f()   ### makes the turtle march around
>>> running = False

turtle.mainloop()

turtle.done()

Démarre la boucle d'événements - appelle la boucle principale de Tkinter. Doit être la dernière opération dan un programme graphique turtle. Ne dois pas être utilisé si un script est lancé depuis IDLE avec le mode -n (pas de sous processus) - pour une utilisation interactive des graphiques turtle

>>> screen.mainloop()

Méthodes de saisie

turtle.textinput(title, prompt)

Paramètres:

title -- chaîne de caractères

prompt -- chaîne de caractères

Fait apparaitre une fenêtre pour entrer une chaine de caractères. Le paramètre title est le titre de la fenêtre, prompt est le texte expliquant quelle information écrire. Renvoie l'entrée utilisateur sous forme de chaîne. Si le dialogue est annulé, renvoie None.

>>> screen.textinput("NIM", "Name of first player:")

turtle.numinput(title, prompt, default=None, minval=None, maxval=None)

Paramètres:

title -- chaîne de caractères

prompt -- chaîne de caractères

default -- un nombre (facultatif)

minval -- un nombre (facultatif)

maxval -- un nombre (facultatif)

Pop up a dialog window for input of a number. title is the title of the dialog window, prompt is a text mostly describing what numerical information to input. default: default value, minval: minimum value for input, maxval: maximum value for input. The number input must be in the range minval .. maxval if these are given. If not, a hint is issued and the dialog remains open for correction. Return the number input. If the dialog is canceled, return None.

>>> screen.numinput("Poker", "Your stakes:", 1000, minval=10, maxval=10000)

Paramétrages et méthodes spéciales

turtle.mode(mode=None)

Paramètres:

mode -- l'une des chaînes de caractères : "standard", "logo" ou "world"

Règle le mode de la tortue ("standard", "logo" ou "world") et la réinitialise. Si le mode n'est pas donné, le mode actuel est renvoyé.

Mode "standard" is compatible with old turtle. Mode "logo" is compatible with most Logo turtle graphics. Mode "world" uses user-defined "world coordinates". Attention: in this mode angles appear distorted if x/y unit-ratio doesn't equal 1.

Mode

Orientation initiale de la tortue

angles positifs

"standard"

vers la droite (vers l'Est)

dans le sens inverse des aiguilles d'une montre

"logo"

vers le haut (vers le Nord)

dans le sens des aiguilles d'une montre

>>> mode("logo")   # resets turtle heading to north
>>> mode()
'logo'

turtle.colormode(cmode=None)

Paramètres:

cmode -- l'une des valeurs suivantes : 1.0 ou 255

Renvoie le mode de couleur (colormode) ou le définit à 1.0 ou 255. Les valeurs r, g et b doivent aussi être dans la gamme 0..cmode.

>>> screen.colormode(1)
>>> turtle.pencolor(240, 160, 80)
Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
TurtleGraphicsError: bad color sequence: (240, 160, 80)
>>> screen.colormode()
1.0
>>> screen.colormode(255)
>>> screen.colormode()
255
>>> turtle.pencolor(240,160,80)

turtle.getcanvas()

Renvoie le canevas de ce TurtleScreen. Utile pour les initiés qui savent quoi faire avec un canevas Tkinter.

>>> cv = screen.getcanvas()
>>> cv
<turtle.ScrolledCanvas object ...>

turtle.getshapes()

Renvoie une liste de noms de toutes les formes actuellement disponibles pour les tortues.

>>> screen.getshapes()
['arrow', 'blank', 'circle', ..., 'turtle']

turtle.register_shape(name, shape=None)

turtle.addshape(name, shape=None)

There are four different ways to call this function:

name is the name of an image file (PNG, GIF, PGM, and PPM) and shape is None: Install the corresponding image shape.

>>> screen.register_shape("turtle.gif")

Note

Les formes d'images ne tournent pas lorsque la tortue tourne, donc elles n'indiquent pas le cap de la tortue !

name is an arbitrary string and shape is the name of an image file (PNG, GIF, PGM, and PPM): Install the corresponding image shape.

>>> screen.register_shape("turtle", "turtle.gif")

Note

Les formes d'images ne tournent pas lorsque la tortue tourne, donc elles n'indiquent pas le cap de la tortue !

name est une chaîne de caractères arbitraire et shape est un n-uplet de paires de coordonnées : Installe le polygone correspondant.

>>> screen.register_shape("triangle", ((5,-3), (0,5), (-5,-3)))

name is an arbitrary string and shape is a (compound) Shape object: Install the corresponding compound shape.

Ajoute une forme de tortue a la liste des formes du TurtleScreen. Seulement les formes enregistrées de cette façon peuvent être utilisée avec la commande shape(shapename).

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Added support for PNG, PGM, and PPM image formats. Both a shape name and an image file name can be specified.

turtle.turtles()

Renvoie la liste des tortues présentes sur l'écran.

>>> for turtle in screen.turtles():
...     turtle.color("red")

turtle.window_height()

Renvoie la hauteur de la fenêtre de la tortue.

>>> screen.window_height()
480

turtle.window_width()

Renvoie la largeur de la fenêtre de la tortue.

>>> screen.window_width()
640

Méthodes spécifiques à Screen, non héritées de TurtleScreen

turtle.bye()

Éteins la fenêtre turtlegraphics.

turtle.exitonclick()

Lie la méthode bye() à un clique de souris sur l'écran (Screen).

Si la valeur de "using_IDLE" dans le dictionnaire de configuration est False (valeur par défaut), démarre aussi la boucle principale. Remarque : Si IDLE est lancé avec l'option -n (Pas de sous processus), Cette valeur devrait être définie à True dans turtle.cfg. Dans ce cas, la boucle principale d'IDLE est active aussi pour le script du client.

turtle.save(filename, overwrite=False)

Save the current turtle drawing (and turtles) as a PostScript file.

Paramètres:

filename -- the path of the saved PostScript file

overwrite -- if False and there already exists a file with the given filename, then the function will raise a FileExistsError. If it is True, the file will be overwritten.

>>> screen.save("my_drawing.ps")
>>> screen.save("my_drawing.ps", overwrite=True)

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

turtle.setup(width=_CFG['width'], height=_CFG['height'], startx=_CFG['leftright'], starty=_CFG['topbottom'])

Définit la taille et la position de la fenêtre principale. Les valeurs par défaut des arguments sont stockées dans le dictionnaire de configuration et peuvent être modifiées via un fichier turtle.cfg.

Paramètres:

width -- s'il s'agit d'un nombre entier, une taille en pixels, s'il s'agit d'un nombre flottant, une fraction de l'écran ; la valeur par défaut est de 50 % de l'écran

height -- s'il s'agit d'un nombre entier, la hauteur en pixels, s'il s'agit d'un nombre flottant, une fraction de l'écran ; la valeur par défaut est 75 % de l'écran

startx -- s'il s'agit d'un nombre positif, position de départ en pixels à partir du bord gauche de l'écran, s'il s'agit d'un nombre négatif, position de départ en pixels à partir du bord droit, si c'est None, centre la fenêtre horizontalement

starty -- si positif, la position de départ en pixels depuis le haut de l'écran. Si négatif, depuis de bas de l'écran. Si None, Le centre de la fenêtre verticalement

>>> screen.setup (width=200, height=200, startx=0, starty=0)
>>>              # sets window to 200x200 pixels, in upper left of screen
>>> screen.setup(width=.75, height=0.5, startx=None, starty=None)
>>>              # sets window to 75% of screen by 50% of screen and centers

turtle.title(titlestring)

Paramètres:

titlestring -- chaîne de caractères affichée dans la barre de titre de la fenêtre graphique de la tortue

Définit le titre de la fenêtre de la tortue comme titlestring.

>>> screen.title("Welcome to the turtle zoo!")

Classes publiques

class turtle.RawTurtle(canvas)

class turtle.RawPen(canvas)

Paramètres:

canvas -- a tkinter.Canvas, a ScrolledCanvas or a TurtleScreen

Crée une tortue. Cette tortue à toutes les méthodes décrites ci-dessus comme "Méthode de Turtle/RawTurtle".

class turtle.Turtle

Sous-classe de RawTurtle, à la même interface mais dessine sur un objet screen par défaut créé automatiquement lorsque nécessaire pour la première fois.

class turtle.TurtleScreen(cv)

Paramètres:

cv -- a tkinter.Canvas

Provides screen oriented methods like bgcolor() etc. that are described above.

class turtle.Screen

Sous-classess de TurtleScreen, avec quatre nouvelles méthodes.

class turtle.ScrolledCanvas(master)

Paramètres:

master -- certain modules Tkinter pour contenir le ScrolledCanvas, c'est à dire, un canevas Tkinter avec des barres de défilement ajoutées

Utilisé par la classe Screen, qui fournit donc automatiquement un ScrolledCanvas comme terrain de jeu pour les tortues.

class turtle.Shape(type_, data)

Paramètres:

type_ -- l'une des chaînes suivantes : "polygon", "image" ou "compound"

Formes de modélisation de la structure des données. La paire (type_, data) doit suivre cette spécification :

type_

données

"polygon"

un polygone n-uplet, c'est-à-dire un n-uplet constitué de paires (chaque paire définissant des coordonnées)

"image"

une image (utilisée uniquement en interne sous ce format !)

"compound"

None (une forme composée doit être construite en utilisant la méthode addcomponent())

addcomponent(poly, fill, outline=None)

Paramètres:

poly -- un polygone, c.-à-d. un n-uplet de paires de nombres

fill -- une couleur de remplissage pour poly

outline -- une couleur pour le contour du polygone (si elle est donnée)

Exemple :

>>> poly = ((0,0),(10,-5),(0,10),(-10,-5))
>>> s = Shape("compound")
>>> s.addcomponent(poly, "red", "blue")
>>> # ... add more components and then use register_shape()

Voir Formes composées.

class turtle.Vec2D(x, y)

Une classe de vecteur bidimensionnel, utilisée en tant que classe auxiliaire pour implémenter les graphiques turtle. Peut être utile pour les programmes graphiques faits avec turtle. Dérivé des n-uplets, donc un vecteur est un n-uplet !

Permet (pour les vecteurs a, b et le nombre k) :

a + b addition de vecteurs

a - b soustraction de deux vecteurs

a * b produit scalaire

k * a et a * k multiplication avec un scalaire

abs(a) valeur absolue de a

a.rotate(angle) rotation

Explication

A turtle object draws on a screen object, and there a number of key classes in the turtle object-oriented interface that can be used to create them and relate them to each other.

A Turtle instance will automatically create a Screen instance if one is not already present.

Turtle is a subclass of RawTurtle, which doesn't automatically create a drawing surface - a canvas will need to be provided or created for it. The canvas can be a tkinter.Canvas, ScrolledCanvas or TurtleScreen.

TurtleScreen is the basic drawing surface for a turtle. Screen is a subclass of TurtleScreen, and includes some additional methods for managing its appearance (including size and title) and behaviour. TurtleScreen's constructor needs a tkinter.Canvas or a ScrolledCanvas as an argument.

The functional interface for turtle graphics uses the various methods of Turtle and TurtleScreen/Screen. Behind the scenes, a screen object is automatically created whenever a function derived from a Screen method is called. Similarly, a turtle object is automatically created whenever any of the functions derived from a Turtle method is called.

To use multiple turtles on a screen, the object-oriented interface must be used.

Aide et configuration

Utilisation de l'aide

Les méthodes publiques des classes Screen et Turtle sont largement documentées dans les docstrings. Elles peuvent donc être utilisées comme aide en ligne via les fonctions d'aide de Python :

Lors de l'utilisation d'IDLE, des info-bulles apparaissent avec la signature et les premières lignes de docstring de la fonction/méthode appelée.

L'appel de help() sur les méthodes ou fonctions affichera les docstrings :

>>> help(Screen.bgcolor)
Help on method bgcolor in module turtle:

bgcolor(self, *args) unbound turtle.Screen method
    Set or return backgroundcolor of the TurtleScreen.

    Arguments (if given): a color string or three numbers
    in the range 0..colormode or a 3-tuple of such numbers.

    >>> screen.bgcolor("orange")
    >>> screen.bgcolor()
    "orange"
    >>> screen.bgcolor(0.5,0,0.5)
    >>> screen.bgcolor()
    "#800080"

>>> help(Turtle.penup)
Help on method penup in module turtle:

penup(self) unbound turtle.Turtle method
    Pull the pen up -- no drawing when moving.

    Aliases: penup | pu | up

    No argument

    >>> turtle.penup()

Les docstrings des fonctions qui sont dérivées des méthodes ont une forme modifiée :

>>> help(bgcolor)
Help on function bgcolor in module turtle:

bgcolor(*args)
    Set or return backgroundcolor of the TurtleScreen.

    Arguments (if given): a color string or three numbers
    in the range 0..colormode or a 3-tuple of such numbers.

    Example::

      >>> bgcolor("orange")
      >>> bgcolor()
      "orange"
      >>> bgcolor(0.5,0,0.5)
      >>> bgcolor()
      "#800080"

>>> help(penup)
Help on function penup in module turtle:

penup()
    Pull the pen up -- no drawing when moving.

    Aliases: penup | pu | up

    No argument

    Example:
    >>> penup()

Ces chaînes de documents modifiées sont créées automatiquement avec les définitions de fonctions qui sont dérivées des méthodes au moment de l'importation.

Traduction de chaînes de documents en différentes langues

Il est utile de créer un dictionnaire dont les clés sont les noms des méthodes et les valeurs sont les docstrings de méthodes publiques des classes Screen et Turtle.

turtle.write_docstringdict(filename='turtle_docstringdict')

Paramètres:

filename -- une chaîne de caractères, utilisée en tant que nom de fichier

Crée et écrit un dictionnaire de docstrings dans un script Python avec le nom donné. Cette fonction doit être appelée explicitement (elle n'est pas utilisée par les classes graphiques de turtle). Ce dictionnaire de doctrings sera écrit dans le script Python filename.py. Il sert de modèle pour la traduction des docstrings dans différentes langues.

If you (or your students) want to use turtle with online help in your native language, you have to translate the docstrings and save the resulting file as e.g. turtle_docstringdict_german.py.

Si vous avez une entrée appropriée dans votre fichier turtle.cfg, ce dictionnaire est lu au moment de l'importation et remplace la docstrings originale en anglais par cette entrée.

Au moment de l'écriture de cette documentation, il n'existe seulement que des docstrings en Allemand et Italien. (Merci de faire vos demandes à glingl@aon.at.)

Comment configurer Screen et Turtle

La configuration par défaut imite l'apparence et le comportement de l'ancien module turtle pour pouvoir maintenir la meilleure compatibilité avec celui-ci.

Si vous voulez utiliser une configuration différente qui reflète mieux les fonctionnalités de ce module ou qui correspond mieux à vos besoins, par exemple pour un cours, vous pouvez préparer un ficher de configuration turtle.cfg qui sera lu au moment de l'importation et qui modifiera la configuration en utilisant les paramètres du fichier.

The built in configuration would correspond to the following turtle.cfg:

width = 0.5
height = 0.75
leftright = None
topbottom = None
canvwidth = 400
canvheight = 300
mode = standard
colormode = 1.0
delay = 10
undobuffersize = 1000
shape = classic
pencolor = black
fillcolor = black
resizemode = noresize
visible = True
language = english
exampleturtle = turtle
examplescreen = screen
title = Python Turtle Graphics
using_IDLE = False

Brève explication des entrées sélectionnées :

The first four lines correspond to the arguments of the Screen.setup method.

Line 5 and 6 correspond to the arguments of the method Screen.screensize.

shape peut être n'importe quelle forme native, par exemple arrow, turtle etc. Pour plus d'informations, essayez help(shape).

If you want to use no fill color (i.e. make the turtle transparent), you have to write fillcolor = "" (but all nonempty strings must not have quotes in the cfg file).

Si vous voulez refléter l'état de la tortue, vous devez utiliser resizemode = auto.

If you set e.g. language = italian the docstringdict turtle_docstringdict_italian.py will be loaded at import time (if present on the import path, e.g. in the same directory as turtle).

Les entrées exampleturtle et examplescreen définissent les noms de ces objets tels qu'ils apparaissent dans les docstrings. La transformation des méthodes-docstrings vers fonction-docstrings supprimera ces noms des docstrings.

using_IDLE: Set this to True if you regularly work with IDLE and its -n switch ("no subprocess"). This will prevent exitonclick() to enter the mainloop.

There can be a turtle.cfg file in the directory where turtle is stored and an additional one in the current working directory. The latter will override the settings of the first one.

Le dossier Lib/turtledemo contient un fichier turtle.cfg. Vous pouvez le prendre comme exemple et voir ses effets lorsque vous lancez les démos (il est préférable de ne pas le faire depuis la visionneuse de démos).

turtledemo --- Demo scripts

The turtledemo package includes a set of demo scripts. These scripts can be run and viewed using the supplied demo viewer as follows:

python -m turtledemo

Alternativement, vous pouvez lancer les scripts de démo individuellement. Par exemple

python -m turtledemo.bytedesign

The turtledemo package directory contains:

Une visionneuse __main__.py qui peut être utilisée pour lire le code source de ces scripts et pour les faire tourner en même temps.

Multiple scripts demonstrating different features of the turtle module. Examples can be accessed via the Examples menu. They can also be run standalone.

Un fichier exemple turtle.cfg montrant comment rédiger de tels fichiers.

Les scripts de démonstration sont :

Nom

Description

Caractéristiques

bytedesign

motif complexe de la tortue graphique classique

tracer(), delay(), update()

chaos

graphiques dynamiques de Verhulst, cela démontre que les calculs de l'ordinateur peuvent générer des résultats qui vont parfois à l'encontre du bon sens

world coordinates

clock

horloge analogique indiquant l'heure de votre ordinateur

turtles as clock's hands, ontimer()

colormixer

des expériences en rouge, vert, bleu

ondrag()

forest

3 arbres tracés par un parcours en largeur

randomization (répartition aléatoire)

fractalcurves

Courbes de Hilbert et de Koch

récursivité

lindenmayer

ethnomathématiques (kolams indiens)

L-Système

minimal_hanoi

Tours de Hanoï

Rectangular Turtles as Hanoi discs (shape(), shapesize())

nim

jouez au classique jeu de nim avec trois piles de bâtons contre l'ordinateur.

tortues en tant que bâtons de nim, géré par des événements (clavier et souris)

paint

programme de dessin extra minimaliste

onclick()

peace

basique

tortue : apparence et animation

penrose

tuiles apériodiques avec cerfs-volants et fléchettes

stamp()

planet_and_moon

simulation d'un système gravitationnel

formes composées, Vec2D

rosette

un motif issu de l'article de wikipedia sur la tortue graphique

clone(), undo()

round_dance

tortues dansantes tournant par paires en sens inverse

compound shapes, clone() shapesize(), tilt(), get_shapepoly(), update()

sorting_animate

démonstration visuelle des différentes méthodes de classement

alignement simple, répartition aléatoire

tree

un arbre (tracé) par un parcours en largeur (à l’aide de générateurs)

clone()

two_canvases

design simple

tortues sur deux canevas

yinyang

un autre exemple élémentaire

circle()

Amusez-vous !

Modifications depuis Python 2.6

The methods Turtle.tracer, Turtle.window_width and Turtle.window_height have been eliminated. Methods with these names and functionality are now available only as methods of Screen. The functions derived from these remain available. (In fact already in Python 2.6 these methods were merely duplications of the corresponding TurtleScreen/Screen methods.)

The method Turtle.fill() has been eliminated. The behaviour of begin_fill() and end_fill() have changed slightly: now every filling process must be completed with an end_fill() call.

A method Turtle.filling has been added. It returns a boolean value: True if a filling process is under way, False otherwise. This behaviour corresponds to a fill() call without arguments in Python 2.6.

Modifications depuis Python 3.0

The Turtle methods shearfactor(), shapetransform() and get_shapepoly() have been added. Thus the full range of regular linear transforms is now available for transforming turtle shapes. tiltangle() has been enhanced in functionality: it now can be used to get or set the tilt angle.

The Screen method onkeypress() has been added as a complement to onkey(). As the latter binds actions to the key release event, an alias: onkeyrelease() was also added for it.

The method Screen.mainloop has been added, so there is no longer a need to use the standalone mainloop() function when working with Screen and Turtle objects.

Two input methods have been added: Screen.textinput and Screen.numinput. These pop up input dialogs and return strings and numbers respectively.

Outils de développement

The modules described in this chapter help you write software. For example, the pydoc module takes a module and generates documentation based on the module's contents. The doctest and unittest modules contains frameworks for writing unit tests that automatically exercise code and verify that the expected output is produced.

La liste des modules documentés dans ce chapitre est :

typing --- Support for type hints

Specification for the Python Type System

Alias de type

NewType

Annotating callable objects

Génériques

Annotating tuples

The type of class objects

Annotating generators and coroutines

Types génériques définis par l'utilisateur

Le type Any

Sous-typage nominal et sous-typage structurel

Classe de données

Special typing primitives

Special types

Special forms

Building generic types and type aliases

Other special directives

Protocoles

ABCs and Protocols for working with I/O

Functions and decorators

Utilitaires d'introspection

Constante

Deprecated aliases

Aliases to built-in types

Aliases to types in collections

Aliases to other concrete types

Aliases to container ABCs in collections.abc

Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections.abc

Aliases to other ABCs in collections.abc

Aliases to contextlib ABCs

Étapes d'Obsolescence des Fonctionnalités Majeures

pydoc --- Documentation generator and online help system

Python Development Mode

Effects of the Python Development Mode

ResourceWarning Example

Bad file descriptor error example

doctest — Exemples de tests interactifs en Python

Utilisation simple : vérifier des exemples dans des docstrings

Utilisation simple : vérifier des exemples dans un fichier texte

Command-line Usage

Comment ça marche

Quelles docstrings sont considérées ?

Comment les exemples docstring sont-ils identifiés ?

Quel est le contexte d'exécution ?

Qu'en est-il des exceptions ?

Options de ligne de commande

Instructions

Avertissements

API de base

API de tests unitaires

API avancé

Objets doctest

Exemples d'objets

Objets DocTestFinder

Objets DocTestParser

Objets TestResults

Objets DocTestRunner

Objets OutputChecker

Débogage

Éditorial

unittest --- Unit testing framework

Exemple basique

Interface en ligne de commande

Options de la ligne de commande

Découverte des tests

Organiser le code de test

Réutilisation d'ancien code de test

Ignorer des tests et des erreurs prévisibles

Distinguer les itérations de test à l'aide de sous-tests

Classes et fonctions

Scénarios de tests

Regroupement des tests

Chargement et exécution des tests

Protocole de chargement des tests (load_tests Protocol)

Classes et modules d'aménagements des tests

Classes de mise en place (setUpClass) et de démantèlement des tests (tearDownClass)

Module de mise en place (setUpModule) et de démantèlement des tests (tearDownModule)

Traitement des signaux

unittest.mock --- mock object library

Guide rapide

La classe Mock

Calling

Deleting Attributes

Mock names and the name attribute

Attaching Mocks as Attributes

The patchers

patch

patch.object

patch.dict

patch.multiple

patch methods: start and stop

patch builtins

TEST_PREFIX

Nesting Patch Decorators

Where to patch

Patching Descriptors and Proxy Objects

MagicMock and magic method support

Mocking Magic Methods

Magic Mock

Helpers

sentinel

DEFAULT

appel

create_autospec

ANY

FILTER_DIR

mock_open

Autospeccing

Sealing mocks

Order of precedence of side_effect, return_value and wraps

unittest.mock --- getting started

Utilisation de Mock ou l'art de singer

Mock patching methods

Mock for method calls on an object

Mocking classes

Naming your mocks

Tracking all calls

Setting return values and attributes

Raising exceptions with mocks

Side effect functions and iterables

Mocking asynchronous iterators

Mocking asynchronous context manager

Creating a mock from an existing object

Using side_effect to return per file content

Patch decorators

Further examples

Mocking chained calls

Partial mocking

Mocking a generator method

Applying the same patch to every test method

Mocking unbound methods

Checking multiple calls with mock

Coping with mutable arguments

Nesting patches

Mocking a dictionary with MagicMock

Mock subclasses and their attributes

Mocking imports with patch.dict

Tracking order of calls and less verbose call assertions

More complex argument matching

test --- Regression tests package for Python

Writing Unit Tests for the test package

Running tests using the command-line interface

test.support --- Utilities for the Python test suite

test.support.socket_helper --- Utilities for socket tests

test.support.script_helper --- Utilities for the Python execution tests

test.support.bytecode_helper --- Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation

test.support.threading_helper --- Utilities for threading tests

test.support.os_helper --- Utilities for os tests

test.support.import_helper --- Utilities for import tests

test.support.warnings_helper --- Utilities for warnings tests

typing --- Support for type hints

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Code source : Lib/typing.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/typing.py]

Note

The Python runtime does not enforce function and variable type annotations. They can be used by third party tools such as type checkers, IDEs, linters, etc.

This module provides runtime support for type hints.

Consider the function below:

def surface_area_of_cube(edge_length: float) -> str:
    return f"The surface area of the cube is {6 * edge_length ** 2}."

The function surface_area_of_cube takes an argument expected to be an instance of float, as indicated by the type hint edge_length: float. The function is expected to return an instance of str, as indicated by the -> str hint.

While type hints can be simple classes like float or str, they can also be more complex. The typing module provides a vocabulary of more advanced type hints.

New features are frequently added to the typing module. The typing_extensions [https://pypi.org/project/typing_extensions/] package provides backports of these new features to older versions of Python.

Voir aussi

Typing cheat sheet [https://mypy.readthedocs.io/en/stable/cheat_sheet_py3.html]

A quick overview of type hints (hosted at the mypy docs)

Type System Reference section of the mypy docs [https://mypy.readthedocs.io/en/stable/index.html]

The Python typing system is standardised via PEPs, so this reference should broadly apply to most Python type checkers. (Some parts may still be specific to mypy.)

Static Typing with Python [https://typing.python.org/en/latest/]

Type-checker-agnostic documentation written by the community detailing type system features, useful typing related tools and typing best practices.

Specification for the Python Type System

The canonical, up-to-date specification of the Python type system can be found at Specification for the Python type system [https://typing.python.org/en/latest/spec/index.html].

Alias de type

A type alias is defined using the type statement, which creates an instance of TypeAliasType. In this example, Vector and list[float] will be treated equivalently by static type checkers:

type Vector = list[float]

def scale(scalar: float, vector: Vector) -> Vector:
    return [scalar * num for num in vector]

# passes type checking; a list of floats qualifies as a Vector.
new_vector = scale(2.0, [1.0, -4.2, 5.4])

Les alias de type sont utiles pour simplifier les signatures complexes. Par exemple :

from collections.abc import Sequence

type ConnectionOptions = dict[str, str]
type Address = tuple[str, int]
type Server = tuple[Address, ConnectionOptions]

def broadcast_message(message: str, servers: Sequence[Server]) -> None:
    ...

# The static type checker will treat the previous type signature as
# being exactly equivalent to this one.
def broadcast_message(
    message: str,
    servers: Sequence[tuple[tuple[str, int], dict[str, str]]]
) -> None:
    ...

The type statement is new in Python 3.12. For backwards compatibility, type aliases can also be created through simple assignment:

Vector = list[float]

Or marked with TypeAlias to make it explicit that this is a type alias, not a normal variable assignment:

from typing import TypeAlias

Vector: TypeAlias = list[float]

NewType

Utilisez la classe NewType pour créer des types distincts :

from typing import NewType

UserId = NewType('UserId', int)
some_id = UserId(524313)

Le vérificateur de types statiques traite le nouveau type comme s'il s'agissait d'une sous-classe du type original. C'est utile pour aider à détecter les erreurs logiques :

def get_user_name(user_id: UserId) -> str:
    ...

# passes type checking
user_a = get_user_name(UserId(42351))

# fails type checking; an int is not a UserId
user_b = get_user_name(-1)

Vous pouvez toujours effectuer toutes les opérations applicables à un entier (type int) sur une variable de type UserId, mais le résultat sera toujours de type int. Ceci vous permet de passer un UserId partout où un int est attendu, mais vous empêche de créer accidentellement un UserId d'une manière invalide :

# 'output' is of type 'int', not 'UserId'
output = UserId(23413) + UserId(54341)

Notez que ces contrôles ne sont exécutés que par le vérificateur de types statique. À l'exécution, l'instruction Derived = NewType('Derived', Base) fait de Derived une fonction qui renvoie immédiatement le paramètre que vous lui passez. Cela signifie que l'expression Derived(some_value) ne crée pas une nouvelle classe et n'introduit pas de surcharge au-delà de celle d'un appel de fonction normal.

Plus précisément, l'expression some_value is Derived(some_value) est toujours vraie au moment de l'exécution.

La création d'un sous-type de Derived est invalide :

from typing import NewType

UserId = NewType('UserId', int)

# Fails at runtime and does not pass type checking
class AdminUserId(UserId): pass

Il est néanmoins possible de créer un NewType basé sur un NewType « dérivé » :

from typing import NewType

UserId = NewType('UserId', int)

ProUserId = NewType('ProUserId', UserId)

et la vérification de type pour ProUserId fonctionne comme prévu.

Voir la PEP 484 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/] pour plus de détails.

Note

Recall that the use of a type alias declares two types to be equivalent to one another. Doing type Alias = Original will make the static type checker treat Alias as being exactly equivalent to Original in all cases. This is useful when you want to simplify complex type signatures.

En revanche, NewType déclare qu'un type est un sous-type d'un autre. Écrire Derived = NewType('Derived', Original) fait que le vérificateur de type statique traite Derived comme une sous-classe de Original, ce qui signifie qu'une valeur de type Original ne peut être utilisée dans les endroits où une valeur de type Derived est prévue. C'est utile lorsque vous voulez éviter les erreurs logiques avec un coût d'exécution minimal.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: NewType is now a class rather than a function. As a result, there is some additional runtime cost when calling NewType over a regular function.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: The performance of calling NewType has been restored to its level in Python 3.9.

Annotating callable objects

Functions -- or other callable objects -- can be annotated using collections.abc.Callable or deprecated typing.Callable. Callable[[int], str] signifies a function that takes a single parameter of type int and returns a str.

For example:

from collections.abc import Callable, Awaitable

def feeder(get_next_item: Callable[[], str]) -> None:
    ...  # Body

def async_query(on_success: Callable[[int], None],
                on_error: Callable[[int, Exception], None]) -> None:
    ...  # Body

async def on_update(value: str) -> None:
    ...  # Body

callback: Callable[[str], Awaitable[None]] = on_update

The subscription syntax must always be used with exactly two values: the argument list and the return type. The argument list must be a list of types, a ParamSpec, Concatenate, or an ellipsis (...). The return type must be a single type.

If a literal ellipsis ... is given as the argument list, it indicates that a callable with any arbitrary parameter list would be acceptable:

def concat(x: str, y: str) -> str:
    return x + y

x: Callable[..., str]
x = str     # OK
x = concat  # Also OK

Callable cannot express complex signatures such as functions that take a variadic number of arguments, overloaded functions, or functions that have keyword-only parameters. However, these signatures can be expressed by defining a Protocol class with a __call__() method:

from collections.abc import Iterable
from typing import Protocol

class Combiner(Protocol):
    def __call__(self, *vals: bytes, maxlen: int | None = None) -> list[bytes]: ...

def batch_proc(data: Iterable[bytes], cb_results: Combiner) -> bytes:
    for item in data:
        ...

def good_cb(*vals: bytes, maxlen: int | None = None) -> list[bytes]:
    ...
def bad_cb(*vals: bytes, maxitems: int | None) -> list[bytes]:
    ...

batch_proc([], good_cb)  # OK
batch_proc([], bad_cb)   # Error! Argument 2 has incompatible type because of
                         # different name and kind in the callback

Les appelables qui prennent en argument d'autres appelables peuvent indiquer que leurs types de paramètres dépendent les uns des autres en utilisant ParamSpec. De plus, si un appelable ajoute ou supprime des arguments d'autres appelables, l'opérateur Concatenate peut être utilisé. Ils prennent la forme Callable[ParamSpecVariable, ReturnType] et Callable[Concatenate[Arg1Type, Arg2Type, ..., ParamSpecVariable], ReturnType] respectivement.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Callable prend désormais en charge ParamSpec et Concatenate. Voir PEP 612 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/] pour plus de détails.

Voir aussi

La documentation pour ParamSpec et Concatenate fournit des exemples d'utilisation dans Callable.

Génériques

Since type information about objects kept in containers cannot be statically inferred in a generic way, many container classes in the standard library support subscription to denote the expected types of container elements.

from collections.abc import Mapping, Sequence

class Employee: ...

# Sequence[Employee] indicates that all elements in the sequence
# must be instances of "Employee".
# Mapping[str, str] indicates that all keys and all values in the mapping
# must be strings.
def notify_by_email(employees: Sequence[Employee],
                    overrides: Mapping[str, str]) -> None: ...

Generic functions and classes can be parameterized by using type parameter syntax:

from collections.abc import Sequence

def first[T](l: Sequence[T]) -> T:  # Function is generic over the TypeVar "T"
    return l[0]

Or by using the TypeVar factory directly:

from collections.abc import Sequence
from typing import TypeVar

U = TypeVar('U')                  # Declare type variable "U"

def second(l: Sequence[U]) -> U:  # Function is generic over the TypeVar "U"
    return l[1]

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Syntactic support for generics is new in Python 3.12.

Annotating tuples

For most containers in Python, the typing system assumes that all elements in the container will be of the same type. For example:

from collections.abc import Mapping

# Type checker will infer that all elements in ``x`` are meant to be ints
x: list[int] = []

# Type checker error: ``list`` only accepts a single type argument:
y: list[int, str] = [1, 'foo']

# Type checker will infer that all keys in ``z`` are meant to be strings,
# and that all values in ``z`` are meant to be either strings or ints
z: Mapping[str, str | int] = {}

list only accepts one type argument, so a type checker would emit an error on the y assignment above. Similarly, Mapping only accepts two type arguments: the first indicates the type of the keys, and the second indicates the type of the values.

Unlike most other Python containers, however, it is common in idiomatic Python code for tuples to have elements which are not all of the same type. For this reason, tuples are special-cased in Python's typing system. tuple accepts any number of type arguments:

# OK: ``x`` is assigned to a tuple of length 1 where the sole element is an int
x: tuple[int] = (5,)

# OK: ``y`` is assigned to a tuple of length 2;
# element 1 is an int, element 2 is a str
y: tuple[int, str] = (5, "foo")

# Error: the type annotation indicates a tuple of length 1,
# but ``z`` has been assigned to a tuple of length 3
z: tuple[int] = (1, 2, 3)

To denote a tuple which could be of any length, and in which all elements are of the same type T, use the literal ellipsis ...: tuple[T, ...]. To denote an empty tuple, use tuple[()]. Using plain tuple as an annotation is equivalent to using tuple[Any, ...]:

x: tuple[int, ...] = (1, 2)
# These reassignments are OK: ``tuple[int, ...]`` indicates x can be of any length
x = (1, 2, 3)
x = ()
# This reassignment is an error: all elements in ``x`` must be ints
x = ("foo", "bar")

# ``y`` can only ever be assigned to an empty tuple
y: tuple[()] = ()

z: tuple = ("foo", "bar")
# These reassignments are OK: plain ``tuple`` is equivalent to ``tuple[Any, ...]``
z = (1, 2, 3)
z = ()

The type of class objects

A variable annotated with C may accept a value of type C. In contrast, a variable annotated with type[C] (or deprecated typing.Type[C]) may accept values that are classes themselves -- specifically, it will accept the class object of C. For example:

a = 3         # Has type ``int``
b = int       # Has type ``type[int]``
c = type(a)   # Also has type ``type[int]``

Note that type[C] is covariant:

class User: ...
class ProUser(User): ...
class TeamUser(User): ...

def make_new_user(user_class: type[User]) -> User:
    # ...
    return user_class()

make_new_user(User)      # OK
make_new_user(ProUser)   # Also OK: ``type[ProUser]`` is a subtype of ``type[User]``
make_new_user(TeamUser)  # Still fine
make_new_user(User())    # Error: expected ``type[User]`` but got ``User``
make_new_user(int)       # Error: ``type[int]`` is not a subtype of ``type[User]``

The only legal parameters for type are classes, Any, type variables, and unions of any of these types. For example:

def new_non_team_user(user_class: type[BasicUser | ProUser]): ...

new_non_team_user(BasicUser)  # OK
new_non_team_user(ProUser)    # OK
new_non_team_user(TeamUser)   # Error: ``type[TeamUser]`` is not a subtype
                              # of ``type[BasicUser | ProUser]``
new_non_team_user(User)       # Also an error

type[Any] is equivalent to type, which is the root of Python's metaclass hierarchy.

Annotating generators and coroutines

A generator can be annotated using the generic type Generator[YieldType, SendType, ReturnType]. For example:

def echo_round() -> Generator[int, float, str]:
    sent = yield 0
    while sent >= 0:
        sent = yield round(sent)
    return 'Done'

Note that unlike many other generic classes in the standard library, the SendType of Generator behaves contravariantly, not covariantly or invariantly.

The SendType and ReturnType parameters default to None:

def infinite_stream(start: int) -> Generator[int]:
    while True:
        yield start
        start += 1

It is also possible to set these types explicitly:

def infinite_stream(start: int) -> Generator[int, None, None]:
    while True:
        yield start
        start += 1

Simple generators that only ever yield values can also be annotated as having a return type of either Iterable[YieldType] or Iterator[YieldType]:

def infinite_stream(start: int) -> Iterator[int]:
    while True:
        yield start
        start += 1

Async generators are handled in a similar fashion, but don't expect a ReturnType type argument (AsyncGenerator[YieldType, SendType]). The SendType argument defaults to None, so the following definitions are equivalent:

async def infinite_stream(start: int) -> AsyncGenerator[int]:
    while True:
        yield start
        start = await increment(start)

async def infinite_stream(start: int) -> AsyncGenerator[int, None]:
    while True:
        yield start
        start = await increment(start)

As in the synchronous case, AsyncIterable[YieldType] and AsyncIterator[YieldType] are available as well:

async def infinite_stream(start: int) -> AsyncIterator[int]:
    while True:
        yield start
        start = await increment(start)

Coroutines can be annotated using Coroutine[YieldType, SendType, ReturnType]. Generic arguments correspond to those of Generator, for example:

from collections.abc import Coroutine
c: Coroutine[list[str], str, int]  # Some coroutine defined elsewhere
x = c.send('hi')                   # Inferred type of 'x' is list[str]
async def bar() -> None:
    y = await c                    # Inferred type of 'y' is int

Types génériques définis par l'utilisateur

Une classe définie par l'utilisateur peut être définie comme une classe générique.

from logging import Logger

class LoggedVar[T]:
    def __init__(self, value: T, name: str, logger: Logger) -> None:
        self.name = name
        self.logger = logger
        self.value = value

    def set(self, new: T) -> None:
        self.log('Set ' + repr(self.value))
        self.value = new

    def get(self) -> T:
        self.log('Get ' + repr(self.value))
        return self.value

    def log(self, message: str) -> None:
        self.logger.info('%s: %s', self.name, message)

This syntax indicates that the class LoggedVar is parameterised around a single type variable T . This also makes T valid as a type within the class body.

Generic classes implicitly inherit from Generic. For compatibility with Python 3.11 and lower, it is also possible to inherit explicitly from Generic to indicate a generic class:

from typing import TypeVar, Generic

T = TypeVar('T')

class LoggedVar(Generic[T]):
    ...

Generic classes have __class_getitem__() methods, meaning they can be parameterised at runtime (e.g. LoggedVar[int] below):

from collections.abc import Iterable

def zero_all_vars(vars: Iterable[LoggedVar[int]]) -> None:
    for var in vars:
        var.set(0)

A generic type can have any number of type variables. All varieties of TypeVar are permissible as parameters for a generic type:

from typing import TypeVar, Generic, Sequence

class WeirdTrio[T, B: Sequence[bytes], S: (int, str)]:
    ...

OldT = TypeVar('OldT', contravariant=True)
OldB = TypeVar('OldB', bound=Sequence[bytes], covariant=True)
OldS = TypeVar('OldS', int, str)

class OldWeirdTrio(Generic[OldT, OldB, OldS]):
    ...

Chaque argument de variable de type Generic doit être distinct. Ceci n'est donc pas valable :

from typing import TypeVar, Generic
...

class Pair[M, M]:  # SyntaxError
    ...

T = TypeVar('T')

class Pair(Generic[T, T]):   # INVALID
    ...

Generic classes can also inherit from other classes:

from collections.abc import Sized

class LinkedList[T](Sized):
    ...

When inheriting from generic classes, some type parameters could be fixed:

from collections.abc import Mapping

class MyDict[T](Mapping[str, T]):
    ...

Dans ce cas, MyDict a un seul paramètre, T.

Using a generic class without specifying type parameters assumes Any for each position. In the following example, MyIterable is not generic but implicitly inherits from Iterable[Any]:

from collections.abc import Iterable

class MyIterable(Iterable): # Same as Iterable[Any]
    ...

User-defined generic type aliases are also supported. Examples:

from collections.abc import Iterable

type Response[S] = Iterable[S] | int

# Return type here is same as Iterable[str] | int
def response(query: str) -> Response[str]:
    ...

type Vec[T] = Iterable[tuple[T, T]]

def inproduct[T: (int, float, complex)](v: Vec[T]) -> T: # Same as Iterable[tuple[T, T]]
    return sum(x*y for x, y in v)

For backward compatibility, generic type aliases can also be created through a simple assignment:

from collections.abc import Iterable
from typing import TypeVar

S = TypeVar("S")
Response = Iterable[S] | int

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Generic n'a plus de métaclasse personnalisée.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Syntactic support for generics and type aliases is new in version 3.12. Previously, generic classes had to explicitly inherit from Generic or contain a type variable in one of their bases.

User-defined generics for parameter expressions are also supported via parameter specification variables in the form [**P]. The behavior is consistent with type variables' described above as parameter specification variables are treated by the typing module as a specialized type variable. The one exception to this is that a list of types can be used to substitute a ParamSpec:

>>> class Z[T, **P]: ...  # T is a TypeVar; P is a ParamSpec
...
>>> Z[int, [dict, float]]
__main__.Z[int, [dict, float]]

Classes generic over a ParamSpec can also be created using explicit inheritance from Generic. In this case, ** is not used:

from typing import ParamSpec, Generic

P = ParamSpec('P')

class Z(Generic[P]):
    ...

Another difference between TypeVar and ParamSpec is that a generic with only one parameter specification variable will accept parameter lists in the forms X[[Type1, Type2, ...]] and also X[Type1, Type2, ...] for aesthetic reasons. Internally, the latter is converted to the former, so the following are equivalent:

>>> class X[**P]: ...
...
>>> X[int, str]
__main__.X[[int, str]]
>>> X[[int, str]]
__main__.X[[int, str]]

Note that generics with ParamSpec may not have correct __parameters__ after substitution in some cases because they are intended primarily for static type checking.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Generic can now be parameterized over parameter expressions. See ParamSpec and PEP 612 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/] for more details.

A user-defined generic class can have ABCs as base classes without a metaclass conflict. Generic metaclasses are not supported. The outcome of parameterizing generics is cached, and most types in the typing module are hashable and comparable for equality.

Le type Any

Un type particulier est Any. Un vérificateur de types statiques traite chaque type comme étant compatible avec Any et Any comme étant compatible avec chaque type.

This means that it is possible to perform any operation or method call on a value of type Any and assign it to any variable:

from typing import Any

a: Any = None
a = []          # OK
a = 2           # OK

s: str = ''
s = a           # OK

def foo(item: Any) -> int:
    # Passes type checking; 'item' could be any type,
    # and that type might have a 'bar' method
    item.bar()
    ...

Notice that no type checking is performed when assigning a value of type Any to a more precise type. For example, the static type checker did not report an error when assigning a to s even though s was declared to be of type str and receives an int value at runtime!

De plus, toutes les fonctions sans type de retour ni type de paramètre sont considérées comme utilisant Any implicitement par défaut :

def legacy_parser(text):
    ...
    return data

# A static type checker will treat the above
# as having the same signature as:
def legacy_parser(text: Any) -> Any:
    ...
    return data

Ce comportement permet à Any d'être utilisé comme succédané lorsque vous avez besoin de mélanger du code typé dynamiquement et statiquement.

Comparons le comportement de Any avec celui de object. De la même manière que pour Any, chaque type est un sous-type de object. Cependant, contrairement à Any, l'inverse n'est pas vrai : object n'est pas un sous-type de chaque autre type.

Cela signifie que lorsque le type d'une valeur est object, un vérificateur de types rejette presque toutes les opérations sur celle-ci, et l'affecter à une variable (ou l'utiliser comme une valeur de retour) d'un type plus spécialisé est une erreur de typage. Par exemple :

def hash_a(item: object) -> int:
    # Fails type checking; an object does not have a 'magic' method.
    item.magic()
    ...

def hash_b(item: Any) -> int:
    # Passes type checking
    item.magic()
    ...

# Passes type checking, since ints and strs are subclasses of object
hash_a(42)
hash_a("foo")

# Passes type checking, since Any is compatible with all types
hash_b(42)
hash_b("foo")

Utilisez object pour indiquer qu'une valeur peut être de n'importe quel type de manière sûre. Utiliser Any pour indiquer qu'une valeur est typée dynamiquement.

Sous-typage nominal et sous-typage structurel

Initially PEP 484 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/] defined the Python static type system as using nominal subtyping. This means that a class A is allowed where a class B is expected if and only if A is a subclass of B.

This requirement previously also applied to abstract base classes, such as Iterable. The problem with this approach is that a class had to be explicitly marked to support them, which is unpythonic and unlike what one would normally do in idiomatic dynamically typed Python code. For example, this conforms to PEP 484 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/]:

from collections.abc import Sized, Iterable, Iterator

class Bucket(Sized, Iterable[int]):
    ...
    def __len__(self) -> int: ...
    def __iter__(self) -> Iterator[int]: ...

PEP 544 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0544/] solves this problem by allowing users to write the above code without explicit base classes in the class definition, allowing Bucket to be implicitly considered a subtype of both Sized and Iterable[int] by static type checkers. This is known as structural subtyping (or static duck-typing):

from collections.abc import Iterator, Iterable

class Bucket:  # Note: no base classes
    ...
    def __len__(self) -> int: ...
    def __iter__(self) -> Iterator[int]: ...

def collect(items: Iterable[int]) -> int: ...
result = collect(Bucket())  # Passes type check

De plus, en sous-classant une classe spéciale Protocol, un utilisateur peut définir de nouveaux protocoles personnalisés pour profiter pleinement du sous-typage structurel (voir exemples ci-dessous).

Classe de données

The typing module defines the following classes, functions and decorators.

Special typing primitives

Special types

These can be used as types in annotations. They do not support subscription using [].

typing.Any

Type spécial indiquant un type non contraint.

Chaque type est compatible avec Any.

Any est compatible avec tous les types.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Any can now be used as a base class. This can be useful for avoiding type checker errors with classes that can duck type anywhere or are highly dynamic.

typing.AnyStr

A constrained type variable.

Definition:

AnyStr = TypeVar('AnyStr', str, bytes)

AnyStr is meant to be used for functions that may accept str or bytes arguments but cannot allow the two to mix.

Par exemple :

def concat(a: AnyStr, b: AnyStr) -> AnyStr:
    return a + b

concat("foo", "bar")    # OK, output has type 'str'
concat(b"foo", b"bar")  # OK, output has type 'bytes'
concat("foo", b"bar")   # Error, cannot mix str and bytes

Note that, despite its name, AnyStr has nothing to do with the Any type, nor does it mean "any string". In particular, AnyStr and str | bytes are different from each other and have different use cases:

# Invalid use of AnyStr:
# The type variable is used only once in the function signature,
# so cannot be "solved" by the type checker
def greet_bad(cond: bool) -> AnyStr:
    return "hi there!" if cond else b"greetings!"

# The better way of annotating this function:
def greet_proper(cond: bool) -> str | bytes:
    return "hi there!" if cond else b"greetings!"

Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.18: Deprecated in favor of the new type parameter syntax. Use class A[T: (str, bytes)]: ... instead of importing AnyStr. See PEP 695 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/] for more details.

In Python 3.16, AnyStr will be removed from typing.__all__, and deprecation warnings will be emitted at runtime when it is accessed or imported from typing. AnyStr will be removed from typing in Python 3.18.

typing.LiteralString

Special type that includes only literal strings.

Any string literal is compatible with LiteralString, as is another LiteralString. However, an object typed as just str is not. A string created by composing LiteralString-typed objects is also acceptable as a LiteralString.

Example:

def run_query(sql: LiteralString) -> None:
    ...

def caller(arbitrary_string: str, literal_string: LiteralString) -> None:
    run_query("SELECT * FROM students")  # OK
    run_query(literal_string)  # OK
    run_query("SELECT * FROM " + literal_string)  # OK
    run_query(arbitrary_string)  # type checker error
    run_query(  # type checker error
        f"SELECT * FROM students WHERE name = {arbitrary_string}"
    )

LiteralString is useful for sensitive APIs where arbitrary user-generated strings could generate problems. For example, the two cases above that generate type checker errors could be vulnerable to an SQL injection attack.

See PEP 675 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0675/] for more details.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

typing.Never

typing.NoReturn

Never and NoReturn represent the bottom type [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bottom_type], a type that has no members.

They can be used to indicate that a function never returns, such as sys.exit():

from typing import Never  # or NoReturn

def stop() -> Never:
    raise RuntimeError('no way')

Or to define a function that should never be called, as there are no valid arguments, such as assert_never():

from typing import Never  # or NoReturn

def never_call_me(arg: Never) -> None:
    pass

def int_or_str(arg: int | str) -> None:
    never_call_me(arg)  # type checker error
    match arg:
        case int():
            print("It's an int")
        case str():
            print("It's a str")
        case _:
            never_call_me(arg)  # OK, arg is of type Never (or NoReturn)

Never and NoReturn have the same meaning in the type system and static type checkers treat both equivalently.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.2: Added NoReturn.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11: Added Never.

typing.Self

Special type to represent the current enclosed class.

Par exemple :

from typing import Self, reveal_type

class Foo:
    def return_self(self) -> Self:
        ...
        return self

class SubclassOfFoo(Foo): pass

reveal_type(Foo().return_self())  # Revealed type is "Foo"
reveal_type(SubclassOfFoo().return_self())  # Revealed type is "SubclassOfFoo"

This annotation is semantically equivalent to the following, albeit in a more succinct fashion:

from typing import TypeVar

Self = TypeVar("Self", bound="Foo")

class Foo:
    def return_self(self: Self) -> Self:
        ...
        return self

In general, if something returns self, as in the above examples, you should use Self as the return annotation. If Foo.return_self was annotated as returning "Foo", then the type checker would infer the object returned from SubclassOfFoo.return_self as being of type Foo rather than SubclassOfFoo.

Other common use cases include:

classmethods that are used as alternative constructors and return instances of the cls parameter.

Annotating an __enter__() method which returns self.

You should not use Self as the return annotation if the method is not guaranteed to return an instance of a subclass when the class is subclassed:

class Eggs:
    # Self would be an incorrect return annotation here,
    # as the object returned is always an instance of Eggs,
    # even in subclasses
    def returns_eggs(self) -> "Eggs":
        return Eggs()

See PEP 673 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0673/] for more details.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

typing.TypeAlias

Special annotation for explicitly declaring a type alias.

Par exemple :

from typing import TypeAlias

Factors: TypeAlias = list[int]

TypeAlias is particularly useful on older Python versions for annotating aliases that make use of forward references, as it can be hard for type checkers to distinguish these from normal variable assignments:

from typing import Generic, TypeAlias, TypeVar

T = TypeVar("T")

# "Box" does not exist yet,
# so we have to use quotes for the forward reference on Python <3.12.
# Using ``TypeAlias`` tells the type checker that this is a type alias declaration,
# not a variable assignment to a string.
BoxOfStrings: TypeAlias = "Box[str]"

class Box(Generic[T]):
    @classmethod
    def make_box_of_strings(cls) -> BoxOfStrings: ...

See PEP 613 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0613/] for more details.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.12: TypeAlias is deprecated in favor of the type statement, which creates instances of TypeAliasType and which natively supports forward references. Note that while TypeAlias and TypeAliasType serve similar purposes and have similar names, they are distinct and the latter is not the type of the former. Removal of TypeAlias is not currently planned, but users are encouraged to migrate to type statements.

Special forms

These can be used as types in annotations. They all support subscription using [], but each has a unique syntax.

class typing.Union

Union type; Union[X, Y] is equivalent to X | Y and means either X or Y.

To define a union, use e.g. Union[int, str] or the shorthand int | str. Using that shorthand is recommended. Details:

Les arguments doivent être des types et il doit y en avoir au moins un.

Les unions d'unions sont aplanies, par exemple :

Union[Union[int, str], float] == Union[int, str, float]

However, this does not apply to unions referenced through a type alias, to avoid forcing evaluation of the underlying TypeAliasType:

type A = Union[int, str]
Union[A, float] != Union[int, str, float]

Les unions d'un seul argument disparaissent, par exemple :

Union[int] == int  # The constructor actually returns int

Les arguments redondants sont ignorés, par exemple :

Union[int, str, int] == Union[int, str] == int | str

Lors de la comparaison d'unions, l'ordre des arguments est ignoré, par exemple :

Union[int, str] == Union[str, int]

You cannot subclass or instantiate a Union.

Vous ne pouvez pas écrire Union[X][Y].

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Ne supprime pas les sous-classes explicites des unions à l'exécution.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Unions can now be written as X | Y. See union type expressions.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: types.UnionType is now an alias for Union, and both Union[int, str] and int | str create instances of the same class. To check whether an object is a Union at runtime, use isinstance(obj, Union). For compatibility with earlier versions of Python, use get_origin(obj) is typing.Union or get_origin(obj) is types.UnionType.

typing.Optional

Optional[X] is equivalent to X | None (or Union[X, None]).

Notez que ce n'est pas le même concept qu'un argument optionnel, qui est un argument qui possède une valeur par défaut. Un argument optionnel (qui a une valeur par défaut) ne nécessite pas, à ce titre, le qualificatif Optional sur son annotation de type. Par exemple :

def foo(arg: int = 0) -> None:
    ...

Par contre, si une valeur explicite de None est permise, l'utilisation de Optional est appropriée, que l'argument soit facultatif ou non. Par exemple :

def foo(arg: Optional[int] = None) -> None:
    ...

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Optional can now be written as X | None. See union type expressions.

typing.Concatenate

Special form for annotating higher-order functions.

Concatenate can be used in conjunction with Callable and ParamSpec to annotate a higher-order callable which adds, removes, or transforms parameters of another callable. Usage is in the form Concatenate[Arg1Type, Arg2Type, ..., ParamSpecVariable]. Concatenate is currently only valid when used as the first argument to a Callable. The last parameter to Concatenate must be a ParamSpec or ellipsis (...).

For example, to annotate a decorator with_lock which provides a threading.Lock to the decorated function, Concatenate can be used to indicate that with_lock expects a callable which takes in a Lock as the first argument, and returns a callable with a different type signature. In this case, the ParamSpec indicates that the returned callable's parameter types are dependent on the parameter types of the callable being passed in:

from collections.abc import Callable
from threading import Lock
from typing import Concatenate

# Use this lock to ensure that only one thread is executing a function
# at any time.
my_lock = Lock()

def with_lock[**P, R](f: Callable[Concatenate[Lock, P], R]) -> Callable[P, R]:
    '''A type-safe decorator which provides a lock.'''
    def inner(*args: P.args, **kwargs: P.kwargs) -> R:
        # Provide the lock as the first argument.
        return f(my_lock, *args, **kwargs)
    return inner

@with_lock
def sum_threadsafe(lock: Lock, numbers: list[float]) -> float:
    '''Add a list of numbers together in a thread-safe manner.'''
    with lock:
        return sum(numbers)

# We don't need to pass in the lock ourselves thanks to the decorator.
sum_threadsafe([1.1, 2.2, 3.3])

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

Voir aussi

PEP 612 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/] -- Parameter Specification Variables (the PEP which introduced ParamSpec and Concatenate)

ParamSpec

Annotating callable objects

typing.Literal

Special typing form to define "literal types".

Literal can be used to indicate to type checkers that the annotated object has a value equivalent to one of the provided literals.

Par exemple :

def validate_simple(data: Any) -> Literal[True]:  # always returns True
    ...

type Mode = Literal['r', 'rb', 'w', 'wb']
def open_helper(file: str, mode: Mode) -> str:
    ...

open_helper('/some/path', 'r')      # Passes type check
open_helper('/other/path', 'typo')  # Error in type checker

Literal[...] ne peut être sous-classé. Lors de l'exécution, une valeur arbitraire est autorisée comme argument de type pour Literal[...], mais les vérificateurs de type peuvent imposer des restrictions. Voir la PEP 586 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0586/] pour plus de détails sur les types littéraux.

Additional details:

The arguments must be literal values and there must be at least one.

Nested Literal types are flattened, e.g.:

assert Literal[Literal[1, 2], 3] == Literal[1, 2, 3]

However, this does not apply to Literal types referenced through a type alias, to avoid forcing evaluation of the underlying TypeAliasType:

type A = Literal[1, 2]
assert Literal[A, 3] != Literal[1, 2, 3]

Les arguments redondants sont ignorés, par exemple :

assert Literal[1, 2, 1] == Literal[1, 2]

When comparing literals, the argument order is ignored, e.g.:

assert Literal[1, 2] == Literal[2, 1]

You cannot subclass or instantiate a Literal.

You cannot write Literal[X][Y].

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

Modifié dans la version 3.9.1: Literal now de-duplicates parameters. Equality comparisons of Literal objects are no longer order dependent. Literal objects will now raise a TypeError exception during equality comparisons if one of their parameters are not hashable.

typing.ClassVar

Construction de type particulière pour indiquer les variables de classe.

Telle qu'introduite dans la PEP 526 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/], une annotation de variable enveloppée dans ClassVar indique qu'un attribut donné est destiné à être utilisé comme une variable de classe et ne doit pas être défini sur des instances de cette classe. Utilisation :

class Starship:
    stats: ClassVar[dict[str, int]] = {} # class variable
    damage: int = 10                     # instance variable

ClassVar n'accepte que les types et ne peut plus être dérivé.

ClassVar n'est pas une classe en soi, et ne devrait pas être utilisée avec isinstance() ou issubclass(). ClassVar ne modifie pas le comportement d'exécution Python, mais il peut être utilisé par des vérificateurs tiers. Par exemple, un vérificateur de types peut marquer le code suivant comme une erreur :

enterprise_d = Starship(3000)
enterprise_d.stats = {} # Error, setting class variable on instance
Starship.stats = {}     # This is OK

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: ClassVar can now be nested in Final and vice versa.

typing.Final

Special typing construct to indicate final names to type checkers.

Final names cannot be reassigned in any scope. Final names declared in class scopes cannot be overridden in subclasses.

Par exemple :

MAX_SIZE: Final = 9000
MAX_SIZE += 1  # Error reported by type checker

class Connection:
    TIMEOUT: Final[int] = 10

class FastConnector(Connection):
    TIMEOUT = 1  # Error reported by type checker

Ces propriétés ne sont pas vérifiées à l'exécution. Voir la PEP 591 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0591/] pour plus de détails.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Final can now be nested in ClassVar and vice versa.

typing.Required

Special typing construct to mark a TypedDict key as required.

This is mainly useful for total=False TypedDicts. See TypedDict and PEP 655 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0655/] for more details.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

typing.NotRequired

Special typing construct to mark a TypedDict key as potentially missing.

See TypedDict and PEP 655 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0655/] for more details.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

typing.ReadOnly

A special typing construct to mark an item of a TypedDict as read-only.

Par exemple :

class Movie(TypedDict):
   title: ReadOnly[str]
   year: int

def mutate_movie(m: Movie) -> None:
   m["year"] = 1999  # allowed
   m["title"] = "The Matrix"  # typechecker error

There is no runtime checking for this property.

See TypedDict and PEP 705 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0705/] for more details.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

typing.Annotated

Special typing form to add context-specific metadata to an annotation.

Add metadata x to a given type T by using the annotation Annotated[T, x]. Metadata added using Annotated can be used by static analysis tools or at runtime. At runtime, the metadata is stored in a __metadata__ attribute.

If a library or tool encounters an annotation Annotated[T, x] and has no special logic for the metadata, it should ignore the metadata and simply treat the annotation as T. As such, Annotated can be useful for code that wants to use annotations for purposes outside Python's static typing system.

Using Annotated[T, x] as an annotation still allows for static typechecking of T, as type checkers will simply ignore the metadata x. In this way, Annotated differs from the @no_type_check decorator, which can also be used for adding annotations outside the scope of the typing system, but completely disables typechecking for a function or class.

The responsibility of how to interpret the metadata lies with the tool or library encountering an Annotated annotation. A tool or library encountering an Annotated type can scan through the metadata elements to determine if they are of interest (e.g., using isinstance()).

Annotated[<type>, <metadata>]

Here is an example of how you might use Annotated to add metadata to type annotations if you were doing range analysis:

@dataclass
class ValueRange:
    lo: int
    hi: int

T1 = Annotated[int, ValueRange(-10, 5)]
T2 = Annotated[T1, ValueRange(-20, 3)]

The first argument to Annotated must be a valid type. Multiple metadata elements can be supplied as Annotated supports variadic arguments. The order of the metadata elements is preserved and matters for equality checks:

@dataclass
class ctype:
     kind: str

a1 = Annotated[int, ValueRange(3, 10), ctype("char")]
a2 = Annotated[int, ctype("char"), ValueRange(3, 10)]

assert a1 != a2  # Order matters

It is up to the tool consuming the annotations to decide whether the client is allowed to add multiple metadata elements to one annotation and how to merge those annotations.

Nested Annotated types are flattened. The order of the metadata elements starts with the innermost annotation:

assert Annotated[Annotated[int, ValueRange(3, 10)], ctype("char")] == Annotated[
    int, ValueRange(3, 10), ctype("char")
]

However, this does not apply to Annotated types referenced through a type alias, to avoid forcing evaluation of the underlying TypeAliasType:

type From3To10[T] = Annotated[T, ValueRange(3, 10)]
assert Annotated[From3To10[int], ctype("char")] != Annotated[
   int, ValueRange(3, 10), ctype("char")
]

Duplicated metadata elements are not removed:

assert Annotated[int, ValueRange(3, 10)] != Annotated[
    int, ValueRange(3, 10), ValueRange(3, 10)
]

Annotated can be used with nested and generic aliases:

@dataclass
class MaxLen:
    value: int

type Vec[T] = Annotated[list[tuple[T, T]], MaxLen(10)]

# When used in a type annotation, a type checker will treat "V" the same as
# ``Annotated[list[tuple[int, int]], MaxLen(10)]``:
type V = Vec[int]

Annotated cannot be used with an unpacked TypeVarTuple:

type Variadic[*Ts] = Annotated[*Ts, Ann1] = Annotated[T1, T2, T3, ..., Ann1]  # NOT valid

where T1, T2, ... are TypeVars. This is invalid as only one type should be passed to Annotated.

By default, get_type_hints() strips the metadata from annotations. Pass include_extras=True to have the metadata preserved:

>>> from typing import Annotated, get_type_hints
>>> def func(x: Annotated[int, "metadata"]) -> None: pass
...
>>> get_type_hints(func)
{'x': <class 'int'>, 'return': <class 'NoneType'>}
>>> get_type_hints(func, include_extras=True)
{'x': typing.Annotated[int, 'metadata'], 'return': <class 'NoneType'>}

At runtime, the metadata associated with an Annotated type can be retrieved via the __metadata__ attribute:

>>> from typing import Annotated
>>> X = Annotated[int, "very", "important", "metadata"]
>>> X
typing.Annotated[int, 'very', 'important', 'metadata']
>>> X.__metadata__
('very', 'important', 'metadata')

If you want to retrieve the original type wrapped by Annotated, use the __origin__ attribute:

>>> from typing import Annotated, get_origin
>>> Password = Annotated[str, "secret"]
>>> Password.__origin__
<class 'str'>

Note that using get_origin() will return Annotated itself:

>>> get_origin(Password)
typing.Annotated

Voir aussi

PEP 593 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0593/] - Flexible function and variable annotations

The PEP introducing Annotated to the standard library.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

typing.TypeIs

Special typing construct for marking user-defined type predicate functions.

TypeIs can be used to annotate the return type of a user-defined type predicate function. TypeIs only accepts a single type argument. At runtime, functions marked this way should return a boolean and take at least one positional argument.

TypeIs aims to benefit type narrowing -- a technique used by static type checkers to determine a more precise type of an expression within a program's code flow. Usually type narrowing is done by analyzing conditional code flow and applying the narrowing to a block of code. The conditional expression here is sometimes referred to as a "type predicate":

def is_str(val: str | float):
    # "isinstance" type predicate
    if isinstance(val, str):
        # Type of ``val`` is narrowed to ``str``
        ...
    else:
        # Else, type of ``val`` is narrowed to ``float``.
        ...

Sometimes it would be convenient to use a user-defined boolean function as a type predicate. Such a function should use TypeIs[...] or TypeGuard as its return type to alert static type checkers to this intention. TypeIs usually has more intuitive behavior than TypeGuard, but it cannot be used when the input and output types are incompatible (e.g., list[object] to list[int]) or when the function does not return True for all instances of the narrowed type.

Using -> TypeIs[NarrowedType] tells the static type checker that for a given function:

The return value is a boolean.

If the return value is True, the type of its argument is the intersection of the argument's original type and NarrowedType.

If the return value is False, the type of its argument is narrowed to exclude NarrowedType.

Par exemple :

from typing import assert_type, final, TypeIs

class Parent: pass
class Child(Parent): pass
@final
class Unrelated: pass

def is_parent(val: object) -> TypeIs[Parent]:
    return isinstance(val, Parent)

def run(arg: Child | Unrelated):
    if is_parent(arg):
        # Type of ``arg`` is narrowed to the intersection
        # of ``Parent`` and ``Child``, which is equivalent to
        # ``Child``.
        assert_type(arg, Child)
    else:
        # Type of ``arg`` is narrowed to exclude ``Parent``,
        # so only ``Unrelated`` is left.
        assert_type(arg, Unrelated)

The type inside TypeIs must be consistent with the type of the function's argument; if it is not, static type checkers will raise an error. An incorrectly written TypeIs function can lead to unsound behavior in the type system; it is the user's responsibility to write such functions in a type-safe manner.

If a TypeIs function is a class or instance method, then the type in TypeIs maps to the type of the second parameter (after cls or self).

In short, the form def foo(arg: TypeA) -> TypeIs[TypeB]: ..., means that if foo(arg) returns True, then arg is an instance of TypeB, and if it returns False, it is not an instance of TypeB.

TypeIs also works with type variables. For more information, see PEP 742 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0742/] (Narrowing types with TypeIs).

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

typing.TypeGuard

Special typing construct for marking user-defined type predicate functions.

Type predicate functions are user-defined functions that return whether their argument is an instance of a particular type. TypeGuard works similarly to TypeIs, but has subtly different effects on type checking behavior (see below).

Using -> TypeGuard tells the static type checker that for a given function:

The return value is a boolean.

If the return value is True, the type of its argument is the type inside TypeGuard.

TypeGuard also works with type variables. See PEP 647 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0647/] for more details.

Par exemple :

def is_str_list(val: list[object]) -> TypeGuard[list[str]]:
    '''Determines whether all objects in the list are strings'''
    return all(isinstance(x, str) for x in val)

def func1(val: list[object]):
    if is_str_list(val):
        # Type of ``val`` is narrowed to ``list[str]``.
        print(" ".join(val))
    else:
        # Type of ``val`` remains as ``list[object]``.
        print("Not a list of strings!")

TypeIs and TypeGuard differ in the following ways:

TypeIs requires the narrowed type to be a subtype of the input type, while TypeGuard does not. The main reason is to allow for things like narrowing list[object] to list[str] even though the latter is not a subtype of the former, since list is invariant.

When a TypeGuard function returns True, type checkers narrow the type of the variable to exactly the TypeGuard type. When a TypeIs function returns True, type checkers can infer a more precise type combining the previously known type of the variable with the TypeIs type. (Technically, this is known as an intersection type.)

When a TypeGuard function returns False, type checkers cannot narrow the type of the variable at all. When a TypeIs function returns False, type checkers can narrow the type of the variable to exclude the TypeIs type.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

typing.Unpack

Typing operator to conceptually mark an object as having been unpacked.

For example, using the unpack operator * on a type variable tuple is equivalent to using Unpack to mark the type variable tuple as having been unpacked:

Ts = TypeVarTuple('Ts')
tup: tuple[*Ts]
# Effectively does:
tup: tuple[Unpack[Ts]]

In fact, Unpack can be used interchangeably with * in the context of typing.TypeVarTuple and builtins.tuple types. You might see Unpack being used explicitly in older versions of Python, where * couldn't be used in certain places:

# In older versions of Python, TypeVarTuple and Unpack
# are located in the `typing_extensions` backports package.
from typing_extensions import TypeVarTuple, Unpack

Ts = TypeVarTuple('Ts')
tup: tuple[*Ts]         # Syntax error on Python <= 3.10!
tup: tuple[Unpack[Ts]]  # Semantically equivalent, and backwards-compatible

Unpack can also be used along with typing.TypedDict for typing **kwargs in a function signature:

from typing import TypedDict, Unpack

class Movie(TypedDict):
    name: str
    year: int

# This function expects two keyword arguments - `name` of type `str`
# and `year` of type `int`.
def foo(**kwargs: Unpack[Movie]): ...

See PEP 692 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0692/] for more details on using Unpack for **kwargs typing.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

Building generic types and type aliases

The following classes should not be used directly as annotations. Their intended purpose is to be building blocks for creating generic types and type aliases.

These objects can be created through special syntax (type parameter lists and the type statement). For compatibility with Python 3.11 and earlier, they can also be created without the dedicated syntax, as documented below.

class typing.Generic

Classe de base abstraite pour les types génériques.

A generic type is typically declared by adding a list of type parameters after the class name:

class Mapping[KT, VT]:
    def __getitem__(self, key: KT) -> VT:
        ...
        # Etc.

Such a class implicitly inherits from Generic. The runtime semantics of this syntax are discussed in the Language Reference.

Cette classe peut alors être utilisée comme suit :

def lookup_name[X, Y](mapping: Mapping[X, Y], key: X, default: Y) -> Y:
    try:
        return mapping[key]
    except KeyError:
        return default

Here the brackets after the function name indicate a generic function.

For backwards compatibility, generic classes can also be declared by explicitly inheriting from Generic. In this case, the type parameters must be declared separately:

KT = TypeVar('KT')
VT = TypeVar('VT')

class Mapping(Generic[KT, VT]):
    def __getitem__(self, key: KT) -> VT:
        ...
        # Etc.

class typing.TypeVar(name, *constraints, bound=None, covariant=False, contravariant=False, infer_variance=False, default=typing.NoDefault)

Variables de type.

The preferred way to construct a type variable is via the dedicated syntax for generic functions, generic classes, and generic type aliases:

class Sequence[T]:  # T is a TypeVar
    ...

This syntax can also be used to create bounded and constrained type variables:

class StrSequence[S: str]:  # S is a TypeVar with a `str` upper bound;
    ...                     # we can say that S is "bounded by `str`"

class StrOrBytesSequence[A: (str, bytes)]:  # A is a TypeVar constrained to str or bytes
    ...

However, if desired, reusable type variables can also be constructed manually, like so:

T = TypeVar('T')  # Can be anything
S = TypeVar('S', bound=str)  # Can be any subtype of str
A = TypeVar('A', str, bytes)  # Must be exactly str or bytes

Type variables exist primarily for the benefit of static type checkers. They serve as the parameters for generic types as well as for generic function and type alias definitions. See Generic for more information on generic types. Generic functions work as follows:

def repeat[T](x: T, n: int) -> Sequence[T]:
    """Return a list containing n references to x."""
    return [x]*n

def print_capitalized[S: str](x: S) -> S:
    """Print x capitalized, and return x."""
    print(x.capitalize())
    return x

def concatenate[A: (str, bytes)](x: A, y: A) -> A:
    """Add two strings or bytes objects together."""
    return x + y

Note that type variables can be bounded, constrained, or neither, but cannot be both bounded and constrained.

The variance of type variables is inferred by type checkers when they are created through the type parameter syntax or when infer_variance=True is passed. Manually created type variables may be explicitly marked covariant or contravariant by passing covariant=True or contravariant=True. By default, manually created type variables are invariant. See PEP 484 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/] and PEP 695 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/] for more details.

Bounded type variables and constrained type variables have different semantics in several important ways. Using a bounded type variable means that the TypeVar will be solved using the most specific type possible:

x = print_capitalized('a string')
reveal_type(x)  # revealed type is str

class StringSubclass(str):
    pass

y = print_capitalized(StringSubclass('another string'))
reveal_type(y)  # revealed type is StringSubclass

z = print_capitalized(45)  # error: int is not a subtype of str

The upper bound of a type variable can be a concrete type, abstract type (ABC or Protocol), or even a union of types:

# Can be anything with an __abs__ method
def print_abs[T: SupportsAbs](arg: T) -> None:
    print("Absolute value:", abs(arg))

U = TypeVar('U', bound=str|bytes)  # Can be any subtype of the union str|bytes
V = TypeVar('V', bound=SupportsAbs)  # Can be anything with an __abs__ method

Using a constrained type variable, however, means that the TypeVar can only ever be solved as being exactly one of the constraints given:

a = concatenate('one', 'two')
reveal_type(a)  # revealed type is str

b = concatenate(StringSubclass('one'), StringSubclass('two'))
reveal_type(b)  # revealed type is str, despite StringSubclass being passed in

c = concatenate('one', b'two')  # error: type variable 'A' can be either str or bytes in a function call, but not both

At runtime, isinstance(x, T) will raise TypeError.

__name__

The name of the type variable.

__covariant__

Whether the type var has been explicitly marked as covariant.

__contravariant__

Whether the type var has been explicitly marked as contravariant.

__infer_variance__

Whether the type variable's variance should be inferred by type checkers.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

__bound__

The upper bound of the type variable, if any.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: For type variables created through type parameter syntax, the bound is evaluated only when the attribute is accessed, not when the type variable is created (see Lazy evaluation).

evaluate_bound()

An evaluate function corresponding to the __bound__ attribute. When called directly, this method supports only the VALUE format, which is equivalent to accessing the __bound__ attribute directly, but the method object can be passed to annotationlib.call_evaluate_function() to evaluate the value in a different format.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

__constraints__

A tuple containing the constraints of the type variable, if any.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: For type variables created through type parameter syntax, the constraints are evaluated only when the attribute is accessed, not when the type variable is created (see Lazy evaluation).

evaluate_constraints()

An evaluate function corresponding to the __constraints__ attribute. When called directly, this method supports only the VALUE format, which is equivalent to accessing the __constraints__ attribute directly, but the method object can be passed to annotationlib.call_evaluate_function() to evaluate the value in a different format.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

__default__

The default value of the type variable, or typing.NoDefault if it has no default.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

evaluate_default()

An evaluate function corresponding to the __default__ attribute. When called directly, this method supports only the VALUE format, which is equivalent to accessing the __default__ attribute directly, but the method object can be passed to annotationlib.call_evaluate_function() to evaluate the value in a different format.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

has_default()

Return whether or not the type variable has a default value. This is equivalent to checking whether __default__ is not the typing.NoDefault singleton, except that it does not force evaluation of the lazily evaluated default value.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Type variables can now be declared using the type parameter syntax introduced by PEP 695 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/]. The infer_variance parameter was added.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Support for default values was added.

class typing.TypeVarTuple(name, *, default=typing.NoDefault)

Type variable tuple. A specialized form of type variable that enables variadic generics.

Type variable tuples can be declared in type parameter lists using a single asterisk (*) before the name:

def move_first_element_to_last[T, *Ts](tup: tuple[T, *Ts]) -> tuple[*Ts, T]:
    return (*tup[1:], tup[0])

Or by explicitly invoking the TypeVarTuple constructor:

T = TypeVar("T")
Ts = TypeVarTuple("Ts")

def move_first_element_to_last(tup: tuple[T, *Ts]) -> tuple[*Ts, T]:
    return (*tup[1:], tup[0])

A normal type variable enables parameterization with a single type. A type variable tuple, in contrast, allows parameterization with an arbitrary number of types by acting like an arbitrary number of type variables wrapped in a tuple. For example:

# T is bound to int, Ts is bound to ()
# Return value is (1,), which has type tuple[int]
move_first_element_to_last(tup=(1,))

# T is bound to int, Ts is bound to (str,)
# Return value is ('spam', 1), which has type tuple[str, int]
move_first_element_to_last(tup=(1, 'spam'))

# T is bound to int, Ts is bound to (str, float)
# Return value is ('spam', 3.0, 1), which has type tuple[str, float, int]
move_first_element_to_last(tup=(1, 'spam', 3.0))

# This fails to type check (and fails at runtime)
# because tuple[()] is not compatible with tuple[T, *Ts]
# (at least one element is required)
move_first_element_to_last(tup=())

Note the use of the unpacking operator * in tuple[T, *Ts]. Conceptually, you can think of Ts as a tuple of type variables (T1, T2, ...). tuple[T, *Ts] would then become tuple[T, *(T1, T2, ...)], which is equivalent to tuple[T, T1, T2, ...]. (Note that in older versions of Python, you might see this written using Unpack instead, as Unpack[Ts].)

Type variable tuples must always be unpacked. This helps distinguish type variable tuples from normal type variables:

x: Ts          # Not valid
x: tuple[Ts]   # Not valid
x: tuple[*Ts]  # The correct way to do it

Type variable tuples can be used in the same contexts as normal type variables. For example, in class definitions, arguments, and return types:

class Array[*Shape]:
    def __getitem__(self, key: tuple[*Shape]) -> float: ...
    def __abs__(self) -> "Array[*Shape]": ...
    def get_shape(self) -> tuple[*Shape]: ...

Type variable tuples can be happily combined with normal type variables:

class Array[DType, *Shape]:  # This is fine
    pass

class Array2[*Shape, DType]:  # This would also be fine
    pass

class Height: ...
class Width: ...

float_array_1d: Array[float, Height] = Array()     # Totally fine
int_array_2d: Array[int, Height, Width] = Array()  # Yup, fine too

However, note that at most one type variable tuple may appear in a single list of type arguments or type parameters:

x: tuple[*Ts, *Ts]            # Not valid
class Array[*Shape, *Shape]:  # Not valid
    pass

Finally, an unpacked type variable tuple can be used as the type annotation of *args:

def call_soon[*Ts](
    callback: Callable[[*Ts], None],
    *args: *Ts
) -> None:
    ...
    callback(*args)

In contrast to non-unpacked annotations of *args - e.g. *args: int, which would specify that all arguments are int - *args: *Ts enables reference to the types of the individual arguments in *args. Here, this allows us to ensure the types of the *args passed to call_soon match the types of the (positional) arguments of callback.

See PEP 646 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0646/] for more details on type variable tuples.

__name__

The name of the type variable tuple.

__default__

The default value of the type variable tuple, or typing.NoDefault if it has no default.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

evaluate_default()

An evaluate function corresponding to the __default__ attribute. When called directly, this method supports only the VALUE format, which is equivalent to accessing the __default__ attribute directly, but the method object can be passed to annotationlib.call_evaluate_function() to evaluate the value in a different format.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

has_default()

Return whether or not the type variable tuple has a default value. This is equivalent to checking whether __default__ is not the typing.NoDefault singleton, except that it does not force evaluation of the lazily evaluated default value.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Type variable tuples can now be declared using the type parameter syntax introduced by PEP 695 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/].

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Support for default values was added.

class typing.ParamSpec(name, *, bound=None, covariant=False, contravariant=False, default=typing.NoDefault)

Parameter specification variable. A specialized version of type variables.

In type parameter lists, parameter specifications can be declared with two asterisks (**):

type IntFunc[**P] = Callable[P, int]

For compatibility with Python 3.11 and earlier, ParamSpec objects can also be created as follows:

P = ParamSpec('P')

Parameter specification variables exist primarily for the benefit of static type checkers. They are used to forward the parameter types of one callable to another callable -- a pattern commonly found in higher order functions and decorators. They are only valid when used in Concatenate, or as the first argument to Callable, or as parameters for user-defined Generics. See Generic for more information on generic types.

For example, to add basic logging to a function, one can create a decorator add_logging to log function calls. The parameter specification variable tells the type checker that the callable passed into the decorator and the new callable returned by it have inter-dependent type parameters:

from collections.abc import Callable
import logging

def add_logging[T, **P](f: Callable[P, T]) -> Callable[P, T]:
    '''A type-safe decorator to add logging to a function.'''
    def inner(*args: P.args, **kwargs: P.kwargs) -> T:
        logging.info(f'{f.__name__} was called')
        return f(*args, **kwargs)
    return inner

@add_logging
def add_two(x: float, y: float) -> float:
    '''Add two numbers together.'''
    return x + y

Without ParamSpec, the simplest way to annotate this previously was to use a TypeVar with upper bound Callable[..., Any]. However this causes two problems:

The type checker can't type check the inner function because *args and **kwargs have to be typed Any.

cast() may be required in the body of the add_logging decorator when returning the inner function, or the static type checker must be told to ignore the return inner.

args

kwargs

Since ParamSpec captures both positional and keyword parameters, P.args and P.kwargs can be used to split a ParamSpec into its components. P.args represents the tuple of positional parameters in a given call and should only be used to annotate *args. P.kwargs represents the mapping of keyword parameters to their values in a given call, and should be only be used to annotate **kwargs. Both attributes require the annotated parameter to be in scope. At runtime, P.args and P.kwargs are instances respectively of ParamSpecArgs and ParamSpecKwargs.

__name__

The name of the parameter specification.

__default__

The default value of the parameter specification, or typing.NoDefault if it has no default.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

evaluate_default()

An evaluate function corresponding to the __default__ attribute. When called directly, this method supports only the VALUE format, which is equivalent to accessing the __default__ attribute directly, but the method object can be passed to annotationlib.call_evaluate_function() to evaluate the value in a different format.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

has_default()

Return whether or not the parameter specification has a default value. This is equivalent to checking whether __default__ is not the typing.NoDefault singleton, except that it does not force evaluation of the lazily evaluated default value.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Parameter specification variables created with covariant=True or contravariant=True can be used to declare covariant or contravariant generic types. The bound argument is also accepted, similar to TypeVar. However the actual semantics of these keywords are yet to be decided.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Parameter specifications can now be declared using the type parameter syntax introduced by PEP 695 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/].

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Support for default values was added.

Note

Only parameter specification variables defined in global scope can be pickled.

Voir aussi

PEP 612 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/] -- Parameter Specification Variables (the PEP which introduced ParamSpec and Concatenate)

Concatenate

Annotating callable objects

typing.ParamSpecArgs

typing.ParamSpecKwargs

Arguments and keyword arguments attributes of a ParamSpec. The P.args attribute of a ParamSpec is an instance of ParamSpecArgs, and P.kwargs is an instance of ParamSpecKwargs. They are intended for runtime introspection and have no special meaning to static type checkers.

Calling get_origin() on either of these objects will return the original ParamSpec:

>>> from typing import ParamSpec, get_origin
>>> P = ParamSpec("P")
>>> get_origin(P.args) is P
True
>>> get_origin(P.kwargs) is P
True

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

class typing.TypeAliasType(name, value, *, type_params=())

The type of type aliases created through the type statement.

Example:

>>> type Alias = int
>>> type(Alias)
<class 'typing.TypeAliasType'>

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

__name__

The name of the type alias:

>>> type Alias = int
>>> Alias.__name__
'Alias'

__module__

The name of the module in which the type alias was defined:

>>> type Alias = int
>>> Alias.__module__
'__main__'

__type_params__

The type parameters of the type alias, or an empty tuple if the alias is not generic:

>>> type ListOrSet[T] = list[T] | set[T]
>>> ListOrSet.__type_params__
(T,)
>>> type NotGeneric = int
>>> NotGeneric.__type_params__
()

__value__

The type alias's value. This is lazily evaluated, so names used in the definition of the alias are not resolved until the __value__ attribute is accessed:

>>> type Mutually = Recursive
>>> type Recursive = Mutually
>>> Mutually
Mutually
>>> Recursive
Recursive
>>> Mutually.__value__
Recursive
>>> Recursive.__value__
Mutually

evaluate_value()

An evaluate function corresponding to the __value__ attribute. When called directly, this method supports only the VALUE format, which is equivalent to accessing the __value__ attribute directly, but the method object can be passed to annotationlib.call_evaluate_function() to evaluate the value in a different format:

>>> type Alias = undefined
>>> Alias.__value__
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
NameError: name 'undefined' is not defined
>>> from annotationlib import Format, call_evaluate_function
>>> Alias.evaluate_value(Format.VALUE)
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
NameError: name 'undefined' is not defined
>>> call_evaluate_function(Alias.evaluate_value, Format.FORWARDREF)
ForwardRef('undefined')

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Unpacking

Type aliases support star unpacking using the *Alias syntax. This is equivalent to using Unpack[Alias] directly:

>>> type Alias = tuple[int, str]
>>> type Unpacked = tuple[bool, *Alias]
>>> Unpacked.__value__
tuple[bool, typing.Unpack[Alias]]

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Other special directives

These functions and classes should not be used directly as annotations. Their intended purpose is to be building blocks for creating and declaring types.

class typing.NamedTuple

Version typée de collections.namedtuple().

Utilisation :

class Employee(NamedTuple):
    name: str
    id: int

Ce qui est équivalent à :

Employee = collections.namedtuple('Employee', ['name', 'id'])

Pour assigner une valeur par défaut à un champ, vous pouvez lui donner dans le corps de classe :

class Employee(NamedTuple):
    name: str
    id: int = 3

employee = Employee('Guido')
assert employee.id == 3

Les champs avec une valeur par défaut doivent venir après tous les champs sans valeur par défaut.

The resulting class has an extra attribute __annotations__ giving a dict that maps the field names to the field types. (The field names are in the _fields attribute and the default values are in the _field_defaults attribute, both of which are part of the namedtuple() API.)

Les sous-classes de NamedTuple peuvent aussi avoir des docstrings et des méthodes :

class Employee(NamedTuple):
    """Represents an employee."""
    name: str
    id: int = 3

    def __repr__(self) -> str:
        return f'<Employee {self.name}, id={self.id}>'

NamedTuple subclasses can be generic:

class Group[T](NamedTuple):
    key: T
    group: list[T]

Utilisation rétrocompatible :

# For creating a generic NamedTuple on Python 3.11
T = TypeVar("T")

class Group(NamedTuple, Generic[T]):
    key: T
    group: list[T]

# A functional syntax is also supported
Employee = NamedTuple('Employee', [('name', str), ('id', int)])

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Ajout de la gestion de la syntaxe d'annotation variable de la PEP 526 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/].

Modifié dans la version 3.6.1: Ajout de la prise en charge des valeurs par défaut, des méthodes et des chaînes de caractères docstrings.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Les attributs _field_types et __annotations__ sont maintenant des dictionnaires standards au lieu d'instances de OrderedDict.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: rend l'attribut _field_types obsolète en faveur de l'attribut plus standard __annotations__ qui a la même information.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: NamedTuple is now a function rather than a class. It can still be used as a class base, as described above.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added support for generic namedtuples.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Using super() (and the __class__ closure variable) in methods of NamedTuple subclasses is unsupported and causes a TypeError.

Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: The undocumented keyword argument syntax for creating NamedTuple classes (NT = NamedTuple("NT", x=int)) is deprecated, and will be disallowed in 3.15. Use the class-based syntax or the functional syntax instead.

Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: When using the functional syntax to create a NamedTuple class, failing to pass a value to the 'fields' parameter (NT = NamedTuple("NT")) is deprecated. Passing None to the 'fields' parameter (NT = NamedTuple("NT", None)) is also deprecated. Both will be disallowed in Python 3.15. To create a NamedTuple class with 0 fields, use class NT(NamedTuple): pass or NT = NamedTuple("NT", []).

class typing.NewType(name, tp)

Helper class to create low-overhead distinct types.

A NewType is considered a distinct type by a typechecker. At runtime, however, calling a NewType returns its argument unchanged.

Utilisation :

UserId = NewType('UserId', int)  # Declare the NewType "UserId"
first_user = UserId(1)  # "UserId" returns the argument unchanged at runtime

__module__

The name of the module in which the new type is defined.

__name__

The name of the new type.

__supertype__

The type that the new type is based on.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: NewType is now a class rather than a function.

class typing.Protocol(Generic)

Base class for protocol classes.

Protocol classes are defined like this:

class Proto(Protocol):
    def meth(self) -> int:
        ...

Ces classes sont principalement utilisées avec les vérificateurs statiques de type qui reconnaissent les sous-types structurels (typage canard statique), par exemple :

class C:
    def meth(self) -> int:
        return 0

def func(x: Proto) -> int:
    return x.meth()

func(C())  # Passes static type check

See PEP 544 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0544/] for more details. Protocol classes decorated with runtime_checkable() (described later) act as simple-minded runtime protocols that check only the presence of given attributes, ignoring their type signatures. Protocol classes without this decorator cannot be used as the second argument to isinstance() or issubclass().

Les classes de protocole peuvent être génériques, par exemple :

class GenProto[T](Protocol):
    def meth(self) -> T:
        ...

In code that needs to be compatible with Python 3.11 or older, generic Protocols can be written as follows:

T = TypeVar("T")

class GenProto(Protocol[T]):
    def meth(self) -> T:
        ...

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

@typing.runtime_checkable

Marquez une classe de protocole comme protocole d'exécution.

Such a protocol can be used with isinstance() and issubclass(). This allows a simple-minded structural check, very similar to "one trick ponies" in collections.abc such as Iterable. For example:

@runtime_checkable
class Closable(Protocol):
    def close(self): ...

assert isinstance(open('/some/file'), Closable)

@runtime_checkable
class Named(Protocol):
    name: str

import threading
assert isinstance(threading.Thread(name='Bob'), Named)

This decorator raises TypeError when applied to a non-protocol class.

Note

runtime_checkable() will check only the presence of the required methods or attributes, not their type signatures or types. For example, ssl.SSLObject is a class, therefore it passes an issubclass() check against Callable. However, the ssl.SSLObject.__init__ method exists only to raise a TypeError with a more informative message, therefore making it impossible to call (instantiate) ssl.SSLObject.

Note

An isinstance() check against a runtime-checkable protocol can be surprisingly slow compared to an isinstance() check against a non-protocol class. Consider using alternative idioms such as hasattr() calls for structural checks in performance-sensitive code.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: The internal implementation of isinstance() checks against runtime-checkable protocols now uses inspect.getattr_static() to look up attributes (previously, hasattr() was used). As a result, some objects which used to be considered instances of a runtime-checkable protocol may no longer be considered instances of that protocol on Python 3.12+, and vice versa. Most users are unlikely to be affected by this change.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: The members of a runtime-checkable protocol are now considered "frozen" at runtime as soon as the class has been created. Monkey-patching attributes onto a runtime-checkable protocol will still work, but will have no impact on isinstance() checks comparing objects to the protocol. See What's new in Python 3.12 for more details.

class typing.TypedDict(dict)

Special construct to add type hints to a dictionary. At runtime "TypedDict instances" are simply dicts.

TypedDict declares a dictionary type that expects all of its instances to have a certain set of keys, where each key is associated with a value of a consistent type. This expectation is not checked at runtime but is only enforced by type checkers. Usage:

class Point2D(TypedDict):
    x: int
    y: int
    label: str

a: Point2D = {'x': 1, 'y': 2, 'label': 'good'}  # OK
b: Point2D = {'z': 3, 'label': 'bad'}           # Fails type check

assert Point2D(x=1, y=2, label='first') == dict(x=1, y=2, label='first')

An alternative way to create a TypedDict is by using function-call syntax. The second argument must be a literal dict:

Point2D = TypedDict('Point2D', {'x': int, 'y': int, 'label': str})

This functional syntax allows defining keys which are not valid identifiers, for example because they are keywords or contain hyphens, or when key names must not be mangled like regular private names:

# raises SyntaxError
class Point2D(TypedDict):
    in: int  # 'in' is a keyword
    x-y: int  # name with hyphens

class Definition(TypedDict):
    __schema: str  # mangled to `_Definition__schema`

# OK, functional syntax
Point2D = TypedDict('Point2D', {'in': int, 'x-y': int})
Definition = TypedDict('Definition', {'__schema': str})  # not mangled

By default, all keys must be present in a TypedDict. It is possible to mark individual keys as non-required using NotRequired:

class Point2D(TypedDict):
    x: int
    y: int
    label: NotRequired[str]

# Alternative syntax
Point2D = TypedDict('Point2D', {'x': int, 'y': int, 'label': NotRequired[str]})

This means that a Point2D TypedDict can have the label key omitted.

It is also possible to mark all keys as non-required by default by specifying a totality of False:

class Point2D(TypedDict, total=False):
    x: int
    y: int

# Alternative syntax
Point2D = TypedDict('Point2D', {'x': int, 'y': int}, total=False)

This means that a Point2D TypedDict can have any of the keys omitted. A type checker is only expected to support a literal False or True as the value of the total argument. True is the default, and makes all items defined in the class body required.

Individual keys of a total=False TypedDict can be marked as required using Required:

class Point2D(TypedDict, total=False):
    x: Required[int]
    y: Required[int]
    label: str

# Alternative syntax
Point2D = TypedDict('Point2D', {
    'x': Required[int],
    'y': Required[int],
    'label': str
}, total=False)

It is possible for a TypedDict type to inherit from one or more other TypedDict types using the class-based syntax. Usage:

class Point3D(Point2D):
    z: int

Point3D has three items: x, y and z. It is equivalent to this definition:

class Point3D(TypedDict):
    x: int
    y: int
    z: int

A TypedDict cannot inherit from a non-TypedDict class, except for Generic. For example:

class X(TypedDict):
    x: int

class Y(TypedDict):
    y: int

class Z(object): pass  # A non-TypedDict class

class XY(X, Y): pass  # OK

class XZ(X, Z): pass  # raises TypeError

A TypedDict can be generic:

class Group[T](TypedDict):
    key: T
    group: list[T]

To create a generic TypedDict that is compatible with Python 3.11 or lower, inherit from Generic explicitly:

T = TypeVar("T")

class Group(TypedDict, Generic[T]):
    key: T
    group: list[T]

A TypedDict can be introspected via annotations dicts (see Bonnes pratiques concernant les annotations for more information on annotations best practices), __total__, __required_keys__, and __optional_keys__.

__total__

Point2D.__total__ gives the value of the total argument. Example:

>>> from typing import TypedDict
>>> class Point2D(TypedDict): pass
>>> Point2D.__total__
True
>>> class Point2D(TypedDict, total=False): pass
>>> Point2D.__total__
False
>>> class Point3D(Point2D): pass
>>> Point3D.__total__
True

This attribute reflects only the value of the total argument to the current TypedDict class, not whether the class is semantically total. For example, a TypedDict with __total__ set to True may have keys marked with NotRequired, or it may inherit from another TypedDict with total=False. Therefore, it is generally better to use __required_keys__ and __optional_keys__ for introspection.

__required_keys__

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

__optional_keys__

Point2D.__required_keys__ and Point2D.__optional_keys__ return frozenset objects containing required and non-required keys, respectively.

Keys marked with Required will always appear in __required_keys__ and keys marked with NotRequired will always appear in __optional_keys__.

For backwards compatibility with Python 3.10 and below, it is also possible to use inheritance to declare both required and non-required keys in the same TypedDict . This is done by declaring a TypedDict with one value for the total argument and then inheriting from it in another TypedDict with a different value for total:

>>> class Point2D(TypedDict, total=False):
...     x: int
...     y: int
...
>>> class Point3D(Point2D):
...     z: int
...
>>> Point3D.__required_keys__ == frozenset({'z'})
True
>>> Point3D.__optional_keys__ == frozenset({'x', 'y'})
True

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

Note

If from __future__ import annotations is used or if annotations are given as strings, annotations are not evaluated when the TypedDict is defined. Therefore, the runtime introspection that __required_keys__ and __optional_keys__ rely on may not work properly, and the values of the attributes may be incorrect.

Support for ReadOnly is reflected in the following attributes:

__readonly_keys__

A frozenset containing the names of all read-only keys. Keys are read-only if they carry the ReadOnly qualifier.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

__mutable_keys__

A frozenset containing the names of all mutable keys. Keys are mutable if they do not carry the ReadOnly qualifier.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

See the TypedDict [https://typing.python.org/en/latest/spec/typeddict.html#typeddict] section in the typing documentation for more examples and detailed rules.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: TypedDict is now a function rather than a class. It can still be used as a class base, as described above.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added support for marking individual keys as Required or NotRequired. See PEP 655 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0655/].

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added support for generic TypedDicts.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Removed support for the keyword-argument method of creating TypedDicts.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Support for the ReadOnly qualifier was added.

Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: When using the functional syntax to create a TypedDict class, failing to pass a value to the 'fields' parameter (TD = TypedDict("TD")) is deprecated. Passing None to the 'fields' parameter (TD = TypedDict("TD", None)) is also deprecated. Both will be disallowed in Python 3.15. To create a TypedDict class with 0 fields, use class TD(TypedDict): pass or TD = TypedDict("TD", {}).

Protocoles

The following protocols are provided by the typing module. All are decorated with @runtime_checkable.

class typing.SupportsAbs

Une ABC avec une méthode abstraite __abs__ qui est covariante dans son type de retour.

class typing.SupportsBytes

Une ABC avec une méthode abstraite __bytes__.

class typing.SupportsComplex

Une ABC avec une méthode abstraite __complex__.

class typing.SupportsFloat

Une ABC avec une méthode abstraite __float__.

class typing.SupportsIndex

Une ABC avec une méthode abstraite __index__.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

class typing.SupportsInt

Une ABC avec une méthode abstraite __int__.

class typing.SupportsRound

Une ABC avec une méthode abstraite __round__ qui est covariante dans son type de retour.

ABCs and Protocols for working with I/O

class typing.IO[AnyStr]

class typing.TextIO

class typing.BinaryIO

Generic class IO[AnyStr] and its subclasses TextIO(IO[str]) and BinaryIO(IO[bytes]) represent the types of I/O streams such as returned by open(). Please note that these classes are not protocols, and their interface is fairly broad.

The protocols io.Reader and io.Writer offer a simpler alternative for argument types, when only the read() or write() methods are accessed, respectively:

def read_and_write(reader: Reader[str], writer: Writer[bytes]):
    data = reader.read()
    writer.write(data.encode())

Also consider using collections.abc.Iterable for iterating over the lines of an input stream:

def read_config(stream: Iterable[str]):
    for line in stream:
        ...

Functions and decorators

typing.cast(typ, val)

Convertit une valeur en un type.

Ceci renvoie la valeur inchangée. Pour le vérificateur de types, cela signifie que la valeur de retour a le type désigné mais, à l'exécution, intentionnellement, rien n'est vérifié (afin que cela soit aussi rapide que possible).

typing.assert_type(val, typ, /)

Vérifie que val est bien du type typ.

At runtime this does nothing: it returns the first argument unchanged with no checks or side effects, no matter the actual type of the argument.

When a static type checker encounters a call to assert_type(), it emits an error if the value is not of the specified type:

def greet(name: str) -> None:
    assert_type(name, str)  # OK, inferred type of `name` is `str`
    assert_type(name, int)  # type checker error

Cette fonction permet de s'assurer de la compréhension du vérificateur de type d'un script par rapport aux intentions du développeur :

def complex_function(arg: object):
    # Do some complex type-narrowing logic,
    # after which we hope the inferred type will be `int`
    ...
    # Test whether the type checker correctly understands our function
    assert_type(arg, int)

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

typing.assert_never(arg, /)

Demande une confirmation de la part du vérificateur statique de type qu'une ligne de code est inaccessible.

Example:

def int_or_str(arg: int | str) -> None:
    match arg:
        case int():
            print("It's an int")
        case str():
            print("It's a str")
        case _ as unreachable:
            assert_never(unreachable)

Here, the annotations allow the type checker to infer that the last case can never execute, because arg is either an int or a str, and both options are covered by earlier cases.

If a type checker finds that a call to assert_never() is reachable, it will emit an error. For example, if the type annotation for arg was instead int | str | float, the type checker would emit an error pointing out that unreachable is of type float. For a call to assert_never to pass type checking, the inferred type of the argument passed in must be the bottom type, Never, and nothing else.

Une erreur est levé si la fonction est appelé lors de l'exécution.

Voir aussi

Unreachable Code and Exhaustiveness Checking [https://typing.python.org/en/latest/guides/unreachable.html] has more information about exhaustiveness checking with static typing.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

typing.reveal_type(obj, /)

Ask a static type checker to reveal the inferred type of an expression.

When a static type checker encounters a call to this function, it emits a diagnostic with the inferred type of the argument. For example:

x: int = 1
reveal_type(x)  # Revealed type is "builtins.int"

Cela est utile afin de comprendre comment le vérificateur de types va traiter un bout de code précis.

At runtime, this function prints the runtime type of its argument to sys.stderr and returns the argument unchanged (allowing the call to be used within an expression):

x = reveal_type(1)  # prints "Runtime type is int"
print(x)  # prints "1"

Note that the runtime type may be different from (more or less specific than) the type statically inferred by a type checker.

Most type checkers support reveal_type() anywhere, even if the name is not imported from typing. Importing the name from typing, however, allows your code to run without runtime errors and communicates intent more clearly.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

@typing.dataclass_transform(*, eq_default=True, order_default=False, kw_only_default=False, frozen_default=False, field_specifiers=(), **kwargs)

Decorator to mark an object as providing dataclass-like behavior.

dataclass_transform may be used to decorate a class, metaclass, or a function that is itself a decorator. The presence of @dataclass_transform() tells a static type checker that the decorated object performs runtime "magic" that transforms a class in a similar way to @dataclasses.dataclass.

Example usage with a decorator function:

@dataclass_transform()
def create_model[T](cls: type[T]) -> type[T]:
    ...
    return cls

@create_model
class CustomerModel:
    id: int
    name: str

Avec une classe de base :

@dataclass_transform()
class ModelBase: ...

class CustomerModel(ModelBase):
    id: int
    name: str

Avec une métaclasse :

@dataclass_transform()
class ModelMeta(type): ...

class ModelBase(metaclass=ModelMeta): ...

class CustomerModel(ModelBase):
    id: int
    name: str

The CustomerModel classes defined above will be treated by type checkers similarly to classes created with @dataclasses.dataclass. For example, type checkers will assume these classes have __init__ methods that accept id and name.

The decorated class, metaclass, or function may accept the following bool arguments which type checkers will assume have the same effect as they would have on the @dataclasses.dataclass decorator: init, eq, order, unsafe_hash, frozen, match_args, kw_only, and slots. It must be possible for the value of these arguments (True or False) to be statically evaluated.

Les arguments du décorateur dataclass_transform permettent de personnaliser le comportement par défaut de la classe, métaclasse ou fonction décorée :

Paramètres:

eq_default (bool) -- Indicates whether the eq parameter is assumed to be True or False if it is omitted by the caller. Defaults to True.

order_default (bool) -- Indicates whether the order parameter is assumed to be True or False if it is omitted by the caller. Defaults to False.

kw_only_default (bool) -- Indicates whether the kw_only parameter is assumed to be True or False if it is omitted by the caller. Defaults to False.

frozen_default (bool) --

Indicates whether the frozen parameter is assumed to be True or False if it is omitted by the caller. Defaults to False.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

field_specifiers (tuple[Callable[..., Any], ...]) -- Specifies a static list of supported classes or functions that describe fields, similar to dataclasses.field(). Defaults to ().

**kwargs (Any) -- D'autres arguments sont acceptés afin d'autoriser de futurs possibles extensions.

Type checkers recognize the following optional parameters on field specifiers:

Recognised parameters for field specifiers

Parameter name

Description

init

Indicates whether the field should be included in the synthesized __init__ method. If unspecified, init defaults to True.

default

Provides the default value for the field.

default_factory

Provides a runtime callback that returns the default value for the field. If neither default nor default_factory are specified, the field is assumed to have no default value and must be provided a value when the class is instantiated.

factory

An alias for the default_factory parameter on field specifiers.

kw_only

Indicates whether the field should be marked as keyword-only. If True, the field will be keyword-only. If False, it will not be keyword-only. If unspecified, the value of the kw_only parameter on the object decorated with dataclass_transform will be used, or if that is unspecified, the value of kw_only_default on dataclass_transform will be used.

alias

Provides an alternative name for the field. This alternative name is used in the synthesized __init__ method.

Lors de l'exécution, les arguments de ce décorateur sont enregistrés au sein de l'attribut __dataclass_transform__ de l'objet décoré. Il n'y pas d'autre effet à l'exécution.

See PEP 681 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0681/] for more details.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

@typing.overload

Decorator for creating overloaded functions and methods.

The @overload decorator allows describing functions and methods that support multiple different combinations of argument types. A series of @overload-decorated definitions must be followed by exactly one non-@overload-decorated definition (for the same function/method).

@overload-decorated definitions are for the benefit of the type checker only, since they will be overwritten by the non-@overload-decorated definition. The non-@overload-decorated definition, meanwhile, will be used at runtime but should be ignored by a type checker. At runtime, calling an @overload-decorated function directly will raise NotImplementedError.

An example of overload that gives a more precise type than can be expressed using a union or a type variable:

@overload
def process(response: None) -> None:
    ...
@overload
def process(response: int) -> tuple[int, str]:
    ...
@overload
def process(response: bytes) -> str:
    ...
def process(response):
    ...  # actual implementation goes here

See PEP 484 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/] for more details and comparison with other typing semantics.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Les fonctions surchargées peuvent maintenant être inspectées durant l'exécution via get_overloads().

typing.get_overloads(func)

Return a sequence of @overload-decorated definitions for func.

func is the function object for the implementation of the overloaded function. For example, given the definition of process in the documentation for @overload, get_overloads(process) will return a sequence of three function objects for the three defined overloads. If called on a function with no overloads, get_overloads() returns an empty sequence.

get_overloads() peut être utilisé afin d'inspecter une fonction surchargée durant l'exécution.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

typing.clear_overloads()

Clear all registered overloads in the internal registry.

This can be used to reclaim the memory used by the registry.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

@typing.final

Decorator to indicate final methods and final classes.

Decorating a method with @final indicates to a type checker that the method cannot be overridden in a subclass. Decorating a class with @final indicates that it cannot be subclassed.

Par exemple :

class Base:
    @final
    def done(self) -> None:
        ...
class Sub(Base):
    def done(self) -> None:  # Error reported by type checker
        ...

@final
class Leaf:
    ...
class Other(Leaf):  # Error reported by type checker
    ...

Ces propriétés ne sont pas vérifiées à l'exécution. Voir la PEP 591 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0591/] pour plus de détails.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: The decorator will now attempt to set a __final__ attribute to True on the decorated object. Thus, a check like if getattr(obj, "__final__", False) can be used at runtime to determine whether an object obj has been marked as final. If the decorated object does not support setting attributes, the decorator returns the object unchanged without raising an exception.

@typing.no_type_check

Décorateur pour indiquer que les annotations ne sont pas des indications de type.

This works as a class or function decorator. With a class, it applies recursively to all methods and classes defined in that class (but not to methods defined in its superclasses or subclasses). Type checkers will ignore all annotations in a function or class with this decorator.

@no_type_check mutates the decorated object in place.

@typing.no_type_check_decorator

Décorateur pour donner à un autre décorateur l'effet no_type_check().

Ceci enveloppe le décorateur avec quelque chose qui enveloppe la fonction décorée dans no_type_check().

Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: No type checker ever added support for @no_type_check_decorator. It is therefore deprecated, and will be removed in Python 3.15.

@typing.override

Decorator to indicate that a method in a subclass is intended to override a method or attribute in a superclass.

Type checkers should emit an error if a method decorated with @override does not, in fact, override anything. This helps prevent bugs that may occur when a base class is changed without an equivalent change to a child class.

For example:

class Base:
    def log_status(self) -> None:
        ...

class Sub(Base):
    @override
    def log_status(self) -> None:  # Okay: overrides Base.log_status
        ...

    @override
    def done(self) -> None:  # Error reported by type checker
        ...

There is no runtime checking of this property.

The decorator will attempt to set an __override__ attribute to True on the decorated object. Thus, a check like if getattr(obj, "__override__", False) can be used at runtime to determine whether an object obj has been marked as an override. If the decorated object does not support setting attributes, the decorator returns the object unchanged without raising an exception.

See PEP 698 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0698/] for more details.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

@typing.type_check_only

Decorator to mark a class or function as unavailable at runtime.

Ce décorateur n'est pas disponible à l'exécution. Il est principalement destiné à marquer les classes qui sont définies dans des fichiers séparés d'annotations de type (type stub file, en anglais) si une implémentation renvoie une instance d'une classe privée :

@type_check_only
class Response:  # private or not available at runtime
    code: int
    def get_header(self, name: str) -> str: ...

def fetch_response() -> Response: ...

Notez qu'il n'est pas recommandé de renvoyer les instances des classes privées. Il est généralement préférable de rendre ces classes publiques.

Utilitaires d'introspection

typing.get_type_hints(obj, globalns=None, localns=None, include_extras=False)

Return a dictionary containing type hints for a function, method, module, class object, or other callable object.

This is often the same as obj.__annotations__, but this function makes the following changes to the annotations dictionary:

Forward references encoded as string literals or ForwardRef objects are handled by evaluating them in globalns, localns, and (where applicable) obj's type parameter namespace. If globalns or localns is not given, appropriate namespace dictionaries are inferred from obj.

None is replaced with types.NoneType.

If @no_type_check has been applied to obj, an empty dictionary is returned.

If obj is a class C, the function returns a dictionary that merges annotations from C's base classes with those on C directly. This is done by traversing C.__mro__ and iteratively combining __annotations__ dictionaries. Annotations on classes appearing earlier in the method resolution order always take precedence over annotations on classes appearing later in the method resolution order.

The function recursively replaces all occurrences of Annotated[T, ...], Required[T], NotRequired[T], and ReadOnly[T] with T, unless include_extras is set to True (see Annotated for more information).

See also annotationlib.get_annotations(), a lower-level function that returns annotations more directly.

Prudence

This function may execute arbitrary code contained in annotations. See Security implications of introspecting annotations for more information.

Note

If any forward references in the annotations of obj are not resolvable or are not valid Python code, this function will raise an exception such as NameError. For example, this can happen with imported type aliases that include forward references, or with names imported under if TYPE_CHECKING.

Note

Calling get_type_hints() on an instance is not supported. To retrieve annotations for an instance, call get_type_hints() on the instance's class instead (for example, get_type_hints(type(obj))).

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Added include_extras parameter as part of PEP 593 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0593/]. See the documentation on Annotated for more information.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Avant, Optional[t] était ajouté pour les annotations de fonctions et de méthodes dans le cas où une valeur par défaut était égal à None. Maintenant, les annotations sont renvoyées inchangées.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Calling get_type_hints() on instances is no longer supported. Some instances were accepted in earlier versions as an undocumented implementation detail.

typing.get_origin(tp)

Get the unsubscripted version of a type: for a typing object of the form X[Y, Z, ...] return X.

If X is a typing-module alias for a builtin or collections class, it will be normalized to the original class. If X is an instance of ParamSpecArgs or ParamSpecKwargs, return the underlying ParamSpec. Return None for unsupported objects.

Examples:

assert get_origin(str) is None
assert get_origin(Dict[str, int]) is dict
assert get_origin(Union[int, str]) is Union
assert get_origin(Annotated[str, "metadata"]) is Annotated
P = ParamSpec('P')
assert get_origin(P.args) is P
assert get_origin(P.kwargs) is P

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

typing.get_args(tp)

Get type arguments with all substitutions performed: for a typing object of the form X[Y, Z, ...] return (Y, Z, ...).

If X is a union or Literal contained in another generic type, the order of (Y, Z, ...) may be different from the order of the original arguments [Y, Z, ...] due to type caching. Return () for unsupported objects.

Examples:

assert get_args(int) == ()
assert get_args(Dict[int, str]) == (int, str)
assert get_args(Union[int, str]) == (int, str)

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

typing.get_protocol_members(tp)

Return the set of members defined in a Protocol.

>>> from typing import Protocol, get_protocol_members
>>> class P(Protocol):
...     def a(self) -> str: ...
...     b: int
>>> get_protocol_members(P) == frozenset({'a', 'b'})
True

Raise TypeError for arguments that are not Protocols.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

typing.is_protocol(tp)

Determine if a type is a Protocol.

Par exemple :

class P(Protocol):
    def a(self) -> str: ...
    b: int

is_protocol(P)    # => True
is_protocol(int)  # => False

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

typing.is_typeddict(tp)

Vérifier si un type est un TypedDict.

For example:

class Film(TypedDict):
    title: str
    year: int

assert is_typeddict(Film)
assert not is_typeddict(list | str)

# TypedDict is a factory for creating typed dicts,
# not a typed dict itself
assert not is_typeddict(TypedDict)

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

class typing.ForwardRef

Class used for internal typing representation of string forward references.

For example, List["SomeClass"] is implicitly transformed into List[ForwardRef("SomeClass")]. ForwardRef should not be instantiated by a user, but may be used by introspection tools.

Note

Les types PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/] tels que list["SomeClass"] ne seront pas implicitement transformés en list[ForwardRef("SomeClass")] et ne seront donc pas automatiquement résolus en list[SomeClass].

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.4.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: This is now an alias for annotationlib.ForwardRef. Several undocumented behaviors of this class have been changed; for example, after a ForwardRef has been evaluated, the evaluated value is no longer cached.

typing.evaluate_forward_ref(forward_ref, *, owner=None, globals=None, locals=None, type_params=None, format=annotationlib.Format.VALUE)

Evaluate an annotationlib.ForwardRef as a type hint.

This is similar to calling annotationlib.ForwardRef.evaluate(), but unlike that method, evaluate_forward_ref() also recursively evaluates forward references nested within the type hint.

See the documentation for annotationlib.ForwardRef.evaluate() for the meaning of the owner, globals, locals, type_params, and format parameters.

Prudence

This function may execute arbitrary code contained in annotations. See Security implications of introspecting annotations for more information.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

typing.NoDefault

A sentinel object used to indicate that a type parameter has no default value. For example:

>>> T = TypeVar("T")
>>> T.__default__ is typing.NoDefault
True
>>> S = TypeVar("S", default=None)
>>> S.__default__ is None
True

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Constante

typing.TYPE_CHECKING

A special constant that is assumed to be True by 3rd party static type checkers. It's False at runtime.

A module which is expensive to import, and which only contain types used for typing annotations, can be safely imported inside an if TYPE_CHECKING: block. This prevents the module from actually being imported at runtime; annotations aren't eagerly evaluated (see PEP 649 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/]) so using undefined symbols in annotations is harmless--as long as you don't later examine them. Your static type analysis tool will set TYPE_CHECKING to True during static type analysis, which means the module will be imported and the types will be checked properly during such analysis.

Utilisation :

if TYPE_CHECKING:
    import expensive_mod

def fun(arg: expensive_mod.SomeType) -> None:
    local_var: expensive_mod.AnotherType = other_fun()

If you occasionally need to examine type annotations at runtime which may contain undefined symbols, use annotationlib.get_annotations() with a format parameter of annotationlib.Format.STRING or annotationlib.Format.FORWARDREF to safely retrieve the annotations without raising NameError.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.2.

Deprecated aliases

This module defines several deprecated aliases to pre-existing standard library classes. These were originally included in the typing module in order to support parameterizing these generic classes using []. However, the aliases became redundant in Python 3.9 when the corresponding pre-existing classes were enhanced to support [] (see PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/]).

The redundant types are deprecated as of Python 3.9. However, while the aliases may be removed at some point, removal of these aliases is not currently planned. As such, no deprecation warnings are currently issued by the interpreter for these aliases.

If at some point it is decided to remove these deprecated aliases, a deprecation warning will be issued by the interpreter for at least two releases prior to removal. The aliases are guaranteed to remain in the typing module without deprecation warnings until at least Python 3.14.

Type checkers are encouraged to flag uses of the deprecated types if the program they are checking targets a minimum Python version of 3.9 or newer.

Aliases to built-in types

class typing.Dict(dict, MutableMapping[KT, VT])

Deprecated alias to dict.

Note that to annotate arguments, it is preferred to use an abstract collection type such as Mapping rather than to use dict or typing.Dict.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: builtins.dict now supports subscripting ([]). See PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/] and Type Alias générique.

class typing.List(list, MutableSequence[T])

Deprecated alias to list.

Note that to annotate arguments, it is preferred to use an abstract collection type such as Sequence or Iterable rather than to use list or typing.List.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: builtins.list now supports subscripting ([]). See PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/] and Type Alias générique.

class typing.Set(set, MutableSet[T])

Deprecated alias to builtins.set.

Note that to annotate arguments, it is preferred to use an abstract collection type such as collections.abc.Set rather than to use set or typing.Set.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: builtins.set now supports subscripting ([]). See PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/] and Type Alias générique.

class typing.FrozenSet(frozenset, AbstractSet[T_co])

Deprecated alias to builtins.frozenset.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: builtins.frozenset now supports subscripting ([]). See PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/] and Type Alias générique.

typing.Tuple

Deprecated alias for tuple.

tuple and Tuple are special-cased in the type system; see Annotating tuples for more details.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: builtins.tuple now supports subscripting ([]). See PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/] and Type Alias générique.

class typing.Type(Generic[CT_co])

Deprecated alias to type.

See The type of class objects for details on using type or typing.Type in type annotations.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.2.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: builtins.type now supports subscripting ([]). See PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/] and Type Alias générique.

Aliases to types in collections

class typing.DefaultDict(collections.defaultdict, MutableMapping[KT, VT])

Deprecated alias to collections.defaultdict.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.2.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: collections.defaultdict now supports subscripting ([]). See PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/] and Type Alias générique.

class typing.OrderedDict(collections.OrderedDict, MutableMapping[KT, VT])

Deprecated alias to collections.OrderedDict.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.2.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: collections.OrderedDict now supports subscripting ([]). See PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/] and Type Alias générique.

class typing.ChainMap(collections.ChainMap, MutableMapping[KT, VT])

Deprecated alias to collections.ChainMap.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.1.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: collections.ChainMap now supports subscripting ([]). See PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/] and Type Alias générique.

class typing.Counter(collections.Counter, Dict[T, int])

Deprecated alias to collections.Counter.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.1.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: collections.Counter now supports subscripting ([]). See PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/] and Type Alias générique.

class typing.Deque(deque, MutableSequence[T])

Deprecated alias to collections.deque.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.1.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: collections.deque now supports subscripting ([]). See PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/] and Type Alias générique.

Aliases to other concrete types

class typing.Pattern

class typing.Match

Deprecated aliases corresponding to the return types from re.compile() and re.match().

These types (and the corresponding functions) are generic over AnyStr. Pattern can be specialised as Pattern[str] or Pattern[bytes]; Match can be specialised as Match[str] or Match[bytes].

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: Classes Pattern and Match from re now support []. See PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/] and Type Alias générique.

class typing.Text

Deprecated alias for str.

Text is provided to supply a forward compatible path for Python 2 code: in Python 2, Text is an alias for unicode.

Utilisez Text pour indiquer qu'une valeur doit contenir une chaîne Unicode d'une manière compatible avec Python 2 et Python 3 :

def add_unicode_checkmark(text: Text) -> Text:
    return text + u' \u2713'

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.2.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.11: Python 2 is no longer supported, and most type checkers also no longer support type checking Python 2 code. Removal of the alias is not currently planned, but users are encouraged to use str instead of Text.

Aliases to container ABCs in collections.abc

class typing.AbstractSet(Collection[T_co])

Deprecated alias to collections.abc.Set.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: collections.abc.Set now supports subscripting ([]). See PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/] and Type Alias générique.

class typing.ByteString(Sequence[int])

Deprecated alias to collections.abc.ByteString.

Use isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Buffer) to test if obj implements the buffer protocol at runtime. For use in type annotations, either use Buffer or a union that explicitly specifies the types your code supports (e.g., bytes | bytearray | memoryview).

ByteString was originally intended to be an abstract class that would serve as a supertype of both bytes and bytearray. However, since the ABC never had any methods, knowing that an object was an instance of ByteString never actually told you anything useful about the object. Other common buffer types such as memoryview were also never understood as subtypes of ByteString (either at runtime or by static type checkers).

See PEP 688 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/#current-options] for more details.

Deprecated since version 3.9, will be removed in version 3.17.

class typing.Collection(Sized, Iterable[T_co], Container[T_co])

Deprecated alias to collections.abc.Collection.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: collections.abc.Collection now supports subscripting ([]). See PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/] and Type Alias générique.

class typing.Container(Generic[T_co])

Deprecated alias to collections.abc.Container.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: collections.abc.Container now supports subscripting ([]). See PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/] and Type Alias générique.

class typing.ItemsView(MappingView, AbstractSet[tuple[KT_co, VT_co]])

Deprecated alias to collections.abc.ItemsView.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: collections.abc.ItemsView now supports subscripting ([]). See PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/] and Type Alias générique.

class typing.KeysView(MappingView, AbstractSet[KT_co])

Deprecated alias to collections.abc.KeysView.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: collections.abc.KeysView now supports subscripting ([]). See PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/] and Type Alias générique.

class typing.Mapping(Collection[KT], Generic[KT, VT_co])

Deprecated alias to collections.abc.Mapping.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: collections.abc.Mapping now supports subscripting ([]). See PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/] and Type Alias générique.

class typing.MappingView(Sized)

Deprecated alias to collections.abc.MappingView.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: collections.abc.MappingView now supports subscripting ([]). See PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/] and Type Alias générique.

class typing.MutableMapping(Mapping[KT, VT])

Deprecated alias to collections.abc.MutableMapping.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: collections.abc.MutableMapping now supports subscripting ([]). See PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/] and Type Alias générique.

class typing.MutableSequence(Sequence[T])

Deprecated alias to collections.abc.MutableSequence.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: collections.abc.MutableSequence now supports subscripting ([]). See PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/] and Type Alias générique.

class typing.MutableSet(AbstractSet[T])

Deprecated alias to collections.abc.MutableSet.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: collections.abc.MutableSet now supports subscripting ([]). See PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/] and Type Alias générique.

class typing.Sequence(Reversible[T_co], Collection[T_co])

Deprecated alias to collections.abc.Sequence.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: collections.abc.Sequence now supports subscripting ([]). See PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/] and Type Alias générique.

class typing.ValuesView(MappingView, Collection[_VT_co])

Deprecated alias to collections.abc.ValuesView.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: collections.abc.ValuesView now supports subscripting ([]). See PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/] and Type Alias générique.

Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections.abc

class typing.Coroutine(Awaitable[ReturnType], Generic[YieldType, SendType, ReturnType])

Deprecated alias to collections.abc.Coroutine.

See Annotating generators and coroutines for details on using collections.abc.Coroutine and typing.Coroutine in type annotations.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.3.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: collections.abc.Coroutine now supports subscripting ([]). See PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/] and Type Alias générique.

class typing.AsyncGenerator(AsyncIterator[YieldType], Generic[YieldType, SendType])

Deprecated alias to collections.abc.AsyncGenerator.

See Annotating generators and coroutines for details on using collections.abc.AsyncGenerator and typing.AsyncGenerator in type annotations.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.1.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: collections.abc.AsyncGenerator now supports subscripting ([]). See PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/] and Type Alias générique.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: The SendType parameter now has a default.

class typing.AsyncIterable(Generic[T_co])

Deprecated alias to collections.abc.AsyncIterable.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.2.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: collections.abc.AsyncIterable now supports subscripting ([]). See PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/] and Type Alias générique.

class typing.AsyncIterator(AsyncIterable[T_co])

Deprecated alias to collections.abc.AsyncIterator.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.2.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: collections.abc.AsyncIterator now supports subscripting ([]). See PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/] and Type Alias générique.

class typing.Awaitable(Generic[T_co])

Deprecated alias to collections.abc.Awaitable.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.2.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: collections.abc.Awaitable now supports subscripting ([]). See PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/] and Type Alias générique.

Aliases to other ABCs in collections.abc

class typing.Iterable(Generic[T_co])

Deprecated alias to collections.abc.Iterable.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: collections.abc.Iterable now supports subscripting ([]). See PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/] and Type Alias générique.

class typing.Iterator(Iterable[T_co])

Deprecated alias to collections.abc.Iterator.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: collections.abc.Iterator now supports subscripting ([]). See PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/] and Type Alias générique.

typing.Callable

Deprecated alias to collections.abc.Callable.

See Annotating callable objects for details on how to use collections.abc.Callable and typing.Callable in type annotations.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: collections.abc.Callable now supports subscripting ([]). See PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/] and Type Alias générique.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Callable prend désormais en charge ParamSpec et Concatenate. Voir PEP 612 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/] pour plus de détails.

class typing.Generator(Iterator[YieldType], Generic[YieldType, SendType, ReturnType])

Deprecated alias to collections.abc.Generator.

See Annotating generators and coroutines for details on using collections.abc.Generator and typing.Generator in type annotations.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: collections.abc.Generator now supports subscripting ([]). See PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/] and Type Alias générique.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Default values for the send and return types were added.

class typing.Hashable

Deprecated alias to collections.abc.Hashable.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.12: Use collections.abc.Hashable directly instead.

class typing.Reversible(Iterable[T_co])

Deprecated alias to collections.abc.Reversible.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: collections.abc.Reversible now supports subscripting ([]). See PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/] and Type Alias générique.

class typing.Sized

Deprecated alias to collections.abc.Sized.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.12: Use collections.abc.Sized directly instead.

Aliases to contextlib ABCs

class typing.ContextManager(Generic[T_co, ExitT_co])

Deprecated alias to contextlib.AbstractContextManager.

The first type parameter, T_co, represents the type returned by the __enter__() method. The optional second type parameter, ExitT_co, which defaults to bool | None, represents the type returned by the __exit__() method.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.4.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: contextlib.AbstractContextManager now supports subscripting ([]). See PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/] and Type Alias générique.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the optional second type parameter, ExitT_co.

class typing.AsyncContextManager(Generic[T_co, AExitT_co])

Deprecated alias to contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager.

The first type parameter, T_co, represents the type returned by the __aenter__() method. The optional second type parameter, AExitT_co, which defaults to bool | None, represents the type returned by the __aexit__() method.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.2.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager now supports subscripting ([]). See PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/] and Type Alias générique.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the optional second type parameter, AExitT_co.

Étapes d'Obsolescence des Fonctionnalités Majeures

Certaines fonctionnalités dans typing sont obsolètes et peuvent être supprimées dans une future version de Python. Le tableau suivant résume les principales dépréciations. Celui-ci peut changer et toutes les dépréciations ne sont pas listées.

Fonctionnalité

Obsolète en

Suppression prévue

PEP/issue

Versions de typage des collections standards

3.9

Undecided (see Deprecated aliases for more information)

PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/]

typing.ByteString

3.9

3.17

gh-91896 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896]

typing.Text

3.11

Non défini

gh-92332 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92332]

typing.Hashable and typing.Sized

3.12

Non défini

gh-94309 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94309]

typing.TypeAlias

3.12

Non défini

PEP 695 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/]

@typing.no_type_check_decorator

3.13

3.15

gh-106309 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106309]

typing.AnyStr

3.13

3.18

gh-105578 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105578]

pydoc --- Documentation generator and online help system

Code source : Lib/pydoc.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/pydoc.py]

The pydoc module automatically generates documentation from Python modules. The documentation can be presented as pages of text on the console, served to a web browser, or saved to HTML files.

For modules, classes, functions and methods, the displayed documentation is derived from the docstring (i.e. the __doc__ attribute) of the object, and recursively of its documentable members. If there is no docstring, pydoc tries to obtain a description from the block of comment lines just above the definition of the class, function or method in the source file, or at the top of the module (see inspect.getcomments()).

The built-in function help() invokes the online help system in the interactive interpreter, which uses pydoc to generate its documentation as text on the console. The same text documentation can also be viewed from outside the Python interpreter by running pydoc as a script at the operating system's command prompt. For example, running

python -m pydoc sys

dans un terminal, cela affiche la documentation du module sys dans un style similaire à la commande Unix man. On peut passer comme argument à pydoc le nom d’une fonction, d’un module, d’un paquet, ou une référence pointant vers une classe, une méthode, ou une fonction dans un module ou dans un paquet. Si l’argument passé à pydoc est un chemin (c.-à-d. qu’il contient des séparateurs de chemin tels que la barre oblique / dans Unix), et fait référence à un fichier source Python existant, alors la documentation est générée pour ce fichier.

Note

In order to find objects and their documentation, pydoc imports the module(s) to be documented. Therefore, any code on module level will be executed on that occasion. Use an if __name__ == '__main__': guard to only execute code when a file is invoked as a script and not just imported.

When printing output to the console, pydoc attempts to paginate the output for easier reading. If either the MANPAGER or the PAGER environment variable is set, pydoc will use its value as a pagination program. When both are set, MANPAGER is used.

Ajouter une option -w avant l’argument entraine l’enregistrement de la documentation HTML générée dans un fichier du répertoire courant au lieu de l’afficher dans la console.

Ajouter une option -w avant l’argument cherche les lignes de résumé de tous les modules disponibles pour le mot clé donné comme argument, ceci à la manière de la commande Unix man. Les lignes de résumé d’un module sont les premières lignes de sa docstring.

You can also use pydoc to start an HTTP server on the local machine that will serve documentation to visiting web browsers. python -m pydoc -p 1234 will start a HTTP server on port 1234, allowing you to browse the documentation at http://localhost:1234/ in your preferred web browser. Specifying 0 as the port number will select an arbitrary unused port.

python -m pydoc -n <hostname> will start the server listening at the given hostname. By default the hostname is 'localhost' but if you want the server to be reached from other machines, you may want to change the host name that the server responds to. During development this is especially useful if you want to run pydoc from within a container.

python -m pydoc -b will start the server and additionally open a web browser to a module index page. Each served page has a navigation bar at the top where you can Get help on an individual item, Search all modules with a keyword in their synopsis line, and go to the Module index, Topics and Keywords pages.

Quand pydoc génère de la documentation, il utilise l’environnement et le chemin courant pour localiser les modules. Ainsi, en invoquant les documents pydoc spam en précisant la version du module, vous obtenez le même résultat qu’en lançant l’interpréteur Python et en tapant la commande import spam.

Module docs for core modules are assumed to reside in https://docs.python.org/X.Y/library/ where X and Y are the major and minor version numbers of the Python interpreter. This can be overridden by setting the PYTHONDOCS environment variable to a different URL or to a local directory containing the Library Reference Manual pages.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Ajout de l’option -b.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Suppression de l’option -g.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: pydoc now uses inspect.signature() rather than inspect.getfullargspec() to extract signature information from callables.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Ajout de l’option -n.

Python Development Mode

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

The Python Development Mode introduces additional runtime checks that are too expensive to be enabled by default. It should not be more verbose than the default if the code is correct; new warnings are only emitted when an issue is detected.

It can be enabled using the -X dev command line option or by setting the PYTHONDEVMODE environment variable to 1.

See also Python debug build.

Effects of the Python Development Mode

Enabling the Python Development Mode is similar to the following command, but with additional effects described below:

PYTHONMALLOC=debug PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG=1 python -W default -X faulthandler

Effects of the Python Development Mode:

Add default warning filter. The following warnings are shown:

DeprecationWarning

ImportWarning

PendingDeprecationWarning

ResourceWarning

Normally, the above warnings are filtered by the default warning filters.

It behaves as if the -W default command line option is used.

Use the -W error command line option or set the PYTHONWARNINGS environment variable to error to treat warnings as errors.

Install debug hooks on memory allocators to check for:

Buffer underflow

Buffer overflow

Memory allocator API violation

Unsafe usage of the GIL

See the PyMem_SetupDebugHooks() C function.

It behaves as if the PYTHONMALLOC environment variable is set to debug.

To enable the Python Development Mode without installing debug hooks on memory allocators, set the PYTHONMALLOC environment variable to default.

Call faulthandler.enable() at Python startup to install handlers for the SIGSEGV, SIGFPE, SIGABRT, SIGBUS and SIGILL signals to dump the Python traceback on a crash.

It behaves as if the -X faulthandler command line option is used or if the PYTHONFAULTHANDLER environment variable is set to 1.

Enable asyncio debug mode. For example, asyncio checks for coroutines that were not awaited and logs them.

It behaves as if the PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG environment variable is set to 1.

Check the encoding and errors arguments for string encoding and decoding operations. Examples: open(), str.encode() and bytes.decode().

By default, for best performance, the errors argument is only checked at the first encoding/decoding error and the encoding argument is sometimes ignored for empty strings.

The io.IOBase destructor logs close() exceptions.

Set the dev_mode attribute of sys.flags to True.

The Python Development Mode does not enable the tracemalloc module by default, because the overhead cost (to performance and memory) would be too large. Enabling the tracemalloc module provides additional information on the origin of some errors. For example, ResourceWarning logs the traceback where the resource was allocated, and a buffer overflow error logs the traceback where the memory block was allocated.

The Python Development Mode does not prevent the -O command line option from removing assert statements nor from setting __debug__ to False.

The Python Development Mode can only be enabled at the Python startup. Its value can be read from sys.flags.dev_mode.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: The io.IOBase destructor now logs close() exceptions.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: The encoding and errors arguments are now checked for string encoding and decoding operations.

ResourceWarning Example

Example of a script counting the number of lines of the text file specified in the command line:

import sys

def main():
    fp = open(sys.argv[1])
    nlines = len(fp.readlines())
    print(nlines)
    # The file is closed implicitly

if __name__ == "__main__":
    main()

The script does not close the file explicitly. By default, Python does not emit any warning. Example using README.txt, which has 269 lines:

$ python script.py README.txt
269

Enabling the Python Development Mode displays a ResourceWarning warning:

$ python -X dev script.py README.txt
269
script.py:10: ResourceWarning: unclosed file <_io.TextIOWrapper name='README.rst' mode='r' encoding='UTF-8'>
  main()
ResourceWarning: Enable tracemalloc to get the object allocation traceback

In addition, enabling tracemalloc shows the line where the file was opened:

$ python -X dev -X tracemalloc=5 script.py README.rst
269
script.py:10: ResourceWarning: unclosed file <_io.TextIOWrapper name='README.rst' mode='r' encoding='UTF-8'>
  main()
Object allocated at (most recent call last):
  File "script.py", lineno 10
    main()
  File "script.py", lineno 4
    fp = open(sys.argv[1])

The fix is to close explicitly the file. Example using a context manager:

def main():
    # Close the file explicitly when exiting the with block
    with open(sys.argv[1]) as fp:
        nlines = len(fp.readlines())
    print(nlines)

Not closing a resource explicitly can leave a resource open for way longer than expected; it can cause severe issues upon exiting Python. It is bad in CPython, but it is even worse in PyPy. Closing resources explicitly makes an application more deterministic and more reliable.

Bad file descriptor error example

Script displaying the first line of itself:

import os

def main():
    fp = open(__file__)
    firstline = fp.readline()
    print(firstline.rstrip())
    os.close(fp.fileno())
    # The file is closed implicitly

main()

By default, Python does not emit any warning:

$ python script.py
import os

The Python Development Mode shows a ResourceWarning and logs a "Bad file descriptor" error when finalizing the file object:

$ python -X dev script.py
import os
script.py:10: ResourceWarning: unclosed file <_io.TextIOWrapper name='script.py' mode='r' encoding='UTF-8'>
  main()
ResourceWarning: Enable tracemalloc to get the object allocation traceback
Exception ignored in: <_io.TextIOWrapper name='script.py' mode='r' encoding='UTF-8'>
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "script.py", line 10, in <module>
    main()
OSError: [Errno 9] Bad file descriptor

os.close(fp.fileno()) closes the file descriptor. When the file object finalizer tries to close the file descriptor again, it fails with the Bad file descriptor error. A file descriptor must be closed only once. In the worst case scenario, closing it twice can lead to a crash (see bpo-18748 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18748] for an example).

The fix is to remove the os.close(fp.fileno()) line, or open the file with closefd=False.

doctest — Exemples de tests interactifs en Python

Code source : Lib/doctest.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/doctest.py]

The doctest module searches for pieces of text that look like interactive Python sessions, and then executes those sessions to verify that they work exactly as shown. There are several common ways to use doctest:

Vérifier que les docstrings d'un module sont à jour en vérifiant que tous les exemples interactifs fonctionnent toujours tels que décrits.

Réaliser un test de régression en vérifiant que les exemples interactifs provenant d'un fichier de test ou d'un objet de test fonctionnent comme prévu.

Rédiger de la documentation sous forme de tutoriel pour un paquet, avec une abondance d'exemples ayant des entrées et des sorties. On pourrait voir ça comme des tests « dans le texte » ou de la « documentation exécutable », selon le point de vue.

Voici un petit exemple d'un module qui soit tout de même complet :

"""
This is the "example" module.

The example module supplies one function, factorial().  For example,

>>> factorial(5)
120
"""

def factorial(n):
    """Return the factorial of n, an exact integer >= 0.

    >>> [factorial(n) for n in range(6)]
    [1, 1, 2, 6, 24, 120]
    >>> factorial(30)
    265252859812191058636308480000000
    >>> factorial(-1)
    Traceback (most recent call last):
        ...
    ValueError: n must be >= 0

    Factorials of floats are OK, but the float must be an exact integer:
    >>> factorial(30.1)
    Traceback (most recent call last):
        ...
    ValueError: n must be exact integer
    >>> factorial(30.0)
    265252859812191058636308480000000

    It must also not be ridiculously large:
    >>> factorial(1e100)
    Traceback (most recent call last):
        ...
    OverflowError: n too large
    """

    import math
    if not n >= 0:
        raise ValueError("n must be >= 0")
    if math.floor(n) != n:
        raise ValueError("n must be exact integer")
    if n+1 == n:  # catch a value like 1e300
        raise OverflowError("n too large")
    result = 1
    factor = 2
    while factor <= n:
        result *= factor
        factor += 1
    return result

if __name__ == "__main__":
    import doctest
    doctest.testmod()

If you run example.py directly from the command line, doctest works its magic:

$ python example.py
$

There's no output! That's normal, and it means all the examples worked. Pass -v to the script, and doctest prints a detailed log of what it's trying, and prints a summary at the end:

$ python example.py -v
Trying:
    factorial(5)
Expecting:
    120
ok
Trying:
    [factorial(n) for n in range(6)]
Expecting:
    [1, 1, 2, 6, 24, 120]
ok

Et ainsi de suite, jusqu'à ce qu'on atteigne :

Trying:
    factorial(1e100)
Expecting:
    Traceback (most recent call last):
        ...
    OverflowError: n too large
ok
2 items passed all tests:
   1 test in __main__
   6 tests in __main__.factorial
7 tests in 2 items.
7 passed.
Test passed.
$

That's all you need to know to start making productive use of doctest! Jump in. The following sections provide full details. Note that there are many examples of doctests in the standard Python test suite and libraries. Especially useful examples can be found in the standard test file Lib/test/test_doctest/test_doctest.py.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13: Output is colorized by default and can be controlled using environment variables.

Utilisation simple : vérifier des exemples dans des docstrings

Le plus simple pour commencer à utiliser doctest (mais pas nécessairement la façon avec laquelle vous continuerez) est de terminer chaque module M avec :

if __name__ == "__main__":
    import doctest
    doctest.testmod()

doctest examine alors les docstrings dans le module M.

Exécuter le module comme un script a comme conséquence d'exécuter et de vérifier les exemples dans les docstrings :

python M.py

Ceci n'affiche rien à moins qu'un exemple échoue ; le cas échéant, les exemples défaillants et les causes du ou des échecs sont affichés sur stdout, et la ligne finale de la sortie est ***Test Failed*** *N failures*., où N est le nombre d'exemples défaillants.

À la place, exécutez-la avec l'option de ligne de commande -v :

python M.py -v

alors, un rapport détaillé de tous les exemples faisant partie de l'essai est affiché sur la sortie standard, accompagné à la fin de leurs résumés.

You can force verbose mode by passing verbose=True to testmod(), or prohibit it by passing verbose=False. In either of those cases, sys.argv is not examined by testmod() (so passing -v or not has no effect).

There is also a command line shortcut for running testmod(), see section Command-line Usage.

Pour plus d'informations sur testmod(), consultez la section API de base.

Utilisation simple : vérifier des exemples dans un fichier texte

Une autre application simple de doctest est de tester des exemples interactifs dans un fichier texte. Ceci est fait avec la fonction testfile() :

import doctest
doctest.testfile("example.txt")

Ce court script exécute et vérifie chacun des exemples Python interactifs contenus dans le fichier example.txt. Le contenu du fichier est traité comme une seule docstring géante ; le fichier n'a pas besoin de contenir un programme Python ! Par exemple, prenons un fichier example.txt contenant :

The ``example`` module
======================

Using ``factorial``
-------------------

This is an example text file in reStructuredText format.  First import
``factorial`` from the ``example`` module:

    >>> from example import factorial

Now use it:

    >>> factorial(6)
    120

Exécuter doctest.testfile("example.txt") recherche les erreurs dans cette documentation :

File "./example.txt", line 14, in example.txt
Failed example:
    factorial(6)
Expected:
    120
Got:
    720

As with testmod(), testfile() won't display anything unless an example fails. If an example does fail, then the failing example(s) and the cause(s) of the failure(s) are printed to stdout, using the same format as testmod().

Par défaut, testfile() cherche les fichiers dans le répertoire où se situe le module qui l'appelle. Consultez la section API de base pour une description des options de ligne de commande à utiliser afin de chercher dans d'autres répertoires.

Comme pour testmod(), la verbosité de testfile() peut être ajustée avec l'option de ligne de commande -v ou avec le mot clé verbose.

There is also a command line shortcut for running testfile(), see section Command-line Usage.

Pour plus d'information sur testfile(), consultez la section API de base.

Command-line Usage

The doctest module can be invoked as a script from the command line:

python -m doctest [-v] [-o OPTION] [-f] file [file ...]

-v, --verbose

Detailed report of all examples tried is printed to standard output, along with assorted summaries at the end:

python -m doctest -v example.py

This will import example.py as a standalone module and run testmod() on it. Note that this may not work correctly if the file is part of a package and imports other submodules from that package.

If the file name does not end with .py, doctest infers that it must be run with testfile() instead:

python -m doctest -v example.txt

-o, --option <option>

Option flags control various aspects of doctest's behavior, see section Options de ligne de commande.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

-f, --fail-fast

This is shorthand for -o FAIL_FAST.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Comment ça marche

Cette section examine en détail le fonctionnement de doctest : quelles docstrings sont considérées, comment sont trouvés les exemples interactifs, quel est le contexte d'exécution sélectionné, comment les exceptions sont gérées, et de quelles façons les options de ligne de commande peuvent être utilisées pour définir le comportement. Ceci est l'information dont vous avez besoin pour écrire des exemples doctest ; pour de l'information sur l'exécution de doctest sur ces exemples, consultez les sections suivantes.

Quelles docstrings sont considérées ?

Les docstrings du module, de toutes les fonctions, classes, et méthodes sont cherchées. Les objets qui sont importés dans le module ne sont pas cherchés.

In addition, there are cases when you want tests to be part of a module but not part of the help text, which requires that the tests not be included in the docstring. Doctest looks for a module-level variable called __test__ and uses it to locate other tests. If M.__test__ exists, it must be a dict, and each entry maps a (string) name to a function object, class object, or string. Function and class object docstrings found from M.__test__ are searched, and strings are treated as if they were docstrings. In output, a key K in M.__test__ appears with name M.__test__.K.

For example, place this block of code at the top of example.py:

__test__ = {
    'numbers': """
>>> factorial(6)
720

>>> [factorial(n) for n in range(6)]
[1, 1, 2, 6, 24, 120]
"""
}

The value of example.__test__["numbers"] will be treated as a docstring and all the tests inside it will be run. It is important to note that the value can be mapped to a function, class object, or module; if so, doctest searches them recursively for docstrings, which are then scanned for tests.

Toute classe trouvée est ainsi cherchée récursivement, afin de tester les docstrings contenues dans leurs méthodes et leurs classes imbriquées.

Note

doctest can only automatically discover classes and functions that are defined at the module level or inside other classes.

Since nested classes and functions only exist when an outer function is called, they cannot be discovered. Define them outside to make them visible.

Comment les exemples docstring sont-ils identifiés ?

Dans la plupart des cas, un copier-coller d'une séance interactive de console fonctionne bien, mais doctest n'essaye pas de faire une simulation exacte d'un shell Python spécifique.

>>> # comments are ignored
>>> x = 12
>>> x
12
>>> if x == 13:
...     print("yes")
... else:
...     print("no")
...     print("NO")
...     print("NO!!!")
...
no
NO
NO!!!
>>>

Toute sortie souhaitée doit immédiatement suivre le dernier '>>> ' ou le dernier '... ' contenant le code, et la sortie souhaitée, s'il y en a une, s'étend jusqu'au prochain '>>> ' ou à la prochaine ligne vide.

En détail :

La sortie souhaitée ne peut pas contenir une ligne vide, puisque contenir une telle ligne signale la fin de la sortie souhaitée. Si la sortie souhaitée doit contenir une ligne vide, ajoutez <BLANKLINE> dans votre exemple doctest à chaque endroit où une ligne vide est souhaitée.

Tous les caractères de tabulation insécables (hard tab characters) sont convertis en espaces, en utilisant des taquets de tabulation de 8 espaces. Les tabulations se trouvant dans la sortie générée par le code test ne sont pas modifiées. Comme tout caractère de tabulation insécable est converti, ceci veut dire que si le code de sortie inclut des caractères de tabulation insécables, alors la seule façon que le doctest peut réussir est si l'option NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE ou si directive a cours. De façon alternative, le test peut être ré-écrit afin de capturer la sortie et de la comparer à un ensemble de valeurs attendues, et ce, en tant qu'étape du test. Cette gestion des tabulations à la source a été obtenue suite à un processus d'essais et d'erreurs ; il a été démontré que c'était là la façon de les gérer qui soit la moins susceptible de générer des erreurs. Il est possible d'utiliser un algorithme différent pour la gestion des tabulations en rédigeant une classe sur mesure DocTestParser.

La sortie vers stdout est capturée, mais pas la sortie vers stderr (les traces d'appel sont capturées par d'autres moyens).

Si vous souhaitez conserver les barres obliques inversées telles quelles lorsque vous terminez une ligne avec une barre oblique inversée dans une séance interactive, ou quand vous utilisez une telle barre pour toute autre raison, vous devez utiliser une docstring brute :

>>> def f(x):
...     r'''Backslashes in a raw docstring: m\n'''
...
>>> print(f.__doc__)
Backslashes in a raw docstring: m\n

Sinon, la barre oblique inversée est interprétée comme faisant partie de la chaîne de caractères. Par exemple, le \n ci-dessus est interprété comme un caractère de saut de ligne. De façon alternative, vous pouvez doubler chaque barre oblique inversée dans la version doctest (et n'utilisez pas dans ce cas de docstring brute) :

>>> def f(x):
...     '''Backslashes in a raw docstring: m\\n'''
...
>>> print(f.__doc__)
Backslashes in a raw docstring: m\n

La colonne de départ n'a pas d'importance :

>>> assert "Easy!"
      >>> import math
          >>> math.floor(1.9)
          1

et autant d'espaces sont retirés de la sortie attendue qu'il y avait d'espaces avant la ligne commençant par '>>> '.

Quel est le contexte d'exécution ?

By default, each time doctest finds a docstring to test, it uses a shallow copy of M's globals, so that running tests doesn't change the module's real globals, and so that one test in M can't leave behind crumbs that accidentally allow another test to work. This means examples can freely use any names defined at top-level in M, and names defined earlier in the docstring being run. Examples cannot see names defined in other docstrings.

Vous pouvez forcer l'utilisation de votre propre dict comme contexte d'exécution en passant globs=your_dict à testmod() ou encore, à testfile().

Qu'en est-il des exceptions ?

Pas de problèmes, tant que la trace d'appels est la seule sortie produite par l'exemple : il suffit d'ajouter la trace. [1] Comme les traces d'appels contiennent des détails qui sont sujets à changement rapide (par exemple, le chemin exact vers un fichier et les numéros de ligne), ceci est un cas où doctest fait un effort pour être flexible dans ce qu'il accepte.

Exemple simple :

>>> [1, 2, 3].remove(42)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
ValueError: list.remove(x): x not in list

Ce doctest réussit si ValueError est levée, avec le détail list.remote(x): x not in list tel que montré.

La sortie attendue pour une exception doit commencer par un en-tête de trace d'appels, qui peut être l'une des deux lignes suivantes, avec la même indentation que la première ligne de l'exemple :

Traceback (most recent call last):
Traceback (innermost last):

L'en-tête de la trace d'appels est suivi par une pile optionnelle de trace d'appels, dont le contenu est ignoré par doctest. La trace d'appels est habituellement omise, ou est copiée verbatim à partir d'une séance interactive.

La pile de trace d'appels est suivie par la partie la plus intéressante : la ou les lignes contenant le type et le détail de l'exception. Ceci est habituellement la dernière ligne de la trace d'appels ; dans le cas où l'exception a un détail sur plusieurs lignes, il est possible de prolonger sur plusieurs lignes :

>>> raise ValueError('multi\n    line\ndetail')
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
ValueError: multi
    line
detail

Les trois dernières lignes (en commençant par ValueError) sont comparées avec le type et le détail de l'exception ; tout le reste est ignoré.

La pratique optimale est d'omettre la pile de trace d'appels, à moins que celle-ci ait une valeur significative de documentation de l'exemple. Ainsi, le dernier exemple est probablement meilleur tel qui suit :

>>> raise ValueError('multi\n    line\ndetail')
Traceback (most recent call last):
    ...
ValueError: multi
    line
detail

Prenez note que les traces d'appels sont traitées de façon vraiment particulière. Précisément, dans l'exemple ré-écrit, l'utilisation de ... est indépendante de l'option doctest ELLIPSIS. Les points de suspension dans cet exemple peuvent être omis, ou peuvent aussi être trois (ou trois cents) virgules ou chiffres, ou une retranscription indentée d'une parodie de Monty Python.

Quelques détails que vous devriez lire une fois, mais que vous pouvez oublier :

Doctest ne peut pas deviner si votre sortie attendue provient d'une trace d'appels issue d'une exception ou d'un affichage ordinaire. Ainsi, si nous avons un exemple s'attendant à obtenir ValueError: 42 is prime, celui-ci réussira peu importe si ValueError est réellement levée ou si l'exemple affiche simplement ce texte de trace d'appels. Dans la pratique, une sortie ordinaire commence rarement par une ligne d'en-tête de trace d'appels ; ainsi, ceci ne pose pas de vrai problème.

Chaque ligne de la trace d'appel (s'il y en a) doit soit être indentée d'un niveau supplémentaire au niveau de la première ligne de l'exemple ou doit commencer par un caractère qui ne soit pas alphanumérique. La première ligne suivant l'en-tête de la trace d'appels qui soit indentée similairement et qui commence par un caractère alphanumérique est comprise comme étant le début du détail de l'exception. Bien sûr, ceci fait la chose adéquate pour les traces d'appels véritables.

Lorsque l'option de doctest IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL est définie, tout ce qui suit le point-virgule se trouvant le plus à gauche ainsi que toute information liée au module dans le nom de l'exception sont ignorés.

The interactive shell omits the traceback header line for some SyntaxErrors. But doctest uses the traceback header line to distinguish exceptions from non-exceptions. So in the rare case where you need to test a SyntaxError that omits the traceback header, you will need to manually add the traceback header line to your test example.

Pour certaines erreurs, Python affiche la position de l'erreur en utilisant le marqueur ^ et des tildes :

>>> 1 + None
  File "<stdin>", line 1
    1 + None
    ~~^~~~~~
TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for +: 'int' and 'NoneType'

Comme les lignes dénotant la position de l'erreur précèdent le type et le détail de l'exception, elles ne sont pas vérifiées par doctest. Par exemple, le test suivant réussira, même si le marqueur ^ n'est pas à la bonne place :

>>> 1 + None
  File "<stdin>", line 1
    1 + None
    ^~~~~~~~
TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for +: 'int' and 'NoneType'

Options de ligne de commande

Un ensemble d'options de ligne de commande contrôle différents aspects du comportement de doctest. Pour les options, des noms symboliques sont fournis comme des constantes de module, qui peuvent être composés par un OU bit à bit (bitwise ORed) et passés à diverses fonctions. Les noms peuvent aussi être utilisés dans des instructions doctest, et peuvent être passés à l'interface de ligne de commande de doctest à l'aide de l'option -o.

Le premier groupe d'options définit les sémantiques de test, de façon à contrôler comment doctest décide si la sortie obtenue correspond à la sortie attendue de l'exemple :

doctest.DONT_ACCEPT_TRUE_FOR_1

Par défaut, si un bloc de sortie attendu contient uniquement un 1, un vrai bloc de sortie contenant uniquement un 1 ou un True sera considéré comme étant une correspondance ; de façon similaire, nous avons une correspondance pour 0 et False. Lorsque l'option DONT_ACCEPT_TRUE_FOR_1 est précisée, aucune de ces substitutions n'est acceptée. Le comportement par défaut s'ajuste au fait que Python a changé le type de renvoi de plusieurs fonctions, passant de nombres entiers à des booléens ; les doctests s'attendant à une sortie de « petit entier » (little integer) fonctionnent encore dans ces cas. Cette option disparaîtra probablement, mais pas avant plusieurs années.

doctest.DONT_ACCEPT_BLANKLINE

Par défaut, si un bloc de sortie attendue contient une ligne contenant uniquement la chaîne de caractères <BLANKLINE>, alors cette ligne sera en correspondance avec une ligne vide dans la sortie réelle. Puisqu'une véritable ligne vide permet de délimiter la sortie attendue, ceci est la seule façon de communiquer qu'une ligne vide est souhaitée. Lorsque l'option DONT_ACCEPT_BLANKLINE est précisée, cette substitution n'est pas permise.

doctest.NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE

Lorsque précisé, toutes les séquences de caractères d'espacement et de caractères de saut de ligne sont traitées comme équivalentes. Toute séquence de caractères d'espacement à l'intérieur de la sortie attendue correspondra alors à toute séquence de caractères d'espacement à l'intérieur de la sortie réelle. Par défaut, les caractères d'espacement doivent correspondre de façon exacte. L'option NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE est particulièrement utile lorsqu'une ligne de sortie attendue est très longue, et que l'on souhaite la répartir sur plusieurs lignes dans le fichier source.

doctest.ELLIPSIS

Lorsque précisé, un marqueur de points de suspension (...) dans la sortie attendue peut correspondre à n'importe quelle partie de chaîne de caractères dans la sortie réelle. Ceci inclut les parties qui traversent les frontières de lignes, ainsi que les parties vides de chaînes de caractères ; ainsi, il est préférable d'en faire une utilisation simple. Les usages complexes mènent aux mêmes surprises du type "oups, il y avait trop de correspondances !" que l'utilisation de .* dans les expressions régulières.

doctest.IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL

When specified, doctests expecting exceptions pass so long as an exception of the expected type is raised, even if the details (message and fully qualified exception name) don't match.

For example, an example expecting ValueError: 42 will pass if the actual exception raised is ValueError: 3*14, but will fail if, say, a TypeError is raised instead. It will also ignore any fully qualified name included before the exception class, which can vary between implementations and versions of Python and the code/libraries in use. Hence, all three of these variations will work with the flag specified:

>>> raise Exception('message')
Traceback (most recent call last):
Exception: message

>>> raise Exception('message')
Traceback (most recent call last):
builtins.Exception: message

>>> raise Exception('message')
Traceback (most recent call last):
__main__.Exception: message

Note that ELLIPSIS can also be used to ignore the details of the exception message, but such a test may still fail based on whether the module name is present or matches exactly.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Maintenant, IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL permet aussi d'ignorer toute information liée au module contenant l'exception qui est en train d'être testée.

doctest.SKIP

Lorsque précisé, cesse complètement l'exécution de tous les exemples. Ceci peut être utile dans des contextes où les exemples doctest sont à la fois de la documentation et des cas de tests, et qu'un exemple doit être inclus pour des raisons de documentation, mais ne devrait pas être vérifié. Par exemple, la sortie de l'exemple doit être aléatoire ; ou encore, lorsque l'exemple peut dépendre de ressources inatteignables pour l'exécuteur de test.

L'option SKIP peut aussi être utilisée temporairement afin de commenter des exemples et d'en empêcher l'exécution.

doctest.COMPARISON_FLAGS

Un masque binaire effectuant une composition avec OU de toutes les options de comparaisons ci-dessus.

Le deuxième groupe d'options détermine comment les échecs de tests sont signalés :

doctest.REPORT_UDIFF

Lorsque précisé, les défaillances qui font intervenir des sorties attendues et réelles multi-lignes sont affichées dans une diff unifiée.

doctest.REPORT_CDIFF

Lorsque précisé, les défaillances qui font intervenir des sorties attendues et réelles multi-lignes sont affichées dans une diff de contexte.

doctest.REPORT_NDIFF

Lorsque précisé, les différences sont obtenues grâce à difflib.Differ, en utilisant le même algorithme que le populaire utilitaire ndiff.py. Ceci est la seule méthode qui puisse faire la différence à l'intérieur des lignes ainsi que parmi les lignes prises conjointement. Par exemple, si une ligne de sortie attendue contient le chiffre 1 alors que la sortie réelle contient la lettre l, une ligne est insérée avec un marqueur caret démarquant les positions de colonnes où il n'y a pas de correspondance.

doctest.REPORT_ONLY_FIRST_FAILURE

Lorsque précisé, le premier exemple défaillant de chaque doctest est affiché, mais la sortie est supprimée pour tous les autres exemples. Ceci empêche doctest de rapporter les exemples adéquats qui échouent du fait d'échecs précédents ; ceci peut aussi cacher des exemples inadéquats qui échouent de façon indépendante au premier échec. Lorsque REPORT_ONLY_FIRST_FAILURE est précisé, les exemples restants sont toujours exécutés, et sont toujours comptabilisés dans le nombre total des lignes échouant ; seulement la sortie est omise.

doctest.FAIL_FAST

Lorsque précisé, mettre fin à l'exécution après le premier exemple défaillant et ne pas essayer d'exécuter les exemples restants. Ainsi, le nombre d'échecs rapporté sera au plus un (1). Cette option peut être utile durant le débogage, étant donné que les exemples suivant le premier échec ne produiront aucune sortie de débogage.

doctest.REPORTING_FLAGS

Un masque binaire effectuant une composition avec le OU de toutes les options de signalement ci-dessus.

There is also a way to register new option flag names, though this isn't useful unless you intend to extend doctest internals via subclassing:

doctest.register_optionflag(name)

Crée une nouvelle option avec un nom donné, et renvoie la valeur en nombre entier de la nouvelle option. La fonction register_optionflag() peut être utilisée lors de la création de sous-classes à partir de OutputChecker ou DocTestRunner pour créer de nouvelles options qui sont supportées par vos sous-classes. La fonction register_optionflag() devrait toujours être appelée par l'expression suivante :

MY_FLAG = register_optionflag('MY_FLAG')

Instructions

Les instructions doctest peuvent être utilisées afin de modifier les options pour un exemple individuel. Les instructions doctest sont des commentaires Python spéciaux suivant le code source d'un exemple :

directive:             "#" "doctest:" directive_options
directive_options:     directive_option ("," directive_option)*
directive_option:      on_or_off directive_option_name
on_or_off:             "+" | "-"
directive_option_name: "DONT_ACCEPT_BLANKLINE" | "NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE" | ...

Les caractères d'espacement ne sont pas permis entre les + ou les - et le nom de l'option d'instruction. Le nom de l'option d'instruction peut être n'importe lequel des noms d'options expliqués ci-dessus.

Les instructions d'un exemple doctest modifient le comportement de doctest et ce, seulement pour cet exemple. Utilisez + pour activer le comportement nommé, ou - pour le désactiver.

For example, this test passes:

>>> print(list(range(20)))  # doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
[0,   1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,
10,  11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19]

Without the directive it would fail, both because the actual output doesn't have two blanks before the single-digit list elements, and because the actual output is on a single line. This test also passes, and also requires a directive to do so:

>>> print(list(range(20)))  # doctest: +ELLIPSIS
[0, 1, ..., 18, 19]

Multiple directives can be used on a single physical line, separated by commas:

>>> print(list(range(20)))  # doctest: +ELLIPSIS, +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
[0,    1, ...,   18,    19]

If multiple directive comments are used for a single example, then they are combined:

>>> print(list(range(20)))  # doctest: +ELLIPSIS
...                         # doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
[0,    1, ...,   18,    19]

As the previous example shows, you can add ... lines to your example containing only directives. This can be useful when an example is too long for a directive to comfortably fit on the same line:

>>> print(list(range(5)) + list(range(10, 20)) + list(range(30, 40)))
... # doctest: +ELLIPSIS
[0, ..., 4, 10, ..., 19, 30, ..., 39]

Prendre note que puisque toutes les options sont désactivées par défaut, et comme les instructions s'appliquent uniquement aux exemples dans lesquelles elles apparaissent, activer les options (par le biais de + dans une instruction) est habituellement le seul choix ayant du sens. Toutefois, les options peuvent aussi être passées aux fonctions qui exécutent les doctests, définissant de nouvelles valeurs par défaut. Dans de tels cas, désactiver une option par l'utilisation de - dans une instruction peut être utile.

Avertissements

doctest is serious about requiring exact matches in expected output. If even a single character doesn't match, the test fails. This will probably surprise you a few times, as you learn exactly what Python does and doesn't guarantee about output. For example, when printing a set, Python doesn't guarantee that the element is printed in any particular order, so a test like

>>> foo()
{"spam", "eggs"}

est vulnérable ! Une alternative est de faire

>>> foo() == {"spam", "eggs"}
True

à la place. Une autre façon de faire est

>>> d = sorted(foo())
>>> d
['eggs', 'spam']

Il y en a d'autres, mais vous saisissez l'idée.

Another bad idea is to print things that embed an object address, like

>>> id(1.0)  # certain to fail some of the time
7948648
>>> class C: pass
>>> C()  # the default repr() for instances embeds an address
<C object at 0x00AC18F0>

The ELLIPSIS directive gives a nice approach for the last example:

>>> C()  # doctest: +ELLIPSIS
<C object at 0x...>

Floating-point numbers are also subject to small output variations across platforms, because Python defers to the platform C library for some floating-point calculations, and C libraries vary widely in quality here.

>>> 1000**0.1  # risky
1.9952623149688797
>>> round(1000**0.1, 9) # safer
1.995262315
>>> print(f'{1000**0.1:.4f}') # much safer
1.9953

Numbers of the form I/2.**J are safe across all platforms, and I often contrive doctest examples to produce numbers of that form:

>>> 3./4  # utterly safe
0.75

Les fractions simples sont aussi plus faciles à comprendre, et cela fait une meilleure documentation.

API de base

Les fonctions testmod() et testfile() fournissent une interface simple pour doctest qui est suffisante pour les cas d'usage les plus élémentaires. Pour une introduction moins formelle à ces deux fonctions, voir les sections Utilisation simple : vérifier des exemples dans des docstrings et Utilisation simple : vérifier des exemples dans un fichier texte.

doctest.testfile(filename, module_relative=True, name=None, package=None, globs=None, verbose=None, report=True, optionflags=0, extraglobs=None, raise_on_error=False, parser=DocTestParser(), encoding=None)

Tous les arguments sauf filename sont optionnels, et doivent être précisés sous forme lettrée.

Teste les exemples dans le fichier nommé filename. Renvoie (failure_count, test_count).

L'argument optionnel module_relative précise comment le nom de fichier doit être interprété :

Si module_relative prend la valeur True (la valeur par défaut), alors filename précise un chemin relatif au module qui soit indépendant du système d'exploitation (OS). Par défaut, ce chemin est relatif au répertoire du module appelant ; mais si l'argument package est précisé, alors il est relatif à ce paquet. Pour garantir l'indépendance quant au système d'exploitation, filename doit utiliser des caractères / pour séparer chaque segment de chemin, et ne peut pas être un chemin absolu (c'est-à-dire qu'il ne peut pas commencer par /).

Si module_relative prend la valeur False, alors filename précise un chemin en fonction du système d'exploitation. Le chemin peut être absolu ou relatif ; les chemins relatifs sont résolus en rapport au répertoire actif.

L'option name désigne le nom du test ; par défaut, ou si None est passé en argument, os.path.basename(filename) est utilisé.

L'option package est un paquet Python ou le nom d'un paquet Python dont le répertoire doit être utilisé comme le répertoire principal pour un nom de fichier lié à un module. Si aucun paquet n'est spécifié, le répertoire du module appelé à l'exécution est utilisé comme le répertoire principal pour les noms de fichiers liés au module. C'est une erreur que de spécifier package si module_relative a False comme valeur.

L'option globs spécifie un dict à utiliser comme globals lorsque des exemples sont exécutés. Une copie superficielle de ce dict est créée pour le doctest ; ainsi, ces exemples commencent avec un état vide. Par défaut, ou si None est passé en argument, un nouveau dict vide est utilisé.

L'option extraglobs spécifie un dict intégré dans les variables globales utilisées pour exécuter l'exemple. Ceci fonctionne comme dict.update() : si globs et extraglobs ont une clé commune, la valeur associée à extraglobs apparaît dans le dict combiné. Par défaut, ou si None est passé en argument, aucune variable globale supplémentaire est utilisée. Ceci est une fonctionnalité avancée qui permet la configuration des doctests. Par exemple, un doctest peut être rédigé pour une classe de base, en utilisant un nom générique pour la classe, puis réutilisé afin de tester un nombre indéfini de sous-classes en passant un dict extraglobs reliant le nom générique à la sous-classe qui doit être testée.

Optional argument verbose prints lots of stuff if true, and prints only failures if false; by default, or if None, it's true if and only if '-v' is in sys.argv.

L'option report affiche un résumé à la fin lorsque vraie ; sinon, rien n'est affiché à la fin. En mode verbose, le résumé est détaillé, sinon le résumé est très bref (en fait, vide si tous les tests ont réussi).

Optional argument optionflags (default value 0) takes the bitwise OR of option flags. See section Options de ligne de commande.

L'option raise_on_error est fausse par défaut. Si elle est vraie, une exception est levée à la première défaillance ou à la première exception qui ne soit prévue dans l'exemple. Ceci permet aux défaillances d'être analysées lors d'un post-mortem. Le comportement par défaut est de poursuivre l'exécution des exemples.

L'option parser définit une classe ou une sous-classe DocTestParser qui doit être utilisée pour extraire les tests des fichiers. Par défaut, on utilise un analyseur normal (c'est-à-dire, DocTestParser()).

L'option encoding définit un encodage à utiliser pour convertir le fichier en format unicode.

doctest.testmod(m=None, name=None, globs=None, verbose=None, report=True, optionflags=0, extraglobs=None, raise_on_error=False, exclude_empty=False)

Toutes les options sont facultatives, et toutes sauf m doivent être définies en format lettré.

Ceci teste les exemples en docstrings dans les fonctions et les classes accessibles depuis le module m (ou depuis le module __main__ si m n'a pas été défini ou est None), en commençant par m.__doc__.

Also test examples reachable from dict m.__test__, if it exists. m.__test__ maps names (strings) to functions, classes and strings; function and class docstrings are searched for examples; strings are searched directly, as if they were docstrings.

Seulement les docstrings attribuées à des objets appartenant au module m sont fouillées.

Renvoie (failure_count, test_count).

L'option name donne le nom du module ; par défaut, ou si None, m.__name__ est utilisé.

Optional argument exclude_empty defaults to false. If true, objects for which no doctests are found are excluded from consideration. The default is a backward compatibility hack, so that code still using doctest.master.summarize in conjunction with testmod() continues to get output for objects with no tests. The exclude_empty argument to the newer DocTestFinder constructor defaults to true.

Les options extraglobs, verbose, report, optionflags, raise_on_error, et globs sont les mêmes que pour la fonction testfile() ci-dessus, sauf pour globs, qui est m.__dict__ par défaut.

doctest.run_docstring_examples(f, globs, verbose=False, name='NoName', compileflags=None, optionflags=0)

Les exemples de test associés à l'objet f ; par exemple, f peut être une chaîne de caractères, un module, une fonction, ou un objet de classe.

Une copie superficielle de l'argument-dictionnaire globs est utilisée pour le contexte d'exécution.

L'option name est utilisée pour les messages d'échec, et prend "NoName" comme valeur par défaut.

Si l'option verbose est vraie, les sorties sont générées même s'il n'y a aucun échec. Par défaut, la sortie est générée seulement si un exemple échoue.

L'option compileflags donne l'ensemble des options qui doit être utilisée par le compilateur Python lorsqu'il exécute les exemples. Par défaut, ou si None, les options sont inférées à partir de l'ensemble des fonctionnalités futures trouvées dans globs.

L'option optionflags fonctionne similairement à la fonction testfile() ci-dessus.

API de tests unitaires

As your collection of doctest'ed modules grows, you'll want a way to run all their doctests systematically. doctest provides two functions that can be used to create unittest test suites from modules and text files containing doctests. To integrate with unittest test discovery, include a load_tests function in your test module:

import unittest
import doctest
import my_module_with_doctests

def load_tests(loader, tests, ignore):
    tests.addTests(doctest.DocTestSuite(my_module_with_doctests))
    return tests

Il y a deux fonctions principales pour créer des instances de la classe unittest.TestSuite à partir de fichiers textes et de modules ayant des doctests :

doctest.DocFileSuite(*paths, module_relative=True, package=None, setUp=None, tearDown=None, globs=None, optionflags=0, parser=DocTestParser(), encoding=None)

Convertit des tests doctest à partir d'un ou plusieurs fichiers vers une classe unittest.TestSuite.

The returned unittest.TestSuite is to be run by the unittest framework and runs the interactive examples in each file. If an example in any file fails, then the synthesized unit test fails, and a failureException exception is raised showing the name of the file containing the test and a (sometimes approximate) line number. If all the examples in a file are skipped, then the synthesized unit test is also marked as skipped.

Passe un ou plusieurs chemins (sous forme de chaînes de caractères) à des fichiers textes afin d'être vérifiés.

Les options peuvent être fournies comme des options lettrées :

L'option module_relative précise comment les noms de fichiers dans paths doivent être interprétés :

Si module_relative a True comme valeur (valeur par défaut), alors chaque nom de fichier dans paths précise un chemin relatif au module qui soit indépendant du système d'exploitation. Par défaut, ce chemin est relatif au répertoire du module appelant ; mais si l'option package est précisée, alors il est relatif à ce paquet. Afin de garantir l'indépendance face au système d'exploitation, chaque nom de fichier doit utiliser des caractères / afin de séparer les segments de chemin, et ne peut pas être un chemin absolu (c'est-à-dire, il ne peut pas commencer par /).

Si module_relative prend la valeur False, alors filename précise un chemin en fonction du système d'exploitation. Le chemin peut être absolu ou relatif ; les chemins relatifs sont résolus en rapport au répertoire actif.

L'option package est un paquet Python ou le nom d'un paquet Python dont le répertoire dont être utilisé comme le répertoire principal pour un nom de fichier dans paths qui soit lié à un module. Si aucun paquet n'est spécifié, le répertoire du module appelé à l'exécution est utilisé comme le répertoire principal pour les noms de fichiers liés au module. C'est une erreur que de spécifier package si module_relative a False comme valeur.

Optional argument setUp specifies a set-up function for the test suite. This is called before running the tests in each file. The setUp function will be passed a DocTest object. The setUp function can access the test globals as the globs attribute of the test passed.

Optional argument tearDown specifies a tear-down function for the test suite. This is called after running the tests in each file. The tearDown function will be passed a DocTest object. The tearDown function can access the test globals as the globs attribute of the test passed.

L'option globs est un dictionnaire contenant les variables globales initiales pour les tests. Une nouvelle copie de ce dictionnaire est créée pour chaque test. Par défaut, globs est un nouveau dictionnaire vide.

Les options optionflags précisent les options par défaut de doctest pour les tests, créées en composant par un OU les différentes options individuelles. Voir la section Options de ligne de commande. Voir la fonction set_unittest_reportflags() ci-dessous pour une meilleure façon de préciser des options de rapport.

L'option parser définit une classe ou une sous-classe DocTestParser qui doit être utilisée pour extraire les tests des fichiers. Par défaut, on utilise un analyseur normal (c'est-à-dire, DocTestParser()).

L'option encoding définit un encodage à utiliser pour convertir le fichier en format unicode.

La valeur globale __file__ est ajoutée aux valeurs globales fournies par les doctests, ceux-ci étant téléchargés d'un fichier texte utilisant la fonction DocFileSuite().

doctest.DocTestSuite(module=None, globs=None, extraglobs=None, test_finder=None, setUp=None, tearDown=None, optionflags=0, checker=None)

Convertit les tests doctest pour un module donné à une classe unittest.TestSuite.

The returned unittest.TestSuite is to be run by the unittest framework and runs each doctest in the module. Each docstring is run as a separate unit test. If any of the doctests fail, then the synthesized unit test fails, and a unittest.TestCase.failureException exception is raised showing the name of the file containing the test and a (sometimes approximate) line number. If all the examples in a docstring are skipped, then the

L'option module fournit le module qui sera testé. Il peut prendre la forme d'un objet-module ou celle du nom d'un module (possiblement dotted). Si non-précisée, le module appelant cette fonction est utilisé.

Optional argument globs is a dictionary containing the initial global variables for the tests. A new copy of this dictionary is created for each test. By default, globs is the module's __dict__.

L'option extraglobs précise un ensemble supplémentaire de variables globales, à fusionner avec globs. Par défaut, aucune variable globale supplémentaire est utilisée.

L'option test_finder est l'instance de DocTestFinder (ou un remplacement drop-in) qui est utilisée pour extraire les doctests à partir du module.

Optional arguments setUp, tearDown, and optionflags are the same as for function DocFileSuite() above, but they are called for each docstring.

Cette fonction utilise la même technique de recherche que testmod().

Modifié dans la version 3.5: La fonction DocTestSuite() renvoie une instance vide de la classe unittest.TestSuite si module ne contient aucune docstring, et ce, au lieu de lever l'exception ValueError.

Under the covers, DocTestSuite() creates a unittest.TestSuite out of doctest.DocTestCase instances, and DocTestCase is a subclass of unittest.TestCase. DocTestCase isn't documented here (it's an internal detail), but studying its code can answer questions about the exact details of unittest integration.

Similarly, DocFileSuite() creates a unittest.TestSuite out of doctest.DocFileCase instances, and DocFileCase is a subclass of DocTestCase.

So both ways of creating a unittest.TestSuite run instances of DocTestCase. This is important for a subtle reason: when you run doctest functions yourself, you can control the doctest options in use directly, by passing option flags to doctest functions. However, if you're writing a unittest framework, unittest ultimately controls when and how tests get run. The framework author typically wants to control doctest reporting options (perhaps, e.g., specified by command line options), but there's no way to pass options through unittest to doctest test runners.

For this reason, doctest also supports a notion of doctest reporting flags specific to unittest support, via this function:

doctest.set_unittest_reportflags(flags)

Set the doctest reporting flags to use.

L'argument flags prend la composition OU bit à bit des arguments. Voir la section Options de ligne de commande. Ce sont uniquement les "options de rapport" qui peuvent être utilisées.

This is a module-global setting, and affects all future doctests run by module unittest: the runTest() method of DocTestCase looks at the option flags specified for the test case when the DocTestCase instance was constructed. If no reporting flags were specified (which is the typical and expected case), doctest's unittest reporting flags are bitwise ORed into the option flags, and the option flags so augmented are passed to the DocTestRunner instance created to run the doctest. If any reporting flags were specified when the DocTestCase instance was constructed, doctest's unittest reporting flags are ignored.

La valeur prise par les options de rapport de unittest et ce, avant que la fonction n'ait été appelée, est renvoyée par la fonction.

API avancé

The basic API is a simple wrapper that's intended to make doctest easy to use. It is fairly flexible, and should meet most users' needs; however, if you require more fine-grained control over testing, or wish to extend doctest's capabilities, then you should use the advanced API.

The advanced API revolves around two container classes, which are used to store the interactive examples extracted from doctest cases:

Example : Un unique statement Python, pris conjointement avec sa sortie attendue.

DocTest : Une collection de Example, habituellement extraits d'une seule docstring ou fichier texte.

Additional processing classes are defined to find, parse, and run, and check doctest examples:

DocTestFinder: Finds all docstrings in a given module, and uses a DocTestParser to create a DocTest from every docstring that contains interactive examples.

DocTestParser: Creates a DocTest object from a string (such as an object's docstring).

DocTestRunner: Executes the examples in a DocTest, and uses an OutputChecker to verify their output.

OutputChecker: Compares the actual output from a doctest example with the expected output, and decides whether they match.

The relationships among these processing classes are summarized in the following diagram:

                            list of:
+------+                   +---------+
|module| --DocTestFinder-> | DocTest | --DocTestRunner-> results
+------+    |        ^     +---------+     |       ^    (printed)
            |        |     | Example |     |       |
            v        |     |   ...   |     v       |
           DocTestParser   | Example |   OutputChecker
                           +---------+

Objets doctest

class doctest.DocTest(examples, globs, name, filename, lineno, docstring)

A collection of doctest examples that should be run in a single namespace. The constructor arguments are used to initialize the attributes of the same names.

DocTest définit les attributs suivants. Ils sont initialisés par le constructeur, et ne doivent pas être modifiés directement.

examples

A list of Example objects encoding the individual interactive Python examples that should be run by this test.

globs

The namespace (aka globals) that the examples should be run in. This is a dictionary mapping names to values. Any changes to the namespace made by the examples (such as binding new variables) will be reflected in globs after the test is run.

name

A string name identifying the DocTest. Typically, this is the name of the object or file that the test was extracted from.

filename

The name of the file that this DocTest was extracted from; or None if the filename is unknown, or if the DocTest was not extracted from a file.

lineno

The line number within filename where this DocTest begins, or None if the line number is unavailable. This line number is zero-based with respect to the beginning of the file.

docstring

The string that the test was extracted from, or None if the string is unavailable, or if the test was not extracted from a string.

Exemples d'objets

class doctest.Example(source, want, exc_msg=None, lineno=0, indent=0, options=None)

A single interactive example, consisting of a Python statement and its expected output. The constructor arguments are used to initialize the attributes of the same names.

Example defines the following attributes. They are initialized by the constructor, and should not be modified directly.

source

A string containing the example's source code. This source code consists of a single Python statement, and always ends with a newline; the constructor adds a newline when necessary.

want

The expected output from running the example's source code (either from stdout, or a traceback in case of exception). want ends with a newline unless no output is expected, in which case it's an empty string. The constructor adds a newline when necessary.

exc_msg

The exception message generated by the example, if the example is expected to generate an exception; or None if it is not expected to generate an exception. This exception message is compared against the return value of traceback.format_exception_only(). exc_msg ends with a newline unless it's None. The constructor adds a newline if needed.

lineno

The line number within the string containing this example where the example begins. This line number is zero-based with respect to the beginning of the containing string.

indent

The example's indentation in the containing string, i.e., the number of space characters that precede the example's first prompt.

options

A dictionary mapping from option flags to True or False, which is used to override default options for this example. Any option flags not contained in this dictionary are left at their default value (as specified by the DocTestRunner's optionflags). By default, no options are set.

Objets DocTestFinder

class doctest.DocTestFinder(verbose=False, parser=DocTestParser(), recurse=True, exclude_empty=True)

A processing class used to extract the DocTests that are relevant to a given object, from its docstring and the docstrings of its contained objects. DocTests can be extracted from modules, classes, functions, methods, staticmethods, classmethods, and properties.

The optional argument verbose can be used to display the objects searched by the finder. It defaults to False (no output).

The optional argument parser specifies the DocTestParser object (or a drop-in replacement) that is used to extract doctests from docstrings.

If the optional argument recurse is false, then DocTestFinder.find() will only examine the given object, and not any contained objects.

If the optional argument exclude_empty is false, then DocTestFinder.find() will include tests for objects with empty docstrings.

La classe DocTestFinder définit la méthode suivante :

find(obj[, name][, module][, globs][, extraglobs])

Return a list of the DocTests that are defined by obj's docstring, or by any of its contained objects' docstrings.

The optional argument name specifies the object's name; this name will be used to construct names for the returned DocTests. If name is not specified, then obj.__name__ is used.

The optional parameter module is the module that contains the given object. If the module is not specified or is None, then the test finder will attempt to automatically determine the correct module. The object's module is used:

As a default namespace, if globs is not specified.

To prevent the DocTestFinder from extracting DocTests from objects that are imported from other modules. (Contained objects with modules other than module are ignored.)

Afin de trouver le nom du fichier contenant l'objet.

To help find the line number of the object within its file.

If module is False, no attempt to find the module will be made. This is obscure, of use mostly in testing doctest itself: if module is False, or is None but cannot be found automatically, then all objects are considered to belong to the (non-existent) module, so all contained objects will (recursively) be searched for doctests.

The globals for each DocTest is formed by combining globs and extraglobs (bindings in extraglobs override bindings in globs). A new shallow copy of the globals dictionary is created for each DocTest. If globs is not specified, then it defaults to the module's __dict__, if specified, or {} otherwise. If extraglobs is not specified, then it defaults to {}.

Objets DocTestParser

class doctest.DocTestParser

A processing class used to extract interactive examples from a string, and use them to create a DocTest object.

La classe DocTestFinder définit les méthodes suivantes :

get_doctest(string, globs, name, filename, lineno)

Extrait tous les exemples de doctests à partir de la chaîne de caractère donnée, et les réunit dans un objet DocTest.

globs, name, filename, and lineno are attributes for the new DocTest object. See the documentation for DocTest for more information.

get_examples(string, name='<string>')

Extract all doctest examples from the given string, and return them as a list of Example objects. Line numbers are 0-based. The optional argument name is a name identifying this string, and is only used for error messages.

parse(string, name='<string>')

Divide the given string into examples and intervening text, and return them as a list of alternating Examples and strings. Line numbers for the Examples are 0-based. The optional argument name is a name identifying this string, and is only used for error messages.

Objets TestResults

class doctest.TestResults(failed, attempted)

failed

Nombre de tests échoués.

attempted

Nombre de tests tentés.

skipped

Nombre de tests sautés.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Objets DocTestRunner

class doctest.DocTestRunner(checker=None, verbose=None, optionflags=0)

A processing class used to execute and verify the interactive examples in a DocTest.

The comparison between expected outputs and actual outputs is done by an OutputChecker. This comparison may be customized with a number of option flags; see section Options de ligne de commande for more information. If the option flags are insufficient, then the comparison may also be customized by passing a subclass of OutputChecker to the constructor.

The test runner's display output can be controlled in two ways. First, an output function can be passed to run(); this function will be called with strings that should be displayed. It defaults to sys.stdout.write. If capturing the output is not sufficient, then the display output can be also customized by subclassing DocTestRunner, and overriding the methods report_start(), report_success(), report_unexpected_exception(), and report_failure().

The optional keyword argument checker specifies the OutputChecker object (or drop-in replacement) that should be used to compare the expected outputs to the actual outputs of doctest examples.

The optional keyword argument verbose controls the DocTestRunner's verbosity. If verbose is True, then information is printed about each example, as it is run. If verbose is False, then only failures are printed. If verbose is unspecified, or None, then verbose output is used iff the command-line switch -v is used.

The optional keyword argument optionflags can be used to control how the test runner compares expected output to actual output, and how it displays failures. For more information, see section Options de ligne de commande.

The test runner accumulates statistics. The aggregated number of attempted, failed and skipped examples is also available via the tries, failures and skips attributes. The run() and summarize() methods return a TestResults instance.

La classe DocTestRunner définit les méthodes suivantes :

report_start(out, test, example)

Report that the test runner is about to process the given example. This method is provided to allow subclasses of DocTestRunner to customize their output; it should not be called directly.

example is the example about to be processed. test is the test containing example. out is the output function that was passed to DocTestRunner.run().

report_success(out, test, example, got)

Report that the given example ran successfully. This method is provided to allow subclasses of DocTestRunner to customize their output; it should not be called directly.

example is the example about to be processed. got is the actual output from the example. test is the test containing example. out is the output function that was passed to DocTestRunner.run().

report_failure(out, test, example, got)

Report that the given example failed. This method is provided to allow subclasses of DocTestRunner to customize their output; it should not be called directly.

example is the example about to be processed. got is the actual output from the example. test is the test containing example. out is the output function that was passed to DocTestRunner.run().

report_unexpected_exception(out, test, example, exc_info)

Report that the given example raised an unexpected exception. This method is provided to allow subclasses of DocTestRunner to customize their output; it should not be called directly.

example is the example about to be processed. exc_info is a tuple containing information about the unexpected exception (as returned by sys.exc_info()). test is the test containing example. out is the output function that was passed to DocTestRunner.run().

run(test, compileflags=None, out=None, clear_globs=True)

Run the examples in test (a DocTest object), and display the results using the writer function out. Return a TestResults instance.

The examples are run in the namespace test.globs. If clear_globs is true (the default), then this namespace will be cleared after the test runs, to help with garbage collection. If you would like to examine the namespace after the test completes, then use clear_globs=False.

compileflags gives the set of flags that should be used by the Python compiler when running the examples. If not specified, then it will default to the set of future-import flags that apply to globs.

The output of each example is checked using the DocTestRunner's output checker, and the results are formatted by the DocTestRunner.report_*() methods.

summarize(verbose=None)

Print a summary of all the test cases that have been run by this DocTestRunner, and return a TestResults instance.

The optional verbose argument controls how detailed the summary is. If the verbosity is not specified, then the DocTestRunner's verbosity is used.

DocTestParser définit les attributs suivants :

tries

Number of attempted examples.

failures

Number of failed examples.

skips

Number of skipped examples.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Objets OutputChecker

class doctest.OutputChecker

A class used to check the whether the actual output from a doctest example matches the expected output. OutputChecker defines two methods: check_output(), which compares a given pair of outputs, and returns True if they match; and output_difference(), which returns a string describing the differences between two outputs.

La classe OutputChecker définit les méthodes suivantes :

check_output(want, got, optionflags)

Return True iff the actual output from an example (got) matches the expected output (want). These strings are always considered to match if they are identical; but depending on what option flags the test runner is using, several non-exact match types are also possible. See section Options de ligne de commande for more information about option flags.

output_difference(example, got, optionflags)

Return a string describing the differences between the expected output for a given example (example) and the actual output (got). optionflags is the set of option flags used to compare want and got.

Débogage

Doctest fournit plusieurs mécanismes pour déboguer des exemples doctest :

Plusieurs fonctions convertissent les doctests en programmes Python exécutables, qui peuvent être exécutés grâce au débogueur Python, pdb.

The DebugRunner class is a subclass of DocTestRunner that raises an exception for the first failing example, containing information about that example. This information can be used to perform post-mortem debugging on the example.

The unittest cases generated by DocTestSuite() support the debug() method defined by unittest.TestCase.

You can add a call to pdb.set_trace() in a doctest example, and you'll drop into the Python debugger when that line is executed. Then you can inspect current values of variables, and so on. For example, suppose a.py contains just this module docstring:

"""
>>> def f(x):
...     g(x*2)
>>> def g(x):
...     print(x+3)
...     import pdb; pdb.set_trace()
>>> f(3)
9
"""

Alors une séance interactive de Python peut ressembler à ceci :

>>> import a, doctest
>>> doctest.testmod(a)
--Return--
> <doctest a[1]>(3)g()->None
-> import pdb; pdb.set_trace()
(Pdb) list
  1     def g(x):
  2         print(x+3)
  3  ->     import pdb; pdb.set_trace()
[EOF]
(Pdb) p x
6
(Pdb) step
--Return--
> <doctest a[0]>(2)f()->None
-> g(x*2)
(Pdb) list
  1     def f(x):
  2  ->     g(x*2)
[EOF]
(Pdb) p x
3
(Pdb) step
--Return--
> <doctest a[2]>(1)?()->None
-> f(3)
(Pdb) cont
(0, 3)
>>>

Functions that convert doctests to Python code, and possibly run the synthesized code under the debugger:

doctest.script_from_examples(s)

Convertit du texte contenant des exemples en un script.

Argument s is a string containing doctest examples. The string is converted to a Python script, where doctest examples in s are converted to regular code, and everything else is converted to Python comments. The generated script is returned as a string. For example,

import doctest
print(doctest.script_from_examples(r"""
    Set x and y to 1 and 2.
    >>> x, y = 1, 2

    Print their sum:
    >>> print(x+y)
    3
"""))

affiche:

# Set x and y to 1 and 2.
x, y = 1, 2
#
# Print their sum:
print(x+y)
# Expected:
## 3

Cette fonction est utilisée à l'interne par d'autres fonctions (voir ci-bas), mais peut aussi être utile lorsque l'on souhaite transformer une séance interactive de Python en script Python.

doctest.testsource(module, name)

Convertit en script l'objet doctest.

Argument module is a module object, or dotted name of a module, containing the object whose doctests are of interest. Argument name is the name (within the module) of the object with the doctests of interest. The result is a string, containing the object's docstring converted to a Python script, as described for script_from_examples() above. For example, if module a.py contains a top-level function f(), then

import a, doctest
print(doctest.testsource(a, "a.f"))

prints a script version of function f()'s docstring, with doctests converted to code, and the rest placed in comments.

doctest.debug(module, name, pm=False)

Débogue les doctests pour un objet.

The module and name arguments are the same as for function testsource() above. The synthesized Python script for the named object's docstring is written to a temporary file, and then that file is run under the control of the Python debugger, pdb.

Une copie superficielle de module.__dict__ est utilisée à la fois pour les contextes d'exécution locaux et globaux.

Optional argument pm controls whether post-mortem debugging is used. If pm has a true value, the script file is run directly, and the debugger gets involved only if the script terminates via raising an unhandled exception. If it does, then post-mortem debugging is invoked, via pdb.post_mortem(), passing the traceback object from the unhandled exception. If pm is not specified, or is false, the script is run under the debugger from the start, via passing an appropriate exec() call to pdb.run().

doctest.debug_src(src, pm=False, globs=None)

Débogue les doctests dans une chaîne de caractères.

Ceci est similaire à la fonction debug() décrite ci-haut, mis-à-part qu'une chaîne de caractères contenant des exemples doctest est définie directement, par l'option src.

L'option pm a la même définition que dans la fonction debug() ci-haut.

L'option globs définit un dictionnaire à utiliser comme contexte d'exécution global et local. Si elle n'est pas définie, ou si None, un dictionnaire vide est utilisé. Si définie, une copie superficielle du dictionnaire est utilisée.

The DebugRunner class, and the special exceptions it may raise, are of most interest to testing framework authors, and will only be sketched here. See the source code, and especially DebugRunner's docstring (which is a doctest!) for more details:

class doctest.DebugRunner(checker=None, verbose=None, optionflags=0)

A subclass of DocTestRunner that raises an exception as soon as a failure is encountered. If an unexpected exception occurs, an UnexpectedException exception is raised, containing the test, the example, and the original exception. If the output doesn't match, then a DocTestFailure exception is raised, containing the test, the example, and the actual output.

Pour de l'information sur les paramètres et méthodes du constructeur, voir la documentation pour la classe DocTestrunner dans la section API avancé.

Il y a deux exceptions qui peuvent être levées par des instances DebugRunner :

exception doctest.DocTestFailure(test, example, got)

Une exception levée par DocTestRunner pour signaler que la sortie obtenue suite à un exemple doctest ne correspond pas à la sortie attendue. Les arguments du constructeur sont utilisés pour initialiser les attributs des mêmes noms.

DocTestFailure définit les attributs suivants :

DocTestFailure.test

L'objet issu de la classe DocTest qui était en cours d'exécution lorsque l'exemple a échoué.

DocTestFailure.example

L'exemple Example qui a échoué.

DocTestFailure.got

La sortie obtenue par l'exécution de l'exemple.

exception doctest.UnexpectedException(test, example, exc_info)

Une exception levée par DocTestRunner afin de signaler qu'un exemple doctest a levé une exception inattendue. Les arguments du constructeur sont utilisés pour initialiser les attributs des mêmes noms.

UnexpectedException définit les attributs suivants :

UnexpectedException.test

L'objet issu de la classe DocTest qui était en cours d'exécution lorsque l'exemple a échoué.

UnexpectedException.example

L'exemple Example qui a échoué.

UnexpectedException.exc_info

Un n-uplet contenant l'information au sujet de l'exception inattendue, telle que retourné par sys.exc_info().

Éditorial

As mentioned in the introduction, doctest has grown to have three primary uses:

Vérifier les exemples dans les docstrings.

Test de régression.

De la documentation exécutable / des tests littéraires.

These uses have different requirements, and it is important to distinguish them. In particular, filling your docstrings with obscure test cases makes for bad documentation.

When writing a docstring, choose docstring examples with care. There's an art to this that needs to be learned---it may not be natural at first. Examples should add genuine value to the documentation. A good example can often be worth many words. If done with care, the examples will be invaluable for your users, and will pay back the time it takes to collect them many times over as the years go by and things change. I'm still amazed at how often one of my doctest examples stops working after a "harmless" change.

Doctest also makes an excellent tool for regression testing, especially if you don't skimp on explanatory text. By interleaving prose and examples, it becomes much easier to keep track of what's actually being tested, and why. When a test fails, good prose can make it much easier to figure out what the problem is, and how it should be fixed. It's true that you could write extensive comments in code-based testing, but few programmers do. Many have found that using doctest approaches instead leads to much clearer tests. Perhaps this is simply because doctest makes writing prose a little easier than writing code, while writing comments in code is a little harder. I think it goes deeper than just that: the natural attitude when writing a doctest-based test is that you want to explain the fine points of your software, and illustrate them with examples. This in turn naturally leads to test files that start with the simplest features, and logically progress to complications and edge cases. A coherent narrative is the result, instead of a collection of isolated functions that test isolated bits of functionality seemingly at random. It's a different attitude, and produces different results, blurring the distinction between testing and explaining.

Regression testing is best confined to dedicated objects or files. There are several options for organizing tests:

Write text files containing test cases as interactive examples, and test the files using testfile() or DocFileSuite(). This is recommended, although is easiest to do for new projects, designed from the start to use doctest.

Define functions named _regrtest_topic that consist of single docstrings, containing test cases for the named topics. These functions can be included in the same file as the module, or separated out into a separate test file.

Define a __test__ dictionary mapping from regression test topics to docstrings containing test cases.

Lorsque vous placez vos tests dans un module, le module lui-même peut être l'exécuteur de tests. Lorsqu'un test échoue, vous pouvez signifier à votre exécuteur de tests de rouler une seconde fois uniquement les tests qui échouent et ce, tant que vous travaillez sur le problème. Voici un exemple minimal d'un test exécuteur de tests :

if __name__ == '__main__':
    import doctest
    flags = doctest.REPORT_NDIFF|doctest.FAIL_FAST
    if len(sys.argv) > 1:
        name = sys.argv[1]
        if name in globals():
            obj = globals()[name]
        else:
            obj = __test__[name]
        doctest.run_docstring_examples(obj, globals(), name=name,
                                       optionflags=flags)
    else:
        fail, total = doctest.testmod(optionflags=flags)
        print(f"{fail} failures out of {total} tests")

Notes

[1]

Les exemples contenant à la fois la sortie attendue et une exception ne sont pas supportés. Tenter de deviner où finit l'un et où commence l'autre peut mener à plusieurs erreurs, en plus d'être un test qui soit source de confusion.

unittest --- Unit testing framework

Code source : Lib/unittest/__init__.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/unittest/__init__.py]

(Si vous êtes déjà familier des concepts de base concernant les tests, vous pouvez souhaiter passer à la liste des méthodes.)

The unittest unit testing framework was originally inspired by JUnit and has a similar flavor as major unit testing frameworks in other languages. It supports test automation, sharing of setup and shutdown code for tests, aggregation of tests into collections, and independence of the tests from the reporting framework.

To achieve this, unittest supports some important concepts in an object-oriented way:

aménagement de test (fixture)

Un aménagement de test (fixture en anglais) désigne la préparation nécessaire au déroulement d'un ou plusieurs tests, et toutes les actions de nettoyage associées. Cela peut concerner, par exemple, la création de bases de données temporaires ou mandataires, de répertoires, ou le démarrage d'un processus serveur.

scénario de test

A test case is the individual unit of testing. It checks for a specific response to a particular set of inputs. unittest provides a base class, TestCase, which may be used to create new test cases.

suite de tests

Une suite de tests est une collection de scénarios de test, de suites de tests ou les deux. Cela sert à regrouper les tests qui devraient être exécutés ensemble.

lanceur de tests

Un lanceur de tests est un composant qui orchestre l'exécution des tests et fournit le résultat pour l'utilisateur. Le lanceur peut utiliser une interface graphique, une interface textuelle, ou renvoie une valeur spéciale pour indiquer les résultats de l'exécution des tests.

Voir aussi

Module doctest

Un autre module de test adoptant une approche très différente.

Simple Smalltalk Testing: With Patterns [https://web.archive.org/web/20150315073817/http://www.xprogramming.com/testfram.htm]

Kent Beck's original paper on testing frameworks using the pattern shared by unittest.

pytest [https://docs.pytest.org/]

Des cadres applicatifs tiers de tests unitaires avec une syntaxe allégée pour l'écriture des tests. Par exemple, assert func(10) == 42.

The Python Testing Tools Taxonomy [https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonTestingToolsTaxonomy]

Une liste étendue des outils de test pour Python comprenant des frameworks de tests fonctionnels et des bibliothèques d'objets simulés (mocks).

Testing in Python Mailing List [http://lists.idyll.org/listinfo/testing-in-python]

Un groupe de discussion dédié aux tests, et outils de test, en Python.

The script Tools/unittestgui/unittestgui.py in the Python source distribution is a GUI tool for test discovery and execution. This is intended largely for ease of use for those new to unit testing. For production environments it is recommended that tests be driven by a continuous integration system such as Buildbot [https://buildbot.net/], Jenkins [https://www.jenkins.io/], GitHub Actions [https://github.com/features/actions], or AppVeyor [https://www.appveyor.com/].

Exemple basique

The unittest module provides a rich set of tools for constructing and running tests. This section demonstrates that a small subset of the tools suffice to meet the needs of most users.

Voici un court script pour tester trois méthodes de string :

import unittest

class TestStringMethods(unittest.TestCase):

    def test_upper(self):
        self.assertEqual('foo'.upper(), 'FOO')

    def test_isupper(self):
        self.assertTrue('FOO'.isupper())
        self.assertFalse('Foo'.isupper())

    def test_split(self):
        s = 'hello world'
        self.assertEqual(s.split(), ['hello', 'world'])
        # check that s.split fails when the separator is not a string
        with self.assertRaises(TypeError):
            s.split(2)

if __name__ == '__main__':
    unittest.main()

A test case is created by subclassing unittest.TestCase. The three individual tests are defined with methods whose names start with the letters test. This naming convention informs the test runner about which methods represent tests.

Le cœur de chaque test est un appel à assertEqual() pour vérifier un résultat attendu ; assertTrue() ou assertFalse() pour vérifier une condition ; ou assertRaises() pour vérifier qu'une exception particulière est levée. Ces méthodes sont utilisées à la place du mot-clé assert pour que le lanceur de tests puisse récupérer les résultats de tous les tests et produire un rapport.

Les méthodes setUp() et tearDown() vous autorisent à définir des instructions qui seront exécutées avant et après chaque méthode test. Elles sont davantage détaillées dans la section Organiser le code de test.

Le bloc final montre une manière simple de lancer les tests. unittest.main() fournit une interface en ligne de commande pour le script de test. Lorsqu'il est lancé en ligne de commande, le script ci-dessus produit une sortie qui ressemble à ceci :

...
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Ran 3 tests in 0.000s

OK

Passer l'option -v à votre script de test informera unittest.main() qu'il doit fournir un niveau plus important de détails, et produit la sortie suivante :

test_isupper (__main__.TestStringMethods.test_isupper) ... ok
test_split (__main__.TestStringMethods.test_split) ... ok
test_upper (__main__.TestStringMethods.test_upper) ... ok

----------------------------------------------------------------------
Ran 3 tests in 0.001s

OK

The above examples show the most commonly used unittest features which are sufficient to meet many everyday testing needs. The remainder of the documentation explores the full feature set from first principles.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: The behavior of returning a value from a test method (other than the default None value), is now deprecated.

Interface en ligne de commande

Le module unittest est utilisable depuis la ligne de commande pour exécuter des tests à partir de modules, de classes ou même de méthodes de test individuelles :

python -m unittest test_module1 test_module2
python -m unittest test_module.TestClass
python -m unittest test_module.TestClass.test_method

La commande accepte en argument une liste de n'importe quelle combinaison de noms de modules et de noms de classes ou de méthodes entièrement qualifiés.

Les modules de test peuvent également être spécifiés par un chemin de fichier :

python -m unittest tests/test_something.py

Cette fonctionnalité permet d'utiliser la complétion de l'interpréteur de commandes système (le shell) pour spécifier le module de test. Le chemin est converti en nom de module en supprimant le .py et en convertissant les séparateurs de chemin en '.'. Si vous voulez exécuter un fichier test qui n'est pas importable en tant que module, exécutez directement le fichier.

Pour obtenir plus de détails lors de l'exécution utilisez l'option -v (plus de verbosité) :

python -m unittest -v test_module

Quand la commande est exécutée sans arguments Découverte des tests est lancée :

python -m unittest

Pour afficher la liste de toutes les options de la commande utilisez l'option -h :

python -m unittest -h

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Dans les versions antérieures, il était seulement possible d'exécuter des méthodes de test individuelles et non des modules ou des classes.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14: Output is colorized by default and can be controlled using environment variables.

Options de la ligne de commande

Le programme unittest gère ces options de la ligne de commande :

-b, --buffer

Les flux de sortie et d'erreur standards sont mis en mémoire tampon pendant l'exécution des tests. L'affichage produit par un test réussi n'est pas pris en compte. Les sorties d'affichages d'un test en échec ou en erreur sont conservés et ajoutés aux messages d'erreur.

-c, --catch

Utiliser Control-C pendant l'exécution des tests attend que le test en cours se termine, puis affiche tous les résultats obtenus jusqu'ici. Une seconde utilisation de Control-C provoque l'exception normale KeyboardInterrupt.

Voir Signal Handling pour les fonctions qui utilisent cette fonctionnalité.

-f, --failfast

Arrête l'exécution des tests lors du premier cas d'erreur ou d'échec.

-k

Only run test methods and classes that match the pattern or substring. This option may be used multiple times, in which case all test cases that match any of the given patterns are included.

Les motifs qui contiennent un caractère de remplacement (*) sont comparés au nom du test en utilisant fnmatch.fnmatchcase() ; sinon, une recherche simple de sous chaîne respectant la casse est faite.

Les motifs sont comparés au nom de la méthode de test complètement qualifiée tel qu'importé par le chargeur de test.

Par exemple, -k machin retient les tests machin_tests.UnTest.test_untruc, truc_tests.UnTest.test_machin, mais pas truc_tests.MachinTest.test_untruc.

--locals

Affiche les variables locales dans les traces d'appels.

--durations N

Show the N slowest test cases (N=0 for all).

Ajouté dans la version 3.2: Les options de ligne de commande -b, -c et -f ont été ajoutées.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5: Ajout de l'option de ligne de commande --locals.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7: Ajout de l'option de ligne de commande -k.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12: The command-line option --durations.

La ligne de commande peut également être utilisée pour découvrir les tests, pour exécuter tous les tests dans un projet ou juste un sous-ensemble.

Découverte des tests

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Unittest supports simple test discovery. In order to be compatible with test discovery, all of the test files must be modules or packages importable from the top-level directory of the project (this means that their filenames must be valid identifiers).

La découverte de tests est implémentée dans TestLoader.discover(), mais peut également être utilisée depuis la ligne de commande. Par exemple :

cd project_directory
python -m unittest discover

Note

Comme raccourci, python -m unittest est l'équivalent de python -m unittest discover. Pour passer des arguments au système de découverte des tests, la sous-commande discover doit être utilisée explicitement.

La sous-commande discover a les options suivantes :

-v, --verbose

Affichage plus détaillé

-s, --start-directory directory

Répertoire racine pour démarrer la découverte (. par défaut).

-p, --pattern pattern

Motif de détection des fichiers de test (test*.py par défaut)

-t, --top-level-directory directory

Dossier du premier niveau du projet (Par défaut le dossier de départ)

Les options -s, -p et -t peuvent être passées en arguments positionnels dans cet ordre. Les deux lignes de commande suivantes sont équivalentes :

python -m unittest discover -s project_directory -p "*_test.py"
python -m unittest discover project_directory "*_test.py"

Il est aussi possible de passer un nom de paquet plutôt qu'un chemin, par exemple monprojet.souspaquet.test, comme répertoire racine. Le nom du paquet fourni est alors importé et son emplacement sur le système de fichiers est utilisé comme répertoire racine.

Prudence

Le mécanisme de découverte charge les tests en les important. Une fois que le système a trouvé tous les fichiers de tests du répertoire de démarrage spécifié, il transforme les chemins en noms de paquets à importer. Par exemple truc/bidule/machin.py est importé sous truc.bidule.machin.

Si un paquet est installé globalement et que le mécanisme de découverte de tests est effectué sur une copie différente du paquet, l'importation peut se produire à partir du mauvais endroit. Si cela arrive, le système émet un avertissement et se termine.

Si vous donnez le répertoire racine sous la forme d'un nom de paquet plutôt que d'un chemin d'accès à un répertoire, alors Python suppose que l'emplacement à partir duquel il importe est l'emplacement que vous voulez, vous ne verrez donc pas l'avertissement.

Les modules de test et les paquets peuvent adapter le chargement et la découverte des tests en utilisant le protocole load_tests protocol.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Test discovery supports namespace packages.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Test discovery dropped the namespace packages support. It has been broken since Python 3.7. Start directory and its subdirectories containing tests must be regular package that have __init__.py file.

If the start directory is the dotted name of the package, the ancestor packages can be namespace packages.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Test discovery supports namespace package as start directory again. To avoid scanning directories unrelated to Python, tests are not searched in subdirectories that do not contain __init__.py.

Organiser le code de test

The basic building blocks of unit testing are test cases --- single scenarios that must be set up and checked for correctness. In unittest, test cases are represented by unittest.TestCase instances. To make your own test cases you must write subclasses of TestCase or use FunctionTestCase.

Le code de test d'une instance de TestCase doit être entièrement autonome, de sorte qu'il puisse être exécuté soit de manière isolée, soit en combinaison arbitraire avec un nombre quelconque d'autres scénarios de test.

La sous-classe TestCase la plus simple va tout simplement implémenter une méthode de test (c'est-à-dire une méthode dont le nom commence par test) afin d'exécuter un code de test spécifique :

import unittest

class DefaultWidgetSizeTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
    def test_default_widget_size(self):
        widget = Widget('The widget')
        self.assertEqual(widget.size(), (50, 50))

Note that in order to test something, we use one of the assert* methods provided by the TestCase base class. If the test fails, an exception will be raised with an explanatory message, and unittest will identify the test case as a failure. Any other exceptions will be treated as errors.

Les tests peuvent être nombreux et leur mise en place peut être répétitive. Heureusement, on peut factoriser le code de mise en place en implémentant une méthode appelée setUp(), que le système de test appelle automatiquement pour chaque test exécuté :

import unittest

class WidgetTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
    def setUp(self):
        self.widget = Widget('The widget')

    def test_default_widget_size(self):
        self.assertEqual(self.widget.size(), (50,50),
                         'incorrect default size')

    def test_widget_resize(self):
        self.widget.resize(100,150)
        self.assertEqual(self.widget.size(), (100,150),
                         'wrong size after resize')

Note

L'ordre dans lequel les différents tests sont exécutés est déterminé en classant les noms des méthodes de test en fonction de la relation d'ordre des chaines de caractères .

Si la méthode setUp() lève une exception pendant l'exécution du test, le système considère que le test a subi une erreur, et la méthode test n'est pas exécutée.

De même, on peut fournir une méthode tearDown() qui nettoie après l'exécution de la méthode de test :

import unittest

class WidgetTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
    def setUp(self):
        self.widget = Widget('The widget')

    def tearDown(self):
        self.widget.dispose()

Si setUp() a réussi, tearDown() est exécutée, que la méthode de test ait réussi ou non.

Such a working environment for the testing code is called a test fixture. A new TestCase instance is created as a unique test fixture used to execute each individual test method. Thus setUp(), tearDown(), and TestCase.__init__() will be called once per test.

It is recommended that you use TestCase implementations to group tests together according to the features they test. unittest provides a mechanism for this: the test suite, represented by unittest's TestSuite class. In most cases, calling unittest.main() will do the right thing and collect all the module's test cases for you and execute them.

Cependant, si vous voulez personnaliser la construction de votre suite de tests, vous pouvez le faire vous-même :

def suite():
    suite = unittest.TestSuite()
    suite.addTest(WidgetTestCase('test_default_widget_size'))
    suite.addTest(WidgetTestCase('test_widget_resize'))
    return suite

if __name__ == '__main__':
    runner = unittest.TextTestRunner()
    runner.run(suite())

Vous pouvez placer les définitions des scénarios de test et des suites de test dans le même module que le code à tester (tel que composant.py), mais il y a plusieurs avantages à placer le code de test dans un module séparé, tel que test_composant.py :

Le module de test peut être exécuté indépendamment depuis la ligne de commande.

Le code de test est plus facilement séparable du code livré.

La tentation est moins grande de changer le code de test pour l'adapter au code qu'il teste sans avoir une bonne raison.

Le code de test doit être modifié beaucoup moins souvent que le code qu'il teste.

Le code testé peut être réusiné plus facilement.

Les tests pour les modules écrits en C doivent de toute façon être dans des modules séparés, alors pourquoi ne pas être cohérent ?

Si la stratégie de test change, il n'est pas nécessaire de changer le code source.

Réutilisation d'ancien code de test

Some users will find that they have existing test code that they would like to run from unittest, without converting every old test function to a TestCase subclass.

For this reason, unittest provides a FunctionTestCase class. This subclass of TestCase can be used to wrap an existing test function. Set-up and tear-down functions can also be provided.

Étant donnée la fonction de test suivante :

def testSomething():
    something = makeSomething()
    assert something.name is not None
    # ...

on peut créer une instance de scénario de test équivalente, avec des méthodes optionnelles de mise en place et de démantèlement :

testcase = unittest.FunctionTestCase(testSomething,
                                     setUp=makeSomethingDB,
                                     tearDown=deleteSomethingDB)

Note

Even though FunctionTestCase can be used to quickly convert an existing test base over to a unittest-based system, this approach is not recommended. Taking the time to set up proper TestCase subclasses will make future test refactorings infinitely easier.

In some cases, the existing tests may have been written using the doctest module. If so, doctest provides a DocTestSuite class that can automatically build unittest.TestSuite instances from the existing doctest-based tests.

Ignorer des tests et des erreurs prévisibles

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

Unittest permet d'ignorer des méthodes de test individuelles et même des classes entières de tests. De plus, il prend en charge le marquage d'un test comme étant une "erreur prévue". Un test qui est cassé et qui échoue, mais qui ne doit pas être considéré comme un échec dans la classe TestResult.

Ignorer un test consiste à soit utiliser le décorateur skip() ou une de ses variantes conditionnelles, soit appeler TestCase.skipTest() à l'intérieur d'une méthode setUp() ou de test, soit lever SkipTest directement.

Un exemple de tests à ignorer :

class MyTestCase(unittest.TestCase):

    @unittest.skip("demonstrating skipping")
    def test_nothing(self):
        self.fail("shouldn't happen")

    @unittest.skipIf(mylib.__version__ < (1, 3),
                     "not supported in this library version")
    def test_format(self):
        # Tests that work for only a certain version of the library.
        pass

    @unittest.skipUnless(sys.platform.startswith("win"), "requires Windows")
    def test_windows_support(self):
        # windows specific testing code
        pass

    def test_maybe_skipped(self):
        if not external_resource_available():
            self.skipTest("external resource not available")
        # test code that depends on the external resource
        pass

Ceci est le résultat de l'exécution de l'exemple ci-dessus en mode verbeux :

test_format (__main__.MyTestCase.test_format) ... skipped 'not supported in this library version'
test_nothing (__main__.MyTestCase.test_nothing) ... skipped 'demonstrating skipping'
test_maybe_skipped (__main__.MyTestCase.test_maybe_skipped) ... skipped 'external resource not available'
test_windows_support (__main__.MyTestCase.test_windows_support) ... skipped 'requires Windows'

----------------------------------------------------------------------
Ran 4 tests in 0.005s

OK (skipped=4)

Les classes peuvent être ignorées tout comme les méthodes :

@unittest.skip("showing class skipping")
class MySkippedTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
    def test_not_run(self):
        pass

La méthode TestCase.setUp() permet également d'ignorer le test. Ceci est utile lorsqu'une ressource qui doit être configurée n'est pas disponible.

Les erreurs prévisibles utilisent le décorateur expectedFailure()

class ExpectedFailureTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
    @unittest.expectedFailure
    def test_fail(self):
        self.assertEqual(1, 0, "broken")

Il est facile de faire ses propres décorateurs en créant un décorateur qui appelle skip() sur le test que vous voulez ignorer. Par exemple, ce décorateur ignore le test à moins que l'objet passé ne possède un certain attribut :

def skipUnlessHasattr(obj, attr):
    if hasattr(obj, attr):
        return lambda func: func
    return unittest.skip("{!r} doesn't have {!r}".format(obj, attr))

Les décorateurs et exceptions suivants implémentent le système d'omission des tests et les erreurs prévisibles :

@unittest.skip(reason)

Ignore sans condition le test décoré. La raison doit décrire la raison pour laquelle le test est omis.

@unittest.skipIf(condition, reason)

Ignore le test décoré si la condition est vraie.

@unittest.skipUnless(condition, reason)

Ignore le test décoré sauf si la condition est vraie.

@unittest.expectedFailure

Mark the test as an expected failure or error. If the test fails or errors in the test function itself (rather than in one of the test fixture methods) then it will be considered a success. If the test passes, it will be considered a failure.

exception unittest.SkipTest(reason)

Cette exception est levée pour ignorer un test.

Habituellement, on utilise TestCase.skipTest() ou l'un des décorateurs d'omission au lieu de le lever une exception directement.

Les tests ignorés ne lancent ni setUp() ni tearDown(). Les classes ignorées ne lancent ni setUpClass() ni tearDownClass(). Les modules sautés n'ont pas setUpModule() ou tearDownModule() d'exécutés.

Distinguer les itérations de test à l'aide de sous-tests

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Lorsque certains de vos tests ne diffèrent que par de très petites différences, par exemple certains paramètres, unittest vous permet de les distinguer en utilisant le gestionnaire de contexte subTest() dans le corps d'une méthode de test.

Par exemple, le test suivant :

class NumbersTest(unittest.TestCase):

    def test_even(self):
        """
        Test that numbers between 0 and 5 are all even.
        """
        for i in range(0, 6):
            with self.subTest(i=i):
                self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0)

produit le résultat suivant :

======================================================================
FAIL: test_even (__main__.NumbersTest.test_even) (i=1)
Test that numbers between 0 and 5 are all even.
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "subtests.py", line 11, in test_even
    self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0)
    ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
AssertionError: 1 != 0

======================================================================
FAIL: test_even (__main__.NumbersTest.test_even) (i=3)
Test that numbers between 0 and 5 are all even.
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "subtests.py", line 11, in test_even
    self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0)
    ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
AssertionError: 1 != 0

======================================================================
FAIL: test_even (__main__.NumbersTest.test_even) (i=5)
Test that numbers between 0 and 5 are all even.
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "subtests.py", line 11, in test_even
    self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0)
    ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
AssertionError: 1 != 0

Sans l'utilisation d'un sous-test, l'exécution se termine après le premier échec, et l'erreur est moins facile à diagnostiquer car la valeur de i ne s'affiche pas :

======================================================================
FAIL: test_even (__main__.NumbersTest.test_even)
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "subtests.py", line 32, in test_even
    self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0)
AssertionError: 1 != 0

Classes et fonctions

This section describes in depth the API of unittest.

Scénarios de tests

class unittest.TestCase(methodName='runTest')

Instances of the TestCase class represent the logical test units in the unittest universe. This class is intended to be used as a base class, with specific tests being implemented by concrete subclasses. This class implements the interface needed by the test runner to allow it to drive the tests, and methods that the test code can use to check for and report various kinds of failure.

Chaque instance de la classe TestCase n'exécute qu'une seule méthode de base : la méthode nommée methodName . Dans la plupart des utilisations de la classe TestCase, vous n'avez pas à changer le nom de la méthode, ni à réimplémenter la méthode runTest().

Modifié dans la version 3.2: La classe TestCase peut désormais être utilisée sans passer de paramètre methodName. Cela facilite l'usage de TestCase dans l'interpréteur interactif.

Les instances de la classe TestCase fournissent trois groupes de méthodes : un groupe utilisé pour exécuter le test, un autre utilisé par l'implémentation du test pour vérifier les conditions et signaler les échecs, et quelques méthodes de recherche permettant de recueillir des informations sur le test lui-même.

Les méthodes du premier groupe (exécution du test) sont :

setUp()

Méthode appelée pour réaliser la mise en place du test. Elle est exécutée immédiatement avant l'appel de la méthode de test ; à l'exception de AssertionError ou SkipTest, toute exception levée par cette méthode est considérée comme une erreur et non pas comme un échec du test. L'implémentation par défaut ne fait rien.

tearDown()

Méthode appelée immédiatement après l'appel de la méthode de test et l'enregistrement du résultat. Elle est appelée même si la méthode de test a levé une exception. De fait, l'implémentation d'un sous-classes doit être fait avec précaution si vous vérifiez l'état interne de la classe. Toute exception, autre que AssertionError ou SkipTest, levée par cette méthode est considérée comme une erreur supplémentaire plutôt que comme un échec du test (augmentant ainsi le nombre total des erreurs signalées). Cette méthode est appelée uniquement si l'exécution de setUp() est réussie quel que soit le résultat de la méthode de test. L'implémentation par défaut ne fait rien.

setUpClass()

Méthode de classe appelée avant l'exécution des tests dans la classe en question. setUpClass est appelée avec la classe comme seul argument et doit être décorée comme une classmethod() :

@classmethod
def setUpClass(cls):
    ...

Voir Class and Module Fixtures pour plus de détails.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

tearDownClass()

Méthode de classe appelée après l'exécution des tests de la classe en question. tearDownClass est appelée avec la classe comme seul argument et doit être décorée comme une classmethod() :

@classmethod
def tearDownClass(cls):
    ...

Voir Class and Module Fixtures pour plus de détails.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

run(result=None)

Exécute le test, en collectant le résultat dans l'objet TestResult passé comme result. Si result est omis ou vaut None, un objet temporaire de résultat est créé (en appelant la méthode defaultTestResult()) et utilisé. L'objet résultat est renvoyé à l'appelant de run().

Le même effet peut être obtenu en appelant simplement l'instance TestCase.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Les versions précédentes de run ne renvoyaient pas le résultat. Pas plus que l'appel d'une instance.

skipTest(reason)

Appeler cette fonction pendant l'exécution d'une méthode de test ou de setUp() permet d'ignorer le test en cours. Voir Ignorer des tests et des erreurs prévisibles pour plus d'informations.

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

subTest(msg=None, **params)

Renvoie un gestionnaire de contexte qui exécute le bloc de code du contexte comme un sous-test. msg et params sont des valeurs optionnelles et arbitraires qui sont affichées chaque fois qu'un sous-test échoue, permettant de les identifier clairement.

Un scénario de test peut contenir un nombre quelconque de déclarations de sous-test, et elles peuvent être imbriquées librement.

Voir Distinguer les itérations de test à l'aide de sous-tests pour plus d'informations.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

debug()

Lance le test sans collecter le résultat. Ceci permet aux exceptions levées par le test d'être propagées à l'appelant, et donc peut être utilisé pour exécuter des tests sous un débogueur.

La classe TestCase fournit plusieurs méthodes d'assertion pour vérifier et signaler les échecs. Le tableau suivant énumère les méthodes les plus couramment utilisées (voir les tableaux ci-dessous pour plus de méthodes d'assertion) :

Méthode

Vérifie que

Disponible en

assertEqual(a, b)

a == b

assertNotEqual(a, b)

a != b

assertTrue(x)

bool(x) is True

assertFalse(x)

bool(x) is False

assertIs(a, b)

a is b

3.1

assertIsNot(a, b)

a is not b

3.1

assertIsNone(x)

x is None

3.1

assertIsNotNone(x)

x is not None

3.1

assertIn(a, b)

a in b

3.1

assertNotIn(a, b)

a not in b

3.1

assertIsInstance(a, b)

isinstance(a, b)

3.2

assertNotIsInstance(a, b)

not isinstance(a, b)

3.2

assertIsSubclass(a, b)

issubclass(a, b)

3.14

assertNotIsSubclass(a, b)

not issubclass(a, b)

3.14

Toutes les méthodes assert prennent en charge un argument msg qui, s'il est spécifié, est utilisé comme message d'erreur en cas d'échec (voir aussi longMessage). Notez que l'argument nommé msg peut être passé à assertRaises(), assertRaisesRegex(), assertWarns(), assertWarnsRegex(), seulement quand elles sont utilisées comme gestionnaire de contexte.

assertEqual(first, second, msg=None)

Vérifie que first et second sont égaux. Si les valeurs ne sont pas égales, le test échouera.

En outre, si first et second ont exactement le même type et sont de type list, tuple, dict, set, frozenset ou str ou tout autre type de sous classe enregistrée dans addTypeEqualityFunc(). La fonction égalité spécifique au type sera appelée pour générer une erreur plus utile (voir aussi liste des méthodes spécifiques de type).

Modifié dans la version 3.1: Ajout de l'appel automatique de la fonction d'égalité spécifique au type.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Ajout de assertMultiLineEqual() comme fonction d'égalité de type par défaut pour comparer les chaînes.

assertNotEqual(first, second, msg=None)

Vérifie que first et second ne sont pas égaux. Si les valeurs sont égales, le test échouera.

assertTrue(expr, msg=None)

assertFalse(expr, msg=None)

Vérifie que expr est vraie (ou fausse).

Notez que cela revient à utiliser bool(expr) is True et non à expr is True (utilisez assertIs(expr, True) pour cette dernière). Cette méthode doit également être évitée lorsque des méthodes plus spécifiques sont disponibles (par exemple assertEqual(a, b) au lieu de assertTrue(a == b)), car elles fournissent un meilleur message d'erreur en cas d' échec.

assertIs(first, second, msg=None)

assertIsNot(first, second, msg=None)

Vérifie que first et second sont (ou ne sont pas) le même objet.

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

assertIsNone(expr, msg=None)

assertIsNotNone(expr, msg=None)

Vérifie que expr est (ou n'est pas) la valeur None.

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

assertIn(member, container, msg=None)

assertNotIn(member, container, msg=None)

Vérifie que member est (ou n'est pas) dans container.

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

assertIsInstance(obj, cls, msg=None)

assertNotIsInstance(obj, cls, msg=None)

Vérifie que obj est (ou n'est pas) une instance de cls (Ce qui peut être une classe ou un n-uplet de classes, comme utilisée par isinstance()). Pour vérifier le type exact, utilisez assertIs(type(obj), cls).

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

assertIsSubclass(cls, superclass, msg=None)

assertNotIsSubclass(cls, superclass, msg=None)

Test that cls is (or is not) a subclass of superclass (which can be a class or a tuple of classes, as supported by issubclass()). To check for the exact type, use assertIs(cls, superclass).

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Il est également possible de vérifier la production des exceptions, des avertissements et des messages de journaux à l'aide des méthodes suivantes :

Méthode

Vérifie que

Disponible en

assertRaises(exc, fun, *args, **kwds)

fun(*args, **kwds) lève bien l'exception exc

assertRaisesRegex(exc, r, fun, *args, **kwds)

fun(*args, **kwds) lève bien l'exception exc et que le message correspond au motif de l'expression régulière r

3.1

assertWarns(warn, fun, *args, **kwds)

fun(*args, **kwds) lève bien l'avertissement warn

3.2

assertWarnsRegex(warn, r, fun, *args, **kwds)

fun(*args, **kwds) lève bien l'avertissement warn et que le message correspond au motif de l'expression régulière r

3.2

assertLogs(logger, level)

Le bloc with écrit dans le logger avec un niveau minimum égal à level

3.4

assertNoLogs(logger, level)

The with block does not log on

logger with minimum level

3.10

assertRaises(exception, callable, *args, **kwds)

assertRaises(exception, *, msg=None)

Vérifie qu'une exception est levée lorsque callable est appelé avec n'importe quel argument positionnel ou nommé qui est également passé à assertRaises(). Le test réussit si exception est levée, est en erreur si une autre exception est levée, ou en échec si aucune exception n'est levée. Pour capturer une exception d'un groupe d'exceptions, un n-uplet contenant les classes d'exceptions peut être passé à exception.

Si seuls les arguments exception et éventuellement msg sont donnés, renvoie un gestionnaire de contexte pour que le code sous test puisse être écrit en ligne plutôt que comme une fonction :

with self.assertRaises(SomeException):
    do_something()

Lorsqu'il est utilisé comme gestionnaire de contexte, assertRaises() accepte l'argument nommé supplémentaire msg.

The context manager will store the caught exception object in its exception attribute. This can be useful if the intention is to perform additional checks on the exception raised:

with self.assertRaises(SomeException) as cm:
    do_something()

the_exception = cm.exception
self.assertEqual(the_exception.error_code, 3)

Modifié dans la version 3.1: Ajout de la possibilité d'utiliser assertRaises() comme gestionnaire de contexte.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Added the exception attribute.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Ajout de l'argument nommé msg lorsqu'il est utilisé comme gestionnaire de contexte.

assertRaisesRegex(exception, regex, callable, *args, **kwds)

assertRaisesRegex(exception, regex, *, msg=None)

Comme assertRaises() mais vérifie aussi que regex correspond à la représentation de la chaîne de caractères de l'exception levée. regex peut être un objet d'expression rationnelle ou une chaîne contenant une expression rationnelle appropriée pour être utilisée par re.search(). Exemples :

self.assertRaisesRegex(ValueError, "invalid literal for.*XYZ'$",
                       int, 'XYZ')

ou :

with self.assertRaisesRegex(ValueError, 'literal'):
   int('XYZ')

Ajouté dans la version 3.1: Sous le nom assertRaisesRegexp.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Renommé en assertRaisesRegex().

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Ajout de l'argument nommé msg lorsqu'il est utilisé comme gestionnaire de contexte.

assertWarns(warning, callable, *args, **kwds)

assertWarns(warning, *, msg=None)

Test qu'un avertissement est déclenché lorsque callable est appelé avec n'importe quel argument positionnel ou nommé qui est également passé à assertWarns(). Le test passe si warning est déclenché et échoue s'il ne l'est pas. Toute exception est une erreur. Pour capturer un avertissement dans un ensemble d'avertissements, un n-uplet contenant les classes d'avertissement peut être passé à warnings.

Si seuls les arguments * warning* et éventuellement msg sont donnés, renvoie un gestionnaire de contexte pour que le code testé puisse être écrit en ligne plutôt que comme une fonction :

with self.assertWarns(SomeWarning):
    do_something()

Lorsqu'il est utilisé comme gestionnaire de contexte, assertWarns() accepte l'argument nommé supplémentaire msg.

The context manager will store the caught warning object in its warning attribute, and the source line which triggered the warnings in the filename and lineno attributes. This can be useful if the intention is to perform additional checks on the warning caught:

with self.assertWarns(SomeWarning) as cm:
    do_something()

self.assertIn('myfile.py', cm.filename)
self.assertEqual(320, cm.lineno)

Cette méthode fonctionne indépendamment des filtres d'avertissement en place lorsqu'elle est appelée.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Ajout de l'argument nommé msg lorsqu'il est utilisé comme gestionnaire de contexte.

assertWarnsRegex(warning, regex, callable, *args, **kwds)

assertWarnsRegex(warning, regex, *, msg=None)

Comme assertWarns() mais vérifie aussi qu'une regex corresponde au message de l'avertissement. regex peut être un objet d'expression régulière ou une chaîne contenant une expression régulière appropriée pour être utilisée par re.search(). Exemple :

self.assertWarnsRegex(DeprecationWarning,
                      r'legacy_function\(\) is deprecated',
                      legacy_function, 'XYZ')

ou :

with self.assertWarnsRegex(RuntimeWarning, 'unsafe frobnicating'):
    frobnicate('/etc/passwd')

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Ajout de l'argument nommé msg lorsqu'il est utilisé comme gestionnaire de contexte.

assertLogs(logger=None, level=None)

Un gestionnaire de contexte pour tester qu'au moins un message est enregistré sur le logger ou un de ses enfants, avec au moins le niveau donné.

Si donné, logger doit être une classe logging.logger objet ou une classe str donnant le nom d'un journal. La valeur par défaut est le journal racine root, qui capture tous les messages qui n'ont pas été arrêtés par un logger ne propageant pas les messages.

If given, level should be either a numeric logging level or its string equivalent (for example either "ERROR" or logging.ERROR). The default is logging.INFO.

Le test passe si au moins un message émis à l'intérieur du bloc with correspond aux conditions logger et level, sinon il échoue.

L'objet retourné par le gestionnaire de contexte est une aide à l'enregistrement qui garde la trace des messages de journal correspondants. Il a deux attributs :

records

Une liste d'objets logging.LogRecord de messages de log correspondants.

output

Une liste d'objets str avec la sortie formatée des messages correspondants.

Exemple :

with self.assertLogs('foo', level='INFO') as cm:
    logging.getLogger('foo').info('first message')
    logging.getLogger('foo.bar').error('second message')
self.assertEqual(cm.output, ['INFO:foo:first message',
                             'ERROR:foo.bar:second message'])

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

assertNoLogs(logger=None, level=None)

A context manager to test that no messages are logged on the logger or one of its children, with at least the given level.

If given, logger should be a logging.Logger object or a str giving the name of a logger. The default is the root logger, which will catch all messages.

If given, level should be either a numeric logging level or its string equivalent (for example either "ERROR" or logging.ERROR). The default is logging.INFO.

Unlike assertLogs(), nothing will be returned by the context manager.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

Il existe également d'autres méthodes utilisées pour effectuer des contrôles plus spécifiques, telles que :

Méthode

Vérifie que

Disponible en

assertAlmostEqual(a, b)

round(a-b, 7) == 0

assertNotAlmostEqual(a, b)

round(a-b, 7) != 0

assertGreater(a, b)

a > b

3.1

assertGreaterEqual(a, b)

a >= b

3.1

assertLess(a, b)

a < b

3.1

assertLessEqual(a, b)

a <= b

3.1

assertRegex(s, r)

r.search(s)

3.1

assertNotRegex(s, r)

not r.search(s)

3.2

assertCountEqual(a, b)

a et b ont les mêmes éléments dans le même nombre, quel que soit leur ordre.

3.2

assertStartsWith(a, b)

a.startswith(b)

3.14

assertNotStartsWith(a, b)

not a.startswith(b)

3.14

assertEndsWith(a, b)

a.endswith(b)

3.14

assertNotEndsWith(a, b)

not a.endswith(b)

3.14

assertHasAttr(a, b)

hastattr(a, b)

3.14

assertNotHasAttr(a, b)

not hastattr(a, b)

3.14

assertAlmostEqual(first, second, places=7, msg=None, delta=None)

assertNotAlmostEqual(first, second, places=7, msg=None, delta=None)

Vérifie que first et second sont approximativement (ou pas approximativement) égaux en calculant la différence, en arrondissant au nombre donné de décimales places (par défaut 7), et en comparant à zéro. Notez que ces méthodes arrondissent les valeurs au nombre donné de décimales (par exemple comme la fonction round()) et non aux chiffres significatifs.

Si delta est fourni au lieu de places, la différence entre first et second doit être inférieure ou égale (ou supérieure) à delta.

Fournir à la fois delta et places lève une TypeError.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: assertAlmostEqual() considère automatiquement des objets presque égaux qui se comparent égaux. assertNotNotAlmostEqual() échoue automatiquement si les objets qui se comparent sont égaux. Ajout de l'argument nommé delta.

assertGreater(first, second, msg=None)

assertGreaterEqual(first, second, msg=None)

assertLess(first, second, msg=None)

assertLessEqual(first, second, msg=None)

Vérifie que first est respectivement >, >=, >=, < ou <= à second selon le nom de la méthode. Sinon, le test échouera :

>>> self.assertGreaterEqual(3, 4)
AssertionError: "3" unexpectedly not greater than or equal to "4"

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

assertRegex(text, regex, msg=None)

assertNotRegex(text, regex, msg=None)

Vérifie qu'une recherche par motif regex correspond (ou ne correspond pas) à text. En cas d'échec, le message d'erreur inclura le motif et le texte (ou le motif et la partie du texte qui correspond de manière inattendue). regex peut être un objet d'expression régulière ou une chaîne contenant une expression régulière appropriée pour être utilisée par re.search().

Ajouté dans la version 3.1: Ajouté sous le nom assertRegexpMatches.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: La méthode assertRegexpMatches() a été renommé en assertRegex().

Ajouté dans la version 3.2: assertNotRegex().

assertCountEqual(first, second, msg=None)

Vérifie que la séquence first contient les mêmes éléments que second, quel que soit leur ordre. Si ce n'est pas le cas, un message d'erreur indiquant les différences entre les séquences est généré.

Les éléments en double ne sont pas ignorés lors de la comparaison entre first et second. Il vérifie si chaque élément a le même nombre dans les deux séquences. Équivalent à : assertEqual(Counter(list(first))), Counter(list(second))) mais fonctionne aussi avec des séquences d'objets non hachables.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

assertStartsWith(s, prefix, msg=None)

assertNotStartsWith(s, prefix, msg=None)

Test that the Unicode or byte string s starts (or does not start) with a prefix. prefix can also be a tuple of strings to try.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

assertEndsWith(s, suffix, msg=None)

assertNotEndsWith(s, suffix, msg=None)

Test that the Unicode or byte string s ends (or does not end) with a suffix. suffix can also be a tuple of strings to try.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

assertHasAttr(obj, name, msg=None)

assertNotHasAttr(obj, name, msg=None)

Test that the object obj has (or has not) an attribute name.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

La méthode assertEqual() envoie le contrôle d'égalité pour les objets du même type à différentes méthodes spécifiques au type. Ces méthodes sont déjà implémentées pour la plupart des types intégrés, mais il est également possible d'enregistrer de nouvelles méthodes en utilisant addTypeEqualityFunc() :

addTypeEqualityFunc(typeobj, function)

Enregistre une méthode spécifique appelée par assertEqual() pour vérifier si deux objets exactement du même typeobj (et non leurs sous-classes) sont égaux. function doit prendre deux arguments positionnels et un troisième argument nommé msg=None tout comme assertEqual() le fait. Il doit lever self.failureException(msg) lorsqu'une inégalité entre les deux premiers paramètres est détectée en fournissant éventuellement des informations utiles et expliquant l'inégalité en détail dans le message d'erreur.

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

La liste des méthodes spécifiques utilisées automatiquement par assertEqual() est résumée dans le tableau suivant. Notez qu'il n'est généralement pas nécessaire d'invoquer ces méthodes directement.

Méthode

Utilisé pour comparer

Disponible en

assertMultiLineEqual(a, b)

chaînes

3.1

assertSequenceEqual(a, b)

séquences

3.1

assertListEqual(a, b)

listes

3.1

assertTupleEqual(a, b)

n-uplets

3.1

assertSetEqual(a, b)

sets ou frozensets

3.1

assertDictEqual(a, b)

dictionnaires

3.1

assertMultiLineEqual(first, second, msg=None)

Vérifie que la chaîne sur plusieurs lignes first est égale à la chaîne second. Si les deux chaînes de caractères ne sont pas égales, un diff mettant en évidence les différences est inclus dans le message d'erreur. Cette méthode est utilisée par défaut pour comparer les chaînes avec assertEqual().

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

assertSequenceEqual(first, second, msg=None, seq_type=None)

Vérifie que deux séquences sont égales. Si un seq_type est fourni, first et second doivent tous deux être des instances de seq_type ou un échec est levé. Si les séquences sont différentes, un message d'erreur indiquant la différence entre les deux est généré.

Cette méthode n'est pas appelée directement par assertEqual(), mais sert à implémenter assertListEqual() et assertTupleEqual().

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

assertListEqual(first, second, msg=None)

assertTupleEqual(first, second, msg=None)

Vérifie que deux listes ou deux n-uplets sont égaux. Si ce n'est pas le cas, un message d'erreur qui ne montre que les différences entre les deux est généré. Une erreur est également signalée si l'un ou l'autre des paramètres n'est pas du bon type. Ces méthodes sont utilisées par défaut pour comparer des listes ou des n-uplets avec assertEqual().

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

assertSetEqual(first, second, msg=None)

Vérifie que deux ensembles sont égaux. Si ce n'est pas le cas, un message d'erreur s'affiche et indique les différences entre les sets. Cette méthode est utilisée par défaut lors de la comparaison de sets ou de frozensets avec assertEqual().

Fails if either of first or second does not have a difference() method.

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

assertDictEqual(first, second, msg=None)

Vérifie que deux dictionnaires sont égaux. Si ce n'est pas le cas, un message d'erreur qui montre les différences dans les dictionnaires est généré. Cette méthode est utilisée par défaut pour comparer les dictionnaires dans les appels à assertEqual().

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

Enfin, la classe TestCase fournit les méthodes et attributs suivants :

fail(msg=None)

Indique un échec du test sans condition, avec msg ou None pour le message d'erreur.

failureException

Cet attribut de classe donne l'exception levée par la méthode de test. Si un framework de tests doit utiliser une exception spécialisée, probablement pour enrichir l'exception d'informations additionnels., il doit hériter de cette classe d'exception pour bien fonctionner avec le framework. La valeur initiale de cet attribut est AssertionError.

longMessage

Cet attribut de classe détermine ce qui se passe lorsqu'un message d'échec personnalisé est passé en argument au paramètre msg à un appel assertXYYY qui échoue. True est la valeur par défaut. Dans ce cas, le message personnalisé est ajouté à la fin du message d'erreur standard. Lorsqu'il est réglé sur False, le message personnalisé remplace le message standard.

Le paramétrage de la classe peut être écrasé dans les méthodes de test individuelles en assignant un attribut d'instance, self.longMessage, à True ou False avant d'appeler les méthodes d'assertion.

Le réglage de la classe est réinitialisé avant chaque appel de test.

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

maxDiff

Cet attribut contrôle la longueur maximale des diffs en sortie des méthodes qui génèrent des diffs en cas d'échec. La valeur par défaut est 80*8 caractères. Les méthodes d'assertions affectées par cet attribut sont assertSequenceEqual() (y compris toutes les méthodes de comparaison de séquences qui lui sont déléguées), assertDictEqual() et assertMultiLineEqual().

Régler maxDiff sur None signifie qu'il n'y a pas de longueur maximale pour les diffs.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Les frameworks de test peuvent utiliser les méthodes suivantes pour recueillir des informations sur le test :

countTestCases()

Renvoie le nombre de tests représentés par cet objet test. Pour les instances de TestCase, c'est toujours 1.

defaultTestResult()

Retourne une instance de la classe de résultat de test qui doit être utilisée pour cette classe de cas de test (si aucune autre instance de résultat n'est fournie à la méthode run()).

Pour les instances de TestCase, c'est toujours une instance de TestResult ; les sous-classes de TestCase peuvent la remplacer au besoin.

id()

Retourne une chaîne identifiant le cas de test spécifique. Il s'agit généralement du nom complet de la méthode de test, y compris le nom du module et de la classe.

shortDescription()

Renvoie une description du test, ou None si aucune description n'a été fournie. L'implémentation par défaut de cette méthode renvoie la première ligne de la docstring de la méthode de test, si disponible, ou None.

Modifié dans la version 3.1: En 3.1, ceci a été modifié pour ajouter le nom du test à la description courte, même en présence d'une docstring. Cela a causé des problèmes de compatibilité avec les extensions unittest et l'ajout du nom du test a été déplacé dans la classe TextTestResult dans Python 3.2.

addCleanup(function, /, *args, **kwargs)

Ajout d'une fonction à appeler après tearDown() pour nettoyer les ressources utilisées pendant le test. Les fonctions seront appelées dans l'ordre inverse de l'ordre dans lequel elles ont été ajoutées (LIFO). Elles sont appelées avec tous les arguments positionnels et arguments nommés passés à addCleanup() quand elles sont ajoutées.

Si setUp() échoue, cela signifie que tearDown() n'est pas appelé, alors que les fonctions de nettoyage ajoutées seront toujours appelées.

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

enterContext(cm)

Enter the supplied context manager. If successful, also add its __exit__() method as a cleanup function by addCleanup() and return the result of the __enter__() method.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

doCleanups()

Cette méthode est appelée sans conditions après tearDown(), ou après setUp() si setUp() lève une exception.

Cette méthode est chargée d'appeler toutes les fonctions de nettoyage ajoutées par addCleanup(). Si vous avez besoin de fonctions de nettoyage à appeler avant l'appel à tearDown() alors vous pouvez appeler doCleanups() vous-même.

doCleanups() extrait les méthodes de la pile des fonctions de nettoyage une à la fois, de sorte qu'elles peuvent être appelées à tout moment.

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

classmethod addClassCleanup(function, /, *args, **kwargs)

Ajout d'une fonction à appeler après tearDownClass() pour nettoyer les ressources utilisées par la classe test. Les fonctions sont appelées dans l'ordre inverse de l'ordre dans lequel elles ont été ajoutées (LIFO). Elles sont appelées avec tous les arguments positionnels et nommés passés à addClassCleanup() quand elles sont ajoutées.

Si setUpClass() échoue, impliquant que tearDownClass() n'est pas appelé, alors les fonctions de nettoyage ajoutées sont quand même appelées.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

classmethod enterClassContext(cm)

Enter the supplied context manager. If successful, also add its __exit__() method as a cleanup function by addClassCleanup() and return the result of the __enter__() method.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

classmethod doClassCleanups()

Cette méthode est appelée sans conditions après tearDownClass(), ou après setUpClass() si setUpClass() lève une exception.

Cette méthode est chargée d'appeler toutes les fonctions de nettoyage ajoutées par addClassCleanup(). Si vous avez besoin de fonctions de nettoyage à appeler avant l'appel à tearDownClass() alors vous pouvez appeler doClassCleanups() vous-même.

doClassCleanups() extrait les méthodes de la pile des fonctions de nettoyage une à la fois, de sorte qu'elles peuvent être appelées à tout moment.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

class unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase(methodName='runTest')

Cette classe fournit une API similaire à TestCase et accepte aussi les coroutines en tant que fonctions de test.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

loop_factory

The loop_factory passed to asyncio.Runner. Override in subclasses with asyncio.EventLoop to avoid using the asyncio policy system.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

async asyncSetUp()

Method called to prepare the test fixture. This is called after TestCase.setUp(). This is called immediately before calling the test method; other than AssertionError or SkipTest, any exception raised by this method will be considered an error rather than a test failure. The default implementation does nothing.

async asyncTearDown()

Method called immediately after the test method has been called and the result recorded. This is called before tearDown(). This is called even if the test method raised an exception, so the implementation in subclasses may need to be particularly careful about checking internal state. Any exception, other than AssertionError or SkipTest, raised by this method will be considered an additional error rather than a test failure (thus increasing the total number of reported errors). This method will only be called if the asyncSetUp() succeeds, regardless of the outcome of the test method. The default implementation does nothing.

addAsyncCleanup(function, /, *args, **kwargs)

Cette méthode accepte une coroutine qui peut être utilisée comme fonction de nettoyage.

async enterAsyncContext(cm)

Enter the supplied asynchronous context manager. If successful, also add its __aexit__() method as a cleanup function by addAsyncCleanup() and return the result of the __aenter__() method.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

run(result=None)

Sets up a new event loop to run the test, collecting the result into the TestResult object passed as result. If result is omitted or None, a temporary result object is created (by calling the defaultTestResult() method) and used. The result object is returned to run()'s caller. At the end of the test all the tasks in the event loop are cancelled.

Exemple illustrant l'ordre :

from unittest import IsolatedAsyncioTestCase

events = []

class Test(IsolatedAsyncioTestCase):

    def setUp(self):
        events.append("setUp")

    async def asyncSetUp(self):
        self._async_connection = await AsyncConnection()
        events.append("asyncSetUp")

    async def test_response(self):
        events.append("test_response")
        response = await self._async_connection.get("https://example.com")
        self.assertEqual(response.status_code, 200)
        self.addAsyncCleanup(self.on_cleanup)

    def tearDown(self):
        events.append("tearDown")

    async def asyncTearDown(self):
        await self._async_connection.close()
        events.append("asyncTearDown")

    async def on_cleanup(self):
        events.append("cleanup")

if __name__ == "__main__":
    unittest.main()

Après avoir lancé les tests, events contiendrait ["setUp", "asyncSetUp", "test_response", "asyncTearDown", "tearDown", "cleanup"].

class unittest.FunctionTestCase(testFunc, setUp=None, tearDown=None, description=None)

This class implements the portion of the TestCase interface which allows the test runner to drive the test, but does not provide the methods which test code can use to check and report errors. This is used to create test cases using legacy test code, allowing it to be integrated into a unittest-based test framework.

Regroupement des tests

class unittest.TestSuite(tests=())

Cette classe représente une agrégation de cas de test individuels et de suites de tests. La classe présente l'interface requise par le lanceur de test pour être exécutée comme tout autre cas de test. L'exécution d'une instance de TestSuite est identique à l'itération sur la suite, en exécutant chaque test indépendamment.

Si tests est fourni, il doit s'agir d'un itérable de cas de test individuels ou d'autres suites de test qui seront utilisés pour construire la suite initial. Des méthodes supplémentaires sont fournies pour ajouter ultérieurement des cas de test et des suites à la collection.

Les objets TestSuite se comportent comme les objets TestCase, sauf qu'ils n'implémentent pas réellement un test. Au lieu de cela, ils sont utilisés pour regrouper les tests en groupes de tests qui doivent être exécutés ensemble. Des méthodes supplémentaires sont disponibles pour ajouter des tests aux instances de TestSuite :

addTest(test)

Ajouter un objet TestCase ou TestSuite à la suite de tests.

addTests(tests)

Ajouter tous les tests d'un itérable d'instances de TestCase et de TestSuite à cette suite de tests.

C'est l'équivalent d'une itération sur tests, appelant addTest() pour chaque élément.

TestSuite partage les méthodes suivantes avec TestCase :

run(result)

Exécute les tests associés à cette suite, en collectant le résultat dans l'objet de résultat de test passé par result. Remarquer que contrairement à TestCase.run(), TestSuite.run() nécessite que l'objet résultat soit passé.

debug()

Exécute les tests associés à cette suite sans collecter le résultat. Ceci permet aux exceptions levées par le test d'être propagées à l'appelant et peut être utilisé pour exécuter des tests sous un débogueur.

countTestCases()

Renvoie le nombre de tests représentés par cet objet de test, y compris tous les tests individuels et les sous-suites.

__iter__()

Tests grouped by a TestSuite are always accessed by iteration. Subclasses can lazily provide tests by overriding __iter__(). Note that this method may be called several times on a single suite (for example when counting tests or comparing for equality) so the tests returned by repeated iterations before TestSuite.run() must be the same for each call iteration. After TestSuite.run(), callers should not rely on the tests returned by this method unless the caller uses a subclass that overrides TestSuite._removeTestAtIndex() to preserve test references.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: In earlier versions the TestSuite accessed tests directly rather than through iteration, so overriding __iter__() wasn't sufficient for providing tests.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: In earlier versions the TestSuite held references to each TestCase after TestSuite.run(). Subclasses can restore that behavior by overriding TestSuite._removeTestAtIndex().

In the typical usage of a TestSuite object, the run() method is invoked by a TestRunner rather than by the end-user test harness.

Chargement et exécution des tests

class unittest.TestLoader

The TestLoader class is used to create test suites from classes and modules. Normally, there is no need to create an instance of this class; the unittest module provides an instance that can be shared as unittest.defaultTestLoader. Using a subclass or instance, however, allows customization of some configurable properties.

Les objets de la classe TestLoader ont les attributs suivants :

errors

A list of the non-fatal errors encountered while loading tests. Not reset by the loader at any point. Fatal errors are signalled by the relevant method raising an exception to the caller. Non-fatal errors are also indicated by a synthetic test that will raise the original error when run.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Les objets de la classe TestLoader ont les attributs suivants :

loadTestsFromTestCase(testCaseClass)

Return a suite of all test cases contained in the TestCase-derived testCaseClass.

A test case instance is created for each method named by getTestCaseNames(). By default these are the method names beginning with test. If getTestCaseNames() returns no methods, but the runTest() method is implemented, a single test case is created for that method instead.

loadTestsFromModule(module, *, pattern=None)

Renvoie une suite de tous les cas de test contenus dans le module donné. Cette méthode recherche module pour les classes dérivées de TestCase et crée une instance de la classe pour chaque méthode de test définie pour cette classe.

Note

Bien que l'utilisation d'une hiérarchie de classes TestCase (les classes dérivées de TestCase) peut être un moyen pratique de partager des fixtures et des fonctions utilitaires, définir une méthode de test pour des classes de base non destinées à être directement instanciée ne marche pas bien avec cette méthode. Cela peut toutefois s'avérer utile lorsque les fixtures sont différentes et définies dans des sous-classes.

Si un module fournit une fonction load_tests, il est appelé pour charger les tests. Cela permet aux modules de personnaliser le chargement des tests. C'est le protocole load_tests protocol. L'argument pattern est passé comme troisième argument à load_tests.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Ajout de la prise en charge de load_tests.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Support for a keyword-only argument pattern has been added.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: The undocumented and unofficial use_load_tests parameter has been removed.

loadTestsFromName(name, module=None)

Renvoie une suite de tous les cas de test en fonction d'un spécificateur de chaîne de caractères.

Le spécificateur name est un "nom pointillé" qui peut être résolu soit par un module, une classe de cas de test, une méthode de test dans une classe de cas de test, une instance de TestSuite, ou un objet appelable qui retourne une instance de classe TestCase ou de classe TestSuite. Ces contrôles sont appliqués dans l'ordre indiqué ici, c'est-à-dire qu'une méthode sur une classe de cas de test possible sera choisie comme "méthode de test dans une classe de cas de test", plutôt que comme "un objet appelable".

For example, if you have a module SampleTests containing a TestCase-derived class SampleTestCase with three test methods (test_one(), test_two(), and test_three()), the specifier 'SampleTests.SampleTestCase' would cause this method to return a suite which will run all three test methods. Using the specifier 'SampleTests.SampleTestCase.test_two' would cause it to return a test suite which will run only the test_two() test method. The specifier can refer to modules and packages which have not been imported; they will be imported as a side-effect.

La méthode résout facultativement name relatif au module donné.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Si une ImportError ou AttributeError se produit pendant la traversée de name, un test synthétique qui enrichie l'erreur produite lors de l'exécution est renvoyé. Ces erreurs sont incluses dans les erreurs accumulées par self.errors.

loadTestsFromNames(names, module=None)

Similaire à loadTestsFromName(), mais prend une séquence de noms plutôt qu'un seul nom. La valeur renvoyée est une suite de tests qui gère tous les tests définis pour chaque nom.

getTestCaseNames(testCaseClass)

Renvoie une séquence triée de noms de méthodes trouvés dans testCaseClass ; ceci doit être une sous-classe de TestCase.

discover(start_dir, pattern='test*.py', top_level_dir=None)

Trouve tous les modules de test en parcourant les sous-répertoires du répertoire de démarrage spécifié, et renvoie un objet TestSuite qui les contient. Seuls les fichiers de test qui correspondent à pattern sont chargés. Seuls les noms de modules qui sont importables (c'est-à-dire qui sont des identifiants Python valides) sont chargés.

All test modules must be importable from the top level of the project. If the start directory is not the top level directory then top_level_dir must be specified separately.

Si l'importation d'un module échoue, par exemple en raison d'une erreur de syntaxe, celle-ci est alors enregistrée comme une erreur unique et la découverte se poursuit. Si l'échec de l'importation est dû au fait que SkipTest est levé, il est enregistré comme un saut plutôt que comme un message d'erreur.

Si un paquet (un répertoire contenant un fichier nommé __init__.py) est trouvé, le paquet est alors vérifié pour une fonction load_tests. Si elle existe, elle s'appellera package.load_tests(loader, tests, pattern). Le mécanisme de découverte de test prend soin de s'assurer qu'un paquet n'est vérifié qu'une seule fois au cours d'une invocation, même si la fonction load_tests appelle elle-même loader.discover.

Si load_tests existe alors la découverte ne poursuit pas la récursion dans le paquet, load_tests a la responsabilité de charger tous les tests dans le paquet.

The pattern is deliberately not stored as a loader attribute so that packages can continue discovery themselves.

top_level_dir is stored internally, and used as a default to any nested calls to discover(). That is, if a package's load_tests calls loader.discover(), it does not need to pass this argument.

start_dir peut être un nom de module ainsi qu'un répertoire.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Les modules levant une exception SkipTest au moment de leur importation ne sont pas considérés comme des erreurs, et sont marqués à sauter.

start_dir peut être un paquet-espace de nommage.

Les chemins sont classés avant d'être importés afin que l'ordre d'exécution soit toujours le même, même si le système de fichiers sous-jacent ne classe pas les fichiers par leur nom.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Les paquets trouvés sont maintenant vérifiés pour load_tests indépendamment du fait que leur chemin d'accès corresponde ou non à pattern, car il est impossible pour un nom de paquet de correspondre au motif par défaut.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: start_dir can not be a namespace packages. It has been broken since Python 3.7, and Python 3.11 officially removes it.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: top_level_dir is only stored for the duration of discover call.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: start_dir can once again be a namespace package.

Les attributs suivants d'une classe TestLoader peuvent être configurés soit par héritage, soit par affectation sur une instance :

testMethodPrefix

Chaîne donnant le préfixe des noms de méthodes qui seront interprétés comme méthodes de test. La valeur par défaut est 'test'.

This affects getTestCaseNames() and all the loadTestsFrom* methods.

sortTestMethodsUsing

Function to be used to compare method names when sorting them in getTestCaseNames() and all the loadTestsFrom* methods.

suiteClass

Objet appelable qui construit une suite de tests à partir d'une liste de tests. Aucune méthode sur l'objet résultant n'est nécessaire. La valeur par défaut est la classe TestSuite.

This affects all the loadTestsFrom* methods.

testNamePatterns

List of Unix shell-style wildcard test name patterns that test methods have to match to be included in test suites (see -k option).

If this attribute is not None (the default), all test methods to be included in test suites must match one of the patterns in this list. Note that matches are always performed using fnmatch.fnmatchcase(), so unlike patterns passed to the -k option, simple substring patterns will have to be converted using * wildcards.

This affects all the loadTestsFrom* methods.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

class unittest.TestResult

Cette classe est utilisée pour compiler des informations sur les tests qui ont réussi et ceux qui ont échoué.

Un objet TestResult stocke les résultats d'un ensemble de tests. Les classes TestCase et TestSuite s'assurent que les résultats sont correctement enregistrés. Les auteurs du test n'ont pas à se soucier de l'enregistrement des résultats des tests.

Testing frameworks built on top of unittest may want access to the TestResult object generated by running a set of tests for reporting purposes; a TestResult instance is returned by the TestRunner.run() method for this purpose.

Les instance de TestResult ont les attributs suivants qui sont intéressant pour l'inspection des résultats de l'exécution d'un ensemble de tests :

errors

Une liste contenant des paires d'instances de TestCase et de chaînes de caractères contenant des traces de pile d'appels formatées. Chaque paire représente un test qui a levé une exception inattendue.

failures

A list containing 2-tuples of TestCase instances and strings holding formatted tracebacks. Each tuple represents a test where a failure was explicitly signalled using the assert* methods.

skipped

Une liste contenant des paires d'instances de TestCase et de chaînes de caractères contenant la raison de l'omission du test.

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

expectedFailures

Une liste contenant des paires d'instances TestCase et de chaînes de caractères contenant des traces de pile d'appels formatées. Chaque paire représente un échec attendu ou une erreur du scénario de test.

unexpectedSuccesses

Une liste contenant les instances TestCase qui ont été marquées comme des échecs attendus, mais qui ont réussi.

collectedDurations

A list containing 2-tuples of test case names and floats representing the elapsed time of each test which was run.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

shouldStop

A positionner sur True quand l'exécution des tests doit être arrêter par stop().

testsRun

Le nombre total de tests effectués jusqu'à présent.

buffer

S'il est défini sur true, sys.stdout et sys.stderr sont mis dans un tampon entre les appels de startTest() et stopTest(). La sortie collectée est répercutée sur les sorties sys.stdout et sys.stderr réels uniquement en cas d'échec ou d'erreur du test. Toute sortie est également attachée au message d'erreur.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

failfast

Si la valeur est true stop() est appelée lors de la première défaillance ou erreur, ce qui interrompt le test en cours d'exécution.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

tb_locals

Si la valeur est true, les variables locales sont affichées dans les traces d'appels.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

wasSuccessful()

Renvoie True si tous les tests effectués jusqu'à présent ont réussi, sinon renvoie False.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Renvoie False s'il y a eu des unexpectedSuccesses dans les tests annotés avec le décorateur expectedFailure().

stop()

This method can be called to signal that the set of tests being run should be aborted by setting the shouldStop attribute to True. TestRunner objects should respect this flag and return without running any additional tests.

For example, this feature is used by the TextTestRunner class to stop the test framework when the user signals an interrupt from the keyboard. Interactive tools which provide TestRunner implementations can use this in a similar manner.

Les méthodes suivantes de la classe TestResult sont utilisées pour maintenir les structures de données internes, et peuvent être étendues dans des sous-classes pour gérer des exigences supplémentaires en termes de compte-rendu. Cette fonction est particulièrement utile pour créer des outils qui prennent en charge la génération de rapports interactifs pendant l'exécution des tests.

startTest(test)

Appelé lorsque le scénario de test test est sur le point d'être exécuté.

stopTest(test)

Appelé après l'exécution du cas de test test, quel qu'en soit le résultat.

startTestRun()

Appelé une fois avant l'exécution des tests.

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

stopTestRun()

Appelé une fois après l'exécution des tests.

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

addError(test, err)

Appelé lorsque le cas de test test soulève une exception inattendue. err est un n-uplet de la même forme que celle renvoyée par sys.exc_info() : (type, valeur, traceback).

L'implémentation par défaut ajoute un n-uplet (test, formatted_err) à l'attribut errors de l'instance, où formatted_err est une trace formatée à partir de err.

addFailure(test, err)

Appelé lorsque le cas de test test soulève une exception inattendue. err est un triplet de la même forme que celui renvoyé par sys.exc_info() : (type, valeur, traceback).

L'implémentation par défaut ajoute un n-uplet (test, formatted_err) à l'attribut errors de l'instance, où formatted_err est une trace formatée à partir de err.

addSuccess(test)

Appelé lorsque le scénario de test test réussit.

L'implémentation par défaut ne fait rien.

addSkip(test, reason)

Appelé lorsque le scénario de test test est ignoré. raison est la raison pour laquelle le test donné à été ignoré.

L'implémentation par défaut ajoute un n-uplet (test, raison) à l'attribut skipped de l'instance.

addExpectedFailure(test, err)

Appelé lorsque le scénario de test test échoue (assertion ou exception), mais qui a été marqué avec le décorateur expectedFailure().

L'implémentation par défaut ajoute un n-uplet (test, formatted_err) à l'attribut errors de l'instance, où formatted_err est une trace formatée à partir de err.

addUnexpectedSuccess(test)

Appelé lorsque le scénario de test test réussit, mais que ce scénario a été marqué avec le décorateur expectedFailure().

L'implémentation par défaut ajoute le test à l'attribut unexpectedSuccesses de l'instance.

addSubTest(test, subtest, outcome)

Appelé à la fin d'un sous-test. test est le cas de test correspondant à la méthode de test. subtest est une instance dérivée de TestCase décrivant le sous-test.

Si outcome est None, le sous-test a réussi. Sinon, il a échoué avec une exception où outcome est un triplet du formulaire renvoyé par sys.exc_info() : (type, valeur, traceback).

L'implémentation par défaut ne fait rien lorsque le résultat est un succès, et enregistre les échecs de sous-test comme des échecs normaux.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

addDuration(test, elapsed)

Called when the test case finishes. elapsed is the time represented in seconds, and it includes the execution of cleanup functions.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

class unittest.TextTestResult(stream, descriptions, verbosity, *, durations=None)

A concrete implementation of TestResult used by the TextTestRunner. Subclasses should accept **kwargs to ensure compatibility as the interface changes.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added the durations keyword parameter.

unittest.defaultTestLoader

Instance de la classe TestLoader destinée à être partagée. Si aucune personnalisation de la classe TestLoader n'est nécessaire, cette instance peut être utilisée au lieu de créer plusieurs fois de nouvelles instances.

class unittest.TextTestRunner(stream=None, descriptions=True, verbosity=1, failfast=False, buffer=False, resultclass=None, warnings=None, *, tb_locals=False, durations=None)

Une implémentation de base d'un lanceur de test qui fournit les résultats dans un flux. Si stream est None, par défaut, sys.stderr est utilisé comme flux de sortie. Cette classe a quelques paramètres configurables, mais est essentiellement très simple. Les applications graphiques qui exécutent des suites de tests doivent fournir des implémentations alternatives. De telles implémentations doivent accepter **kwargs car l'interface pour construire les lanceurs change lorsque des fonctionnalités sont ajoutées à unittest.

By default this runner shows DeprecationWarning, PendingDeprecationWarning, ResourceWarning and ImportWarning even if they are ignored by default. This behavior can be overridden using Python's -Wd or -Wa options (see Warning control) and leaving warnings to None.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Added the warnings parameter.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Le flux par défaut est défini sur sys.stderr au moment de l'instanciation plutôt qu'à l'importation.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Added the tb_locals parameter.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added the durations parameter.

_makeResult()

Cette méthode renvoie l'instance de TestResult utilisée par run(). Il n'est pas destiné à être appelé directement, mais peut être surchargée dans des sous-classes pour fournir un TestResult personnalisé.

_makeResult() instancie la classe ou l'appelable passé dans le constructeur TextTestRunner comme argument resultclass. Il vaut par défaut TextTestResult si aucune resultclass n'est fournie. La classe de résultat est instanciée avec les arguments suivants :

stream, descriptions, verbosity

run(test)

Cette méthode est l'interface publique principale du TextTestRunner. Cette méthode prend une instance TestSuite ou TestCase. Un TestResult est créé en appelant _makeResult() et le ou les tests sont exécutés et les résultats affichés sur la sortie standard.

unittest.main(module='__main__', defaultTest=None, argv=None, testRunner=None, testLoader=unittest.defaultTestLoader, exit=True, verbosity=1, failfast=None, catchbreak=None, buffer=None, warnings=None)

Un programme en ligne de commande qui charge un ensemble de tests à partir du module et les exécute. L'utilisation principale est de rendre les modules de test facilement exécutables. L'utilisation la plus simple pour cette fonction est d'inclure la ligne suivante à la fin d'un script de test :

if __name__ == '__main__':
    unittest.main()

Vous pouvez exécuter des tests avec des informations plus détaillées en utilisant l'option de verbosité :

if __name__ == '__main__':
    unittest.main(verbosity=2)

L'argument defaultTest est soit le nom d'un seul test, soit un itérable de noms de test à exécuter si aucun nom de test n'est spécifié via argv. Si aucun nom de test n'est fourni via argv, tous les tests trouvés dans module sont exécutés.

L'argument argv peut être une liste d'options passées au programme, le premier élément étant le nom du programme. S'il n'est pas spécifié ou vaut None, les valeurs de sys.argv sont utilisées.

The testRunner argument can either be a test runner class or an already created instance of it. By default main calls sys.exit() with an exit code indicating success (0) or failure (1) of the tests run. An exit code of 5 indicates that no tests were run or skipped.

L'argument testLoader doit être une instance de TestLoader, et par défaut de defaultTestLoader.

Les main sont utilisés à partir de l'interpréteur interactif en passant dans l'argument exit=False. Ceci affiche le résultat sur la sortie standard sans appeler sys.exit() :

>>> from unittest import main
>>> main(module='test_module', exit=False)

Les paramètres failfast, catchbreak et buffer ont le même effet que la même option en ligne de commande command-line options.

L'argument warnings spécifie l'argument filtre d'avertissement qui doit être utilisé lors de l'exécution des tests. Si elle n'est pas spécifiée, elle reste réglée sur None si une option -W' est passée à python (voir Utilisation des avertissements), sinon elle sera réglée sur 'default'.

Calling main returns an object with the result attribute that contains the result of the tests run as a unittest.TestResult.

Modifié dans la version 3.1: Ajout du paramètre exit.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Ajout des paramètres verbosity, failfast, catchbreak, buffer et warnings.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Le paramètre defaultTest a été modifié pour accepter également un itérable de noms de test.

Protocole de chargement des tests (load_tests Protocol)

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Les modules ou paquets peuvent personnaliser la façon dont les tests sont chargés à partir de ceux-ci pendant l'exécution des tests ou pendant la découverte de tests en implémentant une fonction appelée load_tests.

Si un module de test définit load_tests il est appelé par TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule() avec les arguments suivants :

load_tests(loader, standard_tests, pattern)

où pattern est passé directement depuis loadTestsFromModule. La valeur par défaut est None.

Elle doit renvoyer une classe TestSuite.

loader est l'instance de TestLoader qui effectue le chargement. standard_tests sont les tests qui sont chargés par défaut depuis le module. Il est courant que les modules de test veuillent seulement ajouter ou supprimer des tests de l'ensemble standard de tests. Le troisième argument est utilisé lors du chargement de paquets dans le cadre de la découverte de tests.

Une fonction typique de load_tests qui charge les tests d'un ensemble spécifique de classes TestCase peut ressembler à :

test_cases = (TestCase1, TestCase2, TestCase3)

def load_tests(loader, tests, pattern):
    suite = TestSuite()
    for test_class in test_cases:
        tests = loader.loadTestsFromTestCase(test_class)
        suite.addTests(tests)
    return suite

Si la découverte est lancée dans un répertoire contenant un paquet, soit à partir de la ligne de commande, soit en appelant TestLoader.discover(), alors le système recherche dans le fichier du paquet __init__.py la fonction load_tests. Si cette fonction n'existe pas, la découverte se poursuit dans le paquet comme si c'était juste un autre répertoire. Sinon, la découverte des tests du paquet est effectuée par load_tests qui est appelé avec les arguments suivants :

load_tests(loader, standard_tests, pattern)

Doit renvoyer une classe TestSuite représentant tous les tests du paquet. (standard_tests ne contient que les tests collectés dans le fichier __init__.py).

Comme le motif est passé à load_tests, le paquet est libre de continuer (et potentiellement de modifier) la découverte des tests. Une fonction « ne rien faire » load_tests pour un paquet de test ressemblerait à :

def load_tests(loader, standard_tests, pattern):
    # top level directory cached on loader instance
    this_dir = os.path.dirname(__file__)
    package_tests = loader.discover(start_dir=this_dir, pattern=pattern)
    standard_tests.addTests(package_tests)
    return standard_tests

Modifié dans la version 3.5: La découverte de test ne vérifie plus que les noms de paquets correspondent à pattern en raison de l'impossibilité de trouver des noms de paquets correspondant au motif par défaut.

Classes et modules d'aménagements des tests

Class and module level fixtures are implemented in TestSuite. When the test suite encounters a test from a new class then tearDownClass() from the previous class (if there is one) is called, followed by setUpClass() from the new class.

De même, si un test provient d'un module différent du test précédent, alors tearDownModule du module précédent est exécuté, suivi par setUpModule du nouveau module.

Après que tous les tests ont été exécutés, les tearDownClass et tearDownModule finaux sont exécutés.

Notez que les aménagements de tests partagés ne fonctionnent pas bien avec de « potentielles » fonctions comme la parallélisation de test et qu'ils brisent l'isolation des tests. Ils doivent être utilisés avec parcimonie.

L'ordre par défaut des tests créés par les chargeurs de tests unitaires est de regrouper tous les tests des mêmes modules et classes. Cela à pour conséquence que setUpClass / setUpModule (etc) sont appelé exactement une fois par classe et module. Si vous rendez l'ordre aléatoire, de sorte que les tests de différents modules et classes soient adjacents les uns aux autres, alors ces fonctions d'aménagements partagées peuvent être appelées plusieurs fois dans un même test.

Les aménagements de tests partagés ne sont pas conçus pour fonctionner avec des suites dont la commande n'est pas standard. Une BaseTestSuite existe toujours pour les cadriciels qui ne veulent pas gérer les aménagements de tests partagés.

S'il y a des exceptions levées pendant l'une des fonctions d'aménagement de tests partagés, le test est signalé comme étant en erreur. Parce qu'il n'y a pas d'instance de test correspondante, un objet _ErrorHolder (qui a la même interface qu'une classe TestCase) est créé pour représenter l'erreur. Si vous n'utilisez que le lanceur de test unitaire standard, ce détail n'a pas d'importance, mais si vous êtes un auteur de cadriciel de test, il peut être pertinent.

Classes de mise en place (setUpClass) et de démantèlement des tests (tearDownClass)

Elles doivent être implémentées en tant que méthodes de classe :

import unittest

class Test(unittest.TestCase):
    @classmethod
    def setUpClass(cls):
        cls._connection = createExpensiveConnectionObject()

    @classmethod
    def tearDownClass(cls):
        cls._connection.destroy()

Si vous voulez que les classes de base setUpClass et tearDownClass soient appelées, vous devez les appeler vous-même. Les implémentations dans TestCase sont vides.

Si une exception est levée pendant l'exécution de setUpClass alors les tests dans la classe ne sont pas exécutés et la classe tearDownClass n'est pas exécutée. Les classes ignorées n'auront pas d'exécution de setUpClass ou tearDownClass. Si l'exception est une exception SkipTest alors la classe est signalée comme ayant été ignorée au lieu d'être en échec.

Module de mise en place (setUpModule) et de démantèlement des tests (tearDownModule)

Elles doivent être implémentées en tant que fonctions :

def setUpModule():
    createConnection()

def tearDownModule():
    closeConnection()

Si une exception est levée pendant l'exécution de la fonction setUpModule alors aucun des tests du module ne sera exécuté et la fonction tearDownModule ne sera pas exécutée. Si l'exception est une exception SkipTest alors le module est signalé comme ayant été ignoré au lieu d'être en échec.

Pour ajouter du code de nettoyage qui doit être exécuté même en cas d'exception, utilisez addModuleCleanup :

unittest.addModuleCleanup(function, /, *args, **kwargs)

Ajout d'une fonction à appeler après tearDownModule() pour nettoyer les ressources utilisées pendant le test. Les fonctions seront appelées dans l'ordre inverse de l'ordre dans lequel elles ont été ajoutées (LIFO). Elles sont appelées avec tous les arguments et arguments nommés passés à addModuleCleanup() quand elles sont ajoutées.

Si setUpModule() échoue, impliquant que tearDownModule() n'est pas appelée, alors les fonctions de nettoyage ajoutées sont quand même toujours appelées.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

unittest.enterModuleContext(cm)

Enter the supplied context manager. If successful, also add its __exit__() method as a cleanup function by addModuleCleanup() and return the result of the __enter__() method.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

unittest.doModuleCleanups()

Cette méthode est appelée sans conditions après tearDownModule(), ou après setUpModule() si setUpModule() lève une exception.

It is responsible for calling all the cleanup functions added by addModuleCleanup(). If you need cleanup functions to be called prior to tearDownModule() then you can call doModuleCleanups() yourself.

doModuleCleanups() extrait les méthodes de la pile des fonctions de nettoyage une à la fois, de sorte qu'elles peuvent être appelées à tout moment.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

Traitement des signaux

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

The -c/--catch command-line option to unittest, along with the catchbreak parameter to unittest.main(), provide more friendly handling of control-C during a test run. With catch break behavior enabled control-C will allow the currently running test to complete, and the test run will then end and report all the results so far. A second control-c will raise a KeyboardInterrupt in the usual way.

Le gestionnaire du signal contrôle-C tente de rester compatible avec le code ou les tests qui installent leur propre gestionnaire signal.SIGINT. Si le gestionnaire unittest est appelé mais n'est pas le gestionnaire installé signal.SIGINT, c'est-à-dire qu'il a été remplacé par le système sous test et délégué, alors il appelle le gestionnaire par défaut. C'est normalement le comportement attendu par un code qui remplace un gestionnaire installé et lui délègue. Pour les tests individuels qui ont besoin que le signal contrôle-C "unittest" soit désactivée, le décorateur removeHandler() peut être utilisé.

Il existe quelques fonctions de support pour les auteurs de cadriciel afin d'activer la fonctionnalité de gestion des contrôle-C dans les cadriciels de test.

unittest.installHandler()

Installe le gestionnaire contrôle-c. Quand un signal.SIGINT est reçu (généralement en réponse à l'utilisateur appuyant sur contrôle-c) tous les résultats enregistrés vont appeler la méthode stop().

unittest.registerResult(result)

Enregistre un objet TestResult pour la gestion du contrôle-C. L'enregistrement d'un résultat stocke une référence faible sur celui-ci, de sorte qu'il n'empêche pas que le résultat soit collecté par le ramasse-miette.

L'enregistrement d'un objet TestResult n'a pas d'effets de bord si la gestion du contrôle-c n'est pas activée, donc les cadriciels de test peuvent enregistrer sans condition tous les résultats qu'ils créent indépendamment du fait que la gestion soit activée ou non.

unittest.removeResult(result)

Supprime un résultat enregistré. Une fois qu'un résultat a été supprimé, stop() n'est plus appelé sur cet objet résultat en réponse à un contrôle-c.

unittest.removeHandler(function=None)

Lorsqu'elle est appelée sans arguments, cette fonction supprime le gestionnaire contrôle-c s'il a été installé. Cette fonction peut également être utilisée comme décorateur de test pour supprimer temporairement le gestionnaire pendant l'exécution du test :

@unittest.removeHandler
def test_signal_handling(self):
    ...

unittest.mock --- mock object library

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Code source : Lib/unittest/mock.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/unittest/mock.py]

unittest.mock is a library for testing in Python. It allows you to replace parts of your system under test with mock objects and make assertions about how they have been used.

unittest.mock provides a core Mock class removing the need to create a host of stubs throughout your test suite. After performing an action, you can make assertions about which methods / attributes were used and arguments they were called with. You can also specify return values and set needed attributes in the normal way.

De plus, mock fournit un décorateur patch() qui est capable de patcher les modules et les classes dans la portée d'un test, ainsi que sentinel pour créer des objets uniques. Voir le guide rapide quick guide pour quelques exemples d'utilisation de Mock, MagicMock et patch().

Mock is designed for use with unittest and is based on the 'action -> assertion' pattern instead of 'record -> replay' used by many mocking frameworks.

There is a backport of unittest.mock for earlier versions of Python, available as mock [https://pypi.org/project/mock/] on PyPI.

Guide rapide

Les classes Mock et MagicMock créent tous les attributs et méthodes au fur et à mesure des accès et stockent les détails de la façon dont ils ont été utilisés. On peut les configurer, pour spécifier des valeurs de renvoi ou limiter les attributs utilisables, puis faire des assertions sur la façon dont ils ont été utilisés :

>>> from unittest.mock import MagicMock
>>> thing = ProductionClass()
>>> thing.method = MagicMock(return_value=3)
>>> thing.method(3, 4, 5, key='value')
3
>>> thing.method.assert_called_with(3, 4, 5, key='value')

side_effect allows you to perform side effects, including raising an exception when a mock is called:

>>> from unittest.mock import Mock
>>> mock = Mock(side_effect=KeyError('foo'))
>>> mock()
Traceback (most recent call last):
 ...
KeyError: 'foo'

>>> values = {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3}
>>> def side_effect(arg):
...     return values[arg]
...
>>> mock.side_effect = side_effect
>>> mock('a'), mock('b'), mock('c')
(1, 2, 3)
>>> mock.side_effect = [5, 4, 3, 2, 1]
>>> mock(), mock(), mock()
(5, 4, 3)

Il existe beaucoup d'autres façons de configurer et de contrôler le comportement de Mock. Par exemple, l'argument spec configure le mock pour qu'il utilise les spécifications d'un autre objet. Tenter d'accéder à des attributs ou méthodes sur le mock qui n'existent pas sur l'objet spec lève une AttributeError.

The patch() decorator / context manager makes it easy to mock classes or objects in a module under test. The object you specify will be replaced with a mock (or other object) during the test and restored when the test ends:

>>> from unittest.mock import patch
>>> @patch('module.ClassName2')
... @patch('module.ClassName1')
... def test(MockClass1, MockClass2):
...     module.ClassName1()
...     module.ClassName2()
...     assert MockClass1 is module.ClassName1
...     assert MockClass2 is module.ClassName2
...     assert MockClass1.called
...     assert MockClass2.called
...
>>> test()

Note

Lorsque l'on imbrique des décorateurs de patchs, les mocks sont transmis à la fonction décorée dans le même ordre qu'ils ont été déclarés (l'ordre normal Python des décorateurs est appliqué). Cela signifie du bas vers le haut, donc dans l'exemple ci-dessus, l'objet simulacre pour module.ClassName1 est passé en premier.

Avec patch(), il est important de patcher les objets dans l'espace de nommage où ils sont recherchés. C'est ce qui se fait normalement, mais pour un guide rapide, lisez où patcher.

Comme tout décorateur, patch() peut être utilisé comme gestionnaire de contexte avec une instruction with :

>>> with patch.object(ProductionClass, 'method', return_value=None) as mock_method:
...     thing = ProductionClass()
...     thing.method(1, 2, 3)
...
>>> mock_method.assert_called_once_with(1, 2, 3)

Il existe également patch.dict() pour définir des valeurs d'un dictionnaire au sein d'une portée et restaurer ce dictionnaire à son état d'origine lorsque le test se termine :

>>> foo = {'key': 'value'}
>>> original = foo.copy()
>>> with patch.dict(foo, {'newkey': 'newvalue'}, clear=True):
...     assert foo == {'newkey': 'newvalue'}
...
>>> assert foo == original

Mock gère le remplacement des méthodes magiques de Python. La façon la plus simple d'utiliser les méthodes magiques est la classe MagicMock. Elle permet de faire des choses comme :

>>> mock = MagicMock()
>>> mock.__str__.return_value = 'foobarbaz'
>>> str(mock)
'foobarbaz'
>>> mock.__str__.assert_called_with()

Mock permet d'assigner des fonctions (ou d'autres instances Mock) à des méthodes magiques et elles seront appelées correctement. La classe MagicMock est juste une variante de Mock qui a toutes les méthodes magiques pré-créées (enfin, toutes les méthodes utiles).

L'exemple suivant est un exemple de création de méthodes magiques avec la classe Mock ordinaire :

>>> mock = Mock()
>>> mock.__str__ = Mock(return_value='wheeeeee')
>>> str(mock)
'wheeeeee'

Pour être sûr que les objets simulacres dans vos tests ont la même API que les objets qu'ils remplacent, utilisez l'auto-spécification. L'auto-spécification peut se faire via l'argument autospec de patch ou par la fonction create_autospec(). L'auto-spécification crée des objets simulacres qui ont les mêmes attributs et méthodes que les objets qu'ils remplacent, et toutes les fonctions et méthodes (y compris les constructeurs) ont les mêmes signatures d'appel que l'objet réel.

Ceci garantit que vos objets simulacres échouent de la même manière que votre code de production s'ils ne sont pas utilisés correctement :

>>> from unittest.mock import create_autospec
>>> def function(a, b, c):
...     pass
...
>>> mock_function = create_autospec(function, return_value='fishy')
>>> mock_function(1, 2, 3)
'fishy'
>>> mock_function.assert_called_once_with(1, 2, 3)
>>> mock_function('wrong arguments')
Traceback (most recent call last):
 ...
TypeError: missing a required argument: 'b'

La fonction create_autospec() peut aussi être utilisée sur les classes, où elle copie la signature de la méthode __init__, et sur les objets appelables où elle copie la signature de la méthode __call__.

La classe Mock

La classe Mock est un objet simulacre flexible destiné à remplacer l'utilisation d'objets bouchons et factices dans votre code. Les Mocks sont appelables et créent des attributs comme de nouveaux Mocks lorsque l'on y accède [1]. L'accès au même attribut renvoie toujours le même mock. Les simulacres enregistrent la façon dont ils sont utilisés, ce qui permet de faire des assertions sur ce que le code leur a fait.

La classe MagicMock est une sous-classe de Mock avec toutes les méthodes magiques pré-créées et prête à l'emploi. Il existe également des variantes non appelables, utiles lorsque l'on simule des objets qui ne sont pas appelables : NonCallableMock et NonCallableMagicMock

Le décorateur patch() facilite le remplacement temporaire de classes d'un module avec un objet Mock. Par défaut patch() crée un MagicMock. On peut spécifier une classe alternative de Mock en utilisant le paramètre new_callable de patch().

class unittest.mock.Mock(spec=None, side_effect=None, return_value=DEFAULT, wraps=None, name=None, spec_set=None, unsafe=False, **kwargs)

Crée un nouvel objet Mock. Mock prend plusieurs arguments optionnels qui spécifient le comportement de l'objet Mock :

spec : une liste de chaînes de caractères ou un objet existant (une classe ou une instance) qui sert de spécification pour l'objet simulacre. Si on passe un objet, alors une liste de chaînes de caractères est formée en appelant la fonction dir sur l'objet (à l'exclusion des attributs et méthodes magiques non pris en charge). L'accès à un attribut qui n'est pas dans cette liste entraîne la levée d'une exception AttributeError.

If spec is an object (rather than a list of strings) then __class__ returns the class of the spec object. This allows mocks to pass isinstance() tests.

spec_set : variante plus stricte de spec. S'il est utilisé, essayer d'utiliser la fonction set ou tenter d’accéder à un attribut sur le mock qui n'est pas sur l'objet passé comme spec_set lève une exception AttributeError.

side_effect : fonction à appeler à chaque fois que le Mock est appelé. Voir l'attribut side_effect. Utile pour lever des exceptions ou modifier dynamiquement les valeurs de retour. La fonction est appelée avec les mêmes arguments que la fonction simulée et, à moins qu'elle ne renvoie DEFAULT, la valeur de retour de cette fonction devient la valeur de retour de la fonction simulée.

side_effect peut être soit une classe, soit une instance d'exception. Dans ce cas, l'exception est levée lors de l'appel de l'objet simulacre.

Si side_effect est un itérable alors chaque appel au mock renvoie la valeur suivante de l’itérable.

Utilisez None pour remettre à zéro un side_effect.

return_value : valeur renvoyée lors de l'appel de l'objet simulacre. Par défaut, il s'agit d'un nouveau Mock (créé lors du premier accès). Voir l'attribut return_value.

unsafe: By default, accessing any attribute whose name starts with assert, assret, asert, aseert or assrt will raise an AttributeError. Passing unsafe=True will allow access to these attributes.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

wraps : élément que le simulacre doit simuler. Si wraps n'est pas None alors appeler Mock passe l'appel à l'objet simulé (renvoyant le résultat réel). L'accès à un attribut sur le mock renvoie un objet Mock qui simule l'attribut correspondant de l'objet simulé (donc essayer d'accéder à un attribut qui n'existe pas lève une exception AttributeError).

Si l'objet simulacre a un ensemble explicite de return_value alors les appels ne sont pas passés à l'objet simulé et c'est return_value qui est renvoyée à la place.

name : Si le mock a un nom, il est alors utilisé par la fonction repr du mock. C'est utile pour le débogage. Le nom est propagé aux enfants de l'objet mock.

Les mocks peuvent aussi être appelés avec des arguments par mots-clés arbitraires. Ceux-ci sont utilisés pour définir les attributs sur le mock après sa création. Voir la méthode configure_mock() pour plus de détails.

assert_called()

Asserter que le mock a été appelé au moins une fois.

>>> mock = Mock()
>>> mock.method()
<Mock name='mock.method()' id='...'>
>>> mock.method.assert_called()

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

assert_called_once()

Asserter que le mock a été appelé exactement une fois.

>>> mock = Mock()
>>> mock.method()
<Mock name='mock.method()' id='...'>
>>> mock.method.assert_called_once()
>>> mock.method()
<Mock name='mock.method()' id='...'>
>>> mock.method.assert_called_once()
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
AssertionError: Expected 'method' to have been called once. Called 2 times.
Calls: [call(), call()].

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

assert_called_with(*args, **kwargs)

This method is a convenient way of asserting that the last call has been made in a particular way:

>>> mock = Mock()
>>> mock.method(1, 2, 3, test='wow')
<Mock name='mock.method()' id='...'>
>>> mock.method.assert_called_with(1, 2, 3, test='wow')

assert_called_once_with(*args, **kwargs)

Assert that the mock was called exactly once and that call was with the specified arguments.

>>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
>>> mock('foo', bar='baz')
>>> mock.assert_called_once_with('foo', bar='baz')
>>> mock('other', bar='values')
>>> mock.assert_called_once_with('other', bar='values')
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
AssertionError: Expected 'mock' to be called once. Called 2 times.
Calls: [call('foo', bar='baz'), call('other', bar='values')].

assert_any_call(*args, **kwargs)

Asserter que le simulacre a été appelé avec les arguments spécifiés.

Asserter que le simulacre a bien été appelé avec les arguments au cours de la vie du simulacre. Contrairement à assert_called_with() et assert_called_once_with() qui passent seulement si l'appel demandé correspond bien au dernier appel, et dans le cas de assert_called_once_with() l'appel au simulacre doit être unique.

>>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
>>> mock(1, 2, arg='thing')
>>> mock('some', 'thing', 'else')
>>> mock.assert_any_call(1, 2, arg='thing')

assert_has_calls(calls, any_order=False)

Asserter que le simulacre a été appelé avec les appels spécifiés. L'attribut mock_calls est comparé à la liste des appels.

If any_order is false then the calls must be sequential. There can be extra calls before or after the specified calls.

Si any_order est vrai alors les appels peuvent être dans n'importe quel ordre, mais ils doivent tous apparaître dans mock_calls.

>>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
>>> mock(1)
>>> mock(2)
>>> mock(3)
>>> mock(4)
>>> calls = [call(2), call(3)]
>>> mock.assert_has_calls(calls)
>>> calls = [call(4), call(2), call(3)]
>>> mock.assert_has_calls(calls, any_order=True)

assert_not_called()

Asserter que le simulacre n'a jamais été appelé.

>>> m = Mock()
>>> m.hello.assert_not_called()
>>> obj = m.hello()
>>> m.hello.assert_not_called()
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
AssertionError: Expected 'hello' to not have been called. Called 1 times.
Calls: [call()].

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

reset_mock(*, return_value=False, side_effect=False)

La méthode reset_mock réinitialise tous les attributs d'appel sur un simulacre :

>>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
>>> mock('hello')
>>> mock.called
True
>>> mock.reset_mock()
>>> mock.called
False

This can be useful where you want to make a series of assertions that reuse the same object.

return_value parameter when set to True resets return_value:

>>> mock = Mock(return_value=5)
>>> mock('hello')
5
>>> mock.reset_mock(return_value=True)
>>> mock('hello')
<Mock name='mock()' id='...'>

side_effect parameter when set to True resets side_effect:

>>> mock = Mock(side_effect=ValueError)
>>> mock('hello')
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
ValueError
>>> mock.reset_mock(side_effect=True)
>>> mock('hello')
<Mock name='mock()' id='...'>

Note that reset_mock() doesn't clear the return_value, side_effect or any child attributes you have set using normal assignment by default.

Child mocks are reset as well.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Added two keyword-only arguments to the reset_mock function.

mock_add_spec(spec, spec_set=False)

Ajoute une spécification à un simulacre. spec peut être un objet ou une liste de chaînes de caractères. Seuls les attributs de la spécification spec peuvent être récupérés en tant qu'attributs du simulacre.

Si spec_set est vrai, seuls les attributs de la spécification peuvent être définis.

attach_mock(mock, attribute)

Attache un simulacre comme attribut de l'instance courante, en remplaçant son nom et son parent. Les appels au simulacre attaché sont enregistrés dans les attributs method_calls et mock_calls de l'instance courante.

configure_mock(**kwargs)

Définir les attributs sur le simulacre à l'aide d'arguments nommés.

Les attributs, les valeurs de retour et les effets de bords peuvent être définis sur des simulacres enfants en utilisant la notation par points standard et en dépaquetant un dictionnaire dans l'appel de méthode :

>>> mock = Mock()
>>> attrs = {'method.return_value': 3, 'other.side_effect': KeyError}
>>> mock.configure_mock(**attrs)
>>> mock.method()
3
>>> mock.other()
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
KeyError

La même chose peut être réalisée en utilisant le constructeur des simulacres :

>>> attrs = {'method.return_value': 3, 'other.side_effect': KeyError}
>>> mock = Mock(some_attribute='eggs', **attrs)
>>> mock.some_attribute
'eggs'
>>> mock.method()
3
>>> mock.other()
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
KeyError

configure_mock() existe pour faciliter la configuration après la création du simulacre.

__dir__()

Les objets Mock limitent les résultats de dir(un_mock) à des résultats utiles. Pour les simulacres avec une spécification spec, cela inclut tous les attributs autorisés du simulacre.

Voir FILTER_DIR pour savoir ce que fait ce filtrage, et comment le désactiver.

_get_child_mock(**kw)

Crée les simulacres enfants pour les attributs et la valeur de retour. Par défaut, les objets simulacre enfants sont du même type que le parent. Les sous-classes de Mock peuvent surcharger cette méthode pour personnaliser la façon dont les simulacres enfants sont créés.

Pour les simulacres non appelables, la variante appelable est utilisée (plutôt qu'une sous-classe personnalisée).

called

Un booléen représentant si le simulacre a bien été appelé ou non :

>>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
>>> mock.called
False
>>> mock()
>>> mock.called
True

call_count

Un entier indiquant combien de fois le simulacre a été appelé :

>>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
>>> mock.call_count
0
>>> mock()
>>> mock()
>>> mock.call_count
2

return_value

Définir cette option pour configurer la valeur renvoyé par appel du simulacre :

>>> mock = Mock()
>>> mock.return_value = 'fish'
>>> mock()
'fish'

La valeur de revoie par défaut est un simulacre configurable normalement :

>>> mock = Mock()
>>> mock.return_value.attribute = sentinel.Attribute
>>> mock.return_value()
<Mock name='mock()()' id='...'>
>>> mock.return_value.assert_called_with()

L'attribut return_value peut également être défini dans le constructeur :

>>> mock = Mock(return_value=3)
>>> mock.return_value
3
>>> mock()
3

side_effect

C'est soit une fonction à appeler lors de l'appel du simulacre, soit une exception (classe ou instance) à lever.

Si vous passez une fonction, elle est appelée avec les mêmes arguments que la fonction simulée et à moins que la fonction ne renvoie le singleton DEFAULT l'appel le la fonction simulée renvoie ce que la fonction renvoie. Si la fonction renvoie DEFAULT alors le simulacre renvoie sa valeur normale (celle de return_value).

Si vous passez un itérable, il est utilisé pour récupérer un itérateur qui doit renvoyer une valeur à chaque appel. Cette valeur peut être soit une instance d'exception à lever, soit une valeur à renvoyer à l'appel au simulacre (le traitement DEFAULT est identique au renvoie de la fonction simulée).

Un exemple d'un simulacre qui lève une exception (pour tester la gestion des exceptions d'une API) :

>>> mock = Mock()
>>> mock.side_effect = Exception('Boom!')
>>> mock()
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
Exception: Boom!

Utiliser side_effect pour renvoyer une séquence de valeurs :

>>> mock = Mock()
>>> mock.side_effect = [3, 2, 1]
>>> mock(), mock(), mock()
(3, 2, 1)

Utilisation d'un objet appelable :

>>> mock = Mock(return_value=3)
>>> def side_effect(*args, **kwargs):
...     return DEFAULT
...
>>> mock.side_effect = side_effect
>>> mock()
3

Un attribut side_effect peut être défini dans le constructeur. Voici un exemple qui ajoute un à la valeur du simulacre appelé et qui le renvoie :

>>> side_effect = lambda value: value + 1
>>> mock = Mock(side_effect=side_effect)
>>> mock(3)
4
>>> mock(-8)
-7

Positionner side_effect sur None l'efface :

>>> m = Mock(side_effect=KeyError, return_value=3)
>>> m()
Traceback (most recent call last):
 ...
KeyError
>>> m.side_effect = None
>>> m()
3

call_args

This is either None (if the mock hasn't been called), or the arguments that the mock was last called with. This will be in the form of a tuple: the first member, which can also be accessed through the args property, is any positional arguments the mock was called with (or an empty tuple) and the second member, which can also be accessed through the kwargs property, is any keyword arguments (or an empty dictionary).

>>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
>>> print(mock.call_args)
None
>>> mock()
>>> mock.call_args
call()
>>> mock.call_args == ()
True
>>> mock(3, 4)
>>> mock.call_args
call(3, 4)
>>> mock.call_args == ((3, 4),)
True
>>> mock.call_args.args
(3, 4)
>>> mock.call_args.kwargs
{}
>>> mock(3, 4, 5, key='fish', next='w00t!')
>>> mock.call_args
call(3, 4, 5, key='fish', next='w00t!')
>>> mock.call_args.args
(3, 4, 5)
>>> mock.call_args.kwargs
{'key': 'fish', 'next': 'w00t!'}

L'attribut call_args, ainsi que les éléments des listes call_args_list, method_calls et mock_calls sont des objets call. Ce sont des n-uplets, que l'on peut dépaqueter afin de faire des affirmations plus complexes sur chacun des arguments. Voir appels comme *n*-uplets.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added args and kwargs properties.

call_args_list

This is a list of all the calls made to the mock object in sequence (so the length of the list is the number of times it has been called). Before any calls have been made it is an empty list. The call object can be used for conveniently constructing lists of calls to compare with call_args_list.

>>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
>>> mock()
>>> mock(3, 4)
>>> mock(key='fish', next='w00t!')
>>> mock.call_args_list
[call(), call(3, 4), call(key='fish', next='w00t!')]
>>> expected = [(), ((3, 4),), ({'key': 'fish', 'next': 'w00t!'},)]
>>> mock.call_args_list == expected
True

Members of call_args_list are call objects. These can be unpacked as tuples to get at the individual arguments. See calls as tuples.

method_calls

As well as tracking calls to themselves, mocks also track calls to methods and attributes, and their methods and attributes:

>>> mock = Mock()
>>> mock.method()
<Mock name='mock.method()' id='...'>
>>> mock.property.method.attribute()
<Mock name='mock.property.method.attribute()' id='...'>
>>> mock.method_calls
[call.method(), call.property.method.attribute()]

Members of method_calls are call objects. These can be unpacked as tuples to get at the individual arguments. See calls as tuples.

mock_calls

mock_calls records all calls to the mock object, its methods, magic methods and return value mocks.

>>> mock = MagicMock()
>>> result = mock(1, 2, 3)
>>> mock.first(a=3)
<MagicMock name='mock.first()' id='...'>
>>> mock.second()
<MagicMock name='mock.second()' id='...'>
>>> int(mock)
1
>>> result(1)
<MagicMock name='mock()()' id='...'>
>>> expected = [call(1, 2, 3), call.first(a=3), call.second(),
... call.__int__(), call()(1)]
>>> mock.mock_calls == expected
True

Members of mock_calls are call objects. These can be unpacked as tuples to get at the individual arguments. See calls as tuples.

Note

The way mock_calls are recorded means that where nested calls are made, the parameters of ancestor calls are not recorded and so will always compare equal:

>>> mock = MagicMock()
>>> mock.top(a=3).bottom()
<MagicMock name='mock.top().bottom()' id='...'>
>>> mock.mock_calls
[call.top(a=3), call.top().bottom()]
>>> mock.mock_calls[-1] == call.top(a=-1).bottom()
True

__class__

Normally the __class__ attribute of an object will return its type. For a mock object with a spec, __class__ returns the spec class instead. This allows mock objects to pass isinstance() tests for the object they are replacing / masquerading as:

>>> mock = Mock(spec=3)
>>> isinstance(mock, int)
True

__class__ is assignable to, this allows a mock to pass an isinstance() check without forcing you to use a spec:

>>> mock = Mock()
>>> mock.__class__ = dict
>>> isinstance(mock, dict)
True

class unittest.mock.NonCallableMock(spec=None, wraps=None, name=None, spec_set=None, **kwargs)

A non-callable version of Mock. The constructor parameters have the same meaning of Mock, with the exception of return_value and side_effect which have no meaning on a non-callable mock.

Mock objects that use a class or an instance as a spec or spec_set are able to pass isinstance() tests:

>>> mock = Mock(spec=SomeClass)
>>> isinstance(mock, SomeClass)
True
>>> mock = Mock(spec_set=SomeClass())
>>> isinstance(mock, SomeClass)
True

The Mock classes have support for mocking magic methods. See magic methods for the full details.

The mock classes and the patch() decorators all take arbitrary keyword arguments for configuration. For the patch() decorators the keywords are passed to the constructor of the mock being created. The keyword arguments are for configuring attributes of the mock:

>>> m = MagicMock(attribute=3, other='fish')
>>> m.attribute
3
>>> m.other
'fish'

The return value and side effect of child mocks can be set in the same way, using dotted notation. As you can't use dotted names directly in a call you have to create a dictionary and unpack it using **:

>>> attrs = {'method.return_value': 3, 'other.side_effect': KeyError}
>>> mock = Mock(some_attribute='eggs', **attrs)
>>> mock.some_attribute
'eggs'
>>> mock.method()
3
>>> mock.other()
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
KeyError

A callable mock which was created with a spec (or a spec_set) will introspect the specification object's signature when matching calls to the mock. Therefore, it can match the actual call's arguments regardless of whether they were passed positionally or by name:

>>> def f(a, b, c): pass
...
>>> mock = Mock(spec=f)
>>> mock(1, 2, c=3)
<Mock name='mock()' id='140161580456576'>
>>> mock.assert_called_with(1, 2, 3)
>>> mock.assert_called_with(a=1, b=2, c=3)

This applies to assert_called_with(), assert_called_once_with(), assert_has_calls() and assert_any_call(). When Autospeccing, it will also apply to method calls on the mock object.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Added signature introspection on specced and autospecced mock objects.

class unittest.mock.PropertyMock(*args, **kwargs)

A mock intended to be used as a property, or other descriptor, on a class. PropertyMock provides __get__() and __set__() methods so you can specify a return value when it is fetched.

Fetching a PropertyMock instance from an object calls the mock, with no args. Setting it calls the mock with the value being set.

>>> class Foo:
...     @property
...     def foo(self):
...         return 'something'
...     @foo.setter
...     def foo(self, value):
...         pass
...
>>> with patch('__main__.Foo.foo', new_callable=PropertyMock) as mock_foo:
...     mock_foo.return_value = 'mockity-mock'
...     this_foo = Foo()
...     print(this_foo.foo)
...     this_foo.foo = 6
...
mockity-mock
>>> mock_foo.mock_calls
[call(), call(6)]

Because of the way mock attributes are stored you can't directly attach a PropertyMock to a mock object. Instead you can attach it to the mock type object:

>>> m = MagicMock()
>>> p = PropertyMock(return_value=3)
>>> type(m).foo = p
>>> m.foo
3
>>> p.assert_called_once_with()

Prudence

If an AttributeError is raised by PropertyMock, it will be interpreted as a missing descriptor and __getattr__() will be called on the parent mock:

>>> m = MagicMock()
>>> no_attribute = PropertyMock(side_effect=AttributeError)
>>> type(m).my_property = no_attribute
>>> m.my_property
<MagicMock name='mock.my_property' id='140165240345424'>

See __getattr__() for details.

class unittest.mock.AsyncMock(spec=None, side_effect=None, return_value=DEFAULT, wraps=None, name=None, spec_set=None, unsafe=False, **kwargs)

An asynchronous version of MagicMock. The AsyncMock object will behave so the object is recognized as an async function, and the result of a call is an awaitable.

>>> mock = AsyncMock()
>>> inspect.iscoroutinefunction(mock)
True
>>> inspect.isawaitable(mock())
True

The result of mock() is an async function which will have the outcome of side_effect or return_value after it has been awaited:

if side_effect is a function, the async function will return the result of that function,

if side_effect is an exception, the async function will raise the exception,

if side_effect is an iterable, the async function will return the next value of the iterable, however, if the sequence of result is exhausted, StopAsyncIteration is raised immediately,

if side_effect is not defined, the async function will return the value defined by return_value, hence, by default, the async function returns a new AsyncMock object.

Setting the spec of a Mock or MagicMock to an async function will result in a coroutine object being returned after calling.

>>> async def async_func(): pass
...
>>> mock = MagicMock(async_func)
>>> mock
<MagicMock spec='function' id='...'>
>>> mock()
<coroutine object AsyncMockMixin._mock_call at ...>

Setting the spec of a Mock, MagicMock, or AsyncMock to a class with asynchronous and synchronous functions will automatically detect the synchronous functions and set them as MagicMock (if the parent mock is AsyncMock or MagicMock) or Mock (if the parent mock is Mock). All asynchronous functions will be AsyncMock.

>>> class ExampleClass:
...     def sync_foo():
...         pass
...     async def async_foo():
...         pass
...
>>> a_mock = AsyncMock(ExampleClass)
>>> a_mock.sync_foo
<MagicMock name='mock.sync_foo' id='...'>
>>> a_mock.async_foo
<AsyncMock name='mock.async_foo' id='...'>
>>> mock = Mock(ExampleClass)
>>> mock.sync_foo
<Mock name='mock.sync_foo' id='...'>
>>> mock.async_foo
<AsyncMock name='mock.async_foo' id='...'>

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

assert_awaited()

Assert that the mock was awaited at least once. Note that this is separate from the object having been called, the await keyword must be used:

>>> mock = AsyncMock()
>>> async def main(coroutine_mock):
...     await coroutine_mock
...
>>> coroutine_mock = mock()
>>> mock.called
True
>>> mock.assert_awaited()
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
AssertionError: Expected mock to have been awaited.
>>> asyncio.run(main(coroutine_mock))
>>> mock.assert_awaited()

assert_awaited_once()

Assert that the mock was awaited exactly once.

>>> mock = AsyncMock()
>>> async def main():
...     await mock()
...
>>> asyncio.run(main())
>>> mock.assert_awaited_once()
>>> asyncio.run(main())
>>> mock.assert_awaited_once()
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
AssertionError: Expected mock to have been awaited once. Awaited 2 times.

assert_awaited_with(*args, **kwargs)

Assert that the last await was with the specified arguments.

>>> mock = AsyncMock()
>>> async def main(*args, **kwargs):
...     await mock(*args, **kwargs)
...
>>> asyncio.run(main('foo', bar='bar'))
>>> mock.assert_awaited_with('foo', bar='bar')
>>> mock.assert_awaited_with('other')
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
AssertionError: expected await not found.
Expected: mock('other')
Actual: mock('foo', bar='bar')

assert_awaited_once_with(*args, **kwargs)

Assert that the mock was awaited exactly once and with the specified arguments.

>>> mock = AsyncMock()
>>> async def main(*args, **kwargs):
...     await mock(*args, **kwargs)
...
>>> asyncio.run(main('foo', bar='bar'))
>>> mock.assert_awaited_once_with('foo', bar='bar')
>>> asyncio.run(main('foo', bar='bar'))
>>> mock.assert_awaited_once_with('foo', bar='bar')
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
AssertionError: Expected mock to have been awaited once. Awaited 2 times.

assert_any_await(*args, **kwargs)

Assert the mock has ever been awaited with the specified arguments.

>>> mock = AsyncMock()
>>> async def main(*args, **kwargs):
...     await mock(*args, **kwargs)
...
>>> asyncio.run(main('foo', bar='bar'))
>>> asyncio.run(main('hello'))
>>> mock.assert_any_await('foo', bar='bar')
>>> mock.assert_any_await('other')
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
AssertionError: mock('other') await not found

assert_has_awaits(calls, any_order=False)

Assert the mock has been awaited with the specified calls. The await_args_list list is checked for the awaits.

If any_order is false then the awaits must be sequential. There can be extra calls before or after the specified awaits.

If any_order is true then the awaits can be in any order, but they must all appear in await_args_list.

>>> mock = AsyncMock()
>>> async def main(*args, **kwargs):
...     await mock(*args, **kwargs)
...
>>> calls = [call("foo"), call("bar")]
>>> mock.assert_has_awaits(calls)
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
AssertionError: Awaits not found.
Expected: [call('foo'), call('bar')]
Actual: []
>>> asyncio.run(main('foo'))
>>> asyncio.run(main('bar'))
>>> mock.assert_has_awaits(calls)

assert_not_awaited()

Assert that the mock was never awaited.

>>> mock = AsyncMock()
>>> mock.assert_not_awaited()

reset_mock(*args, **kwargs)

See Mock.reset_mock(). Also sets await_count to 0, await_args to None, and clears the await_args_list.

await_count

An integer keeping track of how many times the mock object has been awaited.

>>> mock = AsyncMock()
>>> async def main():
...     await mock()
...
>>> asyncio.run(main())
>>> mock.await_count
1
>>> asyncio.run(main())
>>> mock.await_count
2

await_args

This is either None (if the mock hasn’t been awaited), or the arguments that the mock was last awaited with. Functions the same as Mock.call_args.

>>> mock = AsyncMock()
>>> async def main(*args):
...     await mock(*args)
...
>>> mock.await_args
>>> asyncio.run(main('foo'))
>>> mock.await_args
call('foo')
>>> asyncio.run(main('bar'))
>>> mock.await_args
call('bar')

await_args_list

This is a list of all the awaits made to the mock object in sequence (so the length of the list is the number of times it has been awaited). Before any awaits have been made it is an empty list.

>>> mock = AsyncMock()
>>> async def main(*args):
...     await mock(*args)
...
>>> mock.await_args_list
[]
>>> asyncio.run(main('foo'))
>>> mock.await_args_list
[call('foo')]
>>> asyncio.run(main('bar'))
>>> mock.await_args_list
[call('foo'), call('bar')]

class unittest.mock.ThreadingMock(spec=None, side_effect=None, return_value=DEFAULT, wraps=None, name=None, spec_set=None, unsafe=False, *, timeout=UNSET, **kwargs)

A version of MagicMock for multithreading tests. The ThreadingMock object provides extra methods to wait for a call to be invoked, rather than assert on it immediately.

The default timeout is specified by the timeout argument, or if unset by the ThreadingMock.DEFAULT_TIMEOUT attribute, which defaults to blocking (None).

You can configure the global default timeout by setting ThreadingMock.DEFAULT_TIMEOUT.

wait_until_called(*, timeout=UNSET)

Waits until the mock is called.

If a timeout was passed at the creation of the mock or if a timeout argument is passed to this function, the function raises an AssertionError if the call is not performed in time.

>>> mock = ThreadingMock()
>>> thread = threading.Thread(target=mock)
>>> thread.start()
>>> mock.wait_until_called(timeout=1)
>>> thread.join()

wait_until_any_call_with(*args, **kwargs)

Waits until the mock is called with the specified arguments.

If a timeout was passed at the creation of the mock the function raises an AssertionError if the call is not performed in time.

>>> mock = ThreadingMock()
>>> thread = threading.Thread(target=mock, args=("arg1", "arg2",), kwargs={"arg": "thing"})
>>> thread.start()
>>> mock.wait_until_any_call_with("arg1", "arg2", arg="thing")
>>> thread.join()

DEFAULT_TIMEOUT

Global default timeout in seconds to create instances of ThreadingMock.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Calling

Mock objects are callable. The call will return the value set as the return_value attribute. The default return value is a new Mock object; it is created the first time the return value is accessed (either explicitly or by calling the Mock) - but it is stored and the same one returned each time.

Calls made to the object will be recorded in the attributes like call_args and call_args_list.

If side_effect is set then it will be called after the call has been recorded, so if side_effect raises an exception the call is still recorded.

The simplest way to make a mock raise an exception when called is to make side_effect an exception class or instance:

>>> m = MagicMock(side_effect=IndexError)
>>> m(1, 2, 3)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
IndexError
>>> m.mock_calls
[call(1, 2, 3)]
>>> m.side_effect = KeyError('Bang!')
>>> m('two', 'three', 'four')
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
KeyError: 'Bang!'
>>> m.mock_calls
[call(1, 2, 3), call('two', 'three', 'four')]

If side_effect is a function then whatever that function returns is what calls to the mock return. The side_effect function is called with the same arguments as the mock. This allows you to vary the return value of the call dynamically, based on the input:

>>> def side_effect(value):
...     return value + 1
...
>>> m = MagicMock(side_effect=side_effect)
>>> m(1)
2
>>> m(2)
3
>>> m.mock_calls
[call(1), call(2)]

If you want the mock to still return the default return value (a new mock), or any set return value, then there are two ways of doing this. Either return return_value from inside side_effect, or return DEFAULT:

>>> m = MagicMock()
>>> def side_effect(*args, **kwargs):
...     return m.return_value
...
>>> m.side_effect = side_effect
>>> m.return_value = 3
>>> m()
3
>>> def side_effect(*args, **kwargs):
...     return DEFAULT
...
>>> m.side_effect = side_effect
>>> m()
3

To remove a side_effect, and return to the default behaviour, set the side_effect to None:

>>> m = MagicMock(return_value=6)
>>> def side_effect(*args, **kwargs):
...     return 3
...
>>> m.side_effect = side_effect
>>> m()
3
>>> m.side_effect = None
>>> m()
6

The side_effect can also be any iterable object. Repeated calls to the mock will return values from the iterable (until the iterable is exhausted and a StopIteration is raised):

>>> m = MagicMock(side_effect=[1, 2, 3])
>>> m()
1
>>> m()
2
>>> m()
3
>>> m()
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
StopIteration

If any members of the iterable are exceptions they will be raised instead of returned:

>>> iterable = (33, ValueError, 66)
>>> m = MagicMock(side_effect=iterable)
>>> m()
33
>>> m()
Traceback (most recent call last):
 ...
ValueError
>>> m()
66

Deleting Attributes

Mock objects create attributes on demand. This allows them to pretend to be objects of any type.

You may want a mock object to return False to a hasattr() call, or raise an AttributeError when an attribute is fetched. You can do this by providing an object as a spec for a mock, but that isn't always convenient.

You "block" attributes by deleting them. Once deleted, accessing an attribute will raise an AttributeError.

>>> mock = MagicMock()
>>> hasattr(mock, 'm')
True
>>> del mock.m
>>> hasattr(mock, 'm')
False
>>> del mock.f
>>> mock.f
Traceback (most recent call last):
    ...
AttributeError: f

Mock names and the name attribute

Since "name" is an argument to the Mock constructor, if you want your mock object to have a "name" attribute you can't just pass it in at creation time. There are two alternatives. One option is to use configure_mock():

>>> mock = MagicMock()
>>> mock.configure_mock(name='my_name')
>>> mock.name
'my_name'

A simpler option is to simply set the "name" attribute after mock creation:

>>> mock = MagicMock()
>>> mock.name = "foo"

Attaching Mocks as Attributes

When you attach a mock as an attribute of another mock (or as the return value) it becomes a "child" of that mock. Calls to the child are recorded in the method_calls and mock_calls attributes of the parent. This is useful for configuring child mocks and then attaching them to the parent, or for attaching mocks to a parent that records all calls to the children and allows you to make assertions about the order of calls between mocks:

>>> parent = MagicMock()
>>> child1 = MagicMock(return_value=None)
>>> child2 = MagicMock(return_value=None)
>>> parent.child1 = child1
>>> parent.child2 = child2
>>> child1(1)
>>> child2(2)
>>> parent.mock_calls
[call.child1(1), call.child2(2)]

The exception to this is if the mock has a name. This allows you to prevent the "parenting" if for some reason you don't want it to happen.

>>> mock = MagicMock()
>>> not_a_child = MagicMock(name='not-a-child')
>>> mock.attribute = not_a_child
>>> mock.attribute()
<MagicMock name='not-a-child()' id='...'>
>>> mock.mock_calls
[]

Mocks created for you by patch() are automatically given names. To attach mocks that have names to a parent you use the attach_mock() method:

>>> thing1 = object()
>>> thing2 = object()
>>> parent = MagicMock()
>>> with patch('__main__.thing1', return_value=None) as child1:
...     with patch('__main__.thing2', return_value=None) as child2:
...         parent.attach_mock(child1, 'child1')
...         parent.attach_mock(child2, 'child2')
...         child1('one')
...         child2('two')
...
>>> parent.mock_calls
[call.child1('one'), call.child2('two')]

[1]

The only exceptions are magic methods and attributes (those that have leading and trailing double underscores). Mock doesn't create these but instead raises an AttributeError. This is because the interpreter will often implicitly request these methods, and gets very confused to get a new Mock object when it expects a magic method. If you need magic method support see magic methods.

The patchers

The patch decorators are used for patching objects only within the scope of the function they decorate. They automatically handle the unpatching for you, even if exceptions are raised. All of these functions can also be used in with statements or as class decorators.

patch

Note

The key is to do the patching in the right namespace. See the section where to patch.

unittest.mock.patch(target, new=DEFAULT, spec=None, create=False, spec_set=None, autospec=None, new_callable=None, **kwargs)

patch() acts as a function decorator, class decorator or a context manager. Inside the body of the function or with statement, the target is patched with a new object. When the function/with statement exits the patch is undone.

If new is omitted, then the target is replaced with an AsyncMock if the patched object is an async function or a MagicMock otherwise. If patch() is used as a decorator and new is omitted, the created mock is passed in as an extra argument to the decorated function. If patch() is used as a context manager the created mock is returned by the context manager.

target should be a string in the form 'package.module.ClassName'. The target is imported and the specified object replaced with the new object, so the target must be importable from the environment you are calling patch() from. The target is imported when the decorated function is executed, not at decoration time.

The spec and spec_set keyword arguments are passed to the MagicMock if patch is creating one for you.

In addition you can pass spec=True or spec_set=True, which causes patch to pass in the object being mocked as the spec/spec_set object.

new_callable allows you to specify a different class, or callable object, that will be called to create the new object. By default AsyncMock is used for async functions and MagicMock for the rest.

A more powerful form of spec is autospec. If you set autospec=True then the mock will be created with a spec from the object being replaced. All attributes of the mock will also have the spec of the corresponding attribute of the object being replaced. Methods and functions being mocked will have their arguments checked and will raise a TypeError if they are called with the wrong signature. For mocks replacing a class, their return value (the 'instance') will have the same spec as the class. See the create_autospec() function and Autospeccing.

Instead of autospec=True you can pass autospec=some_object to use an arbitrary object as the spec instead of the one being replaced.

By default patch() will fail to replace attributes that don't exist. If you pass in create=True, and the attribute doesn't exist, patch will create the attribute for you when the patched function is called, and delete it again after the patched function has exited. This is useful for writing tests against attributes that your production code creates at runtime. It is off by default because it can be dangerous. With it switched on you can write passing tests against APIs that don't actually exist!

Note

Modifié dans la version 3.5: If you are patching builtins in a module then you don't need to pass create=True, it will be added by default.

Patch can be used as a TestCase class decorator. It works by decorating each test method in the class. This reduces the boilerplate code when your test methods share a common patchings set. patch() finds tests by looking for method names that start with patch.TEST_PREFIX. By default this is 'test', which matches the way unittest finds tests. You can specify an alternative prefix by setting patch.TEST_PREFIX.

Patch can be used as a context manager, with the with statement. Here the patching applies to the indented block after the with statement. If you use "as" then the patched object will be bound to the name after the "as"; very useful if patch() is creating a mock object for you.

patch() takes arbitrary keyword arguments. These will be passed to AsyncMock if the patched object is asynchronous, to MagicMock otherwise or to new_callable if specified.

patch.dict(...), patch.multiple(...) and patch.object(...) are available for alternate use-cases.

patch() as function decorator, creating the mock for you and passing it into the decorated function:

>>> @patch('__main__.SomeClass')
... def function(normal_argument, mock_class):
...     print(mock_class is SomeClass)
...
>>> function(None)
True

Patching a class replaces the class with a MagicMock instance. If the class is instantiated in the code under test then it will be the return_value of the mock that will be used.

If the class is instantiated multiple times you could use side_effect to return a new mock each time. Alternatively you can set the return_value to be anything you want.

To configure return values on methods of instances on the patched class you must do this on the return_value. For example:

>>> class Class:
...     def method(self):
...         pass
...
>>> with patch('__main__.Class') as MockClass:
...     instance = MockClass.return_value
...     instance.method.return_value = 'foo'
...     assert Class() is instance
...     assert Class().method() == 'foo'
...

If you use spec or spec_set and patch() is replacing a class, then the return value of the created mock will have the same spec.

>>> Original = Class
>>> patcher = patch('__main__.Class', spec=True)
>>> MockClass = patcher.start()
>>> instance = MockClass()
>>> assert isinstance(instance, Original)
>>> patcher.stop()

The new_callable argument is useful where you want to use an alternative class to the default MagicMock for the created mock. For example, if you wanted a NonCallableMock to be used:

>>> thing = object()
>>> with patch('__main__.thing', new_callable=NonCallableMock) as mock_thing:
...     assert thing is mock_thing
...     thing()
...
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
TypeError: 'NonCallableMock' object is not callable

Another use case might be to replace an object with an io.StringIO instance:

>>> from io import StringIO
>>> def foo():
...     print('Something')
...
>>> @patch('sys.stdout', new_callable=StringIO)
... def test(mock_stdout):
...     foo()
...     assert mock_stdout.getvalue() == 'Something\n'
...
>>> test()

When patch() is creating a mock for you, it is common that the first thing you need to do is to configure the mock. Some of that configuration can be done in the call to patch. Any arbitrary keywords you pass into the call will be used to set attributes on the created mock:

>>> patcher = patch('__main__.thing', first='one', second='two')
>>> mock_thing = patcher.start()
>>> mock_thing.first
'one'
>>> mock_thing.second
'two'

As well as attributes on the created mock attributes, like the return_value and side_effect, of child mocks can also be configured. These aren't syntactically valid to pass in directly as keyword arguments, but a dictionary with these as keys can still be expanded into a patch() call using **:

>>> config = {'method.return_value': 3, 'other.side_effect': KeyError}
>>> patcher = patch('__main__.thing', **config)
>>> mock_thing = patcher.start()
>>> mock_thing.method()
3
>>> mock_thing.other()
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
KeyError

By default, attempting to patch a function in a module (or a method or an attribute in a class) that does not exist will fail with AttributeError:

>>> @patch('sys.non_existing_attribute', 42)
... def test():
...     assert sys.non_existing_attribute == 42
...
>>> test()
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
AttributeError: <module 'sys' (built-in)> does not have the attribute 'non_existing_attribute'

but adding create=True in the call to patch() will make the previous example work as expected:

>>> @patch('sys.non_existing_attribute', 42, create=True)
... def test(mock_stdout):
...     assert sys.non_existing_attribute == 42
...
>>> test()

Modifié dans la version 3.8: patch() now returns an AsyncMock if the target is an async function.

patch.object

patch.object(target, attribute, new=DEFAULT, spec=None, create=False, spec_set=None, autospec=None, new_callable=None, **kwargs)

patch the named member (attribute) on an object (target) with a mock object.

patch.object() can be used as a decorator, class decorator or a context manager. Arguments new, spec, create, spec_set, autospec and new_callable have the same meaning as for patch(). Like patch(), patch.object() takes arbitrary keyword arguments for configuring the mock object it creates.

When used as a class decorator patch.object() honours patch.TEST_PREFIX for choosing which methods to wrap.

You can either call patch.object() with three arguments or two arguments. The three argument form takes the object to be patched, the attribute name and the object to replace the attribute with.

When calling with the two argument form you omit the replacement object, and a mock is created for you and passed in as an extra argument to the decorated function:

>>> @patch.object(SomeClass, 'class_method')
... def test(mock_method):
...     SomeClass.class_method(3)
...     mock_method.assert_called_with(3)
...
>>> test()

spec, create and the other arguments to patch.object() have the same meaning as they do for patch().

patch.dict

patch.dict(in_dict, values=(), clear=False, **kwargs)

Patch a dictionary, or dictionary like object, and restore the dictionary to its original state after the test, where the restored dictionary is a copy of the dictionary as it was before the test.

in_dict can be a dictionary or a mapping like container. If it is a mapping then it must at least support getting, setting and deleting items plus iterating over keys.

in_dict can also be a string specifying the name of the dictionary, which will then be fetched by importing it.

values can be a dictionary of values to set in the dictionary. values can also be an iterable of (key, value) pairs.

If clear is true then the dictionary will be cleared before the new values are set.

patch.dict() can also be called with arbitrary keyword arguments to set values in the dictionary.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: patch.dict() now returns the patched dictionary when used as a context manager.

patch.dict() can be used as a context manager, decorator or class decorator:

>>> foo = {}
>>> @patch.dict(foo, {'newkey': 'newvalue'})
... def test():
...     assert foo == {'newkey': 'newvalue'}
...
>>> test()
>>> assert foo == {}

When used as a class decorator patch.dict() honours patch.TEST_PREFIX (default to 'test') for choosing which methods to wrap:

>>> import os
>>> import unittest
>>> from unittest.mock import patch
>>> @patch.dict('os.environ', {'newkey': 'newvalue'})
... class TestSample(unittest.TestCase):
...     def test_sample(self):
...         self.assertEqual(os.environ['newkey'], 'newvalue')

If you want to use a different prefix for your test, you can inform the patchers of the different prefix by setting patch.TEST_PREFIX. For more details about how to change the value of see TEST_PREFIX.

patch.dict() can be used to add members to a dictionary, or simply let a test change a dictionary, and ensure the dictionary is restored when the test ends.

>>> foo = {}
>>> with patch.dict(foo, {'newkey': 'newvalue'}) as patched_foo:
...     assert foo == {'newkey': 'newvalue'}
...     assert patched_foo == {'newkey': 'newvalue'}
...     # You can add, update or delete keys of foo (or patched_foo, it's the same dict)
...     patched_foo['spam'] = 'eggs'
...
>>> assert foo == {}
>>> assert patched_foo == {}

>>> import os
>>> with patch.dict('os.environ', {'newkey': 'newvalue'}):
...     print(os.environ['newkey'])
...
newvalue
>>> assert 'newkey' not in os.environ

Keywords can be used in the patch.dict() call to set values in the dictionary:

>>> mymodule = MagicMock()
>>> mymodule.function.return_value = 'fish'
>>> with patch.dict('sys.modules', mymodule=mymodule):
...     import mymodule
...     mymodule.function('some', 'args')
...
'fish'

patch.dict() can be used with dictionary like objects that aren't actually dictionaries. At the very minimum they must support item getting, setting, deleting and either iteration or membership test. This corresponds to the magic methods __getitem__(), __setitem__(), __delitem__() and either __iter__() or __contains__().

>>> class Container:
...     def __init__(self):
...         self.values = {}
...     def __getitem__(self, name):
...         return self.values[name]
...     def __setitem__(self, name, value):
...         self.values[name] = value
...     def __delitem__(self, name):
...         del self.values[name]
...     def __iter__(self):
...         return iter(self.values)
...
>>> thing = Container()
>>> thing['one'] = 1
>>> with patch.dict(thing, one=2, two=3):
...     assert thing['one'] == 2
...     assert thing['two'] == 3
...
>>> assert thing['one'] == 1
>>> assert list(thing) == ['one']

patch.multiple

patch.multiple(target, spec=None, create=False, spec_set=None, autospec=None, new_callable=None, **kwargs)

Perform multiple patches in a single call. It takes the object to be patched (either as an object or a string to fetch the object by importing) and keyword arguments for the patches:

with patch.multiple(settings, FIRST_PATCH='one', SECOND_PATCH='two'):
    ...

Use DEFAULT as the value if you want patch.multiple() to create mocks for you. In this case the created mocks are passed into a decorated function by keyword, and a dictionary is returned when patch.multiple() is used as a context manager.

patch.multiple() can be used as a decorator, class decorator or a context manager. The arguments spec, spec_set, create, autospec and new_callable have the same meaning as for patch(). These arguments will be applied to all patches done by patch.multiple().

When used as a class decorator patch.multiple() honours patch.TEST_PREFIX for choosing which methods to wrap.

If you want patch.multiple() to create mocks for you, then you can use DEFAULT as the value. If you use patch.multiple() as a decorator then the created mocks are passed into the decorated function by keyword.

>>> thing = object()
>>> other = object()

>>> @patch.multiple('__main__', thing=DEFAULT, other=DEFAULT)
... def test_function(thing, other):
...     assert isinstance(thing, MagicMock)
...     assert isinstance(other, MagicMock)
...
>>> test_function()

patch.multiple() can be nested with other patch decorators, but put arguments passed by keyword after any of the standard arguments created by patch():

>>> @patch('sys.exit')
... @patch.multiple('__main__', thing=DEFAULT, other=DEFAULT)
... def test_function(mock_exit, other, thing):
...     assert 'other' in repr(other)
...     assert 'thing' in repr(thing)
...     assert 'exit' in repr(mock_exit)
...
>>> test_function()

If patch.multiple() is used as a context manager, the value returned by the context manager is a dictionary where created mocks are keyed by name:

>>> with patch.multiple('__main__', thing=DEFAULT, other=DEFAULT) as values:
...     assert 'other' in repr(values['other'])
...     assert 'thing' in repr(values['thing'])
...     assert values['thing'] is thing
...     assert values['other'] is other
...

patch methods: start and stop

All the patchers have start() and stop() methods. These make it simpler to do patching in setUp methods or where you want to do multiple patches without nesting decorators or with statements.

To use them call patch(), patch.object() or patch.dict() as normal and keep a reference to the returned patcher object. You can then call start() to put the patch in place and stop() to undo it.

If you are using patch() to create a mock for you then it will be returned by the call to patcher.start.

>>> patcher = patch('package.module.ClassName')
>>> from package import module
>>> original = module.ClassName
>>> new_mock = patcher.start()
>>> assert module.ClassName is not original
>>> assert module.ClassName is new_mock
>>> patcher.stop()
>>> assert module.ClassName is original
>>> assert module.ClassName is not new_mock

A typical use case for this might be for doing multiple patches in the setUp method of a TestCase:

>>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
...     def setUp(self):
...         self.patcher1 = patch('package.module.Class1')
...         self.patcher2 = patch('package.module.Class2')
...         self.MockClass1 = self.patcher1.start()
...         self.MockClass2 = self.patcher2.start()
...
...     def tearDown(self):
...         self.patcher1.stop()
...         self.patcher2.stop()
...
...     def test_something(self):
...         assert package.module.Class1 is self.MockClass1
...         assert package.module.Class2 is self.MockClass2
...
>>> MyTest('test_something').run()

Prudence

If you use this technique you must ensure that the patching is "undone" by calling stop. This can be fiddlier than you might think, because if an exception is raised in the setUp then tearDown is not called. unittest.TestCase.addCleanup() makes this easier:

>>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
...     def setUp(self):
...         patcher = patch('package.module.Class')
...         self.MockClass = patcher.start()
...         self.addCleanup(patcher.stop)
...
...     def test_something(self):
...         assert package.module.Class is self.MockClass
...

As an added bonus you no longer need to keep a reference to the patcher object.

It is also possible to stop all patches which have been started by using patch.stopall().

patch.stopall()

Stop all active patches. Only stops patches started with start.

patch builtins

You can patch any builtins within a module. The following example patches builtin ord():

>>> @patch('__main__.ord')
... def test(mock_ord):
...     mock_ord.return_value = 101
...     print(ord('c'))
...
>>> test()
101

TEST_PREFIX

All of the patchers can be used as class decorators. When used in this way they wrap every test method on the class. The patchers recognise methods that start with 'test' as being test methods. This is the same way that the unittest.TestLoader finds test methods by default.

It is possible that you want to use a different prefix for your tests. You can inform the patchers of the different prefix by setting patch.TEST_PREFIX:

>>> patch.TEST_PREFIX = 'foo'
>>> value = 3
>>>
>>> @patch('__main__.value', 'not three')
... class Thing:
...     def foo_one(self):
...         print(value)
...     def foo_two(self):
...         print(value)
...
>>>
>>> Thing().foo_one()
not three
>>> Thing().foo_two()
not three
>>> value
3

Nesting Patch Decorators

If you want to perform multiple patches then you can simply stack up the decorators.

You can stack up multiple patch decorators using this pattern:

>>> @patch.object(SomeClass, 'class_method')
... @patch.object(SomeClass, 'static_method')
... def test(mock1, mock2):
...     assert SomeClass.static_method is mock1
...     assert SomeClass.class_method is mock2
...     SomeClass.static_method('foo')
...     SomeClass.class_method('bar')
...     return mock1, mock2
...
>>> mock1, mock2 = test()
>>> mock1.assert_called_once_with('foo')
>>> mock2.assert_called_once_with('bar')

Note that the decorators are applied from the bottom upwards. This is the standard way that Python applies decorators. The order of the created mocks passed into your test function matches this order.

Where to patch

patch() works by (temporarily) changing the object that a name points to with another one. There can be many names pointing to any individual object, so for patching to work you must ensure that you patch the name used by the system under test.

The basic principle is that you patch where an object is looked up, which is not necessarily the same place as where it is defined. A couple of examples will help to clarify this.

Imagine we have a project that we want to test with the following structure:

a.py
    -> Defines SomeClass

b.py
    -> from a import SomeClass
    -> some_function instantiates SomeClass

Now we want to test some_function but we want to mock out SomeClass using patch(). The problem is that when we import module b, which we will have to do when it imports SomeClass from module a. If we use patch() to mock out a.SomeClass then it will have no effect on our test; module b already has a reference to the real SomeClass and it looks like our patching had no effect.

The key is to patch out SomeClass where it is used (or where it is looked up). In this case some_function will actually look up SomeClass in module b, where we have imported it. The patching should look like:

@patch('b.SomeClass')

However, consider the alternative scenario where instead of from a import SomeClass module b does import a and some_function uses a.SomeClass. Both of these import forms are common. In this case the class we want to patch is being looked up in the module and so we have to patch a.SomeClass instead:

@patch('a.SomeClass')

Patching Descriptors and Proxy Objects

Both patch and patch.object correctly patch and restore descriptors: class methods, static methods and properties. You should patch these on the class rather than an instance. They also work with some objects that proxy attribute access, like the django settings object [https://web.archive.org/web/20200603181648/http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/weblog/arch_d7_2010_12_04.shtml#e1198].

MagicMock and magic method support

Mocking Magic Methods

Mock supports mocking the Python protocol methods, also known as "magic methods". This allows mock objects to replace containers or other objects that implement Python protocols.

Because magic methods are looked up differently from normal methods [2], this support has been specially implemented. This means that only specific magic methods are supported. The supported list includes almost all of them. If there are any missing that you need please let us know.

You mock magic methods by setting the method you are interested in to a function or a mock instance. If you are using a function then it must take self as the first argument [3].

>>> def __str__(self):
...     return 'fooble'
...
>>> mock = Mock()
>>> mock.__str__ = __str__
>>> str(mock)
'fooble'

>>> mock = Mock()
>>> mock.__str__ = Mock()
>>> mock.__str__.return_value = 'fooble'
>>> str(mock)
'fooble'

>>> mock = Mock()
>>> mock.__iter__ = Mock(return_value=iter([]))
>>> list(mock)
[]

One use case for this is for mocking objects used as context managers in a with statement:

>>> mock = Mock()
>>> mock.__enter__ = Mock(return_value='foo')
>>> mock.__exit__ = Mock(return_value=False)
>>> with mock as m:
...     assert m == 'foo'
...
>>> mock.__enter__.assert_called_with()
>>> mock.__exit__.assert_called_with(None, None, None)

Calls to magic methods do not appear in method_calls, but they are recorded in mock_calls.

Note

If you use the spec keyword argument to create a mock then attempting to set a magic method that isn't in the spec will raise an AttributeError.

The full list of supported magic methods is:

__hash__, __sizeof__, __repr__ and __str__

__dir__, __format__ et __subclasses__

__round__, __floor__, __trunc__ and __ceil__

Comparisons: __lt__, __gt__, __le__, __ge__, __eq__ and __ne__

Container methods: __getitem__, __setitem__, __delitem__, __contains__, __len__, __iter__, __reversed__ and __missing__

Context manager: __enter__, __exit__, __aenter__ and __aexit__

Unary numeric methods: __neg__, __pos__ and __invert__

The numeric methods (including right hand and in-place variants): __add__, __sub__, __mul__, __matmul__, __truediv__, __floordiv__, __mod__, __divmod__, __lshift__, __rshift__, __and__, __xor__, __or__, and __pow__

Numeric conversion methods: __complex__, __int__, __float__ and __index__

Descriptor methods: __get__, __set__ and __delete__

Pickling: __reduce__, __reduce_ex__, __getinitargs__, __getnewargs__, __getstate__ and __setstate__

File system path representation: __fspath__

Asynchronous iteration methods: __aiter__ and __anext__

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added support for os.PathLike.__fspath__().

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added support for __aenter__, __aexit__, __aiter__ and __anext__.

The following methods exist but are not supported as they are either in use by mock, can't be set dynamically, or can cause problems:

__getattr__, __setattr__, __init__ and __new__

__prepare__, __instancecheck__, __subclasscheck__, __del__

Magic Mock

There are two MagicMock variants: MagicMock and NonCallableMagicMock.

class unittest.mock.MagicMock(*args, **kw)

MagicMock is a subclass of Mock with default implementations of most of the magic methods. You can use MagicMock without having to configure the magic methods yourself.

The constructor parameters have the same meaning as for Mock.

If you use the spec or spec_set arguments then only magic methods that exist in the spec will be created.

class unittest.mock.NonCallableMagicMock(*args, **kw)

A non-callable version of MagicMock.

The constructor parameters have the same meaning as for MagicMock, with the exception of return_value and side_effect which have no meaning on a non-callable mock.

The magic methods are setup with MagicMock objects, so you can configure them and use them in the usual way:

>>> mock = MagicMock()
>>> mock[3] = 'fish'
>>> mock.__setitem__.assert_called_with(3, 'fish')
>>> mock.__getitem__.return_value = 'result'
>>> mock[2]
'result'

By default many of the protocol methods are required to return objects of a specific type. These methods are preconfigured with a default return value, so that they can be used without you having to do anything if you aren't interested in the return value. You can still set the return value manually if you want to change the default.

Methods and their defaults:

__lt__: NotImplemented

__gt__: NotImplemented

__le__: NotImplemented

__ge__: NotImplemented

__int__: 1

__contains__: False

__int__: 0

__iter__: iter([])

__exit__: False

__exit__: False

__complex__: 1j

__float__: 1.0

__bool__: True

__index__: 1

__hash__: default hash for the mock

__str__: default str for the mock

__sizeof__: default sizeof for the mock

Par exemple :

>>> mock = MagicMock()
>>> int(mock)
1
>>> len(mock)
0
>>> list(mock)
[]
>>> object() in mock
False

The two equality methods, __eq__() and __ne__(), are special. They do the default equality comparison on identity, using the side_effect attribute, unless you change their return value to return something else:

>>> MagicMock() == 3
False
>>> MagicMock() != 3
True
>>> mock = MagicMock()
>>> mock.__eq__.return_value = True
>>> mock == 3
True

The return value of MagicMock.__iter__() can be any iterable object and isn't required to be an iterator:

>>> mock = MagicMock()
>>> mock.__iter__.return_value = ['a', 'b', 'c']
>>> list(mock)
['a', 'b', 'c']
>>> list(mock)
['a', 'b', 'c']

If the return value is an iterator, then iterating over it once will consume it and subsequent iterations will result in an empty list:

>>> mock.__iter__.return_value = iter(['a', 'b', 'c'])
>>> list(mock)
['a', 'b', 'c']
>>> list(mock)
[]

MagicMock has all of the supported magic methods configured except for some of the obscure and obsolete ones. You can still set these up if you want.

Magic methods that are supported but not setup by default in MagicMock are:

__subclasses__

__dir__

__format__

__get__, __set__ et __delete__

__reversed__ et __missing__

__reduce__, __reduce_ex__, __getinitargs__, __getnewargs__, __getstate__ and __setstate__

__getformat__

[2]

Magic methods should be looked up on the class rather than the instance. Different versions of Python are inconsistent about applying this rule. The supported protocol methods should work with all supported versions of Python.

[3]

The function is basically hooked up to the class, but each Mock instance is kept isolated from the others.

Helpers

sentinel

unittest.mock.sentinel

The sentinel object provides a convenient way of providing unique objects for your tests.

Attributes are created on demand when you access them by name. Accessing the same attribute will always return the same object. The objects returned have a sensible repr so that test failure messages are readable.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: The sentinel attributes now preserve their identity when they are copied or pickled.

Sometimes when testing you need to test that a specific object is passed as an argument to another method, or returned. It can be common to create named sentinel objects to test this. sentinel provides a convenient way of creating and testing the identity of objects like this.

In this example we monkey patch method to return sentinel.some_object:

>>> real = ProductionClass()
>>> real.method = Mock(name="method")
>>> real.method.return_value = sentinel.some_object
>>> result = real.method()
>>> assert result is sentinel.some_object
>>> result
sentinel.some_object

DEFAULT

unittest.mock.DEFAULT

The DEFAULT object is a pre-created sentinel (actually sentinel.DEFAULT). It can be used by side_effect functions to indicate that the normal return value should be used.

appel

unittest.mock.call(*args, **kwargs)

call() is a helper object for making simpler assertions, for comparing with call_args, call_args_list, mock_calls and method_calls. call() can also be used with assert_has_calls().

>>> m = MagicMock(return_value=None)
>>> m(1, 2, a='foo', b='bar')
>>> m()
>>> m.call_args_list == [call(1, 2, a='foo', b='bar'), call()]
True

call.call_list()

For a call object that represents multiple calls, call_list() returns a list of all the intermediate calls as well as the final call.

call_list is particularly useful for making assertions on "chained calls". A chained call is multiple calls on a single line of code. This results in multiple entries in mock_calls on a mock. Manually constructing the sequence of calls can be tedious.

call_list() can construct the sequence of calls from the same chained call:

>>> m = MagicMock()
>>> m(1).method(arg='foo').other('bar')(2.0)
<MagicMock name='mock().method().other()()' id='...'>
>>> kall = call(1).method(arg='foo').other('bar')(2.0)
>>> kall.call_list()
[call(1),
 call().method(arg='foo'),
 call().method().other('bar'),
 call().method().other()(2.0)]
>>> m.mock_calls == kall.call_list()
True

A call object is either a tuple of (positional args, keyword args) or (name, positional args, keyword args) depending on how it was constructed. When you construct them yourself this isn't particularly interesting, but the call objects that are in the Mock.call_args, Mock.call_args_list and Mock.mock_calls attributes can be introspected to get at the individual arguments they contain.

The call objects in Mock.call_args and Mock.call_args_list are two-tuples of (positional args, keyword args) whereas the call objects in Mock.mock_calls, along with ones you construct yourself, are three-tuples of (name, positional args, keyword args).

You can use their "tupleness" to pull out the individual arguments for more complex introspection and assertions. The positional arguments are a tuple (an empty tuple if there are no positional arguments) and the keyword arguments are a dictionary:

>>> m = MagicMock(return_value=None)
>>> m(1, 2, 3, arg='one', arg2='two')
>>> kall = m.call_args
>>> kall.args
(1, 2, 3)
>>> kall.kwargs
{'arg': 'one', 'arg2': 'two'}
>>> kall.args is kall[0]
True
>>> kall.kwargs is kall[1]
True

>>> m = MagicMock()
>>> m.foo(4, 5, 6, arg='two', arg2='three')
<MagicMock name='mock.foo()' id='...'>
>>> kall = m.mock_calls[0]
>>> name, args, kwargs = kall
>>> name
'foo'
>>> args
(4, 5, 6)
>>> kwargs
{'arg': 'two', 'arg2': 'three'}
>>> name is m.mock_calls[0][0]
True

create_autospec

unittest.mock.create_autospec(spec, spec_set=False, instance=False, **kwargs)

Create a mock object using another object as a spec. Attributes on the mock will use the corresponding attribute on the spec object as their spec.

Functions or methods being mocked will have their arguments checked to ensure that they are called with the correct signature.

If spec_set is True then attempting to set attributes that don't exist on the spec object will raise an AttributeError.

If a class is used as a spec then the return value of the mock (the instance of the class) will have the same spec. You can use a class as the spec for an instance object by passing instance=True. The returned mock will only be callable if instances of the mock are callable.

create_autospec() also takes arbitrary keyword arguments that are passed to the constructor of the created mock.

See Autospeccing for examples of how to use auto-speccing with create_autospec() and the autospec argument to patch().

Modifié dans la version 3.8: create_autospec() now returns an AsyncMock if the target is an async function.

ANY

unittest.mock.ANY

Sometimes you may need to make assertions about some of the arguments in a call to mock, but either not care about some of the arguments or want to pull them individually out of call_args and make more complex assertions on them.

To ignore certain arguments you can pass in objects that compare equal to everything. Calls to assert_called_with() and assert_called_once_with() will then succeed no matter what was passed in.

>>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
>>> mock('foo', bar=object())
>>> mock.assert_called_once_with('foo', bar=ANY)

ANY can also be used in comparisons with call lists like mock_calls:

>>> m = MagicMock(return_value=None)
>>> m(1)
>>> m(1, 2)
>>> m(object())
>>> m.mock_calls == [call(1), call(1, 2), ANY]
True

ANY is not limited to comparisons with call objects and so can also be used in test assertions:

class TestStringMethods(unittest.TestCase):

    def test_split(self):
        s = 'hello world'
        self.assertEqual(s.split(), ['hello', ANY])

FILTER_DIR

unittest.mock.FILTER_DIR

FILTER_DIR is a module level variable that controls the way mock objects respond to dir(). The default is True, which uses the filtering described below, to only show useful members. If you dislike this filtering, or need to switch it off for diagnostic purposes, then set mock.FILTER_DIR = False.

With filtering on, dir(some_mock) shows only useful attributes and will include any dynamically created attributes that wouldn't normally be shown. If the mock was created with a spec (or autospec of course) then all the attributes from the original are shown, even if they haven't been accessed yet:

>>> dir(Mock())
['assert_any_call',
 'assert_called',
 'assert_called_once',
 'assert_called_once_with',
 'assert_called_with',
 'assert_has_calls',
 'assert_not_called',
 'attach_mock',
 ...
>>> from urllib import request
>>> dir(Mock(spec=request))
['AbstractBasicAuthHandler',
 'AbstractDigestAuthHandler',
 'AbstractHTTPHandler',
 'BaseHandler',
 ...

Many of the not-very-useful (private to Mock rather than the thing being mocked) underscore and double underscore prefixed attributes have been filtered from the result of calling dir() on a Mock. If you dislike this behaviour you can switch it off by setting the module level switch FILTER_DIR:

>>> from unittest import mock
>>> mock.FILTER_DIR = False
>>> dir(mock.Mock())
['_NonCallableMock__get_return_value',
 '_NonCallableMock__get_side_effect',
 '_NonCallableMock__return_value_doc',
 '_NonCallableMock__set_return_value',
 '_NonCallableMock__set_side_effect',
 '__call__',
 '__class__',
 ...

Alternatively you can just use vars(my_mock) (instance members) and dir(type(my_mock)) (type members) to bypass the filtering irrespective of FILTER_DIR.

mock_open

unittest.mock.mock_open(mock=None, read_data=None)

A helper function to create a mock to replace the use of open(). It works for open() called directly or used as a context manager.

The mock argument is the mock object to configure. If None (the default) then a MagicMock will be created for you, with the API limited to methods or attributes available on standard file handles.

read_data is a string for the read(), readline(), and readlines() methods of the file handle to return. Calls to those methods will take data from read_data until it is depleted. The mock of these methods is pretty simplistic: every time the mock is called, the read_data is rewound to the start. If you need more control over the data that you are feeding to the tested code you will need to customize this mock for yourself. When that is insufficient, one of the in-memory filesystem packages on PyPI [https://pypi.org] can offer a realistic filesystem for testing.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Added readline() and readlines() support. The mock of read() changed to consume read_data rather than returning it on each call.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: read_data is now reset on each call to the mock.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added __iter__() to implementation so that iteration (such as in for loops) correctly consumes read_data.

Using open() as a context manager is a great way to ensure your file handles are closed properly and is becoming common:

with open('/some/path', 'w') as f:
    f.write('something')

The issue is that even if you mock out the call to open() it is the returned object that is used as a context manager (and has __enter__() and __exit__() called).

Mocking context managers with a MagicMock is common enough and fiddly enough that a helper function is useful.

>>> m = mock_open()
>>> with patch('__main__.open', m):
...     with open('foo', 'w') as h:
...         h.write('some stuff')
...
>>> m.mock_calls
[call('foo', 'w'),
 call().__enter__(),
 call().write('some stuff'),
 call().__exit__(None, None, None)]
>>> m.assert_called_once_with('foo', 'w')
>>> handle = m()
>>> handle.write.assert_called_once_with('some stuff')

And for reading files:

>>> with patch('__main__.open', mock_open(read_data='bibble')) as m:
...     with open('foo') as h:
...         result = h.read()
...
>>> m.assert_called_once_with('foo')
>>> assert result == 'bibble'

Autospeccing

Autospeccing is based on the existing spec feature of mock. It limits the api of mocks to the api of an original object (the spec), but it is recursive (implemented lazily) so that attributes of mocks only have the same api as the attributes of the spec. In addition mocked functions / methods have the same call signature as the original so they raise a TypeError if they are called incorrectly.

Before I explain how auto-speccing works, here's why it is needed.

Mock is a very powerful and flexible object, but it suffers from a flaw which is general to mocking. If you refactor some of your code, rename members and so on, any tests for code that is still using the old api but uses mocks instead of the real objects will still pass. This means your tests can all pass even though your code is broken.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Before 3.5, tests with a typo in the word assert would silently pass when they should raise an error. You can still achieve this behavior by passing unsafe=True to Mock.

Note that this is another reason why you need integration tests as well as unit tests. Testing everything in isolation is all fine and dandy, but if you don't test how your units are "wired together" there is still lots of room for bugs that tests might have caught.

unittest.mock already provides a feature to help with this, called speccing. If you use a class or instance as the spec for a mock then you can only access attributes on the mock that exist on the real class:

>>> from urllib import request
>>> mock = Mock(spec=request.Request)
>>> mock.assret_called_with  # Intentional typo!
Traceback (most recent call last):
 ...
AttributeError: Mock object has no attribute 'assret_called_with'

The spec only applies to the mock itself, so we still have the same issue with any methods on the mock:

>>> mock.header_items()
<mock.Mock object at 0x...>
>>> mock.header_items.assret_called_with()  # Intentional typo!

Auto-speccing solves this problem. You can either pass autospec=True to patch() / patch.object() or use the create_autospec() function to create a mock with a spec. If you use the autospec=True argument to patch() then the object that is being replaced will be used as the spec object. Because the speccing is done "lazily" (the spec is created as attributes on the mock are accessed) you can use it with very complex or deeply nested objects (like modules that import modules that import modules) without a big performance hit.

Here's an example of it in use:

>>> from urllib import request
>>> patcher = patch('__main__.request', autospec=True)
>>> mock_request = patcher.start()
>>> request is mock_request
True
>>> mock_request.Request
<MagicMock name='request.Request' spec='Request' id='...'>

You can see that request.Request has a spec. request.Request takes two arguments in the constructor (one of which is self). Here's what happens if we try to call it incorrectly:

>>> req = request.Request()
Traceback (most recent call last):
 ...
TypeError: <lambda>() takes at least 2 arguments (1 given)

The spec also applies to instantiated classes (i.e. the return value of specced mocks):

>>> req = request.Request('foo')
>>> req
<NonCallableMagicMock name='request.Request()' spec='Request' id='...'>

Request objects are not callable, so the return value of instantiating our mocked out request.Request is a non-callable mock. With the spec in place any typos in our asserts will raise the correct error:

>>> req.add_header('spam', 'eggs')
<MagicMock name='request.Request().add_header()' id='...'>
>>> req.add_header.assret_called_with  # Intentional typo!
Traceback (most recent call last):
 ...
AttributeError: Mock object has no attribute 'assret_called_with'
>>> req.add_header.assert_called_with('spam', 'eggs')

In many cases you will just be able to add autospec=True to your existing patch() calls and then be protected against bugs due to typos and api changes.

As well as using autospec through patch() there is a create_autospec() for creating autospecced mocks directly:

>>> from urllib import request
>>> mock_request = create_autospec(request)
>>> mock_request.Request('foo', 'bar')
<NonCallableMagicMock name='mock.Request()' spec='Request' id='...'>

This isn't without caveats and limitations however, which is why it is not the default behaviour. In order to know what attributes are available on the spec object, autospec has to introspect (access attributes) the spec. As you traverse attributes on the mock a corresponding traversal of the original object is happening under the hood. If any of your specced objects have properties or descriptors that can trigger code execution then you may not be able to use autospec. On the other hand it is much better to design your objects so that introspection is safe [4].

A more serious problem is that it is common for instance attributes to be created in the __init__() method and not to exist on the class at all. autospec can't know about any dynamically created attributes and restricts the api to visible attributes.

>>> class Something:
...   def __init__(self):
...     self.a = 33
...
>>> with patch('__main__.Something', autospec=True):
...   thing = Something()
...   thing.a
...
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
AttributeError: Mock object has no attribute 'a'

There are a few different ways of resolving this problem. The easiest, but not necessarily the least annoying, way is to simply set the required attributes on the mock after creation. Just because autospec doesn't allow you to fetch attributes that don't exist on the spec it doesn't prevent you setting them:

>>> with patch('__main__.Something', autospec=True):
...   thing = Something()
...   thing.a = 33
...

There is a more aggressive version of both spec and autospec that does prevent you setting non-existent attributes. This is useful if you want to ensure your code only sets valid attributes too, but obviously it prevents this particular scenario:

>>> with patch('__main__.Something', autospec=True, spec_set=True):
...   thing = Something()
...   thing.a = 33
...
Traceback (most recent call last):
 ...
AttributeError: Mock object has no attribute 'a'

Probably the best way of solving the problem is to add class attributes as default values for instance members initialised in __init__(). Note that if you are only setting default attributes in __init__() then providing them via class attributes (shared between instances of course) is faster too. e.g.

class Something:
    a = 33

This brings up another issue. It is relatively common to provide a default value of None for members that will later be an object of a different type. None would be useless as a spec because it wouldn't let you access any attributes or methods on it. As None is never going to be useful as a spec, and probably indicates a member that will normally of some other type, autospec doesn't use a spec for members that are set to None. These will just be ordinary mocks (well - MagicMocks):

>>> class Something:
...     member = None
...
>>> mock = create_autospec(Something)
>>> mock.member.foo.bar.baz()
<MagicMock name='mock.member.foo.bar.baz()' id='...'>

If modifying your production classes to add defaults isn't to your liking then there are more options. One of these is simply to use an instance as the spec rather than the class. The other is to create a subclass of the production class and add the defaults to the subclass without affecting the production class. Both of these require you to use an alternative object as the spec. Thankfully patch() supports this - you can simply pass the alternative object as the autospec argument:

>>> class Something:
...   def __init__(self):
...     self.a = 33
...
>>> class SomethingForTest(Something):
...   a = 33
...
>>> p = patch('__main__.Something', autospec=SomethingForTest)
>>> mock = p.start()
>>> mock.a
<NonCallableMagicMock name='Something.a' spec='int' id='...'>

[4]

This only applies to classes or already instantiated objects. Calling a mocked class to create a mock instance does not create a real instance. It is only attribute lookups - along with calls to dir() - that are done.

Sealing mocks

unittest.mock.seal(mock)

Seal will disable the automatic creation of mocks when accessing an attribute of the mock being sealed or any of its attributes that are already mocks recursively.

If a mock instance with a name or a spec is assigned to an attribute it won't be considered in the sealing chain. This allows one to prevent seal from fixing part of the mock object.

>>> mock = Mock()
>>> mock.submock.attribute1 = 2
>>> mock.not_submock = mock.Mock(name="sample_name")
>>> seal(mock)
>>> mock.new_attribute  # This will raise AttributeError.
>>> mock.submock.attribute2  # This will raise AttributeError.
>>> mock.not_submock.attribute2  # This won't raise.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Order of precedence of side_effect, return_value and wraps

The order of their precedence is:

side_effect

return_value

wraps

If all three are set, mock will return the value from side_effect, ignoring return_value and the wrapped object altogether. If any two are set, the one with the higher precedence will return the value. Regardless of the order of which was set first, the order of precedence remains unchanged.

>>> from unittest.mock import Mock
>>> class Order:
...     @staticmethod
...     def get_value():
...         return "third"
...
>>> order_mock = Mock(spec=Order, wraps=Order)
>>> order_mock.get_value.side_effect = ["first"]
>>> order_mock.get_value.return_value = "second"
>>> order_mock.get_value()
'first'

As None is the default value of side_effect, if you reassign its value back to None, the order of precedence will be checked between return_value and the wrapped object, ignoring side_effect.

>>> order_mock.get_value.side_effect = None
>>> order_mock.get_value()
'second'

If the value being returned by side_effect is DEFAULT, it is ignored and the order of precedence moves to the successor to obtain the value to return.

>>> from unittest.mock import DEFAULT
>>> order_mock.get_value.side_effect = [DEFAULT]
>>> order_mock.get_value()
'second'

When Mock wraps an object, the default value of return_value will be DEFAULT.

>>> order_mock = Mock(spec=Order, wraps=Order)
>>> order_mock.return_value
sentinel.DEFAULT
>>> order_mock.get_value.return_value
sentinel.DEFAULT

The order of precedence will ignore this value and it will move to the last successor which is the wrapped object.

As the real call is being made to the wrapped object, creating an instance of this mock will return the real instance of the class. The positional arguments, if any, required by the wrapped object must be passed.

>>> order_mock_instance = order_mock()
>>> isinstance(order_mock_instance, Order)
True
>>> order_mock_instance.get_value()
'third'

>>> order_mock.get_value.return_value = DEFAULT
>>> order_mock.get_value()
'third'

>>> order_mock.get_value.return_value = "second"
>>> order_mock.get_value()
'second'

But if you assign None to it, this will not be ignored as it is an explicit assignment. So, the order of precedence will not move to the wrapped object.

>>> order_mock.get_value.return_value = None
>>> order_mock.get_value() is None
True

Even if you set all three at once when initializing the mock, the order of precedence remains the same:

>>> order_mock = Mock(spec=Order, wraps=Order,
...                   **{"get_value.side_effect": ["first"],
...                      "get_value.return_value": "second"}
...                   )
...
>>> order_mock.get_value()
'first'
>>> order_mock.get_value.side_effect = None
>>> order_mock.get_value()
'second'
>>> order_mock.get_value.return_value = DEFAULT
>>> order_mock.get_value()
'third'

If side_effect is exhausted, the order of precedence will not cause a value to be obtained from the successors. Instead, StopIteration exception is raised.

>>> order_mock = Mock(spec=Order, wraps=Order)
>>> order_mock.get_value.side_effect = ["first side effect value",
...                                     "another side effect value"]
>>> order_mock.get_value.return_value = "second"

>>> order_mock.get_value()
'first side effect value'
>>> order_mock.get_value()
'another side effect value'

>>> order_mock.get_value()
Traceback (most recent call last):
 ...
StopIteration

unittest.mock --- getting started

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Utilisation de Mock ou l'art de singer

Mock patching methods

Usages courant de Mock :

Substitution des méthodes

Enregistrement des appels faits sur les objets

On peut remplacer une méthode sur un objet pour contrôler qu'elle est bien appelée avec le nombre correct d'arguments :

>>> real = SomeClass()
>>> real.method = MagicMock(name='method')
>>> real.method(3, 4, 5, key='value')
<MagicMock name='method()' id='...'>

Une fois notre objet simulacre appelé (via real.method dans notre exemple), il fournit des méthodes et attributs permettant de valider comment il a été appelé.

Note

Dans la majeure partie des exemples donnés ici, les classes Mock et MagicMock sont interchangeables. Étant donné que MagicMock est la classe la plus puissante des deux, cela fait sens de l'utiliser par défaut.

Une fois l'objet Mock appelé, son attribut called est défini à True. Qui plus est, nous pouvons utiliser les méthodes assert_called_with() ou assert_called_once_with() pour contrôler qu'il a été appelé avec les bons arguments.

Cet exemple teste que l'appel de la méthode ProductionClass().method implique bien celui de la méthode something :

>>> class ProductionClass:
...     def method(self):
...         self.something(1, 2, 3)
...     def something(self, a, b, c):
...         pass
...
>>> real = ProductionClass()
>>> real.something = MagicMock()
>>> real.method()
>>> real.something.assert_called_once_with(1, 2, 3)

Mock for method calls on an object

Dans l'exemple précédent, nous avons directement remplacé une méthode par un objet (afin de valider que l'appel était correct). Une autre façon de faire est de passer un objet Mock en argument d'une méthode (ou de tout autre partie du code à tester) et ensuite de contrôler que notre objet a été utilisé de la façon attendue.

Ci-dessous, ProductionClass dispose d'une méthode closer. Si on l'appelle avec un objet, alors elle appelle la méthode close dessus.

>>> class ProductionClass:
...     def closer(self, something):
...         something.close()
...

Ainsi, pour tester cette classe, nous devons lui passer un objet ayant une méthode close, puis vérifier qu'elle a bien été appelée.

>>> real = ProductionClass()
>>> mock = Mock()
>>> real.closer(mock)
>>> mock.close.assert_called_with()

En fait, nous n'avons pas à nous soucier de fournir la méthode close dans notre objet « simulé ». Le simple fait d'accéder à la méthode close l'a crée. Si par contre la méthode close n'a pas été appelée alors, bien que le test la créée en y accédant, assert_called_with() lèvera une exception.

Mocking classes

Un cas d'utilisation courant consiste à émuler les classes instanciées par le code que nous testons. Quand on patch une classe, alors cette classe est remplacée par un objet mock. Les instances de la classe étant créées en appelant la classe, on accède à « l'instance mock » via la valeur de retour de la classe émulée.

In the example below we have a function some_function that instantiates Foo and calls a method on it. The call to patch() replaces the class Foo with a mock. The Foo instance is the result of calling the mock, so it is configured by modifying the mock return_value.

>>> def some_function():
...     instance = module.Foo()
...     return instance.method()
...
>>> with patch('module.Foo') as mock:
...     instance = mock.return_value
...     instance.method.return_value = 'the result'
...     result = some_function()
...     assert result == 'the result'

Naming your mocks

It can be useful to give your mocks a name. The name is shown in the repr of the mock and can be helpful when the mock appears in test failure messages. The name is also propagated to attributes or methods of the mock:

>>> mock = MagicMock(name='foo')
>>> mock
<MagicMock name='foo' id='...'>
>>> mock.method
<MagicMock name='foo.method' id='...'>

Tracking all calls

Often you want to track more than a single call to a method. The mock_calls attribute records all calls to child attributes of the mock - and also to their children.

>>> mock = MagicMock()
>>> mock.method()
<MagicMock name='mock.method()' id='...'>
>>> mock.attribute.method(10, x=53)
<MagicMock name='mock.attribute.method()' id='...'>
>>> mock.mock_calls
[call.method(), call.attribute.method(10, x=53)]

If you make an assertion about mock_calls and any unexpected methods have been called, then the assertion will fail. This is useful because as well as asserting that the calls you expected have been made, you are also checking that they were made in the right order and with no additional calls:

You use the call object to construct lists for comparing with mock_calls:

>>> expected = [call.method(), call.attribute.method(10, x=53)]
>>> mock.mock_calls == expected
True

However, parameters to calls that return mocks are not recorded, which means it is not possible to track nested calls where the parameters used to create ancestors are important:

>>> m = Mock()
>>> m.factory(important=True).deliver()
<Mock name='mock.factory().deliver()' id='...'>
>>> m.mock_calls[-1] == call.factory(important=False).deliver()
True

Setting return values and attributes

Setting the return values on a mock object is trivially easy:

>>> mock = Mock()
>>> mock.return_value = 3
>>> mock()
3

Of course you can do the same for methods on the mock:

>>> mock = Mock()
>>> mock.method.return_value = 3
>>> mock.method()
3

The return value can also be set in the constructor:

>>> mock = Mock(return_value=3)
>>> mock()
3

If you need an attribute setting on your mock, just do it:

>>> mock = Mock()
>>> mock.x = 3
>>> mock.x
3

Sometimes you want to mock up a more complex situation, like for example mock.connection.cursor().execute("SELECT 1"). If we wanted this call to return a list, then we have to configure the result of the nested call.

We can use call to construct the set of calls in a "chained call" like this for easy assertion afterwards:

>>> mock = Mock()
>>> cursor = mock.connection.cursor.return_value
>>> cursor.execute.return_value = ['foo']
>>> mock.connection.cursor().execute("SELECT 1")
['foo']
>>> expected = call.connection.cursor().execute("SELECT 1").call_list()
>>> mock.mock_calls
[call.connection.cursor(), call.connection.cursor().execute('SELECT 1')]
>>> mock.mock_calls == expected
True

It is the call to .call_list() that turns our call object into a list of calls representing the chained calls.

Raising exceptions with mocks

A useful attribute is side_effect. If you set this to an exception class or instance then the exception will be raised when the mock is called.

>>> mock = Mock(side_effect=Exception('Boom!'))
>>> mock()
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
Exception: Boom!

Side effect functions and iterables

side_effect can also be set to a function or an iterable. The use case for side_effect as an iterable is where your mock is going to be called several times, and you want each call to return a different value. When you set side_effect to an iterable every call to the mock returns the next value from the iterable:

>>> mock = MagicMock(side_effect=[4, 5, 6])
>>> mock()
4
>>> mock()
5
>>> mock()
6

For more advanced use cases, like dynamically varying the return values depending on what the mock is called with, side_effect can be a function. The function will be called with the same arguments as the mock. Whatever the function returns is what the call returns:

>>> vals = {(1, 2): 1, (2, 3): 2}
>>> def side_effect(*args):
...     return vals[args]
...
>>> mock = MagicMock(side_effect=side_effect)
>>> mock(1, 2)
1
>>> mock(2, 3)
2

Mocking asynchronous iterators

Since Python 3.8, AsyncMock and MagicMock have support to mock Itérateurs asynchrones through __aiter__. The return_value attribute of __aiter__ can be used to set the return values to be used for iteration.

>>> mock = MagicMock()  # AsyncMock also works here
>>> mock.__aiter__.return_value = [1, 2, 3]
>>> async def main():
...     return [i async for i in mock]
...
>>> asyncio.run(main())
[1, 2, 3]

Mocking asynchronous context manager

Since Python 3.8, AsyncMock and MagicMock have support to mock Gestionnaires de contexte asynchrones through __aenter__ and __aexit__. By default, __aenter__ and __aexit__ are AsyncMock instances that return an async function.

>>> class AsyncContextManager:
...     async def __aenter__(self):
...         return self
...     async def __aexit__(self, exc_type, exc, tb):
...         pass
...
>>> mock_instance = MagicMock(AsyncContextManager())  # AsyncMock also works here
>>> async def main():
...     async with mock_instance as result:
...         pass
...
>>> asyncio.run(main())
>>> mock_instance.__aenter__.assert_awaited_once()
>>> mock_instance.__aexit__.assert_awaited_once()

Creating a mock from an existing object

One problem with over use of mocking is that it couples your tests to the implementation of your mocks rather than your real code. Suppose you have a class that implements some_method. In a test for another class, you provide a mock of this object that also provides some_method. If later you refactor the first class, so that it no longer has some_method - then your tests will continue to pass even though your code is now broken!

Mock allows you to provide an object as a specification for the mock, using the spec keyword argument. Accessing methods / attributes on the mock that don't exist on your specification object will immediately raise an attribute error. If you change the implementation of your specification, then tests that use that class will start failing immediately without you having to instantiate the class in those tests.

>>> mock = Mock(spec=SomeClass)
>>> mock.old_method()
Traceback (most recent call last):
   ...
AttributeError: Mock object has no attribute 'old_method'. Did you mean: 'class_method'?

Using a specification also enables a smarter matching of calls made to the mock, regardless of whether some parameters were passed as positional or named arguments:

>>> def f(a, b, c): pass
...
>>> mock = Mock(spec=f)
>>> mock(1, 2, 3)
<Mock name='mock()' id='140161580456576'>
>>> mock.assert_called_with(a=1, b=2, c=3)

If you want this smarter matching to also work with method calls on the mock, you can use auto-speccing.

If you want a stronger form of specification that prevents the setting of arbitrary attributes as well as the getting of them then you can use spec_set instead of spec.

Using side_effect to return per file content

mock_open() is used to patch open() method. side_effect can be used to return a new Mock object per call. This can be used to return different contents per file stored in a dictionary:

DEFAULT = "default"
data_dict = {"file1": "data1",
             "file2": "data2"}

def open_side_effect(name):
    return mock_open(read_data=data_dict.get(name, DEFAULT))()

with patch("builtins.open", side_effect=open_side_effect):
    with open("file1") as file1:
        assert file1.read() == "data1"

    with open("file2") as file2:
        assert file2.read() == "data2"

    with open("file3") as file2:
        assert file2.read() == "default"

Patch decorators

Note

Avec patch(), il est important de patcher les objets dans l'espace de nommage où ils sont recherchés. C'est ce qui se fait normalement, mais pour un guide rapide, lisez où patcher.

A common need in tests is to patch a class attribute or a module attribute, for example patching a builtin or patching a class in a module to test that it is instantiated. Modules and classes are effectively global, so patching on them has to be undone after the test or the patch will persist into other tests and cause hard to diagnose problems.

mock provides three convenient decorators for this: patch(), patch.object() and patch.dict(). patch takes a single string, of the form package.module.Class.attribute to specify the attribute you are patching. It also optionally takes a value that you want the attribute (or class or whatever) to be replaced with. 'patch.object' takes an object and the name of the attribute you would like patched, plus optionally the value to patch it with.

patch.object :

>>> original = SomeClass.attribute
>>> @patch.object(SomeClass, 'attribute', sentinel.attribute)
... def test():
...     assert SomeClass.attribute == sentinel.attribute
...
>>> test()
>>> assert SomeClass.attribute == original

>>> @patch('package.module.attribute', sentinel.attribute)
... def test():
...     from package.module import attribute
...     assert attribute is sentinel.attribute
...
>>> test()

If you are patching a module (including builtins) then use patch() instead of patch.object():

>>> mock = MagicMock(return_value=sentinel.file_handle)
>>> with patch('builtins.open', mock):
...     handle = open('filename', 'r')
...
>>> mock.assert_called_with('filename', 'r')
>>> assert handle == sentinel.file_handle, "incorrect file handle returned"

The module name can be 'dotted', in the form package.module if needed:

>>> @patch('package.module.ClassName.attribute', sentinel.attribute)
... def test():
...     from package.module import ClassName
...     assert ClassName.attribute == sentinel.attribute
...
>>> test()

A nice pattern is to actually decorate test methods themselves:

>>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
...     @patch.object(SomeClass, 'attribute', sentinel.attribute)
...     def test_something(self):
...         self.assertEqual(SomeClass.attribute, sentinel.attribute)
...
>>> original = SomeClass.attribute
>>> MyTest('test_something').test_something()
>>> assert SomeClass.attribute == original

If you want to patch with a Mock, you can use patch() with only one argument (or patch.object() with two arguments). The mock will be created for you and passed into the test function / method:

>>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
...     @patch.object(SomeClass, 'static_method')
...     def test_something(self, mock_method):
...         SomeClass.static_method()
...         mock_method.assert_called_with()
...
>>> MyTest('test_something').test_something()

You can stack up multiple patch decorators using this pattern:

>>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
...     @patch('package.module.ClassName1')
...     @patch('package.module.ClassName2')
...     def test_something(self, MockClass2, MockClass1):
...         self.assertIs(package.module.ClassName1, MockClass1)
...         self.assertIs(package.module.ClassName2, MockClass2)
...
>>> MyTest('test_something').test_something()

When you nest patch decorators the mocks are passed in to the decorated function in the same order they applied (the normal Python order that decorators are applied). This means from the bottom up, so in the example above the mock for test_module.ClassName2 is passed in first.

Il existe également patch.dict() pour définir des valeurs d'un dictionnaire au sein d'une portée et restaurer ce dictionnaire à son état d'origine lorsque le test se termine :

>>> foo = {'key': 'value'}
>>> original = foo.copy()
>>> with patch.dict(foo, {'newkey': 'newvalue'}, clear=True):
...     assert foo == {'newkey': 'newvalue'}
...
>>> assert foo == original

patch, patch.object and patch.dict can all be used as context managers.

Where you use patch() to create a mock for you, you can get a reference to the mock using the "as" form of the with statement:

>>> class ProductionClass:
...     def method(self):
...         pass
...
>>> with patch.object(ProductionClass, 'method') as mock_method:
...     mock_method.return_value = None
...     real = ProductionClass()
...     real.method(1, 2, 3)
...
>>> mock_method.assert_called_with(1, 2, 3)

As an alternative patch, patch.object and patch.dict can be used as class decorators. When used in this way it is the same as applying the decorator individually to every method whose name starts with "test".

Further examples

Here are some more examples for some slightly more advanced scenarios.

Mocking chained calls

Mocking chained calls is actually straightforward with mock once you understand the return_value attribute. When a mock is called for the first time, or you fetch its return_value before it has been called, a new Mock is created.

This means that you can see how the object returned from a call to a mocked object has been used by interrogating the return_value mock:

>>> mock = Mock()
>>> mock().foo(a=2, b=3)
<Mock name='mock().foo()' id='...'>
>>> mock.return_value.foo.assert_called_with(a=2, b=3)

From here it is a simple step to configure and then make assertions about chained calls. Of course another alternative is writing your code in a more testable way in the first place...

So, suppose we have some code that looks a little bit like this:

>>> class Something:
...     def __init__(self):
...         self.backend = BackendProvider()
...     def method(self):
...         response = self.backend.get_endpoint('foobar').create_call('spam', 'eggs').start_call()
...         # more code

Assuming that BackendProvider is already well tested, how do we test method()? Specifically, we want to test that the code section # more code uses the response object in the correct way.

As this chain of calls is made from an instance attribute we can monkey patch the backend attribute on a Something instance. In this particular case we are only interested in the return value from the final call to start_call so we don't have much configuration to do. Let's assume the object it returns is 'file-like', so we'll ensure that our response object uses the builtin open() as its spec.

To do this we create a mock instance as our mock backend and create a mock response object for it. To set the response as the return value for that final start_call we could do this:

mock_backend.get_endpoint.return_value.create_call.return_value.start_call.return_value = mock_response

We can do that in a slightly nicer way using the configure_mock() method to directly set the return value for us:

>>> something = Something()
>>> mock_response = Mock(spec=open)
>>> mock_backend = Mock()
>>> config = {'get_endpoint.return_value.create_call.return_value.start_call.return_value': mock_response}
>>> mock_backend.configure_mock(**config)

With these we monkey patch the "mock backend" in place and can make the real call:

>>> something.backend = mock_backend
>>> something.method()

Using mock_calls we can check the chained call with a single assert. A chained call is several calls in one line of code, so there will be several entries in mock_calls. We can use call.call_list() to create this list of calls for us:

>>> chained = call.get_endpoint('foobar').create_call('spam', 'eggs').start_call()
>>> call_list = chained.call_list()
>>> assert mock_backend.mock_calls == call_list

Partial mocking

For some tests, you may want to mock out a call to datetime.date.today() to return a known date, but don't want to prevent the code under test from creating new date objects. Unfortunately datetime.date is written in C, so you cannot just monkey-patch out the static datetime.date.today() method.

Instead, you can effectively wrap the date class with a mock, while passing through calls to the constructor to the real class (and returning real instances).

The patch decorator is used here to mock out the date class in the module under test. The side_effect attribute on the mock date class is then set to a lambda function that returns a real date. When the mock date class is called a real date will be constructed and returned by side_effect.

>>> import datetime as dt
>>> with patch('mymodule.date') as mock_date:
...     mock_date.today.return_value = dt.date(2010, 10, 8)
...     mock_date.side_effect = lambda *args, **kw: dt.date(*args, **kw)
...
...     assert mymodule.date.today() == dt.date(2010, 10, 8)
...     assert mymodule.date(2009, 6, 8) == dt.date(2009, 6, 8)

Note that we don't patch datetime.date globally, we patch date in the module that uses it. See where to patch.

When date.today() is called a known date is returned, but calls to the date(...) constructor still return normal dates. Without this you can find yourself having to calculate an expected result using exactly the same algorithm as the code under test, which is a classic testing anti-pattern.

Calls to the date constructor are recorded in the mock_date attributes (call_count and friends) which may also be useful for your tests.

An alternative way of dealing with mocking dates, or other builtin classes, is discussed in this blog entry [https://williambert.online/2011/07/how-to-unit-testing-in-django-with-mocking-and-patching/].

Mocking a generator method

A Python generator is a function or method that uses the yield statement to return a series of values when iterated over [1].

A generator method / function is called to return the generator object. It is the generator object that is then iterated over. The protocol method for iteration is __iter__(), so we can mock this using a MagicMock.

Here's an example class with an "iter" method implemented as a generator:

>>> class Foo:
...     def iter(self):
...         for i in [1, 2, 3]:
...             yield i
...
>>> foo = Foo()
>>> list(foo.iter())
[1, 2, 3]

How would we mock this class, and in particular its "iter" method?

To configure the values returned from the iteration (implicit in the call to list), we need to configure the object returned by the call to foo.iter().

>>> mock_foo = MagicMock()
>>> mock_foo.iter.return_value = iter([1, 2, 3])
>>> list(mock_foo.iter())
[1, 2, 3]

[1]

There are also generator expressions and more advanced uses [http://www.dabeaz.com/coroutines/index.html] of generators, but we aren't concerned about them here. A very good introduction to generators and how powerful they are is: Generator Tricks for Systems Programmers [http://www.dabeaz.com/generators/].

Applying the same patch to every test method

If you want several patches in place for multiple test methods the obvious way is to apply the patch decorators to every method. This can feel like unnecessary repetition. Instead, you can use patch() (in all its various forms) as a class decorator. This applies the patches to all test methods on the class. A test method is identified by methods whose names start with test:

>>> @patch('mymodule.SomeClass')
... class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
...
...     def test_one(self, MockSomeClass):
...         self.assertIs(mymodule.SomeClass, MockSomeClass)
...
...     def test_two(self, MockSomeClass):
...         self.assertIs(mymodule.SomeClass, MockSomeClass)
...
...     def not_a_test(self):
...         return 'something'
...
>>> MyTest('test_one').test_one()
>>> MyTest('test_two').test_two()
>>> MyTest('test_two').not_a_test()
'something'

An alternative way of managing patches is to use the patch methods: start and stop. These allow you to move the patching into your setUp and tearDown methods.

>>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
...     def setUp(self):
...         self.patcher = patch('mymodule.foo')
...         self.mock_foo = self.patcher.start()
...
...     def test_foo(self):
...         self.assertIs(mymodule.foo, self.mock_foo)
...
...     def tearDown(self):
...         self.patcher.stop()
...
>>> MyTest('test_foo').run()

If you use this technique you must ensure that the patching is "undone" by calling stop. This can be fiddlier than you might think, because if an exception is raised in the setUp then tearDown is not called. unittest.TestCase.addCleanup() makes this easier:

>>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
...     def setUp(self):
...         patcher = patch('mymodule.foo')
...         self.addCleanup(patcher.stop)
...         self.mock_foo = patcher.start()
...
...     def test_foo(self):
...         self.assertIs(mymodule.foo, self.mock_foo)
...
>>> MyTest('test_foo').run()

Mocking unbound methods

Sometimes a test needs to patch an unbound method, which means patching the method on the class rather than on the instance. In order to make assertions about which objects were calling this particular method, you need to pass self as the first argument. The issue is that you can't patch with a mock for this, because if you replace an unbound method with a mock it doesn't become a bound method when fetched from the instance, and so it doesn't get self passed in. The workaround is to patch the unbound method with a real function instead. The patch() decorator makes it so simple to patch out methods with a mock that having to create a real function becomes a nuisance.

If you pass autospec=True to patch then it does the patching with a real function object. This function object has the same signature as the one it is replacing, but delegates to a mock under the hood. You still get your mock auto-created in exactly the same way as before. What it means though, is that if you use it to patch out an unbound method on a class the mocked function will be turned into a bound method if it is fetched from an instance. It will have self passed in as the first argument, which is exactly what was needed:

>>> class Foo:
...   def foo(self):
...     pass
...
>>> with patch.object(Foo, 'foo', autospec=True) as mock_foo:
...   mock_foo.return_value = 'foo'
...   foo = Foo()
...   foo.foo()
...
'foo'
>>> mock_foo.assert_called_once_with(foo)

If we don't use autospec=True then the unbound method is patched out with a Mock instance instead, and isn't called with self.

Checking multiple calls with mock

mock has a nice API for making assertions about how your mock objects are used.

>>> mock = Mock()
>>> mock.foo_bar.return_value = None
>>> mock.foo_bar('baz', spam='eggs')
>>> mock.foo_bar.assert_called_with('baz', spam='eggs')

If your mock is only being called once you can use the assert_called_once_with() method that also asserts that the call_count is one.

>>> mock.foo_bar.assert_called_once_with('baz', spam='eggs')
>>> mock.foo_bar()
>>> mock.foo_bar.assert_called_once_with('baz', spam='eggs')
Traceback (most recent call last):
    ...
AssertionError: Expected 'foo_bar' to be called once. Called 2 times.
Calls: [call('baz', spam='eggs'), call()].

Both assert_called_with and assert_called_once_with make assertions about the most recent call. If your mock is going to be called several times, and you want to make assertions about all those calls you can use call_args_list:

>>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
>>> mock(1, 2, 3)
>>> mock(4, 5, 6)
>>> mock()
>>> mock.call_args_list
[call(1, 2, 3), call(4, 5, 6), call()]

The call helper makes it easy to make assertions about these calls. You can build up a list of expected calls and compare it to call_args_list. This looks remarkably similar to the repr of the call_args_list:

>>> expected = [call(1, 2, 3), call(4, 5, 6), call()]
>>> mock.call_args_list == expected
True

Coping with mutable arguments

Another situation is rare, but can bite you, is when your mock is called with mutable arguments. call_args and call_args_list store references to the arguments. If the arguments are mutated by the code under test then you can no longer make assertions about what the values were when the mock was called.

Here's some example code that shows the problem. Imagine the following functions defined in 'mymodule':

def frob(val):
    pass

def grob(val):
    "First frob and then clear val"
    frob(val)
    val.clear()

When we try to test that grob calls frob with the correct argument look what happens:

>>> with patch('mymodule.frob') as mock_frob:
...     val = {6}
...     mymodule.grob(val)
...
>>> val
set()
>>> mock_frob.assert_called_with({6})
Traceback (most recent call last):
    ...
AssertionError: Expected: (({6},), {})
Called with: ((set(),), {})

One possibility would be for mock to copy the arguments you pass in. This could then cause problems if you do assertions that rely on object identity for equality.

Here's one solution that uses the side_effect functionality. If you provide a side_effect function for a mock then side_effect will be called with the same args as the mock. This gives us an opportunity to copy the arguments and store them for later assertions. In this example I'm using another mock to store the arguments so that I can use the mock methods for doing the assertion. Again a helper function sets this up for me.

>>> from copy import deepcopy
>>> from unittest.mock import Mock, patch, DEFAULT
>>> def copy_call_args(mock):
...     new_mock = Mock()
...     def side_effect(*args, **kwargs):
...         args = deepcopy(args)
...         kwargs = deepcopy(kwargs)
...         new_mock(*args, **kwargs)
...         return DEFAULT
...     mock.side_effect = side_effect
...     return new_mock
...
>>> with patch('mymodule.frob') as mock_frob:
...     new_mock = copy_call_args(mock_frob)
...     val = {6}
...     mymodule.grob(val)
...
>>> new_mock.assert_called_with({6})
>>> new_mock.call_args
call({6})

copy_call_args is called with the mock that will be called. It returns a new mock that we do the assertion on. The side_effect function makes a copy of the args and calls our new_mock with the copy.

Note

If your mock is only going to be used once there is an easier way of checking arguments at the point they are called. You can simply do the checking inside a side_effect function.

>>> def side_effect(arg):
...     assert arg == {6}
...
>>> mock = Mock(side_effect=side_effect)
>>> mock({6})
>>> mock(set())
Traceback (most recent call last):
    ...
AssertionError

An alternative approach is to create a subclass of Mock or MagicMock that copies (using copy.deepcopy()) the arguments. Here's an example implementation:

>>> from copy import deepcopy
>>> class CopyingMock(MagicMock):
...     def __call__(self, /, *args, **kwargs):
...         args = deepcopy(args)
...         kwargs = deepcopy(kwargs)
...         return super().__call__(*args, **kwargs)
...
>>> c = CopyingMock(return_value=None)
>>> arg = set()
>>> c(arg)
>>> arg.add(1)
>>> c.assert_called_with(set())
>>> c.assert_called_with(arg)
Traceback (most recent call last):
    ...
AssertionError: expected call not found.
Expected: mock({1})
Actual: mock(set())
>>> c.foo
<CopyingMock name='mock.foo' id='...'>

When you subclass Mock or MagicMock all dynamically created attributes, and the return_value will use your subclass automatically. That means all children of a CopyingMock will also have the type CopyingMock.

Nesting patches

Using patch as a context manager is nice, but if you do multiple patches you can end up with nested with statements indenting further and further to the right:

>>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
...
...     def test_foo(self):
...         with patch('mymodule.Foo') as mock_foo:
...             with patch('mymodule.Bar') as mock_bar:
...                 with patch('mymodule.Spam') as mock_spam:
...                     assert mymodule.Foo is mock_foo
...                     assert mymodule.Bar is mock_bar
...                     assert mymodule.Spam is mock_spam
...
>>> original = mymodule.Foo
>>> MyTest('test_foo').test_foo()
>>> assert mymodule.Foo is original

With unittest cleanup functions and the patch methods: start and stop we can achieve the same effect without the nested indentation. A simple helper method, create_patch, puts the patch in place and returns the created mock for us:

>>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
...
...     def create_patch(self, name):
...         patcher = patch(name)
...         thing = patcher.start()
...         self.addCleanup(patcher.stop)
...         return thing
...
...     def test_foo(self):
...         mock_foo = self.create_patch('mymodule.Foo')
...         mock_bar = self.create_patch('mymodule.Bar')
...         mock_spam = self.create_patch('mymodule.Spam')
...
...         assert mymodule.Foo is mock_foo
...         assert mymodule.Bar is mock_bar
...         assert mymodule.Spam is mock_spam
...
>>> original = mymodule.Foo
>>> MyTest('test_foo').run()
>>> assert mymodule.Foo is original

Mocking a dictionary with MagicMock

You may want to mock a dictionary, or other container object, recording all access to it whilst having it still behave like a dictionary.

We can do this with MagicMock, which will behave like a dictionary, and using side_effect to delegate dictionary access to a real underlying dictionary that is under our control.

When the __getitem__() and __setitem__() methods of our MagicMock are called (normal dictionary access) then side_effect is called with the key (and in the case of __setitem__ the value too). We can also control what is returned.

After the MagicMock has been used we can use attributes like call_args_list to assert about how the dictionary was used:

>>> my_dict = {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3}
>>> def getitem(name):
...      return my_dict[name]
...
>>> def setitem(name, val):
...     my_dict[name] = val
...
>>> mock = MagicMock()
>>> mock.__getitem__.side_effect = getitem
>>> mock.__setitem__.side_effect = setitem

Note

An alternative to using MagicMock is to use Mock and only provide the magic methods you specifically want:

>>> mock = Mock()
>>> mock.__getitem__ = Mock(side_effect=getitem)
>>> mock.__setitem__ = Mock(side_effect=setitem)

A third option is to use MagicMock but passing in dict as the spec (or spec_set) argument so that the MagicMock created only has dictionary magic methods available:

>>> mock = MagicMock(spec_set=dict)
>>> mock.__getitem__.side_effect = getitem
>>> mock.__setitem__.side_effect = setitem

With these side effect functions in place, the mock will behave like a normal dictionary but recording the access. It even raises a KeyError if you try to access a key that doesn't exist.

>>> mock['a']
1
>>> mock['c']
3
>>> mock['d']
Traceback (most recent call last):
    ...
KeyError: 'd'
>>> mock['b'] = 'fish'
>>> mock['d'] = 'eggs'
>>> mock['b']
'fish'
>>> mock['d']
'eggs'

After it has been used you can make assertions about the access using the normal mock methods and attributes:

>>> mock.__getitem__.call_args_list
[call('a'), call('c'), call('d'), call('b'), call('d')]
>>> mock.__setitem__.call_args_list
[call('b', 'fish'), call('d', 'eggs')]
>>> my_dict
{'a': 1, 'b': 'fish', 'c': 3, 'd': 'eggs'}

Mock subclasses and their attributes

There are various reasons why you might want to subclass Mock. One reason might be to add helper methods. Here's a silly example:

>>> class MyMock(MagicMock):
...     def has_been_called(self):
...         return self.called
...
>>> mymock = MyMock(return_value=None)
>>> mymock
<MyMock id='...'>
>>> mymock.has_been_called()
False
>>> mymock()
>>> mymock.has_been_called()
True

The standard behaviour for Mock instances is that attributes and the return value mocks are of the same type as the mock they are accessed on. This ensures that Mock attributes are Mocks and MagicMock attributes are MagicMocks [2]. So if you're subclassing to add helper methods then they'll also be available on the attributes and return value mock of instances of your subclass.

>>> mymock.foo
<MyMock name='mock.foo' id='...'>
>>> mymock.foo.has_been_called()
False
>>> mymock.foo()
<MyMock name='mock.foo()' id='...'>
>>> mymock.foo.has_been_called()
True

Sometimes this is inconvenient. For example, one user [https://code.google.com/archive/p/mock/issues/105] is subclassing mock to created a Twisted adaptor [https://twisted.org/documents/11.0.0/api/twisted.python.components.html]. Having this applied to attributes too actually causes errors.

Mock (in all its flavours) uses a method called _get_child_mock to create these "sub-mocks" for attributes and return values. You can prevent your subclass being used for attributes by overriding this method. The signature is that it takes arbitrary keyword arguments (**kwargs) which are then passed onto the mock constructor:

>>> class Subclass(MagicMock):
...     def _get_child_mock(self, /, **kwargs):
...         return MagicMock(**kwargs)
...
>>> mymock = Subclass()
>>> mymock.foo
<MagicMock name='mock.foo' id='...'>
>>> assert isinstance(mymock, Subclass)
>>> assert not isinstance(mymock.foo, Subclass)
>>> assert not isinstance(mymock(), Subclass)

[2]

An exception to this rule are the non-callable mocks. Attributes use the callable variant because otherwise non-callable mocks couldn't have callable methods.

Mocking imports with patch.dict

One situation where mocking can be hard is where you have a local import inside a function. These are harder to mock because they aren't using an object from the module namespace that we can patch out.

Generally local imports are to be avoided. They are sometimes done to prevent circular dependencies, for which there is usually a much better way to solve the problem (refactor the code) or to prevent "up front costs" by delaying the import. This can also be solved in better ways than an unconditional local import (store the module as a class or module attribute and only do the import on first use).

That aside there is a way to use mock to affect the results of an import. Importing fetches an object from the sys.modules dictionary. Note that it fetches an object, which need not be a module. Importing a module for the first time results in a module object being put in sys.modules, so usually when you import something you get a module back. This need not be the case however.

This means you can use patch.dict() to temporarily put a mock in place in sys.modules. Any imports whilst this patch is active will fetch the mock. When the patch is complete (the decorated function exits, the with statement body is complete or patcher.stop() is called) then whatever was there previously will be restored safely.

Here's an example that mocks out the 'fooble' module.

>>> import sys
>>> mock = Mock()
>>> with patch.dict('sys.modules', {'fooble': mock}):
...    import fooble
...    fooble.blob()
...
<Mock name='mock.blob()' id='...'>
>>> assert 'fooble' not in sys.modules
>>> mock.blob.assert_called_once_with()

As you can see the import fooble succeeds, but on exit there is no 'fooble' left in sys.modules.

This also works for the from module import name form:

>>> mock = Mock()
>>> with patch.dict('sys.modules', {'fooble': mock}):
...    from fooble import blob
...    blob.blip()
...
<Mock name='mock.blob.blip()' id='...'>
>>> mock.blob.blip.assert_called_once_with()

With slightly more work you can also mock package imports:

>>> mock = Mock()
>>> modules = {'package': mock, 'package.module': mock.module}
>>> with patch.dict('sys.modules', modules):
...    from package.module import fooble
...    fooble()
...
<Mock name='mock.module.fooble()' id='...'>
>>> mock.module.fooble.assert_called_once_with()

Tracking order of calls and less verbose call assertions

The Mock class allows you to track the order of method calls on your mock objects through the method_calls attribute. This doesn't allow you to track the order of calls between separate mock objects, however we can use mock_calls to achieve the same effect.

Because mocks track calls to child mocks in mock_calls, and accessing an arbitrary attribute of a mock creates a child mock, we can create our separate mocks from a parent one. Calls to those child mock will then all be recorded, in order, in the mock_calls of the parent:

>>> manager = Mock()
>>> mock_foo = manager.foo
>>> mock_bar = manager.bar

>>> mock_foo.something()
<Mock name='mock.foo.something()' id='...'>
>>> mock_bar.other.thing()
<Mock name='mock.bar.other.thing()' id='...'>

>>> manager.mock_calls
[call.foo.something(), call.bar.other.thing()]

We can then assert about the calls, including the order, by comparing with the mock_calls attribute on the manager mock:

>>> expected_calls = [call.foo.something(), call.bar.other.thing()]
>>> manager.mock_calls == expected_calls
True

If patch is creating, and putting in place, your mocks then you can attach them to a manager mock using the attach_mock() method. After attaching calls will be recorded in mock_calls of the manager.

>>> manager = MagicMock()
>>> with patch('mymodule.Class1') as MockClass1:
...     with patch('mymodule.Class2') as MockClass2:
...         manager.attach_mock(MockClass1, 'MockClass1')
...         manager.attach_mock(MockClass2, 'MockClass2')
...         MockClass1().foo()
...         MockClass2().bar()
<MagicMock name='mock.MockClass1().foo()' id='...'>
<MagicMock name='mock.MockClass2().bar()' id='...'>
>>> manager.mock_calls
[call.MockClass1(),
call.MockClass1().foo(),
call.MockClass2(),
call.MockClass2().bar()]

If many calls have been made, but you're only interested in a particular sequence of them then an alternative is to use the assert_has_calls() method. This takes a list of calls (constructed with the call object). If that sequence of calls are in mock_calls then the assert succeeds.

>>> m = MagicMock()
>>> m().foo().bar().baz()
<MagicMock name='mock().foo().bar().baz()' id='...'>
>>> m.one().two().three()
<MagicMock name='mock.one().two().three()' id='...'>
>>> calls = call.one().two().three().call_list()
>>> m.assert_has_calls(calls)

Even though the chained call m.one().two().three() aren't the only calls that have been made to the mock, the assert still succeeds.

Sometimes a mock may have several calls made to it, and you are only interested in asserting about some of those calls. You may not even care about the order. In this case you can pass any_order=True to assert_has_calls:

>>> m = MagicMock()
>>> m(1), m.two(2, 3), m.seven(7), m.fifty('50')
(...)
>>> calls = [call.fifty('50'), call(1), call.seven(7)]
>>> m.assert_has_calls(calls, any_order=True)

More complex argument matching

Using the same basic concept as ANY we can implement matchers to do more complex assertions on objects used as arguments to mocks.

Suppose we expect some object to be passed to a mock that by default compares equal based on object identity (which is the Python default for user defined classes). To use assert_called_with() we would need to pass in the exact same object. If we are only interested in some of the attributes of this object then we can create a matcher that will check these attributes for us.

You can see in this example how a 'standard' call to assert_called_with isn't sufficient:

>>> class Foo:
...     def __init__(self, a, b):
...         self.a, self.b = a, b
...
>>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
>>> mock(Foo(1, 2))
>>> mock.assert_called_with(Foo(1, 2))
Traceback (most recent call last):
    ...
AssertionError: expected call not found.
Expected: mock(<__main__.Foo object at 0x...>)
Actual: mock(<__main__.Foo object at 0x...>)

A comparison function for our Foo class might look something like this:

>>> def compare(self, other):
...     if not type(self) == type(other):
...         return False
...     if self.a != other.a:
...         return False
...     if self.b != other.b:
...         return False
...     return True
...

And a matcher object that can use comparison functions like this for its equality operation would look something like this:

>>> class Matcher:
...     def __init__(self, compare, some_obj):
...         self.compare = compare
...         self.some_obj = some_obj
...     def __eq__(self, other):
...         return self.compare(self.some_obj, other)
...

Putting all this together:

>>> match_foo = Matcher(compare, Foo(1, 2))
>>> mock.assert_called_with(match_foo)

The Matcher is instantiated with our compare function and the Foo object we want to compare against. In assert_called_with the Matcher equality method will be called, which compares the object the mock was called with against the one we created our matcher with. If they match then assert_called_with passes, and if they don't an AssertionError is raised:

>>> match_wrong = Matcher(compare, Foo(3, 4))
>>> mock.assert_called_with(match_wrong)
Traceback (most recent call last):
    ...
AssertionError: Expected: ((<Matcher object at 0x...>,), {})
Called with: ((<Foo object at 0x...>,), {})

With a bit of tweaking you could have the comparison function raise the AssertionError directly and provide a more useful failure message.

As of version 1.5, the Python testing library PyHamcrest [https://pyhamcrest.readthedocs.io/] provides similar functionality, that may be useful here, in the form of its equality matcher (hamcrest.library.integration.match_equality [https://pyhamcrest.readthedocs.io/en/release-1.8/integration/#module-hamcrest.library.integration.match_equality]).

test --- Regression tests package for Python

Note

The test package is meant for internal use by Python only. It is documented for the benefit of the core developers of Python. Any use of this package outside of Python's standard library is discouraged as code mentioned here can change or be removed without notice between releases of Python.

The test package contains all regression tests for Python as well as the modules test.support and test.regrtest. test.support is used to enhance your tests while test.regrtest drives the testing suite.

Each module in the test package whose name starts with test_ is a testing suite for a specific module or feature. All new tests should be written using the unittest or doctest module. Some older tests are written using a "traditional" testing style that compares output printed to sys.stdout; this style of test is considered deprecated.

Voir aussi

Module unittest

Writing PyUnit regression tests.

Module doctest

Tests embedded in documentation strings.

Writing Unit Tests for the test package

It is preferred that tests that use the unittest module follow a few guidelines. One is to name the test module by starting it with test_ and end it with the name of the module being tested. The test methods in the test module should start with test_ and end with a description of what the method is testing. This is needed so that the methods are recognized by the test driver as test methods. Also, no documentation string for the method should be included. A comment (such as # Tests function returns only True or False) should be used to provide documentation for test methods. This is done because documentation strings get printed out if they exist and thus what test is being run is not stated.

A basic boilerplate is often used:

import unittest
from test import support

class MyTestCase1(unittest.TestCase):

    # Only use setUp() and tearDown() if necessary

    def setUp(self):
        ... code to execute in preparation for tests ...

    def tearDown(self):
        ... code to execute to clean up after tests ...

    def test_feature_one(self):
        # Test feature one.
        ... testing code ...

    def test_feature_two(self):
        # Test feature two.
        ... testing code ...

    ... more test methods ...

class MyTestCase2(unittest.TestCase):
    ... same structure as MyTestCase1 ...

... more test classes ...

if __name__ == '__main__':
    unittest.main()

This code pattern allows the testing suite to be run by test.regrtest, on its own as a script that supports the unittest CLI, or via the python -m unittest CLI.

The goal for regression testing is to try to break code. This leads to a few guidelines to be followed:

The testing suite should exercise all classes, functions, and constants. This includes not just the external API that is to be presented to the outside world but also "private" code.

Whitebox testing (examining the code being tested when the tests are being written) is preferred. Blackbox testing (testing only the published user interface) is not complete enough to make sure all boundary and edge cases are tested.

Make sure all possible values are tested including invalid ones. This makes sure that not only all valid values are acceptable but also that improper values are handled correctly.

Exhaust as many code paths as possible. Test where branching occurs and thus tailor input to make sure as many different paths through the code are taken.

Add an explicit test for any bugs discovered for the tested code. This will make sure that the error does not crop up again if the code is changed in the future.

Make sure to clean up after your tests (such as close and remove all temporary files).

If a test is dependent on a specific condition of the operating system then verify the condition already exists before attempting the test.

Import as few modules as possible and do it as soon as possible. This minimizes external dependencies of tests and also minimizes possible anomalous behavior from side-effects of importing a module.

Try to maximize code reuse. On occasion, tests will vary by something as small as what type of input is used. Minimize code duplication by subclassing a basic test class with a class that specifies the input:

class TestFuncAcceptsSequencesMixin:

    func = mySuperWhammyFunction

    def test_func(self):
        self.func(self.arg)

class AcceptLists(TestFuncAcceptsSequencesMixin, unittest.TestCase):
    arg = [1, 2, 3]

class AcceptStrings(TestFuncAcceptsSequencesMixin, unittest.TestCase):
    arg = 'abc'

class AcceptTuples(TestFuncAcceptsSequencesMixin, unittest.TestCase):
    arg = (1, 2, 3)

When using this pattern, remember that all classes that inherit from unittest.TestCase are run as tests. The TestFuncAcceptsSequencesMixin class in the example above does not have any data and so can't be run by itself, thus it does not inherit from unittest.TestCase.

Voir aussi

Test Driven Development

A book by Kent Beck on writing tests before code.

Running tests using the command-line interface

The test package can be run as a script to drive Python's regression test suite, thanks to the -m option: python -m test. Under the hood, it uses test.regrtest; the call python -m test.regrtest used in previous Python versions still works. Running the script by itself automatically starts running all regression tests in the test package. It does this by finding all modules in the package whose name starts with test_, importing them, and executing the function test_main() if present or loading the tests via unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule if test_main does not exist. The names of tests to execute may also be passed to the script. Specifying a single regression test (python -m test test_spam) will minimize output and only print whether the test passed or failed.

Running test directly allows what resources are available for tests to use to be set. You do this by using the -u command-line option. Specifying all as the value for the -u option enables all possible resources: python -m test -uall. If all but one resource is desired (a more common case), a comma-separated list of resources that are not desired may be listed after all. The command python -m test -uall,-audio,-largefile will run test with all resources except the audio and largefile resources. For a list of all resources and more command-line options, run python -m test -h.

Some other ways to execute the regression tests depend on what platform the tests are being executed on. On Unix, you can run make test at the top-level directory where Python was built. On Windows, executing rt.bat from your PCbuild directory will run all regression tests.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14: Output is colorized by default and can be controlled using environment variables.

test.support --- Utilities for the Python test suite

The test.support module provides support for Python's regression test suite.

Note

test.support is not a public module. It is documented here to help Python developers write tests. The API of this module is subject to change without backwards compatibility concerns between releases.

This module defines the following exceptions:

exception test.support.TestFailed

Exception to be raised when a test fails. This is deprecated in favor of unittest-based tests and unittest.TestCase's assertion methods.

exception test.support.ResourceDenied

Subclass of unittest.SkipTest. Raised when a resource (such as a network connection) is not available. Raised by the requires() function.

The test.support module defines the following constants:

test.support.verbose

True when verbose output is enabled. Should be checked when more detailed information is desired about a running test. verbose is set by test.regrtest.

test.support.is_jython

True if the running interpreter is Jython.

test.support.is_android

True if sys.platform is android.

test.support.is_emscripten

True if sys.platform is emscripten.

test.support.is_wasi

True if sys.platform is wasi.

test.support.is_apple_mobile

True if sys.platform is ios, tvos, or watchos.

test.support.is_apple

True if sys.platform is darwin or is_apple_mobile is True.

test.support.unix_shell

Path for shell if not on Windows; otherwise None.

test.support.LOOPBACK_TIMEOUT

Timeout in seconds for tests using a network server listening on the network local loopback interface like 127.0.0.1.

The timeout is long enough to prevent test failure: it takes into account that the client and the server can run in different threads or even different processes.

The timeout should be long enough for connect(), recv() and send() methods of socket.socket.

Its default value is 5 seconds.

See also INTERNET_TIMEOUT.

test.support.INTERNET_TIMEOUT

Timeout in seconds for network requests going to the internet.

The timeout is short enough to prevent a test to wait for too long if the internet request is blocked for whatever reason.

Usually, a timeout using INTERNET_TIMEOUT should not mark a test as failed, but skip the test instead: see transient_internet().

Its default value is 1 minute.

See also LOOPBACK_TIMEOUT.

test.support.SHORT_TIMEOUT

Timeout in seconds to mark a test as failed if the test takes "too long".

The timeout value depends on the regrtest --timeout command line option.

If a test using SHORT_TIMEOUT starts to fail randomly on slow buildbots, use LONG_TIMEOUT instead.

Its default value is 30 seconds.

test.support.LONG_TIMEOUT

Timeout in seconds to detect when a test hangs.

It is long enough to reduce the risk of test failure on the slowest Python buildbots. It should not be used to mark a test as failed if the test takes "too long". The timeout value depends on the regrtest --timeout command line option.

Its default value is 5 minutes.

See also LOOPBACK_TIMEOUT, INTERNET_TIMEOUT and SHORT_TIMEOUT.

test.support.PGO

Set when tests can be skipped when they are not useful for PGO.

test.support.PIPE_MAX_SIZE

A constant that is likely larger than the underlying OS pipe buffer size, to make writes blocking.

test.support.Py_DEBUG

True if Python was built with the Py_DEBUG macro defined, that is, if Python was built in debug mode.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

test.support.SOCK_MAX_SIZE

A constant that is likely larger than the underlying OS socket buffer size, to make writes blocking.

test.support.TEST_SUPPORT_DIR

Set to the top level directory that contains test.support.

test.support.TEST_HOME_DIR

Set to the top level directory for the test package.

test.support.TEST_DATA_DIR

Set to the data directory within the test package.

test.support.MAX_Py_ssize_t

Set to sys.maxsize for big memory tests.

test.support.max_memuse

Set by set_memlimit() as the memory limit for big memory tests. Limited by MAX_Py_ssize_t.

test.support.real_max_memuse

Set by set_memlimit() as the memory limit for big memory tests. Not limited by MAX_Py_ssize_t.

test.support.MISSING_C_DOCSTRINGS

Set to True if Python is built without docstrings (the WITH_DOC_STRINGS macro is not defined). See the configure --without-doc-strings option.

See also the HAVE_DOCSTRINGS variable.

test.support.HAVE_DOCSTRINGS

Set to True if function docstrings are available. See the python -OO option, which strips docstrings of functions implemented in Python.

See also the MISSING_C_DOCSTRINGS variable.

test.support.TEST_HTTP_URL

Define the URL of a dedicated HTTP server for the network tests.

test.support.ALWAYS_EQ

Object that is equal to anything. Used to test mixed type comparison.

test.support.NEVER_EQ

Object that is not equal to anything (even to ALWAYS_EQ). Used to test mixed type comparison.

test.support.LARGEST

Object that is greater than anything (except itself). Used to test mixed type comparison.

test.support.SMALLEST

Object that is less than anything (except itself). Used to test mixed type comparison.

The test.support module defines the following functions:

test.support.busy_retry(timeout, err_msg=None, /, *, error=True)

Run the loop body until break stops the loop.

After timeout seconds, raise an AssertionError if error is true, or just stop the loop if error is false.

Example:

for _ in support.busy_retry(support.SHORT_TIMEOUT):
    if check():
        break

Example of error=False usage:

for _ in support.busy_retry(support.SHORT_TIMEOUT, error=False):
    if check():
        break
else:
    raise RuntimeError('my custom error')

test.support.sleeping_retry(timeout, err_msg=None, /, *, init_delay=0.010, max_delay=1.0, error=True)

Wait strategy that applies exponential backoff.

Run the loop body until break stops the loop. Sleep at each loop iteration, but not at the first iteration. The sleep delay is doubled at each iteration (up to max_delay seconds).

See busy_retry() documentation for the parameters usage.

Example raising an exception after SHORT_TIMEOUT seconds:

for _ in support.sleeping_retry(support.SHORT_TIMEOUT):
    if check():
        break

Example of error=False usage:

for _ in support.sleeping_retry(support.SHORT_TIMEOUT, error=False):
    if check():
        break
else:
    raise RuntimeError('my custom error')

test.support.is_resource_enabled(resource)

Return True if resource is enabled and available. The list of available resources is only set when test.regrtest is executing the tests.

test.support.get_resource_value(resource)

Return the value specified for resource (as -u resource=value). Return None if resource is disabled or no value is specified.

test.support.python_is_optimized()

Return True if Python was not built with -O0 or -Og.

test.support.with_pymalloc()

Return _testcapi.WITH_PYMALLOC.

test.support.requires(resource, msg=None)

Raise ResourceDenied if resource is not available. msg is the argument to ResourceDenied if it is raised. Always returns True if called by a function whose __name__ is '__main__'. Used when tests are executed by test.regrtest.

test.support.sortdict(dict)

Return a repr of dict with keys sorted.

test.support.findfile(filename, subdir=None)

Return the path to the file named filename. If no match is found filename is returned. This does not equal a failure since it could be the path to the file.

Setting subdir indicates a relative path to use to find the file rather than looking directly in the path directories.

test.support.get_pagesize()

Get size of a page in bytes.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

test.support.setswitchinterval(interval)

Set the sys.setswitchinterval() to the given interval. Defines a minimum interval for Android systems to prevent the system from hanging.

test.support.check_impl_detail(**guards)

Use this check to guard CPython's implementation-specific tests or to run them only on the implementations guarded by the arguments. This function returns True or False depending on the host platform. Example usage:

check_impl_detail()               # Only on CPython (default).
check_impl_detail(jython=True)    # Only on Jython.
check_impl_detail(cpython=False)  # Everywhere except CPython.

test.support.set_memlimit(limit)

Set the values for max_memuse and real_max_memuse for big memory tests.

test.support.record_original_stdout(stdout)

Store the value from stdout. It is meant to hold the stdout at the time the regrtest began.

test.support.get_original_stdout()

Return the original stdout set by record_original_stdout() or sys.stdout if it's not set.

test.support.args_from_interpreter_flags()

Return a list of command line arguments reproducing the current settings in sys.flags and sys.warnoptions.

test.support.optim_args_from_interpreter_flags()

Return a list of command line arguments reproducing the current optimization settings in sys.flags.

test.support.captured_stdin()

test.support.captured_stdout()

test.support.captured_stderr()

A context managers that temporarily replaces the named stream with io.StringIO object.

Example use with output streams:

with captured_stdout() as stdout, captured_stderr() as stderr:
    print("hello")
    print("error", file=sys.stderr)
assert stdout.getvalue() == "hello\n"
assert stderr.getvalue() == "error\n"

Example use with input stream:

with captured_stdin() as stdin:
    stdin.write('hello\n')
    stdin.seek(0)
    # call test code that consumes from sys.stdin
    captured = input()
self.assertEqual(captured, "hello")

test.support.disable_faulthandler()

A context manager that temporary disables faulthandler.

test.support.gc_collect()

Force as many objects as possible to be collected. This is needed because timely deallocation is not guaranteed by the garbage collector. This means that __del__ methods may be called later than expected and weakrefs may remain alive for longer than expected.

test.support.disable_gc()

A context manager that disables the garbage collector on entry. On exit, the garbage collector is restored to its prior state.

test.support.swap_attr(obj, attr, new_val)

Context manager to swap out an attribute with a new object.

Utilisation :

with swap_attr(obj, "attr", 5):
    ...

This will set obj.attr to 5 for the duration of the with block, restoring the old value at the end of the block. If attr doesn't exist on obj, it will be created and then deleted at the end of the block.

The old value (or None if it doesn't exist) will be assigned to the target of the "as" clause, if there is one.

test.support.swap_item(obj, attr, new_val)

Context manager to swap out an item with a new object.

Utilisation :

with swap_item(obj, "item", 5):
    ...

This will set obj["item"] to 5 for the duration of the with block, restoring the old value at the end of the block. If item doesn't exist on obj, it will be created and then deleted at the end of the block.

The old value (or None if it doesn't exist) will be assigned to the target of the "as" clause, if there is one.

test.support.flush_std_streams()

Call the flush() method on sys.stdout and then on sys.stderr. It can be used to make sure that the logs order is consistent before writing into stderr.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

test.support.print_warning(msg)

Print a warning into sys.__stderr__. Format the message as: f"Warning -- {msg}". If msg is made of multiple lines, add "Warning -- " prefix to each line.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

test.support.wait_process(pid, *, exitcode, timeout=None)

Wait until process pid completes and check that the process exit code is exitcode.

Raise an AssertionError if the process exit code is not equal to exitcode.

If the process runs longer than timeout seconds (SHORT_TIMEOUT by default), kill the process and raise an AssertionError. The timeout feature is not available on Windows.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

test.support.calcobjsize(fmt)

Return the size of the PyObject whose structure members are defined by fmt. The returned value includes the size of the Python object header and alignment.

test.support.calcvobjsize(fmt)

Return the size of the PyVarObject whose structure members are defined by fmt. The returned value includes the size of the Python object header and alignment.

test.support.checksizeof(test, o, size)

For testcase test, assert that the sys.getsizeof for o plus the GC header size equals size.

@test.support.anticipate_failure(condition)

A decorator to conditionally mark tests with unittest.expectedFailure(). Any use of this decorator should have an associated comment identifying the relevant tracker issue.

test.support.system_must_validate_cert(f)

A decorator that skips the decorated test on TLS certification validation failures.

@test.support.run_with_locale(catstr, *locales)

A decorator for running a function in a different locale, correctly resetting it after it has finished. catstr is the locale category as a string (for example "LC_ALL"). The locales passed will be tried sequentially, and the first valid locale will be used.

@test.support.run_with_tz(tz)

A decorator for running a function in a specific timezone, correctly resetting it after it has finished.

@test.support.requires_freebsd_version(*min_version)

Decorator for the minimum version when running test on FreeBSD. If the FreeBSD version is less than the minimum, the test is skipped.

@test.support.requires_linux_version(*min_version)

Decorator for the minimum version when running test on Linux. If the Linux version is less than the minimum, the test is skipped.

@test.support.requires_mac_version(*min_version)

Decorator for the minimum version when running test on macOS. If the macOS version is less than the minimum, the test is skipped.

@test.support.requires_gil_enabled

Decorator for skipping tests on the free-threaded build. If the GIL is disabled, the test is skipped.

@test.support.requires_IEEE_754

Decorator for skipping tests on non-IEEE 754 platforms.

@test.support.requires_zlib

Decorator for skipping tests if zlib doesn't exist.

@test.support.requires_gzip

Decorator for skipping tests if gzip doesn't exist.

@test.support.requires_bz2

Decorator for skipping tests if bz2 doesn't exist.

@test.support.requires_lzma

Decorator for skipping tests if lzma doesn't exist.

@test.support.requires_resource(resource)

Decorator for skipping tests if resource is not available.

@test.support.requires_docstrings

Decorator for only running the test if HAVE_DOCSTRINGS.

@test.support.requires_limited_api

Decorator for only running the test if Limited C API is available.

@test.support.cpython_only

Decorator for tests only applicable to CPython.

@test.support.impl_detail(msg=None, **guards)

Decorator for invoking check_impl_detail() on guards. If that returns False, then uses msg as the reason for skipping the test.

@test.support.thread_unsafe(reason=None)

Decorator for marking tests as thread-unsafe. This test always runs in one thread even when invoked with --parallel-threads.

@test.support.no_tracing

Decorator to temporarily turn off tracing for the duration of the test.

@test.support.refcount_test

Decorator for tests which involve reference counting. The decorator does not run the test if it is not run by CPython. Any trace function is unset for the duration of the test to prevent unexpected refcounts caused by the trace function.

@test.support.bigmemtest(size, memuse, dry_run=True)

Decorator for bigmem tests.

size is a requested size for the test (in arbitrary, test-interpreted units.) memuse is the number of bytes per unit for the test, or a good estimate of it. For example, a test that needs two byte buffers, of 4 GiB each, could be decorated with @bigmemtest(size=_4G, memuse=2).

The size argument is normally passed to the decorated test method as an extra argument. If dry_run is True, the value passed to the test method may be less than the requested value. If dry_run is False, it means the test doesn't support dummy runs when -M is not specified.

@test.support.bigaddrspacetest

Decorator for tests that fill the address space.

test.support.linked_to_musl()

Return False if there is no evidence the interpreter was compiled with musl, otherwise return a version triple, either (0, 0, 0) if the version is unknown, or the actual version if it is known. Intended for use in skip decorators. emscripten and wasi are assumed to be compiled with musl; otherwise platform.libc_ver is checked.

test.support.check_syntax_error(testcase, statement, errtext='', *, lineno=None, offset=None)

Test for syntax errors in statement by attempting to compile statement. testcase is the unittest instance for the test. errtext is the regular expression which should match the string representation of the raised SyntaxError. If lineno is not None, compares to the line of the exception. If offset is not None, compares to the offset of the exception.

test.support.open_urlresource(url, *args, **kw)

Open url. If open fails, raises TestFailed.

test.support.reap_children()

Use this at the end of test_main whenever sub-processes are started. This will help ensure that no extra children (zombies) stick around to hog resources and create problems when looking for refleaks.

test.support.get_attribute(obj, name)

Get an attribute, raising unittest.SkipTest if AttributeError is raised.

test.support.catch_unraisable_exception()

Context manager catching unraisable exception using sys.unraisablehook().

Storing the exception value (cm.unraisable.exc_value) creates a reference cycle. The reference cycle is broken explicitly when the context manager exits.

Storing the object (cm.unraisable.object) can resurrect it if it is set to an object which is being finalized. Exiting the context manager clears the stored object.

Utilisation :

with support.catch_unraisable_exception() as cm:
    # code creating an "unraisable exception"
    ...

    # check the unraisable exception: use cm.unraisable
    ...

# cm.unraisable attribute no longer exists at this point
# (to break a reference cycle)

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

test.support.load_package_tests(pkg_dir, loader, standard_tests, pattern)

Generic implementation of the unittest load_tests protocol for use in test packages. pkg_dir is the root directory of the package; loader, standard_tests, and pattern are the arguments expected by load_tests. In simple cases, the test package's __init__.py can be the following:

import os
from test.support import load_package_tests

def load_tests(*args):
    return load_package_tests(os.path.dirname(__file__), *args)

test.support.detect_api_mismatch(ref_api, other_api, *, ignore=())

Returns the set of attributes, functions or methods of ref_api not found on other_api, except for a defined list of items to be ignored in this check specified in ignore.

By default this skips private attributes beginning with '_' but includes all magic methods, i.e. those starting and ending in '__'.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

test.support.patch(test_instance, object_to_patch, attr_name, new_value)

Override object_to_patch.attr_name with new_value. Also add cleanup procedure to test_instance to restore object_to_patch for attr_name. The attr_name should be a valid attribute for object_to_patch.

test.support.run_in_subinterp(code)

Run code in subinterpreter. Raise unittest.SkipTest if tracemalloc is enabled.

test.support.check_free_after_iterating(test, iter, cls, args=())

Assert instances of cls are deallocated after iterating.

test.support.missing_compiler_executable(cmd_names=[])

Check for the existence of the compiler executables whose names are listed in cmd_names or all the compiler executables when cmd_names is empty and return the first missing executable or None when none is found missing.

test.support.check__all__(test_case, module, name_of_module=None, extra=(), not_exported=())

Assert that the __all__ variable of module contains all public names.

The module's public names (its API) are detected automatically based on whether they match the public name convention and were defined in module.

The name_of_module argument can specify (as a string or tuple thereof) what module(s) an API could be defined in order to be detected as a public API. One case for this is when module imports part of its public API from other modules, possibly a C backend (like csv and its _csv).

The extra argument can be a set of names that wouldn't otherwise be automatically detected as "public", like objects without a proper __module__ attribute. If provided, it will be added to the automatically detected ones.

The not_exported argument can be a set of names that must not be treated as part of the public API even though their names indicate otherwise.

Example use:

import bar
import foo
import unittest
from test import support

class MiscTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
    def test__all__(self):
        support.check__all__(self, foo)

class OtherTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
    def test__all__(self):
        extra = {'BAR_CONST', 'FOO_CONST'}
        not_exported = {'baz'}  # Undocumented name.
        # bar imports part of its API from _bar.
        support.check__all__(self, bar, ('bar', '_bar'),
                             extra=extra, not_exported=not_exported)

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

test.support.skip_if_broken_multiprocessing_synchronize()

Skip tests if the multiprocessing.synchronize module is missing, if there is no available semaphore implementation, or if creating a lock raises an OSError.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

test.support.check_disallow_instantiation(test_case, tp, *args, **kwds)

Assert that type tp cannot be instantiated using args and kwds.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

test.support.adjust_int_max_str_digits(max_digits)

This function returns a context manager that will change the global sys.set_int_max_str_digits() setting for the duration of the context to allow execution of test code that needs a different limit on the number of digits when converting between an integer and string.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

The test.support module defines the following classes:

class test.support.SuppressCrashReport

A context manager used to try to prevent crash dialog popups on tests that are expected to crash a subprocess.

On Windows, it disables Windows Error Reporting dialogs using SetErrorMode [https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/ms680621.aspx].

On UNIX, resource.setrlimit() is used to set resource.RLIMIT_CORE's soft limit to 0 to prevent coredump file creation.

On both platforms, the old value is restored by __exit__().

class test.support.SaveSignals

Class to save and restore signal handlers registered by the Python signal handler.

save(self)

Save the signal handlers to a dictionary mapping signal numbers to the current signal handler.

restore(self)

Set the signal numbers from the save() dictionary to the saved handler.

class test.support.Matcher

matches(self, d, **kwargs)

Try to match a single dict with the supplied arguments.

match_value(self, k, dv, v)

Try to match a single stored value (dv) with a supplied value (v).

test.support.socket_helper --- Utilities for socket tests

The test.support.socket_helper module provides support for socket tests.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

test.support.socket_helper.IPV6_ENABLED

Set to True if IPv6 is enabled on this host, False otherwise.

test.support.socket_helper.find_unused_port(family=socket.AF_INET, socktype=socket.SOCK_STREAM)

Returns an unused port that should be suitable for binding. This is achieved by creating a temporary socket with the same family and type as the sock parameter (default is AF_INET, SOCK_STREAM), and binding it to the specified host address (defaults to 0.0.0.0) with the port set to 0, eliciting an unused ephemeral port from the OS. The temporary socket is then closed and deleted, and the ephemeral port is returned.

Either this method or bind_port() should be used for any tests where a server socket needs to be bound to a particular port for the duration of the test. Which one to use depends on whether the calling code is creating a Python socket, or if an unused port needs to be provided in a constructor or passed to an external program (i.e. the -accept argument to openssl's s_server mode). Always prefer bind_port() over find_unused_port() where possible. Using a hard coded port is discouraged since it can make multiple instances of the test impossible to run simultaneously, which is a problem for buildbots.

test.support.socket_helper.bind_port(sock, host=HOST)

Bind the socket to a free port and return the port number. Relies on ephemeral ports in order to ensure we are using an unbound port. This is important as many tests may be running simultaneously, especially in a buildbot environment. This method raises an exception if the sock.family is AF_INET and sock.type is SOCK_STREAM, and the socket has SO_REUSEADDR or SO_REUSEPORT set on it. Tests should never set these socket options for TCP/IP sockets. The only case for setting these options is testing multicasting via multiple UDP sockets.

Additionally, if the SO_EXCLUSIVEADDRUSE socket option is available (i.e. on Windows), it will be set on the socket. This will prevent anyone else from binding to our host/port for the duration of the test.

test.support.socket_helper.bind_unix_socket(sock, addr)

Bind a Unix socket, raising unittest.SkipTest if PermissionError is raised.

@test.support.socket_helper.skip_unless_bind_unix_socket

A decorator for running tests that require a functional bind() for Unix sockets.

test.support.socket_helper.transient_internet(resource_name, *, timeout=30.0, errnos=())

A context manager that raises ResourceDenied when various issues with the internet connection manifest themselves as exceptions.

test.support.script_helper --- Utilities for the Python execution tests

The test.support.script_helper module provides support for Python's script execution tests.

test.support.script_helper.interpreter_requires_environment()

Return True if sys.executable interpreter requires environment variables in order to be able to run at all.

This is designed to be used with @unittest.skipIf() to annotate tests that need to use an assert_python*() function to launch an isolated mode (-I) or no environment mode (-E) sub-interpreter process.

A normal build & test does not run into this situation but it can happen when trying to run the standard library test suite from an interpreter that doesn't have an obvious home with Python's current home finding logic.

Setting PYTHONHOME is one way to get most of the testsuite to run in that situation. PYTHONPATH or PYTHONUSERSITE are other common environment variables that might impact whether or not the interpreter can start.

test.support.script_helper.run_python_until_end(*args, **env_vars)

Set up the environment based on env_vars for running the interpreter in a subprocess. The values can include __isolated, __cleanenv, __cwd, and TERM.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: The function no longer strips whitespaces from stderr.

test.support.script_helper.assert_python_ok(*args, **env_vars)

Assert that running the interpreter with args and optional environment variables env_vars succeeds (rc == 0) and return a (return code, stdout, stderr) tuple.

If the __cleanenv keyword-only parameter is set, env_vars is used as a fresh environment.

Python is started in isolated mode (command line option -I), except if the __isolated keyword-only parameter is set to False.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: The function no longer strips whitespaces from stderr.

test.support.script_helper.assert_python_failure(*args, **env_vars)

Assert that running the interpreter with args and optional environment variables env_vars fails (rc != 0) and return a (return code, stdout, stderr) tuple.

See assert_python_ok() for more options.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: The function no longer strips whitespaces from stderr.

test.support.script_helper.spawn_python(*args, stdout=subprocess.PIPE, stderr=subprocess.STDOUT, **kw)

Run a Python subprocess with the given arguments.

kw is extra keyword args to pass to subprocess.Popen(). Returns a subprocess.Popen object.

test.support.script_helper.kill_python(p)

Run the given subprocess.Popen process until completion and return stdout.

test.support.script_helper.make_script(script_dir, script_basename, source, omit_suffix=False)

Create script containing source in path script_dir and script_basename. If omit_suffix is False, append .py to the name. Return the full script path.

test.support.script_helper.make_zip_script(zip_dir, zip_basename, script_name, name_in_zip=None)

Create zip file at zip_dir and zip_basename with extension zip which contains the files in script_name. name_in_zip is the archive name. Return a tuple containing (full path, full path of archive name).

test.support.script_helper.make_pkg(pkg_dir, init_source='')

Create a directory named pkg_dir containing an __init__ file with init_source as its contents.

test.support.script_helper.make_zip_pkg(zip_dir, zip_basename, pkg_name, script_basename, source, depth=1, compiled=False)

Create a zip package directory with a path of zip_dir and zip_basename containing an empty __init__ file and a file script_basename containing the source. If compiled is True, both source files will be compiled and added to the zip package. Return a tuple of the full zip path and the archive name for the zip file.

test.support.bytecode_helper --- Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation

The test.support.bytecode_helper module provides support for testing and inspecting bytecode generation.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

The module defines the following class:

class test.support.bytecode_helper.BytecodeTestCase(unittest.TestCase)

This class has custom assertion methods for inspecting bytecode.

BytecodeTestCase.get_disassembly_as_string(co)

Return the disassembly of co as string.

BytecodeTestCase.assertInBytecode(x, opname, argval=_UNSPECIFIED)

Return instr if opname is found, otherwise throws AssertionError.

BytecodeTestCase.assertNotInBytecode(x, opname, argval=_UNSPECIFIED)

Throws AssertionError if opname is found.

test.support.threading_helper --- Utilities for threading tests

The test.support.threading_helper module provides support for threading tests.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

test.support.threading_helper.join_thread(thread, timeout=None)

Join a thread within timeout. Raise an AssertionError if thread is still alive after timeout seconds.

@test.support.threading_helper.reap_threads

Decorator to ensure the threads are cleaned up even if the test fails.

test.support.threading_helper.start_threads(threads, unlock=None)

Context manager to start threads, which is a sequence of threads. unlock is a function called after the threads are started, even if an exception was raised; an example would be threading.Event.set(). start_threads will attempt to join the started threads upon exit.

test.support.threading_helper.threading_cleanup(*original_values)

Cleanup up threads not specified in original_values. Designed to emit a warning if a test leaves running threads in the background.

test.support.threading_helper.threading_setup()

Return current thread count and copy of dangling threads.

test.support.threading_helper.wait_threads_exit(timeout=None)

Context manager to wait until all threads created in the with statement exit.

test.support.threading_helper.catch_threading_exception()

Context manager catching threading.Thread exception using threading.excepthook().

Attributes set when an exception is caught:

exc_type

exc_value

exc_traceback

thread

See threading.excepthook() documentation.

These attributes are deleted at the context manager exit.

Utilisation :

with threading_helper.catch_threading_exception() as cm:
    # code spawning a thread which raises an exception
    ...

    # check the thread exception, use cm attributes:
    # exc_type, exc_value, exc_traceback, thread
    ...

# exc_type, exc_value, exc_traceback, thread attributes of cm no longer
# exists at this point
# (to avoid reference cycles)

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

test.support.threading_helper.run_concurrently(worker_func, nthreads, args=(), kwargs={})

Run the worker function concurrently in multiple threads. Re-raises an exception if any thread raises one, after all threads have finished.

test.support.os_helper --- Utilities for os tests

The test.support.os_helper module provides support for os tests.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

test.support.os_helper.FS_NONASCII

A non-ASCII character encodable by os.fsencode().

test.support.os_helper.SAVEDCWD

Set to os.getcwd().

test.support.os_helper.TESTFN

Set to a name that is safe to use as the name of a temporary file. Any temporary file that is created should be closed and unlinked (removed).

test.support.os_helper.TESTFN_NONASCII

Set to a filename containing the FS_NONASCII character, if it exists. This guarantees that if the filename exists, it can be encoded and decoded with the default filesystem encoding. This allows tests that require a non-ASCII filename to be easily skipped on platforms where they can't work.

test.support.os_helper.TESTFN_UNENCODABLE

Set to a filename (str type) that should not be able to be encoded by file system encoding in strict mode. It may be None if it's not possible to generate such a filename.

test.support.os_helper.TESTFN_UNDECODABLE

Set to a filename (bytes type) that should not be able to be decoded by file system encoding in strict mode. It may be None if it's not possible to generate such a filename.

test.support.os_helper.TESTFN_UNICODE

Set to a non-ASCII name for a temporary file.

class test.support.os_helper.EnvironmentVarGuard

Class used to temporarily set or unset environment variables. Instances can be used as a context manager and have a complete dictionary interface for querying/modifying the underlying os.environ. After exit from the context manager all changes to environment variables done through this instance will be rolled back.

Modifié dans la version 3.1: Added dictionary interface.

class test.support.os_helper.FakePath(path)

Simple path-like object. It implements the __fspath__() method which just returns the path argument. If path is an exception, it will be raised in __fspath__().

EnvironmentVarGuard.set(envvar, value)

Temporarily set the environment variable envvar to the value of value.

EnvironmentVarGuard.unset(envvar, *others)

Temporarily unset one or more environment variables.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: More than one environment variable can be unset.

test.support.os_helper.can_symlink()

Return True if the OS supports symbolic links, False otherwise.

test.support.os_helper.can_xattr()

Return True if the OS supports xattr, False otherwise.

test.support.os_helper.change_cwd(path, quiet=False)

A context manager that temporarily changes the current working directory to path and yields the directory.

If quiet is False, the context manager raises an exception on error. Otherwise, it issues only a warning and keeps the current working directory the same.

test.support.os_helper.create_empty_file(filename)

Create an empty file with filename. If it already exists, truncate it.

test.support.os_helper.fd_count()

Count the number of open file descriptors.

test.support.os_helper.fs_is_case_insensitive(directory)

Return True if the file system for directory is case-insensitive.

test.support.os_helper.make_bad_fd()

Create an invalid file descriptor by opening and closing a temporary file, and returning its descriptor.

test.support.os_helper.rmdir(filename)

Call os.rmdir() on filename. On Windows platforms, this is wrapped with a wait loop that checks for the existence of the file, which is needed due to antivirus programs that can hold files open and prevent deletion.

test.support.os_helper.rmtree(path)

Call shutil.rmtree() on path or call os.lstat() and os.rmdir() to remove a path and its contents. As with rmdir(), on Windows platforms this is wrapped with a wait loop that checks for the existence of the files.

@test.support.os_helper.skip_unless_symlink

A decorator for running tests that require support for symbolic links.

@test.support.os_helper.skip_unless_xattr

A decorator for running tests that require support for xattr.

test.support.os_helper.temp_cwd(name='tempcwd', quiet=False)

A context manager that temporarily creates a new directory and changes the current working directory (CWD).

The context manager creates a temporary directory in the current directory with name name before temporarily changing the current working directory. If name is None, the temporary directory is created using tempfile.mkdtemp().

If quiet is False and it is not possible to create or change the CWD, an error is raised. Otherwise, only a warning is raised and the original CWD is used.

test.support.os_helper.temp_dir(path=None, quiet=False)

A context manager that creates a temporary directory at path and yields the directory.

If path is None, the temporary directory is created using tempfile.mkdtemp(). If quiet is False, the context manager raises an exception on error. Otherwise, if path is specified and cannot be created, only a warning is issued.

test.support.os_helper.temp_umask(umask)

A context manager that temporarily sets the process umask.

test.support.os_helper.unlink(filename)

Call os.unlink() on filename. As with rmdir(), on Windows platforms, this is wrapped with a wait loop that checks for the existence of the file.

test.support.import_helper --- Utilities for import tests

The test.support.import_helper module provides support for import tests.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

test.support.import_helper.forget(module_name)

Remove the module named module_name from sys.modules and delete any byte-compiled files of the module.

test.support.import_helper.import_fresh_module(name, fresh=(), blocked=(), deprecated=False)

This function imports and returns a fresh copy of the named Python module by removing the named module from sys.modules before doing the import. Note that unlike reload(), the original module is not affected by this operation.

fresh is an iterable of additional module names that are also removed from the sys.modules cache before doing the import.

blocked is an iterable of module names that are replaced with None in the module cache during the import to ensure that attempts to import them raise ImportError.

The named module and any modules named in the fresh and blocked parameters are saved before starting the import and then reinserted into sys.modules when the fresh import is complete.

Module and package deprecation messages are suppressed during this import if deprecated is True.

This function will raise ImportError if the named module cannot be imported.

Example use:

# Get copies of the warnings module for testing without affecting the
# version being used by the rest of the test suite. One copy uses the
# C implementation, the other is forced to use the pure Python fallback
# implementation
py_warnings = import_fresh_module('warnings', blocked=['_warnings'])
c_warnings = import_fresh_module('warnings', fresh=['_warnings'])

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

test.support.import_helper.import_module(name, deprecated=False, *, required_on=())

This function imports and returns the named module. Unlike a normal import, this function raises unittest.SkipTest if the module cannot be imported.

Module and package deprecation messages are suppressed during this import if deprecated is True. If a module is required on a platform but optional for others, set required_on to an iterable of platform prefixes which will be compared against sys.platform.

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

test.support.import_helper.modules_setup()

Return a copy of sys.modules.

test.support.import_helper.modules_cleanup(oldmodules)

Remove modules except for oldmodules and encodings in order to preserve internal cache.

test.support.import_helper.unload(name)

Delete name from sys.modules.

test.support.import_helper.make_legacy_pyc(source)

Move a PEP 3147 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/]/PEP 488 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/] pyc file to its legacy pyc location and return the file system path to the legacy pyc file. The source value is the file system path to the source file. It does not need to exist, however the PEP 3147/488 pyc file must exist.

class test.support.import_helper.CleanImport(*module_names)

A context manager to force import to return a new module reference. This is useful for testing module-level behaviors, such as the emission of a DeprecationWarning on import. Example usage:

with CleanImport('foo'):
    importlib.import_module('foo')  # New reference.

class test.support.import_helper.DirsOnSysPath(*paths)

A context manager to temporarily add directories to sys.path.

This makes a copy of sys.path, appends any directories given as positional arguments, then reverts sys.path to the copied settings when the context ends.

Note that all sys.path modifications in the body of the context manager, including replacement of the object, will be reverted at the end of the block.

test.support.warnings_helper --- Utilities for warnings tests

The test.support.warnings_helper module provides support for warnings tests.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

test.support.warnings_helper.ignore_warnings(*, category)

Suppress warnings that are instances of category, which must be Warning or a subclass. Roughly equivalent to warnings.catch_warnings() with warnings.simplefilter('ignore', category=category). For example:

@warning_helper.ignore_warnings(category=DeprecationWarning)
def test_suppress_warning():
    # do something

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

test.support.warnings_helper.check_no_resource_warning(testcase)

Context manager to check that no ResourceWarning was raised. You must remove the object which may emit ResourceWarning before the end of the context manager.

test.support.warnings_helper.check_syntax_warning(testcase, statement, errtext='', *, lineno=1, offset=None)

Test for syntax warning in statement by attempting to compile statement. Test also that the SyntaxWarning is emitted only once, and that it will be converted to a SyntaxError when turned into error. testcase is the unittest instance for the test. errtext is the regular expression which should match the string representation of the emitted SyntaxWarning and raised SyntaxError. If lineno is not None, compares to the line of the warning and exception. If offset is not None, compares to the offset of the exception.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

test.support.warnings_helper.check_warnings(*filters, quiet=True)

A convenience wrapper for warnings.catch_warnings() that makes it easier to test that a warning was correctly raised. It is approximately equivalent to calling warnings.catch_warnings(record=True) with warnings.simplefilter() set to always and with the option to automatically validate the results that are recorded.

check_warnings accepts 2-tuples of the form ("message regexp", WarningCategory) as positional arguments. If one or more filters are provided, or if the optional keyword argument quiet is False, it checks to make sure the warnings are as expected: each specified filter must match at least one of the warnings raised by the enclosed code or the test fails, and if any warnings are raised that do not match any of the specified filters the test fails. To disable the first of these checks, set quiet to True.

If no arguments are specified, it defaults to:

check_warnings(("", Warning), quiet=True)

In this case all warnings are caught and no errors are raised.

On entry to the context manager, a WarningRecorder instance is returned. The underlying warnings list from catch_warnings() is available via the recorder object's warnings attribute. As a convenience, the attributes of the object representing the most recent warning can also be accessed directly through the recorder object (see example below). If no warning has been raised, then any of the attributes that would otherwise be expected on an object representing a warning will return None.

The recorder object also has a reset() method, which clears the warnings list.

The context manager is designed to be used like this:

with check_warnings(("assertion is always true", SyntaxWarning),
                    ("", UserWarning)):
    exec('assert(False, "Hey!")')
    warnings.warn(UserWarning("Hide me!"))

In this case if either warning was not raised, or some other warning was raised, check_warnings() would raise an error.

When a test needs to look more deeply into the warnings, rather than just checking whether or not they occurred, code like this can be used:

with check_warnings(quiet=True) as w:
    warnings.warn("foo")
    assert str(w.args[0]) == "foo"
    warnings.warn("bar")
    assert str(w.args[0]) == "bar"
    assert str(w.warnings[0].args[0]) == "foo"
    assert str(w.warnings[1].args[0]) == "bar"
    w.reset()
    assert len(w.warnings) == 0

Here all warnings will be caught, and the test code tests the captured warnings directly.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: New optional arguments filters and quiet.

class test.support.warnings_helper.WarningsRecorder

Class used to record warnings for unit tests. See documentation of check_warnings() above for more details.

Débogueur et instrumentation

Ces bibliothèques sont là pour vous aider lors du développement en Python : Le débogueur vous permet d'avancer pas à pas dans le code, d'analyser la pile d'appel, de placer des points d'arrêts, … Les outils d'instrumentation exécutent du code et vous donnent un rapport détaillé du temps d'exécution, vous permettant d'identifier les goulots d'étranglement dans vos programmes. Les événements d'audit fournissent une visibilité sur les comportements d'exécution qui nécessiteraient autrement un débogage ou une correction intrusifs.

Table des évènements d'audit

bdb --- Debugger framework

faulthandler --- Dump the Python traceback

Dumping the traceback

Dumping the C stack

C Stack Compatibility

Fault handler state

Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout

Dumping the traceback on a user signal

Issue with file descriptors

Exemple

pdb --- The Python Debugger

Command-line interface

Debugger commands

The Python Profilers

Introduction to the profilers

Instant User's Manual

profile and cProfile Module Reference

The Stats Class

What Is Deterministic Profiling?

Limitations

Calibration

Using a custom timer

timeit --- Measure execution time of small code snippets

Exemples simples

Interface Python

Interface en ligne de commande

Exemples

trace --- Trace or track Python statement execution

Utilisation en ligne de commande.

Main options

Modifiers

Filters

Programmatic Interface

tracemalloc --- Trace memory allocations

Exemples

Display the top 10

Compute differences

Get the traceback of a memory block

Pretty top

Record the current and peak size of all traced memory blocks

API

Fonctions

DomainFilter

Filter

Frame

Snapshot

Statistic

StatisticDiff

Trace

Traceback

Table des évènements d'audit

This table contains all events raised by sys.audit() or PySys_Audit() calls throughout the CPython runtime and the standard library. These calls were added in 3.8 or later (see PEP 578 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0578/]).

Voir sys.addaudithook() et PySys_AddAuditHook() pour plus d'informations sur la gestion de ces évènements.

Cette table est générée à partir de la documentation de CPython et peut ne pas représenter des évènements levés par d'autres implémentations. Consultez la documentation propre à votre implémentation pour connaître les évènements réellement levés.

Audit event

Arguments

References

_thread.start_new_thread

function, args, kwargs

[1]

array.__new__

typecode, initializer

[1]

builtins.breakpoint

breakpointhook

[1]

builtins.id

id

[1]

builtins.input

prompt

[1]

builtins.input/result

result

[1]

code.__new__

code, filename, name, argcount, posonlyargcount, kwonlyargcount, nlocals, stacksize, flags

[1]

compile

source, filename

[1]

cpython.PyConfig_Set

name, value

[1]

cpython.PyInterpreterState_Clear

[1]

cpython.PyInterpreterState_New

[1]

cpython._PySys_ClearAuditHooks

[1]

cpython.remote_debugger_script

script_path

[1]

cpython.run_command

command

[1]

cpython.run_file

filename

[1]

cpython.run_interactivehook

hook

[1]

cpython.run_module

module-name

[1]

cpython.run_startup

filename

[1]

cpython.run_stdin

[1][2][3]

ctypes.addressof

obj

[1]

ctypes.call_function

func_pointer, arguments

[1]

ctypes.cdata

address

[1]

ctypes.cdata/buffer

pointer, size, offset

[1][2]

ctypes.create_string_buffer

init, size

[1]

ctypes.create_unicode_buffer

init, size

[1]

ctypes.dlopen

name

[1]

ctypes.dlsym

library, name

[1]

ctypes.dlsym/handle

handle, name

[1]

ctypes.get_errno

[1]

ctypes.get_last_error

[1]

ctypes.memoryview_at

address, size, readonly

[1]

ctypes.set_errno

errno

[1]

ctypes.set_exception

code

[1]

ctypes.set_last_error

error

[1]

ctypes.string_at

ptr, size

[1]

ctypes.wstring_at

ptr, size

[1]

ensurepip.bootstrap

root

[1]

exec

code_object

[1][2]

fcntl.fcntl

fd, cmd, arg

[1]

fcntl.flock

fd, operation

[1]

fcntl.ioctl

fd, request, arg

[1]

fcntl.lockf

fd, cmd, len, start, whence

[1]

ftplib.connect

self, host, port

[1]

ftplib.sendcmd

self, cmd

[1][2]

function.__new__

code

[1]

gc.get_objects

generation

[1]

gc.get_referents

objs

[1]

gc.get_referrers

objs

[1]

glob.glob

pathname, recursive

[1][2]

glob.glob/2

pathname, recursive, root_dir, dir_fd

[1][2]

http.client.connect

self, host, port

[1]

http.client.send

self, data

[1]

imaplib.open

self, host, port

[1]

imaplib.send

self, data

[1]

import

module, filename, sys.path, sys.meta_path, sys.path_hooks

[1]

marshal.dumps

value, version

[1]

marshal.load

[1]

marshal.loads

bytes

[1]

mmap.__new__

fileno, length, access, offset

[1]

msvcrt.get_osfhandle

fd

[1]

msvcrt.locking

fd, mode, nbytes

[1]

msvcrt.open_osfhandle

handle, flags

[1]

object.__delattr__

obj, name

[1]

object.__getattr__

obj, name

[1]

object.__setattr__

obj, name, value

[1]

open

path, mode, flags

[1][2][3]

os.add_dll_directory

path

[1]

os.chdir

path

[1][2]

os.chflags

path, flags

[1][2]

os.chmod

path, mode, dir_fd

[1][2][3]

os.chown

path, uid, gid, dir_fd

[1][2][3]

os.exec

path, args, env

[1]

os.fork

[1]

os.forkpty

[1]

os.fwalk

top, topdown, onerror, follow_symlinks, dir_fd

[1]

os.getxattr

path, attribute

[1]

os.kill

pid, sig

[1]

os.killpg

pgid, sig

[1]

os.link

src, dst, src_dir_fd, dst_dir_fd

[1]

os.listdir

path

[1]

os.listdrives

[1]

os.listmounts

volume

[1]

os.listvolumes

[1]

os.listxattr

path

[1]

os.lockf

fd, cmd, len

[1]

os.mkdir

path, mode, dir_fd

[1][2]

os.posix_spawn

path, argv, env

[1][2]

os.putenv

key, value

[1]

os.remove

path, dir_fd

[1][2][3]

os.removexattr

path, attribute

[1]

os.rename

src, dst, src_dir_fd, dst_dir_fd

[1][2][3]

os.rmdir

path, dir_fd

[1]

os.scandir

path

[1]

os.setxattr

path, attribute, value, flags

[1]

os.spawn

mode, path, args, env

[1]

os.startfile

path, operation

[1]

os.startfile/2

path, operation, arguments, cwd, show_cmd

[1]

os.symlink

src, dst, dir_fd

[1]

os.system

command

[1]

os.truncate

fd, length

[1][2]

os.unsetenv

key

[1]

os.utime

path, times, ns, dir_fd

[1]

os.walk

top, topdown, onerror, followlinks

[1]

pathlib.Path.glob

self, pattern

[1]

pathlib.Path.rglob

self, pattern

[1]

pdb.Pdb

[1]

pickle.find_class

module, name

[1]

poplib.connect

self, host, port

[1][2]

poplib.putline

self, line

[1][2]

pty.spawn

argv

[1]

resource.prlimit

pid, resource, limits

[1]

resource.setrlimit

resource, limits

[1]

setopencodehook

[1]

shutil.chown

path, user, group

[1]

shutil.copyfile

src, dst

[1][2][3]

shutil.copymode

src, dst

[1][2]

shutil.copystat

src, dst

[1][2]

shutil.copytree

src, dst

[1]

shutil.make_archive

base_name, format, root_dir, base_dir

[1]

shutil.move

src, dst

[1]

shutil.rmtree

path, dir_fd

[1]

shutil.unpack_archive

filename, extract_dir, format

[1]

signal.pthread_kill

thread_id, signalnum

[1]

smtplib.connect

self, host, port

[1]

smtplib.send

self, data

[1]

socket.__new__

self, family, type, protocol

[1]

socket.bind

self, address

[1]

socket.connect

self, address

[1][2]

socket.getaddrinfo

host, port, family, type, protocol

[1]

socket.gethostbyaddr

ip_address

[1]

socket.gethostbyname

hostname

[1][2]

socket.gethostname

[1]

socket.getnameinfo

sockaddr

[1]

socket.getservbyname

servicename, protocolname

[1]

socket.getservbyport

port, protocolname

[1]

socket.sendmsg

self, address

[1]

socket.sendto

self, address

[1]

socket.sethostname

name

[1]

sqlite3.connect

database

[1]

sqlite3.connect/handle

connection_handle

[1]

sqlite3.enable_load_extension

connection, enabled

[1]

sqlite3.load_extension

connection, path

[1]

subprocess.Popen

executable, args, cwd, env

[1]

sys._current_exceptions

[1]

sys._current_frames

[1]

sys._getframe

frame

[1]

sys._getframemodulename

depth

[1]

sys.addaudithook

[1][2]

sys.excepthook

hook, type, value, traceback

[1]

sys.monitoring.register_callback

func

[1]

sys.remote_exec

pid

[1]

sys.set_asyncgen_hooks_finalizer

[1]

sys.set_asyncgen_hooks_firstiter

[1]

sys.setprofile

[1]

sys.settrace

[1]

sys.unraisablehook

hook, unraisable

[1]

syslog.closelog

[1]

syslog.openlog

ident, logoption, facility

[1]

syslog.setlogmask

maskpri

[1]

syslog.syslog

priority, message

[1]

tempfile.mkdtemp

fullpath

[1][2]

tempfile.mkstemp

fullpath

[1][2][3]

time.sleep

secs

[1]

urllib.Request

fullurl, data, headers, method

[1]

webbrowser.open

url

[1]

winreg.ConnectRegistry

computer_name, key

[1]

winreg.CreateKey

key, sub_key, access

[1][2]

winreg.DeleteKey

key, sub_key, access

[1][2]

winreg.DeleteValue

key, value

[1]

winreg.DisableReflectionKey

key

[1]

winreg.EnableReflectionKey

key

[1]

winreg.EnumKey

key, index

[1]

winreg.EnumValue

key, index

[1]

winreg.ExpandEnvironmentStrings

str

[1]

winreg.LoadKey

key, sub_key, file_name

[1]

winreg.OpenKey

key, sub_key, access

[1]

winreg.OpenKey/result

key

[1][2][3]

winreg.PyHKEY.Detach

key

[1]

winreg.QueryInfoKey

key

[1]

winreg.QueryReflectionKey

key

[1]

winreg.QueryValue

key, sub_key, value_name

[1][2]

winreg.SaveKey

key, file_name

[1]

winreg.SetValue

key, sub_key, type, value

[1][2]

Les évènements suivants sont levés en interne et ne correspondent à aucune API publique de CPython :

Audit event

Arguments

_winapi.CreateFile

file_name, desired_access, share_mode, creation_disposition, flags_and_attributes

_winapi.CreateJunction

src_path, dst_path

_winapi.CreateNamedPipe

name, open_mode, pipe_mode

_winapi.CreatePipe

_winapi.CreateProcess

application_name, command_line, current_directory

_winapi.OpenProcess

process_id, desired_access

_winapi.TerminateProcess

handle, exit_code

_posixsubprocess.fork_exec

exec_list, args, env

ctypes.PyObj_FromPtr

obj

Ajouté dans la version 3.14: The _posixsubprocess.fork_exec internal audit event.

bdb --- Debugger framework

Code source : Lib/bdb.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/bdb.py]

The bdb module handles basic debugger functions, like setting breakpoints or managing execution via the debugger.

L'exception suivante est définie :

exception bdb.BdbQuit

Exception raised by the Bdb class for quitting the debugger.

The bdb module also defines two classes:

class bdb.Breakpoint(self, file, line, temporary=False, cond=None, funcname=None)

This class implements temporary breakpoints, ignore counts, disabling and (re-)enabling, and conditionals.

Breakpoints are indexed by number through a list called bpbynumber and by (file, line) pairs through bplist. The former points to a single instance of class Breakpoint. The latter points to a list of such instances since there may be more than one breakpoint per line.

When creating a breakpoint, its associated file name should be in canonical form. If a funcname is defined, a breakpoint hit will be counted when the first line of that function is executed. A conditional breakpoint always counts a hit.

Breakpoint instances have the following methods:

deleteMe()

Delete the breakpoint from the list associated to a file/line. If it is the last breakpoint in that position, it also deletes the entry for the file/line.

enable()

Active le point d'arrêt.

disable()

Désactive le point d'arrêt.

bpformat()

Return a string with all the information about the breakpoint, nicely formatted:

Breakpoint number.

Temporary status (del or keep).

File/line position.

Break condition.

Number of times to ignore.

Number of times hit.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

bpprint(out=None)

Print the output of bpformat() to the file out, or if it is None, to standard output.

Breakpoint instances have the following attributes:

file

File name of the Breakpoint.

line

Line number of the Breakpoint within file.

temporary

True if a Breakpoint at (file, line) is temporary.

cond

Condition for evaluating a Breakpoint at (file, line).

funcname

Function name that defines whether a Breakpoint is hit upon entering the function.

enabled

True if Breakpoint is enabled.

bpbynumber

Numeric index for a single instance of a Breakpoint.

bplist

Dictionary of Breakpoint instances indexed by (file, line) tuples.

ignore

Number of times to ignore a Breakpoint.

hits

Count of the number of times a Breakpoint has been hit.

class bdb.Bdb(skip=None, backend='settrace')

The Bdb class acts as a generic Python debugger base class.

This class takes care of the details of the trace facility; a derived class should implement user interaction. The standard debugger class (pdb.Pdb) is an example.

The skip argument, if given, must be an iterable of glob-style module name patterns. The debugger will not step into frames that originate in a module that matches one of these patterns. Whether a frame is considered to originate in a certain module is determined by the __name__ in the frame globals.

The backend argument specifies the backend to use for Bdb. It can be either 'settrace' or 'monitoring'. 'settrace' uses sys.settrace() which has the best backward compatibility. The 'monitoring' backend uses the new sys.monitoring that was introduced in Python 3.12, which can be much more efficient because it can disable unused events. We are trying to keep the exact interfaces for both backends, but there are some differences. The debugger developers are encouraged to use the 'monitoring' backend to achieve better performance.

Modifié dans la version 3.1: Added the skip parameter.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Added the backend parameter.

The following methods of Bdb normally don't need to be overridden.

canonic(filename)

Return canonical form of filename.

For real file names, the canonical form is an operating-system-dependent, case-normalized absolute path. A filename with angle brackets, such as "<stdin>" generated in interactive mode, is returned unchanged.

start_trace(self)

Start tracing. For 'settrace' backend, this method is equivalent to sys.settrace(self.trace_dispatch)

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

stop_trace(self)

Stop tracing. For 'settrace' backend, this method is equivalent to sys.settrace(None)

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

reset()

Set the botframe, stopframe, returnframe and quitting attributes with values ready to start debugging.

trace_dispatch(frame, event, arg)

This function is installed as the trace function of debugged frames. Its return value is the new trace function (in most cases, that is, itself).

The default implementation decides how to dispatch a frame, depending on the type of event (passed as a string) that is about to be executed. event can be one of the following:

"line": A new line of code is going to be executed.

"call": A function is about to be called, or another code block entered.

"return": A function or other code block is about to return.

"exception" : Une exception est survenue.

"c_call" : Une fonction C est sur le point d'être appelée.

"c_return" : Une fonction C s'est terminée.

"c_exception": A C function has raised an exception.

For the Python events, specialized functions (see below) are called. For the C events, no action is taken.

Le paramètre arg dépend de l'événement précédent.

See the documentation for sys.settrace() for more information on the trace function. For more information on code and frame objects, refer to Hiérarchie des types standards.

dispatch_line(frame)

If the debugger should stop on the current line, invoke the user_line() method (which should be overridden in subclasses). Raise a BdbQuit exception if the quitting flag is set (which can be set from user_line()). Return a reference to the trace_dispatch() method for further tracing in that scope.

dispatch_call(frame, arg)

If the debugger should stop on this function call, invoke the user_call() method (which should be overridden in subclasses). Raise a BdbQuit exception if the quitting flag is set (which can be set from user_call()). Return a reference to the trace_dispatch() method for further tracing in that scope.

dispatch_return(frame, arg)

If the debugger should stop on this function return, invoke the user_return() method (which should be overridden in subclasses). Raise a BdbQuit exception if the quitting flag is set (which can be set from user_return()). Return a reference to the trace_dispatch() method for further tracing in that scope.

dispatch_exception(frame, arg)

If the debugger should stop at this exception, invokes the user_exception() method (which should be overridden in subclasses). Raise a BdbQuit exception if the quitting flag is set (which can be set from user_exception()). Return a reference to the trace_dispatch() method for further tracing in that scope.

Normally derived classes don't override the following methods, but they may if they want to redefine the definition of stopping and breakpoints.

is_skipped_module(module_name)

Return True if module_name matches any skip pattern.

stop_here(frame)

Return True if frame is below the starting frame in the stack.

break_here(frame)

Return True if there is an effective breakpoint for this line.

Check whether a line or function breakpoint exists and is in effect. Delete temporary breakpoints based on information from effective().

break_anywhere(frame)

Return True if any breakpoint exists for frame's filename.

Derived classes should override these methods to gain control over debugger operation.

user_call(frame, argument_list)

Called from dispatch_call() if a break might stop inside the called function.

argument_list is not used anymore and will always be None. The argument is kept for backwards compatibility.

user_line(frame)

Called from dispatch_line() when either stop_here() or break_here() returns True.

user_return(frame, return_value)

Called from dispatch_return() when stop_here() returns True.

user_exception(frame, exc_info)

Called from dispatch_exception() when stop_here() returns True.

do_clear(arg)

Handle how a breakpoint must be removed when it is a temporary one.

This method must be implemented by derived classes.

Derived classes and clients can call the following methods to affect the stepping state.

set_step()

Arrête après une ligne de code.

set_next(frame)

Stop on the next line in or below the given frame.

set_return(frame)

Stop when returning from the given frame.

set_until(frame, lineno=None)

Stop when the line with the lineno greater than the current one is reached or when returning from current frame.

set_trace([frame])

Start debugging from frame. If frame is not specified, debugging starts from caller's frame.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: set_trace() will enter the debugger immediately, rather than on the next line of code to be executed.

set_continue()

Stop only at breakpoints or when finished. If there are no breakpoints, set the system trace function to None.

set_quit()

Set the quitting attribute to True. This raises BdbQuit in the next call to one of the dispatch_*() methods.

Derived classes and clients can call the following methods to manipulate breakpoints. These methods return a string containing an error message if something went wrong, or None if all is well.

set_break(filename, lineno, temporary=False, cond=None, funcname=None)

Set a new breakpoint. If the lineno line doesn't exist for the filename passed as argument, return an error message. The filename should be in canonical form, as described in the canonic() method.

clear_break(filename, lineno)

Delete the breakpoints in filename and lineno. If none were set, return an error message.

clear_bpbynumber(arg)

Delete the breakpoint which has the index arg in the Breakpoint.bpbynumber. If arg is not numeric or out of range, return an error message.

clear_all_file_breaks(filename)

Delete all breakpoints in filename. If none were set, return an error message.

clear_all_breaks()

Delete all existing breakpoints. If none were set, return an error message.

get_bpbynumber(arg)

Return a breakpoint specified by the given number. If arg is a string, it will be converted to a number. If arg is a non-numeric string, if the given breakpoint never existed or has been deleted, a ValueError is raised.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

get_break(filename, lineno)

Return True if there is a breakpoint for lineno in filename.

get_breaks(filename, lineno)

Return all breakpoints for lineno in filename, or an empty list if none are set.

get_file_breaks(filename)

Return all breakpoints in filename, or an empty list if none are set.

get_all_breaks()

Donne tous les points d'arrêt définis.

Derived classes and clients can call the following methods to disable and restart events to achieve better performance. These methods only work when using the 'monitoring' backend.

disable_current_event()

Disable the current event until the next time restart_events() is called. This is helpful when the debugger is not interested in the current line.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

restart_events()

Restart all the disabled events. This function is automatically called in dispatch_* methods after user_* methods are called. If the dispatch_* methods are not overridden, the disabled events will be restarted after each user interaction.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Derived classes and clients can call the following methods to get a data structure representing a stack trace.

get_stack(f, t)

Return a list of (frame, lineno) tuples in a stack trace, and a size.

The most recently called frame is last in the list. The size is the number of frames below the frame where the debugger was invoked.

format_stack_entry(frame_lineno, lprefix=': ')

Return a string with information about a stack entry, which is a (frame, lineno) tuple. The return string contains:

The canonical filename which contains the frame.

The function name or "<lambda>".

Les arguments donnés.

Le résultat.

La ligne de code (si elle existe).

The following two methods can be called by clients to use a debugger to debug a statement, given as a string.

run(cmd, globals=None, locals=None)

Debug a statement executed via the exec() function. globals defaults to __main__.__dict__, locals defaults to globals.

runeval(expr, globals=None, locals=None)

Debug an expression executed via the eval() function. globals and locals have the same meaning as in run().

runctx(cmd, globals, locals)

For backwards compatibility. Calls the run() method.

runcall(func, /, *args, **kwds)

Debug a single function call, and return its result.

Finally, the module defines the following functions:

bdb.checkfuncname(b, frame)

Return True if we should break here, depending on the way the Breakpoint b was set.

If it was set via line number, it checks if b.line is the same as the one in frame. If the breakpoint was set via function name, we have to check we are in the right frame (the right function) and if we are on its first executable line.

bdb.effective(file, line, frame)

Return (active breakpoint, delete temporary flag) or (None, None) as the breakpoint to act upon.

The active breakpoint is the first entry in bplist for the (file, line) (which must exist) that is enabled, for which checkfuncname() is true, and that has neither a false condition nor positive ignore count. The flag, meaning that a temporary breakpoint should be deleted, is False only when the cond cannot be evaluated (in which case, ignore count is ignored).

If no such entry exists, then (None, None) is returned.

bdb.set_trace()

Start debugging with a Bdb instance from caller's frame.

faulthandler --- Dump the Python traceback

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

This module contains functions to dump Python tracebacks explicitly, on a fault, after a timeout, or on a user signal. Call faulthandler.enable() to install fault handlers for the SIGSEGV, SIGFPE, SIGABRT, SIGBUS, and SIGILL signals. You can also enable them at startup by setting the PYTHONFAULTHANDLER environment variable or by using the -X faulthandler command line option.

The fault handler is compatible with system fault handlers like Apport or the Windows fault handler. The module uses an alternative stack for signal handlers if the sigaltstack() function is available. This allows it to dump the traceback even on a stack overflow.

The fault handler is called on catastrophic cases and therefore can only use signal-safe functions (e.g. it cannot allocate memory on the heap). Because of this limitation traceback dumping is minimal compared to normal Python tracebacks:

Only ASCII is supported. The backslashreplace error handler is used on encoding.

Each string is limited to 500 characters.

Only the filename, the function name and the line number are displayed. (no source code)

It is limited to 100 frames and 100 threads.

The order is reversed: the most recent call is shown first.

By default, the Python traceback is written to sys.stderr. To see tracebacks, applications must be run in the terminal. A log file can alternatively be passed to faulthandler.enable().

The module is implemented in C, so tracebacks can be dumped on a crash or when Python is deadlocked.

The Python Development Mode calls faulthandler.enable() at Python startup.

Voir aussi

Module pdb

Interactive source code debugger for Python programs.

Module traceback

Standard interface to extract, format and print stack traces of Python programs.

Dumping the traceback

faulthandler.dump_traceback(file=sys.stderr, all_threads=True)

Dump the tracebacks of all threads into file. If all_threads is False, dump only the current thread.

Voir aussi

traceback.print_tb(), which can be used to print a traceback object.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Added support for passing file descriptor to this function.

Dumping the C stack

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

faulthandler.dump_c_stack(file=sys.stderr)

Dump the C stack trace of the current thread into file.

If the Python build does not support it or the operating system does not provide a stack trace, then this prints an error in place of a dumped C stack.

C Stack Compatibility

If the system does not support the C-level backtrace(3) [https://manpages.debian.org/backtrace(3)] or dladdr1(3) [https://manpages.debian.org/dladdr1(3)], then C stack dumps will not work. An error will be printed instead of the stack.

Additionally, some compilers do not support CPython's implementation of C stack dumps. As a result, a different error may be printed instead of the stack, even if the operating system supports dumping stacks.

Note

Dumping C stacks can be arbitrarily slow, depending on the DWARF level of the binaries in the call stack.

Fault handler state

faulthandler.enable(file=sys.stderr, all_threads=True, c_stack=True)

Enable the fault handler: install handlers for the SIGSEGV, SIGFPE, SIGABRT, SIGBUS and SIGILL signals to dump the Python traceback. If all_threads is True, produce tracebacks for every running thread. Otherwise, dump only the current thread.

The file must be kept open until the fault handler is disabled: see issue with file descriptors.

If c_stack is True, then the C stack trace is printed after the Python traceback, unless the system does not support it. See dump_c_stack() for more information on compatibility.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Added support for passing file descriptor to this function.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: On Windows, a handler for Windows exception is also installed.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: The dump now mentions if a garbage collector collection is running if all_threads is true.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Only the current thread is dumped if the GIL is disabled to prevent the risk of data races.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: The dump now displays the C stack trace if c_stack is true.

faulthandler.disable()

Disable the fault handler: uninstall the signal handlers installed by enable().

faulthandler.is_enabled()

Check if the fault handler is enabled.

Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout

faulthandler.dump_traceback_later(timeout, repeat=False, file=sys.stderr, exit=False)

Dump the tracebacks of all threads, after a timeout of timeout seconds, or every timeout seconds if repeat is True. If exit is True, call _exit() with status=1 after dumping the tracebacks. (Note _exit() exits the process immediately, which means it doesn't do any cleanup like flushing file buffers.) If the function is called twice, the new call replaces previous parameters and resets the timeout. The timer has a sub-second resolution.

The file must be kept open until the traceback is dumped or cancel_dump_traceback_later() is called: see issue with file descriptors.

This function is implemented using a watchdog thread.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Added support for passing file descriptor to this function.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: This function is now always available.

faulthandler.cancel_dump_traceback_later()

Cancel the last call to dump_traceback_later().

Dumping the traceback on a user signal

faulthandler.register(signum, file=sys.stderr, all_threads=True, chain=False)

Register a user signal: install a handler for the signum signal to dump the traceback of all threads, or of the current thread if all_threads is False, into file. Call the previous handler if chain is True.

The file must be kept open until the signal is unregistered by unregister(): see issue with file descriptors.

Not available on Windows.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Added support for passing file descriptor to this function.

faulthandler.unregister(signum)

Unregister a user signal: uninstall the handler of the signum signal installed by register(). Return True if the signal was registered, False otherwise.

Not available on Windows.

Issue with file descriptors

enable(), dump_traceback_later() and register() keep the file descriptor of their file argument. If the file is closed and its file descriptor is reused by a new file, or if os.dup2() is used to replace the file descriptor, the traceback will be written into a different file. Call these functions again each time that the file is replaced.

Exemple

Example of a segmentation fault on Linux with and without enabling the fault handler:

$ python -c "import ctypes; ctypes.string_at(0)"
Segmentation fault

$ python -q -X faulthandler
>>> import ctypes
>>> ctypes.string_at(0)
Fatal Python error: Segmentation fault

Current thread 0x00007fb899f39700 (most recent call first):
  File "/opt/python/Lib/ctypes/__init__.py", line 486 in string_at
  File "<stdin>", line 1 in <module>

Current thread's C stack trace (most recent call first):
  Binary file "/opt/python/python", at _Py_DumpStack+0x42 [0x5b27f7d7147e]
  Binary file "/opt/python/python", at +0x32dcbd [0x5b27f7d85cbd]
  Binary file "/opt/python/python", at +0x32df8a [0x5b27f7d85f8a]
  Binary file "/usr/lib/libc.so.6", at +0x3def0 [0x77b73226bef0]
  Binary file "/usr/lib/libc.so.6", at +0x17ef9c [0x77b7323acf9c]
  Binary file "/opt/python/build/lib.linux-x86_64-3.14/_ctypes.cpython-314d-x86_64-linux-gnu.so", at +0xcdf6 [0x77b7315dddf6]
  Binary file "/usr/lib/libffi.so.8", at +0x7976 [0x77b73158f976]
  Binary file "/usr/lib/libffi.so.8", at +0x413c [0x77b73158c13c]
  Binary file "/usr/lib/libffi.so.8", at ffi_call+0x12e [0x77b73158ef0e]
  Binary file "/opt/python/build/lib.linux-x86_64-3.14/_ctypes.cpython-314d-x86_64-linux-gnu.so", at +0x15a33 [0x77b7315e6a33]
  Binary file "/opt/python/build/lib.linux-x86_64-3.14/_ctypes.cpython-314d-x86_64-linux-gnu.so", at +0x164fa [0x77b7315e74fa]
  Binary file "/opt/python/build/lib.linux-x86_64-3.14/_ctypes.cpython-314d-x86_64-linux-gnu.so", at +0xc624 [0x77b7315dd624]
  Binary file "/opt/python/python", at _PyObject_MakeTpCall+0xce [0x5b27f7b73883]
  Binary file "/opt/python/python", at +0x11bab6 [0x5b27f7b73ab6]
  Binary file "/opt/python/python", at PyObject_Vectorcall+0x23 [0x5b27f7b73b04]
  Binary file "/opt/python/python", at _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault+0x490c [0x5b27f7cbb302]
  Binary file "/opt/python/python", at +0x2818e6 [0x5b27f7cd98e6]
  Binary file "/opt/python/python", at +0x281aab [0x5b27f7cd9aab]
  Binary file "/opt/python/python", at PyEval_EvalCode+0xc5 [0x5b27f7cd9ba3]
  Binary file "/opt/python/python", at +0x255957 [0x5b27f7cad957]
  Binary file "/opt/python/python", at +0x255ab4 [0x5b27f7cadab4]
  Binary file "/opt/python/python", at _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault+0x6c3e [0x5b27f7cbd634]
  Binary file "/opt/python/python", at +0x2818e6 [0x5b27f7cd98e6]
  Binary file "/opt/python/python", at +0x281aab [0x5b27f7cd9aab]
  Binary file "/opt/python/python", at +0x11b6e1 [0x5b27f7b736e1]
  Binary file "/opt/python/python", at +0x11d348 [0x5b27f7b75348]
  Binary file "/opt/python/python", at +0x11d626 [0x5b27f7b75626]
  Binary file "/opt/python/python", at PyObject_Call+0x20 [0x5b27f7b7565e]
  Binary file "/opt/python/python", at +0x32a67a [0x5b27f7d8267a]
  Binary file "/opt/python/python", at +0x32a7f8 [0x5b27f7d827f8]
  Binary file "/opt/python/python", at +0x32ac1b [0x5b27f7d82c1b]
  Binary file "/opt/python/python", at Py_RunMain+0x31 [0x5b27f7d82ebe]
  <truncated rest of calls>
Segmentation fault

pdb --- The Python Debugger

Code source : Lib/pdb.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/pdb.py]

The module pdb defines an interactive source code debugger for Python programs. It supports setting (conditional) breakpoints and single stepping at the source line level, inspection of stack frames, source code listing, and evaluation of arbitrary Python code in the context of any stack frame. It also supports post-mortem debugging and can be called under program control.

Le débogueur est extensible -- Il est en réalité défini comme la classe Pdb. C'est actuellement non-documenté mais facilement compréhensible en lisant le code source. L'interface d'extension utilise les modules bdb et cmd.

Voir aussi

Module faulthandler

Used to dump Python tracebacks explicitly, on a fault, after a timeout, or on a user signal.

Module traceback

Standard interface to extract, format and print stack traces of Python programs.

L'usage typique pour déclencher le basculement dans le débogueur est d'insérer :

import pdb; pdb.set_trace()

ou :

breakpoint()

à l'endroit où vous voulez vous arrêter dans le débogueur. Vous pouvez alors analyser le code suivant cette instruction, et continuer l'exécution en dehors du débogueur en utilisant la commande continue.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: La fonction native breakpoint(), quand elle est appelée avec les valeurs par défaut, peut être utilisée en lieu et place de import pdb; pdb.set_trace().

def double(x):
   breakpoint()
   return x * 2
val = 3
print(f"{val} * 2 is {double(val)}")

The debugger's prompt is (Pdb), which is the indicator that you are in debug mode:

> ...(2)double()
-> breakpoint()
(Pdb) p x
3
(Pdb) continue
3 * 2 is 6

Modifié dans la version 3.3: La complétion via le module readline est disponible pour les commandes et les arguments de commande, par exemple les noms global et local sont proposés comme arguments de la commande p.

Command-line interface

You can also invoke pdb from the command line to debug other scripts. For example:

python -m pdb [-c command] (-m module | -p pid | pyfile) [args ...]

When invoked as a module, pdb will automatically enter post-mortem debugging if the program being debugged exits abnormally. After post-mortem debugging (or after normal exit of the program), pdb will restart the program. Automatic restarting preserves pdb's state (such as breakpoints) and in most cases is more useful than quitting the debugger upon program's exit.

-c, --command <command>

To execute commands as if given in a .pdbrc file; see Debugger commands.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Added the -c option.

-m <module>

To execute modules similar to the way python -m does. As with a script, the debugger will pause execution just before the first line of the module.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Added the -m option.

-p, --pid <pid>

Attach to the process with the specified PID.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

To attach to a running Python process for remote debugging, use the -p or --pid option with the target process's PID:

python -m pdb -p 1234

Note

Attaching to a process that is blocked in a system call or waiting for I/O will only work once the next bytecode instruction is executed or when the process receives a signal.

Typical usage to execute a statement under control of the debugger is:

>>> import pdb
>>> def f(x):
...     print(1 / x)
>>> pdb.run("f(2)")
> <string>(1)<module>()
(Pdb) continue
0.5
>>>

L'usage typique pour inspecter un programme planté :

>>> import pdb
>>> def f(x):
...     print(1 / x)
...
>>> f(0)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
  File "<stdin>", line 2, in f
ZeroDivisionError: division by zero
>>> pdb.pm()
> <stdin>(2)f()
(Pdb) p x
0
(Pdb)

Modifié dans la version 3.13: The implementation of PEP 667 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/] means that name assignments made via pdb will immediately affect the active scope, even when running inside an optimized scope.

Le module définit les fonctions suivantes; chacune entre dans le débogueur d'une manière légèrement différente :

pdb.run(statement, globals=None, locals=None)

Exécute la déclaration (donnée sous forme de chaîne de caractères ou d'objet code) sous le contrôle du débogueur. L'invite de débogage apparaît avant l'exécution de tout code; vous pouvez définir des points d'arrêt et taper continue, ou vous pouvez passer à travers l'instruction en utilisant step ou next (toutes ces commandes sont expliquées ci-dessous). Les arguments globals et locals optionnels spécifient l'environnement dans lequel le code est exécuté; par défaut le dictionnaire du module __main__ est utilisé. (Voir l'explication des fonctions natives exec() ou eval().)

pdb.runeval(expression, globals=None, locals=None)

Evaluate the expression (given as a string or a code object) under debugger control. When runeval() returns, it returns the value of the expression. Otherwise this function is similar to run().

pdb.runcall(function, *args, **kwds)

Appelle la function (une fonction ou une méthode, pas une chaine de caractères) avec les arguments donnés. Quand runcall() revient, il retourne ce que l'appel de fonctionne a renvoyé. L'invite de débogage apparaît dès que la fonction est entrée.

pdb.set_trace(*, header=None, commands=None)

Enter the debugger at the calling stack frame. This is useful to hard-code a breakpoint at a given point in a program, even if the code is not otherwise being debugged (e.g. when an assertion fails). If given, header is printed to the console just before debugging begins. The commands argument, if given, is a list of commands to execute when the debugger starts.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: L’argument keyword-only header.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: set_trace() will enter the debugger immediately, rather than on the next line of code to be executed.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14: The commands argument.

awaitable pdb.set_trace_async(*, header=None, commands=None)

async version of set_trace(). This function should be used inside an async function with await.

async def f():
    await pdb.set_trace_async()

await statements are supported if the debugger is invoked by this function.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

pdb.post_mortem(t=None)

Enter post-mortem debugging of the given exception or traceback object. If no value is given, it uses the exception that is currently being handled, or raises ValueError if there isn’t one.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Support for exception objects was added.

pdb.pm()

Enter post-mortem debugging of the exception found in sys.last_exc.

pdb.set_default_backend(backend)

There are two supported backends for pdb: 'settrace' and 'monitoring'. See bdb.Bdb for details. The user can set the default backend to use if none is specified when instantiating Pdb. If no backend is specified, the default is 'settrace'.

Note

breakpoint() and set_trace() will not be affected by this function. They always use 'monitoring' backend.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

pdb.get_default_backend()

Returns the default backend for pdb.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Les fonctions run* et set_trace() sont des alias pour instancier la classe Pdb et appeler la méthode du même nom. Si vous souhaitez accéder à d'autres fonctionnalités, vous devez le faire vous-même :

class pdb.Pdb(completekey='tab', stdin=None, stdout=None, skip=None, nosigint=False, readrc=True, mode=None, backend=None, colorize=False)

Le classe du débogueur est la classe Pdb.

Les arguments completekey, stdin et stdout sont transmis à la classe sous-jacente cmd.Cmd; voir la description ici.

L'argument skip, s'il est donné, doit être un itérable des noms de modules de style glob. Le débogueur n'entrera pas dans les frames qui proviennent d'un module qui correspond à l'un de ces motifs. [1]

By default, Pdb sets a handler for the SIGINT signal (which is sent when the user presses Ctrl-C on the console) when you give a continue command. This allows you to break into the debugger again by pressing Ctrl-C. If you want Pdb not to touch the SIGINT handler, set nosigint to true.

L'argument readrc vaut True par défaut et contrôle si Pdb chargera les fichiers .pdbrc depuis le système de fichiers.

The mode argument specifies how the debugger was invoked. It impacts the workings of some debugger commands. Valid values are 'inline' (used by the breakpoint() builtin), 'cli' (used by the command line invocation) or None (for backwards compatible behaviour, as before the mode argument was added).

The backend argument specifies the backend to use for the debugger. If None is passed, the default backend will be used. See set_default_backend(). Otherwise the supported backends are 'settrace' and 'monitoring'.

The colorize argument, if set to True, will enable colorized output in the debugger, if color is supported. This will highlight source code displayed in pdb.

Exemple d'appel pour activer le traçage avec skip :

import pdb; pdb.Pdb(skip=['django.*']).set_trace()

Lève un évènement d'audit pdb.Pdb sans argument.

Modifié dans la version 3.1: Added the skip parameter.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Added the nosigint parameter. Previously, a SIGINT handler was never set by Pdb.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: L'argument readrc.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14: Added the mode argument.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14: Added the backend argument.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14: Added the colorize argument.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Inline breakpoints like breakpoint() or pdb.set_trace() will always stop the program at calling frame, ignoring the skip pattern (if any).

run(statement, globals=None, locals=None)

runeval(expression, globals=None, locals=None)

runcall(function, *args, **kwds)

set_trace()

Voir la documentation pour les fonctions expliquées ci-dessus.

Debugger commands

Les commandes reconnues par le débogueur sont listées. La plupart des commandes peuvent être abrégées à une ou deux lettres comme indiquées; par exemple. h(elp) signifie que soit h ou help peut être utilisée pour entrer la commande help (mais pas he or hel, ni H ou HELP). Les arguments des commandes doivent être séparées par des espaces (espaces ou tabulations). Les arguments optionnels sont entourés dans des crochets ([]) dans la syntaxe de la commande; les crochets ne doivent pas être insérés. Les alternatives dans la syntaxe de la commande sont séparés par une barre verticale (|).

Entrer une ligne vide répète la dernière commande entrée. Exception: si la dernière commande était la commande list, les 11 prochaines lignes sont affichées.

Les commandes que le débogueur ne reconnaît pas sont supposées être des instructions Python et sont exécutées dans le contexte du programme en cours de débogage. Les instructions Python peuvent également être préfixées avec un point d'exclamation (!). C'est une façon puissante d'inspecter le programme en cours de débogage; il est même possible de changer une variable ou d'appeler une fonction. Lorsqu'une exception se produit dans une telle instruction, le nom de l'exception est affiché mais l'état du débogueur n'est pas modifié.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Expressions/Statements whose prefix is a pdb command are now correctly identified and executed.

Le débogueur supporte aliases. Les alias peuvent avoir des paramètres qui permettent un certain niveau d'adaptabilité au contexte étudié.

Multiple commands may be entered on a single line, separated by ;;. (A single ; is not used as it is the separator for multiple commands in a line that is passed to the Python parser.) No intelligence is applied to separating the commands; the input is split at the first ;; pair, even if it is in the middle of a quoted string. A workaround for strings with double semicolons is to use implicit string concatenation ';'';' or ";"";".

To set a temporary global variable, use a convenience variable. A convenience variable is a variable whose name starts with $. For example, $foo = 1 sets a global variable $foo which you can use in the debugger session. The convenience variables are cleared when the program resumes execution so it's less likely to interfere with your program compared to using normal variables like foo = 1.

There are four preset convenience variables:

$_frame: the current frame you are debugging

$_retval: the return value if the frame is returning

$_exception: the exception if the frame is raising an exception

$_asynctask: the asyncio task if pdb stops in an async function

Ajouté dans la version 3.12: Added the convenience variable feature.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14: Added the $_asynctask convenience variable.

If a file .pdbrc exists in the user's home directory or in the current directory, it is read with 'utf-8' encoding and executed as if it had been typed at the debugger prompt, with the exception that empty lines and lines starting with # are ignored. This is particularly useful for aliases. If both files exist, the one in the home directory is read first and aliases defined there can be overridden by the local file.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Le fichier .pdbrc peut maintenant contenir des commandes qui continue le débogage, comme continue ou next. Précédemment, ces commandes n'avaient aucun effet.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: .pdbrc is now read with 'utf-8' encoding. Previously, it was read with the system locale encoding.

h(elp) [command]

Sans argument, affiche la liste des commandes disponibles. Avec une commande comme argument, affiche l'aide de cette commande. help pdb affiche la documentation complète (la docstring du module pdb). Puisque l'argument command doit être un identificateur, help exec doit être entré pour obtenir de l'aide sur la commande !.

w(here) [count]

Print a stack trace, with the most recent frame at the bottom. if count is 0, print the current frame entry. If count is negative, print the least recent - count frames. If count is positive, print the most recent count frames. An arrow (>) indicates the current frame, which determines the context of most commands.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: count argument is added.

d(own) [count]

Déplace le niveau de la frame courante count (par défaut un) vers le bas dans la trace de pile (vers une frame plus récente).

u(p) [count]

Déplace le niveau de la frame courante count (par défaut un) vers le haut dans la trace de pile (vers une frame plus ancienne).

b(reak) [([filename:]lineno | function) [, condition]]

With a lineno argument, set a break at line lineno in the current file. The line number may be prefixed with a filename and a colon, to specify a breakpoint in another file (possibly one that hasn't been loaded yet). The file is searched on sys.path. Acceptable forms of filename are /abspath/to/file.py, relpath/file.py, module and package.module.

With a function argument, set a break at the first executable statement within that function. function can be any expression that evaluates to a function in the current namespace.

Si un second argument est présent, c'est une expression qui doit évaluer à True avant que le point d'arrêt ne soit honoré.

Sans argument, liste tous les arrêts, incluant pour chaque point d'arrêt, le nombre de fois qu'un point d'arrêt a été atteint, le nombre de ignore, et la condition associée le cas échéant.

Each breakpoint is assigned a number to which all the other breakpoint commands refer.

tbreak [([filename:]lineno | function) [, condition]]

Point d'arrêt temporaire, qui est enlevé automatiquement au premier passage. Les arguments sont les mêmes que pour break.

cl(ear) [filename:lineno | bpnumber ...]

Avec un argument filename:lineno, efface tous les points d'arrêt sur cette ligne. Avec une liste de numéros de points d'arrêt séparés par un espace, efface ces points d'arrêt. Sans argument, efface tous les points d'arrêt (mais demande d'abord confirmation).

disable bpnumber [bpnumber ...]

Désactive les points d'arrêt indiqués sous la forme d'une liste de numéros de points d'arrêt séparés par un espace. Désactiver un point d'arrêt signifie qu'il ne peut pas interrompre l'exécution du programme, mais à la différence d'effacer un point d'arrêt, il reste dans la liste des points d'arrêt et peut être (ré)activé.

enable bpnumber [bpnumber ...]

Active les points d'arrêt spécifiés.

ignore bpnumber [count]

Set the ignore count for the given breakpoint number. If count is omitted, the ignore count is set to 0. A breakpoint becomes active when the ignore count is zero. When non-zero, the count is decremented each time the breakpoint is reached and the breakpoint is not disabled and any associated condition evaluates to true.

condition bpnumber [condition]

Définit une nouvelle condition pour le point d'arrêt, une expression qui doit évaluer à True avant que le point d'arrêt ne soit honoré. Si condition est absente, toute condition existante est supprimée, c'est-à-dire que le point d'arrêt est rendu inconditionnel.

commands [bpnumber]

Spécifie une liste de commandes pour le numéro du point d'arrêt bpnumber. Les commandes elles-mêmes apparaissent sur les lignes suivantes. Tapez une ligne contenant juste end pour terminer les commandes. Un exemple :

(Pdb) commands 1
(com) p some_variable
(com) end
(Pdb)

Pour supprimer toutes les commandes depuis un point d'arrêt, écrivez commands suivi immédiatement de end ; ceci supprime les commandes.

Sans argument bpnumber, commands se réfère au dernier point d'arrêt défini.

Vous pouvez utiliser les commandes de point d'arrêt pour redémarrer votre programme. Utilisez simplement la commande continue, ou step, ou toute autre commande qui reprend l'exécution.

Specifying any command resuming execution (currently continue, step, next, return, until, jump, quit and their abbreviations) terminates the command list (as if that command was immediately followed by end). This is because any time you resume execution (even with a simple next or step), you may encounter another breakpoint—which could have its own command list, leading to ambiguities about which list to execute.

If the list of commands contains the silent command, or a command that resumes execution, then the breakpoint message containing information about the frame is not displayed.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Frame information will not be displayed if a command that resumes execution is present in the command list.

s(tep)

Exécute la ligne en cours, s'arrête à la première occasion possible (soit dans une fonction qui est appelée, soit sur la ligne suivante de la fonction courante).

n(ext)

Continue l'exécution jusqu'à ce que la ligne suivante de la fonction en cours soit atteinte ou qu'elle revienne. (La différence entre next et step est que step s'arrête dans une fonction appelée, tandis que next exécute les fonctions appelées à (presque) pleine vitesse, ne s'arrêtant qu'à la ligne suivante dans la fonction courante.)

unt(il) [lineno]

Sans argument, continue l'exécution jusqu'à ce que la ligne avec un nombre supérieur au nombre actuel soit atteinte.

With lineno, continue execution until a line with a number greater or equal to lineno is reached. In both cases, also stop when the current frame returns.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Permet de donner un numéro de ligne explicite.

r(eturn)

Continue l'exécution jusqu'au retour de la fonction courante.

c(ont(inue))

Continue l'exécution, seulement s'arrête quand un point d'arrêt est rencontré.

j(ump) lineno

Définit la prochaine ligne qui sera exécutée. Uniquement disponible dans la frame inférieur. Cela vous permet de revenir en arrière et d'exécuter à nouveau le code, ou de passer en avant pour sauter le code que vous ne voulez pas exécuter.

Il est à noter que tous les sauts ne sont pas autorisés -- par exemple, il n'est pas possible de sauter au milieu d'une boucle for ou en dehors d'une clause finally.

l(ist) [first[, last]]

Liste le code source du fichier courant. Sans arguments, liste 11 lignes autour de la ligne courante ou continue le listing précédant. Avec l'argument ., liste 11 lignes autour de la ligne courante. Avec un argument, liste les 11 lignes autour de cette ligne. Avec deux arguments, liste la plage donnée; si le second argument est inférieur au premier, il est interprété comme un compte.

La ligne en cours dans l'image courante est indiquée par ->. Si une exception est en cours de débogage, la ligne où l'exception a été initialement levée ou propagée est indiquée par >>, si elle diffère de la ligne courante.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Added the >> marker.

ll | longlist

Liste le code source de la fonction ou du bloc courant. Les lignes intéressantes sont marquées comme pour list.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

a(rgs)

Print the arguments of the current function and their current values.

p expression

Evaluate expression in the current context and print its value.

Note

print() peut aussi être utilisée, mais n'est pas une commande du débogueur — il exécute la fonction Python print().

pp expression

Like the p command, except the value of expression is pretty-printed using the pprint module.

whatis expression

Print the type of expression.

source expression

Try to get source code of expression and display it.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

display [expression]

Display the value of expression if it changed, each time execution stops in the current frame.

Without expression, list all display expressions for the current frame.

Note

Display evaluates expression and compares to the result of the previous evaluation of expression, so when the result is mutable, display may not be able to pick up the changes.

Exemple :

lst = []
breakpoint()
pass
lst.append(1)
print(lst)

Display won't realize lst has been changed because the result of evaluation is modified in place by lst.append(1) before being compared:

> example.py(3)<module>()
-> pass
(Pdb) display lst
display lst: []
(Pdb) n
> example.py(4)<module>()
-> lst.append(1)
(Pdb) n
> example.py(5)<module>()
-> print(lst)
(Pdb)

You can do some tricks with copy mechanism to make it work:

> example.py(3)<module>()
-> pass
(Pdb) display lst[:]
display lst[:]: []
(Pdb) n
> example.py(4)<module>()
-> lst.append(1)
(Pdb) n
> example.py(5)<module>()
-> print(lst)
display lst[:]: [1]  [old: []]
(Pdb)

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

undisplay [expression]

Do not display expression anymore in the current frame. Without expression, clear all display expressions for the current frame.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

interact

Start an interactive interpreter (using the code module) in a new global namespace initialised from the local and global namespaces for the current scope. Use exit() or quit() to exit the interpreter and return to the debugger.

Note

As interact creates a new dedicated namespace for code execution, assignments to variables will not affect the original namespaces. However, modifications to any referenced mutable objects will be reflected in the original namespaces as usual.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: exit() and quit() can be used to exit the interact command.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: interact directs its output to the debugger's output channel rather than sys.stderr.

alias [name [command]]

Create an alias called name that executes command. The command must not be enclosed in quotes. Replaceable parameters can be indicated by %1, %2, ... and %9, while %* is replaced by all the parameters. If command is omitted, the current alias for name is shown. If no arguments are given, all aliases are listed.

Les alias peuvent être imbriqués et peuvent contenir tout ce qui peut être légalement tapé à l'invite pdb. Notez que les commandes pdb internes peuvent être remplacées par des alias. Une telle commande est alors masquée jusqu'à ce que l'alias soit supprimé. L'aliasing est appliqué récursivement au premier mot de la ligne de commande; tous les autres mots de la ligne sont laissés seuls.

Comme un exemple, voici deux alias utiles (spécialement quand il est placé dans le fichier .pdbrc) :

# Print instance variables (usage "pi classInst")
alias pi for k in %1.__dict__.keys(): print(f"%1.{k} = {%1.__dict__[k]}")
# Print instance variables in self
alias ps pi self

unalias name

Delete the specified alias name.

! statement

Execute the (one-line) statement in the context of the current stack frame. The exclamation point can be omitted unless the first word of the statement resembles a debugger command, e.g.:

(Pdb) ! n=42
(Pdb)

To set a global variable, you can prefix the assignment command with a global statement on the same line, e.g.:

(Pdb) global list_options; list_options = ['-l']
(Pdb)

run [args ...]

restart [args ...]

Restart the debugged Python program. If args is supplied, it is split with shlex and the result is used as the new sys.argv. History, breakpoints, actions and debugger options are preserved. restart is an alias for run.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: run and restart commands are disabled when the debugger is invoked in 'inline' mode.

q(uit)

Quit from the debugger. The program being executed is aborted. An end-of-file input is equivalent to quit.

A confirmation prompt will be shown if the debugger is invoked in 'inline' mode. Either y, Y, <Enter> or EOF will confirm the quit.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: A confirmation prompt will be shown if the debugger is invoked in 'inline' mode. After the confirmation, the debugger will call sys.exit() immediately, instead of raising bdb.BdbQuit in the next trace event.

debug code

Enter a recursive debugger that steps through code (which is an arbitrary expression or statement to be executed in the current environment).

retval

Print the return value for the last return of the current function.

exceptions [excnumber]

List or jump between chained exceptions.

When using pdb.pm() or Pdb.post_mortem(...) with a chained exception instead of a traceback, it allows the user to move between the chained exceptions using exceptions command to list exceptions, and exceptions <number> to switch to that exception.

Exemple :

def out():
    try:
        middle()
    except Exception as e:
        raise ValueError("reraise middle() error") from e

def middle():
    try:
        return inner(0)
    except Exception as e:
        raise ValueError("Middle fail")

def inner(x):
    1 / x

 out()

calling pdb.pm() will allow to move between exceptions:

> example.py(5)out()
-> raise ValueError("reraise middle() error") from e

(Pdb) exceptions
  0 ZeroDivisionError('division by zero')
  1 ValueError('Middle fail')
> 2 ValueError('reraise middle() error')

(Pdb) exceptions 0
> example.py(16)inner()
-> 1 / x

(Pdb) up
> example.py(10)middle()
-> return inner(0)

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Notes

[1]

La question de savoir si une frame est considérée comme provenant d'un certain module est déterminée par le __name__ dans les globales de la frame.

The Python Profilers

Source code: Lib/profile.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/profile.py] and Lib/pstats.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/pstats.py]

Introduction to the profilers

cProfile and profile provide deterministic profiling of Python programs. A profile is a set of statistics that describes how often and for how long various parts of the program executed. These statistics can be formatted into reports via the pstats module.

The Python standard library provides two different implementations of the same profiling interface:

cProfile is recommended for most users; it's a C extension with reasonable overhead that makes it suitable for profiling long-running programs. Based on lsprof, contributed by Brett Rosen and Ted Czotter.

profile, a pure Python module whose interface is imitated by cProfile, but which adds significant overhead to profiled programs. If you're trying to extend the profiler in some way, the task might be easier with this module. Originally designed and written by Jim Roskind.

Note

The profiler modules are designed to provide an execution profile for a given program, not for benchmarking purposes (for that, there is timeit for reasonably accurate results). This particularly applies to benchmarking Python code against C code: the profilers introduce overhead for Python code, but not for C-level functions, and so the C code would seem faster than any Python one.

Instant User's Manual

This section is provided for users that "don't want to read the manual." It provides a very brief overview, and allows a user to rapidly perform profiling on an existing application.

To profile a function that takes a single argument, you can do:

import cProfile
import re
cProfile.run('re.compile("foo|bar")')

(Use profile instead of cProfile if the latter is not available on your system.)

The above action would run re.compile() and print profile results like the following:

      214 function calls (207 primitive calls) in 0.002 seconds

Ordered by: cumulative time

ncalls  tottime  percall  cumtime  percall filename:lineno(function)
     1    0.000    0.000    0.002    0.002 {built-in method builtins.exec}
     1    0.000    0.000    0.001    0.001 <string>:1(<module>)
     1    0.000    0.000    0.001    0.001 __init__.py:250(compile)
     1    0.000    0.000    0.001    0.001 __init__.py:289(_compile)
     1    0.000    0.000    0.000    0.000 _compiler.py:759(compile)
     1    0.000    0.000    0.000    0.000 _parser.py:937(parse)
     1    0.000    0.000    0.000    0.000 _compiler.py:598(_code)
     1    0.000    0.000    0.000    0.000 _parser.py:435(_parse_sub)

The first line indicates that 214 calls were monitored. Of those calls, 207 were primitive, meaning that the call was not induced via recursion. The next line: Ordered by: cumulative time indicates the output is sorted by the cumtime values. The column headings include:

ncalls

for the number of calls.

tottime

for the total time spent in the given function (and excluding time made in calls to sub-functions)

percall

is the quotient of tottime divided by ncalls

cumtime

is the cumulative time spent in this and all subfunctions (from invocation till exit). This figure is accurate even for recursive functions.

percall

is the quotient of cumtime divided by primitive calls

filename:lineno(function)

provides the respective data of each function

When there are two numbers in the first column (for example 3/1), it means that the function recursed. The second value is the number of primitive calls and the former is the total number of calls. Note that when the function does not recurse, these two values are the same, and only the single figure is printed.

Instead of printing the output at the end of the profile run, you can save the results to a file by specifying a filename to the run() function:

import cProfile
import re
cProfile.run('re.compile("foo|bar")', 'restats')

The pstats.Stats class reads profile results from a file and formats them in various ways.

The files cProfile and profile can also be invoked as a script to profile another script. For example:

python -m cProfile [-o output_file] [-s sort_order] (-m module | myscript.py)

-o <output_file>

Writes the profile results to a file instead of to stdout.

-s <sort_order>

Specifies one of the sort_stats() sort values to sort the output by. This only applies when -o is not supplied.

-m <module>

Specifies that a module is being profiled instead of a script.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7: Added the -m option to cProfile.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8: Added the -m option to profile.

The pstats module's Stats class has a variety of methods for manipulating and printing the data saved into a profile results file:

import pstats
from pstats import SortKey
p = pstats.Stats('restats')
p.strip_dirs().sort_stats(-1).print_stats()

The strip_dirs() method removed the extraneous path from all the module names. The sort_stats() method sorted all the entries according to the standard module/line/name string that is printed. The print_stats() method printed out all the statistics. You might try the following sort calls:

p.sort_stats(SortKey.NAME)
p.print_stats()

The first call will actually sort the list by function name, and the second call will print out the statistics. The following are some interesting calls to experiment with:

p.sort_stats(SortKey.CUMULATIVE).print_stats(10)

This sorts the profile by cumulative time in a function, and then only prints the ten most significant lines. If you want to understand what algorithms are taking time, the above line is what you would use.

If you were looking to see what functions were looping a lot, and taking a lot of time, you would do:

p.sort_stats(SortKey.TIME).print_stats(10)

to sort according to time spent within each function, and then print the statistics for the top ten functions.

You might also try:

p.sort_stats(SortKey.FILENAME).print_stats('__init__')

This will sort all the statistics by file name, and then print out statistics for only the class init methods (since they are spelled with __init__ in them). As one final example, you could try:

p.sort_stats(SortKey.TIME, SortKey.CUMULATIVE).print_stats(.5, 'init')

This line sorts statistics with a primary key of time, and a secondary key of cumulative time, and then prints out some of the statistics. To be specific, the list is first culled down to 50% (re: .5) of its original size, then only lines containing init are maintained, and that sub-sub-list is printed.

If you wondered what functions called the above functions, you could now (p is still sorted according to the last criteria) do:

p.print_callers(.5, 'init')

and you would get a list of callers for each of the listed functions.

If you want more functionality, you're going to have to read the manual, or guess what the following functions do:

p.print_callees()
p.add('restats')

Invoked as a script, the pstats module is a statistics browser for reading and examining profile dumps. It has a simple line-oriented interface (implemented using cmd) and interactive help.

profile and cProfile Module Reference

Both the profile and cProfile modules provide the following functions:

profile.run(command, filename=None, sort=-1)

This function takes a single argument that can be passed to the exec() function, and an optional file name. In all cases this routine executes:

exec(command, __main__.__dict__, __main__.__dict__)

and gathers profiling statistics from the execution. If no file name is present, then this function automatically creates a Stats instance and prints a simple profiling report. If the sort value is specified, it is passed to this Stats instance to control how the results are sorted.

profile.runctx(command, globals, locals, filename=None, sort=-1)

This function is similar to run(), with added arguments to supply the globals and locals mappings for the command string. This routine executes:

exec(command, globals, locals)

and gathers profiling statistics as in the run() function above.

class profile.Profile(timer=None, timeunit=0.0, subcalls=True, builtins=True)

This class is normally only used if more precise control over profiling is needed than what the cProfile.run() function provides.

A custom timer can be supplied for measuring how long code takes to run via the timer argument. This must be a function that returns a single number representing the current time. If the number is an integer, the timeunit specifies a multiplier that specifies the duration of each unit of time. For example, if the timer returns times measured in thousands of seconds, the time unit would be .001.

Directly using the Profile class allows formatting profile results without writing the profile data to a file:

import cProfile, pstats, io
from pstats import SortKey
pr = cProfile.Profile()
pr.enable()
# ... do something ...
pr.disable()
s = io.StringIO()
sortby = SortKey.CUMULATIVE
ps = pstats.Stats(pr, stream=s).sort_stats(sortby)
ps.print_stats()
print(s.getvalue())

The Profile class can also be used as a context manager (supported only in cProfile module. see Le type gestionnaire de contexte):

import cProfile

with cProfile.Profile() as pr:
    # ... do something ...

    pr.print_stats()

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Ajout de la gestion des gestionnaires de contexte.

enable()

Start collecting profiling data. Only in cProfile.

disable()

Stop collecting profiling data. Only in cProfile.

create_stats()

Stop collecting profiling data and record the results internally as the current profile.

print_stats(sort=-1)

Create a Stats object based on the current profile and print the results to stdout.

The sort parameter specifies the sorting order of the displayed statistics. It accepts a single key or a tuple of keys to enable multi-level sorting, as in Stats.sort_stats.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13: print_stats() now accepts a tuple of keys.

dump_stats(filename)

Write the results of the current profile to filename.

run(cmd)

Profile the cmd via exec().

runctx(cmd, globals, locals)

Profile the cmd via exec() with the specified global and local environment.

runcall(func, /, *args, **kwargs)

Profile func(*args, **kwargs)

Note that profiling will only work if the called command/function actually returns. If the interpreter is terminated (e.g. via a sys.exit() call during the called command/function execution) no profiling results will be printed.

The Stats Class

Analysis of the profiler data is done using the Stats class.

class pstats.Stats(*filenames or profile, stream=sys.stdout)

This class constructor creates an instance of a "statistics object" from a filename (or list of filenames) or from a Profile instance. Output will be printed to the stream specified by stream.

The file selected by the above constructor must have been created by the corresponding version of profile or cProfile. To be specific, there is no file compatibility guaranteed with future versions of this profiler, and there is no compatibility with files produced by other profilers, or the same profiler run on a different operating system. If several files are provided, all the statistics for identical functions will be coalesced, so that an overall view of several processes can be considered in a single report. If additional files need to be combined with data in an existing Stats object, the add() method can be used.

Instead of reading the profile data from a file, a cProfile.Profile or profile.Profile object can be used as the profile data source.

Stats objects have the following methods:

strip_dirs()

This method for the Stats class removes all leading path information from file names. It is very useful in reducing the size of the printout to fit within (close to) 80 columns. This method modifies the object, and the stripped information is lost. After performing a strip operation, the object is considered to have its entries in a "random" order, as it was just after object initialization and loading. If strip_dirs() causes two function names to be indistinguishable (they are on the same line of the same filename, and have the same function name), then the statistics for these two entries are accumulated into a single entry.

add(*filenames)

This method of the Stats class accumulates additional profiling information into the current profiling object. Its arguments should refer to filenames created by the corresponding version of profile.run() or cProfile.run(). Statistics for identically named (re: file, line, name) functions are automatically accumulated into single function statistics.

dump_stats(filename)

Save the data loaded into the Stats object to a file named filename. The file is created if it does not exist, and is overwritten if it already exists. This is equivalent to the method of the same name on the profile.Profile and cProfile.Profile classes.

sort_stats(*keys)

This method modifies the Stats object by sorting it according to the supplied criteria. The argument can be either a string or a SortKey enum identifying the basis of a sort (example: 'time', 'name', SortKey.TIME or SortKey.NAME). The SortKey enums argument have advantage over the string argument in that it is more robust and less error prone.

When more than one key is provided, then additional keys are used as secondary criteria when there is equality in all keys selected before them. For example, sort_stats(SortKey.NAME, SortKey.FILE) will sort all the entries according to their function name, and resolve all ties (identical function names) by sorting by file name.

For the string argument, abbreviations can be used for any key names, as long as the abbreviation is unambiguous.

The following are the valid string and SortKey:

Valid String Arg

Valid enum Arg

Signification

'calls'

SortKey.CALLS

call count

'cumulative'

SortKey.CUMULATIVE

cumulative time

'cumtime'

N/A

cumulative time

'file'

N/A

file name

'filename'

SortKey.FILENAME

file name

'module'

N/A

file name

'ncalls'

N/A

call count

'pcalls'

SortKey.PCALLS

primitive call count

'line'

SortKey.LINE

line number

'name'

SortKey.NAME

function name

'nfl'

SortKey.NFL

name/file/line

'stdname'

SortKey.STDNAME

standard name

'time'

SortKey.TIME

internal time

'tottime'

N/A

internal time

Note that all sorts on statistics are in descending order (placing most time consuming items first), where as name, file, and line number searches are in ascending order (alphabetical). The subtle distinction between SortKey.NFL and SortKey.STDNAME is that the standard name is a sort of the name as printed, which means that the embedded line numbers get compared in an odd way. For example, lines 3, 20, and 40 would (if the file names were the same) appear in the string order 20, 3 and 40. In contrast, SortKey.NFL does a numeric compare of the line numbers. In fact, sort_stats(SortKey.NFL) is the same as sort_stats(SortKey.NAME, SortKey.FILENAME, SortKey.LINE).

For backward-compatibility reasons, the numeric arguments -1, 0, 1, and 2 are permitted. They are interpreted as 'stdname', 'calls', 'time', and 'cumulative' respectively. If this old style format (numeric) is used, only one sort key (the numeric key) will be used, and additional arguments will be silently ignored.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7: Added the SortKey enum.

reverse_order()

This method for the Stats class reverses the ordering of the basic list within the object. Note that by default ascending vs descending order is properly selected based on the sort key of choice.

print_stats(*restrictions)

This method for the Stats class prints out a report as described in the profile.run() definition.

The order of the printing is based on the last sort_stats() operation done on the object (subject to caveats in add() and strip_dirs()).

The arguments provided (if any) can be used to limit the list down to the significant entries. Initially, the list is taken to be the complete set of profiled functions. Each restriction is either an integer (to select a count of lines), or a decimal fraction between 0.0 and 1.0 inclusive (to select a percentage of lines), or a string that will be interpreted as a regular expression (to pattern match the standard name that is printed). If several restrictions are provided, then they are applied sequentially. For example:

print_stats(.1, 'foo:')

would first limit the printing to first 10% of list, and then only print functions that were part of filename .*foo:. In contrast, the command:

print_stats('foo:', .1)

would limit the list to all functions having file names .*foo:, and then proceed to only print the first 10% of them.

print_callers(*restrictions)

This method for the Stats class prints a list of all functions that called each function in the profiled database. The ordering is identical to that provided by print_stats(), and the definition of the restricting argument is also identical. Each caller is reported on its own line. The format differs slightly depending on the profiler that produced the stats:

With profile, a number is shown in parentheses after each caller to show how many times this specific call was made. For convenience, a second non-parenthesized number repeats the cumulative time spent in the function at the right.

With cProfile, each caller is preceded by three numbers: the number of times this specific call was made, and the total and cumulative times spent in the current function while it was invoked by this specific caller.

print_callees(*restrictions)

This method for the Stats class prints a list of all function that were called by the indicated function. Aside from this reversal of direction of calls (re: called vs was called by), the arguments and ordering are identical to the print_callers() method.

get_stats_profile()

This method returns an instance of StatsProfile, which contains a mapping of function names to instances of FunctionProfile. Each FunctionProfile instance holds information related to the function's profile such as how long the function took to run, how many times it was called, etc...

Ajouté dans la version 3.9: Added the following dataclasses: StatsProfile, FunctionProfile. Added the following function: get_stats_profile.

What Is Deterministic Profiling?

Deterministic profiling is meant to reflect the fact that all function call, function return, and exception events are monitored, and precise timings are made for the intervals between these events (during which time the user's code is executing). In contrast, statistical profiling (which is not done by this module) randomly samples the effective instruction pointer, and deduces where time is being spent. The latter technique traditionally involves less overhead (as the code does not need to be instrumented), but provides only relative indications of where time is being spent.

In Python, since there is an interpreter active during execution, the presence of instrumented code is not required in order to do deterministic profiling. Python automatically provides a hook (optional callback) for each event. In addition, the interpreted nature of Python tends to add so much overhead to execution, that deterministic profiling tends to only add small processing overhead in typical applications. The result is that deterministic profiling is not that expensive, yet provides extensive run time statistics about the execution of a Python program.

Call count statistics can be used to identify bugs in code (surprising counts), and to identify possible inline-expansion points (high call counts). Internal time statistics can be used to identify "hot loops" that should be carefully optimized. Cumulative time statistics should be used to identify high level errors in the selection of algorithms. Note that the unusual handling of cumulative times in this profiler allows statistics for recursive implementations of algorithms to be directly compared to iterative implementations.

Limitations

One limitation has to do with accuracy of timing information. There is a fundamental problem with deterministic profilers involving accuracy. The most obvious restriction is that the underlying "clock" is only ticking at a rate (typically) of about .001 seconds. Hence no measurements will be more accurate than the underlying clock. If enough measurements are taken, then the "error" will tend to average out. Unfortunately, removing this first error induces a second source of error.

The second problem is that it "takes a while" from when an event is dispatched until the profiler's call to get the time actually gets the state of the clock. Similarly, there is a certain lag when exiting the profiler event handler from the time that the clock's value was obtained (and then squirreled away), until the user's code is once again executing. As a result, functions that are called many times, or call many functions, will typically accumulate this error. The error that accumulates in this fashion is typically less than the accuracy of the clock (less than one clock tick), but it can accumulate and become very significant.

The problem is more important with profile than with the lower-overhead cProfile. For this reason, profile provides a means of calibrating itself for a given platform so that this error can be probabilistically (on the average) removed. After the profiler is calibrated, it will be more accurate (in a least square sense), but it will sometimes produce negative numbers (when call counts are exceptionally low, and the gods of probability work against you :-). ) Do not be alarmed by negative numbers in the profile. They should only appear if you have calibrated your profiler, and the results are actually better than without calibration.

Calibration

The profiler of the profile module subtracts a constant from each event handling time to compensate for the overhead of calling the time function, and socking away the results. By default, the constant is 0. The following procedure can be used to obtain a better constant for a given platform (see Limitations).

import profile
pr = profile.Profile()
for i in range(5):
    print(pr.calibrate(10000))

The method executes the number of Python calls given by the argument, directly and again under the profiler, measuring the time for both. It then computes the hidden overhead per profiler event, and returns that as a float. For example, on a 1.8Ghz Intel Core i5 running macOS, and using Python's time.process_time() as the timer, the magical number is about 4.04e-6.

The object of this exercise is to get a fairly consistent result. If your computer is very fast, or your timer function has poor resolution, you might have to pass 100000, or even 1000000, to get consistent results.

When you have a consistent answer, there are three ways you can use it:

import profile

# 1. Apply computed bias to all Profile instances created hereafter.
profile.Profile.bias = your_computed_bias

# 2. Apply computed bias to a specific Profile instance.
pr = profile.Profile()
pr.bias = your_computed_bias

# 3. Specify computed bias in instance constructor.
pr = profile.Profile(bias=your_computed_bias)

If you have a choice, you are better off choosing a smaller constant, and then your results will "less often" show up as negative in profile statistics.

Using a custom timer

If you want to change how current time is determined (for example, to force use of wall-clock time or elapsed process time), pass the timing function you want to the Profile class constructor:

pr = profile.Profile(your_time_func)

The resulting profiler will then call your_time_func. Depending on whether you are using profile.Profile or cProfile.Profile, your_time_func's return value will be interpreted differently:

profile.Profile

your_time_func should return a single number, or a list of numbers whose sum is the current time (like what os.times() returns). If the function returns a single time number, or the list of returned numbers has length 2, then you will get an especially fast version of the dispatch routine.

Be warned that you should calibrate the profiler class for the timer function that you choose (see Calibration). For most machines, a timer that returns a lone integer value will provide the best results in terms of low overhead during profiling. (os.times() is pretty bad, as it returns a tuple of floating-point values). If you want to substitute a better timer in the cleanest fashion, derive a class and hardwire a replacement dispatch method that best handles your timer call, along with the appropriate calibration constant.

cProfile.Profile

your_time_func should return a single number. If it returns integers, you can also invoke the class constructor with a second argument specifying the real duration of one unit of time. For example, if your_integer_time_func returns times measured in thousands of seconds, you would construct the Profile instance as follows:

pr = cProfile.Profile(your_integer_time_func, 0.001)

As the cProfile.Profile class cannot be calibrated, custom timer functions should be used with care and should be as fast as possible. For the best results with a custom timer, it might be necessary to hard-code it in the C source of the internal _lsprof module.

Python 3.3 adds several new functions in time that can be used to make precise measurements of process or wall-clock time. For example, see time.perf_counter().

timeit --- Measure execution time of small code snippets

Code source : Lib/timeit.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/timeit.py]

Ce module fournit une façon simple de mesurer le temps d'exécution de fragments de code Python. Il expose une Interface en ligne de commande ainsi qu'une interface Python. Ce module permet d'éviter un certain nombre de problèmes classiques liés à la mesure des temps d'exécution. Voir par exemple à ce sujet l'introduction par Tim Peters du chapitre « Algorithmes » dans la seconde édition du livre Python Cookbook, aux éditions O'Reilly.

Exemples simples

L'exemple suivant illustre l'utilisation de l'Interface en ligne de commande afin de comparer trois expressions différentes :

$ python -m timeit "'-'.join(str(n) for n in range(100))"
10000 loops, best of 5: 30.2 usec per loop
$ python -m timeit "'-'.join([str(n) for n in range(100)])"
10000 loops, best of 5: 27.5 usec per loop
$ python -m timeit "'-'.join(map(str, range(100)))"
10000 loops, best of 5: 23.2 usec per loop

L'Interface Python peut être utilisée aux mêmes fins avec :

>>> import timeit
>>> timeit.timeit('"-".join(str(n) for n in range(100))', number=10000)
0.3018611848820001
>>> timeit.timeit('"-".join([str(n) for n in range(100)])', number=10000)
0.2727368790656328
>>> timeit.timeit('"-".join(map(str, range(100)))', number=10000)
0.23702679807320237

Un objet appelable peut également être passé en argument à l'Interface Python :

>>> timeit.timeit(lambda: "-".join(map(str, range(100))), number=10000)
0.19665591977536678

Notez cependant que timeit() détermine automatiquement le nombre de répétitions seulement lorsque l'interface en ligne de commande est utilisée. Vous pouvez trouver des exemples d'usages avancés dans la section Exemples.

Interface Python

Ce module définit une classe publique ainsi que trois fonctions destinées à simplifier son usage :

timeit.timeit(stmt='pass', setup='pass', timer=<default timer>, number=1000000, globals=None)

Crée une instance d'objet Timer à partir de l'instruction donnée, du code setup et de la fonction timer, puis exécute sa méthode timeit() à number reprises. L'argument optionnel globals spécifie un espace de nommage dans lequel exécuter le code.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Le paramètre optionnel globals a été ajouté.

timeit.repeat(stmt='pass', setup='pass', timer=<default timer>, repeat=5, number=1000000, globals=None)

Crée une instance d'objet Timer à partir de l'instruction donnée, du code setup et de la fonction timer, puis exécute sa méthode repeat() à number reprises, repeat fois. L'argument optionnel globals spécifie un espace de nommage dans lequel exécuter le code.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Le paramètre optionnel globals a été ajouté.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: La valeur par défaut de repeat est passée de 3 à 5.

timeit.default_timer()

The default timer, which is always time.perf_counter(), returns float seconds. An alternative, time.perf_counter_ns, returns integer nanoseconds.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: time.perf_counter() est désormais le minuteur par défaut.

class timeit.Timer(stmt='pass', setup='pass', timer=<timer function>, globals=None)

Classe permettant de mesurer le temps d'exécution de fragments de code.

Ce constructeur prend en argument une instruction dont le temps d'exécution doit être mesuré, une instruction additionnelle de mise en place et une fonction de chronométrage. Les deux instructions valent 'pass' par défaut; la fonction de chronométrage dépend de la plateforme d'exécution (se référer au doc string du module). stmt et setup peuvent contenir plusieurs instructions séparées par des ; ou des sauts de lignes tant qu'ils ne comportent pas de littéraux sur plusieurs lignes. L'instruction est exécutée dans l'espace de nommage de timeit par défaut ; ce comportement peut être modifié en passant un espace de nommage au paramètre globals.

Pour mesurer le temps d'exécution de la première instruction, utilisez la méthode timeit(). Les méthodes repeat() et autorange() sont des méthodes d'agrément permettant d'appeler timeit() à plusieurs reprises.

Le temps d'exécution de setup n'est pas pris en compte dans le temps global d'exécution.

Les paramètres stmt et setup peuvent également recevoir des objets appelables sans argument. Ceci transforme alors les appels à ces objets en fonction de chronométrage qui seront exécutées par timeit(). Notez que le surcoût lié à la mesure du temps d'exécution dans ce cas est légèrement supérieur en raisons des appels de fonction supplémentaires.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Le paramètre optionnel globals a été ajouté.

timeit(number=1000000)

Time number executions of the main statement. This executes the setup statement once, and then returns the time it takes to execute the main statement a number of times. The default timer returns seconds as a float. The argument is the number of times through the loop, defaulting to one million. The main statement, the setup statement and the timer function to be used are passed to the constructor.

Note

Par défaut, timeit() désactive temporairement le ramasse-miettes pendant le chronométrage. Cette approche a l'avantage de permettre de comparer des mesures indépendantes. L'inconvénient de cette méthode est que le ramasse-miettes peut avoir un impact significatif sur les performances de la fonction étudiée. Dans ce cas, le ramasse-miettes peut être réactivé en première instruction de la chaîne setup. Par exemple :

timeit.Timer('for i in range(10): oct(i)', 'gc.enable()').timeit()

autorange(callback=None)

Détermine automatiquement combien de fois appeler timeit().

This is a convenience function that calls timeit() repeatedly so that the total time >= 0.2 second, returning the eventual (number of loops, time taken for that number of loops). It calls timeit() with increasing numbers from the sequence 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, ... until the time taken is at least 0.2 seconds.

Si callback est spécifié et n'est pas None, elle est appelée après chaque itération avec deux arguments (numéro de l'itération et temps écoulé) : callback(number, time_taken).

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

repeat(repeat=5, number=1000000)

Appelle timeit() plusieurs fois.

Cette fonction d'agrément appelle timeit() à plusieurs reprises et renvoie une liste de résultats. Le premier argument spécifie le nombre d'appels à timeit(). Le second argument spécifie l'argument number de timeit().

Note

Il est tentant de vouloir calculer la moyenne et l'écart-type des résultats et notifier ces valeurs. Ce n'est cependant pas très utile. En pratique, la valeur la plus basse donne une estimation basse de la vitesse maximale à laquelle votre machine peut exécuter le fragment de code spécifié ; les valeurs hautes de la liste sont typiquement provoquées non pas par une variabilité de la vitesse d'exécution de Python, mais par d'autres processus interférant avec la précision du chronométrage. Le min() du résultat est probablement la seule valeur à laquelle vous devriez vous intéresser. Pour aller plus loin, vous devriez regarder l'intégralité des résultats et utiliser le bon sens plutôt que les statistiques.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: La valeur par défaut de repeat est passée de 3 à 5.

print_exc(file=None)

Outil permettant d'afficher la trace du code chronométré.

Usage typique :

t = Timer(...)       # outside the try/except
try:
    t.timeit(...)    # or t.repeat(...)
except Exception:
    t.print_exc()

L'avantage par rapport à la trace standard est que les lignes sources du code compilé sont affichées. Le paramètre optionnel file définit l'endroit où la trace est envoyée, par défaut sys.stderr.

Interface en ligne de commande

Lorsque le module est appelé comme un programme en ligne de commande, la syntaxe suivante est utilisée :

python -m timeit [-n N] [-r N] [-u U] [-s S] [-p] [-v] [-h] [statement ...]

Les options suivantes sont gérées :

-n N, --number=N

nombre d'exécutions de l'instruction statement

-r N, --repeat=N

nombre de répétitions du chronomètre (5 par défaut)

-s S, --setup=S

instruction exécutée une seule fois à l'initialisation (pass par défaut)

-p, --process

mesure le temps au niveau du processus et non au niveau du système, en utilisant time.process_time() plutôt que time.perf_counter() qui est utilisée par défaut

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

-u, --unit=U

specify a time unit for timer output; can select nsec, usec, msec, or sec

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

-v, --verbose

affiche les temps d'exécutions bruts, répéter pour plus de précision

-h, --help

affiche un court message d'aide puis quitte

Une instruction sur plusieurs lignes peut être donnée en entrée en spécifiant chaque ligne comme un argument séparé. Indenter une ligne est possible en encadrant l'argument de guillemets et en le préfixant par des espaces. Plusieurs -s sont gérées de la même façon.

Si -n n'est pas donnée, un nombre de boucles approprié est calculé en essayant des nombres croissants de la séquence 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, ... jusqu'à ce que le temps total d'exécution dépasse 0,2 secondes.

Les mesures de default_timer() peuvent être altérées par d'autres programmes s'exécutant sur la même machine. La meilleure approche lorsqu'un chronométrage exact est nécessaire est de répéter celui-ci à plusieurs reprises et considérer le meilleur temps. L'option -r est adaptée à ce fonctionnement, les cinq répétitions par défaut suffisent probablement dans la plupart des cas. Vous pouvez utiliser time.process_time() pour mesurer le temps processeur.

Note

Il existe un surcoût minimal associé à l'exécution de l'instruction pass. Le code présenté ici ne tente pas de le masquer, mais vous devez être conscient de son existence. Ce surcoût minimal peut être mesuré en invoquant le programme sans argument ; il peut différer en fonction des versions de Python.

Exemples

Il est possible de fournir une instruction de mise en place exécutée une seule fois au début du chronométrage :

$ python -m timeit -s "text = 'sample string'; char = 'g'" "char in text"
5000000 loops, best of 5: 0.0877 usec per loop
$ python -m timeit -s "text = 'sample string'; char = 'g'" "text.find(char)"
1000000 loops, best of 5: 0.342 usec per loop

In the output, there are three fields. The loop count, which tells you how many times the statement body was run per timing loop repetition. The repetition count ('best of 5') which tells you how many times the timing loop was repeated, and finally the time the statement body took on average within the best repetition of the timing loop. That is, the time the fastest repetition took divided by the loop count.

>>> import timeit
>>> timeit.timeit('char in text', setup='text = "sample string"; char = "g"')
0.41440500499993504
>>> timeit.timeit('text.find(char)', setup='text = "sample string"; char = "g"')
1.7246671520006203

La même chose peut être réalisée en utilisant la classe Timer et ses méthodes :

>>> import timeit
>>> t = timeit.Timer('char in text', setup='text = "sample string"; char = "g"')
>>> t.timeit()
0.3955516149999312
>>> t.repeat()
[0.40183617287970225, 0.37027556854118704, 0.38344867356679524, 0.3712595970846668, 0.37866875250654886]

Les exemples qui suivent montrent comment chronométrer des expressions sur plusieurs lignes. Nous comparons ici le coût d'utilisation de hasattr() par rapport à try/except pour tester la présence ou l'absence d'attributs d'un objet :

$ python -m timeit "try:" "  str.__bool__" "except AttributeError:" "  pass"
20000 loops, best of 5: 15.7 usec per loop
$ python -m timeit "if hasattr(str, '__bool__'): pass"
50000 loops, best of 5: 4.26 usec per loop

$ python -m timeit "try:" "  int.__bool__" "except AttributeError:" "  pass"
200000 loops, best of 5: 1.43 usec per loop
$ python -m timeit "if hasattr(int, '__bool__'): pass"
100000 loops, best of 5: 2.23 usec per loop

>>> import timeit
>>> # attribute is missing
>>> s = """\
... try:
...     str.__bool__
... except AttributeError:
...     pass
... """
>>> timeit.timeit(stmt=s, number=100000)
0.9138244460009446
>>> s = "if hasattr(str, '__bool__'): pass"
>>> timeit.timeit(stmt=s, number=100000)
0.5829014980008651
>>>
>>> # attribute is present
>>> s = """\
... try:
...     int.__bool__
... except AttributeError:
...     pass
... """
>>> timeit.timeit(stmt=s, number=100000)
0.04215312199994514
>>> s = "if hasattr(int, '__bool__'): pass"
>>> timeit.timeit(stmt=s, number=100000)
0.08588060699912603

To give the timeit module access to functions you define, you can pass a setup parameter which contains an import statement:

def test():
    """Stupid test function"""
    L = [i for i in range(100)]

if __name__ == '__main__':
    import timeit
    print(timeit.timeit("test()", setup="from __main__ import test"))

Une autre possibilité est de passer globals() au paramètre globals, ceci qui exécutera le code dans l'espace de nommage global courant. Cela peut être plus pratique que de spécifier manuellement des importations :

def f(x):
    return x**2
def g(x):
    return x**4
def h(x):
    return x**8

import timeit
print(timeit.timeit('[func(42) for func in (f,g,h)]', globals=globals()))

trace --- Trace or track Python statement execution

Code source : Lib/abc.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/abc.py]

The trace module allows you to trace program execution, generate annotated statement coverage listings, print caller/callee relationships and list functions executed during a program run. It can be used in another program or from the command line.

Voir aussi

Coverage.py [https://coverage.readthedocs.io/]

A popular third-party coverage tool that provides HTML output along with advanced features such as branch coverage.

Utilisation en ligne de commande.

The trace module can be invoked from the command line. It can be as simple as

python -m trace --count -C . somefile.py ...

The above will execute somefile.py and generate annotated listings of all Python modules imported during the execution into the current directory.

--help

Display usage and exit.

--version

Display the version of the module and exit.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8: Added --module option that allows running an executable module.

Main options

At least one of the following options must be specified when invoking trace. The --listfuncs option is mutually exclusive with the --trace and --count options. When --listfuncs is provided, neither --count nor --trace are accepted, and vice versa.

-c, --count

Produce a set of annotated listing files upon program completion that shows how many times each statement was executed. See also --coverdir, --file and --no-report below.

-t, --trace

Display lines as they are executed.

-l, --listfuncs

Display the functions executed by running the program.

-r, --report

Produce an annotated list from an earlier program run that used the --count and --file option. This does not execute any code.

-T, --trackcalls

Display the calling relationships exposed by running the program.

Modifiers

-f, --file=<file>

Name of a file to accumulate counts over several tracing runs. Should be used with the --count option.

-C, --coverdir=<dir>

Directory where the report files go. The coverage report for package.module is written to file dir/package/module.cover.

-m, --missing

When generating annotated listings, mark lines which were not executed with >>>>>>.

-s, --summary

When using --count or --report, write a brief summary to stdout for each file processed.

-R, --no-report

Do not generate annotated listings. This is useful if you intend to make several runs with --count, and then produce a single set of annotated listings at the end.

-g, --timing

Prefix each line with the time since the program started. Only used while tracing.

Filters

These options may be repeated multiple times.

--ignore-module=<mod>

Ignore each of the given module names and its submodules (if it is a package). The argument can be a list of names separated by a comma.

--ignore-dir=<dir>

Ignore all modules and packages in the named directory and subdirectories. The argument can be a list of directories separated by os.pathsep.

Programmatic Interface

class trace.Trace(count=1, trace=1, countfuncs=0, countcallers=0, ignoremods=(), ignoredirs=(), infile=None, outfile=None, timing=False)

Create an object to trace execution of a single statement or expression. All parameters are optional. count enables counting of line numbers. trace enables line execution tracing. countfuncs enables listing of the functions called during the run. countcallers enables call relationship tracking. ignoremods is a list of modules or packages to ignore. ignoredirs is a list of directories whose modules or packages should be ignored. infile is the name of the file from which to read stored count information. outfile is the name of the file in which to write updated count information. timing enables a timestamp relative to when tracing was started to be displayed.

run(cmd)

Execute the command and gather statistics from the execution with the current tracing parameters. cmd must be a string or code object, suitable for passing into exec().

runctx(cmd, globals=None, locals=None)

Execute the command and gather statistics from the execution with the current tracing parameters, in the defined global and local environments. If not defined, globals and locals default to empty dictionaries.

runfunc(func, /, *args, **kwds)

Call func with the given arguments under control of the Trace object with the current tracing parameters.

results()

Return a CoverageResults object that contains the cumulative results of all previous calls to run, runctx and runfunc for the given Trace instance. Does not reset the accumulated trace results.

class trace.CoverageResults

A container for coverage results, created by Trace.results(). Should not be created directly by the user.

update(other)

Merge in data from another CoverageResults object.

write_results(show_missing=True, summary=False, coverdir=None, *, ignore_missing_files=False)

Write coverage results. Set show_missing to show lines that had no hits. Set summary to include in the output the coverage summary per module. coverdir specifies the directory into which the coverage result files will be output. If None, the results for each source file are placed in its directory.

If ignore_missing_files is True, coverage counts for files that no longer exist are silently ignored. Otherwise, a missing file will raise a FileNotFoundError.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added ignore_missing_files parameter.

A simple example demonstrating the use of the programmatic interface:

import sys
import trace

# create a Trace object, telling it what to ignore, and whether to
# do tracing or line-counting or both.
tracer = trace.Trace(
    ignoredirs=[sys.prefix, sys.exec_prefix],
    trace=0,
    count=1)

# run the new command using the given tracer
tracer.run('main()')

# make a report, placing output in the current directory
r = tracer.results()
r.write_results(show_missing=True, coverdir=".")

tracemalloc --- Trace memory allocations

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Source code: Lib/tracemalloc.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/tracemalloc.py]

The tracemalloc module is a debug tool to trace memory blocks allocated by Python. It provides the following information:

Traceback where an object was allocated

Statistics on allocated memory blocks per filename and per line number: total size, number and average size of allocated memory blocks

Compute the differences between two snapshots to detect memory leaks

To trace most memory blocks allocated by Python, the module should be started as early as possible by setting the PYTHONTRACEMALLOC environment variable to 1, or by using -X tracemalloc command line option. The tracemalloc.start() function can be called at runtime to start tracing Python memory allocations.

By default, a trace of an allocated memory block only stores the most recent frame (1 frame). To store 25 frames at startup: set the PYTHONTRACEMALLOC environment variable to 25, or use the -X tracemalloc=25 command line option.

Exemples

Display the top 10

Display the 10 files allocating the most memory:

import tracemalloc

tracemalloc.start()

# ... run your application ...

snapshot = tracemalloc.take_snapshot()
top_stats = snapshot.statistics('lineno')

print("[ Top 10 ]")
for stat in top_stats[:10]:
    print(stat)

Example of output of the Python test suite:

[ Top 10 ]
<frozen importlib._bootstrap>:716: size=4855 KiB, count=39328, average=126 B
<frozen importlib._bootstrap>:284: size=521 KiB, count=3199, average=167 B
/usr/lib/python3.4/collections/__init__.py:368: size=244 KiB, count=2315, average=108 B
/usr/lib/python3.4/unittest/case.py:381: size=185 KiB, count=779, average=243 B
/usr/lib/python3.4/unittest/case.py:402: size=154 KiB, count=378, average=416 B
/usr/lib/python3.4/abc.py:133: size=88.7 KiB, count=347, average=262 B
<frozen importlib._bootstrap>:1446: size=70.4 KiB, count=911, average=79 B
<frozen importlib._bootstrap>:1454: size=52.0 KiB, count=25, average=2131 B
<string>:5: size=49.7 KiB, count=148, average=344 B
/usr/lib/python3.4/sysconfig.py:411: size=48.0 KiB, count=1, average=48.0 KiB

We can see that Python loaded 4855 KiB data (bytecode and constants) from modules and that the collections module allocated 244 KiB to build namedtuple types.

See Snapshot.statistics() for more options.

Compute differences

Take two snapshots and display the differences:

import tracemalloc
tracemalloc.start()
# ... start your application ...

snapshot1 = tracemalloc.take_snapshot()
# ... call the function leaking memory ...
snapshot2 = tracemalloc.take_snapshot()

top_stats = snapshot2.compare_to(snapshot1, 'lineno')

print("[ Top 10 differences ]")
for stat in top_stats[:10]:
    print(stat)

Example of output before/after running some tests of the Python test suite:

[ Top 10 differences ]
<frozen importlib._bootstrap>:716: size=8173 KiB (+4428 KiB), count=71332 (+39369), average=117 B
/usr/lib/python3.4/linecache.py:127: size=940 KiB (+940 KiB), count=8106 (+8106), average=119 B
/usr/lib/python3.4/unittest/case.py:571: size=298 KiB (+298 KiB), count=589 (+589), average=519 B
<frozen importlib._bootstrap>:284: size=1005 KiB (+166 KiB), count=7423 (+1526), average=139 B
/usr/lib/python3.4/mimetypes.py:217: size=112 KiB (+112 KiB), count=1334 (+1334), average=86 B
/usr/lib/python3.4/http/server.py:848: size=96.0 KiB (+96.0 KiB), count=1 (+1), average=96.0 KiB
/usr/lib/python3.4/inspect.py:1465: size=83.5 KiB (+83.5 KiB), count=109 (+109), average=784 B
/usr/lib/python3.4/unittest/mock.py:491: size=77.7 KiB (+77.7 KiB), count=143 (+143), average=557 B
/usr/lib/python3.4/urllib/parse.py:476: size=71.8 KiB (+71.8 KiB), count=969 (+969), average=76 B
/usr/lib/python3.4/contextlib.py:38: size=67.2 KiB (+67.2 KiB), count=126 (+126), average=546 B

We can see that Python has loaded 8173 KiB of module data (bytecode and constants), and that this is 4428 KiB more than had been loaded before the tests, when the previous snapshot was taken. Similarly, the linecache module has cached 940 KiB of Python source code to format tracebacks, all of it since the previous snapshot.

If the system has little free memory, snapshots can be written on disk using the Snapshot.dump() method to analyze the snapshot offline. Then use the Snapshot.load() method reload the snapshot.

Get the traceback of a memory block

Code to display the traceback of the biggest memory block:

import tracemalloc

# Store 25 frames
tracemalloc.start(25)

# ... run your application ...

snapshot = tracemalloc.take_snapshot()
top_stats = snapshot.statistics('traceback')

# pick the biggest memory block
stat = top_stats[0]
print("%s memory blocks: %.1f KiB" % (stat.count, stat.size / 1024))
for line in stat.traceback.format():
    print(line)

Example of output of the Python test suite (traceback limited to 25 frames):

903 memory blocks: 870.1 KiB
  File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 716
  File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1036
  File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 934
  File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1068
  File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 619
  File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1581
  File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1614
  File "/usr/lib/python3.4/doctest.py", line 101
    import pdb
  File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 284
  File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 938
  File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1068
  File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 619
  File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1581
  File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1614
  File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/support/__init__.py", line 1728
    import doctest
  File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/test_pickletools.py", line 21
    support.run_doctest(pickletools)
  File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/regrtest.py", line 1276
    test_runner()
  File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/regrtest.py", line 976
    display_failure=not verbose)
  File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/regrtest.py", line 761
    match_tests=ns.match_tests)
  File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/regrtest.py", line 1563
    main()
  File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/__main__.py", line 3
    regrtest.main_in_temp_cwd()
  File "/usr/lib/python3.4/runpy.py", line 73
    exec(code, run_globals)
  File "/usr/lib/python3.4/runpy.py", line 160
    "__main__", fname, loader, pkg_name)

We can see that the most memory was allocated in the importlib module to load data (bytecode and constants) from modules: 870.1 KiB. The traceback is where the importlib loaded data most recently: on the import pdb line of the doctest module. The traceback may change if a new module is loaded.

Pretty top

Code to display the 10 lines allocating the most memory with a pretty output, ignoring <frozen importlib._bootstrap> and <unknown> files:

import linecache
import os
import tracemalloc

def display_top(snapshot, key_type='lineno', limit=10):
    snapshot = snapshot.filter_traces((
        tracemalloc.Filter(False, "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>"),
        tracemalloc.Filter(False, "<unknown>"),
    ))
    top_stats = snapshot.statistics(key_type)

    print("Top %s lines" % limit)
    for index, stat in enumerate(top_stats[:limit], 1):
        frame = stat.traceback[0]
        print("#%s: %s:%s: %.1f KiB"
              % (index, frame.filename, frame.lineno, stat.size / 1024))
        line = linecache.getline(frame.filename, frame.lineno).strip()
        if line:
            print('    %s' % line)

    other = top_stats[limit:]
    if other:
        size = sum(stat.size for stat in other)
        print("%s other: %.1f KiB" % (len(other), size / 1024))
    total = sum(stat.size for stat in top_stats)
    print("Total allocated size: %.1f KiB" % (total / 1024))

tracemalloc.start()

# ... run your application ...

snapshot = tracemalloc.take_snapshot()
display_top(snapshot)

Example of output of the Python test suite:

Top 10 lines
#1: Lib/base64.py:414: 419.8 KiB
    _b85chars2 = [(a + b) for a in _b85chars for b in _b85chars]
#2: Lib/base64.py:306: 419.8 KiB
    _a85chars2 = [(a + b) for a in _a85chars for b in _a85chars]
#3: collections/__init__.py:368: 293.6 KiB
    exec(class_definition, namespace)
#4: Lib/abc.py:133: 115.2 KiB
    cls = super().__new__(mcls, name, bases, namespace)
#5: unittest/case.py:574: 103.1 KiB
    testMethod()
#6: Lib/linecache.py:127: 95.4 KiB
    lines = fp.readlines()
#7: urllib/parse.py:476: 71.8 KiB
    for a in _hexdig for b in _hexdig}
#8: <string>:5: 62.0 KiB
#9: Lib/_weakrefset.py:37: 60.0 KiB
    self.data = set()
#10: Lib/base64.py:142: 59.8 KiB
    _b32tab2 = [a + b for a in _b32tab for b in _b32tab]
6220 other: 3602.8 KiB
Total allocated size: 5303.1 KiB

See Snapshot.statistics() for more options.

Record the current and peak size of all traced memory blocks

The following code computes two sums like 0 + 1 + 2 + ... inefficiently, by creating a list of those numbers. This list consumes a lot of memory temporarily. We can use get_traced_memory() and reset_peak() to observe the small memory usage after the sum is computed as well as the peak memory usage during the computations:

import tracemalloc

tracemalloc.start()

# Example code: compute a sum with a large temporary list
large_sum = sum(list(range(100000)))

first_size, first_peak = tracemalloc.get_traced_memory()

tracemalloc.reset_peak()

# Example code: compute a sum with a small temporary list
small_sum = sum(list(range(1000)))

second_size, second_peak = tracemalloc.get_traced_memory()

print(f"{first_size=}, {first_peak=}")
print(f"{second_size=}, {second_peak=}")

Sortie :

first_size=664, first_peak=3592984
second_size=804, second_peak=29704

Using reset_peak() ensured we could accurately record the peak during the computation of small_sum, even though it is much smaller than the overall peak size of memory blocks since the start() call. Without the call to reset_peak(), second_peak would still be the peak from the computation large_sum (that is, equal to first_peak). In this case, both peaks are much higher than the final memory usage, and which suggests we could optimise (by removing the unnecessary call to list, and writing sum(range(...))).

API

Fonctions

tracemalloc.clear_traces()

Clear traces of memory blocks allocated by Python.

See also stop().

tracemalloc.get_object_traceback(obj)

Get the traceback where the Python object obj was allocated. Return a Traceback instance, or None if the tracemalloc module is not tracing memory allocations or did not trace the allocation of the object.

See also gc.get_referrers() and sys.getsizeof() functions.

tracemalloc.get_traceback_limit()

Get the maximum number of frames stored in the traceback of a trace.

The tracemalloc module must be tracing memory allocations to get the limit, otherwise an exception is raised.

The limit is set by the start() function.

tracemalloc.get_traced_memory()

Get the current size and peak size of memory blocks traced by the tracemalloc module as a tuple: (current: int, peak: int).

tracemalloc.reset_peak()

Set the peak size of memory blocks traced by the tracemalloc module to the current size.

Do nothing if the tracemalloc module is not tracing memory allocations.

This function only modifies the recorded peak size, and does not modify or clear any traces, unlike clear_traces(). Snapshots taken with take_snapshot() before a call to reset_peak() can be meaningfully compared to snapshots taken after the call.

See also get_traced_memory().

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

tracemalloc.get_tracemalloc_memory()

Get the memory usage in bytes of the tracemalloc module used to store traces of memory blocks. Return an int.

tracemalloc.is_tracing()

True if the tracemalloc module is tracing Python memory allocations, False otherwise.

See also start() and stop() functions.

tracemalloc.start(nframe: int = 1)

Start tracing Python memory allocations: install hooks on Python memory allocators. Collected tracebacks of traces will be limited to nframe frames. By default, a trace of a memory block only stores the most recent frame: the limit is 1. nframe must be greater or equal to 1.

You can still read the original number of total frames that composed the traceback by looking at the Traceback.total_nframe attribute.

Storing more than 1 frame is only useful to compute statistics grouped by 'traceback' or to compute cumulative statistics: see the Snapshot.compare_to() and Snapshot.statistics() methods.

Storing more frames increases the memory and CPU overhead of the tracemalloc module. Use the get_tracemalloc_memory() function to measure how much memory is used by the tracemalloc module.

The PYTHONTRACEMALLOC environment variable (PYTHONTRACEMALLOC=NFRAME) and the -X tracemalloc=NFRAME command line option can be used to start tracing at startup.

See also stop(), is_tracing() and get_traceback_limit() functions.

tracemalloc.stop()

Stop tracing Python memory allocations: uninstall hooks on Python memory allocators. Also clears all previously collected traces of memory blocks allocated by Python.

Call take_snapshot() function to take a snapshot of traces before clearing them.

See also start(), is_tracing() and clear_traces() functions.

tracemalloc.take_snapshot()

Take a snapshot of traces of memory blocks allocated by Python. Return a new Snapshot instance.

The snapshot does not include memory blocks allocated before the tracemalloc module started to trace memory allocations.

Tracebacks of traces are limited to get_traceback_limit() frames. Use the nframe parameter of the start() function to store more frames.

The tracemalloc module must be tracing memory allocations to take a snapshot, see the start() function.

See also the get_object_traceback() function.

DomainFilter

class tracemalloc.DomainFilter(inclusive: bool, domain: int)

Filter traces of memory blocks by their address space (domain).

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

inclusive

If inclusive is True (include), match memory blocks allocated in the address space domain.

If inclusive is False (exclude), match memory blocks not allocated in the address space domain.

domain

Address space of a memory block (int). Read-only property.

Filter

class tracemalloc.Filter(inclusive: bool, filename_pattern: str, lineno: int = None, all_frames: bool = False, domain: int = None)

Filter on traces of memory blocks.

See the fnmatch.fnmatch() function for the syntax of filename_pattern. The '.pyc' file extension is replaced with '.py'.

Exemples :

Filter(True, subprocess.__file__) only includes traces of the subprocess module

Filter(False, tracemalloc.__file__) excludes traces of the tracemalloc module

Filter(False, "<unknown>") excludes empty tracebacks

Modifié dans la version 3.5: The '.pyo' file extension is no longer replaced with '.py'.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Added the domain attribute.

domain

Address space of a memory block (int or None).

tracemalloc uses the domain 0 to trace memory allocations made by Python. C extensions can use other domains to trace other resources.

inclusive

If inclusive is True (include), only match memory blocks allocated in a file with a name matching filename_pattern at line number lineno.

If inclusive is False (exclude), ignore memory blocks allocated in a file with a name matching filename_pattern at line number lineno.

lineno

Line number (int) of the filter. If lineno is None, the filter matches any line number.

filename_pattern

Filename pattern of the filter (str). Read-only property.

all_frames

If all_frames is True, all frames of the traceback are checked. If all_frames is False, only the most recent frame is checked.

This attribute has no effect if the traceback limit is 1. See the get_traceback_limit() function and Snapshot.traceback_limit attribute.

Frame

class tracemalloc.Frame

Frame of a traceback.

The Traceback class is a sequence of Frame instances.

filename

Filename (str).

lineno

Line number (int).

Snapshot

class tracemalloc.Snapshot

Snapshot of traces of memory blocks allocated by Python.

The take_snapshot() function creates a snapshot instance.

compare_to(old_snapshot: Snapshot, key_type: str, cumulative: bool = False)

Compute the differences with an old snapshot. Get statistics as a sorted list of StatisticDiff instances grouped by key_type.

See the Snapshot.statistics() method for key_type and cumulative parameters.

The result is sorted from the biggest to the smallest by: absolute value of StatisticDiff.size_diff, StatisticDiff.size, absolute value of StatisticDiff.count_diff, Statistic.count and then by StatisticDiff.traceback.

dump(filename)

Write the snapshot into a file.

Use load() to reload the snapshot.

filter_traces(filters)

Create a new Snapshot instance with a filtered traces sequence, filters is a list of DomainFilter and Filter instances. If filters is an empty list, return a new Snapshot instance with a copy of the traces.

All inclusive filters are applied at once, a trace is ignored if no inclusive filters match it. A trace is ignored if at least one exclusive filter matches it.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: DomainFilter instances are now also accepted in filters.

classmethod load(filename)

Load a snapshot from a file.

See also dump().

statistics(key_type: str, cumulative: bool = False)

Get statistics as a sorted list of Statistic instances grouped by key_type:

key_type

description

'filename'

filename

'lineno'

filename and line number

'traceback'

traceback

If cumulative is True, cumulate size and count of memory blocks of all frames of the traceback of a trace, not only the most recent frame. The cumulative mode can only be used with key_type equal to 'filename' and 'lineno'.

The result is sorted from the biggest to the smallest by: Statistic.size, Statistic.count and then by Statistic.traceback.

traceback_limit

Maximum number of frames stored in the traceback of traces: result of the get_traceback_limit() when the snapshot was taken.

traces

Traces of all memory blocks allocated by Python: sequence of Trace instances.

The sequence has an undefined order. Use the Snapshot.statistics() method to get a sorted list of statistics.

Statistic

class tracemalloc.Statistic

Statistic on memory allocations.

Snapshot.statistics() returns a list of Statistic instances.

See also the StatisticDiff class.

count

Number of memory blocks (int).

size

Total size of memory blocks in bytes (int).

traceback

Traceback where the memory block was allocated, Traceback instance.

StatisticDiff

class tracemalloc.StatisticDiff

Statistic difference on memory allocations between an old and a new Snapshot instance.

Snapshot.compare_to() returns a list of StatisticDiff instances. See also the Statistic class.

count

Number of memory blocks in the new snapshot (int): 0 if the memory blocks have been released in the new snapshot.

count_diff

Difference of number of memory blocks between the old and the new snapshots (int): 0 if the memory blocks have been allocated in the new snapshot.

size

Total size of memory blocks in bytes in the new snapshot (int): 0 if the memory blocks have been released in the new snapshot.

size_diff

Difference of total size of memory blocks in bytes between the old and the new snapshots (int): 0 if the memory blocks have been allocated in the new snapshot.

traceback

Traceback where the memory blocks were allocated, Traceback instance.

Trace

class tracemalloc.Trace

Trace of a memory block.

The Snapshot.traces attribute is a sequence of Trace instances.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Added the domain attribute.

domain

Address space of a memory block (int). Read-only property.

tracemalloc uses the domain 0 to trace memory allocations made by Python. C extensions can use other domains to trace other resources.

size

Size of the memory block in bytes (int).

traceback

Traceback where the memory block was allocated, Traceback instance.

Traceback

class tracemalloc.Traceback

Sequence of Frame instances sorted from the oldest frame to the most recent frame.

A traceback contains at least 1 frame. If the tracemalloc module failed to get a frame, the filename "<unknown>" at line number 0 is used.

When a snapshot is taken, tracebacks of traces are limited to get_traceback_limit() frames. See the take_snapshot() function. The original number of frames of the traceback is stored in the Traceback.total_nframe attribute. That allows one to know if a traceback has been truncated by the traceback limit.

The Trace.traceback attribute is a Traceback instance.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Frames are now sorted from the oldest to the most recent, instead of most recent to oldest.

total_nframe

Total number of frames that composed the traceback before truncation. This attribute can be set to None if the information is not available.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: The Traceback.total_nframe attribute was added.

format(limit=None, most_recent_first=False)

Format the traceback as a list of lines. Use the linecache module to retrieve lines from the source code. If limit is set, format the limit most recent frames if limit is positive. Otherwise, format the abs(limit) oldest frames. If most_recent_first is True, the order of the formatted frames is reversed, returning the most recent frame first instead of last.

Similar to the traceback.format_tb() function, except that format() does not include newlines.

Exemple :

print("Traceback (most recent call first):")
for line in traceback:
    print(line)

Sortie :

Traceback (most recent call first):
  File "test.py", line 9
    obj = Object()
  File "test.py", line 12
    tb = tracemalloc.get_object_traceback(f())

Paquets et distribution de paquets logiciels

Ces bibliothèques vous aident lors de la publication et l'installation de logiciels Python. Bien que ces modules sont conçus pour fonctionner avec le Python Package Index [https://pypi.org], ils peuvent aussi être utilisés avec un serveur local, ou sans serveur.

ensurepip --- Bootstrapping the pip installer

Command-line interface

API du module

venv --- Creation of virtual environments

Création d'environnements virtuels

How venvs work

API

Un exemple d'extension de EnvBuilder

zipapp --- Manage executable Python zip archives

Exemple de base

Interface en ligne de commande

API Python

Exemples

Spécification de l'interprète

Création d'applications autonomes avec zipapp

Mises en garde

Le format d'archive d'application Zip Python

ensurepip --- Bootstrapping the pip installer

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Source code: Lib/ensurepip [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/ensurepip]

The ensurepip package provides support for bootstrapping the pip installer into an existing Python installation or virtual environment. This bootstrapping approach reflects the fact that pip is an independent project with its own release cycle, and the latest available stable version is bundled with maintenance and feature releases of the CPython reference interpreter.

Dans la plupart des cas, il n'est pas nécessaire de recourir à ce module. pip est le plus souvent déjà installé pour vous. Cependant, ensurepip peut s'avérer utile si l'installation de pip a été sautée au moment de l'installation de Python (ou en créant un environnement virtuel), ou bien si pip a été désinstallé par l'utilisateur.

Note

Ce module n'accède pas au réseau. Tout ce qu'il faut pour amorcer pip est compris dans le paquet.

This is an optional module. If it is missing from your copy of CPython, look for documentation from your distributor (that is, whoever provided Python to you). If you are the distributor, see Requirements for optional modules.

Voir aussi

Installation de modules Python

Guide de l'utilisateur final pour installer des paquets Python

PEP 453 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/] : Amorçage explicite de pip dans les installations de Python

Les motivations pour l'ajout de ce module et sa spécification d'origine

Disponibilité: not Android, not iOS, not WASI.

This module is not supported on mobile platforms or WebAssembly platforms.

Command-line interface

On fait appel à l'interface en ligne de commande à l'aide de l'option -m de l'interpréteur.

L'invocation la plus simple est :

python -m ensurepip

Cette commande installe pip s'il n'est pas déjà présent. Sinon, elle ne fait rien. Pour s'assurer que la version de pip est au moins aussi récente que celle embarquée dans ensurepip, passer l'option --upgrade :

python -m ensurepip --upgrade

pip est installé par défaut dans l'environnement virtuel courant, s'il y en a un, ou bien dans le dossier site-packages du système. L'emplacement d'installation se règle à travers deux options :

--root <dir>

Installs pip relative to the given root directory rather than the root of the currently active virtual environment (if any) or the default root for the current Python installation.

--user

Installs pip into the user site packages directory rather than globally for the current Python installation (this option is not permitted inside an active virtual environment).

Par défaut, les commandes pipX et pipX.Y sont créées (où X.Y est la version de Python avec laquelle ensurepip est utilisé). Cela se contrôle par deux options supplémentaires :

--altinstall

If an alternate installation is requested, the pipX script will not be installed.

--default-pip

If a "default pip" installation is requested, the pip script will be installed in addition to the two regular scripts.

Combiner ces deux options conduit à une exception.

API du module

ensurepip exposes two functions for programmatic use:

ensurepip.version()

Renvoie, sous forme de chaîne, la version de pip qui serait installée par ensurepip.

ensurepip.bootstrap(root=None, upgrade=False, user=False, altinstall=False, default_pip=False, verbosity=0)

Amorce pip dans l'environnement courant ou un environnement spécifique.

Passer root permet de changer la racine du chemin d'installation. Si root vaut None (la valeur par défaut), l'installation se fait dans la racine par défaut pour l'environnement courant.

upgrade indique s'il faut ou non effectuer la mise à jour d'une éventuelle version plus ancienne de pip déjà installée vers la version embarquée dans ensurepip.

Si user vaut vrai, pip est mis dans des chemins qui le rendent disponible pour cet utilisateur uniquement, et non pour tous les utilisateurs de l'installation de Python.

Par défaut, les commandes créées sont pipX et pipX.Y (où X.Y est la version de Python).

Si altinstall vaut vrai, pipX n'est pas créée.

Si default_pip vaut vrai, la commande pip est créée en plus des deux autres.

Le fait de combiner altinstall et default_pip lève l'exception ValueError.

verbosity règle le niveau de verbosité des messages émis sur sys.stdout pendant l'amorçage.

Cette fonction lève un événement d'audit ensurepip.bootstrap avec l'argument root.

Note

Le processus d'amorçage a des effets de bord sur sys.path et os.environ. Pour les éviter, on peut appeler l'interface en ligne de commande dans un sous-processus.

Note

L'amorçage peut installer des modules supplémentaires qui sont requis pour pip. Les autres programmes ne doivent pas prendre pour acquise la présence de ces modules, car pip pourrait dans une version future se passer de ces dépendances.

venv --- Creation of virtual environments

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Code source : Lib/venv/ [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/venv/]

The venv module supports creating lightweight "virtual environments", each with their own independent set of Python packages installed in their site directories. A virtual environment is created on top of an existing Python installation, known as the virtual environment's "base" Python, and by default is isolated from the packages in the base environment, so that only those explicitly installed in the virtual environment are available. See Virtual Environments and site's virtual environments documentation for more information.

When used from within a virtual environment, common installation tools such as pip [https://pypi.org/project/pip/] will install Python packages into a virtual environment without needing to be told to do so explicitly.

A virtual environment is (amongst other things):

Used to contain a specific Python interpreter and software libraries and binaries which are needed to support a project (library or application). These are by default isolated from software in other virtual environments and Python interpreters and libraries installed in the operating system.

Contained in a directory, conventionally named .venv or venv in the project directory, or under a container directory for lots of virtual environments, such as ~/.virtualenvs.

Not checked into source control systems such as Git.

Considered as disposable -- it should be simple to delete and recreate it from scratch. You don't place any project code in the environment.

Not considered as movable or copyable -- you just recreate the same environment in the target location.

See PEP 405 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0405/] for more background on Python virtual environments.

Voir aussi

Python Packaging User Guide: Creating and using virtual environments [https://packaging.python.org/guides/installing-using-pip-and-virtual-environments/#create-and-use-virtual-environments]

Disponibilité: not Android, not iOS, not WASI.

This module is not supported on mobile platforms or WebAssembly platforms.

Création d'environnements virtuels

Virtual environments are created by executing the venv module:

python -m venv /path/to/new/virtual/environment

This creates the target directory (including parent directories as needed) and places a pyvenv.cfg file in it with a home key pointing to the Python installation from which the command was run. It also creates a bin (or Scripts on Windows) subdirectory containing a copy or symlink of the Python executable (as appropriate for the platform or arguments used at environment creation time). It also creates a lib/pythonX.Y/site-packages subdirectory (on Windows, this is Lib\site-packages). If an existing directory is specified, it will be re-used.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: L'utilisation de venv est maintenant recommandée pour créer vos environnements virtuels.

Deprecated since version 3.6, removed in version 3.8: pyvenv was the recommended tool for creating virtual environments for Python 3.3 and 3.4, and replaced in 3.5 by executing venv directly.

On Windows, invoke the venv command as follows:

PS> python -m venv C:\path\to\new\virtual\environment

La commande, si lancée avec -h, montrera les options disponibles :

usage: venv [-h] [--system-site-packages] [--symlinks | --copies] [--clear]
            [--upgrade] [--without-pip] [--prompt PROMPT] [--upgrade-deps]
            [--without-scm-ignore-files]
            ENV_DIR [ENV_DIR ...]

Creates virtual Python environments in one or more target directories.

Once an environment has been created, you may wish to activate it, e.g. by
sourcing an activate script in its bin directory.

ENV_DIR

A required argument specifying the directory to create the environment in.

--system-site-packages

Give the virtual environment access to the system site-packages directory.

--symlinks

Try to use symlinks rather than copies, when symlinks are not the default for the platform.

--copies

Try to use copies rather than symlinks, even when symlinks are the default for the platform.

--clear

Delete the contents of the environment directory if it already exists, before environment creation.

--upgrade

Upgrade the environment directory to use this version of Python, assuming Python has been upgraded in-place.

--without-pip

Skips installing or upgrading pip in the virtual environment (pip is bootstrapped by default).

--prompt <PROMPT>

Provides an alternative prompt prefix for this environment.

--upgrade-deps

Upgrade core dependencies (pip) to the latest version in PyPI.

--without-scm-ignore-files

Skips adding SCM ignore files to the environment directory (Git is supported by default).

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Installs pip by default, added the --without-pip and --copies options.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Dans les versions précédentes, si le dossier de destination existait déjà, une erreur était levée, sauf si l'option --clear ou --upgrade était incluse.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Add --upgrade-deps option to upgrade pip + setuptools to the latest on PyPI.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: setuptools is no longer a core venv dependency.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the --without-scm-ignore-files option.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: venv now creates a .gitignore file for Git by default.

Note

Bien que les liens symboliques soient pris en charge sous Windows, ils ne sont pas recommandés. Il est particulièrement à noter que le double-clic sur python.exe dans l'Explorateur de fichiers suivra le lien symbolique et ignorera l'environnement virtuel.

Note

On Microsoft Windows, it may be required to enable the Activate.ps1 script by setting the execution policy for the user. You can do this by issuing the following PowerShell command:

PS C:\> Set-ExecutionPolicy -ExecutionPolicy RemoteSigned -Scope CurrentUser

See About Execution Policies [https://go.microsoft.com/fwlink/?LinkID=135170] for more information.

The created pyvenv.cfg file also includes the include-system-site-packages key, set to true if venv is run with the --system-site-packages option, false otherwise.

Sauf si l'option --without-pip est incluse, ensurepip sera invoqué pour amorcer pip dans l'environnement virtuel.

Plusieurs chemins peuvent être donnés à venv, et dans ce cas un environnement virtuel sera créé, en fonction des options incluses, à chaque chemin donné.

How venvs work

When a Python interpreter is running from a virtual environment, sys.prefix and sys.exec_prefix point to the directories of the virtual environment, whereas sys.base_prefix and sys.base_exec_prefix point to those of the base Python used to create the environment. It is sufficient to check sys.prefix != sys.base_prefix to determine if the current interpreter is running from a virtual environment.

A virtual environment may be "activated" using a script in its binary directory (bin on POSIX; Scripts on Windows). This will prepend that directory to your PATH, so that running python will invoke the environment's Python interpreter and you can run installed scripts without having to use their full path. The invocation of the activation script is platform-specific (<venv> must be replaced by the path to the directory containing the virtual environment):

Plateforme

Invite de commande

Commande pour activer l'environnement virtuel

POSIX

bash/zsh

$ source <venv>/bin/activate

fish

$ source <venv>/bin/activate.fish

csh/tcsh

$ source <venv>/bin/activate.csh

pwsh

$ <venv>/bin/Activate.ps1

Windows

cmd.exe

C:\> <venv>\Scripts\activate.bat

PowerShell

PS C:\> <venv>\Scripts\Activate.ps1

Ajouté dans la version 3.4: fish and csh activation scripts.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8: Scripts d'activation PowerShell installés sous POSIX pour le support de PowerShell Core.

You don't specifically need to activate a virtual environment, as you can just specify the full path to that environment's Python interpreter when invoking Python. Furthermore, all scripts installed in the environment should be runnable without activating it.

In order to achieve this, scripts installed into virtual environments have a "shebang" line which points to the environment's Python interpreter, #!/<path-to-venv>/bin/python. This means that the script will run with that interpreter regardless of the value of PATH. On Windows, "shebang" line processing is supported if you have the Python install manager installed. Thus, double-clicking an installed script in a Windows Explorer window should run it with the correct interpreter without the environment needing to be activated or on the PATH.

When a virtual environment has been activated, the VIRTUAL_ENV environment variable is set to the path of the environment. Since explicitly activating a virtual environment is not required to use it, VIRTUAL_ENV cannot be relied upon to determine whether a virtual environment is being used.

Avertissement

Because scripts installed in environments should not expect the environment to be activated, their shebang lines contain the absolute paths to their environment's interpreters. Because of this, environments are inherently non-portable, in the general case. You should always have a simple means of recreating an environment (for example, if you have a requirements file requirements.txt, you can invoke pip install -r requirements.txt using the environment's pip to install all of the packages needed by the environment). If for any reason you need to move the environment to a new location, you should recreate it at the desired location and delete the one at the old location. If you move an environment because you moved a parent directory of it, you should recreate the environment in its new location. Otherwise, software installed into the environment may not work as expected.

You can deactivate a virtual environment by typing deactivate in your shell. The exact mechanism is platform-specific and is an internal implementation detail (typically, a script or shell function will be used).

API

La méthode haut niveau décrite au dessus utilise une API simple qui permet à des créateurs d'environnements virtuels externes de personnaliser la création d'environnements virtuels basés sur leurs besoins, la classe EnvBuilder.

class venv.EnvBuilder(system_site_packages=False, clear=False, symlinks=False, upgrade=False, with_pip=False, prompt=None, upgrade_deps=False, *, scm_ignore_files=frozenset())

La classe EnvBuilder accepte les arguments suivants lors de l'instanciation :

system_site_packages -- a boolean value indicating that the system Python site-packages should be available to the environment (defaults to False).

clear -- a boolean value which, if true, will delete the contents of any existing target directory, before creating the environment.

symlinks -- a boolean value indicating whether to attempt to symlink the Python binary rather than copying.

upgrade -- a boolean value which, if true, will upgrade an existing environment with the running Python - for use when that Python has been upgraded in-place (defaults to False).

with_pip -- a boolean value which, if true, ensures pip is installed in the virtual environment. This uses ensurepip with the --default-pip option.

prompt -- a string to be used after virtual environment is activated (defaults to None which means directory name of the environment would be used). If the special string "." is provided, the basename of the current directory is used as the prompt.

upgrade_deps -- Update the base venv modules to the latest on PyPI

scm_ignore_files -- Create ignore files based for the specified source control managers (SCM) in the iterable. Support is defined by having a method named create_{scm}_ignore_file. The only value supported by default is "git" via create_git_ignore_file().

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Ajout du paramètre with_pip

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Ajout du paramètre prompt

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Added the upgrade_deps parameter

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the scm_ignore_files parameter

EnvBuilder may be used as a base class.

create(env_dir)

Crée un environnement virtuel en spécifiant le chemin cible (absolu ou relatif par rapport au dossier courant) qui contiendra l'environnement virtuel. La méthode create crée l'environnement dans le dossier spécifié ou lève une exception appropriée.

La méthode create de la classe EnvBuilder illustre les points d'entrées disponibles pour la personnalisation de sous-classes :

def create(self, env_dir):
    """
    Create a virtualized Python environment in a directory.
    env_dir is the target directory to create an environment in.
    """
    env_dir = os.path.abspath(env_dir)
    context = self.ensure_directories(env_dir)
    self.create_configuration(context)
    self.setup_python(context)
    self.setup_scripts(context)
    self.post_setup(context)

Chacune des méthodes ensure_directories(), create_configuration(), setup_python(), setup_scripts() et post_setup() peuvent être écrasés.

ensure_directories(env_dir)

Creates the environment directory and all necessary subdirectories that don't already exist, and returns a context object. This context object is just a holder for attributes (such as paths) for use by the other methods. If the EnvBuilder is created with the arg clear=True, contents of the environment directory will be cleared and then all necessary subdirectories will be recreated.

The returned context object is a types.SimpleNamespace with the following attributes:

env_dir - The location of the virtual environment. Used for __VENV_DIR__ in activation scripts (see install_scripts()).

env_name - The name of the virtual environment. Used for __VENV_NAME__ in activation scripts (see install_scripts()).

prompt - The prompt to be used by the activation scripts. Used for __VENV_PROMPT__ in activation scripts (see install_scripts()).

executable - The underlying Python executable used by the virtual environment. This takes into account the case where a virtual environment is created from another virtual environment.

inc_path - The include path for the virtual environment.

lib_path - The purelib path for the virtual environment.

bin_path - The script path for the virtual environment.

bin_name - The name of the script path relative to the virtual environment location. Used for __VENV_BIN_NAME__ in activation scripts (see install_scripts()).

env_exe - The name of the Python interpreter in the virtual environment. Used for __VENV_PYTHON__ in activation scripts (see install_scripts()).

env_exec_cmd - The name of the Python interpreter, taking into account filesystem redirections. This can be used to run Python in the virtual environment.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: The venv sysconfig installation scheme is used to construct the paths of the created directories.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: The attribute lib_path was added to the context, and the context object was documented.

create_configuration(context)

Crée le fichier de configuration pyvenv.cfg dans l'environnement.

setup_python(context)

Crée une copie ou un lien symbolique vers l'exécutable Python dans l'environnement. Sur les systèmes POSIX, si un exécutable spécifique python3.x a été utilisé, des liens symboliques vers python et python3 seront créés pointant vers cet exécutable, sauf si des fichiers avec ces noms existent déjà.

setup_scripts(context)

Installe les scripts d'activation appropriés à la plateforme dans l'environnement virtuel.

upgrade_dependencies(context)

Upgrades the core venv dependency packages (currently pip [https://pypi.org/project/pip/]) in the environment. This is done by shelling out to the pip executable in the environment.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: setuptools [https://pypi.org/project/setuptools/] is no longer a core venv dependency.

post_setup(context)

Une méthode qui n'est la que pour se faire surcharger dans des implémentation externes pour pré installer des paquets dans l'environnement virtuel ou pour exécuter des étapes post-création.

install_scripts(context, path)

This method can be called from setup_scripts() or post_setup() in subclasses to assist in installing custom scripts into the virtual environment.

path is the path to a directory that should contain subdirectories common, posix, nt; each containing scripts destined for the bin directory in the environment. The contents of common and the directory corresponding to os.name are copied after some text replacement of placeholders:

__VENV_DIR__ est remplacé avec le chemin absolu du dossier de l'environnement.

__VENV_NAME__ est remplacé avec le nom de l'environnement (le dernier segment du chemin vers le dossier de l'environnement).

__VENV_PROMPT__ est remplacé par le prompt (nom de l'environnement entouré de parenthèses et avec un espace le suivant).

__VENV_BIN_NAME__ est remplacé par le nom du dossier bin (soit bin soit Scripts).

__VENV_PYTHON__ est remplacé avec le chemin absolu de l’exécutable de l'environnement.

Les dossiers peuvent exister (pour quand un environnement existant est mis à jour).

create_git_ignore_file(context)

Creates a .gitignore file within the virtual environment that causes the entire directory to be ignored by the Git source control manager.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Modifié dans la version 3.7.2: Windows utilise maintenant des scripts de redirection pour python[w].exe au lieu de copier les fichiers binaires. En 3.7.2 seulement setup_python() ne fait rien sauf s'il s'exécute à partir d'un build dans l'arborescence source.

Modifié dans la version 3.7.3: Windows copie les scripts de redirection dans le cadre de setup_python() au lieu de setup_scripts(). Ce n'était pas le cas en 3.7.2. Lorsque vous utilisez des liens symboliques, les exécutables originaux seront liés.

Il y a aussi une fonction pratique au niveau du module :

venv.create(env_dir, system_site_packages=False, clear=False, symlinks=False, with_pip=False, prompt=None, upgrade_deps=False, *, scm_ignore_files=frozenset())

Crée une EnvBuilder avec les arguments donnés, et appelle sa méthode create() avec l'argument env_dir.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Added the with_pip parameter

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Added the prompt parameter

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Added the upgrade_deps parameter

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the scm_ignore_files parameter

Un exemple d'extension de EnvBuilder

Le script qui suis montre comment étendre EnvBuilder en implémentant une sous-classe qui installe setuptools et pip dans un environnement créé :

import os
import os.path
from subprocess import Popen, PIPE
import sys
from threading import Thread
from urllib.parse import urlsplit
from urllib.request import urlretrieve
import venv

class ExtendedEnvBuilder(venv.EnvBuilder):
    """
    This builder installs setuptools and pip so that you can pip or
    easy_install other packages into the created virtual environment.

    :param nodist: If true, setuptools and pip are not installed into the
                   created virtual environment.
    :param nopip: If true, pip is not installed into the created
                  virtual environment.
    :param progress: If setuptools or pip are installed, the progress of the
                     installation can be monitored by passing a progress
                     callable. If specified, it is called with two
                     arguments: a string indicating some progress, and a
                     context indicating where the string is coming from.
                     The context argument can have one of three values:
                     'main', indicating that it is called from virtualize()
                     itself, and 'stdout' and 'stderr', which are obtained
                     by reading lines from the output streams of a subprocess
                     which is used to install the app.

                     If a callable is not specified, default progress
                     information is output to sys.stderr.
    """

    def __init__(self, *args, **kwargs):
        self.nodist = kwargs.pop('nodist', False)
        self.nopip = kwargs.pop('nopip', False)
        self.progress = kwargs.pop('progress', None)
        self.verbose = kwargs.pop('verbose', False)
        super().__init__(*args, **kwargs)

    def post_setup(self, context):
        """
        Set up any packages which need to be pre-installed into the
        virtual environment being created.

        :param context: The information for the virtual environment
                        creation request being processed.
        """
        os.environ['VIRTUAL_ENV'] = context.env_dir
        if not self.nodist:
            self.install_setuptools(context)
        # Can't install pip without setuptools
        if not self.nopip and not self.nodist:
            self.install_pip(context)

    def reader(self, stream, context):
        """
        Read lines from a subprocess' output stream and either pass to a progress
        callable (if specified) or write progress information to sys.stderr.
        """
        progress = self.progress
        while True:
            s = stream.readline()
            if not s:
                break
            if progress is not None:
                progress(s, context)
            else:
                if not self.verbose:
                    sys.stderr.write('.')
                else:
                    sys.stderr.write(s.decode('utf-8'))
                sys.stderr.flush()
        stream.close()

    def install_script(self, context, name, url):
        _, _, path, _, _ = urlsplit(url)
        fn = os.path.split(path)[-1]
        binpath = context.bin_path
        distpath = os.path.join(binpath, fn)
        # Download script into the virtual environment's binaries folder
        urlretrieve(url, distpath)
        progress = self.progress
        if self.verbose:
            term = '\n'
        else:
            term = ''
        if progress is not None:
            progress('Installing %s ...%s' % (name, term), 'main')
        else:
            sys.stderr.write('Installing %s ...%s' % (name, term))
            sys.stderr.flush()
        # Install in the virtual environment
        args = [context.env_exe, fn]
        p = Popen(args, stdout=PIPE, stderr=PIPE, cwd=binpath)
        t1 = Thread(target=self.reader, args=(p.stdout, 'stdout'))
        t1.start()
        t2 = Thread(target=self.reader, args=(p.stderr, 'stderr'))
        t2.start()
        p.wait()
        t1.join()
        t2.join()
        if progress is not None:
            progress('done.', 'main')
        else:
            sys.stderr.write('done.\n')
        # Clean up - no longer needed
        os.unlink(distpath)

    def install_setuptools(self, context):
        """
        Install setuptools in the virtual environment.

        :param context: The information for the virtual environment
                        creation request being processed.
        """
        url = "https://bootstrap.pypa.io/ez_setup.py"
        self.install_script(context, 'setuptools', url)
        # clear up the setuptools archive which gets downloaded
        pred = lambda o: o.startswith('setuptools-') and o.endswith('.tar.gz')
        files = filter(pred, os.listdir(context.bin_path))
        for f in files:
            f = os.path.join(context.bin_path, f)
            os.unlink(f)

    def install_pip(self, context):
        """
        Install pip in the virtual environment.

        :param context: The information for the virtual environment
                        creation request being processed.
        """
        url = 'https://bootstrap.pypa.io/get-pip.py'
        self.install_script(context, 'pip', url)

def main(args=None):
    import argparse

    parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog=__name__,
                                     description='Creates virtual Python '
                                                 'environments in one or '
                                                 'more target '
                                                 'directories.')
    parser.add_argument('dirs', metavar='ENV_DIR', nargs='+',
                        help='A directory in which to create the '
                             'virtual environment.')
    parser.add_argument('--no-setuptools', default=False,
                        action='store_true', dest='nodist',
                        help="Don't install setuptools or pip in the "
                             "virtual environment.")
    parser.add_argument('--no-pip', default=False,
                        action='store_true', dest='nopip',
                        help="Don't install pip in the virtual "
                             "environment.")
    parser.add_argument('--system-site-packages', default=False,
                        action='store_true', dest='system_site',
                        help='Give the virtual environment access to the '
                             'system site-packages dir.')
    if os.name == 'nt':
        use_symlinks = False
    else:
        use_symlinks = True
    parser.add_argument('--symlinks', default=use_symlinks,
                        action='store_true', dest='symlinks',
                        help='Try to use symlinks rather than copies, '
                             'when symlinks are not the default for '
                             'the platform.')
    parser.add_argument('--clear', default=False, action='store_true',
                        dest='clear', help='Delete the contents of the '
                                           'virtual environment '
                                           'directory if it already '
                                           'exists, before virtual '
                                           'environment creation.')
    parser.add_argument('--upgrade', default=False, action='store_true',
                        dest='upgrade', help='Upgrade the virtual '
                                             'environment directory to '
                                             'use this version of '
                                             'Python, assuming Python '
                                             'has been upgraded '
                                             'in-place.')
    parser.add_argument('--verbose', default=False, action='store_true',
                        dest='verbose', help='Display the output '
                                             'from the scripts which '
                                             'install setuptools and pip.')
    options = parser.parse_args(args)
    if options.upgrade and options.clear:
        raise ValueError('you cannot supply --upgrade and --clear together.')
    builder = ExtendedEnvBuilder(system_site_packages=options.system_site,
                                   clear=options.clear,
                                   symlinks=options.symlinks,
                                   upgrade=options.upgrade,
                                   nodist=options.nodist,
                                   nopip=options.nopip,
                                   verbose=options.verbose)
    for d in options.dirs:
        builder.create(d)

if __name__ == '__main__':
    rc = 1
    try:
        main()
        rc = 0
    except Exception as e:
        print('Error: %s' % e, file=sys.stderr)
    sys.exit(rc)

Ce script est aussi disponible au téléchargement en ligne [https://gist.github.com/vsajip/4673395].

zipapp --- Manage executable Python zip archives

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Code source : Lib/zipapp.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/zipapp.py]

Ce module fournit des outils pour gérer la création de fichiers zip contenant du code Python, qui peuvent être exécutés directement par l'interpréteur Python. Le module fournit à la fois une interface de ligne de commande Interface en ligne de commande et une interface API Python.

Exemple de base

L'exemple suivant montre comment l'interface de ligne de commande Interface en ligne de commande peut être utilisée pour créer une archive exécutable depuis un répertoire contenant du code Python. Lors de l'exécution, l'archive exécutera la fonction main du module myapp dans l'archive.

$ python -m zipapp myapp -m "myapp:main"
$ python myapp.pyz
<output from myapp>

Interface en ligne de commande

Lorsqu'il est appelé en tant que programme à partir de la ligne de commande, la syntaxe suivante est utilisée :

$ python -m zipapp source [options]

Si source est un répertoire, une archive est créée à partir du contenu de source. Si source est un fichier, ce doit être une archive et il est copié dans l'archive cible (ou le contenu de sa ligne shebang est affiché si l'option --info est indiquée).

Les options suivantes sont disponibles :

-o <output>, --output=<output>

Écrit la sortie dans un fichier nommé output. Si cette option n'est pas spécifiée, le nom du fichier de sortie sera le même que celui de l'entrée source, avec l'extension .pyz. Si un nom de fichier explicite est donné, il est utilisé tel quel (une extension .pyz doit donc être incluse si nécessaire).

Un nom de fichier de sortie doit être spécifié si la source est une archive (et, dans ce cas, la sortie ne doit pas être la même que la source).

-p <interpreter>, --python=<interpreter>

Ajoute une ligne #! à l'archive en spécifiant interpreter comme commande à exécuter. Aussi, sur un système POSIX, cela rend l'archive exécutable. Le comportement par défaut est de ne pas écrire la ligne #! et de ne pas rendre le fichier exécutable.

-m <mainfn>, --main=<mainfn>

Écrit un fichier __main__.py dans l'archive qui exécute mainfn. L'argument mainfn est de la forme « pkg.mod:fn », où « pkg.mod » est un paquet/module dans l'archive, et « fn » est un appelable dans le module donné. Le fichier __main__.py réalise cet appel.

--main ne peut pas être spécifié lors de la copie d'une archive.

-c, --compress

Compresse les fichiers avec la méthode deflate, réduisant ainsi la taille du fichier de sortie. Par défaut, les fichiers sont stockés non compressés dans l'archive.

--compress n'a aucun effet lors de la copie d'une archive.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

--info

Affiche l'interpréteur intégré dans l'archive, à des fins de diagnostic. Dans ce cas, toutes les autres options sont ignorées et SOURCE doit être une archive et non un répertoire.

-h, --help

Affiche un court message d'aide et quitte.

API Python

Ce module définit deux fonctions utilitaires :

zipapp.create_archive(source, target=None, interpreter=None, main=None, filter=None, compressed=False)

Crée une archive d'application à partir de source. La source peut être de natures suivantes :

Le nom d'un répertoire, ou un path-like object se référant à un répertoire ; dans ce cas, une nouvelle archive d'application sera créée à partir du contenu de ce répertoire.

Le nom d'un fichier d'archive d'application existant, ou un path-like object se référant à un tel fichier ; dans ce cas, le fichier est copié sur la cible (en le modifiant pour refléter la valeur donnée à l'argument interpreter). Le nom du fichier doit inclure l'extension .pyz, si nécessaire.

Un objet fichier ouvert pour la lecture en mode binaire. Le contenu du fichier doit être une archive d'application et Python suppose que l'objet fichier est positionné au début de l'archive.

L'argument target détermine où l'archive résultante sera écrite :

S'il s'agit d'un nom de fichier, ou d'un path-like object, l'archive sera écrite dans ce fichier.

S'il s'agit d'un objet fichier ouvert, l'archive sera écrite dans cet objet fichier, qui doit être ouvert pour l'écriture en mode octets.

Si la cible est omise (ou None), la source doit être un répertoire et la cible sera un fichier portant le même nom que la source, avec une extension .pyz ajoutée.

L'argument interpreter spécifie le nom de l'interpréteur Python avec lequel l'archive sera exécutée. Il est écrit dans une ligne shebang au début de l'archive. Sur un système POSIX, cela est interprété par le système d'exploitation et, sur Windows, il sera géré par le lanceur Python. L'omission de l'interpreter n'entraîne pas l'écriture d'une ligne shebang. Si un interpréteur est spécifié et que la cible est un nom de fichier, le bit exécutable du fichier cible sera mis à 1.

L'argument main spécifie le nom d'un appelable, utilisé comme programme principal pour l'archive. Il ne peut être spécifié que si la source est un répertoire et si la source ne contient pas déjà un fichier __main__.py. L'argument main doit prendre la forme pkg.module:callable et l'archive sera exécutée en important pkg.module et en exécutant l'appelable donné sans argument. Omettre main est une erreur si la source est un répertoire et ne contient pas un fichier __main__.py car, dans ce cas, l'archive résultante ne serait pas exécutable.

L'argument optionnel filter spécifie une fonction de rappel à laquelle on passe un objet Path représentant le chemin du fichier à ajouter (par rapport au répertoire source). Elle doit renvoyer True si le fichier doit effectivement être ajouté.

L'argument optionnel compressed détermine si les fichiers doivent être compressés. S'il vaut True, les fichiers de l'archive sont compressés avec l'algorithme deflate ; sinon, les fichiers sont stockés non compressés. Cet argument n'a aucun effet lors de la copie d'une archive existante.

Si un objet fichier est spécifié pour source ou target, il est de la responsabilité de l'appelant de le fermer après avoir appelé create_archive.

Lors de la copie d'une archive existante, les objets fichier fournis n'ont besoin que des méthodes read et readline ou write. Lors de la création d'une archive à partir d'un répertoire, si la cible est un objet fichier, elle sera passée à la classe zipfile.ZipFile et devra fournir les méthodes nécessaires à cette classe.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Added the filter and compressed parameters.

zipapp.get_interpreter(archive)

Renvoie l'interpréteur spécifié dans la ligne #! au début de l'archive. S'il n'y a pas de ligne #!, renvoie None. L'argument archive peut être un nom de fichier ou un objet de type fichier ouvert à la lecture en mode binaire. Python suppose qu'il est au début de l'archive.

Exemples

Regroupe le contenu d'un répertoire dans une archive, puis l'exécute.

$ python -m zipapp myapp
$ python myapp.pyz
<output from myapp>

La même chose peut être faite en utilisant la fonction create_archive() :

>>> import zipapp
>>> zipapp.create_archive('myapp', 'myapp.pyz')

Pour rendre l'application directement exécutable sur un système POSIX, spécifiez un interpréteur à utiliser.

$ python -m zipapp myapp -p "/usr/bin/env python"
$ ./myapp.pyz
<output from myapp>

Pour remplacer la ligne shebang sur une archive existante, créez une archive modifiée en utilisant la fonction create_archive() :

>>> import zipapp
>>> zipapp.create_archive('old_archive.pyz', 'new_archive.pyz', '/usr/bin/python3')

To update the file in place, do the replacement in memory using a BytesIO object, and then overwrite the source afterwards. Note that there is a risk when overwriting a file in place that an error will result in the loss of the original file. This code does not protect against such errors, but production code should do so. Also, this method will only work if the archive fits in memory:

>>> import zipapp
>>> import io
>>> temp = io.BytesIO()
>>> zipapp.create_archive('myapp.pyz', temp, '/usr/bin/python2')
>>> with open('myapp.pyz', 'wb') as f:
>>>     f.write(temp.getvalue())

Spécification de l'interprète

Notez que si vous spécifiez un interpréteur et que vous distribuez ensuite votre archive d'application, vous devez vous assurer que l'interpréteur utilisé est portable. Le lanceur Python pour Windows gère la plupart des formes courantes de la ligne POSIX #!, mais il y a d'autres problèmes à considérer :

Si vous utilisez /usr/bin/env python (ou d'autres formes de la commande python, comme /usr/bin/python), vous devez considérer que vos utilisateurs peuvent avoir Python 2 ou Python 3 par défaut, et écrire votre code pour fonctionner dans les deux versions.

Si vous utilisez une version explicite, par exemple /usr/bin/env python3 votre application ne fonctionnera pas pour les utilisateurs qui n'ont pas cette version. (C'est peut-être ce que vous voulez si vous n'avez pas rendu votre code compatible Python 2).

Il n'y a aucun moyen de dire « python X.Y ou supérieur » donc faites attention si vous utilisez une version exacte comme /usr/bin/env python3.4 car vous devrez changer votre ligne shebang pour les utilisateurs de Python 3.5, par exemple.

Normalement, vous devriez utiliser un /usr/bin/env python2 ou /usr/bin/env python3, selon que votre code soit écrit pour Python 2 ou 3.

Création d'applications autonomes avec zipapp

Using the zipapp module, it is possible to create self-contained Python programs, which can be distributed to end users who only need to have a suitable version of Python installed on their system. The key to doing this is to bundle all of the application's dependencies into the archive, along with the application code.

Les étapes pour créer une archive autonome sont les suivantes :

Créez votre application dans un répertoire comme d'habitude, de manière à avoir un répertoire myapp contenant un fichier __main__.py et tout le code de l'application correspondante.

Installez toutes les dépendances de votre application dans le répertoire myapp en utilisant pip :

$ python -m pip install -r requirements.txt --target myapp

(ceci suppose que vous ayez vos dépendances de projet dans un fichier requirements.txt — sinon vous pouvez simplement lister les dépendances manuellement sur la ligne de commande pip).

Regroupez le tout à l'aide de :

$ python -m zipapp -p "interpreter" myapp

Cela produira un exécutable autonome qui peut être exécuté sur n'importe quelle machine avec l'interpréteur approprié disponible. Voir Spécification de l'interprète pour plus de détails. Il peut être envoyé aux utilisateurs sous la forme d'un seul fichier.

Sous Unix, le fichier myapp.pyz est exécutable tel quel. Vous pouvez renommer le fichier pour supprimer l'extension .pyz si vous préférez un nom de commande « simple ». Sous Windows, le fichier myapp.pyz[w] est exécutable en vertu du fait que l'interpréteur Python est associé aux extensions de fichier .pyz et .pyzw une fois installé.

Mises en garde

Si votre application dépend d'un paquet qui inclut une extension C, ce paquet ne peut pas être exécuté à partir d'un fichier zip (c'est une limitation du système d'exploitation, car le code exécutable doit être présent dans le système de fichiers pour que le lanceur de l'OS puisse le charger). Dans ce cas, vous pouvez exclure cette dépendance du fichier zip et, soit demander à vos utilisateurs de l'installer, soit la fournir avec votre fichier zip et ajouter du code à votre fichier __main__.py pour inclure le répertoire contenant le module décompressé dans sys.path. Dans ce cas, vous devrez vous assurer d'envoyer les binaires appropriés pour votre ou vos architecture(s) cible(s) (et éventuellement choisir la bonne version à ajouter à sys.path au moment de l'exécution, basée sur la machine de l'utilisateur).

Le format d'archive d'application Zip Python

Python est capable d'exécuter des fichiers zip qui contiennent un fichier __main__.py depuis la version 2.6. Pour être exécutée par Python, une archive d'application doit simplement être un fichier zip standard contenant un fichier __main__.py qui sera exécuté comme point d'entrée de l'application. Comme d'habitude pour tout script Python, le parent du script (dans ce cas le fichier zip) sera placé sur sys.path et ainsi d'autres modules pourront être importés depuis le fichier zip.

Le format de fichier zip permet d'ajouter des données arbitraires à un fichier zip. Le format de l'application zip utilise cette possibilité pour préfixer une ligne shebang POSIX standard dans le fichier (#!/path/to/interpreter).

Formellement, le format d'application zip de Python est donc :

An optional shebang line, containing the characters b'#!' followed by an interpreter name, and then a newline (b'\n') character. The interpreter name can be anything acceptable to the OS "shebang" processing, or the Python launcher on Windows. The interpreter should be encoded in UTF-8 on Windows, and in sys.getfilesystemencoding() on POSIX.

Des données zipfile standards, telles que générées par le module zipfile. Le contenu du fichier zip doit inclure un fichier appelé __main__.py (qui doit se trouver à la racine du fichier zip — c'est-à-dire qu'il ne peut se trouver dans un sous-répertoire). Les données du fichier zip peuvent être compressées ou non.

Si une archive d'application a une ligne shebang, elle peut avoir le bit exécutable activé sur les systèmes POSIX, pour lui permettre d'être exécutée directement.

Vous pouvez créer des archives d'applications sans utiliser les outils de ce module — le module existe pour faciliter les choses, mais les archives, créées par n'importe quel moyen tout en respectant le format ci-dessus, sont valides pour Python.

Environnement d'exécution Python

Les modules décrits dans ce chapitre fournissent une large collection de services relatifs à l'interpréteur Python et son interaction avec son environnement. En voici un survol :

sys --- System-specific parameters and functions

sys.monitoring --- Execution event monitoring

Tool identifiers

Registering and using tools

Events

Local events

Deprecated event

Ancillary events

Other events

The STOP_ITERATION event

Turning events on and off

Setting events globally

Per code object events

Disabling events

Registering callback functions

Callback function arguments

sysconfig --- Provide access to Python's configuration information

Configuration variables

Installation paths

User scheme

posix_user

nt_user

osx_framework_user

Home scheme

posix_home

Prefix scheme

posix_prefix

nt

Installation path functions

Autres fonctions

Command-line usage

builtins --- Built-in objects

__main__ --- Top-level code environment

__name__ == '__main__'

Qu'est-ce que l'« environnement d'exécution principal » ?

Utilisation idiomatique

Considérations liées à l'empaquetage

Le fichier __main__.py dans les paquets Python

Utilisation idiomatique

import __main__

warnings --- Warning control

Catégories d'avertissement

Le filtre des avertissements

Repeated Warning Suppression Criteria

Rédaction de filtres d'avertissement

Filtre d'avertissement par défaut

Outrepasser le filtre par défaut

Suppression temporaire des avertissements

Tester les avertissements

Mise à jour du code pour les nouvelles versions des dépendances

Fonctions disponibles

Gestionnaires de contexte disponibles

Concurrent safety of Context Managers

dataclasses — Classes de données

Classe de données

Post-initialisation

Variables de classe

Variables d'initialisation

Instances figées

Héritage

Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__()

Fabriques de valeurs par défaut

Valeurs par défaut mutables

Descriptor-typed fields

contextlib — Utilitaires pour les contextes s'appuyant sur l'instruction with

Utilitaires

Exemples et Recettes

Gérer un nombre variable de gestionnaires de contexte

Attraper des exceptions depuis les méthodes __enter__

Nettoyer dans une méthode __enter__

Remplacer un try-finally avec une option variable

Utiliser un gestionnaire de contexte en tant que décorateur de fonction

Gestionnaires de contexte à usage unique, réutilisables et réentrants

Gestionnaires de contexte réentrants

Gestionnaires de contexte réutilisables

abc --- Abstract Base Classes

atexit --- Exit handlers

atexit Example

traceback --- Print or retrieve a stack traceback

Fonctions de niveau module

TracebackException Objects

StackSummary Objects

FrameSummary Objects

Examples of Using the Module-Level Functions

Examples of Using TracebackException

__future__ --- Future statement definitions

Contenu du module

gc --- Garbage Collector interface

inspect --- Inspect live objects

Types et membres

Récupération du code source

Introspection des appelables avec l'objet Signature

Classes et fonctions

La pile d'interpréteur

Recherche dynamique d'attributs

Current State of Generators, Coroutines, and Asynchronous Generators

Bit d'option des objets code

Buffer flags

Command-line interface

annotationlib --- Functionality for introspecting annotations

Annotation semantics

Classes

Fonctions

Cas pratiques

Using annotations in a metaclass

Limitations of the STRING format

Limitations of the FORWARDREF format

Security implications of introspecting annotations

site --- Site-specific configuration hook

sitecustomize

usercustomize

Readline configuration

Module contents

Command-line interface

Voir aussi

See the concurrent.interpreters module, which similarly exposes core runtime functionality.

sys --- System-specific parameters and functions

This module provides access to some variables used or maintained by the interpreter and to functions that interact strongly with the interpreter. It is always available. Unless explicitly noted otherwise, all variables are read-only.

sys.abiflags

Contient, sur les systèmes POSIX où Python a été compilé avec le script configure, les ABI flags tels que définis par la PEP 3149 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3149/].

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Les options par défaut sont devenues des chaines de caractères vides (l'option m pour pymalloc a été enlevée).

Disponibilité: Unix.

sys.addaudithook(hook)

Append the callable hook to the list of active auditing hooks for the current (sub)interpreter.

Quand un événement d'audit est déclenché par la fonction sys.audit(), chaque point d'entrée est appelé dans l'ordre dans lequel il a été ajouté avec le nom de l'événement et le n-uplet des arguments. Les points d'entrées qui sont ajoutés par PySys_AddAuditHook() sont appelés les premiers, suivi par les fonctions de rappel ajoutées dans l'interpréteur en cours d'exécution. Les points d'entrées peuvent logger l'événement, lever une exception pour stopper l'opération ou terminer le processus entièrement.

Note that audit hooks are primarily for collecting information about internal or otherwise unobservable actions, whether by Python or libraries written in Python. They are not suitable for implementing a "sandbox". In particular, malicious code can trivially disable or bypass hooks added using this function. At a minimum, any security-sensitive hooks must be added using the C API PySys_AddAuditHook() before initialising the runtime, and any modules allowing arbitrary memory modification (such as ctypes) should be completely removed or closely monitored.

L'appel de sys.addaudithook() lèvera d'elle même un événement d'audit appelé sys.addaudithook sans arguments. Si n'importe quel hook lève une exception dérivée de RuntimeError, le nouveau point d'entrée ne sera pas ajouté et l'exception supprimée. Par conséquent, les appels ne peuvent pas supposer que leurs points d'entrées ont été ajoutés à moins de contrôler tous les points d'entrées existants.

Voir la table d'évenements d'audit pour tous les événements levés par CPython et PEP 578 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0578/] pour la discussion originale de ce design.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

Modifié dans la version 3.8.1: Les exceptions dérivées de Exception mais pas RuntimeError ne sont plus supprimées.

Quand le traçage est activé (voir settrace()), les hooks Python ne sont tracés que si la fonction a un membre __cantrace__ dont la valeur est vraie. Autrement, les fonctions de traçage ignorent le hook.

sys.argv

La liste des arguments de la ligne de commande passés à un script Python. argv[0] est le nom du script (chemin complet, ou non, en fonction du système d'exploitation). Si la commande a été exécutée avec l'option -c de l'interpréteur, argv[0] vaut la chaîne '-c'. Si aucun nom de script n'a été donné à l'interpréteur Python, argv[0] sera une chaîne vide.

Pour boucler sur l'entrée standard, ou la liste des fichiers donnés sur la ligne de commande, utilisez le module fileinput.

See also sys.orig_argv.

Note

Sous Unix, les arguments de ligne de commande sont passés par des octets depuis le système d'exploitation. Python les décode en utilisant l’encodage du système de fichiers et le gestionnaire d’erreur surrogateescape. Quand vous avez besoin des octets originaux, vous pouvez les récupérer avec [os.fsencode(arg) for arg in sys.argv].

sys.audit(event, *args)

Déclenche un événement d'audit pour tous les points d'entrées d'audit actifs. event est une chaîne de caractères identifiant l'événement, et args peut contenir des arguments optionnels avec plus d'informations sur l'événement en question. Le nombre et types d'arguments pour un événement donné sont considérés comme une API publique et stable, et ne devraient pas être modifiés entre les versions.

Par exemple, un événement d'audit est nommé os.chdir. Cet événement à un argument appelé path qui contiendras le nouveau répertoire de travail.

sys.audit() appellera les point d'entrées (hooks en anglais) d'audits existants, en passant le nom de l'événement et ses arguments, et lèvera à nouveau la première exception de n'importe quel point d'entrée. En général, si une exception est levée, elle ne devrais pas être gérée et le processus devrait être terminé aussi rapidement que possible. Cela permet que les implémentations des points d'entrées décident comment répondre à des événements particuliers : Ils peuvent simplement logger l'événement ou arrêter l'opération en levant une exception.

Les points d'entrées sont ajoutés en utilisant les fonctions sys.addaudithook() ou PySys_AddAuditHook().

L'équivalent natif de cette fonction est PySys_Audit(). L'utilisation de la fonction native est encouragée lorsque c'est possible.

Voir le tableau d'événements d'audit pour tous les événements levés par CPython.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

sys.base_exec_prefix

Equivalent to exec_prefix, but referring to the base Python installation.

When running under Virtual Environments, exec_prefix gets overwritten to the virtual environment prefix. base_exec_prefix, conversely, does not change, and always points to the base Python installation. Refer to Virtual Environments for more information.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

sys.base_prefix

Equivalent to prefix, but referring to the base Python installation.

When running under virtual environment, prefix gets overwritten to the virtual environment prefix. base_prefix, conversely, does not change, and always points to the base Python installation. Refer to Virtual Environments for more information.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

sys.byteorder

Un indicateur de l'ordre natif des octets. Vaudra 'big' sur les plateformes gros-boutistes (octet le plus significatif en premier), et 'little' sur les plateformes petit-boutiste (octet le moins significatif en premier).

sys.builtin_module_names

A tuple of strings containing the names of all modules that are compiled into this Python interpreter. (This information is not available in any other way --- modules.keys() only lists the imported modules.)

See also the sys.stdlib_module_names list.

sys.call_tracing(func, args)

Call func(*args), while tracing is enabled. The tracing state is saved, and restored afterwards. This is intended to be called from a debugger from a checkpoint, to recursively debug or profile some other code.

Tracing is suspended while calling a tracing function set by settrace() or setprofile() to avoid infinite recursion. call_tracing() enables explicit recursion of the tracing function.

sys.copyright

Une chaîne contenant le copyright relatif à l'interpréteur Python.

sys._clear_type_cache()

Vide le cache interne de types. Le cache de types est utilisé pour accélérer les recherches d'attributs et de méthodes. N'utilisez cette fonction que pour libérer des références inutiles durant le débogage de fuite de référence.

Cette fonction ne devrait être utilisée que pour un usage interne et spécialisé.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.13: Use the more general _clear_internal_caches() function instead.

sys._clear_internal_caches()

Clear all internal performance-related caches. Use this function only to release unnecessary references and memory blocks when hunting for leaks.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

sys._current_frames()

Renvoie un dictionnaire faisant correspondre chaque identifiant de fil d'exécution à la stack frame actuellement active pour ces fils d'exécution au moment où la fonction est appelée. Notez que les fonctions du module traceback peuvent construire une call stack à partir d'une telle frame.

N'ayant pas besoin de la coopération des fils d'exécution bloqués, cette fonction est très utile pour déboguer un deadlock. Aussi, les call stack de ces fils d'exécution ne changeront pas tant qu'ils seront bloqués. La frame renvoyée pour un fil d'exécution non bloqué peut ne plus être liée à l'activité courante du fil d'exécution au moment où le code appelant examine la frame.

Cette fonction ne devrait être utilisée que pour un usage interne et spécialisé.

Lève un événement d'audit sys._current_frames sans arguments.

sys._current_exceptions()

Return a dictionary mapping each thread's identifier to the topmost exception currently active in that thread at the time the function is called. If a thread is not currently handling an exception, it is not included in the result dictionary.

This is most useful for statistical profiling.

Cette fonction ne devrait être utilisée que pour un usage interne et spécialisé.

Raises an auditing event sys._current_exceptions with no arguments.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Each value in the dictionary is now a single exception instance, rather than a 3-tuple as returned from sys.exc_info().

sys.breakpointhook()

Cette fonction auto-déclenchée (hook function en anglais) est appelée par la fonction native breakpoint(). Par défaut, elle vous place dans le débogueur pdb, mais elle peut être dirigée vers n'importe quelle autre fonction pour que vous puissiez choisir le débogueur utilisé.

La signature de cette fonction dépend de ce qu'elle appelle. Par exemple, l'appel par défaut (e.g. pdb.set_trace()) n'attend pas d'argument, mais vous pourriez la lier à une fonction qui attend des arguments supplémentaires (positionnels et/ou mots-clés). La fonction native breakpoint() passe ses *args et **kws directement au travers. Tout ce que renvoie breakpointhooks() est renvoyé par breakpoint().

L'implémentation par défaut consulte d'abord la variable d'environnement PYTHONBREAKPOINT. Si elle vaut "0" alors cette fonction s'achève immédiatement (elle ne fait donc rien). Si la variable d'environnement n'est pas définie, ou s'il s'agit d'une chaîne vide, pdb.set_trace() est appelée. Sinon cette variable doit nommer une fonction à appeler, en utilisant la syntaxe d'importation de Python, par exemple package.subpackage.module.function. Dans ce cas, package.subpackage.module sera importé et le module devra contenir une fonction appelable function(). Celle-ci est lancée en lui passant *args et *kws et, quoique renvoie function(), sys.breakpointhook() retourne à la fonction native breakpoint().

Notez que si un problème apparaît au moment de l'importation de la fonction nommée dans PYTHONBREAKPOINT, une alerte RuntimeWarning est indiquée et le point d'arrêt est ignoré.

Notez également que si sys.breakpointhook() est surchargé de manière programmatique, PYTHONBREAKPOINT n'est pas consulté.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

sys._debugmallocstats()

Affiche des informations bas-niveau sur la sortie d'erreur à propos de l'état de l'allocateur de mémoire de CPython.

If Python is built in debug mode (configure --with-pydebug option), it also performs some expensive internal consistency checks.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Cette fonction est spécifique à CPython. Le format de sa sortie n'est pas définit ici et pourrait changer.

sys.dllhandle

Nombre entier spécifiant le descripteur de la DLL Python.

Disponibilité: Windows.

sys.displayhook(value)

Si value n'est pas None, cette fonction écrit repr(value) sur sys.stdout, et sauvegarde value dans builtins._. Si repr(value) ne peut pas être encodé avec sys.stdout.encoding en utilisant le gestionnaire d'erreur sys.stdout.errors (qui est probablement 'strict'), elle sera encodée avec sys.stdout.encoding en utilisant le gestionnaire d'erreur 'backslashreplace'.

sys.displayhook est appelé avec le résultat de l'évaluation d'une expression entrée dans une session Python interactive. L'affichage de ces valeurs peut être personnalisé en assignant une autre fonction d'un argument à sys.displayhook.

Pseudo-code :

def displayhook(value):
    if value is None:
        return
    # Set '_' to None to avoid recursion
    builtins._ = None
    text = repr(value)
    try:
        sys.stdout.write(text)
    except UnicodeEncodeError:
        bytes = text.encode(sys.stdout.encoding, 'backslashreplace')
        if hasattr(sys.stdout, 'buffer'):
            sys.stdout.buffer.write(bytes)
        else:
            text = bytes.decode(sys.stdout.encoding, 'strict')
            sys.stdout.write(text)
    sys.stdout.write("\n")
    builtins._ = value

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Utiliser le gestionnaire d'erreur 'backslashreplace' en cas d'UnicodeEncodeError.

sys.dont_write_bytecode

Si vrai, Python n'essaiera pas d'écrire de fichiers .pyc à l'importation de modules source. Cette valeur est initialement définie à True ou False en fonction de l'option de la ligne de commande -B et de la variable d'environnement PYTHONDONDONTWRITEBYTECODE, mais vous pouvez aussi la modifier vous-même pour contrôler la génération des fichiers de bytecode.

sys._emscripten_info

A named tuple holding information about the environment on the wasm32-emscripten platform. The named tuple is provisional and may change in the future.

_emscripten_info.emscripten_version

Emscripten version as tuple of ints (major, minor, micro), e.g. (3, 1, 8).

_emscripten_info.runtime

Runtime string, e.g. browser user agent, 'Node.js v14.18.2', or 'UNKNOWN'.

_emscripten_info.pthreads

True if Python is compiled with Emscripten pthreads support.

_emscripten_info.shared_memory

True if Python is compiled with shared memory support.

Disponibilité: Emscripten.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

sys.pycache_prefix

If this is set (not None), Python will write bytecode-cache .pyc files to (and read them from) a parallel directory tree rooted at this directory, rather than from __pycache__ directories in the source code tree. Any __pycache__ directories in the source code tree will be ignored and new .pyc files written within the pycache prefix. Thus if you use compileall as a pre-build step, you must ensure you run it with the same pycache prefix (if any) that you will use at runtime.

Un chemin relatif est interprété relativement au répertoire courant.

Cette valeur est initialement définie basée sur la valeur de l'option de ligne de commande -X pycache_prefix=PATH ou la variable d'environnement PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX (La ligne de commande est prioritaire). Si aucune des deux options n'est définie, alors la valeur est None.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

sys.excepthook(type, value, traceback)

Cette fonction affiche la traceback et l'exception donnée sur sys.stderr.

When an exception other than SystemExit is raised and uncaught, the interpreter calls sys.excepthook with three arguments, the exception class, exception instance, and a traceback object. In an interactive session this happens just before control is returned to the prompt; in a Python program this happens just before the program exits. The handling of such top-level exceptions can be customized by assigning another three-argument function to sys.excepthook.

Lève un événement d'audit sys.excepthook avec les arguments hook, type, value, traceback lorsqu'une exception non interceptée se produit. Si aucun point d'entrée n'a été défini, hook peut être None. Si n'importe quel point d'entrée lève une exception dérivée de RuntimeError, l'appel au point d'entrée sera supprimé. Autrement, l'exception du point d'entrée d'audit sera reporté comme non levable (unraisable en anglais) et sys.excepthook sera appelé.

Voir aussi

La fonction sys.unraisablehook() gère les exceptions non-levables et la fonction threading.excepthook() gère les exceptions levées par threading.Thread.run().

sys.__breakpointhook__

sys.__displayhook__

sys.__excepthook__

sys.__unraisablehook__

Ces objets contiennent les valeurs originales de breakpointhook, displayhook, excepthook et unraisablehook au début du programme.Ils sont sauvegardés de façon à ce que breakpointhook, displayhook, excepthook et unraisablehook puissent être restaurés au cas où ils seraient remplacés par des objets cassés ou alternatifs.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7: __breakpointhook__

Ajouté dans la version 3.8: __unraisablehook__

sys.exception()

This function, when called while an exception handler is executing (such as an except or except* clause), returns the exception instance that was caught by this handler. When exception handlers are nested within one another, only the exception handled by the innermost handler is accessible.

If no exception handler is executing, this function returns None.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

sys.exc_info()

This function returns the old-style representation of the handled exception. If an exception e is currently handled (so exception() would return e), exc_info() returns the tuple (type(e), e, e.__traceback__). That is, a tuple containing the type of the exception (a subclass of BaseException), the exception itself, and a traceback object which typically encapsulates the call stack at the point where the exception last occurred.

If no exception is being handled anywhere on the stack, this function return a tuple containing three None values.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: The type and traceback fields are now derived from the value (the exception instance), so when an exception is modified while it is being handled, the changes are reflected in the results of subsequent calls to exc_info().

sys.exec_prefix

Une chaîne donnant le préfixe de dossier spécifique au site où les fichiers dépendant de la plateforme sont installés. Par défaut, c'est '/usr/local'. C'est configurable à la compilation avec l'option --exec-prefix du script configure. Tous les fichiers de configurations (tel que pyconfig,h) sont installés dans le dossier exec_prefix/lib/pythonX.Y/config, et les modules sous forme de bibliothèques partagées sont installés dans exec_prefix/lib/pythonX.Y/lib-dynload, où X.Y est le numéro de version de Python, par exemple 3.2.

Note

If a virtual environment is in effect, this exec_prefix will point to the virtual environment. The value for the Python installation will still be available, via base_exec_prefix. Refer to Virtual Environments for more information.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: When running under a virtual environment, prefix and exec_prefix are now set to the virtual environment prefix by the path initialization, instead of site. This means that prefix and exec_prefix always point to the virtual environment, even when site is disabled (-S).

sys.executable

Une chaîne donnant le chemin absolu vers l'interpréteur Python, un fichier binaire exécutable, sur les système sur lesquels ça à du sens. Si Python n'est pas capable de récupérer le chemin réel de son exécutable, sys.executable sera une chaîne vide ou None.

sys.exit([arg])

Raise a SystemExit exception, signaling an intention to exit the interpreter.

The optional argument arg can be an integer giving the exit status (defaulting to zero), or another type of object. If it is an integer, zero is considered "successful termination" and any nonzero value is considered "abnormal termination" by shells and the like. Most systems require it to be in the range 0--127, and produce undefined results otherwise. Some systems have a convention for assigning specific meanings to specific exit codes, but these are generally underdeveloped; Unix programs generally use 2 for command line syntax errors and 1 for all other kinds of errors. If another type of object is passed, None is equivalent to passing zero, and any other object is printed to stderr and results in an exit code of 1. In particular, sys.exit("some error message") is a quick way to exit a program when an error occurs.

Since exit() ultimately "only" raises an exception, it will only exit the process when called from the main thread, and the exception is not intercepted. Cleanup actions specified by finally clauses of try statements are honored, and it is possible to intercept the exit attempt at an outer level.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Si une erreur survient lors du nettoyage après que l'interpréteur Python ait intercepté un SystemExit (typiquement une erreur en vidant les tampons des sorties standard), le code de sortie est changé à 120.

sys.flags

The named tuple flags exposes the status of command line flags. Flags should only be accessed only by name and not by index. The attributes are read only.

flags.debug

-d

flags.inspect

-i

flags.interactive

-i

flags.isolated

-I

flags.optimize

-O or -OO

flags.dont_write_bytecode

-B

flags.no_user_site

-s

flags.no_site

-S

flags.ignore_environment

-E

flags.verbose

-v

flags.bytes_warning

-b

flags.quiet

-q

flags.hash_randomization

-R

flags.dev_mode

-X dev (Python en mode développement)

flags.utf8_mode

-X utf8

flags.safe_path

-P

flags.int_max_str_digits

-X int_max_str_digits (integer string conversion length limitation)

flags.warn_default_encoding

-X warn_default_encoding

flags.gil

-X gil and PYTHON_GIL

flags.thread_inherit_context

-X thread_inherit_context and PYTHON_THREAD_INHERIT_CONTEXT

flags.context_aware_warnings

-X context_aware_warnings and PYTHON_CONTEXT_AWARE_WARNINGS

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Ajout de l'attribut quiet pour la nouvelle option -q.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.3: L'attribut hash_randomization.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Suppression de l'attribut obsolète division_warning.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Ajout de l'attribut isolated pour l'option -I isolated.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Ajout de l'attribut dev_mode pour le nouveau Mode Développeur Python et l'attribut utf8_mode pour la nouvelle option -X utf8.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Added warn_default_encoding attribute for -X warn_default_encoding flag.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added the safe_path attribute for -P option.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added the int_max_str_digits attribute.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the gil attribute.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Added the thread_inherit_context attribute.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Added the context_aware_warnings attribute.

sys.float_info

Un named tuple contenant des informations à propos du type float. Il contient des informations de bas niveau à propos de la précision et de la représentation interne. Les valeurs correspondent aux différentes constantes à propos des nombres à virgule flottantes définies dans le fichier d'entête float.h pour le langage de programmation C. Voir la section 5.2.4.2.2 de 1999 ISO/IEC C standard [C99], Characteristics of floating types, pour plus de détails.

Attributes of the float_info named tuple

attribut

macro float.h

explication

float_info.epsilon

DBL_EPSILON

difference between 1.0 and the least value greater than 1.0 that is representable as a float.

Voir aussi : math.ulp().

float_info.dig

DBL_DIG

The maximum number of decimal digits that can be faithfully represented in a float; see below.

float_info.mant_dig

DBL_MANT_DIG

Float precision: the number of base-radix digits in the significand of a float.

float_info.max

DBL_MAX

The maximum representable positive finite float.

float_info.max_exp

DBL_MAX_EXP

The maximum integer e such that radix**(e-1) is a representable finite float.

float_info.max_10_exp

DBL_MAX_10_EXP

The maximum integer e such that 10**e is in the range of representable finite floats.

float_info.min

DBL_MIN

The minimum representable positive normalized float.

Utilisez math.ulp(0.0) pour obtenir le plus petit nombre a virgule positif dénormalisé représentable.

float_info.min_exp

DBL_MIN_EXP

The minimum integer e such that radix**(e-1) is a normalized float.

float_info.min_10_exp

DBL_MIN_10_EXP

The minimum integer e such that 10**e is a normalized float.

float_info.radix

FLT_RADIX

The radix of exponent representation.

float_info.rounds

FLT_ROUNDS

An integer representing the rounding mode for floating-point arithmetic. This reflects the value of the system FLT_ROUNDS macro at interpreter startup time:

-1: indeterminable

0: toward zero

1: to nearest

2: toward positive infinity

3: toward negative infinity

All other values for FLT_ROUNDS characterize implementation-defined rounding behavior.

The attribute sys.float_info.dig needs further explanation. If s is any string representing a decimal number with at most sys.float_info.dig significant digits, then converting s to a float and back again will recover a string representing the same decimal value:

>>> import sys
>>> sys.float_info.dig
15
>>> s = '3.14159265358979'    # decimal string with 15 significant digits
>>> format(float(s), '.15g')  # convert to float and back -> same value
'3.14159265358979'

Cependant, pour les chaînes avec plus de sys.float_info.dig chiffres significatifs, ce n'est pas toujours vrai :

>>> s = '9876543211234567'    # 16 significant digits is too many!
>>> format(float(s), '.16g')  # conversion changes value
'9876543211234568'

sys.float_repr_style

Une chaîne indiquant comment la fonction repr() se comporte avec les nombres à virgule flottante. Si la chaîne a la valeur 'short', alors pour un float finit x, repr(x) essaye de donner une courte chaîne tel que float(repr(x)) == x. C'est le comportement typique à partir de Python 3.1. Autrement, float_repr_style a la valeur 'legacy' et repr(x) se comporte comme les versions antérieures à 3.1.

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

sys.getallocatedblocks()

Return the number of memory blocks currently allocated by the interpreter, regardless of their size. This function is mainly useful for tracking and debugging memory leaks. Because of the interpreter's internal caches, the result can vary from call to call; you may have to call _clear_internal_caches() and gc.collect() to get more predictable results.

If a Python build or implementation cannot reasonably compute this information, getallocatedblocks() is allowed to return 0 instead.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

sys.getunicodeinternedsize()

Return the number of unicode objects that have been interned.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

sys.getandroidapilevel()

Return the build-time API level of Android as an integer. This represents the minimum version of Android this build of Python can run on. For runtime version information, see platform.android_ver().

Disponibilité: Android.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

sys.getdefaultencoding()

Return 'utf-8'. This is the name of the default string encoding, used in methods like str.encode().

sys.getdlopenflags()

Return the current value of the flags that are used for dlopen() calls. Symbolic names for the flag values can be found in the os module (RTLD_xxx constants, e.g. os.RTLD_LAZY).

Disponibilité: Unix.

sys.getfilesystemencoding()

Get the filesystem encoding: the encoding used with the filesystem error handler to convert between Unicode filenames and bytes filenames. The filesystem error handler is returned from getfilesystemencodeerrors().

For best compatibility, str should be used for filenames in all cases, although representing filenames as bytes is also supported. Functions accepting or returning filenames should support either str or bytes and internally convert to the system's preferred representation.

Les fonctions os.fsencode() et os.fsdecode() devraient être utilisées pour s'assurer qu'un encodage et un gestionnaire d'erreurs correct sont utilisés.

L'encodage du système de fichiers et gestionnaire d'erreurs associé sont configurés au démarrage de Python par la fonction PyConfig_Read() : regardez filesystem_encoding et filesystem_errors dans les membres de PyConfig.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: getfilesystemencoding() ne peut plus renvoyer None.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Sur Windows, on est plus assurés d'obtenir 'mbcs'. Voir la PEP 529 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/] et _enablelegacywindowsfsencoding() pour plus d'informations.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Return 'utf-8' if the Python UTF-8 Mode is enabled.

sys.getfilesystemencodeerrors()

Get the filesystem error handler: the error handler used with the filesystem encoding to convert between Unicode filenames and bytes filenames. The filesystem encoding is returned from getfilesystemencoding().

Les fonctions os.fsencode() et os.fsdecode() devraient être utilisées pour s'assurer qu'un encodage et un gestionnaire d'erreurs correct sont utilisés.

L'encodage du système de fichiers et gestionnaire d'erreurs associé sont configurés au démarrage de Python par la fonction PyConfig_Read() : regardez filesystem_encoding et filesystem_errors dans les membres de PyConfig.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

sys.get_int_max_str_digits()

Returns the current value for the integer string conversion length limitation. See also set_int_max_str_digits().

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

sys.getrefcount(object)

Donne le nombre de référence de l'objet object. Le nombre renvoyé est généralement d'une référence de plus qu'attendu, puisqu'il compte la référence (temporaire) de l'argument à getrefcount().

Note that the returned value may not actually reflect how many references to the object are actually held. For example, some objects are immortal and have a very high refcount that does not reflect the actual number of references. Consequently, do not rely on the returned value to be accurate, other than a value of 0 or 1.

Particularité de l'implémentation CPython : Immortal objects with a large reference count can be identified via _is_immortal().

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Immortal objects have very large refcounts that do not match the actual number of references to the object.

sys.getrecursionlimit()

Donne la limite actuelle de la limite de récursion, la profondeur maximum de la pile de l'interpréteur. Cette limite empêche Python de planter lors d'une récursion infinie à cause d'un débordement de la pile. Elle peut être modifiée par setrecursionlimit().

sys.getsizeof(object[, default])

Donne la taille d'un objet en octets. L'objet peut être de n'importe quel type. Le résultat sera correct pour tous les objets natifs, mais le résultat peut ne pas être toujours vrai pour les extensions, la valeur étant dépendante de l'implémentation.

Seule la mémoire directement attribuée à l'objet est prise en compte, pas la mémoire consommée par les objets vers lesquels il a des références.

S'il est fourni, default sera renvoyé si l'objet ne fournit aucun moyen de récupérer sa taille. Sinon, une exception TypeError sera levée.

getsizeof() appelle la méthode __sizeof__ de l'objet, et s'il est géré par lui, ajoute le surcoût du ramasse-miettes.

See recursive sizeof recipe [https://code.activestate.com/recipes/577504-compute-memory-footprint-of-an-object-and-its-cont/] for an example of using getsizeof() recursively to find the size of containers and all their contents.

sys.getswitchinterval()

Return the interpreter's "thread switch interval" in seconds; see setswitchinterval().

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

sys._getframe([depth])

Renvoie une frame de la pile d'appels. Si le nombre entier optionnel depth est donné, la frame donnée sera de depth appels depuis le haut de la pile. Si c'est plus profond que la hauteur de la pile, une exception ValueError est levée. La profondeur par défaut est zéro, donnant ainsi la frame du dessus de la pile.

Raises an auditing event sys._getframe with argument frame.

Cette fonction ne devrait être utilisée que pour une utilisation interne et spécifique. Il n'est pas garanti qu'elle existe dans toutes les implémentations de Python.

sys._getframemodulename([depth])

Return the name of a module from the call stack. If optional integer depth is given, return the module that many calls below the top of the stack. If that is deeper than the call stack, or if the module is unidentifiable, None is returned. The default for depth is zero, returning the module at the top of the call stack.

Raises an auditing event sys._getframemodulename with argument depth.

Cette fonction ne devrait être utilisée que pour une utilisation interne et spécifique. Il n'est pas garanti qu'elle existe dans toutes les implémentations de Python.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

sys.getobjects(limit[, type])

This function only exists if CPython was built using the specialized configure option --with-trace-refs. It is intended only for debugging garbage-collection issues.

Return a list of up to limit dynamically allocated Python objects. If type is given, only objects of that exact type (not subtypes) are included.

Objects from the list are not safe to use. Specifically, the result will include objects from all interpreters that share their object allocator state (that is, ones created with PyInterpreterConfig.use_main_obmalloc set to 1 or using Py_NewInterpreter(), and the main interpreter). Mixing objects from different interpreters may lead to crashes or other unexpected behavior.

Particularité de l'implémentation CPython : This function should be used for specialized purposes only. It is not guaranteed to exist in all implementations of Python.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: The result may include objects from other interpreters.

sys.getprofile()

Renvoie la fonction de profilage tel que défini par setprofile().

sys.gettrace()

Renvoie la fonction de traçage tel que définie par settrace().

La fonction gettrace() ne sert que pour implémenter des débogueurs, des profilers, outils d'analyse de couverture, etc…. Son comportement dépend de l'implémentation et non du langage, elle n'est donc pas forcément disponible dans toutes les implémentations de Python.

sys.getwindowsversion()

Renvoie un n-uplet nommé décrivant la version de Windows en cours d'exécution. Les attributs nommés sont major, minor, build, platform, service_pack, service_pack_minor, service_pack_major, suite_mask, product_type et platform_version. service_pack contient une string, platform_version un triplet, et tous les autres sont des nombres entiers. Ces attributs sont également accessibles par leur nom, donc sys.getwindowsversion()[0] est équivalent à sys.getwindowsversion().major. Pour des raisons de compatibilité avec les versions antérieures, seuls les 5 premiers éléments sont accessibles par leur indice.

platform will be 2 (VER_PLATFORM_WIN32_NT).

product_type peut être une des valeurs suivantes :

Constante

Signification

1 (VER_NT_WORKSTATION)

Le système une station de travail.

2 (VER_NT_DOMAIN_CONTROLLER)

Le système est un contrôleur de domaine.

3 (VER_NT_SERVER)

Le système est un serveur, mais pas un contrôleur de domaine.

This function wraps the Win32 GetVersionEx() function; see the Microsoft documentation on OSVERSIONINFOEX() for more information about these fields.

platform_version returns the major version, minor version and build number of the current operating system, rather than the version that is being emulated for the process. It is intended for use in logging rather than for feature detection.

Note

platform_version derives the version from kernel32.dll which can be of a different version than the OS version. Please use platform module for achieving accurate OS version.

Disponibilité: Windows.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Changé en un n-uplet nommé, et ajout de service_pack_minor, service_pack_major, suite_mask, et product_type.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Ajout de platform_version

sys.get_asyncgen_hooks()

Renvoie un objet asyncgen_hooks, qui est semblable à un namedtuple de la forme (firstiter, finalizer), où firstiter et finalizer sont soit None ou des fonctions qui prennent un asynchronous generator iterator comme argument, et sont utilisées pour planifier la finalisation d'un générateur asynchrone par un event loop.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6: Voir la PEP 525 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/] pour plus d'informations.

Note

Cette fonction à été ajoutée à titre provisoire (voir la PEP 411 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0411/] pour plus d'informations.)

sys.get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth()

Récupère le nombre de cadres d'exécution conservés par les coroutines pour le suivi de leur création, telle que défini par set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth().

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Note

Cette fonction à été ajoutée à titre provisoire (Voir la PEP 411 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0411/] pour plus d'informations.) Utilisez la uniquement à des fins de débogage.

sys.hash_info

Un named tuple donnant les paramètres de l'implémentation de la fonction de hachage de nombres. Pour plus d'informations sur le hachage des types numériques, consultez Hachage des types numériques.

hash_info.width

The width in bits used for hash values

hash_info.modulus

The prime modulus P used for numeric hash scheme

hash_info.inf

The hash value returned for a positive infinity

hash_info.nan

(This attribute is no longer used)

hash_info.imag

The multiplier used for the imaginary part of a complex number

hash_info.algorithm

The name of the algorithm for hashing of str, bytes, and memoryview

hash_info.hash_bits

The internal output size of the hash algorithm

hash_info.seed_bits

The size of the seed key of the hash algorithm

hash_info.cutoff

Cutoff for small string DJBX33A optimization in range [1, cutoff).

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Added algorithm, hash_bits, seed_bits, and cutoff.

sys.hexversion

Le numéro de version codé sous forme d'un seul nombre entier. Ce numéro augmente avec chaque version, y compris pour les versions hors production. Par exemple, pour vérifier que l'interpréteur Python est au moins la version 1.5, utilisez :

if sys.hexversion >= 0x010502F0:
    # use some advanced feature
    ...
else:
    # use an alternative implementation or warn the user
    ...

Cet attribut s'appelle hexversion dans le sens où il ne semble avoir du sens que s'il est regardé après avoir été passé à la fonction native hex(). Le named tuple sys.version_info représente la même information d'une manière plus humaine.

Consultez Version des API et ABI pour plus d'informations sur hexversion.

sys.implementation

Un objet contenant des informations sur l'implémentation de la version actuelle de l'interpréteur Python. Les attributs suivants existent obligatoirement sur toutes les implémentations Python.

name est l'identifiant de l'implémentation, e.g. 'cpython'. Cette chaîne est définie par l'implémentation de Python, mais sera toujours en minuscule.

version est un n-uplet nommé, du même format que sys.version_info. Il représente la version de l'implementation de Python. C'est une information différente de la version du langage auquel l'interpréteur actuel se conforme (donnée par sys.version_info). Par exemple, pour PyPy 1.8 sys.implementation.version peut valoir sys.version_info(1, 8, 0, 'final', 0), alors que sys.version_info peut valoir sys.version_info(2, 7, 2, 'final', 0). Pour CPython ces deux valeurs sont identiques puisque c'est l'implémentation de référence.

hexversion est la version de l'implémentation sous forme hexadécimale, comme sys.hexversion.

cache_tag est la balise utilisée par le mécanisme d'importation dans les noms de fichiers des modules mis en cache. Par convention, il devrait se composer du nom et de la version de l'implémentation, comme 'cpython-33'. Cependant, une implémentation Python peut utiliser une autre valeur si nécessaire. cache_tag à None signifie que la mise en cache des modules doit être désactivée.

supports_isolated_interpreters is a boolean value, whether this implementation supports multiple isolated interpreters. It is True for CPython on most platforms. Platforms with this support implement the low-level _interpreters module.

Voir aussi

PEP 684 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0684/], PEP 734 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0734/], and concurrent.interpreters.

sys.implementation peut contenir d'autres attributs spécifiques à l'implémentation de Python. Ces attributs spécifiques doivent commencer par un underscore, et ne sont pas documentés ici. Indépendamment de son contenu, sys.implementation ne change jamais durant l'exécution de l'interpréteur, ni entre les versions d'une même implémentation. (Il peut cependant changer entre les versions du langage Python.) Voir la PEP 421 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0421/] pour plus d'informations.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Added supports_isolated_interpreters field.

Note

L'addition de nouveaux attributs requis doivent passer par le processus de PEP classique. Voir PEP 421 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0421/] pour plus d'informations.

sys.int_info

Un named tuple qui contient des informations sur la représentation interne des entiers de Python. Les attributs sont en lecture seule.

int_info.bits_per_digit

The number of bits held in each digit. Python integers are stored internally in base 2**int_info.bits_per_digit.

int_info.sizeof_digit

The size in bytes of the C type used to represent a digit.

int_info.default_max_str_digits

The default value for sys.get_int_max_str_digits() when it is not otherwise explicitly configured.

int_info.str_digits_check_threshold

The minimum non-zero value for sys.set_int_max_str_digits(), PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS, or -X int_max_str_digits.

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added default_max_str_digits and str_digits_check_threshold.

sys.__interactivehook__

Lorsque cet attribut existe, sa valeur est automatiquement appelée (sans argument) par l'interpréteur lors de son démarrage en mode interactif. L'appel se fait après que le fichier PYTHONSTARTUP soit lu, afin que vous puissiez y configurer votre fonction. Configuré par le module site.

Lève un évènement d'audit cpython.run_interactivehook avec l'objet de point d'entrée comme argument lorsqu'il est appelé au démarrage.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

sys.intern(string)

Ajoute string dans le tableau des chaînes "internées" et renvoie la chaîne internée -- qui peut être string elle-même ou une copie. Interner une chaîne de caractères permet de gagner un peu de performance lors de l'accès aux dictionnaires -- si les clés du dictionnaire et la clé recherchée sont internées, les comparaisons de clés (après le hachage) pourront se faire en comparant les pointeurs plutôt que caractère par caractère. Normalement, les noms utilisés dans les programmes Python sont automatiquement internés, et les dictionnaires utilisés pour stocker les attributs de modules, de classes, ou d'instances ont aussi leurs clés internées.

Interned strings are not immortal; you must keep a reference to the return value of intern() around to benefit from it.

sys._is_gil_enabled()

Return True if the GIL is enabled and False if it is disabled.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Particularité de l'implémentation CPython : It is not guaranteed to exist in all implementations of Python.

sys.is_finalizing()

Return True if the main Python interpreter is shutting down. Return False otherwise.

See also the PythonFinalizationError exception.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

sys._jit

Utilities for observing just-in-time compilation.

Particularité de l'implémentation CPython : JIT compilation is an experimental implementation detail of CPython. sys._jit is not guaranteed to exist or behave the same way in all Python implementations, versions, or build configurations.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

_jit.is_available()

Return True if the current Python executable supports JIT compilation, and False otherwise. This can be controlled by building CPython with the --experimental-jit option on Windows, and the --enable-experimental-jit option on all other platforms.

_jit.is_enabled()

Return True if JIT compilation is enabled for the current Python process (implies sys._jit.is_available()), and False otherwise. If JIT compilation is available, this can be controlled by setting the PYTHON_JIT environment variable to 0 (disabled) or 1 (enabled) at interpreter startup.

_jit.is_active()

Return True if the topmost Python frame is currently executing JIT code (implies sys._jit.is_enabled()), and False otherwise.

Note

This function is intended for testing and debugging the JIT itself. It should be avoided for any other purpose.

Note

Due to the nature of tracing JIT compilers, repeated calls to this function may give surprising results. For example, branching on its return value will likely lead to unexpected behavior (if doing so causes JIT code to be entered or exited):

>>> for warmup in range(BIG_NUMBER):
...     # This line is "hot", and is eventually JIT-compiled:
...     if sys._jit.is_active():
...         # This line is "cold", and is run in the interpreter:
...         assert sys._jit.is_active()
...
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 5, in <module>
    assert sys._jit.is_active()
           ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^
AssertionError

sys.last_exc

This variable is not always defined; it is set to the exception instance when an exception is not handled and the interpreter prints an error message and a stack traceback. Its intended use is to allow an interactive user to import a debugger module and engage in post-mortem debugging without having to re-execute the command that caused the error. (Typical use is import pdb; pdb.pm() to enter the post-mortem debugger; see pdb module for more information.)

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

sys._is_immortal(op)

Return True if the given object is immortal, False otherwise.

Note

Objects that are immortal (and thus return True upon being passed to this function) are not guaranteed to be immortal in future versions, and vice versa for mortal objects.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Particularité de l'implémentation CPython : This function should be used for specialized purposes only. It is not guaranteed to exist in all implementations of Python.

sys._is_interned(string)

Return True if the given string is "interned", False otherwise.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Particularité de l'implémentation CPython : It is not guaranteed to exist in all implementations of Python.

sys.last_type

sys.last_value

sys.last_traceback

These three variables are deprecated; use sys.last_exc instead. They hold the legacy representation of sys.last_exc, as returned from exc_info() above.

sys.maxsize

Un entier donnant à la valeur maximale qu'une variable de type Py_ssize_t peut prendre. C'est typiquement 2**31 - 1 sur une plateforme 32 bits et 2**63 - 1 sur une plateforme 64 bits.

sys.maxunicode

Un entier donnant la valeur du plus grand point de code Unicode, c'est-à-dire 1114111 (0x10FFFF en hexadécimal).

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Avant la PEP 393 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/], sys.maxunicode valait soit 0xFFFF soit 0x10FFFF, en fonction l'option de configuration qui spécifiait si les caractères Unicode étaient stockés en UCS-2 ou UCS-4.

sys.meta_path

A list of meta path finder objects that have their find_spec() methods called to see if one of the objects can find the module to be imported. By default, it holds entries that implement Python's default import semantics. The find_spec() method is called with at least the absolute name of the module being imported. If the module to be imported is contained in a package, then the parent package's __path__ attribute is passed in as a second argument. The method returns a module spec, or None if the module cannot be found.

Voir aussi

importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder

La classe de base abstraite définissant l'interface des objets finder de meta_path.

importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec

La classe concrète dont find_spec() devrait renvoyer des instances.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Module specs were introduced in Python 3.4, by PEP 451 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/].

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Removed the fallback that looked for a find_module() method if a meta_path entry didn't have a find_spec() method.

sys.modules

This is a dictionary that maps module names to modules which have already been loaded. This can be manipulated to force reloading of modules and other tricks. However, replacing the dictionary will not necessarily work as expected and deleting essential items from the dictionary may cause Python to fail. If you want to iterate over this global dictionary always use sys.modules.copy() or tuple(sys.modules) to avoid exceptions as its size may change during iteration as a side effect of code or activity in other threads.

sys.orig_argv

The list of the original command line arguments passed to the Python executable.

The elements of sys.orig_argv are the arguments to the Python interpreter, while the elements of sys.argv are the arguments to the user's program. Arguments consumed by the interpreter itself will be present in sys.orig_argv and missing from sys.argv.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

sys.path

Une liste de chaînes de caractères spécifiant les chemins de recherche des modules, initialisée à partir de la variable d'environnement PYTHONPATH et d'une valeur par défaut dépendante de l'installation.

By default, as initialized upon program startup, a potentially unsafe path is prepended to sys.path (before the entries inserted as a result of PYTHONPATH):

python -m module command line: prepend the current working directory.

python script.py command line: prepend the script's directory. If it's a symbolic link, resolve symbolic links.

python -c code and python (REPL) command lines: prepend an empty string, which means the current working directory.

To not prepend this potentially unsafe path, use the -P command line option or the PYTHONSAFEPATH environment variable.

A program is free to modify this list for its own purposes. Only strings should be added to sys.path; all other data types are ignored during import.

Voir aussi

Le module site décrit comment utiliser les fichiers .pth pour étendre sys.path.

sys.path_hooks

Une liste d'appelables d'un argument, path, pour essayer de créer un finder pour ce chemin. Si un finder peut être créé, il doit être renvoyé par l'appelable, sinon une ImportError doit être levée.

Précisé à l'origine dans la PEP 302 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/].

sys.path_importer_cache

Un dictionnaire faisant office de cache pour les objets finder. Les clés sont les chemins qui ont été passés à sys.path_hooks et les valeurs sont les finders trouvés. Si un chemin est valide selon le système de fichiers mais qu'aucun finder n'est trouvé dans sys.path_hooks, None est stocké.

Précisé à l'origine dans la PEP 302 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/].

sys.platform

A string containing a platform identifier. Known values are:

Système

Valeur pour plateforme

AIX

'aix'

Android

'android'

Emscripten

'emscripten'

FreeBSD

'freebsd'

iOS

'ios'

Linux

'linux'

macOS

'darwin'

Windows

'win32'

Windows/Cygwin

'cygwin'

WASI

'wasi'

On Unix systems not listed in the table, the value is the lowercased OS name as returned by uname -s, with the first part of the version as returned by uname -r appended, e.g. 'sunos5', at the time when Python was built. Unless you want to test for a specific system version, it is therefore recommended to use the following idiom:

if sys.platform.startswith('sunos'):
    # SunOS-specific code here...

Modifié dans la version 3.3: On Linux, sys.platform doesn't contain the major version anymore. It is always 'linux', instead of 'linux2' or 'linux3'.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: On AIX, sys.platform doesn't contain the major version anymore. It is always 'aix', instead of 'aix5' or 'aix7'.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: On Android, sys.platform now returns 'android' rather than 'linux'.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: On FreeBSD, sys.platform doesn't contain the major version anymore. It is always 'freebsd', instead of 'freebsd13' or 'freebsd14'.

Voir aussi

os.name has a coarser granularity. os.uname() gives system-dependent version information.

Le module platform fournit des vérifications détaillées pour l'identité du système.

sys.platlibdir

Nom du dossier de la bibliothèque spécifique à la plateforme. Il est utilisé pour construire le chemin de vers la bibliothèque standard et les chemins vers les modules d'extensions installés.

C'est égal à "lib" sur la plupart des plateformes. Sur Fedora et SuSE, c'est égal à "lib64" sur les plateformes 64-bits qui renvoient les chemins sys.path suivants (où X.Y et la version majeure.mineur de Python) :

/usr/lib64/pythonX.Y/ : Bibliothèque standard (comme os.py du module os)

/usr/lib64/pythonX.Y/lib-dynload/ : Modules d'extension C de la bibliothèque standard (comme le module errno, le nom du fichier exact est spécifique à la plateforme)

/usr/lib/pythonX.Y/site-packages/ (toujours utiliser lib, et non sys.platlibdir) : modules tiers

/usr/lib64/pythonX.Y/site-packages/ : Modules d'extension C de paquets tiers

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

sys.prefix

A string giving the site-specific directory prefix where the platform independent Python files are installed; on Unix, the default is /usr/local. This can be set at build time with the --prefix argument to the configure script. See Installation paths for derived paths.

Note

If a virtual environment is in effect, this prefix will point to the virtual environment. The value for the Python installation will still be available, via base_prefix. Refer to Virtual Environments for more information.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: When running under a virtual environment, prefix and exec_prefix are now set to the virtual environment prefix by the path initialization, instead of site. This means that prefix and exec_prefix always point to the virtual environment, even when site is disabled (-S).

sys.ps1

sys.ps2

Chaînes spécifiant l'invite primaire et secondaire de l'interpréteur. Celles-ci ne sont définies que si l'interpréteur est en mode interactif. Dans ce cas, leurs valeurs initiales sont '>>>' et '...'. Si un objet qui n'est pas une chaîne est assigné à l'une ou l'autre variable, sa méthode str() sera appelée à chaque fois que l'interpréteur se prépare à lire une nouvelle commande interactive, c'est donc utilisable pour implémenter une invite dynamique.

sys.setdlopenflags(n)

Set the flags used by the interpreter for dlopen() calls, such as when the interpreter loads extension modules. Among other things, this will enable a lazy resolving of symbols when importing a module, if called as sys.setdlopenflags(0). To share symbols across extension modules, call as sys.setdlopenflags(os.RTLD_GLOBAL). Symbolic names for the flag values can be found in the os module (RTLD_xxx constants, e.g. os.RTLD_LAZY).

Disponibilité: Unix.

sys.set_int_max_str_digits(maxdigits)

Set the integer string conversion length limitation used by this interpreter. See also get_int_max_str_digits().

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

sys.setprofile(profilefunc)

Définit la fonction de profilage du système, qui vous permet d'implémenter un profileur de code source Python en Python. Voir le chapitre The Python Profilers pour plus d'informations sur le profileur Python. La fonction de profilage du système est appelée de la même façon que la fonction trace du système (voir settrace()), mais elle est appelée pour des évènements différents, par exemple elle n'est pas appelée à chaque ligne de code exécutée (seulement sur appel et retours, mais l'événement pour les retours est appelé même en cas d'exception). Cette fonction est locale au fil d'exécution, et il n'existe aucun moyen, du point de vue du profileur, de prendre conscience des changements de contextes entre fils d'exécution, ça n'a donc aucun sens d'utiliser cette fonction dans un contexte multithread. Sa valeur de retour n'est pas utilisée, elle peut simplement renvoyer None.

Note

The same tracing mechanism is used for setprofile() as settrace(). To trace calls with setprofile() inside a tracing function (e.g. in a debugger breakpoint), see call_tracing().

Les fonctions de traçage doivent avoir trois arguments : frame, event, et arg. frame est la stack frame actuelle. event est une chaîne de caractères pouvant valoir : 'call', 'return', 'c_call', 'c_return' ou 'c_exception'. arg dépend du type de l'évènement.

Les événements ont la signification suivante :

'call'

Une fonction est appelée (ou Python entre dans un autre bloc de code). La fonction de traçage est appelée, arg est None.

'return'

La fonction (ou un autre type de bloc) est sur le point de se terminer. La fonction de traçage est appelée, arg est la valeur qui sera renvoyée, ou None si l'événement est causé par la levée d'une exception.

'c_call'

Une fonction C est sur le point d'être appelée. C'est soit une fonction d'extension ou une fonction native. arg représente la fonction C.

'c_return'

Une fonction C a renvoyé une valeur. arg représente la fonction C.

'c_exception'

Une fonction C a levé une exception. arg représente la fonction C.

Lève un évènement d'audit sys.setprofile sans arguments.

sys.setrecursionlimit(limit)

Définit la profondeur maximale de la pile de l'interpréteur Python à limit. Cette limite empêche une récursion infinie de provoquer un débordement de la pile C et ainsi un crash de Python.

La limite haute dépend de la plate-forme. Un utilisateur pourrait avoir besoin de remonter la limite, lorsque son programme nécessite une récursion profonde, si sa plate-forme le permet. Cela doit être fait avec précaution, car une limite trop élevée peut conduire à un crash.

Si la nouvelle limite est plus basse que la profondeur actuelle, une RecursionError est levée.

Modifié dans la version 3.5.1: Une RecursionError est maintenant levée si la nouvelle limite est plus basse que la profondeur de récursion actuelle.

sys.setswitchinterval(interval)

Configure l'intervalle de bascule des fils d'exécution de l'interpréteur (en secondes). Ce nombre à virgule flottante détermine la durée idéale allouée aux fils d'exécution en cour d'exécution (durée appelée timeslices). Notez que la durée observée peut être plus grande, typiquement si des fonctions ou méthodes prenant beaucoup de temps sont utilisées. Aussi, le choix du fil d'exécution prenant la main à la fin de l'intervalle revient au système d'exploitation. L'interpréteur n'a pas son propre ordonnanceur.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

sys.settrace(tracefunc)

Définit la fonction de traçage du système, qui vous permet d'implémenter un débogueur de code source Python en Python. Cette fonction est locale au fil d'exécution courant. Pour qu'un débogueur puisse gérer plusieurs fils d'exécution, il doit enregistrer sa fonction en appelant settrace() pour chaque fil d'exécution qu'il souhaite surveiller ou utilisez threading.settrace().

Trace functions should have three arguments: frame, event, and arg. frame is the current stack frame. event is a string: 'call', 'line', 'return', 'exception' or 'opcode'. arg depends on the event type.

La fonction de traçage est appelée (avec event à 'call') à chaque fois que l'interpréteur entre dans un nouveau scope. Elle doit renvoyer une référence à une fonction de traçage locale à utiliser pour ce scope, ou None si le Scope ne doit pas être tracé.

The local trace function should return a reference to itself, or to another function which would then be used as the local trace function for the scope.

Si une erreur se produit dans la fonction de trace, elle sera désactivée, tout comme si settrace(None) avait été appelée.

Note

Tracing is disabled while calling the trace function (e.g. a function set by settrace()). For recursive tracing see call_tracing().

Les événements ont la signification suivante :

'call'

Une fonction est appelée (un un bloc de code). La fonction de traçage globale est appelée, arg est None, la valeur renvoyée donne la fonction de traçage locale.

'line'

The interpreter is about to execute a new line of code or re-execute the condition of a loop. The local trace function is called; arg is None; the return value specifies the new local trace function. See Objects/lnotab_notes.txt for a detailed explanation of how this works. Per-line events may be disabled for a frame by setting f_trace_lines to False on that frame.

'return'

La fonction (ou un autre type de bloc) est sur le point de se terminer. La fonction de traçage locale est appelée, arg est la valeur qui sera renvoyée, ou None si l'événement est causé par la levée d'une exception. La valeur renvoyée par la fonction de traçage est ignorée.

'exception'

Une exception est survenue. La fonction de traçage locale est appelée, arg est le triplet (exception, valeur, traceback), la valeur renvoyée spécifie la nouvelle fonction de traçage locale.

'opcode'

The interpreter is about to execute a new opcode (see dis for opcode details). The local trace function is called; arg is None; the return value specifies the new local trace function. Per-opcode events are not emitted by default: they must be explicitly requested by setting f_trace_opcodes to True on the frame.

Remarquez que, comme une exception se propage au travers de toute chaîne d'appelants, un événement 'exception' est généré à chaque niveau.

Pour une utilisation plus fine, il est possible de définir une fonction de traçage en assignant frame.f_trace = tracefunc explicitement, plutôt que de s'appuyer sur le fait qu'elle soit définie indirectement par la valeur de retour d'une fonction trace déjà installée. Cela est aussi demandé pour l'activation de la fonction de traçage dans le cadre, ce que settrace() ne fait pas. Notez que pour que cela fonctionne, une fonction globale de traçage doit avoir été installée avec settrace() afin d'activer le mécanisme de traçage au moment de l'exécution, mais il n'est pas nécessaire que ce soit la même fonction de traçage (Par exemple, cela pourrait être une fonction de traçage avec peu de surcharge qui retourne simplement None pour se désactiver immédiatement à chaque cadre).

Pour plus d'informations sur les objets code et objets représentant une frame de la pile, consultez Hiérarchie des types standards.

Lève un évènement d'audit sys.settrace sans arguments.

La fonction settrace() est destinée uniquement à l'implémentation de débogueurs, de profileurs, d'outils d'analyse de couverture et d'autres outils similaires. Son comportement fait partie de l'implémentation, plutôt que de la définition du langage, et peut donc ne pas être disponible dans toutes les implémentations de Python.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: 'opcode' event type added; f_trace_lines and f_trace_opcodes attributes added to frames

sys.set_asyncgen_hooks([firstiter] [, finalizer])

Accepte deux arguments optionnels nommés, qui sont appelables qui acceptent un asynchronous generator iterator comme argument. L'appelable firsttiter sera appelé lorsqu'un générateur asynchrone sera itéré pour la première fois, et l'appelable finalizer sera appelé lorsqu'un générateur asynchrone est sur le point d'être détruit.

Lève un évènement d'audit sys.set_asyncgen_hooks_firstiter sans arguments.

Lève un événement d'audit sys.set_asyncgen_hooks_finalizer sans arguments.

Deux événements d'audit sont levés car l'API sous-jacente consiste de deux appels, dont chacun doit lever son propre événement.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6: Voir la PEP 525 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/] pour plus de détails. Pour un exemple de finalizer, voir l'implémentation de asyncio.Loop.shutdown_asyncgens dans Lib/asyncio/base_events.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/asyncio/base_events.py]

Note

Cette fonction à été ajoutée à titre provisoire (voir la PEP 411 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0411/] pour plus d'informations.)

sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth(depth)

Allows enabling or disabling coroutine origin tracking. When enabled, the cr_origin attribute on coroutine objects will contain a tuple of (filename, line number, function name) tuples describing the traceback where the coroutine object was created, with the most recent call first. When disabled, cr_origin will be None.

To enable, pass a depth value greater than zero; this sets the number of frames whose information will be captured. To disable, set depth to zero.

Ce paramètre est spécifique au fil d'exécution courant.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Note

Cette fonction à été ajoutée à titre provisoire (Voir la PEP 411 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0411/] pour plus d'informations.) Utilisez la uniquement à des fins de débogage.

sys.activate_stack_trampoline(backend, /)

Activate the stack profiler trampoline backend. The only supported backend is "perf".

Stack trampolines cannot be activated if the JIT is active.

Disponibilité: Linux.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Voir aussi

Python support for the Linux perf profiler

https://perf.wiki.kernel.org

sys.deactivate_stack_trampoline()

Deactivate the current stack profiler trampoline backend.

If no stack profiler is activated, this function has no effect.

Disponibilité: Linux.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

sys.is_stack_trampoline_active()

Return True if a stack profiler trampoline is active.

Disponibilité: Linux.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

sys.remote_exec(pid, script)

Executes script, a file containing Python code in the remote process with the given pid.

This function returns immediately, and the code will be executed by the target process's main thread at the next available opportunity, similarly to how signals are handled. There is no interface to determine when the code has been executed. The caller is responsible for making sure that the file still exists whenever the remote process tries to read it and that it hasn't been overwritten.

The remote process must be running a CPython interpreter of the same major and minor version as the local process. If either the local or remote interpreter is pre-release (alpha, beta, or release candidate) then the local and remote interpreters must be the same exact version.

See Remote debugging attachment protocol for more information about the remote debugging mechanism.

When the code is executed in the remote process, an auditing event sys.remote_exec is raised with the pid and the path to the script file. This event is raised in the process that called sys.remote_exec().

When the script is executed in the remote process, an auditing event cpython.remote_debugger_script is raised with the path in the remote process. This event is raised in the remote process, not the one that called sys.remote_exec().

Disponibilité: Unix, Windows.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14: See PEP 768 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0768/] for more details.

sys._enablelegacywindowsfsencoding()

Changes the filesystem encoding and error handler to 'mbcs' and 'replace' respectively, for consistency with versions of Python prior to 3.6.

Équivaut à définir la variable d'environnement PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING avant de lancer Python.

See also sys.getfilesystemencoding() and sys.getfilesystemencodeerrors().

Disponibilité: Windows.

Note

Changing the filesystem encoding after Python startup is risky because the old fsencoding or paths encoded by the old fsencoding may be cached somewhere. Use PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING instead.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6: Voir la PEP 529 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/] pour plus d'informations.

Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.16: Use PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING instead.

sys.stdin

sys.stdout

sys.stderr

objets fichiers utilisés par l'interpréteur pour l'entrée standard, la sortie standard et la sortie d'erreurs :

stdin est utilisé pour toutes les entrées interactives (y compris les appels à input())

stdout est utilisé pour la sortie de print(), des expression et pour les invites de input() ;

Les invites de l'interpréteur et ses messages d'erreur sont écrits sur stderr.

Ces flux sont de classiques fichiers texte comme ceux renvoyés par la fonction open(). Leurs paramètres sont choisis comme suit :

The encoding and error handling are is initialized from PyConfig.stdio_encoding and PyConfig.stdio_errors.

On Windows, UTF-8 is used for the console device. Non-character devices such as disk files and pipes use the system locale encoding (i.e. the ANSI codepage). Non-console character devices such as NUL (i.e. where isatty() returns True) use the value of the console input and output codepages at startup, respectively for stdin and stdout/stderr. This defaults to the system locale encoding if the process is not initially attached to a console.

Le comportement spécial de la console peut être redéfini en assignant la variable d'environnement PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO avant de démarrer Python. Dans ce cas, les pages de code de la console sont utilisées comme pour tout autre périphérique de caractères.

Sous toutes les plateformes, vous pouvez redéfinir le codage de caractères en assignant la variable d'environnement PYTHONIOENCODING avant de démarrer Python ou en utilisant la nouvelle option de ligne de commande -X utf8 et la variable d'environnement PYTHONUTF8. Toutefois, pour la console Windows, cela s'applique uniquement lorsque PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO est également défini.

When interactive, the stdout stream is line-buffered. Otherwise, it is block-buffered like regular text files. The stderr stream is line-buffered in both cases. You can make both streams unbuffered by passing the -u command-line option or setting the PYTHONUNBUFFERED environment variable.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Le stderr non interactif est maintenant mis en mémoire-tampon ligne par ligne plutôt qu'entièrement.

Note

Pour écrire ou lire des données binaires depuis ou vers les flux standards, utilisez l'objet sous-jacent buffer. Par exemple, pour écrire des octets sur stdout, utilisez sys.stdout.buffer.write(b'abc').

However, if you are writing a library (and do not control in which context its code will be executed), be aware that the standard streams may be replaced with file-like objects like io.StringIO which do not support the buffer attribute.

sys.__stdin__

sys.__stdout__

sys.__stderr__

Ces objets contiennent les valeurs d'origine de stdin, stderr et stdout tel que présentes au début du programme. Ils sont utilisés pendant la finalisation, et peuvent être utiles pour écrire dans le vrai flux standard, peu importe si l'objet sys.std* a été redirigé.

Ils peuvent également être utilisés pour restaurer les entrées / sorties d'origine, au cas où ils auraient été écrasés par des objets cassé, cependant la bonne façon de faire serait de sauvegarder explicitement les flux avant de les remplacer et ainsi pouvoir les restaurer.

Note

Dans certaines cas, stdin, stdout et stderr ainsi que les valeurs initiales __stdin__, __stdout__ et __stderr__ peuvent être None. C'est typiquement le cas pour les applications graphiques sur Windows qui ne sont pas connectées à une console, ou les applications Python démarrées avec pythonw.

sys.stdlib_module_names

A frozenset of strings containing the names of standard library modules.

It is the same on all platforms. Modules which are not available on some platforms and modules disabled at Python build are also listed. All module kinds are listed: pure Python, built-in, frozen and extension modules. Test modules are excluded.

For packages, only the main package is listed: sub-packages and sub-modules are not listed. For example, the email package is listed, but the email.mime sub-package and the email.message sub-module are not listed.

See also the sys.builtin_module_names list.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

sys.thread_info

Un named tuple contenant des informations sur l'implémentation des fils d'exécution.

thread_info.name

The name of the thread implementation:

"nt": Windows threads

"pthread": POSIX threads

"pthread-stubs": stub POSIX threads (on WebAssembly platforms without threading support)

"solaris": Solaris threads

thread_info.lock

The name of the lock implementation:

"semaphore": a lock uses a semaphore

"mutex+cond": a lock uses a mutex and a condition variable

None si cette information n'est pas connue

thread_info.version

The name and version of the thread library. It is a string, or None if this information is unknown.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

sys.tracebacklimit

Lorsque cette variable contient un nombre entier, elle détermine la profondeur maximum de la pile d'appels affichée lorsqu'une exception non gérée se produit. La valeur par défaut est 1000, lorsque cette valeur est égale ou inférieure à 0, la pile d'appels n'est pas affichée, seul seuls le type et la valeur de l'exception sont le sont.

sys.unraisablehook(unraisable, /)

Gère une exception non levable (unraisable en anglais)

Appelé lorsqu'une exception s'est produite mais qu'il n'y a aucun moyen pour Python de la gérer. Par exemple, lorsqu'un destructeur lève une exception ou durant le passage du ramasse-miettes (gc.collect()).

Les arguments unraisable ont la signification suivante :

exc_type: Exception type.

exc_value: Exception value, can be None.

exc_traceback: Exception traceback, can be None.

err_msg: Error message, can be None.

object: Object causing the exception, can be None.

The default hook formats err_msg and object as: f'{err_msg}: {object!r}'; use "Exception ignored in" error message if err_msg is None.

sys.unraisablehook() peut être remplacé pour contrôler comment les exceptions non levables (unraisable en anglais) sont gérées.

Voir aussi

excepthook() which handles uncaught exceptions.

Avertissement

Storing exc_value using a custom hook can create a reference cycle. It should be cleared explicitly to break the reference cycle when the exception is no longer needed.

Storing object using a custom hook can resurrect it if it is set to an object which is being finalized. Avoid storing object after the custom hook completes to avoid resurrecting objects.

Raise an auditing event sys.unraisablehook with arguments hook, unraisable when an exception that cannot be handled occurs. The unraisable object is the same as what will be passed to the hook. If no hook has been set, hook may be None.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

sys.version

Une chaîne contenant le numéro de version de l'interpréteur Python, ainsi que d'autres informations comme le numéro de compilation et le compilateur utilisé. Cette chaîne est affichée lorsque l'interpréteur est démarré en mode interactif. N'essayez pas d'en extraire des informations de version, utilisez plutôt version_info et les fonctions fournies par le module platform.

sys.api_version

The C API version, equivalent to the C macro PYTHON_API_VERSION. Defined for backwards compatibility.

Currently, this constant is not updated in new Python versions, and is not useful for versioning. This may change in the future.

sys.version_info

Un quintuplet contenant les composants du numéro de version : major, minor, micro, releaselevel et serial. Toutes les valeurs sauf releaselevel sont des nombres entiers. releaselevel peut valoir 'alpha', 'beta', 'candidate', ou 'final'. La valeur de version_info pour Python 2.0 est (2, 0, 0, 'final', 0). Ces attributs sont aussi accessibles par leur nom, ainsi sys.version_info[0] est équivalent à sys.version_info.major, et ainsi de suite.

Modifié dans la version 3.1: Ajout des attributs nommés.

sys.warnoptions

C'est une spécificité de l'implémentation de la gestion des avertissements. Ne modifiez pas cette valeur. Reportez-vous au module warnings pour plus d'informations sur le gestionnaire d'avertissements.

sys.winver

The version number used to form registry keys on Windows platforms. This is stored as string resource 1000 in the Python DLL. The value is normally the major and minor versions of the running Python interpreter. It is provided in the sys module for informational purposes; modifying this value has no effect on the registry keys used by Python.

Disponibilité: Windows.

sys.monitoring

Namespace containing functions and constants for register callbacks and controlling monitoring events. See sys.monitoring for details.

sys._xoptions

Un dictionnaire des différentes options spécifiques à l'implémentation passés en ligne de commande via l'option -X. Aux noms des options correspondent soit leur valeur, si elle est donnée explicitement, soit à True. Exemple :

$ ./python -Xa=b -Xc
Python 3.2a3+ (py3k, Oct 16 2010, 20:14:50)
[GCC 4.4.3] on linux2
Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
>>> import sys
>>> sys._xoptions
{'a': 'b', 'c': True}

C'est un moyen spécifique à CPython pour accéder aux options passées via l'option -X. D'autres implémentations pourraient les exposer par d'autres moyens, ou pas du tout.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Citations

[C99]

ISO/IEC 9899:1999. "Programming languages -- C." A public draft of this standard is available at https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/docs/n1256.pdf.

sys.monitoring --- Execution event monitoring

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Note

sys.monitoring is a namespace within the sys module, not an independent module, so there is no need to import sys.monitoring, simply import sys and then use sys.monitoring.

This namespace provides access to the functions and constants necessary to activate and control event monitoring.

As programs execute, events occur that might be of interest to tools that monitor execution. The sys.monitoring namespace provides means to receive callbacks when events of interest occur.

The monitoring API consists of three components:

Tool identifiers

Events

Callbacks

Tool identifiers

A tool identifier is an integer and the associated name. Tool identifiers are used to discourage tools from interfering with each other and to allow multiple tools to operate at the same time. Currently tools are completely independent and cannot be used to monitor each other. This restriction may be lifted in the future.

Before registering or activating events, a tool should choose an identifier. Identifiers are integers in the range 0 to 5 inclusive.

Registering and using tools

sys.monitoring.use_tool_id(tool_id: int, name: str, /) → None

Must be called before tool_id can be used. tool_id must be in the range 0 to 5 inclusive. Raises a ValueError if tool_id is in use.

sys.monitoring.clear_tool_id(tool_id: int, /) → None

Unregister all events and callback functions associated with tool_id.

sys.monitoring.free_tool_id(tool_id: int, /) → None

Should be called once a tool no longer requires tool_id. Will call clear_tool_id() before releasing tool_id.

sys.monitoring.get_tool(tool_id: int, /) → str | None

Returns the name of the tool if tool_id is in use, otherwise it returns None. tool_id must be in the range 0 to 5 inclusive.

All IDs are treated the same by the VM with regard to events, but the following IDs are pre-defined to make co-operation of tools easier:

sys.monitoring.DEBUGGER_ID = 0
sys.monitoring.COVERAGE_ID = 1
sys.monitoring.PROFILER_ID = 2
sys.monitoring.OPTIMIZER_ID = 5

Events

The following events are supported:

sys.monitoring.events.BRANCH_LEFT

A conditional branch goes left.

It is up to the tool to determine how to present "left" and "right" branches. There is no guarantee which branch is "left" and which is "right", except that it will be consistent for the duration of the program.

sys.monitoring.events.BRANCH_RIGHT

A conditional branch goes right.

sys.monitoring.events.CALL

A call in Python code (event occurs before the call).

sys.monitoring.events.C_RAISE

An exception raised from any callable, except for Python functions (event occurs after the exit).

sys.monitoring.events.C_RETURN

Return from any callable, except for Python functions (event occurs after the return).

sys.monitoring.events.EXCEPTION_HANDLED

An exception is handled.

sys.monitoring.events.INSTRUCTION

A VM instruction is about to be executed.

sys.monitoring.events.JUMP

An unconditional jump in the control flow graph is made.

sys.monitoring.events.LINE

An instruction is about to be executed that has a different line number from the preceding instruction.

sys.monitoring.events.PY_RESUME

Resumption of a Python function (for generator and coroutine functions), except for throw() calls.

sys.monitoring.events.PY_RETURN

Return from a Python function (occurs immediately before the return, the callee's frame will be on the stack).

sys.monitoring.events.PY_START

Start of a Python function (occurs immediately after the call, the callee's frame will be on the stack)

sys.monitoring.events.PY_THROW

A Python function is resumed by a throw() call.

sys.monitoring.events.PY_UNWIND

Exit from a Python function during exception unwinding. This includes exceptions raised directly within the function and that are allowed to continue to propagate.

sys.monitoring.events.PY_YIELD

Yield from a Python function (occurs immediately before the yield, the callee's frame will be on the stack).

sys.monitoring.events.RAISE

An exception is raised, except those that cause a STOP_ITERATION event.

sys.monitoring.events.RERAISE

An exception is re-raised, for example at the end of a finally block.

sys.monitoring.events.STOP_ITERATION

An artificial StopIteration is raised; see the STOP_ITERATION event.

More events may be added in the future.

These events are attributes of the sys.monitoring.events namespace. Each event is represented as a power-of-2 integer constant. To define a set of events, simply bitwise OR the individual events together. For example, to specify both PY_RETURN and PY_START events, use the expression PY_RETURN | PY_START.

sys.monitoring.events.NO_EVENTS

An alias for 0 so users can do explicit comparisons like:

if get_events(DEBUGGER_ID) == NO_EVENTS:
    ...

Setting this event deactivates all events.

Local events

Local events are associated with normal execution of the program and happen at clearly defined locations. All local events can be disabled. The local events are:

PY_START

PY_RESUME

PY_RETURN

PY_YIELD

CALL

LINE

INSTRUCTION

JUMP

BRANCH_LEFT

BRANCH_RIGHT

STOP_ITERATION

Deprecated event

BRANCH

The BRANCH event is deprecated in 3.14. Using BRANCH_LEFT and BRANCH_RIGHT events will give much better performance as they can be disabled independently.

Ancillary events

Ancillary events can be monitored like other events, but are controlled by another event:

C_RAISE

C_RETURN

The C_RETURN and C_RAISE events are controlled by the CALL event. C_RETURN and C_RAISE events will only be seen if the corresponding CALL event is being monitored.

Other events

Other events are not necessarily tied to a specific location in the program and cannot be individually disabled via DISABLE.

The other events that can be monitored are:

PY_THROW

PY_UNWIND

RAISE

EXCEPTION_HANDLED

The STOP_ITERATION event

PEP 380 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0380/#use-of-stopiteration-to-return-values] specifies that a StopIteration exception is raised when returning a value from a generator or coroutine. However, this is a very inefficient way to return a value, so some Python implementations, notably CPython 3.12+, do not raise an exception unless it would be visible to other code.

To allow tools to monitor for real exceptions without slowing down generators and coroutines, the STOP_ITERATION event is provided. STOP_ITERATION can be locally disabled, unlike RAISE.

Note that the STOP_ITERATION event and the RAISE event for a StopIteration exception are equivalent, and are treated as interchangeable when generating events. Implementations will favor STOP_ITERATION for performance reasons, but may generate a RAISE event with a StopIteration.

Turning events on and off

In order to monitor an event, it must be turned on and a corresponding callback must be registered. Events can be turned on or off by setting the events either globally and/or for a particular code object. An event will trigger only once, even if it is turned on both globally and locally.

Setting events globally

Events can be controlled globally by modifying the set of events being monitored.

sys.monitoring.get_events(tool_id: int, /) → int

Returns the int representing all the active events.

sys.monitoring.set_events(tool_id: int, event_set: int, /) → None

Activates all events which are set in event_set. Raises a ValueError if tool_id is not in use.

No events are active by default.

Per code object events

Events can also be controlled on a per code object basis. The functions defined below which accept a types.CodeType should be prepared to accept a look-alike object from functions which are not defined in Python (see Monitoring C API).

sys.monitoring.get_local_events(tool_id: int, code: CodeType, /) → int

Returns all the local events for code

sys.monitoring.set_local_events(tool_id: int, code: CodeType, event_set: int, /) → None

Activates all the local events for code which are set in event_set. Raises a ValueError if tool_id is not in use.

Disabling events

sys.monitoring.DISABLE

A special value that can be returned from a callback function to disable events for the current code location.

Local events can be disabled for a specific code location by returning sys.monitoring.DISABLE from a callback function. This does not change which events are set, or any other code locations for the same event.

Disabling events for specific locations is very important for high performance monitoring. For example, a program can be run under a debugger with no overhead if the debugger disables all monitoring except for a few breakpoints.

If DISABLE is returned by a callback for a global event, ValueError will be raised by the interpreter in a non-specific location (that is, no traceback will be provided).

sys.monitoring.restart_events() → None

Enable all the events that were disabled by sys.monitoring.DISABLE for all tools.

Registering callback functions

sys.monitoring.register_callback(tool_id: int, event: int, func: Callable | None, /) → Callable | None

Registers the callable func for the event with the given tool_id

If another callback was registered for the given tool_id and event, it is unregistered and returned. Otherwise register_callback() returns None.

Raises an auditing event sys.monitoring.register_callback with argument func.

Functions can be unregistered by calling sys.monitoring.register_callback(tool_id, event, None).

Callback functions can be registered and unregistered at any time.

Callbacks are called only once regardless if the event is turned on both globally and locally. As such, if an event could be turned on for both global and local events by your code then the callback needs to be written to handle either trigger.

Callback function arguments

sys.monitoring.MISSING

A special value that is passed to a callback function to indicate that there are no arguments to the call.

When an active event occurs, the registered callback function is called. Callback functions returning an object other than DISABLE will have no effect. Different events will provide the callback function with different arguments, as follows:

PY_START and PY_RESUME:

func(code: CodeType, instruction_offset: int) -> object

PY_RETURN and PY_YIELD:

func(code: CodeType, instruction_offset: int, retval: object) -> object

CALL, C_RAISE and C_RETURN (arg0 can be MISSING specifically):

func(code: CodeType, instruction_offset: int, callable: object, arg0: object) -> object

code represents the code object where the call is being made, while callable is the object that is about to be called (and thus triggered the event). If there are no arguments, arg0 is set to sys.monitoring.MISSING.

For instance methods, callable will be the function object as found on the class with arg0 set to the instance (i.e. the self argument to the method).

RAISE, RERAISE, EXCEPTION_HANDLED, PY_UNWIND, PY_THROW and STOP_ITERATION:

func(code: CodeType, instruction_offset: int, exception: BaseException) -> object

LINE:

func(code: CodeType, line_number: int) -> object

BRANCH_LEFT, BRANCH_RIGHT and JUMP:

func(code: CodeType, instruction_offset: int, destination_offset: int) -> object

Note that the destination_offset is where the code will next execute.

INSTRUCTION:

func(code: CodeType, instruction_offset: int) -> object

sysconfig --- Provide access to Python's configuration information

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Source code: Lib/sysconfig [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/sysconfig]

The sysconfig module provides access to Python's configuration information like the list of installation paths and the configuration variables relevant for the current platform.

Configuration variables

A Python distribution contains a Makefile and a pyconfig.h header file that are necessary to build both the Python binary itself and third-party C extensions compiled using setuptools.

sysconfig puts all variables found in these files in a dictionary that can be accessed using get_config_vars() or get_config_var().

Notice that on Windows, it's a much smaller set.

sysconfig.get_config_vars(*args)

With no arguments, return a dictionary of all configuration variables relevant for the current platform.

With arguments, return a list of values that result from looking up each argument in the configuration variable dictionary.

For each argument, if the value is not found, return None.

sysconfig.get_config_var(name)

Return the value of a single variable name. Equivalent to get_config_vars().get(name).

If name is not found, return None.

Example of usage:

>>> import sysconfig
>>> sysconfig.get_config_var('Py_ENABLE_SHARED')
0
>>> sysconfig.get_config_var('LIBDIR')
'/usr/local/lib'
>>> sysconfig.get_config_vars('AR', 'CXX')
['ar', 'g++']

Installation paths

Python uses an installation scheme that differs depending on the platform and on the installation options. These schemes are stored in sysconfig under unique identifiers based on the value returned by os.name. The schemes are used by package installers to determine where to copy files to.

Python currently supports nine schemes:

posix_prefix: scheme for POSIX platforms like Linux or macOS. This is the default scheme used when Python or a component is installed.

posix_home: scheme for POSIX platforms, when the home option is used. This scheme defines paths located under a specific home prefix.

posix_user: scheme for POSIX platforms, when the user option is used. This scheme defines paths located under the user's home directory (site.USER_BASE).

posix_venv: scheme for Python virtual environments on POSIX platforms; by default it is the same as posix_prefix.

nt: scheme for Windows. This is the default scheme used when Python or a component is installed.

nt_user: scheme for Windows, when the user option is used.

nt_venv: scheme for Python virtual environments on Windows; by default it is the same as nt.

venv: a scheme with values from either posix_venv or nt_venv depending on the platform Python runs on.

osx_framework_user: scheme for macOS, when the user option is used.

Each scheme is itself composed of a series of paths and each path has a unique identifier. Python currently uses eight paths:

stdlib: directory containing the standard Python library files that are not platform-specific.

platstdlib: directory containing the standard Python library files that are platform-specific.

platlib: directory for site-specific, platform-specific files.

purelib: directory for site-specific, non-platform-specific files ('pure' Python).

include: directory for non-platform-specific header files for the Python C-API.

platinclude: directory for platform-specific header files for the Python C-API.

scripts: directory for script files.

data: directory for data files.

User scheme

This scheme is designed to be the most convenient solution for users that don't have write permission to the global site-packages directory or don't want to install into it.

Files will be installed into subdirectories of site.USER_BASE (written as userbase hereafter). This scheme installs pure Python modules and extension modules in the same location (also known as site.USER_SITE).

posix_user

Path

Dossier d'installation

stdlib

userbase/lib/pythonX.Y

platstdlib

userbase/lib/pythonX.Y

platlib

userbase/lib/pythonX.Y/site-packages

purelib

userbase/lib/pythonX.Y/site-packages

include

userbase/include/pythonX.Y

scripts

userbase/bin

données

userbase

nt_user

Path

Dossier d'installation

stdlib

userbase\PythonXY

platstdlib

userbase\PythonXY

platlib

userbase\PythonXY\site-packages

purelib

userbase\PythonXY\site-packages

include

userbase\PythonXY\Include

scripts

userbase\PythonXY\Scripts

données

userbase

osx_framework_user

Path

Dossier d'installation

stdlib

userbase/lib/python

platstdlib

userbase/lib/python

platlib

userbase/lib/python/site-packages

purelib

userbase/lib/python/site-packages

include

userbase/include/pythonX.Y

scripts

userbase/bin

données

userbase

Home scheme

L’idée derrière le « schéma home » est que vous compilez et maintenez un espace personnel de modules Python. Le nom de ce schéma vient de l’idée du dossier « home » sur Unix, vu qu’il n’est pas rare pour un utilisateur UNIX d'agencer son dossier home avec la même disposition que /usr/ ou /usr/local/. Ce schéma peut être utilisé par n’importe qui, quel que soit le système d’exploitation.

posix_home

Path

Dossier d'installation

stdlib

home/lib/python

platstdlib

home/lib/python

platlib

home/lib/python

purelib

home/lib/python

include

home/include/python

platinclude

home/include/python

scripts

home/bin

données

home

Prefix scheme

Le schéma de préfixe est utile quand vous voulez une installation de Python pour faire la compilation/l’installation (c.-à-d. exécuter le script setup), mais utiliser les modules tiers d’une installation Python différente (ou quelque chose qui ressemble à une installation Python différente). Si cela vous semble inhabituel, ça l’est — c’est pourquoi les schémas user et home viennent avant. Cependant, il y a au moins deux cas connus où le schéma prefix est utile.

First, consider that many Linux distributions put Python in /usr, rather than the more traditional /usr/local. This is entirely appropriate, since in those cases Python is part of "the system" rather than a local add-on. However, if you are installing Python modules from source, you probably want them to go in /usr/local/lib/python2.X rather than /usr/lib/python2.X.

Another possibility is a network filesystem where the name used to write to a remote directory is different from the name used to read it: for example, the Python interpreter accessed as /usr/local/bin/python might search for modules in /usr/local/lib/python2.X, but those modules would have to be installed to, say, /mnt/@server/export/lib/python2.X.

posix_prefix

Path

Dossier d'installation

stdlib

prefix/lib/pythonX.Y

platstdlib

prefix/lib/pythonX.Y

platlib

prefix/lib/pythonX.Y/site-packages

purelib

prefix/lib/pythonX.Y/site-packages

include

prefix/include/pythonX.Y

platinclude

prefix/include/pythonX.Y

scripts

prefix/bin

données

prefix

nt

Path

Dossier d'installation

stdlib

prefix\Lib

platstdlib

prefix\Lib

platlib

prefix\Lib\site-packages

purelib

prefix\Lib\site-packages

include

prefix\Include

platinclude

prefix\Include

scripts

prefix\Scripts

données

prefix

Installation path functions

sysconfig provides some functions to determine these installation paths.

sysconfig.get_scheme_names()

Return a tuple containing all schemes currently supported in sysconfig.

sysconfig.get_default_scheme()

Return the default scheme name for the current platform.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10: This function was previously named _get_default_scheme() and considered an implementation detail.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: When Python runs from a virtual environment, the venv scheme is returned.

sysconfig.get_preferred_scheme(key)

Return a preferred scheme name for an installation layout specified by key.

key must be either "prefix", "home", or "user".

The return value is a scheme name listed in get_scheme_names(). It can be passed to sysconfig functions that take a scheme argument, such as get_paths().

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: When Python runs from a virtual environment and key="prefix", the venv scheme is returned.

sysconfig._get_preferred_schemes()

Return a dict containing preferred scheme names on the current platform. Python implementers and redistributors may add their preferred schemes to the _INSTALL_SCHEMES module-level global value, and modify this function to return those scheme names, to e.g. provide different schemes for system and language package managers to use, so packages installed by either do not mix with those by the other.

End users should not use this function, but get_default_scheme() and get_preferred_scheme() instead.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

sysconfig.get_path_names()

Return a tuple containing all path names currently supported in sysconfig.

sysconfig.get_path(name[, scheme[, vars[, expand]]])

Return an installation path corresponding to the path name, from the install scheme named scheme.

name has to be a value from the list returned by get_path_names().

sysconfig stores installation paths corresponding to each path name, for each platform, with variables to be expanded. For instance the stdlib path for the nt scheme is: {base}/Lib.

get_path() will use the variables returned by get_config_vars() to expand the path. All variables have default values for each platform so one may call this function and get the default value.

If scheme is provided, it must be a value from the list returned by get_scheme_names(). Otherwise, the default scheme for the current platform is used.

If vars is provided, it must be a dictionary of variables that will update the dictionary returned by get_config_vars().

If expand is set to False, the path will not be expanded using the variables.

If name is not found, raise a KeyError.

sysconfig.get_paths([scheme[, vars[, expand]]])

Return a dictionary containing all installation paths corresponding to an installation scheme. See get_path() for more information.

If scheme is not provided, will use the default scheme for the current platform.

If vars is provided, it must be a dictionary of variables that will update the dictionary used to expand the paths.

If expand is set to false, the paths will not be expanded.

If scheme is not an existing scheme, get_paths() will raise a KeyError.

Autres fonctions

sysconfig.get_python_version()

Return the MAJOR.MINOR Python version number as a string. Similar to '%d.%d' % sys.version_info[:2].

sysconfig.get_platform()

Return a string that identifies the current platform.

This is used mainly to distinguish platform-specific build directories and platform-specific built distributions. Typically includes the OS name and version and the architecture (as supplied by os.uname()), although the exact information included depends on the OS; e.g., on Linux, the kernel version isn't particularly important.

Exemples de valeurs renvoyées :

Windows:

win-amd64 (64-bit Windows on AMD64, aka x86_64, Intel64, and EM64T)

win-arm64 (64-bit Windows on ARM64, aka AArch64)

win32 (all others - specifically, sys.platform is returned)

POSIX based OS:

linux-x86_64

macosx-15.5-arm64

macosx-26.0-universal2 (macOS on Apple Silicon or Intel)

android-24-arm64_v8a

For other non-POSIX platforms, currently just returns sys.platform.

sysconfig.is_python_build()

Return True if the running Python interpreter was built from source and is being run from its built location, and not from a location resulting from e.g. running make install or installing via a binary installer.

sysconfig.parse_config_h(fp[, vars])

Parse a config.h-style file.

fp is a file-like object pointing to the config.h-like file.

A dictionary containing name/value pairs is returned. If an optional dictionary is passed in as the second argument, it is used instead of a new dictionary, and updated with the values read in the file.

sysconfig.get_config_h_filename()

Return the path of pyconfig.h.

sysconfig.get_makefile_filename()

Return the path of Makefile.

Command-line usage

You can use sysconfig as a script with Python's -m option:

$ python -m sysconfig
Platform: "macosx-10.4-i386"
Python version: "3.2"
Current installation scheme: "posix_prefix"

Paths:
        data = "/usr/local"
        include = "/Users/tarek/Dev/svn.python.org/py3k/Include"
        platinclude = "."
        platlib = "/usr/local/lib/python3.2/site-packages"
        platstdlib = "/usr/local/lib/python3.2"
        purelib = "/usr/local/lib/python3.2/site-packages"
        scripts = "/usr/local/bin"
        stdlib = "/usr/local/lib/python3.2"

Variables:
        AC_APPLE_UNIVERSAL_BUILD = "0"
        AIX_GENUINE_CPLUSPLUS = "0"
        AR = "ar"
        ARFLAGS = "rc"
        ...

This call will print in the standard output the information returned by get_platform(), get_python_version(), get_path() and get_config_vars().

builtins --- Built-in objects

This module provides direct access to all 'built-in' identifiers of Python; for example, builtins.open is the full name for the built-in function open().

Ce module n'est normalement pas accédé explicitement par la plupart des applications, mais peut être utile dans des modules qui exposent des objets de même nom qu'une valeur native, mais pour qui le natif de même nom est aussi nécessaire. Par exemple, dans un module qui voudrait implémenter une fonction open() autour de la fonction native open(), ce module peut être utilisé directement :

import builtins

def open(path):
    f = builtins.open(path, 'r')
    return UpperCaser(f)

class UpperCaser:
    '''Wrapper around a file that converts output to uppercase.'''

    def __init__(self, f):
        self._f = f

    def read(self, count=-1):
        return self._f.read(count).upper()

    # ...

Spécificité de l'implémentation: La plupart des modules ont __builtins__ dans leurs globales. La valeur de __builtins__ est classiquement soit ce module, soit la valeur de l'attribut __dict__ du module. Puisque c'est une spécificité de CPython, ce n'est peut-être pas utilisé par toutes les autres implémentations.

Voir aussi

Constantes natives

Exceptions natives

Fonctions natives

Types natifs

__main__ --- Top-level code environment

En Python, le nom __main__ a une fonction particulière. Il intervient dans deux cas :

c'est le nom de l'environnement d'exécution principal, ce qui donne lieu au test courant __name__ == '__main__' ;

c'est aussi le nom du fichier __main__.py dans les paquets Python.

Les deux sont liés aux modules Python, à la manière de s'en servir en tant qu'utilisateur et à la manière dont ils interagissent entre eux. Cette page contient des détails sur les modules Python. Si vous ne les avez jamais utilisés, commencez par la section qui leur est consacrée dans le tutoriel : Modules.

__name__ == '__main__'

Lorsqu'un module ou un paquet Python est importé, son attribut __name__ est défini à son nom, qui est la plupart du temps le nom du fichier qui le contient sans l'extension .py :

>>> import configparser
>>> configparser.__name__
'configparser'

Si le fichier fait partie d'un paquet, __name__ donne tout le chemin d'accès :

>>> from concurrent.futures import process
>>> process.__name__
'concurrent.futures.process'

En revanche, si le module est exécuté dans l'environnement d'exécution principal, la variable __name__ vaut '__main__'.

Qu'est-ce que l'« environnement d'exécution principal » ?

L'environnement principal a pour nom __main__. Il s'agit du premier module Python dont l'exécution a été demandée par l'utilisateur final. On le qualifie de principal car c'est lui qui importe tous les autres modules nécessités par le programme. On l'appelle parfois le point d'entrée de l'application.

L'environnement principal peut prendre diverses formes :

l'environnement d'une invite de commande interactive :

>>> __name__
'__main__'

le module passé directement en tant que fichier à la commande de l'interpréteur Python :

$ python helloworld.py
Hello, world!

le module ou paquet passé à l'interpréteur avec l'option -m :

$ python -m tarfile
usage: tarfile.py [-h] [-v] (...)

le code lu par l'interpréteur depuis l'entrée standard :

$ echo "import this" | python
The Zen of Python, by Tim Peters

Beautiful is better than ugly.
Explicit is better than implicit.
...

le code passé à l'interpréteur avec l'option -c :

$ python -c "import this"
The Zen of Python, by Tim Peters

Beautiful is better than ugly.
Explicit is better than implicit.
...

Dans chacun de ces cas, l'attribut __name__ du module principal est mis à '__main__'.

Un module peut donc savoir s'il est exécuté dans l'environnement principal en vérifiant son __name__, ce qui permet typiquement d'exécuter du code lorsque le module est initialisé d'une manière autre que l'importation :

if __name__ == '__main__':
    # Execute when the module is not initialized from an import statement.
    ...

Voir aussi

Pour plus de détails sur la manière dont __name__ est défini dans les divers cas, voir la section Modules dans le tutoriel.

Utilisation idiomatique

Il arrive qu'un module contienne du code qui ne doit s'exécuter que lorsque le module est utilisé comme script. On peut penser à l'analyse des arguments passés en ligne de commande, ou bien à la lecture de l'entrée standard. Il ne faudrait pas que ces opérations soient effectuées lorsque le module est importé depuis un autre module, comme pour les tests.

C'est dans ces situations que sert la construction if __name__ == '__main__'. Le code mis à l'intérieur du bloc n'est exécuté que si le module est dans l'environnement principal.

Putting as few statements as possible in the block below if __name__ == '__main__' can improve code clarity and correctness. Most often, a function named main encapsulates the program's primary behavior:

# echo.py

import shlex
import sys

def echo(phrase: str) -> None:
   """A dummy wrapper around print."""
   # for demonstration purposes, you can imagine that there is some
   # valuable and reusable logic inside this function
   print(phrase)

def main() -> int:
    """Echo the input arguments to standard output"""
    phrase = shlex.join(sys.argv)
    echo(phrase)
    return 0

if __name__ == '__main__':
    sys.exit(main())  # next section explains the use of sys.exit

Si, dans le module ci-dessus, le code de main était placé directement dans le if __name__ == '__main__', la variable phrase serait globale, et d'autres fonctions pourraient s'en servir par erreur à la place d'une variable locale. Encapsuler le code dans la fonction main évite cet ennui.

De plus, la fonction echo est elle-même séparée du reste, et on peut l'importer dans un autre module. Le fait d'importer echo.py définit les fonctions main et echo, mais n'en appelle aucune, puisque __name__ != '__main__'.

Considérations liées à l'empaquetage

Les fonctions main servent souvent à créer des outils qui s'exécutent en ligne de commande. Les scripts sont ajoutés au système à l'aide de points d'entrée, qui demandent à pip [https://pip.pypa.io/] de créer un exécutable. Il le fait en insérant un appel à la fonction à l'intérieur d'un modèle prédéfini où la valeur qu'elle renvoie est passée directement à sys.exit() :

sys.exit(main())

Puisque l'appel de main est encapsulé dans sys.exit(), main doit renvoyer une valeur qui convienne comme argument à sys.exit(), par exemple un code de retour sous forme d'entier. La valeur None est également acceptée, et c'est d'ailleurs celle que renvoie la fonction si elle se termine sans rencontrer d'instruction return.

By proactively following this convention ourselves, our module will have the same behavior when run directly (i.e. python echo.py) as it will have if we later package it as a console script entry-point in a pip-installable package.

En particulier, mieux vaut éviter de renvoyer une chaîne de caractères depuis la fonction main. En effet, si sys.exit() reçoit une chaîne, elle l'interprète comme un message d'erreur, qu'elle affiche sur sys.stderr avant de terminer le programme avec le code de retour 1 (erreur). L'exemple de echo.py ci-dessus montre la pratique recommandée.

Voir aussi

Le guide de l'empaquetage en Python [https://packaging.python.org/] (en anglais) contient plusieurs tutoriels et documents de référence autour de la distribution et de l'installation de paquets Python avec des outils modernes.

Le fichier __main__.py dans les paquets Python

Si vous n'êtes pas familier des paquets Python, lisez Les paquets dans le tutoriel. Un fichier __main__.py permet à un paquet de définir une interface en ligne de commande. Prenons pour exemple un paquet nommé bandclass :

bandclass
  ├── __init__.py
  ├── __main__.py
  └── student.py

Le fichier __main__.py qu'il contient s'exécute lorsque le paquet est appelé depuis la ligne de commande avec l'option -m de l'interpréteur, comme ceci :

$ python -m bandclass

Cette commande lance l'exécution de __main__.py. Il vous appartient, en tant que concepteur du paquet, de déterminer ce qu'elle doit faire. Dans notre exemple, elle pourrait rechercher un étudiant dans une base de données :

# bandclass/__main__.py

import sys
from .student import search_students

student_name = sys.argv[1] if len(sys.argv) >= 2 else ''
print(f'Found student: {search_students(student_name)}')

Remarquez l'importation from .student import search_students. Le point avant student sert à rendre le chemin student relatif à la position du module qui l'importe. Pour plus d'informations, voir Références internes dans un paquet dans la section Modules du tutoriel.

Utilisation idiomatique

The content of __main__.py typically isn't fenced with an if __name__ == '__main__' block. Instead, those files are kept short and import functions to execute from other modules. Those other modules can then be easily unit-tested and are properly reusable.

Cependant, un if __name__ == '__main__', s'il est présent dans le __main__.py, fonctionne correctement. En effet, si __main__.py est importé depuis autre module, son attribut __name__ contient, avant __main__, le nom du paquet dont il fait partie :

>>> import asyncio.__main__
>>> asyncio.__main__.__name__
'asyncio.__main__'

This won't work for __main__.py files in the root directory of a .zip file though. Hence, for consistency, a minimal __main__.py without a __name__ check is preferred.

Voir aussi

See venv for an example of a package with a minimal __main__.py in the standard library. It doesn't contain a if __name__ == '__main__' block. You can invoke it with python -m venv [directory].

La documentation du module runpy fournit une description complète de l'option -m de l'interpréteur.

Le module zipapp exécute des applications emballées dans une archive ZIP. Dans ce cas, l'interpréteur recherche un fichier __main__.py à la racine de l'archive.

import __main__

Quel que soit le module principal d'un programme, les autres modules peuvent accéder à l'espace de nommage dans lequel il s'exécute en important le module spécial __main__. Celui-ci ne correspond pas forcément à un fichier __main__.py. Il s'agit simplement du module qui a reçu le nom '__main__'.

Voici un exemple d'utilisation du module __main__ :

# namely.py

import __main__

def did_user_define_their_name():
    return 'my_name' in dir(__main__)

def print_user_name():
    if not did_user_define_their_name():
        raise ValueError('Define the variable `my_name`!')

    print(__main__.my_name)

Ce code s'utilise comme ceci :

# start.py

import sys

from namely import print_user_name

# my_name = "Dinsdale"

def main():
    try:
        print_user_name()
    except ValueError as ve:
        return str(ve)

if __name__ == "__main__":
    sys.exit(main())

Le programme ci-dessus donne la sortie :

$ python start.py
Define the variable `my_name`!

Son code de retour est 1, ce qui signifie une erreur. En supprimant la marque de commentaire en début de ligne my_name = "Dinsdale", le programme est corrigé, et renvoie au système le code 0 car il n'y a plus d'erreur :

$ python start.py
Dinsdale

On pourrait s'attendre à un problème au moment de l'importation de __main__ : cela ne provoque-t-il pas l'exécution anticipée du code de script sous if __name__ == '__main__' dans le module principal start ?

Python inserts an empty __main__ module in sys.modules at interpreter startup, and populates it by running top-level code. In our example this is the start module which runs line by line and imports namely. In turn, namely imports __main__ (which is really start). That's an import cycle! Fortunately, since the partially populated __main__ module is present in sys.modules, Python passes that to namely. See Special considerations for __main__ in the import system's reference for details on how this works.

L'interpréteur interactif est un autre environnement d'exécution principal possible. Toute variable qui y est définie appartient à l'espace de nommage __main__ :

>>> import namely
>>> namely.did_user_define_their_name()
False
>>> namely.print_user_name()
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
ValueError: Define the variable `my_name`!
>>> my_name = 'Jabberwocky'
>>> namely.did_user_define_their_name()
True
>>> namely.print_user_name()
Jabberwocky

Le module __main__ est notamment employé dans les implémentations de pdb et rlcompleter.

warnings --- Warning control

Code source: Lib/warnings.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/warnings.py]

Les messages d'avertissement sont généralement émis dans les situations où il est utile d'alerter l'utilisateur d'un problème dans un programme, mais qu'il n'est pas justifié de lever une exception et de le terminer. Par exemple, on peut vouloir émettre un avertissement lorsqu'un programme utilise un module obsolète.

Les développeurs Python émettent des avertissements en appelant la fonction warn() définie dans ce module. (Les développeurs C utilisent PyErr_WarnEx() ; voir Gestion des exceptions pour plus d'informations).

Les messages d'avertissement sont normalement écrits sur sys.stderr, mais leurs effets peuvent être modifiés, il est possible d'ignorer tous les avertissements ou au contraire les transformer en exceptions. L'effet des avertissements peut varier selon la catégorie d'avertissement, de son texte et d'où il est émis. Les répétitions du même avertissement depuis une même source sont généralement ignorées.

La gestion des avertissements se fait en deux étapes : premièrement, chaque fois qu'un avertissement est émis, le module détermine si un message doit être émis ou non ; ensuite, si un message doit être émis, il est formaté et affiché en utilisant une fonction qui peut être définie par l'utilisateur.

Un filtre (une séquence de règles) est utilisé pour décider si un message d'avertissement doit être émis ou non. Des règles peuvent être ajoutées au filtre en appelant filterwarnings() et remises à leur état par défaut en appelant resetwarnings().

L'affichage des messages d'avertissement se fait en appelant la fonction showwarning(), qui peut être redéfinie ; l'implémentation par défaut formate le message en appelant formatwarning(), qui peut également être réutilisée par une implémentation personnalisée.

Voir aussi

logging.captureWarnings() vous permet de gérer tous les avertissements avec l'infrastructure de journalisation standard.

Catégories d'avertissement

Il existe un certain nombre d'exceptions natives qui représentent des catégories d'avertissement. Cette catégorisation est utile pour filtrer les groupes d'avertissements.

Bien qu'il s'agisse techniquement d'exceptions, les exceptions natives sont documentées ici, parce qu'elles appartiennent conceptuellement au mécanisme des avertissements.

Le code utilisateur peut définir des catégories d'avertissement supplémentaires en héritant l'une des catégories d'avertissement standard. Une catégorie d'avertissement doit toujours hériter de la classe Warning.

Les classes de catégories d'avertissement suivantes sont actuellement définies :

Classe

Description

Warning

Il s'agit de la classe de base de toutes les classes de catégories d'avertissement. C'est une sous-classe de Exception.

UserWarning

Catégorie par défaut pour warn().

DeprecationWarning

Catégorie de base pour les avertissements sur les fonctionnalités obsolètes lorsque ces avertissements sont destinés à d'autres développeurs Python (ignorées par défaut, sauf si elles proviennent de __main__).

SyntaxWarning

Base category for warnings about dubious syntactic features (typically emitted when compiling Python source code, and hence may not be suppressed by runtime filters)

RuntimeWarning

Catégorie de base pour les avertissements concernant les fonctionnalités douteuses à l'exécution.

FutureWarning

Catégorie de base pour les avertissements concernant les fonctionnalités obsolètes lorsque ces avertissements sont destinés aux utilisateurs finaux des programmes écrits en Python.

PendingDeprecationWarning

Catégorie de base pour les avertissements concernant les fonctionnalités qui seront obsolètes dans le futur (ignorée par défaut).

ImportWarning

Catégorie de base pour les avertissements déclenchés lors de l'importation d'un module (ignoré par défaut).

UnicodeWarning

Catégorie de base pour les avertissements relatifs à Unicode.

BytesWarning

Catégorie de base pour les avertissements relatifs à bytes et bytearray.

ResourceWarning

Catégorie de base pour les avertissements relatifs à l'utilisation des ressources (ignorés par défaut).

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Avant, la différence entre DeprecationWarning et FutureWarning était que l'un était dédié aux fonctionnalités retirées, et l'autre aux fonctionnalités modifiées. La différence aujourd'hui est plutôt leur audience et la façon dont ils sont traités par les filtres d'avertissement par défaut.

Le filtre des avertissements

Le filtre des avertissements contrôle si les avertissements sont ignorés, affichés ou transformés en erreurs (ce qui lève une exception).

Conceptuellement, le filtre d'avertissements maintient une liste ordonnée d'entrées ; chaque avertissement est comparé à chaque entrée de la liste jusqu'à ce qu'une correspondance soit trouvée ; l'entrée détermine l'action à effectuer. Chaque entrée est un quintuplet de la forme (action, message, catégorie, module, lineno), où :

action est l'une des chaînes de caractères suivantes :

Valeur

Action

"default"

affiche la première occurrence des avertissements correspondants pour chaque emplacement (module + numéro de ligne) où l'avertissement est émis

"error"

transforme les avertissements correspondants en exceptions

"ignore"

ignore les avertissements correspondants

"always"

affiche toujours les avertissements correspondants

"all"

alias to "always"

"module"

affiche la première occurrence des avertissements correspondants pour chaque module où l'avertissement est émis (quel que soit le numéro de ligne)

"once"

n'affiche que la première occurrence des avertissements correspondants, quel que soit l'endroit où ils se trouvent

message is a string containing a regular expression that the start of the warning message must match, case-insensitively. In -W and PYTHONWARNINGS, message is a literal string that the start of the warning message must contain (case-insensitively), ignoring any whitespace at the start or end of message.

category est une classe (une sous-classe de Warning) dont la catégorie d'avertissement doit être une sous-classe afin de correspondre.

module is a string containing a regular expression that the start of the fully qualified module name must match, case-sensitively. In -W and PYTHONWARNINGS, module is a literal string that the fully qualified module name must be equal to (case-sensitively), ignoring any whitespace at the start or end of module.

lineno est le numéro de ligne d'où l'avertissement doit provenir, ou 0 pour correspondre à tous les numéros de ligne.

Puisque que la classe Warning hérite de la classe Exception, pour transformer un avertissement en erreur, il suffit de lever category(message).

Si un avertissement est signalé et ne correspond à aucun filtre enregistré, l'action default est appliquée (d'où son nom).

Repeated Warning Suppression Criteria

The filters that suppress repeated warnings apply the following criteria to determine if a warning is considered a repeat:

"default": A warning is considered a repeat only if the (message, category, module, lineno) are all the same.

"module": A warning is considered a repeat if the (message, category, module) are the same, ignoring the line number.

"once": A warning is considered a repeat if the (message, category) are the same, ignoring the module and line number.

Rédaction de filtres d'avertissement

The warnings filter is initialized by -W options passed to the Python interpreter command line and the PYTHONWARNINGS environment variable. The interpreter saves the arguments for all supplied entries without interpretation in sys.warnoptions; the warnings module parses these when it is first imported (invalid options are ignored, after printing a message to sys.stderr).

Les filtres d'avertissement individuels sont décrits sous la forme d'une séquence de champs séparés par des deux-points :

action:message:category:module:line

La signification de chacun de ces champs est décrite dans Le filtre des avertissements. Plusieurs filtres peuvent être écrits en une seule ligne (comme pour PYTHONWARNINGS), ils sont dans ce cas séparés par des virgules, et les filtres listés plus en dernier ont priorité sur ceux qui les précèdent (car ils sont appliqués de gauche à droite, et les filtres les plus récemment appliqués ont priorité sur les précédents).

Les filtres d'avertissement couramment utilisés s'appliquent à tous les avertissements, aux avertissements d'une catégorie particulière ou aux avertissements émis par certains modules ou paquets. Quelques exemples :

default                      # Show all warnings (even those ignored by default)
ignore                       # Ignore all warnings
error                        # Convert all warnings to errors
error::ResourceWarning       # Treat ResourceWarning messages as errors
default::DeprecationWarning  # Show DeprecationWarning messages
ignore,default:::mymodule    # Only report warnings triggered by "mymodule"
error:::mymodule             # Convert warnings to errors in "mymodule"

Filtre d'avertissement par défaut

Par défaut, Python installe plusieurs filtres d'avertissement, qui peuvent être outrepassés par l'option -W en ligne de commande, la variable d'environnement PYTHONWARNINGS et les appels à filterwarnings().

Dans les versions standard publiées de Python, le filtre d'avertissement par défaut a les entrées suivantes (par ordre de priorité) :

default::DeprecationWarning:__main__
ignore::DeprecationWarning
ignore::PendingDeprecationWarning
ignore::ImportWarning
ignore::ResourceWarning

Dans les versions de débogage, la liste des filtres d'avertissement par défaut est vide.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: DeprecationWarning est maintenant ignoré par défaut en plus de PendingDeprecationWarning.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: DeprecationWarning est à nouveau affiché par défaut lorsqu'il provient directement de __main__.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: BytesWarning n'apparaît plus dans la liste de filtres par défaut et est configuré via sys.warnoptions lorsque l'option -b est donnée deux fois.

Outrepasser le filtre par défaut

Les développeurs d'applications écrites en Python peuvent souhaiter cacher tous les avertissements Python à leurs utilisateurs, et ne les afficher que lorsqu'ils exécutent des tests ou travaillent sur l'application. L'attribut sys.warnoptions utilisé pour passer les configurations de filtre à l'interpréteur peut être utilisé comme marqueur pour indiquer si les avertissements doivent être ou non désactivés :

import sys

if not sys.warnoptions:
    import warnings
    warnings.simplefilter("ignore")

Les développeurs d'exécuteurs de test pour le code Python sont invités à s'assurer que tous les avertissements sont affichés par défaut pour le code en cours de test, en utilisant par exemple :

import sys

if not sys.warnoptions:
    import os, warnings
    warnings.simplefilter("default") # Change the filter in this process
    os.environ["PYTHONWARNINGS"] = "default" # Also affect subprocesses

Enfin, les développeurs d'interpréteurs de commandes interactifs qui exécutent du code utilisateur dans un espace de nommage autre que __main__ sont invités à s'assurer que les messages DeprecationWarning sont rendus visibles par défaut, en utilisant le code suivant (où user_ns est le module utilisé pour exécuter le code entré interactivement) :

import warnings
warnings.filterwarnings("default", category=DeprecationWarning,
                                   module=user_ns.get("__name__"))

Suppression temporaire des avertissements

Si vous utilisez un code dont vous savez qu'il va déclencher un avertissement, comme une fonction obsolète, mais que vous ne voulez pas voir l'avertissement (même si les avertissements ont été explicitement configurés via la ligne de commande), alors il est possible de supprimer l'avertissement en utilisant le gestionnaire de contexte catch_warnings :

import warnings

def fxn():
    warnings.warn("deprecated", DeprecationWarning)

with warnings.catch_warnings():
    warnings.simplefilter("ignore")
    fxn()

While within the context manager all warnings will simply be ignored. This allows you to use known-deprecated code without having to see the warning while not suppressing the warning for other code that might not be aware of its use of deprecated code.

Note

See Concurrent safety of Context Managers for details on the concurrency-safety of the catch_warnings context manager when used in programs using multiple threads or async functions.

Tester les avertissements

Pour tester les avertissements générés par le code, utilisez le gestionnaire de contexte catch_warnings. Avec lui, vous pouvez temporairement modifier le filtre d'avertissements pour faciliter votre test. Par exemple, procédez comme suit pour capturer tous les avertissements levés à vérifier :

import warnings

def fxn():
    warnings.warn("deprecated", DeprecationWarning)

with warnings.catch_warnings(record=True) as w:
    # Cause all warnings to always be triggered.
    warnings.simplefilter("always")
    # Trigger a warning.
    fxn()
    # Verify some things
    assert len(w) == 1
    assert issubclass(w[-1].category, DeprecationWarning)
    assert "deprecated" in str(w[-1].message)

Vous pouvez aussi faire en sorte que tous les avertissements soient des exceptions en utilisant error au lieu de always. Il faut savoir que si un avertissement a déjà été émis à cause d'une règle once ou default, quel que soit le filtre activé, l'avertissement ne sera pas revu à moins que le registre des avertissements lié à l'avertissement ait été vidé.

Once the context manager exits, the warnings filter is restored to its state when the context was entered. This prevents tests from changing the warnings filter in unexpected ways between tests and leading to indeterminate test results.

Note

See Concurrent safety of Context Managers for details on the concurrency-safety of the catch_warnings context manager when used in programs using multiple threads or async functions.

Lorsque vous testez plusieurs opérations qui provoquent le même type d'avertissement, il est important de les tester d'une manière qui confirme que chaque opération provoque un nouvel avertissement (par exemple, définissez les avertissements comme exceptions et vérifiez que les opérations provoquent des exceptions, vérifiez que la longueur de la liste des avertissements continue à augmenter après chaque opération, ou bien supprimez les entrées précédentes de la liste des avertissements avant chaque nouvelle opération).

Mise à jour du code pour les nouvelles versions des dépendances

Les catégories d'avertissement qui intéressent principalement les développeurs Python (plutôt que les utilisateurs finaux d'applications écrites en Python) sont ignorées par défaut.

Notamment, cette liste "ignorés par défaut" inclut DeprecationWarning (pour chaque module sauf __main__), ce qui signifie que les développeurs doivent s'assurer de tester leur code avec des avertissements généralement ignorés rendus visibles afin de recevoir des notifications rapides des changements d'API (que ce soit dans la bibliothèque standard ou les paquets tiers).

Dans le cas idéal, le code dispose d'une suite de tests appropriée, et le testeur se charge d'activer implicitement tous les avertissements lors de l'exécution des tests (le testeur fourni par le module unittest le fait).

Dans des cas moins idéaux, l'utilisation de d'interfaces obsolète peut être testé en passant -Wd à l'interpréteur Python (c'est une abréviation pour -W default) ou en définissant PYTHONWARNINGS=default dans l'environnement. Ceci permet la gestion par défaut de tous les avertissements, y compris ceux qui sont ignorés par défaut. Pour changer l'action prise pour les avertissements rencontrés, vous pouvez changer quel argument est passé à -W (par exemple -W error). Voir l'option -W pour plus de détails sur ce qui est possible.

Fonctions disponibles

warnings.warn(message, category=None, stacklevel=1, source=None, *, skip_file_prefixes=())

Émet, ignore, ou transforme en exception un avertissement. L'argument category, s'il est donné, doit être une classe de warning category class ; et vaut par défaut UserWarning. Aussi message peut être une instance de Warning, auquel cas category sera ignoré et message.__class__ sera utilisé. Dans ce cas, le texte du message sera str(message). Cette fonction lève une exception si cet avertissement particulier émis est transformé en erreur par le filtre des avertissements. L'argument stacklevel peut être utilisé par les fonctions wrapper écrites en Python, comme ceci :

def deprecated_api(message):
    warnings.warn(message, DeprecationWarning, stacklevel=2)

This makes the warning refer to deprecated_api's caller, rather than to the source of deprecated_api itself (since the latter would defeat the purpose of the warning message).

The skip_file_prefixes keyword argument can be used to indicate which stack frames are ignored when counting stack levels. This can be useful when you want the warning to always appear at call sites outside of a package when a constant stacklevel does not fit all call paths or is otherwise challenging to maintain. If supplied, it must be a tuple of strings. When prefixes are supplied, stacklevel is implicitly overridden to be max(2, stacklevel). To cause a warning to be attributed to the caller from outside of the current package you might write:

# example/lower.py
_warn_skips = (os.path.dirname(__file__),)

def one_way(r_luxury_yacht=None, t_wobbler_mangrove=None):
    if r_luxury_yacht:
        warnings.warn("Please migrate to t_wobbler_mangrove=.",
                      skip_file_prefixes=_warn_skips)

# example/higher.py
from . import lower

def another_way(**kw):
    lower.one_way(**kw)

This makes the warning refer to both the example.lower.one_way() and example.higher.another_way() call sites only from calling code living outside of example package.

source, s'il est fourni, est l'objet détruit qui a émis un ResourceWarning.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Ajout du paramètre source.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added skip_file_prefixes.

warnings.warn_explicit(message, category, filename, lineno, module=None, registry=None, module_globals=None, source=None)

This is a low-level interface to the functionality of warn(), passing in explicitly the message, category, filename and line number, and optionally other arguments. message must be a string and category a subclass of Warning or message may be a Warning instance, in which case category will be ignored.

module, if supplied, should be the module name. If no module is passed, the filename with .py stripped is used.

registry, if supplied, should be the __warningregistry__ dictionary of the module. If no registry is passed, each warning is treated as the first occurrence, that is, filter actions "default", "module" and "once" are handled as "always".

module_globals, s'il est fourni, doit être l'espace de nommage global utilisé par le code pour lequel l'avertissement est émis. (Cet argument est utilisé pour afficher les sources des modules trouvés dans les fichiers zip ou d'autres sources d'importation hors du système de fichiers).

source, s'il est fourni, est l'objet détruit qui a émis un ResourceWarning.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Ajout du paramètre source.

warnings.showwarning(message, category, filename, lineno, file=None, line=None)

Écrit un avertissement dans un fichier. L'implémentation par défaut appelle formatwarning(message, category, filename, lineno, line) et écrit la chaîne résultante dans file, qui par défaut est sys.stderr. Vous pouvez remplacer cette fonction par n'importe quel appelable en l'affectant à warnings.showwarning. line est une ligne de code source à inclure dans le message d'avertissement ; si line n'est pas fourni, showwarning() essaiera de lire la ligne spécifiée par filename et lineno.

warnings.formatwarning(message, category, filename, lineno, line=None)

Formate un avertissement de la manière standard. Ceci renvoie une chaîne pouvant contenir des retours à la ligne se termine par un retour à la ligne. line est une ligne de code source à inclure dans le message d'avertissement ; si line n'est pas fourni, formatwarning() essaiera de lire la ligne spécifiée par filename et lineno.

warnings.filterwarnings(action, message='', category=Warning, module='', lineno=0, append=False)

Insère une entrée dans la liste de warning filter specifications. L'entrée est insérée à l'avant par défaut ; si append est vrai, elle est insérée à la fin. Il vérifie le type des arguments, compile les expressions régulières message et module, et les insère sous forme de n-uplet dans la liste des filtres d'avertissements. Les entrées plus proches du début de la liste ont priorité sur les entrées plus loin dans la liste. Les arguments omis ont par défaut une valeur qui correspond à tout.

warnings.simplefilter(action, category=Warning, lineno=0, append=False)

Insère une entrée simple dans la liste de spécifications du filtre d'avertissements. La signification des paramètres de fonction est la même que pour filterwarnings(), mais les expressions régulières ne sont pas nécessaires car le filtre inséré correspond toujours à n'importe quel message dans n'importe quel module tant que la catégorie et le numéro de ligne correspondent.

warnings.resetwarnings()

Réinitialise le filtre des avertissements. Ceci supprime l'effet de tous les appels précédents à filterwarnings(), y compris celui de l'option -W des options de ligne de commande et des appels à simplefilter().

@warnings.deprecated(msg, *, category=DeprecationWarning, stacklevel=1)

Decorator to indicate that a class, function or overload is deprecated.

When this decorator is applied to an object, deprecation warnings may be emitted at runtime when the object is used. static type checkers will also generate a diagnostic on usage of the deprecated object.

Utilisation :

from warnings import deprecated
from typing import overload

@deprecated("Use B instead")
class A:
    pass

@deprecated("Use g instead")
def f():
    pass

@overload
@deprecated("int support is deprecated")
def g(x: int) -> int: ...
@overload
def g(x: str) -> int: ...

The warning specified by category will be emitted at runtime on use of deprecated objects. For functions, that happens on calls; for classes, on instantiation and on creation of subclasses. If the category is None, no warning is emitted at runtime. The stacklevel determines where the warning is emitted. If it is 1 (the default), the warning is emitted at the direct caller of the deprecated object; if it is higher, it is emitted further up the stack. Static type checker behavior is not affected by the category and stacklevel arguments.

The deprecation message passed to the decorator is saved in the __deprecated__ attribute on the decorated object. If applied to an overload, the decorator must be after the @~typing.overload decorator for the attribute to exist on the overload as returned by typing.get_overloads().

Ajouté dans la version 3.13: See PEP 702 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0702/].

Gestionnaires de contexte disponibles

class warnings.catch_warnings(*, record=False, module=None, action=None, category=Warning, lineno=0, append=False)

Un gestionnaire de contexte qui copie et, à la sortie, restaure le filtre des avertissements et la fonction showwarning(). Si l'argument record est False (par défaut), le gestionnaire de contexte retourne None en entrant. Si record est True, une liste est renvoyée qui est progressivement remplie d'objets comme vus par une fonction custom showwarning' (qui supprime également la sortie vers ``sys.stdout`()). Chaque objet de la liste a des attributs avec les mêmes noms que les arguments de showwarning().

The module argument takes a module that will be used instead of the module returned when you import warnings whose filter will be protected. This argument exists primarily for testing the warnings module itself.

If the action argument is not None, the remaining arguments are passed to simplefilter() as if it were called immediately on entering the context.

See Le filtre des avertissements for the meaning of the category and lineno parameters.

Note

See Concurrent safety of Context Managers for details on the concurrency-safety of the catch_warnings context manager when used in programs using multiple threads or async functions.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added the action, category, lineno, and append parameters.

Concurrent safety of Context Managers

The behavior of catch_warnings context manager depends on the sys.flags.context_aware_warnings flag. If the flag is true, the context manager behaves in a concurrent-safe fashion and otherwise not. Concurrent-safe means that it is both thread-safe and safe to use within asyncio coroutines and tasks. Being thread-safe means that behavior is predictable in a multi-threaded program. The flag defaults to true for free-threaded builds and false otherwise.

If the context_aware_warnings flag is false, then catch_warnings will modify the global attributes of the warnings module. This is not safe if used within a concurrent program (using multiple threads or using asyncio coroutines). For example, if two or more threads use the catch_warnings class at the same time, the behavior is undefined.

If the flag is true, catch_warnings will not modify global attributes and will instead use a ContextVar to store the newly established warning filtering state. A context variable provides thread-local storage and it makes the use of catch_warnings thread-safe.

The record parameter of the context handler also behaves differently depending on the value of the flag. When record is true and the flag is false, the context manager works by replacing and then later restoring the module's showwarning() function. That is not concurrent-safe.

When record is true and the flag is true, the showwarning() function is not replaced. Instead, the recording status is indicated by an internal property in the context variable. In this case, the showwarning() function will not be restored when exiting the context handler.

The context_aware_warnings flag can be set the -X context_aware_warnings command-line option or by the PYTHON_CONTEXT_AWARE_WARNINGS environment variable.

Note

It is likely that most programs that desire thread-safe behaviour of the warnings module will also want to set the thread_inherit_context flag to true. That flag causes threads created by threading.Thread to start with a copy of the context variables from the thread starting it. When true, the context established by catch_warnings in one thread will also apply to new threads started by it. If false, new threads will start with an empty warnings context variable, meaning that any filtering that was established by a catch_warnings context manager will no longer be active.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Added the sys.flags.context_aware_warnings flag and the use of a context variable for catch_warnings if the flag is true. Previous versions of Python acted as if the flag was always set to false.

dataclasses — Classes de données

Code source : Lib/dataclasses.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/dataclasses.py]

Ce module fournit un décorateur et des fonctions pour générer automatiquement les méthodes spéciales comme __init__() et __repr__() dans les classes définies par l’utilisateur. Ce mécanisme a été décrit dans la PEP 557 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0557/].

Les variables membres à utiliser dans ces méthodes générées sont définies en utilisant les annotations de type PEP 526 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/]. Par exemple :

from dataclasses import dataclass

@dataclass
class InventoryItem:
    """Class for keeping track of an item in inventory."""
    name: str
    unit_price: float
    quantity_on_hand: int = 0

    def total_cost(self) -> float:
        return self.unit_price * self.quantity_on_hand

will add, among other things, a __init__() that looks like:

def __init__(self, name: str, unit_price: float, quantity_on_hand: int = 0):
    self.name = name
    self.unit_price = unit_price
    self.quantity_on_hand = quantity_on_hand

Note that this method is automatically added to the class: it is not directly specified in the InventoryItem definition shown above.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Classe de données

@dataclasses.dataclass(*, init=True, repr=True, eq=True, order=False, unsafe_hash=False, frozen=False, match_args=True, kw_only=False, slots=False, weakref_slot=False)

This function is a decorator that is used to add generated special methods to classes, as described below.

The @dataclass decorator examines the class to find fields. A field is defined as a class variable that has a type annotation. With two exceptions described below, nothing in @dataclass examines the type specified in the variable annotation.

L’ordre des paramètres des méthodes générées est celui d’apparition des champs dans la définition de la classe.

The @dataclass decorator will add various "dunder" methods to the class, described below. If any of the added methods already exist in the class, the behavior depends on the parameter, as documented below. The decorator returns the same class that it is called on; no new class is created.

If @dataclass is used just as a simple decorator with no parameters, it acts as if it has the default values documented in this signature. That is, these three uses of @dataclass are equivalent:

@dataclass
class C:
    ...

@dataclass()
class C:
    ...

@dataclass(init=True, repr=True, eq=True, order=False, unsafe_hash=False, frozen=False,
           match_args=True, kw_only=False, slots=False, weakref_slot=False)
class C:
    ...

The parameters to @dataclass are:

init: If true (the default), a __init__() method will be generated.

If the class already defines __init__(), this parameter is ignored.

repr: If true (the default), a __repr__() method will be generated. The generated repr string will have the class name and the name and repr of each field, in the order they are defined in the class. Fields that are marked as being excluded from the repr are not included. For example: InventoryItem(name='widget', unit_price=3.0, quantity_on_hand=10).

If the class already defines __repr__(), this parameter is ignored.

eq: If true (the default), an __eq__() method will be generated. This method compares the class as if it were a tuple of its fields, in order. Both instances in the comparison must be of the identical type.

If the class already defines __eq__(), this parameter is ignored.

order: If true (the default is False), __lt__(), __le__(), __gt__(), and __ge__() methods will be generated. These compare the class as if it were a tuple of its fields, in order. Both instances in the comparison must be of the identical type. If order is true and eq is false, a ValueError is raised.

If the class already defines any of __lt__(), __le__(), __gt__(), or __ge__(), then TypeError is raised.

unsafe_hash: If true, force dataclasses to create a __hash__() method, even though it may not be safe to do so. Otherwise, generate a __hash__() method according to how eq and frozen are set. The default value is False.

__hash__() is used by built-in hash(), and when objects are added to hashed collections such as dictionaries and sets. Having a __hash__() implies that instances of the class are immutable. Mutability is a complicated property that depends on the programmer's intent, the existence and behavior of __eq__(), and the values of the eq and frozen flags in the @dataclass decorator.

By default, @dataclass will not implicitly add a __hash__() method unless it is safe to do so. Neither will it add or change an existing explicitly defined __hash__() method. Setting the class attribute __hash__ = None has a specific meaning to Python, as described in the __hash__() documentation.

If __hash__() is not explicitly defined, or if it is set to None, then @dataclass may add an implicit __hash__() method. Although not recommended, you can force @dataclass to create a __hash__() method with unsafe_hash=True. This might be the case if your class is logically immutable but can still be mutated. This is a specialized use case and should be considered carefully.

Here are the rules governing implicit creation of a __hash__() method. Note that you cannot both have an explicit __hash__() method in your dataclass and set unsafe_hash=True; this will result in a TypeError.

If eq and frozen are both true, by default @dataclass will generate a __hash__() method for you. If eq is true and frozen is false, __hash__() will be set to None, marking it unhashable (which it is, since it is mutable). If eq is false, __hash__() will be left untouched meaning the __hash__() method of the superclass will be used (if the superclass is object, this means it will fall back to id-based hashing).

frozen: If true (the default is False), assigning to fields will generate an exception. This emulates read-only frozen instances. See the discussion below.

If __setattr__() or __delattr__() is defined in the class and frozen is true, then TypeError is raised.

match_args: If true (the default is True), the __match_args__ tuple will be created from the list of non keyword-only parameters to the generated __init__() method (even if __init__() is not generated, see above). If false, or if __match_args__ is already defined in the class, then __match_args__ will not be generated.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

kw_only: If true (the default value is False), then all fields will be marked as keyword-only. If a field is marked as keyword-only, then the only effect is that the __init__() parameter generated from a keyword-only field must be specified with a keyword when __init__() is called. See the parameter glossary entry for details. Also see the KW_ONLY section.

Keyword-only fields are not included in __match_args__.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

slots: If true (the default is False), __slots__ attribute will be generated and new class will be returned instead of the original one. If __slots__ is already defined in the class, then TypeError is raised.

Avertissement

Passing parameters to a base class __init_subclass__() when using slots=True will result in a TypeError. Either use __init_subclass__ with no parameters or use default values as a workaround. See gh-91126 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91126] for full details.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: If a field name is already included in the __slots__ of a base class, it will not be included in the generated __slots__ to prevent overriding them. Therefore, do not use __slots__ to retrieve the field names of a dataclass. Use fields() instead. To be able to determine inherited slots, base class __slots__ may be any iterable, but not an iterator.

weakref_slot: If true (the default is False), add a slot named "__weakref__", which is required to make an instance weakref-able. It is an error to specify weakref_slot=True without also specifying slots=True.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

Les champs peuvent éventuellement préciser une valeur par défaut, en utilisant la syntaxe Python normale :

@dataclass
class C:
    a: int       # 'a' has no default value
    b: int = 0   # assign a default value for 'b'

In this example, both a and b will be included in the added __init__() method, which will be defined as:

def __init__(self, a: int, b: int = 0):

Une TypeError est levée si un champ sans valeur par défaut est défini après un champ avec une valeur par défaut. C’est le cas que ce soit dans une seule classe ou si c’est le résultat d’un héritage de classes.

dataclasses.field(*, default=MISSING, default_factory=MISSING, init=True, repr=True, hash=None, compare=True, metadata=None, kw_only=MISSING, doc=None)

For common and simple use cases, no other functionality is required. There are, however, some dataclass features that require additional per-field information. To satisfy this need for additional information, you can replace the default field value with a call to the provided field() function. For example:

@dataclass
class C:
    mylist: list[int] = field(default_factory=list)

c = C()
c.mylist += [1, 2, 3]

Comme le montre la signature, la constante MISSING est une valeur sentinelle pour déterminer si des paramètres ont été fournis par l'utilisateur. None ne conviendrait pas puisque c'est une valeur avec un sens qui peut être différent pour certains paramètres. La sentinelle MISSING est interne au module et ne doit pas être utilisée dans vos programmes.

The parameters to field() are:

default: If provided, this will be the default value for this field. This is needed because the field() call itself replaces the normal position of the default value.

default_factory: If provided, it must be a zero-argument callable that will be called when a default value is needed for this field. Among other purposes, this can be used to specify fields with mutable default values, as discussed below. It is an error to specify both default and default_factory.

init: If true (the default), this field is included as a parameter to the generated __init__() method.

repr: If true (the default), this field is included in the string returned by the generated __repr__() method.

hash: This can be a bool or None. If true, this field is included in the generated __hash__() method. If false, this field is excluded from the generated __hash__(). If None (the default), use the value of compare: this would normally be the expected behavior, since a field should be included in the hash if it's used for comparisons. Setting this value to anything other than None is discouraged.

Cependant, une raison légitime de mettre hash à False alors que compare est à True est la concourance de trois facteurs : le champ est coûteux à hacher ; il est nécessaire pour les comparaisons d'égalité ; et il y a déjà d'autres champs qui participent au hachage des instances. À ce moment, on peut alors se passer du champ dans le hachage tout en le faisant participer aux comparaisons.

compare: If true (the default), this field is included in the generated equality and comparison methods (__eq__(), __gt__(), et al.).

metadata: This can be a mapping or None. None is treated as an empty dict. This value is wrapped in MappingProxyType() to make it read-only, and exposed on the Field object. It is not used at all by Data Classes, and is provided as a third-party extension mechanism. Multiple third-parties can each have their own key, to use as a namespace in the metadata.

kw_only: If true, this field will be marked as keyword-only. This is used when the generated __init__() method's parameters are computed.

Keyword-only fields are also not included in __match_args__.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

doc: optional docstring for this field.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

If the default value of a field is specified by a call to field(), then the class attribute for this field will be replaced by the specified default value. If default is not provided, then the class attribute will be deleted. The intent is that after the @dataclass decorator runs, the class attributes will all contain the default values for the fields, just as if the default value itself were specified. For example, after:

@dataclass
class C:
    x: int
    y: int = field(repr=False)
    z: int = field(repr=False, default=10)
    t: int = 20

The class attribute C.z will be 10, the class attribute C.t will be 20, and the class attributes C.x and C.y will not be set.

class dataclasses.Field

Field objects describe each defined field. These objects are created internally, and are returned by the fields() module-level method (see below). Users should never instantiate a Field object directly. Its documented attributes are:

name: The name of the field.

type: The type of the field.

default, default_factory, init, repr, hash, compare, metadata, and kw_only have the identical meaning and values as they do in the field() function.

D'autres attributs peuvent exister, mais ils sont privés et ne sont pas censés être inspectés. Le code ne doit jamais reposer sur eux.

class dataclasses.InitVar

InitVar[T] type annotations describe variables that are init-only. Fields annotated with InitVar are considered pseudo-fields, and thus are neither returned by the fields() function nor used in any way except adding them as parameters to __init__() and an optional __post_init__().

dataclasses.fields(class_or_instance)

Renvoie un n-uplet d'objets Field correspondant aux champs de l'argument, à l'exclusion des pseudo-champs ClassVar ou InitVar. L'argument peut être soit une classe de données, soit une instance d'une telle classe ; si ce n'est pas le cas, une exception TypeError est levée.

dataclasses.asdict(obj, *, dict_factory=dict)

Converts the dataclass obj to a dict (by using the factory function dict_factory). Each dataclass is converted to a dict of its fields, as name: value pairs. dataclasses, dicts, lists, and tuples are recursed into. Other objects are copied with copy.deepcopy().

Example of using asdict() on nested dataclasses:

@dataclass
class Point:
     x: int
     y: int

@dataclass
class C:
     mylist: list[Point]

p = Point(10, 20)
assert asdict(p) == {'x': 10, 'y': 20}

c = C([Point(0, 0), Point(10, 4)])
assert asdict(c) == {'mylist': [{'x': 0, 'y': 0}, {'x': 10, 'y': 4}]}

Pour créer une copie superficielle, la solution de contournement suivante peut être utilisée :

{field.name: getattr(obj, field.name) for field in fields(obj)}

asdict() raises TypeError if obj is not a dataclass instance.

dataclasses.astuple(obj, *, tuple_factory=tuple)

Converts the dataclass obj to a tuple (by using the factory function tuple_factory). Each dataclass is converted to a tuple of its field values. dataclasses, dicts, lists, and tuples are recursed into. Other objects are copied with copy.deepcopy().

Pour continuer l'exemple précédent :

assert astuple(p) == (10, 20)
assert astuple(c) == ([(0, 0), (10, 4)],)

Pour créer une copie superficielle, la solution de contournement suivante peut être utilisée :

tuple(getattr(obj, field.name) for field in dataclasses.fields(obj))

astuple() raises TypeError if obj is not a dataclass instance.

dataclasses.make_dataclass(cls_name, fields, *, bases=(), namespace=None, init=True, repr=True, eq=True, order=False, unsafe_hash=False, frozen=False, match_args=True, kw_only=False, slots=False, weakref_slot=False, module=None, decorator=dataclass)

Creates a new dataclass with name cls_name, fields as defined in fields, base classes as given in bases, and initialized with a namespace as given in namespace. fields is an iterable whose elements are each either name, (name, type), or (name, type, Field). If just name is supplied, typing.Any is used for type. The values of init, repr, eq, order, unsafe_hash, frozen, match_args, kw_only, slots, and weakref_slot have the same meaning as they do in @dataclass.

If module is defined, the __module__ attribute of the dataclass is set to that value. By default, it is set to the module name of the caller.

The decorator parameter is a callable that will be used to create the dataclass. It should take the class object as a first argument and the same keyword arguments as @dataclass. By default, the @dataclass function is used.

This function is not strictly required, because any Python mechanism for creating a new class with __annotations__ can then apply the @dataclass function to convert that class to a dataclass. This function is provided as a convenience. For example:

C = make_dataclass('C',
                   [('x', int),
                     'y',
                    ('z', int, field(default=5))],
                   namespace={'add_one': lambda self: self.x + 1})

est équivalent à :

@dataclass
class C:
    x: int
    y: 'typing.Any'
    z: int = 5

    def add_one(self):
        return self.x + 1

Ajouté dans la version 3.14: Added the decorator parameter.

dataclasses.replace(obj, /, **changes)

Creates a new object of the same type as obj, replacing fields with values from changes. If obj is not a Data Class, raises TypeError. If keys in changes are not field names of the given dataclass, raises TypeError.

The newly returned object is created by calling the __init__() method of the dataclass. This ensures that __post_init__(), if present, is also called.

Init-only variables without default values, if any exist, must be specified on the call to replace() so that they can be passed to __init__() and __post_init__().

It is an error for changes to contain any fields that are defined as having init=False. A ValueError will be raised in this case.

Be forewarned about how init=False fields work during a call to replace(). They are not copied from the source object, but rather are initialized in __post_init__(), if they're initialized at all. It is expected that init=False fields will be rarely and judiciously used. If they are used, it might be wise to have alternate class constructors, or perhaps a custom replace() (or similarly named) method which handles instance copying.

Dataclass instances are also supported by generic function copy.replace().

dataclasses.is_dataclass(obj)

Return True if its parameter is a dataclass (including subclasses of a dataclass) or an instance of one, otherwise return False.

Pour vérifier qu'un objet obj est une instance d'une classe de données, et non pas lui-même une classe de données, ajoutez le test not isinstance(obj, type) :

def is_dataclass_instance(obj):
    return is_dataclass(obj) and not isinstance(obj, type)

dataclasses.MISSING

Une valeur sentinelle pour dénoter l'absence de default ou default_factory.

dataclasses.KW_ONLY

A sentinel value used as a type annotation. Any fields after a pseudo-field with the type of KW_ONLY are marked as keyword-only fields. Note that a pseudo-field of type KW_ONLY is otherwise completely ignored. This includes the name of such a field. By convention, a name of _ is used for a KW_ONLY field. Keyword-only fields signify __init__() parameters that must be specified as keywords when the class is instantiated.

Dans cet exemple y et z sont marqués comme exclusivement nommés :

@dataclass
class Point:
    x: float
    _: KW_ONLY
    y: float
    z: float

p = Point(0, y=1.5, z=2.0)

In a single dataclass, it is an error to specify more than one field whose type is KW_ONLY.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

exception dataclasses.FrozenInstanceError

Raised when an implicitly defined __setattr__() or __delattr__() is called on a dataclass which was defined with frozen=True. It is a subclass of AttributeError.

Post-initialisation

dataclasses.__post_init__()

When defined on the class, it will be called by the generated __init__(), normally as self.__post_init__(). However, if any InitVar fields are defined, they will also be passed to __post_init__() in the order they were defined in the class. If no __init__() method is generated, then __post_init__() will not automatically be called.

Cette méthode permet, entre autres, d'initialiser des champs qui dépendent d'autres champs. Par exemple :

@dataclass
class C:
    a: float
    b: float
    c: float = field(init=False)

    def __post_init__(self):
        self.c = self.a + self.b

The __init__() method generated by @dataclass does not call base class __init__() methods. If the base class has an __init__() method that has to be called, it is common to call this method in a __post_init__() method:

class Rectangle:
    def __init__(self, height, width):
        self.height = height
        self.width = width

@dataclass
class Square(Rectangle):
    side: float

    def __post_init__(self):
        super().__init__(self.side, self.side)

Note, however, that in general the dataclass-generated __init__() methods don't need to be called, since the derived dataclass will take care of initializing all fields of any base class that is a dataclass itself.

See the section below on init-only variables for ways to pass parameters to __post_init__(). Also see the warning about how replace() handles init=False fields.

Variables de classe

One of the few places where @dataclass actually inspects the type of a field is to determine if a field is a class variable as defined in PEP 526 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/]. It does this by checking if the type of the field is typing.ClassVar. If a field is a ClassVar, it is excluded from consideration as a field and is ignored by the dataclass mechanisms. Such ClassVar pseudo-fields are not returned by the module-level fields() function.

Variables d'initialisation

Another place where @dataclass inspects a type annotation is to determine if a field is an init-only variable. It does this by seeing if the type of a field is of type InitVar. If a field is an InitVar, it is considered a pseudo-field called an init-only field. As it is not a true field, it is not returned by the module-level fields() function. Init-only fields are added as parameters to the generated __init__() method, and are passed to the optional __post_init__() method. They are not otherwise used by dataclasses.

On peut par exemple imaginer un champ initialisé à partir d'une base de données s'il n'a pas reçu de valeur explicite :

@dataclass
class C:
    i: int
    j: int | None = None
    database: InitVar[DatabaseType | None] = None

    def __post_init__(self, database):
        if self.j is None and database is not None:
            self.j = database.lookup('j')

c = C(10, database=my_database)

In this case, fields() will return Field objects for i and j, but not for database.

Instances figées

It is not possible to create truly immutable Python objects. However, by passing frozen=True to the @dataclass decorator you can emulate immutability. In that case, dataclasses will add __setattr__() and __delattr__() methods to the class. These methods will raise a FrozenInstanceError when invoked.

There is a tiny performance penalty when using frozen=True: __init__() cannot use simple assignment to initialize fields, and must use object.__setattr__().

Héritage

When the dataclass is being created by the @dataclass decorator, it looks through all of the class's base classes in reverse MRO (that is, starting at object) and, for each dataclass that it finds, adds the fields from that base class to an ordered mapping of fields. After all of the base class fields are added, it adds its own fields to the ordered mapping. All of the generated methods will use this combined, calculated ordered mapping of fields. Because the fields are in insertion order, derived classes override base classes. An example:

@dataclass
class Base:
    x: Any = 15.0
    y: int = 0

@dataclass
class C(Base):
    z: int = 10
    x: int = 15

The final list of fields is, in order, x, y, z. The final type of x is int, as specified in class C.

The generated __init__() method for C will look like:

def __init__(self, x: int = 15, y: int = 0, z: int = 10):

Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__()

After the parameters needed for __init__() are computed, any keyword-only parameters are moved to come after all regular (non-keyword-only) parameters. This is a requirement of how keyword-only parameters are implemented in Python: they must come after non-keyword-only parameters.

In this example, Base.y, Base.w, and D.t are keyword-only fields, and Base.x and D.z are regular fields:

@dataclass
class Base:
    x: Any = 15.0
    _: KW_ONLY
    y: int = 0
    w: int = 1

@dataclass
class D(Base):
    z: int = 10
    t: int = field(kw_only=True, default=0)

The generated __init__() method for D will look like:

def __init__(self, x: Any = 15.0, z: int = 10, *, y: int = 0, w: int = 1, t: int = 0):

Les paramètres ont été réarrangés par rapport à leur ordre d'apparition dans la liste des champs : les paramètres provenant des attributs normaux sont suivis par les paramètres qui proviennent des attributs exclusivement nommés.

The relative ordering of keyword-only parameters is maintained in the re-ordered __init__() parameter list.

Fabriques de valeurs par défaut

If a field() specifies a default_factory, it is called with zero arguments when a default value for the field is needed. For example, to create a new instance of a list, use:

mylist: list = field(default_factory=list)

If a field is excluded from __init__() (using init=False) and the field also specifies default_factory, then the default factory function will always be called from the generated __init__() function. This happens because there is no other way to give the field an initial value.

Valeurs par défaut mutables

En Python, les valeurs par défaut des attributs sont stockées dans des attributs de la classe. Observez cet exemple, sans classe de données :

class C:
    x = []
    def add(self, element):
        self.x.append(element)

o1 = C()
o2 = C()
o1.add(1)
o2.add(2)
assert o1.x == [1, 2]
assert o1.x is o2.x

Note that the two instances of class C share the same class variable x, as expected.

Avec les classes de données, si ce code était valide :

@dataclass
class D:
    x: list = []      # This code raises ValueError
    def add(self, element):
        self.x.append(element)

il générerait un code équivalent à :

class D:
    x = []
    def __init__(self, x=x):
        self.x = x
    def add(self, element):
        self.x.append(element)

assert D().x is D().x

This has the same issue as the original example using class C. That is, two instances of class D that do not specify a value for x when creating a class instance will share the same copy of x. Because dataclasses just use normal Python class creation they also share this behavior. There is no general way for Data Classes to detect this condition. Instead, the @dataclass decorator will raise a ValueError if it detects an unhashable default parameter. The assumption is that if a value is unhashable, it is mutable. This is a partial solution, but it does protect against many common errors.

Pour qu'un champ d'un type mutable soit par défaut initialisé à un nouvel objet pour chaque instance, utilisez une fonction de fabrique :

@dataclass
class D:
    x: list = field(default_factory=list)

assert D().x is not D().x

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Instead of looking for and disallowing objects of type list, dict, or set, unhashable objects are now not allowed as default values. Unhashability is used to approximate mutability.

Descriptor-typed fields

Fields that are assigned descriptor objects as their default value have the following special behaviors:

The value for the field passed to the dataclass's __init__() method is passed to the descriptor's __set__() method rather than overwriting the descriptor object.

Similarly, when getting or setting the field, the descriptor's __get__() or __set__() method is called rather than returning or overwriting the descriptor object.

To determine whether a field contains a default value, @dataclass will call the descriptor's __get__() method using its class access form: descriptor.__get__(obj=None, type=cls). If the descriptor returns a value in this case, it will be used as the field's default. On the other hand, if the descriptor raises AttributeError in this situation, no default value will be provided for the field.

class IntConversionDescriptor:
    def __init__(self, *, default):
        self._default = default

    def __set_name__(self, owner, name):
        self._name = "_" + name

    def __get__(self, obj, type):
        if obj is None:
            return self._default

        return getattr(obj, self._name, self._default)

    def __set__(self, obj, value):
        setattr(obj, self._name, int(value))

@dataclass
class InventoryItem:
    quantity_on_hand: IntConversionDescriptor = IntConversionDescriptor(default=100)

i = InventoryItem()
print(i.quantity_on_hand)   # 100
i.quantity_on_hand = 2.5    # calls __set__ with 2.5
print(i.quantity_on_hand)   # 2

Note that if a field is annotated with a descriptor type, but is not assigned a descriptor object as its default value, the field will act like a normal field.

contextlib — Utilitaires pour les contextes s'appuyant sur l'instruction with

Code source : Lib/contextlib.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/contextlib.py]

Ce module fournit des utilitaires pour les tâches impliquant le mot-clé with. Pour plus d'informations voir aussi Le type gestionnaire de contexte et Gestionnaire de contexte With.

Utilitaires

Fonctions et classes fournies :

class contextlib.AbstractContextManager

An abstract base class for classes that implement __enter__() and __exit__(). A default implementation for __enter__() is provided which returns self while __exit__() is an abstract method which by default returns None. See also the definition of Le type gestionnaire de contexte.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

class contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager

An abstract base class for classes that implement __aenter__() and __aexit__(). A default implementation for __aenter__() is provided which returns self while __aexit__() is an abstract method which by default returns None. See also the definition of Gestionnaires de contexte asynchrones.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

@contextlib.contextmanager

This function is a decorator that can be used to define a factory function for with statement context managers, without needing to create a class or separate __enter__() and __exit__() methods.

While many objects natively support use in with statements, sometimes a resource needs to be managed that isn't a context manager in its own right, and doesn't implement a close() method for use with contextlib.closing.

L'exemple abstrait suivant présente comment assurer une gestion correcte des ressources :

from contextlib import contextmanager

@contextmanager
def managed_resource(*args, **kwds):
    # Code to acquire resource, e.g.:
    resource = acquire_resource(*args, **kwds)
    try:
        yield resource
    finally:
        # Code to release resource, e.g.:
        release_resource(resource)

The function can then be used like this:

>>> with managed_resource(timeout=3600) as resource:
...     # Resource is released at the end of this block,
...     # even if code in the block raises an exception

La fonction à décorer doit renvoyer un générateur-itérateur quand elle est appelée. Ce générateur ne doit produire qu'une seule valeur, qui est récupérée dans le bloc with à l'aide de la clause as si précisée.

Au moment où le générateur produit une valeur, le bloc imbriqué sous l'instruction with est exécuté. Le générateur est ensuite repris après la sortie du bloc. Si une exception non gérée survient dans le bloc, elle est relayée dans le générateur au niveau de l'instruction yield. Ainsi, vous pouvez utiliser les instructions try…except…finally pour attraper l'erreur (s'il y a), ou vous assurer qu'un nettoyage a bien lieu. Si une exception est attrapée dans l'unique but d'être journalisée ou d'effectuer une action particulière (autre que supprimer entièrement l'exception), le générateur se doit de la relayer. Autrement le générateur gestionnaire de contexte doit indiquer à l'instruction with que l'exception a été gérée, et l'exécution reprend sur l'instruction qui suit directement le bloc with.

Le décorateur contextmanager() utilise la classe ContextDecorator afin que les gestionnaires de contexte qu'il crée puissent être utilisés aussi bien en tant que décorateurs qu'avec des instructions with. Quand vous l'utilisez comme décorateur, une nouvelle instance du générateur est créée à chaque appel de la fonction (cela permet aux gestionnaires de contexte à usage unique créés par contextmanager() de remplir la condition de pouvoir être invoqués plusieurs fois afin d'être utilisés comme décorateurs).

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Utilisation de la classe ContextDecorator.

@contextlib.asynccontextmanager

Similaire à contextmanager(), mais crée un gestionnaire de contexte asynchrone.

This function is a decorator that can be used to define a factory function for async with statement asynchronous context managers, without needing to create a class or separate __aenter__() and __aexit__() methods. It must be applied to an asynchronous generator function.

Un exemple simple :

from contextlib import asynccontextmanager

@asynccontextmanager
async def get_connection():
    conn = await acquire_db_connection()
    try:
        yield conn
    finally:
        await release_db_connection(conn)

async def get_all_users():
    async with get_connection() as conn:
        return conn.query('SELECT ...')

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Les gestionnaires de contexte définis avec asynccontextmanager() peuvent s'utiliser comme décorateurs ou dans les instructions async with :

import time
from contextlib import asynccontextmanager

@asynccontextmanager
async def timeit():
    now = time.monotonic()
    try:
        yield
    finally:
        print(f'it took {time.monotonic() - now}s to run')

@timeit()
async def main():
    # ... async code ...

When used as a decorator, a new generator instance is implicitly created on each function call. This allows the otherwise "one-shot" context managers created by asynccontextmanager() to meet the requirement that context managers support multiple invocations in order to be used as decorators.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Async context managers created with asynccontextmanager() can be used as decorators.

contextlib.closing(thing)

Renvoie un gestionnaire de contexte qui ferme thing à la fin du bloc. C'est essentiellement équivalent à :

from contextlib import contextmanager

@contextmanager
def closing(thing):
    try:
        yield thing
    finally:
        thing.close()

Et cela vous permet d'écrire du code tel que :

from contextlib import closing
from urllib.request import urlopen

with closing(urlopen('https://www.python.org')) as page:
    for line in page:
        print(line)

sans besoin de fermer explicitement page. Même si une erreur survient, page.close() est appelée à la fermeture du bloc with.

Note

Most types managing resources support the context manager protocol, which closes thing on leaving the with statement. As such, closing() is most useful for third party types that don't support context managers. This example is purely for illustration purposes, as urlopen() would normally be used in a context manager.

contextlib.aclosing(thing)

Return an async context manager that calls the aclose() method of thing upon completion of the block. This is basically equivalent to:

from contextlib import asynccontextmanager

@asynccontextmanager
async def aclosing(thing):
    try:
        yield thing
    finally:
        await thing.aclose()

Significantly, aclosing() supports deterministic cleanup of async generators when they happen to exit early by break or an exception. For example:

from contextlib import aclosing

async with aclosing(my_generator()) as values:
    async for value in values:
        if value == 42:
            break

This pattern ensures that the generator's async exit code is executed in the same context as its iterations (so that exceptions and context variables work as expected, and the exit code isn't run after the lifetime of some task it depends on).

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

contextlib.nullcontext(enter_result=None)

Return a context manager that returns enter_result from __enter__(), but otherwise does nothing. It is intended to be used as a stand-in for an optional context manager, for example:

def myfunction(arg, ignore_exceptions=False):
    if ignore_exceptions:
        # Use suppress to ignore all exceptions.
        cm = contextlib.suppress(Exception)
    else:
        # Do not ignore any exceptions, cm has no effect.
        cm = contextlib.nullcontext()
    with cm:
        # Do something

Un exemple utilisant enter_result :

def process_file(file_or_path):
    if isinstance(file_or_path, str):
        # If string, open file
        cm = open(file_or_path)
    else:
        # Caller is responsible for closing file
        cm = nullcontext(file_or_path)

    with cm as file:
        # Perform processing on the file

It can also be used as a stand-in for asynchronous context managers:

async def send_http(session=None):
    if not session:
        # If no http session, create it with aiohttp
        cm = aiohttp.ClientSession()
    else:
        # Caller is responsible for closing the session
        cm = nullcontext(session)

    async with cm as session:
        # Send http requests with session

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: asynchronous context manager support was added.

contextlib.suppress(*exceptions)

Return a context manager that suppresses any of the specified exceptions if they occur in the body of a with statement and then resumes execution with the first statement following the end of the with statement.

Comme pour tous les mécanismes qui suppriment complètement les exceptions, ce gestionnaire de contexte doit seulement être utilisé pour couvrir des cas très spécifiques d'erreurs où il est certain que continuer silencieusement l'exécution du programme est la bonne chose à faire.

Par exemple :

from contextlib import suppress

with suppress(FileNotFoundError):
    os.remove('somefile.tmp')

with suppress(FileNotFoundError):
    os.remove('someotherfile.tmp')

Ce code est équivalent à :

try:
    os.remove('somefile.tmp')
except FileNotFoundError:
    pass

try:
    os.remove('someotherfile.tmp')
except FileNotFoundError:
    pass

Ce gestionnaire de contexte est réentrant.

If the code within the with block raises a BaseExceptionGroup, suppressed exceptions are removed from the group. Any exceptions of the group which are not suppressed are re-raised in a new group which is created using the original group's derive() method.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: suppress now supports suppressing exceptions raised as part of a BaseExceptionGroup.

contextlib.redirect_stdout(new_target)

Gestionnaire de contexte servant à rediriger temporairement sys.stdout vers un autre fichier ou objet fichier-compatible.

Cet outil ajoute une certaine flexibilité aux fonctions ou classes existantes dont la sortie est envoyée vers la sortie standard.

For example, the output of help() normally is sent to sys.stdout. You can capture that output in a string by redirecting the output to an io.StringIO object. The replacement stream is returned from the __enter__() method and so is available as the target of the with statement:

with redirect_stdout(io.StringIO()) as f:
    help(pow)
s = f.getvalue()

Pour envoyer la sortie de help() vers un fichier sur le disque, redirigez-la sur un fichier normal :

with open('help.txt', 'w') as f:
    with redirect_stdout(f):
        help(pow)

Pour envoyer la sortie de help() sur sys.stderr :

with redirect_stdout(sys.stderr):
    help(pow)

Notez que l'effet de bord global sur sys.stdout signifie que ce gestionnaire de contexte n'est pas adapté à une utilisation dans le code d'une bibliothèque ni dans la plupart des applications à plusieurs fils d'exécution. Aussi, cela n'a pas d'effet sur la sortie des sous-processus. Cependant, cela reste une approche utile pour beaucoup de scripts utilitaires.

Ce gestionnaire de contexte est réentrant.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

contextlib.redirect_stderr(new_target)

Similaire à redirect_stdout() mais redirige sys.stderr vers un autre fichier ou objet fichier-compatible.

Ce gestionnaire de contexte est réentrant.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

contextlib.chdir(path)

Non parallel-safe context manager to change the current working directory. As this changes a global state, the working directory, it is not suitable for use in most threaded or async contexts. It is also not suitable for most non-linear code execution, like generators, where the program execution is temporarily relinquished -- unless explicitly desired, you should not yield when this context manager is active.

This is a simple wrapper around chdir(), it changes the current working directory upon entering and restores the old one on exit.

Ce gestionnaire de contexte est réentrant.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

class contextlib.ContextDecorator

Une classe mère qui permet à un gestionnaire de contexte d'être aussi utilisé comme décorateur.

Context managers inheriting from ContextDecorator have to implement __enter__() and __exit__() as normal. __exit__ retains its optional exception handling even when used as a decorator.

ContextDecorator est utilisé par contextmanager(), donc vous bénéficiez automatiquement de cette fonctionnalité.

Exemple de ContextDecorator :

from contextlib import ContextDecorator

class mycontext(ContextDecorator):
    def __enter__(self):
        print('Starting')
        return self

    def __exit__(self, *exc):
        print('Finishing')
        return False

The class can then be used like this:

>>> @mycontext()
... def function():
...     print('The bit in the middle')
...
>>> function()
Starting
The bit in the middle
Finishing

>>> with mycontext():
...     print('The bit in the middle')
...
Starting
The bit in the middle
Finishing

Ce changement est simplement un sucre syntaxique pour les constructions de la forme suivante :

def f():
    with cm():
        # Do stuff

ContextDecorator vous permet d'écrire à la place :

@cm()
def f():
    # Do stuff

Cela éclaircit le fait que cm s'applique à la fonction entière, et pas seulement à un morceau en particulier (et gagner un niveau d'indentation est toujours appréciable).

Les gestionnaires de contexte existants qui ont déjà une classe mère peuvent être étendus en utilisant ContextDecorator comme une mixin :

from contextlib import ContextDecorator

class mycontext(ContextBaseClass, ContextDecorator):
    def __enter__(self):
        return self

    def __exit__(self, *exc):
        return False

Note

Comme la fonction décorée doit être capable d'être appelée plusieurs fois, le gestionnaire de contexte sous-jacent doit permettre d'être utilisé dans de multiples instructions with. Si ce n'est pas le cas, alors la construction d'origine avec de multiples instructions with au sein de la fonction doit être utilisée.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

class contextlib.AsyncContextDecorator

Similar to ContextDecorator but only for asynchronous functions.

Example of AsyncContextDecorator:

from asyncio import run
from contextlib import AsyncContextDecorator

class mycontext(AsyncContextDecorator):
    async def __aenter__(self):
        print('Starting')
        return self

    async def __aexit__(self, *exc):
        print('Finishing')
        return False

The class can then be used like this:

>>> @mycontext()
... async def function():
...     print('The bit in the middle')
...
>>> run(function())
Starting
The bit in the middle
Finishing

>>> async def function():
...    async with mycontext():
...         print('The bit in the middle')
...
>>> run(function())
Starting
The bit in the middle
Finishing

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

class contextlib.ExitStack

Gestionnaire de contexte conçu pour simplifier le fait de combiner programmatiquement d'autres gestionnaires de contexte et fonctions de nettoyage, spécifiquement ceux qui sont optionnels ou pilotés par des données d'entrée.

Par exemple, un ensemble de fichiers peut facilement être géré dans une unique instruction with comme suit :

with ExitStack() as stack:
    files = [stack.enter_context(open(fname)) for fname in filenames]
    # All opened files will automatically be closed at the end of
    # the with statement, even if attempts to open files later
    # in the list raise an exception

The __enter__() method returns the ExitStack instance, and performs no additional operations.

Chaque instance maintient une pile de fonctions de rappels (callbacks) enregistrées qui sont appelées en ordre inverse quand l'instance est fermée (explicitement ou implicitement à la fin d'un bloc with). Notez que ces fonctions ne sont pas invoquées implicitement quand l'instance de la pile de contextes est collectée par le ramasse-miettes.

Ce modèle de pile est utilisé afin que les gestionnaires de contexte qui acquièrent leurs ressources dans leur méthode __init__ (tels que les objets-fichiers) puissent être gérés correctement.

Comme les fonctions de rappel enregistrées sont invoquées dans l'ordre inverse d'enregistrement, cela revient au même que si de multiples blocs with imbriqués avaient été utilisés avec l'ensemble de fonctions enregistrées. Cela s'étend aussi à la gestion d'exceptions — si une fonction de rappel intérieure supprime ou remplace une exception, alors les fonctions extérieures reçoivent des arguments basés sur ce nouvel état.

C'est une API relativement bas-niveau qui s'occupe de dérouler correctement la pile des appels de sortie. Elle fournit une base adaptée pour des gestionnaires de contexte de plus haut niveau qui manipulent la pile de sortie de manière spécifique à l'application.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

enter_context(cm)

Enters a new context manager and adds its __exit__() method to the callback stack. The return value is the result of the context manager's own __enter__() method.

Ces gestionnaires de contexte peuvent supprimer des exceptions comme ils le feraient normalement s'ils étaient utilisés directement derrière une instruction with.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Raises TypeError instead of AttributeError if cm is not a context manager.

push(exit)

Adds a context manager's __exit__() method to the callback stack.

As __enter__ is not invoked, this method can be used to cover part of an __enter__() implementation with a context manager's own __exit__() method.

If passed an object that is not a context manager, this method assumes it is a callback with the same signature as a context manager's __exit__() method and adds it directly to the callback stack.

By returning true values, these callbacks can suppress exceptions the same way context manager __exit__() methods can.

L'objet passé en paramètre est renvoyé par la fonction, ce qui permet à la méthode d'être utilisée comme décorateur de fonction.

callback(callback, /, *args, **kwds)

Accepte une fonction arbitraire et ses arguments et les ajoute à la pile des fonctions de rappel.

À la différence des autres méthodes, les fonctions de rappel ajoutées de cette manière ne peuvent pas supprimer les exceptions (puisqu'elles ne reçoivent jamais les détails de l'exception).

La fonction passée en paramètre est renvoyée par la méthode, ce qui permet à la méthode d'être utilisée comme décorateur de fonction.

pop_all()

Transfère la pile d'appels à une nouvelle instance de ExitStack et la renvoie. Aucune fonction de rappel n'est invoquée par cette opération — à la place, elles sont dorénavant invoquées quand la nouvelle pile sera close (soit explicitement soit implicitement à la fin d'un bloc with).

Par exemple, un groupe de fichiers peut être ouvert comme une opération « tout ou rien » comme suit :

with ExitStack() as stack:
    files = [stack.enter_context(open(fname)) for fname in filenames]
    # Hold onto the close method, but don't call it yet.
    close_files = stack.pop_all().close
    # If opening any file fails, all previously opened files will be
    # closed automatically. If all files are opened successfully,
    # they will remain open even after the with statement ends.
    # close_files() can then be invoked explicitly to close them all.

close()

Déroule immédiatement la pile d'appels, invoquant les fonctions de rappel dans l'ordre inverse d'enregistrement. Pour chaque gestionnaire de contexte et fonction de sortie enregistré, les arguments passés indiqueront qu'aucune exception n'est survenue.

class contextlib.AsyncExitStack

Un gestionnaire de contexte asynchrone, similaire à ExitStack, apte à combiner à la fois des gestionnaires de contexte synchrones et asynchrones, ainsi que la gestion de coroutines pour la logique de nettoyage.

The close() method is not implemented; aclose() must be used instead.

async enter_async_context(cm)

Similar to ExitStack.enter_context() but expects an asynchronous context manager.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Raises TypeError instead of AttributeError if cm is not an asynchronous context manager.

push_async_exit(exit)

Similar to ExitStack.push() but expects either an asynchronous context manager or a coroutine function.

push_async_callback(callback, /, *args, **kwds)

Similar to ExitStack.callback() but expects a coroutine function.

async aclose()

Similar to ExitStack.close() but properly handles awaitables.

En continuité de l'exemple de asynccontextmanager() :

async with AsyncExitStack() as stack:
    connections = [await stack.enter_async_context(get_connection())
        for i in range(5)]
    # All opened connections will automatically be released at the end of
    # the async with statement, even if attempts to open a connection
    # later in the list raise an exception.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Exemples et Recettes

This section describes some examples and recipes for making effective use of the tools provided by contextlib.

Gérer un nombre variable de gestionnaires de contexte

Le cas d'utilisation primaire de ExitStack est celui décrit dans la documentation de la classe : gérer un nombre variable de gestionnaires de contexte et d'autres opérations de nettoyage en une unique instruction with. La variabilité peut venir du nombre de gestionnaires de contexte voulus découlant d'une entrée de l'utilisateur (comme ouvrir une collection spécifique de fichiers de l'utilisateur), ou de certains gestionnaires de contexte qui peuvent être optionnels :

with ExitStack() as stack:
    for resource in resources:
        stack.enter_context(resource)
    if need_special_resource():
        special = acquire_special_resource()
        stack.callback(release_special_resource, special)
    # Perform operations that use the acquired resources

Comme montré, ExitStack rend aussi assez facile d'utiliser les instructions with pour gérer des ressources arbitraires qui ne gèrent pas nativement le protocole des gestionnaires de contexte.

Attraper des exceptions depuis les méthodes __enter__

It is occasionally desirable to catch exceptions from an __enter__() method implementation, without inadvertently catching exceptions from the with statement body or the context manager's __exit__() method. By using ExitStack the steps in the context management protocol can be separated slightly in order to allow this:

stack = ExitStack()
try:
    x = stack.enter_context(cm)
except Exception:
    # handle __enter__ exception
else:
    with stack:
        # Handle normal case

Avoir à faire cela est en fait surtout utile pour indiquer que l'API sous-jacente devrait fournir une interface directe de gestion des ressources à utiliser avec les instructions try/except/finally, mais que toutes les API ne sont pas bien conçues dans cet objectif. Quand un gestionnaire de contexte est la seule API de gestion des ressources fournie, alors ExitStack peut rendre plus facile la gestion de plusieurs situations qui ne peuvent pas être traitées directement dans une instruction with.

Nettoyer dans une méthode __enter__

As noted in the documentation of ExitStack.push(), this method can be useful in cleaning up an already allocated resource if later steps in the __enter__() implementation fail.

Voici un exemple de gestionnaire de contexte qui reçoit des fonctions d'acquisition de ressources et de libération, avec une méthode de validation optionnelle, et qui les adapte au protocole des gestionnaires de contexte :

from contextlib import contextmanager, AbstractContextManager, ExitStack

class ResourceManager(AbstractContextManager):

    def __init__(self, acquire_resource, release_resource, check_resource_ok=None):
        self.acquire_resource = acquire_resource
        self.release_resource = release_resource
        if check_resource_ok is None:
            def check_resource_ok(resource):
                return True
        self.check_resource_ok = check_resource_ok

    @contextmanager
    def _cleanup_on_error(self):
        with ExitStack() as stack:
            stack.push(self)
            yield
            # The validation check passed and didn't raise an exception
            # Accordingly, we want to keep the resource, and pass it
            # back to our caller
            stack.pop_all()

    def __enter__(self):
        resource = self.acquire_resource()
        with self._cleanup_on_error():
            if not self.check_resource_ok(resource):
                msg = "Failed validation for {!r}"
                raise RuntimeError(msg.format(resource))
        return resource

    def __exit__(self, *exc_details):
        # We don't need to duplicate any of our resource release logic
        self.release_resource()

Remplacer un try-finally avec une option variable

Un modèle que vous rencontrerez parfois est un bloc try-finally avec une option pour indiquer si le corps de la clause finally doit être exécuté ou non. Dans sa forme la plus simple (qui ne peut pas déjà être gérée avec juste une clause except), cela ressemble à :

cleanup_needed = True
try:
    result = perform_operation()
    if result:
        cleanup_needed = False
finally:
    if cleanup_needed:
        cleanup_resources()

Comme avec n'importe quel code basé sur une instruction try, cela peut poser problème pour le développement et la revue, parce que beaucoup de codes d'installation et de nettoyage peuvent finir par être séparés par des sections de code arbitrairement longues.

ExitStack rend possible de plutôt enregistrer une fonction de rappel pour être exécutée à la fin d'une instruction with, et décider ensuite de passer l'exécution de cet appel :

from contextlib import ExitStack

with ExitStack() as stack:
    stack.callback(cleanup_resources)
    result = perform_operation()
    if result:
        stack.pop_all()

This allows the intended cleanup behaviour to be made explicit up front, rather than requiring a separate flag variable.

Si une application particulière utilise beaucoup ce modèle, cela peut-être simplifié encore plus au moyen d'une petite classe d'aide :

from contextlib import ExitStack

class Callback(ExitStack):
    def __init__(self, callback, /, *args, **kwds):
        super().__init__()
        self.callback(callback, *args, **kwds)

    def cancel(self):
        self.pop_all()

with Callback(cleanup_resources) as cb:
    result = perform_operation()
    if result:
        cb.cancel()

Si le nettoyage de la ressource n'est pas déjà soigneusement embarqué dans une fonction autonome, il est possible d'utiliser le décorateur ExitStack.callback() pour déclarer la fonction de nettoyage de ressource en avance :

from contextlib import ExitStack

with ExitStack() as stack:
    @stack.callback
    def cleanup_resources():
        ...
    result = perform_operation()
    if result:
        stack.pop_all()

Dû au fonctionnement du protocole des décorateurs, une fonction déclarée ainsi ne peut prendre aucun paramètre. À la place, les ressources à libérer doivent être récupérées depuis l'extérieur comme des variables de fermeture (closure).

Utiliser un gestionnaire de contexte en tant que décorateur de fonction

ContextDecorator rend possible l'utilisation d'un gestionnaire de contexte à la fois ordinairement avec une instruction with ou comme un décorateur de fonction.

Par exemple, il est parfois utile d'emballer les fonctions ou blocs d'instructions avec un journaliseur qui pourrait suivre le temps d'exécution entre l'entrée et la sortie. Plutôt qu'écrire à la fois un décorateur et un gestionnaire de contexte pour la même tâche, hériter de ContextDecorator fournit les deux fonctionnalités en une seule définition :

from contextlib import ContextDecorator
import logging

logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO)

class track_entry_and_exit(ContextDecorator):
    def __init__(self, name):
        self.name = name

    def __enter__(self):
        logging.info('Entering: %s', self.name)

    def __exit__(self, exc_type, exc, exc_tb):
        logging.info('Exiting: %s', self.name)

Les instances de cette classe peuvent être utilisées comme gestionnaires de contexte :

with track_entry_and_exit('widget loader'):
    print('Some time consuming activity goes here')
    load_widget()

Et comme décorateurs de fonctions :

@track_entry_and_exit('widget loader')
def activity():
    print('Some time consuming activity goes here')
    load_widget()

Note that there is one additional limitation when using context managers as function decorators: there's no way to access the return value of __enter__(). If that value is needed, then it is still necessary to use an explicit with statement.

Voir aussi

PEP 343 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/] - The "with" statement

La spécification, les motivations et des exemples de l'instruction with en Python.

Gestionnaires de contexte à usage unique, réutilisables et réentrants

La plupart des gestionnaires de contexte sont écrits d'une manière qui ne leur permet que d'être utilisés une fois avec une instruction with. Ces gestionnaires de contexte à usage unique doivent être recréés chaque fois qu'ils sont utilisés — tenter de les utiliser une seconde fois lève une exception ou ne fonctionne pas correctement.

Cette limitation commune signifie qu'il est généralement conseillé de créer les gestionnaires de contexte directement dans l'en-tête du bloc with où ils sont utilisés (comme montré dans tous les exemples d'utilisation au-dessus).

Les fichiers sont un exemple de gestionnaires de contexte étant effectivement à usage unique, puisque la première instruction with ferme le fichier, empêchant d'autres opérations d'entrée/sortie d'être exécutées sur ce fichier.

Les gestionnaires de contexte créés avec contextmanager() sont aussi à usage unique, et se plaindront du fait que le générateur sous-jacent ne produise plus de valeur si vous essayez de les utiliser une seconde fois :

>>> from contextlib import contextmanager
>>> @contextmanager
... def singleuse():
...     print("Before")
...     yield
...     print("After")
...
>>> cm = singleuse()
>>> with cm:
...     pass
...
Before
After
>>> with cm:
...     pass
...
Traceback (most recent call last):
    ...
RuntimeError: generator didn't yield

Gestionnaires de contexte réentrants

Certains gestionnaires de contexte plus sophistiqués peuvent être « réentrants ». Ces gestionnaires de contexte ne peuvent pas seulement être utilisés avec plusieurs instructions with, mais aussi à l'intérieur d'une instruction with qui utilise déjà ce même gestionnaire de contexte.

threading.RLock is an example of a reentrant context manager, as are suppress(), redirect_stdout(), and chdir(). Here's a very simple example of reentrant use:

>>> from contextlib import redirect_stdout
>>> from io import StringIO
>>> stream = StringIO()
>>> write_to_stream = redirect_stdout(stream)
>>> with write_to_stream:
...     print("This is written to the stream rather than stdout")
...     with write_to_stream:
...         print("This is also written to the stream")
...
>>> print("This is written directly to stdout")
This is written directly to stdout
>>> print(stream.getvalue())
This is written to the stream rather than stdout
This is also written to the stream

Les exemples plus réels de réentrance sont susceptibles d'invoquer plusieurs fonctions s'entre-appelant, et donc être bien plus compliqués que cet exemple.

Notez aussi qu'être réentrant ne signifie pas être thread safe. redirect_stdout(), par exemple, n'est définitivement pas thread safe, puisqu'il effectue des changements globaux sur l'état du système en branchant sys.stdout sur différents flux.

Gestionnaires de contexte réutilisables

D'autres gestionnaires de contexte que ceux à usage unique et les réentrants sont les gestionnaires de contexte « réutilisables » (ou, pour être plus explicite, « réutilisables mais pas réentrants », puisque les gestionnaires de contexte réentrants sont aussi réutilisables). Ces gestionnaires de contexte sont conçus afin d'être utilisés plusieurs fois, mais échoueront (ou ne fonctionnent pas correctement) si l'instance de gestionnaire de contexte référencée a déjà été utilisée dans une instruction with englobante.

threading.Lock est un exemple de gestionnaire de contexte réutilisable mais pas réentrant (pour un verrou réentrant, il faut à la place utiliser threading.RLock).

Un autre exemple de gestionnaire de contexte réutilisable mais pas réentrant est ExitStack, puisqu'il invoque toutes les fonctions de rappel actuellement enregistrées en quittant l'instruction with, sans regarder où ces fonctions ont été ajoutées :

>>> from contextlib import ExitStack
>>> stack = ExitStack()
>>> with stack:
...     stack.callback(print, "Callback: from first context")
...     print("Leaving first context")
...
Leaving first context
Callback: from first context
>>> with stack:
...     stack.callback(print, "Callback: from second context")
...     print("Leaving second context")
...
Leaving second context
Callback: from second context
>>> with stack:
...     stack.callback(print, "Callback: from outer context")
...     with stack:
...         stack.callback(print, "Callback: from inner context")
...         print("Leaving inner context")
...     print("Leaving outer context")
...
Leaving inner context
Callback: from inner context
Callback: from outer context
Leaving outer context

Comme le montre la sortie de l'exemple, réutiliser une simple pile entre plusieurs instructions with fonctionne correctement, mais essayer de les imbriquer fait que la pile est vidée à la fin du with le plus imbriqué, ce qui n'est probablement pas le comportement voulu.

Pour éviter ce problème, utilisez des instances différentes de ExitStack plutôt qu'une seule instance :

>>> from contextlib import ExitStack
>>> with ExitStack() as outer_stack:
...     outer_stack.callback(print, "Callback: from outer context")
...     with ExitStack() as inner_stack:
...         inner_stack.callback(print, "Callback: from inner context")
...         print("Leaving inner context")
...     print("Leaving outer context")
...
Leaving inner context
Callback: from inner context
Leaving outer context
Callback: from outer context

abc --- Abstract Base Classes

Code source: Lib/abc.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/abc.py]

Le module fournit l'infrastructure pour définir les classes mères abstraites (Abstract Base Class ou ABC en anglais) en Python, tel qu'indiqué dans la PEP 3119 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3119/]; voir la PEP pour la raison de son ajout à Python. (Voir également la PEP 3141 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3141/] et le module numbers pour ce qui concerne la hiérarchie de types pour les nombres basés sur les classes mères abstraites). Par la suite nous utiliserons l'abréviation ABC (Abstract Base Class) pour désigner une classe mère abstraite.

The collections module has some concrete classes that derive from ABCs; these can, of course, be further derived. In addition, the collections.abc submodule has some ABCs that can be used to test whether a class or instance provides a particular interface, for example, if it is hashable or if it is a mapping.

Ce module fournit la métaclasse ABCMeta pour définir les ABC ainsi que la classe d'aide ABC, cette dernière permettant de définir des ABC en utilisant l'héritage :

class abc.ABC

A helper class that has ABCMeta as its metaclass. With this class, an abstract base class can be created by simply deriving from ABC avoiding sometimes confusing metaclass usage, for example:

from abc import ABC

class MyABC(ABC):
    pass

Note that the type of ABC is still ABCMeta, therefore inheriting from ABC requires the usual precautions regarding metaclass usage, as multiple inheritance may lead to metaclass conflicts. One may also define an abstract base class by passing the metaclass keyword and using ABCMeta directly, for example:

from abc import ABCMeta

class MyABC(metaclass=ABCMeta):
    pass

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

class abc.ABCMeta

Métaclasse pour définir des classes mères abstraites (ABC).

Utilisez cette métaclasse pour créer une ABC. Il est possible d'hériter d'une ABC directement, cette classe mère abstraite fonctionne alors comme une classe mixin. Vous pouvez également enregistrer une classe concrète sans lien (même une classe native) et des ABC comme "sous-classes virtuelles" -- celles-ci et leur descendantes seront considérées comme des sous-classes de la classe mère abstraite par la fonction native issubclass(), mais les ABC enregistrées n'apparaitront pas dans leur ordre de résolution des méthodes (MRO pour Method Resolution Order en anglais). Les implémentations de méthodes définies par l'ABC ne seront pas appelable (pas même via super()). [1]

Classes created with a metaclass of ABCMeta have the following method:

register(subclass)

Enregistrer subclass en tant que sous-classe virtuelle de cette ABC. Par exemple :

from abc import ABC

class MyABC(ABC):
    pass

MyABC.register(tuple)

assert issubclass(tuple, MyABC)
assert isinstance((), MyABC)

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Renvoie la sous-classe enregistrée pour permettre l'utilisation en tant que décorateur de classe.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: To detect calls to register(), you can use the get_cache_token() function.

Vous pouvez également redéfinir cette méthode dans une ABC :

__subclasshook__(subclass)

(Doit être définie en tant que méthode de classe.)

Check whether subclass is considered a subclass of this ABC. This means that you can customize the behavior of issubclass() further without the need to call register() on every class you want to consider a subclass of the ABC. (This class method is called from the __subclasscheck__() method of the ABC.)

This method should return True, False or NotImplemented. If it returns True, the subclass is considered a subclass of this ABC. If it returns False, the subclass is not considered a subclass of this ABC, even if it would normally be one. If it returns NotImplemented, the subclass check is continued with the usual mechanism.

Pour une illustration de ces concepts, voir cet exemple de définition de ABC :

class Foo:
    def __getitem__(self, index):
        ...
    def __len__(self):
        ...
    def get_iterator(self):
        return iter(self)

class MyIterable(ABC):

    @abstractmethod
    def __iter__(self):
        while False:
            yield None

    def get_iterator(self):
        return self.__iter__()

    @classmethod
    def __subclasshook__(cls, C):
        if cls is MyIterable:
            if any("__iter__" in B.__dict__ for B in C.__mro__):
                return True
        return NotImplemented

MyIterable.register(Foo)

The ABC MyIterable defines the standard iterable method, __iter__(), as an abstract method. The implementation given here can still be called from subclasses. The get_iterator() method is also part of the MyIterable abstract base class, but it does not have to be overridden in non-abstract derived classes.

The __subclasshook__() class method defined here says that any class that has an __iter__() method in its __dict__ (or in that of one of its base classes, accessed via the __mro__ list) is considered a MyIterable too.

Finally, the last line makes Foo a virtual subclass of MyIterable, even though it does not define an __iter__() method (it uses the old-style iterable protocol, defined in terms of __len__() and __getitem__()). Note that this will not make get_iterator available as a method of Foo, so it is provided separately.

The abc module also provides the following decorator:

@abc.abstractmethod

Un décorateur marquant les méthodes comme abstraites.

Using this decorator requires that the class's metaclass is ABCMeta or is derived from it. A class that has a metaclass derived from ABCMeta cannot be instantiated unless all of its abstract methods and properties are overridden. The abstract methods can be called using any of the normal 'super' call mechanisms. abstractmethod() may be used to declare abstract methods for properties and descriptors.

Dynamically adding abstract methods to a class, or attempting to modify the abstraction status of a method or class once it is created, are only supported using the update_abstractmethods() function. The abstractmethod() only affects subclasses derived using regular inheritance; "virtual subclasses" registered with the ABC's register() method are not affected.

When abstractmethod() is applied in combination with other method descriptors, it should be applied as the innermost decorator, as shown in the following usage examples:

class C(ABC):
    @abstractmethod
    def my_abstract_method(self, arg1):
        ...
    @classmethod
    @abstractmethod
    def my_abstract_classmethod(cls, arg2):
        ...
    @staticmethod
    @abstractmethod
    def my_abstract_staticmethod(arg3):
        ...

    @property
    @abstractmethod
    def my_abstract_property(self):
        ...
    @my_abstract_property.setter
    @abstractmethod
    def my_abstract_property(self, val):
        ...

    @abstractmethod
    def _get_x(self):
        ...
    @abstractmethod
    def _set_x(self, val):
        ...
    x = property(_get_x, _set_x)

In order to correctly interoperate with the abstract base class machinery, the descriptor must identify itself as abstract using __isabstractmethod__. In general, this attribute should be True if any of the methods used to compose the descriptor are abstract. For example, Python's built-in property does the equivalent of:

class Descriptor:
    ...
    @property
    def __isabstractmethod__(self):
        return any(getattr(f, '__isabstractmethod__', False) for
                   f in (self._fget, self._fset, self._fdel))

Note

Contrairement aux méthodes abstraites Java, ces méthodes abstraites peuvent être implémentées. Cette implémentation peut être appelée via le mécanisme super() depuis la classe qui la redéfinit. C'est typiquement utile pour y appeler super et ainsi coopérer correctement dans un environnement utilisant de l'héritage multiple.

The abc module also supports the following legacy decorators:

@abc.abstractclassmethod

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.3: Il est désormais possible d'utiliser classmethod avec abstractmethod(), cela rend ce décorateur redondant.

Sous-classe du décorateur natif classmethod() qui indique une méthode de classe ( classmethod ) abstraite. En dehors de cela, est similaire à abstractmethod().

Ce cas spécial est obsolète car le décorateur classmethod() est désormais correctement identifié comme abstrait quand il est appliqué à une méthode abstraite :

class C(ABC):
    @classmethod
    @abstractmethod
    def my_abstract_classmethod(cls, arg):
        ...

@abc.abstractstaticmethod

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.3: Il est désormais possible d'utiliser staticmethod avec abstractmethod(), cela rend ce décorateur redondant.

Sous-classe du décorateur natif classmethod() qui indique une méthode statique ( staticmethod ) abstraite. En dehors de cela, est similaire à abstractmethod().

Ce cas spécial est obsolète car le décorateur staticmethod() est désormais correctement identifié comme abstrait quand appliqué à une méthode abstraite :

class C(ABC):
    @staticmethod
    @abstractmethod
    def my_abstract_staticmethod(arg):
        ...

@abc.abstractproperty

Obsolète depuis la version 3.3: Il est désormais possible d'utiliser property, property.getter(), property.setter() et property.deleter() avec abstractmethod(), ce qui rend ce décorateur redondant.

Sous-classe de property(), qui indique une propriété abstraite.

Ce cas spécial est obsolète car le décorateur property() est désormais correctement identifié comme abstrait quand appliqué à une méthode abstraite :

class C(ABC):
    @property
    @abstractmethod
    def my_abstract_property(self):
        ...

L'exemple ci-dessus définit une propriété en lecture seule. Vous pouvez également définir une propriété en lecture-écriture abstraite en indiquant une ou plusieurs des méthodes sous-jacentes comme abstraite :

class C(ABC):
    @property
    def x(self):
        ...

    @x.setter
    @abstractmethod
    def x(self, val):
        ...

Si seuls certains composants sont abstraits, seuls ces composants abstraits nécessitent d'être mis à jour pour créer une propriété concrète dans une sous-classe :

class D(C):
    @C.x.setter
    def x(self, val):
        ...

The abc module also provides the following functions:

abc.get_cache_token()

Renvoie le jeton de cache ( cache token) de l'ABC.

Le jeton est un objet opaque (qui implémente le test d'égalité) qui identifie la version actuelle du cache de l'ABC pour les sous-classes virtuelles. Le jeton change avec chaque appel à ABCMeta.register() sur n'importe quelle ABC.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

abc.update_abstractmethods(cls)

Recalcule l'état d'abstraction de la classe. Il est nécessaire d'appeler cette fonction si les méthodes abstraites d'une classe sont ajoutées ou modifiées après la création de la classe. C'est notamment le cas dans les décorateurs de classe.

Pour permettre une utilisation en tant que décorateur, cette fonction renvoie cls.

Ne fait rien si cls n'est pas une instance de ABCMeta.

Note

Cette fonction suppose que les classes mères de cls ont vu leur état recalculé, et ne fait rien pour recalculer celui des classes filles.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

Notes

[1]

Les développeurs C++ noteront que le concept Python de classe mère virtuelle ( virtual base class ) n'est pas le même que celui de C++.

atexit --- Exit handlers

The atexit module defines functions to register and unregister cleanup functions. Functions thus registered are automatically executed upon normal interpreter termination. atexit runs these functions in the reverse order in which they were registered; if you register A, B, and C, at interpreter termination time they will be run in the order C, B, A.

Note: Les fonctions inscrites via ce module ne sont pas appelées quand le programme est tué par un signal non géré par Python, quand une erreur fatale interne de Python est détectée, ou quand os._exit() est appelé.

Note: The effect of registering or unregistering functions from within a cleanup function is undefined.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Quand elles sont utilisées avec des sous-interpréteurs de l'API C, les fonctions inscrites sont locales à l'interpréteur dans lequel elles ont été inscrites.

atexit.register(func, *args, **kwargs)

Inscrit func comme une fonction à exécuter au moment de l'arrêt de l'interpréteur. Tout argument optionnel qui doit être passé à func doit être passé comme argument à register(). Il est possible d'inscrire les mêmes fonctions et arguments plus d'une fois.

Lors d'un arrêt normal du programme (par exemple, si sys.exit() est appelée ou l’exécution du module principal se termine), toutes les fonctions inscrites sont appelées, dans l'ordre de la dernière arrivée, première servie. La supposition est que les modules les plus bas niveau vont normalement être importés avant les modules haut niveau et ainsi être nettoyés en dernier.

Si une exception est levée durant l'exécution du gestionnaire de fin de programme, une trace d'appels est affichée (à moins que SystemExit ait été levée) et les informations de l'exception sont sauvegardées. Une fois que tous les gestionnaires de fin de programme ont eu une chance de s'exécuter, la dernière exception à avoir été levée l'est de nouveau.

Cette fonction renvoie func, ce qui rend possible de l'utiliser en tant que décorateur.

Avertissement

Starting new threads or calling os.fork() from a registered function can lead to race condition between the main Python runtime thread freeing thread states while internal threading routines or the new process try to use that state. This can lead to crashes rather than clean shutdown.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Attempts to start a new thread or os.fork() a new process in a registered function now leads to RuntimeError.

atexit.unregister(func)

Remove func from the list of functions to be run at interpreter shutdown. unregister() silently does nothing if func was not previously registered. If func has been registered more than once, every occurrence of that function in the atexit call stack will be removed. Equality comparisons (==) are used internally during unregistration, so function references do not need to have matching identities.

Voir aussi

Module readline

Useful example of atexit to read and write readline history files.

atexit Example

Le simple exemple suivant démontre comment un module peut initialiser un compteur depuis un fichier quand il est importé, et sauver le valeur mise à jour du compteur automatiquement quand le programme se termine, sans avoir besoin que l'application fasse un appel explicite dans ce module au moment de l'arrêt de l'interpréteur.

try:
    with open('counterfile') as infile:
        _count = int(infile.read())
except FileNotFoundError:
    _count = 0

def incrcounter(n):
    global _count
    _count = _count + n

def savecounter():
    with open('counterfile', 'w') as outfile:
        outfile.write('%d' % _count)

import atexit

atexit.register(savecounter)

Les arguments positionnels et nommés peuvent aussi être passés à register() afin d'être repassés à la fonction inscrite lors de son appel :

def goodbye(name, adjective):
    print('Goodbye %s, it was %s to meet you.' % (name, adjective))

import atexit

atexit.register(goodbye, 'Donny', 'nice')
# or:
atexit.register(goodbye, adjective='nice', name='Donny')

Utilisation en tant que décorateur :

import atexit

@atexit.register
def goodbye():
    print('You are now leaving the Python sector.')

Ceci fonctionne uniquement avec des fonctions qui peuvent être appelées sans argument.

traceback --- Print or retrieve a stack traceback

Source code: Lib/traceback.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/traceback.py]

This module provides a standard interface to extract, format and print stack traces of Python programs. It is more flexible than the interpreter's default traceback display, and therefore makes it possible to configure certain aspects of the output. Finally, it contains a utility for capturing enough information about an exception to print it later, without the need to save a reference to the actual exception. Since exceptions can be the roots of large objects graph, this utility can significantly improve memory management.

The module uses traceback objects --- these are objects of type types.TracebackType, which are assigned to the __traceback__ field of BaseException instances.

Voir aussi

Module faulthandler

Used to dump Python tracebacks explicitly, on a fault, after a timeout, or on a user signal.

Module pdb

Interactive source code debugger for Python programs.

The module's API can be divided into two parts:

Module-level functions offering basic functionality, which are useful for interactive inspection of exceptions and tracebacks.

TracebackException class and its helper classes StackSummary and FrameSummary. These offer both more flexibility in the output generated and the ability to store the information necessary for later formatting without holding references to actual exception and traceback objects.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13: Output is colorized by default and can be controlled using environment variables.

Fonctions de niveau module

traceback.print_tb(tb, limit=None, file=None)

Print up to limit stack trace entries from traceback object tb (starting from the caller's frame) if limit is positive. Otherwise, print the last abs(limit) entries. If limit is omitted or None, all entries are printed. If file is omitted or None, the output goes to sys.stderr; otherwise it should be an open file or file-like object to receive the output.

Note

The meaning of the limit parameter is different than the meaning of sys.tracebacklimit. A negative limit value corresponds to a positive value of sys.tracebacklimit, whereas the behaviour of a positive limit value cannot be achieved with sys.tracebacklimit.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Added negative limit support.

traceback.print_exception(exc, /, [value, tb, ]limit=None, file=None, chain=True)

Print exception information and stack trace entries from traceback object tb to file. This differs from print_tb() in the following ways:

if tb is not None, it prints a header Traceback (most recent call last):

it prints the exception type and value after the stack trace

if type(value) is SyntaxError and value has the appropriate format, it prints the line where the syntax error occurred with a caret indicating the approximate position of the error.

Since Python 3.10, instead of passing value and tb, an exception object can be passed as the first argument. If value and tb are provided, the first argument is ignored in order to provide backwards compatibility.

The optional limit argument has the same meaning as for print_tb(). If chain is true (the default), then chained exceptions (the __cause__ or __context__ attributes of the exception) will be printed as well, like the interpreter itself does when printing an unhandled exception.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: The etype argument is ignored and inferred from the type of value.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: The etype parameter has been renamed to exc and is now positional-only.

traceback.print_exc(limit=None, file=None, chain=True)

This is a shorthand for print_exception(sys.exception(), limit=limit, file=file, chain=chain).

traceback.print_last(limit=None, file=None, chain=True)

This is a shorthand for print_exception(sys.last_exc, limit=limit, file=file, chain=chain). In general it will work only after an exception has reached an interactive prompt (see sys.last_exc).

traceback.print_stack(f=None, limit=None, file=None)

Print up to limit stack trace entries (starting from the invocation point) if limit is positive. Otherwise, print the last abs(limit) entries. If limit is omitted or None, all entries are printed. The optional f argument can be used to specify an alternate stack frame to start. The optional file argument has the same meaning as for print_tb().

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Added negative limit support.

traceback.extract_tb(tb, limit=None)

Return a StackSummary object representing a list of "pre-processed" stack trace entries extracted from the traceback object tb. It is useful for alternate formatting of stack traces. The optional limit argument has the same meaning as for print_tb(). A "pre-processed" stack trace entry is a FrameSummary object containing attributes filename, lineno, name, and line representing the information that is usually printed for a stack trace.

traceback.extract_stack(f=None, limit=None)

Extract the raw traceback from the current stack frame. The return value has the same format as for extract_tb(). The optional f and limit arguments have the same meaning as for print_stack().

traceback.print_list(extracted_list, file=None)

Print the list of tuples as returned by extract_tb() or extract_stack() as a formatted stack trace to the given file. If file is None, the output is written to sys.stderr.

traceback.format_list(extracted_list)

Given a list of tuples or FrameSummary objects as returned by extract_tb() or extract_stack(), return a list of strings ready for printing. Each string in the resulting list corresponds to the item with the same index in the argument list. Each string ends in a newline; the strings may contain internal newlines as well, for those items whose source text line is not None.

traceback.format_exception_only(exc, /, [value, ]*, show_group=False)

Format the exception part of a traceback using an exception value such as given by sys.last_value. The return value is a list of strings, each ending in a newline. The list contains the exception's message, which is normally a single string; however, for SyntaxError exceptions, it contains several lines that (when printed) display detailed information about where the syntax error occurred. Following the message, the list contains the exception's notes.

Since Python 3.10, instead of passing value, an exception object can be passed as the first argument. If value is provided, the first argument is ignored in order to provide backwards compatibility.

When show_group is True, and the exception is an instance of BaseExceptionGroup, the nested exceptions are included as well, recursively, with indentation relative to their nesting depth.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: The etype parameter has been renamed to exc and is now positional-only.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: The returned list now includes any notes attached to the exception.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: show_group parameter was added.

traceback.format_exception(exc, /, [value, tb, ]limit=None, chain=True)

Format a stack trace and the exception information. The arguments have the same meaning as the corresponding arguments to print_exception(). The return value is a list of strings, each ending in a newline and some containing internal newlines. When these lines are concatenated and printed, exactly the same text is printed as does print_exception().

Modifié dans la version 3.5: The etype argument is ignored and inferred from the type of value.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: This function's behavior and signature were modified to match print_exception().

traceback.format_exc(limit=None, chain=True)

This is like print_exc(limit) but returns a string instead of printing to a file.

traceback.format_tb(tb, limit=None)

A shorthand for format_list(extract_tb(tb, limit)).

traceback.format_stack(f=None, limit=None)

A shorthand for format_list(extract_stack(f, limit)).

traceback.clear_frames(tb)

Clears the local variables of all the stack frames in a traceback tb by calling the clear() method of each frame object.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

traceback.walk_stack(f)

Walk a stack following f.f_back from the given frame, yielding the frame and line number for each frame. If f is None, the current stack is used. This helper is used with StackSummary.extract().

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: This function previously returned a generator that would walk the stack when first iterated over. The generator returned now is the state of the stack when walk_stack is called.

traceback.walk_tb(tb)

Walk a traceback following tb_next yielding the frame and line number for each frame. This helper is used with StackSummary.extract().

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

TracebackException Objects

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

TracebackException objects are created from actual exceptions to capture data for later printing. They offer a more lightweight method of storing this information by avoiding holding references to traceback and frame objects. In addition, they expose more options to configure the output compared to the module-level functions described above.

class traceback.TracebackException(exc_type, exc_value, exc_traceback, *, limit=None, lookup_lines=True, capture_locals=False, compact=False, max_group_width=15, max_group_depth=10)

Capture an exception for later rendering. The meaning of limit, lookup_lines and capture_locals are as for the StackSummary class.

If compact is true, only data that is required by TracebackException's format() method is saved in the class attributes. In particular, the __context__ field is calculated only if __cause__ is None and __suppress_context__ is false.

Note that when locals are captured, they are also shown in the traceback.

max_group_width and max_group_depth control the formatting of exception groups (see BaseExceptionGroup). The depth refers to the nesting level of the group, and the width refers to the size of a single exception group's exceptions array. The formatted output is truncated when either limit is exceeded.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Ajout du paramètre compact.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added the max_group_width and max_group_depth parameters.

__cause__

A TracebackException of the original __cause__.

__context__

A TracebackException of the original __context__.

exceptions

If self represents an ExceptionGroup, this field holds a list of TracebackException instances representing the nested exceptions. Otherwise it is None.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

__suppress_context__

The __suppress_context__ value from the original exception.

__notes__

The __notes__ value from the original exception, or None if the exception does not have any notes. If it is not None is it formatted in the traceback after the exception string.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

stack

A StackSummary representing the traceback.

exc_type

The class of the original traceback.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.13.

exc_type_str

String display of the class of the original exception.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

filename

For syntax errors - the file name where the error occurred.

lineno

For syntax errors - the line number where the error occurred.

end_lineno

For syntax errors - the end line number where the error occurred. Can be None if not present.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

text

For syntax errors - the text where the error occurred.

offset

For syntax errors - the offset into the text where the error occurred.

end_offset

For syntax errors - the end offset into the text where the error occurred. Can be None if not present.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

msg

For syntax errors - the compiler error message.

classmethod from_exception(exc, *, limit=None, lookup_lines=True, capture_locals=False)

Capture an exception for later rendering. limit, lookup_lines and capture_locals are as for the StackSummary class.

Note that when locals are captured, they are also shown in the traceback.

print(*, file=None, chain=True)

Print to file (default sys.stderr) the exception information returned by format().

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

format(*, chain=True)

Format the exception.

If chain is not True, __cause__ and __context__ will not be formatted.

The return value is a generator of strings, each ending in a newline and some containing internal newlines. print_exception() is a wrapper around this method which just prints the lines to a file.

format_exception_only(*, show_group=False)

Format the exception part of the traceback.

The return value is a generator of strings, each ending in a newline.

When show_group is False, the generator emits the exception's message followed by its notes (if it has any). The exception message is normally a single string; however, for SyntaxError exceptions, it consists of several lines that (when printed) display detailed information about where the syntax error occurred.

When show_group is True, and the exception is an instance of BaseExceptionGroup, the nested exceptions are included as well, recursively, with indentation relative to their nesting depth.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: The exception's notes are now included in the output.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the show_group parameter.

StackSummary Objects

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

StackSummary objects represent a call stack ready for formatting.

class traceback.StackSummary

classmethod extract(frame_gen, *, limit=None, lookup_lines=True, capture_locals=False)

Construct a StackSummary object from a frame generator (such as is returned by walk_stack() or walk_tb()).

If limit is supplied, only this many frames are taken from frame_gen. If lookup_lines is False, the returned FrameSummary objects will not have read their lines in yet, making the cost of creating the StackSummary cheaper (which may be valuable if it may not actually get formatted). If capture_locals is True the local variables in each FrameSummary are captured as object representations.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Exceptions raised from repr() on a local variable (when capture_locals is True) are no longer propagated to the caller.

classmethod from_list(a_list)

Construct a StackSummary object from a supplied list of FrameSummary objects or old-style list of tuples. Each tuple should be a 4-tuple with filename, lineno, name, line as the elements.

format()

Returns a list of strings ready for printing. Each string in the resulting list corresponds to a single frame from the stack. Each string ends in a newline; the strings may contain internal newlines as well, for those items with source text lines.

For long sequences of the same frame and line, the first few repetitions are shown, followed by a summary line stating the exact number of further repetitions.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Long sequences of repeated frames are now abbreviated.

format_frame_summary(frame_summary)

Returns a string for printing one of the frames involved in the stack. This method is called for each FrameSummary object to be printed by StackSummary.format(). If it returns None, the frame is omitted from the output.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

FrameSummary Objects

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

A FrameSummary object represents a single frame in a traceback.

class traceback.FrameSummary(filename, lineno, name, *, lookup_line=True, locals=None, line=None, end_lineno=None, colno=None, end_colno=None)

Represents a single frame in the traceback or stack that is being formatted or printed. It may optionally have a stringified version of the frame's locals included in it. If lookup_line is False, the source code is not looked up until the FrameSummary has the line attribute accessed (which also happens when casting it to a tuple). line may be directly provided, and will prevent line lookups happening at all. locals is an optional local variable mapping, and if supplied the variable representations are stored in the summary for later display.

FrameSummary instances have the following attributes:

filename

The filename of the source code for this frame. Equivalent to accessing f.f_code.co_filename on a frame object f.

lineno

The line number of the source code for this frame.

name

Equivalent to accessing f.f_code.co_name on a frame object f.

line

A string representing the source code for this frame, with leading and trailing whitespace stripped. If the source is not available, it is None.

end_lineno

The last line number of the source code for this frame. By default, it is set to lineno and indexation starts from 1.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: The default value changed from None to lineno.

colno

The column number of the source code for this frame. By default, it is None and indexation starts from 0.

end_colno

The last column number of the source code for this frame. By default, it is None and indexation starts from 0.

Examples of Using the Module-Level Functions

This simple example implements a basic read-eval-print loop, similar to (but less useful than) the standard Python interactive interpreter loop. For a more complete implementation of the interpreter loop, refer to the code module.

import sys, traceback

def run_user_code(envdir):
    source = input(">>> ")
    try:
        exec(source, envdir)
    except Exception:
        print("Exception in user code:")
        print("-"*60)
        traceback.print_exc(file=sys.stdout)
        print("-"*60)

envdir = {}
while True:
    run_user_code(envdir)

The following example demonstrates the different ways to print and format the exception and traceback:

import sys, traceback

def lumberjack():
    bright_side_of_life()

def bright_side_of_life():
    return tuple()[0]

try:
    lumberjack()
except IndexError as exc:
    print("*** print_tb:")
    traceback.print_tb(exc.__traceback__, limit=1, file=sys.stdout)
    print("*** print_exception:")
    traceback.print_exception(exc, limit=2, file=sys.stdout)
    print("*** print_exc:")
    traceback.print_exc(limit=2, file=sys.stdout)
    print("*** format_exc, first and last line:")
    formatted_lines = traceback.format_exc().splitlines()
    print(formatted_lines[0])
    print(formatted_lines[-1])
    print("*** format_exception:")
    print(repr(traceback.format_exception(exc)))
    print("*** extract_tb:")
    print(repr(traceback.extract_tb(exc.__traceback__)))
    print("*** format_tb:")
    print(repr(traceback.format_tb(exc.__traceback__)))
    print("*** tb_lineno:", exc.__traceback__.tb_lineno)

The output for the example would look similar to this:

*** print_tb:
  File "<doctest...>", line 10, in <module>
    lumberjack()
    ~~~~~~~~~~^^
*** print_exception:
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<doctest...>", line 10, in <module>
    lumberjack()
    ~~~~~~~~~~^^
  File "<doctest...>", line 4, in lumberjack
    bright_side_of_life()
    ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^
IndexError: tuple index out of range
*** print_exc:
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<doctest...>", line 10, in <module>
    lumberjack()
    ~~~~~~~~~~^^
  File "<doctest...>", line 4, in lumberjack
    bright_side_of_life()
    ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^
IndexError: tuple index out of range
*** format_exc, first and last line:
Traceback (most recent call last):
IndexError: tuple index out of range
*** format_exception:
['Traceback (most recent call last):\n',
 '  File "<doctest default[0]>", line 10, in <module>\n    lumberjack()\n    ~~~~~~~~~~^^\n',
 '  File "<doctest default[0]>", line 4, in lumberjack\n    bright_side_of_life()\n    ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^\n',
 '  File "<doctest default[0]>", line 7, in bright_side_of_life\n    return tuple()[0]\n           ~~~~~~~^^^\n',
 'IndexError: tuple index out of range\n']
*** extract_tb:
[<FrameSummary file <doctest...>, line 10 in <module>>,
 <FrameSummary file <doctest...>, line 4 in lumberjack>,
 <FrameSummary file <doctest...>, line 7 in bright_side_of_life>]
*** format_tb:
['  File "<doctest default[0]>", line 10, in <module>\n    lumberjack()\n    ~~~~~~~~~~^^\n',
 '  File "<doctest default[0]>", line 4, in lumberjack\n    bright_side_of_life()\n    ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^\n',
 '  File "<doctest default[0]>", line 7, in bright_side_of_life\n    return tuple()[0]\n           ~~~~~~~^^^\n']
*** tb_lineno: 10

The following example shows the different ways to print and format the stack:

>>> import traceback
>>> def another_function():
...     lumberstack()
...
>>> def lumberstack():
...     traceback.print_stack()
...     print(repr(traceback.extract_stack()))
...     print(repr(traceback.format_stack()))
...
>>> another_function()
  File "<doctest>", line 10, in <module>
    another_function()
  File "<doctest>", line 3, in another_function
    lumberstack()
  File "<doctest>", line 6, in lumberstack
    traceback.print_stack()
[('<doctest>', 10, '<module>', 'another_function()'),
 ('<doctest>', 3, 'another_function', 'lumberstack()'),
 ('<doctest>', 7, 'lumberstack', 'print(repr(traceback.extract_stack()))')]
['  File "<doctest>", line 10, in <module>\n    another_function()\n',
 '  File "<doctest>", line 3, in another_function\n    lumberstack()\n',
 '  File "<doctest>", line 8, in lumberstack\n    print(repr(traceback.format_stack()))\n']

This last example demonstrates the final few formatting functions:

>>> import traceback
>>> traceback.format_list([('spam.py', 3, '<module>', 'spam.eggs()'),
...                        ('eggs.py', 42, 'eggs', 'return "bacon"')])
['  File "spam.py", line 3, in <module>\n    spam.eggs()\n',
 '  File "eggs.py", line 42, in eggs\n    return "bacon"\n']
>>> an_error = IndexError('tuple index out of range')
>>> traceback.format_exception_only(an_error)
['IndexError: tuple index out of range\n']

Examples of Using TracebackException

With the helper class, we have more options:

>>> import sys
>>> from traceback import TracebackException
>>>
>>> def lumberjack():
...     bright_side_of_life()
...
>>> def bright_side_of_life():
...     t = "bright", "side", "of", "life"
...     return t[5]
...
>>> try:
...     lumberjack()
... except IndexError as e:
...     exc = e
...
>>> try:
...     try:
...         lumberjack()
...     except:
...         1/0
... except Exception as e:
...     chained_exc = e
...
>>> # limit works as with the module-level functions
>>> TracebackException.from_exception(exc, limit=-2).print()
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<python-input-1>", line 6, in lumberjack
    bright_side_of_life()
    ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^
  File "<python-input-1>", line 10, in bright_side_of_life
    return t[5]
           ~^^^
IndexError: tuple index out of range

>>> # capture_locals adds local variables in frames
>>> TracebackException.from_exception(exc, limit=-2, capture_locals=True).print()
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<python-input-1>", line 6, in lumberjack
    bright_side_of_life()
    ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^
  File "<python-input-1>", line 10, in bright_side_of_life
    return t[5]
           ~^^^
    t = ("bright", "side", "of", "life")
IndexError: tuple index out of range

>>> # The *chain* kwarg to print() controls whether chained
>>> # exceptions are displayed
>>> TracebackException.from_exception(chained_exc).print()
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<python-input-19>", line 4, in <module>
    lumberjack()
    ~~~~~~~~~~^^
  File "<python-input-8>", line 7, in lumberjack
    bright_side_of_life()
    ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^
  File "<python-input-8>", line 11, in bright_side_of_life
    return t[5]
           ~^^^
IndexError: tuple index out of range

During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred:

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<python-input-19>", line 6, in <module>
    1/0
    ~^~
ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

>>> TracebackException.from_exception(chained_exc).print(chain=False)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<python-input-19>", line 6, in <module>
    1/0
    ~^~
ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

__future__ --- Future statement definitions

Source code: Lib/_future_.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/_future_.py]

Imports of the form from __future__ import feature are called future statements. These are special-cased by the Python compiler to allow the use of new Python features in modules containing the future statement before the release in which the feature becomes standard.

While these future statements are given additional special meaning by the Python compiler, they are still executed like any other import statement and the __future__ exists and is handled by the import system the same way any other Python module would be. This design serves three purposes:

éviter de dérouter les outils existants qui analysent les instructions d'importation et s'attendent à trouver les modules qu'ils importent ;

To document when incompatible changes were introduced, and when they will be --- or were --- made mandatory. This is a form of executable documentation, and can be inspected programmatically via importing __future__ and examining its contents.

To ensure that future statements run under releases prior to Python 2.1 at least yield runtime exceptions (the import of __future__ will fail, because there was no module of that name prior to 2.1).

Contenu du module

No feature description will ever be deleted from __future__. Since its introduction in Python 2.1 the following features have found their way into the language using this mechanism:

fonctionnalité

optionnel dans

obligatoire dans

effet

__future__.nested_scopes

2.1.0b1

2.2

PEP 227 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0227/] : Portées imbriquées

__future__.generators

2.2.0a1

2.3

PEP 255 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0255/] : Générateurs simples

__future__.division

2.2.0a2

3.0

PEP 238 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0238/] : Changement de l'opérateur de division

__future__.absolute_import

2.5.0a1

3.0

PEP 328 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/] : Importations : multilignes et absolues/relatives (ressource en anglais)

__future__.with_statement

2.5.0a1

2.6

PEP 343 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/]: The “with” Statement

__future__.print_function

2.6.0a2

3.0

PEP 3105 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3105/] : Transformation de print en fonction

__future__.unicode_literals

2.6.0a2

3.0

PEP 3112 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3112/] : Chaînes d'octets littéraux en Python 3000

__future__.generator_stop

3.5.0b1

3.7

PEP 479 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/] : Gestion de *StopIteration à l’intérieur des générateurs*

__future__.annotations

3.7.0b1

Never [1]

PEP 563 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/]: Postponed evaluation of annotations, PEP 649 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/]: Deferred evaluation of annotations using descriptors

class __future__._Feature

Chaque instruction dans __future__.py est de la forme :

FeatureName = _Feature(OptionalRelease, MandatoryRelease,
                       CompilerFlag)

où, normalement, OptionalRelease est inférieur à MandatoryRelease, et les deux sont des quintuplets de la même forme que sys.version_info :

(PY_MAJOR_VERSION, # the 2 in 2.1.0a3; an int
 PY_MINOR_VERSION, # the 1; an int
 PY_MICRO_VERSION, # the 0; an int
 PY_RELEASE_LEVEL, # "alpha", "beta", "candidate" or "final"; string
 PY_RELEASE_SERIAL # the 3; an int
)

_Feature.getOptionalRelease()

OptionalRelease enregistre la première version dans laquelle la fonctionnalité a été acceptée.

_Feature.getMandatoryRelease()

Dans le cas d'un MandatoryRelease qui n'a pas encore eu lieu, MandatoryRelease prédit la release dans laquelle la fonctionnalité deviendra un élément du langage.

Sinon MandatoryRelease enregistre lorsque la fonctionnalité est devenue une partie du langage ; dans cette version ou les suivantes, les modules n'ont plus besoin d'une déclaration future pour utiliser la fonctionnalité en question, mais ils peuvent continuer à utiliser ces importations.

MandatoryRelease may also be None, meaning that a planned feature got dropped or that it is not yet decided.

_Feature.compiler_flag

CompilerFlag is the (bitfield) flag that should be passed in the fourth argument to the built-in function compile() to enable the feature in dynamically compiled code. This flag is stored in the _Feature.compiler_flag attribute on _Feature instances.

[1]

from __future__ import annotations was previously scheduled to become mandatory in Python 3.10, but the change was delayed and ultimately canceled. This feature will eventually be deprecated and removed. See PEP 649 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/] and PEP 749 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0749/].

Voir aussi

L'instruction future

Comment le compilateur gère les importations « futures ».

PEP 236 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0236/] — retour vers le __future__

La proposition originale pour le mécanisme de __future__.

gc --- Garbage Collector interface

Ce module constitue une interface au ramasse-miettes facultatif. Il permet de désactiver le ramasse-miettes ou de régler la fréquence des passages. Il fournit des options de débogage, et donne aussi accès aux objets qui ne peuvent pas être détruits bien qu'ils aient été détectés comme non référencés. Le ramasse-miettes vient en complément du système de comptage de références, et peut donc être désactivé pour du code qui ne crée aucun cycle de références. On le désactive avec gc.disable(). Pour remonter à la source d'une fuite de mémoire, utilisez gc.set_debug(gc.DEBUG_LEAK). Notez que gc.DEBUG_LEAK inclut gc.DEBUG_SAVEALL. Cette dernière option fait que les objets inatteignables, au lieu d'être détruits, sont placés dans la liste gc.garbage pour pouvoir y être examinés.

The gc module provides the following functions:

gc.enable()

Active le ramasse-miettes.

gc.disable()

Désactive le ramasse-miettes.

gc.isenabled()

Renvoie True ou False selon que le ramasse-miettes est activé ou non.

gc.collect(generation=2)

Perform a collection. The optional argument generation may be an integer specifying which generation to collect (from 0 to 2). A ValueError is raised if the generation number is invalid. The sum of collected objects and uncollectable objects is returned.

Calling gc.collect(0) will perform a GC collection on the young generation.

Calling gc.collect(1) will perform a GC collection on the young generation and an increment of the old generation.

Calling gc.collect(2) or gc.collect() performs a full collection

The free lists maintained for a number of built-in types are cleared whenever a full collection or collection of the highest generation (2) is run. Not all items in some free lists may be freed due to the particular implementation, in particular float.

The effect of calling gc.collect() while the interpreter is already performing a collection is undefined.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: generation=1 performs an increment of collection.

gc.set_debug(flags)

Change les options de débogage du ramasse-miettes, qui activent l'écriture d'informations sur sys.stderr. Une liste d'options se trouve plus bas. Les options peuvent se combiner par les opérateurs bit à bit.

gc.get_debug()

Renvoie les options de débogage actives.

gc.get_objects(generation=None)

Returns a list of all objects tracked by the collector, excluding the list returned. If generation is not None, return only the objects as follows:

0: All objects in the young generation

1: No objects, as there is no generation 1 (as of Python 3.14)

2: All objects in the old generation

Modifié dans la version 3.8: ajout du paramètre generation.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Generation 1 is removed

Lève un événement d'audit gc.get_objects avec l'argument generation.

gc.get_stats()

Renvoie une liste de trois dictionnaires, un par génération. Ils contiennent des statistiques sur l'action du ramasse-miettes depuis le lancement de l'interpréteur. Les clés actuellement présentes sont les suivantes (d'autres pourraient être ajoutées dans des versions ultérieures) :

collections, le nombre de fois où cette génération a été examinée par le ramasse-miettes ;

collected, le nombre total d'objets qui ont été détruits alors qu'ils étaient dans cette génération ;

uncollectable, le nombre total d'objets qui ont été identifiés comme indestructibles (et donc ajoutés à la liste garbage) au sein de cette génération.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

gc.set_threshold(threshold0[, threshold1[, threshold2]])

Règle les seuils de déclenchement du ramasse-miettes, qui déterminent sa fréquence de passage. Si threshold0 est mis à zéro, le ramasse-miettes ne passe jamais.

The GC classifies objects into two generations depending on whether they have survived a collection. New objects are placed in the young generation. If an object survives a collection it is moved into the old generation.

In order to decide when to run, the collector keeps track of the number of object allocations and deallocations since the last collection. When the number of allocations minus the number of deallocations exceeds threshold0, collection starts. For each collection, all the objects in the young generation and some fraction of the old generation is collected.

In the free-threaded build, the increase in process memory usage is also checked before running the collector. If the memory usage has not increased by 10% since the last collection and the net number of object allocations has not exceeded 40 times threshold0, the collection is not run.

The fraction of the old generation that is collected is inversely proportional to threshold1. The larger threshold1 is, the slower objects in the old generation are collected. For the default value of 10, 1% of the old generation is scanned during each collection.

threshold2 is ignored.

See Garbage collector design [https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.14/InternalDocs/garbage_collector.md] for more information.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: threshold2 is ignored

gc.get_count()

Renvoie un triplet des nombres totaux de passages effectués par génération.

gc.get_threshold()

Renvoie les seuils de passage sous la forme du triplet (threshold0, threshold1, threshold2).

gc.get_referrers(*objs)

Renvoie la liste des objets qui contiennent directement une référence à l'un quelconque des arguments. Il est à noter que cette fonction prend uniquement en compte les objets suivis par le ramasse-miettes, ce qui exclut les instances de certains types d'extension qui contiennent bien des références sans pour autant prendre en charge le ramassage des miettes.

La liste renvoyée peut contenir des objets déjà isolés, mais maintenus en mémoire à cause d'un cycle. Pour les exclure, appelez collect() juste avant get_referrers().

Avertissement

La manipulation des objets renvoyés par get_referrers() est hasardeuse car ils risquent d'être encore en cours d'initialisation, donc dans un état temporairement instable. Mieux vaut réserver get_referrers() au débogage.

Lève un événement d'audit gc.get_referrers avec l'argument objs.

gc.get_referents(*objs)

Renvoie une liste des objets pointés par les références que contiennent les arguments. Ils sont déterminés en appelant, si présente, la méthode C tp_traverse de chaque argument, qui visite les objets auxquels cet argument fait référence. Il est à noter que tp_traverse n'est définie que par les objets qui gèrent le ramassage des miettes, et n'a l'obligation de visiter que les objets qui peuvent potentiellement faire partie d'un cycle. Ainsi, la liste renvoyée par cette fonction ne contient par forcément tous les objets qu'il est possible d'atteindre à partir des arguments. Par exemple, si l'un des arguments contient un entier, ce dernier objet peut être présent ou non dans la liste.

Lève un événement d'audit gc.get_referents avec l'argument objs.

gc.is_tracked(obj)

Renvoie True ou False selon que l'argument est suivi ou non par le ramasse-miettes. En règle générale, les objets atomiques ne sont pas suivis, tandis que les objets non-atomiques, tels que les conteneurs et instances de classes définies par l'utilisateur, le sont. Cependant, certains types présentent des optimisations qui permettent de se passer avantageusement du ramasse-miettes dans les cas simples, comme les dictionnaires dont toutes les clés et valeurs sont atomiques :

>>> gc.is_tracked(0)
False
>>> gc.is_tracked("a")
False
>>> gc.is_tracked([])
True
>>> gc.is_tracked({})
False
>>> gc.is_tracked({"a": 1})
True

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

gc.is_finalized(obj)

Renvoie True ou False selon que l'argument a été finalisé par le ramasse-miettes.

>>> x = None
>>> class Lazarus:
...     def __del__(self):
...         global x
...         x = self
...
>>> lazarus = Lazarus()
>>> gc.is_finalized(lazarus)
False
>>> del lazarus
>>> gc.is_finalized(x)
True

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

gc.freeze()

Freeze all the objects tracked by the garbage collector; move them to a permanent generation and ignore them in all the future collections.

If a process will fork() without exec(), avoiding unnecessary copy-on-write in child processes will maximize memory sharing and reduce overall memory usage. This requires both avoiding creation of freed "holes" in memory pages in the parent process and ensuring that GC collections in child processes won't touch the gc_refs counter of long-lived objects originating in the parent process. To accomplish both, call gc.disable() early in the parent process, gc.freeze() right before fork(), and gc.enable() early in child processes.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

gc.unfreeze()

Unfreeze the objects in the permanent generation, put them back into the oldest generation.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

gc.get_freeze_count()

Return the number of objects in the permanent generation.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Les variables suivantes sont publiques, mais elles ne sont pas censées être modifiées (vous pouvez les muter, mais pas les redéfinir) :

gc.garbage

Liste des objets indestructibles, que le ramasse-miettes n'a pas pu éliminer bien qu'ils soient inatteignables. Depuis Python 3.4, cette liste demeure la plupart du temps vide. Elle peut se remplir si le programme fait appel à des types d'extension définis en C avec un champ tp_del différent de NULL.

Si DEBUG_SAVEALL est actif, tous les objets inatteignables sont ajoutés à cette liste au lieu d'être détruits.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Si cette liste n'est pas vide lors de l'arrêt de l'interpréteur, un ResourceWarning est émis (les avertissements de ce type sont silencieux par défaut). De plus, si DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE est actif, tous les objets indestructibles sont affichés.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Following PEP 442 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/], objects with a __del__() method don't end up in gc.garbage anymore.

gc.callbacks

Liste de fonctions de rappel lancées par le ramasse-miettes avant et après un passage. Elles prennent deux arguments, phase et info.

phase peut prendre deux valeurs :

"start" lorsque le passage du ramasse-miettes est imminent.

"stop" lorsque le passage du ramasse-miettes vient de se terminer.

info est un dictionnaire qui donne plus d'informations à la fonction de rappel. Les clés suivantes sont actuellement présentes :

"generation", la génération la plus âgée intégrée à ce passage ;

"collected" : si phase vaut "stop", le nombre d'objets détruits avec succès ;

"uncollectable" : si phase vaut "stop", le nombre d'objets indestructibles ajoutés à garbage.

Toute application peut ajouter ses propres fonctions de rappel à cette liste. Voici les principales applications :

Faire des statistiques sur le passage du ramasse-miettes, par exemple la fréquence à laquelle chaque génération est examinée, ou bien le temps d'un passage ;

Identifier les types définis par une application dont les instances s'ajoutent à garbage car elles sont indestructibles.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Les constantes suivantes définissent les options de débogage que l'on peut passer à set_debug() :

gc.DEBUG_STATS

Affiche des statistiques durant les passages du ramasse-miettes. Utile pour pouvoir régler la fréquence des passages.

gc.DEBUG_COLLECTABLE

Affiche des informations sur les objets détruits.

gc.DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE

Affiche des informations sur les objets indestructibles (ceux qui sont ajoutés à la liste garbage, qui sont inatteignables mais dont la mémoire ne peut pas être libérée).

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Affiche également le contenu de garbage à l'arrêt de l'interpréteur, pour peu que cette liste ne soit pas vide.

gc.DEBUG_SAVEALL

Lorsque cette option est active, les objets inatteignables sont ajoutés à la liste garbage au lieu d'être supprimés. Ceci est utile pour déboguer une fuite de mémoire.

gc.DEBUG_LEAK

Combinaison des options utiles au débogage d'une fuite de mémoire. Il s'agit d'un raccourci pour DEBUG_COLLECTABLE|DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE|DEBUG_SAVEALL.

inspect --- Inspect live objects

Code source : Lib/inspect.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/inspect.py]

The inspect module provides several useful functions to help get information about live objects such as modules, classes, methods, functions, tracebacks, frame objects, and code objects. For example, it can help you examine the contents of a class, retrieve the source code of a method, extract and format the argument list for a function, or get all the information you need to display a detailed traceback.

Ce module donne accès à 4 types de services : vérification de typage, obtention de code source, inspection de classes et de fonctions et examen de la pile d'exécution.

Types et membres

The getmembers() function retrieves the members of an object such as a class or module. The functions whose names begin with "is" are mainly provided as convenient choices for the second argument to getmembers(). They also help you determine when you can expect to find the following special attributes (see Import-related attributes on module objects for module attributes):

Type

Attribut

Description

classe

__doc__

texte de documentation

__name__

nom de la classe lors de sa définition

__qualname__

nom qualifié

__module__

nom du module contenant la classe lors de sa définition

__type_params__

A tuple containing the type parameters of a generic class

méthode

__doc__

texte de documentation

__name__

nom de la méthode lors de sa définition

__qualname__

nom qualifié

__func__

objet fonction contenant l'implémentation de la méthode

__self__

instance à laquelle cette méthode est liée, ou None

__module__

nom du module contenant la méthode lors de sa définition

fonction

__doc__

texte de documentation

__name__

nom de la fonction lors de sa définition

__qualname__

nom qualifié

__code__

objet code contenant le code intermédiaire d'une fonction compilée

__defaults__

n-uplet de valeurs par défaut pour arguments positionnels ou nommés

__kwdefaults__

tableau de correspondance de valeurs par défaut pour les paramètres nommés

__globals__

espace de nommage global lors de la définition de la fonction

__builtins__

builtins namespace

__annotations__

tableau de correspondance des paramètres à leur annotation ; "return" est un mot-clé réservé pour les annotations de type renvoyé.

__type_params__

A tuple containing the type parameters of a generic function

__module__

nom du module contenant la fonction lors de sa définition

traceback

tb_frame

objet cadre à ce niveau

tb_lasti

index de la dernière instruction lancée dans le code intermédiaire (bytecode)

tb_lineno

numéro de ligne courant dans le code source Python

tb_next

trace de pile interne suivante (appel par le cadre courant)

cadre

f_back

trace d'exécution externe suivante (le contexte appelant du cadre courant)

f_builtins

espace de nommage natif du cadre courant

f_code

objet code exécuté dans le cadre courant

f_globals

espace de nommage global tel que vu par cadre courant

f_lasti

index de la dernière instruction lancée dans le code intermédiaire (bytecode)

f_lineno

numéro de ligne courant dans le code source Python

f_locals

espace de nommage local du cadre courant

f_generator

returns the generator or coroutine object that owns this frame, or None if the frame is of a regular function

f_trace

fonction de traçage du cadre courant, ou None

f_trace_lines

indicate whether a tracing event is triggered for each source source line

f_trace_opcodes

indicate whether per-opcode events are requested

clear()

used to clear all references to local variables

code

co_argcount

nombre d'arguments (excluant les arguments keyword-only, * ou **)

co_code

texte du code intermédiaire compilé

co_cellvars

n-uplet du nom des cellules variables (référencées par leur contexte)

co_consts

n-uplet des constantes utilisées dans le code intermédiaire (bytecode)

co_filename

nom du fichier dans lequel cet objet code a été créé

co_firstlineno

numéro de la première ligne dans le code source Python

co_flags

bitmap des options CO_*, voir plus ici

co_lnotab

tableau de correspondance encodée des numéros de ligne aux numéros d'indices du code intermédiaire (bytecode)

co_freevars

n-uplet des noms de variables libres (référencées par la fermeture (closure en anglais) d'une fonction)

co_posonlyargcount

nombre d'arguments positionnels

co_kwonlyargcount

nombre d'arguments keywords-only (excluant les arguments **)

co_name

nom de l'objet code lors de sa définition

co_qualname

fully qualified name with which this code object was defined

co_names

tuple of names other than arguments and function locals

co_nlocals

nombre de variables locales

co_stacksize

espace requis pour la pile de la machine virtuelle

co_varnames

n-uplet des noms des arguments et variables locales

co_lines()

returns an iterator that yields successive bytecode ranges

co_positions()

returns an iterator of source code positions for each bytecode instruction

replace()

returns a copy of the code object with new values

generator

__name__

nom

__qualname__

nom qualifié

gi_frame

cadre

gi_running

est-ce que le générateur est en cours d'exécution ?

gi_suspended

is the generator suspended?

gi_code

code

gi_yieldfrom

objet pointé par l'itérateur yield from, ou None

async generator

__name__

nom

__qualname__

nom qualifié

cr_await

objet sur lequel on attend (await) présentement, ou None

gi_frame

cadre

ag_running

est-ce que le générateur est en cours d'exécution ?

ag_suspended

is the generator suspended?

ag_code

code

coroutine

__name__

nom

__qualname__

nom qualifié

cr_await

objet sur lequel on attend (await) présentement, ou None

cr_frame

cadre

cr_running

est-ce que la coroutine est en cours d'exécution ?

cr_suspended

is the coroutine suspended?

cr_code

code

cr_origin

lieu de création de la coroutine, ou None. Voir sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth()

builtin

__doc__

texte de documentation

__name__

nom originel de cette fonction ou méthode

__qualname__

nom qualifié

__self__

instance à laquelle est liée une méthode, ou None

Modifié dans la version 3.5: ajout des attributs __qualname et gi_yieldfrom aux générateurs.

L'attribut __name__ du générateur est maintenant déterminé par le nom de la fonction, plutôt que le nom du code, et peut maintenant être modifié.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Ajout de l'attribut cr_origin aux coroutines.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Add __builtins__ attribute to functions.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Add gi_suspended attribute to generators.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Add cr_suspended attribute to coroutines.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Add ag_suspended attribute to async generators.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Add f_generator attribute to frames.

inspect.getmembers(object[, predicate])

Renvoie tous les membres d'un objet sous la forme d'une liste de paires (nom, valeur), ordonnée par nom. Si l'argument predicate (qui sera appelé avec la valeur de chaque membre) est fourni, seuls les membres pour lequel le prédicat est vrai seront inclus.

Note

getmembers() will only return class attributes defined in the metaclass when the argument is a class and those attributes have been listed in the metaclass' custom __dir__().

inspect.getmembers_static(object[, predicate])

Return all the members of an object in a list of (name, value) pairs sorted by name without triggering dynamic lookup via the descriptor protocol, __getattr__ or __getattribute__. Optionally, only return members that satisfy a given predicate.

Note

getmembers_static() may not be able to retrieve all members that getmembers can fetch (like dynamically created attributes) and may find members that getmembers can't (like descriptors that raise AttributeError). It can also return descriptor objects instead of instance members in some cases.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

inspect.getmodulename(path)

Renvoie le nom du module indiqué par le fichier path, excluant le nom des paquets englobants. L'extension du fichier est vérifiée parmi toutes les entrées renvoyées par importlib.machinery.all_suffixes(). S'il y a une correspondance, le chemin final est renvoyé, sans l'extension. Autrement, None est renvoyé.

Notez que cette fonction renvoie un nom significatif seulement pour les modules Python - les chemins qui réfèrent à des paquets Python donnent toujours None.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: La fonction est basée directement sur importlib.

inspect.ismodule(object)

Renvoie True si l'objet est un module.

inspect.isclass(object)

Renvoie True si l'objet est une classe, qu'il s'agisse d'un objet natif ou qu'elle soit écrite en Python.

inspect.ismethod(object)

Renvoie True si l'objet est une méthode liée écrite en Python.

inspect.ispackage(object)

Return True if the object is a package.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

inspect.isfunction(object)

Renvoie True si l'objet est une fonction Python, ce qui inclut les fonctions créées par une expression lambda.

inspect.isgeneratorfunction(object)

Renvoie True si l'objet est un générateur.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: les fonctions englobées dans functools.partial() renvoient maintenant True si la fonction englobée est un générateur Python.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Functions wrapped in functools.partialmethod() now return True if the wrapped function is a Python generator function.

inspect.isgenerator(object)

Renvoie True si l'objet est un générateur.

inspect.iscoroutinefunction(object)

Return True if the object is a coroutine function (a function defined with an async def syntax), a functools.partial() wrapping a coroutine function, or a sync function marked with markcoroutinefunction().

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: les fonctions englobées par functools.partial() renvoient maintenant True si la fonction englobée est une coroutine.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Sync functions marked with markcoroutinefunction() now return True.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Functions wrapped in functools.partialmethod() now return True if the wrapped function is a coroutine function.

inspect.markcoroutinefunction(func)

Decorator to mark a callable as a coroutine function if it would not otherwise be detected by iscoroutinefunction().

This may be of use for sync functions that return a coroutine, if the function is passed to an API that requires iscoroutinefunction().

When possible, using an async def function is preferred. Also acceptable is calling the function and testing the return with iscoroutine().

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

inspect.iscoroutine(object)

Renvoie True si l'objet est une coroutine créée par une fonction async def.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

inspect.isawaitable(object)

Renvoie True si l'objet peut être utilisé par une expression await.

Can also be used to distinguish generator-based coroutines from regular generators:

import types

def gen():
    yield
@types.coroutine
def gen_coro():
    yield

assert not isawaitable(gen())
assert isawaitable(gen_coro())

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

inspect.isasyncgenfunction(object)

Return True if the object is an asynchronous generator function, for example:

>>> async def agen():
...     yield 1
...
>>> inspect.isasyncgenfunction(agen)
True

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Functions wrapped in functools.partial() now return True if the wrapped function is an asynchronous generator function.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Functions wrapped in functools.partialmethod() now return True if the wrapped function is a asynchronous generator function.

inspect.isasyncgen(object)

Renvoie True si l'objet est un itérateur de générateur asynchrone créé par une fonction génératrice asynchrone.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

inspect.istraceback(object)

Renvoie True si l'objet est une trace d'exécution.

inspect.isframe(object)

Renvoie True si l'objet est un cadre.

inspect.iscode(object)

Renvoie True si l'objet est un code.

inspect.isbuiltin(object)

Renvoie True si l'objet est une fonction native ou une méthode liée native.

inspect.ismethodwrapper(object)

Return True if the type of object is a MethodWrapperType.

These are instances of MethodWrapperType, such as __str__(), __eq__() and __repr__().

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

inspect.isroutine(object)

Renvoie True si l'objet est une fonction, qu'elle soit définie par l'utilisateur, native, ou une méthode.

inspect.isabstract(object)

Renvoie True si l'objet est une classe de base abstraite.

inspect.ismethoddescriptor(object)

Renvoie True si l'objet est un descripteur de méthode sauf si ismethod(), isclass(), isfunction() ou isbuiltin() sont vrais (True).

This, for example, is true of int.__add__. An object passing this test has a __get__() method, but not a __set__() method or a __delete__() method. Beyond that, the set of attributes varies. A __name__ attribute is usually sensible, and __doc__ often is.

Methods implemented via descriptors that also pass one of the other tests return False from the ismethoddescriptor() test, simply because the other tests promise more -- you can, e.g., count on having the __func__ attribute (etc) when an object passes ismethod().

Modifié dans la version 3.13: This function no longer incorrectly reports objects with __get__() and __delete__(), but not __set__(), as being method descriptors (such objects are data descriptors, not method descriptors).

inspect.isdatadescriptor(object)

Renvoie True si l'objet est un descripteur de données.

Data descriptors have a __set__ or a __delete__ method. Examples are properties (defined in Python), getsets, and members. The latter two are defined in C and there are more specific tests available for those types, which is robust across Python implementations. Typically, data descriptors will also have __name__ and __doc__ attributes (properties, getsets, and members have both of these attributes), but this is not guaranteed.

inspect.isgetsetdescriptor(object)

Renvoie True si l'objet est un descripteur getset.

getsets sont des attributs définis dans des extensions de modules via des structures PyGetSetDef. Pour les implémentations Python ne possédant pas ces types, cette méthode renvoie toujours False.

inspect.ismemberdescriptor(object)

Renvoie True si l'objet est un membre descripteur.

Les membres descripteurs sont des attributs définis dans des extensions de modules via des structures PyMemberDef. Pour les implémentations Python ne possédant pas ces types, cette méthode renvoie toujours False.

Récupération du code source

inspect.getdoc(object)

Get the documentation string for an object, cleaned up with cleandoc(). If the documentation string for an object is not provided and the object is a class, a method, a property or a descriptor, retrieve the documentation string from the inheritance hierarchy. Return None if the documentation string is invalid or missing.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: les chaînes de documentation sont maintenant héritées si elles ne sont pas surchargées.

inspect.getcomments(object)

Renvoie en une chaîne de caractères toute ligne de commentaire qui précède immédiatement le code source de l'objet (pour une classe, fonction ou méthode) ou en début d'un fichier de code source Python (si l'objet est un module). Si le code source de l'objet n'est pas disponible, renvoie None. Cela peut se produire si l'objet a été défini en C ou dans un interpréteur interactif.

inspect.getfile(object)

Renvoie le nom du fichier (texte ou binaire) dans lequel un objet a été défini. Cette méthode échoue avec TypeError si l'objet est un module, une classe ou une fonction native.

inspect.getmodule(object)

Try to guess which module an object was defined in. Return None if the module cannot be determined.

inspect.getsourcefile(object)

Return the name of the Python source file in which an object was defined or None if no way can be identified to get the source. This will fail with a TypeError if the object is a built-in module, class, or function.

inspect.getsourcelines(object)

Return a list of source lines and starting line number for an object. The argument may be a module, class, method, function, traceback, frame, or code object. The source code is returned as a list of the lines corresponding to the object and the line number indicates where in the original source file the first line of code was found. An OSError is raised if the source code cannot be retrieved. A TypeError is raised if the object is a built-in module, class, or function.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: OSError est levé plutôt que IOError, qui est maintenant un alias de ce premier.

inspect.getsource(object)

Return the text of the source code for an object. The argument may be a module, class, method, function, traceback, frame, or code object. The source code is returned as a single string. An OSError is raised if the source code cannot be retrieved. A TypeError is raised if the object is a built-in module, class, or function.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: OSError est levé plutôt que IOError, qui est maintenant un alias de ce premier.

inspect.cleandoc(doc)

Nettoie les indentations des chaînes de documentation qui sont indentées de manières à s'aligner avec les blocs de code.

Enlève tous les espaces blancs en début de ligne à partir de la première. Tout espace blanc en début de ligne qui puisse être enlevé de manière uniforme à partir de la seconde ligne le sera. Les lignes vides en début et en fin de document seront ensuite enlevées. Les tabulations seront converties en espaces.

Introspection des appelables avec l'objet Signature

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

The Signature object represents the call signature of a callable object and its return annotation. To retrieve a Signature object, use the signature() function.

inspect.signature(callable, *, follow_wrapped=True, globals=None, locals=None, eval_str=False, annotation_format=Format.VALUE)

Return a Signature object for the given callable:

>>> from inspect import signature
>>> def foo(a, *, b:int, **kwargs):
...     pass

>>> sig = signature(foo)

>>> str(sig)
'(a, *, b: int, **kwargs)'

>>> str(sig.parameters['b'])
'b: int'

>>> sig.parameters['b'].annotation
<class 'int'>

La fonction accepte une grande étendue d'appelables Python, des fonctions et classes jusqu'aux objets functools.partials().

If some of the annotations are strings (e.g., because from __future__ import annotations was used), signature() will attempt to automatically un-stringize the annotations using annotationlib.get_annotations(). The globals, locals, and eval_str parameters are passed into annotationlib.get_annotations() when resolving the annotations; see the documentation for annotationlib.get_annotations() for instructions on how to use these parameters. A member of the annotationlib.Format enum can be passed to the annotation_format parameter to control the format of the returned annotations. For example, use annotation_format=annotationlib.Format.STRING to return annotations in string format.

Raises ValueError if no signature can be provided, and TypeError if that type of object is not supported. Also, if the annotations are stringized, and eval_str is not false, the eval() call(s) to un-stringize the annotations in annotationlib.get_annotations() could potentially raise any kind of exception.

A slash (/) in the signature of a function denotes that the parameters prior to it are positional-only. For more info, see the FAQ entry on positional-only parameters.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: The follow_wrapped parameter was added. Pass False to get a signature of callable specifically (callable.__wrapped__ will not be used to unwrap decorated callables.)

Modifié dans la version 3.10: The globals, locals, and eval_str parameters were added.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: The annotation_format parameter was added.

Note

Certains appelables ne peuvent bénéficier d'introspection dans certains environnements Python. Par exemple, en CPython, certaines fonctions natives définies en C ne fournissent aucune métadonnée sur leurs arguments.

Particularité de l'implémentation CPython : If the passed object has a __signature__ attribute, we may use it to create the signature. The exact semantics are an implementation detail and are subject to unannounced changes. Consult the source code for current semantics.

class inspect.Signature(parameters=None, *, return_annotation=Signature.empty)

A Signature object represents the call signature of a function and its return annotation. For each parameter accepted by the function it stores a Parameter object in its parameters collection.

L'argument optionnel parameters est une séquence d'objets Parameters, qui permet de vérifier qu'il n'y a pas de duplication de noms de paramètres, que les paramètres sont dans le bon ordre (positionnels d'abord, positionnels ou nommés ensuite et que les paramètres avec valeurs par défaut sont placés après ceux qui n'en ont pas).

The optional return_annotation argument can be an arbitrary Python object. It represents the "return" annotation of the callable.

Signature objects are immutable. Use Signature.replace() or copy.replace() to make a modified copy.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Signature objects are now picklable and hashable.

empty

Un marqueur spécial, accessible via Signature.empty, indiquant l'absence d'une annotation de type renvoyé.

parameters

Une table de correspondance ordonnée des noms de paramètres avec les objets Parameter. Les paramètres apparaissent dans l'ordre strict de leur définition, incluant les paramètres exclusivement nommés.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Python ne garantit explicitement la préservation de l'ordre des paramètres exclusivement nommés que depuis la version 3.7, bien qu'en pratique cet ordre a toujours été préservé sous Python 3.

return_annotation

L'annotation du type renvoyé par l'appelable. Si l'appelable n'a pas d'annotation de type, cet attribut est évalué à Signature.empty.

bind(*args, **kwargs)

Crée une table de correspondance entre les arguments positionnels et nommés avec les paramètres. Renvoie BoundArguments si *args et **kwargs concordent avec la signature, autrement lève une TypeError.

bind_partial(*args, **kwargs)

Fonctionne de manière similaire à Signature.bind(), mais permet l'omission de certains arguments (semblable au comportement de functools.partial()). Renvoie BoundArguments, ou lève une TypeError si l'argument passé ne correspond pas à la signature.

replace(*[, parameters][, return_annotation])

Create a new Signature instance based on the instance replace() was invoked on. It is possible to pass different parameters and/or return_annotation to override the corresponding properties of the base signature. To remove return_annotation from the copied Signature, pass in Signature.empty.

>>> def test(a, b):
...     pass
...
>>> sig = signature(test)
>>> new_sig = sig.replace(return_annotation="new return anno")
>>> str(new_sig)
"(a, b) -> 'new return anno'"

Signature objects are also supported by the generic function copy.replace().

format(*, max_width=None, quote_annotation_strings=True)

Create a string representation of the Signature object.

If max_width is passed, the method will attempt to fit the signature into lines of at most max_width characters. If the signature is longer than max_width, all parameters will be on separate lines.

If quote_annotation_strings is False, annotations in the signature are displayed without opening and closing quotation marks if they are strings. This is useful if the signature was created with the STRING format or if from __future__ import annotations was used.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: The unquote_annotations parameter was added.

classmethod from_callable(obj, *, follow_wrapped=True, globals=None, locals=None, eval_str=False)

Return a Signature (or its subclass) object for a given callable obj.

This method simplifies subclassing of Signature:

class MySignature(Signature):
    pass
sig = MySignature.from_callable(sum)
assert isinstance(sig, MySignature)

Its behavior is otherwise identical to that of signature().

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: The globals, locals, and eval_str parameters were added.

class inspect.Parameter(name, kind, *, default=Parameter.empty, annotation=Parameter.empty)

Parameter objects are immutable. Instead of modifying a Parameter object, you can use Parameter.replace() or copy.replace() to create a modified copy.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Parameter objects are now picklable and hashable.

empty

Un marqueur spécial, accessible via Parameters.empty indiquant l'absence de valeurs par défaut et d'annotations.

name

Le nom du paramètre (chaîne de caractères). Le nom doit être un identifiant Python valide.

CPython génère un nom de paramètre implicite de forme .0 sur les objets de code utilisés pour implémenter les compréhensions et expressions génératrices.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: These parameter names are now exposed by this module as names like implicit0.

default

La valeur par défaut de ce paramètre. Si le paramètre n'a pas de valeur par défaut, cet attribut vaut Parameter.empty.

annotation

L'annotation du paramètre. Si le paramètre n'a pas d'annotation, cet attribut est défini à Parameter.empty.

kind

Describes how argument values are bound to the parameter. The possible values are accessible via Parameter (like Parameter.KEYWORD_ONLY), and support comparison and ordering, in the following order:

Nom

Signification

POSITIONAL_ONLY

La valeur doit être donnée comme argument positionnel. Les arguments exclusivement positionnels sont ceux qui apparaissent avant une entrée / (si présente) dans une définition de fonction Python.

POSITIONAL_OR_KEYWORD

La valeur peut être donnée comme argument nommé ou positionnel (ce qui est l'affectation de variable standard pour les fonctions implémentées en Python).

VAR_POSITIONAL

Un n-uplet d'arguments positionnels qui ne sont affectés à aucun autre paramètre. Cela correspond à un paramètre *args dans une définition de fonction Python.

KEYWORD_ONLY

La valeur doit être donnée comme argument nommé. Les arguments exclusivement nommés sont ceux qui apparaissent après un * ou *args dans une définition de fonction Python.

VAR_KEYWORD

Un dictionnaire d'arguments nommés qui ne sont liés à aucun autre paramètre. Cela correspond à une expression **kwargs dans une définition de fonction Python.

Example: print all keyword-only arguments without default values:

>>> def foo(a, b, *, c, d=10):
...     pass

>>> sig = signature(foo)
>>> for param in sig.parameters.values():
...     if (param.kind == param.KEYWORD_ONLY and
...                        param.default is param.empty):
...         print('Parameter:', param)
Parameter: c

kind.description

Describes an enum value of Parameter.kind.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

Example: print all descriptions of arguments:

>>> def foo(a, b, *, c, d=10):
...     pass

>>> sig = signature(foo)
>>> for param in sig.parameters.values():
...     print(param.kind.description)
positional or keyword
positional or keyword
keyword-only
keyword-only

replace(*[, name][, kind][, default][, annotation])

Create a new Parameter instance based on the instance replaced was invoked on. To override a Parameter attribute, pass the corresponding argument. To remove a default value or/and an annotation from a Parameter, pass Parameter.empty.

>>> from inspect import Parameter
>>> param = Parameter('foo', Parameter.KEYWORD_ONLY, default=42)
>>> str(param)
'foo=42'

>>> str(param.replace()) # Will create a shallow copy of 'param'
'foo=42'

>>> str(param.replace(default=Parameter.empty, annotation='spam'))
"foo: 'spam'"

Parameter objects are also supported by the generic function copy.replace().

Modifié dans la version 3.4: In Python 3.3 Parameter objects were allowed to have name set to None if their kind was set to POSITIONAL_ONLY. This is no longer permitted.

class inspect.BoundArguments

Le résultat d'un appel à Signature.bind() ou Signature.bind_partial(). Contient la correspondance entre les arguments et les paramètres de la fonction.

arguments

Une correspondance mutable entre les noms de paramètres et les valeurs des arguments. Contient seulement les arguments liés explicitement. Les changements dans arguments sont reflétés dans args et kwargs.

Doit être utilisé en combinaison avec Signature.parameters pour le traitement d'arguments.

Note

Les arguments pour lesquels Signature.bind() ou Signature.bind_partial() supposent une valeur par défaut sont ignorés. Au besoin, utiliser BoundArguments.apply_defaults() pour les inclure.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: arguments est maintenant de type dict. Anciennement, il était de type collections.OrderedDict.

args

Un n-uplets des valeurs d'arguments positionnels. Évalué dynamiquement à partir de l'attribut arguments.

kwargs

A dict of keyword arguments values. Dynamically computed from the arguments attribute. Arguments that can be passed positionally are included in args instead.

signature

Une référence à l'objet Signature de la classe parente.

apply_defaults()

Assigne les valeurs par défaut pour les arguments manquants.

Pour les arguments positionnels variables (*args) la valeur par défaut est un n-uplet vide.

Pour les arguments nommés variables (**kwargs) la valeur par défaut est un dictionnaire vide.

>>> def foo(a, b='ham', *args): pass
>>> ba = inspect.signature(foo).bind('spam')
>>> ba.apply_defaults()
>>> ba.arguments
{'a': 'spam', 'b': 'ham', 'args': ()}

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

The args and kwargs properties can be used to invoke functions:

def test(a, *, b):
    ...

sig = signature(test)
ba = sig.bind(10, b=20)
test(*ba.args, **ba.kwargs)

Voir aussi

PEP 362 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0362/] — Function Signature Object.

La spécification détaillée, détails d'implémentation et exemples.

Classes et fonctions

inspect.getclasstree(classes, unique=False)

Organise la liste de classes donnée en une hiérarchie de listes imbriquées. Lorsqu'une liste imbriquée apparaît, elle contient les classes dérivées de la classe dont l'entrée précède immédiatement cette liste. Chaque entrée est une paire contenant la classe et un n-uplet de ses classes de base. Si l'argument unique est vrai, exactement une entrée apparaît dans la structure renvoyée pour chaque classe de la liste donnée en argument. Autrement, les classes utilisant l'héritage multiple et ses descendantes apparaissent plusieurs fois.

inspect.getfullargspec(func)

Obtenir les noms et les valeurs par défaut des paramètres de fonction Python. Un n-uplet nommé est renvoyé :

FullArgSpec(args, varargs, varkw, defaults, kwonlyargs, kwonlydefaults, annotations)

args est une liste de noms de paramètres positionnels. varargs est le nom du paramètre * ou None si les arguments positionnels arbitraires ne sont pas acceptés. varkw est le nom du paramètre **, ou None si les paramètres arbitraires nommés ne sont pas acceptés. defaults est un n-uplet des valeurs des arguments par défaut correspondant aux derniers n arguments positionnels, ou None si aucun défaut n'est défini. kwonlyargs est une liste d'arguments exclusivement nommés, ordonnée selon l'ordre de déclaration. kwonlydefaults est un dictionnaire de correspondance entre les noms de paramètres de kwonlyargs et les valeurs par défaut utilisées si aucun argument n'est donné. annotations est un dictionnaire de correspondance entre les noms de paramètres et les annotations. La clef spéciale "return" est utilisée pour obtenir la valeur de retour de l'annotation la fonction (si elle existe).

Notez que signature() et Signature Object fournissent l'API recommandé pour l’introspection d'appelables et prennent en charge des comportements additionnels (comme les arguments exclusivement positionnels) qui sont parfois rencontrés dans les APIs des modules d'extension. Cette fonction et maintenue principalement pour maintenir la compatibilité avec l'API du module inspect de Python 2.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: cette fonction est maintenant basée sur signature(), mais ignore toujours les attributs _wrapped_ et inclue le premier paramètre (déjà lié) dans la signature des méthodes liées.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: This method was previously documented as deprecated in favour of signature() in Python 3.5, but that decision has been reversed in order to restore a clearly supported standard interface for single-source Python 2/3 code migrating away from the legacy getargspec() API.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Python ne garantit explicitement la préservation de l'ordre des paramètres exclusivement nommés que depuis la version 3.7, bien qu'en pratique cet ordre a toujours été préservé sous Python 3.

inspect.getargvalues(frame)

Obtenir de l'information sur les arguments passés à un cadre particulier. Un n-uplet nommé ArgInfo(args, varargs, keywords, locals) est renvoyé. args est une liste de noms d'arguments. varags et keywords sont les noms des arguments * et ** ou None. locals est le dictionnaire des variables locales du cadre courant.

Note

Cette fonction fût dépréciée par inadvertance en Python 3.5.

inspect.formatargvalues(args[, varargs, varkw, locals, formatarg, formatvarargs, formatvarkw, formatvalue])

Formatage lisible des quatre valeurs renvoyées par getargvalues(). Les arguments format* sont des fonctions de formatage optionnelles qui sont appelées pour convertir les noms et valeurs en chaînes de caractères.

Note

Cette fonction fût dépréciée par inadvertance en Python 3.5.

inspect.getmro(cls)

Renvoie un n-uplet des classes de base de cls, incluant cls, selon le l'ordre de résolution des méthodes (method resolution order). Aucune classe n'apparaît plus d'une fois dans ce n-uplet. Notez que le l'ordre de résolution des méthodes dépend du type de cls. Exception faite d'une utilisation très particulière de la métaclasse définie par l'usager, cls sera toujours le premier élément du tuple.

inspect.getcallargs(func, /, *args, **kwds)

Bind the args and kwds to the argument names of the Python function or method func, as if it was called with them. For bound methods, bind also the first argument (typically named self) to the associated instance. A dict is returned, mapping the argument names (including the names of the * and ** arguments, if any) to their values from args and kwds. In case of invoking func incorrectly, i.e. whenever func(*args, **kwds) would raise an exception because of incompatible signature, an exception of the same type and the same or similar message is raised. For example:

>>> from inspect import getcallargs
>>> def f(a, b=1, *pos, **named):
...     pass
...
>>> getcallargs(f, 1, 2, 3) == {'a': 1, 'named': {}, 'b': 2, 'pos': (3,)}
True
>>> getcallargs(f, a=2, x=4) == {'a': 2, 'named': {'x': 4}, 'b': 1, 'pos': ()}
True
>>> getcallargs(f)
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
TypeError: f() missing 1 required positional argument: 'a'

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.5: utilisez plutôt Signature.bind() et Signature.bind_partial().

inspect.getclosurevars(func)

Obtenir la correspondance de nom de références externes d'une fonction ou méthode Python func avec leur valeur courante. Un n-uplet nommé ClosureVars(nonlocals, globals, builtins, unbound) est renvoyé. nonlocals établit une correspondance des noms capturés par les fermetures lexicales, globals au module de la fonction et builtins aux noms natifs visibles depuis le corps de la fonction. unbound est un ensemble de noms référencés dans la fonction ne trouvant aucune résolution dans les valeurs globales du module courant ni à travers le lexique natif.

TypeError est levée si func n'est ni une fonction ni une méthode Python.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

inspect.unwrap(func, *, stop=None)

Obtenir l'objet englobé par func. Suit une chaîne d'attributs de __wrapped__, renvoyant le dernier objet de la chaîne.

stop est une fonction de callback optionnelle qui accepte un objet de la chaîne englobée comme son seul argument et permet d'arrêter le déballage avant la fin si la fonction de callback renvoie une valeur vraie. Si la fonction callback ne renvoie jamais une valeur vraie, le dernier objet de la chaîne est renvoyé comme d'habitude. Par exemple, signature() utilise ceci pour arrêter le déballage si un objet dans la chaîne définit un attribut __signature__.

ValueError est levée si un cycle est rencontré.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

inspect.get_annotations(obj, *, globals=None, locals=None, eval_str=False, format=annotationlib.Format.VALUE)

Compute the annotations dict for an object.

This is an alias for annotationlib.get_annotations(); see the documentation of that function for more information.

Prudence

This function may execute arbitrary code contained in annotations. See Security implications of introspecting annotations for more information.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: This function is now an alias for annotationlib.get_annotations(). Calling it as inspect.get_annotations will continue to work.

La pile d'interpréteur

Some of the following functions return FrameInfo objects. For backwards compatibility these objects allow tuple-like operations on all attributes except positions. This behavior is considered deprecated and may be removed in the future.

class inspect.FrameInfo

frame

The frame object that the record corresponds to.

filename

The file name associated with the code being executed by the frame this record corresponds to.

lineno

The line number of the current line associated with the code being executed by the frame this record corresponds to.

function

The function name that is being executed by the frame this record corresponds to.

code_context

A list of lines of context from the source code that's being executed by the frame this record corresponds to.

index

The index of the current line being executed in the code_context list.

positions

A dis.Positions object containing the start line number, end line number, start column offset, and end column offset associated with the instruction being executed by the frame this record corresponds to.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Return a named tuple instead of a tuple.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: FrameInfo is now a class instance (that is backwards compatible with the previous named tuple).

class inspect.Traceback

filename

The file name associated with the code being executed by the frame this traceback corresponds to.

lineno

The line number of the current line associated with the code being executed by the frame this traceback corresponds to.

function

The function name that is being executed by the frame this traceback corresponds to.

code_context

A list of lines of context from the source code that's being executed by the frame this traceback corresponds to.

index

The index of the current line being executed in the code_context list.

positions

A dis.Positions object containing the start line number, end line number, start column offset, and end column offset associated with the instruction being executed by the frame this traceback corresponds to.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Traceback is now a class instance (that is backwards compatible with the previous named tuple).

Note

Conserver des références à des objets cadre, tel que trouvé dans le 1er élément des enregistrements de cadres que ces fonctions renvoient, peut créer des cycles de référence dans votre programme. Lorsqu'un cycle de référence a été créé, la durée de vie de tous les objets pouvant être accessibles par ces objets peut être grandement augmentée, même si le détecteur de cycle (optionnel) de Python est activé. Si ces cycles doivent être créés, il est important de s'assurer qu'ils soient explicitement brisés pour éviter la destruction reportée des objets et l'augmentation résultante de l'utilisation de la mémoire.

Bien que le détecteur trouvera ces cycles, la destruction des cadres (et variables locales) peut être fait de manière déterministe en enlevant les cycles dans une clause finally. Cela est important si le détecteur de cycle a été désactivé lors de la compilation du code Python ou en utilisant gc.disable(). Par exemple :

def handle_stackframe_without_leak():
    frame = inspect.currentframe()
    try:
        # do something with the frame
    finally:
        del frame

Pour conserver ces cadres (par exemple pour imprimer une trace d'exécution plus tard), vous pouvez briser ces cycles de référence en utilisant la méthode frame.clear().

L'argument optionnel context supporté par la plupart de ces méthodes spécifie le nombre de lignes de contexte à renvoyer, qui sera centré autour de la ligne courante.

inspect.getframeinfo(frame, context=1)

Get information about a frame or traceback object. A Traceback object is returned.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: A Traceback object is returned instead of a named tuple.

inspect.getouterframes(frame, context=1)

Get a list of FrameInfo objects for a frame and all outer frames. These frames represent the calls that lead to the creation of frame. The first entry in the returned list represents frame; the last entry represents the outermost call on frame's stack.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: une liste de n-uplet nommé FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index) est renvoyée.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: A list of FrameInfo objects is returned.

inspect.getinnerframes(traceback, context=1)

Get a list of FrameInfo objects for a traceback's frame and all inner frames. These frames represent calls made as a consequence of frame. The first entry in the list represents traceback; the last entry represents where the exception was raised.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: une liste de n-uplet nommé FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index) est renvoyée.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: A list of FrameInfo objects is returned.

inspect.currentframe()

Renvoie l'objet cadre de la pile pour le cadre de l’appelant.

cette fonction nécessite que l'interpréteur Python implémente une pile de cadres d'appel, ce qui n'est pas forcément le cas de toutes les implémentations Python. Si le code s'exécute dans une implémentation Python n'implémentant pas la pile de cadres, cette fonction renvoie None.

inspect.stack(context=1)

Return a list of FrameInfo objects for the caller's stack. The first entry in the returned list represents the caller; the last entry represents the outermost call on the stack.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: une liste de n-uplet nommé FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index) est renvoyée.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: A list of FrameInfo objects is returned.

inspect.trace(context=1)

Return a list of FrameInfo objects for the stack between the current frame and the frame in which an exception currently being handled was raised in. The first entry in the list represents the caller; the last entry represents where the exception was raised.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: une liste de n-uplet nommé FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index) est renvoyée.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: A list of FrameInfo objects is returned.

Recherche dynamique d'attributs

Both getattr() and hasattr() can trigger code execution when fetching or checking for the existence of attributes. Descriptors, like properties, will be invoked and __getattr__() and __getattribute__() may be called.

Pour les cas où une introspection passive est désirée, comme des outils de documentation, cela peut être inconvenable. getattr_static() possède la même signature que getattr(), mais évite l'exécution de code lors de la recherche d'attributs.

inspect.getattr_static(obj, attr, default=None)

Retrieve attributes without triggering dynamic lookup via the descriptor protocol, __getattr__() or __getattribute__().

Note : cette fonction ne retrouve pas forcément tous les attributs renvoyés par getattr (tel que des attributs générés dynamiquement) et pourrait retrouver des attributs non retrouvés par getattr (tel que des descripteurs qui lèvent un AttributeError). Elle peut aussi donner des objets descripteurs, plutôt que des membres d'instance.

Si l'instance __dict__ est cachée (shadowed) par un autre membre (par exemple une propriété), cette fonction ne pourra pas retrouver les membres de l'instance.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

getattr_static() ne résout pas les descripteurs, par exemple slot descriptors ou les descripteurs getset des objets implémentés en C. Le descripteur de l'objet est renvoyé plutôt que l'attribut sous-jacent.

Vous pouvez gérer ces cas à l'aide du code suivant. Notez que pour des descripteurs arbitraires getset les invoquant, de l'exécution de code pourrait être lancée :

# example code for resolving the builtin descriptor types
class _foo:
    __slots__ = ['foo']

slot_descriptor = type(_foo.foo)
getset_descriptor = type(type(open(__file__)).name)
wrapper_descriptor = type(str.__dict__['__add__'])
descriptor_types = (slot_descriptor, getset_descriptor, wrapper_descriptor)

result = getattr_static(some_object, 'foo')
if type(result) in descriptor_types:
    try:
        result = result.__get__()
    except AttributeError:
        # descriptors can raise AttributeError to
        # indicate there is no underlying value
        # in which case the descriptor itself will
        # have to do
        pass

Current State of Generators, Coroutines, and Asynchronous Generators

Lors de l'implémentation d'ordonnanceur de coroutine et autres utilisations avancées de générateurs, il est utile de déterminer si un générateur est présentement en cours d'exécution, en attente de démarrage ou de continuation, ou s'il a déjà terminé. getgeneratorstate() permet d'aisément déterminer l'état courant d'un générateur.

inspect.getgeneratorstate(generator)

Donne l'état courant d'un générateur-itérateur.

Les états possibles :

GEN_CREATED : En attente de démarrage d'exécution.

GEN_RUNNING : En cours d'exécution par l'interpréteur.

GEN_SUSPENDED : Présentement suspendu à une expression yield.

GEN_CLOSED : L'exécution est complétée.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

inspect.getcoroutinestate(coroutine)

Donne l'état courant d'un objet coroutine. L'utilisation est prévue avec des objets coroutine créés avec des fonctions async def, mais accepte n'importe quel objet semblable à une coroutine qui définisse des attributs cr_running cr_frame.

Les états possibles :

CORO_CREATED : En attente de démarrage d'exécution.

CORO_RUNNING : En cours d'exécution par l'interpréteur.

CORO_SUSPENDED : Suspendu à une expression await.

CORO_CLOSED : Exécution complétée.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

inspect.getasyncgenstate(agen)

Get current state of an asynchronous generator object. The function is intended to be used with asynchronous iterator objects created by async def functions which use the yield statement, but will accept any asynchronous generator-like object that has ag_running and ag_frame attributes.

Les états possibles :

AGEN_CREATED: Waiting to start execution.

AGEN_RUNNING: Currently being executed by the interpreter.

AGEN_SUSPENDED: Currently suspended at a yield expression.

AGEN_CLOSED: Execution has completed.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

L'état courant interne du générateur peut aussi être vérifié. Ceci est utile pour des tests, afin d'assurer que l'état interne est mise à jour tel que prévu :

inspect.getgeneratorlocals(generator)

Donne une correspondance de variables locales dans generator avec les valeurs courantes. Un dictionnaire est renvoyé, établissant la correspondance entre variables et valeurs. Ceci est équivalent à appeler locals() dans le corps du générateur et les mêmes restrictions s'appliquent.

Si generator est un générateur sans cadre courant associé, alors un dictionnaire vide est renvoyé. TypeError est levé sir generator n'est pas un objet générateur Python.

Cette fonction repose sur l'exposition d'une pile de cadres Python par le générateur pour l'introspection, ce qui n'est pas garanti dans toutes les implémentations Python. Dans un tel cas, cette fonction renvoie toujours un dictionnaire vide.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

inspect.getcoroutinelocals(coroutine)

Cette fonction est semblable à getgeneratorlocals(), mais fonctionne pour des objets coroutines créés avec des fonctions async def.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

inspect.getasyncgenlocals(agen)

This function is analogous to getgeneratorlocals(), but works for asynchronous generator objects created by async def functions which use the yield statement.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Bit d'option des objets code

Python code objects have a co_flags attribute, which is a bitmap of the following flags:

inspect.CO_OPTIMIZED

L'objet code est optimisé, utilisant des variables locales rapides.

inspect.CO_NEWLOCALS

If set, a new dict will be created for the frame's f_locals when the code object is executed.

inspect.CO_VARARGS

L'objet code possède un paramètre de variable positionnel (*args ou semblable).

inspect.CO_VARKEYWORDS

L'objet code possède une paramètre par mot-clé variable (**kwargs ou semblable).

inspect.CO_NESTED

L'option est définie lorsque le code est une fonction imbriquée.

inspect.CO_GENERATOR

L'option est définie lorsque l'objet code est une fonction génératrice, c'est-à-dire qu'un objet générateur est renvoyé lorsque le code objet est exécuté.

inspect.CO_COROUTINE

L'option est définie lorsque le code objet est une fonction coroutine. Lors que le code objet est exécuté, il renvoie un objet coroutine. Voir PEP 492 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/] pour plus de détails.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

inspect.CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE

L'option est utilisée pour transformer un générateur en une coroutine basée sur un générateur. Les objets générateurs avec cette option peuvent être utilisés dans une expression await et un objet coroutine yield from. Voir PEP 492 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/] pour plus de détails.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

inspect.CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR

L'option est définie lorsque l'objet code est une fonction génératrice asynchrone. Lorsque l'objet code est exécuté, il renvoie un objet générateur asynchrone. Voir PEP 525 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/] pour les détails.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

inspect.CO_HAS_DOCSTRING

The flag is set when there is a docstring for the code object in the source code. If set, it will be the first item in co_consts.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

inspect.CO_METHOD

The flag is set when the code object is a function defined in class scope.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Note

The flags are specific to CPython, and may not be defined in other Python implementations. Furthermore, the flags are an implementation detail, and can be removed or deprecated in future Python releases. It's recommended to use public APIs from the inspect module for any introspection needs.

Buffer flags

class inspect.BufferFlags

This is an enum.IntFlag that represents the flags that can be passed to the __buffer__() method of objects implementing the buffer protocol.

The meaning of the flags is explained at Buffer request types.

SIMPLE

WRITABLE

FORMAT

ND

STRIDES

C_CONTIGUOUS

F_CONTIGUOUS

ANY_CONTIGUOUS

INDIRECT

CONTIG

CONTIG_RO

STRIDED

STRIDED_RO

RECORDS

RECORDS_RO

FULL

FULL_RO

READ

WRITE

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Command-line interface

The inspect module also provides a basic introspection capability from the command line.

Par défaut, il accepte le nom d'un module et affiche la source de ce module. Une classe ou fonction à l'intérieur du module peut également être affichée en ajoutant un ":" et le nom qualifié de l'objet désiré.

--details

Affiche de l'information à propos de l'objet spécifié plutôt que du code source.

annotationlib --- Functionality for introspecting annotations

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Source code: Lib/annotationlib.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/annotationlib.py]

The annotationlib module provides tools for introspecting annotations on modules, classes, and functions.

Annotations are lazily evaluated and often contain forward references to objects that are not yet defined when the annotation is created. This module provides a set of low-level tools that can be used to retrieve annotations in a reliable way, even in the presence of forward references and other edge cases.

This module supports retrieving annotations in three main formats (see Format), each of which works best for different use cases:

VALUE evaluates the annotations and returns their value. This is most straightforward to work with, but it may raise errors, for example if the annotations contain references to undefined names.

FORWARDREF returns ForwardRef objects for annotations that cannot be resolved, allowing you to inspect the annotations without evaluating them. This is useful when you need to work with annotations that may contain unresolved forward references.

STRING returns the annotations as a string, similar to how it would appear in the source file. This is useful for documentation generators that want to display annotations in a readable way.

The get_annotations() function is the main entry point for retrieving annotations. Given a function, class, or module, it returns an annotations dictionary in the requested format. This module also provides functionality for working directly with the annotate function that is used to evaluate annotations, such as get_annotate_from_class_namespace() and call_annotate_function(), as well as the call_evaluate_function() function for working with evaluate functions.

Prudence

Most functionality in this module can execute arbitrary code; see the security section for more information.

Voir aussi

PEP 649 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/] proposed the current model for how annotations work in Python.

PEP 749 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0749/] expanded on various aspects of PEP 649 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/] and introduced the annotationlib module.

Bonnes pratiques concernant les annotations provides best practices for working with annotations.

typing-extensions [https://pypi.org/project/typing-extensions/] provides a backport of get_annotations() that works on earlier versions of Python.

Annotation semantics

The way annotations are evaluated has changed over the history of Python 3, and currently still depends on a future import. There have been execution models for annotations:

Stock semantics (default in Python 3.0 through 3.13; see PEP 3107 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3107/] and PEP 526 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/]): Annotations are evaluated eagerly, as they are encountered in the source code.

Stringified annotations (used with from __future__ import annotations in Python 3.7 and newer; see PEP 563 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/]): Annotations are stored as strings only.

Deferred evaluation (default in Python 3.14 and newer; see PEP 649 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/] and PEP 749 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0749/]): Annotations are evaluated lazily, only when they are accessed.

As an example, consider the following program:

def func(a: Cls) -> None:
    print(a)

class Cls: pass

print(func.__annotations__)

This will behave as follows:

Under stock semantics (Python 3.13 and earlier), it will throw a NameError at the line where func is defined, because Cls is an undefined name at that point.

Under stringified annotations (if from __future__ import annotations is used), it will print {'a': 'Cls', 'return': 'None'}.

Under deferred evaluation (Python 3.14 and later), it will print {'a': <class 'Cls'>, 'return': None}.

Stock semantics were used when function annotations were first introduced in Python 3.0 (by PEP 3107 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3107/]) because this was the simplest, most obvious way to implement annotations. The same execution model was used when variable annotations were introduced in Python 3.6 (by PEP 526 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/]). However, stock semantics caused problems when using annotations as type hints, such as a need to refer to names that are not yet defined when the annotation is encountered. In addition, there were performance problems with executing annotations at module import time. Therefore, in Python 3.7, PEP 563 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/] introduced the ability to store annotations as strings using the from __future__ import annotations syntax. The plan at the time was to eventually make this behavior the default, but a problem appeared: stringified annotations are more difficult to process for those who introspect annotations at runtime. An alternative proposal, PEP 649 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/], introduced the third execution model, deferred evaluation, and was implemented in Python 3.14. Stringified annotations are still used if from __future__ import annotations is present, but this behavior will eventually be removed.

Classes

class annotationlib.Format

An IntEnum describing the formats in which annotations can be returned. Members of the enum, or their equivalent integer values, can be passed to get_annotations() and other functions in this module, as well as to __annotate__ functions.

VALUE = 1

Values are the result of evaluating the annotation expressions.

VALUE_WITH_FAKE_GLOBALS = 2

Special value used to signal that an annotate function is being evaluated in a special environment with fake globals. When passed this value, annotate functions should either return the same value as for the Format.VALUE format, or raise NotImplementedError to signal that they do not support execution in this environment. This format is only used internally and should not be passed to the functions in this module.

FORWARDREF = 3

Values are real annotation values (as per Format.VALUE format) for defined values, and ForwardRef proxies for undefined values. Real objects may contain references to ForwardRef proxy objects.

STRING = 4

Values are the text string of the annotation as it appears in the source code, up to modifications including, but not restricted to, whitespace normalizations and constant values optimizations.

The exact values of these strings may change in future versions of Python.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

class annotationlib.ForwardRef

A proxy object for forward references in annotations.

Instances of this class are returned when the FORWARDREF format is used and annotations contain a name that cannot be resolved. This can happen when a forward reference is used in an annotation, such as when a class is referenced before it is defined.

__forward_arg__

A string containing the code that was evaluated to produce the ForwardRef. The string may not be exactly equivalent to the original source.

evaluate(*, owner=None, globals=None, locals=None, type_params=None, format=Format.VALUE)

Evaluate the forward reference, returning its value.

If the format argument is VALUE (the default), this method may throw an exception, such as NameError, if the forward reference refers to a name that cannot be resolved. The arguments to this method can be used to provide bindings for names that would otherwise be undefined. If the format argument is FORWARDREF, the method will never throw an exception, but may return a ForwardRef instance. For example, if the forward reference object contains the code list[undefined], where undefined is a name that is not defined, evaluating it with the FORWARDREF format will return list[ForwardRef('undefined')]. If the format argument is STRING, the method will return __forward_arg__.

The owner parameter provides the preferred mechanism for passing scope information to this method. The owner of a ForwardRef is the object that contains the annotation from which the ForwardRef derives, such as a module object, type object, or function object.

The globals, locals, and type_params parameters provide a more precise mechanism for influencing the names that are available when the ForwardRef is evaluated. globals and locals are passed to eval(), representing the global and local namespaces in which the name is evaluated. The type_params parameter is relevant for objects created using the native syntax for generic classes and functions. It is a tuple of type parameters that are in scope while the forward reference is being evaluated. For example, if evaluating a ForwardRef retrieved from an annotation found in the class namespace of a generic class C, type_params should be set to C.__type_params__.

ForwardRef instances returned by get_annotations() retain references to information about the scope they originated from, so calling this method with no further arguments may be sufficient to evaluate such objects. ForwardRef instances created by other means may not have any information about their scope, so passing arguments to this method may be necessary to evaluate them successfully.

If no owner, globals, locals, or type_params are provided and the ForwardRef does not contain information about its origin, empty globals and locals dictionaries are used.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Fonctions

annotationlib.annotations_to_string(annotations)

Convert an annotations dict containing runtime values to a dict containing only strings. If the values are not already strings, they are converted using type_repr(). This is meant as a helper for user-provided annotate functions that support the STRING format but do not have access to the code creating the annotations.

For example, this is used to implement the STRING for typing.TypedDict classes created through the functional syntax:

>>> from typing import TypedDict
>>> Movie = TypedDict("movie", {"name": str, "year": int})
>>> get_annotations(Movie, format=Format.STRING)
{'name': 'str', 'year': 'int'}

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

annotationlib.call_annotate_function(annotate, format, *, owner=None)

Call the annotate function annotate with the given format, a member of the Format enum, and return the annotations dictionary produced by the function.

This helper function is required because annotate functions generated by the compiler for functions, classes, and modules only support the VALUE format when called directly. To support other formats, this function calls the annotate function in a special environment that allows it to produce annotations in the other formats. This is a useful building block when implementing functionality that needs to partially evaluate annotations while a class is being constructed.

owner is the object that owns the annotation function, usually a function, class, or module. If provided, it is used in the FORWARDREF format to produce a ForwardRef object that carries more information.

Voir aussi

PEP 649 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/#the-stringizer-and-the-fake-globals-environment] contains an explanation of the implementation technique used by this function.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

annotationlib.call_evaluate_function(evaluate, format, *, owner=None)

Call the evaluate function evaluate with the given format, a member of the Format enum, and return the value produced by the function. This is similar to call_annotate_function(), but the latter always returns a dictionary mapping strings to annotations, while this function returns a single value.

This is intended for use with the evaluate functions generated for lazily evaluated elements related to type aliases and type parameters:

typing.TypeAliasType.evaluate_value(), the value of type aliases

typing.TypeVar.evaluate_bound(), the bound of type variables

typing.TypeVar.evaluate_constraints(), the constraints of type variables

typing.TypeVar.evaluate_default(), the default value of type variables

typing.ParamSpec.evaluate_default(), the default value of parameter specifications

typing.TypeVarTuple.evaluate_default(), the default value of type variable tuples

owner is the object that owns the evaluate function, such as the type alias or type variable object.

format can be used to control the format in which the value is returned:

>>> type Alias = undefined
>>> call_evaluate_function(Alias.evaluate_value, Format.VALUE)
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
NameError: name 'undefined' is not defined
>>> call_evaluate_function(Alias.evaluate_value, Format.FORWARDREF)
ForwardRef('undefined')
>>> call_evaluate_function(Alias.evaluate_value, Format.STRING)
'undefined'

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

annotationlib.get_annotate_from_class_namespace(namespace)

Retrieve the annotate function from a class namespace dictionary namespace. Return None if the namespace does not contain an annotate function. This is primarily useful before the class has been fully created (e.g., in a metaclass); after the class exists, the annotate function can be retrieved with cls.__annotate__. See below for an example using this function in a metaclass.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

annotationlib.get_annotations(obj, *, globals=None, locals=None, eval_str=False, format=Format.VALUE)

Compute the annotations dict for an object.

obj may be a callable, class, module, or other object with __annotate__ or __annotations__ attributes. Passing any other object raises TypeError.

The format parameter controls the format in which annotations are returned, and must be a member of the Format enum or its integer equivalent. The different formats work as follows:

VALUE: object.__annotations__ is tried first; if that does not exist, the object.__annotate__ function is called if it exists.

FORWARDREF: If object.__annotations__ exists and can be evaluated successfully, it is used; otherwise, the object.__annotate__ function is called. If it does not exist either, object.__annotations__ is tried again and any error from accessing it is re-raised.

When calling object.__annotate__ it is first called with FORWARDREF. If this is not implemented, it will then check if VALUE_WITH_FAKE_GLOBALS is supported and use that in the fake globals environment. If neither of these formats are supported, it will fall back to using VALUE. If VALUE fails, the error from this call will be raised.

STRING: If object.__annotate__ exists, it is called first; otherwise, object.__annotations__ is used and stringified using annotations_to_string().

When calling object.__annotate__ it is first called with STRING. If this is not implemented, it will then check if VALUE_WITH_FAKE_GLOBALS is supported and use that in the fake globals environment. If neither of these formats are supported, it will fall back to using VALUE with the result converted using annotations_to_string(). If VALUE fails, the error from this call will be raised.

Returns a dict. get_annotations() returns a new dict every time it's called; calling it twice on the same object will return two different but equivalent dicts.

This function handles several details for you:

If eval_str is true, values of type str will be un-stringized using eval(). This is intended for use with stringized annotations (from __future__ import annotations). It is an error to set eval_str to true with formats other than Format.VALUE.

If obj doesn't have an annotations dict, returns an empty dict. (Functions and methods always have an annotations dict; classes, modules, and other types of callables may not.)

Ignores inherited annotations on classes, as well as annotations on metaclasses. If a class doesn't have its own annotations dict, returns an empty dict.

All accesses to object members and dict values are done using getattr() and dict.get() for safety.

eval_str controls whether or not values of type str are replaced with the result of calling eval() on those values:

If eval_str is true, eval() is called on values of type str. (Note that get_annotations() doesn't catch exceptions; if eval() raises an exception, it will unwind the stack past the get_annotations() call.)

If eval_str is false (the default), values of type str are unchanged.

globals and locals are passed in to eval(); see the documentation for eval() for more information. If globals or locals is None, this function may replace that value with a context-specific default, contingent on type(obj):

If obj is a module, globals defaults to obj.__dict__.

If obj is a class, globals defaults to sys.modules[obj.__module__].__dict__ and locals defaults to the obj class namespace.

If obj is a callable, globals defaults to obj.__globals__, although if obj is a wrapped function (using functools.update_wrapper()) or a functools.partial object, it is unwrapped until a non-wrapped function is found.

Calling get_annotations() is best practice for accessing the annotations dict of any object. See Bonnes pratiques concernant les annotations for more information on annotations best practices.

>>> def f(a: int, b: str) -> float:
...     pass
>>> get_annotations(f)
{'a': <class 'int'>, 'b': <class 'str'>, 'return': <class 'float'>}

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

annotationlib.type_repr(value)

Convert an arbitrary Python value to a format suitable for use by the STRING format. This calls repr() for most objects, but has special handling for some objects, such as type objects.

This is meant as a helper for user-provided annotate functions that support the STRING format but do not have access to the code creating the annotations. It can also be used to provide a user-friendly string representation for other objects that contain values that are commonly encountered in annotations.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Cas pratiques

Using annotations in a metaclass

A metaclass may want to inspect or even modify the annotations in a class body during class creation. Doing so requires retrieving annotations from the class namespace dictionary. For classes created with from __future__ import annotations, the annotations will be in the __annotations__ key of the dictionary. For other classes with annotations, get_annotate_from_class_namespace() can be used to get the annotate function, and call_annotate_function() can be used to call it and retrieve the annotations. Using the FORWARDREF format will usually be best, because this allows the annotations to refer to names that cannot yet be resolved when the class is created.

To modify the annotations, it is best to create a wrapper annotate function that calls the original annotate function, makes any necessary adjustments, and returns the result.

Below is an example of a metaclass that filters out all typing.ClassVar annotations from the class and puts them in a separate attribute:

import annotationlib
import typing

class ClassVarSeparator(type):
   def __new__(mcls, name, bases, ns):
      if "__annotations__" in ns:  # from __future__ import annotations
         annotations = ns["__annotations__"]
         classvar_keys = {
            key for key, value in annotations.items()
            # Use string comparison for simplicity; a more robust solution
            # could use annotationlib.ForwardRef.evaluate
            if value.startswith("ClassVar")
         }
         classvars = {key: annotations[key] for key in classvar_keys}
         ns["__annotations__"] = {
            key: value for key, value in annotations.items()
            if key not in classvar_keys
         }
         wrapped_annotate = None
      elif annotate := annotationlib.get_annotate_from_class_namespace(ns):
         annotations = annotationlib.call_annotate_function(
            annotate, format=annotationlib.Format.FORWARDREF
         )
         classvar_keys = {
            key for key, value in annotations.items()
            if typing.get_origin(value) is typing.ClassVar
         }
         classvars = {key: annotations[key] for key in classvar_keys}

         def wrapped_annotate(format):
            annos = annotationlib.call_annotate_function(annotate, format, owner=typ)
            return {key: value for key, value in annos.items() if key not in classvar_keys}

      else:  # no annotations
         classvars = {}
         wrapped_annotate = None
      typ = super().__new__(mcls, name, bases, ns)

      if wrapped_annotate is not None:
         # Wrap the original __annotate__ with a wrapper that removes ClassVars
         typ.__annotate__ = wrapped_annotate
      typ.classvars = classvars  # Store the ClassVars in a separate attribute
      return typ

Limitations of the STRING format

The STRING format is meant to approximate the source code of the annotation, but the implementation strategy used means that it is not always possible to recover the exact source code.

First, the stringifier of course cannot recover any information that is not present in the compiled code, including comments, whitespace, parenthesization, and operations that get simplified by the compiler.

Second, the stringifier can intercept almost all operations that involve names looked up in some scope, but it cannot intercept operations that operate fully on constants. As a corollary, this also means it is not safe to request the STRING format on untrusted code: Python is powerful enough that it is possible to achieve arbitrary code execution even with no access to any globals or builtins. For example:

>>> def f(x: (1).__class__.__base__.__subclasses__()[-1].__init__.__builtins__["print"]("Hello world")): pass
...
>>> annotationlib.get_annotations(f, format=annotationlib.Format.STRING)
Hello world
{'x': 'None'}

Note

This particular example works as of the time of writing, but it relies on implementation details and is not guaranteed to work in the future.

Among the different kinds of expressions that exist in Python, as represented by the ast module, some expressions are supported, meaning that the STRING format can generally recover the original source code; others are unsupported, meaning that they may result in incorrect output or an error.

The following are supported (sometimes with caveats):

ast.BinOp

ast.UnaryOp

ast.Invert (~), ast.UAdd (+), and ast.USub (-) are supported

ast.Not (not) is not supported

ast.Dict (except when using ** unpacking)

ast.Set

ast.Compare

ast.Eq and ast.NotEq are supported

ast.Lt, ast.LtE, ast.Gt, and ast.GtE are supported, but the operand may be flipped

ast.Is, ast.IsNot, ast.In, and ast.NotIn are not supported

ast.Call (except when using ** unpacking)

ast.Constant (though not the exact representation of the constant; for example, escape sequences in strings are lost; hexadecimal numbers are converted to decimal)

ast.Attribute (assuming the value is not a constant)

ast.Subscript (assuming the value is not a constant)

ast.Starred (* unpacking)

ast.Name

ast.List

ast.Tuple

ast.Slice

The following are unsupported, but throw an informative error when encountered by the stringifier:

ast.FormattedValue (f-strings; error is not detected if conversion specifiers like !r are used)

ast.JoinedStr (f-strings)

The following are unsupported and result in incorrect output:

ast.BoolOp (and and or)

ast.IfExp

ast.Lambda

ast.ListComp

ast.SetComp

ast.DictComp

ast.GeneratorExp

The following are disallowed in annotation scopes and therefore not relevant:

ast.NamedExpr (:=)

ast.Await

ast.Yield

ast.YieldFrom

Limitations of the FORWARDREF format

The FORWARDREF format aims to produce real values as much as possible, with anything that cannot be resolved replaced with ForwardRef objects. It is affected by broadly the same Limitations as the STRING format: annotations that perform operations on literals or that use unsupported expression types may raise exceptions when evaluated using the FORWARDREF format.

Below are a few examples of the behavior with unsupported expressions:

>>> from annotationlib import get_annotations, Format
>>> def zerodiv(x: 1 / 0): ...
>>> get_annotations(zerodiv, format=Format.STRING)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
ZeroDivisionError: division by zero
>>> get_annotations(zerodiv, format=Format.FORWARDREF)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
ZeroDivisionError: division by zero
>>> def ifexp(x: 1 if y else 0): ...
>>> get_annotations(ifexp, format=Format.STRING)
{'x': '1'}

Security implications of introspecting annotations

Much of the functionality in this module involves executing code related to annotations, which can then do arbitrary things. For example, get_annotations() may call an arbitrary annotate function, and ForwardRef.evaluate() may call eval() on an arbitrary string. Code contained in an annotation might make arbitrary system calls, enter an infinite loop, or perform any other operation. This is also true for any access of the __annotations__ attribute, and for various functions in the typing module that work with annotations, such as typing.get_type_hints().

Any security issue arising from this also applies immediately after importing code that may contain untrusted annotations: importing code can always cause arbitrary operations to be performed. However, it is unsafe to accept strings or other input from an untrusted source and pass them to any of the APIs for introspecting annotations, for example by editing an __annotations__ dictionary or directly creating a ForwardRef object.

site --- Site-specific configuration hook

Code source : Lib/site.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/site.py]

This module is automatically imported during initialization. The automatic import can be suppressed using the interpreter's -S option.

Importing this module normally appends site-specific paths to the module search path and adds callables, including help() to the built-in namespace. However, Python startup option -S blocks this and this module can be safely imported with no automatic modifications to the module search path or additions to the builtins. To explicitly trigger the usual site-specific additions, call the main() function.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Importing the module used to trigger paths manipulation even when using -S.

It starts by constructing up to four directories from a head and a tail part. For the head part, it uses sys.prefix and sys.exec_prefix; empty heads are skipped. For the tail part, it uses the empty string and then lib/site-packages (on Windows) or lib/pythonX.Y[t]/site-packages (on Unix and macOS). (The optional suffix "t" indicates the free-threaded build, and is appended if "t" is present in the sys.abiflags constant.) For each of the distinct head-tail combinations, it sees if it refers to an existing directory, and if so, adds it to sys.path and also inspects the newly added path for configuration files.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Support for the "site-python" directory has been removed.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: On Unix, Free threading Python installations are identified by the "t" suffix in the version-specific directory name, such as lib/python3.13t/.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: site is no longer responsible for updating sys.prefix and sys.exec_prefix on Virtual Environments. This is now done during the path initialization. As a result, under Virtual Environments, sys.prefix and sys.exec_prefix no longer depend on the site initialization, and are therefore unaffected by -S.

When running under a virtual environment, the pyvenv.cfg file in sys.prefix is checked for site-specific configurations. If the include-system-site-packages key exists and is set to true (case-insensitive), the system-level prefixes will be searched for site-packages, otherwise they won't.

A path configuration file is a file whose name has the form name.pth and exists in one of the four directories mentioned above; its contents are additional items (one per line) to be added to sys.path. Non-existing items are never added to sys.path, and no check is made that the item refers to a directory rather than a file. No item is added to sys.path more than once. Blank lines and lines beginning with # are skipped. Lines starting with import (followed by space or tab) are executed.

Note

An executable line in a .pth file is run at every Python startup, regardless of whether a particular module is actually going to be used. Its impact should thus be kept to a minimum. The primary intended purpose of executable lines is to make the corresponding module(s) importable (load 3rd-party import hooks, adjust PATH etc). Any other initialization is supposed to be done upon a module's actual import, if and when it happens. Limiting a code chunk to a single line is a deliberate measure to discourage putting anything more complex here.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: The .pth files are now decoded by UTF-8 at first and then by the locale encoding if it fails.

For example, suppose sys.prefix and sys.exec_prefix are set to /usr/local. The Python X.Y library is then installed in /usr/local/lib/pythonX.Y. Suppose this has a subdirectory /usr/local/lib/pythonX.Y/site-packages with three subsubdirectories, foo, bar and spam, and two path configuration files, foo.pth and bar.pth. Assume foo.pth contains the following:

# foo package configuration

foo
bar
bletch

and bar.pth contains:

# bar package configuration

bar

Then the following version-specific directories are added to sys.path, in this order:

/usr/local/lib/pythonX.Y/site-packages/bar
/usr/local/lib/pythonX.Y/site-packages/foo

Note that bletch is omitted because it doesn't exist; the bar directory precedes the foo directory because bar.pth comes alphabetically before foo.pth; and spam is omitted because it is not mentioned in either path configuration file.

sitecustomize

After these path manipulations, an attempt is made to import a module named sitecustomize, which can perform arbitrary site-specific customizations. It is typically created by a system administrator in the site-packages directory. If this import fails with an ImportError or its subclass exception, and the exception's name attribute equals 'sitecustomize', it is silently ignored. If Python is started without output streams available, as with pythonw.exe on Windows (which is used by default to start IDLE), attempted output from sitecustomize is ignored. Any other exception causes a silent and perhaps mysterious failure of the process.

usercustomize

After this, an attempt is made to import a module named usercustomize, which can perform arbitrary user-specific customizations, if ENABLE_USER_SITE is true. This file is intended to be created in the user site-packages directory (see below), which is part of sys.path unless disabled by -s. If this import fails with an ImportError or its subclass exception, and the exception's name attribute equals 'usercustomize', it is silently ignored.

Note that for some non-Unix systems, sys.prefix and sys.exec_prefix are empty, and the path manipulations are skipped; however the import of sitecustomize and usercustomize is still attempted.

Readline configuration

On systems that support readline, this module will also import and configure the rlcompleter module, if Python is started in interactive mode and without the -S option. The default behavior is to enable tab completion and to use ~/.python_history as the history save file. To disable it, delete (or override) the sys.__interactivehook__ attribute in your sitecustomize or usercustomize module or your PYTHONSTARTUP file.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Activation of rlcompleter and history was made automatic.

Module contents

site.PREFIXES

A list of prefixes for site-packages directories.

site.ENABLE_USER_SITE

Flag showing the status of the user site-packages directory. True means that it is enabled and was added to sys.path. False means that it was disabled by user request (with -s or PYTHONNOUSERSITE). None means it was disabled for security reasons (mismatch between user or group id and effective id) or by an administrator.

site.USER_SITE

Path to the user site-packages for the running Python. Can be None if getusersitepackages() hasn't been called yet. Default value is ~/.local/lib/pythonX.Y[t]/site-packages for UNIX and non-framework macOS builds, ~/Library/Python/X.Y/lib/python/site-packages for macOS framework builds, and %APPDATA%\Python\PythonXY\site-packages on Windows. The optional "t" indicates the free-threaded build. This directory is a site directory, which means that .pth files in it will be processed.

site.USER_BASE

Path to the base directory for the user site-packages. Can be None if getuserbase() hasn't been called yet. Default value is ~/.local for UNIX and macOS non-framework builds, ~/Library/Python/X.Y for macOS framework builds, and %APPDATA%\Python for Windows. This value is used to compute the installation directories for scripts, data files, Python modules, etc. for the user installation scheme. See also PYTHONUSERBASE.

site.main()

Adds all the standard site-specific directories to the module search path. This function is called automatically when this module is imported, unless the Python interpreter was started with the -S flag.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: This function used to be called unconditionally.

site.addsitedir(sitedir, known_paths=None)

Add a directory to sys.path and process its .pth files. Typically used in sitecustomize or usercustomize (see above).

site.getsitepackages()

Return a list containing all global site-packages directories.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

site.getuserbase()

Return the path of the user base directory, USER_BASE. If it is not initialized yet, this function will also set it, respecting PYTHONUSERBASE.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

site.getusersitepackages()

Return the path of the user-specific site-packages directory, USER_SITE. If it is not initialized yet, this function will also set it, respecting USER_BASE. To determine if the user-specific site-packages was added to sys.path ENABLE_USER_SITE should be used.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Command-line interface

The site module also provides a way to get the user directories from the command line:

$ python -m site --user-site
/home/user/.local/lib/python3.11/site-packages

If it is called without arguments, it will print the contents of sys.path on the standard output, followed by the value of USER_BASE and whether the directory exists, then the same thing for USER_SITE, and finally the value of ENABLE_USER_SITE.

--user-base

Print the path to the user base directory.

--user-site

Print the path to the user site-packages directory.

If both options are given, user base and user site will be printed (always in this order), separated by os.pathsep.

If any option is given, the script will exit with one of these values: 0 if the user site-packages directory is enabled, 1 if it was disabled by the user, 2 if it is disabled for security reasons or by an administrator, and a value greater than 2 if there is an error.

Voir aussi

PEP 370 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0370/] -- Répertoire site-packages propre à l'utilisateur.

The initialization of the sys.path module search path -- The initialization of sys.path.

Interpréteurs Python personnalisés

The modules described in this chapter allow writing interfaces similar to Python's interactive interpreter. If you want a Python interpreter that supports some special feature in addition to the Python language, you should look at the code module. (The codeop module is lower-level, used to support compiling a possibly incomplete chunk of Python code.)

La liste complète des modules décrits dans ce chapitre est :

code --- Interpreter base classes

Interactive Interpreter Objects

Interactive Console Objects

codeop --- Compile Python code

code --- Interpreter base classes

Code source : Lib/code.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/code.py]

The code module provides facilities to implement read-eval-print loops in Python. Two classes and convenience functions are included which can be used to build applications which provide an interactive interpreter prompt.

class code.InteractiveInterpreter(locals=None)

This class deals with parsing and interpreter state (the user's namespace); it does not deal with input buffering or prompting or input file naming (the filename is always passed in explicitly). The optional locals argument specifies a mapping to use as the namespace in which code will be executed; it defaults to a newly created dictionary with key '__name__' set to '__console__' and key '__doc__' set to None.

Note that functions and classes objects created under an InteractiveInterpreter instance will belong to the namespace specified by locals. They are only pickleable if locals is the namespace of an existing module.

class code.InteractiveConsole(locals=None, filename='<console>', local_exit=False)

Closely emulate the behavior of the interactive Python interpreter. This class builds on InteractiveInterpreter and adds prompting using the familiar sys.ps1 and sys.ps2, and input buffering. If local_exit is true, exit() and quit() in the console will not raise SystemExit, but instead return to the calling code.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added local_exit parameter.

code.interact(banner=None, readfunc=None, local=None, exitmsg=None, local_exit=False)

Convenience function to run a read-eval-print loop. This creates a new instance of InteractiveConsole and sets readfunc to be used as the InteractiveConsole.raw_input() method, if provided. If local is provided, it is passed to the InteractiveConsole constructor for use as the default namespace for the interpreter loop. If local_exit is provided, it is passed to the InteractiveConsole constructor. The interact() method of the instance is then run with banner and exitmsg passed as the banner and exit message to use, if provided. The console object is discarded after use.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Added exitmsg parameter.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added local_exit parameter.

code.compile_command(source, filename='<input>', symbol='single')

This function is useful for programs that want to emulate Python's interpreter main loop (a.k.a. the read-eval-print loop). The tricky part is to determine when the user has entered an incomplete command that can be completed by entering more text (as opposed to a complete command or a syntax error). This function almost always makes the same decision as the real interpreter main loop.

source is the source string; filename is the optional filename from which source was read, defaulting to '<input>'; and symbol is the optional grammar start symbol, which should be 'single' (the default), 'eval' or 'exec'.

Returns a code object (the same as compile(source, filename, symbol)) if the command is complete and valid; None if the command is incomplete; raises SyntaxError if the command is complete and contains a syntax error, or raises OverflowError or ValueError if the command contains an invalid literal.

Interactive Interpreter Objects

InteractiveInterpreter.runsource(source, filename='<input>', symbol='single')

Compile and run some source in the interpreter. Arguments are the same as for compile_command(); the default for filename is '<input>', and for symbol is 'single'. One of several things can happen:

The input is incorrect; compile_command() raised an exception (SyntaxError or OverflowError). A syntax traceback will be printed by calling the showsyntaxerror() method. runsource() returns False.

The input is incomplete, and more input is required; compile_command() returned None. runsource() returns True.

The input is complete; compile_command() returned a code object. The code is executed by calling the runcode() (which also handles run-time exceptions, except for SystemExit). runsource() returns False.

The return value can be used to decide whether to use sys.ps1 or sys.ps2 to prompt the next line.

InteractiveInterpreter.runcode(code)

Execute a code object. When an exception occurs, showtraceback() is called to display a traceback. All exceptions are caught except SystemExit, which is allowed to propagate.

A note about KeyboardInterrupt: this exception may occur elsewhere in this code, and may not always be caught. The caller should be prepared to deal with it.

InteractiveInterpreter.showsyntaxerror(filename=None)

Display the syntax error that just occurred. This does not display a stack trace because there isn't one for syntax errors. If filename is given, it is stuffed into the exception instead of the default filename provided by Python's parser, because it always uses '<string>' when reading from a string. The output is written by the write() method.

InteractiveInterpreter.showtraceback()

Display the exception that just occurred. We remove the first stack item because it is within the interpreter object implementation. The output is written by the write() method.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: The full chained traceback is displayed instead of just the primary traceback.

InteractiveInterpreter.write(data)

Write a string to the standard error stream (sys.stderr). Derived classes should override this to provide the appropriate output handling as needed.

Interactive Console Objects

The InteractiveConsole class is a subclass of InteractiveInterpreter, and so offers all the methods of the interpreter objects as well as the following additions.

InteractiveConsole.interact(banner=None, exitmsg=None)

Closely emulate the interactive Python console. The optional banner argument specify the banner to print before the first interaction; by default it prints a banner similar to the one printed by the standard Python interpreter, followed by the class name of the console object in parentheses (so as not to confuse this with the real interpreter -- since it's so close!).

The optional exitmsg argument specifies an exit message printed when exiting. Pass the empty string to suppress the exit message. If exitmsg is not given or None, a default message is printed.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: To suppress printing any banner, pass an empty string.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Print an exit message when exiting.

InteractiveConsole.push(line)

Push a line of source text to the interpreter. The line should not have a trailing newline; it may have internal newlines. The line is appended to a buffer and the interpreter's runsource() method is called with the concatenated contents of the buffer as source. If this indicates that the command was executed or invalid, the buffer is reset; otherwise, the command is incomplete, and the buffer is left as it was after the line was appended. The return value is True if more input is required, False if the line was dealt with in some way (this is the same as runsource()).

InteractiveConsole.resetbuffer()

Remove any unhandled source text from the input buffer.

InteractiveConsole.raw_input(prompt='')

Write a prompt and read a line. The returned line does not include the trailing newline. When the user enters the EOF key sequence, EOFError is raised. The base implementation reads from sys.stdin; a subclass may replace this with a different implementation.

codeop --- Compile Python code

Code source : Lib/codeop.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/codeop.py]

The codeop module provides utilities upon which the Python read-eval-print loop can be emulated, as is done in the code module. As a result, you probably don't want to use the module directly; if you want to include such a loop in your program you probably want to use the code module instead.

Cette tâche se divise en deux parties :

Being able to tell if a line of input completes a Python statement: in short, telling whether to print '>>>' or '...' next.

Remembering which future statements the user has entered, so subsequent input can be compiled with these in effect.

The codeop module provides a way of doing each of these things, and a way of doing them both.

Pour ne faire que la première partie :

codeop.compile_command(source, filename='<input>', symbol='single')

Tries to compile source, which should be a string of Python code and return a code object if source is valid Python code. In that case, the filename attribute of the code object will be filename, which defaults to '<input>'. Returns None if source is not valid Python code, but is a prefix of valid Python code.

En cas de problème avec source, une exception est levée ; SyntaxError si la syntaxe Python est incorrecte, et OverflowError ou ValueError si un littéral invalide est rencontré.

The symbol argument determines whether source is compiled as a statement ('single', the default), as a sequence of statement ('exec') or as an expression ('eval'). Any other value will cause ValueError to be raised.

Note

Il est possible (quoique improbable) que l'analyseur s'arrête avant d'atteindre la fin du code source ; dans ce cas, les symboles venant après peuvent être ignorés au lieu de provoquer une erreur. Par exemple, une barre oblique inverse suivie de deux retours à la ligne peut être suivie par de la mémoire non-initialisée. Ceci sera corrigé quand l'interface de l'analyseur aura été améliorée.

class codeop.Compile

Instances of this class have __call__() methods identical in signature to the built-in function compile(), but with the difference that if the instance compiles program text containing a __future__ statement, the instance 'remembers' and compiles all subsequent program texts with the statement in force.

class codeop.CommandCompiler

Instances of this class have __call__() methods identical in signature to compile_command(); the difference is that if the instance compiles program text containing a __future__ statement, the instance 'remembers' and compiles all subsequent program texts with the statement in force.

Importer des modules

Les modules décrits dans ce chapitre fournissent de nouveaux moyens d'importer d'autres modules Python, et des hooks pour personnaliser le processus d'importation.

La liste complète des modules décrits dans ce chapitre est :

zipimport --- Import modules from Zip archives

Objets zimporter

Exemples

pkgutil --- Package extension utility

modulefinder --- Find modules used by a script

Exemples d'utilisation de la classe ModuleFinder

runpy --- Locating and executing Python modules

importlib --- The implementation of import

Introduction

Fonctions

importlib.abc -- Abstract base classes related to import

importlib.machinery -- Importers and path hooks

importlib.util -- Utility code for importers

Exemples

Importing programmatically

Checking if a module can be imported

Importing a source file directly

Implementing lazy imports

Setting up an importer

Approximating importlib.import_module()

importlib.resources -- Package resource reading, opening and access

API par fonction

importlib.resources.abc -- Abstract base classes for resources

importlib.metadata -- Accessing package metadata

Aperçu

API par fonction

Entry points

Distribution metadata

Distribution versions

Distribution files

Distribution requirements

Mapping import to distribution packages

Distributions

Distribution Discovery

Implementing Custom Providers

Exemple

The initialization of the sys.path module search path

Virtual Environments

_pth files

Embedded Python

zipimport --- Import modules from Zip archives

Code source : Lib/zipimport.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/zipimport.py]

This module adds the ability to import Python modules (*.py, *.pyc) and packages from ZIP-format archives. It is usually not needed to use the zipimport module explicitly; it is automatically used by the built-in import mechanism for sys.path items that are paths to ZIP archives.

En général, sys.path est une liste de noms de répertoires sous forme de chaînes. Ce module permet également à un élément de sys.path d'être une chaîne nommant une archive de fichier ZIP. L'archive peut contenir une arborescence de répertoires pour prendre en charge les importations de paquets, et un chemin dans l'archive peut être donné pour importer uniquement à partir d'un sous-répertoire. Par exemple, le chemin d'accès example.zip/lib/ importerait uniquement depuis le sous-répertoire lib/ dans l'archive.

Tous les fichiers peuvent être présents dans l'archive ZIP, mais les importateurs ne sont invoqués que pour les fichiers .py et .pyc. L'importation ZIP de modules dynamiques (.py, .so) n'est pas permise. Notez que si une archive ne contient que des fichiers .py, Python n'essaiera pas de modifier l'archive en ajoutant le fichier .pyc correspondant, ce qui signifie que si une archive ZIP ne contient pas de fichiers .pyc, l'importation peut être assez lente.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: ZIP64 is supported

Modifié dans la version 3.8: auparavant, les archives ZIP avec un commentaire d’archive n’étaient pas prises en charge.

Voir aussi

PKZIP Application Note [https://pkware.cachefly.net/webdocs/casestudies/APPNOTE.TXT]

Documentation sur le format de fichier ZIP par Phil Katz, créateur du format et des algorithmes utilisés.

PEP 273 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0273/] — Importation de modules depuis des archives ZIP

Écrit par James C. Ahlstrom, qui a également fourni une mise en œuvre. Python 2.3 suit les spécifications de PEP 273 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0273/], mais utilise une implémentation écrite par Just van Rossum qui utilise les crochets d'importation décrits dans PEP 302 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/].

importlib — Implémentation du système d'importation

Paquet qui définit les protocoles que doivent implémenter tous les objets importateurs.

Ce module définit une exception :

exception zipimport.ZipImportError

Exception levée par les objets zipimporter. C'est une sous-classe de ImportError, donc elle peut être aussi interceptée comme une ImportError.

Objets zimporter

zipimporter est la classe pour importer des fichiers ZIP.

class zipimport.zipimporter(archivepath)

Classe d'objets qui importent depuis les archives. Dans le constructeur, archivepath doit être un chemin vers un fichier ZIP, éventuellement augmenté d'un chemin à l'intérieur de l'archive. Par exemple, un archivepath de foo/bar.zip/lib cherchera les modules dans le répertoire lib du fichier ZIP foo/bar.zip (à supposer que ce répertoire existe).

ZipImportError est levée si archivepath ne pointe pas vers une archive ZIP valide.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Methods find_loader() and find_module(), deprecated in 3.10 are now removed. Use find_spec() instead.

create_module(spec)

Implémentation de importlib.abc.Loader.create_module(). Elle renvoie toujours None, ce qui déclenche le mécanisme standard.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

exec_module(module)

Implémentation de importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module().

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

find_spec(fullname, target=None)

Implémentation de importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec().

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

get_code(fullname)

Renvoie l'objet de code pour le module spécifié. Lève ZipImportError si l'importation a échoué.

get_data(pathname)

Renvoie les données associées à pathname. Lève OSError si le fichier n'a pas été trouvé.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: IOError used to be raised, it is now an alias of OSError.

get_filename(fullname)

Renvoie la valeur __file____ qui serait définie si le module spécifié était importé. Lève ZipImportError si l'importation a échoué.

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

get_source(fullname)

Renvoie le code source du module spécifié. Lève ZipImportError si le module n'a pas pu être trouvé, renvoie None si l'archive contient le module, mais n'en a pas la source.

is_package(fullname)

Renvoie True si le module spécifié par fullname est un paquet. Lève ZipImportError si le module n'a pas pu être trouvé.

load_module(fullname)

Charge et renvoie le module spécifié par fullname, qui doit être le nom du module entièrement qualifié (avec des points). Lève ZipImportError si l'importation a échoué.

Deprecated since version 3.10, will be removed in version 3.15: utilisez plutôt exec_module().

invalidate_caches()

Efface le cache interne des informations sur les fichiers à l'intérieur de l'archive ZIP.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

archive

Le nom de fichier de l'archive ZIP associé à l'importateur, sans sous-chemin à l'intérieur.

prefix

Le sous-chemin du fichier ZIP où les modules sont recherchés. C'est la chaîne vide pour les objets zipimporter qui pointent vers la racine du fichier ZIP.

On a schématiquement archive + '/' + prefix == archivepath, où archivepath est l'argument donné au constructeur zipimporter.

Exemples

Here is an example that imports a module from a ZIP archive - note that the zipimport module is not explicitly used.

$ unzip -l example_archive.zip
Archive:  example_archive.zip
  Length     Date   Time    Name
 --------    ----   ----    ----
     8467  01-01-00 12:30   example.py
 --------                   -------
     8467                   1 file

>>> import sys
>>> # Add the archive to the front of the module search path
>>> sys.path.insert(0, 'example_archive.zip')
>>> import example
>>> example.__file__
'example_archive.zip/example.py'

pkgutil --- Package extension utility

Code source : Lib/pkgutil.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/pkgutil.py]

Ce module fournit des utilitaires pour le système d'importation, en particulier pour la prise en charge des paquets.

class pkgutil.ModuleInfo(module_finder, name, ispkg)

Un n-uplet nommé qui contient un bref résumé des informations d'un module.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

pkgutil.extend_path(path, name)

Étend le chemin de recherche pour les modules qui composent un paquet. L'usage prévu est de placer le code suivant dans le __init__.py d'un paquet :

from pkgutil import extend_path
__path__ = extend_path(__path__, __name__)

For each directory on sys.path that has a subdirectory that matches the package name, add the subdirectory to the package's __path__. This is useful if one wants to distribute different parts of a single logical package as multiple directories.

It also looks for *.pkg files beginning where * matches the name argument. This feature is similar to *.pth files (see the site module for more information), except that it doesn't special-case lines starting with import. A *.pkg file is trusted at face value: apart from skipping blank lines and ignoring comments, all entries found in a *.pkg file are added to the path, regardless of whether they exist on the filesystem (this is a feature).

Si le chemin d'entrée n'est pas une liste (comme c'est le cas pour les paquets figés), il est retourné tel quel. Le chemin d'entrée n'est pas modifié ; une copie étendue en est retournée. Les éléments ne sont ajoutés à la copie qu'à la fin.

L'interpréteur estime que sys.path est une séquence. Les éléments de sys.path qui ne sont pas des chaînes se référant à des répertoires existants sont ignorés. Les éléments Unicode sur sys.path qui provoquent des erreurs lorsqu'ils sont utilisés comme noms de fichiers peuvent amener cette fonction à lever une exception (conformément au comportement de os.path.isdir()).

pkgutil.get_importer(path_item)

Récupère un finder pour l'élément path_item donné.

Le chercheur retourné est mis en cache dans sys.path_importer_cache s'il a été récemment créé par le chemin d'un point d'entrée.

Le cache (ou une partie de celui-ci) peut être effacé manuellement si une nouvelle analyse de sys.path_hooks est nécessaire.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Mise à jour pour être basée directement sur importlib au lieu de dépendre de l'émulation interne de la PEP 302 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/] du paquet.

pkgutil.iter_importers(fullname='')

Génère des objets finder pour le nom du module donné.

If fullname contains a '.', the finders will be for the package containing fullname, otherwise they will be all registered top level finders (i.e. those on both sys.meta_path and sys.path_hooks).

Si le module nommé se trouve dans un paquet, ce paquet est importé en tant qu'effet secondaire de l'invocation de cette fonction.

Si aucun nom de module n'est spécifié, tous les chercheurs de niveau supérieur sont générés.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Mise à jour pour être basée directement sur importlib au lieu de dépendre de l'émulation interne de la PEP 302 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/] du paquet.

pkgutil.iter_modules(path=None, prefix='')

Fournit des ModuleInfo pour tous les sous-modules sur path ou, si path est None, pour tous les modules de niveau supérieur sur sys.path.

path doit être soit None, soit une liste de chemins pour rechercher des modules.

prefix est une chaîne de caractères à afficher au début de chaque nom de module en sortie.

Note

Cela fonctionne uniquement pour un finder qui définit une méthode iter_modules(). Cette interface n'est pas standard, donc le module fournit également des implémentations pour importlib.machinery.FileFinder et zipimport.zipimporter.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Mise à jour pour être basée directement sur importlib au lieu de dépendre de l'émulation interne de la PEP 302 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/] du paquet.

pkgutil.walk_packages(path=None, prefix='', onerror=None)

Fournit des ModuleInfo pour tous les modules de manière récursive sur path ou, si path est None, tous les modules accessibles.

path doit être soit None, soit une liste de chemins pour rechercher des modules.

prefix est une chaîne de caractères à afficher au début de chaque nom de module en sortie.

Notez que cette fonction doit importer tous les packages (pas tous les modules !) sur le path donné, afin d'accéder à l'attribut __path__ pour trouver les sous-modules.

onerror est une fonction qui est appelée avec un argument (le nom du paquet qui était en cours d'importation) si une exception se produit lors de la tentative d'importation d'un paquet. Si aucune fonction onerror n'est fournie, les ImportErrors sont attrapées et ignorées, tandis que toutes les autres exceptions sont propagées, mettant fin à la recherche.

Exemples :

# list all modules python can access
walk_packages()

# list all submodules of ctypes
walk_packages(ctypes.__path__, ctypes.__name__ + '.')

Note

Cela fonctionne uniquement pour un finder qui définit une méthode iter_modules(). Cette interface n'est pas standard, donc le module fournit également des implémentations pour importlib.machinery.FileFinder et zipimport.zipimporter.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Mise à jour pour être basée directement sur importlib au lieu de dépendre de l'émulation interne de la PEP 302 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/] du paquet.

pkgutil.get_data(package, resource)

Obtient une ressource à partir d'un paquet.

Ceci est une surcouche pour l'API loader get_data. L'argument package doit être le nom d'un paquet, au format module standard (foo.bar). L'argument resource doit être sous forme d'un nom de fichier relatif, en utilisant / comme séparateur de chemin. Le nom du répertoire parent .. n'est pas autorisé, pas plus qu'un nom racine (commençant par /).

La fonction renvoie une chaîne binaire qui est le contenu de la ressource spécifiée.

Pour les paquets situés dans le système de fichiers, qui ont déjà été importés, c'est l'équivalent approximatif de :

d = os.path.dirname(sys.modules[package].__file__)
data = open(os.path.join(d, resource), 'rb').read()

Si le paquet ne peut pas être localisé ou chargé, ou s'il utilise un loader qui ne prend pas en charge get_data, alors None est retourné. En particulier, le loader pour les paquets espaces de noms ne prend pas en charge get_data.

pkgutil.resolve_name(name)

Solutionne un nom en un objet.

Cette fonctionnalité est utilisée dans de nombreux endroits de la bibliothèque standard (voir bpo-12915 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12915]) - et une fonctionnalité équivalente est également présente dans des paquets largement utilisés tels que Setuptools, Django et Pyramid.

Python s'attend à ce que name soit une chaîne de caractères dans l'un des formats suivants, où W est une abréviation pour un identifiant Python valide et le point représente un point littéral dans ces pseudo-regexes :

W(.W)*

W(.W)*:(W(.W)*)?

La première forme est destinée uniquement à assurer la compatibilité ascendante. Elle suppose qu'une partie du nom pointé est un paquet, et que le reste est un objet quelque part à l'intérieur de ce paquet, éventuellement niché à l'intérieur d'autres objets. Puisque l'endroit où le paquet s'arrête et où la hiérarchie des objets commence ne peut pas être déduit par inspection, des tentatives répétées d'importation doivent être effectuées avec cette forme.

Dans la deuxième forme, l'appelant clarifie le point de division en fournissant un seul deux-points : le nom pointé à gauche des deux-points est un package à importer, et le nom pointé à droite est la hiérarchie d'objets à l'intérieur de ce paquet. Seule une importation est nécessaire dans cette forme. Si elle se termine par un deux-points, alors un objet module est retourné.

La fonction renvoie un objet (qui pourrait être un module), ou génère l'une des exceptions suivantes :

ValueError – si name n'est pas un format reconnu.

ImportError – si une importation échoue lorsqu'elle n'aurait pas dû.

AttributeError – Si un échec s'est produit lors du parcours de la hiérarchie d'objets dans le paquet importé pour accéder à l'objet souhaité.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

modulefinder --- Find modules used by a script

Code source : Lib/modulefinder.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/modulefinder.py]

Ce module fournit une classe ModuleFinder qui peut être utilisée pour déterminer la liste des modules importés par un script. modulefinder.py peut aussi être utilisé en tant que script, en passant le nom du fichier Python en argument, ce qui affichera un rapport sur les modules importés.

modulefinder.AddPackagePath(pkg_name, path)

Enregistre que le paquet pkg_name peut être trouvé au chemin path spécifié.

modulefinder.ReplacePackage(oldname, newname)

Permet de spécifier que le module nommé oldname est en réalité le paquet nommé newname.

class modulefinder.ModuleFinder(path=None, debug=0, excludes=[], replace_paths=[])

Cette classe fournit les méthodes run_script() et report() pour déterminer l'ensemble des modules importés par un script. path peut être une liste de dossiers dans lesquels chercher les modules ; si non spécifié, sys.path est utilisé. debug définit le niveau de débogage ; des valeurs plus élevées produisent plus de détails sur ce que fait la classe. excludes est une liste de noms de modules à exclure de l'analyse. replace_paths est une liste de paires (oldpath, newpath) qui seront remplacés dans les chemins des modules.

report()

Affiche un rapport sur la sortie standard qui liste les modules importés par le script et leurs chemins, ainsi que les modules manquants ou qui n'ont pas été trouvés.

run_script(pathname)

Analyse le contenu du fichier pathname, qui doit contenir du code Python.

modules

Un dictionnaire de correspondance entre nom de modules et modules. Voir Exemples d'utilisation de la classe ModuleFinder.

Exemples d'utilisation de la classe ModuleFinder

Le script qui sera analysé (bacon.py) :

import re, itertools

try:
    import baconhameggs
except ImportError:
    pass

try:
    import guido.python.ham
except ImportError:
    pass

Le script qui va afficher le rapport de bacon.py :

from modulefinder import ModuleFinder

finder = ModuleFinder()
finder.run_script('bacon.py')

print('Loaded modules:')
for name, mod in finder.modules.items():
    print('%s: ' % name, end='')
    print(','.join(list(mod.globalnames.keys())[:3]))

print('-'*50)
print('Modules not imported:')
print('\n'.join(finder.badmodules.keys()))

Exemple de sortie (peut varier en fonction de l'architecture) :

Loaded modules:
_types:
copyreg:  _inverted_registry,_slotnames,__all__
re._compiler:  isstring,_sre,_optimize_unicode
_sre:
re._constants:  REPEAT_ONE,makedict,AT_END_LINE
sys:
re:  __module__,finditer,_expand
itertools:
__main__:  re,itertools,baconhameggs
re._parser:  _PATTERNENDERS,SRE_FLAG_UNICODE
array:
types:  __module__,IntType,TypeType
---------------------------------------------------
Modules not imported:
guido.python.ham
baconhameggs

runpy --- Locating and executing Python modules

Code source : Lib/runpy.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/runpy.py]

The runpy module is used to locate and run Python modules without importing them first. Its main use is to implement the -m command line switch that allows scripts to be located using the Python module namespace rather than the filesystem.

Note that this is not a sandbox module - all code is executed in the current process, and any side effects (such as cached imports of other modules) will remain in place after the functions have returned.

Furthermore, any functions and classes defined by the executed code are not guaranteed to work correctly after a runpy function has returned. If that limitation is not acceptable for a given use case, importlib is likely to be a more suitable choice than this module.

The runpy module provides two functions:

runpy.run_module(mod_name, init_globals=None, run_name=None, alter_sys=False)

Execute the code of the specified module and return the resulting module's globals dictionary. The module's code is first located using the standard import mechanism (refer to PEP 302 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/] for details) and then executed in a fresh module namespace.

The mod_name argument should be an absolute module name. If the module name refers to a package rather than a normal module, then that package is imported and the __main__ submodule within that package is then executed and the resulting module globals dictionary returned.

The optional dictionary argument init_globals may be used to pre-populate the module's globals dictionary before the code is executed. init_globals will not be modified. If any of the special global variables below are defined in init_globals, those definitions are overridden by run_module().

The special global variables __name__, __spec__, __file__, __cached__, __loader__ and __package__ are set in the globals dictionary before the module code is executed. (Note that this is a minimal set of variables - other variables may be set implicitly as an interpreter implementation detail.)

__name__ is set to run_name if this optional argument is not None, to mod_name + '.__main__' if the named module is a package and to the mod_name argument otherwise.

__spec__ will be set appropriately for the actually imported module (that is, __spec__.name will always be mod_name or mod_name + '.__main__', never run_name).

__file__, __cached__, __loader__ and __package__ are set as normal based on the module spec.

If the argument alter_sys is supplied and evaluates to True, then sys.argv[0] is updated with the value of __file__ and sys.modules[__name__] is updated with a temporary module object for the module being executed. Both sys.argv[0] and sys.modules[__name__] are restored to their original values before the function returns.

Note that this manipulation of sys is not thread-safe. Other threads may see the partially initialised module, as well as the altered list of arguments. It is recommended that the sys module be left alone when invoking this function from threaded code.

Voir aussi

The -m option offering equivalent functionality from the command line.

Modifié dans la version 3.1: Added ability to execute packages by looking for a __main__ submodule.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Added __cached__ global variable (see PEP 3147 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/]).

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Updated to take advantage of the module spec feature added by PEP 451 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/]. This allows __cached__ to be set correctly for modules run this way, as well as ensuring the real module name is always accessible as __spec__.name.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: The setting of __cached__, __loader__, and __package__ are deprecated. See ModuleSpec for alternatives.

runpy.run_path(path_name, init_globals=None, run_name=None)

Execute the code at the named filesystem location and return the resulting module's globals dictionary. As with a script name supplied to the CPython command line, file_path may refer to a Python source file, a compiled bytecode file or a valid sys.path entry containing a __main__ module (e.g. a zipfile containing a top-level __main__.py file).

For a simple script, the specified code is simply executed in a fresh module namespace. For a valid sys.path entry (typically a zipfile or directory), the entry is first added to the beginning of sys.path. The function then looks for and executes a __main__ module using the updated path. Note that there is no special protection against invoking an existing __main__ entry located elsewhere on sys.path if there is no such module at the specified location.

The optional dictionary argument init_globals may be used to pre-populate the module's globals dictionary before the code is executed. init_globals will not be modified. If any of the special global variables below are defined in init_globals, those definitions are overridden by run_path().

The special global variables __name__, __spec__, __file__, __cached__, __loader__ and __package__ are set in the globals dictionary before the module code is executed. (Note that this is a minimal set of variables - other variables may be set implicitly as an interpreter implementation detail.)

__name__ is set to run_name if this optional argument is not None and to '<run_path>' otherwise.

If file_path directly references a script file (whether as source or as precompiled byte code), then __file__ will be set to file_path, and __spec__, __cached__, __loader__ and __package__ will all be set to None.

If file_path is a reference to a valid sys.path entry, then __spec__ will be set appropriately for the imported __main__ module (that is, __spec__.name will always be __main__). __file__, __cached__, __loader__ and __package__ will be set as normal based on the module spec.

A number of alterations are also made to the sys module. Firstly, sys.path may be altered as described above. sys.argv[0] is updated with the value of file_path and sys.modules[__name__] is updated with a temporary module object for the module being executed. All modifications to items in sys are reverted before the function returns.

Note that, unlike run_module(), the alterations made to sys are not optional in this function as these adjustments are essential to allowing the execution of sys.path entries. As the thread-safety limitations still apply, use of this function in threaded code should be either serialised with the import lock or delegated to a separate process.

Voir aussi

Options de l'interface for equivalent functionality on the command line (python path/to/script).

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Updated to take advantage of the module spec feature added by PEP 451 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/]. This allows __cached__ to be set correctly in the case where __main__ is imported from a valid sys.path entry rather than being executed directly.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: The setting of __cached__, __loader__, and __package__ are deprecated.

Voir aussi

PEP 338 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0338/] -- Exécuter des modules en tant que scripts

PEP written and implemented by Nick Coghlan.

PEP 366 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0366/] -- Main module explicit relative imports

PEP written and implemented by Nick Coghlan.

PEP 451 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/] -- A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System

PEP written and implemented by Eric Snow

Ligne de commande et environnement - CPython command line details

The importlib.import_module() function

importlib --- The implementation of import

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

Source code: Lib/importlib/__init__.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/importlib/__init__.py]

Introduction

The purpose of the importlib package is three-fold.

One is to provide the implementation of the import statement (and thus, by extension, the __import__() function) in Python source code. This provides an implementation of import which is portable to any Python interpreter. This also provides an implementation which is easier to comprehend than one implemented in a programming language other than Python.

Two, the components to implement import are exposed in this package, making it easier for users to create their own custom objects (known generically as an importer) to participate in the import process.

Three, the package contains modules exposing additional functionality for managing aspects of Python packages:

importlib.metadata presents access to metadata from third-party distributions.

importlib.resources provides routines for accessing non-code "resources" from Python packages.

Voir aussi

L'instruction import

The language reference for the import statement.

Packages specification [https://www.python.org/doc/essays/packages/]

Original specification of packages. Some semantics have changed since the writing of this document (e.g. redirecting based on None in sys.modules).

La fonction __import__()

The import statement is syntactic sugar for this function.

The initialization of the sys.path module search path

The initialization of sys.path.

PEP 235 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0235/]

Import on Case-Insensitive Platforms

PEP 263 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/]

Defining Python Source Code Encodings

PEP 302 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/]

New Import Hooks

PEP 328 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/]

Imports: Multi-Line and Absolute/Relative

PEP 366 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0366/]

Main module explicit relative imports

PEP 420 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/]

Implicit namespace packages

PEP 451 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/]

A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System

PEP 488 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/]

Elimination of PYO files

PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]

Multi-phase extension module initialization

PEP 552 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/]

Deterministic pycs

PEP 3120 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3120/]

Using UTF-8 as the Default Source Encoding

PEP 3147 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/]

PYC Repository Directories

Fonctions

importlib.__import__(name, globals=None, locals=None, fromlist=(), level=0)

An implementation of the built-in __import__() function.

Note

Programmatic importing of modules should use import_module() instead of this function.

importlib.import_module(name, package=None)

Import a module. The name argument specifies what module to import in absolute or relative terms (e.g. either pkg.mod or ..mod). If the name is specified in relative terms, then the package argument must be set to the name of the package which is to act as the anchor for resolving the package name (e.g. import_module('..mod', 'pkg.subpkg') will import pkg.mod).

The import_module() function acts as a simplifying wrapper around importlib.__import__(). This means all semantics of the function are derived from importlib.__import__(). The most important difference between these two functions is that import_module() returns the specified package or module (e.g. pkg.mod), while __import__() returns the top-level package or module (e.g. pkg).

If you are dynamically importing a module that was created since the interpreter began execution (e.g., created a Python source file), you may need to call invalidate_caches() in order for the new module to be noticed by the import system.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Parent packages are automatically imported.

importlib.invalidate_caches()

Invalidate the internal caches of finders stored at sys.meta_path. If a finder implements invalidate_caches() then it will be called to perform the invalidation. This function should be called if any modules are created/installed while your program is running to guarantee all finders will notice the new module's existence.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Namespace packages created/installed in a different sys.path location after the same namespace was already imported are noticed.

importlib.reload(module)

Reload a previously imported module. The argument must be a module object, so it must have been successfully imported before. This is useful if you have edited the module source file using an external editor and want to try out the new version without leaving the Python interpreter. The return value is the module object (which can be different if re-importing causes a different object to be placed in sys.modules).

When reload() is executed:

Python module's code is recompiled and the module-level code re-executed, defining a new set of objects which are bound to names in the module's dictionary by reusing the loader which originally loaded the module. The init function of extension modules is not called a second time.

As with all other objects in Python the old objects are only reclaimed after their reference counts drop to zero.

The names in the module namespace are updated to point to any new or changed objects.

Other references to the old objects (such as names external to the module) are not rebound to refer to the new objects and must be updated in each namespace where they occur if that is desired.

There are a number of other caveats:

When a module is reloaded, its dictionary (containing the module's global variables) is retained. Redefinitions of names will override the old definitions, so this is generally not a problem. If the new version of a module does not define a name that was defined by the old version, the old definition remains. This feature can be used to the module's advantage if it maintains a global table or cache of objects --- with a try statement it can test for the table's presence and skip its initialization if desired:

try:
    cache
except NameError:
    cache = {}

It is generally not very useful to reload built-in or dynamically loaded modules. Reloading sys, __main__, builtins and other key modules is not recommended. In many cases extension modules are not designed to be initialized more than once, and may fail in arbitrary ways when reloaded.

If a module imports objects from another module using from ... import ..., calling reload() for the other module does not redefine the objects imported from it --- one way around this is to re-execute the from statement, another is to use import and qualified names (module.name) instead.

If a module instantiates instances of a class, reloading the module that defines the class does not affect the method definitions of the instances --- they continue to use the old class definition. The same is true for derived classes.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: ModuleNotFoundError is raised when the module being reloaded lacks a ModuleSpec.

Avertissement

This function is not thread-safe. Calling it from multiple threads can result in unexpected behavior. It's recommended to use the threading.Lock or other synchronization primitives for thread-safe module reloading.

importlib.abc -- Abstract base classes related to import

Source code: Lib/importlib/abc.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/importlib/abc.py]

The importlib.abc module contains all of the core abstract base classes used by import. Some subclasses of the core abstract base classes are also provided to help in implementing the core ABCs.

ABC hierarchy:

object
 +-- MetaPathFinder
 +-- PathEntryFinder
 +-- Loader
      +-- ResourceLoader --------+
      +-- InspectLoader          |
           +-- ExecutionLoader --+
                                 +-- FileLoader
                                 +-- SourceLoader

class importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder

An abstract base class representing a meta path finder.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: No longer a subclass of Finder.

find_spec(fullname, path, target=None)

An abstract method for finding a spec for the specified module. If this is a top-level import, path will be None. Otherwise, this is a search for a subpackage or module and path will be the value of __path__ from the parent package. If a spec cannot be found, None is returned. When passed in, target is a module object that the finder may use to make a more educated guess about what spec to return. importlib.util.spec_from_loader() may be useful for implementing concrete MetaPathFinders.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

invalidate_caches()

An optional method which, when called, should invalidate any internal cache used by the finder. Used by importlib.invalidate_caches() when invalidating the caches of all finders on sys.meta_path.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Returns None when called instead of NotImplemented.

class importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder

An abstract base class representing a path entry finder. Though it bears some similarities to MetaPathFinder, PathEntryFinder is meant for use only within the path-based import subsystem provided by importlib.machinery.PathFinder.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: No longer a subclass of Finder.

find_spec(fullname, target=None)

An abstract method for finding a spec for the specified module. The finder will search for the module only within the path entry to which it is assigned. If a spec cannot be found, None is returned. When passed in, target is a module object that the finder may use to make a more educated guess about what spec to return. importlib.util.spec_from_loader() may be useful for implementing concrete PathEntryFinders.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

invalidate_caches()

An optional method which, when called, should invalidate any internal cache used by the finder. Used by importlib.machinery.PathFinder.invalidate_caches() when invalidating the caches of all cached finders.

class importlib.abc.Loader

An abstract base class for a loader. See PEP 302 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/] for the exact definition for a loader.

Loaders that wish to support resource reading should implement a get_resource_reader() method as specified by importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Introduced the optional get_resource_reader() method.

create_module(spec)

A method that returns the module object to use when importing a module. This method may return None, indicating that default module creation semantics should take place.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: This method is no longer optional when exec_module() is defined.

exec_module(module)

An abstract method that executes the module in its own namespace when a module is imported or reloaded. The module should already be initialized when exec_module() is called. When this method exists, create_module() must be defined.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: create_module() must also be defined.

load_module(fullname)

A legacy method for loading a module. If the module cannot be loaded, ImportError is raised, otherwise the loaded module is returned.

If the requested module already exists in sys.modules, that module should be used and reloaded. Otherwise the loader should create a new module and insert it into sys.modules before any loading begins, to prevent recursion from the import. If the loader inserted a module and the load fails, it must be removed by the loader from sys.modules; modules already in sys.modules before the loader began execution should be left alone.

The loader should set several attributes on the module (note that some of these attributes can change when a module is reloaded):

module.__name__

module.__file__

module.__cached__ (deprecated)

module.__path__

module.__package__ (deprecated)

module.__loader__ (deprecated)

When exec_module() is available then backwards-compatible functionality is provided.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Raise ImportError when called instead of NotImplementedError. Functionality provided when exec_module() is available.

Deprecated since version 3.4, will be removed in version 3.15: The recommended API for loading a module is exec_module() (and create_module()). Loaders should implement it instead of load_module(). The import machinery takes care of all the other responsibilities of load_module() when exec_module() is implemented.

class importlib.abc.ResourceLoader

Superseded by TraversableResources

An abstract base class for a loader which implements the optional PEP 302 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/] protocol for loading arbitrary resources from the storage back-end.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.7: This ABC is deprecated in favour of supporting resource loading through importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources. This class exists for backwards compatibility only with other ABCs in this module.

abstractmethod get_data(path)

An abstract method to return the bytes for the data located at path. Loaders that have a file-like storage back-end that allows storing arbitrary data can implement this abstract method to give direct access to the data stored. OSError is to be raised if the path cannot be found. The path is expected to be constructed using a module's __file__ attribute or an item from a package's __path__.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Raises OSError instead of NotImplementedError.

class importlib.abc.InspectLoader

An abstract base class for a loader which implements the optional PEP 302 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/] protocol for loaders that inspect modules.

get_code(fullname)

Return the code object for a module, or None if the module does not have a code object (as would be the case, for example, for a built-in module). Raise an ImportError if loader cannot find the requested module.

Note

While the method has a default implementation, it is suggested that it be overridden if possible for performance.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: No longer abstract and a concrete implementation is provided.

abstractmethod get_source(fullname)

An abstract method to return the source of a module. It is returned as a text string using universal newlines, translating all recognized line separators into '\n' characters. Returns None if no source is available (e.g. a built-in module). Raises ImportError if the loader cannot find the module specified.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Raises ImportError instead of NotImplementedError.

is_package(fullname)

An optional method to return a true value if the module is a package, a false value otherwise. ImportError is raised if the loader cannot find the module.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Raises ImportError instead of NotImplementedError.

static source_to_code(data, path='<string>')

Create a code object from Python source.

The data argument can be whatever the compile() function supports (i.e. string or bytes). The path argument should be the "path" to where the source code originated from, which can be an abstract concept (e.g. location in a zip file).

With the subsequent code object one can execute it in a module by running exec(code, module.__dict__).

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Made the method static.

exec_module(module)

Implementation of Loader.exec_module().

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

load_module(fullname)

Implementation of Loader.load_module().

Deprecated since version 3.4, will be removed in version 3.15: use exec_module() instead.

class importlib.abc.ExecutionLoader

An abstract base class which inherits from InspectLoader that, when implemented, helps a module to be executed as a script. The ABC represents an optional PEP 302 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/] protocol.

abstractmethod get_filename(fullname)

An abstract method that is to return the value of __file__ for the specified module. If no path is available, ImportError is raised.

If source code is available, then the method should return the path to the source file, regardless of whether a bytecode was used to load the module.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Raises ImportError instead of NotImplementedError.

class importlib.abc.FileLoader(fullname, path)

An abstract base class which inherits from ResourceLoader and ExecutionLoader, providing concrete implementations of ResourceLoader.get_data() and ExecutionLoader.get_filename().

The fullname argument is a fully resolved name of the module the loader is to handle. The path argument is the path to the file for the module.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

name

The name of the module the loader can handle.

path

Path to the file of the module.

load_module(fullname)

Calls super's load_module().

Deprecated since version 3.4, will be removed in version 3.15: Use Loader.exec_module() instead.

abstractmethod get_filename(fullname)

Returns path.

abstractmethod get_data(path)

Reads path as a binary file and returns the bytes from it.

class importlib.abc.SourceLoader

An abstract base class for implementing source (and optionally bytecode) file loading. The class inherits from both ResourceLoader and ExecutionLoader, requiring the implementation of:

ResourceLoader.get_data()

ExecutionLoader.get_filename()

Should only return the path to the source file; sourceless loading is not supported.

The abstract methods defined by this class are to add optional bytecode file support. Not implementing these optional methods (or causing them to raise NotImplementedError) causes the loader to only work with source code. Implementing the methods allows the loader to work with source and bytecode files; it does not allow for sourceless loading where only bytecode is provided. Bytecode files are an optimization to speed up loading by removing the parsing step of Python's compiler, and so no bytecode-specific API is exposed.

path_stats(path)

Optional abstract method which returns a dict containing metadata about the specified path. Supported dictionary keys are:

'mtime' (mandatory): an integer or floating-point number representing the modification time of the source code;

'size' (optional): the size in bytes of the source code.

Any other keys in the dictionary are ignored, to allow for future extensions. If the path cannot be handled, OSError is raised.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Raise OSError instead of NotImplementedError.

path_mtime(path)

Optional abstract method which returns the modification time for the specified path.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.3: This method is deprecated in favour of path_stats(). You don't have to implement it, but it is still available for compatibility purposes. Raise OSError if the path cannot be handled.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Raise OSError instead of NotImplementedError.

set_data(path, data)

Optional abstract method which writes the specified bytes to a file path. Any intermediate directories which do not exist are to be created automatically.

When writing to the path fails because the path is read-only (errno.EACCES/PermissionError), do not propagate the exception.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: No longer raises NotImplementedError when called.

get_code(fullname)

Concrete implementation of InspectLoader.get_code().

exec_module(module)

Concrete implementation of Loader.exec_module().

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

load_module(fullname)

Concrete implementation of Loader.load_module().

Deprecated since version 3.4, will be removed in version 3.15: utilisez plutôt exec_module().

get_source(fullname)

Concrete implementation of InspectLoader.get_source().

is_package(fullname)

Concrete implementation of InspectLoader.is_package(). A module is determined to be a package if its file path (as provided by ExecutionLoader.get_filename()) is a file named __init__ when the file extension is removed and the module name itself does not end in __init__.

importlib.machinery -- Importers and path hooks

Source code: Lib/importlib/machinery.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/importlib/machinery.py]

This module contains the various objects that help import find and load modules.

importlib.machinery.SOURCE_SUFFIXES

A list of strings representing the recognized file suffixes for source modules.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

importlib.machinery.DEBUG_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES

A list of strings representing the file suffixes for non-optimized bytecode modules.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.5: Use BYTECODE_SUFFIXES instead.

importlib.machinery.OPTIMIZED_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES

A list of strings representing the file suffixes for optimized bytecode modules.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.5: Use BYTECODE_SUFFIXES instead.

importlib.machinery.BYTECODE_SUFFIXES

A list of strings representing the recognized file suffixes for bytecode modules (including the leading dot).

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: The value is no longer dependent on __debug__.

importlib.machinery.EXTENSION_SUFFIXES

A list of strings representing the recognized file suffixes for extension modules.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

importlib.machinery.all_suffixes()

Returns a combined list of strings representing all file suffixes for modules recognized by the standard import machinery. This is a helper for code which simply needs to know if a filesystem path potentially refers to a module without needing any details on the kind of module (for example, inspect.getmodulename()).

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

class importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter

An importer for built-in modules. All known built-in modules are listed in sys.builtin_module_names. This class implements the importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder and importlib.abc.InspectLoader ABCs.

Only class methods are defined by this class to alleviate the need for instantiation.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: As part of PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/], the builtin importer now implements Loader.create_module() and Loader.exec_module()

class importlib.machinery.FrozenImporter

An importer for frozen modules. This class implements the importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder and importlib.abc.InspectLoader ABCs.

Only class methods are defined by this class to alleviate the need for instantiation.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Gained create_module() and exec_module() methods.

class importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder

Finder for modules declared in the Windows registry. This class implements the importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder ABC.

Only class methods are defined by this class to alleviate the need for instantiation.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.6: Use site configuration instead. Future versions of Python may not enable this finder by default.

class importlib.machinery.PathFinder

A Finder for sys.path and package __path__ attributes. This class implements the importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder ABC.

Only class methods are defined by this class to alleviate the need for instantiation.

classmethod find_spec(fullname, path=None, target=None)

Class method that attempts to find a spec for the module specified by fullname on sys.path or, if defined, on path. For each path entry that is searched, sys.path_importer_cache is checked. If a non-false object is found then it is used as the path entry finder to look for the module being searched for. If no entry is found in sys.path_importer_cache, then sys.path_hooks is searched for a finder for the path entry and, if found, is stored in sys.path_importer_cache along with being queried about the module. If no finder is ever found then None is both stored in the cache and returned.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: If the current working directory -- represented by an empty string -- is no longer valid then None is returned but no value is cached in sys.path_importer_cache.

classmethod invalidate_caches()

Calls importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.invalidate_caches() on all finders stored in sys.path_importer_cache that define the method. Otherwise entries in sys.path_importer_cache set to None are deleted.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Entries of None in sys.path_importer_cache are deleted.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Calls objects in sys.path_hooks with the current working directory for '' (i.e. the empty string).

class importlib.machinery.FileFinder(path, *loader_details)

A concrete implementation of importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder which caches results from the file system.

The path argument is the directory for which the finder is in charge of searching.

The loader_details argument is a variable number of 2-item tuples each containing a loader and a sequence of file suffixes the loader recognizes. The loaders are expected to be callables which accept two arguments of the module's name and the path to the file found.

The finder will cache the directory contents as necessary, making stat calls for each module search to verify the cache is not outdated. Because cache staleness relies upon the granularity of the operating system's state information of the file system, there is a potential race condition of searching for a module, creating a new file, and then searching for the module the new file represents. If the operations happen fast enough to fit within the granularity of stat calls, then the module search will fail. To prevent this from happening, when you create a module dynamically, make sure to call importlib.invalidate_caches().

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

path

The path the finder will search in.

find_spec(fullname, target=None)

Attempt to find the spec to handle fullname within path.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

invalidate_caches()

Clear out the internal cache.

classmethod path_hook(*loader_details)

A class method which returns a closure for use on sys.path_hooks. An instance of FileFinder is returned by the closure using the path argument given to the closure directly and loader_details indirectly.

If the argument to the closure is not an existing directory, ImportError is raised.

class importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader(fullname, path)

A concrete implementation of importlib.abc.SourceLoader by subclassing importlib.abc.FileLoader and providing some concrete implementations of other methods.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

name

The name of the module that this loader will handle.

path

The path to the source file.

is_package(fullname)

Return True if path appears to be for a package.

path_stats(path)

Concrete implementation of importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_stats().

set_data(path, data)

Concrete implementation of importlib.abc.SourceLoader.set_data().

load_module(name=None)

Concrete implementation of importlib.abc.Loader.load_module() where specifying the name of the module to load is optional.

Deprecated since version 3.6, will be removed in version 3.15: Use importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module() instead.

class importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader(fullname, path)

A concrete implementation of importlib.abc.FileLoader which can import bytecode files (i.e. no source code files exist).

Please note that direct use of bytecode files (and thus not source code files) inhibits your modules from being usable by all Python implementations or new versions of Python which change the bytecode format.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

name

The name of the module the loader will handle.

path

The path to the bytecode file.

is_package(fullname)

Determines if the module is a package based on path.

get_code(fullname)

Returns the code object for name created from path.

get_source(fullname)

Returns None as bytecode files have no source when this loader is used.

load_module(name=None)

Concrete implementation of importlib.abc.Loader.load_module() where specifying the name of the module to load is optional.

Deprecated since version 3.6, will be removed in version 3.15: Use importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module() instead.

class importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader(fullname, path)

A concrete implementation of importlib.abc.ExecutionLoader for extension modules.

The fullname argument specifies the name of the module the loader is to support. The path argument is the path to the extension module's file.

Note that, by default, importing an extension module will fail in subinterpreters if it doesn't implement multi-phase init (see PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]), even if it would otherwise import successfully.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Multi-phase init is now required for use in subinterpreters.

name

Name of the module the loader supports.

path

Path to the extension module.

create_module(spec)

Creates the module object from the given specification in accordance with PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/].

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

exec_module(module)

Initializes the given module object in accordance with PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/].

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

is_package(fullname)

Returns True if the file path points to a package's __init__ module based on EXTENSION_SUFFIXES.

get_code(fullname)

Returns None as extension modules lack a code object.

get_source(fullname)

Returns None as extension modules do not have source code.

get_filename(fullname)

Returns path.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

class importlib.machinery.NamespaceLoader(name, path, path_finder)

A concrete implementation of importlib.abc.InspectLoader for namespace packages. This is an alias for a private class and is only made public for introspecting the __loader__ attribute on namespace packages:

>>> from importlib.machinery import NamespaceLoader
>>> import my_namespace
>>> isinstance(my_namespace.__loader__, NamespaceLoader)
True
>>> import importlib.abc
>>> isinstance(my_namespace.__loader__, importlib.abc.Loader)
True

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

class importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec(name, loader, *, origin=None, loader_state=None, is_package=None)

A specification for a module's import-system-related state. This is typically exposed as the module's __spec__ attribute. Many of these attributes are also available directly on a module: for example, module.__spec__.origin == module.__file__. Note, however, that while the values are usually equivalent, they can differ since there is no synchronization between the two objects. For example, it is possible to update the module's __file__ at runtime and this will not be automatically reflected in the module's __spec__.origin, and vice versa.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

name

The module's fully qualified name (see module.__name__). The finder should always set this attribute to a non-empty string.

loader

The loader used to load the module (see module.__loader__). The finder should always set this attribute.

origin

The location the loader should use to load the module (see module.__file__). For example, for modules loaded from a .py file this is the filename. The finder should always set this attribute to a meaningful value for the loader to use. In the uncommon case that there is not one (like for namespace packages), it should be set to None.

submodule_search_locations

A (possibly empty) sequence of strings enumerating the locations in which a package's submodules will be found (see module.__path__). Most of the time there will only be a single directory in this list.

The finder should set this attribute to a sequence, even an empty one, to indicate to the import system that the module is a package. It should be set to None for non-package modules. It is set automatically later to a special object for namespace packages.

loader_state

The finder may set this attribute to an object containing additional, module-specific data to use when loading the module. Otherwise it should be set to None.

cached

The filename of a compiled version of the module's code (see module.__cached__). The finder should always set this attribute but it may be None for modules that do not need compiled code stored.

parent

(Read-only) The fully qualified name of the package the module is in (or the empty string for a top-level module). See module.__package__. If the module is a package then this is the same as name.

has_location

True if the spec's origin refers to a loadable location, False otherwise. This value impacts how origin is interpreted and how the module's __file__ is populated.

class importlib.machinery.AppleFrameworkLoader(name, path)

A specialization of importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader that is able to load extension modules in Framework format.

For compatibility with the iOS App Store, all binary modules in an iOS app must be dynamic libraries, contained in a framework with appropriate metadata, stored in the Frameworks folder of the packaged app. There can be only a single binary per framework, and there can be no executable binary material outside the Frameworks folder.

To accommodate this requirement, when running on iOS, extension module binaries are not packaged as .so files on sys.path, but as individual standalone frameworks. To discover those frameworks, this loader is registered against the .fwork file extension, with a .fwork file acting as a placeholder in the original location of the binary on sys.path. The .fwork file contains the path of the actual binary in the Frameworks folder, relative to the app bundle. To allow for resolving a framework-packaged binary back to the original location, the framework is expected to contain a .origin file that contains the location of the .fwork file, relative to the app bundle.

For example, consider the case of an import from foo.bar import _whiz, where _whiz is implemented with the binary module sources/foo/bar/_whiz.abi3.so, with sources being the location registered on sys.path, relative to the application bundle. This module must be distributed as Frameworks/foo.bar._whiz.framework/foo.bar._whiz (creating the framework name from the full import path of the module), with an Info.plist file in the .framework directory identifying the binary as a framework. The foo.bar._whiz module would be represented in the original location with a sources/foo/bar/_whiz.abi3.fwork marker file, containing the path Frameworks/foo.bar._whiz/foo.bar._whiz. The framework would also contain Frameworks/foo.bar._whiz.framework/foo.bar._whiz.origin, containing the path to the .fwork file.

When a module is loaded with this loader, the __file__ for the module will report as the location of the .fwork file. This allows code to use the __file__ of a module as an anchor for file system traversal. However, the spec origin will reference the location of the actual binary in the .framework folder.

The Xcode project building the app is responsible for converting any .so files from wherever they exist in the PYTHONPATH into frameworks in the Frameworks folder (including stripping extensions from the module file, the addition of framework metadata, and signing the resulting framework), and creating the .fwork and .origin files. This will usually be done with a build step in the Xcode project; see the iOS documentation for details on how to construct this build step.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Disponibilité: iOS.

name

Name of the module the loader supports.

path

Path to the .fwork file for the extension module.

importlib.util -- Utility code for importers

Source code: Lib/importlib/util.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/importlib/util.py]

This module contains the various objects that help in the construction of an importer.

importlib.util.MAGIC_NUMBER

The bytes which represent the bytecode version number. If you need help with loading/writing bytecode then consider importlib.abc.SourceLoader.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

importlib.util.cache_from_source(path, debug_override=None, *, optimization=None)

Return the PEP 3147 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/]/PEP 488 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/] path to the byte-compiled file associated with the source path. For example, if path is /foo/bar/baz.py the return value would be /foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.pyc for Python 3.2. The cpython-32 string comes from the current magic tag (see get_tag(); if sys.implementation.cache_tag is not defined then NotImplementedError will be raised).

The optimization parameter is used to specify the optimization level of the bytecode file. An empty string represents no optimization, so /foo/bar/baz.py with an optimization of '' will result in a bytecode path of /foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.pyc. None causes the interpreter's optimization level to be used. Any other value's string representation is used, so /foo/bar/baz.py with an optimization of 2 will lead to the bytecode path of /foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.opt-2.pyc. The string representation of optimization can only be alphanumeric, else ValueError is raised.

The debug_override parameter is deprecated and can be used to override the system's value for __debug__. A True value is the equivalent of setting optimization to the empty string. A False value is the same as setting optimization to 1. If both debug_override an optimization are not None then TypeError is raised.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: The optimization parameter was added and the debug_override parameter was deprecated.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

importlib.util.source_from_cache(path)

Given the path to a PEP 3147 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/] file name, return the associated source code file path. For example, if path is /foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.pyc the returned path would be /foo/bar/baz.py. path need not exist, however if it does not conform to PEP 3147 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/] or PEP 488 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/] format, a ValueError is raised. If sys.implementation.cache_tag is not defined, NotImplementedError is raised.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

importlib.util.decode_source(source_bytes)

Decode the given bytes representing source code and return it as a string with universal newlines (as required by importlib.abc.InspectLoader.get_source()).

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

importlib.util.resolve_name(name, package)

Resolve a relative module name to an absolute one.

If name has no leading dots, then name is simply returned. This allows for usage such as importlib.util.resolve_name('sys', __spec__.parent) without doing a check to see if the package argument is needed.

ImportError is raised if name is a relative module name but package is a false value (e.g. None or the empty string). ImportError is also raised if a relative name would escape its containing package (e.g. requesting ..bacon from within the spam package).

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: To improve consistency with import statements, raise ImportError instead of ValueError for invalid relative import attempts.

importlib.util.find_spec(name, package=None)

Find the spec for a module, optionally relative to the specified package name. If the module is in sys.modules, then sys.modules[name].__spec__ is returned (unless the spec would be None or is not set, in which case ValueError is raised). Otherwise a search using sys.meta_path is done. None is returned if no spec is found.

If name is for a submodule (contains a dot), the parent module is automatically imported.

name and package work the same as for import_module().

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Raises ModuleNotFoundError instead of AttributeError if package is in fact not a package (i.e. lacks a __path__ attribute).

importlib.util.module_from_spec(spec)

Create a new module based on spec and spec.loader.create_module.

If spec.loader.create_module does not return None, then any pre-existing attributes will not be reset. Also, no AttributeError will be raised if triggered while accessing spec or setting an attribute on the module.

This function is preferred over using types.ModuleType to create a new module as spec is used to set as many import-controlled attributes on the module as possible.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

importlib.util.spec_from_loader(name, loader, *, origin=None, is_package=None)

A factory function for creating a ModuleSpec instance based on a loader. The parameters have the same meaning as they do for ModuleSpec. The function uses available loader APIs, such as InspectLoader.is_package(), to fill in any missing information on the spec.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

importlib.util.spec_from_file_location(name, location, *, loader=None, submodule_search_locations=None)

A factory function for creating a ModuleSpec instance based on the path to a file. Missing information will be filled in on the spec by making use of loader APIs and by the implication that the module will be file-based.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

importlib.util.source_hash(source_bytes)

Return the hash of source_bytes as bytes. A hash-based .pyc file embeds the source_hash() of the corresponding source file's contents in its header.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

importlib.util._incompatible_extension_module_restrictions(*, disable_check)

A context manager that can temporarily skip the compatibility check for extension modules. By default the check is enabled and will fail when a single-phase init module is imported in a subinterpreter. It will also fail for a multi-phase init module that doesn't explicitly support a per-interpreter GIL, when imported in an interpreter with its own GIL.

Note that this function is meant to accommodate an unusual case; one which is likely to eventually go away. There's is a pretty good chance this is not what you were looking for.

You can get the same effect as this function by implementing the basic interface of multi-phase init (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]) and lying about support for multiple interpreters (or per-interpreter GIL).

Avertissement

Using this function to disable the check can lead to unexpected behavior and even crashes. It should only be used during extension module development.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

class importlib.util.LazyLoader(loader)

A class which postpones the execution of the loader of a module until the module has an attribute accessed.

This class only works with loaders that define exec_module() as control over what module type is used for the module is required. For those same reasons, the loader's create_module() method must return None or a type for which its __class__ attribute can be mutated along with not using slots. Finally, modules which substitute the object placed into sys.modules will not work as there is no way to properly replace the module references throughout the interpreter safely; ValueError is raised if such a substitution is detected.

Note

For projects where startup time is critical, this class allows for potentially minimizing the cost of loading a module if it is never used. For projects where startup time is not essential then use of this class is heavily discouraged due to error messages created during loading being postponed and thus occurring out of context.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Began calling create_module(), removing the compatibility warning for importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter and importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader.

classmethod factory(loader)

A class method which returns a callable that creates a lazy loader. This is meant to be used in situations where the loader is passed by class instead of by instance.

suffixes = importlib.machinery.SOURCE_SUFFIXES
loader = importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader
lazy_loader = importlib.util.LazyLoader.factory(loader)
finder = importlib.machinery.FileFinder(path, (lazy_loader, suffixes))

Exemples

Importing programmatically

To programmatically import a module, use importlib.import_module().

import importlib

itertools = importlib.import_module('itertools')

Checking if a module can be imported

If you need to find out if a module can be imported without actually doing the import, then you should use importlib.util.find_spec().

Note that if name is a submodule (contains a dot), importlib.util.find_spec() will import the parent module.

import importlib.util
import sys

# For illustrative purposes.
name = 'itertools'

if name in sys.modules:
    print(f"{name!r} already in sys.modules")
elif (spec := importlib.util.find_spec(name)) is not None:
    # If you chose to perform the actual import ...
    module = importlib.util.module_from_spec(spec)
    sys.modules[name] = module
    spec.loader.exec_module(module)
    print(f"{name!r} has been imported")
else:
    print(f"can't find the {name!r} module")

Importing a source file directly

This recipe should be used with caution: it is an approximation of an import statement where the file path is specified directly, rather than sys.path being searched. Alternatives should first be considered first, such as modifying sys.path when a proper module is required, or using runpy.run_path() when the global namespace resulting from running a Python file is appropriate.

To import a Python source file directly from a path, use the following recipe:

import importlib.util
import sys

def import_from_path(module_name, file_path):
    spec = importlib.util.spec_from_file_location(module_name, file_path)
    module = importlib.util.module_from_spec(spec)
    sys.modules[module_name] = module
    spec.loader.exec_module(module)
    return module

# For illustrative purposes only (use of `json` is arbitrary).
import json
file_path = json.__file__
module_name = json.__name__

# Similar outcome as `import json`.
json = import_from_path(module_name, file_path)

Implementing lazy imports

The example below shows how to implement lazy imports:

>>> import importlib.util
>>> import sys
>>> def lazy_import(name):
...     spec = importlib.util.find_spec(name)
...     loader = importlib.util.LazyLoader(spec.loader)
...     spec.loader = loader
...     module = importlib.util.module_from_spec(spec)
...     sys.modules[name] = module
...     loader.exec_module(module)
...     return module
...
>>> lazy_typing = lazy_import("typing")
>>> #lazy_typing is a real module object,
>>> #but it is not loaded in memory yet.
>>> lazy_typing.TYPE_CHECKING
False

Setting up an importer

For deep customizations of import, you typically want to implement an importer. This means managing both the finder and loader side of things. For finders there are two flavours to choose from depending on your needs: a meta path finder or a path entry finder. The former is what you would put on sys.meta_path while the latter is what you create using a path entry hook on sys.path_hooks which works with sys.path entries to potentially create a finder. This example will show you how to register your own importers so that import will use them (for creating an importer for yourself, read the documentation for the appropriate classes defined within this package):

import importlib.machinery
import sys

# For illustrative purposes only.
SpamMetaPathFinder = importlib.machinery.PathFinder
SpamPathEntryFinder = importlib.machinery.FileFinder
loader_details = (importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader,
                  importlib.machinery.SOURCE_SUFFIXES)

# Setting up a meta path finder.
# Make sure to put the finder in the proper location in the list in terms of
# priority.
sys.meta_path.append(SpamMetaPathFinder)

# Setting up a path entry finder.
# Make sure to put the path hook in the proper location in the list in terms
# of priority.
sys.path_hooks.append(SpamPathEntryFinder.path_hook(loader_details))

Approximating importlib.import_module()

Import itself is implemented in Python code, making it possible to expose most of the import machinery through importlib. The following helps illustrate the various APIs that importlib exposes by providing an approximate implementation of importlib.import_module():

import importlib.util
import sys

def import_module(name, package=None):
    """An approximate implementation of import."""
    absolute_name = importlib.util.resolve_name(name, package)
    try:
        return sys.modules[absolute_name]
    except KeyError:
        pass

    path = None
    if '.' in absolute_name:
        parent_name, _, child_name = absolute_name.rpartition('.')
        parent_module = import_module(parent_name)
        path = parent_module.__spec__.submodule_search_locations
    for finder in sys.meta_path:
        spec = finder.find_spec(absolute_name, path)
        if spec is not None:
            break
    else:
        msg = f'No module named {absolute_name!r}'
        raise ModuleNotFoundError(msg, name=absolute_name)
    module = importlib.util.module_from_spec(spec)
    sys.modules[absolute_name] = module
    spec.loader.exec_module(module)
    if path is not None:
        setattr(parent_module, child_name, module)
    return module

importlib.resources -- Package resource reading, opening and access

Source code: Lib/importlib/resources/__init__.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/importlib/resources/__init__.py]

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

This module leverages Python's import system to provide access to resources within packages.

"Resources" are file-like resources associated with a module or package in Python. The resources may be contained directly in a package, within a subdirectory contained in that package, or adjacent to modules outside a package. Resources may be text or binary. As a result, a package's Python module sources (.py), compilation artifacts (pycache), and installation artifacts (like reserved filenames in directories) are technically de-facto resources of that package. In practice, however, resources are primarily those non-Python artifacts exposed specifically by the package author.

Resources can be opened or read in either binary or text mode.

Resources are roughly akin to files inside directories, though it's important to keep in mind that this is just a metaphor. Resources and packages do not have to exist as physical files and directories on the file system: for example, a package and its resources can be imported from a zip file using zipimport.

Note

This module provides functionality similar to pkg_resources [https://setuptools.readthedocs.io/en/latest/pkg_resources.html] Basic Resource Access [https://setuptools.readthedocs.io/en/latest/pkg_resources.html#basic-resource-access] without the performance overhead of that package. This makes reading resources included in packages easier, with more stable and consistent semantics.

The standalone backport of this module provides more information on using importlib.resources [https://importlib-resources.readthedocs.io/en/latest/using.html] and migrating from pkg_resources to importlib.resources [https://importlib-resources.readthedocs.io/en/latest/migration.html].

Loaders that wish to support resource reading should implement a get_resource_reader(fullname) method as specified by importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader.

class importlib.resources.Anchor

Represents an anchor for resources, either a module object or a module name as a string. Defined as Union[str, ModuleType].

importlib.resources.files(anchor: Anchor | None = None)

Returns a Traversable object representing the resource container (think directory) and its resources (think files). A Traversable may contain other containers (think subdirectories).

anchor is an optional Anchor. If the anchor is a package, resources are resolved from that package. If a module, resources are resolved adjacent to that module (in the same package or the package root). If the anchor is omitted, the caller's module is used.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: package parameter was renamed to anchor. anchor can now be a non-package module and if omitted will default to the caller's module. package is still accepted for compatibility but will raise a DeprecationWarning. Consider passing the anchor positionally or using importlib_resources >= 5.10 for a compatible interface on older Pythons.

importlib.resources.as_file(traversable)

Given a Traversable object representing a file or directory, typically from importlib.resources.files(), return a context manager for use in a with statement. The context manager provides a pathlib.Path object.

Exiting the context manager cleans up any temporary file or directory created when the resource was extracted from e.g. a zip file.

Use as_file when the Traversable methods (read_text, etc) are insufficient and an actual file or directory on the file system is required.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added support for traversable representing a directory.

API par fonction

A set of simplified, backwards-compatible helpers is available. These allow common operations in a single function call.

For all the following functions:

anchor is an Anchor, as in files(). Unlike in files, it may not be omitted.

path_names are components of a resource's path name, relative to the anchor. For example, to get the text of resource named info.txt, use:

importlib.resources.read_text(my_module, "info.txt")

Like Traversable.joinpath, The individual components should use forward slashes (/) as path separators. For example, the following are equivalent:

importlib.resources.read_binary(my_module, "pics/painting.png")
importlib.resources.read_binary(my_module, "pics", "painting.png")

For backward compatibility reasons, functions that read text require an explicit encoding argument if multiple path_names are given. For example, to get the text of info/chapter1.txt, use:

importlib.resources.read_text(my_module, "info", "chapter1.txt",
                              encoding='utf-8')

importlib.resources.open_binary(anchor, *path_names)

Open the named resource for binary reading.

See the introduction for details on anchor and path_names.

This function returns a BinaryIO object, that is, a binary stream open for reading.

This function is roughly equivalent to:

files(anchor).joinpath(*path_names).open('rb')

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Multiple path_names are accepted.

importlib.resources.open_text(anchor, *path_names, encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

Open the named resource for text reading. By default, the contents are read as strict UTF-8.

See the introduction for details on anchor and path_names. encoding and errors have the same meaning as in built-in open().

For backward compatibility reasons, the encoding argument must be given explicitly if there are multiple path_names. This limitation is scheduled to be removed in Python 3.15.

This function returns a TextIO object, that is, a text stream open for reading.

This function is roughly equivalent to:

files(anchor).joinpath(*path_names).open('r', encoding=encoding)

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Multiple path_names are accepted. encoding and errors must be given as keyword arguments.

importlib.resources.read_binary(anchor, *path_names)

Read and return the contents of the named resource as bytes.

See the introduction for details on anchor and path_names.

This function is roughly equivalent to:

files(anchor).joinpath(*path_names).read_bytes()

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Multiple path_names are accepted.

importlib.resources.read_text(anchor, *path_names, encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

Read and return the contents of the named resource as str. By default, the contents are read as strict UTF-8.

See the introduction for details on anchor and path_names. encoding and errors have the same meaning as in built-in open().

For backward compatibility reasons, the encoding argument must be given explicitly if there are multiple path_names. This limitation is scheduled to be removed in Python 3.15.

This function is roughly equivalent to:

files(anchor).joinpath(*path_names).read_text(encoding=encoding)

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Multiple path_names are accepted. encoding and errors must be given as keyword arguments.

importlib.resources.path(anchor, *path_names)

Provides the path to the resource as an actual file system path. This function returns a context manager for use in a with statement. The context manager provides a pathlib.Path object.

Exiting the context manager cleans up any temporary files created, e.g. when the resource needs to be extracted from a zip file.

For example, the stat() method requires an actual file system path; it can be used like this:

with importlib.resources.path(anchor, "resource.txt") as fspath:
    result = fspath.stat()

See the introduction for details on anchor and path_names.

This function is roughly equivalent to:

as_file(files(anchor).joinpath(*path_names))

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Multiple path_names are accepted. encoding and errors must be given as keyword arguments.

importlib.resources.is_resource(anchor, *path_names)

Return True if the named resource exists, otherwise False. This function does not consider directories to be resources.

See the introduction for details on anchor and path_names.

This function is roughly equivalent to:

files(anchor).joinpath(*path_names).is_file()

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Multiple path_names are accepted.

importlib.resources.contents(anchor, *path_names)

Return an iterable over the named items within the package or path. The iterable returns names of resources (e.g. files) and non-resources (e.g. directories) as str. The iterable does not recurse into subdirectories.

See the introduction for details on anchor and path_names.

This function is roughly equivalent to:

for resource in files(anchor).joinpath(*path_names).iterdir():
    yield resource.name

Obsolète depuis la version 3.11: Prefer iterdir() as above, which offers more control over the results and richer functionality.

importlib.resources.abc -- Abstract base classes for resources

Source code: Lib/importlib/resources/abc.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/importlib/resources/abc.py]

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

class importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader

Superseded by TraversableResources

An abstract base class to provide the ability to read resources.

From the perspective of this ABC, a resource is a binary artifact that is shipped within a package. Typically this is something like a data file that lives next to the __init__.py file of the package. The purpose of this class is to help abstract out the accessing of such data files so that it does not matter if the package and its data file(s) are stored e.g. in a zip file versus on the file system.

For any of methods of this class, a resource argument is expected to be a path-like object which represents conceptually just a file name. This means that no subdirectory paths should be included in the resource argument. This is because the location of the package the reader is for, acts as the "directory". Hence the metaphor for directories and file names is packages and resources, respectively. This is also why instances of this class are expected to directly correlate to a specific package (instead of potentially representing multiple packages or a module).

Loaders that wish to support resource reading are expected to provide a method called get_resource_reader(fullname) which returns an object implementing this ABC's interface. If the module specified by fullname is not a package, this method should return None. An object compatible with this ABC should only be returned when the specified module is a package.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.12: Use importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources instead.

abstractmethod open_resource(resource)

Returns an opened, file-like object for binary reading of the resource.

Si la ressource ne peut pas être trouvée, FileNotFoundError est levée.

abstractmethod resource_path(resource)

Renvoie le chemin de resource dans le système de fichiers.

If the resource does not concretely exist on the file system, raise FileNotFoundError.

abstractmethod is_resource(path)

Returns True if the named path is considered a resource. FileNotFoundError is raised if path does not exist.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: The argument name was renamed to path.

abstractmethod contents()

Returns an iterable of strings over the contents of the package. Do note that it is not required that all names returned by the iterator be actual resources, e.g. it is acceptable to return names for which is_resource() would be false.

Allowing non-resource names to be returned is to allow for situations where how a package and its resources are stored are known a priori and the non-resource names would be useful. For instance, returning subdirectory names is allowed so that when it is known that the package and resources are stored on the file system then those subdirectory names can be used directly.

The abstract method returns an iterable of no items.

class importlib.resources.abc.Traversable

An object with a subset of pathlib.Path methods suitable for traversing directories and opening files.

For a representation of the object on the file-system, use importlib.resources.as_file().

name

Abstract. The base name of this object without any parent references.

abstractmethod iterdir()

Yield Traversable objects in self.

abstractmethod is_dir()

Return True if self is a directory.

abstractmethod is_file()

Return True if self is a file.

abstractmethod joinpath(*pathsegments)

Traverse directories according to pathsegments and return the result as Traversable.

Each pathsegments argument may contain multiple names separated by forward slashes (/, posixpath.sep ). For example, the following are equivalent:

files.joinpath('subdir', 'subsuddir', 'file.txt')
files.joinpath('subdir/subsuddir/file.txt')

Note that some Traversable implementations might not be updated to the latest version of the protocol. For compatibility with such implementations, provide a single argument without path separators to each call to joinpath. For example:

files.joinpath('subdir').joinpath('subsubdir').joinpath('file.txt')

Modifié dans la version 3.11: joinpath accepts multiple pathsegments, and these segments may contain forward slashes as path separators. Previously, only a single child argument was accepted.

abstractmethod __truediv__(child)

Return Traversable child in self. Equivalent to joinpath(child).

abstractmethod open(mode='r', *args, **kwargs)

mode may be 'r' or 'rb' to open as text or binary. Return a handle suitable for reading (same as pathlib.Path.open).

When opening as text, accepts encoding parameters such as those accepted by io.TextIOWrapper.

read_bytes()

Read contents of self as bytes.

read_text(encoding=None)

Read contents of self as text.

class importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources

An abstract base class for resource readers capable of serving the importlib.resources.files() interface. Subclasses ResourceReader and provides concrete implementations of the ResourceReader's abstract methods. Therefore, any loader supplying TraversableResources also supplies ResourceReader.

Loaders that wish to support resource reading are expected to implement this interface.

abstractmethod files()

Returns a importlib.resources.abc.Traversable object for the loaded package.

importlib.metadata -- Accessing package metadata

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: importlib.metadata is no longer provisional.

Source code: Lib/importlib/metadata/__init__.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/importlib/metadata/__init__.py]

importlib.metadata is a library that provides access to the metadata of an installed Distribution Package [https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package], such as its entry points or its top-level names (Import Package [https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Import-Package]s, modules, if any). Built in part on Python's import system, this library intends to replace similar functionality in the entry point API [https://setuptools.readthedocs.io/en/latest/pkg_resources.html#entry-points] and metadata API [https://setuptools.readthedocs.io/en/latest/pkg_resources.html#metadata-api] of pkg_resources. Along with importlib.resources, this package can eliminate the need to use the older and less efficient pkg_resources package.

importlib.metadata operates on third-party distribution packages installed into Python's site-packages directory via tools such as pip [https://pypi.org/project/pip/]. Specifically, it works with distributions with discoverable dist-info or egg-info directories, and metadata defined by the Core metadata specifications [https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/specifications/core-metadata/#core-metadata].

Important

These are not necessarily equivalent to or correspond 1:1 with the top-level import package names that can be imported inside Python code. One distribution package can contain multiple import packages (and single modules), and one top-level import package may map to multiple distribution packages if it is a namespace package. You can use packages_distributions() to get a mapping between them.

By default, distribution metadata can live on the file system or in zip archives on sys.path. Through an extension mechanism, the metadata can live almost anywhere.

Voir aussi

https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/

The documentation for importlib_metadata, which supplies a backport of importlib.metadata. This includes an API reference [https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/en/latest/api.html] for this module's classes and functions, as well as a migration guide [https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/en/latest/migration.html] for existing users of pkg_resources.

Aperçu

Let's say you wanted to get the version string for a Distribution Package [https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package] you've installed using pip. We start by creating a virtual environment and installing something into it:

$ python -m venv example
$ source example/bin/activate
(example) $ python -m pip install wheel

You can get the version string for wheel by running the following:

(example) $ python
>>> from importlib.metadata import version
>>> version('wheel')
'0.32.3'

You can also get a collection of entry points selectable by properties of the EntryPoint (typically 'group' or 'name'), such as console_scripts, distutils.commands and others. Each group contains a collection of EntryPoint objects.

You can get the metadata for a distribution:

>>> list(metadata('wheel'))
['Metadata-Version', 'Name', 'Version', 'Summary', 'Home-page', 'Author', 'Author-email', 'Maintainer', 'Maintainer-email', 'License', 'Project-URL', 'Project-URL', 'Project-URL', 'Keywords', 'Platform', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Requires-Python', 'Provides-Extra', 'Requires-Dist', 'Requires-Dist']

You can also get a distribution's version number, list its constituent files, and get a list of the distribution's Distribution requirements.

exception importlib.metadata.PackageNotFoundError

Subclass of ModuleNotFoundError raised by several functions in this module when queried for a distribution package which is not installed in the current Python environment.

API par fonction

This package provides the following functionality via its public API.

Entry points

importlib.metadata.entry_points(**select_params)

Returns a EntryPoints instance describing entry points for the current environment. Any given keyword parameters are passed to the select() method for comparison to the attributes of the individual entry point definitions.

Note: it is not currently possible to query for entry points based on their EntryPoint.dist attribute (as different Distribution instances do not currently compare equal, even if they have the same attributes)

class importlib.metadata.EntryPoints

Details of a collection of installed entry points.

Also provides a .groups attribute that reports all identified entry point groups, and a .names attribute that reports all identified entry point names.

class importlib.metadata.EntryPoint

Details of an installed entry point.

Each EntryPoint instance has .name, .group, and .value attributes and a .load() method to resolve the value. There are also .module, .attr, and .extras attributes for getting the components of the .value attribute, and .dist for obtaining information regarding the distribution package that provides the entry point.

Query all entry points:

>>> eps = entry_points()

The entry_points() function returns a EntryPoints object, a collection of all EntryPoint objects with names and groups attributes for convenience:

>>> sorted(eps.groups)
['console_scripts', 'distutils.commands', 'distutils.setup_keywords', 'egg_info.writers', 'setuptools.installation']

EntryPoints has a select() method to select entry points matching specific properties. Select entry points in the console_scripts group:

>>> scripts = eps.select(group='console_scripts')

Equivalently, since entry_points() passes keyword arguments through to select:

>>> scripts = entry_points(group='console_scripts')

Pick out a specific script named "wheel" (found in the wheel project):

>>> 'wheel' in scripts.names
True
>>> wheel = scripts['wheel']

Equivalently, query for that entry point during selection:

>>> (wheel,) = entry_points(group='console_scripts', name='wheel')
>>> (wheel,) = entry_points().select(group='console_scripts', name='wheel')

Inspect the resolved entry point:

>>> wheel
EntryPoint(name='wheel', value='wheel.cli:main', group='console_scripts')
>>> wheel.module
'wheel.cli'
>>> wheel.attr
'main'
>>> wheel.extras
[]
>>> main = wheel.load()
>>> main
<function main at 0x103528488>

The group and name are arbitrary values defined by the package author and usually a client will wish to resolve all entry points for a particular group. Read the setuptools docs [https://setuptools.pypa.io/en/latest/userguide/entry_point.html] for more information on entry points, their definition, and usage.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: The "selectable" entry points were introduced in importlib_metadata 3.6 and Python 3.10. Prior to those changes, entry_points accepted no parameters and always returned a dictionary of entry points, keyed by group. With importlib_metadata 5.0 and Python 3.12, entry_points always returns an EntryPoints object. See backports.entry_points_selectable [https://pypi.org/project/backports.entry_points_selectable/] for compatibility options.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: EntryPoint objects no longer present a tuple-like interface (__getitem__()).

Distribution metadata

importlib.metadata.metadata(distribution_name)

Return the distribution metadata corresponding to the named distribution package as a PackageMetadata instance.

Raises PackageNotFoundError if the named distribution package is not installed in the current Python environment.

class importlib.metadata.PackageMetadata

A concrete implementation of the PackageMetadata protocol [https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/en/latest/api.html#importlib_metadata.PackageMetadata].

In addition to providing the defined protocol methods and attributes, subscripting the instance is equivalent to calling the get() method.

Every Distribution Package [https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package] includes some metadata, which you can extract using the metadata() function:

>>> wheel_metadata = metadata('wheel')

The keys of the returned data structure name the metadata keywords, and the values are returned unparsed from the distribution metadata:

>>> wheel_metadata['Requires-Python']
'>=2.7, !=3.0.*, !=3.1.*, !=3.2.*, !=3.3.*'

PackageMetadata also presents a json attribute that returns all the metadata in a JSON-compatible form per PEP 566 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0566/]:

>>> wheel_metadata.json['requires_python']
'>=2.7, !=3.0.*, !=3.1.*, !=3.2.*, !=3.3.*'

The full set of available metadata is not described here. See the PyPA Core metadata specification [https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/specifications/core-metadata/#core-metadata] for additional details.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: The Description is now included in the metadata when presented through the payload. Line continuation characters have been removed.

The json attribute was added.

Distribution versions

importlib.metadata.version(distribution_name)

Return the installed distribution package version [https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/specifications/core-metadata/#version] for the named distribution package.

Raises PackageNotFoundError if the named distribution package is not installed in the current Python environment.

The version() function is the quickest way to get a Distribution Package [https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package]'s version number, as a string:

>>> version('wheel')
'0.32.3'

Distribution files

importlib.metadata.files(distribution_name)

Return the full set of files contained within the named distribution package.

Raises PackageNotFoundError if the named distribution package is not installed in the current Python environment.

Returns None if the distribution is found but the installation database records reporting the files associated with the distribution package are missing.

class importlib.metadata.PackagePath

A pathlib.PurePath derived object with additional dist, size, and hash properties corresponding to the distribution package's installation metadata for that file.

The files() function takes a Distribution Package [https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package] name and returns all of the files installed by this distribution. Each file is reported as a PackagePath instance. For example:

>>> util = [p for p in files('wheel') if 'util.py' in str(p)][0]
>>> util
PackagePath('wheel/util.py')
>>> util.size
859
>>> util.dist
<importlib.metadata._hooks.PathDistribution object at 0x101e0cef0>
>>> util.hash
<FileHash mode: sha256 value: bYkw5oMccfazVCoYQwKkkemoVyMAFoR34mmKBx8R1NI>

Once you have the file, you can also read its contents:

>>> print(util.read_text())
import base64
import sys
...
def as_bytes(s):
    if isinstance(s, text_type):
        return s.encode('utf-8')
    return s

You can also use the locate() method to get the absolute path to the file:

>>> util.locate()
PosixPath('/home/gustav/example/lib/site-packages/wheel/util.py')

In the case where the metadata file listing files (RECORD or SOURCES.txt) is missing, files() will return None. The caller may wish to wrap calls to files() in always_iterable [https://more-itertools.readthedocs.io/en/stable/api.html#more_itertools.always_iterable] or otherwise guard against this condition if the target distribution is not known to have the metadata present.

Distribution requirements

importlib.metadata.requires(distribution_name)

Return the declared dependency specifiers for the named distribution package.

Raises PackageNotFoundError if the named distribution package is not installed in the current Python environment.

To get the full set of requirements for a Distribution Package [https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package], use the requires() function:

>>> requires('wheel')
["pytest (>=3.0.0) ; extra == 'test'", "pytest-cov ; extra == 'test'"]

Mapping import to distribution packages

importlib.metadata.packages_distributions()

Return a mapping from the top level module and import package names found via sys.meta_path to the names of the distribution packages (if any) that provide the corresponding files.

To allow for namespace packages (which may have members provided by multiple distribution packages), each top level import name maps to a list of distribution names rather than mapping directly to a single name.

A convenience method to resolve the Distribution Package [https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package] name (or names, in the case of a namespace package) that provide each importable top-level Python module or Import Package [https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Import-Package]:

>>> packages_distributions()
{'importlib_metadata': ['importlib-metadata'], 'yaml': ['PyYAML'], 'jaraco': ['jaraco.classes', 'jaraco.functools'], ...}

Some editable installs, do not supply top-level names [https://github.com/pypa/packaging-problems/issues/609], and thus this function is not reliable with such installs.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

Distributions

importlib.metadata.distribution(distribution_name)

Return a Distribution instance describing the named distribution package.

Raises PackageNotFoundError if the named distribution package is not installed in the current Python environment.

class importlib.metadata.Distribution

Details of an installed distribution package.

Note: different Distribution instances do not currently compare equal, even if they relate to the same installed distribution and accordingly have the same attributes.

While the module level API described above is the most common and convenient usage, you can get all of that information from the Distribution class. Distribution is an abstract object that represents the metadata for a Python Distribution Package [https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package]. You can get the concrete Distribution subclass instance for an installed distribution package by calling the distribution() function:

>>> from importlib.metadata import distribution
>>> dist = distribution('wheel')
>>> type(dist)
<class 'importlib.metadata.PathDistribution'>

Thus, an alternative way to get the version number is through the Distribution instance:

>>> dist.version
'0.32.3'

There are all kinds of additional metadata available on Distribution instances:

>>> dist.metadata['Requires-Python']
'>=2.7, !=3.0.*, !=3.1.*, !=3.2.*, !=3.3.*'
>>> dist.metadata['License']
'MIT'

For editable packages, an origin property may present PEP 610 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0610/] metadata:

>>> dist.origin.url
'file:///path/to/wheel-0.32.3.editable-py3-none-any.whl'

The full set of available metadata is not described here. See the PyPA Core metadata specification [https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/specifications/core-metadata/#core-metadata] for additional details.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13: The .origin property was added.

Distribution Discovery

By default, this package provides built-in support for discovery of metadata for file system and zip file Distribution Package [https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package]s. This metadata finder search defaults to sys.path, but varies slightly in how it interprets those values from how other import machinery does. In particular:

importlib.metadata does not honor bytes objects on sys.path.

importlib.metadata will incidentally honor pathlib.Path objects on sys.path even though such values will be ignored for imports.

Implementing Custom Providers

importlib.metadata address two API surfaces, one for consumers and another for providers. Most users are consumers, consuming metadata provided by the packages. There are other use-cases, however, where users wish to expose metadata through some other mechanism, such as alongside a custom importer. Such a use case calls for a custom provider.

Because Distribution Package [https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package] metadata is not available through sys.path searches, or package loaders directly, the metadata for a distribution is found through import system finders. To find a distribution package's metadata, importlib.metadata queries the list of meta path finders on sys.meta_path.

The implementation has hooks integrated into the PathFinder, serving metadata for distribution packages found on the file system.

The abstract class importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder defines the interface expected of finders by Python's import system. importlib.metadata extends this protocol by looking for an optional find_distributions callable on the finders from sys.meta_path and presents this extended interface as the DistributionFinder abstract base class, which defines this abstract method:

@abc.abstractmethod
def find_distributions(context=DistributionFinder.Context()) -> Iterable[Distribution]:
    """Return an iterable of all Distribution instances capable of
    loading the metadata for packages for the indicated ``context``.
    """

The DistributionFinder.Context object provides .path and .name properties indicating the path to search and name to match and may supply other relevant context sought by the consumer.

In practice, to support finding distribution package metadata in locations other than the file system, subclass Distribution and implement the abstract methods. Then from a custom finder, return instances of this derived Distribution in the find_distributions() method.

Exemple

Imagine a custom finder that loads Python modules from a database:

class DatabaseImporter(importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder):
    def __init__(self, db):
        self.db = db

    def find_spec(self, fullname, target=None) -> ModuleSpec:
        return self.db.spec_from_name(fullname)

sys.meta_path.append(DatabaseImporter(connect_db(...)))

That importer now presumably provides importable modules from a database, but it provides no metadata or entry points. For this custom importer to provide metadata, it would also need to implement DistributionFinder:

from importlib.metadata import DistributionFinder

class DatabaseImporter(DistributionFinder):
    ...

    def find_distributions(self, context=DistributionFinder.Context()):
        query = dict(name=context.name) if context.name else {}
        for dist_record in self.db.query_distributions(query):
            yield DatabaseDistribution(dist_record)

In this way, query_distributions would return records for each distribution served by the database matching the query. For example, if requests-1.0 is in the database, find_distributions would yield a DatabaseDistribution for Context(name='requests') or Context(name=None).

For the sake of simplicity, this example ignores context.path. The path attribute defaults to sys.path and is the set of import paths to be considered in the search. A DatabaseImporter could potentially function without any concern for a search path. Assuming the importer does no partitioning, the "path" would be irrelevant. In order to illustrate the purpose of path, the example would need to illustrate a more complex DatabaseImporter whose behavior varied depending on sys.path/PYTHONPATH. In that case, the find_distributions should honor the context.path and only yield Distributions pertinent to that path.

DatabaseDistribution, then, would look something like:

class DatabaseDistribution(importlib.metadata.Distribution):
    def __init__(self, record):
        self.record = record

    def read_text(self, filename):
        """
        Read a file like "METADATA" for the current distribution.
        """
        if filename == "METADATA":
            return f"""Name: {self.record.name}
Version: {self.record.version}
"""
        if filename == "entry_points.txt":
            return "\n".join(
              f"""[{ep.group}]\n{ep.name}={ep.value}"""
              for ep in self.record.entry_points)

    def locate_file(self, path):
        raise RuntimeError("This distribution has no file system")

This basic implementation should provide metadata and entry points for packages served by the DatabaseImporter, assuming that the record supplies suitable .name, .version, and .entry_points attributes.

The DatabaseDistribution may also provide other metadata files, like RECORD (required for Distribution.files) or override the implementation of Distribution.files. See the source for more inspiration.

The initialization of the sys.path module search path

A module search path is initialized when Python starts. This module search path may be accessed at sys.path.

The first entry in the module search path is the directory that contains the input script, if there is one. Otherwise, the first entry is the current directory, which is the case when executing the interactive shell, a -c command, or -m module.

The PYTHONPATH environment variable is often used to add directories to the search path. If this environment variable is found then the contents are added to the module search path.

Note

PYTHONPATH will affect all installed Python versions/environments. Be wary of setting this in your shell profile or global environment variables. The site module offers more nuanced techniques as mentioned below.

The next items added are the directories containing standard Python modules as well as any extension modules that these modules depend on. Extension modules are .pyd files on Windows and .so files on other platforms. The directory with the platform-independent Python modules is called prefix. The directory with the extension modules is called exec_prefix.

The PYTHONHOME environment variable may be used to set the prefix and exec_prefix locations. Otherwise these directories are found by using the Python executable as a starting point and then looking for various 'landmark' files and directories. Note that any symbolic links are followed so the real Python executable location is used as the search starting point. The Python executable location is called home.

Once home is determined, the prefix directory is found by first looking for pythonmajorversionminorversion.zip (python311.zip). On Windows the zip archive is searched for in home and on Unix the archive is expected to be in lib. Note that the expected zip archive location is added to the module search path even if the archive does not exist. If no archive was found, Python on Windows will continue the search for prefix by looking for Lib\os.py. Python on Unix will look for lib/pythonmajorversion.minorversion/os.py (lib/python3.11/os.py). On Windows prefix and exec_prefix are the same, however on other platforms lib/pythonmajorversion.minorversion/lib-dynload (lib/python3.11/lib-dynload) is searched for and used as an anchor for exec_prefix. On some platforms lib may be lib64 or another value, see sys.platlibdir and PYTHONPLATLIBDIR.

Once found, prefix and exec_prefix are available at sys.base_prefix and sys.base_exec_prefix respectively.

If PYTHONHOME is not set, and a pyvenv.cfg file is found alongside the main executable, or in its parent directory, sys.prefix and sys.exec_prefix get set to the directory containing pyvenv.cfg, otherwise they are set to the same value as sys.base_prefix and sys.base_exec_prefix, respectively. This is used by Virtual Environments.

Finally, the site module is processed and site-packages directories are added to the module search path. A common way to customize the search path is to create sitecustomize or usercustomize modules as described in the site module documentation.

Note

Certain command line options may further affect path calculations. See -E, -I, -s and -S for further details.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: sys.prefix and sys.exec_prefix are now set to the pyvenv.cfg directory during the path initialization. This was previously done by site, therefore affected by -S.

Virtual Environments

Virtual environments place a pyvenv.cfg file in their prefix, which causes sys.prefix and sys.exec_prefix to point to them, instead of the base installation.

The prefix and exec_prefix values of the base installation are available at sys.base_prefix and sys.base_exec_prefix.

As well as being used as a marker to identify virtual environments, pyvenv.cfg may also be used to configure the site initialization. Please refer to site's virtual environments documentation.

Note

PYTHONHOME overrides the pyvenv.cfg detection.

Note

There are other ways how "virtual environments" could be implemented, this documentation refers implementations based on the pyvenv.cfg mechanism, such as venv. Most virtual environment implementations follow the model set by venv, but there may be exotic implementations that diverge from it.

_pth files

To completely override sys.path create a ._pth file with the same name as the shared library or executable (python._pth or python311._pth). The shared library path is always known on Windows, however it may not be available on other platforms. In the ._pth file specify one line for each path to add to sys.path. The file based on the shared library name overrides the one based on the executable, which allows paths to be restricted for any program loading the runtime if desired.

Lorsque le fichier existe, toutes les variables de registre et d'environnement sont ignorées, le mode isolé est activé et site n'est pas importé, sauf si une ligne du fichier spécifie import site. Les chemins et les lignes vides commençant par # sont ignorés. Chaque chemin d'accès peut être absolu ou relatif à l'emplacement du fichier. Les importations autres que vers site ne sont pas autorisées, ni n'importe quelle instruction Python.

Notez que les fichiers .pth (sans signe souligné précédant le pth) seront traités normalement par le module site lorsque import site a été spécifié.

Embedded Python

If Python is embedded within another application Py_InitializeFromConfig() and the PyConfig structure can be used to initialize Python. The path specific details are described at Python Path Configuration.

Voir aussi

Recherche de modules for detailed Windows notes.

Utilisation de Python sur les plateformes Unix for Unix details.

Services du Langage Python

Python fournit quelques modules pour vous aider à travailler avec le langage Python lui-même. Ces modules gèrent entre autres l'analyse lexicale, l'analyse syntaxique, et le désassemblage de bytecode.

Ces modules sont :

ast --- Abstract syntax trees

Abstract grammar

Classes de nœuds

Root nodes

Littéraux

Variables

Expressions

Indiçage

Compréhensions

Instructions

Importations

Contrôle de l'exécution

Pattern matching

Type annotations

Type parameters

Définition de fonctions et de classes

async et await

ast helpers

Compiler flags

Command-line usage

symtable --- Access to the compiler's symbol tables

Generating Symbol Tables

Examining Symbol Tables

Utilisation en ligne de commande.

token --- Constants used with Python parse trees

keyword --- Testing for Python keywords

tokenize --- Tokenizer for Python source

Analyse Lexicale

Utilisation en ligne de commande.

Exemples

tabnanny --- Detection of ambiguous indentation

pyclbr --- Python module browser support

Objets fonctions

Objets classes

py_compile --- Compile Python source files

Interface en ligne de commande

compileall --- Byte-compile Python libraries

Utilisation en ligne de commande

Fonctions publiques

dis --- Disassembler for Python bytecode

Command-line interface

Analyse du code intermédiaire

Analyse de fonctions

Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python

Opcode collections

pickletools --- Tools for pickle developers

Command-line usage

Command-line options

Programmatic interface

ast --- Abstract syntax trees

Code source : Lib/ast.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/ast.py]

The ast module helps Python applications to process trees of the Python abstract syntax grammar. The abstract syntax itself might change with each Python release; this module helps to find out programmatically what the current grammar looks like.

Un arbre syntaxique abstrait peut être généré en passant l'option ast.PyCF_ONLY_AST à la fonction native compile(), ou à l'aide de la fonction auxiliaire parse() fournie par ce module. Le résultat est un arbre composé d'objets dont les classes héritent toutes de ast.AST. On peut compiler les arbres en code objet Python à l'aide de la fonction native compile().

Abstract grammar

La grammaire abstraite est actuellement définie comme suit :

-- ASDL's 4 builtin types are:
-- identifier, int, string, constant

module Python
{
    mod = Module(stmt* body, type_ignore* type_ignores)
        | Interactive(stmt* body)
        | Expression(expr body)
        | FunctionType(expr* argtypes, expr returns)

    stmt = FunctionDef(identifier name, arguments args,
                       stmt* body, expr* decorator_list, expr? returns,
                       string? type_comment, type_param* type_params)
          | AsyncFunctionDef(identifier name, arguments args,
                             stmt* body, expr* decorator_list, expr? returns,
                             string? type_comment, type_param* type_params)

          | ClassDef(identifier name,
             expr* bases,
             keyword* keywords,
             stmt* body,
             expr* decorator_list,
             type_param* type_params)
          | Return(expr? value)

          | Delete(expr* targets)
          | Assign(expr* targets, expr value, string? type_comment)
          | TypeAlias(expr name, type_param* type_params, expr value)
          | AugAssign(expr target, operator op, expr value)
          -- 'simple' indicates that we annotate simple name without parens
          | AnnAssign(expr target, expr annotation, expr? value, int simple)

          -- use 'orelse' because else is a keyword in target languages
          | For(expr target, expr iter, stmt* body, stmt* orelse, string? type_comment)
          | AsyncFor(expr target, expr iter, stmt* body, stmt* orelse, string? type_comment)
          | While(expr test, stmt* body, stmt* orelse)
          | If(expr test, stmt* body, stmt* orelse)
          | With(withitem* items, stmt* body, string? type_comment)
          | AsyncWith(withitem* items, stmt* body, string? type_comment)

          | Match(expr subject, match_case* cases)

          | Raise(expr? exc, expr? cause)
          | Try(stmt* body, excepthandler* handlers, stmt* orelse, stmt* finalbody)
          | TryStar(stmt* body, excepthandler* handlers, stmt* orelse, stmt* finalbody)
          | Assert(expr test, expr? msg)

          | Import(alias* names)
          | ImportFrom(identifier? module, alias* names, int? level)

          | Global(identifier* names)
          | Nonlocal(identifier* names)
          | Expr(expr value)
          | Pass | Break | Continue

          -- col_offset is the byte offset in the utf8 string the parser uses
          attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int? end_lineno, int? end_col_offset)

          -- BoolOp() can use left & right?
    expr = BoolOp(boolop op, expr* values)
         | NamedExpr(expr target, expr value)
         | BinOp(expr left, operator op, expr right)
         | UnaryOp(unaryop op, expr operand)
         | Lambda(arguments args, expr body)
         | IfExp(expr test, expr body, expr orelse)
         | Dict(expr?* keys, expr* values)
         | Set(expr* elts)
         | ListComp(expr elt, comprehension* generators)
         | SetComp(expr elt, comprehension* generators)
         | DictComp(expr key, expr value, comprehension* generators)
         | GeneratorExp(expr elt, comprehension* generators)
         -- the grammar constrains where yield expressions can occur
         | Await(expr value)
         | Yield(expr? value)
         | YieldFrom(expr value)
         -- need sequences for compare to distinguish between
         -- x < 4 < 3 and (x < 4) < 3
         | Compare(expr left, cmpop* ops, expr* comparators)
         | Call(expr func, expr* args, keyword* keywords)
         | FormattedValue(expr value, int conversion, expr? format_spec)
         | Interpolation(expr value, constant str, int conversion, expr? format_spec)
         | JoinedStr(expr* values)
         | TemplateStr(expr* values)
         | Constant(constant value, string? kind)

         -- the following expression can appear in assignment context
         | Attribute(expr value, identifier attr, expr_context ctx)
         | Subscript(expr value, expr slice, expr_context ctx)
         | Starred(expr value, expr_context ctx)
         | Name(identifier id, expr_context ctx)
         | List(expr* elts, expr_context ctx)
         | Tuple(expr* elts, expr_context ctx)

         -- can appear only in Subscript
         | Slice(expr? lower, expr? upper, expr? step)

          -- col_offset is the byte offset in the utf8 string the parser uses
          attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int? end_lineno, int? end_col_offset)

    expr_context = Load | Store | Del

    boolop = And | Or

    operator = Add | Sub | Mult | MatMult | Div | Mod | Pow | LShift
                 | RShift | BitOr | BitXor | BitAnd | FloorDiv

    unaryop = Invert | Not | UAdd | USub

    cmpop = Eq | NotEq | Lt | LtE | Gt | GtE | Is | IsNot | In | NotIn

    comprehension = (expr target, expr iter, expr* ifs, int is_async)

    excepthandler = ExceptHandler(expr? type, identifier? name, stmt* body)
                    attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int? end_lineno, int? end_col_offset)

    arguments = (arg* posonlyargs, arg* args, arg? vararg, arg* kwonlyargs,
                 expr?* kw_defaults, arg? kwarg, expr* defaults)

    arg = (identifier arg, expr? annotation, string? type_comment)
           attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int? end_lineno, int? end_col_offset)

    -- keyword arguments supplied to call (NULL identifier for **kwargs)
    keyword = (identifier? arg, expr value)
               attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int? end_lineno, int? end_col_offset)

    -- import name with optional 'as' alias.
    alias = (identifier name, identifier? asname)
             attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int? end_lineno, int? end_col_offset)

    withitem = (expr context_expr, expr? optional_vars)

    match_case = (pattern pattern, expr? guard, stmt* body)

    pattern = MatchValue(expr value)
            | MatchSingleton(constant value)
            | MatchSequence(pattern* patterns)
            | MatchMapping(expr* keys, pattern* patterns, identifier? rest)
            | MatchClass(expr cls, pattern* patterns, identifier* kwd_attrs, pattern* kwd_patterns)

            | MatchStar(identifier? name)
            -- The optional "rest" MatchMapping parameter handles capturing extra mapping keys

            | MatchAs(pattern? pattern, identifier? name)
            | MatchOr(pattern* patterns)

             attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int end_lineno, int end_col_offset)

    type_ignore = TypeIgnore(int lineno, string tag)

    type_param = TypeVar(identifier name, expr? bound, expr? default_value)
               | ParamSpec(identifier name, expr? default_value)
               | TypeVarTuple(identifier name, expr? default_value)
               attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int end_lineno, int end_col_offset)
}

Classes de nœuds

class ast.AST

This is the base of all AST node classes. The actual node classes are derived from the Parser/Python.asdl file, which is reproduced above. They are defined in the _ast C module and re-exported in ast.

Il y a une classe définie pour chacun des symboles présents à gauche dans la grammaire abstraite (par exemple ast.stmt ou ast.expr). En plus de cela, une classe est définie pour chacun des constructeurs présentés à droite ; ces classes héritent des classes situées à leur gauche dans l'arbre. Par exemple, la classe ast.BinOp hérite de la classe ast.expr. Pour les règles de réécriture avec alternatives (les « sommes »), la classe de la partie gauche est abstraite : seules les classes de nœuds à droite sont instanciées.

_fields

Each concrete class has an attribute _fields which gives the names of all child nodes.

Chaque instance d'une classe concrète possède un attribut pour chaque nœud enfant, du type défini par la grammaire. Par exemple, les instances ast.BinOp possèdent un attribut left de type ast.expr.

Si un attribut est marqué comme optionnel dans la grammaire (avec un point d'interrogation ?), sa valeur peut être None. S'il peut avoir zéro, une ou plusieurs valeurs (ce qui est marqué par un astérisque *), elles sont regroupées dans une liste Python. Tous les attributs possibles doivent être présents et avoir une valeur valide pour compiler un arbre syntaxique avec compile().

_field_types

The _field_types attribute on each concrete class is a dictionary mapping field names (as also listed in _fields) to their types.

>>> ast.TypeVar._field_types
{'name': <class 'str'>, 'bound': ast.expr | None, 'default_value': ast.expr | None}

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

lineno

col_offset

end_lineno

end_col_offset

Instances of ast.expr and ast.stmt subclasses have lineno, col_offset, end_lineno, and end_col_offset attributes. The lineno and end_lineno are the first and last line numbers of source text span (1-indexed so the first line is line 1) and the col_offset and end_col_offset are the corresponding UTF-8 byte offsets of the first and last tokens that generated the node. The UTF-8 offset is recorded because the parser uses UTF-8 internally.

Les décalages end… ne sont pas obligatoires ni nécessaires au compilateur. end_col_offset pointe après le dernier lexème. On peut donc obtenir la partie du code source ayant donné lieu à une expression avec ligne_source[nœud.col_offset : nœud.end_col_offset].

Le constructeur d'une classe nommée ast.T analyse ses arguments comme suit :

S'il y a des arguments positionnels, il doit y avoir autant de termes dans T._fields ; ils sont assignés comme attributs portant ces noms.

S'il y a des arguments nommés, ils définissent les attributs de mêmes noms avec les valeurs données.

Par exemple, pour créer et peupler un nœud ast.UnaryOp, on peut utiliser

node = ast.UnaryOp(ast.USub(), ast.Constant(5, lineno=0, col_offset=0),
                   lineno=0, col_offset=0)

If a field that is optional in the grammar is omitted from the constructor, it defaults to None. If a list field is omitted, it defaults to the empty list. If a field of type ast.expr_context is omitted, it defaults to Load(). If any other field is omitted, a DeprecationWarning is raised and the AST node will not have this field. In Python 3.15, this condition will raise an error.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: toutes les constantes sont désormais représentées par des instances de ast.Constant.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Simple indices are represented by their value, extended slices are represented as tuples.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: AST node constructors were changed to provide sensible defaults for omitted fields: optional fields now default to None, list fields default to an empty list, and fields of type ast.expr_context default to Load(). Previously, omitted attributes would not exist on constructed nodes (accessing them raised AttributeError).

Modifié dans la version 3.14: The __repr__() output of AST nodes includes the values of the node fields.

Deprecated since version 3.8, removed in version 3.14: Previous versions of Python provided the AST classes ast.Num, ast.Str, ast.Bytes, ast.NameConstant and ast.Ellipsis, which were deprecated in Python 3.8. These classes were removed in Python 3.14, and their functionality has been replaced with ast.Constant.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9: Old classes ast.Index and ast.ExtSlice are still available, but they will be removed in future Python releases. In the meantime, instantiating them will return an instance of a different class.

Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: Previous versions of Python allowed the creation of AST nodes that were missing required fields. Similarly, AST node constructors allowed arbitrary keyword arguments that were set as attributes of the AST node, even if they did not match any of the fields of the AST node. This behavior is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.15.

Note

Les descriptions individuelles des classes de nœuds dans la prochaine section sont au départ adaptées du merveilleux projet Green Tree Snakes [https://greentreesnakes.readthedocs.io/en/latest/], porté par de nombreux contributeurs.

Root nodes

class ast.Module(body, type_ignores)

A Python module, as with file input. Node type generated by ast.parse() in the default "exec" mode.

body is a list of the module's Instructions.

type_ignores is a list of the module's type ignore comments; see ast.parse() for more details.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('x = 1'), indent=4))
Module(
    body=[
        Assign(
            targets=[
                Name(id='x', ctx=Store())],
            value=Constant(value=1))])

class ast.Expression(body)

A single Python expression input. Node type generated by ast.parse() when mode is "eval".

body is a single node, one of the expression types.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('123', mode='eval'), indent=4))
Expression(
    body=Constant(value=123))

class ast.Interactive(body)

A single interactive input, like in Mode interactif. Node type generated by ast.parse() when mode is "single".

body is a list of statement nodes.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('x = 1; y = 2', mode='single'), indent=4))
Interactive(
    body=[
        Assign(
            targets=[
                Name(id='x', ctx=Store())],
            value=Constant(value=1)),
        Assign(
            targets=[
                Name(id='y', ctx=Store())],
            value=Constant(value=2))])

class ast.FunctionType(argtypes, returns)

A representation of an old-style type comments for functions, as Python versions prior to 3.5 didn't support PEP 484 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/] annotations. Node type generated by ast.parse() when mode is "func_type".

Such type comments would look like this:

def sum_two_number(a, b):
    # type: (int, int) -> int
    return a + b

argtypes is a list of expression nodes.

returns is a single expression node.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('(int, str) -> List[int]', mode='func_type'), indent=4))
FunctionType(
    argtypes=[
        Name(id='int', ctx=Load()),
        Name(id='str', ctx=Load())],
    returns=Subscript(
        value=Name(id='List', ctx=Load()),
        slice=Name(id='int', ctx=Load()),
        ctx=Load()))

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

Littéraux

class ast.Constant(value)

A constant value. The value attribute of the Constant literal contains the Python object it represents. The values represented can be instances of str, bytes, int, float, complex, and bool, and the constants None and Ellipsis.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('123', mode='eval'), indent=4))
Expression(
    body=Constant(value=123))

class ast.FormattedValue(value, conversion, format_spec)

Champ de formatage dans une chaîne littérale formatée (f-string). Ce nœud peut être isolé si la chaîne contient un unique champ et rien d'autre. Sinon, il apparaît dans JoinedStr.

value est un nœud d'expression quelconque (comme un littéral, une variable, ou encore un appel de fonction).

conversion est un entier parmi les valeurs suivantes :

-1, aucun formatage ;

97 (ord('a')): !a ASCII formatting

114 (ord('r')): !r repr() formatting

115 (ord('s')): !s string formatting

format_spec est un nœud JoinedStr qui précise la manière de formater la valeur. Si aucun formatage particulier n'a été donné, format_spec vaut None. conversion et format_spec peuvent tout à fait coexister.

class ast.JoinedStr(values)

Chaîne littérale formatée (f-string), qui contient une liste de nœuds FormattedValue et Constant.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('f"sin({a}) is {sin(a):.3}"', mode='eval'), indent=4))
Expression(
    body=JoinedStr(
        values=[
            Constant(value='sin('),
            FormattedValue(
                value=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()),
                conversion=-1),
            Constant(value=') is '),
            FormattedValue(
                value=Call(
                    func=Name(id='sin', ctx=Load()),
                    args=[
                        Name(id='a', ctx=Load())]),
                conversion=-1,
                format_spec=JoinedStr(
                    values=[
                        Constant(value='.3')]))]))

class ast.TemplateStr(values, /)

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Node representing a template string literal, comprising a series of Interpolation and Constant nodes. These nodes may be any order, and do not need to be interleaved.

>>> expr = ast.parse('t"{name} finished {place:ordinal}"', mode='eval')
>>> print(ast.dump(expr, indent=4))
Expression(
    body=TemplateStr(
        values=[
            Interpolation(
                value=Name(id='name', ctx=Load()),
                str='name',
                conversion=-1),
            Constant(value=' finished '),
            Interpolation(
                value=Name(id='place', ctx=Load()),
                str='place',
                conversion=-1,
                format_spec=JoinedStr(
                    values=[
                        Constant(value='ordinal')]))]))

class ast.Interpolation(value, str, conversion, format_spec=None)

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Node representing a single interpolation field in a template string literal.

value is any expression node (such as a literal, a variable, or a function call). This has the same meaning as FormattedValue.value.

str is a constant containing the text of the interpolation expression.

If str is set to None, then value is used to generate code when calling ast.unparse(). This no longer guarantees that the generated code is identical to the original and is intended for code generation.

conversion est un entier parmi les valeurs suivantes :

-1: no conversion

97 (ord('a')): !a ASCII conversion

114 (ord('r')): !r repr() conversion

115 (ord('s')): !s string conversion

This has the same meaning as FormattedValue.conversion.

format_spec is a JoinedStr node representing the formatting of the value, or None if no format was specified. Both conversion and format_spec can be set at the same time. This has the same meaning as FormattedValue.format_spec.

class ast.List(elts, ctx)

class ast.Tuple(elts, ctx)

Liste ou n-uplet, dont les éléments sont rassemblés dans la liste elts. ctx est une instance de Store si la liste ou le n-uplet est la cible d'une affectation (par exemple (x, y) = quelque_chose). Sinon, c'est une instance de Load.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('[1, 2, 3]', mode='eval'), indent=4))
Expression(
    body=List(
        elts=[
            Constant(value=1),
            Constant(value=2),
            Constant(value=3)],
        ctx=Load()))
>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('(1, 2, 3)', mode='eval'), indent=4))
Expression(
    body=Tuple(
        elts=[
            Constant(value=1),
            Constant(value=2),
            Constant(value=3)],
        ctx=Load()))

class ast.Set(elts)

Ensemble. elts est la liste de ses éléments.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('{1, 2, 3}', mode='eval'), indent=4))
Expression(
    body=Set(
        elts=[
            Constant(value=1),
            Constant(value=2),
            Constant(value=3)]))

class ast.Dict(keys, values)

Dictionnaire. Les listes keys et values contiennent respectivement les clés et les valeurs. Leurs ordres se correspondent, c'est-à-dire que la valeur associée à l'élément d'indice i dans keys est à chercher à l'indice i de values. keys et values sont donc des équivalents à dictionnaire.keys() et dictionnaire.values().

Si un dictionnaire littéral contient une expression doublement étoilée à déballer, elle est intégrée dans values, et None est mis à la place correspondante dans keys.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('{"a":1, **d}', mode='eval'), indent=4))
Expression(
    body=Dict(
        keys=[
            Constant(value='a'),
            None],
        values=[
            Constant(value=1),
            Name(id='d', ctx=Load())]))

Variables

class ast.Name(id, ctx)

Variable, dont le nom est id (une chaîne de caractères). ctx est de l'un des trois types :

class ast.Load

class ast.Store

class ast.Del

Ces types de contexte distinguent les variables selon qu'elles sont utilisées pour lire la valeur, mettre la variable à une nouvelle valeur, ou supprimer la variable.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a'), indent=4))
Module(
    body=[
        Expr(
            value=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()))])

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a = 1'), indent=4))
Module(
    body=[
        Assign(
            targets=[
                Name(id='a', ctx=Store())],
            value=Constant(value=1))])

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('del a'), indent=4))
Module(
    body=[
        Delete(
            targets=[
                Name(id='a', ctx=Del())])])

class ast.Starred(value, ctx)

Élément étoilé. value est le nœud auquel s'applique l'étoile. Le plus souvent, value est une instance de Name. Ce type est notamment nécessaire pour les appels de fonction avec déballage d'arguments (par exemple fonction(*args) ; voir aussi Call).

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a, *b = it'), indent=4))
Module(
    body=[
        Assign(
            targets=[
                Tuple(
                    elts=[
                        Name(id='a', ctx=Store()),
                        Starred(
                            value=Name(id='b', ctx=Store()),
                            ctx=Store())],
                    ctx=Store())],
            value=Name(id='it', ctx=Load()))])

Expressions

class ast.Expr(value)

Lorsque une expression, comme l'appel d'une fonction, apparaît comme une instruction à elle seule, sans que la valeur ne soit utilisée ou sauvegardée, l'expression est insérée dans ce conteneur. Le type de value peut être l'un des autres nœuds décrits dans cette section, ou bien parmi Constant, Name, Lambda, Yield et YieldFrom.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('-a'), indent=4))
Module(
    body=[
        Expr(
            value=UnaryOp(
                op=USub(),
                operand=Name(id='a', ctx=Load())))])

class ast.UnaryOp(op, operand)

Unité lexicale désignant une opération unaire. L'opérateur est op, l'opérande operand est un nœud d'expression quelconque.

class ast.UAdd

class ast.USub

class ast.Not

class ast.Invert

Unités lexicales désignant des opérations unaires. Not correspond au mot-clé not, Invert à l'opérateur ~.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('not x', mode='eval'), indent=4))
Expression(
    body=UnaryOp(
        op=Not(),
        operand=Name(id='x', ctx=Load())))

class ast.BinOp(left, op, right)

Opération binaire (comme l'addition ou la division). L'opérateur est op, les opérandes left et right sont des nœuds d'expression quelconques.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('x + y', mode='eval'), indent=4))
Expression(
    body=BinOp(
        left=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
        op=Add(),
        right=Name(id='y', ctx=Load())))

class ast.Add

class ast.Sub

class ast.Mult

class ast.Div

class ast.FloorDiv

class ast.Mod

class ast.Pow

class ast.LShift

class ast.RShift

class ast.BitOr

class ast.BitXor

class ast.BitAnd

class ast.MatMult

Unités lexicales pour les opérations binaires.

class ast.BoolOp(op, values)

Opération booléenne, c'est-à-dire and ou or, entre op et les éléments de values. Les deux opérateurs sont distingués par le type de op, à savoir And ou Or. Les applications successives du même opérateur (comme a or b or c) sont regroupées dans un nœud unique avec plusieurs éléments dans la liste values.

L'opérateur not n'est pas implémenté ici, mais bien dans UnaryOp.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('x or y', mode='eval'), indent=4))
Expression(
    body=BoolOp(
        op=Or(),
        values=[
            Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
            Name(id='y', ctx=Load())]))

class ast.And

class ast.Or

Unités lexicales pour les opérations booléennes.

class ast.Compare(left, ops, comparators)

Comparaison de deux valeurs ou plus. left est le premier élément de la comparaison, ops la liste des opérateurs, et comparators la liste des éléments restants de la comparaison.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('1 <= a < 10', mode='eval'), indent=4))
Expression(
    body=Compare(
        left=Constant(value=1),
        ops=[
            LtE(),
            Lt()],
        comparators=[
            Name(id='a', ctx=Load()),
            Constant(value=10)]))

class ast.Eq

class ast.NotEq

class ast.Lt

class ast.LtE

class ast.Gt

class ast.GtE

class ast.Is

class ast.IsNot

class ast.In

class ast.NotIn

Unités lexicales pour les comparaisons.

class ast.Call(func, args, keywords)

Appel d'une fonction. Le nœud func, représentant la fonction appelée, est habituellement de type Name ou Attribute. Les arguments sont contenus dans :

args, la liste des arguments passés sans les nommer (arguments positionnels) ;

keywords holds a list of keyword objects representing arguments passed by keyword.

The args and keywords arguments are optional and default to empty lists.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('func(a, b=c, *d, **e)', mode='eval'), indent=4))
Expression(
    body=Call(
        func=Name(id='func', ctx=Load()),
        args=[
            Name(id='a', ctx=Load()),
            Starred(
                value=Name(id='d', ctx=Load()),
                ctx=Load())],
        keywords=[
            keyword(
                arg='b',
                value=Name(id='c', ctx=Load())),
            keyword(
                value=Name(id='e', ctx=Load()))]))

class ast.keyword(arg, value)

A keyword argument to a function call or class definition. arg is a raw string of the parameter name, value is a node to pass in.

class ast.IfExp(test, body, orelse)

Expression ternaire (a if b else c). Chaque champ contient un unique nœud. Dans l'exemple suivant, les trois sont de la classe Name.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a if b else c', mode='eval'), indent=4))
Expression(
    body=IfExp(
        test=Name(id='b', ctx=Load()),
        body=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()),
        orelse=Name(id='c', ctx=Load())))

class ast.Attribute(value, attr, ctx)

Accès à un attribut (comme d.keys). value est un nœud, souvent de la classe Name. attr est le nom de l'attribut, sous forme de chaîne de caractères. ctx est de classe Load, Store ou Del selon le type de l'action effectuée sur l'attribut.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('snake.colour', mode='eval'), indent=4))
Expression(
    body=Attribute(
        value=Name(id='snake', ctx=Load()),
        attr='colour',
        ctx=Load()))

class ast.NamedExpr(target, value)

Expression d'affectation. Ces nœuds proviennent de l'opérateur « morse » :=. Contrairement à Assign, dont le premier argument est une liste qui peut contenir plusieurs cibles, les arguments target et value sont ici des nœuds simples.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('(x := 4)', mode='eval'), indent=4))
Expression(
    body=NamedExpr(
        target=Name(id='x', ctx=Store()),
        value=Constant(value=4)))

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

Indiçage

class ast.Subscript(value, slice, ctx)

Accès à un indice, par exemple liste[1]. value est l'objet où l'indice est pris, donc la plupart du temps une séquence ou une table associative. slice est soit un indice, soit une tranche, soit une clé. Les instances de Tuple pour slice peuvent contenir des objets Slice. ctx est de type Load, Store ou Del selon l'action appliquée à l'indice.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('l[1:2, 3]', mode='eval'), indent=4))
Expression(
    body=Subscript(
        value=Name(id='l', ctx=Load()),
        slice=Tuple(
            elts=[
                Slice(
                    lower=Constant(value=1),
                    upper=Constant(value=2)),
                Constant(value=3)],
            ctx=Load()),
        ctx=Load()))

class ast.Slice(lower, upper, step)

Tranches normales (de la forme début:fin ou début:fin:pas). Les instances de cette classe ne peuvent apparaître que dans le champ slice d'un Subscript, que ce soit directement ou en tant qu'élément d'un Tuple.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('l[1:2]', mode='eval'), indent=4))
Expression(
    body=Subscript(
        value=Name(id='l', ctx=Load()),
        slice=Slice(
            lower=Constant(value=1),
            upper=Constant(value=2)),
        ctx=Load()))

Compréhensions

class ast.ListComp(elt, generators)

class ast.SetComp(elt, generators)

class ast.GeneratorExp(elt, generators)

class ast.DictComp(key, value, generators)

Liste, ensemble ou dictionnaire en compréhension, ou expression génératrice. elt est l'expression avant le premier for, évaluée à chaque itération. Il est remplacé par key (expression pour la clé) et value (expression pour la valeur) dans le cas des dictionnaires.

generators est une liste de nœuds comprehension.

>>> print(ast.dump(
...     ast.parse('[x for x in numbers]', mode='eval'),
...     indent=4,
... ))
Expression(
    body=ListComp(
        elt=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
        generators=[
            comprehension(
                target=Name(id='x', ctx=Store()),
                iter=Name(id='numbers', ctx=Load()),
                is_async=0)]))
>>> print(ast.dump(
...     ast.parse('{x: x**2 for x in numbers}', mode='eval'),
...     indent=4,
... ))
Expression(
    body=DictComp(
        key=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
        value=BinOp(
            left=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
            op=Pow(),
            right=Constant(value=2)),
        generators=[
            comprehension(
                target=Name(id='x', ctx=Store()),
                iter=Name(id='numbers', ctx=Load()),
                is_async=0)]))
>>> print(ast.dump(
...     ast.parse('{x for x in numbers}', mode='eval'),
...     indent=4,
... ))
Expression(
    body=SetComp(
        elt=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
        generators=[
            comprehension(
                target=Name(id='x', ctx=Store()),
                iter=Name(id='numbers', ctx=Load()),
                is_async=0)]))

class ast.comprehension(target, iter, ifs, is_async)

Une clause for à l'intérieur d'une compréhension. iter est l'objet à parcourir, target est la cible de l'affectation qui se produit à chaque itération (la plupart du temps un nœud Name ou Tuple). ifs contient les tests qui décident si l'élément doit être inséré. C'est une liste, car chaque for peut être suivi de plusieurs if.

is_async est une valeur booléenne sous forme d'entier, 0 ou 1, qui indique si la compréhension est asynchrone, c'est-à-dire qu'elle a été écrite avec async for au lieu de for.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('[ord(c) for line in file for c in line]', mode='eval'),
...                indent=4)) # Multiple comprehensions in one.
Expression(
    body=ListComp(
        elt=Call(
            func=Name(id='ord', ctx=Load()),
            args=[
                Name(id='c', ctx=Load())]),
        generators=[
            comprehension(
                target=Name(id='line', ctx=Store()),
                iter=Name(id='file', ctx=Load()),
                is_async=0),
            comprehension(
                target=Name(id='c', ctx=Store()),
                iter=Name(id='line', ctx=Load()),
                is_async=0)]))

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('(n**2 for n in it if n>5 if n<10)', mode='eval'),
...                indent=4)) # generator comprehension
Expression(
    body=GeneratorExp(
        elt=BinOp(
            left=Name(id='n', ctx=Load()),
            op=Pow(),
            right=Constant(value=2)),
        generators=[
            comprehension(
                target=Name(id='n', ctx=Store()),
                iter=Name(id='it', ctx=Load()),
                ifs=[
                    Compare(
                        left=Name(id='n', ctx=Load()),
                        ops=[
                            Gt()],
                        comparators=[
                            Constant(value=5)]),
                    Compare(
                        left=Name(id='n', ctx=Load()),
                        ops=[
                            Lt()],
                        comparators=[
                            Constant(value=10)])],
                is_async=0)]))

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('[i async for i in soc]', mode='eval'),
...                indent=4)) # Async comprehension
Expression(
    body=ListComp(
        elt=Name(id='i', ctx=Load()),
        generators=[
            comprehension(
                target=Name(id='i', ctx=Store()),
                iter=Name(id='soc', ctx=Load()),
                is_async=1)]))

Instructions

class ast.Assign(targets, value, type_comment)

Affectation. targets est une liste de nœuds, value est simplement un nœud.

S'il y a plusieurs nœuds dans targets, ils sont tous pris comme des cibles auxquelles est affectée la même expression. Le déballage de séquences est représenté par des nœuds Tuple ou List comme éléments de targets.

type_comment

Le champ facultatif type_comment contient une annotation de type fournie par un commentaire, et ce sous la forme d'une chaîne de caractères.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a = b = 1'), indent=4)) # Multiple assignment
Module(
    body=[
        Assign(
            targets=[
                Name(id='a', ctx=Store()),
                Name(id='b', ctx=Store())],
            value=Constant(value=1))])

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a,b = c'), indent=4)) # Unpacking
Module(
    body=[
        Assign(
            targets=[
                Tuple(
                    elts=[
                        Name(id='a', ctx=Store()),
                        Name(id='b', ctx=Store())],
                    ctx=Store())],
            value=Name(id='c', ctx=Load()))])

class ast.AnnAssign(target, annotation, value, simple)

An assignment with a type annotation. target is a single node and can be a Name, an Attribute or a Subscript. annotation is the annotation, such as a Constant or Name node. value is a single optional node.

simple is always either 0 (indicating a "complex" target) or 1 (indicating a "simple" target). A "simple" target consists solely of a Name node that does not appear between parentheses; all other targets are considered complex. Only simple targets appear in the __annotations__ dictionary of modules and classes.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('c: int'), indent=4))
Module(
    body=[
        AnnAssign(
            target=Name(id='c', ctx=Store()),
            annotation=Name(id='int', ctx=Load()),
            simple=1)])

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('(a): int = 1'), indent=4)) # Annotation with parenthesis
Module(
    body=[
        AnnAssign(
            target=Name(id='a', ctx=Store()),
            annotation=Name(id='int', ctx=Load()),
            value=Constant(value=1),
            simple=0)])

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a.b: int'), indent=4)) # Attribute annotation
Module(
    body=[
        AnnAssign(
            target=Attribute(
                value=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()),
                attr='b',
                ctx=Store()),
            annotation=Name(id='int', ctx=Load()),
            simple=0)])

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a[1]: int'), indent=4)) # Subscript annotation
Module(
    body=[
        AnnAssign(
            target=Subscript(
                value=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()),
                slice=Constant(value=1),
                ctx=Store()),
            annotation=Name(id='int', ctx=Load()),
            simple=0)])

class ast.AugAssign(target, op, value)

Affectation incrémentale, par exemple a += 1. Dans l'exemple qui suit, target est un nœud de type Name avec le nom 'x' (de contexte Store), op est une instance de Add, et value est un nœud Constant contenant la valeur 1.

The target attribute cannot be of class Tuple or List, unlike the targets of Assign.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('x += 2'), indent=4))
Module(
    body=[
        AugAssign(
            target=Name(id='x', ctx=Store()),
            op=Add(),
            value=Constant(value=2))])

class ast.Raise(exc, cause)

Instruction raise. exc est l'exception à lever, la plupart du temps un nœud de type Call ou Name. Ce champ vaut None dans le cas d'un raise sans rien d'autre. Le champ facultatif cause correspond à la partie après le from dans raise ... from ....

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('raise x from y'), indent=4))
Module(
    body=[
        Raise(
            exc=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
            cause=Name(id='y', ctx=Load()))])

class ast.Assert(test, msg)

Assertion. test est la condition, par exemple un nœud Compare. msg est le message d'erreur affiché si le test s'évalue comme faux.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('assert x,y'), indent=4))
Module(
    body=[
        Assert(
            test=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
            msg=Name(id='y', ctx=Load()))])

class ast.Delete(targets)

Instruction del. Les éléments à supprimer sont rassemblés dans la liste target. Ce sont généralement des nœuds de type Name, Attribute ou Subscript.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('del x,y,z'), indent=4))
Module(
    body=[
        Delete(
            targets=[
                Name(id='x', ctx=Del()),
                Name(id='y', ctx=Del()),
                Name(id='z', ctx=Del())])])

class ast.Pass

Instruction pass.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('pass'), indent=4))
Module(
    body=[
        Pass()])

class ast.TypeAlias(name, type_params, value)

A type alias created through the type statement. name is the name of the alias, type_params is a list of type parameters, and value is the value of the type alias.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('type Alias = int'), indent=4))
Module(
    body=[
        TypeAlias(
            name=Name(id='Alias', ctx=Store()),
            value=Name(id='int', ctx=Load()))])

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Il existe d'autres instructions, qui ne peuvent apparaître que dans certains contextes spécifiques comme l'intérieur d'une fonction ou d'une boucle. Elles sont décrites dans d'autres sections de ce document.

Importations

class ast.Import(names)

Instruction import. names prend la forme d'une liste de nœuds alias.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('import x,y,z'), indent=4))
Module(
    body=[
        Import(
            names=[
                alias(name='x'),
                alias(name='y'),
                alias(name='z')])])

class ast.ImportFrom(module, names, level)

Instruction from ... import .... La partie après from est mise dans module comme une simple chaîne de caractères. Dans le cas des importations relatives, comme from ..module import quelque_chose, module ne contient pas les points au début. Dans les instructions de la forme from . import toto, module vaut None. level est le niveau d'importation relative sous forme d'entier (0 pour les importations absolues).

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('from y import x,y,z'), indent=4))
Module(
    body=[
        ImportFrom(
            module='y',
            names=[
                alias(name='x'),
                alias(name='y'),
                alias(name='z')],
            level=0)])

class ast.alias(name, asname)

Correspond à ... as ... dans une importation. name et asname sont de simples chaînes de caractères, qui correspondent aux deux parties de ... as .... Dans les instructions sans as (où le module n'est pas renommé), asname vaut None.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('from ..foo.bar import a as b, c'), indent=4))
Module(
    body=[
        ImportFrom(
            module='foo.bar',
            names=[
                alias(name='a', asname='b'),
                alias(name='c')],
            level=2)])

Contrôle de l'exécution

Note

Si une clause facultative comme else est absente, le champ correspondant dans l'arbre est une liste vide.

class ast.If(test, body, orelse)

Instruction if. La condition, test, est un nœud, par exemple une instance de Compare. body est la liste des instructions du bloc. orelse contient les instructions dans le else (liste vide s'il n'y a pas de else).

Les clauses elif ne possèdent pas de représentation particulière. Elles sont simplement mises dans le orelse du if ou elif précédent, comme nœuds de type If.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
... if x:
...    ...
... elif y:
...    ...
... else:
...    ...
... """), indent=4))
Module(
    body=[
        If(
            test=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
            body=[
                Expr(
                    value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))],
            orelse=[
                If(
                    test=Name(id='y', ctx=Load()),
                    body=[
                        Expr(
                            value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))],
                    orelse=[
                        Expr(
                            value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])])

class ast.For(target, iter, body, orelse, type_comment)

A for loop. target holds the variable(s) the loop assigns to, as a single Name, Tuple, List, Attribute or Subscript node. iter holds the item to be looped over, again as a single node. body and orelse contain lists of nodes to execute. Those in orelse are executed if the loop finishes normally, rather than via a break statement.

type_comment

Le champ facultatif type_comment contient une annotation de type fournie par un commentaire, et ce sous la forme d'une chaîne de caractères.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
... for x in y:
...     ...
... else:
...     ...
... """), indent=4))
Module(
    body=[
        For(
            target=Name(id='x', ctx=Store()),
            iter=Name(id='y', ctx=Load()),
            body=[
                Expr(
                    value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))],
            orelse=[
                Expr(
                    value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])

class ast.While(test, body, orelse)

Boucle while. test est la condition évaluée à chaque itération, par exemple un nœud Compare. body contient les instructions du bloc, et orelse celles d'un éventuel bloc else, exécuté lorsque la boucle termine parce que la condition devient fausse et non pas à cause d'une instruction break.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
... while x:
...    ...
... else:
...    ...
... """), indent=4))
Module(
    body=[
        While(
            test=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
            body=[
                Expr(
                    value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))],
            orelse=[
                Expr(
                    value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])

class ast.Break

class ast.Continue

Instructions break et continue.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""\
... for a in b:
...     if a > 5:
...         break
...     else:
...         continue
...
... """), indent=4))
Module(
    body=[
        For(
            target=Name(id='a', ctx=Store()),
            iter=Name(id='b', ctx=Load()),
            body=[
                If(
                    test=Compare(
                        left=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()),
                        ops=[
                            Gt()],
                        comparators=[
                            Constant(value=5)]),
                    body=[
                        Break()],
                    orelse=[
                        Continue()])])])

class ast.Try(body, handlers, orelse, finalbody)

Bloc try. Les nœuds de la liste body sont les instructions à exécuter sous contrôle des exceptions. La liste handlers contient des nœuds ExceptHandler, un par except. Les listes orelse et finalbody contiennent respectivement les instructions se trouvant dans d'éventuels blocs else et finally.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
... try:
...    ...
... except Exception:
...    ...
... except OtherException as e:
...    ...
... else:
...    ...
... finally:
...    ...
... """), indent=4))
Module(
    body=[
        Try(
            body=[
                Expr(
                    value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))],
            handlers=[
                ExceptHandler(
                    type=Name(id='Exception', ctx=Load()),
                    body=[
                        Expr(
                            value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))]),
                ExceptHandler(
                    type=Name(id='OtherException', ctx=Load()),
                    name='e',
                    body=[
                        Expr(
                            value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])],
            orelse=[
                Expr(
                    value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))],
            finalbody=[
                Expr(
                    value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])

class ast.TryStar(body, handlers, orelse, finalbody)

try blocks which are followed by except* clauses. The attributes are the same as for Try but the ExceptHandler nodes in handlers are interpreted as except* blocks rather then except.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
... try:
...    ...
... except* Exception:
...    ...
... """), indent=4))
Module(
    body=[
        TryStar(
            body=[
                Expr(
                    value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))],
            handlers=[
                ExceptHandler(
                    type=Name(id='Exception', ctx=Load()),
                    body=[
                        Expr(
                            value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])])

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

class ast.ExceptHandler(type, name, body)

Une clause except. Elle intercepte les exceptions de types donnés par type, qui est le plus souvent un nœud Name ou bien None (cette dernière valeur pour les clauses fourre-tout except:). Le nom éventuel de la variable à laquelle affecter l'exception est dans la chaîne de caractères name (None s'il n'y a pas de as). Les instructions sous le except sont dans la liste body.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""\
... try:
...     a + 1
... except TypeError:
...     pass
... """), indent=4))
Module(
    body=[
        Try(
            body=[
                Expr(
                    value=BinOp(
                        left=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()),
                        op=Add(),
                        right=Constant(value=1)))],
            handlers=[
                ExceptHandler(
                    type=Name(id='TypeError', ctx=Load()),
                    body=[
                        Pass()])])])

class ast.With(items, body, type_comment)

Bloc with. Les gestionnaires de contexte sont stockés dans items comme instances de withitem. Les instructions sous le with forment la liste body.

type_comment

Le champ facultatif type_comment contient une annotation de type fournie par un commentaire, et ce sous la forme d'une chaîne de caractères.

class ast.withitem(context_expr, optional_vars)

Gestionnaire de contexte dans un bloc with. Le gestionnaire est donné par le nœud context_expr, souvent une instance de Call. S'il y a affectation avec as, optional_vars contient sa cible, qui est un nœud de type Name, Tuple ou List. Sinon, optional_vars vaut None.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""\
... with a as b, c as d:
...    something(b, d)
... """), indent=4))
Module(
    body=[
        With(
            items=[
                withitem(
                    context_expr=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()),
                    optional_vars=Name(id='b', ctx=Store())),
                withitem(
                    context_expr=Name(id='c', ctx=Load()),
                    optional_vars=Name(id='d', ctx=Store()))],
            body=[
                Expr(
                    value=Call(
                        func=Name(id='something', ctx=Load()),
                        args=[
                            Name(id='b', ctx=Load()),
                            Name(id='d', ctx=Load())]))])])

Pattern matching

class ast.Match(subject, cases)

A match statement. subject holds the subject of the match (the object that is being matched against the cases) and cases contains an iterable of match_case nodes with the different cases.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

class ast.match_case(pattern, guard, body)

A single case pattern in a match statement. pattern contains the match pattern that the subject will be matched against. Note that the AST nodes produced for patterns differ from those produced for expressions, even when they share the same syntax.

The guard attribute contains an expression that will be evaluated if the pattern matches the subject.

body contains a list of nodes to execute if the pattern matches and the result of evaluating the guard expression is true.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
... match x:
...     case [x] if x>0:
...         ...
...     case tuple():
...         ...
... """), indent=4))
Module(
    body=[
        Match(
            subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
            cases=[
                match_case(
                    pattern=MatchSequence(
                        patterns=[
                            MatchAs(name='x')]),
                    guard=Compare(
                        left=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                        ops=[
                            Gt()],
                        comparators=[
                            Constant(value=0)]),
                    body=[
                        Expr(
                            value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))]),
                match_case(
                    pattern=MatchClass(
                        cls=Name(id='tuple', ctx=Load())),
                    body=[
                        Expr(
                            value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])])

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

class ast.MatchValue(value)

A match literal or value pattern that compares by equality. value is an expression node. Permitted value nodes are restricted as described in the match statement documentation. This pattern succeeds if the match subject is equal to the evaluated value.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
... match x:
...     case "Relevant":
...         ...
... """), indent=4))
Module(
    body=[
        Match(
            subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
            cases=[
                match_case(
                    pattern=MatchValue(
                        value=Constant(value='Relevant')),
                    body=[
                        Expr(
                            value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])])

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

class ast.MatchSingleton(value)

A match literal pattern that compares by identity. value is the singleton to be compared against: None, True, or False. This pattern succeeds if the match subject is the given constant.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
... match x:
...     case None:
...         ...
... """), indent=4))
Module(
    body=[
        Match(
            subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
            cases=[
                match_case(
                    pattern=MatchSingleton(value=None),
                    body=[
                        Expr(
                            value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])])

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

class ast.MatchSequence(patterns)

A match sequence pattern. patterns contains the patterns to be matched against the subject elements if the subject is a sequence. Matches a variable length sequence if one of the subpatterns is a MatchStar node, otherwise matches a fixed length sequence.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
... match x:
...     case [1, 2]:
...         ...
... """), indent=4))
Module(
    body=[
        Match(
            subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
            cases=[
                match_case(
                    pattern=MatchSequence(
                        patterns=[
                            MatchValue(
                                value=Constant(value=1)),
                            MatchValue(
                                value=Constant(value=2))]),
                    body=[
                        Expr(
                            value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])])

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

class ast.MatchStar(name)

Matches the rest of the sequence in a variable length match sequence pattern. If name is not None, a list containing the remaining sequence elements is bound to that name if the overall sequence pattern is successful.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
... match x:
...     case [1, 2, *rest]:
...         ...
...     case [*_]:
...         ...
... """), indent=4))
Module(
    body=[
        Match(
            subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
            cases=[
                match_case(
                    pattern=MatchSequence(
                        patterns=[
                            MatchValue(
                                value=Constant(value=1)),
                            MatchValue(
                                value=Constant(value=2)),
                            MatchStar(name='rest')]),
                    body=[
                        Expr(
                            value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))]),
                match_case(
                    pattern=MatchSequence(
                        patterns=[
                            MatchStar()]),
                    body=[
                        Expr(
                            value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])])

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

class ast.MatchMapping(keys, patterns, rest)

A match mapping pattern. keys is a sequence of expression nodes. patterns is a corresponding sequence of pattern nodes. rest is an optional name that can be specified to capture the remaining mapping elements. Permitted key expressions are restricted as described in the match statement documentation.

This pattern succeeds if the subject is a mapping, all evaluated key expressions are present in the mapping, and the value corresponding to each key matches the corresponding subpattern. If rest is not None, a dict containing the remaining mapping elements is bound to that name if the overall mapping pattern is successful.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
... match x:
...     case {1: _, 2: _}:
...         ...
...     case {**rest}:
...         ...
... """), indent=4))
Module(
    body=[
        Match(
            subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
            cases=[
                match_case(
                    pattern=MatchMapping(
                        keys=[
                            Constant(value=1),
                            Constant(value=2)],
                        patterns=[
                            MatchAs(),
                            MatchAs()]),
                    body=[
                        Expr(
                            value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))]),
                match_case(
                    pattern=MatchMapping(rest='rest'),
                    body=[
                        Expr(
                            value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])])

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

class ast.MatchClass(cls, patterns, kwd_attrs, kwd_patterns)

A match class pattern. cls is an expression giving the nominal class to be matched. patterns is a sequence of pattern nodes to be matched against the class defined sequence of pattern matching attributes. kwd_attrs is a sequence of additional attributes to be matched (specified as keyword arguments in the class pattern), kwd_patterns are the corresponding patterns (specified as keyword values in the class pattern).

This pattern succeeds if the subject is an instance of the nominated class, all positional patterns match the corresponding class-defined attributes, and any specified keyword attributes match their corresponding pattern.

Note: classes may define a property that returns self in order to match a pattern node against the instance being matched. Several builtin types are also matched that way, as described in the match statement documentation.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
... match x:
...     case Point2D(0, 0):
...         ...
...     case Point3D(x=0, y=0, z=0):
...         ...
... """), indent=4))
Module(
    body=[
        Match(
            subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
            cases=[
                match_case(
                    pattern=MatchClass(
                        cls=Name(id='Point2D', ctx=Load()),
                        patterns=[
                            MatchValue(
                                value=Constant(value=0)),
                            MatchValue(
                                value=Constant(value=0))]),
                    body=[
                        Expr(
                            value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))]),
                match_case(
                    pattern=MatchClass(
                        cls=Name(id='Point3D', ctx=Load()),
                        kwd_attrs=[
                            'x',
                            'y',
                            'z'],
                        kwd_patterns=[
                            MatchValue(
                                value=Constant(value=0)),
                            MatchValue(
                                value=Constant(value=0)),
                            MatchValue(
                                value=Constant(value=0))]),
                    body=[
                        Expr(
                            value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])])

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

class ast.MatchAs(pattern, name)

A match "as-pattern", capture pattern or wildcard pattern. pattern contains the match pattern that the subject will be matched against. If the pattern is None, the node represents a capture pattern (i.e a bare name) and will always succeed.

The name attribute contains the name that will be bound if the pattern is successful. If name is None, pattern must also be None and the node represents the wildcard pattern.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
... match x:
...     case [x] as y:
...         ...
...     case _:
...         ...
... """), indent=4))
Module(
    body=[
        Match(
            subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
            cases=[
                match_case(
                    pattern=MatchAs(
                        pattern=MatchSequence(
                            patterns=[
                                MatchAs(name='x')]),
                        name='y'),
                    body=[
                        Expr(
                            value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))]),
                match_case(
                    pattern=MatchAs(),
                    body=[
                        Expr(
                            value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])])

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

class ast.MatchOr(patterns)

A match "or-pattern". An or-pattern matches each of its subpatterns in turn to the subject, until one succeeds. The or-pattern is then deemed to succeed. If none of the subpatterns succeed the or-pattern fails. The patterns attribute contains a list of match pattern nodes that will be matched against the subject.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
... match x:
...     case [x] | (y):
...         ...
... """), indent=4))
Module(
    body=[
        Match(
            subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
            cases=[
                match_case(
                    pattern=MatchOr(
                        patterns=[
                            MatchSequence(
                                patterns=[
                                    MatchAs(name='x')]),
                            MatchAs(name='y')]),
                    body=[
                        Expr(
                            value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])])

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

Type annotations

class ast.TypeIgnore(lineno, tag)

A # type: ignore comment located at lineno. tag is the optional tag specified by the form # type: ignore <tag>.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('x = 1 # type: ignore', type_comments=True), indent=4))
Module(
    body=[
        Assign(
            targets=[
                Name(id='x', ctx=Store())],
            value=Constant(value=1))],
    type_ignores=[
        TypeIgnore(lineno=1, tag='')])
>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('x: bool = 1 # type: ignore[assignment]', type_comments=True), indent=4))
Module(
    body=[
        AnnAssign(
            target=Name(id='x', ctx=Store()),
            annotation=Name(id='bool', ctx=Load()),
            value=Constant(value=1),
            simple=1)],
    type_ignores=[
        TypeIgnore(lineno=1, tag='[assignment]')])

Note

TypeIgnore nodes are not generated when the type_comments parameter is set to False (default). See ast.parse() for more details.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

Type parameters

Type parameters can exist on classes, functions, and type aliases.

class ast.TypeVar(name, bound, default_value)

A typing.TypeVar. name is the name of the type variable. bound is the bound or constraints, if any. If bound is a Tuple, it represents constraints; otherwise it represents the bound. default_value is the default value; if the TypeVar has no default, this attribute will be set to None.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("type Alias[T: int = bool] = list[T]"), indent=4))
Module(
    body=[
        TypeAlias(
            name=Name(id='Alias', ctx=Store()),
            type_params=[
                TypeVar(
                    name='T',
                    bound=Name(id='int', ctx=Load()),
                    default_value=Name(id='bool', ctx=Load()))],
            value=Subscript(
                value=Name(id='list', ctx=Load()),
                slice=Name(id='T', ctx=Load()),
                ctx=Load()))])

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the default_value parameter.

class ast.ParamSpec(name, default_value)

A typing.ParamSpec. name is the name of the parameter specification. default_value is the default value; if the ParamSpec has no default, this attribute will be set to None.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("type Alias[**P = [int, str]] = Callable[P, int]"), indent=4))
Module(
    body=[
        TypeAlias(
            name=Name(id='Alias', ctx=Store()),
            type_params=[
                ParamSpec(
                    name='P',
                    default_value=List(
                        elts=[
                            Name(id='int', ctx=Load()),
                            Name(id='str', ctx=Load())],
                        ctx=Load()))],
            value=Subscript(
                value=Name(id='Callable', ctx=Load()),
                slice=Tuple(
                    elts=[
                        Name(id='P', ctx=Load()),
                        Name(id='int', ctx=Load())],
                    ctx=Load()),
                ctx=Load()))])

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the default_value parameter.

class ast.TypeVarTuple(name, default_value)

A typing.TypeVarTuple. name is the name of the type variable tuple. default_value is the default value; if the TypeVarTuple has no default, this attribute will be set to None.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("type Alias[*Ts = ()] = tuple[*Ts]"), indent=4))
Module(
    body=[
        TypeAlias(
            name=Name(id='Alias', ctx=Store()),
            type_params=[
                TypeVarTuple(
                    name='Ts',
                    default_value=Tuple(ctx=Load()))],
            value=Subscript(
                value=Name(id='tuple', ctx=Load()),
                slice=Tuple(
                    elts=[
                        Starred(
                            value=Name(id='Ts', ctx=Load()),
                            ctx=Load())],
                    ctx=Load()),
                ctx=Load()))])

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the default_value parameter.

Définition de fonctions et de classes

class ast.FunctionDef(name, args, body, decorator_list, returns, type_comment, type_params)

Définition d'une fonction.

name donne le nom de la fonction sous forme d'une chaîne de caractères.

args is an arguments node.

body est la liste des instructions dans le corps de la fonction.

decorators_list est une liste de décorateurs appliqués à la fonction. Ils sont rangés dans leur ordre d'apparition, c'est-à-dire que le premier de la liste est appliqué en dernier.

returns est l'annotation de renvoi éventuelle.

type_params is a list of type parameters.

type_comment

Le champ facultatif type_comment contient une annotation de type fournie par un commentaire, et ce sous la forme d'une chaîne de caractères.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added type_params.

class ast.Lambda(args, body)

Fonction anonyme. Elle est créée avec le mot-clé lambda, limitée à renvoyer une simple expression, et peut être intégrée à une expression plus large. Contrairement à FunctionDef, body est ici un nœud unique. args est une instance de arguments qui contient les arguments de la signature.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('lambda x,y: ...'), indent=4))
Module(
    body=[
        Expr(
            value=Lambda(
                args=arguments(
                    args=[
                        arg(arg='x'),
                        arg(arg='y')]),
                body=Constant(value=Ellipsis)))])

class ast.arguments(posonlyargs, args, vararg, kwonlyargs, kw_defaults, kwarg, defaults)

Arguments d'une fonction.

posonlyargs, args et kwonlyargs sont des listes de nœuds arg qui correspondent respectivement aux arguments obligatoirement positionnels, positionnels ou nommés et obligatoirement nommés.

varargs et kwargs sont des nœuds arg qui apparaissent avec la capture des arguments restants, positionnels (*arguments_positionnels) et nommés (**arguments_nommés).

kw_defaults est la liste des valeurs par défaut pour les arguments obligatoirement nommés. Si l'un des éléments n'est pas un nœud mais None, il n'y a pas de valeur par défaut et l'argument correspondant doit être passé obligatoirement à la fonction.

defaults est, quant à elle, la liste des valeurs par défauts pour les arguments qui peuvent être passés de manière positionnelle (obligatoirement ou non). S'il y a moins d'éléments dans la liste que d'arguments positionnels, ces éléments donnent les valeurs par défaut des n derniers arguments positionnels (avec n la longueur de defaults).

class ast.arg(arg, annotation, type_comment)

A single argument in a list. arg is a raw string of the argument name; annotation is its annotation, such as a Name node.

type_comment

Le champ facultatif type_comment est, sous forme de chaîne, une annotation de type fournie par un commentaire.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""\
... @decorator1
... @decorator2
... def f(a: 'annotation', b=1, c=2, *d, e, f=3, **g) -> 'return annotation':
...     pass
... """), indent=4))
Module(
    body=[
        FunctionDef(
            name='f',
            args=arguments(
                args=[
                    arg(
                        arg='a',
                        annotation=Constant(value='annotation')),
                    arg(arg='b'),
                    arg(arg='c')],
                vararg=arg(arg='d'),
                kwonlyargs=[
                    arg(arg='e'),
                    arg(arg='f')],
                kw_defaults=[
                    None,
                    Constant(value=3)],
                kwarg=arg(arg='g'),
                defaults=[
                    Constant(value=1),
                    Constant(value=2)]),
            body=[
                Pass()],
            decorator_list=[
                Name(id='decorator1', ctx=Load()),
                Name(id='decorator2', ctx=Load())],
            returns=Constant(value='return annotation'))])

class ast.Return(value)

Instruction return, qui renvoie value.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('return 4'), indent=4))
Module(
    body=[
        Return(
            value=Constant(value=4))])

class ast.Yield(value)

class ast.YieldFrom(value)

A yield or yield from expression. Because these are expressions, they must be wrapped in an Expr node if the value sent back is not used.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('yield x'), indent=4))
Module(
    body=[
        Expr(
            value=Yield(
                value=Name(id='x', ctx=Load())))])

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('yield from x'), indent=4))
Module(
    body=[
        Expr(
            value=YieldFrom(
                value=Name(id='x', ctx=Load())))])

class ast.Global(names)

class ast.Nonlocal(names)

Instruction global ou nonlocal. Elle s'applique aux noms de variables donnés dans names, une liste de chaînes de caractères.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('global x,y,z'), indent=4))
Module(
    body=[
        Global(
            names=[
                'x',
                'y',
                'z'])])

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('nonlocal x,y,z'), indent=4))
Module(
    body=[
        Nonlocal(
            names=[
                'x',
                'y',
                'z'])])

class ast.ClassDef(name, bases, keywords, body, decorator_list, type_params)

Définition d'une classe.

name est le nom de la classe sous forme de chaîne de caractères ;

bases est la liste des classes mères données explicitement ;

keywords is a list of keyword nodes, principally for 'metaclass'. Other keywords will be passed to the metaclass, as per PEP 3115 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3115/].

body est la liste des instructions contenues dans la définition de classe ;

decorators_list est une liste de nœuds, comme pour FunctionDef.

type_params is a list of type parameters.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""\
... @decorator1
... @decorator2
... class Foo(base1, base2, metaclass=meta):
...     pass
... """), indent=4))
Module(
    body=[
        ClassDef(
            name='Foo',
            bases=[
                Name(id='base1', ctx=Load()),
                Name(id='base2', ctx=Load())],
            keywords=[
                keyword(
                    arg='metaclass',
                    value=Name(id='meta', ctx=Load()))],
            body=[
                Pass()],
            decorator_list=[
                Name(id='decorator1', ctx=Load()),
                Name(id='decorator2', ctx=Load())])])

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added type_params.

async et await

class ast.AsyncFunctionDef(name, args, body, decorator_list, returns, type_comment, type_params)

Fonction déclarée avec async def. Les champs sont les mêmes que dans FunctionDef.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added type_params.

class ast.Await(value)

Expression await, qui attend value. Ces nœuds ne peuvent apparaître qu'à l'intérieur de AsyncFunctionDef.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""\
... async def f():
...     await other_func()
... """), indent=4))
Module(
    body=[
        AsyncFunctionDef(
            name='f',
            args=arguments(),
            body=[
                Expr(
                    value=Await(
                        value=Call(
                            func=Name(id='other_func', ctx=Load()))))])])

class ast.AsyncFor(target, iter, body, orelse, type_comment)

class ast.AsyncWith(items, body, type_comment)

Instruction async for ou async with. Les champs sont les mêmes que ceux de For et With. Ces nœuds ne peuvent apparaître qu'à l'intérieur de AsyncFunctionDef.

Note

When a string is parsed by ast.parse(), operator nodes (subclasses of ast.operator, ast.unaryop, ast.cmpop, ast.boolop and ast.expr_context) on the returned tree will be singletons. Changes to one will be reflected in all other occurrences of the same value (for example, ast.Add).

ast helpers

Apart from the node classes, the ast module defines these utility functions and classes for traversing abstract syntax trees:

ast.parse(source, filename='<unknown>', mode='exec', *, type_comments=False, feature_version=None, optimize=-1)

Parse the source into an AST node. Equivalent to compile(source, filename, mode, flags=FLAGS_VALUE, optimize=optimize), where FLAGS_VALUE is ast.PyCF_ONLY_AST if optimize <= 0 and ast.PyCF_OPTIMIZED_AST otherwise.

If type_comments=True is given, the parser is modified to check and return type comments as specified by PEP 484 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/] and PEP 526 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/]. This is equivalent to adding ast.PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS to the flags passed to compile(). This will report syntax errors for misplaced type comments. Without this flag, type comments will be ignored, and the type_comment field on selected AST nodes will always be None. In addition, the locations of # type: ignore comments will be returned as the type_ignores attribute of Module (otherwise it is always an empty list).

In addition, if mode is 'func_type', the input syntax is modified to correspond to PEP 484 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/] "signature type comments", e.g. (str, int) -> List[str].

Setting feature_version to a tuple (major, minor) will result in a "best-effort" attempt to parse using that Python version's grammar. For example, setting feature_version=(3, 9) will attempt to disallow parsing of match statements. Currently major must equal to 3. The lowest supported version is (3, 7) (and this may increase in future Python versions); the highest is sys.version_info[0:2]. "Best-effort" attempt means there is no guarantee that the parse (or success of the parse) is the same as when run on the Python version corresponding to feature_version.

If source contains a null character (\0), ValueError is raised.

Avertissement

Note that successfully parsing source code into an AST object doesn't guarantee that the source code provided is valid Python code that can be executed as the compilation step can raise further SyntaxError exceptions. For instance, the source return 42 generates a valid AST node for a return statement, but it cannot be compiled alone (it needs to be inside a function node).

In particular, ast.parse() won't do any scoping checks, which the compilation step does.

Avertissement

Il est possible de faire planter l'interpréteur Python avec des chaînes suffisamment grandes ou complexes lors de la compilation d'un arbre syntaxique en raison de la limitation de la profondeur de la pile d'appels.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: ajout des paramètres type_comments et feature_version ainsi que de la valeur 'func_type' pour mode.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: The minimum supported version for feature_version is now (3, 7). The optimize argument was added.

ast.unparse(ast_obj)

À partir d'un arbre syntaxique ast.AST, reconstruit un code sous forme de chaîne de caractères. S'il est passé à ast.parse(), le résultat produit un arbre ast.AST équivalent à l'original.

Avertissement

The produced code string will not necessarily be equal to the original code that generated the ast.AST object (without any compiler optimizations, such as constant tuples/frozensets).

Avertissement

Une RecursionError est levée si l'expression comporte de très nombreux niveaux d'imbrication.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

ast.literal_eval(node_or_string)

Evaluate an expression node or a string containing only a Python literal or container display. The string or node provided may only consist of the following Python literal structures: strings, bytes, numbers, tuples, lists, dicts, sets, booleans, None and Ellipsis.

This can be used for evaluating strings containing Python values without the need to parse the values oneself. It is not capable of evaluating arbitrarily complex expressions, for example involving operators or indexing.

This function had been documented as "safe" in the past without defining what that meant. That was misleading. This is specifically designed not to execute Python code, unlike the more general eval(). There is no namespace, no name lookups, or ability to call out. But it is not free from attack: A relatively small input can lead to memory exhaustion or to C stack exhaustion, crashing the process. There is also the possibility for excessive CPU consumption denial of service on some inputs. Calling it on untrusted data is thus not recommended.

Avertissement

It is possible to crash the Python interpreter due to stack depth limitations in Python's AST compiler.

It can raise ValueError, TypeError, SyntaxError, MemoryError and RecursionError depending on the malformed input.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: accepte maintenant les octets et ensembles littéraux.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: accepte set() pour les ensembles vides.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: For string inputs, leading spaces and tabs are now stripped.

ast.get_docstring(node, clean=True)

Renvoie la docstring du nœud node (de type FunctionDef, AsyncFunctionDef, ClassDef or Module), ou None s'il n'a pas de docstring. Si clean est vrai, cette fonction nettoie l'indentation de la docstring avec inspect.cleandoc().

Modifié dans la version 3.5: AsyncFunctionDef est maintenant gérée.

ast.get_source_segment(source, node, *, padded=False)

Get source code segment of the source that generated node. If some location information (lineno, end_lineno, col_offset, or end_col_offset) is missing, return None.

If padded is True, the first line of a multi-line statement will be padded with spaces to match its original position.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

ast.fix_missing_locations(node)

When you compile a node tree with compile(), the compiler expects lineno and col_offset attributes for every node that supports them. This is rather tedious to fill in for generated nodes, so this helper adds these attributes recursively where not already set, by setting them to the values of the parent node. It works recursively starting at node.

ast.increment_lineno(node, n=1)

Incrémente de n les numéros des lignes de début et ligne de fin de chaque nœud dans l'arbre, en commençant par le nœud node. C'est utile pour « déplacer du code » à un endroit différent dans un fichier.

ast.copy_location(new_node, old_node)

Copy source location (lineno, col_offset, end_lineno, and end_col_offset) from old_node to new_node if possible, and return new_node.

ast.iter_fields(node)

Produit un n-uplet de couples (nom_du_champ, valeur) pour chaque champ de node._fields qui est présent dans node.

ast.iter_child_nodes(node)

Produit tous les nœuds enfants directs de node, c'est-à-dire tous les champs qui sont des nœuds et tous les éléments des champs qui sont des listes de nœuds.

ast.walk(node)

Produit récursivement tous les nœuds enfants dans l'arbre en commençant par node (node lui-même est inclus), sans ordre spécifique. C'est utile lorsque l'on souhaite modifier les nœuds sur place sans prêter attention au contexte.

class ast.NodeVisitor

Classe de base pour un visiteur de nœud, qui parcourt l'arbre syntaxique abstrait et appelle une fonction de visite pour chacun des nœuds trouvés. Cette fonction peut renvoyer une valeur, qui est transmise par la méthode visit().

Cette classe est faite pour être dérivée, en ajoutant des méthodes de visite à la sous-classe.

visit(node)

Visite un nœud. L'implémentation par défaut appelle la méthode self.visit_classe où classe représente le nom de la classe du nœud, ou generic_visit() si cette méthode n'existe pas.

generic_visit(node)

Le visiteur appelle la méthode visit() de tous les enfants du nœud.

Notons que les nœuds enfants qui possèdent une méthode de visite spéciale ne sont pas visités à moins que le visiteur n'appelle la méthode generic_visit() ou ne les visite lui-même.

visit_Constant(node)

Handles all constant nodes.

N'utilisez pas NodeVisitor si vous souhaitez appliquer des changements sur les nœuds lors du parcours. Pour cela, un visiteur spécial existe (NodeTransformer) qui permet les modifications.

Deprecated since version 3.8, removed in version 3.14: Methods visit_Num(), visit_Str(), visit_Bytes(), visit_NameConstant() and visit_Ellipsis() will not be called in Python 3.14+. Add the visit_Constant() method instead to handle all constant nodes.

class ast.NodeTransformer

Une sous-classe de NodeVisitor qui traverse l'arbre syntaxique abstrait et permet de modifier les nœuds.

Le NodeTransformer traverse l'arbre syntaxique et utilise la valeur renvoyée par les méthodes du visiteur pour remplacer ou supprimer l'ancien nœud. Si la valeur renvoyée par la méthode du visiteur est None, le nœud est supprimé de sa position, sinon il est remplacé par cette valeur. Elle peut être le nœud original, auquel cas il n'y a pas de remplacement.

Voici un exemple de transformation qui réécrit tous les accès à la valeur d'une variable toto en data['toto'] :

class RewriteName(NodeTransformer):

    def visit_Name(self, node):
        return Subscript(
            value=Name(id='data', ctx=Load()),
            slice=Constant(value=node.id),
            ctx=node.ctx
        )

Keep in mind that if the node you're operating on has child nodes you must either transform the child nodes yourself or call the generic_visit() method for the node first.

Pour les nœuds qui font partie d'un groupe (notamment toutes les instructions), le visiteur peut aussi renvoyer une liste des nœuds plutôt qu'un seul nœud.

If NodeTransformer introduces new nodes (that weren't part of original tree) without giving them location information (such as lineno), fix_missing_locations() should be called with the new sub-tree to recalculate the location information:

tree = ast.parse('foo', mode='eval')
new_tree = fix_missing_locations(RewriteName().visit(tree))

Utilisation typique des transformations :

node = YourTransformer().visit(node)

ast.dump(node, annotate_fields=True, include_attributes=False, *, indent=None, show_empty=False)

Renvoie une représentation sous forme de chaîne de caractères de l'arbre contenu dans node. Ceci est principalement utile à des fins de débogage. Par défaut, les champs sont passés comme paramètres nommés aux constructeurs des classes d'arbre syntaxiques. Cependant, si annotate_fields est mis à False, les valeurs sont passées, lorsque cela est possible, comme arguments positionnels, rendant la représentation plus compacte. Les attributs comme les numéros de lignes et positions sur les lignes sont masqués par défaut, mais on peut les inclure en mettant include_attributes à True.

La représentation peut comprendre une indentation afin d'être plus lisible. Si indent est une chaîne de caractères (par exemple une tabulation "\t"), elle est insérée au début des lignes en la répétant autant de fois que le niveau d'indentation. Un entier positif équivaut à un certain nombre d'espaces. Un entier strictement négatif produit un effet identique à 0 ou la chaîne vide, c'est-à-dire des retours à la ligne sans indentation. Avec la valeur par défaut de None, la sortie tient sur une seule ligne.

If show_empty is false (the default), optional empty lists will be omitted from the output. Optional None values are always omitted.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: ajout du paramètre indent.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the show_empty option.

>>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""\
... async def f():
...     await other_func()
... """), indent=4, show_empty=True))
Module(
    body=[
        AsyncFunctionDef(
            name='f',
            args=arguments(
                posonlyargs=[],
                args=[],
                kwonlyargs=[],
                kw_defaults=[],
                defaults=[]),
            body=[
                Expr(
                    value=Await(
                        value=Call(
                            func=Name(id='other_func', ctx=Load()),
                            args=[],
                            keywords=[])))],
            decorator_list=[],
            type_params=[])],
    type_ignores=[])

Compiler flags

Les options suivantes sont prises en charge par la fonction compile(). Elles permettent de modifier le comportement de la compilation :

ast.PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT

Active la reconnaissance de await, async for, async with et des compréhensions asynchrones au niveau le plus haut.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

ast.PyCF_ONLY_AST

Génère et renvoie un arbre syntaxique au lieu d'un objet de code compilé.

ast.PyCF_OPTIMIZED_AST

The returned AST is optimized according to the optimize argument in compile() or ast.parse().

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

ast.PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS

Ajoute la prise en charge des commentaires de types tels que définis dans la PEP 484 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/] et la PEP 526 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/] (# type: un_type et # type: ignore).

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

ast.compare(a, b, /, *, compare_attributes=False)

Recursively compares two ASTs.

compare_attributes affects whether AST attributes are considered in the comparison. If compare_attributes is False (default), then attributes are ignored. Otherwise they must all be equal. This option is useful to check whether the ASTs are structurally equal but differ in whitespace or similar details. Attributes include line numbers and column offsets.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Command-line usage

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

The ast module can be executed as a script from the command line. It is as simple as:

python -m ast [-m <mode>] [-a] [infile]

Les options suivantes sont acceptées :

-h, --help

Affiche un message d'aide et quitte.

-m <mode>

--mode <mode>

Précise le type de code à compiler, comme l'argument mode de la fonction parse().

--no-type-comments

Désactive la reconnaissance des commentaires de type.

-a, --include-attributes

Affiche les attributs comme les numéros de lignes et les décalages par rapport aux débuts des lignes.

-i <indent>

--indent <indent>

Nombre d'espaces pour chaque niveau d'indentation dans la sortie.

--feature-version <version>

Python version in the format 3.x (for example, 3.10). Defaults to the current version of the interpreter.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

-O <level>

--optimize <level>

Optimization level for parser. Defaults to no optimization.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

--show-empty

Show empty lists and fields that are None. Defaults to not showing empty objects.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

L'entrée est lue dans le fichier infile, s'il est donné, ou l'entrée standard sinon. Le code source est transformé en un arbre syntaxique, qui est affiché sur la sortie standard.

Voir aussi

Green Tree Snakes [https://greentreesnakes.readthedocs.io/], une ressource documentaire externe, qui possède plus de détails pour travailler avec des arbres syntaxiques Python.

ASTTokens [https://asttokens.readthedocs.io/en/latest/user-guide.html] annote les arbres syntaxiques Python avec les positions des lexèmes et les extraits de code source à partir desquels ils sont produits. Ceci est utile pour les outils qui transforment du code source.

leoAst.py [https://leo-editor.github.io/leo-editor/appendices.html#leoast-py] unifies the token-based and parse-tree-based views of python programs by inserting two-way links between tokens and ast nodes.

LibCST [https://libcst.readthedocs.io/] produit à partir du code source des arbres syntaxiques concrets, qui ressemblent à leurs homologues abstraits et conservent tous les détails du formatage. Cette bibliothèque est utile aux outils de réusinage et d'analyse de code.

Parso [https://parso.readthedocs.io] is a Python parser that supports error recovery and round-trip parsing for different Python versions (in multiple Python versions). Parso is also able to list multiple syntax errors in your Python file.

symtable --- Access to the compiler's symbol tables

Code source : Lib/symtable.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/symtable.py]

Symbol tables are generated by the compiler from AST just before bytecode is generated. The symbol table is responsible for calculating the scope of every identifier in the code. symtable provides an interface to examine these tables.

Generating Symbol Tables

symtable.symtable(code, filename, compile_type)

Return the toplevel SymbolTable for the Python source code. filename is the name of the file containing the code. compile_type is like the mode argument to compile().

Examining Symbol Tables

class symtable.SymbolTableType

An enumeration indicating the type of a SymbolTable object.

MODULE = "module"

Used for the symbol table of a module.

FUNCTION = "function"

Used for the symbol table of a function.

CLASS = "class"

Used for the symbol table of a class.

The following members refer to different flavors of annotation scopes.

ANNOTATION = "annotation"

Used for annotations if from __future__ import annotations is active.

TYPE_ALIAS = "type alias"

Used for the symbol table of type constructions.

TYPE_PARAMETERS = "type parameters"

Used for the symbol table of generic functions or generic classes.

TYPE_VARIABLE = "type variable"

Used for the symbol table of the bound, the constraint tuple or the default value of a single type variable in the formal sense, i.e., a TypeVar, a TypeVarTuple or a ParamSpec object (the latter two do not support a bound or a constraint tuple).

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

class symtable.SymbolTable

A namespace table for a block. The constructor is not public.

get_type()

Return the type of the symbol table. Possible values are members of the SymbolTableType enumeration.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added 'annotation', 'TypeVar bound', 'type alias', and 'type parameter' as possible return values.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Return values are members of the SymbolTableType enumeration.

The exact values of the returned string may change in the future, and thus, it is recommended to use SymbolTableType members instead of hard-coded strings.

get_id()

Return the table's identifier.

get_name()

Return the table's name. This is the name of the class if the table is for a class, the name of the function if the table is for a function, or 'top' if the table is global (get_type() returns 'module'). For type parameter scopes (which are used for generic classes, functions, and type aliases), it is the name of the underlying class, function, or type alias. For type alias scopes, it is the name of the type alias. For TypeVar bound scopes, it is the name of the TypeVar.

get_lineno()

Return the number of the first line in the block this table represents.

is_optimized()

Return True if the locals in this table can be optimized.

is_nested()

Return True if the block is a nested class or function.

has_children()

Return True if the block has nested namespaces within it. These can be obtained with get_children().

get_identifiers()

Return a view object containing the names of symbols in the table. See the documentation of view objects.

lookup(name)

Lookup name in the table and return a Symbol instance.

get_symbols()

Return a list of Symbol instances for names in the table.

get_children()

Return a list of the nested symbol tables.

class symtable.Function

A namespace for a function or method. This class inherits from SymbolTable.

get_parameters()

Return a tuple containing names of parameters to this function.

get_locals()

Return a tuple containing names of locals in this function.

get_globals()

Return a tuple containing names of globals in this function.

get_nonlocals()

Return a tuple containing names of explicitly declared nonlocals in this function.

get_frees()

Return a tuple containing names of free (closure) variables in this function.

class symtable.Class

A namespace of a class. This class inherits from SymbolTable.

get_methods()

Return a tuple containing the names of method-like functions declared in the class.

Here, the term 'method' designates any function defined in the class body via def or async def.

Functions defined in a deeper scope (e.g., in an inner class) are not picked up by get_methods().

For example:

>>> import symtable
>>> st = symtable.symtable('''
... def outer(): pass
...
... class A:
...    def f():
...        def w(): pass
...
...    def g(self): pass
...
...    @classmethod
...    async def h(cls): pass
...
...    global outer
...    def outer(self): pass
... ''', 'test', 'exec')
>>> class_A = st.get_children()[2]
>>> class_A.get_methods()
('f', 'g', 'h')

Although A().f() raises TypeError at runtime, A.f is still considered as a method-like function.

Deprecated since version 3.14, will be removed in version 3.16.

class symtable.Symbol

An entry in a SymbolTable corresponding to an identifier in the source. The constructor is not public.

get_name()

Return the symbol's name.

is_referenced()

Return True if the symbol is used in its block.

is_imported()

Return True if the symbol is created from an import statement.

is_parameter()

Return True if the symbol is a parameter.

is_type_parameter()

Return True if the symbol is a type parameter.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

is_global()

Return True if the symbol is global.

is_nonlocal()

Return True if the symbol is nonlocal.

is_declared_global()

Return True if the symbol is declared global with a global statement.

is_local()

Return True if the symbol is local to its block.

is_annotated()

Return True if the symbol is annotated.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

is_free()

Return True if the symbol is referenced in its block, but not assigned to.

is_free_class()

Return True if a class-scoped symbol is free from the perspective of a method.

Examinons l'exemple suivant :

def f():
    x = 1  # function-scoped
    class C:
        x = 2  # class-scoped
        def method(self):
            return x

In this example, the class-scoped symbol x is considered to be free from the perspective of C.method, thereby allowing the latter to return 1 at runtime and not 2.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

is_assigned()

Return True if the symbol is assigned to in its block.

is_comp_iter()

Return True if the symbol is a comprehension iteration variable.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

is_comp_cell()

Return True if the symbol is a cell in an inlined comprehension.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

is_namespace()

Return True if name binding introduces new namespace.

If the name is used as the target of a function or class statement, this will be true.

Par exemple :

>>> table = symtable.symtable("def some_func(): pass", "string", "exec")
>>> table.lookup("some_func").is_namespace()
True

Note that a single name can be bound to multiple objects. If the result is True, the name may also be bound to other objects, like an int or list, that does not introduce a new namespace.

get_namespaces()

Return a list of namespaces bound to this name.

get_namespace()

Return the namespace bound to this name. If more than one or no namespace is bound to this name, a ValueError is raised.

Utilisation en ligne de commande.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

The symtable module can be executed as a script from the command line.

python -m symtable [infile...]

Symbol tables are generated for the specified Python source files and dumped to stdout. If no input file is specified, the content is read from stdin.

token --- Constants used with Python parse trees

Code source : Lib/token.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/token.py]

This module provides constants which represent the numeric values of leaf nodes of the parse tree (terminal tokens). Refer to the file Grammar/Tokens in the Python distribution for the definitions of the names in the context of the language grammar. The specific numeric values which the names map to may change between Python versions.

Le module fournit également une correspondance entre les codes numériques et les noms et certaines fonctions. Les fonctions reflètent les définitions des fichiers d'en-tête C de Python.

Note that a token's value may depend on tokenizer options. For example, a "+" token may be reported as either PLUS or OP, or a "match" token may be either NAME or SOFT_KEYWORD.

token.tok_name

Dictionnaire faisant correspondre les valeurs numériques des constantes définies dans ce module à leurs noms, permettant de générer une représentation plus humaine des arbres syntaxiques.

token.ISTERMINAL(x)

Return True for terminal token values.

token.ISNONTERMINAL(x)

Return True for non-terminal token values.

token.ISEOF(x)

Return True if x is the marker indicating the end of input.

Les constantes associées aux jetons sont :

token.NAME

Token value that indicates an identifier or keyword.

token.NUMBER

Token value that indicates a numeric literal

token.STRING

Token value that indicates a string or byte literal, excluding formatted string literals. The token string is not interpreted: it includes the surrounding quotation marks and the prefix (if given); backslashes are included literally, without processing escape sequences.

token.OP

A generic token value that indicates an operator or delimiter.

Particularité de l'implémentation CPython : This value is only reported by the tokenize module. Internally, the tokenizer uses exact token types instead.

token.COMMENT

Token value used to indicate a comment. The parser ignores COMMENT tokens.

token.NEWLINE

Token value that indicates the end of a logical line.

token.NL

Token value used to indicate a non-terminating newline. NL tokens are generated when a logical line of code is continued over multiple physical lines. The parser ignores NL tokens.

token.INDENT

Token value used at the beginning of a logical line to indicate the start of an indented block.

token.DEDENT

Token value used at the beginning of a logical line to indicate the end of an indented block.

token.FSTRING_START

Token value used to indicate the beginning of an f-string literal.

Particularité de l'implémentation CPython : The token string includes the prefix and the opening quote(s), but none of the contents of the literal.

token.FSTRING_MIDDLE

Token value used for literal text inside an f-string literal, including format specifications.

Particularité de l'implémentation CPython : Replacement fields (that is, the non-literal parts of f-strings) use the same tokens as other expressions, and are delimited by LBRACE, RBRACE, EXCLAMATION and COLON tokens.

token.FSTRING_END

Token value used to indicate the end of a f-string.

Particularité de l'implémentation CPython : The token string contains the closing quote(s).

token.TSTRING_START

Token value used to indicate the beginning of a template string literal.

Particularité de l'implémentation CPython : The token string includes the prefix and the opening quote(s), but none of the contents of the literal.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

token.TSTRING_MIDDLE

Token value used for literal text inside a template string literal including format specifications.

Particularité de l'implémentation CPython : Replacement fields (that is, the non-literal parts of t-strings) use the same tokens as other expressions, and are delimited by LBRACE, RBRACE, EXCLAMATION and COLON tokens.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

token.TSTRING_END

Token value used to indicate the end of a template string literal.

Particularité de l'implémentation CPython : The token string contains the closing quote(s).

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

token.ENDMARKER

Token value that indicates the end of input. Used in top-level grammar rules.

token.ENCODING

Valeur de jeton qui indique l'encodage utilisé pour décoder le fichier initial. Le premier jeton renvoyé par tokenize.tokenize() sera toujours un jeton ENCODING.

Particularité de l'implémentation CPython : This token type isn't used by the C tokenizer but is needed for the tokenize module.

The following token types are not produced by the tokenize module, and are defined for special uses in the tokenizer or parser:

token.TYPE_IGNORE

Token value indicating that a type: ignore comment was recognized. Such tokens are produced instead of regular COMMENT tokens only with the PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS flag.

token.TYPE_COMMENT

Token value indicating that a type comment was recognized. Such tokens are produced instead of regular COMMENT tokens only with the PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS flag.

token.SOFT_KEYWORD

Token value indicating a soft keyword.

The tokenizer never produces this value. To check for a soft keyword, pass a NAME token's string to keyword.issoftkeyword().

token.ERRORTOKEN

Token value used to indicate wrong input.

The tokenize module generally indicates errors by raising exceptions instead of emitting this token. It can also emit tokens such as OP or NAME with strings that are later rejected by the parser.

The remaining tokens represent specific operators and delimiters. (The tokenize module reports these as OP; see exact_type in the tokenize documentation for details.)

Token

Valeur

token.LPAR

"("

token.RPAR

")"

token.LSQB

"["

token.RSQB

"]"

token.COLON

":"

token.COMMA

","

token.SEMI

";"

token.PLUS

"+"

token.MINUS

"-"

token.STAR

"*"

token.SLASH

"/"

token.VBAR

"|"

token.AMPER

"&"

token.LESS

"<"

token.GREATER

">"

token.EQUAL

"="

token.DOT

"."

token.PERCENT

"%"

token.LBRACE

"{"

token.RBRACE

"}"

token.EQEQUAL

"=="

token.NOTEQUAL

"!="

token.LESSEQUAL

"<="

token.GREATEREQUAL

">="

token.TILDE

"~"

token.CIRCUMFLEX

"^"

token.LEFTSHIFT

"<<"

token.RIGHTSHIFT

">>"

token.DOUBLESTAR

"**"

token.PLUSEQUAL

"+="

token.MINEQUAL

"-="

token.STAREQUAL

"*="

token.SLASHEQUAL

"/="

token.PERCENTEQUAL

"%="

token.AMPEREQUAL

"&="

token.VBAREQUAL

"|="

token.CIRCUMFLEXEQUAL

"^="

token.LEFTSHIFTEQUAL

"<<="

token.RIGHTSHIFTEQUAL

">>="

token.DOUBLESTAREQUAL

"**="

token.DOUBLESLASH

"//"

token.DOUBLESLASHEQUAL

"//="

token.AT

"@"

token.ATEQUAL

"@="

token.RARROW

"->"

token.ELLIPSIS

"..."

token.COLONEQUAL

":="

token.EXCLAMATION

"!"

The following non-token constants are provided:

token.N_TOKENS

The number of token types defined in this module.

token.EXACT_TOKEN_TYPES

A dictionary mapping the string representation of a token to its numeric code.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Added AWAIT and ASYNC tokens.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Ajout des jetons COMMENT, NL et ENCODING.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Removed AWAIT and ASYNC tokens. "async" and "await" are now tokenized as NAME tokens.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added TYPE_COMMENT, TYPE_IGNORE, COLONEQUAL. Added AWAIT and ASYNC tokens back (they're needed to support parsing older Python versions for ast.parse() with feature_version set to 6 or lower).

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Added EXCLAMATION.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Removed AWAIT and ASYNC tokens again.

keyword --- Testing for Python keywords

Code source : Lib/keyword.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/keyword.py]

This module allows a Python program to determine if a string is a keyword or soft keyword.

keyword.iskeyword(s)

Renvoie vrai si s est un mot-clé de Python.

keyword.kwlist

Séquence contenant tous les mots-clés définis par l'interpréteur. Si certains mots-clés sont définis pour être actifs seulement si des instructions __future__ particulières sont effectives, ils seront tout de même inclus.

keyword.issoftkeyword(s)

Return True if s is a Python soft keyword.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

keyword.softkwlist

Sequence containing all the soft keywords defined for the interpreter. If any soft keywords are defined to only be active when particular __future__ statements are in effect, these will be included as well.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

tokenize --- Tokenizer for Python source

Code source : Lib/tokenize.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/tokenize.py]

The tokenize module provides a lexical scanner for Python source code, implemented in Python. The scanner in this module returns comments as tokens as well, making it useful for implementing "pretty-printers", including colorizers for on-screen displays.

Pour simplifier la gestion de flux de tokens, tous les tokens operator et delimiter, ainsi que les Ellipsis* sont renvoyés en utilisant le token générique OP. Le type exact peut être déterminé en vérifiant la propriété exact_type du named tuple renvoyé par tokenize.tokenize().

Avertissement

Note that the functions in this module are only designed to parse syntactically valid Python code (code that does not raise when parsed using ast.parse()). The behavior of the functions in this module is undefined when providing invalid Python code and it can change at any point.

Analyse Lexicale

Le point d'entrée principal est un générateur :

tokenize.tokenize(readline)

Le générateur tokenize() prend un argument readline qui doit être un objet appelable exposant la même interface que la méthode io.IOBase.readline() des objets fichiers. Chaque appel a la fonction doit renvoyer une ligne sous forme de bytes.

The generator produces 5-tuples with these members: the token type; the token string; a 2-tuple (srow, scol) of ints specifying the row and column where the token begins in the source; a 2-tuple (erow, ecol) of ints specifying the row and column where the token ends in the source; and the line on which the token was found. The line passed (the last tuple item) is the physical line. The 5 tuple is returned as a named tuple with the field names: type string start end line.

Le n-uplet nommé a une propriété additionnelle appelée exact_type qui contient le type exact de l'opérateur pour les jetons OP. Pour tous les autres types de jetons, exact_type est égal au champ type du n-uplet nommé.

Modifié dans la version 3.1: prise en charge des n-uplets nommés.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: prise en charge de exact_type.

tokenize() détermine le codage source du fichier en recherchant une nomenclature UTF-8 ou un cookie d'encodage, selon la PEP 263 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/].

tokenize.generate_tokens(readline)

Tokenize a source reading unicode strings instead of bytes.

Like tokenize(), the readline argument is a callable returning a single line of input. However, generate_tokens() expects readline to return a str object rather than bytes.

The result is an iterator yielding named tuples, exactly like tokenize(). It does not yield an ENCODING token.

All constants from the token module are also exported from tokenize.

Une autre fonction est fournie pour inverser le processus de tokenisation. Ceci est utile pour créer des outils permettant de codifier un script, de modifier le flux de jetons et de réécrire le script modifié.

tokenize.untokenize(iterable)

Convertit les jetons en code source Python. L'iterable doit renvoyer des séquences avec au moins deux éléments, le type de jeton et la chaîne de caractères associée. Tout élément de séquence supplémentaire est ignoré.

The result is guaranteed to tokenize back to match the input so that the conversion is lossless and round-trips are assured. The guarantee applies only to the token type and token string as the spacing between tokens (column positions) may change.

It returns bytes, encoded using the ENCODING token, which is the first token sequence output by tokenize(). If there is no encoding token in the input, it returns a str instead.

tokenize() a besoin de détecter le codage des fichiers sources qu'il code. La fonction utilisée pour cela est disponible :

tokenize.detect_encoding(readline)

La fonction detect_encoding() est utilisée pour détecter l'encodage à utiliser pour décoder un fichier source Python. Il nécessite un seul argument, readline, de la même manière que le générateur tokenize().

Il appelle readline au maximum deux fois et renvoie le codage utilisé (sous forme de chaîne) et une liste de toutes les lignes (non décodées à partir des octets) dans lesquelles il a été lu.

Il détecte l'encodage par la présence d'une marqueur UTF-8 (BOM) ou d'un cookie de codage, comme spécifié dans la PEP 263 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/]. Si un BOM et un cookie sont présents, mais en désaccord, un SyntaxError sera levée. Notez que si le BOM est trouvé, 'utf-8-sig' sera renvoyé comme encodage.

Si aucun codage n'est spécifié, la valeur par défaut, 'utf-8', sera renvoyée.

Utilisez open() pour ouvrir les fichiers source Python : ça utilise detect_encoding() pour détecter le codage du fichier.

tokenize.open(filename)

Ouvre un fichier en mode lecture seule en utilisant l'encodage détecté par dectect_encoding().

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

exception tokenize.TokenError

Déclenché lorsque soit une docstring soit une expression qui pourrait être divisée sur plusieurs lignes n'est pas complété dans le fichier, par exemple :

"""Beginning of
docstring

ou :

[1,
 2,
 3

Utilisation en ligne de commande.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

The tokenize module can be executed as a script from the command line. It is as simple as:

python -m tokenize [-e] [filename.py]

Les options suivantes sont acceptées :

-h, --help

Montre ce message d'aide et quitte

-e, --exact

Affiche les noms de jetons en utilisant le même type.

Si filename.py est spécifié, son contenu est tokenisé vers stdout. Sinon, la tokenisation est effectuée sur ce qui est fourni sur stdin.

Exemples

Exemple d'un script qui transforme les littéraux de type float en type Decimal :

from tokenize import tokenize, untokenize, NUMBER, STRING, NAME, OP
from io import BytesIO

def decistmt(s):
    """Substitute Decimals for floats in a string of statements.

    >>> from decimal import Decimal
    >>> s = 'print(+21.3e-5*-.1234/81.7)'
    >>> decistmt(s)
    "print (+Decimal ('21.3e-5')*-Decimal ('.1234')/Decimal ('81.7'))"

    The format of the exponent is inherited from the platform C library.
    Known cases are "e-007" (Windows) and "e-07" (not Windows).  Since
    we're only showing 12 digits, and the 13th isn't close to 5, the
    rest of the output should be platform-independent.

    >>> exec(s)  #doctest: +ELLIPSIS
    -3.21716034272e-0...7

    Output from calculations with Decimal should be identical across all
    platforms.

    >>> exec(decistmt(s))
    -3.217160342717258261933904529E-7
    """
    result = []
    g = tokenize(BytesIO(s.encode('utf-8')).readline)  # tokenize the string
    for toknum, tokval, _, _, _ in g:
        if toknum == NUMBER and '.' in tokval:  # replace NUMBER tokens
            result.extend([
                (NAME, 'Decimal'),
                (OP, '('),
                (STRING, repr(tokval)),
                (OP, ')')
            ])
        else:
            result.append((toknum, tokval))
    return untokenize(result).decode('utf-8')

Exemple de tokenisation à partir de la ligne de commande. Le script :

def say_hello():
    print("Hello, World!")

say_hello()

sera tokenisé à la sortie suivante où la première colonne est la plage des coordonnées de la ligne/colonne où se trouve le jeton, la deuxième colonne est le nom du jeton, et la dernière colonne est la valeur du jeton (le cas échéant)

$ python -m tokenize hello.py
0,0-0,0:            ENCODING       'utf-8'
1,0-1,3:            NAME           'def'
1,4-1,13:           NAME           'say_hello'
1,13-1,14:          OP             '('
1,14-1,15:          OP             ')'
1,15-1,16:          OP             ':'
1,16-1,17:          NEWLINE        '\n'
2,0-2,4:            INDENT         '    '
2,4-2,9:            NAME           'print'
2,9-2,10:           OP             '('
2,10-2,25:          STRING         '"Hello, World!"'
2,25-2,26:          OP             ')'
2,26-2,27:          NEWLINE        '\n'
3,0-3,1:            NL             '\n'
4,0-4,0:            DEDENT         ''
4,0-4,9:            NAME           'say_hello'
4,9-4,10:           OP             '('
4,10-4,11:          OP             ')'
4,11-4,12:          NEWLINE        '\n'
5,0-5,0:            ENDMARKER      ''

Les noms exacts des types de jeton peuvent être affichés en utilisant l’option : -e :

$ python -m tokenize -e hello.py
0,0-0,0:            ENCODING       'utf-8'
1,0-1,3:            NAME           'def'
1,4-1,13:           NAME           'say_hello'
1,13-1,14:          LPAR           '('
1,14-1,15:          RPAR           ')'
1,15-1,16:          COLON          ':'
1,16-1,17:          NEWLINE        '\n'
2,0-2,4:            INDENT         '    '
2,4-2,9:            NAME           'print'
2,9-2,10:           LPAR           '('
2,10-2,25:          STRING         '"Hello, World!"'
2,25-2,26:          RPAR           ')'
2,26-2,27:          NEWLINE        '\n'
3,0-3,1:            NL             '\n'
4,0-4,0:            DEDENT         ''
4,0-4,9:            NAME           'say_hello'
4,9-4,10:           LPAR           '('
4,10-4,11:          RPAR           ')'
4,11-4,12:          NEWLINE        '\n'
5,0-5,0:            ENDMARKER      ''

Example of tokenizing a file programmatically, reading unicode strings instead of bytes with generate_tokens():

import tokenize

with tokenize.open('hello.py') as f:
    tokens = tokenize.generate_tokens(f.readline)
    for token in tokens:
        print(token)

Or reading bytes directly with tokenize():

import tokenize

with open('hello.py', 'rb') as f:
    tokens = tokenize.tokenize(f.readline)
    for token in tokens:
        print(token)

tabnanny --- Detection of ambiguous indentation

Code source : Lib/tabnanny.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/tabnanny.py]

Pour l'instant ce module est destiné à être appelé comme un script. Toutefois, il est possible de l'importer dans un IDE et d'utiliser la fonction check() décrite ci-dessous.

Note

L'API fournie par ce module est susceptible de changer dans les versions futures ; ces modifications peuvent ne pas être rétro-compatibles.

tabnanny.check(file_or_dir)

Si file_or_dir est un répertoire et non un lien symbolique, alors descend récursivement l'arborescence de répertoire nommé par file_or_dir, en vérifiant tous les fichiers .py en chemin. Si file_or_dir est un fichier source Python ordinaire, il est vérifié pour les problèmes liés aux espaces blancs. Les messages de diagnostic sont écrits sur la sortie standard à l'aide de la fonction print().

tabnanny.verbose

Option indiquant s'il faut afficher des messages détaillés. Cela est incrémenté par l'option -v s'il est appelé comme un script.

tabnanny.filename_only

Option indiquant s'il faut afficher uniquement les noms de fichiers contenant des problèmes liés aux espaces blancs. Est défini à True par l'option -q s'il est appelé comme un script.

exception tabnanny.NannyNag

Déclenché par process_tokens() si une indentation ambiguë est détectée. Capturé et géré dans check().

tabnanny.process_tokens(tokens)

Cette fonction est utilisée par check() pour traiter les jetons générés par le module tokenize.

Voir aussi

Module tokenize

Analyseur lexical pour le code source Python.

pyclbr --- Python module browser support

Code source : Lib/pyclbr.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/pyclbr.py]

The pyclbr module provides limited information about the functions, classes, and methods defined in a Python-coded module. The information is sufficient to implement a module browser. The information is extracted from the Python source code rather than by importing the module, so this module is safe to use with untrusted code. This restriction makes it impossible to use this module with modules not implemented in Python, including all standard and optional extension modules.

pyclbr.readmodule(module, path=None)

Return a dictionary mapping module-level class names to class descriptors. If possible, descriptors for imported base classes are included. Parameter module is a string with the name of the module to read; it may be the name of a module within a package. If given, path is a sequence of directory paths prepended to sys.path, which is used to locate the module source code.

This function is the original interface and is only kept for back compatibility. It returns a filtered version of the following.

pyclbr.readmodule_ex(module, path=None)

Return a dictionary-based tree containing a function or class descriptors for each function and class defined in the module with a def or class statement. The returned dictionary maps module-level function and class names to their descriptors. Nested objects are entered into the children dictionary of their parent. As with readmodule, module names the module to be read and path is prepended to sys.path. If the module being read is a package, the returned dictionary has a key '__path__' whose value is a list containing the package search path.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7: Descriptors for nested definitions. They are accessed through the new children attribute. Each has a new parent attribute.

The descriptors returned by these functions are instances of Function and Class classes. Users are not expected to create instances of these classes.

Objets fonctions

class pyclbr.Function

Class Function instances describe functions defined by def statements. They have the following attributes:

file

Name of the file in which the function is defined.

module

The name of the module defining the function described.

name

The name of the function.

lineno

The line number in the file where the definition starts.

parent

For top-level functions, None. For nested functions, the parent.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

children

A dictionary mapping names to descriptors for nested functions and classes.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

is_async

True for functions that are defined with the async prefix, False otherwise.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

Objets classes

class pyclbr.Class

Class Class instances describe classes defined by class statements. They have the same attributes as Functions and two more.

file

Name of the file in which the class is defined.

module

The name of the module defining the class described.

name

The name of the class.

lineno

The line number in the file where the definition starts.

parent

For top-level classes, None. For nested classes, the parent.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

children

A dictionary mapping names to descriptors for nested functions and classes.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

super

A list of Class objects which describe the immediate base classes of the class being described. Classes which are named as superclasses but which are not discoverable by readmodule_ex() are listed as a string with the class name instead of as Class objects.

methods

A dictionary mapping method names to line numbers. This can be derived from the newer children dictionary, but remains for back-compatibility.

py_compile --- Compile Python source files

Code source : Lib/py_compile.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/py_compile.py]

The py_compile module provides a function to generate a byte-code file from a source file, and another function used when the module source file is invoked as a script.

Bien que ce module ne soit pas d'usage fréquent, il peut servir lors de l'installation de bibliothèques partagées, notamment dans le cas où tous les utilisateurs n'ont pas les privilèges d'écriture dans l'emplacement d'installation.

exception py_compile.PyCompileError

Exception levée quand une erreur se produit à la compilation.

py_compile.compile(file, cfile=None, dfile=None, doraise=False, optimize=-1, invalidation_mode=PycInvalidationMode.TIMESTAMP, quiet=0)

Compile a source file to byte-code and write out the byte-code cache file. The source code is loaded from the file named file. The byte-code is written to cfile, which defaults to the PEP 3147 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/]/PEP 488 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/] path, ending in .pyc. For example, if file is /foo/bar/baz.py cfile will default to /foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.pyc for Python 3.2. If dfile is specified, it is used instead of file as the name of the source file from which source lines are obtained for display in exception tracebacks. If doraise is true, a PyCompileError is raised when an error is encountered while compiling file. If doraise is false (the default), an error string is written to sys.stderr, but no exception is raised. This function returns the path to byte-compiled file, i.e. whatever cfile value was used.

Plus précisément, ce sont les arguments doraise et quiet qui déterminent la stratégie de gestion des erreurs. En effet, si quiet vaut 0 ou 1, et doraise est faux, le comportement par défaut s'applique : un message d'erreur est affiché dans sys.stderr, et la fonction renvoie None au lieu d'un chemin. Au contraire, si doraise est vrai, une exception PyCompileError est levée, sauf si quiet vaut 2. Dans ce dernier cas, aucun message n'est émis, et doraise reste sans effet.

Si le chemin de destination, explicité par cfile ou choisi automatiquement, est un lien symbolique, ou n'est pas un véritable fichier, une exception de type FileExistsError est levée. Ceci, dans le but de vous avertir que le système d'importation changera ces chemins en fichiers s'il est autorisé à y écrire des fichiers de code intermédiaire. En effet, les importations passent par un renommage final du fichier de code intermédiaire vers sa destination, afin d'éviter les problèmes liés à l'écriture simultanée d'un même fichier par plusieurs processus.

optimize règle le niveau d'optimisation. Ce paramètre est passé directement à la fonction native compile(). Avec la valeur par défaut de -1, le code intermédiaire hérite du niveau d'optimisation de l'interpréteur courant.

invalidation_mode précise la manière dont le code intermédiaire produit est invalidé à son exécution. Il doit être un membre de l'énumération PycInvalidationMode. La valeur par défaut est PycInvalidationMode.TIMESTAMP. Elle passe toutefois à PycInvalidationMode.CHECKED_HASH si la variable d'environnement SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH est définie.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: la méthode de choix de destination a changé au profit de celle décrite dans la PEP 3147 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/]. Auparavant, le nom du fichier de code intermédiaire était file + 'c' (ou 'o' lorsque les optimisations étaient actives). Le paramètre optimize a été ajouté.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: le code a été modifié pour faire appel à importlib dans les opérations d'écriture du code intermédiaire. Ce module se comporte donc exactement comme importlib en ce qui concerne, par exemple, les permissions, ou le renommage final qui garantit une opération atomique. FileExistsError est désormais levée si la destination est un lien symbolique ou n'est pas un véritable fichier.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: le paramètre invalidation_mode a été ajouté comme requis par la PEP 552 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/]. Si la variable d'environnement SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH est définie, invalidation_mode est ignoré, et PycInvalidationMode.CHECKED_HASH s'applique dans tous les cas.

Modifié dans la version 3.7.2: La variable d'environnement SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH n'a plus préséance sur le paramètre invalidation_mode, mais détermine seulement le comportement par défaut lorsque ce paramètre n'est pas passé.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: ajout du paramètre quiet.

class py_compile.PycInvalidationMode

An enumeration of possible methods the interpreter can use to determine whether a bytecode file is up to date with a source file. The .pyc file indicates the desired invalidation mode in its header. See Invalidation de bytecode mis en cache for more information on how Python invalidates .pyc files at runtime.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

TIMESTAMP

Le fichier .pyc contient l'horodatage et la taille de la source. L'interpréteur inspecte les métadonnées du fichier source au moment de l'exécution, et régénère le fichier .pyc si elles ont changé.

CHECKED_HASH

Le fichier .pyc porte une empreinte du code source. À l'exécution, elle est recalculée à partir de la source éventuellement modifiée, et le fichier .pyc est régénéré si les deux empreintes sont différentes.

UNCHECKED_HASH

Le principe est le même que CHECKED_HASH, mais à l'exécution, l'interpréteur considère systématiquement que le fichier .pyc est à jour, sans regarder la source.

Cette option est utile lorsque les fichiers .pyc sont maintenus par un outil externe, comme un système d'intégration.

Interface en ligne de commande

This module can be invoked as a script to compile several source files. The files named in filenames are compiled and the resulting bytecode is cached in the normal manner. This program does not search a directory structure to locate source files; it only compiles files named explicitly. The exit status is nonzero if one of the files could not be compiled.

<file> ... <fileN>

-

Positional arguments are files to compile. If - is the only parameter, the list of files is taken from standard input.

-q, --quiet

Suppress errors output.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Added support for -.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Added support for -q.

Voir aussi

Module compileall

Utilitaires pour compiler des fichiers source Python dans une arborescence

compileall --- Byte-compile Python libraries

Code source : Lib/compileall.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/compileall.py]

Ce module contient des fonctions qui facilitent l'installation de bibliothèques Python. Elles compilent, sous forme de code intermédiaire (bytecode), les fichiers source situés dans un dossier de votre choix. Ce module est particulièrement utile pour générer les fichiers de code intermédiaire lors de l'installation d'une bibliothèque, les rendant disponibles même pour les utilisateurs qui n'ont pas les privilèges d'écriture dans l'emplacement d'installation.

Disponibilité: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly. See Plateformes WebAssembly for more information.

Utilisation en ligne de commande

On peut se servir de ce module comme d'un script (avec python -m compileall) pour compiler les fichiers source Python.

directory ...

file ...

Positional arguments are files to compile or directories that contain source files, traversed recursively. If no argument is given, behave as if the command line was -l <directories from sys.path>.

-l

Compiler uniquement les fichiers situés directement dans les dossiers passés en argument ou implicites, sans descendre récursivement dans les sous-dossiers.

-f

Forcer la recompilation même si les horodatages sont à jour.

-q

Supprimer l'affichage des noms des fichiers compilés.Si cette option est donnée une seule fois, les erreurs sont affichées malgré tout. Vous pouvez les supprimer en passant l'option deux fois (c'est-à-dire avec -qq).

-d destdir

Ce nom de dossier est ajouté en tête du chemin de chaque fichier compilé. Il aura une influence sur les traces d'appels pour les erreurs levées lors de la compilation, et sera reflété dans les fichiers de code intermédiaire, pour utilisation dans les traces d'appels et autres messages si le fichier source n'existe pas au moment de l'exécution.

-s strip_prefix

Remove the given prefix from paths recorded in the .pyc files. Paths are made relative to the prefix.

This option can be used with -p but not with -d.

-p prepend_prefix

Prepend the given prefix to paths recorded in the .pyc files. Use -p / to make the paths absolute.

This option can be used with -s but not with -d.

-x regex

Exclut tous les fichiers dont les noms correspondent à l'expression régulière regex.

-i list

Ajoute chaque ligne du fichier list aux fichiers et dossiers à compiler. list peut être -, auquel cas le script lit l'entrée standard.

-b

Utilise l'ancienne manière de nommer et placer les fichiers de code intermédiaire, en écrasant éventuellement ceux générés par une autre version de Python. Par défaut, les règles décrites dans la PEP 3147 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/] s'appliquent. Elles permettent à différentes versions de l'interpréteur Python de coexister en conservant chacune ses propres fichiers .pyc.

-r

Règle le niveau de récursion maximal pour le parcours des sous-dossiers. Lorsque cette option est fournie, -l est ignorée. python -m compileall <dossier> -r 0 revient au même que python -m compileall <dossier> -l.

-j N

Use N workers to compile the files within the given directory. If 0 is used, then the result of os.process_cpu_count() will be used.

--invalidation-mode [timestamp|checked-hash|unchecked-hash]

Définit la manière dont les fichiers de code intermédiaire seront invalidés au moment de l'exécution. Avec timestamp, les fichiers .pyc générés comportent l'horodatage de la source et sa taille. Avec checked-hash ou unchecked-hash, ce seront des pyc utilisant le hachage, qui contiennent une empreinte du code source plutôt qu'un horodatage. Voir Invalidation de bytecode mis en cache pour plus d'informations sur la manière dont Python valide les fichiers de code intermédiaire conservés en cache lors de l'exécution. La valeur par défaut est timestamp. Cependant, si la variable d'environnement SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH a été réglée, elle devient checked-hash.

-o level

Compile avec un certain niveau d'optimisation. Cette option peut être passée plusieurs fois afin de compiler pour plusieurs niveaux d'un seul coup (par exemple, compileall -o 1 -o 2).

-e dir

Ignore les liens symboliques qui redirigent en dehors du dossier.

--hardlink-dupes

Si deux fichiers .pyc compilés avec des niveaux d'optimisation différents ont finalement le même contenu, emploie des liens physiques pour les fusionner.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: ajout des options -i, -b et -h.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: ajout des options -j, -r et -qq (l'option -q peut donc prendre plusieurs niveaux). -b produit toujours un fichier de code intermédiaire portant l'extension .pyc, et jamais .pyo.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: ajout de l'option --invalidation-mode.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: ajout des options -s, -p, -e et --hardlink-dupes. Rehaussement de la limite de récursion par défaut à sys.getrecursionlimit() au lieu de 10 précédemment. L'option -o peut être passée plusieurs fois.

Il n'y a pas d'option en ligne de commande pour contrôler le niveau d'optimisation utilisé par la fonction compile(). Il suffit en effet d'utiliser l'option -O de l'interpréteur Python lui-même : python -O -m compileall.

Similarly, the compile() function respects the sys.pycache_prefix setting. The generated bytecode cache will only be useful if compile() is run with the same sys.pycache_prefix (if any) that will be used at runtime.

Fonctions publiques

compileall.compile_dir(dir, maxlevels=sys.getrecursionlimit(), ddir=None, force=False, rx=None, quiet=0, legacy=False, optimize=-1, workers=1, invalidation_mode=None, *, stripdir=None, prependdir=None, limit_sl_dest=None, hardlink_dupes=False)

Parcourt récursivement le dossier dir, en compilant tous les fichiers .py. Renvoie une valeur vraie si tous les fichiers ont été compilés sans erreur, et une valeur fausse dans le cas contraire.

Le paramètre maxlevels permet de limiter la profondeur de récursion. Sa valeur par défaut est celle de sys.getrecursionlimit().

Si ddir est fourni, il est ajouté en tête du chemin de chaque fichier compilé, ce qui modifie l'affichage des traces d'appels pour les erreurs qui seraient levées lors de la compilation. De plus, il se retrouve dans les fichiers de code intermédiaire, pour utilisation dans les traces et autres messages si le fichier source n'existe pas au moment de l'exécution.

Si force est vrai, les modules sont recompilés même si leurs horodatages sont à jour.

Si rx est donné, sa méthode search est appelée sur le chemin complet de chaque fichier source, et si elle renvoie une valeur vraie, le fichier est sauté. rx sera habituellement une expression régulière (objet re.Pattern).

Si quiet est False ou bien 0 (la valeur par défaut), les noms de fichiers et d'autres informations sont affichés sur la sortie standard. Avec 1, seules les erreurs sont affichées. Avec 2, aucune sortie n'est émise.

Si legacy est vrai, les fichiers de code intermédiaire sont nommés et placés selon l'ancienne méthode, en écrasant éventuellement ceux générés par une autre version de Python. Par défaut, les règles décrites dans la PEP 3147 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/] s'appliquent. Elles permettent à différentes versions de l'interpréteur Python de coexister en conservant chacune ses propres fichiers .pyc.

optimize définit le niveau d'optimisation qu'applique le compilateur. Cet argument est passé directement à la fonction native compile(). Il peut également être fourni sous la forme d'une séquence de niveaux d'optimisation, ce qui permet de compiler chaque fichier .py plusieurs fois en appliquant divers niveaux d'optimisation.

workers est le nombre de tâches lancées en parallèle pour la compilation. Par défaut, les fichiers sont compilés séquentiellement. Cette même stratégie s'applique dans tous les cas lorsque le parallélisme n'est pas possible sur la plateforme d'exécution. Si workers vaut 0, autant de tâches sont lancées que le système comporte de cœurs. Si workers est strictement négatif, une exception de type ValueError est levée.

invalidation_mode doit être un membre de l'énumération py_compile.PycInvalidationMode et détermine la manière dont les fichiers .pyc sont invalidés lorsque l'interpréteur tente de les utiliser.

The stripdir, prependdir and limit_sl_dest arguments correspond to the -s, -p and -e options described above. They may be specified as str or os.PathLike.

Un argument hardlink_dupes vrai correspond à l'utilisation de l'option --hardlink-dupes.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: ajout des paramètres legacy et optimize.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: ajout du paramètre workers.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: le paramètre quiet peut prendre plusieurs niveaux.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Lorsque le paramètre legacy est vrai, des fichiers .pyc, et jamais .pyo, sont générés, quel que soit le niveau d'optimisation.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: accepte un objet simili-chemin.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: ajout du paramètre invalidation_mode.

Modifié dans la version 3.7.2: The invalidation_mode parameter's default value is updated to None.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Un nombre de processus adapté à la machine est choisi lorsque workers vaut 0.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: ajout des arguments stripdir, prependdir, limit_sl_dest et hardlink_dupes. La valeur par défaut de maxlevels a été changée pour sys.getrecursionlimit() (elle était de 10 auparavant).

compileall.compile_file(fullname, ddir=None, force=False, rx=None, quiet=0, legacy=False, optimize=-1, invalidation_mode=None, *, stripdir=None, prependdir=None, limit_sl_dest=None, hardlink_dupes=False)

Compile le fichier dont le chemin est donné par fullname. Renvoie une valeur vraie si et seulement si le fichier est compilé sans erreur.

Si ddir est fourni, il est ajouté en tête du chemin de chaque fichier compilé, ce qui modifie l'affichage des traces pour les erreurs qui seraient levées lors de la compilation. De plus, il se retrouve dans les fichiers de code intermédiaire, pour utilisation dans les traces et autres messages si le fichier source n'existe pas au moment de l'exécution.

Si rx est donné, sa méthode search est appelée sur le chemin complet de chaque fichier source, et si elle renvoie une valeur vraie, le fichier est sauté. rx sera habituellement une expression régulière (objet re.Pattern).

Si quiet est False ou bien 0 (la valeur par défaut), les noms de fichiers et d'autres informations sont affichés sur la sortie standard. Avec 1, seules les erreurs sont affichées. Avec 2, aucune sortie n'est émise.

Si legacy est vrai, les fichiers de code intermédiaire sont nommés et placés selon l'ancienne méthode, en écrasant éventuellement ceux générés par une autre version de Python. Par défaut, les règles décrites dans la PEP 3147 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/] s'appliquent. Elles permettent à différentes versions de l'interpréteur Python de coexister en conservant chacune ses propres fichiers .pyc.

optimize définit le niveau d'optimisation qu'applique le compilateur. Cet argument est passé directement à la fonction native compile(). Il peut également être fourni sous la forme d'une séquence de niveaux d'optimisation, ce qui permet de compiler chaque fichier .py plusieurs fois en appliquant divers niveaux d'optimisation.

invalidation_mode doit être un membre de l'énumération py_compile.PycInvalidationMode et détermine la manière dont les fichiers .pyc sont invalidés lorsque l'interpréteur tente de les utiliser.

The stripdir, prependdir and limit_sl_dest arguments correspond to the -s, -p and -e options described above. They may be specified as str or os.PathLike.

Un argument hardlink_dupes vrai correspond à l'utilisation de l'option --hardlink-dupes.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: le paramètre quiet peut prendre plusieurs niveaux.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Lorsque le paramètre legacy est vrai, des fichiers .pyc, et jamais .pyo, sont générés, quel que soit le niveau d'optimisation.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: ajout du paramètre invalidation_mode.

Modifié dans la version 3.7.2: The invalidation_mode parameter's default value is updated to None.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Ajout des arguments stripdir, prependdir, limit_sl_dest et hardlink_dupes.

compileall.compile_path(skip_curdir=True, maxlevels=0, force=False, quiet=0, legacy=False, optimize=-1, invalidation_mode=None)

Compile tous les fichiers .py contenus dans les dossiers de sys.path. Renvoie une valeur vraie s'ils ont tous été compilés sans erreur, et une valeur fausse dans le cas contraire.

Si skip_curdir est vrai (c'est le cas par défaut), le dossier courant est exclu de la recherche. Les autres paramètres sont passés à compile_dir(). Notez que contrairement aux autres fonctions de ce module, la valeur par défaut de maxlevels est 0.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: ajout des paramètres legacy et optimize.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: le paramètre quiet peut prendre plusieurs niveaux.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Lorsque le paramètre legacy est vrai, des fichiers .pyc, et jamais .pyo, sont générés, quel que soit le niveau d'optimisation.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: ajout du paramètre invalidation_mode.

Modifié dans la version 3.7.2: The invalidation_mode parameter's default value is updated to None.

Pour forcer la recompilation de tous les fichiers .py dans le dossier Lib/ et tous ses sous-dossiers :

import compileall

compileall.compile_dir('Lib/', force=True)

# Perform same compilation, excluding files in .svn directories.
import re
compileall.compile_dir('Lib/', rx=re.compile(r'[/\\][.]svn'), force=True)

# pathlib.Path objects can also be used.
import pathlib
compileall.compile_dir(pathlib.Path('Lib/'), force=True)

Voir aussi

Module py_compile

Compiler un fichier source unique.

dis --- Disassembler for Python bytecode

Code source : Lib/dis.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/dis.py]

The dis module supports the analysis of CPython bytecode by disassembling it. The CPython bytecode which this module takes as an input is defined in the file Include/opcode.h and used by the compiler and the interpreter.

Le code intermédiaire est un détail d'implémentation de l'interpréteur CPython. Il n'y a pas de garantie que le code intermédiaire sera ajouté, retiré, ou modifié dans les différentes versions de Python. L'utilisation de cette bibliothèque ne fonctionne pas nécessairement sur les machines virtuelles Python ni les différentes versions de Python.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Utilisez 2 bits pour chaque instruction. Avant, le nombre de bits variait par instruction.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: The argument of jump, exception handling and loop instructions is now the instruction offset rather than the byte offset.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Some instructions are accompanied by one or more inline cache entries, which take the form of CACHE instructions. These instructions are hidden by default, but can be shown by passing show_caches=True to any dis utility. Furthermore, the interpreter now adapts the bytecode to specialize it for different runtime conditions. The adaptive bytecode can be shown by passing adaptive=True.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: The argument of a jump is the offset of the target instruction relative to the instruction that appears immediately after the jump instruction's CACHE entries.

As a consequence, the presence of the CACHE instructions is transparent for forward jumps but needs to be taken into account when reasoning about backward jumps.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: The output shows logical labels rather than instruction offsets for jump targets and exception handlers. The -O command line option and the show_offsets argument were added.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: The -P command-line option and the show_positions argument were added.

The -S command-line option is added.

Example: Given the function myfunc():

def myfunc(alist):
    return len(alist)

the following command can be used to display the disassembly of myfunc():

>>> dis.dis(myfunc)
  2           RESUME                   0

  3           LOAD_GLOBAL              1 (len + NULL)
              LOAD_FAST_BORROW         0 (alist)
              CALL                     1
              RETURN_VALUE

(Le "2" est un numéro de ligne).

Command-line interface

The dis module can be invoked as a script from the command line:

python -m dis [-h] [-C] [-O] [-P] [-S] [infile]

Les options suivantes sont acceptées :

-h, --help

Display usage and exit.

-C, --show-caches

Show inline caches.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

-O, --show-offsets

Show offsets of instructions.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

-P, --show-positions

Show positions of instructions in the source code.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

-S, --specialized

Show specialized bytecode.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

If infile is specified, its disassembled code will be written to stdout. Otherwise, disassembly is performed on compiled source code received from stdin.

Analyse du code intermédiaire

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

L'analyse de l'API code intermédiaire permet de rassembler des blocs de code en Python dans une classe Bytecode, qui permet un accès facile aux détails du code compilé.

class dis.Bytecode(x, *, first_line=None, current_offset=None, show_caches=False, adaptive=False, show_offsets=False, show_positions=False)

Analyse le code intermédiaire correspondant à une fonction, un générateur, un générateur asynchrone, une coroutine, une méthode, une chaîne de caractères du code source, ou bien une classe (comme retourne la fonction compile()).

Ceci est wrapper sur plusieurs fonctions de la liste ci-dessous, notamment get_instructions(), étant donné qu'une itération sur une instance de la classe Bytecode rend les opérations du code intermédiaire des instances de Instruction.

Si first_line ne vaut pas None, elle indique le nombre de la ligne qui doit être considérée comme première ligne source dans le code désassemblé. Autrement, les informations sur la ligne source sont prises directement à partir de la classe du code désassemblé.

Si la valeur de current_offset est différente de None, c'est une référence à un offset d'une instruction dans le code désassemblé. Cela veut dire que dis() va générer un marqueur de " l'instruction en cours" contre le code d'opération donné.

If show_caches is True, dis() will display inline cache entries used by the interpreter to specialize the bytecode.

If adaptive is True, dis() will display specialized bytecode that may be different from the original bytecode.

If show_offsets is True, dis() will include instruction offsets in the output.

If show_positions is True, dis() will include instruction source code positions in the output.

classmethod from_traceback(tb, *, show_caches=False)

Construisez une instance Bytecode à partir de la trace d'appel, en mettant current_offet à l'instruction responsable de l'exception.

codeobj

Le code compilé objet.

first_line

La première ligne source du code objet (si disponible)

dis()

Retourne une vue formatée des opérations du code intermédiaire (la même que celle envoyée par dis.dis(), mais comme une chaîne de caractères de plusieurs lignes ).

info()

Retourne une chaîne de caractères de plusieurs lignes formatée avec des informations détaillées sur l'objet code comme code_info().

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Cette version supporte la coroutine et les objets générateurs asynchrones.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added the show_caches and adaptive parameters.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the show_offsets parameter

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Added the show_positions parameter.

Example:

>>> bytecode = dis.Bytecode(myfunc)
>>> for instr in bytecode:
...     print(instr.opname)
...
RESUME
LOAD_GLOBAL
LOAD_FAST_BORROW
CALL
RETURN_VALUE

Analyse de fonctions

The dis module also defines the following analysis functions that convert the input directly to the desired output. They can be useful if only a single operation is being performed, so the intermediate analysis object isn't useful:

dis.code_info(x)

Retourne une chaîne de caractères de plusieurs lignes formatée avec des informations détaillées sur l'objet code pour les fonctions données, les générateurs asynchrone, coroutine, la méthode, la chaine de caractères du code source ou objet.

Il est à noter que le contenu exact des chaînes de caractères figurant dans les informations du code dépendent fortement sur l'implémentation, et peuvent changer arbitrairement sous machines virtuelles Python ou les versions de Python.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Cette version supporte la coroutine et les objets générateurs asynchrones.

dis.show_code(x, *, file=None)

Affiche des informations détaillées sur le code de la fonction fournie, la méthode, la chaîne de caractère du code source ou du code objet à file (ou bien sys.stdout si file n'est pas spécifié).

Ceci est un raccourci convenable de print(code_info(x), file=file), principalement fait pour l'exploration interactive sur l'invite de l'interpréteur.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Ajout du paramètre file.

dis.dis(x=None, *, file=None, depth=None, show_caches=False, adaptive=False, show_offsets=False, show_positions=False)

Disassemble the x object. x can denote either a module, a class, a method, a function, a generator, an asynchronous generator, a coroutine, a code object, a string of source code or a byte sequence of raw bytecode. For a module, it disassembles all functions. For a class, it disassembles all methods (including class and static methods). For a code object or sequence of raw bytecode, it prints one line per bytecode instruction. It also recursively disassembles nested code objects. These can include generator expressions, nested functions, the bodies of nested classes, and the code objects used for annotation scopes. Strings are first compiled to code objects with the compile() built-in function before being disassembled. If no object is provided, this function disassembles the last traceback.

Le désassemblage est envoyé sous forme de texte à l'argument du fichier file si il est fourni, et à sys.stdout sinon.

La profondeur maximale de récursion est limitée par depth sauf si elle correspond à None. depth=0 indique qu'il n'y a pas de récursion.

If show_caches is True, this function will display inline cache entries used by the interpreter to specialize the bytecode.

If adaptive is True, this function will display specialized bytecode that may be different from the original bytecode.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Ajout du paramètre file.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Le désassemblage récursif a été implémenté, et le paramètre depth a été ajouté.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Cette version supporte la coroutine et les objets générateurs asynchrones.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added the show_caches and adaptive parameters.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the show_offsets parameter.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Added the show_positions parameter.

dis.distb(tb=None, *, file=None, show_caches=False, adaptive=False, show_offset=False, show_positions=False)

Désassemble la fonction du haut de la pile des traces d'appels, en utilisant la dernière trace d'appels si rien n'a été envoyé. L'instruction à l'origine de l'exception est indiquée.

Le désassemblage est envoyé sous forme de texte à l'argument du fichier file si il est fourni, et à sys.stdout sinon.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Ajout du paramètre file.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added the show_caches and adaptive parameters.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the show_offsets parameter.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Added the show_positions parameter.

dis.disassemble(code, lasti=-1, *, file=None, show_caches=False, adaptive=False, show_offsets=False, show_positions=False)

dis.disco(code, lasti=-1, *, file=None, show_caches=False, adaptive=False, show_offsets=False, show_positions=False)

Désassemble un code objet, en indiquant la dernière instruction si lasti est fournie. La sortie est répartie sur les colonnes suivantes :

the source code location of the instruction. Complete location information is shown if show_positions is true. Otherwise (the default) only the line number is displayed.

l'instruction en cours, indiquée par -->,

une instruction libellée, indiquée par > >,

l'adresse de l'instruction,

le nom de le code d'opération,

paramètres de l'opération, et

interprétation des paramètres entre parenthèses.

L'interprétation du paramètre reconnaît les noms des variables locales et globales, des valeurs constantes, des branchements cibles, et des opérateurs de comparaison.

Le désassemblage est envoyé sous forme de texte à l'argument du fichier file si il est fourni, et à sys.stdout sinon.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Ajout du paramètre file.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added the show_caches and adaptive parameters.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added the show_offsets parameter.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Added the show_positions parameter.

dis.get_instructions(x, *, first_line=None, show_caches=False, adaptive=False)

Retourne un itérateur sur les instructions dans la fonction fournie, la méthode, les chaînes de caractères du code source ou objet.

Cet itérateur génère une série de n-uplets de Instruction qui donnent les détails de chacune des opérations dans le code fourni.

Si first_line ne vaut pas None, elle indique le nombre de la ligne qui doit être considérée comme première ligne source dans le code désassemblé. Autrement, les informations sur la ligne source sont prises directement à partir de la classe du code désassemblé.

The adaptive parameter works as it does in dis().

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added the show_caches and adaptive parameters.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: The show_caches parameter is deprecated and has no effect. The iterator generates the Instruction instances with the cache_info field populated (regardless of the value of show_caches) and it no longer generates separate items for the cache entries.

dis.findlinestarts(code)

This generator function uses the co_lines() method of the code object code to find the offsets which are starts of lines in the source code. They are generated as (offset, lineno) pairs.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Les numéros de lignes peuvent être décroissants. Avant, ils étaient toujours croissants.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: The PEP 626 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/] co_lines() method is used instead of the co_firstlineno and co_lnotab attributes of the code object.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Line numbers can be None for bytecode that does not map to source lines.

dis.findlabels(code)

Detect all offsets in the raw compiled bytecode string code which are jump targets, and return a list of these offsets.

dis.stack_effect(opcode, oparg=None, *, jump=None)

Compute the stack effect of opcode with argument oparg.

If the code has a jump target and jump is True, stack_effect() will return the stack effect of jumping. If jump is False, it will return the stack effect of not jumping. And if jump is None (default), it will return the maximal stack effect of both cases.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added jump parameter.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: If oparg is omitted (or None), the stack effect is now returned for oparg=0. Previously this was an error for opcodes that use their arg. It is also no longer an error to pass an integer oparg when the opcode does not use it; the oparg in this case is ignored.

Les instructions du code intermédiaire en Python

La fonction get_instructions() et la méthode Bytecode fournit des détails sur le code intermédiaire des instructions comme Instruction instances :

class dis.Instruction

Détails sur le code intermédiaire de l'opération

opcode

code numérique pour l'opération, correspondant aux valeurs de l'opcode ci-dessous et les valeurs du code intermédiaire dans la Opcode collections.

opname

nom lisible/compréhensible de l'opération

baseopcode

numeric code for the base operation if operation is specialized; otherwise equal to opcode

baseopname

human readable name for the base operation if operation is specialized; otherwise equal to opname

arg

le cas échéant, argument numérique de l'opération sinon None

oparg

alias for arg

argval

resolved arg value (if any), otherwise None

argrepr

human readable description of operation argument (if any), otherwise an empty string.

offset

start index of operation within bytecode sequence

start_offset

start index of operation within bytecode sequence, including prefixed EXTENDED_ARG operations if present; otherwise equal to offset

cache_offset

start index of the cache entries following the operation

end_offset

end index of the cache entries following the operation

starts_line

True if this opcode starts a source line, otherwise False

line_number

source line number associated with this opcode (if any), otherwise None

is_jump_target

True if other code jumps to here, otherwise False

jump_target

bytecode index of the jump target if this is a jump operation, otherwise None

positions

dis.Positions object holding the start and end locations that are covered by this instruction.

cache_info

Information about the cache entries of this instruction, as triplets of the form (name, size, data), where the name and size describe the cache format and data is the contents of the cache. cache_info is None if the instruction does not have caches.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Field positions is added.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Changed field starts_line.

Added fields start_offset, cache_offset, end_offset, baseopname, baseopcode, jump_target, oparg, line_number and cache_info.

class dis.Positions

In case the information is not available, some fields might be None.

lineno

end_lineno

col_offset

end_col_offset

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

The Python compiler currently generates the following bytecode instructions.

General instructions

In the following, We will refer to the interpreter stack as STACK and describe operations on it as if it was a Python list. The top of the stack corresponds to STACK[-1] in this language.

NOP

Do nothing code. Used as a placeholder by the bytecode optimizer, and to generate line tracing events.

NOT_TAKEN

Do nothing code. Used by the interpreter to record BRANCH_LEFT and BRANCH_RIGHT events for sys.monitoring.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

POP_ITER

Removes the iterator from the top of the stack.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

POP_TOP

Removes the top-of-stack item:

STACK.pop()

END_FOR

Removes the top-of-stack item. Equivalent to POP_TOP. Used to clean up at the end of loops, hence the name.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

END_SEND

Implements del STACK[-2]. Used to clean up when a generator exits.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

COPY(i)

Push the i-th item to the top of the stack without removing it from its original location:

assert i > 0
STACK.append(STACK[-i])

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

SWAP(i)

Swap the top of the stack with the i-th element:

STACK[-i], STACK[-1] = STACK[-1], STACK[-i]

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

CACHE

Rather than being an actual instruction, this opcode is used to mark extra space for the interpreter to cache useful data directly in the bytecode itself. It is automatically hidden by all dis utilities, but can be viewed with show_caches=True.

Logically, this space is part of the preceding instruction. Many opcodes expect to be followed by an exact number of caches, and will instruct the interpreter to skip over them at runtime.

Populated caches can look like arbitrary instructions, so great care should be taken when reading or modifying raw, adaptive bytecode containing quickened data.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

Unary operations

Unary operations take the top of the stack, apply the operation, and push the result back on the stack.

UNARY_NEGATIVE

Implements STACK[-1] = -STACK[-1].

UNARY_NOT

Implements STACK[-1] = not STACK[-1].

Modifié dans la version 3.13: This instruction now requires an exact bool operand.

UNARY_INVERT

Implements STACK[-1] = ~STACK[-1].

GET_ITER

Implements STACK[-1] = iter(STACK[-1]).

GET_YIELD_FROM_ITER

If STACK[-1] is a generator iterator or coroutine object it is left as is. Otherwise, implements STACK[-1] = iter(STACK[-1]).

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

TO_BOOL

Implements STACK[-1] = bool(STACK[-1]).

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Binary and in-place operations

Binary operations remove the top two items from the stack (STACK[-1] and STACK[-2]). They perform the operation, then put the result back on the stack.

In-place operations are like binary operations, but the operation is done in-place when STACK[-2] supports it, and the resulting STACK[-1] may be (but does not have to be) the original STACK[-2].

BINARY_OP(op)

Implements the binary and in-place operators (depending on the value of op):

rhs = STACK.pop()
lhs = STACK.pop()
STACK.append(lhs op rhs)

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: With oparg :NB_SUBSCR, implements binary subscript (replaces opcode BINARY_SUBSCR)

STORE_SUBSCR

Implements:

key = STACK.pop()
container = STACK.pop()
value = STACK.pop()
container[key] = value

DELETE_SUBSCR

Implements:

key = STACK.pop()
container = STACK.pop()
del container[key]

BINARY_SLICE

Implements:

end = STACK.pop()
start = STACK.pop()
container = STACK.pop()
STACK.append(container[start:end])

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

STORE_SLICE

Implements:

end = STACK.pop()
start = STACK.pop()
container = STACK.pop()
value = STACK.pop()
container[start:end] = value

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Coroutine opcodes

GET_AWAITABLE(where)

Implements STACK[-1] = get_awaitable(STACK[-1]), where get_awaitable(o) returns o if o is a coroutine object or a generator object with the CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE flag, or resolves o.__await__.

If the where operand is nonzero, it indicates where the instruction occurs:

1: After a call to __aenter__

2: After a call to __aexit__

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Previously, this instruction did not have an oparg.

GET_AITER

Implements STACK[-1] = STACK[-1].__aiter__().

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Returning awaitable objects from __aiter__ is no longer supported.

GET_ANEXT

Implement STACK.append(get_awaitable(STACK[-1].__anext__())) to the stack. See GET_AWAITABLE for details about get_awaitable.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

END_ASYNC_FOR

Terminates an async for loop. Handles an exception raised when awaiting a next item. The stack contains the async iterable in STACK[-2] and the raised exception in STACK[-1]. Both are popped. If the exception is not StopAsyncIteration, it is re-raised.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Exception representation on the stack now consist of one, not three, items.

CLEANUP_THROW

Handles an exception raised during a throw() or close() call through the current frame. If STACK[-1] is an instance of StopIteration, pop three values from the stack and push its value member. Otherwise, re-raise STACK[-1].

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Miscellaneous opcodes

SET_ADD(i)

Implements:

item = STACK.pop()
set.add(STACK[-i], item)

Used to implement set comprehensions.

LIST_APPEND(i)

Implements:

item = STACK.pop()
list.append(STACK[-i], item)

Used to implement list comprehensions.

MAP_ADD(i)

Implements:

value = STACK.pop()
key = STACK.pop()
dict.__setitem__(STACK[-i], key, value)

Used to implement dict comprehensions.

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Map value is STACK[-1] and map key is STACK[-2]. Before, those were reversed.

For all of the SET_ADD, LIST_APPEND and MAP_ADD instructions, while the added value or key/value pair is popped off, the container object remains on the stack so that it is available for further iterations of the loop.

RETURN_VALUE

Returns with STACK[-1] to the caller of the function.

YIELD_VALUE

Yields STACK.pop() from a generator.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: oparg set to be the stack depth.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: oparg set to be the exception block depth, for efficient closing of generators.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: oparg is 1 if this instruction is part of a yield-from or await, and 0 otherwise.

SETUP_ANNOTATIONS

Checks whether __annotations__ is defined in locals(), if not it is set up to an empty dict. This opcode is only emitted if a class or module body contains variable annotations statically.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

POP_EXCEPT

Pops a value from the stack, which is used to restore the exception state.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Exception representation on the stack now consist of one, not three, items.

RERAISE

Re-raises the exception currently on top of the stack. If oparg is non-zero, pops an additional value from the stack which is used to set f_lasti of the current frame.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Exception representation on the stack now consist of one, not three, items.

PUSH_EXC_INFO

Pops a value from the stack. Pushes the current exception to the top of the stack. Pushes the value originally popped back to the stack. Used in exception handlers.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

CHECK_EXC_MATCH

Performs exception matching for except. Tests whether the STACK[-2] is an exception matching STACK[-1]. Pops STACK[-1] and pushes the boolean result of the test.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

CHECK_EG_MATCH

Performs exception matching for except*. Applies split(STACK[-1]) on the exception group representing STACK[-2].

In case of a match, pops two items from the stack and pushes the non-matching subgroup (None in case of full match) followed by the matching subgroup. When there is no match, pops one item (the match type) and pushes None.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

WITH_EXCEPT_START

Calls the function in position 4 on the stack with arguments (type, val, tb) representing the exception at the top of the stack. Used to implement the call context_manager.__exit__(*exc_info()) when an exception has occurred in a with statement.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: The __exit__ function is in position 4 of the stack rather than 7. Exception representation on the stack now consist of one, not three, items.

LOAD_COMMON_CONSTANT

Pushes a common constant onto the stack. The interpreter contains a hardcoded list of constants supported by this instruction. Used by the assert statement to load AssertionError.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

LOAD_BUILD_CLASS

Pushes builtins.__build_class__() onto the stack. It is later called to construct a class.

GET_LEN

Perform STACK.append(len(STACK[-1])). Used in match statements where comparison with structure of pattern is needed.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

MATCH_MAPPING

If STACK[-1] is an instance of collections.abc.Mapping (or, more technically: if it has the Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING flag set in its tp_flags), push True onto the stack. Otherwise, push False.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

MATCH_SEQUENCE

If STACK[-1] is an instance of collections.abc.Sequence and is not an instance of str/bytes/bytearray (or, more technically: if it has the Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE flag set in its tp_flags), push True onto the stack. Otherwise, push False.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

MATCH_KEYS

STACK[-1] is a tuple of mapping keys, and STACK[-2] is the match subject. If STACK[-2] contains all of the keys in STACK[-1], push a tuple containing the corresponding values. Otherwise, push None.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Previously, this instruction also pushed a boolean value indicating success (True) or failure (False).

STORE_NAME(namei)

Implements name = STACK.pop(). namei is the index of name in the attribute co_names of the code object. The compiler tries to use STORE_FAST or STORE_GLOBAL if possible.

DELETE_NAME(namei)

Implements del name, where namei is the index into co_names attribute of the code object.

UNPACK_SEQUENCE(count)

Unpacks STACK[-1] into count individual values, which are put onto the stack right-to-left. Require there to be exactly count values.:

assert(len(STACK[-1]) == count)
STACK.extend(STACK.pop()[:-count-1:-1])

UNPACK_EX(counts)

Implements assignment with a starred target: Unpacks an iterable in STACK[-1] into individual values, where the total number of values can be smaller than the number of items in the iterable: one of the new values will be a list of all leftover items.

The number of values before and after the list value is limited to 255.

The number of values before the list value is encoded in the argument of the opcode. The number of values after the list if any is encoded using an EXTENDED_ARG. As a consequence, the argument can be seen as a two bytes values where the low byte of counts is the number of values before the list value, the high byte of counts the number of values after it.

The extracted values are put onto the stack right-to-left, i.e. a, *b, c = d will be stored after execution as STACK.extend((a, b, c)).

STORE_ATTR(namei)

Implements:

obj = STACK.pop()
value = STACK.pop()
obj.name = value

where namei is the index of name in co_names of the code object.

DELETE_ATTR(namei)

Implements:

obj = STACK.pop()
del obj.name

where namei is the index of name into co_names of the code object.

STORE_GLOBAL(namei)

Works as STORE_NAME, but stores the name as a global.

DELETE_GLOBAL(namei)

Works as DELETE_NAME, but deletes a global name.

LOAD_CONST(consti)

Pushes co_consts[consti] onto the stack.

LOAD_SMALL_INT(i)

Pushes the integer i onto the stack. i must be in range(256)

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

LOAD_NAME(namei)

Pushes the value associated with co_names[namei] onto the stack. The name is looked up within the locals, then the globals, then the builtins.

LOAD_LOCALS

Pushes a reference to the locals dictionary onto the stack. This is used to prepare namespace dictionaries for LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_DEREF and LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_GLOBALS.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_GLOBALS(i)

Pops a mapping off the stack and looks up the value for co_names[namei]. If the name is not found there, looks it up in the globals and then the builtins, similar to LOAD_GLOBAL. This is used for loading global variables in annotation scopes within class bodies.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

BUILD_TEMPLATE

Constructs a new Template instance from a tuple of strings and a tuple of interpolations and pushes the resulting object onto the stack:

interpolations = STACK.pop()
strings = STACK.pop()
STACK.append(_build_template(strings, interpolations))

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

BUILD_INTERPOLATION(format)

Constructs a new Interpolation instance from a value and its source expression and pushes the resulting object onto the stack.

If no conversion or format specification is present, format is set to 2.

If the low bit of format is set, it indicates that the interpolation contains a format specification.

If format >> 2 is non-zero, it indicates that the interpolation contains a conversion. The value of format >> 2 is the conversion type (0 for no conversion, 1 for !s, 2 for !r, and 3 for !a):

conversion = format >> 2
if format & 1:
    format_spec = STACK.pop()
else:
    format_spec = None
expression = STACK.pop()
value = STACK.pop()
STACK.append(_build_interpolation(value, expression, conversion, format_spec))

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

BUILD_TUPLE(count)

Creates a tuple consuming count items from the stack, and pushes the resulting tuple onto the stack:

if count == 0:
    value = ()
else:
    value = tuple(STACK[-count:])
    STACK = STACK[:-count]

STACK.append(value)

BUILD_LIST(count)

Works as BUILD_TUPLE, but creates a list.

BUILD_SET(count)

Works as BUILD_TUPLE, but creates a set.

BUILD_MAP(count)

Pushes a new dictionary object onto the stack. Pops 2 * count items so that the dictionary holds count entries: {..., STACK[-4]: STACK[-3], STACK[-2]: STACK[-1]}.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: The dictionary is created from stack items instead of creating an empty dictionary pre-sized to hold count items.

BUILD_STRING(count)

Concatenates count strings from the stack and pushes the resulting string onto the stack.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

LIST_EXTEND(i)

Implements:

seq = STACK.pop()
list.extend(STACK[-i], seq)

Used to build lists.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

SET_UPDATE(i)

Implements:

seq = STACK.pop()
set.update(STACK[-i], seq)

Used to build sets.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

DICT_UPDATE(i)

Implements:

map = STACK.pop()
dict.update(STACK[-i], map)

Used to build dicts.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

DICT_MERGE(i)

Like DICT_UPDATE but raises an exception for duplicate keys.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

LOAD_ATTR(namei)

If the low bit of namei is not set, this replaces STACK[-1] with getattr(STACK[-1], co_names[namei>>1]).

If the low bit of namei is set, this will attempt to load a method named co_names[namei>>1] from the STACK[-1] object. STACK[-1] is popped. This bytecode distinguishes two cases: if STACK[-1] has a method with the correct name, the bytecode pushes the unbound method and STACK[-1]. STACK[-1] will be used as the first argument (self) by CALL or CALL_KW when calling the unbound method. Otherwise, NULL and the object returned by the attribute lookup are pushed.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: If the low bit of namei is set, then a NULL or self is pushed to the stack before the attribute or unbound method respectively.

LOAD_SUPER_ATTR(namei)

This opcode implements super(), both in its zero-argument and two-argument forms (e.g. super().method(), super().attr and super(cls, self).method(), super(cls, self).attr).

It pops three values from the stack (from top of stack down):

self: the first argument to the current method

cls: the class within which the current method was defined

the global super

With respect to its argument, it works similarly to LOAD_ATTR, except that namei is shifted left by 2 bits instead of 1.

The low bit of namei signals to attempt a method load, as with LOAD_ATTR, which results in pushing NULL and the loaded method. When it is unset a single value is pushed to the stack.

The second-low bit of namei, if set, means that this was a two-argument call to super() (unset means zero-argument).

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

COMPARE_OP(opname)

Performs a Boolean operation. The operation name can be found in cmp_op[opname >> 5]. If the fifth-lowest bit of opname is set (opname & 16), the result should be coerced to bool.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: The fifth-lowest bit of the oparg now indicates a forced conversion to bool.

IS_OP(invert)

Performs is comparison, or is not if invert is 1.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

CONTAINS_OP(invert)

Performs in comparison, or not in if invert is 1.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

IMPORT_NAME(namei)

Imports the module co_names[namei]. STACK[-1] and STACK[-2] are popped and provide the fromlist and level arguments of __import__(). The module object is pushed onto the stack. The current namespace is not affected: for a proper import statement, a subsequent STORE_FAST instruction modifies the namespace.

IMPORT_FROM(namei)

Loads the attribute co_names[namei] from the module found in STACK[-1]. The resulting object is pushed onto the stack, to be subsequently stored by a STORE_FAST instruction.

JUMP_FORWARD(delta)

Increments bytecode counter by delta.

JUMP_BACKWARD(delta)

Decrements bytecode counter by delta. Checks for interrupts.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

JUMP_BACKWARD_NO_INTERRUPT(delta)

Decrements bytecode counter by delta. Does not check for interrupts.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE(delta)

If STACK[-1] is true, increments the bytecode counter by delta. STACK[-1] is popped.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: The oparg is now a relative delta rather than an absolute target. This opcode is a pseudo-instruction, replaced in final bytecode by the directed versions (forward/backward).

Modifié dans la version 3.12: This is no longer a pseudo-instruction.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: This instruction now requires an exact bool operand.

POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE(delta)

If STACK[-1] is false, increments the bytecode counter by delta. STACK[-1] is popped.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: The oparg is now a relative delta rather than an absolute target. This opcode is a pseudo-instruction, replaced in final bytecode by the directed versions (forward/backward).

Modifié dans la version 3.12: This is no longer a pseudo-instruction.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: This instruction now requires an exact bool operand.

POP_JUMP_IF_NOT_NONE(delta)

If STACK[-1] is not None, increments the bytecode counter by delta. STACK[-1] is popped.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: This is no longer a pseudo-instruction.

POP_JUMP_IF_NONE(delta)

If STACK[-1] is None, increments the bytecode counter by delta. STACK[-1] is popped.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: This is no longer a pseudo-instruction.

FOR_ITER(delta)

STACK[-1] is an iterator. Call its __next__() method. If this yields a new value, push it on the stack (leaving the iterator below it). If the iterator indicates it is exhausted then the byte code counter is incremented by delta.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Up until 3.11 the iterator was popped when it was exhausted.

LOAD_GLOBAL(namei)

Loads the global named co_names[namei>>1] onto the stack.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: If the low bit of namei is set, then a NULL is pushed to the stack before the global variable.

LOAD_FAST(var_num)

Pushes a reference to the local co_varnames[var_num] onto the stack.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: This opcode is now only used in situations where the local variable is guaranteed to be initialized. It cannot raise UnboundLocalError.

LOAD_FAST_BORROW(var_num)

Pushes a borrowed reference to the local co_varnames[var_num] onto the stack.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

LOAD_FAST_LOAD_FAST(var_nums)

Pushes references to co_varnames[var_nums >> 4] and co_varnames[var_nums & 15] onto the stack.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

LOAD_FAST_BORROW_LOAD_FAST_BORROW(var_nums)

Pushes borrowed references to co_varnames[var_nums >> 4] and co_varnames[var_nums & 15] onto the stack.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

LOAD_FAST_CHECK(var_num)

Pushes a reference to the local co_varnames[var_num] onto the stack, raising an UnboundLocalError if the local variable has not been initialized.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

LOAD_FAST_AND_CLEAR(var_num)

Pushes a reference to the local co_varnames[var_num] onto the stack (or pushes NULL onto the stack if the local variable has not been initialized) and sets co_varnames[var_num] to NULL.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

STORE_FAST(var_num)

Stores STACK.pop() into the local co_varnames[var_num].

STORE_FAST_STORE_FAST(var_nums)

Stores STACK[-1] into co_varnames[var_nums >> 4] and STACK[-2] into co_varnames[var_nums & 15].

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

STORE_FAST_LOAD_FAST(var_nums)

Stores STACK.pop() into the local co_varnames[var_nums >> 4] and pushes a reference to the local co_varnames[var_nums & 15] onto the stack.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

DELETE_FAST(var_num)

Deletes local co_varnames[var_num].

MAKE_CELL(i)

Creates a new cell in slot i. If that slot is nonempty then that value is stored into the new cell.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

LOAD_DEREF(i)

Loads the cell contained in slot i of the "fast locals" storage. Pushes a reference to the object the cell contains on the stack.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: i is no longer offset by the length of co_varnames.

LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_DEREF(i)

Pops a mapping off the stack and looks up the name associated with slot i of the "fast locals" storage in this mapping. If the name is not found there, loads it from the cell contained in slot i, similar to LOAD_DEREF. This is used for loading closure variables in class bodies (which previously used LOAD_CLASSDEREF) and in annotation scopes within class bodies.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

STORE_DEREF(i)

Stores STACK.pop() into the cell contained in slot i of the "fast locals" storage.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: i is no longer offset by the length of co_varnames.

DELETE_DEREF(i)

Empties the cell contained in slot i of the "fast locals" storage. Used by the del statement.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: i is no longer offset by the length of co_varnames.

COPY_FREE_VARS(n)

Copies the n free (closure) variables from the closure into the frame. Removes the need for special code on the caller's side when calling closures.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

RAISE_VARARGS(argc)

Raises an exception using one of the 3 forms of the raise statement, depending on the value of argc:

0: raise (re-raise previous exception)

1: raise STACK[-1] (raise exception instance or type at STACK[-1])

2: raise STACK[-2] from STACK[-1] (raise exception instance or type at STACK[-2] with __cause__ set to STACK[-1])

CALL(argc)

Calls a callable object with the number of arguments specified by argc. On the stack are (in ascending order):

The callable

self or NULL

The remaining positional arguments

argc is the total of the positional arguments, excluding self.

CALL pops all arguments and the callable object off the stack, calls the callable object with those arguments, and pushes the return value returned by the callable object.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: The callable now always appears at the same position on the stack.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Calls with keyword arguments are now handled by CALL_KW.

CALL_KW(argc)

Calls a callable object with the number of arguments specified by argc, including one or more named arguments. On the stack are (in ascending order):

The callable

self or NULL

The remaining positional arguments

The named arguments

A tuple of keyword argument names

argc is the total of the positional and named arguments, excluding self. The length of the tuple of keyword argument names is the number of named arguments.

CALL_KW pops all arguments, the keyword names, and the callable object off the stack, calls the callable object with those arguments, and pushes the return value returned by the callable object.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

CALL_FUNCTION_EX(flags)

Calls a callable object with variable set of positional and keyword arguments. If the lowest bit of flags is set, the top of the stack contains a mapping object containing additional keyword arguments. Before the callable is called, the mapping object and iterable object are each "unpacked" and their contents passed in as keyword and positional arguments respectively. CALL_FUNCTION_EX pops all arguments and the callable object off the stack, calls the callable object with those arguments, and pushes the return value returned by the callable object.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

PUSH_NULL

Pushes a NULL to the stack. Used in the call sequence to match the NULL pushed by LOAD_METHOD for non-method calls.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

MAKE_FUNCTION

Pushes a new function object on the stack built from the code object at STACK[-1].

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Flag value 0x04 is a tuple of strings instead of dictionary

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Qualified name at STACK[-1] was removed.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Extra function attributes on the stack, signaled by oparg flags, were removed. They now use SET_FUNCTION_ATTRIBUTE.

SET_FUNCTION_ATTRIBUTE(flag)

Sets an attribute on a function object. Expects the function at STACK[-1] and the attribute value to set at STACK[-2]; consumes both and leaves the function at STACK[-1]. The flag determines which attribute to set:

0x01 a tuple of default values for positional-only and positional-or-keyword parameters in positional order

0x02 a dictionary of keyword-only parameters' default values

0x04 a tuple of strings containing parameters' annotations

0x08 a tuple containing cells for free variables, making a closure

0x10 the annotate function for the function object

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Added 0x10 to indicate the annotate function for the function object.

BUILD_SLICE(argc)

Pushes a slice object on the stack. argc must be 2 or 3. If it is 2, implements:

end = STACK.pop()
start = STACK.pop()
STACK.append(slice(start, end))

if it is 3, implements:

step = STACK.pop()
end = STACK.pop()
start = STACK.pop()
STACK.append(slice(start, end, step))

See the slice() built-in function for more information.

EXTENDED_ARG(ext)

Prefixes any opcode which has an argument too big to fit into the default one byte. ext holds an additional byte which act as higher bits in the argument. For each opcode, at most three prefixal EXTENDED_ARG are allowed, forming an argument from two-byte to four-byte.

CONVERT_VALUE(oparg)

Convert value to a string, depending on oparg:

value = STACK.pop()
result = func(value)
STACK.append(result)

oparg == 1: call str() on value

oparg == 2: call repr() on value

oparg == 3: call ascii() on value

Used for implementing formatted string literals (f-strings).

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

FORMAT_SIMPLE

Formats the value on top of stack:

value = STACK.pop()
result = value.__format__("")
STACK.append(result)

Used for implementing formatted string literals (f-strings).

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

FORMAT_WITH_SPEC

Formats the given value with the given format spec:

spec = STACK.pop()
value = STACK.pop()
result = value.__format__(spec)
STACK.append(result)

Used for implementing formatted string literals (f-strings).

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

MATCH_CLASS(count)

STACK[-1] is a tuple of keyword attribute names, STACK[-2] is the class being matched against, and STACK[-3] is the match subject. count is the number of positional sub-patterns.

Pop STACK[-1], STACK[-2], and STACK[-3]. If STACK[-3] is an instance of STACK[-2] and has the positional and keyword attributes required by count and STACK[-1], push a tuple of extracted attributes. Otherwise, push None.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Previously, this instruction also pushed a boolean value indicating success (True) or failure (False).

RESUME(context)

A no-op. Performs internal tracing, debugging and optimization checks.

The context operand consists of two parts. The lowest two bits indicate where the RESUME occurs:

0 The start of a function, which is neither a generator, coroutine nor an async generator

1 After a yield expression

2 After a yield from expression

3 After an await expression

The next bit is 1 if the RESUME is at except-depth 1, and 0 otherwise.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: The oparg value changed to include information about except-depth

RETURN_GENERATOR

Create a generator, coroutine, or async generator from the current frame. Used as first opcode of in code object for the above mentioned callables. Clear the current frame and return the newly created generator.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

SEND(delta)

Equivalent to STACK[-1] = STACK[-2].send(STACK[-1]). Used in yield from and await statements.

If the call raises StopIteration, pop the top value from the stack, push the exception's value attribute, and increment the bytecode counter by delta.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

HAVE_ARGUMENT

This is not really an opcode. It identifies the dividing line between opcodes in the range [0,255] which don't use their argument and those that do (< HAVE_ARGUMENT and >= HAVE_ARGUMENT, respectively).

If your application uses pseudo instructions or specialized instructions, use the hasarg collection instead.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Now every instruction has an argument, but opcodes < HAVE_ARGUMENT ignore it. Before, only opcodes >= HAVE_ARGUMENT had an argument.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Pseudo instructions were added to the dis module, and for them it is not true that comparison with HAVE_ARGUMENT indicates whether they use their arg.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.13: Use hasarg instead.

CALL_INTRINSIC_1

Calls an intrinsic function with one argument. Passes STACK[-1] as the argument and sets STACK[-1] to the result. Used to implement functionality that is not performance critical.

The operand determines which intrinsic function is called:

Operand

Description

INTRINSIC_1_INVALID

Not valid

INTRINSIC_PRINT

Prints the argument to standard out. Used in the REPL.

INTRINSIC_IMPORT_STAR

Performs import * for the named module.

INTRINSIC_STOPITERATION_ERROR

Extracts the return value from a StopIteration exception.

INTRINSIC_ASYNC_GEN_WRAP

Wraps an async generator value

INTRINSIC_UNARY_POSITIVE

Performs the unary + operation

INTRINSIC_LIST_TO_TUPLE

Converts a list to a tuple

INTRINSIC_TYPEVAR

Creates a typing.TypeVar

INTRINSIC_PARAMSPEC

Creates a typing.ParamSpec

INTRINSIC_TYPEVARTUPLE

Creates a typing.TypeVarTuple

INTRINSIC_SUBSCRIPT_GENERIC

Returns typing.Generic subscripted with the argument

INTRINSIC_TYPEALIAS

Creates a typing.TypeAliasType; used in the type statement. The argument is a tuple of the type alias's name, type parameters, and value.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

CALL_INTRINSIC_2

Calls an intrinsic function with two arguments. Used to implement functionality that is not performance critical:

arg2 = STACK.pop()
arg1 = STACK.pop()
result = intrinsic2(arg1, arg2)
STACK.append(result)

The operand determines which intrinsic function is called:

Operand

Description

INTRINSIC_2_INVALID

Not valid

INTRINSIC_PREP_RERAISE_STAR

Calculates the ExceptionGroup to raise from a try-except*.

INTRINSIC_TYPEVAR_WITH_BOUND

Creates a typing.TypeVar with a bound.

INTRINSIC_TYPEVAR_WITH_CONSTRAINTS

Creates a typing.TypeVar with constraints.

INTRINSIC_SET_FUNCTION_TYPE_PARAMS

Sets the __type_params__ attribute of a function.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

LOAD_SPECIAL

Performs special method lookup on STACK[-1]. If type(STACK[-1]).__xxx__ is a method, leave type(STACK[-1]).__xxx__; STACK[-1] on the stack. If type(STACK[-1]).__xxx__ is not a method, leave STACK[-1].__xxx__; NULL on the stack.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Pseudo-instructions

These opcodes do not appear in Python bytecode. They are used by the compiler but are replaced by real opcodes or removed before bytecode is generated.

SETUP_FINALLY(target)

Set up an exception handler for the following code block. If an exception occurs, the value stack level is restored to its current state and control is transferred to the exception handler at target.

SETUP_CLEANUP(target)

Like SETUP_FINALLY, but in case of an exception also pushes the last instruction (lasti) to the stack so that RERAISE can restore it. If an exception occurs, the value stack level and the last instruction on the frame are restored to their current state, and control is transferred to the exception handler at target.

SETUP_WITH(target)

Like SETUP_CLEANUP, but in case of an exception one more item is popped from the stack before control is transferred to the exception handler at target.

This variant is used in with and async with constructs, which push the return value of the context manager's __enter__() or __aenter__() to the stack.

POP_BLOCK

Marks the end of the code block associated with the last SETUP_FINALLY, SETUP_CLEANUP or SETUP_WITH.

LOAD_CONST_IMMORTAL(consti)

Works as LOAD_CONST, but is more efficient for immortal objects.

JUMP

JUMP_NO_INTERRUPT

Undirected relative jump instructions which are replaced by their directed (forward/backward) counterparts by the assembler.

JUMP_IF_TRUE

JUMP_IF_FALSE

Conditional jumps which do not impact the stack. Replaced by the sequence COPY 1, TO_BOOL, POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE/FALSE.

LOAD_CLOSURE(i)

Pushes a reference to the cell contained in slot i of the "fast locals" storage.

Note that LOAD_CLOSURE is replaced with LOAD_FAST in the assembler.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: This opcode is now a pseudo-instruction.

Opcode collections

These collections are provided for automatic introspection of bytecode instructions:

Modifié dans la version 3.12: The collections now contain pseudo instructions and instrumented instructions as well. These are opcodes with values >= MIN_PSEUDO_OPCODE and >= MIN_INSTRUMENTED_OPCODE.

dis.opname

Sequence of operation names, indexable using the bytecode.

dis.opmap

Dictionary mapping operation names to bytecodes.

dis.cmp_op

Sequence of all compare operation names.

dis.hasarg

Sequence of bytecodes that use their argument.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

dis.hasconst

Sequence of bytecodes that access a constant.

dis.hasfree

Sequence of bytecodes that access a free (closure) variable. 'free' in this context refers to names in the current scope that are referenced by inner scopes or names in outer scopes that are referenced from this scope. It does not include references to global or builtin scopes.

dis.hasname

Sequence of bytecodes that access an attribute by name.

dis.hasjump

Sequence of bytecodes that have a jump target. All jumps are relative.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

dis.haslocal

Sequence of bytecodes that access a local variable.

dis.hascompare

Sequence of bytecodes of Boolean operations.

dis.hasexc

Sequence of bytecodes that set an exception handler.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

dis.hasjrel

Sequence of bytecodes that have a relative jump target.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.13: All jumps are now relative. Use hasjump.

dis.hasjabs

Sequence of bytecodes that have an absolute jump target.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.13: All jumps are now relative. This list is empty.

pickletools --- Tools for pickle developers

Source code: Lib/pickletools.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/pickletools.py]

This module contains various constants relating to the intimate details of the pickle module, some lengthy comments about the implementation, and a few useful functions for analyzing pickled data. The contents of this module are useful for Python core developers who are working on the pickle; ordinary users of the pickle module probably won't find the pickletools module relevant.

Command-line usage

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

When invoked from the command line, python -m pickletools will disassemble the contents of one or more pickle files. Note that if you want to see the Python object stored in the pickle rather than the details of pickle format, you may want to use -m pickle instead. However, when the pickle file that you want to examine comes from an untrusted source, -m pickletools is a safer option because it does not execute pickle bytecode.

For example, with a tuple (1, 2) pickled in file x.pickle:

$ python -m pickle x.pickle
(1, 2)

$ python -m pickletools x.pickle
    0: \x80 PROTO      3
    2: K    BININT1    1
    4: K    BININT1    2
    6: \x86 TUPLE2
    7: q    BINPUT     0
    9: .    STOP
highest protocol among opcodes = 2

Command-line options

-a, --annotate

Annotate each line with a short opcode description.

-o, --output=<file>

Name of a file where the output should be written.

-l, --indentlevel=<num>

The number of blanks by which to indent a new MARK level.

-m, --memo

When multiple objects are disassembled, preserve memo between disassemblies.

-p, --preamble=<preamble>

When more than one pickle file is specified, print given preamble before each disassembly.

pickle_file

A pickle file to read, or - to indicate reading from standard input.

Programmatic interface

pickletools.dis(pickle, out=None, memo=None, indentlevel=4, annotate=0)

Outputs a symbolic disassembly of the pickle to the file-like object out, defaulting to sys.stdout. pickle can be a string or a file-like object. memo can be a Python dictionary that will be used as the pickle's memo; it can be used to perform disassemblies across multiple pickles created by the same pickler. Successive levels, indicated by MARK opcodes in the stream, are indented by indentlevel spaces. If a nonzero value is given to annotate, each opcode in the output is annotated with a short description. The value of annotate is used as a hint for the column where annotation should start.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Added the annotate parameter.

pickletools.genops(pickle)

Provides an iterator over all of the opcodes in a pickle, returning a sequence of (opcode, arg, pos) triples. opcode is an instance of an OpcodeInfo class; arg is the decoded value, as a Python object, of the opcode's argument; pos is the position at which this opcode is located. pickle can be a string or a file-like object.

pickletools.optimize(picklestring)

Returns a new equivalent pickle string after eliminating unused PUT opcodes. The optimized pickle is shorter, takes less transmission time, requires less storage space, and unpickles more efficiently.

Services spécifiques à MS Windows

Ce chapitre documente les modules qui ne sont disponibles que sous MS Windows.

msvcrt --- Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime

Opérations sur les fichiers

Entrées-sorties sur un terminal

Autres fonctions

winreg --- Windows registry access

Fonctions

Constantes

HKEY_* Constants

Access Rights

64-bit Specific

Value Types

Registry Handle Objects

winsound --- Sound-playing interface for Windows

msvcrt --- Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime

These functions provide access to some useful capabilities on Windows platforms. Some higher-level modules use these functions to build the Windows implementations of their services. For example, the getpass module uses this in the implementation of the getpass() function.

Further documentation on these functions can be found in the Platform API documentation.

The module implements both the normal and wide char variants of the console I/O api. The normal API deals only with ASCII characters and is of limited use for internationalized applications. The wide char API should be used where ever possible.

Disponibilité: Windows.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Les opérations de ce module lèvent désormais OSError au lieu de IOError.

Opérations sur les fichiers

msvcrt.locking(fd, mode, nbytes)

Lock part of a file based on file descriptor fd from the C runtime. Raises OSError on failure. The locked region of the file extends from the current file position for nbytes bytes, and may continue beyond the end of the file. mode must be one of the LK_* constants listed below. Multiple regions in a file may be locked at the same time, but may not overlap. Adjacent regions are not merged; they must be unlocked individually.

Raises an auditing event msvcrt.locking with arguments fd, mode, nbytes.

msvcrt.LK_LOCK

msvcrt.LK_RLCK

Locks the specified bytes. If the bytes cannot be locked, the program immediately tries again after 1 second. If, after 10 attempts, the bytes cannot be locked, OSError is raised.

msvcrt.LK_NBLCK

msvcrt.LK_NBRLCK

Verrouille les octets spécifiés. Si les octets ne peuvent pas être verrouillés, OSError est levée.

msvcrt.LK_UNLCK

Déverrouille les octets spécifiés, qui doivent avoir été précédemment verrouillés.

msvcrt.setmode(fd, flags)

Set the line-end translation mode for the file descriptor fd. To set it to text mode, flags should be os.O_TEXT; for binary, it should be os.O_BINARY.

msvcrt.open_osfhandle(handle, flags)

Create a C runtime file descriptor from the file handle handle. The flags parameter should be a bitwise OR of os.O_APPEND, os.O_RDONLY, os.O_TEXT and os.O_NOINHERIT. The returned file descriptor may be used as a parameter to os.fdopen() to create a file object.

The file descriptor is inheritable by default. Pass os.O_NOINHERIT flag to make it non inheritable.

Raises an auditing event msvcrt.open_osfhandle with arguments handle, flags.

msvcrt.get_osfhandle(fd)

Return the file handle for the file descriptor fd. Raises OSError if fd is not recognized.

Raises an auditing event msvcrt.get_osfhandle with argument fd.

Entrées-sorties sur un terminal

msvcrt.kbhit()

Returns a nonzero value if a keypress is waiting to be read. Otherwise, return 0.

msvcrt.getch()

Read a keypress and return the resulting character as a byte string. Nothing is echoed to the console. This call will block if a keypress is not already available, but will not wait for Enter to be pressed. If the pressed key was a special function key, this will return '\000' or '\xe0'; the next call will return the keycode. The Control-C keypress cannot be read with this function.

msvcrt.getwch()

Variante de getch() qui lit un caractère large et renvoie une valeur Unicode.

msvcrt.getche()

Similar to getch(), but the keypress will be echoed if it represents a printable character.

msvcrt.getwche()

Variante de getche() qui lit un caractère large et renvoie une valeur Unicode.

msvcrt.putch(char)

Print the byte string char to the console without buffering.

msvcrt.putwch(unicode_char)

Variante de putch() qui accepte une valeur Unicode et l'écrit comme caractère large.

msvcrt.ungetch(char)

Cause the byte string char to be "pushed back" into the console buffer; it will be the next character read by getch() or getche().

msvcrt.ungetwch(unicode_char)

Variante de ungetch() qui accepte une valeur Unicode et l'écrit comme caractère large.

Autres fonctions

msvcrt.heapmin()

Force the malloc() heap to clean itself up and return unused blocks to the operating system. On failure, this raises OSError.

msvcrt.set_error_mode(mode)

Changes the location where the C runtime writes an error message for an error that might end the program. mode must be one of the OUT_* constants listed below or REPORT_ERRMODE. Returns the old setting or -1 if an error occurs. Only available in debug build of Python.

msvcrt.OUT_TO_DEFAULT

Error sink is determined by the app's type. Only available in debug build of Python.

msvcrt.OUT_TO_STDERR

Error sink is a standard error. Only available in debug build of Python.

msvcrt.OUT_TO_MSGBOX

Error sink is a message box. Only available in debug build of Python.

msvcrt.REPORT_ERRMODE

Report the current error mode value. Only available in debug build of Python.

msvcrt.CrtSetReportMode(type, mode)

Specifies the destination or destinations for a specific report type generated by _CrtDbgReport() in the MS VC++ runtime. type must be one of the CRT_* constants listed below. mode must be one of the CRTDBG_* constants listed below. Only available in debug build of Python.

msvcrt.CrtSetReportFile(type, file)

After you use CrtSetReportMode() to specify CRTDBG_MODE_FILE, you can specify the file handle to receive the message text. type must be one of the CRT_* constants listed below. file should be the file handle your want specified. Only available in debug build of Python.

msvcrt.CRT_WARN

Warnings, messages, and information that doesn't need immediate attention.

msvcrt.CRT_ERROR

Errors, unrecoverable problems, and issues that require immediate attention.

msvcrt.CRT_ASSERT

Assertion failures.

msvcrt.CRTDBG_MODE_DEBUG

Writes the message to the debugger's output window.

msvcrt.CRTDBG_MODE_FILE

Writes the message to a user-supplied file handle. CrtSetReportFile() should be called to define the specific file or stream to use as the destination.

msvcrt.CRTDBG_MODE_WNDW

Creates a message box to display the message along with the Abort, Retry, and Ignore buttons.

msvcrt.CRTDBG_REPORT_MODE

Returns current mode for the specified type.

msvcrt.CRT_ASSEMBLY_VERSION

The CRT Assembly version, from the crtassem.h header file.

msvcrt.VC_ASSEMBLY_PUBLICKEYTOKEN

The VC Assembly public key token, from the crtassem.h header file.

msvcrt.LIBRARIES_ASSEMBLY_NAME_PREFIX

The Libraries Assembly name prefix, from the crtassem.h header file.

winreg --- Windows registry access

These functions expose the Windows registry API to Python. Instead of using an integer as the registry handle, a handle object is used to ensure that the handles are closed correctly, even if the programmer neglects to explicitly close them.

Disponibilité: Windows.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Several functions in this module used to raise a WindowsError, which is now an alias of OSError.

Fonctions

This module offers the following functions:

winreg.CloseKey(hkey)

Closes a previously opened registry key. The hkey argument specifies a previously opened key.

Note

If hkey is not closed using this method (or via hkey.Close()), it is closed when the hkey object is destroyed by Python.

winreg.ConnectRegistry(computer_name, key)

Establishes a connection to a predefined registry handle on another computer, and returns a handle object.

computer_name is the name of the remote computer, of the form r"\\computername". If None, the local computer is used.

key is the predefined handle to connect to.

The return value is the handle of the opened key. If the function fails, an OSError exception is raised.

Raises an auditing event winreg.ConnectRegistry with arguments computer_name, key.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: See above.

winreg.CreateKey(key, sub_key)

Creates or opens the specified key, returning a handle object.

key is an already open key, or one of the predefined HKEY_* constants.

sub_key is a string that names the key this method opens or creates.

If key is one of the predefined keys, sub_key may be None. In that case, the handle returned is the same key handle passed in to the function.

If the key already exists, this function opens the existing key.

The return value is the handle of the opened key. If the function fails, an OSError exception is raised.

Raises an auditing event winreg.CreateKey with arguments key, sub_key, access.

Raises an auditing event winreg.OpenKey/result with argument key.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: See above.

winreg.CreateKeyEx(key, sub_key, reserved=0, access=KEY_WRITE)

Creates or opens the specified key, returning a handle object.

key is an already open key, or one of the predefined HKEY_* constants.

sub_key is a string that names the key this method opens or creates.

reserved is a reserved integer, and must be zero. The default is zero.

access is an integer that specifies an access mask that describes the desired security access for the key. Default is KEY_WRITE. See Access Rights for other allowed values.

If key is one of the predefined keys, sub_key may be None. In that case, the handle returned is the same key handle passed in to the function.

If the key already exists, this function opens the existing key.

The return value is the handle of the opened key. If the function fails, an OSError exception is raised.

Raises an auditing event winreg.CreateKey with arguments key, sub_key, access.

Raises an auditing event winreg.OpenKey/result with argument key.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: See above.

winreg.DeleteKey(key, sub_key)

Deletes the specified key.

key is an already open key, or one of the predefined HKEY_* constants.

sub_key is a string that must be a subkey of the key identified by the key parameter. This value must not be None, and the key may not have subkeys.

This method can not delete keys with subkeys.

If the method succeeds, the entire key, including all of its values, is removed. If the method fails, an OSError exception is raised.

Raises an auditing event winreg.DeleteKey with arguments key, sub_key, access.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: See above.

winreg.DeleteKeyEx(key, sub_key, access=KEY_WOW64_64KEY, reserved=0)

Deletes the specified key.

key is an already open key, or one of the predefined HKEY_* constants.

sub_key is a string that must be a subkey of the key identified by the key parameter. This value must not be None, and the key may not have subkeys.

reserved is a reserved integer, and must be zero. The default is zero.

access is an integer that specifies an access mask that describes the desired security access for the key. Default is KEY_WOW64_64KEY. On 32-bit Windows, the WOW64 constants are ignored. See Access Rights for other allowed values.

This method can not delete keys with subkeys.

If the method succeeds, the entire key, including all of its values, is removed. If the method fails, an OSError exception is raised.

On unsupported Windows versions, NotImplementedError is raised.

Raises an auditing event winreg.DeleteKey with arguments key, sub_key, access.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: See above.

winreg.DeleteValue(key, value)

Removes a named value from a registry key.

key is an already open key, or one of the predefined HKEY_* constants.

value is a string that identifies the value to remove.

Raises an auditing event winreg.DeleteValue with arguments key, value.

winreg.EnumKey(key, index)

Enumerates subkeys of an open registry key, returning a string.

key is an already open key, or one of the predefined HKEY_* constants.

index is an integer that identifies the index of the key to retrieve.

The function retrieves the name of one subkey each time it is called. It is typically called repeatedly until an OSError exception is raised, indicating, no more values are available.

Raises an auditing event winreg.EnumKey with arguments key, index.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: See above.

winreg.EnumValue(key, index)

Enumerates values of an open registry key, returning a tuple.

key is an already open key, or one of the predefined HKEY_* constants.

index is an integer that identifies the index of the value to retrieve.

The function retrieves the name of one subkey each time it is called. It is typically called repeatedly, until an OSError exception is raised, indicating no more values.

The result is a tuple of 3 items:

Index

Signification

0

A string that identifies the value name

1

An object that holds the value data, and whose type depends on the underlying registry type

2

An integer that identifies the type of the value data (see table in docs for SetValueEx())

Raises an auditing event winreg.EnumValue with arguments key, index.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: See above.

winreg.ExpandEnvironmentStrings(str)

Expands environment variable placeholders %NAME% in strings like REG_EXPAND_SZ:

>>> ExpandEnvironmentStrings('%windir%')
'C:\\Windows'

Raises an auditing event winreg.ExpandEnvironmentStrings with argument str.

winreg.FlushKey(key)

Writes all the attributes of a key to the registry.

key is an already open key, or one of the predefined HKEY_* constants.

It is not necessary to call FlushKey() to change a key. Registry changes are flushed to disk by the registry using its lazy flusher. Registry changes are also flushed to disk at system shutdown. Unlike CloseKey(), the FlushKey() method returns only when all the data has been written to the registry. An application should only call FlushKey() if it requires absolute certainty that registry changes are on disk.

Note

If you don't know whether a FlushKey() call is required, it probably isn't.

winreg.LoadKey(key, sub_key, file_name)

Creates a subkey under the specified key and stores registration information from a specified file into that subkey.

key is a handle returned by ConnectRegistry() or one of the constants HKEY_USERS or HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE.

sub_key is a string that identifies the subkey to load.

file_name is the name of the file to load registry data from. This file must have been created with the SaveKey() function. Under the file allocation table (FAT) file system, the filename may not have an extension.

A call to LoadKey() fails if the calling process does not have the SE_RESTORE_PRIVILEGE privilege. Note that privileges are different from permissions -- see the RegLoadKey documentation [https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724889%28v=VS.85%29.aspx] for more details.

If key is a handle returned by ConnectRegistry(), then the path specified in file_name is relative to the remote computer.

Raises an auditing event winreg.LoadKey with arguments key, sub_key, file_name.

winreg.OpenKey(key, sub_key, reserved=0, access=KEY_READ)

winreg.OpenKeyEx(key, sub_key, reserved=0, access=KEY_READ)

Opens the specified key, returning a handle object.

key is an already open key, or one of the predefined HKEY_* constants.

sub_key is a string that identifies the sub_key to open.

reserved is a reserved integer, and must be zero. The default is zero.

access is an integer that specifies an access mask that describes the desired security access for the key. Default is KEY_READ. See Access Rights for other allowed values.

The result is a new handle to the specified key.

If the function fails, OSError is raised.

Raises an auditing event winreg.OpenKey with arguments key, sub_key, access.

Raises an auditing event winreg.OpenKey/result with argument key.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Allow the use of named arguments.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: See above.

winreg.QueryInfoKey(key)

Returns information about a key, as a tuple.

key is an already open key, or one of the predefined HKEY_* constants.

The result is a tuple of 3 items:

Index

Signification

0

An integer giving the number of sub keys this key has.

1

An integer giving the number of values this key has.

2

An integer giving when the key was last modified (if available) as 100's of nanoseconds since Jan 1, 1601.

Raises an auditing event winreg.QueryInfoKey with argument key.

winreg.QueryValue(key, sub_key)

Retrieves the unnamed value for a key, as a string.

key is an already open key, or one of the predefined HKEY_* constants.

sub_key is a string that holds the name of the subkey with which the value is associated. If this parameter is None or empty, the function retrieves the value set by the SetValue() method for the key identified by key.

Values in the registry have name, type, and data components. This method retrieves the data for a key's first value that has a NULL name. But the underlying API call doesn't return the type, so always use QueryValueEx() if possible.

Raises an auditing event winreg.QueryValue with arguments key, sub_key, value_name.

winreg.QueryValueEx(key, value_name)

Retrieves the type and data for a specified value name associated with an open registry key.

key is an already open key, or one of the predefined HKEY_* constants.

value_name is a string indicating the value to query.

The result is a tuple of 2 items:

Index

Signification

0

The value of the registry item.

1

An integer giving the registry type for this value (see table in docs for SetValueEx())

Raises an auditing event winreg.QueryValue with arguments key, sub_key, value_name.

winreg.SaveKey(key, file_name)

Saves the specified key, and all its subkeys to the specified file.

key is an already open key, or one of the predefined HKEY_* constants.

file_name is the name of the file to save registry data to. This file cannot already exist. If this filename includes an extension, it cannot be used on file allocation table (FAT) file systems by the LoadKey() method.

If key represents a key on a remote computer, the path described by file_name is relative to the remote computer. The caller of this method must possess the SeBackupPrivilege security privilege. Note that privileges are different than permissions -- see the Conflicts Between User Rights and Permissions documentation [https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724878%28v=VS.85%29.aspx] for more details.

This function passes NULL for security_attributes to the API.

Raises an auditing event winreg.SaveKey with arguments key, file_name.

winreg.SetValue(key, sub_key, type, value)

Associates a value with a specified key.

key is an already open key, or one of the predefined HKEY_* constants.

sub_key is a string that names the subkey with which the value is associated.

type is an integer that specifies the type of the data. Currently this must be REG_SZ, meaning only strings are supported. Use the SetValueEx() function for support for other data types.

value is a string that specifies the new value.

If the key specified by the sub_key parameter does not exist, the SetValue function creates it.

Value lengths are limited by available memory. Long values (more than 2048 bytes) should be stored as files with the filenames stored in the configuration registry. This helps the registry perform efficiently.

The key identified by the key parameter must have been opened with KEY_SET_VALUE access.

Raises an auditing event winreg.SetValue with arguments key, sub_key, type, value.

winreg.SetValueEx(key, value_name, reserved, type, value)

Stores data in the value field of an open registry key.

key is an already open key, or one of the predefined HKEY_* constants.

value_name is a string that names the subkey with which the value is associated.

reserved can be anything -- zero is always passed to the API.

type is an integer that specifies the type of the data. See Value Types for the available types.

value is a string that specifies the new value.

This method can also set additional value and type information for the specified key. The key identified by the key parameter must have been opened with KEY_SET_VALUE access.

To open the key, use the CreateKey() or OpenKey() methods.

Value lengths are limited by available memory. Long values (more than 2048 bytes) should be stored as files with the filenames stored in the configuration registry. This helps the registry perform efficiently.

Raises an auditing event winreg.SetValue with arguments key, sub_key, type, value.

winreg.DisableReflectionKey(key)

Disables registry reflection for 32-bit processes running on a 64-bit operating system.

key is an already open key, or one of the predefined HKEY_* constants.

Will generally raise NotImplementedError if executed on a 32-bit operating system.

If the key is not on the reflection list, the function succeeds but has no effect. Disabling reflection for a key does not affect reflection of any subkeys.

Raises an auditing event winreg.DisableReflectionKey with argument key.

winreg.EnableReflectionKey(key)

Restores registry reflection for the specified disabled key.

key is an already open key, or one of the predefined HKEY_* constants.

Will generally raise NotImplementedError if executed on a 32-bit operating system.

Restoring reflection for a key does not affect reflection of any subkeys.

Raises an auditing event winreg.EnableReflectionKey with argument key.

winreg.QueryReflectionKey(key)

Determines the reflection state for the specified key.

key is an already open key, or one of the predefined HKEY_* constants.

Returns True if reflection is disabled.

Will generally raise NotImplementedError if executed on a 32-bit operating system.

Raises an auditing event winreg.QueryReflectionKey with argument key.

Constantes

The following constants are defined for use in many winreg functions.

HKEY_* Constants

winreg.HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT

Registry entries subordinate to this key define types (or classes) of documents and the properties associated with those types. Shell and COM applications use the information stored under this key.

winreg.HKEY_CURRENT_USER

Registry entries subordinate to this key define the preferences of the current user. These preferences include the settings of environment variables, data about program groups, colors, printers, network connections, and application preferences.

winreg.HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE

Registry entries subordinate to this key define the physical state of the computer, including data about the bus type, system memory, and installed hardware and software.

winreg.HKEY_USERS

Registry entries subordinate to this key define the default user configuration for new users on the local computer and the user configuration for the current user.

winreg.HKEY_PERFORMANCE_DATA

Registry entries subordinate to this key allow you to access performance data. The data is not actually stored in the registry; the registry functions cause the system to collect the data from its source.

winreg.HKEY_CURRENT_CONFIG

Contains information about the current hardware profile of the local computer system.

winreg.HKEY_DYN_DATA

This key is not used in versions of Windows after 98.

Access Rights

For more information, see Registry Key Security and Access [https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724878%28v=VS.85%29.aspx].

winreg.KEY_ALL_ACCESS

Combines the STANDARD_RIGHTS_REQUIRED, KEY_QUERY_VALUE, KEY_SET_VALUE, KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY, KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS, KEY_NOTIFY, and KEY_CREATE_LINK access rights.

winreg.KEY_WRITE

Combines the STANDARD_RIGHTS_WRITE, KEY_SET_VALUE, and KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY access rights.

winreg.KEY_READ

Combines the STANDARD_RIGHTS_READ, KEY_QUERY_VALUE, KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS, and KEY_NOTIFY values.

winreg.KEY_EXECUTE

Equivalent to KEY_READ.

winreg.KEY_QUERY_VALUE

Required to query the values of a registry key.

winreg.KEY_SET_VALUE

Required to create, delete, or set a registry value.

winreg.KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY

Required to create a subkey of a registry key.

winreg.KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS

Required to enumerate the subkeys of a registry key.

winreg.KEY_NOTIFY

Required to request change notifications for a registry key or for subkeys of a registry key.

winreg.KEY_CREATE_LINK

Reserved for system use.

64-bit Specific

For more information, see Accessing an Alternate Registry View [https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/aa384129(v=VS.85).aspx].

winreg.KEY_WOW64_64KEY

Indicates that an application on 64-bit Windows should operate on the 64-bit registry view. On 32-bit Windows, this constant is ignored.

winreg.KEY_WOW64_32KEY

Indicates that an application on 64-bit Windows should operate on the 32-bit registry view. On 32-bit Windows, this constant is ignored.

Value Types

For more information, see Registry Value Types [https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724884%28v=VS.85%29.aspx].

winreg.REG_BINARY

Binary data in any form.

winreg.REG_DWORD

32-bit number.

winreg.REG_DWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN

A 32-bit number in little-endian format. Equivalent to REG_DWORD.

winreg.REG_DWORD_BIG_ENDIAN

A 32-bit number in big-endian format.

winreg.REG_EXPAND_SZ

Null-terminated string containing references to environment variables (%PATH%).

winreg.REG_LINK

A Unicode symbolic link.

winreg.REG_MULTI_SZ

A sequence of null-terminated strings, terminated by two null characters. (Python handles this termination automatically.)

winreg.REG_NONE

No defined value type.

winreg.REG_QWORD

A 64-bit number.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

winreg.REG_QWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN

A 64-bit number in little-endian format. Equivalent to REG_QWORD.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

winreg.REG_RESOURCE_LIST

A device-driver resource list.

winreg.REG_FULL_RESOURCE_DESCRIPTOR

A hardware setting.

winreg.REG_RESOURCE_REQUIREMENTS_LIST

A hardware resource list.

winreg.REG_SZ

A null-terminated string.

Registry Handle Objects

This object wraps a Windows HKEY object, automatically closing it when the object is destroyed. To guarantee cleanup, you can call either the Close() method on the object, or the CloseKey() function.

All registry functions in this module return one of these objects.

All registry functions in this module which accept a handle object also accept an integer, however, use of the handle object is encouraged.

Handle objects provide semantics for __bool__() -- thus

if handle:
    print("Yes")

will print Yes if the handle is currently valid (has not been closed or detached).

Handle objects can be converted to an integer (e.g., using the built-in int() function), in which case the underlying Windows handle value is returned. You can also use the Detach() method to return the integer handle, and also disconnect the Windows handle from the handle object.

PyHKEY.Close()

Closes the underlying Windows handle.

If the handle is already closed, no error is raised.

PyHKEY.Detach()

Detaches the Windows handle from the handle object.

The result is an integer that holds the value of the handle before it is detached. If the handle is already detached or closed, this will return zero.

After calling this function, the handle is effectively invalidated, but the handle is not closed. You would call this function when you need the underlying Win32 handle to exist beyond the lifetime of the handle object.

Raises an auditing event winreg.PyHKEY.Detach with argument key.

PyHKEY.__enter__()

PyHKEY.__exit__(*exc_info)

The HKEY object implements __enter__() and __exit__() and thus supports the context protocol for the with statement:

with OpenKey(HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE, "foo") as key:
    ...  # work with key

will automatically close key when control leaves the with block.

winsound --- Sound-playing interface for Windows

The winsound module provides access to the basic sound-playing machinery provided by Windows platforms. It includes functions and several constants.

Disponibilité: Windows.

winsound.Beep(frequency, duration)

Beep the PC's speaker. The frequency parameter specifies frequency, in hertz, of the sound, and must be in the range 37 through 32,767. The duration parameter specifies the number of milliseconds the sound should last. If the system is not able to beep the speaker, RuntimeError is raised.

winsound.PlaySound(sound, flags)

Call the underlying PlaySound() function from the Platform API. The sound parameter may be a filename, a system sound alias, audio data as a bytes-like object, or None. Its interpretation depends on the value of flags, which can be a bitwise ORed combination of the constants described below. If the sound parameter is None, any currently playing waveform sound is stopped. If the system indicates an error, RuntimeError is raised.

winsound.MessageBeep(type=MB_OK)

Call the underlying MessageBeep() function from the Platform API. This plays a sound as specified in the registry. The type argument specifies which sound to play; possible values are -1, MB_ICONASTERISK, MB_ICONEXCLAMATION, MB_ICONHAND, MB_ICONQUESTION, and MB_OK, all described below. The value -1 produces a "simple beep"; this is the final fallback if a sound cannot be played otherwise. If the system indicates an error, RuntimeError is raised.

winsound.SND_FILENAME

The sound parameter is the name of a WAV file. Do not use with SND_ALIAS.

winsound.SND_ALIAS

The sound parameter is a sound association name from the registry. If the registry contains no such name, play the system default sound unless SND_NODEFAULT is also specified. If no default sound is registered, raise RuntimeError. Do not use with SND_FILENAME.

All Win32 systems support at least the following; most systems support many more:

PlaySound() name

Corresponding Control Panel Sound name

'SystemAsterisk'

Asterisk

'SystemExclamation'

Exclamation

'SystemExit'

Exit Windows

'SystemHand'

Critical Stop

'SystemQuestion'

Question

Par exemple :

import winsound
# Play Windows exit sound.
winsound.PlaySound("SystemExit", winsound.SND_ALIAS)

# Probably play Windows default sound, if any is registered (because
# "*" probably isn't the registered name of any sound).
winsound.PlaySound("*", winsound.SND_ALIAS)

winsound.SND_LOOP

Play the sound repeatedly. The SND_ASYNC flag must also be used to avoid blocking. Cannot be used with SND_MEMORY.

winsound.SND_MEMORY

The sound parameter to PlaySound() is a memory image of a WAV file, as a bytes-like object.

Note

This module does not support playing from a memory image asynchronously, so a combination of this flag and SND_ASYNC will raise RuntimeError.

winsound.SND_PURGE

Stop playing all instances of the specified sound.

Note

This flag is not supported on modern Windows platforms.

winsound.SND_ASYNC

Return immediately, allowing sounds to play asynchronously.

winsound.SND_NODEFAULT

If the specified sound cannot be found, do not play the system default sound.

winsound.SND_NOSTOP

Do not interrupt sounds currently playing.

winsound.SND_NOWAIT

Return immediately if the sound driver is busy.

Note

This flag is not supported on modern Windows platforms.

winsound.SND_APPLICATION

The sound parameter is an application-specific alias in the registry. This flag can be combined with the SND_ALIAS flag to specify an application-defined sound alias.

winsound.SND_SENTRY

Triggers a SoundSentry event when the sound is played.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

winsound.SND_SYNC

The sound is played synchronously. This is the default behavior.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

winsound.SND_SYSTEM

Assign the sound to the audio session for system notification sounds.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

winsound.MB_ICONASTERISK

Play the SystemDefault sound.

winsound.MB_ICONEXCLAMATION

Play the SystemExclamation sound.

winsound.MB_ICONHAND

Play the SystemHand sound.

winsound.MB_ICONQUESTION

Play the SystemQuestion sound.

winsound.MB_OK

Play the SystemDefault sound.

winsound.MB_ICONERROR

Play the SystemHand sound.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

winsound.MB_ICONINFORMATION

Play the SystemDefault sound.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

winsound.MB_ICONSTOP

Play the SystemHand sound.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

winsound.MB_ICONWARNING

Play the SystemExclamation sound.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Unix-specific services

Les modules décrits dans ce chapitre fournissent des interfaces aux fonctionnalités propres au système d'exploitation Unix ou, dans certains cas, à certaines de ses variantes, en voici un aperçu :

shlex --- Simple lexical analysis

shlex Objects

Parsing Rules

Improved Compatibility with Shells

posix --- The most common POSIX system calls

Prise en charge de gros fichiers

Contenu du Module

pwd --- The password database

grp --- The group database

termios --- POSIX style tty control

Exemple

tty --- Terminal control functions

pty --- Pseudo-terminal utilities

Exemple

fcntl --- The fcntl and ioctl system calls

resource --- Resource usage information

Resource Limits

Resource Usage

syslog --- Unix syslog library routines

Exemples

Exemple simple

shlex --- Simple lexical analysis

Code source : Lib/shlex.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/shlex.py]

The shlex class makes it easy to write lexical analyzers for simple syntaxes resembling that of the Unix shell. This will often be useful for writing minilanguages, (for example, in run control files for Python applications) or for parsing quoted strings.

The shlex module defines the following functions:

shlex.split(s, comments=False, posix=True)

Split the string s using shell-like syntax. If comments is False (the default), the parsing of comments in the given string will be disabled (setting the commenters attribute of the shlex instance to the empty string). This function operates in POSIX mode by default, but uses non-POSIX mode if the posix argument is false.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Passing None for s argument now raises an exception, rather than reading sys.stdin.

shlex.join(split_command)

Concatenate the tokens of the list split_command and return a string. This function is the inverse of split().

>>> from shlex import join
>>> print(join(['echo', '-n', 'Multiple words']))
echo -n 'Multiple words'

The returned value is shell-escaped to protect against injection vulnerabilities (see quote()).

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

shlex.quote(s)

Return a shell-escaped version of the string s. The returned value is a string that can safely be used as one token in a shell command line, for cases where you cannot use a list.

Avertissement

The shlex module is only designed for Unix shells.

The quote() function is not guaranteed to be correct on non-POSIX compliant shells or shells from other operating systems such as Windows. Executing commands quoted by this module on such shells can open up the possibility of a command injection vulnerability.

Consider using functions that pass command arguments with lists such as subprocess.run() with shell=False.

This idiom would be unsafe:

>>> filename = 'somefile; rm -rf ~'
>>> command = 'ls -l {}'.format(filename)
>>> print(command)  # executed by a shell: boom!
ls -l somefile; rm -rf ~

quote() lets you plug the security hole:

>>> from shlex import quote
>>> command = 'ls -l {}'.format(quote(filename))
>>> print(command)
ls -l 'somefile; rm -rf ~'
>>> remote_command = 'ssh home {}'.format(quote(command))
>>> print(remote_command)
ssh home 'ls -l '"'"'somefile; rm -rf ~'"'"''

The quoting is compatible with UNIX shells and with split():

>>> from shlex import split
>>> remote_command = split(remote_command)
>>> remote_command
['ssh', 'home', "ls -l 'somefile; rm -rf ~'"]
>>> command = split(remote_command[-1])
>>> command
['ls', '-l', 'somefile; rm -rf ~']

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

The shlex module defines the following class:

class shlex.shlex(instream=None, infile=None, posix=False, punctuation_chars=False)

A shlex instance or subclass instance is a lexical analyzer object. The initialization argument, if present, specifies where to read characters from. It must be a file-/stream-like object with read() and readline() methods, or a string. If no argument is given, input will be taken from sys.stdin. The second optional argument is a filename string, which sets the initial value of the infile attribute. If the instream argument is omitted or equal to sys.stdin, this second argument defaults to "stdin". The posix argument defines the operational mode: when posix is not true (default), the shlex instance will operate in compatibility mode. When operating in POSIX mode, shlex will try to be as close as possible to the POSIX shell parsing rules. The punctuation_chars argument provides a way to make the behaviour even closer to how real shells parse. This can take a number of values: the default value, False, preserves the behaviour seen under Python 3.5 and earlier. If set to True, then parsing of the characters ();<>|& is changed: any run of these characters (considered punctuation characters) is returned as a single token. If set to a non-empty string of characters, those characters will be used as the punctuation characters. Any characters in the wordchars attribute that appear in punctuation_chars will be removed from wordchars. See Improved Compatibility with Shells for more information. punctuation_chars can be set only upon shlex instance creation and can't be modified later.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: The punctuation_chars parameter was added.

Voir aussi

Module configparser

Parser for configuration files similar to the Windows .ini files.

shlex Objects

A shlex instance has the following methods:

shlex.get_token()

Return a token. If tokens have been stacked using push_token(), pop a token off the stack. Otherwise, read one from the input stream. If reading encounters an immediate end-of-file, eof is returned (the empty string ('') in non-POSIX mode, and None in POSIX mode).

shlex.push_token(str)

Push the argument onto the token stack.

shlex.read_token()

Read a raw token. Ignore the pushback stack, and do not interpret source requests. (This is not ordinarily a useful entry point, and is documented here only for the sake of completeness.)

shlex.sourcehook(filename)

When shlex detects a source request (see source below) this method is given the following token as argument, and expected to return a tuple consisting of a filename and an open file-like object.

Normally, this method first strips any quotes off the argument. If the result is an absolute pathname, or there was no previous source request in effect, or the previous source was a stream (such as sys.stdin), the result is left alone. Otherwise, if the result is a relative pathname, the directory part of the name of the file immediately before it on the source inclusion stack is prepended (this behavior is like the way the C preprocessor handles #include "file.h").

The result of the manipulations is treated as a filename, and returned as the first component of the tuple, with open() called on it to yield the second component. (Note: this is the reverse of the order of arguments in instance initialization!)

This hook is exposed so that you can use it to implement directory search paths, addition of file extensions, and other namespace hacks. There is no corresponding 'close' hook, but a shlex instance will call the close() method of the sourced input stream when it returns EOF.

For more explicit control of source stacking, use the push_source() and pop_source() methods.

shlex.push_source(newstream, newfile=None)

Push an input source stream onto the input stack. If the filename argument is specified it will later be available for use in error messages. This is the same method used internally by the sourcehook() method.

shlex.pop_source()

Pop the last-pushed input source from the input stack. This is the same method used internally when the lexer reaches EOF on a stacked input stream.

shlex.error_leader(infile=None, lineno=None)

This method generates an error message leader in the format of a Unix C compiler error label; the format is '"%s", line %d: ', where the %s is replaced with the name of the current source file and the %d with the current input line number (the optional arguments can be used to override these).

This convenience is provided to encourage shlex users to generate error messages in the standard, parseable format understood by Emacs and other Unix tools.

Instances of shlex subclasses have some public instance variables which either control lexical analysis or can be used for debugging:

shlex.commenters

The string of characters that are recognized as comment beginners. All characters from the comment beginner to end of line are ignored. Includes just '#' by default.

shlex.wordchars

The string of characters that will accumulate into multi-character tokens. By default, includes all ASCII alphanumerics and underscore. In POSIX mode, the accented characters in the Latin-1 set are also included. If punctuation_chars is not empty, the characters ~-./*?=, which can appear in filename specifications and command line parameters, will also be included in this attribute, and any characters which appear in punctuation_chars will be removed from wordchars if they are present there. If whitespace_split is set to True, this will have no effect.

shlex.whitespace

Characters that will be considered whitespace and skipped. Whitespace bounds tokens. By default, includes space, tab, linefeed and carriage-return.

shlex.escape

Characters that will be considered as escape. This will be only used in POSIX mode, and includes just '\' by default.

shlex.quotes

Characters that will be considered string quotes. The token accumulates until the same quote is encountered again (thus, different quote types protect each other as in the shell.) By default, includes ASCII single and double quotes.

shlex.escapedquotes

Characters in quotes that will interpret escape characters defined in escape. This is only used in POSIX mode, and includes just '"' by default.

shlex.whitespace_split

If True, tokens will only be split in whitespaces. This is useful, for example, for parsing command lines with shlex, getting tokens in a similar way to shell arguments. When used in combination with punctuation_chars, tokens will be split on whitespace in addition to those characters.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: The punctuation_chars attribute was made compatible with the whitespace_split attribute.

shlex.infile

The name of the current input file, as initially set at class instantiation time or stacked by later source requests. It may be useful to examine this when constructing error messages.

shlex.instream

The input stream from which this shlex instance is reading characters.

shlex.source

This attribute is None by default. If you assign a string to it, that string will be recognized as a lexical-level inclusion request similar to the source keyword in various shells. That is, the immediately following token will be opened as a filename and input will be taken from that stream until EOF, at which point the close() method of that stream will be called and the input source will again become the original input stream. Source requests may be stacked any number of levels deep.

shlex.debug

If this attribute is numeric and 1 or more, a shlex instance will print verbose progress output on its behavior. If you need to use this, you can read the module source code to learn the details.

shlex.lineno

Source line number (count of newlines seen so far plus one).

shlex.token

The token buffer. It may be useful to examine this when catching exceptions.

shlex.eof

Token used to determine end of file. This will be set to the empty string (''), in non-POSIX mode, and to None in POSIX mode.

shlex.punctuation_chars

A read-only property. Characters that will be considered punctuation. Runs of punctuation characters will be returned as a single token. However, note that no semantic validity checking will be performed: for example, '>>>' could be returned as a token, even though it may not be recognised as such by shells.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

Parsing Rules

When operating in non-POSIX mode, shlex will try to obey the following rules.

Quote characters are not recognized within words (Do"Not"Separate is parsed as the single word Do"Not"Separate);

Escape characters are not recognized;

Enclosing characters in quotes preserve the literal value of all characters within the quotes;

Closing quotes separate words ("Do"Separate is parsed as "Do" and Separate);

If whitespace_split is False, any character not declared to be a word character, whitespace, or a quote will be returned as a single-character token. If it is True, shlex will only split words in whitespaces;

EOF is signaled with an empty string ('');

It's not possible to parse empty strings, even if quoted.

When operating in POSIX mode, shlex will try to obey the following parsing rules.

Quotes are stripped out, and do not separate words ("Do"Not"Separate" is parsed as the single word DoNotSeparate);

Non-quoted escape characters (e.g. '\') preserve the literal value of the next character that follows;

Enclosing characters in quotes which are not part of escapedquotes (e.g. "'") preserve the literal value of all characters within the quotes;

Enclosing characters in quotes which are part of escapedquotes (e.g. '"') preserves the literal value of all characters within the quotes, with the exception of the characters mentioned in escape. The escape characters retain their special meaning only when followed by the quote in use, or the escape character itself. Otherwise the escape character will be considered a normal character.

EOF is signaled with a None value;

Quoted empty strings ('') are allowed.

Improved Compatibility with Shells

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

The shlex class provides compatibility with the parsing performed by common Unix shells like bash, dash, and sh. To take advantage of this compatibility, specify the punctuation_chars argument in the constructor. This defaults to False, which preserves pre-3.6 behaviour. However, if it is set to True, then parsing of the characters ();<>|& is changed: any run of these characters is returned as a single token. While this is short of a full parser for shells (which would be out of scope for the standard library, given the multiplicity of shells out there), it does allow you to perform processing of command lines more easily than you could otherwise. To illustrate, you can see the difference in the following snippet:

>>> import shlex
>>> text = "a && b; c && d || e; f >'abc'; (def \"ghi\")"
>>> s = shlex.shlex(text, posix=True)
>>> s.whitespace_split = True
>>> list(s)
['a', '&&', 'b;', 'c', '&&', 'd', '||', 'e;', 'f', '>abc;', '(def', 'ghi)']
>>> s = shlex.shlex(text, posix=True, punctuation_chars=True)
>>> s.whitespace_split = True
>>> list(s)
['a', '&&', 'b', ';', 'c', '&&', 'd', '||', 'e', ';', 'f', '>', 'abc', ';',
'(', 'def', 'ghi', ')']

Of course, tokens will be returned which are not valid for shells, and you'll need to implement your own error checks on the returned tokens.

Instead of passing True as the value for the punctuation_chars parameter, you can pass a string with specific characters, which will be used to determine which characters constitute punctuation. For example:

>>> import shlex
>>> s = shlex.shlex("a && b || c", punctuation_chars="|")
>>> list(s)
['a', '&', '&', 'b', '||', 'c']

Note

When punctuation_chars is specified, the wordchars attribute is augmented with the characters ~-./*?=. That is because these characters can appear in file names (including wildcards) and command-line arguments (e.g. --color=auto). Hence:

>>> import shlex
>>> s = shlex.shlex('~/a && b-c --color=auto || d *.py?',
...                 punctuation_chars=True)
>>> list(s)
['~/a', '&&', 'b-c', '--color=auto', '||', 'd', '*.py?']

However, to match the shell as closely as possible, it is recommended to always use posix and whitespace_split when using punctuation_chars, which will negate wordchars entirely.

For best effect, punctuation_chars should be set in conjunction with posix=True. (Note that posix=False is the default for shlex.)

posix --- The most common POSIX system calls

Ce module permet d'accéder aux fonctionnalités du système d'exploitation normalisés par le Standard C et le Standard POSIX (une interface Unix habilement déguisée).

Disponibilité: Unix.

Do not import this module directly. Instead, import the module os, which provides a portable version of this interface. On Unix, the os module provides a superset of the posix interface. On non-Unix operating systems the posix module is not available, but a subset is always available through the os interface. Once os is imported, there is no performance penalty in using it instead of posix. In addition, os provides some additional functionality, such as automatically calling putenv() when an entry in os.environ is changed.

Les erreurs sont signalées comme des exceptions; les exceptions habituelles sont données pour les erreurs de type, tandis que les erreurs signalées par les appels système lèvent une erreur OSError.

Prise en charge de gros fichiers

Several operating systems (including AIX and Solaris) provide support for files that are larger than 2 GiB from a C programming model where int and long are 32-bit values. This is typically accomplished by defining the relevant size and offset types as 64-bit values. Such files are sometimes referred to as large files.

Large file support is enabled in Python when the size of an off_t is larger than a long and the long long is at least as large as an off_t. It may be necessary to configure and compile Python with certain compiler flags to enable this mode. For example, with Solaris 2.6 and 2.7 you need to do something like:

CFLAGS="`getconf LFS_CFLAGS`" OPT="-g -O2 $CFLAGS" \
        ./configure

Sur les systèmes Linux capable de supporter les fichiers volumineux, cela pourrait fonctionner :

CFLAGS='-D_LARGEFILE64_SOURCE -D_FILE_OFFSET_BITS=64' OPT="-g -O2 $CFLAGS" \
        ./configure

Contenu du Module

In addition to many functions described in the os module documentation, posix defines the following data item:

posix.environ

Un dictionnaire représentant les variables d'environnement au moment où l'interpréteur à été lancé. Les clés et les valeurs sont des bytes sous Unix et des str sous Windows. Par exemple, environ[b'HOME'] (environ['HOME'] dans Windows) est le chemin de votre dossier d’accueil, équivalent à getenv("HOME") en C.

Modifier ce dictionnaire n'affecte pas les variables d'environnements fournis par execv(), popen() ou system(); Si vous avez besoin de changer l'environnement, passer le paramètre environ à execve() ou ajouter les assignations de variables et les export à la commande à exécuter via system() ou popen().

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Sous Unix, les clés et les valeurs sont des octets.

Note

The os module provides an alternate implementation of environ which updates the environment on modification. Note also that updating os.environ will render this dictionary obsolete. Use of the os module version of this is recommended over direct access to the posix module.

pwd --- The password database

This module provides access to the Unix user account and password database. It is available on all Unix versions.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI, not iOS.

Password database entries are reported as a tuple-like object, whose attributes correspond to the members of the passwd structure (Attribute field below, see <pwd.h>):

Index

Attribut

Signification

0

pw_name

Nom d’utilisateur

1

pw_passwd

Optional encrypted password

2

pw_uid

Numerical user ID

3

pw_gid

Numerical group ID

4

pw_gecos

User name or comment field

5

pw_dir

Répertoire d’accueil de l’utilisateur

6

pw_shell

User command interpreter

The uid and gid items are integers, all others are strings. KeyError is raised if the entry asked for cannot be found.

Note

In traditional Unix the field pw_passwd usually contains a password encrypted with a DES derived algorithm. However most modern unices use a so-called shadow password system. On those unices the pw_passwd field only contains an asterisk ('*') or the letter 'x' where the encrypted password is stored in a file /etc/shadow which is not world readable. Whether the pw_passwd field contains anything useful is system-dependent.

It defines the following items:

pwd.getpwuid(uid)

Return the password database entry for the given numeric user ID.

pwd.getpwnam(name)

Return the password database entry for the given user name.

pwd.getpwall()

Return a list of all available password database entries, in arbitrary order.

Voir aussi

Module grp

Interface pour la base de données des groupes, similaire à celle-ci.

grp --- The group database

This module provides access to the Unix group database. It is available on all Unix versions.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

Group database entries are reported as a tuple-like object, whose attributes correspond to the members of the group structure (Attribute field below, see <grp.h>):

Index

Attribut

Signification

0

gr_name

the name of the group

1

gr_passwd

the (encrypted) group password; often empty

2

gr_gid

the numerical group ID

3

gr_mem

all the group member's user names

The gid is an integer, name and password are strings, and the member list is a list of strings. (Note that most users are not explicitly listed as members of the group they are in according to the password database. Check both databases to get complete membership information. Also note that a gr_name that starts with a + or - is likely to be a YP/NIS reference and may not be accessible via getgrnam() or getgrgid().)

It defines the following items:

grp.getgrgid(id)

Return the group database entry for the given numeric group ID. KeyError is raised if the entry asked for cannot be found.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: TypeError is raised for non-integer arguments like floats or strings.

grp.getgrnam(name)

Return the group database entry for the given group name. KeyError is raised if the entry asked for cannot be found.

grp.getgrall()

Return a list of all available group entries, in arbitrary order.

Voir aussi

Module pwd

An interface to the user database, similar to this.

termios --- POSIX style tty control

Ce module fournit une interface aux appels POSIX pour le contrôle des entrées-sorties d'un terminal. Pour une description complète de ces appels, voir la page du manuel UNIX termios(3) [https://manpages.debian.org/termios(3)]. Il n'est disponible que pour les versions Unix qui gèrent le contrôle des entrées-sorties du terminal à travers des appels POSIX termios configurés à l’installation.

Disponibilité: Unix.

Toutes les fonctions de ce module prennent un descripteur de fichier fd comme premier argument. Ça peut être un descripteur de fichiers entier, tel que le renvoie sys.stdin.fileno(), ou un file object, tel que sys.stdin.

Ce module définit aussi toutes les constantes nécessaires pour travailler avec les fonctions fournies ici ; elles ont les mêmes noms que leurs équivalents en C. Pour plus d’informations sur l’utilisation de ces terminaux, veuillez vous référer à votre documentation système.

Le module définit les fonctions suivantes :

termios.tcgetattr(fd)

Return a list containing the tty attributes for file descriptor fd, as follows: [iflag, oflag, cflag, lflag, ispeed, ospeed, cc] where cc is a list of the tty special characters (each a string of length 1, except the items with indices VMIN and VTIME, which are integers when these fields are defined). The interpretation of the flags and the speeds as well as the indexing in the cc array must be done using the symbolic constants defined in the termios module.

termios.tcsetattr(fd, when, attributes)

Set the tty attributes for file descriptor fd from the attributes, which is a list like the one returned by tcgetattr(). The when argument determines when the attributes are changed:

termios.TCSANOW

Change attributes immediately.

termios.TCSADRAIN

Change attributes after transmitting all queued output.

termios.TCSAFLUSH

Change attributes after transmitting all queued output and discarding all queued input.

termios.tcsendbreak(fd, duration)

Envoie une pause sur le descripteur de fichier fd. Une duration à zéro envoie une pause de 0,25 à 0,5 seconde ; une duration différente de zéro possède une signification spécifique sur chaque système.

termios.tcdrain(fd)

Attend que toutes les sorties écrites dans le descripteur de fichier fd soient transmises.

termios.tcflush(fd, queue)

Vide la queue de données du descripteur de fichier fd. Le sélecteur queue précise la queue : TCIFLUSH pour la queue des entrées, TCOFLUSH pour la queue des sorties, ou TCIOFLUSH pour les deux queues.

termios.tcflow(fd, action)

Suspend ou reprend l’entrée ou la sortie du descripteur de fichier fd. L’argument action peut être TCOOFF pour suspendre la sortie, TCOON pour relancer la sortie, TCIOFF pour suspendre l’entrée, ou TCION pour relancer l’entrée.

termios.tcgetwinsize(fd)

Return a tuple (ws_row, ws_col) containing the tty window size for file descriptor fd. Requires termios.TIOCGWINSZ or termios.TIOCGSIZE.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

termios.tcsetwinsize(fd, winsize)

Set the tty window size for file descriptor fd from winsize, which is a two-item tuple (ws_row, ws_col) like the one returned by tcgetwinsize(). Requires at least one of the pairs (termios.TIOCGWINSZ, termios.TIOCSWINSZ); (termios.TIOCGSIZE, termios.TIOCSSIZE) to be defined.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

Voir aussi

Le module tty

Fonctions utiles pour les opérations de contrôle communes dans le terminal.

Exemple

Voici une fonction qui demande à l’utilisateur d’entrer un mot de passe sans l’afficher. Remarquez la technique qui consiste à séparer un appel à tcgetattr() et une instruction try… finally pour s’assurer que les anciens attributs du terminal soient restaurés tels quels quoi qu’il arrive :

def getpass(prompt="Password: "):
    import termios, sys
    fd = sys.stdin.fileno()
    old = termios.tcgetattr(fd)
    new = termios.tcgetattr(fd)
    new[3] = new[3] & ~termios.ECHO          # lflags
    try:
        termios.tcsetattr(fd, termios.TCSADRAIN, new)
        passwd = input(prompt)
    finally:
        termios.tcsetattr(fd, termios.TCSADRAIN, old)
    return passwd

tty --- Terminal control functions

Code source : Lib/tty.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/tty.py]

The tty module defines functions for putting the tty into cbreak and raw modes.

Disponibilité: Unix.

Puisqu'il a besoin du module termios, il ne fonctionnera que sur Unix.

The tty module defines the following functions:

tty.cfmakeraw(mode)

Convert the tty attribute list mode, which is a list like the one returned by termios.tcgetattr(), to that of a tty in raw mode.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

tty.cfmakecbreak(mode)

Convert the tty attribute list mode, which is a list like the one returned by termios.tcgetattr(), to that of a tty in cbreak mode.

This clears the ECHO and ICANON local mode flags in mode as well as setting the minimum input to 1 byte with no delay.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Modifié dans la version 3.12.2: The ICRNL flag is no longer cleared. This matches Linux and macOS stty cbreak behavior and what setcbreak() historically did.

tty.setraw(fd, when=termios.TCSAFLUSH)

Change the mode of the file descriptor fd to raw. If when is omitted, it defaults to termios.TCSAFLUSH, and is passed to termios.tcsetattr(). The return value of termios.tcgetattr() is saved before setting fd to raw mode; this value is returned.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: The return value is now the original tty attributes, instead of None.

tty.setcbreak(fd, when=termios.TCSAFLUSH)

Change the mode of file descriptor fd to cbreak. If when is omitted, it defaults to termios.TCSAFLUSH, and is passed to termios.tcsetattr(). The return value of termios.tcgetattr() is saved before setting fd to cbreak mode; this value is returned.

This clears the ECHO and ICANON local mode flags as well as setting the minimum input to 1 byte with no delay.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: The return value is now the original tty attributes, instead of None.

Modifié dans la version 3.12.2: The ICRNL flag is no longer cleared. This restores the behavior of Python 3.11 and earlier as well as matching what Linux, macOS, & BSDs describe in their stty(1) man pages regarding cbreak mode.

Voir aussi

Module termios

Interface bas niveau de gestion du terminal.

pty --- Pseudo-terminal utilities

Code source : Lib/pty.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/pty.py]

The pty module defines operations for handling the pseudo-terminal concept: starting another process and being able to write to and read from its controlling terminal programmatically.

Disponibilité: Unix.

Pseudo-terminal handling is highly platform dependent. This code is mainly tested on Linux, FreeBSD, and macOS (it is supposed to work on other POSIX platforms but it's not been thoroughly tested).

The pty module defines the following functions:

pty.fork()

Fork. Connecte le terminal contrôlé par le fils à un pseudo-terminal. La valeur renvoyée est (pid, fd). Notez que le fils obtient 0 comme pid et un fd non valide. Le parent obtient le pid du fils, et fd un descripteur de fichier connecté à un terminal contrôlé par le fils (et donc à l'entrée et la sortie standard du fils).

Avertissement

On macOS the use of this function is unsafe when mixed with using higher-level system APIs, and that includes using urllib.request.

pty.openpty()

Ouvre une nouvelle paire de pseudo-terminaux, en utilisant si possible os.openpty(), ou du code émulant la fonctionnalité pour des systèmes Unix génériques. Renvoie une paire de descripteurs de fichier (master, slave), pour le maître et pour l'esclave respectivement.

pty.spawn(argv[, master_read[, stdin_read]])

Crée un nouveau processus et connecte son terminal aux entrées/sorties standard du processus courant. Cette stratégie est typiquement utilisée pour les programmes qui veulent lire depuis leur propre terminal. Le processus créé utilisant le pty est supposé se terminer et, quand il le fera, l'appel de spawn terminera.

A loop copies STDIN of the current process to the child and data received from the child to STDOUT of the current process. It is not signaled to the child if STDIN of the current process closes down.

The functions master_read and stdin_read are passed a file descriptor which they should read from, and they should always return a byte string. In order to force spawn to return before the child process exits an empty byte array should be returned to signal end of file.

L'implémentation par défaut pour les deux fonctions lit et renvoie jusqu'à 1024 octets à chaque appel de la fonction. La fonction de rappel master_read reçoit le descripteur de fichier du pseudo-terminal maître pour lire la sortie du processus enfant, et stdin_read reçoit le descripteur de fichier 0, pour lire l'entrée standard du processus parent.

Le renvoi d'une chaîne d'octets vide à partir de l'un ou l'autre des rappels est interprété comme une condition de fin de fichier (EOF), et ce rappel ne sera pas appelé après cela. Si stdin_read signale EOF, le terminal de contrôle ne peut plus communiquer avec le processus parent OU le processus enfant. À moins que le processus enfant ne quitte sans aucune entrée, spawn sera lancé dans une boucle infinie. Si master_read indique la fin de fichier, on aura le même comportement (sur Linux au moins).

Return the exit status value from os.waitpid() on the child process.

os.waitstatus_to_exitcode() can be used to convert the exit status into an exit code.

Raises an auditing event pty.spawn with argument argv.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: spawn() renvoie maintenant la valeur renvoyée par os.waitpid() sur le processus fils.

Exemple

Le programme suivant se comporte comme la commande Unix script(1) [https://manpages.debian.org/script(1)], utilisant un pseudo-terminal pour enregistrer toutes les entrées et sorties d'une session dans un fichier typescript.

import argparse
import os
import pty
import sys
import time

parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
parser.add_argument('-a', dest='append', action='store_true')
parser.add_argument('-p', dest='use_python', action='store_true')
parser.add_argument('filename', nargs='?', default='typescript')
options = parser.parse_args()

shell = sys.executable if options.use_python else os.environ.get('SHELL', 'sh')
filename = options.filename
mode = 'ab' if options.append else 'wb'

with open(filename, mode) as script:
    def read(fd):
        data = os.read(fd, 1024)
        script.write(data)
        return data

    print('Script started, file is', filename)
    script.write(('Script started on %s\n' % time.asctime()).encode())

    pty.spawn(shell, read)

    script.write(('Script done on %s\n' % time.asctime()).encode())
    print('Script done, file is', filename)

fcntl --- The fcntl and ioctl system calls

This module performs file and I/O control on file descriptors. It is an interface to the fcntl() and ioctl() Unix routines. See the fcntl(2) [https://manpages.debian.org/fcntl(2)] and ioctl(2) [https://manpages.debian.org/ioctl(2)] Unix manual pages for full details.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

All functions in this module take a file descriptor fd as their first argument. This can be an integer file descriptor, such as returned by sys.stdin.fileno(), or an io.IOBase object, such as sys.stdin itself, which provides a fileno() that returns a genuine file descriptor.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Operations in this module used to raise an IOError where they now raise an OSError.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: The fcntl module now contains F_ADD_SEALS, F_GET_SEALS, and F_SEAL_* constants for sealing of os.memfd_create() file descriptors.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: On macOS, the fcntl module exposes the F_GETPATH constant, which obtains the path of a file from a file descriptor. On Linux(>=3.15), the fcntl module exposes the F_OFD_GETLK, F_OFD_SETLK and F_OFD_SETLKW constants, which are used when working with open file description locks.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: On Linux >= 2.6.11, the fcntl module exposes the F_GETPIPE_SZ and F_SETPIPE_SZ constants, which allow to check and modify a pipe's size respectively.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: On FreeBSD, the fcntl module exposes the F_DUP2FD and F_DUP2FD_CLOEXEC constants, which allow to duplicate a file descriptor, the latter setting FD_CLOEXEC flag in addition.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: On Linux >= 4.5, the fcntl module exposes the FICLONE and FICLONERANGE constants, which allow to share some data of one file with another file by reflinking on some filesystems (e.g., btrfs, OCFS2, and XFS). This behavior is commonly referred to as "copy-on-write".

Modifié dans la version 3.13: On Linux >= 2.6.32, the fcntl module exposes the F_GETOWN_EX, F_SETOWN_EX, F_OWNER_TID, F_OWNER_PID, F_OWNER_PGRP constants, which allow to direct I/O availability signals to a specific thread, process, or process group. On Linux >= 4.13, the fcntl module exposes the F_GET_RW_HINT, F_SET_RW_HINT, F_GET_FILE_RW_HINT, F_SET_FILE_RW_HINT, and RWH_WRITE_LIFE_* constants, which allow to inform the kernel about the relative expected lifetime of writes on a given inode or via a particular open file description. On Linux >= 5.1 and NetBSD, the fcntl module exposes the F_SEAL_FUTURE_WRITE constant for use with F_ADD_SEALS and F_GET_SEALS operations. On FreeBSD, the fcntl module exposes the F_READAHEAD, F_ISUNIONSTACK, and F_KINFO constants. On macOS and FreeBSD, the fcntl module exposes the F_RDAHEAD constant. On NetBSD and AIX, the fcntl module exposes the F_CLOSEM constant. On NetBSD, the fcntl module exposes the F_MAXFD constant. On macOS and NetBSD, the fcntl module exposes the F_GETNOSIGPIPE and F_SETNOSIGPIPE constant.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: On Linux >= 6.1, the fcntl module exposes the F_DUPFD_QUERY to query a file descriptor pointing to the same file.

Le module définit les fonctions suivantes :

fcntl.fcntl(fd, cmd, arg=0, /)

Perform the operation cmd on file descriptor fd (file objects providing a fileno() method are accepted as well). The values used for cmd are operating system dependent, and are available as constants in the fcntl module, using the same names as used in the relevant C header files. The argument arg can either be an integer value, a bytes-like object, or a string. The type and size of arg must match the type and size of the argument of the operation as specified in the relevant C documentation.

When arg is an integer, the function returns the integer return value of the C fcntl() call.

When the argument is bytes-like object, it represents a binary structure, for example, created by struct.pack(). A string value is encoded to binary using the UTF-8 encoding. The binary data is copied to a buffer whose address is passed to the C fcntl() call. The return value after a successful call is the contents of the buffer, converted to a bytes object. The length of the returned object will be the same as the length of the arg argument. This is limited to 1024 bytes.

If the fcntl() call fails, an OSError is raised.

Note

If the type or the size of arg does not match the type or size of the argument of the operation (for example, if an integer is passed when a pointer is expected, or the information returned in the buffer by the operating system is larger than 1024 bytes), this is most likely to result in a segmentation violation or a more subtle data corruption.

Raises an auditing event fcntl.fcntl with arguments fd, cmd, arg.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Add support of arbitrary bytes-like objects, not only bytes.

fcntl.ioctl(fd, request, arg=0, mutate_flag=True, /)

This function is identical to the fcntl() function, except that the argument handling is even more complicated.

The request parameter is limited to values that can fit in 32-bits or 64-bits, depending on the platform. Additional constants of interest for use as the request argument can be found in the termios module, under the same names as used in the relevant C header files.

The parameter arg can be an integer, a bytes-like object, or a string. The type and size of arg must match the type and size of the argument of the operation as specified in the relevant C documentation.

If arg does not support the read-write buffer interface or the mutate_flag is false, behavior is as for the fcntl() function.

If arg supports the read-write buffer interface (like bytearray) and mutate_flag is true (the default), then the buffer is (in effect) passed to the underlying ioctl() system call, the latter's return code is passed back to the calling Python, and the buffer's new contents reflect the action of the ioctl(). This is a slight simplification, because if the supplied buffer is less than 1024 bytes long it is first copied into a static buffer 1024 bytes long which is then passed to ioctl() and copied back into the supplied buffer.

If the ioctl() call fails, an OSError exception is raised.

Note

If the type or size of arg does not match the type or size of the operation's argument (for example, if an integer is passed when a pointer is expected, or the information returned in the buffer by the operating system is larger than 1024 bytes, or the size of the mutable bytes-like object is too small), this is most likely to result in a segmentation violation or a more subtle data corruption.

Un exemple :

>>> import array, fcntl, struct, termios, os
>>> os.getpgrp()
13341
>>> struct.unpack('h', fcntl.ioctl(0, termios.TIOCGPGRP, "  "))[0]
13341
>>> buf = array.array('h', [0])
>>> fcntl.ioctl(0, termios.TIOCGPGRP, buf, 1)
0
>>> buf
array('h', [13341])

Raises an auditing event fcntl.ioctl with arguments fd, request, arg.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: The GIL is always released during a system call. System calls failing with EINTR are automatically retried.

fcntl.flock(fd, operation, /)

Perform the lock operation operation on file descriptor fd (file objects providing a fileno() method are accepted as well). See the Unix manual flock(2) [https://manpages.debian.org/flock(2)] for details. (On some systems, this function is emulated using fcntl().)

If the flock() call fails, an OSError exception is raised.

Raises an auditing event fcntl.flock with arguments fd, operation.

fcntl.lockf(fd, cmd, len=0, start=0, whence=0, /)

This is essentially a wrapper around the fcntl() locking calls. fd is the file descriptor (file objects providing a fileno() method are accepted as well) of the file to lock or unlock, and cmd is one of the following values:

fcntl.LOCK_UN

Release an existing lock.

fcntl.LOCK_SH

Acquire a shared lock.

fcntl.LOCK_EX

Acquire an exclusive lock.

fcntl.LOCK_NB

Bitwise OR with any of the other three LOCK_* constants to make the request non-blocking.

If LOCK_NB is used and the lock cannot be acquired, an OSError will be raised and the exception will have an errno attribute set to EACCES or EAGAIN (depending on the operating system; for portability, check for both values). On at least some systems, LOCK_EX can only be used if the file descriptor refers to a file opened for writing.

len is the number of bytes to lock, start is the byte offset at which the lock starts, relative to whence, and whence is as with io.IOBase.seek(), specifically:

0 -- relative to the start of the file (os.SEEK_SET)

1 -- relative to the current buffer position (os.SEEK_CUR)

2 -- relative to the end of the file (os.SEEK_END)

The default for start is 0, which means to start at the beginning of the file. The default for len is 0 which means to lock to the end of the file. The default for whence is also 0.

Raises an auditing event fcntl.lockf with arguments fd, cmd, len, start, whence.

Examples (all on a SVR4 compliant system):

import struct, fcntl, os

f = open(...)
rv = fcntl.fcntl(f, fcntl.F_SETFL, os.O_NDELAY)

lockdata = struct.pack('hhllhh', fcntl.F_WRLCK, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0)
rv = fcntl.fcntl(f, fcntl.F_SETLKW, lockdata)

Note that in the first example the return value variable rv will hold an integer value; in the second example it will hold a bytes object. The structure lay-out for the lockdata variable is system dependent --- therefore using the flock() call may be better.

Voir aussi

Module os

If the locking flags O_SHLOCK and O_EXLOCK are present in the os module (on BSD only), the os.open() function provides an alternative to the lockf() and flock() functions.

resource --- Resource usage information

This module provides basic mechanisms for measuring and controlling system resources utilized by a program.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI.

Symbolic constants are used to specify particular system resources and to request usage information about either the current process or its children.

An OSError is raised on syscall failure.

exception resource.error

A deprecated alias of OSError.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Following PEP 3151 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3151/], this class was made an alias of OSError.

Resource Limits

Resources usage can be limited using the setrlimit() function described below. Each resource is controlled by a pair of limits: a soft limit and a hard limit. The soft limit is the current limit, and may be lowered or raised by a process over time. The soft limit can never exceed the hard limit. The hard limit can be lowered to any value greater than the soft limit, but not raised. (Only processes with the effective UID of the super-user can raise a hard limit.)

The specific resources that can be limited are system dependent. They are described in the getrlimit(2) [https://manpages.debian.org/getrlimit(2)] man page. The resources listed below are supported when the underlying operating system supports them; resources which cannot be checked or controlled by the operating system are not defined in this module for those platforms.

resource.RLIM_INFINITY

Constant used to represent the limit for an unlimited resource.

resource.getrlimit(resource)

Returns a tuple (soft, hard) with the current soft and hard limits of resource. Raises ValueError if an invalid resource is specified, or error if the underlying system call fails unexpectedly.

resource.setrlimit(resource, limits)

Sets new limits of consumption of resource. The limits argument must be a tuple (soft, hard) of two integers describing the new limits. A value of RLIM_INFINITY can be used to request a limit that is unlimited.

Raises ValueError if an invalid resource is specified, if the new soft limit exceeds the hard limit, or if a process tries to raise its hard limit. Specifying a limit of RLIM_INFINITY when the hard or system limit for that resource is not unlimited will result in a ValueError. A process with the effective UID of super-user can request any valid limit value, including unlimited, but ValueError will still be raised if the requested limit exceeds the system imposed limit.

setrlimit may also raise error if the underlying system call fails.

VxWorks only supports setting RLIMIT_NOFILE.

Raises an auditing event resource.setrlimit with arguments resource, limits.

resource.prlimit(pid, resource[, limits])

Combines setrlimit() and getrlimit() in one function and supports to get and set the resources limits of an arbitrary process. If pid is 0, then the call applies to the current process. resource and limits have the same meaning as in setrlimit(), except that limits is optional.

When limits is not given the function returns the resource limit of the process pid. When limits is given the resource limit of the process is set and the former resource limit is returned.

Raises ProcessLookupError when pid can't be found and PermissionError when the user doesn't have CAP_SYS_RESOURCE for the process.

Raises an auditing event resource.prlimit with arguments pid, resource, limits.

Disponibilité: Linux >= 2.6.36 with glibc >= 2.13.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

These symbols define resources whose consumption can be controlled using the setrlimit() and getrlimit() functions described below. The values of these symbols are exactly the constants used by C programs.

The Unix man page for getrlimit(2) [https://manpages.debian.org/getrlimit(2)] lists the available resources. Note that not all systems use the same symbol or same value to denote the same resource. This module does not attempt to mask platform differences --- symbols not defined for a platform will not be available from this module on that platform.

resource.RLIMIT_CORE

The maximum size (in bytes) of a core file that the current process can create. This may result in the creation of a partial core file if a larger core would be required to contain the entire process image.

resource.RLIMIT_CPU

The maximum amount of processor time (in seconds) that a process can use. If this limit is exceeded, a SIGXCPU signal is sent to the process. (See the signal module documentation for information about how to catch this signal and do something useful, e.g. flush open files to disk.)

resource.RLIMIT_FSIZE

The maximum size of a file which the process may create.

resource.RLIMIT_DATA

The maximum size (in bytes) of the process's heap.

resource.RLIMIT_STACK

The maximum size (in bytes) of the call stack for the current process. This only affects the stack of the main thread in a multi-threaded process.

resource.RLIMIT_RSS

The maximum resident set size that should be made available to the process.

resource.RLIMIT_NPROC

The maximum number of processes the current process may create.

resource.RLIMIT_NOFILE

The maximum number of open file descriptors for the current process.

resource.RLIMIT_OFILE

The BSD name for RLIMIT_NOFILE.

resource.RLIMIT_MEMLOCK

The maximum address space which may be locked in memory.

resource.RLIMIT_VMEM

The largest area of mapped memory which the process may occupy. Usually an alias of RLIMIT_AS.

Disponibilité: Solaris, FreeBSD, NetBSD.

resource.RLIMIT_AS

The maximum area (in bytes) of address space which may be taken by the process.

resource.RLIMIT_MSGQUEUE

The number of bytes that can be allocated for POSIX message queues.

Disponibilité: Linux >= 2.6.8.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

resource.RLIMIT_NICE

The ceiling for the process's nice level (calculated as 20 - rlim_cur).

Disponibilité: Linux >= 2.6.12.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

resource.RLIMIT_RTPRIO

The ceiling of the real-time priority.

Disponibilité: Linux >= 2.6.12.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

resource.RLIMIT_RTTIME

The time limit (in microseconds) on CPU time that a process can spend under real-time scheduling without making a blocking syscall.

Disponibilité: Linux >= 2.6.25.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

resource.RLIMIT_SIGPENDING

The number of signals which the process may queue.

Disponibilité: Linux >= 2.6.8.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

resource.RLIMIT_SBSIZE

The maximum size (in bytes) of socket buffer usage for this user. This limits the amount of network memory, and hence the amount of mbufs, that this user may hold at any time.

Disponibilité: FreeBSD, NetBSD.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

resource.RLIMIT_SWAP

The maximum size (in bytes) of the swap space that may be reserved or used by all of this user id's processes. This limit is enforced only if bit 1 of the vm.overcommit sysctl is set. Please see tuning(7) [https://man.freebsd.org/cgi/man.cgi?query=tuning&sektion=7] for a complete description of this sysctl.

Disponibilité: FreeBSD >= 8.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

resource.RLIMIT_NPTS

The maximum number of pseudo-terminals created by this user id.

Disponibilité: FreeBSD >= 8.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

resource.RLIMIT_KQUEUES

The maximum number of kqueues this user id is allowed to create.

Disponibilité: FreeBSD >= 11.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

Resource Usage

These functions are used to retrieve resource usage information:

resource.getrusage(who)

This function returns an object that describes the resources consumed by either the current process or its children, as specified by the who parameter. The who parameter should be specified using one of the RUSAGE_* constants described below.

Un exemple simple :

from resource import *
import time

# a non CPU-bound task
time.sleep(3)
print(getrusage(RUSAGE_SELF))

# a CPU-bound task
for i in range(10 ** 8):
   _ = 1 + 1
print(getrusage(RUSAGE_SELF))

The fields of the return value each describe how a particular system resource has been used, e.g. amount of time spent running in user mode or number of times the process was swapped out of main memory. Some values are dependent on the clock tick interval, e.g. the amount of memory the process is using.

For backward compatibility, the return value is also accessible as a tuple of 16 elements.

The fields ru_utime and ru_stime of the return value are floating-point values representing the amount of time spent executing in user mode and the amount of time spent executing in system mode, respectively. The remaining values are integers. Consult the getrusage(2) [https://manpages.debian.org/getrusage(2)] man page for detailed information about these values. A brief summary is presented here:

Index

Champ

Resource

0

ru_utime

time in user mode (float seconds)

1

ru_stime

time in system mode (float seconds)

2

ru_maxrss

maximum resident set size

3

ru_ixrss

shared memory size

4

ru_idrss

unshared memory size

5

ru_isrss

unshared stack size

6

ru_minflt

page faults not requiring I/O

7

ru_majflt

page faults requiring I/O

8

ru_nswap

number of swap outs

9

ru_inblock

block input operations

10

ru_oublock

block output operations

11

ru_msgsnd

messages sent

12

ru_msgrcv

messages received

13

ru_nsignals

signals received

14

ru_nvcsw

voluntary context switches

15

ru_nivcsw

involuntary context switches

This function will raise a ValueError if an invalid who parameter is specified. It may also raise error exception in unusual circumstances.

resource.getpagesize()

Returns the number of bytes in a system page. (This need not be the same as the hardware page size.)

The following RUSAGE_* symbols are passed to the getrusage() function to specify which processes information should be provided for.

resource.RUSAGE_SELF

Pass to getrusage() to request resources consumed by the calling process, which is the sum of resources used by all threads in the process.

resource.RUSAGE_CHILDREN

Pass to getrusage() to request resources consumed by child processes of the calling process which have been terminated and waited for.

resource.RUSAGE_BOTH

Pass to getrusage() to request resources consumed by both the current process and child processes. May not be available on all systems.

resource.RUSAGE_THREAD

Pass to getrusage() to request resources consumed by the current thread. May not be available on all systems.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

syslog --- Unix syslog library routines

Ce module fournit une interface aux routines de la bibliothèque syslog Unix. Consultez les pages du manuel Unix pour plus de détails sur syslog.

Disponibilité: Unix, not WASI, not iOS.

This module wraps the system syslog family of routines. A pure Python library that can speak to a syslog server is available in the logging.handlers module as SysLogHandler.

Le module définit les fonctions suivantes :

syslog.syslog(message)

syslog.syslog(priority, message)

Envoie la chaîne de caractères message au journaliseur système. Un retour à la ligne est ajouté à la fin du message si nécessaire. Chaque message est marqué avec une priorité constituée d'une fonction et d'un niveau. L'argument optionnel priority, qui par défaut est LOG_INFO, définit la priorité du message. Si la fonction n'est pas encodée dans priority en utilisant un OU logique (LOG_INFO | LOG_USER), la valeur donnée lors de l'appel à openlog() est utilisée.

If openlog() has not been called prior to the call to syslog(), openlog() will be called with no arguments.

Lève un évènement d'audit syslog.syslog avec les arguments priority, message.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: In previous versions, openlog() would not be called automatically if it wasn't called prior to the call to syslog(), deferring to the syslog implementation to call openlog().

Modifié dans la version 3.12: This function is restricted in subinterpreters. (Only code that runs in multiple interpreters is affected and the restriction is not relevant for most users.) openlog() must be called in the main interpreter before syslog() may be used in a subinterpreter. Otherwise it will raise RuntimeError.

syslog.openlog([ident[, logoption[, facility]]])

Les options de journalisation utilisées lors des appels à syslog() peuvent être définies en appelant openlog(). syslog() appellera openlog() sans argument si le journal n'est pas déjà ouvert.

L'argument nommé optionnel ident est une chaîne de caractères qui est ajoutée au début de chaque message. Par défaut, le dernier élément du chemin définit dans sys.argv[0] est utilisé. L'argument nommé optionnel logoption est un champ de bits (défini à 0 par défaut) -- Voir ci-dessous pour les combinaisons possibles. L'argument nommé optionnel facility définit la fonction à utiliser pour les messages qui n'en définissent pas. Par défaut, LOG_USER est utilisée.

Lève un évènement d'audit syslog.openlog avec les arguments ident, logoption, facility.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: In previous versions, keyword arguments were not allowed, and ident was required.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: This function is restricted in subinterpreters. (Only code that runs in multiple interpreters is affected and the restriction is not relevant for most users.) This may only be called in the main interpreter. It will raise RuntimeError if called in a subinterpreter.

syslog.closelog()

Réinitialise la configuration du module syslog et appelle la bibliothèque système closelog().

Cet appel permet au module de se comporter comme lors de son import initial. Par exemple, openlog() sera appelée lors du premier appel à syslog() (sauf si openlog() a déjà été appelée). Quant à ident et aux paramètres de openlog(), ceux-ci seront réinitialisés à leur valeur par défaut.

Lève un évènement d'audit syslog.closelog sans argument.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: This function is restricted in subinterpreters. (Only code that runs in multiple interpreters is affected and the restriction is not relevant for most users.) This may only be called in the main interpreter. It will raise RuntimeError if called in a subinterpreter.

syslog.setlogmask(maskpri)

Définit le masque de priorité à la valeur maskpri et retourne la précédente valeur du masque. Les appels à syslog() avec un niveau de priorité non présent dans maskpri seront ignorés. La fonction LOG_MASK(pri) calcule le masque pour la priorité pri. La fonction LOG_UPTO(pri) calcule le masque pour toutes les priorités jusqu'à pri (inclus).

Lève un évènement d'audit syslog.setlogmask avec l'argument maskpri.

Le module définit les constantes suivantes :

syslog.LOG_EMERG

syslog.LOG_ALERT

syslog.LOG_CRIT

syslog.LOG_ERR

syslog.LOG_WARNING

syslog.LOG_NOTICE

syslog.LOG_INFO

syslog.LOG_DEBUG

Priority levels (high to low).

syslog.LOG_AUTH

syslog.LOG_AUTHPRIV

syslog.LOG_CRON

syslog.LOG_DAEMON

syslog.LOG_FTP

syslog.LOG_INSTALL

syslog.LOG_KERN

syslog.LOG_LAUNCHD

syslog.LOG_LPR

syslog.LOG_MAIL

syslog.LOG_NETINFO

syslog.LOG_NEWS

syslog.LOG_RAS

syslog.LOG_REMOTEAUTH

syslog.LOG_SYSLOG

syslog.LOG_USER

syslog.LOG_UUCP

syslog.LOG_LOCAL0

syslog.LOG_LOCAL1

syslog.LOG_LOCAL2

syslog.LOG_LOCAL3

syslog.LOG_LOCAL4

syslog.LOG_LOCAL5

syslog.LOG_LOCAL6

syslog.LOG_LOCAL7

Facilities, depending on availability in <syslog.h> for LOG_AUTHPRIV, LOG_FTP, LOG_NETINFO, LOG_REMOTEAUTH, LOG_INSTALL and LOG_RAS.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Added LOG_FTP, LOG_NETINFO, LOG_REMOTEAUTH, LOG_INSTALL, LOG_RAS, and LOG_LAUNCHD.

syslog.LOG_PID

syslog.LOG_CONS

syslog.LOG_NDELAY

syslog.LOG_ODELAY

syslog.LOG_NOWAIT

syslog.LOG_PERROR

Log options, depending on availability in <syslog.h> for LOG_ODELAY, LOG_NOWAIT and LOG_PERROR.

Exemples

Exemple simple

Un simple jeu d'exemples :

import syslog

syslog.syslog('Processing started')
if error:
    syslog.syslog(syslog.LOG_ERR, 'Processing started')

Un exemple montrant comment définir certaines options de journalisation. Ces options ajoutent l'identifiant du processus (PID) dans les messages journalisés et écrivent ces messages à l'aide de la fonction utilisée pour la journalisation des systèmes de messagerie :

syslog.openlog(logoption=syslog.LOG_PID, facility=syslog.LOG_MAIL)
syslog.syslog('E-mail processing initiated...')

Modules command-line interface (CLI)

The following modules have a command-line interface.

ast

asyncio

base64

calendar

code

compileall

cProfile: see profile

dis

doctest

encodings.rot_13

ensurepip

filecmp

fileinput

ftplib

gzip

http.server

idlelib

inspect

json

mimetypes

pdb

pickle

pickletools

platform

poplib

profile

pstats

py_compile

pyclbr

pydoc

quopri

random

runpy

site

sqlite3

symtable

sysconfig

tabnanny

tarfile

this

timeit

tokenize

trace

turtledemo

unittest

uuid

venv

webbrowser

zipapp

zipfile

See also the Python command-line interface.

Modules remplacés

The modules described in this chapter have been superseded by other modules for most use cases, and are retained primarily to preserve backwards compatibility.

Modules may appear in this chapter because they only cover a limited subset of a problem space, and a more generally applicable solution is available elsewhere in the standard library (for example, getopt covers the very specific task of "mimic the C getopt() API in Python", rather than the broader command line option parsing and argument parsing capabilities offered by optparse and argparse).

Alternatively, modules may appear in this chapter because they are deprecated outright, and awaiting removal in a future release, or they are soft deprecated and their use is actively discouraged in new projects. With the removal of various obsolete modules through PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/], there are currently no modules in this latter category.

getopt --- C-style parser for command line options

getopt --- C-style parser for command line options

Code source : Lib/getopt.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/getopt.py]

Note

This module is considered feature complete. A more declarative and extensible alternative to this API is provided in the optparse module. Further functional enhancements for command line parameter processing are provided either as third party modules on PyPI, or else as features in the argparse module.

This module helps scripts to parse the command line arguments in sys.argv. It supports the same conventions as the Unix getopt() function (including the special meanings of arguments of the form '-' and '--'). Long options similar to those supported by GNU software may be used as well via an optional third argument.

Users who are unfamiliar with the Unix getopt() function should consider using the argparse module instead. Users who are familiar with the Unix getopt() function, but would like to get equivalent behavior while writing less code and getting better help and error messages should consider using the optparse module. See Choosing an argument parsing library for additional details.

Ce module fournit deux fonctions et une exception :

getopt.getopt(args, shortopts, longopts=[])

Parses command line options and parameter list. args is the argument list to be parsed, without the leading reference to the running program. Typically, this means sys.argv[1:]. shortopts is the string of option letters that the script wants to recognize, with options that require an argument followed by a colon (':') and options that accept an optional argument followed by two colons ('::'); i.e., the same format that Unix getopt() uses.

Note

Unlike GNU getopt(), after a non-option argument, all further arguments are considered also non-options. This is similar to the way non-GNU Unix systems work.

longopts, if specified, must be a list of strings with the names of the long options which should be supported. The leading '--' characters should not be included in the option name. Long options which require an argument should be followed by an equal sign ('='). Long options which accept an optional argument should be followed by an equal sign and question mark ('=?'). To accept only long options, shortopts should be an empty string. Long options on the command line can be recognized so long as they provide a prefix of the option name that matches exactly one of the accepted options. For example, if longopts is ['foo', 'frob'], the option --fo will match as --foo, but --f will not match uniquely, so GetoptError will be raised.

La valeur de retour se compose de deux éléments : le premier est une liste de paires (option, value), la deuxième est la liste des arguments de programme laissés après que la liste d’options est été dépouillée (il s’agit d’une tranche de fin de args). Chaque paire option-valeur retournée a l’option comme premier élément, préfixée avec un trait d'union pour les options courtes (par exemple, '-x') ou deux tirets pour les options longues (par exemple, '--long-option'), et l’argument option comme deuxième élément, ou une chaîne vide si le option n’a aucun argument. Les options se trouvent dans la liste dans l’ordre dans lequel elles ont été trouvées, permettant ainsi plusieurs occurrences. Les options longues et courtes peuvent être mélangées.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Optional arguments are supported.

getopt.gnu_getopt(args, shortopts, longopts=[])

Cette fonction fonctionne comme getopt(), sauf que le mode de scan GNU est utilisé par défaut. Cela signifie que les arguments option et non-option peuvent être intermixés. La fonction getopt() arrête le traitement des options dès qu’un argument de non-option est rencontré.

If the first character of the option string is '+', or if the environment variable POSIXLY_CORRECT is set, then option processing stops as soon as a non-option argument is encountered.

If the first character of the option string is '-', non-option arguments that are followed by options are added to the list of option-and-value pairs as a pair that has None as its first element and the list of non-option arguments as its second element. The second element of the gnu_getopt() result is a list of program arguments after the last option.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Support for returning intermixed options and non-option arguments in order.

exception getopt.GetoptError

This is raised when an unrecognized option is found in the argument list or when an option requiring an argument is given none. The argument to the exception is a string indicating the cause of the error. For long options, an argument given to an option which does not require one will also cause this exception to be raised. The attributes msg and opt give the error message and related option; if there is no specific option to which the exception relates, opt is an empty string.

exception getopt.error

Alias pour GetoptError ; pour la rétrocompatibilité.

Un exemple utilisant uniquement les options de style UNIX :

>>> import getopt
>>> args = '-a -b -cfoo -d bar a1 a2'.split()
>>> args
['-a', '-b', '-cfoo', '-d', 'bar', 'a1', 'a2']
>>> optlist, args = getopt.getopt(args, 'abc:d:')
>>> optlist
[('-a', ''), ('-b', ''), ('-c', 'foo'), ('-d', 'bar')]
>>> args
['a1', 'a2']

L’utilisation de noms d’options longs est tout aussi simple :

>>> s = '--condition=foo --testing --output-file abc.def -x a1 a2'
>>> args = s.split()
>>> args
['--condition=foo', '--testing', '--output-file', 'abc.def', '-x', 'a1', 'a2']
>>> optlist, args = getopt.getopt(args, 'x', [
...     'condition=', 'output-file=', 'testing'])
>>> optlist
[('--condition', 'foo'), ('--testing', ''), ('--output-file', 'abc.def'), ('-x', '')]
>>> args
['a1', 'a2']

Optional arguments should be specified explicitly:

>>> s = '-Con -C --color=off --color a1 a2'
>>> args = s.split()
>>> args
['-Con', '-C', '--color=off', '--color', 'a1', 'a2']
>>> optlist, args = getopt.getopt(args, 'C::', ['color=?'])
>>> optlist
[('-C', 'on'), ('-C', ''), ('--color', 'off'), ('--color', '')]
>>> args
['a1', 'a2']

The order of options and non-option arguments can be preserved:

>>> s = 'a1 -x a2 a3 a4 --long a5 a6'
>>> args = s.split()
>>> args
['a1', '-x', 'a2', 'a3', 'a4', '--long', 'a5', 'a6']
>>> optlist, args = getopt.gnu_getopt(args, '-x:', ['long='])
>>> optlist
[(None, ['a1']), ('-x', 'a2'), (None, ['a3', 'a4']), ('--long', 'a5')]
>>> args
['a6']

In a script, typical usage is something like this:

import getopt, sys

def main():
    try:
        opts, args = getopt.getopt(sys.argv[1:], "ho:v", ["help", "output="])
    except getopt.GetoptError as err:
        # print help information and exit:
        print(err)  # will print something like "option -a not recognized"
        usage()
        sys.exit(2)
    output = None
    verbose = False
    for o, a in opts:
        if o == "-v":
            verbose = True
        elif o in ("-h", "--help"):
            usage()
            sys.exit()
        elif o in ("-o", "--output"):
            output = a
        else:
            assert False, "unhandled option"
    process(args, output=output, verbose=verbose)

if __name__ == "__main__":
    main()

Note that an equivalent command line interface could be produced with less code and more informative help and error messages by using the optparse module:

import optparse

if __name__ == '__main__':
    parser = optparse.OptionParser()
    parser.add_option('-o', '--output')
    parser.add_option('-v', dest='verbose', action='store_true')
    opts, args = parser.parse_args()
    process(args, output=opts.output, verbose=opts.verbose)

A roughly equivalent command line interface for this case can also be produced by using the argparse module:

import argparse

if __name__ == '__main__':
    parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
    parser.add_argument('-o', '--output')
    parser.add_argument('-v', dest='verbose', action='store_true')
    parser.add_argument('rest', nargs='*')
    args = parser.parse_args()
    process(args.rest, output=args.output, verbose=args.verbose)

See Choosing an argument parsing library for details on how the argparse version of this code differs in behaviour from the optparse (and getopt) version.

Voir aussi

Module optparse

Declarative command line option parsing.

Module argparse

More opinionated command line option and argument parsing library.

Removed Modules

The modules described in this chapter have been removed from the Python standard library. They are documented here to help people find replacements.

aifc --- Read and write AIFF and AIFC files

asynchat --- Asynchronous socket command/response handler

asyncore --- Asynchronous socket handler

audioop --- Manipulate raw audio data

cgi --- Common Gateway Interface support

cgitb --- Traceback manager for CGI scripts

chunk --- Read IFF chunked data

crypt --- Function to check Unix passwords

distutils --- Building and installing Python modules

imghdr --- Determine the type of an image

imp --- Access the import internals

mailcap --- Mailcap file handling

msilib --- Read and write Microsoft Installer files

nis --- Interface to Sun’s NIS (Yellow Pages)

nntplib --- NNTP protocol client

ossaudiodev --- Access to OSS-compatible audio devices

pipes --- Interface to shell pipelines

smtpd --- SMTP Server

sndhdr --- Determine type of sound file

spwd --- The shadow password database

sunau --- Read and write Sun AU files

telnetlib --- Telnet client

uu --- Encode and decode uuencode files

xdrlib --- Encode and decode XDR data

Considérations de sécurité

The following modules have specific security considerations:

base64: base64 security considerations in RFC 4648 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html]

hashlib: all constructors take a "usedforsecurity" keyword-only argument disabling known insecure and blocked algorithms

http.server is not suitable for production use, only implementing basic security checks. See the security considerations.

logging: Logging configuration uses eval()

multiprocessing: Connection.recv() uses pickle

pickle: Restricting globals in pickle

random shouldn't be used for security purposes, use secrets instead

shelve: shelve is based on pickle and thus unsuitable for dealing with untrusted sources

ssl: SSL/TLS security considerations

subprocess: Subprocess security considerations

tempfile: mktemp is deprecated due to vulnerability to race conditions

xml: XML security

zipfile: maliciously prepared .zip files can cause disk volume exhaustion

The -I command line option can be used to run Python in isolated mode. When it cannot be used, the -P option or the PYTHONSAFEPATH environment variable can be used to not prepend a potentially unsafe path to sys.path such as the current directory, the script's directory or an empty string.

Extension et intégration de l'interpréteur Python

Ce document décrit comment écrire des modules en C ou C++ pour étendre l'interpréteur Python à de nouveaux modules. En plus de définir de nouvelles fonctions, ces modules peuvent définir de nouveaux types d'objets ainsi que leur méthodes. Ce document explique aussi comment intégrer l'interpréteur Python dans une autre application, pour être utilisé comme langage d'extension. Enfin, ce document montre comment compiler et lier les modules d'extension pour qu'ils puissent être chargés dynamiquement (à l'exécution) dans l'interpréteur, si le système d'exploitation sous-jacent supporte cette fonctionnalité.

Ce document présuppose que vous avez des connaissances de base sur Python. Pour une introduction informelle du langage, voyez Le tutoriel Python. La référence du langage Python donne une définition plus formelle du langage. La bibliothèque standard documente les objets types, fonctions et modules existants (tous intégrés et écrits en Python) qui donnent au langage sa large gamme d'applications.

Pour une description dans sa totalité de l'API Python/C, voir Python/C API reference manual.

Les outils tiers recommandés

This guide only covers the basic tools for creating extensions provided as part of this version of CPython. Some third party tools offer both simpler and more sophisticated approaches to creating C and C++ extensions for Python.

Création d'extensions sans outils tiers

Cette section du guide couvre la création d'extensions C et C++ sans l'utilisation d'outils tiers. Cette section est destinée aux créateurs de ces outils, plus que d'être une méthode recommandée pour créer votre propre extension C.

Voir aussi

PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/] -- Multi-phase extension module initialization

1. Étendre Python en C ou C++

1.1. Un exemple simple

1.2. Intermezzo : les erreurs et les exceptions

1.3. Retour vers l'exemple

1.4. La fonction d'initialisation et le tableau des méthodes du module

1.5. Compilation et liaison

1.6. Appeler des fonctions Python en C

1.7. Extraire des paramètres dans des fonctions d'extension

1.8. Paramètres nommés pour des fonctions d'extension

1.9. Créer des valeurs arbitraires

1.10. Compteurs de références

1.11. Écrire des extensions en C++

1.12. Fournir une API en langage C pour un module d'extension

2. Tutoriel : définir des types dans des extensions

2.1. Les bases

2.2. ajout de données et de méthodes à l'exemple basique

2.3. Contrôle précis sur les attributs de données

2.4. Prise en charge du ramasse-miettes cyclique

2.5. Sous-classement d'autres types

3. Définir les types d'extension : divers sujets

3.1. Finalisation et libération de mémoire

3.2. Présentation de l'objet

3.3. Gestion des attributs

3.4. Comparaison des objets

3.5. Gestion de protocoles abstraits

3.6. Prise en charge de la référence faible

3.7. Plus de suggestions

4. Construire des extensions C et C++

4.1. Building C and C++ Extensions with setuptools

5. Construire des extensions C et C++ sur Windows

5.1. Une approche "recette de cuisine"

5.2. Différences entre Unix et Windows

5.3. Utiliser les DLL en pratique

Intégrer l'interpréteur CPython dans une plus grande application

Parfois, plutôt que de créer une extension qui s'exécute dans l'interpréteur Python comme application principale, il est préférable d'intégrer l'interpréteur Python dans une application plus large. Cette section donne quelques informations nécessaires au succès de cette opération.

1. Intégrer Python dans une autre application

1.1. Intégration de très haut niveau

1.2. Au-delà de l'intégration de haut niveau : survol

1.3. Intégration pure

1.4. Étendre un Python intégré

1.5. Intégrer Python dans du C++

1.6. Compiler et Lier en environnement Unix ou similaire

1. Étendre Python en C ou C++

Il est relativement facile d'ajouter de nouveaux modules à Python, si vous savez programmer en C. Ces modules d'extension permettent deux choses qui ne sont pas possibles directement en Python : ils peuvent définir de nouveaux types natifs et peuvent appeler des fonctions de bibliothèques C ou faire des appels systèmes.

Pour gérer les extensions, l'API Python (Application Programmer Interface) définit un ensemble de fonctions, macros et variables qui donnent accès à la plupart des aspects du système d'exécution de Python. L'API Python est incorporée dans un fichier source C en incluant l'en-tête Python.h.

La compilation d'un module d'extension dépend de l'usage prévu et de la configuration du système, plus de détails peuvent être trouvés dans les chapitres suivants.

Note

l'interface d'extension C est spécifique à CPython, et les modules d'extension ne fonctionnent pas sur les autres implémentations de Python. Dans de nombreux cas, il est possible d'éviter la rédaction des extensions en C et ainsi préserver la portabilité vers d'autres implémentations. Par exemple, si vous devez appeler une fonction de la bibliothèque C ou faire un appel système, vous devriez envisager d'utiliser le module ctypes ou d'utiliser la bibliothèque cffi [https://cffi.readthedocs.io/] plutôt que d'écrire du code C sur mesure. Ces modules vous permettent d'écrire du code Python s'interfaçant avec le code C et sont plus portables entre les implémentations de Python que l'écriture et la compilation d'une d'extension C.

1.1. Un exemple simple

Créons un module d'extension appelé spam (la nourriture préférée de fans des Monty Python) et disons que nous voulons créer une interface Python à la fonction de la bibliothèque C system() [1]. Cette fonction prend une chaîne de caractères à terminaison nulle comme argument et renvoie un entier. Nous voulons que cette fonction soit appelable à partir de Python comme suit :

>>> import spam
>>> status = spam.system("ls -l")

Commençons par créer un fichier spammodule.c (historiquement, si un module se nomme spam, le fichier C contenant son implémentation est appelé spammodule.c ; si le nom du module est très long, comme spammify, le nom du module peut être juste spammify.c).

Les deux premières lignes de notre fichier peuvent être :

#define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
#include <Python.h>

qui récupère l'API Python (vous pouvez ajouter un commentaire décrivant le but du module et un avis de droit d'auteur si vous le souhaitez).

Note

il est possible que Python déclare certaines définitions pré-processeur qui affectent les têtes standards sur certains systèmes, vous devez donc inclure Python.h avant les en-têtes standards.

#define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN was used to indicate that Py_ssize_t should be used in some APIs instead of int. It is not necessary since Python 3.13, but we keep it here for backward compatibility. See Chaînes et tampons for a description of this macro.

All user-visible symbols defined by Python.h have a prefix of Py or PY, except those defined in standard header files.

Astuce

For backward compatibility, Python.h includes several standard header files. C extensions should include the standard headers that they use, and should not rely on these implicit includes. If using the limited C API version 3.13 or newer, the implicit includes are:

<assert.h>

<intrin.h> (on Windows)

<inttypes.h>

<limits.h>

<math.h>

<stdarg.h>

<wchar.h>

<sys/types.h> (if present)

If Py_LIMITED_API is not defined, or is set to version 3.12 or older, the headers below are also included:

<ctype.h>

<unistd.h> (on POSIX)

If Py_LIMITED_API is not defined, or is set to version 3.10 or older, the headers below are also included:

<errno.h>

<stdio.h>

<stdlib.h>

<string.h>

La prochaine chose que nous ajoutons à notre fichier de module est la fonction C qui sera appelée lorsque l'expression Python spam.system(chaîne) sera évaluée (nous verrons bientôt comment elle finit par être appelée) :

static PyObject *
spam_system(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
{
    const char *command;
    int sts;

    if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s", &command))
        return NULL;
    sts = system(command);
    return PyLong_FromLong(sts);
}

Il y a une correspondance directe de la liste des arguments en Python (par exemple, l'expression "ls -l") aux arguments passés à la fonction C. La fonction C a toujours deux arguments, appelés par convention self et args.

Pour les fonctions au niveau du module, l'argument self pointe sur l'objet module, pour une méthode, il pointe sur l'instance de l'objet.

L'argument args sera un pointeur vers un n-uplet Python contenant les arguments. Chaque élément du n-uplet correspond à un argument dans la liste des arguments de l'appel. Les arguments sont des objets Python, afin d'en faire quelque chose dans notre fonction C, nous devons les convertir en valeurs C. La fonction PyArg_ParseTuple() de l'API Python vérifie les types des arguments et les convertit en valeurs C. Elle utilise un modèle sous forme de chaîne pour déterminer les types requis des arguments ainsi que les types de variables C dans lequel stocker les valeurs converties. Nous approfondirons ceci plus tard.

PyArg_ParseTuple() renvoie vrai (pas zéro) si tous les arguments ont le bon type et que ses composants ont été stockés dans les variables dont les adresses ont été données en entrée. Elle renvoie faux (zéro) si une liste d'arguments invalide a été passée. Dans ce dernier cas, elle lève également une exception appropriée de sorte que la fonction d'appel puisse renvoyer NULL immédiatement (comme nous l'avons vu dans l'exemple).

1.2. Intermezzo : les erreurs et les exceptions

Une convention importante dans l'interpréteur Python est la suivante : lorsqu'une fonction échoue, elle doit définir une condition d'exception et renvoyer une valeur d'erreur (généralement -1 ou un pointeur NULL). Les informations d'exception sont stockées dans trois attributs de l'état du thread de l'interpréteur. Ils valent NULL s'il n'y a pas d'exception. Sinon, ce sont les équivalents C des membres du n-uplet Python renvoyé par sys.exc_info(). Il s'agit du type d'exception, de l'instance d'exception et d'un objet de trace. Il est important de les connaître pour comprendre comment les erreurs sont transmises.

L'API Python définit un certain nombre de fonctions pour créer différents types d'exceptions.

La plus courante est PyErr_SetString(). Ses arguments sont un objet exception et une chaîne C. L'objet exception est généralement un objet prédéfini comme PyExc_ZeroDivisionError. La chaîne C indique la cause de l'erreur et est convertie en une chaîne Python puis stockée en tant que « valeur associée » à l'exception.

Une autre fonction utile est PyErr_SetFromErrno(), qui construit une exception à partir de la valeur de la variable globale errno. La fonction la plus générale est PyErr_SetObject(), qui prend deux arguments : l'exception et sa valeur associée. Vous ne devez pas appliquer Py_INCREF() aux objets transmis à ces fonctions.

Vous pouvez tester de manière non destructive si une exception a été levée avec PyErr_Occurred(). Cela renvoie l'objet exception actuel, ou NULL si aucune exception n'a eu lieu. Cependant, vous ne devriez pas avoir besoin d'appeler PyErr_Occurred() pour voir si une erreur est survenue durant l'appel d'une fonction, puisque vous devriez être en mesure de le déterminer à partir de la valeur renvoyée.

Lorsqu'une fonction f ayant appelé une autre fonction g détecte que cette dernière a échoué, f devrait donner une valeur d'erreur à son tour (habituellement NULL ou -1). La fonction f ne devrait pas appeler l'une des fonctions PyErr_*, l'une d'entre elles ayant déjà été appelée par g. La fonction appelant f est alors censée renvoyer aussi un code d'erreur à celle qui l'a appelée, toujours sans utiliser PyErr_*, et ainsi de suite. La cause la plus détaillée de l'erreur a déjà été signalée par la fonction l'ayant détecté en premier. Une fois l'erreur remontée à la boucle principale de l'interpréteur Python, il interrompt le code en cours d'exécution et essaie de trouver un gestionnaire d'exception spécifié par le développeur Python.

(Il y a des situations où un module peut effectivement donner un message d'erreur plus détaillé en appelant une autre fonction PyErr_* et, dans de tels cas, il est tout à fait possible de le faire. Cependant, ce n'est généralement pas nécessaire, et peut amener à perdre des informations sur la cause de l'erreur : la plupart des opérations peuvent échouer pour tout un tas de raisons.)

Pour ignorer une exception qui aurait été émise lors d'un appel de fonction qui a échoué, l'exception doit être retirée explicitement en appelant PyErr_Clear(). Le seul cas pour lequel du code C devrait appeler PyErr_Clear() est lorsqu'il ne veut pas passer l'erreur à l'interpréteur, mais souhaite la gérer lui-même (peut-être en essayant quelque chose d'autre, ou en prétendant que rien n'a mal tourné).

Chaque échec de malloc() doit être transformé en une exception, l'appelant direct de malloc() (ou realloc()) doit appeler PyErr_NoMemory() et prendre l'initiative de renvoyer une valeur d'erreur. Toutes les fonctions construisant des objets (tels que PyLong_FromLong()) le font déjà, donc cette note ne concerne que ceux qui appellent malloc() directement.

Notez également que, à l'exception notable de PyArg_ParseTuple() et compagnie, les fonctions qui renvoient leur statut sous forme d'entier donnent généralement une valeur positive ou zéro en cas de succès et -1 en cas d'échec, comme les appels du système Unix.

Enfin, lorsque vous renvoyez un code d'erreur, n'oubliez pas faire un brin de nettoyage (en appelant Py_XDECREF() ou Py_DECREF() avec les objets que vous auriez déjà créés) !

The choice of which exception to raise is entirely yours. There are predeclared C objects corresponding to all built-in Python exceptions, such as PyExc_ZeroDivisionError, which you can use directly. Of course, you should choose exceptions wisely --- don't use PyExc_TypeError to mean that a file couldn't be opened (that should probably be PyExc_OSError). If something's wrong with the argument list, the PyArg_ParseTuple() function usually raises PyExc_TypeError. If you have an argument whose value must be in a particular range or must satisfy other conditions, PyExc_ValueError is appropriate.

You can also define a new exception that is unique to your module. The simplest way to do this is to declare a static global object variable at the beginning of the file:

static PyObject *SpamError = NULL;

and initialize it by calling PyErr_NewException() in the module's Py_mod_exec function (spam_module_exec()):

SpamError = PyErr_NewException("spam.error", NULL, NULL);

Since SpamError is a global variable, it will be overwritten every time the module is reinitialized, when the Py_mod_exec function is called.

For now, let's avoid the issue: we will block repeated initialization by raising an ImportError:

static PyObject *SpamError = NULL;

static int
spam_module_exec(PyObject *m)
{
    if (SpamError != NULL) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_ImportError,
                        "cannot initialize spam module more than once");
        return -1;
    }
    SpamError = PyErr_NewException("spam.error", NULL, NULL);
    if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "SpamError", SpamError) < 0) {
        return -1;
    }

    return 0;
}

static PyModuleDef_Slot spam_module_slots[] = {
    {Py_mod_exec, spam_module_exec},
    {0, NULL}
};

static struct PyModuleDef spam_module = {
    .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
    .m_name = "spam",
    .m_size = 0,  // non-negative
    .m_slots = spam_module_slots,
};

PyMODINIT_FUNC
PyInit_spam(void)
{
    return PyModuleDef_Init(&spam_module);
}

Note that the Python name for the exception object is spam.error. The PyErr_NewException() function may create a class with the base class being Exception (unless another class is passed in instead of NULL), described in Exceptions natives.

Notez également que la variable SpamError contient une référence à la nouvelle classe créée ; ceci est intentionnel ! Comme l'exception peut être enlevée du module par du code externe, une référence à la classe est nécessaire pour assurer qu'elle ne sera pas supprimée par le ramasse-miettes, entraînant que SpamError devienne un pointeur dans le vide. Si cela se produisait, le code C qui lève cette exception peut engendrer un core dump ou des effets secondaires inattendus.

For now, the Py_DECREF() call to remove this reference is missing. Even when the Python interpreter shuts down, the global SpamError variable will not be garbage-collected. It will "leak". We did, however, ensure that this will happen at most once per process.

We discuss the use of PyMODINIT_FUNC as a function return type later in this sample.

The spam.error exception can be raised in your extension module using a call to PyErr_SetString() as shown below:

static PyObject *
spam_system(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
{
    const char *command;
    int sts;

    if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s", &command))
        return NULL;
    sts = system(command);
    if (sts < 0) {
        PyErr_SetString(SpamError, "System command failed");
        return NULL;
    }
    return PyLong_FromLong(sts);
}

1.3. Retour vers l'exemple

En revenant vers notre fonction exemple, vous devriez maintenant être capable de comprendre cette affirmation :

if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s", &command))
    return NULL;

Elle renvoie NULL (l'indicateur d'erreur pour les fonctions renvoyant des pointeurs d'objet) si une erreur est détectée dans la liste des arguments, se fiant à l'exception définie par PyArg_ParseTuple(). Autrement, la valeur chaîne de l'argument a été copiée dans la variable locale command. Il s'agit d'une attribution de pointeur et vous n'êtes pas supposés modifier la chaîne vers laquelle il pointe (donc en C Standard, la variable command doit être clairement déclarée comme const char *command).

La prochaine instruction est un appel à la fonction Unix system(), en lui passant la chaîne que nous venons d'obtenir à partir de PyArg_ParseTuple() :

sts = system(command);

Notre fonction spam.system() doit renvoyer la valeur de sts comme un objet Python. Cela est effectué par l'utilisation de la fonction PyLong_FromLong().

return PyLong_FromLong(sts);

Dans ce cas, elle renvoie un objet de type entier (oui, même les entiers sont des objets, stockés dans le tas, en Python !).

Si vous avez une fonction C qui ne renvoie aucun argument utile (une fonction renvoyant void), la fonction Python correspondante doit renvoyer None. Vous aurez besoin de cet idiome pour cela (qui est implémenté par la macro Py_RETURN_NONE) :

Py_INCREF(Py_None);
return Py_None;

Py_None est la dénomination en C pour l'objet spécial Python None. C'est un authentique objet Python plutôt qu'un pointeur NULL qui, dans la plupart des situations, signifie qu'une erreur est survenue comme nous l'avons vu.

1.4. La fonction d'initialisation et le tableau des méthodes du module

I promised to show how spam_system() is called from Python programs. First, we need to list its name and address in a "method table":

static PyMethodDef spam_methods[] = {
    ...
    {"system",  spam_system, METH_VARARGS,
     "Execute a shell command."},
    ...
    {NULL, NULL, 0, NULL}        /* Sentinel */
};

Notez la troisième entrée (METH_VARARGS). C'est un indicateur du type de convention à utiliser pour la fonction C, à destination de l'interpréteur. Il doit valoir normalement METH_VARARGS ou METH_VARARGS | METH_KEYWORDS ; la valeur 0 indique qu'une variante obsolète de PyArg_ParseTuple() est utilisée.

Si seulement METH_VARARGS est utilisé, la fonction s'attend à ce que les paramètres Python soient passés comme un n-uplet que l'on peut analyser via PyArg_ParseTuple() ; des informations supplémentaires sont fournies plus bas.

Le bit METH_KEYWORDS peut être mis à un dans le troisième champ si des arguments par mots-clés doivent être passés à la fonction. Dans ce cas, la fonction C doit accepter un troisième paramètre PyObject * qui est un dictionnaire des mots-clés. Utilisez PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords() pour analyser les arguments d'une telle fonction.

Le tableau des méthodes doit être référencé dans la structure de définition du module :

static struct PyModuleDef spam_module = {
    ...
    .m_methods = spam_methods,
    ...
};

This structure, in turn, must be passed to the interpreter in the module's initialization function. The initialization function must be named PyInit_name(), where name is the name of the module, and should be the only non-static item defined in the module file:

PyMODINIT_FUNC
PyInit_spam(void)
{
    return PyModuleDef_Init(&spam_module);
}

Note that PyMODINIT_FUNC declares the function as PyObject * return type, declares any special linkage declarations required by the platform, and for C++ declares the function as extern "C".

PyInit_spam() is called when each interpreter imports its module spam for the first time. (See below for comments about embedding Python.) A pointer to the module definition must be returned via PyModuleDef_Init(), so that the import machinery can create the module and store it in sys.modules.

When embedding Python, the PyInit_spam() function is not called automatically unless there's an entry in the PyImport_Inittab table. To add the module to the initialization table, use PyImport_AppendInittab(), optionally followed by an import of the module:

#define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
#include <Python.h>

int
main(int argc, char *argv[])
{
    PyStatus status;
    PyConfig config;
    PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(&config);

    /* Add a built-in module, before Py_Initialize */
    if (PyImport_AppendInittab("spam", PyInit_spam) == -1) {
        fprintf(stderr, "Error: could not extend in-built modules table\n");
        exit(1);
    }

    /* Pass argv[0] to the Python interpreter */
    status = PyConfig_SetBytesString(&config, &config.program_name, argv[0]);
    if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
        goto exception;
    }

    /* Initialize the Python interpreter.  Required.
       If this step fails, it will be a fatal error. */
    status = Py_InitializeFromConfig(&config);
    if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
        goto exception;
    }
    PyConfig_Clear(&config);

    /* Optionally import the module; alternatively,
       import can be deferred until the embedded script
       imports it. */
    PyObject *pmodule = PyImport_ImportModule("spam");
    if (!pmodule) {
        PyErr_Print();
        fprintf(stderr, "Error: could not import module 'spam'\n");
    }

    // ... use Python C API here ...

    return 0;

  exception:
     PyConfig_Clear(&config);
     Py_ExitStatusException(status);
}

Note

If you declare a global variable or a local static one, the module may experience unintended side-effects on re-initialisation, for example when removing entries from sys.modules or importing compiled modules into multiple interpreters within a process (or following a fork() without an intervening exec()). If module state is not yet fully isolated, authors should consider marking the module as having no support for subinterpreters (via Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_NOT_SUPPORTED).

A more substantial example module is included in the Python source distribution as Modules/xxlimited.c. This file may be used as a template or simply read as an example.

1.5. Compilation et liaison

Il y a encore deux choses à faire avant de pouvoir utiliser votre nouvelle extension : la compiler et la lier au système Python. Si vous utilisez le chargement dynamique, les détails peuvent dépendre du style de chargement dynamique utilisé par votre système ; voir les chapitres sur la compilation de modules d'extension (chapitre Construire des extensions C et C++) et les informations supplémentaires concernant uniquement la construction sous Windows (chapitre Construire des extensions C et C++ sur Windows) pour plus d'informations à ce sujet.

Si vous ne pouvez pas utiliser le chargement dynamique, ou si vous voulez faire de votre module une partie permanente de l'interpréteur Python, vous devez modifier la configuration et reconstruire l'interpréteur. Heureusement, c'est très simple sous Unix : placez simplement votre fichier (spammodule.c par exemple) dans le répertoire Modules/ d'une distribution source décompressée, ajoutez une ligne au fichier Modules/Setup.local décrivant votre fichier :

spam spammodule.o

et reconstruisez l'interpréteur en exécutant make dans le répertoire de niveau supérieur. Vous pouvez également exécuter make dans le sous-répertoire Modules/, mais vous devez d'abord reconstruire le Makefile en exécutant « make Makefile » (c'est nécessaire chaque fois que vous modifiez le fichier Setup).

Si votre module nécessite d'être lié à des bibliothèques supplémentaires, celles-ci peuvent être ajoutées à la fin de la ligne de votre module dans le fichier de configuration, par exemple :

spam spammodule.o -lX11

1.6. Appeler des fonctions Python en C

Jusqu'à présent, nous nous sommes concentrés sur le fait de rendre les fonctions C appelables depuis Python. L'inverse est également utile : appeler des fonctions Python depuis C. C'est notamment le cas pour les bibliothèques qui gèrent les fonctions dites de « rappel » (callback en anglais). Si une interface C utilise des rappels, l'équivalent Python doit souvent fournir un mécanisme de rappel au développeur Python ; l'implémentation nécessite d'appeler les fonctions de rappel Python à partir d'un rappel C. D'autres utilisations sont également envisageables.

Heureusement, l'interpréteur Python est facilement appelé de manière récursive et il existe une interface standard pour appeler une fonction Python (nous ne nous attarderons pas sur la façon d'appeler l'analyseur Python avec une chaîne particulière en entrée — si vous êtes intéressé, jetez un œil à l'implémentation de l'option de ligne de commande -c dans Modules/main.c à partir du code source Python).

L'appel d'une fonction Python est facile. Tout d'abord, le programme Python doit vous transmettre d'une manière ou d'une autre l'objet de fonction Python. Vous devez fournir une fonction (ou une autre interface) pour ce faire. Lorsque cette fonction est appelée, enregistrez un pointeur vers l'objet de la fonction Python (faites attention à Py_INCREF() !) dans une variable globale — ou là où vous le souhaitez. Par exemple, la fonction suivante peut faire partie d'une définition de module :

static PyObject *my_callback = NULL;

static PyObject *
my_set_callback(PyObject *dummy, PyObject *args)
{
    PyObject *result = NULL;
    PyObject *temp;

    if (PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "O:set_callback", &temp)) {
        if (!PyCallable_Check(temp)) {
            PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "parameter must be callable");
            return NULL;
        }
        Py_XINCREF(temp);         /* Add a reference to new callback */
        Py_XDECREF(my_callback);  /* Dispose of previous callback */
        my_callback = temp;       /* Remember new callback */
        /* Boilerplate to return "None" */
        Py_INCREF(Py_None);
        result = Py_None;
    }
    return result;
}

Cette fonction doit être déclarée en utilisant le drapeau METH_VARARGS ; ceci est décrit dans la section La fonction d'initialisation et le tableau des méthodes du module. La fonction PyArg_ParseTuple() et ses arguments sont documentés dans la section Extraire des paramètres dans des fonctions d'extension.

Les macros Py_XINCREF() et Py_XDECREF() incrémentent/décrémentent le compteur des références d'un objet et sont sûres quant à la présence de pointeurs NULL (mais notez que temp ne sera pas NULL dans ce contexte). Plus d'informations à ce sujet dans la section Compteurs de références.

Plus tard, quand il est temps d'appeler la fonction, vous appelez la fonction C PyObject_CallObject(). Cette fonction requiert deux arguments, tous deux des pointeurs vers des objets Python arbitraires : la fonction Python et la liste d'arguments. La liste d'arguments doit toujours être un objet n-uplet, dont la longueur est le nombre d'arguments. Pour appeler la fonction Python sans argument, passez NULL ou le n-uplet vide ; pour l'appeler avec un argument, passez un n-uplet singleton. Py_BuildValue() renvoie un n-uplet lorsque sa chaîne de format se compose de zéro ou plusieurs codes de format entre parenthèses. Par exemple :

int arg;
PyObject *arglist;
PyObject *result;
...
arg = 123;
...
/* Time to call the callback */
arglist = Py_BuildValue("(i)", arg);
result = PyObject_CallObject(my_callback, arglist);
Py_DECREF(arglist);

PyObject_CallObject() renvoie un pointeur d'objet Python : c'est la valeur de retour de la fonction Python. PyObject_CallObject() est « neutre en nombre de références » par rapport à ses arguments. Dans l'exemple, un nouveau n-uplet a été créé pour servir de liste d'arguments, qui est décrémenté (avec Py_DECREF()) immédiatement après l'appel PyObject_CallObject().

La valeur de retour de PyObject_CallObject() est « nouvelle » : soit c'est un tout nouvel objet, soit c'est un objet existant dont le nombre de références a été incrémenté. Donc, à moins que vous ne vouliez l'enregistrer dans une variable globale, vous devriez en quelque sorte décrémenter avec Py_DECREF() le résultat, même (surtout !) si vous n'êtes pas intéressé par sa valeur.

Mais avant de le faire, il est important de vérifier que la valeur renvoyée n'est pas NULL. Si c'est le cas, la fonction Python s'est terminée par une levée d'exception. Si le code C qui a appelé PyObject_CallObject() est appelé depuis Python, il devrait maintenant renvoyer une indication d'erreur à son appelant Python, afin que l'interpréteur puisse afficher la pile d'appels, ou que le code Python appelant puisse gérer l'exception. Si cela n'est pas possible ou souhaitable, l'exception doit être effacée en appelant PyErr_Clear(). Par exemple :

if (result == NULL)
    return NULL; /* Pass error back */
...use result...
Py_DECREF(result);

Selon l'interface souhaitée pour la fonction de rappel Python, vous devrez peut-être aussi fournir une liste d'arguments à PyObject_CallObject(). Dans certains cas, la liste d'arguments est également fournie par le programme Python, par l'intermédiaire de la même interface qui a spécifié la fonction de rappel. Elle peut alors être sauvegardée et utilisée de la même manière que l'objet fonction. Dans d'autres cas, vous pouvez avoir à construire un nouveau n-uplet à passer comme liste d'arguments. La façon la plus simple de faire cela est d'appeler Py_BuildValue(). Par exemple, si vous voulez passer un code d'événement intégral, vous pouvez utiliser le code suivant :

PyObject *arglist;
...
arglist = Py_BuildValue("(l)", eventcode);
result = PyObject_CallObject(my_callback, arglist);
Py_DECREF(arglist);
if (result == NULL)
    return NULL; /* Pass error back */
/* Here maybe use the result */
Py_DECREF(result);

Notez la présence de Py_DECREF(arglist) immédiatement après l'appel, avant la vérification des erreurs ! Notez également qu'à proprement parler, ce code n'est pas complet : Py_BuildValue() peut manquer de mémoire, et cela doit être vérifié.

Vous pouvez également appeler une fonction avec des arguments nommés en utilisant PyObject_Call(), qui accepte les arguments et les arguments nommés. Comme dans l'exemple ci-dessus, nous utilisons Py_BuildValue() pour construire le dictionnaire.

PyObject *dict;
...
dict = Py_BuildValue("{s:i}", "name", val);
result = PyObject_Call(my_callback, NULL, dict);
Py_DECREF(dict);
if (result == NULL)
    return NULL; /* Pass error back */
/* Here maybe use the result */
Py_DECREF(result);

1.7. Extraire des paramètres dans des fonctions d'extension

La fonction PyArg_ParseTuple() est déclarée ainsi :

int PyArg_ParseTuple(PyObject *arg, const char *format, ...);

L'argument arg doit être un n-uplet contenant une liste d'arguments passée de Python à une fonction C. L'argument format doit être une chaîne de format, dont la syntaxe est expliquée dans Analyse des arguments et construction des valeurs dans le manuel de référence de l'API Python/C. Les arguments restants doivent être des adresses de variables dont le type est déterminé par la chaîne de format.

Notez que si PyArg_ParseTuple() vérifie que les arguments Python ont les types requis, elle ne peut pas vérifier la validité des adresses des variables C transmises à l'appel : si vous y faites des erreurs, votre code plantera probablement ou au moins écrasera des bits aléatoires en mémoire. Donc soyez prudent !

Notez que toute référence sur un objet Python donnée à l'appelant est une référence empruntée ; ne décrémentez pas son compteur de références !

Quelques exemples d'appels :

#define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
#include <Python.h>

int ok;
int i, j;
long k, l;
const char *s;
Py_ssize_t size;

ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, ""); /* No arguments */
    /* Python call: f() */

ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s", &s); /* A string */
    /* Possible Python call: f('whoops!') */

ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "lls", &k, &l, &s); /* Two longs and a string */
    /* Possible Python call: f(1, 2, 'three') */

ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "(ii)s#", &i, &j, &s, &size);
    /* A pair of ints and a string, whose size is also returned */
    /* Possible Python call: f((1, 2), 'three') */

{
    const char *file;
    const char *mode = "r";
    int bufsize = 0;
    ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s|si", &file, &mode, &bufsize);
    /* A string, and optionally another string and an integer */
    /* Possible Python calls:
       f('spam')
       f('spam', 'w')
       f('spam', 'wb', 100000) */
}

{
    int left, top, right, bottom, h, v;
    ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "((ii)(ii))(ii)",
             &left, &top, &right, &bottom, &h, &v);
    /* A rectangle and a point */
    /* Possible Python call:
       f(((0, 0), (400, 300)), (10, 10)) */
}

{
    Py_complex c;
    ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "D:myfunction", &c);
    /* a complex, also providing a function name for errors */
    /* Possible Python call: myfunction(1+2j) */
}

1.8. Paramètres nommés pour des fonctions d'extension

La fonction PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords() est déclarée ainsi :

int PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(PyObject *arg, PyObject *kwdict,
                                const char *format, char * const *kwlist, ...);

Les paramètres arg et format sont identiques à ceux de la fonction PyArg_ParseTuple(). Le paramètre kwdict est le dictionnaire de mots-clés reçu comme troisième paramètre du runtime Python. Le paramètre kwlist est une liste de chaînes de caractères terminée par NULL qui identifie les paramètres ; les noms sont mis en correspondance, de gauche à droite, avec les informations de type de format. En cas de succès du processus, PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords() renvoie vrai, sinon elle renvoie faux et lève une exception appropriée.

Note

les n-uplets imbriqués ne peuvent pas être traités lorsqu'on utilise des arguments nommés ! Ceux-ci doivent apparaître dans kwlist, dans le cas contraire une exception TypeError est levée.

Voici un exemple de module qui utilise des arguments nommés, basé sur un exemple de Geoff Philbrick (philbrick@hks.com) :

#define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
#include <Python.h>

static PyObject *
keywdarg_parrot(PyObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *keywds)
{
    int voltage;
    const char *state = "a stiff";
    const char *action = "voom";
    const char *type = "Norwegian Blue";

    static char *kwlist[] = {"voltage", "state", "action", "type", NULL};

    if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, keywds, "i|sss", kwlist,
                                     &voltage, &state, &action, &type))
        return NULL;

    printf("-- This parrot wouldn't %s if you put %i Volts through it.\n",
           action, voltage);
    printf("-- Lovely plumage, the %s -- It's %s!\n", type, state);

    Py_RETURN_NONE;
}

static PyMethodDef keywdarg_methods[] = {
    /* The cast of the function is necessary since PyCFunction values
     * only take two PyObject* parameters, and keywdarg_parrot() takes
     * three.
     */
    {"parrot", (PyCFunction)(void(*)(void))keywdarg_parrot, METH_VARARGS | METH_KEYWORDS,
     "Print a lovely skit to standard output."},
    {NULL, NULL, 0, NULL}   /* sentinel */
};

static struct PyModuleDef keywdarg_module = {
    .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
    .m_name = "keywdarg",
    .m_size = 0,
    .m_methods = keywdarg_methods,
};

PyMODINIT_FUNC
PyInit_keywdarg(void)
{
    return PyModuleDef_Init(&keywdarg_module);
}

1.9. Créer des valeurs arbitraires

Cette fonction est le complément de PyArg_ParseTuple(). Elle est déclarée comme suit :

PyObject *Py_BuildValue(const char *format, ...);

Elle reconnaît un ensemble d'unités de format similaires à celles reconnues par PyArg_ParseTuple(), mais les arguments (qui sont les données en entrée de la fonction, et non de la sortie) ne doivent pas être des pointeurs, mais juste des valeurs. Elle renvoie un nouvel objet Python, adapté pour être renvoyé par une fonction C appelée depuis Python.

Une différence avec PyArg_ParseTuple() : alors que cette dernière nécessite que son premier argument soit un n-uplet (puisque les listes d'arguments Python sont toujours représentées comme des n-uplets en interne), Py_BuildValue() ne construit pas toujours un n-uplet. Elle construit un n-uplet uniquement si sa chaîne de format contient deux unités de format ou plus. Si la chaîne de format est vide, elle renvoie None ; si elle contient exactement une unité de format, elle renvoie tout objet décrit par cette unité de format. Pour la forcer à renvoyer un n-uplet de taille 0 ou un, mettez la chaîne de format entre parenthèses.

Exemples (à gauche l'appel, à droite la valeur résultante, en Python) :

Py_BuildValue("")                        None
Py_BuildValue("i", 123)                  123
Py_BuildValue("iii", 123, 456, 789)      (123, 456, 789)
Py_BuildValue("s", "hello")              'hello'
Py_BuildValue("y", "hello")              b'hello'
Py_BuildValue("ss", "hello", "world")    ('hello', 'world')
Py_BuildValue("s#", "hello", 4)          'hell'
Py_BuildValue("y#", "hello", 4)          b'hell'
Py_BuildValue("()")                      ()
Py_BuildValue("(i)", 123)                (123,)
Py_BuildValue("(ii)", 123, 456)          (123, 456)
Py_BuildValue("(i,i)", 123, 456)         (123, 456)
Py_BuildValue("[i,i]", 123, 456)         [123, 456]
Py_BuildValue("{s:i,s:i}",
              "abc", 123, "def", 456)    {'abc': 123, 'def': 456}
Py_BuildValue("((ii)(ii)) (ii)",
              1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)          (((1, 2), (3, 4)), (5, 6))

1.10. Compteurs de références

Dans les langages comme le C ou le C++, le développeur est responsable de l'allocation dynamique et de la dés-allocation de la mémoire sur le tas. En C, cela se fait à l'aide des fonctions malloc() et free(). En C++, les opérateurs new et delete sont utilisés avec essentiellement la même signification et nous limiterons la discussion suivante au cas du C.

Every block of memory allocated with malloc() should eventually be returned to the pool of available memory by exactly one call to free(). It is important to call free() at the right time. If a block's address is forgotten but free() is not called for it, the memory it occupies cannot be reused until the program terminates. This is called a memory leak. On the other hand, if a program calls free() for a block and then continues to use the block, it creates a conflict with reuse of the block through another malloc() call. This is called using freed memory. It has the same bad consequences as referencing uninitialized data --- core dumps, wrong results, mysterious crashes.

Les causes courantes des fuites de mémoire sont des exécutions inhabituelles du code. Par exemple, une fonction peut allouer un bloc de mémoire, effectuer des calculs, puis libérer le bloc. Plus tard, une modification des exigences de la fonction peut ajouter un test au calcul qui détecte une condition d'erreur et peut sortir prématurément de la fonction. Il est facile d'oublier de libérer le bloc de mémoire alloué lors de cette sortie prématurée, surtout lorsqu'elle est ajoutée ultérieurement au code. De telles fuites, une fois introduites, passent souvent inaperçues pendant longtemps : la sortie d'erreur n'est prise que dans une petite fraction de tous les appels, et la plupart des machines modernes ont beaucoup de mémoire virtuelle, de sorte que la fuite ne devient apparente que dans un processus de longue durée qui utilise fréquemment cette fonction. Par conséquent, il est important d'éviter les fuites en ayant une convention ou une stratégie de codage qui minimise ce type d'erreurs.

Comme Python fait un usage intensif de malloc() et de free(), il a besoin d'une stratégie pour éviter les fuites de mémoire ainsi que l'utilisation de la mémoire libérée. La méthode choisie est appelée le comptage de références. Le principe est simple : chaque objet contient un compteur, qui est incrémenté lorsqu'une référence à l'objet est stockée quelque part, et qui est décrémenté lorsqu'une référence à celui-ci est supprimée. Lorsque le compteur atteint zéro, la dernière référence à l'objet a été supprimée et l'objet est libéré.

Une stratégie alternative est appelée ramasse-miettes automatique (automatic garbage collection en anglais). Parfois, le comptage des références est également appelé stratégie de ramasse-miettes, d'où l'utilisation du terme « automatique » pour distinguer les deux. Le grand avantage du ramasse-miettes est que l'utilisateur n'a pas besoin d'appeler free() explicitement (un autre avantage important est l'amélioration de la vitesse ou de l'utilisation de la mémoire, ce n'est cependant pas un fait avéré). L'inconvénient est que pour C, il n'y a pas de ramasse-miettes portable proprement-dit, alors que le comptage des références peut être implémenté de façon portable (tant que les fonctions malloc() et free() sont disponibles, ce que la norme C garantit). Peut-être qu'un jour un ramasse-miettes suffisamment portable sera disponible pour C. D'ici là, nous devons utiliser les compteurs de références.

Bien que Python utilise l'implémentation traditionnelle de comptage de références, il contient également un détecteur de cycles qui fonctionne pour détecter les cycles de références. Cela permet aux applications de ne pas se soucier de la création de références circulaires directes ou indirectes ; celles-ci sont les faiblesses des ramasse-miettes utilisant uniquement le comptage de références. Les cycles de références sont constitués d'objets qui contiennent des références (éventuellement indirectes) à eux-mêmes, de sorte que chaque objet du cycle a un compteur de références qui n'est pas nul. Les implémentations typiques de comptage de références ne sont pas capables de récupérer la mémoire des objets appartenant à un cycle de références, ou référencés à partir des objets dans le cycle, même s'il n'y a pas d'autre référence au cycle lui-même.

Le détecteur de cycle est capable de détecter les cycles isolés et peut récupérer la mémoire afférente. Le module gc expose un moyen d'exécuter le détecteur (la fonction collect()), ainsi que des interfaces de configuration et la possibilité de désactiver le détecteur au moment de l'exécution.

1.10.1. Comptage de références en Python

Il existe deux macros, Py_INCREF(x) et Py_DECREF(x), qui gèrent l'incrémentation et la décrémentation du comptage de références. Py_DECREF() libère également l'objet lorsque le compteur atteint zéro. Pour plus de flexibilité, il n'appelle pas free() directement — plutôt, il fait un appel à travers un pointeur de fonction dans l'objet type objet de l'objet. À cette fin (et pour d'autres), chaque objet contient également un pointeur vers son objet type.

La grande question demeure maintenant : quand utiliser Py_INCREF(x) et Py_DECREF(x) ? Commençons par définir quelques termes. Personne ne possède un objet, mais vous pouvez en avoir une référence. Le compteur de références d'un objet est maintenant défini comme étant le nombre de références à cet objet. Le propriétaire d'une référence est responsable d'appeler Py_DECREF() lorsque la référence n'est plus nécessaire. La possession d'une référence peut être transférée. Il y a trois façons de se débarrasser d'une référence que l'on possède : la transmettre, la stocker ou appeler Py_DECREF(). Oublier de se débarrasser d'une référence crée une fuite de mémoire.

Il est également possible d'emprunter [2] une référence à un objet. L'emprunteur d'une référence ne doit pas appeler Py_DECREF(). L'emprunteur ne doit pas conserver l'objet plus longtemps que le propriétaire à qui il a été emprunté. L'utilisation d'une référence empruntée après que le propriétaire s'en est débarrassée risque d'utiliser de la mémoire libérée et doit être absolument évitée [3].

L'avantage d'emprunter, plutôt qu'être propriétaire d'une référence, est que vous n'avez pas à vous soucier de libérer la référence sur tous les chemins possibles dans le code — en d'autres termes, avec une référence empruntée, vous ne courez pas le risque de fuites lors d'une sortie prématurée. L'inconvénient de l'emprunt par rapport à la possession est qu'il existe certaines situations subtiles où, dans un code apparemment correct, une référence empruntée peut être utilisée après que le propriétaire auquel elle a été empruntée l'a en fait éliminée.

Une référence empruntée peut être changée en une référence possédée en appelant Py_INCREF(). Cela n'affecte pas le statut du propriétaire à qui la référence a été empruntée — cela crée une nouvelle référence possédée et donne l'entière responsabilité au propriétaire (le nouveau propriétaire doit libérer la référence correctement, ainsi que le propriétaire précédent).

1.10.2. Règles concernant la possession de références

Chaque fois qu'une référence d'objet est passée à l'intérieur ou à l'extérieur d'une fonction, elle fait partie de la spécification de l'interface de la fonction, peu importe que la possession soit transférée avec la référence ou non.

La plupart des fonctions qui renvoient une référence à un objet transmettent la possession avec la référence. En particulier, toutes les fonctions dont la fonction est de créer un nouvel objet, telles que PyLong_FromLong() et Py_BuildValue(), transmettent la possession au récepteur. Même si l'objet n'est pas réellement nouveau, vous recevez toujours la possession d'une nouvelle référence à cet objet. Par exemple, PyLong_FromLong() maintient un cache des valeurs souvent utilisées et peut renvoyer une référence à un élément mis en cache.

De nombreuses fonctions qui extraient des objets d'autres objets transfèrent également la possession avec la référence, par exemple PyObject_GetAttrString(). L'image est moins claire ici, cependant, puisque quelques routines courantes sont des exceptions : PyTuple_GetItem(), PyList_GetItem(), PyDict_GetItem() et PyDict_GetItemString() renvoient toutes des références qui sont empruntées au n-uplet, à la liste ou au dictionnaire.

La fonction PyImport_AddModule() renvoie également une référence empruntée, même si elle peut en fait créer l'objet qu'elle renvoie : c'est possible car une référence à l'objet est stockée dans sys.modules.

Lorsque vous passez une référence d'objet dans une autre fonction, en général, la fonction vous emprunte la référence — si elle a besoin de la stocker, elle utilise Py_INCREF() pour devenir un propriétaire indépendant. Il existe exactement deux exceptions importantes à cette règle : PyTuple_SetItem() et PyList_SetItem(). Ces fonctions s'approprient l'élément qui leur est transmis, même en cas d'échec ! (Notez que PyDict_SetItem() et compagnie ne prennent pas la possession de l'objet, elles sont « normales ».)

Lorsqu'une fonction C est appelée depuis Python, elle emprunte à l'appelant des références aux arguments. L'appelant possède une référence à l'objet, de sorte que la durée de vie de la référence empruntée est garantie jusqu'au retour de la fonction. Ce n'est que lorsqu'une telle référence empruntée doit être stockée ou transmise qu'elle doit être transformée en référence possédée en appelant Py_INCREF().

La référence d'objet renvoyée par une fonction C appelée depuis Python doit être une référence détenue en propre — la possession est transférée de la fonction à son appelant.

1.10.3. Terrain dangereux

Il existe quelques situations où l'utilisation apparemment inoffensive d'une référence empruntée peut entraîner des problèmes. Tous ces problèmes sont en lien avec des invocations implicites de l’interpréteur et peuvent amener le propriétaire d'une référence à s'en défaire.

Le premier cas, et le plus important à connaître, est celui de l'utilisation de Py_DECREF() à un objet non relié lors de l'emprunt d'une référence à un élément de liste. Par exemple :

void
bug(PyObject *list)
{
    PyObject *item = PyList_GetItem(list, 0);

    PyList_SetItem(list, 1, PyLong_FromLong(0L));
    PyObject_Print(item, stdout, 0); /* BUG! */
}

Cette fonction emprunte d'abord une référence à list[0], puis remplace list[1] par la valeur 0, et enfin affiche la référence empruntée. Ça a l'air inoffensif, n'est-ce pas ? Mais ce n'est pas le cas !

Let's follow the control flow into PyList_SetItem(). The list owns references to all its items, so when item 1 is replaced, it has to dispose of the original item 1. Now let's suppose the original item 1 was an instance of a user-defined class, and let's further suppose that the class defined a __del__() method. If this class instance has a reference count of 1, disposing of it will call its __del__() method. Internally, PyList_SetItem() calls Py_DECREF() on the replaced item, which invokes replaced item's corresponding tp_dealloc function. During deallocation, tp_dealloc calls tp_finalize, which is mapped to the __del__() method for class instances (see PEP 442 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/]). This entire sequence happens synchronously within the PyList_SetItem() call.

Since it is written in Python, the __del__() method can execute arbitrary Python code. Could it perhaps do something to invalidate the reference to item in bug()? You bet! Assuming that the list passed into bug() is accessible to the __del__() method, it could execute a statement to the effect of del list[0], and assuming this was the last reference to that object, it would free the memory associated with it, thereby invalidating item.

La solution, une fois que vous connaissez la source du problème, est simple : incrémentez temporairement le compteur de références. La version correcte de la fonction est :

void
no_bug(PyObject *list)
{
    PyObject *item = PyList_GetItem(list, 0);

    Py_INCREF(item);
    PyList_SetItem(list, 1, PyLong_FromLong(0L));
    PyObject_Print(item, stdout, 0);
    Py_DECREF(item);
}

This is a true story. An older version of Python contained variants of this bug and someone spent a considerable amount of time in a C debugger to figure out why his __del__() methods would fail...

The second case of problems with a borrowed reference is a variant involving threads. Normally, multiple threads in the Python interpreter can't get in each other's way, because there is a global lock protecting Python's entire object space. However, it is possible to temporarily release this lock using the macro Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS, and to re-acquire it using Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS. This is common around blocking I/O calls, to let other threads use the processor while waiting for the I/O to complete. Obviously, the following function has the same problem as the previous one:

void
bug(PyObject *list)
{
    PyObject *item = PyList_GetItem(list, 0);
    Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS
    ...some blocking I/O call...
    Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS
    PyObject_Print(item, stdout, 0); /* BUG! */
}

1.10.4. Pointeurs NULL

En général, les fonctions qui prennent des références d'objets comme arguments ne sont pas conçues pour recevoir des pointeurs NULL, et si vous en donnez comme arguments, elles causeront une erreur de segmentation (ou provoqueront des core dump ultérieurs). Les fonctions qui renvoient des références d'objets renvoient généralement NULL uniquement pour indiquer qu'une exception s'est produite. La raison pour laquelle les arguments NULL ne sont pas testés est que les fonctions passent souvent les objets qu'elles reçoivent à d'autres fonctions, si chaque fonction devait tester pour NULL, il y aurait beaucoup de tests redondants et le code s'exécuterait plus lentement.

Il est préférable de tester la présence de NULL uniquement au début : lorsqu'un pointeur qui peut être NULL est reçu, par exemple, de malloc() ou d'une fonction qui peut lever une exception.

Les macros Py_INCREF() et Py_DECREF() ne vérifient pas les pointeurs NULL. Cependant, leurs variantes Py_XINCREF() et Py_XDECREF() le font.

Les macros de vérification d'un type d'objet particulier (Pytype_Check()) ne vérifient pas les pointeurs NULL — encore une fois, il y a beaucoup de code qui en appelle plusieurs à la suite pour tester un objet par rapport à différents types attendus, ce qui générerait des tests redondants. Il n'y a pas de variantes avec la vérification NULL.

Le mécanisme d'appel de fonctions C garantit que la liste d'arguments passée aux fonctions C (args dans les exemples) n'est jamais NULL. En fait, il garantit qu'il s'agit toujours d'un n-uplet [4].

C'est une grave erreur de laisser un pointeur NULL « s'échapper » vers l'utilisateur Python.

1.11. Écrire des extensions en C++

C'est possible d'écrire des modules d'extension en C++, mais sous certaines conditions. Si le programme principal (l'interpréteur Python) est compilé et lié par le compilateur C, les objets globaux ou statiques avec les constructeurs ne peuvent pas être utilisés. Ceci n'est pas un problème si le programme principal est relié par le compilateur C++. Les fonctions qui seront appelées par l'interpréteur Python (en particulier, les fonctions d'initialisation des modules) doivent être déclarées en utilisant extern "C". Il n'est pas nécessaire d'inclure les fichiers d'en-tête Python dans le extern "C" {…}, car ils utilisent déjà ce format si le symbole __cplusplus est défini (tous les compilateurs C++ récents définissent ce symbole).

1.12. Fournir une API en langage C pour un module d'extension

De nombreux modules d'extension fournissent simplement de nouvelles fonctions et de nouveaux types à utiliser à partir de Python, mais parfois le code d'un module d'extension peut être utile pour d'autres modules d'extension. Par exemple, un module d'extension peut mettre en œuvre un type « collection » qui fonctionne comme des listes sans ordre. Tout comme le type de liste Python standard possède une API C qui permet aux modules d'extension de créer et de manipuler des listes, ce nouveau type de collection devrait posséder un ensemble de fonctions C pour une manipulation directe à partir d'autres modules d'extension.

À première vue, cela semble facile : il suffit d'écrire les fonctions (sans les déclarer « statiques », bien sûr), de fournir un fichier d'en-tête approprié et de documenter l'API C. Et en fait, cela fonctionnerait si tous les modules d'extension étaient toujours liés statiquement avec l'interpréteur Python. Cependant, lorsque les modules sont utilisés comme des bibliothèques partagées, les symboles définis dans un module peuvent ne pas être visibles par un autre module. Les détails de la visibilité dépendent du système d'exploitation ; certains systèmes utilisent un espace de noms global pour l'interpréteur Python et tous les modules d'extension (Windows, par exemple), tandis que d'autres exigent une liste explicite des symboles importés au moment de la liaison des modules (AIX en est un exemple), ou offrent un choix de stratégies différentes (la plupart des Unix). Et même si les symboles sont globalement visibles, le module dont on souhaite appeler les fonctions n'est peut-être pas encore chargé !

La portabilité exige donc de ne faire aucune supposition sur la visibilité des symboles. Cela signifie que tous les symboles des modules d'extension doivent être déclarés static, à l'exception de la fonction d'initialisation du module, afin d'éviter les conflits de noms avec les autres modules d'extension (comme discuté dans la section La fonction d'initialisation et le tableau des méthodes du module). Et cela signifie que les symboles qui devraient être accessibles à partir d'autres modules d'extension doivent être exportés d'une manière différente.

Python fournit un mécanisme spécial pour transmettre des informations de niveau C (pointeurs) d'un module d'extension à un autre : les Capsules. Une capsule est un type de données Python qui stocke un pointeur (void*). Les capsules ne peuvent être créées et accessibles que via leur API C, mais elles peuvent être transmises comme n'importe quel autre objet Python. En particulier, elles peuvent être affectées à un nom dans l'espace de noms d'un module d'extension. D'autres modules d'extension peuvent alors importer ce module, récupérer la valeur de ce nom, puis récupérer le pointeur de la Capsule.

Il existe de nombreuses façons d'utiliser les Capsules pour exporter l'API C d'un module d'extension. Chaque fonction peut obtenir sa propre Capsule, ou tous les pointeurs de l'API C peuvent être stockés dans un tableau dont l'adresse est inscrite dans une Capsule. Et les différentes tâches de stockage et de récupération des pointeurs peuvent être réparties de différentes manières entre le module fournissant le code et les modules clients.

Quelle que soit la méthode que vous choisissez, il est important de bien nommer vos Capsules. La fonction PyCapsule_New() prend un paramètre nommé (const char*). Vous êtes autorisé à passer un nom NULL, mais nous vous encourageons vivement à spécifier un nom. Des Capsules correctement nommées offrent un certain degré de sécurité concernant un éventuel conflit de types, car il n'y a pas de moyen de distinguer deux ou plusieurs Capsules non nommées entre elles.

En particulier, les capsules utilisées pour exposer les API C doivent recevoir un nom suivant cette convention :

modulename.attributename

La fonction de commodité PyCapsule_Import() permet de charger facilement une API C fournie via une Capsule, mais seulement si le nom de la Capsule correspond à cette convention. Ce comportement donne aux utilisateurs d'API C un degré élevé de certitude que la Capsule qu'ils chargent contient l'API C correcte.

L'exemple suivant montre une approche qui fait peser la plus grande partie de la charge sur le rédacteur du module d'exportation, ce qui est approprié pour les modules de bibliothèque couramment utilisés. Il stocke tous les pointeurs de l'API C (un seul dans l'exemple !) dans un tableau de pointeurs void qui devient la valeur d'une Capsule. Le fichier d'en-tête correspondant au module fournit une macro qui se charge d'importer le module et de récupérer ses pointeurs d'API C. Les modules clients n'ont qu'à appeler cette macro avant d'accéder à l'API C.

The exporting module is a modification of the spam module from section Un exemple simple. The function spam.system() does not call the C library function system() directly, but a function PySpam_System(), which would of course do something more complicated in reality (such as adding "spam" to every command). This function PySpam_System() is also exported to other extension modules.

The function PySpam_System() is a plain C function, declared static like everything else:

static int
PySpam_System(const char *command)
{
    return system(command);
}

The function spam_system() is modified in a trivial way:

static PyObject *
spam_system(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
{
    const char *command;
    int sts;

    if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s", &command))
        return NULL;
    sts = PySpam_System(command);
    return PyLong_FromLong(sts);
}

Au début du module, immédiatement après la ligne :

#include <Python.h>

on doit ajouter deux lignes supplémentaires :

#define SPAM_MODULE
#include "spammodule.h"

The #define is used to tell the header file that it is being included in the exporting module, not a client module. Finally, the module's mod_exec function must take care of initializing the C API pointer array:

static int
spam_module_exec(PyObject *m)
{
    static void *PySpam_API[PySpam_API_pointers];
    PyObject *c_api_object;

    /* Initialize the C API pointer array */
    PySpam_API[PySpam_System_NUM] = (void *)PySpam_System;

    /* Create a Capsule containing the API pointer array's address */
    c_api_object = PyCapsule_New((void *)PySpam_API, "spam._C_API", NULL);

    if (PyModule_Add(m, "_C_API", c_api_object) < 0) {
        return -1;
    }

    return 0;
}

Note that PySpam_API is declared static; otherwise the pointer array would disappear when PyInit_spam() terminates!

L'essentiel du travail se trouve dans le fichier d'en-tête spammodule.h, qui ressemble à ceci :

#ifndef Py_SPAMMODULE_H
#define Py_SPAMMODULE_H
#ifdef __cplusplus
extern "C" {
#endif

/* Header file for spammodule */

/* C API functions */
#define PySpam_System_NUM 0
#define PySpam_System_RETURN int
#define PySpam_System_PROTO (const char *command)

/* Total number of C API pointers */
#define PySpam_API_pointers 1

#ifdef SPAM_MODULE
/* This section is used when compiling spammodule.c */

static PySpam_System_RETURN PySpam_System PySpam_System_PROTO;

#else
/* This section is used in modules that use spammodule's API */

static void **PySpam_API;

#define PySpam_System \
 (*(PySpam_System_RETURN (*)PySpam_System_PROTO) PySpam_API[PySpam_System_NUM])

/* Return -1 on error, 0 on success.
 * PyCapsule_Import will set an exception if there's an error.
 */
static int
import_spam(void)
{
    PySpam_API = (void **)PyCapsule_Import("spam._C_API", 0);
    return (PySpam_API != NULL) ? 0 : -1;
}

#endif

#ifdef __cplusplus
}
#endif

#endif /* !defined(Py_SPAMMODULE_H) */

All that a client module must do in order to have access to the function PySpam_System() is to call the function (or rather macro) import_spam() in its mod_exec function:

static int
client_module_exec(PyObject *m)
{
    if (import_spam() < 0) {
        return -1;
    }
    /* additional initialization can happen here */
    return 0;
}

Le principal inconvénient de cette approche est que le fichier spammodule.h est assez compliqué. Cependant, la structure de base est la même pour chaque fonction exportée, ce qui fait qu'elle ne doit être apprise qu'une seule fois.

Enfin, il convient de mentionner que les Capsules offrent des fonctionnalités supplémentaires, qui sont particulièrement utiles pour l'allocation de la mémoire et la dés-allocation du pointeur stocké dans un objet Capsule. Les détails sont décrits dans le manuel de référence de l'API Python/C dans la section Capsules et dans l'implémentation des Capsules (fichiers Include/pycapsule.h et Objects/pycapsule.c dans la distribution du code source Python).

Notes

[1]

Une interface pour cette fonction existe déjà dans le module standard os, elle a été choisie comme un exemple simple et direct.

[2]

L'expression « emprunter une référence » n'est pas tout à fait correcte, car le propriétaire a toujours une copie de la référence.

[3]

Vérifier que le comptage de référence est d'au moins 1 ne fonctionne pas, le compte de référence lui-même pourrait être en mémoire libérée et peut donc être réutilisé pour un autre objet !

[4]

Ces garanties ne sont pas valables lorsqu'on emploie les conventions de nommage anciennes, qu'on retrouve encore assez souvent dans beaucoup de code existant.

2. Tutoriel : définir des types dans des extensions

Python permet à l'auteur d'un module d'extension C de définir de nouveaux types qui peuvent être manipulés depuis du code Python, à la manière des types natifs str et list. Les implémentations de tous les types d'extension ont des similarités, mais quelques subtilités doivent être abordées avant de commencer.

2.1. Les bases

CPython considère que tous les objets Python sont des variables de type PyObject*, qui sert de type de base pour tous les objets Python. La structure de PyObject ne contient que le compteur de références et un pointeur vers un objet de type « type de l'objet ». C'est ici que tout se joue : l'objet type détermine quelle fonction C doit être appelée par l'interpréteur quand, par exemple, un attribut est recherché sur un objet, quand une méthode est appelée, ou quand l'objet est multiplié par un autre objet. Ces fonctions C sont appelées des « méthodes de type ».

Donc, pour définir un nouveau type dans une extension, vous devez créer un nouvel objet type.

This sort of thing can only be explained by example, so here's a minimal, but complete, module that defines a new type named Custom inside a C extension module custom:

Note

ce qui est montré ici est la manière traditionnelle de définir des types d'extension statiques, et cela convient dans la majorité des cas. L'API C permet aussi de définir des types alloués sur le tas, via la fonction PyType_FromSpec(), mais ce n'est pas couvert par ce tutoriel.

#define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
#include <Python.h>

typedef struct {
    PyObject_HEAD
    /* Type-specific fields go here. */
} CustomObject;

static PyTypeObject CustomType = {
    .ob_base = PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
    .tp_name = "custom.Custom",
    .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"),
    .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject),
    .tp_itemsize = 0,
    .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT,
    .tp_new = PyType_GenericNew,
};

static int
custom_module_exec(PyObject *m)
{
    if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0) {
        return -1;
    }

    if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) {
        return -1;
    }

    return 0;
}

static PyModuleDef_Slot custom_module_slots[] = {
    {Py_mod_exec, custom_module_exec},
    // Just use this while using static types
    {Py_mod_multiple_interpreters, Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_NOT_SUPPORTED},
    {0, NULL}
};

static PyModuleDef custom_module = {
    .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
    .m_name = "custom",
    .m_doc = "Example module that creates an extension type.",
    .m_size = 0,
    .m_slots = custom_module_slots,
};

PyMODINIT_FUNC
PyInit_custom(void)
{
    return PyModuleDef_Init(&custom_module);
}

C'est un peu long, mais vous devez déjà reconnaître quelques morceaux expliqués au chapitre précédent. Ce fichier définit trois choses :

What a Custom object contains: this is the CustomObject struct, which is allocated once for each Custom instance.

How the Custom type behaves: this is the CustomType struct, which defines a set of flags and function pointers that the interpreter inspects when specific operations are requested.

How to define and execute the custom module: this is the PyInit_custom function and the associated custom_module struct for defining the module, and the custom_module_exec function to set up a fresh module object.

Commençons par :

typedef struct {
    PyObject_HEAD
} CustomObject;

C'est ce qu'un objet Custom contient. PyObject_HEAD est obligatoirement au début de chaque structure d'objet et définit un champ appelé ob_base de type PyObject, contenant un pointeur vers un objet type et un compteur de références (on peut y accéder en utilisant les macros Py_TYPE et Py_REFCNT, respectivement). La raison d'être de ces macros est d'abstraire l'agencement de la structure, et ainsi de permettre l'ajout de champs en mode débogage.

Note

il n'y a pas de point-virgule après la macro PyObject_HEAD. Attention à ne pas l'ajouter par accident : certains compilateurs pourraient s'en plaindre.

Bien sûr, les objets ajoutent généralement des données supplémentaires après l'entête standard PyObject_HEAD. Par exemple voici la définition du type standard Python float :

typedef struct {
    PyObject_HEAD
    double ob_fval;
} PyFloatObject;

La deuxième partie est la définition de l'objet type

static PyTypeObject CustomType = {
    .ob_base = PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
    .tp_name = "custom.Custom",
    .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"),
    .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject),
    .tp_itemsize = 0,
    .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT,
    .tp_new = PyType_GenericNew,
};

Note

nous recommandons d'utiliser la syntaxe d'initialisation nommée (C99) pour remplir la structure, comme ci-dessus, afin d'éviter d'avoir à lister les champs de PyTypeObject dont vous n'avez pas besoin, et de ne pas vous soucier de leur ordre.

La définition de PyTypeObject dans object.h contient en fait bien plus de champs que la définition ci-dessus. Les champs restants sont mis à zéro par le compilateur C, et c'est une pratique répandue de ne pas spécifier les champs dont vous n'avez pas besoin.

Regardons les champs de cette structure, un par un :

.ob_base = PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)

Cette ligne, obligatoire, initialise le champ ob_base mentionné précédemment.

.tp_name = "custom.Custom",

C'est le nom de notre type. Il apparaît dans la représentation textuelle par défaut de nos objets, ainsi que dans quelques messages d'erreur, par exemple :

>>> "" + custom.Custom()
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: can only concatenate str (not "custom.Custom") to str

Note that the name is a dotted name that includes both the module name and the name of the type within the module. The module in this case is custom and the type is Custom, so we set the type name to custom.Custom. Using the real dotted import path is important to make your type compatible with the pydoc and pickle modules.

.tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject),
.tp_itemsize = 0,

This is so that Python knows how much memory to allocate when creating new Custom instances. tp_itemsize is only used for variable-sized objects and should otherwise be zero.

Note

If you want your type to be subclassable from Python, and your type has the same tp_basicsize as its base type, you may have problems with multiple inheritance. A Python subclass of your type will have to list your type first in its __bases__, or else it will not be able to call your type's __new__() method without getting an error. You can avoid this problem by ensuring that your type has a larger value for tp_basicsize than its base type does. Most of the time, this will be true anyway, because either your base type will be object, or else you will be adding data members to your base type, and therefore increasing its size.

Nous définissons les drapeaux de la classe à Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT :

.tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT,

Chaque type doit inclure cette constante dans ses options : elle active tous les membres définis jusqu'à au moins Python 3.3. Si vous avez besoin de plus de membres, vous pouvez la combiner à d'autres constantes avec un OU binaire.

Nous fournissons une docstring pour ce type via le membre tp_doc.

.tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"),

To enable object creation, we have to provide a tp_new handler. This is the equivalent of the Python method __new__(), but has to be specified explicitly. In this case, we can just use the default implementation provided by the API function PyType_GenericNew().

.tp_new = PyType_GenericNew,

Everything else in the file should be familiar, except for some code in custom_module_exec():

if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0) {
    return -1;
}

This initializes the Custom type, filling in a number of members to the appropriate default values, including ob_type that we initially set to NULL.

if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) {
    return -1;
}

This adds the type to the module dictionary. This allows us to create Custom instances by calling the Custom class:

>>> import custom
>>> mycustom = custom.Custom()

That's it! All that remains is to build it; put the above code in a file called custom.c,

[build-system]
requires = ["setuptools"]
build-backend = "setuptools.build_meta"

[project]
name = "custom"
version = "1"

in a file called pyproject.toml, and

from setuptools import Extension, setup
setup(ext_modules=[Extension("custom", ["custom.c"])])

dans un fichier appelé setup.py ; puis en tapant

$ python -m pip install .

in a shell should produce a file custom.so in a subdirectory and install it; now fire up Python --- you should be able to import custom and play around with Custom objects.

Ce n'était pas si difficile, n'est-ce pas ?

Bien sûr, le type personnalisé actuel est assez inintéressant. Il n'a pas de données et ne fait rien. Il ne peut même pas être sous-classé.

2.2. ajout de données et de méthodes à l'exemple basique

Let's extend the basic example to add some data and methods. Let's also make the type usable as a base class. We'll create a new module, custom2 that adds these capabilities:

#define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
#include <Python.h>
#include <stddef.h> /* for offsetof() */

typedef struct {
    PyObject_HEAD
    PyObject *first; /* first name */
    PyObject *last;  /* last name */
    int number;
} CustomObject;

static void
Custom_dealloc(PyObject *op)
{
    CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
    Py_XDECREF(self->first);
    Py_XDECREF(self->last);
    Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free(self);
}

static PyObject *
Custom_new(PyTypeObject *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
{
    CustomObject *self;
    self = (CustomObject *) type->tp_alloc(type, 0);
    if (self != NULL) {
        self->first = Py_GetConstant(Py_CONSTANT_EMPTY_STR);
        if (self->first == NULL) {
            Py_DECREF(self);
            return NULL;
        }
        self->last = Py_GetConstant(Py_CONSTANT_EMPTY_STR);
        if (self->last == NULL) {
            Py_DECREF(self);
            return NULL;
        }
        self->number = 0;
    }
    return (PyObject *) self;
}

static int
Custom_init(PyObject *op, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
{
    CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
    static char *kwlist[] = {"first", "last", "number", NULL};
    PyObject *first = NULL, *last = NULL;

    if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|OOi", kwlist,
                                     &first, &last,
                                     &self->number))
        return -1;

    if (first) {
        Py_XSETREF(self->first, Py_NewRef(first));
    }
    if (last) {
        Py_XSETREF(self->last, Py_NewRef(last));
    }
    return 0;
}

static PyMemberDef Custom_members[] = {
    {"first", Py_T_OBJECT_EX, offsetof(CustomObject, first), 0,
     "first name"},
    {"last", Py_T_OBJECT_EX, offsetof(CustomObject, last), 0,
     "last name"},
    {"number", Py_T_INT, offsetof(CustomObject, number), 0,
     "custom number"},
    {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
};

static PyObject *
Custom_name(PyObject *op, PyObject *Py_UNUSED(dummy))
{
    CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
    if (self->first == NULL) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_AttributeError, "first");
        return NULL;
    }
    if (self->last == NULL) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_AttributeError, "last");
        return NULL;
    }
    return PyUnicode_FromFormat("%S %S", self->first, self->last);
}

static PyMethodDef Custom_methods[] = {
    {"name", Custom_name, METH_NOARGS,
     "Return the name, combining the first and last name"
    },
    {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
};

static PyTypeObject CustomType = {
    .ob_base = PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
    .tp_name = "custom2.Custom",
    .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"),
    .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject),
    .tp_itemsize = 0,
    .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE,
    .tp_new = Custom_new,
    .tp_init = Custom_init,
    .tp_dealloc = Custom_dealloc,
    .tp_members = Custom_members,
    .tp_methods = Custom_methods,
};

static int
custom_module_exec(PyObject *m)
{
    if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0) {
        return -1;
    }

    if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) {
        return -1;
    }

    return 0;
}

static PyModuleDef_Slot custom_module_slots[] = {
    {Py_mod_exec, custom_module_exec},
    {Py_mod_multiple_interpreters, Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_NOT_SUPPORTED},
    {0, NULL}
};

static PyModuleDef custom_module = {
    .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
    .m_name = "custom2",
    .m_doc = "Example module that creates an extension type.",
    .m_size = 0,
    .m_slots = custom_module_slots,
};

PyMODINIT_FUNC
PyInit_custom2(void)
{
    return PyModuleDef_Init(&custom_module);
}

Cette version du module comporte un certain nombre de modifications.

The Custom type now has three data attributes in its C struct, first, last, and number. The first and last variables are Python strings containing first and last names. The number attribute is a C integer.

La structure de l'objet est mise à jour en conséquence

typedef struct {
    PyObject_HEAD
    PyObject *first; /* first name */
    PyObject *last;  /* last name */
    int number;
} CustomObject;

Comme nous avons maintenant des données à gérer, nous devons faire plus attention à l'allocation et à la libération d'objets. Au minimum, nous avons besoin d'une méthode de dés-allocation

static void
Custom_dealloc(PyObject *op)
{
    CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
    Py_XDECREF(self->first);
    Py_XDECREF(self->last);
    Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free(self);
}

qui est assignée au membre tp_dealloc

.tp_dealloc = Custom_dealloc,

This method first clears the reference counts of the two Python attributes. Py_XDECREF() correctly handles the case where its argument is NULL (which might happen here if tp_new failed midway). It then calls the tp_free member of the object's type (computed by Py_TYPE(self)) to free the object's memory. Note that the object's type might not be CustomType, because the object may be an instance of a subclass.

Note

The explicit cast to CustomObject * above is needed because we defined Custom_dealloc to take a PyObject * argument, as the tp_dealloc function pointer expects to receive a PyObject * argument. By assigning to the tp_dealloc slot of a type, we declare that it can only be called with instances of our CustomObject class, so the cast to (CustomObject *) is safe. This is object-oriented polymorphism, in C!

In existing code, or in previous versions of this tutorial, you might see similar functions take a pointer to the subtype object structure (CustomObject*) directly, like this:

Custom_dealloc(CustomObject *self)
{
    Py_XDECREF(self->first);
    Py_XDECREF(self->last);
    Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free((PyObject *) self);
}
...
.tp_dealloc = (destructor) Custom_dealloc,

This does the same thing on all architectures that CPython supports, but according to the C standard, it invokes undefined behavior.

Nous voulons nous assurer que le prénom et le nom sont initialisés avec des chaînes vides, nous fournissons donc une implémentation tp_new

static PyObject *
Custom_new(PyTypeObject *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
{
    CustomObject *self;
    self = (CustomObject *) type->tp_alloc(type, 0);
    if (self != NULL) {
        self->first = PyUnicode_FromString("");
        if (self->first == NULL) {
            Py_DECREF(self);
            return NULL;
        }
        self->last = PyUnicode_FromString("");
        if (self->last == NULL) {
            Py_DECREF(self);
            return NULL;
        }
        self->number = 0;
    }
    return (PyObject *) self;
}

et installez-le dans le membre tp_new :

.tp_new = Custom_new,

The tp_new handler is responsible for creating (as opposed to initializing) objects of the type. It is exposed in Python as the __new__() method. It is not required to define a tp_new member, and indeed many extension types will simply reuse PyType_GenericNew() as done in the first version of the Custom type above. In this case, we use the tp_new handler to initialize the first and last attributes to non-NULL default values.

tp_new reçoit le type en cours d'instanciation (pas nécessairement CustomType, si une sous-classe est instanciée) et tous les arguments passés lorsque le type a été appelé, et devrait renvoyer l'instance créée. Les gestionnaires tp_new acceptent toujours les arguments positionnels et nommés, mais ils ignorent souvent les arguments, laissant la gestion des arguments aux méthodes d'initialisation (alias tp_init en C ou __init__ en Python).

Note

tp_new ne doit pas appeler tp_init explicitement, car l'interpréteur le fera lui-même.

L'implémentation tp_new appelle l'emplacement tp_alloc pour allouer de la mémoire :

self = (CustomObject *) type->tp_alloc(type, 0);

Puisque l'allocation de mémoire peut échouer, nous devons vérifier le résultat tp_alloc par rapport à NULL avant de continuer.

Note

Nous n'avons pas rempli l'emplacement tp_alloc nous-mêmes. C'est PyType_Ready() qui le remplit pour nous car il en hérite de notre classe mère, qui est object par défaut. La plupart des types utilisent la stratégie d'allocation par défaut.

Note

If you are creating a co-operative tp_new (one that calls a base type's tp_new or __new__()), you must not try to determine what method to call using method resolution order at runtime. Always statically determine what type you are going to call, and call its tp_new directly, or via type->tp_base->tp_new. If you do not do this, Python subclasses of your type that also inherit from other Python-defined classes may not work correctly. (Specifically, you may not be able to create instances of such subclasses without getting a TypeError.)

Nous définissons également une fonction d'initialisation qui accepte des arguments pour fournir des valeurs initiales pour notre instance

static int
Custom_init(PyObject *op, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
{
    CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
    static char *kwlist[] = {"first", "last", "number", NULL};
    PyObject *first = NULL, *last = NULL, *tmp;

    if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|OOi", kwlist,
                                     &first, &last,
                                     &self->number))
        return -1;

    if (first) {
        tmp = self->first;
        Py_INCREF(first);
        self->first = first;
        Py_XDECREF(tmp);
    }
    if (last) {
        tmp = self->last;
        Py_INCREF(last);
        self->last = last;
        Py_XDECREF(tmp);
    }
    return 0;
}

en remplissant l'emplacement tp_init.

.tp_init = Custom_init,

The tp_init slot is exposed in Python as the __init__() method. It is used to initialize an object after it's created. Initializers always accept positional and keyword arguments, and they should return either 0 on success or -1 on error.

Unlike the tp_new handler, there is no guarantee that tp_init is called at all (for example, the pickle module by default doesn't call __init__() on unpickled instances). It can also be called multiple times. Anyone can call the __init__() method on our objects. For this reason, we have to be extra careful when assigning the new attribute values. We might be tempted, for example to assign the first member like this:

if (first) {
    Py_XDECREF(self->first);
    Py_INCREF(first);
    self->first = first;
}

But this would be risky. Our type doesn't restrict the type of the first member, so it could be any kind of object. It could have a destructor that causes code to be executed that tries to access the first member; or that destructor could detach the thread state and let arbitrary code run in other threads that accesses and modifies our object.

Dans une optique paranoïaque et se prémunir contre cette éventualité, on réaffecte presque toujours les membres avant de décrémenter leur compteur de références. Quand ne devons-nous pas faire cela ?

lorsque l'on est sûr que le compteur de références est supérieur à 1 ;

when we know that deallocation of the object [1] will neither detach the thread state nor cause any calls back into our type's code;

lors de la décrémentation d'un compteur de références dans un gestionnaire tp_dealloc sur un type qui ne prend pas en charge le ramasse-miettes cyclique [2].

Nous voulons exposer nos variables d'instance en tant qu'attributs. Il existe plusieurs façons de le faire. Le moyen le plus simple consiste à définir des définitions de membres :

static PyMemberDef Custom_members[] = {
    {"first", Py_T_OBJECT_EX, offsetof(CustomObject, first), 0,
     "first name"},
    {"last", Py_T_OBJECT_EX, offsetof(CustomObject, last), 0,
     "last name"},
    {"number", Py_T_INT, offsetof(CustomObject, number), 0,
     "custom number"},
    {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
};

et placer les définitions dans l'emplacement tp_members

.tp_members = Custom_members,

Chaque définition de membre possède un nom, un type, un décalage, des indicateurs d'accès et une chaîne de documentation. Voir la section Gestion des attributs génériques ci-dessous pour plus de détails.

Un inconvénient de cette approche est qu'elle ne permet pas de restreindre les types d'objets pouvant être affectés aux attributs Python. Nous nous attendons à ce que le prénom et le nom soient des chaînes, mais tous les objets Python peuvent être affectés. De plus, les attributs peuvent être supprimés, en définissant les pointeurs C sur NULL. Même si nous pouvons nous assurer que les membres sont initialisés avec des valeurs non NULL, les membres peuvent être définis sur NULL si les attributs sont supprimés.

We define a single method, Custom.name(), that outputs the objects name as the concatenation of the first and last names.

static PyObject *
Custom_name(PyObject *op, PyObject *Py_UNUSED(dummy))
{
    CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
    if (self->first == NULL) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_AttributeError, "first");
        return NULL;
    }
    if (self->last == NULL) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_AttributeError, "last");
        return NULL;
    }
    return PyUnicode_FromFormat("%S %S", self->first, self->last);
}

The method is implemented as a C function that takes a Custom (or Custom subclass) instance as the first argument. Methods always take an instance as the first argument. Methods often take positional and keyword arguments as well, but in this case we don't take any and don't need to accept a positional argument tuple or keyword argument dictionary. This method is equivalent to the Python method:

def name(self):
    return "%s %s" % (self.first, self.last)

Note that we have to check for the possibility that our first and last members are NULL. This is because they can be deleted, in which case they are set to NULL. It would be better to prevent deletion of these attributes and to restrict the attribute values to be strings. We'll see how to do that in the next section.

Maintenant que nous avons défini la méthode, nous devons créer un tableau de définitions de méthode

static PyMethodDef Custom_methods[] = {
    {"name", Custom_name, METH_NOARGS,
     "Return the name, combining the first and last name"
    },
    {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
};

(notez que nous avons utilisé le drapeau METH_NOARGS pour indiquer que la méthode n'attend aucun argument autre que self)

et assignons-le à l'emplacement tp_methods

.tp_methods = Custom_methods,

Enfin, nous rendons notre type utilisable comme classe de base pour le sous-classement. Nous avons écrit nos méthodes avec soin jusqu'à présent afin qu'elles ne fassent aucune hypothèse sur le type de l'objet créé ou utilisé, donc tout ce que nous avons à faire est d'ajouter la macro Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE à notre définition d'indicateur de classe :

.tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE,

We rename PyInit_custom() to PyInit_custom2(), update the module name in the PyModuleDef struct, and update the full class name in the PyTypeObject struct.

Finally, we update our setup.py file to include the new module,

from setuptools import Extension, setup
setup(ext_modules=[
    Extension("custom", ["custom.c"]),
    Extension("custom2", ["custom2.c"]),
])

and then we re-install so that we can import custom2:

$ python -m pip install .

2.3. Contrôle précis sur les attributs de données

In this section, we'll provide finer control over how the first and last attributes are set in the Custom example. In the previous version of our module, the instance variables first and last could be set to non-string values or even deleted. We want to make sure that these attributes always contain strings.

#define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
#include <Python.h>
#include <stddef.h> /* for offsetof() */

typedef struct {
    PyObject_HEAD
    PyObject *first; /* first name */
    PyObject *last;  /* last name */
    int number;
} CustomObject;

static void
Custom_dealloc(PyObject *op)
{
    CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
    Py_XDECREF(self->first);
    Py_XDECREF(self->last);
    Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free(self);
}

static PyObject *
Custom_new(PyTypeObject *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
{
    CustomObject *self;
    self = (CustomObject *) type->tp_alloc(type, 0);
    if (self != NULL) {
        self->first = Py_GetConstant(Py_CONSTANT_EMPTY_STR);
        if (self->first == NULL) {
            Py_DECREF(self);
            return NULL;
        }
        self->last = Py_GetConstant(Py_CONSTANT_EMPTY_STR);
        if (self->last == NULL) {
            Py_DECREF(self);
            return NULL;
        }
        self->number = 0;
    }
    return (PyObject *) self;
}

static int
Custom_init(PyObject *op, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
{
    CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
    static char *kwlist[] = {"first", "last", "number", NULL};
    PyObject *first = NULL, *last = NULL;

    if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|UUi", kwlist,
                                     &first, &last,
                                     &self->number))
        return -1;

    if (first) {
        Py_SETREF(self->first, Py_NewRef(first));
    }
    if (last) {
        Py_SETREF(self->last, Py_NewRef(last));
    }
    return 0;
}

static PyMemberDef Custom_members[] = {
    {"number", Py_T_INT, offsetof(CustomObject, number), 0,
     "custom number"},
    {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
};

static PyObject *
Custom_getfirst(PyObject *op, void *closure)
{
    CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
    return Py_NewRef(self->first);
}

static int
Custom_setfirst(PyObject *op, PyObject *value, void *closure)
{
    CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
    if (value == NULL) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "Cannot delete the first attribute");
        return -1;
    }
    if (!PyUnicode_Check(value)) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                        "The first attribute value must be a string");
        return -1;
    }
    Py_SETREF(self->first, Py_NewRef(value));
    return 0;
}

static PyObject *
Custom_getlast(PyObject *op, void *closure)
{
    CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
    return Py_NewRef(self->last);
}

static int
Custom_setlast(PyObject *op, PyObject *value, void *closure)
{
    CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
    if (value == NULL) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "Cannot delete the last attribute");
        return -1;
    }
    if (!PyUnicode_Check(value)) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                        "The last attribute value must be a string");
        return -1;
    }
    Py_SETREF(self->last, Py_NewRef(value));
    return 0;
}

static PyGetSetDef Custom_getsetters[] = {
    {"first", Custom_getfirst, Custom_setfirst,
     "first name", NULL},
    {"last", Custom_getlast, Custom_setlast,
     "last name", NULL},
    {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
};

static PyObject *
Custom_name(PyObject *op, PyObject *Py_UNUSED(dummy))
{
    CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
    return PyUnicode_FromFormat("%S %S", self->first, self->last);
}

static PyMethodDef Custom_methods[] = {
    {"name", Custom_name, METH_NOARGS,
     "Return the name, combining the first and last name"
    },
    {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
};

static PyTypeObject CustomType = {
    .ob_base = PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
    .tp_name = "custom3.Custom",
    .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"),
    .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject),
    .tp_itemsize = 0,
    .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE,
    .tp_new = Custom_new,
    .tp_init = Custom_init,
    .tp_dealloc = Custom_dealloc,
    .tp_members = Custom_members,
    .tp_methods = Custom_methods,
    .tp_getset = Custom_getsetters,
};

static int
custom_module_exec(PyObject *m)
{
    if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0) {
        return -1;
    }

    if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) {
        return -1;
    }

    return 0;
}

static PyModuleDef_Slot custom_module_slots[] = {
    {Py_mod_exec, custom_module_exec},
    {Py_mod_multiple_interpreters, Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_NOT_SUPPORTED},
    {0, NULL}
};

static PyModuleDef custom_module = {
    .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
    .m_name = "custom3",
    .m_doc = "Example module that creates an extension type.",
    .m_size = 0,
    .m_slots = custom_module_slots,
};

PyMODINIT_FUNC
PyInit_custom3(void)
{
    return PyModuleDef_Init(&custom_module);
}

To provide greater control, over the first and last attributes, we'll use custom getter and setter functions. Here are the functions for getting and setting the first attribute:

static PyObject *
Custom_getfirst(PyObject *op, void *closure)
{
    CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
    Py_INCREF(self->first);
    return self->first;
}

static int
Custom_setfirst(PyObject *op, PyObject *value, void *closure)
{
    CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
    PyObject *tmp;
    if (value == NULL) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "Cannot delete the first attribute");
        return -1;
    }
    if (!PyUnicode_Check(value)) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                        "The first attribute value must be a string");
        return -1;
    }
    tmp = self->first;
    Py_INCREF(value);
    self->first = value;
    Py_DECREF(tmp);
    return 0;
}

The getter function is passed a Custom object and a "closure", which is a void pointer. In this case, the closure is ignored. (The closure supports an advanced usage in which definition data is passed to the getter and setter. This could, for example, be used to allow a single set of getter and setter functions that decide the attribute to get or set based on data in the closure.)

The setter function is passed the Custom object, the new value, and the closure. The new value may be NULL, in which case the attribute is being deleted. In our setter, we raise an error if the attribute is deleted or if its new value is not a string.

Nous créons un tableau de structures PyGetSetDef

static PyGetSetDef Custom_getsetters[] = {
    {"first", Custom_getfirst, Custom_setfirst,
     "first name", NULL},
    {"last", Custom_getlast, Custom_setlast,
     "last name", NULL},
    {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
};

et l'enregistrons dans l'emplacement tp_getset

.tp_getset = Custom_getsetters,

Le dernier élément d'une structure PyGetSetDef est la fermeture mentionnée ci-dessus. Dans ce cas, nous n'utilisons pas de fermeture, nous passons donc simplement NULL.

Nous supprimons également les définitions de membre pour ces attributs :

static PyMemberDef Custom_members[] = {
    {"number", Py_T_INT, offsetof(CustomObject, number), 0,
     "custom number"},
    {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
};

Nous devons également mettre à jour le gestionnaire tp_init pour autoriser uniquement le passage des chaînes [3]

static int
Custom_init(PyObject *op, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
{
    CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
    static char *kwlist[] = {"first", "last", "number", NULL};
    PyObject *first = NULL, *last = NULL, *tmp;

    if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|UUi", kwlist,
                                     &first, &last,
                                     &self->number))
        return -1;

    if (first) {
        tmp = self->first;
        Py_INCREF(first);
        self->first = first;
        Py_DECREF(tmp);
    }
    if (last) {
        tmp = self->last;
        Py_INCREF(last);
        self->last = last;
        Py_DECREF(tmp);
    }
    return 0;
}

Avec ces modifications, nous pouvons garantir que les membres first et last ne sont jamais NULL, nous pouvons donc supprimer les vérifications des valeurs NULL dans presque tous les cas. Cela signifie que la plupart des appels Py_XDECREF() peuvent être convertis en appels Py_DECREF(). Le seul endroit où nous ne pouvons pas modifier ces appels est dans l'implémentation de tp_dealloc, où il est possible que l'initialisation de ces membres ait échoué dans tp_new.

Nous renommons également la fonction d'initialisation du module et le nom du module dans la fonction d'initialisation, comme nous l'avons fait précédemment, et nous ajoutons une définition supplémentaire au fichier setup.py.

2.4. Prise en charge du ramasse-miettes cyclique

Python a un ramasse-miettes cyclique qui peut identifier les objets inutiles même lorsque leur compteur de références n'est pas nul. Cela peut se produire lorsque des objets sont impliqués dans des cycles. Par exemple, considérons :

>>> l = []
>>> l.append(l)
>>> del l

Dans cet exemple, nous créons une liste qui se contient elle-même. Lorsque nous la supprimons, il existe toujours une référence à elle-même. Son compteur de références ne tombe pas à zéro. Heureusement, le ramasse-miettes cyclique de Python finira par comprendre que la liste est un déchet et la libérera.

In the second version of the Custom example, we allowed any kind of object to be stored in the first or last attributes [4]. Besides, in the second and third versions, we allowed subclassing Custom, and subclasses may add arbitrary attributes. For any of those two reasons, Custom objects can participate in cycles:

>>> import custom3
>>> class Derived(custom3.Custom): pass
...
>>> n = Derived()
>>> n.some_attribute = n

To allow a Custom instance participating in a reference cycle to be properly detected and collected by the cyclic GC, our Custom type needs to fill two additional slots and to enable a flag that enables these slots:

#define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
#include <Python.h>
#include <stddef.h> /* for offsetof() */

typedef struct {
    PyObject_HEAD
    PyObject *first; /* first name */
    PyObject *last;  /* last name */
    int number;
} CustomObject;

static int
Custom_traverse(PyObject *op, visitproc visit, void *arg)
{
    CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
    Py_VISIT(self->first);
    Py_VISIT(self->last);
    return 0;
}

static int
Custom_clear(PyObject *op)
{
    CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
    Py_CLEAR(self->first);
    Py_CLEAR(self->last);
    return 0;
}

static void
Custom_dealloc(PyObject *op)
{
    PyObject_GC_UnTrack(op);
    (void)Custom_clear(op);
    Py_TYPE(op)->tp_free(op);
}

static PyObject *
Custom_new(PyTypeObject *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
{
    CustomObject *self;
    self = (CustomObject *) type->tp_alloc(type, 0);
    if (self != NULL) {
        self->first = Py_GetConstant(Py_CONSTANT_EMPTY_STR);
        if (self->first == NULL) {
            Py_DECREF(self);
            return NULL;
        }
        self->last = Py_GetConstant(Py_CONSTANT_EMPTY_STR);
        if (self->last == NULL) {
            Py_DECREF(self);
            return NULL;
        }
        self->number = 0;
    }
    return (PyObject *) self;
}

static int
Custom_init(PyObject *op, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
{
    CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
    static char *kwlist[] = {"first", "last", "number", NULL};
    PyObject *first = NULL, *last = NULL;

    if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|UUi", kwlist,
                                     &first, &last,
                                     &self->number))
        return -1;

    if (first) {
        Py_SETREF(self->first, Py_NewRef(first));
    }
    if (last) {
        Py_SETREF(self->last, Py_NewRef(last));
    }
    return 0;
}

static PyMemberDef Custom_members[] = {
    {"number", Py_T_INT, offsetof(CustomObject, number), 0,
     "custom number"},
    {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
};

static PyObject *
Custom_getfirst(PyObject *op, void *closure)
{
    CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
    return Py_NewRef(self->first);
}

static int
Custom_setfirst(PyObject *op, PyObject *value, void *closure)
{
    CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
    if (value == NULL) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "Cannot delete the first attribute");
        return -1;
    }
    if (!PyUnicode_Check(value)) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                        "The first attribute value must be a string");
        return -1;
    }
    Py_XSETREF(self->first, Py_NewRef(value));
    return 0;
}

static PyObject *
Custom_getlast(PyObject *op, void *closure)
{
    CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
    return Py_NewRef(self->last);
}

static int
Custom_setlast(PyObject *op, PyObject *value, void *closure)
{
    CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
    if (value == NULL) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "Cannot delete the last attribute");
        return -1;
    }
    if (!PyUnicode_Check(value)) {
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                        "The last attribute value must be a string");
        return -1;
    }
    Py_XSETREF(self->last, Py_NewRef(value));
    return 0;
}

static PyGetSetDef Custom_getsetters[] = {
    {"first", Custom_getfirst, Custom_setfirst,
     "first name", NULL},
    {"last", Custom_getlast, Custom_setlast,
     "last name", NULL},
    {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
};

static PyObject *
Custom_name(PyObject *op, PyObject *Py_UNUSED(dummy))
{
    CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
    return PyUnicode_FromFormat("%S %S", self->first, self->last);
}

static PyMethodDef Custom_methods[] = {
    {"name", Custom_name, METH_NOARGS,
     "Return the name, combining the first and last name"
    },
    {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
};

static PyTypeObject CustomType = {
    .ob_base = PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
    .tp_name = "custom4.Custom",
    .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"),
    .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject),
    .tp_itemsize = 0,
    .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE | Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC,
    .tp_new = Custom_new,
    .tp_init = Custom_init,
    .tp_dealloc = Custom_dealloc,
    .tp_traverse = Custom_traverse,
    .tp_clear = Custom_clear,
    .tp_members = Custom_members,
    .tp_methods = Custom_methods,
    .tp_getset = Custom_getsetters,
};

static int
custom_module_exec(PyObject *m)
{
    if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0) {
        return -1;
    }

    if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) {
        return -1;
    }

    return 0;
}

static PyModuleDef_Slot custom_module_slots[] = {
    {Py_mod_exec, custom_module_exec},
    {Py_mod_multiple_interpreters, Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_NOT_SUPPORTED},
    {0, NULL}
};

static PyModuleDef custom_module = {
    .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
    .m_name = "custom4",
    .m_doc = "Example module that creates an extension type.",
    .m_size = 0,
    .m_slots = custom_module_slots,
};

PyMODINIT_FUNC
PyInit_custom4(void)
{
    return PyModuleDef_Init(&custom_module);
}

Tout d'abord, la méthode de parcours (Custom_traverse) permet au ramasse-miettes cyclique de connaître les sous-objets qui pourraient conduire à des cycles

static int
Custom_traverse(PyObject *op, visitproc visit, void *arg)
{
    CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
    int vret;
    if (self->first) {
        vret = visit(self->first, arg);
        if (vret != 0)
            return vret;
    }
    if (self->last) {
        vret = visit(self->last, arg);
        if (vret != 0)
            return vret;
    }
    return 0;
}

For each subobject that can participate in cycles, we need to call the visit() function, which is passed to the traversal method. The visit() function takes as arguments the subobject and the extra argument arg passed to the traversal method. It returns an integer value that must be returned if it is non-zero.

Python fournit une macro Py_VISIT() qui automatise l'appel des fonctions de visite. Avec Py_VISIT(), nous pouvons minimiser la quantité de code générique dans Custom_traverse

static int
Custom_traverse(PyObject *op, visitproc visit, void *arg)
{
    CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
    Py_VISIT(self->first);
    Py_VISIT(self->last);
    return 0;
}

Note

l'implémentation tp_traverse doit nommer ses arguments exactement visit et arg afin d'utiliser Py_VISIT().

Deuxièmement, nous devons fournir une méthode pour effacer tous les sous-objets qui peuvent conduire à des cycles

static int
Custom_clear(PyObject *op)
{
    CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
    Py_CLEAR(self->first);
    Py_CLEAR(self->last);
    return 0;
}

Notez l'utilisation de la macro Py_CLEAR(). C'est le moyen recommandé et sûr d'effacer les attributs de données de types arbitraires tout en décrémentant leur compteur de références. Si vous deviez appeler Py_XDECREF() à la place sur l'attribut avant de le définir sur NULL, il est possible que le destructeur de l'attribut appelle du code qui lit à nouveau l'attribut (surtout s'il existe un cycle de références).

Note

vous pouvez émuler Py_CLEAR() en écrivant

PyObject *tmp;
tmp = self->first;
self->first = NULL;
Py_XDECREF(tmp);

Néanmoins, il est beaucoup plus facile et moins sujet aux erreurs de toujours utiliser Py_CLEAR() lors de la suppression d'un attribut. N'essayez pas de micro-optimiser au détriment de la robustesse !

La fonction de libération de la mémoire Custom_dealloc peut appeler du code arbitraire lors de la suppression des attributs. Cela signifie que le ramasse-miettes cyclique peut être déclenché à l'intérieur de la fonction. Étant donné que le ramasse-miettes suppose que le nombre de références n'est pas nul, nous devons annuler le suivi de l'objet par le ramasse-miettes en appelant PyObject_GC_UnTrack() avant d'effacer les membres. Voici notre fonction de libération de la mémoire réimplémentée en utilisant PyObject_GC_UnTrack() et Custom_clear :

static void
Custom_dealloc(PyObject *op)
{
    PyObject_GC_UnTrack(op);
    (void)Custom_clear(op);
    Py_TYPE(op)->tp_free(op);
}

Enfin, nous ajoutons le drapeau Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC aux drapeaux de la classe :

.tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE | Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC,

C'est à peu près tout. Si nous avions écrit des gestionnaires personnalisés tp_alloc ou tp_free, nous aurions besoin de les modifier pour le ramasse-miettes cyclique. La plupart des extensions utilisent les versions fournies automatiquement.

2.5. Sous-classement d'autres types

Il est possible de créer de nouveaux types d'extension dérivés de types existants. Il est plus facile d'hériter des types natifs, car une extension peut facilement utiliser le PyTypeObject dont elle a besoin. Il peut être difficile de partager ces structures PyTypeObject entre modules d'extension.

In this example we will create a SubList type that inherits from the built-in list type. The new type will be completely compatible with regular lists, but will have an additional increment() method that increases an internal counter:

>>> import sublist
>>> s = sublist.SubList(range(3))
>>> s.extend(s)
>>> print(len(s))
6
>>> print(s.increment())
1
>>> print(s.increment())
2

#define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
#include <Python.h>

typedef struct {
    PyListObject list;
    int state;
} SubListObject;

static PyObject *
SubList_increment(PyObject *op, PyObject *Py_UNUSED(dummy))
{
    SubListObject *self = (SubListObject *) op;
    self->state++;
    return PyLong_FromLong(self->state);
}

static PyMethodDef SubList_methods[] = {
    {"increment", SubList_increment, METH_NOARGS,
     PyDoc_STR("increment state counter")},
    {NULL},
};

static int
SubList_init(PyObject *op, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
{
    SubListObject *self = (SubListObject *) op;
    if (PyList_Type.tp_init(op, args, kwds) < 0)
        return -1;
    self->state = 0;
    return 0;
}

static PyTypeObject SubListType = {
    .ob_base = PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
    .tp_name = "sublist.SubList",
    .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("SubList objects"),
    .tp_basicsize = sizeof(SubListObject),
    .tp_itemsize = 0,
    .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE,
    .tp_init = SubList_init,
    .tp_methods = SubList_methods,
};

static int
sublist_module_exec(PyObject *m)
{
    SubListType.tp_base = &PyList_Type;
    if (PyType_Ready(&SubListType) < 0) {
        return -1;
    }

    if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "SubList", (PyObject *) &SubListType) < 0) {
        return -1;
    }

    return 0;
}

static PyModuleDef_Slot sublist_module_slots[] = {
    {Py_mod_exec, sublist_module_exec},
    {Py_mod_multiple_interpreters, Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_NOT_SUPPORTED},
    {0, NULL}
};

static PyModuleDef sublist_module = {
    .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
    .m_name = "sublist",
    .m_doc = "Example module that creates an extension type.",
    .m_size = 0,
    .m_slots = sublist_module_slots,
};

PyMODINIT_FUNC
PyInit_sublist(void)
{
    return PyModuleDef_Init(&sublist_module);
}

As you can see, the source code closely resembles the Custom examples in previous sections. We will break down the main differences between them.

typedef struct {
    PyListObject list;
    int state;
} SubListObject;

La principale différence pour les objets d'un type dérivé est que la structure d'objet du type père doit être la première valeur. Le type père inclut déjà le PyObject_HEAD() au début de sa structure.

When a Python object is a SubList instance, its PyObject * pointer can be safely cast to both PyListObject * and SubListObject *:

static int
SubList_init(PyObject *op, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
{
    SubListObject *self = (SubListObject *) op;
    if (PyList_Type.tp_init(op, args, kwds) < 0)
        return -1;
    self->state = 0;
    return 0;
}

We see above how to call through to the __init__() method of the base type.

Ce modèle est important lors de l'écriture d'un type avec des membres personnalisés tp_new et tp_dealloc. Le gestionnaire tp_new ne doit pas réellement allouer la mémoire pour l'objet avec son tp_alloc, mais laisser la classe mère gérer ça en appelant sa propre tp_new.

The PyTypeObject struct supports a tp_base specifying the type's concrete base class. Due to cross-platform compiler issues, you can't fill that field directly with a reference to PyList_Type; it should be done in the Py_mod_exec function:

static int
sublist_module_exec(PyObject *m)
{
    SubListType.tp_base = &PyList_Type;
    if (PyType_Ready(&SubListType) < 0) {
        return -1;
    }

    if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "SubList", (PyObject *) &SubListType) < 0) {
        return -1;
    }

    return 0;
}

Avant d'appeler PyType_Ready(), la structure de type doit avoir l'emplacement tp_base rempli. Lorsque nous dérivons un type existant, il n'est pas nécessaire de remplir l'emplacement tp_alloc avec PyType_GenericNew() – la fonction d'allocation du type père sera héritée.

After that, calling PyType_Ready() and adding the type object to the module is the same as with the basic Custom examples.

Notes

[1]

C'est vrai lorsque nous savons que l'objet est un type de base, comme une chaîne ou un flottant.

[2]

Nous nous sommes appuyés sur le gestionnaire tp_dealloc dans cet exemple, car notre type ne prend pas en charge le ramasse-miettes.

[3]

Nous savons maintenant que les premier et dernier membres sont des chaînes, nous pourrions donc peut-être être moins prudents quant à la décrémentation de leur nombre de références, cependant, nous acceptons les instances de sous-classes de chaînes. Même si la libération de la mémoire des chaînes normales ne rappellera pas nos objets, nous ne pouvons pas garantir que la libération de mémoire d'une instance d'une sous-classe de chaîne ne rappellera pas nos objets.

[4]

De plus, même avec nos attributs limités aux instances de chaînes, l'utilisateur pourrait passer des sous-classes arbitraires str et donc encore créer des références cycliques.

3. Définir les types d'extension : divers sujets

Cette section vise à donner un aperçu rapide des différentes méthodes de type que vous pouvez implémenter et de ce qu'elles font.

Voici la définition de PyTypeObject, après avoir enlevé certains champs utilisés uniquement dans debug builds :

typedef struct _typeobject {
    PyObject_VAR_HEAD
    const char *tp_name; /* For printing, in format "<module>.<name>" */
    Py_ssize_t tp_basicsize, tp_itemsize; /* For allocation */

    /* Methods to implement standard operations */

    destructor tp_dealloc;
    Py_ssize_t tp_vectorcall_offset;
    getattrfunc tp_getattr;
    setattrfunc tp_setattr;
    PyAsyncMethods *tp_as_async; /* formerly known as tp_compare (Python 2)
                                    or tp_reserved (Python 3) */
    reprfunc tp_repr;

    /* Method suites for standard classes */

    PyNumberMethods *tp_as_number;
    PySequenceMethods *tp_as_sequence;
    PyMappingMethods *tp_as_mapping;

    /* More standard operations (here for binary compatibility) */

    hashfunc tp_hash;
    ternaryfunc tp_call;
    reprfunc tp_str;
    getattrofunc tp_getattro;
    setattrofunc tp_setattro;

    /* Functions to access object as input/output buffer */
    PyBufferProcs *tp_as_buffer;

    /* Flags to define presence of optional/expanded features */
    unsigned long tp_flags;

    const char *tp_doc; /* Documentation string */

    /* Assigned meaning in release 2.0 */
    /* call function for all accessible objects */
    traverseproc tp_traverse;

    /* delete references to contained objects */
    inquiry tp_clear;

    /* Assigned meaning in release 2.1 */
    /* rich comparisons */
    richcmpfunc tp_richcompare;

    /* weak reference enabler */
    Py_ssize_t tp_weaklistoffset;

    /* Iterators */
    getiterfunc tp_iter;
    iternextfunc tp_iternext;

    /* Attribute descriptor and subclassing stuff */
    PyMethodDef *tp_methods;
    PyMemberDef *tp_members;
    PyGetSetDef *tp_getset;
    // Strong reference on a heap type, borrowed reference on a static type
    PyTypeObject *tp_base;
    PyObject *tp_dict;
    descrgetfunc tp_descr_get;
    descrsetfunc tp_descr_set;
    Py_ssize_t tp_dictoffset;
    initproc tp_init;
    allocfunc tp_alloc;
    newfunc tp_new;
    freefunc tp_free; /* Low-level free-memory routine */
    inquiry tp_is_gc; /* For PyObject_IS_GC */
    PyObject *tp_bases;
    PyObject *tp_mro; /* method resolution order */
    PyObject *tp_cache; /* no longer used */
    void *tp_subclasses;  /* for static builtin types this is an index */
    PyObject *tp_weaklist; /* not used for static builtin types */
    destructor tp_del;

    /* Type attribute cache version tag. Added in version 2.6.
     * If zero, the cache is invalid and must be initialized.
     */
    unsigned int tp_version_tag;

    destructor tp_finalize;
    vectorcallfunc tp_vectorcall;

    /* bitset of which type-watchers care about this type */
    unsigned char tp_watched;

    /* Number of tp_version_tag values used.
     * Set to _Py_ATTR_CACHE_UNUSED if the attribute cache is
     * disabled for this type (e.g. due to custom MRO entries).
     * Otherwise, limited to MAX_VERSIONS_PER_CLASS (defined elsewhere).
     */
    uint16_t tp_versions_used;
} PyTypeObject;

Cela fait beaucoup de méthodes. Ne vous inquiétez pas trop cependant : si vous souhaitez définir un type, il y a de fortes chances que vous n'implémentiez qu'une petite partie d'entre elles.

Comme vous vous en doutez probablement maintenant, nous allons passer en revue cela et donner plus d'informations sur les différents gestionnaires. Nous ne suivrons pas l'ordre dans lequel ils sont définis dans la structure, car l'ordre des champs résulte d'un certain historique. Il est souvent plus facile de trouver un exemple qui inclut les champs dont vous avez besoin, puis de modifier les valeurs en fonction de votre nouveau type :

const char *tp_name; /* For printing */

Le nom du type – comme mentionné dans le chapitre précédent, cela apparaîtra à divers endroits, presque entièrement à des fins de diagnostic. Essayez de choisir quelque chose qui sera utile dans une telle situation !

Py_ssize_t tp_basicsize, tp_itemsize; /* For allocation */

Ces champs indiquent la quantité de mémoire à allouer à l'exécution lorsque de nouveaux objets de ce type sont créés. Python prend en charge nativement des structures de longueur variable (pensez : chaînes, n-uplets), c'est là que le champ tp_itemsize entre en jeu. Cela sera traité plus tard.

const char *tp_doc;

Ici vous pouvez mettre une chaîne (ou son adresse) que vous voulez renvoyer lorsque le script Python référence obj.__doc__ pour récupérer le docstring.

Nous en arrivons maintenant aux méthodes de type basiques -- celles que la plupart des types d'extension mettront en œuvre.

3.1. Finalisation et libération de mémoire

destructor tp_dealloc;

Cette fonction est appelée lorsque le compteur de références de l'instance de votre type tombe à zéro et que l'interpréteur Python veut récupérer la mémoire afférente. Si votre type a de la mémoire à libérer ou un autre nettoyage à effectuer, vous pouvez le mettre ici. L'objet lui-même doit être libéré ici aussi. Voici un exemple de cette fonction :

static void
newdatatype_dealloc(PyObject *op)
{
    newdatatypeobject *self = (newdatatypeobject *) op;
    free(self->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr);
    Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free(self);
}

Si votre type prend en charge le ramasse-miettes, le destructeur doit appeler PyObject_GC_UnTrack() avant d'effacer les champs membres :

static void
newdatatype_dealloc(PyObject *op)
{
    newdatatypeobject *self = (newdatatypeobject *) op;
    PyObject_GC_UnTrack(op);
    Py_CLEAR(self->other_obj);
    ...
    Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free(self);
}

Une exigence importante de la fonction de libération de la mémoire est de ne pas s'occuper de toutes les exceptions en attente. C'est important car les fonctions de libération de la mémoire sont fréquemment appelées lorsque l'interpréteur remonte la pile d'appels Python ; lorsque la pile est remontée à cause d'une exception (plutôt que de retours normaux), les fonctions de libération peuvent voir qu'une exception a déjà été définie. Toute action effectuée par une fonction de libération de la mémoire pouvant entraîner l'exécution de code Python supplémentaire peut détecter qu'une exception a été définie. Cela peut conduire l’interpréteur à se tromper sur la nature de l'erreur. La bonne façon d'éviter cela est d'enregistrer une exception en attente avant d'effectuer l'action non sécurisée et à la restaurer une fois terminée. Cela peut être fait en utilisant les fonctions PyErr_Fetch() et PyErr_Restore() :

static void
my_dealloc(PyObject *obj)
{
    MyObject *self = (MyObject *) obj;
    PyObject *cbresult;

    if (self->my_callback != NULL) {
        PyObject *err_type, *err_value, *err_traceback;

        /* This saves the current exception state */
        PyErr_Fetch(&err_type, &err_value, &err_traceback);

        cbresult = PyObject_CallNoArgs(self->my_callback);
        if (cbresult == NULL) {
           PyErr_WriteUnraisable(self->my_callback);
        }
        else {
            Py_DECREF(cbresult);
        }

        /* This restores the saved exception state */
        PyErr_Restore(err_type, err_value, err_traceback);

        Py_DECREF(self->my_callback);
    }
    Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free(self);
}

Note

des limites existent à ce que vous pouvez faire en toute sécurité dans une fonction de libération de la mémoire. Tout d'abord, si votre type prend en charge le ramasse-miettes (en utilisant tp_traverse et/ou tp_clear), certains membres de l'objet peuvent avoir été effacés ou finalisés avant que tp_dealloc ne soit appelé. Deuxièmement, dans tp_dealloc, votre objet est dans un état instable : son compteur de références est égal à zéro. Tout appel à un objet non trivial ou à une API (comme dans l'exemple ci-dessus) peut finir par appeler tp_dealloc à nouveau, provoquant une double libération et un plantage.

À partir de Python 3.4, il est recommandé de ne pas mettre de code de finalisation complexe dans tp_dealloc, et d'utiliser à la place la nouvelle méthode de type tp_finalize.

Voir aussi

PEP 442 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/] explique le nouveau schéma de finalisation.

3.2. Présentation de l'objet

En Python, il existe deux façons de générer une représentation textuelle d'un objet : la fonction repr() et la fonction str() (la fonction print() appelle simplement str()). Ces gestionnaires sont tous deux facultatifs.

reprfunc tp_repr;
reprfunc tp_str;

Le gestionnaire tp_repr doit renvoyer un objet chaîne contenant une représentation de l'instance pour laquelle il est appelé. Voici un exemple simple :

static PyObject *
newdatatype_repr(PyObject *op)
{
    newdatatypeobject *self = (newdatatypeobject *) op;
    return PyUnicode_FromFormat("Repr-ified_newdatatype{{size:%d}}",
                                self->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size);
}

Si aucun gestionnaire tp_repr n'est spécifié, l'interpréteur fournira une représentation qui utilise le type tp_name et une valeur d'identification unique pour l'objet.

Le gestionnaire tp_str est à str() ce que le gestionnaire tp_repr décrit ci-dessus est à repr() ; c'est-à-dire qu'il est appelé lorsque le code Python appelle str() sur une instance de votre objet. Son implémentation est très similaire à la fonction tp_repr, mais la chaîne résultante est destinée à être lue par des utilisateurs. Si tp_str n'est pas spécifié, le gestionnaire tp_repr est utilisé à la place.

Voici un exemple simple :

static PyObject *
newdatatype_str(PyObject *op)
{
    newdatatypeobject *self = (newdatatypeobject *) op;
    return PyUnicode_FromFormat("Stringified_newdatatype{{size:%d}}",
                                self->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size);
}

3.3. Gestion des attributs

Pour chaque objet pouvant prendre en charge des attributs, le type correspondant doit fournir les fonctions qui contrôlent la façon dont les attributs sont résolus. Il doit y avoir une fonction qui peut récupérer les attributs (le cas échéant) et une autre pour définir les attributs (si la définition des attributs est autorisée). La suppression d'un attribut est un cas particulier, pour lequel la nouvelle valeur transmise au gestionnaire est NULL.

Python prend en charge deux paires de gestionnaires d'attributs ; un type qui prend en charge les attributs n'a besoin d'implémenter les fonctions que pour une paire. La différence est qu'une paire prend le nom de l'attribut en tant que char*, tandis que l'autre accepte un PyObject*. Chaque type peut utiliser la paire la plus logique pour la commodité de l'implémentation.

getattrfunc  tp_getattr;        /* char * version */
setattrfunc  tp_setattr;
/* ... */
getattrofunc tp_getattro;       /* PyObject * version */
setattrofunc tp_setattro;

Si accéder aux attributs d'un objet est toujours une opération simple (ceci sera expliqué brièvement), il existe des implémentations génériques qui peuvent être utilisées pour fournir la version PyObject* des fonctions de gestion des attributs. Le besoin réel de gestionnaires d'attributs spécifiques au type a presque complètement disparu à partir de Python 2.2, bien qu'il existe de nombreux exemples qui n'ont pas été mis à jour pour utiliser certains des nouveaux mécanismes génériques disponibles.

3.3.1. Gestion des attributs génériques

La plupart des types d'extensions n'utilisent que des attributs simples. Alors, qu'est-ce qui rend les attributs simples ? Seules quelques conditions doivent être remplies :

le nom des attributs doit être déjà connu lorsqu'on lance PyType_Ready() ;

aucun traitement spécial n'est nécessaire pour enregistrer qu'un attribut a été recherché ou défini, et aucune action ne doit être entreprise en fonction de la valeur.

Notez que cette liste n'impose aucune restriction sur les valeurs des attributs, le moment où les valeurs sont calculées ou la manière dont les données pertinentes sont stockées.

Lorsque PyType_Ready() est appelé, il utilise trois tableaux référencés par l'objet type pour créer des descripteurs qui sont placés dans le dictionnaire de l'objet type. Chaque descripteur contrôle l'accès à un attribut de l'objet instance. Chacun des tableaux est facultatif ; si les trois sont NULL, les instances du type n'auront que des attributs hérités de leur type de base et doivent laisser les champs tp_getattro et tp_setattro à NULL également, permettant au type de base de gérer les attributs.

Les tableaux sont déclarés sous la forme de trois champs de type objet :

struct PyMethodDef *tp_methods;
struct PyMemberDef *tp_members;
struct PyGetSetDef *tp_getset;

Si tp_methods n'est pas NULL, il doit faire référence à un tableau de structures PyMethodDef. Chaque entrée du tableau est une instance de cette structure :

typedef struct PyMethodDef {
    const char  *ml_name;       /* method name */
    PyCFunction  ml_meth;       /* implementation function */
    int          ml_flags;      /* flags */
    const char  *ml_doc;        /* docstring */
} PyMethodDef;

One entry should be defined for each method provided by the type; no entries are needed for methods inherited from a base type. One additional entry is needed at the end; it is a sentinel that marks the end of the array. The ml_name field of the sentinel must be NULL.

Le deuxième tableau est utilisé pour définir les attributs qui correspondent directement aux données stockées dans l'instance. Divers types C natifs sont pris en charge et l'accès peut être en lecture seule ou en lecture-écriture. Les structures du tableau sont définies comme suit :

typedef struct PyMemberDef {
    const char *name;
    int         type;
    int         offset;
    int         flags;
    const char *doc;
} PyMemberDef;

For each entry in the table, a descriptor will be constructed and added to the type which will be able to extract a value from the instance structure. The type field should contain a type code like Py_T_INT or Py_T_DOUBLE; the value will be used to determine how to convert Python values to and from C values. The flags field is used to store flags which control how the attribute can be accessed: you can set it to Py_READONLY to prevent Python code from setting it.

An interesting advantage of using the tp_members table to build descriptors that are used at runtime is that any attribute defined this way can have an associated doc string simply by providing the text in the table. An application can use the introspection API to retrieve the descriptor from the class object, and get the doc string using its __doc__ attribute.

As with the tp_methods table, a sentinel entry with a ml_name value of NULL is required.

3.3.2. Gestion des attributs de type spécifiques

Pour plus de simplicité, seule la version char* est montrée ici ; le type du paramètre name est la seule différence entre les variations char* et PyObject* de l'interface. Cet exemple fait effectivement la même chose que l'exemple générique ci-dessus, mais n'utilise pas le support générique ajouté dans Python 2.2. Il explique comment les fonctions de gestionnaire sont appelées, de sorte que si vous avez besoin d'étendre leurs fonctionnalités, vous comprendrez ce qui doit être fait.

The tp_getattr handler is called when the object requires an attribute look-up. It is called in the same situations where the __getattr__() method of a class would be called.

Voici un exemple :

static PyObject *
newdatatype_getattr(PyObject *op, char *name)
{
    newdatatypeobject *self = (newdatatypeobject *) op;
    if (strcmp(name, "data") == 0) {
        return PyLong_FromLong(self->data);
    }

    PyErr_Format(PyExc_AttributeError,
                 "'%.100s' object has no attribute '%.400s'",
                 Py_TYPE(self)->tp_name, name);
    return NULL;
}

The tp_setattr handler is called when the __setattr__() or __delattr__() method of a class instance would be called. When an attribute should be deleted, the third parameter will be NULL. Here is an example that simply raises an exception; if this were really all you wanted, the tp_setattr handler should be set to NULL.

static int
newdatatype_setattr(PyObject *op, char *name, PyObject *v)
{
    PyErr_Format(PyExc_RuntimeError, "Read-only attribute: %s", name);
    return -1;
}

3.4. Comparaison des objets

richcmpfunc tp_richcompare;

The tp_richcompare handler is called when comparisons are needed. It is analogous to the rich comparison methods, like __lt__(), and also called by PyObject_RichCompare() and PyObject_RichCompareBool().

Cette fonction est appelée avec deux objets Python et l'opérateur comme arguments, où l'opérateur est Py_EQ, Py_NE, Py_LE, Py_GE, Py_LT ou Py_GT. Elle doit comparer les deux objets conformément à l'opérateur spécifié et renvoyer Py_True ou Py_False si la comparaison a réussi, Py_NotImplemented pour indiquer que la comparaison n'est pas implémentée et que la méthode de comparaison de l'autre objet doit être essayée, ou NULL si une exception doit être levée.

Voici un exemple d'implémentation, pour un type de données où l'égalité signifie que la taille d'un pointeur interne est égale :

static PyObject *
newdatatype_richcmp(PyObject *lhs, PyObject *rhs, int op)
{
    newdatatypeobject *obj1 = (newdatatypeobject *) lhs;
    newdatatypeobject *obj2 = (newdatatypeobject *) rhs;
    PyObject *result;
    int c, size1, size2;

    /* code to make sure that both arguments are of type
       newdatatype omitted */

    size1 = obj1->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size;
    size2 = obj2->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size;

    switch (op) {
    case Py_LT: c = size1 <  size2; break;
    case Py_LE: c = size1 <= size2; break;
    case Py_EQ: c = size1 == size2; break;
    case Py_NE: c = size1 != size2; break;
    case Py_GT: c = size1 >  size2; break;
    case Py_GE: c = size1 >= size2; break;
    }
    result = c ? Py_True : Py_False;
    return Py_NewRef(result);
 }

3.5. Gestion de protocoles abstraits

Python prend en charge divers « protocoles » abstraits ; les interfaces spécifiques fournies pour utiliser ces interfaces sont documentées dans Couche d'abstraction des objets.

Un certain nombre de ces interfaces abstraites ont été définies au début du développement de l'implémentation Python. En particulier, les protocoles de nombre, de correspondance et de séquence font partie de Python depuis le début. D'autres protocoles ont été ajoutés au fil du temps. Pour les protocoles qui dépendent de plusieurs routines de gestionnaire de l'implémentation du type, les anciens protocoles ont été définis comme des blocs facultatifs de gestionnaires référencés par l'objet type. Pour les protocoles plus récents, il existe des emplacements supplémentaires dans l'objet de type principal, avec un bit d'indicateur défini pour indiquer que les emplacements sont présents et doivent être vérifiés par l'interpréteur (le bit d'indicateur n'indique pas que les valeurs d'emplacement ne sont pas NULL ; il peut être défini pour indiquer la présence d'un emplacement, mais un emplacement peut toujours être vide). :

PyNumberMethods   *tp_as_number;
PySequenceMethods *tp_as_sequence;
PyMappingMethods  *tp_as_mapping;

Si vous souhaitez que votre objet puisse agir comme un nombre, une séquence ou un tableau de correspondances, placez l'adresse d'une structure qui implémente le type C PyNumberMethods, PySequenceMethods ou PyMappingMethods, respectivement. C'est à vous de remplir cette structure avec les valeurs appropriées. Vous pouvez trouver des exemples d'utilisation de chacun d'entre eux dans le répertoire Objects de la distribution source de Python. :

hashfunc tp_hash;

Cette fonction, si vous la fournissez, doit renvoyer un condensat pour une instance de votre type de données. Voici un exemple simple :

static Py_hash_t
newdatatype_hash(PyObject *op)
{
    newdatatypeobject *self = (newdatatypeobject *) op;
    Py_hash_t result;
    result = self->some_size + 32767 * self->some_number;
    if (result == -1) {
        result = -2;
    }
    return result;
}

Py_hash_t is a signed integer type with a platform-varying width. Returning -1 from tp_hash indicates an error, which is why you should be careful to avoid returning it when hash computation is successful, as seen above.

ternaryfunc tp_call;

Cette fonction est appelée lorsqu'une instance de votre type de données est « appelée », par exemple, si obj1 est une instance de votre type de données et que le script Python contient obj1('hello'), le gestionnaire tp_call est appelé.

Cette fonction prend trois arguments :

self est l'instance du type de données qui fait l'objet de l'appel. Si l'appel est obj1('hello'), alors self est obj1.

args est un n-uplet contenant les arguments de l'appel. Vous pouvez utiliser PyArg_ParseTuple() pour extraire les arguments.

kwds est le dictionnaire d'arguments nommés qui ont été passés. Si ce n'est pas NULL et que vous gérez les arguments nommés, utilisez PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords() pour extraire les arguments. Si vous ne souhaitez pas prendre en charge les arguments nommés et qu'il n'est pas NULL, levez une TypeError avec un message indiquant que les arguments nommés ne sont pas pris en charge.

Ceci est une implémentation tp_call très simple :

static PyObject *
newdatatype_call(PyObject *op, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
{
    newdatatypeobject *self = (newdatatypeobject *) op;
    PyObject *result;
    const char *arg1;
    const char *arg2;
    const char *arg3;

    if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "sss:call", &arg1, &arg2, &arg3)) {
        return NULL;
    }
    result = PyUnicode_FromFormat(
        "Returning -- value: [%d] arg1: [%s] arg2: [%s] arg3: [%s]\n",
        self->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size,
        arg1, arg2, arg3);
    return result;
}

/* Iterators */
getiterfunc tp_iter;
iternextfunc tp_iternext;

These functions provide support for the iterator protocol. Both handlers take exactly one parameter, the instance for which they are being called, and return a new reference. In the case of an error, they should set an exception and return NULL. tp_iter corresponds to the Python __iter__() method, while tp_iternext corresponds to the Python __next__() method.

Tout objet iterable doit implémenter le gestionnaire tp_iter, qui doit renvoyer un objet de type iterator. Ici, les mêmes directives s'appliquent de la même façon que pour les classes Python :

Pour les collections (telles que les listes et les n-uplets) qui peuvent implémenter plusieurs itérateurs indépendants, un nouvel itérateur doit être créé et renvoyé par chaque appel de type tp_iter.

Les objets qui ne peuvent être itérés qu'une seule fois (généralement en raison d'effets de bord de l'itération, tels que les objets fichiers) peuvent implémenter tp_iter en renvoyant une nouvelle référence à eux-mêmes – et doivent donc également implémenter le gestionnaire tp_iternext.

Tout objet itérateur doit implémenter à la fois tp_iter et tp_iternext. Le gestionnaire tp_iter d'un itérateur doit renvoyer une nouvelle référence de l'itérateur. Son gestionnaire tp_iternext doit renvoyer une nouvelle référence à l'objet suivant dans l'itération, s'il y en a un. Si l'itération a atteint la fin, tp_iternext peut renvoyer NULL sans définir d'exception, ou il peut définir StopIteration en plus de renvoyer NULL ; éviter de lever une exception peut donner des performances légèrement meilleures. Si une erreur réelle se produit, tp_iternext doit toujours définir une exception et renvoyer NULL.

3.6. Prise en charge de la référence faible

L'un des objectifs de l'implémentation de la référence faible de Python est de permettre à tout type d'objet de participer au mécanisme de référence faible sans avoir à supporter le surcoût de la performance critique des certains objets, tels que les nombres.

Voir aussi

documentation pour le module weakref.

For an object to be weakly referenceable, the extension type must set the Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF bit of the tp_flags field. The legacy tp_weaklistoffset field should be left as zero.

Concretely, here is how the statically declared type object would look:

static PyTypeObject TrivialType = {
    PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
    /* ... other members omitted for brevity ... */
    .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF | ...,
};

The only further addition is that tp_dealloc needs to clear any weak references (by calling PyObject_ClearWeakRefs()):

static void
Trivial_dealloc(PyObject *op)
{
    /* Clear weakrefs first before calling any destructors */
    PyObject_ClearWeakRefs(op);
    /* ... remainder of destruction code omitted for brevity ... */
    Py_TYPE(op)->tp_free(op);
}

3.7. Plus de suggestions

Pour savoir comment mettre en œuvre une méthode spécifique pour votre nouveau type de données, téléchargez le code source CPython. Allez dans le répertoire Objects, puis cherchez dans les fichiers sources C la fonction tp_ plus la fonction que vous voulez (par exemple, tp_richcompare). Vous trouverez des exemples de la fonction que vous voulez implémenter.

Lorsque vous avez besoin de vérifier qu'un objet est une instance concrète du type que vous implémentez, utilisez la fonction PyObject_TypeCheck(). Voici un exemple de son utilisation :

if (!PyObject_TypeCheck(some_object, &MyType)) {
    PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "arg #1 not a mything");
    return NULL;
}

Voir aussi

Télécharger les versions sources de CPython.

https://www.python.org/downloads/source/

Le projet CPython sur GitHub, où se trouve le code source CPython.

https://github.com/python/cpython

4. Construire des extensions C et C++

A C extension for CPython is a shared library (for example, a .so file on Linux, .pyd on Windows), which exports an initialization function.

Voir Defining extension modules pour plus de détails.

4.1. Building C and C++ Extensions with setuptools

Building, packaging and distributing extension modules is best done with third-party tools, and is out of scope of this document. One suitable tool is Setuptools, whose documentation can be found at https://setuptools.pypa.io/en/latest/setuptools.html.

The distutils module, which was included in the standard library until Python 3.12, is now maintained as part of Setuptools.

5. Construire des extensions C et C++ sur Windows

Cette page explique rapidement comment créer un module d'extension Windows pour Python en utilisant Microsoft Visual C++, et donne plus d'informations contextuelles sur son fonctionnement. Le texte explicatif est utile tant pour le développeur Windows qui apprend à construire des extensions Python que pour le développeur Unix souhaitant produire des logiciels pouvant être construits sur Unix et Windows.

Les auteurs de modules sont invités à utiliser l'approche distutils pour construire des modules d'extension, au lieu de celle décrite dans cette section. Vous aurez toujours besoin du compilateur C utilisé pour construire Python ; typiquement Microsoft Visual C++.

Note

Cette page mentionne plusieurs noms de fichiers comprenant un numéro de version Python encodé. Ces noms de fichiers sont construits sous le format de version XY ; en pratique, 'X' représente le numéro de version majeure et 'Y' représente le numéro de version mineure de la version Python avec laquelle vous travaillez. Par exemple, si vous utilisez Python 2.2.1, XY correspond à 22.

5.1. Une approche "recette de cuisine"

There are two approaches to building extension modules on Windows, just as there are on Unix: use the setuptools package to control the build process, or do things manually. The setuptools approach works well for most extensions; documentation on using setuptools to build and package extension modules is available in Building C and C++ Extensions with setuptools. If you find you really need to do things manually, it may be instructive to study the project file for the winsound [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/PCbuild/winsound.vcxproj] standard library module.

5.2. Différences entre Unix et Windows

Unix et Windows utilisent des paradigmes complètement différents pour le chargement du code pendant l'exécution. Avant d'essayer de construire un module qui puisse être chargé dynamiquement, soyez conscient du mode de fonctionnement du système.

Sur Unix, un fichier objet partagé (.so) contient du code servant au programme, ainsi que les noms des fonctions et les données que l'on s'attend à trouver dans le programme. Quand le fichier est attaché au programme, toutes les références à ces fonctions et données dans le code du fichier sont modifiées pour pointer vers les localisations actuelles dans le programme où sont désormais placées les fonctions et données dans la mémoire. C'est tout simplement une opération de liaison.

Sur Windows, un fichier bibliothèque de liens dynamiques (.dll) n'a pas de références paresseuses. À la place, un accès aux fonctions ou données passe par une table de conversion. Cela est fait pour que le code DLL ne doive pas être réarrangé à l'exécution pour renvoyer à la mémoire du programme ; à la place, le code utilise déjà la table de conversion DLL, et cette table est modifiée à l'exécution pour pointer vers les fonctions et données.

Sur Unix, il n'y a qu'un type de bibliothèque de fichier (.a) qui contient du code venant de plusieurs fichiers objets (.o). Durant l'étape de liaison pour créer un fichier objet partagé (.so), le lieur peut informer qu'il ne sait pas où un identificateur est défini. Le lieur le cherchera dans les fichiers objet dans les bibliothèques ; s'il le trouve, il inclura tout le code provenant de ce fichier objet.

Sur Windows, il y a deux types de bibliothèques, une bibliothèque statique et une bibliothèque d'importation (toutes deux appelées .lib). Une bibliothèque statique est comme un fichier Unix .a ; elle contient du code pouvant être inclus si nécessaire. Une bibliothèque d'importation est uniquement utilisée pour rassurer le lieur qu'un certain identificateur est légal, et sera présent dans le programme quand la DLL est chargée. Comme ça le lieur utilise les informations provenant de la bibliothèque d'importation pour construire la table de conversion pour utiliser les identificateurs qui ne sont pas inclus dans la DLL. Quand une application ou une DLL est liée, une bibliothèque d'importation peut être générée, qui devra être utilisée pour toutes les futures DLL dépendantes aux symboles provenant de l'application ou de la DLL.

Supposons que vous construisez deux modules de chargement dynamiques, B et C, qui ne devraient pas partager un autre bloc de code avec A. Sur Unix, vous ne transmettrez pas A.a au lieur pour B.so et C.so ; cela le ferait être inclus deux fois, pour que B et C aient chacun leur propre copie. Sur Windows, construire A.dll construira aussi A.lib. Vous transmettez A.lib au lieur pour B et C. A.lib ne contient pas de code ; il contient uniquement des informations qui seront utilisées lors de l'exécution pour accéder au code de A.

Sur Windows, utiliser une bibliothèque d'importation est comme utiliser import spam ; cela vous donne accès aux noms des spams, mais ne crée par de copie séparée. Sur Unix, se lier à une bibliothèque est plus comme from spam import * ; cela crée une copie séparée.

Py_NO_LINK_LIB

Turn off the implicit, #pragma-based linkage with the Python library, performed inside CPython header files.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

5.3. Utiliser les DLL en pratique

Le Python de Windows est construit en Microsoft Visual C++ ; utiliser d'autres compilateurs pourrait fonctionner, ou pas. Le reste de cette section est spécifique à MSVC++.

When creating DLLs in Windows, you can use the CPython library in two ways:

By default, inclusion of PC/pyconfig.h directly or via Python.h triggers an implicit, configure-aware link with the library. The header file chooses pythonXY_d.lib for Debug, pythonXY.lib for Release, and pythonX.lib for Release with the Limited API enabled.

To build two DLLs, spam and ni (which uses C functions found in spam), you could use these commands:

cl /LD /I/python/include spam.c
cl /LD /I/python/include ni.c spam.lib

The first command created three files: spam.obj, spam.dll and spam.lib. Spam.dll does not contain any Python functions (such as PyArg_ParseTuple()), but it does know how to find the Python code thanks to the implicitly linked pythonXY.lib.

La seconde commande a créé ni.dll (et .obj et .lib), qui sait comment trouver les fonctions nécessaires dans spam, ainsi qu'à partir de l'exécutable Python.

Manually by defining Py_NO_LINK_LIB macro before including Python.h. You must pass pythonXY.lib to the linker.

To build two DLLs, spam and ni (which uses C functions found in spam), you could use these commands:

cl /LD /DPy_NO_LINK_LIB /I/python/include spam.c ../libs/pythonXY.lib
cl /LD /DPy_NO_LINK_LIB /I/python/include ni.c spam.lib ../libs/pythonXY.lib

La première commande a créé trois fichiers : spam.obj, spam.dll et spam.lib. Spam.dll ne contient pas de fonctions Python (telles que PyArg_ParseTuple()), mais il sait comment trouver le code Python grâce à pythonXY.lib.

La seconde commande a créé ni.dll (et .obj et .lib), qui sait comment trouver les fonctions nécessaires dans spam, ainsi qu'à partir de l'exécutable Python.

Chaque identificateur n'est pas exporté vers la table de conversion. Si vous voulez que tout autre module (y compris Python) soit capable de voir vos identificateurs, vous devez préciser _declspec(dllexport), comme dans void _declspec(dllexport) initspam(void) ou PyObject _declspec(dllexport) *NiGetSpamData(void).

Developer Studio will throw in a lot of import libraries that you do not really need, adding about 100K to your executable. To get rid of them, use the Project Settings dialog, Link tab, to specify ignore default libraries. Add the correct msvcrtxx.lib to the list of libraries.

1. Intégrer Python dans une autre application

Les chapitres précédents couvraient l'extension de Python, c'est-à-dire, comment enrichir une fonctionnalité de Python en y attachant une bibliothèque de fonctions C. C'est aussi possible dans l'autre sens : enrichir vos applications C/C++ en y intégrant Python. Intégrer Python vous permet d'implémenter certaines fonctionnalités de vos applications en Python plutôt qu'en C ou C++. C'est utile dans de nombreux cas, un exemple serait de permettre aux utilisateurs d'adapter une application à leurs besoins en y écrivant des scripts Python. Vous pouvez aussi l'utiliser vous même si certaines fonctionnalités peuvent être rédigées plus facilement en Python.

Intégrer et étendre Python sont des tâches presque identiques. La différence est qu'en étendant Python, le programme principal reste l'interpréteur Python, alors qu'en intégrant Python le programme principal peut ne rien à voir avec Python. C'est simplement quelques parties du programme qui appellent l'interpréteur Python pour exécuter un peu de code Python.

En intégrant Python, vous fournissez le programme principal. L'une de ses tâches sera d'initialiser l'interpréteur. Au minimum vous devrez appeler Py_Initialize(). Il est possible, avec quelques appels supplémentaires, de passer des options à Python. Ensuite vous pourrez appeler l'interpréteur depuis n'importe quelle partie de votre programme.

Il existe différents moyens d'appeler l'interpréteur : vous pouvez donner une chaîne contenant des instructions Python à PyRun_SimpleString(), ou vous pouvez donner un pointeur de fichier stdio et un nom de fichier (juste pour nommer les messages d'erreur) à PyRunSimpleFile(). Vous pouvez aussi appeler les API de bas niveau décrites dans les chapitres précédents pour construire et utiliser des objets Python.

Voir aussi

Python/C API reference manual

Les détails sur l'interface entre Python et le C sont donnés dans ce manuel. Pléthore informations s'y trouvent.

1.1. Intégration de très haut niveau

La manière la plus simple d'intégrer Python est d'utiliser une interface de très haut niveau. Cette interface a pour but d'exécuter un script Python sans avoir à interagir avec directement. C'est utile, par exemple, pour effectuer une opération sur un fichier.

#define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
#include <Python.h>

int
main(int argc, char *argv[])
{
    PyStatus status;
    PyConfig config;
    PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(&config);

    /* optional but recommended */
    status = PyConfig_SetBytesString(&config, &config.program_name, argv[0]);
    if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
        goto exception;
    }

    status = Py_InitializeFromConfig(&config);
    if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
        goto exception;
    }
    PyConfig_Clear(&config);

    PyRun_SimpleString("from time import time,ctime\n"
                       "print('Today is', ctime(time()))\n");
    if (Py_FinalizeEx() < 0) {
        exit(120);
    }
    return 0;

  exception:
     PyConfig_Clear(&config);
     Py_ExitStatusException(status);
}

Note

#define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN was used to indicate that Py_ssize_t should be used in some APIs instead of int. It is not necessary since Python 3.13, but we keep it here for backward compatibility. See Chaînes et tampons for a description of this macro.

Setting PyConfig.program_name should be called before Py_InitializeFromConfig() to inform the interpreter about paths to Python run-time libraries. Next, the Python interpreter is initialized with Py_Initialize(), followed by the execution of a hard-coded Python script that prints the date and time. Afterwards, the Py_FinalizeEx() call shuts the interpreter down, followed by the end of the program. In a real program, you may want to get the Python script from another source, perhaps a text-editor routine, a file, or a database. Getting the Python code from a file can better be done by using the PyRun_SimpleFile() function, which saves you the trouble of allocating memory space and loading the file contents.

1.2. Au-delà de l'intégration de haut niveau : survol

L'interface de haut niveau vous permet d'exécuter n'importe quel morceau de code Python depuis votre application, mais échanger des données est quelque peu alambiqué. Si c'est ce dont vous avez besoin, vous devez utiliser des appels de niveau plus bas. Il vous en coûtera plus de lignes de C à écrire, mais vous pourrez presque tout faire.

Il est à souligner qu'étendre ou intégrer Python revient à la louche au même, en dépit de la différence d'intention. La plupart des sujets parcourus dans les chapitres précédents sont toujours valides. Pour le prouver, regardez ce qu'un code d'extension de Python vers C fait réellement :

Convertir des valeurs de Python vers le C,

Appeler une fonction C en utilisant les valeurs converties, et

Convertir les résultats de l'appel à la fonction C pour Python.

Lors de l'intégration de Python, le code de l'interface fait :

Convertir les valeurs depuis le C vers Python,

Effectuer un appel de fonction de l'interface Python en utilisant les valeurs converties, et

Convertir les valeurs de l'appel Python pour le C.

Tel que vous le voyez, les conversions sont simplement inversées pour s'adapter aux différentes directions de transfert inter-langage. La seule différence est la fonction que vous appelez entre les deux conversions de données. Lors de l'extension, vous appelez une fonction C, lors de l'intégration vous appelez une fonction Python.

Ce chapitre ne couvrira pas la conversion des données de Python vers le C ni l'inverse. Aussi, un usage correct des références, ainsi que savoir gérer les erreurs sont considérés acquis. Ces aspects étant identiques à l'extension de l'interpréteur, vous pouvez vous référer aux chapitres précédents.

1.3. Intégration pure

L'objectif du premier programme est d'exécuter une fonction dans un script Python. Comme dans la section à propos des interfaces de haut niveau, l'interpréteur n'interagit pas directement avec l'application (mais le fera dans la section suivante).

Le code pour appeler une fonction définie dans un script Python est :

#define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
#include <Python.h>

int
main(int argc, char *argv[])
{
    PyObject *pName, *pModule, *pFunc;
    PyObject *pArgs, *pValue;
    int i;

    if (argc < 3) {
        fprintf(stderr,"Usage: call pythonfile funcname [args]\n");
        return 1;
    }

    Py_Initialize();
    pName = PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault(argv[1]);
    /* Error checking of pName left out */

    pModule = PyImport_Import(pName);
    Py_DECREF(pName);

    if (pModule != NULL) {
        pFunc = PyObject_GetAttrString(pModule, argv[2]);
        /* pFunc is a new reference */

        if (pFunc && PyCallable_Check(pFunc)) {
            pArgs = PyTuple_New(argc - 3);
            for (i = 0; i < argc - 3; ++i) {
                pValue = PyLong_FromLong(atoi(argv[i + 3]));
                if (!pValue) {
                    Py_DECREF(pArgs);
                    Py_DECREF(pModule);
                    fprintf(stderr, "Cannot convert argument\n");
                    return 1;
                }
                /* pValue reference stolen here: */
                PyTuple_SetItem(pArgs, i, pValue);
            }
            pValue = PyObject_CallObject(pFunc, pArgs);
            Py_DECREF(pArgs);
            if (pValue != NULL) {
                printf("Result of call: %ld\n", PyLong_AsLong(pValue));
                Py_DECREF(pValue);
            }
            else {
                Py_DECREF(pFunc);
                Py_DECREF(pModule);
                PyErr_Print();
                fprintf(stderr,"Call failed\n");
                return 1;
            }
        }
        else {
            if (PyErr_Occurred())
                PyErr_Print();
            fprintf(stderr, "Cannot find function \"%s\"\n", argv[2]);
        }
        Py_XDECREF(pFunc);
        Py_DECREF(pModule);
    }
    else {
        PyErr_Print();
        fprintf(stderr, "Failed to load \"%s\"\n", argv[1]);
        return 1;
    }
    if (Py_FinalizeEx() < 0) {
        return 120;
    }
    return 0;
}

Ce code charge un script Python en utilisant argv[1], et appelle une fonction dont le nom est dans argv[2]. Ses arguments entiers sont les autres valeurs de argv. Si vous compilez et liez ce programme (appelons l'exécutable call), et l'appelez pour exécuter un script Python, tel que :

def multiply(a,b):
    print("Will compute", a, "times", b)
    c = 0
    for i in range(0, a):
        c = c + b
    return c

alors, le résultat sera :

$ call multiply multiply 3 2
Will compute 3 times 2
Result of call: 6

Bien que le programme soit plutôt gros pour ses fonctionnalités, la plupart du code n'est que conversion de données entre Python et C, aussi que pour rapporter les erreurs. La partie intéressante, qui concerne l'intégration de Python débute par :

Py_Initialize();
pName = PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault(argv[1]);
/* Error checking of pName left out */
pModule = PyImport_Import(pName);

After initializing the interpreter, the script is loaded using PyImport_Import(). This routine needs a Python string as its argument, which is constructed using the PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault() data conversion routine.

pFunc = PyObject_GetAttrString(pModule, argv[2]);
/* pFunc is a new reference */

if (pFunc && PyCallable_Check(pFunc)) {
    ...
}
Py_XDECREF(pFunc);

Une fois le script chargé, le nom recherché est obtenu en utilisant PyObject_GetAttrString(). Si le nom existe, et que l'objet récupéré peut être appelé, vous pouvez présumer sans risque que c'est une fonction. Le programme continue, classiquement, par la construction de n-uplet d'arguments. L'appel à la fonction Python est alors effectué avec :

pValue = PyObject_CallObject(pFunc, pArgs);

Après l'exécution de la fonction, pValue est soit NULL, soit une référence sur la valeur donnée par la fonction. Assurez-vous de libérer la référence après avoir utilisé la valeur.

1.4. Étendre un Python intégré

Jusqu'à présent, l'interpréteur Python intégré n'avait pas accès aux fonctionnalités de l'application elle-même. L'API Python le permet en étendant l'interpréteur intégré. Autrement dit, l'interpréteur intégré est étendu avec des fonctions fournies par l'application. Bien que cela puisse sembler complexe, ce n'est pas si dur. Il suffit d'oublier que l'application démarre l'interpréteur Python, au lieu de cela, voyez l'application comme un ensemble de fonctions, et rédigez un peu de code pour exposer ces fonctions à Python, tout comme vous écririez une extension Python normale. Par exemple :

static int numargs=0;

/* Return the number of arguments of the application command line */
static PyObject*
emb_numargs(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
{
    if(!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, ":numargs"))
        return NULL;
    return PyLong_FromLong(numargs);
}

static PyMethodDef emb_module_methods[] = {
    {"numargs", emb_numargs, METH_VARARGS,
     "Return the number of arguments received by the process."},
    {NULL, NULL, 0, NULL}
};

static struct PyModuleDef emb_module = {
    .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
    .m_name = "emb",
    .m_size = 0,
    .m_methods = emb_module_methods,
};

static PyObject*
PyInit_emb(void)
{
    return PyModuleDef_Init(&emb_module);
}

Insérez le code ci-dessus juste avant la fonction main(). Ajoutez aussi les deux instructions suivantes avant l'appel à Py_Initialize() :

numargs = argc;
PyImport_AppendInittab("emb", &PyInit_emb);

These two lines initialize the numargs variable, and make the emb.numargs() function accessible to the embedded Python interpreter. With these extensions, the Python script can do things like

import emb
print("Number of arguments", emb.numargs())

Dans un cas réel, les méthodes exposeraient une API de l'application à Python.

1.5. Intégrer Python dans du C++

Il est aussi possible d'intégrer Python dans un programme en C++, la manière exacte dont cela se fait dépend de détails du système C++ utilisé. En général vous écrirez le programme principal en C++, utiliserez un compilateur C++ pour compiler et lier votre programme. Il n'y a pas besoin de recompiler Python en utilisant C++.

1.6. Compiler et Lier en environnement Unix ou similaire

Ce n'est pas évident de trouver les bonnes options à passer au compilateur (et linker) pour intégrer l'interpréteur Python dans une application, Python ayant besoin de charger des extensions sous forme de bibliothèques dynamiques en C (des .so) pour se lier avec.

Pour trouver les bonnes options de compilateur et linker, vous pouvez exécuter le script pythonX.Y-config généré durant l'installation (un script python3-config peut aussi être disponible). Ce script a quelques options, celles-ci vous seront utiles :

pythonX.Y-config --cflags vous donnera les options recommandées pour compiler :

$ /opt/bin/python3.11-config --cflags
-I/opt/include/python3.11 -I/opt/include/python3.11 -Wsign-compare  -DNDEBUG -g -fwrapv -O3 -Wall

pythonX.Y-config --ldflags --embed vous donnera les drapeaux recommandés lors de l'édition de lien :

$ /opt/bin/python3.11-config --ldflags --embed
-L/opt/lib/python3.11/config-3.11-x86_64-linux-gnu -L/opt/lib -lpython3.11 -lpthread -ldl  -lutil -lm

Note

Pour éviter la confusion entre différentes installations de Python, (et plus spécialement entre celle de votre système et votre version compilée), il est recommandé d'utiliser un chemin absolu vers pythonX.Y-config, comme dans l'exemple précédent.

Si cette procédure ne fonctionne pas pour vous (il n'est pas garanti qu'elle fonctionne pour toutes les plateformes Unix, mais nous traiteront volontiers les rapports de bugs), vous devrez lire la documentation de votre système sur la liaison dynamique (dynamic linking) et / ou examiner le Makefile de Python (utilisez sysconfig.get_makefile_filename() pour trouver son emplacement) et les options de compilation. Dans ce cas, le module sysconfig est un outil utile pour extraire automatiquement les valeurs de configuration que vous voudrez combiner ensemble. Par exemple :

>>> import sysconfig
>>> sysconfig.get_config_var('LIBS')
'-lpthread -ldl  -lutil'
>>> sysconfig.get_config_var('LINKFORSHARED')
'-Xlinker -export-dynamic'

Python/C API reference manual

C'est la documentation de l'API utilisée par les développeurs C et C++ écrivant des modules d'extension ou intégrant Python. Elle va de pair avec Extension et intégration de l'interpréteur Python, qui décrit les principes généraux de l'écriture d'extensions, mais ne rentre pas dans les détails de chaque fonction de l'API.

Introduction

Language version compatibility

Coding standards

Include Files

Useful macros

Objects, Types and Reference Counts

Exceptions

Embarquer Python

Debugging Builds

Les outils tiers recommandés

Stabilité de l’API C

Unstable C API

ABI stable

Considérations relatives aux plateformes

Contenu de l’API restreinte

The Very High Level Layer

Available start symbols

Stack Effects

Reference Counting

Gestion des exceptions

Printing and clearing

Lever des exceptions

Issuing warnings

Querying the error indicator

Traitement des signaux

Exception Classes

Objets exception

Objets exception Unicode

Contrôle de la récursion

Exception and warning types

Tracebacks

Defining extension modules

Multiple module instances

Initialization function

Multi-phase initialization

Legacy single-phase initialization

Utilitaires

Operating System Utilities

System Functions

Process Control

Importer des modules

Data marshalling support

Analyse des arguments et construction des valeurs

Conversion et formatage de chaînes

Character classification and conversion

PyHash API

Réflexion

Codec registry and support functions

PyTime C API

Support for Perf Maps

Couche d'abstraction des objets

Protocole Objet

Call Protocol

Number Protocol

Sequence Protocol

Protocole de correspondance

Protocole d'itération

Protocole tampon

Couche des objets concrets

Objets fondamentaux

Objets numériques

Objets séquences

Objets conteneurs

Objets fonctions

Autres objets

C API for extension modules

Interpreter initialization and finalization

Before Python initialization

Global configuration variables

Initializing and finalizing the interpreter

Cautions regarding runtime finalization

Process-wide parameters

Thread states and the global interpreter lock

Detaching the thread state from extension code

Non-Python created threads

Legacy API

Cautions about fork()

High-level APIs

GIL-state APIs

Low-level APIs

Asynchronous notifications

Operating system thread APIs

Synchronization primitives

Python critical section API

Legacy locking APIs

Thread-local storage support

Thread-specific storage API

Dynamic allocation

Methods

Legacy APIs

Multiple interpreters in a Python process

A per-interpreter GIL

Bugs and caveats

High-level APIs

Low-level APIs

Advanced debugger support

Profiling and tracing

Reference tracing

Python Initialization Configuration

PyInitConfig C API

Configuration Options

Runtime Python configuration API

PyConfig C API

Py_GetArgcArgv()

Delaying main module execution

Memory Management

Aperçu

Allocator Domains

Raw Memory Interface

Memory Interface

Object allocators

Default Memory Allocators

Customize Memory Allocators

Debug hooks on the Python memory allocators

The pymalloc allocator

The mimalloc allocator

tracemalloc C API

Exemples

Implémentation d'objets

Allouer des objets dans le tas

Object Life Cycle

Common Object Structures

Type Object Structures

Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection

Version des API et ABI

Build-time version constants

Run-time version

Bit-packing macros

Monitoring C API

Generating Execution Events

Managing the Monitoring State

Introduction

The Application Programmer's Interface to Python gives C and C++ programmers access to the Python interpreter at a variety of levels. The API is equally usable from C++, but for brevity it is generally referred to as the Python/C API. There are two fundamentally different reasons for using the Python/C API. The first reason is to write extension modules for specific purposes; these are C modules that extend the Python interpreter. This is probably the most common use. The second reason is to use Python as a component in a larger application; this technique is generally referred to as embedding Python in an application.

Writing an extension module is a relatively well-understood process, where a "cookbook" approach works well. There are several tools that automate the process to some extent. While people have embedded Python in other applications since its early existence, the process of embedding Python is less straightforward than writing an extension.

Many API functions are useful independent of whether you're embedding or extending Python; moreover, most applications that embed Python will need to provide a custom extension as well, so it's probably a good idea to become familiar with writing an extension before attempting to embed Python in a real application.

Language version compatibility

Python's C API is compatible with C11 and C++11 versions of C and C++.

This is a lower limit: the C API does not require features from later C/C++ versions. You do not need to enable your compiler's "c11 mode".

Coding standards

If you're writing C code for inclusion in CPython, you must follow the guidelines and standards defined in PEP 7 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0007/]. These guidelines apply regardless of the version of Python you are contributing to. Following these conventions is not necessary for your own third party extension modules, unless you eventually expect to contribute them to Python.

Include Files

All function, type and macro definitions needed to use the Python/C API are included in your code by the following line:

#define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
#include <Python.h>

This implies inclusion of the following standard headers: <stdio.h>, <string.h>, <errno.h>, <limits.h>, <assert.h> and <stdlib.h> (if available).

Note

Python pouvant définir certaines définitions pré-processeur qui affectent les têtes standard sur certains systèmes, vous devez inclure Python.h avant les en-têtes standards.

It is recommended to always define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN before including Python.h. See Analyse des arguments et construction des valeurs for a description of this macro.

All user visible names defined by Python.h (except those defined by the included standard headers) have one of the prefixes Py or _Py. Names beginning with _Py are for internal use by the Python implementation and should not be used by extension writers. Structure member names do not have a reserved prefix.

Note

User code should never define names that begin with Py or _Py. This confuses the reader, and jeopardizes the portability of the user code to future Python versions, which may define additional names beginning with one of these prefixes.

The header files are typically installed with Python. On Unix, these are located in the directories prefix/include/pythonversion/ and exec_prefix/include/pythonversion/, where prefix and exec_prefix are defined by the corresponding parameters to Python's configure script and version is '%d.%d' % sys.version_info[:2]. On Windows, the headers are installed in prefix/include, where prefix is the installation directory specified to the installer.

To include the headers, place both directories (if different) on your compiler's search path for includes. Do not place the parent directories on the search path and then use #include <pythonX.Y/Python.h>; this will break on multi-platform builds since the platform independent headers under prefix include the platform specific headers from exec_prefix.

C++ users should note that although the API is defined entirely using C, the header files properly declare the entry points to be extern "C". As a result, there is no need to do anything special to use the API from C++.

Useful macros

Several useful macros are defined in the Python header files. Many are defined closer to where they are useful (for example, Py_RETURN_NONE, PyMODINIT_FUNC). Others of a more general utility are defined here. This is not necessarily a complete listing.

Py_CAN_START_THREADS

If this macro is defined, then the current system is able to start threads.

Currently, all systems supported by CPython (per PEP 11 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/]), with the exception of some WebAssembly platforms, support starting threads.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Py_GETENV(s)

Like getenv(s), but returns NULL if -E was passed on the command line (see PyConfig.use_environment).

Docstring macros

PyDoc_STRVAR(name, str)

Creates a variable with name name that can be used in docstrings. If Python is built without docstrings (--without-doc-strings), the value will be an empty string.

Exemple :

PyDoc_STRVAR(pop_doc, "Remove and return the rightmost element.");

static PyMethodDef deque_methods[] = {
    // ...
    {"pop", (PyCFunction)deque_pop, METH_NOARGS, pop_doc},
    // ...
}

Expands to PyDoc_VAR(name) = PyDoc_STR(str).

PyDoc_STR(str)

Expands to the given input string, or an empty string if docstrings are disabled (--without-doc-strings).

Exemple :

static PyMethodDef pysqlite_row_methods[] = {
    {"keys", (PyCFunction)pysqlite_row_keys, METH_NOARGS,
        PyDoc_STR("Returns the keys of the row.")},
    {NULL, NULL}
};

PyDoc_VAR(name)

Declares a static character array variable with the given name. Expands to static const char name[]

For example:

PyDoc_VAR(python_doc) = PyDoc_STR(
   "A genus of constricting snakes in the Pythonidae family native "
   "to the tropics and subtropics of the Eastern Hemisphere.");

General utility macros

The following macros are for common tasks not specific to Python.

Py_UNUSED(arg)

Use this for unused arguments in a function definition to silence compiler warnings. Example: int func(int a, int Py_UNUSED(b)) { return a; }.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Py_GCC_ATTRIBUTE(name)

Use a GCC attribute name, hiding it from compilers that don't support GCC attributes (such as MSVC).

This expands to __attribute__((name)) on a GCC compiler, and expands to nothing on compilers that don't support GCC attributes.

Numeric utilities

Py_ABS(x)

Return the absolute value of x.

The argument may be evaluated more than once. Consequently, do not pass an expression with side-effects directly to this macro.

If the result cannot be represented (for example, if x has INT_MIN value for int type), the behavior is undefined.

Corresponds roughly to ((x) < 0 ? -(x) : (x))

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Py_MAX(x, y)

Py_MIN(x, y)

Return the larger or smaller of the arguments, respectively.

Any arguments may be evaluated more than once. Consequently, do not pass an expression with side-effects directly to this macro.

Py_MAX corresponds roughly to (((x) > (y)) ? (x) : (y)).

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Py_ARITHMETIC_RIGHT_SHIFT(type, integer, positions)

Similar to integer >> positions, but forces sign extension, as the C standard does not define whether a right-shift of a signed integer will perform sign extension or a zero-fill.

integer should be any signed integer type. positions is the number of positions to shift to the right.

Both integer and positions can be evaluated more than once; consequently, avoid directly passing a function call or some other operation with side-effects to this macro. Instead, store the result as a variable and then pass it.

type is unused and only kept for backwards compatibility. Historically, type was used to cast integer.

Modifié dans la version 3.1: This macro is now valid for all signed integer types, not just those for which unsigned type is legal. As a result, type is no longer used.

Py_CHARMASK(c)

Argument must be a character or an integer in the range [-128, 127] or [0, 255]. This macro returns c cast to an unsigned char.

Assertion utilities

Py_UNREACHABLE()

Use this when you have a code path that cannot be reached by design. For example, in the default: clause in a switch statement for which all possible values are covered in case statements. Use this in places where you might be tempted to put an assert(0) or abort() call.

In release mode, the macro helps the compiler to optimize the code, and avoids a warning about unreachable code. For example, the macro is implemented with __builtin_unreachable() on GCC in release mode.

In debug mode, and on unsupported compilers, the macro expands to a call to Py_FatalError().

A use for Py_UNREACHABLE() is following a call to a function that never returns but that is not declared _Noreturn.

If a code path is very unlikely code but can be reached under exceptional case, this macro must not be used. For example, under low memory condition or if a system call returns a value out of the expected range. In this case, it's better to report the error to the caller. If the error cannot be reported to caller, Py_FatalError() can be used.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Py_SAFE_DOWNCAST(value, larger, smaller)

Cast value to type smaller from type larger, validating that no information was lost.

On release builds of Python, this is roughly equivalent to ((smaller) value) (in C++, static_cast<smaller>(value) will be used instead).

On debug builds (implying that Py_DEBUG is defined), this asserts that no information was lost with the cast from larger to smaller.

value, larger, and smaller may all be evaluated more than once in the expression; consequently, do not pass an expression with side-effects directly to this macro.

Py_BUILD_ASSERT(cond)

Asserts a compile-time condition cond, as a statement. The build will fail if the condition is false or cannot be evaluated at compile time.

Corresponds roughly to static_assert(cond) on C23 and above.

For example:

Py_BUILD_ASSERT(sizeof(PyTime_t) == sizeof(int64_t));

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Py_BUILD_ASSERT_EXPR(cond)

Asserts a compile-time condition cond, as an expression that evaluates to 0. The build will fail if the condition is false or cannot be evaluated at compile time.

For example:

#define foo_to_char(foo) \
    ((char *)(foo) + Py_BUILD_ASSERT_EXPR(offsetof(struct foo, string) == 0))

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Type size utilities

Py_ARRAY_LENGTH(array)

Compute the length of a statically allocated C array at compile time.

The array argument must be a C array with a size known at compile time. Passing an array with an unknown size, such as a heap-allocated array, will result in a compilation error on some compilers, or otherwise produce incorrect results.

This is roughly equivalent to:

sizeof(array) / sizeof((array)[0])

Py_MEMBER_SIZE(type, member)

Return the size of a structure (type) member in bytes.

Corresponds roughly to sizeof(((type *)NULL)->member).

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

Macro definition utilities

Py_FORCE_EXPANSION(X)

This is equivalent to X, which is useful for token-pasting in macros, as macro expansions in X are forcefully evaluated by the preprocessor.

Py_STRINGIFY(x)

Convert x to a C string. For example, Py_STRINGIFY(123) returns "123".

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Declaration utilities

The following macros can be used in declarations. They are most useful for defining the C API itself, and have limited use for extension authors. Most of them expand to compiler-specific spellings of common extensions to the C language.

Py_ALWAYS_INLINE

Ask the compiler to always inline a static inline function. The compiler can ignore it and decide to not inline the function.

Corresponds to always_inline attribute in GCC and __forceinline in MSVC.

It can be used to inline performance critical static inline functions when building Python in debug mode with function inlining disabled. For example, MSC disables function inlining when building in debug mode.

Marking blindly a static inline function with Py_ALWAYS_INLINE can result in worse performances (due to increased code size for example). The compiler is usually smarter than the developer for the cost/benefit analysis.

If Python is built in debug mode (if the Py_DEBUG macro is defined), the Py_ALWAYS_INLINE macro does nothing.

It must be specified before the function return type. Usage:

static inline Py_ALWAYS_INLINE int random(void) { return 4; }

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

Py_NO_INLINE

Disable inlining on a function. For example, it reduces the C stack consumption: useful on LTO+PGO builds which heavily inline code (see bpo-33720 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33720]).

Corresponds to the noinline attribute/specification on GCC and MSVC.

Utilisation :

Py_NO_INLINE static int random(void) { return 4; }

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

Py_DEPRECATED(version)

Use this to declare APIs that were deprecated in a specific CPython version. The macro must be placed before the symbol name.

Exemple :

Py_DEPRECATED(3.8) PyAPI_FUNC(int) Py_OldFunction(void);

Modifié dans la version 3.8: MSVC support was added.

Py_LOCAL(type)

Declare a function returning the specified type using a fast-calling qualifier for functions that are local to the current file. Semantically, this is equivalent to static type.

Py_LOCAL_INLINE(type)

Equivalent to Py_LOCAL but additionally requests the function be inlined.

Py_LOCAL_SYMBOL

Macro used to declare a symbol as local to the shared library (hidden). On supported platforms, it ensures the symbol is not exported.

On compatible versions of GCC/Clang, it expands to __attribute__((visibility("hidden"))).

Py_EXPORTED_SYMBOL

Macro used to declare a symbol (function or data) as exported. On Windows, this expands to __declspec(dllexport). On compatible versions of GCC/Clang, it expands to __attribute__((visibility("default"))). This macro is for defining the C API itself; extension modules should not use it.

Py_IMPORTED_SYMBOL

Macro used to declare a symbol as imported. On Windows, this expands to __declspec(dllimport). This macro is for defining the C API itself; extension modules should not use it.

PyAPI_FUNC(type)

Macro used by CPython to declare a function as part of the C API. Its expansion depends on the platform and build configuration. This macro is intended for defining CPython's C API itself; extension modules should not use it for their own symbols.

PyAPI_DATA(type)

Macro used by CPython to declare a public global variable as part of the C API. Its expansion depends on the platform and build configuration. This macro is intended for defining CPython's C API itself; extension modules should not use it for their own symbols.

Outdated macros

The following macros have been used to features that have been standardized in C11.

Py_ALIGNED(num)

Specify alignment to num bytes on compilers that support it.

Consider using the C11 standard _Alignas specifier over this macro.

Py_LL(number)

Py_ULL(number)

Use number as a long long or unsigned long long integer literal, respectively.

Expands to number followed by LL or LLU, respectively, but will expand to some compiler-specific suffixes on some older compilers.

Consider using the C99 standard suffixes LL and LLU directly.

Py_MEMCPY(dest, src, n)

This is a soft deprecated alias to memcpy(). Use memcpy() directly instead.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.14: The macro is soft deprecated.

Py_VA_COPY

This is a soft deprecated alias to the C99-standard va_copy function.

Historically, this would use a compiler-specific method to copy a va_list.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: This is now an alias to va_copy.

Objects, Types and Reference Counts

Most Python/C API functions have one or more arguments as well as a return value of type PyObject*. This type is a pointer to an opaque data type representing an arbitrary Python object. Since all Python object types are treated the same way by the Python language in most situations (e.g., assignments, scope rules, and argument passing), it is only fitting that they should be represented by a single C type. Almost all Python objects live on the heap: you never declare an automatic or static variable of type PyObject, only pointer variables of type PyObject* can be declared. The sole exception are the type objects; since these must never be deallocated, they are typically static PyTypeObject objects.

All Python objects (even Python integers) have a type and a reference count. An object's type determines what kind of object it is (e.g., an integer, a list, or a user-defined function; there are many more as explained in Hiérarchie des types standards). For each of the well-known types there is a macro to check whether an object is of that type; for instance, PyList_Check(a) is true if (and only if) the object pointed to by a is a Python list.

Compteurs de références

The reference count is important because today's computers have a finite (and often severely limited) memory size; it counts how many different places there are that have a strong reference to an object. Such a place could be another object, or a global (or static) C variable, or a local variable in some C function. When the last strong reference to an object is released (i.e. its reference count becomes zero), the object is deallocated. If it contains references to other objects, those references are released. Those other objects may be deallocated in turn, if there are no more references to them, and so on. (There's an obvious problem with objects that reference each other here; for now, the solution is "don't do that.")

Reference counts are always manipulated explicitly. The normal way is to use the macro Py_INCREF() to take a new reference to an object (i.e. increment its reference count by one), and Py_DECREF() to release that reference (i.e. decrement the reference count by one). The Py_DECREF() macro is considerably more complex than the incref one, since it must check whether the reference count becomes zero and then cause the object's deallocator to be called. The deallocator is a function pointer contained in the object's type structure. The type-specific deallocator takes care of releasing references for other objects contained in the object if this is a compound object type, such as a list, as well as performing any additional finalization that's needed. There's no chance that the reference count can overflow; at least as many bits are used to hold the reference count as there are distinct memory locations in virtual memory (assuming sizeof(Py_ssize_t) >= sizeof(void*)). Thus, the reference count increment is a simple operation.

It is not necessary to hold a strong reference (i.e. increment the reference count) for every local variable that contains a pointer to an object. In theory, the object's reference count goes up by one when the variable is made to point to it and it goes down by one when the variable goes out of scope. However, these two cancel each other out, so at the end the reference count hasn't changed. The only real reason to use the reference count is to prevent the object from being deallocated as long as our variable is pointing to it. If we know that there is at least one other reference to the object that lives at least as long as our variable, there is no need to take a new strong reference (i.e. increment the reference count) temporarily. An important situation where this arises is in objects that are passed as arguments to C functions in an extension module that are called from Python; the call mechanism guarantees to hold a reference to every argument for the duration of the call.

However, a common pitfall is to extract an object from a list and hold on to it for a while without taking a new reference. Some other operation might conceivably remove the object from the list, releasing that reference, and possibly deallocating it. The real danger is that innocent-looking operations may invoke arbitrary Python code which could do this; there is a code path which allows control to flow back to the user from a Py_DECREF(), so almost any operation is potentially dangerous.

A safe approach is to always use the generic operations (functions whose name begins with PyObject_, PyNumber_, PySequence_ or PyMapping_). These operations always create a new strong reference (i.e. increment the reference count) of the object they return. This leaves the caller with the responsibility to call Py_DECREF() when they are done with the result; this soon becomes second nature.

Reference Count Details

The reference count behavior of functions in the Python/C API is best explained in terms of ownership of references. Ownership pertains to references, never to objects (objects are not owned: they are always shared). "Owning a reference" means being responsible for calling Py_DECREF on it when the reference is no longer needed. Ownership can also be transferred, meaning that the code that receives ownership of the reference then becomes responsible for eventually releasing it by calling Py_DECREF() or Py_XDECREF() when it's no longer needed---or passing on this responsibility (usually to its caller). When a function passes ownership of a reference on to its caller, the caller is said to receive a new reference. When no ownership is transferred, the caller is said to borrow the reference. Nothing needs to be done for a borrowed reference.

Conversely, when a calling function passes in a reference to an object, there are two possibilities: the function steals a reference to the object, or it does not. Stealing a reference means that when you pass a reference to a function, that function assumes that it now owns that reference, and you are not responsible for it any longer.

Few functions steal references; the two notable exceptions are PyList_SetItem() and PyTuple_SetItem(), which steal a reference to the item (but not to the tuple or list into which the item is put!). These functions were designed to steal a reference because of a common idiom for populating a tuple or list with newly created objects; for example, the code to create the tuple (1, 2, "three") could look like this (forgetting about error handling for the moment; a better way to code this is shown below):

PyObject *t;

t = PyTuple_New(3);
PyTuple_SetItem(t, 0, PyLong_FromLong(1L));
PyTuple_SetItem(t, 1, PyLong_FromLong(2L));
PyTuple_SetItem(t, 2, PyUnicode_FromString("three"));

Here, PyLong_FromLong() returns a new reference which is immediately stolen by PyTuple_SetItem(). When you want to keep using an object although the reference to it will be stolen, use Py_INCREF() to grab another reference before calling the reference-stealing function.

Incidentally, PyTuple_SetItem() is the only way to set tuple items; PySequence_SetItem() and PyObject_SetItem() refuse to do this since tuples are an immutable data type. You should only use PyTuple_SetItem() for tuples that you are creating yourself.

Equivalent code for populating a list can be written using PyList_New() and PyList_SetItem().

However, in practice, you will rarely use these ways of creating and populating a tuple or list. There's a generic function, Py_BuildValue(), that can create most common objects from C values, directed by a format string. For example, the above two blocks of code could be replaced by the following (which also takes care of the error checking):

PyObject *tuple, *list;

tuple = Py_BuildValue("(iis)", 1, 2, "three");
list = Py_BuildValue("[iis]", 1, 2, "three");

It is much more common to use PyObject_SetItem() and friends with items whose references you are only borrowing, like arguments that were passed in to the function you are writing. In that case, their behaviour regarding references is much saner, since you don't have to take a new reference just so you can give that reference away ("have it be stolen"). For example, this function sets all items of a list (actually, any mutable sequence) to a given item:

int
set_all(PyObject *target, PyObject *item)
{
    Py_ssize_t i, n;

    n = PyObject_Length(target);
    if (n < 0)
        return -1;
    for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        PyObject *index = PyLong_FromSsize_t(i);
        if (!index)
            return -1;
        if (PyObject_SetItem(target, index, item) < 0) {
            Py_DECREF(index);
            return -1;
        }
        Py_DECREF(index);
    }
    return 0;
}

The situation is slightly different for function return values. While passing a reference to most functions does not change your ownership responsibilities for that reference, many functions that return a reference to an object give you ownership of the reference. The reason is simple: in many cases, the returned object is created on the fly, and the reference you get is the only reference to the object. Therefore, the generic functions that return object references, like PyObject_GetItem() and PySequence_GetItem(), always return a new reference (the caller becomes the owner of the reference).

It is important to realize that whether you own a reference returned by a function depends on which function you call only --- the plumage (the type of the object passed as an argument to the function) doesn't enter into it! Thus, if you extract an item from a list using PyList_GetItem(), you don't own the reference --- but if you obtain the same item from the same list using PySequence_GetItem() (which happens to take exactly the same arguments), you do own a reference to the returned object.

Here is an example of how you could write a function that computes the sum of the items in a list of integers; once using PyList_GetItem(), and once using PySequence_GetItem().

long
sum_list(PyObject *list)
{
    Py_ssize_t i, n;
    long total = 0, value;
    PyObject *item;

    n = PyList_Size(list);
    if (n < 0)
        return -1; /* Not a list */
    for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        item = PyList_GetItem(list, i); /* Can't fail */
        if (!PyLong_Check(item)) continue; /* Skip non-integers */
        value = PyLong_AsLong(item);
        if (value == -1 && PyErr_Occurred())
            /* Integer too big to fit in a C long, bail out */
            return -1;
        total += value;
    }
    return total;
}

long
sum_sequence(PyObject *sequence)
{
    Py_ssize_t i, n;
    long total = 0, value;
    PyObject *item;
    n = PySequence_Length(sequence);
    if (n < 0)
        return -1; /* Has no length */
    for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        item = PySequence_GetItem(sequence, i);
        if (item == NULL)
            return -1; /* Not a sequence, or other failure */
        if (PyLong_Check(item)) {
            value = PyLong_AsLong(item);
            Py_DECREF(item);
            if (value == -1 && PyErr_Occurred())
                /* Integer too big to fit in a C long, bail out */
                return -1;
            total += value;
        }
        else {
            Py_DECREF(item); /* Discard reference ownership */
        }
    }
    return total;
}

Types

There are few other data types that play a significant role in the Python/C API; most are simple C types such as int, long, double and char*. A few structure types are used to describe static tables used to list the functions exported by a module or the data attributes of a new object type, and another is used to describe the value of a complex number. These will be discussed together with the functions that use them.

type Py_ssize_t

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

A signed integral type such that sizeof(Py_ssize_t) == sizeof(size_t). C99 doesn't define such a thing directly (size_t is an unsigned integral type). See PEP 353 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0353/] for details. PY_SSIZE_T_MAX is the largest positive value of type Py_ssize_t.

Exceptions

The Python programmer only needs to deal with exceptions if specific error handling is required; unhandled exceptions are automatically propagated to the caller, then to the caller's caller, and so on, until they reach the top-level interpreter, where they are reported to the user accompanied by a stack traceback.

For C programmers, however, error checking always has to be explicit. All functions in the Python/C API can raise exceptions, unless an explicit claim is made otherwise in a function's documentation. In general, when a function encounters an error, it sets an exception, discards any object references that it owns, and returns an error indicator. If not documented otherwise, this indicator is either NULL or -1, depending on the function's return type. A few functions return a Boolean true/false result, with false indicating an error. Very few functions return no explicit error indicator or have an ambiguous return value, and require explicit testing for errors with PyErr_Occurred(). These exceptions are always explicitly documented.

Exception state is maintained in per-thread storage (this is equivalent to using global storage in an unthreaded application). A thread can be in one of two states: an exception has occurred, or not. The function PyErr_Occurred() can be used to check for this: it returns a borrowed reference to the exception type object when an exception has occurred, and NULL otherwise. There are a number of functions to set the exception state: PyErr_SetString() is the most common (though not the most general) function to set the exception state, and PyErr_Clear() clears the exception state.

The full exception state consists of three objects (all of which can be NULL): the exception type, the corresponding exception value, and the traceback. These have the same meanings as the Python result of sys.exc_info(); however, they are not the same: the Python objects represent the last exception being handled by a Python try ... except statement, while the C level exception state only exists while an exception is being passed on between C functions until it reaches the Python bytecode interpreter's main loop, which takes care of transferring it to sys.exc_info() and friends.

Note that starting with Python 1.5, the preferred, thread-safe way to access the exception state from Python code is to call the function sys.exc_info(), which returns the per-thread exception state for Python code. Also, the semantics of both ways to access the exception state have changed so that a function which catches an exception will save and restore its thread's exception state so as to preserve the exception state of its caller. This prevents common bugs in exception handling code caused by an innocent-looking function overwriting the exception being handled; it also reduces the often unwanted lifetime extension for objects that are referenced by the stack frames in the traceback.

As a general principle, a function that calls another function to perform some task should check whether the called function raised an exception, and if so, pass the exception state on to its caller. It should discard any object references that it owns, and return an error indicator, but it should not set another exception --- that would overwrite the exception that was just raised, and lose important information about the exact cause of the error.

A simple example of detecting exceptions and passing them on is shown in the sum_sequence() example above. It so happens that this example doesn't need to clean up any owned references when it detects an error. The following example function shows some error cleanup. First, to remind you why you like Python, we show the equivalent Python code:

def incr_item(dict, key):
    try:
        item = dict[key]
    except KeyError:
        item = 0
    dict[key] = item + 1

Here is the corresponding C code, in all its glory:

int
incr_item(PyObject *dict, PyObject *key)
{
    /* Objects all initialized to NULL for Py_XDECREF */
    PyObject *item = NULL, *const_one = NULL, *incremented_item = NULL;
    int rv = -1; /* Return value initialized to -1 (failure) */

    item = PyObject_GetItem(dict, key);
    if (item == NULL) {
        /* Handle KeyError only: */
        if (!PyErr_ExceptionMatches(PyExc_KeyError))
            goto error;

        /* Clear the error and use zero: */
        PyErr_Clear();
        item = PyLong_FromLong(0L);
        if (item == NULL)
            goto error;
    }
    const_one = PyLong_FromLong(1L);
    if (const_one == NULL)
        goto error;

    incremented_item = PyNumber_Add(item, const_one);
    if (incremented_item == NULL)
        goto error;

    if (PyObject_SetItem(dict, key, incremented_item) < 0)
        goto error;
    rv = 0; /* Success */
    /* Continue with cleanup code */

 error:
    /* Cleanup code, shared by success and failure path */

    /* Use Py_XDECREF() to ignore NULL references */
    Py_XDECREF(item);
    Py_XDECREF(const_one);
    Py_XDECREF(incremented_item);

    return rv; /* -1 for error, 0 for success */
}

This example represents an endorsed use of the goto statement in C! It illustrates the use of PyErr_ExceptionMatches() and PyErr_Clear() to handle specific exceptions, and the use of Py_XDECREF() to dispose of owned references that may be NULL (note the 'X' in the name; Py_DECREF() would crash when confronted with a NULL reference). It is important that the variables used to hold owned references are initialized to NULL for this to work; likewise, the proposed return value is initialized to -1 (failure) and only set to success after the final call made is successful.

Embarquer Python

The one important task that only embedders (as opposed to extension writers) of the Python interpreter have to worry about is the initialization, and possibly the finalization, of the Python interpreter. Most functionality of the interpreter can only be used after the interpreter has been initialized.

The basic initialization function is Py_Initialize(). This initializes the table of loaded modules, and creates the fundamental modules builtins, __main__, and sys. It also initializes the module search path (sys.path).

Py_Initialize() does not set the "script argument list" (sys.argv). If this variable is needed by Python code that will be executed later, setting PyConfig.argv and PyConfig.parse_argv must be set: see Python Initialization Configuration.

On most systems (in particular, on Unix and Windows, although the details are slightly different), Py_Initialize() calculates the module search path based upon its best guess for the location of the standard Python interpreter executable, assuming that the Python library is found in a fixed location relative to the Python interpreter executable. In particular, it looks for a directory named lib/pythonX.Y relative to the parent directory where the executable named python is found on the shell command search path (the environment variable PATH).

For instance, if the Python executable is found in /usr/local/bin/python, it will assume that the libraries are in /usr/local/lib/pythonX.Y. (In fact, this particular path is also the "fallback" location, used when no executable file named python is found along PATH.) The user can override this behavior by setting the environment variable PYTHONHOME, or insert additional directories in front of the standard path by setting PYTHONPATH.

The embedding application can steer the search by setting PyConfig.program_name before calling Py_InitializeFromConfig(). Note that PYTHONHOME still overrides this and PYTHONPATH is still inserted in front of the standard path. An application that requires total control has to provide its own implementation of Py_GetPath(), Py_GetPrefix(), Py_GetExecPrefix(), and Py_GetProgramFullPath() (all defined in Modules/getpath.c).

Sometimes, it is desirable to "uninitialize" Python. For instance, the application may want to start over (make another call to Py_Initialize()) or the application is simply done with its use of Python and wants to free memory allocated by Python. This can be accomplished by calling Py_FinalizeEx(). The function Py_IsInitialized() returns true if Python is currently in the initialized state. More information about these functions is given in a later chapter. Notice that Py_FinalizeEx() does not free all memory allocated by the Python interpreter, e.g. memory allocated by extension modules currently cannot be released.

Debugging Builds

Python can be built with several macros to enable extra checks of the interpreter and extension modules. These checks tend to add a large amount of overhead to the runtime so they are not enabled by default.

A full list of the various types of debugging builds is in the file Misc/SpecialBuilds.txt in the Python source distribution. Builds are available that support tracing of reference counts, debugging the memory allocator, or low-level profiling of the main interpreter loop. Only the most frequently used builds will be described in the remainder of this section.

Py_DEBUG

Compiling the interpreter with the Py_DEBUG macro defined produces what is generally meant by a debug build of Python. Py_DEBUG is enabled in the Unix build by adding --with-pydebug to the ./configure command. It is also implied by the presence of the not-Python-specific _DEBUG macro. When Py_DEBUG is enabled in the Unix build, compiler optimization is disabled.

In addition to the reference count debugging described below, extra checks are performed, see Python Debug Build.

Defining Py_TRACE_REFS enables reference tracing (see the configure --with-trace-refs option). When defined, a circular doubly linked list of active objects is maintained by adding two extra fields to every PyObject. Total allocations are tracked as well. Upon exit, all existing references are printed. (In interactive mode this happens after every statement run by the interpreter.)

Please refer to Misc/SpecialBuilds.txt in the Python source distribution for more detailed information.

Les outils tiers recommandés

The following third party tools offer both simpler and more sophisticated approaches to creating C, C++ and Rust extensions for Python:

Cython [https://cython.org/]

cffi [https://cffi.readthedocs.io]

HPy [https://hpyproject.org/]

nanobind [https://github.com/wjakob/nanobind] (C++)

Numba [https://numba.pydata.org/]

pybind11 [https://pybind11.readthedocs.io/] (C++)

PyO3 [https://pyo3.rs/] (Rust)

SWIG [https://www.swig.org]

Using tools such as these can help avoid writing code that is tightly bound to a particular version of CPython, avoid reference counting errors, and focus more on your own code than on using the CPython API. In general, new versions of Python can be supported by updating the tool, and your code will often use newer and more efficient APIs automatically. Some tools also support compiling for other implementations of Python from a single set of sources.

These projects are not supported by the same people who maintain Python, and issues need to be raised with the projects directly. Remember to check that the project is still maintained and supported, as the list above may become outdated.

Voir aussi

Guide d'utilisation de l'empaquetage Python : Extensions binaires [https://packaging.python.org/guides/packaging-binary-extensions/]

Le guide d'utilisation de l'empaquetage Python ne couvre pas uniquement quelques outils disponibles qui simplifient la création d'extensions binaires, mais aborde aussi les différentes raisons pour lesquelles créer un module d'extension peut être souhaitable d'entrée.

Stabilité de l’API C

Unless documented otherwise, Python's C API is covered by the Backwards Compatibility Policy, PEP 387 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0387/]. Most changes to it are source-compatible (typically by only adding new API). Changing existing API or removing API is only done after a deprecation period or to fix serious issues.

CPython's Application Binary Interface (ABI) is forward- and backwards-compatible across a minor release (if these are compiled the same way; see Considérations relatives aux plateformes below). So, code compiled for Python 3.10.0 will work on 3.10.8 and vice versa, but will need to be compiled separately for 3.9.x and 3.11.x.

There are two tiers of C API with different stability expectations:

Unstable API, may change in minor versions without a deprecation period. It is marked by the PyUnstable prefix in names.

Limited API, is compatible across several minor releases. When Py_LIMITED_API is defined, only this subset is exposed from Python.h.

These are discussed in more detail below.

Names prefixed by an underscore, such as _Py_InternalState, are private API that can change without notice even in patch releases. If you need to use this API, consider reaching out to CPython developers [https://discuss.python.org/c/core-dev/c-api/30] to discuss adding public API for your use case.

Unstable C API

Any API named with the PyUnstable prefix exposes CPython implementation details, and may change in every minor release (e.g. from 3.9 to 3.10) without any deprecation warnings. However, it will not change in a bugfix release (e.g. from 3.10.0 to 3.10.1).

It is generally intended for specialized, low-level tools like debuggers.

Projects that use this API are expected to follow CPython development and spend extra effort adjusting to changes.

ABI stable

For simplicity, this document talks about extensions, but the Limited API and Stable ABI work the same way for all uses of the API – for example, embedding Python.

Limited C API

Python 3.2 introduced the Limited API, a subset of Python's C API. Extensions that only use the Limited API can be compiled once and be loaded on multiple versions of Python. Contents of the Limited API are listed below.

Py_LIMITED_API

Définissez cette macro avant d’inclure Python.h pour n’inclure que l’API restreinte et indiquer sa version.

Define Py_LIMITED_API to the value of PY_VERSION_HEX corresponding to the lowest Python version your extension supports. The extension will be ABI-compatible with all Python 3 releases from the specified one onward, and can use Limited API introduced up to that version.

Il est recommandé de renseigner une version mineure minimale (par exemple 0x030A0000 pour Python 3.10) plutôt que d’utiliser directement la macro PY_VERSION_HEX pour ne pas dépendre de la version de Python utilisée lors de la compilation.

Vous pouvez aussi définir Py_LIMITED_API à 3. Cette valeur est équivalente à 0x03020000 correspondant à Python 3.2, la première version à supporter l’API restreinte.

ABI stable

To enable this, Python provides a Stable ABI: a set of symbols that will remain ABI-compatible across Python 3.x versions.

Note

The Stable ABI prevents ABI issues, like linker errors due to missing symbols or data corruption due to changes in structure layouts or function signatures. However, other changes in Python can change the behavior of extensions. See Python's Backwards Compatibility Policy (PEP 387 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0387/]) for details.

The Stable ABI contains symbols exposed in the Limited API, but also other ones – for example, functions necessary to support older versions of the Limited API.

Sur Windows les extensions qui utilisent l’ABI stable doivent être liées avec python3.dll et non pas avec une bibliothèque spécifique à une version comme python39.dll.

Sur certaines plateformes Python essaiera de charger une bibliothèque partagée dont le nom contient abi3 (par exemple mymodule.abi3.so). Il ne vérifie pas si ces extensions respectent l’ABI stable. L’utilisateur (ou ses outils d’administration) doit s’assurer que les extensions compilées avec une version donnée de l’API restreinte, par exemple 3.10+, ne sont pas utilisées avec des versions plus anciennes de Python.

Toutes les fonctions de l’ABI stable sont présentes dans la bibliothèque dynamique de Python en tant que fonction, et pas uniquement comme macro. Elles peuvent donc être utilisées avec des langages qui n’utilisent pas le pré-processeur C.

Porté de l’API restreinte et performance

L’objectif de l’API restreinte est de permettre l’ensemble des opérations possibles avec l’API C étendue, mais peut avoir un impact sur les performances.

Par exemple la fonction PyList_GetItem() est disponible, mais la macro « dangereuse » PyList_GET_ITEM() ne l’est pas. Cette macro peut être plus rapide car elle dépend de détails d’implémentation spécifique à l’objet list.

Si Py_LIMITED_API n’est pas défini certaines fonctions de l’API C seront remplacées par des macros ou une version en-ligne. Définir Py_LIMITED_API désactive cette optimisation, permettant de se garantir contre les évolutions des structures de données utilisées par Python, et peut réduire les performances.

En omettant la définition de Py_LIMITED_API il est possible de compiler une extension utilisant l’API restreinte avec une version spécifique de l’ABI. Les performances seront meilleures pour cette version de Python, mais la compatibilité sera réduite. Compiler en définissant Py_LIMITED_API produira une extension qui peut être utilisée quand une variante spécifique à une version n’est pas disponible — par exemple pour une version alpha de Python.

Inconvénients de l’API restreinte

Note that compiling with Py_LIMITED_API is not a complete guarantee that code conforms to the Limited API or the Stable ABI. Py_LIMITED_API only covers definitions, but an API also includes other issues, such as expected semantics.

Une des limitations est que Py_LIMITED_API ne protège pas contre l’appel d’une fonction avec des arguments qui sont invalides pour une version de Python plus ancienne. Par exemple considérons une fonction qui accepte NULL comme argument à partir de 3.9. NULL permet maintenant d’utiliser le comportement par défaut, mais Python 3.8 essayera d’accéder à l’objet pointé et dé-référencera NULL, causant un crash. Des problèmes similaires peuvent se produire avec les attributs des structures.

Un autre problème est que certains attributs ne sont pas encore cachés lorsque Py_LIMITED_API est défini, même s’ils ne font pas partie de l’API restreinte.

Pour ces raisons il est recommandé de tester une extension avec l’ensemble des versions mineures supportées de Python, et généralement de la compiler avec la plus ancienne de ces versions.

Il est aussi recommandé de vérifier la documentation de toutes les API utilisées pour vérifier qu’elles fassent bien partie de l’API restreinte. Même lorsque Py_LIMITED_API est défini quelques fonctions privées peuvent être exposées aux utilisateurs pour des raisons techniques, ou par erreur.

Notez aussi que l’API restreinte n’est pas forcément stable : compiler avec Python 3.8 en définissant Py_LIMITED_API garanti que l’extension fonctionnera avec Python 3.12, mais pas qu’elle pourra être compilée avec Python 3.12. En particulier certaines parties de l’API restreinte peuvent être dépréciées et retirées tant que l’ABI stable n’est pas modifiée.

Considérations relatives aux plateformes

ABI stability depends not only on Python, but also on the compiler used, lower-level libraries and compiler options. For the purposes of the Stable ABI, these details define a “platform”. They usually depend on the OS type and processor architecture

Les distributeurs de Python doivent s’assurer que toutes les versions de Python pour une plateforme donnée sont compilées de manière à ne pas rompre la compatibilité de l’ABI stable. C’est le cas des versions produites pour Windows et macOS de python.org et de la plupart des distributions tierces.

Contenu de l’API restreinte

Currently, the Limited API includes the following items:

METH_CLASS

METH_COEXIST

METH_FASTCALL

METH_METHOD

METH_NOARGS

METH_O

METH_STATIC

METH_VARARGS

PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET

PyAIter_Check()

PyArg_Parse()

PyArg_ParseTuple()

PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords()

PyArg_UnpackTuple()

PyArg_VaParse()

PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords()

PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments()

PyBUF_ANY_CONTIGUOUS

PyBUF_CONTIG

PyBUF_CONTIG_RO

PyBUF_C_CONTIGUOUS

PyBUF_FORMAT

PyBUF_FULL

PyBUF_FULL_RO

PyBUF_F_CONTIGUOUS

PyBUF_INDIRECT

PyBUF_MAX_NDIM

PyBUF_ND

PyBUF_READ

PyBUF_RECORDS

PyBUF_RECORDS_RO

PyBUF_SIMPLE

PyBUF_STRIDED

PyBUF_STRIDED_RO

PyBUF_STRIDES

PyBUF_WRITABLE

PyBUF_WRITE

PyBaseObject_Type

PyBool_FromLong()

PyBool_Type

PyBuffer_FillContiguousStrides()

PyBuffer_FillInfo()

PyBuffer_FromContiguous()

PyBuffer_GetPointer()

PyBuffer_IsContiguous()

PyBuffer_Release()

PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat()

PyBuffer_ToContiguous()

PyByteArrayIter_Type

PyByteArray_AsString()

PyByteArray_Concat()

PyByteArray_FromObject()

PyByteArray_FromStringAndSize()

PyByteArray_Resize()

PyByteArray_Size()

PyByteArray_Type

PyBytesIter_Type

PyBytes_AsString()

PyBytes_AsStringAndSize()

PyBytes_Concat()

PyBytes_ConcatAndDel()

PyBytes_DecodeEscape()

PyBytes_FromFormat()

PyBytes_FromFormatV()

PyBytes_FromObject()

PyBytes_FromString()

PyBytes_FromStringAndSize()

PyBytes_Repr()

PyBytes_Size()

PyBytes_Type

PyCFunction

PyCFunctionFast

PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords

PyCFunctionWithKeywords

PyCFunction_GetFlags()

PyCFunction_GetFunction()

PyCFunction_GetSelf()

PyCFunction_New()

PyCFunction_NewEx()

PyCFunction_Type

PyCMethod_New()

PyCallIter_New()

PyCallIter_Type

PyCallable_Check()

PyCapsule_Destructor

PyCapsule_GetContext()

PyCapsule_GetDestructor()

PyCapsule_GetName()

PyCapsule_GetPointer()

PyCapsule_Import()

PyCapsule_IsValid()

PyCapsule_New()

PyCapsule_SetContext()

PyCapsule_SetDestructor()

PyCapsule_SetName()

PyCapsule_SetPointer()

PyCapsule_Type

PyClassMethodDescr_Type

PyCodec_BackslashReplaceErrors()

PyCodec_Decode()

PyCodec_Decoder()

PyCodec_Encode()

PyCodec_Encoder()

PyCodec_IgnoreErrors()

PyCodec_IncrementalDecoder()

PyCodec_IncrementalEncoder()

PyCodec_KnownEncoding()

PyCodec_LookupError()

PyCodec_NameReplaceErrors()

PyCodec_Register()

PyCodec_RegisterError()

PyCodec_ReplaceErrors()

PyCodec_StreamReader()

PyCodec_StreamWriter()

PyCodec_StrictErrors()

PyCodec_Unregister()

PyCodec_XMLCharRefReplaceErrors()

PyComplex_FromDoubles()

PyComplex_ImagAsDouble()

PyComplex_RealAsDouble()

PyComplex_Type

PyDescr_NewClassMethod()

PyDescr_NewGetSet()

PyDescr_NewMember()

PyDescr_NewMethod()

PyDictItems_Type

PyDictIterItem_Type

PyDictIterKey_Type

PyDictIterValue_Type

PyDictKeys_Type

PyDictProxy_New()

PyDictProxy_Type

PyDictRevIterItem_Type

PyDictRevIterKey_Type

PyDictRevIterValue_Type

PyDictValues_Type

PyDict_Clear()

PyDict_Contains()

PyDict_Copy()

PyDict_DelItem()

PyDict_DelItemString()

PyDict_GetItem()

PyDict_GetItemRef()

PyDict_GetItemString()

PyDict_GetItemStringRef()

PyDict_GetItemWithError()

PyDict_Items()

PyDict_Keys()

PyDict_Merge()

PyDict_MergeFromSeq2()

PyDict_New()

PyDict_Next()

PyDict_SetItem()

PyDict_SetItemString()

PyDict_Size()

PyDict_Type

PyDict_Update()

PyDict_Values()

PyEllipsis_Type

PyEnum_Type

PyErr_BadArgument()

PyErr_BadInternalCall()

PyErr_CheckSignals()

PyErr_Clear()

PyErr_Display()

PyErr_DisplayException()

PyErr_ExceptionMatches()

PyErr_Fetch()

PyErr_Format()

PyErr_FormatV()

PyErr_GetExcInfo()

PyErr_GetHandledException()

PyErr_GetRaisedException()

PyErr_GivenExceptionMatches()

PyErr_NewException()

PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc()

PyErr_NoMemory()

PyErr_NormalizeException()

PyErr_Occurred()

PyErr_Print()

PyErr_PrintEx()

PyErr_ProgramText()

PyErr_ResourceWarning()

PyErr_Restore()

PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErr()

PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilename()

PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject()

PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObjects()

PyErr_SetExcInfo()

PyErr_SetFromErrno()

PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilename()

PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject()

PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObjects()

PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr()

PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename()

PyErr_SetHandledException()

PyErr_SetImportError()

PyErr_SetImportErrorSubclass()

PyErr_SetInterrupt()

PyErr_SetInterruptEx()

PyErr_SetNone()

PyErr_SetObject()

PyErr_SetRaisedException()

PyErr_SetString()

PyErr_SyntaxLocation()

PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx()

PyErr_WarnEx()

PyErr_WarnExplicit()

PyErr_WarnFormat()

PyErr_WriteUnraisable()

PyEval_AcquireThread()

PyEval_EvalCode()

PyEval_EvalCodeEx()

PyEval_EvalFrame()

PyEval_EvalFrameEx()

PyEval_GetBuiltins()

PyEval_GetFrame()

PyEval_GetFrameBuiltins()

PyEval_GetFrameGlobals()

PyEval_GetFrameLocals()

PyEval_GetFuncDesc()

PyEval_GetFuncName()

PyEval_GetGlobals()

PyEval_GetLocals()

PyEval_InitThreads()

PyEval_ReleaseThread()

PyEval_RestoreThread()

PyEval_SaveThread()

PyExc_ArithmeticError

PyExc_AssertionError

PyExc_AttributeError

PyExc_BaseException

PyExc_BaseExceptionGroup

PyExc_BlockingIOError

PyExc_BrokenPipeError

PyExc_BufferError

PyExc_BytesWarning

PyExc_ChildProcessError

PyExc_ConnectionAbortedError

PyExc_ConnectionError

PyExc_ConnectionRefusedError

PyExc_ConnectionResetError

PyExc_DeprecationWarning

PyExc_EOFError

PyExc_EncodingWarning

PyExc_EnvironmentError

PyExc_Exception

PyExc_FileExistsError

PyExc_FileNotFoundError

PyExc_FloatingPointError

PyExc_FutureWarning

PyExc_GeneratorExit

PyExc_IOError

PyExc_ImportError

PyExc_ImportWarning

PyExc_IndentationError

PyExc_IndexError

PyExc_InterruptedError

PyExc_IsADirectoryError

PyExc_KeyError

PyExc_KeyboardInterrupt

PyExc_LookupError

PyExc_MemoryError

PyExc_ModuleNotFoundError

PyExc_NameError

PyExc_NotADirectoryError

PyExc_NotImplementedError

PyExc_OSError

PyExc_OverflowError

PyExc_PendingDeprecationWarning

PyExc_PermissionError

PyExc_ProcessLookupError

PyExc_RecursionError

PyExc_ReferenceError

PyExc_ResourceWarning

PyExc_RuntimeError

PyExc_RuntimeWarning

PyExc_StopAsyncIteration

PyExc_StopIteration

PyExc_SyntaxError

PyExc_SyntaxWarning

PyExc_SystemError

PyExc_SystemExit

PyExc_TabError

PyExc_TimeoutError

PyExc_TypeError

PyExc_UnboundLocalError

PyExc_UnicodeDecodeError

PyExc_UnicodeEncodeError

PyExc_UnicodeError

PyExc_UnicodeTranslateError

PyExc_UnicodeWarning

PyExc_UserWarning

PyExc_ValueError

PyExc_Warning

PyExc_WindowsError

PyExc_ZeroDivisionError

PyExceptionClass_Name()

PyException_GetArgs()

PyException_GetCause()

PyException_GetContext()

PyException_GetTraceback()

PyException_SetArgs()

PyException_SetCause()

PyException_SetContext()

PyException_SetTraceback()

PyFile_FromFd()

PyFile_GetLine()

PyFile_WriteObject()

PyFile_WriteString()

PyFilter_Type

PyFloat_AsDouble()

PyFloat_FromDouble()

PyFloat_FromString()

PyFloat_GetInfo()

PyFloat_GetMax()

PyFloat_GetMin()

PyFloat_Type

PyFrameObject

PyFrame_GetCode()

PyFrame_GetLineNumber()

PyFrozenSet_New()

PyFrozenSet_Type

PyGC_Collect()

PyGC_Disable()

PyGC_Enable()

PyGC_IsEnabled()

PyGILState_Ensure()

PyGILState_GetThisThreadState()

PyGILState_Release()

PyGILState_STATE

PyGetSetDef

PyGetSetDescr_Type

PyImport_AddModule()

PyImport_AddModuleObject()

PyImport_AddModuleRef()

PyImport_AppendInittab()

PyImport_ExecCodeModule()

PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx()

PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject()

PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames()

PyImport_GetImporter()

PyImport_GetMagicNumber()

PyImport_GetMagicTag()

PyImport_GetModule()

PyImport_GetModuleDict()

PyImport_Import()

PyImport_ImportFrozenModule()

PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject()

PyImport_ImportModule()

PyImport_ImportModuleLevel()

PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject()

PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock()

PyImport_ReloadModule()

PyIndex_Check()

PyInterpreterState

PyInterpreterState_Clear()

PyInterpreterState_Delete()

PyInterpreterState_Get()

PyInterpreterState_GetDict()

PyInterpreterState_GetID()

PyInterpreterState_New()

PyIter_Check()

PyIter_Next()

PyIter_NextItem()

PyIter_Send()

PyListIter_Type

PyListRevIter_Type

PyList_Append()

PyList_AsTuple()

PyList_GetItem()

PyList_GetItemRef()

PyList_GetSlice()

PyList_Insert()

PyList_New()

PyList_Reverse()

PyList_SetItem()

PyList_SetSlice()

PyList_Size()

PyList_Sort()

PyList_Type

PyLongObject

PyLongRangeIter_Type

PyLong_AsDouble()

PyLong_AsInt()

PyLong_AsInt32()

PyLong_AsInt64()

PyLong_AsLong()

PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow()

PyLong_AsLongLong()

PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow()

PyLong_AsNativeBytes()

PyLong_AsSize_t()

PyLong_AsSsize_t()

PyLong_AsUInt32()

PyLong_AsUInt64()

PyLong_AsUnsignedLong()

PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLong()

PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLongMask()

PyLong_AsUnsignedLongMask()

PyLong_AsVoidPtr()

PyLong_FromDouble()

PyLong_FromInt32()

PyLong_FromInt64()

PyLong_FromLong()

PyLong_FromLongLong()

PyLong_FromNativeBytes()

PyLong_FromSize_t()

PyLong_FromSsize_t()

PyLong_FromString()

PyLong_FromUInt32()

PyLong_FromUInt64()

PyLong_FromUnsignedLong()

PyLong_FromUnsignedLongLong()

PyLong_FromUnsignedNativeBytes()

PyLong_FromVoidPtr()

PyLong_GetInfo()

PyLong_Type

PyMap_Type

PyMapping_Check()

PyMapping_GetItemString()

PyMapping_GetOptionalItem()

PyMapping_GetOptionalItemString()

PyMapping_HasKey()

PyMapping_HasKeyString()

PyMapping_HasKeyStringWithError()

PyMapping_HasKeyWithError()

PyMapping_Items()

PyMapping_Keys()

PyMapping_Length()

PyMapping_SetItemString()

PyMapping_Size()

PyMapping_Values()

PyMem_Calloc()

PyMem_Free()

PyMem_Malloc()

PyMem_RawCalloc()

PyMem_RawFree()

PyMem_RawMalloc()

PyMem_RawRealloc()

PyMem_Realloc()

PyMemberDef

PyMemberDescr_Type

PyMember_GetOne()

PyMember_SetOne()

PyMemoryView_FromBuffer()

PyMemoryView_FromMemory()

PyMemoryView_FromObject()

PyMemoryView_GetContiguous()

PyMemoryView_Type

PyMethodDef

PyMethodDescr_Type

PyModuleDef

PyModuleDef_Base

PyModuleDef_Init()

PyModuleDef_Slot

PyModuleDef_Type

PyModule_Add()

PyModule_AddFunctions()

PyModule_AddIntConstant()

PyModule_AddObject()

PyModule_AddObjectRef()

PyModule_AddStringConstant()

PyModule_AddType()

PyModule_Create2()

PyModule_ExecDef()

PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2()

PyModule_GetDef()

PyModule_GetDict()

PyModule_GetFilename()

PyModule_GetFilenameObject()

PyModule_GetName()

PyModule_GetNameObject()

PyModule_GetState()

PyModule_New()

PyModule_NewObject()

PyModule_SetDocString()

PyModule_Type

PyNumber_Absolute()

PyNumber_Add()

PyNumber_And()

PyNumber_AsSsize_t()

PyNumber_Check()

PyNumber_Divmod()

PyNumber_Float()

PyNumber_FloorDivide()

PyNumber_InPlaceAdd()

PyNumber_InPlaceAnd()

PyNumber_InPlaceFloorDivide()

PyNumber_InPlaceLshift()

PyNumber_InPlaceMatrixMultiply()

PyNumber_InPlaceMultiply()

PyNumber_InPlaceOr()

PyNumber_InPlacePower()

PyNumber_InPlaceRemainder()

PyNumber_InPlaceRshift()

PyNumber_InPlaceSubtract()

PyNumber_InPlaceTrueDivide()

PyNumber_InPlaceXor()

PyNumber_Index()

PyNumber_Invert()

PyNumber_Long()

PyNumber_Lshift()

PyNumber_MatrixMultiply()

PyNumber_Multiply()

PyNumber_Negative()

PyNumber_Or()

PyNumber_Positive()

PyNumber_Power()

PyNumber_Remainder()

PyNumber_Rshift()

PyNumber_Subtract()

PyNumber_ToBase()

PyNumber_TrueDivide()

PyNumber_Xor()

PyOS_AfterFork()

PyOS_AfterFork_Child()

PyOS_AfterFork_Parent()

PyOS_BeforeFork()

PyOS_CheckStack()

PyOS_FSPath()

PyOS_InputHook

PyOS_InterruptOccurred()

PyOS_double_to_string()

PyOS_getsig()

PyOS_mystricmp()

PyOS_mystrnicmp()

PyOS_setsig()

PyOS_sighandler_t

PyOS_snprintf()

PyOS_string_to_double()

PyOS_strtol()

PyOS_strtoul()

PyOS_vsnprintf()

PyObject

PyObject.ob_refcnt

PyObject.ob_type

PyObject_ASCII()

PyObject_AsFileDescriptor()

PyObject_Bytes()

PyObject_Call()

PyObject_CallFunction()

PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs()

PyObject_CallMethod()

PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs()

PyObject_CallNoArgs()

PyObject_CallObject()

PyObject_Calloc()

PyObject_CheckBuffer()

PyObject_ClearWeakRefs()

PyObject_CopyData()

PyObject_DelAttr()

PyObject_DelAttrString()

PyObject_DelItem()

PyObject_DelItemString()

PyObject_Dir()

PyObject_Format()

PyObject_Free()

PyObject_GC_Del()

PyObject_GC_IsFinalized()

PyObject_GC_IsTracked()

PyObject_GC_Track()

PyObject_GC_UnTrack()

PyObject_GenericGetAttr()

PyObject_GenericGetDict()

PyObject_GenericSetAttr()

PyObject_GenericSetDict()

PyObject_GetAIter()

PyObject_GetAttr()

PyObject_GetAttrString()

PyObject_GetBuffer()

PyObject_GetItem()

PyObject_GetIter()

PyObject_GetOptionalAttr()

PyObject_GetOptionalAttrString()

PyObject_GetTypeData()

PyObject_HasAttr()

PyObject_HasAttrString()

PyObject_HasAttrStringWithError()

PyObject_HasAttrWithError()

PyObject_Hash()

PyObject_HashNotImplemented()

PyObject_Init()

PyObject_InitVar()

PyObject_IsInstance()

PyObject_IsSubclass()

PyObject_IsTrue()

PyObject_Length()

PyObject_Malloc()

PyObject_Not()

PyObject_Realloc()

PyObject_Repr()

PyObject_RichCompare()

PyObject_RichCompareBool()

PyObject_SelfIter()

PyObject_SetAttr()

PyObject_SetAttrString()

PyObject_SetItem()

PyObject_Size()

PyObject_Str()

PyObject_Type()

PyObject_Vectorcall()

PyObject_VectorcallMethod()

PyProperty_Type

PyRangeIter_Type

PyRange_Type

PyReversed_Type

PySeqIter_New()

PySeqIter_Type

PySequence_Check()

PySequence_Concat()

PySequence_Contains()

PySequence_Count()

PySequence_DelItem()

PySequence_DelSlice()

PySequence_Fast()

PySequence_GetItem()

PySequence_GetSlice()

PySequence_In()

PySequence_InPlaceConcat()

PySequence_InPlaceRepeat()

PySequence_Index()

PySequence_Length()

PySequence_List()

PySequence_Repeat()

PySequence_SetItem()

PySequence_SetSlice()

PySequence_Size()

PySequence_Tuple()

PySetIter_Type

PySet_Add()

PySet_Clear()

PySet_Contains()

PySet_Discard()

PySet_New()

PySet_Pop()

PySet_Size()

PySet_Type

PySlice_AdjustIndices()

PySlice_GetIndices()

PySlice_GetIndicesEx()

PySlice_New()

PySlice_Type

PySlice_Unpack()

PyState_AddModule()

PyState_FindModule()

PyState_RemoveModule()

PyStructSequence_Desc

PyStructSequence_Field

PyStructSequence_GetItem()

PyStructSequence_New()

PyStructSequence_NewType()

PyStructSequence_SetItem()

PyStructSequence_UnnamedField

PySuper_Type

PySys_Audit()

PySys_AuditTuple()

PySys_FormatStderr()

PySys_FormatStdout()

PySys_GetObject()

PySys_GetXOptions()

PySys_ResetWarnOptions()

PySys_SetArgv()

PySys_SetArgvEx()

PySys_SetObject()

PySys_WriteStderr()

PySys_WriteStdout()

PyThreadState

PyThreadState_Clear()

PyThreadState_Delete()

PyThreadState_Get()

PyThreadState_GetDict()

PyThreadState_GetFrame()

PyThreadState_GetID()

PyThreadState_GetInterpreter()

PyThreadState_New()

PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc()

PyThreadState_Swap()

PyThread_GetInfo()

PyThread_ReInitTLS()

PyThread_acquire_lock()

PyThread_acquire_lock_timed()

PyThread_allocate_lock()

PyThread_create_key()

PyThread_delete_key()

PyThread_delete_key_value()

PyThread_exit_thread()

PyThread_free_lock()

PyThread_get_key_value()

PyThread_get_stacksize()

PyThread_get_thread_ident()

PyThread_get_thread_native_id()

PyThread_init_thread()

PyThread_release_lock()

PyThread_set_key_value()

PyThread_set_stacksize()

PyThread_start_new_thread()

PyThread_tss_alloc()

PyThread_tss_create()

PyThread_tss_delete()

PyThread_tss_free()

PyThread_tss_get()

PyThread_tss_is_created()

PyThread_tss_set()

PyTraceBack_Here()

PyTraceBack_Print()

PyTraceBack_Type

PyTupleIter_Type

PyTuple_GetItem()

PyTuple_GetSlice()

PyTuple_New()

PyTuple_Pack()

PyTuple_SetItem()

PyTuple_Size()

PyTuple_Type

PyTypeObject

PyType_ClearCache()

PyType_Freeze()

PyType_FromMetaclass()

PyType_FromModuleAndSpec()

PyType_FromSpec()

PyType_FromSpecWithBases()

PyType_GenericAlloc()

PyType_GenericNew()

PyType_GetBaseByToken()

PyType_GetFlags()

PyType_GetFullyQualifiedName()

PyType_GetModule()

PyType_GetModuleByDef()

PyType_GetModuleName()

PyType_GetModuleState()

PyType_GetName()

PyType_GetQualName()

PyType_GetSlot()

PyType_GetTypeDataSize()

PyType_IsSubtype()

PyType_Modified()

PyType_Ready()

PyType_Slot

PyType_Spec

PyType_Type

PyUnicodeDecodeError_Create()

PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEncoding()

PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEnd()

PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetObject()

PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetReason()

PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetStart()

PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetEnd()

PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetReason()

PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetStart()

PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEncoding()

PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEnd()

PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetObject()

PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetReason()

PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetStart()

PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetEnd()

PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetReason()

PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetStart()

PyUnicodeIter_Type

PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetEnd()

PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetObject()

PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetReason()

PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetStart()

PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetEnd()

PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetReason()

PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetStart()

PyUnicode_Append()

PyUnicode_AppendAndDel()

PyUnicode_AsASCIIString()

PyUnicode_AsCharmapString()

PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject()

PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode()

PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject()

PyUnicode_AsEncodedString()

PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode()

PyUnicode_AsLatin1String()

PyUnicode_AsMBCSString()

PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString()

PyUnicode_AsUCS4()

PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy()

PyUnicode_AsUTF16String()

PyUnicode_AsUTF32String()

PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize()

PyUnicode_AsUTF8String()

PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString()

PyUnicode_AsWideChar()

PyUnicode_AsWideCharString()

PyUnicode_BuildEncodingMap()

PyUnicode_Compare()

PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString()

PyUnicode_Concat()

PyUnicode_Contains()

PyUnicode_Count()

PyUnicode_Decode()

PyUnicode_DecodeASCII()

PyUnicode_DecodeCharmap()

PyUnicode_DecodeCodePageStateful()

PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault()

PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize()

PyUnicode_DecodeLatin1()

PyUnicode_DecodeLocale()

PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize()

PyUnicode_DecodeMBCS()

PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful()

PyUnicode_DecodeRawUnicodeEscape()

PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16()

PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful()

PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32()

PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful()

PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7()

PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7Stateful()

PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8()

PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful()

PyUnicode_DecodeUnicodeEscape()

PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage()

PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault()

PyUnicode_EncodeLocale()

PyUnicode_Equal()

PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8()

PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8AndSize()

PyUnicode_FSConverter()

PyUnicode_FSDecoder()

PyUnicode_Find()

PyUnicode_FindChar()

PyUnicode_Format()

PyUnicode_FromEncodedObject()

PyUnicode_FromFormat()

PyUnicode_FromFormatV()

PyUnicode_FromObject()

PyUnicode_FromOrdinal()

PyUnicode_FromString()

PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize()

PyUnicode_FromWideChar()

PyUnicode_GetDefaultEncoding()

PyUnicode_GetLength()

PyUnicode_InternFromString()

PyUnicode_InternInPlace()

PyUnicode_IsIdentifier()

PyUnicode_Join()

PyUnicode_Partition()

PyUnicode_RPartition()

PyUnicode_RSplit()

PyUnicode_ReadChar()

PyUnicode_Replace()

PyUnicode_Resize()

PyUnicode_RichCompare()

PyUnicode_Split()

PyUnicode_Splitlines()

PyUnicode_Substring()

PyUnicode_Tailmatch()

PyUnicode_Translate()

PyUnicode_Type

PyUnicode_WriteChar()

PyVarObject

PyVarObject.ob_base

PyVarObject.ob_size

PyVectorcall_Call()

PyVectorcall_NARGS()

PyWeakReference

PyWeakref_GetObject()

PyWeakref_GetRef()

PyWeakref_NewProxy()

PyWeakref_NewRef()

PyWrapperDescr_Type

PyWrapper_New()

PyZip_Type

Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_ALLOW_INDEX

Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_BIG_ENDIAN

Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_DEFAULTS

Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_LITTLE_ENDIAN

Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_NATIVE_ENDIAN

Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_REJECT_NEGATIVE

Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_UNSIGNED_BUFFER

Py_AUDIT_READ

Py_AddPendingCall()

Py_AtExit()

Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS

Py_BLOCK_THREADS

Py_BuildValue()

Py_BytesMain()

Py_CompileString()

Py_DecRef()

Py_DecodeLocale()

Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS

Py_EncodeLocale()

Py_EndInterpreter()

Py_EnterRecursiveCall()

Py_Exit()

Py_FatalError()

Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors

Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding

Py_Finalize()

Py_FinalizeEx()

Py_GenericAlias()

Py_GenericAliasType

Py_GetBuildInfo()

Py_GetCompiler()

Py_GetConstant()

Py_GetConstantBorrowed()

Py_GetCopyright()

Py_GetExecPrefix()

Py_GetPath()

Py_GetPlatform()

Py_GetPrefix()

Py_GetProgramFullPath()

Py_GetProgramName()

Py_GetPythonHome()

Py_GetRecursionLimit()

Py_GetVersion()

Py_HasFileSystemDefaultEncoding

Py_IncRef()

Py_Initialize()

Py_InitializeEx()

Py_Is()

Py_IsFalse()

Py_IsFinalizing()

Py_IsInitialized()

Py_IsNone()

Py_IsTrue()

Py_LeaveRecursiveCall()

Py_Main()

Py_MakePendingCalls()

Py_NewInterpreter()

Py_NewRef()

Py_PACK_FULL_VERSION()

Py_PACK_VERSION()

Py_READONLY

Py_REFCNT()

Py_RELATIVE_OFFSET

Py_ReprEnter()

Py_ReprLeave()

Py_SetProgramName()

Py_SetPythonHome()

Py_SetRecursionLimit()

Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE

Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT

Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC

Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL

Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END

Py_TPFLAGS_METHOD_DESCRIPTOR

Py_TP_USE_SPEC

Py_TYPE()

Py_T_BOOL

Py_T_BYTE

Py_T_CHAR

Py_T_DOUBLE

Py_T_FLOAT

Py_T_INT

Py_T_LONG

Py_T_LONGLONG

Py_T_OBJECT_EX

Py_T_PYSSIZET

Py_T_SHORT

Py_T_STRING

Py_T_STRING_INPLACE

Py_T_UBYTE

Py_T_UINT

Py_T_ULONG

Py_T_ULONGLONG

Py_T_USHORT

Py_UCS4

Py_UNBLOCK_THREADS

Py_UTF8Mode

Py_VaBuildValue()

Py_Version

Py_XNewRef()

Py_am_aiter

Py_am_anext

Py_am_await

Py_am_send

Py_bf_getbuffer

Py_bf_releasebuffer

Py_buffer

Py_intptr_t

Py_mod_create

Py_mod_exec

Py_mod_gil

Py_mod_multiple_interpreters

Py_mp_ass_subscript

Py_mp_length

Py_mp_subscript

Py_nb_absolute

Py_nb_add

Py_nb_and

Py_nb_bool

Py_nb_divmod

Py_nb_float

Py_nb_floor_divide

Py_nb_index

Py_nb_inplace_add

Py_nb_inplace_and

Py_nb_inplace_floor_divide

Py_nb_inplace_lshift

Py_nb_inplace_matrix_multiply

Py_nb_inplace_multiply

Py_nb_inplace_or

Py_nb_inplace_power

Py_nb_inplace_remainder

Py_nb_inplace_rshift

Py_nb_inplace_subtract

Py_nb_inplace_true_divide

Py_nb_inplace_xor

Py_nb_int

Py_nb_invert

Py_nb_lshift

Py_nb_matrix_multiply

Py_nb_multiply

Py_nb_negative

Py_nb_or

Py_nb_positive

Py_nb_power

Py_nb_remainder

Py_nb_rshift

Py_nb_subtract

Py_nb_true_divide

Py_nb_xor

Py_sq_ass_item

Py_sq_concat

Py_sq_contains

Py_sq_inplace_concat

Py_sq_inplace_repeat

Py_sq_item

Py_sq_length

Py_sq_repeat

Py_ssize_t

Py_tp_alloc

Py_tp_base

Py_tp_bases

Py_tp_call

Py_tp_clear

Py_tp_dealloc

Py_tp_del

Py_tp_descr_get

Py_tp_descr_set

Py_tp_doc

Py_tp_finalize

Py_tp_free

Py_tp_getattr

Py_tp_getattro

Py_tp_getset

Py_tp_hash

Py_tp_init

Py_tp_is_gc

Py_tp_iter

Py_tp_iternext

Py_tp_members

Py_tp_methods

Py_tp_new

Py_tp_repr

Py_tp_richcompare

Py_tp_setattr

Py_tp_setattro

Py_tp_str

Py_tp_token

Py_tp_traverse

Py_tp_vectorcall

Py_uintptr_t

allocfunc

binaryfunc

descrgetfunc

descrsetfunc

destructor

getattrfunc

getattrofunc

getbufferproc

getiterfunc

getter

hashfunc

initproc

inquiry

iternextfunc

lenfunc

newfunc

objobjargproc

objobjproc

releasebufferproc

reprfunc

richcmpfunc

setattrfunc

setattrofunc

setter

ssizeargfunc

ssizeobjargproc

ssizessizeargfunc

ssizessizeobjargproc

symtable

ternaryfunc

traverseproc

unaryfunc

vectorcallfunc

visitproc

The Very High Level Layer

The functions in this chapter will let you execute Python source code given in a file or a buffer, but they will not let you interact in a more detailed way with the interpreter.

Several of these functions accept a start symbol from the grammar as a parameter. The available start symbols are Py_eval_input, Py_file_input, Py_single_input, and Py_func_type_input. These are described following the functions which accept them as parameters.

Note also that several of these functions take FILE* parameters. One particular issue which needs to be handled carefully is that the FILE structure for different C libraries can be different and incompatible. Under Windows (at least), it is possible for dynamically linked extensions to actually use different libraries, so care should be taken that FILE* parameters are only passed to these functions if it is certain that they were created by the same library that the Python runtime is using.

int PyRun_AnyFile(FILE *fp, const char *filename)

This is a simplified interface to PyRun_AnyFileExFlags() below, leaving closeit set to 0 and flags set to NULL.

int PyRun_AnyFileFlags(FILE *fp, const char *filename, PyCompilerFlags *flags)

This is a simplified interface to PyRun_AnyFileExFlags() below, leaving the closeit argument set to 0.

int PyRun_AnyFileEx(FILE *fp, const char *filename, int closeit)

This is a simplified interface to PyRun_AnyFileExFlags() below, leaving the flags argument set to NULL.

int PyRun_AnyFileExFlags(FILE *fp, const char *filename, int closeit, PyCompilerFlags *flags)

If fp refers to a file associated with an interactive device (console or terminal input or Unix pseudo-terminal), return the value of PyRun_InteractiveLoop(), otherwise return the result of PyRun_SimpleFile(). filename is decoded from the filesystem encoding (sys.getfilesystemencoding()). If filename is NULL, this function uses "???" as the filename. If closeit is true, the file is closed before PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags() returns.

int PyRun_SimpleString(const char *command)

This is a simplified interface to PyRun_SimpleStringFlags() below, leaving the PyCompilerFlags* argument set to NULL.

int PyRun_SimpleStringFlags(const char *command, PyCompilerFlags *flags)

Executes the Python source code from command in the __main__ module according to the flags argument. If __main__ does not already exist, it is created. Returns 0 on success or -1 if an exception was raised. If there was an error, there is no way to get the exception information. For the meaning of flags, see below.

Note that if an otherwise unhandled SystemExit is raised, this function will not return -1, but exit the process, as long as PyConfig.inspect is zero.

int PyRun_SimpleFile(FILE *fp, const char *filename)

This is a simplified interface to PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags() below, leaving closeit set to 0 and flags set to NULL.

int PyRun_SimpleFileEx(FILE *fp, const char *filename, int closeit)

This is a simplified interface to PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags() below, leaving flags set to NULL.

int PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags(FILE *fp, const char *filename, int closeit, PyCompilerFlags *flags)

Similar to PyRun_SimpleStringFlags(), but the Python source code is read from fp instead of an in-memory string. filename should be the name of the file, it is decoded from filesystem encoding and error handler. If closeit is true, the file is closed before PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags() returns.

Note

On Windows, fp should be opened as binary mode (e.g. fopen(filename, "rb")). Otherwise, Python may not handle script file with LF line ending correctly.

int PyRun_InteractiveOneObject(FILE *fp, PyObject *filename, PyCompilerFlags *flags)

Read and execute a single statement from a file associated with an interactive device according to the flags argument. The user will be prompted using sys.ps1 and sys.ps2. filename must be a Python str object.

Returns 0 when the input was executed successfully, -1 if there was an exception, or an error code from the errcode.h include file distributed as part of Python if there was a parse error. (Note that errcode.h is not included by Python.h, so must be included specifically if needed.)

int PyRun_InteractiveOne(FILE *fp, const char *filename)

This is a simplified interface to PyRun_InteractiveOneFlags() below, leaving flags set to NULL.

int PyRun_InteractiveOneFlags(FILE *fp, const char *filename, PyCompilerFlags *flags)

Similar to PyRun_InteractiveOneObject(), but filename is a const char*, which is decoded from the filesystem encoding and error handler.

int PyRun_InteractiveLoop(FILE *fp, const char *filename)

This is a simplified interface to PyRun_InteractiveLoopFlags() below, leaving flags set to NULL.

int PyRun_InteractiveLoopFlags(FILE *fp, const char *filename, PyCompilerFlags *flags)

Read and execute statements from a file associated with an interactive device until EOF is reached. The user will be prompted using sys.ps1 and sys.ps2. filename is decoded from the filesystem encoding and error handler. Returns 0 at EOF or a negative number upon failure.

int (*PyOS_InputHook)(void)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Can be set to point to a function with the prototype int func(void). The function will be called when Python's interpreter prompt is about to become idle and wait for user input from the terminal. The return value is ignored. Overriding this hook can be used to integrate the interpreter's prompt with other event loops, as done in Modules/_tkinter.c in the Python source code.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: This function is only called from the main interpreter.

char *(*PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer)(FILE*, FILE*, const char*)

Can be set to point to a function with the prototype char *func(FILE *stdin, FILE *stdout, char *prompt), overriding the default function used to read a single line of input at the interpreter's prompt. The function is expected to output the string prompt if it's not NULL, and then read a line of input from the provided standard input file, returning the resulting string. For example, The readline module sets this hook to provide line-editing and tab-completion features.

The result must be a string allocated by PyMem_RawMalloc() or PyMem_RawRealloc(), or NULL if an error occurred.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: The result must be allocated by PyMem_RawMalloc() or PyMem_RawRealloc(), instead of being allocated by PyMem_Malloc() or PyMem_Realloc().

Modifié dans la version 3.12: This function is only called from the main interpreter.

PyObject *PyRun_String(const char *str, int start, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

This is a simplified interface to PyRun_StringFlags() below, leaving flags set to NULL.

PyObject *PyRun_StringFlags(const char *str, int start, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, PyCompilerFlags *flags)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Execute Python source code from str in the context specified by the objects globals and locals with the compiler flags specified by flags. globals must be a dictionary; locals can be any object that implements the mapping protocol. The parameter start specifies the start symbol and must be one of the available start symbols.

Returns the result of executing the code as a Python object, or NULL if an exception was raised.

PyObject *PyRun_File(FILE *fp, const char *filename, int start, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

This is a simplified interface to PyRun_FileExFlags() below, leaving closeit set to 0 and flags set to NULL.

PyObject *PyRun_FileEx(FILE *fp, const char *filename, int start, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, int closeit)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

This is a simplified interface to PyRun_FileExFlags() below, leaving flags set to NULL.

PyObject *PyRun_FileFlags(FILE *fp, const char *filename, int start, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, PyCompilerFlags *flags)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

This is a simplified interface to PyRun_FileExFlags() below, leaving closeit set to 0.

PyObject *PyRun_FileExFlags(FILE *fp, const char *filename, int start, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, int closeit, PyCompilerFlags *flags)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Similar to PyRun_StringFlags(), but the Python source code is read from fp instead of an in-memory string. filename should be the name of the file, it is decoded from the filesystem encoding and error handler. If closeit is true, the file is closed before PyRun_FileExFlags() returns.

PyObject *Py_CompileString(const char *str, const char *filename, int start)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This is a simplified interface to Py_CompileStringFlags() below, leaving flags set to NULL.

PyObject *Py_CompileStringFlags(const char *str, const char *filename, int start, PyCompilerFlags *flags)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

This is a simplified interface to Py_CompileStringExFlags() below, with optimize set to -1.

PyObject *Py_CompileStringObject(const char *str, PyObject *filename, int start, PyCompilerFlags *flags, int optimize)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Parse and compile the Python source code in str, returning the resulting code object. The start symbol is given by start; this can be used to constrain the code which can be compiled and should be available start symbols. The filename specified by filename is used to construct the code object and may appear in tracebacks or SyntaxError exception messages. This returns NULL if the code cannot be parsed or compiled.

The integer optimize specifies the optimization level of the compiler; a value of -1 selects the optimization level of the interpreter as given by -O options. Explicit levels are 0 (no optimization; __debug__ is true), 1 (asserts are removed, __debug__ is false) or 2 (docstrings are removed too).

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

PyObject *Py_CompileStringExFlags(const char *str, const char *filename, int start, PyCompilerFlags *flags, int optimize)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Like Py_CompileStringObject(), but filename is a byte string decoded from the filesystem encoding and error handler.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

PyObject *PyEval_EvalCode(PyObject *co, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This is a simplified interface to PyEval_EvalCodeEx(), with just the code object, and global and local variables. The other arguments are set to NULL.

PyObject *PyEval_EvalCodeEx(PyObject *co, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, PyObject *const *args, int argcount, PyObject *const *kws, int kwcount, PyObject *const *defs, int defcount, PyObject *kwdefs, PyObject *closure)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Evaluate a precompiled code object, given a particular environment for its evaluation. This environment consists of a dictionary of global variables, a mapping object of local variables, arrays of arguments, keywords and defaults, a dictionary of default values for keyword-only arguments and a closure tuple of cells.

PyObject *PyEval_EvalFrame(PyFrameObject *f)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Evaluate an execution frame. This is a simplified interface to PyEval_EvalFrameEx(), for backward compatibility.

PyObject *PyEval_EvalFrameEx(PyFrameObject *f, int throwflag)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This is the main, unvarnished function of Python interpretation. The code object associated with the execution frame f is executed, interpreting bytecode and executing calls as needed. The additional throwflag parameter can mostly be ignored - if true, then it causes an exception to immediately be thrown; this is used for the throw() methods of generator objects.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Cette fonction inclut maintenant une assertion de débogage afin d'assurer qu'elle ne passe pas sous silence une exception active.

int PyEval_MergeCompilerFlags(PyCompilerFlags *cf)

This function changes the flags of the current evaluation frame, and returns true on success, false on failure.

struct PyCompilerFlags

This is the structure used to hold compiler flags. In cases where code is only being compiled, it is passed as int flags, and in cases where code is being executed, it is passed as PyCompilerFlags *flags. In this case, from __future__ import can modify flags.

Whenever PyCompilerFlags *flags is NULL, cf_flags is treated as equal to 0, and any modification due to from __future__ import is discarded.

int cf_flags

Compiler flags.

int cf_feature_version

cf_feature_version is the minor Python version. It should be initialized to PY_MINOR_VERSION.

The field is ignored by default, it is used if and only if PyCF_ONLY_AST flag is set in cf_flags.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Added cf_feature_version field.

The available compiler flags are accessible as macros:

PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT

PyCF_ONLY_AST

PyCF_OPTIMIZED_AST

PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS

See compiler flags in documentation of the ast Python module, which exports these constants under the same names.

The "PyCF" flags above can be combined with "CO_FUTURE" flags such as CO_FUTURE_ANNOTATIONS to enable features normally selectable using future statements. See Code Object Flags for a complete list.

Available start symbols

int Py_eval_input

The start symbol from the Python grammar for isolated expressions; for use with Py_CompileString().

int Py_file_input

The start symbol from the Python grammar for sequences of statements as read from a file or other source; for use with Py_CompileString(). This is the symbol to use when compiling arbitrarily long Python source code.

int Py_single_input

The start symbol from the Python grammar for a single statement; for use with Py_CompileString(). This is the symbol used for the interactive interpreter loop.

int Py_func_type_input

The start symbol from the Python grammar for a function type; for use with Py_CompileString(). This is used to parse "signature type comments" from PEP 484 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/].

This requires the PyCF_ONLY_AST flag to be set.

Voir aussi

ast.FunctionType

PEP 484 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/]

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

Stack Effects

Voir aussi

dis.stack_effect()

PY_INVALID_STACK_EFFECT

Sentinel value representing an invalid stack effect.

This is currently equivalent to INT_MAX.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

int PyCompile_OpcodeStackEffect(int opcode, int oparg)

Compute the stack effect of opcode with argument oparg.

On success, this function returns the stack effect; on failure, this returns PY_INVALID_STACK_EFFECT.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

int PyCompile_OpcodeStackEffectWithJump(int opcode, int oparg, int jump)

Similar to PyCompile_OpcodeStackEffect(), but don't include the stack effect of jumping if jump is zero.

If jump is 0, this will not include the stack effect of jumping, but if jump is 1 or -1, this will include it.

On success, this function returns the stack effect; on failure, this returns PY_INVALID_STACK_EFFECT.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

Reference Counting

The functions and macros in this section are used for managing reference counts of Python objects.

Py_ssize_t Py_REFCNT(PyObject *o)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.14.

Get the reference count of the Python object o.

Note that the returned value may not actually reflect how many references to the object are actually held. For example, some objects are immortal and have a very high refcount that does not reflect the actual number of references. Consequently, do not rely on the returned value to be accurate, other than a value of 0 or 1.

Use the Py_SET_REFCNT() function to set an object reference count.

Note

On free-threaded builds of Python, returning 1 isn't sufficient to determine if it's safe to treat o as having no access by other threads. Use PyUnstable_Object_IsUniquelyReferenced() for that instead.

See also the function PyUnstable_Object_IsUniqueReferencedTemporary().

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Py_REFCNT() is changed to the inline static function.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: The parameter type is no longer const PyObject*.

void Py_SET_REFCNT(PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t refcnt)

Set the object o reference counter to refcnt.

On Python build with Free Threading, if refcnt is larger than UINT32_MAX, the object is made immortal.

This function has no effect on immortal objects.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Immortal objects are not modified.

void Py_INCREF(PyObject *o)

Indicate taking a new strong reference to object o, indicating it is in use and should not be destroyed.

This function has no effect on immortal objects.

Cette fonction est souvent utilisée pour convertir une référence empruntée en une référence forte sur place. La fonction Py_NewRef() peut être utilisée pour créer une nouvelle référence forte.

When done using the object, release is by calling Py_DECREF().

L'objet ne doit pas être NULL, la fonction Py_XINCREF() doit être utilisée s'il est possible qu'il soit NULL.

Do not expect this function to actually modify o in any way. For at least some objects [https://peps.python.org/pep-0683/], this function has no effect.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Immortal objects are not modified.

void Py_XINCREF(PyObject *o)

Similar to Py_INCREF(), but the object o can be NULL, in which case this has no effect.

Voir aussi Py_XNewRef().

PyObject *Py_NewRef(PyObject *o)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.10.

Create a new strong reference to an object: call Py_INCREF() on o and return the object o.

When the strong reference is no longer needed, Py_DECREF() should be called on it to release the reference.

L'objet o ne doit pas être NULL et la fonction Py_XNewRef() doit être utilisée si o peut être NULL.

Par exemple :

Py_INCREF(obj);
self->attr = obj;

peut s'écrire :

self->attr = Py_NewRef(obj);

Voir aussi Py_INCREF().

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

PyObject *Py_XNewRef(PyObject *o)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.10.

Semblable à Py_NewRef() mais l'objet o peut être NULL.

Cette fonction renvoie NULL si l'objet o est NULL.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

void Py_DECREF(PyObject *o)

Release a strong reference to object o, indicating the reference is no longer used.

This function has no effect on immortal objects.

Once the last strong reference is released (i.e. the object's reference count reaches 0), the object's type's deallocation function (which must not be NULL) is invoked.

Cette fonction est généralement utilisée pour supprimer une référence forte avant qu'elle ne soit plus accessible.

L'objet en argument ne doit pas être NULL. Py_XDECREF() doit être utilisée si l'objet peut être NULL.

Do not expect this function to actually modify o in any way. For at least some objects [https://peps.python.org/pep-0683/], this function has no effect.

Avertissement

The deallocation function can cause arbitrary Python code to be invoked (e.g. when a class instance with a __del__() method is deallocated). While exceptions in such code are not propagated, the executed code has free access to all Python global variables. This means that any object that is reachable from a global variable should be in a consistent state before Py_DECREF() is invoked. For example, code to delete an object from a list should copy a reference to the deleted object in a temporary variable, update the list data structure, and then call Py_DECREF() for the temporary variable.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Immortal objects are not modified.

void Py_XDECREF(PyObject *o)

Similar to Py_DECREF(), but the object o can be NULL, in which case this has no effect. The same warning from Py_DECREF() applies here as well.

void Py_CLEAR(PyObject *o)

Release a strong reference for object o. The object may be NULL, in which case the macro has no effect; otherwise the effect is the same as for Py_DECREF(), except that the argument is also set to NULL. The warning for Py_DECREF() does not apply with respect to the object passed because the macro carefully uses a temporary variable and sets the argument to NULL before releasing the reference.

It is a good idea to use this macro whenever releasing a reference to an object that might be traversed during garbage collection.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: The macro argument is now only evaluated once. If the argument has side effects, these are no longer duplicated.

void Py_IncRef(PyObject *o)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Indicate taking a new strong reference to object o. A function version of Py_XINCREF(). It can be used for runtime dynamic embedding of Python.

void Py_DecRef(PyObject *o)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Release a strong reference to object o. A function version of Py_XDECREF(). It can be used for runtime dynamic embedding of Python.

Py_SETREF(dst, src)

Macro safely releasing a strong reference to object dst and setting dst to src.

As in case of Py_CLEAR(), "the obvious" code can be deadly:

Py_DECREF(dst);
dst = src;

The safe way is:

Py_SETREF(dst, src);

That arranges to set dst to src before releasing the reference to the old value of dst, so that any code triggered as a side-effect of dst getting torn down no longer believes dst points to a valid object.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: The macro arguments are now only evaluated once. If an argument has side effects, these are no longer duplicated.

Py_XSETREF(dst, src)

Variant of Py_SETREF macro that uses Py_XDECREF() instead of Py_DECREF().

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: The macro arguments are now only evaluated once. If an argument has side effects, these are no longer duplicated.

Gestion des exceptions

The functions described in this chapter will let you handle and raise Python exceptions. It is important to understand some of the basics of Python exception handling. It works somewhat like the POSIX errno variable: there is a global indicator (per thread) of the last error that occurred. Most C API functions don't clear this on success, but will set it to indicate the cause of the error on failure. Most C API functions also return an error indicator, usually NULL if they are supposed to return a pointer, or -1 if they return an integer (exception: the PyArg_* functions return 1 for success and 0 for failure).

Concretely, the error indicator consists of three object pointers: the exception's type, the exception's value, and the traceback object. Any of those pointers can be NULL if non-set (although some combinations are forbidden, for example you can't have a non-NULL traceback if the exception type is NULL).

When a function must fail because some function it called failed, it generally doesn't set the error indicator; the function it called already set it. It is responsible for either handling the error and clearing the exception or returning after cleaning up any resources it holds (such as object references or memory allocations); it should not continue normally if it is not prepared to handle the error. If returning due to an error, it is important to indicate to the caller that an error has been set. If the error is not handled or carefully propagated, additional calls into the Python/C API may not behave as intended and may fail in mysterious ways.

Note

The error indicator is not the result of sys.exc_info(). The former corresponds to an exception that is not yet caught (and is therefore still propagating), while the latter returns an exception after it is caught (and has therefore stopped propagating).

Printing and clearing

void PyErr_Clear()

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Clear the error indicator. If the error indicator is not set, there is no effect.

void PyErr_PrintEx(int set_sys_last_vars)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Print a standard traceback to sys.stderr and clear the error indicator. Unless the error is a SystemExit, in that case no traceback is printed and the Python process will exit with the error code specified by the SystemExit instance.

Call this function only when the error indicator is set. Otherwise it will cause a fatal error!

If set_sys_last_vars is nonzero, the variable sys.last_exc is set to the printed exception. For backwards compatibility, the deprecated variables sys.last_type, sys.last_value and sys.last_traceback are also set to the type, value and traceback of this exception, respectively.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: The setting of sys.last_exc was added.

void PyErr_Print()

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Alias for PyErr_PrintEx(1).

void PyErr_WriteUnraisable(PyObject *obj)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Call sys.unraisablehook() using the current exception and obj argument.

This utility function prints a warning message to sys.stderr when an exception has been set but it is impossible for the interpreter to actually raise the exception. It is used, for example, when an exception occurs in an __del__() method.

The function is called with a single argument obj that identifies the context in which the unraisable exception occurred. If possible, the repr of obj will be printed in the warning message. If obj is NULL, only the traceback is printed.

An exception must be set when calling this function.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Print a traceback. Print only traceback if obj is NULL.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Use sys.unraisablehook().

void PyErr_FormatUnraisable(const char *format, ...)

Similar to PyErr_WriteUnraisable(), but the format and subsequent parameters help format the warning message; they have the same meaning and values as in PyUnicode_FromFormat(). PyErr_WriteUnraisable(obj) is roughly equivalent to PyErr_FormatUnraisable("Exception ignored in: %R", obj). If format is NULL, only the traceback is printed.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

void PyErr_DisplayException(PyObject *exc)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.12.

Print the standard traceback display of exc to sys.stderr, including chained exceptions and notes.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Lever des exceptions

These functions help you set the current thread's error indicator. For convenience, some of these functions will always return a NULL pointer for use in a return statement.

void PyErr_SetString(PyObject *type, const char *message)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This is the most common way to set the error indicator. The first argument specifies the exception type; it is normally one of the standard exceptions, e.g. PyExc_RuntimeError. You need not create a new strong reference to it (e.g. with Py_INCREF()). The second argument is an error message; it is decoded from 'utf-8'.

void PyErr_SetObject(PyObject *type, PyObject *value)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This function is similar to PyErr_SetString() but lets you specify an arbitrary Python object for the "value" of the exception.

PyObject *PyErr_Format(PyObject *exception, const char *format, ...)

Valeur de retour : toujours NULL. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This function sets the error indicator and returns NULL. exception should be a Python exception class. The format and subsequent parameters help format the error message; they have the same meaning and values as in PyUnicode_FromFormat(). format is an ASCII-encoded string.

PyObject *PyErr_FormatV(PyObject *exception, const char *format, va_list vargs)

Valeur de retour : toujours NULL. Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.5.

Same as PyErr_Format(), but taking a va_list argument rather than a variable number of arguments.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

void PyErr_SetNone(PyObject *type)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This is a shorthand for PyErr_SetObject(type, Py_None).

int PyErr_BadArgument()

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This is a shorthand for PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, message), where message indicates that a built-in operation was invoked with an illegal argument. It is mostly for internal use.

PyObject *PyErr_NoMemory()

Valeur de retour : toujours NULL. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This is a shorthand for PyErr_SetNone(PyExc_MemoryError); it returns NULL so an object allocation function can write return PyErr_NoMemory(); when it runs out of memory.

PyObject *PyErr_SetFromErrno(PyObject *type)

Valeur de retour : toujours NULL. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This is a convenience function to raise an exception when a C library function has returned an error and set the C variable errno. It constructs a tuple object whose first item is the integer errno value and whose second item is the corresponding error message (gotten from strerror()), and then calls PyErr_SetObject(type, object). On Unix, when the errno value is EINTR, indicating an interrupted system call, this calls PyErr_CheckSignals(), and if that set the error indicator, leaves it set to that. The function always returns NULL, so a wrapper function around a system call can write return PyErr_SetFromErrno(type); when the system call returns an error.

PyObject *PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject(PyObject *type, PyObject *filenameObject)

Valeur de retour : toujours NULL. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Similar to PyErr_SetFromErrno(), with the additional behavior that if filenameObject is not NULL, it is passed to the constructor of type as a third parameter. In the case of OSError exception, this is used to define the filename attribute of the exception instance.

PyObject *PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObjects(PyObject *type, PyObject *filenameObject, PyObject *filenameObject2)

Valeur de retour : toujours NULL. Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

Similar to PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject(), but takes a second filename object, for raising errors when a function that takes two filenames fails.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

PyObject *PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilename(PyObject *type, const char *filename)

Valeur de retour : toujours NULL. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Similar to PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject(), but the filename is given as a C string. filename is decoded from the filesystem encoding and error handler.

PyObject *PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr(int ierr)

Valeur de retour : toujours NULL. Fait partie de l' ABI stable on Windows depuis la version 3.7.

This is a convenience function to raise OSError. If called with ierr of 0, the error code returned by a call to GetLastError() is used instead. It calls the Win32 function FormatMessage() to retrieve the Windows description of error code given by ierr or GetLastError(), then it constructs a OSError object with the winerror attribute set to the error code, the strerror attribute set to the corresponding error message (gotten from FormatMessage()), and then calls PyErr_SetObject(PyExc_OSError, object). This function always returns NULL.

Disponibilité: Windows.

PyObject *PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErr(PyObject *type, int ierr)

Valeur de retour : toujours NULL. Fait partie de l' ABI stable on Windows depuis la version 3.7.

Similar to PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr(), with an additional parameter specifying the exception type to be raised.

Disponibilité: Windows.

PyObject *PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename(int ierr, const char *filename)

Valeur de retour : toujours NULL. Fait partie de l' ABI stable on Windows depuis la version 3.7.

Similar to PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr(), with the additional behavior that if filename is not NULL, it is decoded from the filesystem encoding (os.fsdecode()) and passed to the constructor of OSError as a third parameter to be used to define the filename attribute of the exception instance.

Disponibilité: Windows.

PyObject *PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject(PyObject *type, int ierr, PyObject *filename)

Valeur de retour : toujours NULL. Fait partie de l' ABI stable on Windows depuis la version 3.7.

Similar to PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErr(), with the additional behavior that if filename is not NULL, it is passed to the constructor of OSError as a third parameter to be used to define the filename attribute of the exception instance.

Disponibilité: Windows.

PyObject *PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObjects(PyObject *type, int ierr, PyObject *filename, PyObject *filename2)

Valeur de retour : toujours NULL. Fait partie de l' ABI stable on Windows depuis la version 3.7.

Similar to PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject(), but accepts a second filename object.

Disponibilité: Windows.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

PyObject *PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilename(PyObject *type, int ierr, const char *filename)

Valeur de retour : toujours NULL. Fait partie de l' ABI stable on Windows depuis la version 3.7.

Similar to PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename(), with an additional parameter specifying the exception type to be raised.

Disponibilité: Windows.

PyObject *PyErr_SetImportError(PyObject *msg, PyObject *name, PyObject *path)

Valeur de retour : toujours NULL. Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

This is a convenience function to raise ImportError. msg will be set as the exception's message string. name and path, both of which can be NULL, will be set as the ImportError's respective name and path attributes.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

PyObject *PyErr_SetImportErrorSubclass(PyObject *exception, PyObject *msg, PyObject *name, PyObject *path)

Valeur de retour : toujours NULL. Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.6.

Much like PyErr_SetImportError() but this function allows for specifying a subclass of ImportError to raise.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

void PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject(PyObject *filename, int lineno, int col_offset)

Set file, line, and offset information for the current exception. If the current exception is not a SyntaxError, then it sets additional attributes, which make the exception printing subsystem think the exception is a SyntaxError.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

void PyErr_RangedSyntaxLocationObject(PyObject *filename, int lineno, int col_offset, int end_lineno, int end_col_offset)

Similar to PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject(), but also sets the end_lineno and end_col_offset information for the current exception.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

void PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx(const char *filename, int lineno, int col_offset)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

Like PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject(), but filename is a byte string decoded from the filesystem encoding and error handler.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

void PyErr_SyntaxLocation(const char *filename, int lineno)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Like PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx(), but the col_offset parameter is omitted.

void PyErr_BadInternalCall()

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This is a shorthand for PyErr_SetString(PyExc_SystemError, message), where message indicates that an internal operation (e.g. a Python/C API function) was invoked with an illegal argument. It is mostly for internal use.

PyObject *PyErr_ProgramTextObject(PyObject *filename, int lineno)

Get the source line in filename at line lineno. filename should be a Python str object.

On success, this function returns a Python string object with the found line. On failure, this function returns NULL without an exception set.

PyObject *PyErr_ProgramText(const char *filename, int lineno)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Similar to PyErr_ProgramTextObject(), but filename is a const char*, which is decoded with the filesystem encoding and error handler, instead of a Python object reference.

Issuing warnings

Use these functions to issue warnings from C code. They mirror similar functions exported by the Python warnings module. They normally print a warning message to sys.stderr; however, it is also possible that the user has specified that warnings are to be turned into errors, and in that case they will raise an exception. It is also possible that the functions raise an exception because of a problem with the warning machinery. The return value is 0 if no exception is raised, or -1 if an exception is raised. (It is not possible to determine whether a warning message is actually printed, nor what the reason is for the exception; this is intentional.) If an exception is raised, the caller should do its normal exception handling (for example, Py_DECREF() owned references and return an error value).

int PyErr_WarnEx(PyObject *category, const char *message, Py_ssize_t stack_level)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Issue a warning message. The category argument is a warning category (see below) or NULL; the message argument is a UTF-8 encoded string. stack_level is a positive number giving a number of stack frames; the warning will be issued from the currently executing line of code in that stack frame. A stack_level of 1 is the function calling PyErr_WarnEx(), 2 is the function above that, and so forth.

Warning categories must be subclasses of PyExc_Warning; PyExc_Warning is a subclass of PyExc_Exception; the default warning category is PyExc_RuntimeWarning. The standard Python warning categories are available as global variables whose names are enumerated at Warning types.

For information about warning control, see the documentation for the warnings module and the -W option in the command line documentation. There is no C API for warning control.

int PyErr_WarnExplicitObject(PyObject *category, PyObject *message, PyObject *filename, int lineno, PyObject *module, PyObject *registry)

Issue a warning message with explicit control over all warning attributes. This is a straightforward wrapper around the Python function warnings.warn_explicit(); see there for more information. The module and registry arguments may be set to NULL to get the default effect described there.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

int PyErr_WarnExplicit(PyObject *category, const char *message, const char *filename, int lineno, const char *module, PyObject *registry)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Similar to PyErr_WarnExplicitObject() except that message and module are UTF-8 encoded strings, and filename is decoded from the filesystem encoding and error handler.

int PyErr_WarnFormat(PyObject *category, Py_ssize_t stack_level, const char *format, ...)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Function similar to PyErr_WarnEx(), but use PyUnicode_FromFormat() to format the warning message. format is an ASCII-encoded string.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

int PyErr_WarnExplicitFormat(PyObject *category, const char *filename, int lineno, const char *module, PyObject *registry, const char *format, ...)

Similar to PyErr_WarnExplicit(), but uses PyUnicode_FromFormat() to format the warning message. format is an ASCII-encoded string.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

int PyErr_ResourceWarning(PyObject *source, Py_ssize_t stack_level, const char *format, ...)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.6.

Function similar to PyErr_WarnFormat(), but category is ResourceWarning and it passes source to warnings.WarningMessage.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

Querying the error indicator

PyObject *PyErr_Occurred()

Valeur de retour : référence empruntée. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Test whether the error indicator is set. If set, return the exception type (the first argument to the last call to one of the PyErr_Set* functions or to PyErr_Restore()). If not set, return NULL. You do not own a reference to the return value, so you do not need to Py_DECREF() it.

The caller must have an attached thread state.

Note

Do not compare the return value to a specific exception; use PyErr_ExceptionMatches() instead, shown below. (The comparison could easily fail since the exception may be an instance instead of a class, in the case of a class exception, or it may be a subclass of the expected exception.)

int PyErr_ExceptionMatches(PyObject *exc)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Equivalent to PyErr_GivenExceptionMatches(PyErr_Occurred(), exc). This should only be called when an exception is actually set; a memory access violation will occur if no exception has been raised.

int PyErr_GivenExceptionMatches(PyObject *given, PyObject *exc)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return true if the given exception matches the exception type in exc. If exc is a class object, this also returns true when given is an instance of a subclass. If exc is a tuple, all exception types in the tuple (and recursively in subtuples) are searched for a match.

PyObject *PyErr_GetRaisedException(void)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.12.

Return the exception currently being raised, clearing the error indicator at the same time. Return NULL if the error indicator is not set.

This function is used by code that needs to catch exceptions, or code that needs to save and restore the error indicator temporarily.

Par exemple :

{
   PyObject *exc = PyErr_GetRaisedException();

   /* ... code that might produce other errors ... */

   PyErr_SetRaisedException(exc);
}

Voir aussi

PyErr_GetHandledException(), to save the exception currently being handled.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

void PyErr_SetRaisedException(PyObject *exc)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.12.

Set exc as the exception currently being raised, clearing the existing exception if one is set.

Avertissement

This call steals a reference to exc, which must be a valid exception.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

void PyErr_Fetch(PyObject **ptype, PyObject **pvalue, PyObject **ptraceback)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.12: Use PyErr_GetRaisedException() instead.

Retrieve the error indicator into three variables whose addresses are passed. If the error indicator is not set, set all three variables to NULL. If it is set, it will be cleared and you own a reference to each object retrieved. The value and traceback object may be NULL even when the type object is not.

Note

This function is normally only used by legacy code that needs to catch exceptions or save and restore the error indicator temporarily.

Par exemple :

{
   PyObject *type, *value, *traceback;
   PyErr_Fetch(&type, &value, &traceback);

   /* ... code that might produce other errors ... */

   PyErr_Restore(type, value, traceback);
}

void PyErr_Restore(PyObject *type, PyObject *value, PyObject *traceback)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.12: Use PyErr_SetRaisedException() instead.

Set the error indicator from the three objects, type, value, and traceback, clearing the existing exception if one is set. If the objects are NULL, the error indicator is cleared. Do not pass a NULL type and non-NULL value or traceback. The exception type should be a class. Do not pass an invalid exception type or value. (Violating these rules will cause subtle problems later.) This call takes away a reference to each object: you must own a reference to each object before the call and after the call you no longer own these references. (If you don't understand this, don't use this function. I warned you.)

Note

This function is normally only used by legacy code that needs to save and restore the error indicator temporarily. Use PyErr_Fetch() to save the current error indicator.

void PyErr_NormalizeException(PyObject **exc, PyObject **val, PyObject **tb)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.12: Use PyErr_GetRaisedException() instead, to avoid any possible de-normalization.

Under certain circumstances, the values returned by PyErr_Fetch() below can be "unnormalized", meaning that *exc is a class object but *val is not an instance of the same class. This function can be used to instantiate the class in that case. If the values are already normalized, nothing happens. The delayed normalization is implemented to improve performance.

Note

This function does not implicitly set the __traceback__ attribute on the exception value. If setting the traceback appropriately is desired, the following additional snippet is needed:

if (tb != NULL) {
  PyException_SetTraceback(val, tb);
}

PyObject *PyErr_GetHandledException(void)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.11.

Retrieve the active exception instance, as would be returned by sys.exception(). This refers to an exception that was already caught, not to an exception that was freshly raised. Returns a new reference to the exception or NULL. Does not modify the interpreter's exception state.

Note

This function is not normally used by code that wants to handle exceptions. Rather, it can be used when code needs to save and restore the exception state temporarily. Use PyErr_SetHandledException() to restore or clear the exception state.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

void PyErr_SetHandledException(PyObject *exc)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.11.

Set the active exception, as known from sys.exception(). This refers to an exception that was already caught, not to an exception that was freshly raised. To clear the exception state, pass NULL.

Note

This function is not normally used by code that wants to handle exceptions. Rather, it can be used when code needs to save and restore the exception state temporarily. Use PyErr_GetHandledException() to get the exception state.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

void PyErr_GetExcInfo(PyObject **ptype, PyObject **pvalue, PyObject **ptraceback)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

Retrieve the old-style representation of the exception info, as known from sys.exc_info(). This refers to an exception that was already caught, not to an exception that was freshly raised. Returns new references for the three objects, any of which may be NULL. Does not modify the exception info state. This function is kept for backwards compatibility. Prefer using PyErr_GetHandledException().

Note

This function is not normally used by code that wants to handle exceptions. Rather, it can be used when code needs to save and restore the exception state temporarily. Use PyErr_SetExcInfo() to restore or clear the exception state.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

void PyErr_SetExcInfo(PyObject *type, PyObject *value, PyObject *traceback)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

Set the exception info, as known from sys.exc_info(). This refers to an exception that was already caught, not to an exception that was freshly raised. This function steals the references of the arguments. To clear the exception state, pass NULL for all three arguments. This function is kept for backwards compatibility. Prefer using PyErr_SetHandledException().

Note

This function is not normally used by code that wants to handle exceptions. Rather, it can be used when code needs to save and restore the exception state temporarily. Use PyErr_GetExcInfo() to read the exception state.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: The type and traceback arguments are no longer used and can be NULL. The interpreter now derives them from the exception instance (the value argument). The function still steals references of all three arguments.

Traitement des signaux

int PyErr_CheckSignals()

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Handle external interruptions, such as signals or activating a debugger, whose processing has been delayed until it is safe to run Python code and/or raise exceptions.

For example, pressing Ctrl-C causes a terminal to send the signal.SIGINT signal. This function executes the corresponding Python signal handler, which, by default, raises the KeyboardInterrupt exception.

PyErr_CheckSignals() should be called by long-running C code frequently enough so that the response appears immediate to humans.

Handlers invoked by this function currently include:

Signal handlers, including Python functions registered using the signal module.

Signal handlers are only run in the main thread of the main interpreter.

(This is where the function got the name: originally, signals were the only way to interrupt the interpreter.)

Running the garbage collector, if necessary.

Executing a pending remote debugger script.

If any handler raises an exception, immediately return -1 with that exception set. Any remaining interruptions are left to be processed on the next PyErr_CheckSignals() invocation, if appropriate.

If all handlers finish successfully, or there are no handlers to run, return 0.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: This function may now invoke the garbage collector.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: This function may now execute a remote debugger script, if remote debugging is enabled.

void PyErr_SetInterrupt()

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Simulate the effect of a SIGINT signal arriving. This is equivalent to PyErr_SetInterruptEx(SIGINT).

Note

This function is async-signal-safe. It can be called without an attached thread state and from a C signal handler.

int PyErr_SetInterruptEx(int signum)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.10.

Simulate the effect of a signal arriving. The next time PyErr_CheckSignals() is called, the Python signal handler for the given signal number will be called.

This function can be called by C code that sets up its own signal handling and wants Python signal handlers to be invoked as expected when an interruption is requested (for example when the user presses Ctrl-C to interrupt an operation).

If the given signal isn't handled by Python (it was set to signal.SIG_DFL or signal.SIG_IGN), it will be ignored.

If signum is outside of the allowed range of signal numbers, -1 is returned. Otherwise, 0 is returned. The error indicator is never changed by this function.

Note

This function is async-signal-safe. It can be called without an attached thread state and from a C signal handler.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

int PySignal_SetWakeupFd(int fd)

This utility function specifies a file descriptor to which the signal number is written as a single byte whenever a signal is received. fd must be non-blocking. It returns the previous such file descriptor.

The value -1 disables the feature; this is the initial state. This is equivalent to signal.set_wakeup_fd() in Python, but without any error checking. fd should be a valid file descriptor. The function should only be called from the main thread.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: On Windows, the function now also supports socket handles.

Exception Classes

PyObject *PyErr_NewException(const char *name, PyObject *base, PyObject *dict)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This utility function creates and returns a new exception class. The name argument must be the name of the new exception, a C string of the form module.classname. The base and dict arguments are normally NULL. This creates a class object derived from Exception (accessible in C as PyExc_Exception).

The __module__ attribute of the new class is set to the first part (up to the last dot) of the name argument, and the class name is set to the last part (after the last dot). The base argument can be used to specify alternate base classes; it can either be only one class or a tuple of classes. The dict argument can be used to specify a dictionary of class variables and methods.

PyObject *PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc(const char *name, const char *doc, PyObject *base, PyObject *dict)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Same as PyErr_NewException(), except that the new exception class can easily be given a docstring: If doc is non-NULL, it will be used as the docstring for the exception class.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

int PyExceptionClass_Check(PyObject *ob)

Return non-zero if ob is an exception class, zero otherwise. This function always succeeds.

const char *PyExceptionClass_Name(PyObject *ob)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.8.

Return tp_name of the exception class ob.

Objets exception

int PyExceptionInstance_Check(PyObject *op)

Return true if op is an instance of BaseException, false otherwise. This function always succeeds.

PyExceptionInstance_Class(op)

Equivalent to Py_TYPE(op).

PyObject *PyException_GetTraceback(PyObject *ex)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the traceback associated with the exception as a new reference, as accessible from Python through the __traceback__ attribute. If there is no traceback associated, this returns NULL.

int PyException_SetTraceback(PyObject *ex, PyObject *tb)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Set the traceback associated with the exception to tb. Use Py_None to clear it.

PyObject *PyException_GetContext(PyObject *ex)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the context (another exception instance during whose handling ex was raised) associated with the exception as a new reference, as accessible from Python through the __context__ attribute. If there is no context associated, this returns NULL.

void PyException_SetContext(PyObject *ex, PyObject *ctx)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Set the context associated with the exception to ctx. Use NULL to clear it. There is no type check to make sure that ctx is an exception instance. This steals a reference to ctx.

PyObject *PyException_GetCause(PyObject *ex)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the cause (either an exception instance, or None, set by raise ... from ...) associated with the exception as a new reference, as accessible from Python through the __cause__ attribute.

void PyException_SetCause(PyObject *ex, PyObject *cause)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Set the cause associated with the exception to cause. Use NULL to clear it. There is no type check to make sure that cause is either an exception instance or None. This steals a reference to cause.

The __suppress_context__ attribute is implicitly set to True by this function.

PyObject *PyException_GetArgs(PyObject *ex)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.12.

Return args of exception ex.

void PyException_SetArgs(PyObject *ex, PyObject *args)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.12.

Set args of exception ex to args.

PyObject *PyUnstable_Exc_PrepReraiseStar(PyObject *orig, PyObject *excs)

Fait partie de l' API instable. Peut changer sans avertissement d'une version mineure à l'autre.

Implement part of the interpreter's implementation of except*. orig is the original exception that was caught, and excs is the list of the exceptions that need to be raised. This list contains the unhandled part of orig, if any, as well as the exceptions that were raised from the except* clauses (so they have a different traceback from orig) and those that were reraised (and have the same traceback as orig). Return the ExceptionGroup that needs to be reraised in the end, or None if there is nothing to reraise.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Objets exception Unicode

The following functions are used to create and modify Unicode exceptions from C.

PyObject *PyUnicodeDecodeError_Create(const char *encoding, const char *object, Py_ssize_t length, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end, const char *reason)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Create a UnicodeDecodeError object with the attributes encoding, object, length, start, end and reason. encoding and reason are UTF-8 encoded strings.

PyObject *PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEncoding(PyObject *exc)

PyObject *PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEncoding(PyObject *exc)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the encoding attribute of the given exception object.

PyObject *PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetObject(PyObject *exc)

PyObject *PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetObject(PyObject *exc)

PyObject *PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetObject(PyObject *exc)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the object attribute of the given exception object.

int PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetStart(PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t *start)

int PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetStart(PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t *start)

int PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetStart(PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t *start)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Get the start attribute of the given exception object and place it into *start. start must not be NULL. Return 0 on success, -1 on failure.

If the UnicodeError.object is an empty sequence, the resulting start is 0. Otherwise, it is clipped to [0, len(object) - 1].

Voir aussi

UnicodeError.start

int PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetStart(PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t start)

int PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetStart(PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t start)

int PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetStart(PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t start)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Set the start attribute of the given exception object to start. Return 0 on success, -1 on failure.

Note

While passing a negative start does not raise an exception, the corresponding getters will not consider it as a relative offset.

int PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEnd(PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t *end)

int PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEnd(PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t *end)

int PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetEnd(PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t *end)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Get the end attribute of the given exception object and place it into *end. end must not be NULL. Return 0 on success, -1 on failure.

If the UnicodeError.object is an empty sequence, the resulting end is 0. Otherwise, it is clipped to [1, len(object)].

int PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetEnd(PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t end)

int PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetEnd(PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t end)

int PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetEnd(PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t end)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Set the end attribute of the given exception object to end. Return 0 on success, -1 on failure.

Voir aussi

UnicodeError.end

PyObject *PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetReason(PyObject *exc)

PyObject *PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetReason(PyObject *exc)

PyObject *PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetReason(PyObject *exc)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the reason attribute of the given exception object.

int PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetReason(PyObject *exc, const char *reason)

int PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetReason(PyObject *exc, const char *reason)

int PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetReason(PyObject *exc, const char *reason)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Set the reason attribute of the given exception object to reason. Return 0 on success, -1 on failure.

Contrôle de la récursion

These two functions provide a way to perform safe recursive calls at the C level, both in the core and in extension modules. They are needed if the recursive code does not necessarily invoke Python code (which tracks its recursion depth automatically). They are also not needed for tp_call implementations because the call protocol takes care of recursion handling.

int Py_EnterRecursiveCall(const char *where)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.9.

Marks a point where a recursive C-level call is about to be performed.

The function then checks if the stack limit is reached. If this is the case, a RecursionError is set and a nonzero value is returned. Otherwise, zero is returned.

where should be a UTF-8 encoded string such as " in instance check" to be concatenated to the RecursionError message caused by the recursion depth limit.

Voir aussi

The PyUnstable_ThreadState_SetStackProtection() function.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: This function is now also available in the limited API.

void Py_LeaveRecursiveCall(void)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.9.

Ends a Py_EnterRecursiveCall(). Must be called once for each successful invocation of Py_EnterRecursiveCall().

Modifié dans la version 3.9: This function is now also available in the limited API.

Properly implementing tp_repr for container types requires special recursion handling. In addition to protecting the stack, tp_repr also needs to track objects to prevent cycles. The following two functions facilitate this functionality. Effectively, these are the C equivalent to reprlib.recursive_repr().

int Py_ReprEnter(PyObject *object)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Called at the beginning of the tp_repr implementation to detect cycles.

If the object has already been processed, the function returns a positive integer. In that case the tp_repr implementation should return a string object indicating a cycle. As examples, dict objects return {...} and list objects return [...].

The function will return a negative integer if the recursion limit is reached. In that case the tp_repr implementation should typically return NULL.

Otherwise, the function returns zero and the tp_repr implementation can continue normally.

void Py_ReprLeave(PyObject *object)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Ends a Py_ReprEnter(). Must be called once for each invocation of Py_ReprEnter() that returns zero.

int Py_GetRecursionLimit(void)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Get the recursion limit for the current interpreter. It can be set with Py_SetRecursionLimit(). The recursion limit prevents the Python interpreter stack from growing infinitely.

This function cannot fail, and the caller must hold an attached thread state.

Voir aussi

sys.getrecursionlimit()

void Py_SetRecursionLimit(int new_limit)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Set the recursion limit for the current interpreter.

This function cannot fail, and the caller must hold an attached thread state.

Voir aussi

sys.setrecursionlimit()

Exception and warning types

All standard Python exceptions and warning categories are available as global variables whose names are PyExc_ followed by the Python exception name. These have the type PyObject*; they are all class objects.

For completeness, here are all the variables:

Exception types

C name

Python name

PyObject *PyExc_BaseException

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

BaseException

PyObject *PyExc_BaseExceptionGroup

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.11.

BaseExceptionGroup

PyObject *PyExc_Exception

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Exception

PyObject *PyExc_ArithmeticError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

ArithmeticError

PyObject *PyExc_AssertionError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

AssertionError

PyObject *PyExc_AttributeError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

AttributeError

PyObject *PyExc_BlockingIOError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

BlockingIOError

PyObject *PyExc_BrokenPipeError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

BrokenPipeError

PyObject *PyExc_BufferError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

BufferError

PyObject *PyExc_ChildProcessError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

ChildProcessError

PyObject *PyExc_ConnectionAbortedError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

ConnectionAbortedError

PyObject *PyExc_ConnectionError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

ConnectionError

PyObject *PyExc_ConnectionRefusedError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

ConnectionRefusedError

PyObject *PyExc_ConnectionResetError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

ConnectionResetError

PyObject *PyExc_EOFError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

EOFError

PyObject *PyExc_FileExistsError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

FileExistsError

PyObject *PyExc_FileNotFoundError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

FileNotFoundError

PyObject *PyExc_FloatingPointError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

FloatingPointError

PyObject *PyExc_GeneratorExit

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

GeneratorExit

PyObject *PyExc_ImportError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

ImportError

PyObject *PyExc_IndentationError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

IndentationError

PyObject *PyExc_IndexError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

IndexError

PyObject *PyExc_InterruptedError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

InterruptedError

PyObject *PyExc_IsADirectoryError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

IsADirectoryError

PyObject *PyExc_KeyError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

KeyError

PyObject *PyExc_KeyboardInterrupt

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

KeyboardInterrupt

PyObject *PyExc_LookupError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

LookupError

PyObject *PyExc_MemoryError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

MemoryError

PyObject *PyExc_ModuleNotFoundError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.6.

ModuleNotFoundError

PyObject *PyExc_NameError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

NameError

PyObject *PyExc_NotADirectoryError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

NotADirectoryError

PyObject *PyExc_NotImplementedError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

NotImplementedError

PyObject *PyExc_OSError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

OSError

PyObject *PyExc_OverflowError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

OverflowError

PyObject *PyExc_PermissionError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

PermissionError

PyObject *PyExc_ProcessLookupError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

ProcessLookupError

PyObject *PyExc_PythonFinalizationError

PythonFinalizationError

PyObject *PyExc_RecursionError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

RecursionError

PyObject *PyExc_ReferenceError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

ReferenceError

PyObject *PyExc_RuntimeError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

RuntimeError

PyObject *PyExc_StopAsyncIteration

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

StopAsyncIteration

PyObject *PyExc_StopIteration

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

StopIteration

PyObject *PyExc_SyntaxError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

SyntaxError

PyObject *PyExc_SystemError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

SystemError

PyObject *PyExc_SystemExit

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

SystemExit

PyObject *PyExc_TabError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

TabError

PyObject *PyExc_TimeoutError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

TimeoutError

PyObject *PyExc_TypeError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

TypeError

PyObject *PyExc_UnboundLocalError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

UnboundLocalError

PyObject *PyExc_UnicodeDecodeError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

UnicodeDecodeError

PyObject *PyExc_UnicodeEncodeError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

UnicodeEncodeError

PyObject *PyExc_UnicodeError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

UnicodeError

PyObject *PyExc_UnicodeTranslateError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

UnicodeTranslateError

PyObject *PyExc_ValueError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

ValueError

PyObject *PyExc_ZeroDivisionError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

ZeroDivisionError

Ajouté dans la version 3.3: PyExc_BlockingIOError, PyExc_BrokenPipeError, PyExc_ChildProcessError, PyExc_ConnectionError, PyExc_ConnectionAbortedError, PyExc_ConnectionRefusedError, PyExc_ConnectionResetError, PyExc_FileExistsError, PyExc_FileNotFoundError, PyExc_InterruptedError, PyExc_IsADirectoryError, PyExc_NotADirectoryError, PyExc_PermissionError, PyExc_ProcessLookupError and PyExc_TimeoutError were introduced following PEP 3151 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3151/].

Ajouté dans la version 3.5: PyExc_StopAsyncIteration et PyExc_RecursionError.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6: PyExc_ModuleNotFoundError.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11: PyExc_BaseExceptionGroup.

OSError aliases

The following are a compatibility aliases to PyExc_OSError.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: These aliases used to be separate exception types.

C name

Python name

Notes

PyObject *PyExc_EnvironmentError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

OSError

PyObject *PyExc_IOError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

OSError

PyObject *PyExc_WindowsError

Fait partie de l' ABI stable on Windows depuis la version 3.7.

OSError

[win]

Notes :

[win]

PyExc_WindowsError is only defined on Windows; protect code that uses this by testing that the preprocessor macro MS_WINDOWS is defined.

Warning types

C name

Python name

PyObject *PyExc_Warning

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Warning

PyObject *PyExc_BytesWarning

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

BytesWarning

PyObject *PyExc_DeprecationWarning

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

DeprecationWarning

PyObject *PyExc_EncodingWarning

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.10.

EncodingWarning

PyObject *PyExc_FutureWarning

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

FutureWarning

PyObject *PyExc_ImportWarning

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

ImportWarning

PyObject *PyExc_PendingDeprecationWarning

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

PendingDeprecationWarning

PyObject *PyExc_ResourceWarning

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

ResourceWarning

PyObject *PyExc_RuntimeWarning

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

RuntimeWarning

PyObject *PyExc_SyntaxWarning

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

SyntaxWarning

PyObject *PyExc_UnicodeWarning

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

UnicodeWarning

PyObject *PyExc_UserWarning

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

UserWarning

Ajouté dans la version 3.2: PyExc_ResourceWarning.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10: PyExc_EncodingWarning.

Tracebacks

PyTypeObject PyTraceBack_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Type object for traceback objects. This is available as types.TracebackType in the Python layer.

int PyTraceBack_Check(PyObject *op)

Return true if op is a traceback object, false otherwise. This function does not account for subtypes.

int PyTraceBack_Here(PyFrameObject *f)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Replace the __traceback__ attribute on the current exception with a new traceback prepending f to the existing chain.

Calling this function without an exception set is undefined behavior.

This function returns 0 on success, and returns -1 with an exception set on failure.

int PyTraceBack_Print(PyObject *tb, PyObject *f)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Write the traceback tb into the file f.

This function returns 0 on success, and returns -1 with an exception set on failure.

Defining extension modules

A C extension for CPython is a shared library (for example, a .so file on Linux, .pyd DLL on Windows), which is loadable into the Python process (for example, it is compiled with compatible compiler settings), and which exports an initialization function.

To be importable by default (that is, by importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader), the shared library must be available on sys.path, and must be named after the module name plus an extension listed in importlib.machinery.EXTENSION_SUFFIXES.

Note

Building, packaging and distributing extension modules is best done with third-party tools, and is out of scope of this document. One suitable tool is Setuptools, whose documentation can be found at https://setuptools.pypa.io/en/latest/setuptools.html.

Normally, the initialization function returns a module definition initialized using PyModuleDef_Init(). This allows splitting the creation process into several phases:

Before any substantial code is executed, Python can determine which capabilities the module supports, and it can adjust the environment or refuse loading an incompatible extension.

By default, Python itself creates the module object -- that is, it does the equivalent of object.__new__() for classes. It also sets initial attributes like __package__ and __loader__.

Afterwards, the module object is initialized using extension-specific code -- the equivalent of __init__() on classes.

This is called multi-phase initialization to distinguish it from the legacy (but still supported) single-phase initialization scheme, where the initialization function returns a fully constructed module. See the single-phase-initialization section below for details.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Added support for multi-phase initialization (PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]).

Multiple module instances

By default, extension modules are not singletons. For example, if the sys.modules entry is removed and the module is re-imported, a new module object is created, and typically populated with fresh method and type objects. The old module is subject to normal garbage collection. This mirrors the behavior of pure-Python modules.

Additional module instances may be created in sub-interpreters or after Python runtime reinitialization (Py_Finalize() and Py_Initialize()). In these cases, sharing Python objects between module instances would likely cause crashes or undefined behavior.

To avoid such issues, each instance of an extension module should be isolated: changes to one instance should not implicitly affect the others, and all state owned by the module, including references to Python objects, should be specific to a particular module instance. See Isolating Extension Modules for more details and a practical guide.

A simpler way to avoid these issues is raising an error on repeated initialization.

All modules are expected to support sub-interpreters, or otherwise explicitly signal a lack of support. This is usually achieved by isolation or blocking repeated initialization, as above. A module may also be limited to the main interpreter using the Py_mod_multiple_interpreters slot.

Initialization function

The initialization function defined by an extension module has the following signature:

PyObject *PyInit_modulename(void)

Its name should be PyInit_<name>, with <name> replaced by the name of the module.

For modules with ASCII-only names, the function must instead be named PyInit_<name>, with <name> replaced by the name of the module. When using Multi-phase initialization, non-ASCII module names are allowed. In this case, the initialization function name is PyInitU_<name>, with <name> encoded using Python's punycode encoding with hyphens replaced by underscores. In Python:

def initfunc_name(name):
    try:
        suffix = b'_' + name.encode('ascii')
    except UnicodeEncodeError:
        suffix = b'U_' + name.encode('punycode').replace(b'-', b'_')
    return b'PyInit' + suffix

It is recommended to define the initialization function using a helper macro:

PyMODINIT_FUNC

Declare an extension module initialization function. This macro:

specifies the PyObject* return type,

adds any special linkage declarations required by the platform, and

for C++, declares the function as extern "C".

For example, a module called spam would be defined like this:

static struct PyModuleDef spam_module = {
    .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
    .m_name = "spam",
    ...
};

PyMODINIT_FUNC
PyInit_spam(void)
{
    return PyModuleDef_Init(&spam_module);
}

It is possible to export multiple modules from a single shared library by defining multiple initialization functions. However, importing them requires using symbolic links or a custom importer, because by default only the function corresponding to the filename is found. See the Multiple modules in one library [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/#multiple-modules-in-one-library] section in PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/] for details.

The initialization function is typically the only non-static item defined in the module's C source.

Multi-phase initialization

Normally, the initialization function (PyInit_modulename) returns a PyModuleDef instance with non-NULL m_slots. Before it is returned, the PyModuleDef instance must be initialized using the following function:

PyObject *PyModuleDef_Init(PyModuleDef *def)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.5.

Ensure a module definition is a properly initialized Python object that correctly reports its type and a reference count.

Return def cast to PyObject*, or NULL if an error occurred.

Calling this function is required for Multi-phase initialization. It should not be used in other contexts.

Note that Python assumes that PyModuleDef structures are statically allocated. This function may return either a new reference or a borrowed one; this reference must not be released.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Legacy single-phase initialization

Attention

Single-phase initialization is a legacy mechanism to initialize extension modules, with known drawbacks and design flaws. Extension module authors are encouraged to use multi-phase initialization instead.

In single-phase initialization, the initialization function (PyInit_modulename) should create, populate and return a module object. This is typically done using PyModule_Create() and functions like PyModule_AddObjectRef().

Single-phase initialization differs from the default in the following ways:

Single-phase modules are, or rather contain, “singletons”.

When the module is first initialized, Python saves the contents of the module's __dict__ (that is, typically, the module's functions and types).

For subsequent imports, Python does not call the initialization function again. Instead, it creates a new module object with a new __dict__, and copies the saved contents to it. For example, given a single-phase module _testsinglephase [1] that defines a function sum and an exception class error:

>>> import sys
>>> import _testsinglephase as one
>>> del sys.modules['_testsinglephase']
>>> import _testsinglephase as two
>>> one is two
False
>>> one.__dict__ is two.__dict__
False
>>> one.sum is two.sum
True
>>> one.error is two.error
True

The exact behavior should be considered a CPython implementation detail.

To work around the fact that PyInit_modulename does not take a spec argument, some state of the import machinery is saved and applied to the first suitable module created during the PyInit_modulename call. Specifically, when a sub-module is imported, this mechanism prepends the parent package name to the name of the module.

A single-phase PyInit_modulename function should create “its” module object as soon as possible, before any other module objects can be created.

Non-ASCII module names (PyInitU_modulename) are not supported.

Single-phase modules support module lookup functions like PyState_FindModule().

[1]

_testsinglephase is an internal module used in CPython's self-test suite; your installation may or may not include it.

Utilitaires

Les fonctions de ce chapitre sont utilitaires, certaines aident à rendre le code en C plus portable, d'autres à utiliser des modules Python depuis du C, analyser des arguments de fonctions, ou encore construire des valeurs Python à partir de valeurs C.

Operating System Utilities

System Functions

Process Control

Importer des modules

Data marshalling support

Analyse des arguments et construction des valeurs

Analyse des arguments

Chaînes et tampons

Les nombres

Autres objets

Fonction de l'API

Construction des valeurs

Conversion et formatage de chaînes

Character classification and conversion

PyHash API

Réflexion

Codec registry and support functions

Codec lookup API

Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers

Codec utility variables

PyTime C API

Types

Clock Functions

Raw Clock Functions

Conversion functions

Support for Perf Maps

Operating System Utilities

PyObject *PyOS_FSPath(PyObject *path)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.6.

Return the file system representation for path. If the object is a str or bytes object, then a new strong reference is returned. If the object implements the os.PathLike interface, then __fspath__() is returned as long as it is a str or bytes object. Otherwise TypeError is raised and NULL is returned.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

int Py_FdIsInteractive(FILE *fp, const char *filename)

Return true (nonzero) if the standard I/O file fp with name filename is deemed interactive. This is the case for files for which isatty(fileno(fp)) is true. If the PyConfig.interactive is non-zero, this function also returns true if the filename pointer is NULL or if the name is equal to one of the strings '<stdin>' or '???'.

This function must not be called before Python is initialized.

void PyOS_BeforeFork()

Fait partie de l' ABI stable on platforms with fork() depuis la version 3.7.

Function to prepare some internal state before a process fork. This should be called before calling fork() or any similar function that clones the current process. Only available on systems where fork() is defined.

Avertissement

The C fork() call should only be made from the "main" thread (of the "main" interpreter). The same is true for PyOS_BeforeFork().

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

void PyOS_AfterFork_Parent()

Fait partie de l' ABI stable on platforms with fork() depuis la version 3.7.

Function to update some internal state after a process fork. This should be called from the parent process after calling fork() or any similar function that clones the current process, regardless of whether process cloning was successful. Only available on systems where fork() is defined.

Avertissement

The C fork() call should only be made from the "main" thread (of the "main" interpreter). The same is true for PyOS_AfterFork_Parent().

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

void PyOS_AfterFork_Child()

Fait partie de l' ABI stable on platforms with fork() depuis la version 3.7.

Function to update internal interpreter state after a process fork. This must be called from the child process after calling fork(), or any similar function that clones the current process, if there is any chance the process will call back into the Python interpreter. Only available on systems where fork() is defined.

Avertissement

The C fork() call should only be made from the "main" thread (of the "main" interpreter). The same is true for PyOS_AfterFork_Child().

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Voir aussi

os.register_at_fork() allows registering custom Python functions to be called by PyOS_BeforeFork(), PyOS_AfterFork_Parent() and PyOS_AfterFork_Child().

void PyOS_AfterFork()

Fait partie de l' ABI stable on platforms with fork().

Function to update some internal state after a process fork; this should be called in the new process if the Python interpreter will continue to be used. If a new executable is loaded into the new process, this function does not need to be called.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.7: This function is superseded by PyOS_AfterFork_Child().

int PyOS_CheckStack()

Fait partie de l' ABI stable on platforms with USE_STACKCHECK depuis la version 3.7.

Return true when the interpreter runs out of stack space. This is a reliable check, but is only available when USE_STACKCHECK is defined (currently on certain versions of Windows using the Microsoft Visual C++ compiler). USE_STACKCHECK will be defined automatically; you should never change the definition in your own code.

typedef void (*PyOS_sighandler_t)(int)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

PyOS_sighandler_t PyOS_getsig(int i)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the current signal handler for signal i. This is a thin wrapper around either sigaction() or signal(). Do not call those functions directly!

PyOS_sighandler_t PyOS_setsig(int i, PyOS_sighandler_t h)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Set the signal handler for signal i to be h; return the old signal handler. This is a thin wrapper around either sigaction() or signal(). Do not call those functions directly!

int PyOS_InterruptOccurred(void)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Check if a SIGINT signal has been received.

Returns 1 if a SIGINT has occurred and clears the signal flag, or 0 otherwise.

In most cases, you should prefer PyErr_CheckSignals() over this function. PyErr_CheckSignals() invokes the appropriate signal handlers for all pending signals, allowing Python code to handle the signal properly. This function only detects SIGINT and does not invoke any Python signal handlers.

This function is async-signal-safe and this function cannot fail. The caller must hold an attached thread state.

wchar_t *Py_DecodeLocale(const char *arg, size_t *size)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

Avertissement

This function should not be called directly: use the PyConfig API with the PyConfig_SetBytesString() function which ensures that Python is preinitialized.

This function must not be called before Python is preinitialized and so that the LC_CTYPE locale is properly configured: see the Py_PreInitialize() function.

Decode a byte string from the filesystem encoding and error handler. If the error handler is surrogateescape error handler, undecodable bytes are decoded as characters in range U+DC80..U+DCFF; and if a byte sequence can be decoded as a surrogate character, the bytes are escaped using the surrogateescape error handler instead of decoding them.

Return a pointer to a newly allocated wide character string, use PyMem_RawFree() to free the memory. If size is not NULL, write the number of wide characters excluding the null character into *size

Return NULL on decoding error or memory allocation error. If size is not NULL, *size is set to (size_t)-1 on memory error or set to (size_t)-2 on decoding error.

The filesystem encoding and error handler are selected by PyConfig_Read(): see filesystem_encoding and filesystem_errors members of PyConfig.

Decoding errors should never happen, unless there is a bug in the C library.

Use the Py_EncodeLocale() function to encode the character string back to a byte string.

Voir aussi

The PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize() and PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize() functions.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: The function now uses the UTF-8 encoding in the Python UTF-8 Mode.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: The function now uses the UTF-8 encoding on Windows if PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding is zero;

char *Py_EncodeLocale(const wchar_t *text, size_t *error_pos)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

Encode a wide character string to the filesystem encoding and error handler. If the error handler is surrogateescape error handler, surrogate characters in the range U+DC80..U+DCFF are converted to bytes 0x80..0xFF.

Return a pointer to a newly allocated byte string, use PyMem_Free() to free the memory. Return NULL on encoding error or memory allocation error.

If error_pos is not NULL, *error_pos is set to (size_t)-1 on success, or set to the index of the invalid character on encoding error.

The filesystem encoding and error handler are selected by PyConfig_Read(): see filesystem_encoding and filesystem_errors members of PyConfig.

Use the Py_DecodeLocale() function to decode the bytes string back to a wide character string.

Avertissement

This function must not be called before Python is preinitialized and so that the LC_CTYPE locale is properly configured: see the Py_PreInitialize() function.

Voir aussi

The PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault() and PyUnicode_EncodeLocale() functions.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: The function now uses the UTF-8 encoding in the Python UTF-8 Mode.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: The function now uses the UTF-8 encoding on Windows if PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding is zero.

FILE *Py_fopen(PyObject *path, const char *mode)

Similar to fopen(), but path is a Python object and an exception is set on error.

path must be a str object, a bytes object, or a path-like object.

On success, return the new file pointer. On error, set an exception and return NULL.

The file must be closed by Py_fclose() rather than calling directly fclose().

The file descriptor is created non-inheritable (PEP 446 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0446/]).

The caller must have an attached thread state.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

int Py_fclose(FILE *file)

Close a file that was opened by Py_fopen().

On success, return 0. On error, return EOF and errno is set to indicate the error. In either case, any further access (including another call to Py_fclose()) to the stream results in undefined behavior.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

System Functions

These are utility functions that make functionality from the sys module accessible to C code. They all work with the current interpreter thread's sys module's dict, which is contained in the internal thread state structure.

PyObject *PySys_GetObject(const char *name)

Valeur de retour : référence empruntée. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the object name from the sys module or NULL if it does not exist, without setting an exception.

int PySys_SetObject(const char *name, PyObject *v)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Set name in the sys module to v unless v is NULL, in which case name is deleted from the sys module. Returns 0 on success, -1 on error.

void PySys_ResetWarnOptions()

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Reset sys.warnoptions to an empty list. This function may be called prior to Py_Initialize().

Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: Clear sys.warnoptions and warnings.filters instead.

void PySys_WriteStdout(const char *format, ...)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Write the output string described by format to sys.stdout. No exceptions are raised, even if truncation occurs (see below).

format should limit the total size of the formatted output string to 1000 bytes or less -- after 1000 bytes, the output string is truncated. In particular, this means that no unrestricted "%s" formats should occur; these should be limited using "%.<N>s" where <N> is a decimal number calculated so that <N> plus the maximum size of other formatted text does not exceed 1000 bytes. Also watch out for "%f", which can print hundreds of digits for very large numbers.

If a problem occurs, or sys.stdout is unset, the formatted message is written to the real (C level) stdout.

void PySys_WriteStderr(const char *format, ...)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

As PySys_WriteStdout(), but write to sys.stderr or stderr instead.

void PySys_FormatStdout(const char *format, ...)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Function similar to PySys_WriteStdout() but format the message using PyUnicode_FromFormatV() and don't truncate the message to an arbitrary length.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

void PySys_FormatStderr(const char *format, ...)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

As PySys_FormatStdout(), but write to sys.stderr or stderr instead.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

PyObject *PySys_GetXOptions()

Valeur de retour : référence empruntée. Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

Return the current dictionary of -X options, similarly to sys._xoptions. On error, NULL is returned and an exception is set.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

int PySys_Audit(const char *event, const char *format, ...)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.13.

Raise an auditing event with any active hooks. Return zero for success and non-zero with an exception set on failure.

The event string argument must not be NULL.

If any hooks have been added, format and other arguments will be used to construct a tuple to pass. Apart from N, the same format characters as used in Py_BuildValue() are available. If the built value is not a tuple, it will be added into a single-element tuple.

The N format option must not be used. It consumes a reference, but since there is no way to know whether arguments to this function will be consumed, using it may cause reference leaks.

Note that # format characters should always be treated as Py_ssize_t, regardless of whether PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN was defined.

sys.audit() performs the same function from Python code.

See also PySys_AuditTuple().

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

Modifié dans la version 3.8.2: Require Py_ssize_t for # format characters. Previously, an unavoidable deprecation warning was raised.

int PySys_AuditTuple(const char *event, PyObject *args)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.13.

Similar to PySys_Audit(), but pass arguments as a Python object. args must be a tuple. To pass no arguments, args can be NULL.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

int PySys_AddAuditHook(Py_AuditHookFunction hook, void *userData)

Append the callable hook to the list of active auditing hooks. Return zero on success and non-zero on failure. If the runtime has been initialized, also set an error on failure. Hooks added through this API are called for all interpreters created by the runtime.

The userData pointer is passed into the hook function. Since hook functions may be called from different runtimes, this pointer should not refer directly to Python state.

This function is safe to call before Py_Initialize(). When called after runtime initialization, existing audit hooks are notified and may silently abort the operation by raising an error subclassed from Exception (other errors will not be silenced).

The hook function is always called with an attached thread state by the Python interpreter that raised the event.

See PEP 578 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0578/] for a detailed description of auditing. Functions in the runtime and standard library that raise events are listed in the audit events table. Details are in each function's documentation.

If the interpreter is initialized, this function raises an auditing event sys.addaudithook with no arguments. If any existing hooks raise an exception derived from Exception, the new hook will not be added and the exception is cleared. As a result, callers cannot assume that their hook has been added unless they control all existing hooks.

typedef int (*Py_AuditHookFunction)(const char *event, PyObject *args, void *userData)

The type of the hook function. event is the C string event argument passed to PySys_Audit() or PySys_AuditTuple(). args is guaranteed to be a PyTupleObject. userData is the argument passed to PySys_AddAuditHook().

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

Process Control

void Py_FatalError(const char *message)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Print a fatal error message and kill the process. No cleanup is performed. This function should only be invoked when a condition is detected that would make it dangerous to continue using the Python interpreter; e.g., when the object administration appears to be corrupted. On Unix, the standard C library function abort() is called which will attempt to produce a core file.

The Py_FatalError() function is replaced with a macro which logs automatically the name of the current function, unless the Py_LIMITED_API macro is defined.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Log the function name automatically.

void Py_Exit(int status)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Exit the current process. This calls Py_FinalizeEx() and then calls the standard C library function exit(status). If Py_FinalizeEx() indicates an error, the exit status is set to 120.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Errors from finalization no longer ignored.

int Py_AtExit(void (*func)())

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Register a cleanup function to be called by Py_FinalizeEx(). The cleanup function will be called with no arguments and should return no value. At most 32 cleanup functions can be registered. When the registration is successful, Py_AtExit() returns 0; on failure, it returns -1. The cleanup function registered last is called first. Each cleanup function will be called at most once. Since Python's internal finalization will have completed before the cleanup function, no Python APIs should be called by func.

Voir aussi

PyUnstable_AtExit() for passing a void *data argument.

Importer des modules

PyObject *PyImport_ImportModule(const char *name)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This is a wrapper around PyImport_Import() which takes a const char* as an argument instead of a PyObject*.

PyObject *PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(const char *name)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This function is a deprecated alias of PyImport_ImportModule().

Modifié dans la version 3.3: This function used to fail immediately when the import lock was held by another thread. In Python 3.3 though, the locking scheme switched to per-module locks for most purposes, so this function's special behaviour isn't needed anymore.

Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: Use PyImport_ImportModule() instead.

PyObject *PyImport_ImportModuleEx(const char *name, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, PyObject *fromlist)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Import a module. This is best described by referring to the built-in Python function __import__().

The return value is a new reference to the imported module or top-level package, or NULL with an exception set on failure. Like for __import__(), the return value when a submodule of a package was requested is normally the top-level package, unless a non-empty fromlist was given.

Failing imports remove incomplete module objects, like with PyImport_ImportModule().

PyObject *PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject(PyObject *name, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, PyObject *fromlist, int level)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

Import a module. This is best described by referring to the built-in Python function __import__(), as the standard __import__() function calls this function directly.

The return value is a new reference to the imported module or top-level package, or NULL with an exception set on failure. Like for __import__(), the return value when a submodule of a package was requested is normally the top-level package, unless a non-empty fromlist was given.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

PyObject *PyImport_ImportModuleLevel(const char *name, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, PyObject *fromlist, int level)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Similar to PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject(), but the name is a UTF-8 encoded string instead of a Unicode object.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Negative values for level are no longer accepted.

PyObject *PyImport_Import(PyObject *name)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This is a higher-level interface that calls the current "import hook function" (with an explicit level of 0, meaning absolute import). It invokes the __import__() function from the __builtins__ of the current globals. This means that the import is done using whatever import hooks are installed in the current environment.

This function always uses absolute imports.

PyObject *PyImport_ReloadModule(PyObject *m)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Reload a module. Return a new reference to the reloaded module, or NULL with an exception set on failure (the module still exists in this case).

PyObject *PyImport_AddModuleRef(const char *name)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.13.

Return the module object corresponding to a module name.

The name argument may be of the form package.module. First check the modules dictionary if there's one there, and if not, create a new one and insert it in the modules dictionary.

Return a strong reference to the module on success. Return NULL with an exception set on failure.

The module name name is decoded from UTF-8.

This function does not load or import the module; if the module wasn't already loaded, you will get an empty module object. Use PyImport_ImportModule() or one of its variants to import a module. Package structures implied by a dotted name for name are not created if not already present.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

PyObject *PyImport_AddModuleObject(PyObject *name)

Valeur de retour : référence empruntée. Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

Similar to PyImport_AddModuleRef(), but return a borrowed reference and name is a Python str object.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

PyObject *PyImport_AddModule(const char *name)

Valeur de retour : référence empruntée. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Similar to PyImport_AddModuleRef(), but return a borrowed reference.

PyObject *PyImport_ExecCodeModule(const char *name, PyObject *co)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Given a module name (possibly of the form package.module) and a code object read from a Python bytecode file or obtained from the built-in function compile(), load the module. Return a new reference to the module object, or NULL with an exception set if an error occurred. name is removed from sys.modules in error cases, even if name was already in sys.modules on entry to PyImport_ExecCodeModule(). Leaving incompletely initialized modules in sys.modules is dangerous, as imports of such modules have no way to know that the module object is an unknown (and probably damaged with respect to the module author's intents) state.

The module's __spec__ and __loader__ will be set, if not set already, with the appropriate values. The spec's loader will be set to the module's __loader__ (if set) and to an instance of SourceFileLoader otherwise.

The module's __file__ attribute will be set to the code object's co_filename. If applicable, __cached__ will also be set.

This function will reload the module if it was already imported. See PyImport_ReloadModule() for the intended way to reload a module.

If name points to a dotted name of the form package.module, any package structures not already created will still not be created.

See also PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx() and PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames().

Modifié dans la version 3.12: The setting of __cached__ and __loader__ is deprecated. See ModuleSpec for alternatives.

PyObject *PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx(const char *name, PyObject *co, const char *pathname)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Like PyImport_ExecCodeModule(), but the __file__ attribute of the module object is set to pathname if it is non-NULL.

See also PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames().

PyObject *PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject(PyObject *name, PyObject *co, PyObject *pathname, PyObject *cpathname)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

Like PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx(), but the __cached__ attribute of the module object is set to cpathname if it is non-NULL. Of the three functions, this is the preferred one to use.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Setting __cached__ is deprecated. See ModuleSpec for alternatives.

PyObject *PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames(const char *name, PyObject *co, const char *pathname, const char *cpathname)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Like PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject(), but name, pathname and cpathname are UTF-8 encoded strings. Attempts are also made to figure out what the value for pathname should be from cpathname if the former is set to NULL.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Uses imp.source_from_cache() in calculating the source path if only the bytecode path is provided.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: No longer uses the removed imp module.

long PyImport_GetMagicNumber()

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the magic number for Python bytecode files (a.k.a. .pyc file). The magic number should be present in the first four bytes of the bytecode file, in little-endian byte order. Returns -1 on error.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Return value of -1 upon failure.

const char *PyImport_GetMagicTag()

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the magic tag string for PEP 3147 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/] format Python bytecode file names. Keep in mind that the value at sys.implementation.cache_tag is authoritative and should be used instead of this function.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

PyObject *PyImport_GetModuleDict()

Valeur de retour : référence empruntée. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the dictionary used for the module administration (a.k.a. sys.modules). Note that this is a per-interpreter variable.

PyObject *PyImport_GetModule(PyObject *name)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.8.

Return the already imported module with the given name. If the module has not been imported yet then returns NULL but does not set an error. Returns NULL and sets an error if the lookup failed.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

PyObject *PyImport_GetImporter(PyObject *path)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a finder object for a sys.path/pkg.__path__ item path, possibly by fetching it from the sys.path_importer_cache dict. If it wasn't yet cached, traverse sys.path_hooks until a hook is found that can handle the path item. Return None if no hook could; this tells our caller that the path based finder could not find a finder for this path item. Cache the result in sys.path_importer_cache. Return a new reference to the finder object.

int PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject(PyObject *name)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

Load a frozen module named name. Return 1 for success, 0 if the module is not found, and -1 with an exception set if the initialization failed. To access the imported module on a successful load, use PyImport_ImportModule(). (Note the misnomer --- this function would reload the module if it was already imported.)

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: The __file__ attribute is no longer set on the module.

int PyImport_ImportFrozenModule(const char *name)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Similar to PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject(), but the name is a UTF-8 encoded string instead of a Unicode object.

struct _frozen

This is the structure type definition for frozen module descriptors, as generated by the freeze utility (see Tools/freeze/ in the Python source distribution). Its definition, found in Include/import.h, is:

struct _frozen {
    const char *name;
    const unsigned char *code;
    int size;
    bool is_package;
};

Modifié dans la version 3.11: The new is_package field indicates whether the module is a package or not. This replaces setting the size field to a negative value.

const struct _frozen *PyImport_FrozenModules

This pointer is initialized to point to an array of _frozen records, terminated by one whose members are all NULL or zero. When a frozen module is imported, it is searched in this table. Third-party code could play tricks with this to provide a dynamically created collection of frozen modules.

int PyImport_AppendInittab(const char *name, PyObject *(*initfunc)(void))

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Add a single module to the existing table of built-in modules. This is a convenience wrapper around PyImport_ExtendInittab(), returning -1 if the table could not be extended. The new module can be imported by the name name, and uses the function initfunc as the initialization function called on the first attempted import. This should be called before Py_Initialize().

struct _inittab

Structure describing a single entry in the list of built-in modules. Programs which embed Python may use an array of these structures in conjunction with PyImport_ExtendInittab() to provide additional built-in modules. The structure consists of two members:

const char *name

The module name, as an ASCII encoded string.

PyObject *(*initfunc)(void)

Initialization function for a module built into the interpreter.

int PyImport_ExtendInittab(struct _inittab *newtab)

Add a collection of modules to the table of built-in modules. The newtab array must end with a sentinel entry which contains NULL for the name field; failure to provide the sentinel value can result in a memory fault. Returns 0 on success or -1 if insufficient memory could be allocated to extend the internal table. In the event of failure, no modules are added to the internal table. This must be called before Py_Initialize().

If Python is initialized multiple times, PyImport_AppendInittab() or PyImport_ExtendInittab() must be called before each Python initialization.

struct _inittab *PyImport_Inittab

The table of built-in modules used by Python initialization. Do not use this directly; use PyImport_AppendInittab() and PyImport_ExtendInittab() instead.

PyObject *PyImport_ImportModuleAttr(PyObject *mod_name, PyObject *attr_name)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Import the module mod_name and get its attribute attr_name.

Names must be Python str objects.

Helper function combining PyImport_Import() and PyObject_GetAttr(). For example, it can raise ImportError if the module is not found, and AttributeError if the attribute doesn't exist.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

PyObject *PyImport_ImportModuleAttrString(const char *mod_name, const char *attr_name)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Similar to PyImport_ImportModuleAttr(), but names are UTF-8 encoded strings instead of Python str objects.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Data marshalling support

These routines allow C code to work with serialized objects using the same data format as the marshal module. There are functions to write data into the serialization format, and additional functions that can be used to read the data back. Files used to store marshalled data must be opened in binary mode.

Numeric values are stored with the least significant byte first.

The module supports several versions of the data format; see the Python module documentation for details.

Py_MARSHAL_VERSION

The current format version. See marshal.version.

void PyMarshal_WriteLongToFile(long value, FILE *file, int version)

Marshal a long integer, value, to file. This will only write the least-significant 32 bits of value; regardless of the size of the native long type. version indicates the file format.

This function can fail, in which case it sets the error indicator. Use PyErr_Occurred() to check for that.

void PyMarshal_WriteObjectToFile(PyObject *value, FILE *file, int version)

Marshal a Python object, value, to file. version indicates the file format.

This function can fail, in which case it sets the error indicator. Use PyErr_Occurred() to check for that.

PyObject *PyMarshal_WriteObjectToString(PyObject *value, int version)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Return a bytes object containing the marshalled representation of value. version indicates the file format.

The following functions allow marshalled values to be read back in.

long PyMarshal_ReadLongFromFile(FILE *file)

Return a C long from the data stream in a FILE* opened for reading. Only a 32-bit value can be read in using this function, regardless of the native size of long.

On error, sets the appropriate exception (EOFError) and returns -1.

int PyMarshal_ReadShortFromFile(FILE *file)

Return a C short from the data stream in a FILE* opened for reading. Only a 16-bit value can be read in using this function, regardless of the native size of short.

On error, sets the appropriate exception (EOFError) and returns -1.

PyObject *PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromFile(FILE *file)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Return a Python object from the data stream in a FILE* opened for reading.

On error, sets the appropriate exception (EOFError, ValueError or TypeError) and returns NULL.

PyObject *PyMarshal_ReadLastObjectFromFile(FILE *file)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Return a Python object from the data stream in a FILE* opened for reading. Unlike PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromFile(), this function assumes that no further objects will be read from the file, allowing it to aggressively load file data into memory so that the de-serialization can operate from data in memory rather than reading a byte at a time from the file. Only use this variant if you are certain that you won't be reading anything else from the file.

On error, sets the appropriate exception (EOFError, ValueError or TypeError) and returns NULL.

PyObject *PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromString(const char *data, Py_ssize_t len)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Return a Python object from the data stream in a byte buffer containing len bytes pointed to by data.

On error, sets the appropriate exception (EOFError, ValueError or TypeError) and returns NULL.

Analyse des arguments et construction des valeurs

These functions are useful when creating your own extension functions and methods. Additional information and examples are available in Extension et intégration de l'interpréteur Python.

Dans Les trois premières de ces fonctions décrites, PyArg_ParseTuple(), PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(), et PyArg_Parse(), toutes utilisent des chaînes de format qui sont utilisées pour indiquer à la fonction les arguments attendus. Les chaînes de format utilise la même syntaxe pour chacune de ces fonctions.

Analyse des arguments

Une chaîne de format se compose de zéro ou plusieurs "unités de format". Une unité de format décrit un objet Python, elle est généralement composée d'un seul caractère ou d'une séquence d'unités de format entre parenthèses. À quelques exceptions près, une unité de format qui n'est pas une séquence entre parenthèses correspond normalement à un argument d'une seule adresse pour ces fonctions. Dans la description qui suit, la forme entre guillemets est l'unité de format, l'entrée entre parenthèses est le type d'objet Python qui correspond à l'unité de format, et l'entrée entre crochets est le type de la variable C (ou des variables) dont l'adresse doit être donnée.

Chaînes et tampons

Note

Dans Python 3.12 et précédents, la macro PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN doit être définie avant d'inclure Python.h pour utiliser toutes les variantes # de format (s#, y#, etc.) détaillées ci-dessous. Ce n'est plus nécessaire pour Python 3.13 et les versions ultérieures.

Ces formats permettent d'accéder à un objet sous forme d'un fragment de mémoire contiguë. Il n'est pas nécessaire d'allouer la mémoire pour l'unicode ou le bytes renvoyé.

Sauf indication contraire, les tampons ne se terminent pas par NUL.

Les chaînes de caractères et tampons peuvent être convertis de trois manières vers C:

Formats such as y* and s* fill a Py_buffer structure. This locks the underlying buffer so that the caller can subsequently use the buffer even inside a Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS block without the risk of mutable data being resized or destroyed. As a result, you have to call PyBuffer_Release() after you have finished processing the data (or in any early abort case).

Les formats es, es#, et et et# allouent le tampon de résultats. Vous devez appeler PyMem_Free() après avoir fini de traiter les données (ou en cas d'abandon prématuré).

Other formats take a str or a read-only bytes-like object, such as bytes, and provide a const char * pointer to its buffer. In this case the buffer is "borrowed": it is managed by the corresponding Python object, and shares the lifetime of this object. You won't have to release any memory yourself.

To ensure that the underlying buffer may be safely borrowed, the object's PyBufferProcs.bf_releasebuffer field must be NULL. This disallows common mutable objects such as bytearray, but also some read-only objects such as memoryview of bytes.

Besides this bf_releasebuffer requirement, there is no check to verify whether the input object is immutable (e.g. whether it would honor a request for a writable buffer, or whether another thread can mutate the data).

s (str) [const char *]

Convertit un objet Unicode en un pointeur vers une chaîne de caractères. S'il s'agit d'un pointeur vers une chaîne de caractères déjà existante, il est stocké dans la variable de type pointeur vers un caractère dont vous avez donné l'adresse. Une chaîne de caractères en C se termine par NULL. La chaîne de caractères Python ne doit donc pas contenir de caractère dont le code est null. Si elle en contient, une exception ValueError est levée. Si la conversion échoue, une UnicodeError est levée.

Note

Ce format n'accepte pas les objets compatibles avec une chaîne d'octets. Si vous voulez accepter les chemins du système de fichiers et les convertir vers des chaînes de caractères C, il est préférable d'utiliser le format O& avec PyUnicode_FSConverter() en tant que converter.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Auparavant, une TypeError était levée quand la chaîne de caractères Python contenait des codes NULL.

s* (str ou bytes-like object) [Py_buffer]

Ce format accepte les objets Unicode et les bytes-like object. Cela remplit une structure Py_buffer qui est fournie par l'appelant. Dans ce cas, la chaîne de caractères C qui en résulte peut contenir des octets NULL. Les objets Unicode sont convertis en chaînes de caractères C en utilisant l'encodage 'utf-8'.

s# (str, read-only bytes-like object) [const char *, Py_ssize_t]

Like s*, except that it provides a borrowed buffer. The result is stored into two C variables, the first one a pointer to a C string, the second one its length. The string may contain embedded null bytes. Unicode objects are converted to C strings using 'utf-8' encoding.

z (str ou None) [const char *]

Like s, but the Python object may also be None, in which case the C pointer is set to NULL.

z* (str, bytes-like object ou None) [Py_buffer]

Comme s*, mais l'objet Python peut aussi être None, auquel cas le membre buf, dont la structure est Py_buffer est fixée à NULL.

z# (str, read-only bytes-like object or None) [const char *, Py_ssize_t]

Like s#, but the Python object may also be None, in which case the C pointer is set to NULL.

y (lecture seule objet compatible avec une chaîne d'octets) [constante char *]

This format converts a bytes-like object to a C pointer to a borrowed character string; it does not accept Unicode objects. The bytes buffer must not contain embedded null bytes; if it does, a ValueError exception is raised.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Auparavant, TypeError était levée lorsque des octets null étaient rencontrés dans le tampon d'octets.

y* (bytes-like object) [Py_buffer]

This variant on s* doesn't accept Unicode objects, only bytes-like objects. This is the recommended way to accept binary data.

y# (read-only bytes-like object) [const char *, Py_ssize_t]

Cette variante de s# n'accepte pas les objets Unicode, uniquement des objets assimilés à des octets.

S (bytes) [PyBytesObject *]

Requires that the Python object is a bytes object, without attempting any conversion. Raises TypeError if the object is not a bytes object. The C variable may also be declared as PyObject*.

Y (bytearray) [PyByteArrayObject *]

Requires that the Python object is a bytearray object, without attempting any conversion. Raises TypeError if the object is not a bytearray object. The C variable may also be declared as PyObject*.

U (str) [PyObject *]

Requires that the Python object is a Unicode object, without attempting any conversion. Raises TypeError if the object is not a Unicode object. The C variable may also be declared as PyObject*.

w* (lecture-écriture bytes-like object) [Py_buffer]

This format accepts any object which implements the read-write buffer interface. It fills a Py_buffer structure provided by the caller. The buffer may contain embedded null bytes. The caller has to call PyBuffer_Release() when it is done with the buffer.

es (str) [const char *encoding, char **buffer]

This variant on s is used for encoding Unicode into a character buffer. It only works for encoded data without embedded NUL bytes.

This format requires two arguments. The first is only used as input, and must be a const char* which points to the name of an encoding as a NUL-terminated string, or NULL, in which case 'utf-8' encoding is used. An exception is raised if the named encoding is not known to Python. The second argument must be a char**; the value of the pointer it references will be set to a buffer with the contents of the argument text. The text will be encoded in the encoding specified by the first argument.

PyArg_ParseTuple() will allocate a buffer of the needed size, copy the encoded data into this buffer and adjust *buffer to reference the newly allocated storage. The caller is responsible for calling PyMem_Free() to free the allocated buffer after use.

et (str, bytes or bytearray) [const char *encoding, char **buffer]

Same as es except that byte string objects are passed through without recoding them. Instead, the implementation assumes that the byte string object uses the encoding passed in as parameter.

es# (str) [const char *encoding, char **buffer, Py_ssize_t *buffer_length]

This variant on s# is used for encoding Unicode into a character buffer. Unlike the es format, this variant allows input data which contains NUL characters.

It requires three arguments. The first is only used as input, and must be a const char* which points to the name of an encoding as a NUL-terminated string, or NULL, in which case 'utf-8' encoding is used. An exception is raised if the named encoding is not known to Python. The second argument must be a char**; the value of the pointer it references will be set to a buffer with the contents of the argument text. The text will be encoded in the encoding specified by the first argument. The third argument must be a pointer to an integer; the referenced integer will be set to the number of bytes in the output buffer.

Il existe deux modes de fonctionnement :

If *buffer points a NULL pointer, the function will allocate a buffer of the needed size, copy the encoded data into this buffer and set *buffer to reference the newly allocated storage. The caller is responsible for calling PyMem_Free() to free the allocated buffer after usage.

If *buffer points to a non-NULL pointer (an already allocated buffer), PyArg_ParseTuple() will use this location as the buffer and interpret the initial value of *buffer_length as the buffer size. It will then copy the encoded data into the buffer and NUL-terminate it. If the buffer is not large enough, a ValueError will be set.

Dans les deux cas, *buffer_length est la longueur des données encodées, sans l'octet NUL de fin.

et# (str, bytes or bytearray) [const char *encoding, char **buffer, Py_ssize_t *buffer_length]

Same as es# except that byte string objects are passed through without recoding them. Instead, the implementation assumes that the byte string object uses the encoding passed in as parameter.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: u, u#, Z, and Z# are removed because they used a legacy Py_UNICODE* representation.

Les nombres

These formats allow representing Python numbers or single characters as C numbers. Formats that require int, float or complex can also use the corresponding special methods __index__(), __float__() or __complex__() to convert the Python object to the required type.

For signed integer formats, OverflowError is raised if the value is out of range for the C type. For unsigned integer formats, no range checking is done --- the most significant bits are silently truncated when the receiving field is too small to receive the value.

b (int) [unsigned char]

Convert a nonnegative Python integer to an unsigned tiny integer, stored in a C unsigned char.

B (int) [unsigned char]

Convert a Python integer to a tiny integer without overflow checking, stored in a C unsigned char.

h (int) [short int]

Convert a Python integer to a C short int.

H (int) [unsigned short int]

Convert a Python integer to a C unsigned short int, without overflow checking.

i (int) [int]

Convert a Python integer to a plain C int.

I (int) [unsigned int]

Convert a Python integer to a C unsigned int, without overflow checking.

l (int) [long int]

Convert a Python integer to a C long int.

k (int) [unsigned long]

Convert a Python integer to a C unsigned long without overflow checking.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Use __index__() if available.

L (int) [long long]

Convert a Python integer to a C long long.

K (int) [unsigned long long]

Convert a Python integer to a C unsigned long long without overflow checking.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Use __index__() if available.

n (int) [Py_ssize_t]

Convertit un entier Python en un Py_ssize_t.

c (bytes ou bytearray de longueur 1) [char]

Convert a Python byte, represented as a bytes or bytearray object of length 1, to a C char.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Allow bytearray objects.

C (str de longueur 1) [int]

Convert a Python character, represented as a str object of length 1, to a C int.

f (float) [float]

Convert a Python floating-point number to a C float.

d (float) [double]

Convert a Python floating-point number to a C double.

D (complex) [Py_complex]

Convertit un nombre complexe Python vers une structure Py_complex C.

Autres objets

O (objet) [PyObject *]

Store a Python object (without any conversion) in a C object pointer. The C program thus receives the actual object that was passed. A new strong reference to the object is not created (i.e. its reference count is not increased). The pointer stored is not NULL.

O! (objet) [typeobject, PyObject *]

Store a Python object in a C object pointer. This is similar to O, but takes two C arguments: the first is the address of a Python type object, the second is the address of the C variable (of type PyObject*) into which the object pointer is stored. If the Python object does not have the required type, TypeError is raised.

O& (object) [converter, address]

Convert a Python object to a C variable through a converter function. This takes two arguments: the first is a function, the second is the address of a C variable (of arbitrary type), converted to void*. The converter function in turn is called as follows:

status = converter(object, address);

where object is the Python object to be converted and address is the void* argument that was passed to the PyArg_Parse* function. The returned status should be 1 for a successful conversion and 0 if the conversion has failed. When the conversion fails, the converter function should raise an exception and leave the content of address unmodified.

If the converter returns Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED, it may get called a second time if the argument parsing eventually fails, giving the converter a chance to release any memory that it had already allocated. In this second call, the object parameter will be NULL; address will have the same value as in the original call.

Examples of converters: PyUnicode_FSConverter() and PyUnicode_FSDecoder().

Modifié dans la version 3.1: Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED was added.

p (bool) [int]

Tests the value passed in for truth (a boolean predicate) and converts the result to its equivalent C true/false integer value. Sets the int to 1 if the expression was true and 0 if it was false. This accepts any valid Python value. See Valeurs booléennes for more information about how Python tests values for truth.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

(items) (sequence) [matching-items]

The object must be a Python sequence (except str, bytes or bytearray) whose length is the number of format units in items. The C arguments must correspond to the individual format units in items. Format units for sequences may be nested.

If items contains format units which store a borrowed buffer (s, s#, z, z#, y, or y#) or a borrowed reference (S, Y, U, O, or O!), the object must be a Python tuple. The converter for the O& format unit in items must not store a borrowed buffer or a borrowed reference.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: str and bytearray objects no longer accepted as a sequence.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.14: Non-tuple sequences are deprecated if items contains format units which store a borrowed buffer or a borrowed reference.

Quelques autres caractères ont un sens dans une chaîne de format. On ne doit pas les trouvées dans des parenthèses imbriquées. Ce sont :

|

Indicates that the remaining arguments in the Python argument list are optional. The C variables corresponding to optional arguments should be initialized to their default value --- when an optional argument is not specified, PyArg_ParseTuple() does not touch the contents of the corresponding C variable(s).

$

PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords() only: Indicates that the remaining arguments in the Python argument list are keyword-only. Currently, all keyword-only arguments must also be optional arguments, so | must always be specified before $ in the format string.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

:

The list of format units ends here; the string after the colon is used as the function name in error messages (the "associated value" of the exception that PyArg_ParseTuple() raises).

;

La liste des unités de format s'arrête ici ; la chaîne après le point-virgule est utilise comme message d'erreur au lieu du message d'erreur par défaut. : et ; sont mutuellement exclusifs.

Note that any Python object references which are provided to the caller are borrowed references; do not release them (i.e. do not decrement their reference count)!

Les arguments additionnels qui sont donnés à ces fonctions doivent être des adresses de variables dont le type est déterminé par la chaîne de format. Elles sont utilisées pour stocker les valeurs du n-uplet d'entrée. Il y a quelques cas, comme décrit précédemment dans le liste des unités de formats, où ces paramètres sont utilisés comme valeurs d'entrée. Dans ce cas, ils devraient correspondre à ce qui est spécifié pour l'unité de format correspondante.

For the conversion to succeed, the arg object must match the format and the format must be exhausted. On success, the PyArg_Parse* functions return true, otherwise they return false and raise an appropriate exception. When the PyArg_Parse* functions fail due to conversion failure in one of the format units, the variables at the addresses corresponding to that and the following format units are left untouched.

Fonction de l'API

int PyArg_ParseTuple(PyObject *args, const char *format, ...)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Parse the parameters of a function that takes only positional parameters into local variables. Returns true on success; on failure, it returns false and raises the appropriate exception.

int PyArg_VaParse(PyObject *args, const char *format, va_list vargs)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Identical to PyArg_ParseTuple(), except that it accepts a va_list rather than a variable number of arguments.

int PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(PyObject *args, PyObject *kw, const char *format, char *const *keywords, ...)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Parse the parameters of a function that takes both positional and keyword parameters into local variables. The keywords argument is a NULL-terminated array of keyword parameter names specified as null-terminated ASCII or UTF-8 encoded C strings. Empty names denote positional-only parameters. Returns true on success; on failure, it returns false and raises the appropriate exception.

Note

The keywords parameter declaration is char *const* in C and const char *const* in C++. This can be overridden with the PY_CXX_CONST macro.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Added support for positional-only parameters.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: The keywords parameter has now type char *const* in C and const char *const* in C++, instead of char**. Added support for non-ASCII keyword parameter names.

int PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords(PyObject *args, PyObject *kw, const char *format, char *const *keywords, va_list vargs)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Identical to PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(), except that it accepts a va_list rather than a variable number of arguments.

int PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments(PyObject*)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Ensure that the keys in the keywords argument dictionary are strings. This is only needed if PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords() is not used, since the latter already does this check.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

int PyArg_Parse(PyObject *args, const char *format, ...)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Parse the parameter of a function that takes a single positional parameter into a local variable. Returns true on success; on failure, it returns false and raises the appropriate exception.

Exemple :

// Function using METH_O calling convention
static PyObject*
my_function(PyObject *module, PyObject *arg)
{
    int value;
    if (!PyArg_Parse(arg, "i:my_function", &value)) {
        return NULL;
    }
    // ... use value ...
}

int PyArg_UnpackTuple(PyObject *args, const char *name, Py_ssize_t min, Py_ssize_t max, ...)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

A simpler form of parameter retrieval which does not use a format string to specify the types of the arguments. Functions which use this method to retrieve their parameters should be declared as METH_VARARGS in function or method tables. The tuple containing the actual parameters should be passed as args; it must actually be a tuple. The length of the tuple must be at least min and no more than max; min and max may be equal. Additional arguments must be passed to the function, each of which should be a pointer to a PyObject* variable; these will be filled in with the values from args; they will contain borrowed references. The variables which correspond to optional parameters not given by args will not be filled in; these should be initialized by the caller. This function returns true on success and false if args is not a tuple or contains the wrong number of elements; an exception will be set if there was a failure.

This is an example of the use of this function, taken from the sources for the _weakref helper module for weak references:

static PyObject *
weakref_ref(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
{
    PyObject *object;
    PyObject *callback = NULL;
    PyObject *result = NULL;

    if (PyArg_UnpackTuple(args, "ref", 1, 2, &object, &callback)) {
        result = PyWeakref_NewRef(object, callback);
    }
    return result;
}

The call to PyArg_UnpackTuple() in this example is entirely equivalent to this call to PyArg_ParseTuple():

PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "O|O:ref", &object, &callback)

PY_CXX_CONST

The value to be inserted, if any, before char *const* in the keywords parameter declaration of PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords() and PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords(). Default empty for C and const for C++ (const char *const*). To override, define it to the desired value before including Python.h.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Construction des valeurs

PyObject *Py_BuildValue(const char *format, ...)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Create a new value based on a format string similar to those accepted by the PyArg_Parse* family of functions and a sequence of values. Returns the value or NULL in the case of an error; an exception will be raised if NULL is returned.

Py_BuildValue() does not always build a tuple. It builds a tuple only if its format string contains two or more format units. If the format string is empty, it returns None; if it contains exactly one format unit, it returns whatever object is described by that format unit. To force it to return a tuple of size 0 or one, parenthesize the format string.

When memory buffers are passed as parameters to supply data to build objects, as for the s and s# formats, the required data is copied. Buffers provided by the caller are never referenced by the objects created by Py_BuildValue(). In other words, if your code invokes malloc() and passes the allocated memory to Py_BuildValue(), your code is responsible for calling free() for that memory once Py_BuildValue() returns.

In the following description, the quoted form is the format unit; the entry in (round) parentheses is the Python object type that the format unit will return; and the entry in [square] brackets is the type of the C value(s) to be passed.

The characters space, tab, colon and comma are ignored in format strings (but not within format units such as s#). This can be used to make long format strings a tad more readable.

s (str ou None) [const char *]

Convert a null-terminated C string to a Python str object using 'utf-8' encoding. If the C string pointer is NULL, None is used.

s# (str or None) [const char *, Py_ssize_t]

Convert a C string and its length to a Python str object using 'utf-8' encoding. If the C string pointer is NULL, the length is ignored and None is returned.

y (bytes) [const char *]

This converts a C string to a Python bytes object. If the C string pointer is NULL, None is returned.

y# (bytes) [const char *, Py_ssize_t]

This converts a C string and its lengths to a Python object. If the C string pointer is NULL, None is returned.

z (str ou None) [const char *]

Same as s.

z# (str or None) [const char *, Py_ssize_t]

Same as s#.

u (str) [const wchar_t *]

Convert a null-terminated wchar_t buffer of Unicode (UTF-16 or UCS-4) data to a Python Unicode object. If the Unicode buffer pointer is NULL, None is returned.

u# (str) [const wchar_t *, Py_ssize_t]

Convert a Unicode (UTF-16 or UCS-4) data buffer and its length to a Python Unicode object. If the Unicode buffer pointer is NULL, the length is ignored and None is returned.

U (str ou None) [const char *]

Same as s.

U# (str or None) [const char *, Py_ssize_t]

Same as s#.

i (int) [int]

Convert a plain C int to a Python integer object.

b (int) [char]

Convert a plain C char to a Python integer object.

h (int) [short int]

Convert a plain C short int to a Python integer object.

l (int) [long int]

Convert a C long int to a Python integer object.

B (int) [unsigned char]

Convert a C unsigned char to a Python integer object.

H (int) [unsigned short int]

Convert a C unsigned short int to a Python integer object.

I (int) [unsigned int]

Convert a C unsigned int to a Python integer object.

k (int) [unsigned long]

Convert a C unsigned long to a Python integer object.

L (int) [long long]

Convert a C long long to a Python integer object.

K (int) [unsigned long long]

Convert a C unsigned long long to a Python integer object.

n (int) [Py_ssize_t]

Convert a C Py_ssize_t to a Python integer.

p (bool) [int]

Convert a C int to a Python bool object.

Be aware that this format requires an int argument. Unlike most other contexts in C, variadic arguments are not coerced to a suitable type automatically. You can convert another type (for example, a pointer or a float) to a suitable int value using (x) ? 1 : 0 or !!x.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

c (bytes de taille 1) [char]

Convert a C int representing a byte to a Python bytes object of length 1.

C (str de longueur 1) [int]

Convert a C int representing a character to Python str object of length 1.

d (float) [double]

Convert a C double to a Python floating-point number.

f (float) [float]

Convert a C float to a Python floating-point number.

D (complex) [Py_complex *]

Convert a C Py_complex structure to a Python complex number.

O (objet) [PyObject *]

Pass a Python object untouched but create a new strong reference to it (i.e. its reference count is incremented by one). If the object passed in is a NULL pointer, it is assumed that this was caused because the call producing the argument found an error and set an exception. Therefore, Py_BuildValue() will return NULL but won't raise an exception. If no exception has been raised yet, SystemError is set.

S (objet) [PyObject *]

Same as O.

N (objet) [PyObject *]

Same as O, except it doesn't create a new strong reference. Useful when the object is created by a call to an object constructor in the argument list.

O& (objet) [converter, anything]

Convert anything to a Python object through a converter function. The function is called with anything (which should be compatible with void*) as its argument and should return a "new" Python object, or NULL if an error occurred.

(items) (tuple) [matching-items]

Convert a sequence of C values to a Python tuple with the same number of items.

[items] (list) [matching-items]

Convert a sequence of C values to a Python list with the same number of items.

{items} (dict) [matching-items]

Convert a sequence of C values to a Python dictionary. Each pair of consecutive C values adds one item to the dictionary, serving as key and value, respectively.

If there is an error in the format string, the SystemError exception is set and NULL returned.

PyObject *Py_VaBuildValue(const char *format, va_list vargs)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Identical to Py_BuildValue(), except that it accepts a va_list rather than a variable number of arguments.

Conversion et formatage de chaînes

Fonctions de conversion pour les nombres et pour la sortie des chaînes formatées.

int PyOS_snprintf(char *str, size_t size, const char *format, ...)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Output not more than size bytes to str according to the format string format and the extra arguments. See the Unix man page snprintf(3) [https://manpages.debian.org/snprintf(3)].

int PyOS_vsnprintf(char *str, size_t size, const char *format, va_list va)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Output not more than size bytes to str according to the format string format and the variable argument list va. Unix man page vsnprintf(3) [https://manpages.debian.org/vsnprintf(3)].

PyOS_snprintf() and PyOS_vsnprintf() wrap the Standard C library functions snprintf() and vsnprintf(). Their purpose is to guarantee consistent behavior in corner cases, which the Standard C functions do not.

The wrappers ensure that str[size-1] is always '\0' upon return. They never write more than size bytes (including the trailing '\0') into str. Both functions require that str != NULL, size > 0, format != NULL and size < INT_MAX. Note that this means there is no equivalent to the C99 n = snprintf(NULL, 0, ...) which would determine the necessary buffer size.

The return value (rv) for these functions should be interpreted as follows:

When 0 <= rv < size, the output conversion was successful and rv characters were written to str (excluding the trailing '\0' byte at str[rv]).

When rv >= size, the output conversion was truncated and a buffer with rv + 1 bytes would have been needed to succeed. str[size-1] is '\0' in this case.

When rv < 0, the output conversion failed and str[size-1] is '\0' in this case too, but the rest of str is undefined. The exact cause of the error depends on the underlying platform.

The following functions provide locale-independent string to number conversions.

unsigned long PyOS_strtoul(const char *str, char **ptr, int base)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Convert the initial part of the string in str to an unsigned long value according to the given base, which must be between 2 and 36 inclusive, or be the special value 0.

Leading white space and case of characters are ignored. If base is zero it looks for a leading 0b, 0o or 0x to tell which base. If these are absent it defaults to 10. Base must be 0 or between 2 and 36 (inclusive). If ptr is non-NULL it will contain a pointer to the end of the scan.

If the converted value falls out of range of corresponding return type, range error occurs (errno is set to ERANGE) and ULONG_MAX is returned. If no conversion can be performed, 0 is returned.

See also the Unix man page strtoul(3) [https://manpages.debian.org/strtoul(3)].

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

long PyOS_strtol(const char *str, char **ptr, int base)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Convert the initial part of the string in str to an long value according to the given base, which must be between 2 and 36 inclusive, or be the special value 0.

Same as PyOS_strtoul(), but return a long value instead and LONG_MAX on overflows.

See also the Unix man page strtol(3) [https://manpages.debian.org/strtol(3)].

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

double PyOS_string_to_double(const char *s, char **endptr, PyObject *overflow_exception)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Convert a string s to a double, raising a Python exception on failure. The set of accepted strings corresponds to the set of strings accepted by Python's float() constructor, except that s must not have leading or trailing whitespace. The conversion is independent of the current locale.

If endptr is NULL, convert the whole string. Raise ValueError and return -1.0 if the string is not a valid representation of a floating-point number.

If endptr is not NULL, convert as much of the string as possible and set *endptr to point to the first unconverted character. If no initial segment of the string is the valid representation of a floating-point number, set *endptr to point to the beginning of the string, raise ValueError, and return -1.0.

If s represents a value that is too large to store in a float (for example, "1e500" is such a string on many platforms) then if overflow_exception is NULL return Py_INFINITY (with an appropriate sign) and don't set any exception. Otherwise, overflow_exception must point to a Python exception object; raise that exception and return -1.0. In both cases, set *endptr to point to the first character after the converted value.

If any other error occurs during the conversion (for example an out-of-memory error), set the appropriate Python exception and return -1.0.

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

char *PyOS_double_to_string(double val, char format_code, int precision, int flags, int *ptype)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Convert a double val to a string using supplied format_code, precision, and flags.

format_code must be one of 'e', 'E', 'f', 'F', 'g', 'G' or 'r'. For 'r', the supplied precision must be 0 and is ignored. The 'r' format code specifies the standard repr() format.

flags can be zero or more of the following values or-ed together:

Py_DTSF_SIGN

Always precede the returned string with a sign character, even if val is non-negative.

Py_DTSF_ADD_DOT_0

Ensure that the returned string will not look like an integer.

Py_DTSF_ALT

Apply "alternate" formatting rules. See the documentation for the PyOS_snprintf() '#' specifier for details.

Py_DTSF_NO_NEG_0

Negative zero is converted to positive zero.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

If ptype is non-NULL, then the value it points to will be set to one of the following constants depending on the type of val:

*ptype

type of val

Py_DTST_FINITE

finite number

Py_DTST_INFINITE

infinite number

Py_DTST_NAN

not a number

The return value is a pointer to buffer with the converted string or NULL if the conversion failed. The caller is responsible for freeing the returned string by calling PyMem_Free().

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

int PyOS_mystricmp(const char *str1, const char *str2)

int PyOS_mystrnicmp(const char *str1, const char *str2, Py_ssize_t size)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Case insensitive comparison of strings. These functions work almost identically to strcmp() and strncmp() (respectively), except that they ignore the case of ASCII characters.

Return 0 if the strings are equal, a negative value if str1 sorts lexicographically before str2, or a positive value if it sorts after.

In the str1 or str2 arguments, a NUL byte marks the end of the string. For PyOS_mystrnicmp(), the size argument gives the maximum size of the string, as if NUL was present at the index given by size.

These functions do not use the locale.

int PyOS_stricmp(const char *str1, const char *str2)

int PyOS_strnicmp(const char *str1, const char *str2, Py_ssize_t size)

Case insensitive comparison of strings.

On Windows, these are aliases of stricmp() and strnicmp(), respectively.

On other platforms, they are aliases of PyOS_mystricmp() and PyOS_mystrnicmp(), respectively.

Character classification and conversion

The following macros provide locale-independent (unlike the C standard library ctype.h) character classification and conversion. The argument must be a signed or unsigned char.

Py_ISALNUM(c)

Return true if the character c is an alphanumeric character.

Py_ISALPHA(c)

Return true if the character c is an alphabetic character (a-z and A-Z).

Py_ISDIGIT(c)

Return true if the character c is a decimal digit (0-9).

Py_ISLOWER(c)

Return true if the character c is a lowercase ASCII letter (a-z).

Py_ISUPPER(c)

Return true if the character c is an uppercase ASCII letter (A-Z).

Py_ISSPACE(c)

Return true if the character c is a whitespace character (space, tab, carriage return, newline, vertical tab, or form feed).

Py_ISXDIGIT(c)

Return true if the character c is a hexadecimal digit (0-9, a-f, and A-F).

Py_TOLOWER(c)

Return the lowercase equivalent of the character c.

Py_TOUPPER(c)

Return the uppercase equivalent of the character c.

PyHash API

See also the PyTypeObject.tp_hash member and Hachage des types numériques.

type Py_hash_t

Hash value type: signed integer.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

type Py_uhash_t

Hash value type: unsigned integer.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Py_HASH_ALGORITHM

A numerical value indicating the algorithm for hashing of str, bytes, and memoryview.

The algorithm name is exposed by sys.hash_info.algorithm.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Py_HASH_FNV

Py_HASH_SIPHASH24

Py_HASH_SIPHASH13

Numerical values to compare to Py_HASH_ALGORITHM to determine which algorithm is used for hashing. The hash algorithm can be configured via the configure --with-hash-algorithm option.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4: Add Py_HASH_FNV and Py_HASH_SIPHASH24.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11: Add Py_HASH_SIPHASH13.

Py_HASH_CUTOFF

Buffers of length in range [1, Py_HASH_CUTOFF) are hashed using DJBX33A instead of the algorithm described by Py_HASH_ALGORITHM.

A Py_HASH_CUTOFF of 0 disables the optimization.

Py_HASH_CUTOFF must be non-negative and less or equal than 7.

32-bit platforms should use a cutoff smaller than 64-bit platforms because it is easier to create colliding strings. A cutoff of 7 on 64-bit platforms and 5 on 32-bit platforms should provide a decent safety margin.

This corresponds to the sys.hash_info.cutoff constant.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

PyHASH_MODULUS

The Mersenne prime [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mersenne_prime] P = 2**n -1, used for numeric hash scheme.

This corresponds to the sys.hash_info.modulus constant.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

PyHASH_BITS

The exponent n of P in PyHASH_MODULUS.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

PyHASH_MULTIPLIER

Prime multiplier used in string and various other hashes.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

PyHASH_INF

The hash value returned for a positive infinity.

This corresponds to the sys.hash_info.inf constant.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

PyHASH_IMAG

The multiplier used for the imaginary part of a complex number.

This corresponds to the sys.hash_info.imag constant.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

type PyHash_FuncDef

Hash function definition used by PyHash_GetFuncDef().

Py_hash_t (*const hash)(const void*, Py_ssize_t)

Hash function.

const char *name

Hash function name (UTF-8 encoded string).

This corresponds to the sys.hash_info.algorithm constant.

const int hash_bits

Internal size of the hash value in bits.

This corresponds to the sys.hash_info.hash_bits constant.

const int seed_bits

Size of seed input in bits.

This corresponds to the sys.hash_info.seed_bits constant.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

PyHash_FuncDef *PyHash_GetFuncDef(void)

Get the hash function definition.

Voir aussi

PEP 456 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0456/] "Secure and interchangeable hash algorithm".

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Py_hash_t Py_HashPointer(const void *ptr)

Hash a pointer value: process the pointer value as an integer (cast it to uintptr_t internally). The pointer is not dereferenced.

The function cannot fail: it cannot return -1.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Py_hash_t Py_HashBuffer(const void *ptr, Py_ssize_t len)

Compute and return the hash value of a buffer of len bytes starting at address ptr. The hash is guaranteed to match that of bytes, memoryview, and other built-in objects that implement the buffer protocol.

Use this function to implement hashing for immutable objects whose tp_richcompare function compares to another object's buffer.

len must be greater than or equal to 0.

This function always succeeds.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Py_hash_t PyObject_GenericHash(PyObject *obj)

Generic hashing function that is meant to be put into a type object's tp_hash slot. Its result only depends on the object's identity.

Particularité de l'implémentation CPython : In CPython, it is equivalent to Py_HashPointer().

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Réflexion

PyObject *PyEval_GetBuiltins(void)

Valeur de retour : référence empruntée. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.13: Use PyEval_GetFrameBuiltins() instead.

Renvoie un dictionnaire des fonctions natives de la frame en cours d'exécution, ou si aucune frame n'est exécutée, les fonctions natives du thread indiqué par le thread state.

PyObject *PyEval_GetLocals(void)

Valeur de retour : référence empruntée. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.13: Use either PyEval_GetFrameLocals() to obtain the same behaviour as calling locals() in Python code, or else call PyFrame_GetLocals() on the result of PyEval_GetFrame() to access the f_locals attribute of the currently executing frame.

Return a mapping providing access to the local variables in the current execution frame, or NULL if no frame is currently executing.

Refer to locals() for details of the mapping returned at different scopes.

As this function returns a borrowed reference, the dictionary returned for optimized scopes is cached on the frame object and will remain alive as long as the frame object does. Unlike PyEval_GetFrameLocals() and locals(), subsequent calls to this function in the same frame will update the contents of the cached dictionary to reflect changes in the state of the local variables rather than returning a new snapshot.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: As part of PEP 667 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/], PyFrame_GetLocals(), locals(), and FrameType.f_locals no longer make use of the shared cache dictionary. Refer to the What's New entry for additional details.

PyObject *PyEval_GetGlobals(void)

Valeur de retour : référence empruntée. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.13: Use PyEval_GetFrameGlobals() instead.

Return a dictionary of the global variables in the current execution frame, or NULL if no frame is currently executing.

PyFrameObject *PyEval_GetFrame(void)

Valeur de retour : référence empruntée. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the attached thread state's frame, which is NULL if no frame is currently executing.

See also PyThreadState_GetFrame().

PyObject *PyEval_GetFrameBuiltins(void)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.13.

Renvoie un dictionnaire des fonctions natives de la frame en cours d'exécution, ou si aucune frame n'est exécutée, les fonctions natives du thread indiqué par le thread state.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

PyObject *PyEval_GetFrameLocals(void)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.13.

Return a dictionary of the local variables in the current execution frame, or NULL if no frame is currently executing. Equivalent to calling locals() in Python code.

To access f_locals on the current frame without making an independent snapshot in optimized scopes, call PyFrame_GetLocals() on the result of PyEval_GetFrame().

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

PyObject *PyEval_GetFrameGlobals(void)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.13.

Return a dictionary of the global variables in the current execution frame, or NULL if no frame is currently executing. Equivalent to calling globals() in Python code.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

const char *PyEval_GetFuncName(PyObject *func)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Renvoie le nom de func s'il s'agit d'une fonction, d'une classe ou d'un objet d'instance, sinon le nom du type de func

const char *PyEval_GetFuncDesc(PyObject *func)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Renvoie une description en chaîne de caractères, en fonction du type de func. Les valeurs renvoyées peuvent être "()" pour les fonction et les méthodes, \" constructor\", \" instance\", \" object\". Concaténé avec le résultat de PyEval_GetFuncName(), le résultat sera une description de func

Codec registry and support functions

int PyCodec_Register(PyObject *search_function)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Register a new codec search function.

As a side effect, this tries to load the encodings package, if not yet done, to make sure that it is always first in the list of search functions.

int PyCodec_Unregister(PyObject *search_function)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.10.

Unregister a codec search function and clear the registry's cache. If the search function is not registered, do nothing. Return 0 on success. Raise an exception and return -1 on error.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

int PyCodec_KnownEncoding(const char *encoding)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return 1 or 0 depending on whether there is a registered codec for the given encoding. This function always succeeds.

PyObject *PyCodec_Encode(PyObject *object, const char *encoding, const char *errors)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Generic codec based encoding API.

object is passed through the encoder function found for the given encoding using the error handling method defined by errors. errors may be NULL to use the default method defined for the codec. Raises a LookupError if no encoder can be found.

PyObject *PyCodec_Decode(PyObject *object, const char *encoding, const char *errors)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Generic codec based decoding API.

object is passed through the decoder function found for the given encoding using the error handling method defined by errors. errors may be NULL to use the default method defined for the codec. Raises a LookupError if no decoder can be found.

Codec lookup API

In the following functions, the encoding string is looked up converted to all lower-case characters, which makes encodings looked up through this mechanism effectively case-insensitive. If no codec is found, a KeyError is set and NULL returned.

PyObject *PyCodec_Encoder(const char *encoding)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Get an encoder function for the given encoding.

PyObject *PyCodec_Decoder(const char *encoding)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Get a decoder function for the given encoding.

PyObject *PyCodec_IncrementalEncoder(const char *encoding, const char *errors)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Get an IncrementalEncoder object for the given encoding.

PyObject *PyCodec_IncrementalDecoder(const char *encoding, const char *errors)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Get an IncrementalDecoder object for the given encoding.

PyObject *PyCodec_StreamReader(const char *encoding, PyObject *stream, const char *errors)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Get a StreamReader factory function for the given encoding.

PyObject *PyCodec_StreamWriter(const char *encoding, PyObject *stream, const char *errors)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Get a StreamWriter factory function for the given encoding.

Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers

int PyCodec_RegisterError(const char *name, PyObject *error)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Register the error handling callback function error under the given name. This callback function will be called by a codec when it encounters unencodable characters/undecodable bytes and name is specified as the error parameter in the call to the encode/decode function.

The callback gets a single argument, an instance of UnicodeEncodeError, UnicodeDecodeError or UnicodeTranslateError that holds information about the problematic sequence of characters or bytes and their offset in the original string (see Objets exception Unicode for functions to extract this information). The callback must either raise the given exception, or return a two-item tuple containing the replacement for the problematic sequence, and an integer giving the offset in the original string at which encoding/decoding should be resumed.

Return 0 on success, -1 on error.

PyObject *PyCodec_LookupError(const char *name)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Lookup the error handling callback function registered under name. As a special case NULL can be passed, in which case the error handling callback for "strict" will be returned.

PyObject *PyCodec_StrictErrors(PyObject *exc)

Valeur de retour : toujours NULL. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Raise exc as an exception.

PyObject *PyCodec_IgnoreErrors(PyObject *exc)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Ignore the unicode error, skipping the faulty input.

PyObject *PyCodec_ReplaceErrors(PyObject *exc)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Replace the unicode encode error with ? or U+FFFD.

PyObject *PyCodec_XMLCharRefReplaceErrors(PyObject *exc)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Replace the unicode encode error with XML character references.

PyObject *PyCodec_BackslashReplaceErrors(PyObject *exc)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Replace the unicode encode error with backslash escapes (\x, \u and \U).

PyObject *PyCodec_NameReplaceErrors(PyObject *exc)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

Replace the unicode encode error with \N{...} escapes.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Codec utility variables

const char *Py_hexdigits

A string constant containing the lowercase hexadecimal digits: "0123456789abcdef".

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

PyTime C API

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

The clock C API provides access to system clocks. It is similar to the Python time module.

For C API related to the datetime module, see Objets DateTime.

Types

type PyTime_t

A timestamp or duration in nanoseconds, represented as a signed 64-bit integer.

The reference point for timestamps depends on the clock used. For example, PyTime_Time() returns timestamps relative to the UNIX epoch.

The supported range is around [-292.3 years; +292.3 years]. Using the Unix epoch (January 1st, 1970) as reference, the supported date range is around [1677-09-21; 2262-04-11]. The exact limits are exposed as constants:

PyTime_t PyTime_MIN

Minimum value of PyTime_t.

PyTime_t PyTime_MAX

Maximum value of PyTime_t.

Clock Functions

The following functions take a pointer to a PyTime_t that they set to the value of a particular clock. Details of each clock are given in the documentation of the corresponding Python function.

The functions return 0 on success, or -1 (with an exception set) on failure.

On integer overflow, they set the PyExc_OverflowError exception and set *result to the value clamped to the [PyTime_MIN; PyTime_MAX] range. (On current systems, integer overflows are likely caused by misconfigured system time.)

As any other C API (unless otherwise specified), the functions must be called with an attached thread state.

int PyTime_Monotonic(PyTime_t *result)

Read the monotonic clock. See time.monotonic() for important details on this clock.

int PyTime_PerfCounter(PyTime_t *result)

Read the performance counter. See time.perf_counter() for important details on this clock.

int PyTime_Time(PyTime_t *result)

Read the “wall clock” time. See time.time() for details important on this clock.

Raw Clock Functions

Similar to clock functions, but don't set an exception on error and don't require the caller to have an attached thread state.

On success, the functions return 0.

On failure, they set *result to 0 and return -1, without setting an exception. To get the cause of the error, attach a thread state, and call the regular (non-Raw) function. Note that the regular function may succeed after the Raw one failed.

int PyTime_MonotonicRaw(PyTime_t *result)

Similar to PyTime_Monotonic(), but don't set an exception on error and don't require an attached thread state.

int PyTime_PerfCounterRaw(PyTime_t *result)

Similar to PyTime_PerfCounter(), but don't set an exception on error and don't require an attached thread state.

int PyTime_TimeRaw(PyTime_t *result)

Similar to PyTime_Time(), but don't set an exception on error and don't require an attached thread state.

Conversion functions

double PyTime_AsSecondsDouble(PyTime_t t)

Convert a timestamp to a number of seconds as a C double.

The function cannot fail, but note that double has limited accuracy for large values.

Support for Perf Maps

On supported platforms (as of this writing, only Linux), the runtime can take advantage of perf map files to make Python functions visible to an external profiling tool (such as perf [https://perf.wiki.kernel.org/index.php/Main_Page]). A running process may create a file in the /tmp directory, which contains entries that can map a section of executable code to a name. This interface is described in the documentation of the Linux Perf tool [https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/torvalds/linux.git/tree/tools/perf/Documentation/jit-interface.txt].

In Python, these helper APIs can be used by libraries and features that rely on generating machine code on the fly.

Note that holding an attached thread state is not required for these APIs.

int PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Init(void)

Fait partie de l' API instable. Peut changer sans avertissement d'une version mineure à l'autre.

Open the /tmp/perf-$pid.map file, unless it's already opened, and create a lock to ensure thread-safe writes to the file (provided the writes are done through PyUnstable_WritePerfMapEntry()). Normally, there's no need to call this explicitly; just use PyUnstable_WritePerfMapEntry() and it will initialize the state on first call.

Returns 0 on success, -1 on failure to create/open the perf map file, or -2 on failure to create a lock. Check errno for more information about the cause of a failure.

int PyUnstable_WritePerfMapEntry(const void *code_addr, unsigned int code_size, const char *entry_name)

Fait partie de l' API instable. Peut changer sans avertissement d'une version mineure à l'autre.

Write one single entry to the /tmp/perf-$pid.map file. This function is thread safe. Here is what an example entry looks like:

# address      size  name
7f3529fcf759 b     py::bar:/run/t.py

Will call PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Init() before writing the entry, if the perf map file is not already opened. Returns 0 on success, or the same error codes as PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Init() on failure.

void PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Fini(void)

Fait partie de l' API instable. Peut changer sans avertissement d'une version mineure à l'autre.

Close the perf map file opened by PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Init(). This is called by the runtime itself during interpreter shut-down. In general, there shouldn't be a reason to explicitly call this, except to handle specific scenarios such as forking.

Couche d'abstraction des objets

Dans ce chapitre, les fonctions s'appliquent à des objets Python sans tenir compte de leur type, ou des classes d'objets au sens large (par exemple, tous les types numériques, ou tous les types de séquence). Quand ils sont utilisés sur des types d'objets qui ne correspondent pas, ils lèveront une exception Python.

Il n'est pas possible d'utiliser ces fonctions sur des objets qui n'ont pas été correctement initialisés, comme un objet liste qui a été créé avec PyList_New() mais dont les éléments n'ont pas encore été mis à une valeur non-NULL.

Protocole Objet

Call Protocol

The tp_call Protocol

The Vectorcall Protocol

Contrôle de la récursion

Vectorcall Support API

Object Calling API

Call Support API

Number Protocol

Sequence Protocol

Protocole de correspondance

Protocole d'itération

Protocole tampon

La structure buffer

Buffer request types

request-independent fields

readonly, format

shape, strides, suboffsets

contiguity requests

compound requests

Complex arrays

NumPy-style: shape and strides

PIL-style: shape, strides and suboffsets

Fonctions relatives aux tampons

Protocole Objet

PyObject *Py_GetConstant(unsigned int constant_id)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.13.

Get a strong reference to a constant.

Set an exception and return NULL if constant_id is invalid.

constant_id must be one of these constant identifiers:

Constant Identifier

Valeur

Returned object

Py_CONSTANT_NONE

0

None

Py_CONSTANT_FALSE

1

False

Py_CONSTANT_TRUE

2

True

Py_CONSTANT_ELLIPSIS

3

Ellipsis

Py_CONSTANT_NOT_IMPLEMENTED

4

NotImplemented

Py_CONSTANT_ZERO

5

0

Py_CONSTANT_ONE

6

1

Py_CONSTANT_EMPTY_STR

7

''

Py_CONSTANT_EMPTY_BYTES

8

b''

Py_CONSTANT_EMPTY_TUPLE

9

()

Numeric values are only given for projects which cannot use the constant identifiers.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Particularité de l'implémentation CPython : In CPython, all of these constants are immortal.

PyObject *Py_GetConstantBorrowed(unsigned int constant_id)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.13.

Similar to Py_GetConstant(), but return a borrowed reference.

This function is primarily intended for backwards compatibility: using Py_GetConstant() is recommended for new code.

The reference is borrowed from the interpreter, and is valid until the interpreter finalization.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

PyObject *Py_NotImplemented

Le singleton NotImplemented, utilisé pour signaler qu'une opération n'est pas implémentée pour la combinaison de types en question.

Py_RETURN_NOTIMPLEMENTED

Properly handle returning Py_NotImplemented from within a C function (that is, create a new strong reference to NotImplemented and return it).

Py_PRINT_RAW

Flag to be used with multiple functions that print the object (like PyObject_Print() and PyFile_WriteObject()). If passed, these functions use the str() of the object instead of the repr().

int PyObject_Print(PyObject *o, FILE *fp, int flags)

Print an object o, on file fp. Returns -1 on error. The flags argument is used to enable certain printing options. The only option currently supported is Py_PRINT_RAW; if given, the str() of the object is written instead of the repr().

int PyObject_HasAttrWithError(PyObject *o, PyObject *attr_name)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.13.

Returns 1 if o has the attribute attr_name, and 0 otherwise. This is equivalent to the Python expression hasattr(o, attr_name). On failure, return -1.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

int PyObject_HasAttrStringWithError(PyObject *o, const char *attr_name)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.13.

This is the same as PyObject_HasAttrWithError(), but attr_name is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a PyObject*.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

int PyObject_HasAttr(PyObject *o, PyObject *attr_name)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Returns 1 if o has the attribute attr_name, and 0 otherwise. This function always succeeds.

Note

Exceptions that occur when this calls __getattr__() and __getattribute__() methods aren't propagated, but instead given to sys.unraisablehook(). For proper error handling, use PyObject_HasAttrWithError(), PyObject_GetOptionalAttr() or PyObject_GetAttr() instead.

int PyObject_HasAttrString(PyObject *o, const char *attr_name)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This is the same as PyObject_HasAttr(), but attr_name is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a PyObject*.

Note

Exceptions that occur when this calls __getattr__() and __getattribute__() methods or while creating the temporary str object are silently ignored. For proper error handling, use PyObject_HasAttrStringWithError(), PyObject_GetOptionalAttrString() or PyObject_GetAttrString() instead.

PyObject *PyObject_GetAttr(PyObject *o, PyObject *attr_name)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Retrieve an attribute named attr_name from object o. Returns the attribute value on success, or NULL on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression o.attr_name.

If the missing attribute should not be treated as a failure, you can use PyObject_GetOptionalAttr() instead.

PyObject *PyObject_GetAttrString(PyObject *o, const char *attr_name)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This is the same as PyObject_GetAttr(), but attr_name is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a PyObject*.

If the missing attribute should not be treated as a failure, you can use PyObject_GetOptionalAttrString() instead.

int PyObject_GetOptionalAttr(PyObject *obj, PyObject *attr_name, PyObject **result);

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.13.

Variant of PyObject_GetAttr() which doesn't raise AttributeError if the attribute is not found.

If the attribute is found, return 1 and set *result to a new strong reference to the attribute. If the attribute is not found, return 0 and set *result to NULL; the AttributeError is silenced. If an error other than AttributeError is raised, return -1 and set *result to NULL.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

int PyObject_GetOptionalAttrString(PyObject *obj, const char *attr_name, PyObject **result);

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.13.

This is the same as PyObject_GetOptionalAttr(), but attr_name is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a PyObject*.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

PyObject *PyObject_GenericGetAttr(PyObject *o, PyObject *name)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Accesseur d'attribut générique destiné à être mis dans le slot tp_getattro d'un objet type. Recherche un descripteur dans le dictionnaire de classes du MRO de l'objet ainsi qu'un attribut dans le __dict__ de l'objet (si présent). Comme défini dans Implémentation de descripteurs, les descripteurs de données sont prioritaires sur les attributs d'instance, contrairement aux autres descripteurs. Sinon, une AttributeError est levée.

int PyObject_SetAttr(PyObject *o, PyObject *attr_name, PyObject *v)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Définit la valeur de l'attribut nommé attr_name, pour l'objet o, à la valeur v. Lève une exception et renvoie -1 en cas d'échec ; renvoie 0 en cas de succès. Ceci est équivalent à l'instruction Python o.attr_name = v.

If v is NULL, the attribute is deleted. This behaviour is deprecated in favour of using PyObject_DelAttr(), but there are currently no plans to remove it.

int PyObject_SetAttrString(PyObject *o, const char *attr_name, PyObject *v)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This is the same as PyObject_SetAttr(), but attr_name is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a PyObject*.

If v is NULL, the attribute is deleted, but this feature is deprecated in favour of using PyObject_DelAttrString().

The number of different attribute names passed to this function should be kept small, usually by using a statically allocated string as attr_name. For attribute names that aren't known at compile time, prefer calling PyUnicode_FromString() and PyObject_SetAttr() directly. For more details, see PyUnicode_InternFromString(), which may be used internally to create a key object.

int PyObject_GenericSetAttr(PyObject *o, PyObject *name, PyObject *value)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Accesseur et suppresseur générique d'attributs qui est fait pour être mis dans le tp_setattro d'un objet type. Il cherche un descripteur de données dans le dictionnaire de classes dans le MRO de l'objet et, si ce descripteur est trouvé, c'est lui qui est utilisé de préférence pour la suppression et la définition de l'attribut dans le dictionnaire d'instance. Sinon, l'attribut est défini ou supprimé dans le __dict__ de l'objet (si présent). En cas de succès, 0 est renvoyé, sinon une AttributeError est levée et -1 est renvoyé.

int PyObject_DelAttr(PyObject *o, PyObject *attr_name)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.13.

Supprime l'attribut nommé attr_name, pour l'objet o. Renvoie -1 en cas d'échec. Ceci est l'équivalent de l'expression Python del o.attr_name.

int PyObject_DelAttrString(PyObject *o, const char *attr_name)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.13.

This is the same as PyObject_DelAttr(), but attr_name is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a PyObject*.

The number of different attribute names passed to this function should be kept small, usually by using a statically allocated string as attr_name. For attribute names that aren't known at compile time, prefer calling PyUnicode_FromString() and PyObject_DelAttr() directly. For more details, see PyUnicode_InternFromString(), which may be used internally to create a key object for lookup.

PyObject *PyObject_GenericGetDict(PyObject *o, void *context)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.10.

Une implémentation générique de l'accesseur d'un descripteur d'un __dict__. Crée le dictionnaire si nécessaire.

This function may also be called to get the __dict__ of the object o. Pass NULL for context when calling it. Since this function may need to allocate memory for the dictionary, it may be more efficient to call PyObject_GetAttr() when accessing an attribute on the object.

On failure, returns NULL with an exception set.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

int PyObject_GenericSetDict(PyObject *o, PyObject *value, void *context)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

Une implémentation générique du mutateur d'un descripteur de __dict__. Cette implémentation n'autorise pas la suppression du dictionnaire.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

PyObject **_PyObject_GetDictPtr(PyObject *obj)

Return a pointer to __dict__ of the object obj. If there is no __dict__, return NULL without setting an exception.

This function may need to allocate memory for the dictionary, so it may be more efficient to call PyObject_GetAttr() when accessing an attribute on the object.

PyObject *PyObject_RichCompare(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2, int opid)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Compare the values of o1 and o2 using the operation specified by opid, which must be one of Py_LT, Py_LE, Py_EQ, Py_NE, Py_GT, or Py_GE, corresponding to <, <=, ==, !=, >, or >= respectively. This is the equivalent of the Python expression o1 op o2, where op is the operator corresponding to opid. Returns the value of the comparison on success, or NULL on failure.

int PyObject_RichCompareBool(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2, int opid)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Compare the values of o1 and o2 using the operation specified by opid, like PyObject_RichCompare(), but returns -1 on error, 0 if the result is false, 1 otherwise.

Note

If o1 and o2 are the same object, PyObject_RichCompareBool() will always return 1 for Py_EQ and 0 for Py_NE.

PyObject *PyObject_Format(PyObject *obj, PyObject *format_spec)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Format obj using format_spec. This is equivalent to the Python expression format(obj, format_spec).

format_spec may be NULL. In this case the call is equivalent to format(obj). Returns the formatted string on success, NULL on failure.

PyObject *PyObject_Repr(PyObject *o)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Compute a string representation of object o. Returns the string representation on success, NULL on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression repr(o). Called by the repr() built-in function.

If argument is NULL, return the string '<NULL>'.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Cette fonction inclut maintenant une assertion de débogage afin d'assurer qu'elle ne passe pas sous silence une exception active.

PyObject *PyObject_ASCII(PyObject *o)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Comme PyObject_Repr(), calcule une représentation en chaîne de caractères de l'objet o, mais échappe les caractères non ASCII dans la chaîne de caractères renvoyée par PyObject_Repr() avec' \x, \u ou \U. Cela génère une chaîne de caractères similaire à celle renvoyée par PyObject_Repr() en Python 2. Appelée par la fonction native ascii().

If argument is NULL, return the string '<NULL>'.

PyObject *PyObject_Str(PyObject *o)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Compute a string representation of object o. Returns the string representation on success, NULL on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression str(o). Called by the str() built-in function and, therefore, by the print() function.

If argument is NULL, return the string '<NULL>'.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Cette fonction inclut maintenant une assertion de débogage afin d'assurer qu'elle ne passe pas sous silence une exception active.

PyObject *PyObject_Bytes(PyObject *o)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Compute a bytes representation of object o. NULL is returned on failure and a bytes object on success. This is equivalent to the Python expression bytes(o), when o is not an integer. Unlike bytes(o), a TypeError is raised when o is an integer instead of a zero-initialized bytes object.

If argument is NULL, return the bytes object b'<NULL>'.

int PyObject_IsSubclass(PyObject *derived, PyObject *cls)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Renvoie 1 si la classe derived est identique à ou dérivée de la classe cls, renvoie 0 sinon. En cas d'erreur, renvoie -1.

Si cls est un n-uplet, la vérification est menée sur chaque entrée de cls. Le résultat sera 1 quand au moins une des vérifications renvoie 1, sinon ce sera 0.

If cls has a __subclasscheck__() method, it will be called to determine the subclass status as described in PEP 3119 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3119/]. Otherwise, derived is a subclass of cls if it is a direct or indirect subclass, i.e. contained in cls.__mro__.

Normally only class objects, i.e. instances of type or a derived class, are considered classes. However, objects can override this by having a __bases__ attribute (which must be a tuple of base classes).

int PyObject_IsInstance(PyObject *inst, PyObject *cls)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Renvoie 1 si inst est une instance de la classe cls ou une sous-classe de cls, ou 0 sinon. En cas d'erreur, renvoie -1 et initialise une exception.

Si cls est un n-uplet, la vérification est menée sur chaque entrée de cls. Le résultat sera 1 quand au moins une des vérifications renvoie 1, sinon ce sera 0.

If cls has a __instancecheck__() method, it will be called to determine the subclass status as described in PEP 3119 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3119/]. Otherwise, inst is an instance of cls if its class is a subclass of cls.

An instance inst can override what is considered its class by having a __class__ attribute.

An object cls can override if it is considered a class, and what its base classes are, by having a __bases__ attribute (which must be a tuple of base classes).

Py_hash_t PyObject_Hash(PyObject *o)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Compute and return the hash value of an object o. On failure, return -1. This is the equivalent of the Python expression hash(o).

Modifié dans la version 3.2: The return type is now Py_hash_t. This is a signed integer the same size as Py_ssize_t.

Py_hash_t PyObject_HashNotImplemented(PyObject *o)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Set a TypeError indicating that type(o) is not hashable and return -1. This function receives special treatment when stored in a tp_hash slot, allowing a type to explicitly indicate to the interpreter that it is not hashable.

int PyObject_IsTrue(PyObject *o)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Returns 1 if the object o is considered to be true, and 0 otherwise. This is equivalent to the Python expression not not o. On failure, return -1.

int PyObject_Not(PyObject *o)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Returns 0 if the object o is considered to be true, and 1 otherwise. This is equivalent to the Python expression not o. On failure, return -1.

PyObject *PyObject_Type(PyObject *o)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

When o is non-NULL, returns a type object corresponding to the object type of object o. On failure, raises SystemError and returns NULL. This is equivalent to the Python expression type(o). This function creates a new strong reference to the return value. There's really no reason to use this function instead of the Py_TYPE() function, which returns a pointer of type PyTypeObject*, except when a new strong reference is needed.

int PyObject_TypeCheck(PyObject *o, PyTypeObject *type)

Return non-zero if the object o is of type type or a subtype of type, and 0 otherwise. Both parameters must be non-NULL.

Py_ssize_t PyObject_Size(PyObject *o)

Py_ssize_t PyObject_Length(PyObject *o)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the length of object o. If the object o provides either the sequence and mapping protocols, the sequence length is returned. On error, -1 is returned. This is the equivalent to the Python expression len(o).

Py_ssize_t PyObject_LengthHint(PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t defaultvalue)

Return an estimated length for the object o. First try to return its actual length, then an estimate using __length_hint__(), and finally return the default value. On error return -1. This is the equivalent to the Python expression operator.length_hint(o, defaultvalue).

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

PyObject *PyObject_GetItem(PyObject *o, PyObject *key)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return element of o corresponding to the object key or NULL on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression o[key].

int PyObject_SetItem(PyObject *o, PyObject *key, PyObject *v)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Map the object key to the value v. Raise an exception and return -1 on failure; return 0 on success. This is the equivalent of the Python statement o[key] = v. This function does not steal a reference to v.

int PyObject_DelItem(PyObject *o, PyObject *key)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Remove the mapping for the object key from the object o. Return -1 on failure. This is equivalent to the Python statement del o[key].

int PyObject_DelItemString(PyObject *o, const char *key)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This is the same as PyObject_DelItem(), but key is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a PyObject*.

PyObject *PyObject_Dir(PyObject *o)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This is equivalent to the Python expression dir(o), returning a (possibly empty) list of strings appropriate for the object argument, or NULL if there was an error. If the argument is NULL, this is like the Python dir(), returning the names of the current locals; in this case, if no execution frame is active then NULL is returned but PyErr_Occurred() will return false.

PyObject *PyObject_GetIter(PyObject *o)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This is equivalent to the Python expression iter(o). It returns a new iterator for the object argument, or the object itself if the object is already an iterator. Raises TypeError and returns NULL if the object cannot be iterated.

PyObject *PyObject_SelfIter(PyObject *obj)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This is equivalent to the Python __iter__(self): return self method. It is intended for iterator types, to be used in the PyTypeObject.tp_iter slot.

PyObject *PyObject_GetAIter(PyObject *o)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.10.

This is the equivalent to the Python expression aiter(o). Takes an AsyncIterable object and returns an AsyncIterator for it. This is typically a new iterator but if the argument is an AsyncIterator, this returns itself. Raises TypeError and returns NULL if the object cannot be iterated.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

void *PyObject_GetTypeData(PyObject *o, PyTypeObject *cls)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.12.

Get a pointer to subclass-specific data reserved for cls.

The object o must be an instance of cls, and cls must have been created using negative PyType_Spec.basicsize. Python does not check this.

On error, set an exception and return NULL.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Py_ssize_t PyType_GetTypeDataSize(PyTypeObject *cls)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.12.

Return the size of the instance memory space reserved for cls, i.e. the size of the memory PyObject_GetTypeData() returns.

This may be larger than requested using -PyType_Spec.basicsize; it is safe to use this larger size (e.g. with memset()).

The type cls must have been created using negative PyType_Spec.basicsize. Python does not check this.

On error, set an exception and return a negative value.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

void *PyObject_GetItemData(PyObject *o)

Get a pointer to per-item data for a class with Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END.

On error, set an exception and return NULL. TypeError is raised if o does not have Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END set.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

int PyObject_VisitManagedDict(PyObject *obj, visitproc visit, void *arg)

Visit the managed dictionary of obj.

This function must only be called in a traverse function of the type which has the Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT flag set.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

void PyObject_ClearManagedDict(PyObject *obj)

Clear the managed dictionary of obj.

This function must only be called in a clear function of the type which has the Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT flag set.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

int PyUnstable_Object_EnableDeferredRefcount(PyObject *obj)

Fait partie de l' API instable. Peut changer sans avertissement d'une version mineure à l'autre.

Enable deferred reference counting [https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/#deferred-reference-counting] on obj, if supported by the runtime. In the free-threaded build, this allows the interpreter to avoid reference count adjustments to obj, which may improve multi-threaded performance. The tradeoff is that obj will only be deallocated by the tracing garbage collector, and not when the interpreter no longer has any references to it.

This function returns 1 if deferred reference counting is enabled on obj, and 0 if deferred reference counting is not supported or if the hint was ignored by the interpreter, such as when deferred reference counting is already enabled on obj. This function is thread-safe, and cannot fail.

This function does nothing on builds with the GIL enabled, which do not support deferred reference counting. This also does nothing if obj is not an object tracked by the garbage collector (see gc.is_tracked() and PyObject_GC_IsTracked()).

This function is intended to be used soon after obj is created, by the code that creates it, such as in the object's tp_new slot.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

int PyUnstable_Object_IsUniqueReferencedTemporary(PyObject *obj)

Fait partie de l' API instable. Peut changer sans avertissement d'une version mineure à l'autre.

Check if obj is a unique temporary object. Returns 1 if obj is known to be a unique temporary object, and 0 otherwise. This function cannot fail, but the check is conservative, and may return 0 in some cases even if obj is a unique temporary object.

If an object is a unique temporary, it is guaranteed that the current code has the only reference to the object. For arguments to C functions, this should be used instead of checking if the reference count is 1. Starting with Python 3.14, the interpreter internally avoids some reference count modifications when loading objects onto the operands stack by borrowing references when possible, which means that a reference count of 1 by itself does not guarantee that a function argument uniquely referenced.

In the example below, my_func is called with a unique temporary object as its argument:

my_func([1, 2, 3])

In the example below, my_func is not called with a unique temporary object as its argument, even if its refcount is 1:

my_list = [1, 2, 3]
my_func(my_list)

See also the function Py_REFCNT().

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

int PyUnstable_IsImmortal(PyObject *obj)

Fait partie de l' API instable. Peut changer sans avertissement d'une version mineure à l'autre.

This function returns non-zero if obj is immortal, and zero otherwise. This function cannot fail.

Note

Objects that are immortal in one CPython version are not guaranteed to be immortal in another.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

int PyUnstable_TryIncRef(PyObject *obj)

Fait partie de l' API instable. Peut changer sans avertissement d'une version mineure à l'autre.

Increments the reference count of obj if it is not zero. Returns 1 if the object's reference count was successfully incremented. Otherwise, this function returns 0.

PyUnstable_EnableTryIncRef() must have been called earlier on obj or this function may spuriously return 0 in the free-threaded build.

This function is logically equivalent to the following C code, except that it behaves atomically in the free-threaded build:

if (Py_REFCNT(op) > 0) {
   Py_INCREF(op);
   return 1;
}
return 0;

This is intended as a building block for managing weak references without the overhead of a Python weak reference object.

Typically, correct use of this function requires support from obj's deallocator (tp_dealloc). For example, the following sketch could be adapted to implement a "weakmap" that works like a WeakValueDictionary for a specific type:

PyMutex mutex;

PyObject *
add_entry(weakmap_key_type *key, PyObject *value)
{
    PyUnstable_EnableTryIncRef(value);
    weakmap_type weakmap = ...;
    PyMutex_Lock(&mutex);
    weakmap_add_entry(weakmap, key, value);
    PyMutex_Unlock(&mutex);
    Py_RETURN_NONE;
}

PyObject *
get_value(weakmap_key_type *key)
{
    weakmap_type weakmap = ...;
    PyMutex_Lock(&mutex);
    PyObject *result = weakmap_find(weakmap, key);
    if (PyUnstable_TryIncRef(result)) {
        // `result` is safe to use
        PyMutex_Unlock(&mutex);
        return result;
    }
    // if we get here, `result` is starting to be garbage-collected,
    // but has not been removed from the weakmap yet
    PyMutex_Unlock(&mutex);
    return NULL;
}

// tp_dealloc function for weakmap values
void
value_dealloc(PyObject *value)
{
    weakmap_type weakmap = ...;
    PyMutex_Lock(&mutex);
    weakmap_remove_value(weakmap, value);

    ...
    PyMutex_Unlock(&mutex);
}

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

void PyUnstable_EnableTryIncRef(PyObject *obj)

Fait partie de l' API instable. Peut changer sans avertissement d'une version mineure à l'autre.

Enables subsequent uses of PyUnstable_TryIncRef() on obj. The caller must hold a strong reference to obj when calling this.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

int PyUnstable_Object_IsUniquelyReferenced(PyObject *op)

Fait partie de l' API instable. Peut changer sans avertissement d'une version mineure à l'autre.

Determine if op only has one reference.

On GIL-enabled builds, this function is equivalent to Py_REFCNT(op) == 1.

On a free-threaded build, this checks if op's reference count is equal to one and additionally checks if op is only used by this thread. Py_REFCNT(op) == 1 is not thread-safe on free-threaded builds; prefer this function.

The caller must hold an attached thread state, despite the fact that this function doesn't call into the Python interpreter. This function cannot fail.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Call Protocol

CPython supports two different calling protocols: tp_call and vectorcall.

The tp_call Protocol

Instances of classes that set tp_call are callable. The signature of the slot is:

PyObject *tp_call(PyObject *callable, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwargs);

A call is made using a tuple for the positional arguments and a dict for the keyword arguments, similarly to callable(*args, **kwargs) in Python code. args must be non-NULL (use an empty tuple if there are no arguments) but kwargs may be NULL if there are no keyword arguments.

This convention is not only used by tp_call: tp_new and tp_init also pass arguments this way.

To call an object, use PyObject_Call() or another call API.

The Vectorcall Protocol

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

The vectorcall protocol was introduced in PEP 590 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/] as an additional protocol for making calls more efficient.

As rule of thumb, CPython will prefer the vectorcall for internal calls if the callable supports it. However, this is not a hard rule. Additionally, some third-party extensions use tp_call directly (rather than using PyObject_Call()). Therefore, a class supporting vectorcall must also implement tp_call. Moreover, the callable must behave the same regardless of which protocol is used. The recommended way to achieve this is by setting tp_call to PyVectorcall_Call(). This bears repeating:

Avertissement

A class supporting vectorcall must also implement tp_call with the same semantics.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: The Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL flag is now removed from a class when the class's __call__() method is reassigned. (This internally sets tp_call only, and thus may make it behave differently than the vectorcall function.) In earlier Python versions, vectorcall should only be used with immutable or static types.

A class should not implement vectorcall if that would be slower than tp_call. For example, if the callee needs to convert the arguments to an args tuple and kwargs dict anyway, then there is no point in implementing vectorcall.

Classes can implement the vectorcall protocol by enabling the Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL flag and setting tp_vectorcall_offset to the offset inside the object structure where a vectorcallfunc appears. This is a pointer to a function with the following signature:

typedef PyObject *(*vectorcallfunc)(PyObject *callable, PyObject *const *args, size_t nargsf, PyObject *kwnames)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.12.

callable is the object being called.

args is a C array consisting of the positional arguments followed by the

values of the keyword arguments. This can be NULL if there are no arguments.

nargsf is the number of positional arguments plus possibly the

PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET flag. To get the actual number of positional arguments from nargsf, use PyVectorcall_NARGS().

kwnames is a tuple containing the names of the keyword arguments;

in other words, the keys of the kwargs dict. These names must be strings (instances of str or a subclass) and they must be unique. If there are no keyword arguments, then kwnames can instead be NULL.

PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.12.

If this flag is set in a vectorcall nargsf argument, the callee is allowed to temporarily change args[-1]. In other words, args points to argument 1 (not 0) in the allocated vector. The callee must restore the value of args[-1] before returning.

For PyObject_VectorcallMethod(), this flag means instead that args[0] may be changed.

Whenever they can do so cheaply (without additional allocation), callers are encouraged to use PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET. Doing so will allow callables such as bound methods to make their onward calls (which include a prepended self argument) very efficiently.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

To call an object that implements vectorcall, use a call API function as with any other callable. PyObject_Vectorcall() will usually be most efficient.

Contrôle de la récursion

When using tp_call, callees do not need to worry about recursion: CPython uses Py_EnterRecursiveCall() and Py_LeaveRecursiveCall() for calls made using tp_call.

For efficiency, this is not the case for calls done using vectorcall: the callee should use Py_EnterRecursiveCall and Py_LeaveRecursiveCall if needed.

Vectorcall Support API

Py_ssize_t PyVectorcall_NARGS(size_t nargsf)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.12.

Given a vectorcall nargsf argument, return the actual number of arguments. Currently equivalent to:

(Py_ssize_t)(nargsf & ~PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET)

However, the function PyVectorcall_NARGS should be used to allow for future extensions.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

vectorcallfunc PyVectorcall_Function(PyObject *op)

If op does not support the vectorcall protocol (either because the type does not or because the specific instance does not), return NULL. Otherwise, return the vectorcall function pointer stored in op. This function never raises an exception.

This is mostly useful to check whether or not op supports vectorcall, which can be done by checking PyVectorcall_Function(op) != NULL.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

PyObject *PyVectorcall_Call(PyObject *callable, PyObject *tuple, PyObject *dict)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.12.

Call callable's vectorcallfunc with positional and keyword arguments given in a tuple and dict, respectively.

This is a specialized function, intended to be put in the tp_call slot or be used in an implementation of tp_call. It does not check the Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL flag and it does not fall back to tp_call.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

Object Calling API

Various functions are available for calling a Python object. Each converts its arguments to a convention supported by the called object – either tp_call or vectorcall. In order to do as little conversion as possible, pick one that best fits the format of data you have available.

The following table summarizes the available functions; please see individual documentation for details.

Fonction

appelable

args

kwargs

PyObject_Call()

PyObject *

n-uplet

dict/NULL

PyObject_CallNoArgs()

PyObject *

---

---

PyObject_CallOneArg()

PyObject *

1 object

---

PyObject_CallObject()

PyObject *

tuple/NULL

---

PyObject_CallFunction()

PyObject *

format

---

PyObject_CallMethod()

obj + char*

format

---

PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs()

PyObject *

variadic

---

PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs()

obj + name

variadic

---

PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs()

obj + name

---

---

PyObject_CallMethodOneArg()

obj + name

1 object

---

PyObject_Vectorcall()

PyObject *

vectorcall

vectorcall

PyObject_VectorcallDict()

PyObject *

vectorcall

dict/NULL

PyObject_VectorcallMethod()

arg + name

vectorcall

vectorcall

PyObject *PyObject_Call(PyObject *callable, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwargs)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Appelle un objet Python appelable callable, avec des arguments donnés par le n-uplet args, et des arguments nommés donnés par le dictionnaire kwargs.

args must not be NULL; use an empty tuple if no arguments are needed. If no named arguments are needed, kwargs can be NULL.

Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and return NULL on failure.

Ceci est l'équivalent de l'expression Python : callable(*args, **kwargs).

PyObject *PyObject_CallNoArgs(PyObject *callable)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.10.

Call a callable Python object callable without any arguments. It is the most efficient way to call a callable Python object without any argument.

Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and return NULL on failure.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

PyObject *PyObject_CallOneArg(PyObject *callable, PyObject *arg)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Call a callable Python object callable with exactly 1 positional argument arg and no keyword arguments.

Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and return NULL on failure.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

PyObject *PyObject_CallObject(PyObject *callable, PyObject *args)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Call a callable Python object callable, with arguments given by the tuple args. If no arguments are needed, then args can be NULL.

Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and return NULL on failure.

Ceci est l'équivalent de l'expression Python : callable(*args).

PyObject *PyObject_CallFunction(PyObject *callable, const char *format, ...)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Call a callable Python object callable, with a variable number of C arguments. The C arguments are described using a Py_BuildValue() style format string. The format can be NULL, indicating that no arguments are provided.

Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and return NULL on failure.

Ceci est l'équivalent de l'expression Python : callable(*args).

Note that if you only pass PyObject* args, PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs() is a faster alternative.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: The type of format was changed from char *.

PyObject *PyObject_CallMethod(PyObject *obj, const char *name, const char *format, ...)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Call the method named name of object obj with a variable number of C arguments. The C arguments are described by a Py_BuildValue() format string that should produce a tuple.

The format can be NULL, indicating that no arguments are provided.

Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and return NULL on failure.

This is the equivalent of the Python expression: obj.name(arg1, arg2, ...).

Note that if you only pass PyObject* args, PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs() is a faster alternative.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: The types of name and format were changed from char *.

PyObject *PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs(PyObject *callable, ...)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Call a callable Python object callable, with a variable number of PyObject* arguments. The arguments are provided as a variable number of parameters followed by NULL.

Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and return NULL on failure.

This is the equivalent of the Python expression: callable(arg1, arg2, ...).

PyObject *PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs(PyObject *obj, PyObject *name, ...)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Call a method of the Python object obj, where the name of the method is given as a Python string object in name. It is called with a variable number of PyObject* arguments. The arguments are provided as a variable number of parameters followed by NULL.

Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and return NULL on failure.

PyObject *PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs(PyObject *obj, PyObject *name)

Call a method of the Python object obj without arguments, where the name of the method is given as a Python string object in name.

Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and return NULL on failure.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

PyObject *PyObject_CallMethodOneArg(PyObject *obj, PyObject *name, PyObject *arg)

Call a method of the Python object obj with a single positional argument arg, where the name of the method is given as a Python string object in name.

Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and return NULL on failure.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

PyObject *PyObject_Vectorcall(PyObject *callable, PyObject *const *args, size_t nargsf, PyObject *kwnames)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.12.

Call a callable Python object callable. The arguments are the same as for vectorcallfunc. If callable supports vectorcall, this directly calls the vectorcall function stored in callable.

Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and return NULL on failure.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8: as _PyObject_Vectorcall

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Renamed to the current name, without the leading underscore. The old provisional name is soft deprecated.

PyObject *PyObject_VectorcallDict(PyObject *callable, PyObject *const *args, size_t nargsf, PyObject *kwdict)

Call callable with positional arguments passed exactly as in the vectorcall protocol, but with keyword arguments passed as a dictionary kwdict. The args array contains only the positional arguments.

Regardless of which protocol is used internally, a conversion of arguments needs to be done. Therefore, this function should only be used if the caller already has a dictionary ready to use for the keyword arguments, but not a tuple for the positional arguments.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

PyObject *PyObject_VectorcallMethod(PyObject *name, PyObject *const *args, size_t nargsf, PyObject *kwnames)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.12.

Call a method using the vectorcall calling convention. The name of the method is given as a Python string name. The object whose method is called is args[0], and the args array starting at args[1] represents the arguments of the call. There must be at least one positional argument. nargsf is the number of positional arguments including args[0], plus PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET if the value of args[0] may temporarily be changed. Keyword arguments can be passed just like in PyObject_Vectorcall().

If the object has the Py_TPFLAGS_METHOD_DESCRIPTOR feature, this will call the unbound method object with the full args vector as arguments.

Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and return NULL on failure.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

Call Support API

int PyCallable_Check(PyObject *o)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Détermine si l'objet o est appelable. Renvoie 1 si c'est le cas, et 0 sinon. Cette fonction réussit toujours.

Number Protocol

int PyNumber_Check(PyObject *o)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Returns 1 if the object o provides numeric protocols, and false otherwise. This function always succeeds.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Returns 1 if o is an index integer.

PyObject *PyNumber_Add(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Returns the result of adding o1 and o2, or NULL on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression o1 + o2.

PyObject *PyNumber_Subtract(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Returns the result of subtracting o2 from o1, or NULL on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression o1 - o2.

PyObject *PyNumber_Multiply(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Returns the result of multiplying o1 and o2, or NULL on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression o1 * o2.

PyObject *PyNumber_MatrixMultiply(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

Returns the result of matrix multiplication on o1 and o2, or NULL on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression o1 @ o2.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

PyObject *PyNumber_FloorDivide(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the floor of o1 divided by o2, or NULL on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression o1 // o2.

PyObject *PyNumber_TrueDivide(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a reasonable approximation for the mathematical value of o1 divided by o2, or NULL on failure. The return value is "approximate" because binary floating-point numbers are approximate; it is not possible to represent all real numbers in base two. This function can return a floating-point value when passed two integers. This is the equivalent of the Python expression o1 / o2.

PyObject *PyNumber_Remainder(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Returns the remainder of dividing o1 by o2, or NULL on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression o1 % o2.

PyObject *PyNumber_Divmod(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

See the built-in function divmod(). Returns NULL on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression divmod(o1, o2).

PyObject *PyNumber_Power(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2, PyObject *o3)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

See the built-in function pow(). Returns NULL on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression pow(o1, o2, o3), where o3 is optional. If o3 is to be ignored, pass Py_None in its place (passing NULL for o3 would cause an illegal memory access).

PyObject *PyNumber_Negative(PyObject *o)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Returns the negation of o on success, or NULL on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression -o.

PyObject *PyNumber_Positive(PyObject *o)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Returns o on success, or NULL on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression +o.

PyObject *PyNumber_Absolute(PyObject *o)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Returns the absolute value of o, or NULL on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression abs(o).

PyObject *PyNumber_Invert(PyObject *o)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Returns the bitwise negation of o on success, or NULL on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression ~o.

PyObject *PyNumber_Lshift(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Returns the result of left shifting o1 by o2 on success, or NULL on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression o1 << o2.

PyObject *PyNumber_Rshift(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Returns the result of right shifting o1 by o2 on success, or NULL on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression o1 >> o2.

PyObject *PyNumber_And(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Returns the "bitwise and" of o1 and o2 on success and NULL on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression o1 & o2.

PyObject *PyNumber_Xor(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Returns the "bitwise exclusive or" of o1 by o2 on success, or NULL on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression o1 ^ o2.

PyObject *PyNumber_Or(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Returns the "bitwise or" of o1 and o2 on success, or NULL on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression o1 | o2.

PyObject *PyNumber_InPlaceAdd(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Returns the result of adding o1 and o2, or NULL on failure. The operation is done in-place when o1 supports it. This is the equivalent of the Python statement o1 += o2.

PyObject *PyNumber_InPlaceSubtract(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Returns the result of subtracting o2 from o1, or NULL on failure. The operation is done in-place when o1 supports it. This is the equivalent of the Python statement o1 -= o2.

PyObject *PyNumber_InPlaceMultiply(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Returns the result of multiplying o1 and o2, or NULL on failure. The operation is done in-place when o1 supports it. This is the equivalent of the Python statement o1 *= o2.

PyObject *PyNumber_InPlaceMatrixMultiply(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

Returns the result of matrix multiplication on o1 and o2, or NULL on failure. The operation is done in-place when o1 supports it. This is the equivalent of the Python statement o1 @= o2.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

PyObject *PyNumber_InPlaceFloorDivide(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Returns the mathematical floor of dividing o1 by o2, or NULL on failure. The operation is done in-place when o1 supports it. This is the equivalent of the Python statement o1 //= o2.

PyObject *PyNumber_InPlaceTrueDivide(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a reasonable approximation for the mathematical value of o1 divided by o2, or NULL on failure. The return value is "approximate" because binary floating-point numbers are approximate; it is not possible to represent all real numbers in base two. This function can return a floating-point value when passed two integers. The operation is done in-place when o1 supports it. This is the equivalent of the Python statement o1 /= o2.

PyObject *PyNumber_InPlaceRemainder(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Returns the remainder of dividing o1 by o2, or NULL on failure. The operation is done in-place when o1 supports it. This is the equivalent of the Python statement o1 %= o2.

PyObject *PyNumber_InPlacePower(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2, PyObject *o3)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

See the built-in function pow(). Returns NULL on failure. The operation is done in-place when o1 supports it. This is the equivalent of the Python statement o1 **= o2 when o3 is Py_None, or an in-place variant of pow(o1, o2, o3) otherwise. If o3 is to be ignored, pass Py_None in its place (passing NULL for o3 would cause an illegal memory access).

PyObject *PyNumber_InPlaceLshift(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Returns the result of left shifting o1 by o2 on success, or NULL on failure. The operation is done in-place when o1 supports it. This is the equivalent of the Python statement o1 <<= o2.

PyObject *PyNumber_InPlaceRshift(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Returns the result of right shifting o1 by o2 on success, or NULL on failure. The operation is done in-place when o1 supports it. This is the equivalent of the Python statement o1 >>= o2.

PyObject *PyNumber_InPlaceAnd(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Returns the "bitwise and" of o1 and o2 on success and NULL on failure. The operation is done in-place when o1 supports it. This is the equivalent of the Python statement o1 &= o2.

PyObject *PyNumber_InPlaceXor(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Returns the "bitwise exclusive or" of o1 by o2 on success, or NULL on failure. The operation is done in-place when o1 supports it. This is the equivalent of the Python statement o1 ^= o2.

PyObject *PyNumber_InPlaceOr(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Returns the "bitwise or" of o1 and o2 on success, or NULL on failure. The operation is done in-place when o1 supports it. This is the equivalent of the Python statement o1 |= o2.

PyObject *PyNumber_Long(PyObject *o)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Returns the o converted to an integer object on success, or NULL on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression int(o).

PyObject *PyNumber_Float(PyObject *o)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Returns the o converted to a float object on success, or NULL on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression float(o).

PyObject *PyNumber_Index(PyObject *o)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Returns the o converted to a Python int on success or NULL with a TypeError exception raised on failure.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Le résultat a toujours le type int. Précédemment, le résultat aurait pu être une instance d'une sous-classe de int.

PyObject *PyNumber_ToBase(PyObject *n, int base)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Returns the integer n converted to base base as a string. The base argument must be one of 2, 8, 10, or 16. For base 2, 8, or 16, the returned string is prefixed with a base marker of '0b', '0o', or '0x', respectively. If n is not a Python int, it is converted with PyNumber_Index() first.

Py_ssize_t PyNumber_AsSsize_t(PyObject *o, PyObject *exc)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Returns o converted to a Py_ssize_t value if o can be interpreted as an integer. If the call fails, an exception is raised and -1 is returned.

If o can be converted to a Python int but the attempt to convert to a Py_ssize_t value would raise an OverflowError, then the exc argument is the type of exception that will be raised (usually IndexError or OverflowError). If exc is NULL, then the exception is cleared and the value is clipped to PY_SSIZE_T_MIN for a negative integer or PY_SSIZE_T_MAX for a positive integer.

int PyIndex_Check(PyObject *o)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.8.

Returns 1 if o is an index integer (has the nb_index slot of the tp_as_number structure filled in), and 0 otherwise. This function always succeeds.

Sequence Protocol

int PySequence_Check(PyObject *o)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return 1 if the object provides the sequence protocol, and 0 otherwise. Note that it returns 1 for Python classes with a __getitem__() method, unless they are dict subclasses, since in general it is impossible to determine what type of keys the class supports. This function always succeeds.

Py_ssize_t PySequence_Size(PyObject *o)

Py_ssize_t PySequence_Length(PyObject *o)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Returns the number of objects in sequence o on success, and -1 on failure. This is equivalent to the Python expression len(o).

PyObject *PySequence_Concat(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the concatenation of o1 and o2 on success, and NULL on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression o1 + o2.

PyObject *PySequence_Repeat(PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t count)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the result of repeating sequence object o count times, or NULL on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression o * count.

PyObject *PySequence_InPlaceConcat(PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the concatenation of o1 and o2 on success, and NULL on failure. The operation is done in-place when o1 supports it. This is the equivalent of the Python expression o1 += o2.

PyObject *PySequence_InPlaceRepeat(PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t count)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the result of repeating sequence object o count times, or NULL on failure. The operation is done in-place when o supports it. This is the equivalent of the Python expression o *= count.

PyObject *PySequence_GetItem(PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t i)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the ith element of o, or NULL on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression o[i].

PyObject *PySequence_GetSlice(PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t i1, Py_ssize_t i2)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the slice of sequence object o between i1 and i2, or NULL on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression o[i1:i2].

int PySequence_SetItem(PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t i, PyObject *v)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Assign object v to the ith element of o. Raise an exception and return -1 on failure; return 0 on success. This is the equivalent of the Python statement o[i] = v. This function does not steal a reference to v.

If v is NULL, the element is deleted, but this feature is deprecated in favour of using PySequence_DelItem().

int PySequence_DelItem(PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t i)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Delete the ith element of object o. Returns -1 on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python statement del o[i].

int PySequence_SetSlice(PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t i1, Py_ssize_t i2, PyObject *v)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Assign the sequence object v to the slice in sequence object o from i1 to i2. This is the equivalent of the Python statement o[i1:i2] = v.

int PySequence_DelSlice(PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t i1, Py_ssize_t i2)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Delete the slice in sequence object o from i1 to i2. Returns -1 on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python statement del o[i1:i2].

Py_ssize_t PySequence_Count(PyObject *o, PyObject *value)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the number of occurrences of value in o, that is, return the number of keys for which o[key] == value. On failure, return -1. This is equivalent to the Python expression o.count(value).

int PySequence_Contains(PyObject *o, PyObject *value)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Determine if o contains value. If an item in o is equal to value, return 1, otherwise return 0. On error, return -1. This is equivalent to the Python expression value in o.

int PySequence_In(PyObject *o, PyObject *value)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Alias for PySequence_Contains().

Obsolète depuis la version 3.14: The function is soft deprecated and should no longer be used to write new code.

Py_ssize_t PySequence_Index(PyObject *o, PyObject *value)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the first index i for which o[i] == value. On error, return -1. This is equivalent to the Python expression o.index(value).

PyObject *PySequence_List(PyObject *o)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a list object with the same contents as the sequence or iterable o, or NULL on failure. The returned list is guaranteed to be new. This is equivalent to the Python expression list(o).

PyObject *PySequence_Tuple(PyObject *o)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a tuple object with the same contents as the sequence or iterable o, or NULL on failure. If o is a tuple, a new reference will be returned, otherwise a tuple will be constructed with the appropriate contents. This is equivalent to the Python expression tuple(o).

PyObject *PySequence_Fast(PyObject *o, const char *m)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the sequence or iterable o as an object usable by the other PySequence_Fast* family of functions. If the object is not a sequence or iterable, raises TypeError with m as the message text. Returns NULL on failure.

The PySequence_Fast* functions are thus named because they assume o is a PyTupleObject or a PyListObject and access the data fields of o directly.

As a CPython implementation detail, if o is already a sequence or list, it will be returned.

Py_ssize_t PySequence_Fast_GET_SIZE(PyObject *o)

Returns the length of o, assuming that o was returned by PySequence_Fast() and that o is not NULL. The size can also be retrieved by calling PySequence_Size() on o, but PySequence_Fast_GET_SIZE() is faster because it can assume o is a list or tuple.

PyObject *PySequence_Fast_GET_ITEM(PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t i)

Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.

Return the ith element of o, assuming that o was returned by PySequence_Fast(), o is not NULL, and that i is within bounds.

PyObject **PySequence_Fast_ITEMS(PyObject *o)

Return the underlying array of PyObject pointers. Assumes that o was returned by PySequence_Fast() and o is not NULL.

Note, if a list gets resized, the reallocation may relocate the items array. So, only use the underlying array pointer in contexts where the sequence cannot change.

PyObject *PySequence_ITEM(PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t i)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Return the ith element of o or NULL on failure. Faster form of PySequence_GetItem() but without checking that PySequence_Check() on o is true and without adjustment for negative indices.

Protocole de correspondance

Voir aussi PyObject_GetItem(), PyObject_SetItem() et PyObject_DelItem().

int PyMapping_Check(PyObject *o)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return 1 if the object provides the mapping protocol or supports slicing, and 0 otherwise. Note that it returns 1 for Python classes with a __getitem__() method, since in general it is impossible to determine what type of keys the class supports. This function always succeeds.

Py_ssize_t PyMapping_Size(PyObject *o)

Py_ssize_t PyMapping_Length(PyObject *o)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Renvoie le nombre de clefs dans l'objet o et -1 en cas d'échec. C'est l'équivalent de l'expression Python len(o).

PyObject *PyMapping_GetItemString(PyObject *o, const char *key)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This is the same as PyObject_GetItem(), but key is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a PyObject*.

int PyMapping_GetOptionalItem(PyObject *obj, PyObject *key, PyObject **result)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.13.

Variant of PyObject_GetItem() which doesn't raise KeyError if the key is not found.

If the key is found, return 1 and set *result to a new strong reference to the corresponding value. If the key is not found, return 0 and set *result to NULL; the KeyError is silenced. If an error other than KeyError is raised, return -1 and set *result to NULL.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

int PyMapping_GetOptionalItemString(PyObject *obj, const char *key, PyObject **result)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.13.

This is the same as PyMapping_GetOptionalItem(), but key is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a PyObject*.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

int PyMapping_SetItemString(PyObject *o, const char *key, PyObject *v)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This is the same as PyObject_SetItem(), but key is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a PyObject*.

int PyMapping_DelItem(PyObject *o, PyObject *key)

This is an alias of PyObject_DelItem().

int PyMapping_DelItemString(PyObject *o, const char *key)

This is the same as PyObject_DelItem(), but key is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a PyObject*.

int PyMapping_HasKeyWithError(PyObject *o, PyObject *key)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.13.

Return 1 if the mapping object has the key key and 0 otherwise. This is equivalent to the Python expression key in o. On failure, return -1.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

int PyMapping_HasKeyStringWithError(PyObject *o, const char *key)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.13.

This is the same as PyMapping_HasKeyWithError(), but key is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a PyObject*.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

int PyMapping_HasKey(PyObject *o, PyObject *key)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Renvoie 1 si l'objet de correspondance possède une clef key et 0 sinon. C'est l'équivalent de l'expression Python key in o. Cette fonction ne provoque jamais d'erreur.

Note

Exceptions which occur when this calls the __getitem__() method are silently ignored. For proper error handling, use PyMapping_HasKeyWithError(), PyMapping_GetOptionalItem() or PyObject_GetItem() instead.

int PyMapping_HasKeyString(PyObject *o, const char *key)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This is the same as PyMapping_HasKey(), but key is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a PyObject*.

Note

Exceptions that occur when this calls the __getitem__() method or while creating the temporary str object are silently ignored. For proper error handling, use PyMapping_HasKeyStringWithError(), PyMapping_GetOptionalItemString() or PyMapping_GetItemString() instead.

PyObject *PyMapping_Keys(PyObject *o)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Renvoie la liste des clefs dans l'objet o. En cas d'échec, renvoie NULL.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Auparavant, la fonction renvoyait une liste ou un n-uplet.

PyObject *PyMapping_Values(PyObject *o)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Renvoie la liste des valeurs dans l'objet o. En cas d'échec, renvoie NULL.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Auparavant, la fonction renvoyait une liste ou un n-uplet.

PyObject *PyMapping_Items(PyObject *o)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Renvoie la liste des éléments dans l'objet o, où chaque élément est un n-uplet contenant une paire clef-valeur. En cas d'échec, renvoie NULL.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Auparavant, la fonction renvoyait une liste ou un n-uplet.

Protocole d'itération

Il existe deux fonctions dédiées à l'interaction avec les itérateurs.

int PyIter_Check(PyObject *o)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.8.

Return non-zero if the object o can be safely passed to PyIter_NextItem() and 0 otherwise. This function always succeeds.

int PyAIter_Check(PyObject *o)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.10.

Return non-zero if the object o provides the AsyncIterator protocol, and 0 otherwise. This function always succeeds.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

int PyIter_NextItem(PyObject *iter, PyObject **item)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.14.

Return 1 and set item to a strong reference of the next value of the iterator iter on success. Return 0 and set item to NULL if there are no remaining values. Return -1, set item to NULL and set an exception on error.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

PyObject *PyIter_Next(PyObject *o)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This is an older version of PyIter_NextItem(), which is retained for backwards compatibility. Prefer PyIter_NextItem().

Return the next value from the iterator o. The object must be an iterator according to PyIter_Check() (it is up to the caller to check this). If there are no remaining values, returns NULL with no exception set. If an error occurs while retrieving the item, returns NULL and passes along the exception.

type PySendResult

The enum value used to represent different results of PyIter_Send().

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

PySendResult PyIter_Send(PyObject *iter, PyObject *arg, PyObject **presult)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.10.

Sends the arg value into the iterator iter. Returns:

PYGEN_RETURN if iterator returns. Return value is returned via presult.

PYGEN_NEXT if iterator yields. Yielded value is returned via presult.

PYGEN_ERROR if iterator has raised and exception. presult is set to NULL.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

Protocole tampon

Certains objets Python enveloppent l'accès à un tableau de mémoire sous-jacente (nommée zone tampon ou simplement tampon, buffer en anglais). Les objets natifs bytes et bytearray en sont des exemples, ainsi que quelques types d'extension comme array.array. Les bibliothèques tierces peuvent définir leurs propres types à des fins spéciales, telles que le traitement d'image ou l'analyse numérique.

Alors que chacun de ces types a sa propre sémantique, ils partagent la caractéristique commune d'être soutenus par un tampon de mémoire important. Il est donc souhaitable, dans certains cas, d'accéder à cette mémoire directement sans l'étape intermédiaire de copie.

Python provides such a facility at the C and Python level in the form of the buffer protocol. This protocol has two sides:

on the producer side, a type can export a "buffer interface" which allows objects of that type to expose information about their underlying buffer. This interface is described in the section Buffer Object Structures; for Python see Emulating buffer types.

on the consumer side, several means are available to obtain a pointer to the raw underlying data of an object (for example a method parameter). For Python see memoryview.

Des objets simples tels que bytes et bytearray exposent leur tampon sous-jacent dans un format orienté octet. D'autres formes sont possibles ; par exemple, les éléments exposés par un array.array peuvent être des valeurs multi-octets.

An example consumer of the buffer interface is the write() method of file objects: any object that can export a series of bytes through the buffer interface can be written to a file. While write() only needs read-only access to the internal contents of the object passed to it, other methods such as readinto() need write access to the contents of their argument. The buffer interface allows objects to selectively allow or reject exporting of read-write and read-only buffers.

Un consommateur de l'interface tampon peut acquérir un tampon sur un objet cible de deux manières :

appelez PyObject_GetBuffer() avec les paramètres appropriés ;

appelez PyArg_ParseTuple() (ou l'un de ses fonctions sœurs) avec l'un des y*, w* ou s* format codes.

Dans les deux cas, PyBuffer_Release() doit être appelée quand le tampon n'est plus nécessaire. Ne pas le faire peut conduire à divers problèmes tels que des fuites de ressources.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12: The buffer protocol is now accessible in Python, see Emulating buffer types and memoryview.

La structure buffer

Les structures tampons (ou simplement les "tampons", buffers en anglais) sont utiles pour exposer les données binaires d'un autre objet au programmeur Python. Elles peuvent également être utilisées comme un mécanisme de découpage sans copie. En utilisant leur capacité à référencer un bloc de mémoire, il est possible d'exposer toutes les données au programmeur Python assez facilement. La mémoire peut être un grand tableau constant dans une extension C, il peut s'agir d'un bloc brut de mémoire à manipuler avant de passer à une bibliothèque de système d'exploitation ou être utilisé pour transmettre des données structurées dans son format natif en mémoire.

Contrairement à la plupart des types de données exposés par l'interpréteur Python, les tampons ne sont pas de simples pointeurs vers PyObject mais plutôt des structures C simples. Cela leur permet d'être créés et copiés très simplement. lorsque vous avez besoin d'une enveloppe générique (wrapper en anglais) pour un tampon, un objet memoryview peut être créé.

For short instructions how to write an exporting object, see Buffer Object Structures. For obtaining a buffer, see PyObject_GetBuffer().

type Py_buffer

Fait partie de l' ABI stable (incluant tous les attributs) depuis la version 3.11.

void *buf

A pointer to the start of the logical structure described by the buffer fields. This can be any location within the underlying physical memory block of the exporter. For example, with negative strides the value may point to the end of the memory block.

For contiguous arrays, the value points to the beginning of the memory block.

PyObject *obj

A new reference to the exporting object. The reference is owned by the consumer and automatically released (i.e. reference count decremented) and set to NULL by PyBuffer_Release(). The field is the equivalent of the return value of any standard C-API function.

As a special case, for temporary buffers that are wrapped by PyMemoryView_FromBuffer() or PyBuffer_FillInfo() this field is NULL. In general, exporting objects MUST NOT use this scheme.

Py_ssize_t len

product(shape) * itemsize. For contiguous arrays, this is the length of the underlying memory block. For non-contiguous arrays, it is the length that the logical structure would have if it were copied to a contiguous representation.

Accessing ((char *)buf)[0] up to ((char *)buf)[len-1] is only valid if the buffer has been obtained by a request that guarantees contiguity. In most cases such a request will be PyBUF_SIMPLE or PyBUF_WRITABLE.

int readonly

An indicator of whether the buffer is read-only. This field is controlled by the PyBUF_WRITABLE flag.

Py_ssize_t itemsize

Item size in bytes of a single element. Same as the value of struct.calcsize() called on non-NULL format values.

Important exception: If a consumer requests a buffer without the PyBUF_FORMAT flag, format will be set to NULL, but itemsize still has the value for the original format.

If shape is present, the equality product(shape) * itemsize == len still holds and the consumer can use itemsize to navigate the buffer.

If shape is NULL as a result of a PyBUF_SIMPLE or a PyBUF_WRITABLE request, the consumer must disregard itemsize and assume itemsize == 1.

char *format

A NULL terminated string in struct module style syntax describing the contents of a single item. If this is NULL, "B" (unsigned bytes) is assumed.

This field is controlled by the PyBUF_FORMAT flag.

int ndim

The number of dimensions the memory represents as an n-dimensional array. If it is 0, buf points to a single item representing a scalar. In this case, shape, strides and suboffsets MUST be NULL. The maximum number of dimensions is given by PyBUF_MAX_NDIM.

Py_ssize_t *shape

An array of Py_ssize_t of length ndim indicating the shape of the memory as an n-dimensional array. Note that shape[0] * ... * shape[ndim-1] * itemsize MUST be equal to len.

Shape values are restricted to shape[n] >= 0. The case shape[n] == 0 requires special attention. See complex arrays for further information.

The shape array is read-only for the consumer.

Py_ssize_t *strides

An array of Py_ssize_t of length ndim giving the number of bytes to skip to get to a new element in each dimension.

Stride values can be any integer. For regular arrays, strides are usually positive, but a consumer MUST be able to handle the case strides[n] <= 0. See complex arrays for further information.

The strides array is read-only for the consumer.

Py_ssize_t *suboffsets

An array of Py_ssize_t of length ndim. If suboffsets[n] >= 0, the values stored along the nth dimension are pointers and the suboffset value dictates how many bytes to add to each pointer after de-referencing. A suboffset value that is negative indicates that no de-referencing should occur (striding in a contiguous memory block).

If all suboffsets are negative (i.e. no de-referencing is needed), then this field must be NULL (the default value).

This type of array representation is used by the Python Imaging Library (PIL). See complex arrays for further information how to access elements of such an array.

The suboffsets array is read-only for the consumer.

void *internal

This is for use internally by the exporting object. For example, this might be re-cast as an integer by the exporter and used to store flags about whether or not the shape, strides, and suboffsets arrays must be freed when the buffer is released. The consumer MUST NOT alter this value.

Constants:

PyBUF_MAX_NDIM

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.11.

The maximum number of dimensions the memory represents. Exporters MUST respect this limit, consumers of multi-dimensional buffers SHOULD be able to handle up to PyBUF_MAX_NDIM dimensions. Currently set to 64.

Buffer request types

Buffers are usually obtained by sending a buffer request to an exporting object via PyObject_GetBuffer(). Since the complexity of the logical structure of the memory can vary drastically, the consumer uses the flags argument to specify the exact buffer type it can handle.

All Py_buffer fields are unambiguously defined by the request type.

request-independent fields

The following fields are not influenced by flags and must always be filled in with the correct values: obj, buf, len, itemsize, ndim.

readonly, format

PyBUF_WRITABLE

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.11.

Controls the readonly field. If set, the exporter MUST provide a writable buffer or else report failure. Otherwise, the exporter MAY provide either a read-only or writable buffer, but the choice MUST be consistent for all consumers. For example, PyBUF_SIMPLE | PyBUF_WRITABLE can be used to request a simple writable buffer.

PyBUF_WRITEABLE

This is a soft deprecated alias to PyBUF_WRITABLE.

PyBUF_FORMAT

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.11.

Controls the format field. If set, this field MUST be filled in correctly. Otherwise, this field MUST be NULL.

PyBUF_WRITABLE can be |'d to any of the flags in the next section. Since PyBUF_SIMPLE is defined as 0, PyBUF_WRITABLE can be used as a stand-alone flag to request a simple writable buffer.

PyBUF_FORMAT must be |'d to any of the flags except PyBUF_SIMPLE, because the latter already implies format B (unsigned bytes). PyBUF_FORMAT cannot be used on its own.

shape, strides, suboffsets

The flags that control the logical structure of the memory are listed in decreasing order of complexity. Note that each flag contains all bits of the flags below it.

Request

shape

strides

suboffsets

PyBUF_INDIRECT

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.11.

oui

oui

si nécessaire

PyBUF_STRIDES

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.11.

oui

oui

NULL

PyBUF_ND

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.11.

oui

NULL

NULL

PyBUF_SIMPLE

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.11.

NULL

NULL

NULL

contiguity requests

C or Fortran contiguity can be explicitly requested, with and without stride information. Without stride information, the buffer must be C-contiguous.

Request

shape

strides

suboffsets

contig

PyBUF_C_CONTIGUOUS

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.11.

oui

oui

NULL

C

PyBUF_F_CONTIGUOUS

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.11.

oui

oui

NULL

F

PyBUF_ANY_CONTIGUOUS

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.11.

oui

oui

NULL

C or F

PyBUF_ND

oui

NULL

NULL

C

compound requests

All possible requests are fully defined by some combination of the flags in the previous section. For convenience, the buffer protocol provides frequently used combinations as single flags.

In the following table U stands for undefined contiguity. The consumer would have to call PyBuffer_IsContiguous() to determine contiguity.

Request

shape

strides

suboffsets

contig

lecture seule

format

PyBUF_FULL

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.11.

oui

oui

si nécessaire

U

0

oui

PyBUF_FULL_RO

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.11.

oui

oui

si nécessaire

U

0 ou 1

oui

PyBUF_RECORDS

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.11.

oui

oui

NULL

U

0

oui

PyBUF_RECORDS_RO

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.11.

oui

oui

NULL

U

0 ou 1

oui

PyBUF_STRIDED

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.11.

oui

oui

NULL

U

0

NULL

PyBUF_STRIDED_RO

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.11.

oui

oui

NULL

U

0 ou 1

NULL

PyBUF_CONTIG

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.11.

oui

NULL

NULL

C

0

NULL

PyBUF_CONTIG_RO

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.11.

oui

NULL

NULL

C

0 ou 1

NULL

Complex arrays

NumPy-style: shape and strides

The logical structure of NumPy-style arrays is defined by itemsize, ndim, shape and strides.

If ndim == 0, the memory location pointed to by buf is interpreted as a scalar of size itemsize. In that case, both shape and strides are NULL.

If strides is NULL, the array is interpreted as a standard n-dimensional C-array. Otherwise, the consumer must access an n-dimensional array as follows:

ptr = (char *)buf + indices[0] * strides[0] + ... + indices[n-1] * strides[n-1];
item = *((typeof(item) *)ptr);

As noted above, buf can point to any location within the actual memory block. An exporter can check the validity of a buffer with this function:

def verify_structure(memlen, itemsize, ndim, shape, strides, offset):
    """Verify that the parameters represent a valid array within
       the bounds of the allocated memory:
           char *mem: start of the physical memory block
           memlen: length of the physical memory block
           offset: (char *)buf - mem
    """
    if offset % itemsize:
        return False
    if offset < 0 or offset+itemsize > memlen:
        return False
    if any(v % itemsize for v in strides):
        return False

    if ndim <= 0:
        return ndim == 0 and not shape and not strides
    if 0 in shape:
        return True

    imin = sum(strides[j]*(shape[j]-1) for j in range(ndim)
               if strides[j] <= 0)
    imax = sum(strides[j]*(shape[j]-1) for j in range(ndim)
               if strides[j] > 0)

    return 0 <= offset+imin and offset+imax+itemsize <= memlen

PIL-style: shape, strides and suboffsets

In addition to the regular items, PIL-style arrays can contain pointers that must be followed in order to get to the next element in a dimension. For example, the regular three-dimensional C-array char v[2][2][3] can also be viewed as an array of 2 pointers to 2 two-dimensional arrays: char (*v[2])[2][3]. In suboffsets representation, those two pointers can be embedded at the start of buf, pointing to two char x[2][3] arrays that can be located anywhere in memory.

Here is a function that returns a pointer to the element in an N-D array pointed to by an N-dimensional index when there are both non-NULL strides and suboffsets:

void *get_item_pointer(int ndim, void *buf, Py_ssize_t *strides,
                       Py_ssize_t *suboffsets, Py_ssize_t *indices) {
    char *pointer = (char*)buf;
    int i;
    for (i = 0; i < ndim; i++) {
        pointer += strides[i] * indices[i];
        if (suboffsets[i] >=0 ) {
            pointer = *((char**)pointer) + suboffsets[i];
        }
    }
    return (void*)pointer;
}

Fonctions relatives aux tampons

int PyObject_CheckBuffer(PyObject *obj)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.11.

Return 1 if obj supports the buffer interface otherwise 0. When 1 is returned, it doesn't guarantee that PyObject_GetBuffer() will succeed. This function always succeeds.

int PyObject_GetBuffer(PyObject *exporter, Py_buffer *view, int flags)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.11.

Send a request to exporter to fill in view as specified by flags. If the exporter cannot provide a buffer of the exact type, it MUST raise BufferError, set view->obj to NULL and return -1.

On success, fill in view, set view->obj to a new reference to exporter and return 0. In the case of chained buffer providers that redirect requests to a single object, view->obj MAY refer to this object instead of exporter (See Buffer Object Structures).

Successful calls to PyObject_GetBuffer() must be paired with calls to PyBuffer_Release(), similar to malloc() and free(). Thus, after the consumer is done with the buffer, PyBuffer_Release() must be called exactly once.

void PyBuffer_Release(Py_buffer *view)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.11.

Release the buffer view and release the strong reference (i.e. decrement the reference count) to the view's supporting object, view->obj. This function MUST be called when the buffer is no longer being used, otherwise reference leaks may occur.

It is an error to call this function on a buffer that was not obtained via PyObject_GetBuffer().

Py_ssize_t PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat(const char *format)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.11.

Return the implied itemsize from format. On error, raise an exception and return -1.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

int PyBuffer_IsContiguous(const Py_buffer *view, char order)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.11.

Return 1 if the memory defined by the view is C-style (order is 'C') or Fortran-style (order is 'F') contiguous or either one (order is 'A'). Return 0 otherwise. This function always succeeds.

void *PyBuffer_GetPointer(const Py_buffer *view, const Py_ssize_t *indices)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.11.

Get the memory area pointed to by the indices inside the given view. indices must point to an array of view->ndim indices.

int PyBuffer_FromContiguous(const Py_buffer *view, const void *buf, Py_ssize_t len, char fort)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.11.

Copy contiguous len bytes from buf to view. fort can be 'C' or 'F' (for C-style or Fortran-style ordering). 0 is returned on success, -1 on error.

int PyBuffer_ToContiguous(void *buf, const Py_buffer *src, Py_ssize_t len, char order)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.11.

Copy len bytes from src to its contiguous representation in buf. order can be 'C' or 'F' or 'A' (for C-style or Fortran-style ordering or either one). 0 is returned on success, -1 on error.

This function fails if len != src->len.

int PyObject_CopyData(PyObject *dest, PyObject *src)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.11.

Copy data from src to dest buffer. Can convert between C-style and or Fortran-style buffers.

0 is returned on success, -1 on error.

void PyBuffer_FillContiguousStrides(int ndims, Py_ssize_t *shape, Py_ssize_t *strides, int itemsize, char order)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.11.

Fill the strides array with byte-strides of a contiguous (C-style if order is 'C' or Fortran-style if order is 'F') array of the given shape with the given number of bytes per element.

int PyBuffer_FillInfo(Py_buffer *view, PyObject *exporter, void *buf, Py_ssize_t len, int readonly, int flags)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.11.

Handle buffer requests for an exporter that wants to expose buf of size len with writability set according to readonly. buf is interpreted as a sequence of unsigned bytes.

The flags argument indicates the request type. This function always fills in view as specified by flags, unless buf has been designated as read-only and PyBUF_WRITABLE is set in flags.

On success, set view->obj to a new reference to exporter and return 0. Otherwise, raise BufferError, set view->obj to NULL and return -1;

If this function is used as part of a getbufferproc, exporter MUST be set to the exporting object and flags must be passed unmodified. Otherwise, exporter MUST be NULL.

Couche des objets concrets

Les fonctions de ce chapitre sont spécifiques à certains types d'objets Python. Leur donner un objet du mauvais type n'est pas une bonne idée, si vous recevez un objet d'un programme Python, et que vous n'êtes pas sûr qu'il soit du bon type, vous devez vérifier son type en premier. Par exemple, pour vérifier qu'un objet est un dictionnaire, utilisez PyDict_Check(). Ce chapitre est organisé comme un arbre généalogique de types d'objets Python.

Avertissement

Tandis que les fonctions décrites dans ce chapitre vérifient avec soin le type des objets qui leur sont passés, beaucoup d'entre elles ne vérifient pas que NULL est passé au lieu d'un objet valide. Autoriser NULL à être passé peut provoquer des violations d'accès à la mémoire et ainsi terminer immédiatement l'interpréteur.

Objets fondamentaux

Cette section décrit les objets de type Python et l'objet singleton None.

Objets type

Creating Heap-Allocated Types

L'objet None

Objets numériques

Objets Integer

Export API

PyLongWriter API

Deprecated API

Les objets booléens

Floating-Point Objects

Pack and Unpack functions

Pack functions

Unpack functions

Objets représentant des nombres complexes

Nombres complexes en tant que structures C

Nombres complexes en tant qu'objets Python

Objets séquences

Les opérations génériques sur les objets séquences ont été discutées dans le chapitre précédent. Cette section traite des genres spécifiques d'objets séquences qui sont intrinsèques au langage Python.

Objets bytes

Objets tableau d'octets

Macros de vérification de type

Fonctions directes sur l'API

Macros

Objets Unicode et Codecs

Objets Unicode

Type Unicode

Unicode Character Properties

Creating and accessing Unicode strings

Locale Encoding

File System Encoding

wchar_t Support

Built-in Codecs

Generic Codecs

UTF-8 Codecs

UTF-32 Codecs

UTF-16 Codecs

UTF-7 Codecs

Unicode-Escape Codecs

Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs

Latin-1 Codecs

ASCII Codecs

Character Map Codecs

MBCS codecs for Windows

Methods and Slot Functions

PyUnicodeWriter

Deprecated API

n-uplets

Objets structure-séquence

List Objects

Objets conteneurs

Objets dictionnaires

Dictionary View Objects

Ordered Dictionaries

Set Objects

Deprecated API

Objets fonctions

Objets fonction

Instance Method Objects

Objets méthode

Objets Cellules

Objets code

Code Object Flags

Extra information

Autres objets

Objets fichiers

Deprecated API

Module Objects

Module definitions

Module slots

Creating extension modules dynamically

Support functions

Module lookup (single-phase initialization)

Itérateurs

Range Objects

Builtin Iterator Types

Other Iterator Objects

Les descripteurs

Built-in descriptors

Slice Objects

Ellipsis Object

Objets de type MemoryView

Pickle buffer objects

Objets à références faibles

Capsules

Objets décrivant les frames

Frame Locals Proxies

Legacy Local Variable APIs

Internal Frames

Objets générateur

Asynchronous Generator Objects

Deprecated API

Objets coroutines

Context Variables Objects

Objects for Type Hinting

C API for extension modules

Curses C API

Internal data

Objets DateTime

Internal data

Objets type

type PyTypeObject

Fait partie de l' API limitée (sous forme d'une *struct* opaque).

The C structure of the objects used to describe built-in types.

PyTypeObject PyType_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This is the type object for type objects; it is the same object as type in the Python layer.

int PyType_Check(PyObject *o)

Return non-zero if the object o is a type object, including instances of types derived from the standard type object. Return 0 in all other cases. This function always succeeds.

int PyType_CheckExact(PyObject *o)

Return non-zero if the object o is a type object, but not a subtype of the standard type object. Return 0 in all other cases. This function always succeeds.

unsigned int PyType_ClearCache()

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Clear the internal lookup cache. Return the current version tag.

unsigned long PyType_GetFlags(PyTypeObject *type)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the tp_flags member of type. This function is primarily meant for use with Py_LIMITED_API; the individual flag bits are guaranteed to be stable across Python releases, but access to tp_flags itself is not part of the limited API.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: The return type is now unsigned long rather than long.

PyObject *PyType_GetDict(PyTypeObject *type)

Return the type object's internal namespace, which is otherwise only exposed via a read-only proxy (cls.__dict__). This is a replacement for accessing tp_dict directly. The returned dictionary must be treated as read-only.

This function is meant for specific embedding and language-binding cases, where direct access to the dict is necessary and indirect access (e.g. via the proxy or PyObject_GetAttr()) isn't adequate.

Extension modules should continue to use tp_dict, directly or indirectly, when setting up their own types.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

void PyType_Modified(PyTypeObject *type)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Invalidate the internal lookup cache for the type and all of its subtypes. This function must be called after any manual modification of the attributes or base classes of the type.

int PyType_AddWatcher(PyType_WatchCallback callback)

Register callback as a type watcher. Return a non-negative integer ID which must be passed to future calls to PyType_Watch(). In case of error (e.g. no more watcher IDs available), return -1 and set an exception.

In free-threaded builds, PyType_AddWatcher() is not thread-safe, so it must be called at start up (before spawning the first thread).

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

int PyType_ClearWatcher(int watcher_id)

Clear watcher identified by watcher_id (previously returned from PyType_AddWatcher()). Return 0 on success, -1 on error (e.g. if watcher_id was never registered.)

An extension should never call PyType_ClearWatcher with a watcher_id that was not returned to it by a previous call to PyType_AddWatcher().

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

int PyType_Watch(int watcher_id, PyObject *type)

Mark type as watched. The callback granted watcher_id by PyType_AddWatcher() will be called whenever PyType_Modified() reports a change to type. (The callback may be called only once for a series of consecutive modifications to type, if _PyType_Lookup() is not called on type between the modifications; this is an implementation detail and subject to change.)

An extension should never call PyType_Watch with a watcher_id that was not returned to it by a previous call to PyType_AddWatcher().

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

int PyType_Unwatch(int watcher_id, PyObject *type)

Mark type as not watched. This undoes a previous call to PyType_Watch(). type must not be NULL.

An extension should never call this function with a watcher_id that was not returned to it by a previous call to PyType_AddWatcher().

On success, this function returns 0. On failure, this function returns -1 with an exception set.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

typedef int (*PyType_WatchCallback)(PyObject *type)

Type of a type-watcher callback function.

The callback must not modify type or cause PyType_Modified() to be called on type or any type in its MRO; violating this rule could cause infinite recursion.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

int PyType_HasFeature(PyTypeObject *o, int feature)

Return non-zero if the type object o sets the feature feature. Type features are denoted by single bit flags.

int PyType_FastSubclass(PyTypeObject *type, int flag)

Return non-zero if the type object type sets the subclass flag flag. Subclass flags are denoted by Py_TPFLAGS_*_SUBCLASS. This function is used by many _Check functions for common types.

Voir aussi

PyObject_TypeCheck(), which is used as a slower alternative in _Check functions for types that don't come with subclass flags.

int PyType_IS_GC(PyTypeObject *o)

Return true if the type object includes support for the cycle detector; this tests the type flag Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC.

int PyType_IsSubtype(PyTypeObject *a, PyTypeObject *b)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return true if a is a subtype of b.

This function only checks for actual subtypes, which means that __subclasscheck__() is not called on b. Call PyObject_IsSubclass() to do the same check that issubclass() would do.

PyObject *PyType_GenericAlloc(PyTypeObject *type, Py_ssize_t nitems)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Generic handler for the tp_alloc slot of a type object. Uses Python's default memory allocation mechanism to allocate memory for a new instance, zeros the memory, then initializes the memory as if by calling PyObject_Init() or PyObject_InitVar().

Do not call this directly to allocate memory for an object; call the type's tp_alloc slot instead.

For types that support garbage collection (i.e., the Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC flag is set), this function behaves like PyObject_GC_New or PyObject_GC_NewVar (except the memory is guaranteed to be zeroed before initialization), and should be paired with PyObject_GC_Del() in tp_free. Otherwise, it behaves like PyObject_New or PyObject_NewVar (except the memory is guaranteed to be zeroed before initialization) and should be paired with PyObject_Free() in tp_free.

PyObject *PyType_GenericNew(PyTypeObject *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Generic handler for the tp_new slot of a type object. Creates a new instance using the type's tp_alloc slot and returns the resulting object.

int PyType_Ready(PyTypeObject *type)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Finalize a type object. This should be called on all type objects to finish their initialization. This function is responsible for adding inherited slots from a type's base class. Return 0 on success, or return -1 and sets an exception on error.

Note

If some of the base classes implements the GC protocol and the provided type does not include the Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC in its flags, then the GC protocol will be automatically implemented from its parents. On the contrary, if the type being created does include Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC in its flags then it must implement the GC protocol itself by at least implementing the tp_traverse handle.

PyObject *PyType_GetName(PyTypeObject *type)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.11.

Return the type's name. Equivalent to getting the type's __name__ attribute.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

PyObject *PyType_GetQualName(PyTypeObject *type)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.11.

Return the type's qualified name. Equivalent to getting the type's __qualname__ attribute.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

PyObject *PyType_GetFullyQualifiedName(PyTypeObject *type)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.13.

Return the type's fully qualified name. Equivalent to f"{type.__module__}.{type.__qualname__}", or type.__qualname__ if type.__module__ is not a string or is equal to "builtins".

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

PyObject *PyType_GetModuleName(PyTypeObject *type)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.13.

Return the type's module name. Equivalent to getting the type.__module__ attribute.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

void *PyType_GetSlot(PyTypeObject *type, int slot)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.4.

Return the function pointer stored in the given slot. If the result is NULL, this indicates that either the slot is NULL, or that the function was called with invalid parameters. Callers will typically cast the result pointer into the appropriate function type.

See PyType_Slot.slot for possible values of the slot argument.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: PyType_GetSlot() can now accept all types. Previously, it was limited to heap types.

PyObject *PyType_GetModule(PyTypeObject *type)

Valeur de retour : référence empruntée. Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.10.

Return the module object associated with the given type when the type was created using PyType_FromModuleAndSpec().

The returned reference is borrowed from type, and will be valid as long as you hold a reference to type. Do not release it with Py_DECREF() or similar.

If no module is associated with the given type, sets TypeError and returns NULL.

This function is usually used to get the module in which a method is defined. Note that in such a method, PyType_GetModule(Py_TYPE(self)) may not return the intended result. Py_TYPE(self) may be a subclass of the intended class, and subclasses are not necessarily defined in the same module as their superclass. See PyCMethod to get the class that defines the method. See PyType_GetModuleByDef() for cases when PyCMethod cannot be used.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

void *PyType_GetModuleState(PyTypeObject *type)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.10.

Return the state of the module object associated with the given type. This is a shortcut for calling PyModule_GetState() on the result of PyType_GetModule().

If no module is associated with the given type, sets TypeError and returns NULL.

If the type has an associated module but its state is NULL, returns NULL without setting an exception.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

PyObject *PyType_GetModuleByDef(PyTypeObject *type, struct PyModuleDef *def)

Valeur de retour : référence empruntée. Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.13.

Find the first superclass whose module was created from the given PyModuleDef def, and return that module.

If no module is found, raises a TypeError and returns NULL.

This function is intended to be used together with PyModule_GetState() to get module state from slot methods (such as tp_init or nb_add) and other places where a method's defining class cannot be passed using the PyCMethod calling convention.

The returned reference is borrowed from type, and will be valid as long as you hold a reference to type. Do not release it with Py_DECREF() or similar.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

int PyType_GetBaseByToken(PyTypeObject *type, void *token, PyTypeObject **result)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.14.

Find the first superclass in type's method resolution order whose Py_tp_token token is equal to the given one.

If found, set *result to a new strong reference to it and return 1.

If not found, set *result to NULL and return 0.

On error, set *result to NULL and return -1 with an exception set.

The result argument may be NULL, in which case *result is not set. Use this if you need only the return value.

The token argument may not be NULL.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

int PyUnstable_Type_AssignVersionTag(PyTypeObject *type)

Fait partie de l' API instable. Peut changer sans avertissement d'une version mineure à l'autre.

Attempt to assign a version tag to the given type.

Returns 1 if the type already had a valid version tag or a new one was assigned, or 0 if a new tag could not be assigned.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

int PyType_SUPPORTS_WEAKREFS(PyTypeObject *type)

Return true if instances of type support creating weak references, false otherwise. This function always succeeds. type must not be NULL.

Voir aussi

Objets à références faibles

weakref

Creating Heap-Allocated Types

The following functions and structs are used to create heap types.

PyObject *PyType_FromMetaclass(PyTypeObject *metaclass, PyObject *module, PyType_Spec *spec, PyObject *bases)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.12.

Create and return a heap type from the spec (see Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE).

The metaclass metaclass is used to construct the resulting type object. When metaclass is NULL, the metaclass is derived from bases (or Py_tp_base[s] slots if bases is NULL, see below).

Metaclasses that override tp_new are not supported, except if tp_new is NULL.

The bases argument can be used to specify base classes; it can either be only one class or a tuple of classes. If bases is NULL, the Py_tp_bases slot is used instead. If that also is NULL, the Py_tp_base slot is used instead. If that also is NULL, the new type derives from object.

The module argument can be used to record the module in which the new class is defined. It must be a module object or NULL. If not NULL, the module is associated with the new type and can later be retrieved with PyType_GetModule(). The associated module is not inherited by subclasses; it must be specified for each class individually.

This function calls PyType_Ready() on the new type.

Note that this function does not fully match the behavior of calling type() or using the class statement. With user-provided base types or metaclasses, prefer calling type (or the metaclass) over PyType_From* functions. Specifically:

__new__() is not called on the new class (and it must be set to type.__new__).

__init__() is not called on the new class.

__init_subclass__() is not called on any bases.

__set_name__() is not called on new descriptors.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

PyObject *PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(PyObject *module, PyType_Spec *spec, PyObject *bases)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.10.

Equivalent to PyType_FromMetaclass(NULL, module, spec, bases).

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: The function now accepts a single class as the bases argument and NULL as the tp_doc slot.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: The function now finds and uses a metaclass corresponding to the provided base classes. Previously, only type instances were returned.

The tp_new of the metaclass is ignored. which may result in incomplete initialization. Creating classes whose metaclass overrides tp_new is deprecated.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Creating classes whose metaclass overrides tp_new is no longer allowed.

PyObject *PyType_FromSpecWithBases(PyType_Spec *spec, PyObject *bases)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.3.

Equivalent to PyType_FromMetaclass(NULL, NULL, spec, bases).

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: The function now finds and uses a metaclass corresponding to the provided base classes. Previously, only type instances were returned.

The tp_new of the metaclass is ignored. which may result in incomplete initialization. Creating classes whose metaclass overrides tp_new is deprecated.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Creating classes whose metaclass overrides tp_new is no longer allowed.

PyObject *PyType_FromSpec(PyType_Spec *spec)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Equivalent to PyType_FromMetaclass(NULL, NULL, spec, NULL).

Modifié dans la version 3.12: The function now finds and uses a metaclass corresponding to the base classes provided in Py_tp_base[s] slots. Previously, only type instances were returned.

The tp_new of the metaclass is ignored. which may result in incomplete initialization. Creating classes whose metaclass overrides tp_new is deprecated.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Creating classes whose metaclass overrides tp_new is no longer allowed.

int PyType_Freeze(PyTypeObject *type)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.14.

Make a type immutable: set the Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE flag.

All base classes of type must be immutable.

On success, return 0. On error, set an exception and return -1.

The type must not be used before it's made immutable. For example, type instances must not be created before the type is made immutable.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

type PyType_Spec

Fait partie de l' ABI stable (incluant tous les attributs).

Structure defining a type's behavior.

const char *name

Name of the type, used to set PyTypeObject.tp_name.

int basicsize

If positive, specifies the size of the instance in bytes. It is used to set PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize.

If zero, specifies that tp_basicsize should be inherited.

If negative, the absolute value specifies how much space instances of the class need in addition to the superclass. Use PyObject_GetTypeData() to get a pointer to subclass-specific memory reserved this way. For negative basicsize, Python will insert padding when needed to meet tp_basicsize's alignment requirements.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Previously, this field could not be negative.

int itemsize

Size of one element of a variable-size type, in bytes. Used to set PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize. See tp_itemsize documentation for caveats.

If zero, tp_itemsize is inherited. Extending arbitrary variable-sized classes is dangerous, since some types use a fixed offset for variable-sized memory, which can then overlap fixed-sized memory used by a subclass. To help prevent mistakes, inheriting itemsize is only possible in the following situations:

The base is not variable-sized (its tp_itemsize).

The requested PyType_Spec.basicsize is positive, suggesting that the memory layout of the base class is known.

The requested PyType_Spec.basicsize is zero, suggesting that the subclass does not access the instance's memory directly.

With the Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END flag.

unsigned int flags

Type flags, used to set PyTypeObject.tp_flags.

If the Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE flag is not set, PyType_FromSpecWithBases() sets it automatically.

PyType_Slot *slots

Array of PyType_Slot structures. Terminated by the special slot value {0, NULL}.

Each slot ID should be specified at most once.

type PyType_Slot

Fait partie de l' ABI stable (incluant tous les attributs).

Structure defining optional functionality of a type, containing a slot ID and a value pointer.

int slot

A slot ID.

Slot IDs are named like the field names of the structures PyTypeObject, PyNumberMethods, PySequenceMethods, PyMappingMethods and PyAsyncMethods with an added Py_ prefix. For example, use:

Py_tp_dealloc to set PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc

Py_nb_add to set PyNumberMethods.nb_add

Py_sq_length to set PySequenceMethods.sq_length

An additional slot is supported that does not correspond to a PyTypeObject struct field:

Py_tp_token

The following “offset” fields cannot be set using PyType_Slot:

tp_weaklistoffset (use Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF instead if possible)

tp_dictoffset (use Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT instead if possible)

tp_vectorcall_offset (use "__vectorcalloffset__" in PyMemberDef)

If it is not possible to switch to a MANAGED flag (for example, for vectorcall or to support Python older than 3.12), specify the offset in Py_tp_members. See PyMemberDef documentation for details.

The following internal fields cannot be set at all when creating a heap type:

tp_dict, tp_mro, tp_cache, tp_subclasses, and tp_weaklist.

Setting Py_tp_bases or Py_tp_base may be problematic on some platforms. To avoid issues, use the bases argument of PyType_FromSpecWithBases() instead.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Slots in PyBufferProcs may be set in the unlimited API.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: bf_getbuffer and bf_releasebuffer are now available under the limited API.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: The field tp_vectorcall can now be set using Py_tp_vectorcall. See the field's documentation for details.

void *pfunc

The desired value of the slot. In most cases, this is a pointer to a function.

pfunc values may not be NULL, except for the following slots:

Py_tp_doc

Py_tp_token (for clarity, prefer Py_TP_USE_SPEC rather than NULL)

Py_tp_token

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.14.

A slot that records a static memory layout ID for a class.

If the PyType_Spec of the class is statically allocated, the token can be set to the spec using the special value Py_TP_USE_SPEC:

static PyType_Slot foo_slots[] = {
   {Py_tp_token, Py_TP_USE_SPEC},

It can also be set to an arbitrary pointer, but you must ensure that:

The pointer outlives the class, so it's not reused for something else while the class exists.

It "belongs" to the extension module where the class lives, so it will not clash with other extensions.

Use PyType_GetBaseByToken() to check if a class's superclass has a given token -- that is, check whether the memory layout is compatible.

To get the token for a given class (without considering superclasses), use PyType_GetSlot() with Py_tp_token.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Py_TP_USE_SPEC

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.14.

Used as a value with Py_tp_token to set the token to the class's PyType_Spec. Expands to NULL.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

L'objet None

Note that the PyTypeObject for None is not directly exposed in the Python/C API. Since None is a singleton, testing for object identity (using == in C) is sufficient. There is no PyNone_Check() function for the same reason.

PyObject *Py_None

The Python None object, denoting lack of value. This object has no methods and is immortal.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Py_None is immortal.

Py_RETURN_NONE

Return Py_None from a function.

Objets Integer

All integers are implemented as "long" integer objects of arbitrary size.

On error, most PyLong_As* APIs return (return type)-1 which cannot be distinguished from a number. Use PyErr_Occurred() to disambiguate.

type PyLongObject

Fait partie de l' API limitée (sous forme d'une *struct* opaque).

This subtype of PyObject represents a Python integer object.

PyTypeObject PyLong_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This instance of PyTypeObject represents the Python integer type. This is the same object as int in the Python layer.

int PyLong_Check(PyObject *p)

Return true if its argument is a PyLongObject or a subtype of PyLongObject. This function always succeeds.

int PyLong_CheckExact(PyObject *p)

Return true if its argument is a PyLongObject, but not a subtype of PyLongObject. This function always succeeds.

PyObject *PyLong_FromLong(long v)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a new PyLongObject object from v, or NULL on failure.

Particularité de l'implémentation CPython : CPython keeps an array of integer objects for all integers between -5 and 256. When you create an int in that range you actually just get back a reference to the existing object.

PyObject *PyLong_FromUnsignedLong(unsigned long v)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a new PyLongObject object from a C unsigned long, or NULL on failure.

PyObject *PyLong_FromSsize_t(Py_ssize_t v)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a new PyLongObject object from a C Py_ssize_t, or NULL on failure.

PyObject *PyLong_FromSize_t(size_t v)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a new PyLongObject object from a C size_t, or NULL on failure.

PyObject *PyLong_FromLongLong(long long v)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a new PyLongObject object from a C long long, or NULL on failure.

PyObject *PyLong_FromInt32(int32_t value)

PyObject *PyLong_FromInt64(int64_t value)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.14.

Return a new PyLongObject object from a signed C int32_t or int64_t, or NULL with an exception set on failure.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

PyObject *PyLong_FromUnsignedLongLong(unsigned long long v)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a new PyLongObject object from a C unsigned long long, or NULL on failure.

PyObject *PyLong_FromUInt32(uint32_t value)

PyObject *PyLong_FromUInt64(uint64_t value)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.14.

Return a new PyLongObject object from an unsigned C uint32_t or uint64_t, or NULL with an exception set on failure.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

PyObject *PyLong_FromDouble(double v)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a new PyLongObject object from the integer part of v, or NULL on failure.

PyObject *PyLong_FromString(const char *str, char **pend, int base)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a new PyLongObject based on the string value in str, which is interpreted according to the radix in base, or NULL on failure. If pend is non-NULL, *pend will point to the end of str on success or to the first character that could not be processed on error. If base is 0, str is interpreted using the Entiers littéraux definition; in this case, leading zeros in a non-zero decimal number raises a ValueError. If base is not 0, it must be between 2 and 36, inclusive. Leading and trailing whitespace and single underscores after a base specifier and between digits are ignored. If there are no digits or str is not NULL-terminated following the digits and trailing whitespace, ValueError will be raised.

Voir aussi

PyLong_AsNativeBytes() and PyLong_FromNativeBytes() functions can be used to convert a PyLongObject to/from an array of bytes in base 256.

PyObject *PyLong_FromUnicodeObject(PyObject *u, int base)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Convert a sequence of Unicode digits in the string u to a Python integer value.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

PyObject *PyLong_FromVoidPtr(void *p)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Create a Python integer from the pointer p. The pointer value can be retrieved from the resulting value using PyLong_AsVoidPtr().

PyObject *PyLong_FromNativeBytes(const void *buffer, size_t n_bytes, int flags)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.14.

Create a Python integer from the value contained in the first n_bytes of buffer, interpreted as a two's-complement signed number.

flags are as for PyLong_AsNativeBytes(). Passing -1 will select the native endian that CPython was compiled with and assume that the most-significant bit is a sign bit. Passing Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_UNSIGNED_BUFFER will produce the same result as calling PyLong_FromUnsignedNativeBytes(). Other flags are ignored.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

PyObject *PyLong_FromUnsignedNativeBytes(const void *buffer, size_t n_bytes, int flags)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.14.

Create a Python integer from the value contained in the first n_bytes of buffer, interpreted as an unsigned number.

flags are as for PyLong_AsNativeBytes(). Passing -1 will select the native endian that CPython was compiled with and assume that the most-significant bit is not a sign bit. Flags other than endian are ignored.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

PyLong_FromPid(pid)

Macro for creating a Python integer from a process identifier.

This can be defined as an alias to PyLong_FromLong() or PyLong_FromLongLong(), depending on the size of the system's PID type.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

long PyLong_AsLong(PyObject *obj)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a C long representation of obj. If obj is not an instance of PyLongObject, first call its __index__() method (if present) to convert it to a PyLongObject.

Raise OverflowError if the value of obj is out of range for a long.

Returns -1 on error. Use PyErr_Occurred() to disambiguate.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Use __index__() if available.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: This function will no longer use __int__().

long PyLong_AS_LONG(PyObject *obj)

A soft deprecated alias. Exactly equivalent to the preferred PyLong_AsLong. In particular, it can fail with OverflowError or another exception.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.14: The function is soft deprecated.

int PyLong_AsInt(PyObject *obj)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.13.

Similar to PyLong_AsLong(), but store the result in a C int instead of a C long.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

long PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow(PyObject *obj, int *overflow)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a C long representation of obj. If obj is not an instance of PyLongObject, first call its __index__() method (if present) to convert it to a PyLongObject.

If the value of obj is greater than LONG_MAX or less than LONG_MIN, set *overflow to 1 or -1, respectively, and return -1; otherwise, set *overflow to 0. If any other exception occurs set *overflow to 0 and return -1 as usual.

Returns -1 on error. Use PyErr_Occurred() to disambiguate.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Use __index__() if available.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: This function will no longer use __int__().

long long PyLong_AsLongLong(PyObject *obj)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a C long long representation of obj. If obj is not an instance of PyLongObject, first call its __index__() method (if present) to convert it to a PyLongObject.

Raise OverflowError if the value of obj is out of range for a long long.

Returns -1 on error. Use PyErr_Occurred() to disambiguate.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Use __index__() if available.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: This function will no longer use __int__().

long long PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow(PyObject *obj, int *overflow)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a C long long representation of obj. If obj is not an instance of PyLongObject, first call its __index__() method (if present) to convert it to a PyLongObject.

If the value of obj is greater than LLONG_MAX or less than LLONG_MIN, set *overflow to 1 or -1, respectively, and return -1; otherwise, set *overflow to 0. If any other exception occurs set *overflow to 0 and return -1 as usual.

Returns -1 on error. Use PyErr_Occurred() to disambiguate.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Use __index__() if available.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: This function will no longer use __int__().

Py_ssize_t PyLong_AsSsize_t(PyObject *pylong)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a C Py_ssize_t representation of pylong. pylong must be an instance of PyLongObject.

Raise OverflowError if the value of pylong is out of range for a Py_ssize_t.

Returns -1 on error. Use PyErr_Occurred() to disambiguate.

unsigned long PyLong_AsUnsignedLong(PyObject *pylong)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a C unsigned long representation of pylong. pylong must be an instance of PyLongObject.

Raise OverflowError if the value of pylong is out of range for a unsigned long.

Returns (unsigned long)-1 on error. Use PyErr_Occurred() to disambiguate.

size_t PyLong_AsSize_t(PyObject *pylong)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a C size_t representation of pylong. pylong must be an instance of PyLongObject.

Raise OverflowError if the value of pylong is out of range for a size_t.

Returns (size_t)-1 on error. Use PyErr_Occurred() to disambiguate.

unsigned long long PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLong(PyObject *pylong)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a C unsigned long long representation of pylong. pylong must be an instance of PyLongObject.

Raise OverflowError if the value of pylong is out of range for an unsigned long long.

Returns (unsigned long long)-1 on error. Use PyErr_Occurred() to disambiguate.

Modifié dans la version 3.1: A negative pylong now raises OverflowError, not TypeError.

unsigned long PyLong_AsUnsignedLongMask(PyObject *obj)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a C unsigned long representation of obj. If obj is not an instance of PyLongObject, first call its __index__() method (if present) to convert it to a PyLongObject.

If the value of obj is out of range for an unsigned long, return the reduction of that value modulo ULONG_MAX + 1.

Returns (unsigned long)-1 on error. Use PyErr_Occurred() to disambiguate.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Use __index__() if available.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: This function will no longer use __int__().

unsigned long long PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLongMask(PyObject *obj)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a C unsigned long long representation of obj. If obj is not an instance of PyLongObject, first call its __index__() method (if present) to convert it to a PyLongObject.

If the value of obj is out of range for an unsigned long long, return the reduction of that value modulo ULLONG_MAX + 1.

Returns (unsigned long long)-1 on error. Use PyErr_Occurred() to disambiguate.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Use __index__() if available.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: This function will no longer use __int__().

int PyLong_AsInt32(PyObject *obj, int32_t *value)

int PyLong_AsInt64(PyObject *obj, int64_t *value)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.14.

Set *value to a signed C int32_t or int64_t representation of obj.

If obj is not an instance of PyLongObject, first call its __index__() method (if present) to convert it to a PyLongObject.

If the obj value is out of range, raise an OverflowError.

Set *value and return 0 on success. Set an exception and return -1 on error.

value must not be NULL.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

int PyLong_AsUInt32(PyObject *obj, uint32_t *value)

int PyLong_AsUInt64(PyObject *obj, uint64_t *value)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.14.

Set *value to an unsigned C uint32_t or uint64_t representation of obj.

If obj is not an instance of PyLongObject, first call its __index__() method (if present) to convert it to a PyLongObject.

If obj is negative, raise a ValueError.

If the obj value is out of range, raise an OverflowError.

Set *value and return 0 on success. Set an exception and return -1 on error.

value must not be NULL.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

double PyLong_AsDouble(PyObject *pylong)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a C double representation of pylong. pylong must be an instance of PyLongObject.

Raise OverflowError if the value of pylong is out of range for a double.

Returns -1.0 on error. Use PyErr_Occurred() to disambiguate.

void *PyLong_AsVoidPtr(PyObject *pylong)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Convert a Python integer pylong to a C void pointer. If pylong cannot be converted, an OverflowError will be raised. This is only assured to produce a usable void pointer for values created with PyLong_FromVoidPtr().

Returns NULL on error. Use PyErr_Occurred() to disambiguate.

Py_ssize_t PyLong_AsNativeBytes(PyObject *pylong, void *buffer, Py_ssize_t n_bytes, int flags)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.14.

Copy the Python integer value pylong to a native buffer of size n_bytes. The flags can be set to -1 to behave similarly to a C cast, or to values documented below to control the behavior.

Returns -1 with an exception raised on error. This may happen if pylong cannot be interpreted as an integer, or if pylong was negative and the Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_REJECT_NEGATIVE flag was set.

Otherwise, returns the number of bytes required to store the value. If this is equal to or less than n_bytes, the entire value was copied. All n_bytes of the buffer are written: remaining bytes filled by copies of the sign bit.

If the returned value is greater than n_bytes, the value was truncated: as many of the lowest bits of the value as could fit are written, and the higher bits are ignored. This matches the typical behavior of a C-style downcast.

Note

Overflow is not considered an error. If the returned value is larger than n_bytes, most significant bits were discarded.

0 will never be returned.

Values are always copied as two's-complement.

Usage example:

int32_t value;
Py_ssize_t bytes = PyLong_AsNativeBytes(pylong, &value, sizeof(value), -1);
if (bytes < 0) {
    // Failed. A Python exception was set with the reason.
    return NULL;
}
else if (bytes <= (Py_ssize_t)sizeof(value)) {
    // Success!
}
else {
    // Overflow occurred, but 'value' contains the truncated
    // lowest bits of pylong.
}

Passing zero to n_bytes will return the size of a buffer that would be large enough to hold the value. This may be larger than technically necessary, but not unreasonably so. If n_bytes=0, buffer may be NULL.

Note

Passing n_bytes=0 to this function is not an accurate way to determine the bit length of the value.

To get at the entire Python value of an unknown size, the function can be called twice: first to determine the buffer size, then to fill it:

// Ask how much space we need.
Py_ssize_t expected = PyLong_AsNativeBytes(pylong, NULL, 0, -1);
if (expected < 0) {
    // Failed. A Python exception was set with the reason.
    return NULL;
}
assert(expected != 0);  // Impossible per the API definition.
uint8_t *bignum = malloc(expected);
if (!bignum) {
    PyErr_SetString(PyExc_MemoryError, "bignum malloc failed.");
    return NULL;
}
// Safely get the entire value.
Py_ssize_t bytes = PyLong_AsNativeBytes(pylong, bignum, expected, -1);
if (bytes < 0) {  // Exception has been set.
    free(bignum);
    return NULL;
}
else if (bytes > expected) {  // This should not be possible.
    PyErr_SetString(PyExc_RuntimeError,
        "Unexpected bignum truncation after a size check.");
    free(bignum);
    return NULL;
}
// The expected success given the above pre-check.
// ... use bignum ...
free(bignum);

flags is either -1 (Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_DEFAULTS) to select defaults that behave most like a C cast, or a combination of the other flags in the table below. Note that -1 cannot be combined with other flags.

Currently, -1 corresponds to Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_NATIVE_ENDIAN | Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_UNSIGNED_BUFFER.

Option

Valeur

Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_DEFAULTS

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.14.

-1

Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_BIG_ENDIAN

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.14.

0

Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_LITTLE_ENDIAN

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.14.

1

Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_NATIVE_ENDIAN

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.14.

3

Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_UNSIGNED_BUFFER

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.14.

4

Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_REJECT_NEGATIVE

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.14.

8

Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_ALLOW_INDEX

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.14.

16

Specifying Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_NATIVE_ENDIAN will override any other endian flags. Passing 2 is reserved.

By default, sufficient buffer will be requested to include a sign bit. For example, when converting 128 with n_bytes=1, the function will return 2 (or more) in order to store a zero sign bit.

If Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_UNSIGNED_BUFFER is specified, a zero sign bit will be omitted from size calculations. This allows, for example, 128 to fit in a single-byte buffer. If the destination buffer is later treated as signed, a positive input value may become negative. Note that the flag does not affect handling of negative values: for those, space for a sign bit is always requested.

Specifying Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_REJECT_NEGATIVE causes an exception to be set if pylong is negative. Without this flag, negative values will be copied provided there is enough space for at least one sign bit, regardless of whether Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_UNSIGNED_BUFFER was specified.

If Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_ALLOW_INDEX is specified and a non-integer value is passed, its __index__() method will be called first. This may result in Python code executing and other threads being allowed to run, which could cause changes to other objects or values in use. When flags is -1, this option is not set, and non-integer values will raise TypeError.

Note

With the default flags (-1, or UNSIGNED_BUFFER without REJECT_NEGATIVE), multiple Python integers can map to a single value without overflow. For example, both 255 and -1 fit a single-byte buffer and set all its bits. This matches typical C cast behavior.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

PyLong_AsPid(pid)

Macro for converting a Python integer into a process identifier.

This can be defined as an alias to PyLong_AsLong(), PyLong_FromLongLong(), or PyLong_AsInt(), depending on the size of the system's PID type.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

int PyLong_GetSign(PyObject *obj, int *sign)

Get the sign of the integer object obj.

On success, set *sign to the integer sign (0, -1 or +1 for zero, negative or positive integer, respectively) and return 0.

On failure, return -1 with an exception set. This function always succeeds if obj is a PyLongObject or its subtype.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

int PyLong_IsPositive(PyObject *obj)

Check if the integer object obj is positive (obj > 0).

If obj is an instance of PyLongObject or its subtype, return 1 when it's positive and 0 otherwise. Else set an exception and return -1.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

int PyLong_IsNegative(PyObject *obj)

Check if the integer object obj is negative (obj < 0).

If obj is an instance of PyLongObject or its subtype, return 1 when it's negative and 0 otherwise. Else set an exception and return -1.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

int PyLong_IsZero(PyObject *obj)

Check if the integer object obj is zero.

If obj is an instance of PyLongObject or its subtype, return 1 when it's zero and 0 otherwise. Else set an exception and return -1.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

PyObject *PyLong_GetInfo(void)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

On success, return a read only named tuple, that holds information about Python's internal representation of integers. See sys.int_info for description of individual fields.

On failure, return NULL with an exception set.

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

int PyUnstable_Long_IsCompact(const PyLongObject *op)

Fait partie de l' API instable. Peut changer sans avertissement d'une version mineure à l'autre.

Return 1 if op is compact, 0 otherwise.

This function makes it possible for performance-critical code to implement a “fast path” for small integers. For compact values use PyUnstable_Long_CompactValue(); for others fall back to a PyLong_As* function or PyLong_AsNativeBytes().

The speedup is expected to be negligible for most users.

Exactly what values are considered compact is an implementation detail and is subject to change.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Py_ssize_t PyUnstable_Long_CompactValue(const PyLongObject *op)

Fait partie de l' API instable. Peut changer sans avertissement d'une version mineure à l'autre.

If op is compact, as determined by PyUnstable_Long_IsCompact(), return its value.

Otherwise, the return value is undefined.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Export API

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

struct PyLongLayout

Layout of an array of "digits" ("limbs" in the GMP terminology), used to represent absolute value for arbitrary precision integers.

Use PyLong_GetNativeLayout() to get the native layout of Python int objects, used internally for integers with "big enough" absolute value.

See also sys.int_info which exposes similar information in Python.

uint8_t bits_per_digit

Bits per digit. For example, a 15 bit digit means that bits 0-14 contain meaningful information.

uint8_t digit_size

Digit size in bytes. For example, a 15 bit digit will require at least 2 bytes.

int8_t digits_order

Digits order:

1 for most significant digit first

-1 for least significant digit first

int8_t digit_endianness

Digit endianness:

1 for most significant byte first (big endian)

-1 for least significant byte first (little endian)

const PyLongLayout *PyLong_GetNativeLayout(void)

Get the native layout of Python int objects.

See the PyLongLayout structure.

The function must not be called before Python initialization nor after Python finalization. The returned layout is valid until Python is finalized. The layout is the same for all Python sub-interpreters in a process, and so it can be cached.

struct PyLongExport

Export of a Python int object.

There are two cases:

If digits is NULL, only use the value member.

If digits is not NULL, use negative, ndigits and digits members.

int64_t value

The native integer value of the exported int object. Only valid if digits is NULL.

uint8_t negative

1 if the number is negative, 0 otherwise. Only valid if digits is not NULL.

Py_ssize_t ndigits

Number of digits in digits array. Only valid if digits is not NULL.

const void *digits

Read-only array of unsigned digits. Can be NULL.

int PyLong_Export(PyObject *obj, PyLongExport *export_long)

Export a Python int object.

export_long must point to a PyLongExport structure allocated by the caller. It must not be NULL.

On success, fill in *export_long and return 0. On error, set an exception and return -1.

PyLong_FreeExport() must be called when the export is no longer needed.

Particularité de l'implémentation CPython : This function always succeeds if obj is a Python int object or a subclass.

void PyLong_FreeExport(PyLongExport *export_long)

Release the export export_long created by PyLong_Export().

Particularité de l'implémentation CPython : Calling PyLong_FreeExport() is optional if export_long->digits is NULL.

PyLongWriter API

The PyLongWriter API can be used to import an integer.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

struct PyLongWriter

A Python int writer instance.

The instance must be destroyed by PyLongWriter_Finish() or PyLongWriter_Discard().

PyLongWriter *PyLongWriter_Create(int negative, Py_ssize_t ndigits, void **digits)

Create a PyLongWriter.

On success, allocate *digits and return a writer. On error, set an exception and return NULL.

negative is 1 if the number is negative, or 0 otherwise.

ndigits is the number of digits in the digits array. It must be greater than 0.

digits must not be NULL.

After a successful call to this function, the caller should fill in the array of digits digits and then call PyLongWriter_Finish() to get a Python int. The layout of digits is described by PyLong_GetNativeLayout().

Digits must be in the range [0; (1 << bits_per_digit) - 1] (where the bits_per_digit is the number of bits per digit). Any unused most significant digits must be set to 0.

Alternately, call PyLongWriter_Discard() to destroy the writer instance without creating an int object.

PyObject *PyLongWriter_Finish(PyLongWriter *writer)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Finish a PyLongWriter created by PyLongWriter_Create().

On success, return a Python int object. On error, set an exception and return NULL.

The function takes care of normalizing the digits and converts the object to a compact integer if needed.

The writer instance and the digits array are invalid after the call.

void PyLongWriter_Discard(PyLongWriter *writer)

Discard a PyLongWriter created by PyLongWriter_Create().

If writer is NULL, no operation is performed.

The writer instance and the digits array are invalid after the call.

Deprecated API

These macros are soft deprecated. They describe parameters of the internal representation of PyLongObject instances.

Use PyLong_GetNativeLayout() instead, along with PyLong_Export() to read integer data or PyLongWriter to write it. These currently use the same layout, but are designed to continue working correctly even if CPython's internal integer representation changes.

PyLong_SHIFT

This is equivalent to bits_per_digit in the output of PyLong_GetNativeLayout().

PyLong_BASE

This is currently equivalent to 1 << PyLong_SHIFT.

PyLong_MASK

This is currently equivalent to (1 << PyLong_SHIFT) - 1

Les objets booléens

Booleans in Python are implemented as a subclass of integers. There are only two booleans, Py_False and Py_True. As such, the normal creation and deletion functions don't apply to booleans. The following macros are available, however.

PyTypeObject PyBool_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This instance of PyTypeObject represents the Python boolean type; it is the same object as bool in the Python layer.

int PyBool_Check(PyObject *o)

Renvoie vrai si o est de type PyBook_Type. Cette fonction réussit systématiquement.

PyObject *Py_False

The Python False object. This object has no methods and is immortal.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Py_False is immortal.

PyObject *Py_True

The Python True object. This object has no methods and is immortal.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Py_True is immortal.

Py_RETURN_FALSE

Return Py_False from a function.

Py_RETURN_TRUE

Return Py_True from a function.

PyObject *PyBool_FromLong(long v)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return Py_True or Py_False, depending on the truth value of v.

Floating-Point Objects

type PyFloatObject

This subtype of PyObject represents a Python floating-point object.

PyTypeObject PyFloat_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This instance of PyTypeObject represents the Python floating-point type. This is the same object as float in the Python layer.

int PyFloat_Check(PyObject *p)

Return true if its argument is a PyFloatObject or a subtype of PyFloatObject. This function always succeeds.

int PyFloat_CheckExact(PyObject *p)

Return true if its argument is a PyFloatObject, but not a subtype of PyFloatObject. This function always succeeds.

PyObject *PyFloat_FromString(PyObject *str)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Create a PyFloatObject object based on the string value in str, or NULL on failure.

PyObject *PyFloat_FromDouble(double v)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Create a PyFloatObject object from v, or NULL on failure.

double PyFloat_AsDouble(PyObject *pyfloat)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a C double representation of the contents of pyfloat. If pyfloat is not a Python floating-point object but has a __float__() method, this method will first be called to convert pyfloat into a float. If __float__() is not defined then it falls back to __index__(). This method returns -1.0 upon failure, so one should call PyErr_Occurred() to check for errors.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Use __index__() if available.

double PyFloat_AS_DOUBLE(PyObject *pyfloat)

Return a C double representation of the contents of pyfloat, but without error checking.

PyObject *PyFloat_GetInfo(void)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Renvoie une instance structseq qui contient les informations sur la précision et les valeurs minimales et maximales pour un nombre à virgule flottante. C'est une enveloppe autour du fichier d'entête float.h.

double PyFloat_GetMax()

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the maximum representable finite float DBL_MAX as C double.

double PyFloat_GetMin()

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the minimum normalized positive float DBL_MIN as C double.

Py_INFINITY

This macro expands to a constant expression of type double, that represents the positive infinity.

On most platforms, this is equivalent to the INFINITY macro from the C11 standard <math.h> header.

Py_NAN

This macro expands to a constant expression of type double, that represents a quiet not-a-number (qNaN) value.

On most platforms, this is equivalent to the NAN macro from the C11 standard <math.h> header.

Py_HUGE_VAL

Equivalent to INFINITY.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.14: The macro is soft deprecated.

Py_MATH_E

The definition (accurate for a double type) of the math.e constant.

Py_MATH_El

High precision (long double) definition of e constant.

Py_MATH_PI

The definition (accurate for a double type) of the math.pi constant.

Py_MATH_PIl

High precision (long double) definition of pi constant.

Py_MATH_TAU

The definition (accurate for a double type) of the math.tau constant.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

Py_RETURN_NAN

Return math.nan from a function.

On most platforms, this is equivalent to return PyFloat_FromDouble(NAN).

Py_RETURN_INF(sign)

Return math.inf or -math.inf from a function, depending on the sign of sign.

On most platforms, this is equivalent to the following:

return PyFloat_FromDouble(copysign(INFINITY, sign));

Py_IS_FINITE(X)

Return 1 if the given floating-point number X is finite, that is, it is normal, subnormal or zero, but not infinite or NaN. Return 0 otherwise.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.14: The macro is soft deprecated. Use isfinite instead.

Py_IS_INFINITY(X)

Return 1 if the given floating-point number X is positive or negative infinity. Return 0 otherwise.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.14: The macro is soft deprecated. Use isinf instead.

Py_IS_NAN(X)

Return 1 if the given floating-point number X is a not-a-number (NaN) value. Return 0 otherwise.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.14: The macro is soft deprecated. Use isnan instead.

Pack and Unpack functions

The pack and unpack functions provide an efficient platform-independent way to store floating-point values as byte strings. The Pack routines produce a bytes string from a C double, and the Unpack routines produce a C double from such a bytes string. The suffix (2, 4 or 8) specifies the number of bytes in the bytes string.

On platforms that appear to use IEEE 754 formats these functions work by copying bits. On other platforms, the 2-byte format is identical to the IEEE 754 binary16 half-precision format, the 4-byte format (32-bit) is identical to the IEEE 754 binary32 single precision format, and the 8-byte format to the IEEE 754 binary64 double precision format, although the packing of INFs and NaNs (if such things exist on the platform) isn't handled correctly, and attempting to unpack a bytes string containing an IEEE INF or NaN will raise an exception.

Note that NaN type may not be preserved on IEEE platforms (signaling NaNs become quiet NaNs), for example on x86 systems in 32-bit mode.

On non-IEEE platforms with more precision, or larger dynamic range, than IEEE 754 supports, not all values can be packed; on non-IEEE platforms with less precision, or smaller dynamic range, not all values can be unpacked. What happens in such cases is partly accidental (alas).

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

Pack functions

The pack routines write 2, 4 or 8 bytes, starting at p. le is an int argument, non-zero if you want the bytes string in little-endian format (exponent last, at p+1, p+3, or p+6 and p+7), zero if you want big-endian format (exponent first, at p). The PY_BIG_ENDIAN constant can be used to use the native endian: it is equal to 1 on big endian processor, or 0 on little endian processor.

Return value: 0 if all is OK, -1 if error (and an exception is set, most likely OverflowError).

There are two problems on non-IEEE platforms:

What this does is undefined if x is a NaN or infinity.

-0.0 and +0.0 produce the same bytes string.

int PyFloat_Pack2(double x, char *p, int le)

Pack a C double as the IEEE 754 binary16 half-precision format.

int PyFloat_Pack4(double x, char *p, int le)

Pack a C double as the IEEE 754 binary32 single precision format.

int PyFloat_Pack8(double x, char *p, int le)

Pack a C double as the IEEE 754 binary64 double precision format.

Unpack functions

The unpack routines read 2, 4 or 8 bytes, starting at p. le is an int argument, non-zero if the bytes string is in little-endian format (exponent last, at p+1, p+3 or p+6 and p+7), zero if big-endian (exponent first, at p). The PY_BIG_ENDIAN constant can be used to use the native endian: it is equal to 1 on big endian processor, or 0 on little endian processor.

Return value: The unpacked double. On error, this is -1.0 and PyErr_Occurred() is true (and an exception is set, most likely OverflowError).

Note that on a non-IEEE platform this will refuse to unpack a bytes string that represents a NaN or infinity.

double PyFloat_Unpack2(const char *p, int le)

Unpack the IEEE 754 binary16 half-precision format as a C double.

double PyFloat_Unpack4(const char *p, int le)

Unpack the IEEE 754 binary32 single precision format as a C double.

double PyFloat_Unpack8(const char *p, int le)

Unpack the IEEE 754 binary64 double precision format as a C double.

Objets représentant des nombres complexes

Les nombres complexes Python sont implémentés comme deux types distincts, lorsqu'ils sont vus de l'API C : l'un est l'objet Python tel qu'il est vu par les programmes Python, et l'autre est une structure C qui représente la valeur exacte du nombre complexe. L'API fournit des fonctions pour travailler avec ces deux représentations.

Nombres complexes en tant que structures C

Les fonctions qui acceptent ces structures comme paramètres et les renvoient comme résultats le font en fonction de leur valeur au lieu de les dé-référencer en utilisant des pointeurs. C'est constant dans toute l'API.

type Py_complex

The C structure which corresponds to the value portion of a Python complex number object. Most of the functions for dealing with complex number objects use structures of this type as input or output values, as appropriate.

double real

double imag

The structure is defined as:

typedef struct {
    double real;
    double imag;
} Py_complex;

Py_complex _Py_c_sum(Py_complex left, Py_complex right)

Renvoie la somme de deux nombres complexes, sous la forme d'un Py_complex en C.

Py_complex _Py_c_diff(Py_complex left, Py_complex right)

Renvoie la différence de deux nombres complexes, sous la forme d'un Py_complex en C.

Py_complex _Py_c_neg(Py_complex num)

Return the negation of the complex number num, using the C Py_complex representation.

Py_complex _Py_c_prod(Py_complex left, Py_complex right)

Renvoie le produit de deux nombres complexes, sous la forme d'un Py_complex en C.

Py_complex _Py_c_quot(Py_complex dividend, Py_complex divisor)

Renvoie le quotient de deux nombres complexes, sous la forme d'un Py_complex en C.

If divisor is null, this method returns zero and sets errno to EDOM.

Py_complex _Py_c_pow(Py_complex num, Py_complex exp)

Renvoie num à la puissance exp, sous la forme d'un Py_complex en C.

If num is null and exp is not a positive real number, this method returns zero and sets errno to EDOM.

Set errno to ERANGE on overflows.

Nombres complexes en tant qu'objets Python

type PyComplexObject

Ce sous-type de l'objet PyObject représente un nombre complexe en Python.

PyTypeObject PyComplex_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Cette instance de PyTypeObject représente le type nombre complexe Python. C'est le même objet que la classe complex de la couche Python.

int PyComplex_Check(PyObject *p)

Return true if its argument is a PyComplexObject or a subtype of PyComplexObject. This function always succeeds.

int PyComplex_CheckExact(PyObject *p)

Return true if its argument is a PyComplexObject, but not a subtype of PyComplexObject. This function always succeeds.

PyObject *PyComplex_FromCComplex(Py_complex v)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Create a new Python complex number object from a C Py_complex value. Return NULL with an exception set on error.

PyObject *PyComplex_FromDoubles(double real, double imag)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a new PyComplexObject object from real and imag. Return NULL with an exception set on error.

double PyComplex_RealAsDouble(PyObject *op)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the real part of op as a C double.

If op is not a Python complex number object but has a __complex__() method, this method will first be called to convert op to a Python complex number object. If __complex__() is not defined then it falls back to call PyFloat_AsDouble() and returns its result.

Upon failure, this method returns -1.0 with an exception set, so one should call PyErr_Occurred() to check for errors.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Use __complex__() if available.

double PyComplex_ImagAsDouble(PyObject *op)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the imaginary part of op as a C double.

If op is not a Python complex number object but has a __complex__() method, this method will first be called to convert op to a Python complex number object. If __complex__() is not defined then it falls back to call PyFloat_AsDouble() and returns 0.0 on success.

Upon failure, this method returns -1.0 with an exception set, so one should call PyErr_Occurred() to check for errors.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Use __complex__() if available.

Py_complex PyComplex_AsCComplex(PyObject *op)

Renvoie la valeur du nombre complexe op sous la forme d'un Py_complex en C.

If op is not a Python complex number object but has a __complex__() method, this method will first be called to convert op to a Python complex number object. If __complex__() is not defined then it falls back to __float__(). If __float__() is not defined then it falls back to __index__().

Upon failure, this method returns Py_complex with real set to -1.0 and with an exception set, so one should call PyErr_Occurred() to check for errors.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Use __index__() if available.

Objets bytes

These functions raise TypeError when expecting a bytes parameter and called with a non-bytes parameter.

type PyBytesObject

This subtype of PyObject represents a Python bytes object.

PyTypeObject PyBytes_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This instance of PyTypeObject represents the Python bytes type; it is the same object as bytes in the Python layer.

int PyBytes_Check(PyObject *o)

Return true if the object o is a bytes object or an instance of a subtype of the bytes type. This function always succeeds.

int PyBytes_CheckExact(PyObject *o)

Return true if the object o is a bytes object, but not an instance of a subtype of the bytes type. This function always succeeds.

PyObject *PyBytes_FromString(const char *v)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable. Thread safety: Atomic.

Return a new bytes object with a copy of the string v as value on success, and NULL on failure. The parameter v must not be NULL; it will not be checked.

PyObject *PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(const char *v, Py_ssize_t len)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable. Thread safety: Atomic.

Return a new bytes object with a copy of the string v as value and length len on success, and NULL on failure. If v is NULL, the contents of the bytes object are uninitialized.

PyObject *PyBytes_FromFormat(const char *format, ...)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable. Thread safety: Atomic.

Take a C printf()-style format string and a variable number of arguments, calculate the size of the resulting Python bytes object and return a bytes object with the values formatted into it. The variable arguments must be C types and must correspond exactly to the format characters in the format string. The following format characters are allowed:

Caractères de format

Type

Comment

%%

n/a

The literal % character.

%c

int

A single byte, represented as a C int.

%d

int

Equivalent to printf("%d"). [1]

%u

unsigned int

Equivalent to printf("%u"). [1]

%ld

long

Equivalent to printf("%ld"). [1]

%lu

unsigned long

Equivalent to printf("%lu"). [1]

%zd

Py_ssize_t

Equivalent to printf("%zd"). [1]

%zu

size_t

Equivalent to printf("%zu"). [1]

%i

int

Equivalent to printf("%i"). [1]

%x

int

Equivalent to printf("%x"). [1]

%s

const char*

A null-terminated C character array.

%p

const void*

The hex representation of a C pointer. Mostly equivalent to printf("%p") except that it is guaranteed to start with the literal 0x regardless of what the platform's printf yields.

An unrecognized format character causes all the rest of the format string to be copied as-is to the result object, and any extra arguments discarded.

[1] (1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8)

For integer specifiers (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x): the 0-conversion flag has effect even when a precision is given.

PyObject *PyBytes_FromFormatV(const char *format, va_list vargs)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable. Thread safety: Atomic.

Identical to PyBytes_FromFormat() except that it takes exactly two arguments.

PyObject *PyBytes_FromObject(PyObject *o)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable. Thread safety: Safe for concurrent use on the same object.

Return the bytes representation of object o that implements the buffer protocol.

Note

If the object implements the buffer protocol, then the buffer must not be mutated while the bytes object is being created.

Py_ssize_t PyBytes_Size(PyObject *o)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable. Thread safety: Atomic.

Return the length of the bytes in bytes object o.

Py_ssize_t PyBytes_GET_SIZE(PyObject *o)

Thread safety: Atomic.

Similar to PyBytes_Size(), but without error checking.

char *PyBytes_AsString(PyObject *o)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable. Thread safety: Safe to call from multiple threads with external synchronization only.

Return a pointer to the contents of o. The pointer refers to the internal buffer of o, which consists of len(o) + 1 bytes. The last byte in the buffer is always null, regardless of whether there are any other null bytes. The data must not be modified in any way, unless the object was just created using PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(NULL, size). It must not be deallocated. If o is not a bytes object at all, PyBytes_AsString() returns NULL and raises TypeError.

char *PyBytes_AS_STRING(PyObject *string)

Thread safety: Safe to call from multiple threads with external synchronization only.

Similar to PyBytes_AsString(), but without error checking.

int PyBytes_AsStringAndSize(PyObject *obj, char **buffer, Py_ssize_t *length)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable. Thread safety: Safe to call from multiple threads with external synchronization only.

Return the null-terminated contents of the object obj through the output variables buffer and length. Returns 0 on success.

If length is NULL, the bytes object may not contain embedded null bytes; if it does, the function returns -1 and a ValueError is raised.

The buffer refers to an internal buffer of obj, which includes an additional null byte at the end (not counted in length). The data must not be modified in any way, unless the object was just created using PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(NULL, size). It must not be deallocated. If obj is not a bytes object at all, PyBytes_AsStringAndSize() returns -1 and raises TypeError.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Previously, TypeError was raised when embedded null bytes were encountered in the bytes object.

void PyBytes_Concat(PyObject **bytes, PyObject *newpart)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable. Thread safety: Safe for concurrent use on the same object.

Create a new bytes object in *bytes containing the contents of newpart appended to bytes; the caller will own the new reference. The reference to the old value of bytes will be stolen. If the new object cannot be created, the old reference to bytes will still be discarded and the value of *bytes will be set to NULL; the appropriate exception will be set.

Note

If newpart implements the buffer protocol, then the buffer must not be mutated while the new bytes object is being created.

void PyBytes_ConcatAndDel(PyObject **bytes, PyObject *newpart)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable. Thread safety: Safe for concurrent use on the same object.

Create a new bytes object in *bytes containing the contents of newpart appended to bytes. This version releases the strong reference to newpart (i.e. decrements its reference count).

Note

If newpart implements the buffer protocol, then the buffer must not be mutated while the new bytes object is being created.

PyObject *PyBytes_Join(PyObject *sep, PyObject *iterable)

Thread safety: Safe for concurrent use on the same object.

Similar to sep.join(iterable) in Python.

sep must be Python bytes object. (Note that PyUnicode_Join() accepts NULL separator and treats it as a space, whereas PyBytes_Join() doesn't accept NULL separator.)

iterable must be an iterable object yielding objects that implement the buffer protocol.

On success, return a new bytes object. On error, set an exception and return NULL.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Note

If iterable objects implement the buffer protocol, then the buffers must not be mutated while the new bytes object is being created.

int _PyBytes_Resize(PyObject **bytes, Py_ssize_t newsize)

Thread safety: Safe to call without external synchronization on distinct objects.

Resize a bytes object. newsize will be the new length of the bytes object. You can think of it as creating a new bytes object and destroying the old one, only more efficiently. Pass the address of an existing bytes object as an lvalue (it may be written into), and the new size desired. On success, *bytes holds the resized bytes object and 0 is returned; the address in *bytes may differ from its input value. If the reallocation fails, the original bytes object at *bytes is deallocated, *bytes is set to NULL, MemoryError is set, and -1 is returned.

PyObject *PyBytes_Repr(PyObject *bytes, int smartquotes)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable. Thread safety: Atomic.

Get the string representation of bytes. This function is currently used to implement bytes.__repr__() in Python.

This function does not do type checking; it is undefined behavior to pass bytes as a non-bytes object or NULL.

If smartquotes is true, the representation will use a double-quoted string instead of single-quoted string when single-quotes are present in bytes. For example, the byte string 'Python' would be represented as b"'Python'" when smartquotes is true, or b'\'Python\'' when it is false.

On success, this function returns a strong reference to a str object containing the representation. On failure, this returns NULL with an exception set.

PyObject *PyBytes_DecodeEscape(const char *s, Py_ssize_t len, const char *errors, Py_ssize_t unicode, const char *recode_encoding)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable. Thread safety: Atomic.

Unescape a backslash-escaped string s. s must not be NULL. len must be the size of s.

errors must be one of "strict", "replace", or "ignore". If errors is NULL, then "strict" is used by default.

On success, this function returns a strong reference to a Python bytes object containing the unescaped string. On failure, this function returns NULL with an exception set.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: unicode and recode_encoding are now unused.

Objets tableau d'octets

type PyByteArrayObject

Ce sous-type de PyObject représente un objet bytearray Python.

PyTypeObject PyByteArray_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Cette instance de PyTypeObject représente le type Python bytearray, c'est le même que bytearray côté Python.

Macros de vérification de type

int PyByteArray_Check(PyObject *o)

Renvoie vrai si l'objet o est un bytearray ou une instance d'un sous-type du type bytearray. Cette méthode réussit toujours.

int PyByteArray_CheckExact(PyObject *o)

Renvoie vrai si l'objet o est un bytearray, mais pas une instance d'un sous-type du type bytearray. Cette méthode réussit toujours.

Fonctions directes sur l'API

PyObject *PyByteArray_FromObject(PyObject *o)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable. Thread safety: Safe for concurrent use on the same object.

Renvoie un nouvel objet bytearray depuis n'importe quel objet, o, qui implémente le protocole buffer.

On failure, return NULL with an exception set.

Note

If the object implements the buffer protocol, then the buffer must not be mutated while the bytearray object is being created.

PyObject *PyByteArray_FromStringAndSize(const char *string, Py_ssize_t len)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable. Thread safety: Atomic.

Create a new bytearray object from string and its length, len.

On failure, return NULL with an exception set.

PyObject *PyByteArray_Concat(PyObject *a, PyObject *b)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable. Thread safety: Safe for concurrent use on the same object.

Concatène les bytearrays a et b et renvoie un nouveau bytearray avec le résultat.

On failure, return NULL with an exception set.

Note

If the object implements the buffer protocol, then the buffer must not be mutated while the bytearray object is being created.

Py_ssize_t PyByteArray_Size(PyObject *bytearray)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable. Thread safety: Atomic.

Renvoie la taille de bytearray après vérification de la présence d'un pointeur NULL.

char *PyByteArray_AsString(PyObject *bytearray)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable. Thread safety: Safe to call from multiple threads with external synchronization only.

Renvoie le contenu de bytearray sous forme d'un tableau de caractères, en vérifiant que ce n'est pas un pointeur NULL. Le tableau renvoyé a toujours un caractère null rajouté.

Note

It is not thread-safe to mutate the bytearray object while using the returned char array.

int PyByteArray_Resize(PyObject *bytearray, Py_ssize_t len)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Resize the internal buffer of bytearray to len. Failure is a -1 return with an exception set.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: A negative len will now result in an exception being set and -1 returned.

Macros

Ces macros sont taillées pour la vitesse d'exécution et ne vérifient pas les pointeurs.

char *PyByteArray_AS_STRING(PyObject *bytearray)

Thread safety: Safe to call from multiple threads with external synchronization only.

Similar to PyByteArray_AsString(), but without error checking.

Note

It is not thread-safe to mutate the bytearray object while using the returned char array.

Py_ssize_t PyByteArray_GET_SIZE(PyObject *bytearray)

Thread safety: Atomic.

Similar to PyByteArray_Size(), but without error checking.

Objets Unicode et Codecs

Objets Unicode

Depuis l'implémentation de PEP 393 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/] dans Python 3.3, les objets Unicode utilisent une variété de représentations internes, pour permettre de gérer l'intervalle complet des caractères Unicode en restant efficace en termes de mémoire. Il y a des cas spéciaux pour les chaînes où tous les points de code sont inférieurs à 128, 256, ou 65536 ; sinon, les points de code doivent être inférieurs à 1114112 (qui est l'intervalle Unicode complet).

UTF-8 representation is created on demand and cached in the Unicode object.

Note

The Py_UNICODE representation has been removed since Python 3.12 with deprecated APIs. See PEP 623 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/] for more information.

Type Unicode

Voici les types d'objets Unicode utilisés pour l'implémentation Unicode en Python :

PyTypeObject PyUnicode_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This instance of PyTypeObject represents the Python Unicode type. It is exposed to Python code as str.

PyTypeObject PyUnicodeIter_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This instance of PyTypeObject represents the Python Unicode iterator type. It is used to iterate over Unicode string objects.

type Py_UCS4

type Py_UCS2

type Py_UCS1

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Voici les typedefs pour les types entiers non signés suffisamment large pour contenir des caractères de 32 bits, 16 bits et 8 bits, respectivement. Pour traiter des caractères uniques, utilisez Py_UCS4.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

type PyASCIIObject

type PyCompactUnicodeObject

type PyUnicodeObject

These subtypes of PyObject represent a Python Unicode object. In almost all cases, they shouldn't be used directly, since all API functions that deal with Unicode objects take and return PyObject pointers.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

The structure of a particular object can be determined using the following macros. The macros cannot fail; their behavior is undefined if their argument is not a Python Unicode object.

PyUnicode_IS_COMPACT(o)

True if o uses the PyCompactUnicodeObject structure.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

PyUnicode_IS_COMPACT_ASCII(o)

True if o uses the PyASCIIObject structure.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

The following APIs are C macros and static inlined functions for fast checks and access to internal read-only data of Unicode objects:

int PyUnicode_Check(PyObject *obj)

Return true if the object obj is a Unicode object or an instance of a Unicode subtype. This function always succeeds.

int PyUnicode_CheckExact(PyObject *obj)

Return true if the object obj is a Unicode object, but not an instance of a subtype. This function always succeeds.

Py_ssize_t PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(PyObject *unicode)

Return the length of the Unicode string, in code points. unicode has to be a Unicode object in the "canonical" representation (not checked).

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Py_UCS1 *PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA(PyObject *unicode)

Py_UCS2 *PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA(PyObject *unicode)

Py_UCS4 *PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA(PyObject *unicode)

Return a pointer to the canonical representation cast to UCS1, UCS2 or UCS4 integer types for direct character access. No checks are performed if the canonical representation has the correct character size; use PyUnicode_KIND() to select the right function.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND

PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND

PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND

Return values of the PyUnicode_KIND() macro.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND has been removed.

int PyUnicode_KIND(PyObject *unicode)

Return one of the PyUnicode kind constants (see above) that indicate how many bytes per character this Unicode object uses to store its data. unicode has to be a Unicode object in the "canonical" representation (not checked).

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

void *PyUnicode_DATA(PyObject *unicode)

Return a void pointer to the raw Unicode buffer. unicode has to be a Unicode object in the "canonical" representation (not checked).

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

void PyUnicode_WRITE(int kind, void *data, Py_ssize_t index, Py_UCS4 value)

Write the code point value to the given zero-based index in a string.

The kind value and data pointer must have been obtained from a string using PyUnicode_KIND() and PyUnicode_DATA() respectively. You must hold a reference to that string while calling PyUnicode_WRITE(). All requirements of PyUnicode_WriteChar() also apply.

The function performs no checks for any of its requirements, and is intended for usage in loops.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Py_UCS4 PyUnicode_READ(int kind, void *data, Py_ssize_t index)

Read a code point from a canonical representation data (as obtained with PyUnicode_DATA()). No checks or ready calls are performed.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Py_UCS4 PyUnicode_READ_CHAR(PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t index)

Read a character from a Unicode object unicode, which must be in the "canonical" representation. This is less efficient than PyUnicode_READ() if you do multiple consecutive reads.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Py_UCS4 PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE(PyObject *unicode)

Return the maximum code point that is suitable for creating another string based on unicode, which must be in the "canonical" representation. This is always an approximation but more efficient than iterating over the string.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

int PyUnicode_IsIdentifier(PyObject *unicode)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return 1 if the string is a valid identifier according to the language definition, section Names (identifiers and keywords). Return 0 otherwise.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: The function does not call Py_FatalError() anymore if the string is not ready.

unsigned int PyUnicode_IS_ASCII(PyObject *unicode)

Return true if the string only contains ASCII characters. Equivalent to str.isascii().

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Unicode Character Properties

Unicode provides many different character properties. The most often needed ones are available through these macros which are mapped to C functions depending on the Python configuration.

int Py_UNICODE_ISSPACE(Py_UCS4 ch)

Return 1 or 0 depending on whether ch is a whitespace character.

int Py_UNICODE_ISLOWER(Py_UCS4 ch)

Return 1 or 0 depending on whether ch is a lowercase character.

int Py_UNICODE_ISUPPER(Py_UCS4 ch)

Return 1 or 0 depending on whether ch is an uppercase character.

int Py_UNICODE_ISTITLE(Py_UCS4 ch)

Return 1 or 0 depending on whether ch is a titlecase character.

int Py_UNICODE_ISLINEBREAK(Py_UCS4 ch)

Return 1 or 0 depending on whether ch is a linebreak character.

int Py_UNICODE_ISDECIMAL(Py_UCS4 ch)

Return 1 or 0 depending on whether ch is a decimal character.

int Py_UNICODE_ISDIGIT(Py_UCS4 ch)

Return 1 or 0 depending on whether ch is a digit character.

int Py_UNICODE_ISNUMERIC(Py_UCS4 ch)

Return 1 or 0 depending on whether ch is a numeric character.

int Py_UNICODE_ISALPHA(Py_UCS4 ch)

Return 1 or 0 depending on whether ch is an alphabetic character.

int Py_UNICODE_ISALNUM(Py_UCS4 ch)

Return 1 or 0 depending on whether ch is an alphanumeric character.

int Py_UNICODE_ISPRINTABLE(Py_UCS4 ch)

Return 1 or 0 depending on whether ch is a printable character, in the sense of str.isprintable().

These APIs can be used for fast direct character conversions:

Py_UCS4 Py_UNICODE_TOLOWER(Py_UCS4 ch)

Return the character ch converted to lower case.

Py_UCS4 Py_UNICODE_TOUPPER(Py_UCS4 ch)

Return the character ch converted to upper case.

Py_UCS4 Py_UNICODE_TOTITLE(Py_UCS4 ch)

Return the character ch converted to title case.

int Py_UNICODE_TODECIMAL(Py_UCS4 ch)

Return the character ch converted to a decimal positive integer. Return -1 if this is not possible. This function does not raise exceptions.

int Py_UNICODE_TODIGIT(Py_UCS4 ch)

Return the character ch converted to a single digit integer. Return -1 if this is not possible. This function does not raise exceptions.

double Py_UNICODE_TONUMERIC(Py_UCS4 ch)

Return the character ch converted to a double. Return -1.0 if this is not possible. This function does not raise exceptions.

These APIs can be used to work with surrogates:

int Py_UNICODE_IS_SURROGATE(Py_UCS4 ch)

Check if ch is a surrogate (0xD800 <= ch <= 0xDFFF).

int Py_UNICODE_IS_HIGH_SURROGATE(Py_UCS4 ch)

Check if ch is a high surrogate (0xD800 <= ch <= 0xDBFF).

int Py_UNICODE_IS_LOW_SURROGATE(Py_UCS4 ch)

Check if ch is a low surrogate (0xDC00 <= ch <= 0xDFFF).

Py_UCS4 Py_UNICODE_HIGH_SURROGATE(Py_UCS4 ch)

Return the high UTF-16 surrogate (0xD800 to 0xDBFF) for a Unicode code point in the range [0x10000; 0x10FFFF].

Py_UCS4 Py_UNICODE_LOW_SURROGATE(Py_UCS4 ch)

Return the low UTF-16 surrogate (0xDC00 to 0xDFFF) for a Unicode code point in the range [0x10000; 0x10FFFF].

Py_UCS4 Py_UNICODE_JOIN_SURROGATES(Py_UCS4 high, Py_UCS4 low)

Join two surrogate code points and return a single Py_UCS4 value. high and low are respectively the leading and trailing surrogates in a surrogate pair. high must be in the range [0xD800; 0xDBFF] and low must be in the range [0xDC00; 0xDFFF].

Creating and accessing Unicode strings

To create Unicode objects and access their basic sequence properties, use these APIs:

PyObject *PyUnicode_New(Py_ssize_t size, Py_UCS4 maxchar)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Create a new Unicode object. maxchar should be the true maximum code point to be placed in the string. As an approximation, it can be rounded up to the nearest value in the sequence 127, 255, 65535, 1114111.

On error, set an exception and return NULL.

After creation, the string can be filled by PyUnicode_WriteChar(), PyUnicode_CopyCharacters(), PyUnicode_Fill(), PyUnicode_WRITE() or similar. Since strings are supposed to be immutable, take care to not “use” the result while it is being modified. In particular, before it's filled with its final contents, a string:

must not be hashed,

must not be converted to UTF-8, or another non-"canonical" representation,

must not have its reference count changed,

must not be shared with code that might do one of the above.

This list is not exhaustive. Avoiding these uses is your responsibility; Python does not always check these requirements.

To avoid accidentally exposing a partially-written string object, prefer using the PyUnicodeWriter API, or one of the PyUnicode_From* functions below.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

PyObject *PyUnicode_FromKindAndData(int kind, const void *buffer, Py_ssize_t size)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Create a new Unicode object with the given kind (possible values are PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND etc., as returned by PyUnicode_KIND()). The buffer must point to an array of size units of 1, 2 or 4 bytes per character, as given by the kind.

If necessary, the input buffer is copied and transformed into the canonical representation. For example, if the buffer is a UCS4 string (PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND) and it consists only of codepoints in the UCS1 range, it will be transformed into UCS1 (PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND).

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

PyObject *PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize(const char *str, Py_ssize_t size)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Create a Unicode object from the char buffer str. The bytes will be interpreted as being UTF-8 encoded. The buffer is copied into the new object. The return value might be a shared object, i.e. modification of the data is not allowed.

This function raises SystemError when:

size < 0,

str is NULL and size > 0

Modifié dans la version 3.12: str == NULL with size > 0 is not allowed anymore.

PyObject *PyUnicode_FromString(const char *str)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Create a Unicode object from a UTF-8 encoded null-terminated char buffer str.

PyObject *PyUnicode_FromFormat(const char *format, ...)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Take a C printf()-style format string and a variable number of arguments, calculate the size of the resulting Python Unicode string and return a string with the values formatted into it. The variable arguments must be C types and must correspond exactly to the format characters in the format ASCII-encoded string.

Un indicateur de conversion contient deux ou plusieurs caractères et comporte les éléments suivants, qui doivent apparaître dans cet ordre :

le caractère '%', qui marque le début du marqueur ;

des indications de conversion, facultatives, qui affectent le résultat de certains types de conversion ;

Minimum field width (optional). If specified as an '*' (asterisk), the actual width is given in the next argument, which must be of type int, and the object to convert comes after the minimum field width and optional precision.

Precision (optional), given as a '.' (dot) followed by the precision. If specified as '*' (an asterisk), the actual precision is given in the next argument, which must be of type int, and the value to convert comes after the precision.

modificateur de longueur (facultatif) ;

type de conversion.

Les caractères indicateurs de conversion sont :

Option

Signification

0

Les valeurs numériques converties sont complétées de zéros.

-

The converted value is left adjusted (overrides the 0 flag if both are given).

The length modifiers for following integer conversions (d, i, o, u, x, or X) specify the type of the argument (int by default):

Modifier

Types

l

long or unsigned long

ll

long long or unsigned long long

j

intmax_t or uintmax_t

z

size_t or ssize_t

t

ptrdiff_t

The length modifier l for following conversions s or V specify that the type of the argument is const wchar_t*.

The conversion specifiers are:

Conversion Specifier

Type

Comment

%

n/a

The literal % character.

d, i

Specified by the length modifier

The decimal representation of a signed C integer.

u

Specified by the length modifier

The decimal representation of an unsigned C integer.

o

Specified by the length modifier

The octal representation of an unsigned C integer.

x

Specified by the length modifier

The hexadecimal representation of an unsigned C integer (lowercase).

X

Specified by the length modifier

The hexadecimal representation of an unsigned C integer (uppercase).

c

int

A single character.

s

const char* or const wchar_t*

A null-terminated C character array.

p

const void*

The hex representation of a C pointer. Mostly equivalent to printf("%p") except that it is guaranteed to start with the literal 0x regardless of what the platform's printf yields.

A

PyObject*

The result of calling ascii().

U

PyObject*

A Unicode object.

V

PyObject*, const char* or const wchar_t*

A Unicode object (which may be NULL) and a null-terminated C character array as a second parameter (which will be used, if the first parameter is NULL).

S

PyObject*

The result of calling PyObject_Str().

R

PyObject*

The result of calling PyObject_Repr().

T

PyObject*

Get the fully qualified name of an object type; call PyType_GetFullyQualifiedName().

#T

PyObject*

Similar to T format, but use a colon (:) as separator between the module name and the qualified name.

N

PyTypeObject*

Get the fully qualified name of a type; call PyType_GetFullyQualifiedName().

#N

PyTypeObject*

Similar to N format, but use a colon (:) as separator between the module name and the qualified name.

Note

The width formatter unit is number of characters rather than bytes. The precision formatter unit is number of bytes or wchar_t items (if the length modifier l is used) for "%s" and "%V" (if the PyObject* argument is NULL), and a number of characters for "%A", "%U", "%S", "%R" and "%V" (if the PyObject* argument is not NULL).

Note

Unlike to C printf() the 0 flag has effect even when a precision is given for integer conversions (d, i, u, o, x, or X).

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Support for "%lld" and "%llu" added.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Support for "%li", "%lli" and "%zi" added.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: Support width and precision formatter for "%s", "%A", "%U", "%V", "%S", "%R" added.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Support for conversion specifiers o and X. Support for length modifiers j and t. Length modifiers are now applied to all integer conversions. Length modifier l is now applied to conversion specifiers s and V. Support for variable width and precision *. Support for flag -.

An unrecognized format character now sets a SystemError. In previous versions it caused all the rest of the format string to be copied as-is to the result string, and any extra arguments discarded.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Support for %T, %#T, %N and %#N formats added.

PyObject *PyUnicode_FromFormatV(const char *format, va_list vargs)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Identical to PyUnicode_FromFormat() except that it takes exactly two arguments.

PyObject *PyUnicode_FromObject(PyObject *obj)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Copy an instance of a Unicode subtype to a new true Unicode object if necessary. If obj is already a true Unicode object (not a subtype), return a new strong reference to the object.

Objects other than Unicode or its subtypes will cause a TypeError.

PyObject *PyUnicode_FromOrdinal(int ordinal)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Create a Unicode Object from the given Unicode code point ordinal.

The ordinal must be in range(0x110000). A ValueError is raised in the case it is not.

PyObject *PyUnicode_FromEncodedObject(PyObject *obj, const char *encoding, const char *errors)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Decode an encoded object obj to a Unicode object.

bytes, bytearray and other bytes-like objects are decoded according to the given encoding and using the error handling defined by errors. Both can be NULL to have the interface use the default values (see Built-in Codecs for details).

All other objects, including Unicode objects, cause a TypeError to be set.

The API returns NULL if there was an error. The caller is responsible for decref'ing the returned objects.

void PyUnicode_Append(PyObject **p_left, PyObject *right)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Append the string right to the end of p_left. p_left must point to a strong reference to a Unicode object; PyUnicode_Append() releases ("steals") this reference.

On error, set *p_left to NULL and set an exception.

On success, set *p_left to a new strong reference to the result.

void PyUnicode_AppendAndDel(PyObject **p_left, PyObject *right)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

The function is similar to PyUnicode_Append(), with the only difference being that it decrements the reference count of right by one.

PyObject *PyUnicode_BuildEncodingMap(PyObject *string)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a mapping suitable for decoding a custom single-byte encoding. Given a Unicode string string of up to 256 characters representing an encoding table, returns either a compact internal mapping object or a dictionary mapping character ordinals to byte values. Raises a TypeError and return NULL on invalid input.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

const char *PyUnicode_GetDefaultEncoding(void)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the name of the default string encoding, "utf-8". See sys.getdefaultencoding().

The returned string does not need to be freed, and is valid until interpreter shutdown.

Py_ssize_t PyUnicode_GetLength(PyObject *unicode)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

Return the length of the Unicode object, in code points.

On error, set an exception and return -1.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Py_ssize_t PyUnicode_CopyCharacters(PyObject *to, Py_ssize_t to_start, PyObject *from, Py_ssize_t from_start, Py_ssize_t how_many)

Copy characters from one Unicode object into another. This function performs character conversion when necessary and falls back to memcpy() if possible. Returns -1 and sets an exception on error, otherwise returns the number of copied characters.

The string must not have been “used” yet. See PyUnicode_New() for details.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

int PyUnicode_Resize(PyObject **unicode, Py_ssize_t length);

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Resize a Unicode object *unicode to the new length in code points.

Try to resize the string in place (which is usually faster than allocating a new string and copying characters), or create a new string.

*unicode is modified to point to the new (resized) object and 0 is returned on success. Otherwise, -1 is returned and an exception is set, and *unicode is left untouched.

The function doesn't check string content, the result may not be a string in canonical representation.

Py_ssize_t PyUnicode_Fill(PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t length, Py_UCS4 fill_char)

Fill a string with a character: write fill_char into unicode[start:start+length].

Fail if fill_char is bigger than the string maximum character, or if the string has more than 1 reference.

The string must not have been “used” yet. See PyUnicode_New() for details.

Return the number of written character, or return -1 and raise an exception on error.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

int PyUnicode_WriteChar(PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t index, Py_UCS4 character)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

Write a character to the string unicode at the zero-based index. Return 0 on success, -1 on error with an exception set.

This function checks that unicode is a Unicode object, that the index is not out of bounds, and that the object's reference count is one. See PyUnicode_WRITE() for a version that skips these checks, making them your responsibility.

The string must not have been “used” yet. See PyUnicode_New() for details.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Py_UCS4 PyUnicode_ReadChar(PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t index)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

Read a character from a string. This function checks that unicode is a Unicode object and the index is not out of bounds, in contrast to PyUnicode_READ_CHAR(), which performs no error checking.

Return character on success, -1 on error with an exception set.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

PyObject *PyUnicode_Substring(PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

Return a substring of unicode, from character index start (included) to character index end (excluded). Negative indices are not supported. On error, set an exception and return NULL.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Py_UCS4 *PyUnicode_AsUCS4(PyObject *unicode, Py_UCS4 *buffer, Py_ssize_t buflen, int copy_null)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

Copy the string unicode into a UCS4 buffer, including a null character, if copy_null is set. Returns NULL and sets an exception on error (in particular, a SystemError if buflen is smaller than the length of unicode). buffer is returned on success.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Py_UCS4 *PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy(PyObject *unicode)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

Copy the string unicode into a new UCS4 buffer that is allocated using PyMem_Malloc(). If this fails, NULL is returned with a MemoryError set. The returned buffer always has an extra null code point appended.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Locale Encoding

The current locale encoding can be used to decode text from the operating system.

PyObject *PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize(const char *str, Py_ssize_t length, const char *errors)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

Decode a string from UTF-8 on Android and VxWorks, or from the current locale encoding on other platforms. The supported error handlers are "strict" and "surrogateescape" (PEP 383 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0383/]). The decoder uses "strict" error handler if errors is NULL. str must end with a null character but cannot contain embedded null characters.

Use PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize() to decode a string from the filesystem encoding and error handler.

This function ignores the Python UTF-8 Mode.

Voir aussi

The Py_DecodeLocale() function.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: The function now also uses the current locale encoding for the surrogateescape error handler, except on Android. Previously, Py_DecodeLocale() was used for the surrogateescape, and the current locale encoding was used for strict.

PyObject *PyUnicode_DecodeLocale(const char *str, const char *errors)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

Similar to PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize(), but compute the string length using strlen().

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

PyObject *PyUnicode_EncodeLocale(PyObject *unicode, const char *errors)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

Encode a Unicode object to UTF-8 on Android and VxWorks, or to the current locale encoding on other platforms. The supported error handlers are "strict" and "surrogateescape" (PEP 383 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0383/]). The encoder uses "strict" error handler if errors is NULL. Return a bytes object. unicode cannot contain embedded null characters.

Use PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault() to encode a string to the filesystem encoding and error handler.

This function ignores the Python UTF-8 Mode.

Voir aussi

The Py_EncodeLocale() function.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: The function now also uses the current locale encoding for the surrogateescape error handler, except on Android. Previously, Py_EncodeLocale() was used for the surrogateescape, and the current locale encoding was used for strict.

File System Encoding

Functions encoding to and decoding from the filesystem encoding and error handler (PEP 383 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0383/] and PEP 529 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/]).

To encode file names to bytes during argument parsing, the "O&" converter should be used, passing PyUnicode_FSConverter() as the conversion function:

int PyUnicode_FSConverter(PyObject *obj, void *result)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

PyArg_Parse* converter: encode str objects -- obtained directly or through the os.PathLike interface -- to bytes using PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(); bytes objects are output as-is. result must be an address of a C variable of type PyObject* (or PyBytesObject*). On success, set the variable to a new strong reference to a bytes object which must be released when it is no longer used and return a non-zero value (Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED). Embedded null bytes are not allowed in the result. On failure, return 0 with an exception set.

If obj is NULL, the function releases a strong reference stored in the variable referred by result and returns 1.

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

To decode file names to str during argument parsing, the "O&" converter should be used, passing PyUnicode_FSDecoder() as the conversion function:

int PyUnicode_FSDecoder(PyObject *obj, void *result)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

PyArg_Parse* converter: decode bytes objects -- obtained either directly or indirectly through the os.PathLike interface -- to str using PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize(); str objects are output as-is. result must be an address of a C variable of type PyObject* (or PyUnicodeObject*). On success, set the variable to a new strong reference to a Unicode object which must be released when it is no longer used and return a non-zero value (Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED). Embedded null characters are not allowed in the result. On failure, return 0 with an exception set.

If obj is NULL, release the strong reference to the object referred to by result and return 1.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: Accepte un path-like object.

PyObject *PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize(const char *str, Py_ssize_t size)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Decode a string from the filesystem encoding and error handler.

If you need to decode a string from the current locale encoding, use PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize().

Voir aussi

The Py_DecodeLocale() function.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: The filesystem error handler is now used.

PyObject *PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault(const char *str)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Decode a null-terminated string from the filesystem encoding and error handler.

If the string length is known, use PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize().

Modifié dans la version 3.6: The filesystem error handler is now used.

PyObject *PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(PyObject *unicode)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Encode a Unicode object to the filesystem encoding and error handler, and return bytes. Note that the resulting bytes object can contain null bytes.

If you need to encode a string to the current locale encoding, use PyUnicode_EncodeLocale().

Voir aussi

The Py_EncodeLocale() function.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: The filesystem error handler is now used.

wchar_t Support

wchar_t support for platforms which support it:

PyObject *PyUnicode_FromWideChar(const wchar_t *wstr, Py_ssize_t size)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Create a Unicode object from the wchar_t buffer wstr of the given size. Passing -1 as the size indicates that the function must itself compute the length, using wcslen(). Return NULL on failure.

Py_ssize_t PyUnicode_AsWideChar(PyObject *unicode, wchar_t *wstr, Py_ssize_t size)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Copy the Unicode object contents into the wchar_t buffer wstr. At most size wchar_t characters are copied (excluding a possibly trailing null termination character). Return the number of wchar_t characters copied or -1 in case of an error.

When wstr is NULL, instead return the size that would be required to store all of unicode including a terminating null.

Note that the resulting wchar_t* string may or may not be null-terminated. It is the responsibility of the caller to make sure that the wchar_t* string is null-terminated in case this is required by the application. Also, note that the wchar_t* string might contain null characters, which would cause the string to be truncated when used with most C functions.

wchar_t *PyUnicode_AsWideCharString(PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t *size)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

Convert the Unicode object to a wide character string. The output string always ends with a null character. If size is not NULL, write the number of wide characters (excluding the trailing null termination character) into *size. Note that the resulting wchar_t string might contain null characters, which would cause the string to be truncated when used with most C functions. If size is NULL and the wchar_t* string contains null characters a ValueError is raised.

Returns a buffer allocated by PyMem_New (use PyMem_Free() to free it) on success. On error, returns NULL and *size is undefined. Raises a MemoryError if memory allocation is failed.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Raises a ValueError if size is NULL and the wchar_t* string contains null characters.

Built-in Codecs

Python provides a set of built-in codecs which are written in C for speed. All of these codecs are directly usable via the following functions.

Many of the following APIs take two arguments encoding and errors, and they have the same semantics as the ones of the built-in str() string object constructor.

Setting encoding to NULL causes the default encoding to be used which is UTF-8. The file system calls should use PyUnicode_FSConverter() for encoding file names. This uses the filesystem encoding and error handler internally.

Error handling is set by errors which may also be set to NULL meaning to use the default handling defined for the codec. Default error handling for all built-in codecs is "strict" (ValueError is raised).

The codecs all use a similar interface. Only deviations from the following generic ones are documented for simplicity.

Generic Codecs

The following macro is provided:

Py_UNICODE_REPLACEMENT_CHARACTER

The Unicode code point U+FFFD (replacement character).

This Unicode character is used as the replacement character during decoding if the errors argument is set to "replace".

These are the generic codec APIs:

PyObject *PyUnicode_Decode(const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *encoding, const char *errors)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Create a Unicode object by decoding size bytes of the encoded string str. encoding and errors have the same meaning as the parameters of the same name in the str() built-in function. The codec to be used is looked up using the Python codec registry. Return NULL if an exception was raised by the codec.

PyObject *PyUnicode_AsEncodedString(PyObject *unicode, const char *encoding, const char *errors)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Encode a Unicode object and return the result as Python bytes object. encoding and errors have the same meaning as the parameters of the same name in the Unicode encode() method. The codec to be used is looked up using the Python codec registry. Return NULL if an exception was raised by the codec.

UTF-8 Codecs

These are the UTF-8 codec APIs:

PyObject *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8(const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Create a Unicode object by decoding size bytes of the UTF-8 encoded string str. Return NULL if an exception was raised by the codec.

PyObject *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful(const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, Py_ssize_t *consumed)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

If consumed is NULL, behave like PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8(). If consumed is not NULL, trailing incomplete UTF-8 byte sequences will not be treated as an error. Those bytes will not be decoded and the number of bytes that have been decoded will be stored in consumed.

PyObject *PyUnicode_AsUTF8String(PyObject *unicode)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Encode a Unicode object using UTF-8 and return the result as Python bytes object. Error handling is "strict". Return NULL if an exception was raised by the codec.

The function fails if the string contains surrogate code points (U+D800 - U+DFFF).

const char *PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t *size)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.10.

Return a pointer to the UTF-8 encoding of the Unicode object, and store the size of the encoded representation (in bytes) in size. The size argument can be NULL; in this case no size will be stored. The returned buffer always has an extra null byte appended (not included in size), regardless of whether there are any other null code points.

On error, set an exception, set size to -1 (if it's not NULL) and return NULL.

The function fails if the string contains surrogate code points (U+D800 - U+DFFF).

This caches the UTF-8 representation of the string in the Unicode object, and subsequent calls will return a pointer to the same buffer. The caller is not responsible for deallocating the buffer. The buffer is deallocated and pointers to it become invalid when the Unicode object is garbage collected.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: The return type is now const char * rather of char *.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: This function is a part of the limited API.

const char *PyUnicode_AsUTF8(PyObject *unicode)

As PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(), but does not store the size.

Avertissement

This function does not have any special behavior for null characters [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Null_character] embedded within unicode. As a result, strings containing null characters will remain in the returned string, which some C functions might interpret as the end of the string, leading to truncation. If truncation is an issue, it is recommended to use PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize() instead.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: The return type is now const char * rather of char *.

UTF-32 Codecs

These are the UTF-32 codec APIs:

PyObject *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32(const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, int *byteorder)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Decode size bytes from a UTF-32 encoded buffer string and return the corresponding Unicode object. errors (if non-NULL) defines the error handling. It defaults to "strict".

If byteorder is non-NULL, the decoder starts decoding using the given byte order:

*byteorder == -1: little endian
*byteorder == 0:  native order
*byteorder == 1:  big endian

If *byteorder is zero, and the first four bytes of the input data are a byte order mark (BOM), the decoder switches to this byte order and the BOM is not copied into the resulting Unicode string. If *byteorder is -1 or 1, any byte order mark is copied to the output.

After completion, *byteorder is set to the current byte order at the end of input data.

If byteorder is NULL, the codec starts in native order mode.

Return NULL if an exception was raised by the codec.

PyObject *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful(const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, int *byteorder, Py_ssize_t *consumed)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

If consumed is NULL, behave like PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32(). If consumed is not NULL, PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful() will not treat trailing incomplete UTF-32 byte sequences (such as a number of bytes not divisible by four) as an error. Those bytes will not be decoded and the number of bytes that have been decoded will be stored in consumed.

PyObject *PyUnicode_AsUTF32String(PyObject *unicode)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a Python byte string using the UTF-32 encoding in native byte order. The string always starts with a BOM mark. Error handling is "strict". Return NULL if an exception was raised by the codec.

UTF-16 Codecs

These are the UTF-16 codec APIs:

PyObject *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16(const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, int *byteorder)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Decode size bytes from a UTF-16 encoded buffer string and return the corresponding Unicode object. errors (if non-NULL) defines the error handling. It defaults to "strict".

If byteorder is non-NULL, the decoder starts decoding using the given byte order:

*byteorder == -1: little endian
*byteorder == 0:  native order
*byteorder == 1:  big endian

If *byteorder is zero, and the first two bytes of the input data are a byte order mark (BOM), the decoder switches to this byte order and the BOM is not copied into the resulting Unicode string. If *byteorder is -1 or 1, any byte order mark is copied to the output (where it will result in either a \ufeff or a \ufffe character).

After completion, *byteorder is set to the current byte order at the end of input data.

If byteorder is NULL, the codec starts in native order mode.

Return NULL if an exception was raised by the codec.

PyObject *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful(const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, int *byteorder, Py_ssize_t *consumed)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

If consumed is NULL, behave like PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16(). If consumed is not NULL, PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful() will not treat trailing incomplete UTF-16 byte sequences (such as an odd number of bytes or a split surrogate pair) as an error. Those bytes will not be decoded and the number of bytes that have been decoded will be stored in consumed.

PyObject *PyUnicode_AsUTF16String(PyObject *unicode)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a Python byte string using the UTF-16 encoding in native byte order. The string always starts with a BOM mark. Error handling is "strict". Return NULL if an exception was raised by the codec.

UTF-7 Codecs

These are the UTF-7 codec APIs:

PyObject *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7(const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Create a Unicode object by decoding size bytes of the UTF-7 encoded string str. Return NULL if an exception was raised by the codec.

PyObject *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7Stateful(const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, Py_ssize_t *consumed)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

If consumed is NULL, behave like PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7(). If consumed is not NULL, trailing incomplete UTF-7 base-64 sections will not be treated as an error. Those bytes will not be decoded and the number of bytes that have been decoded will be stored in consumed.

Unicode-Escape Codecs

These are the "Unicode Escape" codec APIs:

PyObject *PyUnicode_DecodeUnicodeEscape(const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Create a Unicode object by decoding size bytes of the Unicode-Escape encoded string str. Return NULL if an exception was raised by the codec.

PyObject *PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString(PyObject *unicode)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Encode a Unicode object using Unicode-Escape and return the result as a bytes object. Error handling is "strict". Return NULL if an exception was raised by the codec.

Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs

These are the "Raw Unicode Escape" codec APIs:

PyObject *PyUnicode_DecodeRawUnicodeEscape(const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Create a Unicode object by decoding size bytes of the Raw-Unicode-Escape encoded string str. Return NULL if an exception was raised by the codec.

PyObject *PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString(PyObject *unicode)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Encode a Unicode object using Raw-Unicode-Escape and return the result as a bytes object. Error handling is "strict". Return NULL if an exception was raised by the codec.

Latin-1 Codecs

These are the Latin-1 codec APIs: Latin-1 corresponds to the first 256 Unicode ordinals and only these are accepted by the codecs during encoding.

PyObject *PyUnicode_DecodeLatin1(const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Create a Unicode object by decoding size bytes of the Latin-1 encoded string str. Return NULL if an exception was raised by the codec.

PyObject *PyUnicode_AsLatin1String(PyObject *unicode)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Encode a Unicode object using Latin-1 and return the result as Python bytes object. Error handling is "strict". Return NULL if an exception was raised by the codec.

ASCII Codecs

These are the ASCII codec APIs. Only 7-bit ASCII data is accepted. All other codes generate errors.

PyObject *PyUnicode_DecodeASCII(const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Create a Unicode object by decoding size bytes of the ASCII encoded string str. Return NULL if an exception was raised by the codec.

PyObject *PyUnicode_AsASCIIString(PyObject *unicode)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Encode a Unicode object using ASCII and return the result as Python bytes object. Error handling is "strict". Return NULL if an exception was raised by the codec.

Character Map Codecs

This codec is special in that it can be used to implement many different codecs (and this is in fact what was done to obtain most of the standard codecs included in the encodings package). The codec uses mappings to encode and decode characters. The mapping objects provided must support the __getitem__() mapping interface; dictionaries and sequences work well.

These are the mapping codec APIs:

PyObject *PyUnicode_DecodeCharmap(const char *str, Py_ssize_t length, PyObject *mapping, const char *errors)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Create a Unicode object by decoding size bytes of the encoded string str using the given mapping object. Return NULL if an exception was raised by the codec.

If mapping is NULL, Latin-1 decoding will be applied. Else mapping must map bytes ordinals (integers in the range from 0 to 255) to Unicode strings, integers (which are then interpreted as Unicode ordinals) or None. Unmapped data bytes -- ones which cause a LookupError, as well as ones which get mapped to None, 0xFFFE or '\ufffe', are treated as undefined mappings and cause an error.

PyObject *PyUnicode_AsCharmapString(PyObject *unicode, PyObject *mapping)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Encode a Unicode object using the given mapping object and return the result as a bytes object. Error handling is "strict". Return NULL if an exception was raised by the codec.

The mapping object must map Unicode ordinal integers to bytes objects, integers in the range from 0 to 255 or None. Unmapped character ordinals (ones which cause a LookupError) as well as mapped to None are treated as "undefined mapping" and cause an error.

The following codec API is special in that maps Unicode to Unicode.

PyObject *PyUnicode_Translate(PyObject *unicode, PyObject *table, const char *errors)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Translate a string by applying a character mapping table to it and return the resulting Unicode object. Return NULL if an exception was raised by the codec.

The mapping table must map Unicode ordinal integers to Unicode ordinal integers or None (causing deletion of the character).

Mapping tables need only provide the __getitem__() interface; dictionaries and sequences work well. Unmapped character ordinals (ones which cause a LookupError) are left untouched and are copied as-is.

errors has the usual meaning for codecs. It may be NULL which indicates to use the default error handling.

MBCS codecs for Windows

These are the MBCS codec APIs. They are currently only available on Windows and use the Win32 MBCS converters to implement the conversions. Note that MBCS (or DBCS) is a class of encodings, not just one. The target encoding is defined by the user settings on the machine running the codec.

PyObject *PyUnicode_DecodeMBCS(const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable on Windows depuis la version 3.7.

Create a Unicode object by decoding size bytes of the MBCS encoded string str. Return NULL if an exception was raised by the codec.

PyObject *PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful(const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, Py_ssize_t *consumed)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable on Windows depuis la version 3.7.

If consumed is NULL, behave like PyUnicode_DecodeMBCS(). If consumed is not NULL, PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful() will not decode trailing lead byte and the number of bytes that have been decoded will be stored in consumed.

PyObject *PyUnicode_DecodeCodePageStateful(int code_page, const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, Py_ssize_t *consumed)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable on Windows depuis la version 3.7.

Similar to PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful(), except uses the code page specified by code_page.

PyObject *PyUnicode_AsMBCSString(PyObject *unicode)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable on Windows depuis la version 3.7.

Encode a Unicode object using MBCS and return the result as Python bytes object. Error handling is "strict". Return NULL if an exception was raised by the codec.

PyObject *PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage(int code_page, PyObject *unicode, const char *errors)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable on Windows depuis la version 3.7.

Encode the Unicode object using the specified code page and return a Python bytes object. Return NULL if an exception was raised by the codec. Use CP_ACP code page to get the MBCS encoder.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Methods and Slot Functions

The following APIs are capable of handling Unicode objects and strings on input (we refer to them as strings in the descriptions) and return Unicode objects or integers as appropriate.

They all return NULL or -1 if an exception occurs.

PyObject *PyUnicode_Concat(PyObject *left, PyObject *right)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Concat two strings giving a new Unicode string.

PyObject *PyUnicode_Split(PyObject *unicode, PyObject *sep, Py_ssize_t maxsplit)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Split a string giving a list of Unicode strings. If sep is NULL, splitting will be done at all whitespace substrings. Otherwise, splits occur at the given separator. At most maxsplit splits will be done. If negative, no limit is set. Separators are not included in the resulting list.

On error, return NULL with an exception set.

Equivalent to str.split().

PyObject *PyUnicode_RSplit(PyObject *unicode, PyObject *sep, Py_ssize_t maxsplit)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Similar to PyUnicode_Split(), but splitting will be done beginning at the end of the string.

On error, return NULL with an exception set.

Equivalent to str.rsplit().

PyObject *PyUnicode_Splitlines(PyObject *unicode, int keepends)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Split a Unicode string at line breaks, returning a list of Unicode strings. CRLF is considered to be one line break. If keepends is 0, the Line break characters are not included in the resulting strings.

PyObject *PyUnicode_Partition(PyObject *unicode, PyObject *sep)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Split a Unicode string at the first occurrence of sep, and return a 3-tuple containing the part before the separator, the separator itself, and the part after the separator. If the separator is not found, return a 3-tuple containing the string itself, followed by two empty strings.

sep must not be empty.

On error, return NULL with an exception set.

Equivalent to str.partition().

PyObject *PyUnicode_RPartition(PyObject *unicode, PyObject *sep)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Similar to PyUnicode_Partition(), but split a Unicode string at the last occurrence of sep. If the separator is not found, return a 3-tuple containing two empty strings, followed by the string itself.

sep must not be empty.

On error, return NULL with an exception set.

Equivalent to str.rpartition().

PyObject *PyUnicode_Join(PyObject *separator, PyObject *seq)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Join a sequence of strings using the given separator and return the resulting Unicode string.

Py_ssize_t PyUnicode_Tailmatch(PyObject *unicode, PyObject *substr, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end, int direction)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return 1 if substr matches unicode[start:end] at the given tail end (direction == -1 means to do a prefix match, direction == 1 a suffix match), 0 otherwise. Return -1 if an error occurred.

Py_ssize_t PyUnicode_Find(PyObject *unicode, PyObject *substr, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end, int direction)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the first position of substr in unicode[start:end] using the given direction (direction == 1 means to do a forward search, direction == -1 a backward search). The return value is the index of the first match; a value of -1 indicates that no match was found, and -2 indicates that an error occurred and an exception has been set.

Py_ssize_t PyUnicode_FindChar(PyObject *unicode, Py_UCS4 ch, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end, int direction)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

Return the first position of the character ch in unicode[start:end] using the given direction (direction == 1 means to do a forward search, direction == -1 a backward search). The return value is the index of the first match; a value of -1 indicates that no match was found, and -2 indicates that an error occurred and an exception has been set.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: start and end are now adjusted to behave like unicode[start:end].

Py_ssize_t PyUnicode_Count(PyObject *unicode, PyObject *substr, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the number of non-overlapping occurrences of substr in unicode[start:end]. Return -1 if an error occurred.

PyObject *PyUnicode_Replace(PyObject *unicode, PyObject *substr, PyObject *replstr, Py_ssize_t maxcount)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Replace at most maxcount occurrences of substr in unicode with replstr and return the resulting Unicode object. maxcount == -1 means replace all occurrences.

int PyUnicode_Compare(PyObject *left, PyObject *right)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Compare two strings and return -1, 0, 1 for less than, equal, and greater than, respectively.

This function returns -1 upon failure, so one should call PyErr_Occurred() to check for errors.

Voir aussi

The PyUnicode_Equal() function.

int PyUnicode_Equal(PyObject *a, PyObject *b)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.14.

Test if two strings are equal:

Return 1 if a is equal to b.

Return 0 if a is not equal to b.

Set a TypeError exception and return -1 if a or b is not a str object.

The function always succeeds if a and b are str objects.

The function works for str subclasses, but does not honor custom __eq__() method.

Voir aussi

The PyUnicode_Compare() function.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

int PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8AndSize(PyObject *unicode, const char *string, Py_ssize_t size)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.13.

Compare a Unicode object with a char buffer which is interpreted as being UTF-8 or ASCII encoded and return true (1) if they are equal, or false (0) otherwise. If the Unicode object contains surrogate code points (U+D800 - U+DFFF) or the C string is not valid UTF-8, false (0) is returned.

This function does not raise exceptions.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

int PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8(PyObject *unicode, const char *string)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.13.

Similar to PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8AndSize(), but compute string length using strlen(). If the Unicode object contains null characters, false (0) is returned.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

int PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString(PyObject *unicode, const char *string)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Compare a Unicode object, unicode, with string and return -1, 0, 1 for less than, equal, and greater than, respectively. It is best to pass only ASCII-encoded strings, but the function interprets the input string as ISO-8859-1 if it contains non-ASCII characters.

This function does not raise exceptions.

PyObject *PyUnicode_RichCompare(PyObject *left, PyObject *right, int op)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Rich compare two Unicode strings and return one of the following:

NULL in case an exception was raised

Py_True or Py_False for successful comparisons

Py_NotImplemented in case the type combination is unknown

Possible values for op are Py_GT, Py_GE, Py_EQ, Py_NE, Py_LT, and Py_LE.

PyObject *PyUnicode_Format(PyObject *format, PyObject *args)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a new string object from format and args; this is analogous to format % args.

int PyUnicode_Contains(PyObject *unicode, PyObject *substr)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Check whether substr is contained in unicode and return true or false accordingly.

substr has to coerce to a one element Unicode string. -1 is returned if there was an error.

void PyUnicode_InternInPlace(PyObject **p_unicode)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Intern the argument *p_unicode in place. The argument must be the address of a pointer variable pointing to a Python Unicode string object. If there is an existing interned string that is the same as *p_unicode, it sets *p_unicode to it (releasing the reference to the old string object and creating a new strong reference to the interned string object), otherwise it leaves *p_unicode alone and interns it.

(Clarification: even though there is a lot of talk about references, think of this function as reference-neutral. You must own the object you pass in; after the call you no longer own the passed-in reference, but you newly own the result.)

This function never raises an exception. On error, it leaves its argument unchanged without interning it.

Instances of subclasses of str may not be interned, that is, PyUnicode_CheckExact(*p_unicode) must be true. If it is not, then -- as with any other error -- the argument is left unchanged.

Note that interned strings are not “immortal”. You must keep a reference to the result to benefit from interning.

PyObject *PyUnicode_InternFromString(const char *str)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

A combination of PyUnicode_FromString() and PyUnicode_InternInPlace(), meant for statically allocated strings.

Return a new ("owned") reference to either a new Unicode string object that has been interned, or an earlier interned string object with the same value.

Python may keep a reference to the result, or make it immortal, preventing it from being garbage-collected promptly. For interning an unbounded number of different strings, such as ones coming from user input, prefer calling PyUnicode_FromString() and PyUnicode_InternInPlace() directly.

unsigned int PyUnicode_CHECK_INTERNED(PyObject *str)

Return a non-zero value if str is interned, zero if not. The str argument must be a string; this is not checked. This function always succeeds.

Particularité de l'implémentation CPython : A non-zero return value may carry additional information about how the string is interned. The meaning of such non-zero values, as well as each specific string's intern-related details, may change between CPython versions.

PyUnicodeWriter

The PyUnicodeWriter API can be used to create a Python str object.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

type PyUnicodeWriter

A Unicode writer instance.

The instance must be destroyed by PyUnicodeWriter_Finish() on success, or PyUnicodeWriter_Discard() on error.

PyUnicodeWriter *PyUnicodeWriter_Create(Py_ssize_t length)

Create a Unicode writer instance.

length must be greater than or equal to 0.

If length is greater than 0, preallocate an internal buffer of length characters.

Set an exception and return NULL on error.

PyObject *PyUnicodeWriter_Finish(PyUnicodeWriter *writer)

Return the final Python str object and destroy the writer instance.

Set an exception and return NULL on error.

The writer instance is invalid after this call.

void PyUnicodeWriter_Discard(PyUnicodeWriter *writer)

Discard the internal Unicode buffer and destroy the writer instance.

If writer is NULL, no operation is performed.

The writer instance is invalid after this call.

int PyUnicodeWriter_WriteChar(PyUnicodeWriter *writer, Py_UCS4 ch)

Write the single Unicode character ch into writer.

On success, return 0. On error, set an exception, leave the writer unchanged, and return -1.

int PyUnicodeWriter_WriteUTF8(PyUnicodeWriter *writer, const char *str, Py_ssize_t size)

Decode the string str from UTF-8 in strict mode and write the output into writer.

size is the string length in bytes. If size is equal to -1, call strlen(str) to get the string length.

On success, return 0. On error, set an exception, leave the writer unchanged, and return -1.

See also PyUnicodeWriter_DecodeUTF8Stateful().

int PyUnicodeWriter_WriteASCII(PyUnicodeWriter *writer, const char *str, Py_ssize_t size)

Write the ASCII string str into writer.

size is the string length in bytes. If size is equal to -1, call strlen(str) to get the string length.

str must only contain ASCII characters. The behavior is undefined if str contains non-ASCII characters.

On success, return 0. On error, set an exception, leave the writer unchanged, and return -1.

int PyUnicodeWriter_WriteWideChar(PyUnicodeWriter *writer, const wchar_t *str, Py_ssize_t size)

Write the wide string str into writer.

size is a number of wide characters. If size is equal to -1, call wcslen(str) to get the string length.

On success, return 0. On error, set an exception, leave the writer unchanged, and return -1.

int PyUnicodeWriter_WriteUCS4(PyUnicodeWriter *writer, Py_UCS4 *str, Py_ssize_t size)

Writer the UCS4 string str into writer.

size is a number of UCS4 characters.

On success, return 0. On error, set an exception, leave the writer unchanged, and return -1.

int PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr(PyUnicodeWriter *writer, PyObject *obj)

Call PyObject_Str() on obj and write the output into writer.

On success, return 0. On error, set an exception, leave the writer unchanged, and return -1.

int PyUnicodeWriter_WriteRepr(PyUnicodeWriter *writer, PyObject *obj)

Call PyObject_Repr() on obj and write the output into writer.

If obj is NULL, write the string "<NULL>" into writer.

On success, return 0. On error, set an exception, leave the writer unchanged, and return -1.

Modifié dans la version 3.14.4: Added support for NULL.

int PyUnicodeWriter_WriteSubstring(PyUnicodeWriter *writer, PyObject *str, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end)

Write the substring str[start:end] into writer.

str must be Python str object. start must be greater than or equal to 0, and less than or equal to end. end must be less than or equal to str length.

On success, return 0. On error, set an exception, leave the writer unchanged, and return -1.

int PyUnicodeWriter_Format(PyUnicodeWriter *writer, const char *format, ...)

Similar to PyUnicode_FromFormat(), but write the output directly into writer.

On success, return 0. On error, set an exception, leave the writer unchanged, and return -1.

int PyUnicodeWriter_DecodeUTF8Stateful(PyUnicodeWriter *writer, const char *string, Py_ssize_t length, const char *errors, Py_ssize_t *consumed)

Decode the string str from UTF-8 with errors error handler and write the output into writer.

size is the string length in bytes. If size is equal to -1, call strlen(str) to get the string length.

errors is an error handler name, such as "replace". If errors is NULL, use the strict error handler.

If consumed is not NULL, set *consumed to the number of decoded bytes on success. If consumed is NULL, treat trailing incomplete UTF-8 byte sequences as an error.

On success, return 0. On error, set an exception, leave the writer unchanged, and return -1.

See also PyUnicodeWriter_WriteUTF8().

Deprecated API

The following API is deprecated.

type Py_UNICODE

This is a typedef of wchar_t, which is a 16-bit type or 32-bit type depending on the platform. Please use wchar_t directly instead.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: Dans les versions précédentes, ceci était un type 16-bit ou un type 32-bit selon que vous choisissiez une version Unicode narrow ou wide de Python à la compilation.

Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15.

int PyUnicode_READY(PyObject *unicode)

Do nothing and return 0. This API is kept only for backward compatibility, but there are no plans to remove it.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.10: This API does nothing since Python 3.12. Previously, this needed to be called for each string created using the old API (PyUnicode_FromUnicode() or similar).

unsigned int PyUnicode_IS_READY(PyObject *unicode)

Do nothing and return 1. This API is kept only for backward compatibility, but there are no plans to remove it.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.14: This API does nothing since Python 3.12. Previously, this could be called to check if PyUnicode_READY() is necessary.

n-uplets

type PyTupleObject

Ce sous-type de PyObject représente un objet Python tuple.

PyTypeObject PyTuple_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Cette instance de PyTypeObject représente le type Python tuple, c'est le même que l’objet Python tuple.

int PyTuple_Check(PyObject *p)

Renvoie vrai si p est un tuple ou un instance d’un de ses sous-type. Cette fonction n’échoue jamais.

int PyTuple_CheckExact(PyObject *p)

Renvoie vrai uniquement si p est un tuple, mais pas une instance d’un des sous-types. Cette fonction n’échoue jamais.

PyObject *PyTuple_New(Py_ssize_t len)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a new tuple object of size len, or NULL with an exception set on failure.

PyObject *PyTuple_Pack(Py_ssize_t n, ...)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a new tuple object of size n, or NULL with an exception set on failure. The tuple values are initialized to the subsequent n C arguments pointing to Python objects. PyTuple_Pack(2, a, b) is equivalent to Py_BuildValue("(OO)", a, b).

Py_ssize_t PyTuple_Size(PyObject *p)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Take a pointer to a tuple object, and return the size of that tuple. On error, return -1 with an exception set.

Py_ssize_t PyTuple_GET_SIZE(PyObject *p)

Like PyTuple_Size(), but without error checking.

PyObject *PyTuple_GetItem(PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t pos)

Valeur de retour : référence empruntée. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Renvoie l’objet à la position pos dans le n-uplet p. Si pos est négatif ou hors limites, NULL est renvoyé et l’exception IndexError est levée.

The returned reference is borrowed from the tuple p (that is: it is only valid as long as you hold a reference to p). To get a strong reference, use Py_NewRef(PyTuple_GetItem(...)) or PySequence_GetItem().

PyObject *PyTuple_GET_ITEM(PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t pos)

Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.

Similaire à la fonction PyTuple_GetItem(), mais ne contrôle pas les arguments.

PyObject *PyTuple_GetSlice(PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t low, Py_ssize_t high)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the slice of the tuple pointed to by p between low and high, or NULL with an exception set on failure.

This is the equivalent of the Python expression p[low:high]. Indexing from the end of the tuple is not supported.

int PyTuple_SetItem(PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t pos, PyObject *o)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Insère une référence à l’objet o à la position pos du n-uplet pointé par p. Renvoie 0 si l’opération réussit. Si pos est hors limite, l’exception IndexError est levée et la fonction renvoie -1.

Note

Cette fonction « s’accapare » une référence à l’objet o et dé-référence l’objet présent dans le n-uplet à cette position.

void PyTuple_SET_ITEM(PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t pos, PyObject *o)

Semblable à la fonction PyTuple_SetItem(), mais ne contrôle pas les erreurs et ne doit être utilisée que pour remplir un n-uplet nouvellement créé.

Bounds checking is performed as an assertion if Python is built in debug mode or with assertions.

Note

Cette fonction «  s’accapare » une référence à l’objet o et, contrairement à PyTuple_SetItem(), ne dé-référence pas l’élément remplacé : la référence à l’objet présent dans le n-uplet à la position pos est perdue.

Avertissement

This macro should only be used on tuples that are newly created. Using this macro on a tuple that is already in use (or in other words, has a refcount > 1) could lead to undefined behavior.

int _PyTuple_Resize(PyObject **p, Py_ssize_t newsize)

Permet de redimensionner un n-uplet. newsize est la nouvelle taille de ce n-uplet. Comme les n-uplets sont supposés être immuables cette fonction doit être utilisée uniquement s’il n’existe qu’une référence vers cet objet. N’utilisez pas cette fonction s’il est possible que le n-uplet soit connu d’une autre partie du code. Le n-uplet sera toujours agrandi ou réduit à partir de la fin. Cette fonction est plus performante que de détruire le tuple puis d’en créer un nouveau. Renvoie 0 si l’opération réussit. Le code ne devrait jamais supposer que la valeur de *p sera la même après l’appel à cette fonction. Si l’objet référencé par *p doit être remplacé, alors il est d’abord détruit. En cas d’erreur cette fonction renvoie -1 , stocke NULL dans *p et lève soit MemoryError soit SystemError.

Objets structure-séquence

Les objets structure-séquence sont l’équivalent C des objets namedtuple(), c’est-à-dire une liste d’objets dont les éléments peuvent être désignés par des attributs. Pour créer un objet structure-séquence vous devez d’abord définir son type.

PyTypeObject *PyStructSequence_NewType(PyStructSequence_Desc *desc)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Crée un nouveau type d’objet structure-séquence à partir des données dans desc, décrit ci-dessous. Le type ainsi créé peut être instancié en appelant PyStructSequence_New().

Return NULL with an exception set on failure.

void PyStructSequence_InitType(PyTypeObject *type, PyStructSequence_Desc *desc)

Initialise un type de structure-séquence à partir de desc, sur place.

int PyStructSequence_InitType2(PyTypeObject *type, PyStructSequence_Desc *desc)

Like PyStructSequence_InitType(), but returns 0 on success and -1 with an exception set on failure.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

type PyStructSequence_Desc

Fait partie de l' ABI stable (incluant tous les attributs).

Contient les méta-données d’un type structure-séquence à créer.

const char *name

Fully qualified name of the type; null-terminated UTF-8 encoded. The name must contain the module name.

const char *doc

Pointer to docstring for the type or NULL to omit.

PyStructSequence_Field *fields

Pointer to NULL-terminated array with field names of the new type.

int n_in_sequence

Number of fields visible to the Python side (if used as tuple).

type PyStructSequence_Field

Fait partie de l' ABI stable (incluant tous les attributs).

Describes a field of a struct sequence. As a struct sequence is modeled as a tuple, all fields are typed as PyObject*. The index in the fields array of the PyStructSequence_Desc determines which field of the struct sequence is described.

const char *name

Name for the field or NULL to end the list of named fields, set to PyStructSequence_UnnamedField to leave unnamed.

const char *doc

Field docstring or NULL to omit.

const char *const PyStructSequence_UnnamedField

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.11.

Une valeur sentinelle pour indiquer qu’un champ n’est pas nommé.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Le type était char *.

PyObject *PyStructSequence_New(PyTypeObject *type)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Crée une instance de type, qui doit avoir été créé via PyStructSequence_NewType().

Return NULL with an exception set on failure.

PyObject *PyStructSequence_GetItem(PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t pos)

Valeur de retour : référence empruntée. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the object at position pos in the struct sequence pointed to by p.

Bounds checking is performed as an assertion if Python is built in debug mode or with assertions.

PyObject *PyStructSequence_GET_ITEM(PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t pos)

Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.

Alias to PyStructSequence_GetItem().

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Now implemented as an alias to PyStructSequence_GetItem().

void PyStructSequence_SetItem(PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t pos, PyObject *o)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Insère un l’objet o dans la structure-séquence p à la position pos. Pour les mêmes raisons que PyTuple_SET_ITEM(), cette fonction ne doit être utilisée que pour des objets nouvellement créés.

Bounds checking is performed as an assertion if Python is built in debug mode or with assertions.

Note

Cette fonction « s’accapare » une référence à o.

void PyStructSequence_SET_ITEM(PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t *pos, PyObject *o)

Alias to PyStructSequence_SetItem().

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Now implemented as an alias to PyStructSequence_SetItem().

List Objects

type PyListObject

This subtype of PyObject represents a Python list object.

PyTypeObject PyList_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This instance of PyTypeObject represents the Python list type. This is the same object as list in the Python layer.

int PyList_Check(PyObject *p)

Thread safety: Atomic.

Return true if p is a list object or an instance of a subtype of the list type. This function always succeeds.

int PyList_CheckExact(PyObject *p)

Thread safety: Atomic.

Return true if p is a list object, but not an instance of a subtype of the list type. This function always succeeds.

PyObject *PyList_New(Py_ssize_t len)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable. Thread safety: Atomic.

Return a new list of length len on success, or NULL on failure.

Note

If len is greater than zero, the returned list object's items are set to NULL. Thus you cannot use abstract API functions such as PySequence_SetItem() or expose the object to Python code before setting all items to a real object with PyList_SetItem() or PyList_SET_ITEM(). The following APIs are safe APIs before the list is fully initialized: PyList_SetItem() and PyList_SET_ITEM().

Py_ssize_t PyList_Size(PyObject *list)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable. Thread safety: Atomic.

Return the length of the list object in list; this is equivalent to len(list) on a list object.

Py_ssize_t PyList_GET_SIZE(PyObject *list)

Thread safety: Atomic.

Similar to PyList_Size(), but without error checking.

PyObject *PyList_GetItemRef(PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t index)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.13. Thread safety: Atomic.

Return the object at position index in the list pointed to by list. The position must be non-negative; indexing from the end of the list is not supported. If index is out of bounds (<0 or >=len(list)), return NULL and set an IndexError exception.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

PyObject *PyList_GetItem(PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t index)

Valeur de retour : référence empruntée. Fait partie de l' ABI stable. Thread safety: Safe to call from multiple threads with external synchronization only.

Like PyList_GetItemRef(), but returns a borrowed reference instead of a strong reference.

Note

In the free-threaded build, the returned borrowed reference may become invalid if another thread modifies the list concurrently. Prefer PyList_GetItemRef(), which returns a strong reference.

PyObject *PyList_GET_ITEM(PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t i)

Valeur de retour : référence empruntée. Thread safety: Safe to call from multiple threads with external synchronization only.

Similar to PyList_GetItem(), but without error checking.

Note

In the free-threaded build, the returned borrowed reference may become invalid if another thread modifies the list concurrently. Prefer PyList_GetItemRef(), which returns a strong reference.

int PyList_SetItem(PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t index, PyObject *item)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable. Thread safety: Atomic.

Set the item at index index in list to item. Return 0 on success. If index is out of bounds, return -1 and set an IndexError exception.

Note

This function "steals" a reference to item and discards a reference to an item already in the list at the affected position.

void PyList_SET_ITEM(PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t i, PyObject *o)

Thread safety: Safe to call from multiple threads with external synchronization only.

Macro form of PyList_SetItem() without error checking. This is normally only used to fill in new lists where there is no previous content.

Bounds checking is performed as an assertion if Python is built in debug mode or with assertions.

Note

This macro "steals" a reference to item, and, unlike PyList_SetItem(), does not discard a reference to any item that is being replaced; any reference in list at position i will be leaked.

Note

In the free-threaded build, this macro has no internal synchronization. It is normally only used to fill in new lists where no other thread has a reference to the list. If the list may be shared, use PyList_SetItem() instead, which uses a per-object lock.

int PyList_Insert(PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t index, PyObject *item)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable. Thread safety: Safe for concurrent use on the same object.

Insert the item item into list list in front of index index. Return 0 if successful; return -1 and set an exception if unsuccessful. Analogous to list.insert(index, item).

int PyList_Append(PyObject *list, PyObject *item)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable. Thread safety: Atomic.

Append the object item at the end of list list. Return 0 if successful; return -1 and set an exception if unsuccessful. Analogous to list.append(item).

PyObject *PyList_GetSlice(PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t low, Py_ssize_t high)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable. Thread safety: Atomic.

Return a list of the objects in list containing the objects between low and high. Return NULL and set an exception if unsuccessful. Analogous to list[low:high]. Indexing from the end of the list is not supported.

int PyList_SetSlice(PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t low, Py_ssize_t high, PyObject *itemlist)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable. Thread safety: Safe for concurrent use on the same object.

Set the slice of list between low and high to the contents of itemlist. Analogous to list[low:high] = itemlist. The itemlist may be NULL, indicating the assignment of an empty list (slice deletion). Return 0 on success, -1 on failure. Indexing from the end of the list is not supported.

Note

In the free-threaded build, when itemlist is a list, both list and itemlist are locked for the duration of the operation. For other iterables (or NULL), only list is locked.

int PyList_Extend(PyObject *list, PyObject *iterable)

Thread safety: Safe for concurrent use on the same object.

Extend list with the contents of iterable. This is the same as PyList_SetSlice(list, PY_SSIZE_T_MAX, PY_SSIZE_T_MAX, iterable) and analogous to list.extend(iterable) or list += iterable.

Raise an exception and return -1 if list is not a list object. Return 0 on success.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Note

In the free-threaded build, when iterable is a list, set, dict, or dict view, both list and iterable (or its underlying dict) are locked for the duration of the operation. For other iterables, only list is locked; iterable may be concurrently modified by another thread.

int PyList_Clear(PyObject *list)

Thread safety: Atomic.

Remove all items from list. This is the same as PyList_SetSlice(list, 0, PY_SSIZE_T_MAX, NULL) and analogous to list.clear() or del list[:].

Raise an exception and return -1 if list is not a list object. Return 0 on success.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

int PyList_Sort(PyObject *list)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable. Thread safety: Safe for concurrent use on the same object.

Sort the items of list in place. Return 0 on success, -1 on failure. This is equivalent to list.sort().

Note

In the free-threaded build, element comparison via __lt__() can execute arbitrary Python code, during which the per-object lock may be temporarily released. For built-in types (str, int, float), the lock is not released during comparison.

int PyList_Reverse(PyObject *list)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable. Thread safety: Safe for concurrent use on the same object.

Reverse the items of list in place. Return 0 on success, -1 on failure. This is the equivalent of list.reverse().

PyObject *PyList_AsTuple(PyObject *list)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable. Thread safety: Atomic.

Return a new tuple object containing the contents of list; equivalent to tuple(list).

Objets dictionnaires

type PyDictObject

This subtype of PyObject represents a Python dictionary object.

PyTypeObject PyDict_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This instance of PyTypeObject represents the Python dictionary type. This is the same object as dict in the Python layer.

int PyDict_Check(PyObject *p)

Return true if p is a dict object or an instance of a subtype of the dict type. This function always succeeds.

int PyDict_CheckExact(PyObject *p)

Return true if p is a dict object, but not an instance of a subtype of the dict type. This function always succeeds.

PyObject *PyDict_New()

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a new empty dictionary, or NULL on failure.

PyObject *PyDictProxy_New(PyObject *mapping)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a types.MappingProxyType object for a mapping which enforces read-only behavior. This is normally used to create a view to prevent modification of the dictionary for non-dynamic class types.

PyTypeObject PyDictProxy_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

The type object for mapping proxy objects created by PyDictProxy_New() and for the read-only __dict__ attribute of many built-in types. A PyDictProxy_Type instance provides a dynamic, read-only view of an underlying dictionary: changes to the underlying dictionary are reflected in the proxy, but the proxy itself does not support mutation operations. This corresponds to types.MappingProxyType in Python.

void PyDict_Clear(PyObject *p)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Empty an existing dictionary of all key-value pairs.

int PyDict_Contains(PyObject *p, PyObject *key)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Determine if dictionary p contains key. If an item in p matches key, return 1, otherwise return 0. On error, return -1. This is equivalent to the Python expression key in p.

int PyDict_ContainsString(PyObject *p, const char *key)

This is the same as PyDict_Contains(), but key is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a PyObject*.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

PyObject *PyDict_Copy(PyObject *p)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a new dictionary that contains the same key-value pairs as p.

int PyDict_SetItem(PyObject *p, PyObject *key, PyObject *val)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Insert val into the dictionary p with a key of key. key must be hashable; if it isn't, TypeError will be raised. Return 0 on success or -1 on failure. This function does not steal a reference to val.

int PyDict_SetItemString(PyObject *p, const char *key, PyObject *val)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This is the same as PyDict_SetItem(), but key is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a PyObject*.

int PyDict_DelItem(PyObject *p, PyObject *key)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Remove the entry in dictionary p with key key. key must be hashable; if it isn't, TypeError is raised. If key is not in the dictionary, KeyError is raised. Return 0 on success or -1 on failure.

int PyDict_DelItemString(PyObject *p, const char *key)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This is the same as PyDict_DelItem(), but key is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a PyObject*.

int PyDict_GetItemRef(PyObject *p, PyObject *key, PyObject **result)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.13.

Return a new strong reference to the object from dictionary p which has a key key:

If the key is present, set *result to a new strong reference to the value and return 1.

If the key is missing, set *result to NULL and return 0.

On error, raise an exception and return -1.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

See also the PyObject_GetItem() function.

PyObject *PyDict_GetItem(PyObject *p, PyObject *key)

Valeur de retour : référence empruntée. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a borrowed reference to the object from dictionary p which has a key key. Return NULL if the key key is missing without setting an exception.

Note

Exceptions that occur while this calls __hash__() and __eq__() methods are silently ignored. Prefer the PyDict_GetItemWithError() function instead.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: Calling this API without an attached thread state had been allowed for historical reason. It is no longer allowed.

PyObject *PyDict_GetItemWithError(PyObject *p, PyObject *key)

Valeur de retour : référence empruntée. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Variant of PyDict_GetItem() that does not suppress exceptions. Return NULL with an exception set if an exception occurred. Return NULL without an exception set if the key wasn't present.

PyObject *PyDict_GetItemString(PyObject *p, const char *key)

Valeur de retour : référence empruntée. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This is the same as PyDict_GetItem(), but key is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a PyObject*.

Note

Exceptions that occur while this calls __hash__() and __eq__() methods or while creating the temporary str object are silently ignored. Prefer using the PyDict_GetItemWithError() function with your own PyUnicode_FromString() key instead.

int PyDict_GetItemStringRef(PyObject *p, const char *key, PyObject **result)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.13.

Similar to PyDict_GetItemRef(), but key is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a PyObject*.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

PyObject *PyDict_SetDefault(PyObject *p, PyObject *key, PyObject *defaultobj)

Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.

This is the same as the Python-level dict.setdefault(). If present, it returns the value corresponding to key from the dictionary p. If the key is not in the dict, it is inserted with value defaultobj and defaultobj is returned. This function evaluates the hash function of key only once, instead of evaluating it independently for the lookup and the insertion.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

int PyDict_SetDefaultRef(PyObject *p, PyObject *key, PyObject *default_value, PyObject **result)

Inserts default_value into the dictionary p with a key of key if the key is not already present in the dictionary. If result is not NULL, then *result is set to a strong reference to either default_value, if the key was not present, or the existing value, if key was already present in the dictionary. Returns 1 if the key was present and default_value was not inserted, or 0 if the key was not present and default_value was inserted. On failure, returns -1, sets an exception, and sets *result to NULL.

For clarity: if you have a strong reference to default_value before calling this function, then after it returns, you hold a strong reference to both default_value and *result (if it's not NULL). These may refer to the same object: in that case you hold two separate references to it.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

int PyDict_Pop(PyObject *p, PyObject *key, PyObject **result)

Remove key from dictionary p and optionally return the removed value. Do not raise KeyError if the key is missing.

If the key is present, set *result to a new reference to the removed value if result is not NULL, and return 1.

If the key is missing, set *result to NULL if result is not NULL, and return 0.

On error, raise an exception and return -1.

Similar to dict.pop(), but without the default value and not raising KeyError if the key is missing.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

int PyDict_PopString(PyObject *p, const char *key, PyObject **result)

Similar to PyDict_Pop(), but key is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a PyObject*.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

PyObject *PyDict_Items(PyObject *p)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a PyListObject containing all the items from the dictionary.

PyObject *PyDict_Keys(PyObject *p)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a PyListObject containing all the keys from the dictionary.

PyObject *PyDict_Values(PyObject *p)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a PyListObject containing all the values from the dictionary p.

Py_ssize_t PyDict_Size(PyObject *p)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the number of items in the dictionary. This is equivalent to len(p) on a dictionary.

Py_ssize_t PyDict_GET_SIZE(PyObject *p)

Similar to PyDict_Size(), but without error checking.

int PyDict_Next(PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t *ppos, PyObject **pkey, PyObject **pvalue)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Iterate over all key-value pairs in the dictionary p. The Py_ssize_t referred to by ppos must be initialized to 0 prior to the first call to this function to start the iteration; the function returns true for each pair in the dictionary, and false once all pairs have been reported. The parameters pkey and pvalue should either point to PyObject* variables that will be filled in with each key and value, respectively, or may be NULL. Any references returned through them are borrowed. ppos should not be altered during iteration. Its value represents offsets within the internal dictionary structure, and since the structure is sparse, the offsets are not consecutive.

Par exemple :

PyObject *key, *value;
Py_ssize_t pos = 0;

while (PyDict_Next(self->dict, &pos, &key, &value)) {
    /* do something interesting with the values... */
    ...
}

The dictionary p should not be mutated during iteration. It is safe to modify the values of the keys as you iterate over the dictionary, but only so long as the set of keys does not change. For example:

PyObject *key, *value;
Py_ssize_t pos = 0;

while (PyDict_Next(self->dict, &pos, &key, &value)) {
    long i = PyLong_AsLong(value);
    if (i == -1 && PyErr_Occurred()) {
        return -1;
    }
    PyObject *o = PyLong_FromLong(i + 1);
    if (o == NULL)
        return -1;
    if (PyDict_SetItem(self->dict, key, o) < 0) {
        Py_DECREF(o);
        return -1;
    }
    Py_DECREF(o);
}

The function is not thread-safe in the free-threaded build without external synchronization. You can use Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION to lock the dictionary while iterating over it:

Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION(self->dict);
while (PyDict_Next(self->dict, &pos, &key, &value)) {
    ...
}
Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION();

Note

On the free-threaded build, this function can be used safely inside a critical section. However, the references returned for pkey and pvalue are borrowed and are only valid while the critical section is held. If you need to use these objects outside the critical section or when the critical section can be suspended, create a strong reference (for example, using Py_NewRef()).

int PyDict_Merge(PyObject *a, PyObject *b, int override)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Iterate over mapping object b adding key-value pairs to dictionary a. b may be a dictionary, or any object supporting PyMapping_Keys() and PyObject_GetItem(). If override is true, existing pairs in a will be replaced if a matching key is found in b, otherwise pairs will only be added if there is not a matching key in a. Return 0 on success or -1 if an exception was raised.

int PyDict_Update(PyObject *a, PyObject *b)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This is the same as PyDict_Merge(a, b, 1) in C, and is similar to a.update(b) in Python except that PyDict_Update() doesn't fall back to the iterating over a sequence of key value pairs if the second argument has no "keys" attribute. Return 0 on success or -1 if an exception was raised.

int PyDict_MergeFromSeq2(PyObject *a, PyObject *seq2, int override)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Update or merge into dictionary a, from the key-value pairs in seq2. seq2 must be an iterable object producing iterable objects of length 2, viewed as key-value pairs. In case of duplicate keys, the last wins if override is true, else the first wins. Return 0 on success or -1 if an exception was raised. Equivalent Python (except for the return value):

def PyDict_MergeFromSeq2(a, seq2, override):
    for key, value in seq2:
        if override or key not in a:
            a[key] = value

int PyDict_AddWatcher(PyDict_WatchCallback callback)

Register callback as a dictionary watcher. Return a non-negative integer id which must be passed to future calls to PyDict_Watch(). In case of error (e.g. no more watcher IDs available), return -1 and set an exception.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

int PyDict_ClearWatcher(int watcher_id)

Clear watcher identified by watcher_id previously returned from PyDict_AddWatcher(). Return 0 on success, -1 on error (e.g. if the given watcher_id was never registered.)

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

int PyDict_Watch(int watcher_id, PyObject *dict)

Mark dictionary dict as watched. The callback granted watcher_id by PyDict_AddWatcher() will be called when dict is modified or deallocated. Return 0 on success or -1 on error.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

int PyDict_Unwatch(int watcher_id, PyObject *dict)

Mark dictionary dict as no longer watched. The callback granted watcher_id by PyDict_AddWatcher() will no longer be called when dict is modified or deallocated. The dict must previously have been watched by this watcher. Return 0 on success or -1 on error.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

type PyDict_WatchEvent

Enumeration of possible dictionary watcher events: PyDict_EVENT_ADDED, PyDict_EVENT_MODIFIED, PyDict_EVENT_DELETED, PyDict_EVENT_CLONED, PyDict_EVENT_CLEARED, or PyDict_EVENT_DEALLOCATED.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

typedef int (*PyDict_WatchCallback)(PyDict_WatchEvent event, PyObject *dict, PyObject *key, PyObject *new_value)

Type of a dict watcher callback function.

If event is PyDict_EVENT_CLEARED or PyDict_EVENT_DEALLOCATED, both key and new_value will be NULL. If event is PyDict_EVENT_ADDED or PyDict_EVENT_MODIFIED, new_value will be the new value for key. If event is PyDict_EVENT_DELETED, key is being deleted from the dictionary and new_value will be NULL.

PyDict_EVENT_CLONED occurs when dict was previously empty and another dict is merged into it. To maintain efficiency of this operation, per-key PyDict_EVENT_ADDED events are not issued in this case; instead a single PyDict_EVENT_CLONED is issued, and key will be the source dictionary.

The callback may inspect but must not modify dict; doing so could have unpredictable effects, including infinite recursion. Do not trigger Python code execution in the callback, as it could modify the dict as a side effect.

If event is PyDict_EVENT_DEALLOCATED, taking a new reference in the callback to the about-to-be-destroyed dictionary will resurrect it and prevent it from being freed at this time. When the resurrected object is destroyed later, any watcher callbacks active at that time will be called again.

Callbacks occur before the notified modification to dict takes place, so the prior state of dict can be inspected.

If the callback sets an exception, it must return -1; this exception will be printed as an unraisable exception using PyErr_WriteUnraisable(). Otherwise it should return 0.

There may already be a pending exception set on entry to the callback. In this case, the callback should return 0 with the same exception still set. This means the callback may not call any other API that can set an exception unless it saves and clears the exception state first, and restores it before returning.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Dictionary View Objects

int PyDictViewSet_Check(PyObject *op)

Return true if op is a view of a set inside a dictionary. This is currently equivalent to PyDictKeys_Check(op) || PyDictItems_Check(op). This function always succeeds.

PyTypeObject PyDictKeys_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Type object for a view of dictionary keys. In Python, this is the type of the object returned by dict.keys().

int PyDictKeys_Check(PyObject *op)

Return true if op is an instance of a dictionary keys view. This function always succeeds.

PyTypeObject PyDictValues_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Type object for a view of dictionary values. In Python, this is the type of the object returned by dict.values().

int PyDictValues_Check(PyObject *op)

Return true if op is an instance of a dictionary values view. This function always succeeds.

PyTypeObject PyDictItems_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Type object for a view of dictionary items. In Python, this is the type of the object returned by dict.items().

int PyDictItems_Check(PyObject *op)

Return true if op is an instance of a dictionary items view. This function always succeeds.

Ordered Dictionaries

Python's C API provides interface for collections.OrderedDict from C. Since Python 3.7, dictionaries are ordered by default, so there is usually little need for these functions; prefer PyDict* where possible.

PyTypeObject PyODict_Type

Type object for ordered dictionaries. This is the same object as collections.OrderedDict in the Python layer.

int PyODict_Check(PyObject *od)

Return true if od is an ordered dictionary object or an instance of a subtype of the OrderedDict type. This function always succeeds.

int PyODict_CheckExact(PyObject *od)

Return true if od is an ordered dictionary object, but not an instance of a subtype of the OrderedDict type. This function always succeeds.

PyTypeObject PyODictKeys_Type

Analogous to PyDictKeys_Type for ordered dictionaries.

PyTypeObject PyODictValues_Type

Analogous to PyDictValues_Type for ordered dictionaries.

PyTypeObject PyODictItems_Type

Analogous to PyDictItems_Type for ordered dictionaries.

PyObject *PyODict_New(void)

Return a new empty ordered dictionary, or NULL on failure.

This is analogous to PyDict_New().

int PyODict_SetItem(PyObject *od, PyObject *key, PyObject *value)

Insert value into the ordered dictionary od with a key of key. Return 0 on success or -1 with an exception set on failure.

This is analogous to PyDict_SetItem().

int PyODict_DelItem(PyObject *od, PyObject *key)

Remove the entry in the ordered dictionary od with key key. Return 0 on success or -1 with an exception set on failure.

This is analogous to PyDict_DelItem().

These are soft deprecated aliases to PyDict APIs:

PyODict

PyDict

PyODict_GetItem(od, key)

PyDict_GetItem()

PyODict_GetItemWithError(od, key)

PyDict_GetItemWithError()

PyODict_GetItemString(od, key)

PyDict_GetItemString()

PyODict_Contains(od, key)

PyDict_Contains()

PyODict_Size(od)

PyDict_Size()

PyODict_SIZE(od)

PyDict_GET_SIZE()

Set Objects

This section details the public API for set and frozenset objects. Any functionality not listed below is best accessed using either the abstract object protocol (including PyObject_CallMethod(), PyObject_RichCompareBool(), PyObject_Hash(), PyObject_Repr(), PyObject_IsTrue(), PyObject_Print(), and PyObject_GetIter()) or the abstract number protocol (including PyNumber_And(), PyNumber_Subtract(), PyNumber_Or(), PyNumber_Xor(), PyNumber_InPlaceAnd(), PyNumber_InPlaceSubtract(), PyNumber_InPlaceOr(), and PyNumber_InPlaceXor()).

type PySetObject

This subtype of PyObject is used to hold the internal data for both set and frozenset objects. It is like a PyDictObject in that it is a fixed size for small sets (much like tuple storage) and will point to a separate, variable sized block of memory for medium and large sized sets (much like list storage). None of the fields of this structure should be considered public and all are subject to change. All access should be done through the documented API rather than by manipulating the values in the structure.

PyTypeObject PySet_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This is an instance of PyTypeObject representing the Python set type.

PyTypeObject PyFrozenSet_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This is an instance of PyTypeObject representing the Python frozenset type.

The following type check macros work on pointers to any Python object. Likewise, the constructor functions work with any iterable Python object.

int PySet_Check(PyObject *p)

Return true if p is a set object or an instance of a subtype. This function always succeeds.

int PyFrozenSet_Check(PyObject *p)

Return true if p is a frozenset object or an instance of a subtype. This function always succeeds.

int PyAnySet_Check(PyObject *p)

Return true if p is a set object, a frozenset object, or an instance of a subtype. This function always succeeds.

int PySet_CheckExact(PyObject *p)

Return true if p is a set object but not an instance of a subtype. This function always succeeds.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

int PyAnySet_CheckExact(PyObject *p)

Return true if p is a set object or a frozenset object but not an instance of a subtype. This function always succeeds.

int PyFrozenSet_CheckExact(PyObject *p)

Return true if p is a frozenset object but not an instance of a subtype. This function always succeeds.

PyObject *PySet_New(PyObject *iterable)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a new set containing objects returned by the iterable. The iterable may be NULL to create a new empty set. Return the new set on success or NULL on failure. Raise TypeError if iterable is not actually iterable. The constructor is also useful for copying a set (c=set(s)).

PyObject *PyFrozenSet_New(PyObject *iterable)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a new frozenset containing objects returned by the iterable. The iterable may be NULL to create a new empty frozenset. Return the new set on success or NULL on failure. Raise TypeError if iterable is not actually iterable.

The following functions and macros are available for instances of set or frozenset or instances of their subtypes.

Py_ssize_t PySet_Size(PyObject *anyset)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the length of a set or frozenset object. Equivalent to len(anyset). Raises a SystemError if anyset is not a set, frozenset, or an instance of a subtype.

Py_ssize_t PySet_GET_SIZE(PyObject *anyset)

Macro form of PySet_Size() without error checking.

int PySet_Contains(PyObject *anyset, PyObject *key)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return 1 if found, 0 if not found, and -1 if an error is encountered. Unlike the Python __contains__() method, this function does not automatically convert unhashable sets into temporary frozensets. Raise a TypeError if the key is unhashable. Raise SystemError if anyset is not a set, frozenset, or an instance of a subtype.

int PySet_Add(PyObject *set, PyObject *key)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Add key to a set instance. Also works with frozenset instances (like PyTuple_SetItem() it can be used to fill in the values of brand new frozensets before they are exposed to other code). Return 0 on success or -1 on failure. Raise a TypeError if the key is unhashable. Raise a MemoryError if there is no room to grow. Raise a SystemError if set is not an instance of set or its subtype.

The following functions are available for instances of set or its subtypes but not for instances of frozenset or its subtypes.

int PySet_Discard(PyObject *set, PyObject *key)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return 1 if found and removed, 0 if not found (no action taken), and -1 if an error is encountered. Does not raise KeyError for missing keys. Raise a TypeError if the key is unhashable. Unlike the Python discard() method, this function does not automatically convert unhashable sets into temporary frozensets. Raise SystemError if set is not an instance of set or its subtype.

PyObject *PySet_Pop(PyObject *set)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a new reference to an arbitrary object in the set, and removes the object from the set. Return NULL on failure. Raise KeyError if the set is empty. Raise a SystemError if set is not an instance of set or its subtype.

int PySet_Clear(PyObject *set)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Empty an existing set of all elements. Return 0 on success. Return -1 and raise SystemError if set is not an instance of set or its subtype.

Deprecated API

PySet_MINSIZE

A soft deprecated constant representing the size of an internal preallocated table inside PySetObject instances.

This is documented solely for completeness, as there are no guarantees that a given version of CPython uses preallocated tables with a fixed size. In code that does not deal with unstable set internals, PySet_MINSIZE can be replaced with a small constant like 8.

If looking for the size of a set, use PySet_Size() instead.

Objets fonction

Certaines fonctions sont spécifiques aux fonctions Python.

type PyFunctionObject

La structure C utilisée pour les fonctions.

PyTypeObject PyFunction_Type

C'est une instance de PyTypeObject et représente le type fonction en Python. Il est exposé aux développeurs comme types.FunctionType.

int PyFunction_Check(PyObject *o)

Renvoie vrai si o est un objet de type fonction (a comme type PyFunction_Type). Le paramètre ne doit pas être NULL. Cette fonction réussit toujours.

PyObject *PyFunction_New(PyObject *code, PyObject *globals)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Renvoie une nouvelle fonction associée avec l'objet code. globals doit être un dictionnaire avec les variables globales accessibles à la fonction.

The function's docstring and name are retrieved from the code object. __module__ is retrieved from globals. The argument defaults, annotations and closure are set to NULL. __qualname__ is set to the same value as the code object's co_qualname field.

PyObject *PyFunction_NewWithQualName(PyObject *code, PyObject *globals, PyObject *qualname)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

As PyFunction_New(), but also allows setting the function object's __qualname__ attribute. qualname should be a unicode object or NULL; if NULL, the __qualname__ attribute is set to the same value as the code object's co_qualname field.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

PyObject *PyFunction_GetCode(PyObject *op)

Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.

Renvoie l'objet code associé avec l'objet de la fonction op.

PyObject *PyFunction_GetGlobals(PyObject *op)

Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.

Renvoie le dictionnaire global associé avec l'objet de la fonction op.

PyObject *PyFunction_GetModule(PyObject *op)

Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.

Return a borrowed reference to the __module__ attribute of the function object op. It can be NULL.

This is normally a string containing the module name, but can be set to any other object by Python code.

PyObject *PyFunction_GetDefaults(PyObject *op)

Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.

Renvoie les valeurs par défaut de l'argument de l'objet de la fonction op. Cela peut être un tuple d'arguments ou NULL.

int PyFunction_SetDefaults(PyObject *op, PyObject *defaults)

Définir les valeurs par défaut de l'argument pour l'objet de la fonction op. defaults doit être Py_None ou un tuple.

Lève SystemError et renvoie -1 en cas de d'échec.

void PyFunction_SetVectorcall(PyFunctionObject *func, vectorcallfunc vectorcall)

Set the vectorcall field of a given function object func.

Warning: extensions using this API must preserve the behavior of the unaltered (default) vectorcall function!

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

PyObject *PyFunction_GetKwDefaults(PyObject *op)

Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.

Return the keyword-only argument default values of the function object op. This can be a dictionary of arguments or NULL.

int PyFunction_SetKwDefaults(PyObject *op, PyObject *defaults)

Set the keyword-only argument default values of the function object op. defaults must be a dictionary of keyword-only arguments or Py_None.

This function returns 0 on success, and returns -1 with an exception set on failure.

PyObject *PyFunction_GetClosure(PyObject *op)

Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.

Renvoie la fermeture associée avec l'objet de la fonction op. Cela peut être NULL ou un tuple d'objets cellule.

int PyFunction_SetClosure(PyObject *op, PyObject *closure)

Définir la fermeture associée avec l'objet de la fonction op. closure doit être Py_None ou un tuple d'objets cellule.

Lève SystemError et renvoie -1 en cas de d'échec.

PyObject *PyFunction_GetAnnotations(PyObject *op)

Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.

Renvoie les annotations de l'objet de la fonction op. Cela peut être un dictionnaire mutable ou NULL.

int PyFunction_SetAnnotations(PyObject *op, PyObject *annotations)

Définir les annotations pour l'objet de la fonction op. annotations doit être un dictionnaire ou Py_None.

Lève SystemError et renvoie -1 en cas de d'échec.

PyObject *PyFunction_GET_CODE(PyObject *op)

PyObject *PyFunction_GET_GLOBALS(PyObject *op)

PyObject *PyFunction_GET_MODULE(PyObject *op)

PyObject *PyFunction_GET_DEFAULTS(PyObject *op)

PyObject *PyFunction_GET_KW_DEFAULTS(PyObject *op)

PyObject *PyFunction_GET_CLOSURE(PyObject *op)

PyObject *PyFunction_GET_ANNOTATIONS(PyObject *op)

Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.

These functions are similar to their PyFunction_Get* counterparts, but do not do type checking. Passing anything other than an instance of PyFunction_Type is undefined behavior.

int PyFunction_AddWatcher(PyFunction_WatchCallback callback)

Register callback as a function watcher for the current interpreter. Return an ID which may be passed to PyFunction_ClearWatcher(). In case of error (e.g. no more watcher IDs available), return -1 and set an exception.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

int PyFunction_ClearWatcher(int watcher_id)

Clear watcher identified by watcher_id previously returned from PyFunction_AddWatcher() for the current interpreter. Return 0 on success, or -1 and set an exception on error (e.g. if the given watcher_id was never registered.)

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

type PyFunction_WatchEvent

Enumeration of possible function watcher events:

PyFunction_EVENT_CREATE

PyFunction_EVENT_DESTROY

PyFunction_EVENT_MODIFY_CODE

PyFunction_EVENT_MODIFY_DEFAULTS

PyFunction_EVENT_MODIFY_KWDEFAULTS

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

typedef int (*PyFunction_WatchCallback)(PyFunction_WatchEvent event, PyFunctionObject *func, PyObject *new_value)

Type of a function watcher callback function.

If event is PyFunction_EVENT_CREATE or PyFunction_EVENT_DESTROY then new_value will be NULL. Otherwise, new_value will hold a borrowed reference to the new value that is about to be stored in func for the attribute that is being modified.

The callback may inspect but must not modify func; doing so could have unpredictable effects, including infinite recursion.

If event is PyFunction_EVENT_CREATE, then the callback is invoked after func has been fully initialized. Otherwise, the callback is invoked before the modification to func takes place, so the prior state of func can be inspected. The runtime is permitted to optimize away the creation of function objects when possible. In such cases no event will be emitted. Although this creates the possibility of an observable difference of runtime behavior depending on optimization decisions, it does not change the semantics of the Python code being executed.

If event is PyFunction_EVENT_DESTROY, Taking a reference in the callback to the about-to-be-destroyed function will resurrect it, preventing it from being freed at this time. When the resurrected object is destroyed later, any watcher callbacks active at that time will be called again.

If the callback sets an exception, it must return -1; this exception will be printed as an unraisable exception using PyErr_WriteUnraisable(). Otherwise it should return 0.

There may already be a pending exception set on entry to the callback. In this case, the callback should return 0 with the same exception still set. This means the callback may not call any other API that can set an exception unless it saves and clears the exception state first, and restores it before returning.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Instance Method Objects

An instance method is a wrapper for a PyCFunction and the new way to bind a PyCFunction to a class object. It replaces the former call PyMethod_New(func, NULL, class).

PyTypeObject PyInstanceMethod_Type

This instance of PyTypeObject represents the Python instance method type. It is not exposed to Python programs.

int PyInstanceMethod_Check(PyObject *o)

Return true if o is an instance method object (has type PyInstanceMethod_Type). The parameter must not be NULL. This function always succeeds.

PyObject *PyInstanceMethod_New(PyObject *func)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Return a new instance method object, with func being any callable object. func is the function that will be called when the instance method is called.

PyObject *PyInstanceMethod_Function(PyObject *im)

Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.

Return the function object associated with the instance method im.

PyObject *PyInstanceMethod_GET_FUNCTION(PyObject *im)

Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.

Macro version of PyInstanceMethod_Function() which avoids error checking.

Objets méthode

Methods are bound function objects. Methods are always bound to an instance of a user-defined class. Unbound methods (methods bound to a class object) are no longer available.

PyTypeObject PyMethod_Type

This instance of PyTypeObject represents the Python method type. This is exposed to Python programs as types.MethodType.

int PyMethod_Check(PyObject *o)

Return true if o is a method object (has type PyMethod_Type). The parameter must not be NULL. This function always succeeds.

PyObject *PyMethod_New(PyObject *func, PyObject *self)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Return a new method object, with func being any callable object and self the instance the method should be bound. func is the function that will be called when the method is called. self must not be NULL.

PyObject *PyMethod_Function(PyObject *meth)

Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.

Return the function object associated with the method meth.

PyObject *PyMethod_GET_FUNCTION(PyObject *meth)

Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.

Macro version of PyMethod_Function() which avoids error checking.

PyObject *PyMethod_Self(PyObject *meth)

Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.

Return the instance associated with the method meth.

PyObject *PyMethod_GET_SELF(PyObject *meth)

Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.

Macro version of PyMethod_Self() which avoids error checking.

Objets Cellules

"Cell" objects are used to implement variables referenced by multiple scopes. For each such variable, a cell object is created to store the value; the local variables of each stack frame that references the value contain a reference to the cells from outer scopes which also use that variable. When the value is accessed, the value contained in the cell is used instead of the cell object itself. This de-referencing of the cell object requires support from the generated byte-code; these are not automatically de-referenced when accessed. Cell objects are not likely to be useful elsewhere.

type PyCellObject

Structure C utilisée pour les objets cellules.

PyTypeObject PyCell_Type

Type objet correspondant aux objets cellules.

int PyCell_Check(PyObject *ob)

Return true if ob is a cell object; ob must not be NULL. This function always succeeds.

PyObject *PyCell_New(PyObject *ob)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Create and return a new cell object containing the value ob. The parameter may be NULL.

PyObject *PyCell_Get(PyObject *cell)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Return the contents of the cell cell, which can be NULL. If cell is not a cell object, returns NULL with an exception set.

PyObject *PyCell_GET(PyObject *cell)

Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.

Return the contents of the cell cell, but without checking that cell is non-NULL and a cell object.

int PyCell_Set(PyObject *cell, PyObject *value)

Set the contents of the cell object cell to value. This releases the reference to any current content of the cell. value may be NULL. cell must be non-NULL.

On success, return 0. If cell is not a cell object, set an exception and return -1.

void PyCell_SET(PyObject *cell, PyObject *value)

Sets the value of the cell object cell to value. No reference counts are adjusted, and no checks are made for safety; cell must be non-NULL and must be a cell object.

Objets code

Les objets Code sont spécifiques à l'implémentation bas niveau de CPython. Chacun d'eux représente une partie de code exécutable, qui n'a pas encore été lié dans une fonction.

type PyCodeObject

La structure C utilisée pour décrire les objets Code. Les attributs de cette structure sont sujets à changer à tout moment.

PyTypeObject PyCode_Type

This is an instance of PyTypeObject representing the Python code object.

int PyCode_Check(PyObject *co)

Return true if co is a code object. This function always succeeds.

Py_ssize_t PyCode_GetNumFree(PyCodeObject *co)

Return the number of free (closure) variables in a code object.

int PyUnstable_Code_GetFirstFree(PyCodeObject *co)

Fait partie de l' API instable. Peut changer sans avertissement d'une version mineure à l'autre.

Return the position of the first free (closure) variable in a code object.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: Renamed from PyCode_GetFirstFree as part of Unstable C API. The old name is deprecated, but will remain available until the signature changes again.

PyCodeObject *PyUnstable_Code_New(int argcount, int kwonlyargcount, int nlocals, int stacksize, int flags, PyObject *code, PyObject *consts, PyObject *names, PyObject *varnames, PyObject *freevars, PyObject *cellvars, PyObject *filename, PyObject *name, PyObject *qualname, int firstlineno, PyObject *linetable, PyObject *exceptiontable)

Fait partie de l' API instable. Peut changer sans avertissement d'une version mineure à l'autre.

Return a new code object. If you need a dummy code object to create a frame, use PyCode_NewEmpty() instead.

Since the definition of the bytecode changes often, calling PyUnstable_Code_New() directly can bind you to a precise Python version.

The many arguments of this function are inter-dependent in complex ways, meaning that subtle changes to values are likely to result in incorrect execution or VM crashes. Use this function only with extreme care.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added qualname and exceptiontable parameters.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Renamed from PyCode_New as part of Unstable C API. The old name is deprecated, but will remain available until the signature changes again.

PyCodeObject *PyUnstable_Code_NewWithPosOnlyArgs(int argcount, int posonlyargcount, int kwonlyargcount, int nlocals, int stacksize, int flags, PyObject *code, PyObject *consts, PyObject *names, PyObject *varnames, PyObject *freevars, PyObject *cellvars, PyObject *filename, PyObject *name, PyObject *qualname, int firstlineno, PyObject *linetable, PyObject *exceptiontable)

Fait partie de l' API instable. Peut changer sans avertissement d'une version mineure à l'autre.

Similar to PyUnstable_Code_New(), but with an extra "posonlyargcount" for positional-only arguments. The same caveats that apply to PyUnstable_Code_New also apply to this function.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8: as PyCode_NewWithPosOnlyArgs

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Added qualname and exceptiontable parameters.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Renamed to PyUnstable_Code_NewWithPosOnlyArgs. The old name is deprecated, but will remain available until the signature changes again.

PyCodeObject *PyCode_NewEmpty(const char *filename, const char *funcname, int firstlineno)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Return a new empty code object with the specified filename, function name, and first line number. The resulting code object will raise an Exception if executed.

int PyCode_Addr2Line(PyCodeObject *co, int byte_offset)

Return the line number of the instruction that occurs on or before byte_offset and ends after it. If you just need the line number of a frame, use PyFrame_GetLineNumber() instead.

For efficiently iterating over the line numbers in a code object, use the API described in PEP 626 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/#out-of-process-debuggers-and-profilers].

int PyCode_Addr2Location(PyObject *co, int byte_offset, int *start_line, int *start_column, int *end_line, int *end_column)

Sets the passed int pointers to the source code line and column numbers for the instruction at byte_offset. Sets the value to 0 when information is not available for any particular element.

Returns 1 if the function succeeds and 0 otherwise.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

PyObject *PyCode_GetCode(PyCodeObject *co)

Equivalent to the Python code getattr(co, 'co_code'). Returns a strong reference to a PyBytesObject representing the bytecode in a code object. On error, NULL is returned and an exception is raised.

This PyBytesObject may be created on-demand by the interpreter and does not necessarily represent the bytecode actually executed by CPython. The primary use case for this function is debuggers and profilers.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

PyObject *PyCode_GetVarnames(PyCodeObject *co)

Equivalent to the Python code getattr(co, 'co_varnames'). Returns a new reference to a PyTupleObject containing the names of the local variables. On error, NULL is returned and an exception is raised.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

PyObject *PyCode_GetCellvars(PyCodeObject *co)

Equivalent to the Python code getattr(co, 'co_cellvars'). Returns a new reference to a PyTupleObject containing the names of the local variables that are referenced by nested functions. On error, NULL is returned and an exception is raised.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

PyObject *PyCode_GetFreevars(PyCodeObject *co)

Equivalent to the Python code getattr(co, 'co_freevars'). Returns a new reference to a PyTupleObject containing the names of the free (closure) variables. On error, NULL is returned and an exception is raised.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

int PyCode_AddWatcher(PyCode_WatchCallback callback)

Register callback as a code object watcher for the current interpreter. Return an ID which may be passed to PyCode_ClearWatcher(). In case of error (e.g. no more watcher IDs available), return -1 and set an exception.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

int PyCode_ClearWatcher(int watcher_id)

Clear watcher identified by watcher_id previously returned from PyCode_AddWatcher() for the current interpreter. Return 0 on success, or -1 and set an exception on error (e.g. if the given watcher_id was never registered.)

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

type PyCodeEvent

Enumeration of possible code object watcher events: - PY_CODE_EVENT_CREATE - PY_CODE_EVENT_DESTROY

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

typedef int (*PyCode_WatchCallback)(PyCodeEvent event, PyCodeObject *co)

Type of a code object watcher callback function.

If event is PY_CODE_EVENT_CREATE, then the callback is invoked after co has been fully initialized. Otherwise, the callback is invoked before the destruction of co takes place, so the prior state of co can be inspected.

If event is PY_CODE_EVENT_DESTROY, taking a reference in the callback to the about-to-be-destroyed code object will resurrect it and prevent it from being freed at this time. When the resurrected object is destroyed later, any watcher callbacks active at that time will be called again.

Users of this API should not rely on internal runtime implementation details. Such details may include, but are not limited to, the exact order and timing of creation and destruction of code objects. While changes in these details may result in differences observable by watchers (including whether a callback is invoked or not), it does not change the semantics of the Python code being executed.

If the callback sets an exception, it must return -1; this exception will be printed as an unraisable exception using PyErr_WriteUnraisable(). Otherwise it should return 0.

There may already be a pending exception set on entry to the callback. In this case, the callback should return 0 with the same exception still set. This means the callback may not call any other API that can set an exception unless it saves and clears the exception state first, and restores it before returning.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

PyObject *PyCode_Optimize(PyObject *code, PyObject *consts, PyObject *names, PyObject *lnotab_obj)

This is a soft deprecated function that does nothing.

Prior to Python 3.10, this function would perform basic optimizations to a code object.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: This function now does nothing.

Code Object Flags

Code objects contain a bit-field of flags, which can be retrieved as the co_flags Python attribute (for example using PyObject_GetAttrString()), and set using a flags argument to PyUnstable_Code_New() and similar functions.

Flags whose names start with CO_FUTURE_ correspond to features normally selectable by future statements. These flags can be used in PyCompilerFlags.cf_flags. Note that many CO_FUTURE_ flags are mandatory in current versions of Python, and setting them has no effect.

The following flags are available. For their meaning, see the linked documentation of their Python equivalents.

Option

Signification

CO_OPTIMIZED

inspect.CO_OPTIMIZED

CO_NEWLOCALS

inspect.CO_NEWLOCALS

CO_VARARGS

inspect.CO_VARARGS

CO_VARKEYWORDS

inspect.CO_VARKEYWORDS

CO_NESTED

inspect.CO_NESTED

CO_GENERATOR

inspect.CO_GENERATOR

CO_COROUTINE

inspect.CO_COROUTINE

CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE

inspect.CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE

CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR

inspect.CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR

CO_HAS_DOCSTRING

inspect.CO_HAS_DOCSTRING

CO_METHOD

inspect.CO_METHOD

CO_FUTURE_DIVISION

no effect (__future__.division)

CO_FUTURE_ABSOLUTE_IMPORT

no effect (__future__.absolute_import)

CO_FUTURE_WITH_STATEMENT

no effect (__future__.with_statement)

CO_FUTURE_PRINT_FUNCTION

no effect (__future__.print_function)

CO_FUTURE_UNICODE_LITERALS

no effect (__future__.unicode_literals)

CO_FUTURE_GENERATOR_STOP

no effect (__future__.generator_stop)

CO_FUTURE_ANNOTATIONS

__future__.annotations

Extra information

To support low-level extensions to frame evaluation, such as external just-in-time compilers, it is possible to attach arbitrary extra data to code objects.

These functions are part of the unstable C API tier: this functionality is a CPython implementation detail, and the API may change without deprecation warnings.

Py_ssize_t PyUnstable_Eval_RequestCodeExtraIndex(freefunc free)

Fait partie de l' API instable. Peut changer sans avertissement d'une version mineure à l'autre.

Return a new opaque index value used to adding data to code objects.

You generally call this function once (per interpreter) and use the result with PyCode_GetExtra and PyCode_SetExtra to manipulate data on individual code objects.

If free is not NULL: when a code object is deallocated, free will be called on non-NULL data stored under the new index. Use Py_DecRef() when storing PyObject.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6: as _PyEval_RequestCodeExtraIndex

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Renamed to PyUnstable_Eval_RequestCodeExtraIndex. The old private name is deprecated, but will be available until the API changes.

int PyUnstable_Code_GetExtra(PyObject *code, Py_ssize_t index, void **extra)

Fait partie de l' API instable. Peut changer sans avertissement d'une version mineure à l'autre.

Set extra to the extra data stored under the given index. Return 0 on success. Set an exception and return -1 on failure.

If no data was set under the index, set extra to NULL and return 0 without setting an exception.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6: as _PyCode_GetExtra

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Renamed to PyUnstable_Code_GetExtra. The old private name is deprecated, but will be available until the API changes.

int PyUnstable_Code_SetExtra(PyObject *code, Py_ssize_t index, void *extra)

Fait partie de l' API instable. Peut changer sans avertissement d'une version mineure à l'autre.

Set the extra data stored under the given index to extra. Return 0 on success. Set an exception and return -1 on failure.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6: as _PyCode_SetExtra

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Renamed to PyUnstable_Code_SetExtra. The old private name is deprecated, but will be available until the API changes.

Objets fichiers

These APIs are a minimal emulation of the Python 2 C API for built-in file objects, which used to rely on the buffered I/O (FILE*) support from the C standard library. In Python 3, files and streams use the new io module, which defines several layers over the low-level unbuffered I/O of the operating system. The functions described below are convenience C wrappers over these new APIs, and meant mostly for internal error reporting in the interpreter; third-party code is advised to access the io APIs instead.

PyObject *PyFile_FromFd(int fd, const char *name, const char *mode, int buffering, const char *encoding, const char *errors, const char *newline, int closefd)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Create a Python file object from the file descriptor of an already opened file fd. The arguments name, encoding, errors and newline can be NULL to use the defaults; buffering can be -1 to use the default. name is ignored and kept for backward compatibility. Return NULL on failure. For a more comprehensive description of the arguments, please refer to the io.open() function documentation.

Avertissement

Étant donné que les flux de données Python possèdent leur propre couche de tampon, les mélanger avec des descripteurs de fichiers du niveau du système d'exploitation peut produire des erreurs (comme par exemple un ordre des données inattendu).

Modifié dans la version 3.2: ignore l'attribut name

int PyObject_AsFileDescriptor(PyObject *p)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the file descriptor associated with p as an int. If the object is an integer, its value is returned. If not, the object's fileno() method is called if it exists; the method must return an integer, which is returned as the file descriptor value. Sets an exception and returns -1 on failure.

PyObject *PyFile_GetLine(PyObject *p, int n)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Cette fonction, équivalente à p.readline([n]), lit une ligne de l'objet p. p peut être un objet fichier ou n'importe quel objet qui possède une méthode readline(). Si n vaut 0, une seule ligne est lue, indépendamment de la taille de la ligne. Si n est plus grand que 0, un maximum de n octets seront lus en provenance du fichier ; une ligne partielle peut être renvoyée. Dans les deux cas, une chaîne de caractères vide est renvoyée si la fin du fichier est atteinte immédiatement. Cependant, si n est plus petit que 0, une ligne est lue indépendamment de sa taille, mais EOFError est levée si la fin du fichier est atteinte immédiatement.

int PyFile_SetOpenCodeHook(Py_OpenCodeHookFunction handler)

Overrides the normal behavior of io.open_code() to pass its parameter through the provided handler.

The handler is a function of type:

typedef PyObject *(*Py_OpenCodeHookFunction)(PyObject*, void*)

Equivalent of PyObject *(*)(PyObject *path, void *userData), where path is guaranteed to be PyUnicodeObject.

The userData pointer is passed into the hook function. Since hook functions may be called from different runtimes, this pointer should not refer directly to Python state.

As this hook is intentionally used during import, avoid importing new modules during its execution unless they are known to be frozen or available in sys.modules.

Once a hook has been set, it cannot be removed or replaced, and later calls to PyFile_SetOpenCodeHook() will fail. On failure, the function returns -1 and sets an exception if the interpreter has been initialized.

This function is safe to call before Py_Initialize().

Raises an auditing event setopencodehook with no arguments.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

PyObject *PyFile_OpenCodeObject(PyObject *path)

Open path with the mode 'rb'. path must be a Python str object. The behavior of this function may be overridden by PyFile_SetOpenCodeHook() to allow for some preprocessing of the text.

This is analogous to io.open_code() in Python.

On success, this function returns a strong reference to a Python file object. On failure, this function returns NULL with an exception set.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

PyObject *PyFile_OpenCode(const char *path)

Similar to PyFile_OpenCodeObject(), but path is a UTF-8 encoded const char*.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

int PyFile_WriteObject(PyObject *obj, PyObject *p, int flags)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Write object obj to file object p. The only supported flag for flags is Py_PRINT_RAW; if given, the str() of the object is written instead of the repr().

If obj is NULL, write the string "<NULL>".

Return 0 on success or -1 on failure; the appropriate exception will be set.

int PyFile_WriteString(const char *s, PyObject *p)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Écrit la chaîne de caractères s dans l'objet fichier p. Retourne 0 en cas de succès ou -1 en cas d'échec ; l'exception appropriée sera mise en place.

Deprecated API

These are soft deprecated APIs that were included in Python's C API by mistake. They are documented solely for completeness; use other PyFile* APIs instead.

PyObject *PyFile_NewStdPrinter(int fd)

Use PyFile_FromFd() with defaults (fd, NULL, "w", -1, NULL, NULL, NULL, 0) instead.

PyTypeObject PyStdPrinter_Type

Type of file-like objects used internally at Python startup when io is not yet available. Use Python open() or PyFile_FromFd() to create file objects instead.

Module Objects

PyTypeObject PyModule_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This instance of PyTypeObject represents the Python module type. This is exposed to Python programs as types.ModuleType.

int PyModule_Check(PyObject *p)

Return true if p is a module object, or a subtype of a module object. This function always succeeds.

int PyModule_CheckExact(PyObject *p)

Return true if p is a module object, but not a subtype of PyModule_Type. This function always succeeds.

PyObject *PyModule_NewObject(PyObject *name)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

Return a new module object with module.__name__ set to name. The module's __name__, __doc__, __package__ and __loader__ attributes are filled in (all but __name__ are set to None). The caller is responsible for setting a __file__ attribute.

Return NULL with an exception set on error.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: __package__ and __loader__ are now set to None.

PyObject *PyModule_New(const char *name)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Similar to PyModule_NewObject(), but the name is a UTF-8 encoded string instead of a Unicode object.

PyObject *PyModule_GetDict(PyObject *module)

Valeur de retour : référence empruntée. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the dictionary object that implements module's namespace; this object is the same as the __dict__ attribute of the module object. If module is not a module object (or a subtype of a module object), SystemError is raised and NULL is returned.

It is recommended extensions use other PyModule_* and PyObject_* functions rather than directly manipulate a module's __dict__.

The returned reference is borrowed from the module; it is valid until the module is destroyed.

PyObject *PyModule_GetNameObject(PyObject *module)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

Return module's __name__ value. If the module does not provide one, or if it is not a string, SystemError is raised and NULL is returned.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

const char *PyModule_GetName(PyObject *module)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Similar to PyModule_GetNameObject() but return the name encoded to 'utf-8'.

The returned buffer is only valid until the module is renamed or destroyed. Note that Python code may rename a module by setting its __name__ attribute.

void *PyModule_GetState(PyObject *module)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the "state" of the module, that is, a pointer to the block of memory allocated at module creation time, or NULL. See PyModuleDef.m_size.

PyModuleDef *PyModule_GetDef(PyObject *module)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a pointer to the PyModuleDef struct from which the module was created, or NULL if the module wasn't created from a definition.

On error, return NULL with an exception set. Use PyErr_Occurred() to tell this case apart from a missing PyModuleDef.

PyObject *PyModule_GetFilenameObject(PyObject *module)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the name of the file from which module was loaded using module's __file__ attribute. If this is not defined, or if it is not a string, raise SystemError and return NULL; otherwise return a reference to a Unicode object.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

const char *PyModule_GetFilename(PyObject *module)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Similar to PyModule_GetFilenameObject() but return the filename encoded to 'utf-8'.

The returned buffer is only valid until the module's __file__ attribute is reassigned or the module is destroyed.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.2: PyModule_GetFilename() raises UnicodeEncodeError on unencodable filenames, use PyModule_GetFilenameObject() instead.

Module definitions

The functions in the previous section work on any module object, including modules imported from Python code.

Modules defined using the C API typically use a module definition, PyModuleDef -- a statically allocated, constant “description" of how a module should be created.

The definition is usually used to define an extension's “main” module object (see Defining extension modules for details). It is also used to create extension modules dynamically.

Unlike PyModule_New(), the definition allows management of module state -- a piece of memory that is allocated and cleared together with the module object. Unlike the module's Python attributes, Python code cannot replace or delete data stored in module state.

type PyModuleDef

Fait partie de l' ABI stable (incluant tous les attributs).

The module definition struct, which holds all information needed to create a module object. This structure must be statically allocated (or be otherwise guaranteed to be valid while any modules created from it exist). Usually, there is only one variable of this type for each extension module.

PyModuleDef_Base m_base

Always initialize this member to PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT.

const char *m_name

Name for the new module.

const char *m_doc

Docstring for the module; usually a docstring variable created with PyDoc_STRVAR is used.

Py_ssize_t m_size

Module state may be kept in a per-module memory area that can be retrieved with PyModule_GetState(), rather than in static globals. This makes modules safe for use in multiple sub-interpreters.

This memory area is allocated based on m_size on module creation, and freed when the module object is deallocated, after the m_free function has been called, if present.

Setting it to a non-negative value means that the module can be re-initialized and specifies the additional amount of memory it requires for its state.

Setting m_size to -1 means that the module does not support sub-interpreters, because it has global state. Negative m_size is only allowed when using legacy single-phase initialization or when creating modules dynamically.

See PEP 3121 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3121/] for more details.

PyMethodDef *m_methods

A pointer to a table of module-level functions, described by PyMethodDef values. Can be NULL if no functions are present.

PyModuleDef_Slot *m_slots

An array of slot definitions for multi-phase initialization, terminated by a {0, NULL} entry. When using legacy single-phase initialization, m_slots must be NULL.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: Prior to version 3.5, this member was always set to NULL, and was defined as:

inquiry m_reload

traverseproc m_traverse

A traversal function to call during GC traversal of the module object, or NULL if not needed.

This function is not called if the module state was requested but is not allocated yet. This is the case immediately after the module is created and before the module is executed (Py_mod_exec function). More precisely, this function is not called if m_size is greater than 0 and the module state (as returned by PyModule_GetState()) is NULL.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: No longer called before the module state is allocated.

inquiry m_clear

A clear function to call during GC clearing of the module object, or NULL if not needed.

This function is not called if the module state was requested but is not allocated yet. This is the case immediately after the module is created and before the module is executed (Py_mod_exec function). More precisely, this function is not called if m_size is greater than 0 and the module state (as returned by PyModule_GetState()) is NULL.

Like PyTypeObject.tp_clear, this function is not always called before a module is deallocated. For example, when reference counting is enough to determine that an object is no longer used, the cyclic garbage collector is not involved and m_free is called directly.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: No longer called before the module state is allocated.

freefunc m_free

A function to call during deallocation of the module object, or NULL if not needed.

This function is not called if the module state was requested but is not allocated yet. This is the case immediately after the module is created and before the module is executed (Py_mod_exec function). More precisely, this function is not called if m_size is greater than 0 and the module state (as returned by PyModule_GetState()) is NULL.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: No longer called before the module state is allocated.

PyTypeObject PyModuleDef_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.5.

The type of PyModuleDef objects.

Module slots

type PyModuleDef_Slot

Fait partie de l' ABI stable (incluant tous les attributs) depuis la version 3.5.

int slot

A slot ID, chosen from the available values explained below.

void *value

Value of the slot, whose meaning depends on the slot ID.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

The available slot types are:

Py_mod_create

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.5.

Specifies a function that is called to create the module object itself. The value pointer of this slot must point to a function of the signature:

PyObject *create_module(PyObject *spec, PyModuleDef *def)

The function receives a ModuleSpec instance, as defined in PEP 451 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/], and the module definition. It should return a new module object, or set an error and return NULL.

This function should be kept minimal. In particular, it should not call arbitrary Python code, as trying to import the same module again may result in an infinite loop.

Multiple Py_mod_create slots may not be specified in one module definition.

If Py_mod_create is not specified, the import machinery will create a normal module object using PyModule_New(). The name is taken from spec, not the definition, to allow extension modules to dynamically adjust to their place in the module hierarchy and be imported under different names through symlinks, all while sharing a single module definition.

There is no requirement for the returned object to be an instance of PyModule_Type. Any type can be used, as long as it supports setting and getting import-related attributes. However, only PyModule_Type instances may be returned if the PyModuleDef has non-NULL m_traverse, m_clear, m_free; non-zero m_size; or slots other than Py_mod_create.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Py_mod_exec

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.5.

Specifies a function that is called to execute the module. This is equivalent to executing the code of a Python module: typically, this function adds classes and constants to the module. The signature of the function is:

int exec_module(PyObject *module)

If multiple Py_mod_exec slots are specified, they are processed in the order they appear in the m_slots array.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Py_mod_multiple_interpreters

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.12.

Specifies one of the following values:

Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_NOT_SUPPORTED

The module does not support being imported in subinterpreters.

Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_SUPPORTED

The module supports being imported in subinterpreters, but only when they share the main interpreter's GIL. (See Isolating Extension Modules.)

Py_MOD_PER_INTERPRETER_GIL_SUPPORTED

The module supports being imported in subinterpreters, even when they have their own GIL. (See Isolating Extension Modules.)

This slot determines whether or not importing this module in a subinterpreter will fail.

Multiple Py_mod_multiple_interpreters slots may not be specified in one module definition.

If Py_mod_multiple_interpreters is not specified, the import machinery defaults to Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_SUPPORTED.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Py_mod_gil

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.13.

Specifies one of the following values:

Py_MOD_GIL_USED

The module depends on the presence of the global interpreter lock (GIL), and may access global state without synchronization.

Py_MOD_GIL_NOT_USED

The module is safe to run without an active GIL.

This slot is ignored by Python builds not configured with --disable-gil. Otherwise, it determines whether or not importing this module will cause the GIL to be automatically enabled. See Free-threaded CPython for more detail.

Multiple Py_mod_gil slots may not be specified in one module definition.

If Py_mod_gil is not specified, the import machinery defaults to Py_MOD_GIL_USED.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Creating extension modules dynamically

The following functions may be used to create a module outside of an extension's initialization function. They are also used in single-phase initialization.

PyObject *PyModule_Create(PyModuleDef *def)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Create a new module object, given the definition in def. This is a macro that calls PyModule_Create2() with module_api_version set to PYTHON_API_VERSION, or to PYTHON_ABI_VERSION if using the limited API.

PyObject *PyModule_Create2(PyModuleDef *def, int module_api_version)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Create a new module object, given the definition in def, assuming the API version module_api_version. If that version does not match the version of the running interpreter, a RuntimeWarning is emitted.

Return NULL with an exception set on error.

This function does not support slots. The m_slots member of def must be NULL.

Note

Most uses of this function should be using PyModule_Create() instead; only use this if you are sure you need it.

PyObject *PyModule_FromDefAndSpec(PyModuleDef *def, PyObject *spec)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

This macro calls PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2() with module_api_version set to PYTHON_API_VERSION, or to PYTHON_ABI_VERSION if using the limited API.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

PyObject *PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2(PyModuleDef *def, PyObject *spec, int module_api_version)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

Create a new module object, given the definition in def and the ModuleSpec spec, assuming the API version module_api_version. If that version does not match the version of the running interpreter, a RuntimeWarning is emitted.

Return NULL with an exception set on error.

Note that this does not process execution slots (Py_mod_exec). Both PyModule_FromDefAndSpec and PyModule_ExecDef must be called to fully initialize a module.

Note

Most uses of this function should be using PyModule_FromDefAndSpec() instead; only use this if you are sure you need it.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

int PyModule_ExecDef(PyObject *module, PyModuleDef *def)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

Process any execution slots (Py_mod_exec) given in def.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

PYTHON_API_VERSION

The C API version. Defined for backwards compatibility.

Currently, this constant is not updated in new Python versions, and is not useful for versioning. This may change in the future.

PYTHON_ABI_VERSION

Defined as 3 for backwards compatibility.

Currently, this constant is not updated in new Python versions, and is not useful for versioning. This may change in the future.

Support functions

The following functions are provided to help initialize a module state. They are intended for a module's execution slots (Py_mod_exec), the initialization function for legacy single-phase initialization, or code that creates modules dynamically.

int PyModule_AddObjectRef(PyObject *module, const char *name, PyObject *value)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.10.

Add an object to module as name. This is a convenience function which can be used from the module's initialization function.

On success, return 0. On error, raise an exception and return -1.

Exemple d'utilisation :

static int
add_spam(PyObject *module, int value)
{
    PyObject *obj = PyLong_FromLong(value);
    if (obj == NULL) {
        return -1;
    }
    int res = PyModule_AddObjectRef(module, "spam", obj);
    Py_DECREF(obj);
    return res;
 }

To be convenient, the function accepts NULL value with an exception set. In this case, return -1 and just leave the raised exception unchanged.

The example can also be written without checking explicitly if obj is NULL:

static int
add_spam(PyObject *module, int value)
{
    PyObject *obj = PyLong_FromLong(value);
    int res = PyModule_AddObjectRef(module, "spam", obj);
    Py_XDECREF(obj);
    return res;
 }

Note that Py_XDECREF() should be used instead of Py_DECREF() in this case, since obj can be NULL.

The number of different name strings passed to this function should be kept small, usually by only using statically allocated strings as name. For names that aren't known at compile time, prefer calling PyUnicode_FromString() and PyObject_SetAttr() directly. For more details, see PyUnicode_InternFromString(), which may be used internally to create a key object.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

int PyModule_Add(PyObject *module, const char *name, PyObject *value)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.13.

Similar to PyModule_AddObjectRef(), but "steals" a reference to value. It can be called with a result of function that returns a new reference without bothering to check its result or even saving it to a variable.

Exemple d'utilisation :

if (PyModule_Add(module, "spam", PyBytes_FromString(value)) < 0) {
    goto error;
}

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

int PyModule_AddObject(PyObject *module, const char *name, PyObject *value)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Similar to PyModule_AddObjectRef(), but steals a reference to value on success (if it returns 0).

The new PyModule_Add() or PyModule_AddObjectRef() functions are recommended, since it is easy to introduce reference leaks by misusing the PyModule_AddObject() function.

Note

Unlike other functions that steal references, PyModule_AddObject() only releases the reference to value on success.

This means that its return value must be checked, and calling code must Py_XDECREF() value manually on error.

Exemple d'utilisation :

PyObject *obj = PyBytes_FromString(value);
if (PyModule_AddObject(module, "spam", obj) < 0) {
    // If 'obj' is not NULL and PyModule_AddObject() failed,
    // 'obj' strong reference must be deleted with Py_XDECREF().
    // If 'obj' is NULL, Py_XDECREF() does nothing.
    Py_XDECREF(obj);
    goto error;
}
// PyModule_AddObject() stole a reference to obj:
// Py_XDECREF(obj) is not needed here.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.13: PyModule_AddObject() is soft deprecated.

int PyModule_AddIntConstant(PyObject *module, const char *name, long value)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Add an integer constant to module as name. This convenience function can be used from the module's initialization function. Return -1 with an exception set on error, 0 on success.

This is a convenience function that calls PyLong_FromLong() and PyModule_AddObjectRef(); see their documentation for details.

int PyModule_AddStringConstant(PyObject *module, const char *name, const char *value)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Add a string constant to module as name. This convenience function can be used from the module's initialization function. The string value must be NULL-terminated. Return -1 with an exception set on error, 0 on success.

This is a convenience function that calls PyUnicode_InternFromString() and PyModule_AddObjectRef(); see their documentation for details.

PyModule_AddIntMacro(module, macro)

Add an int constant to module. The name and the value are taken from macro. For example PyModule_AddIntMacro(module, AF_INET) adds the int constant AF_INET with the value of AF_INET to module. Return -1 with an exception set on error, 0 on success.

PyModule_AddStringMacro(module, macro)

Add a string constant to module.

int PyModule_AddType(PyObject *module, PyTypeObject *type)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.10.

Add a type object to module. The type object is finalized by calling internally PyType_Ready(). The name of the type object is taken from the last component of tp_name after dot. Return -1 with an exception set on error, 0 on success.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

int PyModule_AddFunctions(PyObject *module, PyMethodDef *functions)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

Add the functions from the NULL terminated functions array to module. Refer to the PyMethodDef documentation for details on individual entries (due to the lack of a shared module namespace, module level "functions" implemented in C typically receive the module as their first parameter, making them similar to instance methods on Python classes).

This function is called automatically when creating a module from PyModuleDef (such as when using Multi-phase initialization, PyModule_Create, or PyModule_FromDefAndSpec). Some module authors may prefer defining functions in multiple PyMethodDef arrays; in that case they should call this function directly.

The functions array must be statically allocated (or otherwise guaranteed to outlive the module object).

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

int PyModule_SetDocString(PyObject *module, const char *docstring)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

Set the docstring for module to docstring. This function is called automatically when creating a module from PyModuleDef (such as when using Multi-phase initialization, PyModule_Create, or PyModule_FromDefAndSpec).

Return 0 on success. Return -1 with an exception set on error.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

int PyUnstable_Module_SetGIL(PyObject *module, void *gil)

Fait partie de l' API instable. Peut changer sans avertissement d'une version mineure à l'autre.

Indicate that module does or does not support running without the global interpreter lock (GIL), using one of the values from Py_mod_gil. It must be called during module's initialization function when using Legacy single-phase initialization. If this function is not called during module initialization, the import machinery assumes the module does not support running without the GIL. This function is only available in Python builds configured with --disable-gil. Return -1 with an exception set on error, 0 on success.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Module lookup (single-phase initialization)

The legacy single-phase initialization initialization scheme creates singleton modules that can be looked up in the context of the current interpreter. This allows the module object to be retrieved later with only a reference to the module definition.

These functions will not work on modules created using multi-phase initialization, since multiple such modules can be created from a single definition.

PyObject *PyState_FindModule(PyModuleDef *def)

Valeur de retour : référence empruntée. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Returns the module object that was created from def for the current interpreter. This method requires that the module object has been attached to the interpreter state with PyState_AddModule() beforehand. In case the corresponding module object is not found or has not been attached to the interpreter state yet, it returns NULL.

int PyState_AddModule(PyObject *module, PyModuleDef *def)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.3.

Attaches the module object passed to the function to the interpreter state. This allows the module object to be accessible via PyState_FindModule().

Only effective on modules created using single-phase initialization.

Python calls PyState_AddModule automatically after importing a module that uses single-phase initialization, so it is unnecessary (but harmless) to call it from module initialization code. An explicit call is needed only if the module's own init code subsequently calls PyState_FindModule. The function is mainly intended for implementing alternative import mechanisms (either by calling it directly, or by referring to its implementation for details of the required state updates).

If a module was attached previously using the same def, it is replaced by the new module.

The caller must have an attached thread state.

Return -1 with an exception set on error, 0 on success.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

int PyState_RemoveModule(PyModuleDef *def)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.3.

Removes the module object created from def from the interpreter state. Return -1 with an exception set on error, 0 on success.

The caller must have an attached thread state.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Itérateurs

Python provides two general-purpose iterator objects. The first, a sequence iterator, works with an arbitrary sequence supporting the __getitem__() method. The second works with a callable object and a sentinel value, calling the callable for each item in the sequence, and ending the iteration when the sentinel value is returned.

PyTypeObject PySeqIter_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Type des itérateurs renvoyés par les fonctions PySeqIter_New() et la forme à un argument de la fonction native iter() pour les séquences natives.

int PySeqIter_Check(PyObject *op)

Return true if the type of op is PySeqIter_Type. This function always succeeds.

PyObject *PySeqIter_New(PyObject *seq)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Renvoie un itérateur sur la séquence seq. L'itération prend fin lorsque la séquence lève IndexError lors d'une tentative d'accès.

PyTypeObject PyCallIter_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Type de l'itérateur renvoyé par les fonctions PyCallIter_New() et iter() à deux arguments.

int PyCallIter_Check(PyObject *op)

Return true if the type of op is PyCallIter_Type. This function always succeeds.

PyObject *PyCallIter_New(PyObject *callable, PyObject *sentinel)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Renvoie un nouvel itérateur. Le premier paramètre, callable, peut être n'importe quel objet Python appelable sans aucun paramètre ; chaque appel doit renvoyer l'élément suivant de l'itération. Lorsque callable renvoie une valeur égale à sentinel, l'itération prend fin.

Range Objects

PyTypeObject PyRange_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

The type object for range objects.

int PyRange_Check(PyObject *o)

Return true if the object o is an instance of a range object. This function always succeeds.

Builtin Iterator Types

These are built-in iteration types that are included in Python's C API, but provide no additional functions. They are here for completeness.

C type

Python type

PyTypeObject PyEnum_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

enumerate

PyTypeObject PyFilter_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

filter

PyTypeObject PyMap_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

map

PyTypeObject PyReversed_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

reversed

PyTypeObject PyZip_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

zip

Other Iterator Objects

PyTypeObject PyByteArrayIter_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

PyTypeObject PyBytesIter_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

PyTypeObject PyListIter_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

PyTypeObject PyListRevIter_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

PyTypeObject PySetIter_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

PyTypeObject PyTupleIter_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

PyTypeObject PyRangeIter_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

PyTypeObject PyLongRangeIter_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

PyTypeObject PyDictIterKey_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

PyTypeObject PyDictRevIterKey_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.8.

PyTypeObject PyDictIterValue_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

PyTypeObject PyDictRevIterValue_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.8.

PyTypeObject PyDictIterItem_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

PyTypeObject PyDictRevIterItem_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.8.

PyTypeObject PyODictIter_Type

Type objects for iterators of various built-in objects.

Do not create instances of these directly; prefer calling PyObject_GetIter() instead.

Note that there is no guarantee that a given built-in type uses a given iterator type. For example, iterating over range will use one of two iterator types depending on the size of the range. Other types may start using a similar scheme in the future, without warning.

Les descripteurs

Les "Descripteurs" sont des objets décrivant des attributs pour un objet. Ils se trouvent dans le dictionnaire du type de l'objet.

PyTypeObject PyProperty_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

L'objet type des descripteurs natifs.

PyObject *PyDescr_NewGetSet(PyTypeObject *type, struct PyGetSetDef *getset)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

PyObject *PyDescr_NewMember(PyTypeObject *type, struct PyMemberDef *meth)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

PyTypeObject PyMemberDescr_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

The type object for member descriptor objects created from PyMemberDef structures. These descriptors expose fields of a C struct as attributes on a type, and correspond to types.MemberDescriptorType objects in Python.

PyTypeObject PyGetSetDescr_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

The type object for get/set descriptor objects created from PyGetSetDef structures. These descriptors implement attributes whose value is computed by C getter and setter functions, and are used for many built-in type attributes.

PyObject *PyDescr_NewMethod(PyTypeObject *type, struct PyMethodDef *meth)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

PyTypeObject PyMethodDescr_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

The type object for method descriptor objects created from PyMethodDef structures. These descriptors expose C functions as methods on a type, and correspond to types.MemberDescriptorType objects in Python.

PyObject *PyDescr_NewWrapper(PyTypeObject *type, struct wrapperbase *wrapper, void *wrapped)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

PyTypeObject PyWrapperDescr_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

The type object for wrapper descriptor objects created by PyDescr_NewWrapper() and PyWrapper_New(). Wrapper descriptors are used internally to expose special methods implemented via wrapper structures, and appear in Python as types.WrapperDescriptorType objects.

PyObject *PyDescr_NewClassMethod(PyTypeObject *type, PyMethodDef *method)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

int PyDescr_IsData(PyObject *descr)

Return non-zero if the descriptor object descr describes a data attribute, or 0 if it describes a method. descr must be a descriptor object; there is no error checking.

PyObject *PyWrapper_New(PyObject*, PyObject*)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Built-in descriptors

PyTypeObject PySuper_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

The type object for super objects. This is the same object as super in the Python layer.

PyTypeObject PyClassMethod_Type

The type of class method objects. This is the same object as classmethod in the Python layer.

PyTypeObject PyClassMethodDescr_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

The type object for C-level class method descriptor objects. This is the type of the descriptors created for classmethod() defined in C extension types, and is the same object as classmethod in Python.

PyObject *PyClassMethod_New(PyObject *callable)

Create a new classmethod object wrapping callable. callable must be a callable object and must not be NULL.

On success, this function returns a strong reference to a new class method descriptor. On failure, this function returns NULL with an exception set.

PyTypeObject PyStaticMethod_Type

The type of static method objects. This is the same object as staticmethod in the Python layer.

PyObject *PyStaticMethod_New(PyObject *callable)

Create a new staticmethod object wrapping callable. callable must be a callable object and must not be NULL.

On success, this function returns a strong reference to a new static method descriptor. On failure, this function returns NULL with an exception set.

Slice Objects

PyTypeObject PySlice_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

The type object for slice objects. This is the same as slice in the Python layer.

int PySlice_Check(PyObject *ob)

Return true if ob is a slice object; ob must not be NULL. This function always succeeds.

PyObject *PySlice_New(PyObject *start, PyObject *stop, PyObject *step)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a new slice object with the given values. The start, stop, and step parameters are used as the values of the slice object attributes of the same names. Any of the values may be NULL, in which case the None will be used for the corresponding attribute.

Return NULL with an exception set if the new object could not be allocated.

int PySlice_GetIndices(PyObject *slice, Py_ssize_t length, Py_ssize_t *start, Py_ssize_t *stop, Py_ssize_t *step)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Retrieve the start, stop and step indices from the slice object slice, assuming a sequence of length length. Treats indices greater than length as errors.

Returns 0 on success and -1 on error with no exception set (unless one of the indices was not None and failed to be converted to an integer, in which case -1 is returned with an exception set).

You probably do not want to use this function.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: The parameter type for the slice parameter was PySliceObject* before.

int PySlice_GetIndicesEx(PyObject *slice, Py_ssize_t length, Py_ssize_t *start, Py_ssize_t *stop, Py_ssize_t *step, Py_ssize_t *slicelength)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Usable replacement for PySlice_GetIndices(). Retrieve the start, stop, and step indices from the slice object slice assuming a sequence of length length, and store the length of the slice in slicelength. Out of bounds indices are clipped in a manner consistent with the handling of normal slices.

Return 0 on success and -1 on error with an exception set.

Note

This function is considered not safe for resizable sequences. Its invocation should be replaced by a combination of PySlice_Unpack() and PySlice_AdjustIndices() where

if (PySlice_GetIndicesEx(slice, length, &start, &stop, &step, &slicelength) < 0) {
    // return error
}

is replaced by

if (PySlice_Unpack(slice, &start, &stop, &step) < 0) {
    // return error
}
slicelength = PySlice_AdjustIndices(length, &start, &stop, step);

Modifié dans la version 3.2: The parameter type for the slice parameter was PySliceObject* before.

Modifié dans la version 3.6.1: If Py_LIMITED_API is not set or set to the value between 0x03050400 and 0x03060000 (not including) or 0x03060100 or higher PySlice_GetIndicesEx() is implemented as a macro using PySlice_Unpack() and PySlice_AdjustIndices(). Arguments start, stop and step are evaluated more than once.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.6.1: If Py_LIMITED_API is set to the value less than 0x03050400 or between 0x03060000 and 0x03060100 (not including) PySlice_GetIndicesEx() is a deprecated function.

int PySlice_Unpack(PyObject *slice, Py_ssize_t *start, Py_ssize_t *stop, Py_ssize_t *step)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

Extract the start, stop and step data members from a slice object as C integers. Silently reduce values larger than PY_SSIZE_T_MAX to PY_SSIZE_T_MAX, silently boost the start and stop values less than PY_SSIZE_T_MIN to PY_SSIZE_T_MIN, and silently boost the step values less than -PY_SSIZE_T_MAX to -PY_SSIZE_T_MAX.

Return -1 with an exception set on error, 0 on success.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.1.

Py_ssize_t PySlice_AdjustIndices(Py_ssize_t length, Py_ssize_t *start, Py_ssize_t *stop, Py_ssize_t step)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

Adjust start/end slice indices assuming a sequence of the specified length. Out of bounds indices are clipped in a manner consistent with the handling of normal slices.

Return the length of the slice. Always successful. Doesn't call Python code.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.1.

Ellipsis Object

PyTypeObject PyEllipsis_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

The type of Python Ellipsis object. Same as types.EllipsisType in the Python layer.

PyObject *Py_Ellipsis

The Python Ellipsis object. This object has no methods. Like Py_None, it is an immortal singleton object.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Py_Ellipsis is immortal.

Objets de type MemoryView

Un objet Python memoryview expose le protocole tampon du C. Cet objet peut ensuite être passé comme n'importe quel objet.

PyTypeObject PyMemoryView_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This instance of PyTypeObject represents the Python memoryview type. This is the same object as memoryview in the Python layer.

PyObject *PyMemoryView_FromObject(PyObject *obj)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Crée un objet memoryview à partir d'un objet implémentant le protocole tampon. Si obj permet d'exporter des tampons modifiables, l'objet memoryview crée acceptera la lecture et écriture, sinon l'objet crée est soit en lecture seule ou lecture/écriture, à la discrétion de l'exporteur.

PyBUF_READ

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.11.

Flag to request a readonly buffer.

PyBUF_WRITE

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.11.

Flag to request a writable buffer.

PyObject *PyMemoryView_FromMemory(char *mem, Py_ssize_t size, int flags)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

Crée un objet memoryview utilisant mem comme un tampon sous-jacent. flags peut être PyBUF_READ ou PyBUF_WRITE.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

PyObject *PyMemoryView_FromBuffer(const Py_buffer *view)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.11.

Crée un objet memoryview à partir de la structure tampon view. Pour de simples tampons d'octets, PyMemoryView_FromMemory() est préférée.

PyObject *PyMemoryView_GetContiguous(PyObject *obj, int buffertype, char order)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Crée un objet memoryview vers un segment de mémoire contiguous (organisé comme en 'C' ou comme en 'F' pour Fortran) à partir d'un objet qui expose le protocole tampon. Si la mémoire est contiguë, l'objet memoryview pointe vers la mémoire d'origine. Sinon une copie est faite et la memoryview pointe vers un nouvel objet bytes.

buffertype can be one of PyBUF_READ or PyBUF_WRITE.

int PyMemoryView_Check(PyObject *obj)

Return true if the object obj is a memoryview object. It is not currently allowed to create subclasses of memoryview. This function always succeeds.

Py_buffer *PyMemoryView_GET_BUFFER(PyObject *mview)

Retourne un pointeur vers la copie privée du tampon de l'exporteur de memoryview. mview doit être une instance de memoryview; cette macro ne vérifie pas le type, vous devez le faire vous-même sinon vous pourriez subir un crash.

PyObject *PyMemoryView_GET_BASE(PyObject *mview)

Renvoie soit un pointeur vers l'objet exporté sur lequel est basé la memoryview ou NULL si la memoryview a été crée par PyMemoryView_FromMemory() ou PyMemoryView_FromBuffer(). mview doit être une instance de memoryview.

Pickle buffer objects

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

A pickle.PickleBuffer object wraps a buffer-providing object for out-of-band data transfer with the pickle module.

PyTypeObject PyPickleBuffer_Type

This instance of PyTypeObject represents the Python pickle buffer type. This is the same object as pickle.PickleBuffer in the Python layer.

int PyPickleBuffer_Check(PyObject *op)

Return true if op is a pickle buffer instance. This function always succeeds.

PyObject *PyPickleBuffer_FromObject(PyObject *obj)

Create a pickle buffer from the object obj.

This function will fail if obj doesn't support the buffer protocol.

On success, return a new pickle buffer instance. On failure, set an exception and return NULL.

Analogous to calling pickle.PickleBuffer with obj in Python.

const Py_buffer *PyPickleBuffer_GetBuffer(PyObject *picklebuf)

Get a pointer to the underlying Py_buffer that the pickle buffer wraps.

The returned pointer is valid as long as picklebuf is alive and has not been released. The caller must not modify or free the returned Py_buffer. If the pickle buffer has been released, raise ValueError.

On success, return a pointer to the buffer view. On failure, set an exception and return NULL.

int PyPickleBuffer_Release(PyObject *picklebuf)

Release the underlying buffer held by the pickle buffer.

Return 0 on success. On failure, set an exception and return -1.

Analogous to calling pickle.PickleBuffer.release() in Python.

Objets à références faibles

Python gère les références faibles comme des objets de première classe. Il existe deux types d'objets spécifiques qui implémentent directement les références faibles. Le premier est un objet de référence simple, et le second agit autant que possible comme un mandataire vers l'objet original.

int PyWeakref_Check(PyObject *ob)

Return non-zero if ob is either a reference or proxy object. This function always succeeds.

int PyWeakref_CheckRef(PyObject *ob)

Return non-zero if ob is a reference object or a subclass of the reference type. This function always succeeds.

int PyWeakref_CheckRefExact(PyObject *ob)

Return non-zero if ob is a reference object, but not a subclass of the reference type. This function always succeeds.

int PyWeakref_CheckProxy(PyObject *ob)

Return non-zero if ob is a proxy object. This function always succeeds.

PyObject *PyWeakref_NewRef(PyObject *ob, PyObject *callback)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a weak reference object for the object ob. This will always return a new reference, but is not guaranteed to create a new object; an existing reference object may be returned. The second parameter, callback, can be a callable object that receives notification when ob is garbage collected; it should accept a single parameter, which will be the weak reference object itself. callback may also be None or NULL. If ob is not a weakly referenceable object, or if callback is not callable, None, or NULL, this will return NULL and raise TypeError.

Voir aussi

PyType_SUPPORTS_WEAKREFS() for checking if ob is weakly referenceable.

PyObject *PyWeakref_NewProxy(PyObject *ob, PyObject *callback)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a weak reference proxy object for the object ob. This will always return a new reference, but is not guaranteed to create a new object; an existing proxy object may be returned. The second parameter, callback, can be a callable object that receives notification when ob is garbage collected; it should accept a single parameter, which will be the weak reference object itself. callback may also be None or NULL. If ob is not a weakly referenceable object, or if callback is not callable, None, or NULL, this will return NULL and raise TypeError.

Voir aussi

PyType_SUPPORTS_WEAKREFS() for checking if ob is weakly referenceable.

int PyWeakref_GetRef(PyObject *ref, PyObject **pobj)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.13.

Get a strong reference to the referenced object from a weak reference, ref, into *pobj.

On success, set *pobj to a new strong reference to the referenced object and return 1.

If the reference is dead, set *pobj to NULL and return 0.

On error, raise an exception and return -1.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

PyObject *PyWeakref_GetObject(PyObject *ref)

Valeur de retour : référence empruntée. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a borrowed reference to the referenced object from a weak reference, ref. If the referent is no longer live, returns Py_None.

Note

This function returns a borrowed reference to the referenced object. This means that you should always call Py_INCREF() on the object except when it cannot be destroyed before the last usage of the borrowed reference.

Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: Use PyWeakref_GetRef() instead.

PyObject *PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT(PyObject *ref)

Valeur de retour : référence empruntée.

Similar to PyWeakref_GetObject(), but does no error checking.

Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: Use PyWeakref_GetRef() instead.

int PyWeakref_IsDead(PyObject *ref)

Test if the weak reference ref is dead. Returns 1 if the reference is dead, 0 if it is alive, and -1 with an error set if ref is not a weak reference object.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

void PyObject_ClearWeakRefs(PyObject *object)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This function is called by the tp_dealloc handler to clear weak references.

This iterates through the weak references for object and calls callbacks for those references which have one. It returns when all callbacks have been attempted.

void PyUnstable_Object_ClearWeakRefsNoCallbacks(PyObject *object)

Fait partie de l' API instable. Peut changer sans avertissement d'une version mineure à l'autre.

Clears the weakrefs for object without calling the callbacks.

This function is called by the tp_dealloc handler for types with finalizers (i.e., __del__()). The handler for those objects first calls PyObject_ClearWeakRefs() to clear weakrefs and call their callbacks, then the finalizer, and finally this function to clear any weakrefs that may have been created by the finalizer.

In most circumstances, it's more appropriate to use PyObject_ClearWeakRefs() to clear weakrefs instead of this function.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Capsules

Reportez-vous à Fournir une API en langage C pour un module d'extension pour plus d'informations sur l'utilisation de ces objets.

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

type PyCapsule

This subtype of PyObject represents an opaque value, useful for C extension modules which need to pass an opaque value (as a void* pointer) through Python code to other C code. It is often used to make a C function pointer defined in one module available to other modules, so the regular import mechanism can be used to access C APIs defined in dynamically loaded modules.

PyTypeObject PyCapsule_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

The type object corresponding to capsule objects. This is the same object as types.CapsuleType in the Python layer.

type PyCapsule_Destructor

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

The type of a destructor callback for a capsule. Defined as:

typedef void (*PyCapsule_Destructor)(PyObject *);

See PyCapsule_New() for the semantics of PyCapsule_Destructor callbacks.

int PyCapsule_CheckExact(PyObject *p)

Thread safety: Atomic.

Return true if its argument is a PyCapsule. This function always succeeds.

PyObject *PyCapsule_New(void *pointer, const char *name, PyCapsule_Destructor destructor)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable. Thread safety: Atomic.

Create a PyCapsule encapsulating the pointer. The pointer argument may not be NULL.

On failure, set an exception and return NULL.

The name string may either be NULL or a pointer to a valid C string. If non-NULL, this string must outlive the capsule. (Though it is permitted to free it inside the destructor.)

If the destructor argument is not NULL, it will be called with the capsule as its argument when it is destroyed.

If this capsule will be stored as an attribute of a module, the name should be specified as modulename.attributename. This will enable other modules to import the capsule using PyCapsule_Import().

void *PyCapsule_GetPointer(PyObject *capsule, const char *name)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable. Thread safety: Safe to call without external synchronization on distinct objects.

Retrieve the pointer stored in the capsule. On failure, set an exception and return NULL.

The name parameter must compare exactly to the name stored in the capsule. If the name stored in the capsule is NULL, the name passed in must also be NULL. Python uses the C function strcmp() to compare capsule names.

PyCapsule_Destructor PyCapsule_GetDestructor(PyObject *capsule)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable. Thread safety: Safe to call without external synchronization on distinct objects.

Return the current destructor stored in the capsule. On failure, set an exception and return NULL.

It is legal for a capsule to have a NULL destructor. This makes a NULL return code somewhat ambiguous; use PyCapsule_IsValid() or PyErr_Occurred() to disambiguate.

void *PyCapsule_GetContext(PyObject *capsule)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable. Thread safety: Safe to call without external synchronization on distinct objects.

Return the current context stored in the capsule. On failure, set an exception and return NULL.

It is legal for a capsule to have a NULL context. This makes a NULL return code somewhat ambiguous; use PyCapsule_IsValid() or PyErr_Occurred() to disambiguate.

const char *PyCapsule_GetName(PyObject *capsule)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable. Thread safety: Safe to call without external synchronization on distinct objects.

Return the current name stored in the capsule. On failure, set an exception and return NULL.

It is legal for a capsule to have a NULL name. This makes a NULL return code somewhat ambiguous; use PyCapsule_IsValid() or PyErr_Occurred() to disambiguate.

void *PyCapsule_Import(const char *name, int no_block)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable. Thread safety: Safe to call from multiple threads with external synchronization only.

Import a pointer to a C object from a capsule attribute in a module. The name parameter should specify the full name to the attribute, as in module.attribute. The name stored in the capsule must match this string exactly.

This function splits name on the . character, and imports the first element. It then processes further elements using attribute lookups.

Return the capsule's internal pointer on success. On failure, set an exception and return NULL.

Note

If name points to an attribute of some submodule or subpackage, this submodule or subpackage must be previously imported using other means (for example, by using PyImport_ImportModule()) for the attribute lookups to succeed.

Modifié dans la version 3.3: no_block has no effect anymore.

int PyCapsule_IsValid(PyObject *capsule, const char *name)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable. Thread safety: Safe to call without external synchronization on distinct objects.

Determines whether or not capsule is a valid capsule. A valid capsule is non-NULL, passes PyCapsule_CheckExact(), has a non-NULL pointer stored in it, and its internal name matches the name parameter. (See PyCapsule_GetPointer() for information on how capsule names are compared.)

In other words, if PyCapsule_IsValid() returns a true value, calls to any of the accessors (any function starting with PyCapsule_Get) are guaranteed to succeed.

Return a nonzero value if the object is valid and matches the name passed in. Return 0 otherwise. This function will not fail.

int PyCapsule_SetContext(PyObject *capsule, void *context)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable. Thread safety: Safe to call without external synchronization on distinct objects.

Set the context pointer inside capsule to context.

Return 0 on success. Return nonzero and set an exception on failure.

int PyCapsule_SetDestructor(PyObject *capsule, PyCapsule_Destructor destructor)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable. Thread safety: Safe to call without external synchronization on distinct objects.

Set the destructor inside capsule to destructor.

Return 0 on success. Return nonzero and set an exception on failure.

int PyCapsule_SetName(PyObject *capsule, const char *name)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable. Thread safety: Safe to call without external synchronization on distinct objects.

Set the name inside capsule to name. If non-NULL, the name must outlive the capsule. If the previous name stored in the capsule was not NULL, no attempt is made to free it.

Return 0 on success. Return nonzero and set an exception on failure.

int PyCapsule_SetPointer(PyObject *capsule, void *pointer)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable. Thread safety: Safe to call without external synchronization on distinct objects.

Set the void pointer inside capsule to pointer. The pointer may not be NULL.

Return 0 on success. Return nonzero and set an exception on failure.

Objets décrivant les frames

type PyFrameObject

Fait partie de l' API limitée (sous forme d'une *struct* opaque).

Structure des objets C utilisée pour décrire les objets frame.

Il n'y a pas de membres publics dans cette structure.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Les membres de la structure API publique ont été retirés de l'API publique de C. Visiter l'entrée dans la page des nouveautés de Python pour plus détails.

Les fonctions PyEval_GetFrame() et PyThreadState_GetFrame() peuvent être utilisées pour avoir un objet de frame.

Voir aussi Réflexion

PyTypeObject PyFrame_Type

Le type des objets de frame. C'est le même objet que types.FrameType dans la couche de Python.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Précédemment, ce type était disponible uniquement après l'inclusion de <frameobject.h>.

PyFrameObject *PyFrame_New(PyThreadState *tstate, PyCodeObject *code, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals)

Create a new frame object. This function returns a strong reference to the new frame object on success, and returns NULL with an exception set on failure.

int PyFrame_Check(PyObject *obj)

Renvoie un entier non nul si obj est un objet frame.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Précédemment, ce type était disponible uniquement après l'inclusion de <frameobject.h>.

PyFrameObject *PyFrame_GetBack(PyFrameObject *frame)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Renvoie la frame encadrant immédiatement à frame.

Return a strong reference, or NULL if frame has no outer frame. This raises no exceptions.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

PyObject *PyFrame_GetBuiltins(PyFrameObject *frame)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Get the frame's f_builtins attribute.

Renvoie un strong reference. Le résultat ne peut être NULL.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

PyCodeObject *PyFrame_GetCode(PyFrameObject *frame)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.10.

Obtenir le code frame.

Renvoie un strong reference.

Le résultat (code frame) ne peut être NULL.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

PyObject *PyFrame_GetGenerator(PyFrameObject *frame)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Obtenir le générateur, coroutine, ou un générateur asynchrone qui maintient cette frame, ou NULL si cette frame n'est pas maintenu par un générateur. Il ne lève pas d'exception, même si la valeur renvoyée est NULL.

Renvoie un strong reference, ou NULL.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

PyObject *PyFrame_GetGlobals(PyFrameObject *frame)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Get the frame's f_globals attribute.

Renvoie un strong reference. Le résultat ne peut être NULL.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

int PyFrame_GetLasti(PyFrameObject *frame)

Get the frame's f_lasti attribute.

Renvoie -1 si frame.f_lasti est None.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

PyObject *PyFrame_GetVar(PyFrameObject *frame, PyObject *name)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Get the variable name of frame.

Return a strong reference to the variable value on success.

Raise NameError and return NULL if the variable does not exist.

Raise an exception and return NULL on error.

name type must be a str.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

PyObject *PyFrame_GetVarString(PyFrameObject *frame, const char *name)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Similar to PyFrame_GetVar(), but the variable name is a C string encoded in UTF-8.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

PyObject *PyFrame_GetLocals(PyFrameObject *frame)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Get the frame's f_locals attribute. If the frame refers to an optimized scope, this returns a write-through proxy object that allows modifying the locals. In all other cases (classes, modules, exec(), eval()) it returns the mapping representing the frame locals directly (as described for locals()).

Renvoie un strong reference.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: As part of PEP 667 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/], return an instance of PyFrameLocalsProxy_Type.

int PyFrame_GetLineNumber(PyFrameObject *frame)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.10.

Renvoie le numéro de ligne que cette frame est en train d'exécuter.

Frame Locals Proxies

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

The f_locals attribute on a frame object is an instance of a "frame-locals proxy". The proxy object exposes a write-through view of the underlying locals dictionary for the frame. This ensures that the variables exposed by f_locals are always up to date with the live local variables in the frame itself.

See PEP 667 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/] for more information.

PyTypeObject PyFrameLocalsProxy_Type

The type of frame locals() proxy objects.

int PyFrameLocalsProxy_Check(PyObject *obj)

Return non-zero if obj is a frame locals() proxy.

Legacy Local Variable APIs

These APIs are soft deprecated. As of Python 3.13, they do nothing. They exist solely for backwards compatibility.

void PyFrame_LocalsToFast(PyFrameObject *f, int clear)

This function is soft deprecated and does nothing.

Prior to Python 3.13, this function would copy the f_locals attribute of f to the internal "fast" array of local variables, allowing changes in frame objects to be visible to the interpreter. If clear was true, this function would process variables that were unset in the locals dictionary.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: This function now does nothing.

void PyFrame_FastToLocals(PyFrameObject *f)

This function is soft deprecated and does nothing.

Prior to Python 3.13, this function would copy the internal "fast" array of local variables (which is used by the interpreter) to the f_locals attribute of f, allowing changes in local variables to be visible to frame objects.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: This function now does nothing.

int PyFrame_FastToLocalsWithError(PyFrameObject *f)

This function is soft deprecated and does nothing.

Prior to Python 3.13, this function was similar to PyFrame_FastToLocals(), but would return 0 on success, and -1 with an exception set on failure.

Modifié dans la version 3.13: This function now does nothing.

Voir aussi

PEP 667 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/]

Internal Frames

Unless using PEP 523 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/], you will not need this.

struct _PyInterpreterFrame

The interpreter's internal frame representation.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

PyObject *PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetCode(struct _PyInterpreterFrame *frame);

Fait partie de l' API instable. Peut changer sans avertissement d'une version mineure à l'autre.

Return a strong reference to the code object for the frame.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

int PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetLasti(struct _PyInterpreterFrame *frame);

Fait partie de l' API instable. Peut changer sans avertissement d'une version mineure à l'autre.

Return the byte offset into the last executed instruction.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

int PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetLine(struct _PyInterpreterFrame *frame);

Fait partie de l' API instable. Peut changer sans avertissement d'une version mineure à l'autre.

Return the currently executing line number, or -1 if there is no line number.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Objets générateur

Python utilise des objets générateurs pour implémenter les itérations de générateurs. Ils sont normalement crées en itérant sur une fonction donnant des valeurs via yield, au lieu d'appeler explicitement PyGen_New() ou PyGen_NewWithQualName().

type PyGenObject

La structure C utilisée pour les objets générateurs.

PyTypeObject PyGen_Type

Le type objet correspondant aux objets générateurs.

int PyGen_Check(PyObject *ob)

Return true if ob is a generator object; ob must not be NULL. This function always succeeds.

int PyGen_CheckExact(PyObject *ob)

Return true if ob's type is PyGen_Type; ob must not be NULL. This function always succeeds.

PyObject *PyGen_New(PyFrameObject *frame)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Create and return a new generator object based on the frame object. A reference to frame is stolen by this function. The argument must not be NULL.

PyObject *PyGen_NewWithQualName(PyFrameObject *frame, PyObject *name, PyObject *qualname)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Create and return a new generator object based on the frame object, with __name__ and __qualname__ set to name and qualname. A reference to frame is stolen by this function. The frame argument must not be NULL.

PyCodeObject *PyGen_GetCode(PyGenObject *gen)

Return a new strong reference to the code object wrapped by gen. This function always succeeds.

Asynchronous Generator Objects

Voir aussi

PEP 525 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/]

PyTypeObject PyAsyncGen_Type

The type object corresponding to asynchronous generator objects. This is available as types.AsyncGeneratorType in the Python layer.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

PyObject *PyAsyncGen_New(PyFrameObject *frame, PyObject *name, PyObject *qualname)

Create a new asynchronous generator wrapping frame, with __name__ and __qualname__ set to name and qualname. frame is stolen by this function and must not be NULL.

On success, this function returns a strong reference to the new asynchronous generator. On failure, this function returns NULL with an exception set.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

int PyAsyncGen_CheckExact(PyObject *op)

Return true if op is an asynchronous generator object, false otherwise. This function always succeeds.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

Deprecated API

PyAsyncGenASend_CheckExact(op)

This is a soft deprecated API that was included in Python's C API by mistake.

It is solely here for completeness; do not use this API.

Objets coroutines

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

Les objets coroutines sont les objets renvoyés par les fonctions déclarées avec le mot clef async.

type PyCoroObject

La structure C utilisée pour les objets coroutine.

PyTypeObject PyCoro_Type

L'objet type correspondant aux objets coroutines.

int PyCoro_CheckExact(PyObject *ob)

Return true if ob's type is PyCoro_Type; ob must not be NULL. This function always succeeds.

PyObject *PyCoro_New(PyFrameObject *frame, PyObject *name, PyObject *qualname)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Create and return a new coroutine object based on the frame object, with __name__ and __qualname__ set to name and qualname. A reference to frame is stolen by this function. The frame argument must not be NULL.

Context Variables Objects

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Modifié dans la version 3.7.1:

Note

In Python 3.7.1 the signatures of all context variables C APIs were changed to use PyObject pointers instead of PyContext, PyContextVar, and PyContextToken, e.g.:

// in 3.7.0:
PyContext *PyContext_New(void);

// in 3.7.1+:
PyObject *PyContext_New(void);

See bpo-34762 [https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34762] for more details.

This section details the public C API for the contextvars module.

type PyContext

The C structure used to represent a contextvars.Context object.

type PyContextVar

The C structure used to represent a contextvars.ContextVar object.

type PyContextToken

The C structure used to represent a contextvars.Token object.

PyTypeObject PyContext_Type

The type object representing the context type.

PyTypeObject PyContextVar_Type

The type object representing the context variable type.

PyTypeObject PyContextToken_Type

The type object representing the context variable token type.

Macros pour vérifier les types :

int PyContext_CheckExact(PyObject *o)

Return true if o is of type PyContext_Type. o must not be NULL. This function always succeeds.

int PyContextVar_CheckExact(PyObject *o)

Return true if o is of type PyContextVar_Type. o must not be NULL. This function always succeeds.

int PyContextToken_CheckExact(PyObject *o)

Return true if o is of type PyContextToken_Type. o must not be NULL. This function always succeeds.

Context object management functions:

PyObject *PyContext_New(void)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Create a new empty context object. Returns NULL if an error has occurred.

PyObject *PyContext_Copy(PyObject *ctx)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Create a shallow copy of the passed ctx context object. Returns NULL if an error has occurred.

PyObject *PyContext_CopyCurrent(void)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Create a shallow copy of the current thread context. Returns NULL if an error has occurred.

int PyContext_Enter(PyObject *ctx)

Set ctx as the current context for the current thread. Returns 0 on success, and -1 on error.

int PyContext_Exit(PyObject *ctx)

Deactivate the ctx context and restore the previous context as the current context for the current thread. Returns 0 on success, and -1 on error.

int PyContext_AddWatcher(PyContext_WatchCallback callback)

Register callback as a context object watcher for the current interpreter. Return an ID which may be passed to PyContext_ClearWatcher(). In case of error (e.g. no more watcher IDs available), return -1 and set an exception.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

int PyContext_ClearWatcher(int watcher_id)

Clear watcher identified by watcher_id previously returned from PyContext_AddWatcher() for the current interpreter. Return 0 on success, or -1 and set an exception on error (e.g. if the given watcher_id was never registered.)

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

type PyContextEvent

Enumeration of possible context object watcher events:

Py_CONTEXT_SWITCHED: The current context has switched to a different context. The object passed to the watch callback is the now-current contextvars.Context object, or None if no context is current.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

typedef int (*PyContext_WatchCallback)(PyContextEvent event, PyObject *obj)

Context object watcher callback function. The object passed to the callback is event-specific; see PyContextEvent for details.

If the callback returns with an exception set, it must return -1; this exception will be printed as an unraisable exception using PyErr_FormatUnraisable(). Otherwise it should return 0.

There may already be a pending exception set on entry to the callback. In this case, the callback should return 0 with the same exception still set. This means the callback may not call any other API that can set an exception unless it saves and clears the exception state first, and restores it before returning.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Context variable functions:

PyObject *PyContextVar_New(const char *name, PyObject *def)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Create a new ContextVar object. The name parameter is used for introspection and debug purposes. The def parameter specifies a default value for the context variable, or NULL for no default. If an error has occurred, this function returns NULL.

int PyContextVar_Get(PyObject *var, PyObject *default_value, PyObject **value)

Get the value of a context variable. Returns -1 if an error has occurred during lookup, and 0 if no error occurred, whether or not a value was found.

If the context variable was found, value will be a pointer to it. If the context variable was not found, value will point to:

default_value, if not NULL;

the default value of var, if not NULL;

NULL

Except for NULL, the function returns a new reference.

PyObject *PyContextVar_Set(PyObject *var, PyObject *value)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Set the value of var to value in the current context. Returns a new token object for this change, or NULL if an error has occurred.

int PyContextVar_Reset(PyObject *var, PyObject *token)

Reset the state of the var context variable to that it was in before PyContextVar_Set() that returned the token was called. This function returns 0 on success and -1 on error.

Objects for Type Hinting

Various built-in types for type hinting are provided. Currently, two types exist -- GenericAlias and Union. Only GenericAlias is exposed to C.

PyObject *Py_GenericAlias(PyObject *origin, PyObject *args)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.9.

Create a GenericAlias object. Equivalent to calling the Python class types.GenericAlias. The origin and args arguments set the GenericAlias's __origin__ and __args__ attributes respectively. origin should be a PyTypeObject*, and args can be a PyTupleObject* or any PyObject*. If args passed is not a tuple, a 1-tuple is automatically constructed and __args__ is set to (args,). Minimal checking is done for the arguments, so the function will succeed even if origin is not a type. The GenericAlias's __parameters__ attribute is constructed lazily from __args__. On failure, an exception is raised and NULL is returned.

Here's an example of how to make an extension type generic:

...
static PyMethodDef my_obj_methods[] = {
    // Other methods.
    ...
    {"__class_getitem__", Py_GenericAlias, METH_O|METH_CLASS, "See PEP 585"}
    ...
}

Voir aussi

The data model method __class_getitem__().

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

PyTypeObject Py_GenericAliasType

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.9.

The C type of the object returned by Py_GenericAlias(). Equivalent to types.GenericAlias in Python.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

Curses C API

curses exposes a small C interface for extension modules. Consumers must include the header file py_curses.h (which is not included by default by Python.h) and import_curses() must be invoked, usually as part of the module initialisation function, to populate PyCurses_API.

Avertissement

Neither the C API nor the pure Python curses module are compatible with subinterpreters.

import_curses()

Import the curses C API. The macro does not need a semi-colon to be called.

On success, populate the PyCurses_API pointer.

On failure, set PyCurses_API to NULL and set an exception. The caller must check if an error occurred via PyErr_Occurred():

import_curses();  // semi-colon is optional but recommended
if (PyErr_Occurred()) { /* cleanup */ }

void **PyCurses_API

Dynamically allocated object containing the curses C API. This variable is only available once import_curses succeeds.

PyCurses_API[0] corresponds to PyCursesWindow_Type.

PyCurses_API[1], PyCurses_API[2], and PyCurses_API[3] are pointers to predicate functions of type int (*)(void).

When called, these predicates return whether curses.setupterm(), curses.initscr(), and curses.start_color() have been called respectively.

See also the convenience macros PyCursesSetupTermCalled, PyCursesInitialised, and PyCursesInitialisedColor.

Note

The number of entries in this structure is subject to changes. Consider using PyCurses_API_pointers to check if new fields are available or not.

PyCurses_API_pointers

The number of accessible fields (4) in PyCurses_API. This number is incremented whenever new fields are added.

PyTypeObject PyCursesWindow_Type

The heap type corresponding to curses.window.

int PyCursesWindow_Check(PyObject *op)

Return true if op is a curses.window instance, false otherwise.

The following macros are convenience macros expanding into C statements. In particular, they can only be used as macro; or macro, but not macro() or macro();.

PyCursesSetupTermCalled

Macro checking if curses.setupterm() has been called.

The macro expansion is roughly equivalent to:

{
    typedef int (*predicate_t)(void);
    predicate_t was_setupterm_called = (predicate_t)PyCurses_API[1];
    if (!was_setupterm_called()) {
        return NULL;
    }
}

PyCursesInitialised

Macro checking if curses.initscr() has been called.

The macro expansion is roughly equivalent to:

{
    typedef int (*predicate_t)(void);
    predicate_t was_initscr_called = (predicate_t)PyCurses_API[2];
    if (!was_initscr_called()) {
        return NULL;
    }
}

PyCursesInitialisedColor

Macro checking if curses.start_color() has been called.

The macro expansion is roughly equivalent to:

{
    typedef int (*predicate_t)(void);
    predicate_t was_start_color_called = (predicate_t)PyCurses_API[3];
    if (!was_start_color_called()) {
        return NULL;
    }
}

Internal data

The following objects are exposed by the C API but should be considered internal-only.

PyCurses_CAPSULE_NAME

Name of the curses capsule to pass to PyCapsule_Import().

Internal usage only. Use import_curses instead.

Objets DateTime

Various date and time objects are supplied by the datetime module. Before using any of these functions, the header file datetime.h must be included in your source (note that this is not included by Python.h), and the macro PyDateTime_IMPORT must be invoked, usually as part of the module initialisation function. The macro puts a pointer to a C structure into a static variable, PyDateTimeAPI, that is used by the following macros.

PyDateTime_IMPORT()

Import the datetime C API.

On success, populate the PyDateTimeAPI pointer. On failure, set PyDateTimeAPI to NULL and set an exception. The caller must check if an error occurred via PyErr_Occurred():

PyDateTime_IMPORT;
if (PyErr_Occurred()) { /* cleanup */ }

Avertissement

This is not compatible with subinterpreters.

type PyDateTime_CAPI

Structure containing the fields for the datetime C API.

The fields of this structure are private and subject to change.

Do not use this directly; prefer PyDateTime_* APIs instead.

PyDateTime_CAPI *PyDateTimeAPI

Dynamically allocated object containing the datetime C API.

This variable is only available once PyDateTime_IMPORT succeeds.

type PyDateTime_Date

This subtype of PyObject represents a Python date object.

type PyDateTime_DateTime

This subtype of PyObject represents a Python datetime object.

type PyDateTime_Time

This subtype of PyObject represents a Python time object.

type PyDateTime_Delta

This subtype of PyObject represents the difference between two datetime values.

PyTypeObject PyDateTime_DateType

This instance of PyTypeObject represents the Python date type; it is the same object as datetime.date in the Python layer.

PyTypeObject PyDateTime_DateTimeType

This instance of PyTypeObject represents the Python datetime type; it is the same object as datetime.datetime in the Python layer.

PyTypeObject PyDateTime_TimeType

This instance of PyTypeObject represents the Python time type; it is the same object as datetime.time in the Python layer.

PyTypeObject PyDateTime_DeltaType

This instance of PyTypeObject represents the Python type for the difference between two datetime values; it is the same object as datetime.timedelta in the Python layer.

PyTypeObject PyDateTime_TZInfoType

This instance of PyTypeObject represents the Python time zone info type; it is the same object as datetime.tzinfo in the Python layer.

Macro pour accéder au singleton UTC :

PyObject *PyDateTime_TimeZone_UTC

Renvoie le singleton du fuseau horaire UTC, qui est le même objet que datetime.timezone.utc.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Macros pour vérifier les types :

int PyDate_Check(PyObject *ob)

Return true if ob is of type PyDateTime_DateType or a subtype of PyDateTime_DateType. ob must not be NULL. This function always succeeds.

int PyDate_CheckExact(PyObject *ob)

Return true if ob is of type PyDateTime_DateType. ob must not be NULL. This function always succeeds.

int PyDateTime_Check(PyObject *ob)

Return true if ob is of type PyDateTime_DateTimeType or a subtype of PyDateTime_DateTimeType. ob must not be NULL. This function always succeeds.

int PyDateTime_CheckExact(PyObject *ob)

Return true if ob is of type PyDateTime_DateTimeType. ob must not be NULL. This function always succeeds.

int PyTime_Check(PyObject *ob)

Return true if ob is of type PyDateTime_TimeType or a subtype of PyDateTime_TimeType. ob must not be NULL. This function always succeeds.

int PyTime_CheckExact(PyObject *ob)

Return true if ob is of type PyDateTime_TimeType. ob must not be NULL. This function always succeeds.

int PyDelta_Check(PyObject *ob)

Return true if ob is of type PyDateTime_DeltaType or a subtype of PyDateTime_DeltaType. ob must not be NULL. This function always succeeds.

int PyDelta_CheckExact(PyObject *ob)

Return true if ob is of type PyDateTime_DeltaType. ob must not be NULL. This function always succeeds.

int PyTZInfo_Check(PyObject *ob)

Return true if ob is of type PyDateTime_TZInfoType or a subtype of PyDateTime_TZInfoType. ob must not be NULL. This function always succeeds.

int PyTZInfo_CheckExact(PyObject *ob)

Return true if ob is of type PyDateTime_TZInfoType. ob must not be NULL. This function always succeeds.

Macros pour créer des objets :

PyObject *PyDate_FromDate(int year, int month, int day)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Renvoie un objet datetime.date avec l'année, le mois et le jour spécifiés.

PyObject *PyDateTime_FromDateAndTime(int year, int month, int day, int hour, int minute, int second, int usecond)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Renvoie un objet datetime.datetime avec l'année, le mois, le jour, l'heure, la minute, la seconde et la microseconde spécifiés.

PyObject *PyDateTime_FromDateAndTimeAndFold(int year, int month, int day, int hour, int minute, int second, int usecond, int fold)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Renvoie un objet datetime.datetime avec l'année, le mois, le jour, l'heure, la minute, la seconde, la microseconde et le pli (fold en anglais) spécifiés.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

PyObject *PyTime_FromTime(int hour, int minute, int second, int usecond)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Renvoie un objet datetime.time avec l'heure, la minute, la seconde et la microseconde spécifiées.

PyObject *PyTime_FromTimeAndFold(int hour, int minute, int second, int usecond, int fold)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Renvoie un objet datetime.time avec l'heure, la minute, la seconde, la microseconde et le pli (fold en anglais) spécifiés.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

PyObject *PyDelta_FromDSU(int days, int seconds, int useconds)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Renvoie un objet datetime.timedelta représentant le nombre passé en paramètre de jours, de secondes et de microsecondes. Le résultat est normalisé pour que le nombre de microsecondes et de secondes tombe dans la plage documentée pour les objets datetime.timedelta.

PyObject *PyTimeZone_FromOffset(PyObject *offset)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Renvoie un objet datetime.timezone avec un décalage anonyme fixe représenté par l'argument offset.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

PyObject *PyTimeZone_FromOffsetAndName(PyObject *offset, PyObject *name)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Renvoie un objet datetime.timezone avec un décalage fixe représenté par l'argument offset et avec le nom de fuseau horaire name.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Macros to extract fields from date objects. The argument must be an instance of PyDateTime_Date, including subclasses (such as PyDateTime_DateTime). The argument must not be NULL, and the type is not checked:

int PyDateTime_GET_YEAR(PyDateTime_Date *o)

Renvoie l'année, sous forme d'entier positif.

int PyDateTime_GET_MONTH(PyDateTime_Date *o)

Renvoie le mois, sous forme d'entier allant de 1 à 12.

int PyDateTime_GET_DAY(PyDateTime_Date *o)

Renvoie le jour, sous forme d'entier allant de 1 à 31.

Macros to extract fields from datetime objects. The argument must be an instance of PyDateTime_DateTime, including subclasses. The argument must not be NULL, and the type is not checked:

int PyDateTime_DATE_GET_HOUR(PyDateTime_DateTime *o)

Renvoie l'heure, sous forme d'entier allant de 0 à 23.

int PyDateTime_DATE_GET_MINUTE(PyDateTime_DateTime *o)

Renvoie la minute, sous forme d'entier allant de 0 à 59.

int PyDateTime_DATE_GET_SECOND(PyDateTime_DateTime *o)

Renvoie la seconde, sous forme d'entier allant de 0 à 59.

int PyDateTime_DATE_GET_MICROSECOND(PyDateTime_DateTime *o)

Renvoie la microseconde, sous forme d'entier allant de 0 à 999999.

int PyDateTime_DATE_GET_FOLD(PyDateTime_DateTime *o)

Return the fold, as an int from 0 through 1.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

PyObject *PyDateTime_DATE_GET_TZINFO(PyDateTime_DateTime *o)

Return the tzinfo (which may be None).

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

Macros to extract fields from time objects. The argument must be an instance of PyDateTime_Time, including subclasses. The argument must not be NULL, and the type is not checked:

int PyDateTime_TIME_GET_HOUR(PyDateTime_Time *o)

Renvoie l'heure, sous forme d'entier allant de 0 à 23.

int PyDateTime_TIME_GET_MINUTE(PyDateTime_Time *o)

Renvoie la minute, sous forme d'entier allant de 0 à 59.

int PyDateTime_TIME_GET_SECOND(PyDateTime_Time *o)

Renvoie la seconde, sous forme d'entier allant de 0 à 59.

int PyDateTime_TIME_GET_MICROSECOND(PyDateTime_Time *o)

Renvoie la microseconde, sous forme d'entier allant de 0 à 999999.

int PyDateTime_TIME_GET_FOLD(PyDateTime_Time *o)

Return the fold, as an int from 0 through 1.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

PyObject *PyDateTime_TIME_GET_TZINFO(PyDateTime_Time *o)

Return the tzinfo (which may be None).

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

Macros to extract fields from time delta objects. The argument must be an instance of PyDateTime_Delta, including subclasses. The argument must not be NULL, and the type is not checked:

int PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_DAYS(PyDateTime_Delta *o)

Renvoie le nombre de jours, sous forme d'entier allant de -999999999 à 999999999.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

int PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_SECONDS(PyDateTime_Delta *o)

Renvoie le nombre de secondes sous forme d'entier allant de 0 à 86399.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

int PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_MICROSECONDS(PyDateTime_Delta *o)

Renvoie le nombre de microsecondes, sous forme d'entier allant de 0 à 999999.

Ajouté dans la version 3.3.

Macros de confort pour les modules implémentant l'API DB :

PyObject *PyDateTime_FromTimestamp(PyObject *args)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Create and return a new datetime.datetime object given an argument tuple suitable for passing to datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp().

PyObject *PyDate_FromTimestamp(PyObject *args)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

Create and return a new datetime.date object given an argument tuple suitable for passing to datetime.date.fromtimestamp().

Internal data

The following symbols are exposed by the C API but should be considered internal-only.

PyDateTime_CAPSULE_NAME

Name of the datetime capsule to pass to PyCapsule_Import().

Internal usage only. Use PyDateTime_IMPORT instead.

Interpreter initialization and finalization

See Python Initialization Configuration for details on how to configure the interpreter prior to initialization.

Before Python initialization

In an application embedding Python, the Py_Initialize() function must be called before using any other Python/C API functions; with the exception of a few functions and the global configuration variables.

The following functions can be safely called before Python is initialized:

Functions that initialize the interpreter:

Py_Initialize()

Py_InitializeEx()

Py_InitializeFromConfig()

Py_BytesMain()

Py_Main()

the runtime pre-initialization functions covered in Python Initialization Configuration

Configuration functions:

PyImport_AppendInittab()

PyImport_ExtendInittab()

PyInitFrozenExtensions()

PyMem_SetAllocator()

PyMem_SetupDebugHooks()

PyObject_SetArenaAllocator()

Py_SetProgramName()

Py_SetPythonHome()

the configuration functions covered in Python Initialization Configuration

Informative functions:

Py_IsInitialized()

PyMem_GetAllocator()

PyObject_GetArenaAllocator()

Py_GetBuildInfo()

Py_GetCompiler()

Py_GetCopyright()

Py_GetPlatform()

Py_GetVersion()

Py_IsInitialized()

Utilities:

Py_DecodeLocale()

the status reporting and utility functions covered in Python Initialization Configuration

Memory allocators:

PyMem_RawMalloc()

PyMem_RawRealloc()

PyMem_RawCalloc()

PyMem_RawFree()

Synchronization:

PyMutex_Lock()

PyMutex_Unlock()

Note

Despite their apparent similarity to some of the functions listed above, the following functions should not be called before the interpreter has been initialized: Py_EncodeLocale(), PyEval_InitThreads(), and Py_RunMain().

Global configuration variables

Python has variables for the global configuration to control different features and options. By default, these flags are controlled by command line options.

When a flag is set by an option, the value of the flag is the number of times that the option was set. For example, -b sets Py_BytesWarningFlag to 1 and -bb sets Py_BytesWarningFlag to 2.

int Py_BytesWarningFlag

This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting PyConfig.bytes_warning should be used instead, see Python Initialization Configuration.

Issue a warning when comparing bytes or bytearray with str or bytes with int. Issue an error if greater or equal to 2.

Set by the -b option.

Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.15.

int Py_DebugFlag

This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting PyConfig.parser_debug should be used instead, see Python Initialization Configuration.

Turn on parser debugging output (for expert only, depending on compilation options).

Set by the -d option and the PYTHONDEBUG environment variable.

Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.15.

int Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag

This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting PyConfig.write_bytecode should be used instead, see Python Initialization Configuration.

If set to non-zero, Python won't try to write .pyc files on the import of source modules.

Set by the -B option and the PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE environment variable.

Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.15.

int Py_FrozenFlag

This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings should be used instead, see Python Initialization Configuration.

Private flag used by _freeze_module and frozenmain programs.

Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.15.

int Py_HashRandomizationFlag

This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting PyConfig.hash_seed and PyConfig.use_hash_seed should be used instead, see Python Initialization Configuration.

Set to 1 if the PYTHONHASHSEED environment variable is set to a non-empty string.

If the flag is non-zero, read the PYTHONHASHSEED environment variable to initialize the secret hash seed.

Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.15.

int Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag

This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting PyConfig.use_environment should be used instead, see Python Initialization Configuration.

Ignore all PYTHON* environment variables, e.g. PYTHONPATH and PYTHONHOME, that might be set.

Set by the -E and -I options.

Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.15.

int Py_InspectFlag

This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting PyConfig.inspect should be used instead, see Python Initialization Configuration.

When a script is passed as first argument or the -c option is used, enter interactive mode after executing the script or the command, even when sys.stdin does not appear to be a terminal.

Set by the -i option and the PYTHONINSPECT environment variable.

Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.15.

int Py_InteractiveFlag

This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting PyConfig.interactive should be used instead, see Python Initialization Configuration.

Set by the -i option.

Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.15.

int Py_IsolatedFlag

This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting PyConfig.isolated should be used instead, see Python Initialization Configuration.

Run Python in isolated mode. In isolated mode sys.path contains neither the script's directory nor the user's site-packages directory.

Set by the -I option.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.15.

int Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag

This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding should be used instead, see Python Initialization Configuration.

If the flag is non-zero, use the mbcs encoding with replace error handler, instead of the UTF-8 encoding with surrogatepass error handler, for the filesystem encoding and error handler.

Set to 1 if the PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING environment variable is set to a non-empty string.

See PEP 529 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/] for more details.

Disponibilité: Windows.

Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.15.

int Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag

This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio should be used instead, see Python Initialization Configuration.

If the flag is non-zero, use io.FileIO instead of io._WindowsConsoleIO for sys standard streams.

Set to 1 if the PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO environment variable is set to a non-empty string.

See PEP 528 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0528/] for more details.

Disponibilité: Windows.

Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.15.

int Py_NoSiteFlag

This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting PyConfig.site_import should be used instead, see Python Initialization Configuration.

Disable the import of the module site and the site-dependent manipulations of sys.path that it entails. Also disable these manipulations if site is explicitly imported later (call site.main() if you want them to be triggered).

Set by the -S option.

Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.15.

int Py_NoUserSiteDirectory

This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting PyConfig.user_site_directory should be used instead, see Python Initialization Configuration.

Don't add the user site-packages directory to sys.path.

Set by the -s and -I options, and the PYTHONNOUSERSITE environment variable.

Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.15.

int Py_OptimizeFlag

This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting PyConfig.optimization_level should be used instead, see Python Initialization Configuration.

Set by the -O option and the PYTHONOPTIMIZE environment variable.

Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.15.

int Py_QuietFlag

This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting PyConfig.quiet should be used instead, see Python Initialization Configuration.

Don't display the copyright and version messages even in interactive mode.

Set by the -q option.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2.

Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.15.

int Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag

This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting PyConfig.buffered_stdio should be used instead, see Python Initialization Configuration.

Force the stdout and stderr streams to be unbuffered.

Set by the -u option and the PYTHONUNBUFFERED environment variable.

Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.15.

int Py_VerboseFlag

This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting PyConfig.verbose should be used instead, see Python Initialization Configuration.

Print a message each time a module is initialized, showing the place (filename or built-in module) from which it is loaded. If greater or equal to 2, print a message for each file that is checked for when searching for a module. Also provides information on module cleanup at exit.

Set by the -v option and the PYTHONVERBOSE environment variable.

Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.15.

Initializing and finalizing the interpreter

void Py_Initialize()

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Initialize the Python interpreter. In an application embedding Python, this should be called before using any other Python/C API functions; see Before Python Initialization for the few exceptions.

This initializes the table of loaded modules (sys.modules), and creates the fundamental modules builtins, __main__ and sys. It also initializes the module search path (sys.path). It does not set sys.argv; use the Python Initialization Configuration API for that. This is a no-op when called for a second time (without calling Py_FinalizeEx() first). There is no return value; it is a fatal error if the initialization fails.

Use Py_InitializeFromConfig() to customize the Python Initialization Configuration.

Note

On Windows, changes the console mode from O_TEXT to O_BINARY, which will also affect non-Python uses of the console using the C Runtime.

void Py_InitializeEx(int initsigs)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This function works like Py_Initialize() if initsigs is 1. If initsigs is 0, it skips initialization registration of signal handlers, which may be useful when CPython is embedded as part of a larger application.

Use Py_InitializeFromConfig() to customize the Python Initialization Configuration.

PyStatus Py_InitializeFromConfig(const PyConfig *config)

Initialize Python from config configuration, as described in Initialization with PyConfig.

See the Python Initialization Configuration section for details on pre-initializing the interpreter, populating the runtime configuration structure, and querying the returned status structure.

int Py_IsInitialized()

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return true (nonzero) when the Python interpreter has been initialized, false (zero) if not. After Py_FinalizeEx() is called, this returns false until Py_Initialize() is called again.

int Py_IsFinalizing()

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.13.

Return true (non-zero) if the main Python interpreter is shutting down. Return false (zero) otherwise.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

int Py_FinalizeEx()

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.6.

Undo all initializations made by Py_Initialize() and subsequent use of Python/C API functions, and destroy all sub-interpreters (see Py_NewInterpreter() below) that were created and not yet destroyed since the last call to Py_Initialize(). This is a no-op when called for a second time (without calling Py_Initialize() again first).

Since this is the reverse of Py_Initialize(), it should be called in the same thread with the same interpreter active. That means the main thread and the main interpreter. This should never be called while Py_RunMain() is running.

Normally the return value is 0. If there were errors during finalization (flushing buffered data), -1 is returned.

Note that Python will do a best effort at freeing all memory allocated by the Python interpreter. Therefore, any C-Extension should make sure to correctly clean up all of the previously allocated PyObjects before using them in subsequent calls to Py_Initialize(). Otherwise it could introduce vulnerabilities and incorrect behavior.

This function is provided for a number of reasons. An embedding application might want to restart Python without having to restart the application itself. An application that has loaded the Python interpreter from a dynamically loadable library (or DLL) might want to free all memory allocated by Python before unloading the DLL. During a hunt for memory leaks in an application a developer might want to free all memory allocated by Python before exiting from the application.

Bugs and caveats: The destruction of modules and objects in modules is done in random order; this may cause destructors (__del__() methods) to fail when they depend on other objects (even functions) or modules. Dynamically loaded extension modules loaded by Python are not unloaded. Small amounts of memory allocated by the Python interpreter may not be freed (if you find a leak, please report it). Memory tied up in circular references between objects is not freed. Interned strings will all be deallocated regardless of their reference count. Some memory allocated by extension modules may not be freed. Some extensions may not work properly if their initialization routine is called more than once; this can happen if an application calls Py_Initialize() and Py_FinalizeEx() more than once. Py_FinalizeEx() must not be called recursively from within itself. Therefore, it must not be called by any code that may be run as part of the interpreter shutdown process, such as atexit handlers, object finalizers, or any code that may be run while flushing the stdout and stderr files.

Raises an auditing event cpython._PySys_ClearAuditHooks with no arguments.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

void Py_Finalize()

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This is a backwards-compatible version of Py_FinalizeEx() that disregards the return value.

int Py_BytesMain(int argc, char **argv)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.8.

Similar to Py_Main() but argv is an array of bytes strings, allowing the calling application to delegate the text decoding step to the CPython runtime.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

int Py_Main(int argc, wchar_t **argv)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

The main program for the standard interpreter, encapsulating a full initialization/finalization cycle, as well as additional behaviour to implement reading configurations settings from the environment and command line, and then executing __main__ in accordance with Ligne de commande.

This is made available for programs which wish to support the full CPython command line interface, rather than just embedding a Python runtime in a larger application.

The argc and argv parameters are similar to those which are passed to a C program's main() function, except that the argv entries are first converted to wchar_t using Py_DecodeLocale(). It is also important to note that the argument list entries may be modified to point to strings other than those passed in (however, the contents of the strings pointed to by the argument list are not modified).

The return value is 2 if the argument list does not represent a valid Python command line, and otherwise the same as Py_RunMain().

In terms of the CPython runtime configuration APIs documented in the runtime configuration section (and without accounting for error handling), Py_Main is approximately equivalent to:

PyConfig config;
PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(&config);
PyConfig_SetArgv(&config, argc, argv);
Py_InitializeFromConfig(&config);
PyConfig_Clear(&config);

Py_RunMain();

In normal usage, an embedding application will call this function instead of calling Py_Initialize(), Py_InitializeEx() or Py_InitializeFromConfig() directly, and all settings will be applied as described elsewhere in this documentation. If this function is instead called after a preceding runtime initialization API call, then exactly which environmental and command line configuration settings will be updated is version dependent (as it depends on which settings correctly support being modified after they have already been set once when the runtime was first initialized).

int Py_RunMain(void)

Executes the main module in a fully configured CPython runtime.

Executes the command (PyConfig.run_command), the script (PyConfig.run_filename) or the module (PyConfig.run_module) specified on the command line or in the configuration. If none of these values are set, runs the interactive Python prompt (REPL) using the __main__ module's global namespace.

If PyConfig.inspect is not set (the default), the return value will be 0 if the interpreter exits normally (that is, without raising an exception), the exit status of an unhandled SystemExit, or 1 for any other unhandled exception.

If PyConfig.inspect is set (such as when the -i option is used), rather than returning when the interpreter exits, execution will instead resume in an interactive Python prompt (REPL) using the __main__ module's global namespace. If the interpreter exited with an exception, it is immediately raised in the REPL session. The function return value is then determined by the way the REPL session terminates: 0, 1, or the status of a SystemExit, as specified above.

This function always finalizes the Python interpreter before it returns.

See Python Configuration for an example of a customized Python that always runs in isolated mode using Py_RunMain().

int PyUnstable_AtExit(PyInterpreterState *interp, void (*func)(void*), void *data)

Fait partie de l' API instable. Peut changer sans avertissement d'une version mineure à l'autre.

Register an atexit callback for the target interpreter interp. This is similar to Py_AtExit(), but takes an explicit interpreter and data pointer for the callback.

There must be an attached thread state for interp.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Cautions regarding runtime finalization

In the late stage of interpreter shutdown, after attempting to wait for non-daemon threads to exit (though this can be interrupted by KeyboardInterrupt) and running the atexit functions, the runtime is marked as finalizing: Py_IsFinalizing() and sys.is_finalizing() return true. At this point, only the finalization thread that initiated finalization (typically the main thread) is allowed to acquire the GIL.

If any thread, other than the finalization thread, attempts to attach a thread state during finalization, either explicitly or implicitly, the thread enters a permanently blocked state where it remains until the program exits. In most cases this is harmless, but this can result in deadlock if a later stage of finalization attempts to acquire a lock owned by the blocked thread, or otherwise waits on the blocked thread.

Gross? Yes. This prevents random crashes and/or unexpectedly skipped C++ finalizations further up the call stack when such threads were forcibly exited here in CPython 3.13 and earlier. The CPython runtime thread state C APIs have never had any error reporting or handling expectations at thread state attachment time that would've allowed for graceful exit from this situation. Changing that would require new stable C APIs and rewriting the majority of C code in the CPython ecosystem to use those with error handling.

Process-wide parameters

void Py_SetProgramName(const wchar_t *name)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting PyConfig.program_name should be used instead, see Python Initialization Configuration.

This function should be called before Py_Initialize() is called for the first time, if it is called at all. It tells the interpreter the value of the argv[0] argument to the main() function of the program (converted to wide characters). This is used by Py_GetPath() and some other functions below to find the Python run-time libraries relative to the interpreter executable. The default value is 'python'. The argument should point to a zero-terminated wide character string in static storage whose contents will not change for the duration of the program's execution. No code in the Python interpreter will change the contents of this storage.

Use Py_DecodeLocale() to decode a bytes string to get a wchar_t* string.

Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.15.

wchar_t *Py_GetProgramName()

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the program name set with PyConfig.program_name, or the default. The returned string points into static storage; the caller should not modify its value.

This function should not be called before Py_Initialize(), otherwise it returns NULL.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: It now returns NULL if called before Py_Initialize().

Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: Use PyConfig_Get("executable") (sys.executable) instead.

wchar_t *Py_GetPrefix()

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the prefix for installed platform-independent files. This is derived through a number of complicated rules from the program name set with PyConfig.program_name and some environment variables; for example, if the program name is '/usr/local/bin/python', the prefix is '/usr/local'. The returned string points into static storage; the caller should not modify its value. This corresponds to the prefix variable in the top-level Makefile and the --prefix argument to the configure script at build time. The value is available to Python code as sys.base_prefix. It is only useful on Unix. See also the next function.

This function should not be called before Py_Initialize(), otherwise it returns NULL.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: It now returns NULL if called before Py_Initialize().

Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: Use PyConfig_Get("base_prefix") (sys.base_prefix) instead. Use PyConfig_Get("prefix") (sys.prefix) if virtual environments need to be handled.

wchar_t *Py_GetExecPrefix()

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the exec-prefix for installed platform-dependent files. This is derived through a number of complicated rules from the program name set with PyConfig.program_name and some environment variables; for example, if the program name is '/usr/local/bin/python', the exec-prefix is '/usr/local'. The returned string points into static storage; the caller should not modify its value. This corresponds to the exec_prefix variable in the top-level Makefile and the --exec-prefix argument to the configure script at build time. The value is available to Python code as sys.base_exec_prefix. It is only useful on Unix.

Background: The exec-prefix differs from the prefix when platform dependent files (such as executables and shared libraries) are installed in a different directory tree. In a typical installation, platform dependent files may be installed in the /usr/local/plat subtree while platform independent may be installed in /usr/local.

Generally speaking, a platform is a combination of hardware and software families, e.g. Sparc machines running the Solaris 2.x operating system are considered the same platform, but Intel machines running Solaris 2.x are another platform, and Intel machines running Linux are yet another platform. Different major revisions of the same operating system generally also form different platforms. Non-Unix operating systems are a different story; the installation strategies on those systems are so different that the prefix and exec-prefix are meaningless, and set to the empty string. Note that compiled Python bytecode files are platform independent (but not independent from the Python version by which they were compiled!).

System administrators will know how to configure the mount or automount programs to share /usr/local between platforms while having /usr/local/plat be a different filesystem for each platform.

This function should not be called before Py_Initialize(), otherwise it returns NULL.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: It now returns NULL if called before Py_Initialize().

Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: Use PyConfig_Get("base_exec_prefix") (sys.base_exec_prefix) instead. Use PyConfig_Get("exec_prefix") (sys.exec_prefix) if virtual environments need to be handled.

wchar_t *Py_GetProgramFullPath()

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the full program name of the Python executable; this is computed as a side-effect of deriving the default module search path from the program name (set by PyConfig.program_name). The returned string points into static storage; the caller should not modify its value. The value is available to Python code as sys.executable.

This function should not be called before Py_Initialize(), otherwise it returns NULL.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: It now returns NULL if called before Py_Initialize().

Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: Use PyConfig_Get("executable") (sys.executable) instead.

wchar_t *Py_GetPath()

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the default module search path; this is computed from the program name (set by PyConfig.program_name) and some environment variables. The returned string consists of a series of directory names separated by a platform dependent delimiter character. The delimiter character is ':' on Unix and macOS, ';' on Windows. The returned string points into static storage; the caller should not modify its value. The list sys.path is initialized with this value on interpreter startup; it can be (and usually is) modified later to change the search path for loading modules.

This function should not be called before Py_Initialize(), otherwise it returns NULL.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: It now returns NULL if called before Py_Initialize().

Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: Use PyConfig_Get("module_search_paths") (sys.path) instead.

const char *Py_GetVersion()

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the version of this Python interpreter. This is a string that looks something like

"3.0a5+ (py3k:63103M, May 12 2008, 00:53:55) \n[GCC 4.2.3]"

The first word (up to the first space character) is the current Python version; the first characters are the major and minor version separated by a period. The returned string points into static storage; the caller should not modify its value. The value is available to Python code as sys.version.

See also the Py_Version constant.

const char *Py_GetPlatform()

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the platform identifier for the current platform. On Unix, this is formed from the "official" name of the operating system, converted to lower case, followed by the major revision number; e.g., for Solaris 2.x, which is also known as SunOS 5.x, the value is 'sunos5'. On macOS, it is 'darwin'. On Windows, it is 'win'. The returned string points into static storage; the caller should not modify its value. The value is available to Python code as sys.platform.

const char *Py_GetCopyright()

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the official copyright string for the current Python version, for example

'Copyright 1991-1995 Stichting Mathematisch Centrum, Amsterdam'

The returned string points into static storage; the caller should not modify its value. The value is available to Python code as sys.copyright.

const char *Py_GetCompiler()

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return an indication of the compiler used to build the current Python version, in square brackets, for example:

"[GCC 2.7.2.2]"

The returned string points into static storage; the caller should not modify its value. The value is available to Python code as part of the variable sys.version.

const char *Py_GetBuildInfo()

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return information about the sequence number and build date and time of the current Python interpreter instance, for example

"#67, Aug  1 1997, 22:34:28"

The returned string points into static storage; the caller should not modify its value. The value is available to Python code as part of the variable sys.version.

void PySys_SetArgvEx(int argc, wchar_t **argv, int updatepath)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting PyConfig.argv, PyConfig.parse_argv and PyConfig.safe_path should be used instead, see Python Initialization Configuration.

Set sys.argv based on argc and argv. These parameters are similar to those passed to the program's main() function with the difference that the first entry should refer to the script file to be executed rather than the executable hosting the Python interpreter. If there isn't a script that will be run, the first entry in argv can be an empty string. If this function fails to initialize sys.argv, a fatal condition is signalled using Py_FatalError().

If updatepath is zero, this is all the function does. If updatepath is non-zero, the function also modifies sys.path according to the following algorithm:

If the name of an existing script is passed in argv[0], the absolute path of the directory where the script is located is prepended to sys.path.

Otherwise (that is, if argc is 0 or argv[0] doesn't point to an existing file name), an empty string is prepended to sys.path, which is the same as prepending the current working directory (".").

Use Py_DecodeLocale() to decode a bytes string to get a wchar_t* string.

See also PyConfig.orig_argv and PyConfig.argv members of the Python Initialization Configuration.

Note

It is recommended that applications embedding the Python interpreter for purposes other than executing a single script pass 0 as updatepath, and update sys.path themselves if desired. See CVE 2008-5983 [https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2008-5983].

On versions before 3.1.3, you can achieve the same effect by manually popping the first sys.path element after having called PySys_SetArgv(), for example using:

PyRun_SimpleString("import sys; sys.path.pop(0)\n");

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.3.

Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.15.

void PySys_SetArgv(int argc, wchar_t **argv)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting PyConfig.argv and PyConfig.parse_argv should be used instead, see Python Initialization Configuration.

This function works like PySys_SetArgvEx() with updatepath set to 1 unless the python interpreter was started with the -I.

Use Py_DecodeLocale() to decode a bytes string to get a wchar_t* string.

See also PyConfig.orig_argv and PyConfig.argv members of the Python Initialization Configuration.

Modifié dans la version 3.4: The updatepath value depends on -I.

Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.15.

void Py_SetPythonHome(const wchar_t *home)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting PyConfig.home should be used instead, see Python Initialization Configuration.

Set the default "home" directory, that is, the location of the standard Python libraries. See PYTHONHOME for the meaning of the argument string.

The argument should point to a zero-terminated character string in static storage whose contents will not change for the duration of the program's execution. No code in the Python interpreter will change the contents of this storage.

Use Py_DecodeLocale() to decode a bytes string to get a wchar_t* string.

Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.15.

wchar_t *Py_GetPythonHome()

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the default "home", that is, the value set by PyConfig.home, or the value of the PYTHONHOME environment variable if it is set.

This function should not be called before Py_Initialize(), otherwise it returns NULL.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: It now returns NULL if called before Py_Initialize().

Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: Use PyConfig_Get("home") or the PYTHONHOME environment variable instead.

Thread states and the global interpreter lock

Unless on a free-threaded build of CPython, the Python interpreter is generally not thread-safe. In order to support multi-threaded Python programs, there's a global lock, called the global interpreter lock or GIL, that must be held by a thread before accessing Python objects. Without the lock, even the simplest operations could cause problems in a multi-threaded program: for example, when two threads simultaneously increment the reference count of the same object, the reference count could end up being incremented only once instead of twice.

As such, only a thread that holds the GIL may operate on Python objects or invoke Python's C API.

In order to emulate concurrency, the interpreter regularly tries to switch threads between bytecode instructions (see sys.setswitchinterval()). This is why locks are also necessary for thread-safety in pure-Python code.

Additionally, the global interpreter lock is released around blocking I/O operations, such as reading or writing to a file. From the C API, this is done by detaching the thread state.

The Python interpreter keeps some thread-local information inside a data structure called PyThreadState, known as a thread state. Each thread has a thread-local pointer to a PyThreadState; a thread state referenced by this pointer is considered to be attached.

A thread can only have one attached thread state at a time. An attached thread state is typically analogous with holding the GIL, except on free-threaded builds. On builds with the GIL enabled, attaching a thread state will block until the GIL can be acquired. However, even on builds with the GIL disabled, it is still required to have an attached thread state, as the interpreter needs to keep track of which threads may access Python objects.

Note

Even on the free-threaded build, attaching a thread state may block, as the GIL can be re-enabled or threads might be temporarily suspended (such as during a garbage collection).

Generally, there will always be an attached thread state when using Python's C API, including during embedding and when implementing methods, so it's uncommon to need to set up a thread state on your own. Only in some specific cases, such as in a Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS block or in a fresh thread, will the thread not have an attached thread state. If uncertain, check if PyThreadState_GetUnchecked() returns NULL.

If it turns out that you do need to create a thread state, call PyThreadState_New() followed by PyThreadState_Swap(), or use the dangerous PyGILState_Ensure() function.

Detaching the thread state from extension code

Most extension code manipulating the thread state has the following simple structure:

Save the thread state in a local variable.
... Do some blocking I/O operation ...
Restore the thread state from the local variable.

This is so common that a pair of macros exists to simplify it:

Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS
... Do some blocking I/O operation ...
Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS

The Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS macro opens a new block and declares a hidden local variable; the Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS macro closes the block.

The block above expands to the following code:

PyThreadState *_save;

_save = PyEval_SaveThread();
... Do some blocking I/O operation ...
PyEval_RestoreThread(_save);

Here is how these functions work:

The attached thread state implies that the GIL is held for the interpreter. To detach it, PyEval_SaveThread() is called and the result is stored in a local variable.

By detaching the thread state, the GIL is released, which allows other threads to attach to the interpreter and execute while the current thread performs blocking I/O. When the I/O operation is complete, the old thread state is reattached by calling PyEval_RestoreThread(), which will wait until the GIL can be acquired.

Note

Performing blocking I/O is the most common use case for detaching the thread state, but it is also useful to call it over long-running native code that doesn't need access to Python objects or Python's C API. For example, the standard zlib and hashlib modules detach the thread state when compressing or hashing data.

On a free-threaded build, the GIL is usually out of the question, but detaching the thread state is still required, because the interpreter periodically needs to block all threads to get a consistent view of Python objects without the risk of race conditions. For example, CPython currently suspends all threads for a short period of time while running the garbage collector.

Avertissement

Detaching the thread state can lead to unexpected behavior during interpreter finalization. See Cautions regarding runtime finalization for more details.

APIs

The following macros are normally used without a trailing semicolon; look for example usage in the Python source distribution.

Note

These macros are still necessary on the free-threaded build to prevent deadlocks.

Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This macro expands to { PyThreadState *_save; _save = PyEval_SaveThread();. Note that it contains an opening brace; it must be matched with a following Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS macro. See above for further discussion of this macro.

Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This macro expands to PyEval_RestoreThread(_save); }. Note that it contains a closing brace; it must be matched with an earlier Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS macro. See above for further discussion of this macro.

Py_BLOCK_THREADS

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This macro expands to PyEval_RestoreThread(_save);: it is equivalent to Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS without the closing brace.

Py_UNBLOCK_THREADS

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This macro expands to _save = PyEval_SaveThread();: it is equivalent to Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS without the opening brace and variable declaration.

Non-Python created threads

When threads are created using the dedicated Python APIs (such as the threading module), a thread state is automatically associated with them, However, when a thread is created from native code (for example, by a third-party library with its own thread management), it doesn't hold an attached thread state.

If you need to call Python code from these threads (often this will be part of a callback API provided by the aforementioned third-party library), you must first register these threads with the interpreter by creating a new thread state and attaching it.

The most robust way to do this is through PyThreadState_New() followed by PyThreadState_Swap().

Note

PyThreadState_New requires an argument pointing to the desired interpreter; such a pointer can be acquired via a call to PyInterpreterState_Get() from the code where the thread was created.

For example:

/* The return value of PyInterpreterState_Get() from the
   function that created this thread. */
PyInterpreterState *interp = thread_data->interp;

/* Create a new thread state for the interpreter. It does not start out
   attached. */
PyThreadState *tstate = PyThreadState_New(interp);

/* Attach the thread state, which will acquire the GIL. */
PyThreadState_Swap(tstate);

/* Perform Python actions here. */
result = CallSomeFunction();
/* evaluate result or handle exception */

/* Destroy the thread state. No Python API allowed beyond this point. */
PyThreadState_Clear(tstate);
PyThreadState_DeleteCurrent();

Avertissement

If the interpreter finalized before PyThreadState_Swap was called, then interp will be a dangling pointer!

Legacy API

Another common pattern to call Python code from a non-Python thread is to use PyGILState_Ensure() followed by a call to PyGILState_Release().

These functions do not work well when multiple interpreters exist in the Python process. If no Python interpreter has ever been used in the current thread (which is common for threads created outside Python), PyGILState_Ensure will create and attach a thread state for the "main" interpreter (the first interpreter in the Python process).

Additionally, these functions have thread-safety issues during interpreter finalization. Using PyGILState_Ensure during finalization will likely crash the process.

Usage of these functions look like such:

PyGILState_STATE gstate;
gstate = PyGILState_Ensure();

/* Perform Python actions here. */
result = CallSomeFunction();
/* evaluate result or handle exception */

/* Release the thread. No Python API allowed beyond this point. */
PyGILState_Release(gstate);

Cautions about fork()

Another important thing to note about threads is their behaviour in the face of the C fork() call. On most systems with fork(), after a process forks only the thread that issued the fork will exist. This has a concrete impact both on how locks must be handled and on all stored state in CPython's runtime.

The fact that only the "current" thread remains means any locks held by other threads will never be released. Python solves this for os.fork() by acquiring the locks it uses internally before the fork, and releasing them afterwards. In addition, it resets any Lock objects in the child. When extending or embedding Python, there is no way to inform Python of additional (non-Python) locks that need to be acquired before or reset after a fork. OS facilities such as pthread_atfork() would need to be used to accomplish the same thing. Additionally, when extending or embedding Python, calling fork() directly rather than through os.fork() (and returning to or calling into Python) may result in a deadlock by one of Python's internal locks being held by a thread that is defunct after the fork. PyOS_AfterFork_Child() tries to reset the necessary locks, but is not always able to.

The fact that all other threads go away also means that CPython's runtime state there must be cleaned up properly, which os.fork() does. This means finalizing all other PyThreadState objects belonging to the current interpreter and all other PyInterpreterState objects. Due to this and the special nature of the "main" interpreter, fork() should only be called in that interpreter's "main" thread, where the CPython global runtime was originally initialized. The only exception is if exec() will be called immediately after.

High-level APIs

These are the most commonly used types and functions when writing multi-threaded C extensions.

type PyThreadState

Fait partie de l' API limitée (sous forme d'une *struct* opaque).

This data structure represents the state of a single thread. The only public data member is:

PyInterpreterState *interp

This thread's interpreter state.

void PyEval_InitThreads()

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Deprecated function which does nothing.

In Python 3.6 and older, this function created the GIL if it didn't exist.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: The function now does nothing.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: This function is now called by Py_Initialize(), so you don't have to call it yourself anymore.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: This function cannot be called before Py_Initialize() anymore.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.9.

PyThreadState *PyEval_SaveThread()

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Detach the attached thread state and return it. The thread will have no thread state upon returning.

void PyEval_RestoreThread(PyThreadState *tstate)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Set the attached thread state to tstate. The passed thread state should not be attached, otherwise deadlock ensues. tstate will be attached upon returning.

Note

Calling this function from a thread when the runtime is finalizing will hang the thread until the program exits, even if the thread was not created by Python. Refer to Cautions regarding runtime finalization for more details.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Hangs the current thread, rather than terminating it, if called while the interpreter is finalizing.

PyThreadState *PyThreadState_Get()

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the attached thread state. If the thread has no attached thread state, (such as when inside of Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS block), then this issues a fatal error (so that the caller needn't check for NULL).

See also PyThreadState_GetUnchecked().

PyThreadState *PyThreadState_GetUnchecked()

Similar to PyThreadState_Get(), but don't kill the process with a fatal error if it is NULL. The caller is responsible to check if the result is NULL.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13: In Python 3.5 to 3.12, the function was private and known as _PyThreadState_UncheckedGet().

PyThreadState *PyThreadState_Swap(PyThreadState *tstate)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Set the attached thread state to tstate, and return the thread state that was attached prior to calling.

This function is safe to call without an attached thread state; it will simply return NULL indicating that there was no prior thread state.

Voir aussi

PyEval_ReleaseThread()

Note

Similar to PyGILState_Ensure(), this function will hang the thread if the runtime is finalizing.

GIL-state APIs

The following functions use thread-local storage, and are not compatible with sub-interpreters:

type PyGILState_STATE

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

The type of the value returned by PyGILState_Ensure() and passed to PyGILState_Release().

enumerator PyGILState_LOCKED

The GIL was already held when PyGILState_Ensure() was called.

enumerator PyGILState_UNLOCKED

The GIL was not held when PyGILState_Ensure() was called.

PyGILState_STATE PyGILState_Ensure()

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Ensure that the current thread is ready to call the Python C API regardless of the current state of Python, or of the attached thread state. This may be called as many times as desired by a thread as long as each call is matched with a call to PyGILState_Release(). In general, other thread-related APIs may be used between PyGILState_Ensure() and PyGILState_Release() calls as long as the thread state is restored to its previous state before the Release(). For example, normal usage of the Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS and Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS macros is acceptable.

The return value is an opaque "handle" to the attached thread state when PyGILState_Ensure() was called, and must be passed to PyGILState_Release() to ensure Python is left in the same state. Even though recursive calls are allowed, these handles cannot be shared - each unique call to PyGILState_Ensure() must save the handle for its call to PyGILState_Release().

When the function returns, there will be an attached thread state and the thread will be able to call arbitrary Python code. Failure is a fatal error.

Avertissement

Calling this function when the runtime is finalizing is unsafe. Doing so will either hang the thread until the program ends, or fully crash the interpreter in rare cases. Refer to Cautions regarding runtime finalization for more details.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Hangs the current thread, rather than terminating it, if called while the interpreter is finalizing.

void PyGILState_Release(PyGILState_STATE)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Release any resources previously acquired. After this call, Python's state will be the same as it was prior to the corresponding PyGILState_Ensure() call (but generally this state will be unknown to the caller, hence the use of the GILState API).

Every call to PyGILState_Ensure() must be matched by a call to PyGILState_Release() on the same thread.

PyThreadState *PyGILState_GetThisThreadState()

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Get the attached thread state for this thread. May return NULL if no GILState API has been used on the current thread. Note that the main thread always has such a thread-state, even if no auto-thread-state call has been made on the main thread. This is mainly a helper/diagnostic function.

Note

This function may return non-NULL even when the thread state is detached. Prefer PyThreadState_Get() or PyThreadState_GetUnchecked() for most cases.

Voir aussi

PyThreadState_Get()

int PyGILState_Check()

Return 1 if the current thread is holding the GIL and 0 otherwise. This function can be called from any thread at any time. Only if it has had its thread state initialized via PyGILState_Ensure() will it return 1. This is mainly a helper/diagnostic function. It can be useful for example in callback contexts or memory allocation functions when knowing that the GIL is locked can allow the caller to perform sensitive actions or otherwise behave differently.

Note

If the current Python process has ever created a subinterpreter, this function will always return 1. Prefer PyThreadState_GetUnchecked() for most cases.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Low-level APIs

PyThreadState *PyThreadState_New(PyInterpreterState *interp)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Create a new thread state object belonging to the given interpreter object. An attached thread state is not needed.

void PyThreadState_Clear(PyThreadState *tstate)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Reset all information in a thread state object. tstate must be attached

Modifié dans la version 3.9: This function now calls the PyThreadState.on_delete callback. Previously, that happened in PyThreadState_Delete().

Modifié dans la version 3.13: The PyThreadState.on_delete callback was removed.

void PyThreadState_Delete(PyThreadState *tstate)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Destroy a thread state object. tstate should not be attached to any thread. tstate must have been reset with a previous call to PyThreadState_Clear().

void PyThreadState_DeleteCurrent(void)

Detach the attached thread state (which must have been reset with a previous call to PyThreadState_Clear()) and then destroy it.

No thread state will be attached upon returning.

PyFrameObject *PyThreadState_GetFrame(PyThreadState *tstate)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.10.

Get the current frame of the Python thread state tstate.

Return a strong reference. Return NULL if no frame is currently executing.

See also PyEval_GetFrame().

tstate must not be NULL, and must be attached.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

uint64_t PyThreadState_GetID(PyThreadState *tstate)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.10.

Get the unique thread state identifier of the Python thread state tstate.

tstate must not be NULL, and must be attached.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

PyInterpreterState *PyThreadState_GetInterpreter(PyThreadState *tstate)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.10.

Get the interpreter of the Python thread state tstate.

tstate must not be NULL, and must be attached.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

void PyThreadState_EnterTracing(PyThreadState *tstate)

Suspend tracing and profiling in the Python thread state tstate.

Resume them using the PyThreadState_LeaveTracing() function.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

void PyThreadState_LeaveTracing(PyThreadState *tstate)

Resume tracing and profiling in the Python thread state tstate suspended by the PyThreadState_EnterTracing() function.

See also PyEval_SetTrace() and PyEval_SetProfile() functions.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

int PyUnstable_ThreadState_SetStackProtection(PyThreadState *tstate, void *stack_start_addr, size_t stack_size)

Fait partie de l' API instable. Peut changer sans avertissement d'une version mineure à l'autre.

Set the stack protection start address and stack protection size of a Python thread state.

On success, return 0. On failure, set an exception and return -1.

CPython implements recursion control for C code by raising RecursionError when it notices that the machine execution stack is close to overflow. See for example the Py_EnterRecursiveCall() function. For this, it needs to know the location of the current thread's stack, which it normally gets from the operating system. When the stack is changed, for example using context switching techniques like the Boost library's boost::context, you must call PyUnstable_ThreadState_SetStackProtection() to inform CPython of the change.

Call PyUnstable_ThreadState_SetStackProtection() either before or after changing the stack. Do not call any other Python C API between the call and the stack change.

See PyUnstable_ThreadState_ResetStackProtection() for undoing this operation.

Ajouté dans la version 3.15.

void PyUnstable_ThreadState_ResetStackProtection(PyThreadState *tstate)

Fait partie de l' API instable. Peut changer sans avertissement d'une version mineure à l'autre.

Reset the stack protection start address and stack protection size of a Python thread state to the operating system defaults.

See PyUnstable_ThreadState_SetStackProtection() for an explanation.

Ajouté dans la version 3.15.

PyObject *PyThreadState_GetDict()

Valeur de retour : référence empruntée. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return a dictionary in which extensions can store thread-specific state information. Each extension should use a unique key to use to store state in the dictionary. It is okay to call this function when no thread state is attached. If this function returns NULL, no exception has been raised and the caller should assume no thread state is attached.

void PyEval_AcquireThread(PyThreadState *tstate)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Attach tstate to the current thread, which must not be NULL or already attached.

The calling thread must not already have an attached thread state.

Note

Calling this function from a thread when the runtime is finalizing will hang the thread until the program exits, even if the thread was not created by Python. Refer to Cautions regarding runtime finalization for more details.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Updated to be consistent with PyEval_RestoreThread(), Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS(), and PyGILState_Ensure(), and terminate the current thread if called while the interpreter is finalizing.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Hangs the current thread, rather than terminating it, if called while the interpreter is finalizing.

PyEval_RestoreThread() is a higher-level function which is always available (even when threads have not been initialized).

void PyEval_ReleaseThread(PyThreadState *tstate)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Detach the attached thread state. The tstate argument, which must not be NULL, is only used to check that it represents the attached thread state --- if it isn't, a fatal error is reported.

PyEval_SaveThread() is a higher-level function which is always available (even when threads have not been initialized).

Asynchronous notifications

A mechanism is provided to make asynchronous notifications to the main interpreter thread. These notifications take the form of a function pointer and a void pointer argument.

int Py_AddPendingCall(int (*func)(void*), void *arg)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Schedule a function to be called from the main interpreter thread. On success, 0 is returned and func is queued for being called in the main thread. On failure, -1 is returned without setting any exception.

When successfully queued, func will be eventually called from the main interpreter thread with the argument arg. It will be called asynchronously with respect to normally running Python code, but with both these conditions met:

on a bytecode boundary;

with the main thread holding an attached thread state (func can therefore use the full C API).

func must return 0 on success, or -1 on failure with an exception set. func won't be interrupted to perform another asynchronous notification recursively, but it can still be interrupted to switch threads if the thread state is detached.

This function doesn't need an attached thread state. However, to call this function in a subinterpreter, the caller must have an attached thread state. Otherwise, the function func can be scheduled to be called from the wrong interpreter.

Avertissement

This is a low-level function, only useful for very special cases. There is no guarantee that func will be called as quick as possible. If the main thread is busy executing a system call, func won't be called before the system call returns. This function is generally not suitable for calling Python code from arbitrary C threads. Instead, use the PyGILState API.

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: If this function is called in a subinterpreter, the function func is now scheduled to be called from the subinterpreter, rather than being called from the main interpreter. Each subinterpreter now has its own list of scheduled calls.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: This function now always schedules func to be run in the main interpreter.

int Py_MakePendingCalls(void)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Execute all pending calls. This is usually executed automatically by the interpreter.

This function returns 0 on success, and returns -1 with an exception set on failure.

If this is not called in the main thread of the main interpreter, this function does nothing and returns 0. The caller must hold an attached thread state.

Ajouté dans la version 3.1.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: This function only runs pending calls in the main interpreter.

int PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc(unsigned long id, PyObject *exc)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Asynchronously raise an exception in a thread. The id argument is the thread id of the target thread; exc is the exception object to be raised. This function does not steal any references to exc. To prevent naive misuse, you must write your own C extension to call this. Must be called with an attached thread state. Returns the number of thread states modified; this is normally one, but will be zero if the thread id isn't found. If exc is NULL, the pending exception (if any) for the thread is cleared. This raises no exceptions.

Modifié dans la version 3.7: The type of the id parameter changed from long to unsigned long.

Operating system thread APIs

PYTHREAD_INVALID_THREAD_ID

Sentinel value for an invalid thread ID.

This is currently equivalent to (unsigned long)-1.

unsigned long PyThread_start_new_thread(void (*func)(void*), void *arg)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Start function func in a new thread with argument arg. The resulting thread is not intended to be joined.

func must not be NULL, but arg may be NULL.

On success, this function returns the identifier of the new thread; on failure, this returns PYTHREAD_INVALID_THREAD_ID.

The caller does not need to hold an attached thread state.

unsigned long PyThread_get_thread_ident(void)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the identifier of the current thread, which will never be zero.

This function cannot fail, and the caller does not need to hold an attached thread state.

Voir aussi

threading.get_ident()

PyObject *PyThread_GetInfo(void)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.3.

Get general information about the current thread in the form of a struct sequence object. This information is accessible as sys.thread_info in Python.

On success, this returns a new strong reference to the thread information; on failure, this returns NULL with an exception set.

The caller must hold an attached thread state.

PY_HAVE_THREAD_NATIVE_ID

This macro is defined when the system supports native thread IDs.

unsigned long PyThread_get_thread_native_id(void)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable on platforms with native thread IDs.

Get the native identifier of the current thread as it was assigned by the operating system's kernel, which will never be less than zero.

This function is only available when PY_HAVE_THREAD_NATIVE_ID is defined.

This function cannot fail, and the caller does not need to hold an attached thread state.

Voir aussi

threading.get_native_id()

void PyThread_exit_thread(void)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Terminate the current thread. This function is generally considered unsafe and should be avoided. It is kept solely for backwards compatibility.

This function is only safe to call if all functions in the full call stack are written to safely allow it.

Avertissement

If the current system uses POSIX threads (also known as "pthreads"), this calls pthread_exit(3) [https://manpages.debian.org/pthread_exit(3)], which attempts to unwind the stack and call C++ destructors on some libc implementations. However, if a noexcept function is reached, it may terminate the process. Other systems, such as macOS, do unwinding.

On Windows, this function calls _endthreadex(), which kills the thread without calling C++ destructors.

In any case, there is a risk of corruption on the thread's stack.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.14.

void PyThread_init_thread(void)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Initialize PyThread* APIs. Python executes this function automatically, so there's little need to call it from an extension module.

int PyThread_set_stacksize(size_t size)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Set the stack size of the current thread to size bytes.

This function returns 0 on success, -1 if size is invalid, or -2 if the system does not support changing the stack size. This function does not set exceptions.

The caller does not need to hold an attached thread state.

size_t PyThread_get_stacksize(void)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the stack size of the current thread in bytes, or 0 if the system's default stack size is in use.

The caller does not need to hold an attached thread state.

Synchronization primitives

The C-API provides a basic mutual exclusion lock.

type PyMutex

A mutual exclusion lock. The PyMutex should be initialized to zero to represent the unlocked state. For example:

PyMutex mutex = {0};

Instances of PyMutex should not be copied or moved. Both the contents and address of a PyMutex are meaningful, and it must remain at a fixed, writable location in memory.

Note

A PyMutex currently occupies one byte, but the size should be considered unstable. The size may change in future Python releases without a deprecation period.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

void PyMutex_Lock(PyMutex *m)

Thread safety: Safe for concurrent use on the same object.

Lock mutex m. If another thread has already locked it, the calling thread will block until the mutex is unlocked. While blocked, the thread will temporarily detach the thread state if one exists.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

void PyMutex_Unlock(PyMutex *m)

Thread safety: Safe for concurrent use on the same object.

Unlock mutex m. The mutex must be locked --- otherwise, the function will issue a fatal error.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

int PyMutex_IsLocked(PyMutex *m)

Thread safety: Atomic.

Returns non-zero if the mutex m is currently locked, zero otherwise.

Note

This function is intended for use in assertions and debugging only and should not be used to make concurrency control decisions, as the lock state may change immediately after the check.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Python critical section API

The critical section API provides a deadlock avoidance layer on top of per-object locks for free-threaded CPython. They are intended to replace reliance on the global interpreter lock, and are no-ops in versions of Python with the global interpreter lock.

Critical sections are intended to be used for custom types implemented in C-API extensions. They should generally not be used with built-in types like list and dict because their public C-APIs already use critical sections internally, with the notable exception of PyDict_Next(), which requires critical section to be acquired externally.

Critical sections avoid deadlocks by implicitly suspending active critical sections, hence, they do not provide exclusive access such as provided by traditional locks like PyMutex. When a critical section is started, the per-object lock for the object is acquired. If the code executed inside the critical section calls C-API functions then it can suspend the critical section thereby releasing the per-object lock, so other threads can acquire the per-object lock for the same object.

Variants that accept PyMutex pointers rather than Python objects are also available. Use these variants to start a critical section in a situation where there is no PyObject -- for example, when working with a C type that does not extend or wrap PyObject but still needs to call into the C API in a manner that might lead to deadlocks.

The functions and structs used by the macros are exposed for cases where C macros are not available. They should only be used as in the given macro expansions. Note that the sizes and contents of the structures may change in future Python versions.

Note

Operations that need to lock two objects at once must use Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION2. You cannot use nested critical sections to lock more than one object at once, because the inner critical section may suspend the outer critical sections. This API does not provide a way to lock more than two objects at once.

Example usage:

static PyObject *
set_field(MyObject *self, PyObject *value)
{
   Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION(self);
   Py_SETREF(self->field, Py_XNewRef(value));
   Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION();
   Py_RETURN_NONE;
}

In the above example, Py_SETREF calls Py_DECREF, which can call arbitrary code through an object's deallocation function. The critical section API avoids potential deadlocks due to reentrancy and lock ordering by allowing the runtime to temporarily suspend the critical section if the code triggered by the finalizer blocks and calls PyEval_SaveThread().

Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION(op)

Acquires the per-object lock for the object op and begins a critical section.

In the free-threaded build, this macro expands to:

{
    PyCriticalSection _py_cs;
    PyCriticalSection_Begin(&_py_cs, (PyObject*)(op))

In the default build, this macro expands to {.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION_MUTEX(m)

Locks the mutex m and begins a critical section.

In the free-threaded build, this macro expands to:

{
     PyCriticalSection _py_cs;
     PyCriticalSection_BeginMutex(&_py_cs, m)

Note that unlike Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION, there is no cast for the argument of the macro - it must be a PyMutex pointer.

On the default build, this macro expands to {.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION()

Ends the critical section and releases the per-object lock.

In the free-threaded build, this macro expands to:

    PyCriticalSection_End(&_py_cs);
}

In the default build, this macro expands to }.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION2(a, b)

Acquires the per-object locks for the objects a and b and begins a critical section. The locks are acquired in a consistent order (lowest address first) to avoid lock ordering deadlocks.

In the free-threaded build, this macro expands to:

{
    PyCriticalSection2 _py_cs2;
    PyCriticalSection2_Begin(&_py_cs2, (PyObject*)(a), (PyObject*)(b))

In the default build, this macro expands to {.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION2_MUTEX(m1, m2)

Locks the mutexes m1 and m2 and begins a critical section.

In the free-threaded build, this macro expands to:

{
     PyCriticalSection2 _py_cs2;
     PyCriticalSection2_BeginMutex(&_py_cs2, m1, m2)

Note that unlike Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION2, there is no cast for the arguments of the macro - they must be PyMutex pointers.

On the default build, this macro expands to {.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION2()

Ends the critical section and releases the per-object locks.

In the free-threaded build, this macro expands to:

    PyCriticalSection2_End(&_py_cs2);
}

In the default build, this macro expands to }.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Legacy locking APIs

These APIs are obsolete since Python 3.13 with the introduction of PyMutex.

type PyThread_type_lock

A pointer to a mutual exclusion lock.

type PyLockStatus

The result of acquiring a lock with a timeout.

enumerator PY_LOCK_FAILURE

Failed to acquire the lock.

enumerator PY_LOCK_ACQUIRED

The lock was successfully acquired.

enumerator PY_LOCK_INTR

The lock was interrupted by a signal.

PyThread_type_lock PyThread_allocate_lock(void)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Allocate a new lock.

On success, this function returns a lock; on failure, this function returns 0 without an exception set.

The caller does not need to hold an attached thread state.

void PyThread_free_lock(PyThread_type_lock lock)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Destroy lock. The lock should not be held by any thread when calling this.

The caller does not need to hold an attached thread state.

PyLockStatus PyThread_acquire_lock_timed(PyThread_type_lock lock, long long microseconds, int intr_flag)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Acquire lock with a timeout.

This will wait for microseconds microseconds to acquire the lock. If the timeout expires, this function returns PY_LOCK_FAILURE. If microseconds is -1, this will wait indefinitely until the lock has been released.

If intr_flag is 1, acquiring the lock may be interrupted by a signal, in which case this function returns PY_LOCK_INTR. Upon interruption, it's generally expected that the caller makes a call to Py_MakePendingCalls() to propagate an exception to Python code.

If the lock is successfully acquired, this function returns PY_LOCK_ACQUIRED.

The caller does not need to hold an attached thread state.

int PyThread_acquire_lock(PyThread_type_lock lock, int waitflag)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Acquire lock.

If waitflag is 1 and another thread currently holds the lock, this function will wait until the lock can be acquired and will always return 1.

If waitflag is 0 and another thread holds the lock, this function will not wait and instead return 0. If the lock is not held by any other thread, then this function will acquire it and return 1.

Unlike PyThread_acquire_lock_timed(), acquiring the lock cannot be interrupted by a signal.

The caller does not need to hold an attached thread state.

int PyThread_release_lock(PyThread_type_lock lock)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Release lock. If lock is not held, then this function issues a fatal error.

The caller does not need to hold an attached thread state.

Thread-local storage support

The Python interpreter provides low-level support for thread-local storage (TLS) which wraps the underlying native TLS implementation to support the Python-level thread-local storage API (threading.local). The CPython C level APIs are similar to those offered by pthreads and Windows: use a thread key and functions to associate a void* value per thread.

A thread state does not need to be attached when calling these functions; they supply their own locking.

Note that Python.h does not include the declaration of the TLS APIs, you need to include pythread.h to use thread-local storage.

Note

None of these API functions handle memory management on behalf of the void* values. You need to allocate and deallocate them yourself. If the void* values happen to be PyObject*, these functions don't do refcount operations on them either.

Thread-specific storage API

The thread-specific storage (TSS) API was introduced to supersede the use of the existing TLS API within the CPython interpreter. This API uses a new type Py_tss_t instead of int to represent thread keys.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Voir aussi

"A New C-API for Thread-Local Storage in CPython" (PEP 539 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0539/])

type Py_tss_t

This data structure represents the state of a thread key, the definition of which may depend on the underlying TLS implementation, and it has an internal field representing the key's initialization state. There are no public members in this structure.

When Py_LIMITED_API is not defined, static allocation of this type by Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT is allowed.

Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT

This macro expands to the initializer for Py_tss_t variables. Note that this macro won't be defined with Py_LIMITED_API.

Dynamic allocation

Dynamic allocation of the Py_tss_t, required in extension modules built with Py_LIMITED_API, where static allocation of this type is not possible due to its implementation being opaque at build time.

Py_tss_t *PyThread_tss_alloc()

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

Return a value which is the same state as a value initialized with Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT, or NULL in the case of dynamic allocation failure.

void PyThread_tss_free(Py_tss_t *key)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

Free the given key allocated by PyThread_tss_alloc(), after first calling PyThread_tss_delete() to ensure any associated thread locals have been unassigned. This is a no-op if the key argument is NULL.

Note

A freed key becomes a dangling pointer. You should reset the key to NULL.

Methods

The parameter key of these functions must not be NULL. Moreover, the behaviors of PyThread_tss_set() and PyThread_tss_get() are undefined if the given Py_tss_t has not been initialized by PyThread_tss_create().

int PyThread_tss_is_created(Py_tss_t *key)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

Return a non-zero value if the given Py_tss_t has been initialized by PyThread_tss_create().

int PyThread_tss_create(Py_tss_t *key)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

Return a zero value on successful initialization of a TSS key. The behavior is undefined if the value pointed to by the key argument is not initialized by Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT. This function can be called repeatedly on the same key -- calling it on an already initialized key is a no-op and immediately returns success.

void PyThread_tss_delete(Py_tss_t *key)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

Destroy a TSS key to forget the values associated with the key across all threads, and change the key's initialization state to uninitialized. A destroyed key is able to be initialized again by PyThread_tss_create(). This function can be called repeatedly on the same key -- calling it on an already destroyed key is a no-op.

int PyThread_tss_set(Py_tss_t *key, void *value)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

Return a zero value to indicate successfully associating a void* value with a TSS key in the current thread. Each thread has a distinct mapping of the key to a void* value.

void *PyThread_tss_get(Py_tss_t *key)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

Return the void* value associated with a TSS key in the current thread. This returns NULL if no value is associated with the key in the current thread.

Legacy APIs

Obsolète depuis la version 3.7: This API is superseded by the thread-specific storage (TSS) API.

Note

This version of the API does not support platforms where the native TLS key is defined in a way that cannot be safely cast to int. On such platforms, PyThread_create_key() will return immediately with a failure status, and the other TLS functions will all be no-ops on such platforms.

Due to the compatibility problem noted above, this version of the API should not be used in new code.

int PyThread_create_key()

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

void PyThread_delete_key(int key)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

int PyThread_set_key_value(int key, void *value)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

void *PyThread_get_key_value(int key)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

void PyThread_delete_key_value(int key)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

void PyThread_ReInitTLS()

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Multiple interpreters in a Python process

While in most uses, you will only embed a single Python interpreter, there are cases where you need to create several independent interpreters in the same process and perhaps even in the same thread. Sub-interpreters allow you to do that.

The "main" interpreter is the first one created when the runtime initializes. It is usually the only Python interpreter in a process. Unlike sub-interpreters, the main interpreter has unique process-global responsibilities like signal handling. It is also responsible for execution during runtime initialization and is usually the active interpreter during runtime finalization. The PyInterpreterState_Main() function returns a pointer to its state.

You can switch between sub-interpreters using the PyThreadState_Swap() function. You can create and destroy them using the following functions:

type PyInterpreterConfig

Structure containing most parameters to configure a sub-interpreter. Its values are used only in Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig() and never modified by the runtime.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Structure fields:

int use_main_obmalloc

If this is 0 then the sub-interpreter will use its own "object" allocator state. Otherwise it will use (share) the main interpreter's.

If this is 0 then check_multi_interp_extensions must be 1 (non-zero). If this is 1 then gil must not be PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL.

int allow_fork

If this is 0 then the runtime will not support forking the process in any thread where the sub-interpreter is currently active. Otherwise fork is unrestricted.

Note that the subprocess module still works when fork is disallowed.

int allow_exec

If this is 0 then the runtime will not support replacing the current process via exec (e.g. os.execv()) in any thread where the sub-interpreter is currently active. Otherwise exec is unrestricted.

Note that the subprocess module still works when exec is disallowed.

int allow_threads

If this is 0 then the sub-interpreter's threading module won't create threads. Otherwise threads are allowed.

int allow_daemon_threads

If this is 0 then the sub-interpreter's threading module won't create daemon threads. Otherwise daemon threads are allowed (as long as allow_threads is non-zero).

int check_multi_interp_extensions

If this is 0 then all extension modules may be imported, including legacy (single-phase init) modules, in any thread where the sub-interpreter is currently active. Otherwise only multi-phase init extension modules (see PEP 489 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/]) may be imported. (Also see Py_mod_multiple_interpreters.)

This must be 1 (non-zero) if use_main_obmalloc is 0.

int gil

This determines the operation of the GIL for the sub-interpreter. It may be one of the following:

PyInterpreterConfig_DEFAULT_GIL

Use the default selection (PyInterpreterConfig_SHARED_GIL).

PyInterpreterConfig_SHARED_GIL

Use (share) the main interpreter's GIL.

PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL

Use the sub-interpreter's own GIL.

If this is PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL then PyInterpreterConfig.use_main_obmalloc must be 0.

PyStatus Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(PyThreadState **tstate_p, const PyInterpreterConfig *config)

Create a new sub-interpreter. This is an (almost) totally separate environment for the execution of Python code. In particular, the new interpreter has separate, independent versions of all imported modules, including the fundamental modules builtins, __main__ and sys. The table of loaded modules (sys.modules) and the module search path (sys.path) are also separate. The new environment has no sys.argv variable. It has new standard I/O stream file objects sys.stdin, sys.stdout and sys.stderr (however these refer to the same underlying file descriptors).

The given config controls the options with which the interpreter is initialized.

Upon success, tstate_p will be set to the first thread state created in the new sub-interpreter. This thread state is attached. Note that no actual thread is created; see the discussion of thread states below. If creation of the new interpreter is unsuccessful, tstate_p is set to NULL; no exception is set since the exception state is stored in the attached thread state, which might not exist.

Like all other Python/C API functions, an attached thread state must be present before calling this function, but it might be detached upon returning. On success, the returned thread state will be attached. If the sub-interpreter is created with its own GIL then the attached thread state of the calling interpreter will be detached. When the function returns, the new interpreter's thread state will be attached to the current thread and the previous interpreter's attached thread state will remain detached.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Sub-interpreters are most effective when isolated from each other, with certain functionality restricted:

PyInterpreterConfig config = {
    .use_main_obmalloc = 0,
    .allow_fork = 0,
    .allow_exec = 0,
    .allow_threads = 1,
    .allow_daemon_threads = 0,
    .check_multi_interp_extensions = 1,
    .gil = PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL,
};
PyThreadState *tstate = NULL;
PyStatus status = Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(&tstate, &config);
if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
    Py_ExitStatusException(status);
}

Note that the config is used only briefly and does not get modified. During initialization the config's values are converted into various PyInterpreterState values. A read-only copy of the config may be stored internally on the PyInterpreterState.

Extension modules are shared between (sub-)interpreters as follows:

For modules using multi-phase initialization, e.g. PyModule_FromDefAndSpec(), a separate module object is created and initialized for each interpreter. Only C-level static and global variables are shared between these module objects.

For modules using legacy single-phase initialization, e.g. PyModule_Create(), the first time a particular extension is imported, it is initialized normally, and a (shallow) copy of its module's dictionary is squirreled away. When the same extension is imported by another (sub-)interpreter, a new module is initialized and filled with the contents of this copy; the extension's init function is not called. Objects in the module's dictionary thus end up shared across (sub-)interpreters, which might cause unwanted behavior (see Bugs and caveats below).

Note that this is different from what happens when an extension is imported after the interpreter has been completely re-initialized by calling Py_FinalizeEx() and Py_Initialize(); in that case, the extension's initmodule function is called again. As with multi-phase initialization, this means that only C-level static and global variables are shared between these modules.

PyThreadState *Py_NewInterpreter(void)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Create a new sub-interpreter. This is essentially just a wrapper around Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig() with a config that preserves the existing behavior. The result is an unisolated sub-interpreter that shares the main interpreter's GIL, allows fork/exec, allows daemon threads, and allows single-phase init modules.

void Py_EndInterpreter(PyThreadState *tstate)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Destroy the (sub-)interpreter represented by the given thread state. The given thread state must be attached. When the call returns, there will be no attached thread state. All thread states associated with this interpreter are destroyed.

Py_FinalizeEx() will destroy all sub-interpreters that haven't been explicitly destroyed at that point.

A per-interpreter GIL

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Using Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig() you can create a sub-interpreter that is completely isolated from other interpreters, including having its own GIL. The most important benefit of this isolation is that such an interpreter can execute Python code without being blocked by other interpreters or blocking any others. Thus a single Python process can truly take advantage of multiple CPU cores when running Python code. The isolation also encourages a different approach to concurrency than that of just using threads. (See PEP 554 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0554/] and PEP 684 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0684/].)

Using an isolated interpreter requires vigilance in preserving that isolation. That especially means not sharing any objects or mutable state without guarantees about thread-safety. Even objects that are otherwise immutable (e.g. None, (1, 5)) can't normally be shared because of the refcount. One simple but less-efficient approach around this is to use a global lock around all use of some state (or object). Alternately, effectively immutable objects (like integers or strings) can be made safe in spite of their refcounts by making them immortal. In fact, this has been done for the builtin singletons, small integers, and a number of other builtin objects.

If you preserve isolation then you will have access to proper multi-core computing without the complications that come with free-threading. Failure to preserve isolation will expose you to the full consequences of free-threading, including races and hard-to-debug crashes.

Aside from that, one of the main challenges of using multiple isolated interpreters is how to communicate between them safely (not break isolation) and efficiently. The runtime and stdlib do not provide any standard approach to this yet. A future stdlib module would help mitigate the effort of preserving isolation and expose effective tools for communicating (and sharing) data between interpreters.

Bugs and caveats

Because sub-interpreters (and the main interpreter) are part of the same process, the insulation between them isn't perfect --- for example, using low-level file operations like os.close() they can (accidentally or maliciously) affect each other's open files. Because of the way extensions are shared between (sub-)interpreters, some extensions may not work properly; this is especially likely when using single-phase initialization or (static) global variables. It is possible to insert objects created in one sub-interpreter into a namespace of another (sub-)interpreter; this should be avoided if possible.

Special care should be taken to avoid sharing user-defined functions, methods, instances or classes between sub-interpreters, since import operations executed by such objects may affect the wrong (sub-)interpreter's dictionary of loaded modules. It is equally important to avoid sharing objects from which the above are reachable.

Also note that combining this functionality with PyGILState_* APIs is delicate, because these APIs assume a bijection between Python thread states and OS-level threads, an assumption broken by the presence of sub-interpreters. It is highly recommended that you don't switch sub-interpreters between a pair of matching PyGILState_Ensure() and PyGILState_Release() calls. Furthermore, extensions (such as ctypes) using these APIs to allow calling of Python code from non-Python created threads will probably be broken when using sub-interpreters.

High-level APIs

type PyInterpreterState

Fait partie de l' API limitée (sous forme d'une *struct* opaque).

This data structure represents the state shared by a number of cooperating threads. Threads belonging to the same interpreter share their module administration and a few other internal items. There are no public members in this structure.

Threads belonging to different interpreters initially share nothing, except process state like available memory, open file descriptors and such. The global interpreter lock is also shared by all threads, regardless of to which interpreter they belong.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: PEP 684 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0684/] introduced the possibility of a per-interpreter GIL. See Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig().

PyInterpreterState *PyInterpreterState_Get(void)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.9.

Get the current interpreter.

Issue a fatal error if there is no attached thread state. It cannot return NULL.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

int64_t PyInterpreterState_GetID(PyInterpreterState *interp)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

Return the interpreter's unique ID. If there was any error in doing so then -1 is returned and an error is set.

The caller must have an attached thread state.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

PyObject *PyInterpreterState_GetDict(PyInterpreterState *interp)

Valeur de retour : référence empruntée. Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.8.

Return a dictionary in which interpreter-specific data may be stored. If this function returns NULL then no exception has been raised and the caller should assume no interpreter-specific dict is available.

This is not a replacement for PyModule_GetState(), which extensions should use to store interpreter-specific state information.

The returned dictionary is borrowed from the interpreter and is valid until interpreter shutdown.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

typedef PyObject *(*_PyFrameEvalFunction)(PyThreadState *tstate, _PyInterpreterFrame *frame, int throwflag)

Type of a frame evaluation function.

The throwflag parameter is used by the throw() method of generators: if non-zero, handle the current exception.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: The function now takes a tstate parameter.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: The frame parameter changed from PyFrameObject* to _PyInterpreterFrame*.

_PyFrameEvalFunction _PyInterpreterState_GetEvalFrameFunc(PyInterpreterState *interp)

Get the frame evaluation function.

See the PEP 523 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/] "Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython".

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

void _PyInterpreterState_SetEvalFrameFunc(PyInterpreterState *interp, _PyFrameEvalFunction eval_frame)

Set the frame evaluation function.

See the PEP 523 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/] "Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython".

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

Low-level APIs

All of the following functions must be called after Py_Initialize().

Modifié dans la version 3.7: Py_Initialize() now initializes the GIL and sets an attached thread state.

PyInterpreterState *PyInterpreterState_New()

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Create a new interpreter state object. An attached thread state is not needed, but may optionally exist if it is necessary to serialize calls to this function.

Raises an auditing event cpython.PyInterpreterState_New with no arguments.

void PyInterpreterState_Clear(PyInterpreterState *interp)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Reset all information in an interpreter state object. There must be an attached thread state for the interpreter.

Raises an auditing event cpython.PyInterpreterState_Clear with no arguments.

void PyInterpreterState_Delete(PyInterpreterState *interp)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Destroy an interpreter state object. There should not be an attached thread state for the target interpreter. The interpreter state must have been reset with a previous call to PyInterpreterState_Clear().

Advanced debugger support

These functions are only intended to be used by advanced debugging tools.

PyInterpreterState *PyInterpreterState_Head()

Return the interpreter state object at the head of the list of all such objects.

PyInterpreterState *PyInterpreterState_Main()

Return the main interpreter state object.

PyInterpreterState *PyInterpreterState_Next(PyInterpreterState *interp)

Return the next interpreter state object after interp from the list of all such objects.

PyThreadState *PyInterpreterState_ThreadHead(PyInterpreterState *interp)

Return the pointer to the first PyThreadState object in the list of threads associated with the interpreter interp.

PyThreadState *PyThreadState_Next(PyThreadState *tstate)

Return the next thread state object after tstate from the list of all such objects belonging to the same PyInterpreterState object.

Profiling and tracing

The Python interpreter provides some low-level support for attaching profiling and execution tracing facilities. These are used for profiling, debugging, and coverage analysis tools.

This C interface allows the profiling or tracing code to avoid the overhead of calling through Python-level callable objects, making a direct C function call instead. The essential attributes of the facility have not changed; the interface allows trace functions to be installed per-thread, and the basic events reported to the trace function are the same as had been reported to the Python-level trace functions in previous versions.

typedef int (*Py_tracefunc)(PyObject *obj, PyFrameObject *frame, int what, PyObject *arg)

The type of the trace function registered using PyEval_SetProfile() and PyEval_SetTrace(). The first parameter is the object passed to the registration function as obj, frame is the frame object to which the event pertains, what is one of the constants PyTrace_CALL, PyTrace_EXCEPTION, PyTrace_LINE, PyTrace_RETURN, PyTrace_C_CALL, PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION, PyTrace_C_RETURN, or PyTrace_OPCODE, and arg depends on the value of what:

Value of what

Meaning of arg

PyTrace_CALL

Always Py_None.

PyTrace_EXCEPTION

Exception information as returned by sys.exc_info().

PyTrace_LINE

Always Py_None.

PyTrace_RETURN

Value being returned to the caller, or NULL if caused by an exception.

PyTrace_C_CALL

Function object being called.

PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION

Function object being called.

PyTrace_C_RETURN

Function object being called.

PyTrace_OPCODE

Always Py_None.

int PyTrace_CALL

The value of the what parameter to a Py_tracefunc function when a new call to a function or method is being reported, or a new entry into a generator. Note that the creation of the iterator for a generator function is not reported as there is no control transfer to the Python bytecode in the corresponding frame.

int PyTrace_EXCEPTION

The value of the what parameter to a Py_tracefunc function when an exception has been raised. The callback function is called with this value for what when after any bytecode is processed after which the exception becomes set within the frame being executed. The effect of this is that as exception propagation causes the Python stack to unwind, the callback is called upon return to each frame as the exception propagates. Only trace functions receive these events; they are not needed by the profiler.

int PyTrace_LINE

The value passed as the what parameter to a Py_tracefunc function (but not a profiling function) when a line-number event is being reported. It may be disabled for a frame by setting f_trace_lines to 0 on that frame.

int PyTrace_RETURN

The value for the what parameter to Py_tracefunc functions when a call is about to return.

int PyTrace_C_CALL

The value for the what parameter to Py_tracefunc functions when a C function is about to be called.

int PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION

The value for the what parameter to Py_tracefunc functions when a C function has raised an exception.

int PyTrace_C_RETURN

The value for the what parameter to Py_tracefunc functions when a C function has returned.

int PyTrace_OPCODE

The value for the what parameter to Py_tracefunc functions (but not profiling functions) when a new opcode is about to be executed. This event is not emitted by default: it must be explicitly requested by setting f_trace_opcodes to 1 on the frame.

void PyEval_SetProfile(Py_tracefunc func, PyObject *obj)

Set the profiler function to func. The obj parameter is passed to the function as its first parameter, and may be any Python object, or NULL. If the profile function needs to maintain state, using a different value for obj for each thread provides a convenient and thread-safe place to store it. The profile function is called for all monitored events except PyTrace_LINE PyTrace_OPCODE and PyTrace_EXCEPTION.

See also the sys.setprofile() function.

The caller must have an attached thread state.

void PyEval_SetProfileAllThreads(Py_tracefunc func, PyObject *obj)

Like PyEval_SetProfile() but sets the profile function in all running threads belonging to the current interpreter instead of the setting it only on the current thread.

The caller must have an attached thread state.

As PyEval_SetProfile(), this function ignores any exceptions raised while setting the profile functions in all threads.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

void PyEval_SetTrace(Py_tracefunc func, PyObject *obj)

Set the tracing function to func. This is similar to PyEval_SetProfile(), except the tracing function does receive line-number events and per-opcode events, but does not receive any event related to C function objects being called. Any trace function registered using PyEval_SetTrace() will not receive PyTrace_C_CALL, PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION or PyTrace_C_RETURN as a value for the what parameter.

See also the sys.settrace() function.

The caller must have an attached thread state.

void PyEval_SetTraceAllThreads(Py_tracefunc func, PyObject *obj)

Like PyEval_SetTrace() but sets the tracing function in all running threads belonging to the current interpreter instead of the setting it only on the current thread.

The caller must have an attached thread state.

As PyEval_SetTrace(), this function ignores any exceptions raised while setting the trace functions in all threads.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Reference tracing

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

typedef int (*PyRefTracer)(PyObject*, int event, void *data)

The type of the trace function registered using PyRefTracer_SetTracer(). The first parameter is a Python object that has been just created (when event is set to PyRefTracer_CREATE) or about to be destroyed (when event is set to PyRefTracer_DESTROY). The data argument is the opaque pointer that was provided when PyRefTracer_SetTracer() was called.

If a new tracing function is registered replacing the current one, a call to the trace function will be made with the object set to NULL and event set to PyRefTracer_TRACKER_REMOVED. This will happen just before the new function is registered.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

int PyRefTracer_CREATE

The value for the event parameter to PyRefTracer functions when a Python object has been created.

int PyRefTracer_DESTROY

The value for the event parameter to PyRefTracer functions when a Python object has been destroyed.

int PyRefTracer_TRACKER_REMOVED

The value for the event parameter to PyRefTracer functions when the current tracer is about to be replaced by a new one.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

int PyRefTracer_SetTracer(PyRefTracer tracer, void *data)

Register a reference tracer function. The function will be called when a new Python object has been created or when an object is going to be destroyed. If data is provided it must be an opaque pointer that will be provided when the tracer function is called. Return 0 on success. Set an exception and return -1 on error.

Note that tracer functions must not create Python objects inside or otherwise the call will be re-entrant. The tracer also must not clear any existing exception or set an exception. A thread state will be active every time the tracer function is called.

There must be an attached thread state when calling this function.

If another tracer function was already registered, the old function will be called with event set to PyRefTracer_TRACKER_REMOVED just before the new function is registered.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

PyRefTracer PyRefTracer_GetTracer(void **data)

Get the registered reference tracer function and the value of the opaque data pointer that was registered when PyRefTracer_SetTracer() was called. If no tracer was registered this function will return NULL and will set the data pointer to NULL.

There must be an attached thread state when calling this function.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Python Initialization Configuration

PyInitConfig C API

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Python can be initialized with Py_InitializeFromInitConfig().

The Py_RunMain() function can be used to write a customized Python program.

See also Initialization, Finalization, and Threads.

Voir aussi

PEP 741 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0741/] "Python Configuration C API".

Example

Example of customized Python always running with the Python Development Mode enabled; return -1 on error:

int init_python(void)
{
    PyInitConfig *config = PyInitConfig_Create();
    if (config == NULL) {
        printf("PYTHON INIT ERROR: memory allocation failed\n");
        return -1;
    }

    // Enable the Python Development Mode
    if (PyInitConfig_SetInt(config, "dev_mode", 1) < 0) {
        goto error;
    }

    // Initialize Python with the configuration
    if (Py_InitializeFromInitConfig(config) < 0) {
        goto error;
    }
    PyInitConfig_Free(config);
    return 0;

error:
    {
        // Display the error message.
        //
        // This uncommon braces style is used, because you cannot make
        // goto targets point to variable declarations.
        const char *err_msg;
        (void)PyInitConfig_GetError(config, &err_msg);
        printf("PYTHON INIT ERROR: %s\n", err_msg);
        PyInitConfig_Free(config);
        return -1;
    }
}

Create Config

struct PyInitConfig

Opaque structure to configure the Python initialization.

PyInitConfig *PyInitConfig_Create(void)

Create a new initialization configuration using Isolated Configuration default values.

It must be freed by PyInitConfig_Free().

Return NULL on memory allocation failure.

void PyInitConfig_Free(PyInitConfig *config)

Free memory of the initialization configuration config.

If config is NULL, no operation is performed.

Gestion des erreurs

int PyInitConfig_GetError(PyInitConfig *config, const char **err_msg)

Get the config error message.

Set *err_msg and return 1 if an error is set.

Set *err_msg to NULL and return 0 otherwise.

An error message is a UTF-8 encoded string.

If config has an exit code, format the exit code as an error message.

The error message remains valid until another PyInitConfig function is called with config. The caller doesn't have to free the error message.

int PyInitConfig_GetExitCode(PyInitConfig *config, int *exitcode)

Get the config exit code.

Set *exitcode and return 1 if config has an exit code set.

Return 0 if config has no exit code set.

Only the Py_InitializeFromInitConfig() function can set an exit code if the parse_argv option is non-zero.

An exit code can be set when parsing the command line failed (exit code 2) or when a command line option asks to display the command line help (exit code 0).

Get Options

The configuration option name parameter must be a non-NULL null-terminated UTF-8 encoded string. See Configuration Options.

int PyInitConfig_HasOption(PyInitConfig *config, const char *name)

Test if the configuration has an option called name.

Return 1 if the option exists, or return 0 otherwise.

int PyInitConfig_GetInt(PyInitConfig *config, const char *name, int64_t *value)

Get an integer configuration option.

Set *value, and return 0 on success.

Set an error in config and return -1 on error.

int PyInitConfig_GetStr(PyInitConfig *config, const char *name, char **value)

Get a string configuration option as a null-terminated UTF-8 encoded string.

Set *value, and return 0 on success.

Set an error in config and return -1 on error.

*value can be set to NULL if the option is an optional string and the option is unset.

On success, the string must be released with free(value) if it's not NULL.

int PyInitConfig_GetStrList(PyInitConfig *config, const char *name, size_t *length, char ***items)

Get a string list configuration option as an array of null-terminated UTF-8 encoded strings.

Set *length and *value, and return 0 on success.

Set an error in config and return -1 on error.

On success, the string list must be released with PyInitConfig_FreeStrList(length, items).

void PyInitConfig_FreeStrList(size_t length, char **items)

Free memory of a string list created by PyInitConfig_GetStrList().

Set Options

The configuration option name parameter must be a non-NULL null-terminated UTF-8 encoded string. See Configuration Options.

Some configuration options have side effects on other options. This logic is only implemented when Py_InitializeFromInitConfig() is called, not by the "Set" functions below. For example, setting dev_mode to 1 does not set faulthandler to 1.

int PyInitConfig_SetInt(PyInitConfig *config, const char *name, int64_t value)

Set an integer configuration option.

Return 0 on success.

Set an error in config and return -1 on error.

int PyInitConfig_SetStr(PyInitConfig *config, const char *name, const char *value)

Set a string configuration option from a null-terminated UTF-8 encoded string. The string is copied.

Return 0 on success.

Set an error in config and return -1 on error.

int PyInitConfig_SetStrList(PyInitConfig *config, const char *name, size_t length, char *const *items)

Set a string list configuration option from an array of null-terminated UTF-8 encoded strings. The string list is copied.

Return 0 on success.

Set an error in config and return -1 on error.

Module

int PyInitConfig_AddModule(PyInitConfig *config, const char *name, PyObject *(*initfunc)(void))

Add a built-in extension module to the table of built-in modules.

The new module can be imported by the name name, and uses the function initfunc as the initialization function called on the first attempted import.

Return 0 on success.

Set an error in config and return -1 on error.

If Python is initialized multiple times, PyInitConfig_AddModule() must be called at each Python initialization.

Similar to the PyImport_AppendInittab() function.

Initialize Python

int Py_InitializeFromInitConfig(PyInitConfig *config)

Initialize Python from the initialization configuration.

Return 0 on success.

Set an error in config and return -1 on error.

Set an exit code in config and return -1 if Python wants to exit.

See PyInitConfig_GetExitcode() for the exit code case.

Configuration Options

Option

PyConfig/PyPreConfig member

Type

Visibilité

"allocator"

allocator

int

Accessible en lecture seule

"argv"

argv

list[str]

Public

"base_exec_prefix"

base_exec_prefix

str

Public

"base_executable"

base_executable

str

Public

"base_prefix"

base_prefix

str

Public

"buffered_stdio"

buffered_stdio

bool

Accessible en lecture seule

"bytes_warning"

bytes_warning

int

Public

"check_hash_pycs_mode"

check_hash_pycs_mode

str

Accessible en lecture seule

"code_debug_ranges"

code_debug_ranges

bool

Accessible en lecture seule

"coerce_c_locale"

coerce_c_locale

bool

Accessible en lecture seule

"coerce_c_locale_warn"

coerce_c_locale_warn

bool

Accessible en lecture seule

"configure_c_stdio"

configure_c_stdio

bool

Accessible en lecture seule

"configure_locale"

configure_locale

bool

Accessible en lecture seule

"cpu_count"

cpu_count

int

Public

"dev_mode"

dev_mode

bool

Accessible en lecture seule

"dump_refs"

dump_refs

bool

Accessible en lecture seule

"dump_refs_file"

dump_refs_file

str

Accessible en lecture seule

"exec_prefix"

exec_prefix

str

Public

"executable"

executable

str

Public

"faulthandler"

faulthandler

bool

Accessible en lecture seule

"filesystem_encoding"

filesystem_encoding

str

Accessible en lecture seule

"filesystem_errors"

filesystem_errors

str

Accessible en lecture seule

"hash_seed"

hash_seed

int

Accessible en lecture seule

"home"

home

str

Accessible en lecture seule

"import_time"

import_time

int

Accessible en lecture seule

"inspect"

inspect

bool

Public

"install_signal_handlers"

install_signal_handlers

bool

Accessible en lecture seule

"int_max_str_digits"

int_max_str_digits

int

Public

"interactive"

interactive

bool

Public

"isolated"

isolated

bool

Accessible en lecture seule

"legacy_windows_fs_encoding"

legacy_windows_fs_encoding

bool

Accessible en lecture seule

"legacy_windows_stdio"

legacy_windows_stdio

bool

Accessible en lecture seule

"malloc_stats"

malloc_stats

bool

Accessible en lecture seule

"module_search_paths"

module_search_paths

list[str]

Public

"optimization_level"

optimization_level

int

Public

"orig_argv"

orig_argv

list[str]

Accessible en lecture seule

"parse_argv"

parse_argv

bool

Accessible en lecture seule

"parser_debug"

parser_debug

bool

Public

"pathconfig_warnings"

pathconfig_warnings

bool

Accessible en lecture seule

"perf_profiling"

perf_profiling

bool

Accessible en lecture seule

"platlibdir"

platlibdir

str

Public

"prefix"

prefix

str

Public

"program_name"

program_name

str

Accessible en lecture seule

"pycache_prefix"

pycache_prefix

str

Public

"quiet"

quiet

bool

Public

"run_command"

run_command

str

Accessible en lecture seule

"run_filename"

run_filename

str

Accessible en lecture seule

"run_module"

run_module

str

Accessible en lecture seule

"run_presite"

run_presite

str

Accessible en lecture seule

"safe_path"

safe_path

bool

Accessible en lecture seule

"show_ref_count"

show_ref_count

bool

Accessible en lecture seule

"site_import"

site_import

bool

Accessible en lecture seule

"skip_source_first_line"

skip_source_first_line

bool

Accessible en lecture seule

"stdio_encoding"

stdio_encoding

str

Accessible en lecture seule

"stdio_errors"

stdio_errors

str

Accessible en lecture seule

"stdlib_dir"

stdlib_dir

str

Public

"tracemalloc"

tracemalloc

int

Accessible en lecture seule

"use_environment"

use_environment

bool

Public

"use_frozen_modules"

use_frozen_modules

bool

Accessible en lecture seule

"use_hash_seed"

use_hash_seed

bool

Accessible en lecture seule

"use_system_logger"

use_system_logger

bool

Accessible en lecture seule

"user_site_directory"

user_site_directory

bool

Accessible en lecture seule

"utf8_mode"

utf8_mode

bool

Accessible en lecture seule

"verbose"

verbose

int

Public

"warn_default_encoding"

warn_default_encoding

bool

Accessible en lecture seule

"warnoptions"

warnoptions

list[str]

Public

"write_bytecode"

write_bytecode

bool

Public

"xoptions"

xoptions

dict[str, str]

Public

"_pystats"

_pystats

bool

Accessible en lecture seule

Visibility:

Public: Can be retrieved by PyConfig_Get() and set by PyConfig_Set().

Read-only: Can be retrieved by PyConfig_Get(), but cannot be set by PyConfig_Set().

Runtime Python configuration API

At runtime, it's possible to get and set configuration options using PyConfig_Get() and PyConfig_Set() functions.

The configuration option name parameter must be a non-NULL null-terminated UTF-8 encoded string. See Configuration Options.

Some options are read from the sys attributes. For example, the option "argv" is read from sys.argv.

PyObject *PyConfig_Get(const char *name)

Get the current runtime value of a configuration option as a Python object.

Return a new reference on success.

Set an exception and return NULL on error.

The object type depends on the configuration option. It can be:

bool

int

str

list[str]

dict[str, str]

The caller must have an attached thread state. The function cannot be called before Python initialization nor after Python finalization.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

int PyConfig_GetInt(const char *name, int *value)

Similar to PyConfig_Get(), but get the value as a C int.

Return 0 on success.

Set an exception and return -1 on error.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

PyObject *PyConfig_Names(void)

Get all configuration option names as a frozenset.

Return a new reference on success.

Set an exception and return NULL on error.

The caller must have an attached thread state. The function cannot be called before Python initialization nor after Python finalization.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

int PyConfig_Set(const char *name, PyObject *value)

Set the current runtime value of a configuration option.

Raise a ValueError if there is no option name.

Raise a ValueError if value is an invalid value.

Raise a ValueError if the option is read-only (cannot be set).

Raise a TypeError if value has not the proper type.

The caller must have an attached thread state. The function cannot be called before Python initialization nor after Python finalization.

Raises an auditing event cpython.PyConfig_Set with arguments name, value.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

PyConfig C API

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

Python can be initialized with Py_InitializeFromConfig() and the PyConfig structure. It can be preinitialized with Py_PreInitialize() and the PyPreConfig structure.

There are two kinds of configuration:

The Python Configuration can be used to build a customized Python which behaves as the regular Python. For example, environment variables and command line arguments are used to configure Python.

The Isolated Configuration can be used to embed Python into an application. It isolates Python from the system. For example, environment variables are ignored, the LC_CTYPE locale is left unchanged and no signal handler is registered.

The Py_RunMain() function can be used to write a customized Python program.

See also Initialization, Finalization, and Threads.

Voir aussi

PEP 587 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/] "Python Initialization Configuration".

Example

Example of customized Python always running in isolated mode:

int main(int argc, char **argv)
{
    PyStatus status;

    PyConfig config;
    PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(&config);
    config.isolated = 1;

    /* Decode command line arguments.
       Implicitly preinitialize Python (in isolated mode). */
    status = PyConfig_SetBytesArgv(&config, argc, argv);
    if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
        goto exception;
    }

    status = Py_InitializeFromConfig(&config);
    if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
        goto exception;
    }
    PyConfig_Clear(&config);

    return Py_RunMain();

exception:
    PyConfig_Clear(&config);
    if (PyStatus_IsExit(status)) {
        return status.exitcode;
    }
    /* Display the error message and exit the process with
       non-zero exit code */
    Py_ExitStatusException(status);
}

PyWideStringList

type PyWideStringList

List of wchar_t* strings.

If length is non-zero, items must be non-NULL and all strings must be non-NULL.

Methods:

PyStatus PyWideStringList_Append(PyWideStringList *list, const wchar_t *item)

Append item to list.

Python must be preinitialized to call this function.

PyStatus PyWideStringList_Insert(PyWideStringList *list, Py_ssize_t index, const wchar_t *item)

Insert item into list at index.

If index is greater than or equal to list length, append item to list.

index must be greater than or equal to 0.

Python must be preinitialized to call this function.

Structure fields:

Py_ssize_t length

List length.

wchar_t **items

List items.

PyStatus

type PyStatus

Structure to store an initialization function status: success, error or exit.

For an error, it can store the C function name which created the error.

Structure fields:

int exitcode

Exit code. Argument passed to exit().

const char *err_msg

Error message.

const char *func

Name of the function which created an error, can be NULL.

Functions to create a status:

PyStatus PyStatus_Ok(void)

Success.

PyStatus PyStatus_Error(const char *err_msg)

Initialization error with a message.

err_msg must not be NULL.

PyStatus PyStatus_NoMemory(void)

Memory allocation failure (out of memory).

PyStatus PyStatus_Exit(int exitcode)

Exit Python with the specified exit code.

Functions to handle a status:

int PyStatus_Exception(PyStatus status)

Is the status an error or an exit? If true, the exception must be handled; by calling Py_ExitStatusException() for example.

int PyStatus_IsError(PyStatus status)

Is the result an error?

int PyStatus_IsExit(PyStatus status)

Is the result an exit?

void Py_ExitStatusException(PyStatus status)

Call exit(exitcode) if status is an exit. Print the error message and exit with a non-zero exit code if status is an error. Must only be called if PyStatus_Exception(status) is non-zero.

Note

Internally, Python uses macros which set PyStatus.func, whereas functions to create a status set func to NULL.

Exemple :

PyStatus alloc(void **ptr, size_t size)
{
    *ptr = PyMem_RawMalloc(size);
    if (*ptr == NULL) {
        return PyStatus_NoMemory();
    }
    return PyStatus_Ok();
}

int main(int argc, char **argv)
{
    void *ptr;
    PyStatus status = alloc(&ptr, 16);
    if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
        Py_ExitStatusException(status);
    }
    PyMem_Free(ptr);
    return 0;
}

PyPreConfig

type PyPreConfig

Structure used to preinitialize Python.

Function to initialize a preconfiguration:

void PyPreConfig_InitPythonConfig(PyPreConfig *preconfig)

Initialize the preconfiguration with Python Configuration.

void PyPreConfig_InitIsolatedConfig(PyPreConfig *preconfig)

Initialize the preconfiguration with Isolated Configuration.

Structure fields:

int allocator

Name of the Python memory allocators:

PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_NOT_SET (0): don't change memory allocators (use defaults).

PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_DEFAULT (1): default memory allocators.

PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_DEBUG (2): default memory allocators with debug hooks.

PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_MALLOC (3): use malloc() of the C library.

PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_MALLOC_DEBUG (4): force usage of malloc() with debug hooks.

PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_PYMALLOC (5): Python pymalloc memory allocator.

PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_PYMALLOC_DEBUG (6): Python pymalloc memory allocator with debug hooks.

PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_MIMALLOC (6): use mimalloc, a fast malloc replacement.

PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_MIMALLOC_DEBUG (7): use mimalloc, a fast malloc replacement with debug hooks.

PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_PYMALLOC and PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_PYMALLOC_DEBUG are not supported if Python is configured using --without-pymalloc.

PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_MIMALLOC and PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_MIMALLOC_DEBUG are not supported if Python is configured using --without-mimalloc or if the underlying atomic support isn't available.

See Memory Management.

Default: PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_NOT_SET.

int configure_locale

Set the LC_CTYPE locale to the user preferred locale.

If equals to 0, set coerce_c_locale and coerce_c_locale_warn members to 0.

See the locale encoding.

Default: 1 in Python config, 0 in isolated config.

int coerce_c_locale

If equals to 2, coerce the C locale.

If equals to 1, read the LC_CTYPE locale to decide if it should be coerced.

See the locale encoding.

Default: -1 in Python config, 0 in isolated config.

int coerce_c_locale_warn

If non-zero, emit a warning if the C locale is coerced.

Default: -1 in Python config, 0 in isolated config.

int dev_mode

Python Development Mode: see PyConfig.dev_mode.

Default: -1 in Python mode, 0 in isolated mode.

int isolated

Isolated mode: see PyConfig.isolated.

Default: 0 in Python mode, 1 in isolated mode.

int legacy_windows_fs_encoding

If non-zero:

Set PyPreConfig.utf8_mode to 0,

Set PyConfig.filesystem_encoding to "mbcs",

Set PyConfig.filesystem_errors to "replace".

Initialized from the PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING environment variable value.

Only available on Windows. #ifdef MS_WINDOWS macro can be used for Windows specific code.

Default: 0.

int parse_argv

If non-zero, Py_PreInitializeFromArgs() and Py_PreInitializeFromBytesArgs() parse their argv argument the same way the regular Python parses command line arguments: see Command Line Arguments.

Default: 1 in Python config, 0 in isolated config.

int use_environment

Use environment variables? See PyConfig.use_environment.

Default: 1 in Python config and 0 in isolated config.

int utf8_mode

If non-zero, enable the Python UTF-8 Mode.

Set to 0 or 1 by the -X utf8 command line option and the PYTHONUTF8 environment variable.

Also set to 1 if the LC_CTYPE locale is C or POSIX.

Default: -1 in Python config and 0 in isolated config.

Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig

The preinitialization of Python:

Set the Python memory allocators (PyPreConfig.allocator)

Configure the LC_CTYPE locale (locale encoding)

Set the Python UTF-8 Mode (PyPreConfig.utf8_mode)

The current preconfiguration (PyPreConfig type) is stored in _PyRuntime.preconfig.

Functions to preinitialize Python:

PyStatus Py_PreInitialize(const PyPreConfig *preconfig)

Preinitialize Python from preconfig preconfiguration.

preconfig must not be NULL.

PyStatus Py_PreInitializeFromBytesArgs(const PyPreConfig *preconfig, int argc, char *const *argv)

Preinitialize Python from preconfig preconfiguration.

Parse argv command line arguments (bytes strings) if parse_argv of preconfig is non-zero.

preconfig must not be NULL.

PyStatus Py_PreInitializeFromArgs(const PyPreConfig *preconfig, int argc, wchar_t *const *argv)

Preinitialize Python from preconfig preconfiguration.

Parse argv command line arguments (wide strings) if parse_argv of preconfig is non-zero.

preconfig must not be NULL.

The caller is responsible to handle exceptions (error or exit) using PyStatus_Exception() and Py_ExitStatusException().

For Python Configuration (PyPreConfig_InitPythonConfig()), if Python is initialized with command line arguments, the command line arguments must also be passed to preinitialize Python, since they have an effect on the pre-configuration like encodings. For example, the -X utf8 command line option enables the Python UTF-8 Mode.

PyMem_SetAllocator() can be called after Py_PreInitialize() and before Py_InitializeFromConfig() to install a custom memory allocator. It can be called before Py_PreInitialize() if PyPreConfig.allocator is set to PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_NOT_SET.

Python memory allocation functions like PyMem_RawMalloc() must not be used before the Python preinitialization, whereas calling directly malloc() and free() is always safe. Py_DecodeLocale() must not be called before the Python preinitialization.

Example using the preinitialization to enable the Python UTF-8 Mode:

PyStatus status;
PyPreConfig preconfig;
PyPreConfig_InitPythonConfig(&preconfig);

preconfig.utf8_mode = 1;

status = Py_PreInitialize(&preconfig);
if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
    Py_ExitStatusException(status);
}

/* at this point, Python speaks UTF-8 */

Py_Initialize();
/* ... use Python API here ... */
Py_Finalize();

PyConfig

type PyConfig

Structure containing most parameters to configure Python.

When done, the PyConfig_Clear() function must be used to release the configuration memory.

Structure methods:

void PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(PyConfig *config)

Initialize configuration with the Python Configuration.

void PyConfig_InitIsolatedConfig(PyConfig *config)

Initialize configuration with the Isolated Configuration.

PyStatus PyConfig_SetString(PyConfig *config, wchar_t *const *config_str, const wchar_t *str)

Copy the wide character string str into *config_str.

Preinitialize Python if needed.

PyStatus PyConfig_SetBytesString(PyConfig *config, wchar_t *const *config_str, const char *str)

Decode str using Py_DecodeLocale() and set the result into *config_str.

Preinitialize Python if needed.

PyStatus PyConfig_SetArgv(PyConfig *config, int argc, wchar_t *const *argv)

Set command line arguments (argv member of config) from the argv list of wide character strings.

Preinitialize Python if needed.

PyStatus PyConfig_SetBytesArgv(PyConfig *config, int argc, char *const *argv)

Set command line arguments (argv member of config) from the argv list of bytes strings. Decode bytes using Py_DecodeLocale().

Preinitialize Python if needed.

PyStatus PyConfig_SetWideStringList(PyConfig *config, PyWideStringList *list, Py_ssize_t length, wchar_t **items)

Set the list of wide strings list to length and items.

Preinitialize Python if needed.

PyStatus PyConfig_Read(PyConfig *config)

Read all Python configuration.

Fields which are already initialized are left unchanged.

Fields for path configuration are no longer calculated or modified when calling this function, as of Python 3.11.

The PyConfig_Read() function only parses PyConfig.argv arguments once: PyConfig.parse_argv is set to 2 after arguments are parsed. Since Python arguments are stripped from PyConfig.argv, parsing arguments twice would parse the application options as Python options.

Preinitialize Python if needed.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: The PyConfig.argv arguments are now only parsed once, PyConfig.parse_argv is set to 2 after arguments are parsed, and arguments are only parsed if PyConfig.parse_argv equals 1.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: PyConfig_Read() no longer calculates all paths, and so fields listed under Python Path Configuration may no longer be updated until Py_InitializeFromConfig() is called.

void PyConfig_Clear(PyConfig *config)

Release configuration memory.

Most PyConfig methods preinitialize Python if needed. In that case, the Python preinitialization configuration (PyPreConfig) is based on the PyConfig. If configuration fields which are in common with PyPreConfig are tuned, they must be set before calling a PyConfig method:

PyConfig.dev_mode

PyConfig.isolated

PyConfig.parse_argv

PyConfig.use_environment

Moreover, if PyConfig_SetArgv() or PyConfig_SetBytesArgv() is used, this method must be called before other methods, since the preinitialization configuration depends on command line arguments (if parse_argv is non-zero).

The caller of these methods is responsible to handle exceptions (error or exit) using PyStatus_Exception() and Py_ExitStatusException().

Structure fields:

PyWideStringList argv

Set sys.argv command line arguments based on argv. These parameters are similar to those passed to the program's main() function with the difference that the first entry should refer to the script file to be executed rather than the executable hosting the Python interpreter. If there isn't a script that will be run, the first entry in argv can be an empty string.

Set parse_argv to 1 to parse argv the same way the regular Python parses Python command line arguments and then to strip Python arguments from argv.

If argv is empty, an empty string is added to ensure that sys.argv always exists and is never empty.

Default: NULL.

See also the orig_argv member.

int safe_path

If equals to zero, Py_RunMain() prepends a potentially unsafe path to sys.path at startup:

If argv[0] is equal to L"-m" (python -m module), prepend the current working directory.

If running a script (python script.py), prepend the script's directory. If it's a symbolic link, resolve symbolic links.

Otherwise (python -c code and python), prepend an empty string, which means the current working directory.

Set to 1 by the -P command line option and the PYTHONSAFEPATH environment variable.

Default: 0 in Python config, 1 in isolated config.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

wchar_t *base_exec_prefix

sys.base_exec_prefix.

Default: NULL.

Part of the Python Path Configuration output.

See also PyConfig.exec_prefix.

wchar_t *base_executable

Python base executable: sys._base_executable.

Set by the __PYVENV_LAUNCHER__ environment variable.

Set from PyConfig.executable if NULL.

Default: NULL.

Part of the Python Path Configuration output.

See also PyConfig.executable.

wchar_t *base_prefix

sys.base_prefix.

Default: NULL.

Part of the Python Path Configuration output.

See also PyConfig.prefix.

int buffered_stdio

If equals to 0 and configure_c_stdio is non-zero, disable buffering on the C streams stdout and stderr.

Set to 0 by the -u command line option and the PYTHONUNBUFFERED environment variable.

stdin is always opened in buffered mode.

Default: 1.

int bytes_warning

If equals to 1, issue a warning when comparing bytes or bytearray with str, or comparing bytes with int.

If equal or greater to 2, raise a BytesWarning exception in these cases.

Incremented by the -b command line option.

Default: 0.

int warn_default_encoding

If non-zero, emit a EncodingWarning warning when io.TextIOWrapper uses its default encoding. See Opt-in EncodingWarning for details.

Default: 0.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

int code_debug_ranges

If equals to 0, disables the inclusion of the end line and column mappings in code objects. Also disables traceback printing carets to specific error locations.

Set to 0 by the PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES environment variable and by the -X no_debug_ranges command line option.

Default: 1.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

wchar_t *check_hash_pycs_mode

Control the validation behavior of hash-based .pyc files: value of the --check-hash-based-pycs command line option.

Valid values:

L"always": Hash the source file for invalidation regardless of value of the 'check_source' flag.

L"never": Assume that hash-based pycs always are valid.

L"default": The 'check_source' flag in hash-based pycs determines invalidation.

Default: L"default".

See also PEP 552 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/] "Deterministic pycs".

int configure_c_stdio

If non-zero, configure C standard streams:

On Windows, set the binary mode (O_BINARY) on stdin, stdout and stderr.

If buffered_stdio equals zero, disable buffering of stdin, stdout and stderr streams.

If interactive is non-zero, enable stream buffering on stdin and stdout (only stdout on Windows).

Default: 1 in Python config, 0 in isolated config.

int dev_mode

If non-zero, enable the Python Development Mode.

Set to 1 by the -X dev option and the PYTHONDEVMODE environment variable.

Default: -1 in Python mode, 0 in isolated mode.

int dump_refs

Dump Python references?

If non-zero, dump all objects which are still alive at exit.

Set to 1 by the PYTHONDUMPREFS environment variable.

Needs a special build of Python with the Py_TRACE_REFS macro defined: see the configure --with-trace-refs option.

Default: 0.

wchar_t *dump_refs_file

Filename where to dump Python references.

Set by the PYTHONDUMPREFSFILE environment variable.

Default: NULL.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

wchar_t *exec_prefix

The site-specific directory prefix where the platform-dependent Python files are installed: sys.exec_prefix.

Default: NULL.

Part of the Python Path Configuration output.

See also PyConfig.base_exec_prefix.

wchar_t *executable

The absolute path of the executable binary for the Python interpreter: sys.executable.

Default: NULL.

Part of the Python Path Configuration output.

See also PyConfig.base_executable.

int faulthandler

Enable faulthandler?

If non-zero, call faulthandler.enable() at startup.

Set to 1 by -X faulthandler and the PYTHONFAULTHANDLER environment variable.

Default: -1 in Python mode, 0 in isolated mode.

wchar_t *filesystem_encoding

Filesystem encoding: sys.getfilesystemencoding().

On macOS, Android and VxWorks: use "utf-8" by default.

On Windows: use "utf-8" by default, or "mbcs" if legacy_windows_fs_encoding of PyPreConfig is non-zero.

Default encoding on other platforms:

"utf-8" if PyPreConfig.utf8_mode is non-zero.

"ascii" if Python detects that nl_langinfo(CODESET) announces the ASCII encoding, whereas the mbstowcs() function decodes from a different encoding (usually Latin1).

"utf-8" if nl_langinfo(CODESET) returns an empty string.

Otherwise, use the locale encoding: nl_langinfo(CODESET) result.

At Python startup, the encoding name is normalized to the Python codec name. For example, "ANSI_X3.4-1968" is replaced with "ascii".

See also the filesystem_errors member.

wchar_t *filesystem_errors

Filesystem error handler: sys.getfilesystemencodeerrors().

On Windows: use "surrogatepass" by default, or "replace" if legacy_windows_fs_encoding of PyPreConfig is non-zero.

On other platforms: use "surrogateescape" by default.

Supported error handlers:

"strict"

"surrogateescape"

"surrogatepass" (only supported with the UTF-8 encoding)

See also the filesystem_encoding member.

int use_frozen_modules

If non-zero, use frozen modules.

Set by the PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES environment variable.

Default: 1 in a release build, or 0 in a debug build.

unsigned long hash_seed

int use_hash_seed

Randomized hash function seed.

If use_hash_seed is zero, a seed is chosen randomly at Python startup, and hash_seed is ignored.

Set by the PYTHONHASHSEED environment variable.

Default use_hash_seed value: -1 in Python mode, 0 in isolated mode.

wchar_t *home

Set the default Python "home" directory, that is, the location of the standard Python libraries (see PYTHONHOME).

Set by the PYTHONHOME environment variable.

Default: NULL.

Part of the Python Path Configuration input.

int import_time

If 1, profile import time. If 2, include additional output that indicates when an imported module has already been loaded.

Set by the -X importtime option and the PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME environment variable.

Default: 0.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Added support for import_time = 2

int inspect

Enter interactive mode after executing a script or a command.

If greater than 0, enable inspect: when a script is passed as first argument or the -c option is used, enter interactive mode after executing the script or the command, even when sys.stdin does not appear to be a terminal.

Incremented by the -i command line option. Set to 1 if the PYTHONINSPECT environment variable is non-empty.

Default: 0.

int install_signal_handlers

Install Python signal handlers?

Default: 1 in Python mode, 0 in isolated mode.

int interactive

If greater than 0, enable the interactive mode (REPL).

Incremented by the -i command line option.

Default: 0.

int int_max_str_digits

Configures the integer string conversion length limitation. An initial value of -1 means the value will be taken from the command line or environment or otherwise default to 4300 (sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits). A value of 0 disables the limitation. Values greater than zero but less than 640 (sys.int_info.str_digits_check_threshold) are unsupported and will produce an error.

Configured by the -X int_max_str_digits command line flag or the PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS environment variable.

Default: -1 in Python mode. 4300 (sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits) in isolated mode.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

int cpu_count

If the value of cpu_count is not -1 then it will override the return values of os.cpu_count(), os.process_cpu_count(), and multiprocessing.cpu_count().

Configured by the -X cpu_count=n|default command line flag or the PYTHON_CPU_COUNT environment variable.

Default: -1.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

int isolated

If greater than 0, enable isolated mode:

Set safe_path to 1: don't prepend a potentially unsafe path to sys.path at Python startup, such as the current directory, the script's directory or an empty string.

Set use_environment to 0: ignore PYTHON environment variables.

Set user_site_directory to 0: don't add the user site directory to sys.path.

Python REPL doesn't import readline nor enable default readline configuration on interactive prompts.

Set to 1 by the -I command line option.

Default: 0 in Python mode, 1 in isolated mode.

See also the Isolated Configuration and PyPreConfig.isolated.

int legacy_windows_stdio

If non-zero, use io.FileIO instead of io._WindowsConsoleIO for sys.stdin, sys.stdout and sys.stderr.

Set to 1 if the PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO environment variable is set to a non-empty string.

Only available on Windows. #ifdef MS_WINDOWS macro can be used for Windows specific code.

Default: 0.

See also the PEP 528 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0528/] (Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8).

int malloc_stats

If non-zero, dump statistics on Python pymalloc memory allocator at exit.

Set to 1 by the PYTHONMALLOCSTATS environment variable.

The option is ignored if Python is configured using the --without-pymalloc option.

Default: 0.

wchar_t *platlibdir

Platform library directory name: sys.platlibdir.

Set by the PYTHONPLATLIBDIR environment variable.

Default: value of the PLATLIBDIR macro which is set by the configure --with-platlibdir option (default: "lib", or "DLLs" on Windows).

Part of the Python Path Configuration input.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: This macro is now used on Windows to locate the standard library extension modules, typically under DLLs. However, for compatibility, note that this value is ignored for any non-standard layouts, including in-tree builds and virtual environments.

wchar_t *pythonpath_env

Module search paths (sys.path) as a string separated by DELIM (os.pathsep).

Set by the PYTHONPATH environment variable.

Default: NULL.

Part of the Python Path Configuration input.

PyWideStringList module_search_paths

int module_search_paths_set

Module search paths: sys.path.

If module_search_paths_set is equal to 0, Py_InitializeFromConfig() will replace module_search_paths and sets module_search_paths_set to 1.

Default: empty list (module_search_paths) and 0 (module_search_paths_set).

Part of the Python Path Configuration output.

int optimization_level

Compilation optimization level:

0: Peephole optimizer, set __debug__ to True.

1: Level 0, remove assertions, set __debug__ to False.

2: Level 1, strip docstrings.

Incremented by the -O command line option. Set to the PYTHONOPTIMIZE environment variable value.

Default: 0.

PyWideStringList orig_argv

The list of the original command line arguments passed to the Python executable: sys.orig_argv.

If orig_argv list is empty and argv is not a list only containing an empty string, PyConfig_Read() copies argv into orig_argv before modifying argv (if parse_argv is non-zero).

See also the argv member and the Py_GetArgcArgv() function.

Default: empty list.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

int parse_argv

Parse command line arguments?

If equals to 1, parse argv the same way the regular Python parses command line arguments, and strip Python arguments from argv.

The PyConfig_Read() function only parses PyConfig.argv arguments once: PyConfig.parse_argv is set to 2 after arguments are parsed. Since Python arguments are stripped from PyConfig.argv, parsing arguments twice would parse the application options as Python options.

Default: 1 in Python mode, 0 in isolated mode.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: The PyConfig.argv arguments are now only parsed if PyConfig.parse_argv equals to 1.

int parser_debug

Parser debug mode. If greater than 0, turn on parser debugging output (for expert only, depending on compilation options).

Incremented by the -d command line option. Set to the PYTHONDEBUG environment variable value.

Needs a debug build of Python (the Py_DEBUG macro must be defined).

Default: 0.

int pathconfig_warnings

If non-zero, calculation of path configuration is allowed to log warnings into stderr. If equals to 0, suppress these warnings.

Default: 1 in Python mode, 0 in isolated mode.

Part of the Python Path Configuration input.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Now also applies on Windows.

wchar_t *prefix

The site-specific directory prefix where the platform independent Python files are installed: sys.prefix.

Default: NULL.

Part of the Python Path Configuration output.

See also PyConfig.base_prefix.

wchar_t *program_name

Program name used to initialize executable and in early error messages during Python initialization.

On macOS, use PYTHONEXECUTABLE environment variable if set.

If the WITH_NEXT_FRAMEWORK macro is defined, use __PYVENV_LAUNCHER__ environment variable if set.

Use argv[0] of argv if available and non-empty.

Otherwise, use L"python" on Windows, or L"python3" on other platforms.

Default: NULL.

Part of the Python Path Configuration input.

wchar_t *pycache_prefix

Directory where cached .pyc files are written: sys.pycache_prefix.

Set by the -X pycache_prefix=PATH command line option and the PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX environment variable. The command-line option takes precedence.

If NULL, sys.pycache_prefix is set to None.

Default: NULL.

int quiet

Quiet mode. If greater than 0, don't display the copyright and version at Python startup in interactive mode.

Incremented by the -q command line option.

Default: 0.

wchar_t *run_command

Value of the -c command line option.

Used by Py_RunMain().

Default: NULL.

wchar_t *run_filename

Filename passed on the command line: trailing command line argument without -c or -m. It is used by the Py_RunMain() function.

For example, it is set to script.py by the python3 script.py arg command line.

See also the PyConfig.skip_source_first_line option.

Default: NULL.

wchar_t *run_module

Value of the -m command line option.

Used by Py_RunMain().

Default: NULL.

wchar_t *run_presite

package.module path to module that should be imported before site.py is run.

Set by the -X presite=package.module command-line option and the PYTHON_PRESITE environment variable. The command-line option takes precedence.

Needs a debug build of Python (the Py_DEBUG macro must be defined).

Default: NULL.

int show_ref_count

Show total reference count at exit (excluding immortal objects)?

Set to 1 by -X showrefcount command line option.

Needs a debug build of Python (the Py_REF_DEBUG macro must be defined).

Default: 0.

int site_import

Import the site module at startup?

If equal to zero, disable the import of the module site and the site-dependent manipulations of sys.path that it entails.

Also disable these manipulations if the site module is explicitly imported later (call site.main() if you want them to be triggered).

Set to 0 by the -S command line option.

sys.flags.no_site is set to the inverted value of site_import.

Default: 1.

int skip_source_first_line

If non-zero, skip the first line of the PyConfig.run_filename source.

It allows the usage of non-Unix forms of #!cmd. This is intended for a DOS specific hack only.

Set to 1 by the -x command line option.

Default: 0.

wchar_t *stdio_encoding

wchar_t *stdio_errors

Encoding and encoding errors of sys.stdin, sys.stdout and sys.stderr (but sys.stderr always uses "backslashreplace" error handler).

Use the PYTHONIOENCODING environment variable if it is non-empty.

Default encoding:

"UTF-8" if PyPreConfig.utf8_mode is non-zero.

Otherwise, use the locale encoding.

Default error handler:

On Windows: use "surrogateescape".

"surrogateescape" if PyPreConfig.utf8_mode is non-zero, or if the LC_CTYPE locale is "C" or "POSIX".

"strict" otherwise.

See also PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio.

int tracemalloc

Enable tracemalloc?

If non-zero, call tracemalloc.start() at startup.

Set by -X tracemalloc=N command line option and by the PYTHONTRACEMALLOC environment variable.

Default: -1 in Python mode, 0 in isolated mode.

int perf_profiling

Enable the Linux perf profiler support?

If equals to 1, enable support for the Linux perf profiler.

If equals to 2, enable support for the Linux perf profiler with DWARF JIT support.

Set to 1 by -X perf command-line option and the PYTHONPERFSUPPORT environment variable.

Set to 2 by the -X perf_jit command-line option and the PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT environment variable.

Default: -1.

Voir aussi

See Python support for the Linux perf profiler for more information.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

wchar_t *stdlib_dir

Directory of the Python standard library.

Default: NULL.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

int use_environment

Use environment variables?

If equals to zero, ignore the environment variables.

Set to 0 by the -E environment variable.

Default: 1 in Python config and 0 in isolated config.

int use_system_logger

If non-zero, stdout and stderr will be redirected to the system log.

Only available on macOS 10.12 and later, and on iOS.

Default: 0 (don't use the system log) on macOS; 1 on iOS (use the system log).

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

int user_site_directory

If non-zero, add the user site directory to sys.path.

Set to 0 by the -s and -I command line options.

Set to 0 by the PYTHONNOUSERSITE environment variable.

Default: 1 in Python mode, 0 in isolated mode.

int verbose

Verbose mode. If greater than 0, print a message each time a module is imported, showing the place (filename or built-in module) from which it is loaded.

If greater than or equal to 2, print a message for each file that is checked for when searching for a module. Also provides information on module cleanup at exit.

Incremented by the -v command line option.

Set by the PYTHONVERBOSE environment variable value.

Default: 0.

PyWideStringList warnoptions

Options of the warnings module to build warnings filters, lowest to highest priority: sys.warnoptions.

The warnings module adds sys.warnoptions in the reverse order: the last PyConfig.warnoptions item becomes the first item of warnings.filters which is checked first (highest priority).

The -W command line options adds its value to warnoptions, it can be used multiple times.

The PYTHONWARNINGS environment variable can also be used to add warning options. Multiple options can be specified, separated by commas (,).

Default: empty list.

int write_bytecode

If equal to 0, Python won't try to write .pyc files on the import of source modules.

Set to 0 by the -B command line option and the PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE environment variable.

sys.dont_write_bytecode is initialized to the inverted value of write_bytecode.

Default: 1.

PyWideStringList xoptions

Values of the -X command line options: sys._xoptions.

Default: empty list.

int _pystats

If non-zero, write performance statistics at Python exit.

Need a special build with the Py_STATS macro: see --enable-pystats.

Default: 0.

If parse_argv is non-zero, argv arguments are parsed the same way the regular Python parses command line arguments, and Python arguments are stripped from argv.

The xoptions options are parsed to set other options: see the -X command line option.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: The show_alloc_count field has been removed.

Initialization with PyConfig

Initializing the interpreter from a populated configuration struct is handled by calling Py_InitializeFromConfig().

The caller is responsible to handle exceptions (error or exit) using PyStatus_Exception() and Py_ExitStatusException().

If PyImport_FrozenModules(), PyImport_AppendInittab() or PyImport_ExtendInittab() are used, they must be set or called after Python preinitialization and before the Python initialization. If Python is initialized multiple times, PyImport_AppendInittab() or PyImport_ExtendInittab() must be called before each Python initialization.

The current configuration (PyConfig type) is stored in PyInterpreterState.config.

Example setting the program name:

void init_python(void)
{
    PyStatus status;

    PyConfig config;
    PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(&config);

    /* Set the program name. Implicitly preinitialize Python. */
    status = PyConfig_SetString(&config, &config.program_name,
                                L"/path/to/my_program");
    if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
        goto exception;
    }

    status = Py_InitializeFromConfig(&config);
    if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
        goto exception;
    }
    PyConfig_Clear(&config);
    return;

exception:
    PyConfig_Clear(&config);
    Py_ExitStatusException(status);
}

More complete example modifying the default configuration, read the configuration, and then override some parameters. Note that since 3.11, many parameters are not calculated until initialization, and so values cannot be read from the configuration structure. Any values set before initialize is called will be left unchanged by initialization:

PyStatus init_python(const char *program_name)
{
    PyStatus status;

    PyConfig config;
    PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(&config);

    /* Set the program name before reading the configuration
       (decode byte string from the locale encoding).

       Implicitly preinitialize Python. */
    status = PyConfig_SetBytesString(&config, &config.program_name,
                                     program_name);
    if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
        goto done;
    }

    /* Read all configuration at once */
    status = PyConfig_Read(&config);
    if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
        goto done;
    }

    /* Specify sys.path explicitly */
    /* If you want to modify the default set of paths, finish
       initialization first and then use PySys_GetObject("path") */
    config.module_search_paths_set = 1;
    status = PyWideStringList_Append(&config.module_search_paths,
                                     L"/path/to/stdlib");
    if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
        goto done;
    }
    status = PyWideStringList_Append(&config.module_search_paths,
                                     L"/path/to/more/modules");
    if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
        goto done;
    }

    /* Override executable computed by PyConfig_Read() */
    status = PyConfig_SetString(&config, &config.executable,
                                L"/path/to/my_executable");
    if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
        goto done;
    }

    status = Py_InitializeFromConfig(&config);

done:
    PyConfig_Clear(&config);
    return status;
}

Isolated Configuration

PyPreConfig_InitIsolatedConfig() and PyConfig_InitIsolatedConfig() functions create a configuration to isolate Python from the system. For example, to embed Python into an application.

This configuration ignores global configuration variables, environment variables, command line arguments (PyConfig.argv is not parsed) and user site directory. The C standard streams (ex: stdout) and the LC_CTYPE locale are left unchanged. Signal handlers are not installed.

Configuration files are still used with this configuration to determine paths that are unspecified. Ensure PyConfig.home is specified to avoid computing the default path configuration.

Python Configuration

PyPreConfig_InitPythonConfig() and PyConfig_InitPythonConfig() functions create a configuration to build a customized Python which behaves as the regular Python.

Environments variables and command line arguments are used to configure Python, whereas global configuration variables are ignored.

This function enables C locale coercion (PEP 538 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/]) and Python UTF-8 Mode (PEP 540 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0540/]) depending on the LC_CTYPE locale, PYTHONUTF8 and PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE environment variables.

Python Path Configuration

PyConfig contains multiple fields for the path configuration:

Path configuration inputs:

PyConfig.home

PyConfig.platlibdir

PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings

PyConfig.program_name

PyConfig.pythonpath_env

current working directory: to get absolute paths

PATH environment variable to get the program full path (from PyConfig.program_name)

__PYVENV_LAUNCHER__ environment variable

(Windows only) Application paths in the registry under "SoftwarePythonPythonCoreX.YPythonPath" of HKEY_CURRENT_USER and HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE (where X.Y is the Python version).

Path configuration output fields:

PyConfig.base_exec_prefix

PyConfig.base_executable

PyConfig.base_prefix

PyConfig.exec_prefix

PyConfig.executable

PyConfig.module_search_paths_set, PyConfig.module_search_paths

PyConfig.prefix

If at least one "output field" is not set, Python calculates the path configuration to fill unset fields. If module_search_paths_set is equal to 0, module_search_paths is overridden and module_search_paths_set is set to 1.

It is possible to completely ignore the function calculating the default path configuration by setting explicitly all path configuration output fields listed above. A string is considered as set even if it is non-empty. module_search_paths is considered as set if module_search_paths_set is set to 1. In this case, module_search_paths will be used without modification.

Set pathconfig_warnings to 0 to suppress warnings when calculating the path configuration (Unix only, Windows does not log any warning).

If base_prefix or base_exec_prefix fields are not set, they inherit their value from prefix and exec_prefix respectively.

Py_RunMain() and Py_Main() modify sys.path:

If run_filename is set and is a directory which contains a __main__.py script, prepend run_filename to sys.path.

If isolated is zero:

If run_module is set, prepend the current directory to sys.path. Do nothing if the current directory cannot be read.

If run_filename is set, prepend the directory of the filename to sys.path.

Otherwise, prepend an empty string to sys.path.

If site_import is non-zero, sys.path can be modified by the site module. If user_site_directory is non-zero and the user's site-package directory exists, the site module appends the user's site-package directory to sys.path.

The following configuration files are used by the path configuration:

pyvenv.cfg

._pth file (ex: python._pth)

pybuilddir.txt (Unix only)

If a ._pth file is present:

Set isolated to 1.

Set use_environment to 0.

Set site_import to 0.

Set safe_path to 1.

If home is not set and a pyvenv.cfg file is present in the same directory as executable, or its parent, prefix and exec_prefix are set that location. When this happens, base_prefix and base_exec_prefix still keep their value, pointing to the base installation. See Virtual Environments for more information.

The __PYVENV_LAUNCHER__ environment variable is used to set PyConfig.base_executable.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: prefix, and exec_prefix, are now set to the pyvenv.cfg directory. This was previously done by site, therefore affected by -S.

Py_GetArgcArgv()

void Py_GetArgcArgv(int *argc, wchar_t ***argv)

Get the original command line arguments, before Python modified them.

See also PyConfig.orig_argv member.

Delaying main module execution

In some embedding use cases, it may be desirable to separate interpreter initialization from the execution of the main module.

This separation can be achieved by setting PyConfig.run_command to the empty string during initialization (to prevent the interpreter from dropping into the interactive prompt), and then subsequently executing the desired main module code using __main__.__dict__ as the global namespace.

Memory Management

Aperçu

Memory management in Python involves a private heap containing all Python objects and data structures. The management of this private heap is ensured internally by the Python memory manager. The Python memory manager has different components which deal with various dynamic storage management aspects, like sharing, segmentation, preallocation or caching.

At the lowest level, a raw memory allocator ensures that there is enough room in the private heap for storing all Python-related data by interacting with the memory manager of the operating system. On top of the raw memory allocator, several object-specific allocators operate on the same heap and implement distinct memory management policies adapted to the peculiarities of every object type. For example, integer objects are managed differently within the heap than strings, tuples or dictionaries because integers imply different storage requirements and speed/space tradeoffs. The Python memory manager thus delegates some of the work to the object-specific allocators, but ensures that the latter operate within the bounds of the private heap.

It is important to understand that the management of the Python heap is performed by the interpreter itself and that the user has no control over it, even if they regularly manipulate object pointers to memory blocks inside that heap. The allocation of heap space for Python objects and other internal buffers is performed on demand by the Python memory manager through the Python/C API functions listed in this document.

To avoid memory corruption, extension writers should never try to operate on Python objects with the functions exported by the C library: malloc(), calloc(), realloc() and free(). This will result in mixed calls between the C allocator and the Python memory manager with fatal consequences, because they implement different algorithms and operate on different heaps. However, one may safely allocate and release memory blocks with the C library allocator for individual purposes, as shown in the following example:

PyObject *res;
char *buf = (char *) malloc(BUFSIZ); /* for I/O */

if (buf == NULL)
    return PyErr_NoMemory();
...Do some I/O operation involving buf...
res = PyBytes_FromString(buf);
free(buf); /* malloc'ed */
return res;

In this example, the memory request for the I/O buffer is handled by the C library allocator. The Python memory manager is involved only in the allocation of the bytes object returned as a result.

In most situations, however, it is recommended to allocate memory from the Python heap specifically because the latter is under control of the Python memory manager. For example, this is required when the interpreter is extended with new object types written in C. Another reason for using the Python heap is the desire to inform the Python memory manager about the memory needs of the extension module. Even when the requested memory is used exclusively for internal, highly specific purposes, delegating all memory requests to the Python memory manager causes the interpreter to have a more accurate image of its memory footprint as a whole. Consequently, under certain circumstances, the Python memory manager may or may not trigger appropriate actions, like garbage collection, memory compaction or other preventive procedures. Note that by using the C library allocator as shown in the previous example, the allocated memory for the I/O buffer escapes completely the Python memory manager.

Voir aussi

The PYTHONMALLOC environment variable can be used to configure the memory allocators used by Python.

The PYTHONMALLOCSTATS environment variable can be used to print statistics of the pymalloc memory allocator every time a new pymalloc object arena is created, and on shutdown.

Allocator Domains

All allocating functions belong to one of three different "domains" (see also PyMemAllocatorDomain). These domains represent different allocation strategies and are optimized for different purposes. The specific details on how every domain allocates memory or what internal functions each domain calls is considered an implementation detail, but for debugging purposes a simplified table can be found at Default Memory Allocators. The APIs used to allocate and free a block of memory must be from the same domain. For example, PyMem_Free() must be used to free memory allocated using PyMem_Malloc().

The three allocation domains are:

Raw domain: intended for allocating memory for general-purpose memory buffers where the allocation must go to the system allocator or where the allocator can operate without an attached thread state. The memory is requested directly from the system. See Raw Memory Interface.

"Mem" domain: intended for allocating memory for Python buffers and general-purpose memory buffers where the allocation must be performed with an attached thread state. The memory is taken from the Python private heap. See Memory Interface.

Object domain: intended for allocating memory for Python objects. The memory is taken from the Python private heap. See Object allocators.

Note

The free-threaded build requires that only Python objects are allocated using the "object" domain and that all Python objects are allocated using that domain. This differs from the prior Python versions, where this was only a best practice and not a hard requirement.

For example, buffers (non-Python objects) should be allocated using PyMem_Malloc(), PyMem_RawMalloc(), or malloc(), but not PyObject_Malloc().

See Memory Allocation APIs.

Raw Memory Interface

The following function sets are wrappers to the system allocator. These functions are thread-safe, so a thread state does not need to be attached.

The default raw memory allocator uses the following functions: malloc(), calloc(), realloc() and free(); call malloc(1) (or calloc(1, 1)) when requesting zero bytes.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

void *PyMem_RawMalloc(size_t n)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.13.

Allocates n bytes and returns a pointer of type void* to the allocated memory, or NULL if the request fails.

Requesting zero bytes returns a distinct non-NULL pointer if possible, as if PyMem_RawMalloc(1) had been called instead. The memory will not have been initialized in any way.

void *PyMem_RawCalloc(size_t nelem, size_t elsize)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.13.

Allocates nelem elements each whose size in bytes is elsize and returns a pointer of type void* to the allocated memory, or NULL if the request fails. The memory is initialized to zeros.

Requesting zero elements or elements of size zero bytes returns a distinct non-NULL pointer if possible, as if PyMem_RawCalloc(1, 1) had been called instead.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

void *PyMem_RawRealloc(void *p, size_t n)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.13.

Resizes the memory block pointed to by p to n bytes. The contents will be unchanged to the minimum of the old and the new sizes.

If p is NULL, the call is equivalent to PyMem_RawMalloc(n); else if n is equal to zero, the memory block is resized but is not freed, and the returned pointer is non-NULL.

Unless p is NULL, it must have been returned by a previous call to PyMem_RawMalloc(), PyMem_RawRealloc() or PyMem_RawCalloc().

If the request fails, PyMem_RawRealloc() returns NULL and p remains a valid pointer to the previous memory area.

void PyMem_RawFree(void *p)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.13.

Frees the memory block pointed to by p, which must have been returned by a previous call to PyMem_RawMalloc(), PyMem_RawRealloc() or PyMem_RawCalloc(). Otherwise, or if PyMem_RawFree(p) has been called before, undefined behavior occurs.

If p is NULL, no operation is performed.

Memory Interface

The following function sets, modeled after the ANSI C standard, but specifying behavior when requesting zero bytes, are available for allocating and releasing memory from the Python heap.

In the GIL-enabled build (default build) the default memory allocator uses the pymalloc memory allocator, whereas in the free-threaded build, the default is the mimalloc memory allocator instead.

Avertissement

There must be an attached thread state when using these functions.

Modifié dans la version 3.6: The default allocator is now pymalloc instead of system malloc().

Modifié dans la version 3.13: In the free-threaded build, the default allocator is now mimalloc.

void *PyMem_Malloc(size_t n)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Allocates n bytes and returns a pointer of type void* to the allocated memory, or NULL if the request fails.

Requesting zero bytes returns a distinct non-NULL pointer if possible, as if PyMem_Malloc(1) had been called instead. The memory will not have been initialized in any way.

void *PyMem_Calloc(size_t nelem, size_t elsize)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

Allocates nelem elements each whose size in bytes is elsize and returns a pointer of type void* to the allocated memory, or NULL if the request fails. The memory is initialized to zeros.

Requesting zero elements or elements of size zero bytes returns a distinct non-NULL pointer if possible, as if PyMem_Calloc(1, 1) had been called instead.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

void *PyMem_Realloc(void *p, size_t n)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Resizes the memory block pointed to by p to n bytes. The contents will be unchanged to the minimum of the old and the new sizes.

If p is NULL, the call is equivalent to PyMem_Malloc(n); else if n is equal to zero, the memory block is resized but is not freed, and the returned pointer is non-NULL.

Unless p is NULL, it must have been returned by a previous call to PyMem_Malloc(), PyMem_Realloc() or PyMem_Calloc().

If the request fails, PyMem_Realloc() returns NULL and p remains a valid pointer to the previous memory area.

void PyMem_Free(void *p)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Frees the memory block pointed to by p, which must have been returned by a previous call to PyMem_Malloc(), PyMem_Realloc() or PyMem_Calloc(). Otherwise, or if PyMem_Free(p) has been called before, undefined behavior occurs.

If p is NULL, no operation is performed.

The following type-oriented macros are provided for convenience. Note that TYPE refers to any C type.

PyMem_New(TYPE, n)

Same as PyMem_Malloc(), but allocates (n * sizeof(TYPE)) bytes of memory. Returns a pointer cast to TYPE*. The memory will not have been initialized in any way.

PyMem_Resize(p, TYPE, n)

Same as PyMem_Realloc(), but the memory block is resized to (n * sizeof(TYPE)) bytes. Returns a pointer cast to TYPE*. On return, p will be a pointer to the new memory area, or NULL in the event of failure.

This is a C preprocessor macro; p is always reassigned. Save the original value of p to avoid losing memory when handling errors.

void PyMem_Del(void *p)

Same as PyMem_Free().

Deprecated aliases

These are soft deprecated aliases to existing functions and macros. They exist solely for backwards compatibility.

Deprecated alias

Corresponding function or macro

PyMem_MALLOC(size)

PyMem_Malloc()

PyMem_NEW(type, size)

PyMem_New

PyMem_REALLOC(ptr, size)

PyMem_Realloc()

PyMem_RESIZE(ptr, type, size)

PyMem_Resize

PyMem_FREE(ptr)

PyMem_Free()

PyMem_DEL(ptr)

PyMem_Free()

Modifié dans la version 3.4: The macros are now aliases of the corresponding functions and macros. Previously, their behavior was the same, but their use did not necessarily preserve binary compatibility across Python versions.

Obsolète depuis la version 2.0.

Object allocators

The following function sets, modeled after the ANSI C standard, but specifying behavior when requesting zero bytes, are available for allocating and releasing memory from the Python heap.

Note

There is no guarantee that the memory returned by these allocators can be successfully cast to a Python object when intercepting the allocating functions in this domain by the methods described in the Customize Memory Allocators section.

The default object allocator uses the pymalloc memory allocator. In the free-threaded build, the default is the mimalloc memory allocator instead.

Avertissement

There must be an attached thread state when using these functions.

void *PyObject_Malloc(size_t n)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Allocates n bytes and returns a pointer of type void* to the allocated memory, or NULL if the request fails.

Requesting zero bytes returns a distinct non-NULL pointer if possible, as if PyObject_Malloc(1) had been called instead. The memory will not have been initialized in any way.

void *PyObject_Calloc(size_t nelem, size_t elsize)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

Allocates nelem elements each whose size in bytes is elsize and returns a pointer of type void* to the allocated memory, or NULL if the request fails. The memory is initialized to zeros.

Requesting zero elements or elements of size zero bytes returns a distinct non-NULL pointer if possible, as if PyObject_Calloc(1, 1) had been called instead.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

void *PyObject_Realloc(void *p, size_t n)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Resizes the memory block pointed to by p to n bytes. The contents will be unchanged to the minimum of the old and the new sizes.

If p is NULL, the call is equivalent to PyObject_Malloc(n); else if n is equal to zero, the memory block is resized but is not freed, and the returned pointer is non-NULL.

Unless p is NULL, it must have been returned by a previous call to PyObject_Malloc(), PyObject_Realloc() or PyObject_Calloc().

If the request fails, PyObject_Realloc() returns NULL and p remains a valid pointer to the previous memory area.

void PyObject_Free(void *p)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Frees the memory block pointed to by p, which must have been returned by a previous call to PyObject_Malloc(), PyObject_Realloc() or PyObject_Calloc(). Otherwise, or if PyObject_Free(p) has been called before, undefined behavior occurs.

If p is NULL, no operation is performed.

Do not call this directly to free an object's memory; call the type's tp_free slot instead.

Do not use this for memory allocated by PyObject_GC_New or PyObject_GC_NewVar; use PyObject_GC_Del() instead.

Voir aussi

PyObject_GC_Del() is the equivalent of this function for memory allocated by types that support garbage collection.

PyObject_Malloc()

PyObject_Realloc()

PyObject_Calloc()

PyObject_New

PyObject_NewVar

PyType_GenericAlloc()

tp_free

Default Memory Allocators

Default memory allocators:

Configuration

Nom

PyMem_RawMalloc

PyMem_Malloc

PyObject_Malloc

Release build

"pymalloc"

malloc

pymalloc

pymalloc

Debug build

"pymalloc_debug"

malloc + debug

pymalloc + debug

pymalloc + debug

Release build, without pymalloc

"malloc"

malloc

malloc

malloc

Debug build, without pymalloc

"malloc_debug"

malloc + debug

malloc + debug

malloc + debug

Free-threaded build

"mimalloc"

mimalloc

mimalloc

mimalloc

Free-threaded debug build

"mimalloc_debug"

mimalloc + debug

mimalloc + debug

mimalloc + debug

Legend:

Name: value for PYTHONMALLOC environment variable.

malloc: system allocators from the standard C library, C functions: malloc(), calloc(), realloc() and free().

pymalloc: pymalloc memory allocator.

mimalloc: mimalloc memory allocator.

"+ debug": with debug hooks on the Python memory allocators.

"Debug build": Python build in debug mode.

Customize Memory Allocators

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

type PyMemAllocatorEx

Structure used to describe a memory block allocator. The structure has the following fields:

Champ

Signification

void *ctx

user context passed as first argument

void* malloc(void *ctx, size_t size)

allocate a memory block

void* calloc(void *ctx, size_t nelem, size_t elsize)

allocate a memory block initialized with zeros

void* realloc(void *ctx, void *ptr, size_t new_size)

allocate or resize a memory block

void free(void *ctx, void *ptr)

free a memory block

Modifié dans la version 3.5: The PyMemAllocator structure was renamed to PyMemAllocatorEx and a new calloc field was added.

type PyMemAllocatorDomain

Enum used to identify an allocator domain. Domains:

PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW

Functions:

PyMem_RawMalloc()

PyMem_RawRealloc()

PyMem_RawCalloc()

PyMem_RawFree()

PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM

Functions:

PyMem_Malloc(),

PyMem_Realloc()

PyMem_Calloc()

PyMem_Free()

PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ

Functions:

PyObject_Malloc()

PyObject_Realloc()

PyObject_Calloc()

PyObject_Free()

void PyMem_GetAllocator(PyMemAllocatorDomain domain, PyMemAllocatorEx *allocator)

Get the memory block allocator of the specified domain.

void PyMem_SetAllocator(PyMemAllocatorDomain domain, PyMemAllocatorEx *allocator)

Set the memory block allocator of the specified domain.

The new allocator must return a distinct non-NULL pointer when requesting zero bytes.

For the PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW domain, the allocator must be thread-safe: a thread state is not attached when the allocator is called.

For the remaining domains, the allocator must also be thread-safe: the allocator may be called in different interpreters that do not share a GIL.

If the new allocator is not a hook (does not call the previous allocator), the PyMem_SetupDebugHooks() function must be called to reinstall the debug hooks on top on the new allocator.

See also PyPreConfig.allocator and Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig.

Avertissement

PyMem_SetAllocator() does have the following contract:

It can be called after Py_PreInitialize() and before Py_InitializeFromConfig() to install a custom memory allocator. There are no restrictions over the installed allocator other than the ones imposed by the domain (for instance, the Raw Domain allows the allocator to be called without an attached thread state). See the section on allocator domains for more information.

If called after Python has finish initializing (after Py_InitializeFromConfig() has been called) the allocator must wrap the existing allocator. Substituting the current allocator for some other arbitrary one is not supported.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: All allocators must be thread-safe.

void PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(void)

Setup debug hooks in the Python memory allocators to detect memory errors.

Debug hooks on the Python memory allocators

When Python is built in debug mode, the PyMem_SetupDebugHooks() function is called at the Python preinitialization to setup debug hooks on Python memory allocators to detect memory errors.

The PYTHONMALLOC environment variable can be used to install debug hooks on a Python compiled in release mode (ex: PYTHONMALLOC=debug).

The PyMem_SetupDebugHooks() function can be used to set debug hooks after calling PyMem_SetAllocator().

These debug hooks fill dynamically allocated memory blocks with special, recognizable bit patterns. Newly allocated memory is filled with the byte 0xCD (PYMEM_CLEANBYTE), freed memory is filled with the byte 0xDD (PYMEM_DEADBYTE). Memory blocks are surrounded by "forbidden bytes" filled with the byte 0xFD (PYMEM_FORBIDDENBYTE). Strings of these bytes are unlikely to be valid addresses, floats, or ASCII strings.

Runtime checks:

Detect API violations. For example, detect if PyObject_Free() is called on a memory block allocated by PyMem_Malloc().

Detect write before the start of the buffer (buffer underflow).

Detect write after the end of the buffer (buffer overflow).

Check that there is an attached thread state when allocator functions of PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ (ex: PyObject_Malloc()) and PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM (ex: PyMem_Malloc()) domains are called.

On error, the debug hooks use the tracemalloc module to get the traceback where a memory block was allocated. The traceback is only displayed if tracemalloc is tracing Python memory allocations and the memory block was traced.

Let S = sizeof(size_t). 2*S bytes are added at each end of each block of N bytes requested. The memory layout is like so, where p represents the address returned by a malloc-like or realloc-like function (p[i:j] means the slice of bytes from *(p+i) inclusive up to *(p+j) exclusive; note that the treatment of negative indices differs from a Python slice):

p[-2*S:-S]

Number of bytes originally asked for. This is a size_t, big-endian (easier to read in a memory dump).

p[-S]

API identifier (ASCII character):

'r' for PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW.

'm' for PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM.

'o' for PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ.

p[-S+1:0]

Copies of PYMEM_FORBIDDENBYTE. Used to catch under- writes and reads.

p[0:N]

The requested memory, filled with copies of PYMEM_CLEANBYTE, used to catch reference to uninitialized memory. When a realloc-like function is called requesting a larger memory block, the new excess bytes are also filled with PYMEM_CLEANBYTE. When a free-like function is called, these are overwritten with PYMEM_DEADBYTE, to catch reference to freed memory. When a realloc- like function is called requesting a smaller memory block, the excess old bytes are also filled with PYMEM_DEADBYTE.

p[N:N+S]

Copies of PYMEM_FORBIDDENBYTE. Used to catch over- writes and reads.

p[N+S:N+2*S]

Only used if the PYMEM_DEBUG_SERIALNO macro is defined (not defined by default).

A serial number, incremented by 1 on each call to a malloc-like or realloc-like function. Big-endian size_t. If "bad memory" is detected later, the serial number gives an excellent way to set a breakpoint on the next run, to capture the instant at which this block was passed out. The static function bumpserialno() in obmalloc.c is the only place the serial number is incremented, and exists so you can set such a breakpoint easily.

A realloc-like or free-like function first checks that the PYMEM_FORBIDDENBYTE bytes at each end are intact. If they've been altered, diagnostic output is written to stderr, and the program is aborted via Py_FatalError(). The other main failure mode is provoking a memory error when a program reads up one of the special bit patterns and tries to use it as an address. If you get in a debugger then and look at the object, you're likely to see that it's entirely filled with PYMEM_DEADBYTE (meaning freed memory is getting used) or PYMEM_CLEANBYTE (meaning uninitialized memory is getting used).

Modifié dans la version 3.6: The PyMem_SetupDebugHooks() function now also works on Python compiled in release mode. On error, the debug hooks now use tracemalloc to get the traceback where a memory block was allocated. The debug hooks now also check if there is an attached thread state when functions of PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ and PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM domains are called.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Byte patterns 0xCB (PYMEM_CLEANBYTE), 0xDB (PYMEM_DEADBYTE) and 0xFB (PYMEM_FORBIDDENBYTE) have been replaced with 0xCD, 0xDD and 0xFD to use the same values than Windows CRT debug malloc() and free().

The pymalloc allocator

Python has a pymalloc allocator optimized for small objects (smaller or equal to 512 bytes) with a short lifetime. It uses memory mappings called "arenas" with a fixed size of either 256 KiB on 32-bit platforms or 1 MiB on 64-bit platforms. It falls back to PyMem_RawMalloc() and PyMem_RawRealloc() for allocations larger than 512 bytes.

pymalloc is the default allocator of the PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM (ex: PyMem_Malloc()) and PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ (ex: PyObject_Malloc()) domains.

The arena allocator uses the following functions:

VirtualAlloc() and VirtualFree() on Windows,

mmap() and munmap() if available,

malloc() and free() otherwise.

This allocator is disabled if Python is configured with the --without-pymalloc option. It can also be disabled at runtime using the PYTHONMALLOC environment variable (ex: PYTHONMALLOC=malloc).

Typically, it makes sense to disable the pymalloc allocator when building Python with AddressSanitizer (--with-address-sanitizer) which helps uncover low level bugs within the C code.

Customize pymalloc Arena Allocator

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

type PyObjectArenaAllocator

Structure used to describe an arena allocator. The structure has three fields:

Champ

Signification

void *ctx

user context passed as first argument

void* alloc(void *ctx, size_t size)

allocate an arena of size bytes

void free(void *ctx, void *ptr, size_t size)

free an arena

void PyObject_GetArenaAllocator(PyObjectArenaAllocator *allocator)

Get the arena allocator.

void PyObject_SetArenaAllocator(PyObjectArenaAllocator *allocator)

Set the arena allocator.

The mimalloc allocator

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Python supports the mimalloc [https://github.com/microsoft/mimalloc/] allocator when the underlying platform support is available. mimalloc is a general purpose allocator with excellent performance characteristics, initially developed by Daan Leijen for the runtime systems of the Koka and Lean languages.

Unlike pymalloc, which is optimized for small objects (512 bytes or fewer), mimalloc handles allocations of any size.

In the free-threaded build, mimalloc is the default and required allocator for the PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM and PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ domains. It cannot be disabled in free-threaded builds. The free-threaded build uses per-thread mimalloc heaps, which allows allocation and deallocation to proceed without locking in most cases.

In the default (non-free-threaded) build, mimalloc is available but not the default allocator. It can be selected at runtime using PYTHONMALLOC=mimalloc (or mimalloc_debug to include debug hooks). It can be disabled at build time using the --without-mimalloc configure option, but this option cannot be combined with --disable-gil.

tracemalloc C API

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

int PyTraceMalloc_Track(unsigned int domain, uintptr_t ptr, size_t size)

Track an allocated memory block in the tracemalloc module.

Return 0 on success, return -1 on error (failed to allocate memory to store the trace). Return -2 if tracemalloc is disabled.

If memory block is already tracked, update the existing trace.

int PyTraceMalloc_Untrack(unsigned int domain, uintptr_t ptr)

Untrack an allocated memory block in the tracemalloc module. Do nothing if the block was not tracked.

Return -2 if tracemalloc is disabled, otherwise return 0.

Exemples

Here is the example from section Aperçu, rewritten so that the I/O buffer is allocated from the Python heap by using the first function set:

PyObject *res;
char *buf = (char *) PyMem_Malloc(BUFSIZ); /* for I/O */

if (buf == NULL)
    return PyErr_NoMemory();
/* ...Do some I/O operation involving buf... */
res = PyBytes_FromString(buf);
PyMem_Free(buf); /* allocated with PyMem_Malloc */
return res;

The same code using the type-oriented function set:

PyObject *res;
char *buf = PyMem_New(char, BUFSIZ); /* for I/O */

if (buf == NULL)
    return PyErr_NoMemory();
/* ...Do some I/O operation involving buf... */
res = PyBytes_FromString(buf);
PyMem_Free(buf); /* allocated with PyMem_New */
return res;

Note that in the two examples above, the buffer is always manipulated via functions belonging to the same set. Indeed, it is required to use the same memory API family for a given memory block, so that the risk of mixing different allocators is reduced to a minimum. The following code sequence contains two errors, one of which is labeled as fatal because it mixes two different allocators operating on different heaps.

char *buf1 = PyMem_New(char, BUFSIZ);
char *buf2 = (char *) malloc(BUFSIZ);
char *buf3 = (char *) PyMem_Malloc(BUFSIZ);
...
PyMem_Del(buf3);  /* Wrong -- should be PyMem_Free() */
free(buf2);       /* Right -- allocated via malloc() */
free(buf1);       /* Fatal -- should be PyMem_Free()  */

In addition to the functions aimed at handling raw memory blocks from the Python heap, objects in Python are allocated and released with PyObject_New, PyObject_NewVar and PyObject_Free().

These will be explained in the next chapter on defining and implementing new object types in C.

Implémentation d'objets

Ce chapitre décrit les fonctions, types, et macros utilisées pour définir de nouveaux types d'objets.

Allouer des objets dans le tas

Deprecated aliases

Object Life Cycle

Life Events

Cyclic Isolate Destruction

Fonctions

Common Object Structures

Base object types and macros

Implementing functions and methods

Accessing attributes of extension types

Member flags

Member types

Defining Getters and Setters

Type Object Structures

Quick Reference

"tp slots"

sub-slots

slot typedefs

PyTypeObject Definition

PyObject Slots

PyVarObject Slots

PyTypeObject Slots

Static Types

Heap Types

Number Object Structures

Mapping Object Structures

Sequence Object Structures

Buffer Object Structures

Async Object Structures

Slot Type typedefs

Exemples

Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection

Controlling the Garbage Collector State

Querying Garbage Collector State

Allouer des objets dans le tas

PyObject *_PyObject_New(PyTypeObject *type)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

PyVarObject *_PyObject_NewVar(PyTypeObject *type, Py_ssize_t size)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence.

PyObject *PyObject_Init(PyObject *op, PyTypeObject *type)

Valeur de retour : référence empruntée. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Initialize a newly allocated object op with its type and initial reference. Returns the initialized object. Other fields of the object are not initialized. Despite its name, this function is unrelated to the object's __init__() method (tp_init slot). Specifically, this function does not call the object's __init__() method.

In general, consider this function to be a low-level routine. Use tp_alloc where possible. For implementing tp_alloc for your type, prefer PyType_GenericAlloc() or PyObject_New().

Note

This function only initializes the object's memory corresponding to the initial PyObject structure. It does not zero the rest.

PyVarObject *PyObject_InitVar(PyVarObject *op, PyTypeObject *type, Py_ssize_t size)

Valeur de retour : référence empruntée. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Effectue les mêmes opérations que PyObject_Init() fait, et initialise également l'information de la longueur pour un objet de taille variable.

Note

This function only initializes some of the object's memory. It does not zero the rest.

PyObject_New(TYPE, typeobj)

Allocates a new Python object using the C structure type TYPE and the Python type object typeobj (PyTypeObject*) by calling PyObject_Malloc() to allocate memory and initializing it like PyObject_Init(). The caller will own the only reference to the object (i.e. its reference count will be one).

Avoid calling this directly to allocate memory for an object; call the type's tp_alloc slot instead.

When populating a type's tp_alloc slot, PyType_GenericAlloc() is preferred over a custom function that simply calls this macro.

This macro does not call tp_alloc, tp_new (__new__()), or tp_init (__init__()).

This cannot be used for objects with Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC set in tp_flags; use PyObject_GC_New instead.

Memory allocated by this macro must be freed with PyObject_Free() (usually called via the object's tp_free slot).

Note

The returned memory is not guaranteed to have been completely zeroed before it was initialized.

Note

This macro does not construct a fully initialized object of the given type; it merely allocates memory and prepares it for further initialization by tp_init. To construct a fully initialized object, call typeobj instead. For example:

PyObject *foo = PyObject_CallNoArgs((PyObject *)&PyFoo_Type);

Voir aussi

PyObject_Free()

PyObject_GC_New

PyType_GenericAlloc()

tp_alloc

PyObject_NewVar(TYPE, typeobj, size)

Like PyObject_New except:

It allocates enough memory for the TYPE structure plus size (Py_ssize_t) fields of the size given by the tp_itemsize field of typeobj.

The memory is initialized like PyObject_InitVar().

This is useful for implementing objects like tuples, which are able to determine their size at construction time. Embedding the array of fields into the same allocation decreases the number of allocations, improving the memory management efficiency.

Avoid calling this directly to allocate memory for an object; call the type's tp_alloc slot instead.

When populating a type's tp_alloc slot, PyType_GenericAlloc() is preferred over a custom function that simply calls this macro.

This cannot be used for objects with Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC set in tp_flags; use PyObject_GC_NewVar instead.

Memory allocated by this function must be freed with PyObject_Free() (usually called via the object's tp_free slot).

Note

The returned memory is not guaranteed to have been completely zeroed before it was initialized.

Note

This macro does not construct a fully initialized object of the given type; it merely allocates memory and prepares it for further initialization by tp_init. To construct a fully initialized object, call typeobj instead. For example:

PyObject *list_instance = PyObject_CallNoArgs((PyObject *)&PyList_Type);

Voir aussi

PyObject_Free()

PyObject_GC_NewVar

PyType_GenericAlloc()

tp_alloc

PyObject _Py_NoneStruct

Objet qui est visible en tant que None dans Python. Ne devrait être accessible uniquement en utilisant la macro Py_None, qui évalue cet objet à un pointeur.

Voir aussi

Module Objects

Allouer et créer des modules d'extension.

Deprecated aliases

These are soft deprecated aliases to existing functions and macros. They exist solely for backwards compatibility.

Deprecated alias

Function

PyObject_NEW(type, typeobj)

PyObject_New

PyObject_NEW_VAR(type, typeobj, n)

PyObject_NewVar

PyObject_INIT(op, typeobj)

PyObject_Init()

PyObject_INIT_VAR(op, typeobj, n)

PyObject_InitVar()

PyObject_MALLOC(n)

PyObject_Malloc()

PyObject_REALLOC(p, n)

PyObject_Realloc()

PyObject_FREE(p)

PyObject_Free()

PyObject_DEL(p)

PyObject_Free()

PyObject_Del(p)

PyObject_Free()

Object Life Cycle

This section explains how a type's slots relate to each other throughout the life of an object. It is not intended to be a complete canonical reference for the slots; instead, refer to the slot-specific documentation in Type Object Structures for details about a particular slot.

Life Events

The figure below illustrates the order of events that can occur throughout an object's life. An arrow from A to B indicates that event B can occur after event A has occurred, with the arrow's label indicating the condition that must be true for B to occur after A.

Explanation:

When a new object is constructed by calling its type:

tp_new is called to create a new object.

tp_alloc is directly called by tp_new to allocate the memory for the new object.

tp_init initializes the newly created object. tp_init can be called again to re-initialize an object, if desired. The tp_init call can also be skipped entirely, for example by Python code calling __new__().

After tp_init completes, the object is ready to use.

Some time after the last reference to an object is removed:

If an object is not marked as finalized, it might be finalized by marking it as finalized and calling its tp_finalize function. Python does not finalize an object when the last reference to it is deleted; use PyObject_CallFinalizerFromDealloc() to ensure that tp_finalize is always called.

If the object is marked as finalized, tp_clear might be called by the garbage collector to clear references held by the object. It is not called when the object's reference count reaches zero.

tp_dealloc is called to destroy the object. To avoid code duplication, tp_dealloc typically calls into tp_clear to free up the object's references.

When tp_dealloc finishes object destruction, it directly calls tp_free (usually set to PyObject_Free() or PyObject_GC_Del() automatically as appropriate for the type) to deallocate the memory.

The tp_finalize function is permitted to add a reference to the object if desired. If it does, the object is resurrected, preventing its pending destruction. (Only tp_finalize is allowed to resurrect an object; tp_clear and tp_dealloc cannot without calling into tp_finalize.) Resurrecting an object may or may not cause the object's finalized mark to be removed. Currently, Python does not remove the finalized mark from a resurrected object if it supports garbage collection (i.e., the Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC flag is set) but does remove the mark if the object does not support garbage collection; either or both of these behaviors may change in the future.

tp_dealloc can optionally call tp_finalize via PyObject_CallFinalizerFromDealloc() if it wishes to reuse that code to help with object destruction. This is recommended because it guarantees that tp_finalize is always called before destruction. See the tp_dealloc documentation for example code.

If the object is a member of a cyclic isolate and either tp_clear fails to break the reference cycle or the cyclic isolate is not detected (perhaps gc.disable() was called, or the Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC flag was erroneously omitted in one of the involved types), the objects remain indefinitely uncollectable (they "leak"). See gc.garbage.

If the object is marked as supporting garbage collection (the Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC flag is set in tp_flags), the following events are also possible:

The garbage collector occasionally calls tp_traverse to identify cyclic isolates.

When the garbage collector discovers a cyclic isolate, it finalizes one of the objects in the group by marking it as finalized and calling its tp_finalize function, if it has one. This repeats until the cyclic isolate doesn't exist or all of the objects have been finalized.

tp_finalize is permitted to resurrect the object by adding a reference from outside the cyclic isolate. The new reference causes the group of objects to no longer form a cyclic isolate (the reference cycle may still exist, but if it does the objects are no longer isolated).

When the garbage collector discovers a cyclic isolate and all of the objects in the group have already been marked as finalized, the garbage collector clears one or more of the uncleared objects in the group (possibly concurrently) by calling each's tp_clear function. This repeats as long as the cyclic isolate still exists and not all of the objects have been cleared.

Cyclic Isolate Destruction

Listed below are the stages of life of a hypothetical cyclic isolate that continues to exist after each member object is finalized or cleared. It is a memory leak if a cyclic isolate progresses through all of these stages; it should vanish once all objects are cleared, if not sooner. A cyclic isolate can vanish either because the reference cycle is broken or because the objects are no longer isolated due to finalizer resurrection (see tp_finalize).

Reachable (not yet a cyclic isolate): All objects are in their normal, reachable state. A reference cycle could exist, but an external reference means the objects are not yet isolated.

Unreachable but consistent: The final reference from outside the cyclic group of objects has been removed, causing the objects to become isolated (thus a cyclic isolate is born). None of the group's objects have been finalized or cleared yet. The cyclic isolate remains at this stage until some future run of the garbage collector (not necessarily the next run because the next run might not scan every object).

Mix of finalized and not finalized: Objects in a cyclic isolate are finalized one at a time, which means that there is a period of time when the cyclic isolate is composed of a mix of finalized and non-finalized objects. Finalization order is unspecified, so it can appear random. A finalized object must behave in a sane manner when non-finalized objects interact with it, and a non-finalized object must be able to tolerate the finalization of an arbitrary subset of its referents.

All finalized: All objects in a cyclic isolate are finalized before any of them are cleared.

Mix of finalized and cleared: The objects can be cleared serially or concurrently (but with the GIL held); either way, some will finish before others. A finalized object must be able to tolerate the clearing of a subset of its referents. PEP 442 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/] calls this stage "cyclic trash".

Leaked: If a cyclic isolate still exists after all objects in the group have been finalized and cleared, then the objects remain indefinitely uncollectable (see gc.garbage). It is a bug if a cyclic isolate reaches this stage---it means the tp_clear methods of the participating objects have failed to break the reference cycle as required.

If tp_clear did not exist, then Python would have no way to safely break a reference cycle. Simply destroying an object in a cyclic isolate would result in a dangling pointer, triggering undefined behavior when an object referencing the destroyed object is itself destroyed. The clearing step makes object destruction a two-phase process: first tp_clear is called to partially destroy the objects enough to detangle them from each other, then tp_dealloc is called to complete the destruction.

Unlike clearing, finalization is not a phase of destruction. A finalized object must still behave properly by continuing to fulfill its design contracts. An object's finalizer is allowed to execute arbitrary Python code, and is even allowed to prevent the impending destruction by adding a reference. The finalizer is only related to destruction by call order---if it runs, it runs before destruction, which starts with tp_clear (if called) and concludes with tp_dealloc.

The finalization step is not necessary to safely reclaim the objects in a cyclic isolate, but its existence makes it easier to design types that behave in a sane manner when objects are cleared. Clearing an object might necessarily leave it in a broken, partially destroyed state---it might be unsafe to call any of the cleared object's methods or access any of its attributes. With finalization, only finalized objects can possibly interact with cleared objects; non-finalized objects are guaranteed to interact with only non-cleared (but potentially finalized) objects.

To summarize the possible interactions:

A non-finalized object might have references to or from non-finalized and finalized objects, but not to or from cleared objects.

A finalized object might have references to or from non-finalized, finalized, and cleared objects.

A cleared object might have references to or from finalized and cleared objects, but not to or from non-finalized objects.

Without any reference cycles, an object can be simply destroyed once its last reference is deleted; the finalization and clearing steps are not necessary to safely reclaim unused objects. However, it can be useful to automatically call tp_finalize and tp_clear before destruction anyway because type design is simplified when all objects always experience the same series of events regardless of whether they participated in a cyclic isolate. Python currently only calls tp_finalize and tp_clear as needed to destroy a cyclic isolate; this may change in a future version.

Fonctions

To allocate and free memory, see Allouer des objets dans le tas.

void PyObject_CallFinalizer(PyObject *op)

Finalizes the object as described in tp_finalize. Call this function (or PyObject_CallFinalizerFromDealloc()) instead of calling tp_finalize directly because this function may deduplicate multiple calls to tp_finalize. Currently, calls are only deduplicated if the type supports garbage collection (i.e., the Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC flag is set); this may change in the future.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

int PyObject_CallFinalizerFromDealloc(PyObject *op)

Same as PyObject_CallFinalizer() but meant to be called at the beginning of the object's destructor (tp_dealloc). There must not be any references to the object. If the object's finalizer resurrects the object, this function returns -1; no further destruction should happen. Otherwise, this function returns 0 and destruction can continue normally.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Voir aussi

tp_dealloc for example code.

Common Object Structures

There are a large number of structures which are used in the definition of object types for Python. This section describes these structures and how they are used.

Base object types and macros

All Python objects ultimately share a small number of fields at the beginning of the object's representation in memory. These are represented by the PyObject and PyVarObject types, which are defined, in turn, by the expansions of some macros also used, whether directly or indirectly, in the definition of all other Python objects. Additional macros can be found under reference counting.

type PyObject

Fait partie de l' API limitée. (Seuls quelques attributs font partie de l'ABI stable.)

All object types are extensions of this type. This is a type which contains the information Python needs to treat a pointer to an object as an object. In a normal "release" build, it contains only the object's reference count and a pointer to the corresponding type object. Nothing is actually declared to be a PyObject, but every pointer to a Python object can be cast to a PyObject*.

The members must not be accessed directly; instead use macros such as Py_REFCNT and Py_TYPE.

Py_ssize_t ob_refcnt

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

The object's reference count, as returned by Py_REFCNT. Do not use this field directly; instead use functions and macros such as Py_REFCNT, Py_INCREF() and Py_DecRef().

The field type may be different from Py_ssize_t, depending on build configuration and platform.

PyTypeObject *ob_type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

The object's type. Do not use this field directly; use Py_TYPE and Py_SET_TYPE() instead.

type PyVarObject

Fait partie de l' API limitée. (Seuls quelques attributs font partie de l'ABI stable.)

An extension of PyObject that adds the ob_size field. This is intended for objects that have some notion of length.

As with PyObject, the members must not be accessed directly; instead use macros such as Py_SIZE, Py_REFCNT and Py_TYPE.

Py_ssize_t ob_size

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

A size field, whose contents should be considered an object's internal implementation detail.

Do not use this field directly; use Py_SIZE instead.

Object creation functions such as PyObject_NewVar() will generally set this field to the requested size (number of items). After creation, arbitrary values can be stored in ob_size using Py_SET_SIZE.

To get an object's publicly exposed length, as returned by the Python function len(), use PyObject_Length() instead.

PyObject_HEAD

This is a macro used when declaring new types which represent objects without a varying length. The PyObject_HEAD macro expands to:

PyObject ob_base;

See documentation of PyObject above.

PyObject_VAR_HEAD

This is a macro used when declaring new types which represent objects with a length that varies from instance to instance. The PyObject_VAR_HEAD macro expands to:

PyVarObject ob_base;

See documentation of PyVarObject above.

PyTypeObject PyBaseObject_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

The base class of all other objects, the same as object in Python.

int Py_Is(PyObject *x, PyObject *y)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.10.

Test if the x object is the y object, the same as x is y in Python.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

int Py_IsNone(PyObject *x)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.10.

Test if an object is the None singleton, the same as x is None in Python.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

int Py_IsTrue(PyObject *x)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.10.

Test if an object is the True singleton, the same as x is True in Python.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

int Py_IsFalse(PyObject *x)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.10.

Test if an object is the False singleton, the same as x is False in Python.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

PyTypeObject *Py_TYPE(PyObject *o)

Valeur de retour : référence empruntée. Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.14.

Get the type of the Python object o.

The returned reference is borrowed from o. Do not release it with Py_DECREF() or similar.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Py_TYPE() is changed to an inline static function. The parameter type is no longer const PyObject*.

int Py_IS_TYPE(PyObject *o, PyTypeObject *type)

Return non-zero if the object o type is type. Return zero otherwise. Equivalent to: Py_TYPE(o) == type.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

void Py_SET_TYPE(PyObject *o, PyTypeObject *type)

Set the type of object o to type, without any checking or reference counting.

This is a very low-level operation. Consider instead setting the Python attribute __class__ using PyObject_SetAttrString() or similar.

Note that assigning an incompatible type can lead to undefined behavior.

If type is a heap type, the caller must create a new reference to it. Similarly, if the old type of o is a heap type, the caller must release a reference to that type.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

Py_ssize_t Py_SIZE(PyVarObject *o)

Get the ob_size field of o.

Modifié dans la version 3.11: Py_SIZE() is changed to an inline static function. The parameter type is no longer const PyVarObject*.

void Py_SET_SIZE(PyVarObject *o, Py_ssize_t size)

Set the ob_size field of o to size.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

PyObject_HEAD_INIT(type)

This is a macro which expands to initialization values for a new PyObject type. This macro expands to:

_PyObject_EXTRA_INIT
1, type,

PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(type, size)

This is a macro which expands to initialization values for a new PyVarObject type, including the ob_size field. This macro expands to:

_PyObject_EXTRA_INIT
1, type, size,

Implementing functions and methods

type PyCFunction

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Type of the functions used to implement most Python callables in C. Functions of this type take two PyObject* parameters and return one such value. If the return value is NULL, an exception shall have been set. If not NULL, the return value is interpreted as the return value of the function as exposed in Python. The function must return a new reference.

The function signature is:

PyObject *PyCFunction(PyObject *self,
                      PyObject *args);

type PyCFunctionWithKeywords

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Type of the functions used to implement Python callables in C with signature METH_VARARGS | METH_KEYWORDS. The function signature is:

PyObject *PyCFunctionWithKeywords(PyObject *self,
                                  PyObject *args,
                                  PyObject *kwargs);

type PyCFunctionFast

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.13.

Type of the functions used to implement Python callables in C with signature METH_FASTCALL. The function signature is:

PyObject *PyCFunctionFast(PyObject *self,
                          PyObject *const *args,
                          Py_ssize_t nargs);

type PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.13.

Type of the functions used to implement Python callables in C with signature METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS. The function signature is:

PyObject *PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords(PyObject *self,
                                      PyObject *const *args,
                                      Py_ssize_t nargs,
                                      PyObject *kwnames);

type PyCMethod

Type of the functions used to implement Python callables in C with signature METH_METHOD | METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS. The function signature is:

PyObject *PyCMethod(PyObject *self,
                    PyTypeObject *defining_class,
                    PyObject *const *args,
                    Py_ssize_t nargs,
                    PyObject *kwnames)

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

type PyMethodDef

Fait partie de l' ABI stable (incluant tous les attributs).

Structure used to describe a method of an extension type. This structure has four fields:

const char *ml_name

Name of the method.

PyCFunction ml_meth

Pointer to the C implementation.

int ml_flags

Flags bits indicating how the call should be constructed.

const char *ml_doc

Points to the contents of the docstring.

The ml_meth is a C function pointer. The functions may be of different types, but they always return PyObject*. If the function is not of the PyCFunction, the compiler will require a cast in the method table. Even though PyCFunction defines the first parameter as PyObject*, it is common that the method implementation uses the specific C type of the self object.

The ml_flags field is a bitfield which can include the following flags. The individual flags indicate either a calling convention or a binding convention.

There are these calling conventions:

METH_VARARGS

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This is the typical calling convention, where the methods have the type PyCFunction. The function expects two PyObject* values. The first one is the self object for methods; for module functions, it is the module object. The second parameter (often called args) is a tuple object representing all arguments. This parameter is typically processed using PyArg_ParseTuple() or PyArg_UnpackTuple().

METH_KEYWORDS

Can only be used in certain combinations with other flags: METH_VARARGS | METH_KEYWORDS, METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS and METH_METHOD | METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS.

METH_VARARGS | METH_KEYWORDS

Methods with these flags must be of type PyCFunctionWithKeywords. The function expects three parameters: self, args, kwargs where kwargs is a dictionary of all the keyword arguments or possibly NULL if there are no keyword arguments. The parameters are typically processed using PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords().

METH_FASTCALL

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

Fast calling convention supporting only positional arguments. The methods have the type PyCFunctionFast. The first parameter is self, the second parameter is a C array of PyObject* values indicating the arguments and the third parameter is the number of arguments (the length of the array).

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: METH_FASTCALL is now part of the stable ABI.

METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS

Extension of METH_FASTCALL supporting also keyword arguments, with methods of type PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords. Keyword arguments are passed the same way as in the vectorcall protocol: there is an additional fourth PyObject* parameter which is a tuple representing the names of the keyword arguments (which are guaranteed to be strings) or possibly NULL if there are no keywords. The values of the keyword arguments are stored in the args array, after the positional arguments.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

METH_METHOD

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.7.

Can only be used in the combination with other flags: METH_METHOD | METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS.

METH_METHOD | METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS

Extension of METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS supporting the defining class, that is, the class that contains the method in question. The defining class might be a superclass of Py_TYPE(self).

The method needs to be of type PyCMethod, the same as for METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS with defining_class argument added after self.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

METH_NOARGS

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Methods without parameters don't need to check whether arguments are given if they are listed with the METH_NOARGS flag. They need to be of type PyCFunction. The first parameter is typically named self and will hold a reference to the module or object instance. In all cases the second parameter will be NULL.

The function must have 2 parameters. Since the second parameter is unused, Py_UNUSED can be used to prevent a compiler warning.

METH_O

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Methods with a single object argument can be listed with the METH_O flag, instead of invoking PyArg_ParseTuple() with a "O" argument. They have the type PyCFunction, with the self parameter, and a PyObject* parameter representing the single argument.

These two constants are not used to indicate the calling convention but the binding when used with methods of classes. These may not be used for functions defined for modules. At most one of these flags may be set for any given method.

METH_CLASS

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

The method will be passed the type object as the first parameter rather than an instance of the type. This is used to create class methods, similar to what is created when using the classmethod() built-in function.

METH_STATIC

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

The method will be passed NULL as the first parameter rather than an instance of the type. This is used to create static methods, similar to what is created when using the staticmethod() built-in function.

One other constant controls whether a method is loaded in place of another definition with the same method name.

METH_COEXIST

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

The method will be loaded in place of existing definitions. Without METH_COEXIST, the default is to skip repeated definitions. Since slot wrappers are loaded before the method table, the existence of a sq_contains slot, for example, would generate a wrapped method named __contains__() and preclude the loading of a corresponding PyCFunction with the same name. With the flag defined, the PyCFunction will be loaded in place of the wrapper object and will co-exist with the slot. This is helpful because calls to PyCFunctions are optimized more than wrapper object calls.

PyTypeObject PyCMethod_Type

The type object corresponding to Python C method objects. This is available as types.BuiltinMethodType in the Python layer.

int PyCMethod_Check(PyObject *op)

Return true if op is an instance of the PyCMethod_Type type or a subtype of it. This function always succeeds.

int PyCMethod_CheckExact(PyObject *op)

This is the same as PyCMethod_Check(), but does not account for subtypes.

PyObject *PyCMethod_New(PyMethodDef *ml, PyObject *self, PyObject *module, PyTypeObject *cls)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.9.

Turn ml into a Python callable object. The caller must ensure that ml outlives the callable. Typically, ml is defined as a static variable.

The self parameter will be passed as the self argument to the C function in ml->ml_meth when invoked. self can be NULL.

The callable object's __module__ attribute can be set from the given module argument. module should be a Python string, which will be used as name of the module the function is defined in. If unavailable, it can be set to None or NULL.

Voir aussi

function.__module__

The cls parameter will be passed as the defining_class argument to the C function. Must be set if METH_METHOD is set on ml->ml_flags.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

PyTypeObject PyCFunction_Type

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

The type object corresponding to Python C function objects. This is available as types.BuiltinFunctionType in the Python layer.

int PyCFunction_Check(PyObject *op)

Return true if op is an instance of the PyCFunction_Type type or a subtype of it. This function always succeeds.

int PyCFunction_CheckExact(PyObject *op)

This is the same as PyCFunction_Check(), but does not account for subtypes.

PyObject *PyCFunction_NewEx(PyMethodDef *ml, PyObject *self, PyObject *module)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Equivalent to PyCMethod_New(ml, self, module, NULL).

PyObject *PyCFunction_New(PyMethodDef *ml, PyObject *self)

Valeur de retour : nouvelle référence. Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.4.

Equivalent to PyCMethod_New(ml, self, NULL, NULL).

int PyCFunction_GetFlags(PyObject *func)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Get the function's flags on func as they were passed to ml_flags.

If func is not a C function object, this fails with an exception. func must not be NULL.

This function returns the function's flags on success, and -1 with an exception set on failure.

int PyCFunction_GET_FLAGS(PyObject *func)

This is the same as PyCFunction_GetFlags(), but without error or type checking.

PyCFunction PyCFunction_GetFunction(PyObject *func)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Get the function pointer on func as it was passed to ml_meth.

If func is not a C function object, this fails with an exception. func must not be NULL.

This function returns the function pointer on success, and NULL with an exception set on failure.

int PyCFunction_GET_FUNCTION(PyObject *func)

This is the same as PyCFunction_GetFunction(), but without error or type checking.

PyObject *PyCFunction_GetSelf(PyObject *func)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Get the "self" object on func. This is the object that would be passed to the first argument of a PyCFunction. For C function objects created through a PyMethodDef on a PyModuleDef, this is the resulting module object.

If func is not a C function object, this fails with an exception. func must not be NULL.

This function returns a borrowed reference to the "self" object on success, and NULL with an exception set on failure.

PyObject *PyCFunction_GET_SELF(PyObject *func)

This is the same as PyCFunction_GetSelf(), but without error or type checking.

Accessing attributes of extension types

type PyMemberDef

Fait partie de l' ABI stable (incluant tous les attributs).

Structure which describes an attribute of a type which corresponds to a C struct member. When defining a class, put a NULL-terminated array of these structures in the tp_members slot.

Its fields are, in order:

const char *name

Name of the member. A NULL value marks the end of a PyMemberDef[] array.

The string should be static, no copy is made of it.

int type

The type of the member in the C struct. See Member types for the possible values.

Py_ssize_t offset

The offset in bytes that the member is located on the type’s object struct.

int flags

Zero or more of the Member flags, combined using bitwise OR.

const char *doc

The docstring, or NULL. The string should be static, no copy is made of it. Typically, it is defined using PyDoc_STR.

By default (when flags is 0), members allow both read and write access. Use the Py_READONLY flag for read-only access. Certain types, like Py_T_STRING, imply Py_READONLY. Only Py_T_OBJECT_EX (and legacy T_OBJECT) members can be deleted.

For heap-allocated types (created using PyType_FromSpec() or similar), PyMemberDef may contain a definition for the special member "__vectorcalloffset__", corresponding to tp_vectorcall_offset in type objects. This member must be defined with Py_T_PYSSIZET, and either Py_READONLY or Py_READONLY | Py_RELATIVE_OFFSET. For example:

static PyMemberDef spam_type_members[] = {
    {"__vectorcalloffset__", Py_T_PYSSIZET,
     offsetof(Spam_object, vectorcall), Py_READONLY},
    {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
};

(You may need to #include <stddef.h> for offsetof().)

The legacy offsets tp_dictoffset and tp_weaklistoffset can be defined similarly using "__dictoffset__" and "__weaklistoffset__" members, but extensions are strongly encouraged to use Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT and Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF instead.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: PyMemberDef is always available. Previously, it required including "structmember.h".

Modifié dans la version 3.14: Py_RELATIVE_OFFSET is now allowed for "__vectorcalloffset__", "__dictoffset__" and "__weaklistoffset__".

PyObject *PyMember_GetOne(const char *obj_addr, struct PyMemberDef *m)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Get an attribute belonging to the object at address obj_addr. The attribute is described by PyMemberDef m. Returns NULL on error.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: PyMember_GetOne is always available. Previously, it required including "structmember.h".

int PyMember_SetOne(char *obj_addr, struct PyMemberDef *m, PyObject *o)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Set an attribute belonging to the object at address obj_addr to object o. The attribute to set is described by PyMemberDef m. Returns 0 if successful and a negative value on failure.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: PyMember_SetOne is always available. Previously, it required including "structmember.h".

Member flags

The following flags can be used with PyMemberDef.flags:

Py_READONLY

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.12.

Not writable.

Py_AUDIT_READ

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.12.

Emit an object.__getattr__ audit event before reading.

Py_RELATIVE_OFFSET

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.12.

Indicates that the offset of this PyMemberDef entry indicates an offset from the subclass-specific data, rather than from PyObject.

Can only be used as part of the Py_tp_members slot when creating a class using negative basicsize. It is mandatory in that case. When setting tp_members from the slot during class creation, Python clears the flag and sets PyMemberDef.offset to the offset from the PyObject struct.

Modifié dans la version 3.10: The RESTRICTED, READ_RESTRICTED and WRITE_RESTRICTED macros available with #include "structmember.h" are deprecated. READ_RESTRICTED and RESTRICTED are equivalent to Py_AUDIT_READ; WRITE_RESTRICTED does nothing.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: The READONLY macro was renamed to Py_READONLY. The PY_AUDIT_READ macro was renamed with the Py_ prefix. The new names are now always available. Previously, these required #include "structmember.h". The header is still available and it provides the old names.

Member types

PyMemberDef.type can be one of the following macros corresponding to various C types. When the member is accessed in Python, it will be converted to the equivalent Python type. When it is set from Python, it will be converted back to the C type. If that is not possible, an exception such as TypeError or ValueError is raised.

Unless marked (D), attributes defined this way cannot be deleted using e.g. del or delattr().

Macro name

Type C

Type Python

Py_T_BYTE

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.12.

char

int

Py_T_SHORT

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.12.

short

int

Py_T_INT

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.12.

int

int

Py_T_LONG

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.12.

long

int

Py_T_LONGLONG

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.12.

long long

int

Py_T_UBYTE

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.12.

unsigned char

int

Py_T_UINT

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.12.

unsigned int

int

Py_T_USHORT

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.12.

unsigned short

int

Py_T_ULONG

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.12.

unsigned long

int

Py_T_ULONGLONG

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.12.

unsigned long long

int

Py_T_PYSSIZET

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.12.

Py_ssize_t

int

Py_T_FLOAT

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.12.

float

float

Py_T_DOUBLE

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.12.

double

float

Py_T_BOOL

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.12.

char (written as 0 or 1)

bool

Py_T_STRING

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.12.

const char* (*)

str (RO)

Py_T_STRING_INPLACE

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.12.

const char[] (*)

str (RO)

Py_T_CHAR

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.12.

char (0-127)

str (**)

Py_T_OBJECT_EX

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.12.

PyObject*

object (D)

(*): Zero-terminated, UTF8-encoded C string. With Py_T_STRING the C representation is a pointer; with Py_T_STRING_INPLACE the string is stored directly in the structure.

(**): String of length 1. Only ASCII is accepted.

(RO): Implies Py_READONLY.

(D): Can be deleted, in which case the pointer is set to NULL. Reading a NULL pointer raises AttributeError.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12: In previous versions, the macros were only available with #include "structmember.h" and were named without the Py_ prefix (e.g. as T_INT). The header is still available and contains the old names, along with the following deprecated types:

T_OBJECT

Like Py_T_OBJECT_EX, but NULL is converted to None. This results in surprising behavior in Python: deleting the attribute effectively sets it to None.

T_NONE

Always None. Must be used with Py_READONLY.

Defining Getters and Setters

type PyGetSetDef

Fait partie de l' ABI stable (incluant tous les attributs).

Structure to define property-like access for a type. See also description of the PyTypeObject.tp_getset slot.

const char *name

attribute name

getter get

C function to get the attribute.

setter set

Optional C function to set or delete the attribute. If NULL, the attribute is read-only.

const char *doc

optional docstring

void *closure

Optional user data pointer, providing additional data for getter and setter.

typedef PyObject *(*getter)(PyObject*, void*)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

The get function takes one PyObject* parameter (the instance) and a user data pointer (the associated closure):

It should return a new reference on success or NULL with a set exception on failure.

typedef int (*setter)(PyObject*, PyObject*, void*)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

set functions take two PyObject* parameters (the instance and the value to be set) and a user data pointer (the associated closure):

In case the attribute should be deleted the second parameter is NULL. Should return 0 on success or -1 with a set exception on failure.

Type Object Structures

Perhaps one of the most important structures of the Python object system is the structure that defines a new type: the PyTypeObject structure. Type objects can be handled using any of the PyObject_* or PyType_* functions, but do not offer much that's interesting to most Python applications. These objects are fundamental to how objects behave, so they are very important to the interpreter itself and to any extension module that implements new types.

Type objects are fairly large compared to most of the standard types. The reason for the size is that each type object stores a large number of values, mostly C function pointers, each of which implements a small part of the type's functionality. The fields of the type object are examined in detail in this section. The fields will be described in the order in which they occur in the structure.

In addition to the following quick reference, the Exemples section provides at-a-glance insight into the meaning and use of PyTypeObject.

Quick Reference

"tp slots"

PyTypeObject Slot [1]

Type

special methods/attrs

Info [2]

O

T

D

I

<R> tp_name

const char *

__name__

X

X

tp_basicsize

Py_ssize_t

X

X

X

tp_itemsize

Py_ssize_t

X

X

tp_dealloc

destructor

X

X

X

tp_vectorcall_offset

Py_ssize_t

X

X

(tp_getattr)

getattrfunc

__getattribute__, __getattr__

G

(tp_setattr)

setattrfunc

__setattr__, __delattr__

G

tp_as_async

PyAsyncMethods *

sub-slots

%

tp_repr

reprfunc

__repr__

X

X

X

tp_as_number

PyNumberMethods *

sub-slots

%

tp_as_sequence

PySequenceMethods *

sub-slots

%

tp_as_mapping

PyMappingMethods *

sub-slots

%

tp_hash

hashfunc

__hash__

X

G

tp_call

ternaryfunc

__call__

X

X

tp_str

reprfunc

__str__

X

X

tp_getattro

getattrofunc

__getattribute__, __getattr__

X

X

G

tp_setattro

setattrofunc

__setattr__, __delattr__

X

X

G

tp_as_buffer

PyBufferProcs *

sub-slots

%

tp_flags

unsigned long

X

X

?

tp_doc

const char *

__doc__

X

X

tp_traverse

traverseproc

X

G

tp_clear

inquiry

X

G

tp_richcompare

richcmpfunc

__lt__, __le__, __eq__, __ne__, __gt__, __ge__

X

G

(tp_weaklistoffset)

Py_ssize_t

X

?

tp_iter

getiterfunc

__iter__

X

tp_iternext

iternextfunc

__next__

X

tp_methods

PyMethodDef []

X

X

tp_members

PyMemberDef []

X

tp_getset

PyGetSetDef []

X

X

tp_base

PyTypeObject *

__base__

X

tp_dict

PyObject *

__dict__

?

tp_descr_get

descrgetfunc

__get__

X

tp_descr_set

descrsetfunc

__set__, __delete__

X

(tp_dictoffset)

Py_ssize_t

X

?

tp_init

initproc

__init__

X

X

X

tp_alloc

allocfunc

X

?

?

tp_new

newfunc

__new__

X

X

?

?

tp_free

freefunc

X

X

?

?

tp_is_gc

inquiry

X

X

<tp_bases>

PyObject *

__bases__

~

<tp_mro>

PyObject *

__mro__

~

[tp_cache]

PyObject *

[tp_subclasses]

void *

__subclasses__

[tp_weaklist]

PyObject *

(tp_del)

destructor

[tp_version_tag]

unsigned int

tp_finalize

destructor

__del__

X

tp_vectorcall

vectorcallfunc

[tp_watched]

unsigned char

[1]

(): A slot name in parentheses indicates it is (effectively) deprecated.

<>: Names in angle brackets should be initially set to NULL and treated as read-only.

[]: Names in square brackets are for internal use only.

<R> (as a prefix) means the field is required (must be non-NULL).

[2]

Columns:

"O": set on PyBaseObject_Type

"T": set on PyType_Type

"D": default (if slot is set to NULL)

X - PyType_Ready sets this value if it is NULL
~ - PyType_Ready always sets this value (it should be NULL)
? - PyType_Ready may set this value depending on other slots

Also see the inheritance column ("I").

"I": inheritance

X - type slot is inherited via *PyType_Ready* if defined with a *NULL* value
% - the slots of the sub-struct are inherited individually
G - inherited, but only in combination with other slots; see the slot's description
? - it's complicated; see the slot's description

Note that some slots are effectively inherited through the normal attribute lookup chain.

sub-slots

Slot

Type

special methods

am_await

unaryfunc

__await__

am_aiter

unaryfunc

__aiter__

am_anext

unaryfunc

__anext__

am_send

sendfunc

nb_add

binaryfunc

__add__ __radd__

nb_inplace_add

binaryfunc

__iadd__

nb_subtract

binaryfunc

__sub__ __rsub__

nb_inplace_subtract

binaryfunc

__isub__

nb_multiply

binaryfunc

__mul__ __rmul__

nb_inplace_multiply

binaryfunc

__imul__

nb_remainder

binaryfunc

__mod__ __rmod__

nb_inplace_remainder

binaryfunc

__imod__

nb_divmod

binaryfunc

__divmod__ __rdivmod__

nb_power

ternaryfunc

__pow__ __rpow__

nb_inplace_power

ternaryfunc

__ipow__

nb_negative

unaryfunc

__neg__

nb_positive

unaryfunc

__pos__

nb_absolute

unaryfunc

__abs__

nb_bool

inquiry

__bool__

nb_invert

unaryfunc

__invert__

nb_lshift

binaryfunc

__lshift__ __rlshift__

nb_inplace_lshift

binaryfunc

__ilshift__

nb_rshift

binaryfunc

__rshift__ __rrshift__

nb_inplace_rshift

binaryfunc

__irshift__

nb_and

binaryfunc

__and__ __rand__

nb_inplace_and

binaryfunc

__iand__

nb_xor

binaryfunc

__xor__ __rxor__

nb_inplace_xor

binaryfunc

__ixor__

nb_or

binaryfunc

__or__ __ror__

nb_inplace_or

binaryfunc

__ior__

nb_int

unaryfunc

__int__

nb_reserved

void *

nb_float

unaryfunc

__float__

nb_floor_divide

binaryfunc

__floordiv__

nb_inplace_floor_divide

binaryfunc

__ifloordiv__

nb_true_divide

binaryfunc

__truediv__

nb_inplace_true_divide

binaryfunc

__itruediv__

nb_index

unaryfunc

__index__

nb_matrix_multiply

binaryfunc

__matmul__ __rmatmul__

nb_inplace_matrix_multiply

binaryfunc

__imatmul__

mp_length

lenfunc

__len__

mp_subscript

binaryfunc

__getitem__

mp_ass_subscript

objobjargproc

__setitem__, __delitem__

sq_length

lenfunc

__len__

sq_concat

binaryfunc

__add__

sq_repeat

ssizeargfunc

__mul__

sq_item

ssizeargfunc

__getitem__

sq_ass_item

ssizeobjargproc

__setitem__ __delitem__

sq_contains

objobjproc

__contains__

sq_inplace_concat

binaryfunc

__iadd__

sq_inplace_repeat

ssizeargfunc

__imul__

bf_getbuffer

getbufferproc()

__buffer__

bf_releasebuffer

releasebufferproc()

__release_buffer__

slot typedefs

typedef

Parameter Types

Return Type

allocfunc

PyTypeObject *

Py_ssize_t

PyObject *

destructor

PyObject *

void

freefunc

void *

void

traverseproc

PyObject *

visitproc

void *

int

newfunc

PyTypeObject *

PyObject *

PyObject *

PyObject *

initproc

PyObject *

PyObject *

PyObject *

int

reprfunc

PyObject *

PyObject *

getattrfunc

PyObject *

const char *

PyObject *

setattrfunc

PyObject *

const char *

PyObject *

int

getattrofunc

PyObject *

PyObject *

PyObject *

setattrofunc

PyObject *

PyObject *

PyObject *

int

descrgetfunc

PyObject *

PyObject *

PyObject *

PyObject *

descrsetfunc

PyObject *

PyObject *

PyObject *

int

hashfunc

PyObject *

Py_hash_t

richcmpfunc

PyObject *

PyObject *

int

PyObject *

getiterfunc

PyObject *

PyObject *

iternextfunc

PyObject *

PyObject *

lenfunc

PyObject *

Py_ssize_t

getbufferproc

PyObject *

Py_buffer *

int

int

releasebufferproc

PyObject *

Py_buffer *

void

inquiry

PyObject *

int

unaryfunc

PyObject *

PyObject *

binaryfunc

PyObject *

PyObject *

PyObject *

ternaryfunc

PyObject *

PyObject *

PyObject *

PyObject *

ssizeargfunc

PyObject *

Py_ssize_t

PyObject *

ssizeobjargproc

PyObject *

Py_ssize_t

PyObject *

int

objobjproc

PyObject *

PyObject *

int

objobjargproc

PyObject *

PyObject *

PyObject *

int

See Slot Type typedefs below for more detail.

PyTypeObject Definition

The structure definition for PyTypeObject can be found in Include/cpython/object.h. For convenience of reference, this repeats the definition found there:

typedef struct _typeobject {
    PyObject_VAR_HEAD
    const char *tp_name; /* For printing, in format "<module>.<name>" */
    Py_ssize_t tp_basicsize, tp_itemsize; /* For allocation */

    /* Methods to implement standard operations */

    destructor tp_dealloc;
    Py_ssize_t tp_vectorcall_offset;
    getattrfunc tp_getattr;
    setattrfunc tp_setattr;
    PyAsyncMethods *tp_as_async; /* formerly known as tp_compare (Python 2)
                                    or tp_reserved (Python 3) */
    reprfunc tp_repr;

    /* Method suites for standard classes */

    PyNumberMethods *tp_as_number;
    PySequenceMethods *tp_as_sequence;
    PyMappingMethods *tp_as_mapping;

    /* More standard operations (here for binary compatibility) */

    hashfunc tp_hash;
    ternaryfunc tp_call;
    reprfunc tp_str;
    getattrofunc tp_getattro;
    setattrofunc tp_setattro;

    /* Functions to access object as input/output buffer */
    PyBufferProcs *tp_as_buffer;

    /* Flags to define presence of optional/expanded features */
    unsigned long tp_flags;

    const char *tp_doc; /* Documentation string */

    /* Assigned meaning in release 2.0 */
    /* call function for all accessible objects */
    traverseproc tp_traverse;

    /* delete references to contained objects */
    inquiry tp_clear;

    /* Assigned meaning in release 2.1 */
    /* rich comparisons */
    richcmpfunc tp_richcompare;

    /* weak reference enabler */
    Py_ssize_t tp_weaklistoffset;

    /* Iterators */
    getiterfunc tp_iter;
    iternextfunc tp_iternext;

    /* Attribute descriptor and subclassing stuff */
    PyMethodDef *tp_methods;
    PyMemberDef *tp_members;
    PyGetSetDef *tp_getset;
    // Strong reference on a heap type, borrowed reference on a static type
    PyTypeObject *tp_base;
    PyObject *tp_dict;
    descrgetfunc tp_descr_get;
    descrsetfunc tp_descr_set;
    Py_ssize_t tp_dictoffset;
    initproc tp_init;
    allocfunc tp_alloc;
    newfunc tp_new;
    freefunc tp_free; /* Low-level free-memory routine */
    inquiry tp_is_gc; /* For PyObject_IS_GC */
    PyObject *tp_bases;
    PyObject *tp_mro; /* method resolution order */
    PyObject *tp_cache; /* no longer used */
    void *tp_subclasses;  /* for static builtin types this is an index */
    PyObject *tp_weaklist; /* not used for static builtin types */
    destructor tp_del;

    /* Type attribute cache version tag. Added in version 2.6.
     * If zero, the cache is invalid and must be initialized.
     */
    unsigned int tp_version_tag;

    destructor tp_finalize;
    vectorcallfunc tp_vectorcall;

    /* bitset of which type-watchers care about this type */
    unsigned char tp_watched;

    /* Number of tp_version_tag values used.
     * Set to _Py_ATTR_CACHE_UNUSED if the attribute cache is
     * disabled for this type (e.g. due to custom MRO entries).
     * Otherwise, limited to MAX_VERSIONS_PER_CLASS (defined elsewhere).
     */
    uint16_t tp_versions_used;
} PyTypeObject;

PyObject Slots

The type object structure extends the PyVarObject structure. The ob_size field is used for dynamic types (created by type_new(), usually called from a class statement). Note that PyType_Type (the metatype) initializes tp_itemsize, which means that its instances (i.e. type objects) must have the ob_size field.

PyObject.ob_refcnt

The type object's reference count is initialized to 1 by the PyObject_HEAD_INIT macro. Note that for statically allocated type objects, the type's instances (objects whose ob_type points back to the type) do not count as references. But for dynamically allocated type objects, the instances do count as references.

Inheritance:

This field is not inherited by subtypes.

PyObject.ob_type

This is the type's type, in other words its metatype. It is initialized by the argument to the PyObject_HEAD_INIT macro, and its value should normally be &PyType_Type. However, for dynamically loadable extension modules that must be usable on Windows (at least), the compiler complains that this is not a valid initializer. Therefore, the convention is to pass NULL to the PyObject_HEAD_INIT macro and to initialize this field explicitly at the start of the module's initialization function, before doing anything else. This is typically done like this:

Foo_Type.ob_type = &PyType_Type;

This should be done before any instances of the type are created. PyType_Ready() checks if ob_type is NULL, and if so, initializes it to the ob_type field of the base class. PyType_Ready() will not change this field if it is non-zero.

Inheritance:

This field is inherited by subtypes.

PyVarObject Slots

PyVarObject.ob_size

For statically allocated type objects, this should be initialized to zero. For dynamically allocated type objects, this field has a special internal meaning.

This field should be accessed using the Py_SIZE() macro.

Inheritance:

This field is not inherited by subtypes.

PyTypeObject Slots

Each slot has a section describing inheritance. If PyType_Ready() may set a value when the field is set to NULL then there will also be a "Default" section. (Note that many fields set on PyBaseObject_Type and PyType_Type effectively act as defaults.)

const char *PyTypeObject.tp_name

Pointer to a NUL-terminated string containing the name of the type. For types that are accessible as module globals, the string should be the full module name, followed by a dot, followed by the type name; for built-in types, it should be just the type name. If the module is a submodule of a package, the full package name is part of the full module name. For example, a type named T defined in module M in subpackage Q in package P should have the tp_name initializer "P.Q.M.T".

For dynamically allocated type objects, this should just be the type name, and the module name explicitly stored in the type dict as the value for key '__module__'.

For statically allocated type objects, the tp_name field should contain a dot. Everything before the last dot is made accessible as the __module__ attribute, and everything after the last dot is made accessible as the __name__ attribute.

If no dot is present, the entire tp_name field is made accessible as the __name__ attribute, and the __module__ attribute is undefined (unless explicitly set in the dictionary, as explained above). This means your type will be impossible to pickle. Additionally, it will not be listed in module documentations created with pydoc.

This field must not be NULL. It is the only required field in PyTypeObject() (other than potentially tp_itemsize).

Inheritance:

This field is not inherited by subtypes.

Py_ssize_t PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize

Py_ssize_t PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize

These fields allow calculating the size in bytes of instances of the type.

There are two kinds of types: types with fixed-length instances have a zero tp_itemsize field, types with variable-length instances have a non-zero tp_itemsize field. For a type with fixed-length instances, all instances have the same size, given in tp_basicsize. (Exceptions to this rule can be made using PyUnstable_Object_GC_NewWithExtraData().)

For a type with variable-length instances, the instances must have an ob_size field, and the instance size is tp_basicsize plus N times tp_itemsize, where N is the "length" of the object.

Functions like PyObject_NewVar() will take the value of N as an argument, and store in the instance's ob_size field. Note that the ob_size field may later be used for other purposes. For example, int instances use the bits of ob_size in an implementation-defined way; the underlying storage and its size should be accessed using PyLong_Export().

Note

The ob_size field should be accessed using the Py_SIZE() and Py_SET_SIZE() macros.

Also, the presence of an ob_size field in the instance layout doesn't mean that the instance structure is variable-length. For example, the list type has fixed-length instances, yet those instances have a ob_size field. (As with int, avoid reading lists' ob_size directly. Call PyList_Size() instead.)

The tp_basicsize includes size needed for data of the type's tp_base, plus any extra data needed by each instance.

The correct way to set tp_basicsize is to use the sizeof operator on the struct used to declare the instance layout. This struct must include the struct used to declare the base type. In other words, tp_basicsize must be greater than or equal to the base's tp_basicsize.

Since every type is a subtype of object, this struct must include PyObject or PyVarObject (depending on whether ob_size should be included). These are usually defined by the macro PyObject_HEAD or PyObject_VAR_HEAD, respectively.

The basic size does not include the GC header size, as that header is not part of PyObject_HEAD.

For cases where struct used to declare the base type is unknown, see PyType_Spec.basicsize and PyType_FromMetaclass().

Notes about alignment:

tp_basicsize must be a multiple of _Alignof(PyObject). When using sizeof on a struct that includes PyObject_HEAD, as recommended, the compiler ensures this. When not using a C struct, or when using compiler extensions like __attribute__((packed)), it is up to you.

If the variable items require a particular alignment, tp_basicsize and tp_itemsize must each be a multiple of that alignment. For example, if a type's variable part stores a double, it is your responsibility that both fields are a multiple of _Alignof(double).

Inheritance:

These fields are inherited separately by subtypes. (That is, if the field is set to zero, PyType_Ready() will copy the value from the base type, indicating that the instances do not need additional storage.)

If the base type has a non-zero tp_itemsize, it is generally not safe to set tp_itemsize to a different non-zero value in a subtype (though this depends on the implementation of the base type).

destructor PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc

The corresponding slot ID Py_tp_dealloc is part of the ABI stable.

A pointer to the instance destructor function. The function signature is:

void tp_dealloc(PyObject *self);

The destructor function should remove all references which the instance owns (e.g., call Py_CLEAR()), free all memory buffers owned by the instance, and call the type's tp_free function to free the object itself.

If you may call functions that may set the error indicator, you must use PyErr_GetRaisedException() and PyErr_SetRaisedException() to ensure you don't clobber a preexisting error indicator (the deallocation could have occurred while processing a different error):

static void
foo_dealloc(foo_object *self)
{
    PyObject *et, *ev, *etb;
    PyObject *exc = PyErr_GetRaisedException();
    ...
    PyErr_SetRaisedException(exc);
}

The dealloc handler itself must not raise an exception; if it hits an error case it should call PyErr_FormatUnraisable() to log (and clear) an unraisable exception.

No guarantees are made about when an object is destroyed, except:

Python will destroy an object immediately or some time after the final reference to the object is deleted, unless its finalizer (tp_finalize) subsequently resurrects the object.

An object will not be destroyed while it is being automatically finalized (tp_finalize) or automatically cleared (tp_clear).

CPython currently destroys an object immediately from Py_DECREF() when the new reference count is zero, but this may change in a future version.

It is recommended to call PyObject_CallFinalizerFromDealloc() at the beginning of tp_dealloc to guarantee that the object is always finalized before destruction.

If the type supports garbage collection (the Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC flag is set), the destructor should call PyObject_GC_UnTrack() before clearing any member fields.

It is permissible to call tp_clear from tp_dealloc to reduce code duplication and to guarantee that the object is always cleared before destruction. Beware that tp_clear might have already been called.

If the type is heap allocated (Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE), the deallocator should release the owned reference to its type object (via Py_DECREF()) after calling the type deallocator. See the example code below.:

static void
foo_dealloc(PyObject *op)
{
   foo_object *self = (foo_object *) op;
   PyObject_GC_UnTrack(self);
   Py_CLEAR(self->ref);
   Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free(self);
}

tp_dealloc must leave the exception status unchanged. If it needs to call something that might raise an exception, the exception state must be backed up first and restored later (after logging any exceptions with PyErr_WriteUnraisable()).

Example:

static void
foo_dealloc(PyObject *self)
{
    PyObject *exc = PyErr_GetRaisedException();

    if (PyObject_CallFinalizerFromDealloc(self) < 0) {
        // self was resurrected.
        goto done;
    }

    PyTypeObject *tp = Py_TYPE(self);

    if (tp->tp_flags & Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC) {
        PyObject_GC_UnTrack(self);
    }

    // Optional, but convenient to avoid code duplication.
    if (tp->tp_clear && tp->tp_clear(self) < 0) {
        PyErr_WriteUnraisable(self);
    }

    // Any additional destruction goes here.

    tp->tp_free(self);
    self = NULL;  // In case PyErr_WriteUnraisable() is called below.

    if (tp->tp_flags & Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE) {
        Py_CLEAR(tp);
    }

done:
    // Optional, if something was called that might have raised an
    // exception.
    if (PyErr_Occurred()) {
        PyErr_WriteUnraisable(self);
    }
    PyErr_SetRaisedException(exc);
}

tp_dealloc may be called from any Python thread, not just the thread which created the object (if the object becomes part of a refcount cycle, that cycle might be collected by a garbage collection on any thread). This is not a problem for Python API calls, since the thread on which tp_dealloc is called with an attached thread state. However, if the object being destroyed in turn destroys objects from some other C library, care should be taken to ensure that destroying those objects on the thread which called tp_dealloc will not violate any assumptions of the library.

Inheritance:

This field is inherited by subtypes.

Voir aussi

Object Life Cycle for details about how this slot relates to other slots.

Py_ssize_t PyTypeObject.tp_vectorcall_offset

An optional offset to a per-instance function that implements calling the object using the vectorcall protocol, a more efficient alternative of the simpler tp_call.

This field is only used if the flag Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL is set. If so, this must be a positive integer containing the offset in the instance of a vectorcallfunc pointer.

The vectorcallfunc pointer may be NULL, in which case the instance behaves as if Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL was not set: calling the instance falls back to tp_call.

Any class that sets Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL must also set tp_call and make sure its behaviour is consistent with the vectorcallfunc function. This can be done by setting tp_call to PyVectorcall_Call().

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Before version 3.8, this slot was named tp_print. In Python 2.x, it was used for printing to a file. In Python 3.0 to 3.7, it was unused.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Before version 3.12, it was not recommended for mutable heap types to implement the vectorcall protocol. When a user sets __call__ in Python code, only tp_call is updated, likely making it inconsistent with the vectorcall function. Since 3.12, setting __call__ will disable vectorcall optimization by clearing the Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL flag.

Inheritance:

This field is always inherited. However, the Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL flag is not always inherited. If it's not set, then the subclass won't use vectorcall, except when PyVectorcall_Call() is explicitly called.

getattrfunc PyTypeObject.tp_getattr

The corresponding slot ID Py_tp_getattr is part of the ABI stable.

An optional pointer to the get-attribute-string function.

This field is deprecated. When it is defined, it should point to a function that acts the same as the tp_getattro function, but taking a C string instead of a Python string object to give the attribute name.

Inheritance:

Group: tp_getattr, tp_getattro

This field is inherited by subtypes together with tp_getattro: a subtype inherits both tp_getattr and tp_getattro from its base type when the subtype's tp_getattr and tp_getattro are both NULL.

setattrfunc PyTypeObject.tp_setattr

The corresponding slot ID Py_tp_setattr is part of the ABI stable.

An optional pointer to the function for setting and deleting attributes.

This field is deprecated. When it is defined, it should point to a function that acts the same as the tp_setattro function, but taking a C string instead of a Python string object to give the attribute name.

Inheritance:

Group: tp_setattr, tp_setattro

This field is inherited by subtypes together with tp_setattro: a subtype inherits both tp_setattr and tp_setattro from its base type when the subtype's tp_setattr and tp_setattro are both NULL.

PyAsyncMethods *PyTypeObject.tp_as_async

Pointer to an additional structure that contains fields relevant only to objects which implement awaitable and asynchronous iterator protocols at the C-level. See Async Object Structures for details.

Ajouté dans la version 3.5: Formerly known as tp_compare and tp_reserved.

Inheritance:

The tp_as_async field is not inherited, but the contained fields are inherited individually.

reprfunc PyTypeObject.tp_repr

The corresponding slot ID Py_tp_repr is part of the ABI stable.

An optional pointer to a function that implements the built-in function repr().

The signature is the same as for PyObject_Repr():

PyObject *tp_repr(PyObject *self);

The function must return a string or a Unicode object. Ideally, this function should return a string that, when passed to eval(), given a suitable environment, returns an object with the same value. If this is not feasible, it should return a string starting with '<' and ending with '>' from which both the type and the value of the object can be deduced.

Inheritance:

This field is inherited by subtypes.

Default:

When this field is not set, a string of the form <%s object at %p> is returned, where %s is replaced by the type name, and %p by the object's memory address.

PyNumberMethods *PyTypeObject.tp_as_number

Pointer to an additional structure that contains fields relevant only to objects which implement the number protocol. These fields are documented in Number Object Structures.

Inheritance:

The tp_as_number field is not inherited, but the contained fields are inherited individually.

PySequenceMethods *PyTypeObject.tp_as_sequence

Pointer to an additional structure that contains fields relevant only to objects which implement the sequence protocol. These fields are documented in Sequence Object Structures.

Inheritance:

The tp_as_sequence field is not inherited, but the contained fields are inherited individually.

PyMappingMethods *PyTypeObject.tp_as_mapping

Pointer to an additional structure that contains fields relevant only to objects which implement the mapping protocol. These fields are documented in Mapping Object Structures.

Inheritance:

The tp_as_mapping field is not inherited, but the contained fields are inherited individually.

hashfunc PyTypeObject.tp_hash

The corresponding slot ID Py_tp_hash is part of the ABI stable.

An optional pointer to a function that implements the built-in function hash().

The signature is the same as for PyObject_Hash():

Py_hash_t tp_hash(PyObject *);

The value -1 should not be returned as a normal return value; when an error occurs during the computation of the hash value, the function should set an exception and return -1.

When this field is not set (and tp_richcompare is not set), an attempt to take the hash of the object raises TypeError. This is the same as setting it to PyObject_HashNotImplemented().

This field can be set explicitly to PyObject_HashNotImplemented() to block inheritance of the hash method from a parent type. This is interpreted as the equivalent of __hash__ = None at the Python level, causing isinstance(o, collections.Hashable) to correctly return False. Note that the converse is also true - setting __hash__ = None on a class at the Python level will result in the tp_hash slot being set to PyObject_HashNotImplemented().

Inheritance:

Group: tp_hash, tp_richcompare

This field is inherited by subtypes together with tp_richcompare: a subtype inherits both of tp_richcompare and tp_hash, when the subtype's tp_richcompare and tp_hash are both NULL.

Default:

PyBaseObject_Type uses PyObject_GenericHash().

ternaryfunc PyTypeObject.tp_call

The corresponding slot ID Py_tp_call is part of the ABI stable.

An optional pointer to a function that implements calling the object. This should be NULL if the object is not callable. The signature is the same as for PyObject_Call():

PyObject *tp_call(PyObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwargs);

Inheritance:

This field is inherited by subtypes.

reprfunc PyTypeObject.tp_str

The corresponding slot ID Py_tp_str is part of the ABI stable.

An optional pointer to a function that implements the built-in operation str(). (Note that str is a type now, and str() calls the constructor for that type. This constructor calls PyObject_Str() to do the actual work, and PyObject_Str() will call this handler.)

The signature is the same as for PyObject_Str():

PyObject *tp_str(PyObject *self);

The function must return a string or a Unicode object. It should be a "friendly" string representation of the object, as this is the representation that will be used, among other things, by the print() function.

Inheritance:

This field is inherited by subtypes.

Default:

When this field is not set, PyObject_Repr() is called to return a string representation.

getattrofunc PyTypeObject.tp_getattro

The corresponding slot ID Py_tp_getattro is part of the ABI stable.

An optional pointer to the get-attribute function.

The signature is the same as for PyObject_GetAttr():

PyObject *tp_getattro(PyObject *self, PyObject *attr);

It is usually convenient to set this field to PyObject_GenericGetAttr(), which implements the normal way of looking for object attributes.

Inheritance:

Group: tp_getattr, tp_getattro

This field is inherited by subtypes together with tp_getattr: a subtype inherits both tp_getattr and tp_getattro from its base type when the subtype's tp_getattr and tp_getattro are both NULL.

Default:

PyBaseObject_Type uses PyObject_GenericGetAttr().

setattrofunc PyTypeObject.tp_setattro

The corresponding slot ID Py_tp_setattro is part of the ABI stable.

An optional pointer to the function for setting and deleting attributes.

The signature is the same as for PyObject_SetAttr():

int tp_setattro(PyObject *self, PyObject *attr, PyObject *value);

In addition, setting value to NULL to delete an attribute must be supported. It is usually convenient to set this field to PyObject_GenericSetAttr(), which implements the normal way of setting object attributes.

Inheritance:

Group: tp_setattr, tp_setattro

This field is inherited by subtypes together with tp_setattr: a subtype inherits both tp_setattr and tp_setattro from its base type when the subtype's tp_setattr and tp_setattro are both NULL.

Default:

PyBaseObject_Type uses PyObject_GenericSetAttr().

PyBufferProcs *PyTypeObject.tp_as_buffer

Pointer to an additional structure that contains fields relevant only to objects which implement the buffer interface. These fields are documented in Buffer Object Structures.

Inheritance:

The tp_as_buffer field is not inherited, but the contained fields are inherited individually.

unsigned long PyTypeObject.tp_flags

This field is a bit mask of various flags. Some flags indicate variant semantics for certain situations; others are used to indicate that certain fields in the type object (or in the extension structures referenced via tp_as_number, tp_as_sequence, tp_as_mapping, and tp_as_buffer) that were historically not always present are valid; if such a flag bit is clear, the type fields it guards must not be accessed and must be considered to have a zero or NULL value instead.

Inheritance:

Inheritance of this field is complicated. Most flag bits are inherited individually, i.e. if the base type has a flag bit set, the subtype inherits this flag bit. The flag bits that pertain to extension structures are strictly inherited if the extension structure is inherited, i.e. the base type's value of the flag bit is copied into the subtype together with a pointer to the extension structure. The Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC flag bit is inherited together with the tp_traverse and tp_clear fields, i.e. if the Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC flag bit is clear in the subtype and the tp_traverse and tp_clear fields in the subtype exist and have NULL values.

Default:

PyBaseObject_Type uses Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE.

Bit Masks:

The following bit masks are currently defined; these can be ORed together using the | operator to form the value of the tp_flags field. The macro PyType_HasFeature() takes a type and a flags value, tp and f, and checks whether tp->tp_flags & f is non-zero.

Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE

This bit is set when the type object itself is allocated on the heap, for example, types created dynamically using PyType_FromSpec(). In this case, the ob_type field of its instances is considered a reference to the type, and the type object is INCREF'ed when a new instance is created, and DECREF'ed when an instance is destroyed (this does not apply to instances of subtypes; only the type referenced by the instance's ob_type gets INCREF'ed or DECREF'ed). Heap types should also support garbage collection as they can form a reference cycle with their own module object.

Inheritance:

???

Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This bit is set when the type can be used as the base type of another type. If this bit is clear, the type cannot be subtyped (similar to a "final" class in Java).

Inheritance:

???

Py_TPFLAGS_READY

This bit is set when the type object has been fully initialized by PyType_Ready().

Inheritance:

???

Py_TPFLAGS_READYING

This bit is set while PyType_Ready() is in the process of initializing the type object.

Inheritance:

???

Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This bit is set when the object supports garbage collection. If this bit is set, memory for new instances (see tp_alloc) must be allocated using PyObject_GC_New or PyType_GenericAlloc() and deallocated (see tp_free) using PyObject_GC_Del(). More information in section Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection.

Inheritance:

Group: Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC, tp_traverse, tp_clear

The Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC flag bit is inherited together with the tp_traverse and tp_clear fields, i.e. if the Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC flag bit is clear in the subtype and the tp_traverse and tp_clear fields in the subtype exist and have NULL values.

Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

This is a bitmask of all the bits that pertain to the existence of certain fields in the type object and its extension structures. Currently, it includes the following bits: Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_STACKLESS_EXTENSION.

Inheritance:

???

Py_TPFLAGS_METHOD_DESCRIPTOR

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.8.

This bit indicates that objects behave like unbound methods.

If this flag is set for type(meth), then:

meth.__get__(obj, cls)(*args, **kwds) (with obj not None) must be equivalent to meth(obj, *args, **kwds).

meth.__get__(None, cls)(*args, **kwds) must be equivalent to meth(*args, **kwds).

This flag enables an optimization for typical method calls like obj.meth(): it avoids creating a temporary "bound method" object for obj.meth.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

Inheritance:

This flag is never inherited by types without the Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE flag set. For extension types, it is inherited whenever tp_descr_get is inherited.

Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT

This bit indicates that instances of the class have a __dict__ attribute, and that the space for the dictionary is managed by the VM.

If this flag is set, Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC should also be set.

The type traverse function must call PyObject_VisitManagedDict() and its clear function must call PyObject_ClearManagedDict().

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Inheritance:

This flag is inherited unless the tp_dictoffset field is set in a superclass.

Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF

This bit indicates that instances of the class should be weakly referenceable.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Inheritance:

This flag is inherited unless the tp_weaklistoffset field is set in a superclass.

Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.12.

Only usable with variable-size types, i.e. ones with non-zero tp_itemsize.

Indicates that the variable-sized portion of an instance of this type is at the end of the instance's memory area, at an offset of Py_TYPE(obj)->tp_basicsize (which may be different in each subclass).

When setting this flag, be sure that all superclasses either use this memory layout, or are not variable-sized. Python does not check this.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Inheritance:

This flag is inherited.

Py_TPFLAGS_LONG_SUBCLASS

Py_TPFLAGS_LIST_SUBCLASS

Py_TPFLAGS_TUPLE_SUBCLASS

Py_TPFLAGS_BYTES_SUBCLASS

Py_TPFLAGS_UNICODE_SUBCLASS

Py_TPFLAGS_DICT_SUBCLASS

Py_TPFLAGS_BASE_EXC_SUBCLASS

Py_TPFLAGS_TYPE_SUBCLASS

Functions such as PyLong_Check() will call PyType_FastSubclass() with one of these flags to quickly determine if a type is a subclass of a built-in type; such specific checks are faster than a generic check, like PyObject_IsInstance(). Custom types that inherit from built-ins should have their tp_flags set appropriately, or the code that interacts with such types will behave differently depending on what kind of check is used.

Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE

This bit is set when the tp_finalize slot is present in the type structure.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.8: This flag isn't necessary anymore, as the interpreter assumes the tp_finalize slot is always present in the type structure.

Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.12.

This bit is set when the class implements the vectorcall protocol. See tp_vectorcall_offset for details.

Inheritance:

This bit is inherited if tp_call is also inherited.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8: as _Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL

Modifié dans la version 3.9.

Renamed to the current name, without the leading underscore. The old provisional name is soft deprecated.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: This flag is now removed from a class when the class's __call__() method is reassigned.

This flag can now be inherited by mutable classes.

Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE

This bit is set for type objects that are immutable: type attributes cannot be set nor deleted.

PyType_Ready() automatically applies this flag to static types.

Inheritance:

This flag is not inherited.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION

Disallow creating instances of the type: set tp_new to NULL and don't create the __new__ key in the type dictionary.

The flag must be set before creating the type, not after. For example, it must be set before PyType_Ready() is called on the type.

The flag is set automatically on static types if tp_base is NULL or &PyBaseObject_Type and tp_new is NULL.

Inheritance:

This flag is not inherited. However, subclasses will not be instantiable unless they provide a non-NULL tp_new (which is only possible via the C API).

Note

To disallow instantiating a class directly but allow instantiating its subclasses (e.g. for an abstract base class), do not use this flag. Instead, make tp_new only succeed for subclasses.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING

This bit indicates that instances of the class may match mapping patterns when used as the subject of a match block. It is automatically set when registering or subclassing collections.abc.Mapping, and unset when registering collections.abc.Sequence.

Note

Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING and Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE are mutually exclusive; it is an error to enable both flags simultaneously.

Inheritance:

This flag is inherited by types that do not already set Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE.

Voir aussi

PEP 634 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/] — Spécifications pour le filtrage par motif

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE

This bit indicates that instances of the class may match sequence patterns when used as the subject of a match block. It is automatically set when registering or subclassing collections.abc.Sequence, and unset when registering collections.abc.Mapping.

Note

Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING and Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE are mutually exclusive; it is an error to enable both flags simultaneously.

Inheritance:

This flag is inherited by types that do not already set Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING.

Voir aussi

PEP 634 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/] — Spécifications pour le filtrage par motif

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

Py_TPFLAGS_VALID_VERSION_TAG

Internal. Do not set or unset this flag. To indicate that a class has changed call PyType_Modified()

Avertissement

This flag is present in header files, but is not be used. It will be removed in a future version of CPython

Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VERSION_TAG

This is a soft deprecated macro that does nothing. Historically, this would indicate that the tp_version_tag field was available and initialized.

Py_TPFLAGS_INLINE_VALUES

This bit indicates that instances of this type will have an "inline values" array (containing the object's attributes) placed directly after the end of the object.

This requires that Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC is set.

Inheritance:

This flag is not inherited.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Py_TPFLAGS_IS_ABSTRACT

This bit indicates that this is an abstract type and therefore cannot be instantiated.

Inheritance:

This flag is not inherited.

Voir aussi

abc

Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_STACKLESS_EXTENSION

Internal. Do not set or unset this flag. Historically, this was a reserved flag for use in Stackless Python.

Avertissement

This flag is present in header files, but is not be used. This may be removed in a future version of CPython.

const char *PyTypeObject.tp_doc

The corresponding slot ID Py_tp_doc is part of the ABI stable.

An optional pointer to a NUL-terminated C string giving the docstring for this type object. This is exposed as the __doc__ attribute on the type and instances of the type.

Inheritance:

This field is not inherited by subtypes.

traverseproc PyTypeObject.tp_traverse

The corresponding slot ID Py_tp_traverse is part of the ABI stable.

An optional pointer to a traversal function for the garbage collector. This is only used if the Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC flag bit is set. The signature is:

int tp_traverse(PyObject *self, visitproc visit, void *arg);

More information about Python's garbage collection scheme can be found in section Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection.

The tp_traverse pointer is used by the garbage collector to detect reference cycles. A typical implementation of a tp_traverse function simply calls Py_VISIT() on each of the instance's members that are Python objects that the instance owns. For example, this is function local_traverse() from the _thread extension module:

static int
local_traverse(PyObject *op, visitproc visit, void *arg)
{
    localobject *self = (localobject *) op;
    Py_VISIT(self->args);
    Py_VISIT(self->kw);
    Py_VISIT(self->dict);
    return 0;
}

Note that Py_VISIT() is called only on those members that can participate in reference cycles. Although there is also a self->key member, it can only be NULL or a Python string and therefore cannot be part of a reference cycle.

On the other hand, even if you know a member can never be part of a cycle, as a debugging aid you may want to visit it anyway just so the gc module's get_referents() function will include it.

Heap types (Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE) must visit their type with:

Py_VISIT(Py_TYPE(self));

It is only needed since Python 3.9. To support Python 3.8 and older, this line must be conditional:

#if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x03090000
    Py_VISIT(Py_TYPE(self));
#endif

If the Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT bit is set in the tp_flags field, the traverse function must call PyObject_VisitManagedDict() like this:

PyObject_VisitManagedDict((PyObject*)self, visit, arg);

Avertissement

When implementing tp_traverse, only the members that the instance owns (by having strong references to them) must be visited. For instance, if an object supports weak references via the tp_weaklist slot, the pointer supporting the linked list (what tp_weaklist points to) must not be visited as the instance does not directly own the weak references to itself (the weakreference list is there to support the weak reference machinery, but the instance has no strong reference to the elements inside it, as they are allowed to be removed even if the instance is still alive).

Avertissement

The traversal function must not have any side effects. It must not modify the reference counts of any Python objects nor create or destroy any Python objects.

Note that Py_VISIT() requires the visit and arg parameters to local_traverse() to have these specific names; don't name them just anything.

Instances of heap-allocated types hold a reference to their type. Their traversal function must therefore either visit Py_TYPE(self), or delegate this responsibility by calling tp_traverse of another heap-allocated type (such as a heap-allocated superclass). If they do not, the type object may not be garbage-collected.

Note

The tp_traverse function can be called from any thread.

Modifié dans la version 3.9: Heap-allocated types are expected to visit Py_TYPE(self) in tp_traverse. In earlier versions of Python, due to bug 40217 [https://bugs.python.org/issue40217], doing this may lead to crashes in subclasses.

Inheritance:

Group: Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC, tp_traverse, tp_clear

This field is inherited by subtypes together with tp_clear and the Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC flag bit: the flag bit, tp_traverse, and tp_clear are all inherited from the base type if they are all zero in the subtype.

inquiry PyTypeObject.tp_clear

The corresponding slot ID Py_tp_clear is part of the ABI stable.

An optional pointer to a clear function. The signature is:

int tp_clear(PyObject *);

The purpose of this function is to break reference cycles that are causing a cyclic isolate so that the objects can be safely destroyed. A cleared object is a partially destroyed object; the object is not obligated to satisfy design invariants held during normal use.

tp_clear does not need to delete references to objects that can't participate in reference cycles, such as Python strings or Python integers. However, it may be convenient to clear all references, and write the type's tp_dealloc function to invoke tp_clear to avoid code duplication. (Beware that tp_clear might have already been called. Prefer calling idempotent functions like Py_CLEAR().)

Any non-trivial cleanup should be performed in tp_finalize instead of tp_clear.

Note

If tp_clear fails to break a reference cycle then the objects in the cyclic isolate may remain indefinitely uncollectable ("leak"). See gc.garbage.

Note

Referents (direct and indirect) might have already been cleared; they are not guaranteed to be in a consistent state.

Note

The tp_clear function can be called from any thread.

Note

An object is not guaranteed to be automatically cleared before its destructor (tp_dealloc) is called.

This function differs from the destructor (tp_dealloc) in the following ways:

The purpose of clearing an object is to remove references to other objects that might participate in a reference cycle. The purpose of the destructor, on the other hand, is a superset: it must release all resources it owns, including references to objects that cannot participate in a reference cycle (e.g., integers) as well as the object's own memory (by calling tp_free).

When tp_clear is called, other objects might still hold references to the object being cleared. Because of this, tp_clear must not deallocate the object's own memory (tp_free). The destructor, on the other hand, is only called when no (strong) references exist, and as such, must safely destroy the object itself by deallocating it.

tp_clear might never be automatically called. An object's destructor, on the other hand, will be automatically called some time after the object becomes unreachable (i.e., either there are no references to the object or the object is a member of a cyclic isolate).

No guarantees are made about when, if, or how often Python automatically clears an object, except:

Python will not automatically clear an object if it is reachable, i.e., there is a reference to it and it is not a member of a cyclic isolate.

Python will not automatically clear an object if it has not been automatically finalized (see tp_finalize). (If the finalizer resurrected the object, the object may or may not be automatically finalized again before it is cleared.)

If an object is a member of a cyclic isolate, Python will not automatically clear it if any member of the cyclic isolate has not yet been automatically finalized (tp_finalize).

Python will not destroy an object until after any automatic calls to its tp_clear function have returned. This ensures that the act of breaking a reference cycle does not invalidate the self pointer while tp_clear is still executing.

Python will not automatically call tp_clear multiple times concurrently.

CPython currently only automatically clears objects as needed to break reference cycles in a cyclic isolate, but future versions might clear objects regularly before their destruction.

Taken together, all tp_clear functions in the system must combine to break all reference cycles. This is subtle, and if in any doubt supply a tp_clear function. For example, the tuple type does not implement a tp_clear function, because it's possible to prove that no reference cycle can be composed entirely of tuples. Therefore the tp_clear functions of other types are responsible for breaking any cycle containing a tuple. This isn't immediately obvious, and there's rarely a good reason to avoid implementing tp_clear.

Implementations of tp_clear should drop the instance's references to those of its members that may be Python objects, and set its pointers to those members to NULL, as in the following example:

static int
local_clear(PyObject *op)
{
    localobject *self = (localobject *) op;
    Py_CLEAR(self->key);
    Py_CLEAR(self->args);
    Py_CLEAR(self->kw);
    Py_CLEAR(self->dict);
    return 0;
}

The Py_CLEAR() macro should be used, because clearing references is delicate: the reference to the contained object must not be released (via Py_DECREF()) until after the pointer to the contained object is set to NULL. This is because releasing the reference may cause the contained object to become trash, triggering a chain of reclamation activity that may include invoking arbitrary Python code (due to finalizers, or weakref callbacks, associated with the contained object). If it's possible for such code to reference self again, it's important that the pointer to the contained object be NULL at that time, so that self knows the contained object can no longer be used. The Py_CLEAR() macro performs the operations in a safe order.

If the Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT bit is set in the tp_flags field, the clear function must call PyObject_ClearManagedDict() like this:

PyObject_ClearManagedDict((PyObject*)self);

More information about Python's garbage collection scheme can be found in section Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection.

Inheritance:

Group: Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC, tp_traverse, tp_clear

This field is inherited by subtypes together with tp_traverse and the Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC flag bit: the flag bit, tp_traverse, and tp_clear are all inherited from the base type if they are all zero in the subtype.

Voir aussi

Object Life Cycle for details about how this slot relates to other slots.

richcmpfunc PyTypeObject.tp_richcompare

The corresponding slot ID Py_tp_richcompare is part of the ABI stable.

An optional pointer to the rich comparison function, whose signature is:

PyObject *tp_richcompare(PyObject *self, PyObject *other, int op);

The first parameter is guaranteed to be an instance of the type that is defined by PyTypeObject.

The function should return the result of the comparison (usually Py_True or Py_False). If the comparison is undefined, it must return Py_NotImplemented, if another error occurred it must return NULL and set an exception condition.

The following constants are defined to be used as the third argument for tp_richcompare and for PyObject_RichCompare():

Constante

Comparaison

Py_LT

<

Py_LE

<=

Py_EQ

==

Py_NE

!=

Py_GT

>

Py_GE

>=

The following macro is defined to ease writing rich comparison functions:

Py_RETURN_RICHCOMPARE(VAL_A, VAL_B, op)

Return Py_True or Py_False from the function, depending on the result of a comparison. VAL_A and VAL_B must be orderable by C comparison operators (for example, they may be C ints or floats). The third argument specifies the requested operation, as for PyObject_RichCompare().

The returned value is a new strong reference.

On error, sets an exception and returns NULL from the function.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

Inheritance:

Group: tp_hash, tp_richcompare

This field is inherited by subtypes together with tp_hash: a subtype inherits tp_richcompare and tp_hash when the subtype's tp_richcompare and tp_hash are both NULL.

Default:

PyBaseObject_Type provides a tp_richcompare implementation, which may be inherited. However, if only tp_hash is defined, not even the inherited function is used and instances of the type will not be able to participate in any comparisons.

Py_ssize_t PyTypeObject.tp_weaklistoffset

While this field is still supported, Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF should be used instead, if at all possible.

If the instances of this type are weakly referenceable, this field is greater than zero and contains the offset in the instance structure of the weak reference list head (ignoring the GC header, if present); this offset is used by PyObject_ClearWeakRefs() and the PyWeakref_* functions. The instance structure needs to include a field of type PyObject* which is initialized to NULL.

Do not confuse this field with tp_weaklist; that is the list head for weak references to the type object itself.

It is an error to set both the Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF bit and tp_weaklistoffset.

Inheritance:

This field is inherited by subtypes, but see the rules listed below. A subtype may override this offset; this means that the subtype uses a different weak reference list head than the base type. Since the list head is always found via tp_weaklistoffset, this should not be a problem.

Default:

If the Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF bit is set in the tp_flags field, then tp_weaklistoffset will be set to a negative value, to indicate that it is unsafe to use this field.

getiterfunc PyTypeObject.tp_iter

The corresponding slot ID Py_tp_iter is part of the ABI stable.

An optional pointer to a function that returns an iterator for the object. Its presence normally signals that the instances of this type are iterable (although sequences may be iterable without this function).

This function has the same signature as PyObject_GetIter():

PyObject *tp_iter(PyObject *self);

Inheritance:

This field is inherited by subtypes.

iternextfunc PyTypeObject.tp_iternext

The corresponding slot ID Py_tp_iternext is part of the ABI stable.

An optional pointer to a function that returns the next item in an iterator. The signature is:

PyObject *tp_iternext(PyObject *self);

When the iterator is exhausted, it must return NULL; a StopIteration exception may or may not be set. When another error occurs, it must return NULL too. Its presence signals that the instances of this type are iterators.

Iterator types should also define the tp_iter function, and that function should return the iterator instance itself (not a new iterator instance).

This function has the same signature as PyIter_Next().

Inheritance:

This field is inherited by subtypes.

struct PyMethodDef *PyTypeObject.tp_methods

The corresponding slot ID Py_tp_methods is part of the ABI stable.

An optional pointer to a static NULL-terminated array of PyMethodDef structures, declaring regular methods of this type.

For each entry in the array, an entry is added to the type's dictionary (see tp_dict below) containing a method descriptor.

Inheritance:

This field is not inherited by subtypes (methods are inherited through a different mechanism).

struct PyMemberDef *PyTypeObject.tp_members

The corresponding slot ID Py_tp_members is part of the ABI stable.

An optional pointer to a static NULL-terminated array of PyMemberDef structures, declaring regular data members (fields or slots) of instances of this type.

For each entry in the array, an entry is added to the type's dictionary (see tp_dict below) containing a member descriptor.

Inheritance:

This field is not inherited by subtypes (members are inherited through a different mechanism).

struct PyGetSetDef *PyTypeObject.tp_getset

The corresponding slot ID Py_tp_getset is part of the ABI stable.

An optional pointer to a static NULL-terminated array of PyGetSetDef structures, declaring computed attributes of instances of this type.

For each entry in the array, an entry is added to the type's dictionary (see tp_dict below) containing a getset descriptor.

Inheritance:

This field is not inherited by subtypes (computed attributes are inherited through a different mechanism).

PyTypeObject *PyTypeObject.tp_base

The corresponding slot ID Py_tp_base is part of the ABI stable.

An optional pointer to a base type from which type properties are inherited. At this level, only single inheritance is supported; multiple inheritance require dynamically creating a type object by calling the metatype.

Note

Slot initialization is subject to the rules of initializing globals. C99 requires the initializers to be "address constants". Function designators like PyType_GenericNew(), with implicit conversion to a pointer, are valid C99 address constants.

However, the unary '&' operator applied to a non-static variable like PyBaseObject_Type is not required to produce an address constant. Compilers may support this (gcc does), MSVC does not. Both compilers are strictly standard conforming in this particular behavior.

Consequently, tp_base should be set in the extension module's init function.

Inheritance:

This field is not inherited by subtypes (obviously).

Default:

This field defaults to &PyBaseObject_Type (which to Python programmers is known as the type object).

PyObject *PyTypeObject.tp_dict

The type's dictionary is stored here by PyType_Ready().

This field should normally be initialized to NULL before PyType_Ready is called; it may also be initialized to a dictionary containing initial attributes for the type. Once PyType_Ready() has initialized the type, extra attributes for the type may be added to this dictionary only if they don't correspond to overloaded operations (like __add__()). Once initialization for the type has finished, this field should be treated as read-only.

Some types may not store their dictionary in this slot. Use PyType_GetDict() to retrieve the dictionary for an arbitrary type.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Internals detail: For static builtin types, this is always NULL. Instead, the dict for such types is stored on PyInterpreterState. Use PyType_GetDict() to get the dict for an arbitrary type.

Inheritance:

This field is not inherited by subtypes (though the attributes defined in here are inherited through a different mechanism).

Default:

If this field is NULL, PyType_Ready() will assign a new dictionary to it.

Avertissement

It is not safe to use PyDict_SetItem() on or otherwise modify tp_dict with the dictionary C-API.

descrgetfunc PyTypeObject.tp_descr_get

The corresponding slot ID Py_tp_descr_get is part of the ABI stable.

An optional pointer to a "descriptor get" function.

The function signature is:

PyObject * tp_descr_get(PyObject *self, PyObject *obj, PyObject *type);

Inheritance:

This field is inherited by subtypes.

descrsetfunc PyTypeObject.tp_descr_set

The corresponding slot ID Py_tp_descr_set is part of the ABI stable.

An optional pointer to a function for setting and deleting a descriptor's value.

The function signature is:

int tp_descr_set(PyObject *self, PyObject *obj, PyObject *value);

The value argument is set to NULL to delete the value.

Inheritance:

This field is inherited by subtypes.

Py_ssize_t PyTypeObject.tp_dictoffset

While this field is still supported, Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT should be used instead, if at all possible.

If the instances of this type have a dictionary containing instance variables, this field is non-zero and contains the offset in the instances of the type of the instance variable dictionary; this offset is used by PyObject_GenericGetAttr().

Do not confuse this field with tp_dict; that is the dictionary for attributes of the type object itself.

The value specifies the offset of the dictionary from the start of the instance structure.

The tp_dictoffset should be regarded as write-only. To get the pointer to the dictionary call PyObject_GenericGetDict(). Calling PyObject_GenericGetDict() may need to allocate memory for the dictionary, so it is may be more efficient to call PyObject_GetAttr() when accessing an attribute on the object.

It is an error to set both the Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT bit and tp_dictoffset.

Inheritance:

This field is inherited by subtypes. A subtype should not override this offset; doing so could be unsafe, if C code tries to access the dictionary at the previous offset. To properly support inheritance, use Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT.

Default:

This slot has no default. For static types, if the field is NULL then no __dict__ gets created for instances.

If the Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT bit is set in the tp_flags field, then tp_dictoffset will be set to -1, to indicate that it is unsafe to use this field.

initproc PyTypeObject.tp_init

The corresponding slot ID Py_tp_init is part of the ABI stable.

An optional pointer to an instance initialization function.

This function corresponds to the __init__() method of classes. Like __init__(), it is possible to create an instance without calling __init__(), and it is possible to reinitialize an instance by calling its __init__() method again.

The function signature is:

int tp_init(PyObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds);

The self argument is the instance to be initialized; the args and kwds arguments represent positional and keyword arguments of the call to __init__().

The tp_init function, if not NULL, is called when an instance is created normally by calling its type, after the type's tp_new function has returned an instance of the type. If the tp_new function returns an instance of some other type that is not a subtype of the original type, no tp_init function is called; if tp_new returns an instance of a subtype of the original type, the subtype's tp_init is called.

Returns 0 on success, -1 and sets an exception on error.

Inheritance:

This field is inherited by subtypes.

Default:

For static types this field does not have a default.

allocfunc PyTypeObject.tp_alloc

The corresponding slot ID Py_tp_alloc is part of the ABI stable.

An optional pointer to an instance allocation function.

The function signature is:

PyObject *tp_alloc(PyTypeObject *self, Py_ssize_t nitems);

Inheritance:

Static subtypes inherit this slot, which will be PyType_GenericAlloc() if inherited from object.

Heap subtypes do not inherit this slot.

Default:

For heap subtypes, this field is always set to PyType_GenericAlloc().

For static subtypes, this slot is inherited (see above).

newfunc PyTypeObject.tp_new

The corresponding slot ID Py_tp_new is part of the ABI stable.

An optional pointer to an instance creation function.

The function signature is:

PyObject *tp_new(PyTypeObject *subtype, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds);

The subtype argument is the type of the object being created; the args and kwds arguments represent positional and keyword arguments of the call to the type. Note that subtype doesn't have to equal the type whose tp_new function is called; it may be a subtype of that type (but not an unrelated type).

The tp_new function should call subtype->tp_alloc(subtype, nitems) to allocate space for the object, and then do only as much further initialization as is absolutely necessary. Initialization that can safely be ignored or repeated should be placed in the tp_init handler. A good rule of thumb is that for immutable types, all initialization should take place in tp_new, while for mutable types, most initialization should be deferred to tp_init.

Set the Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION flag to disallow creating instances of the type in Python.

Inheritance:

This field is inherited by subtypes, except it is not inherited by static types whose tp_base is NULL or &PyBaseObject_Type.

Default:

For static types this field has no default. This means if the slot is defined as NULL, the type cannot be called to create new instances; presumably there is some other way to create instances, like a factory function.

freefunc PyTypeObject.tp_free

The corresponding slot ID Py_tp_free is part of the ABI stable.

An optional pointer to an instance deallocation function. Its signature is:

void tp_free(void *self);

This function must free the memory allocated by tp_alloc.

Inheritance:

Static subtypes inherit this slot, which will be PyObject_Free() if inherited from object. Exception: If the type supports garbage collection (i.e., the Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC flag is set in tp_flags) and it would inherit PyObject_Free(), then this slot is not inherited but instead defaults to PyObject_GC_Del().

Heap subtypes do not inherit this slot.

Default:

For heap subtypes, this slot defaults to a deallocator suitable to match PyType_GenericAlloc() and the value of the Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC flag.

For static subtypes, this slot is inherited (see above).

inquiry PyTypeObject.tp_is_gc

The corresponding slot ID Py_tp_is_gc is part of the ABI stable.

An optional pointer to a function called by the garbage collector.

The garbage collector needs to know whether a particular object is collectible or not. Normally, it is sufficient to look at the object's type's tp_flags field, and check the Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC flag bit. But some types have a mixture of statically and dynamically allocated instances, and the statically allocated instances are not collectible. Such types should define this function; it should return 1 for a collectible instance, and 0 for a non-collectible instance. The signature is:

int tp_is_gc(PyObject *self);

(The only example of this are types themselves. The metatype, PyType_Type, defines this function to distinguish between statically and dynamically allocated types.)

Inheritance:

This field is inherited by subtypes.

Default:

This slot has no default. If this field is NULL, Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC is used as the functional equivalent.

PyObject *PyTypeObject.tp_bases

The corresponding slot ID Py_tp_bases is part of the ABI stable.

Tuple of base types.

This field should be set to NULL and treated as read-only. Python will fill it in when the type is initialized.

For dynamically created classes, the Py_tp_bases slot can be used instead of the bases argument of PyType_FromSpecWithBases(). The argument form is preferred.

Avertissement

Multiple inheritance does not work well for statically defined types. If you set tp_bases to a tuple, Python will not raise an error, but some slots will only be inherited from the first base.

Inheritance:

This field is not inherited.

PyObject *PyTypeObject.tp_mro

Tuple containing the expanded set of base types, starting with the type itself and ending with object, in Method Resolution Order.

This field should be set to NULL and treated as read-only. Python will fill it in when the type is initialized.

Inheritance:

This field is not inherited; it is calculated fresh by PyType_Ready().

PyObject *PyTypeObject.tp_cache

Unused. Internal use only.

Inheritance:

This field is not inherited.

void *PyTypeObject.tp_subclasses

A collection of subclasses. Internal use only. May be an invalid pointer.

To get a list of subclasses, call the Python method __subclasses__().

Modifié dans la version 3.12: For some types, this field does not hold a valid PyObject*. The type was changed to void* to indicate this.

Inheritance:

This field is not inherited.

PyObject *PyTypeObject.tp_weaklist

Weak reference list head, for weak references to this type object. Not inherited. Internal use only.

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Internals detail: For the static builtin types this is always NULL, even if weakrefs are added. Instead, the weakrefs for each are stored on PyInterpreterState. Use the public C-API or the internal _PyObject_GET_WEAKREFS_LISTPTR() macro to avoid the distinction.

Inheritance:

This field is not inherited.

destructor PyTypeObject.tp_del

The corresponding slot ID Py_tp_del is part of the ABI stable.

This field is deprecated. Use tp_finalize instead.

unsigned int PyTypeObject.tp_version_tag

Used to index into the method cache. Internal use only.

Inheritance:

This field is not inherited.

destructor PyTypeObject.tp_finalize

The corresponding slot ID Py_tp_finalize is part of the ABI stable depuis la version 3.5.

An optional pointer to an instance finalization function. This is the C implementation of the __del__() special method. Its signature is:

void tp_finalize(PyObject *self);

The primary purpose of finalization is to perform any non-trivial cleanup that must be performed before the object is destroyed, while the object and any other objects it directly or indirectly references are still in a consistent state. The finalizer is allowed to execute arbitrary Python code.

Before Python automatically finalizes an object, some of the object's direct or indirect referents might have themselves been automatically finalized. However, none of the referents will have been automatically cleared (tp_clear) yet.

Other non-finalized objects might still be using a finalized object, so the finalizer must leave the object in a sane state (e.g., invariants are still met).

Note

After Python automatically finalizes an object, Python might start automatically clearing (tp_clear) the object and its referents (direct and indirect). Cleared objects are not guaranteed to be in a consistent state; a finalized object must be able to tolerate cleared referents.

Note

An object is not guaranteed to be automatically finalized before its destructor (tp_dealloc) is called. It is recommended to call PyObject_CallFinalizerFromDealloc() at the beginning of tp_dealloc to guarantee that the object is always finalized before destruction.

Note

The tp_finalize function can be called from any thread, although the GIL will be held.

Note

The tp_finalize function can be called during shutdown, after some global variables have been deleted. See the documentation of the __del__() method for details.

When Python finalizes an object, it behaves like the following algorithm:

Python might mark the object as finalized. Currently, Python always marks objects whose type supports garbage collection (i.e., the Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC flag is set in tp_flags) and never marks other types of objects; this might change in a future version.

If the object is not marked as finalized and its tp_finalize finalizer function is non-NULL, the finalizer function is called.

If the finalizer function was called and the finalizer made the object reachable (i.e., there is a reference to the object and it is not a member of a cyclic isolate), then the finalizer is said to have resurrected the object. It is unspecified whether the finalizer can also resurrect the object by adding a new reference to the object that does not make it reachable, i.e., the object is (still) a member of a cyclic isolate.

If the finalizer resurrected the object, the object's pending destruction is canceled and the object's finalized mark might be removed if present. Currently, Python never removes the finalized mark; this might change in a future version.

Automatic finalization refers to any finalization performed by Python except via calls to PyObject_CallFinalizer() or PyObject_CallFinalizerFromDealloc(). No guarantees are made about when, if, or how often an object is automatically finalized, except:

Python will not automatically finalize an object if it is reachable, i.e., there is a reference to it and it is not a member of a cyclic isolate.

Python will not automatically finalize an object if finalizing it would not mark the object as finalized. Currently, this applies to objects whose type does not support garbage collection, i.e., the Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC flag is not set. Such objects can still be manually finalized by calling PyObject_CallFinalizer() or PyObject_CallFinalizerFromDealloc().

Python will not automatically finalize any two members of a cyclic isolate concurrently.

Python will not automatically finalize an object after it has automatically cleared (tp_clear) the object.

If an object is a member of a cyclic isolate, Python will not automatically finalize it after automatically clearing (see tp_clear) any other member.

Python will automatically finalize every member of a cyclic isolate before it automatically clears (see tp_clear) any of them.

If Python is going to automatically clear an object (tp_clear), it will automatically finalize the object first.

Python currently only automatically finalizes objects that are members of a cyclic isolate, but future versions might finalize objects regularly before their destruction.

To manually finalize an object, do not call this function directly; call PyObject_CallFinalizer() or PyObject_CallFinalizerFromDealloc() instead.

tp_finalize should leave the current exception status unchanged. The recommended way to write a non-trivial finalizer is to back up the exception at the beginning by calling PyErr_GetRaisedException() and restore the exception at the end by calling PyErr_SetRaisedException(). If an exception is encountered in the middle of the finalizer, log and clear it with PyErr_WriteUnraisable() or PyErr_FormatUnraisable(). For example:

static void
foo_finalize(PyObject *self)
{
    // Save the current exception, if any.
    PyObject *exc = PyErr_GetRaisedException();

    // ...

    if (do_something_that_might_raise() != success_indicator) {
        PyErr_WriteUnraisable(self);
        goto done;
    }

done:
    // Restore the saved exception.  This silently discards any exception
    // raised above, so be sure to call PyErr_WriteUnraisable first if
    // necessary.
    PyErr_SetRaisedException(exc);
}

Inheritance:

This field is inherited by subtypes.

Ajouté dans la version 3.4.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: Before version 3.8 it was necessary to set the Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE flags bit in order for this field to be used. This is no longer required.

Voir aussi

PEP 442 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/]: "Safe object finalization"

Object Life Cycle for details about how this slot relates to other slots.

PyObject_CallFinalizer()

PyObject_CallFinalizerFromDealloc()

vectorcallfunc PyTypeObject.tp_vectorcall

The corresponding slot ID Py_tp_vectorcall is part of the ABI stable depuis la version 3.14.

A vectorcall function to use for calls of this type object (rather than instances). In other words, tp_vectorcall can be used to optimize type.__call__, which typically returns a new instance of type.

As with any vectorcall function, if tp_vectorcall is NULL, the tp_call protocol (Py_TYPE(type)->tp_call) is used instead.

Note

The vectorcall protocol requires that the vectorcall function has the same behavior as the corresponding tp_call. This means that type->tp_vectorcall must match the behavior of Py_TYPE(type)->tp_call.

Specifically, if type uses the default metaclass, type->tp_vectorcall must behave the same as PyType_Type->tp_call, which:

calls type->tp_new,

if the result is a subclass of type, calls type->tp_init on the result of tp_new, and

returns the result of tp_new.

Typically, tp_vectorcall is overridden to optimize this process for specific tp_new and tp_init. When doing this for user-subclassable types, note that both can be overridden (using __new__() and __init__(), respectively).

Inheritance:

This field is never inherited.

Ajouté dans la version 3.9: (the field exists since 3.8 but it's only used since 3.9)

unsigned char PyTypeObject.tp_watched

Internal. Do not use.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Static Types

Traditionally, types defined in C code are static, that is, a static PyTypeObject structure is defined directly in code and initialized using PyType_Ready().

This results in types that are limited relative to types defined in Python:

Static types are limited to one base, i.e. they cannot use multiple inheritance.

Static type objects (but not necessarily their instances) are immutable. It is not possible to add or modify the type object's attributes from Python.

Static type objects are shared across sub-interpreters, so they should not include any subinterpreter-specific state.

Also, since PyTypeObject is only part of the Limited API as an opaque struct, any extension modules using static types must be compiled for a specific Python minor version.

Heap Types

An alternative to static types is heap-allocated types, or heap types for short, which correspond closely to classes created by Python's class statement. Heap types have the Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE flag set.

This is done by filling a PyType_Spec structure and calling PyType_FromSpec(), PyType_FromSpecWithBases(), PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(), or PyType_FromMetaclass().

Number Object Structures

type PyNumberMethods

This structure holds pointers to the functions which an object uses to implement the number protocol. Each function is used by the function of similar name documented in the Number Protocol section.

Here is the structure definition:

typedef struct {
     binaryfunc nb_add;
     binaryfunc nb_subtract;
     binaryfunc nb_multiply;
     binaryfunc nb_remainder;
     binaryfunc nb_divmod;
     ternaryfunc nb_power;
     unaryfunc nb_negative;
     unaryfunc nb_positive;
     unaryfunc nb_absolute;
     inquiry nb_bool;
     unaryfunc nb_invert;
     binaryfunc nb_lshift;
     binaryfunc nb_rshift;
     binaryfunc nb_and;
     binaryfunc nb_xor;
     binaryfunc nb_or;
     unaryfunc nb_int;
     void *nb_reserved;
     unaryfunc nb_float;

     binaryfunc nb_inplace_add;
     binaryfunc nb_inplace_subtract;
     binaryfunc nb_inplace_multiply;
     binaryfunc nb_inplace_remainder;
     ternaryfunc nb_inplace_power;
     binaryfunc nb_inplace_lshift;
     binaryfunc nb_inplace_rshift;
     binaryfunc nb_inplace_and;
     binaryfunc nb_inplace_xor;
     binaryfunc nb_inplace_or;

     binaryfunc nb_floor_divide;
     binaryfunc nb_true_divide;
     binaryfunc nb_inplace_floor_divide;
     binaryfunc nb_inplace_true_divide;

     unaryfunc nb_index;

     binaryfunc nb_matrix_multiply;
     binaryfunc nb_inplace_matrix_multiply;
} PyNumberMethods;

Note

Binary and ternary functions must check the type of all their operands, and implement the necessary conversions (at least one of the operands is an instance of the defined type). If the operation is not defined for the given operands, binary and ternary functions must return Py_NotImplemented, if another error occurred they must return NULL and set an exception.

Note

The nb_reserved field should always be NULL. It was previously called nb_long, and was renamed in Python 3.0.1.

binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_add

The corresponding slot ID Py_nb_add is part of the ABI stable.

binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_subtract

The corresponding slot ID Py_nb_subtract is part of the ABI stable.

binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_multiply

The corresponding slot ID Py_nb_multiply is part of the ABI stable.

binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_remainder

The corresponding slot ID Py_nb_remainder is part of the ABI stable.

binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_divmod

The corresponding slot ID Py_nb_divmod is part of the ABI stable.

ternaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_power

The corresponding slot ID Py_nb_power is part of the ABI stable.

unaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_negative

The corresponding slot ID Py_nb_negative is part of the ABI stable.

unaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_positive

The corresponding slot ID Py_nb_positive is part of the ABI stable.

unaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_absolute

The corresponding slot ID Py_nb_absolute is part of the ABI stable.

inquiry PyNumberMethods.nb_bool

The corresponding slot ID Py_nb_bool is part of the ABI stable.

unaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_invert

The corresponding slot ID Py_nb_invert is part of the ABI stable.

binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_lshift

The corresponding slot ID Py_nb_lshift is part of the ABI stable.

binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_rshift

The corresponding slot ID Py_nb_rshift is part of the ABI stable.

binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_and

The corresponding slot ID Py_nb_and is part of the ABI stable.

binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_xor

The corresponding slot ID Py_nb_xor is part of the ABI stable.

binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_or

The corresponding slot ID Py_nb_or is part of the ABI stable.

unaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_int

The corresponding slot ID Py_nb_int is part of the ABI stable.

void *PyNumberMethods.nb_reserved

unaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_float

The corresponding slot ID Py_nb_float is part of the ABI stable.

binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_add

The corresponding slot ID Py_nb_inplace_add is part of the ABI stable.

binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_subtract

The corresponding slot ID Py_nb_inplace_subtract is part of the ABI stable.

binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_multiply

The corresponding slot ID Py_nb_inplace_multiply is part of the ABI stable.

binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_remainder

The corresponding slot ID Py_nb_inplace_remainder is part of the ABI stable.

ternaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_power

The corresponding slot ID Py_nb_inplace_power is part of the ABI stable.

binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_lshift

The corresponding slot ID Py_nb_inplace_lshift is part of the ABI stable.

binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_rshift

The corresponding slot ID Py_nb_inplace_rshift is part of the ABI stable.

binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_and

The corresponding slot ID Py_nb_inplace_and is part of the ABI stable.

binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_xor

The corresponding slot ID Py_nb_inplace_xor is part of the ABI stable.

binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_or

The corresponding slot ID Py_nb_inplace_or is part of the ABI stable.

binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_floor_divide

The corresponding slot ID Py_nb_floor_divide is part of the ABI stable.

binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_true_divide

The corresponding slot ID Py_nb_true_divide is part of the ABI stable.

binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_floor_divide

The corresponding slot ID Py_nb_inplace_floor_divide is part of the ABI stable.

binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_true_divide

The corresponding slot ID Py_nb_inplace_true_divide is part of the ABI stable.

unaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_index

The corresponding slot ID Py_nb_index is part of the ABI stable.

binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_matrix_multiply

The corresponding slot ID Py_nb_matrix_multiply is part of the ABI stable depuis la version 3.5.

binaryfunc PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_matrix_multiply

The corresponding slot ID Py_nb_inplace_matrix_multiply is part of the ABI stable depuis la version 3.5.

Mapping Object Structures

type PyMappingMethods

This structure holds pointers to the functions which an object uses to implement the mapping protocol. It has three members:

lenfunc PyMappingMethods.mp_length

The corresponding slot ID Py_mp_length is part of the ABI stable.

This function is used by PyMapping_Size() and PyObject_Size(), and has the same signature. This slot may be set to NULL if the object has no defined length.

binaryfunc PyMappingMethods.mp_subscript

The corresponding slot ID Py_mp_subscript is part of the ABI stable.

This function is used by PyObject_GetItem() and PySequence_GetSlice(), and has the same signature as PyObject_GetItem(). This slot must be filled for the PyMapping_Check() function to return 1, it can be NULL otherwise.

objobjargproc PyMappingMethods.mp_ass_subscript

The corresponding slot ID Py_mp_ass_subscript is part of the ABI stable.

This function is used by PyObject_SetItem(), PyObject_DelItem(), PySequence_SetSlice() and PySequence_DelSlice(). It has the same signature as PyObject_SetItem(), but v can also be set to NULL to delete an item. If this slot is NULL, the object does not support item assignment and deletion.

Sequence Object Structures

type PySequenceMethods

This structure holds pointers to the functions which an object uses to implement the sequence protocol.

lenfunc PySequenceMethods.sq_length

The corresponding slot ID Py_sq_length is part of the ABI stable.

This function is used by PySequence_Size() and PyObject_Size(), and has the same signature. It is also used for handling negative indices via the sq_item and the sq_ass_item slots.

binaryfunc PySequenceMethods.sq_concat

The corresponding slot ID Py_sq_concat is part of the ABI stable.

This function is used by PySequence_Concat() and has the same signature. It is also used by the + operator, after trying the numeric addition via the nb_add slot.

ssizeargfunc PySequenceMethods.sq_repeat

The corresponding slot ID Py_sq_repeat is part of the ABI stable.

This function is used by PySequence_Repeat() and has the same signature. It is also used by the * operator, after trying numeric multiplication via the nb_multiply slot.

ssizeargfunc PySequenceMethods.sq_item

The corresponding slot ID Py_sq_item is part of the ABI stable.

This function is used by PySequence_GetItem() and has the same signature. It is also used by PyObject_GetItem(), after trying the subscription via the mp_subscript slot. This slot must be filled for the PySequence_Check() function to return 1, it can be NULL otherwise.

Negative indexes are handled as follows: if the sq_length slot is filled, it is called and the sequence length is used to compute a positive index which is passed to sq_item. If sq_length is NULL, the index is passed as is to the function.

ssizeobjargproc PySequenceMethods.sq_ass_item

The corresponding slot ID Py_sq_ass_item is part of the ABI stable.

This function is used by PySequence_SetItem() and has the same signature. It is also used by PyObject_SetItem() and PyObject_DelItem(), after trying the item assignment and deletion via the mp_ass_subscript slot. This slot may be left to NULL if the object does not support item assignment and deletion.

objobjproc PySequenceMethods.sq_contains

The corresponding slot ID Py_sq_contains is part of the ABI stable.

This function may be used by PySequence_Contains() and has the same signature. This slot may be left to NULL, in this case PySequence_Contains() simply traverses the sequence until it finds a match.

binaryfunc PySequenceMethods.sq_inplace_concat

The corresponding slot ID Py_sq_inplace_concat is part of the ABI stable.

This function is used by PySequence_InPlaceConcat() and has the same signature. It should modify its first operand, and return it. This slot may be left to NULL, in this case PySequence_InPlaceConcat() will fall back to PySequence_Concat(). It is also used by the augmented assignment +=, after trying numeric in-place addition via the nb_inplace_add slot.

ssizeargfunc PySequenceMethods.sq_inplace_repeat

The corresponding slot ID Py_sq_inplace_repeat is part of the ABI stable.

This function is used by PySequence_InPlaceRepeat() and has the same signature. It should modify its first operand, and return it. This slot may be left to NULL, in this case PySequence_InPlaceRepeat() will fall back to PySequence_Repeat(). It is also used by the augmented assignment *=, after trying numeric in-place multiplication via the nb_inplace_multiply slot.

Buffer Object Structures

type PyBufferProcs

This structure holds pointers to the functions required by the Buffer protocol. The protocol defines how an exporter object can expose its internal data to consumer objects.

getbufferproc PyBufferProcs.bf_getbuffer

The corresponding slot ID Py_bf_getbuffer is part of the ABI stable depuis la version 3.11.

The signature of this function is:

int (PyObject *exporter, Py_buffer *view, int flags);

Handle a request to exporter to fill in view as specified by flags. Except for point (3), an implementation of this function MUST take these steps:

Check if the request can be met. If not, raise BufferError, set view->obj to NULL and return -1.

Fill in the requested fields.

Increment an internal counter for the number of exports.

Set view->obj to exporter and increment view->obj.

Return 0.

Thread safety:

In the free-threaded build, implementations must ensure:

The export counter increment in step (3) is atomic.

The underlying buffer data remains valid and at a stable memory location for the lifetime of all exports.

For objects that support resizing or reallocation (such as bytearray), the export counter is checked atomically before such operations, and BufferError is raised if exports exist.

The function is safe to call concurrently from multiple threads.

See also Thread safety for memoryview objects for the Python-level thread safety guarantees of memoryview objects.

If exporter is part of a chain or tree of buffer providers, two main schemes can be used:

Re-export: Each member of the tree acts as the exporting object and sets view->obj to a new reference to itself.

Redirect: The buffer request is redirected to the root object of the tree. Here, view->obj will be a new reference to the root object.

The individual fields of view are described in section Buffer structure, the rules how an exporter must react to specific requests are in section Buffer request types.

All memory pointed to in the Py_buffer structure belongs to the exporter and must remain valid until there are no consumers left. format, shape, strides, suboffsets and internal are read-only for the consumer.

PyBuffer_FillInfo() provides an easy way of exposing a simple bytes buffer while dealing correctly with all request types.

PyObject_GetBuffer() is the interface for the consumer that wraps this function.

releasebufferproc PyBufferProcs.bf_releasebuffer

The corresponding slot ID Py_bf_releasebuffer is part of the ABI stable depuis la version 3.11.

The signature of this function is:

void (PyObject *exporter, Py_buffer *view);

Handle a request to release the resources of the buffer. If no resources need to be released, PyBufferProcs.bf_releasebuffer may be NULL. Otherwise, a standard implementation of this function will take these optional steps:

Decrement an internal counter for the number of exports.

If the counter is 0, free all memory associated with view.

Thread safety:

In the free-threaded build:

The export counter decrement in step (1) must be atomic.

Resource cleanup when the counter reaches zero must be done atomically, as the final release may race with concurrent releases from other threads and dellocation must only happen once.

The exporter MUST use the internal field to keep track of buffer-specific resources. This field is guaranteed to remain constant, while a consumer MAY pass a copy of the original buffer as the view argument.

This function MUST NOT decrement view->obj, since that is done automatically in PyBuffer_Release() (this scheme is useful for breaking reference cycles).

PyBuffer_Release() is the interface for the consumer that wraps this function.

Async Object Structures

Ajouté dans la version 3.5.

type PyAsyncMethods

This structure holds pointers to the functions required to implement awaitable and asynchronous iterator objects.

Here is the structure definition:

typedef struct {
    unaryfunc am_await;
    unaryfunc am_aiter;
    unaryfunc am_anext;
    sendfunc am_send;
} PyAsyncMethods;

unaryfunc PyAsyncMethods.am_await

The corresponding slot ID Py_am_await is part of the ABI stable depuis la version 3.5.

The signature of this function is:

PyObject *am_await(PyObject *self);

The returned object must be an iterator, i.e. PyIter_Check() must return 1 for it.

This slot may be set to NULL if an object is not an awaitable.

unaryfunc PyAsyncMethods.am_aiter

The corresponding slot ID Py_am_aiter is part of the ABI stable depuis la version 3.5.

The signature of this function is:

PyObject *am_aiter(PyObject *self);

Must return an asynchronous iterator object. See __anext__() for details.

This slot may be set to NULL if an object does not implement asynchronous iteration protocol.

unaryfunc PyAsyncMethods.am_anext

The corresponding slot ID Py_am_anext is part of the ABI stable depuis la version 3.5.

The signature of this function is:

PyObject *am_anext(PyObject *self);

Must return an awaitable object. See __anext__() for details. This slot may be set to NULL.

sendfunc PyAsyncMethods.am_send

The corresponding slot ID Py_am_send is part of the ABI stable depuis la version 3.10.

The signature of this function is:

PySendResult am_send(PyObject *self, PyObject *arg, PyObject **result);

See PyIter_Send() for details. This slot may be set to NULL.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

Slot Type typedefs

typedef PyObject *(*allocfunc)(PyTypeObject *cls, Py_ssize_t nitems)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

The purpose of this function is to separate memory allocation from memory initialization. It should return a pointer to a block of memory of adequate length for the instance, suitably aligned, and initialized to zeros, but with ob_refcnt set to 1 and ob_type set to the type argument. If the type's tp_itemsize is non-zero, the object's ob_size field should be initialized to nitems and the length of the allocated memory block should be tp_basicsize + nitems*tp_itemsize, rounded up to a multiple of sizeof(void*); otherwise, nitems is not used and the length of the block should be tp_basicsize.

This function should not do any other instance initialization, not even to allocate additional memory; that should be done by tp_new.

typedef void (*destructor)(PyObject*)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

typedef void (*freefunc)(void*)

See tp_free.

typedef PyObject *(*newfunc)(PyTypeObject*, PyObject*, PyObject*)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

See tp_new.

typedef int (*initproc)(PyObject*, PyObject*, PyObject*)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

See tp_init.

typedef PyObject *(*reprfunc)(PyObject*)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

See tp_repr.

typedef PyObject *(*getattrfunc)(PyObject *self, char *attr)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the value of the named attribute for the object.

typedef int (*setattrfunc)(PyObject *self, char *attr, PyObject *value)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Set the value of the named attribute for the object. The value argument is set to NULL to delete the attribute.

typedef PyObject *(*getattrofunc)(PyObject *self, PyObject *attr)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Return the value of the named attribute for the object.

See tp_getattro.

typedef int (*setattrofunc)(PyObject *self, PyObject *attr, PyObject *value)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Set the value of the named attribute for the object. The value argument is set to NULL to delete the attribute.

See tp_setattro.

typedef PyObject *(*descrgetfunc)(PyObject*, PyObject*, PyObject*)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

See tp_descr_get.

typedef int (*descrsetfunc)(PyObject*, PyObject*, PyObject*)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

See tp_descr_set.

typedef Py_hash_t (*hashfunc)(PyObject*)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

See tp_hash.

typedef PyObject *(*richcmpfunc)(PyObject*, PyObject*, int)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

See tp_richcompare.

typedef PyObject *(*getiterfunc)(PyObject*)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

See tp_iter.

typedef PyObject *(*iternextfunc)(PyObject*)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

See tp_iternext.

typedef Py_ssize_t (*lenfunc)(PyObject*)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

typedef int (*getbufferproc)(PyObject*, Py_buffer*, int)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.12.

typedef void (*releasebufferproc)(PyObject*, Py_buffer*)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.12.

typedef PyObject *(*unaryfunc)(PyObject*)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

typedef PyObject *(*binaryfunc)(PyObject*, PyObject*)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

typedef PySendResult (*sendfunc)(PyObject*, PyObject*, PyObject**)

See am_send.

typedef PyObject *(*ternaryfunc)(PyObject*, PyObject*, PyObject*)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

typedef PyObject *(*ssizeargfunc)(PyObject*, Py_ssize_t)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

typedef int (*ssizeobjargproc)(PyObject*, Py_ssize_t, PyObject*)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

typedef int (*objobjproc)(PyObject*, PyObject*)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

typedef int (*objobjargproc)(PyObject*, PyObject*, PyObject*)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Exemples

The following are simple examples of Python type definitions. They include common usage you may encounter. Some demonstrate tricky corner cases. For more examples, practical info, and a tutorial, see Tutoriel : définir des types dans des extensions and Définir les types d'extension : divers sujets.

A basic static type:

typedef struct {
    PyObject_HEAD
    const char *data;
} MyObject;

static PyTypeObject MyObject_Type = {
    PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
    .tp_name = "mymod.MyObject",
    .tp_basicsize = sizeof(MyObject),
    .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("My objects"),
    .tp_new = myobj_new,
    .tp_dealloc = (destructor)myobj_dealloc,
    .tp_repr = (reprfunc)myobj_repr,
};

You may also find older code (especially in the CPython code base) with a more verbose initializer:

static PyTypeObject MyObject_Type = {
    PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
    "mymod.MyObject",               /* tp_name */
    sizeof(MyObject),               /* tp_basicsize */
    0,                              /* tp_itemsize */
    (destructor)myobj_dealloc,      /* tp_dealloc */
    0,                              /* tp_vectorcall_offset */
    0,                              /* tp_getattr */
    0,                              /* tp_setattr */
    0,                              /* tp_as_async */
    (reprfunc)myobj_repr,           /* tp_repr */
    0,                              /* tp_as_number */
    0,                              /* tp_as_sequence */
    0,                              /* tp_as_mapping */
    0,                              /* tp_hash */
    0,                              /* tp_call */
    0,                              /* tp_str */
    0,                              /* tp_getattro */
    0,                              /* tp_setattro */
    0,                              /* tp_as_buffer */
    0,                              /* tp_flags */
    PyDoc_STR("My objects"),        /* tp_doc */
    0,                              /* tp_traverse */
    0,                              /* tp_clear */
    0,                              /* tp_richcompare */
    0,                              /* tp_weaklistoffset */
    0,                              /* tp_iter */
    0,                              /* tp_iternext */
    0,                              /* tp_methods */
    0,                              /* tp_members */
    0,                              /* tp_getset */
    0,                              /* tp_base */
    0,                              /* tp_dict */
    0,                              /* tp_descr_get */
    0,                              /* tp_descr_set */
    0,                              /* tp_dictoffset */
    0,                              /* tp_init */
    0,                              /* tp_alloc */
    myobj_new,                      /* tp_new */
};

A type that supports weakrefs, instance dicts, and hashing:

typedef struct {
    PyObject_HEAD
    const char *data;
} MyObject;

static PyTypeObject MyObject_Type = {
    PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
    .tp_name = "mymod.MyObject",
    .tp_basicsize = sizeof(MyObject),
    .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("My objects"),
    .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE |
         Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC | Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT |
         Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF,
    .tp_new = myobj_new,
    .tp_traverse = (traverseproc)myobj_traverse,
    .tp_clear = (inquiry)myobj_clear,
    .tp_alloc = PyType_GenericNew,
    .tp_dealloc = (destructor)myobj_dealloc,
    .tp_repr = (reprfunc)myobj_repr,
    .tp_hash = (hashfunc)myobj_hash,
    .tp_richcompare = PyBaseObject_Type.tp_richcompare,
};

A str subclass that cannot be subclassed and cannot be called to create instances (e.g. uses a separate factory func) using Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION flag:

typedef struct {
    PyUnicodeObject raw;
    char *extra;
} MyStr;

static PyTypeObject MyStr_Type = {
    PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
    .tp_name = "mymod.MyStr",
    .tp_basicsize = sizeof(MyStr),
    .tp_base = NULL,  // set to &PyUnicode_Type in module init
    .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("my custom str"),
    .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION,
    .tp_repr = (reprfunc)myobj_repr,
};

The simplest static type with fixed-length instances:

typedef struct {
    PyObject_HEAD
} MyObject;

static PyTypeObject MyObject_Type = {
    PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
    .tp_name = "mymod.MyObject",
};

The simplest static type with variable-length instances:

typedef struct {
    PyObject_VAR_HEAD
    const char *data[1];
} MyObject;

static PyTypeObject MyObject_Type = {
    PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
    .tp_name = "mymod.MyObject",
    .tp_basicsize = sizeof(MyObject) - sizeof(char *),
    .tp_itemsize = sizeof(char *),
};

Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection

Python's support for detecting and collecting garbage which involves circular references requires support from object types which are "containers" for other objects which may also be containers. Types which do not store references to other objects, or which only store references to atomic types (such as numbers or strings), do not need to provide any explicit support for garbage collection.

To create a container type, the tp_flags field of the type object must include the Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC and provide an implementation of the tp_traverse handler. If instances of the type are mutable, a tp_clear implementation must also be provided.

Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC

Objects with a type with this flag set must conform with the rules documented here. For convenience these objects will be referred to as container objects.

Constructors for container types must conform to two rules:

The memory for the object must be allocated using PyObject_GC_New or PyObject_GC_NewVar.

Once all the fields which may contain references to other containers are initialized, it must call PyObject_GC_Track().

Similarly, the deallocator for the object must conform to a similar pair of rules:

Before fields which refer to other containers are invalidated, PyObject_GC_UnTrack() must be called.

The object's memory must be deallocated using PyObject_GC_Del().

Avertissement

If a type adds the Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC, then it must implement at least a tp_traverse handler or explicitly use one from its subclass or subclasses.

When calling PyType_Ready() or some of the APIs that indirectly call it like PyType_FromSpecWithBases() or PyType_FromSpec() the interpreter will automatically populate the tp_flags, tp_traverse and tp_clear fields if the type inherits from a class that implements the garbage collector protocol and the child class does not include the Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC flag.

PyObject_GC_New(TYPE, typeobj)

Analogous to PyObject_New but for container objects with the Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC flag set.

Do not call this directly to allocate memory for an object; call the type's tp_alloc slot instead.

When populating a type's tp_alloc slot, PyType_GenericAlloc() is preferred over a custom function that simply calls this macro.

Memory allocated by this macro must be freed with PyObject_GC_Del() (usually called via the object's tp_free slot).

Voir aussi

PyObject_GC_Del()

PyObject_New

PyType_GenericAlloc()

tp_alloc

PyObject_GC_NewVar(TYPE, typeobj, size)

Analogous to PyObject_NewVar but for container objects with the Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC flag set.

Do not call this directly to allocate memory for an object; call the type's tp_alloc slot instead.

When populating a type's tp_alloc slot, PyType_GenericAlloc() is preferred over a custom function that simply calls this macro.

Memory allocated by this macro must be freed with PyObject_GC_Del() (usually called via the object's tp_free slot).

Voir aussi

PyObject_GC_Del()

PyObject_NewVar

PyType_GenericAlloc()

tp_alloc

PyObject *PyUnstable_Object_GC_NewWithExtraData(PyTypeObject *type, size_t extra_size)

Fait partie de l' API instable. Peut changer sans avertissement d'une version mineure à l'autre.

Analogous to PyObject_GC_New but allocates extra_size bytes at the end of the object (at offset tp_basicsize). The allocated memory is initialized to zeros, except for the Python object header.

The extra data will be deallocated with the object, but otherwise it is not managed by Python.

Memory allocated by this function must be freed with PyObject_GC_Del() (usually called via the object's tp_free slot).

Avertissement

The function is marked as unstable because the final mechanism for reserving extra data after an instance is not yet decided. For allocating a variable number of fields, prefer using PyVarObject and tp_itemsize instead.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

PyObject_GC_Resize(TYPE, op, newsize)

Resize an object allocated by PyObject_NewVar. Returns the resized object of type TYPE* (refers to any C type) or NULL on failure.

op must be of type PyVarObject* and must not be tracked by the collector yet. newsize must be of type Py_ssize_t.

void PyObject_GC_Track(PyObject *op)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Adds the object op to the set of container objects tracked by the collector. The collector can run at unexpected times so objects must be valid while being tracked. This should be called once all the fields followed by the tp_traverse handler become valid, usually near the end of the constructor.

int PyObject_IS_GC(PyObject *obj)

Returns non-zero if the object implements the garbage collector protocol, otherwise returns 0.

The object cannot be tracked by the garbage collector if this function returns 0.

int PyObject_GC_IsTracked(PyObject *op)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.9.

Returns 1 if the object type of op implements the GC protocol and op is being currently tracked by the garbage collector and 0 otherwise.

This is analogous to the Python function gc.is_tracked().

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

int PyObject_GC_IsFinalized(PyObject *op)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.9.

Returns 1 if the object type of op implements the GC protocol and op has been already finalized by the garbage collector and 0 otherwise.

This is analogous to the Python function gc.is_finalized().

Ajouté dans la version 3.9.

void PyObject_GC_Del(void *op)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Releases memory allocated to an object using PyObject_GC_New or PyObject_GC_NewVar.

Do not call this directly to free an object's memory; call the type's tp_free slot instead.

Do not use this for memory allocated by PyObject_New, PyObject_NewVar, or related allocation functions; use PyObject_Free() instead.

Voir aussi

PyObject_Free() is the non-GC equivalent of this function.

PyObject_GC_New

PyObject_GC_NewVar

PyType_GenericAlloc()

tp_free

void PyObject_GC_UnTrack(void *op)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Remove the object op from the set of container objects tracked by the collector. Note that PyObject_GC_Track() can be called again on this object to add it back to the set of tracked objects. The deallocator (tp_dealloc handler) should call this for the object before any of the fields used by the tp_traverse handler become invalid.

Modifié dans la version 3.8: The _PyObject_GC_TRACK() and _PyObject_GC_UNTRACK() macros have been removed from the public C API.

The tp_traverse handler accepts a function parameter of this type:

typedef int (*visitproc)(PyObject *object, void *arg)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Type of the visitor function passed to the tp_traverse handler. The function should be called with an object to traverse as object and the third parameter to the tp_traverse handler as arg. The Python core uses several visitor functions to implement cyclic garbage detection; it's not expected that users will need to write their own visitor functions.

The tp_traverse handler must have the following type:

typedef int (*traverseproc)(PyObject *self, visitproc visit, void *arg)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Traversal function for a container object. Implementations must call the visit function for each object directly contained by self, with the parameters to visit being the contained object and the arg value passed to the handler. The visit function must not be called with a NULL object argument. If visit returns a non-zero value that value should be returned immediately.

The traversal function must not have any side effects. Implementations may not modify the reference counts of any Python objects nor create or destroy any Python objects.

To simplify writing tp_traverse handlers, a Py_VISIT() macro is provided. In order to use this macro, the tp_traverse implementation must name its arguments exactly visit and arg:

Py_VISIT(o)

If the PyObject* o is not NULL, call the visit callback, with arguments o and arg. If visit returns a non-zero value, then return it. Using this macro, tp_traverse handlers look like:

static int
my_traverse(Noddy *self, visitproc visit, void *arg)
{
    Py_VISIT(self->foo);
    Py_VISIT(self->bar);
    return 0;
}

The tp_clear handler must be of the inquiry type, or NULL if the object is immutable.

typedef int (*inquiry)(PyObject *self)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Drop references that may have created reference cycles. Immutable objects do not have to define this method since they can never directly create reference cycles. Note that the object must still be valid after calling this method (don't just call Py_DECREF() on a reference). The collector will call this method if it detects that this object is involved in a reference cycle.

Controlling the Garbage Collector State

The C-API provides the following functions for controlling garbage collection runs.

Py_ssize_t PyGC_Collect(void)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable.

Perform a full garbage collection, if the garbage collector is enabled. (Note that gc.collect() runs it unconditionally.)

Returns the number of collected + unreachable objects which cannot be collected. If the garbage collector is disabled or already collecting, returns 0 immediately. Errors during garbage collection are passed to sys.unraisablehook. This function does not raise exceptions.

int PyGC_Enable(void)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.10.

Enable the garbage collector: similar to gc.enable(). Returns the previous state, 0 for disabled and 1 for enabled.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

int PyGC_Disable(void)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.10.

Disable the garbage collector: similar to gc.disable(). Returns the previous state, 0 for disabled and 1 for enabled.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

int PyGC_IsEnabled(void)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.10.

Query the state of the garbage collector: similar to gc.isenabled(). Returns the current state, 0 for disabled and 1 for enabled.

Ajouté dans la version 3.10.

Querying Garbage Collector State

The C-API provides the following interface for querying information about the garbage collector.

void PyUnstable_GC_VisitObjects(gcvisitobjects_t callback, void *arg)

Fait partie de l' API instable. Peut changer sans avertissement d'une version mineure à l'autre.

Run supplied callback on all live GC-capable objects. arg is passed through to all invocations of callback.

Avertissement

If new objects are (de)allocated by the callback it is undefined if they will be visited.

Garbage collection is disabled during operation. Explicitly running a collection in the callback may lead to undefined behaviour e.g. visiting the same objects multiple times or not at all.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

typedef int (*gcvisitobjects_t)(PyObject *object, void *arg)

Type of the visitor function to be passed to PyUnstable_GC_VisitObjects(). arg is the same as the arg passed to PyUnstable_GC_VisitObjects. Return 1 to continue iteration, return 0 to stop iteration. Other return values are reserved for now so behavior on returning anything else is undefined.

Ajouté dans la version 3.12.

Version des API et ABI

Build-time version constants

CPython exposes its version number in the following macros. Note that these correspond to the version code is built with. See Py_Version for the version used at run time.

Voir Stabilité de l’API C pour une discussion sur la stabilité des API et ABI entre (ou en fonction) de la version.

PY_MAJOR_VERSION

Le 3 dans 3.4.1a2.)

PY_MINOR_VERSION

Le 4 dans 3.4.1a2.

PY_MICRO_VERSION

Le 1 dans 3.4.1a2.)

PY_RELEASE_LEVEL

The a in 3.4.1a2. This can be 0xA for alpha, 0xB for beta, 0xC for release candidate or 0xF for final.

PY_RELEASE_SERIAL

Le 2 dans 3.4.1a2. Nul pour des versions finales.

PY_VERSION_HEX

The Python version number encoded in a single integer. See Py_PACK_FULL_VERSION() for the encoding details.

Use this for numeric comparisons, for example, #if PY_VERSION_HEX >= ....

These macros are defined in Include/patchlevel.h [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Include/patchlevel.h].

Run-time version

const unsigned long Py_Version

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.11.

The Python runtime version number encoded in a single constant integer. See Py_PACK_FULL_VERSION() for the encoding details. This contains the Python version used at run time.

Use this for numeric comparisons, for example, if (Py_Version >= ...).

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

Bit-packing macros

uint32_t Py_PACK_FULL_VERSION(int major, int minor, int micro, int release_level, int release_serial)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.14.

Return the given version, encoded as a single 32-bit integer with the following structure:

Argument

No. of bits

Bit mask

Bit shift

Example values

3.4.1a2

3.10.0

major

8

0xFF000000

24

0x03

0x03

minor

8

0x00FF0000

16

0x04

0x0A

micro

8

0x0000FF00

8

0x01

0x00

release_level

4

0x000000F0

4

0xA

0xF

release_serial

4

0x0000000F

0

0x2

0x0

Par exemple :

Version

Py_PACK_FULL_VERSION arguments

Encoded version

3.4.1a2

(3, 4, 1, 0xA, 2)

0x030401a2

3.10.0

(3, 10, 0, 0xF, 0)

0x030a00f0

Out-of range bits in the arguments are ignored. That is, the macro can be defined as:

#ifndef Py_PACK_FULL_VERSION
#define Py_PACK_FULL_VERSION(X, Y, Z, LEVEL, SERIAL) ( \
   (((X) & 0xff) << 24) |                              \
   (((Y) & 0xff) << 16) |                              \
   (((Z) & 0xff) << 8) |                               \
   (((LEVEL) & 0xf) << 4) |                            \
   (((SERIAL) & 0xf) << 0))
#endif

Py_PACK_FULL_VERSION is primarily a macro, intended for use in #if directives, but it is also available as an exported function.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

uint32_t Py_PACK_VERSION(int major, int minor)

Fait partie de l' ABI stable depuis la version 3.14.

Equivalent to Py_PACK_FULL_VERSION(major, minor, 0, 0, 0). The result does not correspond to any Python release, but is useful in numeric comparisons.

Ajouté dans la version 3.14.

Monitoring C API

Added in version 3.13.

An extension may need to interact with the event monitoring system. Subscribing to events and registering callbacks can be done via the Python API exposed in sys.monitoring.

Generating Execution Events

The functions below make it possible for an extension to fire monitoring events as it emulates the execution of Python code. Each of these functions accepts a PyMonitoringState struct which contains concise information about the activation state of events, as well as the event arguments, which include a PyObject* representing the code object, the instruction offset and sometimes additional, event-specific arguments (see sys.monitoring for details about the signatures of the different event callbacks). The codelike argument should be an instance of types.CodeType or of a type that emulates it.

The VM disables tracing when firing an event, so there is no need for user code to do that.

Monitoring functions should not be called with an exception set, except those listed below as working with the current exception.

type PyMonitoringState

Representation of the state of an event type. It is allocated by the user while its contents are maintained by the monitoring API functions described below.

All of the functions below return 0 on success and -1 (with an exception set) on error.

See sys.monitoring for descriptions of the events.

int PyMonitoring_FirePyStartEvent(PyMonitoringState *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset)

Fire a PY_START event.

int PyMonitoring_FirePyResumeEvent(PyMonitoringState *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset)

Fire a PY_RESUME event.

int PyMonitoring_FirePyReturnEvent(PyMonitoringState *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset, PyObject *retval)

Fire a PY_RETURN event.

int PyMonitoring_FirePyYieldEvent(PyMonitoringState *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset, PyObject *retval)

Fire a PY_YIELD event.

int PyMonitoring_FireCallEvent(PyMonitoringState *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset, PyObject *callable, PyObject *arg0)

Fire a CALL event.

int PyMonitoring_FireLineEvent(PyMonitoringState *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset, int lineno)

Fire a LINE event.

int PyMonitoring_FireJumpEvent(PyMonitoringState *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset, PyObject *target_offset)

Fire a JUMP event.

int PyMonitoring_FireBranchLeftEvent(PyMonitoringState *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset, PyObject *target_offset)

Fire a BRANCH_LEFT event.

int PyMonitoring_FireBranchRightEvent(PyMonitoringState *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset, PyObject *target_offset)

Fire a BRANCH_RIGHT event.

int PyMonitoring_FireCReturnEvent(PyMonitoringState *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset, PyObject *retval)

Fire a C_RETURN event.

int PyMonitoring_FirePyThrowEvent(PyMonitoringState *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset)

Fire a PY_THROW event with the current exception (as returned by PyErr_GetRaisedException()).

int PyMonitoring_FireRaiseEvent(PyMonitoringState *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset)

Fire a RAISE event with the current exception (as returned by PyErr_GetRaisedException()).

int PyMonitoring_FireCRaiseEvent(PyMonitoringState *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset)

Fire a C_RAISE event with the current exception (as returned by PyErr_GetRaisedException()).

int PyMonitoring_FireReraiseEvent(PyMonitoringState *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset)

Fire a RERAISE event with the current exception (as returned by PyErr_GetRaisedException()).

int PyMonitoring_FireExceptionHandledEvent(PyMonitoringState *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset)

Fire an EXCEPTION_HANDLED event with the current exception (as returned by PyErr_GetRaisedException()).

int PyMonitoring_FirePyUnwindEvent(PyMonitoringState *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset)

Fire a PY_UNWIND event with the current exception (as returned by PyErr_GetRaisedException()).

int PyMonitoring_FireStopIterationEvent(PyMonitoringState *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset, PyObject *value)

Fire a STOP_ITERATION event. If value is an instance of StopIteration, it is used. Otherwise, a new StopIteration instance is created with value as its argument.

Managing the Monitoring State

Monitoring states can be managed with the help of monitoring scopes. A scope would typically correspond to a Python function.

int PyMonitoring_EnterScope(PyMonitoringState *state_array, uint64_t *version, const uint8_t *event_types, Py_ssize_t length)

Enter a monitored scope. event_types is an array of the event IDs for events that may be fired from the scope. For example, the ID of a PY_START event is the value PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_START, which is numerically equal to the base-2 logarithm of sys.monitoring.events.PY_START. state_array is an array with a monitoring state entry for each event in event_types, it is allocated by the user but populated by PyMonitoring_EnterScope() with information about the activation state of the event. The size of event_types (and hence also of state_array) is given in length.

The version argument is a pointer to a value which should be allocated by the user together with state_array and initialized to 0, and then set only by PyMonitoring_EnterScope() itself. It allows this function to determine whether event states have changed since the previous call, and to return quickly if they have not.

The scopes referred to here are lexical scopes: a function, class or method. PyMonitoring_EnterScope() should be called whenever the lexical scope is entered. Scopes can be reentered, reusing the same state_array and version, in situations like when emulating a recursive Python function. When a code-like's execution is paused, such as when emulating a generator, the scope needs to be exited and re-entered.

The macros for event_types are:

Macro

Événement

PY_MONITORING_EVENT_BRANCH_LEFT

BRANCH_LEFT

PY_MONITORING_EVENT_BRANCH_RIGHT

BRANCH_RIGHT

PY_MONITORING_EVENT_CALL

CALL

PY_MONITORING_EVENT_C_RAISE

C_RAISE

PY_MONITORING_EVENT_C_RETURN

C_RETURN

PY_MONITORING_EVENT_EXCEPTION_HANDLED

EXCEPTION_HANDLED

PY_MONITORING_EVENT_INSTRUCTION

INSTRUCTION

PY_MONITORING_EVENT_JUMP

JUMP

PY_MONITORING_EVENT_LINE

LINE

PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_RESUME

PY_RESUME

PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_RETURN

PY_RETURN

PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_START

PY_START

PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_THROW

PY_THROW

PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_UNWIND

PY_UNWIND

PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_YIELD

PY_YIELD

PY_MONITORING_EVENT_RAISE

RAISE

PY_MONITORING_EVENT_RERAISE

RERAISE

PY_MONITORING_EVENT_STOP_ITERATION

STOP_ITERATION

int PyMonitoring_ExitScope(void)

Exit the last scope that was entered with PyMonitoring_EnterScope().

int PY_MONITORING_IS_INSTRUMENTED_EVENT(uint8_t ev)

Return true if the event corresponding to the event ID ev is a local event.

Ajouté dans la version 3.13.

Obsolète depuis la version 3.14: This function is soft deprecated.

Installation de modules Python

En tant que logiciel libre populaire, Python bénéficie d'une communauté active de contributeurs et d'utilisateurs qui rendent à leur tour leurs logiciels disponibles, sous licence libre, pour les autres développeurs Python.

Cela permet aux utilisateurs de Python de partager et de collaborer efficacement, bénéficiant des solutions que les autres ont déjà crées pour résoudre les problèmes communs (ou même, parfois, rares !), aussi que de partager leurs propres solutions à tous.

Ce guide couvre la partie installation. Pour un guide sur la création et le partage de vos propres projets Python, consultez le Python packaging user guide [https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/tutorials/packaging-projects/].

Note

Pour les entreprises et autres institutions, gardez en tête que certaines organisations ont leurs propres règles sur l'utilisation et la contribution au logiciel libre. Prenez ces règles en compte lorsque vous utilisez les outils de distribution et d'installation fournis par Python.

Vocabulaire

pip est l'outil d'installation de prédilection. À partir de Python 3.4, il est inclus par défaut avec l'installateur de Python.

Un environnement virtuel est un environnement Python semi-isolé qui autorise les paquets à être installés pour une application particulière, plutôt que d'être installés au niveau du système.

venv est l'outil standard pour créer des environnements virtuels, et est intégré à Python depuis la version 3.3. Depuis Python 3.4, il installe aussi pip dans tous les environnements virtuels créés.

virtualenv est une alternative tierce à venv (et son prédécesseur). Elle permet la création d'environnements virtuels pour les versions de Python antérieures à 3.4, qui ne fournissent pas de venv, ou ne sont pas capables d'installer automatiquement pip dans les environnements créés.

L'Index des Paquets Python [https://pypi.org] est un dépôt public des paquets sous licence ouverte disponibles pour tous les utilisateurs Python.

la Python Packaging Authority [https://www.pypa.io/] est le groupe de développeurs et d'auteurs de documentation responsable de la maintenance et de l'évolution des suites d'outils standard et des normes de métadonnées et de format de fichiers associées. Ils maintiennent une variété d'outils, de documentation, et d'outils de suivi des problèmes sur GitHub [https://github.com/pypa].

distutils est le premier système de construction et de distribution ajouté à la bibliothèque standard en 1998. Bien que l'utilisation directe de distutils soit progressivement supprimée, elle reste le fondement de l'infrastructure actuelle de construction de paquet et de distribution. Au-delà de rester dans la bibliothèque standard, son nom vit aussi sous d'autres formes, tel que la liste de diffusion utilisée pour coordonner le développement et les standards de la création de paquet.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: L'utilisation de venv est maintenant recommandée pour créer vos environnements virtuels.

Voir aussi

Guide Utilisateur de l'Empaquetage Python : Créer et utiliser des environnements virtuels [https://packaging.python.org/installing/#creating-virtual-environments]

Utilisation de base

Les outils standards de création de paquets sont tous conçus pour être utilisés à partir de la ligne de commande.

La commande suivante va installer la dernière version d'un module et ses dépendances depuis le Python Package Index :

python -m pip install SomePackage

Note

Pour les utilisateurs POSIX (y compris Mac OS X et Linux), les exemples de ce guide supposent l'utilisation d'un environnement virtuel.

Pour les utilisateurs de Windows, les exemples de ce guide supposent que l'option proposant de modifier la variable d'environnement PATH à été cochée lors de l'installation de Python.

Il est aussi possible de préciser une version minimum exacte directement depuis la ligne de commande. Utiliser des caractères de comparaison tel que >, < ou d'autres caractères spéciaux qui sont interprétés par le shell, le nom du paquet et la version doivent être mis entre guillemets :

python -m pip install SomePackage==1.0.4    # specific version
python -m pip install "SomePackage>=1.0.4"  # minimum version

Normalement, si un module approprié est déjà installé, l'installer à nouveau n'aura aucun effet. La mise à jour de modules existants doit être demandée explicitement :

python -m pip install --upgrade SomePackage

Plus d'informations et de ressources concernant pip et ses capacités peuvent être trouvées dans le Python Packaging User Guide [https://packaging.python.org].

La création d'environnements virtuels est réalisée grâce au module venv. Installer des paquets au sein de l'environnement virtuel courant utilise les commandes montrées précédemment.

Voir aussi

Guide Utilisateur de l'Empaquetage Python : Installer les paquets de la distribution Python [https://packaging.python.org/installing/]

Comment puis-je … ?

Ce sont des réponses rapides ou des liens pour certaines tâches courantes.

... Installer pip avec une version de Python antérieures à la 3.4 ?

Python n'a commencé à fournir pip depuis Python 3.4. Pour les versions précédentes, pip a besoin d'être "amorcé" tel que décrit dans le Python Packaging User Guide.

Voir aussi

Guide Utilisateur de l'Empaquetage Python : Pré-requis pour installer des paquets [https://packaging.python.org/installing/#requirements-for-installing-packages]

... Installer des paquets juste pour l'utilisateur actuel ?

Donner l'option --user à python -m pip install lui fera installer un paquet juste pour l'utilisateur en cours, plutôt que pour tous les utilisateurs du système.

... Installer des paquets Python scientifiques ?

Un certain nombre de paquets scientifiques Python ont des dépendances binaires complexes, et ne sont pas actuellement faciles à installer directement avec pip. Pour le moment, il est souvent plus simple pour les utilisateurs d'installer ces paquets par d'autres moyens [https://packaging.python.org/science/] plutôt que d'essayer de les installer avec pip.

Voir aussi

Guide Utilisateur de l'Empaquetage Python : Installer des paquets scientifiques [https://packaging.python.org/science/]

... Travailler avec plusieurs versions de Python installés en parallèle ?

Sous Linux, Max OS X et autres systèmes POSIX, utiliser les commandes Python de la version souhaitée en combinaison avec l'option -m permet de lancer la version appropriée de pip :

python2   -m pip install SomePackage  # default Python 2
python2.7 -m pip install SomePackage  # specifically Python 2.7
python3   -m pip install SomePackage  # default Python 3
python3.4 -m pip install SomePackage  # specifically Python 3.4

Les versions appropriées des commandes pip peuvent aussi être disponibles.

Sous Windows, utilisez le lanceur Python py en combinaison avec l'option -m :

py -2   -m pip install SomePackage  # default Python 2
py -2.7 -m pip install SomePackage  # specifically Python 2.7
py -3   -m pip install SomePackage  # default Python 3
py -3.4 -m pip install SomePackage  # specifically Python 3.4

Les problèmes d'installation typiques

Installer dans le Python du système sur Linux

Sur les systèmes Linux, une installation de Python sera généralement incluse dans le cadre de la distribution. Installer dans cette installation de Python nécessite un accès root sur le système, et peut interférer avec le fonctionnement du gestionnaire de paquets du système et d'autres composants du système si un composant est mis à jour de façon inattendue en utilisant pip.

Sur de tels systèmes, il est souvent préférable d'utiliser un environnement virtuel ou une installation par l'utilisateur lors de l'installation des paquets avec pip.

Pip n'est pas installé

Il est possible que pip ne soit pas installé par défaut. Une solution est :

python -m ensurepip --default-pip

Il existe également des ressources supplémentaires pour installer pip. [https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/tutorials/installing-packages/#ensure-pip-setuptools-and-wheel-are-up-to-date]

Installation d'extensions binaires

Python a généralement beaucoup misé sur une distribution basée sur les sources, avec laquelle les utilisateurs finaux devaient compiler, lors de l'installation, les modules d'extension à partir des sources.

Avec l'introduction du format binaire wheel, et la possibilité de publier des wheels, pour, au moins Windows et Mac OS X, via le Python Package Index, ce problème devrait diminuer au fil du temps, car les utilisateurs sont plus régulièrement en mesure d'installer des extensions pré-compilées plutôt que de devoir les compiler eux-mêmes.

Certaines solutions pour installer des paquets scientifiques [https://packaging.python.org/science/] qui ne sont pas encore disponibles comme wheel pré-construites peuvent aussi aider à obtenir d'autres extensions binaires sans devoir les construire localement.

Voir aussi

Guide Utilisateur de l'Empaquetage Python : Extensions binaires [https://packaging.python.org/extensions/]

Les guides pratiques (Howto) de Python

Les Guides pratiques de Python sont des documents traitant un sujet spécifique de la manière la plus complète possible. Inspirés des guides pratiques de The Linux Documentation Project (projet de documentation de Linux), cette section essaie de promouvoir des documentations plus détaillées que la référence de la bibliothèque Python.

Général :

A Conceptual Overview of asyncio

Bonnes pratiques concernant les annotations

Tutoriel argparse

Descriptor Guide

Guide sur l'utilisation d'Enum

Guide pratique : programmation fonctionnelle

Introduction au module ipaddress

Tutoriel sur la journalisation

Recettes pour la journalisation

Guide des expressions régulières

Les techniques de tri

Guide Unicode

Guide pratique : récupérer des ressources web en utilisant le module urllib

Développement avancé :

Programmation Curses avec Python

Python support for free threading

C API Extension Support for Free Threading

Isolating Extension Modules

Isolating Extension Modules

Guide pratique : programmation avec les sockets

timer file descriptor HOWTO

Portage des modules d'extension vers Python 3

Débogage et profilage :

Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB

Instrumenter CPython avec DTrace et SystemTap

Python support for the Linux perf profiler

Remote debugging attachment protocol

A Conceptual Overview of asyncio

This HOWTO article seeks to help you build a sturdy mental model of how asyncio fundamentally works, helping you understand the how and why behind the recommended patterns.

You might be curious about some key asyncio concepts. By the end of this article, you'll be able to comfortably answer these questions:

What's happening behind the scenes when an object is awaited?

How does asyncio differentiate between a task which doesn't need CPU time (such as a network request or file read) as opposed to a task that does (such as computing n-factorial)?

How to write an asynchronous variant of an operation, such as an async sleep or database request.

Voir aussi

The guide [https://github.com/anordin95/a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio/tree/main] that inspired this HOWTO article, by Alexander Nordin.

This in-depth YouTube tutorial series [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xbl7XjFYsN4&list=PLhNSoGM2ik6SIkVGXWBwerucXjgP1rHmB] on asyncio created by Python core team member, Łukasz Langa.

500 Lines or Less: A Web Crawler With asyncio Coroutines [https://aosabook.org/en/500L/a-web-crawler-with-asyncio-coroutines.html] by A. Jesse Jiryu Davis and Guido van Rossum.

A conceptual overview part 1: the high-level

In part 1, we'll cover the main, high-level building blocks of asyncio: the event loop, coroutine functions, coroutine objects, tasks, and await.

Boucle d'évènements

Everything in asyncio happens relative to the event loop. It's the star of the show. It's like an orchestra conductor. It's behind the scenes managing resources. Some power is explicitly granted to it, but a lot of its ability to get things done comes from the respect and cooperation of its worker bees.

In more technical terms, the event loop contains a collection of jobs to be run. Some jobs are added directly by you, and some indirectly by asyncio. The event loop takes a job from its backlog of work and invokes it (or "gives it control"), similar to calling a function, and then that job runs. Once it pauses or completes, it returns control to the event loop. The event loop will then select another job from its pool and invoke it. You can roughly think of the collection of jobs as a queue: jobs are added and then processed one at a time, generally (but not always) in order. This process repeats indefinitely, with the event loop cycling endlessly onwards. If there are no more jobs pending execution, the event loop is smart enough to rest and avoid needlessly wasting CPU cycles, and will come back when there's more work to be done.

Effective execution relies on jobs sharing well and cooperating; a greedy job could hog control and leave the other jobs to starve, rendering the overall event loop approach rather useless.

import asyncio

# This creates an event loop and indefinitely cycles through
# its collection of jobs.
event_loop = asyncio.new_event_loop()
event_loop.run_forever()

Asynchronous functions and coroutines

This is a basic, boring Python function:

def hello_printer():
    print(
        "Hi, I am a lowly, simple printer, though I have all I "
        "need in life -- \nfresh paper and my dearly beloved octopus "
        "partner in crime."
    )

Calling a regular function invokes its logic or body:

>>> hello_printer()
Hi, I am a lowly, simple printer, though I have all I need in life --
fresh paper and my dearly beloved octopus partner in crime.

The async def, as opposed to just a plain def, makes this an asynchronous function (or "coroutine function"). Calling it creates and returns a coroutine object.

async def loudmouth_penguin(magic_number: int):
    print(
     "I am a super special talking penguin. Far cooler than that printer. "
     f"By the way, my lucky number is: {magic_number}."
    )

Calling the async function, loudmouth_penguin, does not execute the print statement; instead, it creates a coroutine object:

>>> loudmouth_penguin(magic_number=3)
<coroutine object loudmouth_penguin at 0x104ed2740>

The terms "coroutine function" and "coroutine object" are often conflated as coroutine. That can be confusing! In this article, coroutine specifically refers to a coroutine object, or more precisely, an instance of types.CoroutineType (native coroutine). Note that coroutines can also exist as instances of collections.abc.Coroutine -- a distinction that matters for type checking.

A coroutine represents the function's body or logic. A coroutine has to be explicitly started; again, merely creating the coroutine does not start it. Notably, the coroutine can be paused and resumed at various points within the function's body. That pausing and resuming ability is what allows for asynchronous behavior!

Coroutines and coroutine functions were built by leveraging the functionality of generators and generator functions. Recall, a generator function is a function that yields, like this one:

def get_random_number():
    # This would be a bad random number generator!
    print("Hi")
    yield 1
    print("Hello")
    yield 7
    print("Howdy")
    yield 4
    ...

Similar to a coroutine function, calling a generator function does not run it. Instead, it creates a generator object:

>>> get_random_number()
<generator object get_random_number at 0x1048671c0>

You can proceed to the next yield of a generator by using the built-in function next(). In other words, the generator runs, then pauses. For example:

>>> generator = get_random_number()
>>> next(generator)
Hi
1
>>> next(generator)
Hello
7

Tâches

Roughly speaking, tasks are coroutines (not coroutine functions) tied to an event loop. A task also maintains a list of callback functions whose importance will become clear in a moment when we discuss await. The recommended way to create tasks is via asyncio.create_task().

Creating a task automatically schedules it for execution (by adding a callback to run it in the event loop's to-do list, that is, collection of jobs).

asyncio automatically associates tasks with the event loop for you. This automatic association was purposely designed into asyncio for the sake of simplicity. Without it, you'd have to keep track of the event loop object and pass it to any coroutine function that wants to create tasks, adding redundant clutter to your code.

coroutine = loudmouth_penguin(magic_number=5)
# This creates a Task object and schedules its execution via the event loop.
task = asyncio.create_task(coroutine)

Earlier, we manually created the event loop and set it to run forever. In practice, it's recommended to use (and common to see) asyncio.run(), which takes care of managing the event loop and ensuring the provided coroutine finishes before advancing. For example, many async programs follow this setup:

import asyncio

async def main():
    # Perform all sorts of wacky, wild asynchronous things...
    ...

if __name__ == "__main__":
    asyncio.run(main())
    # The program will not reach the following print statement until the
    # coroutine main() finishes.
    print("coroutine main() is done!")

It's important to be aware that the task itself is not added to the event loop, only a callback to the task is. This matters if the task object you created is garbage collected before it's called by the event loop. For example, consider this program:

 1async def hello():
 2    print("hello!")
 3
 4async def main():
 5    asyncio.create_task(hello())
 6    # Other asynchronous instructions which run for a while
 7    # and cede control to the event loop...
 8    ...
 9
10asyncio.run(main())

Because there's no reference to the task object created on line 5, it might be garbage collected before the event loop invokes it. Later instructions in the coroutine main() hand control back to the event loop so it can invoke other jobs. When the event loop eventually tries to run the task, it might fail and discover the task object does not exist! This can also happen even if a coroutine keeps a reference to a task but completes before that task finishes. When the coroutine exits, local variables go out of scope and may be subject to garbage collection. In practice, asyncio and Python's garbage collector work pretty hard to ensure this sort of thing doesn't happen. But that's no reason to be reckless!

await

await is a Python keyword that's commonly used in one of two different ways:

await task
await coroutine

In a crucial way, the behavior of await depends on the type of object being awaited.

Awaiting a task will cede control from the current task or coroutine to the event loop. In the process of relinquishing control, a few important things happen. We'll use the following code example to illustrate:

async def plant_a_tree():
    dig_the_hole_task = asyncio.create_task(dig_the_hole())
    await dig_the_hole_task

    # Other instructions associated with planting a tree.
    ...

In this example, imagine the event loop has passed control to the start of the coroutine plant_a_tree(). As seen above, the coroutine creates a task and then awaits it. The await dig_the_hole_task instruction adds a callback (which will resume plant_a_tree()) to the dig_the_hole_task object's list of callbacks. And then, the instruction cedes control to the event loop. Some time later, the event loop will pass control to dig_the_hole_task and the task will finish whatever it needs to do. Once the task finishes, it will add its various callbacks to the event loop, in this case, a call to resume plant_a_tree().

Generally speaking, when the awaited task finishes (dig_the_hole_task), the original task or coroutine (plant_a_tree()) is added back to the event loop's to-do list to be resumed.

This is a basic, yet reliable mental model. In practice, the control handoffs are slightly more complex, but not by much. In part 2, we'll walk through the details that make this possible.

Unlike tasks, awaiting a coroutine does not hand control back to the event loop! Wrapping a coroutine in a task first, then awaiting that would cede control. The behavior of await coroutine is effectively the same as invoking a regular, synchronous Python function. Consider this program:

import asyncio

async def coro_a():
   print("I am coro_a(). Hi!")

async def coro_b():
   print("I am coro_b(). I sure hope no one hogs the event loop...")

async def main():
   task_b = asyncio.create_task(coro_b())
   num_repeats = 3
   for _ in range(num_repeats):
      await coro_a()
   await task_b

asyncio.run(main())

The first statement in the coroutine main() creates task_b and schedules it for execution via the event loop. Then, coro_a() is repeatedly awaited. Control never cedes to the event loop, which is why we see the output of all three coro_a() invocations before coro_b()'s output:

I am coro_a(). Hi!
I am coro_a(). Hi!
I am coro_a(). Hi!
I am coro_b(). I sure hope no one hogs the event loop...

If we change await coro_a() to await asyncio.create_task(coro_a()), the behavior changes. The coroutine main() cedes control to the event loop with that statement. The event loop then proceeds through its backlog of work, calling task_b and then the task which wraps coro_a() before resuming the coroutine main().

I am coro_b(). I sure hope no one hogs the event loop...
I am coro_a(). Hi!
I am coro_a(). Hi!
I am coro_a(). Hi!

This behavior of await coroutine can trip a lot of people up! That example highlights how using only await coroutine could unintentionally hog control from other tasks and effectively stall the event loop. asyncio.run() can help you detect such occurrences via the debug=True flag, which enables debug mode. Among other things, it will log any coroutines that monopolize execution for 100ms or longer.

The design intentionally trades off some conceptual clarity around usage of await for improved performance. Each time a task is awaited, control needs to be passed all the way up the call stack to the event loop. That might sound minor, but in a large program with many await statements and a deep call stack, that overhead can add up to a meaningful performance drag.

A conceptual overview part 2: the nuts and bolts

Part 2 goes into detail on the mechanisms asyncio uses to manage control flow. This is where the magic happens. You'll come away from this section knowing what await does behind the scenes and how to make your own asynchronous operators.

The inner workings of coroutines

asyncio leverages four components to pass around control.

coroutine.send(arg) is the method used to start or resume a coroutine. If the coroutine was paused and is now being resumed, the argument arg will be sent in as the return value of the yield statement which originally paused it. If the coroutine is being used for the first time (as opposed to being resumed), arg must be None.

 1class Rock:
 2    def __await__(self):
 3        value_sent_in = yield 7
 4        print(f"Rock.__await__ resuming with value: {value_sent_in}.")
 5        return value_sent_in
 6
 7async def main():
 8    print("Beginning coroutine main().")
 9    rock = Rock()
10    print("Awaiting rock...")
11    value_from_rock = await rock
12    print(f"Coroutine received value: {value_from_rock} from rock.")
13    return 23
14
15coroutine = main()
16intermediate_result = coroutine.send(None)
17print(f"Coroutine paused and returned intermediate value: {intermediate_result}.")
18
19print(f"Resuming coroutine and sending in value: 42.")
20try:
21    coroutine.send(42)
22except StopIteration as e:
23    returned_value = e.value
24print(f"Coroutine main() finished and provided value: {returned_value}.")

yield, as usual, pauses execution and returns control to the caller. In the example above, the yield, on line 3, is called by ... = await rock on line 11. More broadly speaking, await calls the __await__() method of the given object. await also does one more very special thing: it propagates (or "passes along") any yields it receives up the call chain. In this case, that's back to ... = coroutine.send(None) on line 16.

The coroutine is resumed via the coroutine.send(42) call on line 21. The coroutine picks back up from where it yielded (or paused) on line 3 and executes the remaining statements in its body. When a coroutine finishes, it raises a StopIteration exception with the return value attached in the value attribute.

That snippet produces this output:

Beginning coroutine main().
Awaiting rock...
Coroutine paused and returned intermediate value: 7.
Resuming coroutine and sending in value: 42.
Rock.__await__ resuming with value: 42.
Coroutine received value: 42 from rock.
Coroutine main() finished and provided value: 23.

It's worth pausing for a moment here and making sure you followed the various ways that control flow and values were passed. A lot of important ideas were covered and it's worth ensuring your understanding is firm.

The only way to yield (or effectively cede control) from a coroutine is to await an object that yields in its __await__ method. That might sound odd to you. You might be thinking:

1. What about a yield directly within the coroutine function? The coroutine function becomes an async generator function, a different beast entirely.

2. What about a yield from within the coroutine function to a (plain) generator? That causes the error: SyntaxError: yield from not allowed in a coroutine. This was intentionally designed for the sake of simplicity -- mandating only one way of using coroutines. Initially yield was barred as well, but was re-accepted to allow for async generators. Despite that, yield from and await effectively do the same thing.

Futurs

A future is an object meant to represent a computation's status and result. The term is a nod to the idea of something still to come or not yet happened, and the object is a way to keep an eye on that something.

A future has a few important attributes. One is its state, which can be either "pending", "cancelled", or "done". Another is its result, which is set when the state transitions to done. Unlike a coroutine, a future does not represent the actual computation to be done; instead, it represents the status and result of that computation, kind of like a status light (red, yellow, or green) or indicator.

asyncio.Task subclasses asyncio.Future in order to gain these various capabilities. The prior section said tasks store a list of callbacks, which wasn't entirely accurate. It's actually the Future class that implements this logic, which Task inherits.

Futures may also be used directly (not via tasks). Tasks mark themselves as done when their coroutine is complete. Futures are much more versatile and will be marked as done when you say so. In this way, they're the flexible interface for you to make your own conditions for waiting and resuming.

A homemade asyncio.sleep

We'll go through an example of how you could leverage a future to create your own variant of asynchronous sleep (async_sleep) which mimics asyncio.sleep().

This snippet registers a few tasks with the event loop and then awaits the task created by asyncio.create_task, which wraps the async_sleep(3) coroutine. We want that task to finish only after three seconds have elapsed, but without preventing other tasks from running.

async def other_work():
    print("I like work. Work work.")

async def main():
    # Add a few other tasks to the event loop, so there's something
    # to do while asynchronously sleeping.
    work_tasks = [
        asyncio.create_task(other_work()),
        asyncio.create_task(other_work()),
        asyncio.create_task(other_work())
    ]
    print(
        "Beginning asynchronous sleep at time: "
        f"{datetime.datetime.now().strftime("%H:%M:%S")}."
    )
    await asyncio.create_task(async_sleep(3))
    print(
        "Done asynchronous sleep at time: "
        f"{datetime.datetime.now().strftime("%H:%M:%S")}."
    )
    # asyncio.gather effectively awaits each task in the collection.
    await asyncio.gather(*work_tasks)

Below, we use a future to enable custom control over when that task will be marked as done. If future.set_result() (the method responsible for marking that future as done) is never called, then this task will never finish. We've also enlisted the help of another task, which we'll see in a moment, that will monitor how much time has elapsed and, accordingly, call future.set_result().

async def async_sleep(seconds: float):
    future = asyncio.Future()
    time_to_wake = time.time() + seconds
    # Add the watcher-task to the event loop.
    watcher_task = asyncio.create_task(_sleep_watcher(future, time_to_wake))
    # Block until the future is marked as done.
    await future

Below, we use a rather bare YieldToEventLoop() object to yield from its __await__ method, ceding control to the event loop. This is effectively the same as calling asyncio.sleep(0), but this approach offers more clarity, not to mention it's somewhat cheating to use asyncio.sleep when showcasing how to implement it!

As usual, the event loop cycles through its tasks, giving them control and receiving control back when they pause or finish. The watcher_task, which runs the coroutine _sleep_watcher(...), will be invoked once per full cycle of the event loop. On each resumption, it'll check the time and if not enough has elapsed, then it'll pause once again and hand control back to the event loop. Once enough time has elapsed, _sleep_watcher(...) marks the future as done and completes by exiting its infinite while loop. Given this helper task is only invoked once per cycle of the event loop, you'd be correct to note that this asynchronous sleep will sleep at least three seconds, rather than exactly three seconds. Note this is also true of asyncio.sleep.

class YieldToEventLoop:
    def __await__(self):
        yield

async def _sleep_watcher(future, time_to_wake):
    while True:
        if time.time() >= time_to_wake:
            # This marks the future as done.
            future.set_result(None)
            break
        else:
            await YieldToEventLoop()

Here is the full program's output:

$ python custom-async-sleep.py
Beginning asynchronous sleep at time: 14:52:22.
I like work. Work work.
I like work. Work work.
I like work. Work work.
Done asynchronous sleep at time: 14:52:25.

You might feel this implementation of asynchronous sleep was unnecessarily convoluted. And, well, it was. The example was meant to showcase the versatility of futures with a simple example that could be mimicked for more complex needs. For reference, you could implement it without futures, like so:

async def simpler_async_sleep(seconds):
    time_to_wake = time.time() + seconds
    while True:
        if time.time() >= time_to_wake:
            return
        else:
            await YieldToEventLoop()

But that's all for now. Hopefully you're ready to more confidently dive into some async programming or check out advanced topics in the rest of the documentation.

Portage des modules d'extension vers Python 3

Nous recommandons les ressources suivantes pour migrer les modules d'extensions vers Python 3 :

Le chapitre Migrating C extension [http://python3porting.com/cextensions.html] du livre Supporting Python 3: An in-depth guide (un livre sur le portage de Python 2 à Python 3) guide le lecteur souhaitant porter un module d'extension.

Le Porting guide [https://py3c.readthedocs.io/en/latest/guide.html] du projet py3c fournit des suggestions argumentées avec le code correspondant.

Recommended third party tools offer abstractions over the Python's C API. Extensions generally need to be re-written to use one of them, but the library then handles differences between various Python versions and implementations.

Programmation Curses avec Python

Auteur:

A.M. Kuchling, Eric S. Raymond

Version:

2.04

Résumé

Ce document décrit comment utiliser le module d'extension curses pour contrôler l'affichage en mode texte.

Qu'est-ce que curses ?

La bibliothèque curses fournit une capacité de dessin à l'écran et de gestion du clavier indépendante du terminal pour les terminaux textuels ; ces terminaux comprennent les VT100, la console Linux et le terminal simulé fourni par divers programmes. Les terminaux d'affichage prennent en charge divers codes de commande pour effectuer des opérations courantes telles que déplacer le curseur, faire défiler l'écran et effacer des zones. Différents terminaux utilisent des codes très différents et ont souvent leurs propres bizarreries mineures.

Dans un monde d'affichages graphiques, on pourrait se demander « pourquoi s'embêter ? ». Il est vrai que les terminaux d'affichage caractère par caractère sont une technologie obsolète, mais il existe des niches pour lesquelles la possibilité de faire des choses fantaisistes est encore précieuse. En exemple de niche, on peut citer les systèmes de type Unix de petite taille ou embarqués qui n'utilisent pas de serveur X. Il y a aussi les outils tels que les installateurs d'OS et les outils de configuration du noyau qui doivent être exécutés avant qu'un support graphique ne soit disponible.

The curses library provides fairly basic functionality, providing the programmer with an abstraction of a display containing multiple non-overlapping windows of text. The contents of a window can be changed in various ways---adding text, erasing it, changing its appearance---and the curses library will figure out what control codes need to be sent to the terminal to produce the right output. curses doesn't provide many user-interface concepts such as buttons, checkboxes, or dialogs; if you need such features, consider a user interface library such as Urwid [https://pypi.org/project/Urwid/].

La bibliothèque curses a été écrite à l'origine pour BSD Unix ; les dernières versions System V d'Unix d'AT&T ont ajouté de nombreuses améliorations et de nouvelles fonctions. BSD curses n'est plus maintenu, ayant été remplacé par ncurses, qui est une implémentation open-source de l'interface AT&T. Si vous utilisez un Unix open-source comme Linux ou FreeBSD, votre système utilise presque certainement ncurses. Comme la plupart des versions commerciales actuelles d'Unix sont basées sur le code System V, toutes les fonctions décrites ici seront probablement disponibles. Les anciennes versions de curses portées par certains Unix propriétaires pourraient ne pas gérer toutes les fonctions.

The Windows version of Python doesn't include the curses module. A ported version called UniCurses [https://pypi.org/project/UniCurses/] is available.

Le module curses de Python

The Python module is a fairly simple wrapper over the C functions provided by curses; if you're already familiar with curses programming in C, it's really easy to transfer that knowledge to Python. The biggest difference is that the Python interface makes things simpler by merging different C functions such as addstr(), mvaddstr(), and mvwaddstr() into a single addstr() method. You'll see this covered in more detail later.

Ce guide pratique est une introduction à l'écriture de programmes en mode texte avec curses et Python. Il n'essaie pas d'être un guide complet de l'API curses ; pour cela, consultez la section du guide de la bibliothèque Python sur ncurses et les pages du manuel C pour ncurses. Il vous donne cependant les idées de base.

Lancement et arrêt une application curses

Before doing anything, curses must be initialized. This is done by calling the initscr() function, which will determine the terminal type, send any required setup codes to the terminal, and create various internal data structures. If successful, initscr() returns a window object representing the entire screen; this is usually called stdscr after the name of the corresponding C variable.

import curses
stdscr = curses.initscr()

Habituellement, les applications curses désactivent l'écho automatique des touches à l'écran, afin de pouvoir lire les touches et ne les afficher que dans certaines circonstances. Cela nécessite d'appeler la fonction noecho().

curses.noecho()

Également, les applications réagissent généralement instantanément aux touches sans qu'il soit nécessaire d'appuyer sur la touche Entrée ; c'est ce qu'on appelle le mode cbreak, par opposition au mode d'entrée habituel avec un tampon.

curses.cbreak()

Les terminaux renvoient généralement les touches spéciales, telles que les touches de curseur ou les touches de navigation (Page précédente et Accueil par exemple), comme une séquence d'échappement sur plusieurs octets. Bien que vous puissiez écrire votre application pour vous attendre à de telles séquences et les traiter en conséquence, curses peut le faire pour vous, renvoyant une valeur spéciale telle que curses.KEY_LEFT. Pour que curses fasse le travail, vous devez activer le mode keypad.

stdscr.keypad(True)

Arrêter une application curses est beaucoup plus facile que d'en démarrer une. Appelez :

curses.nocbreak()
stdscr.keypad(False)
curses.echo()

pour inverser les réglages du terminal mis en place pour curses. Ensuite, appelez la fonction enddwin() pour restaurer le terminal dans son mode de fonctionnement original.

curses.endwin()

Un problème courant lors du débogage d'une application curses est de se retrouver avec un terminal sans queue ni tête lorsque l'application meurt sans restaurer le terminal à son état précédent. Avec Python, cela arrive souvent lorsque votre code est bogué et lève une exception non interceptée. Les touches ne sont plus répétées à l'écran lorsque vous les tapez, par exemple, ce qui rend l'utilisation de l'interface de commande du shell difficile.

En Python, vous pouvez éviter ces complications et faciliter le débogage en important la fonction curses.wrapper() et en l'utilisant comme suit :

from curses import wrapper

def main(stdscr):
    # Clear screen
    stdscr.clear()

    # This raises ZeroDivisionError when i == 10.
    for i in range(0, 11):
        v = i-10
        stdscr.addstr(i, 0, '10 divided by {} is {}'.format(v, 10/v))

        stdscr.refresh()
        stdscr.getkey()

wrapper(main)

The wrapper() function takes a callable object and does the initializations described above, also initializing colors if color support is present. wrapper() then runs your provided callable. Once the callable returns, wrapper() will restore the original state of the terminal. The callable is called inside a try...except that catches exceptions, restores the state of the terminal, and then re-raises the exception. Therefore your terminal won't be left in a funny state on exception and you'll be able to read the exception's message and traceback.

Fenêtres et tampons (pads en anglais)

Les fenêtres sont l'abstraction de base de curses. Un objet fenêtre représente une zone rectangulaire de l'écran qui gère des méthodes pour afficher du texte, l'effacer, permettre à l'utilisateur de saisir des chaînes, etc.

L'objet stdscr renvoyé par la fonction initscr() est un objet fenêtre qui couvre l'écran entier. De nombreux programmes peuvent n'avoir besoin que de cette fenêtre unique, mais vous pouvez diviser l'écran en fenêtres plus petites, afin de les redessiner ou de les effacer séparément. La fonction newwin() crée une nouvelle fenêtre d'une taille donnée, renvoyant le nouvel objet fenêtre.

begin_x = 20; begin_y = 7
height = 5; width = 40
win = curses.newwin(height, width, begin_y, begin_x)

Notez que le système de coordonnées utilisé dans curses est inhabituel. Les coordonnées sont toujours passées dans l'ordre y,x et le coin supérieur gauche d'une fenêtre a pour coordonnées (0,0). Ceci rompt la convention normale des coordonnées où la coordonnée x vient en premier. C'est une différence malheureuse par rapport à la plupart des autres applications informatiques, mais elle fait partie de curses depuis qu'il a été écrit et il est trop tard pour changer les choses maintenant.

Votre application peut déterminer la taille de l'écran en utilisant les variables curses.LINES et curses.COLS pour obtenir les tailles y et x. Les coordonnées licites s'étendent alors de (0,0) à (curses.LINES - 1, curses.COLS - 1).

Quand vous appelez une méthode pour afficher ou effacer du texte, l'affichage ne le reflète pas immédiatement. Vous devez appeler la méthode refresh() des objets fenêtre pour mettre à jour l'écran.

This is because curses was originally written with slow 300-baud terminal connections in mind; with these terminals, minimizing the time required to redraw the screen was very important. Instead curses accumulates changes to the screen and displays them in the most efficient manner when you call refresh(). For example, if your program displays some text in a window and then clears the window, there's no need to send the original text because they're never visible.

In practice, explicitly telling curses to redraw a window doesn't really complicate programming with curses much. Most programs go into a flurry of activity, and then pause waiting for a keypress or some other action on the part of the user. All you have to do is to be sure that the screen has been redrawn before pausing to wait for user input, by first calling stdscr.refresh() or the refresh() method of some other relevant window.

Un tampon (pad en anglais) est une forme spéciale de fenêtre ; il peut être plus grand que l'écran effectif et il est possible de n'afficher qu'une partie du tampon à la fois. La création d'un tampon nécessite de fournir sa hauteur et sa largeur, tandis que pour le rafraîchissement du tampon, vous devez fournir les coordonnées de la zone de l'écran où une partie du tampon sera affichée.

pad = curses.newpad(100, 100)
# These loops fill the pad with letters; addch() is
# explained in the next section
for y in range(0, 99):
    for x in range(0, 99):
        pad.addch(y,x, ord('a') + (x*x+y*y) % 26)

# Displays a section of the pad in the middle of the screen.
# (0,0) : coordinate of upper-left corner of pad area to display.
# (5,5) : coordinate of upper-left corner of window area to be filled
#         with pad content.
# (20, 75) : coordinate of lower-right corner of window area to be
#          : filled with pad content.
pad.refresh( 0,0, 5,5, 20,75)

The refresh() call displays a section of the pad in the rectangle extending from coordinate (5,5) to coordinate (20,75) on the screen; the upper left corner of the displayed section is coordinate (0,0) on the pad. Beyond that difference, pads are exactly like ordinary windows and support the same methods.

If you have multiple windows and pads on screen there is a more efficient way to update the screen and prevent annoying screen flicker as each part of the screen gets updated. refresh() actually does two things:

elle appelle la méthode noutrefresh() de chaque fenêtre pour mettre à jour les données sous-jacentes qui permettent d'obtenir l'affichage voulu ;

elle appelle la fonction doupdate() pour modifier l'écran physique afin de correspondre à l'état défini par les données sous-jacentes.

Instead you can call noutrefresh() on a number of windows to update the data structure, and then call doupdate() to update the screen.

Affichage de texte

From a C programmer's point of view, curses may sometimes look like a twisty maze of functions, all subtly different. For example, addstr() displays a string at the current cursor location in the stdscr window, while mvaddstr() moves to a given y,x coordinate first before displaying the string. waddstr() is just like addstr(), but allows specifying a window to use instead of using stdscr by default. mvwaddstr() allows specifying both a window and a coordinate.

Heureusement, l'interface Python masque tous ces détails. stdscr est un objet fenêtre comme les autres et les méthodes telles que addstr() acceptent leurs arguments sous de multiples formes, habituellement quatre.

Forme

Description

str ou ch

Affiche la chaîne str ou le caractère ch à la position actuelle

str ou ch, attr

Affiche la chaîne str ou le caractère ch, en utilisant l'attribut attr à la position actuelle

y, x, str ou ch

Se déplace à la position y,x dans la fenêtre et affiche la chaîne str ou le caractère ch

y, x, str ou ch, attr

Se déplace à la position y,x dans la fenêtre et affiche la chaîne str ou le caractère ch en utilisant l'attribut attr

Les attributs permettent de mettre en valeur du texte : gras, souligné, mode vidéo inversé ou en couleur. Nous les voyons plus en détail dans la section suivante.

The addstr() method takes a Python string or bytestring as the value to be displayed. The contents of bytestrings are sent to the terminal as-is. Strings are encoded to bytes using the value of the window's encoding attribute; this defaults to the default system encoding as returned by locale.getencoding().

Les méthodes addch() prennent un caractère, soit sous la forme d'une chaîne de longueur 1, d'une chaîne d'octets de longueur 1 ou d'un entier.

Des constantes sont disponibles pour étendre les caractères ; ces constantes sont des entiers supérieurs à 255. Par exemple, ACS_PLMINUS correspond au symbole +/- et ACS_ULCORNER correspond au coin en haut et à gauche d'une boîte (utile pour dessiner des encadrements). Vous pouvez aussi utiliser les caractères Unicode adéquats.

Windows se souvient de l'endroit où le curseur était positionné lors de la dernière opération, de manière à ce que si vous n'utilisez pas les coordonnées y,x, l'affichage se produit au dernier endroit utilisé. Vous pouvez aussi déplacer le curseur avec la méthode move(y,x). Comme certains terminaux affichent un curseur clignotant, vous pouvez ainsi vous assurer que celui-ci est positionné à un endroit où il ne distrait pas l'utilisateur (il peut être déroutant d'avoir un curseur qui clignote à des endroits apparemment aléatoires).

Si votre application n'a pas besoin d'un curseur clignotant, vous pouvez appeler curs_set(False) pour le rendre invisible. Par souci de compatibilité avec les anciennes versions de curses, il existe la fonction leaveok(bool) qui est un synonyme de curs_set(). Quand bool vaut True, la bibliothèque curses essaie de supprimer le curseur clignotant et vous n'avez plus besoin de vous soucier de le laisser trainer à des endroits bizarres.

Attributs et couleurs

Les caractères peuvent être affichés de différentes façons. Les lignes de statut des applications en mode texte sont généralement affichées en mode vidéo inversé ; vous pouvez avoir besoin de mettre en valeur certains mots. À ces fins, curses vous permet de spécifier un attribut pour chaque caractère à l'écran.

Un attribut est un entier dont chaque bit représente un attribut différent. Vous pouvez essayer d'afficher du texte avec plusieurs attributs définis simultanément mais curses ne garantit pas que toutes les combinaisons soient prises en compte ou que le résultat soit visuellement différent. Cela dépend de la capacité de chaque terminal utilisé, il est donc plus sage de se cantonner aux attributs les plus communément utilisés, dont la liste est fournie ci-dessous.

Attribut

Description

A_BLINK

Texte clignotant

A_BOLD

Texte en surbrillance ou en gras

A_DIM

Texte en demi-ton

A_REVERSE

Texte en mode vidéo inversé

A_STANDOUT

Le meilleur mode de mis en valeur pour le texte

A_UNDERLINE

Texte souligné

Ainsi, pour mettre la ligne de statut située en haut de l'écran en mode vidéo inversé, vous pouvez coder :

stdscr.addstr(0, 0, "Current mode: Typing mode",
              curses.A_REVERSE)
stdscr.refresh()

La bibliothèque curses gère également les couleurs pour les terminaux compatibles. Le plus répandu de ces terminaux est sûrement la console Linux, suivie par xterm en couleurs.

Pour utiliser les couleurs, vous devez d'abord appeler la fonction start_color() juste après avoir appelé initscr() afin d'initialiser (la fonction curses.wrapper() le fait automatiquement). Ensuite, la fonction has_colors() renvoie True si le terminal utilisé gère les couleurs (note : curses utilise l'orthographe américaine color et non pas l'orthographe britannique ou canadienne colour ; si vous êtes habitué à l'orthographe britannique, vous devrez vous résigner à mal l'orthographier tant que vous utilisez curses).

La bibliothèque curses maintient un nombre restreint de paires de couleurs, constituées d'une couleur de texte (foreground) et de fond (background). Vous pouvez obtenir la valeur des attributs correspondant à une paire de couleur avec la fonction color_pair() ; cette valeur peut être combinée bit par bit (avec la fonction OR) avec les autres attributs tels que A_REVERSE,mais là encore, de telles combinaisons risquent de ne pas fonctionner sur tous les terminaux.

Un exemple d'affichage d'une ligne de texte en utilisant la paire de couleur 1 :

stdscr.addstr("Pretty text", curses.color_pair(1))
stdscr.refresh()

Comme indiqué auparavant, une paire de couleurs est constituée d'une couleur de texte et d'une couleur de fond. La fonction init_pair(n, f, b) change la définition de la paire de couleurs n, en définissant la couleur de texte à f et la couleur de fond à b. La paire de couleurs 0 est codée en dur à blanc sur noir et ne peut être modifiée.

Les couleurs sont numérotées et start_color() initialise 8 couleurs basiques lors de l'activation du mode en couleurs. Ce sont : 0 pour noir (black), 1 pour rouge (red), 2 pour vert (green), 3 pour jaune (yellow), 4 pour bleu (blue), 5 pour magenta, 6 pour cyan et 7 pour blanc (white). Le module curses définit des constantes nommées pour chacune de ces couleurs : curses.COLOR_BLACK, curses.COLOR_RED et ainsi de suite.

Testons tout ça. Pour changer la couleur 1 à rouge sur fond blanc, appelez :

curses.init_pair(1, curses.COLOR_RED, curses.COLOR_WHITE)

Quand vous modifiez une paire de couleurs, tout le texte déjà affiché qui utilise cette paire de couleur voit les nouvelles couleurs s'appliquer à lui. Vous pouvez aussi afficher du nouveau texte dans cette couleur avec :

stdscr.addstr(0,0, "RED ALERT!", curses.color_pair(1))

Les terminaux « de luxe » peuvent définir les couleurs avec des valeurs RGB. Cela vous permet de modifier la couleur 1, habituellement rouge, en violet ou bleu voire toute autre couleur selon votre goût. Malheureusement, la console Linux ne gère pas cette fonctionnalité, je suis donc bien incapable de la tester et de vous en fournir un exemple. Vous pouvez vérifier si votre terminal la prend en charge en appelant can_change_color(), qui renvoie True en cas de succès. Si vous avez la chance d'avoir un terminal aussi perfectionné, consultez les pages du manuel de votre système pour obtenir plus d'informations.

Entrées de l'utilisateur

The C curses library offers only very simple input mechanisms. Python's curses module adds a basic text-input widget. (Other libraries such as Urwid [https://pypi.org/project/Urwid/] have more extensive collections of widgets.)

Il y a deux méthodes pour obtenir des entrées dans une fenêtre :

getch() rafraîchit l'écran et attend que l'utilisateur appuie sur une touche, affichant cette touche si echo() a été appelé auparavant. Vous pouvez en option spécifier des coordonnées où positionner le curseur avant la mise en pause ;

getkey() effectue la même chose mais convertit l'entier en chaîne. Les caractères individuels sont renvoyés en chaînes de longueur 1 alors que les touches spéciales (telles que les touches de fonction) renvoient des chaînes plus longues contenant le nom de la touche (tel que KEY_UP ou ^G).

It's possible to not wait for the user using the nodelay() window method. After nodelay(True), getch() and getkey() for the window become non-blocking. To signal that no input is ready, getch() returns curses.ERR (a value of -1) and getkey() raises an exception. There's also a halfdelay() function, which can be used to (in effect) set a timer on each getch(); if no input becomes available within a specified delay (measured in tenths of a second), curses raises an exception.

The getch() method returns an integer; if it's between 0 and 255, it represents the ASCII code of the key pressed. Values greater than 255 are special keys such as Page Up, Home, or the cursor keys. You can compare the value returned to constants such as curses.KEY_PPAGE, curses.KEY_HOME, or curses.KEY_LEFT. The main loop of your program may look something like this:

while True:
    c = stdscr.getch()
    if c == ord('p'):
        PrintDocument()
    elif c == ord('q'):
        break  # Exit the while loop
    elif c == curses.KEY_HOME:
        x = y = 0

Le module curses.ascii fournit des fonctions pour déterminer si l'entier ou la chaîne de longueur 1 passés en arguments font partie de la classe ASCII ; elles peuvent s'avérer utile pour écrire du code plus lisible dans ce genre de boucles. Il fournit également des fonctions de conversion qui prennent un entier ou une chaîne de longueur 1 en entrée et renvoient le type correspondant au nom de la fonction. Par exemple, curses.ascii.ctrl() renvoie le caractère de contrôle correspondant à son paramètre.

Il existe aussi une méthode pour récupérer une chaîne entière, getstr(). Elle n'est pas beaucoup utilisée car son utilité est limitée : les seules touches d'édition disponibles sont le retour arrière et la touche Entrée, qui termine la chaîne. Elle peut, en option, être limitée à un nombre fixé de caractères.

curses.echo()            # Enable echoing of characters

# Get a 15-character string, with the cursor on the top line
s = stdscr.getstr(0,0, 15)

Le module curses.textpad fournit un type de boîte texte qui gère des touches de fonctions à la façon d'Emacs. Plusieurs méthodes de la classe Textbox gèrent l'édition avec la validation des entrées et le regroupement de l'entrée avec ou sans les espaces de début et de fin. Par exemple :

import curses
from curses.textpad import Textbox, rectangle

def main(stdscr):
    stdscr.addstr(0, 0, "Enter IM message: (hit Ctrl-G to send)")

    editwin = curses.newwin(5,30, 2,1)
    rectangle(stdscr, 1,0, 1+5+1, 1+30+1)
    stdscr.refresh()

    box = Textbox(editwin)

    # Let the user edit until Ctrl-G is struck.
    box.edit()

    # Get resulting contents
    message = box.gather()

Consultez la documentation de la bibliothèque pour plus de détails sur curses.textpad.

Pour aller plus loin

Ce guide pratique ne couvre pas certains sujets avancés, tels que la lecture du contenu de l'écran ou la capture des événements relatifs à la souris dans une instance xterm, mais la page de la bibliothèque Python du module curses est maintenant suffisamment complète. Nous vous encourageons à la parcourir.

If you're in doubt about the detailed behavior of the curses functions, consult the manual pages for your curses implementation, whether it's ncurses or a proprietary Unix vendor's. The manual pages will document any quirks, and provide complete lists of all the functions, attributes, and ACS_* characters available to you.

Étant donné que l'API curses est si volumineuse, certaines fonctions ne sont pas prises en charge dans l'interface Python. Souvent, ce n'est pas parce qu'elles sont difficiles à implémenter, mais parce que personne n'en a eu encore besoin. De plus, Python ne prend pas encore en charge la bibliothèque de gestion des menus associée à ncurses. Les correctifs ajoutant cette prise en charge seraient bienvenus ; reportez-vous au guide du développeur Python [https://devguide.python.org/] pour apprendre comment soumettre des améliorations à Python.

Writing Programs with NCURSES [https://invisible-island.net/ncurses/ncurses-intro.html]: a lengthy tutorial for C programmers.

La page de manuel ncurses [https://linux.die.net/man/3/ncurses]

The ncurses FAQ [https://invisible-island.net/ncurses/ncurses.faq.html]

"Use curses... don't swear" [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eN1eZtjLEnU] : vidéo d'une conférence lors de la PyCon 2013 sur la gestion des terminaux à l'aide de curses et Urwid (vidéo en anglais).

"Console Applications with Urwid" [https://pyvideo.org/video/1568/console-applications-with-urwid]: video of a PyCon CA 2012 talk demonstrating some applications written using Urwid.

Descriptor Guide

Auteur:

Raymond Hettinger

Contact:

<python at rcn dot com>

Sommaire

Descriptor Guide

Introduction

Un exemple simple : un descripteur qui renvoie une constante

Recherches dynamiques

Attributs gérés

Noms personnalisés

Réflexions finales

Exemple complet pratique

Classe « validateur »

Validateurs personnalisés

Application pratique

Tutoriel technique

Résumé

Définition et introduction

Protocole descripteur

Présentation de l'appel de descripteur

Appel depuis une instance

Appel depuis une classe

Appel depuis super

Résumé de la logique d'appel

Notification automatique des noms

Exemple d'ORM

Équivalents en Python pur

Propriétés

Fonctions et méthodes

Types de méthodes

Méthodes statiques

Méthodes de classe

Objets membres et __slots__

Les descripteurs permettent de personnaliser la recherche, le stockage et la suppression des attributs des objets.

Ce guide comporte quatre parties principales :

l'« introduction » donne un premier aperçu, en partant d'exemples simples, puis en ajoutant une fonctionnalité à la fois. Commencez par là si vous débutez avec les descripteurs ;

la deuxième partie montre un exemple de descripteur complet et pratique. Si vous connaissez déjà les bases, commencez par là ;

la troisième partie fournit un didacticiel plus technique qui décrit de manière détaillée comment fonctionnent les descripteurs. La plupart des gens n'ont pas besoin de ce niveau de détail ;

la dernière partie contient des équivalents en pur Python des descripteurs natifs écrits en C. Lisez ceci si vous êtes curieux de savoir comment les fonctions se transforment en méthodes liées ou si vous voulez connaître l'implémentation d'outils courants comme classmethod(), staticmethod(), property() et __slots__.

Introduction

Dans cette introduction, nous commençons par l'exemple le plus simple possible, puis nous ajoutons de nouvelles fonctionnalités une par une.

Un exemple simple : un descripteur qui renvoie une constante

The Ten class is a descriptor whose __get__() method always returns the constant 10:

class Ten:
    def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
        return 10

Pour utiliser le descripteur, il doit être stocké en tant que variable de classe dans une autre classe :

class A:
    x = 5                       # Regular class attribute
    y = Ten()                   # Descriptor instance

Une session interactive montre la différence entre la recherche d'attribut normale et la recherche via un descripteur :

>>> a = A()                     # Make an instance of class A
>>> a.x                         # Normal attribute lookup
5
>>> a.y                         # Descriptor lookup
10

Dans la recherche d'attribut a.x, l'opérateur « point » trouve 'x': 5 dans le dictionnaire de classe. Dans la recherche a.y, l'opérateur « point » trouve une instance de descripteur, reconnue par sa méthode __get__. L'appel de cette méthode renvoie 10.

Notez que la valeur 10 n'est stockée ni dans le dictionnaire de classe ni dans le dictionnaire d'instance. Non, la valeur 10 est calculée à la demande.

Cet exemple montre comment fonctionne un descripteur simple, mais il n'est pas très utile. Pour récupérer des constantes, une recherche d'attribut normale est préférable.

Dans la section suivante, nous allons créer quelque chose de plus utile, une recherche dynamique.

Recherches dynamiques

Les descripteurs intéressants exécutent généralement des calculs au lieu de renvoyer des constantes :

import os

class DirectorySize:

    def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
        return len(os.listdir(obj.dirname))

class Directory:

    size = DirectorySize()              # Descriptor instance

    def __init__(self, dirname):
        self.dirname = dirname          # Regular instance attribute

Une session interactive montre que la recherche est dynamique — elle calcule des réponses différentes, mises à jour à chaque fois :

>>> s = Directory('songs')
>>> g = Directory('games')
>>> s.size                              # The songs directory has twenty files
20
>>> g.size                              # The games directory has three files
3
>>> os.remove('games/chess')            # Delete a game
>>> g.size                              # File count is automatically updated
2

Besides showing how descriptors can run computations, this example also reveals the purpose of the parameters to __get__(). The self parameter is size, an instance of DirectorySize. The obj parameter is either g or s, an instance of Directory. It is the obj parameter that lets the __get__() method learn the target directory. The objtype parameter is the class Directory.

Attributs gérés

A popular use for descriptors is managing access to instance data. The descriptor is assigned to a public attribute in the class dictionary while the actual data is stored as a private attribute in the instance dictionary. The descriptor's __get__() and __set__() methods are triggered when the public attribute is accessed.

Dans l'exemple qui suit, age est l'attribut public et _age est l'attribut privé. Lors de l'accès à l'attribut public, le descripteur journalise la recherche ou la mise à jour :

import logging

logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO)

class LoggedAgeAccess:

    def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
        value = obj._age
        logging.info('Accessing %r giving %r', 'age', value)
        return value

    def __set__(self, obj, value):
        logging.info('Updating %r to %r', 'age', value)
        obj._age = value

class Person:

    age = LoggedAgeAccess()             # Descriptor instance

    def __init__(self, name, age):
        self.name = name                # Regular instance attribute
        self.age = age                  # Calls __set__()

    def birthday(self):
        self.age += 1                   # Calls both __get__() and __set__()

Une session interactive montre que tous les accès à l'attribut géré age sont consignés, mais que rien n'est journalisé pour l'attribut normal name :

>>> mary = Person('Mary M', 30)         # The initial age update is logged
INFO:root:Updating 'age' to 30
>>> dave = Person('David D', 40)
INFO:root:Updating 'age' to 40

>>> vars(mary)                          # The actual data is in a private attribute
{'name': 'Mary M', '_age': 30}
>>> vars(dave)
{'name': 'David D', '_age': 40}

>>> mary.age                            # Access the data and log the lookup
INFO:root:Accessing 'age' giving 30
30
>>> mary.birthday()                     # Updates are logged as well
INFO:root:Accessing 'age' giving 30
INFO:root:Updating 'age' to 31

>>> dave.name                           # Regular attribute lookup isn't logged
'David D'
>>> dave.age                            # Only the managed attribute is logged
INFO:root:Accessing 'age' giving 40
40

Un problème majeur avec cet exemple est que le nom privé _age est écrit en dur dans la classe LoggedAgeAccess. Cela signifie que chaque instance ne peut avoir qu'un seul attribut journalisé et que son nom est immuable. Dans l'exemple suivant, nous allons résoudre ce problème.

Noms personnalisés

Lorsqu'une classe utilise des descripteurs, elle peut informer chaque descripteur du nom de variable utilisé.

In this example, the Person class has two descriptor instances, name and age. When the Person class is defined, it makes a callback to __set_name__() in LoggedAccess so that the field names can be recorded, giving each descriptor its own public_name and private_name:

import logging

logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO)

class LoggedAccess:

    def __set_name__(self, owner, name):
        self.public_name = name
        self.private_name = '_' + name

    def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
        value = getattr(obj, self.private_name)
        logging.info('Accessing %r giving %r', self.public_name, value)
        return value

    def __set__(self, obj, value):
        logging.info('Updating %r to %r', self.public_name, value)
        setattr(obj, self.private_name, value)

class Person:

    name = LoggedAccess()                # First descriptor instance
    age = LoggedAccess()                 # Second descriptor instance

    def __init__(self, name, age):
        self.name = name                 # Calls the first descriptor
        self.age = age                   # Calls the second descriptor

    def birthday(self):
        self.age += 1

An interactive session shows that the Person class has called __set_name__() so that the field names would be recorded. Here we call vars() to look up the descriptor without triggering it:

>>> vars(vars(Person)['name'])
{'public_name': 'name', 'private_name': '_name'}
>>> vars(vars(Person)['age'])
{'public_name': 'age', 'private_name': '_age'}

La nouvelle classe enregistre désormais l'accès à la fois à name et age :

>>> pete = Person('Peter P', 10)
INFO:root:Updating 'name' to 'Peter P'
INFO:root:Updating 'age' to 10
>>> kate = Person('Catherine C', 20)
INFO:root:Updating 'name' to 'Catherine C'
INFO:root:Updating 'age' to 20

Les deux instances de Person ne contiennent que les noms privés :

>>> vars(pete)
{'_name': 'Peter P', '_age': 10}
>>> vars(kate)
{'_name': 'Catherine C', '_age': 20}

Réflexions finales

A descriptor is what we call any object that defines __get__(), __set__(), or __delete__().

Optionally, descriptors can have a __set_name__() method. This is only used in cases where a descriptor needs to know either the class where it was created or the name of class variable it was assigned to. (This method, if present, is called even if the class is not a descriptor.)

Les descripteurs sont invoqués par l'opérateur « point » lors de la recherche d'attribut. Si on accède indirectement au descripteur avec vars(some_class)[descriptor_name], l'instance du descripteur est renvoyée sans l'invoquer.

Les descripteurs ne fonctionnent que lorsqu'ils sont utilisés comme variables de classe. Lorsqu'ils sont placés dans des instances, ils n'ont aucun effet.

La principale raison d'être des descripteurs est de fournir un point d'entrée permettant aux objets stockés dans des variables de classe de contrôler ce qui se passe lors de la recherche d'attributs.

Traditionnellement, la classe appelante contrôle ce qui se passe pendant la recherche. Les descripteurs inversent cette relation et permettent aux données recherchées d'avoir leur mot à dire.

Les descripteurs sont utilisés partout dans le langage. C'est ainsi que les fonctions se transforment en méthodes liées. Les outils courants tels que classmethod(), staticmethod(), property() et functools.cached_property() sont tous implémentés en tant que descripteurs.

Exemple complet pratique

Dans cet exemple, nous créons un outil pratique et puissant pour localiser les bogues de corruption de données notoirement difficiles à trouver.

Classe « validateur »

Un validateur est un descripteur pour l'accès aux attributs gérés. Avant de stocker des données, il vérifie que la nouvelle valeur respecte différentes restrictions de type et de plage. Si ces restrictions ne sont pas respectées, il lève une exception pour empêcher la corruption des données à la source.

This Validator class is both an abstract base class and a managed attribute descriptor:

from abc import ABC, abstractmethod

class Validator(ABC):

    def __set_name__(self, owner, name):
        self.private_name = '_' + name

    def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
        return getattr(obj, self.private_name)

    def __set__(self, obj, value):
        self.validate(value)
        setattr(obj, self.private_name, value)

    @abstractmethod
    def validate(self, value):
        pass

Custom validators need to inherit from Validator and must supply a validate() method to test various restrictions as needed.

Validateurs personnalisés

Voici trois utilitaires concrets de validation de données :

OneOf verifies that a value is one of a restricted set of options.

Number verifies that a value is either an int or float. Optionally, it verifies that a value is between a given minimum or maximum.

String verifies that a value is a str. Optionally, it validates a given minimum or maximum length. It can validate a user-defined predicate [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predicate_(mathematical_logic)] as well.

class OneOf(Validator):

    def __init__(self, *options):
        self.options = set(options)

    def validate(self, value):
        if value not in self.options:
            raise ValueError(
                f'Expected {value!r} to be one of {self.options!r}'
            )

class Number(Validator):

    def __init__(self, minvalue=None, maxvalue=None):
        self.minvalue = minvalue
        self.maxvalue = maxvalue

    def validate(self, value):
        if not isinstance(value, (int, float)):
            raise TypeError(f'Expected {value!r} to be an int or float')
        if self.minvalue is not None and value < self.minvalue:
            raise ValueError(
                f'Expected {value!r} to be at least {self.minvalue!r}'
            )
        if self.maxvalue is not None and value > self.maxvalue:
            raise ValueError(
                f'Expected {value!r} to be no more than {self.maxvalue!r}'
            )

class String(Validator):

    def __init__(self, minsize=None, maxsize=None, predicate=None):
        self.minsize = minsize
        self.maxsize = maxsize
        self.predicate = predicate

    def validate(self, value):
        if not isinstance(value, str):
            raise TypeError(f'Expected {value!r} to be a str')
        if self.minsize is not None and len(value) < self.minsize:
            raise ValueError(
                f'Expected {value!r} to be no smaller than {self.minsize!r}'
            )
        if self.maxsize is not None and len(value) > self.maxsize:
            raise ValueError(
                f'Expected {value!r} to be no bigger than {self.maxsize!r}'
            )
        if self.predicate is not None and not self.predicate(value):
            raise ValueError(
                f'Expected {self.predicate} to be true for {value!r}'
            )

Application pratique

Voici comment les validateurs de données peuvent être utilisés par une classe réelle :

class Component:

    name = String(minsize=3, maxsize=10, predicate=str.isupper)
    kind = OneOf('wood', 'metal', 'plastic')
    quantity = Number(minvalue=0)

    def __init__(self, name, kind, quantity):
        self.name = name
        self.kind = kind
        self.quantity = quantity

Les descripteurs empêchent la création d'instances non valides :

>>> Component('Widget', 'metal', 5)      # Blocked: 'Widget' is not all uppercase
Traceback (most recent call last):
    ...
ValueError: Expected <method 'isupper' of 'str' objects> to be true for 'Widget'

>>> Component('WIDGET', 'metle', 5)      # Blocked: 'metle' is misspelled
Traceback (most recent call last):
    ...
ValueError: Expected 'metle' to be one of {'metal', 'plastic', 'wood'}

>>> Component('WIDGET', 'metal', -5)     # Blocked: -5 is negative
Traceback (most recent call last):
    ...
ValueError: Expected -5 to be at least 0

>>> Component('WIDGET', 'metal', 'V')    # Blocked: 'V' isn't a number
Traceback (most recent call last):
    ...
TypeError: Expected 'V' to be an int or float

>>> c = Component('WIDGET', 'metal', 5)  # Allowed:  The inputs are valid

Tutoriel technique

Ce qui suit est un tutoriel plus technique relatif aux mécanismes et détails de fonctionnement des descripteurs.

Résumé

Ce tutoriel définit des descripteurs, résume le protocole et montre comment les descripteurs sont appelés. Il fournit un exemple montrant comment fonctionnent les correspondances relationnelles entre objets.

L'apprentissage des descripteurs permet non seulement d'accéder à un ensemble d'outils plus vaste, mais aussi de mieux comprendre le fonctionnement de Python.

Définition et introduction

In general, a descriptor is an attribute value that has one of the methods in the descriptor protocol. Those methods are __get__(), __set__(), and __delete__(). If any of those methods are defined for an attribute, it is said to be a descriptor.

Le comportement par défaut pour l'accès aux attributs consiste à obtenir, définir ou supprimer l'attribut dans le dictionnaire d'un objet. Par exemple, pour chercher a.x Python commence par chercher a.__dict__['x'], puis type(a).__dict__['x'], et continue la recherche en utilisant la MRO (l'ordre de résolution des méthodes) de type(a). Si la valeur recherchée est un objet définissant l'une des méthodes de descripteur, Python remplace le comportement par défaut par un appel à la méthode du descripteur. Le moment où cela se produit dans la chaîne de recherche dépend des méthodes définies par le descripteur.

Descriptors are a powerful, general purpose protocol. They are the mechanism behind properties, methods, static methods, class methods, and super(). They are used throughout Python itself. Descriptors simplify the underlying C code and offer a flexible set of new tools for everyday Python programs.

Protocole descripteur

descr.__get__(self, obj, type=None)

descr.__set__(self, obj, value)

descr.__delete__(self, obj)

C'est tout ce qu'il y a à faire. Définissez n'importe laquelle de ces méthodes et un objet est considéré comme un descripteur ; il peut alors remplacer le comportement par défaut lorsqu'il est recherché en tant qu'attribut.

If an object defines __set__() or __delete__(), it is considered a data descriptor. Descriptors that only define __get__() are called non-data descriptors (they are often used for methods but other uses are possible).

Les descripteurs de données et les descripteurs hors-données diffèrent dans la façon dont les changements de comportement sont calculés en ce qui concerne les entrées du dictionnaire d'une instance. Si le dictionnaire d'une instance comporte une entrée portant le même nom qu'un descripteur de données, le descripteur de données est prioritaire. Si le dictionnaire d'une instance comporte une entrée portant le même nom qu'un descripteur hors-données, l'entrée du dictionnaire a la priorité.

To make a read-only data descriptor, define both __get__() and __set__() with the __set__() raising an AttributeError when called. Defining the __set__() method with an exception raising placeholder is enough to make it a data descriptor.

Présentation de l'appel de descripteur

Un descripteur peut être appelé directement par desc.__get__(obj) ou desc.__get__(None, cls).

Mais il est plus courant qu'un descripteur soit invoqué automatiquement à partir d'un accès à un attribut.

The expression obj.x looks up the attribute x in the chain of namespaces for obj. If the search finds a descriptor outside of the instance __dict__, its __get__() method is invoked according to the precedence rules listed below.

Les détails de l'appel varient selon que obj est un objet, une classe ou une instance de super.

Appel depuis une instance

Instance lookup scans through a chain of namespaces giving data descriptors the highest priority, followed by instance variables, then non-data descriptors, then class variables, and lastly __getattr__() if it is provided.

Si un descripteur est trouvé pour a.x, alors il est appelé par desc.__get__(a, type(a)).

La logique d'une recherche « après un point » se trouve dans object.__getattribute__(). Voici un équivalent en Python pur :

def find_name_in_mro(cls, name, default):
    "Emulate _PyType_Lookup() in Objects/typeobject.c"
    for base in cls.__mro__:
        if name in vars(base):
            return vars(base)[name]
    return default

def object_getattribute(obj, name):
    "Emulate PyObject_GenericGetAttr() in Objects/object.c"
    null = object()
    objtype = type(obj)
    cls_var = find_name_in_mro(objtype, name, null)
    descr_get = getattr(type(cls_var), '__get__', null)
    if descr_get is not null:
        if (hasattr(type(cls_var), '__set__')
            or hasattr(type(cls_var), '__delete__')):
            return descr_get(cls_var, obj, objtype)     # data descriptor
    if hasattr(obj, '__dict__') and name in vars(obj):
        return vars(obj)[name]                          # instance variable
    if descr_get is not null:
        return descr_get(cls_var, obj, objtype)         # non-data descriptor
    if cls_var is not null:
        return cls_var                                  # class variable
    raise AttributeError(name)

Note, there is no __getattr__() hook in the __getattribute__() code. That is why calling __getattribute__() directly or with super().__getattribute__ will bypass __getattr__() entirely.

Instead, it is the dot operator and the getattr() function that are responsible for invoking __getattr__() whenever __getattribute__() raises an AttributeError. Their logic is encapsulated in a helper function:

def getattr_hook(obj, name):
    "Emulate slot_tp_getattr_hook() in Objects/typeobject.c"
    try:
        return obj.__getattribute__(name)
    except AttributeError:
        if not hasattr(type(obj), '__getattr__'):
            raise
    return type(obj).__getattr__(obj, name)             # __getattr__

Appel depuis une classe

The logic for a dotted lookup such as A.x is in type.__getattribute__(). The steps are similar to those for object.__getattribute__() but the instance dictionary lookup is replaced by a search through the class's method resolution order.

Si un descripteur est trouvé, il est appelé par desc.__get__(None, A).

The full C implementation can be found in type_getattro() and _PyType_Lookup() in Objects/typeobject.c [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Objects/typeobject.c].

Appel depuis super

The logic for super's dotted lookup is in the __getattribute__() method for object returned by super().

La recherche d'attribut super(A, obj).m recherche dans obj.__class__.__mro__ la classe B qui suit immédiatement A, et renvoie B.__dict__['m'].__get__(obj, A). Si ce n'est pas un descripteur, m est renvoyé inchangé.

The full C implementation can be found in super_getattro() in Objects/typeobject.c [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Objects/typeobject.c]. A pure Python equivalent can be found in Guido's Tutorial [https://www.python.org/download/releases/2.2.3/descrintro/#cooperation].

Résumé de la logique d'appel

The mechanism for descriptors is embedded in the __getattribute__() methods for object, type, and super().

Les points importants à retenir sont :

Descriptors are invoked by the __getattribute__() method.

les classes héritent ce mécanisme de object, type ou super() ;

Overriding __getattribute__() prevents automatic descriptor calls because all the descriptor logic is in that method.

object.__getattribute__() and type.__getattribute__() make different calls to __get__(). The first includes the instance and may include the class. The second puts in None for the instance and always includes the class.

les descripteurs de données sont toujours prioritaires sur les dictionnaires d'instances.

les descripteurs hors-données peuvent céder la priorité aux dictionnaires d'instance.

Notification automatique des noms

Sometimes it is desirable for a descriptor to know what class variable name it was assigned to. When a new class is created, the type metaclass scans the dictionary of the new class. If any of the entries are descriptors and if they define __set_name__(), that method is called with two arguments. The owner is the class where the descriptor is used, and the name is the class variable the descriptor was assigned to.

The implementation details are in type_new() and set_names() in Objects/typeobject.c [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Objects/typeobject.c].

Since the update logic is in type.__new__(), notifications only take place at the time of class creation. If descriptors are added to the class afterwards, __set_name__() will need to be called manually.

Exemple d'ORM

Le code suivant est une ossature simplifiée montrant comment les descripteurs de données peuvent être utilisés pour implémenter une correspondance objet-relationnel [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mapping_objet-relationnel].

L'idée essentielle est que les données sont stockées dans une base de données externe. Les instances Python ne contiennent que les clés des tables de la base de données. Les descripteurs s'occupent des recherches et des mises à jour :

class Field:

    def __set_name__(self, owner, name):
        self.fetch = f'SELECT {name} FROM {owner.table} WHERE {owner.key}=?;'
        self.store = f'UPDATE {owner.table} SET {name}=? WHERE {owner.key}=?;'

    def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
        return conn.execute(self.fetch, [obj.key]).fetchone()[0]

    def __set__(self, obj, value):
        conn.execute(self.store, [value, obj.key])
        conn.commit()

We can use the Field class to define models [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_model] that describe the schema for each table in a database:

class Movie:
    table = 'Movies'                    # Table name
    key = 'title'                       # Primary key
    director = Field()
    year = Field()

    def __init__(self, key):
        self.key = key

class Song:
    table = 'Music'
    key = 'title'
    artist = Field()
    year = Field()
    genre = Field()

    def __init__(self, key):
        self.key = key

Pour utiliser les modèles, connectons-nous d'abord à la base de données :

>>> import sqlite3
>>> conn = sqlite3.connect('entertainment.db')

Une session interactive montre comment les données sont extraites de la base de données et comment elles peuvent être mises à jour :

>>> Movie('Star Wars').director
'George Lucas'
>>> jaws = Movie('Jaws')
>>> f'Released in {jaws.year} by {jaws.director}'
'Released in 1975 by Steven Spielberg'

>>> Song('Country Roads').artist
'John Denver'

>>> Movie('Star Wars').director = 'J.J. Abrams'
>>> Movie('Star Wars').director
'J.J. Abrams'

Équivalents en Python pur

Le protocole descripteur est simple et offre des possibilités très intéressantes. Plusieurs cas d'utilisation sont si courants qu'ils ont été regroupés dans des outils intégrés. Les propriétés, les méthodes liées, les méthodes statiques et les méthodes de classe sont toutes basées sur le protocole descripteur.

Propriétés

Appeler property() construit de façon succincte un descripteur de données qui déclenche un appel de fonction lors de l'accès à un attribut. Sa signature est :

property(fget=None, fset=None, fdel=None, doc=None) -> property

La documentation montre une utilisation caractéristique pour définir un attribut géré x :

class C:
    def getx(self): return self.__x
    def setx(self, value): self.__x = value
    def delx(self): del self.__x
    x = property(getx, setx, delx, "I'm the 'x' property.")

To see how property() is implemented in terms of the descriptor protocol, here is a pure Python equivalent that implements most of the core functionality:

class Property:
    "Emulate PyProperty_Type() in Objects/descrobject.c"

    def __init__(self, fget=None, fset=None, fdel=None, doc=None):
        self.fget = fget
        self.fset = fset
        self.fdel = fdel
        if doc is None and fget is not None:
            doc = fget.__doc__
        self.__doc__ = doc

    def __set_name__(self, owner, name):
        self.__name__ = name

    def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
        if obj is None:
            return self
        if self.fget is None:
            raise AttributeError
        return self.fget(obj)

    def __set__(self, obj, value):
        if self.fset is None:
            raise AttributeError
        self.fset(obj, value)

    def __delete__(self, obj):
        if self.fdel is None:
            raise AttributeError
        self.fdel(obj)

    def getter(self, fget):
        return type(self)(fget, self.fset, self.fdel, self.__doc__)

    def setter(self, fset):
        return type(self)(self.fget, fset, self.fdel, self.__doc__)

    def deleter(self, fdel):
        return type(self)(self.fget, self.fset, fdel, self.__doc__)

La fonction native property() aide chaque fois qu'une interface utilisateur a accordé l'accès à un attribut et que des modifications ultérieures nécessitent l'intervention d'une méthode.

Par exemple, une classe de tableur peut donner accès à une valeur de cellule via Cell('b10').value. Les améliorations ultérieures du programme exigent que la cellule soit recalculée à chaque accès ; cependant, le programmeur ne veut pas impacter le code client existant accédant directement à l'attribut. La solution consiste à envelopper l'accès à l'attribut value dans un descripteur de données :

class Cell:
    ...

    @property
    def value(self):
        "Recalculate the cell before returning value"
        self.recalc()
        return self._value

Either the built-in property() or our Property() equivalent would work in this example.

Fonctions et méthodes

Les fonctionnalités orientées objet de Python sont construites sur un environnement basé sur des fonctions. À l'aide de descripteurs hors-données, les deux sont fusionnés de façon transparente.

Les fonctions placées dans les dictionnaires des classes sont transformées en méthodes au moment de l'appel. Les méthodes ne diffèrent des fonctions ordinaires que par le fait que le premier argument est réservé à l'instance de l'objet. Par convention Python, la référence de l'instance est appelée self, bien qu'il soit possible de l'appeler this ou tout autre nom de variable.

Les méthodes peuvent être créées manuellement avec types.MethodType, qui équivaut à peu près à :

class MethodType:
    "Emulate PyMethod_Type in Objects/classobject.c"

    def __init__(self, func, obj):
        self.__func__ = func
        self.__self__ = obj

    def __call__(self, *args, **kwargs):
        func = self.__func__
        obj = self.__self__
        return func(obj, *args, **kwargs)

    def __getattribute__(self, name):
        "Emulate method_getset() in Objects/classobject.c"
        if name == '__doc__':
            return self.__func__.__doc__
        return object.__getattribute__(self, name)

    def __getattr__(self, name):
        "Emulate method_getattro() in Objects/classobject.c"
        return getattr(self.__func__, name)

    def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
        "Emulate method_descr_get() in Objects/classobject.c"
        return self

To support automatic creation of methods, functions include the __get__() method for binding methods during attribute access. This means that functions are non-data descriptors that return bound methods during dotted lookup from an instance. Here's how it works:

class Function:
    ...

    def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
        "Simulate func_descr_get() in Objects/funcobject.c"
        if obj is None:
            return self
        return MethodType(self, obj)

L'exécution de la classe suivante dans l'interpréteur montre comment le descripteur de fonction se comporte en pratique :

class D:
    def f(self):
         return self

class D2:
    pass

La fonction possède un attribut __qualname__ (nom qualifié) pour prendre en charge l'introspection :

>>> D.f.__qualname__
'D.f'

Accessing the function through the class dictionary does not invoke __get__(). Instead, it just returns the underlying function object:

>>> D.__dict__['f']
<function D.f at 0x00C45070>

Dotted access from a class calls __get__() which just returns the underlying function unchanged:

>>> D.f
<function D.f at 0x00C45070>

The interesting behavior occurs during dotted access from an instance. The dotted lookup calls __get__() which returns a bound method object:

>>> d = D()
>>> d.f
<bound method D.f of <__main__.D object at 0x00B18C90>>

En interne, la méthode liée stocke la fonction sous-jacente et l'instance liée :

>>> d.f.__func__
<function D.f at 0x00C45070>

>>> d.f.__self__
<__main__.D object at 0x00B18C90>

Si vous vous êtes déjà demandé d'où vient self dans les méthodes ordinaires ou d'où vient cls dans les méthodes de classe, c'est ça !

Types de méthodes

Les descripteurs hors-données constituent un moyen simple pour modifier le modèle usuel de transformation des fonctions en méthodes.

To recap, functions have a __get__() method so that they can be converted to a method when accessed as attributes. The non-data descriptor transforms an obj.f(*args) call into f(obj, *args). Calling cls.f(*args) becomes f(*args).

Ce tableau résume le lien classique (binding) et ses deux variantes les plus utiles :

Transformation

Appelée depuis un objet

Appelée depuis une classe

fonction

f(obj, *args)

f(*args)

méthode statique

f(*args)

f(*args)

méthode de classe

f(type(obj), *args)

f(cls, *args)

Méthodes statiques

Les méthodes statiques renvoient la fonction sous-jacente sans modification. Appeler c.f ou C.f est l'équivalent d'une recherche directe dans objet.__getattribute__(c, "f") ou objet.__getattribute__(C, "f"). Par conséquent, l'accès à la fonction devient identique que ce soit à partir d'un objet ou d'une classe.

Les bonnes candidates pour être méthode statique sont des méthodes qui ne font pas référence à la variable self.

For instance, a statistics package may include a container class for experimental data. The class provides normal methods for computing the average, mean, median, and other descriptive statistics that depend on the data. However, there may be useful functions which are conceptually related but do not depend on the data. For instance, erf(x) is handy conversion routine that comes up in statistical work but does not directly depend on a particular dataset. It can be called either from an object or the class: s.erf(1.5) --> 0.9332 or Sample.erf(1.5) --> 0.9332.

Puisque les méthodes statiques renvoient la fonction sous-jacente sans changement, les exemples d’appels sont d'une grande banalité :

class E:
    @staticmethod
    def f(x):
        return x * 10

>>> E.f(3)
30
>>> E().f(3)
30

En utilisant le protocole de descripteur hors-données, une version Python pure de staticmethod() ressemblerait à ceci :

import functools

class StaticMethod:
    "Emulate PyStaticMethod_Type() in Objects/funcobject.c"

    def __init__(self, f):
        self.f = f
        functools.update_wrapper(self, f)

    def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
        return self.f

    def __call__(self, *args, **kwds):
        return self.f(*args, **kwds)

    @property
    def __annotations__(self):
        return self.f.__annotations__

The functools.update_wrapper() call adds a __wrapped__ attribute that refers to the underlying function. Also it carries forward the attributes necessary to make the wrapper look like the wrapped function, including __name__, __qualname__, and __doc__.

Méthodes de classe

Contrairement aux méthodes statiques, les méthodes de classe ajoutent la référence de classe en tête de la liste d'arguments, avant d'appeler la fonction. C'est le même format que l'appelant soit un objet ou une classe :

class F:
    @classmethod
    def f(cls, x):
        return cls.__name__, x

>>> F.f(3)
('F', 3)
>>> F().f(3)
('F', 3)

Ce comportement est utile lorsque la fonction n'a besoin que d'une référence de classe et ne se soucie pas des données propres à une instance particulière. Une des utilisations des méthodes de classe est de créer des constructeurs de classe personnalisés. Par exemple, la méthode de classe dict.fromkeys() crée un nouveau dictionnaire à partir d'une liste de clés. L'équivalent Python pur est :

class Dict(dict):
    @classmethod
    def fromkeys(cls, iterable, value=None):
        "Emulate dict_fromkeys() in Objects/dictobject.c"
        d = cls()
        for key in iterable:
            d[key] = value
        return d

Maintenant un nouveau dictionnaire de clés uniques peut être construit comme ceci :

>>> d = Dict.fromkeys('abracadabra')
>>> type(d) is Dict
True
>>> d
{'a': None, 'b': None, 'r': None, 'c': None, 'd': None}

En utilisant le protocole de descripteur hors-données, une version Python pure de classmethod() ressemblerait à ceci :

import functools

class ClassMethod:
    "Emulate PyClassMethod_Type() in Objects/funcobject.c"

    def __init__(self, f):
        self.f = f
        functools.update_wrapper(self, f)

    def __get__(self, obj, cls=None):
        if cls is None:
            cls = type(obj)
        return MethodType(self.f, cls)

The functools.update_wrapper() call in ClassMethod adds a __wrapped__ attribute that refers to the underlying function. Also it carries forward the attributes necessary to make the wrapper look like the wrapped function: __name__, __qualname__, __doc__, and __annotations__.

Objets membres et __slots__

Lorsqu'une classe définit __slots__, Python remplace le dictionnaire d'instance par un tableau de longueur fixe de créneaux prédéfinis. D'un point de vue utilisateur, cela :

1/ permet une détection immédiate des bogues dus à des affectations d'attributs mal orthographiés. Seuls les noms d'attribut spécifiés dans __slots__ sont autorisés :

class Vehicle:
    __slots__ = ('id_number', 'make', 'model')

>>> auto = Vehicle()
>>> auto.id_nubmer = 'VYE483814LQEX'
Traceback (most recent call last):
    ...
AttributeError: 'Vehicle' object has no attribute 'id_nubmer'

2/ aide à créer des objets immuables où les descripteurs gèrent l'accès aux attributs privés stockés dans __slots__ :

class Immutable:

    __slots__ = ('_dept', '_name')          # Replace the instance dictionary

    def __init__(self, dept, name):
        self._dept = dept                   # Store to private attribute
        self._name = name                   # Store to private attribute

    @property                               # Read-only descriptor
    def dept(self):
        return self._dept

    @property
    def name(self):                         # Read-only descriptor
        return self._name

>>> mark = Immutable('Botany', 'Mark Watney')
>>> mark.dept
'Botany'
>>> mark.dept = 'Space Pirate'
Traceback (most recent call last):
    ...
AttributeError: property 'dept' of 'Immutable' object has no setter
>>> mark.location = 'Mars'
Traceback (most recent call last):
    ...
AttributeError: 'Immutable' object has no attribute 'location'

3/ économise de la mémoire. Sur une version Linux 64 bits, une instance avec deux attributs prend 48 octets avec __slots__ et 152 octets sans. Ce patron de conception poids mouche [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poids-mouche_(patron_de_conception)] n'a probablement d'importance que si un grand nombre d'instances doivent être créées ;

4/ améliore la vitesse. La lecture des variables d'instance est 35 % plus rapide avec __slots__ (mesure effectuée avec Python 3.10 sur un processeur Apple M1) ;

5/ bloque les outils comme functools.cached_property() qui nécessitent un dictionnaire d'instance pour fonctionner correctement :

from functools import cached_property

class CP:
    __slots__ = ()                          # Eliminates the instance dict

    @cached_property                        # Requires an instance dict
    def pi(self):
        return 4 * sum((-1.0)**n / (2.0*n + 1.0)
                       for n in reversed(range(100_000)))

>>> CP().pi
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
TypeError: No '__dict__' attribute on 'CP' instance to cache 'pi' property.

Il n'est pas possible de créer une version Python pure exacte de __slots__ car il faut un accès direct aux structures C et un contrôle sur l'allocation de la mémoire des objets. Cependant, nous pouvons construire une simulation presque fidèle où la structure C réelle pour les slots est émulée par une liste privée _slotvalues. Les lectures et écritures dans cette structure privée sont gérées par des descripteurs de membres :

null = object()

class Member:

    def __init__(self, name, clsname, offset):
        'Emulate PyMemberDef in Include/structmember.h'
        # Also see descr_new() in Objects/descrobject.c
        self.name = name
        self.clsname = clsname
        self.offset = offset

    def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
        'Emulate member_get() in Objects/descrobject.c'
        # Also see PyMember_GetOne() in Python/structmember.c
        if obj is None:
            return self
        value = obj._slotvalues[self.offset]
        if value is null:
            raise AttributeError(self.name)
        return value

    def __set__(self, obj, value):
        'Emulate member_set() in Objects/descrobject.c'
        obj._slotvalues[self.offset] = value

    def __delete__(self, obj):
        'Emulate member_delete() in Objects/descrobject.c'
        value = obj._slotvalues[self.offset]
        if value is null:
            raise AttributeError(self.name)
        obj._slotvalues[self.offset] = null

    def __repr__(self):
        'Emulate member_repr() in Objects/descrobject.c'
        return f'<Member {self.name!r} of {self.clsname!r}>'

The type.__new__() method takes care of adding member objects to class variables:

class Type(type):
    'Simulate how the type metaclass adds member objects for slots'

    def __new__(mcls, clsname, bases, mapping, **kwargs):
        'Emulate type_new() in Objects/typeobject.c'
        # type_new() calls PyTypeReady() which calls add_methods()
        slot_names = mapping.get('slot_names', [])
        for offset, name in enumerate(slot_names):
            mapping[name] = Member(name, clsname, offset)
        return type.__new__(mcls, clsname, bases, mapping, **kwargs)

La méthode object.__new__() s'occupe de créer des instances qui ont des slots au lieu d'un dictionnaire d'instances. Voici une simulation approximative en Python pur :

class Object:
    'Simulate how object.__new__() allocates memory for __slots__'

    def __new__(cls, *args, **kwargs):
        'Emulate object_new() in Objects/typeobject.c'
        inst = super().__new__(cls)
        if hasattr(cls, 'slot_names'):
            empty_slots = [null] * len(cls.slot_names)
            object.__setattr__(inst, '_slotvalues', empty_slots)
        return inst

    def __setattr__(self, name, value):
        'Emulate _PyObject_GenericSetAttrWithDict() Objects/object.c'
        cls = type(self)
        if hasattr(cls, 'slot_names') and name not in cls.slot_names:
            raise AttributeError(
                f'{cls.__name__!r} object has no attribute {name!r}'
            )
        super().__setattr__(name, value)

    def __delattr__(self, name):
        'Emulate _PyObject_GenericSetAttrWithDict() Objects/object.c'
        cls = type(self)
        if hasattr(cls, 'slot_names') and name not in cls.slot_names:
            raise AttributeError(
                f'{cls.__name__!r} object has no attribute {name!r}'
            )
        super().__delattr__(name)

To use the simulation in a real class, just inherit from Object and set the metaclass to Type:

class H(Object, metaclass=Type):
    'Instance variables stored in slots'

    slot_names = ['x', 'y']

    def __init__(self, x, y):
        self.x = x
        self.y = y

À ce stade, la métaclasse a chargé des objets membres pour x et y :

>>> from pprint import pp
>>> pp(dict(vars(H)))
{'__module__': '__main__',
 '__doc__': 'Instance variables stored in slots',
 'slot_names': ['x', 'y'],
 '__init__': <function H.__init__ at 0x7fb5d302f9d0>,
 'x': <Member 'x' of 'H'>,
 'y': <Member 'y' of 'H'>}

Lorsque les instances sont créées, elles ont une liste slot_values où les attributs sont stockés :

>>> h = H(10, 20)
>>> vars(h)
{'_slotvalues': [10, 20]}
>>> h.x = 55
>>> vars(h)
{'_slotvalues': [55, 20]}

Les attributs mal orthographiés ou non attribués lèvent une exception :

>>> h.xz
Traceback (most recent call last):
    ...
AttributeError: 'H' object has no attribute 'xz'

Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB

This document explains how the Python GDB extension, python-gdb.py, can be used with the GDB debugger to debug CPython extensions and the CPython interpreter itself.

When debugging low-level problems such as crashes or deadlocks, a low-level debugger, such as GDB, is useful to diagnose and correct the issue. By default, GDB (or any of its front-ends) doesn't support high-level information specific to the CPython interpreter.

The python-gdb.py extension adds CPython interpreter information to GDB. The extension helps introspect the stack of currently executing Python functions. Given a Python object represented by a PyObject* pointer, the extension surfaces the type and value of the object.

Developers who are working on CPython extensions or tinkering with parts of CPython that are written in C can use this document to learn how to use the python-gdb.py extension with GDB.

Note

This document assumes that you are familiar with the basics of GDB and the CPython C API. It consolidates guidance from the devguide [https://devguide.python.org] and the Python wiki [https://wiki.python.org/moin/DebuggingWithGdb].

Prerequisites

You need to have:

GDB 7 or later. (For earlier versions of GDB, see Misc/gdbinit in the sources of Python 3.11 or earlier.)

GDB-compatible debugging information for Python and any extension you are debugging.

The python-gdb.py extension.

The extension is built with Python, but might be distributed separately or not at all. Below, we include tips for a few common systems as examples. Note that even if the instructions match your system, they might be outdated.

Setup with Python built from source

When you build CPython from source, debugging information should be available, and the build should add a python-gdb.py file to the root directory of your repository.

To activate support, you must add the directory containing python-gdb.py to GDB's "auto-load-safe-path". If you haven't done this, recent versions of GDB will print out a warning with instructions on how to do this.

Note

If you do not see instructions for your version of GDB, put this in your configuration file (~/.gdbinit or ~/.config/gdb/gdbinit):

add-auto-load-safe-path /path/to/cpython

You can also add multiple paths, separated by :.

Setup for Python from a Linux distro

Most Linux systems provide debug information for the system Python in a package called python-debuginfo, python-dbg or similar. For example:

Fedora:

sudo dnf install gdb
sudo dnf debuginfo-install python3

Ubuntu:

sudo apt install gdb python3-dbg

On several recent Linux systems, GDB can download debugging symbols automatically using debuginfod. However, this will not install the python-gdb.py extension; you generally do need to install the debug info package separately.

Using the Debug build and Development mode

For easier debugging, you might want to:

Use a debug build of Python. (When building from source, use configure --with-pydebug. On Linux distros, install and run a package like python-debug or python-dbg, if available.)

Use the runtime development mode (-X dev).

Both enable extra assertions and disable some optimizations. Sometimes this hides the bug you are trying to find, but in most cases they make the process easier.

Using the python-gdb extension

When the extension is loaded, it provides two main features: pretty printers for Python values, and additional commands.

Pretty-printers

This is what a GDB backtrace looks like (truncated) when this extension is enabled:

#0  0x000000000041a6b1 in PyObject_Malloc (nbytes=Cannot access memory at address 0x7fffff7fefe8
) at Objects/obmalloc.c:748
#1  0x000000000041b7c0 in _PyObject_DebugMallocApi (id=111 'o', nbytes=24) at Objects/obmalloc.c:1445
#2  0x000000000041b717 in _PyObject_DebugMalloc (nbytes=24) at Objects/obmalloc.c:1412
#3  0x000000000044060a in _PyUnicode_New (length=11) at Objects/unicodeobject.c:346
#4  0x00000000004466aa in PyUnicodeUCS2_DecodeUTF8Stateful (s=0x5c2b8d "__lltrace__", size=11, errors=0x0, consumed=
    0x0) at Objects/unicodeobject.c:2531
#5  0x0000000000446647 in PyUnicodeUCS2_DecodeUTF8 (s=0x5c2b8d "__lltrace__", size=11, errors=0x0)
    at Objects/unicodeobject.c:2495
#6  0x0000000000440d1b in PyUnicodeUCS2_FromStringAndSize (u=0x5c2b8d "__lltrace__", size=11)
    at Objects/unicodeobject.c:551
#7  0x0000000000440d94 in PyUnicodeUCS2_FromString (u=0x5c2b8d "__lltrace__") at Objects/unicodeobject.c:569
#8  0x0000000000584abd in PyDict_GetItemString (v=
    {'Yuck': <type at remote 0xad4730>, '__builtins__': <module at remote 0x7ffff7fd5ee8>, '__file__': 'Lib/test/crashers/nasty_eq_vs_dict.py', '__package__': None, 'y': <Yuck(i=0) at remote 0xaacd80>, 'dict': {0: 0, 1: 1, 2: 2, 3: 3}, '__cached__': None, '__name__': '__main__', 'z': <Yuck(i=0) at remote 0xaace60>, '__doc__': None}, key=
    0x5c2b8d "__lltrace__") at Objects/dictobject.c:2171

Notice how the dictionary argument to PyDict_GetItemString is displayed as its repr(), rather than an opaque PyObject * pointer.

The extension works by supplying a custom printing routine for values of type PyObject *. If you need to access lower-level details of an object, then cast the value to a pointer of the appropriate type. For example:

(gdb) p globals
$1 = {'__builtins__': <module at remote 0x7ffff7fb1868>, '__name__':
'__main__', 'ctypes': <module at remote 0x7ffff7f14360>, '__doc__': None,
'__package__': None}

(gdb) p *(PyDictObject*)globals
$2 = {ob_refcnt = 3, ob_type = 0x3dbdf85820, ma_fill = 5, ma_used = 5,
ma_mask = 7, ma_table = 0x63d0f8, ma_lookup = 0x3dbdc7ea70
<lookdict_string>, ma_smalltable = {{me_hash = 7065186196740147912,
me_key = '__builtins__', me_value = <module at remote 0x7ffff7fb1868>},
{me_hash = -368181376027291943, me_key = '__name__',
me_value ='__main__'}, {me_hash = 0, me_key = 0x0, me_value = 0x0},
{me_hash = 0, me_key = 0x0, me_value = 0x0},
{me_hash = -9177857982131165996, me_key = 'ctypes',
me_value = <module at remote 0x7ffff7f14360>},
{me_hash = -8518757509529533123, me_key = '__doc__', me_value = None},
{me_hash = 0, me_key = 0x0, me_value = 0x0}, {
  me_hash = 6614918939584953775, me_key = '__package__', me_value = None}}}

Note that the pretty-printers do not actually call repr(). For basic types, they try to match its result closely.

An area that can be confusing is that the custom printer for some types look a lot like GDB's built-in printer for standard types. For example, the pretty-printer for a Python int (PyLongObject*) gives a representation that is not distinguishable from one of a regular machine-level integer:

(gdb) p some_machine_integer
$3 = 42

(gdb) p some_python_integer
$4 = 42

The internal structure can be revealed with a cast to PyLongObject*:

(gdb) p *(PyLongObject*)some_python_integer
$5 = {ob_base = {ob_base = {ob_refcnt = 8, ob_type = 0x3dad39f5e0}, ob_size = 1},
ob_digit = {42}}

A similar confusion can arise with the str type, where the output looks a lot like gdb's built-in printer for char *:

(gdb) p ptr_to_python_str
$6 = '__builtins__'

The pretty-printer for str instances defaults to using single-quotes (as does Python's repr for strings) whereas the standard printer for char * values uses double-quotes and contains a hexadecimal address:

(gdb) p ptr_to_char_star
$7 = 0x6d72c0 "hello world"

Again, the implementation details can be revealed with a cast to PyUnicodeObject*:

(gdb) p *(PyUnicodeObject*)$6
$8 = {ob_base = {ob_refcnt = 33, ob_type = 0x3dad3a95a0}, length = 12,
str = 0x7ffff2128500, hash = 7065186196740147912, state = 1, defenc = 0x0}

py-list

The extension adds a py-list command, which lists the Python source code (if any) for the current frame in the selected thread. The current line is marked with a ">":

(gdb) py-list
 901        if options.profile:
 902            options.profile = False
 903            profile_me()
 904            return
 905
>906        u = UI()
 907        if not u.quit:
 908            try:
 909                gtk.main()
 910            except KeyboardInterrupt:
 911                # properly quit on a keyboard interrupt...

Use py-list START to list at a different line number within the Python source, and py-list START,END to list a specific range of lines within the Python source.

py-up and py-down

The py-up and py-down commands are analogous to GDB's regular up and down commands, but try to move at the level of CPython frames, rather than C frames.

GDB is not always able to read the relevant frame information, depending on the optimization level with which CPython was compiled. Internally, the commands look for C frames that are executing the default frame evaluation function (that is, the core bytecode interpreter loop within CPython) and look up the value of the related PyFrameObject *.

They emit the frame number (at the C level) within the thread.

Par exemple :

(gdb) py-up
#37 Frame 0x9420b04, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/
gnome_sudoku/main.py, line 906, in start_game ()
    u = UI()
(gdb) py-up
#40 Frame 0x948e82c, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/
gnome_sudoku/gnome_sudoku.py, line 22, in start_game(main=<module at remote 0xb771b7f4>)
    main.start_game()
(gdb) py-up
Unable to find an older python frame

so we're at the top of the Python stack.

The frame numbers correspond to those displayed by GDB's standard backtrace command. The command skips C frames which are not executing Python code.

Going back down:

(gdb) py-down
#37 Frame 0x9420b04, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/main.py, line 906, in start_game ()
    u = UI()
(gdb) py-down
#34 (unable to read python frame information)
(gdb) py-down
#23 (unable to read python frame information)
(gdb) py-down
#19 (unable to read python frame information)
(gdb) py-down
#14 Frame 0x99262ac, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/game_selector.py, line 201, in run_swallowed_dialog (self=<NewOrSavedGameSelector(new_game_model=<gtk.ListStore at remote 0x98fab44>, puzzle=None, saved_games=[{'gsd.auto_fills': 0, 'tracking': {}, 'trackers': {}, 'notes': [], 'saved_at': 1270084485, 'game': '7 8 0 0 0 0 0 5 6 0 0 9 0 8 0 1 0 0 0 4 6 0 0 0 0 7 0 6 5 0 0 0 4 7 9 2 0 0 0 9 0 1 0 0 0 3 9 7 6 0 0 0 1 8 0 6 0 0 0 0 2 8 0 0 0 5 0 4 0 6 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 4 5\n7 8 0 0 0 0 0 5 6 0 0 9 0 8 0 1 0 0 0 4 6 0 0 0 0 7 0 6 5 1 8 3 4 7 9 2 0 0 0 9 0 1 0 0 0 3 9 7 6 0 0 0 1 8 0 6 0 0 0 0 2 8 0 0 0 5 0 4 0 6 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 4 5', 'gsd.impossible_hints': 0, 'timer.__absolute_start_time__': <float at remote 0x984b474>, 'gsd.hints': 0, 'timer.active_time': <float at remote 0x984b494>, 'timer.total_time': <float at remote 0x984b464>}], dialog=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>, saved_game_model=<gtk.ListStore at remote 0x98fad24>, sudoku_maker=<SudokuMaker(terminated=False, played=[], batch_siz...(truncated)
            swallower.run_dialog(self.dialog)
(gdb) py-down
#11 Frame 0x9aead74, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/dialog_swallower.py, line 48, in run_dialog (self=<SwappableArea(running=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>, main_page=0) at remote 0x98fa6e4>, d=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>)
            gtk.main()
(gdb) py-down
#8 (unable to read python frame information)
(gdb) py-down
Unable to find a newer python frame

and we're at the bottom of the Python stack.

Note that in Python 3.12 and newer, the same C stack frame can be used for multiple Python stack frames. This means that py-up and py-down may move multiple Python frames at once. For example:

(gdb) py-up
#6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb62b0, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 5, in recursive_function (n=0)
   time.sleep(5)
#6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb6240, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 7, in recursive_function (n=1)
   recursive_function(n-1)
#6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb61d0, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 7, in recursive_function (n=2)
   recursive_function(n-1)
#6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb6160, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 7, in recursive_function (n=3)
   recursive_function(n-1)
#6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb60f0, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 7, in recursive_function (n=4)
   recursive_function(n-1)
#6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb6080, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 7, in recursive_function (n=5)
   recursive_function(n-1)
#6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb6020, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 9, in <module> ()
   recursive_function(5)
(gdb) py-up
Unable to find an older python frame

py-bt

The py-bt command attempts to display a Python-level backtrace of the current thread.

Par exemple :

(gdb) py-bt
#8 (unable to read python frame information)
#11 Frame 0x9aead74, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/dialog_swallower.py, line 48, in run_dialog (self=<SwappableArea(running=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>, main_page=0) at remote 0x98fa6e4>, d=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>)
            gtk.main()
#14 Frame 0x99262ac, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/game_selector.py, line 201, in run_swallowed_dialog (self=<NewOrSavedGameSelector(new_game_model=<gtk.ListStore at remote 0x98fab44>, puzzle=None, saved_games=[{'gsd.auto_fills': 0, 'tracking': {}, 'trackers': {}, 'notes': [], 'saved_at': 1270084485, 'game': '7 8 0 0 0 0 0 5 6 0 0 9 0 8 0 1 0 0 0 4 6 0 0 0 0 7 0 6 5 0 0 0 4 7 9 2 0 0 0 9 0 1 0 0 0 3 9 7 6 0 0 0 1 8 0 6 0 0 0 0 2 8 0 0 0 5 0 4 0 6 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 4 5\n7 8 0 0 0 0 0 5 6 0 0 9 0 8 0 1 0 0 0 4 6 0 0 0 0 7 0 6 5 1 8 3 4 7 9 2 0 0 0 9 0 1 0 0 0 3 9 7 6 0 0 0 1 8 0 6 0 0 0 0 2 8 0 0 0 5 0 4 0 6 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 4 5', 'gsd.impossible_hints': 0, 'timer.__absolute_start_time__': <float at remote 0x984b474>, 'gsd.hints': 0, 'timer.active_time': <float at remote 0x984b494>, 'timer.total_time': <float at remote 0x984b464>}], dialog=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>, saved_game_model=<gtk.ListStore at remote 0x98fad24>, sudoku_maker=<SudokuMaker(terminated=False, played=[], batch_siz...(truncated)
            swallower.run_dialog(self.dialog)
#19 (unable to read python frame information)
#23 (unable to read python frame information)
#34 (unable to read python frame information)
#37 Frame 0x9420b04, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/main.py, line 906, in start_game ()
    u = UI()
#40 Frame 0x948e82c, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/gnome_sudoku.py, line 22, in start_game (main=<module at remote 0xb771b7f4>)
    main.start_game()

The frame numbers correspond to those displayed by GDB's standard backtrace command.

py-print

The py-print command looks up a Python name and tries to print it. It looks in locals within the current thread, then globals, then finally builtins:

(gdb) py-print self
local 'self' = <SwappableArea(running=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>,
main_page=0) at remote 0x98fa6e4>
(gdb) py-print __name__
global '__name__' = 'gnome_sudoku.dialog_swallower'
(gdb) py-print len
builtin 'len' = <built-in function len>
(gdb) py-print scarlet_pimpernel
'scarlet_pimpernel' not found

If the current C frame corresponds to multiple Python frames, py-print only considers the first one.

py-locals

The py-locals command looks up all Python locals within the current Python frame in the selected thread, and prints their representations:

(gdb) py-locals
self = <SwappableArea(running=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>,
main_page=0) at remote 0x98fa6e4>
d = <gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>

If the current C frame corresponds to multiple Python frames, locals from all of them will be shown:

(gdb) py-locals
Locals for recursive_function
n = 0
Locals for recursive_function
n = 1
Locals for recursive_function
n = 2
Locals for recursive_function
n = 3
Locals for recursive_function
n = 4
Locals for recursive_function
n = 5
Locals for <module>

Use with GDB commands

The extension commands complement GDB's built-in commands. For example, you can use a frame numbers shown by py-bt with the frame command to go a specific frame within the selected thread, like this:

(gdb) py-bt
(output snipped)
#68 Frame 0xaa4560, for file Lib/test/regrtest.py, line 1548, in <module> ()
        main()
(gdb) frame 68
#68 0x00000000004cd1e6 in PyEval_EvalFrameEx (f=Frame 0xaa4560, for file Lib/test/regrtest.py, line 1548, in <module> (), throwflag=0) at Python/ceval.c:2665
2665                            x = call_function(&sp, oparg);
(gdb) py-list
1543        # Run the tests in a context manager that temporary changes the CWD to a
1544        # temporary and writable directory. If it's not possible to create or
1545        # change the CWD, the original CWD will be used. The original CWD is
1546        # available from test_support.SAVEDCWD.
1547        with test_support.temp_cwd(TESTCWD, quiet=True):
>1548            main()

The info threads command will give you a list of the threads within the process, and you can use the thread command to select a different one:

(gdb) info threads
  105 Thread 0x7fffefa18710 (LWP 10260)  sem_wait () at ../nptl/sysdeps/unix/sysv/linux/x86_64/sem_wait.S:86
  104 Thread 0x7fffdf5fe710 (LWP 10259)  sem_wait () at ../nptl/sysdeps/unix/sysv/linux/x86_64/sem_wait.S:86
* 1 Thread 0x7ffff7fe2700 (LWP 10145)  0x00000038e46d73e3 in select () at ../sysdeps/unix/syscall-template.S:82

You can use thread apply all COMMAND or (t a a COMMAND for short) to run a command on all threads. With py-bt, this lets you see what every thread is doing at the Python level:

(gdb) t a a py-bt

Thread 105 (Thread 0x7fffefa18710 (LWP 10260)):
#5 Frame 0x7fffd00019d0, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/threading.py, line 155, in _acquire_restore (self=<_RLock(_Verbose__verbose=False, _RLock__owner=140737354016512, _RLock__block=<thread.lock at remote 0x858770>, _RLock__count=1) at remote 0xd7ff40>, count_owner=(1, 140737213728528), count=1, owner=140737213728528)
        self.__block.acquire()
#8 Frame 0x7fffac001640, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/threading.py, line 269, in wait (self=<_Condition(_Condition__lock=<_RLock(_Verbose__verbose=False, _RLock__owner=140737354016512, _RLock__block=<thread.lock at remote 0x858770>, _RLock__count=1) at remote 0xd7ff40>, acquire=<instancemethod at remote 0xd80260>, _is_owned=<instancemethod at remote 0xd80160>, _release_save=<instancemethod at remote 0xd803e0>, release=<instancemethod at remote 0xd802e0>, _acquire_restore=<instancemethod at remote 0xd7ee60>, _Verbose__verbose=False, _Condition__waiters=[]) at remote 0xd7fd10>, timeout=None, waiter=<thread.lock at remote 0x858a90>, saved_state=(1, 140737213728528))
            self._acquire_restore(saved_state)
#12 Frame 0x7fffb8001a10, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/test/lock_tests.py, line 348, in f ()
            cond.wait()
#16 Frame 0x7fffb8001c40, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/test/lock_tests.py, line 37, in task (tid=140737213728528)
                f()

Thread 104 (Thread 0x7fffdf5fe710 (LWP 10259)):
#5 Frame 0x7fffe4001580, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/threading.py, line 155, in _acquire_restore (self=<_RLock(_Verbose__verbose=False, _RLock__owner=140737354016512, _RLock__block=<thread.lock at remote 0x858770>, _RLock__count=1) at remote 0xd7ff40>, count_owner=(1, 140736940992272), count=1, owner=140736940992272)
        self.__block.acquire()
#8 Frame 0x7fffc8002090, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/threading.py, line 269, in wait (self=<_Condition(_Condition__lock=<_RLock(_Verbose__verbose=False, _RLock__owner=140737354016512, _RLock__block=<thread.lock at remote 0x858770>, _RLock__count=1) at remote 0xd7ff40>, acquire=<instancemethod at remote 0xd80260>, _is_owned=<instancemethod at remote 0xd80160>, _release_save=<instancemethod at remote 0xd803e0>, release=<instancemethod at remote 0xd802e0>, _acquire_restore=<instancemethod at remote 0xd7ee60>, _Verbose__verbose=False, _Condition__waiters=[]) at remote 0xd7fd10>, timeout=None, waiter=<thread.lock at remote 0x858860>, saved_state=(1, 140736940992272))
            self._acquire_restore(saved_state)
#12 Frame 0x7fffac001c90, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/test/lock_tests.py, line 348, in f ()
            cond.wait()
#16 Frame 0x7fffac0011c0, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/test/lock_tests.py, line 37, in task (tid=140736940992272)
                f()

Thread 1 (Thread 0x7ffff7fe2700 (LWP 10145)):
#5 Frame 0xcb5380, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/test/lock_tests.py, line 16, in _wait ()
    time.sleep(0.01)
#8 Frame 0x7fffd00024a0, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/test/lock_tests.py, line 378, in _check_notify (self=<ConditionTests(_testMethodName='test_notify', _resultForDoCleanups=<TestResult(_original_stdout=<cStringIO.StringO at remote 0xc191e0>, skipped=[], _mirrorOutput=False, testsRun=39, buffer=False, _original_stderr=<file at remote 0x7ffff7fc6340>, _stdout_buffer=<cStringIO.StringO at remote 0xc9c7f8>, _stderr_buffer=<cStringIO.StringO at remote 0xc9c790>, _moduleSetUpFailed=False, expectedFailures=[], errors=[], _previousTestClass=<type at remote 0x928310>, unexpectedSuccesses=[], failures=[], shouldStop=False, failfast=False) at remote 0xc185a0>, _threads=(0,), _cleanups=[], _type_equality_funcs={<type at remote 0x7eba00>: <instancemethod at remote 0xd750e0>, <type at remote 0x7e7820>: <instancemethod at remote 0xd75160>, <type at remote 0x7e30e0>: <instancemethod at remote 0xd75060>, <type at remote 0x7e7d20>: <instancemethod at remote 0xd751e0>, <type at remote 0x7f19e0...(truncated)
        _wait()

Guide sur l'utilisation d'Enum

An Enum is a set of symbolic names bound to unique values. They are similar to global variables, but they offer a more useful repr(), grouping, type-safety, and a few other features.

Elles sont particulièrement utiles lorsque vous avez une variable qui peut prendre une valeur dans une plage limitée de valeurs. Par exemple, les jours de la semaine :

>>> from enum import Enum
>>> class Weekday(Enum):
...     MONDAY = 1
...     TUESDAY = 2
...     WEDNESDAY = 3
...     THURSDAY = 4
...     FRIDAY = 5
...     SATURDAY = 6
...     SUNDAY = 7

Ou alors les couleurs primaires RVB (NdT : RGB en anglais) :

>>> from enum import Enum
>>> class Color(Enum):
...     RED = 1
...     GREEN = 2
...     BLUE = 3

Comme vous pouvez le voir, créer une Enum est très simple à écrire, il suffit qu'elle hérite de Enum elle-même.

Note

casse des membres d'une énumération

Because Enums are used to represent constants, and to help avoid issues with name clashes between mixin-class methods/attributes and enum names, we strongly recommend using UPPER_CASE names for members, and will be using that style in our examples.

Selon la nature de l'énumération, il peut être important d'avoir accès à la valeur d'un membre. Dans tous les cas, cette valeur peut être utilisée pour obtenir le membre correspondant :

>>> Weekday(3)
<Weekday.WEDNESDAY: 3>

Comme vous pouvez le constater, la repr() d'un membre affiche le nom de l'énumération, le nom du membre et la valeur. La str() d'un membre affiche uniquement le nom de l'énumération et le nom du membre :

>>> print(Weekday.THURSDAY)
Weekday.THURSDAY

Le type d'un membre d'énumération est l'énumération à laquelle il appartient :

>>> type(Weekday.MONDAY)
<enum 'Weekday'>
>>> isinstance(Weekday.FRIDAY, Weekday)
True

Enum members have an attribute that contains just their name:

>>> print(Weekday.TUESDAY.name)
TUESDAY

Likewise, they have an attribute for their value:

>>> Weekday.WEDNESDAY.value
3

Unlike many languages that treat enumerations solely as name/value pairs, Python Enums can have behavior added. For example, datetime.date has two methods for returning the weekday: weekday() and isoweekday(). The difference is that one of them counts from 0-6 and the other from 1-7. Rather than keep track of that ourselves we can add a method to the Weekday enum to extract the day from the date instance and return the matching enum member:

@classmethod
def from_date(cls, date):
    return cls(date.isoweekday())

The complete Weekday enum now looks like this:

>>> class Weekday(Enum):
...     MONDAY = 1
...     TUESDAY = 2
...     WEDNESDAY = 3
...     THURSDAY = 4
...     FRIDAY = 5
...     SATURDAY = 6
...     SUNDAY = 7
...     #
...     @classmethod
...     def from_date(cls, date):
...         return cls(date.isoweekday())

Maintenant, nous pouvons découvrir quel jour nous sommes aujourd'hui ! Regardez :

>>> import datetime as dt
>>> Weekday.from_date(dt.date.today())
<Weekday.TUESDAY: 2>

Bien sûr, si vous lisez cette page un autre jour, vous verrez ce jour-là à la place.

This Weekday enum is great if our variable only needs one day, but what if we need several? Maybe we're writing a function to plot chores during a week, and don't want to use a list -- we could use a different type of Enum:

>>> from enum import Flag
>>> class Weekday(Flag):
...     MONDAY = 1
...     TUESDAY = 2
...     WEDNESDAY = 4
...     THURSDAY = 8
...     FRIDAY = 16
...     SATURDAY = 32
...     SUNDAY = 64

Nous avons changé deux choses : nous héritons de Flag et les valeurs sont toutes des puissances de 2.

Just like the original Weekday enum above, we can have a single selection:

>>> first_week_day = Weekday.MONDAY
>>> first_week_day
<Weekday.MONDAY: 1>

Mais Flag nous permet aussi de combiner plusieurs membres en une seule variable :

>>> weekend = Weekday.SATURDAY | Weekday.SUNDAY
>>> weekend
<Weekday.SATURDAY|SUNDAY: 96>

Nous pouvons même itérer sur une variable Flag :

>>> for day in weekend:
...     print(day)
Weekday.SATURDAY
Weekday.SUNDAY

Bien, préparons quelques corvées :

>>> chores_for_ethan = {
...     'feed the cat': Weekday.MONDAY | Weekday.WEDNESDAY | Weekday.FRIDAY,
...     'do the dishes': Weekday.TUESDAY | Weekday.THURSDAY,
...     'answer SO questions': Weekday.SATURDAY,
...     }

Et une fonction pour afficher les corvées d'un jour donné :

>>> def show_chores(chores, day):
...     for chore, days in chores.items():
...         if day in days:
...             print(chore)
...
>>> show_chores(chores_for_ethan, Weekday.SATURDAY)
answer SO questions

In cases where the actual values of the members do not matter, you can save yourself some work and use auto() for the values:

>>> from enum import auto
>>> class Weekday(Flag):
...     MONDAY = auto()
...     TUESDAY = auto()
...     WEDNESDAY = auto()
...     THURSDAY = auto()
...     FRIDAY = auto()
...     SATURDAY = auto()
...     SUNDAY = auto()
...     WEEKEND = SATURDAY | SUNDAY

Accès par programme aux membres de l'énumération et à leurs attributs

Il est parfois utile d'accéder aux membres d'une énumération programmatiquement (c'est-à-dire les cas où Color.RED ne suffit pas car la couleur exacte n'est pas connue au moment de l'écriture du programme). Enum permet de tels accès :

>>> Color(1)
<Color.RED: 1>
>>> Color(3)
<Color.BLUE: 3>

Si vous souhaitez accéder aux membres d'une énumération par leur nom, utilisez l'accès par indice :

>>> Color['RED']
<Color.RED: 1>
>>> Color['GREEN']
<Color.GREEN: 2>

If you have an enum member and need its name or value:

>>> member = Color.RED
>>> member.name
'RED'
>>> member.value
1

Duplication des membres et des valeurs d'une énumération

Il n'est pas licite d'avoir deux membres d'une énumération avec le même nom :

>>> class Shape(Enum):
...     SQUARE = 2
...     SQUARE = 3
...
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
TypeError: 'SQUARE' already defined as 2

Cependant, un membre peut avoir d'autres noms qui lui sont associés. Étant donné deux entrées A et B avec la même valeur (et A définie en premier), B est un synonyme (ou alias) du membre A. La recherche par valeur de la valeur de A renvoie le membre A. La recherche par nom de A renvoie le membre A. La recherche par nom de B renvoie également le membre A :

>>> class Shape(Enum):
...     SQUARE = 2
...     DIAMOND = 1
...     CIRCLE = 3
...     ALIAS_FOR_SQUARE = 2
...
>>> Shape.SQUARE
<Shape.SQUARE: 2>
>>> Shape.ALIAS_FOR_SQUARE
<Shape.SQUARE: 2>
>>> Shape(2)
<Shape.SQUARE: 2>

Note

tenter de créer un membre portant le même nom qu'un attribut déjà défini (un autre membre, une méthode, etc.) ou tenter de créer un attribut portant le même nom qu'un membre n'est pas autorisé.

Garantie de valeurs d'énumération uniques

Par défaut, les énumérations autorisent plusieurs noms comme synonymes pour la même valeur. Lorsque ce comportement n'est pas souhaité, vous pouvez utiliser le décorateur unique() :

>>> from enum import Enum, unique
>>> @unique
... class Mistake(Enum):
...     ONE = 1
...     TWO = 2
...     THREE = 3
...     FOUR = 3
...
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
ValueError: duplicate values found in <enum 'Mistake'>: FOUR -> THREE

Utilisation de valeurs automatiques

Si la valeur exacte n'est pas importante, vous pouvez utiliser auto :

>>> from enum import Enum, auto
>>> class Color(Enum):
...     RED = auto()
...     BLUE = auto()
...     GREEN = auto()
...
>>> [member.value for member in Color]
[1, 2, 3]

The values are chosen by _generate_next_value_(), which can be overridden:

>>> class AutoName(Enum):
...     @staticmethod
...     def _generate_next_value_(name, start, count, last_values):
...         return name
...
>>> class Ordinal(AutoName):
...     NORTH = auto()
...     SOUTH = auto()
...     EAST = auto()
...     WEST = auto()
...
>>> [member.value for member in Ordinal]
['NORTH', 'SOUTH', 'EAST', 'WEST']

Note

The _generate_next_value_() method must be defined before any members.

Itération

L'itération sur les membres d'une énumération ne fournit pas les synonymes :

>>> list(Shape)
[<Shape.SQUARE: 2>, <Shape.DIAMOND: 1>, <Shape.CIRCLE: 3>]
>>> list(Weekday)
[<Weekday.MONDAY: 1>, <Weekday.TUESDAY: 2>, <Weekday.WEDNESDAY: 4>, <Weekday.THURSDAY: 8>, <Weekday.FRIDAY: 16>, <Weekday.SATURDAY: 32>, <Weekday.SUNDAY: 64>]

Note that the aliases Shape.ALIAS_FOR_SQUARE and Weekday.WEEKEND aren't shown.

L'attribut spécial __members__ est un tableau de correspondances ordonné en lecture seule des noms vers les membres. Il inclut tous les noms définis dans l'énumération, y compris les synonymes :

>>> for name, member in Shape.__members__.items():
...     name, member
...
('SQUARE', <Shape.SQUARE: 2>)
('DIAMOND', <Shape.DIAMOND: 1>)
('CIRCLE', <Shape.CIRCLE: 3>)
('ALIAS_FOR_SQUARE', <Shape.SQUARE: 2>)

L'attribut __members__ peut être utilisé pour un accès programmatique détaillé aux membres de l'énumération. Par exemple, trouver tous les synonymes :

>>> [name for name, member in Shape.__members__.items() if member.name != name]
['ALIAS_FOR_SQUARE']

Note

Aliases for flags include values with multiple flags set, such as 3, and no flags set, i.e. 0.

Comparaisons

Les membres de l'énumération sont comparés par identité :

>>> Color.RED is Color.RED
True
>>> Color.RED is Color.BLUE
False
>>> Color.RED is not Color.BLUE
True

Les comparaisons ordonnées entre les valeurs d'énumération ne sont pas prises en charge. Les membres d'une énumération ne sont pas des entiers (mais voir IntEnum plus bas) :

>>> Color.RED < Color.BLUE
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: '<' not supported between instances of 'Color' and 'Color'

Les comparaisons d'égalité sont cependant définies :

>>> Color.BLUE == Color.RED
False
>>> Color.BLUE != Color.RED
True
>>> Color.BLUE == Color.BLUE
True

Les comparaisons avec des valeurs en dehors de l'énumération sont toujours fausses (encore une fois, IntEnum a été explicitement conçue pour se comporter différemment, voir ci-dessous) :

>>> Color.BLUE == 2
False

Avertissement

It is possible to reload modules -- if a reloaded module contains enums, they will be recreated, and the new members may not compare identical/equal to the original members.

Membres et attributs autorisés des énumérations

La plupart des exemples ci-dessus utilisent des nombres entiers pour les valeurs d'énumération. L'utilisation d'entiers est rapide et pratique (et fournie par défaut par l'API fonctionnelle), mais n'est pas strictement obligatoire. Dans la grande majorité des cas, on ne se soucie pas de la valeur réelle des membres d'une énumération. Mais si la valeur est importante, les énumérations peuvent avoir des valeurs arbitraires.

Les énumérations sont des classes Python et peuvent avoir des méthodes ainsi que des méthodes spéciales comme d'habitude. Prenons cette énumération :

>>> class Mood(Enum):
...     FUNKY = 1
...     HAPPY = 3
...
...     def describe(self):
...         # self is the member here
...         return self.name, self.value
...
...     def __str__(self):
...         return 'my custom str! {0}'.format(self.value)
...
...     @classmethod
...     def favorite_mood(cls):
...         # cls here is the enumeration
...         return cls.HAPPY
...

alors :

>>> Mood.favorite_mood()
<Mood.HAPPY: 3>
>>> Mood.HAPPY.describe()
('HAPPY', 3)
>>> str(Mood.FUNKY)
'my custom str! 1'

The rules for what is allowed are as follows: names that start and end with a single underscore are reserved by enum and cannot be used; all other attributes defined within an enumeration will become members of this enumeration, with the exception of special methods (__str__(), __add__(), etc.), descriptors (methods are also descriptors), and variable names listed in _ignore_.

Note: if your enumeration defines __new__() and/or __init__(), any value(s) given to the enum member will be passed into those methods. See Planet for an example.

Note

The __new__() method, if defined, is used during creation of the Enum members; it is then replaced by Enum's __new__() which is used after class creation for lookup of existing members. See When to use __new__() vs. __init__() for more details.

Restrictions sur la dérivation d'énumérations

Une nouvelle classe Enum doit avoir une classe mère Enum, jusqu'à un type de données concret, et autant de classes mélangées filles de object que nécessaire. L'ordre de ces classes mères est :

class EnumName([mix-in, ...,] [data-type,] base-enum):
    pass

De plus, la dérivation d'une énumération n'est autorisée que si l'énumération ne définit aucun membre. Donc ceci est interdit :

>>> class MoreColor(Color):
...     PINK = 17
...
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
TypeError: <enum 'MoreColor'> cannot extend <enum 'Color'>

Mais ceci est autorisé :

>>> class Foo(Enum):
...     def some_behavior(self):
...         pass
...
>>> class Bar(Foo):
...     HAPPY = 1
...     SAD = 2
...

Autoriser la dérivation d'énumérations qui définissent les membres conduirait à une violation de certains invariants importants des types et des instances. D'un autre côté, il est logique de permettre le partage d'un comportement commun entre un groupe d'énumérations (voir OrderedEnum pour un exemple).

Dataclass support

When inheriting from a dataclass, the __repr__() omits the inherited class' name. For example:

>>> from dataclasses import dataclass, field
>>> @dataclass
... class CreatureDataMixin:
...     size: str
...     legs: int
...     tail: bool = field(repr=False, default=True)
...
>>> class Creature(CreatureDataMixin, Enum):
...     BEETLE = 'small', 6
...     DOG = 'medium', 4
...
>>> Creature.DOG
<Creature.DOG: size='medium', legs=4>

Use the dataclass() argument repr=False to use the standard repr().

Modifié dans la version 3.12: Only the dataclass fields are shown in the value area, not the dataclass' name.

Note

Adding dataclass() decorator to Enum and its subclasses is not supported. It will not raise any errors, but it will produce very strange results at runtime, such as members being equal to each other:

>>> @dataclass               # don't do this: it does not make any sense
... class Color(Enum):
...    RED = 1
...    BLUE = 2
...
>>> Color.RED is Color.BLUE
False
>>> Color.RED == Color.BLUE  # problem is here: they should not be equal
True

Sérialisation

Les énumérations peuvent être sérialisées et désérialisées :

>>> from test.test_enum import Fruit
>>> from pickle import dumps, loads
>>> Fruit.TOMATO is loads(dumps(Fruit.TOMATO))
True

Les restrictions habituelles pour la sérialisation s'appliquent : les énumérations sérialisables doivent être définies au niveau supérieur d'un module, car la sérialisation nécessite qu'elles puissent être importées à partir de ce module.

Note

avec la version 4 du protocole pickle, il est possible de sérialiser facilement les énumérations imbriquées dans d'autres classes.

It is possible to modify how enum members are pickled/unpickled by defining __reduce_ex__() in the enumeration class. The default method is by-value, but enums with complicated values may want to use by-name:

>>> import enum
>>> class MyEnum(enum.Enum):
...     __reduce_ex__ = enum.pickle_by_enum_name

Note

Using by-name for flags is not recommended, as unnamed aliases will not unpickle.

API fonctionnelle

La classe Enum est appelable, elle fournit l'API fonctionnelle suivante :

>>> Animal = Enum('Animal', 'ANT BEE CAT DOG')
>>> Animal
<enum 'Animal'>
>>> Animal.ANT
<Animal.ANT: 1>
>>> list(Animal)
[<Animal.ANT: 1>, <Animal.BEE: 2>, <Animal.CAT: 3>, <Animal.DOG: 4>]

La sémantique de cette API ressemble à celle des namedtuple. Le premier argument de l'appel à Enum est le nom de l'énumération.

The second argument is the source of enumeration member names. It can be a whitespace-separated string of names, a sequence of names, a sequence of 2-tuples with key/value pairs, or a mapping (e.g. dictionary) of names to values. The last two options enable assigning arbitrary values to enumerations; the others auto-assign increasing integers starting with 1 (use the start parameter to specify a different starting value). A new class derived from Enum is returned. In other words, the above assignment to Animal is equivalent to:

>>> class Animal(Enum):
...     ANT = 1
...     BEE = 2
...     CAT = 3
...     DOG = 4
...

La raison de la valeur par défaut de 1 comme numéro de départ et non de 0 est que le sens booléen de 0 est False. Or, par défaut, les membres d'une énumération s'évaluent tous à True.

La sérialisation d'énumérations créées avec l'API fonctionnelle peut être délicat car les détails d'implémentation de la pile d'appels sont utilisés pour essayer de déterminer dans quel module l'énumération est créée (par exemple, cela échoue si vous utilisez une fonction utilitaire dans un module séparé, et peut également ne pas fonctionner sur IronPython ou Jython). La solution consiste à spécifier explicitement le nom du module comme suit :

>>> Animal = Enum('Animal', 'ANT BEE CAT DOG', module=__name__)

Avertissement

si le module n'est pas fourni et qu'Enum ne peut pas le déterminer, les nouveaux membres de l'énumération ne pourront pas être sélectionnés ; pour garder les erreurs au plus près de la source, la sérialisation est désactivée.

The new pickle protocol 4 also, in some circumstances, relies on __qualname__ being set to the location where pickle will be able to find the class. For example, if the class was made available in class SomeData in the global scope:

>>> Animal = Enum('Animal', 'ANT BEE CAT DOG', qualname='SomeData.Animal')

La signature complète est :

Enum(
    value='NewEnumName',
    names=<...>,
    *,
    module='...',
    qualname='...',
    type=<mixed-in class>,
    start=1,
    )

value: What the new enum class will record as its name.

names: The enum members. This can be a whitespace- or comma-separated string (values will start at 1 unless otherwise specified):

'RED GREEN BLUE' | 'RED,GREEN,BLUE' | 'RED, GREEN, BLUE'

ou un itérateur sur des noms :

['RED', 'GREEN', 'BLUE']

ou un itérateur sur des paires (nom, valeur) :

[('CYAN', 4), ('MAGENTA', 5), ('YELLOW', 6)]

ou un tableau de correspondances :

{'CHARTREUSE': 7, 'SEA_GREEN': 11, 'ROSEMARY': 42}

module: name of module where new enum class can be found.

qualname: where in module new enum class can be found.

type: type to mix in to new enum class.

start: number to start counting at if only names are passed in.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: le paramètre start a été ajouté.

Déclinaisons d'énumérations

IntEnum

La première variante de Enum fournie est également une sous-classe de int. Les membres d'une IntEnum peuvent être comparés à des entiers ; par extension, des énumérations IntEnum de différents types peuvent aussi être comparées :

>>> from enum import IntEnum
>>> class Shape(IntEnum):
...     CIRCLE = 1
...     SQUARE = 2
...
>>> class Request(IntEnum):
...     POST = 1
...     GET = 2
...
>>> Shape == 1
False
>>> Shape.CIRCLE == 1
True
>>> Shape.CIRCLE == Request.POST
True

Cependant, elles ne peuvent toujours pas être comparées aux énumérations classiques Enum :

>>> class Shape(IntEnum):
...     CIRCLE = 1
...     SQUARE = 2
...
>>> class Color(Enum):
...     RED = 1
...     GREEN = 2
...
>>> Shape.CIRCLE == Color.RED
False

Les valeurs IntEnum se comportent comme des entiers, comme vous pouvez vous y attendre :

>>> int(Shape.CIRCLE)
1
>>> ['a', 'b', 'c'][Shape.CIRCLE]
'b'
>>> [i for i in range(Shape.SQUARE)]
[0, 1]

StrEnum

La deuxième variante de Enum fournie est également une sous-classe de str. Les membres d'une StrEnum peuvent être comparés à des chaînes ; par extension, les énumérations StrEnum de différents types peuvent également être comparées les unes aux autres.

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

IntFlag

La variante suivante fournie d'Enum est IntFlag, également basée sur int. La différence étant que les membres IntFlag peuvent être combinés à l'aide des opérateurs bit-à-bit (&, |, ^, ~) et le résultat est toujours un membre IntFlag, si possible. Comme IntEnum, les membres de IntFlag sont aussi des entiers et peuvent être utilisés partout où on utilise un int.

Note

toute opération sur un membre IntFlag, en dehors des opérations bit-à-bit, fait perdre l'appartenance à IntFlag.

Les opérations bit-à-bit qui entraînent des valeurs IntFlag invalides font perdre l'appartenance à IntFlag. Voir FlagBoundary pour plus de détails.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

Modifié dans la version 3.11.

Classe exemple dérivée d'Intflag :

>>> from enum import IntFlag
>>> class Perm(IntFlag):
...     R = 4
...     W = 2
...     X = 1
...
>>> Perm.R | Perm.W
<Perm.R|W: 6>
>>> Perm.R + Perm.W
6
>>> RW = Perm.R | Perm.W
>>> Perm.R in RW
True

Il est également possible de nommer les combinaisons :

>>> class Perm(IntFlag):
...     R = 4
...     W = 2
...     X = 1
...     RWX = 7
...
>>> Perm.RWX
<Perm.RWX: 7>
>>> ~Perm.RWX
<Perm: 0>
>>> Perm(7)
<Perm.RWX: 7>

Note

les combinaisons nommées sont considérées être des synonymes (ou alias). Les synonymes n'apparaissent pas dans une itération, mais peuvent être renvoyés à partir de recherches par valeur.

Modifié dans la version 3.11.

Une autre différence importante entre IntFlag et Enum est que si aucun indicateur n'est défini (la valeur est 0), son évaluation booléenne est False :

>>> Perm.R & Perm.X
<Perm: 0>
>>> bool(Perm.R & Perm.X)
False

Comme les membres d'une IntFlag sont aussi des sous-classes de int, ils peuvent être combinés avec eux (mais peuvent alors perdre l'appartenance à IntFlag) :

>>> Perm.X | 4
<Perm.R|X: 5>

>>> Perm.X + 8
9

Note

l'opérateur de négation, ~, renvoie toujours un membre IntFlag avec une valeur positive :

>>> (~Perm.X).value == (Perm.R|Perm.W).value == 6
True

On peut aussi itérer sur les membres d'une IntFlag :

>>> list(RW)
[<Perm.R: 4>, <Perm.W: 2>]

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

Flag

La dernière variante est Flag. Comme IntFlag, les membres de Flag peuvent être combinés à l'aide des opérateurs bit-à-bit (&, |, ^, ~). Contrairement à IntFlag, ils ne peuvent être combinés ni comparés à aucune autre énumération Flag, ni à int. Bien qu'il soit possible de spécifier les valeurs directement, il est recommandé d'utiliser auto comme valeur et de laisser Flag sélectionner une valeur appropriée.

Ajouté dans la version 3.6.

Comme pour IntFlag, si une combinaison de membres Flag entraîne qu'aucun indicateur n'est défini, l'évaluation booléenne est False :

>>> from enum import Flag, auto
>>> class Color(Flag):
...     RED = auto()
...     BLUE = auto()
...     GREEN = auto()
...
>>> Color.RED & Color.GREEN
<Color: 0>
>>> bool(Color.RED & Color.GREEN)
False

Individual flags should have values that are powers of two (1, 2, 4, 8, ...), while combinations of flags will not:

>>> class Color(Flag):
...     RED = auto()
...     BLUE = auto()
...     GREEN = auto()
...     WHITE = RED | BLUE | GREEN
...
>>> Color.WHITE
<Color.WHITE: 7>

Donner un nom à la condition « aucun indicateur défini » ne change pas sa valeur booléenne :

>>> class Color(Flag):
...     BLACK = 0
...     RED = auto()
...     BLUE = auto()
...     GREEN = auto()
...
>>> Color.BLACK
<Color.BLACK: 0>
>>> bool(Color.BLACK)
False

On peut aussi itérer sur les membres d'une Flag :

>>> purple = Color.RED | Color.BLUE
>>> list(purple)
[<Color.RED: 1>, <Color.BLUE: 2>]

Ajouté dans la version 3.11.

Note

pour la majorité du code nouveau, Enum et Flag sont fortement recommandées, car IntEnum et IntFlag brisent certaines promesses sémantiques d'une énumération (en pouvant être comparées à des entiers et donc, par transitivité, à d'autres énumérations sans rapport). IntEnum et IntFlag ne doivent être utilisées que dans les cas où Enum et Flag ne suffisent pas ; par exemple, lorsque des constantes entières sont remplacées par des énumérations, ou pour l'interopérabilité avec d'autres systèmes.

Autres énumérations

Bien que IntEnum fasse partie du module enum, il serait très simple de l'implémenter indépendamment :

class IntEnum(int, ReprEnum):   # or Enum instead of ReprEnum
    pass

This demonstrates how similar derived enumerations can be defined; for example a FloatEnum that mixes in float instead of int.

Quelques règles :

When subclassing Enum, mix-in types must appear before the Enum class itself in the sequence of bases, as in the IntEnum example above.

Les types mélangés doivent pouvoir être sous-classés. Par exemple, bool et range ne peuvent pas être sous-classés et génèrent une erreur lors de la création d'une énumération s'ils sont utilisés comme type de mélange.

Alors qu'Enum peut avoir des membres de n'importe quel type, une fois que vous avez mélangé un type supplémentaire, tous les membres doivent avoir des valeurs de ce type, par exemple int ci-dessus. Cette restriction ne s'applique pas aux classes de mélange qui ajoutent uniquement des méthodes et ne spécifient pas d'autre type.

When another data type is mixed in, the value attribute is not the same as the enum member itself, although it is equivalent and will compare equal.

A data type is a mixin that defines __new__(), or a dataclass

%-style formatting: %s and %r call the Enum class's __str__() and __repr__() respectively; other codes (such as %i or %h for IntEnum) treat the enum member as its mixed-in type.

Formatted string literals, str.format(), and format() will use the enum's __str__() method.

Note

Because IntEnum, IntFlag, and StrEnum are designed to be drop-in replacements for existing constants, their __str__() method has been reset to their data types' __str__() method.

When to use __new__() vs. __init__()

__new__() must be used whenever you want to customize the actual value of the Enum member. Any other modifications may go in either __new__() or __init__(), with __init__() being preferred.

Par exemple, si vous souhaitez passer plusieurs éléments au constructeur, mais que vous souhaitez qu'un seul d'entre eux soit la valeur :

>>> class Coordinate(bytes, Enum):
...     """
...     Coordinate with binary codes that can be indexed by the int code.
...     """
...     def __new__(cls, value, label, unit):
...         obj = bytes.__new__(cls, [value])
...         obj._value_ = value
...         obj.label = label
...         obj.unit = unit
...         return obj
...     PX = (0, 'P.X', 'km')
...     PY = (1, 'P.Y', 'km')
...     VX = (2, 'V.X', 'km/s')
...     VY = (3, 'V.Y', 'km/s')
...

>>> print(Coordinate['PY'])
Coordinate.PY

>>> print(Coordinate(3))
Coordinate.VY

Avertissement

Do not call super().__new__(), as the lookup-only __new__ is the one that is found; instead, use the data type directly.

Approfondissements

Supported __dunder__ and _sunder_ names

The supported __dunder__ and _sunder_ names can be found in the Enum API documentation.

_Private__names

Les noms privés ne sont pas convertis en membres de l'énumération, mais restent des attributs normaux.

Modifié dans la version 3.11.

Types des membres d'une Enum

Enum members are instances of their enum class, and are normally accessed as EnumClass.member. In certain situations, such as writing custom enum behavior, being able to access one member directly from another is useful, and is supported; however, in order to avoid name clashes between member names and attributes/methods from mixed-in classes, upper-case names are strongly recommended.

Modifié dans la version 3.5.

Création de membres mélangés avec d'autres types de données

Lorsque vous dérivez d'autres types de données, tels que int ou str, avec une Enum, toutes les valeurs après = sont passées au constructeur de ce type de données. Par exemple :

>>> class MyEnum(IntEnum):      # help(int) -> int(x, base=10) -> integer
...     example = '11', 16      # so x='11' and base=16
...
>>> MyEnum.example.value        # and hex(11) is...
17

Valeur booléenne des classes et membres Enum

Les classes Enum mélangées avec des types non-Enum (tels que int, str, etc.) sont évaluées selon les règles du type mélangé ; sinon, tous les membres sont évalués comme True. Pour que l'évaluation booléenne de votre propre énumération dépende de la valeur du membre, ajoutez ce qui suit à votre classe :

def __bool__(self):
    return bool(self.value)

Les classes simples Enum sont toujours évaluées comme True.

Méthodes dans les classes Enum

Si vous dotez votre sous-classe énumération de méthodes supplémentaires, comme la classe Planet ci-dessous, ces méthodes apparaissent dans le dir() des membres, mais pas dans celui de la classe :

>>> dir(Planet)
['EARTH', 'JUPITER', 'MARS', 'MERCURY', 'NEPTUNE', 'SATURN', 'URANUS', 'VENUS', '__class__', '__doc__', '__members__', '__module__']
>>> dir(Planet.EARTH)
['__class__', '__doc__', '__module__', 'mass', 'name', 'radius', 'surface_gravity', 'value']

Combinaisons de membres de Flag

L'itération sur une combinaison de membres Flag ne renvoie que les membres dont un seul bit est à 1 :

>>> class Color(Flag):
...     RED = auto()
...     GREEN = auto()
...     BLUE = auto()
...     MAGENTA = RED | BLUE
...     YELLOW = RED | GREEN
...     CYAN = GREEN | BLUE
...
>>> Color(3)  # named combination
<Color.YELLOW: 3>
>>> Color(7)      # not named combination
<Color.RED|GREEN|BLUE: 7>

Précisions sur Flag et IntFlag

En utilisant l'extrait suivant pour nos exemples :

>>> class Color(IntFlag):
...     BLACK = 0
...     RED = 1
...     GREEN = 2
...     BLUE = 4
...     PURPLE = RED | BLUE
...     WHITE = RED | GREEN | BLUE
...

ce qui suit est vrai :

les membres dont un seul bit est à 1 sont canoniques ;

ceux qui ont plusieurs bits à 1 ou aucun bit à 1 sont des synonymes ;

seuls les membres canoniques sont renvoyés pendant une itération :

>>> list(Color.WHITE)
[<Color.RED: 1>, <Color.GREEN: 2>, <Color.BLUE: 4>]

la négation d'un membre ou d'une composition de membres renvoie un nouveau membre (ou composition de membres) avec la valeur entière positive correspondante :

>>> Color.BLUE
<Color.BLUE: 4>

>>> ~Color.BLUE
<Color.RED|GREEN: 3>

les noms des pseudo-membres sont construits à partir des noms de leurs membres :

>>> (Color.RED | Color.GREEN).name
'RED|GREEN'

>>> class Perm(IntFlag):
...     R = 4
...     W = 2
...     X = 1
...
>>> (Perm.R & Perm.W).name is None  # effectively Perm(0)
True

les membres avec plusieurs bits à 1 (des alias) peuvent être renvoyés par les opérations :

>>> Color.RED | Color.BLUE
<Color.PURPLE: 5>

>>> Color(7)  # or Color(-1)
<Color.WHITE: 7>

>>> Color(0)
<Color.BLACK: 0>

pour la vérification d'appartenance, les membres dont la valeur est 0 sont toujours considérés comme étant membres :

>>> Color.BLACK in Color.WHITE
True

sinon, seulement si tous les bits à 1 d'un membre sont aussi à 1 dans l'autre membre, renvoie True :

>>> Color.PURPLE in Color.WHITE
True

>>> Color.GREEN in Color.PURPLE
False

Il existe un nouveau mécanisme de délimitation qui contrôle la façon dont les bits hors plage/invalides sont gérés : STRICT, CONFORM, EJECT et KEEP :

STRICT --> lève une exception lorsqu'on lui présente des valeurs invalides

CONFORM --> ignore les bits invalides

EJECT --> la valeur présentée perd le statut de membre et devient un entier normal

KEEP --> garde les bits supplémentaires

garde le statut de membre avec les bits supplémentaires

les bits supplémentaires ne sont pas produits dans une itération

les bits supplémentaires ne sont pas représentés par repr() et str()

La valeur par défaut pour Flag est STRICT, la valeur par défaut pour IntFlag est EJECT et la valeur par défaut pour _convert_ est KEEP (voir ssl.Options pour un exemple de cas où KEEP est nécessaire).

How are Enums and Flags different?

Les énumérations ont une métaclasse personnalisée qui modifie de nombreux aspects des classes dérivées d'Enum et de leurs instances (membres).

Classes Enum

The EnumType metaclass is responsible for providing the __contains__(), __dir__(), __iter__() and other methods that allow one to do things with an Enum class that fail on a typical class, such as list(Color) or some_enum_var in Color. EnumType is responsible for ensuring that various other methods on the final Enum class are correct (such as __new__(), __getnewargs__(), __str__() and __repr__()).

Flag Classes

Flags have an expanded view of aliasing: to be canonical, the value of a flag needs to be a power-of-two value, and not a duplicate name. So, in addition to the Enum definition of alias, a flag with no value (a.k.a. 0) or with more than one power-of-two value (e.g. 3) is considered an alias.

Membres d'une Enum (les instances)

The most interesting thing about enum members is that they are singletons. EnumType creates them all while it is creating the enum class itself, and then puts a custom __new__() in place to ensure that no new ones are ever instantiated by returning only the existing member instances.

Flag Members

Flag members can be iterated over just like the Flag class, and only the canonical members will be returned. For example:

>>> list(Color)
[<Color.RED: 1>, <Color.GREEN: 2>, <Color.BLUE: 4>]

(Note that BLACK, PURPLE, and WHITE do not show up.)

Inverting a flag member returns the corresponding positive value, rather than a negative value --- for example:

>>> ~Color.RED
<Color.GREEN|BLUE: 6>

Flag members have a length corresponding to the number of power-of-two values they contain. For example:

>>> len(Color.PURPLE)
2

Enum Cookbook

Enum, IntEnum, StrEnum, Flag et IntFlag sont censées couvrir la majorité des cas d'utilisation, mais elles ne peuvent pas tout couvrir. Voici quelques recettes pour différents types d'énumérations qui peuvent être utilisées directement, ou pour servir d'exemples afin de créer les vôtres.

Omission de valeurs

Dans de nombreux cas d'utilisation, on ne se soucie pas de la valeur réelle d'une énumération. Il existe plusieurs manières de définir ce type d'énumération simple :

utilisez des instances d'auto pour la valeur ;

utilisez des instances d'object comme valeur ;

utilisez une chaîne de caractères descriptive comme valeur ;

use a tuple as the value and a custom __new__() to replace the tuple with an int value

L'utilisation de l'une de ces méthodes signifie au lecteur que ces valeurs ne sont pas importantes et permet également d'ajouter, de supprimer ou de réorganiser des membres sans avoir à renuméroter les autres membres.

Utilisation d'auto

Voici un exemple où nous utilisons auto :

>>> class Color(Enum):
...     RED = auto()
...     BLUE = auto()
...     GREEN = auto()
...
>>> Color.GREEN
<Color.GREEN: 3>

Utilisation d'object

Voici un exemple où nous utilisons object :

>>> class Color(Enum):
...     RED = object()
...     GREEN = object()
...     BLUE = object()
...
>>> Color.GREEN
<Color.GREEN: <object object at 0x...>>

This is also a good example of why you might want to write your own __repr__():

>>> class Color(Enum):
...     RED = object()
...     GREEN = object()
...     BLUE = object()
...     def __repr__(self):
...         return "<%s.%s>" % (self.__class__.__name__, self._name_)
...
>>> Color.GREEN
<Color.GREEN>

Utilisation d'une chaîne de caractères descriptive

Voici un exemple où nous utilisons une chaîne de caractères :

>>> class Color(Enum):
...     RED = 'stop'
...     GREEN = 'go'
...     BLUE = 'too fast!'
...
>>> Color.GREEN
<Color.GREEN: 'go'>

Using a custom __new__()

Using an auto-numbering __new__() would look like:

>>> class AutoNumber(Enum):
...     def __new__(cls):
...         value = len(cls.__members__) + 1
...         obj = object.__new__(cls)
...         obj._value_ = value
...         return obj
...
>>> class Color(AutoNumber):
...     RED = ()
...     GREEN = ()
...     BLUE = ()
...
>>> Color.GREEN
<Color.GREEN: 2>

Pour créer une AutoNumber plus générale, ajoutons *args à la signature :

>>> class AutoNumber(Enum):
...     def __new__(cls, *args):      # this is the only change from above
...         value = len(cls.__members__) + 1
...         obj = object.__new__(cls)
...         obj._value_ = value
...         return obj
...

Ensuite, lorsque nous héritons de AutoNumber, nous pouvons écrire notre propre __init__ pour gérer les arguments supplémentaires :

>>> class Swatch(AutoNumber):
...     def __init__(self, pantone='unknown'):
...         self.pantone = pantone
...     AUBURN = '3497'
...     SEA_GREEN = '1246'
...     BLEACHED_CORAL = () # New color, no Pantone code yet!
...
>>> Swatch.SEA_GREEN
<Swatch.SEA_GREEN: 2>
>>> Swatch.SEA_GREEN.pantone
'1246'
>>> Swatch.BLEACHED_CORAL.pantone
'unknown'

Note

The __new__() method, if defined, is used during creation of the Enum members; it is then replaced by Enum's __new__() which is used after class creation for lookup of existing members.

Avertissement

Do not call super().__new__(), as the lookup-only __new__ is the one that is found; instead, use the data type directly -- e.g.:

obj = int.__new__(cls, value)

Énumération ordonnée

Voici une énumération ordonnée qui n'est pas basée sur IntEnum et maintient donc les invariants normaux d'Enum (comme ne pas pouvoir être comparée à d'autres énumérations) :

>>> class OrderedEnum(Enum):
...     def __ge__(self, other):
...         if self.__class__ is other.__class__:
...             return self.value >= other.value
...         return NotImplemented
...     def __gt__(self, other):
...         if self.__class__ is other.__class__:
...             return self.value > other.value
...         return NotImplemented
...     def __le__(self, other):
...         if self.__class__ is other.__class__:
...             return self.value <= other.value
...         return NotImplemented
...     def __lt__(self, other):
...         if self.__class__ is other.__class__:
...             return self.value < other.value
...         return NotImplemented
...
>>> class Grade(OrderedEnum):
...     A = 5
...     B = 4
...     C = 3
...     D = 2
...     F = 1
...
>>> Grade.C < Grade.A
True

Énumération sans doublon

Raises an error if a duplicate member value is found instead of creating an alias:

>>> class DuplicateFreeEnum(Enum):
...     def __init__(self, *args):
...         cls = self.__class__
...         if any(self.value == e.value for e in cls):
...             a = self.name
...             e = cls(self.value).name
...             raise ValueError(
...                 "aliases not allowed in DuplicateFreeEnum:  %r --> %r"
...                 % (a, e))
...
>>> class Color(DuplicateFreeEnum):
...     RED = 1
...     GREEN = 2
...     BLUE = 3
...     GRENE = 2
...
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
ValueError: aliases not allowed in DuplicateFreeEnum:  'GRENE' --> 'GREEN'

Note

c'est un exemple utile de dérivation d'Enum pour ajouter ou modifier d'autres comportements ainsi que pour interdire les synonymes. Si le seul changement souhaité est l'interdiction des synonymes, le décorateur unique() peut être utilisé à la place.

MultiValueEnum

Supports having more than one value per member:

>>> class MultiValueEnum(Enum):
...     def __new__(cls, value, *values):
...         self = object.__new__(cls)
...         self._value_ = value
...         for v in values:
...             self._add_value_alias_(v)
...         return self
...
>>> class DType(MultiValueEnum):
...     float32 = 'f', 8
...     double64 = 'd', 9
...
>>> DType('f')
<DType.float32: 'f'>
>>> DType(9)
<DType.double64: 'd'>

Planète

If __new__() or __init__() is defined, the value of the enum member will be passed to those methods:

>>> class Planet(Enum):
...     MERCURY = (3.303e+23, 2.4397e6)
...     VENUS   = (4.869e+24, 6.0518e6)
...     EARTH   = (5.976e+24, 6.37814e6)
...     MARS    = (6.421e+23, 3.3972e6)
...     JUPITER = (1.9e+27,   7.1492e7)
...     SATURN  = (5.688e+26, 6.0268e7)
...     URANUS  = (8.686e+25, 2.5559e7)
...     NEPTUNE = (1.024e+26, 2.4746e7)
...     def __init__(self, mass, radius):
...         self.mass = mass       # in kilograms
...         self.radius = radius   # in meters
...     @property
...     def surface_gravity(self):
...         # universal gravitational constant  (m3 kg-1 s-2)
...         G = 6.67300E-11
...         return G * self.mass / (self.radius * self.radius)
...
>>> Planet.EARTH.value
(5.976e+24, 6378140.0)
>>> Planet.EARTH.surface_gravity
9.802652743337129

Intervalle de temps

An example to show the _ignore_ attribute in use:

>>> import datetime as dt
>>> class Period(dt.timedelta, Enum):
...     "different lengths of time"
...     _ignore_ = 'Period i'
...     Period = vars()
...     for i in range(367):
...         Period['day_%d' % i] = i
...
>>> list(Period)[:2]
[<Period.day_0: datetime.timedelta(0)>, <Period.day_1: datetime.timedelta(days=1)>]
>>> list(Period)[-2:]
[<Period.day_365: datetime.timedelta(days=365)>, <Period.day_366: datetime.timedelta(days=366)>]

Dérivations d'EnumType

Alors que la plupart des besoins d'énumérations peuvent être satisfaits en sous-classant Enum, avec des décorateurs de classe ou des fonctions personnalisées, EnumType peut être dérivée pour créer des énumérations vraiment différentes.

Guide pratique : programmation fonctionnelle

Auteur:

A. M. Kuchling

Version:

0.32

Dans ce document, nous allons faire un tour des fonctionnalités de Python adaptées à la réalisation d'un programme dans un style fonctionnel. Après une introduction à la programmation fonctionnelle, nous aborderons des outils tels que les iterators et les generators ainsi que les modules itertools et functools.

Introduction

Cette section détaille les fondamentaux de la programmation fonctionnelle. Si seules les fonctionnalités de Python vous intéressent, vous pouvez sauter cette partie et lire la section suivante sur les Itérateurs.

Les langages de programmation permettent de traiter des problèmes selon différentes approches :

la plupart des langages de programmation suivent une logique procédurale : les programmes sont constitués de listes d'instructions qui détaillent les opérations que l'ordinateur doit appliquer aux entrées du programme. C, Pascal ou encore les interpréteurs de commandes Unix sont des langages procéduraux ;

les langages déclaratifs permettent d'écrire la spécification du problème et laissent l'implémentation du langage trouver une façon efficace de réaliser les calculs nécessaires à sa résolution. SQL est un langage déclaratif que vous êtes susceptible de connaître ; une requête SQL décrit le jeu de données que vous souhaitez récupérer et le moteur SQL choisit de parcourir les tables ou d'utiliser les index, l'ordre de résolution des sous-clauses, etc. ;

les programmes orientés objet manipulent des ensembles d'objets. Ceux-ci possèdent un état interne et des méthodes qui interrogent ou modifient cet état d'une façon ou d'une autre. Smalltalk et Java sont deux langages orientés objet. C++ et Python gèrent la programmation orientée objet mais n'imposent pas l'utilisation de telles fonctionnalités ;

la programmation fonctionnelle implique de décomposer un problème en un ensemble de fonctions. Dans l'idéal, les fonctions produisent des sorties à partir d'entrées et ne possède pas d'état interne qui soit susceptible de modifier la sortie pour une entrée donnée. Les langages fonctionnels les plus connus sont ceux de la famille ML (Standard ML, OCaml et autres) et Haskell ;

Les personnes qui conçoivent des langages de programmation peuvent choisir de privilégier une approche par rapport à une autre. Cela complexifie l'écriture de programmes appliquant un paradigme différent de celui considéré. Certains langages sont multi-paradigmes et gère plusieurs approches différentes. Lisp, C++ et Python sont de tels langages ; vous pouvez écrire des programmes ou des bibliothèques dans un style procédural, orienté objet ou fonctionnel dans chacun d'entre eux. Différentes parties d'une application peuvent être écrites selon des approches différentes ; par exemple, l'interface graphique peut suivre le paradigme orienté objet tandis que la logique de traitement est procédurale ou fonctionnelle.

Dans un programme fonctionnel, l'entrée traverse un ensemble de fonctions. Chaque fonction opère sur son entrée et produit une sortie. Le style fonctionnel préconise de ne pas écrire de fonctions ayant des effets de bord, c'est-à-dire qui modifient un état interne ou réalisent d'autres changements qui ne sont pas visibles dans la valeur de sortie de la fonction. Les fonctions qui ne présentent aucun effet de bord sont dites purement fonctionnelles. L'interdiction des effets de bord signifie qu'aucune structure de données n'est mise à jour lors de l'exécution du programme ; chaque sortie d'une fonction ne dépend que de son entrée.

Certains langages sont très stricts en ce qui concerne la pureté des fonctions et ne laissent même pas la possibilité d'assigner des variables avec des expressions telles que a = 3 ou c = a + b, cependant il est difficile d'éviter tous les effets de bord. Afficher un message sur l'écran ou écrire un fichier sur le disque sont des effets de bord. Pour prendre un autre exemple, un appel aux fonctions print() ou time.sleep() en Python ne renvoie aucune valeur utile ; ces fonctions ne sont appelées que pour leur effet de bord (afficher du texte sur l'écran ou mettre en pause l'exécution du programme).

Les programmes Python écrits dans un style fonctionnel ne poussent généralement pas le curseur de la pureté à l'extrême en interdisant toute entrée-sortie ou les assignations ; ils exhibent une interface fonctionnelle en apparence mais utilisent des fonctionnalités impures en interne. Par exemple, l'implémentation d'une fonction peut assigner dans des variables locales mais ne modifiera pas de variable globale et n'aura pas d'autre effet de bord.

La programmation fonctionnelle peut être considérée comme l'opposé de la programmation orientée objet. Les objets encapsulent un état interne ainsi qu'une collection de méthodes qui permettent de modifier cet état. Les programmes consistent à appliquer les bons changements à ces états. La programmation fonctionnelle vous impose d'éviter au maximum ces changements d'états en travaillant sur des données qui traversent un flux de fonctions. En Python, vous pouvez combiner ces deux approches en écrivant des fonctions qui prennent en argument et renvoient des instances représentants des objets de votre application (courriers électroniques, transactions, etc.).

Programmer sous la contrainte du paradigme fonctionnel peut sembler étrange. Pourquoi vouloir éviter les objets et les effets de bord ? Il existe des avantages théoriques et pratiques au style fonctionnel :

preuves formelles ;

modularité ;

composabilité ;

facilité de débogage et de test.

Preuves formelles

Un avantage théorique est qu'il est plus facile de construire une preuve mathématique de l'exactitude d'un programme fonctionnel.

Les chercheurs ont longtemps souhaité trouver des façons de prouver mathématiquement qu'un programme est correct. Cela ne se borne pas à tester si la sortie d'un programme est correcte sur de nombreuses entrées ou lire le code source et en conclure que le celui-ci semble juste. L'objectif est d'établir une preuve rigoureuse que le programme produit le bon résultat pour toutes les entrées possibles.

La technique utilisée pour prouver l'exactitude d'un programme est d'écrire des invariants, c'est-à-dire des propriétés de l'entrée et des variables du programme qui sont toujours vérifiées. Pour chaque ligne de code, il suffit de montrer que si les invariants X et Y sont vrais avant l'exécution de cette ligne, les invariants légèrement modifiés X' et Y' sont vérifiés après son exécution. Ceci se répète jusqu'à atteindre la fin du programme. À ce stade, les invariants doivent alors correspondre aux propriétés que l'on souhaite que la sortie du programme vérifie.

L'aversion du style fonctionnel envers les assignations de variable est apparue car celles-ci sont difficiles à gérer avec cette méthode. Les assignations peuvent rompre des invariants qui étaient vrais auparavant sans pour autant produire de nouveaux invariants qui pourraient être propagés.

Malheureusement, prouver l'exactitude d'un programme est très peu commode et ne concerne que rarement des logiciels en Python. Même des programmes triviaux nécessitent souvent des preuves s'étalant sur plusieurs pages ; la preuve de l'exactitude d'un programme relativement gros serait gigantesque. Peu, voire aucun, des programmes que vous utilisez quotidiennement (l'interpréteur Python, votre analyseur syntaxique XML, votre navigateur web) ne peuvent être prouvés exacts. Même si vous écriviez ou généreriez une preuve, il faudrait encore vérifier celle-ci. Peut-être qu'elle contient une erreur et que vous pensez désormais, à tort, que vous avez prouvé que votre programme est correct.

Modularité

Un intérêt plus pratique de la programmation fonctionnelle est qu'elle impose de décomposer le problème en petits morceaux. Les programmes qui en résultent sont souvent plus modulaires. Il est plus simple de spécifier et d'écrire une petite fonction qui ne fait qu'une seule tâche plutôt qu'une grosse fonction qui réalise une transformation complexe. Les petites fonctions sont plus faciles à lire et à vérifier.

Facilité de débogage et de test

Tester et déboguer un programme fonctionnel est plus facile.

Déboguer est plus simple car les fonctions sont généralement petites et bien spécifiées. Lorsqu'un programme ne fonctionne pas, chaque fonction constitue une étape au niveau de laquelle vous pouvez vérifier que les valeurs sont justes. Vous pouvez observer les entrées intermédiaires et les sorties afin d'isoler rapidement la fonction qui est à l'origine du bogue.

Les tests sont plus faciles, car chaque fonction est désormais un sujet potentiel pour un test unitaire. Les fonctions ne dépendent pas d'un état particulier du système qui devrait être répliqué avant d'exécuter un test ; à la place vous n'avez qu'à produire une entrée synthétique et vérifier que le résultat correspond à ce que vous attendez.

Composabilité

En travaillant sur un programme dans le style fonctionnel, vous écrivez un certain nombre de fonctions avec des entrées et des sorties variables. Certaines de ces fonctions sont inévitablement spécifiques à une application en particulier, mais d'autres peuvent s'appliquer à de nombreux cas d'usage. Par exemple, une fonction qui liste l'ensemble des fichiers XML d'un répertoire à partir du chemin de celui-ci ou une fonction qui renvoie le contenu d'un fichier à partir de son nom peuvent être utiles dans de nombreuses situations.

Au fur et à mesure, vous constituez ainsi une bibliothèque personnelle d'utilitaires. Souvent, vous pourrez construire de nouveaux programmes en agençant des fonctions existantes dans une nouvelle configuration et en écrivant quelques fonctions spécifiques à votre objectif en cours.

Itérateurs

Commençons par jeter un œil à une des fonctionnalités les plus importantes pour écrire en style fonctionnel avec Python : les itérateurs.

Un itérateur est un objet qui représente un flux de données ; cet objet renvoie les données un élément à la fois. Un itérateur Python doit posséder une méthode __next__() qui ne prend pas d'argument et renvoie toujours l'élément suivant du flux. S'il n'y a plus d'élément dans le flux, __next__() doit lever une exception StopIteration. Toutefois, ce n'est pas indispensable ; il est envisageable d'écrire un itérateur qui produit un flux infini de données.

La fonction native iter() prend un objet arbitraire et tente de construire un itérateur qui renvoie le contenu de l'objet (ou ses éléments) en levant une exception TypeError si l'objet ne gère pas l'itération. Plusieurs types de données natifs à Python gèrent l'itération, notamment les listes et les dictionnaires. On appelle itérable un objet pour lequel il est possible de construire un itérateur.

Vous pouvez expérimenter avec l'interface d'itération manuellement :

>>> L = [1, 2, 3]
>>> it = iter(L)
>>> it
<...iterator object at ...>
>>> it.__next__()  # same as next(it)
1
>>> next(it)
2
>>> next(it)
3
>>> next(it)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
StopIteration
>>>

Python s'attend à travailler sur des objets itérables dans divers contextes et tout particulièrement dans une boucle for. Dans l'expression for X in Y, Y doit être un itérateur ou un objet pour lequel iter() peut générer un itérateur. Ces deux expressions sont équivalentes :

for i in iter(obj):
    print(i)

for i in obj:
    print(i)

Les itérateurs peuvent être transformés en listes ou en n-uplets en appelant les constructeurs respectifs list() et tuple() :

>>> L = [1, 2, 3]
>>> iterator = iter(L)
>>> t = tuple(iterator)
>>> t
(1, 2, 3)

Le dépaquetage de séquences fonctionne également sur les itérateurs : si vous savez qu'un itérateur renvoie N éléments, vous pouvez les dépaqueter dans un n-uplet :

>>> L = [1, 2, 3]
>>> iterator = iter(L)
>>> a, b, c = iterator
>>> a, b, c
(1, 2, 3)

Certaines fonctions natives telles que max() et min() prennent un itérateur en argument et en renvoie le plus grand ou le plus petit élément. Les opérateurs "in" et "not in" gèrent également les itérateurs : X in iterator est vrai si X a été trouvé dans le flux renvoyé par l'itérateur. Vous rencontrerez bien sûr des problèmes si l'itérateur est infini : max(), min() ne termineront jamais et, si l'élément X n'apparaît pas dans le flux, les opérateurs "in" et "not in" non plus.

Notez qu'il n'est possible de parcourir un itérateur que vers l'avant et qu'il est impossible de récupérer l'élément précédent, de réinitialiser l'itérateur ou d'en créer une copie. Des objets itérateurs peuvent offrir ces possibilités de façon facultative, mais le protocole d'itération ne spécifie que la méthode __next__(). Certaines fonctions peuvent ainsi consommer l'entièreté de la sortie d'un itérateur et, si vous devez utiliser le même flux pour autre chose, vous devrez en créer un nouveau.

Types de données itérables

Nous avons vu précédemment comment les listes et les n-uplets gèrent les itérateurs. En réalité, n'importe quel type de séquence en Python, par exemple les chaînes de caractères, sont itérables.

Appeler iter() sur un dictionnaire renvoie un itérateur qui parcourt l'ensemble de ses clés :

>>> m = {'Jan': 1, 'Feb': 2, 'Mar': 3, 'Apr': 4, 'May': 5, 'Jun': 6,
...      'Jul': 7, 'Aug': 8, 'Sep': 9, 'Oct': 10, 'Nov': 11, 'Dec': 12}
>>> for key in m:
...     print(key, m[key])
Jan 1
Feb 2
Mar 3
Apr 4
May 5
Jun 6
Jul 7
Aug 8
Sep 9
Oct 10
Nov 11
Dec 12

Notez qu'à partir de la version 3.7, Python garantit que l'ordre de l'itération sur un dictionnaire est identique à l'ordre d'insertion des clés. Dans les versions précédentes, ce comportement n'était pas spécifié et pouvait varier en fonction de l'implémentation.

Appliquer iter() sur un dictionnaire produit un itérateur sur ses clés, mais il est possible d'obtenir d'autres itérateurs par d'autres méthodes. Si vous souhaitez itérer sur les valeurs ou les paires clé/valeur du dictionnaire, vous pouvez explicitement appeler les méthodes values() ou items() pour obtenir l'itérateur idoine.

Le constructeur dict() accepte de prendre un itérateur en argument qui renvoie un flux fini de pairs (clé, valeur) :

>>> L = [('Italy', 'Rome'), ('France', 'Paris'), ('US', 'Washington DC')]
>>> dict(iter(L))
{'Italy': 'Rome', 'France': 'Paris', 'US': 'Washington DC'}

Les fichiers gèrent aussi l'itération en appelant la méthode readline() jusqu'à ce qu'il n'y ait plus d'autre ligne dans le fichier. Cela signifie que vous pouvez lire l'intégralité d'un fichier de la façon suivante :

for line in file:
    # do something for each line
    ...

Les ensembles peuvent être créés à partir d'un itérable et autorisent l'itération sur les éléments de l'ensemble :

>>> S = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13}
>>> for i in S:
...     print(i)
2
3
5
7
11
13

Expressions génératrices et compréhension de listes

Deux opérations courantes réalisables sur la sortie d'un itérateur sont 1) effectuer une opération pour chaque élément, 2) extraire le sous-ensemble des éléments qui vérifient une certaine condition. Par exemple, pour une liste de chaînes de caractères, vous pouvez choisir de retirer tous les caractères blancs à la fin de chaque ligne ou extraire toutes les chaînes contenant une sous-chaîne précise.

Les compréhensions de listes et les expressions génératrices sont des façons concises d'exprimer de telles opérations, inspirées du langage de programmation fonctionnel Haskell (https://www.haskell.org/). Vous pouvez retirer tous les caractères blancs initiaux et finaux d'un flux de chaînes de caractères à l'aide du code suivant :

>>> line_list = ['  line 1\n', 'line 2  \n', ' \n', '']

>>> # Generator expression -- returns iterator
>>> stripped_iter = (line.strip() for line in line_list)

>>> # List comprehension -- returns list
>>> stripped_list = [line.strip() for line in line_list]

Vous pouvez ne sélectionner que certains éléments en ajoutant une condition « if » :

>>> stripped_list = [line.strip() for line in line_list
...                  if line != ""]

La compréhension de liste renvoie une liste Python ; stripped_list est une liste contenant les lignes après transformation, pas un itérateur. Les expressions génératrices renvoient un itérateur qui calcule les valeurs au fur et à mesure sans toutes les matérialiser d'un seul coup. Cela signifie que les compréhensions de listes ne sont pas très utiles si vous travaillez sur des itérateurs infinis ou produisant une très grande quantité de données. Les expressions génératrices sont préférables dans ce cas.

Les expressions génératrices sont écrites entre parenthèses (« () ») et les compréhensions de listes entre crochets (« [] »). Les expressions génératrices sont de la forme :

( expression for expr in sequence1
             if condition1
             for expr2 in sequence2
             if condition2
             for expr3 in sequence3
             ...
             if condition3
             for exprN in sequenceN
             if conditionN )

La compréhension de liste équivalente s'écrit de la même manière, utilisez juste des crochets à la place des parenthèses.

Les éléments de la sortie sont les valeurs successives de expression. La clause if est facultative ; si elle est présente, expression n'est évaluée et ajoutée au résultat que si condition est vérifiée.

Les expressions génératrices doivent toujours être écrites entre parenthèses, mais les parenthèses qui encadrent un appel de fonction comptent aussi. Si vous souhaitez créer un itérateur qui soit immédiatement passé à une fonction, vous pouvez écrire :

obj_total = sum(obj.count for obj in list_all_objects())

Les clauses for ... in indiquent les séquences sur lesquelles itérer. Celles-ci peuvent être de longueurs différentes, car l'itération est réalisée de gauche à droite et non en parallèle. sequence2 est parcourue entièrement pour chaque élément de sequence1. sequence3 est ensuite parcourue dans son intégralité pour chaque paire d'éléments de sequence1 et sequence2.

Autrement dit, une compréhension de liste ou une expression génératrice est équivalente au code Python ci-dessous :

for expr1 in sequence1:
    if not (condition1):
        continue   # Skip this element
    for expr2 in sequence2:
        if not (condition2):
            continue   # Skip this element
        ...
        for exprN in sequenceN:
            if not (conditionN):
                continue   # Skip this element

            # Output the value of
            # the expression.

Ainsi lorsque plusieurs clauses for ... in sont présentes mais sans condition if, la longueur totale de la nouvelle séquence est égale au produit des longueurs des séquences itérées. Si vous travaillez sur deux listes de longueur 3, la sortie contiendra 9 éléments :

>>> seq1 = 'abc'
>>> seq2 = (1, 2, 3)
>>> [(x, y) for x in seq1 for y in seq2]
[('a', 1), ('a', 2), ('a', 3),
 ('b', 1), ('b', 2), ('b', 3),
 ('c', 1), ('c', 2), ('c', 3)]

Afin de ne pas créer une ambiguïté dans la grammaire de Python, expression doit être encadrée par des parenthèses si elle produit un n-uplet. La première compréhension de liste ci-dessous n'est pas valide syntaxiquement, tandis que la seconde l'est :

# Syntax error
[x, y for x in seq1 for y in seq2]
# Correct
[(x, y) for x in seq1 for y in seq2]

Générateurs

Les générateurs forment une classe spéciale de fonctions qui simplifie la création d'itérateurs. Les fonctions habituelles calculent une valeur et la renvoie, tandis que les générateurs renvoient un itérateur qui produit un flux de valeurs.

Vous connaissez sans doute le fonctionnement des appels de fonctions en Python ou en C. Lorsqu'une fonction est appelée, un espace de nommage privé lui est associé pour ses variables locales. Lorsque le programme atteint une instruction return, les variables locales sont détruites et la valeur est renvoyée à l'appelant. Les appels postérieurs à la même fonction créent un nouvel espace de nommage privé et de nouvelles variables locales. Cependant, que se passerait-il si les variables locales n'étaient pas détruites lors de la sortie d'une fonction ? Et s'il était possible de reprendre l'exécution de la fonction là où elle s'était arrêtée ? Les générateurs sont une réponse à ces questions ; vous pouvez considérer qu'il s'agit de fonctions qu'il est possible d'interrompre, puis de relancer sans perdre leur progression.

Voici un exemple simple de fonction génératrice :

>>> def generate_ints(N):
...    for i in range(N):
...        yield i

N'importe quelle fonction contenant le mot-clé yield est un générateur ; le compilateur bytecode de Python détecte ce mot-clé et prend en compte cette particularité de la fonction.

Lorsque vous appelez une fonction génératrice, celle-ci ne renvoie pas une unique valeur ; elle renvoie un objet générateur qui implémente le protocole d'itération. Lorsque l'expression yield est exécutée, le générateur renvoie la valeur de i, d'une façon similaire à un return. La différence principale entre yield et return est qu'en atteignant l'instruction yield, l'état du générateur est suspendu et les variables locales sont conservées. Lors de l'appel suivant à la méthode __next__() du générateur, la fonction reprend son exécution.

Voici un exemple d'utilisation du générateur generate_ints() :

>>> gen = generate_ints(3)
>>> gen
<generator object generate_ints at ...>
>>> next(gen)
0
>>> next(gen)
1
>>> next(gen)
2
>>> next(gen)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "stdin", line 1, in <module>
  File "stdin", line 2, in generate_ints
StopIteration

Vous pourriez de façon équivalente écrire for i in generate_ints(5) ou a, b, c = generate_ints(3).

Dans une fonction génératrice, une instruction return value entraîne la levée d'une exception StopIteration(value) dans la méthode __next__(). Lorsque cela se produit (ou que la fin de la fonction est atteinte), le flot de nouvelles valeurs s'arrête et le générateur ne peut plus rien produire.

Vous pouvez obtenir le même comportement que celui des générateurs en écrivant votre propre classe qui stocke les variables locales du générateur comme variables d'instance. Pour renvoyer une liste d'entiers, par exemple, vous pouvez initialiser self.count à 0 et écrire la méthode __next__() de telle sorte qu'elle incrémente self.count puis le renvoie. Cependant, cela devient beaucoup plus complexe pour des générateurs relativement sophistiqués.

Lib/test/test_generators.py [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Lib/test/test_generators.py], la suite de test de la bibliothèque Python, contient de nombreux exemples intéressants. Voici un générateur qui implémente le parcours d'un arbre dans l'ordre en utilisant des générateurs de façon récursive.

# A recursive generator that generates Tree leaves in in-order.
def inorder(t):
    if t:
        for x in inorder(t.left):
            yield x

        yield t.label

        for x in inorder(t.right):
            yield x

Deux autres exemples de test_generators.py permettent de résoudre le problème des N Reines (placer N reines sur un échiquier de dimensions NxN de telle sorte qu'aucune reine ne soit en position d'en prendre une autre) et le problème du cavalier (trouver un chemin permettant au cavalier de visiter toutes les cases d'un échiquier NxN sans jamais visiter la même case deux fois).

Transmettre des valeurs au générateur

Avant Python 2.5, les générateurs ne pouvaient que produire des sorties. Une fois le code du générateur exécuté pour créer un itérateur, il était impossible d'introduire de l'information nouvelle dans la fonction mise en pause. Une astuce consistait à obtenir cette fonctionnalité en autorisant le générateur à consulter des variables globales ou en lui passant des objets mutables modifiés hors du générateur, mais ces approches étaient compliquées.

À partir de Python 2.5, il existe une méthode simple pour transmettre des valeurs à un générateur. Le mot-clé yield est devenu une expression qui renvoie une valeur sur laquelle il est possible d'opérer et que vous pouvez assigner à une variable :

val = (yield i)

Comme dans l'exemple ci-dessus, nous vous recommandons de toujours encadrer les expressions yield par des parenthèses lorsque vous utilisez leur valeur de retour. Elles ne sont pas toujours indispensables mais mieux vaut prévenir que guérir : il est plus facile de les ajouter systématiquement que de prendre le risque de les oublier là où elles sont requises.

(Les règles exactes de parenthésage sont spécifiées dans la PEP 342 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0342/] : une expression yield doit toujours être parenthésée sauf s'il s'agit de l'expression la plus externe du côté droit d'une assignation. Cela signifie que vous pouvez écrire val = yield i mais que les parenthèses sont requises s'il y a une opération, comme dans val = (yield i) + 12.)

Des valeurs peuvent être transmises à un générateur en appelant sa méthode send(value). Celle-ci reprend l'exécution du générateur et l'expression yield renvoie la valeur spécifiée. Si c'est la méthode __next__() habituelle qui est appelée, alors yield renvoie None.

Voici un exemple de compteur qui s'incrémente de 1 mais dont il est possible de modifier le compte interne.

def counter(maximum):
    i = 0
    while i < maximum:
        val = (yield i)
        # If value provided, change counter
        if val is not None:
            i = val
        else:
            i += 1

Et voici comment il est possible de modifier le compteur :

>>> it = counter(10)
>>> next(it)
0
>>> next(it)
1
>>> it.send(8)
8
>>> next(it)
9
>>> next(it)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "t.py", line 15, in <module>
    it.next()
StopIteration

Puisque yield renvoie souvent None, vous devez toujours vérifier si c'est le cas. N'utilisez pas la valeur de retour à moins d'être certain que seule la méthode send() sera utilisée pour reprendre l'exécution de la fonction génératrice.

En plus de send(), il existe deux autres méthodes s'appliquant aux générateurs :

throw(value) permet de lever une exception dans le générateur ; celle-ci est levée par l'expression yield à l'endroit où l'exécution a été mise en pause.

close() sends a GeneratorExit exception to the generator to terminate the iteration. On receiving this exception, the generator's code must either raise GeneratorExit or StopIteration; catching the exception and doing anything else is illegal and will trigger a RuntimeError. close() will also be called by Python's garbage collector when the generator is garbage-collected.

Si vous devez exécuter du code pour faire le ménage lors d'une GeneratorExit, nous vous suggérons d'utiliser une structure try: ... finally plutôt que d'attraper GeneratorExit.

Ces changements cumulés transforment les générateurs de producteurs unidirectionnels d'information vers un statut hybride à la fois producteur et consommateur.

Les générateurs sont également devenus des coroutines, une forme généralisée de sous-routine. L'exécution des sous-routines démarre à un endroit et se termine à un autre (au début de la fonction et au niveau de l'instruction return), tandis qu'il est possible d'entrer, de sortir ou de reprendre une coroutine à différents endroits (les instructions yield).

Fonctions natives

Voyons un peu plus en détail les fonctions natives souvent utilisées de concert avec les itérateurs.

map() et filter() sont deux fonctions natives de Python qui clonent les propriétés des expressions génératrices :

map(f, iterA, iterB, ...) renvoie un itérateur sur une séquence

f(iterA[0], iterB[0]), f(iterA[1], iterB[1]), f(iterA[2], iterB[2]), ....

>>> def upper(s):
...     return s.upper()

>>> list(map(upper, ['sentence', 'fragment']))
['SENTENCE', 'FRAGMENT']
>>> [upper(s) for s in ['sentence', 'fragment']]
['SENTENCE', 'FRAGMENT']

Vous pouvez obtenir le même comportement à l'aide d'une compréhension de liste.

filter(predicate, iter) renvoie un itérateur sur l'ensemble des éléments de la séquence qui vérifient une certaine condition. Son comportement peut également être reproduit par une compréhension de liste. Un prédicat est une fonction qui renvoie vrai ou faux en fonction d'une certaine condition. Dans le cas de filter(), le prédicat ne doit prendre qu'un seul argument.

>>> def is_even(x):
...     return (x % 2) == 0

>>> list(filter(is_even, range(10)))
[0, 2, 4, 6, 8]

Cela peut se réécrire sous la forme d'une compréhension de liste :

>>> list(x for x in range(10) if is_even(x))
[0, 2, 4, 6, 8]

enumerate(iter, start=0) énumère les éléments de l'itérable en renvoyant des paires contenant le nombre d'éléments déjà listés (depuis le début) et l'élément en cours

>>> for item in enumerate(['subject', 'verb', 'object']):
...     print(item)
(0, 'subject')
(1, 'verb')
(2, 'object')

enumerate() est souvent utilisée lorsque l'on souhaite boucler sur une liste tout en listant les indices pour lesquels une certaine condition est vérifiée :

f = open('data.txt', 'r')
for i, line in enumerate(f):
    if line.strip() == '':
        print('Blank line at line #%i' % i)

sorted(iterable, key=None, reverse=False) rassemble tous les éléments de l'itérable dans une liste, les classe et renvoie le résultat classé. Les arguments key et reverse sont passés à la méthode sort() de la liste ainsi construite.

>>> import random
>>> # Generate 8 random numbers between [0, 10000)
>>> rand_list = random.sample(range(10000), 8)
>>> rand_list
[769, 7953, 9828, 6431, 8442, 9878, 6213, 2207]
>>> sorted(rand_list)
[769, 2207, 6213, 6431, 7953, 8442, 9828, 9878]
>>> sorted(rand_list, reverse=True)
[9878, 9828, 8442, 7953, 6431, 6213, 2207, 769]

(Pour plus de détails sur les algorithmes de tri, se référer à Les techniques de tri.)

Les fonctions natives any(iter) et all(iter) permettent d'observer les valeurs de vérité des éléments d'un itérable. any() renvoie True si au moins un élément de l'itérable s'évalue comme vrai et all() renvoie True si tous les éléments s'évaluent comme vrai :

>>> any([0, 1, 0])
True
>>> any([0, 0, 0])
False
>>> any([1, 1, 1])
True
>>> all([0, 1, 0])
False
>>> all([0, 0, 0])
False
>>> all([1, 1, 1])
True

zip(iterA, iterB, ...) rassemble un élément de chaque itérable dans un n-uplet :

zip(['a', 'b', 'c'], (1, 2, 3)) =>
  ('a', 1), ('b', 2), ('c', 3)

Cela ne construit pas de liste stockée en mémoire, ni ne vide les itérateurs d'entrée avant de renvoyer sa valeur ; en réalité les n-uplets sont construits et renvoyés au fur et à mesure (il s'agit techniquement parlant d'un comportement d'évaluation paresseuse [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89valuation_paresseuse]).

Cet itérateur suppose qu'il opère sur des itérables de même longueur. Si la longueur des itérables diffère, le flux résultant a la même longueur que le plus court des itérables.

zip(['a', 'b'], (1, 2, 3)) =>
  ('a', 1), ('b', 2)

Toutefois, vous devez éviter de dépendre de ce comportement. En effet un élément d'un des itérables les plus longs peut être retiré puis jeté (car l'autre itérable est trop court). Cela signifie que vous ne pouvez alors plus utiliser cet itérable car vous allez sauter l'élément qui vient d'être jeté.

Le module itertools

Le module itertools contient de nombreux itérateurs très utilisés, ainsi que des fonctions pour combiner plusieurs itérateurs. Cette section présente le contenu du module au travers de quelques exemples.

Les fonctions du module se divisent en quelques grandes catégories :

les fonctions qui transforment un itérateur existant en un nouvel itérateur ;

les fonctions qui traitent les éléments d'un itérateur comme les arguments d'une fonction ;

les fonctions qui permettent de sélectionner des portions de la sortie d'un itérateur ;

une fonction qui permet de grouper la sortie d'un itérateur.

Créer de nouveaux itérateurs

itertools.count(start, step) renvoie un flux infini de valeurs régulièrement espacées. Vous pouvez spécifier la valeur de départ (par défaut, 0) et l'intervalle entre les nombres (par défaut, 1) :

itertools.count() =>
  0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, ...
itertools.count(10) =>
  10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, ...
itertools.count(10, 5) =>
  10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, ...

itertools.cycle(iter) sauvegarde une copie du contenu de l'itérable passé en argument et renvoie un nouvel itérateur qui produit tous les éléments du premier au dernier et se répète indéfiniment.

itertools.cycle([1, 2, 3, 4, 5]) =>
  1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ...

itertools.repeat(elem, [n]) renvoie l'élément passé en argument n fois ou répète l'élément à l'infini si n n'est pas spécifié.

itertools.repeat('abc') =>
  abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, ...
itertools.repeat('abc', 5) =>
  abc, abc, abc, abc, abc

itertools.chain(iterA, iterB, ...) reçoit un nombre arbitraire d'itérables en entrée et les concatène, renvoyant tous les éléments du premier itérateur, puis tous ceux du second et ainsi de suite jusqu'à ce que tous les itérables aient été épuisés.

itertools.chain(['a', 'b', 'c'], (1, 2, 3)) =>
  a, b, c, 1, 2, 3

itertools.islice(iter, [start], stop, [step]) renvoie une portion de l'itérateur. En passant seulement l'argument stop, il renvoie les stop premiers éléments. En spécifiant un indice de début, vous récupérez stop - start éléments ; utilisez step pour spécifier une valeur de pas. Cependant vous ne pouvez pas utiliser de valeurs négatives pour start, stop ou step (contrairement aux listes et chaînes de caractères de Python).

itertools.islice(range(10), 8) =>
  0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
itertools.islice(range(10), 2, 8) =>
  2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
itertools.islice(range(10), 2, 8, 2) =>
  2, 4, 6

itertools.tee(iter, [n]) duplique un itérateur et renvoie n itérateurs indépendants, chacun copiant le contenu de l'itérateur source. La valeur par défaut pour n est 2. La réplication des itérateurs nécessite la sauvegarde d'une partie du contenu de l'itérateur source, ce qui peut consommer beaucoup de mémoire si l'itérateur est grand et que l'un des nouveaux itérateurs est plus consommé que les autres.

itertools.tee( itertools.count() ) =>
   iterA, iterB

where iterA ->
   0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, ...

and   iterB ->
   0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, ...

Appliquer des fonctions au contenu des itérateurs

Le module operator rassemble des fonctions équivalentes aux opérateurs Python. Par exemple, operator.add(a,b) additionne deux valeurs, operator.ne(a, b) est équivalent à a != b et operator.attrgetter('id') renvoie un objet appelable qui récupère l'attribut .id.

itertools.starmap(func, iter) suppose que l'itérable renvoie une séquence de n-uplets et appelle func en utilisant tous les n-uplets comme arguments :

itertools.starmap(os.path.join,
                  [('/bin', 'python'), ('/usr', 'bin', 'java'),
                   ('/usr', 'bin', 'perl'), ('/usr', 'bin', 'ruby')])
=>
  /bin/python, /usr/bin/java, /usr/bin/perl, /usr/bin/ruby

Sélectionner des éléments

Une autre catégorie de fonctions est celle permettant de sélectionner un sous-ensemble des éléments de l'itérateur selon un prédicat donné.

itertools.filterfalse(predicate, iter) est l'opposé de filter() et renvoie tous les éléments pour lesquels le prédicat est faux :

itertools.filterfalse(is_even, itertools.count()) =>
  1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, ...

itertools.takewhile(predicate, iter) renvoie les éléments de l'itérateur tant que ceux-ci vérifient le prédicat. Dès lors que le prédicat renvoie faux, l'itération s'arrête.

def less_than_10(x):
    return x < 10

itertools.takewhile(less_than_10, itertools.count()) =>
  0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9

itertools.takewhile(is_even, itertools.count()) =>
  0

itertools.dropwhile(predicate, iter) supprime des éléments tant que le prédicat renvoie vrai puis renvoie le reste des éléments de l'itérable.

itertools.dropwhile(less_than_10, itertools.count()) =>
  10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, ...

itertools.dropwhile(is_even, itertools.count()) =>
  1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, ...

itertools.compress(data, selectors) prend un itérateur data et un itérateur selectors et renvoie les éléments de data pour lesquels l'élément correspondant de selectors est évalué à vrai. L'itération s'arrête lorsque l'un des deux itérateurs est épuisé :

itertools.compress([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], [True, True, False, False, True]) =>
   1, 2, 5

Fonctions combinatoires

itertools.combinations(iterable, r) renvoie un itérateur qui produit toutes les combinaisons possibles de r-uplets des éléments de iterable.

itertools.combinations([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], 2) =>
  (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5),
  (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5),
  (3, 4), (3, 5),
  (4, 5)

itertools.combinations([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], 3) =>
  (1, 2, 3), (1, 2, 4), (1, 2, 5), (1, 3, 4), (1, 3, 5), (1, 4, 5),
  (2, 3, 4), (2, 3, 5), (2, 4, 5),
  (3, 4, 5)

Les éléments de chaque n-uplet sont ordonnés dans le même ordre que leur apparition dans iterable. Ainsi, dans les exemples ci-dessus, le nombre 1 se trouve toujours avant 2, 3, 4 ou 5. La fonction itertools.permutations(iterable, r=None) supprime la contrainte sur l'ordre et renvoie tous les arrangements possibles de longueur r :

itertools.permutations([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], 2) =>
  (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5),
  (2, 1), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5),
  (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 4), (3, 5),
  (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 5),
  (5, 1), (5, 2), (5, 3), (5, 4)

itertools.permutations([1, 2, 3, 4, 5]) =>
  (1, 2, 3, 4, 5), (1, 2, 3, 5, 4), (1, 2, 4, 3, 5),
  ...
  (5, 4, 3, 2, 1)

Si vous ne spécifiez pas de valeur pour r, la longueur de l'itérable est utilisée par défaut, c'est-à-dire que toutes les permutations de la séquence sont renvoyées.

Notez que ces fonctions génèrent toutes les combinaisons possibles en se basant sur la position des éléments et ne requièrent pas que les éléments de iterable soient uniques :

itertools.permutations('aba', 3) =>
  ('a', 'b', 'a'), ('a', 'a', 'b'), ('b', 'a', 'a'),
  ('b', 'a', 'a'), ('a', 'a', 'b'), ('a', 'b', 'a')

Le triplet ('a', 'a', 'b') apparaît deux fois mais les deux chaînes de caractères 'a' proviennent de deux positions différentes.

La fonction itertools.combinations_with_replacement(iterable, r) assouplit une autre contrainte : les éléments peuvent être répétés au sein du même n-uplet. Il s'agit d'un tirage avec remise : le premier élément sélectionné pour chaque n-uplet est replacé dans la séquence avant le tirage du deuxième.

itertools.combinations_with_replacement([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], 2) =>
  (1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5),
  (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5),
  (3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5),
  (4, 4), (4, 5),
  (5, 5)

Grouper les éléments

La dernière fonction que allons voir, itertools.groupby(iter, key_func=None) est la plus complexe. key_func(elem) est une fonction qui produit une clé pour chaque élément renvoyé par l'itérable. Si vous ne spécifiez pas de fonction key, alors celle-ci est l'identité par défaut (c'est-à-dire que la clé d'un élément est l'élément lui-même).

groupby() rassemble tous éléments consécutifs de l'itérable sous-jacent qui ont la même clé et renvoie un flux de paires contenant la clé et un itérateur produisant la liste des éléments pour cette clé.

city_list = [('Decatur', 'AL'), ('Huntsville', 'AL'), ('Selma', 'AL'),
             ('Anchorage', 'AK'), ('Nome', 'AK'),
             ('Flagstaff', 'AZ'), ('Phoenix', 'AZ'), ('Tucson', 'AZ'),
             ...
            ]

def get_state(city_state):
    return city_state[1]

itertools.groupby(city_list, get_state) =>
  ('AL', iterator-1),
  ('AK', iterator-2),
  ('AZ', iterator-3), ...

where
iterator-1 =>
  ('Decatur', 'AL'), ('Huntsville', 'AL'), ('Selma', 'AL')
iterator-2 =>
  ('Anchorage', 'AK'), ('Nome', 'AK')
iterator-3 =>
  ('Flagstaff', 'AZ'), ('Phoenix', 'AZ'), ('Tucson', 'AZ')

groupby() fait l'hypothèse que le contenu de l'itérable sous-jacent est d'ores et déjà ordonné en fonction de la clé. Notez que les itérateurs générés utilisent également l'itérable sous-jacent. Vous devez donc consommer l'intégralité des résultats du premier itérateur renvoyé (iterator-1 dans l'exemple ci-dessus) avant de récupérer le deuxième itérateur (iterator-2 dans l'exemple ci-dessus) et la clé à laquelle il est associé.

Le module functools

Le module functools contient quelques fonctions d'ordre supérieur. Une fonction d'ordre supérieur prend une ou plusieurs fonctions en entrée et renvoie une nouvelle fonction. L'outil le plus important de ce module est la fonction functools.partial().

En programmant dans un style fonctionnel, il est courant de vouloir construire des variantes de fonctions existantes dont certains paramètres sont prédéfinis. Par exemple, considérons une fonction Python f(a, b, c). Si vous voulez une nouvelle fonction g(b, c) équivalente à f(1, b, c), c'est-à-dire fixer le premier paramètre de f(). La fonction g() est une appelée « application partielle » de f().

Le constructeur de partial() prend en argument (fonction, arg1, arg2, ..., kwarg1=value1, kwarg2=value2, ...). Un appel à l'objet ainsi créé invoque la fonction fonction avec les arguments spécifiés.

Voici un exemple court mais réaliste :

import functools

def log(message, subsystem):
    """Write the contents of 'message' to the specified subsystem."""
    print('%s: %s' % (subsystem, message))
    ...

server_log = functools.partial(log, subsystem='server')
server_log('Unable to open socket')

functools.reduce(func, iter, [initial_value]) applique une opération cumulative à tous les éléments d'un itérable et ne peut donc être appliquée à des itérables infinis. func doit être une fonction qui prend deux éléments et renvoie une seule valeur. functools.reduce() prend les deux premiers éléments A et B renvoyés par l'itérateur et calcule func(A, B). Elle extrait ensuite le troisième élément C et calcule func(func(A, B), C) puis combine ce résultat avec le quatrième élément renvoyé etc. jusqu'à épuisement de l'itérable. Une exception TypeError est levée si l'itérable ne renvoie aucune valeur. La valeur initiale initial_value, si spécifiée, est utilisée comme point de départ et le premier calcul est alors func(inital_value, A).

>>> import operator, functools
>>> functools.reduce(operator.concat, ['A', 'BB', 'C'])
'ABBC'
>>> functools.reduce(operator.concat, [])
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
TypeError: reduce() of empty sequence with no initial value
>>> functools.reduce(operator.mul, [1, 2, 3], 1)
6
>>> functools.reduce(operator.mul, [], 1)
1

Si vous combinez operator.add() avec functools.reduce(), vous allez additionner tous les éléments de l'itérable. Ce cas est suffisamment courant pour qu'il existe une fonction native sum() qui lui est équivalent :

>>> import functools, operator
>>> functools.reduce(operator.add, [1, 2, 3, 4], 0)
10
>>> sum([1, 2, 3, 4])
10
>>> sum([])
0

Cependant, il peut être plus lisible dans de nombreuses situations impliquant functools.reduce() de simplement écrire la boucle for :

import functools
# Instead of:
product = functools.reduce(operator.mul, [1, 2, 3], 1)

# You can write:
product = 1
for i in [1, 2, 3]:
    product *= i

itertools.accumulate(iterable, func=operator.add) est une fonction similaire qui réalise le même calcul mais, plutôt que de renvoyer seulement le résultat final, accumulate() renvoie un itérateur qui génère la séquence de tous les résultats intermédiaires :

itertools.accumulate([1, 2, 3, 4, 5]) =>
  1, 3, 6, 10, 15

itertools.accumulate([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], operator.mul) =>
  1, 2, 6, 24, 120

Le module operator

Le module operator mentionné précédemment contient un ensemble de fonctions reproduisant les opérateurs de Python. Ces fonctions sont souvent utiles en programmation fonctionnelle car elles permettent de ne pas avoir à écrire des fonctions triviales qui ne réalisent qu'une seule opération.

Voici quelques fonctions de ce module :

les opérations mathématiques : add(), sub(), mul(), floordiv(), abs()… ;

les opérations logiques : not_(), truth() ;

les opérations bit à bit : and_(), or_(), invert() ;

les comparaisons : eq(), ne(), lt(), le(), gt(), et ge() ;

l'identification des objets : is_(), is_not().

Veuillez vous référer à la documentation du module operator pour une liste complète.

Expressions lambda et fonctions courtes

Dans un style de programmation fonctionnel, il est courant d'avoir besoin de petites fonctions utilisées comme prédicats ou pour combiner des éléments d'une façon ou d'une autre.

S'il existe une fonction native Python ou une fonction d'un module qui convient, vous n'avez pas besoin de définir de nouvelle fonction :

stripped_lines = [line.strip() for line in lines]
existing_files = filter(os.path.exists, file_list)

Si la fonction dont vous avez besoin n'existe pas, vous devez l'écrire. Une façon d'écrire des fonctions courtes consiste à utiliser les expressions lambda. lambda prend plusieurs paramètres et une expression combinant ces derniers afin de créer une fonction anonyme qui renvoie la valeur de cette expression :

adder = lambda x, y: x+y

print_assign = lambda name, value: name + '=' + str(value)

Une autre façon de faire est de simplement utiliser l'instruction def afin de définir une fonction de la manière habituelle :

def adder(x, y):
    return x + y

def print_assign(name, value):
    return name + '=' + str(value)

La méthode à préférer est une question de style, en général l'auteur évite l'utilisation de lambda.

Une des raisons est que lambda ne peut pas définir toutes les fonctions. Le résultat doit pouvoir se calculer en une seule expression, ce qui signifie qu'il est impossible d'avoir des comparaisons if ... elif ... else à plusieurs branches ou des structures try ... except. Si vous essayez de trop en faire dans une expression lambda, vous finirez avec une expression illisible. Par exemple, pouvez-vous dire du premier coup d’œil ce que fait le code ci-dessous ?

import functools
total = functools.reduce(lambda a, b: (0, a[1] + b[1]), items)[1]

Vous pouvez sûrement comprendre ce que fait ce code mais cela prend du temps de démêler l'expression pour y voir plus clair. Une clause def concise améliore la situation :

import functools
def combine(a, b):
    return 0, a[1] + b[1]

total = functools.reduce(combine, items)[1]

Toutefois l'idéal aurait été de simplement se contenter d'une boucle for :

total = 0
for a, b in items:
    total += b

ou de la fonction native sum() et d'une expression génératrice :

total = sum(b for a, b in items)

Les boucles for sont souvent plus lisibles que la fonction functools.reduce().

Frederik Lundh a suggéré quelques règles pour le réusinage de code impliquant les expressions lambda :

Écrire une fonction lambda.

Écrire un commentaire qui explique ce que fait cette satanée fonction lambda.

Scruter le commentaire pendant quelque temps et réfléchir à un nom qui synthétise son essence.

Réécrire la fonction lambda en une définition def en utilisant ce nom.

Effacer le commentaire.

J'aime beaucoup ces règles, mais vous êtes libre de ne pas être d'accord et de préférer un style avec des lambdas.

Historique des modifications et remerciements

L'auteur souhaiterait remercier les personnes suivantes pour leurs suggestions, leurs corrections et leur aide sur les premières versions de cet article : Ian Bicking, Nick Coghlan, Nick Efford, Raymond Hettinger, Jim Jewett, Mike Krell, Leandro Lameiro, Jussi Salmela, Collin Winter, Blake Winton.

Version 0.1 : publiée le 30 juin 2006.

Version 0.11 : publiée le 1er juillet 2006. Correction orthographique.

Version 0.2 : publiée le 10 juillet 2006. Fusion des sections genexp et listcomp. Correction orthographique.

Version 0.21 : ajout de plusieurs références suggérées sur la liste de diffusion tutor.

Version 0.30 : ajout d'une section sur le module functional écrite par Collin Winter ; ajout d'une courte section sur le module operator ; quelques autres modifications.

Références

Général

Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs par Harold Abelson et Gerald Jay Sussman avec Julie Sussman. Disponible à l'adresse https://mitpress.mit.edu/sicp. Les chapitres 2 et 3 de ce classique en informatique décrivent l'utilisation des séquences et des flux pour organiser le flot de données dans un programme. Les exemples du livre utilisent le langage Scheme mais la plupart des approches décrites dans ces chapitres s'appliquent au style fonctionnel de Python.

https://defmacro.org/2006/06/19/fp.html : une présentation générale de la programmation fonctionnelle avec une longue introduction historique et des exemples en Java.

https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmation_fonctionnelle : l'entrée Wikipédia qui décrit la programmation fonctionnelle.

https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coroutine : l'entrée pour les coroutines.

https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curryfication : l'entrée pour le concept de curryfication (application partielle de fonctions).

https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curryfication : l'entrée pour le concept de curryfication (création d'applications partielles).

Spécifique à Python

https://gnosis.cx/TPiP/ : le premier chapitre du livre de David Mertz Text Processing in Python présente l'utilisation de la programmation fonctionnelle pour le traitement de texte dans la section « Utilisation des fonctions d'ordre supérieur pour le traitement de texte ».

Mertz a également écrit une série de 3 articles (en anglais) sur la programmation fonctionnelle pour le site DeveloperWorks d'IBM. Voir partie 1 [https://developer.ibm.com/articles/l-prog/], partie 2 [https://developer.ibm.com/tutorials/l-prog2/] et partie 3 [https://developer.ibm.com/tutorials/l-prog3/],

Documentation Python

Documentation du module itertools.

Documentation du module functools.

Documentation du module operator.

PEP 289 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0289/]: "Generator Expressions"

PEP 342 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0342/]: "Coroutines via Enhanced Generators" décrit les nouvelles fonctionnalités des générateurs en Python 2.5.

Tutoriel sur la journalisation

Auteur:

Vinay Sajip <vinay_sajip at red-dove dot com>

This page contains tutorial information. For links to reference information and a logging cookbook, please see Autres ressources.

Les bases de l'utilisation du module logging

La journalisation (logging en anglais) est une façon de suivre les événements qui ont lieu durant le fonctionnement d'un logiciel. Le développeur du logiciel ajoute des appels à l'outil de journalisation dans son code pour indiquer que certains événements ont eu lieu. Un événement est décrit par un message descriptif, qui peut éventuellement contenir des données variables (c'est-à-dire qui peuvent être différentes pour chaque occurrence de l'événement). Un événement a aussi une importance que le développeur lui attribue ; cette importance peut aussi être appelée niveau ou sévérité.

Quand utiliser logging

You can access logging functionality by creating a logger via logger = logging.getLogger(__name__), and then calling the logger's debug(), info(), warning(), error() and critical() methods. To determine when to use logging, and to see which logger methods to use when, see the table below. It states, for each of a set of common tasks, the best tool to use for that task.

Tâche que vous souhaitez mener

Le meilleur outil pour cette tâche

Affiche la sortie console d'un script en ligne de commande ou d'un programme lors de son utilisation ordinaire

print()

Rapporter des évènements qui ont lieu au cours du fonctionnement normal d'un programme (par exemple pour suivre un statut ou examiner des dysfonctionnements)

A logger's info() (or debug() method for very detailed output for diagnostic purposes)

Émettre un avertissement (warning en anglais) en relation avec un évènement particulier au cours du fonctionnement d’un programme

warnings.warn() dans le code de la bibliothèque si le problème est évitable et l'application cliente doit être modifiée pour éliminer cet avertissement

A logger's warning() method if there is nothing the client application can do about the situation, but the event should still be noted

Rapporter une erreur lors d'un évènement particulier en cours d'exécution

Lever une exception

Rapporter la suppression d'une erreur sans lever d'exception (par exemple pour la gestion d'erreur d'un processus de long terme sur un serveur)

A logger's error(), exception() or critical() method as appropriate for the specific error and application domain

The logger methods are named after the level or severity of the events they are used to track. The standard levels and their applicability are described below (in increasing order of severity):

Niveau

Quand il est utilisé

DEBUG

Information détaillée, intéressante seulement lorsqu'on diagnostique un problème.

INFO

Confirmation que tout fonctionne comme prévu.

WARNING

L'indication que quelque chose d'inattendu a eu lieu, ou de la possibilité d'un problème dans un futur proche (par exemple « espace disque faible »). Le logiciel fonctionne encore normalement.

ERROR

Du fait d'un problème plus sérieux, le logiciel n'a pas été capable de réaliser une tâche.

CRITICAL

Une erreur sérieuse, indiquant que le programme lui-même pourrait être incapable de continuer à fonctionner.

The default level is WARNING, which means that only events of this severity and higher will be tracked, unless the logging package is configured to do otherwise.

Les évènements suivis peuvent être gérés de différentes façons. La manière la plus simple est de les afficher dans la console. Une autre méthode commune est de les écrire dans un fichier.

Un exemple simple

Un exemple très simple est :

import logging
logging.warning('Watch out!')  # will print a message to the console
logging.info('I told you so')  # will not print anything

Si vous entrez ces lignes dans un script que vous exécutez, vous verrez :

WARNING:root:Watch out!

printed out on the console. The INFO message doesn't appear because the default level is WARNING. The printed message includes the indication of the level and the description of the event provided in the logging call, i.e. 'Watch out!'. The actual output can be formatted quite flexibly if you need that; formatting options will also be explained later.

Notice that in this example, we use functions directly on the logging module, like logging.debug, rather than creating a logger and calling functions on it. These functions operate on the root logger, but can be useful as they will call basicConfig() for you if it has not been called yet, like in this example. In larger programs you'll usually want to control the logging configuration explicitly however - so for that reason as well as others, it's better to create loggers and call their methods.

Enregistrer les évènements dans un fichier

Il est très commun d'enregistrer les évènements dans un fichier, c'est donc ce que nous allons regarder maintenant. Il faut essayer ce qui suit avec un interpréteur Python nouvellement démarré, ne poursuivez pas la session commencée ci-dessus :

import logging
logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
logging.basicConfig(filename='example.log', encoding='utf-8', level=logging.DEBUG)
logger.debug('This message should go to the log file')
logger.info('So should this')
logger.warning('And this, too')
logger.error('And non-ASCII stuff, too, like Øresund and Malmö')

Modifié dans la version 3.9: L'argument encoding a été rajouté. Dans les versions précédentes de Python, ou si non spécifié, l'encodage utilisé est la valeur par défaut utilisée par open(). Bien que non montré dans l'exemple ci-dessus, un argument errors peut aussi être passé, qui détermine comment les erreurs d'encodage sont gérées. Pour voir les valeurs disponibles et par défaut, consultez la documentation de open().

Maintenant, si nous ouvrons le fichier et lisons ce qui s'y trouve, nous trouvons les messages de journalisation :

DEBUG:__main__:This message should go to the log file
INFO:__main__:So should this
WARNING:__main__:And this, too
ERROR:__main__:And non-ASCII stuff, too, like Øresund and Malmö

Cet exemple montre aussi comment on peut régler le niveau de journalisation qui sert de seuil pour le suivi. Dans ce cas, comme nous avons réglé le seuil à DEBUG, tous les messages ont été écrits.

Si vous souhaitez régler le niveau de journalisation à partir d'une option de la ligne de commande comme :

--log=INFO

et que vous passez ensuite la valeur du paramètre donné à l'option --log dans une variable loglevel, vous pouvez utiliser :

getattr(logging, loglevel.upper())

de manière à obtenir la valeur à passer à basicConfig() à travers l'argument level. Vous pouvez vérifier que l'utilisateur n'a fait aucune erreur pour la valeur de ce paramètre, comme dans l'exemple ci-dessous :

# assuming loglevel is bound to the string value obtained from the
# command line argument. Convert to upper case to allow the user to
# specify --log=DEBUG or --log=debug
numeric_level = getattr(logging, loglevel.upper(), None)
if not isinstance(numeric_level, int):
    raise ValueError('Invalid log level: %s' % loglevel)
logging.basicConfig(level=numeric_level, ...)

The call to basicConfig() should come before any calls to a logger's methods such as debug(), info(), etc. Otherwise, that logging event may not be handled in the desired manner.

Si vous exécutez le script plusieurs fois, les messages des exécutions successives sont ajoutés au fichier example.log. Si vous voulez que chaque exécution reprenne un fichier vierge, sans conserver les messages des exécutions précédentes, vous pouvez spécifier l'argument filemode, en changeant l'appel à l'exemple précédent par :

logging.basicConfig(filename='example.log', filemode='w', level=logging.DEBUG)

La sortie est identique à la précédente, mais le texte n'est plus ajouté au fichier de log, donc les messages des exécutions précédentes sont perdus.

Journalisation de données variables

Pour enregistrer des données variables, utilisez une chaîne formatée dans le message de description de l'évènement et ajoutez les données variables comme argument. Par exemple :

import logging
logging.warning('%s before you %s', 'Look', 'leap!')

affiche :

WARNING:root:Look before you leap!

Comme vous pouvez le voir, l'inclusion des données variables dans le message de description de l'évènement emploie le vieux style de formatage avec %. C'est pour assurer la rétrocompatibilité : le module logging est antérieur aux nouvelles options de formatage comme str.format() ou string.Template. Ces nouvelles options de formatage sont gérées, mais leur exploration sort du cadre de ce tutoriel, voyez Using particular formatting styles throughout your application pour plus d'information.

Modifier le format du message affiché

Pour changer le format utilisé pour afficher le message, vous devez préciser le format que vous souhaitez employer :

import logging
logging.basicConfig(format='%(levelname)s:%(message)s', level=logging.DEBUG)
logging.debug('This message should appear on the console')
logging.info('So should this')
logging.warning('And this, too')

ce qui affiche :

DEBUG:This message should appear on the console
INFO:So should this
WARNING:And this, too

Notez que le root qui apparaissait dans les exemples précédents a disparu. Pour voir l'ensemble des éléments qui peuvent apparaître dans la chaîne de format, référez-vous à la documentation pour LogRecord attributes. Pour une utilisation simple, vous avez seulement besoin du levelname (la sévérité), du message (la description de l'évènement, avec les données variables) et peut-être du moment auquel l'évènement a eu lieu. Nous décrivons ces points dans la prochaine section.

Afficher l'horodatage dans les messages

Pour afficher la date ou le temps d'un évènement, ajoutez '%(asctime)' dans votre chaîne de formatage :

import logging
logging.basicConfig(format='%(asctime)s %(message)s')
logging.warning('is when this event was logged.')

ce qui affichera quelque chose comme :

2010-12-12 11:41:42,612 is when this event was logged.

Le format par défaut de l'horodatage (comme ci-dessus) est donné par la norme ISO8601 ou RFC 3339 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3339.html]. Pour plus de contrôle sur le formatage de l'horodatage, vous pouvez fournir à basicConfig un argument datefmt, comme dans l'exemple suivant :

import logging
logging.basicConfig(format='%(asctime)s %(message)s', datefmt='%m/%d/%Y %I:%M:%S %p')
logging.warning('is when this event was logged.')

ce qui affichera quelque chose comme :

12/12/2010 11:46:36 AM is when this event was logged.

Le format de datefmt est le même que celui de time.strftime().

Étapes suivantes

Nous concluons ainsi le tutoriel basique. Il devrait suffire à vous mettre le pied à l'étrier pour utiliser logging. Le module logging a beaucoup d'autre cordes à son arc, mais pour en profiter au maximum, vous devez prendre le temps de lire les sections suivantes. Si vous êtes prêt, servez-vous votre boisson préférée et poursuivons.

If your logging needs are simple, then use the above examples to incorporate logging into your own scripts, and if you run into problems or don't understand something, please post a question in the Help category of the Python discussion forum [https://discuss.python.org/c/help/7] and you should receive help before too long.

Vous êtes encore là ? Vous pouvez lire les prochaines sections, qui donnent un peu plus de détails que l'introduction ci-dessus. Après ça, vous pouvez jeter un œil à Recettes pour la journalisation.

Usage avancé de Logging

La bibliothèque de journalisation adopte une approche modulaire et offre différentes catégories de composants : loggers, handlers, filters et formatters.

Les enregistreurs (loggers en anglais) exposent l'interface que le code de l'application utilise directement.

Les gestionnaires (handlers) envoient les entrées de journal (créés par les loggers) vers les destinations voulues.

Les filtres (filters) fournissent un moyen de choisir finement quelles entrées de journal doivent être sorties.

Les formateurs (formatters) spécifient la structure de l'entrée de journal dans la sortie finale.

L'information relative à un événement est passée entre loggers, handlers et formatters dans une instance de la classe LogRecord.

La journalisation est réalisée en appelant les méthodes d'instance de la classe Logger (que l'on appelle ci-dessous loggers). Chaque instance a un nom et les instances sont organisées conceptuellement comme des hiérarchies dans l'espace de nommage, en utilisant un point comme séparateur. Par exemple, un logger appelé scan est le parent des loggers scan.text, scan.html et scan.pdf. Les noms des loggers peuvent être ce que vous voulez et indiquent le sous-domaine d'une application depuis lequel le message enregistré a été émis.

Une bonne convention lorsqu'on nomme les loggers est d'utiliser un logger au niveau du module, dans chaque module qui emploie logging, nommé de la façon suivante :

logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

Cela signifie que le nom d'un logger se rapporte à la hiérarchie du paquet et des modules, et il est évident de voir où un événement a été enregistré simplement en regardant le nom du logger.

La racine de la hiérarchie des enregistreurs est appelée le root logger. C'est l'enregistreur utilisé par les fonctions debug(), info(), warning(), error() et critical(), qui appelle en fait les méthodes du même nom de l'objet root logger. Les fonctions et les méthodes ont la même signature. Le nom de l'enregistreur racine est affiché comme « 'root' » dans la sortie.

Il est bien sûr possible d'enregistrer des messages pour des destinations différentes. Ce paquet permet d'écrire des entrées de journal dans des fichiers, des ressources HTTP GET/POST, par courriel via SMTP, des connecteurs (socket en anglais) génériques, des files d'attente, ou des mécanismes d'enregistrement spécifiques au système d'exploitation, comme syslog ou le journal d'événements de Windows NT. Les destinations sont servies par des classes handler. Vous pouvez créer votre propre classe de destination si vous avez des besoins spéciaux qui ne sont couverts par aucune classe handler prédéfinie.

Par défaut, aucune destination n'est prédéfinie pour les messages de journalisation. Vous pouvez définir une destination (comme la console ou un fichier) en utilisant basicConfig() comme dans les exemples donnés dans le tutoriel. Si vous appelez les fonctions debug(), info(), warning(), error() et critical(), celles-ci vérifient si une destination a été définie ; si ce n'est pas le cas, la destination est assignée à la console (sys.stderr) avec un format par défaut pour le message affiché, avant d'être déléguée au logger racine, qui sort le message.

Le format par défaut des messages est défini par basicConfig() comme suit :

severity:logger name:message

Vous pouvez modifier ce comportement en passant une chaîne de formatage à basicConfig() par l'argument nommé format. Consultez Formateurs pour toutes les options de construction de cette chaîne de formatage.

Flux du processus de journalisation

Le flux des informations associées à un évènement dans les loggers et les handlers est illustré dans le diagramme suivant.

Loggers

Les objets de classe Logger ont un rôle triple. Premièrement, ils exposent plusieurs méthodes au code de l'application, de manière à ce qu'elle puisse enregistrer des messages en cours d'exécution. Deuxièmement, les objets logger déterminent sur quel message agir selon leur sévérité (à partir des filtres par défaut) ou selon les objets filter associés. Troisièmement, les objets logger transmettent les messages pertinents à tous les handlers concernés.

Les méthodes des objets logger les plus utilisées appartiennent à deux catégories : la configuration et l'envoi de messages.

Voici les méthodes de configuration les plus communes :

Logger.setLevel() spécifie le plus bas niveau de sévérité qu'un logger traitera. Ainsi, DEBUG est le niveau de sévérité défini par défaut le plus bas et CRITICAL est le plus haut. Par exemple, si le niveau de sévérité est INFO, le logger ne traite que les messages de niveau INFO, WARNING, ERROR et CRITICAL ; il ignore les messages de niveau DEBUG.

Logger.addHandler() et Logger.removeHandler() ajoutent ou enlèvent des objets handlers au logger. Les objets handlers sont expliqués plus en détail dans Handlers.

Logger.addFilter() et Logger.removeFilter() ajoutent ou enlèvent des objets filter au logger. Les objets filters sont expliqués plus en détail dans Filtres.

Comme nous l'expliquons aux deux derniers paragraphes de cette section, vous n'avez pas besoin de faire appel à ces méthodes à chaque fois que vous créez un logger.

Une fois que l'objet logger est correctement configuré, les méthodes suivantes permettent de créer un message :

Les méthodes Logger.debug(), Logger.info(), Logger.warning(), Logger.error() et Logger.critical() créent des entrées de journal avec un message et un niveau correspondant à leur nom. Le message est en fait une chaîne de caractères qui peut contenir la syntaxe standard de substitution de chaînes de caractères : %s, %d, %f, etc. L'argument suivant est une liste des objets correspondant aux champs à substituer dans le message. En ce qui concerne **kwargs, les méthodes de logging ne tiennent compte que du mot clef exc_info et l'utilisent pour déterminer s'il faut enregistrer les informations associées à une exception.

Logger.exception() crée un message similaire à Logger.error(). La différence est que Logger.exception() ajoute la trace de la pile d'exécution au message. On ne peut appeler cette méthode qu'à l'intérieur d'un bloc de gestion d'exception.

Logger.log() prend le niveau de sévérité comme argument explicite. C'est un peu plus verbeux pour enregistrer des messages que d'utiliser les méthodes plus pratiques décrites si dessus, mais c'est ce qui permet d'enregistrer des messages pour des niveaux de sévérité définis par l'utilisateur.

getLogger() renvoie une référence à un objet logger du nom spécifié si celui-ci est donné en argument. Dans le cas contraire, c'est l'enregistreur racine. Les noms sont des structures hiérarchiques séparées par des points. Des appels répétés à getLogger() avec le même nom renvoient une référence au même objet logger. Les loggers qui sont plus bas dans cette liste hiérarchique sont des enfants des loggers plus haut dans la liste. Par exemple, si un enregistreur a le nom foo, les enregistreurs avec les noms foo.bar, foo.bar.baz et foo.bam sont tous des descendants de foo.

On associe aux loggers un concept de niveau effectif. Si aucun niveau n'est explicitement défini pour un logger, c'est le niveau du parent qui est utilisé comme niveau effectif. Si le parent n'a pas de niveau défini, c'est celui de son parent qui est considéré, et ainsi de suite ; on examine tous les ancêtres jusqu'à ce qu'un niveau explicite soit trouvé. Le logger root a toujours un niveau explicite (WARNING par défaut). Quand le logger traite un événement, c'est ce niveau effectif qui est utilisé pour déterminer si cet événement est transmis à ses handlers.

Les loggers fils font remonter leurs messages aux handlers associés à leurs loggers parents. De ce fait, il n'est pas nécessaire de définir et configurer des handlers pour tous les loggers employés par une application. Il suffit de configurer les handlers pour un logger de haut niveau et de créer des loggers fils quand c'est nécessaire (on peut cependant empêcher la propagation aux ancêtres des messages en donnant la valeur False à l'attribut propagate d'un logger).

Handlers

Les objets de type Handler sont responsables de la distribution des messages (selon leur niveau de sévérité) vers les destinations spécifiées pour ce handler. Les objets Logger peuvent ajouter des objets handler à eux-mêmes en appelant addHandler(). Pour donner un exemple, une application peut envoyer tous les messages dans un fichier journal, tous les messages de niveau ERROR ou supérieur vers la sortie standard, et tous les messages de niveau CRITICAL vers une adresse de courriel. Dans ce scénario, nous avons besoin de trois handlers, responsable chacun d'envoyer des messages d'une sévérité donnée vers une destination donnée.

La bibliothèque standard inclut déjà un bon nombre de types de gestionnaires (voir Gestionnaires utiles) ; le tutoriel utilise surtout StreamHandler et FileHandler dans ses exemples.

Peu de méthodes des objets handlers sont intéressantes pour les développeurs. Les seules méthodes intéressantes lorsqu'on utilise les objets handlers natifs (c'est-à-dire si l'on ne crée pas de handler personnalisé) sont les méthodes de configuration suivantes :

The setLevel() method, just as in logger objects, specifies the lowest severity that will be dispatched to the appropriate destination. Why are there two setLevel() methods? The level set in the logger determines which severity of messages it will pass to its handlers. The level set in each handler determines which messages that handler will send on.

setFormatter() sélectionne l'objet Formatter utilisé par ce handler.

addFilter() et removeFilter() configurent et respectivement dé-configurent des objets filter sur les handlers.

Le code d'une application ne devrait ni instancier, ni utiliser d'instances de la classe Handler. La classe Handler est plutôt une classe mère qui définit l'interface que tous les gestionnaires doivent avoir et établit les comportements par défaut que les classes filles peuvent employer (ou redéfinir).

Formatters

Les objets formatter configurent l'ordre final, la structure et le contenu du message. Contrairement à la classe mère logging.Handler, le code d'une application peut instancier un objet de classe formatter, même si vous pouvez toujours sous-classer formatter si vous avez besoin d'un comportement spécial dans votre application. Le constructeur a trois arguments optionnels : une chaîne de formatage du message, une chaîne de formatage de la date et un indicateur de style.

logging.Formatter.__init__(fmt=None, datefmt=None, style='%')

S'il n'y a pas de chaîne de formatage, la chaîne brute est utilisée par défaut. S'il n'y a pas de chaîne de formatage de date, le format de date par défaut est :

%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S

avec les millisecondes ajoutées à la fin. style est l'un des suivants : '%', '{', ou '$'. Si l'un de ces styles n'est pas spécifié, alors '%' sera utilisé.

Si l'argument style est '%', la chaîne de formatage utilise %(<clef de dictionnaire>)s comme style de substitution de chaîne de caractères. Les clefs possibles sont documentées dans LogRecord attributes. Si le style est '{', le message de la chaîne de formatage est compatible avec str.format() (en employant des arguments nommés). Enfin si le style est '$' alors la chaîne de formatage du message doit être conforme à ce qui est attendu de string.Template.substitute().

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Ajout du paramètre style.

La chaîne de formatage de message suivante enregistrera le temps dans un format lisible par les humains, la sévérité du message et son contenu, dans cet ordre :

'%(asctime)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s'

Les formatters emploient une fonction configurable par l'utilisateur pour convertir le temps de création d'une entrée de journal en un n-uplet. Par défaut, time.localtime() est employé ; pour changer cela pour une instance particulière de formatter, assignez une fonction avec la même signature que time.localtime() ou time.gmtime() à l'attribut converter de cette instance. Pour changer cela pour tous les formatters, par exemple si vous voulez que tous votre horodatage soit affiché en GMT, changez l'attribut converter de la classe Formatter en time.gmtime.

Configuration de logging

On peut configurer logging de trois façons :

Créer des loggers, handlers et formatters explicitement en utilisant du code Python qui appelle les méthodes de configuration listées ci-dessus.

Créer un fichier de configuration de logging et le lire en employant la fonction fileConfig().

Créer un dictionnaire d'informations de configuration et le passer à la fonction dictConfig().

Pour la documentation de référence de ces deux dernières options, voyez Configuration functions. L'exemple suivant configure un logger très simple, un handler employant la console, et un formatter simple en utilisant du code Python :

import logging

# create logger
logger = logging.getLogger('simple_example')
logger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)

# create console handler and set level to debug
ch = logging.StreamHandler()
ch.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)

# create formatter
formatter = logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s - %(name)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s')

# add formatter to ch
ch.setFormatter(formatter)

# add ch to logger
logger.addHandler(ch)

# 'application' code
logger.debug('debug message')
logger.info('info message')
logger.warning('warn message')
logger.error('error message')
logger.critical('critical message')

L'exécution de ce module via la ligne de commande produit la sortie suivante :

$ python simple_logging_module.py
2005-03-19 15:10:26,618 - simple_example - DEBUG - debug message
2005-03-19 15:10:26,620 - simple_example - INFO - info message
2005-03-19 15:10:26,695 - simple_example - WARNING - warn message
2005-03-19 15:10:26,697 - simple_example - ERROR - error message
2005-03-19 15:10:26,773 - simple_example - CRITICAL - critical message

Le module Python suivant crée un logger, un handler et un formatter identiques à ceux de l'exemple détaillé au-dessus, au nom des objets près :

import logging
import logging.config

logging.config.fileConfig('logging.conf')

# create logger
logger = logging.getLogger('simpleExample')

# 'application' code
logger.debug('debug message')
logger.info('info message')
logger.warning('warn message')
logger.error('error message')
logger.critical('critical message')

Voici le fichier logging.conf :

[loggers]
keys=root,simpleExample

[handlers]
keys=consoleHandler

[formatters]
keys=simpleFormatter

[logger_root]
level=DEBUG
handlers=consoleHandler

[logger_simpleExample]
level=DEBUG
handlers=consoleHandler
qualname=simpleExample
propagate=0

[handler_consoleHandler]
class=StreamHandler
level=DEBUG
formatter=simpleFormatter
args=(sys.stdout,)

[formatter_simpleFormatter]
format=%(asctime)s - %(name)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s

La sortie est presque identique à celle de l'exemple qui n'est pas basé sur un fichier de configuration :

$ python simple_logging_config.py
2005-03-19 15:38:55,977 - simpleExample - DEBUG - debug message
2005-03-19 15:38:55,979 - simpleExample - INFO - info message
2005-03-19 15:38:56,054 - simpleExample - WARNING - warn message
2005-03-19 15:38:56,055 - simpleExample - ERROR - error message
2005-03-19 15:38:56,130 - simpleExample - CRITICAL - critical message

Vous pouvez constater les avantages de l'approche par fichier de configuration par rapport à celle du code Python, principalement la séparation de la configuration et du code, et la possibilité pour une personne qui ne code pas de modifier facilement les propriétés de journalisation.

Avertissement

La fonction fileConfig() accepte un paramètre par défaut disable_existing_loggers, qui vaut True par défaut pour des raisons de compatibilité ascendante. Ce n'est pas forcément ce que vous souhaitez : en effet, tous les loggers créés avant l'appel à fileConfig() seront désactivés sauf si eux-mêmes (ou l'un de leurs parents) sont explicitement nommés dans le fichier de configuration. Veuillez vous reporter à la documentation pour plus de détails, et donner la valeur False à ce paramètre si vous le souhaitez.

Le dictionnaire passé à dictConfig() peut aussi spécifier une valeur Booléenne pour la clef disable_existing_loggers. Si cette valeur n'est pas donnée, elle est interprétée comme vraie par défaut. Cela conduit au comportement de désactivation des loggers décrit ci-dessus, qui n'est pas forcément celui que vous souhaitez ; dans ce cas, donnez explicitement la valeur False à cette clef.

Notez que les noms de classe référencés dans le fichier de configuration doivent être relatifs au module logging, ou des valeurs absolues qui peuvent être résolues à travers les mécanismes d'importation habituels. Ainsi, on peut soit utiliser WatchedFileHandler (relativement au module logging) ou mypackage.mymodule.MyHandler (pour une classe définie dans le paquet mypackage et le module mymodule, si mypackage est disponible dans les chemins d'importation de Python).

Dans Python 3.2, un nouveau moyen de configuration de la journalisation a été introduit, à l'aide de dictionnaires pour contenir les informations de configuration. Cela fournit un sur-ensemble de la fonctionnalité décrite ci-dessus basée sur un fichier de configuration et c’est la méthode recommandée pour les nouvelles applications et les déploiements. Étant donné qu'un dictionnaire Python est utilisé pour contenir des informations de configuration et que vous pouvez remplir ce dictionnaire à l'aide de différents moyens, vous avez plus d'options pour la configuration. Par exemple, vous pouvez utiliser un fichier de configuration au format JSON ou, si vous avez accès à la fonctionnalité de traitement YAML, un fichier au format YAML, pour remplir le dictionnaire de configuration. Ou bien sûr, vous pouvez construire le dictionnaire dans le code Python, le recevoir sous forme de pickle sur un connecteur, ou utiliser n'importe quelle approche suivant la logique de votre application.

Voici un exemple définissant la même configuration que ci-dessus, au format YAML pour le dictionnaire correspondant à cette nouvelle approche :

version: 1
formatters:
  simple:
    format: '%(asctime)s - %(name)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s'
handlers:
  console:
    class: logging.StreamHandler
    level: DEBUG
    formatter: simple
    stream: ext://sys.stdout
loggers:
  simpleExample:
    level: DEBUG
    handlers: [console]
    propagate: no
root:
  level: DEBUG
  handlers: [console]

Pour plus d'informations sur la journalisation à l'aide d'un dictionnaire, consultez Configuration functions.

Comportement par défaut (si aucune configuration n'est fournie)

If no logging configuration is provided, it is possible to have a situation where a logging event needs to be output, but no handlers can be found to output the event.

The event is output using a 'handler of last resort', stored in lastResort. This internal handler is not associated with any logger, and acts like a StreamHandler which writes the event description message to the current value of sys.stderr (therefore respecting any redirections which may be in effect). No formatting is done on the message - just the bare event description message is printed. The handler's level is set to WARNING, so all events at this and greater severities will be output.

Modifié dans la version 3.2: Pour les versions de Python antérieures à 3.2, le comportement est le suivant :

If raiseExceptions is False (production mode), the event is silently dropped.

If raiseExceptions is True (development mode), a message 'No handlers could be found for logger X.Y.Z' is printed once.

To obtain the pre-3.2 behaviour, lastResort can be set to None.

Configuration de la journalisation pour une bibliothèque

Lors du développement d'une bibliothèque qui utilise la journalisation, vous devez prendre soin de documenter la façon dont la bibliothèque utilise la journalisation (par exemple, les noms des enregistreurs utilisés). Consacrez aussi un peu de temps à la configuration de la journalisation. Si l'application utilisant votre bibliothèque n'utilise pas la journalisation et que le code de la bibliothèque effectue des appels de journalisation, alors (comme décrit dans la section précédente), les événements de gravité WARNING et au-dessus seront écrits sur sys.stderr. Cela est considéré comme le meilleur comportement par défaut.

Si, pour une raison quelconque, vous ne voulez pas que ces messages soient affichés en l'absence de toute configuration de journalisation, vous pouvez attacher un gestionnaire ne-fait-rien à l'enregistreur de niveau supérieur de votre bibliothèque. Cela évite qu’un message ne soit écrit, puisqu’un gestionnaire sera toujours trouvé pour les événements de la bibliothèque, il ne produit tout simplement pas de sortie. Si celui qui utilise la bibliothèque configure la journalisation pour son application, il est vraisemblable que la configuration ajoutera certains gestionnaires et, si les niveaux sont convenablement configurés, alors la journalisation des appels effectués dans le code de bibliothèque enverra la sortie à ces gestionnaires, comme d'habitude.

Un gestionnaire ne-fait-rien est inclus dans le paquet de journalisation : NullHandler (depuis Python 3.1). Une instance de ce gestionnaire peut être ajoutée à l'enregistreur de niveau supérieur de l'espace de nommage de journalisation utilisé par la bibliothèque (si vous souhaitez empêcher la copie de la journalisation de votre bibliothèque dans sys.stderr en l'absence de configuration de journalisation). Si toute la journalisation par une bibliothèque foo est effectuée en utilisant des enregistreurs avec des noms correspondant à foo.x, foo.x.y, etc., alors le code :

import logging
logging.getLogger('foo').addHandler(logging.NullHandler())

doit avoir l'effet désiré. Si une organisation produit un certain nombre de bibliothèques, le nom de l'enregistreur spécifié peut être orgname.foo plutôt que simplement foo.

Note

Il est fortement conseillé de ne pas journaliser vers l'enregistreur racine dans votre bibliothèque. À la place, utilisez un enregistreur avec un nom unique et facilement identifiable, tel que __name__ pour le paquet ou le module de niveau supérieur de votre bibliothèque. La journalisation dans l'enregistreur racine rend difficile voire impossible pour le développeur de l'application de configurer la verbosité de journalisation ou les gestionnaires de votre bibliothèque comme il le souhaite.

Note

Il est vivement conseillé de ne pas ajouter de gestionnaires autres que NullHandler aux enregistreurs de votre bibliothèque. Cela est dû au fait que la configuration des gestionnaires est la prérogative du développeur d'applications qui utilise votre bibliothèque. Le développeur d'applications connaît le public cible et les gestionnaires les plus appropriés pour ses applications : si vous ajoutez des gestionnaires « sous le manteau », vous pourriez bien interférer avec les tests unitaires et la journalisation qui convient à ses exigences.

Niveaux de journalisation

Les valeurs numériques des niveaux de journalisation sont données dans le tableau suivant. Celles-ci n'ont d'intérêt que si vous voulez définir vos propres niveaux, avec des valeurs spécifiques par rapport aux niveaux prédéfinis. Si vous définissez un niveau avec la même valeur numérique, il écrase la valeur prédéfinie ; le nom prédéfini est perdu.

Niveau

Valeur numérique

CRITICAL

50

ERROR

40

WARNING

30

INFO

20

DEBUG

10

NOTSET

0

Les niveaux peuvent également être associés à des enregistreurs, étant définis soit par le développeur, soit par le chargement d'une configuration de journalisation enregistrée. Lorsqu'une méthode de journalisation est appelée sur un enregistreur, l'enregistreur compare son propre niveau avec le niveau associé à l'appel de méthode. Si le niveau de l'enregistreur est supérieur à l'appel de méthode, aucun message de journalisation n'est réellement généré. C'est le mécanisme de base contrôlant la verbosité de la sortie de journalisation.

Les messages de journalisation sont codés en tant qu'instances de LogRecord. Lorsqu'un enregistreur décide de réellement enregistrer un événement, une instance de LogRecord est créée à partir du message de journalisation.

Les messages de journalisation sont soumis à un mécanisme d'expédition via l'utilisation de handlers, qui sont des instances de sous-classes de la classe Handler. Les gestionnaires sont chargés de s'assurer qu'un message journalisé (sous la forme d'un LogRecord) atterrit dans un emplacement particulier (ou un ensemble d'emplacements) qui est utile pour le public cible pour ce message (tels que les utilisateurs finaux, le personnel chargé de l'assistance aux utilisateurs, les administrateurs système ou les développeurs). Des instances de LogRecord adaptées à leur destination finale sont passées aux gestionnaires destinées à des destinations particulières. Chaque enregistreur peut avoir zéro, un ou plusieurs gestionnaires associés à celui-ci (via la méthode addHandler() de Logger). En plus de tous les gestionnaires directement associés à un enregistreur, tous les gestionnaires associés à tous les ancêtres de l'enregistreur sont appelés pour envoyer le message (à moins que l'indicateur propager pour un enregistreur soit défini sur la valeur False, auquel cas le passage au gestionnaire ancêtre s'arrête).

Tout comme pour les enregistreurs, les gestionnaires peuvent avoir des niveaux associés. Le niveau d'un gestionnaire agit comme un filtre de la même manière que le niveau d'un enregistreur. Si un gestionnaire décide de réellement distribuer un événement, la méthode emit() est utilisée pour envoyer le message à sa destination. La plupart des sous-classes définies par l'utilisateur de Handler devront remplacer ce emit().

Niveaux personnalisés

La définition de vos propres niveaux est possible, mais ne devrait pas être nécessaire, car les niveaux existants ont été choisis par expérience. Cependant, si vous êtes convaincu que vous avez besoin de niveaux personnalisés, prenez grand soin à leur réalisation et il est pratiquement certain que c’est une très mauvaise idée de définir des niveaux personnalisés si vous développez une bibliothèque. Car si plusieurs auteurs de bibliothèque définissent tous leurs propres niveaux personnalisés, il y a une chance que la sortie de journalisation de ces multiples bibliothèques utilisées ensemble sera difficile pour le développeur à utiliser pour contrôler et/ou interpréter, car une valeur numérique donnée peut signifier des choses différentes pour différentes bibliothèques.

Gestionnaires utiles

En plus de la classe mère Handler, de nombreuses sous-classes utiles sont fournies :

Les instances StreamHandler envoient des messages aux flux (objets de type fichier).

Les instances FileHandler envoient des messages à des fichiers sur le disque.

BaseRotatingHandler est la classe mère pour les gestionnaires qui assurent la rotation des fichiers de journalisation à partir d’un certain point. Elle n'est pas destinée à être instanciée directement. Utilisez plutôt RotatingFileHandler ou TimedRotatingFileHandler.

Les instances RotatingFileHandler envoient des messages à des fichiers sur le disque, avec la prise en charge des tailles maximales de fichiers de journalisation et de la rotation des fichiers de journalisation.

Les instances de TimedRotatingFileHandler envoient des messages aux fichiers de disque, en permutant le fichier journal à intervalles réguliers.

Les instances de SocketHandler envoient des messages aux connecteurs TCP/IP. Depuis 3.4, les connecteurs UNIX sont également pris en charge.

Les instances de DatagramHandler envoient des messages aux connecteurs UDP. Depuis 3.4, les connecteurs UNIX sont également pris en charge.

Les instances de SMTPHandler envoient des messages à une adresse e-mail désignée.

Les instances de SysLogHandler envoient des messages à un daemon syslog UNIX, éventuellement sur un ordinateur distant.

Les instances de NTEventLogHandler envoient des messages à un journal des événements Windows NT/2000/XP.

Les instances de MemoryHandler envoient des messages à un tampon en mémoire, qui est vidé chaque fois que des critères spécifiques sont remplis.

Les instances de HTTPHandler envoient des messages à un serveur HTTP à l'aide de la sémantique GET ou POST.

Les instances de WatchedFileHandler surveillent le fichier sur lequel elles se connectent. Si le fichier change, il est fermé et rouvert à l'aide du nom de fichier. Ce gestionnaire n'est utile que sur les systèmes de type UNIX ; Windows ne prend pas en charge le mécanisme sous-jacent utilisé.

Les instances de QueueHandler envoient des messages à une file d'attente, telles que celles implémentées dans les modules queue ou multiprocessing.

NullHandler instances do nothing with error messages. They are used by library developers who want to use logging, but want to avoid the 'No handlers could be found for logger XXX' message which can be displayed if the library user has not configured logging. See Configuration de la journalisation pour une bibliothèque for more information.

Ajouté dans la version 3.1: La classe NullHandler.

Ajouté dans la version 3.2: La classe QueueHandler.

Les classes NullHandler, StreamHandler et FileHandler sont définies dans le module de journalisation de base. Les autres gestionnaires sont définis dans un sous-module, logging.handlers (il existe également un autre sous-module, logging.config, pour la fonctionnalité de configuration).

Les messages journalisés sont mis en forme pour la présentation via des instances de la classe Formatter. Ils sont initialisés avec une chaîne de format appropriée pour une utilisation avec l'opérateur % et un dictionnaire.

For formatting multiple messages in a batch, instances of BufferingFormatter can be used. In addition to the format string (which is applied to each message in the batch), there is provision for header and trailer format strings.

Lorsque le filtrage basé sur le niveau de l'enregistreur et/ou le niveau du gestionnaire ne suffit pas, les instances de Filter peuvent être ajoutées aux deux instances de Logger et Handler (par le biais de leur méthode addFilter()). Avant de décider de traiter un message plus loin, les enregistreurs et les gestionnaires consultent tous leurs filtres pour obtenir l'autorisation. Si un filtre renvoie une valeur False, le traitement du message est arrêté.

La fonctionnalité de base Filter permet de filtrer par nom de logger spécifique. Si cette fonctionnalité est utilisée, les messages envoyés à l'enregistreur nommé et à ses enfants sont autorisés via le filtre et tous les autres sont abandonnés.

Exceptions levées par la journalisation

Le paquet de journalisation est conçu pour ne pas faire apparaître les exceptions qui se produisent lors de la journalisation en production. Il s'agit de sorte que les erreurs qui se produisent lors de la gestion des événements de journalisation (telles qu'une mauvaise configuration de la journalisation, une erreur réseau ou d'autres erreurs similaires) ne provoquent pas l'arrêt de l'application utilisant la journalisation.

Les exceptions SystemExit et KeyboardInterrupt ne sont jamais passées sous silence. Les autres exceptions qui se produisent pendant la méthode emit() d'une sous-classe Handler sont passées à sa méthode handleError().

L'implémentation par défaut de handleError() dans la classe Handler vérifie si une variable au niveau du module, raiseExceptions, est définie. Si cette valeur est définie, la trace de la pile d'appels est affichée sur sys.stderr. Si elle n'est pas définie, l'exception est passée sous silence.

Note

La valeur par défaut de raiseExceptions est True. C'est parce que pendant le développement, vous voulez généralement être notifié de toutes les exceptions qui se produisent. Il est conseillé de définir raiseExceptions à False pour une utilisation en production.

Utilisation d'objets arbitraires comme messages

Dans les sections et exemples précédents, il a été supposé que le message passé lors de la journalisation de l'événement est une chaîne. Cependant, ce n'est pas la seule possibilité. Vous pouvez passer un objet arbitraire en tant que message et sa méthode __str__() est appelée lorsque le système de journalisation doit le convertir en une représentation sous forme de chaîne. En fait, si vous le souhaitez, vous pouvez complètement éviter de calculer une représentation sous forme de chaîne. Par exemple, les gestionnaires SocketHandler émettent un événement en lui appliquant pickle et en l'envoyant sur le réseau.

Optimisation

La mise en forme des arguments de message est différée jusqu'à ce qu'elle ne puisse pas être évitée. Toutefois, le calcul des arguments passés à la méthode de journalisation peut également être coûteux et vous voudrez peut-être éviter de le faire si l'enregistreur va simplement jeter votre événement. Pour décider de ce qu'il faut faire, vous pouvez appeler la méthode isEnabledFor() qui prend en argument le niveau et renvoie True si un événement est créé par l'enregistreur pour ce niveau d'appel. Vous pouvez écrire un code qui ressemble à ça :

if logger.isEnabledFor(logging.DEBUG):
    logger.debug('Message with %s, %s', expensive_func1(),
                                        expensive_func2())

so that if the logger's threshold is set above DEBUG, the calls to expensive_func1 and expensive_func2 are never made.

Note

Dans certains cas, isEnabledFor() peut être plus coûteux que vous le souhaitez (par exemple pour les enregistreurs profondément imbriqués où un niveau explicite n'est défini que dans la hiérarchie des enregistreurs). Dans de tels cas (ou si vous souhaitez éviter d'appeler une méthode dans des boucles optimisées), vous pouvez mettre en cache le résultat d'un appel à isEnabledFor() dans une variable locale ou d'instance, et l'utiliser au lieu d'appeler la méthode à chaque fois. Une telle valeur mise en cache ne doit être recalculée que lorsque la configuration de journalisation change dynamiquement pendant l'exécution de l'application (ce qui est rarement le cas).

Il existe d'autres optimisations qui peuvent être faites pour des applications spécifiques qui nécessitent un contrôle plus précis sur les informations de journalisation collectées. Voici une liste de choses que vous pouvez faire pour éviter le traitement pendant la journalisation dont vous n'avez pas besoin :

Ce que vous ne voulez pas collecter

Comment éviter de le collecter

Informations sur l'endroit où les appels ont été faits.

Définissez logging._srcfile à None. Cela évite d'appeler sys._getframe(), qui peut aider à accélérer votre code dans des environnements comme PyPy (qui ne peut pas accélérer le code qui utilise sys._getframe()).

Informations de threading.

Mettez logging.logThreads à False.

Identifiant du processus courant (résultat de os.getpid())

Mettez logging.logProcesses à False.

Nom du processus actuel, si vous vous servez de multiprocessing pour gérer plusieurs processus à la fois

Mettez logging.logMultiProcessing à False.

Current asyncio.Task name when using asyncio.

Set logging.logAsyncioTasks to False.

Notez également que le module de journalisation principale inclut uniquement les gestionnaires de base. Si vous n'importez pas logging.handlers et logging.config, ils ne prendront pas de mémoire.

Autres ressources

Voir aussi

Module logging

Référence d'API pour le module de journalisation.

Module logging.config

API de configuration pour le module de journalisation.

Module logging.handlers

Gestionnaires utiles inclus avec le module de journalisation.

A logging cookbook

Recettes pour la journalisation

Auteur:

Vinay Sajip <vinay_sajip at red-dove dot com>

Cette page contient des recettes relatives à la journalisation qui se sont avérées utiles par le passé. Pour des liens vers le tutoriel et des informations de référence, consultez ces autres ressources.

Journalisation dans plusieurs modules

Deux appels à logging.getLogger('unLogger') renvoient toujours une référence vers le même objet de journalisation. C’est valable à l’intérieur d’un module, mais aussi dans des modules différents pour autant que ce soit le même processus de l’interpréteur Python. En plus, le code d’une application peut définir et configurer une journalisation parente dans un module et créer (mais pas configurer) une journalisation fille dans un module séparé. Les appels à la journalisation fille passeront alors à la journalisation parente. Voici un module principal :

import logging
import auxiliary_module

# create logger with 'spam_application'
logger = logging.getLogger('spam_application')
logger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
# create file handler which logs even debug messages
fh = logging.FileHandler('spam.log')
fh.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
# create console handler with a higher log level
ch = logging.StreamHandler()
ch.setLevel(logging.ERROR)
# create formatter and add it to the handlers
formatter = logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s - %(name)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s')
fh.setFormatter(formatter)
ch.setFormatter(formatter)
# add the handlers to the logger
logger.addHandler(fh)
logger.addHandler(ch)

logger.info('creating an instance of auxiliary_module.Auxiliary')
a = auxiliary_module.Auxiliary()
logger.info('created an instance of auxiliary_module.Auxiliary')
logger.info('calling auxiliary_module.Auxiliary.do_something')
a.do_something()
logger.info('finished auxiliary_module.Auxiliary.do_something')
logger.info('calling auxiliary_module.some_function()')
auxiliary_module.some_function()
logger.info('done with auxiliary_module.some_function()')

Voici un module auxiliaire :

import logging

# create logger
module_logger = logging.getLogger('spam_application.auxiliary')

class Auxiliary:
    def __init__(self):
        self.logger = logging.getLogger('spam_application.auxiliary.Auxiliary')
        self.logger.info('creating an instance of Auxiliary')

    def do_something(self):
        self.logger.info('doing something')
        a = 1 + 1
        self.logger.info('done doing something')

def some_function():
    module_logger.info('received a call to "some_function"')

La sortie ressemble à ceci :

2005-03-23 23:47:11,663 - spam_application - INFO -
   creating an instance of auxiliary_module.Auxiliary
2005-03-23 23:47:11,665 - spam_application.auxiliary.Auxiliary - INFO -
   creating an instance of Auxiliary
2005-03-23 23:47:11,665 - spam_application - INFO -
   created an instance of auxiliary_module.Auxiliary
2005-03-23 23:47:11,668 - spam_application - INFO -
   calling auxiliary_module.Auxiliary.do_something
2005-03-23 23:47:11,668 - spam_application.auxiliary.Auxiliary - INFO -
   doing something
2005-03-23 23:47:11,669 - spam_application.auxiliary.Auxiliary - INFO -
   done doing something
2005-03-23 23:47:11,670 - spam_application - INFO -
   finished auxiliary_module.Auxiliary.do_something
2005-03-23 23:47:11,671 - spam_application - INFO -
   calling auxiliary_module.some_function()
2005-03-23 23:47:11,672 - spam_application.auxiliary - INFO -
   received a call to 'some_function'
2005-03-23 23:47:11,673 - spam_application - INFO -
   done with auxiliary_module.some_function()

Journalisation avec des fils d’exécution multiples

La journalisation avec des fils d’exécution multiples ne requiert pas d’effort particulier. L’exemple suivant montre comment journaliser depuis le fil principal (c.-à-d. initial) et un autre fil :

import logging
import threading
import time

def worker(arg):
    while not arg['stop']:
        logging.debug('Hi from myfunc')
        time.sleep(0.5)

def main():
    logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG, format='%(relativeCreated)6d %(threadName)s %(message)s')
    info = {'stop': False}
    thread = threading.Thread(target=worker, args=(info,))
    thread.start()
    while True:
        try:
            logging.debug('Hello from main')
            time.sleep(0.75)
        except KeyboardInterrupt:
            info['stop'] = True
            break
    thread.join()

if __name__ == '__main__':
    main()

À l’exécution, le script doit afficher quelque chose comme ça :

   0 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
   3 MainThread Hello from main
 505 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
 755 MainThread Hello from main
1007 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
1507 MainThread Hello from main
1508 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
2010 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
2258 MainThread Hello from main
2512 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
3009 MainThread Hello from main
3013 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
3515 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
3761 MainThread Hello from main
4017 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
4513 MainThread Hello from main
4518 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc

Les entrées de journalisation sont entrelacées, comme on pouvait s’y attendre. Cette approche fonctionne aussi avec plus de fils que dans l’exemple, bien sûr.

Plusieurs gestionnaires et formateurs

Les gestionnaires de journalisation sont des objets Python ordinaires. La méthode addHandler() n’est pas limitée, en nombre minimum ou maximum, en gestionnaires que vous pouvez ajouter. Parfois, il peut être utile pour une application de journaliser tous les messages quels que soient leurs niveaux vers un fichier texte, tout en journalisant les erreurs (et plus grave) dans la console. Pour ce faire, configurez simplement les gestionnaires de manière adéquate. Les appels de journalisation dans le code de l’application resteront les mêmes. Voici une légère modification de l’exemple précédent dans une configuration au niveau du module :

import logging

logger = logging.getLogger('simple_example')
logger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
# create file handler which logs even debug messages
fh = logging.FileHandler('spam.log')
fh.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
# create console handler with a higher log level
ch = logging.StreamHandler()
ch.setLevel(logging.ERROR)
# create formatter and add it to the handlers
formatter = logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s - %(name)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s')
ch.setFormatter(formatter)
fh.setFormatter(formatter)
# add the handlers to logger
logger.addHandler(ch)
logger.addHandler(fh)

# 'application' code
logger.debug('debug message')
logger.info('info message')
logger.warning('warn message')
logger.error('error message')
logger.critical('critical message')

Notez que le code de « l’application » ignore la multiplicité des gestionnaires. Les modifications consistent simplement en l’ajout et la configuration d’un nouveau gestionnaire appelé fh.

La possibilité de créer de nouveaux gestionnaires avec des filtres sur un niveau de gravité supérieur ou inférieur peut être très utile lors de l’écriture ou du test d’une application. Au lieu d’utiliser de nombreuses instructions print pour le débogage, utilisez logger.debug : contrairement aux instructions print, que vous devrez supprimer ou commenter plus tard, les instructions logger.debug peuvent demeurer telles quelles dans le code source et restent dormantes jusqu’à ce que vous en ayez à nouveau besoin. À ce moment-là, il suffit de modifier le niveau de gravité de la journalisation ou du gestionnaire pour déboguer.

Journalisation vers plusieurs destinations

Supposons que vous souhaitiez journaliser dans la console et dans un fichier avec différents formats de messages et avec différents critères. Supposons que vous souhaitiez consigner les messages de niveau DEBUG et supérieur dans le fichier, et les messages de niveau INFO et supérieur dans la console. Supposons également que le fichier doive contenir des horodatages, mais pas les messages de la console. Voici comment y parvenir :

import logging

# set up logging to file - see previous section for more details
logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG,
                    format='%(asctime)s %(name)-12s %(levelname)-8s %(message)s',
                    datefmt='%m-%d %H:%M',
                    filename='/tmp/myapp.log',
                    filemode='w')
# define a Handler which writes INFO messages or higher to the sys.stderr
console = logging.StreamHandler()
console.setLevel(logging.INFO)
# set a format which is simpler for console use
formatter = logging.Formatter('%(name)-12s: %(levelname)-8s %(message)s')
# tell the handler to use this format
console.setFormatter(formatter)
# add the handler to the root logger
logging.getLogger().addHandler(console)

# Now, we can log to the root logger, or any other logger. First the root...
logging.info('Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz.')

# Now, define a couple of other loggers which might represent areas in your
# application:

logger1 = logging.getLogger('myapp.area1')
logger2 = logging.getLogger('myapp.area2')

logger1.debug('Quick zephyrs blow, vexing daft Jim.')
logger1.info('How quickly daft jumping zebras vex.')
logger2.warning('Jail zesty vixen who grabbed pay from quack.')
logger2.error('The five boxing wizards jump quickly.')

Quand vous le lancez, vous devez voir

root        : INFO     Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz.
myapp.area1 : INFO     How quickly daft jumping zebras vex.
myapp.area2 : WARNING  Jail zesty vixen who grabbed pay from quack.
myapp.area2 : ERROR    The five boxing wizards jump quickly.

et, dans le fichier, vous devez trouver

10-22 22:19 root         INFO     Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz.
10-22 22:19 myapp.area1  DEBUG    Quick zephyrs blow, vexing daft Jim.
10-22 22:19 myapp.area1  INFO     How quickly daft jumping zebras vex.
10-22 22:19 myapp.area2  WARNING  Jail zesty vixen who grabbed pay from quack.
10-22 22:19 myapp.area2  ERROR    The five boxing wizards jump quickly.

Comme vous pouvez le constater, le message DEBUG n’apparaît que dans le fichier. Les autres messages sont envoyés vers les deux destinations.

Cet exemple utilise la console et des gestionnaires de fichier, mais vous pouvez utiliser et combiner autant de gestionnaires que de besoin.

Notez que le choix du nom de fichier journal /tmp/myapp.log ci-dessus implique l'utilisation d'un emplacement standard pour les fichiers temporaires sur les systèmes POSIX. Sous Windows, vous devrez peut-être choisir un nom de répertoire différent pour le journal – assurez-vous simplement que le répertoire existe et que vous disposez des autorisations nécessaires pour créer et mettre à jour des fichiers dans celui-ci.

Personnalisation du niveau de journalisation

Il peut arriver que vous souhaitiez que vos gestionnaires journalisent légèrement différemment de la gestion standard des niveaux, où tous les niveaux au-dessus d'un seuil sont traités par un gestionnaire. Pour ce faire, vous devez utiliser des filtres. Examinons un scénario dans lequel vous souhaitez organiser les choses comme suit :

envoyer les messages de niveau INFO et WARNING à sys.stdout ;

envoyer les messages de niveau ERROR et au-dessus à sys.stderr ;

envoyer les messages de niveau DEBUG et au-dessus vers le fichier app.log.

Supposons que vous configurez la journalisation avec le contenu au format JSON suivant :

{
    "version": 1,
    "disable_existing_loggers": false,
    "formatters": {
        "simple": {
            "format": "%(levelname)-8s - %(message)s"
        }
    },
    "handlers": {
        "stdout": {
            "class": "logging.StreamHandler",
            "level": "INFO",
            "formatter": "simple",
            "stream": "ext://sys.stdout"
        },
        "stderr": {
            "class": "logging.StreamHandler",
            "level": "ERROR",
            "formatter": "simple",
            "stream": "ext://sys.stderr"
        },
        "file": {
            "class": "logging.FileHandler",
            "formatter": "simple",
            "filename": "app.log",
            "mode": "w"
        }
    },
    "root": {
        "level": "DEBUG",
        "handlers": [
            "stderr",
            "stdout",
            "file"
        ]
    }
}

This configuration does almost what we want, except that sys.stdout would show messages of severity ERROR and only events of this severity and higher will be tracked as well as INFO and WARNING messages. To prevent this, we can set up a filter which excludes those messages and add it to the relevant handler. This can be configured by adding a filters section parallel to formatters and handlers:

{
    "filters": {
        "warnings_and_below": {
            "()" : "__main__.filter_maker",
            "level": "WARNING"
        }
    }
}

et en changeant la section du gestionnaire stdout pour ajouter le filtre :

{
    "stdout": {
        "class": "logging.StreamHandler",
        "level": "INFO",
        "formatter": "simple",
        "stream": "ext://sys.stdout",
        "filters": ["warnings_and_below"]
    }
}

Un filtre n'est qu'une fonction, nous pouvons donc définir un filter_maker (une fonction fabrique) comme suit :

def filter_maker(level):
    level = getattr(logging, level)

    def filter(record):
        return record.levelno <= level

    return filter

Elle convertit la chaîne transmise en argument vers un niveau numérique puis renvoie une fonction qui ne renvoie True que si le niveau de l'enregistrement transmis est inférieur ou égal au niveau spécifié. Notez que dans cet exemple, nous avons défini filter_maker dans un script de test main.py qui est exécuté depuis la ligne de commande, donc son module est __main__ – d'où le __main__.filter_maker dans la configuration du filtre. Vous devez le changer si vous la définissez dans un module différent.

Avec le filtre, nous pouvons exécuter main.py dont voici la version complète :

import json
import logging
import logging.config

CONFIG = '''
{
    "version": 1,
    "disable_existing_loggers": false,
    "formatters": {
        "simple": {
            "format": "%(levelname)-8s - %(message)s"
        }
    },
    "filters": {
        "warnings_and_below": {
            "()" : "__main__.filter_maker",
            "level": "WARNING"
        }
    },
    "handlers": {
        "stdout": {
            "class": "logging.StreamHandler",
            "level": "INFO",
            "formatter": "simple",
            "stream": "ext://sys.stdout",
            "filters": ["warnings_and_below"]
        },
        "stderr": {
            "class": "logging.StreamHandler",
            "level": "ERROR",
            "formatter": "simple",
            "stream": "ext://sys.stderr"
        },
        "file": {
            "class": "logging.FileHandler",
            "formatter": "simple",
            "filename": "app.log",
            "mode": "w"
        }
    },
    "root": {
        "level": "DEBUG",
        "handlers": [
            "stderr",
            "stdout",
            "file"
        ]
    }
}
'''

def filter_maker(level):
    level = getattr(logging, level)

    def filter(record):
        return record.levelno <= level

    return filter

logging.config.dictConfig(json.loads(CONFIG))
logging.debug('A DEBUG message')
logging.info('An INFO message')
logging.warning('A WARNING message')
logging.error('An ERROR message')
logging.critical('A CRITICAL message')

Et après l'avoir exécuté comme ceci :

python main.py 2>stderr.log >stdout.log

Nous obtenons le résultat attendu :

$ more *.log
::::::::::::::
app.log
::::::::::::::
DEBUG    - A DEBUG message
INFO     - An INFO message
WARNING  - A WARNING message
ERROR    - An ERROR message
CRITICAL - A CRITICAL message
::::::::::::::
stderr.log
::::::::::::::
ERROR    - An ERROR message
CRITICAL - A CRITICAL message
::::::::::::::
stdout.log
::::::::::::::
INFO     - An INFO message
WARNING  - A WARNING message

Exemple d’un serveur de configuration

Voici un exemple de module mettant en œuvre la configuration de la journalisation via un serveur :

import logging
import logging.config
import time
import os

# read initial config file
logging.config.fileConfig('logging.conf')

# create and start listener on port 9999
t = logging.config.listen(9999)
t.start()

logger = logging.getLogger('simpleExample')

try:
    # loop through logging calls to see the difference
    # new configurations make, until Ctrl+C is pressed
    while True:
        logger.debug('debug message')
        logger.info('info message')
        logger.warning('warn message')
        logger.error('error message')
        logger.critical('critical message')
        time.sleep(5)
except KeyboardInterrupt:
    # cleanup
    logging.config.stopListening()
    t.join()

Et voici un script qui, à partir d’un nom de fichier, commence par envoyer la taille du fichier encodée en binaire (comme il se doit), puis envoie ce fichier au serveur pour définir la nouvelle configuration de journalisation :

#!/usr/bin/env python
import socket, sys, struct

with open(sys.argv[1], 'rb') as f:
    data_to_send = f.read()

HOST = 'localhost'
PORT = 9999
s = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
print('connecting...')
s.connect((HOST, PORT))
print('sending config...')
s.send(struct.pack('>L', len(data_to_send)))
s.send(data_to_send)
s.close()
print('complete')

Utilisation de gestionnaires bloquants

Parfois, il est nécessaire que les gestionnaires de journalisation fassent leur travail sans bloquer le fil d’exécution qui émet des événements. C’est généralement le cas dans les applications Web, mais aussi bien sûr dans d’autres scénarios.

Un gestionnaire classiquement lent est le SMTPHandler : l’envoi d’e-mails peut prendre beaucoup de temps, pour un certain nombre de raisons indépendantes du développeur (par exemple, une infrastructure de messagerie ou de réseau peu performante). Mais n’importe quel autre gestionnaire utilisant le réseau ou presque peut aussi s’avérer bloquant : même une simple opération SocketHandler peut faire une requête DNS implicite et être ainsi très lente (cette requête peut être enfouie profondément dans le code de la bibliothèque d’accès réseau, sous la couche Python, et hors de votre contrôle).

Une solution consiste à utiliser une approche en deux parties. Pour la première partie, affectez un seul QueueHandler à la journalisation des fils d’exécution critiques pour les performances. Ils écrivent simplement dans leur file d’attente, qui peut être dimensionnée à une capacité suffisamment grande ou initialisée sans limite supérieure en taille. L’écriture dans la file d’attente est généralement acceptée rapidement, mais nous vous conseillons quand même de prévoir d’intercepter l’exception queue.Full par précaution dans votre code. Si vous développez une bibliothèque avec des fils d’exécution critiques pour les performances, documentez-le bien (avec une suggestion de n’affecter que des QueueHandlers à votre journalisation) pour faciliter le travail des développeurs qui utilisent votre code.

La deuxième partie de la solution est la classe QueueListener, conçue comme l’homologue de QueueHandler. Un QueueListener est très simple : vous lui passez une file d’attente et des gestionnaires, et il lance un fil d’exécution interne qui scrute la file d’attente pour récupérer les événements envoyés par les QueueHandlers (ou toute autre source de LogRecords, d’ailleurs). Les LogRecords sont supprimés de la file d’attente et transmis aux gestionnaires pour traitement.

L’avantage d’avoir une classe QueueListener séparée est que vous pouvez utiliser la même instance pour servir plusieurs QueueHandlers. Cela consomme moins de ressources que des instances de gestionnaires réparties chacune dans un fil d’exécution séparé.

Voici un exemple d’utilisation de ces deux classes (les importations sont omises) :

que = queue.Queue(-1)  # no limit on size
queue_handler = QueueHandler(que)
handler = logging.StreamHandler()
listener = QueueListener(que, handler)
root = logging.getLogger()
root.addHandler(queue_handler)
formatter = logging.Formatter('%(threadName)s: %(message)s')
handler.setFormatter(formatter)
listener.start()
# The log output will display the thread which generated
# the event (the main thread) rather than the internal
# thread which monitors the internal queue. This is what
# you want to happen.
root.warning('Look out!')
listener.stop()

ce qui produit ceci à l’exécution :

MainThread: Look out!

Note

bien que la discussion précédente n'aborde pas spécifiquement l'utilisation de code asynchrone, mais concerne les gestionnaires de journalisation lents, notez que lors de la journalisation à partir de code asynchrone, les gestionnaires qui écrivent vers le réseau ou même dans des fichiers peuvent entraîner des problèmes (blocage de la boucle d'événements) car une certaine journalisation est faite à partir du code natif de asyncio. Il peut être préférable, si un code asynchrone est utilisé dans une application, d'utiliser l'approche ci-dessus pour la journalisation, de sorte que tout ce qui utilise du code bloquant ne s'exécute que dans le thread QueueListener.

Modifié dans la version 3.5: avant Python 3.5, la classe QueueListener passait chaque message reçu de la file d’attente à chaque gestionnaire avec lequel l’instance avait été initialisée (on supposait que le filtrage de niveau était entièrement effectué de l’autre côté, au niveau de l’alimentation de la file d’attente). Depuis Python 3.5, le comportement peut être modifié en passant l’argument par mot-clé respect_handler_level=True au constructeur. Dans ce cas, la QueueListener compare le niveau de chaque message avec le niveau défini dans chaque gestionnaire et ne transmet le message que si c’est opportun.

Modifié dans la version 3.14: The QueueListener can be started (and stopped) via the with statement. For example:

with QueueListener(que, handler) as listener:
    # The queue listener automatically starts
    # when the 'with' block is entered.
    pass
# The queue listener automatically stops once
# the 'with' block is exited.

Envoi et réception d’événements de journalisation à travers le réseau

Supposons que vous souhaitiez envoyer des événements de journalisation sur un réseau et les traiter à la réception. Une façon simple de faire est d’attacher une instance SocketHandler à la journalisation racine de l’émetteur :

import logging, logging.handlers

rootLogger = logging.getLogger()
rootLogger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
socketHandler = logging.handlers.SocketHandler('localhost',
                    logging.handlers.DEFAULT_TCP_LOGGING_PORT)
# don't bother with a formatter, since a socket handler sends the event as
# an unformatted pickle
rootLogger.addHandler(socketHandler)

# Now, we can log to the root logger, or any other logger. First the root...
logging.info('Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz.')

# Now, define a couple of other loggers which might represent areas in your
# application:

logger1 = logging.getLogger('myapp.area1')
logger2 = logging.getLogger('myapp.area2')

logger1.debug('Quick zephyrs blow, vexing daft Jim.')
logger1.info('How quickly daft jumping zebras vex.')
logger2.warning('Jail zesty vixen who grabbed pay from quack.')
logger2.error('The five boxing wizards jump quickly.')

Vous pouvez configurer le récepteur en utilisant le module socketserver. Voici un exemple élémentaire :

import pickle
import logging
import logging.handlers
import socketserver
import struct

class LogRecordStreamHandler(socketserver.StreamRequestHandler):
    """Handler for a streaming logging request.

    This basically logs the record using whatever logging policy is
    configured locally.
    """

    def handle(self):
        """
        Handle multiple requests - each expected to be a 4-byte length,
        followed by the LogRecord in pickle format. Logs the record
        according to whatever policy is configured locally.
        """
        while True:
            chunk = self.connection.recv(4)
            if len(chunk) < 4:
                break
            slen = struct.unpack('>L', chunk)[0]
            chunk = self.connection.recv(slen)
            while len(chunk) < slen:
                chunk = chunk + self.connection.recv(slen - len(chunk))
            obj = self.unPickle(chunk)
            record = logging.makeLogRecord(obj)
            self.handleLogRecord(record)

    def unPickle(self, data):
        return pickle.loads(data)

    def handleLogRecord(self, record):
        # if a name is specified, we use the named logger rather than the one
        # implied by the record.
        if self.server.logname is not None:
            name = self.server.logname
        else:
            name = record.name
        logger = logging.getLogger(name)
        # N.B. EVERY record gets logged. This is because Logger.handle
        # is normally called AFTER logger-level filtering. If you want
        # to do filtering, do it at the client end to save wasting
        # cycles and network bandwidth!
        logger.handle(record)

class LogRecordSocketReceiver(socketserver.ThreadingTCPServer):
    """
    Simple TCP socket-based logging receiver suitable for testing.
    """

    allow_reuse_address = True

    def __init__(self, host='localhost',
                 port=logging.handlers.DEFAULT_TCP_LOGGING_PORT,
                 handler=LogRecordStreamHandler):
        socketserver.ThreadingTCPServer.__init__(self, (host, port), handler)
        self.abort = 0
        self.timeout = 1
        self.logname = None

    def serve_until_stopped(self):
        import select
        abort = 0
        while not abort:
            rd, wr, ex = select.select([self.socket.fileno()],
                                       [], [],
                                       self.timeout)
            if rd:
                self.handle_request()
            abort = self.abort

def main():
    logging.basicConfig(
        format='%(relativeCreated)5d %(name)-15s %(levelname)-8s %(message)s')
    tcpserver = LogRecordSocketReceiver()
    print('About to start TCP server...')
    tcpserver.serve_until_stopped()

if __name__ == '__main__':
    main()

Lancez d’abord le serveur, puis le client. Côté client, rien ne s’affiche sur la console ; côté serveur, vous devez voir quelque chose comme ça :

About to start TCP server...
   59 root            INFO     Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz.
   59 myapp.area1     DEBUG    Quick zephyrs blow, vexing daft Jim.
   69 myapp.area1     INFO     How quickly daft jumping zebras vex.
   69 myapp.area2     WARNING  Jail zesty vixen who grabbed pay from quack.
   69 myapp.area2     ERROR    The five boxing wizards jump quickly.

Note that there are some security issues with pickle in some scenarios. If these affect you, you can use an alternative serialization scheme by overriding the makePickle() method and implementing your alternative there, as well as adapting the above script to use your alternative serialization.

Journalisation en production à l’aide d’un connecteur en écoute sur le réseau

Pour de la journalisation en production via un connecteur réseau en écoute, il est probable que vous ayez besoin d’utiliser un outil de surveillance tel que Supervisor [http://supervisord.org/]. Vous trouverez dans ce Gist [https://gist.github.com/vsajip/4b227eeec43817465ca835ca66f75e2b] des gabarits pour assurer cette fonction avec Supervisor. Il est composé des fichiers suivants :

Fichier

Objectif

prepare.sh

Script Bash pour préparer l'environnement de test

supervisor.conf

Fichier de configuration de Supervisor, avec les entrées pour le connecteur en écoute et l'application web multi-processus

ensure_app.sh

Script Bash pour s'assurer que Supervisor fonctionne bien avec la configuration ci-dessus

log_listener.py

Programme en écoute sur le réseau qui reçoit les événements de journalisation et les enregistre dans un fichier

main.py

Application web simple qui journalise via un connecteur réseau

webapp.json

Fichier JSON de configuration de l'application web

client.py

Script Python qui interagit avec l'application web pour effectuer des appels à la journalisation

L'application Web utilise Gunicorn [https://gunicorn.org/], qui est un serveur d'applications Web populaire qui démarre plusieurs processus de travail pour gérer les demandes. Cet exemple de configuration montre comment les processus peuvent écrire dans le même fichier journal sans entrer en conflit les uns avec les autres — ils passent tous par le connecteur en écoute.

Pour tester ces fichiers, suivez cette procédure dans un environnement POSIX :

Téléchargez l'archive ZIP du Gist [https://gist.github.com/vsajip/4b227eeec43817465ca835ca66f75e2b] à l'aide du bouton Download ZIP.

Décompressez les fichiers de l'archive dans un répertoire de travail.

Dans le répertoire de travail, exécutez le script de préparation par bash prepare.sh. Cela crée un sous-répertoire run pour contenir les fichiers journaux et ceux relatifs à Supervisor, ainsi qu'un sous-répertoire venv pour contenir un environnement virtuel dans lequel bottle, gunicorn et supervisor sont installés.

Exécutez bash ensure_app.sh pour vous assurer que Supervisor s'exécute avec la configuration ci-dessus.

Exécutez venv/bin/python client.py pour tester l'application Web, ce qui entraîne l'écriture d'enregistrements dans le journal.

Inspectez les fichiers journaux dans le sous-répertoire run. Vous devriez voir les lignes de journal les plus récentes dans les fichiers de type app.log*. Ils ne seront pas dans un ordre particulier, car ils ont été traités par les différents processus de travail de manière non déterministe.

Vous pouvez arrêter le connecteur en écoute et l'application Web en exécutant venv/bin/supervisorctl -c supervisor.conf shutdown.

Vous devrez peut-être modifier les fichiers de configuration dans le cas peu probable où les ports configurés entrent en conflit avec autre chose dans votre environnement de test.

The default configuration uses a TCP socket on port 9020. You can use a Unix Domain socket instead of a TCP socket by doing the following:

In listener.json, add a socket key with the path to the domain socket you want to use. If this key is present, the listener listens on the corresponding domain socket and not on a TCP socket (the port key is ignored).

In webapp.json, change the socket handler configuration dictionary so that the host value is the path to the domain socket, and set the port value to null.

Ajout d’informations contextuelles dans la journalisation

Dans certains cas, vous pouvez souhaiter que la journalisation contienne des informations contextuelles en plus des paramètres transmis à l’appel de journalisation. Par exemple, dans une application réseau, il peut être souhaitable de consigner des informations spécifiques au client dans le journal (par exemple, le nom d’utilisateur ou l’adresse IP du client distant). Bien que vous puissiez utiliser le paramètre extra pour y parvenir, il n’est pas toujours pratique de transmettre les informations de cette manière. Il peut être aussi tentant de créer des instances Logger connexion par connexion, mais ce n’est pas une bonne idée car ces instances Logger ne sont pas éliminées par le ramasse-miettes. Même si ce point n’est pas problématique en soi si la journalisation est configurée avec plusieurs niveaux de granularité, cela peut devenir difficile de gérer un nombre potentiellement illimité d’instances de Logger.

Utilisation d’adaptateurs de journalisation pour transmettre des informations contextuelles

Un moyen simple de transmettre des informations contextuelles accompagnant les informations de journalisation consiste à utiliser la classe LoggerAdapter. Cette classe est conçue pour ressembler à un Logger, de sorte que vous pouvez appeler debug(), info(), warning(), error(), exception(), critical() et log(). Ces méthodes ont les mêmes signatures que leurs homologues dans Logger, vous pouvez donc utiliser les deux types d’instances de manière interchangeable.

Lorsque vous créez une instance de LoggerAdapter, vous lui transmettez une instance de Logger et un objet dictionnaire qui contient vos informations contextuelles. Lorsque vous appelez l’une des méthodes de journalisation sur une instance de LoggerAdapter, elle délègue l’appel à l’instance sous-jacente de Logger transmise à son constructeur et s’arrange pour intégrer les informations contextuelles dans l’appel délégué. Voici un extrait du code de LoggerAdapter :

def debug(self, msg, /, *args, **kwargs):
    """
    Delegate a debug call to the underlying logger, after adding
    contextual information from this adapter instance.
    """
    msg, kwargs = self.process(msg, kwargs)
    self.logger.debug(msg, *args, **kwargs)

Les informations contextuelles sont ajoutées dans la méthode process() de LoggerAdapter. On lui passe le message et les arguments par mot-clé de l’appel de journalisation, et elle en renvoie des versions (potentiellement) modifiées à utiliser pour la journalisation sous-jacente. L’implémentation par défaut de cette méthode laisse le message seul, mais insère une clé extra dans l’argument par mot-clé dont la valeur est l’objet dictionnaire passé au constructeur. Bien sûr, si vous avez passé un argument par mot-clé extra dans l’appel à l’adaptateur, il est écrasé silencieusement.

L’avantage d’utiliser extra est que les valeurs de l’objet dictionnaire sont fusionnées dans le __dict__ de l’instance LogRecord, ce qui vous permet d’utiliser des chaînes personnalisées avec vos instances Formatter qui connaissent les clés de l’objet dictionnaire. Si vous avez besoin d’une méthode différente, par exemple si vous souhaitez ajouter des informations contextuelles avant ou après la chaîne de message, il vous suffit de surcharger LoggerAdapter et de remplacer process() pour faire ce dont vous avez besoin. Voici un exemple simple :

class CustomAdapter(logging.LoggerAdapter):
    """
    This example adapter expects the passed in dict-like object to have a
    'connid' key, whose value in brackets is prepended to the log message.
    """
    def process(self, msg, kwargs):
        return '[%s] %s' % (self.extra['connid'], msg), kwargs

que vous pouvez utiliser comme ceci :

logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
adapter = CustomAdapter(logger, {'connid': some_conn_id})

Ainsi, tout événement journalisé aura la valeur de some_conn_id insérée en début de message de journalisation.

Utilisation d’objets autres que les dictionnaires pour passer des informations contextuelles

Il n’est pas obligatoire de passer un dictionnaire réel à un LoggerAdapter, vous pouvez passer une instance d’une classe qui implémente __getitem__ et __iter__ pour qu’il ressemble à un dictionnaire du point de vue de la journalisation. C’est utile si vous souhaitez générer des valeurs de manière dynamique (alors que les valeurs d’un dictionnaire seraient constantes).

Utilisation de filtres pour transmettre des informations contextuelles

Un Filter défini par l’utilisateur peut aussi ajouter des informations contextuelles à la journalisation. Les instances de Filter sont autorisées à modifier les LogRecords qui leur sont transmis, y compris par l’ajout d’attributs supplémentaires qui peuvent ensuite être intégrés à la journalisation en utilisant une chaîne de formatage appropriée ou, si nécessaire, un Formatter personnalisé.

Par exemple, dans une application Web, la requête en cours de traitement (ou du moins ce qu’elle contient d’intéressant) peut être stockée dans une variable locale au fil d’exécution (threading.local), puis utilisée dans un Filter pour ajouter, par exemple, des informations relatives à la requête (par exemple, l’adresse IP distante et le nom de l’utilisateur) au LogRecord, en utilisant les noms d’attribut ip et user comme dans l’exemple LoggerAdapter ci-dessus. Dans ce cas, la même chaîne de formatage peut être utilisée pour obtenir une sortie similaire à celle indiquée ci-dessus. Voici un exemple de script :

import logging
from random import choice

class ContextFilter(logging.Filter):
    """
    This is a filter which injects contextual information into the log.

    Rather than use actual contextual information, we just use random
    data in this demo.
    """

    USERS = ['jim', 'fred', 'sheila']
    IPS = ['123.231.231.123', '127.0.0.1', '192.168.0.1']

    def filter(self, record):

        record.ip = choice(ContextFilter.IPS)
        record.user = choice(ContextFilter.USERS)
        return True

if __name__ == '__main__':
    levels = (logging.DEBUG, logging.INFO, logging.WARNING, logging.ERROR, logging.CRITICAL)
    logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG,
                        format='%(asctime)-15s %(name)-5s %(levelname)-8s IP: %(ip)-15s User: %(user)-8s %(message)s')
    a1 = logging.getLogger('a.b.c')
    a2 = logging.getLogger('d.e.f')

    f = ContextFilter()
    a1.addFilter(f)
    a2.addFilter(f)
    a1.debug('A debug message')
    a1.info('An info message with %s', 'some parameters')
    for x in range(10):
        lvl = choice(levels)
        lvlname = logging.getLevelName(lvl)
        a2.log(lvl, 'A message at %s level with %d %s', lvlname, 2, 'parameters')

qui, à l’exécution, produit quelque chose comme ça :

2010-09-06 22:38:15,292 a.b.c DEBUG    IP: 123.231.231.123 User: fred     A debug message
2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 a.b.c INFO     IP: 192.168.0.1     User: sheila   An info message with some parameters
2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f CRITICAL IP: 127.0.0.1       User: sheila   A message at CRITICAL level with 2 parameters
2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f ERROR    IP: 127.0.0.1       User: jim      A message at ERROR level with 2 parameters
2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f DEBUG    IP: 127.0.0.1       User: sheila   A message at DEBUG level with 2 parameters
2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f ERROR    IP: 123.231.231.123 User: fred     A message at ERROR level with 2 parameters
2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f CRITICAL IP: 192.168.0.1     User: jim      A message at CRITICAL level with 2 parameters
2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f CRITICAL IP: 127.0.0.1       User: sheila   A message at CRITICAL level with 2 parameters
2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f DEBUG    IP: 192.168.0.1     User: jim      A message at DEBUG level with 2 parameters
2010-09-06 22:38:15,301 d.e.f ERROR    IP: 127.0.0.1       User: sheila   A message at ERROR level with 2 parameters
2010-09-06 22:38:15,301 d.e.f DEBUG    IP: 123.231.231.123 User: fred     A message at DEBUG level with 2 parameters
2010-09-06 22:38:15,301 d.e.f INFO     IP: 123.231.231.123 User: fred     A message at INFO level with 2 parameters

Use of contextvars

Since Python 3.7, the contextvars module has provided context-local storage which works for both threading and asyncio processing needs. This type of storage may thus be generally preferable to thread-locals. The following example shows how, in a multi-threaded environment, logs can populated with contextual information such as, for example, request attributes handled by web applications.

For the purposes of illustration, say that you have different web applications, each independent of the other but running in the same Python process and using a library common to them. How can each of these applications have their own log, where all logging messages from the library (and other request processing code) are directed to the appropriate application's log file, while including in the log additional contextual information such as client IP, HTTP request method and client username?

Let's assume that the library can be simulated by the following code:

# webapplib.py
import logging
import time

logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

def useful():
    # Just a representative event logged from the library
    logger.debug('Hello from webapplib!')
    # Just sleep for a bit so other threads get to run
    time.sleep(0.01)

We can simulate the multiple web applications by means of two simple classes, Request and WebApp. These simulate how real threaded web applications work - each request is handled by a thread:

# main.py
import argparse
from contextvars import ContextVar
import logging
import os
from random import choice
import threading
import webapplib

logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
root = logging.getLogger()
root.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)

class Request:
    """
    A simple dummy request class which just holds dummy HTTP request method,
    client IP address and client username
    """
    def __init__(self, method, ip, user):
        self.method = method
        self.ip = ip
        self.user = user

# A dummy set of requests which will be used in the simulation - we'll just pick
# from this list randomly. Note that all GET requests are from 192.168.2.XXX
# addresses, whereas POST requests are from 192.16.3.XXX addresses. Three users
# are represented in the sample requests.

REQUESTS = [
    Request('GET', '192.168.2.20', 'jim'),
    Request('POST', '192.168.3.20', 'fred'),
    Request('GET', '192.168.2.21', 'sheila'),
    Request('POST', '192.168.3.21', 'jim'),
    Request('GET', '192.168.2.22', 'fred'),
    Request('POST', '192.168.3.22', 'sheila'),
]

# Note that the format string includes references to request context information
# such as HTTP method, client IP and username

formatter = logging.Formatter('%(threadName)-11s %(appName)s %(name)-9s %(user)-6s %(ip)s %(method)-4s %(message)s')

# Create our context variables. These will be filled at the start of request
# processing, and used in the logging that happens during that processing

ctx_request = ContextVar('request')
ctx_appname = ContextVar('appname')

class InjectingFilter(logging.Filter):
    """
    A filter which injects context-specific information into logs and ensures
    that only information for a specific webapp is included in its log
    """
    def __init__(self, app):
        self.app = app

    def filter(self, record):
        request = ctx_request.get()
        record.method = request.method
        record.ip = request.ip
        record.user = request.user
        record.appName = appName = ctx_appname.get()
        return appName == self.app.name

class WebApp:
    """
    A dummy web application class which has its own handler and filter for a
    webapp-specific log.
    """
    def __init__(self, name):
        self.name = name
        handler = logging.FileHandler(name + '.log', 'w')
        f = InjectingFilter(self)
        handler.setFormatter(formatter)
        handler.addFilter(f)
        root.addHandler(handler)
        self.num_requests = 0

    def process_request(self, request):
        """
        This is the dummy method for processing a request. It's called on a
        different thread for every request. We store the context information into
        the context vars before doing anything else.
        """
        ctx_request.set(request)
        ctx_appname.set(self.name)
        self.num_requests += 1
        logger.debug('Request processing started')
        webapplib.useful()
        logger.debug('Request processing finished')

def main():
    fn = os.path.splitext(os.path.basename(__file__))[0]
    adhf = argparse.ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter
    ap = argparse.ArgumentParser(formatter_class=adhf, prog=fn,
                                 description='Simulate a couple of web '
                                             'applications handling some '
                                             'requests, showing how request '
                                             'context can be used to '
                                             'populate logs')
    aa = ap.add_argument
    aa('--count', '-c', type=int, default=100, help='How many requests to simulate')
    options = ap.parse_args()

    # Create the dummy webapps and put them in a list which we can use to select
    # from randomly
    app1 = WebApp('app1')
    app2 = WebApp('app2')
    apps = [app1, app2]
    threads = []
    # Add a common handler which will capture all events
    handler = logging.FileHandler('app.log', 'w')
    handler.setFormatter(formatter)
    root.addHandler(handler)

    # Generate calls to process requests
    for i in range(options.count):
        try:
            # Pick an app at random and a request for it to process
            app = choice(apps)
            request = choice(REQUESTS)
            # Process the request in its own thread
            t = threading.Thread(target=app.process_request, args=(request,))
            threads.append(t)
            t.start()
        except KeyboardInterrupt:
            break

    # Wait for the threads to terminate
    for t in threads:
        t.join()

    for app in apps:
        print('%s processed %s requests' % (app.name, app.num_requests))

if __name__ == '__main__':
    main()

If you run the above, you should find that roughly half the requests go into app1.log and the rest into app2.log, and the all the requests are logged to app.log. Each webapp-specific log will contain only log entries for only that webapp, and the request information will be displayed consistently in the log (i.e. the information in each dummy request will always appear together in a log line). This is illustrated by the following shell output:

~/logging-contextual-webapp$ python main.py
app1 processed 51 requests
app2 processed 49 requests
~/logging-contextual-webapp$ wc -l *.log
  153 app1.log
  147 app2.log
  300 app.log
  600 total
~/logging-contextual-webapp$ head -3 app1.log
Thread-3 (process_request) app1 __main__  jim    192.168.3.21 POST Request processing started
Thread-3 (process_request) app1 webapplib jim    192.168.3.21 POST Hello from webapplib!
Thread-5 (process_request) app1 __main__  jim    192.168.3.21 POST Request processing started
~/logging-contextual-webapp$ head -3 app2.log
Thread-1 (process_request) app2 __main__  sheila 192.168.2.21 GET  Request processing started
Thread-1 (process_request) app2 webapplib sheila 192.168.2.21 GET  Hello from webapplib!
Thread-2 (process_request) app2 __main__  jim    192.168.2.20 GET  Request processing started
~/logging-contextual-webapp$ head app.log
Thread-1 (process_request) app2 __main__  sheila 192.168.2.21 GET  Request processing started
Thread-1 (process_request) app2 webapplib sheila 192.168.2.21 GET  Hello from webapplib!
Thread-2 (process_request) app2 __main__  jim    192.168.2.20 GET  Request processing started
Thread-3 (process_request) app1 __main__  jim    192.168.3.21 POST Request processing started
Thread-2 (process_request) app2 webapplib jim    192.168.2.20 GET  Hello from webapplib!
Thread-3 (process_request) app1 webapplib jim    192.168.3.21 POST Hello from webapplib!
Thread-4 (process_request) app2 __main__  fred   192.168.2.22 GET  Request processing started
Thread-5 (process_request) app1 __main__  jim    192.168.3.21 POST Request processing started
Thread-4 (process_request) app2 webapplib fred   192.168.2.22 GET  Hello from webapplib!
Thread-6 (process_request) app1 __main__  jim    192.168.3.21 POST Request processing started
~/logging-contextual-webapp$ grep app1 app1.log | wc -l
153
~/logging-contextual-webapp$ grep app2 app2.log | wc -l
147
~/logging-contextual-webapp$ grep app1 app.log | wc -l
153
~/logging-contextual-webapp$ grep app2 app.log | wc -l
147

Ajout d'informations contextuelles dans la journalisation

Chaque Handler possède sa propre chaîne de filtres. Si vous souhaitez ajouter des informations contextuelles à un LogRecord sans impacter d'autres gestionnaires, vous pouvez utiliser un filtre qui renvoie un nouveau LogRecord au lieu de le modifier sur place, comme dans le script suivant :

import copy
import logging

def filter(record: logging.LogRecord):
    record = copy.copy(record)
    record.user = 'jim'
    return record

if __name__ == '__main__':
    logger = logging.getLogger()
    logger.setLevel(logging.INFO)
    handler = logging.StreamHandler()
    formatter = logging.Formatter('%(message)s from %(user)-8s')
    handler.setFormatter(formatter)
    handler.addFilter(filter)
    logger.addHandler(handler)

    logger.info('A log message')

Journalisation vers un fichier unique à partir de plusieurs processus

La journalisation est fiable avec les programmes à fils d’exécution multiples (thread-safe) : rien n’empêche plusieurs fils d’exécution de journaliser dans le même fichier, du moment que ces fils d’exécution font partie du même processus. En revanche, il n’existe aucun moyen standard de sérialiser l’accès à un seul fichier sur plusieurs processus en Python. Si vous avez besoin de vous connecter à un seul fichier à partir de plusieurs processus, une façon de le faire est de faire en sorte que tous les processus se connectent à un SocketHandler, et d’avoir un processus séparé qui implémente un serveur qui lit à partir de ce connecteur et écrit les journaux dans le fichier (si vous préférez, vous pouvez dédier un fil d’exécution dans l’un des processus existants pour exécuter cette tâche). Cette section documente cette approche plus en détail et inclut un connecteur en écoute réseau fonctionnel qui peut être utilisé comme point de départ pour l’adapter à vos propres applications.

You could also write your own handler which uses the Lock class from the multiprocessing module to serialize access to the file from your processes. The stdlib FileHandler and subclasses do not make use of multiprocessing.

Autrement, vous pouvez utiliser une Queue et un QueueHandler pour envoyer tous les événements de journalisation à l’un des processus de votre application multi-processus. L’exemple de script suivant montre comment procéder ; dans l’exemple, un processus d’écoute distinct écoute les événements envoyés par les autres processus et les journalise en fonction de sa propre configuration de journalisation. Bien que l’exemple ne montre qu’une seule façon de faire (par exemple, vous pouvez utiliser un fil d’exécution d’écoute plutôt qu’un processus d’écoute séparé – l’implémentation serait analogue), il permet des configurations de journalisation complètement différentes pour celui qui écoute ainsi que pour les autres processus de votre application, et peut être utilisé comme base pour répondre à vos propres exigences :

# You'll need these imports in your own code
import logging
import logging.handlers
import multiprocessing

# Next two import lines for this demo only
from random import choice, random
import time

#
# Because you'll want to define the logging configurations for listener and workers, the
# listener and worker process functions take a configurer parameter which is a callable
# for configuring logging for that process. These functions are also passed the queue,
# which they use for communication.
#
# In practice, you can configure the listener however you want, but note that in this
# simple example, the listener does not apply level or filter logic to received records.
# In practice, you would probably want to do this logic in the worker processes, to avoid
# sending events which would be filtered out between processes.
#
# The size of the rotated files is made small so you can see the results easily.
def listener_configurer():
    root = logging.getLogger()
    h = logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler('mptest.log', 'a', 300, 10)
    f = logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s %(processName)-10s %(name)s %(levelname)-8s %(message)s')
    h.setFormatter(f)
    root.addHandler(h)

# This is the listener process top-level loop: wait for logging events
# (LogRecords)on the queue and handle them, quit when you get a None for a
# LogRecord.
def listener_process(queue, configurer):
    configurer()
    while True:
        try:
            record = queue.get()
            if record is None:  # We send this as a sentinel to tell the listener to quit.
                break
            logger = logging.getLogger(record.name)
            logger.handle(record)  # No level or filter logic applied - just do it!
        except Exception:
            import sys, traceback
            print('Whoops! Problem:', file=sys.stderr)
            traceback.print_exc(file=sys.stderr)

# Arrays used for random selections in this demo

LEVELS = [logging.DEBUG, logging.INFO, logging.WARNING,
          logging.ERROR, logging.CRITICAL]

LOGGERS = ['a.b.c', 'd.e.f']

MESSAGES = [
    'Random message #1',
    'Random message #2',
    'Random message #3',
]

# The worker configuration is done at the start of the worker process run.
# Note that on Windows you can't rely on fork semantics, so each process
# will run the logging configuration code when it starts.
def worker_configurer(queue):
    h = logging.handlers.QueueHandler(queue)  # Just the one handler needed
    root = logging.getLogger()
    root.addHandler(h)
    # send all messages, for demo; no other level or filter logic applied.
    root.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)

# This is the worker process top-level loop, which just logs ten events with
# random intervening delays before terminating.
# The print messages are just so you know it's doing something!
def worker_process(queue, configurer):
    configurer(queue)
    name = multiprocessing.current_process().name
    print('Worker started: %s' % name)
    for i in range(10):
        time.sleep(random())
        logger = logging.getLogger(choice(LOGGERS))
        level = choice(LEVELS)
        message = choice(MESSAGES)
        logger.log(level, message)
    print('Worker finished: %s' % name)

# Here's where the demo gets orchestrated. Create the queue, create and start
# the listener, create ten workers and start them, wait for them to finish,
# then send a None to the queue to tell the listener to finish.
def main():
    queue = multiprocessing.Queue(-1)
    listener = multiprocessing.Process(target=listener_process,
                                       args=(queue, listener_configurer))
    listener.start()
    workers = []
    for i in range(10):
        worker = multiprocessing.Process(target=worker_process,
                                         args=(queue, worker_configurer))
        workers.append(worker)
        worker.start()
    for w in workers:
        w.join()
    queue.put_nowait(None)
    listener.join()

if __name__ == '__main__':
    main()

Une variante du script ci-dessus conserve la journalisation dans le processus principal, dans un fil séparé :

import logging
import logging.config
import logging.handlers
from multiprocessing import Process, Queue
import random
import threading
import time

def logger_thread(q):
    while True:
        record = q.get()
        if record is None:
            break
        logger = logging.getLogger(record.name)
        logger.handle(record)

def worker_process(q):
    qh = logging.handlers.QueueHandler(q)
    root = logging.getLogger()
    root.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
    root.addHandler(qh)
    levels = [logging.DEBUG, logging.INFO, logging.WARNING, logging.ERROR,
              logging.CRITICAL]
    loggers = ['foo', 'foo.bar', 'foo.bar.baz',
               'spam', 'spam.ham', 'spam.ham.eggs']
    for i in range(100):
        lvl = random.choice(levels)
        logger = logging.getLogger(random.choice(loggers))
        logger.log(lvl, 'Message no. %d', i)

if __name__ == '__main__':
    q = Queue()
    d = {
        'version': 1,
        'formatters': {
            'detailed': {
                'class': 'logging.Formatter',
                'format': '%(asctime)s %(name)-15s %(levelname)-8s %(processName)-10s %(message)s'
            }
        },
        'handlers': {
            'console': {
                'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
                'level': 'INFO',
            },
            'file': {
                'class': 'logging.FileHandler',
                'filename': 'mplog.log',
                'mode': 'w',
                'formatter': 'detailed',
            },
            'foofile': {
                'class': 'logging.FileHandler',
                'filename': 'mplog-foo.log',
                'mode': 'w',
                'formatter': 'detailed',
            },
            'errors': {
                'class': 'logging.FileHandler',
                'filename': 'mplog-errors.log',
                'mode': 'w',
                'level': 'ERROR',
                'formatter': 'detailed',
            },
        },
        'loggers': {
            'foo': {
                'handlers': ['foofile']
            }
        },
        'root': {
            'level': 'DEBUG',
            'handlers': ['console', 'file', 'errors']
        },
    }
    workers = []
    for i in range(5):
        wp = Process(target=worker_process, name='worker %d' % (i + 1), args=(q,))
        workers.append(wp)
        wp.start()
    logging.config.dictConfig(d)
    lp = threading.Thread(target=logger_thread, args=(q,))
    lp.start()
    # At this point, the main process could do some useful work of its own
    # Once it's done that, it can wait for the workers to terminate...
    for wp in workers:
        wp.join()
    # And now tell the logging thread to finish up, too
    q.put(None)
    lp.join()

Cette variante montre comment appliquer la configuration pour des enregistreurs particuliers – par exemple l’enregistreur foo a un gestionnaire spécial qui stocke tous les événements du sous-système foo dans un fichier mplog-foo.log. C’est utilisé par le mécanisme de journalisation dans le processus principal (même si les événements de journalisation sont générés dans les processus de travail) pour diriger les messages vers les destinations appropriées.

Utilisation de concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor

Si vous souhaitez utiliser concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor pour démarrer vos processus de travail, vous devez créer la file d’attente légèrement différemment. À la place de

queue = multiprocessing.Queue(-1)

vous devez écrire

queue = multiprocessing.Manager().Queue(-1)  # also works with the examples above

et vous pouvez alors remplacer la création du processus de travail telle que :

workers = []
for i in range(10):
    worker = multiprocessing.Process(target=worker_process,
                                     args=(queue, worker_configurer))
    workers.append(worker)
    worker.start()
for w in workers:
    w.join()

par celle-ci (souvenez-vous d’importer au préalable concurrent.futures) :

with concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor(max_workers=10) as executor:
    for i in range(10):
        executor.submit(worker_process, queue, worker_configurer)

Deploying web applications using Gunicorn and uWSGI

When deploying web applications using Gunicorn [https://gunicorn.org/] or uWSGI [https://uwsgi-docs.readthedocs.io/en/latest/] (or similar), multiple worker processes are created to handle client requests. In such environments, avoid creating file-based handlers directly in your web application. Instead, use a SocketHandler to log from the web application to a listener in a separate process. This can be set up using a process management tool such as Supervisor - see Running a logging socket listener in production for more details.

Utilisation du roulement de fichiers

Sometimes you want to let a log file grow to a certain size, then open a new file and log to that. You may want to keep a certain number of these files, and when that many files have been created, rotate the files so that the number of files and the size of the files both remain bounded. For this usage pattern, the logging package provides a RotatingFileHandler:

import glob
import logging
import logging.handlers

LOG_FILENAME = 'logging_rotatingfile_example.out'

# Set up a specific logger with our desired output level
my_logger = logging.getLogger('MyLogger')
my_logger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)

# Add the log message handler to the logger
handler = logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler(
              LOG_FILENAME, maxBytes=20, backupCount=5)

my_logger.addHandler(handler)

# Log some messages
for i in range(20):
    my_logger.debug('i = %d' % i)

# See what files are created
logfiles = glob.glob('%s*' % LOG_FILENAME)

for filename in logfiles:
    print(filename)

Vous devez obtenir 6 fichiers séparés, chacun contenant une partie de l’historique de journalisation de l’application :

logging_rotatingfile_example.out
logging_rotatingfile_example.out.1
logging_rotatingfile_example.out.2
logging_rotatingfile_example.out.3
logging_rotatingfile_example.out.4
logging_rotatingfile_example.out.5

Le fichier de journalisation actuel est toujours logging_rotatingfile_example.out, et chaque fois qu’il atteint la taille limite, il est renommé avec le suffixe .1. Chacun des fichiers de sauvegarde existants est renommé pour incrémenter le suffixe (.1 devient .2, etc.) et le fichier .6 est effacé.

De toute évidence, la longueur du journal définie dans cet exemple est beaucoup trop petite. À vous de définir maxBytes à une valeur appropriée.

Utilisation d’autres styles de formatage

Lorsque la journalisation a été ajoutée à la bibliothèque standard Python, la seule façon de formater les messages avec un contenu variable était d’utiliser la méthode de formatage avec « % ». Depuis, Python s’est enrichi de deux nouvelles méthode de formatage : string.Template (ajouté dans Python 2.4) et str.format() (ajouté dans Python 2.6).

La journalisation (à partir de la version 3.2) offre une meilleure prise en charge de ces deux styles de formatage supplémentaires. La classe Formatter a été améliorée pour accepter un paramètre par mot-clé facultatif supplémentaire nommé style. La valeur par défaut est '%', les autres valeurs possibles étant '{' et '$', qui correspondent aux deux autres styles de formatage. La rétrocompatibilité est maintenue par défaut (comme vous vous en doutez) mais, en spécifiant explicitement un paramètre de style, vous avez la possibilité de spécifier des chaînes de format qui fonctionnent avec str.format() ou string.Template. Voici un exemple de session interactive en console pour montrer les possibilités :

>>> import logging
>>> root = logging.getLogger()
>>> root.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
>>> handler = logging.StreamHandler()
>>> bf = logging.Formatter('{asctime} {name} {levelname:8s} {message}',
...                        style='{')
>>> handler.setFormatter(bf)
>>> root.addHandler(handler)
>>> logger = logging.getLogger('foo.bar')
>>> logger.debug('This is a DEBUG message')
2010-10-28 15:11:55,341 foo.bar DEBUG    This is a DEBUG message
>>> logger.critical('This is a CRITICAL message')
2010-10-28 15:12:11,526 foo.bar CRITICAL This is a CRITICAL message
>>> df = logging.Formatter('$asctime $name ${levelname} $message',
...                        style='$')
>>> handler.setFormatter(df)
>>> logger.debug('This is a DEBUG message')
2010-10-28 15:13:06,924 foo.bar DEBUG This is a DEBUG message
>>> logger.critical('This is a CRITICAL message')
2010-10-28 15:13:11,494 foo.bar CRITICAL This is a CRITICAL message
>>>

Notez que le formatage des messages de journalisation est, au final, complètement indépendant de la façon dont un message de journalisation individuel est construit. Vous pouvez toujours utiliser formatage via « % », comme ici :

>>> logger.error('This is an%s %s %s', 'other,', 'ERROR,', 'message')
2010-10-28 15:19:29,833 foo.bar ERROR This is another, ERROR, message
>>>

Les appels de journalisation (logger.debug(), logger.info() etc.) ne prennent que des paramètres positionnels pour le message de journalisation lui-même, les paramètres par mots-clés étant utilisés uniquement pour déterminer comment gérer le message réel (par exemple, le paramètre par mot-clé exc_info indique que les informations de trace doivent être enregistrées, ou le paramètre par mot-clé extra indique des informations contextuelles supplémentaires à ajouter au journal). Vous ne pouvez donc pas inclure dans les appels de journalisation à l’aide de la syntaxe str.format() ou string.Template, car le paquet de journalisation utilise le formatage via « % » en interne pour fusionner la chaîne de format et les arguments de variables. Il n’est pas possible de changer ça tout en préservant la rétrocompatibilité puisque tous les appels de journalisation dans le code pré-existant utilisent des chaînes au format « % ».

Il existe cependant un moyen d’utiliser le formatage via « {} » et « $ » pour vos messages de journalisation. Rappelez-vous que, pour un message, vous pouvez utiliser un objet arbitraire comme chaîne de format de message, et que le package de journalisation appelle str() sur cet objet pour fabriquer la chaîne finale. Considérez les deux classes suivantes :

class BraceMessage:
    def __init__(self, fmt, /, *args, **kwargs):
        self.fmt = fmt
        self.args = args
        self.kwargs = kwargs

    def __str__(self):
        return self.fmt.format(*self.args, **self.kwargs)

class DollarMessage:
    def __init__(self, fmt, /, **kwargs):
        self.fmt = fmt
        self.kwargs = kwargs

    def __str__(self):
        from string import Template
        return Template(self.fmt).substitute(**self.kwargs)

L’une ou l’autre peut être utilisée à la place d’une chaîne de format "%(message)s" ou "{message}" ou "$message", afin de mettre en forme via « { } » ou « $ » la partie « message réel » qui apparaît dans la sortie de journal formatée. Il est un peu lourd d’utiliser les noms de classe chaque fois que vous voulez journaliser quelque chose, mais ça devient acceptable si vous utilisez un alias tel que __ (double trait de soulignement — à ne pas confondre avec _, le trait de soulignement unique utilisé comme alias pour gettext.gettext() ou ses homologues).

Les classes ci-dessus ne sont pas incluses dans Python, bien qu’elles soient assez faciles à copier et coller dans votre propre code. Elles peuvent être utilisées comme suit (en supposant qu’elles soient déclarées dans un module appelé wherever) :

>>> from wherever import BraceMessage as __
>>> print(__('Message with {0} {name}', 2, name='placeholders'))
Message with 2 placeholders
>>> class Point: pass
...
>>> p = Point()
>>> p.x = 0.5
>>> p.y = 0.5
>>> print(__('Message with coordinates: ({point.x:.2f}, {point.y:.2f})',
...       point=p))
Message with coordinates: (0.50, 0.50)
>>> from wherever import DollarMessage as __
>>> print(__('Message with $num $what', num=2, what='placeholders'))
Message with 2 placeholders
>>>

Alors que les exemples ci-dessus utilisent print() pour montrer comment fonctionne le formatage, utilisez bien sûr logger.debug() ou similaire pour journaliser avec cette approche.

One thing to note is that you pay no significant performance penalty with this approach: the actual formatting happens not when you make the logging call, but when (and if) the logged message is actually about to be output to a log by a handler. So the only slightly unusual thing which might trip you up is that the parentheses go around the format string and the arguments, not just the format string. That's because the __ notation is just syntax sugar for a constructor call to one of the XXXMessage classes.

Si vous préférez, vous pouvez utiliser un LoggerAdapter pour obtenir un effet similaire à ce qui précède, comme dans l’exemple suivant :

import logging

class Message:
    def __init__(self, fmt, args):
        self.fmt = fmt
        self.args = args

    def __str__(self):
        return self.fmt.format(*self.args)

class StyleAdapter(logging.LoggerAdapter):
    def log(self, level, msg, /, *args, stacklevel=1, **kwargs):
        if self.isEnabledFor(level):
            msg, kwargs = self.process(msg, kwargs)
            self.logger.log(level, Message(msg, args), **kwargs,
                            stacklevel=stacklevel+1)

logger = StyleAdapter(logging.getLogger(__name__))

def main():
    logger.debug('Hello, {}', 'world!')

if __name__ == '__main__':
    logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG)
    main()

The above script should log the message Hello, world! when run with Python 3.8 or later.

Personnalisation de LogRecord

Chaque événement de journalisation est représenté par une instance LogRecord. Lorsqu’un événement est enregistré et non filtré en raison du niveau d’un enregistreur, un LogRecord est créé, rempli avec les informations de l’événement, puis transmis aux gestionnaires de cet enregistreur (et ses ancêtres, jusqu’à et y compris l’enregistreur où la propagation vers le haut de la hiérarchie est désactivée). Avant Python 3.2, il n’y avait que deux endroits où cette création était effectuée :

Logger.makeRecord(), qui est appelée dans le processus normal de journalisation d’un événement. Elle appelait LogRecord directement pour créer une instance.

makeLogRecord(), qui est appelée avec un dictionnaire contenant des attributs à ajouter au LogRecord. Elle est généralement invoquée lorsqu’un dictionnaire approprié a été reçu par le réseau (par exemple, sous forme de pickle via un SocketHandler, ou sous format JSON via un HTTPHandler).

Cela signifiait généralement que, si vous deviez faire quelque chose de spécial avec un LogRecord, vous deviez faire l’une des choses suivantes.

Créer votre propre sous-classe Logger, surchargeant Logger.makeRecord(), et la personnaliser à l’aide de setLoggerClass() avant que les enregistreurs qui vous intéressaient ne soient instanciés.

Ajouter un Filter à un enregistreur ou un gestionnaire, qui effectuait la manipulation spéciale nécessaire dont vous aviez besoin lorsque sa méthode filter() était appelée.

La première approche est un peu lourde dans le scénario où (disons) plusieurs bibliothèques différentes veulent faire des choses différentes. Chacun essaie de définir sa propre sous-classe Logger, et celui qui l’a fait en dernier gagne.

La seconde approche fonctionne raisonnablement bien dans de nombreux cas, mais ne vous permet pas, par exemple, d’utiliser une sous-classe spécialisée de LogRecord. Les développeurs de bibliothèques peuvent définir un filtre approprié sur leurs enregistreurs, mais ils doivent se rappeler de le faire chaque fois qu’ils introduisent un nouvel enregistreur (ce qu’ils font simplement en ajoutant de nouveaux paquets ou modules et en écrivant

logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

au niveau des modules). C’est probablement trop de choses auxquelles penser. Les développeurs pourraient également ajouter le filtre à un NullHandler attaché à leur enregistreur de niveau supérieur, mais cela ne serait pas invoqué si un développeur d’application attachait un gestionnaire à un enregistreur de bibliothèque de niveau inférieur — donc la sortie de ce gestionnaire ne refléterait pas les intentions du développeur de la bibliothèque.

Dans Python 3.2 et ultérieurs, la création de LogRecord est effectuée via une fabrique, que vous pouvez spécifier. La fabrique est juste un appelable que vous pouvez définir avec setLogRecordFactory(), et interroger avec getLogRecordFactory(). La fabrique est invoquée avec la même signature que le constructeur LogRecord, car LogRecord est le paramètre par défaut de la fabrique.

Cette approche permet à une fabrique personnalisée de contrôler tous les aspects de la création d’un LogRecord. Par exemple, vous pouvez renvoyer une sous-classe ou simplement ajouter des attributs supplémentaires à l’enregistrement une fois créé, en utilisant un modèle similaire à celui-ci :

old_factory = logging.getLogRecordFactory()

def record_factory(*args, **kwargs):
    record = old_factory(*args, **kwargs)
    record.custom_attribute = 0xdecafbad
    return record

logging.setLogRecordFactory(record_factory)

Ce modèle permet à différentes bibliothèques d’enchaîner des fabriques, et tant qu’elles n’écrasent pas les attributs des autres ou n’écrasent pas involontairement les attributs fournis en standard, il ne devrait pas y avoir de surprise. Cependant, il faut garder à l’esprit que chaque maillon de la chaîne ajoute une surcharge d’exécution à toutes les opérations de journalisation, et la technique ne doit être utilisée que lorsque l’utilisation d’un Filter ne permet pas d’obtenir le résultat souhaité.

Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example

Subclass QueueHandler

Vous pouvez utiliser une sous-classe QueueHandler pour envoyer des messages à d’autres types de files d’attente, par exemple un connecteur ZeroMQ publish. Dans l’exemple ci-dessous, le connecteur est créé séparément et transmis au gestionnaire (en tant que file d’attente) :

import zmq   # using pyzmq, the Python binding for ZeroMQ
import json  # for serializing records portably

ctx = zmq.Context()
sock = zmq.Socket(ctx, zmq.PUB)  # or zmq.PUSH, or other suitable value
sock.bind('tcp://*:5556')        # or wherever

class ZeroMQSocketHandler(QueueHandler):
    def enqueue(self, record):
        self.queue.send_json(record.__dict__)

handler = ZeroMQSocketHandler(sock)

Bien sûr, il existe d’autres manières de faire, par exemple en transmettant les données nécessaires au gestionnaire pour créer le connecteur :

class ZeroMQSocketHandler(QueueHandler):
    def __init__(self, uri, socktype=zmq.PUB, ctx=None):
        self.ctx = ctx or zmq.Context()
        socket = zmq.Socket(self.ctx, socktype)
        socket.bind(uri)
        super().__init__(socket)

    def enqueue(self, record):
        self.queue.send_json(record.__dict__)

    def close(self):
        self.queue.close()

Subclass QueueListener

Vous pouvez également dériver QueueListener pour obtenir des messages d’autres types de files d’attente, par exemple un connecteur ZeroMQ subscribe. Voici un exemple :

class ZeroMQSocketListener(QueueListener):
    def __init__(self, uri, /, *handlers, **kwargs):
        self.ctx = kwargs.get('ctx') or zmq.Context()
        socket = zmq.Socket(self.ctx, zmq.SUB)
        socket.setsockopt_string(zmq.SUBSCRIBE, '')  # subscribe to everything
        socket.connect(uri)
        super().__init__(socket, *handlers, **kwargs)

    def dequeue(self):
        msg = self.queue.recv_json()
        return logging.makeLogRecord(msg)

Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example

In a similar way to the above section, we can implement a listener and handler using pynng [https://pypi.org/project/pynng/], which is a Python binding to NNG [https://nng.nanomsg.org/], billed as a spiritual successor to ZeroMQ. The following snippets illustrate -- you can test them in an environment which has pynng installed. Just for variety, we present the listener first.

Subclass QueueListener

# listener.py
import json
import logging
import logging.handlers

import pynng

DEFAULT_ADDR = "tcp://localhost:13232"

interrupted = False

class NNGSocketListener(logging.handlers.QueueListener):

    def __init__(self, uri, /, *handlers, **kwargs):
        # Have a timeout for interruptability, and open a
        # subscriber socket
        socket = pynng.Sub0(listen=uri, recv_timeout=500)
        # The b'' subscription matches all topics
        topics = kwargs.pop('topics', None) or b''
        socket.subscribe(topics)
        # We treat the socket as a queue
        super().__init__(socket, *handlers, **kwargs)

    def dequeue(self, block):
        data = None
        # Keep looping while not interrupted and no data received over the
        # socket
        while not interrupted:
            try:
                data = self.queue.recv(block=block)
                break
            except pynng.Timeout:
                pass
            except pynng.Closed:  # sometimes happens when you hit Ctrl-C
                break
        if data is None:
            return None
        # Get the logging event sent from a publisher
        event = json.loads(data.decode('utf-8'))
        return logging.makeLogRecord(event)

    def enqueue_sentinel(self):
        # Not used in this implementation, as the socket isn't really a
        # queue
        pass

logging.getLogger('pynng').propagate = False
listener = NNGSocketListener(DEFAULT_ADDR, logging.StreamHandler(), topics=b'')
listener.start()
print('Press Ctrl-C to stop.')
try:
    while True:
        pass
except KeyboardInterrupt:
    interrupted = True
finally:
    listener.stop()

Subclass QueueHandler

# sender.py
import json
import logging
import logging.handlers
import time
import random

import pynng

DEFAULT_ADDR = "tcp://localhost:13232"

class NNGSocketHandler(logging.handlers.QueueHandler):

    def __init__(self, uri):
        socket = pynng.Pub0(dial=uri, send_timeout=500)
        super().__init__(socket)

    def enqueue(self, record):
        # Send the record as UTF-8 encoded JSON
        d = dict(record.__dict__)
        data = json.dumps(d)
        self.queue.send(data.encode('utf-8'))

    def close(self):
        self.queue.close()

logging.getLogger('pynng').propagate = False
handler = NNGSocketHandler(DEFAULT_ADDR)
# Make sure the process ID is in the output
logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG,
                    handlers=[logging.StreamHandler(), handler],
                    format='%(levelname)-8s %(name)10s %(process)6s %(message)s')
levels = (logging.DEBUG, logging.INFO, logging.WARNING, logging.ERROR,
          logging.CRITICAL)
logger_names = ('myapp', 'myapp.lib1', 'myapp.lib2')
msgno = 1
while True:
    # Just randomly select some loggers and levels and log away
    level = random.choice(levels)
    logger = logging.getLogger(random.choice(logger_names))
    logger.log(level, 'Message no. %5d' % msgno)
    msgno += 1
    delay = random.random() * 2 + 0.5
    time.sleep(delay)

You can run the above two snippets in separate command shells. If we run the listener in one shell and run the sender in two separate shells, we should see something like the following. In the first sender shell:

$ python sender.py
DEBUG         myapp    613 Message no.     1
WARNING  myapp.lib2    613 Message no.     2
CRITICAL myapp.lib2    613 Message no.     3
WARNING  myapp.lib2    613 Message no.     4
CRITICAL myapp.lib1    613 Message no.     5
DEBUG         myapp    613 Message no.     6
CRITICAL myapp.lib1    613 Message no.     7
INFO     myapp.lib1    613 Message no.     8
(and so on)

In the second sender shell:

$ python sender.py
INFO     myapp.lib2    657 Message no.     1
CRITICAL myapp.lib2    657 Message no.     2
CRITICAL      myapp    657 Message no.     3
CRITICAL myapp.lib1    657 Message no.     4
INFO     myapp.lib1    657 Message no.     5
WARNING  myapp.lib2    657 Message no.     6
CRITICAL      myapp    657 Message no.     7
DEBUG    myapp.lib1    657 Message no.     8
(and so on)

In the listener shell:

$ python listener.py
Press Ctrl-C to stop.
DEBUG         myapp    613 Message no.     1
WARNING  myapp.lib2    613 Message no.     2
INFO     myapp.lib2    657 Message no.     1
CRITICAL myapp.lib2    613 Message no.     3
CRITICAL myapp.lib2    657 Message no.     2
CRITICAL      myapp    657 Message no.     3
WARNING  myapp.lib2    613 Message no.     4
CRITICAL myapp.lib1    613 Message no.     5
CRITICAL myapp.lib1    657 Message no.     4
INFO     myapp.lib1    657 Message no.     5
DEBUG         myapp    613 Message no.     6
WARNING  myapp.lib2    657 Message no.     6
CRITICAL      myapp    657 Message no.     7
CRITICAL myapp.lib1    613 Message no.     7
INFO     myapp.lib1    613 Message no.     8
DEBUG    myapp.lib1    657 Message no.     8
(and so on)

As you can see, the logging from the two sender processes is interleaved in the listener's output.

Exemple de configuration basée sur un dictionnaire

Vous trouverez ci-dessous un exemple de dictionnaire de configuration de journalisation – il est tiré de la documentation du projet Django [https://docs.djangoproject.com/fr/stable/topics/logging/#configuring-logging]. Ce dictionnaire est passé à dictConfig() pour activer la configuration :

LOGGING = {
    'version': 1,
    'disable_existing_loggers': False,
    'formatters': {
        'verbose': {
            'format': '{levelname} {asctime} {module} {process:d} {thread:d} {message}',
            'style': '{',
        },
        'simple': {
            'format': '{levelname} {message}',
            'style': '{',
        },
    },
    'filters': {
        'special': {
            '()': 'project.logging.SpecialFilter',
            'foo': 'bar',
        },
    },
    'handlers': {
        'console': {
            'level': 'INFO',
            'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
            'formatter': 'simple',
        },
        'mail_admins': {
            'level': 'ERROR',
            'class': 'django.utils.log.AdminEmailHandler',
            'filters': ['special']
        }
    },
    'loggers': {
        'django': {
            'handlers': ['console'],
            'propagate': True,
        },
        'django.request': {
            'handlers': ['mail_admins'],
            'level': 'ERROR',
            'propagate': False,
        },
        'myproject.custom': {
            'handlers': ['console', 'mail_admins'],
            'level': 'INFO',
            'filters': ['special']
        }
    }
}

Pour plus d’informations sur cette configuration, vous pouvez consulter la section correspondante [https://docs.djangoproject.com/fr/stable/topics/logging/#configuring-logging] de la documentation de Django.

Utilisation d’un rotateur et d’un nom pour personnaliser la rotation des journaux

L’extrait de code suivant fournit un exemple de la façon dont vous pouvez définir un nom et un rotateur, avec la compression par zlib du journal :

import gzip
import logging
import logging.handlers
import os
import shutil

def namer(name):
    return name + ".gz"

def rotator(source, dest):
    with open(source, 'rb') as f_in:
        with gzip.open(dest, 'wb') as f_out:
            shutil.copyfileobj(f_in, f_out)
    os.remove(source)

rh = logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler('rotated.log', maxBytes=128, backupCount=5)
rh.rotator = rotator
rh.namer = namer

root = logging.getLogger()
root.setLevel(logging.INFO)
root.addHandler(rh)
f = logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s %(message)s')
rh.setFormatter(f)
for i in range(1000):
    root.info(f'Message no. {i + 1}')

Après l'avoir exécuté, vous verrez six nouveaux fichiers, dont cinq sont compressés :

$ ls rotated.log*
rotated.log       rotated.log.2.gz  rotated.log.4.gz
rotated.log.1.gz  rotated.log.3.gz  rotated.log.5.gz
$ zcat rotated.log.1.gz
2023-01-20 02:28:17,767 Message no. 996
2023-01-20 02:28:17,767 Message no. 997
2023-01-20 02:28:17,767 Message no. 998

Exemple plus élaboré avec traitement en parallèle

L’exemple suivant que nous allons étudier montre comment la journalisation peut être utilisée, à l’aide de fichiers de configuration, pour un programme effectuant des traitements parallèles. Les configurations sont assez simples, mais servent à illustrer comment des configurations plus complexes pourraient être implémentées dans un scénario multi-processus réel.

Dans l’exemple, le processus principal génère un processus d’écoute et des processus de travail. Chacun des processus, le principal, l’auditeur (listener_process dans l’exemple) et les processus de travail (worker_process dans l’exemple) ont trois configurations distinctes (les processus de travail partagent tous la même configuration). Nous pouvons voir la journalisation dans le processus principal, comment les processus de travail se connectent à un QueueHandler et comment l’auditeur implémente un QueueListener avec une configuration de journalisation plus complexe, et s’arrange pour envoyer les événements reçus via la file d’attente aux gestionnaires spécifiés dans la configuration. Notez que ces configurations sont purement illustratives, mais vous devriez pouvoir adapter cet exemple à votre propre scénario.

Voici le script – les chaines de documentation et les commentaires expliquent (en anglais), le principe de fonctionnement :

import logging
import logging.config
import logging.handlers
from multiprocessing import Process, Queue, Event, current_process
import os
import random
import time

class MyHandler:
    """
    A simple handler for logging events. It runs in the listener process and
    dispatches events to loggers based on the name in the received record,
    which then get dispatched, by the logging system, to the handlers
    configured for those loggers.
    """

    def handle(self, record):
        if record.name == "root":
            logger = logging.getLogger()
        else:
            logger = logging.getLogger(record.name)

        if logger.isEnabledFor(record.levelno):
            # The process name is transformed just to show that it's the listener
            # doing the logging to files and console
            record.processName = '%s (for %s)' % (current_process().name, record.processName)
            logger.handle(record)

def listener_process(q, stop_event, config):
    """
    This could be done in the main process, but is just done in a separate
    process for illustrative purposes.

    This initialises logging according to the specified configuration,
    starts the listener and waits for the main process to signal completion
    via the event. The listener is then stopped, and the process exits.
    """
    logging.config.dictConfig(config)
    listener = logging.handlers.QueueListener(q, MyHandler())
    listener.start()
    if os.name == 'posix':
        # On POSIX, the setup logger will have been configured in the
        # parent process, but should have been disabled following the
        # dictConfig call.
        # On Windows, since fork isn't used, the setup logger won't
        # exist in the child, so it would be created and the message
        # would appear - hence the "if posix" clause.
        logger = logging.getLogger('setup')
        logger.critical('Should not appear, because of disabled logger ...')
    stop_event.wait()
    listener.stop()

def worker_process(config):
    """
    A number of these are spawned for the purpose of illustration. In
    practice, they could be a heterogeneous bunch of processes rather than
    ones which are identical to each other.

    This initialises logging according to the specified configuration,
    and logs a hundred messages with random levels to randomly selected
    loggers.

    A small sleep is added to allow other processes a chance to run. This
    is not strictly needed, but it mixes the output from the different
    processes a bit more than if it's left out.
    """
    logging.config.dictConfig(config)
    levels = [logging.DEBUG, logging.INFO, logging.WARNING, logging.ERROR,
              logging.CRITICAL]
    loggers = ['foo', 'foo.bar', 'foo.bar.baz',
               'spam', 'spam.ham', 'spam.ham.eggs']
    if os.name == 'posix':
        # On POSIX, the setup logger will have been configured in the
        # parent process, but should have been disabled following the
        # dictConfig call.
        # On Windows, since fork isn't used, the setup logger won't
        # exist in the child, so it would be created and the message
        # would appear - hence the "if posix" clause.
        logger = logging.getLogger('setup')
        logger.critical('Should not appear, because of disabled logger ...')
    for i in range(100):
        lvl = random.choice(levels)
        logger = logging.getLogger(random.choice(loggers))
        logger.log(lvl, 'Message no. %d', i)
        time.sleep(0.01)

def main():
    q = Queue()
    # The main process gets a simple configuration which prints to the console.
    config_initial = {
        'version': 1,
        'handlers': {
            'console': {
                'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
                'level': 'INFO'
            }
        },
        'root': {
            'handlers': ['console'],
            'level': 'DEBUG'
        }
    }
    # The worker process configuration is just a QueueHandler attached to the
    # root logger, which allows all messages to be sent to the queue.
    # We disable existing loggers to disable the "setup" logger used in the
    # parent process. This is needed on POSIX because the logger will
    # be there in the child following a fork().
    config_worker = {
        'version': 1,
        'disable_existing_loggers': True,
        'handlers': {
            'queue': {
                'class': 'logging.handlers.QueueHandler',
                'queue': q
            }
        },
        'root': {
            'handlers': ['queue'],
            'level': 'DEBUG'
        }
    }
    # The listener process configuration shows that the full flexibility of
    # logging configuration is available to dispatch events to handlers however
    # you want.
    # We disable existing loggers to disable the "setup" logger used in the
    # parent process. This is needed on POSIX because the logger will
    # be there in the child following a fork().
    config_listener = {
        'version': 1,
        'disable_existing_loggers': True,
        'formatters': {
            'detailed': {
                'class': 'logging.Formatter',
                'format': '%(asctime)s %(name)-15s %(levelname)-8s %(processName)-10s %(message)s'
            },
            'simple': {
                'class': 'logging.Formatter',
                'format': '%(name)-15s %(levelname)-8s %(processName)-10s %(message)s'
            }
        },
        'handlers': {
            'console': {
                'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
                'formatter': 'simple',
                'level': 'INFO'
            },
            'file': {
                'class': 'logging.FileHandler',
                'filename': 'mplog.log',
                'mode': 'w',
                'formatter': 'detailed'
            },
            'foofile': {
                'class': 'logging.FileHandler',
                'filename': 'mplog-foo.log',
                'mode': 'w',
                'formatter': 'detailed'
            },
            'errors': {
                'class': 'logging.FileHandler',
                'filename': 'mplog-errors.log',
                'mode': 'w',
                'formatter': 'detailed',
                'level': 'ERROR'
            }
        },
        'loggers': {
            'foo': {
                'handlers': ['foofile']
            }
        },
        'root': {
            'handlers': ['console', 'file', 'errors'],
            'level': 'DEBUG'
        }
    }
    # Log some initial events, just to show that logging in the parent works
    # normally.
    logging.config.dictConfig(config_initial)
    logger = logging.getLogger('setup')
    logger.info('About to create workers ...')
    workers = []
    for i in range(5):
        wp = Process(target=worker_process, name='worker %d' % (i + 1),
                     args=(config_worker,))
        workers.append(wp)
        wp.start()
        logger.info('Started worker: %s', wp.name)
    logger.info('About to create listener ...')
    stop_event = Event()
    lp = Process(target=listener_process, name='listener',
                 args=(q, stop_event, config_listener))
    lp.start()
    logger.info('Started listener')
    # We now hang around for the workers to finish their work.
    for wp in workers:
        wp.join()
    # Workers all done, listening can now stop.
    # Logging in the parent still works normally.
    logger.info('Telling listener to stop ...')
    stop_event.set()
    lp.join()
    logger.info('All done.')

if __name__ == '__main__':
    main()

Insertion d’une BOM dans les messages envoyés à un SysLogHandler

La RFC 5424 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5424.html] requiert qu’un message Unicode soit envoyé à un démon syslog sous la forme d’un ensemble d’octets ayant la structure suivante : un composant ASCII pur facultatif, suivi d’une marque d’ordre d’octet (BOM pour Byte Order Mark en anglais) UTF-8, suivie de contenu Unicode UTF-8 (voir la la spécification correspondante [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5424.html#section-6]).

Dans Python 3.1, du code a été ajouté à SysLogHandler pour insérer une BOM dans le message mais, malheureusement, il a été implémenté de manière incorrecte, la BOM apparaissant au début du message et n’autorisant donc aucun composant ASCII pur à être placé devant.

Comme ce comportement est inadéquat, le code incorrect d’insertion de la BOM a été supprimé de Python 3.2.4 et ultérieurs. Cependant, il n’est pas remplacé et, si vous voulez produire des messages conformes RFC 5424 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5424.html] qui incluent une BOM, une séquence facultative en ASCII pur avant et un Unicode arbitraire après, encodé en UTF-8, alors vous devez appliquer ce qui suit :

Adjoignez une instance Formatter à votre instance SysLogHandler, avec une chaîne de format telle que :

'ASCII section\ufeffUnicode section'

Le point de code Unicode U+FEFF, lorsqu’il est encodé en UTF-8, est encodé comme une BOM UTF-8 – la chaîne d’octets b'\xef\xbb\xbf'.

Remplacez la section ASCII par les caractères de votre choix, mais assurez-vous que les données qui y apparaissent après la substitution sont toujours ASCII (ainsi elles resteront inchangées après l’encodage UTF-8).

Remplacez la section Unicode par le contenu de votre choix ; si les données qui y apparaissent après la substitution contiennent des caractères en dehors de la plage ASCII, c’est pris en charge – elles seront encodées en UTF-8.

Le message formaté sera encodé en UTF-8 par SysLogHandler. Si vous suivez les règles ci-dessus, vous devriez pouvoir produire des messages conformes à la RFC 5424 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5424.html]. Si vous ne le faites pas, la journalisation ne se plaindra peut-être pas, mais vos messages ne seront pas conformes à la RFC 5424 et votre démon syslog est susceptible de se plaindre.

Journalisation structurée

Bien que la plupart des messages de journalisation soient destinés à être lus par des humains, et donc difficilement analysables par la machine, il peut arriver que vous souhaitiez produire des messages dans un format structuré dans le but d’être analysé par un programme (sans avoir besoin d’expressions régulières complexes pour analyser le message du journal). C’est simple à réaliser en utilisant le paquet de journalisation. Il existe plusieurs façons d’y parvenir et voici une approche simple qui utilise JSON pour sérialiser l’événement de manière à être analysable par une machine :

import json
import logging

class StructuredMessage:
    def __init__(self, message, /, **kwargs):
        self.message = message
        self.kwargs = kwargs

    def __str__(self):
        return '%s >>> %s' % (self.message, json.dumps(self.kwargs))

_ = StructuredMessage   # optional, to improve readability

logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO, format='%(message)s')
logging.info(_('message 1', foo='bar', bar='baz', num=123, fnum=123.456))

Si vous lancez le script ci-dessus, il imprime :

message 1 >>> {"fnum": 123.456, "num": 123, "bar": "baz", "foo": "bar"}

Notez que l’ordre des éléments peut être différent en fonction de la version de Python utilisée.

Si vous avez besoin d’un traitement plus spécifique, vous pouvez utiliser un encodeur JSON personnalisé, comme dans l’exemple complet suivant :

import json
import logging

class Encoder(json.JSONEncoder):
    def default(self, o):
        if isinstance(o, set):
            return tuple(o)
        elif isinstance(o, str):
            return o.encode('unicode_escape').decode('ascii')
        return super().default(o)

class StructuredMessage:
    def __init__(self, message, /, **kwargs):
        self.message = message
        self.kwargs = kwargs

    def __str__(self):
        s = Encoder().encode(self.kwargs)
        return '%s >>> %s' % (self.message, s)

_ = StructuredMessage   # optional, to improve readability

def main():
    logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO, format='%(message)s')
    logging.info(_('message 1', set_value={1, 2, 3}, snowman='\u2603'))

if __name__ == '__main__':
    main()

Quand vous exécutez le script ci-dessus, il imprime :

message 1 >>> {"snowman": "\u2603", "set_value": [1, 2, 3]}

Notez que l’ordre des éléments peut être différent en fonction de la version de Python utilisée.

Personnalisation des gestionnaires avec dictConfig()

Il arrive de souhaiter personnaliser les gestionnaires de journalisation d’une manière particulière et, en utilisant dictConfig(), vous pourrez peut-être le faire sans avoir à dériver les classes mères. Par exemple, supposons que vous souhaitiez définir le propriétaire d’un fichier journal. Dans un environnement POSIX, cela se fait facilement en utilisant shutil.chown(), mais les gestionnaires de fichiers de la bibliothèque standard n’offrent pas cette gestion nativement. Vous pouvez personnaliser la création du gestionnaire à l’aide d’une fonction simple telle que :

def owned_file_handler(filename, mode='a', encoding=None, owner=None):
    if owner:
        if not os.path.exists(filename):
            open(filename, 'a').close()
        shutil.chown(filename, *owner)
    return logging.FileHandler(filename, mode, encoding)

Vous pouvez ensuite spécifier, dans une configuration de journalisation transmise à dictConfig(), qu’un gestionnaire de journalisation soit créé en appelant cette fonction :

LOGGING = {
    'version': 1,
    'disable_existing_loggers': False,
    'formatters': {
        'default': {
            'format': '%(asctime)s %(levelname)s %(name)s %(message)s'
        },
    },
    'handlers': {
        'file':{
            # The values below are popped from this dictionary and
            # used to create the handler, set the handler's level and
            # its formatter.
            '()': owned_file_handler,
            'level':'DEBUG',
            'formatter': 'default',
            # The values below are passed to the handler creator callable
            # as keyword arguments.
            'owner': ['pulse', 'pulse'],
            'filename': 'chowntest.log',
            'mode': 'w',
            'encoding': 'utf-8',
        },
    },
    'root': {
        'handlers': ['file'],
        'level': 'DEBUG',
    },
}

Dans cet exemple, nous définissons le propriétaire à l’utilisateur et au groupe pulse, uniquement à des fins d’illustration. Rassemblons le tout dans un script chowntest.py :

import logging, logging.config, os, shutil

def owned_file_handler(filename, mode='a', encoding=None, owner=None):
    if owner:
        if not os.path.exists(filename):
            open(filename, 'a').close()
        shutil.chown(filename, *owner)
    return logging.FileHandler(filename, mode, encoding)

LOGGING = {
    'version': 1,
    'disable_existing_loggers': False,
    'formatters': {
        'default': {
            'format': '%(asctime)s %(levelname)s %(name)s %(message)s'
        },
    },
    'handlers': {
        'file':{
            # The values below are popped from this dictionary and
            # used to create the handler, set the handler's level and
            # its formatter.
            '()': owned_file_handler,
            'level':'DEBUG',
            'formatter': 'default',
            # The values below are passed to the handler creator callable
            # as keyword arguments.
            'owner': ['pulse', 'pulse'],
            'filename': 'chowntest.log',
            'mode': 'w',
            'encoding': 'utf-8',
        },
    },
    'root': {
        'handlers': ['file'],
        'level': 'DEBUG',
    },
}

logging.config.dictConfig(LOGGING)
logger = logging.getLogger('mylogger')
logger.debug('A debug message')

Pour l’exécuter, vous devrez probablement le faire en tant que root :

$ sudo python3.3 chowntest.py
$ cat chowntest.log
2013-11-05 09:34:51,128 DEBUG mylogger A debug message
$ ls -l chowntest.log
-rw-r--r-- 1 pulse pulse 55 2013-11-05 09:34 chowntest.log

Notez que cet exemple utilise Python 3.3 car c’est là que shutil.chown() fait son apparition. Cette approche devrait fonctionner avec n’importe quelle version de Python prenant en charge dictConfig() – à savoir, Python 2.7, 3.2 ou version ultérieure. Avec les versions antérieures à la 3.3, vous devrez implémenter le changement de propriétaire réel en utilisant par exemple os.chown().

En pratique, la fonction de création de gestionnaire peut être située dans un module utilitaire ailleurs dans votre projet. Au lieu de cette ligne dans la configuration :

'()': owned_file_handler,

vous pouvez écrire par exemple :

'()': 'ext://project.util.owned_file_handler',

où project.util peut être remplacé par le nom réel du paquet où réside la fonction. Dans le script étudié ci-dessus, l’utilisation de 'ext://__main__.owned_file_handler' devrait fonctionner. Dans le cas présent, l’appelable réel est résolu par dictConfig() à partir de la spécification ext://.

Nous espérons qu'à partir de cet exemple vous saurez implémenter d’autres types de modification de fichier – par ex. définir des bits d’autorisation POSIX spécifiques – de la même manière, en utilisant os.chmod().

Bien sûr, l’approche pourrait également être étendue à des types de gestionnaires autres qu’un FileHandler – par exemple, l’un des gestionnaires à roulement de fichiers ou un autre type de gestionnaire complètement différent.

Using particular formatting styles throughout your application

In Python 3.2, the Formatter gained a style keyword parameter which, while defaulting to % for backward compatibility, allowed the specification of { or $ to support the formatting approaches supported by str.format() and string.Template. Note that this governs the formatting of logging messages for final output to logs, and is completely orthogonal to how an individual logging message is constructed.

Logging calls (debug(), info() etc.) only take positional parameters for the actual logging message itself, with keyword parameters used only for determining options for how to handle the logging call (e.g. the exc_info keyword parameter to indicate that traceback information should be logged, or the extra keyword parameter to indicate additional contextual information to be added to the log). So you cannot directly make logging calls using str.format() or string.Template syntax, because internally the logging package uses %-formatting to merge the format string and the variable arguments. There would be no changing this while preserving backward compatibility, since all logging calls which are out there in existing code will be using %-format strings.

There have been suggestions to associate format styles with specific loggers, but that approach also runs into backward compatibility problems because any existing code could be using a given logger name and using %-formatting.

For logging to work interoperably between any third-party libraries and your code, decisions about formatting need to be made at the level of the individual logging call. This opens up a couple of ways in which alternative formatting styles can be accommodated.

Using LogRecord factories

In Python 3.2, along with the Formatter changes mentioned above, the logging package gained the ability to allow users to set their own LogRecord subclasses, using the setLogRecordFactory() function. You can use this to set your own subclass of LogRecord, which does the Right Thing by overriding the getMessage() method. The base class implementation of this method is where the msg % args formatting happens, and where you can substitute your alternate formatting; however, you should be careful to support all formatting styles and allow %-formatting as the default, to ensure interoperability with other code. Care should also be taken to call str(self.msg), just as the base implementation does.

Refer to the reference documentation on setLogRecordFactory() and LogRecord for more information.

Using custom message objects

There is another, perhaps simpler way that you can use {}- and $- formatting to construct your individual log messages. You may recall (from Utilisation d'objets arbitraires comme messages) that when logging you can use an arbitrary object as a message format string, and that the logging package will call str() on that object to get the actual format string. Consider the following two classes:

class BraceMessage:
    def __init__(self, fmt, /, *args, **kwargs):
        self.fmt = fmt
        self.args = args
        self.kwargs = kwargs

    def __str__(self):
        return self.fmt.format(*self.args, **self.kwargs)

class DollarMessage:
    def __init__(self, fmt, /, **kwargs):
        self.fmt = fmt
        self.kwargs = kwargs

    def __str__(self):
        from string import Template
        return Template(self.fmt).substitute(**self.kwargs)

Either of these can be used in place of a format string, to allow {}- or $-formatting to be used to build the actual "message" part which appears in the formatted log output in place of “%(message)s” or “{message}” or “$message”. If you find it a little unwieldy to use the class names whenever you want to log something, you can make it more palatable if you use an alias such as M or _ for the message (or perhaps __, if you are using _ for localization).

Examples of this approach are given below. Firstly, formatting with str.format():

>>> __ = BraceMessage
>>> print(__('Message with {0} {1}', 2, 'placeholders'))
Message with 2 placeholders
>>> class Point: pass
...
>>> p = Point()
>>> p.x = 0.5
>>> p.y = 0.5
>>> print(__('Message with coordinates: ({point.x:.2f}, {point.y:.2f})', point=p))
Message with coordinates: (0.50, 0.50)

Secondly, formatting with string.Template:

>>> __ = DollarMessage
>>> print(__('Message with $num $what', num=2, what='placeholders'))
Message with 2 placeholders
>>>

One thing to note is that you pay no significant performance penalty with this approach: the actual formatting happens not when you make the logging call, but when (and if) the logged message is actually about to be output to a log by a handler. So the only slightly unusual thing which might trip you up is that the parentheses go around the format string and the arguments, not just the format string. That’s because the __ notation is just syntax sugar for a constructor call to one of the XXXMessage classes shown above.

Configuring filters with dictConfig()

You can configure filters using dictConfig(), though it might not be obvious at first glance how to do it (hence this recipe). Since Filter is the only filter class included in the standard library, and it is unlikely to cater to many requirements (it's only there as a base class), you will typically need to define your own Filter subclass with an overridden filter() method. To do this, specify the () key in the configuration dictionary for the filter, specifying a callable which will be used to create the filter (a class is the most obvious, but you can provide any callable which returns a Filter instance). Here is a complete example:

import logging
import logging.config
import sys

class MyFilter(logging.Filter):
    def __init__(self, param=None):
        self.param = param

    def filter(self, record):
        if self.param is None:
            allow = True
        else:
            allow = self.param not in record.msg
        if allow:
            record.msg = 'changed: ' + record.msg
        return allow

LOGGING = {
    'version': 1,
    'filters': {
        'myfilter': {
            '()': MyFilter,
            'param': 'noshow',
        }
    },
    'handlers': {
        'console': {
            'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
            'filters': ['myfilter']
        }
    },
    'root': {
        'level': 'DEBUG',
        'handlers': ['console']
    },
}

if __name__ == '__main__':
    logging.config.dictConfig(LOGGING)
    logging.debug('hello')
    logging.debug('hello - noshow')

This example shows how you can pass configuration data to the callable which constructs the instance, in the form of keyword parameters. When run, the above script will print:

changed: hello

which shows that the filter is working as configured.

A couple of extra points to note:

If you can't refer to the callable directly in the configuration (e.g. if it lives in a different module, and you can't import it directly where the configuration dictionary is), you can use the form ext://... as described in Access to external objects. For example, you could have used the text 'ext://__main__.MyFilter' instead of MyFilter in the above example.

As well as for filters, this technique can also be used to configure custom handlers and formatters. See User-defined objects for more information on how logging supports using user-defined objects in its configuration, and see the other cookbook recipe Personnalisation des gestionnaires avec dictConfig() above.

Customized exception formatting

There might be times when you want to do customized exception formatting - for argument's sake, let's say you want exactly one line per logged event, even when exception information is present. You can do this with a custom formatter class, as shown in the following example:

import logging

class OneLineExceptionFormatter(logging.Formatter):
    def formatException(self, exc_info):
        """
        Format an exception so that it prints on a single line.
        """
        result = super().formatException(exc_info)
        return repr(result)  # or format into one line however you want to

    def format(self, record):
        s = super().format(record)
        if record.exc_text:
            s = s.replace('\n', '') + '|'
        return s

def configure_logging():
    fh = logging.FileHandler('output.txt', 'w')
    f = OneLineExceptionFormatter('%(asctime)s|%(levelname)s|%(message)s|',
                                  '%d/%m/%Y %H:%M:%S')
    fh.setFormatter(f)
    root = logging.getLogger()
    root.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
    root.addHandler(fh)

def main():
    configure_logging()
    logging.info('Sample message')
    try:
        x = 1 / 0
    except ZeroDivisionError as e:
        logging.exception('ZeroDivisionError: %s', e)

if __name__ == '__main__':
    main()

When run, this produces a file with exactly two lines:

28/01/2015 07:21:23|INFO|Sample message|
28/01/2015 07:21:23|ERROR|ZeroDivisionError: division by zero|'Traceback (most recent call last):\n  File "logtest7.py", line 30, in main\n    x = 1 / 0\nZeroDivisionError: division by zero'|

While the above treatment is simplistic, it points the way to how exception information can be formatted to your liking. The traceback module may be helpful for more specialized needs.

Speaking logging messages

There might be situations when it is desirable to have logging messages rendered in an audible rather than a visible format. This is easy to do if you have text-to-speech (TTS) functionality available in your system, even if it doesn't have a Python binding. Most TTS systems have a command line program you can run, and this can be invoked from a handler using subprocess. It's assumed here that TTS command line programs won't expect to interact with users or take a long time to complete, and that the frequency of logged messages will be not so high as to swamp the user with messages, and that it's acceptable to have the messages spoken one at a time rather than concurrently, The example implementation below waits for one message to be spoken before the next is processed, and this might cause other handlers to be kept waiting. Here is a short example showing the approach, which assumes that the espeak TTS package is available:

import logging
import subprocess
import sys

class TTSHandler(logging.Handler):
    def emit(self, record):
        msg = self.format(record)
        # Speak slowly in a female English voice
        cmd = ['espeak', '-s150', '-ven+f3', msg]
        p = subprocess.Popen(cmd, stdout=subprocess.PIPE,
                             stderr=subprocess.STDOUT)
        # wait for the program to finish
        p.communicate()

def configure_logging():
    h = TTSHandler()
    root = logging.getLogger()
    root.addHandler(h)
    # the default formatter just returns the message
    root.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)

def main():
    logging.info('Hello')
    logging.debug('Goodbye')

if __name__ == '__main__':
    configure_logging()
    sys.exit(main())

When run, this script should say "Hello" and then "Goodbye" in a female voice.

The above approach can, of course, be adapted to other TTS systems and even other systems altogether which can process messages via external programs run from a command line.

Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally

There might be situations where you want to log messages in a temporary area and only output them if a certain condition occurs. For example, you may want to start logging debug events in a function, and if the function completes without errors, you don't want to clutter the log with the collected debug information, but if there is an error, you want all the debug information to be output as well as the error.

Here is an example which shows how you could do this using a decorator for your functions where you want logging to behave this way. It makes use of the logging.handlers.MemoryHandler, which allows buffering of logged events until some condition occurs, at which point the buffered events are flushed - passed to another handler (the target handler) for processing. By default, the MemoryHandler flushed when its buffer gets filled up or an event whose level is greater than or equal to a specified threshold is seen. You can use this recipe with a more specialised subclass of MemoryHandler if you want custom flushing behavior.

The example script has a simple function, foo, which just cycles through all the logging levels, writing to sys.stderr to say what level it's about to log at, and then actually logging a message at that level. You can pass a parameter to foo which, if true, will log at ERROR and CRITICAL levels - otherwise, it only logs at DEBUG, INFO and WARNING levels.

The script just arranges to decorate foo with a decorator which will do the conditional logging that's required. The decorator takes a logger as a parameter and attaches a memory handler for the duration of the call to the decorated function. The decorator can be additionally parameterised using a target handler, a level at which flushing should occur, and a capacity for the buffer (number of records buffered). These default to a StreamHandler which writes to sys.stderr, logging.ERROR and 100 respectively.

Here's the script:

import logging
from logging.handlers import MemoryHandler
import sys

logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
logger.addHandler(logging.NullHandler())

def log_if_errors(logger, target_handler=None, flush_level=None, capacity=None):
    if target_handler is None:
        target_handler = logging.StreamHandler()
    if flush_level is None:
        flush_level = logging.ERROR
    if capacity is None:
        capacity = 100
    handler = MemoryHandler(capacity, flushLevel=flush_level, target=target_handler)

    def decorator(fn):
        def wrapper(*args, **kwargs):
            logger.addHandler(handler)
            try:
                return fn(*args, **kwargs)
            except Exception:
                logger.exception('call failed')
                raise
            finally:
                super(MemoryHandler, handler).flush()
                logger.removeHandler(handler)
        return wrapper

    return decorator

def write_line(s):
    sys.stderr.write('%s\n' % s)

def foo(fail=False):
    write_line('about to log at DEBUG ...')
    logger.debug('Actually logged at DEBUG')
    write_line('about to log at INFO ...')
    logger.info('Actually logged at INFO')
    write_line('about to log at WARNING ...')
    logger.warning('Actually logged at WARNING')
    if fail:
        write_line('about to log at ERROR ...')
        logger.error('Actually logged at ERROR')
        write_line('about to log at CRITICAL ...')
        logger.critical('Actually logged at CRITICAL')
    return fail

decorated_foo = log_if_errors(logger)(foo)

if __name__ == '__main__':
    logger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
    write_line('Calling undecorated foo with False')
    assert not foo(False)
    write_line('Calling undecorated foo with True')
    assert foo(True)
    write_line('Calling decorated foo with False')
    assert not decorated_foo(False)
    write_line('Calling decorated foo with True')
    assert decorated_foo(True)

When this script is run, the following output should be observed:

Calling undecorated foo with False
about to log at DEBUG ...
about to log at INFO ...
about to log at WARNING ...
Calling undecorated foo with True
about to log at DEBUG ...
about to log at INFO ...
about to log at WARNING ...
about to log at ERROR ...
about to log at CRITICAL ...
Calling decorated foo with False
about to log at DEBUG ...
about to log at INFO ...
about to log at WARNING ...
Calling decorated foo with True
about to log at DEBUG ...
about to log at INFO ...
about to log at WARNING ...
about to log at ERROR ...
Actually logged at DEBUG
Actually logged at INFO
Actually logged at WARNING
Actually logged at ERROR
about to log at CRITICAL ...
Actually logged at CRITICAL

As you can see, actual logging output only occurs when an event is logged whose severity is ERROR or greater, but in that case, any previous events at lower severities are also logged.

You can of course use the conventional means of decoration:

@log_if_errors(logger)
def foo(fail=False):
    ...

Sending logging messages to email, with buffering

To illustrate how you can send log messages via email, so that a set number of messages are sent per email, you can subclass BufferingHandler. In the following example, which you can adapt to suit your specific needs, a simple test harness is provided which allows you to run the script with command line arguments specifying what you typically need to send things via SMTP. (Run the downloaded script with the -h argument to see the required and optional arguments.)

import logging
import logging.handlers
import smtplib

class BufferingSMTPHandler(logging.handlers.BufferingHandler):
    def __init__(self, mailhost, port, username, password, fromaddr, toaddrs,
                 subject, capacity):
        logging.handlers.BufferingHandler.__init__(self, capacity)
        self.mailhost = mailhost
        self.mailport = port
        self.username = username
        self.password = password
        self.fromaddr = fromaddr
        if isinstance(toaddrs, str):
            toaddrs = [toaddrs]
        self.toaddrs = toaddrs
        self.subject = subject
        self.setFormatter(logging.Formatter("%(asctime)s %(levelname)-5s %(message)s"))

    def flush(self):
        if len(self.buffer) > 0:
            try:
                smtp = smtplib.SMTP(self.mailhost, self.mailport)
                smtp.starttls()
                smtp.login(self.username, self.password)
                msg = "From: %s\r\nTo: %s\r\nSubject: %s\r\n\r\n" % (self.fromaddr, ','.join(self.toaddrs), self.subject)
                for record in self.buffer:
                    s = self.format(record)
                    msg = msg + s + "\r\n"
                smtp.sendmail(self.fromaddr, self.toaddrs, msg)
                smtp.quit()
            except Exception:
                if logging.raiseExceptions:
                    raise
            self.buffer = []

if __name__ == '__main__':
    import argparse

    ap = argparse.ArgumentParser()
    aa = ap.add_argument
    aa('host', metavar='HOST', help='SMTP server')
    aa('--port', '-p', type=int, default=587, help='SMTP port')
    aa('user', metavar='USER', help='SMTP username')
    aa('password', metavar='PASSWORD', help='SMTP password')
    aa('to', metavar='TO', help='Addressee for emails')
    aa('sender', metavar='SENDER', help='Sender email address')
    aa('--subject', '-s',
       default='Test Logging email from Python logging module (buffering)',
       help='Subject of email')
    options = ap.parse_args()
    logger = logging.getLogger()
    logger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
    h = BufferingSMTPHandler(options.host, options.port, options.user,
                             options.password, options.sender,
                             options.to, options.subject, 10)
    logger.addHandler(h)
    for i in range(102):
        logger.info("Info index = %d", i)
    h.flush()
    h.close()

If you run this script and your SMTP server is correctly set up, you should find that it sends eleven emails to the addressee you specify. The first ten emails will each have ten log messages, and the eleventh will have two messages. That makes up 102 messages as specified in the script.

Formatting times using UTC (GMT) via configuration

Sometimes you want to format times using UTC, which can be done using a class such as UTCFormatter, shown below:

import logging
import time

class UTCFormatter(logging.Formatter):
    converter = time.gmtime

and you can then use the UTCFormatter in your code instead of Formatter. If you want to do that via configuration, you can use the dictConfig() API with an approach illustrated by the following complete example:

import logging
import logging.config
import time

class UTCFormatter(logging.Formatter):
    converter = time.gmtime

LOGGING = {
    'version': 1,
    'disable_existing_loggers': False,
    'formatters': {
        'utc': {
            '()': UTCFormatter,
            'format': '%(asctime)s %(message)s',
        },
        'local': {
            'format': '%(asctime)s %(message)s',
        }
    },
    'handlers': {
        'console1': {
            'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
            'formatter': 'utc',
        },
        'console2': {
            'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
            'formatter': 'local',
        },
    },
    'root': {
        'handlers': ['console1', 'console2'],
   }
}

if __name__ == '__main__':
    logging.config.dictConfig(LOGGING)
    logging.warning('The local time is %s', time.asctime())

When this script is run, it should print something like:

2015-10-17 12:53:29,501 The local time is Sat Oct 17 13:53:29 2015
2015-10-17 13:53:29,501 The local time is Sat Oct 17 13:53:29 2015

showing how the time is formatted both as local time and UTC, one for each handler.

Using a context manager for selective logging

There are times when it would be useful to temporarily change the logging configuration and revert it back after doing something. For this, a context manager is the most obvious way of saving and restoring the logging context. Here is a simple example of such a context manager, which allows you to optionally change the logging level and add a logging handler purely in the scope of the context manager:

import logging
import sys

class LoggingContext:
    def __init__(self, logger, level=None, handler=None, close=True):
        self.logger = logger
        self.level = level
        self.handler = handler
        self.close = close

    def __enter__(self):
        if self.level is not None:
            self.old_level = self.logger.level
            self.logger.setLevel(self.level)
        if self.handler:
            self.logger.addHandler(self.handler)

    def __exit__(self, et, ev, tb):
        if self.level is not None:
            self.logger.setLevel(self.old_level)
        if self.handler:
            self.logger.removeHandler(self.handler)
        if self.handler and self.close:
            self.handler.close()
        # implicit return of None => don't swallow exceptions

If you specify a level value, the logger's level is set to that value in the scope of the with block covered by the context manager. If you specify a handler, it is added to the logger on entry to the block and removed on exit from the block. You can also ask the manager to close the handler for you on block exit - you could do this if you don't need the handler any more.

To illustrate how it works, we can add the following block of code to the above:

if __name__ == '__main__':
    logger = logging.getLogger('foo')
    logger.addHandler(logging.StreamHandler())
    logger.setLevel(logging.INFO)
    logger.info('1. This should appear just once on stderr.')
    logger.debug('2. This should not appear.')
    with LoggingContext(logger, level=logging.DEBUG):
        logger.debug('3. This should appear once on stderr.')
    logger.debug('4. This should not appear.')
    h = logging.StreamHandler(sys.stdout)
    with LoggingContext(logger, level=logging.DEBUG, handler=h, close=True):
        logger.debug('5. This should appear twice - once on stderr and once on stdout.')
    logger.info('6. This should appear just once on stderr.')
    logger.debug('7. This should not appear.')

We initially set the logger's level to INFO, so message #1 appears and message #2 doesn't. We then change the level to DEBUG temporarily in the following with block, and so message #3 appears. After the block exits, the logger's level is restored to INFO and so message #4 doesn't appear. In the next with block, we set the level to DEBUG again but also add a handler writing to sys.stdout. Thus, message #5 appears twice on the console (once via stderr and once via stdout). After the with statement's completion, the status is as it was before so message #6 appears (like message #1) whereas message #7 doesn't (just like message #2).

If we run the resulting script, the result is as follows:

$ python logctx.py
1. This should appear just once on stderr.
3. This should appear once on stderr.
5. This should appear twice - once on stderr and once on stdout.
5. This should appear twice - once on stderr and once on stdout.
6. This should appear just once on stderr.

If we run it again, but pipe stderr to /dev/null, we see the following, which is the only message written to stdout:

$ python logctx.py 2>/dev/null
5. This should appear twice - once on stderr and once on stdout.

Once again, but piping stdout to /dev/null, we get:

$ python logctx.py >/dev/null
1. This should appear just once on stderr.
3. This should appear once on stderr.
5. This should appear twice - once on stderr and once on stdout.
6. This should appear just once on stderr.

In this case, the message #5 printed to stdout doesn't appear, as expected.

Of course, the approach described here can be generalised, for example to attach logging filters temporarily. Note that the above code works in Python 2 as well as Python 3.

A CLI application starter template

Here's an example which shows how you can:

Use a logging level based on command-line arguments

Dispatch to multiple subcommands in separate files, all logging at the same level in a consistent way

Make use of simple, minimal configuration

Suppose we have a command-line application whose job is to stop, start or restart some services. This could be organised for the purposes of illustration as a file app.py that is the main script for the application, with individual commands implemented in start.py, stop.py and restart.py. Suppose further that we want to control the verbosity of the application via a command-line argument, defaulting to logging.INFO. Here's one way that app.py could be written:

import argparse
import importlib
import logging
import os
import sys

def main(args=None):
    scriptname = os.path.basename(__file__)
    parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(scriptname)
    levels = ('DEBUG', 'INFO', 'WARNING', 'ERROR', 'CRITICAL')
    parser.add_argument('--log-level', default='INFO', choices=levels)
    subparsers = parser.add_subparsers(dest='command',
                                       help='Available commands:')
    start_cmd = subparsers.add_parser('start', help='Start a service')
    start_cmd.add_argument('name', metavar='NAME',
                           help='Name of service to start')
    stop_cmd = subparsers.add_parser('stop',
                                     help='Stop one or more services')
    stop_cmd.add_argument('names', metavar='NAME', nargs='+',
                          help='Name of service to stop')
    restart_cmd = subparsers.add_parser('restart',
                                        help='Restart one or more services')
    restart_cmd.add_argument('names', metavar='NAME', nargs='+',
                             help='Name of service to restart')
    options = parser.parse_args()
    # the code to dispatch commands could all be in this file. For the purposes
    # of illustration only, we implement each command in a separate module.
    try:
        mod = importlib.import_module(options.command)
        cmd = getattr(mod, 'command')
    except (ImportError, AttributeError):
        print('Unable to find the code for command \'%s\'' % options.command)
        return 1
    # Could get fancy here and load configuration from file or dictionary
    logging.basicConfig(level=options.log_level,
                        format='%(levelname)s %(name)s %(message)s')
    cmd(options)

if __name__ == '__main__':
    sys.exit(main())

And the start, stop and restart commands can be implemented in separate modules, like so for starting:

# start.py
import logging

logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

def command(options):
    logger.debug('About to start %s', options.name)
    # actually do the command processing here ...
    logger.info('Started the \'%s\' service.', options.name)

and thus for stopping:

# stop.py
import logging

logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

def command(options):
    n = len(options.names)
    if n == 1:
        plural = ''
        services = '\'%s\'' % options.names[0]
    else:
        plural = 's'
        services = ', '.join('\'%s\'' % name for name in options.names)
        i = services.rfind(', ')
        services = services[:i] + ' and ' + services[i + 2:]
    logger.debug('About to stop %s', services)
    # actually do the command processing here ...
    logger.info('Stopped the %s service%s.', services, plural)

and similarly for restarting:

# restart.py
import logging

logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

def command(options):
    n = len(options.names)
    if n == 1:
        plural = ''
        services = '\'%s\'' % options.names[0]
    else:
        plural = 's'
        services = ', '.join('\'%s\'' % name for name in options.names)
        i = services.rfind(', ')
        services = services[:i] + ' and ' + services[i + 2:]
    logger.debug('About to restart %s', services)
    # actually do the command processing here ...
    logger.info('Restarted the %s service%s.', services, plural)

If we run this application with the default log level, we get output like this:

$ python app.py start foo
INFO start Started the 'foo' service.

$ python app.py stop foo bar
INFO stop Stopped the 'foo' and 'bar' services.

$ python app.py restart foo bar baz
INFO restart Restarted the 'foo', 'bar' and 'baz' services.

The first word is the logging level, and the second word is the module or package name of the place where the event was logged.

If we change the logging level, then we can change the information sent to the log. For example, if we want more information:

$ python app.py --log-level DEBUG start foo
DEBUG start About to start foo
INFO start Started the 'foo' service.

$ python app.py --log-level DEBUG stop foo bar
DEBUG stop About to stop 'foo' and 'bar'
INFO stop Stopped the 'foo' and 'bar' services.

$ python app.py --log-level DEBUG restart foo bar baz
DEBUG restart About to restart 'foo', 'bar' and 'baz'
INFO restart Restarted the 'foo', 'bar' and 'baz' services.

And if we want less:

$ python app.py --log-level WARNING start foo
$ python app.py --log-level WARNING stop foo bar
$ python app.py --log-level WARNING restart foo bar baz

In this case, the commands don't print anything to the console, since nothing at WARNING level or above is logged by them.

A Qt GUI for logging

A question that comes up from time to time is about how to log to a GUI application. The Qt [https://www.qt.io/] framework is a popular cross-platform UI framework with Python bindings using PySide2 [https://pypi.org/project/PySide2/] or PyQt5 [https://pypi.org/project/PyQt5/] libraries.

The following example shows how to log to a Qt GUI. This introduces a simple QtHandler class which takes a callable, which should be a slot in the main thread that does GUI updates. A worker thread is also created to show how you can log to the GUI from both the UI itself (via a button for manual logging) as well as a worker thread doing work in the background (here, just logging messages at random levels with random short delays in between).

The worker thread is implemented using Qt's QThread class rather than the threading module, as there are circumstances where one has to use QThread, which offers better integration with other Qt components.

The code should work with recent releases of any of PySide6, PyQt6, PySide2 or PyQt5. You should be able to adapt the approach to earlier versions of Qt. Please refer to the comments in the code snippet for more detailed information.

import logging
import random
import sys
import time

# Deal with minor differences between different Qt packages
try:
    from PySide6 import QtCore, QtGui, QtWidgets
    Signal = QtCore.Signal
    Slot = QtCore.Slot
except ImportError:
    try:
        from PyQt6 import QtCore, QtGui, QtWidgets
        Signal = QtCore.pyqtSignal
        Slot = QtCore.pyqtSlot
    except ImportError:
        try:
            from PySide2 import QtCore, QtGui, QtWidgets
            Signal = QtCore.Signal
            Slot = QtCore.Slot
        except ImportError:
            from PyQt5 import QtCore, QtGui, QtWidgets
            Signal = QtCore.pyqtSignal
            Slot = QtCore.pyqtSlot

logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

#
# Signals need to be contained in a QObject or subclass in order to be correctly
# initialized.
#
class Signaller(QtCore.QObject):
    signal = Signal(str, logging.LogRecord)

#
# Output to a Qt GUI is only supposed to happen on the main thread. So, this
# handler is designed to take a slot function which is set up to run in the main
# thread. In this example, the function takes a string argument which is a
# formatted log message, and the log record which generated it. The formatted
# string is just a convenience - you could format a string for output any way
# you like in the slot function itself.
#
# You specify the slot function to do whatever GUI updates you want. The handler
# doesn't know or care about specific UI elements.
#
class QtHandler(logging.Handler):
    def __init__(self, slotfunc, *args, **kwargs):
        super().__init__(*args, **kwargs)
        self.signaller = Signaller()
        self.signaller.signal.connect(slotfunc)

    def emit(self, record):
        s = self.format(record)
        self.signaller.signal.emit(s, record)

#
# This example uses QThreads, which means that the threads at the Python level
# are named something like "Dummy-1". The function below gets the Qt name of the
# current thread.
#
def ctname():
    return QtCore.QThread.currentThread().objectName()

#
# Used to generate random levels for logging.
#
LEVELS = (logging.DEBUG, logging.INFO, logging.WARNING, logging.ERROR,
          logging.CRITICAL)

#
# This worker class represents work that is done in a thread separate to the
# main thread. The way the thread is kicked off to do work is via a button press
# that connects to a slot in the worker.
#
# Because the default threadName value in the LogRecord isn't much use, we add
# a qThreadName which contains the QThread name as computed above, and pass that
# value in an "extra" dictionary which is used to update the LogRecord with the
# QThread name.
#
# This example worker just outputs messages sequentially, interspersed with
# random delays of the order of a few seconds.
#
class Worker(QtCore.QObject):
    @Slot()
    def start(self):
        extra = {'qThreadName': ctname() }
        logger.debug('Started work', extra=extra)
        i = 1
        # Let the thread run until interrupted. This allows reasonably clean
        # thread termination.
        while not QtCore.QThread.currentThread().isInterruptionRequested():
            delay = 0.5 + random.random() * 2
            time.sleep(delay)
            try:
                if random.random() < 0.1:
                    raise ValueError('Exception raised: %d' % i)
                else:
                    level = random.choice(LEVELS)
                    logger.log(level, 'Message after delay of %3.1f: %d', delay, i, extra=extra)
            except ValueError as e:
                logger.exception('Failed: %s', e, extra=extra)
            i += 1

#
# Implement a simple UI for this cookbook example. This contains:
#
# * A read-only text edit window which holds formatted log messages
# * A button to start work and log stuff in a separate thread
# * A button to log something from the main thread
# * A button to clear the log window
#
class Window(QtWidgets.QWidget):

    COLORS = {
        logging.DEBUG: 'black',
        logging.INFO: 'blue',
        logging.WARNING: 'orange',
        logging.ERROR: 'red',
        logging.CRITICAL: 'purple',
    }

    def __init__(self, app):
        super().__init__()
        self.app = app
        self.textedit = te = QtWidgets.QPlainTextEdit(self)
        # Set whatever the default monospace font is for the platform
        f = QtGui.QFont('nosuchfont')
        if hasattr(f, 'Monospace'):
            f.setStyleHint(f.Monospace)
        else:
            f.setStyleHint(f.StyleHint.Monospace)  # for Qt6
        te.setFont(f)
        te.setReadOnly(True)
        PB = QtWidgets.QPushButton
        self.work_button = PB('Start background work', self)
        self.log_button = PB('Log a message at a random level', self)
        self.clear_button = PB('Clear log window', self)
        self.handler = h = QtHandler(self.update_status)
        # Remember to use qThreadName rather than threadName in the format string.
        fs = '%(asctime)s %(qThreadName)-12s %(levelname)-8s %(message)s'
        formatter = logging.Formatter(fs)
        h.setFormatter(formatter)
        logger.addHandler(h)
        # Set up to terminate the QThread when we exit
        app.aboutToQuit.connect(self.force_quit)

        # Lay out all the widgets
        layout = QtWidgets.QVBoxLayout(self)
        layout.addWidget(te)
        layout.addWidget(self.work_button)
        layout.addWidget(self.log_button)
        layout.addWidget(self.clear_button)
        self.setFixedSize(900, 400)

        # Connect the non-worker slots and signals
        self.log_button.clicked.connect(self.manual_update)
        self.clear_button.clicked.connect(self.clear_display)

        # Start a new worker thread and connect the slots for the worker
        self.start_thread()
        self.work_button.clicked.connect(self.worker.start)
        # Once started, the button should be disabled
        self.work_button.clicked.connect(lambda : self.work_button.setEnabled(False))

    def start_thread(self):
        self.worker = Worker()
        self.worker_thread = QtCore.QThread()
        self.worker.setObjectName('Worker')
        self.worker_thread.setObjectName('WorkerThread')  # for qThreadName
        self.worker.moveToThread(self.worker_thread)
        # This will start an event loop in the worker thread
        self.worker_thread.start()

    def kill_thread(self):
        # Just tell the worker to stop, then tell it to quit and wait for that
        # to happen
        self.worker_thread.requestInterruption()
        if self.worker_thread.isRunning():
            self.worker_thread.quit()
            self.worker_thread.wait()
        else:
            print('worker has already exited.')

    def force_quit(self):
        # For use when the window is closed
        if self.worker_thread.isRunning():
            self.kill_thread()

    # The functions below update the UI and run in the main thread because
    # that's where the slots are set up

    @Slot(str, logging.LogRecord)
    def update_status(self, status, record):
        color = self.COLORS.get(record.levelno, 'black')
        s = '<pre><font color="%s">%s</font></pre>' % (color, status)
        self.textedit.appendHtml(s)

    @Slot()
    def manual_update(self):
        # This function uses the formatted message passed in, but also uses
        # information from the record to format the message in an appropriate
        # color according to its severity (level).
        level = random.choice(LEVELS)
        extra = {'qThreadName': ctname() }
        logger.log(level, 'Manually logged!', extra=extra)

    @Slot()
    def clear_display(self):
        self.textedit.clear()

def main():
    QtCore.QThread.currentThread().setObjectName('MainThread')
    logging.getLogger().setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
    app = QtWidgets.QApplication(sys.argv)
    example = Window(app)
    example.show()
    if hasattr(app, 'exec'):
        rc = app.exec()
    else:
        rc = app.exec_()
    sys.exit(rc)

if __name__=='__main__':
    main()

Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support

Although RFC 5424 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5424.html] dates from 2009, most syslog servers are configured by default to use the older RFC 3164 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3164.html], which hails from 2001. When logging was added to Python in 2003, it supported the earlier (and only existing) protocol at the time. Since RFC 5424 came out, as there has not been widespread deployment of it in syslog servers, the SysLogHandler functionality has not been updated.

RFC 5424 contains some useful features such as support for structured data, and if you need to be able to log to a syslog server with support for it, you can do so with a subclassed handler which looks something like this:

import datetime as dt
import logging.handlers
import re
import socket
import time

class SysLogHandler5424(logging.handlers.SysLogHandler):

    tz_offset = re.compile(r'([+-]\d{2})(\d{2})$')
    escaped = re.compile(r'([\]"\\])')

    def __init__(self, *args, **kwargs):
        self.msgid = kwargs.pop('msgid', None)
        self.appname = kwargs.pop('appname', None)
        super().__init__(*args, **kwargs)

    def format(self, record):
        version = 1
        asctime = dt.datetime.fromtimestamp(record.created).isoformat()
        m = self.tz_offset.match(time.strftime('%z'))
        has_offset = False
        if m and time.timezone:
            hrs, mins = m.groups()
            if int(hrs) or int(mins):
                has_offset = True
        if not has_offset:
            asctime += 'Z'
        else:
            asctime += f'{hrs}:{mins}'
        try:
            hostname = socket.gethostname()
        except Exception:
            hostname = '-'
        appname = self.appname or '-'
        procid = record.process
        msgid = '-'
        msg = super().format(record)
        sdata = '-'
        if hasattr(record, 'structured_data'):
            sd = record.structured_data
            # This should be a dict where the keys are SD-ID and the value is a
            # dict mapping PARAM-NAME to PARAM-VALUE (refer to the RFC for what these
            # mean)
            # There's no error checking here - it's purely for illustration, and you
            # can adapt this code for use in production environments
            parts = []

            def replacer(m):
                g = m.groups()
                return '\\' + g[0]

            for sdid, dv in sd.items():
                part = f'[{sdid}'
                for k, v in dv.items():
                    s = str(v)
                    s = self.escaped.sub(replacer, s)
                    part += f' {k}="{s}"'
                part += ']'
                parts.append(part)
            sdata = ''.join(parts)
        return f'{version} {asctime} {hostname} {appname} {procid} {msgid} {sdata} {msg}'

You'll need to be familiar with RFC 5424 to fully understand the above code, and it may be that you have slightly different needs (e.g. for how you pass structural data to the log). Nevertheless, the above should be adaptable to your speciric needs. With the above handler, you'd pass structured data using something like this:

sd = {
    'foo@12345': {'bar': 'baz', 'baz': 'bozz', 'fizz': r'buzz'},
    'foo@54321': {'rab': 'baz', 'zab': 'bozz', 'zzif': r'buzz'}
}
extra = {'structured_data': sd}
i = 1
logger.debug('Message %d', i, extra=extra)

How to treat a logger like an output stream

Sometimes, you need to interface to a third-party API which expects a file-like object to write to, but you want to direct the API's output to a logger. You can do this using a class which wraps a logger with a file-like API. Here's a short script illustrating such a class:

import logging

class LoggerWriter:
    def __init__(self, logger, level):
        self.logger = logger
        self.level = level

    def write(self, message):
        if message != '\n':  # avoid printing bare newlines, if you like
            self.logger.log(self.level, message)

    def flush(self):
        # doesn't actually do anything, but might be expected of a file-like
        # object - so optional depending on your situation
        pass

    def close(self):
        # doesn't actually do anything, but might be expected of a file-like
        # object - so optional depending on your situation. You might want
        # to set a flag so that later calls to write raise an exception
        pass

def main():
    logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG)
    logger = logging.getLogger('demo')
    info_fp = LoggerWriter(logger, logging.INFO)
    debug_fp = LoggerWriter(logger, logging.DEBUG)
    print('An INFO message', file=info_fp)
    print('A DEBUG message', file=debug_fp)

if __name__ == "__main__":
    main()

When this script is run, it prints

INFO:demo:An INFO message
DEBUG:demo:A DEBUG message

You could also use LoggerWriter to redirect sys.stdout and sys.stderr by doing something like this:

import sys

sys.stdout = LoggerWriter(logger, logging.INFO)
sys.stderr = LoggerWriter(logger, logging.WARNING)

You should do this after configuring logging for your needs. In the above example, the basicConfig() call does this (using the sys.stderr value before it is overwritten by a LoggerWriter instance). Then, you'd get this kind of result:

>>> print('Foo')
INFO:demo:Foo
>>> print('Bar', file=sys.stderr)
WARNING:demo:Bar
>>>

Of course, the examples above show output according to the format used by basicConfig(), but you can use a different formatter when you configure logging.

Note that with the above scheme, you are somewhat at the mercy of buffering and the sequence of write calls which you are intercepting. For example, with the definition of LoggerWriter above, if you have the snippet

sys.stderr = LoggerWriter(logger, logging.WARNING)
1 / 0

then running the script results in

WARNING:demo:Traceback (most recent call last):

WARNING:demo:  File "/home/runner/cookbook-loggerwriter/test.py", line 53, in <module>

WARNING:demo:
WARNING:demo:main()
WARNING:demo:  File "/home/runner/cookbook-loggerwriter/test.py", line 49, in main

WARNING:demo:
WARNING:demo:1 / 0
WARNING:demo:ZeroDivisionError
WARNING:demo::
WARNING:demo:division by zero

As you can see, this output isn't ideal. That's because the underlying code which writes to sys.stderr makes multiple writes, each of which results in a separate logged line (for example, the last three lines above). To get around this problem, you need to buffer things and only output log lines when newlines are seen. Let's use a slightly better implementation of LoggerWriter:

class BufferingLoggerWriter(LoggerWriter):
    def __init__(self, logger, level):
        super().__init__(logger, level)
        self.buffer = ''

    def write(self, message):
        if '\n' not in message:
            self.buffer += message
        else:
            parts = message.split('\n')
            if self.buffer:
                s = self.buffer + parts.pop(0)
                self.logger.log(self.level, s)
            self.buffer = parts.pop()
            for part in parts:
                self.logger.log(self.level, part)

This just buffers up stuff until a newline is seen, and then logs complete lines. With this approach, you get better output:

WARNING:demo:Traceback (most recent call last):
WARNING:demo:  File "/home/runner/cookbook-loggerwriter/main.py", line 55, in <module>
WARNING:demo:    main()
WARNING:demo:  File "/home/runner/cookbook-loggerwriter/main.py", line 52, in main
WARNING:demo:    1/0
WARNING:demo:ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

How to uniformly handle newlines in logging output

Usually, messages that are logged (say to console or file) consist of a single line of text. However, sometimes there is a need to handle messages with multiple lines - whether because a logging format string contains newlines, or logged data contains newlines. If you want to handle such messages uniformly, so that each line in the logged message appears uniformly formatted as if it was logged separately, you can do this using a handler mixin, as in the following snippet:

# Assume this is in a module mymixins.py
import copy

class MultilineMixin:
    def emit(self, record):
        s = record.getMessage()
        if '\n' not in s:
            super().emit(record)
        else:
            lines = s.splitlines()
            rec = copy.copy(record)
            rec.args = None
            for line in lines:
                rec.msg = line
                super().emit(rec)

You can use the mixin as in the following script:

import logging

from mymixins import MultilineMixin

logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

class StreamHandler(MultilineMixin, logging.StreamHandler):
    pass

if __name__ == '__main__':
    logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG, format='%(asctime)s %(levelname)-9s %(message)s',
                        handlers = [StreamHandler()])
    logger.debug('Single line')
    logger.debug('Multiple lines:\nfool me once ...')
    logger.debug('Another single line')
    logger.debug('Multiple lines:\n%s', 'fool me ...\ncan\'t get fooled again')

The script, when run, prints something like:

2025-07-02 13:54:47,234 DEBUG     Single line
2025-07-02 13:54:47,234 DEBUG     Multiple lines:
2025-07-02 13:54:47,234 DEBUG     fool me once ...
2025-07-02 13:54:47,234 DEBUG     Another single line
2025-07-02 13:54:47,234 DEBUG     Multiple lines:
2025-07-02 13:54:47,234 DEBUG     fool me ...
2025-07-02 13:54:47,234 DEBUG     can't get fooled again

If, on the other hand, you are concerned about log injection [https://owasp.org/www-community/attacks/Log_Injection], you can use a formatter which escapes newlines, as per the following example:

import logging

logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

class EscapingFormatter(logging.Formatter):
    def format(self, record):
        s = super().format(record)
        return s.replace('\n', r'\n')

if __name__ == '__main__':
    h = logging.StreamHandler()
    h.setFormatter(EscapingFormatter('%(asctime)s %(levelname)-9s %(message)s'))
    logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG, handlers = [h])
    logger.debug('Single line')
    logger.debug('Multiple lines:\nfool me once ...')
    logger.debug('Another single line')
    logger.debug('Multiple lines:\n%s', 'fool me ...\ncan\'t get fooled again')

You can, of course, use whatever escaping scheme makes the most sense for you. The script, when run, should produce output like this:

2025-07-09 06:47:33,783 DEBUG     Single line
2025-07-09 06:47:33,783 DEBUG     Multiple lines:\nfool me once ...
2025-07-09 06:47:33,783 DEBUG     Another single line
2025-07-09 06:47:33,783 DEBUG     Multiple lines:\nfool me ...\ncan't get fooled again

Escaping behaviour can't be the stdlib default , as it would break backwards compatibility.

Patterns to avoid

Although the preceding sections have described ways of doing things you might need to do or deal with, it is worth mentioning some usage patterns which are unhelpful, and which should therefore be avoided in most cases. The following sections are in no particular order.

Opening the same log file multiple times

On Windows, you will generally not be able to open the same file multiple times as this will lead to a "file is in use by another process" error. However, on POSIX platforms you'll not get any errors if you open the same file multiple times. This could be done accidentally, for example by:

Adding a file handler more than once which references the same file (e.g. by a copy/paste/forget-to-change error).

Opening two files that look different, as they have different names, but are the same because one is a symbolic link to the other.

Forking a process, following which both parent and child have a reference to the same file. This might be through use of the multiprocessing module, for example.

Opening a file multiple times might appear to work most of the time, but can lead to a number of problems in practice:

Logging output can be garbled because multiple threads or processes try to write to the same file. Although logging guards against concurrent use of the same handler instance by multiple threads, there is no such protection if concurrent writes are attempted by two different threads using two different handler instances which happen to point to the same file.

An attempt to delete a file (e.g. during file rotation) silently fails, because there is another reference pointing to it. This can lead to confusion and wasted debugging time - log entries end up in unexpected places, or are lost altogether. Or a file that was supposed to be moved remains in place, and grows in size unexpectedly despite size-based rotation being supposedly in place.

Use the techniques outlined in Journalisation vers un fichier unique à partir de plusieurs processus to circumvent such issues.

Using loggers as attributes in a class or passing them as parameters

While there might be unusual cases where you'll need to do this, in general there is no point because loggers are singletons. Code can always access a given logger instance by name using logging.getLogger(name), so passing instances around and holding them as instance attributes is pointless. Note that in other languages such as Java and C#, loggers are often static class attributes. However, this pattern doesn't make sense in Python, where the module (and not the class) is the unit of software decomposition.

Adding handlers other than NullHandler to a logger in a library

Configuring logging by adding handlers, formatters and filters is the responsibility of the application developer, not the library developer. If you are maintaining a library, ensure that you don't add handlers to any of your loggers other than a NullHandler instance.

Creating a lot of loggers

Loggers are singletons that are never freed during a script execution, and so creating lots of loggers will use up memory which can't then be freed. Rather than create a logger per e.g. file processed or network connection made, use the existing mechanisms for passing contextual information into your logs and restrict the loggers created to those describing areas within your application (generally modules, but occasionally slightly more fine-grained than that).

Autres ressources

Voir aussi

Module logging

Référence de l’API du module de journalisation.

Module logging.config

API pour la configuration du module de journalisation.

Module logging.handlers

Gestionnaires utiles inclus avec le module de journalisation.

Tutoriel de découverte

Tutoriel avancé

Guide des expressions régulières

Auteur:

A.M. Kuchling <amk@amk.ca>

Résumé

Ce document constitue un guide d'introduction à l'utilisation des expressions régulières en Python avec le module re. Il fournit une introduction plus abordable que la section correspondante dans le guide de référence de la bibliothèque.

Introduction

Les expressions régulières (notées RE ou motifs regex dans ce document) sont essentiellement un petit langage de programmation hautement spécialisé embarqué dans Python et dont la manipulation est rendue possible par l'utilisation du module re. En utilisant ce petit langage, vous définissez des règles pour spécifier une correspondance avec un ensemble souhaité de chaînes de caractères ; ces chaînes peuvent être des phrases, des adresses de courriel, des commandes TeX ou tout ce que vous voulez. Vous pouvez ensuite poser des questions telles que « Est-ce que cette chaîne de caractères correspond au motif ? » ou « Y a-t-il une correspondance pour ce motif à l'intérieur de la chaîne de caractères ? ». Vous pouvez aussi utiliser les RE pour modifier une chaîne de caractères ou la découper de différentes façons.

Un motif d'expression régulière est compilé en code intermédiaire (bytecode en anglais) qui est ensuite exécuté par un moteur de correspondance écrit en C. Pour une utilisation plus poussée, il peut s'avérer nécessaire de s'intéresser à la manière dont le moteur exécute la RE afin d'écrire une expression dont le code intermédiaire est plus rapide. L'optimisation n'est pas traitée dans ce document, parce qu'elle nécessite d'avoir une bonne compréhension des mécanismes internes du moteur de correspondance.

Le langage des expressions régulières est relativement petit et restreint, donc toutes les tâches de manipulation de chaînes de caractères ne peuvent pas être réalisées à l'aide d'expressions régulières. Il existe aussi des tâches qui peuvent être réalisées à l'aide d'expressions régulières mais qui ont tendance à produire des expressions régulières très compliquées. Dans ces cas, il est plus utile d'écrire du code Python pour réaliser le traitement ; même si le code Python est plus lent qu'une expression régulière élaborée, il sera probablement plus compréhensible.

Motifs simples

Nous commençons par étudier les expressions régulières les plus simples. Dans la mesure où les expressions régulières sont utilisées pour manipuler des chaînes de caractères, nous commençons par l'action la plus courante : la correspondance de caractères.

Pour une explication détaillée sur le concept informatique sous-jacent aux expressions régulières (automate à états déterministe ou non-déterministe), vous pouvez vous référer à n'importe quel manuel sur l'écriture de compilateurs.

Correspondance de caractères

La plupart des lettres ou caractères correspondent simplement à eux-mêmes. Par exemple, l'expression régulière test correspond à la chaîne de caractères test, précisément. Vous pouvez activer le mode non-sensible à la casse qui permet à cette RE de correspondre également à Test ou TEST (ce sujet est traité par la suite).

Il existe des exceptions à cette règle ; certains caractères sont des métacaractères spéciaux et ne correspondent pas à eux-mêmes. Au lieu de cela, ils signalent que certaines choses non ordinaires doivent correspondre, ou ils affectent d'autre portions de la RE en les répétant ou en changeant leur sens. Une grande partie de ce document est consacrée au fonctionnement de ces métacaractères.

Voici une liste complète des métacaractères ; leur sens est décrit dans la suite de ce guide.

. ^ $ * + ? { } [ ] \ | ( )

Les premiers métacaractères que nous étudions sont [ et ]. Ils sont utilisés pour spécifier une classe de caractères, qui forme un ensemble de caractères dont vous souhaitez trouver la correspondance. Les caractères peuvent être listés individuellement, ou une plage de caractères peut être indiquée en fournissant deux caractères séparés par un '-'. Par exemple, [abc] correspond à n'importe quel caractère parmi a, b ou c ; c'est équivalent à [a-c], qui utilise une plage pour exprimer le même ensemble de caractères. Si vous voulez trouver une chaîne qui ne contient que des lettres en minuscules, la RE est [a-z].

Les métacaractères (à l’exception de \) ne sont pas actifs dans les classes. Par exemple, [akm$] correspond à n'importe quel caractère parmi 'a', 'k', 'm' ou '$' ; '$' est habituellement un métacaractère mais dans une classe de caractères, il est dépourvu de sa signification spéciale.

Vous pouvez trouver une correspondance avec les caractères non listés dans une classe en spécifiant le complément de l'ensemble. Ceci est indiqué en plaçant un '^' en tant que premier caractère de la classe. Par exemple, [^5] correspond à tous les caractères, sauf '5'. Si le caret se trouve ailleurs dans la classe de caractères, il ne possède pas de signification spéciale. Ainsi, [5^] correspond au '5' ou au caractère '^'.

Le métacaractère le plus important est probablement la barre oblique inverse (backslash en anglais), \. Comme dans les chaînes de caractères en Python, la barre oblique inverse peut être suivie par différents caractères pour signaler différentes séquences spéciales. Elle est aussi utilisée pour échapper tous les métacaractères afin d'en trouver les correspondances dans les motifs ; par exemple, si vous devez trouver une correspondance pour [ ou \, vous pouvez les précéder avec une barre oblique inverse pour annuler leur signification spéciale : \[ ou \\.

Certaines séquences spéciales commençant par '\' représentent des ensembles de caractères prédéfinis qui sont souvent utiles, tels que l'ensemble des chiffres, l'ensemble des lettres ou l'ensemble des caractères qui ne sont pas des « blancs ».

Prenons un exemple : \w correspond à n'importe quel caractère alphanumérique. Si l'expression régulière est exprimée en bytes, c'est équivalent à la classe [a-zA-Z0-9_]. Si l'expression régulière est une chaîne de caractères, \w correspond à tous les caractères identifiés comme lettre dans la base de données Unicode fournie par le module unicodedata. Vous pouvez utiliser la définition plus restrictive de \w dans un motif exprimé en chaîne de caractères en spécifiant l'option re.ASCII lors de la compilation de l'expression régulière.

La liste de séquences spéciales suivante est incomplète. Pour une liste complète des séquences et définitions de classes étendues relatives aux motifs de chaînes de caractères Unicode, reportez-vous à la dernière partie de la référence Syntaxe d'Expressions Régulières de la bibliothèque standard. En général, les versions Unicode trouvent une correspondance avec n'importe quel caractère présent dans la catégorie appropriée de la base de données Unicode.

\d

Correspond à n'importe quel caractère numérique ; équivalent à la classe [0-9].

\D

Correspond à n'importe quel caractère non numérique ; équivalent à la classe [^0-9].

\s

Correspond à n'importe quel caractère « blanc » ; équivalent à la classe [ \t\n\r\f\v].

\S

Correspond à n'importe quel caractère autre que « blanc » ; équivalent à la classe [^ \t\n\r\f\v].

\w

Correspond à n'importe quel caractère alphanumérique ; équivalent à la classe [a-zA-Z0-9_].

\W

Correspond à n'importe quel caractère non-alphanumérique ; équivalent à la classe [^a-zA-Z0-9_].

Ces séquences peuvent être incluses dans une classe de caractères. Par exemple, [\s,.] est une classe de caractères qui correspond à tous les caractères « blanc » ou ',' ou '.'.

Le dernier métacaractère de cette section est .. Il correspond à tous les caractères, à l'exception du caractère de retour à la ligne ; il existe un mode alternatif (re.DOTALL) dans lequel il correspond également au caractère de retour à la ligne. . est souvent utilisé lorsque l'on veut trouver une correspondance avec « n'importe quel caractère ».

Répétitions

Trouver des correspondances de divers ensembles de caractères est la première utilisation des expressions régulières, ce que l'on ne peut pas faire avec les méthodes des chaînes. Cependant, si c'était la seule possibilité des expressions régulières, le gain ne serait pas significatif. Une autre utilisation consiste à spécifier des portions d'une RE qui peuvent être répétées un certain nombre de fois.

Le premier métacaractère pour la répétition que nous abordons est *. * ne correspond pas au caractère littéral '*' ; à la place, il spécifie que le caractère précédent peut correspondre zéro, une ou plusieurs fois (au lieu d'une seule fois).

Par exemple, cha*t correspond à 'cht' (0 caractère 'a'), 'chat' (1 'a'), 'chaaat' (3 caractères 'a') et ainsi de suite.

Les répétitions telles que * sont gloutonnes ; quand vous répétez une RE, le moteur de correspondance essaie de trouver la correspondance la plus longue en répétant le motif tant qu'il le peut. Si la suite du motif ne correspond pas, le moteur de correspondance revient en arrière et essaie avec moins de répétitions.

Un exemple étape par étape mettra les choses au clair. Considérons l'expression a[bcd]*b. Elle correspond à la lettre 'a', suivi d'aucune ou plusieurs lettres de la classe [bcd] et finit par un 'b'. Maintenant, supposons que nous cherchons une correspondance de cette RE avec la chaîne de caractères 'abcbd'.

Étape

Correspond

Explication

1

a

Le a correspond dans la RE.

2

abcbd

Le moteur de correspondance trouve [bcd]*, va aussi loin qu'il le peut, c.-à-d. la fin de la chaîne.

3

échec

Le moteur essaie de trouver une correspondance avec b mais la position courante est à la fin de la chaîne de caractères, donc il échoue.

4

abcb

Retour en arrière, de manière à ce que [bcd]* corresponde avec un caractère de moins.

5

échec

Essaie encore b, mais la position courante est le dernier caractère, qui est 'd'.

6

abc

Encore un retour en arrière, de manière à ce que [bcd]* ne corresponde qu'à bc.

6

abcb

Essaie b encore une fois. Cette fois, le caractère à la position courante est 'b', donc cela fonctionne.

La fin de la RE est maintenant atteinte et la correspondance trouvée est 'abcb'. Ceci démontre comment le moteur de correspondance essaie d'aller le plus loin possible en premier et, si la correspondance échoue, il revient progressivement en arrière et ré-essaie avec le reste de la RE encore et encore. Il revient en arrière jusqu'à qu'il n'y ait aucune correspondance pour [bcd]* et, si cela échoue toujours, le moteur conclut que la chaîne de caractères et la RE ne correspondent pas du tout.

Un autre métacaractère de répétition est +, qui fait correspondre une ou plusieurs fois. Faites bien attention à la différence entre * et + ; * fait correspondre zéro fois ou plus, ainsi ce qui doit être répété peut ne pas être présent du tout, alors que + requiert au moins une occurrence. Pour continuer avec le même exemple, cha+t correspond avec 'chat' (1 'a'), 'chaaat' (3 'a') mais ne correspond pas avec 'cht'.

Il existe deux autres quantificateurs pour les répétitions. Le point d'interrogation, ?, fait correspondre zéro ou une fois ; vous pouvez vous le représenter comme indiquant une option. Par exemple, méta-?caractère fait correspondre soit 'métacaractère', soit 'méta-caractère'.

Le plus compliqué des quantificateurs est {m,n} où m et n sont des entiers décimaux. Ce quantificateur indique qu'il faut au moins m répétitions et au plus n. Par exemple, a/{1,3}b fait correspondre 'a/b', 'a//b' et 'a///b'. Elle ne fait pas correspondre 'ab' (pas de barre oblique) ni 'a////b' (quatre barres obliques).

Vous pouvez omettre soit m, soit n ; dans ce cas, une valeur raisonnable est prise pour la valeur manquante. Omettre m considère que la borne basse est 0 alors qu'omettre n signifie qu'il n'y a pas de borne supérieure.

The simplest case {m} matches the preceding item exactly m times. For example, a/{2}b will only match 'a//b'.

Le lecteur attentif aura noté que les trois premiers quantificateurs peuvent être exprimés en utilisant cette notation. {0,} est la même chose que *, {1,} est équivalent à + et {0,1} se comporte comme ?. Il est préférable d'utiliser *, + ou ? quand vous le pouvez, simplement parce qu'ils sont plus courts et plus faciles à lire.

Utilisation des expressions régulières

Maintenant que nous avons vu quelques expressions régulières simples, utilisons-les concrètement. Le module re fournit une interface pour le moteur de correspondance, ce qui permet de compiler les RE en objets et d'effectuer des correspondances avec.

Compilation des expressions régulières

Les expressions régulières sont compilées en objets motifs, qui possèdent des méthodes pour diverses opérations telles que la recherche de correspondances ou les substitutions dans les chaînes.

>>> import re
>>> p = re.compile('ab*')
>>> p
re.compile('ab*')

re.compile() accepte aussi une option flags, utilisée pour activer des fonctionnalités particulières et des variations de syntaxe. Nous étudierons les options disponibles plus tard et, pour l'instant, un petit exemple suffit :

>>> p = re.compile('ab*', re.IGNORECASE)

La RE passée à re.compile() est une chaîne. Les RE sont des chaînes car les expressions régulières ne font pas partie intrinsèque du langage Python et aucune syntaxe particulière n'a été créée pour les exprimer (il existe des applications qui ne nécessitent aucune RE et il n'a donc aucune raison de grossir les spécifications du langage en incluant les RE). Ainsi, le module re est simplement un module d'extension en C inclus dans Python, tout comme les modules socket ou zlib.

Exprimer les RE comme des chaînes de caractères garde le langage Python plus simple mais introduit un inconvénient qui fait l'objet de la section suivante.

La maudite barre oblique inverse

Comme indiqué précédemment, les expressions régulières utilisent la barre oblique inverse (backslash en anglais) pour indiquer des constructions particulières ou pour autoriser des caractères spéciaux sans que leur signification spéciale ne soit invoquée. C'est en contradiction avec l'usage de Python qui est qu'un caractère doit avoir la même signification dans les littéraux de chaînes de caractères.

Considérons que vous voulez écrire une RE qui fait correspondre la chaîne de caractères \section (on en trouve dans un fichier LaTeX). Pour savoir ce qu'il faut coder dans votre programme, commençons par la chaîne de caractères cherchée. Ensuite, nous devons échapper chaque barre oblique inverse et tout autre métacaractère en les précédant d'une barre oblique inverse, ce qui donne la chaîne de caractères \\section. La chaîne résultante qui doit être passée à re.compile() est donc \\section. Comme nous devons l'exprimer sous la forme d'une chaîne littérale Python, nous devons échapper les deux barres obliques inverses encore une fois.

Caractères

Niveau

\section

Chaîne de caractère à chercher

\\section

Barre oblique inverse échappée pour re.compile()

"\\\\section"

Barres obliques inverses échappées pour un littéral de chaîne de caractères

Pour faire court, si vous cherchez une correspondance pour une barre oblique inverse littérale, écrivez '\\\\' dans votre chaîne RE, car l'expression régulière doit être \\ et que chaque barre oblique inverse doit être exprimée comme \\ dans un littéral chaîne de caractères Python. Dans les RE qui comportent plusieurs barres obliques inverses, cela conduit à beaucoup de barres obliques inverses et rend la chaîne résultante difficile à comprendre.

La solution consiste à utiliser les chaînes brutes Python pour les expressions régulières ; les barres obliques inverses ne sont pas gérées d'une manière particulière dans les chaînes littérales préfixées avec 'r'. Ainsi, r"\n" est la chaîne de deux caractères contenant '\' et 'n' alors que "\n" est la chaîne contenant uniquement le caractère retour à la ligne. Les expressions régulières sont souvent écrites dans le code Python en utilisant la notation « chaînes brutes ».

En complément, les séquences d'échappement valides dans les expressions régulières, mais non valides dans les littéraux chaînes classiques, produisent dorénavant un DeprecationWarning et, possiblement, deviendront une SyntaxError, ce qui signifie que les séquences seront invalides si la notation « chaîne brute » ou l'échappement des barres obliques inverses ne sont pas utilisés.

Chaîne normale

Chaîne de caractères brute

"ab*"

r"ab*"

"\\\\section"

r"\\section"

"\\w+\\s+\\1"

r"\w+\s+\1"

Recherche de correspondances

Une fois que nous avons un objet représentant une expression régulière compilée, qu'en faisons-nous ? Les objets motifs ont plusieurs méthodes et attributs. Seuls les plus significatifs seront couverts ici ; consultez la documentation re pour la liste complète.

Méthode/Attribut

Objectif

match()

Détermine si la RE fait correspond dès le début de la chaîne.

search()

Analyse la chaîne à la recherche d'une position où la RE correspond.

findall()

Trouve toutes les sous-chaînes qui correspondent à la RE et les renvoie sous la forme d'une liste.

finditer()

Trouve toutes les sous-chaînes qui correspondent à la RE et les renvoie sous la forme d'un itérateur.

match() et search() renvoient None si aucune correspondance ne peut être trouvée. Si elles trouvent une correspondance, une instance d'objet correspondance est renvoyée, contenant les informations relatives à la correspondance : position de départ et de fin, la sous-chaîne qui correspond et d'autres informations.

You can learn about this by interactively experimenting with the re module.

Ce guide utilise l'interpréteur standard de Python pour ses exemples. Commencez par lancer l'interpréteur Python, importez le module re et compilez une RE :

>>> import re
>>> p = re.compile('[a-z]+')
>>> p
re.compile('[a-z]+')

Maintenant, vous pouvez tester des correspondances de la RE [a-z]+ avec différentes chaînes. Une chaîne vide ne doit pas correspondre, puisque + indique « une ou plusieurs occurrences ». match() doit renvoyer None dans ce cas, ce qui fait que l'interpréteur n'affiche rien. Vous pouvez afficher le résultat de match() explicitement pour que ce soit clair.

>>> p.match("")
>>> print(p.match(""))
None

Maintenant, essayons sur une chaîne qui doit correspondre, par exemple tempo. Dans ce cas, match() renvoie un objet correspondance, vous pouvez ainsi stocker le résultat dans une variable pour une utilisation ultérieure.

>>> m = p.match('tempo')
>>> m
<re.Match object; span=(0, 5), match='tempo'>

Maintenant, vous pouvez interroger l'objet correspondance pour obtenir des informations sur la chaîne qui correspond. Les instances d'objets correspondances possèdent plusieurs méthodes et attributs ; les plus importants sont :

Méthode/Attribut

Objectif

group()

Renvoie la chaîne de caractères correspondant à la RE

start()

Renvoie la position de début de la correspondance

end()

Renvoie la position de fin de la correspondance

span()

Renvoie un n-uplet contenant les positions (début, fin) de la correspondance

Essayons ces méthodes pour clarifier leur signification :

>>> m.group()
'tempo'
>>> m.start(), m.end()
(0, 5)
>>> m.span()
(0, 5)

group() renvoie la sous-chaîne qui correspond à la RE. start() et end() renvoient les indices de début et de fin de la correspondance. span() renvoie les indices de début et de fin dans un seul couple. Comme la méthode match() ne fait que vérifier si la RE correspond au début de la chaîne, start() vaut toujours zéro. Cependant, la méthode search() d'un motif analyse toute la chaîne, afin de trouver une correspondance potentielle qui ne commence pas à zéro.

>>> print(p.match('::: message'))
None
>>> m = p.search('::: message'); print(m)
<re.Match object; span=(4, 11), match='message'>
>>> m.group()
'message'
>>> m.span()
(4, 11)

Dans les programmes réels, la façon de faire la plus courante consiste à stocker l'objet correspondance dans une variable, puis à vérifier s'il vaut None. Généralement, cela ressemble à ceci :

p = re.compile( ... )
m = p.match( 'string goes here' )
if m:
    print('Match found: ', m.group())
else:
    print('No match')

Deux méthodes de motifs renvoient toutes les correspondances pour un motif. findall() renvoie une liste des chaînes qui correspondent :

>>> p = re.compile(r'\d+')
>>> p.findall('12 drummers drumming, 11 pipers piping, 10 lords a-leaping')
['12', '11', '10']

Le préfixe r, qui indique une chaîne brute littérale, est nécessaire dans cet exemple car les séquences d'échappement dans une chaîne littérale qui ne sont pas reconnues par Python, alors qu'elles le sont par les expressions régulières, produisent maintenant un DeprecationWarning et deviendront possiblement des SyntaxError. Reportez-vous à La maudite barre oblique inverse.

findall() doit créer la liste entière avant de la renvoyer comme résultat. La méthode finditer() renvoie une séquence d'instances d'objets correspondances en tant qu'itérateur :

>>> iterator = p.finditer('12 drummers drumming, 11 ... 10 ...')
>>> iterator
<callable_iterator object at 0x...>
>>> for match in iterator:
...     print(match.span())
...
(0, 2)
(22, 24)
(29, 31)

Fonctions de niveau module

Vous n'avez pas besoin de créer un objet motif et d'appeler ses méthodes ; le module re fournit des fonctions à son niveau, ce sont match(), search(), findall(), sub() et ainsi de suite. Ces fonctions prennent les mêmes arguments que les méthodes correspondantes des objets motifs, avec la chaîne RE ajoutée en tant que premier argument. Elles renvoient toujours None ou une instance d'objet correspondance.

>>> print(re.match(r'From\s+', 'Fromage amk'))
None
>>> re.match(r'From\s+', 'From amk Thu May 14 19:12:10 1998')
<re.Match object; span=(0, 5), match='From '>

En interne, ces fonctions créent simplement un objet motif pour vous et appellent la méthode appropriée de cet objet. Elles stockent également l'objet compilé dans un cache afin que les appels suivants qui utilisent la même RE n'aient pas besoin d'analyser le motif une nouvelle fois.

Devez-vous utiliser ces fonctions au niveau des modules ou devez-vous calculer le motif et appeler vous-même ses méthodes ? Si vous utilisez l'expression régulière à l'intérieur d'une boucle, la pré-compilation permet d'économiser quelques appels de fonctions. En dehors des boucles, il n'y a pas beaucoup de différence grâce au cache interne.

Options de compilation

Les options de compilation vous permettent de modifier le comportement des expressions régulières. Ces options sont accessibles dans le module re par deux noms, un long du type IGNORECASE et un court (une seule lettre) tel que I (si vous êtes habitués aux modificateurs de motifs Perl, la version courte utilise les mêmes lettres que Perl, par exemple la version courte de re.VERBOSE est re.X). Plusieurs options peuvent être spécifiées en appliquant l'opérateur bit-à-bit OR ; par exemple, re.I | re.M active à la fois les options I et M.

Vous trouvez ci-dessous le tableau des options disponibles, suivies d'explications détaillées.

Option

Signification

ASCII, A

Transforme plusieurs échappements tels que \w, \b, \s et \d de manière à ce qu'ils ne correspondent qu'à des caractères ASCII ayant la propriété demandée.

DOTALL, S

Fait en sorte que . corresponde à n'importe quel caractère, caractère de retour à la ligne inclus.

IGNORECASE, I

Recherche une correspondance sans tenir compte de la casse.

LOCALE, L

Recherche une correspondance en tenant compte de la configuration de la région.

MULTILINE, M

Correspondance multi-lignes, affecte ^ et $.

VERBOSE, X (pour extended, c.-à-d. étendu en anglais)

Active les RE verbeuses, qui peuvent être organisées de manière plus propre et compréhensible.

re.I

re.IGNORECASE

Perform case-insensitive matching; character class and literal strings will match letters by ignoring case. For example, [A-Z] will match lowercase letters, too. Full Unicode matching also works unless the ASCII flag is used to disable non-ASCII matches. When the Unicode patterns [a-z] or [A-Z] are used in combination with the IGNORECASE flag, they will match the 52 ASCII letters and 4 additional non-ASCII letters: 'İ' (U+0130, Latin capital letter I with dot above), 'ı' (U+0131, Latin small letter dotless i), 'ſ' (U+017F, Latin small letter long s) and 'K' (U+212A, Kelvin sign). Spam will match 'Spam', 'spam', 'spAM', or 'ſpam' (the latter is matched only in Unicode mode). This lowercasing doesn't take the current locale into account; it will if you also set the LOCALE flag.

re.L

re.LOCALE

Rend \w, \W, \b, \B et les correspondances non sensibles à la casse dépendants de la configuration de la région courante au lieu de la base de données Unicode.

Les locales sont une caractéristique de la bibliothèque C destinées à favoriser une programmation qui tient compte des différences linguistiques (NdT : nous utilisons configuration de région dans cette page pour désigner ce concept de la bibliothèque C). Par exemple, si vous traitez du texte français, vous souhaitez pouvoir écrire \w+ pour faire correspondre les mots, mais \w ne correspond qu'à la classe de caractères [A-Za-za-z] en octets ; cette classe ne correspond pas avec les octets codant é ou ç. Si votre système est configuré correctement et que la configuration de région est définie sur 'français', certaines fonctions C diront à votre programme que l'octet codant é doit être considéré comme une lettre. Définir l'option LOCALE lors de la compilation d'une expression régulière fait que l'objet compilé résultant utilise ces fonctions C pour \w ; c'est plus lent mais cela permet à \w+ de correspondre avec les mots français tel qu'attendu. L'utilisation de cette option est déconseillée en Python 3 car le mécanisme de locale est très peu fiable, il ne gère qu'une seule « culture » à la fois et il ne fonctionne qu'avec des locales 8 bits. La correspondance Unicode est déjà activée par défaut dans Python 3 pour les motifs Unicode (type str) et elle est capable de gérer différentes configurations de régions.

re.M

re.MULTILINE

Nota : ^ et $ n'ont pas encore été expliqués ; ils sont introduits dans la section Plus de métacaractères.

Normalement, ^ correspond uniquement au début de la chaîne, et $ correspond uniquement à la fin de la chaîne et immédiatement avant la nouvelle ligne (s'il y en a une) à la fin de la chaîne. Lorsque cette option est spécifiée, ^ correspond au début de la chaîne de caractères et au début de chaque ligne de la chaîne de caractères, immédiatement après le début de la nouvelle ligne. De même, le métacaractère $ correspond à la fin de la chaîne de caractères ou à la fin de chaque ligne (précédant immédiatement chaque nouvelle ligne).

re.S

re.DOTALL

Fait que le caractère spécial '.' corresponde avec n'importe quel caractère, y compris le retour à la ligne ; sans cette option, '.' correspond avec tout, sauf le retour à la ligne.

re.A

re.ASCII

Fait que \w, \W, \b, \B, \s et \S ne correspondent qu'avec des caractères ASCII au lieu de l'ensemble des caractères Unicode. Cette option n'a de sens que pour des motifs Unicode, elle est ignorée pour les motifs bytes.

re.X

re.VERBOSE

Cette option vous permet d'écrire des expressions régulières plus lisibles en vous permettant plus de flexibilité pour le formatage. Lorsque cette option est activée, les « blancs » dans la chaîne RE sont ignorés, sauf lorsque le « blancs » se trouve dans une classe de caractères ou est précédé d'une barre oblique inverse ; ceci vous permet d'organiser et d'indenter vos RE plus clairement. Cette option vous permet également de placer des commentaires dans une RE, ils seront ignorés par le moteur ; les commentaires commencent par un '#' qui n'est ni dans une classe de caractères, ni précédé d'une barre oblique inverse.

Par exemple, voici une RE qui utilise re.VERBOSE ; vous pouvez constater qu'elle est beaucoup plus facile à lire

charref = re.compile(r"""
 &[#]                # Start of a numeric entity reference
 (
     0[0-7]+         # Octal form
   | [0-9]+          # Decimal form
   | x[0-9a-fA-F]+   # Hexadecimal form
 )
 ;                   # Trailing semicolon
""", re.VERBOSE)

Sans l'option verbeuse, cette RE ressemble à ceci :

charref = re.compile("&#(0[0-7]+"
                     "|[0-9]+"
                     "|x[0-9a-fA-F]+);")

Dans l'exemple ci-dessus, Python concatène automatiquement les littéraux chaînes de caractères qui ont été utilisés pour séparer la RE en petits morceaux, mais la RE reste plus difficile à comprendre que sa version utilisant re.VERBOSE.

Des motifs plus puissants

Jusqu'à présent nous avons seulement couvert une partie des fonctionnalités des expressions régulières. Dans cette section, nous couvrirons quelques nouveaux métacaractères et l'utilisation des groupes pour récupérer des portions de textes correspondantes.

Plus de métacaractères

Nous n'avons pas encore couvert tous les métacaractères. Cette section traite de la plupart de ceux que nous n'avons pas abordés.

Certains métacaractères restants sont des assertions de largeur zéro (zero-width assertions en anglais). Ils ne font pas avancer le moteur dans la chaîne de caractères ; ils ne consomment aucun caractère et ils réussissent ou échouent tout simplement. Par exemple, \b est une assertion selon laquelle la position actuelle est située à la limite d'un mot ; la position n'est pas modifiée par le " b ". Cela signifie que les assertions de largeur zéro ne doivent pas être répétées car, si elles correspondent à un endroit donné, elles correspondent automatiquement un nombre infini de fois.

|

Union ensembliste ou opérateur « ou ». Si A et B sont des expressions régulières, A|B correspond à toute chaîne qui correspond à A ou à B. La priorité de | est très faible afin de pouvoir effectuer simplement des unions de chaînes de plusieurs caractères. Crow|Servo correspond avec 'Crow' ou 'Servo', mais pas avec 'Cro', un 'w' ou un 'S', ou encore 'ervo'.

Pour correspondre avec un '|' littéral, utilisez \| ou placez-le dans une classe de caractères, comme ceci [|].

^

Correspond à un début de ligne. À moins que l'option MULTILINE ne soit activée, cela ne fait correspondre que le début de la chaîne. Dans le mode MULTILINE, cela fait aussi correspondre immédiatement après chaque nouvelle ligne à l'intérieur de la chaîne.

Par exemple, si vous voulez trouver le mot From uniquement quand il est en début de ligne, la RE à utiliser est ^From.

>>> print(re.search('^From', 'From Here to Eternity'))
<re.Match object; span=(0, 4), match='From'>
>>> print(re.search('^From', 'Reciting From Memory'))
None

Pour trouver un '^' littéral, utilisez \^.

$

Correspond à une fin de ligne, ce qui veut dire soit la fin de la chaîne, soit tout emplacement qui est suivi du caractère de nouvelle ligne.

>>> print(re.search('}$', '{block}'))
<re.Match object; span=(6, 7), match='}'>
>>> print(re.search('}$', '{block} '))
None
>>> print(re.search('}$', '{block}\n'))
<re.Match object; span=(6, 7), match='}'>

Pour trouver un '$' littéral, utilisez \$ ou placez-le à l'intérieur d'une classe de caractères, comme ceci [$].

\A

Correspond au début de la chaîne de caractères, uniquement. Si l'option MULTILINE n'est pas activée, \A et ^ sont équivalents. Dans le mode MULTILINE, ils sont différents : \A ne correspond toujours qu'au début de la chaîne alors que ^ correspond aussi aux emplacements situés immédiatement après une nouvelle ligne à l'intérieur de la chaîne.

\z

Correspond uniquement à la fin d'une chaîne de caractères.

\Z

The same as \z. For compatibility with old Python versions.

\b

Limite de mot. C'est une assertion de largeur zéro qui correspond uniquement aux positions de début et de fin de mot. Un mot est défini comme une séquence de caractères alphanumériques ; ainsi, la fin d'un mot est indiquée par un « blanc » ou un caractère non-alphanumérique.

L'exemple suivant fait correspondre class seulement si c'est un mot complet ; il n'y a pas de correspondance quand il est à l'intérieur d'un autre mot.

>>> p = re.compile(r'\bclass\b')
>>> print(p.search('no class at all'))
<re.Match object; span=(3, 8), match='class'>
>>> print(p.search('the declassified algorithm'))
None
>>> print(p.search('one subclass is'))
None

Quand vous utilisez cette séquence spéciale, gardez deux choses à l'esprit. Tout d'abord, c'est la pire collision entre les littéraux des chaînes Python et les séquences d'expressions régulières. Dans les littéraux de chaîne de caractères Python, \b est le caractère de retour-arrière (backspace en anglais), dont la valeur ASCII est 8. Si vous n'utilisez pas les chaînes de caractères brutes, alors Python convertit le \b en retour-arrière, et votre RE ne correspond pas à ce que vous attendez. L'exemple suivant ressemble à notre RE précédente, mais nous avons omis le 'r' devant la chaîne RE.

>>> p = re.compile('\bclass\b')
>>> print(p.search('no class at all'))
None
>>> print(p.search('\b' + 'class' + '\b'))
<re.Match object; span=(0, 7), match='\x08class\x08'>

Ensuite, dans une classe de caractères, où cette assertion n'a pas lieu d'être, \b représente le caractère retour-arrière, afin d'être compatible avec les littéraux de chaînes de caractères.

\B

Encore une assertion de largeur zéro, qui est l'opposée de \b, c'est-à-dire qu'elle fait correspondre uniquement les emplacements qui ne sont pas à la limite d'un mot.

Regroupement

Souvent, vous avez besoin d'obtenir plus d'informations que le simple fait que la RE corresponde ou non. Ainsi, les expressions régulières sont souvent utilisées pour analyser des chaînes de caractères en écrivant une RE qui divise une chaîne en plusieurs sous-groupes, correspondant chacun à une information particulière. Par exemple, une ligne d'en-tête RFC-822 peut se diviser en un nom d'en-tête et une valeur associée, séparés par un ':', comme ceci :

From: author@example.com
User-Agent: Thunderbird 1.5.0.9 (X11/20061227)
MIME-Version: 1.0
To: editor@example.com

Vous pouvez alors écrire une expression régulière qui fait correspondre une ligne d'en-tête entière et qui comporte un groupe correspondant au nom de l'en-tête, et un autre groupe correspondant à la valeur de l'en-tête.

Les groupes sont délimités par les métacaractères marqueurs '(' et ')'. '(' et ')' ont à peu près le même sens que dans les expressions mathématiques ; ils forment un groupe à partir des expressions qu'ils encadrent ; vous pouvez répéter le contenu d'un groupe à l'aide d'un quantificateur, comme *, +, ? ou {m,n}. Par exemple, (ab)* correspond à zéro, une ou plusieurs fois ab.

>>> p = re.compile('(ab)*')
>>> print(p.match('ababababab').span())
(0, 10)

Les groupes délimités par '(' et ')' capturent également les indices de début et de fin du texte avec lequel ils correspondent ; ces indices peuvent être récupérés en passant un argument à group(), start(), end() ou span(). Les groupes sont numérotés à partir de 0, le groupe 0 étant toujours présent ; c'est l'ensemble de la RE, donc les méthodes de l'objet correspondance ont le groupe 0 comme argument par défaut. Plus loin, nous voyons comment exprimer les groupes qui ne capturent pas l'étendue du texte avec lequel ils correspondent.

>>> p = re.compile('(a)b')
>>> m = p.match('ab')
>>> m.group()
'ab'
>>> m.group(0)
'ab'

Les sous-groupes sont numérotés de la gauche vers la droite, à partir de 1. Les groupes peuvent être imbriqués ; pour déterminer le numéro, il vous suffit de compter le nombre de parenthèses ouvrantes de la gauche vers la droite.

>>> p = re.compile('(a(b)c)d')
>>> m = p.match('abcd')
>>> m.group(0)
'abcd'
>>> m.group(1)
'abc'
>>> m.group(2)
'b'

Vous pouvez passer plusieurs numéros de groupes à group() en même temps, elle vous renvoie alors un n-uplet contenant les valeurs correspondantes pour ces groupes.

>>> m.group(2,1,2)
('b', 'abc', 'b')

La méthode groups() renvoie un n-uplet contenant les chaînes pour tous les sous-groupes, en commençant par le numéro 1 jusqu'au dernier.

>>> m.groups()
('abc', 'b')

Les renvois dans un motif vous permettent de spécifier que le contenu d'un groupe précédent doit aussi être trouvé à l'emplacement actuel dans la chaîne. Par exemple, \1 réussit si le contenu du premier groupe se trouve aussi à la position courante, sinon il échoue. Rappelez-vous que les littéraux de chaînes Python utilisent aussi la barre oblique inverse suivie d'un nombre pour insérer des caractères arbitraires dans une chaîne ; soyez sûr d'utiliser une chaîne brute quand vous faites des renvois dans une RE.

Par exemple, la RE suivante détecte les mots doublés dans une chaîne.

>>> p = re.compile(r'\b(\w+)\s+\1\b')
>>> p.search('Paris in the the spring').group()
'the the'

Les renvois tels que celui-ci ne sont pas très utiles pour effectuer une simple recherche dans une chaîne — il n'y a que peu de formats de textes qui répètent des données ainsi — mais vous verrez bientôt qu'ils sont très utiles pour effectuer des substitutions dans les chaînes.

Groupes non de capture et groupes nommés

Les RE élaborées peuvent utiliser de nombreux groupes, à la fois pour capturer des sous-chaînes intéressantes ainsi que pour regrouper et structurer la RE elle-même. Dans les RE complexes, il devient difficile de garder la trace des numéros de groupes. Deux caractéristiques aident à résoudre ce problème, toutes deux utilisant la même syntaxe d'extension des expressions régulières. Nous allons donc commencer en examinant cette syntaxe.

Les puissantes extensions des expressions régulières de Perl 5 sont réputées. Pour les mettre en œuvre, les développeurs Perl ne pouvaient pas utiliser de nouveaux métacaractères simples ou de nouvelles séquences commençant par \ sans que les RE Perl ne deviennent trop différentes des RE standards au point de créer de la confusion. S'ils avaient choisi & comme nouveau métacaractère, par exemple, les expressions déjà écrites auraient considéré que & était un caractère standard et ne l'aurait pas échappé en écrivant \& ou [&].

La solution adoptée par les développeurs Perl a été d'utiliser (?...) comme syntaxe d'extension. Placer ? immédiatement après une parenthèse était une erreur de syntaxe, parce que le ? n'a alors rien à répéter. Ainsi, cela n'a pas introduit de problème de compatibilité. Les caractères qui suivent immédiatement le ? indiquent quelle extension est utilisée, donc (?=truc) est une chose (une assertion positive anticipée) et (?:truc) est une autre chose (la sous-expression truc que l'on groupe).

Python gère plusieurs des extensions Perl et rajoute une extension à la syntaxe des extensions Perl. Si le premier caractère après le point d'interrogation est P, cela signifie que c'est une extension spécifique à Python.

Après avoir vu la syntaxe générale d'extension des RE, nous pouvons revenir aux fonctionnalités qui simplifient le travail avec les groupes dans des RE complexes.

Parfois, vous souhaitez utiliser un groupe pour marquer une partie de l'expression régulière mais le contenu de ce groupe ne vous intéresse pas vraiment. Vous pouvez l'indiquer explicitement en utilisant la syntaxe de groupe, mais sans indiquer que vous voulez en capturer le contenu : (?:...), où vous remplacez les ... par n'importe quelle expression régulière.

>>> m = re.match("([abc])+", "abc")
>>> m.groups()
('c',)
>>> m = re.match("(?:[abc])+", "abc")
>>> m.groups()
()

À part le fait que vous n'avez pas accès au contenu du groupe, un groupe se comporte exactement de la même manière qu'un groupe de capture ; vous pouvez placer n'importe quoi dedans, spécifier une répétition avec un métacaractère tel que * et l'imbriquer dans un autre groupe (de capture ou pas). (?:...) est particulièrement utile quand vous modifiez des motifs existants, puisque vous pouvez ajouter de nouveaux groupes sans changer la façon dont les autres groupes sont numérotés. Nous devons mentionner ici qu'il n'y a aucune différence de performance dans la recherche de groupes, de capture ou non ; les deux formes travaillent à la même vitesse.

Une fonctionnalité plus importante est le nommage des groupes : au lieu d'y faire référence par des nombres, vous pouvez référencer des groupes par leur nom.

La syntaxe pour nommer les groupes est l'une des extensions spécifiques à Python : (?P<nom>....). nom est, vous vous en doutez, le nom du groupe. Les groupes nommés se comportent exactement comme des groupes de capture, sauf qu'ils associent en plus un nom à un groupe. Les méthodes des objets correspondances qui gèrent les groupes de capture acceptent soit des entiers qui font référence aux numéros des groupes, soit des chaînes de caractères qui désignent les noms des groupes désirés. Les groupes nommés se voient toujours attribuer un numéro, vous pouvez ainsi récupérer les informations d'un groupe de deux façons :

>>> p = re.compile(r'(?P<word>\b\w+\b)')
>>> m = p.search( '(((( Lots of punctuation )))' )
>>> m.group('word')
'Lots'
>>> m.group(1)
'Lots'

De plus, vous pouvez récupérer les groupes nommés comme dictionnaire avec groupdict() :

>>> m = re.match(r'(?P<first>\w+) (?P<last>\w+)', 'Jane Doe')
>>> m.groupdict()
{'first': 'Jane', 'last': 'Doe'}

Les groupes nommés sont pratiques car il est plus facile de se rappeler un nom qu'un numéro. Voici un exemple de RE tirée du module imaplib :

InternalDate = re.compile(r'INTERNALDATE "'
        r'(?P<day>[ 123][0-9])-(?P<mon>[A-Z][a-z][a-z])-'
        r'(?P<year>[0-9][0-9][0-9][0-9])'
        r' (?P<hour>[0-9][0-9]):(?P<min>[0-9][0-9]):(?P<sec>[0-9][0-9])'
        r' (?P<zonen>[-+])(?P<zoneh>[0-9][0-9])(?P<zonem>[0-9][0-9])'
        r'"')

Il est évidemment plus facile de récupérer m.group('zonem') que de se rappeler de récupérer le groupe 9.

La syntaxe des renvois dans une expression telle que (....)\1 fait référence au numéro du groupe. Il y a naturellement une variante qui utilise le nom du groupe au lieu du numéro. C'est une autre extension Python : (?P=nom) indique que le contenu du groupe appelé nom doit correspondre à nouveau avec l'emplacement courant. L'expression régulière pour trouver des mots doublés, \b(\w+)\s+\1\b peut ainsi être ré-écrite en \b(?P<mot>\w+)\s+(?P=mot)\b :

>>> p = re.compile(r'\b(?P<word>\w+)\s+(?P=word)\b')
>>> p.search('Paris in the the spring').group()
'the the'

Assertions prédictives

Une autre assertion de largeur zéro est l'assertion prédictive. Une assertion prédictive peut s'exprimer sous deux formes, la positive et la négative, comme ceci :

(?=...)

Assertion prédictive positive. Elle réussit si l'expression régulière contenue, représentée ici par ..., correspond effectivement à l'emplacement courant ; dans le cas contraire, elle échoue. Mais, une fois que l'expression contenue a été essayée, le moteur de correspondance n'avance pas ; le reste du motif est testé à l'endroit même où l'assertion a commencé.

(?!...)

Assertion prédictive négative. C'est l'opposée de l'assertion positive ; elle réussit si l'expression régulière contenue ne correspond pas à l'emplacement courant dans la chaîne.

Pour rendre ceci plus concret, regardons le cas où une prédiction est utile. Considérons un motif simple qui doit faire correspondre un nom de fichier et le diviser en un nom de base et une extension, séparés par un .. Par exemple, dans news.rc, news est le nom de base et rc est l'extension du nom de fichier.

Le motif de correspondance est plutôt simple :

.*[.].*$

Notez que le . doit être traité spécialement car c'est un métacaractère, nous le plaçons donc à l'intérieur d'une classe de caractères pour ne faire correspondre que ce caractère spécifique. Notez également le $ en fin ; nous l'avons ajouté pour nous assurer que tout le reste de la chaîne est bien inclus dans l'extension. Cette expression régulière fait correspondre truc.bar, autoexec.bat, sendmail.cf et printers.conf.

Maintenant, compliquons un peu le problème ; si nous voulons faire correspondre les noms de fichiers dont l'extension n'est pas bat ? voici quelques tentatives incorrectes :

.*[.][^b].*$

The first attempt above tries to exclude bat by requiring that the first character of the extension is not a b. This is wrong, because the pattern also doesn't match foo.bar.

.*[.]([^b]..|.[^a].|..[^t])$

L'expression devient plus confuse si nous essayons de réparer la première solution en spécifiant l'un des cas suivants : le premier caractère de l'extension n'est pas b ; le deuxième caractère n'est pas a ; ou le troisième caractère n'est pas t. Ce motif accepte truc.bar et rejette autoexec.bat, mais elle nécessite une extension de trois lettres et n'accepte pas un nom de fichier avec une extension de deux lettres comme sendmail.cf. Compliquons encore une fois le motif pour essayer de le réparer.

.*[.]([^b].?.?|.[^a]?.?|..?[^t]?)$

Pour cette troisième tentative, les deuxième et troisième lettres sont devenues facultatives afin de permettre la correspondance avec des extensions plus courtes que trois caractères, comme sendmail.cf.

Le motif devient vraiment compliqué maintenant, ce qui le rend difficile à lire et à comprendre. Pire, si le problème change et que vous voulez exclure à la fois bat et exe en tant qu'extensions, le modèle deviendra encore plus compliqué et confus.

Une assertion prédictive négative supprime toute cette confusion :

.*[.](?!bat$)[^.]*$

The negative lookahead means: if the expression bat doesn't match at this point, try the rest of the pattern; if bat$ does match, the whole pattern will fail. The trailing $ is required to ensure that something like sample.batch, where the extension only starts with bat, will be allowed. The [^.]* makes sure that the pattern works when there are multiple dots in the filename.

Exclure une autre extension de nom de fichier est maintenant facile ; il suffit de l'ajouter comme alternative à l'intérieur de l'assertion. Le motif suivant exclut les noms de fichiers qui se terminent par bat ou exe :

.*[.](?!bat$|exe$)[^.]*$

Modification de chaînes

Jusqu'à présent, nous avons simplement effectué des recherches dans une chaîne statique. Les expressions régulières sont aussi couramment utilisées pour modifier les chaînes de caractères de diverses manières, en utilisant les méthodes suivantes des motifs :

Méthode/Attribut

Objectif

split()

Découpe la chaîne de caractère en liste, la découpant partout où la RE correspond

sub()

Recherche toutes les sous-chaînes de caractères où la RE correspond et les substitue par une chaîne de caractères différente

subn()

Fait la même chose que sub(), mais renvoie la nouvelle chaîne et le nombre de remplacements effectués

Découpage de chaînes

La méthode split() d'un motif divise une chaîne de caractères à chaque fois que la RE correspond, retournant la liste des morceaux. C'est similaire à la méthode split() mais est beaucoup plus générale par les délimiteurs que vous pouvez spécifier ; la méthode split() du type string ne gère que les découpages en suivant les « blancs » ou suivant une chaîne définie. Comme vous pouvez vous y attendre, il y a aussi une fonction re.split() de niveau module.

.split(string[, maxsplit=0])

Découpe string en suivant les correspondances de l'expression régulière. Si des parenthèses de capture sont utilisées dans la RE, leur contenu est également renvoyé dans la liste résultante. Si maxsplit n'est pas nul, au plus maxsplit découpages sont effectués.

Vous pouvez limiter le nombre de découpages effectués en passant une valeur pour maxsplit. Quand maxsplit n'est pas nul, au plus maxsplit découpages sont effectués et le reste de la chaîne est renvoyé comme dernier élément de la liste. Dans l'exemple suivant, le délimiteur est toute séquence de caractères non alphanumériques.

>>> p = re.compile(r'\W+')
>>> p.split('This is a test, short and sweet, of split().')
['This', 'is', 'a', 'test', 'short', 'and', 'sweet', 'of', 'split', '']
>>> p.split('This is a test, short and sweet, of split().', 3)
['This', 'is', 'a', 'test, short and sweet, of split().']

Parfois, vous voulez récupérer le texte entre les délimiteurs mais aussi quel était le délimiteur. Si des parenthèses de capture sont utilisées dans la RE, leurs valeurs sont également renvoyées dans la liste. Comparons les appels suivants :

>>> p = re.compile(r'\W+')
>>> p2 = re.compile(r'(\W+)')
>>> p.split('This... is a test.')
['This', 'is', 'a', 'test', '']
>>> p2.split('This... is a test.')
['This', '... ', 'is', ' ', 'a', ' ', 'test', '.', '']

La fonction de niveau module re.split() ajoute la RE à utiliser comme premier argument, mais est par ailleurs identique.

>>> re.split(r'[\W]+', 'Words, words, words.')
['Words', 'words', 'words', '']
>>> re.split(r'([\W]+)', 'Words, words, words.')
['Words', ', ', 'words', ', ', 'words', '.', '']
>>> re.split(r'[\W]+', 'Words, words, words.', 1)
['Words', 'words, words.']

Recherche et substitution

Une autre tâche classique est de trouver toutes les correspondances d'un motif et de les remplacer par une autre chaîne. La méthode sub() prend une valeur de substitution, qui peut être une chaîne de caractères ou une fonction, et la chaîne à traiter.

.sub(replacement, string[, count=0])

Renvoie la chaîne obtenue en remplaçant les occurrences sans chevauchement les plus à gauche de la RE dans string par la substitution replacement. Si le motif n'est pas trouvé, string est renvoyée inchangée.

L'argument optionnel count est le nombre maximum d'occurrences du motif à remplacer ; count doit être un entier positif ou nul. La valeur par défaut de 0 signifie qu'il faut remplacer toutes les occurrences.

Voici un exemple simple utilisant la méthode sub(). Nous remplaçons les noms des couleurs par le mot colour :

>>> p = re.compile('(blue|white|red)')
>>> p.sub('colour', 'blue socks and red shoes')
'colour socks and colour shoes'
>>> p.sub('colour', 'blue socks and red shoes', count=1)
'colour socks and red shoes'

La méthode subn() fait la même chose mais renvoie un couple contenant la nouvelle valeur de la chaîne de caractères et le nombre de remplacements effectués :

>>> p = re.compile('(blue|white|red)')
>>> p.subn('colour', 'blue socks and red shoes')
('colour socks and colour shoes', 2)
>>> p.subn('colour', 'no colours at all')
('no colours at all', 0)

Les correspondances vides ne sont remplacées que lorsqu'elles ne sont pas adjacentes à une correspondance vide précédente.

>>> p = re.compile('x*')
>>> p.sub('-', 'abxd')
'-a-b--d-'

Si replacement est une chaîne de caractères, toute barre oblique inverse d'échappement est traitée. C'est-à-dire que \n est converti en caractère de nouvelle ligne, \r est converti en retour chariot, et ainsi de suite. Les échappements inconnus comme \& sont laissés tels quels. Les renvois, tels que \6, sont remplacés par la sous-chaîne correspondante au groupe dans le RE. Ceci vous permet d'incorporer des parties du texte original dans la chaîne de remplacement résultante.

Cet exemple fait correspondre le mot section suivi par une chaîne encadrée par { et }, et modifie section en subsection :

>>> p = re.compile('section{ ( [^}]* ) }', re.VERBOSE)
>>> p.sub(r'subsection{\1}','section{First} section{second}')
'subsection{First} subsection{second}'

Il existe aussi une syntaxe pour faire référence aux groupes nommés définis par la syntaxe (?P<nom>....). \g<nom> utilise la sous-chaîne correspondante au groupe nommé nom et \g<numéro> utilise le numéro de groupe correspondant. \g<2> est donc l'équivalent de \2, mais n'est pas ambigu dans une chaîne de substitution telle que \g<2>0 (\20 serait interprété comme une référence au groupe 20 et non comme une référence au groupe 2 suivie du caractère littéral '0'). Les substitutions suivantes sont toutes équivalentes mais utilisent les trois variantes de la chaîne de remplacement.

>>> p = re.compile('section{ (?P<name> [^}]* ) }', re.VERBOSE)
>>> p.sub(r'subsection{\1}','section{First}')
'subsection{First}'
>>> p.sub(r'subsection{\g<1>}','section{First}')
'subsection{First}'
>>> p.sub(r'subsection{\g<name>}','section{First}')
'subsection{First}'

replacement peut aussi être une fonction, ce qui vous donne encore plus de contrôle. Si replacement est une fonction, la fonction est appelée pour chaque occurrence non chevauchante de pattern. À chaque appel, un argument objet correspondance est passé à la fonction, qui peut utiliser cette information pour calculer la chaîne de remplacement désirée et la renvoyer.

Dans l'exemple suivant, la fonction de substitution convertit un nombre décimal en hexadécimal :

>>> def hexrepl(match):
...     "Return the hex string for a decimal number"
...     value = int(match.group())
...     return hex(value)
...
>>> p = re.compile(r'\d+')
>>> p.sub(hexrepl, 'Call 65490 for printing, 49152 for user code.')
'Call 0xffd2 for printing, 0xc000 for user code.'

Quand vous utilisez la fonction de niveau module re.sub(), le motif est passé comme premier argument. Vous pouvez fournir le motif sous forme d'objet ou de chaîne de caractères ; si vous avez besoin de spécifier des options pour l'expression régulière, vous devez soit utiliser un objet motif comme premier paramètre, soit utiliser des modificateurs intégrés dans la chaîne de caractères, par exemple sub("(?i)b+", "x", "bbbb BBBBB") renvoie 'x x'.

Problèmes classiques

Les expressions régulières constituent un outil puissant pour certaines applications mais, à certains égards, leur comportement n'est pas intuitif et, parfois, elles ne se comportent pas comme vous pouvez vous y attendre. Cette section met en évidence certains des pièges les plus courants.

Utilisez les méthodes du type string

Parfois, il ne faut pas utiliser le module re. Si vous faites correspondre une chaîne fixe, ou une classe à un seul caractère, et que vous n'utilisez pas les fonctionnalités de re telles que l'option IGNORECASE, alors la puissance des expressions régulières n'est pas nécessaire. Les chaînes de caractères ont plusieurs méthodes pour opérer sur des chaînes fixes et elles sont généralement beaucoup plus rapides, parce que l'implémentation est une seule petite boucle C qui a été optimisée, au lieu du gros moteur d'expressions régulières plus généraliste.

Nous pouvons prendre l'exemple du remplacement d'une seule chaîne fixe par une autre ; vous souhaitez remplacer mot par acte. re.sub() semble être faite pour cela, mais regardons la méthode replace(). Notons que replace() remplace aussi mot à l'intérieur des mots, transformant moteur en acteeur, mais la RE naïve mot aurait aussi fait cela (pour éviter d'effectuer la substitution sur des parties de mots, le motif doit être \bmot\b, qui exige que mot soit en limite de mot d'un côté et de l'autre ; c'est au-delà des capacités de la méthode replace()).

Une autre tâche classique est de supprimer chaque occurrence d'un seul caractère d'une chaîne de caractères ou de le remplacer par un autre caractère unique. Vous pouvez le faire avec quelque chose comme re.sub('\n', ' ', S), mais translate() en est capable et est plus rapide que n'importe quelle opération d'expression régulière.

Bref, avant de passer au module re, évaluez d'abord si votre problème peut être résolu avec une méthode de chaîne plus rapide et plus simple.

match() contre search()

La fonction match() vérifie seulement si la RE correspond au début de la chaîne de caractères tandis que search() parcourt la chaîne de caractères pour trouver une correspondance. Il est important de garder cette distinction à l'esprit. Rappelez-vous, match() ne trouve qu'une correspondance qui commence à 0 ; si la correspondance commence plus loin, match() ne la trouve pas.

>>> print(re.match('super', 'superstition').span())
(0, 5)
>>> print(re.match('super', 'insuperable'))
None

D'un autre côté, search() balaie la chaîne de caractères, rapportant la première correspondance qu'elle trouve.

>>> print(re.search('super', 'superstition').span())
(0, 5)
>>> print(re.search('super', 'insuperable').span())
(2, 7)

Vous pouvez être tenté d'utiliser re.match() en ajoutant simplement .* au début de votre RE. Ce n'est pas une bonne idée, utilisez plutôt re.search(). Le compilateur d'expressions régulières analyse les RE pour optimiser le processus de recherche d'une correspondance. Cette analyse permet de déterminer ce que doit être le premier caractère d'une correspondance ; par exemple, un motif commençant par Corbeau doit faire correspondre un 'C' en tête. L'analyse permet au moteur de parcourir rapidement la chaîne de caractères à la recherche du caractère de départ, n'essayant la correspondance complète que si un 'C' a déjà été trouvé.

Ajouter .* annihile cette optimisation, nécessitant un balayage jusqu'à la fin de la chaîne de caractères, puis un retour en arrière pour trouver une correspondance pour le reste de la RE. Préférez l'utilisation re.search().

Glouton contre non-glouton

Si vous répétez un motif dans une expression régulière, comme a*, l'action résultante est de consommer autant de motifs que possible. C'est un problème lorsque vous essayez de faire correspondre une paire de délimiteurs, comme des chevrons encadrant une balise HTML. Le motif naïf pour faire correspondre une seule balise HTML ne fonctionne pas en raison de la nature gloutonne de .*.

>>> s = '<html><head><title>Title</title>'
>>> len(s)
32
>>> print(re.match('<.*>', s).span())
(0, 32)
>>> print(re.match('<.*>', s).group())
<html><head><title>Title</title>

La RE correspond au '<' de '<html>' et le .* consomme le reste de la chaîne. Mais, comme il reste des éléments du motif dans la RE et que le > ne peut pas correspondre à la fin de la chaîne de caractères, le moteur d'expression régulière doit faire marche arrière caractère par caractère jusqu'à ce qu'il trouve une correspondance pour le >. La correspondance finale s'étend du '<' de '<html>' au '>' de '</title>', ce qui n'est pas ce que vous voulez.

Dans ce cas, la solution consiste à utiliser des quantificateurs non gloutons tels que *?, +?, ?? ou {m,n}?, qui effectuent une correspondance aussi petite que possible. Dans l'exemple ci-dessus, le '>' est essayé immédiatement après que le '<' corresponde et, s'il échoue, le moteur avance caractère par caractère, ré-essayant '>' à chaque pas. Nous obtenons alors le bon résultat :

>>> print(re.match('<.*?>', s).group())
<html>

Note : l'analyse du HTML ou du XML avec des expressions régulières est tout sauf une sinécure. Les motifs écrits à la va-vite traiteront les cas communs, mais HTML et XML ont des cas spéciaux qui font planter l'expression régulière évidente ; quand vous aurez écrit une expression régulière qui traite tous les cas possibles, les motifs seront très compliqués. Utilisez un module d'analyse HTML ou XML pour de telles tâches.

Utilisez re.VERBOSE

À présent, vous vous êtes rendu compte que les expressions régulières sont une notation très compacte, mais qu'elles ne sont pas très lisibles. Une RE modérément complexe peut rapidement devenir une longue collection de barres obliques inverses, de parenthèses et de métacaractères, ce qui la rend difficile à lire et à comprendre.

Pour de telles RE, activer l'option re.VERBOSE à la compilation de l'expression régulière peut être utile ; cela vous permet de formater l'expression régulière de manière plus claire.

L'option re.VERBOSE a plusieurs effets. Les espaces dans l'expression régulière qui ne sont pas à l'intérieur d'une classe de caractères sont ignorées. Cela signifie qu'une expression comme chien | chat est équivalente à chien|chat qui est moins lisible, mais [a b] correspond toujours aux caractères 'a', 'b' ou à une espace. En outre, vous avez la possibilité de mettre des commentaires à l'intérieur d'une RE ; les commentaires s'étendent du caractère # à la nouvelle ligne suivante. Lorsque vous l'utilisez avec des chaînes à triple guillemets, cela permet aux RE d'être formatées plus proprement :

pat = re.compile(r"""
 \s*                 # Skip leading whitespace
 (?P<header>[^:]+)   # Header name
 \s* :               # Whitespace, and a colon
 (?P<value>.*?)      # The header's value -- *? used to
                     # lose the following trailing whitespace
 \s*$                # Trailing whitespace to end-of-line
""", re.VERBOSE)

Ceci est beaucoup plus lisible que :

pat = re.compile(r"\s*(?P<header>[^:]+)\s*:(?P<value>.*?)\s*$")

Vos commentaires

Les expressions régulières sont un sujet compliqué. Est-ce que ce document vous a aidé à les comprendre ? Des parties ne sont pas claires, ou des problèmes que vous avez rencontrés ne sont pas traités ici ? Si tel est le cas, merci d'envoyer vos suggestions d'améliorations à l'auteur.

Le livre le plus complet sur les expressions régulières est certainement Mastering Regular Expressions de Jeffrey Friedl, publié par O'Reilly. Malheureusement, il se concentre sur les déclinaisons Perl et Java des expressions régulières et ne contient aucun contenu pour Python ; il n'est donc pas utile d'en faire référence pour la programmation Python. (La première édition traitait du module Python regex, maintenant supprimé, ce qui ne vous aidera pas beaucoup.) Pensez à le retirer de votre bibliothèque.

Guide pratique : programmation avec les sockets

Auteur:

Gordon McMillan

Résumé

Les connecteurs (sockets, en anglais) sont utilisés presque partout, mais ils sont l'une des technologies les plus méconnues. En voici un aperçu très général. Ce n'est pas vraiment un tutoriel — vous aurez encore du travail à faire pour avoir un résultat opérationnel. Il ne couvre pas les détails (et il y en a beaucoup), mais j'espère qu'il vous donnera suffisamment d'informations pour commencer à les utiliser correctement.

Connecteurs (sockets)

Je ne parlerai que des connecteurs INET (c'est-à-dire IPv4), mais ils représentent au moins 99 % des connecteurs utilisés. Et je ne parlerai que des connecteurs STREAM (c.-à-d. TCP) — à moins que vous ne sachiez vraiment ce que vous faites (auquel cas ce guide n'est pas pour vous), vous obtiendrez un meilleur comportement et de meilleures performances avec un connecteur STREAM qu'avec n'importe quel autre. Je vais essayer d'éclaircir le mystère de ce qu'est un connecteur, ainsi que quelques conseils sur la façon de travailler avec des connecteurs bloquants et non bloquants. Mais je commencerai par parler des connecteurs bloquants. Vous devez savoir comment ils fonctionnent avant de vous intéresser aux connecteurs non bloquants.

Une partie de la difficulté à comprendre ces choses est que « connecteur » peut désigner plusieurs choses très légèrement différentes, selon le contexte. Faisons donc d'abord une distinction entre un connecteur « client » — point final d'une conversation — et un connecteur « serveur », qui ressemble davantage à un standardiste. L'application cliente (votre navigateur par exemple) utilise exclusivement des connecteurs « client » ; le serveur web avec lequel elle parle utilise à la fois des connecteurs « serveur » et des connecteurs « client ».

Historique

Parmi les différentes formes d’IPC, les connecteurs sont de loin les plus populaires. Sur une plate-forme donnée, il est probable que d'autres formes d'IPC soient plus rapides, mais pour la communication entre plates-formes, les connecteurs sont à peu près la seule solution valable.

Ils ont été inventés à Berkeley dans le cadre de la déclinaison BSD d'Unix. Ils se sont répandus comme une traînée de poudre avec Internet. Et pour cause : la combinaison des connecteurs avec INET rend le dialogue avec n’importe quelle machine dans le monde entier incroyablement facile (du moins par rapport à d'autres systèmes).

Création d'un connecteur

Grosso modo, lorsque vous avez cliqué sur le lien qui vous a amené à cette page, votre navigateur a fait quelque chose comme ceci :

# create an INET, STREAMing socket
s = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
# now connect to the web server on port 80 - the normal http port
s.connect(("www.python.org", 80))

Lorsque l’appel à connect est terminé, le connecteur s peut être utilisé pour envoyer une requête demandant le texte de la page. Le même connecteur lira la réponse, puis sera mis au rebut. C'est exact, mis au rebut. Les connecteurs clients ne sont normalement utilisés que pour un seul échange (ou un petit ensemble d'échanges séquentiels).

Ce qui se passe dans le serveur web est un peu plus complexe. Tout d'abord, le serveur web crée un « connecteur serveur » :

# create an INET, STREAMing socket
serversocket = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
# bind the socket to a public host, and a well-known port
serversocket.bind((socket.gethostname(), 80))
# become a server socket
serversocket.listen(5)

Quelques remarques : nous avons utilisé socket.gethostname() pour que le connecteur soit visible par le monde extérieur. Si nous avions utilisé s.bind(('localhost', 80)) ou s.bind(('127.0.0.1', 80)), nous aurions toujours un connecteur « serveur », mais qui ne serait visible qu'à l'intérieur de la même machine. s.bind(('', 80)) précise que le connecteur est accessible par n'importe quelle adresse que la machine possède.

Une deuxième chose à noter : les ports dont le numéro est petit sont généralement réservés aux services « bien connus » (HTTP, SNMP, etc.). Si vous expérimentez, utilisez un nombre suffisamment élevé (4 chiffres).

Enfin, l'argument passé à listen indique à la bibliothèque de connecteurs que nous voulons mettre en file d'attente jusqu'à 5 requêtes de connexion (le maximum normal) avant de refuser les connexions externes. Si le reste du code est écrit correctement, cela devrait suffire.

Maintenant que nous avons un connecteur « serveur », en écoute sur le port 80, nous pouvons entrer dans la boucle principale du serveur web :

while True:
    # accept connections from outside
    (clientsocket, address) = serversocket.accept()
    # now do something with the clientsocket
    # in this case, we'll pretend this is a threaded server
    ct = make_client_thread(clientsocket)
    ct.start()

Il y a en fait trois façons générales de faire fonctionner cette boucle : mobiliser un fil d'exécution pour gérer les clientsockets, créer un nouveau processus pour gérer les clientsockets, ou restructurer cette application pour utiliser des connecteurs non bloquants, et multiplexer entre notre connecteur « serveur » et n'importe quel clientsocket actif en utilisant select. Plus d'informations à ce sujet plus tard. La chose importante à comprendre maintenant est la suivante : c'est tout ce que fait un connecteur « serveur ». Il n'envoie aucune donnée. Il ne reçoit aucune donnée. Il ne fait que produire des connecteurs « clients ». Chaque clientsocket est créé en réponse à un autre connecteur « client » qui se connecte à l'hôte et au port auxquels nous sommes liés. Dès que nous avons créé ce clientsocket, nous retournons à l'écoute pour d'autres connexions. Les deux « clients » sont libres de discuter — ils utilisent un port alloué dynamiquement qui sera recyclé à la fin de la conversation.

IPC (Communication Entre Processus)

Si vous avez besoin d'une communication rapide entre deux processus sur une même machine, vous devriez regarder comment utiliser les tubes (pipe, en anglais) ou la mémoire partagée. Si vous décidez d'utiliser les connecteurs AF_INET, liez le connecteur « serveur » à 'localhost'. Sur la plupart des plates-formes, cela contourne quelques couches réseau et est un peu plus rapide.

Voir aussi

Le multiprocessing intègre de l’IPC multiplateformes dans une API de plus haut niveau.

Utilisation d'un connecteur

La première chose à noter, c'est que la prise « client » du navigateur web et la prise « client » du serveur web sont des bêtes identiques. C'est-à-dire qu'il s'agit d'une conversation « pair à pair ». Ou pour le dire autrement, en tant que concepteur, vous devrez décider quelles sont les règles d'étiquette pour une conversation. Normalement, la connexion via connect lance la conversation en envoyant une demande, ou peut-être un signe. Mais c'est une décision de conception — ce n'est pas une règle des connecteurs.

Il y a maintenant deux ensembles de verbes à utiliser pour la communication. Vous pouvez utiliser send et recv, ou vous pouvez transformer votre connecteur client en une bête imitant un fichier et utiliser read et write. C'est la façon dont Java présente ses connecteurs. Je ne vais pas en parler ici, sauf pour vous avertir que vous devez utiliser flush sur les connecteurs. Ce sont des « fichiers », mis en mémoire tampon, et une erreur courante est d'« écrire » via write quelque chose, puis de « lire » via read pour obtenir une réponse. Sans un flush, vous pouvez attendre la réponse pour toujours, parce que la requête peut encore être dans votre mémoire tampon de sortie.

Nous arrivons maintenant au principal écueil des connecteurs — send et recv fonctionnent sur les mémoires tampons du réseau. Ils ne traitent pas nécessairement tous les octets que vous leur passez (ou que vous attendez d'eux), car leur principal objectif est de gérer les tampons réseau. En général, leur exécution se termine lorsque les tampons réseau associés ont été remplis (send) ou vidés (recv). Ils vous indiquent alors combien d'octets ils ont traité. Il est de votre responsabilité de les rappeler jusqu'à ce que votre message ait été complètement traité.

Lorsqu'un recv renvoie 0 octet, cela signifie que l'autre partie a fermé (ou est en train de fermer) la connexion. Vous ne recevrez plus de données sur cette connexion. Jamais. Vous pouvez peut-être envoyer des données avec succès. J’en parlerai plus tard.

Un protocole comme HTTP utilise un connecteur pour un seul transfert. Le client envoie une demande, puis lit une réponse. C'est tout. Le connecteur est mis au rebut. Cela signifie qu'un client peut détecter la fin de la réponse en recevant 0 octet.

Mais si vous prévoyez de réutiliser votre connecteur pour d'autres transferts, vous devez réaliser qu'il n'y a pas d'EOT sur un connecteur. Je répète : si un appel à send ou recv se termine après avoir traité 0 octet, la connexion a été interrompue. Si la connexion n'a pas été interrompue, vous pouvez attendre sur un recv pour toujours, car le connecteur ne vous dira pas qu'il n'y a plus rien à lire (pour le moment). Maintenant, si vous y réfléchissez un peu, vous allez vous rendre compte d'une vérité fondamentale sur les connecteurs : les messages doivent être de longueur fixe (beurk), ou être délimités (bof), ou indiquer de quelle longueur ils sont (beaucoup mieux), ou terminer en coupant la connexion. Le choix est entièrement de votre côté (mais certaines façons sont meilleurs que d'autres).

En supposant que vous ne vouliez pas terminer la connexion, la solution la plus simple est un message de longueur fixe :

class MySocket:
    """demonstration class only
      - coded for clarity, not efficiency
    """

    def __init__(self, sock=None):
        if sock is None:
            self.sock = socket.socket(
                            socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
        else:
            self.sock = sock

    def connect(self, host, port):
        self.sock.connect((host, port))

    def mysend(self, msg):
        totalsent = 0
        while totalsent < MSGLEN:
            sent = self.sock.send(msg[totalsent:])
            if sent == 0:
                raise RuntimeError("socket connection broken")
            totalsent = totalsent + sent

    def myreceive(self):
        chunks = []
        bytes_recd = 0
        while bytes_recd < MSGLEN:
            chunk = self.sock.recv(min(MSGLEN - bytes_recd, 2048))
            if chunk == b'':
                raise RuntimeError("socket connection broken")
            chunks.append(chunk)
            bytes_recd = bytes_recd + len(chunk)
        return b''.join(chunks)

Le code d'envoi ici est utilisable pour presque tous les systèmes de messagerie — en Python, vous envoyez des chaînes de caractères, et vous pouvez utiliser len() pour en déterminer la longueur (même si elle contient des caractères \0). C'est surtout le code de réception qui devient plus complexe. (Et en C, ce n'est pas bien pire, sauf que vous ne pouvez pas utiliser strlen si le message contient des \0s).

Le plus simple est de faire du premier caractère du message un indicateur du type de message, et de faire en sorte que le type détermine la longueur. Vous avez maintenant deux recvs — le premier pour obtenir (au moins) ce premier caractère afin de pouvoir déterminer la longueur, et le second dans une boucle pour obtenir le reste. Si vous décidez de suivre la route délimitée, vous recevrez un morceau de taille arbitraire (4096 ou 8192 est fréquemment une bonne valeur pour correspondre à la taille de la mémoire tampon du réseau), et vous analyserez ce que vous avez reçu pour trouver un délimiteur.

Une subtilité dont il faut être conscient : si votre protocole de conversation permet de renvoyer plusieurs messages les uns à la suite des autres (sans aucune sorte de réponse), et que vous passez à recv une taille de morceau arbitraire, vous pouvez en arriver à lire le début du message suivant. Vous devrez alors le mettre de côté et le conserver, jusqu'à ce que vous en ayez besoin.

Préfixer le message avec sa longueur (disons, sous la forme de 5 caractères numériques) devient plus complexe, parce que (croyez-le ou non), vous pouvez ne pas recevoir les 5 caractères en un seul recv. Pour une utilisation triviale, vous vous en tirerez à bon compte ; mais en cas de forte charge réseau, votre code se cassera très rapidement, à moins que vous n’utilisiez deux boucles recv — la première pour déterminer la longueur, la deuxième pour obtenir la partie « données » du message. Vilain. C’est aussi à ce moment que vous découvrirez que « l’envoi » via send ne parvient pas toujours à tout évacuer en un seul passage. Et bien que vous ayez lu cet avertissement, vous finirez par vous faire avoir par cette subtilité !

Pour garder une longueur raisonnable à cette page, pour forger votre caractère (et afin de garder l’avantage concurrentiel que j’ai sur vous), ces améliorations ne seront pas abordées et sont laissées en exercice au lecteur. Passons maintenant au nettoyage.

Données binaires

Il est parfaitement possible d'envoyer des données binaires par l'intermédiaire d'un connecteur. Le problème majeur est que toutes les machines n'utilisent pas les mêmes formats pour les données binaires. Par exemple, l’ordre des octets du réseau [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boutisme#Dans_les_communications] est gros-boutiste, avec l'octet le plus significatif en premier, de sorte qu'un entier de 16 bits avec la valeur 1 serait les deux octets hexadécimaux 00 01. Cependant, la plupart des processeurs courants (x86/AMD64, ARM, RISC-V) sont petit-boutistes, avec l'octet le moins significatif en premier - ce même 1 serait 01 00.

Les bibliothèques de sockets ont des appels pour convertir les entiers 16 et 32 bits - ntohl, htonl, ntohs, htons où « n » signifie network (réseau) et « h » signifie host (hôte), « s » signifie short (court) et « l » signifie long. Lorsque l’ordre du réseau est l’ordre de l’hôte, ils ne font rien, mais lorsque la machine fonctionne en ordre inversé, ils échangent les octets de manière appropriée.

De nos jours, avec les machines 64 bits, la représentation ASCII des données binaires est souvent plus compacte que la représentation binaire. C’est parce que dans un nombre surprenant de cas, tous ces entiers ont la valeur 0 et parfois 1. La chaîne « 0 » serait codée sur deux octets, alors qu'elle le serait sur 8 en tant que binaire 64 bits. Bien sûr, cela ne fonctionne pas très bien avec les messages de longueur fixe. C’est une affaire de choix.

Déconnexion

À proprement parler, vous êtes censé utiliser shutdown sur un connecteur pour l’arrêter avant de le fermer via close. Le shutdown est un avertissement au connecteur de l’autre côté. Selon l’argument que vous lui passez, cela peut signifier « Je ne vais plus envoyer, mais je vais quand même écouter », ou « Je n’écoute pas, bon débarras ! ». La plupart des bibliothèques de connecteurs, cependant, sont tellement habituées à ce que les programmeurs négligent d’utiliser ce morceau d’étiquette que normalement un close est équivalent à shutdown() ; close(). Ainsi, dans la plupart des situations, un shutdown explicite n’est pas nécessaire.

Une façon d’utiliser efficacement le shutdown est d’utiliser un échange de type HTTP. Le client envoie une requête et effectue ensuite un shutdown(1). Cela indique au serveur que « ce client a fini d’envoyer, mais peut encore recevoir ». Le serveur peut détecter EOF par une réception de 0 octet. Il peut supposer qu’il a la requête complète. Le serveur envoie une réponse. Si le send se termine avec succès, alors, en effet, le client était encore en train de recevoir.

Python pousse l’arrêt automatique un peu plus loin, et dit que lorsqu’un connecteur est collecté par le ramasse-miette, il effectue automatiquement une fermeture via close si elle est nécessaire. Mais c’est une très mauvaise habitude de s’appuyer sur ce système. Si votre connecteur disparaît sans avoir fait un close, le connecteur à l’autre bout peut rester suspendu indéfiniment, pensant que vous êtes juste lent. Fermez vos connecteurs quand vous avez terminé s’il vous plaît.

Quand les connecteurs meurent

Le pire dans l'utilisation de connecteurs bloquants est probablement ce qui se passe lorsque l'autre côté s'interrompt brutalement (sans faire de fermeture via close). Votre connecteur risque d’attendre infiniment. TCP est un protocole fiable, et il attendra très, très longtemps avant d'abandonner une connexion. Si vous utilisez des fils d’exécution, le fil entier est pratiquement mort. Il n'y a pas grand-chose que vous puissiez faire à ce sujet. Du moment que vous ne faites rien de stupide, comme tenir un verrou verrouillé pendant une lecture bloquante, le fil ne consomme pas vraiment beaucoup de ressources. N'essayez pas de tuer le fil — si les fils sont plus efficients que les processus, c'est en partie parce qu'ils évitent les coûts significatifs liés au recyclage automatique des ressources. En d'autres termes, si vous parvenez à tuer le fil, tout votre processus risque d'être foutu.

Connecteurs non bloquants

Si vous avez compris ce qui précède, vous savez déjà tout ce que vous devez savoir sur la mécanique de l’utilisation des connecteurs. Vous utiliserez toujours les mêmes appels, de la même façon. Il n’y que ça. Si vous le faites bien, c’est presque dans la poche.

En Python, vous utilisez socket.setblocking(0) pour rendre non-bloquant. En C, c’est plus complexe (pour commencer, vous devez choisir entre la version BSD O_NONBLOCK et la version POSIX presque impossible à distinguer O_NDELAY, qui est complètement différente de TCP_NODELAY), mais c’est exactement la même idée. Vous le faites après avoir créé le connecteur mais avant de l’utiliser (en fait, si vous êtes fou, vous pouvez alterner).

La différence majeure de fonctionnement est que send, recv, connect et accept peuvent rendre la main sans avoir rien fait. Vous avez (bien sûr) un certain nombre de choix. Vous pouvez vérifier le code de retour et les codes d'erreur et, en général, devenir fou. Si vous ne me croyez pas, essayez un jour. Votre application va grossir, boguer et vampiriser le processeur. Alors, évitons les solutions vouées à l’échec dès le départ et faisons les choses correctement.

Utilisation de select.

En C, implémenter select est assez complexe. En Python, c'est du gâteau, mais c'est assez proche de la version C ; aussi, si vous comprenez select en Python, vous aurez peu de problèmes en C :

ready_to_read, ready_to_write, in_error = \
               select.select(
                  potential_readers,
                  potential_writers,
                  potential_errs,
                  timeout)

Vous passez à select trois listes : la première contient tous les connecteurs dont vous souhaiter lire le contenu ; la deuxième tous les connecteurs sur lesquels vous voudriez écrire, et la dernière (normalement laissée vide) ceux sur lesquels vous voudriez vérifier s’il y a des erreurs. Prenez note qu'un connecteur peut figurer dans plus d'une liste. L'appel à select est bloquant, mais vous pouvez lui donner un délai d'attente. C'est généralement une bonne chose à faire — donnez-lui un bon gros délai d'attente (disons une minute), à moins que vous n'ayez une bonne raison de ne pas le faire.

En retour, vous recevrez trois listes. Elles contiennent les connecteurs qui sont réellement lisibles, inscriptibles et en erreur. Chacune de ces listes est un sous-ensemble (éventuellement vide) de la liste correspondante que vous avez transmise.

Si un connecteur se trouve dans la liste renvoyée des connecteurs lisibles, vous pouvez être pratiquement certain qu'un recv sur ce connecteur renvoie quelque chose. Même chose pour la liste renvoyée des connecteurs inscriptibles. Vous pourrez envoyer quelque chose. Peut-être pas tout ce que vous voudrez, mais quelque chose est mieux que rien (en fait, n'importe quel connecteur raisonnablement sain sera présent dans la liste des connecteurs inscriptibles — cela signifie simplement que l'espace tampon réseau sortant est disponible).

Si vous avez un connecteur « serveur », mettez-le dans la liste des connecteurs potentiellement lisibles potential_readers. S’il apparaît dans la liste renvoyée des connecteurs que vous pouvez lire, votre accept fonctionnera (presque certainement). Si vous avez créé un nouveau connecteur pour se connecter via connect à quelqu'un d'autre, mettez-le dans la liste des connecteurs potentiellement inscriptibles. S’il apparaît dans la liste renvoyée des connecteurs sur lesquels vous pouvez écrire, vous avez une bonne chance qu'il se soit connecté.

En fait, select peut être pratique même avec des connecteurs bloquants. C'est une façon de déterminer si vous allez bloquer — le connecteur est renvoyé comme lisible lorsqu'il y a quelque chose dans les mémoires tampons. Cependant, cela n'aide pas encore à déterminer si l'autre extrémité a terminé, ou si elle est simplement occupée par autre chose.

Alerte de portabilité : Sous Unix, select fonctionne aussi bien avec les connecteurs qu'avec les fichiers. N'essayez pas cela sous Windows. Sous Windows, select ne fonctionne qu'avec les connecteurs. Notez également qu'en C, la plupart des options de connecteurs les plus avancées se font différemment sous Windows. En fait, sous Windows, j'utilise habituellement des fils d'exécution (qui fonctionnent très, très bien) avec mes connecteurs.

Les techniques de tri

Auteur:

Andrew Dalke et Raymond Hettinger

Les listes Python ont une méthode native list.sort() qui modifie les listes elles-mêmes. Il y a également une fonction native sorted() qui construit une nouvelle liste triée depuis un itérable.

Dans ce document, nous explorons différentes techniques pour trier les données en Python.

Les bases du tri

Un tri ascendant simple est très facile : il suffit d'appeler la fonction sorted(). Elle renvoie une nouvelle liste triée :

>>> sorted([5, 2, 3, 1, 4])
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

Vous pouvez aussi utiliser la méthode list.sort(). Elle modifie la liste elle-même (et renvoie None pour éviter les confusions). Habituellement, cette méthode est moins pratique que la fonction sorted() -- mais si vous n'avez pas besoin de la liste originale, cette technique est légèrement plus efficace.

>>> a = [5, 2, 3, 1, 4]
>>> a.sort()
>>> a
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

Une autre différence est que la méthode list.sort() est seulement définie pour les listes. Au contraire, la fonction sorted() accepte n'importe quel itérable.

>>> sorted({1: 'D', 2: 'B', 3: 'B', 4: 'E', 5: 'A'})
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

Fonctions clef

The list.sort() method and the functions sorted(), min(), max(), heapq.nsmallest(), and heapq.nlargest() have a key parameter to specify a function (or other callable) to be called on each list element prior to making comparisons.

For example, here's a case-insensitive string comparison using str.casefold():

>>> sorted("This is a test string from Andrew".split(), key=str.casefold)
['a', 'Andrew', 'from', 'is', 'string', 'test', 'This']

La valeur du paramètre key doit être une fonction (ou autre appelable) qui prend un seul argument et renvoie une clef à utiliser à des fins de tri. Cette technique est rapide car la fonction clef est appelée exactement une seule fois pour chaque enregistrement en entrée.

Un usage fréquent est de faire un tri sur des objets complexes en utilisant les indices des objets en tant que clef. Par exemple :

>>> student_tuples = [
...     ('john', 'A', 15),
...     ('jane', 'B', 12),
...     ('dave', 'B', 10),
... ]
>>> sorted(student_tuples, key=lambda student: student[2])   # sort by age
[('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]

La même technique marche pour des objets avec des attributs nommés. Par exemple :

>>> class Student:
...     def __init__(self, name, grade, age):
...         self.name = name
...         self.grade = grade
...         self.age = age
...     def __repr__(self):
...         return repr((self.name, self.grade, self.age))

>>> student_objects = [
...     Student('john', 'A', 15),
...     Student('jane', 'B', 12),
...     Student('dave', 'B', 10),
... ]
>>> sorted(student_objects, key=lambda student: student.age)   # sort by age
[('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]

Objects with named attributes can be made by a regular class as shown above, or they can be instances of dataclass or a named tuple.

Fonctions du module operator et application partielle de fonctions

L'utilisation des fonctions clefs ci-dessus est courante, donc Python fournit des fonctions permettant de rendre plus simple et plus rapide l'usage des accesseurs. Le module operator contient les fonctions itemgetter(), attrgetter(), et methodcaller().

En utilisant ces fonctions, les exemples au dessus deviennent plus simples et plus rapides :

>>> from operator import itemgetter, attrgetter

>>> sorted(student_tuples, key=itemgetter(2))
[('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]

>>> sorted(student_objects, key=attrgetter('age'))
[('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]

Les fonctions du module operator permettent plusieurs niveaux de tri. Par exemple, pour trier par grade puis par age :

>>> sorted(student_tuples, key=itemgetter(1,2))
[('john', 'A', 15), ('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12)]

>>> sorted(student_objects, key=attrgetter('grade', 'age'))
[('john', 'A', 15), ('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12)]

The functools module provides another helpful tool for making key-functions. The partial() function can reduce the arity [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arity] of a multi-argument function making it suitable for use as a key-function.

>>> from functools import partial
>>> from unicodedata import normalize

>>> names = 'Zoë Åbjørn Núñez Élana Zeke Abe Nubia Eloise'.split()

>>> sorted(names, key=partial(normalize, 'NFD'))
['Abe', 'Åbjørn', 'Eloise', 'Élana', 'Nubia', 'Núñez', 'Zeke', 'Zoë']

>>> sorted(names, key=partial(normalize, 'NFC'))
['Abe', 'Eloise', 'Nubia', 'Núñez', 'Zeke', 'Zoë', 'Åbjørn', 'Élana']

Ascendant et descendant

list.sort() et sorted() acceptent un paramètre nommé reverse avec une valeur booléenne. C'est utilisé pour déterminer l'ordre descendant des tris. Par exemple, pour avoir les données des étudiants dans l'ordre inverse par age :

>>> sorted(student_tuples, key=itemgetter(2), reverse=True)
[('john', 'A', 15), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('dave', 'B', 10)]

>>> sorted(student_objects, key=attrgetter('age'), reverse=True)
[('john', 'A', 15), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('dave', 'B', 10)]

Stabilité des tris et tris complexes

Les tris sont garantis stables [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithme_de_tri#Caract.C3.A8re_stable]. Cela signifie que lorsque plusieurs enregistrements on la même clef, leur ordre original est préservé.

>>> data = [('red', 1), ('blue', 1), ('red', 2), ('blue', 2)]
>>> sorted(data, key=itemgetter(0))
[('blue', 1), ('blue', 2), ('red', 1), ('red', 2)]

Notez comme les deux enregistrements pour blue gardent leur ordre original et que par conséquent il est garanti que ('blue', 1) précède ('blue', 2).

Cette propriété fantastique vous permet de construire des tris complexes dans des tris en plusieurs étapes. Par exemple, afin de sortir les données des étudiants en ordre descendant par grade puis en ordre ascendant par age, effectuez un tri par age en premier puis un second tri par grade :

>>> s = sorted(student_objects, key=attrgetter('age'))     # sort on secondary key
>>> sorted(s, key=attrgetter('grade'), reverse=True)       # now sort on primary key, descending
[('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]

Ceci peut être encapsulé dans une fonction qui prend une liste et des n-uplets (attribut, ordre) pour les trier en plusieurs passes.

>>> def multisort(xs, specs):
...     for key, reverse in reversed(specs):
...         xs.sort(key=attrgetter(key), reverse=reverse)
...     return xs

>>> multisort(list(student_objects), (('grade', True), ('age', False)))
[('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]

L'algorithme Timsort [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timsort] utilisé dans Python effectue de multiples tris efficacement parce qu'il peut tirer avantage de l'ordre existant dans un jeu de données.

La méthode Decorate-Sort-Undecorate

Cette technique est appelée Decorate-Sort-Undecorate et se base sur trois étapes :

Premièrement, la liste de départ est décorée avec les nouvelles valeurs qui contrôlent l'ordre du tri.

En second lieu, la liste décorée est triée.

Enfin, la décoration est supprimée, créant ainsi une liste qui contient seulement la valeur initiale dans le nouvel ordre.

Par exemple, pour trier les données étudiant par grade en utilisant l'approche DSU :

>>> decorated = [(student.grade, i, student) for i, student in enumerate(student_objects)]
>>> decorated.sort()
>>> [student for grade, i, student in decorated]               # undecorate
[('john', 'A', 15), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('dave', 'B', 10)]

Cette technique marche parce que les n-uplets sont comparés par ordre lexicographique; les premiers objets sont comparés; si il y a des objets identiques, alors l'objet suivant est comparé, et ainsi de suite.

Il n'est pas strictement nécessaire dans tous les cas d’inclure l'indice i dans la liste décorée, mais l'inclure donne deux avantages :

Le tri est stable -- si deux objets on la même clef, leur ordre sera préservé dans la liste triée.

Les objets d'origine ne sont pas nécessairement comparables car l'ordre des n-uplets décorés sera déterminé par au plus les deux premiers objets. Donc par exemple la liste originale pourrait contenir des nombres complexes qui pourraient ne pas être triés directement.

Un autre nom pour cette technique est Schwartzian transform [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schwartzian_transform], après que Randal L. Schwartz l'ait popularisé chez les développeurs Perl.

Maintenant que le tri Python fournit des fonctions-clef, cette technique n'est plus souvent utilisée.

Fonctions de comparaison

Contrairement aux fonctions clés qui renvoient une valeur absolue sur laquelle baser le tri, une fonction de comparaison calcule l'ordre relatif entre deux entrées.

Par exemple, une balance [https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Balance_à_tabac_1850.JPG] compare deux échantillons en donnant un classement relatif : plus léger, égal ou plus lourd. De la même manière, une fonction de comparaison telle que cmp(a, b) donne un résultat négatif si la première valeur est plus petite, zéro si les deux valeurs sont égales, et un résultat positif si la première valeur est plus grande.

Il est fréquent de rencontrer des fonctions de comparaison lorsqu'on traduit des algorithmes à partir d'autres langages. Aussi, certaines bibliothèques fournissent des fonctions de comparaison intégrées dans leurs API, comme locale.strcoll() par exemple.

Pour remédier à ces situations, Python fournit functools.cmp_to_key pour transformer une fonction de comparaison en une fonction clé :

sorted(words, key=cmp_to_key(strcoll))  # locale-aware sort order

Strategies For Unorderable Types and Values

A number of type and value issues can arise when sorting. Here are some strategies that can help:

Convert non-comparable input types to strings prior to sorting:

>>> data = ['twelve', '11', 10]
>>> sorted(map(str, data))
['10', '11', 'twelve']

This is needed because most cross-type comparisons raise a TypeError.

Remove special values prior to sorting:

>>> from math import isnan
>>> from itertools import filterfalse
>>> data = [3.3, float('nan'), 1.1, 2.2]
>>> sorted(filterfalse(isnan, data))
[1.1, 2.2, 3.3]

This is needed because the IEEE-754 standard [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754] specifies that, "Every NaN shall compare unordered with everything, including itself."

Likewise, None can be stripped from datasets as well:

>>> data = [3.3, None, 1.1, 2.2]
>>> sorted(x for x in data if x is not None)
[1.1, 2.2, 3.3]

This is needed because None is not comparable to other types.

Convert mapping types into sorted item lists before sorting:

>>> data = [{'a': 1}, {'b': 2}]
>>> sorted(data, key=lambda d: sorted(d.items()))
[{'a': 1}, {'b': 2}]

This is needed because dict-to-dict comparisons raise a TypeError.

Convert set types into sorted lists before sorting:

>>> data = [{'a', 'b', 'c'}, {'b', 'c', 'd'}]
>>> sorted(map(sorted, data))
[['a', 'b', 'c'], ['b', 'c', 'd']]

This is needed because the elements contained in set types do not have a deterministic order. For example, list({'a', 'b'}) may produce either ['a', 'b'] or ['b', 'a'].

Notes complémentaires

For locale aware sorting, use locale.strxfrm() for a key function or locale.strcoll() for a comparison function. This is necessary because "alphabetical" sort orderings can vary across cultures even if the underlying alphabet is the same.

Le paramètre reverse maintient toujours un tri stable (de telle sorte que les enregistrements avec des clef égales gardent le même ordre). Notez que cet effet peut être simulé sans le paramètre en utilisant la fonction native reversed() deux fois :

>>> data = [('red', 1), ('blue', 1), ('red', 2), ('blue', 2)]
>>> standard_way = sorted(data, key=itemgetter(0), reverse=True)
>>> double_reversed = list(reversed(sorted(reversed(data), key=itemgetter(0))))
>>> assert standard_way == double_reversed
>>> standard_way
[('red', 1), ('red', 2), ('blue', 1), ('blue', 2)]

The sort routines use < when making comparisons between two objects. So, it is easy to add a standard sort order to a class by defining an __lt__() method:

>>> Student.__lt__ = lambda self, other: self.age < other.age
>>> sorted(student_objects)
[('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]

However, note that < can fall back to using __gt__() if __lt__() is not implemented (see object.__lt__() for details on the mechanics). To avoid surprises, PEP 8 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/] recommends that all six comparison methods be implemented. The total_ordering() decorator is provided to make that task easier.

Les fonctions clef n'ont pas besoin de dépendre directement des objets triés. Une fonction clef peut aussi accéder à des ressources externes. En l'occurrence, si les grades des étudiants sont stockés dans un dictionnaire, ils peuvent être utilisés pour trier une liste différentes de noms d'étudiants :

>>> students = ['dave', 'john', 'jane']
>>> newgrades = {'john': 'F', 'jane':'A', 'dave': 'C'}
>>> sorted(students, key=newgrades.__getitem__)
['jane', 'dave', 'john']

Partial Sorts

Some applications require only some of the data to be ordered. The standard library provides several tools that do less work than a full sort:

min() and max() return the smallest and largest values, respectively. These functions make a single pass over the input data and require almost no auxiliary memory.

heapq.nsmallest() and heapq.nlargest() return the n smallest and largest values, respectively. These functions make a single pass over the data keeping only n elements in memory at a time. For values of n that are small relative to the number of inputs, these functions make far fewer comparisons than a full sort.

heapq.heappush() and heapq.heappop() create and maintain a partially sorted arrangement of data that keeps the smallest element at position 0. These functions are suitable for implementing priority queues which are commonly used for task scheduling.

Guide Unicode

Version:

1.12

Ce guide décrit la gestion de la spécification Unicode par Python pour les données textuelles et explique les différents problèmes généralement rencontrés par les utilisateurs qui travaillent avec Unicode.

Introduction à Unicode

Définitions

Les programmes d'aujourd'hui doivent être capables de traiter une grande variété de caractères. Les applications sont souvent internationalisées pour afficher les messages et les résultats dans une variété de langues sélectionnables par l'utilisateur ; le même programme peut avoir besoin d'afficher un message d'erreur en anglais, français, japonais, hébreu ou russe. Le contenu Web peut être écrit dans n'importe laquelle de ces langues et peut également inclure une variété de symboles émoji. Le type de chaîne de caractères de Python utilise le standard Unicode pour représenter les caractères, ce qui permet aux programmes Python de travailler avec tous ces différents caractères possibles.

Unicode (https://www.unicode.org/) est une spécification qui vise à lister tous les caractères utilisés par les langues humaines et à donner à chaque caractère son propre code unique. Les spécifications Unicode sont continuellement révisées et mises à jour pour ajouter de nouvelles langues et de nouveaux symboles.

Un caractère est le plus petit composant possible d'un texte. « A », « B », « C », etc. sont tous des caractères différents. Il en va de même pour « È » et « Í ». Les caractères varient selon la langue ou le contexte dont vous parlez. Par exemple, il y a un caractère pour « Chiffre Romain Un » (Roman Numeral One), « Ⅰ », qui est séparé de la lettre majuscule « I ». Ils se ressemblent généralement, mais ce sont deux caractères différents qui ont des significations différentes.

Le standard Unicode décrit comment les caractères sont représentés par les points de code. Une valeur de point de code est un nombre entier compris entre 0 et 0x10FFFF (environ 1,1 million de valeurs possibles, le nombre de valeurs réellement assignées [https://www.unicode.org/versions/latest/#Summary] est inférieur à ce nombre). Dans le standard et dans le présent document, un point de code est écrit en utilisant la notation U+265E pour désigner le caractère avec la valeur 0x265e (9 822 en décimal).

La standard Unicode contient de nombreux tableaux contenant la liste des caractères et des points de code correspondants :

0061    'a'; LATIN SMALL LETTER A
0062    'b'; LATIN SMALL LETTER B
0063    'c'; LATIN SMALL LETTER C
...
007B    '{'; LEFT CURLY BRACKET
...
2167    'Ⅷ'; ROMAN NUMERAL EIGHT
2168    'Ⅸ'; ROMAN NUMERAL NINE
...
265E    '♞'; BLACK CHESS KNIGHT
265F    '♟'; BLACK CHESS PAWN
...
1F600   '😀'; GRINNING FACE
1F609   '😉'; WINKING FACE
...

À proprement parler, ces définitions laissent entendre qu'il est inutile de dire « c'est le caractère U+265E ». U+265E est un point de code, qui représente un caractère particulier ; dans ce cas, il représente le caractère « BLACK CHESS KNIGHT », « ♞ ». Dans des contextes informels, cette distinction entre les points de code et les caractères sera parfois oubliée.

Un caractère est représenté sur un écran ou sur papier par un ensemble d’éléments graphiques appelé glyphe. Le glyphe d’un A majuscule, par exemple, est deux traits diagonaux et un trait horizontal, bien que les détails exacts dépendent de la police utilisée. La plupart du code Python n’a pas besoin de s’inquiéter des glyphes ; trouver le bon glyphe à afficher est généralement le travail d’une boîte à outils GUI ou du moteur de rendu des polices d’un terminal.

Encodages

Pour résumer la section précédente : une chaîne Unicode est une séquence de points de code, qui sont des nombres de 0 à 0x10FFFF (1 114 111 en décimal). Cette séquence de points de code doit être stockée en mémoire sous la forme d'un ensemble de unités de code, et les unités de code sont ensuite transposées en octets de 8 bits. Les règles de traduction d'une chaîne Unicode en une séquence d'octets sont appelées un encodage de caractères ou simplement un encodage.

Le premier encodage auquel vous pouvez penser est l'utilisation d'entiers 32 bits comme unité de code, puis l'utilisation de la représentation des entiers 32 bits par le CPU. Dans cette représentation, la chaîne « Python » ressemblerait à ceci :

   P           y           t           h           o           n
0x50 00 00 00 79 00 00 00 74 00 00 00 68 00 00 00 6f 00 00 00 6e 00 00 00
   0  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

Cette représentation est simple mais son utilisation pose un certain nombre de problèmes.

Elle n’est pas portable ; des processeurs différents ordonnent les octets différemment.

Elle gâche beaucoup d'espace. Dans la plupart des textes, la majorité des points de code sont inférieurs à 127, ou à 255, donc beaucoup d'espace est occupé par des octets 0x00. La chaîne ci-dessus occupe 24 octets, à comparer aux 6 octets nécessaires pour une représentation en ASCII. L'utilisation supplémentaire de RAM n'a pas trop d'importance (les ordinateurs de bureau ont des gigaoctets de RAM et les chaînes ne sont généralement pas si grandes que ça), mais l'accroissement de notre utilisation du disque et de la bande passante réseau par un facteur de 4 est intolérable.

Elle n’est pas compatible avec les fonctions C existantes telles que strlen(), il faudrait donc utiliser une nouvelle famille de fonctions, celle des chaînes larges (wide strings).

Par conséquent, cet encodage n'est pas très utilisé et d'autres encodages, plus efficaces et pratiques comme UTF-8, sont plutôt choisis.

UTF-8 est l’un des encodages les plus couramment utilisés et Python l’utilise souvent par défaut. UTF signifie « Unicode Transformation Format » (format de transformation Unicode) et « 8 » signifie que des nombres à 8 bits sont utilisés dans l'encodage (il existe également des codages UTF-16 et UTF-32, mais ils sont moins souvent utilisés que UTF-8). UTF-8 utilise les règles suivantes :

Si le point de code est < 128, il est représenté par la valeur de l'octet correspondant.

Si le point de code est ≥ 128, il est transformé en une séquence de deux, trois ou quatre octets, où chaque octet de la séquence est compris entre 128 et 255.

UTF-8 a plusieurs propriétés intéressantes :

Il peut gérer n'importe quel point de code Unicode.

Une chaîne Unicode est transformée en une séquence d’octets qui contient des octets zéro uniquement lorsqu’ils représentent le caractère nul (U+0000). Cela signifie que les chaînes UTF-8 peuvent être traitées par des fonctions C telles que strcpy() et envoyées par des protocoles pour qui les octets zéro signifient forcément la fin de chaîne.

Une chaîne de texte ASCII est également un texte UTF-8 valide.

UTF-8 est assez compact. La majorité des caractères couramment utilisés peuvent être représentés avec un ou deux octets.

Si des octets sont corrompus ou perdus, il est possible de déterminer le début du prochain point de code encodé en UTF-8 et de se resynchroniser. Il est également improbable que des données 8-bits aléatoires ressemblent à du UTF-8 valide.

UTF-8 est un encodage orienté octet. L'encodage spécifie que chaque caractère est représenté par une séquence spécifique d'un ou plusieurs octets. Ceci permet d'éviter les problèmes d'ordre des octets qui peuvent survenir avec les encodages orientés entiers (integer) ou orientés mots processeurs (words), comme UTF-16 et UTF-32, où la séquence des octets varie en fonction du matériel sur lequel la chaîne a été encodée.

Références

Le site du Consortium Unicode [https://www.unicode.org], en anglais, a des diagrammes de caractères, un glossaire et des versions PDF de la spécification Unicode. Préparez-vous à une lecture difficile. Une chronologie [https://www.unicode.org/history/] de l’origine et du développement de l’Unicode est également disponible sur le site.

Sur la chaîne Youtube Computerphile, Tom Scott parle brièvement de l’histoire d’Unicode et d’UTF-8 [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MijmeoH9LT4] (9 minutes et 36 secondes).

Pour aider à comprendre le standard, Jukka Korpela a écrit un guide d’introduction [https://jkorpela.fi/unicode/guide.html] à la lecture des tables de caractères Unicode (ressource en anglais).

Un autre bon article d'introduction [https://www.joelonsoftware.com/2003/10/08/the-absolute-minimum-every-software-developer-absolutely-positively-must-know-about-unicode-and-character-sets-no-excuses/] a été écrit par Joel Spolsky. Si cette présente introduction ne vous a pas clarifié les choses, vous devriez essayer de lire cet article-là avant de continuer.

Les pages Wikipédia sont souvent utiles ; voir les pages pour « Codage des caractères [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codage_des_caract%C3%A8res] » et UTF-8 [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/UTF-8], par exemple.

Prise en charge Unicode de Python

Maintenant que vous avez appris les rudiments de l'Unicode, nous pouvons regarder les fonctionnalités Unicode de Python.

Le type String

Depuis Python 3.0, le type str du langage contient des caractères Unicode, c'est-à-dire n'importe quelle chaîne créée à l'aide de "unicode déchire !", 'unicode déchire !' ou la syntaxe à triples guillemets est enregistrée comme Unicode.

L'encodage par défaut pour le code source Python est UTF-8, il est donc facile d'inclure des caractères Unicode dans une chaîne littérale :

try:
    with open('/tmp/input.txt', 'r') as f:
        ...
except OSError:
    # 'File not found' error message.
    print("Fichier non trouvé")

Note : Python 3 sait gérer les caractères Unicode dans les identifiants :

répertoire = "/tmp/records.log"
with open(répertoire, "w") as f:
    f.write("test\n")

Si vous ne pouvez pas entrer un caractère particulier dans votre éditeur ou si vous voulez garder le code source uniquement en ASCII pour une raison quelconque, vous pouvez également utiliser des séquences d'échappement dans les littéraux de chaîne (en fonction de votre système, il se peut que vous voyiez le glyphe réel du delta majuscule au lieu d'une séquence d'échappement \u...)

>>> "\N{GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA}"  # Using the character name
'\u0394'
>>> "\u0394"                          # Using a 16-bit hex value
'\u0394'
>>> "\U00000394"                      # Using a 32-bit hex value
'\u0394'

De plus, une chaîne de caractères peut être créée en utilisant la méthode decode() de la classe bytes. Cette méthode prend un argument encoding, UTF-8 par exemple, et optionnellement un argument errors.

L'argument errors détermine la réponse lorsque la chaîne en entrée ne peut pas être convertie selon les règles de l'encodage. Les valeurs autorisées pour cet argument sont 'strict' (« strict » : lève une exception UnicodeDecodeError), 'replace' (« remplacer » : utilise U+FFFD, REPLACEMENT CARACTER), 'ignore' (« ignorer » : n'inclut pas le caractère dans le résultat Unicode) ou 'backslashreplace' (« remplacer avec antislash » : insère une séquence d’échappement \xNN). Les exemples suivants illustrent les différences :

>>> b'\x80abc'.decode("utf-8", "strict")
Traceback (most recent call last):
    ...
UnicodeDecodeError: 'utf-8' codec can't decode byte 0x80 in position 0:
  invalid start byte
>>> b'\x80abc'.decode("utf-8", "replace")
'\ufffdabc'
>>> b'\x80abc'.decode("utf-8", "backslashreplace")
'\\x80abc'
>>> b'\x80abc'.decode("utf-8", "ignore")
'abc'

Les encodages sont spécifiés sous forme de chaînes de caractères contenant le nom de l'encodage. Python est livré avec une centaine d'encodages différents ; voir la référence de la bibliothèque Python sur les encodages standards pour une liste. Certains encodages ont plusieurs noms ; par exemple, 'latin-1', 'iso_8859_1' et '8859' sont tous synonymes du même encodage.

Des chaînes Unicode à un caractère peuvent également être créées avec la fonction native chr(), qui prend des entiers et renvoie une chaîne Unicode de longueur 1 qui contient le point de code correspondant. L'opération inverse est la fonction native ord() qui prend une chaîne Unicode d'un caractère et renvoie la valeur du point de code :

>>> chr(57344)
'\ue000'
>>> ord('\ue000')
57344

Conversion en octets

La méthode inverse de bytes.decode() est str.encode(), qui renvoie une représentation bytes de la chaîne Unicode, codée dans l’encodage encoding demandé.

Le paramètre errors est le même que le paramètre de la méthode decode() mais possède quelques gestionnaires supplémentaires. En plus de 'strict', 'ignore' et 'remplace' (qui dans ce cas insère un point d'interrogation au lieu du caractère non encodable), il y a aussi 'xmlcharrefreplace' (insère une référence XML), backslashreplace (insère une séquence \uNNNN) et namereplace (insère une séquence \N{...}).

L'exemple suivant montre les différents résultats :

>>> u = chr(40960) + 'abcd' + chr(1972)
>>> u.encode('utf-8')
b'\xea\x80\x80abcd\xde\xb4'
>>> u.encode('ascii')
Traceback (most recent call last):
    ...
UnicodeEncodeError: 'ascii' codec can't encode character '\ua000' in
  position 0: ordinal not in range(128)
>>> u.encode('ascii', 'ignore')
b'abcd'
>>> u.encode('ascii', 'replace')
b'?abcd?'
>>> u.encode('ascii', 'xmlcharrefreplace')
b'&#40960;abcd&#1972;'
>>> u.encode('ascii', 'backslashreplace')
b'\\ua000abcd\\u07b4'
>>> u.encode('ascii', 'namereplace')
b'\\N{YI SYLLABLE IT}abcd\\u07b4'

Les routines de bas niveau pour enregistrer et accéder aux encodages disponibles se trouvent dans le module codecs. L'implémentation de nouveaux encodages nécessite également de comprendre le module codecs. Cependant, les fonctions d'encodage et de décodage renvoyées par ce module sont généralement de bas-niveau pour être facilement utilisées et l'écriture de nouveaux encodages est une tâche très spécialisée, donc le module ne sera pas couvert dans ce guide.

Littéraux Unicode dans le code source Python

Dans le code source Python, des points de code Unicode spécifiques peuvent être écrits en utilisant la séquence d'échappement \u, suivie de quatre chiffres hexadécimaux donnant le point de code. La séquence d'échappement \U est similaire, mais attend huit chiffres hexadécimaux, pas quatre :

>>> s = "a\xac\u1234\u20ac\U00008000"
... #     ^^^^ two-digit hex escape
... #         ^^^^^^ four-digit Unicode escape
... #                     ^^^^^^^^^^ eight-digit Unicode escape
>>> [ord(c) for c in s]
[97, 172, 4660, 8364, 32768]

L'utilisation de séquences d'échappement pour des points de code supérieurs à 127 est acceptable à faible dose, mais devient gênante si vous utilisez beaucoup de caractères accentués, comme c'est le cas dans un programme avec des messages en français ou dans une autre langue utilisant des lettres accentuées. Vous pouvez également assembler des chaînes de caractères à l'aide de la fonction native chr(), mais c'est encore plus fastidieux.

Idéalement, vous devriez être capable d'écrire des littéraux dans l'encodage naturel de votre langue. Vous pourriez alors éditer le code source de Python avec votre éditeur favori qui affiche les caractères accentués naturellement, et a les bons caractères utilisés au moment de l'exécution.

Python considère que le code source est écrit en UTF-8 par défaut, mais vous pouvez utiliser presque n'importe quel encodage si vous déclarez l'encodage utilisé. Cela se fait en incluant un commentaire spécial sur la première ou la deuxième ligne du fichier source :

#!/usr/bin/env python
# -*- coding: latin-1 -*-

u = 'abcdé'
print(ord(u[-1]))

La syntaxe s'inspire de la notation d'Emacs pour spécifier les variables locales à un fichier. Emacs supporte de nombreuses variables différentes, mais Python ne gère que coding. Les symboles -*- indiquent à Emacs que le commentaire est spécial ; ils n'ont aucune signification pour Python mais sont une convention. Python cherche coding: name ou coding=name dans le commentaire.

Si vous n'incluez pas un tel commentaire, l'encodage par défaut est UTF-8 comme déjà mentionné. Voir aussi la PEP 263 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/] pour plus d'informations.

Propriétés Unicode

La spécification Unicode inclut une base de données d'informations sur les points de code. Pour chaque point de code défini, l'information comprend le nom du caractère, sa catégorie, la valeur numérique s'il y a lieu (pour les caractères représentant des concepts numériques tels que les chiffres romains, les fractions telles qu'un tiers et quatre cinquièmes, etc.). Il existe également des propriétés liées à l'affichage, telles que l'utilisation du point de code dans un texte bidirectionnel.

Le programme suivant affiche des informations sur plusieurs caractères et affiche la valeur numérique d'un caractère particulier :

import unicodedata

u = chr(233) + chr(0x0bf2) + chr(3972) + chr(6000) + chr(13231)

for i, c in enumerate(u):
    print(i, '%04x' % ord(c), unicodedata.category(c), end=" ")
    print(unicodedata.name(c))

# Get numeric value of second character
print(unicodedata.numeric(u[1]))

Si vous l'exécutez, cela affiche :

0 00e9 Ll LATIN SMALL LETTER E WITH ACUTE
1 0bf2 No TAMIL NUMBER ONE THOUSAND
2 0f84 Mn TIBETAN MARK HALANTA
3 1770 Lo TAGBANWA LETTER SA
4 33af So SQUARE RAD OVER S SQUARED
1000.0

Les codes de catégorie sont des abréviations décrivant la nature du caractère. Celles-ci sont regroupées en catégories telles que « Lettre », « Nombre », « Ponctuation » ou « Symbole », qui sont à leur tour divisées en sous-catégories. Pour prendre par exemple les codes de la sortie ci-dessus, 'Ll' signifie « Lettre, minuscules », 'No' signifie « Nombre, autre », 'Mn' est « Marque, non-espaçant », et 'So' est « Symbole, autre ». Voir la section Valeurs générales des catégories de la documentation de la base de données de caractères Unicode [https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr44/#General_Category_Values] (ressource en anglais) pour une liste de codes de catégories.

Comparaison de chaînes de caractères

Unicode ajoute une certaine complication à la comparaison des chaînes de caractères, car le même jeu de caractères peut être représenté par différentes séquences de points de code. Par exemple, une lettre comme « ê » peut être représentée comme un point de code unique U+00EA, ou comme U+0065 U+0302, qui est le point de code pour « e » suivi d'un point de code pour COMBINING CIRCUMFLEX ACCENT. Celles-ci produisent le même résultat lorsqu'elles sont affichées, mais l'une est une chaîne de caractères de longueur 1 et l'autre de longueur 2.

Un outil pour une comparaison insensible à la casse est la méthode casefold() qui convertit une chaîne en une forme insensible à la casse suivant un algorithme décrit par le standard Unicode. Cet algorithme a un traitement spécial pour les caractères tels que la lettre allemande « ß » (point de code U+00DF), qui devient la paire de lettres minuscules « ss ».

>>> street = 'Gürzenichstraße'
>>> street.casefold()
'gürzenichstrasse'

A second tool is the unicodedata module's normalize() function that converts strings to one of several normal forms, where letters followed by a combining character are replaced with single characters. normalize() can be used to perform string comparisons that won't falsely report inequality if two strings use combining characters differently:

import unicodedata

def compare_strs(s1, s2):
    def NFD(s):
        return unicodedata.normalize('NFD', s)

    return NFD(s1) == NFD(s2)

single_char = 'ê'
multiple_chars = '\N{LATIN SMALL LETTER E}\N{COMBINING CIRCUMFLEX ACCENT}'
print('length of first string=', len(single_char))
print('length of second string=', len(multiple_chars))
print(compare_strs(single_char, multiple_chars))

Si vous l'exécutez, cela affiche :

$ python compare-strs.py
length of first string= 1
length of second string= 2
True

Le premier argument de la fonction normalize() est une chaîne de caractères donnant la forme de normalisation désirée, qui peut être une de celles-ci : 'NFC', 'NFKC', 'NFD' et 'NFKD'.

La norme Unicode spécifie également comment faire des comparaisons insensibles à la casse :

import unicodedata

def compare_caseless(s1, s2):
    def NFD(s):
        return unicodedata.normalize('NFD', s)

    return NFD(NFD(s1).casefold()) == NFD(NFD(s2).casefold())

# Example usage
single_char = 'ê'
multiple_chars = '\N{LATIN CAPITAL LETTER E}\N{COMBINING CIRCUMFLEX ACCENT}'

print(compare_caseless(single_char, multiple_chars))

This will print True. (Why is NFD() invoked twice? Because there are a few characters that make casefold() return a non-normalized string, so the result needs to be normalized again. See section 3.13 of the Unicode Standard for a discussion and an example.)

Expressions régulières Unicode

Les expressions régulières gérées par le module re peuvent être fournies sous forme de chaîne d'octets ou de texte. Certaines séquences de caractères spéciaux telles que \d et \w ont des significations différentes selon que le motif est fourni en octets ou en texte. Par exemple, \d correspond aux caractères [0-9] en octets mais dans les chaînes de caractères correspond à tout caractère de la catégorie 'Nd'.

Dans cet exemple, la chaîne contient le nombre 57 écrit en chiffres arabes et thaïlandais :

import re
p = re.compile(r'\d+')

s = "Over \u0e55\u0e57 57 flavours"
m = p.search(s)
print(repr(m.group()))

Une fois exécuté, \d+ correspond aux chiffres thaïlandais et les affiche. Si vous fournissez le drapeau re.ASCII à compile(), \d+ correspond cette fois à la chaîne "57".

De même, \w correspond à une grande variété de caractères Unicode mais seulement [a-zA-Z0-9_] en octets (ou si re.ASCII est fourni) et \s correspond soit aux caractères blancs Unicode soit aux caractères [ \t\n\r\f\v].

Références

Quelques bonnes discussions alternatives sur la gestion d'Unicode par Python sont :

Processing Text Files in Python 3 [https://python-notes.curiousefficiency.org/en/latest/python3/text_file_processing.html], par Nick Coghlan.

Pragmatic Unicode [https://nedbatchelder.com/text/unipain.html], une présentation PyCon 2012 par Ned Batchelder.

Le type str est décrit dans la référence de la bibliothèque Python à Type Séquence de Texte — str.

La documentation du module unicodedata.

La documentation du module codecs.

Marc-André Lemburg a donné une présentation intitulée « Python et Unicode » (diapositives PDF) [https://downloads.egenix.com/python/Unicode-EPC2002-Talk.pdf] à EuroPython 2002. Les diapositives sont un excellent aperçu de la conception des fonctionnalités Unicode de Python 2 (où le type de chaîne Unicode est appelé unicode et les littéraux commencent par u).

Lecture et écriture de données Unicode

Une fois que vous avez écrit du code qui fonctionne avec des données Unicode, le problème suivant concerne les entrées/sorties. Comment obtenir des chaînes Unicode dans votre programme et comment convertir les chaînes Unicode dans une forme appropriée pour le stockage ou la transmission ?

Il est possible que vous n'ayez rien à faire en fonction de vos sources d'entrée et des destinations de vos données de sortie ; il convient de vérifier si les bibliothèques utilisées dans votre application gèrent l'Unicode nativement. Par exemple, les analyseurs XML renvoient souvent des données Unicode. De nombreuses bases de données relationnelles prennent également en charge les colonnes encodées en Unicode et peuvent renvoyer des valeurs Unicode à partir d'une requête SQL.

Les données Unicode sont généralement converties en un encodage particulier avant d'être écrites sur le disque ou envoyées sur un connecteur réseau. Il est possible de faire tout le travail vous-même : ouvrir un fichier, lire un élément 8-bits, puis convertir les octets avec bytes.decode(encoding). Cependant, l'approche manuelle n'est pas recommandée.

La nature multi-octets des encodages pose problème ; un caractère Unicode peut être représenté par plusieurs octets. Si vous voulez lire le fichier par morceaux de taille arbitraire (disons 1024 ou 4096 octets), vous devez écrire un code de gestion des erreurs pour détecter le cas où une partie seulement des octets codant un seul caractère Unicode est lue à la fin d'un morceau. Une solution serait de lire le fichier entier en mémoire et d'effectuer le décodage, mais cela vous empêche de travailler avec des fichiers extrêmement volumineux ; si vous avez besoin de lire un fichier de 2 Gio, vous avez besoin de 2 Gio de RAM (plus que ça, en fait, puisque pendant un moment, vous aurez besoin d'avoir à la fois la chaîne encodée et sa version Unicode en mémoire).

La solution serait d'utiliser l'interface de décodage de bas-niveau pour intercepter le cas des séquences d'encodage incomplètes. Ce travail d'implémentation a déjà été fait pour vous : la fonction native open() peut renvoyer un objet de type fichier qui suppose que le contenu du fichier est dans un encodage spécifié et accepte les paramètres Unicode pour des méthodes telles que read() et write(). Ceci fonctionne grâce aux paramètres encoding et errors de open() qui sont interprétés comme ceux de str.encode() et bytes.decode().

Lire de l'Unicode à partir d'un fichier est donc simple :

with open('unicode.txt', encoding='utf-8') as f:
    for line in f:
        print(repr(line))

Il est également possible d'ouvrir des fichiers en mode « mise à jour », permettant à la fois la lecture et l'écriture :

with open('test', encoding='utf-8', mode='w+') as f:
    f.write('\u4500 blah blah blah\n')
    f.seek(0)
    print(repr(f.readline()[:1]))

Le caractère Unicode U+FEFFF est utilisé comme marque pour indiquer le boutisme (c'est-à-dire l'ordre dans lequel les octets sont placés pour indiquer une valeur sur plusieurs octets, byte-order mark en anglais ou BOM), et est souvent écrit en tête (premier caractère) d'un fichier afin d'aider à l'auto-détection du boutisme du fichier. Certains encodages, comme UTF-16, s'attendent à ce qu'une BOM soit présente au début d'un fichier ; lorsqu'un tel encodage est utilisé, la BOM sera automatiquement écrite comme premier caractère et sera silencieusement retirée lorsque le fichier sera lu. Il existe des variantes de ces encodages, comme utf-16-le et utf-16-be pour les encodages petit-boutiste et gros-boutiste, qui spécifient un ordre d'octets donné et ne sautent pas la BOM.

Dans certains cas, il est également d'usage d'utiliser une BOM au début des fichiers encodés en UTF-8 ; le nom est trompeur puisque l'UTF-8 ne dépend pas de l'ordre des octets. La marque annonce simplement que le fichier est encodé en UTF-8. Pour lire ces fichiers, utilisez le codec utf-8-sig pour sauter automatiquement la marque si elle est présente.

Noms de fichiers Unicode

La plupart des systèmes d'exploitation couramment utilisés aujourd'hui prennent en charge les noms de fichiers qui contiennent des caractères Unicode arbitraires. Habituellement, ceci est implémenté en convertissant la chaîne Unicode en un encodage qui varie en fonction du système. Aujourd'hui, Python converge vers l'utilisation d'UTF-8 : Python sous MacOS utilise UTF-8 depuis plusieurs versions et Python 3.6 sous Windows est passé à UTF-8 également. Sur les systèmes Unix, il n'y aura un encodage pour le système de fichiers que si vous avez défini les variables d'environnement LANG ou LC_CTYPE ; sinon, l'encodage par défaut est UTF-8.

La fonction sys.getfilesystemencoding() renvoie l'encodage à utiliser sur votre système actuel, au cas où vous voudriez faire l'encodage manuellement, mais il n'y a pas vraiment de raisons de s'embêter avec ça. Lors de l'ouverture d'un fichier pour la lecture ou l'écriture, vous pouvez généralement simplement fournir la chaîne Unicode comme nom de fichier et elle est automatiquement convertie à l'encodage qui convient :

filename = 'filename\u4500abc'
with open(filename, 'w') as f:
    f.write('blah\n')

Les fonctions du module os telles que os.stat() acceptent également les noms de fichiers Unicode.

La fonction os.listdir() renvoie des noms de fichiers, ce qui soulève un problème : doit-elle renvoyer la version Unicode des noms de fichiers ou doit-elle renvoyer des chaînes d'octets contenant les versions encodées ? os.listdir() peut faire les deux, selon que vous fournissez le chemin du répertoire en chaîne d'octets ou en chaîne Unicode. Si vous passez une chaîne Unicode comme chemin d'accès, les noms de fichiers sont décodés en utilisant l'encodage du système de fichiers et une liste de chaînes Unicode est renvoyée, tandis que passer un chemin d'accès en chaîne d'octets renvoie les noms de fichiers comme chaîne d'octets. Par exemple, en supposant que l'encodage par défaut du système de fichiers est UTF-8, exécuter le programme suivant :

fn = 'filename\u4500abc'
f = open(fn, 'w')
f.close()

import os
print(os.listdir(b'.'))
print(os.listdir('.'))

produit la sortie suivante :

$ python listdir-test.py
[b'filename\xe4\x94\x80abc', ...]
['filename\u4500abc', ...]

La première liste contient les noms de fichiers encodés en UTF-8 et la seconde contient les versions Unicode.

Notez que, dans la plupart des cas, il convient de vous en tenir à l'utilisation d'Unicode avec ces APIs. Les API d'octets ne devraient être utilisées que sur les systèmes où des noms de fichiers non décodables peuvent être présents. Cela ne concerne pratiquement que des systèmes Unix maintenant.

Conseils pour écrire des programmes compatibles Unicode

Cette section fournit quelques suggestions sur l'écriture de logiciels qui traitent de l'Unicode.

Le conseil le plus important est :

Il convient que le logiciel ne traite que des chaînes Unicode en interne, décodant les données d'entrée dès que possible et encodant la sortie uniquement à la fin.

Si vous essayez d'écrire des fonctions de traitement qui acceptent à la fois les chaînes Unicode et les chaînes d'octets, les possibilités d'occurrences de bogues dans votre programme augmentent partout où vous combinez les deux différents types de chaînes. Il n'y a pas d'encodage ou de décodage automatique : si vous faites par exemple str + octets, une TypeError est levée.

Lors de l'utilisation de données provenant d'un navigateur Web ou d'une autre source non fiable, une technique courante consiste à vérifier la présence de caractères illégaux dans une chaîne de caractères avant de l'utiliser pour générer une ligne de commande ou de la stocker dans une base de données. Si vous le faites, vérifiez bien la chaîne décodée, pas les données d'octets codés ; certains encodages peuvent avoir des propriétés intéressantes, comme ne pas être bijectifs ou ne pas être entièrement compatibles avec l'ASCII. C'est particulièrement vrai si l'encodage est spécifié explicitement dans vos données d'entrée, car l'attaquant peut alors choisir un moyen intelligent de cacher du texte malveillant dans le flux de données encodé.

Conversion entre les encodages de fichiers

La classe StreamRecoder peut convertir de manière transparente entre les encodages : prenant un flux qui renvoie des données dans l'encodage #1, elle se comporte comme un flux qui renvoie des données dans l'encodage #2.

Par exemple, si vous avez un fichier d'entrée f qui est en Latin-1, vous pouvez l'encapsuler dans un StreamRecoder pour qu'il renvoie des octets encodés en UTF-8 :

new_f = codecs.StreamRecoder(f,
    # en/decoder: used by read() to encode its results and
    # by write() to decode its input.
    codecs.getencoder('utf-8'), codecs.getdecoder('utf-8'),

    # reader/writer: used to read and write to the stream.
    codecs.getreader('latin-1'), codecs.getwriter('latin-1') )

Fichiers dans un encodage inconnu

Vous avez besoin de modifier un fichier, mais vous ne connaissez pas son encodage ? Si vous savez que l'encodage est compatible ASCII et que vous voulez seulement examiner ou modifier les parties ASCII, vous pouvez ouvrir le fichier avec le gestionnaire d'erreurs surrogateescape :

with open(fname, 'r', encoding="ascii", errors="surrogateescape") as f:
    data = f.read()

# make changes to the string 'data'

with open(fname + '.new', 'w',
          encoding="ascii", errors="surrogateescape") as f:
    f.write(data)

Le gestionnaire d'erreurs surrogateescape décode tous les octets non-ASCII comme points de code dans une plage spéciale allant de U+DC80 à U+DCFF. Ces points de code redeviennent alors les mêmes octets lorsque le gestionnaire d'erreurs surrogateescape est utilisé pour encoder les données et les réécrire.

Références

Une partie de la conférence Mastering Python 3 Input/Output [https://pyvideo.org/video/289/pycon-2010--mastering-python-3-i-o] (ressource en anglais), donnée lors de PyCon 2010 de David Beazley, parle du traitement de texte et du traitement des données binaires.

Le PDF du diaporama de la présentation de Marc-André Lemburg "Writing Unicodeaware Applications in Python" [https://downloads.egenix.com/python/LSM2005-Developing-Unicode-aware-applications-in-Python.pdf] (ressource en anglais) traite des questions d'encodage de caractères ainsi que de l'internationalisation et de la localisation d'une application. Ces diapositives ne couvrent que Python 2.x.

The Guts of Unicode in Python [https://pyvideo.org/video/1768/the-guts-of-unicode-in-python] (ressource en anglais) est une conférence PyCon 2013 donnée par Benjamin Peterson qui traite de la représentation interne Unicode en Python 3.3.

Remerciements

La première ébauche de ce document a été rédigée par Andrew Kuchling. Il a depuis été révisé par Alexander Belopolsky, Georg Brandl, Andrew Kuchling et Ezio Melotti.

Merci aux personnes suivantes qui ont noté des erreurs ou qui ont fait des suggestions sur cet article : Éric Araujo, Nicholas Bastin, Nick Coghlan, Marius Gedminas, Kent Johnson, Ken Krugler, Marc-André Lemburg, Martin von Löwis, Terry J. Reedy, Serhiy Storchaka, Eryk Sun, Chad Whitacre, Graham Wideman.

Guide pratique : récupérer des ressources web en utilisant le module urllib

Auteur:

Michael Foord [https://agileabstractions.com/]

Introduction

Related Articles

You may also find useful the following article on fetching web resources with Python:

Basic Authentication [https://web.archive.org/web/20201215133350/http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/articles/authentication.shtml]

A tutorial on Basic Authentication, with examples in Python.

urllib.request is a Python module for fetching URLs (Uniform Resource Locators). It offers a very simple interface, in the form of the urlopen function. This is capable of fetching URLs using a variety of different protocols. It also offers a slightly more complex interface for handling common situations - like basic authentication, cookies, proxies and so on. These are provided by objects called handlers and openers.

urllib.request supports fetching URLs for many "URL schemes" (identified by the string before the ":" in URL - for example "ftp" is the URL scheme of "ftp://python.org/") using their associated network protocols (e.g. FTP, HTTP). This tutorial focuses on the most common case, HTTP.

For straightforward situations urlopen is very easy to use. But as soon as you encounter errors or non-trivial cases when opening HTTP URLs, you will need some understanding of the HyperText Transfer Protocol. The most comprehensive and authoritative reference to HTTP is RFC 2616 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html]. This is a technical document and not intended to be easy to read. This HOWTO aims to illustrate using urllib, with enough detail about HTTP to help you through. It is not intended to replace the urllib.request docs, but is supplementary to them.

Fetching URLs

The simplest way to use urllib.request is as follows:

import urllib.request
with urllib.request.urlopen('http://python.org/') as response:
   html = response.read()

If you wish to retrieve a resource via URL and store it in a temporary location, you can do so via the shutil.copyfileobj() and tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile() functions:

import shutil
import tempfile
import urllib.request

with urllib.request.urlopen('http://python.org/') as response:
    with tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile(delete=False) as tmp_file:
        shutil.copyfileobj(response, tmp_file)

with open(tmp_file.name) as html:
    pass

Many uses of urllib will be that simple (note that instead of an 'http:' URL we could have used a URL starting with 'ftp:', 'file:', etc.). However, it's the purpose of this tutorial to explain the more complicated cases, concentrating on HTTP.

HTTP is based on requests and responses - the client makes requests and servers send responses. urllib.request mirrors this with a Request object which represents the HTTP request you are making. In its simplest form you create a Request object that specifies the URL you want to fetch. Calling urlopen with this Request object returns a response object for the URL requested. This response is a file-like object, which means you can for example call .read() on the response:

import urllib.request

req = urllib.request.Request('http://python.org/')
with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as response:
   the_page = response.read()

Note that urllib.request makes use of the same Request interface to handle all URL schemes. For example, you can make an FTP request like so:

req = urllib.request.Request('ftp://example.com/')

In the case of HTTP, there are two extra things that Request objects allow you to do: First, you can pass data to be sent to the server. Second, you can pass extra information ("metadata") about the data or about the request itself, to the server - this information is sent as HTTP "headers". Let's look at each of these in turn.

Data

Sometimes you want to send data to a URL (often the URL will refer to a CGI (Common Gateway Interface) script or other web application). With HTTP, this is often done using what's known as a POST request. This is often what your browser does when you submit a HTML form that you filled in on the web. Not all POSTs have to come from forms: you can use a POST to transmit arbitrary data to your own application. In the common case of HTML forms, the data needs to be encoded in a standard way, and then passed to the Request object as the data argument. The encoding is done using a function from the urllib.parse library.

import urllib.parse
import urllib.request

url = 'http://www.someserver.com/cgi-bin/register.cgi'
values = {'name' : 'Michael Foord',
          'location' : 'Northampton',
          'language' : 'Python' }

data = urllib.parse.urlencode(values)
data = data.encode('ascii') # data should be bytes
req = urllib.request.Request(url, data)
with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as response:
   the_page = response.read()

Note that other encodings are sometimes required (e.g. for file upload from HTML forms - see HTML Specification, Form Submission [https://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40/interact/forms.html#h-17.13] for more details).

If you do not pass the data argument, urllib uses a GET request. One way in which GET and POST requests differ is that POST requests often have "side-effects": they change the state of the system in some way (for example by placing an order with the website for a hundredweight of tinned spam to be delivered to your door). Though the HTTP standard makes it clear that POSTs are intended to always cause side-effects, and GET requests never to cause side-effects, nothing prevents a GET request from having side-effects, nor a POST requests from having no side-effects. Data can also be passed in an HTTP GET request by encoding it in the URL itself.

This is done as follows:

>>> import urllib.request
>>> import urllib.parse
>>> data = {}
>>> data['name'] = 'Somebody Here'
>>> data['location'] = 'Northampton'
>>> data['language'] = 'Python'
>>> url_values = urllib.parse.urlencode(data)
>>> print(url_values)  # The order may differ from below.
name=Somebody+Here&language=Python&location=Northampton
>>> url = 'http://www.example.com/example.cgi'
>>> full_url = url + '?' + url_values
>>> data = urllib.request.urlopen(full_url)

Notice that the full URL is created by adding a ? to the URL, followed by the encoded values.

Headers

We'll discuss here one particular HTTP header, to illustrate how to add headers to your HTTP request.

Some websites [1] dislike being browsed by programs, or send different versions to different browsers [2]. By default urllib identifies itself as Python-urllib/x.y (where x and y are the major and minor version numbers of the Python release, e.g. Python-urllib/2.5), which may confuse the site, or just plain not work. The way a browser identifies itself is through the User-Agent header [3]. When you create a Request object you can pass a dictionary of headers in. The following example makes the same request as above, but identifies itself as a version of Internet Explorer [4].

import urllib.parse
import urllib.request

url = 'http://www.someserver.com/cgi-bin/register.cgi'
user_agent = 'Mozilla/5.0 (Windows NT 6.1; Win64; x64)'
values = {'name': 'Michael Foord',
          'location': 'Northampton',
          'language': 'Python' }
headers = {'User-Agent': user_agent}

data = urllib.parse.urlencode(values)
data = data.encode('ascii')
req = urllib.request.Request(url, data, headers)
with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as response:
   the_page = response.read()

The response also has two useful methods. See the section on info and geturl which comes after we have a look at what happens when things go wrong.

Gestion des exceptions

urlopen raises URLError when it cannot handle a response (though as usual with Python APIs, built-in exceptions such as ValueError, TypeError etc. may also be raised).

HTTPError is the subclass of URLError raised in the specific case of HTTP URLs.

The exception classes are exported from the urllib.error module.

URLError

Often, URLError is raised because there is no network connection (no route to the specified server), or the specified server doesn't exist. In this case, the exception raised will have a 'reason' attribute, which is a tuple containing an error code and a text error message.

e.g.

>>> req = urllib.request.Request('http://www.pretend_server.org')
>>> try: urllib.request.urlopen(req)
... except urllib.error.URLError as e:
...     print(e.reason)
...
(4, 'getaddrinfo failed')

HTTPError

Every HTTP response from the server contains a numeric "status code". Sometimes the status code indicates that the server is unable to fulfil the request. The default handlers will handle some of these responses for you (for example, if the response is a "redirection" that requests the client fetch the document from a different URL, urllib will handle that for you). For those it can't handle, urlopen will raise an HTTPError. Typical errors include '404' (page not found), '403' (request forbidden), and '401' (authentication required).

See section 10 of RFC 2616 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html] for a reference on all the HTTP error codes.

The HTTPError instance raised will have an integer 'code' attribute, which corresponds to the error sent by the server.

Error Codes

Because the default handlers handle redirects (codes in the 300 range), and codes in the 100--299 range indicate success, you will usually only see error codes in the 400--599 range.

http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.responses is a useful dictionary of response codes that shows all the response codes used by RFC 2616 [https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html]. An excerpt from the dictionary is shown below

responses = {
    ...
    <HTTPStatus.OK: 200>: ('OK', 'Request fulfilled, document follows'),
    ...
    <HTTPStatus.FORBIDDEN: 403>: ('Forbidden',
                                  'Request forbidden -- authorization will '
                                  'not help'),
    <HTTPStatus.NOT_FOUND: 404>: ('Not Found',
                                  'Nothing matches the given URI'),
    ...
    <HTTPStatus.IM_A_TEAPOT: 418>: ("I'm a Teapot",
                                    'Server refuses to brew coffee because '
                                    'it is a teapot'),
    ...
    <HTTPStatus.SERVICE_UNAVAILABLE: 503>: ('Service Unavailable',
                                            'The server cannot process the '
                                            'request due to a high load'),
    ...
    }

When an error is raised the server responds by returning an HTTP error code and an error page. You can use the HTTPError instance as a response on the page returned. This means that as well as the code attribute, it also has read, geturl, and info, methods as returned by the urllib.response module:

>>> req = urllib.request.Request('http://www.python.org/fish.html')
>>> try:
...     urllib.request.urlopen(req)
... except urllib.error.HTTPError as e:
...     print(e.code)
...     print(e.read())
...
404
b'<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN"
  "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">\n\n\n<html
  ...
  <title>Page Not Found</title>\n
  ...

Wrapping it Up

So if you want to be prepared for HTTPError or URLError there are two basic approaches. I prefer the second approach.

Number 1

from urllib.request import Request, urlopen
from urllib.error import URLError, HTTPError
req = Request(someurl)
try:
    response = urlopen(req)
except HTTPError as e:
    print('The server couldn\'t fulfill the request.')
    print('Error code: ', e.code)
except URLError as e:
    print('We failed to reach a server.')
    print('Reason: ', e.reason)
else:
    # everything is fine

Note

The except HTTPError must come first, otherwise except URLError will also catch an HTTPError.

Number 2

from urllib.request import Request, urlopen
from urllib.error import URLError
req = Request(someurl)
try:
    response = urlopen(req)
except URLError as e:
    if hasattr(e, 'reason'):
        print('We failed to reach a server.')
        print('Reason: ', e.reason)
    elif hasattr(e, 'code'):
        print('The server couldn\'t fulfill the request.')
        print('Error code: ', e.code)
else:
    # everything is fine

info and geturl

The response returned by urlopen (or the HTTPError instance) has two useful methods info() and geturl() and is defined in the module urllib.response.

geturl - this returns the real URL of the page fetched. This is useful because urlopen (or the opener object used) may have followed a redirect. The URL of the page fetched may not be the same as the URL requested.

info - this returns a dictionary-like object that describes the page fetched, particularly the headers sent by the server. It is currently an http.client.HTTPMessage instance.

Typical headers include 'Content-length', 'Content-type', and so on. See the Quick Reference to HTTP Headers [https://jkorpela.fi/http.html] for a useful listing of HTTP headers with brief explanations of their meaning and use.

Openers and Handlers

When you fetch a URL you use an opener (an instance of the perhaps confusingly named urllib.request.OpenerDirector). Normally we have been using the default opener - via urlopen - but you can create custom openers. Openers use handlers. All the "heavy lifting" is done by the handlers. Each handler knows how to open URLs for a particular URL scheme (http, ftp, etc.), or how to handle an aspect of URL opening, for example HTTP redirections or HTTP cookies.

You will want to create openers if you want to fetch URLs with specific handlers installed, for example to get an opener that handles cookies, or to get an opener that does not handle redirections.

To create an opener, instantiate an OpenerDirector, and then call .add_handler(some_handler_instance) repeatedly.

Alternatively, you can use build_opener, which is a convenience function for creating opener objects with a single function call. build_opener adds several handlers by default, but provides a quick way to add more and/or override the default handlers.

Other sorts of handlers you might want to can handle proxies, authentication, and other common but slightly specialised situations.

install_opener can be used to make an opener object the (global) default opener. This means that calls to urlopen will use the opener you have installed.

Opener objects have an open method, which can be called directly to fetch urls in the same way as the urlopen function: there's no need to call install_opener, except as a convenience.

Basic Authentication

To illustrate creating and installing a handler we will use the HTTPBasicAuthHandler. For a more detailed discussion of this subject -- including an explanation of how Basic Authentication works - see the Basic Authentication Tutorial [https://web.archive.org/web/20201215133350/http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/articles/authentication.shtml].

When authentication is required, the server sends a header (as well as the 401 error code) requesting authentication. This specifies the authentication scheme and a 'realm'. The header looks like: WWW-Authenticate: SCHEME realm="REALM".

e.g.

WWW-Authenticate: Basic realm="cPanel Users"

The client should then retry the request with the appropriate name and password for the realm included as a header in the request. This is 'basic authentication'. In order to simplify this process we can create an instance of HTTPBasicAuthHandler and an opener to use this handler.

The HTTPBasicAuthHandler uses an object called a password manager to handle the mapping of URLs and realms to passwords and usernames. If you know what the realm is (from the authentication header sent by the server), then you can use a HTTPPasswordMgr. Frequently one doesn't care what the realm is. In that case, it is convenient to use HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm. This allows you to specify a default username and password for a URL. This will be supplied in the absence of you providing an alternative combination for a specific realm. We indicate this by providing None as the realm argument to the add_password method.

The top-level URL is the first URL that requires authentication. URLs "deeper" than the URL you pass to .add_password() will also match.

# create a password manager
password_mgr = urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm()

# Add the username and password.
# If we knew the realm, we could use it instead of None.
top_level_url = "http://example.com/foo/"
password_mgr.add_password(None, top_level_url, username, password)

handler = urllib.request.HTTPBasicAuthHandler(password_mgr)

# create "opener" (OpenerDirector instance)
opener = urllib.request.build_opener(handler)

# use the opener to fetch a URL
opener.open(a_url)

# Install the opener.
# Now all calls to urllib.request.urlopen use our opener.
urllib.request.install_opener(opener)

Note

In the above example we only supplied our HTTPBasicAuthHandler to build_opener. By default openers have the handlers for normal situations -- ProxyHandler (if a proxy setting such as an http_proxy environment variable is set), UnknownHandler, HTTPHandler, HTTPDefaultErrorHandler, HTTPRedirectHandler, FTPHandler, FileHandler, DataHandler, HTTPErrorProcessor.

top_level_url is in fact either a full URL (including the 'http:' scheme component and the hostname and optionally the port number) e.g. "http://example.com/" or an "authority" (i.e. the hostname, optionally including the port number) e.g. "example.com" or "example.com:8080" (the latter example includes a port number). The authority, if present, must NOT contain the "userinfo" component - for example "joe:password@example.com" is not correct.

Proxies

urllib will auto-detect your proxy settings and use those. This is through the ProxyHandler, which is part of the normal handler chain when a proxy setting is detected. Normally that's a good thing, but there are occasions when it may not be helpful [5]. One way to do this is to setup our own ProxyHandler, with no proxies defined. This is done using similar steps to setting up a Basic Authentication handler:

>>> proxy_support = urllib.request.ProxyHandler({})
>>> opener = urllib.request.build_opener(proxy_support)
>>> urllib.request.install_opener(opener)

Note

Currently urllib.request does not support fetching of https locations through a proxy. However, this can be enabled by extending urllib.request as shown in the recipe [6].

Note

HTTP_PROXY will be ignored if a variable REQUEST_METHOD is set; see the documentation on getproxies().

Sockets and Layers

The Python support for fetching resources from the web is layered. urllib uses the http.client library, which in turn uses the socket library.

As of Python 2.3 you can specify how long a socket should wait for a response before timing out. This can be useful in applications which have to fetch web pages. By default the socket module has no timeout and can hang. Currently, the socket timeout is not exposed at the http.client or urllib.request levels. However, you can set the default timeout globally for all sockets using

import socket
import urllib.request

# timeout in seconds
timeout = 10
socket.setdefaulttimeout(timeout)

# this call to urllib.request.urlopen now uses the default timeout
# we have set in the socket module
req = urllib.request.Request('http://www.voidspace.org.uk')
response = urllib.request.urlopen(req)

Notes

This document was reviewed and revised by John Lee.

[1]

Google for example.

[2]

Browser sniffing is a very bad practice for website design - building sites using web standards is much more sensible. Unfortunately a lot of sites still send different versions to different browsers.

[3]

The user agent for MSIE 6 is 'Mozilla/4.0 (compatible; MSIE 6.0; Windows NT 5.1; SV1; .NET CLR 1.1.4322)'

[4]

For details of more HTTP request headers, see Quick Reference to HTTP Headers [https://jkorpela.fi/http.html].

[5]

In my case I have to use a proxy to access the internet at work. If you attempt to fetch localhost URLs through this proxy it blocks them. IE is set to use the proxy, which urllib picks up on. In order to test scripts with a localhost server, I have to prevent urllib from using the proxy.

[6]

urllib opener for SSL proxy (CONNECT method): ASPN Cookbook Recipe [https://code.activestate.com/recipes/456195-urrlib2-opener-for-ssl-proxy-connect-method/].

Introduction au module ipaddress

auteur:

Peter Moody

auteur:

Nick Coghlan

Aperçu

Ce document vise à fournir une introduction rapide au module ipaddress. Il est destiné aux utilisateurs qui ne sont pas familiers avec la terminologie des réseaux IP, mais il peut aussi être utile aux ingénieurs réseaux qui cherchent un aperçu de la représentation des concepts d'adressage IP avec le module ipaddress.

Créer un objet Adresse/Réseau/Interface

Vu que ipaddress est un module pour inspecter et manipuler des adresses IP, la première chose que vous voudrez faire est de créer quelques objets. Vous pouvez utiliser ipaddress pour créer des objets à partir de chaînes de caractères et d'entiers.

Note sur les versions d'IP

Pour les lecteurs qui ne sont pas particulièrement familiers avec l'adressage IP il est important de savoir que le protocole Internet (IP) est actuellement en évolution de la version 4 du protocole vers la version 6. Cette transition est largement due au fait que la version 4 du protocole ne fournit pas assez d'adresses pour gérer les besoins du monde entier, particulièrement à cause de la croissance des périphériques directement connectés à Internet.

Expliquer les détails des différences entre les deux versions du protocole est au-delà du périmètre de cette introduction, mais les lecteurs doivent au moins être avertis de l'existence de ces deux versions et qu'il sera nécessaire de forcer l'utilisation d'une version ou de l'autre.

Adresses IP des hôtes

Les adresses, souvent dénommées "adresses hôtes" sont les unités les plus basiques quand on travaille avec l'adressage IP. Le moyen le plus simple de créer des adresses est d'utiliser la fonction de fabrication ipaddress.ip_address() qui va automatiquement déterminer quoi créer entre une adresse IPv4 ou une adresse IPv6 en fonction de la valeur qui est transmise :

>>> ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.1')
IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')
>>> ipaddress.ip_address('2001:DB8::1')
IPv6Address('2001:db8::1')

Les adresses peuvent être créées directement depuis des entiers. Les valeurs qui correspondent à des entiers 32 bits sont assimilées à des adresses IPv4 :

>>> ipaddress.ip_address(3221225985)
IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')
>>> ipaddress.ip_address(42540766411282592856903984951653826561)
IPv6Address('2001:db8::1')

Pour forcer l'utilisation d'IPv4 ou d'IPv6, la classe appropriée peut être invoquée directement. C'est particulièrement utile pour forcer la création d'adresse IPv6 pour de petits entiers :

>>> ipaddress.ip_address(1)
IPv4Address('0.0.0.1')
>>> ipaddress.IPv4Address(1)
IPv4Address('0.0.0.1')
>>> ipaddress.IPv6Address(1)
IPv6Address('::1')

Définir des réseaux

Les adresses hôtes sont souvent regroupées dans des réseaux IP, donc ipaddress fournit un moyen de créer, d'inspecter et de manipuler les définitions des réseaux. Les objets correspondants aux réseaux IP sont construits à partir de chaînes de caractères qui définissent le périmètre des adresses hôtes qui font partie de ce réseau. La forme la plus simple de cette information est un couple "adresse réseau/préfixe réseau" , où le préfixe définit le nombre de bits de tête qui sont comparés pour déterminer si l'adresse fait ou ne fait pas partie de ce réseau et l'adresse réseau définit la valeur attendue pour ces bits.

Tout comme pour les adresses, une fonction de fabrication est disponible et détermine automatiquement la version correcte d'IP :

>>> ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.0/24')
IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24')
>>> ipaddress.ip_network('2001:db8::0/96')
IPv6Network('2001:db8::/96')

Il est interdit pour des objets réseaux d'avoir des bits affectés à leurs hôtes mis à 1. Ainsi la chaîne de caractères 192.0.2.1/24 ne peut définir un réseau. Ces objets réseaux sont aussi appelés objets d'interfaces car la notation adresse ip / réseau est couramment utilisée pour décrire les interfaces réseau d'un ordinateur sur un réseau donné (nous les détaillons plus loin dans cette section).

Par défaut, tenter de créer un objet réseau avec des bits d'hôtes mis à 1 lève une ValueError. Pour demander que les bits supplémentaires soient plutôt forcés à zéro, l'attribut strict=False peut être passé au constructeur :

>>> ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.1/24')
Traceback (most recent call last):
   ...
ValueError: 192.0.2.1/24 has host bits set
>>> ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.1/24', strict=False)
IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24')

Alors que la forme textuelle offre davantage de flexibilité les réseaux peuvent aussi être définis avec des entiers, tout comme les adresses hôtes. Dans ce cas le réseau est considéré comme contenant uniquement l'adresse identifiée par l'entier, donc le préfixe réseau inclut l'adresse du réseau complet :

>>> ipaddress.ip_network(3221225984)
IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/32')
>>> ipaddress.ip_network(42540766411282592856903984951653826560)
IPv6Network('2001:db8::/128')

Comme avec les adresses, la création d'un type de réseau particulier peut être forcée en appelant directement le constructeur de la classe plutôt que d'utiliser la fonction de fabrication.

Interfaces des hôtes

Comme mentionné ci-dessus, si vous avez besoin de décrire une adresse sur un réseau particulier, ni l'adresse ni les classes réseaux ne sont suffisantes. Les notations comme 192.0.2.1/24 sont généralement utilisées par les ingénieurs réseaux et les personnes qui écrivent des outils pour les pare-feu et les routeurs comme raccourci pour " l'hôte 192.0.2.1 sur le réseau 192.0.2.0/24", par conséquent, ipaddress fournit un ensemble de classes hybrides qui associent une adresse à un réseau particulier. L'interface pour la création est identique à celle pour la définition des objets réseaux, excepté que la partie adresse n'est pas contrainte d'être une adresse réseau.

>>> ipaddress.ip_interface('192.0.2.1/24')
IPv4Interface('192.0.2.1/24')
>>> ipaddress.ip_interface('2001:db8::1/96')
IPv6Interface('2001:db8::1/96')

Les entiers sont acceptés en entrée (comme avec les réseaux) et l'utilisation d'une version d'IP peut être forcée en appelant directement le constructeur adapté.

Inspecter les objets Address/Network/Interface

Vous vous êtes donné la peine de créer un objet (adresse|réseau|interface)IPv(4|6), donc vous voudrez probablement des informations sur celui-ci. ipaddress essaie de rendre ceci facile et intuitif.

Extraire la version du protocole IP :

>>> addr4 = ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.1')
>>> addr6 = ipaddress.ip_address('2001:db8::1')
>>> addr6.version
6
>>> addr4.version
4

Obtenir le réseau à partir de l'interface :

>>> host4 = ipaddress.ip_interface('192.0.2.1/24')
>>> host4.network
IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24')
>>> host6 = ipaddress.ip_interface('2001:db8::1/96')
>>> host6.network
IPv6Network('2001:db8::/96')

Trouver combien d'adresses individuelles sont dans un réseau :

>>> net4 = ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.0/24')
>>> net4.num_addresses
256
>>> net6 = ipaddress.ip_network('2001:db8::0/96')
>>> net6.num_addresses
4294967296

Itération sur chacune des adresses "utilisables" d'un réseau :

>>> net4 = ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.0/24')
>>> for x in net4.hosts():
...     print(x)
192.0.2.1
192.0.2.2
192.0.2.3
192.0.2.4
...
192.0.2.252
192.0.2.253
192.0.2.254

Obtenir le masque réseau (définit les bits correspondant au préfixe du réseau) ou le masque de l'hôte (tous les bits qui ne sont pas dans le masque du réseau) :

>>> net4 = ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.0/24')
>>> net4.netmask
IPv4Address('255.255.255.0')
>>> net4.hostmask
IPv4Address('0.0.0.255')
>>> net6 = ipaddress.ip_network('2001:db8::0/96')
>>> net6.netmask
IPv6Address('ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff::')
>>> net6.hostmask
IPv6Address('::ffff:ffff')

Éclater ou compresser l'adresse :

>>> addr6.exploded
'2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0001'
>>> addr6.compressed
'2001:db8::1'
>>> net6.exploded
'2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000/96'
>>> net6.compressed
'2001:db8::/96'

Alors que IPv4 ne gère pas l'éclatement ou la compression, les objets associés fournissent toujours les propriétés adaptées pour que du code, le plus neutre possible vis-à-vis de la version, puisse facilement s'assurer que la forme la plus concise ou la plus verbeuse utilisée pour des adresses IPv6 va aussi fonctionner pour gérer des adresses IPv4.

Réseaux en tant que listes d'adresses

Il est parfois utile de traiter les réseaux en tant que listes. Cela signifie qu'il est possible de les indexer comme ça :

>>> net4[1]
IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')
>>> net4[-1]
IPv4Address('192.0.2.255')
>>> net6[1]
IPv6Address('2001:db8::1')
>>> net6[-1]
IPv6Address('2001:db8::ffff:ffff')

Cela signifie aussi que les objets réseaux se prêtent bien à l'utilisation de la syntaxe suivante pour le test d'appartenance à la liste :

if address in network:
    # do something

En se basant sur le préfixe réseau on peut efficacement tester l'appartenance :

>>> addr4 = ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.1')
>>> addr4 in ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.0/24')
True
>>> addr4 in ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.3.0/24')
False

Comparaisons

ipaddress fournit des moyens simples et intuitifs (du moins nous l'espérons) pour comparer les objets, quand cela fait sens :

>>> ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.1') < ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.2')
True

Une exception TypeError est levée si vous tentez de comparer des objets de différentes versions ou de types différents.

Utiliser des adresse IP avec d'autre modules

Les autres modules qui utilisent des adresses IP (comme socket) n'acceptent généralement pas les objets de ce module directement. Au lieu de cela, ils doivent être convertis en entiers ou en chaînes de caractères que l'autre module va accepter :

>>> addr4 = ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.1')
>>> str(addr4)
'192.0.2.1'
>>> int(addr4)
3221225985

Obtenir plus de détails lors de l'échec de la création de l'instance

Lors de la création des objets Adresse/Réseau/Interface en utilisant les fonctions de fabrication agnostiques à la version, n'importe quelle erreur va être signalée en tant que ValueError avec un message d'erreur générique qui dit simplement que la valeur entrée n'a pas été reconnue en tant qu'objet de ce type. Pour fournir plus de détails sur la cause du rejet, il faudrait reconnaître si la valeur est supposée être une adresse IPv4 ou IPv6.

Pour gérer les cas d'usage où il est utile d'avoir accès à ces détails, les constructeurs individuels des classes lèvent actuellement les sous-classes de ValueError, ipaddress.AddressValueError et ipaddress.NetmaskValueError pour indiquer précisément quelle partie de la définition n'a pas pu être correctement traitée.

Les messages d'erreur sont particulièrement plus détaillés lors de l'utilisation directe du constructeur. Par exemple :

>>> ipaddress.ip_address("192.168.0.256")
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
ValueError: '192.168.0.256' does not appear to be an IPv4 or IPv6 address
>>> ipaddress.IPv4Address("192.168.0.256")
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
ipaddress.AddressValueError: Octet 256 (> 255) not permitted in '192.168.0.256'

>>> ipaddress.ip_network("192.168.0.1/64")
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
ValueError: '192.168.0.1/64' does not appear to be an IPv4 or IPv6 network
>>> ipaddress.IPv4Network("192.168.0.1/64")
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
ipaddress.NetmaskValueError: '64' is not a valid netmask

Cependant, les exceptions spécifiques des deux modules ont ValueError comme classe parent ; donc si vous n'êtes pas intéressé par le type particulier d'erreur remontée, vous pouvez écrire votre code comme suit :

try:
    network = ipaddress.IPv4Network(address)
except ValueError:
    print('address/netmask is invalid for IPv4:', address)

Instrumenter CPython avec DTrace et SystemTap

auteur:

David Malcolm

auteur:

Łukasz Langa

DTrace et SystemTap sont des outils de surveillance, chacun fournissant un moyen de d'inspecter ce que font les processus d'un système informatique. Ils utilisent tous les deux des langages dédiés permettant à un utilisateur d'écrire des scripts qui permettent de :

Filtrer les processus à observer.

Recueillir des données sur le processus choisi.

Générer des rapports sur les données.

À partir de Python 3.6, CPython peut être compilé avec des « marqueurs » intégrés, aussi appelés « sondes », qui peuvent être observés par un script DTrace ou SystemTap, ce qui facilite le suivi des processus CPython.

Les marqueurs DTrace sont des détails d'implémentation de l'interpréteur CPython. Aucune garantie n'est donnée quant à la compatibilité des sondes entre les versions de CPython. Les scripts DTrace peuvent s'arrêter de fonctionner ou fonctionner incorrectement sans avertissement lors du changement de version de CPython.

Activer les marqueurs statiques

macOS est livré avec un support intégré pour DTrace. Sous Linux, pour construire CPython avec les marqueurs embarqués pour SystemTap, les outils de développement SystemTap doivent être installés.

Sur une machine Linux, cela se fait via :

$ yum install systemtap-sdt-devel

ou :

$ sudo apt-get install systemtap-sdt-dev

CPython doit être configuré avec l'option --with-dtrace :

checking for --with-dtrace... yes

Sous macOS, vous pouvez lister les sondes DTrace disponibles en exécutant un processus Python en arrière-plan et en listant toutes les sondes mises à disposition par le fournisseur Python :

$ python3.6 -q &
$ sudo dtrace -l -P python$!  # or: dtrace -l -m python3.6

   ID   PROVIDER            MODULE                          FUNCTION NAME
29564 python18035        python3.6          _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault function-entry
29565 python18035        python3.6             dtrace_function_entry function-entry
29566 python18035        python3.6          _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault function-return
29567 python18035        python3.6            dtrace_function_return function-return
29568 python18035        python3.6                           collect gc-done
29569 python18035        python3.6                           collect gc-start
29570 python18035        python3.6          _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault line
29571 python18035        python3.6                 maybe_dtrace_line line

Sous Linux, pour vérifier que les marqueurs statiques SystemTap sont présents dans le binaire compilé, il suffit de regarder s'il contient une section .note.stapsdt.

$ readelf -S ./python | grep .note.stapsdt
[30] .note.stapsdt        NOTE         0000000000000000 00308d78

Si vous avez compilé Python en tant que bibliothèque partagée (avec l'option --enable-shared du script configure), vous devez plutôt regarder dans la bibliothèque partagée. Par exemple :

$ readelf -S libpython3.3dm.so.1.0 | grep .note.stapsdt
[29] .note.stapsdt        NOTE         0000000000000000 00365b68

Une version suffisamment moderne de readelf peut afficher les métadonnées :

$ readelf -n ./python

Displaying notes found at file offset 0x00000254 with length 0x00000020:
    Owner                 Data size          Description
    GNU                  0x00000010          NT_GNU_ABI_TAG (ABI version tag)
        OS: Linux, ABI: 2.6.32

Displaying notes found at file offset 0x00000274 with length 0x00000024:
    Owner                 Data size          Description
    GNU                  0x00000014          NT_GNU_BUILD_ID (unique build ID bitstring)
        Build ID: df924a2b08a7e89f6e11251d4602022977af2670

Displaying notes found at file offset 0x002d6c30 with length 0x00000144:
    Owner                 Data size          Description
    stapsdt              0x00000031          NT_STAPSDT (SystemTap probe descriptors)
        Provider: python
        Name: gc__start
        Location: 0x00000000004371c3, Base: 0x0000000000630ce2, Semaphore: 0x00000000008d6bf6
        Arguments: -4@%ebx
    stapsdt              0x00000030          NT_STAPSDT (SystemTap probe descriptors)
        Provider: python
        Name: gc__done
        Location: 0x00000000004374e1, Base: 0x0000000000630ce2, Semaphore: 0x00000000008d6bf8
        Arguments: -8@%rax
    stapsdt              0x00000045          NT_STAPSDT (SystemTap probe descriptors)
        Provider: python
        Name: function__entry
        Location: 0x000000000053db6c, Base: 0x0000000000630ce2, Semaphore: 0x00000000008d6be8
        Arguments: 8@%rbp 8@%r12 -4@%eax
    stapsdt              0x00000046          NT_STAPSDT (SystemTap probe descriptors)
        Provider: python
        Name: function__return
        Location: 0x000000000053dba8, Base: 0x0000000000630ce2, Semaphore: 0x00000000008d6bea
        Arguments: 8@%rbp 8@%r12 -4@%eax

The above metadata contains information for SystemTap describing how it can patch strategically placed machine code instructions to enable the tracing hooks used by a SystemTap script.

Sondes DTrace statiques

L'exemple suivant de script DTrace montre la hiérarchie d'appel/retour d'un script Python, en ne traçant que l'invocation d'une fonction start. En d'autres termes, les appels de fonctions lors de la phase d'import ne seront pas répertoriées :

self int indent;

python$target:::function-entry
/copyinstr(arg1) == "start"/
{
        self->trace = 1;
}

python$target:::function-entry
/self->trace/
{
        printf("%d\t%*s:", timestamp, 15, probename);
        printf("%*s", self->indent, "");
        printf("%s:%s:%d\n", basename(copyinstr(arg0)), copyinstr(arg1), arg2);
        self->indent++;
}

python$target:::function-return
/self->trace/
{
        self->indent--;
        printf("%d\t%*s:", timestamp, 15, probename);
        printf("%*s", self->indent, "");
        printf("%s:%s:%d\n", basename(copyinstr(arg0)), copyinstr(arg1), arg2);
}

python$target:::function-return
/copyinstr(arg1) == "start"/
{
        self->trace = 0;
}

Il peut être utilisé de cette manière :

$ sudo dtrace -q -s call_stack.d -c "python3.6 script.py"

La sortie ressemble à ceci :

156641360502280  function-entry:call_stack.py:start:23
156641360518804  function-entry: call_stack.py:function_1:1
156641360532797  function-entry:  call_stack.py:function_3:9
156641360546807 function-return:  call_stack.py:function_3:10
156641360563367 function-return: call_stack.py:function_1:2
156641360578365  function-entry: call_stack.py:function_2:5
156641360591757  function-entry:  call_stack.py:function_1:1
156641360605556  function-entry:   call_stack.py:function_3:9
156641360617482 function-return:   call_stack.py:function_3:10
156641360629814 function-return:  call_stack.py:function_1:2
156641360642285 function-return: call_stack.py:function_2:6
156641360656770  function-entry: call_stack.py:function_3:9
156641360669707 function-return: call_stack.py:function_3:10
156641360687853  function-entry: call_stack.py:function_4:13
156641360700719 function-return: call_stack.py:function_4:14
156641360719640  function-entry: call_stack.py:function_5:18
156641360732567 function-return: call_stack.py:function_5:21
156641360747370 function-return:call_stack.py:start:28

Marqueurs statiques SystemTap

La façon la plus simple d'utiliser l'intégration SystemTap est d'utiliser directement les marqueurs statiques. Pour cela vous devez pointer explicitement le fichier binaire qui les contient.

Par exemple, ce script SystemTap peut être utilisé pour afficher la hiérarchie d'appel/retour d'un script Python :

probe process("python").mark("function__entry") {
     filename = user_string($arg1);
     funcname = user_string($arg2);
     lineno = $arg3;

     printf("%s => %s in %s:%d\\n",
            thread_indent(1), funcname, filename, lineno);
}

probe process("python").mark("function__return") {
    filename = user_string($arg1);
    funcname = user_string($arg2);
    lineno = $arg3;

    printf("%s <= %s in %s:%d\\n",
           thread_indent(-1), funcname, filename, lineno);
}

Il peut être utilisé de cette manière :

$ stap \
  show-call-hierarchy.stp \
  -c "./python test.py"

La sortie ressemble à ceci :

11408 python(8274):        => __contains__ in Lib/_abcoll.py:362
11414 python(8274):         => __getitem__ in Lib/os.py:425
11418 python(8274):          => encode in Lib/os.py:490
11424 python(8274):          <= encode in Lib/os.py:493
11428 python(8274):         <= __getitem__ in Lib/os.py:426
11433 python(8274):        <= __contains__ in Lib/_abcoll.py:366

où les colonnes sont :

temps en microsecondes depuis le début du script

nom de l'exécutable

PID du processus

et le reste indique la hiérarchie d'appel/retour lorsque le script s'exécute.

Pour une compilation --enable-shared de CPython, les marqueurs sont contenus dans la bibliothèque partagée libpython, et le chemin du module de la sonde doit le refléter. Par exemple, la ligne de l'exemple ci-dessus :

probe process("python").mark("function__entry") {

doit plutôt se lire comme :

probe process("python").library("libpython3.6dm.so.1.0").mark("function__entry") {

(en supposant une version de CPython 3.6 compilée avec le débogage activé)

Marqueurs statiques disponibles

function__entry(str filename, str funcname, int lineno)

Ce marqueur indique que l'exécution d'une fonction Python a commencé. Il n'est déclenché que pour les fonctions en Python pur (code intermédiaire).

Le nom de fichier, le nom de la fonction et le numéro de ligne sont renvoyés au script de traçage sous forme d'arguments positionnels, auxquels il faut accéder en utilisant $arg1, $arg2, $arg3 :

$arg1 : (const char *) nom de fichier, accessible via user_string($arg1)

$arg2 : (const char *) nom de la fonction, accessible via user_string($arg2)

$arg3 : numéro de ligne int

function__return(str filename, str funcname, int lineno)

This marker is the converse of function__entry(), and indicates that execution of a Python function has ended (either via return, or via an exception). It is only triggered for pure-Python (bytecode) functions.

The arguments are the same as for function__entry()

line(str filename, str funcname, int lineno)

Ce marqueur indique qu'une ligne Python est sur le point d'être exécutée. C'est l'équivalent du traçage ligne par ligne avec un profileur Python. Il n'est pas déclenché dans les fonctions C.

The arguments are the same as for function__entry().

gc__start(int generation)

Fires when the Python interpreter starts a garbage collection cycle. arg0 is the generation to scan, like gc.collect().

gc__done(long collected)

Fonction appelée lorsque l'interpréteur Python termine un cycle de collecte du ramasse-miettes. Arg0 est le nombre d'objets collectés.

import__find__load__start(str modulename)

Fonction appelée avant que importlib essaye de trouver et de charger le module. arg0 est le nom du module.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

import__find__load__done(str modulename, int found)

Fonction appelée après que la fonction find_and_load du module importlib soit appelée. arg0 est le nom du module, arg1 indique si le module a été chargé avec succès.

Ajouté dans la version 3.7.

audit(str event, void *tuple)

Fonction appelée quand les fonctions sys.audit() ou PySys_Audit() sont appelées. arg0 est le nom de l'évènement de type chaîne de caractère C. arg1 est un pointeur sur un n-uplet d'objet de type PyObject.

Ajouté dans la version 3.8.

C Entry Points

To simplify triggering of DTrace markers, Python's C API comes with a number of helper functions that mirror each static marker. On builds of Python without DTrace enabled, these do nothing.

In general, it is not necessary to call these yourself, as Python will do it for you.

C API Function

Static Marker

Notes

void PyDTrace_LINE(const char *arg0, const char *arg1, int arg2)

line()

void PyDTrace_FUNCTION_ENTRY(const char *arg0, const char *arg1, int arg2)

function__entry()

void PyDTrace_FUNCTION_RETURN(const char *arg0, const char *arg1, int arg2)

function__return()

void PyDTrace_GC_START(int arg0)

gc__start()

void PyDTrace_GC_DONE(Py_ssize_t arg0)

gc__done()

void PyDTrace_INSTANCE_NEW_START(int arg0)

instance__new__start()

Not used by Python

void PyDTrace_INSTANCE_NEW_DONE(int arg0)

instance__new__done()

Not used by Python

void PyDTrace_INSTANCE_DELETE_START(int arg0)

instance__delete__start()

Not used by Python

void PyDTrace_INSTANCE_DELETE_DONE(int arg0)

instance__delete__done()

Not used by Python

void PyDTrace_IMPORT_FIND_LOAD_START(const char *arg0)

import__find__load__start()

void PyDTrace_IMPORT_FIND_LOAD_DONE(const char *arg0, int arg1)

import__find__load__done()

void PyDTrace_AUDIT(const char *arg0, void *arg1)

audit()

C Probing Checks

int PyDTrace_LINE_ENABLED(void)

int PyDTrace_FUNCTION_ENTRY_ENABLED(void)

int PyDTrace_FUNCTION_RETURN_ENABLED(void)

int PyDTrace_GC_START_ENABLED(void)

int PyDTrace_GC_DONE_ENABLED(void)

int PyDTrace_INSTANCE_NEW_START_ENABLED(void)

int PyDTrace_INSTANCE_NEW_DONE_ENABLED(void)

int PyDTrace_INSTANCE_DELETE_START_ENABLED(void)

int PyDTrace_INSTANCE_DELETE_DONE_ENABLED(void)

int PyDTrace_IMPORT_FIND_LOAD_START_ENABLED(void)

int PyDTrace_IMPORT_FIND_LOAD_DONE_ENABLED(void)

int PyDTrace_AUDIT_ENABLED(void)

All calls to PyDTrace functions must be guarded by a call to one of these functions. This allows Python to minimize performance impact when probing is disabled.

On builds without DTrace enabled, these functions do nothing and return 0.

Tapsets de SystemTap

La façon la plus simple d'utiliser l'intégration SystemTap est d'utiliser un « tapset ». L'équivalent pour SystemTap d'une bibliothèque, qui permet de masquer les détails de niveau inférieur des marqueurs statiques.

Voici un fichier tapset, basé sur une version non partagée compilée de CPython :

/*
   Provide a higher-level wrapping around the function__entry and
   function__return markers:
 \*/
probe python.function.entry = process("python").mark("function__entry")
{
    filename = user_string($arg1);
    funcname = user_string($arg2);
    lineno = $arg3;
    frameptr = $arg4
}
probe python.function.return = process("python").mark("function__return")
{
    filename = user_string($arg1);
    funcname = user_string($arg2);
    lineno = $arg3;
    frameptr = $arg4
}

Si ce fichier est installé dans le répertoire tapset de SystemTap (par exemple /usr/share/systemtap/tapset), alors ces sondes supplémentaires deviennent disponibles :

python.function.entry(str filename, str funcname, int lineno, frameptr)

Cette sonde indique que l'exécution d'une fonction Python a commencé. Elle n'est déclenchée que pour les fonctions en Python pur (code intermédiaire).

python.function.return(str filename, str funcname, int lineno, frameptr)

Cette sonde est l'inverse de python.function.return, et indique que l'exécution d'une fonction Python est terminée (soit via return, soit via une exception). Elle est uniquement déclenchée pour les fonctions en Python pur (code intermédiaire ou bytecode).

Exemples

Ce script SystemTap utilise le tapset ci-dessus pour implémenter plus proprement l'exemple précédent de traçage de la hiérarchie des appels de fonctions Python, sans avoir besoin de nommer directement les marqueurs statiques :

probe python.function.entry
{
  printf("%s => %s in %s:%d\n",
         thread_indent(1), funcname, filename, lineno);
}

probe python.function.return
{
  printf("%s <= %s in %s:%d\n",
         thread_indent(-1), funcname, filename, lineno);
}

The following script uses the tapset above to provide a top-like view of all running CPython code, showing the top 20 most frequently entered bytecode frames, each second, across the whole system:

global fn_calls;

probe python.function.entry
{
    fn_calls[pid(), filename, funcname, lineno] += 1;
}

probe timer.ms(1000) {
    printf("\033[2J\033[1;1H") /* clear screen \*/
    printf("%6s %80s %6s %30s %6s\n",
           "PID", "FILENAME", "LINE", "FUNCTION", "CALLS")
    foreach ([pid, filename, funcname, lineno] in fn_calls- limit 20) {
        printf("%6d %80s %6d %30s %6d\n",
            pid, filename, lineno, funcname,
            fn_calls[pid, filename, funcname, lineno]);
    }
    delete fn_calls;
}

Python support for the Linux perf profiler

auteur:

Pablo Galindo

The Linux perf profiler [https://perf.wiki.kernel.org] is a very powerful tool that allows you to profile and obtain information about the performance of your application. perf also has a very vibrant ecosystem of tools that aid with the analysis of the data that it produces.

The main problem with using the perf profiler with Python applications is that perf only gets information about native symbols, that is, the names of functions and procedures written in C. This means that the names and file names of Python functions in your code will not appear in the output of perf.

Since Python 3.12, the interpreter can run in a special mode that allows Python functions to appear in the output of the perf profiler. When this mode is enabled, the interpreter will interpose a small piece of code compiled on the fly before the execution of every Python function and it will teach perf the relationship between this piece of code and the associated Python function using perf map files.

Note

Support for the perf profiler is currently only available for Linux on select architectures. Check the output of the configure build step or check the output of python -m sysconfig | grep HAVE_PERF_TRAMPOLINE to see if your system is supported.

For example, consider the following script:

def foo(n):
    result = 0
    for _ in range(n):
        result += 1
    return result

def bar(n):
    foo(n)

def baz(n):
    bar(n)

if __name__ == "__main__":
    baz(1000000)

We can run perf to sample CPU stack traces at 9999 hertz:

$ perf record -F 9999 -g -o perf.data python my_script.py

Then we can use perf report to analyze the data:

$ perf report --stdio -n -g

# Children      Self       Samples  Command     Shared Object       Symbol
# ........  ........  ............  ..........  ..................  ..........................................
#
    91.08%     0.00%             0  python.exe  python.exe          [.] _start
            |
            ---_start
            |
                --90.71%--__libc_start_main
                        Py_BytesMain
                        |
                        |--56.88%--pymain_run_python.constprop.0
                        |          |
                        |          |--56.13%--_PyRun_AnyFileObject
                        |          |          _PyRun_SimpleFileObject
                        |          |          |
                        |          |          |--55.02%--run_mod
                        |          |          |          |
                        |          |          |           --54.65%--PyEval_EvalCode
                        |          |          |                     _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                        |          |          |                     PyObject_Vectorcall
                        |          |          |                     _PyEval_Vector
                        |          |          |                     _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                        |          |          |                     PyObject_Vectorcall
                        |          |          |                     _PyEval_Vector
                        |          |          |                     _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                        |          |          |                     PyObject_Vectorcall
                        |          |          |                     _PyEval_Vector
                        |          |          |                     |
                        |          |          |                     |--51.67%--_PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                        |          |          |                     |          |
                        |          |          |                     |          |--11.52%--_PyLong_Add
                        |          |          |                     |          |          |
                        |          |          |                     |          |          |--2.97%--_PyObject_Malloc
...

As you can see, the Python functions are not shown in the output, only _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault (the function that evaluates the Python bytecode) shows up. Unfortunately that's not very useful because all Python functions use the same C function to evaluate bytecode so we cannot know which Python function corresponds to which bytecode-evaluating function.

Instead, if we run the same experiment with perf support enabled we get:

$ perf report --stdio -n -g

# Children      Self       Samples  Command     Shared Object       Symbol
# ........  ........  ............  ..........  ..................  .....................................................................
#
    90.58%     0.36%             1  python.exe  python.exe          [.] _start
            |
            ---_start
            |
                --89.86%--__libc_start_main
                        Py_BytesMain
                        |
                        |--55.43%--pymain_run_python.constprop.0
                        |          |
                        |          |--54.71%--_PyRun_AnyFileObject
                        |          |          _PyRun_SimpleFileObject
                        |          |          |
                        |          |          |--53.62%--run_mod
                        |          |          |          |
                        |          |          |           --53.26%--PyEval_EvalCode
                        |          |          |                     py::<module>:/src/script.py
                        |          |          |                     _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                        |          |          |                     PyObject_Vectorcall
                        |          |          |                     _PyEval_Vector
                        |          |          |                     py::baz:/src/script.py
                        |          |          |                     _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                        |          |          |                     PyObject_Vectorcall
                        |          |          |                     _PyEval_Vector
                        |          |          |                     py::bar:/src/script.py
                        |          |          |                     _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                        |          |          |                     PyObject_Vectorcall
                        |          |          |                     _PyEval_Vector
                        |          |          |                     py::foo:/src/script.py
                        |          |          |                     |
                        |          |          |                     |--51.81%--_PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                        |          |          |                     |          |
                        |          |          |                     |          |--13.77%--_PyLong_Add
                        |          |          |                     |          |          |
                        |          |          |                     |          |          |--3.26%--_PyObject_Malloc

How to enable perf profiling support

perf profiling support can be enabled either from the start using the environment variable PYTHONPERFSUPPORT or the -X perf option, or dynamically using sys.activate_stack_trampoline() and sys.deactivate_stack_trampoline().

The sys functions take precedence over the -X option, the -X option takes precedence over the environment variable.

Example, using the environment variable:

$ PYTHONPERFSUPPORT=1 perf record -F 9999 -g -o perf.data python my_script.py
$ perf report -g -i perf.data

Example, using the -X option:

$ perf record -F 9999 -g -o perf.data python -X perf my_script.py
$ perf report -g -i perf.data

Example, using the sys APIs in file example.py:

import sys

sys.activate_stack_trampoline("perf")
do_profiled_stuff()
sys.deactivate_stack_trampoline()

non_profiled_stuff()

...then:

$ perf record -F 9999 -g -o perf.data python ./example.py
$ perf report -g -i perf.data

How to obtain the best results

For best results, Python should be compiled with CFLAGS="-fno-omit-frame-pointer -mno-omit-leaf-frame-pointer" as this allows profilers to unwind using only the frame pointer and not on DWARF debug information. This is because as the code that is interposed to allow perf support is dynamically generated it doesn't have any DWARF debugging information available.

You can check if your system has been compiled with this flag by running:

$ python -m sysconfig | grep 'no-omit-frame-pointer'

If you don't see any output it means that your interpreter has not been compiled with frame pointers and therefore it may not be able to show Python functions in the output of perf.

How to work without frame pointers

If you are working with a Python interpreter that has been compiled without frame pointers, you can still use the perf profiler, but the overhead will be a bit higher because Python needs to generate unwinding information for every Python function call on the fly. Additionally, perf will take more time to process the data because it will need to use the DWARF debugging information to unwind the stack and this is a slow process.

To enable this mode, you can use the environment variable PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT or the -X perf_jit option, which will enable the JIT mode for the perf profiler.

Note

Due to a bug in the perf tool, only perf versions higher than v6.8 will work with the JIT mode. The fix was also backported to the v6.7.2 version of the tool.

Note that when checking the version of the perf tool (which can be done by running perf version) you must take into account that some distros add some custom version numbers including a - character. This means that perf 6.7-3 is not necessarily perf 6.7.3.

When using the perf JIT mode, you need an extra step before you can run perf report. You need to call the perf inject command to inject the JIT information into the perf.data file.:

$ perf record -F 9999 -g -k 1 --call-graph dwarf -o perf.data python -Xperf_jit my_script.py
$ perf inject -i perf.data --jit --output perf.jit.data
$ perf report -g -i perf.jit.data

or using the environment variable:

$ PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT=1 perf record -F 9999 -g --call-graph dwarf -o perf.data python my_script.py
$ perf inject -i perf.data --jit --output perf.jit.data
$ perf report -g -i perf.jit.data

perf inject --jit command will read perf.data, automatically pick up the perf dump file that Python creates (in /tmp/perf-$PID.dump), and then create perf.jit.data which merges all the JIT information together. It should also create a lot of jitted-XXXX-N.so files in the current directory which are ELF images for all the JIT trampolines that were created by Python.

Avertissement

When using --call-graph dwarf, the perf tool will take snapshots of the stack of the process being profiled and save the information in the perf.data file. By default, the size of the stack dump is 8192 bytes, but you can change the size by passing it after a comma like --call-graph dwarf,16384.

The size of the stack dump is important because if the size is too small perf will not be able to unwind the stack and the output will be incomplete. On the other hand, if the size is too big, then perf won't be able to sample the process as frequently as it would like as the overhead will be higher.

The stack size is particularly important when profiling Python code compiled with low optimization levels (like -O0), as these builds tend to have larger stack frames. If you are compiling Python with -O0 and not seeing Python functions in your profiling output, try increasing the stack dump size to 65528 bytes (the maximum):

$ perf record -F 9999 -g -k 1 --call-graph dwarf,65528 -o perf.data python -Xperf_jit my_script.py

Different compilation flags can significantly impact stack sizes:

Builds with -O0 typically have much larger stack frames than those with -O1 or higher

Adding optimizations (-O1, -O2, etc.) typically reduces stack size

Frame pointers (-fno-omit-frame-pointer) generally provide more reliable stack unwinding

Bonnes pratiques concernant les annotations

auteur:

Larry Hastings

Résumé

Ce document a pour but de regrouper les bonnes pratiques de travail avec le dictionnaire d'annotations. Si vous écrivez du code Python qui examine les __annotations__ des objets, nous vous encourageons à suivre les recommandations décrites dans la suite.

Ce document est organisé en quatre sections : bonnes pratiques pour accéder aux annotations d'un objet en Python 3.10 et plus récent, bonnes pratiques pour accéder aux annotations d'un objet en Python 3.9 et antérieur, autres bonnes pratiques pour __annotations__ à appliquer quelle que soit la version de Python, et enfin les curiosités concernant __annotations__.

Notez que ce document traite spécifiquement du traitement des __annotations__, et non de l'utilisation des annotations. Si vous cherchez des informations sur la façon d'utiliser les « indications de type » dans votre code, veuillez consulter le module typing.

Accès au dictionnaire des annotations d'un objet dans Python 3.10 et plus récent

Python 3.10 adds a new function to the standard library: inspect.get_annotations(). In Python versions 3.10 through 3.13, calling this function is the best practice for accessing the annotations dict of any object that supports annotations. This function can also "un-stringize" stringized annotations for you.

In Python 3.14, there is a new annotationlib module with functionality for working with annotations. This includes a annotationlib.get_annotations() function, which supersedes inspect.get_annotations().

Si pour une raison quelconque, inspect.get_annotations() n'est pas viable pour votre cas d'utilisation, vous pouvez accéder à l'attribut de données __annotations__ manuellement. La bonne pratique pour cela a également changé en Python 3.10 : à partir de Python 3.10, le fonctionnement de o.__annotations__ est toujours garanti sur les fonctions, classes et modules Python. Si vous êtes certain que l'objet que vous examinez est l'un de ces trois objets spécifiques, vous pouvez simplement utiliser o.__annotations__ pour accéder au dictionnaire d'annotations de l'objet.

Cependant, d'autres types d'objets appelables – par exemple, les objets appelables créés par functools.partial() – peuvent ne pas avoir d'attribut __annotations__ défini. Pour accéder à l'attribut __annotations__ d'un objet éventuellement inconnu, la meilleure pratique, à partir de la version 3.10 de Python, est d'appeler getattr() avec trois arguments, par exemple getattr(o, '__annotations__', None).

Dans les versions antérieures à Python 3.10, l'accès aux __annotations__ d'une classe qui n'a pas d'annotation mais dont un parent de cette classe en a, aurait renvoyé les __annotations__ de la classe parent. Dans les versions 3.10 et plus récentes, le résultat d'annotations de la classe enfant est un dictionnaire vide.

Accès au dictionnaire des annotations d'un objet en Python 3.9 et antérieur

En Python 3.9 et antérieur, l'accès au dictionnaire des annotations d'un objet est beaucoup plus compliqué que dans les versions plus récentes. Le problème est dû à un défaut de conception de ces anciennes versions de Python, notamment en ce qui concerne les annotations de classe.

La bonne pratique pour accéder au dictionnaire d'annotations d'autres objets – fonctions, autres objets appelables et modules – est la même que pour la 3.10, en supposant que vous n'appelez pas inspect.get_annotations() : vous devez utiliser la forme à trois arguments de getattr() pour accéder à l'attribut __annotations__ de l'objet.

Malheureusement, ce n'est pas la bonne pratique pour les classes. Le problème est que, puisque __annotations__ est optionnel sur les classes et que les classes peuvent hériter des attributs de leurs classes de base, accéder à l'attribut __annotations__ d'une classe peut par inadvertance renvoyer le dictionnaire d'annotations d'une classe de base. Par exemple :

class Base:
    a: int = 3
    b: str = 'abc'

class Derived(Base):
    pass

print(Derived.__annotations__)

Ceci affiche le dictionnaire d'annotations de Base, pas de Derived.

Your code will have to have a separate code path if the object you're examining is a class (isinstance(o, type)). In that case, best practice relies on an implementation detail of Python 3.9 and before: if a class has annotations defined, they are stored in the class's __dict__ dictionary. Since the class may or may not have annotations defined, best practice is to call the get() method on the class dict.

Pour résumer, voici un exemple de code qui accède en toute sécurité à l'attribut __annotations__ d'un objet quelconque en Python 3.9 et antérieur :

if isinstance(o, type):
    ann = o.__dict__.get('__annotations__', None)
else:
    ann = getattr(o, '__annotations__', None)

Après avoir exécuté ce code, ann pourra être soit un dictionnaire, soit None. Nous vous conseillons de vérifier le type de ann en utilisant isinstance() avant de poursuivre l'analyse.

Note that some exotic or malformed type objects may not have a __dict__ attribute, so for extra safety you may also wish to use getattr() to access __dict__.

Conversion manuelle des annotations contenues dans une chaîne de caractères

Dans les situations où certaines annotations peuvent se présenter sous forme de chaînes de caractères brutes, et que vous souhaitez évaluer ces chaînes pour trouver les valeurs Python qu'elles représentent, il est vraiment préférable d'appeler inspect.get_annotations() pour faire ce travail à votre place.

Si vous utilisez Python 3.9 ou antérieur ou, si pour une raison quelconque, vous ne pouvez pas utiliser inspect.get_annotations(), vous devrez dupliquer son principe de fonctionnement. Nous vous encourageons à examiner l'implémentation de inspect.get_annotations() dans la version actuelle de Python et à suivre une approche similaire.

En bref, si vous souhaitez évaluer une annotation empaquetée en chaîne de caractères sur un objet arbitraire o :

Si o est un module, utilisez o.__dict__ pour accéder aux noms globals lors de l'appel à eval().

Si o est une classe, utilisez sys.modules[o.__module__].__dict__ pour désigner les noms globals, et dict(vars(o)) pour désigner les locals, lorsque vous appelez eval().

Si o est un appelable encapsulé à l'aide de functools.update_wrapper(), functools.wraps(), ou functools.partial(), dés-encapsulez-le itérativement en accédant à o.__wrapped__ ou o.func selon le cas, jusqu'à ce que vous ayez trouvé la fonction racine.

If o is a callable (but not a class), use o.__globals__ as the globals when calling eval().

Cependant, toutes les valeurs de chaîne utilisées comme annotations ne peuvent pas être transformées avec succès en valeurs Python par eval(). Les valeurs de chaîne peuvent théoriquement contenir des chaînes valides et, en pratique, il existe des cas d'utilisation valables pour les indications de type qui nécessitent d'annoter avec des valeurs de chaîne qui ne peuvent pas être évaluées. Par exemple :

Les types d'union de style PEP 604 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0604/] avec |, avant que cette prise en charge ne soit ajoutée à Python 3.10.

Les définitions qui ne sont pas nécessaires à l'exécution, importées uniquement lorsque typing.TYPE_CHECKING est vrai.

Si eval() tente d'évaluer de telles valeurs, elle échoue et lève une exception. Ainsi, lors de la conception d'une API de bibliothèque fonctionnant avec des annotations, il est recommandé de ne tenter d'évaluer des valeurs de type chaîne que si l'appelant le demande explicitement.

Bonnes pratiques pour __annotations__ dans toutes les versions de Python

Évitez d'assigner directement des objets à l'élément __annotations__. Laissez Python gérer le paramétrage de __annotations__.

Si vous assignez directement à l'élément __annotations__ d'un objet, vous devez toujours le définir comme un dict.

You should avoid accessing __annotations__ directly on any object. Instead, use annotationlib.get_annotations() (Python 3.14+) or inspect.get_annotations() (Python 3.10+).

If you do directly access the __annotations__ member of an object, you should ensure that it's a dictionary before attempting to examine its contents.

Évitez de modifier les dictionnaires __annotations__.

Évitez de supprimer l'attribut __annotations__ d'un objet.

Les curiosités concernant __annotations__

Dans toutes les versions de Python 3, les fonctions créent paresseusement un dictionnaire d'annotations si aucune annotation n'est définie sur cet objet. Vous pouvez supprimer l'attribut __annotations__ en utilisant del fn.__annotations__, mais si vous accédez ensuite à fn.__annotations__, l'objet créera un nouveau dictionnaire vide qu'il stockera et renverra quand on lui demande ses annotations. Si vous supprimez les annotations d'une fonction avant qu'elle n'ait créé paresseusement son dictionnaire d'annotations, vous obtiendrez une exception AttributeError ; si vous utilisez del fn.__annotations__ deux fois de suite, vous êtes sûr de toujours obtenir AttributeError.

Tout ce qui est dit dans le paragraphe précédent s'applique également aux objets de type classe et module en Python 3.10 et suivants.

Dans toutes les versions de Python 3, vous pouvez définir à None l'élément __annotations__ sur un objet fonction. Cependant, si vous accédez ensuite aux annotations de cet objet en utilisant fn.__annotations__, un dictionnaire vide sera créé paresseusement, comme indiqué dans le premier paragraphe de cette section. Ce n'est pas le cas des modules et des classes, quelle que soit la version de Python ; ces objets permettent de définir __annotations__ à n'importe quelle valeur Python, et conserveront la valeur définie.

Si Python convertit vos annotations en chaînes de caractères (en utilisant from __future__ import annotations), et que vous spécifiez une chaîne de caractères comme annotation, la chaîne sera elle-même entre guillemets. En fait, l'annotation est mise entre guillemets deux fois. Par exemple :

from __future__ import annotations
def foo(a: "str"): pass

print(foo.__annotations__)

Ceci renvoie : {'a': "'str'"}. Cela ne devrait pas vraiment être considéré comme une « bizarrerie » ; nous le mentionnons ici simplement parce que cela peut être surprenant.

If you use a class with a custom metaclass and access __annotations__ on the class, you may observe unexpected behavior; see 749 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0749/#pep749-metaclasses] for some examples. You can avoid these quirks by using annotationlib.get_annotations() on Python 3.14+ or inspect.get_annotations() on Python 3.10+. On earlier versions of Python, you can avoid these bugs by accessing the annotations from the class's __dict__ (for example, cls.__dict__.get('__annotations__', None)).

In some versions of Python, instances of classes may have an __annotations__ attribute. However, this is not supported functionality. If you need the annotations of an instance, you can use type() to access its class (for example, annotationlib.get_annotations(type(myinstance)) on Python 3.14+).

Isolating Extension Modules

Résumé

Traditionally, state belonging to Python extension modules was kept in C static variables, which have process-wide scope. This document describes problems of such per-process state and shows a safer way: per-module state.

The document also describes how to switch to per-module state where possible. This transition involves allocating space for that state, potentially switching from static types to heap types, and—perhaps most importantly—accessing per-module state from code.

Who should read this

This guide is written for maintainers of C-API extensions who would like to make that extension safer to use in applications where Python itself is used as a library.

Background

An interpreter is the context in which Python code runs. It contains configuration (e.g. the import path) and runtime state (e.g. the set of imported modules).

Python supports running multiple interpreters in one process. There are two cases to think about—users may run interpreters:

in sequence, with several Py_InitializeEx()/Py_FinalizeEx() cycles, and

in parallel, managing "sub-interpreters" using Py_NewInterpreter()/Py_EndInterpreter().

Both cases (and combinations of them) would be most useful when embedding Python within a library. Libraries generally shouldn't make assumptions about the application that uses them, which include assuming a process-wide "main Python interpreter".

Historically, Python extension modules don't handle this use case well. Many extension modules (and even some stdlib modules) use per-process global state, because C static variables are extremely easy to use. Thus, data that should be specific to an interpreter ends up being shared between interpreters. Unless the extension developer is careful, it is very easy to introduce edge cases that lead to crashes when a module is loaded in more than one interpreter in the same process.

Unfortunately, per-interpreter state is not easy to achieve. Extension authors tend to not keep multiple interpreters in mind when developing, and it is currently cumbersome to test the behavior.

Enter Per-Module State

Instead of focusing on per-interpreter state, Python's C API is evolving to better support the more granular per-module state. This means that C-level data should be attached to a module object. Each interpreter creates its own module object, keeping the data separate. For testing the isolation, multiple module objects corresponding to a single extension can even be loaded in a single interpreter.

Per-module state provides an easy way to think about lifetime and resource ownership: the extension module will initialize when a module object is created, and clean up when it's freed. In this regard, a module is just like any other PyObject*; there are no "on interpreter shutdown" hooks to think—or forget—about.

Note that there are use cases for different kinds of "globals": per-process, per-interpreter, per-thread or per-task state. With per-module state as the default, these are still possible, but you should treat them as exceptional cases: if you need them, you should give them additional care and testing. (Note that this guide does not cover them.)

Isolated Module Objects

The key point to keep in mind when developing an extension module is that several module objects can be created from a single shared library. For example:

>>> import sys
>>> import binascii
>>> old_binascii = binascii
>>> del sys.modules['binascii']
>>> import binascii  # create a new module object
>>> old_binascii == binascii
False

As a rule of thumb, the two modules should be completely independent. All objects and state specific to the module should be encapsulated within the module object, not shared with other module objects, and cleaned up when the module object is deallocated. Since this just is a rule of thumb, exceptions are possible (see Managing Global State), but they will need more thought and attention to edge cases.

While some modules could do with less stringent restrictions, isolated modules make it easier to set clear expectations and guidelines that work across a variety of use cases.

Surprising Edge Cases

Note that isolated modules do create some surprising edge cases. Most notably, each module object will typically not share its classes and exceptions with other similar modules. Continuing from the example above, note that old_binascii.Error and binascii.Error are separate objects. In the following code, the exception is not caught:

>>> old_binascii.Error == binascii.Error
False
>>> try:
...     old_binascii.unhexlify(b'qwertyuiop')
... except binascii.Error:
...     print('boo')
...
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
binascii.Error: Non-hexadecimal digit found

This is expected. Notice that pure-Python modules behave the same way: it is a part of how Python works.

The goal is to make extension modules safe at the C level, not to make hacks behave intuitively. Mutating sys.modules "manually" counts as a hack.

Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters

Managing Global State

Sometimes, the state associated with a Python module is not specific to that module, but to the entire process (or something else "more global" than a module). For example:

The readline module manages the terminal.

A module running on a circuit board wants to control the on-board LED.

In these cases, the Python module should provide access to the global state, rather than own it. If possible, write the module so that multiple copies of it can access the state independently (along with other libraries, whether for Python or other languages). If that is not possible, consider explicit locking.

If it is necessary to use process-global state, the simplest way to avoid issues with multiple interpreters is to explicitly prevent a module from being loaded more than once per process—see Opt-Out: Limiting to One Module Object per Process.

Managing Per-Module State

To use per-module state, use multi-phase extension module initialization. This signals that your module supports multiple interpreters correctly.

Set PyModuleDef.m_size to a positive number to request that many bytes of storage local to the module. Usually, this will be set to the size of some module-specific struct, which can store all of the module's C-level state. In particular, it is where you should put pointers to classes (including exceptions, but excluding static types) and settings (e.g. csv's field_size_limit) which the C code needs to function.

Note

Another option is to store state in the module's __dict__, but you must avoid crashing when users modify __dict__ from Python code. This usually means error- and type-checking at the C level, which is easy to get wrong and hard to test sufficiently.

However, if module state is not needed in C code, storing it in __dict__ only is a good idea.

If the module state includes PyObject pointers, the module object must hold references to those objects and implement the module-level hooks m_traverse, m_clear and m_free. These work like tp_traverse, tp_clear and tp_free of a class. Adding them will require some work and make the code longer; this is the price for modules which can be unloaded cleanly.

An example of a module with per-module state is currently available as xxlimited [https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/master/Modules/xxlimited.c]; example module initialization shown at the bottom of the file.

Opt-Out: Limiting to One Module Object per Process

A non-negative PyModuleDef.m_size signals that a module supports multiple interpreters correctly. If this is not yet the case for your module, you can explicitly make your module loadable only once per process. For example:

// A process-wide flag
static int loaded = 0;

// Mutex to provide thread safety (only needed for free-threaded Python)
static PyMutex modinit_mutex = {0};

static int
exec_module(PyObject* module)
{
    PyMutex_Lock(&modinit_mutex);
    if (loaded) {
        PyMutex_Unlock(&modinit_mutex);
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_ImportError,
                        "cannot load module more than once per process");
        return -1;
    }
    loaded = 1;
    PyMutex_Unlock(&modinit_mutex);
    // ... rest of initialization
}

If your module's PyModuleDef.m_clear function is able to prepare for future re-initialization, it should clear the loaded flag. In this case, your module won't support multiple instances existing concurrently, but it will, for example, support being loaded after Python runtime shutdown (Py_FinalizeEx()) and re-initialization (Py_Initialize()).

Module State Access from Functions

Accessing the state from module-level functions is straightforward. Functions get the module object as their first argument; for extracting the state, you can use PyModule_GetState:

static PyObject *
func(PyObject *module, PyObject *args)
{
    my_struct *state = (my_struct*)PyModule_GetState(module);
    if (state == NULL) {
        return NULL;
    }
    // ... rest of logic
}

Note

PyModule_GetState may return NULL without setting an exception if there is no module state, i.e. PyModuleDef.m_size was zero. In your own module, you're in control of m_size, so this is easy to prevent.

Heap Types

Traditionally, types defined in C code are static; that is, static PyTypeObject structures defined directly in code and initialized using PyType_Ready().

Such types are necessarily shared across the process. Sharing them between module objects requires paying attention to any state they own or access. To limit the possible issues, static types are immutable at the Python level: for example, you can't set str.myattribute = 123.

Particularité de l'implémentation CPython : Sharing truly immutable objects between interpreters is fine, as long as they don't provide access to mutable objects. However, in CPython, every Python object has a mutable implementation detail: the reference count. Changes to the refcount are guarded by the GIL. Thus, code that shares any Python objects across interpreters implicitly depends on CPython's current, process-wide GIL.

Because they are immutable and process-global, static types cannot access "their" module state. If any method of such a type requires access to module state, the type must be converted to a heap-allocated type, or heap type for short. These correspond more closely to classes created by Python's class statement.

For new modules, using heap types by default is a good rule of thumb.

Changing Static Types to Heap Types

Static types can be converted to heap types, but note that the heap type API was not designed for "lossless" conversion from static types—that is, creating a type that works exactly like a given static type. So, when rewriting the class definition in a new API, you are likely to unintentionally change a few details (e.g. pickleability or inherited slots). Always test the details that are important to you.

Watch out for the following two points in particular (but note that this is not a comprehensive list):

Unlike static types, heap type objects are mutable by default. Use the Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE flag to prevent mutability.

Heap types inherit tp_new by default, so it may become possible to instantiate them from Python code. You can prevent this with the Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION flag.

Defining Heap Types

Heap types can be created by filling a PyType_Spec structure, a description or "blueprint" of a class, and calling PyType_FromModuleAndSpec() to construct a new class object.

Note

Other functions, like PyType_FromSpec(), can also create heap types, but PyType_FromModuleAndSpec() associates the module with the class, allowing access to the module state from methods.

The class should generally be stored in both the module state (for safe access from C) and the module's __dict__ (for access from Python code).

Garbage-Collection Protocol

Instances of heap types hold a reference to their type. This ensures that the type isn't destroyed before all its instances are, but may result in reference cycles that need to be broken by the garbage collector.

To avoid memory leaks, instances of heap types must implement the garbage collection protocol. That is, heap types should:

Have the Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC flag.

Define a traverse function using Py_tp_traverse, which visits the type (e.g. using Py_VISIT(Py_TYPE(self))).

Please refer to the documentation of Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC and tp_traverse for additional considerations.

The API for defining heap types grew organically, leaving it somewhat awkward to use in its current state. The following sections will guide you through common issues.

tp_traverse in Python 3.8 and lower

The requirement to visit the type from tp_traverse was added in Python 3.9. If you support Python 3.8 and lower, the traverse function must not visit the type, so it must be more complicated:

static int my_traverse(PyObject *self, visitproc visit, void *arg)
{
    if (Py_Version >= 0x03090000) {
        Py_VISIT(Py_TYPE(self));
    }
    return 0;
}

Unfortunately, Py_Version was only added in Python 3.11. As a replacement, use:

PY_VERSION_HEX, if not using the stable ABI, or

sys.version_info (via PySys_GetObject() and PyArg_ParseTuple()).

Delegating tp_traverse

If your traverse function delegates to the tp_traverse of its base class (or another type), ensure that Py_TYPE(self) is visited only once. Note that only heap type are expected to visit the type in tp_traverse.

For example, if your traverse function includes:

base->tp_traverse(self, visit, arg)

...and base may be a static type, then it should also include:

if (base->tp_flags & Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE) {
    // a heap type's tp_traverse already visited Py_TYPE(self)
} else {
    if (Py_Version >= 0x03090000) {
        Py_VISIT(Py_TYPE(self));
    }
}

It is not necessary to handle the type's reference count in tp_new and tp_clear.

Defining tp_dealloc

If your type has a custom tp_dealloc function, it needs to:

call PyObject_GC_UnTrack() before any fields are invalidated, and

decrement the reference count of the type.

To keep the type valid while tp_free is called, the type's refcount needs to be decremented after the instance is deallocated. For example:

static void my_dealloc(PyObject *self)
{
    PyObject_GC_UnTrack(self);
    ...
    PyTypeObject *type = Py_TYPE(self);
    type->tp_free(self);
    Py_DECREF(type);
}

The default tp_dealloc function does this, so if your type does not override tp_dealloc you don't need to add it.

Not overriding tp_free

The tp_free slot of a heap type must be set to PyObject_GC_Del(). This is the default; do not override it.

Avoiding PyObject_New

GC-tracked objects need to be allocated using GC-aware functions.

If you use PyObject_New() or PyObject_NewVar():

Get and call type's tp_alloc slot, if possible. That is, replace TYPE *o = PyObject_New(TYPE, typeobj) with:

TYPE *o = typeobj->tp_alloc(typeobj, 0);

Replace o = PyObject_NewVar(TYPE, typeobj, size) with the same, but use size instead of the 0.

If the above is not possible (e.g. inside a custom tp_alloc), call PyObject_GC_New() or PyObject_GC_NewVar():

TYPE *o = PyObject_GC_New(TYPE, typeobj);

TYPE *o = PyObject_GC_NewVar(TYPE, typeobj, size);

Module State Access from Classes

If you have a type object defined with PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(), you can call PyType_GetModule() to get the associated module, and then PyModule_GetState() to get the module's state.

To save a some tedious error-handling boilerplate code, you can combine these two steps with PyType_GetModuleState(), resulting in:

my_struct *state = (my_struct*)PyType_GetModuleState(type);
if (state == NULL) {
    return NULL;
}

Module State Access from Regular Methods

Accessing the module-level state from methods of a class is somewhat more complicated, but is possible thanks to API introduced in Python 3.9. To get the state, you need to first get the defining class, and then get the module state from it.

The largest roadblock is getting the class a method was defined in, or that method's "defining class" for short. The defining class can have a reference to the module it is part of.

Do not confuse the defining class with Py_TYPE(self). If the method is called on a subclass of your type, Py_TYPE(self) will refer to that subclass, which may be defined in different module than yours.

Note

The following Python code can illustrate the concept. Base.get_defining_class returns Base even if type(self) == Sub:

class Base:
    def get_type_of_self(self):
        return type(self)

    def get_defining_class(self):
        return __class__

class Sub(Base):
    pass

For a method to get its "defining class", it must use the METH_METHOD | METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS calling convention and the corresponding PyCMethod signature:

PyObject *PyCMethod(
    PyObject *self,               // object the method was called on
    PyTypeObject *defining_class, // defining class
    PyObject *const *args,        // C array of arguments
    Py_ssize_t nargs,             // length of "args"
    PyObject *kwnames)            // NULL, or dict of keyword arguments

Once you have the defining class, call PyType_GetModuleState() to get the state of its associated module.

Par exemple :

static PyObject *
example_method(PyObject *self,
        PyTypeObject *defining_class,
        PyObject *const *args,
        Py_ssize_t nargs,
        PyObject *kwnames)
{
    my_struct *state = (my_struct*)PyType_GetModuleState(defining_class);
    if (state == NULL) {
        return NULL;
    }
    ... // rest of logic
}

PyDoc_STRVAR(example_method_doc, "...");

static PyMethodDef my_methods[] = {
    {"example_method",
      (PyCFunction)(void(*)(void))example_method,
      METH_METHOD|METH_FASTCALL|METH_KEYWORDS,
      example_method_doc}
    {NULL},
}

Module State Access from Slot Methods, Getters and Setters

Note

This is new in Python 3.11.

Slot methods—the fast C equivalents for special methods, such as nb_add for __add__ or tp_new for initialization—have a very simple API that doesn't allow passing in the defining class, unlike with PyCMethod. The same goes for getters and setters defined with PyGetSetDef.

To access the module state in these cases, use the PyType_GetModuleByDef() function, and pass in the module definition. Once you have the module, call PyModule_GetState() to get the state:

PyObject *module = PyType_GetModuleByDef(Py_TYPE(self), &module_def);
my_struct *state = (my_struct*)PyModule_GetState(module);
if (state == NULL) {
    return NULL;
}

PyType_GetModuleByDef() works by searching the method resolution order (i.e. all superclasses) for the first superclass that has a corresponding module.

Note

In very exotic cases (inheritance chains spanning multiple modules created from the same definition), PyType_GetModuleByDef() might not return the module of the true defining class. However, it will always return a module with the same definition, ensuring a compatible C memory layout.

Lifetime of the Module State

When a module object is garbage-collected, its module state is freed. For each pointer to (a part of) the module state, you must hold a reference to the module object.

Usually this is not an issue, because types created with PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(), and their instances, hold a reference to the module. However, you must be careful in reference counting when you reference module state from other places, such as callbacks for external libraries.

Open Issues

Several issues around per-module state and heap types are still open.

Discussions about improving the situation are best held on the discuss forum under c-api tag [https://discuss.python.org/c/core-dev/c-api/30].

Per-Class Scope

It is currently (as of Python 3.11) not possible to attach state to individual types without relying on CPython implementation details (which may change in the future—perhaps, ironically, to allow a proper solution for per-class scope).

Lossless Conversion to Heap Types

The heap type API was not designed for "lossless" conversion from static types; that is, creating a type that works exactly like a given static type.

timer file descriptor HOWTO

Version:

1.13

This HOWTO discusses Python's support for the linux timer file descriptor.

Exemples

The following example shows how to use a timer file descriptor to execute a function twice a second:

# Practical scripts should use really use a non-blocking timer,
# we use a blocking timer here for simplicity.
import os, time

# Create the timer file descriptor
fd = os.timerfd_create(time.CLOCK_REALTIME)

# Start the timer in 1 second, with an interval of half a second
os.timerfd_settime(fd, initial=1, interval=0.5)

try:
    # Process timer events four times.
    for _ in range(4):
        # read() will block until the timer expires
        _ = os.read(fd, 8)
        print("Timer expired")
finally:
    # Remember to close the timer file descriptor!
    os.close(fd)

To avoid the precision loss caused by the float type, timer file descriptors allow specifying initial expiration and interval in integer nanoseconds with _ns variants of the functions.

This example shows how epoll() can be used with timer file descriptors to wait until the file descriptor is ready for reading:

import os, time, select, socket, sys

# Create an epoll object
ep = select.epoll()

# In this example, use loopback address to send "stop" command to the server.
#
# $ telnet 127.0.0.1 1234
# Trying 127.0.0.1...
# Connected to 127.0.0.1.
# Escape character is '^]'.
# stop
# Connection closed by foreign host.
#
sock = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
sock.bind(("127.0.0.1", 1234))
sock.setblocking(False)
sock.listen(1)
ep.register(sock, select.EPOLLIN)

# Create timer file descriptors in non-blocking mode.
num = 3
fds = []
for _ in range(num):
    fd = os.timerfd_create(time.CLOCK_REALTIME, flags=os.TFD_NONBLOCK)
    fds.append(fd)
    # Register the timer file descriptor for read events
    ep.register(fd, select.EPOLLIN)

# Start the timer with os.timerfd_settime_ns() in nanoseconds.
# Timer 1 fires every 0.25 seconds; timer 2 every 0.5 seconds; etc
for i, fd in enumerate(fds, start=1):
    one_sec_in_nsec = 10**9
    i = i * one_sec_in_nsec
    os.timerfd_settime_ns(fd, initial=i//4, interval=i//4)

timeout = 3
try:
    conn = None
    is_active = True
    while is_active:
        # Wait for the timer to expire for 3 seconds.
        # epoll.poll() returns a list of (fd, event) pairs.
        # fd is a file descriptor.
        # sock and conn[=returned value of socket.accept()] are socket objects, not file descriptors.
        # So use sock.fileno() and conn.fileno() to get the file descriptors.
        events = ep.poll(timeout)

        # If more than one timer file descriptors are ready for reading at once,
        # epoll.poll() returns a list of (fd, event) pairs.
        #
        # In this example settings,
        #    1st timer fires every 0.25 seconds in 0.25 seconds. (0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1.0, ...)
        #    2nd timer every 0.5 seconds in 0.5 seconds. (0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, ...)
        #    3rd timer every 0.75 seconds in 0.75 seconds. (0.75, 1.5, 2.25, 3.0, ...)
        #
        #    In 0.25 seconds, only 1st timer fires.
        #    In 0.5 seconds, 1st timer and 2nd timer fires at once.
        #    In 0.75 seconds, 1st timer and 3rd timer fires at once.
        #    In 1.5 seconds, 1st timer, 2nd timer and 3rd timer fires at once.
        #
        # If a timer file descriptor is signaled more than once since
        # the last os.read() call, os.read() returns the number of signaled
        # as host order of class bytes.
        print(f"Signaled events={events}")
        for fd, event in events:
            if event & select.EPOLLIN:
                if fd == sock.fileno():
                    # Check if there is a connection request.
                    print(f"Accepting connection {fd}")
                    conn, addr = sock.accept()
                    conn.setblocking(False)
                    print(f"Accepted connection {conn} from {addr}")
                    ep.register(conn, select.EPOLLIN)
                elif conn and fd == conn.fileno():
                    # Check if there is data to read.
                    print(f"Reading data {fd}")
                    data = conn.recv(1024)
                    if data:
                        # You should catch UnicodeDecodeError exception for safety.
                        cmd = data.decode()
                        if cmd.startswith("stop"):
                            print(f"Stopping server")
                            is_active = False
                        else:
                            print(f"Unknown command: {cmd}")
                    else:
                        # No more data, close connection
                        print(f"Closing connection {fd}")
                        ep.unregister(conn)
                        conn.close()
                        conn = None
                elif fd in fds:
                    print(f"Reading timer {fd}")
                    count = int.from_bytes(os.read(fd, 8), byteorder=sys.byteorder)
                    print(f"Timer {fds.index(fd) + 1} expired {count} times")
                else:
                    print(f"Unknown file descriptor {fd}")
finally:
    for fd in fds:
        ep.unregister(fd)
        os.close(fd)
    ep.close()

This example shows how select() can be used with timer file descriptors to wait until the file descriptor is ready for reading:

import os, time, select, socket, sys

# In this example, use loopback address to send "stop" command to the server.
#
# $ telnet 127.0.0.1 1234
# Trying 127.0.0.1...
# Connected to 127.0.0.1.
# Escape character is '^]'.
# stop
# Connection closed by foreign host.
#
sock = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
sock.bind(("127.0.0.1", 1234))
sock.setblocking(False)
sock.listen(1)

# Create timer file descriptors in non-blocking mode.
num = 3
fds = [os.timerfd_create(time.CLOCK_REALTIME, flags=os.TFD_NONBLOCK)
       for _ in range(num)]
select_fds = fds + [sock]

# Start the timers with os.timerfd_settime() in seconds.
# Timer 1 fires every 0.25 seconds; timer 2 every 0.5 seconds; etc
for i, fd in enumerate(fds, start=1):
   os.timerfd_settime(fd, initial=i/4, interval=i/4)

timeout = 3
try:
    conn = None
    is_active = True
    while is_active:
       # Wait for the timer to expire for 3 seconds.
       # select.select() returns a list of file descriptors or objects.
       rfd, wfd, xfd = select.select(select_fds, select_fds, select_fds, timeout)
       for fd in rfd:
           if fd == sock:
               # Check if there is a connection request.
               print(f"Accepting connection {fd}")
               conn, addr = sock.accept()
               conn.setblocking(False)
               print(f"Accepted connection {conn} from {addr}")
               select_fds.append(conn)
           elif conn and fd == conn:
               # Check if there is data to read.
               print(f"Reading data {fd}")
               data = conn.recv(1024)
               if data:
                   # You should catch UnicodeDecodeError exception for safety.
                   cmd = data.decode()
                   if cmd.startswith("stop"):
                       print(f"Stopping server")
                       is_active = False
                   else:
                       print(f"Unknown command: {cmd}")
               else:
                   # No more data, close connection
                   print(f"Closing connection {fd}")
                   select_fds.remove(conn)
                   conn.close()
                   conn = None
           elif fd in fds:
               print(f"Reading timer {fd}")
               count = int.from_bytes(os.read(fd, 8), byteorder=sys.byteorder)
               print(f"Timer {fds.index(fd) + 1} expired {count} times")
           else:
               print(f"Unknown file descriptor {fd}")
finally:
    for fd in fds:
       os.close(fd)
    sock.close()
    sock = None

The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order

Note

This is a historical document, provided as an appendix to the official documentation. The Method Resolution Order discussed here was introduced in Python 2.3, but it is still used in later versions -- including Python 3.

By Michele Simionato [https://www.phyast.pitt.edu/~micheles/].

Résumé:

This document is intended for Python programmers who want to understand the C3 Method Resolution Order used in Python 2.3. Although it is not intended for newbies, it is quite pedagogical with many worked out examples. I am not aware of other publicly available documents with the same scope, therefore it should be useful.

Disclaimer:

I donate this document to the Python Software Foundation, under the Python 2.3 license. As usual in these circumstances, I warn the reader that what follows should be correct, but I don't give any warranty. Use it at your own risk and peril!

Acknowledgments:

All the people of the Python mailing list who sent me their support. Paul Foley who pointed out various imprecisions and made me to add the part on local precedence ordering. David Goodger for help with the formatting in reStructuredText. David Mertz for help with the editing. Finally, Guido van Rossum who enthusiastically added this document to the official Python 2.3 home-page.

The beginning

Felix qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas -- Virgilius

Everything started with a post by Samuele Pedroni to the Python development mailing list [1]. In his post, Samuele showed that the Python 2.2 method resolution order is not monotonic and he proposed to replace it with the C3 method resolution order. Guido agreed with his arguments and therefore now Python 2.3 uses C3. The C3 method itself has nothing to do with Python, since it was invented by people working on Dylan and it is described in a paper intended for lispers [2]. The present paper gives a (hopefully) readable discussion of the C3 algorithm for Pythonistas who want to understand the reasons for the change.

First of all, let me point out that what I am going to say only applies to the new style classes introduced in Python 2.2: classic classes maintain their old method resolution order, depth first and then left to right. Therefore, there is no breaking of old code for classic classes; and even if in principle there could be breaking of code for Python 2.2 new style classes, in practice the cases in which the C3 resolution order differs from the Python 2.2 method resolution order are so rare that no real breaking of code is expected. Therefore:

Don't be scared!

Moreover, unless you make strong use of multiple inheritance and you have non-trivial hierarchies, you don't need to understand the C3 algorithm, and you can easily skip this paper. On the other hand, if you really want to know how multiple inheritance works, then this paper is for you. The good news is that things are not as complicated as you might expect.

Let me begin with some basic definitions.

Given a class C in a complicated multiple inheritance hierarchy, it is a non-trivial task to specify the order in which methods are overridden, i.e. to specify the order of the ancestors of C.

The list of the ancestors of a class C, including the class itself, ordered from the nearest ancestor to the furthest, is called the class precedence list or the linearization of C.

The Method Resolution Order (MRO) is the set of rules that construct the linearization. In the Python literature, the idiom "the MRO of C" is also used as a synonymous for the linearization of the class C.

For instance, in the case of single inheritance hierarchy, if C is a subclass of C1, and C1 is a subclass of C2, then the linearization of C is simply the list [C, C1 , C2]. However, with multiple inheritance hierarchies, the construction of the linearization is more cumbersome, since it is more difficult to construct a linearization that respects local precedence ordering and monotonicity.

I will discuss the local precedence ordering later, but I can give the definition of monotonicity here. A MRO is monotonic when the following is true: if C1 precedes C2 in the linearization of C, then C1 precedes C2 in the linearization of any subclass of C. Otherwise, the innocuous operation of deriving a new class could change the resolution order of methods, potentially introducing very subtle bugs. Examples where this happens will be shown later.

Not all classes admit a linearization. There are cases, in complicated hierarchies, where it is not possible to derive a class such that its linearization respects all the desired properties.

Here I give an example of this situation. Consider the hierarchy

>>> O = object
>>> class X(O): pass
>>> class Y(O): pass
>>> class A(X,Y): pass
>>> class B(Y,X): pass

which can be represented with the following inheritance graph, where I have denoted with O the object class, which is the beginning of any hierarchy for new style classes:

 -----------
|           |
|    O      |
|  /   \    |
 - X    Y  /
   |  / | /
   | /  |/
   A    B
   \   /
     ?

In this case, it is not possible to derive a new class C from A and B, since X precedes Y in A, but Y precedes X in B, therefore the method resolution order would be ambiguous in C.

Python 2.3 raises an exception in this situation (TypeError: MRO conflict among bases Y, X) forbidding the naive programmer from creating ambiguous hierarchies. Python 2.2 instead does not raise an exception, but chooses an ad hoc ordering (CABXYO in this case).

The C3 Method Resolution Order

Let me introduce a few simple notations which will be useful for the following discussion. I will use the shortcut notation:

C1 C2 ... CN

to indicate the list of classes [C1, C2, ... , CN].

The head of the list is its first element:

head = C1

whereas the tail is the rest of the list:

tail = C2 ... CN.

I shall also use the notation:

C + (C1 C2 ... CN) = C C1 C2 ... CN

to denote the sum of the lists [C] + [C1, C2, ... ,CN].

Now I can explain how the MRO works in Python 2.3.

Consider a class C in a multiple inheritance hierarchy, with C inheriting from the base classes B1, B2, ... , BN. We want to compute the linearization L[C] of the class C. The rule is the following:

the linearization of C is the sum of C plus the merge of the linearizations of the parents and the list of the parents.

In symbolic notation:

L[C(B1 ... BN)] = C + merge(L[B1] ... L[BN], B1 ... BN)

In particular, if C is the object class, which has no parents, the linearization is trivial:

L[object] = object.

However, in general one has to compute the merge according to the following prescription:

take the head of the first list, i.e L[B1][0]; if this head is not in the tail of any of the other lists, then add it to the linearization of C and remove it from the lists in the merge, otherwise look at the head of the next list and take it, if it is a good head. Then repeat the operation until all the class are removed or it is impossible to find good heads. In this case, it is impossible to construct the merge, Python 2.3 will refuse to create the class C and will raise an exception.

This prescription ensures that the merge operation preserves the ordering, if the ordering can be preserved. On the other hand, if the order cannot be preserved (as in the example of serious order disagreement discussed above) then the merge cannot be computed.

The computation of the merge is trivial if C has only one parent (single inheritance); in this case:

L[C(B)] = C + merge(L[B],B) = C + L[B]

However, in the case of multiple inheritance things are more cumbersome and I don't expect you can understand the rule without a couple of examples ;-)

Exemples

First example. Consider the following hierarchy:

>>> O = object
>>> class F(O): pass
>>> class E(O): pass
>>> class D(O): pass
>>> class C(D,F): pass
>>> class B(D,E): pass
>>> class A(B,C): pass

In this case the inheritance graph can be drawn as:

                          6
                         ---
Level 3                 | O |                  (more general)
                      /  ---  \
                     /    |    \                      |
                    /     |     \                     |
                   /      |      \                    |
                  ---    ---    ---                   |
Level 2        3 | D | 4| E |  | F | 5                |
                  ---    ---    ---                   |
                   \  \ _ /       |                   |
                    \    / \ _    |                   |
                     \  /      \  |                   |
                      ---      ---                    |
Level 1            1 | B |    | C | 2                 |
                      ---      ---                    |
                        \      /                      |
                         \    /                      \ /
                           ---
Level 0                 0 | A |                (more specialized)
                           ---

The linearizations of O,D,E and F are trivial:

L[O] = O
L[D] = D O
L[E] = E O
L[F] = F O

The linearization of B can be computed as:

L[B] = B + merge(DO, EO, DE)

We see that D is a good head, therefore we take it and we are reduced to compute merge(O,EO,E). Now O is not a good head, since it is in the tail of the sequence EO. In this case the rule says that we have to skip to the next sequence. Then we see that E is a good head; we take it and we are reduced to compute merge(O,O) which gives O. Therefore:

L[B] =  B D E O

Using the same procedure one finds:

L[C] = C + merge(DO,FO,DF)
     = C + D + merge(O,FO,F)
     = C + D + F + merge(O,O)
     = C D F O

Now we can compute:

L[A] = A + merge(BDEO,CDFO,BC)
     = A + B + merge(DEO,CDFO,C)
     = A + B + C + merge(DEO,DFO)
     = A + B + C + D + merge(EO,FO)
     = A + B + C + D + E + merge(O,FO)
     = A + B + C + D + E + F + merge(O,O)
     = A B C D E F O

In this example, the linearization is ordered in a pretty nice way according to the inheritance level, in the sense that lower levels (i.e. more specialized classes) have higher precedence (see the inheritance graph). However, this is not the general case.

I leave as an exercise for the reader to compute the linearization for my second example:

>>> O = object
>>> class F(O): pass
>>> class E(O): pass
>>> class D(O): pass
>>> class C(D,F): pass
>>> class B(E,D): pass
>>> class A(B,C): pass

The only difference with the previous example is the change B(D,E) --> B(E,D); however even such a little modification completely changes the ordering of the hierarchy:

                           6
                          ---
Level 3                  | O |
                       /  ---  \
                      /    |    \
                     /     |     \
                    /      |      \
                  ---     ---    ---
Level 2        2 | E | 4 | D |  | F | 5
                  ---     ---    ---
                   \      / \     /
                    \    /   \   /
                     \  /     \ /
                      ---     ---
Level 1            1 | B |   | C | 3
                      ---     ---
                       \       /
                        \     /
                          ---
Level 0                0 | A |
                          ---

Notice that the class E, which is in the second level of the hierarchy, precedes the class C, which is in the first level of the hierarchy, i.e. E is more specialized than C, even if it is in a higher level.

A lazy programmer can obtain the MRO directly from Python 2.2, since in this case it coincides with the Python 2.3 linearization. It is enough to invoke the mro() method of class A:

>>> A.mro()
[<class 'A'>, <class 'B'>, <class 'E'>,
<class 'C'>, <class 'D'>, <class 'F'>,
<class 'object'>]

Finally, let me consider the example discussed in the first section, involving a serious order disagreement. In this case, it is straightforward to compute the linearizations of O, X, Y, A and B:

L[O] = 0
L[X] = X O
L[Y] = Y O
L[A] = A X Y O
L[B] = B Y X O

However, it is impossible to compute the linearization for a class C that inherits from A and B:

L[C] = C + merge(AXYO, BYXO, AB)
     = C + A + merge(XYO, BYXO, B)
     = C + A + B + merge(XYO, YXO)

At this point we cannot merge the lists XYO and YXO, since X is in the tail of YXO whereas Y is in the tail of XYO: therefore there are no good heads and the C3 algorithm stops. Python 2.3 raises an error and refuses to create the class C.

Bad Method Resolution Orders

A MRO is bad when it breaks such fundamental properties as local precedence ordering and monotonicity. In this section, I will show that both the MRO for classic classes and the MRO for new style classes in Python 2.2 are bad.

It is easier to start with the local precedence ordering. Consider the following example:

>>> F=type('Food',(),{'remember2buy':'spam'})
>>> E=type('Eggs',(F,),{'remember2buy':'eggs'})
>>> G=type('GoodFood',(F,E),{}) # under Python 2.3 this is an error!

with inheritance diagram

             O
             |
(buy spam)   F
             | \
             | E   (buy eggs)
             | /
             G

      (buy eggs or spam ?)

We see that class G inherits from F and E, with F before E: therefore we would expect the attribute G.remember2buy to be inherited by F.remember2buy and not by E.remember2buy: nevertheless Python 2.2 gives

>>> G.remember2buy
'eggs'

This is a breaking of local precedence ordering since the order in the local precedence list, i.e. the list of the parents of G, is not preserved in the Python 2.2 linearization of G:

L[G,P22]= G E F object   # F *follows* E

One could argue that the reason why F follows E in the Python 2.2 linearization is that F is less specialized than E, since F is the superclass of E; nevertheless the breaking of local precedence ordering is quite non-intuitive and error prone. This is particularly true since it is a different from old style classes:

>>> class F: remember2buy='spam'
>>> class E(F): remember2buy='eggs'
>>> class G(F,E): pass
>>> G.remember2buy
'spam'

In this case the MRO is GFEF and the local precedence ordering is preserved.

As a general rule, hierarchies such as the previous one should be avoided, since it is unclear if F should override E or vice-versa. Python 2.3 solves the ambiguity by raising an exception in the creation of class G, effectively stopping the programmer from generating ambiguous hierarchies. The reason for that is that the C3 algorithm fails when the merge:

merge(FO,EFO,FE)

cannot be computed, because F is in the tail of EFO and E is in the tail of FE.

The real solution is to design a non-ambiguous hierarchy, i.e. to derive G from E and F (the more specific first) and not from F and E; in this case the MRO is GEF without any doubt.

           O
           |
           F (spam)
         / |
(eggs)   E |
         \ |
           G
             (eggs, no doubt)

Python 2.3 forces the programmer to write good hierarchies (or, at least, less error-prone ones).

On a related note, let me point out that the Python 2.3 algorithm is smart enough to recognize obvious mistakes, as the duplication of classes in the list of parents:

>>> class A(object): pass
>>> class C(A,A): pass # error
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
TypeError: duplicate base class A

Python 2.2 (both for classic classes and new style classes) in this situation, would not raise any exception.

Finally, I would like to point out two lessons we have learned from this example:

despite the name, the MRO determines the resolution order of attributes, not only of methods;

the default food for Pythonistas is spam ! (but you already knew that ;-)

Having discussed the issue of local precedence ordering, let me now consider the issue of monotonicity. My goal is to show that neither the MRO for classic classes nor that for Python 2.2 new style classes is monotonic.

To prove that the MRO for classic classes is non-monotonic is rather trivial, it is enough to look at the diamond diagram:

   C
  / \
 /   \
A     B
 \   /
  \ /
   D

One easily discerns the inconsistency:

L[B,P21] = B C        # B precedes C : B's methods win
L[D,P21] = D A C B C  # B follows C  : C's methods win!

On the other hand, there are no problems with the Python 2.2 and 2.3 MROs, they give both:

L[D] = D A B C

Guido points out in his essay [3] that the classic MRO is not so bad in practice, since one can typically avoids diamonds for classic classes. But all new style classes inherit from object, therefore diamonds are unavoidable and inconsistencies shows up in every multiple inheritance graph.

The MRO of Python 2.2 makes breaking monotonicity difficult, but not impossible. The following example, originally provided by Samuele Pedroni, shows that the MRO of Python 2.2 is non-monotonic:

>>> class A(object): pass
>>> class B(object): pass
>>> class C(object): pass
>>> class D(object): pass
>>> class E(object): pass
>>> class K1(A,B,C): pass
>>> class K2(D,B,E): pass
>>> class K3(D,A):   pass
>>> class Z(K1,K2,K3): pass

Here are the linearizations according to the C3 MRO (the reader should verify these linearizations as an exercise and draw the inheritance diagram ;-)

L[A] = A O
L[B] = B O
L[C] = C O
L[D] = D O
L[E] = E O
L[K1]= K1 A B C O
L[K2]= K2 D B E O
L[K3]= K3 D A O
L[Z] = Z K1 K2 K3 D A B C E O

Python 2.2 gives exactly the same linearizations for A, B, C, D, E, K1, K2 and K3, but a different linearization for Z:

L[Z,P22] = Z K1 K3 A K2 D B C E O

It is clear that this linearization is wrong, since A comes before D whereas in the linearization of K3 A comes after D. In other words, in K3 methods derived by D override methods derived by A, but in Z, which still is a subclass of K3, methods derived by A override methods derived by D! This is a violation of monotonicity. Moreover, the Python 2.2 linearization of Z is also inconsistent with local precedence ordering, since the local precedence list of the class Z is [K1, K2, K3] (K2 precedes K3), whereas in the linearization of Z K2 follows K3. These problems explain why the 2.2 rule has been dismissed in favor of the C3 rule.

The end

This section is for the impatient reader, who skipped all the previous sections and jumped immediately to the end. This section is for the lazy programmer too, who didn't want to exercise her/his brain. Finally, it is for the programmer with some hubris, otherwise s/he would not be reading a paper on the C3 method resolution order in multiple inheritance hierarchies ;-) These three virtues taken all together (and not separately) deserve a prize: the prize is a short Python 2.2 script that allows you to compute the 2.3 MRO without risk to your brain. Simply change the last line to play with the various examples I have discussed in this paper.:

#<mro.py>

"""C3 algorithm by Samuele Pedroni (with readability enhanced by me)."""

class __metaclass__(type):
    "All classes are metamagically modified to be nicely printed"
    __repr__ = lambda cls: cls.__name__

class ex_2:
    "Serious order disagreement" #From Guido
    class O: pass
    class X(O): pass
    class Y(O): pass
    class A(X,Y): pass
    class B(Y,X): pass
    try:
        class Z(A,B): pass #creates Z(A,B) in Python 2.2
    except TypeError:
        pass # Z(A,B) cannot be created in Python 2.3

class ex_5:
    "My first example"
    class O: pass
    class F(O): pass
    class E(O): pass
    class D(O): pass
    class C(D,F): pass
    class B(D,E): pass
    class A(B,C): pass

class ex_6:
    "My second example"
    class O: pass
    class F(O): pass
    class E(O): pass
    class D(O): pass
    class C(D,F): pass
    class B(E,D): pass
    class A(B,C): pass

class ex_9:
    "Difference between Python 2.2 MRO and C3" #From Samuele
    class O: pass
    class A(O): pass
    class B(O): pass
    class C(O): pass
    class D(O): pass
    class E(O): pass
    class K1(A,B,C): pass
    class K2(D,B,E): pass
    class K3(D,A): pass
    class Z(K1,K2,K3): pass

def merge(seqs):
    print '\n\nCPL[%s]=%s' % (seqs[0][0],seqs),
    res = []; i=0
    while 1:
      nonemptyseqs=[seq for seq in seqs if seq]
      if not nonemptyseqs: return res
      i+=1; print '\n',i,'round: candidates...',
      for seq in nonemptyseqs: # find merge candidates among seq heads
          cand = seq[0]; print ' ',cand,
          nothead=[s for s in nonemptyseqs if cand in s[1:]]
          if nothead: cand=None #reject candidate
          else: break
      if not cand: raise "Inconsistent hierarchy"
      res.append(cand)
      for seq in nonemptyseqs: # remove cand
          if seq[0] == cand: del seq[0]

def mro(C):
    "Compute the class precedence list (mro) according to C3"
    return merge([[C]]+map(mro,C.__bases__)+[list(C.__bases__)])

def print_mro(C):
    print '\nMRO[%s]=%s' % (C,mro(C))
    print '\nP22 MRO[%s]=%s' % (C,C.mro())

print_mro(ex_9.Z)

#</mro.py>

That's all folks,

enjoy !

Resources

[1]

The thread on python-dev started by Samuele Pedroni: https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2002-October/029035.html

[2]

The paper A Monotonic Superclass Linearization for Dylan: https://doi.org/10.1145/236337.236343

[3]

Guido van Rossum's essay, Unifying types and classes in Python 2.2: https://web.archive.org/web/20140210194412/http://www.python.org/download/releases/2.2.2/descrintro

Python support for free threading

Starting with the 3.13 release, CPython has support for a build of Python called free threading where the global interpreter lock (GIL) is disabled. Free-threaded execution allows for full utilization of the available processing power by running threads in parallel on available CPU cores. While not all software will benefit from this automatically, programs designed with threading in mind will run faster on multi-core hardware.

Some third-party packages, in particular ones with an extension module, may not be ready for use in a free-threaded build, and will re-enable the GIL.

This document describes the implications of free threading for Python code. See C API Extension Support for Free Threading for information on how to write C extensions that support the free-threaded build.

Voir aussi

PEP 703 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/] – Making the Global Interpreter Lock Optional in CPython for an overall description of free-threaded Python.

Installation

Starting with Python 3.13, the official macOS and Windows installers optionally support installing free-threaded Python binaries. The installers are available at https://www.python.org/downloads/.

For information on other platforms, see the Installing a Free-Threaded Python [https://py-free-threading.github.io/installing-cpython/], a community-maintained installation guide for installing free-threaded Python.

When building CPython from source, the --disable-gil configure option should be used to build a free-threaded Python interpreter.

Identifying free-threaded Python

To check if the current interpreter supports free-threading, python -VV and sys.version contain "free-threading build". The new sys._is_gil_enabled() function can be used to check whether the GIL is actually disabled in the running process.

The sysconfig.get_config_var("Py_GIL_DISABLED") configuration variable can be used to determine whether the build supports free threading. If the variable is set to 1, then the build supports free threading. This is the recommended mechanism for decisions related to the build configuration.

The global interpreter lock in free-threaded Python

Free-threaded builds of CPython support optionally running with the GIL enabled at runtime using the environment variable PYTHON_GIL or the command-line option -X gil.

The GIL may also automatically be enabled when importing a C-API extension module that is not explicitly marked as supporting free threading. A warning will be printed in this case.

In addition to individual package documentation, the following websites track the status of popular packages support for free threading:

https://py-free-threading.github.io/tracking/

https://hugovk.github.io/free-threaded-wheels/

Thread safety

The free-threaded build of CPython aims to provide similar thread-safety behavior at the Python level to the default GIL-enabled build. Built-in types like dict, list, and set use internal locks to protect against concurrent modifications in ways that behave similarly to the GIL. However, Python has not historically guaranteed specific behavior for concurrent modifications to these built-in types, so this should be treated as a description of the current implementation, not a guarantee of current or future behavior.

Note

It's recommended to use the threading.Lock or other synchronization primitives instead of relying on the internal locks of built-in types, when possible.

Known limitations

This section describes known limitations of the free-threaded CPython build.

Immortalization

In the free-threaded build, some objects are immortal. Immortal objects are not deallocated and have reference counts that are never modified. This is done to avoid reference count contention that would prevent efficient multi-threaded scaling.

As of the 3.14 release, immortalization is limited to:

Code constants: numeric literals, string literals, and tuple literals composed of other constants.

Strings interned by sys.intern().

Objets cadres

It is not safe to access frame.f_locals from a frame object if that frame is currently executing in another thread, and doing so may crash the interpreter.

Itérateurs

It is generally not thread-safe to access the same iterator object from multiple threads concurrently, and threads may see duplicate or missing elements.

Single-threaded performance

The free-threaded build has additional overhead when executing Python code compared to the default GIL-enabled build. The amount of overhead depends on the workload and hardware. On the pyperformance benchmark suite, the average overhead ranges from about 1% on macOS aarch64 to 8% on x86-64 Linux systems.

Behavioral changes

This section describes CPython behavioural changes with the free-threaded build.

Context variables

In the free-threaded build, the flag thread_inherit_context is set to true by default which causes threads created with threading.Thread to start with a copy of the Context() of the caller of start(). In the default GIL-enabled build, the flag defaults to false so threads start with an empty Context().

Warning filters

In the free-threaded build, the flag context_aware_warnings is set to true by default. In the default GIL-enabled build, the flag defaults to false. If the flag is true then the warnings.catch_warnings context manager uses a context variable for warning filters. If the flag is false then catch_warnings modifies the global filters list, which is not thread-safe. See the warnings module for more details.

C API Extension Support for Free Threading

Starting with the 3.13 release, CPython has support for running with the global interpreter lock (GIL) disabled in a configuration called free threading. This document describes how to adapt C API extensions to support free threading.

Identifying the Free-Threaded Build in C

The CPython C API exposes the Py_GIL_DISABLED macro: in the free-threaded build it's defined to 1, and in the regular build it's not defined. You can use it to enable code that only runs under the free-threaded build:

#ifdef Py_GIL_DISABLED
/* code that only runs in the free-threaded build */
#endif

Note

On Windows, this macro is not defined automatically, but must be specified to the compiler when building. The sysconfig.get_config_var() function can be used to determine whether the current running interpreter had the macro defined.

Module Initialization

Extension modules need to explicitly indicate that they support running with the GIL disabled; otherwise importing the extension will raise a warning and enable the GIL at runtime.

There are two ways to indicate that an extension module supports running with the GIL disabled depending on whether the extension uses multi-phase or single-phase initialization.

Multi-Phase Initialization

Extensions that use multi-phase initialization (i.e., PyModuleDef_Init()) should add a Py_mod_gil slot in the module definition. If your extension supports older versions of CPython, you should guard the slot with a PY_VERSION_HEX check.

static struct PyModuleDef_Slot module_slots[] = {
    ...
#if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x030D0000
    {Py_mod_gil, Py_MOD_GIL_NOT_USED},
#endif
    {0, NULL}
};

static struct PyModuleDef moduledef = {
    PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
    .m_slots = module_slots,
    ...
};

Single-Phase Initialization

Extensions that use single-phase initialization (i.e., PyModule_Create()) should call PyUnstable_Module_SetGIL() to indicate that they support running with the GIL disabled. The function is only defined in the free-threaded build, so you should guard the call with #ifdef Py_GIL_DISABLED to avoid compilation errors in the regular build.

static struct PyModuleDef moduledef = {
    PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
    ...
};

PyMODINIT_FUNC
PyInit_mymodule(void)
{
    PyObject *m = PyModule_Create(&moduledef);
    if (m == NULL) {
        return NULL;
    }
#ifdef Py_GIL_DISABLED
    PyUnstable_Module_SetGIL(m, Py_MOD_GIL_NOT_USED);
#endif
    return m;
}

General API Guidelines

Most of the C API is thread-safe, but there are some exceptions.

Struct Fields: Accessing fields in Python C API objects or structs directly is not thread-safe if the field may be concurrently modified.

Macros: Accessor macros like PyList_GET_ITEM, PyList_SET_ITEM, and macros like PySequence_Fast_GET_SIZE that use the object returned by PySequence_Fast() do not perform any error checking or locking. These macros are not thread-safe if the container object may be modified concurrently.

Borrowed References: C API functions that return borrowed references may not be thread-safe if the containing object is modified concurrently. See the section on borrowed references for more information.

Container Thread Safety

Containers like PyListObject, PyDictObject, and PySetObject perform internal locking in the free-threaded build. For example, the PyList_Append() will lock the list before appending an item.

PyDict_Next

A notable exception is PyDict_Next(), which does not lock the dictionary. You should use Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION to protect the dictionary while iterating over it if the dictionary may be concurrently modified:

Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION(dict);
PyObject *key, *value;
Py_ssize_t pos = 0;
while (PyDict_Next(dict, &pos, &key, &value)) {
    ...
}
Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION();

Borrowed References

Some C API functions return borrowed references. These APIs are not thread-safe if the containing object is modified concurrently. For example, it's not safe to use PyList_GetItem() if the list may be modified concurrently.

The following table lists some borrowed reference APIs and their replacements that return strong references.

Borrowed reference API

Strong reference API

PyList_GetItem()

PyList_GetItemRef()

PyList_GET_ITEM()

PyList_GetItemRef()

PyDict_GetItem()

PyDict_GetItemRef()

PyDict_GetItemWithError()

PyDict_GetItemRef()

PyDict_GetItemString()

PyDict_GetItemStringRef()

PyDict_SetDefault()

PyDict_SetDefaultRef()

PyDict_Next()

none (see PyDict_Next)

PyWeakref_GetObject()

PyWeakref_GetRef()

PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT()

PyWeakref_GetRef()

PyImport_AddModule()

PyImport_AddModuleRef()

PyCell_GET()

PyCell_Get()

Not all APIs that return borrowed references are problematic. For example, PyTuple_GetItem() is safe because tuples are immutable. Similarly, not all uses of the above APIs are problematic. For example, PyDict_GetItem() is often used for parsing keyword argument dictionaries in function calls; those keyword argument dictionaries are effectively private (not accessible by other threads), so using borrowed references in that context is safe.

Some of these functions were added in Python 3.13. You can use the pythoncapi-compat [https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat] package to provide implementations of these functions for older Python versions.

Memory Allocation APIs

Python's memory management C API provides functions in three different allocation domains: "raw", "mem", and "object". For thread-safety, the free-threaded build requires that only Python objects are allocated using the object domain, and that all Python objects are allocated using that domain. This differs from the prior Python versions, where this was only a best practice and not a hard requirement.

Note

Search for uses of PyObject_Malloc() in your extension and check that the allocated memory is used for Python objects. Use PyMem_Malloc() to allocate buffers instead of PyObject_Malloc().

Thread State and GIL APIs

Python provides a set of functions and macros to manage thread state and the GIL, such as:

PyGILState_Ensure() and PyGILState_Release()

PyEval_SaveThread() and PyEval_RestoreThread()

Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS and Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS

These functions should still be used in the free-threaded build to manage thread state even when the GIL is disabled. For example, if you create a thread outside of Python, you must call PyGILState_Ensure() before calling into the Python API to ensure that the thread has a valid Python thread state.

You should continue to call PyEval_SaveThread() or Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS around blocking operations, such as I/O or lock acquisitions, to allow other threads to run the cyclic garbage collector.

Protecting Internal Extension State

Your extension may have internal state that was previously protected by the GIL. You may need to add locking to protect this state. The approach will depend on your extension, but some common patterns include:

Caches: global caches are a common source of shared state. Consider using a lock to protect the cache or disabling it in the free-threaded build if the cache is not critical for performance.

Global State: global state may need to be protected by a lock or moved to thread local storage. C11 and C++11 provide the thread_local or _Thread_local for thread-local storage [https://en.cppreference.com/w/c/language/storage_duration].

Critical Sections

In the free-threaded build, CPython provides a mechanism called "critical sections" to protect data that would otherwise be protected by the GIL. While extension authors may not interact with the internal critical section implementation directly, understanding their behavior is crucial when using certain C API functions or managing shared state in the free-threaded build.

What Are Critical Sections?

Conceptually, critical sections act as a deadlock avoidance layer built on top of simple mutexes. Each thread maintains a stack of active critical sections. When a thread needs to acquire a lock associated with a critical section (e.g., implicitly when calling a thread-safe C API function like PyDict_SetItem(), or explicitly using macros), it attempts to acquire the underlying mutex.

Using Critical Sections

The primary APIs for using critical sections are:

Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION and Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION - For locking a single object

Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION2 and Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION2 - For locking two objects simultaneously

These macros must be used in matching pairs and must appear in the same C scope, since they establish a new local scope. These macros are no-ops in non-free-threaded builds, so they can be safely added to code that needs to support both build types.

A common use of a critical section would be to lock an object while accessing an internal attribute of it. For example, if an extension type has an internal count field, you could use a critical section while reading or writing that field:

// read the count, returns new reference to internal count value
PyObject *result;
Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION(obj);
result = Py_NewRef(obj->count);
Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION();
return result;

// write the count, consumes reference from new_count
Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION(obj);
obj->count = new_count;
Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION();

How Critical Sections Work

Unlike traditional locks, critical sections do not guarantee exclusive access throughout their entire duration. If a thread would block while holding a critical section (e.g., by acquiring another lock or performing I/O), the critical section is temporarily suspended—all locks are released—and then resumed when the blocking operation completes.

This behavior is similar to what happens with the GIL when a thread makes a blocking call. The key differences are:

Critical sections operate on a per-object basis rather than globally

Critical sections follow a stack discipline within each thread (the "begin" and "end" macros enforce this since they must be paired and within the same scope)

Critical sections automatically release and reacquire locks around potential blocking operations

Deadlock Avoidance

Critical sections help avoid deadlocks in two ways:

If a thread tries to acquire a lock that's already held by another thread, it first suspends all of its active critical sections, temporarily releasing their locks

When the blocking operation completes, only the top-most critical section is reacquired first

This means you cannot rely on nested critical sections to lock multiple objects at once, as the inner critical section may suspend the outer ones. Instead, use Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION2 to lock two objects simultaneously.

Note that the locks described above are only PyMutex based locks. The critical section implementation does not know about or affect other locking mechanisms that might be in use, like POSIX mutexes. Also note that while blocking on any PyMutex causes the critical sections to be suspended, only the mutexes that are part of the critical sections are released. If PyMutex is used without a critical section, it will not be released and therefore does not get the same deadlock avoidance.

Important Considerations

Critical sections may temporarily release their locks, allowing other threads to modify the protected data. Be careful about making assumptions about the state of the data after operations that might block.

Because locks can be temporarily released (suspended), entering a critical section does not guarantee exclusive access to the protected resource throughout the section's duration. If code within a critical section calls another function that blocks (e.g., acquires another lock, performs blocking I/O), all locks held by the thread via critical sections will be released. This is similar to how the GIL can be released during blocking calls.

Only the lock(s) associated with the most recently entered (top-most) critical section are guaranteed to be held at any given time. Locks for outer, nested critical sections might have been suspended.

You can lock at most two objects simultaneously with these APIs. If you need to lock more objects, you'll need to restructure your code.

While critical sections will not deadlock if you attempt to lock the same object twice, they are less efficient than purpose-built reentrant locks for this use case.

When using Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION2, the order of the objects doesn't affect correctness (the implementation handles deadlock avoidance), but it's good practice to always lock objects in a consistent order.

Remember that the critical section macros are primarily for protecting access to Python objects that might be involved in internal CPython operations susceptible to the deadlock scenarios described above. For protecting purely internal extension state, standard mutexes or other synchronization primitives might be more appropriate.

Building Extensions for the Free-Threaded Build

C API extensions need to be built specifically for the free-threaded build. The wheels, shared libraries, and binaries are indicated by a t suffix.

pypa/manylinux [https://github.com/pypa/manylinux] supports the free-threaded build, with the t suffix, such as python3.13t.

pypa/cibuildwheel [https://github.com/pypa/cibuildwheel] supports the free-threaded build on Python 3.13 and 3.14. On Python 3.14, free-threaded wheels will be built by default. On Python 3.13, you will need to set CIBW_ENABLE to cpython-freethreading [https://cibuildwheel.pypa.io/en/stable/options/#enable].

Limited C API and Stable ABI

The free-threaded build does not currently support the Limited C API or the stable ABI. If you use setuptools [https://setuptools.pypa.io/en/latest/setuptools.html] to build your extension and currently set py_limited_api=True you can use py_limited_api=not sysconfig.get_config_var("Py_GIL_DISABLED") to opt out of the limited API when building with the free-threaded build.

Note

You will need to build separate wheels specifically for the free-threaded build. If you currently use the stable ABI, you can continue to build a single wheel for multiple non-free-threaded Python versions.

Windows

Due to a limitation of the official Windows installer, you will need to manually define Py_GIL_DISABLED=1 when building extensions from source.

Voir aussi

Porting Extension Modules to Support Free-Threading [https://py-free-threading.github.io/porting/]: A community-maintained porting guide for extension authors.

Remote debugging attachment protocol

This protocol enables external tools to attach to a running CPython process and execute Python code remotely.

Most platforms require elevated privileges to attach to another Python process.

Disabling remote debugging

To disable remote debugging support, use any of the following:

Set the PYTHON_DISABLE_REMOTE_DEBUG environment variable to 1 before starting the interpreter.

Use the -X disable_remote_debug command-line option.

Compile Python with the --without-remote-debug build flag.

Permission requirements

Attaching to a running Python process for remote debugging requires elevated privileges on most platforms. The specific requirements and troubleshooting steps depend on your operating system:

Linux

The tracer process must have the CAP_SYS_PTRACE capability or equivalent privileges. You can only trace processes you own and can signal. Tracing may fail if the process is already being traced, or if it is running with set-user-ID or set-group-ID. Security modules like Yama may further restrict tracing.

To temporarily relax ptrace restrictions (until reboot), run:

echo 0 | sudo tee /proc/sys/kernel/yama/ptrace_scope

Note

Disabling ptrace_scope reduces system hardening and should only be done in trusted environments.

If running inside a container, use --cap-add=SYS_PTRACE or --privileged, and run as root if needed.

Try re-running the command with elevated privileges:

sudo -E !!

macOS

To attach to another process, you typically need to run your debugging tool with elevated privileges. This can be done by using sudo or running as root.

Even when attaching to processes you own, macOS may block debugging unless the debugger is run with root privileges due to system security restrictions.

Windows

To attach to another process, you usually need to run your debugging tool with administrative privileges. Start the command prompt or terminal as Administrator.

Some processes may still be inaccessible even with Administrator rights, unless you have the SeDebugPrivilege privilege enabled.

To resolve file or folder access issues, adjust the security permissions:

Right-click the file or folder and select Properties.

Go to the Security tab to view users and groups with access.

Click Edit to modify permissions.

Select your user account.

In Permissions, check Read or Full control as needed.

Click Apply, then OK to confirm.

Note

Ensure you've satisfied all Permission requirements before proceeding.

This section describes the low-level protocol that enables external tools to inject and execute a Python script within a running CPython process.

This mechanism forms the basis of the sys.remote_exec() function, which instructs a remote Python process to execute a .py file. However, this section does not document the usage of that function. Instead, it provides a detailed explanation of the underlying protocol, which takes as input the pid of a target Python process and the path to a Python source file to be executed. This information supports independent reimplementation of the protocol, regardless of programming language.

Avertissement

The execution of the injected script depends on the interpreter reaching a safe evaluation point. As a result, execution may be delayed depending on the runtime state of the target process.

Once injected, the script is executed by the interpreter within the target process the next time a safe evaluation point is reached. This approach enables remote execution capabilities without modifying the behavior or structure of the running Python application.

Subsequent sections provide a step-by-step description of the protocol, including techniques for locating interpreter structures in memory, safely accessing internal fields, and triggering code execution. Platform-specific variations are noted where applicable, and example implementations are included to clarify each operation.

Locating the PyRuntime structure

CPython places the PyRuntime structure in a dedicated binary section to help external tools find it at runtime. The name and format of this section vary by platform. For example, .PyRuntime is used on ELF systems, and __DATA,__PyRuntime is used on macOS. Tools can find the offset of this structure by examining the binary on disk.

The PyRuntime structure contains CPython’s global interpreter state and provides access to other internal data, including the list of interpreters, thread states, and debugger support fields.

To work with a remote Python process, a debugger must first find the memory address of the PyRuntime structure in the target process. This address can’t be hardcoded or calculated from a symbol name, because it depends on where the operating system loaded the binary.

The method for finding PyRuntime depends on the platform, but the steps are the same in general:

Find the base address where the Python binary or shared library was loaded in the target process.

Use the on-disk binary to locate the offset of the .PyRuntime section.

Add the section offset to the base address to compute the address in memory.

The sections below explain how to do this on each supported platform and include example code.

Linux (ELF)

To find the PyRuntime structure on Linux:

Read the process’s memory map (for example, /proc/<pid>/maps) to find the address where the Python executable or libpython was loaded.

Parse the ELF section headers in the binary to get the offset of the .PyRuntime section.

Add that offset to the base address from step 1 to get the memory address of PyRuntime.

The following is an example implementation:

def find_py_runtime_linux(pid: int) -> int:
    # Step 1: Try to find the Python executable in memory
    binary_path, base_address = find_mapped_binary(
        pid, name_contains="python"
    )

    # Step 2: Fallback to shared library if executable is not found
    if binary_path is None:
        binary_path, base_address = find_mapped_binary(
            pid, name_contains="libpython"
        )

    # Step 3: Parse ELF headers to get .PyRuntime section offset
    section_offset = parse_elf_section_offset(
        binary_path, ".PyRuntime"
    )

    # Step 4: Compute PyRuntime address in memory
    return base_address + section_offset

On Linux systems, there are two main approaches to read memory from another process. The first is through the /proc filesystem, specifically by reading from /proc/[pid]/mem which provides direct access to the process's memory. This requires appropriate permissions - either being the same user as the target process or having root access. The second approach is using the process_vm_readv() system call which provides a more efficient way to copy memory between processes. While ptrace's PTRACE_PEEKTEXT operation can also be used to read memory, it is significantly slower as it only reads one word at a time and requires multiple context switches between the tracer and tracee processes.

For parsing ELF sections, the process involves reading and interpreting the ELF file format structures from the binary file on disk. The ELF header contains a pointer to the section header table. Each section header contains metadata about a section including its name (stored in a separate string table), offset, and size. To find a specific section like .PyRuntime, you need to walk through these headers and match the section name. The section header then provides the offset where that section exists in the file, which can be used to calculate its runtime address when the binary is loaded into memory.

You can read more about the ELF file format in the ELF specification [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executable_and_Linkable_Format].

macOS (Mach-O)

To find the PyRuntime structure on macOS:

Call task_for_pid() to get the mach_port_t task port for the target process. This handle is needed to read memory using APIs like mach_vm_read_overwrite and mach_vm_region.

Scan the memory regions to find the one containing the Python executable or libpython.

Load the binary file from disk and parse the Mach-O headers to find the section named PyRuntime in the __DATA segment. On macOS, symbol names are automatically prefixed with an underscore, so the PyRuntime symbol appears as _PyRuntime in the symbol table, but the section name is not affected.

The following is an example implementation:

def find_py_runtime_macos(pid: int) -> int:
    # Step 1: Get access to the process's memory
    handle = get_memory_access_handle(pid)

    # Step 2: Try to find the Python executable in memory
    binary_path, base_address = find_mapped_binary(
        handle, name_contains="python"
    )

    # Step 3: Fallback to libpython if the executable is not found
    if binary_path is None:
        binary_path, base_address = find_mapped_binary(
            handle, name_contains="libpython"
        )

    # Step 4: Parse Mach-O headers to get __DATA,__PyRuntime section offset
    section_offset = parse_macho_section_offset(
        binary_path, "__DATA", "__PyRuntime"
    )

    # Step 5: Compute the PyRuntime address in memory
    return base_address + section_offset

On macOS, accessing another process's memory requires using Mach-O specific APIs and file formats. The first step is obtaining a task_port handle via task_for_pid(), which provides access to the target process's memory space. This handle enables memory operations through APIs like mach_vm_read_overwrite().

The process memory can be examined using mach_vm_region() to scan through the virtual memory space, while proc_regionfilename() helps identify which binary files are loaded at each memory region. When the Python binary or library is found, its Mach-O headers need to be parsed to locate the PyRuntime structure.

The Mach-O format organizes code and data into segments and sections. The PyRuntime structure lives in a section named __PyRuntime within the __DATA segment. The actual runtime address calculation involves finding the __TEXT segment which serves as the binary's base address, then locating the __DATA segment containing our target section. The final address is computed by combining the base address with the appropriate section offsets from the Mach-O headers.

Note that accessing another process's memory on macOS typically requires elevated privileges - either root access or special security entitlements granted to the debugging process.

Windows (PE)

To find the PyRuntime structure on Windows:

Use the ToolHelp API to enumerate all modules loaded in the target process. This is done using functions such as CreateToolhelp32Snapshot [https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/win32/api/tlhelp32/nf-tlhelp32-createtoolhelp32snapshot], Module32First [https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/win32/api/tlhelp32/nf-tlhelp32-module32first], and Module32Next [https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/win32/api/tlhelp32/nf-tlhelp32-module32next].

Identify the module corresponding to python.exe or pythonXY.dll, where X and Y are the major and minor version numbers of the Python version, and record its base address.

Locate the PyRuntim section. Due to the PE format's 8-character limit on section names (defined as IMAGE_SIZEOF_SHORT_NAME), the original name PyRuntime is truncated. This section contains the PyRuntime structure.

Retrieve the section’s relative virtual address (RVA) and add it to the base address of the module.

The following is an example implementation:

def find_py_runtime_windows(pid: int) -> int:
    # Step 1: Try to find the Python executable in memory
    binary_path, base_address = find_loaded_module(
        pid, name_contains="python"
    )

    # Step 2: Fallback to shared pythonXY.dll if the executable is not
    # found
    if binary_path is None:
        binary_path, base_address = find_loaded_module(
            pid, name_contains="python3"
        )

    # Step 3: Parse PE section headers to get the RVA of the PyRuntime
    # section. The section name appears as "PyRuntim" due to the
    # 8-character limit defined by the PE format (IMAGE_SIZEOF_SHORT_NAME).
    section_rva = parse_pe_section_offset(binary_path, "PyRuntim")

    # Step 4: Compute PyRuntime address in memory
    return base_address + section_rva

On Windows, accessing another process's memory requires using the Windows API functions like CreateToolhelp32Snapshot() and Module32First()/Module32Next() to enumerate loaded modules. The OpenProcess() function provides a handle to access the target process's memory space, enabling memory operations through ReadProcessMemory().

The process memory can be examined by enumerating loaded modules to find the Python binary or DLL. When found, its PE headers need to be parsed to locate the PyRuntime structure.

The PE format organizes code and data into sections. The PyRuntime structure lives in a section named "PyRuntim" (truncated from "PyRuntime" due to PE's 8-character name limit). The actual runtime address calculation involves finding the module's base address from the module entry, then locating our target section in the PE headers. The final address is computed by combining the base address with the section's virtual address from the PE section headers.

Note that accessing another process's memory on Windows typically requires appropriate privileges - either administrative access or the SeDebugPrivilege privilege granted to the debugging process.

Reading _Py_DebugOffsets

Once the address of the PyRuntime structure has been determined, the next step is to read the _Py_DebugOffsets structure located at the beginning of the PyRuntime block.

This structure provides version-specific field offsets that are needed to safely read interpreter and thread state memory. These offsets vary between CPython versions and must be checked before use to ensure they are compatible.

To read and check the debug offsets, follow these steps:

Read memory from the target process starting at the PyRuntime address, covering the same number of bytes as the _Py_DebugOffsets structure. This structure is located at the very start of the PyRuntime memory block. Its layout is defined in CPython’s internal headers and stays the same within a given minor version, but may change in major versions.

Check that the structure contains valid data:

The cookie field must match the expected debug marker.

The version field must match the version of the Python interpreter used by the debugger.

If either the debugger or the target process is using a pre-release version (for example, an alpha, beta, or release candidate), the versions must match exactly.

The free_threaded field must have the same value in both the debugger and the target process.

If the structure is valid, the offsets it contains can be used to locate fields in memory. If any check fails, the debugger should stop the operation to avoid reading memory in the wrong format.

The following is an example implementation that reads and checks _Py_DebugOffsets:

def read_debug_offsets(pid: int, py_runtime_addr: int) -> DebugOffsets:
    # Step 1: Read memory from the target process at the PyRuntime address
    data = read_process_memory(
        pid, address=py_runtime_addr, size=DEBUG_OFFSETS_SIZE
    )

    # Step 2: Deserialize the raw bytes into a _Py_DebugOffsets structure
    debug_offsets = parse_debug_offsets(data)

    # Step 3: Validate the contents of the structure
    if debug_offsets.cookie != EXPECTED_COOKIE:
        raise RuntimeError("Invalid or missing debug cookie")
    if debug_offsets.version != LOCAL_PYTHON_VERSION:
        raise RuntimeError(
            "Mismatch between caller and target Python versions"
        )
    if debug_offsets.free_threaded != LOCAL_FREE_THREADED:
        raise RuntimeError("Mismatch in free-threaded configuration")

    return debug_offsets

Avertissement

Process suspension recommended

To avoid race conditions and ensure memory consistency, it is strongly recommended that the target process be suspended before performing any operations that read or write internal interpreter state. The Python runtime may concurrently mutate interpreter data structures—such as creating or destroying threads—during normal execution. This can result in invalid memory reads or writes.

A debugger may suspend execution by attaching to the process with ptrace or by sending a SIGSTOP signal. Execution should only be resumed after debugger-side memory operations are complete.

Note

Some tools, such as profilers or sampling-based debuggers, may operate on a running process without suspension. In such cases, tools must be explicitly designed to handle partially updated or inconsistent memory. For most debugger implementations, suspending the process remains the safest and most robust approach.

Locating the interpreter and thread state

Before code can be injected and executed in a remote Python process, the debugger must choose a thread in which to schedule execution. This is necessary because the control fields used to perform remote code injection are located in the _PyRemoteDebuggerSupport structure, which is embedded in a PyThreadState object. These fields are modified by the debugger to request execution of injected scripts.

The PyThreadState structure represents a thread running inside a Python interpreter. It maintains the thread’s evaluation context and contains the fields required for debugger coordination. Locating a valid PyThreadState is therefore a key prerequisite for triggering execution remotely.

A thread is typically selected based on its role or ID. In most cases, the main thread is used, but some tools may target a specific thread by its native thread ID. Once the target thread is chosen, the debugger must locate both the interpreter and the associated thread state structures in memory.

The relevant internal structures are defined as follows:

PyInterpreterState represents an isolated Python interpreter instance. Each interpreter maintains its own set of imported modules, built-in state, and thread state list. Although most Python applications use a single interpreter, CPython supports multiple interpreters in the same process.

PyThreadState represents a thread running within an interpreter. It contains execution state and the control fields used by the debugger.

To locate a thread:

Use the offset runtime_state.interpreters_head to obtain the address of the first interpreter in the PyRuntime structure. This is the entry point to the linked list of active interpreters.

Use the offset interpreter_state.threads_main to access the main thread state associated with the selected interpreter. This is typically the most reliable thread to target.

Optionally, use the offset interpreter_state.threads_head to iterate through the linked list of all thread states. Each PyThreadState structure contains a native_thread_id field, which may be compared to a target thread ID to find a specific thread.

Once a valid PyThreadState has been found, its address can be used in later steps of the protocol, such as writing debugger control fields and scheduling execution.

The following is an example implementation that locates the main thread state:

def find_main_thread_state(
    pid: int, py_runtime_addr: int, debug_offsets: DebugOffsets,
) -> int:
    # Step 1: Read interpreters_head from PyRuntime
    interp_head_ptr = (
        py_runtime_addr + debug_offsets.runtime_state.interpreters_head
    )
    interp_addr = read_pointer(pid, interp_head_ptr)
    if interp_addr == 0:
        raise RuntimeError("No interpreter found in the target process")

    # Step 2: Read the threads_main pointer from the interpreter
    threads_main_ptr = (
        interp_addr + debug_offsets.interpreter_state.threads_main
    )
    thread_state_addr = read_pointer(pid, threads_main_ptr)
    if thread_state_addr == 0:
        raise RuntimeError("Main thread state is not available")

    return thread_state_addr

The following example demonstrates how to locate a thread by its native thread ID:

def find_thread_by_id(
    pid: int,
    interp_addr: int,
    debug_offsets: DebugOffsets,
    target_tid: int,
) -> int:
    # Start at threads_head and walk the linked list
    thread_ptr = read_pointer(
        pid,
        interp_addr + debug_offsets.interpreter_state.threads_head
    )

    while thread_ptr:
        native_tid_ptr = (
            thread_ptr + debug_offsets.thread_state.native_thread_id
        )
        native_tid = read_int(pid, native_tid_ptr)
        if native_tid == target_tid:
            return thread_ptr
        thread_ptr = read_pointer(
            pid,
            thread_ptr + debug_offsets.thread_state.next
        )

    raise RuntimeError("Thread with the given ID was not found")

Once a valid thread state has been located, the debugger can proceed with modifying its control fields and scheduling execution, as described in the next section.

Writing control information

Once a valid PyThreadState structure has been identified, the debugger may modify control fields within it to schedule the execution of a specified Python script. These control fields are checked periodically by the interpreter, and when set correctly, they trigger the execution of remote code at a safe point in the evaluation loop.

Each PyThreadState contains a _PyRemoteDebuggerSupport structure used for communication between the debugger and the interpreter. The locations of its fields are defined by the _Py_DebugOffsets structure and include the following:

debugger_script_path: A fixed-size buffer that holds the full path to a Python source file (.py). This file must be accessible and readable by the target process when execution is triggered.

debugger_pending_call: An integer flag. Setting this to 1 tells the interpreter that a script is ready to be executed.

eval_breaker: A field checked by the interpreter during execution. Setting bit 5 (_PY_EVAL_PLEASE_STOP_BIT, value 1U << 5) in this field causes the interpreter to pause and check for debugger activity.

To complete the injection, the debugger must perform the following steps:

Write the full script path into the debugger_script_path buffer.

Set debugger_pending_call to 1.

Read the current value of eval_breaker, set bit 5 (_PY_EVAL_PLEASE_STOP_BIT), and write the updated value back. This signals the interpreter to check for debugger activity.

The following is an example implementation:

def inject_script(
    pid: int,
    thread_state_addr: int,
    debug_offsets: DebugOffsets,
    script_path: str
) -> None:
    # Compute the base offset of _PyRemoteDebuggerSupport
    support_base = (
        thread_state_addr +
        debug_offsets.debugger_support.remote_debugger_support
    )

    # Step 1: Write the script path into debugger_script_path
    script_path_ptr = (
        support_base +
        debug_offsets.debugger_support.debugger_script_path
    )
    write_string(pid, script_path_ptr, script_path)

    # Step 2: Set debugger_pending_call to 1
    pending_ptr = (
        support_base +
        debug_offsets.debugger_support.debugger_pending_call
    )
    write_int(pid, pending_ptr, 1)

    # Step 3: Set _PY_EVAL_PLEASE_STOP_BIT (bit 5, value 1 << 5) in
    # eval_breaker
    eval_breaker_ptr = (
        thread_state_addr +
        debug_offsets.debugger_support.eval_breaker
    )
    breaker = read_int(pid, eval_breaker_ptr)
    breaker |= (1 << 5)
    write_int(pid, eval_breaker_ptr, breaker)

Once these fields are set, the debugger may resume the process (if it was suspended). The interpreter will process the request at the next safe evaluation point, load the script from disk, and execute it.

It is the responsibility of the debugger to ensure that the script file remains present and accessible to the target process during execution.

Note

Script execution is asynchronous. The script file cannot be deleted immediately after injection. The debugger should wait until the injected script has produced an observable effect before removing the file. This effect depends on what the script is designed to do. For example, a debugger might wait until the remote process connects back to a socket before removing the script. Once such an effect is observed, it is safe to assume the file is no longer needed.

Summary

To inject and execute a Python script in a remote process:

Locate the PyRuntime structure in the target process’s memory.

Read and validate the _Py_DebugOffsets structure at the beginning of PyRuntime.

Use the offsets to locate a valid PyThreadState.

Write the path to a Python script into debugger_script_path.

Set the debugger_pending_call flag to 1.

Set _PY_EVAL_PLEASE_STOP_BIT in the eval_breaker field.

Resume the process (if suspended). The script will execute at the next safe evaluation point.

Questions fréquemment posées sur Python

FAQ générale sur Python

FAQ de programmation

FAQ sur l'histoire et la conception

FAQ sur la bibliothèque et les extensions

FAQ extension/intégration

FAQ : Python et Windows

FAQ interface graphique

FAQ "Pourquoi Python est installé sur mon ordinateur ?"

FAQ générale sur Python

Sommaire

FAQ générale sur Python

Informations générales

Qu'est-ce que Python ?

Qu'est ce que la Python Software Foundation ?

Existe-t-il des restrictions liées à la propriété intellectuelle quant à l'utilisation de Python ?

Pourquoi Python a été créé ?

Pour quoi Python est-il fait ?

Comment fonctionne le numérotage des versions de Python ?

Comment obtenir une copie du code source de Python ?

Comment obtenir la documentation de Python ?

Je n'ai jamais programmé avant. Existe-t-il un tutoriel Python ?

Y a-t-il un forum ou une liste de diffusion dédié à Python ?

Comment obtenir une version bêta test de Python ?

Comment soumettre un rapport de bogues ou un correctif pour Python ?

Existe-t-il des articles publiés au sujet de Python auxquels je peux me référer ?

Y a-t-il des livres au sujet de Python ?

Où www.python.org est-il localisé dans le monde ?

Pourquoi le nom Python ?

Dois-je aimer "Monty Python's Flying Circus" ?

Python c'est le monde réel

Quel est le niveau de stabilité de Python ?

Combien de personnes utilisent Python ?

Y a-t-il un nombre de projets significatif réalisés en Python ?

Quelles sont les nouveautés en développement attendues pour Python ?

Est-il raisonnable de proposer des changements incompatibles dans Python ?

Existe-t-il un meilleur langage de programmation pour les programmeurs débutants ?

Informations générales

Qu'est-ce que Python ?

Python est un langage de programmation interprété, interactif et orienté objet. Il intègre des modules, des exceptions, un typage dynamique, des types de données dynamiques de très haut niveau et des classes. Il gère de multiples paradigmes de programmation au-delà de la programmation orientée objet, tels que la programmation procédurale et fonctionnelle. Python combine une puissance remarquable avec une syntaxe très claire. Il possède des interfaces avec de nombreux appels système et bibliothèques, ainsi qu'avec divers systèmes d'interfaces graphiques, et il peut être étendu avec du C ou du C++. Il est également utilisable comme langage d'extension pour les applications qui nécessitent une interface de programmation. Enfin, Python est portable : il fonctionne sur de nombreuses variantes d'Unix, y compris Linux et macOS, et sur Windows.

Pour en savoir plus, commencez par Le tutoriel Python. Le « Guide des Débutants pour Python [https://wiki.python.org/moin/BeginnersGuide] » renvoie vers d'autres tutoriels et ressources d'initiation pour apprendre Python.

Qu'est ce que la Python Software Foundation ?

La Python Software Foundation (PSF) est une organisation indépendante à but non lucratif qui détient les droits d'auteur sur les versions Python 2.1 et plus récentes. La mission de la PSF est de faire progresser les technologies ouvertes (open source) relatives au langage de programmation Python et de promouvoir son utilisation. Le page d'accueil de la PSF se trouve à l'adresse suivante : https://www.python.org/psf/.

Si vous utilisez Python et que vous le trouvez utile, merci de contribuer par le biais de la page de donation de la PSF [https://www.python.org/psf/donations/].

Existe-t-il des restrictions liées à la propriété intellectuelle quant à l'utilisation de Python ?

Vous pouvez faire ce que vous souhaitez avec la source, tant que vous respecterez la licence d'utilisation et que vous l'afficherez dans toute documentation que vous produirez au sujet de Python. Si vous respectez ces règles, vous pouvez utiliser Python dans un cadre commercial, vendre le code source ou la forme binaire (modifiée ou non), ou vendre des produits qui incorporent Python sous une forme quelconque. Bien entendu, nous souhaiterions avoir connaissance de tous les projets commerciaux utilisant Python.

See the license page [https://docs.python.org/3/license.html] to find further explanations and the full text of the PSF License.

Le logo de Python est une marque déposée, et dans certains cas une autorisation est nécessaire pour l'utiliser. Consultez la politique d'utilisation de la marque [https://www.python.org/psf/trademarks/] pour plus d'informations.

Pourquoi Python a été créé ?

Voici un très bref résumé de comment tout a commencé, écrit par Guido van Rossum (puis traduit en français) :

J'avais une expérience complète avec la mise en œuvre du langage interprété ABC au sein du CWI, et en travaillant dans ce groupe j'ai appris beaucoup à propos de la conception de langage. C'est l'origine de nombreuses fonctionnalités de Python, notamment l'utilisation de l'indentation pour le groupement et l'inclusion de types de très haut niveau (bien que dans les détails ils soient tous différents dans Python).

J'avais un certain nombre de différends avec le langage ABC, mais j'aimais aussi beaucoup de ses fonctionnalités. Il était impossible d'étendre le langage ABC (ou ses implémentations) pour remédier à mes réclamations -- en vérité le manque d'extensibilité était l'un des plus gros problème. J'avais un peu d'expérience avec l'utilisation de Modula-2+ et j'en ai parlé avec les concepteurs de Modula-3 et j'ai lu le rapport sur Modula-3. Modula-3 est à l'origine de la syntaxe et de la sémantique utilisée pour les exceptions, et quelques autres fonctionnalités en Python.

Je travaillais sur un groupe de systèmes d'exploitation distribués Amoeba au CWI. Nous avions besoin d'un meilleur moyen pour gérer l'administration système qu'écrire un programme en C ou en script Bourne shell, puisque l'Amoeba avait sa propre interface d'appels système qui n'était pas facilement accessible depuis les scripts Bourne shell. Mon expérience avec le traitement des erreurs dans l'Amoeba m'a vraiment fait prendre conscience de l'importance des exceptions en tant que fonctionnalité d'un langage de programmation.

Il m'est venu à l'esprit qu'un langage de script avec une syntaxe comme ABC mais avec un accès aux appels systèmes d'Amoeba remplirait les besoins. J'ai réalisé que ce serait idiot d'écrire un langage spécifique à Amoeba, donc j'ai décidé que j'avais besoin d'un langage qui serait généralement extensible.

Pendant les vacances de Noël 1989, j'avais beaucoup de temps à disposition, donc j'ai décidé de faire un essai. Durant l'année suivante, j'ai encore beaucoup travaillé dessus sur mon propre temps. Python a été utilisé dans le projet Amoeba avec un succès croissant, et les retours de mes collègues m'ont permis d'ajouter beaucoup des premières améliorations.

En Février 1991, juste après un peu plus d'un an de développement, j'ai décidé de le poster sur USENET. Le reste se trouve dans le fichier « Misc/HISTORY ».

Pour quoi Python est-il fait ?

Python est un langage de programmation haut niveau généraliste qui peut être utilisé pour pallier à différents problèmes.

Le langage vient avec une bibliothèque standard importante qui couvre des domaines tels que le traitement des chaînes de caractères (expressions régulières, Unicode, calcul de différences entre les fichiers), les protocoles internet (HTTP, FTP, SMTP, XML-RPC, POP, IMAP, script CGI), ingénierie logicielle (tests unitaires, enregistrement, analyse de code Python), et interfaces pour systèmes d'exploitation (appels système, système de fichiers, connecteurs TCP/IP). Regardez la table des matières La bibliothèque standard pour avoir une idée de ce qui est disponible. Une grande variété de greffons tiers existent aussi. Consultez le sommaire des paquets Python [https://pypi.org] pour trouver les paquets qui pourraient vous intéresser.

Comment fonctionne le numérotage des versions de Python ?

Python versions are numbered "A.B.C" or "A.B":

A is the major version number -- it is only incremented for really major changes in the language.

B is the minor version number -- it is incremented for less earth-shattering changes.

C is the micro version number -- it is incremented for each bugfix release.

Not all releases are bugfix releases. In the run-up to a new feature release, a series of development releases are made, denoted as alpha, beta, or release candidate. Alphas are early releases in which interfaces aren't yet finalized; it's not unexpected to see an interface change between two alpha releases. Betas are more stable, preserving existing interfaces but possibly adding new modules, and release candidates are frozen, making no changes except as needed to fix critical bugs.

Alpha, beta and release candidate versions have an additional suffix:

The suffix for an alpha version is "aN" for some small number N.

The suffix for a beta version is "bN" for some small number N.

The suffix for a release candidate version is "rcN" for some small number N.

In other words, all versions labeled 2.0aN precede the versions labeled 2.0bN, which precede versions labeled 2.0rcN, and those precede 2.0.

Vous pouvez aussi trouver des versions avec un signe « + » en suffixe, par exemple « 2.2+ ». Ces versions sont non distribuées, construites directement depuis le dépôt de développement de CPython. En pratique, après la sortie finale d'une version mineure, la version est augmentée à la prochaine version mineure, qui devient la version a0, c'est-à-dire 2.4a0.

See the Developer's Guide [https://devguide.python.org/developer-workflow/development-cycle/] for more information about the development cycle, and PEP 387 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0387/] to learn more about Python's backward compatibility policy. See also the documentation for sys.version, sys.hexversion, and sys.version_info.

Comment obtenir une copie du code source de Python ?

La dernière version du code source déployée est toujours disponible sur python.org, à https://www.python.org/downloads/. Le code source de la dernière version en développement peut être obtenue à https://github.com/python/cpython/.

Le code source est dans une archive gzippée au format tar, elle contient le code source C complet, la documentation formatée avec Sphinx, les libraires Python, des exemples de programmes, et plusieurs morceaux de code utiles distribuables librement. Le code source sera compilé et prêt à fonctionner immédiatement sur la plupart des plateformes UNIX.

Consultez la section Premiers pas du Guide des Développeurs Python [https://devguide.python.org/setup/] pour plus d'informations sur comment obtenir le code source et le compiler.

Comment obtenir la documentation de Python ?

The standard documentation for the current stable version of Python is available at https://docs.python.org/3/. EPUB, plain text, and downloadable HTML versions are also available at https://docs.python.org/3/download.html.

La documentation est écrite au format reStructuredText et traitée par l'outil de documentation Sphinx [https://sphinx-doc.org/]. La source du reStructuredText pour la documentation constitue une partie des sources de Python.

Je n'ai jamais programmé avant. Existe-t-il un tutoriel Python ?

Il y a de nombreux tutoriels et livres disponibles. La documentation standard inclut Le tutoriel Python.

Consultez le Guide du Débutant [https://wiki.python.org/moin/BeginnersGuide] afin de trouver des informations pour les développeurs Python débutants, incluant une liste de tutoriels.

Y a-t-il un forum ou une liste de diffusion dédié à Python ?

Il y a un forum, comp.lang.python et une liste de diffusion, python-list [https://mail.python.org/mailman/listinfo/python-list]. Le forum et la liste de diffusion sont des passerelles l'un vers l'autre -- si vous pouvez lire les news ce n'est pas inutile de souscrire à la liste de diffusion. comp.lang.python a beaucoup d'activité, il reçoit des centaines de messages chaque jour, et les lecteurs du réseau Usenet sont souvent plus capables de faire face à ce volume.

Announcements of new software releases and events can be found in comp.lang.python.announce, a low-traffic moderated list that receives about five postings per day. It's available as the python-announce mailing list [https://mail.python.org/mailman3/lists/python-announce-list.python.org/].

Plus d'informations à propos des autres listes de diffusion et forums peuvent être trouvées à https://www.python.org/community/lists/.

Comment obtenir une version bêta test de Python ?

Les versions alpha et bêta sont disponibles depuis https://www.python.org/downloads/. Toutes les versions sont annoncées sur les newsgroups comp.lang.python et comp.lang.python.announce ainsi que sur la page d'accueil de Python à https://www.python.org/; un flux RSS d'actualités y est aussi disponible.

Vous pouvez aussi accéder aux de Python en développement grâce à Git. Voir Le Guide du Développeur Python [https://devguide.python.org/] pour plus de détails.

Comment soumettre un rapport de bogues ou un correctif pour Python ?

Pour signaler un bogue ou soumettre un correctif, utilisez le système de suivi des problèmes à l'adresse https://github.com/python/cpython/issues.

Pour davantage d'informations sur comment Python est développé, consultez le Guide du Développeur Python [https://devguide.python.org/].

Existe-t-il des articles publiés au sujet de Python auxquels je peux me référer ?

C'est probablement mieux de vous référer à votre livre favori à propos de Python.

Le tout premier article [https://ir.cwi.nl/pub/18204] sur Python a été écrit en 1991 et est aujourd'hui assez dépassé.

Guido van Rossum et Jelke de Boer, « Interactively Testing Remote Servers Using the Python Programming Language », CWI Quarterly, Volume 4, Issue 4 (December 1991), Amsterdam, pp 283--303.

Y a-t-il des livres au sujet de Python ?

Oui, il y en a beaucoup, et d'autres sont en cours de publication. Voir le wiki python à https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonBooks pour avoir une liste.

Vous pouvez aussi chercher chez les revendeurs de livres en ligne avec le terme « Python » et éliminer les références concernant les Monty Python, ou peut-être faire une recherche avec les termes « langage » et « Python ».

Où www.python.org est-il localisé dans le monde ?

L'infrastructure du projet Python est située dans le monde entier et est gérée par l'équipe de l'infrastructure Python. Plus de détails ici [https://infra.psf.io].

Pourquoi le nom Python ?

Quand il a commencé à implémenter Python, Guido van Rossum a aussi lu le script publié par "Monty Python's Flying Circus" [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monty_Python], une série comique des années 1970 diffusée par la BBC. Van Rossum a pensé qu'il avait besoin d'un nom court, unique, et un peu mystérieux, donc il a décidé de l'appeler le langage Python.

Dois-je aimer "Monty Python's Flying Circus" ?

Non, mais ça peut aider. :)

Python c'est le monde réel

Quel est le niveau de stabilité de Python ?

Very stable. New, stable releases have been coming out roughly every 6 to 18 months since 1991, and this seems likely to continue. As of version 3.9, Python will have a new feature release every 12 months (PEP 602 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0602/]).

The developers issue bugfix releases of older versions, so the stability of existing releases gradually improves. Bugfix releases, indicated by a third component of the version number (e.g. 3.5.3, 3.6.2), are managed for stability; only fixes for known problems are included in a bugfix release, and it's guaranteed that interfaces will remain the same throughout a series of bugfix releases.

The latest stable releases can always be found on the Python download page [https://www.python.org/downloads/]. Python 3.x is the recommended version and supported by most widely used libraries. Python 2.x is not maintained anymore [https://peps.python.org/pep-0373/].

Combien de personnes utilisent Python ?

Il y a probablement des millions d'utilisateurs, bien qu'il soit difficile d'en déterminer le nombre exact.

Python est disponible en téléchargement gratuit, donc il n'y a pas de chiffres de ventes, il est disponible depuis de nombreux sites différents et il est inclus avec de beaucoup de distributions Linux, donc les statistiques de téléchargement ne donnent pas la totalité non plus.

Le forum comp.lang.python est très actif, mais tous les utilisateurs de Python ne laissent pas de messages dessus ou même ne le lisent pas.

Y a-t-il un nombre de projets significatif réalisés en Python ?

Voir https://www.python.org/about/success pour avoir une liste des projets qui utilisent Python. En consultant les comptes-rendus des conférences Python précédentes [https://www.python.org/community/workshops/] il s'avère que les contributions proviennent de nombreux organismes et entreprises divers.

Les projets Python les plus connus incluent Mailman mailing list manager [https://www.list.org] et l'application serveur Zope [https://www.zope.org]. Plusieurs distributions Linux, notamment Red Hat [https://www.redhat.com], qui a écrit tout ou partie de son installateur et de son logiciel d'administration système en Python. Les entreprises qui utilisent Python en interne comprennent Google, Yahoo, et Lucasfilm Ltd.

Quelles sont les nouveautés en développement attendues pour Python ?

Regardez les propositions d'amélioration de Python (« Python Enhancement Proposals », ou PEP) sur https://peps.python.org/. Les PEP sont des documents techniques qui décrivent une nouvelle fonctionnalité qui a été suggérée pour Python, en fournissant une spécification technique concise et logique. Recherchez une PEP intitulée "Python X.Y Release Schedule", où X.Y est la version qui n'a pas encore été publiée.

New development is discussed on the python-dev mailing list [https://mail.python.org/mailman3/lists/python-dev.python.org/].

Est-il raisonnable de proposer des changements incompatibles dans Python ?

En général, non. Il y a déjà des millions de lignes de code de Python tout autour du monde, donc n'importe quel changement dans le langage qui rend invalide ne serait-ce qu'une très petite fraction du code de programmes existants doit être désapprouvé. Même si vous pouvez fournir un programme de conversion, il y a toujours des problèmes de mise à jour dans toutes les documentations, beaucoup de livres ont été écrits au sujet de Python, et nous ne voulons pas les rendre invalides soudainement.

En fournissant un rythme de mise à jour progressif qui est obligatoire si une fonctionnalité doit être changée.

Existe-t-il un meilleur langage de programmation pour les programmeurs débutants ?

Oui.

Il reste commun pour les étudiants de commencer avec un langage procédural et à typage statique comme le Pascal, le C, ou un sous-ensemble du C++ ou Java. Les étudiants pourraient être mieux servis en apprenant Python comme premier langage. Python a une syntaxe très simple et cohérente ainsi qu'une vaste libraire standard, plus important encore, utiliser Python dans les cours d'initiation à la programmation permet aux étudiants de se concentrer sur les compétences de programmation les cruciales comme les problèmes de découpage et d'architecture. Avec Python, les étudiants peuvent rapidement aborder des concepts fondamentaux comme les boucles et les procédures. Ils peuvent même probablement travailler avec des objets définis dans leurs premiers cours.

Pour un étudiant qui n'a jamais programmé avant, utiliser un langage à typage statique peut sembler contre-nature. Cela représente une complexité additionnelle que l'étudiant doit maîtriser ce qui ralentit le cours. Les étudiants essaient d'apprendre à penser comme un ordinateur, décomposer les problèmes, établir une architecture propre, et résumer les données. Apprendre à utiliser un langage typé statiquement est important sur le long terme, ce n'est pas nécessairement la meilleure idée pour s'adresser aux étudiants durant leur tout premier cours.

De nombreux autres aspects de Python en font un bon premier langage. Comme Java, Python a une large bibliothèque standard donc les étudiants peuvent être assigner à la programmation de projets très tôt dans leur apprentissage qui fait quelque chose. Les missions ne sont pas restreintes aux quatre fonction standards. En utilisant la bibliothèque standard, les étudiants peuvent ressentir de la satisfaction en travaillant sur des applications réalistes alors qu'ils apprennent les fondamentaux de la programmation. Utiliser la bibliothèque standard apprend aussi aux étudiants la réutilisation de code. Les modules tiers tels que PyGame sont aussi très utiles pour étendre les compétences des étudiants.

L'interpréteur interactif de Python permet aux étudiants de tester les fonctionnalités du langage pendant qu'ils programment. Ils peuvent garder une fenêtre avec l'interpréteur en fonctionnement pendant qu'ils rentrent la source de leur programme dans une autre fenêtre. S'ils ne peuvent pas se souvenir des méthodes pour une liste, ils peuvent faire quelque chose comme ça :

>>> L = []
>>> dir(L)
['__add__', '__class__', '__contains__', '__delattr__', '__delitem__',
'__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__', '__ge__',
'__getattribute__', '__getitem__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__iadd__',
'__imul__', '__init__', '__iter__', '__le__', '__len__', '__lt__',
'__mul__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__',
'__repr__', '__reversed__', '__rmul__', '__setattr__', '__setitem__',
'__sizeof__', '__str__', '__subclasshook__', 'append', 'clear',
'copy', 'count', 'extend', 'index', 'insert', 'pop', 'remove',
'reverse', 'sort']
>>> [d for d in dir(L) if '__' not in d]
['append', 'clear', 'copy', 'count', 'extend', 'index', 'insert', 'pop', 'remove', 'reverse', 'sort']

>>> help(L.append)
Help on built-in function append:

append(...)
    L.append(object) -> None -- append object to end

>>> L.append(1)
>>> L
[1]

Avec l'interpréteur, la documentation n'est jamais loin des étudiants quand ils travaillent.

Il y a aussi de bons environnements de développement intégrés (EDIs) pour Python. IDLE est un EDI multiplateformes pour Python qui est écrit en Python en utilisant Tkinter. Les utilisateurs d'Emacs seront heureux d'apprendre qu'il y a un très bon mode Python pour Emacs. Tous ces environnements de développement intégrés fournissent la coloration syntaxique, l'auto-indentation, et l'accès à l'interpréteur interactif durant le codage. Consultez le wiki Python [https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonEditors] pour une liste complète des environnements de développement intégrés.

Si vous voulez discuter de l'usage de Python dans l'éducation, vous devriez intéressé pour rejoindre la liste de diffusion pour l'enseignement [https://www.python.org/community/sigs/current/edu-sig].

FAQ de programmation

Sommaire

FAQ de programmation

General questions

Is there a source code-level debugger with breakpoints and single-stepping?

Existe-t-il des outils pour aider à trouver des bogues ou faire de l'analyse statique de code ?

Comment créer un binaire autonome à partir d'un script Python ?

Existe-t-il des normes de développement ou un guide de style pour écrire des programmes Python ?

Core language

Pourquoi une UnboundLocalError est levée alors qu'une variable a une valeur ?

Quelles sont les règles pour les variables locales et globales en Python ?

Pourquoi des expressions lambda définies dans une boucle avec des valeurs différentes retournent-elles le même résultat ?

Comment partager des variables globales entre modules ?

Quelles sont les « bonnes pratiques » pour utiliser import dans un module ?

Pourquoi les arguments par défaut sont-ils partagés entre les objets ?

Comment passer des paramètres optionnels ou nommés d'une fonction à l'autre ?

Quelle est la différence entre les arguments et les paramètres ?

Pourquoi modifier la liste 'y' modifie aussi la liste 'x' ?

Comment écrire une fonction qui modifie ses paramètres ? (passage par référence)

Comment construire une fonction d'ordre supérieur en Python ?

Comment copier un objet en Python ?

Comment récupérer les méthodes ou les attributs d'un objet ?

Comment un code peut-il obtenir le nom d'un objet ?

Qu'en est-il de la précédence de l'opérateur virgule ?

Existe-t-il un équivalent à l'opérateur ternaire « ?: » du C ?

Est-il possible d'écrire des programmes obscurcis (obfuscated) d'une ligne en Python ?

Que signifie la barre oblique (/) dans la liste des paramètres d'une fonction ?

Nombres et chaînes de caractères

Comment écrire des entiers hexadécimaux ou octaux ?

Pourquoi -22 // 10 donne-t-il -3 ?

Pourquoi ai-je une erreur de syntaxe en essayant de lire un attribut d'un entier littéral ?

Comment convertir une chaîne de caractères en nombre ?

Comment convertir un nombre en chaîne de caractères ?

Comment modifier une chaîne de caractères « sur place » ?

Comment utiliser des chaînes de caractères pour appeler des fonctions/méthodes ?

Is there an equivalent to Perl's chomp() for removing trailing newlines from strings?

Is there a scanf() or sscanf() equivalent?

What does UnicodeDecodeError or UnicodeEncodeError error mean?

Can I end a raw string with an odd number of backslashes?

Performances

Mon programme est trop lent. Comment l'accélérer ?

Quelle est la manière la plus efficace de concaténer un grand nombre de chaînes de caractères ?

Sequences (tuples/lists)

Comment convertir les listes en n-uplets et inversement ?

Qu'est-ce qu'un indice négatif ?

Comment itérer à rebours sur une séquence ?

Comment retirer les doublons d'une liste ?

How do you remove multiple items from a list?

Comment construire un tableau en Python ?

Comment créer une liste à plusieurs dimensions ?

Comment appliquer une méthode ou une fonction à une séquence d'objets ?

Pourquoi a_tuple[i] += ['item'] lève-t-il une exception alors que l'addition fonctionne ?

Je souhaite faire un classement compliqué : peut-on faire une transformation de Schwartz en Python ?

Comment ordonner une liste en fonction des valeurs d'une autre liste ?

Objets

Qu'est-ce qu'une classe ?

Qu'est-ce qu'une méthode ?

Qu'est-ce que self ?

Comment vérifier si un objet est une instance d'une classe donnée ou d'une sous-classe de celle-ci ?

Qu'est-ce que la délégation ?

Comment appeler une méthode définie dans une classe mère depuis une classe dérivée qui la surcharge ?

Comment organiser un code pour permettre de changer la classe mère plus facilement ?

Comment créer des données statiques de classe et des méthodes statiques de classe ?

Comment surcharger les constructeurs (ou méthodes) en Python ?

J'essaie d'utiliser __spam et j'obtiens une erreur à propos de _SomeClassName__spam.

Ma classe définit __del__ mais elle n'est pas appelée lorsque je supprime l'objet.

Comment obtenir toutes les instances d'une classe ?

Pourquoi le résultat de id() peut-il être le même pour deux objets différents ?

Quand puis-je raisonnablement utiliser le test d'identité is ?

Comment définir dans une classe fille les attributs d'une instance immuable ?

Comment mettre en cache le résultat d'une méthode ?

Modules

Comment créer des fichiers .pyc ?

Comment obtenir le nom du module actuel ?

Comment avoir des modules qui s'importent mutuellement ?

__import__('x.y.z') renvoie <module 'x'> ; comment accéder à z ?

Quand j'édite un module et que je le réimporte, je ne vois pas les changements. Pourquoi ?

General questions

Is there a source code-level debugger with breakpoints and single-stepping?

Oui.

Plusieurs débogueurs sont décrits ci-dessous et la fonction native breakpoint() permet d'utiliser n'importe lequel d'entre eux.

Le module pdb est un débogueur console simple, mais parfaitement adapté à Python. Il fait partie de la bibliothèque standard de Python, sa documentation se trouve dans le manuel de référence. Vous pouvez vous inspirer du code de pdb pour écrire votre propre débogueur.

The IDLE interactive development environment, which is part of the standard Python distribution (normally available as idlelib), includes a graphical debugger.

PythonWin est un environnement de développement intégré (EDI) Python qui embarque un débogueur graphique basé sur pdb. Le débogueur PythonWin colore les points d'arrêts et possède quelques fonctionnalités sympathiques, comme la possibilité de déboguer des programmes développés sans PythonWin. PythonWin est disponible dans le projet pywin32 [https://github.com/mhammond/pywin32] et fait partie de la distribution ActivePython [https://www.activestate.com/products/python/].

Eric [https://eric-ide.python-projects.org/] est un EDI basé sur PyQt et l'outil d'édition Scintilla.

trepan3k [https://github.com/rocky/python3-trepan/] est un débogueur semblable à GDB.

Visual Studio Code [https://code.visualstudio.com/] est un EDI qui contient des outils de débogage. Il sait interagir avec les outils de gestion de versions.

Il existe de nombreux EDI Python propriétaires qui embarquent un débogueur graphique, notamment :

Wing IDE [https://wingware.com/] ;

PyCharm [https://www.jetbrains.com/pycharm/] ;

Existe-t-il des outils pour aider à trouver des bogues ou faire de l'analyse statique de code ?

Oui.

Ruff [https://docs.astral.sh/ruff/], Pylint [https://pylint.readthedocs.io/] and Pyflakes [https://github.com/PyCQA/pyflakes] do basic checking that will help you catch bugs sooner.

Static type checkers such as mypy [https://mypy-lang.org/], ty [https://docs.astral.sh/ty/], Pyrefly [https://pyrefly.org/], and pytype [https://github.com/google/pytype] can check type hints in Python source code.

Comment créer un binaire autonome à partir d'un script Python ?

Pour créer un programme autonome, c'est-à-dire un programme que n'importe qui peut télécharger et exécuter sans avoir à installer une distribution Python au préalable, il n'est pas nécessaire de compiler du code Python en code C. Il existe en effet plusieurs outils qui déterminent les modules requis par un programme et lient ces modules avec un binaire Python pour produire un seul exécutable.

One is to use the freeze tool, which is included in the Python source tree as Tools/freeze [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Tools/freeze]. It converts Python byte code to C arrays; with a C compiler you can embed all your modules into a new program, which is then linked with the standard Python modules.

Il fonctionne en cherchant de manière récursive les instructions d'importation (sous les deux formes) dans le code source et en recherchant ces modules dans le chemin Python standard ainsi que dans le répertoire source (pour les modules natifs). Il transforme ensuite le code intermédiaire des modules écrits en Python en code C (des tableaux pré-remplis qui peuvent être transformés en objets code à l'aide du module marshal) et crée un fichier de configuration personnalisé qui contient uniquement les modules natifs qui sont réellement utilisés dans le programme. Il compile ensuite le code C généré et le lie au reste de l'interpréteur Python pour former un binaire autonome qui fait exactement la même chose que le script.

Voici quelques paquets qui permettent de créer des exécutables en ligne de commande comme graphiques :

Nuitka [https://nuitka.net/] (multiplateformes) ;

PyInstaller [https://pyinstaller.org/] (Cross-platform)

PyOxidizer [https://pyoxidizer.readthedocs.io/en/stable/] (multi-plateforme) ;

cx_Freeze [https://marcelotduarte.github.io/cx_Freeze/] (multi-plateforme) ;

py2app [https://github.com/ronaldoussoren/py2app] (uniquement pour macOS) ;

py2exe [https://www.py2exe.org/] (uniquement pour Windows).

Existe-t-il des normes de développement ou un guide de style pour écrire des programmes Python ?

Oui. Le style de développement que les modules de la bibliothèque standard doivent obligatoirement respecter est documenté dans la PEP 8 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/].

Core language

Pourquoi une UnboundLocalError est levée alors qu'une variable a une valeur ?

Il est parfois surprenant d'obtenir une UnboundLocalError dans du code jusqu'à présent correct, quand celui-ci est modifié en ajoutant une instruction d'affectation quelque part dans le corps d'une fonction.

Le code suivant :

>>> x = 10
>>> def bar():
...     print(x)
...
>>> bar()
10

fonctionne, mais le suivant :

>>> x = 10
>>> def foo():
...     print(x)
...     x += 1

results in an UnboundLocalError:

>>> foo()
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
UnboundLocalError: cannot access local variable 'x' where it is not associated with a value

Cela est dû au fait que, quand une variable est affectée dans un contexte, cette variable devient locale à ce contexte et remplace toute variable du même nom du contexte appelant. Vu que la dernière instruction dans foo affecte une nouvelle valeur à x, le compilateur la traite comme une nouvelle variable. Par conséquent, quand le print(x) essaye d'afficher la variable non initialisée, une erreur se produit.

Dans l'exemple ci-dessus, la variable du contexte appelant reste accessible en la déclarant globale :

>>> x = 10
>>> def foobar():
...     global x
...     print(x)
...     x += 1
...
>>> foobar()
10

Cette déclaration explicite est obligatoire pour se rappeler que (contrairement au cas à peu près similaire avec des variables de classe et d'instance), c'est la valeur de la variable du contexte appelant qui est modifiée :

>>> print(x)
11

Une alternative dans un contexte imbriqué consiste à utiliser le mot-clé nonlocal :

>>> def foo():
...    x = 10
...    def bar():
...        nonlocal x
...        print(x)
...        x += 1
...    bar()
...    print(x)
...
>>> foo()
10
11

Quelles sont les règles pour les variables locales et globales en Python ?

En Python, si une variable n'est pas modifiée dans une fonction mais seulement lue, elle est implicitement considérée comme globale. Si une valeur lui est affectée, elle est considérée locale (sauf si elle est explicitement déclarée globale).

Bien que surprenant au premier abord, ce choix s'explique facilement. D'une part, exiger global pour des variables affectées est une protection contre des effets de bord inattendus. D'autre part, si global était obligatoire pour toutes les références à des objets globaux, il faudrait mettre global partout, car il faudrait dans ce cas déclarer globale chaque référence à une fonction native ou à un composant d'un module importé. Le codé serait alors truffé de déclarations global, ce qui nuirait à leur raison d'être : identifier les effets de bords.

Pourquoi des expressions lambda définies dans une boucle avec des valeurs différentes retournent-elles le même résultat ?

Assume you use a for loop to define a few different lambdas (or even plain functions), for example:

>>> squares = []
>>> for x in range(5):
...     squares.append(lambda: x**2)

Le code précédent crée une liste de 5 expressions lambda qui calculent chacune x**2. En les exécutant, on pourrait s'attendre à obtenir 0, 1, 4, 9 et 16. Elles renvoient en réalité toutes 16 :

>>> squares[2]()
16
>>> squares[4]()
16

This happens because x is not local to the lambdas, but is defined in the outer scope, and it is accessed when the lambda is called --- not when it is defined. At the end of the loop, the value of x is 4, so all the functions now return 4**2, that is 16. You can also verify this by changing the value of x and see how the results of the lambdas change:

>>> x = 8
>>> squares[2]()
64

Pour éviter ce phénomène, les valeurs doivent être stockées dans des variables locales aux expressions lambda pour que celles-ci ne se basent plus sur la variable globale x :

>>> squares = []
>>> for x in range(5):
...     squares.append(lambda n=x: n**2)

Dans ce code, n=x crée une nouvelle variable n, locale à l'expression. Cette variable est évaluée quand l'expression est définie donc n a la même valeur que x à ce moment. La valeur de n est donc 0 dans la première lambda, 1 dans la deuxième, 2 dans la troisième et ainsi de suite. Chaque expression lambda renvoie donc le résultat correct :

>>> squares[2]()
4
>>> squares[4]()
16

Ce comportement n'est pas propre aux expressions lambda, mais s'applique aussi aux fonctions normales.

Comment partager des variables globales entre modules ?

La manière standard de partager des informations entre modules d'un même programme est de créer un module spécial (souvent appelé config ou cfg) et de l'importer dans tous les modules de l'application ; le module devient accessible depuis l'espace de nommage global. Vu qu'il n'y a qu'une instance de chaque module, tout changement dans l'instance est propagé partout. Par exemple :

config.py :

x = 0   # Default value of the 'x' configuration setting

mod.py :

import config
config.x = 1

main.py :

import config
import mod
print(config.x)

Pour les mêmes raisons, l'utilisation d'un module est aussi à la base de l'implémentation du patron de conception singleton.

Quelles sont les « bonnes pratiques » pour utiliser import dans un module ?

De manière générale, il ne faut pas faire from modulename import *. Ceci encombre l'espace de nommage de l'importateur et rend la détection de noms non-définis beaucoup plus ardue pour les analyseurs de code.

Les modules doivent être importés au début d'un fichier. Ceci permet d'afficher clairement de quels modules le code à besoin et évite de se demander si le module est dans le contexte. Faire un seul import par ligne rend l'ajout et la suppression d'une importation de module plus aisé, mais importer plusieurs modules sur une même ligne prend moins d'espace.

Il est recommandé d'importer les modules dans l'ordre suivant :

standard library modules -- such as sys, os, argparse, re

third-party library modules (anything installed in Python's site-packages directory) -- such as dateutil [https://pypi.org/project/dateutil/], requests [https://pypi.org/project/requests/], tzdata [https://pypi.org/project/tzdata/]

les modules développés en local

Il est parfois nécessaire de déplacer des importations dans une fonction ou une classe pour éviter les problèmes d'importations circulaires. Comme le souligne Gordon McMillan :

Il n'y a aucun souci à faire des importations circulaires tant que les deux modules utilisent la forme import <module>. Ça ne pose problème que si le second module cherche à récupérer un nom du premier module ("from module import name") et que l'importation est dans l'espace de nommage du fichier. Les noms du premier module ne sont en effet pas encore disponibles car le premier module est occupé à importer le second.

Dans ce cas, si le second module n'est utilisé que dans une fonction, l'importation peut facilement être déplacée dans cette fonction. Au moment où l'importation sera appelée, le premier module aura fini de s'initialiser et le second pourra faire son importation.

Il peut parfois être nécessaire de déplacer des importations de modules hors de l'espace de plus haut niveau du code si certains de ces modules dépendent de la machine utilisée. Dans ce cas de figure, il est parfois impossible d'importer tous les modules au début du fichier. Dans ce cas, il est recommandé d'importer les modules adéquats dans le code spécifique à la machine.

Les importations ne devraient être déplacées dans un espace de nommage local, comme dans la définition d'une fonction, que si cela est nécessaire pour résoudre un problème comme éviter des dépendances circulaires ou réduire le temps d'initialisation d'un module. Cette technique est particulièrement utile si la majorité des importations est superflue selon le flux d'exécution du programme. Il est également pertinent de déplacer des importations dans une fonction si le module n'est utilisé qu'au sein de cette fonction. Le premier chargement d'un module peut être coûteux à cause du coût fixe d'initialisation d'un module, mais charger un module plusieurs fois est quasiment gratuit, cela ne coûte que quelques indirections dans un dictionnaire. Même si le nom du module est sorti du contexte courant, le module est probablement disponible dans sys.modules.

Pourquoi les arguments par défaut sont-ils partagés entre les objets ?

C'est un problème que rencontrent souvent les programmeurs débutants. Examinons la fonction suivante :

def foo(mydict={}):  # Danger: shared reference to one dict for all calls
    ... compute something ...
    mydict[key] = value
    return mydict

Au premier appel de cette fonction, mydict ne contient qu'un seul élément. Au second appel, mydict contient deux éléments car quand foo() commence son exécution, mydict contient déjà un élément.

On est souvent amené à croire qu'un appel de fonction créé des nouveaux objets pour les valeurs par défaut. Ce n'est pas le cas. Les valeurs par défaut ne sont créées qu'une et une seule fois, au moment où la fonction est définie. Si l'objet est modifié, comme le dictionnaire dans cet exemple, les appels suivants à cette fonction font référence à l'objet ainsi modifié.

Par définition, les objets immuables comme les nombres, les chaînes de caractères, les n-uplets et None ne sont pas modifiés. Les changements sur des objets modifiables comme les dictionnaires, les listes et les instances de classe peuvent porter à confusion.

En raison de cette fonctionnalité, il vaut mieux ne pas utiliser d'objets modifiables comme valeurs par défaut. Il vaut mieux utiliser None comme valeur par défaut et, à l'intérieur de la fonction, vérifier si le paramètre est à None et créer une nouvelle liste, dictionnaire ou autre, le cas échéant. Par exemple, il ne faut pas écrire :

def foo(mydict={}):
    ...

mais plutôt :

def foo(mydict=None):
    if mydict is None:
        mydict = {}  # create a new dict for local namespace

Cette fonctionnalité a une utilité. Il est courant de mettre en cache les paramètres et la valeur de retour de chacun des appels d'une fonction coûteuse à exécuter, et de renvoyer la valeur stockée en cache si le même appel est ré-effectué. C'est la technique dite de « mémoïsation », qui s'implémente de la manière suivante :

# Callers can only provide two parameters and optionally pass _cache by keyword
def expensive(arg1, arg2, *, _cache={}):
    if (arg1, arg2) in _cache:
        return _cache[(arg1, arg2)]

    # Calculate the value
    result = ... expensive computation ...
    _cache[(arg1, arg2)] = result           # Store result in the cache
    return result

Il est possible d'utiliser une variable globale contenant un dictionnaire à la place de la valeur par défaut ; ce n'est qu'une question de goût.

Comment passer des paramètres optionnels ou nommés d'une fonction à l'autre ?

Il faut récupérer les arguments en utilisant les sélecteurs * et ** dans la liste des paramètres de la fonction ; ceci donne les arguments positionnels sous la forme d'un n-uplet et les arguments nommés sous forme de dictionnaire. Ces arguments peuvent être passés à une autre fonction en utilisant * et ** :

def f(x, *args, **kwargs):
    ...
    kwargs['width'] = '14.3c'
    ...
    g(x, *args, **kwargs)

Quelle est la différence entre les arguments et les paramètres ?

Les paramètres sont les noms qui apparaissent dans une définition de fonction, alors que les arguments sont les valeurs qui sont réellement passées à une fonction lors de l'appel de celle-ci. Les paramètres définissent les types d'arguments qu'une fonction accepte. Ainsi, avec la définition de fonction suivante :

def func(foo, bar=None, **kwargs):
    pass

foo, bar et kwargs sont des paramètres de func. Mais à l'appel de func avec, par exemple :

func(42, bar=314, extra=somevar)

les valeurs 42, 314, et somevar sont des arguments.

Pourquoi modifier la liste 'y' modifie aussi la liste 'x' ?

Si vous avez écrit du code comme :

>>> x = []
>>> y = x
>>> y.append(10)
>>> y
[10]
>>> x
[10]

vous vous demandez peut-être pourquoi l'ajout d'un élément à y a aussi changé x.

Il y a deux raisons qui conduisent à ce comportement :

Les variables ne sont que des noms qui font référence à des objets. La ligne y = x ne crée pas une copie de la liste — elle crée une nouvelle variable y qui pointe sur le même objet que x. Ceci signifie qu'il n'existe qu'un seul objet (la liste) auquel x et y font référence.

Les listes sont des mutable, ce qui signifie que leur contenu peut être modifié.

After the call to append(), the content of the mutable object has changed from [] to [10]. Since both the variables refer to the same object, using either name accesses the modified value [10].

Si au contraire, on affecte un objet immuable à x :

>>> x = 5  # ints are immutable
>>> y = x
>>> x = x + 1  # 5 can't be mutated, we are creating a new object here
>>> x
6
>>> y
5

on observe que x et y ne sont ici plus égales. Les entiers sont des immuables (immutable), et x = x + 1 ne change pas l'entier 5 en incrémentant sa valeur. Au contraire, un nouvel objet est créé (l'entier 6) et affecté à x (c'est-à-dire qu'on change l'objet auquel fait référence x). Après cette affectation on a deux objets (les entiers 6 et 5) et deux variables qui font référence à ces deux objets (x fait désormais référence à 6 mais y fait toujours référence à 5).

Certaines opérations (par exemple, y.append(10) et y.sort()) modifient l'objet, alors que des opérations identiques en apparence (par exemple y = y + [10] et sorted(y)()) créent un nouvel objet. En général, en Python, une méthode qui modifie un objet renvoie None (c'est même systématique dans la bibliothèque standard) pour éviter la confusion entre les deux opérations. Donc écrire par erreur y.sort() en pensant obtenir une copie triée de y donne None, ce qui conduit très souvent le programme à générer une erreur facile à diagnostiquer.

Il existe cependant une classe d'opérations qui se comporte différemment selon le type : les opérateurs d'affectation incrémentaux. Par exemple, += modifie les listes mais pas les n-uplets ni les entiers (a_list += [1, 2, 3] équivaut à a_list.extend([1, 2, 3]) et modifie a_list, alors que some_tuple += (1, 2, 3) et some_int += 1 créent de nouveaux objets).

En d'autres termes :

If we have a mutable object (such as list, dict, set), we can use some specific operations to mutate it and all the variables that refer to it will see the change.

If we have an immutable object (such as str, int, tuple), all the variables that refer to it will always see the same value, but operations that transform that value into a new value always return a new object.

L'opérateur is ou la fonction native id() permettent de savoir si deux variables font référence au même objet.

Comment écrire une fonction qui modifie ses paramètres ? (passage par référence)

Remember that arguments are passed by assignment in Python. Since assignment just creates references to objects, there's no alias between an argument name in the caller and callee, and consequently no call-by-reference. You can achieve the desired effect in a number of ways.

En renvoyant un n-uplet de résultats :

>>> def func1(a, b):
...     a = 'new-value'        # a and b are local names
...     b = b + 1              # assigned to new objects
...     return a, b            # return new values
...
>>> x, y = 'old-value', 99
>>> func1(x, y)
('new-value', 100)

C'est presque toujours la meilleure solution.

En utilisant des variables globales. Cette approche ne fonctionne pas dans des contextes à plusieurs fils d'exécution (elle n'est pas thread-safe), et n'est donc pas recommandée.

En passant un objet mutable (modifiable sur place) :

>>> def func2(a):
...     a[0] = 'new-value'     # 'a' references a mutable list
...     a[1] = a[1] + 1        # changes a shared object
...
>>> args = ['old-value', 99]
>>> func2(args)
>>> args
['new-value', 100]

En passant un dictionnaire, qui sera modifié :

>>> def func3(args):
...     args['a'] = 'new-value'     # args is a mutable dictionary
...     args['b'] = args['b'] + 1   # change it in-place
...
>>> args = {'a': 'old-value', 'b': 99}
>>> func3(args)
>>> args
{'a': 'new-value', 'b': 100}

Ou regrouper les valeurs dans une instance de classe :

>>> class Namespace:
...     def __init__(self, /, **args):
...         for key, value in args.items():
...             setattr(self, key, value)
...
>>> def func4(args):
...     args.a = 'new-value'        # args is a mutable Namespace
...     args.b = args.b + 1         # change object in-place
...
>>> args = Namespace(a='old-value', b=99)
>>> func4(args)
>>> vars(args)
{'a': 'new-value', 'b': 100}

Faire quelque chose d'aussi compliqué est rarement une bonne idée.

La meilleure option reste de renvoyer un n-uplet contenant les différents résultats.

Comment construire une fonction d'ordre supérieur en Python ?

Deux possibilités : on peut utiliser des portées imbriquées ou bien des objets appelables. Par exemple, supposons que l'on souhaite définir linear(a, b) qui renvoie une fonction f(x) qui calcule la valeur a*x+b. En utilisant les portées imbriquées :

def linear(a, b):
    def result(x):
        return a * x + b
    return result

Ou en utilisant un objet appelable :

class linear:

    def __init__(self, a, b):
        self.a, self.b = a, b

    def __call__(self, x):
        return self.a * x + self.b

Dans les deux cas

taxes = linear(0.3, 2)

donne un objet appelable où taxes(10e6) == 0.3 * 10e6 + 2.

L'approche par objet appelable a le désavantage d'être légèrement plus lente et de produire un code légèrement plus long. Cependant, il faut noter qu'une collection d'objet appelables peuvent partager leurs signatures par héritage :

class exponential(linear):
    # __init__ inherited
    def __call__(self, x):
        return self.a * (x ** self.b)

Les objets peuvent encapsuler un état pour plusieurs méthodes :

class counter:

    value = 0

    def set(self, x):
        self.value = x

    def up(self):
        self.value = self.value + 1

    def down(self):
        self.value = self.value - 1

count = counter()
inc, dec, reset = count.up, count.down, count.set

Ici inc(), dec() et reset() agissent comme des fonctions partageant une même variable compteur.

Comment copier un objet en Python ?

En général, essayez copy.copy() ou copy.deepcopy(). Tous les objets ne peuvent pas être copiés, mais la plupart le peuvent.

Certains objets peuvent être copiés plus facilement que d'autres. Les dictionnaires ont une méthode copy() :

newdict = olddict.copy()

Les séquences peuvent être copiées via la syntaxe des tranches :

new_l = l[:]

Comment récupérer les méthodes ou les attributs d'un objet ?

Pour une instance x d'une classe définie par un utilisateur, dir(x) renvoie une liste alphabétique des noms contenants les attributs de l'instance, et les attributs et méthodes définies par sa classe.

Comment un code peut-il obtenir le nom d'un objet ?

C'est impossible en général, parce qu'un objet n'a pas de nom à proprement parler. Schématiquement, l'affectation fait correspondre un nom à une valeur ; c'est vrai aussi pour les instructions def et class, à la différence près que, dans ce cas, la valeur est un appelable. Par exemple, dans le code suivant :

>>> class A:
...     pass
...
>>> B = A
>>> a = B()
>>> b = a
>>> print(b)
<__main__.A object at 0x16D07CC>
>>> print(a)
<__main__.A object at 0x16D07CC>

Affirmer que la classe a un nom est discutable. Bien qu'elle soit liée à deux noms, et qu'elle soit appelée via le nom B, l'instance créée déclare tout de même être une instance de la classe A. De même, il est impossible de dire si le nom de l'instance est a ou b, les deux noms étant attachés à la même valeur.

De façon générale, une application ne devrait pas avoir besoin de « connaître le nom » d'une valeur particulière. À moins d'être délibérément en train d'écrire un programme introspectif, c'est souvent l'indication qu'un changement d'approche serait bénéfique.

Sur comp.lang.python, Fredrik Lundh a donné un jour une excellente analogie pour répondre à cette question :

C'est pareil que trouver le nom du chat qui traîne devant votre porte : le chat (objet) ne peut pas vous dire lui-même son nom, et il s'en moque un peu – alors le meilleur moyen de savoir comment il s'appelle est de demander à tous vos voisins (espaces de nommage) si c'est leur chat (objet)…

…et ne soyez pas surpris si vous découvrez qu'il est connu sous plusieurs noms, ou s'il n'a pas de nom du tout !

Qu'en est-il de la précédence de l'opérateur virgule ?

La virgule n'est pas un opérateur en Python. Observez le code suivant :

>>> "a" in "b", "a"
(False, 'a')

Comme la virgule n'est pas un opérateur, mais un séparateur entre deux expressions, l'expression ci-dessus est évaluée de la même façon que si vous aviez écrit :

("a" in "b"), "a"

et non :

"a" in ("b", "a")

The same is true of the various assignment operators (=, +=, and so on). They are not truly operators but syntactic delimiters in assignment statements.

Existe-t-il un équivalent à l'opérateur ternaire « ?: » du C ?

Oui. Sa syntaxe est la suivante :

[on_true] if [expression] else [on_false]

x, y = 50, 25
small = x if x < y else y

Avant l'introduction de cette syntaxe dans Python 2.5, il était courant d'utiliser les opérateurs de logique :

[expression] and [on_true] or [on_false]

Cet idiome est dangereux, car il donne un résultat erroné quand on_true a la valeur booléenne fausse. Il faut donc toujours utiliser la forme ... if ... else ....

Est-il possible d'écrire des programmes obscurcis (obfuscated) d'une ligne en Python ?

Oui. C'est souvent le cas en imbriquant des lambda dans des lambda. Par exemple les trois morceaux de code suivants, légèrement adaptés par Ulf Bartelt :

from functools import reduce

# Primes < 1000
print(list(filter(None,map(lambda y:y*reduce(lambda x,y:x*y!=0,
map(lambda x,y=y:y%x,range(2,int(pow(y,0.5)+1))),1),range(2,1000)))))

# First 10 Fibonacci numbers
print(list(map(lambda x,f=lambda x,f:(f(x-1,f)+f(x-2,f)) if x>1 else 1:
f(x,f), range(10))))

# Mandelbrot set
print((lambda Ru,Ro,Iu,Io,IM,Sx,Sy:reduce(lambda x,y:x+'\n'+y,map(lambda y,
Iu=Iu,Io=Io,Ru=Ru,Ro=Ro,Sy=Sy,L=lambda yc,Iu=Iu,Io=Io,Ru=Ru,Ro=Ro,i=IM,
Sx=Sx,Sy=Sy:reduce(lambda x,y:x+y,map(lambda x,xc=Ru,yc=yc,Ru=Ru,Ro=Ro,
i=i,Sx=Sx,F=lambda xc,yc,x,y,k,f=lambda xc,yc,x,y,k,f:(k<=0)or (x*x+y*y
>=4.0) or 1+f(xc,yc,x*x-y*y+xc,2.0*x*y+yc,k-1,f):f(xc,yc,x,y,k,f):chr(
64+F(Ru+x*(Ro-Ru)/Sx,yc,0,0,i)),range(Sx))):L(Iu+y*(Io-Iu)/Sy),range(Sy
))))(-2.1, 0.7, -1.2, 1.2, 30, 80, 24))
#    \___ ___/  \___ ___/  |   |   |__ lines on screen
#        V          V      |   |______ columns on screen
#        |          |      |__________ maximum of "iterations"
#        |          |_________________ range on y axis
#        |____________________________ range on x axis

Les enfants, ne faites pas ça chez vous !

Que signifie la barre oblique (/) dans la liste des paramètres d'une fonction ?

Une barre oblique dans la liste des arguments d'une fonction indique que les paramètres la précédant sont uniquement positionnels. Les paramètres uniquement positionnels ne peuvent pas être référencés par leur nom depuis l'extérieur. Lors de l'appel d'une fonction qui accepte des paramètres uniquement positionnels, les arguments sont affectés aux paramètres en fonction de leur position. Par exemple, la fonction divmod() n'accepte que des paramètres uniquement positionnels. Sa documentation est la suivante :

>>> help(divmod)
Help on built-in function divmod in module builtins:

divmod(x, y, /)
    Return the tuple (x//y, x%y).  Invariant: div*y + mod == x.

La barre oblique à la fin de la liste des paramètres signifie que les trois paramètres sont uniquement positionnels. Et donc, appeler divmod() avec des arguments nommés provoque une erreur :

>>> divmod(x=3, y=4)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: divmod() takes no keyword arguments

Nombres et chaînes de caractères

Comment écrire des entiers hexadécimaux ou octaux ?

Pour écrire un entier octal, faites précéder la valeur octale par un zéro, puis un "o" majuscule ou minuscule. Par exemple pour affecter la valeur octale "10" (8 en décimal) à la variable "a", tapez :

>>> a = 0o10
>>> a
8

L'hexadécimal est tout aussi simple, faites précéder le nombre hexadécimal par un zéro, puis un "x" majuscule ou minuscule. Les nombres hexadécimaux peuvent être écrits en majuscules ou en minuscules. Par exemple, dans l'interpréteur Python :

>>> a = 0xa5
>>> a
165
>>> b = 0XB2
>>> b
178

Pourquoi -22 // 10 donne-t-il -3 ?

Cela est principalement dû à la volonté que i % j ait le même signe que j. Si vous voulez en plus que :

i == (i // j) * j + (i % j)

alors la division entière doit renvoyer l'entier inférieur. Le C impose également que cette égalité soit vérifiée, et donc les compilateurs qui tronquent i // j ont besoin que i % j ait le même signe que i.

Il y a peu de cas d'utilisation réels pour i % j quand j est négatif. Quand j est positif, il y en a beaucoup, et dans pratiquement tous, il est plus utile que i % j soit >=0. Si l'horloge affiche 10 h maintenant, qu'affichait-elle il y a 200 heures ? -190 % 12 == 2 est utile ; -190 % 12 == -10 est un bogue en puissance.

Pourquoi ai-je une erreur de syntaxe en essayant de lire un attribut d'un entier littéral ?

Essayer d'utiliser l'opérateur d'accès à un attribut sur un entier littéral lève une SyntaxError car le point est compris comme un séparateur décimal en notation anglo-saxonne :

>>> 1.__class__
  File "<stdin>", line 1
  1.__class__
   ^
SyntaxError: invalid decimal literal

Il faut séparer l'entier du point, soit avec une espace, soit avec des parenthèses.

>>> 1 .__class__
<class 'int'>
>>> (1).__class__
<class 'int'>

Comment convertir une chaîne de caractères en nombre ?

For integers, use the built-in int() type constructor, for example, int('144') == 144. Similarly, float() converts to a floating-point number, for example, float('144') == 144.0.

Par défaut, ces fonctions interprètent les nombres comme des décimaux, de telle façon que int('0144') == 144 et int('0x144') lève une ValueError. Le second argument (optionnel) de int(string, base) est la base dans laquelle convertir, donc int('0x144', 16) == 324. Si la base donnée est 0, le nombre est interprété selon les règles Python : un préfixe 0o indique de l'octal et 0x indique de l'hexadécimal.

N'utilisez pas la fonction native eval() pour convertir des chaînes de caractères en nombres. eval() est beaucoup plus lente et pose des problèmes de sécurité : quelqu'un pourrait vous envoyer une expression Python pouvant avoir des effets de bord indésirables. Par exemple, quelqu'un pourrait passer __import__('os').system("rm -rf $HOME") ce qui effacerait votre répertoire personnel.

eval() also has the effect of interpreting numbers as Python expressions, so that, for example, eval('09') gives a syntax error because Python does not allow leading '0' in a decimal number (except '0').

Comment convertir un nombre en chaîne de caractères ?

For example, to convert the number 144 to the string '144', use the built-in type constructor str(). If you want a hexadecimal or octal representation, use the built-in functions hex() or oct(). For fancy formatting, see the f-strings and Format string syntax sections. For example, "{:04d}".format(144) yields '0144' and "{:.3f}".format(1.0/3.0) yields '0.333'.

Comment modifier une chaîne de caractères « sur place » ?

You can't, because strings are immutable. In most situations, you should simply construct a new string from the various parts you want to assemble it from. However, if you need an object with the ability to modify in-place Unicode data, try using an io.StringIO object or the array module:

>>> import io
>>> s = "Hello, world"
>>> sio = io.StringIO(s)
>>> sio.getvalue()
'Hello, world'
>>> sio.seek(7)
7
>>> sio.write("there!")
6
>>> sio.getvalue()
'Hello, there!'

>>> import array
>>> a = array.array('w', s)
>>> print(a)
array('w', 'Hello, world')
>>> a[0] = 'y'
>>> print(a)
array('w', 'yello, world')
>>> a.tounicode()
'yello, world'

Comment utiliser des chaînes de caractères pour appeler des fonctions/méthodes ?

Il y a plusieurs façons de faire.

La meilleure est d'utiliser un dictionnaire qui fait correspondre les chaînes de caractères à des fonctions. Le principal avantage de cette technique est que les chaînes n'ont pas besoin d'être égales aux noms de fonctions. C'est aussi la façon principale d'imiter la construction "case" :

def a():
    pass

def b():
    pass

dispatch = {'go': a, 'stop': b}  # Note lack of parens for funcs

dispatch[get_input()]()  # Note trailing parens to call function

Utiliser la fonction getattr() :

import foo
getattr(foo, 'bar')()

Notez que getattr() marche sur n'importe quel objet, ceci inclut les classes, les instances de classes, les modules et ainsi de suite.

Ceci est utilisé à plusieurs reprises dans la bibliothèque standard, de cette façon :

class Foo:
    def do_foo(self):
        ...

    def do_bar(self):
        ...

f = getattr(foo_instance, 'do_' + opname)
f()

Utilisez locals() pour résoudre le nom de la fonction :

def myFunc():
    print("hello")

fname = "myFunc"

f = locals()[fname]
f()

Is there an equivalent to Perl's chomp() for removing trailing newlines from strings?

Vous pouvez utiliser S.rstrip("\r\n") pour retirer toutes les occurrences de tout marqueur de fin de ligne à la fin d'une chaîne de caractère S, sans en enlever aucune espace. Si la chaîne S représente plus d'une ligne, avec plusieurs lignes vides, les marqueurs de fin de ligne de chaque ligne vide seront retirés :

>>> lines = ("line 1 \r\n"
...          "\r\n"
...          "\r\n")
>>> lines.rstrip("\n\r")
'line 1 '

Vu que cela ne sert presque qu'à lire un texte ligne à ligne, utiliser S.rstrip() de cette manière fonctionne correctement.

Is there a scanf() or sscanf() equivalent?

Pas exactement.

For simple input parsing, the easiest approach is usually to split the line into whitespace-delimited words using the split() method of string objects and then convert decimal strings to numeric values using int() or float(). split() supports an optional "sep" parameter which is useful if the line uses something other than whitespace as a separator.

Pour des analyses plus compliquées, les expressions rationnelles sont plus puissantes que la fonction sscanf de C et mieux adaptées à la tâche.

What does UnicodeDecodeError or UnicodeEncodeError error mean?

Voir Guide Unicode.

Can I end a raw string with an odd number of backslashes?

A raw string ending with an odd number of backslashes will escape the string's quote:

>>> r'C:\this\will\not\work\'
  File "<stdin>", line 1
    r'C:\this\will\not\work\'
    ^
SyntaxError: unterminated string literal (detected at line 1)

There are several workarounds for this. One is to use regular strings and double the backslashes:

>>> 'C:\\this\\will\\work\\'
'C:\\this\\will\\work\\'

Another is to concatenate a regular string containing an escaped backslash to the raw string:

>>> r'C:\this\will\work' '\\'
'C:\\this\\will\\work\\'

It is also possible to use os.path.join() to append a backslash on Windows:

>>> os.path.join(r'C:\this\will\work', '')
'C:\\this\\will\\work\\'

Note that while a backslash will "escape" a quote for the purposes of determining where the raw string ends, no escaping occurs when interpreting the value of the raw string. That is, the backslash remains present in the value of the raw string:

>>> r'backslash\'preserved'
"backslash\\'preserved"

Also see the specification in the language reference.

Performances

Mon programme est trop lent. Comment l'accélérer ?

That's a tough one, in general. First, here is a list of things to remember before diving further:

Les performances varient en fonction des implémentations de Python. Cette FAQ ne traite que de CPython.

Les comportements peuvent différer d'un système d'exploitation à l'autre, tout particulièrement quand il s'agit d'entrée/sortie ou de fils d'exécution multiples.

Il faut toujours essayer de trouver où sont les points de contention d'un programme avant d'essayer d'optimiser du code (voir le module profile).

Écrire des scripts d'évaluation de performances permet de progresser rapidement dans la recherche d'améliorations (voir le module timeit).

Il est très fortement recommandé d'avoir une bonne couverture de code (avec des tests unitaires ou autre) avant d'ajouter des erreurs dans des optimisations sophistiquées.

Ceci étant dit, il y a beaucoup d'astuces pour accélérer du code Python. Voici quelques principes généraux qui peuvent aider à atteindre des niveaux de performance satisfaisants :

Améliorer les algorithmes (ou en changer pour des plus performants) peut produire de bien meilleurs résultats que d'optimiser çà et là de petites portions du code.

Utiliser les structures de données adaptées. Se référer à la documentation des Types natifs et du module collections.

Quand la bibliothèque standard fournit une implémentation pour quelque chose, il y a de fortes chances (même si ce n'est pas systématique) que cette implémentation soit plus rapide que la vôtre. C'est d'autant plus vrai pour les routines écrites en C, comme les routines natives et certaines extensions de types. Par exemple, il faut utiliser la méthode native list.sort() ou la fonction sorted() similaire pour classer (et se référer à la section Les techniques de tri pour des exemples d'utilisation courante).

Les abstractions ont tendance à créer des indirections et obligent l'interpréteur à faire plus d'efforts. Si le niveau d'indirection dépasse la quantité de travail effectif, le programme sera ralenti. Il faut toujours éviter trop d'indirections, en particulier sous la forme de fonctions ou méthodes trop petites (qui nuisent aussi souvent à la clarté du code).

Si vous atteignez les limites de ce que du Python « pur » permet de faire, il y a des outils qui permettent d'aller plus loin. Par exemple, Cython [https://cython.org] peut compiler une version légèrement modifiée de code Python en une extension C et est disponible sur de nombreuses plate-formes. Cython peut bénéficier de la compilation (et de l'annotation, optionnelle, des types) pour rendre votre code beaucoup plus rapide que s'il était interprété. Si vous avez confiance en vos capacités de programmation en C, vous pouvez aussi écrire un module d'extension en C vous-même.

Voir aussi

La page wiki dédiée aux astuces de performance [https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonSpeed/PerformanceTips].

Quelle est la manière la plus efficace de concaténer un grand nombre de chaînes de caractères ?

Les objets str et bytes sont immuables, par conséquent concaténer un grand nombre de chaînes de caractères entre elles n'est pas très efficace car chaque concaténation crée un nouvel objet. Dans le cas général, la complexité est quadratique par rapport à la taille totale de la chaîne.

Pour mettre bout à bout un grand nombre d'objets str, la technique recommandée consiste à toutes les mettre dans une liste et appeler la méthode str.join() à la fin :

chunks = []
for s in my_strings:
    chunks.append(s)
result = ''.join(chunks)

(Another reasonably efficient idiom is to use io.StringIO.)

Pour concaténer un grand nombre d'objets bytes, la technique recommandée consiste à étendre un objet bytearray en utilisant la concaténation en-place (l'opérateur +=) :

result = bytearray()
for b in my_bytes_objects:
    result += b

Sequences (tuples/lists)

Comment convertir les listes en n-uplets et inversement ?

Le constructeur de type tuple(seq) convertit toute séquence (plus précisément, tout itérable) en un n-uplet avec les mêmes éléments dans le même ordre.

Par exemple tuple([1, 2, 3]) renvoie (1, 2, 3) et tuple('abc') renvoie ('a', 'b', 'c'). Si l'argument est un n-uplet, cela ne crée pas de copie, mais renvoie le même objet, ce qui fait de tuple() une fonction économique à appeler quand vous ne savez pas si votre objet est déjà un n-uplet.

Le constructeur de type list(seq) convertit toute séquence ou itérable en liste contenant les mêmes éléments dans le même ordre. Par exemple, list((1,2,3)) renvoie [1,2,3] et list('abc') renvoie ['a','b','c']. Si l'argument est une liste, il renvoie une copie, de la même façon que seq[:].

Qu'est-ce qu'un indice négatif ?

Les séquences Python sont indicées avec des nombres positifs aussi bien que négatifs. Pour les nombres positifs, 0 est le premier indice, 1 est le deuxième, et ainsi de suite. Pour les indices négatifs, -1 est le dernier indice, -2 est le pénultième (avant-dernier), et ainsi de suite. On peut aussi dire que seq[-n] est équivalent à seq[len(seq)-n].

Utiliser des indices négatifs peut être très pratique. Par exemple S[:-1] représente la chaîne tout entière à l'exception du dernier caractère, ce qui est pratique pour retirer un caractère de fin de ligne à la fin d'une chaîne.

Comment itérer à rebours sur une séquence ?

Utilisez la fonction native reversed() :

for x in reversed(sequence):
    ...  # do something with x ...

Cela ne modifie pas la séquence initiale, mais construit à la place une copie en ordre inverse pour itérer dessus.

Comment retirer les doublons d'une liste ?

Lisez le « livre de recettes » Python pour trouver une longue discussion sur les nombreuses approches possibles :

https://code.activestate.com/recipes/52560/

Si changer l'ordre de la liste ne vous dérange pas, commencez par ordonner celle-ci, puis parcourez-la d'un bout à l'autre, en supprimant les doublons trouvés en chemin :

if mylist:
    mylist.sort()
    last = mylist[-1]
    for i in range(len(mylist)-2, -1, -1):
        if last == mylist[i]:
            del mylist[i]
        else:
            last = mylist[i]

If all elements of the list may be used as set keys (that is, they are all hashable) this is often faster:

mylist = list(set(mylist))

Ceci convertit la liste en un ensemble, ce qui supprime automatiquement les doublons, puis la transforme à nouveau en liste.

How do you remove multiple items from a list?

As with removing duplicates, explicitly iterating in reverse with a delete condition is one possibility. However, it is easier and faster to use slice replacement with an implicit or explicit forward iteration. Here are three variations:

mylist[:] = filter(keep_function, mylist)
mylist[:] = (x for x in mylist if keep_condition)
mylist[:] = [x for x in mylist if keep_condition]

La liste en compréhension est peut-être la plus rapide :

Comment construire un tableau en Python ?

Utilisez une liste :

["this", 1, "is", "an", "array"]

Les listes ont un coût équivalent à celui des tableaux C ou Pascal ; la principale différence est qu'une liste Python peut contenir des objets de différents types.

The array module also provides methods for creating arrays of fixed types with compact representations, but they are slower to index than lists. Also note that NumPy [https://numpy.org/] and other third-party packages define array-like structures with various characteristics as well.

Pour obtenir des listes chaînées à la sauce Lisp, vous pouvez émuler les cons cells en utilisant des n-uplets :

lisp_list = ("like",  ("this",  ("example", None) ) )

Si vous voulez pouvoir modifier les éléments, utilisez une liste plutôt qu'un n-uplet. Ici la version équivalente du car de Lisp est lisp_list[0] et l'équivalent de cdr est lisp_list[1]. Ne faites ceci que si vous êtes réellement sûr d'en avoir besoin, cette méthode est en général bien plus lente que les listes Python.

Comment créer une liste à plusieurs dimensions ?

Vous avez probablement essayé de créer une liste à plusieurs dimensions de cette façon :

>>> A = [[None] * 2] * 3

Elle semble correcte si on l'affiche :

>>> A
[[None, None], [None, None], [None, None]]

Mais quand vous affectez une valeur, celle-ci apparaît à plusieurs endroits :

>>> A[0][0] = 5
>>> A
[[5, None], [5, None], [5, None]]

Dupliquer une liste en utilisant * ne crée en réalité pas de copie mais seulement des références aux objets existants. Le *3 crée une liste contenant trois références à la même liste de longueur deux. Un changement dans une colonne apparaîtra donc dans toutes les colonnes, ce qui n'est très probablement pas ce que vous souhaitiez.

L'approche suggérée est d'abord de créer une liste de la longueur désirée, puis de remplir tous les éléments avec une nouvelle chaîne :

A = [None] * 3
for i in range(3):
    A[i] = [None] * 2

Cela génère une liste contenant elle-même trois listes distinctes, de longueur deux. Vous pouvez aussi utiliser la syntaxe des listes en compréhension :

w, h = 2, 3
A = [[None] * w for i in range(h)]

Vous pouvez aussi utiliser une extension qui fournit un type matriciel natif ; NumPy [https://www.numpy.org/] est la plus répandue.

Comment appliquer une méthode ou une fonction à une séquence d'objets ?

To call a method or function and accumulate the return values in a list, a list comprehension is an elegant solution:

result = [obj.method() for obj in mylist]

result = [function(obj) for obj in mylist]

To just run the method or function without saving the return values, a plain for loop will suffice:

for obj in mylist:
    obj.method()

for obj in mylist:
    function(obj)

Pourquoi a_tuple[i] += ['item'] lève-t-il une exception alors que l'addition fonctionne ?

Ceci est dû à la combinaison de deux facteurs : le fait que les opérateurs d'affectation incrémentaux sont des opérateurs d'affectation et à la différence entre les objets mutables et immuables en Python.

Cette discussion est valable, en général, quand des opérateurs d'affectation incrémentale sont appliqués aux éléments d'un n-uplet qui pointe sur des objets mutables, mais on prendra list et += comme exemple.

Si vous écrivez :

>>> a_tuple = (1, 2)
>>> a_tuple[0] += 1
Traceback (most recent call last):
   ...
TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment

La cause de l'exception est claire : 1 est ajouté à l'objet a_tuple[0] qui pointe sur (1), ce qui produit l'objet résultant 2, mais, lorsque l'on tente d'affecter le résultat du calcul, 2, à l'élément 0 du n-uplet, on obtient une erreur car il est impossible de modifier la cible sur laquelle pointe un élément d'un n-uplet.

Sous le capot, une instruction d'affectation incrémentale fait à peu près ceci :

>>> result = a_tuple[0] + 1
>>> a_tuple[0] = result
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment

C'est la partie de l'affectation de l'opération qui génère l'erreur, vu qu'un n-uplet est immuable.

Quand vous écrivez un code du style :

>>> a_tuple = (['foo'], 'bar')
>>> a_tuple[0] += ['item']
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment

L'exception est un peu plus surprenante et, chose encore plus étrange, malgré l'erreur, l'ajout a fonctionné :

>>> a_tuple[0]
['foo', 'item']

To see why this happens, you need to know that (a) if an object implements an __iadd__() magic method, it gets called when the += augmented assignment is executed, and its return value is what gets used in the assignment statement; and (b) for lists, __iadd__() is equivalent to calling extend() on the list and returning the list. That's why we say that for lists, += is a "shorthand" for list.extend():

>>> a_list = []
>>> a_list += [1]
>>> a_list
[1]

C’est équivalent à :

>>> result = a_list.__iadd__([1])
>>> a_list = result

L'objet sur lequel pointe a_list a été modifié et le pointeur vers l'objet modifié est réaffecté à a_list. In fine, l'affectation ne change rien, puisque c'est un pointeur vers le même objet que sur lequel pointait a_list, mais l'affectation a tout de même lieu.

Donc, dans notre exemple avec un n-uplet, il se passe quelque chose équivalent à :

>>> result = a_tuple[0].__iadd__(['item'])
>>> a_tuple[0] = result
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment

L'appel à __iadd__() réussit et la liste est étendue, mais bien que result pointe sur le même objet que a_tuple[0], l'affectation finale échoue car les n-uplets ne sont pas mutables.

Je souhaite faire un classement compliqué : peut-on faire une transformation de Schwartz en Python ?

Cette technique, attribuée à Randal Schwartz de la communauté Perl, ordonne les éléments d'une liste à l'aide une transformation qui fait correspondre chaque élément à sa "valeur de tri". En Python, ceci est géré par l'argument key de la méthode list.sort() :

Isorted = L[:]
Isorted.sort(key=lambda s: int(s[10:15]))

Comment ordonner une liste en fonction des valeurs d'une autre liste ?

Merge them into an iterator of tuples, sort the resulting list, and then pick out the element you want.

>>> list1 = ["what", "I'm", "sorting", "by"]
>>> list2 = ["something", "else", "to", "sort"]
>>> pairs = zip(list1, list2)
>>> pairs = sorted(pairs)
>>> pairs
[("I'm", 'else'), ('by', 'sort'), ('sorting', 'to'), ('what', 'something')]
>>> result = [x[1] for x in pairs]
>>> result
['else', 'sort', 'to', 'something']

Objets

Qu'est-ce qu'une classe ?

Une classe est le type d'objet particulier créé par l'exécution d'une déclaration de classe. Les objets de classe sont utilisés comme modèles pour créer des objets, qui incarnent à la fois les données (attributs) et le code (méthodes) spécifiques à un type de données.

Une classe peut être fondée sur une ou plusieurs autres classes, appelée sa (ou ses) classe(s) de base. Elle hérite alors des attributs et des méthodes de ses classes mères. Cela permet à un modèle d'objet d'être successivement raffiné par héritage. Vous pourriez avoir une classe générique Mailbox, qui fournit des méthodes d'accès de base pour une boîte aux lettres, et des sous-classes telles que MboxMailbox, MaildirMailbox, OutlookMailbox qui gèrent les plusieurs formats spécifiques de boîtes aux lettres.

Qu'est-ce qu'une méthode ?

Une méthode est une fonction sur un objet x qu'on appelle de manière générale sous la forme x.name(arguments…). Les méthodes sont définies comme des fonctions à l'intérieur de la définition de classe :

class C:
    def meth(self, arg):
        return arg * 2 + self.attribute

Qu'est-ce que self ?

Par convention, le premier argument d'une méthode est appelé self. Une méthode meth(self, a, b, c) doit être appelée sous la forme x.meth(a, b, c) où x est une instance de la classe dans laquelle cette méthode est définie ; tout se passe comme si la méthode était appelée comme meth(x, a, b, c).

Voir aussi Pourquoi self doit-il être explicitement utilisé dans les définitions et les appels de méthodes ?.

Comment vérifier si un objet est une instance d'une classe donnée ou d'une sous-classe de celle-ci ?

Use the built-in function isinstance(obj, cls). You can check if an object is an instance of any of a number of classes by providing a tuple instead of a single class, for example, isinstance(obj, (class1, class2, ...)), and can also check whether an object is one of Python's built-in types, for example, isinstance(obj, str) or isinstance(obj, (int, float, complex)).

Note that isinstance() also checks for virtual inheritance from an abstract base class. So, the test will return True for a registered class even if hasn't directly or indirectly inherited from it. To test for "true inheritance", scan the method resolution order (MRO) of the class:

from collections.abc import Mapping

class P:
     pass

class C(P):
    pass

Mapping.register(P)

>>> c = C()
>>> isinstance(c, C)        # direct
True
>>> isinstance(c, P)        # indirect
True
>>> isinstance(c, Mapping)  # virtual
True

# Actual inheritance chain
>>> type(c).__mro__
(<class 'C'>, <class 'P'>, <class 'object'>)

# Test for "true inheritance"
>>> Mapping in type(c).__mro__
False

Notez que la plupart des programmes n'utilisent que rarement isInstance() sur les classes définies par l'utilisateur. Si vous développez vous-même des classes, une approche plus orientée-objet consiste définir des méthodes sur les classes qui sont porteuses d'un comportement particulier, plutôt que de vérifier la classe de l'objet et de faire un traitement ad-hoc. Par exemple, si vous avez une fonction qui fait quelque chose :

def search(obj):
    if isinstance(obj, Mailbox):
        ...  # code to search a mailbox
    elif isinstance(obj, Document):
        ...  # code to search a document
    elif ...

Une meilleure approche est de définir une méthode search() dans toutes les classes et qu'il suffit d'appeler de la manière suivante :

class Mailbox:
    def search(self):
        ...  # code to search a mailbox

class Document:
    def search(self):
        ...  # code to search a document

obj.search()

Qu'est-ce que la délégation ?

Delegation is an object-oriented technique (also called a design pattern). Let's say you have an object x and want to change the behaviour of just one of its methods. You can create a new class that provides a new implementation of the method you're interested in changing and delegates all other methods to the corresponding method of x.

Les programmeurs Python peuvent facilement mettre en œuvre la délégation. Par exemple, la classe suivante implémente une classe qui se comporte comme un fichier, mais convertit toutes les données écrites en majuscules :

class UpperOut:

    def __init__(self, outfile):
        self._outfile = outfile

    def write(self, s):
        self._outfile.write(s.upper())

    def __getattr__(self, name):
        return getattr(self._outfile, name)

Here the UpperOut class redefines the write() method to convert the argument string to uppercase before calling the underlying self._outfile.write() method. All other methods are delegated to the underlying self._outfile object. The delegation is accomplished via the __getattr__() method; consult the language reference for more information about controlling attribute access.

Note that for more general cases delegation can get trickier. When attributes must be set as well as retrieved, the class must define a __setattr__() method too, and it must do so carefully. The basic implementation of __setattr__() is roughly equivalent to the following:

class X:
    ...
    def __setattr__(self, name, value):
        self.__dict__[name] = value
    ...

Many __setattr__() implementations call object.__setattr__() to set an attribute on self without causing infinite recursion:

class X:
    def __setattr__(self, name, value):
        # Custom logic here...
        object.__setattr__(self, name, value)

Alternatively, it is possible to set attributes by inserting entries into self.__dict__ directly.

Comment appeler une méthode définie dans une classe mère depuis une classe dérivée qui la surcharge ?

Utilisez la fonction native super() :

class Derived(Base):
    def meth(self):
        super().meth()  # calls Base.meth

Dans cet exemple, super() détermine automatiquement l'instance dont une méthode l'appelle (l'objet self), observe l'ordre de résolution des méthodes obtenu avec type(self).__mro__, et renvoie la classe qui suit Derived dans cet ordre, donc Base.

Comment organiser un code pour permettre de changer la classe mère plus facilement ?

You could assign the base class to an alias and derive from the alias. Then all you have to change is the value assigned to the alias. Incidentally, this trick is also handy if you want to decide dynamically (such as depending on availability of resources) which base class to use. Example:

class Base:
    ...

BaseAlias = Base

class Derived(BaseAlias):
    ...

Comment créer des données statiques de classe et des méthodes statiques de classe ?

Les données statiques et les méthodes statiques (au sens C++ ou Java) sont prises en charge en Python.

Pour les données statiques, il suffit de définir un attribut de classe. Pour attribuer une nouvelle valeur à l'attribut, vous devez explicitement utiliser le nom de classe dans l'affectation :

class C:
    count = 0   # number of times C.__init__ called

    def __init__(self):
        C.count = C.count + 1

    def getcount(self):
        return C.count  # or return self.count

c.count se réfère également à C.count pour tout c tel que isInstance (c, C) est vrai, sauf remplacement par c lui-même ou par une classe sur le chemin de recherche de classe mère de c.__class__ jusqu'à C.

Attention : dans une méthode de C, une affectation comme self.count = 42 crée une nouvelle instance sans rapport avec le nom count dans le dictionnaire de données de self. La redéfinition d'une donnée statique de classe doit toujours spécifier la classe, que l'on soit à l'intérieur d'une méthode ou non :

C.count = 314

Il est possible d'utiliser des méthodes statiques :

class C:
    @staticmethod
    def static(arg1, arg2, arg3):
        # No 'self' parameter!
        ...

Cependant, d'une manière beaucoup plus simple pour obtenir l'effet d'une méthode statique se fait par une simple fonction au niveau du module :

def getcount():
    return C.count

Si votre code est structuré de manière à définir une classe (ou bien la hiérarchie des classes connexes) par module, ceci fournira l'encapsulation souhaitée.

Comment surcharger les constructeurs (ou méthodes) en Python ?

Cette réponse s'applique en fait à toutes les méthodes, mais la question se pose généralement dans le contexte des constructeurs.

In C++ you'd write:

class C {
    C() { cout << "No arguments\n"; }
    C(int i) { cout << "Argument is " << i << "\n"; }
}

En Python, vous devez écrire un constructeur unique qui considère tous les cas en utilisant des arguments par défaut. Par exemple :

class C:
    def __init__(self, i=None):
        if i is None:
            print("No arguments")
        else:
            print("Argument is", i)

Ce n'est pas tout à fait équivalent, mais suffisamment proche dans la pratique.

You could also try a variable-length argument list, for example:

def __init__(self, *args):
    ...

La même approche fonctionne pour toutes les définitions de méthode.

J'essaie d'utiliser __spam et j'obtiens une erreur à propos de _SomeClassName__spam.

Les noms de variables commençant avec deux tirets bas sont « déformés », c'est un moyen simple mais efficace de définir des variables privées à une classe. Tout identifiant de la forme __spam (commençant par au moins deux tirets bas et se terminant par au plus un tiret bas) est textuellement remplacé par _classname__spam, où classname est le nom de la classe en cours sans les éventuels tirets bas du début.

The identifier can be used unchanged within the class, but to access it outside the class, the mangled name must be used:

class A:
    def __one(self):
        return 1
    def two(self):
        return 2 * self.__one()

class B(A):
    def three(self):
        return 3 * self._A__one()

four = 4 * A()._A__one()

In particular, this does not guarantee privacy since an outside user can still deliberately access the private attribute; many Python programmers never bother to use private variable names at all.

Voir aussi

La spécification des transformations de noms pour les détails et cas particuliers.

Ma classe définit __del__ mais elle n'est pas appelée lorsque je supprime l'objet.

Il y a plusieurs explications possibles.

The del statement does not necessarily call __del__() -- it simply decrements the object's reference count, and if this reaches zero __del__() is called.

If your data structures contain circular links (for example, a tree where each child has a parent reference and each parent has a list of children) the reference counts will never go back to zero. Once in a while Python runs an algorithm to detect such cycles, but the garbage collector might run some time after the last reference to your data structure vanishes, so your __del__() method may be called at an inconvenient and random time. This is inconvenient if you're trying to reproduce a problem. Worse, the order in which object's __del__() methods are executed is arbitrary. You can run gc.collect() to force a collection, but there are pathological cases where objects will never be collected.

Despite the cycle collector, it's still a good idea to define an explicit close() method on objects to be called whenever you're done with them. The close() method can then remove attributes that refer to subobjects. Don't call __del__() directly -- __del__() should call close() and close() should make sure that it can be called more than once for the same object.

Une alternative pour éviter les références cycliques consiste à utiliser le module weakref, qui permet de faire référence à des objets sans incrémenter leur compteur de références. Par exemple, les structures d'arbres devraient utiliser des références faibles entre pères et fils (si nécessaire !).

Finally, if your __del__() method raises an exception, a warning message is printed to sys.stderr.

Comment obtenir toutes les instances d'une classe ?

Python ne tient pas de registre de toutes les instances d'une classe (ni de n'importe quel type natif). Il est cependant possible de programmer le constructeur de la classe de façon à tenir un tel registre, en maintenant une liste de références faibles vers chaque instance.

Pourquoi le résultat de id() peut-il être le même pour deux objets différents ?

La fonction native id() renvoie un entier dont l'unicité est garantie durant toute la vie de l'objet. Vu qu'en CPython cet entier est en réalité l'adresse mémoire de l'objet, il est fréquent qu'un nouvel objet soit alloué à une adresse mémoire identique à celle d'un objet venant d'être supprimé. Comme l'illustre le code suivant :

>>> id(1000)
13901272
>>> id(2000)
13901272

Les deux identifiants appartiennent à des objets entiers créés juste avant l'appel à id() et détruits immédiatement après. Pour s'assurer que les objets dont on veut examiner les identifiants sont toujours en vie, créons une nouvelle référence à l'objet :

>>> a = 1000; b = 2000
>>> id(a)
13901272
>>> id(b)
13891296

Quand puis-je raisonnablement utiliser le test d'identité is ?

L'opérateur is détermine si deux objets sont identiques, c'est-à-dire le même objet. Le test a is b est équivalent à id(a) == id(b).

La propriété la plus importante du test d'identité est qu'un objet est toujours identique à lui-même. Quelle que soit la valeur de a, a is a vaut toujours True. Un test d'identité est généralement plus rapide qu'un test d'égalité. De plus, contrairement à l'opérateur ==, l'opérateur is renvoie toujours un booléen, True ou False.

Cependant, les tests d'identité ne peuvent remplacer les tests d'égalité que si l'identité est garantie. C'est le cas dans les trois situations suivantes :

Assignments create new names but do not change object identity. After the assignment new = old, it is guaranteed that new is old.

Putting an object in a container that stores object references does not change object identity. After the list assignment s[0] = x, it is guaranteed that s[0] is x.

If an object is a singleton, it means that only one instance of that object can exist. After the assignments a = None and b = None, it is guaranteed that a is b because None is a singleton.

Dans la plupart des autres cas, un test d'identité n'est pas approprié par rapport à un test d'égalité. En particulier, il ne faut pas utiliser is pour comparer à des constantes comme les entiers (type int) ou des chaînes de caractères (type str) car ces valeurs ne sont pas nécessairement des singletons :

>>> a = 10_000_000
>>> b = 5_000_000
>>> c = b + 5_000_000
>>> a is c
False

>>> a = 'Python'
>>> b = 'Py'
>>> c = b + 'thon'
>>> a is c
False

De même, deux instances fraîchement créées d'un type de conteneurs mutables ne sont jamais identiques :

>>> a = []
>>> b = []
>>> a is b
False

Voici quelques exemples de la bibliothèque standard qui illustrent comment utiliser correctement les tests d'identité dans certaines situations particulières :

As recommended by PEP 8 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/], an identity test is the preferred way to check for None. This reads like plain English in code and avoids confusion with other objects that may have boolean values that evaluate to false.

Detecting optional arguments can be tricky when None is a valid input value. In those situations, you can create a singleton sentinel object guaranteed to be distinct from other objects. For example, here is how to implement a method that behaves like dict.pop():

_sentinel = object()

def pop(self, key, default=_sentinel):
    if key in self:
        value = self[key]
        del self[key]
        return value
    if default is _sentinel:
        raise KeyError(key)
    return default

Container implementations sometimes need to augment equality tests with identity tests. This prevents the code from being confused by objects such as float('NaN') that are not equal to themselves.

For example, here is the implementation of collections.abc.Sequence.__contains__():

def __contains__(self, value):
    for v in self:
        if v is value or v == value:
            return True
    return False

Comment définir dans une classe fille les attributs d'une instance immuable ?

When subclassing an immutable type, override the __new__() method instead of the __init__() method. The latter only runs after an instance is created, which is too late to alter data in an immutable instance.

Toutes les classes d'objets immuables suivantes ont des signatures de constructeur différentes de leur classe mère :

import datetime as dt

class FirstOfMonthDate(dt.date):
    "Always choose the first day of the month"
    def __new__(cls, year, month, day):
        return super().__new__(cls, year, month, 1)

class NamedInt(int):
    "Allow text names for some numbers"
    xlat = {'zero': 0, 'one': 1, 'ten': 10}
    def __new__(cls, value):
        value = cls.xlat.get(value, value)
        return super().__new__(cls, value)

class TitleStr(str):
    "Convert str to name suitable for a URL path"
    def __new__(cls, s):
        s = s.lower().replace(' ', '-')
        s = ''.join([c for c in s if c.isalnum() or c == '-'])
        return super().__new__(cls, s)

Ces classes s'utilisent comme ceci :

>>> FirstOfMonthDate(2012, 2, 14)
FirstOfMonthDate(2012, 2, 1)
>>> NamedInt('ten')
10
>>> NamedInt(20)
20
>>> TitleStr('Blog: Why Python Rocks')
'blog-why-python-rocks'

Comment mettre en cache le résultat d'une méthode ?

Il existe deux outils principaux pour mettre en cache la valeur de retour d'une méthode, à savoir functools.cached_property(), qui stocke les valeurs au niveau de l'instance, et functools.lru_cache(), qui le fait au niveau de la classe.

The cached_property approach only works with methods that do not take any arguments. It does not create a reference to the instance. The cached method result will be kept only as long as the instance is alive.

L'avantage est que le cache est supprimé aussitôt que l'instance est détruite. L'inconvénient est que les caches peuvent s'accumuler avec les instances, sans limite de nombre.

The lru_cache approach works with methods that have hashable arguments. It creates a reference to the instance unless special efforts are made to pass in weak references.

L'avantage de l'algorithme LRU est d'offrir une limitation sur la taille du cache, que l'on peut régler avec le paramètre maxsize (NdT : LRU signifie Least Recently Used en anglais, les entrées du cache les plus anciennes sont évincées pour conserver la taille). L'inconvénient est qu'une référence forte vers l'instance est conservée dans le cache, ce qui maintient l'instance hors de portée du ramasse-miettes jusqu'à ce que l'entrée soit effacée du cache ou que le cache soit remis à zéro.

Voici une démonstration des différentes techniques :

class Weather:
    "Lookup weather information on a government website"

    def __init__(self, station_id):
        self._station_id = station_id
        # The _station_id is private and immutable

    def current_temperature(self):
        "Latest hourly observation"
        # Do not cache this because old results
        # can be out of date.

    @cached_property
    def location(self):
        "Return the longitude/latitude coordinates of the station"
        # Result only depends on the station_id

    @lru_cache(maxsize=20)
    def historic_rainfall(self, date, units='mm'):
        "Rainfall on a given date"
        # Depends on the station_id, date, and units.

The above example assumes that the station_id never changes. If the relevant instance attributes are mutable, the cached_property approach can't be made to work because it cannot detect changes to the attributes.

To make the lru_cache approach work when the station_id is mutable, the class needs to define the __eq__() and __hash__() methods so that the cache can detect relevant attribute updates:

class Weather:
    "Example with a mutable station identifier"

    def __init__(self, station_id):
        self.station_id = station_id

    def change_station(self, station_id):
        self.station_id = station_id

    def __eq__(self, other):
        return self.station_id == other.station_id

    def __hash__(self):
        return hash(self.station_id)

    @lru_cache(maxsize=20)
    def historic_rainfall(self, date, units='cm'):
        'Rainfall on a given date'
        # Depends on the station_id, date, and units.

Modules

Comment créer des fichiers .pyc ?

Quand un module est importé pour la première fois (ou si le fichier source a été modifié depuis la création du fichier compilé), un fichier .pyc contenant le code précompilé est créé dans un sous-dossier __pycache__ du dossier contentant le fichier .py. Le nom du fichier .pyc est identique au fichier .py et se termine par .pyc, avec une partie centrale qui dépend du binaire python qui l'a créé (voir la PEP 3147 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/] pour de plus amples précisions).

Une des raisons pour lesquelles un fichier .pyc peut ne pas être créé est un problème de droits sur le dossier qui contient le fichier source, ce qui veut dire qu'il est impossible de créer le sous-dossier __pycache__. Ceci peut arriver, par exemple, si vous développez en tant qu'un certain utilisateur, mais que le code est exécuté en tant qu'un autre utilisateur, par exemple pour tester un serveur Web.

Unless the PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE environment variable is set, creation of a .pyc file is automatic if you're importing a module and Python has the ability (permissions, free space, and so on) to create a __pycache__ subdirectory and write the compiled module to that subdirectory.

Running Python on a top-level script is not considered an import and no .pyc will be created. For example, if you have a top-level module foo.py that imports another module xyz.py, when you run foo (by typing python foo.py as a shell command), a .pyc will be created for xyz because xyz is imported, but no .pyc file will be created for foo since foo.py isn't being imported.

Pour créer un fichier .pyc pour foo — c'est-à-dire créer un fichier .pyc pour un module qui n'est pas importé — il existe les modules py_compile et compileall.

Le module py_compile peut compiler n'importe quel module manuellement. Il est ainsi possible d'appeler la fonction compile() de manière interactive :

>>> import py_compile
>>> py_compile.compile('foo.py')

This will write the .pyc to a __pycache__ subdirectory in the same location as foo.py (or you can override that with the optional parameter cfile).

Tous les fichiers d'un ou plusieurs dossiers peuvent aussi être compilés avec le module compileall. C'est possible depuis l'invite de commande en exécutant compileall.py avec le chemin du dossier contenant les fichiers Python à compiler :

python -m compileall .

Comment obtenir le nom du module actuel ?

Un module peut déterminer son propre nom en examinant la variable globale prédéfinie __name__. Si celle-ci vaut '__main__', c'est que le programme est exécuté comme un script. Beaucoup de modules qui doivent normalement être importés pour pouvoir être utilisés fournissent aussi une interface en ligne de commande ou un test automatique. Ils n'exécutent cette portion du code qu'après avoir vérifié la valeur de __name__ :

def main():
    print('Running test...')
    ...

if __name__ == '__main__':
    main()

Comment avoir des modules qui s'importent mutuellement ?

Considérons les modules suivants :

foo.py :

from bar import bar_var
foo_var = 1

bar.py :

from foo import foo_var
bar_var = 2

Le problème réside dans les étapes que l'interpréteur va réaliser :

main importe foo ;

Les variables globales (vides) de foo sont créées ;

foo est compilé et commence à s'exécuter ;

foo importe bar ;

Les variables globales (vides) de bar sont créées ;

bar est compilé et commence à s'exécuter ;

bar importe foo (en réalité, rien ne passe car il y a déjà un module appelé foo) ;

La mécanique des importations tente de lire foo_var dans les variables globales de foo pour procéder à l'affectation bar.foo_var = foo.foo_var.

La dernière étape échoue car Python n'a pas fini d'interpréter foo et le dictionnaire global des symboles de foo est encore vide.

Le même phénomène arrive quand on utilise import foo, et qu'on essaye ensuite d'accéder à foo.foo_var dans le code global.

Il y a (au moins) trois façons de contourner ce problème.

Guido van Rossum déconseille d'utiliser from <module> import ... et de mettre tout le code dans des fonctions. L'initialisation des variables globales et des variables de classe ne doit utiliser que des constantes ou des fonctions natives. Ceci implique que tout ce qui est fourni par un module soit référencé par <module>.<nom>.

Jim Roskind recommande d'effectuer les étapes suivantes dans cet ordre dans chaque module :

les exportations (variables globales, fonctions et les classes qui ne nécessitent d'importer des classes mères)

les instructions import

le code (avec les variables globales qui sont initialisées à partir de valeurs importées).

van Rossum désapprouve cette approche car les importations se trouvent à un endroit bizarre, mais cela fonctionne.

Matthias Urlichs conseille de restructurer le code pour éviter les importations récursives.

Ces solutions peuvent être combinées.

__import__('x.y.z') renvoie <module 'x'> ; comment accéder à z ?

Utilisez plutôt la fonction import_module() de importlib :

z = importlib.import_module('x.y.z')

Quand j'édite un module et que je le réimporte, je ne vois pas les changements. Pourquoi ?

Pour des raisons de performance et de cohérence, Python ne lit le fichier d'un module que la première fois où celui-ci est importé. Si ce n'était pas le cas, dans un programme composé d'un très grand nombre de modules qui importent tous le même module de base, ce module de base serait analysé et ré-analysé un très grand nombre de fois. Pour forcer la relecture d'un module, il faut faire :

import importlib
import modname
importlib.reload(modname)

Warning: this technique is not 100% fool-proof. In particular, modules containing statements like:

from modname import some_objects

continuent de fonctionner avec l'ancienne version des objets importés. Si le module contient une définition de classe, les instances déjà existantes de celle-ci ne sont pas mises à jour avec la nouvelle définition de la classe. Ceci peut conduire au comportement paradoxal suivant :

>>> import importlib
>>> import cls
>>> c = cls.C()                # Create an instance of C
>>> importlib.reload(cls)
<module 'cls' from 'cls.py'>
>>> isinstance(c, cls.C)       # isinstance is false?!?
False

La nature du problème apparaît clairement en affichant « l'identité » des objets de la classe :

>>> hex(id(c.__class__))
'0x7352a0'
>>> hex(id(cls.C))
'0x4198d0'

FAQ sur l'histoire et la conception

Sommaire

FAQ sur l'histoire et la conception

Pourquoi Python utilise-t-il l'indentation pour grouper les instructions ?

Pourquoi ai-je d'étranges résultats suite à de simples opérations arithmétiques ?

Pourquoi les calculs à virgules flottantes sont si imprécis ?

Pourquoi les chaînes de caractères Python sont-elles immuables ?

Pourquoi self doit-il être explicitement utilisé dans les définitions et les appels de méthodes ?

Pourquoi ne puis-je pas utiliser d'assignation dans une expression ?

Pourquoi Python utilise des méthodes pour certaines fonctionnalités (ex : list.index()) mais des fonctions pour d'autres (ex : len(list)) ?

Pourquoi join() est une méthode de chaîne plutôt qu'une méthode de liste ou de n-uplet ?

À quel point les exceptions sont-elles rapides ?

Pourquoi n'y a-t-il pas une instruction switch ou une structure similaire à switch / case en Python ?

Est-il possible d'émuler des fils d'exécution dans l'interpréteur plutôt que se baser sur les implémentations spécifiques aux systèmes d'exploitation ?

Pourquoi les expressions lambda ne peuvent pas contenir d'instructions ?

Python peut-il être compilé en code machine, en C ou dans un autre langage ?

Comment Python gère la mémoire ?

Pourquoi CPython n'utilise-t-il pas un modèle de ramasse-miettes plus traditionnel ?

Pourquoi toute la mémoire n'est pas libérée lorsque CPython s'arrête ?

Pourquoi les n-uplets et les list sont deux types de données séparés ?

Comment les listes sont-elles implémentées dans CPython ?

Comment les dictionnaires sont-ils implémentés dans CPython ?

Pourquoi les clés du dictionnaire sont immuables ?

Pourquoi list.sort() ne renvoie pas la liste triée ?

Comment spécifier une interface et appliquer une spécification d’interface en Python ?

Pourquoi n'y a-t-il pas de goto en Python ?

Pourquoi les chaînes de caractères brutes (r-strings) ne peuvent-elles pas se terminer par un backslash ?

Pourquoi la déclaration with pour les assignations d'attributs n'existe pas en Python ?

Pourquoi l'instruction with ne prend-elle pas en charge les générateurs ?

Pourquoi les deux-points sont-ils nécessaires pour les déclarations if/while/def/class ?

Pourquoi Python permet-il les virgules à la fin des listes et des n-uplets ?

Pourquoi Python utilise-t-il l'indentation pour grouper les instructions ?

Guido van Rossum considère que l'usage de l'indentation pour regrouper les blocs d'instruction est élégant et contribue énormément à la clarté d'un programme Python ordinaire. La plupart des gens finissent par aimer cette particularité au bout d'un moment.

Comme il n'y a pas d'accolades de début et fin, il ne peut y avoir de différence entre le bloc perçu par l'analyseur syntaxique et le lecteur humain. Parfois les programmeurs C pourront trouver un morceau de code comme celui-ci :

if (x <= y)
        x++;
        y--;
z++;

Seule l'instruction x++ est exécutée si la condition est vraie, mais l'indentation conduit beaucoup de gens à penser le contraire. Mêmes des développeurs C expérimentés peuvent parfois rester pendant un moment à se demander pourquoi y est décrémenté même si x > y.

Comme il n'y a pas d'accolades de début et fin, Python est moins sujet aux conflits de style de code. En C, on peut placer les accolades de nombreuses façons. Après s'être habitué à lire et écrire selon un style particulier, il est normal de se sentir perturbé en lisant (ou en devant écrire) avec un autre style.

Nombre de styles de programmation utilisent des accolades de début et fin sur une ligne à part. Cela rend les programmes beaucoup plus longs et fait perdre une bonne partie de l'espace visible sur l'écran, empêchant un peu d'avoir une vue globale du programme. Idéalement, une fonction doit être visible sur un écran (environ 20 ou 30 lignes). 20 lignes de Python peuvent faire beaucoup plus que 20 lignes de C. Ce n'est pas seulement dû à l'absence d'accolades de début et fin — l'absence de déclarations et la présence de types de haut-niveau en sont également responsables — mais la syntaxe basée sur l'indentation aide sûrement.

Pourquoi ai-je d'étranges résultats suite à de simples opérations arithmétiques ?

Voir la question suivante.

Pourquoi les calculs à virgules flottantes sont si imprécis ?

Les gens sont très souvent surpris par des résultats comme celui-ci :

>>> 1.2 - 1.0
0.19999999999999996

et pensent que c'est un bogue dans Python. Ça n'en est pas un. Ceci n'a d'ailleurs que peu à voir avec Python, mais avec la manière dont la plateforme sous-jacente gère les nombres à virgule flottante.

La classe float dans CPython utilise le type double du langage C comme stockage. La valeur d'un objet float est stockée dans un format binaire à virgule flottante avec une précision fixe (généralement 53 bits). Python utilise des opérations qui proviennent du langage C qui à leur tour reposent sur l'implémentation au niveau du processeur afin d'effectuer des opérations en virgule flottante. Cela signifie que, dans le cadre des opérations sur les nombres à virgule flottante, Python se comporte comme beaucoup de langages populaires dont C et Java.

Many numbers that can be written easily in decimal notation cannot be expressed exactly in binary floating point. For example, after:

>>> x = 1.2

la valeur stockée pour x est une (très bonne) approximation de la valeur décimale 1.2, mais cette valeur n'est pas exacte. Sur une machine typique, la valeur stockée est en fait :

1.0011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011 (binary)

qui est, exactement :

1.1999999999999999555910790149937383830547332763671875 (decimal)

La précision typique de 53 bits des floats Python permet une précision de 15–16 décimales.

For a fuller explanation, please see the floating-point arithmetic chapter in the Python tutorial.

Pourquoi les chaînes de caractères Python sont-elles immuables ?

Il y a plusieurs avantages.

La première concerne la performance : savoir qu'une chaîne de caractères est immuable signifie que l'allocation mémoire allouée lors de la création de cette chaîne est fixe et figée. C'est aussi l'une des raisons pour lesquelles on fait la distinction entre les n-uplets et les listes.

Un autre avantage est que les chaînes en Python sont considérées aussi « élémentaires » que les nombres. Aucun processus ne changera la valeur du nombre 8 en autre chose et, en Python, aucun processus ne changera la chaîne de caractères "huit" en autre chose.

Pourquoi self doit-il être explicitement utilisé dans les définitions et les appels de méthodes ?

L'idée a été empruntée à Modula-3. Cela s'avère très utile, pour diverses raisons.

Tout d'abord, il est plus évident d'utiliser une méthode ou un attribut d'instance par exemple au lieu d'une variable locale. Lire self.x ou self.meth() est sans ambiguïté sur le fait que c'est une variable d'instance ou une méthode qui est utilisée, même si vous ne connaissez pas la définition de classe par cœur. En C++, vous pouvez les reconnaître par l'absence d'une déclaration de variable locale (en supposant que les variables globales sont rares ou facilement reconnaissables) — mais en Python, il n'y a pas de déclarations de variables locales, de sorte que vous devriez chercher la définition de classe pour être sûr. Certaines normes de programmation C++ et Java préfixent les attributs d'instance par m_. Cette syntaxe explicite est ainsi utile également pour ces langages.

Second, it means that no special syntax is necessary if you want to explicitly reference or call the method from a particular class. In C++, if you want to use a method from a base class which is overridden in a derived class, you have to use the :: operator -- in Python you can write baseclass.methodname(self, <argument list>). This is particularly useful for __init__() methods, and in general in cases where a derived class method wants to extend the base class method of the same name and thus has to call the base class method somehow.

Enfin, pour des variables d'instance, ça résout un problème syntactique pour l'assignation : puisque les variables locales en Python sont (par définition !) ces variables auxquelles les valeurs sont assignées dans le corps d'une fonction (et n'étant pas déclarées explicitement globales), il doit y avoir un moyen de dire à l'interpréteur qu'une assignation est censée assigner une variable d'instance plutôt qu'une variable locale, et doit de préférence être syntactique (pour des raisons d'efficacité). C++ fait ça au travers de déclarations, mais Python n'a pas de déclarations et ça serait dommage d'avoir à les introduire juste pour cette raison. Utiliser explicitement self.var résout ça avec élégance. Pareillement, pour utiliser des variables d'instance, avoir à écrire self.var signifie que les références vers des noms non-qualifiés au sein d'une méthode n'ont pas à être cherchés dans l'annuaire d'instances. En d'autres termes, les variables locales et les variables d'instance vivent dans deux différents espaces de nommage, et vous devez dire à Python quel espace de nommage utiliser.

Pourquoi ne puis-je pas utiliser d'assignation dans une expression ?

Depuis Python 3.8, c'est possible !

Les expressions d'affectation qui utilisent l'opérateur morse := affectent une variable dans une expression :

while chunk := fp.read(200):
   print(chunk)

Voir la PEP 572 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/] pour plus d'informations.

Pourquoi Python utilise des méthodes pour certaines fonctionnalités (ex : list.index()) mais des fonctions pour d'autres (ex : len(list)) ?

Comme l'a dit Guido :

(a) For some operations, prefix notation just reads better than postfix -- prefix (and infix!) operations have a long tradition in mathematics which likes notations where the visuals help the mathematician thinking about a problem. Compare the easy with which we rewrite a formula like x*(a+b) into x*a + x*b to the clumsiness of doing the same thing using a raw OO notation.

(b) When I read code that says len(x) I know that it is asking for the length of something. This tells me two things: the result is an integer, and the argument is some kind of container. To the contrary, when I read x.len(), I have to already know that x is some kind of container implementing an interface or inheriting from a class that has a standard len(). Witness the confusion we occasionally have when a class that is not implementing a mapping has a get() or keys() method, or something that isn't a file has a write() method.

—https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-3000/2006-November/004643.html

Pourquoi join() est une méthode de chaîne plutôt qu'une méthode de liste ou de n-uplet ?

Les chaînes sont devenues bien plus comme d'autres types standards à partir de Python 1.6, lorsque les méthodes ont été ajoutées fournissant ainsi les mêmes fonctionnalités que celles qui étaient déjà disponibles en utilisant les fonctions du module string. La plupart de ces nouvelles méthodes ont été largement acceptées, mais celle qui semble rendre certains programmeurs mal à l'aise est :

", ".join(['1', '2', '4', '8', '16'])

qui donne le résultat :

"1, 2, 4, 8, 16"

Il y a deux arguments fréquents contre cet usage.

Le premier argument peut se résumer à : « c'est vraiment moche d'utiliser une méthode de chaîne littérale (c.-à-d. constante) ». La réponse est « certes, mais une chaîne littérale est une valeur comme une autre, juste fixe ». Si on utilise les méthodes sur des noms de variables, il n'y a pas de raison à les interdire sur des chaînes littérales.

Le second consiste à se demander : « suis-je réellement en train de dire à une séquence de joindre ses membres avec une constante de chaîne ? ». Malheureusement, ce n'est pas ça. Allez savoir, il semble être bien moins difficile de comprendre ce qui se passe avec split() en tant que méthode de chaîne, puisque dans ce cas il est facile de voir que

"1, 2, 4, 8, 16".split(", ")

est une instruction à une chaîne littérale de renvoyer les sous-chaînes délimitées par le séparateur fourni (ou, par défaut, les espaces ou groupes d'espaces).

join() est une méthode de chaîne parce qu'en l'utilisant vous dites au séparateur de chaîne d'itérer une séquence de chaînes et de s'insérer entre les éléments adjacents. Cette méthode peut être utilisée avec n'importe quel argument qui obéit aux règles d'objets séquence, incluant n'importe quelles nouvelles classes que vous pourriez définir vous-même. Des méthodes similaires existent pour des objets bytes et bytearray.

À quel point les exceptions sont-elles rapides ?

A try/except block is extremely efficient if no exceptions are raised. Actually catching an exception is expensive. In versions of Python prior to 2.0 it was common to use this idiom:

try:
    value = mydict[key]
except KeyError:
    mydict[key] = getvalue(key)
    value = mydict[key]

Cela n'a de sens que si vous vous attendez à ce que le dictionnaire ait la clé presque tout le temps. Si ce n'était pas le cas, vous l'auriez codé comme suit :

if key in mydict:
    value = mydict[key]
else:
    value = mydict[key] = getvalue(key)

Pour ce cas, vous pouvez également utiliser value = dict.setdefault(key, getvalue(key)), mais seulement si l'appel à getvalue() est suffisamment peu coûteux car il est évalué dans tous les cas.

Pourquoi n'y a-t-il pas une instruction switch ou une structure similaire à switch / case en Python ?

In general, structured switch statements execute one block of code when an expression has a particular value or set of values. Since Python 3.10 one can easily match literal values, or constants within a namespace, with a match ... case statement. An older alternative is a sequence of if... elif... elif... else.

Dans les cas où vous devez choisir parmi un très grand nombre de possibilités, vous pouvez créer un dictionnaire faisant correspondre des valeurs à des fonctions à appeler. Par exemple :

functions = {'a': function_1,
             'b': function_2,
             'c': self.method_1}

func = functions[value]
func()

Pour appeler les méthodes sur des objets, vous pouvez simplifier davantage en utilisant la fonction native getattr() pour récupérer les méthodes avec un nom donné :

class MyVisitor:
    def visit_a(self):
        ...

    def dispatch(self, value):
        method_name = 'visit_' + str(value)
        method = getattr(self, method_name)
        method()

Il est suggéré que vous utilisiez un préfixe pour les noms de méthodes, telles que visit_ dans cet exemple. Sans ce préfixe, si les valeurs proviennent d'une source non fiable, un attaquant serait en mesure d'appeler n'importe quelle méthode sur votre objet.

Imitating switch with fallthrough, as with C's switch-case-default, is possible, much harder, and less needed.

Est-il possible d'émuler des fils d'exécution dans l'interpréteur plutôt que se baser sur les implémentations spécifiques aux systèmes d'exploitation ?

Réponse 1 : malheureusement, l'interpréteur pousse au moins un bloc de pile C (stack frame) pour chaque bloc de pile de Python. Aussi, les extensions peuvent rappeler dans Python à presque n'importe quel moment. Par conséquent, une implémentation complète des fils d'exécution nécessiterait une gestion complète pour le C.

Réponse 2 : heureusement, il existe Stackless Python [https://github.com/stackless-dev/stackless/wiki], qui a complètement ré-architecturé la boucle principale de l'interpréteur afin de ne pas utiliser la pile C.

Pourquoi les expressions lambda ne peuvent pas contenir d'instructions ?

Les expressions lambda de Python ne peuvent pas contenir d'instructions parce que le cadre syntaxique de Python ne peut pas gérer les instructions imbriquées à l'intérieur d'expressions. Cependant, en Python, ce n'est pas vraiment un problème. Contrairement aux formes lambda dans d'autres langages, où elles ajoutent des fonctionnalités, les expressions lambda de Python sont seulement une notation concise si vous êtes trop paresseux pour définir une fonction.

Les fonctions sont déjà des objets de première classe en Python et peuvent être déclarées dans une portée locale. L'unique avantage d'utiliser une fonction lambda au lieu d'une fonction définie localement est que vous n'avez nullement besoin d'un nom pour la fonction — mais c'est juste une variable locale à laquelle est affecté l'objet fonction (qui est exactement le même type d'objet que celui renvoyé par une expression lambda) !

Python peut-il être compilé en code machine, en C ou dans un autre langage ?

Cython [https://cython.org/] compiles a modified version of Python with optional annotations into C extensions. Nuitka [https://nuitka.net/] is an up-and-coming compiler of Python into C++ code, aiming to support the full Python language.

Comment Python gère la mémoire ?

Les détails de la gestion de la mémoire en Python dépendent de l'implémentation. En effet, l'implémentation standard de Python, CPython, utilise des compteurs de références afin de détecter des objets inaccessibles et un autre mécanisme pour collecter les références circulaires, exécutant périodiquement un algorithme de détection de cycles qui recherche les cycles inaccessibles et supprime les objets impliqués. Le module gc fournit des fonctions pour lancer le ramasse-miettes, d'obtenir des statistiques de débogage et ajuster ses paramètres.

Other implementations (such as Jython [https://www.jython.org] or PyPy [https://pypy.org]), however, can rely on a different mechanism such as a full-blown garbage collector. This difference can cause some subtle porting problems if your Python code depends on the behavior of the reference counting implementation.

Dans certaines implémentations de Python, le code suivant (qui fonctionne parfaitement avec CPython) aurait probablement manqué de descripteurs de fichiers :

for file in very_long_list_of_files:
    f = open(file)
    c = f.read(1)

Indeed, using CPython's reference counting and destructor scheme, each new assignment to f closes the previous file. With a traditional GC, however, those file objects will only get collected (and closed) at varying and possibly long intervals.

Si vous souhaitez écrire du code qui fonctionne avec n'importe quelle implémentation de Python, vous devez explicitement fermer le fichier ou utiliser l'instruction with ; ceci fonctionne indépendamment du système de gestion de la mémoire :

for file in very_long_list_of_files:
    with open(file) as f:
        c = f.read(1)

Pourquoi CPython n'utilise-t-il pas un modèle de ramasse-miettes plus traditionnel ?

D'une part, ce n'est pas une caractéristique normalisée en C et, par conséquent, ce n'est pas portable. (Oui, nous connaissons la bibliothèque GC Boehm. Elle contient du code assembleur pour la plupart des plateformes classiques, mais pas toutes, et bien qu'elle soit le plus souvent transparente, elle ne l'est pas complètement ; des correctifs sont nécessaires afin que Python fonctionne correctement avec.)

Traditional GC also becomes a problem when Python is embedded into other applications. While in a standalone Python it's fine to replace the standard malloc() and free() with versions provided by the GC library, an application embedding Python may want to have its own substitute for malloc() and free(), and may not want Python's. Right now, CPython works with anything that implements malloc() and free() properly.

Pourquoi toute la mémoire n'est pas libérée lorsque CPython s'arrête ?

Les objets référencés depuis les espaces de nommage globaux des modules Python ne sont pas toujours désalloués lorsque Python s'arrête. Cela peut se produire s'il y a des références circulaires. Il y a aussi certaines parties de mémoire qui sont allouées par la bibliothèque C qui sont impossibles à libérer (par exemple un outil comme Purify s'en plaindra). Python est, cependant, agressif sur le nettoyage de la mémoire en quittant et cherche à détruire chaque objet.

Si vous voulez forcer Python à désallouer certains objets en quittant, utilisez le module atexit pour exécuter une fonction qui va forcer ces destructions.

Pourquoi les n-uplets et les list sont deux types de données séparés ?

Lists and tuples, while similar in many respects, are generally used in fundamentally different ways. Tuples can be thought of as being similar to Pascal records or C structs; they're small collections of related data which may be of different types which are operated on as a group. For example, a Cartesian coordinate is appropriately represented as a tuple of two or three numbers.

Lists, on the other hand, are more like arrays in other languages. They tend to hold a varying number of objects all of which have the same type and which are operated on one-by-one. For example, os.listdir('.') returns a list of strings representing the files in the current directory. Functions which operate on this output would generally not break if you added another file or two to the directory.

Les n-uplets sont immuables, ce qui signifie que lorsqu'un n-uplet a été créé, vous ne pouvez remplacer aucun de ses éléments par une nouvelle valeur. Les listes sont mutables, ce qui signifie que vous pouvez toujours modifier les éléments d'une liste. Seuls des éléments immuables peuvent être utilisés comme clés de dictionnaires, et donc de tuple et list seul des n-uplets peuvent être utilisés comme clés.

Comment les listes sont-elles implémentées dans CPython ?

Les listes en CPython sont de vrais tableaux de longueur variable contrairement à des listes orientées Lisp (c.-à-d. des listes chaînées). L'implémentation utilise un tableau contigu de références à d'autres objets. Elle conserve également un pointeur vers ce tableau et la longueur du tableau dans une structure de tête de liste.

Cela rend l'indexation d'une liste a[i] une opération dont le coût est indépendant de la taille de la liste ou de la valeur de l'indice.

Lorsque des éléments sont ajoutés ou insérés, le tableau de références est redimensionné. Un savoir-faire ingénieux permet l'amélioration des performances lors de l'ajout fréquent d'éléments ; lorsque le tableau doit être étendu, un certain espace supplémentaire est alloué de sorte que pour la prochaine fois, ceci ne nécessite plus un redimensionnement effectif.

Comment les dictionnaires sont-ils implémentés dans CPython ?

Les dictionnaires CPython sont implémentés sous forme de tables de hachage redimensionnables. Par rapport aux B-trees, cela donne de meilleures performances pour la recherche (l'opération la plus courante de loin) dans la plupart des circonstances, et leur implémentation est plus simple.

Dictionaries work by computing a hash code for each key stored in the dictionary using the hash() built-in function. The hash code varies widely depending on the key and a per-process seed; for example, 'Python' could hash to -539294296 while 'python', a string that differs by a single bit, could hash to 1142331976. The hash code is then used to calculate a location in an internal array where the value will be stored. Assuming that you're storing keys that all have different hash values, this means that dictionaries take constant time -- O(1), in Big-O notation -- to retrieve a key.

Pourquoi les clés du dictionnaire sont immuables ?

L'implémentation de la table de hachage des dictionnaires utilise une valeur de hachage calculée à partir de la valeur de la clé pour trouver la clé elle-même. Si la clé était un objet mutable, sa valeur peut changer, et donc son hachage pourrait également changer. Mais toute personne modifiant l'objet clé ne peut pas dire qu'elle a été utilisée comme une clé de dictionnaire. Il ne peut déplacer l'entrée dans le dictionnaire. Ainsi, lorsque vous essayez de rechercher le même objet dans le dictionnaire, il ne sera pas disponible parce que sa valeur de hachage est différente. Si vous essayez de chercher l'ancienne valeur, elle serait également introuvable car la valeur de l'objet trouvé dans cet emplacement de hachage serait différente.

Si vous voulez un dictionnaire indexé avec une liste, il faut simplement convertir la liste en un n-uplet ; la fonction tuple(L) crée un n-uplet avec les mêmes entrées que la liste L. Les n-uplets sont immuables et peuvent donc être utilisés comme clés du dictionnaire.

Certaines solutions insatisfaisantes ont été proposées :

Hacher les listes par leur adresse (ID de l'objet). Cela ne fonctionne pas parce que si vous créez une nouvelle liste avec la même valeur, elle ne sera pas retrouvée ; par exemple :

mydict = {[1, 2]: '12'}
print(mydict[[1, 2]])

lèverait une exception KeyError car l'ID de [1, 2] utilisé dans la deuxième ligne diffère de celui de la première ligne. En d'autres termes, les clés de dictionnaire doivent être comparées à l'aide du comparateur == et non à l'aide du mot clé is.

Faire une copie lors de l'utilisation d'une liste en tant que clé. Cela ne fonctionne pas puisque la liste, étant un objet mutable, pourrait contenir une référence à elle-même ou avoir une boucle infinie au niveau du code copié.

Autoriser les listes en tant que clés, mais indiquer à l'utilisateur de ne pas les modifier. Cela permettrait un ensemble de bogues difficiles à suivre dans les programmes lorsque vous avez oublié ou modifié une liste par accident. Cela casse également un impératif important des dictionnaires : chaque valeur de d.keys() est utilisable comme clé du dictionnaire.

Marquer les listes comme étant en lecture seule une fois qu'elles sont utilisées comme clé de dictionnaire. Le problème est que ce n'est pas seulement l'objet de niveau supérieur qui pourrait changer sa valeur ; vous pourriez utiliser un n-uplet contenant une liste comme clé. Utiliser n'importe quoi comme une clé dans un dictionnaire nécessiterait de marquer tous les objets accessibles à partir de là comme en lecture seule — et encore une fois, les objets se faisant référence pourraient provoquer une boucle infinie.

There is a trick to get around this if you need to, but use it at your own risk: You can wrap a mutable structure inside a class instance which has both a __eq__() and a __hash__() method. You must then make sure that the hash value for all such wrapper objects that reside in a dictionary (or other hash based structure), remain fixed while the object is in the dictionary (or other structure).

class ListWrapper:
    def __init__(self, the_list):
        self.the_list = the_list

    def __eq__(self, other):
        return self.the_list == other.the_list

    def __hash__(self):
        l = self.the_list
        result = 98767 - len(l)*555
        for i, el in enumerate(l):
            try:
                result = result + (hash(el) % 9999999) * 1001 + i
            except Exception:
                result = (result % 7777777) + i * 333
        return result

Notez que le calcul de hachage peut être compliqué car il est possible que certains membres de la liste soient impossibles à hacher et aussi par la possibilité de débordement arithmétique.

De plus, il faut toujours que, si o1 == o2 (par exemple o1.__eq__(o2) vaut True) alors hash(o1) == hash(o2) (par exemple, o1.__hash__() == o2.__hash__()), que l’objet se trouve dans un dictionnaire ou pas. Si vous ne remplissez pas ces conditions, les dictionnaires et autres structures basées sur le hachage se comporteront mal.

In the case of ListWrapper, whenever the wrapper object is in a dictionary the wrapped list must not change to avoid anomalies. Don't do this unless you are prepared to think hard about the requirements and the consequences of not meeting them correctly. Consider yourself warned.

Pourquoi list.sort() ne renvoie pas la liste triée ?

Dans les situations où la performance est importante, faire une copie de la liste juste pour la classer serait un gaspillage. Par conséquent, list.sort() classe la liste en place. Afin de vous le rappeler, elle ne renvoie pas la liste classée. De cette façon, vous ne serez pas dupés en écrasant accidentellement une liste lorsque vous avez besoin d’une copie triée tout en gardant sous la main la version non triée.

Si vous souhaitez qu'une nouvelle liste soit renvoyée, utilisez plutôt la fonction native sorted(). Cette fonction crée une nouvelle liste à partir d’un itérable fourni, la classe et la renvoie. Par exemple, voici comment itérer dans l’ordre sur les clés d’un dictionnaire :

for key in sorted(mydict):
    ...  # do whatever with mydict[key]...

Comment spécifier une interface et appliquer une spécification d’interface en Python ?

Une spécification d'interface pour un module fourni par des langages tels que C++ et Java décrit les prototypes pour les méthodes et les fonctions du module. Beaucoup estiment que la vérification au moment de la compilation des spécifications d'interface facilite la construction de grands programmes.

Python 2.6 ajoute un module abc qui vous permet de définir des classes mères abstraites (ABC pour abstract base classes en anglais). Vous pouvez ensuite utiliser isinstance() et issubclass() pour vérifier si une instance ou une classe implémente une ABC particulière. Le module collections.abc définit un ensemble d'ABC utiles telles que Iterable, Container et collections.abc.MutableMapping.

Pour Python, la plupart des avantages des spécifications d'interface peuvent être obtenus par une discipline de test appropriée pour les composants.

Une bonne suite de tests pour un module peut à la fois fournir un test de non-régression et servir de spécification d'interface de module ainsi qu'un ensemble d'exemples. De nombreux modules Python peuvent être exécutés en tant que script pour fournir un simple « auto-test ». Même les modules qui utilisent des interfaces externes complexes peuvent souvent être testés isolément à l'aide d'émulations triviales embryonnaires de l'interface externe. Les modules doctest et UnitTest ou des cadriciels de test tiers peuvent être utilisés pour construire des suites de tests exhaustives qui éprouvent chaque ligne de code dans un module.

An appropriate testing discipline can help build large complex applications in Python as well as having interface specifications would. In fact, it can be better because an interface specification cannot test certain properties of a program. For example, the list.append() method is expected to add new elements to the end of some internal list; an interface specification cannot test that your list.append() implementation will actually do this correctly, but it's trivial to check this property in a test suite.

L'écriture des suites de tests est très utile, et vous voudrez peut-être concevoir votre code de manière à le rendre facilement testable. Une technique de plus en plus populaire, le développement dirigé par les tests, requiert d'écrire d'abord des éléments de la suite de tests, avant d'écrire le code réel. Bien sûr, Python vous permet d'être laxiste et de ne pas écrire de test du tout.

Pourquoi n'y a-t-il pas de goto en Python ?

In the 1970s people realized that unrestricted goto could lead to messy "spaghetti" code that was hard to understand and revise. In a high-level language, it is also unneeded as long as there are ways to branch (in Python, with if statements and or, and, and if/else expressions) and loop (with while and for statements, possibly containing continue and break).

One can also use exceptions to provide a "structured goto" that works even across function calls. Many feel that exceptions can conveniently emulate all reasonable uses of the go or goto constructs of C, Fortran, and other languages. For example:

class label(Exception): pass  # declare a label

try:
    ...
    if condition: raise label()  # goto label
    ...
except label:  # where to goto
    pass
...

This doesn't allow you to jump into the middle of a loop, but that's usually considered an abuse of goto anyway. Use sparingly.

Pourquoi les chaînes de caractères brutes (r-strings) ne peuvent-elles pas se terminer par un backslash ?

Plus précisément, elles ne peuvent pas se terminer par un nombre impair de backslashes : le backslash non appairé à la fin échappe le caractère de guillemet final, laissant la chaîne non terminée.

Les chaînes brutes ont été conçues pour faciliter la création de données pour les processeurs de texte (principalement les moteurs d'expressions régulières) qui veulent faire leur propre traitement d'échappement d'antislashes. Ces processeurs considèrent un antislash de fin non-appairé comme une erreur, alors les chaînes brutes ne le permettent pas. En retour, elles vous permettent de transmettre le caractère de citation de la chaîne en l'échappant avec un antislash. Ces règles fonctionnent bien lorsque les chaînes brutes sont utilisées pour leur but premier.

Si vous essayez de construire des chemins d'accès Windows, notez que tous les appels système Windows acceptent également les slashes « classiques » :

f = open("/mydir/file.txt")  # works fine!

Si vous essayez de construire un chemin d'accès pour une commande DOS, essayez par exemple l'un de ceux-ci

dir = r"\this\is\my\dos\dir" "\\"
dir = r"\this\is\my\dos\dir\ "[:-1]
dir = "\\this\\is\\my\\dos\\dir\\"

Pourquoi la déclaration with pour les assignations d'attributs n'existe pas en Python ?

Python has a with statement that wraps the execution of a block, calling code on the entrance and exit from the block. Some languages have a construct that looks like this:

with obj:
    a = 1               # equivalent to obj.a = 1
    total = total + 1   # obj.total = obj.total + 1

En Python, une telle construction serait ambiguë.

Les autres langages, tels que Pascal, Delphi et C++ utilisent des types statiques, il est donc possible de savoir d'une manière claire et directe ce à quoi est attribué un membre. C'est le point principal du typage statique — le compilateur connaît toujours la portée de toutes les variables au moment de la compilation.

Python utilise le typage dynamique. Il est impossible de savoir à l'avance quel attribut sera référencé lors de l'exécution. Les attributs membres peuvent être ajoutés ou retirés des objets à la volée. Il est donc impossible de savoir, d'une simple lecture, quel attribut est référencé : s'il est local, global ou un attribut membre ?

Prenons par exemple l'extrait incomplet suivant :

def foo(a):
    with a:
        print(x)

The snippet assumes that a must have a member attribute called x. However, there is nothing in Python that tells the interpreter this. What should happen if a is, let us say, an integer? If there is a global variable named x, will it be used inside the with block? As you see, the dynamic nature of Python makes such choices much harder.

The primary benefit of with and similar language features (reduction of code volume) can, however, easily be achieved in Python by assignment. Instead of:

function(args).mydict[index][index].a = 21
function(args).mydict[index][index].b = 42
function(args).mydict[index][index].c = 63

écrivez ceci :

ref = function(args).mydict[index][index]
ref.a = 21
ref.b = 42
ref.c = 63

Cela a également pour effet secondaire d'augmenter la vitesse d'exécution car les liaisons de noms sont résolues au moment de l'exécution en Python, et la deuxième version n'a besoin d'exécuter la résolution qu'une seule fois.

Similar proposals that would introduce syntax to further reduce code volume, such as using a 'leading dot', have been rejected in favour of explicitness (see https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-ideas/2016-May/040070.html).

Pourquoi l'instruction with ne prend-elle pas en charge les générateurs ?

For technical reasons, a generator used directly as a context manager would not work correctly. When, as is most common, a generator is used as an iterator run to completion, no closing is needed. When it is, wrap it as contextlib.closing(generator) in the with statement.

Pourquoi les deux-points sont-ils nécessaires pour les déclarations if/while/def/class ?

Le deux-points est principalement nécessaire pour améliorer la lisibilité (l'un des résultats du langage expérimental ABC). Considérez ceci :

if a == b
    print(a)

et cela

if a == b:
    print(a)

Remarquez comment le deuxième est un peu plus facile à lire. Remarquez aussi comment un deux-points introduit l'exemple dans cette réponse à la FAQ ; c'est un usage standard en français (et en anglais).

Une autre raison mineure est que les deux-points facilitent la tâche des éditeurs avec coloration syntaxique ; ils peuvent rechercher les deux-points pour décider quand l'indentation doit être augmentée au lieu d'avoir à faire une analyse plus élaborée du texte du programme.

Pourquoi Python permet-il les virgules à la fin des listes et des n-uplets ?

Python vous permet d'ajouter une virgule à la fin des listes, des n-uplets et des dictionnaires :

[1, 2, 3,]
('a', 'b', 'c',)
d = {
    "A": [1, 5],
    "B": [6, 7],  # last trailing comma is optional but good style
}

Il y a plusieurs raisons d'accepter cela.

Lorsque vous avez une valeur littérale pour une liste, un n-uplet ou un dictionnaire réparti sur plusieurs lignes, il est plus facile d'ajouter plus d'éléments parce que vous n'avez pas besoin de vous rappeler d'ajouter une virgule à la ligne précédente. Les lignes peuvent aussi être réorganisées sans créer une erreur de syntaxe.

L'omission accidentelle de la virgule peut entraîner des erreurs difficiles à diagnostiquer, par exemple :

x = [
  "fee",
  "fie"
  "foo",
  "fum"
]

Cette liste a l'air d'avoir quatre éléments, mais elle en contient en fait trois : "fee", "fiefoo" et "fum". Toujours ajouter la virgule permet d'éviter cette source d'erreur.

Permettre la virgule de fin peut également faciliter la génération de code.

FAQ sur la bibliothèque et les extensions

Sommaire

FAQ sur la bibliothèque et les extensions

Questions générales sur la bibliothèque

Comment trouver un module ou une application pour effectuer la tâche X ?

Où sont stockés les fichiers sources math.py, socket.py, regex.py, etc ?

Comment rendre un script Python exécutable sous Unix ?

Existe-t-il un module curses ou termcap en Python ?

Existe-t-il un équivalent à la fonction C onexit() en Python ?

Pourquoi mes gestionnaires de signaux ne fonctionnent-ils pas ?

Tâches fréquentes

Comment tester un programme ou un composant Python ?

Comment générer la documentation à partir des docstrings ?

Comment détecter qu'une touche est pressée ?

Fils d'exécution

Comment programmer avec des fils d'exécution ?

Aucun de mes fils ne semble s'exécuter : pourquoi ?

Comment découper et répartir une tâche au sein d'un ensemble de fils d'exécutions ?

Quels types de mutations sur des variables globales sont compatibles avec les programmes à fils d'exécution multiples ? sécurisé ?

Pourquoi ne pas se débarrasser du verrou global de l'interpréteur ?

Les entrées/sorties

Comment supprimer un fichier ? (et autres questions sur les fichiers…)

Comment copier un fichier ?

Comment lire (ou écrire) des données binaires ?

Il me semble impossible d'utiliser os.read() sur un tube créé avec os.popen() ; pourquoi ?

Comment accéder au port de transmission en série (RS-232) ?

Pourquoi fermer sys.stdout, sys.stdin, sys.stderr ne les ferme pas réellement ?

Programmation réseau et Internet

Quels sont les outils Python dédiés à au web ?

Quel module utiliser pour générer du HTML ?

Comment envoyer un courriel avec un script Python ?

Comment éviter de bloquer dans la méthode connect() d'un connecteur réseau ?

Bases de données

Existe-t-il des modules Python pour s'interfacer avec des bases de données ?

Comment implémenter la persistance d'objets en Python ?

Mathématiques et calcul numérique

Comment générer des nombres aléatoires en Python ?

Questions générales sur la bibliothèque

Comment trouver un module ou une application pour effectuer la tâche X ?

Regardez si la bibliothèque standard contient un module approprié (avec l'expérience, vous connaîtrez le contenu de la bibliothèque standard et pourrez sauter cette étape).

Pour des paquets tiers, regardez dans l'index des paquets Python [https://pypi.org] ou essayez Google [https://www.google.com] ou un autre moteur de recherche (NDT : comme le moteur français Qwant [https://www.qwant.com]). Rechercher « Python » accompagné d'un ou deux mots-clés se rapportant à ce qui vous intéresse donne souvent de bons résultats.

Où sont stockés les fichiers sources math.py, socket.py, regex.py, etc ?

Si vous ne parvenez pas à trouver le fichier source d'un module, c'est peut-être parce que celui-ci est un module natif ou bien un module implémenté en C, C++, ou autre langage compilé, qui est chargé dynamiquement. Dans ce cas, vous ne possédez peut-être pas le fichier source ou celui-ci est en réalité stocké quelque part dans un dossier de fichiers source C (qui ne sera pas dans le chemin Python), comme par exemple mathmodule.c.

Il y a (au moins) trois types de modules dans Python :

les modules écrits en Python (.py) ;

les modules écrits en C et chargés dynamiquement (.dll, .pyd, .so, .sl, etc.) ;

les modules écrits en C et liés à l'interpréteur ; pour obtenir leur liste, entrez :

import sys
print(sys.builtin_module_names)

Comment rendre un script Python exécutable sous Unix ?

Deux conditions doivent être remplies : les droits d'accès au fichier doivent permettre son exécution et la première ligne du script doit commencer par #! suivi du chemin vers l'interpréteur Python.

La première condition est remplie en exécutant chmod +x scriptfile ou chmod 755 scriptfile.

Il y a plusieurs façons de remplir la seconde. La plus simple consiste à écrire au tout début du fichier

#!/usr/local/bin/python

en utilisant le chemin de l'interpréteur Python sur votre machine.

Pour rendre ce script indépendant de la localisation de l'interpréteur Python, il faut utiliser le programme env. La ligne ci-dessous fonctionne sur la quasi-totalité des dérivés de Unix, à condition que l'interpréteur Python soit dans un dossier référencé dans la variable PATH de l'utilisateur :

#!/usr/bin/env python

Ne faites pas ceci pour des scripts CGI. La variable PATH des scripts CGI est souvent très succincte, il faut par conséquent préciser le chemin absolu réel de l'interpréteur.

Il peut arriver que l'environnement d'un utilisateur soit si chargé que le programme /usr/bin/env échoue ; ou que le programme env n'existe pas du tout. Dans ce cas, vous pouvez utiliser l'astuce suivante, élaborée par Alex Rezinsky :

#! /bin/sh
""":"
exec python $0 ${1+"$@"}
"""

Le léger inconvénient est que cela définit la variable __doc__ du script. Cependant, il est possible de corriger cela en ajoutant

__doc__ = """...Whatever..."""

Existe-t-il un module curses ou termcap en Python ?

Pour les dérivés d'Unix : la distribution standard de Python contient un module curses dans le sous-dossier Modules [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Modules], bien qu'il ne soit pas compilé par défaut. Il n'est pas disponible en Windows — le module curses n'existant pas en Windows.

Le module curses comprend les fonctionnalités de base de curses et beaucoup de fonctionnalités supplémentaires provenant de ncurses et de SYSV curses comme la couleur, la gestion des ensembles de caractères alternatifs, la prise en charge du pavé tactile et de la souris. Cela implique que le module n'est pas compatible avec des systèmes d'exploitation qui n'ont que le curses de BSD mais, de nos jours, de tels systèmes d'exploitation ne semblent plus exister ou être maintenus.

Existe-t-il un équivalent à la fonction C onexit() en Python ?

The atexit module provides a register function that is similar to C's onexit().

Pourquoi mes gestionnaires de signaux ne fonctionnent-ils pas ?

Le problème le plus courant est d'appeler le gestionnaire de signaux avec les mauvais arguments. Un gestionnaire est appelé de la façon suivante

handler(signum, frame)

donc il doit être déclaré avec deux paramètres :

def handler(signum, frame):
    ...

Tâches fréquentes

Comment tester un programme ou un composant Python ?

Python fournit deux cadriciels de test. Le module doctest cherche des exemples dans les docstrings d'un module et les exécute. Il compare alors la sortie avec la sortie attendue, telle que définie dans la docstring.

Le module unittest est un cadriciel un peu plus élaboré basé sur les cadriciels de test de Java et de Smalltalk.

Pour rendre le test plus aisé, il est nécessaire de bien découper le code d'un programme. Votre programme doit avoir la quasi-totalité des fonctionnalités dans des fonctions ou des classes — et ceci a parfois l'avantage aussi plaisant qu'inattendu de rendre le programme plus rapide, les accès aux variables locales étant en effet plus rapides que les accès aux variables globales. De plus le programme doit éviter au maximum de manipuler des variables globales, car ceci rend le test beaucoup plus difficile.

La « logique générale » d'un programme devrait être aussi simple que

if __name__ == "__main__":
    main_logic()

à la fin du module principal du programme.

Une fois que la logique du programme est implémentée par un ensemble de fonctions et de comportements de classes, il faut écrire des fonctions de test qui vont éprouver cette logique. À chaque module, il est possible d'associer une suite de tests qui joue de manière automatique un ensemble de tests. Au premier abord, il semble qu'il faille fournir un effort conséquent, mais comme Python est un langage concis et flexible, c'est surprenamment aisé. Écrire simultanément le code « de production » et les fonctions de test associées rend le développement plus agréable et plus amusant, car ceci permet de trouver des bogues, voire des défauts de conception, plus facilement.

Les « modules auxiliaires » qui n'ont pas vocation à être le module principal du programme peuvent inclure un test pour se vérifier eux-mêmes.

if __name__ == "__main__":
    self_test()

Les programmes qui interagissent avec des interfaces externes complexes peuvent être testés même quand ces interfaces ne sont pas disponibles, en utilisant des interfaces « simulacres » implémentées en Python.

Comment générer la documentation à partir des docstrings ?

Le module pydoc peut générer du HTML à partir des docstrings du code source Python. Il est aussi possible de documenter une API uniquement à partir des docstrings à l'aide de epydoc [https://epydoc.sourceforge.net/]. Sphinx [https://sphinx-doc.org] peut également inclure du contenu provenant de docstrings.

Comment détecter qu'une touche est pressée ?

Pour les dérivés d'Unix, plusieurs solutions s'offrent à vous. C'est facile en utilisant le module curses, mais curses est un module assez conséquent à apprendre.

Fils d'exécution

Comment programmer avec des fils d'exécution ?

Veillez à bien utiliser le module threading et non le module _thread. Le module threading fournit une abstraction plus facile à manipuler que les primitives de bas-niveau du module _thread.

Aucun de mes fils ne semble s'exécuter : pourquoi ?

Dès que le fil d'exécution principal se termine, tous les fils sont tués. Le fil principal s'exécute trop rapidement, sans laisser le temps aux autres fils de faire quoi que ce soit.

Une correction simple consiste à ajouter un temps d'attente suffisamment long à la fin du programme pour que tous les fils puissent se terminer :

import threading, time

def thread_task(name, n):
    for i in range(n):
        print(name, i)

for i in range(10):
    T = threading.Thread(target=thread_task, args=(str(i), i))
    T.start()

time.sleep(10)  # <---------------------------!

Mais à présent, sur beaucoup de plates-formes, les fils ne s'exécutent pas en parallèle, mais semblent s'exécuter de manière séquentielle, l'un après l'autre ! En réalité, l'ordonnanceur de fils du système d'exploitation ne démarre pas de nouveau fil avant que le précédent ne soit bloqué.

Une correction simple consiste à ajouter un petit temps d'attente au début de la fonction :

def thread_task(name, n):
    time.sleep(0.001)  # <--------------------!
    for i in range(n):
        print(name, i)

for i in range(10):
    T = threading.Thread(target=thread_task, args=(str(i), i))
    T.start()

time.sleep(10)

Au lieu d'essayer de trouver une bonne valeur d'attente pour la fonction time.sleep(), il vaut mieux utiliser un mécanisme basé sur les sémaphores. Une solution consiste à utiliser le module queue pour créer un objet file, faire en sorte que chaque fil ajoute un jeton à la file quand il se termine, et que le fil principal retire autant de jetons de la file qu'il y a de fils.

Comment découper et répartir une tâche au sein d'un ensemble de fils d'exécutions ?

La manière la plus simple est d'utiliser le module concurrent.futures, en particulier la classe ThreadPoolExecutor.

Ou bien, si vous désirez contrôler plus finement l'algorithme de distribution, vous pouvez écrire votre propre logique « à la main ». Utilisez le module queue pour créer une file de tâches ; la classe Queue gère une liste d'objets et a une méthode .put(objet) pour ajouter un élément à la file, et une méthode .get() pour les récupérer. La classe s'occupe de gérer les verrous pour que chaque tâche soit exécutée une et une seule fois.

Voici un exemple trivial :

import threading, queue, time

# The worker thread gets jobs off the queue.  When the queue is empty, it
# assumes there will be no more work and exits.
# (Realistically workers will run until terminated.)
def worker():
    print('Running worker')
    time.sleep(0.1)
    while True:
        try:
            arg = q.get(block=False)
        except queue.Empty:
            print('Worker', threading.current_thread(), end=' ')
            print('queue empty')
            break
        else:
            print('Worker', threading.current_thread(), end=' ')
            print('running with argument', arg)
            time.sleep(0.5)

# Create queue
q = queue.Queue()

# Start a pool of 5 workers
for i in range(5):
    t = threading.Thread(target=worker, name='worker %i' % (i+1))
    t.start()

# Begin adding work to the queue
for i in range(50):
    q.put(i)

# Give threads time to run
print('Main thread sleeping')
time.sleep(5)

Quand celui-ci est exécuté, il produit la sortie suivante :

Running worker
Running worker
Running worker
Running worker
Running worker
Main thread sleeping
Worker <Thread(worker 1, started 130283832797456)> running with argument 0
Worker <Thread(worker 2, started 130283824404752)> running with argument 1
Worker <Thread(worker 3, started 130283816012048)> running with argument 2
Worker <Thread(worker 4, started 130283807619344)> running with argument 3
Worker <Thread(worker 5, started 130283799226640)> running with argument 4
Worker <Thread(worker 1, started 130283832797456)> running with argument 5
...

Consultez la documentation du module pour plus de détails ; la classe Queue fournit une interface pleine de fonctionnalités.

Quels types de mutations sur des variables globales sont compatibles avec les programmes à fils d'exécution multiples ? sécurisé ?

Le verrou global de l'interpréteur (GIL pour global interpreter lock) est utilisé en interne pour s'assurer que la machine virtuelle Python (MVP) n'exécute qu'un seul fil à la fois. De manière générale, Python ne change de fil qu'entre les instructions du code intermédiaire ; sys.setswitchinterval() permet de contrôler la fréquence de bascule entre les fils. Chaque instruction du code intermédiaire, et, par conséquent, tout le code C appelé par cette instruction est donc atomique du point de vue d'un programme Python.

En théorie, cela veut dire qu'un décompte exact nécessite une connaissance parfaite de l'implémentation de la MVP. En pratique, cela veut dire que les opérations sur des variables partagées de type natif (les entier, les listes, les dictionnaires, etc.) qui « semblent atomiques » le sont réellement.

Par exemple, les opérations suivantes sont toutes atomiques (L, L1 et L2 sont des listes, D, D1 et D2 sont des dictionnaires, x et y sont des objets, i et j des entiers) :

L.append(x)
L1.extend(L2)
x = L[i]
x = L.pop()
L1[i:j] = L2
L.sort()
x = y
x.field = y
D[x] = y
D1.update(D2)
D.keys()

Les suivantes ne le sont pas :

i = i+1
L.append(L[-1])
L[i] = L[j]
D[x] = D[x] + 1

Operations that replace other objects may invoke those other objects' __del__() method when their reference count reaches zero, and that can affect things. This is especially true for the mass updates to dictionaries and lists. When in doubt, use a mutex!

Pourquoi ne pas se débarrasser du verrou global de l'interpréteur ?

Le verrou global de l'interpréteur (GIL) est souvent vu comme un obstacle au déploiement de code Python sur des serveurs puissants avec de nombreux processeurs, car un programme Python à fils d'exécutions multiples n'utilise en réalité qu'un seul processeur. Presque tout le code Python ne peut en effet être exécuté qu'avec le GIL acquis.

With the approval of PEP 703 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/] work is now underway to remove the GIL from the CPython implementation of Python. Initially it will be implemented as an optional compiler flag when building the interpreter, and so separate builds will be available with and without the GIL. Long-term, the hope is to settle on a single build, once the performance implications of removing the GIL are fully understood. Python 3.13 is likely to be the first release containing this work, although it may not be completely functional in this release.

The current work to remove the GIL is based on a fork of Python 3.9 with the GIL removed [https://github.com/colesbury/nogil] by Sam Gross. Prior to that, in the days of Python 1.5, Greg Stein actually implemented a comprehensive patch set (the "free threading" patches) that removed the GIL and replaced it with fine-grained locking. Adam Olsen did a similar experiment in his python-safethread [https://code.google.com/archive/p/python-safethread] project. Unfortunately, both of these earlier experiments exhibited a sharp drop in single-thread performance (at least 30% slower), due to the amount of fine-grained locking necessary to compensate for the removal of the GIL. The Python 3.9 fork is the first attempt at removing the GIL with an acceptable performance impact.

The presence of the GIL in current Python releases doesn't mean that you can't make good use of Python on multi-CPU machines! You just have to be creative with dividing the work up between multiple processes rather than multiple threads. The ProcessPoolExecutor class in the new concurrent.futures module provides an easy way of doing so; the multiprocessing module provides a lower-level API in case you want more control over dispatching of tasks.

Des extensions C appropriées peuvent aussi aider ; en utilisant une extension C pour effectuer une tâche longue, l'extension peut relâcher le GIL pendant que le fil est en train d'exécuter ce code et laisser les autres fils travailler. Des modules de la bibliothèque standard comme zlib ou hashlib utilisent cette technique.

An alternative approach to reducing the impact of the GIL is to make the GIL a per-interpreter-state lock rather than truly global. This was first implemented in Python 3.12 and is available in the C API. A Python interface to it is expected in Python 3.13. The main limitation to it at the moment is likely to be 3rd party extension modules, since these must be written with multiple interpreters in mind in order to be usable, so many older extension modules will not be usable.

Les entrées/sorties

Comment supprimer un fichier ? (et autres questions sur les fichiers…)

Utilisez os.remove(filename) ou os.unlink(filename) ; pour la documentation, référez-vous au module os. Ces deux fonctions sont identiques, unlink() n'est tout simplement que le nom de l'appel système à cette fonction sous Unix.

Utilisez os.rmdir() pour supprimer un dossier et os.mkdir() pour en créer un nouveau. os.makedirs(chemin) crée les dossiers intermédiaires de chemin qui n'existent pas et os.removedirs(chemin) supprime les dossiers intermédiaires si ceux-ci sont vides. Pour supprimer une arborescence et tout son contenu, utilisez shutil.rmtree().

os.rename(ancien_chemin, nouveau_chemin) permet de renommer un fichier.

Pour supprimer le contenu d'un fichier, ouvrez celui-ci avec f = open(nom_du_fichier, "rb+"), puis exécutez f.truncate(décalage) où décalage est par défaut la position actuelle de la tête de lecture. Il existe aussi os.ftruncate(df, décalage) pour les fichiers ouverts avec os.open(), où df est le descripteur de fichier (un entier court).

Le module shutil propose aussi un grand nombre de fonctions pour effectuer des opérations sur des fichiers comme copyfile(), copytree() et rmtree().

Comment copier un fichier ?

The shutil module contains a copyfile() function. Note that on Windows NTFS volumes, it does not copy alternate data streams [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NTFS#Alternate_data_stream_(ADS)] nor resource forks [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource_fork] on macOS HFS+ volumes, though both are now rarely used. It also doesn't copy file permissions and metadata, though using shutil.copy2() instead will preserve most (though not all) of it.

Comment lire (ou écrire) des données binaires ?

Pour lire ou écrire des formats de données complexes en binaire, il est recommandé d'utiliser le module struct. Celui-ci permet de convertir une chaîne de caractères qui contient des données binaires, souvent des nombres, en objets Python, et vice-versa.

Par exemple, le code suivant lit, depuis un fichier, deux entiers codés sur 2 octets et un entier codé sur 4 octets, en format gros-boutiste :

import struct

with open(filename, "rb") as f:
    s = f.read(8)
    x, y, z = struct.unpack(">hhl", s)

« > » dans la chaîne de formatage indique que la donnée doit être lue en mode gros-boutiste, la lettre « h » indique un entier court (2 octets) et la lettre « l » indique un entier long (4 octets).

Pour une donnée plus régulière (p. ex. une liste homogène d'entiers ou de nombres à virgule flottante), il est possible d'utiliser le module array.

Note

Pour lire et écrire de la donnée binaire, il est obligatoire d'ouvrir le fichier en mode binaire également (ici, en passant "rb" à open()). En utilisant "r" (valeur par défaut), le fichier est ouvert en mode textuel et f.read() renvoie des objets str au lieu d'objets bytes.

Il me semble impossible d'utiliser os.read() sur un tube créé avec os.popen() ; pourquoi ?

os.read() est une fonction de bas niveau qui prend en paramètre un descripteur de fichier — un entier court qui représente le fichier ouvert. os.popen() crée un objet fichier de haut niveau, du même type que celui renvoyé par la fonction native open(). Par conséquent, pour lire n octets d'un tube p créé avec os.popen(), il faut utiliser p.read(n).

Comment accéder au port de transmission en série (RS-232) ?

Pour Win32, OSX, Linux, BSD, Jython et IronPython :

pyserial [https://pypi.org/project/pyserial/]

Pour Unix, référez-vous à une publication sur Usenet de Mitch Chapman :

https://groups.google.com/groups?selm=34A04430.CF9@ohioee.com

Pourquoi fermer sys.stdout, sys.stdin, sys.stderr ne les ferme pas réellement ?

Les objets fichiers en Python sont des abstractions de haut niveau sur les descripteurs de fichier C de bas niveau.

Pour la plupart des objets fichiers créés en Python avec la fonction native open(), f.close() marque le fichier comme fermé du point de vue de Python et ferme aussi le descripteur C sous-jacent. Le même mécanisme est enclenché automatiquement dans le destructeur de f, lorsque f est recyclé.

Mais stdin, stdout et stderr ont droit à un traitement spécial en Python, car leur statut en C est lui aussi spécial. Exécuter sys.stdout.close() marque l'objet fichier comme fermé du point de vue de Python, mais le descripteur de fichier C associé n'est pas fermé.

Pour fermer le descripteur de fichier sous-jacent C de l'une de ces trois sorties, demandez-vous avant tout si vous êtes sûr de vous (cela peut, par exemple, perturber le bon fonctionnement de modules qui font des opérations d'entrée-sortie). Si c'est le cas, utilisez os.close() :

os.close(stdin.fileno())
os.close(stdout.fileno())
os.close(stderr.fileno())

Il est aussi possible de fermer respectivement les constantes numériques 0, 1 ou 2.

Programmation réseau et Internet

Quels sont les outils Python dédiés à au web ?

Référez-vous aux chapitres intitulés Gestion des protocoles internet et Traitement des données provenant d'Internet dans le manuel de référence de la bibliothèque. Python a de nombreux modules pour construire des applications web côté client comme côté serveur.

Un résumé des cadriciels disponibles est maintenu par Paul Boddie à l'adresse https://wiki.python.org/moin/WebProgramming.

Quel module utiliser pour générer du HTML ?

La page wiki de la programmation web [https://wiki.python.org/moin/WebProgramming] (en anglais) répertorie un ensemble de liens pertinents.

Comment envoyer un courriel avec un script Python ?

Utilisez le module smtplib de la bibliothèque standard.

Voici un exemple très simple d'un envoyeur de courriel qui l'utilise. Cette méthode fonctionne sur tous les serveurs qui implémentent SMTP.

import sys, smtplib

fromaddr = input("From: ")
toaddrs  = input("To: ").split(',')
print("Enter message, end with ^D:")
msg = ''
while True:
    line = sys.stdin.readline()
    if not line:
        break
    msg += line

# The actual mail send
server = smtplib.SMTP('localhost')
server.sendmail(fromaddr, toaddrs, msg)
server.quit()

Sous Unix, il est possible d'utiliser sendmail. La localisation de l'exécutable sendmail dépend du système ; cela peut-être /usr/lib/sendmail ou /usr/sbin/sendmail, la page de manuel de sendmail peut vous aider. Par exemple :

import os

SENDMAIL = "/usr/sbin/sendmail"  # sendmail location
p = os.popen("%s -t -i" % SENDMAIL, "w")
p.write("To: receiver@example.com\n")
p.write("Subject: test\n")
p.write("\n")  # blank line separating headers from body
p.write("Some text\n")
p.write("some more text\n")
sts = p.close()
if sts != 0:
    print("Sendmail exit status", sts)

Comment éviter de bloquer dans la méthode connect() d'un connecteur réseau ?

Le module select est fréquemment utilisé pour effectuer des entrées-sorties asynchrones sur des connecteurs réseaux.

To prevent the TCP connect from blocking, you can set the socket to non-blocking mode. Then when you do the connect(), you will either connect immediately (unlikely) or get an exception that contains the error number as .errno. errno.EINPROGRESS indicates that the connection is in progress, but hasn't finished yet. Different OSes will return different values, so you're going to have to check what's returned on your system.

You can use the connect_ex() method to avoid creating an exception. It will just return the errno value. To poll, you can call connect_ex() again later -- 0 or errno.EISCONN indicate that you're connected -- or you can pass this socket to select.select() to check if it's writable.

Note

The asyncio module provides a general purpose single-threaded and concurrent asynchronous library, which can be used for writing non-blocking network code. The third-party Twisted [https://twisted.org/] library is a popular and feature-rich alternative.

Bases de données

Existe-t-il des modules Python pour s'interfacer avec des bases de données ?

Oui.

La distribution standard de Python fournit aussi des interfaces à des bases de données comme DBM ou GDBM. Il existe aussi le module sqlite3 qui implémente une base de données relationnelle légère sur disque.

La gestion de la plupart des bases de données relationnelles est assurée. Voir la page wiki DatabaseProgramming [https://wiki.python.org/moin/DatabaseProgramming] pour plus de détails.

Comment implémenter la persistance d'objets en Python ?

Le module pickle répond à cela de manière large (bien qu'il ne soit pas possible de stocker des fichiers ouverts, des connecteurs ou des fenêtres par exemple), et le module shelve de la bibliothèque utilise pickle et (g)dbm pour créer des liens persistants vers des objets Python.

Mathématiques et calcul numérique

Comment générer des nombres aléatoires en Python ?

Le module random de la bibliothèque standard comprend un générateur de nombres aléatoires. Son utilisation est simple :

import random
random.random()

This returns a random floating-point number in the range [0, 1).

Ce module fournit beaucoup d'autres générateurs spécialisés comme :

randrange(a, b) génère un entier dans l'intervalle [a, b[.

uniform(a, b) chooses a floating-point number in the range [a, b).

normalvariate(mean, sdev) simule la loi normale (Gaussienne).

Des fonctions de haut niveau opèrent directement sur des séquences comme :

choice(S) sélectionne au hasard un élément d'une séquence donnée.

shuffle(L) mélange une liste en-place, c.-à-d. lui applique une permutation aléatoire.

Il existe aussi une classe Random qu'il est possible d'instancier pour créer des générateurs aléatoires indépendants.

FAQ extension/intégration

Sommaire

FAQ extension/intégration

Puis-je créer mes propres fonctions en C ?

Puis-je créer mes propres fonctions en C++ ?

Écrire directement en C est difficile ; existe-t-il des alternatives ?

Comment puis-je exécuter des instructions quelconques Python à partir de C ?

Comment puis-je évaluer une expression quelconque de Python à partir de C ?

Comment puis-je extraire des donnés en C d'un objet Python ?

Comment utiliser Py_BuildValue() pour créer un n-uplet de longueur définie ?

Comment puis-je appeler la méthode d'un objet à partir de C ?

Comment puis-je récupérer la sortie de PyErr_Print() (ou tout ce qui s'affiche sur stdout/stderr) ?

Comment accéder à un module écrit en Python à partir de C ?

Comment s'interfacer avec les objets C++ depuis Python ?

J'ai ajouté un module en utilisant le fichier Setup et la compilation échoue ; pourquoi ?

Comment déboguer une extension ?

Je veux compiler un module Python sur mon système Linux, mais il manque certains fichiers. Pourquoi ?

Comment distinguer une « entrée incomplète » (incomplete input) d'une « entrée invalide » (invalid input) ?

Comment puis-je trouver les symboles g++ indéfinis __builtin_new ou __pure_virtual ?

Puis-je créer une classe d'objets avec certaines méthodes implémentées en C et d'autres en Python (p. ex. en utilisant l'héritage) ?

Puis-je créer mes propres fonctions en C ?

Oui, vous pouvez créer des modules intégrés contenant des fonctions, des variables, des exceptions et même de nouveaux types en C. Ceci est expliqué dans le document Extension et intégration de l'interpréteur Python.

La plupart des livres Python intermédiaires ou avancés couvrent également ce sujet.

Puis-je créer mes propres fonctions en C++ ?

Oui, en utilisant les fonctionnalités de compatibilité C existantes en C++. Placez extern "C" { ... } autour des fichiers Python inclus et mettez extern "C" avant chaque fonction qui va être appelée par l'interpréteur Python. Les objets C++ globaux ou statiques avec les constructeurs ne sont probablement pas une bonne idée.

Écrire directement en C est difficile ; existe-t-il des alternatives ?

There are a number of alternatives to writing your own C extensions, depending on what you're trying to do. Recommended third party tools offer both simpler and more sophisticated approaches to creating C and C++ extensions for Python.

Comment puis-je exécuter des instructions quelconques Python à partir de C ?

La fonction de plus haut niveau pour ce faire est PyRun_SimpleStringString() qui prend une chaîne pour seul argument afin de l'exécuter dans le contexte du module __main__ et renvoie 0 en cas de succès et -1 quand une exception se produit (incluant SyntaxError). Pour une meilleure maîtrise, utilisez PyRun_String() ; voir le code source pour PyRun_SimpleString() dans Python/pythonrun.c.

Comment puis-je évaluer une expression quelconque de Python à partir de C ?

Appelez la fonction PyRun_String() de la question précédente avec le symbole de départ Py_eval_input ; il analyse une expression, l'évalue et renvoie sa valeur.

Comment puis-je extraire des donnés en C d'un objet Python ?

That depends on the object's type. If it's a tuple, PyTuple_Size() returns its length and PyTuple_GetItem() returns the item at a specified index. Lists have similar functions, PyList_Size() and PyList_GetItem().

For bytes, PyBytes_Size() returns its length and PyBytes_AsStringAndSize() provides a pointer to its value and its length. Note that Python bytes objects may contain null bytes so C's strlen() should not be used.

Pour tester le type d'un objet, assurez-vous d'abord qu'il ne soit pas NULL, puis utilisez PyBytes_Check(), PyTuple_Check(), PyList_Check(), etc.

Il y a aussi une API de haut niveau pour les objets Python qui est fournie par l'interface dite « abstraite » — voir Include/abstract.h pour plus de détails. Elle permet l'interfaçage avec tout type de séquence Python en utilisant des appels tels que PySequence_Length(), PySequence_GetItem(), etc. ainsi que de nombreux autres protocoles utiles tels que les nombres (PyNumber_Index() et autres) et les correspondances dans les APIs PyMapping.

Comment utiliser Py_BuildValue() pour créer un n-uplet de longueur définie ?

Vous ne pouvez pas. Utilisez PyTuple_Pack() à la place.

Comment puis-je appeler la méthode d'un objet à partir de C ?

La fonction PyObject_CallMethod() peut être utilisée pour appeler la méthode d'un objet. Les paramètres sont l'objet, le nom de la méthode à appeler, une chaîne de caractères comme celle utilisée pour Py_BuildValue() et les valeurs des arguments :

PyObject *
PyObject_CallMethod(PyObject *object, const char *method_name,
                    const char *arg_format, ...);

Cela fonctionne pour tous les objets qui ont des méthodes — qu'elles soient intégrées ou définies par l'utilisateur. Vous êtes responsable de « Py_DECREF()er » la valeur de retour à la fin.

Pour appeler, p. ex., la méthode seek d'un objet file avec les arguments 10, 0 (en supposant que le pointeur de l'objet fichier est f) :

res = PyObject_CallMethod(f, "seek", "(ii)", 10, 0);
if (res == NULL) {
        ... an exception occurred ...
}
else {
        Py_DECREF(res);
}

Notez que PyObject_CallObject() veut toujours un n-uplet comme liste d'arguments. Aussi, pour appeler une fonction sans arguments, utilisez "()" pour être conforme au type et, pour appeler une fonction avec un paramètre, entourez-le de parenthèses, p. ex. "(i)".

Comment puis-je récupérer la sortie de PyErr_Print() (ou tout ce qui s'affiche sur stdout/stderr) ?

Dans le code Python, définissez un objet qui possède la méthode write(). Affectez cet objet à sys.stdout et sys.stderr. Appelez print_error ou faites simplement en sorte que le mécanisme standard de remontée des erreurs fonctionne. Ensuite, la sortie sera dirigée vers l'endroit où votre méthode write() écrit.

La façon la plus simple consiste à utiliser la classe io.StringIO :

>>> import io, sys
>>> sys.stdout = io.StringIO()
>>> print('foo')
>>> print('hello world!')
>>> sys.stderr.write(sys.stdout.getvalue())
foo
hello world!

Le code d'un objet à la fonctionnalité similaire ressemblerait à ceci :

>>> import io, sys
>>> class StdoutCatcher(io.TextIOBase):
...     def __init__(self):
...         self.data = []
...     def write(self, stuff):
...         self.data.append(stuff)
...
>>> import sys
>>> sys.stdout = StdoutCatcher()
>>> print('foo')
>>> print('hello world!')
>>> sys.stderr.write(''.join(sys.stdout.data))
foo
hello world!

Comment accéder à un module écrit en Python à partir de C ?

Vous pouvez obtenir un pointeur sur l'objet module comme suit :

module = PyImport_ImportModule("<modulename>");

Si le module n'a pas encore été importé (c.-à-d. qu'il n'est pas encore présent dans sys.modules), cela initialise le module ; sinon il renvoie simplement la valeur de sys.modules["<modulename>"]. Notez qu'il n'inscrit le module dans aucun espace de nommage — il s'assure seulement qu'il a été initialisé et qu'il est stocké dans sys.modules.

Vous pouvez alors accéder aux attributs du module (c.-à-d. à tout nom défini dans le module) comme suit :

attr = PyObject_GetAttrString(module, "<attrname>");

Appeler PyObject_SetAttrString() pour assigner des valeurs aux variables du module fonctionne également.

Comment s'interfacer avec les objets C++ depuis Python ?

Selon vos besoins, de nombreuses approches sont possibles. Pour le faire manuellement, commencez par lire le document "Extension et intégration". Sachez que pour le système d'exécution Python, il n'y a pas beaucoup de différence entre C et C++ — donc la méthode pour construire un nouveau type Python à partir d'une structure C (pointeur) fonctionne également avec des objets en C++.

Pour les bibliothèques C++, voir Écrire directement en C est difficile ; existe-t-il des alternatives ?.

J'ai ajouté un module en utilisant le fichier Setup et la compilation échoue ; pourquoi ?

Le fichier Setup doit se terminer par une ligne vide, s'il n'y a pas de ligne vide, le processus de compilation échoue (ce problème peut se régler en bidouillant un script shell, et ce bogue est si mineur qu'il ne mérite pas qu'on s'y attarde).

Comment déboguer une extension ?

Lorsque vous utilisez GDB avec des extensions chargées dynamiquement, vous ne pouvez pas placer de point d'arrêt dans votre extension tant que celle-ci n'est pas chargée.

Dans votre fichier .gdbinit (ou manuellement), ajoutez la commande :

br _PyImport_LoadDynamicModule

Ensuite, lorsque vous exécutez GDB :

$ gdb /local/bin/python
gdb) run myscript.py
gdb) continue # repeat until your extension is loaded
gdb) finish   # so that your extension is loaded
gdb) br myfunction.c:50
gdb) continue

Je veux compiler un module Python sur mon système Linux, mais il manque certains fichiers. Pourquoi ?

Most packaged versions of Python omit some files required for compiling Python extensions.

For Red Hat, install the python3-devel RPM to get the necessary files.

For Debian, run apt-get install python3-dev.

Comment distinguer une « entrée incomplète » (incomplete input) d'une « entrée invalide » (invalid input) ?

Parfois vous souhaitez émuler le comportement de l'interpréteur interactif Python, quand il vous donne une invite de continuation lorsque l'entrée est incomplète (par exemple, vous avez tapé le début d'une instruction "if" ou vous n'avez pas fermé vos parenthèses ou triple guillemets) mais il vous renvoie immédiatement une erreur syntaxique quand la saisie est incorrecte.

En Python, vous pouvez utiliser le module codeop, qui se rapproche assez du comportement de l'analyseur. Par exemple, IDLE l'utilise.

La façon la plus simple de le faire en C est d'appeler PyRun_InteractiveLoop() (peut-être dans un autre fil d'exécution) et laisser l'interpréteur Python gérer l'entrée pour vous. Vous pouvez également définir PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer() pour pointer vers votre fonction d'entrée personnalisée. Voir Modules/readline.c et Parser/myreadline.c pour plus de conseils.

Comment puis-je trouver les symboles g++ indéfinis __builtin_new ou __pure_virtual ?

Pour charger dynamiquement les modules d'extension g++, vous devez recompiler Python, effectuer l'édition de liens en utilisant g++ (modifiez LINKCC dans le Python Modules Makefile), et effectuer l'édition de liens de votre module d'extension avec g++ (par exemple, g++ -shared -o mymodule.so mymodule.o).

Puis-je créer une classe d'objets avec certaines méthodes implémentées en C et d'autres en Python (p. ex. en utilisant l'héritage) ?

Oui, vous pouvez hériter de classes intégrées telles que int, list, dict, etc.

The Boost Python Library (BPL, https://www.boost.org/libs/python/doc/index.html) provides a way of doing this from C++ (i.e. you can inherit from an extension class written in C++ using the BPL).

FAQ : Python et Windows

Sommaire

FAQ : Python et Windows

Comment exécuter un programme Python sous Windows ?

Comment rendre des scripts Python exécutables ?

Pourquoi Python met-il du temps à démarrer ?

Comment construire un exécutable depuis un script Python ?

Est-ce qu'un fichier *.pyd est la même chose qu'une DLL ?

Comment puis-je intégrer Python dans une application Windows ?

Comment empêcher mon éditeur d'utiliser des tabulations dans mes fichiers Python ?

Comment puis-je vérifier de manière non bloquante qu'une touche a été pressée ?

Comment résoudre l'erreur « api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0.dll manquante » ?

Comment exécuter un programme Python sous Windows ?

Ce n'est pas forcément une question simple. Si vous êtes déjà familier avec le lancement de programmes depuis la ligne de commande de Windows alors tout semblera évident ; sinon, vous pourriez avoir besoin d'être un peu guidé.

À moins que vous n'utilisiez une sorte d'environnement de développement, vous finirez par taper des commandes Windows dans ce qui est appelé une « invite de commande Windows ». En général vous pouvez ouvrir un telle fenêtre depuis votre barre de recherche en cherchant cmd. Vous devriez être capable de reconnaître quand vous avez lancé une telle fenêtre parce que vous verrez une « invite de commande » Windows, qui en en général ressemble à ça :

C:\>

La lettre peut être différente, et il peut y avoir d'autres choses à la suite, alors il se peut que ça ressemble également à ça :

D:\YourName\Projects\Python>

selon la configuration de votre ordinateur et ce que vous avez récemment fait avec. Une fois que vous avez ouvert cette fenêtre, vous êtes bien partis pour pouvoir lancer des programmes Python.

Retenez que vos scripts Python doivent être traités par un autre programme appelé "l’interpréteur" Python. L’interpréteur lit votre script, le compile en bytecode, et exécute le bytecode pour faire tourner votre programme. Alors, comment faire pour donner votre code Python à l'interpréteur ?

Tout d'abord, vous devez vous assurer que votre fenêtre d'invite de commande reconnaît le mot "python" comme une instruction pour démarrer l'interpréteur. Si vous avez ouvert une invite de commande, entrez la commande py, puis appuyez sur entrée :

C:\Users\YourName> py

Vous devez voir quelque chose comme ça :

Python 3.6.4 (v3.6.4:d48eceb, Dec 19 2017, 06:04:45) [MSC v.1900 32 bit (Intel)] on win32
Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
>>>

Vous avez lancé l'interpréteur dans son "mode interactif". Cela signifie que vous pouvez entrer des instructions ou des expressions Python de manière interactive pour qu'elles soient exécutées. Il s'agit là d'une des plus puissantes fonctionnalités de Python. Vous pouvez le vérifier en entrant quelques commandes de votre choix et en regardant le résultat :

>>> print("Hello")
Hello
>>> "Hello" * 3
'HelloHelloHello'

Beaucoup de gens utilisent le mode interactif comme une calculatrice pratique mais néanmoins hautement programmable. Lorsque vous souhaitez mettre fin à votre session Python interactive, appelez la fonction exit() ou maintenez la touche Ctrl enfoncée pendant que vous entrez un Z, puis appuyez sur la touche "Enter" pour revenir à votre invite de commande Windows.

Peut-être avez-vous remarqué une nouvelle entrée dans votre menu Démarrer telle que Démarrer ‣ Programmes ‣ Python 3.x ‣ Python (ligne de commande) qui a pour résultat que vous voyez l'invite >>> dans une nouvelle fenêtre. Si oui, la fenêtre va disparaître quand vous appellerez la fonction exit() ou entrez le caractère Ctrl-Z ; Windows exécute une commande "python" dans la fenêtre et ferme celle-ci lorsque vous fermez l'interpréteur.

Maintenant que nous savons que la commande py est reconnue, vous pouvez lui donner votre script Python. Vous devez donner le chemin absolu ou relatif du script Python. Disons que votre script Python est situé sur votre bureau et est nommé hello.py, et votre invite de commande est bien ouvert dans votre répertoire d’accueil, alors vous voyez quelque chose comme :

C:\Users\YourName>

Alors maintenant, vous demanderez à la commande py de donner votre script à Python en tapant py suivi de votre chemin de script :

C:\Users\YourName> py Desktop\hello.py
hello

Comment rendre des scripts Python exécutables ?

Sous Windows, l'installateur Python associe l'extension .py avec un type de fichier (Python.File) et une commande qui lance l’interpréteur (D:\Program Files\Python\python.exe "%1" %*). Cela suffit pour pouvoir exécuter les scripts Python depuis la ligne de commande en saisissant foo.py. Si vous souhaitez pouvoir exécuter les scripts en saisissant simplement foo sans l’extension, vous devez ajouter .py au paramètre d’environnement PATHEXT.

Pourquoi Python met-il du temps à démarrer ?

Normalement, sous Windows, Python se lance très rapidement, mais parfois des rapports d'erreurs indiquent que Python commence soudain à prendre beaucoup de temps pour démarrer. C'est d'autant plus intrigant que Python fonctionne correctement avec d'autres Windows configurés de façon similaire.

Le problème peut venir d'un antivirus mal configuré. Certains antivirus sont connus pour doubler le temps de démarrage lorsqu'ils sont configurés pour surveiller toutes les lectures du système de fichiers. Essayez de regarder si les antivirus des deux machines sont bien paramétrés à l'identique. McAfee est particulièrement problématique lorsqu'il est paramétré pour surveiller toutes les lectures du système de fichiers.

Comment construire un exécutable depuis un script Python ?

Voir Comment créer un binaire autonome à partir d'un script Python ? pour une liste d'outils qui créent des exécutables.

Est-ce qu'un fichier *.pyd est la même chose qu'une DLL ?

Oui, les fichiers .pyd sont des fichiers dll, mais il y a quelques différences. Si vous avez une DLL foo.pyd, celle-ci doit posséder une fonction PyInit_foo(). Vous pouvez alors écrire en Python « import foo » et Python recherchera le fichier foo.pyd (ainsi que foo.py et foo.pyc); s'il le trouve, il tentera d'appeler PyInit_foo() pour l'initialiser. Ne liez pas votre .exe avec foo.lib car dans ce cas Windows aura besoin de la DLL.

Notez que le chemin de recherche pour foo.pyd est PYTHONPATH, il est différent de celui qu'utilise Windows pour rechercher foo.dll. De plus, foo.pyd n'a pas besoin d'être présent pour que votre programme s'exécute alors que si vous avez lié votre programme avec une dll celle-ci est requise. Bien sûr foo.pyd est nécessaire si vous écrivez import foo. Dans une DLL le lien est déclaré dans le code source avec __declspec(dllexport). Dans un .pyd la liaison est définie dans une liste de fonctions disponibles.

Comment puis-je intégrer Python dans une application Windows ?

L'intégration de l'interpréteur Python dans une application Windows peut se résumer comme suit :

Ne compilez pas Python directement dans votre fichier .exe. Sous Windows, Python doit être une DLL pour pouvoir importer des modules qui sont eux-mêmes des DLL (ceci constitue une information de première importance non documentée). Au lieu de cela faites un lien vers pythonNN.dll qui est généralement placé dans C:\Windows\System. NN étant la version Python, par exemple « 33 » pour Python 3.3.

Vous pouvez créer un lien vers Python de deux manières différentes. Un lien au moment du chargement signifie pointer vers pythonNN.lib, tandis qu'un lien au moment de l'exécution signifie pointer vers pythonNN.dll. (Note générale : pythonNN.lib est le soi-disant « import lib » correspondant à pythonNN.dll. Il définit simplement des liens symboliques pour l'éditeur de liens.)

La liaison en temps réel simplifie grandement les options de liaison ; tout se passe au moment de l'exécution. Votre code doit charger pythonNN.dll en utilisant la routine Windows LoadLibraryEx(). Le code doit aussi utiliser des routines d'accès et des données dans pythonNN.dll (c'est-à-dire les API C de Python) en utilisant des pointeurs obtenus par la routine Windows GetProcAddress(). Les macros peuvent rendre l'utilisation de ces pointeurs transparente à tout code C qui appelle des routines dans l'API C de Python.

Si vous utilisez SWIG, il est facile de créer un « module d'extension » Python qui rendra les données et les méthodes de l'application disponibles pour Python. SWIG s'occupera de tous les détails ennuyeux pour vous. Le résultat est du code C que vous liez dans votre fichier.exe (!) Vous n'avez pas besoin de créer un fichier DLL, et cela simplifie également la liaison.

SWIG va créer une fonction d'initialisation (fonction en C) dont le nom dépend du nom du module d'extension. Par exemple, si le nom du module est leo, la fonction init sera appelée initleo(). Si vous utilisez des classes shadow SWIG, comme vous le devriez, la fonction init sera appelée initleoc(). Ceci initialise une classe auxiliaire invisible utilisée par la classe shadow.

La raison pour laquelle vous pouvez lier le code C à l'étape 2 dans votre fichier.exe est que l'appel de la fonction d'initialisation équivaut à importer le module dans Python ! (C'est le deuxième fait clé non documenté.)

En bref, vous pouvez utiliser le code suivant pour initialiser l'interpréteur Python avec votre module d'extension.

#include <Python.h>
...
Py_Initialize();  // Initialize Python.
initmyAppc();  // Initialize (import) the helper class.
PyRun_SimpleString("import myApp");  // Import the shadow class.

Il y a deux problèmes avec l'API C de Python qui apparaîtront si vous utilisez un compilateur autre que MSVC, le compilateur utilisé pour construire pythonNN.dll.

Problème 1 : Les fonctions dites de « Très Haut Niveau » qui prennent les arguments FILE * ne fonctionneront pas dans un environnement multi-compilateur car chaque compilateur aura une notion différente de struct FILE. Du point de vue de l'implémentation, il s'agit de fonctions de très bas niveau.

Problème 2 : SWIG génère le code suivant lors de la génération d'encapsuleurs pour annuler les fonctions :

Py_INCREF(Py_None);
_resultobj = Py_None;
return _resultobj;

Hélas, Py_None est une macro qui se développe en référence à une structure de données complexe appelée _Py_NoneStruct dans pythonNN.dll. Encore une fois, ce code échouera dans un environnement multi-compilateur. Remplacez ce code par :

return Py_BuildValue("");

Il est possible d'utiliser la commande %typemap de SWIG pour effectuer le changement automatiquement, bien que je n'ai pas réussi à le faire fonctionner (je suis un débutant complet avec SWIG).

Utiliser un script shell Python pour créer une fenêtre d'interpréteur Python depuis votre application Windows n'est pas une bonne idée ; la fenêtre résultante sera indépendante du système de fenêtrage de votre application. Vous (ou la classe wxPythonWindow) devriez plutôt créer une fenêtre d'interpréteur « native ». Il est facile de connecter cette fenêtre à l'interpréteur Python. Vous pouvez rediriger l'entrée/sortie de Python vers n'importe quel objet qui supporte la lecture et l'écriture, donc tout ce dont vous avez besoin est un objet Python (défini dans votre module d'extension) qui contient les méthodes read() et write().

Comment empêcher mon éditeur d'utiliser des tabulations dans mes fichiers Python ?

La FAQ ne recommande pas l'utilisation des indentations et le guide stylistique de Python, la PEP 8 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/], recommande l'utilisation de 4 espaces dans les codes Python. C'est aussi le comportement par défaut d'Emacs avec Python.

Quel que soit votre éditeur, mélanger des tabulations et des espaces est une mauvaise idée. Visual C++, par exemple, peut être facilement configuré pour utiliser des espaces : allez dans Tools ‣ Options ‣ Tabs et pour le type de fichier par défaut, vous devez mettre Tab size et Indent size à 4, puis sélectionner Insert spaces.

Python va lever IndentationError ou TabError si un mélange de tabulation et d’indentation pose problème en début de ligne. Vous pouvez aussi utiliser le module tabnanny pour détecter ces erreurs.

Comment puis-je vérifier de manière non bloquante qu'une touche a été pressée ?

Utilisez le module msvcrt. C'est une extension standard spécifique à Windows, qui définit une fonction kbhit() qui vérifie si une pression de touche s'est produite, et getch() qui récupère le caractère sans l'afficher.

Comment résoudre l'erreur « api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0.dll manquante » ?

Ce problème peut se produire avec Python 3.5 et les versions ultérieures lorsque vous utilisez Windows 8.1 ou une version antérieure sans que toutes les mises à jour aient été installées. Assurez-vous d'abord que votre système d'exploitation est pris en charge et qu'il est à jour, et si cela ne résout pas le problème, visitez la page d’assistance de Microsoft [https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/help/3118401/] pour obtenir des conseils sur l'installation manuelle de la mise à jour du C Runtime.

FAQ interface graphique

Sommaire

FAQ interface graphique

Questions générales sur l'interface graphique

Quelles boîtes à outils IUG existent pour Python ?

Questions à propos de Tkinter

Comment puis-je geler (freezer) les applications Tkinter ?

Puis-je modifier des événements Tk pendant l'écoute des E/S ?

Je n'arrive pas à faire fonctionner les raccourcis clavier dans Tkinter : pourquoi ?

Questions générales sur l'interface graphique

Quelles boîtes à outils IUG existent pour Python ?

Les versions standards de Python incluent une interface orientée objet pour le jeu d'objets graphiques Tcl/Tk, appelée tkinter. C'est probablement la plus facile à installer (puisqu'elle est incluse avec la plupart des distributions binaires [https://www.python.org/downloads/] de Python) et à utiliser. Pour plus d'informations sur Tk, y compris les liens vers les sources, voir la page d'accueil Tcl/Tk [https://www.tcl.tk]. Tcl/Tk est entièrement portable sur les plates-formes macOS, Windows et Unix.

D'autres outils existent. Le choix doit dépendre notamment de la ou des plateformes que vous visez. Sur le Wiki Python se trouvent des listes de bibliothèques graphiques multiplateformes [https://wiki.python.org/moin/GuiProgramming#Cross-Platform_Frameworks] et pour une seule plate-forme [https://wiki.python.org/moin/GuiProgramming#Platform-specific_Frameworks].

Questions à propos de Tkinter

Comment puis-je geler (freezer) les applications Tkinter ?

Freeze est un outil pour créer des applications autonomes. Lors du freezage des applications Tkinter, les applications ne seront pas vraiment autonomes, car l'application aura toujours besoin des bibliothèques Tcl et Tk.

One solution is to ship the application with the Tcl and Tk libraries, and point to them at run-time using the TCL_LIBRARY and TK_LIBRARY environment variables.

Various third-party freeze libraries such as py2exe and cx_Freeze have handling for Tkinter applications built-in.

Puis-je modifier des événements Tk pendant l'écoute des E/S ?

On platforms other than Windows, yes, and you don't even need threads! But you'll have to restructure your I/O code a bit. Tk has the equivalent of Xt's XtAddInput() call, which allows you to register a callback function which will be called from the Tk mainloop when I/O is possible on a file descriptor. See Gestionnaires de fichiers.

Je n'arrive pas à faire fonctionner les raccourcis clavier dans Tkinter : pourquoi ?

An often-heard complaint is that event handlers bound to events with the bind() method don't get handled even when the appropriate key is pressed.

La cause la plus fréquente est que l'objet graphique auquel s'applique la liaison n'a pas de « focus clavier ». Consultez la documentation Tk pour la commande focus. Habituellement, un objet graphique reçoit le focus du clavier en cliquant dessus (mais pas pour les étiquettes ; voir l'option takefocus).

FAQ "Pourquoi Python est installé sur mon ordinateur ?"

Qu'est-ce que Python ?

Python est un langage de programmation. Il est utilisé dans de nombreuses applications. Souvent utilisé dans les lycées et universités comme langage d'introduction à la programmation pour sa simplicité d'apprentissage, il est aussi utilisé par des développeurs professionnels appartenant à des grands groupes comme Google, la NASA, Lucasfilm etc.

Si vous voulez en apprendre plus sur Python, vous pouvez commencer par le Guide des Débutants pour Python [https://wiki.python.org/moin/BeginnersGuide].

Pourquoi Python est installé sur ma machine ?

Si Python est installé sur votre système mais que vous ne vous rappelez pas l'avoir installé, il y a plusieurs raisons possibles à sa présence.

Peut être qu'un autre utilisateur de l'ordinateur voulait apprendre la programmation et l'a installé, dans ce cas vous allez devoir trouver qui a utilisé votre machine et aurait pu l'installer.

Une application tierce installée sur votre machine écrite en Python installera Python. Il existe de nombreuses applications de ce type, allant de programme avec interface graphique, jusqu'aux scripts d'administration, en passant par les serveurs.

Certaines machines fonctionnant avec le système d'exploitation Windows possèdent une installation de Python. À ce jour, les ordinateurs des marques Hewlett-Packard et Compaq incluent nativement Python. Certains outils d'administration de ces marques sont écrits en Python.

Python est installé par défaut sur de nombreux systèmes compatibles Unix, comme macOS et certaines distributions Linux.

Puis-je supprimer Python ?

Cela dépend de l'origine de Python.

Si Python a été installé délibérément par une personne tierce ou vous même, vous pouvez le supprimer sans causer de dommage. Sous Windows, vous pouvez simplement utiliser l'icône d'Ajout / Suppression de programmes du Panneau de configuration.

Si Python a été installé par une application tierce, Python peut être désinstallé, l'application l'ayant installé cessera alors de fonctionner. Dans ce cas, désinstallez l'application en utilisant son outil de désinstallation est plus indiqué que supprimer Python.

Si Python a été installé avec votre système d'exploitation, le supprimer n'est pas recommandé. Si vous choisissez tout de même de le supprimer, tous les outils écrits en python cesseront alors de fonctionner, certains outils pouvant être importants. La réinstallation intégrale du système pourrait être nécessaire pour résoudre les problèmes suite à la désinstallation de Python.

Obsolescence

Pending removal in Python 3.15

The import system:

Setting __cached__ on a module while failing to set __spec__.cached is deprecated. In Python 3.15, __cached__ will cease to be set or take into consideration by the import system or standard library. (gh-97879 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97879])

Setting __package__ on a module while failing to set __spec__.parent is deprecated. In Python 3.15, __package__ will cease to be set or take into consideration by the import system or standard library. (gh-97879 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97879])

ctypes:

The undocumented ctypes.SetPointerType() function has been deprecated since Python 3.13.

http.server:

The obsolete and rarely used CGIHTTPRequestHandler has been deprecated since Python 3.13. No direct replacement exists. Anything is better than CGI to interface a web server with a request handler.

The --cgi flag to the python -m http.server command-line interface has been deprecated since Python 3.13.

importlib:

load_module() method: use exec_module() instead.

locale:

The getdefaultlocale() function has been deprecated since Python 3.11. Its removal was originally planned for Python 3.13 (gh-90817 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90817]), but has been postponed to Python 3.15. Use getlocale(), setlocale(), and getencoding() instead. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-111187 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111187].)

pathlib:

PurePath.is_reserved() has been deprecated since Python 3.13. Use os.path.isreserved() to detect reserved paths on Windows.

platform:

java_ver() has been deprecated since Python 3.13. This function is only useful for Jython support, has a confusing API, and is largely untested.

sysconfig:

The check_home argument of sysconfig.is_python_build() has been deprecated since Python 3.12.

threading:

RLock() will take no arguments in Python 3.15. Passing any arguments has been deprecated since Python 3.14, as the Python version does not permit any arguments, but the C version allows any number of positional or keyword arguments, ignoring every argument.

types:

types.CodeType: Accessing co_lnotab was deprecated in PEP 626 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/] since 3.10 and was planned to be removed in 3.12, but it only got a proper DeprecationWarning in 3.12. May be removed in 3.15. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-101866 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101866].)

typing:

The undocumented keyword argument syntax for creating NamedTuple classes (for example, Point = NamedTuple("Point", x=int, y=int)) has been deprecated since Python 3.13. Use the class-based syntax or the functional syntax instead.

When using the functional syntax of TypedDicts, failing to pass a value to the fields parameter (TD = TypedDict("TD")) or passing None (TD = TypedDict("TD", None)) has been deprecated since Python 3.13. Use class TD(TypedDict): pass or TD = TypedDict("TD", {}) to create a TypedDict with zero field.

The typing.no_type_check_decorator() decorator function has been deprecated since Python 3.13. After eight years in the typing module, it has yet to be supported by any major type checker.

wave:

The getmark(), setmark(), and getmarkers() methods of the Wave_read and Wave_write classes have been deprecated since Python 3.13.

zipimport:

load_module() has been deprecated since Python 3.10. Use exec_module() instead. (Contributed by Jiahao Li in gh-125746 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125746].)

Pending removal in Python 3.16

The import system:

Setting __loader__ on a module while failing to set __spec__.loader is deprecated. In Python 3.16, __loader__ will cease to be set or taken into consideration by the import system or the standard library.

array:

The 'u' format code (wchar_t) has been deprecated in documentation since Python 3.3 and at runtime since Python 3.13. Use the 'w' format code (Py_UCS4) for Unicode characters instead.

asyncio:

asyncio.iscoroutinefunction() is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.16; use inspect.iscoroutinefunction() instead. (Contributed by Jiahao Li and Kumar Aditya in gh-122875 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122875].)

asyncio policy system is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.16. In particular, the following classes and functions are deprecated:

asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy

asyncio.DefaultEventLoopPolicy

asyncio.WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy

asyncio.WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy

asyncio.get_event_loop_policy()

asyncio.set_event_loop_policy()

Users should use asyncio.run() or asyncio.Runner with loop_factory to use the desired event loop implementation.

For example, to use asyncio.SelectorEventLoop on Windows:

import asyncio

async def main():
    ...

asyncio.run(main(), loop_factory=asyncio.SelectorEventLoop)

(Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-127949 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127949].)

builtins:

Bitwise inversion on boolean types, ~True or ~False has been deprecated since Python 3.12, as it produces surprising and unintuitive results (-2 and -1). Use not x instead for the logical negation of a Boolean. In the rare case that you need the bitwise inversion of the underlying integer, convert to int explicitly (~int(x)).

functools:

Calling the Python implementation of functools.reduce() with function or sequence as keyword arguments has been deprecated since Python 3.14.

logging:

Support for custom logging handlers with the strm argument is deprecated and scheduled for removal in Python 3.16. Define handlers with the stream argument instead. (Contributed by Mariusz Felisiak in gh-115032 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115032].)

mimetypes:

Valid extensions start with a '.' or are empty for mimetypes.MimeTypes.add_type(). Undotted extensions are deprecated and will raise a ValueError in Python 3.16. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-75223 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75223].)

shutil:

The ExecError exception has been deprecated since Python 3.14. It has not been used by any function in shutil since Python 3.4, and is now an alias of RuntimeError.

symtable:

The Class.get_methods method has been deprecated since Python 3.14.

sys:

The _enablelegacywindowsfsencoding() function has been deprecated since Python 3.13. Use the PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING environment variable instead.

sysconfig:

The sysconfig.expand_makefile_vars() function has been deprecated since Python 3.14. Use the vars argument of sysconfig.get_paths() instead.

tarfile:

The undocumented and unused TarFile.tarfile attribute has been deprecated since Python 3.13.

Pending removal in Python 3.17

collections.abc:

collections.abc.ByteString is scheduled for removal in Python 3.17.

Use isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Buffer) to test if obj implements the buffer protocol at runtime. For use in type annotations, either use Buffer or a union that explicitly specifies the types your code supports (e.g., bytes | bytearray | memoryview).

ByteString was originally intended to be an abstract class that would serve as a supertype of both bytes and bytearray. However, since the ABC never had any methods, knowing that an object was an instance of ByteString never actually told you anything useful about the object. Other common buffer types such as memoryview were also never understood as subtypes of ByteString (either at runtime or by static type checkers).

See PEP 688 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/#current-options] for more details. (Contributed by Shantanu Jain in gh-91896 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896].)

typing:

Before Python 3.14, old-style unions were implemented using the private class typing._UnionGenericAlias. This class is no longer needed for the implementation, but it has been retained for backward compatibility, with removal scheduled for Python 3.17. Users should use documented introspection helpers like typing.get_origin() and typing.get_args() instead of relying on private implementation details.

typing.ByteString, deprecated since Python 3.9, is scheduled for removal in Python 3.17.

Use isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Buffer) to test if obj implements the buffer protocol at runtime. For use in type annotations, either use Buffer or a union that explicitly specifies the types your code supports (e.g., bytes | bytearray | memoryview).

ByteString was originally intended to be an abstract class that would serve as a supertype of both bytes and bytearray. However, since the ABC never had any methods, knowing that an object was an instance of ByteString never actually told you anything useful about the object. Other common buffer types such as memoryview were also never understood as subtypes of ByteString (either at runtime or by static type checkers).

See PEP 688 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/#current-options] for more details. (Contributed by Shantanu Jain in gh-91896 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896].)

Pending removal in Python 3.18

decimal:

The non-standard and undocumented Decimal format specifier 'N', which is only supported in the decimal module's C implementation, has been deprecated since Python 3.13. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-89902 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89902].)

Pending removal in Python 3.19

ctypes:

Implicitly switching to the MSVC-compatible struct layout by setting _pack_ but not _layout_ on non-Windows platforms.

Pending removal in future versions

The following APIs will be removed in the future, although there is currently no date scheduled for their removal.

argparse:

Nesting argument groups and nesting mutually exclusive groups are deprecated.

Passing the undocumented keyword argument prefix_chars to add_argument_group() is now deprecated.

The argparse.FileType type converter is deprecated.

builtins:

Generators: throw(type, exc, tb) and athrow(type, exc, tb) signature is deprecated: use throw(exc) and athrow(exc) instead, the single argument signature.

Currently Python accepts numeric literals immediately followed by keywords, for example 0in x, 1or x, 0if 1else 2. It allows confusing and ambiguous expressions like [0x1for x in y] (which can be interpreted as [0x1 for x in y] or [0x1f or x in y]). A syntax warning is raised if the numeric literal is immediately followed by one of keywords and, else, for, if, in, is and or. In a future release it will be changed to a syntax error. (gh-87999 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87999])

Support for __index__() and __int__() method returning non-int type: these methods will be required to return an instance of a strict subclass of int.

Support for __float__() method returning a strict subclass of float: these methods will be required to return an instance of float.

Support for __complex__() method returning a strict subclass of complex: these methods will be required to return an instance of complex.

Passing a complex number as the real or imag argument in the complex() constructor is now deprecated; it should only be passed as a single positional argument. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-109218 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109218].)

calendar: calendar.January and calendar.February constants are deprecated and replaced by calendar.JANUARY and calendar.FEBRUARY. (Contributed by Prince Roshan in gh-103636 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636].)

codecs: use open() instead of codecs.open(). (gh-133038 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133038])

codeobject.co_lnotab: use the codeobject.co_lines() method instead.

datetime:

utcnow(): use datetime.datetime.now(tz=datetime.UTC).

utcfromtimestamp(): use datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(timestamp, tz=datetime.UTC).

gettext: Plural value must be an integer.

importlib:

cache_from_source() debug_override parameter is deprecated: use the optimization parameter instead.

importlib.metadata:

EntryPoints tuple interface.

Implicit None on return values.

logging: the warn() method has been deprecated since Python 3.3, use warning() instead.

mailbox: Use of StringIO input and text mode is deprecated, use BytesIO and binary mode instead.

os: Calling os.register_at_fork() in multi-threaded process.

pydoc.ErrorDuringImport: A tuple value for exc_info parameter is deprecated, use an exception instance.

re: More strict rules are now applied for numerical group references and group names in regular expressions. Only sequence of ASCII digits is now accepted as a numerical reference. The group name in bytes patterns and replacement strings can now only contain ASCII letters and digits and underscore. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-91760 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91760].)

sre_compile, sre_constants and sre_parse modules.

shutil: rmtree()'s onerror parameter is deprecated in Python 3.12; use the onexc parameter instead.

ssl options and protocols:

ssl.SSLContext without protocol argument is deprecated.

ssl.SSLContext: set_npn_protocols() and selected_npn_protocol() are deprecated: use ALPN instead.

ssl.OP_NO_SSL* options

ssl.OP_NO_TLS* options

ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv3

ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS

ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1

ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1

ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2

ssl.TLSVersion.SSLv3

ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1

ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_1

threading methods:

threading.Condition.notifyAll(): use notify_all().

threading.Event.isSet(): use is_set().

threading.Thread.isDaemon(), threading.Thread.setDaemon(): use threading.Thread.daemon attribute.

threading.Thread.getName(), threading.Thread.setName(): use threading.Thread.name attribute.

threading.currentThread(): use threading.current_thread().

threading.activeCount(): use threading.active_count().

typing.Text (gh-92332 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92332]).

The internal class typing._UnionGenericAlias is no longer used to implement typing.Union. To preserve compatibility with users using this private class, a compatibility shim will be provided until at least Python 3.17. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-105499 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105499].)

unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: it is deprecated to return a value that is not None from a test case.

urllib.parse deprecated functions: urlparse() instead

splitattr()

splithost()

splitnport()

splitpasswd()

splitport()

splitquery()

splittag()

splittype()

splituser()

splitvalue()

to_bytes()

wsgiref: SimpleHandler.stdout.write() should not do partial writes.

xml.etree.ElementTree: Testing the truth value of an Element is deprecated. In a future release it will always return True. Prefer explicit len(elem) or elem is not None tests instead.

sys._clear_type_cache() is deprecated: use sys._clear_internal_caches() instead.

C API deprecations

Pending removal in Python 3.15

The PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(): Use PyImport_ImportModule() instead.

PyWeakref_GetObject() and PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT(): Use PyWeakref_GetRef() instead. The pythoncapi-compat project [https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/] can be used to get PyWeakref_GetRef() on Python 3.12 and older.

Py_UNICODE type and the Py_UNICODE_WIDE macro: Use wchar_t instead.

PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject(): Use PyCodec_Decode() instead.

PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode(): Use PyCodec_Decode() instead; Note that some codecs (for example, "base64") may return a type other than str, such as bytes.

PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject(): Use PyCodec_Encode() instead.

PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode(): Use PyCodec_Encode() instead; Note that some codecs (for example, "base64") may return a type other than bytes, such as str.

Python initialization functions, deprecated in Python 3.13:

Py_GetPath(): Use PyConfig_Get("module_search_paths") (sys.path) instead.

Py_GetPrefix(): Use PyConfig_Get("base_prefix") (sys.base_prefix) instead. Use PyConfig_Get("prefix") (sys.prefix) if virtual environments need to be handled.

Py_GetExecPrefix(): Use PyConfig_Get("base_exec_prefix") (sys.base_exec_prefix) instead. Use PyConfig_Get("exec_prefix") (sys.exec_prefix) if virtual environments need to be handled.

Py_GetProgramFullPath(): Use PyConfig_Get("executable") (sys.executable) instead.

Py_GetProgramName(): Use PyConfig_Get("executable") (sys.executable) instead.

Py_GetPythonHome(): Use PyConfig_Get("home") or the PYTHONHOME environment variable instead.

The pythoncapi-compat project [https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/] can be used to get PyConfig_Get() on Python 3.13 and older.

Functions to configure Python's initialization, deprecated in Python 3.11:

PySys_SetArgvEx(): Set PyConfig.argv instead.

PySys_SetArgv(): Set PyConfig.argv instead.

Py_SetProgramName(): Set PyConfig.program_name instead.

Py_SetPythonHome(): Set PyConfig.home instead.

PySys_ResetWarnOptions(): Clear sys.warnoptions and warnings.filters instead.

The Py_InitializeFromConfig() API should be used with PyConfig instead.

Global configuration variables:

Py_DebugFlag: Use PyConfig.parser_debug or PyConfig_Get("parser_debug") instead.

Py_VerboseFlag: Use PyConfig.verbose or PyConfig_Get("verbose") instead.

Py_QuietFlag: Use PyConfig.quiet or PyConfig_Get("quiet") instead.

Py_InteractiveFlag: Use PyConfig.interactive or PyConfig_Get("interactive") instead.

Py_InspectFlag: Use PyConfig.inspect or PyConfig_Get("inspect") instead.

Py_OptimizeFlag: Use PyConfig.optimization_level or PyConfig_Get("optimization_level") instead.

Py_NoSiteFlag: Use PyConfig.site_import or PyConfig_Get("site_import") instead.

Py_BytesWarningFlag: Use PyConfig.bytes_warning or PyConfig_Get("bytes_warning") instead.

Py_FrozenFlag: Use PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings or PyConfig_Get("pathconfig_warnings") instead.

Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag: Use PyConfig.use_environment or PyConfig_Get("use_environment") instead.

Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag: Use PyConfig.write_bytecode or PyConfig_Get("write_bytecode") instead.

Py_NoUserSiteDirectory: Use PyConfig.user_site_directory or PyConfig_Get("user_site_directory") instead.

Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag: Use PyConfig.buffered_stdio or PyConfig_Get("buffered_stdio") instead.

Py_HashRandomizationFlag: Use PyConfig.use_hash_seed and PyConfig.hash_seed or PyConfig_Get("hash_seed") instead.

Py_IsolatedFlag: Use PyConfig.isolated or PyConfig_Get("isolated") instead.

Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag: Use PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding or PyConfig_Get("legacy_windows_fs_encoding") instead.

Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag: Use PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio or PyConfig_Get("legacy_windows_stdio") instead.

Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding, Py_HasFileSystemDefaultEncoding: Use PyConfig.filesystem_encoding or PyConfig_Get("filesystem_encoding") instead.

Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors: Use PyConfig.filesystem_errors or PyConfig_Get("filesystem_errors") instead.

Py_UTF8Mode: Use PyPreConfig.utf8_mode or PyConfig_Get("utf8_mode") instead. (see Py_PreInitialize())

The Py_InitializeFromConfig() API should be used with PyConfig to set these options. Or PyConfig_Get() can be used to get these options at runtime.

Pending removal in Python 3.18

The following private functions are deprecated and planned for removal in Python 3.18:

_PyBytes_Join(): use PyBytes_Join().

_PyDict_GetItemStringWithError(): use PyDict_GetItemStringRef().

_PyDict_Pop(): use PyDict_Pop().

_PyLong_Sign(): use PyLong_GetSign().

_PyLong_FromDigits() and _PyLong_New(): use PyLongWriter_Create().

_PyThreadState_UncheckedGet(): use PyThreadState_GetUnchecked().

_PyUnicode_AsString(): use PyUnicode_AsUTF8().

_PyUnicodeWriter_Init(): replace _PyUnicodeWriter_Init(&writer) with writer = PyUnicodeWriter_Create(0).

_PyUnicodeWriter_Finish(): replace _PyUnicodeWriter_Finish(&writer) with PyUnicodeWriter_Finish(writer).

_PyUnicodeWriter_Dealloc(): replace _PyUnicodeWriter_Dealloc(&writer) with PyUnicodeWriter_Discard(writer).

_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteChar(): replace _PyUnicodeWriter_WriteChar(&writer, ch) with PyUnicodeWriter_WriteChar(writer, ch).

_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr(): replace _PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr(&writer, str) with PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr(writer, str).

_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteSubstring(): replace _PyUnicodeWriter_WriteSubstring(&writer, str, start, end) with PyUnicodeWriter_WriteSubstring(writer, str, start, end).

_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteASCIIString(): replace _PyUnicodeWriter_WriteASCIIString(&writer, str) with PyUnicodeWriter_WriteASCII(writer, str).

_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteLatin1String(): replace _PyUnicodeWriter_WriteLatin1String(&writer, str) with PyUnicodeWriter_WriteUTF8(writer, str).

_PyUnicodeWriter_Prepare(): (no replacement).

_PyUnicodeWriter_PrepareKind(): (no replacement).

_Py_HashPointer(): use Py_HashPointer().

_Py_fopen_obj(): use Py_fopen().

The pythoncapi-compat project [https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/] can be used to get these new public functions on Python 3.13 and older. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-128863 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128863].)

Pending removal in future versions

The following APIs are deprecated and will be removed, although there is currently no date scheduled for their removal.

Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE: Unneeded since Python 3.8.

PyErr_Fetch(): Use PyErr_GetRaisedException() instead.

PyErr_NormalizeException(): Use PyErr_GetRaisedException() instead.

PyErr_Restore(): Use PyErr_SetRaisedException() instead.

PyModule_GetFilename(): Use PyModule_GetFilenameObject() instead.

PyOS_AfterFork(): Use PyOS_AfterFork_Child() instead.

PySlice_GetIndicesEx(): Use PySlice_Unpack() and PySlice_AdjustIndices() instead.

PyUnicode_READY(): Unneeded since Python 3.12

PyErr_Display(): Use PyErr_DisplayException() instead.

_PyErr_ChainExceptions(): Use _PyErr_ChainExceptions1() instead.

PyBytesObject.ob_shash member: call PyObject_Hash() instead.

Thread Local Storage (TLS) API:

PyThread_create_key(): Use PyThread_tss_alloc() instead.

PyThread_delete_key(): Use PyThread_tss_free() instead.

PyThread_set_key_value(): Use PyThread_tss_set() instead.

PyThread_get_key_value(): Use PyThread_tss_get() instead.

PyThread_delete_key_value(): Use PyThread_tss_delete() instead.

PyThread_ReInitTLS(): Unneeded since Python 3.7.

Glossaire

>>>

The default Python prompt of the interactive shell. Often seen for code examples which can be executed interactively in the interpreter.

...

Peut faire référence à :

The default Python prompt of the interactive shell when entering the code for an indented code block, when within a pair of matching left and right delimiters (parentheses, square brackets, curly braces or triple quotes), or after specifying a decorator.

The three dots form of the Ellipsis object.

classe mère abstraite

Les classes mères abstraites (ABC, suivant l'abréviation anglaise Abstract Base Class) complètent le duck-typing en fournissant un moyen de définir des interfaces pour les cas où d'autres techniques comme hasattr() seraient inélégantes ou subtilement fausses (par exemple avec les méthodes magiques). Les ABC introduisent des sous-classes virtuelles qui n'héritent pas d'une classe mais qui sont quand même reconnues par isinstance() ou issubclass() (voir la documentation du module abc). Python contient de nombreuses ABC pour les structures de données (dans le module collections.abc), les nombres (dans le module numbers), les flux (dans le module io) et les chercheurs-chargeurs du système d'importation (dans le module importlib.abc). Vous pouvez créer vos propres ABC avec le module abc.

annotate function

A function that can be called to retrieve the annotations of an object. This function is accessible as the __annotate__ attribute of functions, classes, and modules. Annotate functions are a subset of evaluate functions.

annotation

Étiquette associée à une variable, un attribut de classe, un paramètre de fonction ou une valeur de retour. Elle est utilisée par convention comme type hint.

Annotations of local variables cannot be accessed at runtime, but annotations of global variables, class attributes, and functions can be retrieved by calling annotationlib.get_annotations() on modules, classes, and functions, respectively.

See variable annotation, function annotation, PEP 484 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/], PEP 526 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/], and PEP 649 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/], which describe this functionality. Also see Bonnes pratiques concernant les annotations for best practices on working with annotations.

argument

Valeur, donnée à une fonction ou à une méthode lors de son appel. Il existe deux types d'arguments :

argument nommé : un argument précédé d'un identifiant (comme name=) ou un dictionnaire précédé de **, lors d'un appel de fonction. Par exemple, 3 et 5 sont tous les deux des arguments nommés dans l'appel à complex() ici :

complex(real=3, imag=5)
complex(**{'real': 3, 'imag': 5})

argument positionnel : un argument qui n'est pas nommé. Les arguments positionnels apparaissent au début de la liste des arguments, ou donnés sous forme d'un itérable précédé par *. Par exemple, 3 et 5 sont tous les deux des arguments positionnels dans les appels suivants :

complex(3, 5)
complex(*(3, 5))

Les arguments se retrouvent dans le corps de la fonction appelée parmi les variables locales. Voir la section Appels à propos des règles dictant cette affectation. Syntaxiquement, toute expression est acceptée comme argument, et c'est la valeur résultante de l'expression qui sera affectée à la variable locale.

Voir aussi paramètre dans le glossaire, la question Différence entre argument et paramètre de la FAQ et la PEP 362 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0362/].

gestionnaire de contexte asynchrone

(asynchronous context manager en anglais) Objet contrôlant l'environnement à l'intérieur d'une instruction async with en définissant les méthodes __aenter__() et __aexit__(). A été Introduit par la PEP 492 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/].

générateur asynchrone

Fonction qui renvoie un itérateur de générateur asynchrone. Cela ressemble à une coroutine définie par async def, sauf qu'elle contient une ou des expressions yield produisant ainsi uns série de valeurs utilisables dans une boucle async for.

Générateur asynchrone fait généralement référence à une fonction, mais peut faire référence à un itérateur de générateur asynchrone dans certains contextes. Dans les cas où le sens voulu n'est pas clair, utiliser l'ensemble des termes lève l’ambiguïté.

Un générateur asynchrone peut contenir des expressions await ainsi que des instructions async for, et async with.

itérateur de générateur asynchrone

An object created by an asynchronous generator function.

C'est un asynchronous iterator qui, lorsqu'il est appelé via la méthode __anext__() renvoie un objet awaitable qui exécute le corps de la fonction du générateur asynchrone jusqu'au prochain yield.

Each yield temporarily suspends processing, remembering the execution state (including local variables and pending try-statements). When the asynchronous generator iterator effectively resumes with another awaitable returned by __anext__(), it picks up where it left off. See PEP 492 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/] and PEP 525 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/].

itérable asynchrone

Objet qui peut être utilisé dans une instruction async for. Sa méthode __aiter__() doit renvoyer un asynchronous iterator. A été introduit par la PEP 492 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/].

itérateur asynchrone

Objet qui implémente les méthodes __aiter__() et __anext__(). __anext__() doit renvoyer un objet awaitable. Tant que la méthode __anext__() produit des objets awaitable, le async for appelant les consomme. L'itérateur asynchrone lève une exception StopAsyncIteration pour signifier la fin de l'itération. A été introduit par la PEP 492 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/].

atomic operation

An operation that appears to execute as a single, indivisible step: no other thread can observe it half-done, and its effects become visible all at once. Python does not guarantee that high-level statements are atomic (for example, x += 1 performs multiple bytecode operations and is not atomic). Atomicity is only guaranteed where explicitly documented. See also race condition and data race.

attached thread state

A thread state that is active for the current OS thread.

When a thread state is attached, the OS thread has access to the full Python C API and can safely invoke the bytecode interpreter.

Unless a function explicitly notes otherwise, attempting to call the C API without an attached thread state will result in a fatal error or undefined behavior. A thread state can be attached and detached explicitly by the user through the C API, or implicitly by the runtime, including during blocking C calls and by the bytecode interpreter in between calls.

On most builds of Python, having an attached thread state implies that the caller holds the GIL for the current interpreter, so only one OS thread can have an attached thread state at a given moment. In free-threaded builds of Python, threads can concurrently hold an attached thread state, allowing for true parallelism of the bytecode interpreter.

attribut

Valeur associée à un objet et habituellement désignée par son nom via une notation utilisant des points. Par exemple, si un objet o possède un attribut a, cet attribut est référencé par o.a.

Il est possible de donner à un objet un attribut dont le nom n'est pas un identifiant tel que défini pour les Names (identifiers and keywords), par exemple en utilisant setattr(), si l'objet le permet. Un tel attribut ne sera pas accessible à l'aide d'une expression pointée et on devra y accéder avec getattr().

attendable (awaitable)

Objet pouvant être utilisé dans une expression await. Ce peut être une coroutine ou un objet avec une méthode __await__(). Voir aussi la PEP 492 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/].

BDFL

Dictateur bienveillant à vie (Benevolent Dictator For Life en anglais). Pseudonyme de Guido van Rossum [https://gvanrossum.github.io/], le créateur de Python.

fichier binaire

A file object able to read and write bytes-like objects. Examples of binary files are files opened in binary mode ('rb', 'wb' or 'rb+'), sys.stdin.buffer, sys.stdout.buffer, and instances of io.BytesIO and gzip.GzipFile.

Consultez fichier texte, un objet fichier capable de lire et d'écrire des objets str.

référence empruntée

In Python's C API, a borrowed reference is a reference to an object, where the code using the object does not own the reference. It becomes a dangling pointer if the object is destroyed. For example, a garbage collection can remove the last strong reference to the object and so destroy it.

Il est recommandé d'appeler Py_INCREF() sur la référence empruntée, ce qui la transforme in situ en une référence forte. Vous pouvez faire une exception si vous êtes certain que l'objet ne peut pas être supprimé avant la dernière utilisation de la référence empruntée. Voir aussi la fonction Py_NewRef(), qui crée une nouvelle référence forte.

objet octet-compatible

Un objet gérant le protocole tampon et pouvant exporter un tampon (buffer en anglais) C-contigu. Cela inclut les objets bytes, bytearray et array.array, ainsi que beaucoup d'objets memoryview. Les objets octets-compatibles peuvent être utilisés pour diverses opérations sur des données binaires, comme la compression, la sauvegarde dans un fichier binaire ou l'envoi sur le réseau.

Certaines opérations nécessitent de travailler sur des données binaires variables. La documentation parle de ceux-ci comme des read-write bytes-like objects. Par exemple, bytearray ou une memoryview d'un bytearray en font partie. D'autres opérations nécessitent de travailler sur des données binaires stockées dans des objets immuables (« objets octets-compatibles en lecture seule »), par exemple des bytes ou des memoryview d'un objet bytes.

code intermédiaire (bytecode)

Le code source, en Python, est compilé en un code intermédiaire (bytecode en anglais), la représentation interne à CPython d'un programme Python. Le code intermédiaire est mis en cache dans un fichier .pyc de manière à ce qu'une seconde exécution soit plus rapide (la compilation en code intermédiaire a déjà été faite). On dit que ce langage intermédiaire est exécuté sur une virtual machine qui exécute des instructions machine pour chaque instruction du code intermédiaire. Notez que le code intermédiaire n'a pas vocation à fonctionner sur différentes machines virtuelles Python ou à être stable entre différentes versions de Python.

La documentation du module dis fournit une liste des instructions du code intermédiaire.

appelable (callable)

Un appelable est un objet qui peut être appelé, éventuellement avec un ensemble d'arguments (voir argument), avec la syntaxe suivante :

callable(argument1, argument2, argumentN)

Une fonction, et par extension une méthode, est un appelable. Une instance d'une classe qui implémente la méthode __call__() est également un appelable.

fonction de rappel (callback)

Une fonction (classique, par opposition à une coroutine) passée en argument pour être exécutée plus tard.

classe

Modèle pour créer des objets définis par l'utilisateur. Une définition de classe (class) contient normalement des définitions de méthodes qui agissent sur les instances de la classe.

variable de classe

Une variable définie dans une classe et destinée à être modifiée uniquement au niveau de la classe (c'est-à-dire, pas dans une instance de la classe).

closure variable

A free variable referenced from a nested scope that is defined in an outer scope rather than being resolved at runtime from the globals or builtin namespaces. May be explicitly defined with the nonlocal keyword to allow write access, or implicitly defined if the variable is only being read.

For example, in the inner function in the following code, both x and print are free variables, but only x is a closure variable:

def outer():
    x = 0
    def inner():
        nonlocal x
        x += 1
        print(x)
    return inner

Due to the codeobject.co_freevars attribute (which, despite its name, only includes the names of closure variables rather than listing all referenced free variables), the more general free variable term is sometimes used even when the intended meaning is to refer specifically to closure variables.

nombre complexe

Extension des nombres réels familiers, dans laquelle tous les nombres sont exprimés sous la forme d'une somme d'une partie réelle et d'une partie imaginaire. Les nombres imaginaires sont les nombres réels multipliés par l'unité imaginaire (la racine carrée de -1, souvent écrite i en mathématiques ou j par les ingénieurs). Python comprend nativement les nombres complexes, écrits avec cette dernière notation : la partie imaginaire est écrite avec un suffixe j, exemple, 3+1j. Pour utiliser les équivalents complexes de math, utilisez cmath. Les nombres complexes sont un concept assez avancé en mathématiques. Si vous ne connaissez pas ce concept, vous pouvez tranquillement les ignorer.

concurrency

The ability of a computer program to perform multiple tasks at the same time. Python provides libraries for writing programs that make use of different forms of concurrency. asyncio is a library for dealing with asynchronous tasks and coroutines. threading provides access to operating system threads and multiprocessing to operating system processes. Multi-core processors can execute threads and processes on different CPU cores at the same time (see parallelism).

concurrent modification

When multiple threads modify shared data at the same time. Concurrent modification without proper synchronization can cause race conditions, and might also trigger a data race, data corruption, or both.

context

This term has different meanings depending on where and how it is used. Some common meanings:

The temporary state or environment established by a context manager via a with statement.

The collection of keyvalue bindings associated with a particular contextvars.Context object and accessed via ContextVar objects. Also see context variable.

A contextvars.Context object. Also see current context.

context management protocol

The __enter__() and __exit__() methods called by the with statement. See PEP 343 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/].

gestionnaire de contexte

An object which implements the context management protocol and controls the environment seen in a with statement. See PEP 343 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/].

variable de contexte

A variable whose value depends on which context is the current context. Values are accessed via contextvars.ContextVar objects. Context variables are primarily used to isolate state between concurrent asynchronous tasks.

contigu

Un tampon (buffer en anglais) est considéré comme contigu s’il est soit C-contigu soit Fortran-contigu. Les tampons de dimension zéro sont C-contigus et Fortran-contigus. Pour un tableau à une dimension, ses éléments doivent être placés en mémoire l’un à côté de l’autre, dans l’ordre croissant de leur indice, en commençant à zéro. Pour qu’un tableau multidimensionnel soit C-contigu, le dernier indice doit être celui qui varie le plus rapidement lors du parcours de ses éléments dans l’ordre de leur adresse mémoire. À l'inverse, dans les tableaux Fortran-contigu, c’est le premier indice qui doit varier le plus rapidement.

coroutine

Les coroutines sont une forme généralisée des fonctions. On entre dans une fonction en un point et on en sort en un autre point. On peut entrer, sortir et reprendre l'exécution d'une coroutine en plusieurs points. Elles peuvent être implémentées en utilisant l'instruction async def. Voir aussi la PEP 492 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/].

fonction coroutine

Fonction qui renvoie un objet coroutine. Une fonction coroutine peut être définie par l'instruction async def et peut contenir les mots clés await, async for ainsi que async with. A été introduit par la PEP 492 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/].

CPython

L'implémentation canonique du langage de programmation Python, tel que distribué sur python.org [https://www.python.org]. Le terme "CPython" est utilisé dans certains contextes lorsqu'il est nécessaire de distinguer cette implémentation des autres comme Jython ou IronPython.

current context

The context (contextvars.Context object) that is currently used by ContextVar objects to access (get or set) the values of context variables. Each thread has its own current context. Frameworks for executing asynchronous tasks (see asyncio) associate each task with a context which becomes the current context whenever the task starts or resumes execution.

cyclic isolate

A subgroup of one or more objects that reference each other in a reference cycle, but are not referenced by objects outside the group. The goal of the cyclic garbage collector is to identify these groups and break the reference cycles so that the memory can be reclaimed.

data race

A situation where multiple threads access the same memory location concurrently, at least one of the accesses is a write, and the threads do not use any synchronization to control their access. Data races lead to non-deterministic behavior and can cause data corruption. Proper use of locks and other synchronization primitives prevents data races. Note that data races can only happen in native code, but that native code might be exposed in a Python API. See also race condition and thread-safe.

deadlock

A situation in which two or more tasks (threads, processes, or coroutines) wait indefinitely for each other to release resources or complete actions, preventing any from making progress. For example, if thread A holds lock 1 and waits for lock 2, while thread B holds lock 2 and waits for lock 1, both threads will wait indefinitely. In Python this often arises from acquiring multiple locks in conflicting orders or from circular join/await dependencies. Deadlocks can be avoided by always acquiring multiple locks in a consistent order. See also lock and reentrant.

décorateur

Fonction dont la valeur de retour est une autre fonction. Un décorateur est habituellement utilisé pour transformer une fonction via la syntaxe @wrapper, dont les exemples typiques sont : classmethod() et staticmethod().

La syntaxe des décorateurs est simplement du sucre syntaxique, les définitions des deux fonctions suivantes sont sémantiquement équivalentes :

def f(arg):
    ...
f = staticmethod(f)

@staticmethod
def f(arg):
    ...

Quoique moins fréquemment utilisé, le même concept existe pour les classes. Consultez la documentation définitions de fonctions et définitions de classes pour en savoir plus sur les décorateurs.

descripteur

Any object which defines the methods __get__(), __set__(), or __delete__(). When a class attribute is a descriptor, its special binding behavior is triggered upon attribute lookup. Normally, using a.b to get, set or delete an attribute looks up the object named b in the class dictionary for a, but if b is a descriptor, the respective descriptor method gets called. Understanding descriptors is a key to a deep understanding of Python because they are the basis for many features including functions, methods, properties, class methods, static methods, and reference to super classes.

Pour plus d'informations sur les méthodes des descripteurs, consultez Implémentation de descripteurs ou le guide pour l'utilisation des descripteurs.

dictionnaire

An associative array, where arbitrary keys are mapped to values. The keys can be any object with __hash__() and __eq__() methods. Called a hash in Perl.

dictionnaire en compréhension (ou dictionnaire en intension)

Écriture concise pour traiter tout ou partie des éléments d'un itérable et renvoyer un dictionnaire contenant les résultats. results = {n: n ** 2 for n in range(10)} génère un dictionnaire contenant des clés n liées à leurs valeurs n ** 2. Voir compréhensions.

vue de dictionnaire

Objets retournés par les méthodes dict.keys(), dict.values() et dict.items(). Ils fournissent des vues dynamiques des entrées du dictionnaire, ce qui signifie que lorsque le dictionnaire change, la vue change. Pour transformer une vue en vraie liste, utilisez list(dictview). Voir Les vues de dictionnaires.

chaîne de documentation (docstring)

A string literal which appears as the first expression in a class, function or module. While ignored when the suite is executed, it is recognized by the compiler and put into the __doc__ attribute of the enclosing class, function or module. Since it is available via introspection, it is the canonical place for documentation of the object.

typage canard (duck-typing)

Style de programmation qui ne prend pas en compte le type d'un objet pour déterminer s'il respecte une interface, mais qui appelle simplement la méthode ou l'attribut (Si ça a un bec et que ça cancane, ça doit être un canard, duck signifie canard en anglais). En se concentrant sur les interfaces plutôt que les types, du code bien construit améliore sa flexibilité en autorisant des substitutions polymorphiques. Le duck-typing évite de vérifier les types via type() ou isinstance(), Notez cependant que le duck-typing peut travailler de pair avec les classes mère abstraites. À la place, le duck-typing utilise plutôt hasattr() ou la programmation EAFP.

dunder

An informal short-hand for "double underscore", used when talking about a special method. For example, __init__ is often pronounced "dunder init".

EAFP

Il est plus simple de demander pardon que demander la permission (Easier to Ask for Forgiveness than Permission en anglais). Ce style de développement Python fait l'hypothèse que le code est valide et traite les exceptions si cette hypothèse s'avère fausse. Ce style, propre et efficace, est caractérisé par la présence de beaucoup de mots clés try et except. Cette technique de programmation contraste avec le style LBYL utilisé couramment dans les langages tels que C.

evaluate function

A function that can be called to evaluate a lazily evaluated attribute of an object, such as the value of type aliases created with the type statement.

expression

Suite logique de termes et chiffres conformes à la syntaxe Python dont l'évaluation fournit une valeur. En d'autres termes, une expression est une suite d'éléments tels que des noms, opérateurs, littéraux, accès d'attributs, méthodes ou fonctions qui aboutissent à une valeur. Contrairement à beaucoup d'autres langages, les différentes constructions du langage ne sont pas toutes des expressions. On trouve également des instructions qui ne peuvent pas être utilisées comme expressions, tel que while. Les affectations sont également des instructions et non des expressions.

module d'extension

Module écrit en C ou C++, utilisant l'API C de Python pour interagir avec Python et le code de l'utilisateur.

f-string

f-strings

String literals prefixed with f or F are commonly called "f-strings" which is short for formatted string literals. See also PEP 498 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0498/].

objet fichier

An object exposing a file-oriented API (with methods such as read() or write()) to an underlying resource. Depending on the way it was created, a file object can mediate access to a real on-disk file or to another type of storage or communication device (for example standard input/output, in-memory buffers, sockets, pipes, etc.). File objects are also called file-like objects or streams.

Il existe en réalité trois catégories de fichiers objets : les fichiers binaires bruts, les fichiers binaires avec tampon (buffer) et les fichiers textes. Leurs interfaces sont définies dans le module io. Le moyen le plus simple et direct de créer un objet fichier est d'utiliser la fonction open().

objet fichier-compatible

Synonyme de objet fichier.

encodage du système de fichiers et gestionnaire d'erreurs associé

Encodage et gestionnaire d'erreurs utilisés par Python pour décoder les octets fournis par le système d'exploitation et encoder les chaînes de caractères Unicode afin de les passer au système.

L'encodage du système de fichiers doit impérativement pouvoir décoder tous les octets jusqu'à 128. Si ce n'est pas le cas, certaines fonctions de l'API lèvent UnicodeError.

Cet encodage et son gestionnaire d'erreur peuvent être obtenus à l'aide des fonctions sys.getfilesystemencoding() et sys.getfilesystemencodeerrors().

L'encodage du système de fichiers et gestionnaire d'erreurs associé sont configurés au démarrage de Python par la fonction PyConfig_Read() : regardez filesystem_encoding et filesystem_errors dans les membres de PyConfig.

Voir aussi encodage régional.

chercheur

Objet qui essaie de trouver un chargeur pour le module en cours d'importation.

There are two types of finder: meta path finders for use with sys.meta_path, and path entry finders for use with sys.path_hooks.

See Chercheurs et chargeurs and importlib for much more detail.

division entière

Division mathématique arrondissant à l'entier inférieur. L'opérateur de la division entière est //. Par exemple l'expression 11 // 4 vaut 2, contrairement à 11 / 4 qui vaut 2.75. Notez que (-11) // 4 vaut -3 car l'arrondi se fait à l'entier inférieur. Voir la PEP 328 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/].

free threading

A threading model where multiple threads can run Python bytecode simultaneously within the same interpreter. This is in contrast to the global interpreter lock which allows only one thread to execute Python bytecode at a time. See PEP 703 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/].

free-threaded build

A build of CPython that supports free threading, configured using the --disable-gil option before compilation.

See Python support for free threading.

free variable

Formally, as defined in the language execution model, a free variable is any variable used in a namespace which is not a local variable in that namespace. See closure variable for an example. Pragmatically, due to the name of the codeobject.co_freevars attribute, the term is also sometimes used as a synonym for closure variable.

fonction

Suite d'instructions qui renvoie une valeur à son appelant. On peut lui passer des arguments qui pourront être utilisés dans le corps de la fonction. Voir aussi paramètre, méthode et Définition de fonctions.

annotation de fonction

annotation d'un paramètre de fonction ou valeur de retour.

Les annotations de fonctions sont généralement utilisées pour des indications de types : par exemple, cette fonction devrait prendre deux arguments int et devrait également avoir une valeur de retour de type int :

def sum_two_numbers(a: int, b: int) -> int:
   return a + b

L'annotation syntaxique de la fonction est expliquée dans la section Définition de fonctions.

Voir annotation de variable et la PEP 484 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/], qui décrivent cette fonctionnalité. Voir aussi Bonnes pratiques concernant les annotations sur les bonnes pratiques concernant les annotations.

__future__

Une importation depuis le futur s'écrit from __future__ import <fonctionnalité>. Lorsqu'une importation du futur est active dans un module, Python compile ce module avec une certaine modification de la syntaxe ou du comportement qui est vouée à devenir standard dans une version ultérieure. Le module __future__ documente les possibilités pour fonctionnalité. L'importation a aussi l'effet normal d'importer une variable du module. Cette variable contient des informations utiles sur la fonctionnalité en question, notamment la version de Python dans laquelle elle a été ajoutée, et celle dans laquelle elle deviendra standard :

>>> import __future__
>>> __future__.division
_Feature((2, 2, 0, 'alpha', 2), (3, 0, 0, 'alpha', 0), 8192)

ramasse-miettes

(garbage collection en anglais) Mécanisme permettant de libérer de la mémoire lorsqu'elle n'est plus utilisée. Python utilise un ramasse-miettes par comptage de référence et un ramasse-miettes cyclique capable de détecter et casser les références circulaires. Le ramasse-miettes peut être contrôlé en utilisant le module gc.

générateur

Fonction qui renvoie un itérateur de générateur. Cela ressemble à une fonction normale, en dehors du fait qu'elle contient une ou des expressions yield produisant une série de valeurs utilisable dans une boucle for ou récupérées une à une via la fonction next().

Fait généralement référence à une fonction génératrice mais peut faire référence à un itérateur de générateur dans certains contextes. Dans les cas où le sens voulu n'est pas clair, utiliser les termes complets lève l’ambiguïté.

itérateur de générateur

Objet créé par une fonction générateur.

Each yield temporarily suspends processing, remembering the execution state (including local variables and pending try-statements). When the generator iterator resumes, it picks up where it left off (in contrast to functions which start fresh on every invocation).

expression génératrice

An expression that returns an iterator. It looks like a normal expression followed by a for clause defining a loop variable, range, and an optional if clause. The combined expression generates values for an enclosing function:

>>> sum(i*i for i in range(10))         # sum of squares 0, 1, 4, ... 81
285

fonction générique

Fonction composée de plusieurs fonctions implémentant les mêmes opérations pour différents types. L'implémentation à utiliser est déterminée lors de l'appel par l'algorithme de répartition.

Voir aussi single dispatch, le décorateur functools.singledispatch() et la PEP 443 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0443/].

type générique

Un type qui peut être paramétré ; généralement un conteneur comme list ou dict. Utilisé pour les indications de type et les annotations.

Pour plus de détails, voir types alias génériques et le module typing. On trouvera l'historique de cette fonctionnalité dans les PEP 483 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0483/], PEP 484 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/] et PEP 585 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/].

GIL

Voir global interpreter lock.

verrou global de l'interpréteur

(global interpreter lock en anglais) Mécanisme utilisé par l'interpréteur CPython pour s'assurer qu'un seul fil d'exécution (thread en anglais) n'exécute le bytecode à la fois. Cela simplifie l'implémentation de CPython en rendant le modèle objet (incluant des parties critiques comme la classe native dict) implicitement protégé contre les accès concourants. Verrouiller l'interpréteur entier rend plus facile l'implémentation de multiples fils d'exécution (multi-thread en anglais), au détriment malheureusement de beaucoup du parallélisme possible sur les machines ayant plusieurs processeurs.

Cependant, certains modules d'extension, standards ou non, sont conçus de manière à libérer le GIL lorsqu'ils effectuent des tâches lourdes tel que la compression ou le hachage. De la même manière, le GIL est toujours libéré lors des entrées-sorties.

As of Python 3.13, the GIL can be disabled using the --disable-gil build configuration. After building Python with this option, code must be run with -X gil=0 or after setting the PYTHON_GIL=0 environment variable. This feature enables improved performance for multi-threaded applications and makes it easier to use multi-core CPUs efficiently. For more details, see PEP 703 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/].

In prior versions of Python's C API, a function might declare that it requires the GIL to be held in order to use it. This refers to having an attached thread state.

global state

Data that is accessible throughout a program, such as module-level variables, class variables, or C static variables in extension modules. In multi-threaded programs, global state shared between threads typically requires synchronization to avoid race conditions and data races.

pyc utilisant le hachage

Un fichier de cache de code intermédiaire (bytecode en anglais) qui utilise le hachage plutôt que l'heure de dernière modification du fichier source correspondant pour déterminer sa validité. Voir Invalidation de bytecode mis en cache.

hachable

An object is hashable if it has a hash value which never changes during its lifetime (it needs a __hash__() method), and can be compared to other objects (it needs an __eq__() method). Hashable objects which compare equal must have the same hash value.

La hachabilité permet à un objet d'être utilisé comme clé de dictionnaire ou en tant que membre d'un ensemble (type set), car ces structures de données utilisent ce hash.

La plupart des types immuables natifs de Python sont hachables, mais les conteneurs mutables (comme les listes ou les dictionnaires) ne le sont pas ; les conteneurs immuables (comme les n-uplets ou les ensembles figés) ne sont hachables que si leurs éléments sont hachables. Les instances de classes définies par les utilisateurs sont hachables par défaut. Elles sont toutes considérées différentes (sauf avec elles-mêmes) et leur valeur de hachage est calculée à partir de leur id().

IDLE

Environnement d'apprentissage et de développement intégré pour Python. IDLE est un éditeur basique et un interpréteur livré avec la distribution standard de Python.

immortal

Immortal objects are a CPython implementation detail introduced in PEP 683 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0683/].

If an object is immortal, its reference count is never modified, and therefore it is never deallocated while the interpreter is running. For example, True and None are immortal in CPython.

Immortal objects can be identified via sys._is_immortal(), or via PyUnstable_IsImmortal() in the C API.

immuable

An object with a fixed value. Immutable objects include numbers, strings and tuples. Such an object cannot be altered. A new object has to be created if a different value has to be stored. They play an important role in places where a constant hash value is needed, for example as a key in a dictionary. Immutable objects are inherently thread-safe because their state cannot be modified after creation, eliminating concerns about improperly synchronized concurrent modification.

chemin des importations

Liste de entrées dans lesquelles le chercheur basé sur les chemins cherche les modules à importer. Typiquement, lors d'une importation, cette liste vient de sys.path ; pour les sous-paquets, elle peut aussi venir de l'attribut __path__ du paquet parent.

importation

Processus rendant le code Python d'un module disponible dans un autre.

importateur

Objet qui trouve et charge un module, en même temps un chercheur et un chargeur.

index

A numeric value that represents the position of an element in a sequence.

In Python, indexing starts at zero. For example, things[0] names the first element of things; things[1] names the second one.

In some contexts, Python allows negative indexes for counting from the end of a sequence, and indexing using slices.

See also subscript.

interactif

Python has an interactive interpreter which means you can enter statements and expressions at the interpreter prompt, immediately execute them and see their results. Just launch python with no arguments (possibly by selecting it from your computer's main menu). It is a very powerful way to test out new ideas or inspect modules and packages (remember help(x)). For more on interactive mode, see Mode interactif.

interprété

Python est un langage interprété, en opposition aux langages compilés, bien que la frontière soit floue en raison de la présence d'un compilateur en code intermédiaire. Cela signifie que les fichiers sources peuvent être exécutés directement, sans avoir à compiler un fichier exécutable intermédiaire. Les langages interprétés ont généralement un cycle de développement / débogage plus court que les langages compilés. Cependant, ils s'exécutent généralement plus lentement. Voir aussi interactif.

arrêt de l'interpréteur

Lorsqu'on lui demande de s'arrêter, l'interpréteur Python entre dans une phase spéciale où il libère graduellement les ressources allouées, comme les modules ou quelques structures de données internes. Il fait aussi quelques appels au ramasse-miettes. Cela peut déclencher l'exécution de code dans des destructeurs ou des fonctions de rappels de weakrefs. Le code exécuté lors de l'arrêt peut rencontrer des exceptions puisque les ressources auxquelles il fait appel sont susceptibles de ne plus fonctionner, (typiquement les modules des bibliothèques ou le mécanisme de warning).

La principale raison d'arrêt de l'interpréteur est que le module __main__ ou le script en cours d'exécution a terminé de s'exécuter.

itérable

An object capable of returning its members one at a time. Examples of iterables include all sequence types (such as list, str, and tuple) and some non-sequence types like dict, file objects, and objects of any classes you define with an __iter__() method or with a __getitem__() method that implements sequence semantics.

Iterables can be used in a for loop and in many other places where a sequence is needed (zip(), map(), ...). When an iterable object is passed as an argument to the built-in function iter(), it returns an iterator for the object. This iterator is good for one pass over the set of values. When using iterables, it is usually not necessary to call iter() or deal with iterator objects yourself. The for statement does that automatically for you, creating a temporary unnamed variable to hold the iterator for the duration of the loop. See also iterator, sequence, and generator.

itérateur

An object representing a stream of data. Repeated calls to the iterator's __next__() method (or passing it to the built-in function next()) return successive items in the stream. When no more data are available a StopIteration exception is raised instead. At this point, the iterator object is exhausted and any further calls to its __next__() method just raise StopIteration again. Iterators are required to have an __iter__() method that returns the iterator object itself so every iterator is also iterable and may be used in most places where other iterables are accepted. One notable exception is code which attempts multiple iteration passes. A container object (such as a list) produces a fresh new iterator each time you pass it to the iter() function or use it in a for loop. Attempting this with an iterator will just return the same exhausted iterator object used in the previous iteration pass, making it appear like an empty container.

Vous trouverez davantage d'informations dans Les types itérateurs.

Particularité de l'implémentation CPython : CPython does not consistently apply the requirement that an iterator define __iter__(). And also please note that free-threaded CPython does not guarantee thread-safe behavior of iterator operations.

key

A value that identifies an entry in a mapping. See also subscript.

fonction clé

Une fonction clé est un objet appelable qui renvoie une valeur à fins de tri ou de classement. Par exemple, la fonction locale.strxfrm() est utilisée pour générer une clé de classement prenant en compte les conventions de classement spécifiques aux paramètres régionaux courants.

Plusieurs outils dans Python acceptent des fonctions clés pour déterminer comment les éléments sont classés ou groupés. On peut citer les fonctions min(), max(), sorted(), list.sort(), heapq.merge(), heapq.nsmallest(), heapq.nlargest() et itertools.groupby().

There are several ways to create a key function. For example. the str.casefold() method can serve as a key function for case insensitive sorts. Alternatively, a key function can be built from a lambda expression such as lambda r: (r[0], r[2]). Also, operator.attrgetter(), operator.itemgetter(), and operator.methodcaller() are three key function constructors. See the Sorting HOW TO for examples of how to create and use key functions.

argument nommé

Voir argument.

lambda

Fonction anonyme sous la forme d'une expression et ne contenant qu'une seule expression, exécutée lorsque la fonction est appelée. La syntaxe pour créer des fonctions lambda est : lambda [parameters]: expression

LBYL

Regarde avant de sauter, (Look before you leap en anglais). Ce style de programmation consiste à vérifier des conditions avant d'effectuer des appels ou des accès. Ce style contraste avec le style EAFP et se caractérise par la présence de beaucoup d'instructions if.

In a multi-threaded environment, the LBYL approach can risk introducing a race condition between "the looking" and "the leaping". For example, the code, if key in mapping: return mapping[key] can fail if another thread removes key from mapping after the test, but before the lookup. This issue can be solved with locks or by using the EAFP approach. See also thread-safe.

lexical analyzer

Formal name for the tokenizer; see token.

liste

A built-in Python sequence. Despite its name it is more akin to an array in other languages than to a linked list since access to elements is O(1).

liste en compréhension (ou liste en intension)

Écriture concise pour manipuler tout ou partie des éléments d'une séquence et renvoyer une liste contenant les résultats. result = ['{:#04x}'.format(x) for x in range(256) if x % 2 == 0] génère la liste composée des nombres pairs de 0 à 255 écrits sous formes de chaînes de caractères et en hexadécimal (0x…). La clause if est optionnelle. Si elle est omise, tous les éléments du range(256) seront utilisés.

lock

A synchronization primitive that allows only one thread at a time to access a shared resource. A thread must acquire a lock before accessing the protected resource and release it afterward. If a thread attempts to acquire a lock that is already held by another thread, it will block until the lock becomes available. Python's threading module provides Lock (a basic lock) and RLock (a reentrant lock). Locks are used to prevent race conditions and ensure thread-safe access to shared data. Alternative design patterns to locks exist such as queues, producer/consumer patterns, and thread-local state. See also deadlock, and reentrant.

lock-free

An operation that does not acquire any lock and uses atomic CPU instructions to ensure correctness. Lock-free operations can execute concurrently without blocking each other and cannot be blocked by operations that hold locks. In free-threaded Python, built-in types like dict and list provide lock-free read operations, which means other threads may observe intermediate states during multi-step modifications even when those modifications hold the per-object lock.

chargeur

An object that loads a module. It must define the exec_module() and create_module() methods to implement the Loader interface. A loader is typically returned by a finder. See also:

Chercheurs et chargeurs

importlib.abc.Loader

PEP 302 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/]

encodage régional

Sous Unix, il est défini par la variable régionale LC_CTYPE. Il peut être modifié par locale.setlocale(locale.LC_CTYPE, new_locale).

Sous Windows, c'est un encodage ANSI (par ex. : "cp1252").

Sous Android et VxWorks, Python utilise "utf-8" comme encodage régional.

locale.getencoding() can be used to get the locale encoding.

Voir aussi l'encodage du systèmes de fichiers et gestionnaire d'erreurs associé.

méthode magique

Un synonyme informel de special method.

tableau de correspondances (mapping en anglais)

Conteneur permettant de rechercher des éléments à partir de clés et implémentant les méthodes spécifiées dans les classes mères abstraites des tableaux de correspondances (immuables) ou tableaux de correspondances mutables (voir les classes mères abstraites). Les classes suivantes sont des exemples de tableaux de correspondances : dict, collections.defaultdict, collections.OrderedDict et collections.Counter.

chercheur dans les méta-chemins

Un chercheur renvoyé par une recherche dans sys.meta_path. Les chercheurs dans les méta-chemins ressemblent, mais sont différents des chercheurs d'entrée dans path.

Voir importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder pour les méthodes que les chercheurs dans les méta-chemins doivent implémenter.

métaclasse

Classe d'une classe. Les définitions de classe créent un nom pour la classe, un dictionnaire de classe et une liste de classes parentes. La métaclasse a pour rôle de réunir ces trois paramètres pour construire la classe. La plupart des langages orientés objet fournissent une implémentation par défaut. La particularité de Python est la possibilité de créer des métaclasses personnalisées. La plupart des utilisateurs n'auront jamais besoin de cet outil, mais lorsque le besoin survient, les métaclasses offrent des solutions élégantes et puissantes. Elles sont utilisées pour journaliser les accès à des propriétés, rendre sûrs les environnements multi-threads, suivre la création d'objets, implémenter des singletons et bien d'autres tâches.

Plus d'informations sont disponibles dans : Métaclasses.

méthode

Fonction définie à l'intérieur d'une classe. Lorsqu'elle est appelée comme un attribut d'une instance de cette classe, la méthode reçoit l'instance en premier argument (qui, par convention, est habituellement nommé self). Voir function et nested scope.

ordre de résolution des méthodes

Method Resolution Order is the order in which base classes are searched for a member during lookup. See The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order for details of the algorithm used by the Python interpreter since the 2.3 release.

module

Objet utilisé pour organiser une portion unitaire de code en Python. Les modules ont un espace de nommage et peuvent contenir n'importe quels objets Python. Charger des modules est appelé importer.

Voir aussi paquet.

spécificateur de module

Espace de nommage contenant les informations, relatives à l'importation, utilisées pour charger un module. C'est une instance de la classe importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec.

See also Spécificateurs de modules.

MRO

Voir ordre de résolution des méthodes.

mutable

An object with state that is allowed to change during the course of the program. In multi-threaded programs, mutable objects that are shared between threads require careful synchronization to avoid race conditions. See also immutable, thread-safe, and concurrent modification.

n-uplet nommé

Le terme "n-uplet nommé" s'applique à tous les types ou classes qui héritent de la classe tuple et dont les éléments indexables sont aussi accessibles en utilisant des attributs nommés. Les types et classes peuvent avoir aussi d'autres caractéristiques.

Plusieurs types natifs sont appelés n-uplets, y compris les valeurs retournées par time.localtime() et os.stat(). Un autre exemple est sys.float_info :

>>> sys.float_info[1]                   # indexed access
1024
>>> sys.float_info.max_exp              # named field access
1024
>>> isinstance(sys.float_info, tuple)   # kind of tuple
True

Some named tuples are built-in types (such as the above examples). Alternatively, a named tuple can be created from a regular class definition that inherits from tuple and that defines named fields. Such a class can be written by hand, or it can be created by inheriting typing.NamedTuple, or with the factory function collections.namedtuple(). The latter techniques also add some extra methods that may not be found in hand-written or built-in named tuples.

espace de nommage

L'endroit où une variable est stockée. Les espaces de nommage sont implémentés avec des dictionnaires. Il existe des espaces de nommage globaux, natifs ou imbriqués dans les objets (dans les méthodes). Les espaces de nommage favorisent la modularité car ils permettent d'éviter les conflits de noms. Par exemple, les fonctions builtins.open et os.open() sont différenciées par leurs espaces de nom. Les espaces de nommage aident aussi à la lisibilité et la maintenabilité en rendant clair quel module implémente une fonction. Par exemple, écrire random.seed() ou itertools.islice() affiche clairement que ces fonctions sont implémentées respectivement dans les modules random et itertools.

paquet-espace de nommage

A package which serves only as a container for subpackages. Namespace packages may have no physical representation, and specifically are not like a regular package because they have no __init__.py file.

Namespace packages allow several individually installable packages to have a common parent package. Otherwise, it is recommended to use a regular package.

For more information, see PEP 420 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/] and Paquets espaces de nommage.

Voir aussi module.

native code

Code that is compiled to machine instructions and runs directly on the processor, as opposed to code that is interpreted or runs in a virtual machine. In the context of Python, native code typically refers to C, C++, Rust or Fortran code in extension modules that can be called from Python. See also extension module.

portée imbriquée

Possibilité de faire référence à une variable déclarée dans une définition englobante. Typiquement, une fonction définie à l'intérieur d'une autre fonction a accès aux variables de cette dernière. Souvenez-vous cependant que cela ne fonctionne que pour accéder à des variables, pas pour les assigner. Les variables locales sont lues et assignées dans l'espace de nommage le plus proche. Tout comme les variables globales qui sont stockés dans l'espace de nommage global, le mot clef nonlocal permet d'écrire dans l'espace de nommage dans lequel est déclarée la variable.

nouvelle classe

Old name for the flavor of classes now used for all class objects. In earlier Python versions, only new-style classes could use Python's newer, versatile features like __slots__, descriptors, properties, __getattribute__(), class methods, and static methods.

non-deterministic

Behavior where the outcome of a program can vary between executions with the same inputs. In multi-threaded programs, non-deterministic behavior often results from race conditions where the relative timing or interleaving of threads affects the result. Proper synchronization using locks and other synchronization primitives helps ensure deterministic behavior.

objet

N'importe quelle donnée comportant des états (sous forme d'attributs ou d'une valeur) et un comportement (des méthodes). C'est aussi (object) l'ancêtre commun à absolument toutes les nouvelles classes.

optimized scope

A scope where target local variable names are reliably known to the compiler when the code is compiled, allowing optimization of read and write access to these names. The local namespaces for functions, generators, coroutines, comprehensions, and generator expressions are optimized in this fashion. Note: most interpreter optimizations are applied to all scopes, only those relying on a known set of local and nonlocal variable names are restricted to optimized scopes.

optional module

An extension module that is part of the standard library, but may be absent in some builds of CPython, usually due to missing third-party libraries or because the module is not available for a given platform.

See Requirements for optional modules for a list of optional modules that require third-party libraries.

paquet

module Python qui peut contenir des sous-modules ou des sous-paquets. Techniquement, un paquet est un module qui possède un attribut __path__.

Voir aussi paquet classique et namespace package.

parallelism

Executing multiple operations at the same time (e.g. on multiple CPU cores). In Python builds with the global interpreter lock (GIL), only one thread runs Python bytecode at a time, so taking advantage of multiple CPU cores typically involves multiple processes (e.g. multiprocessing) or native extensions that release the GIL. In free-threaded Python, multiple Python threads can run Python code simultaneously on different cores.

paramètre

Entité nommée dans la définition d'une fonction (ou méthode), décrivant un argument (ou dans certains cas des arguments) que la fonction accepte. Il existe cinq sortes de paramètres :

positional-or-keyword : l'argument peut être passé soit par sa position, soit en tant que argument nommé. C'est le type de paramètre par défaut. Par exemple, foo et bar dans l'exemple suivant :

def func(foo, bar=None): ...

positional-only : définit un argument qui ne peut être fourni que par position. Les paramètres positional-only peuvent être définis en insérant un caractère "/" dans la liste de paramètres de la définition de fonction après eux. Par exemple : posonly1 et posonly2 dans le code suivant :

def func(posonly1, posonly2, /, positional_or_keyword): ...

keyword-only : l'argument ne peut être fourni que nommé. Les paramètres keyword-only peuvent être définis en utilisant un seul paramètre var-positional, ou en ajoutant une étoile (*) seule dans la liste des paramètres avant eux. Par exemple, kw_only1 et kw_only2 dans le code suivant :

def func(arg, *, kw_only1, kw_only2): ...

var-positional : une séquence d'arguments positionnels peut être fournie (en plus de tous les arguments positionnels déjà acceptés par d'autres paramètres). Un tel paramètre peut être défini en préfixant son nom par une *. Par exemple args ci-après :

def func(*args, **kwargs): ...

var-keyword : une quantité arbitraire d'arguments peut être passée, chacun étant nommé (en plus de tous les arguments nommés déjà acceptés par d'autres paramètres). Un tel paramètre est défini en préfixant le nom du paramètre par **. Par exemple, kwargs ci-dessus.

Les paramètres peuvent spécifier des arguments obligatoires ou optionnels, ainsi que des valeurs par défaut pour les arguments optionnels.

Voir aussi argument dans le glossaire, la question sur la différence entre les arguments et les paramètres dans la FAQ, la classe inspect.Parameter, la section Définition de fonctions et la PEP 362 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0362/].

per-object lock

A lock associated with an individual object instance rather than a global lock shared across all objects. In free-threaded Python, built-in types like dict and list use per-object locks to allow concurrent operations on different objects while serializing operations on the same object. Operations that hold the per-object lock prevent other locking operations on the same object from proceeding, but do not block lock-free operations.

entrée de chemin

Emplacement dans le chemin des importations (import path en anglais, d'où le path) que le chercheur basé sur les chemins consulte pour trouver des modules à importer.

chercheur de chemins

chercheur renvoyé par un appelable sur un sys.path_hooks (c'est-à-dire un point d'entrée pour la recherche dans path) qui sait où trouver des modules lorsqu'on lui donne une entrée de path.

Voir importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder pour les méthodes qu'un chercheur d'entrée dans path doit implémenter.

point d'entrée pour la recherche dans path

A callable on the sys.path_hooks list which returns a path entry finder if it knows how to find modules on a specific path entry.

chercheur basé sur les chemins

L'un des chercheurs dans les méta-chemins par défaut qui cherche des modules dans un chemin des importations.

objet simili-chemin

Objet représentant un chemin du système de fichiers. Un objet simili-chemin est un objet str ou un objet bytes représentant un chemin ou un objet implémentant le protocole os.PathLike. Un objet qui accepte le protocole os.PathLike peut être converti en un chemin str ou bytes du système de fichiers en appelant la fonction os.fspath(). os.fsdecode() et os.fsencode() peuvent être utilisées, respectivement, pour garantir un résultat de type str ou bytes à la place. A été Introduit par la PEP 519 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/].

PEP

Python Enhancement Proposal (Proposition d'amélioration de Python). Une PEP est un document de conception fournissant des informations à la communauté Python ou décrivant une nouvelle fonctionnalité pour Python, ses processus ou son environnement. Les PEP doivent fournir une spécification technique concise et une justification des fonctionnalités proposées.

Les PEP sont censées être les principaux mécanismes pour proposer de nouvelles fonctionnalités majeures, pour recueillir les commentaires de la communauté sur une question et pour documenter les décisions de conception qui sont intégrées en Python. L’auteur du PEP est responsable de l’établissement d’un consensus au sein de la communauté et de documenter les opinions contradictoires.

Voir la PEP 1 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0001/].

portion

Jeu de fichiers dans un seul dossier (pouvant être stocké sous forme de fichier zip) qui contribue à l'espace de nommage d'un paquet, tel que défini dans la PEP 420 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/].

argument positionnel

Voir argument.

API provisoire

Une API provisoire est une API qui n'offre aucune garantie de rétrocompatibilité (la bibliothèque standard exige la rétrocompatibilité). Bien que des changements majeurs d'une telle interface ne soient pas attendus, tant qu'elle est étiquetée provisoire, des changements cassant la rétrocompatibilité (y compris sa suppression complète) peuvent survenir si les développeurs principaux le jugent nécessaire. Ces modifications ne surviendront que si de sérieux problèmes sont découverts et qu'ils n'avaient pas été identifiés avant l'ajout de l'API.

Même pour les API provisoires, les changements cassant la rétrocompatibilité sont considérés comme des "solutions de dernier recours". Tout ce qui est possible sera fait pour tenter de résoudre les problèmes en conservant la rétrocompatibilité.

Ce processus permet à la bibliothèque standard de continuer à évoluer avec le temps, sans se bloquer longtemps sur des erreurs d'architecture. Voir la PEP 411 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0411/] pour plus de détails.

paquet provisoire

Voir provisional API.

Python 3000

Surnom donné à la série des Python 3.x (très vieux surnom donné à l'époque où Python 3 représentait un futur lointain). Aussi abrégé Py3k.

Pythonique

Idée, ou bout de code, qui colle aux idiomes de Python plutôt qu'aux concepts communs rencontrés dans d'autres langages. Par exemple, il est idiomatique en Python de parcourir les éléments d'un itérable en utilisant for. Beaucoup d'autres langages n'ont pas cette possibilité, donc les gens qui ne sont pas habitués à Python utilisent parfois un compteur numérique à la place :

for i in range(len(food)):
    print(food[i])

Plutôt qu'utiliser la méthode, plus propre et élégante, donc Pythonique :

for piece in food:
    print(piece)

nom qualifié

Nom, comprenant des points, montrant le "chemin" de l'espace de nommage global d'un module vers une classe, fonction ou méthode définie dans ce module, tel que défini dans la PEP 3155 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3155/]. Pour les fonctions et classes de premier niveau, le nom qualifié est le même que le nom de l'objet :

>>> class C:
...     class D:
...         def meth(self):
...             pass
...
>>> C.__qualname__
'C'
>>> C.D.__qualname__
'C.D'
>>> C.D.meth.__qualname__
'C.D.meth'

Lorsqu'il est utilisé pour nommer des modules, le nom qualifié complet (fully qualified name - FQN en anglais) signifie le chemin complet (séparé par des points) vers le module, incluant tous les paquets parents. Par exemple : email.mime.text :

>>> import email.mime.text
>>> email.mime.text.__name__
'email.mime.text'

race condition

A condition of a program where the behavior depends on the relative timing or ordering of events, particularly in multi-threaded programs. Race conditions can lead to non-deterministic behavior and bugs that are difficult to reproduce. A data race is a specific type of race condition involving unsynchronized access to shared memory. The LBYL coding style is particularly susceptible to race conditions in multi-threaded code. Using locks and other synchronization primitives helps prevent race conditions.

nombre de références

The number of references to an object. When the reference count of an object drops to zero, it is deallocated. Some objects are immortal and have reference counts that are never modified, and therefore the objects are never deallocated. Reference counting is generally not visible to Python code, but it is a key element of the CPython implementation. Programmers can call the sys.getrefcount() function to return the reference count for a particular object.

In CPython, reference counts are not considered to be stable or well-defined values; the number of references to an object, and how that number is affected by Python code, may be different between versions.

paquet classique

paquet traditionnel, tel qu'un dossier contenant un fichier __init__.py.

Voir aussi paquet-espace de nommage.

reentrant

A property of a function or lock that allows it to be called or acquired multiple times by the same thread without causing errors or a deadlock.

For functions, reentrancy means the function can be safely called again before a previous invocation has completed, which is important when functions may be called recursively or from signal handlers. Thread-unsafe functions may be non-deterministic if they're called reentrantly in a multithreaded program.

For locks, Python's threading.RLock (reentrant lock) is reentrant, meaning a thread that already holds the lock can acquire it again without blocking. In contrast, threading.Lock is not reentrant - attempting to acquire it twice from the same thread will cause a deadlock.

See also lock and deadlock.

REPL

An acronym for the "read–eval–print loop", another name for the interactive interpreter shell.

__slots__

Déclaration dans une classe qui économise de la mémoire en pré-allouant de l'espace pour les attributs des instances et qui élimine le dictionnaire (des attributs) des instances. Bien que populaire, cette technique est difficile à maîtriser et devrait être réservée à de rares cas où un grand nombre d'instances dans une application devient un sujet critique pour la mémoire.

séquence

An iterable which supports efficient element access using integer indices via the __getitem__() special method and defines a __len__() method that returns the length of the sequence. Some built-in sequence types are list, str, tuple, and bytes. Note that dict also supports __getitem__() and __len__(), but is considered a mapping rather than a sequence because the lookups use arbitrary hashable keys rather than integers.

The collections.abc.Sequence abstract base class defines a much richer interface that goes beyond just __getitem__() and __len__(), adding count(), index(), __contains__(), and __reversed__(). Types that implement this expanded interface can be registered explicitly using register(). For more documentation on sequence methods generally, see Common Sequence Operations.

ensemble en compréhension (ou ensemble en intension)

Une façon compacte de traiter tout ou partie des éléments d'un itérable et de renvoyer un set avec les résultats. results = {c for c in 'abracadabra' if c not in 'abc'} génère l'ensemble contenant les lettres « r » et « d » {'r', 'd'}. Voir Agencements des listes, ensembles et dictionnaires.

distribution simple

Forme de distribution, comme les fonction génériques, où l'implémentation est choisie en fonction du type d'un seul argument.

tranche

An object of type slice, used to describe a portion of a sequence. A slice object is created when using the slicing form of subscript notation, with colons inside square brackets, such as in variable_name[1:3:5].

soft deprecated

A soft deprecated API should not be used in new code, but it is safe for already existing code to use it. The API remains documented and tested, but will not be enhanced further.

Soft deprecation, unlike normal deprecation, does not plan on removing the API and will not emit warnings.

See PEP 387: Soft Deprecation [https://peps.python.org/pep-0387/#soft-deprecation].

méthode spéciale

(special method en anglais) Méthode appelée implicitement par Python pour exécuter une opération sur un type, comme une addition. De telles méthodes ont des noms commençant et terminant par des doubles tirets bas. Les méthodes spéciales sont documentées dans Méthodes spéciales.

standard library

The collection of packages, modules and extension modules distributed as a part of the official Python interpreter package. The exact membership of the collection may vary based on platform, available system libraries, or other criteria. Documentation can be found at La bibliothèque standard.

See also sys.stdlib_module_names for a list of all possible standard library module names.

instruction

Une instruction (statement en anglais) est un composant d'un "bloc" de code. Une instruction est soit une expression, soit une ou plusieurs constructions basées sur un mot-clé, comme if, while ou for.

static type checker

An external tool that reads Python code and analyzes it, looking for issues such as incorrect types. See also type hints and the typing module.

stdlib

An abbreviation of standard library.

référence forte

In Python's C API, a strong reference is a reference to an object which is owned by the code holding the reference. The strong reference is taken by calling Py_INCREF() when the reference is created and released with Py_DECREF() when the reference is deleted.

Une référence forte est créée à l'aide de la fonction Py_NewRef(). Il faut normalement appeler Py_DECREF() dessus avant de sortir de sa portée lexicale, sans quoi il y a une fuite de référence.

Voir aussi référence empruntée.

subscript

The expression in square brackets of a subscription expression, for example, the 3 in items[3]. Usually used to select an element of a container. Also called a key when subscripting a mapping, or an index when subscripting a sequence.

synchronization primitive

A basic building block for coordinating (synchronizing) the execution of multiple threads to ensure thread-safe access to shared resources. Python's threading module provides several synchronization primitives including Lock, RLock, Semaphore, Condition, Event, and Barrier. Additionally, the queue module provides multi-producer, multi-consumer queues that are especially useful in multithreaded programs. These primitives help prevent race conditions and coordinate thread execution. See also lock.

t-string

t-strings

String literals prefixed with t or T are commonly called "t-strings" which is short for template string literals.

encodages de texte

Une chaîne de caractères en Python est une suite de points de code Unicode (dans l'intervalle U+0000--U+10FFFF). Pour stocker ou transmettre une chaîne, il est nécessaire de la sérialiser en suite d'octets.

Sérialiser une chaîne de caractères en une suite d'octets s'appelle « encoder » et recréer la chaîne à partir de la suite d'octets s'appelle « décoder ».

Il existe de multiples codecs pour la sérialisation de texte, que l'on regroupe sous l'expression « encodages de texte ».

fichier texte

Objet fichier capable de lire et d'écrire des objets str. Souvent, un fichier texte (text file en anglais) accède en fait à un flux de donnée en octets et gère l'encodage de texte automatiquement. Des exemples de fichiers textes sont les fichiers ouverts en mode texte ('r' ou 'w'), sys.stdin, sys.stdout et les instances de io.StringIO.

Voir aussi fichier binaire pour un objet fichier capable de lire et d'écrire des objets octets-compatibles.

thread state

The information used by the CPython runtime to run in an OS thread. For example, this includes the current exception, if any, and the state of the bytecode interpreter.

Each thread state is bound to a single OS thread, but threads may have many thread states available. At most, one of them may be attached at once.

An attached thread state is required to call most of Python's C API, unless a function explicitly documents otherwise. The bytecode interpreter only runs under an attached thread state.

Each thread state belongs to a single interpreter, but each interpreter may have many thread states, including multiple for the same OS thread. Thread states from multiple interpreters may be bound to the same thread, but only one can be attached in that thread at any given moment.

See Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock for more information.

thread-safe

A module, function, or class that behaves correctly when used by multiple threads concurrently. Thread-safe code uses appropriate synchronization primitives like locks to protect shared mutable state, or is designed to avoid shared mutable state entirely. In the free-threaded build, built-in types like dict, list, and set use internal locking to make many operations thread-safe, although thread safety is not necessarily guaranteed. Code that is not thread-safe may experience race conditions and data races when used in multi-threaded programs.

token

A small unit of source code, generated by the lexical analyzer (also called the tokenizer). Names, numbers, strings, operators, newlines and similar are represented by tokens.

The tokenize module exposes Python's lexical analyzer. The token module contains information on the various types of tokens.

chaîne entre triple guillemets

Chaîne qui est délimitée par trois guillemets simples (') ou trois guillemets doubles ("). Bien qu'elle ne fournisse aucune fonctionnalité qui ne soit pas disponible avec une chaîne entre guillemets, elle est utile pour de nombreuses raisons. Elle vous autorise à insérer des guillemets simples et doubles dans une chaîne sans avoir à les protéger et elle peut s'étendre sur plusieurs lignes sans avoir à terminer chaque ligne par un \. Elle est ainsi particulièrement utile pour les chaînes de documentation (docstrings).

type

The type of a Python object determines what kind of object it is; every object has a type. An object's type is accessible as its __class__ attribute or can be retrieved with type(obj).

alias de type

Synonyme d'un type, créé en affectant le type à un identifiant.

Les alias de types sont utiles pour simplifier les indications de types. Par exemple :

def remove_gray_shades(
        colors: list[tuple[int, int, int]]) -> list[tuple[int, int, int]]:
    pass

pourrait être rendu plus lisible comme ceci :

Color = tuple[int, int, int]

def remove_gray_shades(colors: list[Color]) -> list[Color]:
    pass

Voir typing et la PEP 484 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/], qui décrivent cette fonctionnalité.

indication de type

L'annotation qui spécifie le type attendu pour une variable, un attribut de classe, un paramètre de fonction ou une valeur de retour.

Type hints are optional and are not enforced by Python but they are useful to static type checkers. They can also aid IDEs with code completion and refactoring.

Les indications de type de variables globales, d'attributs de classe et de fonctions, mais pas de variables locales, peuvent être consultées en utilisant typing.get_type_hints().

Voir typing et la PEP 484 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/], qui décrivent cette fonctionnalité.

retours à la ligne universels

Une manière d'interpréter des flux de texte dans lesquels sont reconnues toutes les fins de ligne suivantes : la convention Unix '\n', la convention Windows '\r\n' et l'ancienne convention Macintosh '\r'. Voir la PEP 278 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0278/] et la PEP 3116 [https://peps.python.org/pep-3116/], ainsi que la fonction bytes.splitlines() pour d'autres usages.

annotation de variable

annotation d'une variable ou d'un attribut de classe.

Lorsque vous annotez une variable ou un attribut de classe, l'affectation est facultative :

class C:
    field: 'annotation'

Les annotations de variables sont généralement utilisées pour des indications de types : par exemple, cette variable devrait prendre des valeurs de type int :

count: int = 0

La syntaxe d'annotation de variable est expliquée dans la section Les assignations annotées.

Reportez-vous à annotation de fonction, à la PEP 484 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/] et à la PEP 526 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/] qui décrivent cette fonctionnalité. Voir aussi Bonnes pratiques concernant les annotations sur les bonnes pratiques concernant les annotations.

environnement virtuel

Environnement d'exécution isolé (en mode coopératif) qui permet aux utilisateurs de Python et aux applications d'installer et de mettre à jour des paquets sans interférer avec d'autres applications Python fonctionnant sur le même système.

Voir aussi venv.

machine virtuelle

Ordinateur défini entièrement par du logiciel. La machine virtuelle (virtual machine) de Python exécute le code intermédiaire produit par le compilateur de bytecode.

walrus operator

A light-hearted way to refer to the assignment expression operator := because it looks a bit like a walrus if you turn your head.

Le zen de Python

Liste de principes et de préceptes utiles pour comprendre et utiliser le langage. Cette liste peut être obtenue en tapant "import this" dans une invite Python interactive.

À propos de ces documents

La documentation de Python est générée à partir de sources en reStructuredText [https://docutils.sourceforge.io/rst.html] par Sphinx [https://www.sphinx-doc.org/], un générateur de documentation conçu à l'origine pour Python, mais aujourd'hui maintenu comme projet indépendant.

Le développement de la documentation et de ses outils est entièrement basé sur le volontariat, tout comme Python. Si vous voulez contribuer, allez voir la page S'attaquer aux bogues qui contient des informations pour vous y aider. Les nouveaux volontaires sont toujours les bienvenus !

Merci beaucoup à :

Fred L. Drake, Jr., créateur des outils originaux de la documentation Python et auteur de la plupart de son contenu ;

le projet Docutils [https://docutils.sourceforge.io/] pour avoir créé reStructuredText et la suite d'outils Docutils ;

Fredrik Lundh pour son projet Alternative Python Reference, dont Sphinx a pris beaucoup de bonnes idées.

Contributrices et contributeurs de la documentation Python

De nombreuses personnes ont contribué au langage Python, à sa bibliothèque standard et à sa documentation. Consultez Misc/ACKS [https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.14/Misc/ACKS] dans les sources de la distribution Python pour avoir une liste partielle des contributeurs.

Ce n'est que grâce aux suggestions et contributions de la communauté Python que Python a une documentation si merveilleuse — Merci !

S'attaquer aux bogues

Python est un langage de programmation robuste réputé pour sa stabilité. Afin de maintenir cette réputation, les développeurs souhaitent connaître tout problème que vous pourriez rencontrer dans Python.

It can be sometimes faster to fix bugs yourself and contribute patches to Python as it streamlines the process and involves fewer people. Learn how to contribute.

Bogues de documentation

Si vous trouvez un bogue dans cette documentation ou si vous désirez proposer une amélioration, si cela concerne aussi la documentation en anglais, ouvrez un ticket sur le traqueur décrivant en anglais le bogue et où vous l'avez trouvé. Si le problème ne touche que la traduction en français, ouvrez un ticket sur https://git.afpy.org/AFPy/python-docs-fr/issues, ou venez nous en toucher un mot sur le forum Python francophone (https://discuss.afpy.org) ou sur canal IRC #python-fr sur libera.chat (https://web.libera.chat/#python-fr). Si vous avez une suggestion de correction, merci de l'inclure également.

If the bug or suggested improvement concerns the translation of this documentation, submit the report to the translation’s repository [https://github.com/python/python-docs-fr] instead.

Vous pouvez aussi commenter une discussion sur le forum de discussion de la documentation [https://discuss.python.org/c/documentation/26].

Si vous trouvez un bug dans la partie HTML, CSS, ou JavaScript de la documentation, prenez le temps d'écrire un ticket sur le dépôt python-docs-theme [https://github.com/python/python-docs-theme].

Voir aussi

Bogues de documentation

Liste des bogues de documentation soumis à l'outil de suivi des problèmes Python.

Outil de suivi des problèmes [https://devguide.python.org/tracker/]

Vue d'ensemble du processus pour proposer une amélioration avec l'outil de suivi.

Aider avec la documentation [https://devguide.python.org/docquality/#helping-with-documentation]

Guide complet pour qui souhaite contribuer à la documentation Python.

Traductions de la Documentation [https://devguide.python.org/documentation/translating/]

Liste de dépôts GitHub où la documentation est traduite, avec les personnes à contacter.

Utilisation du gestionnaire de tickets Python

Les rapports concernant un problème relatif à Python lui-même doivent être soumis via l'outil de suivi des problèmes de GitHub (https://github.com/python/cpython/issues). Le gestionnaire de tickets propose un formulaire Web permettant de saisir des informations pertinentes à soumettre aux développeurs.

La première étape pour remplir un rapport est de déterminer si le problème a déjà été rapporté. L'avantage de cette approche, en plus d'économiser du temps aux développeurs, est d'apprendre ce qui a été fait pour le résoudre ; il se peut que le problème soit déjà résolu dans la prochaine version, ou que des informations complémentaires soient attendues (auquel cas votre contribution est la bienvenue !). Pour ce faire, cherchez dans le gestionnaire de tickets grâce à la boîte de recherche en haut de la page.

Si le problème que vous soumettez n'est pas déjà dans la liste, connectez-vous à GitHub. Si vous n'avez pas déjà un compte GitHub, créez un nouveau compte en cliquant sur le lien « Sign Up ». Il n'est pas possible de soumettre un rapport de bogue de manière anonyme.

Une fois connecté, vous pouvez rapporter un problème. Sélectionnez le bouton New issue dans la barre en haut pour ouvrir un nouveau formulaire de rapport.

Le formulaire de rapport contient deux champs, Title et Comment.

Dans le champ Title, entrez une très brève description du problème rencontré : dix mots ou moins suffiront.

Dans le champ « Commentaire », décrivez le problème de manière détaillée, incluant ce à quoi vous vous attendiez et ce qui s'est vraiment produit. Assurez-vous d'y inclure les éventuels modules d'extensions impliqués et la plateforme matérielle et logicielle vous utilisiez (en incluant les informations de versions).

Chaque rapport sera attribué à un développeur qui déterminera ce qui est nécessaire d'entreprendre pour corriger le problème. Vous recevrez une notification à chaque action concernant le rapport.

Voir aussi

Comment signaler des bogues de manière efficace [https://www.chiark.greenend.org.uk/~sgtatham/bugs.html] (en anglais)

Article qui entre dans les détails sur la manière de créer un rapport de bogue utile. Il décrit quel genre d'information est utile et pourquoi elle est utile.

Guide pour la rédaction de rapports de bogues [https://bugzilla.mozilla.org/page.cgi?id=bug-writing.html]

Conseils pour écrire un bon rapport de bogue. Certains sont spécifiques au projet Mozilla mais présentent des bonnes pratiques générales.

Commencer à contribuer à Python vous-même

Au-delà de simplement remonter les bogues que vous trouvez, il est aussi apprécié d'y attacher des correctifs. Vous pouvez trouver plus d'informations pour débuter la rédaction de correctifs dans le Python Developer's Guide [https://devguide.python.org/]. Si vous avez des questions, le core-mentorship mailing list [https://mail.python.org/mailman3/lists/core-mentorship.python.org/] est un endroit amical pour obtenir des réponses à toutes les questions à propos du processus de corrections de bugs dans Python.

Copyright

Python et cette documentation sont :

Copyright © 2001 Python Software Foundation. Tous droits réservés.

Copyright © 2000 BeOpen.com. Tous droits réservés.

Copyright © 1995-2000 Corporation for National Research Initiatives. Tous droits réservés.

Copyright © 1991-1995 Stichting Mathematisch Centrum. Tous droits réservés.

Voir Histoire et licence pour des informations complètes concernant la licence et les permissions.

Histoire et licence

Histoire du logiciel

Python a été créé au début des années 1990 par Guido van Rossum, au Stichting Mathematisch Centrum (CWI, voir https://www.cwi.nl) aux Pays-Bas en tant que successeur d'un langage appelé ABC. Guido est l'auteur principal de Python, bien qu'il inclut de nombreuses contributions de la part d'autres personnes.

En 1995, Guido continua son travail sur Python au Corporation for National Research Initiatives (CNRI, voir https://www.cnri.reston.va.us) de Reston, en Viriginie, d'où il diffusa plusieurs versions du logiciel.

En mai 2000, Guido et l'équipe de développement centrale de Python sont partis vers BeOpen.com pour former l'équipe BeOpen PythonLabs. En octobre de la même année, l'équipe de PythonLabs est partie vers Digital Creations (désormais Zope Corporation. En 2001, la Python Software Foundation (PSF, voir https://www.python.org/psf/) voit le jour. Il s'agit d'une organisation à but non lucratif détenant les droits de propriété intellectuelle de Python. La Zope Corporation en était un sponsor.

Toutes les versions de Python sont Open Source (voir https://www.opensource.org pour la définition d'Open Source). Historiquement, la plupart, mais pas toutes, des versions de Python ont également été compatible avec la GPL, le tableau ci-dessous résume les différentes versions.

Version

Dérivé de

Année

Propriétaire

Compatible avec la GPL ? (1)

0.9.0 à 1.2

n/a

1991-1995

CWI

oui

1.3 à 1.5.2

1.2

1995-1999

CNRI

oui

1.6

1.5.2

2000

CNRI

non

2.0

1.6

2000

BeOpen.com

non

1.6.1

1.6

2001

CNRI

oui (2)

2.1

2.0+1.6.1

2001

PSF

non

2.0.1

2.0+1.6.1

2001

PSF

oui

2.1.1

2.1+2.0.1

2001

PSF

oui

2.1.2

2.1.1

2002

PSF

oui

2.1.3

2.1.2

2002

PSF

oui

2.2 et ultérieure

2.1.1

2001-maintenant

PSF

oui

Note

Compatible GPL ne signifie pas que nous distribuons Python sous licence GPL. Toutes les licences Python, contrairement à la licence GPL, vous permettent de distribuer une version modifiée sans rendre open source ces changements. Une licence « compatible GPL » rend possible la diffusion de Python avec un autre logiciel qui est lui diffusé sous la licence GPL ; les licences « non-compatibles GPL » ne le permettent pas.

Selon Richard Stallman, la licence de Python 1.6.1 n'est pas compatible avec la GPL à cause de sa 7ème clause. Cependant, selon le CNRI, l'avocat de Stallman aurait dit à l'avocat du CNRI que la licence de Python 1.6.1 ne « serait pas incompatible » avec la GPL.

Merci aux nombreux bénévoles qui ont travaillé sous la direction de Guido pour rendre ces versions possibles.

Conditions générales pour accéder à, ou utiliser, Python

Le logiciel Python et sa documentation sont distribués sous la licence Python Software Foundation License Version 2.

Depuis Python 3.8.6, les exemples, recettes et autres codes présents dans la documentation sont sous la double licence PSF v2 et la licence Zero-Clause BSD.

Certains logiciels faisant partie de Python sont soumis à d'autres licences. Ces licences sont incluses avec le code lié à celles-ci. Voir Licences et remerciements pour les logiciels tiers pour une liste non exhaustive de ces licences.

LICENCE DE LA PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION VERSION 2

1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between the Python Software Foundation ("PSF"), and
   the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this
   software ("Python") in source or binary form and its associated documentation.

2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License Agreement, PSF hereby
   grants Licensee a nonexclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce,
   analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works,
   distribute, and otherwise use Python alone or in any derivative
   version, provided, however, that PSF's License Agreement and PSF's notice of
   copyright, i.e., "Copyright © 2001 Python Software Foundation; All Rights
   Reserved" are retained in Python alone or in any derivative version
   prepared by Licensee.

3. In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or
   incorporates Python or any part thereof, and wants to make the
   derivative work available to others as provided herein, then Licensee hereby
   agrees to include in any such work a brief summary of the changes made to Python.

4. PSF is making Python available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis.
   PSF MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED.  BY WAY OF
   EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, PSF MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR
   WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE
   USE OF PYTHON WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS.

5. PSF SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF PYTHON
   FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF
   MODIFYING, DISTRIBUTING, OR OTHERWISE USING PYTHON, OR ANY DERIVATIVE
   THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF.

6. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of
   its terms and conditions.

7. Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship
   of agency, partnership, or joint venture between PSF and Licensee.  This License
   Agreement does not grant permission to use PSF trademarks or trade name in a
   trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any
   third party.

8. By copying, installing or otherwise using Python, Licensee agrees
   to be bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement.

LICENCE D'UTILISATION BEOPEN.COM POUR PYTHON 2.0

LICENCE D'UTILISATION LIBRE BEOPEN PYTHON VERSION 1

1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between BeOpen.com ("BeOpen"), having an office at
   160 Saratoga Avenue, Santa Clara, CA 95051, and the Individual or Organization
   ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this software in source or binary
   form and its associated documentation ("the Software").

2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this BeOpen Python License Agreement,
   BeOpen hereby grants Licensee a non-exclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license
   to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative
   works, distribute, and otherwise use the Software alone or in any derivative
   version, provided, however, that the BeOpen Python License is retained in the
   Software, alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee.

3. BeOpen is making the Software available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis.
   BEOPEN MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED.  BY WAY OF
   EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, BEOPEN MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR
   WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE
   USE OF THE SOFTWARE WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS.

4. BEOPEN SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF THE SOFTWARE FOR
   ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF USING,
   MODIFYING OR DISTRIBUTING THE SOFTWARE, OR ANY DERIVATIVE THEREOF, EVEN IF
   ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF.

5. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of
   its terms and conditions.

6. This License Agreement shall be governed by and interpreted in all respects
   by the law of the State of California, excluding conflict of law provisions.
   Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of
   agency, partnership, or joint venture between BeOpen and Licensee.  This License
   Agreement does not grant permission to use BeOpen trademarks or trade names in a
   trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any
   third party.  As an exception, the "BeOpen Python" logos available at
   http://www.pythonlabs.com/logos.html may be used according to the permissions
   granted on that web page.

7. By copying, installing or otherwise using the software, Licensee agrees to be
   bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement.

LICENCE D'UTILISATION CNRI POUR PYTHON 1.6.1

1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between the Corporation for National Research
   Initiatives, having an office at 1895 Preston White Drive, Reston, VA 20191
   ("CNRI"), and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and
   otherwise using Python 1.6.1 software in source or binary form and its
   associated documentation.

2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License Agreement, CNRI hereby
   grants Licensee a nonexclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce,
   analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works,
   distribute, and otherwise use Python 1.6.1 alone or in any derivative version,
   provided, however, that CNRI's License Agreement and CNRI's notice of copyright,
   i.e., "Copyright © 1995-2001 Corporation for National Research Initiatives; All
   Rights Reserved" are retained in Python 1.6.1 alone or in any derivative version
   prepared by Licensee.  Alternately, in lieu of CNRI's License Agreement,
   Licensee may substitute the following text (omitting the quotes): "Python 1.6.1
   is made available subject to the terms and conditions in CNRI's License
   Agreement.  This Agreement together with Python 1.6.1 may be located on the
   internet using the following unique, persistent identifier (known as a handle):
   1895.22/1013.  This Agreement may also be obtained from a proxy server on the
   internet using the following URL: http://hdl.handle.net/1895.22/1013".

3. In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or
   incorporates Python 1.6.1 or any part thereof, and wants to make the derivative
   work available to others as provided herein, then Licensee hereby agrees to
   include in any such work a brief summary of the changes made to Python 1.6.1.

4. CNRI is making Python 1.6.1 available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis.  CNRI
   MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED.  BY WAY OF EXAMPLE,
   BUT NOT LIMITATION, CNRI MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY
   OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF
   PYTHON 1.6.1 WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS.

5. CNRI SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF PYTHON 1.6.1 FOR
   ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF
   MODIFYING, DISTRIBUTING, OR OTHERWISE USING PYTHON 1.6.1, OR ANY DERIVATIVE
   THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF.

6. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of
   its terms and conditions.

7. This License Agreement shall be governed by the federal intellectual property
   law of the United States, including without limitation the federal copyright
   law, and, to the extent such U.S. federal law does not apply, by the law of the
   Commonwealth of Virginia, excluding Virginia's conflict of law provisions.
   Notwithstanding the foregoing, with regard to derivative works based on Python
   1.6.1 that incorporate non-separable material that was previously distributed
   under the GNU General Public License (GPL), the law of the Commonwealth of
   Virginia shall govern this License Agreement only as to issues arising under or
   with respect to Paragraphs 4, 5, and 7 of this License Agreement.  Nothing in
   this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of agency,
   partnership, or joint venture between CNRI and Licensee.  This License Agreement
   does not grant permission to use CNRI trademarks or trade name in a trademark
   sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any third
   party.

8. By clicking on the "ACCEPT" button where indicated, or by copying, installing
   or otherwise using Python 1.6.1, Licensee agrees to be bound by the terms and
   conditions of this License Agreement.

LICENCE D'UTILISATION CWI POUR PYTHON 0.9.0 à 1.2

Copyright © 1991 - 1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum Amsterdam, The
Netherlands.  All rights reserved.

Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its
documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that
the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright
notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that
the name of Stichting Mathematisch Centrum or CWI not be used in advertising or
publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written
prior permission.

STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS
SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO
EVENT SHALL STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT
OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE,
DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS
ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS
SOFTWARE.

LICENCE BSD ZERO-CLAUSE POUR LE CODE DANS LA DOCUMENTATION DE PYTHON

Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for any
purpose with or without fee is hereby granted.

THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS" AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH
REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY
AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, DIRECT,
INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM
LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR
OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR
PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.

Licences et remerciements pour les logiciels tiers

Cette section est une liste incomplète mais grandissante de licences et remerciements pour les logiciels tiers incorporés dans la distribution de Python.

Mersenne twister

L'extension C _random utilisée par random inclut du code construit à partir d'un téléchargement depuis http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/MT2002/emt19937ar.html. Voici mot pour mot les commentaires du code original :

A C-program for MT19937, with initialization improved 2002/1/26.
Coded by Takuji Nishimura and Makoto Matsumoto.

Before using, initialize the state by using init_genrand(seed)
or init_by_array(init_key, key_length).

Copyright (C) 1997 - 2002, Makoto Matsumoto and Takuji Nishimura,
All rights reserved.

Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
are met:

 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
    notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.

 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
    notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
    documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.

 3. The names of its contributors may not be used to endorse or promote
    products derived from this software without specific prior written
    permission.

THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS
"AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT
LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR
A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR
CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL,
EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO,
PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR
PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF
LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING
NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS
SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

Any feedback is very welcome.
http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/emt.html
email: m-mat @ math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp (remove space)

Interfaces de connexion (sockets)

Le module socket utilise les fonctions getaddrinfo() et getnameinfo() codées dans des fichiers sources séparés et provenant du projet WIDE: https://www.wide.ad.jp/.

Copyright (C) 1995, 1996, 1997, and 1998 WIDE Project.
All rights reserved.

Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
are met:
1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
   notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
   notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
   documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
3. Neither the name of the project nor the names of its contributors
   may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software
   without specific prior written permission.

THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE PROJECT AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND
ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE
ARE DISCLAIMED.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE PROJECT OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE
FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL
DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS
OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION)
HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT
LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY
OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF
SUCH DAMAGE.

Interfaces de connexion asynchrones

Les modules test.support.asynchat et test.support.asyncore contiennent la note suivante :

Copyright 1996 by Sam Rushing

                        All Rights Reserved

Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and
its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby
granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all
copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission
notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Sam
Rushing not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to
distribution of the software without specific, written prior
permission.

SAM RUSHING DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE,
INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN
NO EVENT SHALL SAM RUSHING BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR
CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS
OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT,
NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN
CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.

Gestion de témoin (cookie)

Le module http.cookies contient la note suivante :

Copyright 2000 by Timothy O'Malley <timo@alum.mit.edu>

               All Rights Reserved

Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software
and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby
granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all
copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission
notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of
Timothy O'Malley  not be used in advertising or publicity
pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written
prior permission.

Timothy O'Malley DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS
SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY
AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL Timothy O'Malley BE LIABLE FOR
ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES
WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS,
WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS
ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR
PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.

Traçage d'exécution

Le module trace contient la note suivante :

portions copyright 2001, Autonomous Zones Industries, Inc., all rights...
err...  reserved and offered to the public under the terms of the
Python 2.2 license.
Author: Zooko O'Whielacronx
http://zooko.com/
mailto:zooko@zooko.com

Copyright 2000, Mojam Media, Inc., all rights reserved.
Author: Skip Montanaro

Copyright 1999, Bioreason, Inc., all rights reserved.
Author: Andrew Dalke

Copyright 1995-1997, Automatrix, Inc., all rights reserved.
Author: Skip Montanaro

Copyright 1991-1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum, all rights reserved.

Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this Python software and
its associated documentation for any purpose without fee is hereby
granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in all copies,
and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in
supporting documentation, and that the name of neither Automatrix,
Bioreason or Mojam Media be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to
distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission.

Les fonctions UUencode et UUdecode

Le codec uu contient la note suivante :

Copyright 1994 by Lance Ellinghouse
Cathedral City, California Republic, United States of America.
                       All Rights Reserved
Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its
documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted,
provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that
both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in
supporting documentation, and that the name of Lance Ellinghouse
not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution
of the software without specific, written prior permission.
LANCE ELLINGHOUSE DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO
THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND
FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL LANCE ELLINGHOUSE CENTRUM BE LIABLE
FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES
WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN
ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT
OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.

Modified by Jack Jansen, CWI, July 1995:
- Use binascii module to do the actual line-by-line conversion
  between ascii and binary. This results in a 1000-fold speedup. The C
  version is still 5 times faster, though.
- Arguments more compliant with Python standard

Appel de procédures distantes en XML (RPC, pour Remote Procedure Call)

Le module xmlrpc.client contient la note suivante :

    The XML-RPC client interface is

Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Secret Labs AB
Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Fredrik Lundh

By obtaining, using, and/or copying this software and/or its
associated documentation, you agree that you have read, understood,
and will comply with the following terms and conditions:

Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and
its associated documentation for any purpose and without fee is
hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in
all copies, and that both that copyright notice and this permission
notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of
Secret Labs AB or the author not be used in advertising or publicity
pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written
prior permission.

SECRET LABS AB AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD
TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANT-
ABILITY AND FITNESS.  IN NO EVENT SHALL SECRET LABS AB OR THE AUTHOR
BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY
DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS,
WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS
ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE
OF THIS SOFTWARE.

test_epoll

Le module test.test_epoll contient la note suivante :

Copyright (c) 2001-2006 Twisted Matrix Laboratories.

Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining
a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the
"Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish,
distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to
permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to
the following conditions:

The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be
included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.

THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND,
EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND
NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE
LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION
WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.

Select kqueue

Le module select contient la note suivante pour l'interface kqueue :

Copyright (c) 2000 Doug White, 2006 James Knight, 2007 Christian Heimes
All rights reserved.

Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
are met:
1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
   notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
   notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
   documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.

THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND
ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE
ARE DISCLAIMED.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE
FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL
DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS
OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION)
HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT
LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY
OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF
SUCH DAMAGE.

SipHash24

Le fichier Python/pyhash.c contient une implémentation par Marek Majkowski de l'algorithme SipHash24 de Dan Bernstein. Il contient la note suivante :

<MIT License>
Copyright (c) 2013  Marek Majkowski <marek@popcount.org>

Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal
in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:

The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
</MIT License>

Original location:
   https://github.com/majek/csiphash/

Solution inspired by code from:
   Samuel Neves (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little)
   djb (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little2)
   Jean-Philippe Aumasson (https://131002.net/siphash/siphash24.c)

strtod et dtoa

Le fichier Python/dtoa.c, qui fournit les fonctions dtoa et strtod pour la conversion de doubles C vers et depuis les chaînes, est tiré d'un fichier du même nom par David M. Gay, actuellement disponible sur https://web.archive.org/web/20220517033456/http://www.netlib.org/fp/dtoa.c. Le fichier original, tel que récupéré le 16 mars 2009, contient la licence suivante :

/****************************************************************
 *
 * The author of this software is David M. Gay.
 *
 * Copyright (c) 1991, 2000, 2001 by Lucent Technologies.
 *
 * Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software for any
 * purpose without fee is hereby granted, provided that this entire notice
 * is included in all copies of any software which is or includes a copy
 * or modification of this software and in all copies of the supporting
 * documentation for such software.
 *
 * THIS SOFTWARE IS BEING PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED
 * WARRANTY.  IN PARTICULAR, NEITHER THE AUTHOR NOR LUCENT MAKES ANY
 * REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF ANY KIND CONCERNING THE MERCHANTABILITY
 * OF THIS SOFTWARE OR ITS FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE.
 *
 ***************************************************************/

OpenSSL

Les modules hashlib, posix, et ssl utilisent la bibliothèque OpenSSL pour améliorer les performances, si elle est disponible via le système d'exploitation. Aussi les outils d'installation sur Windows et macOS peuvent inclure une copie des bibliothèques d'OpenSSL dont voici la licence. À partir d'OpenSSL 3.0 c'est la licence Apache v2 qui s'applique :

                              Apache License
                        Version 2.0, January 2004
                     https://www.apache.org/licenses/

TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION

1. Definitions.

   "License" shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
   and distribution as defined by Sections 1 through 9 of this document.

   "Licensor" shall mean the copyright owner or entity authorized by
   the copyright owner that is granting the License.

   "Legal Entity" shall mean the union of the acting entity and all
   other entities that control, are controlled by, or are under common
   control with that entity. For the purposes of this definition,
   "control" means (i) the power, direct or indirect, to cause the
   direction or management of such entity, whether by contract or
   otherwise, or (ii) ownership of fifty percent (50%) or more of the
   outstanding shares, or (iii) beneficial ownership of such entity.

   "You" (or "Your") shall mean an individual or Legal Entity
   exercising permissions granted by this License.

   "Source" form shall mean the preferred form for making modifications,
   including but not limited to software source code, documentation
   source, and configuration files.

   "Object" form shall mean any form resulting from mechanical
   transformation or translation of a Source form, including but
   not limited to compiled object code, generated documentation,
   and conversions to other media types.

   "Work" shall mean the work of authorship, whether in Source or
   Object form, made available under the License, as indicated by a
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END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS

expat

Le module pyexpat est compilé avec une copie des sources d'expat, sauf si la compilation est configurée avec --with-system-expat :

Copyright (c) 1998, 1999, 2000 Thai Open Source Software Center Ltd
                               and Clark Cooper

Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining
a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the
"Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish,
distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to
permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to
the following conditions:

The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included
in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.

THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND,
EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT.
IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT,
TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE
SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.

libffi

L'extension C _ctypes utilisée par le module ctypes est compilée en utilisant une copie des sources de la libffi, sauf si la compilation est configurée avec --with-system-libffi :

Copyright (c) 1996-2008  Red Hat, Inc and others.

Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining
a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the
"Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish,
distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to
permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to
the following conditions:

The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included
in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.

THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND,
EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND
NONINFRINGEMENT.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT
HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY,
WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.

zlib

Le module zlib est compilé en utilisant une copie du code source de zlib si la version de zlib trouvée sur le système est trop vieille pour être utilisée :

Copyright (C) 1995-2011 Jean-loup Gailly and Mark Adler

This software is provided 'as-is', without any express or implied
warranty.  In no event will the authors be held liable for any damages
arising from the use of this software.

Permission is granted to anyone to use this software for any purpose,
including commercial applications, and to alter it and redistribute it
freely, subject to the following restrictions:

1. The origin of this software must not be misrepresented; you must not
   claim that you wrote the original software. If you use this software
   in a product, an acknowledgment in the product documentation would be
   appreciated but is not required.

2. Altered source versions must be plainly marked as such, and must not be
   misrepresented as being the original software.

3. This notice may not be removed or altered from any source distribution.

Jean-loup Gailly        Mark Adler
jloup@gzip.org          madler@alumni.caltech.edu

cfuhash

L'implémentation des dictionnaires, utilisée par le module tracemalloc est basée sur le projet cfuhash :

Copyright (c) 2005 Don Owens
All rights reserved.

This code is released under the BSD license:

Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
are met:

  * Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
    notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.

  * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above
    copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following
    disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided
    with the distribution.

  * Neither the name of the author nor the names of its
    contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived
    from this software without specific prior written permission.

THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS
"AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT
LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS
FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT,
INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES
(INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR
SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION)
HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT,
STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE)
ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED
OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

libmpdec

L'extension C _decimal utilisée par le module decimal est compilée en incluant une copie de la bibliothèque libmpdec, sauf si la compilation est configurée avec --with-system-libmpdec :

Copyright (c) 2008-2020 Stefan Krah. All rights reserved.

Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
are met:

1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
   notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.

2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
   notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
   documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.

THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND
ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE
ARE DISCLAIMED.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE
FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL
DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS
OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION)
HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT
LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY
OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF
SUCH DAMAGE.

Ensemble de tests C14N du W3C

Les tests de C14N version 2.0 du module test (Lib/test/xmltestdata/c14n-20/) proviennent du site du W3C à l'adresse https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-c14n2-testcases/ et sont distribués sous licence BSD modifiée :

Copyright (c) 2013 W3C(R) (MIT, ERCIM, Keio, Beihang),
All Rights Reserved.

Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
are met:

* Redistributions of works must retain the original copyright notice,
  this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
* Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the original copyright
  notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
  documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
* Neither the name of the W3C nor the names of its contributors may be
  used to endorse or promote products derived from this work without
  specific prior written permission.

THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS
"AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT
LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR
A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT
OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL,
SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT
LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE,
DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY
THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT
(INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE
OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

mimalloc

Licence MIT :

Copyright (c) 2018-2021 Microsoft Corporation, Daan Leijen

Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal
in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:

The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
copies or substantial portions of the Software.

THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
SOFTWARE.

asyncio

Certaines parties du module asyncio proviennent d'uvloop 0.16 [https://github.com/MagicStack/uvloop/tree/v0.16.0], distribué sous licence MIT :

Copyright (c) 2015-2021 MagicStack Inc.  http://magic.io

Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining
a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the
"Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish,
distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to
permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to
the following conditions:

The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be
included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.

THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND,
EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND
NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE
LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION
WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.

Séquences globales non bornées (GUS)

Le fichier Python/qsbr.c est une adaptation du mécanisme de libération de mémoire sûr, nommé « Global Unbounded Sequences » de FreeBSD implémenté dans subr_smr.c [https://github.com/freebsd/freebsd-src/blob/main/sys/kern/subr_smr.c]. Le fichier est publié sous la licence BSD deux clauses :

Copyright (c) 2019,2020 Jeffrey Roberson <jeff@FreeBSD.org>

Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
are met:
1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
   notice unmodified, this list of conditions, and the following
   disclaimer.
2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
   notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
   documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.

THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR
IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES
OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED.
IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT,
INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT
NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE,
DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY
THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT
(INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF
THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

Liens avec Zstandard

Les liens à la bibliothèque Zstandard des Modules/_zstd et Lib/compression/zstd sont inspirés de la bibliothèque pyzstd [https://github.com/Rogdham/pyzstd/], copyright Ma Lin et contributeurs. Le code de pyzstd est distribué sous la licence BSD trois clauses :

Copyright (c) 2020-present, Ma Lin and contributors.
All rights reserved.

Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met:

1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this
   list of conditions and the following disclaimer.

2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice,
   this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation
   and/or other materials provided with the distribution.

3. Neither the name of the copyright holder nor the names of its
   contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from
   this software without specific prior written permission.

THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS"
AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE
DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT HOLDER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE
FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL
DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR
SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER
CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY,
OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE
OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

Index des modules Python

_ | a | b | c | d | e | f | g | h | i | j | k | l | m | n | o | p | q | r | s | t | u | v | w | x | z

| _ |
| __future__ | Future statement definitions
| __main__ | The environment where top-level code is run. Covers command-line interfaces, import-time behavior, and ``__name__ == '__main__'``.
| _thread | Low-level threading API.
| _tkinter | A binary module that contains the low-level interface to Tcl/Tk.
| a |
| abc | Abstract base classes according to :pep:`3119`.
| aifc | Obsolète: Removed in 3.13.
| annotationlib | Functionality for introspecting annotations
| argparse | Command-line option and argument parsing library.
| array | Space efficient arrays of uniformly typed numeric values.
| ast | Abstract Syntax Tree classes and manipulation.
| asynchat | Obsolète: Removed in 3.12.
| asyncio | Asynchronous I/O.
| asyncore | Obsolète: Removed in 3.12.
| atexit | Register and execute cleanup functions.
| audioop | Obsolète: Removed in 3.13.
| b |
| base64 | RFC 4648: Base16, Base32, Base64 Data Encodings; Base85 and Ascii85
| bdb | Debugger framework.
| binascii | Tools for converting between binary and various ASCII-encoded binary representations.
| bisect | Array bisection algorithms for binary searching.
| builtins | The module that provides the built-in namespace.
| bz2 | Interfaces for bzip2 compression and decompression.
| c |
| calendar | Functions for working with calendars, including some emulation of the Unix cal program.
| cgi | Obsolète: Removed in 3.13.
| cgitb | Obsolète: Removed in 3.13.
| chunk | Obsolète: Removed in 3.13.
| cmath | Mathematical functions for complex numbers.
| cmd | Build line-oriented command interpreters.
| code | Facilities to implement read-eval-print loops.
| codecs | Encode and decode data and streams.
| codeop | Compile (possibly incomplete) Python code.
- | collections | Container datatypes
|     collections.abc | Abstract base classes for containers
| colorsys | Conversion functions between RGB and other color systems.
| compileall | Tools for byte-compiling all Python source files in a directory tree.
- | compression |
|     compression.zstd | Low-level interface to compression and decompression routines in the zstd library.
- | concurrent |
|     concurrent.futures | Execute computations concurrently using threads or processes.
|     concurrent.interpreters | Multiple interpreters in the same process
| configparser | Configuration file parser.
| contextlib | Utilities for with-statement contexts.
| contextvars | Context Variables
| copy | Shallow and deep copy operations.
| copyreg | Register pickle support functions.
| cProfile |
| crypt | Obsolète: Removed in 3.13.
| csv | Write and read tabular data to and from delimited files.
| ctypes | A foreign function library for Python.
- | curses | An interface to the curses library, providing portable terminal handling.
|     curses.ascii | Constants and set-membership functions for ASCII characters.
|     curses.panel | A panel stack extension that adds depth to curses windows.
|     curses.textpad | Emacs-like input editing in a curses window.
| d |
| dataclasses | Generate special methods on user-defined classes.
| datetime | Basic date and time types.
- | dbm | Interfaces to various Unix "database" formats.
|     dbm.dumb | Portable implementation of the simple DBM interface.
|     dbm.gnu | GNU database manager
|     dbm.ndbm | The New Database Manager
|     dbm.sqlite3 | SQLite backend for dbm
| decimal | Implementation of the General Decimal Arithmetic Specification.
| difflib | Helpers for computing differences between objects.
| dis | Disassembler for Python bytecode.
| distutils | Obsolète: Removed in 3.12.
| doctest | Test pieces of code within docstrings.
| e |
- | email | Package supporting the parsing, manipulating, and generating email messages.
|     email.charset | Character Sets
|     email.contentmanager | Storing and Retrieving Content from MIME Parts
|     email.encoders | Encoders for email message payloads.
|     email.errors | The exception classes used by the email package.
|     email.generator | Generate flat text email messages from a message structure.
|     email.header | Representing non-ASCII headers
|     email.headerregistry | Automatic Parsing of headers based on the field name
|     email.iterators | Iterate over a message object tree.
|     email.message | The base class representing email messages.
|     email.mime | Build MIME messages.
|     email.mime.application |
|     email.mime.audio |
|     email.mime.base |
|     email.mime.image |
|     email.mime.message |
|     email.mime.multipart |
|     email.mime.nonmultipart |
|     email.mime.text |
|     email.parser | Parse flat text email messages to produce a message object structure.
|     email.policy | Controlling the parsing and generating of messages
|     email.utils | Miscellaneous email package utilities.
- | encodings | Encodings package
|     encodings.idna | Internationalized Domain Names implementation
|     encodings.mbcs | Windows ANSI codepage
|     encodings.utf_8_sig | UTF-8 codec with BOM signature
| ensurepip | Bootstrapping the "pip" installer into an existing Python installation or virtual environment.
| enum | Implementation of an enumeration class.
| errno | Standard errno system symbols.
| f |
| faulthandler | Dump the Python traceback.
| fcntl | The fcntl() and ioctl() system calls.
| filecmp | Compare files efficiently.
| fileinput | Loop over standard input or a list of files.
| fnmatch | Unix shell style filename pattern matching.
| fractions | Rational numbers.
| ftplib | FTP protocol client (requires sockets).
| functools | Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
| g |
| gc | Interface to the cycle-detecting garbage collector.
| getopt | Portable parser for command line options; support both short and long option names.
| getpass | Portable reading of passwords and retrieval of the userid.
| gettext | Multilingual internationalization services.
| glob | Unix shell style pathname pattern expansion.
| graphlib | Functionality to operate with graph-like structures
| grp | The group database (getgrnam() and friends).
| gzip | Interfaces for gzip compression and decompression using file objects.
| h |
| hashlib | Secure hash and message digest algorithms.
| heapq | Heap queue algorithm (a.k.a. priority queue).
| hmac | Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication (HMAC) implementation
- | html | Helpers for manipulating HTML.
|     html.entities | Definitions of HTML general entities.
|     html.parser | A simple parser that can handle HTML and XHTML.
- | http | HTTP status codes and messages
|     http.client | HTTP and HTTPS protocol client (requires sockets).
|     http.cookiejar | Classes for automatic handling of HTTP cookies.
|     http.cookies | Support for HTTP state management (cookies).
|     http.server | HTTP server and request handlers.
| i |
| idlelib | Implementation package for the IDLE shell/editor.
| imaplib | IMAP4 protocol client (requires sockets).
| imghdr | Obsolète: Removed in 3.13.
| imp | Obsolète: Removed in 3.12.
- | importlib | The implementation of the import machinery.
|     importlib.abc | Abstract base classes related to import
|     importlib.machinery | Importers and path hooks
|     importlib.metadata | Accessing package metadata
|     importlib.resources | Package resource reading, opening, and access
|     importlib.resources.abc | Abstract base classes for resources
|     importlib.util | Utility code for importers
| inspect | Extract information and source code from live objects.
| io | Core tools for working with streams.
| ipaddress | IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library.
| itertools | Functions creating iterators for efficient looping.
| j |
- | json | Encode and decode the JSON format.
|     json.tool | A command-line interface to validate and pretty-print JSON.
| k |
| keyword | Test whether a string is a keyword in Python.
| l |
| linecache | Provides random access to individual lines from text files.
| locale | Internationalization services.
- | logging | Flexible event logging system for applications.
|     logging.config | Configuration of the logging module.
|     logging.handlers | Handlers for the logging module.
| lzma | A Python wrapper for the liblzma compression library.
| m |
| mailbox | Manipulate mailboxes in various formats
| mailcap | Obsolète: Removed in 3.13.
| marshal | Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back (with different constraints).
| math | Mathematical functions (sin() etc.).
| mimetypes | Mapping of filename extensions to MIME types.
| mmap | Interface to memory-mapped files for Unix and Windows.
| modulefinder | Find modules used by a script.
| msilib | Obsolète: Removed in 3.13.
| msvcrt | Miscellaneous useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime.
- | multiprocessing | Process-based parallelism.
|     multiprocessing.connection | API for dealing with sockets.
|     multiprocessing.dummy | Dumb wrapper around threading.
|     multiprocessing.managers | Share data between process with shared objects.
|     multiprocessing.pool | Create pools of processes.
|     multiprocessing.shared_memory | Provides shared memory for direct access across processes.
|     multiprocessing.sharedctypes | Allocate ctypes objects from shared memory.
| n |
| netrc | Loading of .netrc files.
| nis | Obsolète: Removed in 3.13.
| nntplib | Obsolète: Removed in 3.13.
| numbers | Numeric abstract base classes (Complex, Real, Integral, etc.).
| o |
| operator | Functions corresponding to the standard operators.
| optparse | Command-line option parsing library.
- | os | Miscellaneous operating system interfaces.
|     os.path | Operations on pathnames.
| ossaudiodev | Obsolète: Removed in 3.13.
| p |
- | pathlib | Object-oriented filesystem paths
|     pathlib.types | pathlib types for static type checking
| pdb | The Python debugger for interactive interpreters.
| pickle | Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back.
| pickletools | Contains extensive comments about the pickle protocols and pickle-machine opcodes, as well as some useful functions.
| pipes | Obsolète: Removed in 3.13.
| pkgutil | Utilities for the import system.
| platform | Retrieves as much platform identifying data as possible.
| plistlib | Generate and parse Apple plist files.
| poplib | POP3 protocol client (requires sockets).
| posix | The most common POSIX system calls (normally used via module os).
| pprint | Data pretty printer.
| profile | Python source profiler.
| pstats | Statistics object for use with the profiler.
| pty | Pseudo-Terminal Handling for Unix.
| pwd | The password database (getpwnam() and friends).
| py_compile | Generate byte-code files from Python source files.
| pyclbr | Supports information extraction for a Python module browser.
| pydoc | Documentation generator and online help system.
| q |
| queue | A synchronized queue class.
| quopri | Encode and decode files using the MIME quoted-printable encoding.
| r |
| random | Generate pseudo-random numbers with various common distributions.
| re | Regular expression operations.
| readline | GNU readline support for Python.
| reprlib | Alternate repr() implementation with size limits.
| resource | An interface to provide resource usage information on the current process.
| rlcompleter | Python identifier completion, suitable for the GNU readline library.
| runpy | Locate and run Python modules without importing them first.
| s |
| sched | General purpose event scheduler.
| secrets | Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets.
| select | Wait for I/O completion on multiple streams.
| selectors | High-level I/O multiplexing.
| shelve | Python object persistence.
| shlex | Simple lexical analysis for Unix shell-like languages.
| shutil | High-level file operations, including copying.
| signal | Set handlers for asynchronous events.
| site | Module responsible for site-specific configuration.
| sitecustomize |
| smtpd | Obsolète: Removed in 3.12.
| smtplib | SMTP protocol client (requires sockets).
| sndhdr | Obsolète: Removed in 3.13.
| socket | Low-level networking interface.
| socketserver | A framework for network servers.
| spwd | Obsolète: Removed in 3.13.
| sqlite3 | A DB-API 2.0 implementation using SQLite 3.x.
| ssl | TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects
| stat | Utilities for interpreting the results of os.stat(), os.lstat() and os.fstat().
| statistics | Mathematical statistics functions
- | string | Common string operations.
|     string.templatelib | Support for template string literals.
| stringprep | String preparation, as per RFC 3453
| struct | Interpret bytes as packed binary data.
| subprocess | Subprocess management.
| sunau | Obsolète: Removed in 3.13.
| symtable | Interface to the compiler's internal symbol tables.
- | sys | Access system-specific parameters and functions.
|     sys.monitoring | Access and control event monitoring
| sysconfig | Python's configuration information
| syslog | An interface to the Unix syslog library routines.
| t |
| tabnanny | Tool for detecting white space related problems in Python source files in a directory tree.
| tarfile | Read and write tar-format archive files.
| telnetlib | Obsolète: Removed in 3.13.
| tempfile | Generate temporary files and directories.
| termios | POSIX style tty control.
- | test | Regression tests package containing the testing suite for Python.
|     test.regrtest | Drives the regression test suite.
|     test.support | Support for Python's regression test suite.
|     test.support.bytecode_helper | Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation.
|     test.support.import_helper | Support for import tests.
|     test.support.os_helper | Support for os tests.
|     test.support.script_helper | Support for Python's script execution tests.
|     test.support.socket_helper | Support for socket tests.
|     test.support.threading_helper | Support for threading tests.
|     test.support.warnings_helper | Support for warnings tests.
| textwrap | Text wrapping and filling
| threading | Thread-based parallelism.
| time | Time access and conversions.
| timeit | Measure the execution time of small code snippets.
- | tkinter | Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces
|     tkinter.colorchooser | Color choosing dialog
|     tkinter.commondialog | Tkinter base class for dialogs
|     tkinter.dnd | Tkinter drag-and-drop interface
|     tkinter.filedialog | Dialog classes for file selection
|     tkinter.font | Tkinter font-wrapping class
|     tkinter.messagebox | Various types of alert dialogs
|     tkinter.scrolledtext | Text widget with a vertical scroll bar.
|     tkinter.simpledialog | Simple dialog windows
|     tkinter.ttk | Tk themed widget set
| token | Constants representing terminal nodes of the parse tree.
| tokenize | Lexical scanner for Python source code.
| tomllib | Parse TOML files.
| trace | Trace or track Python statement execution.
| traceback | Print or retrieve a stack traceback.
| tracemalloc | Trace memory allocations.
| tty | Utility functions that perform common terminal control operations.
| turtle | An educational framework for simple graphics applications
| turtledemo | A viewer for example turtle scripts
| types | Names for built-in types.
| typing | Support for type hints (see :pep:`484`).
| u |
| unicodedata | Access the Unicode Database.
- | unittest | Unit testing framework for Python.
|     unittest.mock | Mock object library.
- | urllib |
|     urllib.error | Exception classes raised by urllib.request.
|     urllib.parse | Parse URLs into or assemble them from components.
|     urllib.request | Extensible library for opening URLs.
|     urllib.response | Response classes used by urllib.
|     urllib.robotparser | Load a robots.txt file and answer questions about fetchability of other URLs.
| usercustomize |
| uu | Obsolète: Removed in 3.13.
| uuid | UUID objects (universally unique identifiers) according to RFC 9562
| v |
| venv | Creation of virtual environments.
| w |
| warnings | Issue warning messages and control their disposition.
| wave | Provide an interface to the WAV sound format.
| weakref | Support for weak references and weak dictionaries.
| webbrowser | Easy-to-use controller for web browsers.
| winreg | Routines and objects for manipulating the Windows registry.
| winsound | Access to the sound-playing machinery for Windows.
- | wsgiref | WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation.
|     wsgiref.handlers | WSGI server/gateway base classes.
|     wsgiref.headers | WSGI response header tools.
|     wsgiref.simple_server | A simple WSGI HTTP server.
|     wsgiref.types | WSGI types for static type checking
|     wsgiref.util | WSGI environment utilities.
|     wsgiref.validate | WSGI conformance checker.
| x |
| xdrlib | Obsolète: Removed in 3.13.
- | xml | Package containing XML processing modules
|     xml.dom | Document Object Model API for Python.
|     xml.dom.minidom | Minimal Document Object Model (DOM) implementation.
|     xml.dom.pulldom | Support for building partial DOM trees from SAX events.
|     xml.etree.ElementInclude |
|     xml.etree.ElementTree | Implementation of the ElementTree API.
|     xml.parsers.expat | An interface to the Expat non-validating XML parser.
|     xml.parsers.expat.errors |
|     xml.parsers.expat.model |
|     xml.sax | Package containing SAX2 base classes and convenience functions.
|     xml.sax.handler | Base classes for SAX event handlers.
|     xml.sax.saxutils | Convenience functions and classes for use with SAX.
|     xml.sax.xmlreader | Interface which SAX-compliant XML parsers must implement.
- | xmlrpc | Server and client modules implementing XML-RPC.
|     xmlrpc.client | XML-RPC client access.
|     xmlrpc.server | Basic XML-RPC server implementations.
| z |
| zipapp | Manage executable Python zip archives
| zipfile | Read and write ZIP-format archive files.
| zipimport | Support for importing Python modules from ZIP archives.
| zlib | Low-level interface to compression and decompression routines compatible with gzip.
| zoneinfo | IANA time zone support

Improve a documentation page

We are always interested to hear ideas about improvements to the documentation.

If the bug or suggested improvement concerns the translation of this documentation, open an issue or edit the page in translation's repository [https://github.com/python/python-docs-fr] instead.

You have a few ways to ask questions or suggest changes:

You can start a discussion about the page on the Python discussion forum. This link will start a topic in the Documentation category: New Documentation topic [https://discuss.python.org/new-topic?category=documentation].

You can open an issue on the Python GitHub issue tracker. This link will create a new issue with the "docs" label: New docs issue [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/new?template=documentation.yml].

Improve a documentation page

We are always interested to hear ideas about improvements to the documentation.

You were reading "PAGETITLE" at PAGEURL. The source for that page is on GitHub [https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/main/Doc/PAGESOURCE?plain=1].

If the bug or suggested improvement concerns the translation of this documentation, open an issue or edit the page in translation's repository [https://github.com/python/python-docs-fr] instead.

You have a few ways to ask questions or suggest changes:

You can start a discussion about the page on the Python discussion forum. This link will start a pre-populated topic: Question about page "PAGETITLE" [https://discuss.python.org/new-topic?category=documentation&title=Question+about+page+%22PAGETITLE%22&body=About+the+page+at+PAGEURL%3A].

You can open an issue on the Python GitHub issue tracker. This link will create a new pre-populated issue: Docs: problem with page "PAGETITLE" [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/new?template=documentation.yml&title=Docs%3A+problem+with+page+%22PAGETITLE%22&description=The+page+at+PAGEURL+has+a+problem%3A].

You can edit the page on GitHub [https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/main/Doc/PAGESOURCE?plain=1] to open a pull request and begin the contribution process.

Initialization, finalization, and threads

This page has been split up into the following:

Interpreter initialization and finalization

Thread states and the global interpreter lock

Synchronization primitives

Thread-local storage support

Multiple interpreters in a Python process

Profiling and tracing

Pending removal in Python 3.14

The ma_version_tag field in PyDictObject for extension modules (PEP 699 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0699/]; gh-101193 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101193]).

Creating immutable types with mutable bases (gh-95388 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95388]).

Pending removal in Python 3.15

The PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(): Use PyImport_ImportModule() instead.

PyWeakref_GetObject() and PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT(): Use PyWeakref_GetRef() instead. The pythoncapi-compat project [https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/] can be used to get PyWeakref_GetRef() on Python 3.12 and older.

Py_UNICODE type and the Py_UNICODE_WIDE macro: Use wchar_t instead.

PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject(): Use PyCodec_Decode() instead.

PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode(): Use PyCodec_Decode() instead; Note that some codecs (for example, "base64") may return a type other than str, such as bytes.

PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject(): Use PyCodec_Encode() instead.

PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode(): Use PyCodec_Encode() instead; Note that some codecs (for example, "base64") may return a type other than bytes, such as str.

Python initialization functions, deprecated in Python 3.13:

Py_GetPath(): Use PyConfig_Get("module_search_paths") (sys.path) instead.

Py_GetPrefix(): Use PyConfig_Get("base_prefix") (sys.base_prefix) instead. Use PyConfig_Get("prefix") (sys.prefix) if virtual environments need to be handled.

Py_GetExecPrefix(): Use PyConfig_Get("base_exec_prefix") (sys.base_exec_prefix) instead. Use PyConfig_Get("exec_prefix") (sys.exec_prefix) if virtual environments need to be handled.

Py_GetProgramFullPath(): Use PyConfig_Get("executable") (sys.executable) instead.

Py_GetProgramName(): Use PyConfig_Get("executable") (sys.executable) instead.

Py_GetPythonHome(): Use PyConfig_Get("home") or the PYTHONHOME environment variable instead.

The pythoncapi-compat project [https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/] can be used to get PyConfig_Get() on Python 3.13 and older.

Functions to configure Python's initialization, deprecated in Python 3.11:

PySys_SetArgvEx(): Set PyConfig.argv instead.

PySys_SetArgv(): Set PyConfig.argv instead.

Py_SetProgramName(): Set PyConfig.program_name instead.

Py_SetPythonHome(): Set PyConfig.home instead.

PySys_ResetWarnOptions(): Clear sys.warnoptions and warnings.filters instead.

The Py_InitializeFromConfig() API should be used with PyConfig instead.

Global configuration variables:

Py_DebugFlag: Use PyConfig.parser_debug or PyConfig_Get("parser_debug") instead.

Py_VerboseFlag: Use PyConfig.verbose or PyConfig_Get("verbose") instead.

Py_QuietFlag: Use PyConfig.quiet or PyConfig_Get("quiet") instead.

Py_InteractiveFlag: Use PyConfig.interactive or PyConfig_Get("interactive") instead.

Py_InspectFlag: Use PyConfig.inspect or PyConfig_Get("inspect") instead.

Py_OptimizeFlag: Use PyConfig.optimization_level or PyConfig_Get("optimization_level") instead.

Py_NoSiteFlag: Use PyConfig.site_import or PyConfig_Get("site_import") instead.

Py_BytesWarningFlag: Use PyConfig.bytes_warning or PyConfig_Get("bytes_warning") instead.

Py_FrozenFlag: Use PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings or PyConfig_Get("pathconfig_warnings") instead.

Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag: Use PyConfig.use_environment or PyConfig_Get("use_environment") instead.

Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag: Use PyConfig.write_bytecode or PyConfig_Get("write_bytecode") instead.

Py_NoUserSiteDirectory: Use PyConfig.user_site_directory or PyConfig_Get("user_site_directory") instead.

Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag: Use PyConfig.buffered_stdio or PyConfig_Get("buffered_stdio") instead.

Py_HashRandomizationFlag: Use PyConfig.use_hash_seed and PyConfig.hash_seed or PyConfig_Get("hash_seed") instead.

Py_IsolatedFlag: Use PyConfig.isolated or PyConfig_Get("isolated") instead.

Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag: Use PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding or PyConfig_Get("legacy_windows_fs_encoding") instead.

Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag: Use PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio or PyConfig_Get("legacy_windows_stdio") instead.

Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding, Py_HasFileSystemDefaultEncoding: Use PyConfig.filesystem_encoding or PyConfig_Get("filesystem_encoding") instead.

Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors: Use PyConfig.filesystem_errors or PyConfig_Get("filesystem_errors") instead.

Py_UTF8Mode: Use PyPreConfig.utf8_mode or PyConfig_Get("utf8_mode") instead. (see Py_PreInitialize())

The Py_InitializeFromConfig() API should be used with PyConfig to set these options. Or PyConfig_Get() can be used to get these options at runtime.

Pending removal in Python 3.16

The bundled copy of libmpdec.

Pending removal in Python 3.18

The following private functions are deprecated and planned for removal in Python 3.18:

_PyBytes_Join(): use PyBytes_Join().

_PyDict_GetItemStringWithError(): use PyDict_GetItemStringRef().

_PyDict_Pop(): use PyDict_Pop().

_PyLong_Sign(): use PyLong_GetSign().

_PyLong_FromDigits() and _PyLong_New(): use PyLongWriter_Create().

_PyThreadState_UncheckedGet(): use PyThreadState_GetUnchecked().

_PyUnicode_AsString(): use PyUnicode_AsUTF8().

_PyUnicodeWriter_Init(): replace _PyUnicodeWriter_Init(&writer) with writer = PyUnicodeWriter_Create(0).

_PyUnicodeWriter_Finish(): replace _PyUnicodeWriter_Finish(&writer) with PyUnicodeWriter_Finish(writer).

_PyUnicodeWriter_Dealloc(): replace _PyUnicodeWriter_Dealloc(&writer) with PyUnicodeWriter_Discard(writer).

_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteChar(): replace _PyUnicodeWriter_WriteChar(&writer, ch) with PyUnicodeWriter_WriteChar(writer, ch).

_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr(): replace _PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr(&writer, str) with PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr(writer, str).

_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteSubstring(): replace _PyUnicodeWriter_WriteSubstring(&writer, str, start, end) with PyUnicodeWriter_WriteSubstring(writer, str, start, end).

_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteASCIIString(): replace _PyUnicodeWriter_WriteASCIIString(&writer, str) with PyUnicodeWriter_WriteASCII(writer, str).

_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteLatin1String(): replace _PyUnicodeWriter_WriteLatin1String(&writer, str) with PyUnicodeWriter_WriteUTF8(writer, str).

_PyUnicodeWriter_Prepare(): (no replacement).

_PyUnicodeWriter_PrepareKind(): (no replacement).

_Py_HashPointer(): use Py_HashPointer().

_Py_fopen_obj(): use Py_fopen().

The pythoncapi-compat project [https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/] can be used to get these new public functions on Python 3.13 and older. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-128863 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128863].)

Pending removal in future versions

The following APIs are deprecated and will be removed, although there is currently no date scheduled for their removal.

Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE: Unneeded since Python 3.8.

PyErr_Fetch(): Use PyErr_GetRaisedException() instead.

PyErr_NormalizeException(): Use PyErr_GetRaisedException() instead.

PyErr_Restore(): Use PyErr_SetRaisedException() instead.

PyModule_GetFilename(): Use PyModule_GetFilenameObject() instead.

PyOS_AfterFork(): Use PyOS_AfterFork_Child() instead.

PySlice_GetIndicesEx(): Use PySlice_Unpack() and PySlice_AdjustIndices() instead.

PyUnicode_READY(): Unneeded since Python 3.12

PyErr_Display(): Use PyErr_DisplayException() instead.

_PyErr_ChainExceptions(): Use _PyErr_ChainExceptions1() instead.

PyBytesObject.ob_shash member: call PyObject_Hash() instead.

Thread Local Storage (TLS) API:

PyThread_create_key(): Use PyThread_tss_alloc() instead.

PyThread_delete_key(): Use PyThread_tss_free() instead.

PyThread_set_key_value(): Use PyThread_tss_set() instead.

PyThread_get_key_value(): Use PyThread_tss_get() instead.

PyThread_delete_key_value(): Use PyThread_tss_delete() instead.

PyThread_ReInitTLS(): Unneeded since Python 3.7.

Pending removal in Python 3.13

Modules (see PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/]):

aifc

audioop

cgi

cgitb

chunk

crypt

imghdr

mailcap

msilib

nis

nntplib

ossaudiodev

pipes

sndhdr

spwd

sunau

telnetlib

uu

xdrlib

Other modules:

lib2to3, and the 2to3 program (gh-84540 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84540])

APIs:

configparser.LegacyInterpolation (gh-90765 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90765])

locale.resetlocale() (gh-90817 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90817])

turtle.RawTurtle.settiltangle() (gh-50096 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50096])

unittest.findTestCases() (gh-50096 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50096])

unittest.getTestCaseNames() (gh-50096 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50096])

unittest.makeSuite() (gh-50096 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50096])

unittest.TestProgram.usageExit() (gh-67048 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67048])

webbrowser.MacOSX (gh-86421 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86421])

classmethod descriptor chaining (gh-89519 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89519])

Pending removal in Python 3.14

argparse: The type, choices, and metavar parameters of argparse.BooleanOptionalAction are deprecated and will be removed in 3.14. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-92248 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92248].)

ast: The following features have been deprecated in documentation since Python 3.8, now cause a DeprecationWarning to be emitted at runtime when they are accessed or used, and will be removed in Python 3.14:

ast.Num

ast.Str

ast.Bytes

ast.NameConstant

ast.Ellipsis

Use ast.Constant instead. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-90953 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90953].)

asyncio:

The child watcher classes asyncio.MultiLoopChildWatcher, asyncio.FastChildWatcher, asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher and asyncio.SafeChildWatcher are deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.14. (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-94597 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597].)

asyncio.set_child_watcher(), asyncio.get_child_watcher(), asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.set_child_watcher() and asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.get_child_watcher() are deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.14. (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-94597 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597].)

The get_event_loop() method of the default event loop policy now emits a DeprecationWarning if there is no current event loop set and it decides to create one. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Guido van Rossum in gh-100160 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100160].)

email: Deprecated the isdst parameter in email.utils.localtime(). (Contributed by Alan Williams in gh-72346 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72346].)

importlib.abc deprecated classes:

importlib.abc.ResourceReader

importlib.abc.Traversable

importlib.abc.TraversableResources

Use importlib.resources.abc classes instead:

importlib.resources.abc.Traversable

importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources

(Contributed by Jason R. Coombs and Hugo van Kemenade in gh-93963 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93963].)

itertools had undocumented, inefficient, historically buggy, and inconsistent support for copy, deepcopy, and pickle operations. This will be removed in 3.14 for a significant reduction in code volume and maintenance burden. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-101588 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101588].)

multiprocessing: The default start method will change to a safer one on Linux, BSDs, and other non-macOS POSIX platforms where 'fork' is currently the default (gh-84559 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84559]). Adding a runtime warning about this was deemed too disruptive as the majority of code is not expected to care. Use the get_context() or set_start_method() APIs to explicitly specify when your code requires 'fork'. See Contextes et méthodes de démarrage.

pathlib: is_relative_to() and relative_to(): passing additional arguments is deprecated.

pkgutil: pkgutil.find_loader() and pkgutil.get_loader() now raise DeprecationWarning; use importlib.util.find_spec() instead. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-97850 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850].)

pty:

master_open(): use pty.openpty().

slave_open(): use pty.openpty().

sqlite3:

version and version_info.

execute() and executemany() if named placeholders are used and parameters is a sequence instead of a dict.

urllib: urllib.parse.Quoter is deprecated: it was not intended to be a public API. (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in gh-88168 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88168].)

Pending removal in Python 3.15

The import system:

Setting __cached__ on a module while failing to set __spec__.cached is deprecated. In Python 3.15, __cached__ will cease to be set or take into consideration by the import system or standard library. (gh-97879 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97879])

Setting __package__ on a module while failing to set __spec__.parent is deprecated. In Python 3.15, __package__ will cease to be set or take into consideration by the import system or standard library. (gh-97879 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97879])

ctypes:

The undocumented ctypes.SetPointerType() function has been deprecated since Python 3.13.

http.server:

The obsolete and rarely used CGIHTTPRequestHandler has been deprecated since Python 3.13. No direct replacement exists. Anything is better than CGI to interface a web server with a request handler.

The --cgi flag to the python -m http.server command-line interface has been deprecated since Python 3.13.

importlib:

load_module() method: use exec_module() instead.

locale:

The getdefaultlocale() function has been deprecated since Python 3.11. Its removal was originally planned for Python 3.13 (gh-90817 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90817]), but has been postponed to Python 3.15. Use getlocale(), setlocale(), and getencoding() instead. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-111187 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111187].)

pathlib:

PurePath.is_reserved() has been deprecated since Python 3.13. Use os.path.isreserved() to detect reserved paths on Windows.

platform:

java_ver() has been deprecated since Python 3.13. This function is only useful for Jython support, has a confusing API, and is largely untested.

sysconfig:

The check_home argument of sysconfig.is_python_build() has been deprecated since Python 3.12.

threading:

RLock() will take no arguments in Python 3.15. Passing any arguments has been deprecated since Python 3.14, as the Python version does not permit any arguments, but the C version allows any number of positional or keyword arguments, ignoring every argument.

types:

types.CodeType: Accessing co_lnotab was deprecated in PEP 626 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/] since 3.10 and was planned to be removed in 3.12, but it only got a proper DeprecationWarning in 3.12. May be removed in 3.15. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-101866 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101866].)

typing:

The undocumented keyword argument syntax for creating NamedTuple classes (for example, Point = NamedTuple("Point", x=int, y=int)) has been deprecated since Python 3.13. Use the class-based syntax or the functional syntax instead.

When using the functional syntax of TypedDicts, failing to pass a value to the fields parameter (TD = TypedDict("TD")) or passing None (TD = TypedDict("TD", None)) has been deprecated since Python 3.13. Use class TD(TypedDict): pass or TD = TypedDict("TD", {}) to create a TypedDict with zero field.

The typing.no_type_check_decorator() decorator function has been deprecated since Python 3.13. After eight years in the typing module, it has yet to be supported by any major type checker.

wave:

The getmark(), setmark(), and getmarkers() methods of the Wave_read and Wave_write classes have been deprecated since Python 3.13.

zipimport:

load_module() has been deprecated since Python 3.10. Use exec_module() instead. (Contributed by Jiahao Li in gh-125746 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125746].)

Pending removal in Python 3.16

The import system:

Setting __loader__ on a module while failing to set __spec__.loader is deprecated. In Python 3.16, __loader__ will cease to be set or taken into consideration by the import system or the standard library.

array:

The 'u' format code (wchar_t) has been deprecated in documentation since Python 3.3 and at runtime since Python 3.13. Use the 'w' format code (Py_UCS4) for Unicode characters instead.

asyncio:

asyncio.iscoroutinefunction() is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.16; use inspect.iscoroutinefunction() instead. (Contributed by Jiahao Li and Kumar Aditya in gh-122875 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122875].)

asyncio policy system is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.16. In particular, the following classes and functions are deprecated:

asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy

asyncio.DefaultEventLoopPolicy

asyncio.WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy

asyncio.WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy

asyncio.get_event_loop_policy()

asyncio.set_event_loop_policy()

Users should use asyncio.run() or asyncio.Runner with loop_factory to use the desired event loop implementation.

For example, to use asyncio.SelectorEventLoop on Windows:

import asyncio

async def main():
    ...

asyncio.run(main(), loop_factory=asyncio.SelectorEventLoop)

(Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-127949 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127949].)

builtins:

Bitwise inversion on boolean types, ~True or ~False has been deprecated since Python 3.12, as it produces surprising and unintuitive results (-2 and -1). Use not x instead for the logical negation of a Boolean. In the rare case that you need the bitwise inversion of the underlying integer, convert to int explicitly (~int(x)).

functools:

Calling the Python implementation of functools.reduce() with function or sequence as keyword arguments has been deprecated since Python 3.14.

logging:

Support for custom logging handlers with the strm argument is deprecated and scheduled for removal in Python 3.16. Define handlers with the stream argument instead. (Contributed by Mariusz Felisiak in gh-115032 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115032].)

mimetypes:

Valid extensions start with a '.' or are empty for mimetypes.MimeTypes.add_type(). Undotted extensions are deprecated and will raise a ValueError in Python 3.16. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-75223 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75223].)

shutil:

The ExecError exception has been deprecated since Python 3.14. It has not been used by any function in shutil since Python 3.4, and is now an alias of RuntimeError.

symtable:

The Class.get_methods method has been deprecated since Python 3.14.

sys:

The _enablelegacywindowsfsencoding() function has been deprecated since Python 3.13. Use the PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING environment variable instead.

sysconfig:

The sysconfig.expand_makefile_vars() function has been deprecated since Python 3.14. Use the vars argument of sysconfig.get_paths() instead.

tarfile:

The undocumented and unused TarFile.tarfile attribute has been deprecated since Python 3.13.

Pending removal in Python 3.17

collections.abc:

collections.abc.ByteString is scheduled for removal in Python 3.17.

Use isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Buffer) to test if obj implements the buffer protocol at runtime. For use in type annotations, either use Buffer or a union that explicitly specifies the types your code supports (e.g., bytes | bytearray | memoryview).

ByteString was originally intended to be an abstract class that would serve as a supertype of both bytes and bytearray. However, since the ABC never had any methods, knowing that an object was an instance of ByteString never actually told you anything useful about the object. Other common buffer types such as memoryview were also never understood as subtypes of ByteString (either at runtime or by static type checkers).

See PEP 688 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/#current-options] for more details. (Contributed by Shantanu Jain in gh-91896 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896].)

typing:

Before Python 3.14, old-style unions were implemented using the private class typing._UnionGenericAlias. This class is no longer needed for the implementation, but it has been retained for backward compatibility, with removal scheduled for Python 3.17. Users should use documented introspection helpers like typing.get_origin() and typing.get_args() instead of relying on private implementation details.

typing.ByteString, deprecated since Python 3.9, is scheduled for removal in Python 3.17.

Use isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Buffer) to test if obj implements the buffer protocol at runtime. For use in type annotations, either use Buffer or a union that explicitly specifies the types your code supports (e.g., bytes | bytearray | memoryview).

ByteString was originally intended to be an abstract class that would serve as a supertype of both bytes and bytearray. However, since the ABC never had any methods, knowing that an object was an instance of ByteString never actually told you anything useful about the object. Other common buffer types such as memoryview were also never understood as subtypes of ByteString (either at runtime or by static type checkers).

See PEP 688 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/#current-options] for more details. (Contributed by Shantanu Jain in gh-91896 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896].)

Pending removal in Python 3.18

decimal:

The non-standard and undocumented Decimal format specifier 'N', which is only supported in the decimal module's C implementation, has been deprecated since Python 3.13. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-89902 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89902].)

Pending removal in Python 3.19

ctypes:

Implicitly switching to the MSVC-compatible struct layout by setting _pack_ but not _layout_ on non-Windows platforms.

Pending removal in future versions

The following APIs will be removed in the future, although there is currently no date scheduled for their removal.

argparse:

Nesting argument groups and nesting mutually exclusive groups are deprecated.

Passing the undocumented keyword argument prefix_chars to add_argument_group() is now deprecated.

The argparse.FileType type converter is deprecated.

builtins:

Generators: throw(type, exc, tb) and athrow(type, exc, tb) signature is deprecated: use throw(exc) and athrow(exc) instead, the single argument signature.

Currently Python accepts numeric literals immediately followed by keywords, for example 0in x, 1or x, 0if 1else 2. It allows confusing and ambiguous expressions like [0x1for x in y] (which can be interpreted as [0x1 for x in y] or [0x1f or x in y]). A syntax warning is raised if the numeric literal is immediately followed by one of keywords and, else, for, if, in, is and or. In a future release it will be changed to a syntax error. (gh-87999 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87999])

Support for __index__() and __int__() method returning non-int type: these methods will be required to return an instance of a strict subclass of int.

Support for __float__() method returning a strict subclass of float: these methods will be required to return an instance of float.

Support for __complex__() method returning a strict subclass of complex: these methods will be required to return an instance of complex.

Passing a complex number as the real or imag argument in the complex() constructor is now deprecated; it should only be passed as a single positional argument. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-109218 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109218].)

calendar: calendar.January and calendar.February constants are deprecated and replaced by calendar.JANUARY and calendar.FEBRUARY. (Contributed by Prince Roshan in gh-103636 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636].)

codecs: use open() instead of codecs.open(). (gh-133038 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133038])

codeobject.co_lnotab: use the codeobject.co_lines() method instead.

datetime:

utcnow(): use datetime.datetime.now(tz=datetime.UTC).

utcfromtimestamp(): use datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(timestamp, tz=datetime.UTC).

gettext: Plural value must be an integer.

importlib:

cache_from_source() debug_override parameter is deprecated: use the optimization parameter instead.

importlib.metadata:

EntryPoints tuple interface.

Implicit None on return values.

logging: the warn() method has been deprecated since Python 3.3, use warning() instead.

mailbox: Use of StringIO input and text mode is deprecated, use BytesIO and binary mode instead.

os: Calling os.register_at_fork() in multi-threaded process.

pydoc.ErrorDuringImport: A tuple value for exc_info parameter is deprecated, use an exception instance.

re: More strict rules are now applied for numerical group references and group names in regular expressions. Only sequence of ASCII digits is now accepted as a numerical reference. The group name in bytes patterns and replacement strings can now only contain ASCII letters and digits and underscore. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-91760 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91760].)

sre_compile, sre_constants and sre_parse modules.

shutil: rmtree()'s onerror parameter is deprecated in Python 3.12; use the onexc parameter instead.

ssl options and protocols:

ssl.SSLContext without protocol argument is deprecated.

ssl.SSLContext: set_npn_protocols() and selected_npn_protocol() are deprecated: use ALPN instead.

ssl.OP_NO_SSL* options

ssl.OP_NO_TLS* options

ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv3

ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS

ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1

ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1

ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2

ssl.TLSVersion.SSLv3

ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1

ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_1

threading methods:

threading.Condition.notifyAll(): use notify_all().

threading.Event.isSet(): use is_set().

threading.Thread.isDaemon(), threading.Thread.setDaemon(): use threading.Thread.daemon attribute.

threading.Thread.getName(), threading.Thread.setName(): use threading.Thread.name attribute.

threading.currentThread(): use threading.current_thread().

threading.activeCount(): use threading.active_count().

typing.Text (gh-92332 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92332]).

The internal class typing._UnionGenericAlias is no longer used to implement typing.Union. To preserve compatibility with users using this private class, a compatibility shim will be provided until at least Python 3.17. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-105499 [https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105499].)

unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: it is deprecated to return a value that is not None from a test case.

urllib.parse deprecated functions: urlparse() instead

splitattr()

splithost()

splitnport()

splitpasswd()

splitport()

splitquery()

splittag()

splittype()

splituser()

splitvalue()

to_bytes()

wsgiref: SimpleHandler.stdout.write() should not do partial writes.

xml.etree.ElementTree: Testing the truth value of an Element is deprecated. In a future release it will always return True. Prefer explicit len(elem) or elem is not None tests instead.

sys._clear_type_cache() is deprecated: use sys._clear_internal_caches() instead.

Distribuer des modules Python

Note

Information and guidance on distributing Python modules and packages has been moved to the Python Packaging User Guide [https://packaging.python.org/], and the tutorial on packaging Python projects [https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/tutorials/packaging-projects/].

Guide Argument Clinic

Note

The Argument Clinic How-TO has been moved to the Python Developer's Guide [https://devguide.python.org/development-tools/clinic/].

How to port Python 2 Code to Python 3

auteur:

Brett Cannon

Python 2 reached its official end-of-life at the start of 2020. This means that no new bug reports, fixes, or changes will be made to Python 2 - it's no longer supported: see PEP 373 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0373/] and status of Python versions [https://devguide.python.org/versions].

Si vous cherchez à porter un module d'extension plutôt que du pur Python, veuillez consulter Portage des modules d'extension vers Python 3.

The archived python-porting [https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-porting/] mailing list may contain some useful guidance.

Since Python 3.11 the original porting guide was discontinued. You can find the old guide in the archive [https://docs.python.org/3.10/howto/pyporting.html].

Third-party guides

There are also multiple third-party guides that might be useful:

Guide by Fedora [https://portingguide.readthedocs.io]

PyCon 2020 tutorial [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JgIgEjASOlk]

Guide by DigitalOcean [https://www.digitalocean.com/community/tutorials/how-to-port-python-2-code-to-python-3]

Guide by ActiveState [https://www.activestate.com/blog/how-to-migrate-python-2-applications-to-python-3]

aifc --- Read and write AIFF and AIFC files

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was removed in Python 3.13 after being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/].

The last version of Python that provided the aifc module was Python 3.12 [https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/aifc.html].

asynchat --- Asynchronous socket command/response handler

Deprecated since version 3.6, removed in version 3.12.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was removed in Python 3.12 after being deprecated in Python 3.6. The removal was decided in PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/].

Applications should use the asyncio module instead.

The last version of Python that provided the asynchat module was Python 3.11 [https://docs.python.org/3.11/library/asynchat.html].

asyncore --- Asynchronous socket handler

Deprecated since version 3.6, removed in version 3.12.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was removed in Python 3.12 after being deprecated in Python 3.6. The removal was decided in PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/].

Applications should use the asyncio module instead.

The last version of Python that provided the asyncore module was Python 3.11 [https://docs.python.org/3.11/library/asyncore.html].

audioop --- Manipulate raw audio data

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was removed in Python 3.13 after being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/].

The last version of Python that provided the audioop module was Python 3.12 [https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/audioop.html].

cgi --- Common Gateway Interface support

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was removed in Python 3.13 after being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/].

A fork of the module on PyPI can be used instead: legacy-cgi [https://pypi.org/project/legacy-cgi/]. This is a copy of the cgi module, no longer maintained or supported by the core Python team.

The last version of Python that provided the cgi module was Python 3.12 [https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/cgi.html].

cgitb --- Traceback manager for CGI scripts

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was removed in Python 3.13 after being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/].

A fork of the module on PyPI can now be used instead: legacy-cgi [https://pypi.org/project/legacy-cgi/]. This is a copy of the cgi module, no longer maintained or supported by the core Python team.

The last version of Python that provided the cgitb module was Python 3.12 [https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/cgitb.html].

chunk --- Read IFF chunked data

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was removed in Python 3.13 after being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/].

The last version of Python that provided the chunk module was Python 3.12 [https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/chunk.html].

crypt --- Function to check Unix passwords

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was removed in Python 3.13 after being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/].

Applications can use the hashlib module from the standard library. Other possible replacements are third-party libraries from PyPI: legacycrypt [https://pypi.org/project/legacycrypt/], bcrypt [https://pypi.org/project/bcrypt/], or argon2-cffi [https://pypi.org/project/argon2-cffi/]. These are not supported or maintained by the Python core team.

The last version of Python that provided the crypt module was Python 3.12 [https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/crypt.html].

distutils --- Building and installing Python modules

Deprecated since version 3.10, removed in version 3.12.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was removed in Python 3.12 after being deprecated in Python 3.10. The removal was decided in PEP 632 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/], which has migration advice [https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/#migration-advice].

The last version of Python that provided the distutils module was Python 3.11 [https://docs.python.org/3.11/library/distutils.html].

Program frameworks

This chapter is no longer maintained, and the modules it contained have been moved to their respective topical documentation.

cmd — Command Line Interface Libraries

shlex — Unix Specific Services

turtle — Graphical User Interfaces with Tk

imghdr --- Determine the type of an image

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was removed in Python 3.13 after being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/].

Possible replacements are third-party libraries from PyPI: filetype [https://pypi.org/project/filetype/], puremagic [https://pypi.org/project/puremagic/], or python-magic [https://pypi.org/project/python-magic/]. These are not supported or maintained by the Python core team.

The last version of Python that provided the imghdr module was Python 3.12 [https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/imghdr.html].

imp --- Access the import internals

Deprecated since version 3.4, removed in version 3.12.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was removed in Python 3.12 after being deprecated in Python 3.4.

The removal notice includes guidance for migrating code from imp to importlib.

The last version of Python that provided the imp module was Python 3.11 [https://docs.python.org/3.11/library/imp.html].

mailcap --- Mailcap file handling

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was removed in Python 3.13 after being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/].

The last version of Python that provided the mailcap module was Python 3.12 [https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/mailcap.html].

msilib --- Read and write Microsoft Installer files

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was removed in Python 3.13 after being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/].

The last version of Python that provided the msilib module was Python 3.12 [https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/msilib.html].

nis --- Interface to Sun’s NIS (Yellow Pages)

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was removed in Python 3.13 after being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/].

The last version of Python that provided the nis module was Python 3.12 [https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/nis.html].

nntplib --- NNTP protocol client

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was removed in Python 3.13 after being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/].

The last version of Python that provided the nntplib module was Python 3.12 [https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/nntplib.html].

ossaudiodev --- Access to OSS-compatible audio devices

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was removed in Python 3.13 after being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/].

The last version of Python that provided the ossaudiodev module was Python 3.12 [https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/ossaudiodev.html].

pipes --- Interface to shell pipelines

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was removed in Python 3.13 after being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/].

Applications should use the subprocess module instead.

The last version of Python that provided the pipes module was Python 3.12 [https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/pipes.html].

smtpd --- SMTP Server

Deprecated since version 3.6, removed in version 3.12.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was removed in Python 3.12 after being deprecated in Python 3.6. The removal was decided in PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/].

A possible replacement is the third-party aiosmtpd [https://pypi.org/project/aiosmtpd/] library. This library is not maintained or supported by the Python core team.

The last version of Python that provided the smtpd module was Python 3.11 [https://docs.python.org/3.11/library/smtpd.html].

sndhdr --- Determine type of sound file

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was removed in Python 3.13 after being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/].

Possible replacements are third-party modules from PyPI: filetype [https://pypi.org/project/filetype/], puremagic [https://pypi.org/project/puremagic/], or python-magic [https://pypi.org/project/python-magic/]. These are not supported or maintained by the Python core team.

The last version of Python that provided the sndhdr module was Python 3.12 [https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/sndhdr.html].

spwd --- The shadow password database

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was removed in Python 3.13 after being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/].

A possible replacement is the third-party library python-pam [https://pypi.org/project/python-pam/]. This library is not supported or maintained by the Python core team.

The last version of Python that provided the spwd module was Python 3.12 [https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/spwd.html].

sunau --- Read and write Sun AU files

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was removed in Python 3.13 after being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/].

The last version of Python that provided the sunau module was Python 3.12 [https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/sunau.html].

telnetlib --- Telnet client

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was removed in Python 3.13 after being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/].

Possible replacements are third-party libraries from PyPI: telnetlib3 [https://pypi.org/project/telnetlib3/] or Exscript [https://pypi.org/project/Exscript/]. These are not supported or maintained by the Python core team.

The last version of Python that provided the telnetlib module was Python 3.12 [https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/telnetlib.html].

uu --- Encode and decode uuencode files

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was removed in Python 3.13 after being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/].

The last version of Python that provided the uu module was Python 3.12 [https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/uu.html].

xdrlib --- Encode and decode XDR data

Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was removed in Python 3.13 after being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in PEP 594 [https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/].

The last version of Python that provided the xdrlib module was Python 3.12 [https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/xdrlib.html].